THE NEW LARNED HISTORY 
 
 FOR READY REFERENCE 
 READING AND RESEARCH 
 
 VOLUME I 
 
 Original Edition — s '"olumes .... 18QJ-4 
 Seconti Edilion — original edition revised, with 
 
 supplemental volume igol 
 
 Third Edition — as second, with scroiid supplc- 
 
 mcn'al volume igio 
 
 Complete Revision — 12 volumes .... ig22
 
 r H F NEW L .-L f V 
 HISTORY 
 
 OR READY R iES( 
 
 READING AND R' 
 
 A COMPLETE SYSTl TO 
 
 ALL COUN'TRlEh 
 
 TT-J ir t-;Fi 
 
 •'WiffiTtc^io^h/^H/ i^A-oiiiwii a( dmcn iJKnisfTcKfr. iii '.nowuT lo tSdv/riJioa asiini oft 
 
 
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 DJ DUOTONK, AND PKONTISWK • iiili^Mil. .,Ki, -..■. 
 
 lORICAL AND OTa:» MA 
 
 1 
 
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 ;pT?i::ryiKt-n, mas?
 
 THE CASA GR.\NDE, ARIZONA 
 
 One or the Most Fauoos Rdins or a Prehistoric Race in America 
 
 The principal structure of a ruined pueblo on the south bank ol the Gila River, 
 8c miles northwest of Tucson. Its aboriginal name is Sitatu-Ki ^House of Sivano) 
 
 Painlfd by Olio Kiirlh 
 
 Fr.tn phdrtfTipk Copyrishlai 
 hy Pubiiikm' Pholt Sertice
 
 THE NEW LARNED 
 HISTORY 
 
 FOR READY REFERENCE 
 READING AND RESEARCH 
 
 THE ACTUAL WORDS 
 
 OF 
 
 THE WORLD'S BEST HISTORIANS 
 BIOGRAPHERS AND SPECIALISTS 
 
 A COMPLETE SYSTEM OF HISTORY FOR ALL USES, EXTENDING TO 
 
 ALL COUNTRIES AND SUBJECTS AND REPRESENTING 
 
 THE BETTER AND NEWER LITERATURE 
 
 OF HISTORY 
 
 THE WORK of 
 
 J. N. LARNED 
 
 COMPLETELY REVISED. ENLARGED AND BROUGHT UP TO DATE 
 UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF THE PUBLISHERS 
 
 BY 
 
 DONALD E. SMITH, Ph.D. 
 
 EDITOR-IN-CHIEF 
 
 CHARLES SEYMOUR, M.A., Ph.D., Litt.D. 
 AUGUSTUS H. SHEARER, M.A., Ph.D. DANIEL C. KNOWLTON, Ph.D. 
 
 ASSOCIATE EDITORS 
 AND A LARGE CORPS OF SPECIALLY TRAINED 
 HESEAHCHERS, CRITICAL READERS, INDEXERS, ETC. 
 
 IN 12 VOLUMES 
 
 VOL. I. — A TO BALK 
 
 WITH A LARGE NUMBER OF TEXT ILLUSTRATIONS, MAPS AND CHARTS, MANY OF THEM PULL-PAGE INSERTS, 
 IN DUOTONE, AND FRONTISPIECES IN COLOR; ALSO NUMEROUS DOUBLE AND SINGLE-PAGE HIS- 
 TORICAL AND OTHER MAPS IN COLOR, FROM ORIGINAL STUDIES AND DRAWINGS BY 
 ALAN C. REILEY AND OTHERS 
 
 SPRINGFIELD, MASSACHUSETTS 
 
 C. A. NICHOLS PUBLISHING COMPANY 
 
 BUSINESS FOUNDED l8SI 
 1922
 
 Copyright, 1804. 1901, 1910, 
 By J N. LARNED 
 
 Copyright. igi3, 
 
 By S. J. LARNED 
 
 (Above copyrights have been assigned to the publishers.) 
 
 Copyright, 1922, 
 By C. a. NICHOLS PUBL1SHL\G COMPANY 
 
 AU rights reserved 
 
 J. J. Little & Ives Coir.pany, New York City, U. S. A. 
 
 Composition. Piatci. & Presswork 
 
 J. F. Tapley Company. Long Island City, U. S. A, 
 
 binding
 
 StacR 
 D 
 
 EDITORIAL ORGANIZATION 
 
 EDITOR OF ORIGINAL EDITION AND INVENTOR OF THE SYSTEM 
 
 J. N. LARNED 
 Librarian, BufTalo Public Library C1877- 1897) 
 President, American Library Association (1892-1804) 
 Author of "History of England for Schools," "A History of the United States for Secondary Schools," 
 
 "Seventy Centuries," etc. 
 
 REVISION STAFF 
 
 EDITOR-IN-CHIEF 
 
 DONALD E. SMITH, A.B. (Cornell), Ph.D. (C.^LIFORNIA) 
 
 Professor of History, Geojiraphy and Economics 
 
 Formerly at Uni\-ersity of California, Toledo Univer'^ity, etc. 
 
 Author of "Viceroy of New Spain in iSth Century," "Diary of the Portola Expedition" (with F. J. Teggart), 
 
 "The Geographic Factor in English History" (in "English Leadership", with J. N. Earned, 
 
 W. H. Taft, et al.) 
 
 ASSOCIATE EDITORS 
 
 CHARLES SEYMOUR, B.A., M. A. (Camrridgk, Eng.), Ph.D. (Yale), Litt.D. (Western Reserve) 
 
 Professor of History at Yale University 
 
 Chief of Ausfro Hungarian division of American Commission to Negotiate Peace 
 
 Author of "Electoral Reform in England and Wales," "Diplomatic Background of the War," "How the 
 
 World Votes" (with D. P. Fraryl, "What Really Happened at Paris" (with 
 
 Col. E. M. House), "Woodrow Wilson and the World War," etc. 
 
 AUGUSTUS H. SHEARER, A.B., A.M., Ph.D. (Harvard) 
 Librarian, Grosvenor Library, Buffalo 
 Lecturer, University of Buffalo 
 Formerly Bibliographer, Newberry Library, Chicago, and Chairman, American Library .Association 
 Committee on Manual of Historical Literature 
 
 DANIEL C. KNOWLTON. A.B., Ph.D. (Cornell) 
 
 Head of History and Civics, The Lincoln School of Teachers College, New York 
 
 Member of Editorial Board of "The Historical Outlook" 
 
 Author of many books on teaching of history and (with S. B. Howe) of " Essentials in Modern European 
 
 History," and (with Professors Hazen and Webster) of a series of wall-charts 
 
 on ancient, niedieval and modern history 
 
 ASSISTANT EDITORS 
 
 ALLEN L. CHURCHILL, A.B. (Bowdoin) 
 On editorial staff of New International Encyclopicdia and associate editor. New International Year Book 
 
 HENRI F. KLEIN (London) 
 Formerly librarian "London Times," on editorial staff "London Standard" and contributing editor, 
 
 "Encyclopedia Americana," etc. 
 
 HELENA (DOUGHTY) PETERSON, A.B. (Vassar), A.M. (Wisconsin) 
 Formerly high school teacher of history 
 
 JAMES R. ROBERTSON, A.B. (Beloit), A.M. (Michigan), Ph.D. (California) 
 Professor of History and Political Science, Berea College, Kentucky 
 Formerly assistant curator, Bancroft Library of University of California 
 
 FRED C. WHITE, A.B., A.M. (Alfred) 
 First assistant in History. Morris High School, New York City 
 
 V 
 
 2227770
 
 EDITORIAL O^^A^NIZATION 
 
 CRITICAL EDITORIAL READERS AND COMPILERS 
 
 MARGARET ALSTON BUCKLEY (Church of Irel.\nd Teachers' College) 
 
 WINTHROP A. HAMLIN, A.B. (H.\rv.«d) 
 
 ELIZABETH HENDEE, A.B. (Iowa) 
 
 MARJORIE B. GREENBIE, A.B. (Cornell) Ph.D. (Yale) 
 
 WILLIAM JAFFE, A.M. (Columbl^) 
 
 JOHN ALDEN KROUT, A.B. (Miciugan), A.M., Ph.D. (Coldubm) 
 
 CIL\RLES F. ZIMMELE, Ph.B. (Lehigh) 
 
 RESEARCHERS AND COMPILERS 
 
 RUTH L. BENJAMIN, A.B. (Barnard) EDITH LACY 
 
 JULIA V. BOLGER, A.B. (Barnard), A.M. DAVID LINDENAUER, B.Sc. 
 
 (Columbia) M. M. LOURENS 
 
 JAY B. BOTSFORD, A.B., Ph.D. (Columbia) LEAH L. LOWENSOHN, A.B., A.M. (Cornell) 
 LOIS C.\SSIDY, A.B. (VVelle.sley), A.M. ROSE LOWENSOHN 
 
 (Columbia) MERCEDES I. MORITZ, A.B. (B.^RN.\Rn) 
 
 E. MAUD COLVIN, M.Mus. JAMES F. MORTON, Jr., A.B., A.M. (Harvard) 
 HANA (GEFFEN) JOSEPHSON RICHARD P. READ, A.B. (Cornell) 
 
 MARION (WARREN) FRY, A.B. (Barnard) VICTOR RIGHKTTI (Neuch.atel and Florence) 
 ANNA COOK, A.B. (Mt. Holyoke) JANET H. ROBB, A.B. (Barnard) 
 
 ISADOR GINSBURG, A.B. (Coi.raBi.-i) CORNELIA SHAW, A.B. (Welt.esley) 
 
 PHILIP A. GREENBERG (University of Kiev) LUELL.\ (G.AFFNEY) SMITH 
 
 FELICE H. JARECKY, A.B. (Barnard) eRNA (GUNTHER) SPIER. A.B. (Barn.\rd) A.M. 
 LINA KAHN, A.m., Ph.D. (Columbia) (Columbia) 
 
 ETHEL A. KOSSMAN, A.B. (Barn.^rd) JEAN WICK, A.B. (Barnard) 
 
 PRESS EDITORS 
 
 GRACE F. CALDWELL, A.B. (Minnesota) A.M. (California) 
 
 (Until January, 1921) 
 
 CHRISTINE CATREVAS, A.B. (Mt. Holyoke) 
 
 ART EDITOR 
 OTTO KURTH 
 
 INDEXERS AND REFERENCERS ' 
 
 MARJORIE FISHER (N. Y. Public Libr.\ry School) 
 
 GRACE K. HAVILAND (Chicago University) 
 
 KATHERINE KELJ.OGG, A.B. (California), (California State Library School) 
 
 DORIS LITTMAN, A.B. (Western Reserve) . 
 
 ROSE LOWENSOHN 
 
 FRANCES MORTON, A.B. (Nebrask.\), (Iowa University Library Training) 
 
 Note: It will be understood that in buildinc a work with the quoted words of the be.st authorities, it was 
 a prerequisite that, in addition to other special qualifications, each member of the editorial organization should 
 have specialized in the field of history and historical literature — the broadest interpretation being given to 
 the term history. We gi\'e the full list of names, with selections from available data as to some, though all 
 have taught, written or lectured on, or devoted years of study to. history, civics, government, economics, etc. 
 etc. Each of the inde.xers had extended experience in library work also. See Publishers' Foreword and Edi- 
 tors' Preface. 
 
 The Publishers. 
 
 VI
 
 PUBLISHERS' FOREWORD 
 
 With confident expectation of a well-nigh universal welcome and approval, we are pleased 
 to introduce THE NEW EARNED HISTORY FOR READY REFERENCE, READING 
 AND RESEARCH. 
 
 THE NEW EARNED HISTORY, as it will be familiarly called, is the culmination 
 of long-cherished hopes and plans. For several years there has been an increasing demand 
 from thousands of owners and users of the older Earned work, and others, for the later 
 historical material — later, ir respect to modern scholarship, as well as chronology — not 
 found in our publication or any other. And, in consequence, soon after the outbreak of 
 the World War, we determined to meet the need in the most adequate way. First of all, 
 and as a proper service to former patrons, a painstaking expert examination of the existing 
 work was made to determine the practicability of adding a third "recent-history," sup- 
 plemental volume. As the War continued, however, it became apparent that "recent 
 history" was rapidly attaining such proportions that it would not be possible to present it 
 in a single volume. Moreover, we were convinced that a mere supplemental volume, or 
 volumes, bringing the work up to dale chronologically, would only partially solve the problem. 
 There would still be lacking the indispensable neu^ historical knowledge needed to correct, 
 amend, and supplement certain portions of the old Earned text. And, furthermore, we 
 realized that a set with three supplemental volumes would involve four indexes to be con- 
 sulted and would therefore not be in accord with the Earned ideal of "ready reference." 
 
 Our conclusion therefore was that only through a complete revision and large extension 
 of the old work, could we provide, for the benefit of old and new patrons, the following 
 substantial additions and improvements: 
 
 1. Elimination of material which, though previously accepted as authorita- 
 
 tive, had, as a result of modern research and interpretation, become 
 obsolete, valueless and, in some cases, even harmful. 
 
 2. Addition of an important array of newly available and indispensable ma- 
 
 terial of distinct value in portraying certain events and movements of 
 history treated in the old work. 
 
 3. Inclusion of the most reliable records and descriptions of events and move- 
 
 ments since 1910 — a period that may hereafter be considered the most 
 important in all time. 
 
 4. Organization of, and welding together into one harmonious whole, all this 
 
 world-history, by application of Larned's unique and unexcelled alpha- 
 betical-chronological system of arrangement, with interwoven index, 
 references and cross-references, citations, bibliographies, etc. [For 
 fuller explanation of system, see page xxi.) 
 
 5. Illumination of the text by authentic and artistic Olustrations, charts, maps, 
 
 etc. 
 
 THE NEW EARNED HISTORY was begun in August, 1916, and besides the above 
 named important objects, it was decided to increase still further the usefulness and value of 
 the work by 
 
 (a) Broadening its scope, through an interpretation of History as embracing 
 practically everything that has affected the life of mankind since time 
 began. 
 
 {b) Adding thousands of new entries, for the purpose of defining historical 
 words and terms and of locating places and people, historicaUy (not 
 to provide substitutes for dictionaries, gazeteers, biographies). 
 
 (c) Largely increasing the number of historical and other maps. 
 
 (d) Providing frontispieces in color and numerous inserts in duotone, to illus- 
 
 trate scenes, things and persons of distinct historical importance and 
 interest. 
 
 Further explanation of the reasons for, and scope of, the revision will be found in the 
 Editors' preface. 
 
 vii
 
 PUBLISHERS' FOREWORD 
 
 To accomplish all these objects required historical, bibliographical, editorial and other 
 knowledge and skill of a high order, and we sought the advice of some of the leading historical 
 scholars and librarians before choosing our Editor-in-chief and his associates. We were 
 contident that those selected possessed the necessary special qualifications and felt that we 
 were fortunate in securing the advantages of the varied points of view of trained students 
 and teachers of history in university, college and school, the experienced librarian, and the 
 publicist. And, with the purpose of achieving results as nearly perfect as humanlv possible, 
 we devised an elaborate system of research, compilation, critical reading, and review by 
 each editor of all manuscripts, with amplification, modification or change in accord with the 
 final concensus of editorial opinion. These processes, and the indexing, cross-referencing, 
 proof-reading and arranging of bibliographies were entrusted to individuals who were well 
 qualified by education and experience and who also enjoyed our own special training. We 
 are pleased to record on page v the names of these valued coadjutors. 
 
 The entire undertaking necessarily rested upon the cooperation of authors and pub- 
 lishers, for we could not quote from their copyrighted works without permisson and did not 
 purpose, without acquiescence, even to make extracts from books not so protected. The 
 "golden rule" of observing all the rights of those concerned has been consistently obeyecf; 
 we have been allowed to draw from a "golden fountain" of historical literature and' we 
 value among our most prized possessions the hundreds of letters most generously and cor- 
 dially granting us the desired permissions. These permissions are quite exceptional and We 
 are confident the owners and users of THE NEW LARNED HISTORY will be fully ap^- 
 preciative and will join us in grateful acknowledgment of the great service thus rendered by 
 our brother publishers and authors of the English-speaking world and elsewhere. More 
 detailed acknowledgments will be found on page xiii. 
 
 Perhaps it is needless to say that our procedure in this respect has been in strict accord 
 with the Earned practice, as stated in the preface to the original edition, written by Earned 
 himself, from which we quote as follows: — "But the extensive borrowing which the work 
 represents has not been done in an unlicensed way. I have felt warranted, by common 
 custom, in using moderate extracts without permit. But for everything beyond these, in 
 my selections from books now in print and on sale, whether under copyright or deprived of 
 copyright, I have sought the consent of those, authors or publishers, or both, to whom the 
 right of consent or denial appears to belong. . . . The authors of books have other rights 
 beyond their rights of property, to which respect has been paid. No liberties have been taken 
 with the text of their writings. ... In the matter of difTerent spellings, it has been more 
 difficult to preserve for each writer his own. As a rule this is done, in names, and in the 
 divergencies between English and American orthography; but, since much of the matter 
 quoted has been taken from American editions of English books, and since both copyists and 
 printers have worked under the habit of American spellings, the rule may not have governed 
 with strict consistency throughout." 
 
 The dimensions of the new work considerably exceed those of its predecessor, which 
 had 5600 pages. Roughly speaking, seventy percent of the old has been retained in the new 
 work, which totals about 10,000 pages, approximating 12,000,000 words. Thus sixty percent 
 of the new work comprises additional material supplied by the present editorial organization. 
 The entire work is new mechanically. The plates are made from linotype composition. 
 The format and type faces were'specially designed to insure readability, attractive appearance 
 and, withal, economy. 
 
 THE NEW LARNED HISTORY, to an even greater degree than the old work, offers 
 to the casual reader the opportunity of discovering quickly and easily the established facts 
 concerning an}' historical e\ent or movement: to the scholar it constitutes a technical guide, 
 providing him at once with the conclusions of the most eminent historians, and an indication 
 as to where further information ma)' be obtained. In addition to its encyclopedic and 
 bibliographical uses the work serves as a compendium of the best historical literature, since 
 the more important historical articles are not, as in the case of some historical dictionaries 
 and encyclopedias, the work of so-called hack writers, but are composed of careful selections 
 from the writings of the world's leading historians. They include some of the finest passages 
 from Herodotus, Froissart, Machiavelli, Voltaire, Gibbon, JNIacaulay, Ranke, Treitschke, 
 Stubbs, Renan, Lavisse, Aulard, Ferrero, Breasted, Parkman, Rhodes, and a host of other 
 famous writers. The student will thus find in the revised Earned work, not merely the most 
 authoritative statement of facts, but also unlimited examples of the best historical writing. 
 
 Those of us who were privileged to plan the undertaking and to observe at close range 
 the labors of the Editors and their assistants, can testify to the difficulties of the task. It 
 demanded broad vision and the most delicate sense of proportion. The high degree of suc- 
 
 viii
 
 PUBLISHERS' FOREWORD 
 
 cess achieved by the earlier edition, while it supplied a stimulus, did not remove the necessity 
 of gathering a vast collection of new material, some of it to describe the events of the past 
 three decades, much to supplant material in the unrevised edition which might fairly be 
 regarded as out of date. There was necessary the meticulous weighing of the merits of 
 different accounts of the same subject; a close acquaintance with the sources and materials 
 of history in all generations, and the scrupulous investigation of the most recent and most 
 authoritative output of historical literature. Finally, it required a sense of imagination, 
 unusually acute, which would enable the Editors to place themselves in the positions of people 
 in various walks of life so as to visualize the sort of information these people were likely to 
 seek. Only thus, indeed, could the work possibly justify itself and supply the incomparable 
 Lamed service to all who would apply to it for aid. 
 
 The extent to which those demands have been met and the success with which the 
 accompanying difficulties have been overcome will be demonstrated in the actual experience 
 of those who use the work, and theirs will be the final words of appreciation. As constant 
 observers and critics, we confidently promise that THE NEW EARNED HISTORY will 
 be for this generation what the "Old Earned" was for the past — than which there can be 
 no higher praise.. 
 
 The familiarity with history, histories and historians, resulting from use of these volumes, 
 should prove a constant stimulus to the acquisition and reading of some of the older standard 
 books and many of the worth)' new books as they are published. In this connection our 
 carefully prepared bibliographies and lists of books, selections from which have been made, 
 will prove a valuable guide, especially when supplemented by our established "Editorial 
 Service" which may be freely called upon at all times. 
 
 Finally, it is our earnest hope and expectation, as publishers for more than seventy 
 years and as producers of the former editions and supplemental volumes of the Earned 
 work, that the further knowledge and understanding of world-history made available in 
 THE NEW EARNED HISTORY FOR READY REFERENCE, READING AND 
 RESEARCH will constitute a genuine public service and contribute appreciably towards 
 the raising of the standard of citizenship and government in our own country and elsewhere. 
 For, as Burke said: 
 
 "In History a great volume is unrolled for our instruction, drawing the materials 
 of future wisdom from the past errors and infirmities of mankind." 
 And, when mortals thus turn their errors into stepping stones leading to the Divine Way of 
 Life, they will share what Cervantes evidently visioned when he wrote: 
 
 "History is like sacred writing because Truth is essential to it, and where 
 Truth is, there God himself is." 
 
 C. A. NICHOLS PUBLISHING COMPANY 
 
 F. C. H. Gibbons, Managing Director. 
 
 IX
 
 EDITORS' PREFACE 
 
 The problem of writing a history of the world which will be at once fully satisfactory 
 to scholars and to the general reader has never been fully solved. Nevertheless, the initial 
 publication of LARNED'S HISTORY FOR READY REFERENCE was undoubtedly 
 the nearest approach to a solution. For nearly thirty years, that work has held a detinitely 
 marked position in the field of historical studies and has been the standard work of historical 
 reference for both casual student and professional scholar. It was the purpose of the author 
 to present a coherent narrative of thehistory of mankind which would be not merely authentic, 
 instructive and interesting, but would also permit the reader to have actually before him, 
 the words of the great masters of historical writing. Perhaps we can do no better than to 
 state the aims of Earned, in his own words, quoted from the preface to the original edition: 
 
 'This work has two aims: to represent and exhibit the better Literature of Historj' in 
 the Enghsh language, and to give it an organized body — a system - — adapted to the greatest 
 convenience in any use, whether for reference, or for reading, for teacher, student, or casual 
 inquirer. The entire contents of the work, with slight exceptions readily distinguished, 
 have been carefully culled from some thousands of books, — embracing the whole range 
 (in the English language) of standard historical writing, both general and special: the bi- 
 ography, the institutional and constitutional studies, the social investigations, the archaeo- 
 logical researches, the ecclesiastical and religious discussions, and all other important tribu- 
 taries to the great and swelling main stream of historical knowledge. It has been culled 
 as one might pick choice fruits, careful to choose the perfect and the ripe, where such are 
 found, and careful to keep their flavor unimpaired. The flavor of the Literature of History, 
 in its best examples, and the ripe quality of its latest and best thought, are faith- 
 fully preserved in what aims to be the garner of a fair selection from its fruits. History 
 as written by those, on one hand, who have depicted its scenes most vividly,' and 
 by those, on the other hand, who have searched its facts, weighed its evidences, and 
 pondered its meanings most critically and deeply, is given in their own words. If com- 
 moner narratives are sometimes quoted, their use enters but slightly into the construction 
 of the work. The whole matter is presented under an arrangement which imparts distinctness 
 to its topics, while showing them in their sequence and in aU their large relations, both 
 national and international. For every subject, a history more complete, I think, in the 
 broad meaning of 'History,' is supplied by this mode than could possibly be produced on 
 the plan of dry synopsis which is common to encyclopedic works. It holds the charm and 
 interest of many styles of excellence in writing, and it is read in a clear light which shines 
 directly from the pens that have made History luminous by their interpretations." 
 
 That Earned achieved his purpose has been abundantly attested by the most exacting 
 critics of all shades of opinion, and of the most diverse points of view. However, as has 
 been so truly said, "Each generation must write its own history," and the time came to 
 acknowledge the need of thorough revision. During the past thirty years historical scholars 
 have been active as never before, in both research and interpretation. Much that our 
 fathers knew is now recognized to be not in accord with the historical record, or of doubtful 
 value. New light has been thrown on the events of the past; conclusions which had to be 
 couched in tentative form may now be stated definitely, while other conclusions must be 
 revised. The whole horizon of historical knowledge has been widened, while the general 
 progress of science has given new significance to what was formerly thought unimportant or 
 irrelevant. History, whether it be a science or an art, or something of both, is never static; 
 it must always be regarded in the light of the present, and the present is always changing. 
 
 Moreover, as the point of view of the generation has changed, the term "History" 
 has broadened in its connotation. It is no longer merely what Professor Freeman called 
 "past politics," but now embraces an infinite variety of subjects — literary, economic, social 
 and scientific in character. A general work of historical reference must now include fully 
 elaborated articles on such topics as education, chemistry, money and banking, philology 
 and archaeology, which formerly would not have appeared to be within its scope. Finally, 
 and if for no other reason, the need for revision would have been occasioned by the speed 
 with which actual history has been made since the appearance of the former editions of the
 
 EDITORS' PREFACE 
 
 Lamed work. In a sense, every age is one of transition, but the one in which we have been 
 living seems to have been fraught with events of the utmost importance as affecting the 
 progress of human civilization. Historical scholarship cannot refuse to deal with this most 
 difiScult recent period, merely because of the difficulties arising from the lack of a proper 
 historical perspective. The rapid development of applied science, the changing character 
 of industrial organization, the internationalization of trade, the crises in international 
 politics which culminated in the World War, and its aftermath; all these historical facts 
 are of such weight and complexity that the student may justly demand an adequate guide 
 to their comprehension. 
 
 Furthermore, it has been recognized that in the writing of history methods change. 
 Even where sources of information were open to the older historians, they often, because 
 obsessed by political and diplomatic history, disregarded what now appear to be facts of 
 fundamental importance. This was already recognized by the generation to which Lamed 
 belonged, yet even he, in practice, encountered well-nigh insuperable obstacles in setting 
 forth in orderly narrative the proper blending of these subjects with the social and economic 
 facts of human existence. Larned recognized the need of a more adequate treatment of 
 non-political history and met the difficulty by the creation of separate articles dealing with 
 commerce, tariff-legislation, railroads and the like. In the present edition an even greater 
 emphasis has been placed upon the facts of our industrial life. Such articles in the original 
 work have been much enlarged, while many new articles, such as the industrial revolution, 
 have been added. Likewise the former editions have been enriched by many new or fuller 
 articles on subjects vital to the history of civilization such as architecture, sculpture, paint- 
 ing, costume, drama, science, literature and religion. 
 
 Popular interest in the best sense has also been aroused concerning many countries and 
 parts of the earth which were regarded, only a quarter a century ago, as of interest only to 
 specialists. The history of Latin America now subtends a much larger angle of the world's 
 intellectual interest than in the nineteenth century. Questions relating to Africa and the 
 Far East have taken on in recent years a new importance, while all phases of international 
 relationships have come to occupy the foreground of our thought. All this has been taken 
 into consideration in the preparation of the new work and constitutes, if not a departure 
 from, at least a further development of the original Larned idea. The same is true of the 
 two principal auxiliaries of history, namely, geography and political science or government 
 to which extended treatment has been given. 
 
 The necessity of knowing the location of historic places has led to the introduction of 
 what may be termed a gazetteer feature, by which cities and places mentioned in the regular 
 narrative are entered in their proper alphabetical place and their location briefly indicated, 
 with necessary cross-references. In order to afford a quick and easy way of visualizing these 
 places, the changes in boundaries and many other facts, a large number of specially prepared 
 historical maps has been provided. These maps, if bound together, would constitute a 
 complete historical atlas, such as is now used in our principal universities and colleges. Also, 
 the claims of geography are met by the use of actual geographical description where, as so 
 often is the case, a knowledge of the terrain and of the physical environment is essential 
 to the understanding of history. 
 
 The amplification of the material dealing with government or civics, in contradistinction 
 to politics and political history, is likewise in response to a pressing need. Problems of 
 municipal government and suffrage are not matters of mere abstract political theory, and they, 
 and many cognate subjects, are treated as most important parts of the life of mankind. 
 In order to understand better the broad political structure of a nation, the constitution of 
 that nation is placed immediately with the article, and usually accompanied by explanations 
 which will render it intelligible to the general reader. 
 
 More than a rearrangement or a simple expansion of material in the former editions, is 
 the use of illustrations. Often a picture can convey to the mind more than pages of descrip- 
 tion. The hundreds of illustrations which are introduced into the new edition are intended 
 primarily to be a part of the exposition of human development rather than ornamentation, 
 and constitute, together with the maps and plans, a powerful visual help to the compre- 
 hension of the drama of human progress. 
 
 The two concluding volumes of the work are taken up principally with the history of 
 the World War. It will of course be many years before all the evidence is in and the verdict 
 of history rendered on all the extremely complex issues raised by this struggle. But in the 
 meantime, we can know a great deal, and the most intense human interest must attach to 
 that knowledge. The editors and publishers have spared no effort to bring together, after 
 a most careful sifting and winnowing, a complete, authoritative, and impartial treatment of 
 
 xi
 
 EDITORS' PREFACE 
 
 the war, in all its phases, and with due regard to every point of view. The diplomacy, 
 national policies, strategy and tactics, economics, international law, devastation and relief, 
 and various other aspects of the great conflict of nations and interests, are set forth with 
 informing amplicity and fidelity to truth. 
 
 It is a well-known fact that the orthodox historians do not like to deal with these most 
 recent events, which thev are tempted to call "present politics' or "historv in the making." 
 In the presence of this difficulty, the compilers of THE NEW LARNEI) HISTORY are 
 forced to draw more heavily upon documents, or the primary material for history, than for 
 the periods in the more remote past. So far as practicable the material used for the history 
 of these later years is taken from ofiicial sources; that is from statements of fact that are 
 made with official responsibility, in despatches, reports, diplomatic correspondence and 
 other state papers published with governmental sanction. Important documents connected 
 with greater events of the times, such as treaties, international agreements, new national 
 constitutions and legislative acts are given generally in full from officially printed texts. 
 The aim has thus been to prepare for students and inquirers a compilation of recent history 
 as nearly authentic in its sources as can be gathered thus immediately after the events, and 
 to organize it for "ready reference" in the form that has had approval in the older work. 
 
 The editors would be sadly remiss if they did not acknowledge their deep and constant 
 obligations to the publishers and to the editorial office staff for their unwearied cooperation 
 in carrying through the work to successful completion. Thanks are also due to the authori- 
 ties of the New York Public Library and its Hamilton Grange branch for their kind coopera- 
 tion in meeting our somewhat unusual demands upon their facilities; to the Russell Sage 
 Foundation for the generous placing of its library resources at our service, and to the 
 City Library Association of Springfield, Massachusetts, for help on bibliographical questions. 
 
 DONALD E. SMITH 
 CIL\RLES SEYMOUR 
 DANIEL C. KNOWLTON 
 AUGUSTUS H. SHEARER 
 
 Xll
 
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 
 
 In the Publishers' Foreword we have acknowledged in general terms the courtesy and liberality of 
 authors and publishers, by whose permission we have used much of the matter quoted in this work. Follow- 
 ing the example of the original editor. J. N. Larned, we wish now to make the acknowledgment more specific, 
 by naming those persons and publishing houses whose cooperation has been so large a factor in maintaining 
 the authorit.\- of the work, as well as its timeliness. Since many of the names in the original list are those of 
 persons and firms no longer existent, we have thought it proper to retain that list with its original classifica- 
 tions, as a separate item, omitting only the few whose contributions have been deleted, because later discov- 
 eries, or later and more authentic information, have provided better material in replacement. The old list 
 will be followed by a list of those authors and publishers who have contributed to the revision, and though 
 some dupUcate names will be found in both, the fact may be easily accounted for. 
 
 The two lists suggest two significant points of comparison, namely, the greater number of authors' names 
 in the older list, and the noticeable increase in the American publishers' names in the present list. With regard 
 to the first, we may say that most of the writers quoted in the revised portions of the old work and the addi- 
 tions thereto, have authorized their publishers to represent them. And we may add that, although in some 
 cases conditions have been imposed, neither from authors nor pubUshers have we met with refusal. With 
 regard to the second point, it may be said to be an indication of the growth in historical scholarship and in 
 publishing enterprise in this country. 
 
 And, finally, with our acknowledgment, it is a very great pleasure to mention the helpful goodwill of rep- 
 resentatives in America of English houses, which in not a few instances has strengthened the understanding 
 and cooperation of such firms. The evidences of an Anglo-American community of interest, high purpose, 
 and fraternal spirit, are also extremely gratifying. 
 
 THE ORIGINAL LIST 
 
 Evelyn Abbott, M.A.; President Charles Kendall Adams; Trof. Herbert B. Adams; Prof. Joseph H. Allen; Sir 
 William Anson, Bart.; Rev. Henry M. Baird; Mr. Hubert Howe Bancroft; Hon. S. G. W. Benjamin; Sir Walter Besant; 
 Prof. Albert S. Belles; John G. Bourinot, F..S S.; Henry Bradley, M.A.; Rev. James Franck Bright, D.D.; Daniel 
 G. Brinton, M.D.; Prof. William Hand Browne; Prof. George Bryce; Rt. Hon. James Bryce, M.P.; Prof. J. B. Bury; 
 Mr. Lucien Carr; Gen. Henry B. Carrington; Mr. John D. Champlin, Jr.; Mr. Charles Carleton Coffin; Hon. Thomas 
 M. Cooley; Prof. Henry Coppee; Rev. Sir George W. Cox, Bart.; Gen. Jacob Dolson Cox; Mrs. Cox (for "Three Dec- 
 ades of Federal Legislation." by the late Hon. Samuel S. Cox); Prof. Thomas F. Crane; Rt. Rev. Mandell Creighton, 
 Bishop of Peterborough; Hon. J. L. M. Curry; Hon. George Ticknor Curtis; Prof. Robert K. Douglas; J. A. Doyle, 
 M.A.; Mr. Samuel Adams Drake; Sir Mountstuart E. Grant-Duff ; Hon. Sir Charles Gavan Duffy ; Mr. Charles Henry 
 Eden; Mr. Henry Sutherland Edwards; Orrin LesUe Elliott, Ph.D.: Mr. Loyall Farragut ; The Ven. Frederic William 
 Farrar, Archdeacon of Westminster; Prof. George Park Fisher; Prof. John Fiske; Mr. Wm. E. Foster; William Warde 
 Fowler, M.A.; Prof. Edward A. Freeman; Prof. James Anthony Froude: Mr. James Gairdner; Arthur Gilman, M..'\.; 
 Mr. Parke Godwin; Rev. .Sabine Baring-Gould; Mr. Ulysses S. Grant. Jr. (for the "Personal Memoirs" of the late Gen. 
 Grant); Mrs. John Richard Green (for her own writings and for those of the late John Richard CJreen); William Gres- 
 well, M.B.; Maj. Arthur Griffiths; Frederic Harrison, M..'\.; Prof. Albert Bushnell Hart; Mr. William Heaton; Col. 
 Thomas Wentworth Higginson; Prof. B. A. Hinsdale; Miss Margaret L. Hooper (for the writings of the late Mr. George 
 Hooper); Rev. Robert F. Horton; Prof. James K. Hosmer; Col. Henry M. Hozier; Rev. William Hunt; Sir William 
 Wilson Hunter; Mr. Rossiter Johnson; Mr. John Foster Kirk; The Ver>- Rev. George William Kitchin, Dean of Win- 
 chester; Col. Thos. W. Knox; Mr. J. S. Landon; Hon. Emily Lawless; William E. H. Lecky. LL.D., D.C.L.; Mrs. 
 Margaret Levi (for the "History of British Commerce," by the late Dr. Leone Levi); Prof. Charlton T. Lewis'; The 
 Very Rev. Henry George Liddell, Dean of Christ Church, Oxford; Hon. Henry Cabot Lodge; Prof. Richard Lodge; 
 Rev. W. J. Loftie; Mrs. Mary S. Long (for the "Life of General Robert E. r,ee," by the late Gen. A. L. Long); Mrs! 
 Helen Lossing (for the writings of the late Benson J. Lossing); Charles Lowe, M.A.; Charles P. Lucas, B.A"; Justin 
 McCarthy, M.P.; Prof. John Bach McMaster; Hon. Edward Mcl'herson; Prof. John P. Mahaify; Capt. Alfred T. 
 Mahan. U.S.N. ; Col. George B. Malleson; Sir Clements R. Markham, F.R.S.; The Very Rev. Charles Merivale, 
 Dean of Ely; Prof. John Henry Middleton; Mr. J. G. Cotton Minchin; Willi ,m R. MorfiU, M.A.; Rt. Hon. John 
 Morley, M.P.; Mr. John T. Morse, Jr.; Sir William Muir; Mr. Harold Murdock; Rev. Arthur Howard Noll; Miss 
 Kate Norgate; C. W. C. Oman, M.A.; Mr. John C. Palfrey (for "History of New England," by the late John Gor- 
 ham Palfrey); Francis Parkman, LL.D.; Edward James Payne. M.A.; Charles Henry Pearson, M.A.; Mr. James 
 Breck Perkins; Mrs. Mary E. Phelan (for the "History of Tennessee," by the late James Phelan); Col. George E. Pond; 
 Reginald L. Poole, Ph.D.; Mr. Stanley Lane-Poole; William F. Poole, LL.D.; Maj. John W. Powell; Mr. John w! 
 Probyn; Prof. John Clark Ridpath; Hon. Ellis H. Roberts; Hon. Theodore Roosevelt; Mr. John Codman Ropes; 
 J. H. Rose, M. A.; I^rof. Josiah Royce; Rev. PhiHp Schaff; Jiunes Schouler, LL.D.; Hon. Carl Schurz; Mr. Eben Green- 
 ough Scott; Sir J. R. Seeley; Prof. Nathaniel Southgate Shaler; Mr. Edward Morse Shepard; Col. M. V. Sheridan 
 (for the "Personal Memoirs" of the late Gen. Sheridan); Mr. P. T. Sherman (for the "Memoirs" of the late Gen. Sher- 
 
 xiii
 
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 
 
 man); Samuel Smiles, LL.D.; Prof. Goldwin Smith; Prof. James Russell Soley; Mr. Edward Stanwood; Leslie Stephen, 
 M.A.; Prof. H. Morse Stephens: Mr. Simon Sterne; Charles J. Stills, LL.D.; Sir John Strachey; Rt. Rev. William 
 Stubbs, Bishop of Oxford; Prof. William draham Sumner; Prof. Frank William Taussig; Mr. William Roscoe Thayer; 
 Prof. Robert H. Thurston; Mr. Telemachus T. Timayenis; Henry D. Traill, D.C.L.; Gen. R. de Trobriand; Mr. 
 Bayard Tuckerman; Samuel Epes Turner, Ph.D.; Prof. Herbert Tuttle; Prof. Arminius Vambery; Mr. Henri Van 
 Laun; Gen. Francis A. Walker; Sir D. Mackenzie Wallace; Spencer Walpole, LL.D.; Mr. J. Talboys Wheeler; Mr. 
 Arthur Silva White; Sir Monier Monier-Williams; Justin Winsor, LL.D.; Rev. Frederick C. Woodhouse; John Yeats, 
 LL.D.; Miss Charlotte M. Yonge. 
 
 PUBLISHERS 
 
 London: Messrs. W. H. Allen & Co.; Asher&Co.; George Bell & Sons; Richard Bentley & Son; Bickers & Sons; 
 A. &C. Black; Cassell & Co.; Chapman & Hall; Chatto & Windus; Thos. De La Rue & Co.; H. Grevel & Co.; Grif- 
 fith, Farran & Co.; W. Heinemann; Hodder & Stoughton; Longmans, Green & Co.; Sampson I.,ow, Marston & Co.; 
 Macmillan & Co.; Methuen & Co.; John Murray; John C. Nimmo; Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co.; George 
 Philip & Son; The Religious Tract Society ; Routledge & Sons; Seeley & Co.; Smith, Elder & Co.; Society for the Pro- 
 motion of Christian Knowledge; Edward Stanford; Stevens & Haynes; Henry Stevens & Son; Elliot Stock; Swan 
 Sonnenschein & Co.; The Times; T. Fisher Unwin; Ward, Lock, Bowden & Co.; Frederick Warne & Co.; Williams 
 & Norgate. 
 
 New York: Messrs. D. Appleton & Co.; Armstrong & Co.; A. S. Barnes & Co.; The Century Co.; T. Y. Crowell 
 & Co.; Derby & Miller; Dodd, Mead & Co.; Harper & Brothers; Henry Holt & Co.; Townsend MacCoun; G. P. 
 Putnam's Sons; Anson D. F. Randolph & Co.; D. J. Sadler & Co.; Charles Scribner's Sons; Charles L. Webster & Co. 
 
 Edinburgh: Messrs. William Blackwood & Sons; W. & R. Chambers; David Douglas; Thomas Nelson & Sons; 
 W. P. Nimmo. 
 
 Philadelphia: Messrs. L. H. Everts & Co.; J. B. Lippincott Company; Porter & Coates. 
 
 Boston: Messrs. Est es & Lauriat; Houghton, Mifflin & Co.; Little, Brown & Co.; D. Lothrop Company; Roberts 
 Brothers. 
 
 Dublin: Messrs. James Dufly & Co.; Hodges, Figgis & Co. 
 
 Chicago: Messrs. Callaghan & Co.; A. C. McClurg & Co. 
 
 Ciruinnati: Messrs. Robert Clarke & Co. 
 
 Hartford, Conn.: Messrs. O. D. Case & Co.; S. S. Scranton & Co. 
 
 Albany: Messrs. Joel Munsell's Sons. 
 
 Cambridge, Eng.: The University Press. 
 
 Norwich, Conn.: The Henry Bill Publishing Co. 
 
 Oxford: The Clarendon Press. 
 
 Providence, R. I.: Messrs. J. A. & R. A. Reid. 
 
 THE ADDITIONAL LIST 
 
 AUTHORS 
 
 C. L. G. Anderson, M.D.; William Archer; Rev. James Baikie, F.R.A.S.; William D. Boyce; Robert Bruce; 
 Mary Agnes Burton; Philip Cabot; George Agnew Chamberlain: Robert S. Cotterill; Dr. Dunshee de Abranches; 
 Edward R. Dyer, D.D.; Logan Esary; John A. Fairlie, A.M., Ph.D.; Arthur T. Hadley, LL.D., Ph.D.; Lynn 
 Haines; W. Haydon; G. K. Kaye; Helen E. Keep; Hon. Samuel W. McCall; Major Haldane Macfall; Sir Malcolm 
 Mcllwraith, K.C.M.G.; J. A. R. Marriott, M.A.; David Hunter Miller, LL.M.; Floyd W. Parsons; Elia W. Peattie; 
 M. M. Quaife, A.M., Ph.D.; James Harvey Robinson, A.M., Ph.D.; John Horace Round, M.A.; Robert Scott; 
 Frank M. Sparks; D. J. Sweeney; William Jewett Tucker, D.D., LL.D.; Wilfred Mark Webb, F.L.S., F.R.M.S. 
 
 PUBLISHERS 
 
 Foreign: Messrs. W. H. Allen & Co., Ltd.; George Allen & Unwin, Ltd.; Balliere. Tindall & Cox; B. T. Batsford, 
 Ltd.; G. Bell & Sons, Ltd.; A. and C. Black, Ltd.; Blackie & Son, Ltd.; The British Museum; James Brown & Son 
 (The Nautical Press); Burns, Oates & Washbourne, Ltd.; Cambridge Antiquarian Society; Cassell & Co., Ltd.; Honors 
 Champion; Chapman & Hall, Ltd.; Chatto & Windus; Clarendon Press; Wm. Collins Sons & Co., Ltd.; Commercial 
 Press, Ltd.; Constable & Co.; The Contemporary Review; Cornish Brothers, Ltd.; J. M. Dent & Sons, Ltd.; Duck- 
 worth & Co.; The Fortnightly Review; Alexander Gardner; The Hakluyt Society; George C. Harrap & Co., Ltd.; 
 Harrison & Sons, Ltd.; Wm. Heinemann; His Majesty's .Stationery Office; Hodder & Stoughton; The Institute of Ja- 
 maica; T. C. & E. C. Jack; P. S. King. & Son, Ltd.; T. Werner Laurie, Ltd.; The London Times; Luzac & Co.; Mac- 
 Lehose, Jackson & Co.; Maunsel & Roberts, Ltd.; The Medici Society; .Andrew Melrose, Ltd.; Methuen & Co., Ltd.; 
 John Murray; Thomas Nelson & Sons; Oxford University Press; Leonard Parsons, Ltd.; Keegan Paul Trench; George 
 Philip & Son, Ltd.; Isaac Pitman & Sons; Probsthain & Co.; The Round Table; George Routledge & Sons, Ltd.; Samp- 
 son Low, Marston & Co., Ltd.; Sands & Co.; Seeley, Service & Co., Ltd.; Sidgwick & Jackson, Ltd.; Simpkin, Mar- 
 shall Hamilton, Kent & Co., Ltd.; Skeffington & Son, Ltd.; The Specialty Press; Edward Stanford, Ltd.; W. Thacker 
 & Co.; T. Fisher Unwin; Watts & Co.; Wells, Gardner, Darton & Co., Ltd.; Williams & Norgate. 
 
 American: Messrs. Abingdon Press; Academy of Political Science in the City of New York; Aeronautical Chamber of 
 Comme.rce; Ally n & Bacon; H. Altemus Co. ; American Academy of Political and Social Science; .'Vmerican AssociatioD 
 for International Conciliation; American Book Co.; The American City; American Civil Liberties Union; American 
 Geographical Society; American Historical Review; American Humane Association; American Institute of Criminal 
 Law and Criminology; American Issue Publishing Co.; American Museum of Natural History; American Peace So- 
 ciety; American Philosophical Society; American Political Science Review; American Review of Reviews; American 
 Social Hygiene Association; American Society of International Law; American Tract Society; The W. H. Anderson 
 Co.; The Anti-Saloon League of .\merica; Benjamin S. Appelstein, City Librarian, Baltimore (for the Baltimore Book); 
 D. Appleton & Co.; Arkansas Historical Association; Art and Archaeology; Asia Publishing Co.; The Atlantic Monthly; 
 Richard G. Badger; Edwin Swift Balch; Bankers Trust Co.; Banks & Co.; Banks Law Publishing Co.; G. Banta Pub- 
 lishing Co.; The A. S. Barnes Co.; George Barrie's Sons; Matthew Bender & Co.; Edward Lyman Bill, Inc.; Bobbs- 
 Merrill Co.; Boni & Liveright; Boston City Planning Board; R. R. Bowker Co.; The Bradley -Garretson Co., Ltd.; 
 
 xiv
 
 Acknowledgments 
 
 Brentano's; Nicholas L. Brown; The Burrows Brothers Co.; Callaghan & Co.; Canadian Official Publications; The 
 Canadian Annual Review of Public Affairs; Carnegie Endowment for International Peace; Central Law Journal Co.; 
 The Century Co.; The Century History Co.; Chamber of Commerce of the State ol New York; Charity Organization 
 Society of the City of New York; The Christian Herald; The Christian Science Monitor; Citizens' Union of the City 
 of New York; The Arthur H. Clark Co.; Columbia University Press: The Co-operative League of America; Crane & 
 Co.; Thomas Y. Crowell Co.; Detroit Board of Commerce; Detroit Bureau of Governmental Research; Philip R. Dillon 
 Publishing Co.; Dodd, Mead & Co.; Dodge Publishing Co.; M. A. Donohue & Co.; George H. Doran Co.; Double- 
 day, Page & Co.; Dutton & Co.; The Elm Tree Press; Foreign Missions Conference of North America; Ginn & Co.; 
 Glasgow, Brook & Co.; The Goodhue Co.; The H. W. Gray Co.; E. P. Greer; Harper & Brothers; Harvard Univer- 
 sity Press; D. C. Heath & Co.; Norman W. Henley Publishing Co.; B. Herder Book Co.; Hinds, Hayden & Eldredge, 
 Inc.; Historical Department of Iowa; Henry Holt & Co.; The Home Market Club; Houghton Mifflin Co.; B. W. 
 Huebsch, Inc.; Illinois State Historical Library; The Independent; Industrial Management; International Journal of 
 Ethics; International Trade Press; George W. Jacobs & Co.; Johns Hopkins Press; Journal of Education; Journal of 
 Geography: Journal of International Relations; Joseph A. Judd Publishing Co.; P. J. Kenedy & Sons; Mitchell Ken- 
 nerley; Charles H. Kerr & Co.; Alfred A. Knopf, Inc.; Korean National Association of America; John Lane Co.; La 
 Salle E.xtension University; Lawyers' Cooperative Publishing Co.; Lewis Historical Publishing Co.; A. A. Lindsay Pub- 
 lishing Co.; J. B. Lippincott Co.; Little Brown & Co.; The Living Age Co.; Longmans, Green & Co.; John W. Luce 
 & Co.; Robert M. McBride & Co.; A. C. McClurg Co.; Thomas F. McGrath; The Macmillan Co.; A. M. Marton; 
 Charles E- Merrill Co.; Methodist Book Concern; Methodist Episcopal Church, South, Publishing House of; Missis- 
 sippi Historical Society; Moffat, Yard & Co.; Barry Mohun; Munn & Co. (The Scientific American); Munson Press 
 Co.; Mnseum of Fine Arts (Boston); The Nation Press; National Housing Association; National Industrial Confer- 
 ence Board; National Municipal League: Neale Publishing Co.; Nebraska State Historical Society; Thomas Nelson & 
 Sons; The New Republic; New York Times Co.; Open Court Publishing Co.; The Outlook Co. ; The Page Co.; Paine 
 Publishing Co.; Pan American Union; Park Institute of America; Pennsylvania Prison Society; The Philadelphia 
 Museums; Le Roy Phillips; The Pilgrim Press; The Prang Co.; Princeton University Press; Protestant Episcopal 
 Church, Educational Division, Department of Missions; G. P. Putnam's Sons; Rand McNally & Co.; Fleming H. 
 Revell Co.; J. D. Rockefeller, Jr.; Rudder Publishing Co.; Russell Sage Foundation; G. Schirmer. Inc.; The Schulte 
 Press; Scott, Foresman'& Co.; The A. A. Scranton Co.; Charles Scribner's Sons; Silver Burdett & Co.; Simmons- 
 Boardman Publishing Co.; Small Maynard & Co.; United States National Museum; The State Co.; State Historical 
 Society of Iowa; State Historical Society of Wisconsin; F, C. Stechert Co. Inc.; Stewart & Kidd Co.; Frederick A. 
 Stokes Co.; Student Volunteer Movement for Foreign Missions; George Sully & Co.; The Survey Associates Inc.; 
 Mrs. Charles F. Taylor (lor The Equity Series); The Torch Press; The Truth Seeker Co.; The Tuttle Morehouse & 
 Taylor Co.; United States Government; United States Publishers Association; United Typothetae of America; Uni- 
 versity of California; University of Chicago; University of Missouri; University of Southern California; D. Van Nos- 
 trand Co.; James T. White & Co.; Williams & Wilkins Co.; The H. W. Wilson Co.; The John C. Winston Co.; 
 Women's International League for Peace and Freedom; World Book Co.; World Peace Foundation; Yale Law Journal; 
 Yale University Press. 
 
 A full list of books quoted from will be found in the final volume. 
 The Ust will include authors' and publishers' names. 
 
 XV
 
 LTST OF MAPS IN VOLUME I 
 
 1. AFRICA, iqi4, political See Africa 
 
 2. AFRICA, mocleni railroad lines See Africa 
 
 3. AFRICA, political (colored) See Africa 
 
 [Editor's Note: This map of the Dark Continent now has more definite and accurately determined 
 frontiers than that of Asia, and it is possible to show the actual political subdivisions as they now stand. 
 It will be noted that Abyssinia and Liberia arc the only remaining indejjendent states, and that all the 
 rest of the continent has passed under the sovereignty or political control of the various European powers. 
 However, the World War brought about several interesting changes in the i^olitical map of the continent. 
 Togoland and the Kamerun (Cameroon) were di\'ided between France and England, the former country 
 securing the greater part of both the former German colonies, German Southwest Africa was given to 
 the Union of South Africa and German East Africa, renamed Tangamdka Territor\', to Great Britain. 
 Tanganyika Territor.v, however, is not exactly coterminous with the former German East Africa because 
 a district in the northwestern part was entrusted to Belgium. All these transfers of territory were made 
 under the new system of mandates under the League of Nations. The reader shoidd also notice that 
 the new name Kenya Territon,- is now ofhcially applied to the former British East African protectorate. 
 The recent railroad development in .Africa and particularly the Cape to Cairo railway will be found on a 
 special black and white map (see number 2 above).] 
 
 4. ALASKA, political (colored) • See Alaska 
 
 5. AMERICA, voyages of discover}', 1492-1611 (colored) See America 
 
 [Editor's Note: A map drawn on the Mercator projection listing the voyages of discovery and 
 exploration from 1492 to i6ii. The voyage of Magellan is omitted because it was only of incidental im- 
 portance to America proper. In most cases routes as laid down are, in the nature of the case, only of 
 approximate accuracy. The historical importance of the map is twofold. In the first place it reveals 
 the progress of geographical knowledge of the western hemisphere as successive voyages of e.xploration 
 changed the preconceived notions of Europe regarding the New World. In the second place, since dis- 
 covery and exploration were generally acknowledged to be a proper basis for a claim to possession of ter- 
 ritory under international law, this map reveals in a general way how the early partition of America 
 among the European powers was effected. Particular attention is called to the voyage of Cabral, the 
 Portuguese na\igator, whose accidental encountering of the eastern coast of South .\merica on his voyage 
 to India by way of the (^ape of Good Hope, reinforced the Portuguese claim to the lands which were later 
 known as Brazil.] 
 
 6. AMERICA, colonial grants (colored) ... A See America 
 
 7. ANTARCTIC REGIONS (colored) .'.... \ See Antarctic Explor.\tion 
 
 8. ARABIA (colored) See Arabia- 
 
 [Editor's Note: No part of the world had its political geography changed more completely by the 
 World War than Arabia. The independent Kingdom of Uejdx and the Zionist state in Palestine, under 
 British mandate, no longer appear on the map as Turkish territory; while to the northeast the new 
 Kingdom of Irak, with its capital at Bagdad, was organized by the British, acting as mandatory for 
 Mesopotamia. The boundaries of Palestine and of Syria (under French mandate) were not entirely set- 
 tled by the early part of 1922.] 
 
 9. ARCTIC REGIONS (colored) . . . ' Sec Arc:tic Exploration 
 
 10. ASIA, political (colored) See Asia 
 
 [Editor's Note: A map representing the political divisions of the continent in the beginning of the 
 year 1922. Many of the frontiers which were disturbed by the World War were still purely conjectural. 
 Those of Armenia, although decided by President Wilson when they were referred to him by the League 
 of Nations, have ne\'er l)een put into effect because of unsettled conditions in .Asia Minor. The same is 
 true of the froiUiers of Syria and Mesopotamia, where the new kingdom of Irak has just been cstab- 
 
 xvi
 
 LIST OF MAPS IN VOLUME I 
 
 lished. The latest information available regarding the boundaries of these regions will be found in the 
 map of Arabia. Even less clear is the situation in the Far East where the status of Mongolia has yet 
 to be decided, and the territorial extension of the new Far Eastern republic in eastern Siberia has fluc- 
 tuated from month to month. The boundaries of the Chinese republic are, therefore, left as they were 
 at the time of its establishment in 191 2. No attempt has been made to show the expansion of Japanese 
 influence in Manchuria and Inner Mongolia, because it lacks a definite territorial basis. The indefinite- 
 ness of our information regarding Persia also justifies the reproduction of the map of that country as it 
 was in igi4. except that the Russian and British spheres of influence given on the older maps have now 
 disappeared.] 
 
 11. EGYPTIAN, ASSYRIAN, BABYLONIAN AND MEDIAN POWERS (colored) . . . See Assyria 
 
 12. ANCIENT ATHENS (colored) See Athens 
 
 13. AUSTR.'^LIA AND NEW ZEALAND, political (colored) See Australia 
 
 14. AUSTRIA, four de\e!opment maps (colored) See Austria 
 
 15. DISTRIBUTION OF NATIONALITIES IN SOUTHEASTERN EUROPE (colored) 
 
 See Balkan States 
 [Editor's Note: This ethnographic map of Southeastern Europe reveals the tangle of races in the 
 former Austro-Hungarian monarchy, and in the Balkan Peninsula, which goes far to explain the causes 
 of the Balkan Wars of 1912-1Q13 and the beginning of the World War in 1914. The extraordinary com- 
 plexit)' of the Macedonian problem, which more than anything else produced the Balkan Wars, is obvious 
 from what the map reveals of the racial intermixture in that former Turkish pro\-ince. It is also appar- 
 ent how strong was the argument, based upon race, which induced the Peace Conference at Paris to fix 
 the limits of the new Kingdom of the Serbs, Cro-ts, and Slovenes, excluding Italy from the greater part of 
 the eastern Adriatic littoral. The claim of Rumania upon Transylvania is shown by the common color.) 
 
 16. BALKAN STATES, political and physical (colored) See Balkan States 
 
 [Editor's Note: The boundaries of the Balkan States and Hungarj' were laid down by the treaties of 
 St. Germain, Neuilly, Trianon, and Sevres.' These treaties superseded the settlements made at London 
 and Bukarest, at the end of the Balkan Wars of 1912-1913, and represent an attempt to make poHtical 
 frontiers conform with racial and natural boundaries. The greatest difficulty was encountered in deter- 
 mining the territorial limits of Albania and the Turkish frontier in Thrace, which are admittedly of a 
 provisional character. The partition of jMacedonia among Bulgaria, Greece, and Serbia followed lines 
 of nationality only approximately.] 
 
 XVll
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME I 
 
 COLORED FRONTISPIECE 
 The Casa Grande, Arizona 
 
 INSERTS IN DUOTONE 
 
 Court of the Lions in the Alhambra, Spain See Alhambra 
 
 American Explorers See America 
 
 Landing of the Pilgrims See America 
 
 Noted American Writers See American Literature 
 
 Indian Architecture See Architecture 
 
 Types of Italian Architecture See Arciiitecture 
 
 Examples of Modern American Architecture See Architecture 
 
 Types of Aeroplanes See Aviation 
 
 Life in Ancient Athens See Athens 
 
 TEXT CUTS 
 
 Fountains Abbey, England See Abbey: Architectural features 
 
 Plan of Fountains Abbey See Abbey; Architectural features 
 
 Abyssinian Councillors in Ceremonial Robes See Abyssinia: 1907-1920 
 
 The Throne-room at Cnossus See Aegean Civilization: Cretan area 
 
 Arch^ological Findings See Aegean Civilization: Minoan Age: Characteristics 
 
 Jamrud Fort at Khyber Pass See Afghanistan: 1838-1842 
 
 Dr. David Livingstone See Africa: 1855 
 
 Sir Henry M. Stanley See Africa: 1873-1875 
 
 Africa in 1914, Political See Africa: 1914: European Sovereignty 
 
 Modern Railroad Lines in Africa See Africa: 1914-1920 
 
 Types of Early Agricultural Implements See Agriculture: Medieval 
 
 Levelling a Far Eastern Rice-field for Sowing See Agriculture: Modem 
 
 Combined Reaper and Thresher, Drawn by a Tractor See Agriculture: Modern 
 
 Wallis Tractor Pulling Case Disc Plow and Harrow See Agriculture; Modern 
 
 Irrigation Trenches in Southern California See Agriculture: Modern 
 
 Types of Totem Poles, Alaska See Alaska 
 
 Group of Modern Albanians See Albania: Medieval 
 
 Examples of Early Alphabets See Alphabet 
 
 Road over the St. Gotthakd Pass See Alps 
 
 Cliff Dwellings in Mesa Verde National Park See America: Prehistoric 
 
 Landing of Columbus See America: 1492 
 
 First Map Showing American Continent See America; 1499-1500 
 
 Henry Hudson and Son Cast Adrift See America; 1609 
 
 Movement of American Expeditionary Forces to Europe . See American E.xpeditionary Forces 
 
 Abandoning the Sinking "Endurance" See Antarctic Exploration: 1901-1909 
 
 Shackleton, Amundsen, and Scott See Antarctic Exploration: 1910-1913 
 
 Amundsen Taking Observations at the South Pole . . . See Antarctic Exploration; 1911-1912 
 Compamson of Skeletons of Vertebrates See Anthropology: Evolutionary Theories 
 
 xviii
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME I 
 
 Ancient Roman Aqueduct, Segovia, Spain See Aqueducts 
 
 Catskill Aqueduct, New York See Aqueducts 
 
 Tomb of Eve at Djeddah (Hejaz) See Arabia: Fusion of Races 
 
 Emir Feisal, King of Irak See Arabia: 1918 
 
 Removing Specimens Excavated from Thebes See Archjeology 
 
 Excavations at Thebes, 1918-1919 See Archaeology 
 
 Excavations in Ancient Babylon . See Archseology 
 
 Stonehenge See Architecture: Prehistoric 
 
 Tejiple or Luxor at Thebes See Architecture: Oriental: Egypt 
 
 Temple of Heaven, Forbidden City, Peking See Architecture: Oriental: China 
 
 The Parthenon See Architecture: Classic: Greek 
 
 The Acropolis of Athens See Architecture: Classic: Greek 
 
 Excavated Street in Pompeii See Architecture: Classic: Rome 
 
 Interior of St. Sophia See Architecture: Classic: Byzantine 
 
 Michael Angelo's Style of Renaissance See Architecture: Renaissance: Italy 
 
 Peary, The "Roosevelt" and Stefansson See Arctic Exploration: 1886-1909 
 
 Members of Peary's Polar Expedition See Arctic Exploration: 1886-1909 
 
 Assyrian Palace, Nineveh See Assyria: Early History 
 
 King Tiglath-Pileser in His Chariot See Assyria: Later Empire 
 
 Palace of Sennacherib, King of Assyria, 705 b.c See Assyria: Later Empire 
 
 Assur-Nazir-Pal on his Throne See Assyria: Archjeological remains 
 
 Copernicus See Astronomy: 130-1609 
 
 Mount Wilson Solar Observatory See Astronomy: Photographic 
 
 Telescope Tower, Pasadena, California See Astronomy: Measuring stars 
 
 Porch of the Maidens See Athens: B.C. 461-431 
 
 Temple of the Olympian Zeus See Athens: b.c. 461-431 
 
 Temple of Nike (Victory) See Athens: b.c. 461-431 
 
 William Morris Hughes See Australia: 1916-1917 
 
 Rudolf I See Austria: 1 246-1 282 
 
 Maximilian I See Austria: 1471-1491 
 
 Charles V See Austria: 1519-1555 
 
 Maria Theresa See .Austria: 1740 (Oct.) 
 
 Dissolution of Austria-Hungary See Austria-Hungary: 1918 
 
 Types of Early Attempts at F'lying Machines See Aviation: Balloons and Dirigibles 
 
 Spherical Balloons See Aviation: Balloons and Dirigibles: 1890-1913 
 
 Turtle Observation Balloon See Aviation; Balloons and Dirigibles: 1896-1914 
 
 A Zeppelin in Flight. Count Zeppelin . ... See Aviation: Balloons and Dirigibles: 1896-1914 
 
 Otto Lilienthal in his Glider See Aviation: Airplanes and Air Service: 1889-1900 
 
 Orville and Wilbur Wright and Machine in First Long Flight 
 
 See Aviation: Airplanes and Air Service: 1896-1910 
 
 First Aerial Crossing of the Channel See Aviation: Important Flights: 1909 
 
 NC4 AT Lisbon after Flight from Newfoundland . . See Aviation: Important Flights: 1919 May 
 ViCKERS-ViMY Plane as it Landed at Clifden, Ireland 
 
 See Aviation: Important Flights: 1919 June 
 British Dirigible R34 at Mineola after Transatlantic Flight 
 
 See Aviation: Important Flights: 1919 July 
 
 Temple of the Sun and Jupiter . . Sec Baalbek 
 
 Excavations at Babylon See Babylon: Excavations 
 
 Bagdad Railroad See Bagdad Railway 
 
 Balkan States after Treaty of Berlin and after Balkan Wars . . See Balkan States: 1913-1914 
 
 xix
 
 EXPLANATORY NOTES ON THE ARRANGEMENT OF 
 MATERIAL AND METHOD OF USING THE EARNED SYSTEM 
 
 Before beginning to examine or use the volumes, be sure to read through carefully the following notes. 
 A few moments' attention will show that the unique combination of alphabetical and chronological ar- 
 rangement, with thorough cross-reference, makes possible: 
 
 (a) Instant accessibility of any specific topic; 
 
 (6) Continuous reading of any nation's history; 
 
 (c) Easy tracing of the inter-relations of history. 
 
 A. Alphabeticai, Arrangement of Subject. — Filing Rules. — The primary arrangement is alpha- 
 betical, the index being embodied in the work encyclopedic fashion. (This is the only respect in which 
 there is a resemblance to any encyclopedia.) 
 
 The latest library filing methods have been followed. For example: (a) Hyphenated words are 
 considered as one word, thus, "ANTI-FEDERALISTS" follows "ANTIETAM"; but separated words 
 are arranged by the first word, so that "NEW ZEALAND" precedes "NEWFOUNDLAND." (6) 
 The rule of person, place and thing is observed, as (i) LONDON, Jack; (2) LONDON, a city; (3) 
 LONDON, passenger steamer, (c) M' Mc or Mac are all arranged as if spelled Mac. (d) Proper names 
 in order of rank, as follows: CHARLES, St.; CHARLES, pope; CHARLES, emperor; CHARLES, 
 king; CHARLES, duke; CHARLES, John; CHARLES ALBERT; CHARLES OF BURGUNDY. 
 For subject headings the American Library Association and Library of Congress practice has been the 
 guide, with few exceptions. The texts, in full or in part, or summaries of national constitutions, will be 
 found immediately following the national histories. For example, following the history of the United 
 States of America, is "UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, Constitution of" under which heading is 
 the text in full. Historical documents are usually placed with the history of the country or movement to 
 which they belong and in their chronological places, but some of the outstanding documents are to be found 
 under their own headings, such as "Berlin, 'Treaty of"; "Versailles, Treaty of". All of them are, of course, 
 properly indexed. 
 
 B. Chronological and Other Arrangement under Subjects.— Under most of the subjects the 
 topics are arranged in chronological order, so that one may read continuously the entire history of any 
 nation or movement. Each topic has a suitable heading in bold-face type which catches the eye instantly. 
 For example under AUSTRIA one of the topic-headings is as follows: 
 
 1848-1849. — Revolutionary risings. — Bombard- 
 ment of Prague and Vienna. — Abdication of the 
 Emperor Ferdinand. — Accession of Francis 
 Joseph. — The Hungarian struggle for independ- 
 ence. 
 
 There are some necessary exceptions to the strict chronological arrangement of the topics, as some 
 subjects require alphabetical, topical or logical arrangement and in certain cases a combination of some 
 or even all of these. As examples: 
 
 ADRIATIC QUESTION has a topical arrangement of topic-headings, such as: 
 
 Friction between Italy and Jugo-Slavia. 
 Treaty of Rapallo, Nov. 12, 1920. 
 Problem of Italy's new frontiers. 
 Jugo-Slav contention. 
 
 Torre-Trumbitch agreement. — Congress at 
 Rome (April 8-10, 1918).— Pact of Rome. 
 
 .£GEAN CIVILIZATION has three logical main divisions indicated by center column heads: 
 
 EXCAVATIONS AND ANTIQUITIES 
 
 NEOLITHIC AGE 
 
 MINOAN AGE 
 
 Under each of these divisions are topic-headings chronologically arranged, such as 
 
 B. C. 3000-2200.— Early Minoan Age. 
 B. C. 2200-1600.— Middle Minoan age. 
 B. C. 1200-750. — Assimilation of Minoan cul- 
 ture by people of Hellaa. 
 
 AFRICA also has logical main divisions: 
 
 GEOGRAPHIC DESCRIPTION 
 
 RACES OF AFRICA 
 
 ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL CIVILIZATION 
 
 MODERN EUROPEAN OCCUPATION 
 
 xxi
 
 EXPLANATORY NOTES 
 
 Topic-headings are in logical order under some of these division heads and in chronological sequence 
 under others. For illustration, under the third division appear: 
 
 Development of Egyptian civilization. 
 Carthaginian empire. 
 Roman occupation. 
 Arab occupation. 
 
 Some topics require even further division, as for example under the same subject, AFRICA: 
 
 Division-heading: MODERN EUROPEAN OCCUPATION 
 
 Topic-heading: Later 19th century. — Partitioning of Africa 
 
 among European powers. 
 Sub-topic-heading: Congo Basin. 
 
 HISTORY has several main divisions and these, as well as the topics under them, are arranged for the 
 most part in logical order, but, owing to the difficulty of adhering to strict chronological order, the topic- 
 headings are given numerals, as an aid to reference. Thus index entries arising from this subject will be 
 found referring to such topics as: 
 
 1. Definitions 
 
 2. Philosophy of history 
 
 11. Development of chronology 
 
 16. Greek historians 
 
 32. Modern scientific historians 
 
 34. New orientation of history 
 
 WORLD WAR is a subject which comprises considerably over a thousand pages and requires special 
 treatment. While it was possible to construct a chronological table of war events (q.v.), the descriptive 
 matter could not be arranged in that order. This was due not only to the great length of the article but 
 to its complexity. A scheme of numerals and letters was devised, full explanation of which will be found 
 at the beginning of the article. 
 
 ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION, Industrial, naturally falls into alphabetical main di- 
 visions by countries, with chronological topic-headings thereunder. 
 
 C. Page-headings. — To facilitate reference, the page-headings throughout the work indicate dates 
 wherever possible and, in italics, the principal topics on the pages. For example, the page-heading: 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1798-1806 AusterlUz AUSTRIA, 1806 
 
 D. Rule for Reference. — Each specific topic treated under a larger subject appears in the general 
 alphabetical index, where it is followed by explicit directions leading to the place where the treatment will 
 be found. Thus to find the battle of Austerlitz, one does not turn to Austria and search through its fifty 
 pages; he should turn alphabetically to .\usterlitz, where he will find 
 
 AUSTERLITZ, Battle of. See .Austria: i7q8-i8o6. 
 
 Turning then, as directed, to AUSTRIA, the dated page-headings guide him quickly to 1798-1806, 
 as above, under which the required topic is instantly found. 
 
 The simple rule for locating any desired topic will now be clear: 
 
 Turn alphabetically to the specific topic. Either the required treatment, or specific directions leading 
 to it will be found. 
 
 E. Groxjping of subjects. — Many events are of such a character that the reader's interest is served 
 by listing them in groups, in addition to the indexing of each separate item. In such cases they are 
 brought together under the class title, as, for instance: .Abdications; Armistices; .Assassinations; Battles 
 (famous); Cities (abandoned or destroyed) , Clubs; Coalitions and alliances; Codes; Congresses; Con- 
 spiracies; Constitutions; Councils of the church; Documents; Executions (notable); Genealogical tables; 
 Impeachments; Laws; Leagues; Massacres; Parties and factions; Religions; Treaties; Wars. 
 
 F. Genealogical tables. — The lineage of each historic ruling family is to be found with the his- 
 tory of the country with which it was most closely connected. For list and index of these tables, see 
 Genealogical tables. 
 
 G. Non-repetition. — Inter-relations of History. — Cross-references. — There is practically no rep- 
 etition in the work. A topic that is part of the history of two or more countries is treated fully once only, 
 where it most properly belongs and in the connection which shows its antecedents and consequences best. 
 It is then cross-referenced to every other point where it is of interest and multiple index entries made. 
 Economics of this character bring into the compass of twelve volumes a body of history that would need 
 twice the number, at least, for equal fullness on the monographic plan of encyclopedic works. An illustra- 
 ion will make clear the method and its unique exhibit of the Inter-relations of History. 
 
 A very complete and interesting account of the dispute between Great Britain and the United States 
 in Jefferson's administration, over the impressment of .American seamen, is given under the following sub- 
 ject and topic headings: 
 
 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 
 
 1804-1809.— Difficulties with Great Britain.— 
 Neutral rights. — The right of search. — Impress- 
 ment. — Blockade by orders in council and the 
 Berlin and Milan decrees. Embargo and non- 
 intercourse. 
 
 1808. — The efiect of the embargo. 
 
 xxii
 
 EXPLANATORY NOTES 
 
 It is cross-referenced from France and England and also from Admiralty law, International law, Neu- 
 trality, etc., in the proper chronological places as follows: 
 
 ENGLAND 
 1804-1809.— Difficulties with the United States. 
 — Neutral rights. — Right of search and impress- 
 ment. — The American embargo. See U. S. A.: 
 1804-1809; and 1808. 
 
 FRANCE 
 1807-09. — The American embargo and non-in- 
 tercourse laws. See U. S. A.: 1804-1809; and 
 1808. 
 
 ADMIRALTY LAW 
 1804-1809.— United States and England differ 
 over impressment. See U. S. A.: 1804-1809. 
 
 INTERNATIONAL LAW 
 1804-09. — Right of blockade. — British impress- 
 ment of United States seamen. See U. S. A.: 
 
 1804-1809. 
 
 NEUTRALITY 
 1804-1809.— Relations of United States amd 
 England. See U. S. A.: 1804-1809. 
 
 It is separately indexed as follows: 
 
 BERLIN DECREE. See France: 1806-1810 
 and U. S. A.: 1804-1809. 
 
 BLOCKADE, Paper. See U. S. A.: 1804-1809. 
 
 IMPRESSMENT OF AMERICAN SEA- 
 MEN BY BRITISH NAVY. See V.S. A.: 1804- 
 1809; and 1812. 
 
 MILAN DECREE. See France: 1806-18:0; 
 also U. S. A.: 1804-1809. 
 
 NON-INTERCOURSE BILL, United States. 
 See U. S A.: 1804-1809; 1808-1810. 
 
 ORDERS IN COUNCIL: Blockade by Brit- 
 ish. See France: 1806-18:0; and U. S. A.: :8o4- 
 i8og. 
 
 RIGHT OF SEARCH. See U. S. A.: 1804- 
 i8og; and :8:2. 
 
 SEARCH, Right of. See U. S. A.: :8o4-:8o9; 
 and :8:2. 
 
 Cross-references are also inserted at the end of numberless subjects and topics, for the purpose of 
 guiding the reader to further material related to the subject upon which he is reading. 
 Thus, under AUSTRIA, at the end of the text on topic: 
 
 1291-1349. — Loss and recovery of imperialcrown 
 appears: — See also Germany: :3:4-:347. 
 
 Also, as an aid, wherever there is an allusion to a movement, or event, upon which information is 
 available elsewhere in the work, a reference is inserted immediately after the allusion. Thus, under 
 AUSTRIA: 
 
 1848-1849. — Revolutionary risings. — "News 
 came of the flight of Louis Philippe from Paris [see 
 France: :84:-:848; 1848]." 
 
 In this way, through the index entries, cross-references and references, the entire text is tied together 
 in one harmonious whole and nothing is buried. 
 
 H. Spelung and Accents. — The style or system of accentuation adopted for the work is, in general, 
 that in everyday use in English language books and periodicals. The essential French, Italian and Span- 
 ish accents and the German umlaut are, of course, rigidly adhered to. In the transliteration of words and 
 proper names taken from the Slavonic, Arabic, Turkish and other oriental languages, the style of the 
 author quoted has been respected, though in editorial matter and headings a simpler and more representa- 
 tive phonetic rendering for English language readers has occasionally been found desirable. Webster's New 
 International Dictionary (Merriam series) has been the authority for ordinary orthography. In the non- 
 use of capitals the modern library practice has been our guide. 
 
 I. Citation of Sources. — Bibliographies. — All quoted matter is in quotation marks, and the source 
 is invariably cited in full. Abridgment by omissions is indicated by the usual omission marks, and occa- 
 sional editorial interpolations are inclosed in brackets. Abridgment by paraphrasing has been resorted to 
 only when unavoidable and is shown by interruption of quotation marks. Bibliographies for topics, as 
 
 xxiii
 
 EXPLANATORY NOTES 
 
 well as for the larger subjects will be found in their proper connections. In addition, in the last volume of 
 the work there is a carefully selected and classified bibliography, and a full list of books, from which 
 selections have been made, giving names of publishers, full names of authors, and other useful informa- 
 tion. 
 
 J. What the Work Is Not. — The work is first and last, history, not science nor biography (except, 
 as in the words of Carlyle, "History is the essence of innumerable biographies"). Yet the person who has 
 been a maker of history, so to speak, has his record as such given and his name and brief facts and cross- 
 references are entered in alphabetical place. 
 
 K. Free Editorial Service. — Our established editorial service is always available to the subscribers to 
 "THE NEW L.'VRN^D HISTORY FOR RE.\DY REFERENCE, RE.\DING .^ND RESEARCH,"— 
 which we believe more than ever merits the description given in the earlier editions by many an owner, 
 viz., "the greatest saver of time and money and labor in the whole realm of books." 
 
 XXIV
 
 THE NEW LARNED HISTORY 
 
 FOR READY REFERENCE, READING AND RESEARCH 
 
 A 
 
 A, the initial letter of the English and almost 
 all other alphabets. In the Runic Futhark alpha- 
 bet it occupies fourth place, while in the Ethiopic 
 the arrangement differs again, "aleph" being thir- 
 teenth. Since the English alphabet follows the 
 Latin directly, which in turn is based on the Greek, 
 the letter "a" agrees with the Greek letter "alpha." 
 In the Semitic languages "aleph" is a consonant, 
 although at times it loses completely its conso- 
 nantal quality. This explains the adoption of the 
 letter as a vowel by the Greeks, there being no 
 corresponding sound in their language. The Phoe- 
 nicians called the letter "aleph" seemingly because 
 of the resemblance of the character to the head 
 of an ox. Although nothing is known with any 
 degree of certainty concerning the ultimate origin 
 of this letter, in recent years, there has been strong 
 advocacy of abandoning the assumption first pro- 
 pounded in i8S9 by Vicomte Emanuel de Rouge, 
 of immediate derivation of the Phojnician or North 
 Semitic alphabet from Egyptian hieroglyphics, or 
 from Babylonian cuneiform characters. On the 
 other hand a marked tendency is in evidence to 
 look for the solution of the problem to the later 
 Cretan system of writing transferred to Syria as 
 indicated by Sir Arthur Evans (Scripla Minoa, 
 iqoq) or to linear pottery marks abundantly found 
 in many Mediterranean countries, as has been sug- 
 gested by Flinders Petrie (Formation of the alpha- 
 bet, iQiz). Stucken (Das Alphabet und die Mond- 
 stationen, 1913) traces the origin of the Semitic 
 alphabet to the signs of the lunar zodiac. — See also 
 Alphabet. 
 
 A POSTERIORI LANGUAGES. See Inter- 
 national language: Early history. 
 
 A PRIORI LANGUAGES. See International 
 language: Early history. 
 
 AA, a common name for small rivers in Europe. 
 Of the forty or more of this name, two of the best 
 known are in Russia; two others, the Westphalian 
 Aa and the Miinster Aa, are in Germany. 
 
 AACHEN. See Ai.\-la-Chapelle. 
 
 AAHMES. See Amasis. 
 
 AALAND ISLANDS. See Aland Islands. 
 
 AALI, Mehemet, Pasha (1815-1871), Turkish 
 statesman. Five times grand vizier; in 1867 was 
 appointed regent of Turkey, during the sultan's 
 visit to Paris; strong advocate of a reform policy. 
 
 AALST. See Alost. 
 
 AARAU, an important military center and cap- 
 ital of the Swiss canton of Aargau, situated on 
 the right bank of the .^ar, at the foot of the Jura. 
 The cantonal library contains many works relating 
 to Swiss history, also manuscripts from the sup- 
 pressed Argovian monasteries. The ancient for- 
 tress of Aarau was taken by the Bernese in 141 5. 
 In i7q8 it became for a short time the capital of 
 the Helvetic Republic. Near by is the ruined 
 castle of Hapsburg, the original home of the 
 Hapsburg house. 
 
 AARAU, Peace of (1712). See Switzerland: 
 
 1652-1789. 
 
 AARGAU, one of the most northerly Swiss 
 cantons. Up to 1415 this region was the center 
 of Hapsburg power, and there is still to be seen, 
 near Brugg, the ruined castle of the Hapsburgs 
 as well as the old convent of Kbnigsfelden and 
 remains of the ancient Roman settlement of Vin- 
 donissa. The canton contains many old castles 
 and former monasteries; the suppression of the 
 latter in 1847 was one of the chief causes of the 
 Sonderbund War. 
 
 AARON, in biblical history, brother of Moses 
 and his spokesman before Pharaoh. In company 
 with Moses, leader of the Israelites during the 
 Exodus. Founder of the Jewish priesthood, which 
 became hereditary in his tribe. — See also Jews: 
 Children of Israel in Egypt. 
 
 AARSSENS, Francis Van (1572-1641), Dutch 
 diplomat and statesman. Protege of Advocate 
 Johan Van Oldenbarneveldt, who sent him as a 
 diplomatic agent to the court of France, and later 
 recalled him for giving offense to the French 
 king; instrumental in condemning his aged bene- 
 factor to death; ranked by Richelieu among the 
 three greatest politicians of his time. 
 
 AB, the fifth month of the Jewish ecclesiastical 
 year, and the eleventh (in intercalary years the 
 twelfth) of the Jewish civil year. It corresponds 
 approximately to the period from July 15 to August 
 15. On the first day of Ab is kept a fast com- 
 memorating the death of Aaron ; on the ninth, the 
 Black Fast bewailing the destruction of the First 
 Temple by Nebuchadnezzar (586 B.C.) and of the 
 Second Temple by Titus (A.D. 70). The word 
 was adopted by the Jews after the Babylonian 
 captivity. 
 
 ABABDA, a nomad African tribe of Hamitic 
 stock, extending along the southern border of 
 Egypt from the Nile to the Red sea. In Roman 
 times they were known as Gebadei, in the Middle 
 Ages, as Beja. They are noted as caravan guides 
 and trade carriers. 
 
 ABACAENUM, an ancient town of Sicily, lying 
 west of Messana and north of Mt. Etna. It was 
 one of the last Sicilian cities to give way to Greek 
 influence. 
 
 ABACUS, in the Greek Doric order a square 
 stone slab that covers the capital of a column. 
 In the Roman order, the abacus is crowned by a 
 molding; in the Archaic-Greek Ionic it is rec- 
 tangular in form in view of the greater width of 
 the capital. Abacus is also the name of an instru- 
 ment employed by ancient mathematicians for 
 arithmetical calculations, and still used in China. 
 
 ABAE, a city of Phocis, Greece, famous in 
 ancient times for its oracle of Apollo. (See Ora- 
 cles) It was exceedingly rich in treasures until 
 pillaged by the Persians. Restoration of the city 
 and the temple was attempted by the Emperor
 
 ABAFY 
 
 ABBEY 
 
 Hadrian. Traces of the polygonal walls of the 
 acropolis have been preserved, including a gateway 
 and part of the town walls, excavations of which 
 were made in 1894 by the British School at 
 Athens. 
 
 ABAFY (Abaffi), Michael (1632-1690), ruler 
 in Hungarv. See Hungary: 1660-1664. 
 
 ABAILARDUS. See Abelard. 
 
 ABANCOURT, Charles Xavier Joseph de 
 Franqueville d' (1758-1702), French statesman; 
 Louis XVI's last minister of war. Contrary to 
 orders of the Legislative .Assembly, brought Swiss 
 Guards to Paris for defense of Tuileries, .August 
 10; arrested for treason; murdered while awaiting 
 trial. — See also France: 1702 (June-August). 
 
 ABANTES, the most powerful tribe of ancient 
 Eubcea, from whom in the Homeric age the island 
 took its name .Abantis. 
 
 ABATIS, a term in miUtary parlance for a field 
 fortification formed of trees laid in a row with 
 sharpened limbs pointing toward the enemy ; this 
 obstacle is frequently used in connection with wire 
 entanglements. 
 
 ABATTOIR, a French word often used instead 
 of the English "slaughter-house," a place where 
 animals are killed for food. Public control of 
 such places has in recent years become a matter 
 of great concern. In the United States, abattoirs 
 are recognized by the law as in their nature nui- 
 sances and are regulated or prohibited by munici- 
 pal ordinance. Though the meat industry is con- 
 centrated in a few cities, there are very few 
 municipal slaughter-houses, a fact in sharp con- 
 trast with Continental Europe where they are very 
 common, especially in Germany. In England leg- 
 islation has, since 1388, been enacted for the regu- 
 lation of abattoirs in cities. — See also Louisiana; 
 I8q4-ig2i. 
 
 Also in: J. A. and H. C. Joyce, Treatise on the 
 law goveriihtg nuisances, pp. 167-171. — E. Freund, 
 Police power, public policy and constitutional 
 rights. 
 
 ABBADIDES, a short-lived Mohammedan dy- 
 nasty in Spain, c. 1023-1OQ1, succeeding the Western 
 caliphate. It was characterized by extravagance 
 and corruption, and was finally overthrown by the 
 Almoravides, its last monarch dying in prison. See 
 Spain: 1031-1086. 
 
 ABBAS I (1813-1854), khedive of Egypt. Son 
 of Tusun Pasha and grandson of Mehemet Ali, 
 whom he succeeded in 1848. Was reactionary in 
 policy. Murdered in 1854, and succeeded by his 
 uncle, Sa'id Pasha. See Egypt: 1840-1869. 
 
 Abbas II (.Abbas Hilmi Pasha, 1874- ). 
 khedive of Egypt. Deposed by the British during 
 the World War (December 17, IQ14), at which 
 time a British protectorate was proclaimed and 
 Hussein Kemal Pasha, an uncle of the khedive, 
 installed as sultan; this action was taken in conse- 
 quence of the defection of Abbas to Turkey, 
 which was at the time at war with England. 
 See Egypt: 1914; World War: 1014: IV'. Turkev: 
 h. 
 
 Abbas I (called the Great), shah of Persia, 
 1 586- 1 628; greatly extended the dominions of 
 Persia. See Bagdad: 1393-1638; Persia: 1499- 
 1887; Turkey: 1623-1640. 
 
 Abbas II, shah of Persia, 1641-1668. Suc- 
 ceeded his father, Shah Safi I; regained Kandahar 
 at the age of sixteen. 
 
 Abbas III, shah of Persia, 1732-1736. A child 
 ruler, son of Tahmasp II ; succeeded by the usurper 
 Nadir Kuli. 
 
 ABBAS EFFENDI (1844-1921), the late 
 leader of the Bahais; better known by the name 
 of Abdu'l Baha, which signifies "Servant of the 
 
 (divine) Glory." Abdu'l Baha is styled "Center 
 of the Covenant," and regarded by his followers 
 as a divinely appointed teacher of spiritual truth 
 — See also Bahaism: .Abdu'l Baha. 
 
 ABBAS HILMI PASHA. See Abbas II, 
 khedive of Egvpt. 
 
 ABBAS MIRZA (C.17S3-1833), prince of Persia. 
 He introduced reforms, especially in the army ; 
 was leader in two unsuccessful wars with Russia, 
 but held his own in a war with Turkey. 
 
 ABBASIDS, the name usually given to the 
 caliphs of Bagdad, constituting with the Omayyads, 
 their predecessors, the two greatest dynasties of 
 the Eastern caliphate. In opposition to the Omay- 
 yads who traced their descent from Omayya, the 
 Abbasids based their claim to the office of caliph, 
 according to Mohammedan custom, upon their 
 descent from Abbas (566-652), the eldest uncle 
 of Mohammed. See Abul Abbas; Caliphate: 
 71S-750, 752-750, 756-1031, 763, 815-945, and 1262- 
 1543; B.\gdad: 762-763 and 1258; Jerusalem: 
 1144-1187. 
 
 Conquest by Arabs. See Arabia: 1916. 
 
 ABBAZIA, Agreement at (1921). See Italy: 
 1920-1921. 
 
 ABBESS, a title given to the superior of a 
 monastic establishment of twelve or more nuns. 
 Her duties correspond very closely to those of an 
 abbot (q.v.). See Monasticism: Women and 
 monasticism; Women's rights: 300-1400, 1200- 
 
 1600 
 
 ABBEY, Edwin Austin (1852-1911), American 
 mural painter. See Painting: .American; 19th 
 century. 
 
 ABBEY. — Organization and activities. — In 
 its broader sense an abbey is a canonically erected 
 monastery (or a religious organization under 
 strictly prescribed rules of living), having not 
 fewer than twelve religious monks or nuns, under 
 the government of an abbot or abbess respectively ; 
 in its narrower sense the word is synonymous with 
 the church of a monastery. It is to be carefully 
 distinguished from the priory, a term applied to 
 smaller monastic establishments some of which 
 were founded independently, others as cells or off- 
 shoots from an abbey, remaining dependent on 
 the parent house and having their priors chosen or 
 removed by the abbot at will. Originally the term 
 monastery designated, both in the East and in the 
 West the dwelling of a solitary or hermit. In 
 time, however, there grew up around the more 
 famous of these solitaries settlements of enthusiastic 
 disciples, necessitating an intricate and wide-spread 
 system of organization. These establishments in 
 turn developed into great centers of industry and 
 culture assuming the characteristic features of the 
 great abbeys of medieval times. "The abbeys, 
 however . . . while containing great and wonderful 
 buildings of cathedral-like proportion where wor- 
 ship to which the public was admitted was con- 
 ducted with solemn and beautiful ritual, were 
 never intended to serve, and never did serve the 
 purpose of parish churches. These abbeys were 
 not made for the people, but for the monks who 
 found therein a home. They were generally built 
 in remote places, far from centers of population, 
 and there maintained an entirely independent ex- 
 istence. .As time went on and their wealth and 
 membership steadily increased, this wealth and 
 this membership constituted potential elements of 
 power that forcibly appealed to ambitious men. 
 tVnder this new impetus the abbeys became not 
 only centers of wealth and art and luxury, but 
 also of political power. During the period of their 
 widest influence the greater abbeys were represented 
 in the national councils, on a plane of political
 
 ABBEY 
 
 Organization, Acfivifies 
 Historical importance 
 
 ABBEY 
 
 equality with the great feudal lords. It was this 
 combination of wealth and political influence 
 which, arousing more and more the cupidity and 
 the antagonism of secular rulers, ultimately re- 
 sulted, during the sixteenth century, in the sup- 
 pression of these great establishments and the 
 confiscation of their estates.] In the very old 
 days these abbeys were great and beautiful places 
 that sheltered within their walls about all of 
 culture and learning and peace that was to be 
 found. . . . While the monks did not at first seek 
 any part in controlling the life of the community, 
 or indeed any share whatever therein, yet their 
 position was of first importance to the people in 
 that rude and early period. The very poor were 
 in evidence in those days far more than they 
 ever have been since, and on the long table of 
 every monastic dining-room a basket always stood, 
 receiving a large proportion of every kind of food 
 as it was served, food that was afterwards dis- 
 bursed as alms at the .^bbey gates. No physicians 
 practised then, and the monks alone knew what 
 there was to know of the healing art, and always 
 were their services freely given to both rich and 
 poor. There were no libraries outside the mon- 
 astery's rolls, but here was collected as incentive 
 to study and to thought the literature of the time. 
 There were no schools save those the monks main- 
 tained, and to them could come the children of 
 the very poor, who, while they may not have 
 learned much, yet were given an opportunity to 
 find what learning meant, and some at least we 
 know of who through these schools found opening 
 a career of usefulness and distinction. There were 
 no inns, but the traveler could always find a refuge 
 at the monastery, where a great house was as 
 much a part of the establishment as the chapel 
 itself. Hundreds of monks found their homes in 
 the great abbeys. ... It was a wonderful or- 
 ganization that their necessities required and main- 
 tained. Everything needed for daily life was 
 produced here. Thousands of acres of adjoining 
 land were under constant cultivation, and to such 
 of the brethren as had a taste in that direction 
 was committed the task of overseeing the laborers 
 on this great farm. From their vineyards came 
 the wines that filled the cellars. On their pastures 
 were the sheep from whose wool were woven their 
 garments. Beef and pork came from the cattle 
 and swine that every monastery owned. And 
 fruits and flowers grew in the gardens and orchards 
 the older or infirm brothers had in charge. . . . 
 First of all the day's real business was the meeting 
 of the chapter, over which the abbot presided and 
 heard reports of the progress of all the work in 
 hand. Here too was received the news from other 
 [abbeys], for the custom was to send forth on a 
 parchment roll what might be termed a circular 
 letter. It gave the information current in the 
 abbey whence it started, and was entrusted to a 
 monk who thence started on the rounds of other 
 monasteries, a journey that sometimes occupied a 
 year. After being read aloud in chapter there was 
 added to it the news of that establishment, and 
 so it went its way. At Durham there is yet 
 preserved one of these rolls which is nearly forty 
 feet in length. And here in this public gathering 
 the monks confessed their faults, or had tales told 
 on them if they didn't, and thereupon were 
 soundly whipped precisely like naughty boys at 
 school. Then they went to the day's task — some 
 to teach, some to labor at the loom or in the field, 
 and some in the cloisters to illumine those rare 
 rolls or volumes, each according to the gift God 
 had given him. And so they filled their days. At 
 dinner one read while the others ate, and after- 
 
 ward recreation, the telling of stories, perhaps the 
 singing of songs, while some few walked along 
 the sweet-smelUng garden paths in the lingering 
 northern twilight, for very beautiful friendships 
 sometimes grew up among these unworldly men." — 
 A. B. Osborne, As it is in England, pp. 178-189. — 
 See also Abbot; Monasticism ; Trappists. 
 
 Medieval monastic libraries. See Libraries: 
 Medieval: Monastic libraries. 
 
 Abbeys in history. — .\n illustration of the 
 importance of abbeys in the history of medieval 
 Europe is to be found in the history of the Abbey 
 of Saint-Denis, a few miles north of Paris. "St- 
 Denis (Dionysius), the first Bishop of Paris, and 
 his companions, martyred in 270, were buried 
 here and the small chapel built over the spot be- 
 came a famous place of pilgrimage during the fifth 
 and sixth centuries. In 630 King Dagobert founded 
 the abbey for Benedictine monks, replacing the 
 original chapel by a large basilica, of which but 
 little now remains. He and his successors enriched 
 the new foundation with many gifts and privileges 
 and, possessing as it did the shrine of St-Denis, it 
 became one of the richest and most important 
 abbeys in France. In 653 it was made exempt from 
 episcopal jurisdiction. A new church was com- 
 menced in 750 by Charlemagne, at the consecra- 
 tion of which Christ, according to popular tradi- 
 tion, was supposed to have assisted in person. . . . 
 The present church of St-Denis was commenced 
 about 1 140 and marks the beginning of the Gothic 
 tendency in architecture and its transition from 
 the Romanesque style. Further additions and al- 
 terations under succeeding abbots resulted in pro- 
 ducing one of the finest Gothic buildings in France. 
 . . . The abbey figures prominently in the history 
 of France and its abbots were for several cen- 
 turies amongst the chief seigneurs of the kingdom. 
 The 'Oriflamme,' originally the banner of the 
 abbey, became the standard of the kings of France 
 and was suspended above the high altar, whence it 
 was only removed when the king took the field in 
 person. Its last appearance was at the battle of 
 Agincourt in 141 5. Joan of .\rc hung up her arms 
 in the church of St-Denis in 1429. Many kings 
 and princes and other noble persons were buried 
 there and three of the Roman pontiffs stayed in 
 the abbey at different times: . . . After the Council 
 of Trent the Abbey of St-Denis became the head 
 of a congregation of ten monasteries, and in 1633 
 it was united, with its dependent houses, to the 
 new Congregation of St-Maur, when its conventual 
 buildings were entirely reconstructed. In i6qi 
 Louis XVI suppressed the abbacy and united the 
 monastery with its revenues to the royal house of 
 noble ladies at St-Cyr, founded by Madame de 
 Maintenon. The abbey was finally dissolved at 
 the revolution, when much damage was done to 
 the church and tombs. It was subsequently re- 
 stored, under Napoleon III, by Viollet-le-Duc. 
 The relics of St-Denis, which had been trans- 
 formed to the parish church of the town in 1795, 
 were brought back again to the abbey in 1819. 
 It is now a 'national monument' and one of the 
 show-places of Paris. Many of the chartularies 
 and other manuscripts relating to its history are 
 now either in the Archives Nationales or the 
 Bibliotheque Nationale." — Catholic encyclopedia, v. 
 '.(, PP- 343-344- — See also Brittany: 992-1237. 
 
 Architectural features. — "The arrangement of 
 all these [abbeys] shows a thorough uniformity in 
 their important features. On all sides of 3 rec- 
 tangular court, which, as a rule, is square, sur- 
 rounded by arcades (the cloisters, ambitus), are 
 grouped the church, and the places appointed for 
 the residence of the monks, which are comprised
 
 ABBEY 
 
 Architectural Features 
 
 ABBEY 
 
 under the name of the clausures. It is the plan of 
 the ancient villa urbana, which seems to have 
 served as a pattern to the Benedictines. In the 
 same way the out-houses exterior to the clausures, 
 which are attached to them, follow the plan of 
 the villa ruslica among the Romans. Of the plan 
 of a Benedictine abbey of the ninth century, the 
 Abbey of St. Gall (in Switzerland], designed about 
 S20, is an excellent example. The whole plan in- 
 cludes a space of from 300 to 430 feet square. 
 The central point is the church, on the south side 
 of which is the cloister, with the buildings be- 
 longing to the dausure; and to the east of the 
 cloister, contiguous to it, is the dwelling-house of 
 the monks, with the general dormitory, the bath 
 and wash-house; to the south the refeclorium (the 
 dining-halU, with the church; and to the west 
 the cellarage. The wing of Ihe cloister next to 
 the church serves as the chapttr-housf. Near the 
 
 round outhouses for the chickens and geese, the 
 garden, and the burial-place. . . . Next to the 
 Benedictines, the Cistercians, an order proceeding 
 on the same discipline, have a great significance for 
 the history of media;val ecclesiastical architecture. 
 The strictness of this order immediately brought 
 with it a simplifying of church building. While 
 generally the apse was omitted, and the choir 
 terminated as a rectangle, minor chapels, as a 
 rule, were attached to both sides of the transept. 
 . . . Besides, the Cistercian Order forbade the in- 
 troduction of bell-towers, and instead of these, 
 even in the largest churches, they contented them- 
 selves with a small roof-turret in the middle of the 
 transept. The towers of the church at Oliva, 
 near Danzig, form an exception. Lastly, an ex- 
 traordinary length of nave is common in Cistercian 
 churches, the reason of which is so much more 
 difficult to explain, as the cloister churches were 
 
 FOUNTAhNS AliBEY, ENdLAND 
 
 eastern choir of the church is, on the north side, 
 the writing-room, with the Ubrary above, and on 
 the south side the justice-chamber. On the east 
 side of the church lie, separated by two chapels, 
 the infirmary and the school for the novices, each 
 with its small cloister in the centre To the north 
 side of the infirmary stands the dwelling of the 
 physician, with a special house for bleeding and 
 purging. The dwelling of the abbot, the school- 
 house, and the lodgings for illustrious strangers, 
 with an out-house, are to be found on the north 
 side of the church ; corresponding to this last on 
 the south-western side are the lodgings for pil- 
 grims and the poor. Attached to these important 
 parts thus spread out are, on the western and 
 southern sides, the house for servants, and the 
 stalls for sheep, pigs, goats, cows, oxen, and horses, 
 besides the workhouse, the malt-kiln, the brewery, 
 and the bakehouse attached to the kitchen of the 
 monastery, the stamping-mill and the corn-mill, 
 the house of the various labourers, and the great 
 barn. Lastly, at the south-eastern corner, are the 
 
 little attended by laity, and their use completely 
 forbidden to women The cloister arrangements 
 of the Cistercians are in other things similar to 
 those of the Benedictines. The cloister is here, 
 as there, generally on the southern side, and seldom 
 on the northern side of the church With the 
 Cistercians there was generally, on the side of 
 the cloister lying opposite the church, a polygonal 
 or round well-house, in which the beard and the 
 hair of the crown of the head (the tonsure) were 
 shaven off. The chapter-hall for the meetings of 
 the convent is generally on the east side of the 
 cloister, and is sometimes provided with an altar 
 apse. Important monasterial arrangements of the 
 Cistercians arc still to be found at Ebrach, at 
 .Altenberg near Cologne, at Riddagshausen and 
 Maulbronn in Wiirtemberg. In the last place, even 
 the fortified walls, with their towers, as well as 
 the other details of mediasval arrangements, are all 
 preserved. From the large entrance-hall, we enter 
 the church, the nave of which is separated from 
 the presbyterium by the screen On the north
 
 ABBEY 
 
 ABBOT 
 
 side of the church lie the cloisters with the well- 
 house, the refectory and the chapter-hall with its 
 altar apse. From this, a corridor leads us to the 
 house of the abbot The space, at the north- 
 eastern corner of the cloisters, seems to contain 
 the discipline-chamber, to which adjoins the vault- 
 ed cellar space. On the west side of the cloister is 
 another vaulted cellar and an older refectory, 
 which, used alternately with the above-mentioned 
 space, may have served as the winter refectory; 
 for we find in many monasteries, as for example 
 at Bebenhausen, special refectories for winter and 
 summer. The monasteries of the Premonstraten- 
 sians have much resemblance in arrangement and 
 
 c Ale of feel 
 
 PLAN OF FOUNTAINS ABBEY 
 
 I, 
 
 Guest House. 
 
 14- 
 
 Tower, 
 
 2. 
 
 Infirmary. 
 
 i.S. 
 
 Chapels. 
 
 ,?■ 
 
 C'ellars. 
 
 1 6. 
 
 Choir. 
 
 4- 
 
 Refectory. 
 
 17. 
 
 Chapel of Nine 
 
 ,«;. 
 
 Kitchen. 
 
 
 Altars. 
 
 6. 
 
 ( loister. 
 
 18. 
 
 Passage. 
 
 7. 
 
 Nave of Church. 
 
 19. 
 
 Yard. 
 
 «. 
 
 Calefactory. 
 
 20. 
 
 Store House. 
 
 Q. 
 
 Water Courts. 
 
 21. 
 
 Great Hall. 
 
 10. 
 
 Base Courts. 
 
 22. 
 
 Abbot's House. 
 
 1 1. 
 
 Chapter House 
 
 23. 
 
 Kitchen. 
 
 12. 
 
 Sacristy. 
 
 24- 
 
 Chapel. 
 
 13. 
 
 Transept. 
 
 25. 
 
 Store House. 
 
 execution to those of the Cistercians. The mon- 
 asteries of the Madonna at Macdeburc and the 
 Abbey Kappenberg in Westphalia, are examples 
 of this kind, whose unassuming simplicity rivals 
 the simplest arrangements of the Cistercians. If 
 the Benedictines preferred to build in an open 
 position at the back of a woody chain of moun- 
 tains, and if the Cistercians sought separation 
 from the world in the quiet woody glens, the 
 Orders of Preachers and Mendicants, arising since 
 the thirteenth century, of the Dominicans and 
 Franciscans, or of the minor orders, established 
 
 themselves in the populous towns. For if the 
 generality of (he superior orders lived apart, with 
 the view of devoting themselves to learned studies 
 or artistic work, the popular orders undertook to 
 work on the masses as curers of the soul by 
 preaching and confession. They sought for a 
 modest place in the towns, close to the walls or 
 elsewhere, where they erected their monasterial 
 arrangements, in fact, conformable to those of the 
 older orders of monks. . . . Really differing from 
 all these monasterial arran'zements are the great 
 establishments of the Carthusians, who arose about 
 the fourteenth century in Germany. Their mon- 
 asteries are distinguished by this: that they possess, 
 by the side of the church, and of the cloister in 
 connexion with it, a second far larger cloister, 
 generally on the east side of the church, which 
 includes the burial ground, and is surrounded by 
 the single dwellings of the monks, which are sep- 
 arated from it by small gardens." — W. Liibke, 
 Ecdesia^tical art in Germany, pp. 10.5-108 — In 
 consequence of the fact that the various building.s 
 of an establishment were erected at different 
 periods, the greater abbeys were seldom archi- 
 tecturally homogeneous; this multiplicity of styles 
 affords, however, a pleasing variety which, added 
 to the stately grandeur of nave and 'arch and 
 tower, presents, even in their ruins, a picturesque- 
 ness which appeals alike to artist and historian. 
 
 There follows a list of the more important 
 historic abbeys: 
 
 Bangor, County Down, Ireland 
 Bath, Somersetshire, England 
 Battle, Sussex, Ent;land 
 Beaulieu, Hampshire, England 
 Bee, Normandy (q.v.) 
 Bursfeld, near Gottingcn, Hanover, Prussia 
 Bury St, Edmund's, Suffolk Co., England (q.v.) 
 Canterbury, Kent, England 
 Cluny, Burgundy, France 
 Dryburgh, Scottish border 
 Einsiedein, Canton of Schwyz, Switzerland 
 Farfa, near Rome 
 Fontenelle, Normandy 
 Fountains, Yorskhire, England (q.v.) 
 Furness, Lancashire, England (q.v.) 
 Glastonbury, Somersetshire, England 
 Hersfeld, Hesse-Nassau, Prussia 
 Hirschau, near Stuttgart, Wiirlemberg 
 Holy Cross, County Tipperary, Ireland (q.v.) 
 Holyrood, Edinburgh, Scotland 
 Jumieges, Normandy 
 Mellifont, County Louth, Ireland 
 Melrose, Roxburghshire, Scotland 
 Monte Cassino, near Rome 
 New, near Dumfries, Scotland 
 Peterborou'j;h, Northamptonshire, England 
 Premontre, Aisne, France 
 Saint Albans, Hertfordshire, England 
 Saint Denis, near Paris, France 
 St. Gall, Canton of Gall, Switzerland 
 Saint Mary, York, England 
 Tavistock, Devonshire, England 
 Tewkesbury, Gloucestershire, England 
 Tintern, Monmouthshire, England 
 Vendome, France 
 Waltham, Essex, England 
 VVearmoulh, Durham, England 
 Westminster, London, England 
 Whitby, Yorkshire, England. See Bible, Eng- 
 lish: 7th-8th centuries. 
 
 ABBOT, George (1562-1633), English divine, 
 Took a leading part in preparing the authorized 
 version of the New Testament; assisted in arrang-
 
 ABBOT 
 
 ABBOT 
 
 ing for the union of the churches of England and 
 Scotland; for this he was rewarded by James I, 
 who in 1610 made him Archbishop of Canterbury. 
 
 ABBOT, a title given to the superior of a 
 monastic establishment of twelve or more monks. 
 The term is derived from the Hebrew word ab 
 meaning father, originally used as a title of honor 
 and respect. Carried over from the East to the 
 West the word came to imply also the exercise of 
 authority and hence was used to designate the 
 head of an abbey or monastery. This usage was 
 definitely fixed by the rule of St. Benedict at 
 the beginning of the sixth century. "The ad- 
 ministration of the monastery was vested pri- 
 marily in the hands of the abbot or lather, in 
 whose hands lay, theoretically, complete control 
 over all the management of the house The vow 
 of obedience was made to him, and without his 
 consent the individual monk could not properly 
 perform any act of life. It was his duty to see 
 that the monks observed the rule in all its de- 
 tails, and to punish infractions of it at his dis- 
 cretion. He was the responsible manager of the 
 temporal property of the community, must see that 
 its accounts were properly kept and must be in 
 readiness at specified times to render an account 
 of his stewardship to the community as a whole. 
 He occupies in the feudal hierarchy the same rank 
 held by the bishop; he is the responsible person 
 for the performance of the feudal dues to the 
 overlord and stands for the monastery in all its 
 efforts to keep the feudal hold upon its vassal 
 tenants. It was as important to the monastery 
 as it was to the bishopric that its head should be 
 chosen freely, without the use of any of the 
 lower motives which were almost certain to affect 
 the choice. The electors are the monks, but, 
 since the abbot is regularly to be confirmed both 
 by the secular head of the territory and by the 
 bishop of the diocese, it is clear that these larger 
 interests would have to be considered, and in the 
 case of the more important monasteries we find 
 the same difficulties in getting 'pure' elections that 
 we have spoken of in connection with episcopal 
 elections The succession in a great monastery 
 was often the occasion of violent conflicts between 
 the complicated interests at stake." — E. Emerton, 
 Median'ol Europe, pp. 572-573. 
 
 The following list of famous abbots and ab- 
 besses gives an idea of the variety of activity and 
 influence possible to the office. The list is not, of 
 course, exhaustive ; it is merely a citation of a few 
 typical cases. 
 
 Anselm of Canterbury (1033-noQ). — A scho- 
 lastic philosopher and able churchman, who. as 
 abbot of Canterbury, made the monastery a 
 famous scat of medieval learning. His writings 
 "Cur Deus Homo" and "De Concordia PrsscientiiE 
 et Pripdestinationis" made an epoch in Christian 
 philosophy, and inaugurated the work of the 
 schoolmen. His conflicts with William Rufus and 
 Henry I of England made him, in his time, a 
 powerful political force. See Excland: 1087- 
 1I3S- 
 
 Benedict of Nursia (c. 480-544), the founder 
 of western monasticism. He first organized the 
 scattered companies of the western monks into 
 orders, and the humanity, moderation, and con- 
 structive social character of the "Rule of St. 
 Benedict" which he devised for these monasteries 
 turned the ascetic impulses that were hitherto some- 
 what sterile into a civilizing force of almost in- 
 calculable value in the development of Europe. 
 For the importance of this rule in the history of 
 western monasticism, see Monasticism: 6th 
 century. 
 
 Bernard of Clairvaux (ioqo-1153), the first 
 abbot of Clairvaux, and a leader in the reform of 
 the monastic orders, and the chief center of the 
 religious life of Europe, at the time when Christian 
 fervor was reaching its height in the crusades and 
 in the beginnings of Christian art It was his 
 preaching which fired all Europe to undertake the 
 lirst expedition to the Holy Land and his ardent, 
 childlike, and inspiring personality interpenetrates 
 all the life of the twelfth century. He was con- 
 stantly called to act as peace-maker in the quarrels 
 of emperor and pope, and pope and anti-pope, 
 and to represent the purest conscience of the church 
 in the highest councils of his time. See Crusades; 
 1147-1149- 
 
 Bruno (1030-1 101), founder of the Carthusian 
 order which was a union of the hermit and the 
 communal types of monasticism. Unlike most of 
 the great abbots, who were also commanding figures 
 in the intellectual and political life of their time, 
 he is notable chiefly for the personal and creative 
 influence within the strict bounds of the monastic 
 life which made him a saint of the church and 
 the subject of several notable works of religious 
 art. 
 
 Hilda (614-680), foundress and abbess of 
 Whitby, the famous double monastery which in- 
 cluded among its members five future bishops 
 as well as the poet Caedmon, and which was a 
 powerful center of ecclesiastical and political in- 
 fluence. Statesmen and churchmen from all over 
 Christian England came to Hilda for advice, and 
 she stands out in the scanty records of the seventh 
 century, as one of the most vigorous personalities 
 of the age. 
 
 Hildegarde (ioo8-ii7q), a German abbess and 
 mystic who from her convent near Bingen, carried 
 on a voluminous and influential correspondence 
 with the most notable figures of her time Among 
 her correspondents were Pope Anastasius and Pope 
 .■\drian IV, and the emperors Conrad III and 
 Frederick I. Bernard of Clairvaux and the theo- 
 logian Guibert of Gembloux were among those 
 who sought her advice on theolo-'ical questions. 
 While it was her supposed gift of prophecy which 
 made her most famous in her own time, her writ- 
 ings on natural science are now greatly respected 
 by scholars as representing the highest point to 
 which the scientific study of nature in medieval 
 Europe had yet attained. 
 
 Lanfranc (d. io8q), first abbot of St. Stephens 
 at Caen and later archbishop of Canterbury. 
 Trained in legal studies, and a pioneer in the 
 revival of Roman law, and in education, he be- 
 came the political counsellor of William, the Con- 
 queror, and did much to consolidate the power of 
 the Normans in England, and at the same time to 
 procure honorable conditions for the native English 
 As an abbot he elevated the clerical standards of 
 discipline and education. 
 
 Sugier, .^bbot of St. Denis (1081-1151), states- 
 man and historian, and constant adviser of Louis 
 VI and Louis VII of France During the absence 
 of Louis VII on the Second Crusade, he was 
 appointed regent of the kingdom, and was so 
 successful in keeping the turbulent vassals in 
 order and improving the administration, that the 
 king, on his return, bestowed upon him the title 
 of "Father of the Country." As a statesman he 
 strerxgthened the royal power, improved agri- 
 culture and commerce, and reformed the adminis- 
 tration of justice. His chief literan,' works are 
 historical accounts of his own stirring times. His 
 work as an abbot had the same characteristics 
 as his secular achievements, being a thorough- 
 going and efficient administration and discipline of
 
 ABBREVIATION 
 
 Roman System 
 
 ABBREVIATION 
 
 the convent. — See also Abbey: Organization and 
 activities; Monast:cism: iith-i.^th centuries. 
 
 ABBREVIATION.— The representation of a 
 word or phrase by the initial letter or letters or by 
 some other standard shorter form. This practice 
 was employed extensively by both ancient and 
 medieval manuscript writers, with whom abbre- 
 viation was of considerable importance as a labor- 
 saving and space-saving device. The saving of 
 space was especially necessary as the material for 
 writing (parchment, or, in Roman times, wax tab- 
 lets) was extremely limited and very expensive. 
 
 Greek and Latin manuscripts, especially those 
 which have been on technical subjects, made very 
 great use of abbreviations, so that a certain 
 Roman is said to have made a collection of 5000 
 abbreviations used in his time. .\ form of abbrevi- 
 ation was invented by Tiro, a slave of Cicero, 
 who took down every word of his master's speech 
 in specially devised shorthand symbols; these were 
 known as Tironian notes, after the name of their 
 inventor. In the earliest transcriptions of the 
 Bible, no abbreviations were used, but from being 
 employed in notes and maruinal glosses, they soon 
 began to appear in the texts. The universality of 
 Latin as a language for scholars during the Middle 
 Ages made the application of abbreviations a very 
 simple matter, as the usage could become stand- 
 ardized without much difficulty or confusion. 
 The reform in handwriting effected by the Caro- 
 lingian schools in the Middle Ages did not dis- 
 courage the use of abbreviations and contractions; 
 on the contrary, it was under their influence that 
 the fullest development was accomplished, letters 
 from the middle as well as the end of words 
 being omitted. ."Ml western Europe used common 
 forms of contraction, with the exception of Spain, 
 where slightly different meanings were attached 
 to the various marks. In early English and Irish 
 manuscripts certain arbitrary shorthand symbols 
 were used to indicate common or special words. 
 These were adaptations of the Tironian notes of 
 Cicero's time. The use of abbreviations continued 
 to increase until the thirteenth century, when the 
 practice reached its height. From that time on three 
 things caused its decline: first, the invention of 
 the printing press, which obviated the necessity 
 for the copying of manuscript by hand; second, 
 the introduction of cheap paper for printing; and 
 third, the widesyiread use of vernacular tongues, 
 in which abbreviations were very much more 
 difficult because of the peculiarities of grammar. 
 In modern times some Latin abbreviations and 
 contractions are still in use. Membership in cer- 
 tain orders or academies, university degrees, titles 
 of address, or of office, and the names of certain 
 very well-known organizations are indicated by 
 abbreviations, usually consisting of the first letter 
 or letters of each word in the phrase denoted. In 
 addition practically every science has its own sys- 
 tem of abbreviations and symbols known to stu- 
 dents and specialists in its field. Although ab- 
 breviations are no longer generally employed in 
 books or other printed matter, commercial letter 
 writing has given rise to more or less complicated 
 systems of shorthand which, with phonetics as a 
 basis, are comprehensive of all languages, indi- 
 cating sounds or groups of sounds by standard 
 straight and curved .symbols. In the United States 
 the best known systems are the Pitman and the 
 Gregg. 
 
 Abbreviations in Babylonian writing. See 
 Education: Ancient: B.C. 35th-6th centuries: 
 Babylonia and Assyria. 
 
 Roman System. — Use in the Middle Ages. — 
 "The first mention of an abbreviated system is 
 
 in connection with the Roman poet Quintus En- 
 nius, 200 B.C., who used a scheme of eleven hun- 
 dred signs that he devised for the purpose of 
 writing more swiftly than was possible by the 
 ordinary alphabet. Doubtless some method of 
 abbreviating words was used by the Hebrews, 
 and also by the Persians, several hundred years 
 before Christ, though there is no evidence that 
 shorthand characters or other special symbols were 
 employed. The first definite and indisputable evi- 
 dence of the use of shorthand is recorded by 
 Plutarch, who mentions that in the debate on the 
 Catilinian conspiracy in the Roman Senate in 63 
 B.C. the famous oration of Cicero was reported in 
 shorthand. The method of shorthand used was 
 invented by Tiro, who was a freedman of Marcus 
 Tullius Cicero. Like many of the slaves of that 
 time, captives of other nations, he was highly 
 educated, and on receiving his freedom from Cicero 
 he adopted two thirds of his master's name and 
 became Marcus Tullius Tiro. He then became 
 Cicero's secretary and confidant. When one re- 
 members that the shorthand-writers of those days 
 were without paper, pen, pencil, or ink, and pos- 
 sessed only a crude method of shorthand-writing, 
 it is almost incredible that they could report 
 anything. The writing was done on tablets that 
 were covered with a layer of wax. The ed cs of 
 the wax tablets were raised in order to allow their 
 being closed without injury to the writing. These 
 tablets were fastened together at the corners by 
 wire, thus forming a kind of book. As many as 
 twenty tablets could be so fastened. When the 
 book consisted of two tablets only it was called a 
 diploma, and the official appointments conferring 
 public office were in that form ; hence our word 
 'diploma.' The instrument used for writing was a 
 stylus, which was about the size of an ordinary 
 pencil, the point being of ivory or steel, with the 
 other end flattened for the purpose of smoothing 
 the wax after a record had been made, in order 
 that the tablet could be used again. It was with 
 such instruments that Cssar was stabbed to death. 
 Tiro must have possessed unusual skill as a short - 
 hand-writer, for Cicero, in writing to a friend 
 when Tiro was absent, complained that his work 
 was delayed because, while he could dictate to 
 Tiro in 'periods,' he had to dictate to others in 
 'syllables.' Cicero himself was a shorthand-writer, 
 but evidently not a skilful one, as he writes to 
 Atticus, 'You did not understand what I wrote 
 you concerning the ten deputies, I suppose, because 
 I wrote you in shorthand.' In reporting the Roman 
 Senate, it is said that Tiro stationed about forty 
 shorthand-writers in different parts of the Curia, 
 who wrote down on their tablets what they could. 
 The transcripts were afterward pieced together 
 into connected discourse. Even to-day, in the 
 reporting in our own Congress, a somewhat similar 
 method is used, except that the writers take notes 
 in relays. It is stated that some of the Roman 
 stenographers were trained to take down the first 
 parts of sentences and others the closi:ig words. 
 The world is indebted to Tiro and his followers 
 for the transmission to posterity of some of the 
 finest bits of literature and some of the most effec- 
 tive orations of Roman civilization. By the grace 
 of shorthand, we possess the opinions on the im- 
 mortality of the soul of two of the famous men 
 who lived before the Christian era. When we 
 remember that in the days of Cicero and Czesar 
 the sayings of the famous intellectuals were passed 
 on almost entirely by word of mouth, and were 
 handed down in the same manner, the part that 
 shorthand played in the preservation of thought 
 was enormous. A knowledge of the Tironian
 
 ABBREVIATION 
 
 Roman Sysfem 
 Modern Development 
 
 ABBREVIATION 
 
 notes became a much-prized possession in Horace, 
 Livy, Ovid, Martial, Pliny, Tacitus, and Suetonius. 
 Julius Caesar was a writer of shorthand, and the 
 poet Ovid, in speaking of this, records, 'By these 
 marks secrets were borne over land and sea.' . . . 
 With the rise of the early Christian Church and the 
 demand for a record of the exact words of the 
 religious leaders of the day, the teaching and 
 practice of the shorthand of Tiro received a new 
 impetus. Pope Clement, in A.D. 196, divided Rome 
 into seven districts and appointed a shorthand- 
 writer for each. Cyprian, the famous bishop of 
 Carthage, devoted much of his time to the elabora- 
 tion of several thousand abbreviations to supple- 
 ment the Tironian notes. These abbreviations were 
 devoted for the main part to scriptural and proper 
 names and to current phrases peculiar to the early 
 Christians, thereby rendering the work 'much more 
 useful to the faithful,' as he expressed it, but at 
 the same time making the learning of shorthand 
 much more difficult. . . . The famous preacher 
 Origen (A.D. 185-253) has left on record the state- 
 ment that he prepared his addresses in shorthand. 
 He did not, however, permit the addresses to be 
 reported until after he was sixty years of age, when 
 he had acquired such skill as an orator that he 
 could be certain that his orations were given in 
 the form he wished. St. Augustine employed ten 
 stenographers. Basil the Great (.\.D. 32g-379) 
 wrote: 'Words have wings, therefore we use 
 signs so that we can attain in writing the swiftness 
 of speech.' . . . Pope Gregory the Great (.\.D. sqo- 
 604). in the dedication to his famous 'Homilies,' 
 mentions that he had revised them from the 
 stenographic reports. St. Jerome had ten stenogra- 
 phers, four of whom took down his dictation, while 
 six were transcribers who wrote out what the 
 others had taken from dictation. . . . Bearing in 
 mind the fact that the Tironian notes consisted of 
 thousands of arbitrary signs for words and phrases, 
 that the famous orator Seneca developed the 
 Tironian notes by five thousand additional signs 
 of his own invention, and that Bishop Cyprian 
 added many thousands of abbreviations for scrip- 
 tural terms, one may have some idea of the diffi- 
 culties with which the students of shorthand in 
 ancient times had to contend. Perhaps these Ion:: 
 lists of arbitraries were responsible for the sad 
 fate of Cassianus when teaching shorthand. Cassi- 
 anus had been a bishop of Brescia, and when he 
 was expelled from his see, he established an acad- 
 emy at Imola, in the Province of Bologna, in 
 which he taught shorthand. It is recorded that 
 his exasperated pupils suddenly surrounded him 
 and stabbed him to death with their styli. . . . 
 Then there is the sad case of the stenographer to a 
 great ecclesiastic who, finding his stenographer 
 dozing when he should have been transcribing his 
 notes, dealt him such a vigorous 'blow on the ear 
 that the stenographer died from the effects of it, 
 and the churchman had to leave the city in order 
 to avoid trial for manslaughter. With the crude 
 form of shorthand that then prevailed, shorthand- 
 writers had enough to worry about; but we find 
 that the Emperor Severus, in the third century, 
 decreed that a shorthand-writer who made a mis- 
 take in reporting a case should be banished and 
 have the nerves of his fingers cut so that he could 
 never write again. In 1903 archa=olo.:ists discov- 
 ered, one hundred miles south of Cairo, a great 
 many ancient documents on papyri. Among them 
 was a contract with a shorthand-writer, dated .\.D. 
 137, whereby a boy was to be taught shorthand 
 for the sum of 120 drachms (about $24.00) ; 40 
 drachmae to be paid in advance, 40 drachmae on 
 satisfactory evidence of the progress of the boy in 
 
 the acquirement of the art, and a final 40 drachmae 
 when he had become a proficient writer. Remem- 
 ber that, this was 137 years after the birth of 
 Christ. Shorthand was so much in demand in 
 those days that there may have been some profiteer- 
 ing among the teachers of it, because we find that 
 in A.D. 301 the Emperor Diocletian issued an edict 
 fixing tuition fees at seventy-five denares per 
 month for each pupil, about a dollar and a half 
 a month. Evidently the high cost of living did 
 not vex teachers in those days. St. .Augustine 
 records the fact that the stenographers of Rome 
 went on strike on one occasion and succeeded in 
 securing their demands. . . . Peocopius, who was a 
 stenographer to the Emperor Constantine II, be- 
 came a count. He attempted to seize Julius's 
 crown, but, vacillating at the critical moment, was 
 betrayed by his generals and put to death. A 
 teacher of oratory, Fabius Quintilian (.AD. 35-95). 
 in publishing his 'Guide to the Art of Oratory,' 
 complained that his lectures, published by others 
 under his name, had injured him because they 
 had been reported by 'greedy shorthand-writers 
 who had taken them down, and circulated them.' 
 It is stated that the early Christians bribed the 
 judicial shorthand-writers to take down the say- 
 ings of the Christian on trial. These were pre- 
 served in the archives and read at the martyrs' 
 anniversaries in order to encourage the faithful 
 With the decline and dissolution of the Roman 
 Empire, shorthand, like all other arts, lost favor. 
 It was no longer regarded as a great, fashionable 
 art. The Emperor Justinian, in the sixth century, 
 forbade his records being kept by the 'catches and 
 short-cut riddles of signs' Later, Frederick II 
 ordered the destruction of all shorthand-characters 
 as being 'necromantic and diabolical.' As the 
 Holy Roman Empire then covered almost the en- 
 tire known world, the edict of Frederick II ren- 
 dered sharthand one of the lost arts. Then came 
 the Dark .Ages, and for nearly a thousand years 
 the arts and sciences, among them shorthand, were 
 banished from the world." — J. R. Gregg, Juliut 
 CiFsar's stenographer {Century Magazine, May, 
 1921). 
 
 Modern development. — "The first evidence of 
 the revival of shorthand that we have in the 
 Renaissance is in the fact that the orations of the 
 reformer Savonarola (1452-1498) were reported 
 in some form of abbreviated writing by Lorenzo 
 di Jacopo ^'iola. There are many omissions or 
 incomplete sentences in these reports, and in paren- 
 thesis there is this quaint explanation by the re- 
 porter. 'Here I was unable to proceed because of 
 weeping.' Was the reporter merely camouflaging 
 his own inability to keep pace with the fiery tongue 
 of the orator? . . . The first system of short- 
 hand published in modern times was that of Dr. 
 Timothy Bright, whose system of 'characterie' 
 was published in London in 1588. Dr. Bright, 
 in the introduction to his book, said that he was 
 inspired to devise his system through reading 
 Plutarch's reference to the reporting of the Catili- 
 nian conspiracy. The full title of Dr. Bright's 
 book was, 'Characterie. .An .Arte of Shorte, Swifte 
 and Secrete Writing by Character.' The system 
 was dedicated to Queen Elizabeth, and letters 
 patent were issued to the author by the crown, 
 dated July 13. 1588, giving him the exclusive right 
 to the publication and use of shorthand . . . 
 'Characterie' did not meet with favor, and it was 
 superseded by branchy jraphy, tachygraphy, stenog- 
 raphy, and many other names. It is a curious 
 thing that the first mention of the word 'short- 
 hand,' by which the art is now generally known, 
 is in an epitaph which is still to be seen in the 
 
 8
 
 ABBREVIATION 
 
 ABC CONFERENCE 
 
 cloisters of Westminster Abbey. It is to William 
 Laurence, who died December 28, 1661, and reads: 
 
 'Shorthand he wrot, his flowre in prime did fade, 
 And hasty death shorthand of him hath made.' 
 
 Dr. Bright was a man of rare attainments. He 
 was a distinguished physician and an author of 
 several books of importance. In 1580 one of his 
 books was called 'A Treatise on Melancholy,' and 
 it is beUeved that it suggested to Shakspere many 
 of the pranks of mad people as set forth in his 
 plays, and especially, 'Hamlet.' Shakspere was 
 twenty-four years of age when Bright's book was 
 published, and no doubt he was familiar with it, 
 as it created a stir at the time; indeed, the word 
 'characterie' is used in two of his plays. Bright's 
 'Treatise on Melancholy' was published in 1586, 
 and therefore long preceded 'Hamlet.' Recent in- 
 vestigators have found that several expressions in 
 'Hamlet,' which were heretofore believed to have 
 been original with Shakspere, are to be found 
 in Bright's book ; such as 'discourse of reason.' 
 Bright's system was arbitrary and had not an 
 alphabet that could be connected; it was simply a 
 list of signs to be used for words. The first system 
 with an alphabet was that of John Willis, pub- 
 lished in 1602, and from that time on there was a 
 steady stream of systems or modifications of sys- 
 tems. In the next century and a half more than 
 two hundred systems were published. There was 
 great interest in shorthand at this time. The 
 people were eagerly desirous of preserving in per- 
 manent form the utterances of their beloved re- 
 ligious leaders. All textbooks of that time reflect 
 this, because they are full of abbreviations for 
 biblical phrases. John and Charles Wesley, the 
 founders of the Methodist Church, were short- 
 hand-writers. The Wesleys used the celebrated 
 system of Dr. John Byrom. Dr. Philip Doddridge, 
 in his famous theological college, insisted that all 
 students preparing for the ministry should learn 
 shorthand first in order that they might easily 
 take down his lectures. In 1628 Bishop Earle de- 
 nounced certain 'graceless' persons who did not 
 scruple to report sermons in stenography and then 
 palm them off later as their own. But shorthand 
 was used for other purposes. The most famous 
 diary ever published was that of Samuel Pepys, 
 which was written in the Shelton system. In this 
 diary Pepys gives a vivid account of the Great 
 Plague and the Great Fire of London, with many 
 intimate accounts of the court of King Charles II. 
 Pepys was an expert shorthand-writer, because he 
 mentions in his diary that in April, 1680, he at- 
 tended the king, by command, at Newmarket, and 
 there 'took down in shorthand from his own mouth 
 the narrative of his escape from the battle of 
 Worcester.' It is interesting to recall that Thomas 
 Jefferson, in a letter to his friend Page, dated 
 January 23, 1764, proposed that they should 
 master Shelton's system, the one used by Pepys, 
 so that they might have something which was 
 unintelligible to any one else. He said, 'I will 
 send you some of these days Shelton's Tachygraph- 
 ical Alphabet and directions. ' There is evidence 
 that the art of shorthand was in use in this 
 country within half a dozen years of the landing 
 of the Pilgrims. In the library at Springfield, 
 Massachusetts, there is preserved the shorthand 
 note-books of Major John Pynchon, the son of 
 the founder of Springlield, containing reports of 
 the sermons of the first pastor of Springfield, the 
 Rev. George Moxon. These sermons are dated 
 from 1637 to 1639, seventeen years after the 
 coming of the Mayflower. A majority of the 
 
 writers of shorthand in New England in the early 
 colonial days were men of distinction. Roger 
 Williams, the founder of Rhode Island, was a very 
 accomplished shorthand-writer. An Indian Bible 
 belonging to him in which are annotations in 
 shorthand is still preserved in one of the historical 
 societies. It is not, however, generally known 
 that many years before coming to this country 
 Roger Williams, at nineteen years of age, was em- 
 ployed by the famous lawyer Sir Edward Coke to 
 report the proceedings of the Star Chamber in 
 1618. John Winthrop, Jr., the son of the first 
 governor of Massachusetts, and who was himself 
 afterward governor of Connecticut, was an ac- 
 complished shorthand-writer. When he arrived in 
 Boston in 1631 he proceeded to superintend the 
 settlement of the town of Ipswich, Massachusetts, 
 while his wife Martha remained in Boston. They 
 corresponded in shorthand, and many of these 
 shorthand letters, which were written in 1633, are 
 preserved by the Winthrop families under the date 
 of that year. I mention this particularly because 
 Martha Winthrop is the first American shorthand- 
 writer of the gentler sex of whom we have record. 
 As early as 1650 Sir Ralph Verney spoke of the 
 'multitudes of women practicing shorthand in 
 church.' A discourse published in 1700 was de- 
 scribed as 'taken down in characters from the 
 pulpit by a young maiden.' In his autobio.;raphy 
 Benjamin Franklin says: 'My uncle Benjamin had 
 formed a shorthand of his own, which he taught 
 me. He was very pious and a very great attender 
 of the best preachers which he took down in short- 
 hand, and he had many volumes of them. My 
 father intended to devote me to the service of the 
 Church. My uncle offered to give me his collec- 
 tion of sermons as a sort of stock in trade with 
 which to start.' In 1837 Isaac Pitman published 
 a system called 'Stenographic Sound-Hand,' which 
 was revived in 1840 and published as 'Phonog- 
 raphy.' So great was the interest displayed in the 
 study of the art that enormous classes were or- 
 ganized, and in order to avail themselves of the 
 teaching of Pitman, many of these met at six 
 o'clock in the morning, and others continued their 
 work until ten in the evening. ... It was not 
 until the invention of a simpler shorthand that 
 there came the present growing interest in it as an 
 art that should be mastered by everybody, whether 
 they wish to make use of it professionally or 
 otherwise." — Ibid. 
 
 Ciphers of Roger Bacon. See Science: Middle 
 Ages and the Renaissance. 
 
 ABC ALLIANCE: Origin and nature of. 
 See Latin America: 1012-1015; 1018. 
 
 ABC CONFERENCE, a meeting held at 
 Niagara, May-June, 1Q14, of representatives chosen 
 by the ABC powers, Argentina, Brazil and Chile, 
 which had as its object the peaceful settlement of 
 the differences which had arisen between the United 
 States and Mexico in 1Q14. "President Wilson 
 had a very disagreeable situation to face when he 
 assumed control of affairs at Washington. He 
 refused to recognize Huerta whose authority was 
 contested by insurrectionary chiefs in various parts 
 of the country. It was claimed by the critics of 
 the administration that the refusal to recognize 
 Huerta was a direct violation of the well known 
 American policy of recognizing de jacto govern- 
 ments without undertaking to pass upon the rights 
 involved. It is perfectly true that the United 
 States has consistently followed the policy of 
 recognizing de jacto governments as soon as it is 
 evident in each case that the new government rests 
 on popular approval and is likely to be permanent. 
 This doctrine of recognition is distinctively an
 
 ABC CONFERENCE 
 
 ABDICATION 
 
 American doctrine. It was first laid down by 
 Thomas Jefferson when he was Secretary of State 
 as an offset to the European doctrine of divine 
 right, and it was the natural outgrowth of that 
 other Jeflersonian doctrine that all governments 
 derive their just powers from the consent of the 
 governed. Huerta could lay no claim to authority 
 derived from a majority or anything like a 
 majority of the Me.xican people. He was a self- 
 constituted dictator, whose authority rested solely 
 on military force. President Wilson and Secretary 
 Bryan were fully justified in refusing to recognize 
 his u.surpation of power, though they probably 
 made a mistake in announcing that they would 
 never recognize him and in demanding his elim- 
 ination from the presidential contest. This an- 
 nouncement made him deaf to advice from Wash- 
 ington and utterly indifferent to the destruction 
 of American life and property. The ne.xt step in 
 the President's course with reference to Mexico 
 was the occupation of Vera Cruz. On April 20, 
 1Q14, the President asked Congress for authority 
 to employ the armed forces of the United States in 
 demanding redress for the arbitrary arrest of 
 .American marines at Vera Cruz, and the next day 
 -Admiral Fletcher was ordered to seize the custom 
 house at that port. This he did after a sharp 
 fight with Huerta's troops in which nineteen Amer- 
 icans were killed and seventy wounded. The Amer- 
 ican charge d'affaires, Nelson O'Shaughnessy, was 
 at once handed his passports, and all diplomatic 
 relations between the United States and Mexico 
 were severed. .\ few days later the representatives 
 of the so-called ABC powers, Argentina, Brazil, 
 and Chile, tendered their good offices for a peaceful 
 settlement of the conflict and President Wilson 
 promptly accepted their mediation." — J. H. Latane, 
 United Stales and Latin America, pp. 308-310. 
 
 Mediation agreement: Protocol. — The first for- 
 mal session of the mediation conference was held at 
 Niagara Falls on May 20, 1014. The United States 
 was represented by .Associate Justice Joseph R. 
 Lamar and Frederick W. Lehmann, former So- 
 licitor-General, -Argentina, Brazil and Chile by their 
 Plenipotentiaries, and Gen. Huerta by .Augustin 
 Rodriguez, Emilio Rabasa, and Luis Elguero. 
 After five weeks of difficult labor during which 
 the conference was several times on the brink of 
 failure, the delegates issued a protocol which was 
 signed on June 24 by all the mediators. It read as 
 follows: "Article I. — The provisional government 
 referred to in protocol No. 3 shall be constituted 
 by agreement of the delegates representing the 
 parties between which the internal struggle in 
 Mexico is taking place. Article 11. — (a) Upon 
 the constitution of the provisional government in 
 the City of Mexico, the Government of the United 
 States of America will recognize it immediately, 
 and thereupon diplomatic relations between the two 
 countries will be restored, (ft) The Government 
 of the United States also will not in any form 
 whatsoever claim a war indemnity or other in- 
 ternational satisfaction, (c) The provisional gov- 
 ernment will proclaim an absolute amnesty to all 
 foreigners for any and all political offenses com- 
 mitted during the period of Civil War in Mexico, 
 (rf) The provisional government will negotiate for 
 the constitution of international commissions for 
 the settlement of the claims of foreigners on ac- 
 count of damages sustained during the period of 
 Civil War as a consequence of military acts or 
 the acts of the national authorities. -Article III. — 
 The Three mediating Governments agree on their 
 part to recognize the provisional government or- 
 ganized as provided in section 1 of this protocol." 
 — American year book, iqi4, p. 76.— .Although this 
 
 protocol was not made operative in any par- 
 ticular, Huerta voluntarily resigned July 15th 
 "On August :o, General Venustiano Carranza, head 
 of one of the revolutionary factions, assumed con- 
 trol of affairs at the capital, but his authority was 
 disputed by General Francisco Villa, another in- 
 surrectionary chief. On Carranza's promise to re- 
 spect the lives and property of American citizens 
 the United States forces were withdrawn from 
 Vera Cruz in November, 1914. In .August, 1Q15, 
 at the request ef President Wilson the six ranking 
 representatives of Latin -America at Washington 
 made an unsuccessful effort to reconcile the con- 
 tending factions of Mexico. On their advice, how- 
 ever. President Wilson decided in October to 
 recognize the government of Carranza, who now 
 controlled three-fourths of the territory of Mexico." 
 — Ibid., p. 310. — See also U.S..A.: 1014 (.April). 
 
 ABD-AL-BAHA IBN BAHA ALLAH. See 
 Abbas Effendi. 
 
 ABDALLAH, Mohammedan missionary in Af- 
 rica, nth centurv. See .Almoravides. 
 
 ABDALLAH IBN ZOBAIR (022-692), caliph 
 of -Mecca. See Caliphate: 715-750. 
 
 ABDALLEE, Ahmed (Ahmad Shah Durani), 
 shah of .Afghanistan, 1747-1773. See Ixdta: 1747- 
 1761. 
 
 ABD-AR-RAHMAN (I-V), a succession of 
 members of the Ommayyad family, whose founder. 
 -Abd-ar-rahman I, escaped from the destruction of 
 his house by the -Abbasids, and ultimately founded 
 in Spain the Ommayyad caliphate of Cordova. His 
 reign began in 756, and his family continued to 
 rule until 1031. See Caliphate: 756-1031. 
 
 ABD-EL-AZIZ IV (1880- ), sultan of Mo- 
 rocco, iQoo-igo8. Proposed the conference at Al- 
 geciras in igo6; regarded by his people as a weak 
 ruler and in 1907-1908 was supplanted by his 
 brother Mulai el Hafid. See Morocco: 1903, and 
 1907-1909. 
 
 ABD-EL-KADER (c.1807-1883), amir of Mas- 
 cara. The i-'reat leader of the .Algerian tribes 
 against France, 1830-1847; yielded in 1847 and 
 spent his last years in Damascus; celebrated 
 throughout the Barbary States and highly es- 
 teemed by the French. See Barb.ary States: 1830- 
 1846. 
 
 ABD-EL-MUMIN EL KUMI (1130-1163), 
 caliph and Commander of the Faithful. See Al- 
 MOHADEs; .Africa: -Ancient and medieval civiliza- 
 tion: .Arab occupation: Relations with Europe: 
 Effects of Arab influence. 
 
 ABDERA, an ancient maritime town on the 
 southern coast of Spain, bordering on the Mediter- 
 ranean sea. The Carthaginians founded the town 
 to be used as a trading station. It was subse- 
 quently taken over by the Romans. Abdera is 
 the birthplace of the philosopher Democritus, of 
 the historian Hecataus and other distinguished 
 men. 
 
 ABDERHALDEN'S ENZYME REACTION. 
 See Medical science: Modern: 20th century: Ex- 
 perimental method. 
 
 ABDICATION, the renunciation, formally or 
 otherwise, of an office, power or right. The term 
 is used chiefly with reference to rulers. An ab- 
 solute monarch may abdicate at will ; in some 
 constitutional monarchies the consent of the par- 
 liament is required. In England, action of both 
 Houses of Parliament is necessary to validate an 
 abdication. In the case of King James II it was 
 decided by Parliament that the king's desertion of 
 his official duties, followed by his flight from the 
 realm, constituted an abdication of his royal po- 
 sition. History records a number of voluntary ab- 
 dications, as well as numerous occasions on which 
 
 10
 
 ABDICATION 
 
 ABELARD 
 
 the ruler was compelled by insurrection to renounce 
 his throne. 
 
 The following list of abdications, forced and 
 voluntary, is by no means exhaustive, but includes 
 those which have special interest or importance. 
 Wholesale abdications, such as occurred in the 
 minor German states immediately after the World 
 War, may be found under the names of the sep- 
 arate states. 
 
 Ptolemy I of E^ypt (B.C. 285). See Mace- 
 donia: B.C. 2g7-28o. 
 
 Diocletian, Roman Emperor (A.D. May, 305). 
 See Rome: 284-305. 
 
 Edward II of England (1327) See England: 
 
 1327- 
 
 Richard II of England (ijqq). See England: 
 I3qg-i47i. 
 
 Charles V, Emperor (Sept., 1558). See Ger- 
 many: 1552-1561; Netherlands: i5.';s. 
 
 Christina of Sweden (July, 1(154). See 
 Sweden: 1644-1607. 
 
 Charles IV of Spain (May, 1808). See Spain: 
 1807-1808. 
 
 Ferdinand VII of Spain (May, 1808). See 
 Spain: 1807-1808. 
 
 Louis Bonaparte of Holland (July, 1810). See 
 Netherlands: 1806-1810. 
 
 Napoleon I (April, 1814; June, 1815). See 
 France: 1814 (March-April) ; 1815, ( June-.Aug.). 
 
 Victor Emmanuel I (March, 1821). See Italy: 
 1820-1821. 
 
 Charles X of France (July, 1830). See France: 
 1815-1830. 
 
 Pedro I of Brazil (1831). See Brazil: 1825-1865. 
 
 Pedro IV of Portugal (.^pril, 1831). See 
 Portugal: 1824-1800; Brazil: 1825- 1865. 
 
 Christina of Spain (Oct., 1840). See Sp.«n: 
 1833-1846. 
 
 William I of Holland (Oct., 1840). See Nether- 
 lands: 1840-1840. 
 
 Ferdinand of Austria (Dec, 1848). See Aus- 
 tria: 1848-1840; Hungary: 1847-1840. 
 
 Louis Philippe of France (Feb., 1848). See 
 France: 1841-1848. 
 
 Charles Albert of Sardinia (March, 1840). See 
 Italy: 1848-1840. 
 
 Isabella II of Spain (June, 1870). See Spain: 
 1868-1873. 
 
 Amadeus I of Spain (Feb. 11, 1873). See Spain: 
 1868-1873. 
 
 Alexander I of Bulgaria (Sept., 1886). See Bul- 
 garia: 1885-1886. 
 
 Milan of Serbia (March, i88q). See Serbia: 
 1885-1003. 
 
 Pedro II of Brazil (t88o). See Brazil: i 880-1 8qi. 
 
 Yl Hiong, Emperor of Korea (July, 1Q07). See 
 Korea: 1005-1000. 
 
 Abd-ul-Hamid II of Turkey (April 27, igog). 
 See Turkey: igoq. 
 
 Mohammed Ali of Persia (July, igog). See 
 Persia: iqo8-igog. 
 
 Hsuan Tung (Pu Yi) of China (Feb., 1012). 
 See China: 1012 (Jan.). 
 
 Nicholas II of Russia (March, igi7). See 
 Europe: Modern period; Russia in the igth cen- 
 tury; Russia: March, igi7 (March 8-15); World 
 War: igi7: HI. Russia and the Eastern front: h. 
 
 Michael, grand duke of Russia (March, igi7). 
 See Russia: 1017 (March, 16-20). 
 
 Constantine I of Greece (June, 1Q17). See 
 Greece: igi6; World War: igi?: V. Balkan the- 
 atre: a, 1. 
 
 Charles I of Austria (Nov., igi8). See Austria- 
 Hungary: igi8. 
 
 Grand duke of Baden (igi8). See Baden: igi8. 
 
 Ferdinand I of Bulgaria (Oct., igi8). See Bul- 
 garia: 1018; World War; 1918: V. Balkan the- 
 atre: c, 11. 
 
 William II of Germany (Nov., 1918). See 
 Europe: Nov., igi8; Germany: Nov., 1918. 
 
 Marie Adelaide, grand duchess of Luxemburg 
 (iq2o). See Lu.vemburg: igig-ig2i. 
 
 ABDUL AZIZ, sultan of Turkey, 1861-1876. 
 By imperial lirman of 1866 he conceded to Ismail 
 Pasha and his descendants, the hereditary right to 
 the office of khedive of Egypt. Largely re.sponsible 
 for the Bulgarian massacres of 1875. Popular dis- 
 content at his misgovernment led to his deposition, 
 May 30, 1876. He was found dead in his apart- 
 ments four days later. See Turkey: 1861-1870. 
 
 Islamic teachings of. See Wahhabis. 
 
 ABDU'L BAHA. See Abbas Effendi. 
 
 ABDUL HAMID I, sultan of Turkey, 1773- 
 17S0. Involved in a series of unsuccessful wars 
 with Catherine II of Russia, as a result of which 
 Turkey lost the Crimea and adjacent territories. 
 See Turkey: 1774 and 1776-1792. 
 
 Abdul Hamid II (1842- 1018), sultan of Tur- 
 key, 1876-igog. Came to power in trying times, 
 suppressed the attempted Parliamentary reforms 
 of the Young Turks and inaugurated an ab- 
 solutist regime; responsible for the Armenian 
 outrages of 1805 and i8g6. Political conflicts 
 caused by the SHCcess of the Young Turks enabled 
 Austria-Hungary formally to annex the occupied 
 provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina (igo8). De- 
 posed (igog) by the Youiv4 Turks. — See also Tur- 
 key: 1861-1876; 1877 io igog. 
 
 Supporter of Fan-Islamic movement. See 
 Pan-Islanhsm. 
 
 ABDUL MEJID, sultan of Turkey, 1830-1861. 
 In spite of sincere attempts at reform, his reign 
 was a failure because of the practical loss of Egypt 
 through his defeat by Mehcmet Ali, and the ex- 
 haustion of Turkey in consequence of the Crimean 
 war. — See also Turkey: 1830. 
 
 ABDULLAH, Mohammed, Somali mullah, 
 leader of the rebellion in igo2. See Somaliland. 
 
 ABDULLAH IBN SEYYID MOHAMMED 
 (c. 1846-1800), the khalifa, ruler of Egyptian Su- 
 dan. See Egypt: 1885-1806. 
 
 ABDUR RAHMAN (d. 666), Saracen generaL 
 See Caliphate: 715-7^2. 
 
 ABDUR RAHMAN KHAN, amir of Afghanis- 
 tan, 1880-iqoi. See Afghanistan: i86g-i88i and 
 I001-iqo6. 
 
 ABEKEN, Heinrich (i8oq-i872), chaplain to 
 the Prussian embassy at Rome in 1834. Was in 
 high favor with Bismarck, whose official dispatches 
 he was employed to write, and with King William, 
 whom he accompanied on several campaigns and 
 diplomatic missions during the Franco-German 
 War. Composed the famous Ems dispatch, which, 
 as edited by Bismarck, precipitated the Franco- 
 German War. — See also France: 1870 (June-July). 
 
 ABEL, Sir Frederick Augustus (1827-1002), 
 English chemist. Expert in the science of ex- 
 plosives; consulting chemist to the British war 
 department, 1854-1 888; prepared guncotton in a 
 form which increased its usefulness ; with James 
 Dewar invented cordite, the standard explosive of 
 the British army — See also Che\ustry: Practical 
 application: Explosives: Gunpowder. 
 
 ABELARD, Peter (1070-1142), scholastic 
 philosopher, teacher and theologian. He was a 
 bold and original thinker with an irrepressible 
 thirst for knowledge, and his overthrow of reahsm 
 was the precursor of the Aristotelian ascendancy 
 in the Middle Ages. He created enemies among 
 the teachers who were lecturing in France by de- 
 feating them in debate, and by his remarkable 
 
 II
 
 ABENAQUES 
 
 ABNAKIS 
 
 work "Yea and Nay" he introduced the fashion 
 of discussing the tenets of Christianity. Cruelly 
 persecuted both for his doctrines, and for his love 
 for Heloise, he lied from monastery to monastery. 
 While on his way to Rome to suffer imprisonment 
 by the church, he died at Cluny. The founding 
 of the University of Paris was in great part due 
 to his influence. — See also Eoucation': Medieval: 
 Qth-i5th centuries: Scholasticism, Schoolmen; and 
 iith-i2th centuries: Universities, Their rise; also 
 U^^VEKSITlKs .and colleges: 1201-167Q. 
 
 Also in: C. de Remusat, Abelard (1845). — J. 
 McCabe, Peler Abelard. — H. Morton, Love letters 
 of Abilard and Heloise. 
 
 ABENAQUES. See .'Vbnakis, Abenaques or 
 Taranteens. 
 
 ABENCERRAGES, a powerful family in the 
 Moorish kingdom of Granada. The name became 
 famous in Spanish romance through feuds between 
 the Abencerrages and their rivals, the Zegris. 
 Toward the close of Moorish rule the family is 
 said to have been massacred in the .Mhambra by 
 King Abu Hassan. See Spain: 12,^8-1273 and 1470- 
 1402. 
 
 ABENCERRAGES, Hall of. See Alhambra. 
 
 ABENSBERG, a small town in lower Bavaria, 
 Germany, on the Abens, eighteen miles southwest 
 of Ratisbon. It gained prominence in the .•\ustrian 
 offensive of iSoq. Here, on the 20th of April, 
 i8oq. Napoleon pained a signal victory over the 
 Austrian army under the .'\rchduke Charles and 
 General Hiller. This opened the way to the vic- 
 tory of Eckmiihl, and the retirement of the .Aus- 
 trians. See Germany: i8oq ( Januarv-June) . 
 
 ABERCROMBIE, James (1706-1781), com- 
 mander-in-chief of British and Colonial forces in 
 .'\merica, 1757; his defeat following his attack on 
 Ticonderoga led to his removal ir 1759. See Can- 
 aua: 1758. 
 
 ABERCROMBIE, Lascellea (1881- ), Eng- 
 lish poet. See English literature: 1880-1920. 
 
 ABERCROMBY, Sir Ralph (1734-1S01), dis- 
 tinguished soldier of Great Britain. Served in the 
 Seven Years' War; fell in battle with the French 
 near Ale.xandria. — See also France: 1S01-1S02. 
 
 ABERDARE, Henry Austin Bruce, 1st Baron 
 of (1815-1805), English statesman; entered parlia- 
 ment, 1862; home secretary under Gladstone, i8oq; 
 responsible for Licensing Act of 1872 ; made lord 
 president of the council and raised to the peerage 
 1873; political life closed with the defeat of the 
 Liberal government in 1874. His last years were 
 devoted to social and educational activities. 
 
 ABERDEEN, George Hamilton Gordon, 4th 
 Earl of (1784-iSbo), English statesman and schol- 
 ar. Signed the treaty of Teplitz at \'ienna (1813) 
 for Great Britain; represented his country at the 
 Congress of Chatillon-sur-Seine (1814). Secretary 
 of state for foreign affairs under'Peel, 1841-1846; 
 prime minister, 1852-1855. See England: 1851- 
 1852, and 1855. 
 
 ABERDEEN, a seaport and fourth largest city 
 in Scotland, situated on a bay of the .North Sea 
 between the rivers Don and Dee; scat of the Uni- 
 versity of .Aberdeen, which was formed b.v the 
 incorporation (i860) of King's College (founded 
 in 1404) and Marischal College (1500 
 
 ABERDEEN AND TEMAIR, Ishbel Maria 
 (Marjoribanks), Marchioness of (1857- ), Brit- 
 ish social worker and writer. Founded the On- 
 ward and LIpward .Assoc!;' Uon to promote coop- 
 eration among women of different stations of life; 
 the Irish Industries Association; the Canadi:in Na- 
 tional Council of Women ; and the Victorian Order 
 of Nurses. President of the International Council 
 of Women, 1893 1800; reelected in 1904 
 
 ABERDEEN AND TEMAIR, John Campbell 
 Gordon, 1st Marquess of (1847- ), English 
 Liberal. Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, 1886; Gov- 
 ernor-General of Canada, 1893 -1898; upon the 
 formation of the Liberal ministry under Sir Henry 
 Campbell-Bannerman, again Lord-Lieutenant of 
 Ireland, 1905-1915. 
 
 ABGEORDNETEN HAUS (Chamber of 
 Deputies), Austria. See Austria: 1907. 
 
 ABHORRERS, the name given to those who 
 were opposed to the signers of a petition in 1079 
 urging King Charles II to assemble parliament. 
 During this controversy, it is said, the terms Whig 
 and Tory were first applied to the two English 
 factions. See also Petitioners and Abiiorrers. 
 
 ABILITY TESTS FOR CHILDREN. See 
 Education: Modern developments: Experiments: 
 Intelligence tests. 
 
 ABIPONES. See Pamp.« tribes. 
 
 A6IR, or A. B. I. R. Company. See Belgian 
 Congo: 1903-1905. 
 
 ABJURATION, Act of. See Netherlands: 
 1577-1581. 
 
 ABLAINCOURT, France, stormed by the 
 French. See World War: 1910: II. Western front: 
 c, 3. 
 
 ABLAIN-ST. NAZAIRE, France, taken by 
 the French. See World War: 1915: II. Western 
 front: a, 5. 
 
 ABLAINZEVELLE, France, taken by the 
 Germans. See World War: 1918: II. Western 
 Iront: c, 26. 
 
 ABNAKIS, or Abenaques, or Taranteens.— 
 "The Abnakis I Indians] were called Taranteens 
 by the English, and Owenagungas by the New 
 Yorkers. . . . We must admit that a large portion 
 of the North .American Indians were called .Vbnakis, 
 if not by themselves, at least by others. This wont 
 .Abnaki is found spelt .Abenaques, .Abenaki, Wapa- 
 nachki, and Wabenakics by different writers of var- 
 ious nations, each adopting the manner of spelling 
 according to the rules of pronunciation of their 
 respective native languages. . .,. The word gen- 
 erally received is spelled thus, .Abnaki, but it 
 should be 'Wanbanaghi,' from the Indian word 
 'wanbanban,' designating the people of Ihe .Aurora 
 Borealis, or in general, of the place where the sky 
 commences to appear white at the breaking of the 
 day. ... It has been difficult for different writers 
 to determine the number of nations or tribes com- 
 prehended under this word .Abnaki. It being a 
 general word, by itself designates the people of the 
 east or northeast. . . . We find that the word Ab- 
 naki was applied in general, more or less, to all the 
 Indians of the East, by persons who were not 
 much acquainted with the aborigines of the coun- 
 try. On the contrary, the early writers and other- 
 well acquainted with the natives of New France 
 and Acadia, and the Indians themselves, by Ab- 
 nakis always pointed out a particular nation ex- 
 isting north-west and south of the Keimebec river, 
 and they never designated any other people of. the 
 .Atlantic shore, from Cape Hatteras to Newfound- 
 land. . . . The .Abnakis had five great villages, tw.i 
 amongst the French colonies, which must be the 
 village of St. Joseph or Sillery, and that of St. 
 Francis de Sales, both in Canada, three on the head 
 waters, or along three rivers, between .Acadia and 
 New England. These three rivers are Ihe Kenne- 
 bec, the Androscoggin, and the Saco. . . . The na- 
 tion of the .Abnakis bear evident marks of having 
 been an original people in their name, manners, 
 and language. They show a kind of civilization 
 which must be the effect of antiquity, and of a 
 past flourishing age."— E Vetromile, Abnaki In- 
 dians (Maine Historical Soc. Coll., v. 6) — See also 
 
 12
 
 ABNORMAL CHILDREN 
 
 ABSENTEEISM 
 
 Algonquian Fahuly; Indians, American: Cul- 
 tural areas in North America: Eastern Woodlands 
 Area.- — For some account of the wars of the Ab- 
 nakis, with the New England colonics, see Canada 
 (New France): 1689-1690, 1692-1697; New Eng- 
 land: 1675 (July-September); 1702-1710, 1711- 
 i7n; Nova Scotia: I7i,vi7.50- 
 
 ABNORMAL CHILDREN. See Child Wel- 
 fare. 
 
 ABNORMAL CLASSES, Education for. See 
 Education: Modern developments: Education for 
 the_ deaf, the blind and the feeble-minded. 
 
 ABO, Peace of (1743). See Russia: 1740-1762. 
 
 ABOLITION, ABOLITIONISTS. See Illi- 
 nois: 1831-1837; Slavery: 1828-1832 and 1840- 
 1847; U. S. A.: 1807, 1S29-1S32, 1831-1836, 1835, 
 1837-1840, 18.S0 (March), (April-September); ViR- 
 GiNnA: 1776-1S15. 
 
 Abolitionism In literature. See American lit- 
 erature: 1830-1890. 
 
 ABOMINATIONS, Bill of. See Tariff: 
 1828. 
 
 ABORIGINES, American. See Indians, Amer- 
 ican. 
 
 ABORIGINES, Exchange among. See Com- 
 merce: Prehistoric and primitive. 
 
 ABOUKIR, a village in northern Egypt on the 
 bay of Aboukir, thirteen miles northeast of Alex- 
 andria. In the bay was fought the battle of the 
 Nile (1798) [see France: 1798-1799: Au^ust-.^u- 
 gust] in which the English under Lord Nelson 
 defeated the French fleet under Brueys. Near the 
 village a year later, Napoleon defeated the Turks. 
 ■In 1801 the town was captured by the English 
 under Sir Ralph Abercromby. See France: 1801- 
 1802; World War: 1914: IX. Naval operations: 
 b. 
 
 ABOUKIR, British cruiser, sunk on September 
 22, 1914, together with the Hague and the Cressy, 
 by Otto von Weddigen, commander of a German 
 submarine. See World War: 1914: IX. Naval 
 operations. 
 
 ABRAHAM, biblical and traditional patriarch, 
 founder of the Hebrew nation. His name has be- 
 come synonymous with absolute faith in God and 
 implicit obedience to the divine will. In the Ko- 
 ran, he is represented as being from early child- 
 hood the solitary exponent of monotheism and vio- 
 lently persecuted by the polytheistic idolators on 
 account of his fearless proclamation of the oneness 
 of God. It is on the strength of the divine promise 
 to Abraham that the Bible represents the jews as 
 a chosen people. — See also Jews: Early Hebrew 
 history; Jews: Children of Israel in Egypt. 
 
 ABRAHAM, Plains of, that part of the high 
 plateau of Quebec on which the memorable victory 
 of Wolfe was won, September 13, 1759. The plain 
 was so called "from Abraham Martin, a pilot 
 known as Maitrc .Abraham, who had owned a piece 
 of land here in the early times of the colony." — F. 
 Parkman, Montcalm and iVolfe, v. 2, p. 289. — For 
 an account of the battle which gave distinction to 
 the Plains of .Abraham, see Canada: 1759 (July- 
 September). 
 
 ABRAMS VERSUS UNITED STATES.— 
 Supreme Court decisions. Sec Supreme Court: 
 1917-1921. 
 
 ABRANTES, Duke of. See Tunot, Andoche. 
 
 ABRANTES, a town of Portugal in Estrema- 
 dura, on the Tagus. Captured on the 24th of No- 
 vember, 1807, by the French General Junot (Due d' 
 Abrantes), who made it the starting-point of his 
 march on Lisbon and the conquest of Portugal. 
 
 ABRUZZI, Prince Luigi Amedeo, Duke of the 
 (1873- ), Arctic explorer. See Arctic explora- 
 
 tion: 1917-1918; Chronological record: 1899-1900, 
 1901 ; and Map of Arctic Regions. 
 
 ABSALON (II28-I20I), Danish archbishop, 
 statesman and soldier. In 1168 succeeded in forc- 
 ing the Wends to accept the Christian religion 
 and Danish sovereignty. 
 
 ABSAROKAS. See Siouan Family. 
 
 ABSENCE, Ascertaining legality of death. 
 Sec Common Law: 1604. 
 
 ABSENTEE OWNERSHIP. See Absentee- 
 ism. 
 
 ABSENTEE VOTING. See Suffrage: Elec- 
 tions. 
 
 ABSENTEEISM.— "An absentee may be vari- 
 ously defined (i) as a landed proprietor who re- 
 sides away from his estate, or (2) from his 
 country; or more generally (3) any unproductive 
 consumer who lives out of the country from which 
 he derives his income. Examples of these species 
 are (i) a seigneur under the ancien regime living 
 in Paris at a distance from his estates; (2) an 
 Irish landlord resident abroad; an Anglo-Indian 
 ex-official resident in England and drawing a pen- 
 .sion from India. ' — R. H. I. Palgrave, Dictionary 
 of political economy. — "Those who live in another 
 country contribute nothing, by their consumption, 
 towards the support of the government of that 
 country in which is situated the source of their 
 revenue. If in this latter country there should be 
 no land tax, nor any considerable duty upon the 
 transference either of moveable or immoveable 
 property, as is the case in Ireland, such absentees 
 may derive a great revenue from the protection 
 of a government to the support of which they do 
 not contribute a single shilling. This inequality 
 is likely to be greatest in a country of which the 
 government is in some respects subordinate and 
 dependent upon that of some other. The people 
 who possess the most extensive property in the 
 dependent, will in this case generally choose to 
 live in the governing country. Ireland is pre- 
 cisely in this situation, and we cannot therefor 
 wonder that the proposal of a tax upon absentees 
 should be so very popular in that country." — 
 A. Smith, Wealth of nations (1776). — "Absen- 
 teeism is an old evil, and in very early times re- 
 ceived attention from the government. . . . . 
 Some of the disadvantages to the community aris- 
 ing from the absence of the more wealthy and in- 
 telligent classes are apparent to every one. Unless 
 the landlord is utterly poverty-stricken or very 
 unenterprising, 'there is a great deal more going 
 on' when he is in the country. ... I am con- 
 vinced that absenteeism is a great disadvantage 
 to the country and the people. . . . It is too 
 much to attribute to it all the evils that have 
 been set down to its charge. It is, however, an 
 important consideration that the people regard it 
 as a grievance; and think the twenty-five or thirty 
 millions of dollars paid every year to these land- 
 lords, who are rarely or never in Ireland, is a 
 tax grievous to be borne." — D. B. King, Irish 
 question (1882), pp. S-ii. 
 
 "The Irish system of landholding was exceed- 
 ingly bad, for it contained many vicious features 
 with scarcely any redeeming ones. . . . The 
 ownership of the soil was vested, not in those who 
 tilled it. but in those whose ancestors had profited 
 from the confiscations in former years. These 
 Irish landlords, mainly of English origin, regarded 
 their estates merely as sources of revenue and 
 cared little about the condition of the tenants, 
 whom they greatly despised. Many of them were 
 'absentee landlords' living in England ; their prop- 
 erties were managed by agents, who, in order to 
 
 13
 
 ABSENTEEISM 
 
 ABSENTEEISM 
 
 please their employers, would raise the rents of 
 the tenants on every possible pretext. Improve- 
 ments on the farm had to be made by the 
 peasant. If he drained a marsh, built a fence, or 
 improved his cottage, his rent was immediately 
 raised by the landlord; if he refused to pay it, 
 he was promptly evicted and the improvements, 
 as well as the farm, became the landlord's prop- 
 erty without compensation to the tenant. From 
 1849 to 1882 no fewer than 363,000 peasant fam- 
 ilies were evicted from their homes. Often the 
 fear of losing the money invested in the improve- 
 ments compelled the peasant to suffer the greatest 
 privations in order to satisfy the greed of the 
 landlord. In this way the latter used as a means 
 of coercion the very value created by the peasant. 
 Owners refused to improve their properties, and 
 the tenants were naturally slow to invest labor 
 and money for the benefit of the former ; hence 
 the land was wretchedly cultivated. This system 
 of 'rack-renting,' as it was called, became notorious 
 the world over and excited the greatest sympathy 
 for the Irish peasants." — J. S. Schapiro, Modern 
 and contemporary European history, pp. 388-389. 
 — See also Agriculture; Ireland: 1O07-1611. 
 
 France was in somewhat the same position be- 
 fore the Revolution, which effected a great reform 
 in land ownership. A French authority thus de- 
 scribes the situation; "Set aside in public mat- 
 ters, freed from taxation, the seignior remains 
 isolated and a stranger among his vassals; his 
 extinct authority with his unimpaired privileges 
 form for him an existence apart. When he 
 emerges from it, it is to forcibly add to the pub- 
 lic misery. On this soil, ruined by the fisc [the 
 crown rights to an estate], he takes a portion of 
 its product, so much in sheaves of wheat and so 
 many measures of wine. His pigeons and his 
 game eat up the crops. People are obliged to 
 grind in his mill, and to leave with him a six- 
 teenth of the flour. . . . The spectacle be- 
 comes still more gloomy, on passing from the 
 estates on which the seigniors reside to those 
 on which they are non-residents. Noble or en- 
 nobled, lay and ecclesiastic, the latter are priv- 
 ileged among the privileged and form an aris- 
 tocracy inside of an aristocracy. Almost all the 
 powerful and accredited families belong to it 
 whatever may be their origin and their date. 
 Through their habitual or frequent residence near 
 the court, through their alliances or mutual visits, 
 through their habits and their luxuries, through 
 the influence which they exercise and the enmities 
 which they provoke, they form a group apart, 
 and are those who possess the most extensive 
 estates, the leading suzerainties, and the com- 
 pletest and most comprehensive jurisdictions. Of 
 the court nobility and of the higher clergy, they 
 number, perhaps, a thousand in each order, while 
 their small number only brings out in higher re- 
 lief the enormity of their advantages. ... It 
 is evident, that, with such revenues, coupled with 
 the feudal rights, police, justiciary and adminis- 
 trative, which accompany them, an ecclesiastic or 
 lay grand seignior is, in fact, a sort of prince 
 in his district; that he bears too close a resem- 
 blance to the ancient sovereign to be entitled to 
 live as an ordinary individual ; that his private 
 advantages impose on him a public character; that 
 his rank, and his enormons profits, make it in- 
 cumbent on him to perform proportionate services, 
 and that, even under the sway of the intendant, 
 he owes to his vassals, to his tenants, to his 
 feudatories the support of his mediation, of his 
 patronage and of his gains. This requires a home 
 
 residence, but, generally, he is an absentee. For 
 a hundred and fifty years a kind of all-powerful 
 attraction diverts the grandees from the provinces 
 and impels them towards the capital; and the 
 movement is irresistible for it is the effect of two 
 forces, the greatest and most universal that in- 
 fluence mankind, one, a social position, and the 
 other the national character. A tree is not to be 
 severed from its roots with impunity. .'Xn aris- 
 tocracy organized to rule becomes detached from 
 the soil when it no longer rules; and it ceases to 
 rule the moment when, through increasing and 
 constant encroachments, almost the entire justi- 
 ciary, the entire administration, the entire police, 
 each detail of the local or general government, 
 the power of initiating, of collaboration, of con- 
 trol regarding taxation, elections, roads, public 
 works and charities, passes over into the hands of 
 the intendant or of the sub-delegate, under the 
 supreme direction of the comptroller-general or 
 of the king's council. Clerks, gentry 'of the robe 
 and the quill,' plebeians enjoying no considera- 
 tion, perform the work; there is no way to pre- 
 vent it. . . . 'The great proprietors,' says 
 another contemporary, ['De I'etat religieux,' by the 
 abbes de Bonnefoi et Bernard, 1784] 'attracted to 
 and kept in our cities by luxurious enjoyments 
 know nothing of their estates,' save 'of their 
 agents whom they harass for the support of a 
 ruinous ostentation. How can ameliorations be 
 looked for from those who even refuse to keep 
 things up and make indispensable repairs?' A 
 sure proof that their absence is the cause of the 
 evil is found in the visible difference between the 
 domain worked under an absent abbe-commenda- 
 tory and a domain superintended by monks living 
 on the spot. 'The intelligent traveller recognizes 
 it' at first sight by the state of cultivation. 'If 
 he finds fields well enclosed by ditches, carefully 
 planted, and covered with rich crops, these fields, 
 he says to himself, belong to the monks. Almost 
 always, alongside of these fertile plains, is an 
 area of ground badly tilled and almost barren, 
 presenting a painful contrast; and yet the soil is 
 the same, being two portions of the same domain ; 
 he sees that the latter is the portion of the abbe- 
 commendatop.'.' 'The abbatial manse,' said Le- 
 franc de Pompignan, 'frequently looks like the 
 patrimony of a dissipator; the monastic manse is 
 like a patrimony whereon nothing is neglected for 
 its amelioration,' to such an extent that 'the two- 
 thirds' which the abbe enjoys bring him less than 
 the third reserved by his monks. The ruin or 
 impoverishment of agriculture is, again, one of the 
 effects of absenteeism ; there was, perhaps, one- 
 third of the soil in France, which, deserted as in 
 Ireland, was as badly tilled, as little productive as 
 in Ireland in the hands of the rich absentees, the 
 English bishops, deans and nobles. Doing nothing 
 for the soil how could they do anything for men? 
 Now and then, undoubtedly, especially with farms 
 that pay no rent, the steward writes a letter, 
 alleging the misery of the farmer. There is no 
 doubt, also, and especially for thirty years back, 
 they desire to be humane; they descant among 
 themselves about the rights of man ; the sight 
 of the pale face of a hungry peasant would give 
 them pain. But they never see him; does it ever 
 occur to them to fancy what it is like under the 
 awkward and complimentary phrases of their 
 agent? Moreover, do they know what hunger is? 
 Who amongst them has had any rural expe- 
 riences? And how could they picture to them- 
 selves the misery of this forlorn being ? They 
 are too remote from him to do that, too ignorant 
 
 14
 
 ABSOLUTE MUSIC 
 
 ABSOLUTISM 
 
 of his mode of life. The portrait they conceive 
 of him is imaginary ; never was there a falser 
 representation of the peasant; accordingly the 
 awakening is to be terrible. They view him as the 
 amiable swain, gentle, humble and grateful, simple- 
 hearted and right-minded, easily led, being con- 
 ceived according to Rousseau and the idyls per- 
 formed at this very epoch in all private drawing- 
 rooms Lacking a knowledge of him they over- 
 look him ; they read the steward's letter and im- 
 mediately the whirl of high life again seizes them 
 and, after a sigh bestowed on the distress of the 
 poor, they make up their minds that their in- 
 come for the year will be short. A disposition 
 of this kind is not favorable to charity. Ac- 
 cordingly, complaints arise, not against the resi- 
 dents but against the absentees. ... 'I have 
 in my parish," says a curate of Berry, 'six .simple 
 benefices of which the titularies are always ab- 
 sent, and they enjoy together an income of nine 
 thousand livres; I sent them in writing the most 
 urgent entreaties during the calamity of the past 
 year; I received from one of them two louis only, 
 and most of them did not even answer me.' 
 Stronger is the reason for a conviction that in 
 ordinary times they will make no remission of their 
 dues Moreover, these dues, the censives [quit- 
 rent], the lods el ventes [lord's dues], tithes, and 
 the like, are in the hands of a steward, and he is 
 a good steward who returns a large amount of 
 money He has no right to be generous at his 
 master's expense, and he is tempted to turn the 
 subjects of his master to his own profit. In 
 vain might the soft seignorial hand be disposed 
 to be easy or paternal ; the hard hand of the 
 proxy bears down on the peasants with all its 
 weight, and the cautiousness of a chief gives place 
 to the exactions of a clerk How is it then when, 
 instead of a clerk on the domain, a fermier 
 [farmer] is found, an adjudicator who, for an 
 annual sum purchases of the seignior the man- 
 agement and product of his dues? In the election 
 of Mayenne, and certainly also in many others, 
 the principal domains are rented in this way. 
 Moreover there are a number of dues, like the 
 tolls, the market-place tax, that on the flock 
 apart, the monopoly of the oven and of the mill 
 which can scarcely be managed otherwise; the 
 seignior must necessarily employ an adjudicator 
 who spares him the disputes and the trouble of 
 collecting In this case, so frequent, the pressure 
 and the rapacity of the contractor, who is de- 
 termined to gain or, at least, not to lose, falls 
 on the peasantry: 'He is a ravenous wolf,' says 
 Renauldon, 'let loose on the estate, who draws upon 
 it to the last sou, who crushes the subjects, reduces 
 them to beggary, forces the cultivators to desert, 
 and renders odious the master who finds himself 
 obliged to tolerate his exactions as to be able to 
 profit by them"— H. A Taine, Ancient regime 
 (tr by J. Durand), pp. 40-52. 
 
 Also in: J. S. Mill, Political economy.^]. R. 
 McCulloch, article Absenteeism, in Treatises and 
 essays on mnnev.—A. de Tocquevillc, Old regime. 
 
 ABSOLUTE MUSIC, a term used to express 
 the type of music that derives none of its in- 
 terest from external things, therefore being in the 
 greatest contrast to program music. It appeals 
 directly to the emotions without reference to the 
 intellect. The term arose about the middle of the 
 nineteenth century when the new school of pro- 
 gram music came into being. See Music: Later 
 iqth century: Brahms. 
 
 ABSOLUTISM, in the stricter sense, a form of 
 government in which the sovereign wields supreme 
 
 power based directly upon force and unchecked 
 by laws or political tradition; in the more usual 
 sense, a term applied to the political system of 
 any state which has not achieved representative 
 government. With the exception of two brief 
 periods, those of the Athenian democracy and the 
 Roman republic. It was almost the only form 
 known to the ancient world, and in Oriental 
 countries has prevailed even down to recent 
 years. In Western Europe, in consequence of the 
 barbarian invasions, absolute monarchy gave way 
 to feudalism, a system in which, though the king 
 was recognized as the nominal sovereign, supreme 
 power was in reality in the hands of the greater 
 nobles. During the middle ages the greater part 
 of Central and Western Europe was divided into 
 a number of states, the most important rulers of 
 which were called kings. Most of these kings 
 possessed very little power and were constantly 
 thwarted in what they regarded as the perform- 
 ance of their regal functions by a turbulent and 
 intractable nobility. To be sure under the feudal 
 system all their nobles owed and sometimes ren- 
 dered various services to their over-lord or 
 suzerain, but upon their own estates the nobles 
 were practically supreme. During the fifteenth 
 century a variety of forces combined to exalt the 
 power of the kings and the bourgeoisie of the 
 cities, at the expense of the nobility. By the end 
 of the century powerful centralized monarchies 
 had emerged in France, Spain and Portugal, while 
 the Wars of the Roses in England paved the way 
 for the domineering house of Tudor. (See Eng- 
 land: 1471-1485, 1485-1603.) In France and Spain 
 this process of centralizing all poHtical authority 
 in the crown made those countries absolute 
 monarchies in reality. (See Spain: Machinery of 
 absolutism.) 
 
 Louis XIV of France converted the great nobles 
 into courtiers and the lesser ones into officers of 
 his military and diplomatic service. The rise to 
 power and prosperity of the middle class was at 
 the expense of the nobility, and despotic rulers 
 like Philip II of Spain and John the Perfect of 
 Portugal employed men not of the noble caste in 
 important positions in the government. 
 
 "The period which preceded the French Revolu- 
 tion and the era of war, from the troubles of 
 which modern Europe was to be born, may be 
 characterised as that of the benevolent despots. 
 The State was everything; the nation nothing. 
 The ruler was supreme, but his supremacy rested 
 on the assumption that he ruled his subjects for 
 their good. This conception of the Aufgeklarte 
 Despotismus [enlightened despotism] was devel- 
 oped to its highest degree by Frederick the Great 
 of Prussia. 'I am but the first servant of the 
 nation,' he wrote, a phrase which irresistibly re- 
 calls the definition of the position of Louis XVI. 
 by the first leaders of the French Revolution. 
 This attitude was defended by great thinkers 
 like Diderot, and is the keynote to the internal 
 policy of the monarchs of the latter half of the 
 eighteenth century towards their people. The Em- 
 press Catherine of Russia, Gustavus III. of Swe- 
 den, Charles III. of Spain, the Archduke Leopold 
 of Tuscany, and, above all, the Emperor Joseph 
 II. defended their absolutism on the ground that 
 they exercised their power for the good of their 
 subjects. Never was more earnest zeal displayed 
 in promoting the material well-being of all classes, 
 never did monarchs labour so hard to justify their 
 existence, or effect such important civil reforms, 
 as on the eve of the French Revolution, which 
 was to herald the overthrow of the doctrine of 
 
 15
 
 ABSOLUTISM 
 
 ABUD 
 
 absolute monarchy. The intrinsic weakness of the 
 position of the benevolent despots was that they 
 could not ensure the permanence of their reforms, 
 or vivify the rotten fabric of the administrative 
 edifices, which had grown up in the feudal mon- 
 archies. Great ministers, such as Tanucci and 
 Aranda, could do much to help their masters to 
 carry out their benevolent ideas, but they could 
 not form or nominate their successors, or create 
 a perfect body of unselfish administrators. When 
 Frederick the Great's master hand was withdrawn, 
 Prussia speedily exhibited a condition of adminis- 
 trative decay, and since this was the case in 
 Prussia, which had been for more than forty 
 years under the rule of the greatest and wisest 
 of the benevolent despots, the falling-off was 
 likely to be even more marked in other countries. 
 The conception of benevolent despots ruling for 
 their people's good was eventually superseded, as 
 was certain to be the case, owing to the impos- 
 sibility of their ensuring its permanence, by the 
 modern idea of the people ruhng themselves." — 
 H. M. Stephens. Revolutionary Europe, pp. 4-5. 
 
 "The government of nearly every European 
 country at the end of the eighteenth century was 
 monarchical, and everywhere the monarch was 
 absolute, except in England, which had established 
 a parliamentary system. Feudalism on its politi- 
 cal side had disappeared, and the once haughty 
 noble was transformed into the fawning courtier. 
 Only in Germany did political feudalism still main- 
 tain itself; there, the lord continued to govern 
 and to judge as he had done in medieval times. 
 The explanation given for absolute monarchy was 
 known as 'divine right,' which asserted that the 
 King's right to govern came from God, to whom 
 alone he was responsible for his acts. Was a 
 king good, just, and wise? Then the people 
 were fortunate. Was he wicked, cruel, and stupid? 
 Then they were unfortunate. In no case were 
 they to revolt, for disobedience was not only a 
 crime to be punished on earth, but likewise a 
 sin to be punished in the hereafter. In case a 
 bad king reigned, the people were to bear his 
 rule patiently and meekly, and to pray to God 
 to soften his heart. This doctrine of 'divine right' 
 was insistently preached by the loyal followers 
 of the monarch. Lutheran Prussia subscribed to 
 it as heartily as Catholic Spain. In medieval 
 times, the largest part of the taxes came from 
 land. But the commercial expansion of the seven- 
 teenth and eighteenth centuries increased the 
 scope of government, and taxes had to be in- 
 creased correspondingly in order to pay the ex- 
 penses of a rapidly developing bureaucracy. While 
 the kings of the ancien regime still gathered around 
 them the territorial lords who, in former days, 
 had been their bitter opponents, they now looked 
 more and more to the middle classes for the 
 maintenance of the State. But their traditions 
 and sympathies, however, remained with the 
 landed aristocracy; and the latter were conse- 
 quently exempt in large measure from the ever in- 
 creasing burden of taxation, as is revealed by the 
 legislation of the eighteenth century. . . . Many 
 of the changes inaugurated by the French Revolu- 
 tion and by Napoleon could not be abolished with- 
 out a violent wrench of the entire social system, 
 and so were allowed to remain. The Holy Roman 
 Empire was gone, feudalism was gone, and gone 
 was the old authority of the Church. If absolute 
 monarchy did return, it should do so without pop- 
 ular endorsement, for the doctrine of 'divine right' 
 was now being prearhed to unwilling ears. The 
 generation that had seen so many kings hurled 
 
 from their thrones during the Revolutionary and 
 Napoleonic periods found it difficult to believe in 
 a divine sanction of governments that could be 
 so easily overturned. Absolute monarchy, feared 
 for ages as all-powerful, had but to show its 
 weakness to become ridiculous. Although Napo- 
 leon had preached 'divine right,' he did more to 
 discredit the doctrine than even the French Revo- 
 lution. For the first time, mankind saw in the 
 bright light of the nineteenth century how kings 
 were made and unmade by force of arms. And 
 now that its moral authority was gone, abso- 
 lutism could maintain itself only by resorting to 
 brute force. Sullen obedience had succeeded loyal 
 devotion among the masses of Europe." — J. S. 
 Schapiro, Modern and contemporary European 
 history, pp. 2-3, 24. — The nineteenth century- 
 marks the desperate efforts of the monarchs of 
 Europe to reestablish the absolutism that had 
 been shaken to its foundations by the French 
 revolution. The inspiring genius of this reaction- 
 ary policy was Metternick, the crafty Austrian 
 chancellor, who dominated Europe from 1815 to 
 1S48, and whose cynical doctrines continued in 
 force despite the democratic outbreaks of 1848. 
 (See Austrla: 1815-1846; 1849-1850.) From the 
 apotheosis of absolutism expressed in Louis XIV's 
 "L'etat c'est moi" ("I am the state") less than three 
 centuries have sufficed to bring about its downfall 
 in every civilized country of the Old World and 
 the New. The overthrow of the shogunate and 
 the establishment of parliamentary government in 
 Japan in 1880 {See JAP.^^■: 1868-1894), the revo- 
 lution of the Young Turks in IQ08, the downfall 
 of Nicholas II of Russia, and the overthrow of 
 the militaristic power in Germany mark the final 
 victory of popular government over the theory 
 of absolutism and divine right of kings. — See also 
 
 MoN.^RCHY. 
 
 In Russia. See Russu: 1916. 
 
 ABT, Franz (1819-1885), German composer of 
 popular songs and conductor of the court orchestra 
 at Brunswick, 1852-1882. Wrote over 3,000 songs, 
 among them "When the swallows homeward fly." 
 
 ABU BAKR (fl. nth century), Almoravide 
 chief. See .■\lmor.h\ides. 
 
 ABU BEKR (573-634), first of the Mohamme- 
 dan caliphs and successor of the prophet, 632-634. 
 The name. .\bu Bekr (meaning "Father of the 
 Virgin"), was adopted in place of his original 
 name. .^bd-el-Ka'ba, after the marriage of his 
 daughter to Mohammed. On his accession, he 
 successfully put down the formidable opposition 
 led by the imposter Mosailima ; had the record 
 of the sayings of the prophet preserved in written 
 form and this furnished most of the material out 
 of which the Koran was prepared. His zeal in 
 the propagation of Mohammedan doctrines was 
 largely responsible for the success and spread of 
 the faith of Islam. See C.'vliphate, also 632-639; 
 
 MOHAXrMEn.^MSM. 
 
 ABU GHARAIB.— 1918.— Region of British 
 attack. See World War: 1018: \'I. Turkish the- 
 
 ABU HAMED, Sudan, captured by the British 
 in 1807. See Egypt: 1807-1808. 
 
 ABU IRGEIG.— Occupied by the British 
 (1917). See World War: 1917: VI. Turkish thea- 
 ter: c, 2, iii. 
 
 ABU KLEA, Battle of (1885). See Egypt: 
 1884-188';. 
 
 ABU TELLUL: Held by British (1918). See 
 World War: 1918: VI. Turkish theater: c, 3. 
 
 ABUD.— 1918.— Held by British. See World 
 War; 1918: VI. Turkish theater: c, 2. 
 
 16
 
 ABUKIR 
 
 ABYSSINIA 
 
 ABUKIR. See Aboukir. 
 
 ABU'L ABBAS (also called Abdullah), caliph, 
 7S°-754- His father was great-grandson of the 
 uncle of the prophet; upon this relation the Ab- 
 basids based their claim to the caliphate. 
 
 ABUMIR. See Pyramid. 
 
 ABUNA. See Abyssinian church. 
 
 ABUNA (Salama) OF ABYSSINIA.— "Since 
 the days of Frumentius [who introduced Chris- 
 tianity into Abyssinia in the fourth century] 
 every orthodox Primate of Abyssinia has been con- 
 secrated by the Coptic patriarch of the Church of 
 Alexandria, and has borne the title of 'Abuna' — 
 or 'Abuna Salama' — 'Father of Peace.' " — H. M. 
 Hozier, Britisk expedition to Abyssinia, p. 4. 
 
 ABURY. See Avebury. 
 
 ABYDENOS. See History; 14. 
 
 ABYDOS, an ancient city of Asia Minor, near 
 the Hellespont, mentioned in the Iliad as one of 
 the towns that were in alliance with the Trojans. 
 Originally Thracian, as is supposed, it became a 
 colony of Miletus, and passed at different times 
 under Persian, Athenian, Lacedecmonian and Mace- 
 donian rule. Its site was at the narrowest point 
 of the Hellespont — the scene of the ancient ro- 
 mantic story of Hero and Leander — nearly oppo- 
 site to the town of Sestos. It was in the near 
 neighborhood of Abydos that Xerxes built his 
 bridge of boats (480 B.C.). The town is also 
 famed for its stubborn resistance to Philip V of 
 Macedon {200 B. C). See Greece; B. C. 411-407; 
 and Map of Ancient Greece. 
 
 ABYDOS, Egypt.— "There was a city in Egypt 
 called by the Greeks Abydos. This is an example 
 of popular etymology or rather popular trans- 
 cription. Its Egyptian name was 'About,' which 
 through resemblance of sound recalled the distant 
 well-known Grecian city of Abydos on the Helles- 
 pont, made famous by the passage of the army of 
 Xerxes, and led to caUing the Egyptian city by 
 that name. It played no part in the political 
 world, but became famous chiefly as a place for 
 the worship of Osiris; one could almost call it a 
 Mecca of pilgrims. Osiris, the most human god 
 of the Egyptian pantheon, had been cut into pieces 
 by his rival. Set, or Typhon; but his son Horus 
 had brought him back to life by reconstructing his 
 body. His tomb, however, was at Abydos, though 
 we do not know whether it contained the body 
 of the god, or as Greek writers say, only his head. 
 On account of the sanctity of the place, the Egyp- 
 tians liked to be buried there, and very few locali- 
 ties contained cemeteries so rich, belonging to all 
 epochs from the neolithic age down to the Roman 
 Empire. Kings had there built temples most of 
 which, excepting two, have been destroyed, though 
 one in particular, built by Seti I, of the nineteenth 
 dynasty, the father of Rameses II, has remained 
 almost in its entirety. It was unearthed by Mari- 
 ette. It is a large temple which was completed 
 by Rameses. In the part built by Seti there are 
 some of the most beautiful sculptures in Egypt, 
 but from father to son the style changed com- 
 pletely, the work of Rameses being hastily done 
 with the carelessness characterizing so many of 
 his monuments. The temple of Seti is what is 
 called a memnonium, that is, an edifice in connec- 
 tion with a tomb and in which they rendered 
 services to the dead. Since it is dedicated to Osiris, 
 it seemed probable that the tomb of this god 
 might be in this vicinity. For several years [W. 
 Flinders] Petrie had attracted attention to what 
 he called the Osireion. He had discovered a pas- 
 sageway leading to a room ornamented with 
 funeral paintings showing a scene of worship ren- 
 
 dered to Osiris. In this passageway was a side 
 door before which Petrie was stopped and which 
 he shows upon his map to be a passage leading to 
 the temple of Seti, situated about eighty meters 
 from this door. . . . Between the doorway with 
 enormous lintels and the temple of Seti is a large 
 edifice evidently built at the time of the pyra- 
 mids, that is, belonging to the first dynasties. It 
 is very much ruined, but it was constructed of 
 massive materials, the largest that have been found 
 in Egypt in like quantity. It is an edifice unique 
 among those numerous temples and tombs that 
 one finds in the valley of the Nile. . . . There is 
 no longer any doubt, then, that we have discov- 
 ered what Strabo calls the well or the fountain of 
 Abydos. He spoke of it as being near the temple, 
 at a great depth, and remarkable for some corri- 
 dors whose ceilings were formed of enormous 
 monolithic blocks. That is exactly what we have 
 found." — E Naville, Excavations at Abydos 
 {Smithsonian report, 1014, pp. S7q-58i). 
 
 ABYDOS, Tablet of, one of the most valuable 
 records of Egyptian history, found in the ruins ot 
 Abydos and now preserved in the British Museum 
 "It gives a list of kings whom Rameses II selected 
 from among his ancestors to pay homage to. The 
 tablet was much mutilated when found, but an- 
 other copy more perfect has been unearthed by 
 M. Mariette, which supplies nearly all the names 
 lacking on the first." — F. Lenormant, Manual of 
 ancient historv oj the East, v. i, bk. 3. 
 
 ABYSSINIA (officially Ethiopia), an inland 
 empire in northeast Africa, surrounded by the 
 possessions of Britain, Italy and France. The area 
 is about 350,000 square miles and the population 
 in ig2o about 8,000,000. Both the character of 
 the land itself and that of the people are reflected 
 in the history of Abyssinia. The country consists 
 of elevated plateaus and rugged mountain ranges, 
 which as in the case of Switzerland are favorable 
 to the development of a hardy race capable of 
 maintaining its independence. As Miss Semple has 
 pointed out, the stronger the natural location the 
 more strongly marked is likely to De the national 
 character The Abyssinians, who furnish a rather 
 unusual example of a civilized people wholly cen- 
 tral in location, "have used the fortress character 
 of their land to resist conquest, and have preferred 
 independence to the commercial advantages to be 
 gained only by affiliation with their peripheral 
 neighbors. . . . [But] even the most pronounced 
 land barriers have their passways and favored 
 spots for short summer habitation, where the 
 people from the opposite slopes meet and mingle 
 for a season. Sandy wastes are hospitable at 
 times. When the spring rains on the mountains 
 of Abyssinia start a wave of moisture lapping 
 over the edges of the Nubian desert, it is imme- 
 diately followed by a tide of .^rabs with their 
 camels and herds, who make a wide zone of tem- 
 porary occupation spread over the newly created 
 grassland, but who retire in a few weeks before 
 the desiccating heat of summer." — E. C. Sempic, 
 Influences of geographic environment, pp. 141, 215. 
 — In consequence of such intermingling the people 
 are of mixed Hamitic and Semitic origin with a 
 negroid element. Though the people still call 
 themselves Ethiopians, the name Abyssinians (de- 
 rived from the Portuguese form of the Arabic 
 Habesh, meaning mi.xture or composite race) is the 
 one by which they are known outside their own 
 country. A race of warriors and traders, they 
 have long felt a marked national consciousness 
 which in recent years has resulted in vigorous 
 efforts to establish and maintain political inde- 
 
 17
 
 BYSSINIA, ANCIENT 
 
 ABYSSINIA, 15TH-19TH CENTURIES 
 
 pendence. See also Africa: Races of Africa: Mod- 
 ern people; and Map 
 
 Embraced in ancient Ethiopia. — In ancient 
 times Abyssinia, or at least the northern part of 
 it was known as Ethiopia, of which the northern- 
 most limit at one tirrte reached nearly to Syene, 
 Between Ethiopia and Egypt interchange of cul- 
 ture was facilitated by the fact that both countries 
 were occasionally under the same ruler. Inter- 
 course with the Jews, at first merely commercial, 
 was extended after the visit of the Queen of 
 Sheba to the court of Solomon. Their son Mene- 
 lek is claimed as the ancestor of the kings of 
 Abyssinia; and more intimate relations of language 
 and traditions were secured by the settling of 
 many Jews in .Abyssinia during the captivity. 
 Greek colonization, begun after the invasion of 
 Ptolemy Eucrgctes (247-221 B.C.), succeeded in 
 estabUshing the kingdom of Axum. This included 
 nearly all of modern .Abyssinia and was most 
 vigorous between the first and the seventh centu- 
 ries A. D. 
 
 B.C. 2nd century. In Axum. See Arabia; The 
 Sabaeans. 
 
 A. D. 4th century. — Converted to Christianity. 
 — "Whatever may have been the effect produced in 
 his native country by the convecsion of Queen 
 Candace's treasurer, recorded in the .\cts of the 
 Apostles it would appear to have been transitory ; 
 and the Ethiopian or Abyssinian church owes its 
 origin to an expedition made early in the fourth 
 century by Meropius, a philosopher of Tyre, for 
 the purpose of scientific inquiry. On his voyage 
 homewards, he and his companions were attacked 
 at a place where they had landed in search of 
 water, and all were massacred e.xcept two youths, 
 -IJdesius and Frumentius, the relatives and pupils 
 of Meropius. These were carried to the king of 
 the country, who advanced ^desius to be his cup- 
 bearer, and Frumentius to be his secretary and 
 treasurer. On the death of the king, who left a 
 boy as his heir, the two strangers, at the request 
 of the widowed queen, acted as regents of the 
 kingdom until the prince came of age. ^^desius 
 then returned to Tyre, where he became a pres- 
 byter. Frumentius, who, with the help of such 
 Christian traders as visited the country, had al- 
 ready introduced the Christian doctrine and wor- 
 ship into Abyssinia, repaired to Alexandria, re- 
 lated his story to .\thanasius, and . . . .Athanasius 
 . . . consecrated him to the bishoprick of Axum 
 [the capital of the Abyssinian kingdom!. The 
 church thus founded continues to this day subject 
 to the see of Alexandria." — J. C. Robertson, His- 
 tory of the Christian church, hk. 2, ch. 6. 
 
 6th to 16th centuries. — Wars in Arabia. — 
 Struggle with the Mohammedans. — Isolation 
 from the Christian world. — "The fate of the 
 Christian church among the Homeritcs in Arabia 
 Felix afforded an opportunity for the .Abyssin- 
 ians, under the reigns of the Emperors Justin and 
 Justinian, to show their zeal in behalf of the 
 cause of the Christians. The prince of that .Ara- 
 bian population, Dunaan, or Dsunovas, was a 
 zealous adherent of Judaism; and. under pretext 
 of avenging the oppressions which his fellow-be- 
 lievers were obliged to suffer in the Roman em- 
 pire, he caused the Christian merchants who came 
 from that quarter and visited Arabia for the pur- 
 poses of trade, or passed through the country to 
 Abyssinia, to be murdered. Elesbaan for Caleb], 
 the Christian king of Abyssinia, made this a 
 cause for declaring war on the .\rabian prince. 
 He conquered Dsunovas. deprived him of the gov- 
 ernment, and set up a Christian, by the name of 
 
 .\braham, as king in his stead. But at the death 
 of the latter, which happened soon after, Dsunovas 
 again made himself master of the throne; and it 
 was a natural consequence of what he had suf- 
 fered, that he now became a fiercer and more cruel 
 persecutor than he was before. . . . Upon this, 
 Elesbaan interfered once more, under the reign of 
 the Emperor Justinian, who stimulated him to the 
 undertaking. He made a second expedition to 
 Arabia Felix, and was again victorious. Dsunovas 
 lost his life in the war ; the ."Vbyssinian prince put 
 an end to the ancient, independent empire of the 
 Homerites, and established a new government fav- 
 ourable to the Christians." — J. A. W. Neander, 
 General history of the Christian religion and 
 church, second period, sect. i. — "In the year 592, 
 as nearly as can be calculated from the dates given 
 by the native writers, the Persians, whose power 
 seems to have kept pace with the decline of the 
 Roman empire, sent a great force against the 
 Abyssinians, possessed themselves once more of 
 Arabia, acquired a naval superiority in the gulf, 
 and secured the principal ports on either side of 
 it. It is uncertain how long these conquerors re- 
 tained their acquisition ; but, in all probability 
 their ascendancy gave way to the rising greatness 
 of the Mahometan power; which soon afterwards 
 overwhelmed all the nations contiguous to .Arabia, 
 spread to the remotest parts of the East, and even 
 penetrated the African deserts from Egypt to the 
 Congo. Meanwhile Abyssinia, though within two 
 hundred miles of the walls of Mecca, remained 
 unconquered and true to the Christian faith; pre- 
 senting a mortifying and galling object to the 
 more zealous followers of the Prophet. On this 
 account, implacable and incessant wars ravaged 
 her territories. . . . She lost her commerce, saw 
 her consequence annihilated, her capital threat- 
 ened, and the richest of her provinces laid waste. 
 . There is reason to apprehend that she must 
 shortly have sunk under the pressure of repeated 
 invasions, had not the Portuguese arrived [in the 
 16th century] at a seasonable moment to aid her 
 endeavours against the Moslem chiefs." — M. Rus- 
 sell, Nubia and Abyssinia, ch. 3. — "When Nubia, 
 which intervenes between Egypt and Abyssinia, 
 ceased to be a Christian country, owing to the de- 
 struction of its church by the Mahometans, the 
 .Abyssinian church was cut off from communica- 
 tion with the rest of Christendom. . . . They [the 
 .\byssinians] remain an almost unique specimen 
 of a semi-barbarous Christian people. Their wor- 
 ship is strangely mixed with Jewish customs." — H. 
 F. Tozer. Church and the eastern empire, ch. 5. — 
 See also .\bvssimax Church. 
 
 15th to 19th centuries. — European attempts at 
 intercourse. — Intrusion of the Gallas. — Intestine 
 conflicts. — "About the middle of the 15th century, 
 .Abyssinia came in contact with Western Europe. 
 .\n .Abyssinian convent was endowed at Rome, and 
 legates were sent from the .Abyssinian convent at 
 Jerusalem to the council of Florence. These ad- 
 hered to the Greek schism. But from that time 
 the Church of Rome made an impress upon 
 Ethiopia. . . . Prince Henry of Portugal . . . next 
 opened up communication with Europe. He hoped 
 to open up a route from the West to the East 
 coast of Africa [see Portugal: 1415-1460], by 
 which the East Indies might be reached without 
 touching Mahometan territory. During his efforts 
 to discover such a passage to India, and to destroy 
 the revenues derived by the Moors from the spice 
 trade, he sent an ambassador named Covillan to 
 the Court of Shoa. Covillan was not suffered to 
 return bv .Alexander, the then Ncgoos [or Negus, 
 
 18
 
 ABYSSINIA, 15TH-19TH CENTURIES 
 
 ABYSSINIA, 1854-1889 
 
 or Nagash — the title of the Abyssinian sovereign]. 
 He married nobly, and acquired rich possessions in 
 the country. He kept up correspondence with 
 Portugal, and urged Prince Henry to diligently 
 continue his efforts to discover the Southern pas- 
 sage to the East. In 1498 the Portuguese effected 
 the circuit of Africa. The Turks shortly after- 
 wards extended their conquests towards India, 
 where they were baulked by the Portuguese, but 
 they established a post and a toll at Zeyla, on the 
 African coast. From here they hampered and 
 threatened to destroy the trade of Abyssinia," and 
 soon, in alliance with the Mahometan tribes of 
 the coast, invaded the country. "They were de- 
 feated by the Ncgoos David, and at the same 
 time the Turkish town of Zeyla was stormed and 
 burned by a Portuguese fleet." Considerable inti- 
 macy of friendly relations was maintained for 
 some time between the Abyssinians and the Portu- 
 guese, who assisted in defending them against the 
 Turks. "In the middle of the i6th century . . . 
 a migration of Gallas came from the South and 
 swept up to and over the confines of Abyssinia. 
 Men of lighter complexion and fairer skin than 
 most Africans, they were Pagan in religion and 
 savages in customs. Notwithstapding frequent 
 efforts to dislodge them, they have firmly estab- 
 lished themselves. A large colony has planted 
 itself on the banks of the Upper Takkazie, the 
 Jidda and the Bashilo. Since their establishment 
 here they have for the most part embraced the 
 creed of Mahomet. The province of Shoa is but 
 an outlier of Christian Abyssinia, separated com- 
 pletely from co-religionist districts by these Galla 
 bands. About the same time the Turks took a 
 firm hold of Massowah and of the lowland by 
 the coast, which had hitherto been ruled by the 
 Abyssinian Bahar Nagash. Islamism and hea- 
 thenism surrounded Abyssinia, where the lamp of 
 Christianity faintly glimmered amidst dark su- 
 perstition in the deep recesses of rugged valleys." 
 In 1558 a Jesuit mission arrived in the country 
 and established itself at Fremona. "For nearly a 
 century Fremona existed, and its superiors were 
 the trusted advisors of the Ethiopian throne. . . . 
 But the same fate which fell upon the company 
 of Jesus in more civilized lands, pursued it in the 
 wilds of Africa. The Jesuit missionaries were uni- 
 versally popular with the Negoos, but the preju- 
 dice of the people refused to recognize the benefits 
 which flowed from Fremona." Persecution befell 
 the fathers, and two of them won the crown of 
 martyrdom. The Negoos, Facilidas, "sent for a 
 Coptic Abuna [ecclesiastical primate] from Alex- 
 andria, and concluded a treaty with the Turkish 
 governors of Massowah and Souakin to prevent 
 the passage of Europeans into his dominions. 
 Some Capuchin preachers, who attempted to evade 
 this treaty and enter Abyssinia, met with cruel 
 deaths. Facilidas thus completed the work of the 
 Turks and the Gallas, and shut Abyssinia out from 
 European influence and civilization. . . . After the 
 expulsion of the Jesuits, Abyssinia was torn by 
 internal feuds and constantly harassed by the en- 
 croachments of and wars with the Gallas. An- 
 archy and confusion ruled supreme. Towns and 
 villages were burnt down, and the inhabitants sold 
 into slavery. . . . Towards the middle of the i8th 
 century the Gallas appear to have increased con- 
 siderably in power. In the intestine quarrels of 
 Abyssinia their alliance was courted by each side, 
 and in their country political refugees obtained a 
 secure asylum." During the early years of the 
 nineteenth century, campaigns in Egypt attracted 
 English attention to the Red sea. "In 1804 Lord 
 
 Valentia, the Viceroy of India, sent his Secretary, 
 Mr. Salt, into Abyssinia;" but Mr. Salt was un- 
 able to penetrate beyond Tigre. In 18 10 he at- 
 tempted a second mission and again failed. It was 
 not until 1848 that English attempts to open diplo- 
 matic and commercial relations with Abyssinia be- 
 came successful. "Mr. Plowden was appointed 
 consular agent, and negotiated a treaty of com- 
 merce with Ras Ali, the ruling Galla chief." — J. J. 
 Holland and H. M. Hozier, Expedition to Abyssinia, 
 Introduction. 
 
 1854-1889.— Advent of King Theodore.— His 
 English captives and the expedition which re- 
 leased them. — "Consul Plowden had been residing 
 six years at Massowah when he heard that . the 
 Prince to whom he had been accredited, Ras AU, 
 had been defeated and dethroned by an adven- 
 turer, whose name, a few years before, had been 
 unknown outside the boundaries of his native 
 province. This was Lij Kasa, better known by his 
 adopted name of Theodore. He was born of an 
 old family, in the mountainous region of Kwara, 
 where the land begins to slope downwards towards 
 the Blue Nile, and educated in a convent, where 
 he learned to read, and acquired a considerable 
 knowledge of the Scriptures. Kasa's convent life 
 was suddenly put an end to, when one of those 
 marauding Galla bands, whose ravages are the 
 curse of Abyssinia, attacked and plundered the 
 monastery. From that time he himself took to 
 the life of a freebooter. . . . Adventurers flocked 
 to his standard ; his power continually increased ; 
 and in 1854 he defeated Ras Ali in a pitched 
 battle, and made himself master of central Abys- 
 sinia." In 1855 he overthrew the ruler of Tigre. 
 "He now resolved to assume a title commensurate 
 with the wide extent of his dominion. In the 
 church of Derezgye he had himself crowned by 
 the Abuna as King of the Kings of Ethiopia, tak- 
 ing the name of Theodore, because an ancient tra- 
 dition declared that a great monarch would some 
 day arise in Abyssinia." Mr. Plowden now visited 
 the new monarch, was impressed with admiration 
 of his talents and character, and became his coun- 
 sellor and friend. But in i860 the English consul 
 lost his life, while on a journey, and Theodore, 
 embittered by several misfortunes, began to give 
 rein to a savage temper. "The British Govern- 
 ment, on hearing of the death of Plowden, im- 
 mediately replaced him at Massowah by the ap- 
 pointment of Captain Cameron." The new Con- 
 sul was well received, and was entrusted by the 
 Abyssinian King with a letter addressed to the 
 Queen of England, soliciting her friendship. The 
 letter, duly despatched to its destination, was 
 pigeon-holed in the Foreign Office at London, and 
 no reply to it was ever made. Insulted and en- 
 raged by this treatment, and by other evidences 
 of the indifference of the British Government to 
 his overtures. King Theodore, in January, 1864, 
 seized and imprisoned Consul Cameron with all 
 his suite. About the same time he was still 
 further offended by certain passages in a book on 
 .Abyssinia that had been published by a mission- 
 ary named Stern. Stern and a fellow missionary, 
 Rosenthal with the laftcr's wife, were lodged in 
 prison, and subjected to flogging and torture. The 
 first step taken by the British Government, when 
 news of Consul Cameron's imprisonment reached 
 England, was to send out a regular mission to 
 Abyssinia, bearing a letter signed by the Queen, 
 demanding the release of the captives. The mis- 
 sion, headed by a Syrian named Rassam, made its 
 way to the King's presence in January, 1866. 
 Theodore seemed to be placated by the Queen's 
 
 19
 
 ABYSSINIA, 1854-1889 
 
 ABYSSINIA, 1906 
 
 epistle and promised freedom to his prisoners. 
 But soon his moody mind became tilled with sus- 
 picions as to the genuineness of Rassam's cre- 
 dentials from the Queen, and as to the designs 
 and intentions of all the foreigners who were in 
 his power. He was drinking heavily at the time, 
 .ind the result of his "drunken cogitations was a 
 determination to detain the mission — at any rate 
 until by their means he should have obtained a 
 supply of skilled artisans and machinery from 
 England." Mr. Rassam and his companions were 
 accordingly put into confmement, as Captain 
 Cameron had been. But they were allowed to 
 send a messenger to England, making their situa- 
 tion known, and conveying the demand of King 
 Theodore that a man be sent to him "who can 
 make cannons and muskets." The demand was 
 actually complied with. Six skilled artisans and 
 a civil engineer were sent out. together with a 
 quantity of machinery and other presents, in the 
 hope that they would procure the release of the 
 unfortunate captives at Magdala. .Mmost a j'car 
 was wasted in these futile proceedings, and it was 
 not until September, 1S67, that an expedition con- 
 sisting of 4,000 British and S,ooo native troops, 
 under General Sir Robert Napier, was sent from 
 India to bring the insensate barbarian to terms. 
 It landed in .\nnesley Bay, and, overcoming enor- 
 mous difficulties with regard to water, food-sup- 
 plies and transportation, was ready, about the 
 middle of January, 1S68, to start upon its march 
 to the fortress of Magdala, where Theodore's pris- 
 oners were confined. The distance was 400 miles, 
 and several high ranges of mountains had to be 
 passed to reach the interior table-land. The in- 
 vading army met with no resistance until it reached 
 the Valley of the Beshilo, when it was attacked 
 (.^pril 10) on the plain of Aroge or .^rogi, by the 
 whole force which Theodore was able to muster, 
 numbering a few thousands, only, of poorly armed 
 men. The battle was simply a rapid slaughtering 
 of the barbaric assailants, and when they tied, 
 leaving 700 or See dead and 1,500 wounded on the 
 field, the .\byssinian King had no power of resis- 
 tance left. He offered at once to make peace, 
 surrendering all the captives in his hands; but Sir 
 Robert Napier required an unconditional submis- 
 sion, with a view to displacing him from the 
 throne, in accordance with the wish and expecta- 
 tion which he had found to be general in the coun- 
 try. Theodore refu.sed these terms, and when 
 (April 13) Magdala was bombarded and stormed 
 by the British troops — slight resistance being 
 made — he shot himself at the moment of their 
 entrance to the place. The sovereignty he had 
 successfully concentrated in himself for a time was 
 again divided. Between .April and June the Eng- 
 lish army was entirely withdrawn, and "Abyssinia 
 was sealed up again from intercourse with the 
 outer world." — Cassell's illmtrnled liislory of Eng- 
 land, v. q, cli. 28. — "The task of permanently unit- 
 ing .\by.ssinia, in which Theodore failed, proved 
 equally impracticable to John, who came to the 
 front, in the first instance, as an ally of the 
 British, and afterwards succeeded to the sov- 
 ereignty. By his fall (loth March, 18S0) in the 
 unhappy war against the Dervishes Tsce Egypt: 
 1885-1806! or Moslem zealots of the Soudan, the 
 path was cleared for Menilek of Shoa, who en- 
 joyed the support of Italy. The establishment of 
 the Italians on the Red Sea littoral . . . promises 
 a new era for .Abyssinia." — T. Noldeke, Sketches 
 from eastern liistory, ch. 0. — See also .Africa: Mod- 
 ern European occupation: 1884-1889; and 
 Eritrea. 
 
 1895-1896.— War with Italy. See Italy: 1870- 
 iqoi, i8o5-iSot>. 
 
 1896-1897. — Convention between Italy and 
 Abyssinia. — Treaty with Great Britain. — By the 
 convention of Adis Ababa of October ;6, t8oO, 
 between Italy and King Mcnelek, the independence 
 of Abyssinia was recognized. This was followed, 
 in May, 1807, by another treaty between Meneiek 
 and the British government, giving to British sub- 
 jects the privileges of the most favored nations in 
 trade, and opening the port of Zaila to Abyssinian 
 importations. The treaty also defined the bound- 
 ary of the British Somali Protectorate, and 
 pledged .Abyssiania's hostility to the Mahdists. 
 
 1902. — The French in favor. — Their railway 
 building and plans. — Treaty with Great Britain. 
 — "Through .Abyssinia the French hope to estab- 
 lish a line of trade acro.ss Africa from east to west 
 in opposition to our Cape to Cairo railway from 
 north to south. In this they have already achieved 
 some success. They have settled themselves along 
 the Gulf of Tadjoura, on the south of which they 
 hold the ma,gnificent Bay of Djibouti, while on 
 the north their flag waves over the small port of 
 Obok. But their real triumph in these regions has 
 been the establishment of a lasting friendship with 
 .Abyssinia by judicious consignments of arms and 
 ammunition — which were used against Italy in 
 the war of i8q6. Finally, they are now in the 
 act of building a French railway from Djibouti to 
 Addis Abeba, the capital of .Abyssinia. This rail- 
 way will completely cut out the British port of 
 Zeila, for in the concession granted by Menclik it 
 is stipulated that no company is to be permitted 
 to construct a railroad on Abyssinian territory 
 that shall enter into competition with that of M. 
 Ilg and M. Chefneux."— G. F. H. Berkeley, Abys- 
 sinian question and its history (Nineteenth Cen- 
 tury, Jan., iqo3). — A treaty between Great Britain 
 and the Emperor Meneiek, of the kingdom of Ethi- 
 opia (Abyssinia), signed on the isth of May, IQ02, 
 defines the boundaries between the Soudan and 
 Ethiopia, and contains the following important 
 provisions: 
 
 "Article HI. His Majesty the Emperor Mene- 
 iek II., King of Kings of Ethiopia, engages him- 
 self towards the Government of his Britannic Ma- 
 jesty not to construct, or allow to be constructed, 
 any work across the Blue Nile, I.ake Tsana, or 
 the Sobat, which would arrest the flow of their 
 waters into the Nile, except in acrecnient with his 
 Britannic Majesty's Government and the Govern- 
 ment of the Soudan. Article IV. The Emperor 
 Meneiek engages himself to allow his Britannic 
 Majesty's Government ;nid the Government of the 
 Soudan to select in the neighborhood of Itang, on 
 the Baro River, a block of territory having a river 
 frontace of not more than 2000 metres, in area not 
 exceeding 400 hectares, which shall be leased to the 
 Government of the Soudan, to be administered and 
 occupied as a commercial station, so long as the 
 Soudan is under the Anglo-Egyptian Government. 
 It is agreed between the two high contracting 
 parties that the territory so leased shall not be 
 used for any political or military purpose. Article 
 V. The Emperor Meneiek grants his Britannic 
 M.ajesty's Government and the Government of the 
 Soudan the right to construct a railway through 
 Abyssinian territory to connect the Soudan with 
 Uganda. A route for the railway will be selected 
 by mutual agreement between the two high con- 
 tracting parties." 
 
 1906. — Agreement guaranteeing Abyssinia's 
 integrity. — In December, 1006, Great Britain, 
 France and Italy agreed by treaty to respect and 
 
 20
 
 ABYSSINIA, 1907-1920 
 
 ABYSSINIA, 1913-1920 
 
 preserve the independence and territorial integrity 
 of Abyssinia. The tiiree Powers specifically under- 
 took to secure no industrial concessions which 
 would injure the other Powers and not to inter- 
 fere in the internal affairs of the country. It was 
 further agreed that no one of these Powers was 
 to attempt independently to strengthen its position 
 in the territories bordering Abyssinia, but they 
 were to act together in promoting the construc- 
 tion of railways and telegraph lines, and the de- 
 velopment of trade for their common benefit. 
 
 1907-1920. — Menelek's reforms. — Political in- 
 stitutions and government. — Internal develop- 
 ment.^In 1Q07, Menelek issued a decree consti- 
 tuting a cabinet on the European model, and ap- 
 pointed ministers for the various departments. 
 Politically Abyssinia has been and still is, a back- 
 ward state with what may be called feudal insti- 
 tutions. The negus [king or emperor] has a sort 
 of a Council of State to advise the crown and 
 keep a watch over the governors and other ad- 
 ministrative officials of the provinces and their 
 
 but small quantities. A wild coffee plant thrives 
 in the forests and is the chief export. Cattle, 
 sheep, goats and particularly mules are numerous. 
 Manufacturing industry is, however, in a back- 
 ward state, for Abyssinia has not yet made the 
 most of her abundant resources in trees, rubber, 
 iron and coal as well as numerous other mineral 
 products. Means of transportation are also poor. 
 Roads are mere tracks across sandy wastes and 
 transportation is mainly by mules, pack-horses, 
 donkeys and in some places, camels. There is, 
 however, a railway from the port of Jibuti in 
 French Somaliland to Dire Dawa in the south- 
 eastern part of Abyssinia. Some time ago a com- 
 pany undertook to extend the line to Adis Ababa. 
 This undertaking was completed in igiy when the 
 line reached the capital. In consequence of the 
 rapid development of transportation, business 
 methods are being modernized to some extent. At 
 Adis Ababa is located the bank of Abyssinia with 
 an authorized capital of .$2,500,000 and a paid up 
 capital ij[ .S(jJ5,ooo. The bank i> contrnlled, how- 
 
 ?: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 IN 
 
 m 
 
 
 l:».%^a^.& -.:%ll 41 
 
 }:''^if^^^^''^' ' - 
 
 :'^ II-: *- 
 
 Wml 
 
 1 
 
 * 
 
 
 %J 
 
 
 L 
 
 % 
 
 
 '•M 
 
 ^B«Hi V' ' 
 
 
 W .^^L^t 
 
 Y;,_ 
 
 
 
 WS;'T— v^ 
 
 ^^■Wfesp 
 
 VBI^^K-tn 1 \\ '' ^I^^^^^^B^^^mI 
 
 L 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^i^^l 
 
 .ABVSSINIAN I mi.\< U.l.dKN li\ e I.KK .\llj.\ l.A 1. KCJiihS 
 
 subdivisions. It was not till July, iqoS, that a 
 cabinet or Council of Ministers was actually or- 
 ganized, the various state departments being simi- 
 lar to those of civilized nations. The legal system 
 of the country has its basis in the Code of Jus- 
 tinian but the relationship is scarcely recognizable. 
 The Emperor is the fountain of justice and is the 
 final court of appeal. In the same year (1Q07) 
 Menelek also enjoined free compulsory education 
 for all boys up to twelve; but the decree could 
 not be very widely and effectively enforced ; for 
 in spite of the edict, education in the modern 
 sense is still unpopular. In Adis Ababa there is a 
 school under the direction of Coptic teachers; 
 this, the only Abyssinian school in the country 
 has over one hundred pupils, but attendance is 
 still irregular. The lack of modern educational 
 methods is due not so much to native hostility, 
 as to the rivalry existing between various prosely- 
 ting religions. 
 
 Although most of the land of Abyssinia would 
 probably permit of an extensive agriculture, this 
 industry is, nevertheless, backward, due perhaps to 
 the absence of the idea of landed property. Cot- 
 ton, sugar-cane, and date-palm are produced in 
 
 ever, from Cairo; there its governing body sits, 
 and the governor of the National Bank of Egypt 
 is its president. A new coinage has recently been 
 put in circulation with the Menelek dollar as the 
 standard coin. Outside the immediate radius of 
 foreign influence, exchange is si ill very primitive, 
 various articles, such as bars of salt, cartridges, 
 etc., being used as barter. This in turn is but one 
 indication of the primitive customs which prevail 
 in many backward regions, 
 
 1913-1920.— Anarchy following the death of 
 Menelek. — Revolution of 1916. — Reign of Em- 
 press Zauditu. — "Just at the time of his ambi- 
 tious projects, Menelik had a stroke, and he grad- 
 ually became paralyzed. Frequent to the point of 
 becoming a joke were the newspaper reports, gen- 
 erally from Italy, during the period of 1907 to 
 IQ13, announcing the death of Menelik. Each 
 time they were contradicted, and when he finally 
 passed away in December, 1Q13, many newspapers 
 refused to publish once more the familiar biog- 
 raphy. Menelik's long illness was a great misfor- 
 tune to -Abyssinia, and it is still too soon to esti- 
 mate the injury done, by the anarchy of the 
 regency, to the Kingdom surrounded by land- 
 
 21
 
 ABYSSINIA, 1913-1920 
 
 ABYSSINIA, 1913-1920 
 
 hungry neighbors. In 1909, Lidj Yeassu, Mene- 
 lik's grandson, who was thirteen, and the hus- 
 band of the seven-year-old Princess Romanie, 
 granddaughter of the old Emperor Johannes, was 
 chosen as the successor. He, by his own blood 
 and that of his wife, would reconcile the rival 
 factions of the Imperial family. Notwithstanding 
 the heralded harmony, civil war broke out, and 
 dragged on, with varying fortunes, lor several 
 years. Italy feared the breaking away from au- 
 thority of the tribes on her Eritrean frontier, es- 
 pecially after the Tripolitan War began [iqii], 
 and there was some apprehension of raiding in 
 the Sudan. The anarchy caused no particular 
 difference in the Sonialiland situation, because 
 Great Britain already had her hands full there, and 
 the responsibility for the Mullah could in no way 
 be chargeable to Abyssinian unrest. The troubles 
 in Abyssinia seem to have been confined to the 
 rival court factions: for the country as a whole 
 remained quiet throughout the years of Menelik's 
 illness. However, there was apprehension in Adis 
 .Abeba just before the outbreak of the European 
 War over the sudden and inexplicable strengthen- 
 ing of Italian forces in Eritrea." — H. A. Gibbons, 
 New map of Africa, pp. 102-104. 
 
 "The recent [1916] coup d'etat in Ethiopia, as 
 Abyssinia is properly called, when the Powers act- 
 ing on their Treaty of 1Q06 helped the .Abyssinian 
 nobles and the people to dethrone their young king 
 and his Turko-Teuton clique, once more calls at- 
 tention to the remarkable signs of vitality that 
 Mohammedanism is showing in that historically 
 Christian kingdom. It is not the lirst time that 
 the great aggressive Asiatic religion has precipi- 
 tated a revolution in Abyssinia ; but the persist- 
 ence with which it has survived oppression, as one 
 strong Ethiopian ruler after another rose at the 
 psychological hour to stamp it out, is merely in- 
 dicative of the remarkable progress it has made 
 throughout the Darkest Continent as far south as 
 the Zambesi. . . . The late Emperor Menelek of 
 Abyssinia died without an heir to the throne, but 
 before his death he appointed as his successor 
 Prince Lidj Jeassu, the son of one of his daugh- 
 ters. The young king had reigned three years 
 when it became apparent that his father, a power- 
 ful chief, Negus Mikael, was a fanatical Moslem, 
 and was cooperating with the Turko-Teuton emis- 
 saries in a Pan-Islamic movement. Not only was 
 this conspiracy planning to deliver Abyssinia to 
 Islam and secure its entrance into the war on the 
 side of the Central Powers, but Abyssinia was 
 being made a center for plots against the Islamic 
 colonies of the French, Italians and British in the 
 adjacent territories of Somaliland, Eritrea, Brit- 
 ish East Africa and the Sudan. The young ruler 
 had become a Moslem, and was a pliant tool in the 
 hands of the Central Powers and Turkey. The 
 .AlUes accordingly took the part of the Christian 
 .Abysslnians. In the revolution that followed, iqi6, 
 Lidj Jeassu was deposed [Sept. 27], his Moslem 
 father, Negus Mikael, was defeated by the Abys- 
 sinian army after a temporary success, and on Feb- 
 ruary II, the n^w 0"Mn [Empress Waizeru Zau- 
 ditu, another daughter of Menelek], was crowned 
 at the capital Adis Abeba, a not unprecedented 
 event — .Abyssinia already having known one able 
 oueen in her history, while her rulers trace the 
 roval lineage back to the Queen of Sheba and 
 Solomon. 
 
 "But missionaries and travelers have unani- 
 mously testified to the great inroads that Moham- 
 medanism has made in this historically Christian 
 country Whole tribes professing Islam may be 
 
 found today still retaining their Christian Ethi- 
 opian names. All northern Abyssinia will soon be 
 unitedly Moslem, and the encroachments are con- 
 tinuing in various parts of the kingdom. The 
 reasons for this growth are to be found in the 
 lax and superstitious brand of Christianity of mod- 
 ern Ethiopia. .A strong Christian ruler, in the 
 spirit and mould of the late Menelek, may yei 
 appear to save the countp.- and its faith, which 
 dates back to the fourth century when Athanasius 
 of .Alexandria was installed the first Bishop of 
 Ethiopia. In .Abyssinia the Powers have a senti- 
 mental interest, as an ancient outpost of Chris- 
 tianity in the Dark Continent, and its political in- 
 tegrity was guaranteed in the Treaty of iQOb with 
 Menelek, by Great Britain, Italy and France, 
 whose colonies are adjacent. Despite the fact that 
 Menelek frequently thrashed the Italians when 
 they encroached on his territory, yet he and the 
 previous rulers of Ethiopia ha> e cherished their 
 bond of Christianity with Eu'ope, and have 
 favored western civilization. When the British 
 stormed Magdala, the fortress of King Theodore, 
 in 1S08, to release British prisoners, and found the 
 king a suicide, according to his wishes they took 
 his eighteen-year-old heir to be educated in Eng- 
 land. The boy was sent to Rugby school, but 
 died shortly after. .At Queen Victoria's request 
 the body of the Ethiopian prince was buried in 
 St. George's, the Chapel-Royal at Windsor. The 
 Moslem evangelist has always been attracted to 
 thb historically Christian country of Abyssinia, not 
 only because of its proximity to Mecca and the 
 land that cradled the Founder and his Faith, but 
 because of the early intimate associations between 
 the Christian kingdom and Mohammed. In the 
 sixth century the .Abyssinians invaded Arabia, cap- 
 tured the rich province of Yemen, which alone 
 gives to desert .Arabia the paradoxical title of 
 .Arabia Felix, and for fifty years controlled the 
 important land and sea routes East and West. 
 It was the rise of Mohammed and his new faith 
 in the seventh century that put an end to the 
 power of .Abyssinia, and which, from that time 
 down to the sixteenth centur>% when the King 
 asked aid of the Portuguese, effectually isolated 
 this lone Christian country in the Dark Conti- 
 nent from the rest of the world. When Mo- 
 hammed began his career, northern Arabia held 
 Christian colonies due to the influence of Byzan- 
 tium, and at the same time in the south, neigh- 
 boring to Mecca, there were Syrian and Ethiopian 
 Christians. . . . The Prophet, during the persecu- 
 tion of his new faith at the hands of the pagan 
 Meccans, at the suggestion of an .Abyssinian dis- 
 ciple found a haven for his followers in Abys- 
 sinia. Mohammed sent a delegation under his 
 famous general. '.Amr ibn al-.Ass, later conqueror 
 of Egypt, to the Christian kingdom asking refuge 
 and support, which the Ethiopian king readily 
 gave. Unfortunately there are no .Abyssinian 
 records surviving to show how intimate this rela- 
 tionship was; but when Mohammed, at the 
 height of his power, sent letters to the kings ol 
 the earth calling on them to accept his new creed, 
 one was sent to Byzantium and another to Ethio- 
 pia. By the end of the twelfth century an Arab 
 dynasty had won the coast lands, and with the 
 fifteenth century began that long contest between 
 Islam and Christianity which lasted to the recent 
 revolution and dethronement of Menelek's grand- 
 son, and which has swept inwards to include the 
 pagan tribes of the great Dark Continent. . . . 
 While Moslems are now alarmed at the obvious 
 signs of disintegration elsewhere, they must view 
 
 22
 
 ABYSSINIA, 1913-1920 
 
 ACADEMIC FREEDOM 
 
 with satisfaction the comparatively robust condi- 
 tion of the Faith in Africa, where it is progress- 
 ing with something of the old traditions that once 
 prevailed when it swept into the fold in early 
 times the pagan tribes of Arabia. The failure of 
 the proclamation of the famous jihad, or holy war, 
 in the Mohammedan world, and the Secession of 
 important Arab states like the Hejaz and Koweit 
 whose chiefs and imams are renouncing allegiance 
 to the Sultan of Turkey as Caliph, thus precipi- 
 tating the all-important question of the Caliphate, 
 have brought this historic Asiatic religion to a 
 critical point in its great career. . . . Will Islam 
 so change its fundamental traditionalism to suit 
 the needs of its twentieth century adherents, and 
 save itself from the disintegration with which 
 political and economic conditions now threaten it? 
 Since the Turkish Caliph has deliberately used the 
 Faith as a catspav/ for Germany, a kafir, or un- 
 believer nation, and since the purity of the Young 
 Turk brand of Mohammedanism has long been 
 suspect in the fanatical world of Islam, it is evi- 
 dent that the loyal supporters of Islam have at 
 last realised that the future of the Faith is in 
 jeopardy. But while there is a crying need for 
 reorganization in enlightened communities like 
 the Moslem worlds of India and Egypt, yet, true 
 to its medieval energy, it has made enormous 
 gains in Africa during these last few decades of 
 apparent stagnation, extending from pseudo-Chris- 
 tian Abyssinia to the pagan tribes north of 
 Zambesi. ... It is not strange, therefore, that the 
 Turko-Teuton regime seized upon the Moslem idea 
 of jihad as a vehicle for galvanizing the warHke 
 spirit of Islam. It failed for two reasons: psycho- 
 logically, because they forgot to what degree eco- 
 nomic conditions throughout the East have modi- 
 fied the old fanatical cohesions of Islam. In 
 India and China, in the Dutch East and in French 
 Africa, Moslems have come to recognize the ad- 
 vantages accruing under a stable and just rule of 
 centralized European government. The annual 
 pilgrimage to Mecca cannot have failed "to im- 
 press the multitudes with the system of petty 
 graft and tyranny, of over-taxation and economic 
 stagnation, that has always characterized the 
 greatest Islamic state, and the rule of their nomi- 
 nal Caliph, the Sultan of Turkey. Moslems were 
 averse to losing these advantages for a shadowy 
 substitute promised by a Pan-Islamic empire. The 
 Turko-Teuton regime failed dogmatically, because 
 every intelligent Moslem knows that the express 
 purpose of a jihad, or holy war, in Islamic polity, 
 is to free their co-religionists in duress. While 
 Moslems had long been oppressed by the Turkish 
 Caliph, their co-religionists under British, Dutch, 
 French and Russian rule had made no appeal 
 against the tyranny of their respective suzerains. 
 Moreover, a jiliad must be led by the Caliph; 
 many .schismatics in Arabia and Africa (the 
 Senussei were antagonistic until bribed by Enver 
 Pasha), and the sultans of Morocco, have vari- 
 ously disputed the claim of the Turkish Sultan to 
 the Caliphate. As a result the spectacle was fur- 
 nished Islam of British, French, Belgian, and 
 Russian Moslem troops fighting loyally under 
 their respective flags. Finally, Islamic law ex- 
 pressly forbids the waging of a jihad against co- 
 members of the Faith. It is this pragmatic and 
 economic aspect of modern Islam that is now con- 
 cerning its leaders and thinkers. The war with its 
 racial confusion has merely accentuated the need 
 for a widespread reform, at least so far as Asia 
 is involved." — W. G. Tinckom-Fernandez, Asia in 
 Africa (Asia, Nov., 1Q17). — See also Africa: Mod- 
 
 ern European occupation; 1914; Moslem occupa- 
 tion. 
 
 Also in; A. B. Wylde, Modern Abyssinia 
 {Geographical Journal, v. XV, igoo). — E. Hertslet, 
 Map oj Africa by treaty, 2nd ed. — H. H. Johnston, 
 History of the colonization of Africa by alien 
 races, id ed.—T. L. Gilmour, Abyssinia: the Ethio- 
 pian railway and the powers. — H. Vivian, .Abys- 
 sinia. — H. A. Stern, Captive missionary. — H. M. 
 Stanley, Coomassie and Magdata, pt. 2. 
 
 ABYSSINIAN CHURCH.— Christianity, ac- 
 cording to the chronicle of Axum, was first in- 
 troduced into Abyssinia by Frumentius in the 
 fourth century. [See Abyssinia: 4th century.] The 
 Abyssinians, refusing the decrees of the Council of 
 Chalcedon (451), remained monophysites. Their 
 close bond with the Coptic church of Egypt, which 
 had been maintained from the beginning, was not 
 affected by the Arab conquest. Further than this, 
 little is known of their ecclesiastical history until 
 that eastern bond was broken by the period of the 
 Jesuit rule (about 1500 to 1633). In the six- 
 teenth century, the Roman Catholic church at- 
 tempted to establish sway over the Abyssinian 
 church through the missionary work of Portugal, 
 whose interest lay, not in religion, but in trade 
 routes through the Red Sea to India. The rule of 
 the western church was formally recognized by 
 the king in 1604, but in 1633 the king was mur- 
 dered, the Jesuits expelled, and allegiance once 
 more given to Alexandria [see also Abyssinia; 6tb- 
 i6th centuries]. The Abyssinian church agrees, in 
 general, with the Coptic in matters of dogma. 
 Though graven images are forbidden, saints and 
 angels are held in great reverence. The clergy 
 must marry once, but only once ; and their power 
 is greatly increased by the strict enforcement of 
 confession and absolution. Pilgrimage to Jeru- 
 salem constitutes atonement for many sins "This 
 ancient, strange and barbaric church has the true 
 Semitic instinct of regarding God as Majesty 
 rather than as Love This explains its monophy- 
 site tendency which almost completely swallows up 
 Christ's humanity. . . The church has now but 
 one bishop, the Abuna, always sent from Alexan- 
 dria or (Tairo. [He is always a Copt, but his 
 influence is controlled by the Echegheh, a native 
 ecclesiastical dignitary, who presides over the 
 spirituality, numbering about 100,000 ecclesiastics.] 
 The abbots also, as in the Roman church, have 
 great authority. The cloisters are the principal 
 seats of education which is chiefly scholastic and 
 cultivates wonderful dialectical keenness. The 
 parochial clergy often know little except how to 
 repeat the liturgy [in Geez] now obsolete in lan- 
 guage. The worship is a rude copy of that of 
 the Greek church. Saints and above all the Virgin 
 are plentifully invoked Transubstantiation, how- 
 ever, is unknown Ordination is so carelessly per- 
 formed that Rome has some hesitation in acknowl- 
 edging it. Popular morals are very corrupt and 
 barbarous and the priesthood is not a mirror of 
 virtue although it enjoys very profound respect 
 among the people." — B E. Pastor, Christianity in 
 .Abyssinia (Missionary Review of the World, April, 
 iqo2 ) . 
 
 ABYSSINIAN EAST AFRICA. See Somali- 
 
 I.AND. 
 
 A. C. (Ante Christum), used sometimes instead 
 of the more familiar abbreviation, B.C. (Before 
 Christ.) 
 
 ACADAMUS. See Academy. 
 
 ACADEMIC FREEDOM.— "The question of 
 freedom of instruction — Lehrfreiheit — is at bottom 
 a question as to the relation of institutions of 
 
 23
 
 ACADEMIC FREEDOM Relation to the Church ACADEMIC FREEDOM 
 
 education to other institutions with which they 
 have to do. It is to be noted that educational 
 cstabhshments have for the most part been set up 
 at first to serve other than purely educational 
 purposes. The training which they have offered 
 has been regarded as a means to some end beyond 
 itself ; and this ultimate end has been found em- 
 bodied in some other institution, to which the 
 school has been made tributary. Each of the great 
 capital institutions oF human society may be re- 
 garded as having an educational aspect. This is 
 true of the family, of the Church, of civil govern- 
 ment, of industrial societies. And it is a fact of 
 no small significance that an appreciation of the 
 need and value of education has commonly arisen 
 in connection with one or another of these insti- 
 tutions. The ideas which they severally embody 
 are the ideas which have been uppermost in the 
 educational systems which they have severally 
 fostered. ... It has been commonly noted that 
 public education in Europe during the Middle Age 
 was carried on almost exclusively by the Church. 
 Leaving out of account the system of apprentice- 
 ship fostered by the trade guilds and the training 
 for the profession of arms which arose with chiv- 
 alry, this is a fair statement of the case. The 
 higher s[>iritual interests of the medieval peoples 
 were represented in the Church. She embraced, as 
 Geffcken has remarked, 'many spheres of life which 
 as yet were incapable of independent development: 
 she united in her bosom those elements of spiritual 
 culture which were destined to occupy in the 
 future each a distinct and prominent position. 
 Her schools were the sole avenues to knowledge.' 
 It should be added that the schools found their 
 place, as a matter of course, in the general admin- 
 istrative system of the Church, and were accord- 
 ingly in the main under episcopal control. By the 
 twelfth century, education I.ad come into sufficient 
 prominence to receive special recognition in the 
 episcopal system. Under the bishop, the super- 
 vision of the schools was exercised sometimes by 
 the chancellor, sometimes by the precentor, and 
 sometimes by a dignitary designated for that par- 
 ticular service, and variously known as magister 
 scholarum, scholasticns, or sclwlaster. It became 
 the prerogative of this official to license teachers 
 who sought to open schools within his jurisdic- 
 tion. This may have been at first a mere means 
 of preserving his monopoly of education. But in 
 1170 the Third Council of Lateran decreed that the 
 license should issue to every qualified applicant, 
 and that without the exaction of a fee. . . . While 
 there appear occasional signs of real academic in- 
 dependence, the medieval universities were in the 
 main faithful subjects of the Church of Rome. 
 And when they sided with the civil as against the 
 ecclesiastical authorities, their course was so often 
 marked with extreme servility that it can call forth 
 but little whole souled commendation. The first 
 freshness of intellectual life which marked their 
 beginnings soon gave way to a dreary and spirit- 
 less following of their own traditions. A deeper 
 and more pervasive interest in education appeared 
 with the Revival of Learning ... It is charged 
 by Catholic writers that the main educational out- 
 come of the Protestant movement was the control 
 of education by the state There is a large meas- 
 ure of truth in this charee. Yet it is not to be 
 supposed that modern school systems came at once 
 into being upon the change of the states of north- 
 ern Europe from the Catholic to the Protestant 
 faith The new organization grew out of the old. 
 . . . The relations of church and state in Prussia 
 during the nineteenth century have been full of 
 
 interest ; and they have reacted powerfully upon 
 the educational system. It was, in fact, a ques- 
 tion relating to the schools which precipitated the 
 Kulturkampj in the early seventies; and one of the 
 most notable results of that struggle was the as- 
 sumption by the state of the local supervision of 
 the schools, which up to that time had been a 
 recognized prerogative of the church authorities. 
 ... By the code of 17Q4, the teachers in the 
 gymnasiums and higher schools were declared to 
 be officers of the state. In the higher institutions, 
 and particularly in the universities, the eighteenth 
 century had seen the upgrowth of a demand that 
 instructors should be free to teach what they 
 conceived to be the truth, without interference 
 from the authorities. Under Frederick William I., 
 this freedom was ruthlessly invaded, on grounds 
 that were fully as much ecclesiastical as poUtical. 
 Frederick the Great would hear nothing of such 
 interference, at least so far as questions of reli- 
 gious controversy were concerned. Under succeed- 
 ing reigns the universities were by no means secure 
 from interference on political grounds. The ardent 
 participation in political movements on the part 
 of university professors and students during the 
 first half of the present century brought the ques- 
 tion of academic freedom sharply to the front. If 
 the universities were to be freed from ecclesiastical 
 supervision only to be brought under a kind of 
 bondage to the government the real extent of their 
 gain was problematical. When at last, in 1850, 
 the long-sought-for written constitution was se- 
 cured, it contained the liberal provision that 
 'Science and the teaching of science are free.' This 
 was not the end of controversy ; but it marked one 
 of the great educational gains of the nineteenth 
 century. ... As Lutheran Prussia led the nations 
 of Europe In the matter of state provision for 
 public education, so Calvinistic Massachusetts was 
 the leader of our American commonwealths. Un- 
 der the quasi-theocracy of early colonial times, 
 the people proceeded zealously in the establishment 
 of educational institutions under public patronage 
 and control. The General Court of the Colony 
 appropriated moneys for the founding of a col- 
 lege. A little later, each town in the Colony 
 having sufficient population was required by law 
 to establish an elementary school ; and with a 
 somewhat larger population, a Latin school capa- 
 ble of preparing students for the university, The 
 purpose of these provisions was to circumvent the 
 devices of Satan and to prevent learning from be- 
 ing 'buried in the graves of our forefathers.' Dur- 
 ing the .seventeenth century these provisions were 
 rigorously enforced. The eighteenth saw consider- 
 able relaxation of this strenuousness. . . . But 
 New England democracy survived the decay of 
 its ecclesiastical sponsors. And the doctrine that 
 public education of secondary as well as of ele- 
 mentary grade should be carried on under public 
 control and with public support passed over to 
 the modern state, when the theocracy which had 
 nourished it was dead and gone." — E. E. Brown, 
 Academic freedom {Educational Review, Mar., 
 looo) , pp. 200-218. 
 
 "The ecclesiastical and educational history of 
 England has been far different. . . . The episcopal 
 control of English education was continued after 
 the Tudor Reformation, and was expressly con- 
 firmed by the Canons of 1604. For a century 
 and a half the Church of England claimed a mo- 
 nopoly of public education on the basis of these 
 canons, and of the immemorial us.age which they 
 confirmed. The Act of Uniformity, of 1662, dis- 
 allowed all orders save those conferred by bishops.
 
 ACADEMIC FREEDOM Relation to the State ACADEMIC FREEDOM 
 
 The same act required schoolmasters as well as 
 clergymen to subscribe not only to a declaration of 
 their assent to the prayer-book, but also to a 
 pledge that they would seek to make no change 
 in church or state. Under this act, some of the 
 most learned men at both universities were driven 
 from their posts; and instruction thruout Eng- 
 land was made absolutely subservient to the Es- 
 tablished Church. . . . The e.xample of the Roman 
 Empire had shown that education was a possible 
 field for state agency. The long history of 
 ecclesiastical control down to the time of the 
 Reformation greatly obscured this fact. Many 
 sincerely believed that schools could be managed 
 and maintained only by the church. If men had 
 not come to serious theological differences, the me- 
 dijeval system would probably have continued to 
 the present time. . . . Some of the most significant 
 contributions to modern thought on the institu- 
 tional relations of education were made by French 
 writers of the latter half of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury. When we remember the influence which 
 France exercised over German thought at that 
 period, we are ready to look for French elements 
 even in the remarkable development of academic 
 freedom in the Prussian universities under the 
 leadership of Halle. The trend of French thought 
 at the time takes two noteworthy directions. On 
 the one hand, a vigorous group of writers called 
 for education by the state for the purposes of the 
 state. One of the most influential of these was 
 La Chalotais. Protesting against a too exclusively 
 ecclesiastical training, he declared, 'I dare claim 
 for the nation an education which depends only on 
 the state, because it belongs essentially to the 
 state ; because every state has an inalienable and 
 indefeasible right to instruct its members; because, 
 finally, the children of the state ought to be edu- 
 cated by the members of the state.' Voltaire 
 called education a 'government undertaking.' . . . 
 The contention of these writers seems to be, in 
 substance, that education shall change its ecclesias- 
 tical master for a governmental master. The other 
 direction is represented by Rousseau and his fol- 
 lowers. Here appears the demand that early edu- 
 cation shall be cut off from all connection with in- 
 stitutional life. It is to be universal, in that the 
 ends which it seeks are to be such as will be of 
 equal value to Christian, Jew, and pagan, and to 
 those of any nation and any occupation in life. 
 Here we have a universalism more abstract than 
 any that the Renaissance produced. Children are 
 to be brought up not even for participation in the 
 ideal life of ancient Greece and Rome, nor for 
 citizenship in a supramundane Kingdom of 
 Heaven ; but rather for ideal perfection as indi- 
 viduals. Education, according to this scheme, is 
 not to change masters, but rather to free itself 
 from masters altogether. It is to become free by 
 cutting itself loose, in some quixotic manner, from 
 all connection with any other institution what- 
 soever. . . Freedom of instruction, in the proper 
 sense of the words, implies instruction which puts 
 the learner in possession of universal standards of 
 excellence, or at least of standards as nearly uni- 
 versal as he can at any given stage of his develop- 
 ment really make his own ; but which also puts 
 him in the way of employing these standards in 
 the discharge of the duties of real life. Something 
 like this seems to be implied in the demand that 
 educational questions shall be determined solely on 
 educational grounds; and in that demand is briefly 
 summed up the whole question of academic free- 
 dom. It will be observed that in this discussion 
 the case of the lower schools has been considered 
 
 along with that of the higher, as if the question of 
 freedom of instruction affected them all alike. This 
 has been done advisedly, in the belief that educa- 
 tion is one concern from the lowest grades to the 
 highest. A state which undertakes to determine 
 the questions of higher education on purely edu- 
 cational grounds, while it determines questions re- 
 lating to primary schools on narrowly govern- 
 mental grounds, is preparing the different classes of 
 its people to misunderstand one another. Such a 
 condition can only promote a 'severance for the 
 time between the thinking classes and the general 
 bulk of the nation' — to u.se a happy expression of 
 Mr. John Richard Green's. It can hardly continue 
 permanently in any modern society. . . . The first 
 half-century of our own Republic saw the begin- 
 nings of a remarkable movement toward public 
 control of education in all of its grades. Particu- 
 larly in secondary and higher instruction the 
 change of sentiment within that period was highly 
 significant. At the outset, institutions of learning 
 were very generally controlled by self-perpetuatmg 
 boards of trustees, acting under charters granted 
 or confirmed by the several States. Not infre- 
 quently state aid was granted in considerable 
 amounts to these institutions and no condition of 
 state control was added to such grants. For a time 
 such institutions increased rapidly in numbers. 
 Finally there arose an insistent demand that instil 
 tutions of learning be under public direction and 
 control ; a demand which found expression in the 
 Dartmouth College case, in the establishment of 
 the University of Virginia, and in the beginnings 
 of the high-school movement. For the past three- 
 quarters of a century, we have seen schools of 
 secondary and higher education growing up under 
 systems of public administration, alongside of other 
 schools which, however public in other respects, 
 are under one form or another of private con- 
 trol. . . . The demand for public control, as it 
 appeared in the early part of this century, was in 
 part a protest against ecclesiastical influence; but 
 it was perhaps quite as much an expression of the 
 purpose to make public schools directly responsible 
 to the public to which they ministered. But, as we 
 have seen, an increase of responsibility is an ap- 
 proach toward real freedom; it being impossible 
 that an irresponsible institution, if such a thing 
 exists, should be really free. ... On the whole it 
 seems fair to say that the movement toward public 
 control in this country as in others is a step in the 
 direction of academic freedom — of academic free- 
 dom which is one with academic responsibility. 
 The importance of this movement to our national 
 life can hardly be overestimated. But schools and 
 universities under private control cannot be dis- 
 pensed with. If such did not exist, the public wel- 
 fare would demand their establishment; for times 
 will inevit,ably appear in our national life when the 
 immediate pressure of governmental control will 
 unduly restrain our State institutions. Nor can 
 we suppose that the schools of the churches, where 
 these exist, will not have their call, now and 
 again, to take up the theme and speak some free 
 word of instruction which other institutions at the 
 time fail to utter. John Stuart Mill was clearly 
 justified in the contention that there .should be no 
 monopoly in education, whether of the govern- 
 ment, of the clergy, or of philosophers. This ques- 
 tion of academic freedom is intimately bound up 
 with the question of freedom of the press, of the 
 .sciences, of the arts. In our university organiza- 
 tion of the future, these several interests may be 
 found more and more incorporated in the system 
 of educational administration. Here we find some 
 
 25
 
 ACADEMIC FREEDOM 
 
 Relation to 
 Educational insfilulions 
 
 ACADEMIC FREEDOM 
 
 of (he highest concerns of the state which cannot 
 be compressed into mere governments in a kind of 
 independence which makes possible the best sort 
 of co-operation. . . . After all is said and done, 
 academic freedom cannot be expressed in formulas 
 nor secured by mere systems of administration. 
 It belongs to men who deserve it for pre-eminent 
 worth and command it by the courage of well- 
 reasoned conviction. No sort of freedom is worth 
 having which can be marked out by fixed lines or 
 maintained by inferior men without a struggle. 
 It is a part of the mission of educational institu- 
 tions to take their place and play their part in the 
 conflicts which are necessary to the life of the peo- 
 ples; and when their part assumes the form of a 
 struggle for the right to teach the truth as they 
 find it, the conflict itself may prove their best 
 means of persuading men that truth is worth fight- 
 ing for." — E. E. Brown, Academic freedom (Edu- 
 cational Review, Mar., iqoo, pp. 219-231). 
 
 "The term 'academic freedom' has traditionally 
 had two applications — to the freedom of the 
 teacher and to that of the student. It need 
 scarcely be pointed out that the freedom which is 
 the subject of this report is that of the teacher. 
 Academic freedom in this sense comprises three 
 elements: freedom of inquiry and research; free- 
 dom of teaching within the university or college; 
 and freedom of extra-mural utterance and action. 
 The first of these is almost everywhere so safe- 
 guarded that the dangers of its infringement are 
 slight. It may therefore be disregarded in this 
 report. The second and third phases of academic 
 freedom are closely related, and are often not dis- 
 tinguished. The third, however, has an importance 
 of its own, since of late it has perhaps more fre- 
 quently been the occasion of difficulties and con- 
 troversies than has the question of freedom of 
 intra-academic teaching. All five of the cases 
 which have recently been investigated by commit- 
 tees of this Association have involved, at least as 
 one factor, the right of university teachers to ex- 
 press their opinions freely outside the university or 
 to engage in political activities in their capacity as 
 citizens. . . . The simplest case is that of a pro- 
 prietary school or college designed for the propaga- 
 tion of specific doctrines prescribed by those who 
 have furnished its endowment. It is evident that 
 in such cases the trustees are bound by the deed 
 of gift, and, whatever be their own views, are 
 obligated to carry out the terms of the trust. . . . 
 Their purpose is not to advance knowledge by the 
 unrestricted research and unfettered discussion of 
 impartial investigators, but rather to subsidize the 
 promotion of the opinions held by the persons, 
 usually not of the scholar's calling, who provide 
 the funds for their maintenance. Leaving aside, 
 then, the small number of institutions of the pro- 
 prietary type, what is the nature of the trust re- 
 posed in the governing boards of the ordinary 
 institutions of learning? . . . They cannot be per- 
 mitted to assume the proprietary attitude and 
 pri\-ilege. if they are appealing to the general pub- 
 lic for support. Trustees of such universities or 
 colleges have no moral right to bind the reason or 
 the conscience of any professor. .All claim to such 
 right is waived by the appeal to the general public 
 for contributions and for moral support in the 
 maintenance, not of a propaganda, but of a non- 
 partisan institution of learning. . . . The function 
 [of professors] is to deal at first hand, after pro- 
 longed and specialized technical training, with the 
 sources of knowledge; and to impart the results of 
 their own and of their fellow-specialists' investiga- 
 tions and reflection, both to students and to the 
 
 general public, without fear or favor. The proper 
 discharge of this function requires (among other 
 things) that the university teacher shall be exempt 
 from any pecuniary motive or inducement to hold, 
 or to express, any conclusion which is not the 
 genuine and uncolored product of his own study 
 or that of fellow-specialists. . . . 
 
 "The importance of academic freedom is most 
 clearly perceived in the light of the purposes for 
 which universities exist. These are three in num- 
 ber; {.\) To promote inquiry and advance the 
 sum of human knowledge. (B) To provide gen- 
 eral instruction to the students. (C) To develop 
 experts for various branches of the public service. 
 Let us consider each of these. In the earlier 
 stages of a nation's intellectual development, the 
 chief concern of educational institutions is to train 
 the growing generation and to diffuse the already 
 accepted knowledge. It is only slowly that there 
 comes to be provided in the highest institutions of 
 learning the opportunity for the gradual wresting 
 from nature of her intimate secrets. The modern 
 university is becoming more and more the home 
 of scientific research. There are three fields of 
 human inquiry in which the race is only at the be- 
 ginning: natural science, social science, and philos- 
 ophy and religion, dealing with the relations of 
 man to outer nature, to his fellow men, and to the 
 ultimate realities and values. The second function 
 — which for a long time was the only function — of 
 the American college or university is to provide in- 
 struction for students. It is scarcely open to ques- 
 tion that freedom of utterance is as important to 
 the teacher as it ts to the investigator. No man 
 can be a successful teacher unless he enjoys the 
 respect of his students, and their confidence in his 
 intellectual integrity. It is clear, however, that 
 this confidence will be impaired if there is suspi- 
 cion on the part of the student that the teacher is 
 not expressing himself fully or frankly, or that 
 college and university teachers in general are a 
 repressed and intimidated class who dare not speak 
 with that candor and courage which youth always 
 demands in those whom it is to esteem. . . . The 
 third function of the modern university is to de- 
 velop experts for the use of the community. If 
 there is one thing that distinguishes the more 
 recent developments of democracy, it is the recog- 
 nition by legislators of the inherent complexities 
 of economic, social, and political life, and the diffi- 
 culty of solving problems of technical adjustment 
 without technical knowledge. ... It is obvious 
 that here again the scholar must be absolutely free 
 not only to pursue his investigations but to declare 
 the results of his researches, no matter where they 
 may lead him or to what extent they may come 
 into conflict with accepted opinion. To be of use 
 to the legislator or the administrator, he must 
 enjoy their complete confidence in the disinterest- 
 edness of his conclusions It is clear, then, that 
 the university cannot perform its threefold func- 
 tion without accepting and enforcing to the fullest 
 extent the principle of academic freedom. The re- 
 sponsibility of the university as a whole is to the 
 community at large, and any restriction upon the 
 freedom of the instructor is bound to react inju- 
 riously upon the efficiency and the morale of the 
 institution, and therefore ultimately upon the in- 
 tere.sts of the community. 
 
 "The special dangers to freedom of teaching in 
 the domain of the social sciences are evidently 
 two. The one which is the more likely to affect 
 the privately endowed colleges and universities is 
 the danger of restrictions upon the expression of 
 opinions which point towards extensive social in- 
 
 26
 
 ACADEMIC FREEDOM 
 
 Various opinions 
 
 ACADEMIC FREEDOM 
 
 novations, or call in question the moral legitimacy 
 or social expediency of economic conditions or 
 commercial practices in which large vested inter- 
 ests are involved. In the political, social, and eco- 
 nomic field almost every question, no matter how 
 large and general it at first appears, is more or 
 less affected with private or class interests ; and, 
 as the governing body of a university is naturally 
 made up of men who through their standing and 
 ability are personally interested in great private 
 enterprises, the points of possible conflict are num- 
 berless. When to this is added the consideration 
 that benefactors, as well as most of the parents 
 who send their children to privately endowed in- 
 stitutions, themselves belong to the more prosper- 
 ous and therefore usually to the more conservative 
 classes, it is apparent that, so long as effectual safe- 
 guards for academic freedom are not established, 
 there is a real danger that piessure from vested in- 
 terests may, sometimes deliberately and sometimes 
 unconsciously, sometimes openly and sometimes 
 subtly and in obscure ways, be brought to bear 
 upon academic authorities. On the other hand, in 
 our state universities the danger may be the re- 
 verse. Where the university is dependent for funds 
 upon legislative favor, it has sometimes happened 
 that the conduct of the institution has been af- 
 fected by political considerations; and where there 
 is a definite governmental policy or a strong public 
 feeling on economic, social, or political questions, 
 the menace to academic freedom may consist in the 
 repression of opinions that in the particular po- 
 litical situation are deemed ultra-conservative 
 rather than ultra-radical. The essential point, 
 however, is not so much that the opinion is of 
 one or another shade, as that it differs from the 
 views entertained by the authorities. The question 
 resolves itself into one of departure from accepted 
 standards; whether the departure is in the one 
 direction or the other is immaterial. This brings 
 us to the mo3t serious difficulty of this problem; 
 namely, the dangers connected with the existence 
 in a democracy of an overwhelming and concen- 
 trated public opinion. The tendency of modern 
 democracy is for men to think alike, feel alike, and 
 to speak alike. ... In a democracy there is politi- 
 cal freedom, but there is likely to be a tyranny of 
 political opinion. An inviolable refuge from such 
 tyranny should be found in the university. ... It 
 is, in short, not the absolute freedom of utterance 
 of the individual scholar, but the absolute freedom 
 of thought, of inquiry, of discussion and of teach- 
 ing, of the academic profession, that is asserted by 
 this declaration of principles." — American Associa- 
 tion of University Professors, Generai report of the 
 committee on academic freedom and academic 
 tenure (American Political Science Review, May, 
 1916). 
 
 Opinion of President Barrows of the Univer- 
 sity of California. — "Finally, we come to that 
 special freedom to which the term 'academic free- 
 dom' is sometimes confined — freedom of teaching 
 and of thought and utterance associated with it. 
 This is undoubtedly the most crucial point of our 
 inquiry. Is a professor in a university, and above 
 all in a state university, to be permitted to express 
 himself without restraint? I am not sure that I 
 represent the unanimous academic view, but as a 
 practical answer I would say, 'yes, once a man is 
 called to be a professor.' The earlier grades of 
 academic advancement are necessarily probation- 
 ary, but once the professorial status is conferred 
 the scholar can not thereafter successfully be laid 
 under restraint. ... I appreciate that there are 
 times which are exceptional; when men neither in 
 
 a university nor in civil society generally may use 
 their privilege of speech and criticism. War is 
 such a season. . . . War is a highly abnormal ex- 
 perience in which thousands and millions of men, 
 at utmost danger to their lives, forego all freedom, 
 surrender all liberty to the necessary requirements 
 of militaPi' discipline. And this being the situation 
 of the men who fight, some measure of restraint is 
 justifiable over the entire nation, that the army 
 may suffer no increased hazard. And there may 
 also be other crises in a state so acute, so disturb- 
 ing, so painful to large numbers, as to necessitate 
 a temporary suppression of free utterance, but 
 normally the rule of academic freedom holds. The 
 university is not an open forum. Its platforms are 
 not free to the uninstructed or to those without 
 repute. It is not a place where any sort of doc- 
 trine may be expounded by any sort of person. 
 There is a public attitude that sometimes questions 
 the right, particularly of a state university, to ex- 
 clude any from public utterance in university halls. 
 But just as the permanent members of a univer- 
 sity are selected with great care and for reasons 
 of confidence in their knowledge, so those who arc 
 invited to speak incidentally or occasionally must 
 be judged with comparable considerations." — D. P. 
 Barrows, Academic freedom (School and Society, 
 Apr. 17, iQ2o). 
 
 Opinion of President Lowell of Harvard Uni- 
 versity. — "The teaching by the professor in his 
 class-room on the subjects within the scope of his 
 chair ought to be absolutely free. He must teach 
 the truth as he has found it and sees it. This is 
 the primary condition of academic freedom, and 
 any violation of it endangers intellectual progress. 
 In order to make it secure it is essential that the 
 teaching in the class-room should be confidential. 
 This does not mean that it is secret, but that what 
 is said there should not be published. If the re- 
 marks of the instructor were repeated by the pupils 
 in the public press, he would be subjected to con- 
 stant criticism by people, not familiar with the 
 subject, who misunderstood his teaching ; and, 
 what is more important, he would certainly be 
 misquoted, because his remarks would be reported 
 by the student without their context or the quali- 
 fications that give them their accuracy. Moreover, 
 if the rule that remarks in the class-room shall not 
 be reported for publication elsewhere is to be 
 maintained, the professor himself must not report 
 them. . . . That does not mean a denial of the 
 right to publish them in a book, or their substance 
 in a learned periodical. On the contrary the object 
 of institutions of learning is not only the acquisi- 
 tion but also the diffusion of knowledge. ... In 
 troublous times much more serious difficulty, and 
 much more confusion of thought, arises from the 
 other half of our subject, the right of a professor 
 to express his views without restraint on matters 
 lying outside the sphere of his professorship. . . . 
 The fact that a man fills a chair of astronomy, for 
 example, confers on him no special knowledge of, 
 and no peculiar right to speak upon, the protective 
 tariff. His right to speak about a subject on which 
 he is not an authority is simply the right of any 
 other man, and the question is simply whether the 
 university or college by employing him as a pro- 
 fessor acquires a right to restrict his freedom as a 
 citizen. ... On their [the students'] side they 
 have a right not to be compelled to listen to re- 
 marks offensive or injurious to them on subjects 
 of which the instructor is not a master, — a right 
 which the teacher is bound to respect. . . . The 
 gravest questions, and the strongest feelings, arise 
 from action by a professor beyond his chosen field 
 
 27
 
 ACADEMIC FREEDOM 
 
 ACADEMY, FRENCH 
 
 and outside his class-room. Here he speaks only 
 as a citizen. By appointment to a professorship he 
 acquires no rights that he did not possess before; 
 but there is a real difference of opinion to-day on 
 the question whether he loses any rights that he 
 would otherwise enjoy. ... In the first place, to 
 impose upon the teacher in a university restrictions 
 to which the members of other professions, law- 
 yers, physicians, engineers, and so forth, are not 
 subjected, would produce a sense of irritation and 
 humiliation. In accepting a chair under such con- 
 ditions a man woulcl surrender a part of his lib- 
 erty; what he might say would be submitted to 
 the censorship of a board of trustees, and he would 
 cease to be a free citiien. . . . Such a policy would 
 tend seriously to discourage some of the best men 
 from taking up the scholar's Ufe. ... If a univer- 
 sity or college censors what its professors may say, 
 if it restrains them from uttering something that 
 it does not approve, it thereby assumes responsibil- 
 ity for that which it permits them to say. This is 
 logical and inevitable, but it is a responsibility 
 which an institution of learning would be very un- 
 wise in assuming. . . . Surely abuse of speech, 
 abuse of authority and arbitrary restraint and 
 friction would be reduced if men kept in mind the 
 distinction between the privilege of academic free- 
 dom and the common right of personal liberty as 
 a citizen, between what may properly be said in 
 (he class-room and what in pubUc. But it must 
 not be forgotten that all liberty and every privilege 
 implies responsibilities. Professors should speak in 
 public soberly and seriously, not for notoriety or 
 self advertisement, under a deep sense of responsi- 
 bility for the good name of the institution and the 
 dignity of their profession. They should take care 
 that they are understood to speak personally, not 
 officially. When they so speak, and governing 
 boards respect their freedom to express their sin- 
 cere opinions as other citizens may do, there will 
 be little danger that liberty of speech will be 
 either misused or curtailed." — A. L. Lowell, Annual 
 report to the board oj overseers, 1916-1917 (£1- 
 cerpts as quoted in Harvard Graduates' Magazine, 
 Mar., 1018). 
 
 Opiiuon of President Hadley of Yale Univer- 
 sity. — "The problem of the liberty of teaching con- 
 nects itself with other problems of civil liberty; 
 and all these problems together reach back into 
 past history, and can be properly analyzed only 
 by historical study. Only by placing them all in 
 their proper relations to one another can we under- 
 stand either the reasons or the limitations of our 
 system' of academic freedom as it e.xists at the 
 present day. To the modern observer liberty in its 
 various manifestations is neither an abstract right 
 to be assumed, as Rousseau would have assumed 
 it, nor a pernicious phantom to Jse condemned and 
 exorcised, as Carlyle or Ruskin would have con- 
 demned it, but an essential element in orderly 
 progress; not without its dangers and not without 
 its limitations, yet justified on the whole because 
 the necessar>' combination of progress and order 
 can be better secured by a high degree of indi- 
 vidual liberty than in any other fashion. . . ." — 
 A. T. Hadley, Academic freedom in theory and in 
 practice (.Atlantic Monthh, Feb., IQ03, pp. 152- 
 153)- 
 
 Opinion of President Butler of Columbia Uni- 
 versity. — "You will enter here into an atmosphere 
 of complete intellectual freedom. Each member 
 of this university, teacher and taught alike, is 
 under two limitations, and only two, in matters of 
 speech and of conduct. The first of these is the 
 limitation put upon us all by the laws of the land, 
 which are enforced by the properly constituted 
 
 authorities The second is the limitation in speech 
 and in conduct which an American gentleman puts 
 upon himself. . . . The gravest, and indeed the 
 only, university offence that one can commit is to 
 be guilty of conduct unbecoming a gentleman."— 
 N. M. Butler, from address quoted in New York 
 Sun, Oct. 22, IQ17. 
 ACADEMIE DES SCIENCES. See Acad- 
 
 ElvrV OF SCTENXES. 
 
 ACADEMIE FRANCAISE. See Academy, 
 
 French. 
 
 ACADEMIES, International Union of. See 
 International Union of .'\cadeiiies. 
 
 ACADEMY, takes its name from the "Aca- 
 demia" on the Cephissus, a sacred precinct of 
 Athens, which spot probably belonged to Acada- 
 mus, a hero of Atticus. In time it became a pub- 
 lic park; later, a gymnasium was built here where 
 Plato held his first lectures in philosophy. The 
 masters of the great schools of philosophy at 
 Athens "chose for their lectures and discussions 
 the public buildings which were called gymnasia, 
 of which there were several in different quarters of 
 the city. They could only use them by the suffer- 
 ance of the State, which had built them chiefly 
 for bodily exercises and athletic feats. . . . Before 
 long several of the schools drew themselves apart 
 in special buildings, and even took their most fa- 
 miliar names, such as the Lyceum and the .Acad- 
 emy, from the gymnasia in which they made them- 
 selves at home. Gradually we find the traces of 
 some material provisions, which helped to define 
 and to perpetuate the different sects. Plato had 
 a little garden, close by the sacred Eleusinian Way, 
 in the shady groves of the Academy. . . . Aris- 
 totle, as we know, in later life had taught in the 
 Lyceum, in the rich grounds near the llissus. ' — 
 W. W. Capes. University life in ancient Athens, pp. 
 31-33. — Academy in its modern sense, is a corpora- 
 tion or society organized to encourage the disin- 
 terested pursuit of art or science, or both. It is 
 now used to refer to learned organizations of all 
 kinds. It is usually endowed by the state or other- 
 wise publicly recognized. A list of the more im- 
 portant academies, with the date of founding is 
 appended: .\cademie francaise (1620-1635); Acad- 
 emic des inscriptions et belles-lettres or "Petite 
 academic" (1663); Academic des sciences (1666); 
 Academic des beaux arts (Berne. 1677); Akademie 
 der Wissenschaften zu Berlin (formerly Societas 
 Regia Scientiarum, 1700) ; Academic Imperiale des 
 sciences de Saint-Petersbourg (Imperatorskaya 
 Akademiya naiik, 1725); Royal Academy of Arts 
 (London, 1768); American ,\cademy of Arts and 
 Sciences (1780); National .Academy of Design 
 (New York, 1826) ; National Academy of Sciences 
 (U. S. A.. 1S63) ; American Academy in Rome 
 (1865); British Academy (iqo2). Separate arti- 
 cles on the more important academies will be 
 found under their own headings. — See also Educa- 
 tion: .Ancient: B.C. 7th-.\. D. 3rd centuries: 
 Greece, Socrates and the philosophical schools; 
 Gymnasia: Greek. 
 
 ACADEMY, American. See American Acad- 
 emy in Ro.vie. 
 
 ACADEMY, French.— Founded by Cardinal 
 Richelieu, in 1635, for the refining of the language 
 and the literary taste of France. [See also French 
 literature: 1608-1715.] Its forty members are 
 styled "les Quarante Immortels" (the Forty Im- 
 mortals). Election to a seat among them is a 
 high object of ambition among French writers. 
 The seals are numbered from one to forty, and the 
 records of members are kept under the numbers of 
 their respective chairs. — "The literary movement 
 of the Renaissance ended in Europe about the mid- 
 
 28
 
 ACADEMY, FRENCH 
 
 ACADEMY, FRENCH 
 
 die of the seventeenth century. There appeared no 
 more great writers in Spain, nor in Italy, nor in 
 Germany. France, only, was for a century the 
 country of learning. The writers of that period 
 had a totally different conception of the art of 
 writing from those of the time of the Renaissance. 
 They neither wrote for the learned nor for the 
 common people; they wrote for society; for those 
 whom they called well-bred people, and it was the 
 well-bred company gathered in the salons which 
 decided upon the value of the works. The salons 
 were set up in France during the reign of Louis 
 XIII.; manners and language had been rude at 
 first; the nobles brought with them the customs 
 of the soldier; little by little the ladies brought 
 about a change in the general tone, and introduced 
 the custom of speaking politely, and in choice 
 terms. The Marquise de Rambouillet (q. v.) set 
 the example, by holding in her own mansion regu- 
 lar reunions where questions of literature and 
 morals were discussed. The employment of trivial 
 expressions was forbidden ; the ladies called them- 
 selves 'Precieuses.' They sought to purify the lan- 
 guage, and were aided in their work by the gram- 
 marians, and by the Academy. The French lan- 
 guage at that time was composed of many words 
 and turns of phrase, which had their origin in the 
 French of the Middle Ages; others had been drawn 
 from the Greek or Latm by the men of the 
 Renaissance. The grammarians and the 'Pre- 
 cieuses' proscribed a great many expressions on 
 account of their coarseness, or their provincialism 
 and many new words taken from the Latin, be- 
 cause they were too pedantic. They endeavored to 
 'follow good usage,' that is, to employ only such 
 words as were used in the best circles in Paris. 
 'It is far better,' said Vaugelas, 'to consult the 
 women, and those who have not studied, than to 
 counsel with those who are learned in Greek and 
 Latin.' The French language thus purilied, be- 
 came the language of the court, and of the salon, 
 which every one must speak if one wished to be 
 considered educated, and well-bred. 'One word 
 amiss is sufficient to make one scorned in society.' 
 'To speak well is one of the forms required by 
 good breeding.' In order to fix rules for the lan- 
 guage, Richelieu founded the French Academy; 
 to edit a dictionary of the French language is its 
 especial charge. 'This small band called good so- 
 ciety is the flower of the human race,' said Vol- 
 taire. 'It is for them that the greatest men have 
 labored.' 'It is the taste of the court that should 
 be studied,' said Moliere. 'There is no place where 
 decisions can be more just.' This taste which was 
 imposed on all writers, is called the classic taste 
 It consists in expressing only ideas that can be 
 easily understood, and expressing them in terms 
 clear, precise, and elegant, setting them forth in 
 perfect order, taking care to employ no popular 
 expression, neither a term of science, trade, or of 
 the household ; in one word, sparing the reader 
 everything which may demand an effort of the 
 mind, or which may shock the proprieties. Litera- 
 ture became the art of making fine discourses; it 
 was oratorical rather than poetic. Its dominant 
 quality was perfection." — C. Seignobos, History oj 
 mediaeval and oj modern civilization, pp. 424-426. — ■ 
 During the revolutionary period the Academy was 
 suspected of monarchical sentiments and accused 
 of constituting an intellectual aristocracy. It was 
 accordingly suppressed August 8, 1703, by a de- 
 cree of the Convention and incorporated, in I7gs, 
 into the Institut National, under the name of 
 "La classe de la langue et litterature frangaises" 
 The Restoration replaced the .Academy to its origi- 
 nal status The first edition of its dictionnaire was 
 
 issued in 1694; the sixth edition appeared in 183S, 
 since augmented by supplements and revised. The 
 selection of members for the Academy has long 
 been a matter of bitter controversy. While a 
 goodly number of great names in French history 
 and literature appear on its roll, it is true that 
 many others, equally great, are conspicuous by 
 their absence. Among the more prominent of the 
 latter category may be mentioned Diderot, RoUin, 
 Rousseau, Beaumarchais, Helvetius, Condillac, 
 Benjamin Constant, J. de Maistre, Prudhon, 
 Beranger, Conte, Balzac, Gautier, Stendhal, Flau- 
 bert, Uaudet, Zola, Flaubert, de Maupassant, etc. 
 None of these became an "imaiurtal." The fol- 
 lowing are some of the celebrated Frenchmen who 
 held seats in the Academy: Racine (1672); 
 Seguier (1635) ; Boileau-Despreaux (1084) ; Vol- 
 taire (1746) ; Corneille (1647) ; Bougainville 
 (17S4); D'Alembert (1754); Cardinal Dubois 
 (1722) ; Cardinal de Rohan (1704) ; Bossuet 
 (1071); Montesquieu (172S); Nicolas Bourdon, 
 first occupant of seat No. i (1637) ; Scribe {1834) , 
 O. Feuillet (i85i); Buffon (1753); Guizot (183O) ; 
 Hugo (1841); Sainte Beuve (1844); Ampere 
 (1S47) ; De Tocqueville (1841) ; Lacordaire (pere, 
 1859); Ph. de Segur (1830); A. Thiers (1833); 
 Merimee (1844); Chateaubriand (1811); Lamar- 
 tine (1829) ; Condorcet (17S2) ; Jules Favrc 
 C1867) ; Tissot (1833) ; A. de Vigny (1845) ; A. de 
 Musset (1852); Montalembert (1851); Laplace 
 (i8ib); Cuvier (1818) and Royer-Collard (1S27), 
 1919. — Calling of International conference for 
 union. See under International union of acau- 
 
 EMIES. 
 
 The membership of the Academy in 1920 in the 
 order of election with the name of the predece.^sor 
 in each case, was as follows: 
 
 Comte d'Haussonville, Gabriel Paul Othenin de 
 
 Cleron (Caro) 
 
 de Freycinet, Claude Louis de Saulces (Augier, 
 
 Emile) 
 
 Loti-Viaud, Pierre Louis Marie Julien (Feuillet, 
 
 Octave) 
 
 Lavisse, Ernest (de la Graviere, Jurien) 
 
 Bourget, Paul (du Camp, Max) 
 
 France, Anatole Jacques Thibault (de Lesseps) 
 
 Hanotaux, Gabriel (Challerael-Lacour) 
 
 Lavedan, Henri (Meilhac, Henry) 
 
 Deschanel, Paul Eugene Louis (Herve, Flori- 
 
 mond Ronge) 
 Masson, Louis Claude Frederic (Paris) 
 Bazin, Rene Fran<;ois Nicolas (Legouve) 
 Ribot, Alexandre (due d'.^udiffret-Pasquier) 
 Barres, Maurice (de Heredia, J. M) 
 Donnay, Maurice (Sorel, Albert) 
 Richepin, Jean (Theuriet, Andre) 
 Poincare, Raymond (Gebhart) 
 Brieux, Eugene (Halevy) 
 Aicard, Jean (Coppee, Francois) 
 Prevost, Marcel (Sardou, Victorien) 
 Doumic, Rene (Boissier) 
 Mgr. Duchesne, Louis Marie Olivier (Card. 
 
 Mathieu) 
 
 Vte. de Regnier, Henri (Comte de Vogiie) 
 Baron Cochin, Henrv Denys Benoit Marie 
 
 (Vandal) 
 General Lyautey, Herbert (Houssaye, Henri) 
 Boutroux, Etienne Emile Maiie (General Lang- 
 
 lois) 
 
 Capus, Alfred Vincent Marie (Poincare, H.) 
 de la Gorce, Pierre (Thureau-Dangin) 
 Bergson, Henri Louis (Olivier, Emile) 
 Marechal Joffre, Joseph Jacques Cesaire (Clare- 
 tie, Jules) 
 
 Barthou, Louis (Roujon, Henri) 
 
 29
 
 ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
 
 ACCIDENT INSURANCE 
 
 Mgr. Baudrillart, Henri Marie Alfred (Comte de 
 Mun, Albert) 
 
 Boylesve, Rene (Mezieres) 
 
 de Curel, Fran<;ois (Hervieu, Paul) 
 
 Cambon, Jules (Charmes, Francis) 
 
 Clemenceau, Georges (Faguet, Emile) 
 
 Marechal Foch, Ferdinand (Marquis de Vogiie) 
 
 Bordeaux, Henry (Lemaitre, Jules) 
 
 de Flers, Robert (Marquis de Segur) 
 
 Bedier, Joseph (Rostand, Edmond) 
 
 Chevrillon, Andre (Lamy, Ktienne) 
 
 The above list was furnished by courtesy of 
 the French government, in December, lyio. 
 
 ACADEMY OF SCIENCES (lAcademie des 
 sciences), an institution founded at Paris in ibbd 
 by Colbert and approved by Louis XIV in 1699; 
 suppressed by the National Convention during the 
 French Revolution and in 1816 reconstituted as a 
 branch of the Institut de France (founded 1795)- 
 At first it served as an experimental laboratory and 
 observatory ; its purpose is to promote scientific 
 research. It numbers sixty-eight members, ten 
 honorary academicians, eight foreign associates, 
 and one hundred corresponding members. 
 
 ACADIA. See Canada: iboj-ioos, 1O10-1013, 
 1692-1097. 
 
 Origin of the name. See Nova Scotia: 1604. 
 
 Capture of. See U. S. A.: 1690. 
 
 Given to Great Britain at Treaty of Utrecht. 
 See NtwFouNDLAND, Dominion of: 1713. 
 
 In Nova Scotia. See Nova Scoiia; 1713-1730. 
 
 Boundary dispute with England. See Nova 
 Scoiia: 1749-1755. 
 
 Exile of inhabitants. See Nova Scotia: 1755. 
 
 ACANTHUS, a plant found in great abundance 
 in ancient Greece. Because of its attractive form 
 it was reproduced on metals and sub.sequently 
 carved in stone, particularly by the Greeks. The 
 succeeding styles of architecture employed the de- 
 sign especially in the Corinthian capital. 
 
 ACAPULCO, a seaport of Mexico, on the Pa- 
 cific, in the state of Guerrero, with a very fine 
 landlocked harbor, the chief port of call for steam- 
 ships plying between San Francisco and South 
 American ports. In the eighteenth century it was 
 the port used for the Philippine trade.^See also 
 Mexico: 1810-1819. 
 
 ACARNANIA, a land in the western part of 
 Greece, south of Epirus (see Greece: Map of 
 ancient Greece), whose people first emerged 
 from obscurity at the beginning of the Pelo- 
 ponnesian War (431-404 B.C.). The Acarna- 
 nians formed "a hnk of transition" between the 
 ancient Greeks and their barbarous or non- 
 Hellenic neighbours in the Epirus and beyond. 
 "They occupied the territory between the river 
 Achelous, the Ionian sea and the Ambrakian gulf ; 
 they were Greeks and admitted as such to contend 
 at the Pan-Hellenic games, yet they were also 
 closely connected with the Amphilochi and Agrcei, 
 who were not Greeks. In manners, sentiments and 
 intelligence, they were half-Hellenic and half- 
 Epirotic, — like the ^tolians and the Ozolian 
 Lokrians. Even down to the time of Thucydides, 
 these nations were subdivided into numerous petty 
 communities, lived in unfortified villages, were 
 frequently in the habit of plundering each other, 
 and never permitted themselves to be unarmed. 
 . . . Notwithstanding this state of disunion and 
 insecurity, however, the Akarnanians maintained a 
 loose political league among themselves. . . . The 
 Akarnanians appear to have produced many 
 prophets. They traced up their mythical ancestry, 
 as well as that of their neighbours the Amphilo- 
 chians, to the most renowned prophetic family 
 among the Grecian heroes, — Amphiaraus, with his 
 
 sons Alkmson and Ampilocbus: Akarnan, the 
 eponymous hero of the nation, and other epony- 
 mous heroes of the separate towns, were supposed 
 to be the sons of Alkmseon. They are spoken of, 
 together with the .-Etolians, as mere rude shep- 
 herds, by the lyric poet Alkman, and so they seem 
 to have continued with little alteration until the 
 beginning of the Peloponnesian war, when we hear 
 of them, for the first time, as allies of Athens and 
 as bitter enemies of the Corinthian colonies on 
 their coast. The contact of those colonies, how- 
 ever, and the large spread of Akarnanian accessible 
 coast, could not fail to produce some effect in so- 
 cializing and improving the people. And it is 
 probable that this effect would have been more 
 sensibly felt, had not the Akarnanians been kept 
 back by the fatal neighbourhood, of the .■Etolians, 
 with whom they were in perpetual feud,— a people 
 the most unprincipled and unimprovable of all 
 who bore the Hellenic name, and whose habitual 
 faithlessness stood in marked contrast with the 
 rectitude and steadfastness of the Akarnanian 
 rectitude and steadfastness of the Akarnanian char- 
 acter." — G. Grote, History of Greece, pt. 2, cli. 24. 
 
 ACARNANIAN LEAGUE.— "Of the .Akar- 
 nanian League, formed by one of the least im- 
 portant, but at the same time one of the most 
 estimable peoples in Greece . . . our knowledge is 
 only fragmentary. The boundaries of .'\karnania 
 fluctuated, but we always find the people spoken 
 of as a political whole. . . . Thucydides speaks, by 
 impHcation at least, of the Akarnanian League as 
 an institution of old standing in his time. The 
 Akarnanians had, in early times, occupied the hill 
 of Olpai as a place for judicial proceedings com- 
 mon to the whole nation. Thus the supreme court 
 of the Akarnanian Union held its sittings, not in 
 a town, but in a mountain fortress. But in 
 Thucydides' own time Stratos had attained its 
 position as the greatest city of -Akarnania, and 
 probably the federal assemblies were already held 
 there. ... Of the constitution of the League we 
 know but little. Ambassadors were sent by the 
 federal body, and probably, just as in the 
 Achaian League, it would have been held to be a 
 breach of the federal tie if any single city had 
 entered on diplomatic intercourse v/ith other 
 powers. As in Achaia, too, there stood at the head 
 of the League a General with high authority. . . . 
 The existence of coins bearing the name of the 
 whole Akarnanian nation shows that there was 
 unity enough to admit of a federal coinage, though 
 coins of particular cities also occur." — E. A. Free- 
 man, History oj federal government, ch. 4, sect. i. — 
 See also Athens: B.C. 336-332. 
 
 ACAWOIOS. See Cakibs: Their kindred. 
 
 ACCA LARENTIA, the wife of Faustulus, who 
 reared the Roman twins, Romulus and Remus. 
 
 ACCAD: Ancient civilization. See Baby- 
 lonia: Earliest inhabitants; Semites: Primitive 
 Babylonia. 
 
 Language and literature. See Assyria: Art and 
 archa;ological remains; Education: Ancient: B.C. 
 35th-6th centuries: Babylonia and Assyria. 
 
 ACCEPTANTS. See Convulsionists. 
 
 ACCIDENT INSURANCE, Industrial See 
 Insurance: Industrial insurance; Social insur- 
 ance: Accident and sickness insurance. 
 
 France. See Social insurance: Details for vari- 
 ous countries: France: 1919- 
 
 Germany. See Social Insurance: Origin and 
 early development. 
 
 Great Britain. See Social insurance: Details 
 for various countries: Great Britain: 1833-1911. 
 
 Holland. See Social insukance: Details for 
 various countries: Holland: 1894-1901. 
 
 30
 
 ACCOLADE 
 
 New Zealand. See Social insurance: Details 
 for various countries: New Zealand: igoo-igi2. 
 
 Norway. See Social insurance: Details for 
 various countries. 1885-1910. 
 
 Portugal. See Social insurance: Details for 
 various countries: 1919. 
 
 United States. See Social insurance: Details 
 for various countries: 1893-1018. 
 
 ACCOLADE.— "The concluding sign of being 
 dubbt<l or adopted into the order of knighthood 
 was a slight blow given by the lord to the cavalier, 
 and called the accolade, from the part of the body, 
 the neck, whereon it was struck. . . . Many writ- 
 ers have imagined that the accolade was the last 
 blow which the soldier might receive with impu- 
 nity: but this interpretation is not correct, for the 
 squire was as jealous of his honour as the knight. 
 The origin of the accolade it is impossible to 
 trace, but it was clearly considered symbolical of 
 the religious and moral duties of knighthood, and 
 was the only ceremony used when knights were 
 made in places (the field of battle, for instance), 
 where time and circumstances did not allow of 
 many ceremonies." — C. Mills, History of chivalry, 
 V. I, p. S3, and foot-note. 
 
 ACCOUNTING OFFICE, created in Budget 
 Bureau Bill. See U.S.A.: 1921 (June). 
 
 ACCRETION, Title of. See Riparian rights. 
 
 ACE OF DIAMONDS, U. S. A. Division.— 
 In Meuse-Argonne. See World War: igi8: II. 
 Western front, v, 7. 
 
 ACES, a term applied in the World War to 
 aviators who had brought down in combat, five 
 or more enemy aircraft under conditions enabling 
 official recognition and sanction of the accomplish- 
 ment to be made. The following list contains only 
 the leading aces of the belligerent nations. 
 
 Germnn 
 
 
 
 No. of 
 
 
 
 Aircraft 
 
 Nation 
 
 Pilot 
 
 Destroyed 
 
 French 
 
 Lieutenant Rene Fonck 
 
 59 
 
 " 
 
 Captain Georges Guynemer 
 
 53 
 
 ii 
 
 Lieutenant Charles Nungesser 
 
 38 
 
 (( 
 
 Lieutenant Georges Madon 
 
 38 
 
 British 
 
 Major Raymond Colleshau 
 
 77 
 
 *' 
 
 Captain William A. Bishop 
 
 72 
 
 " 
 
 Major E. Mannock 
 
 71 
 
 " 
 
 Captain J. McCudden 
 
 58 
 
 " 
 
 Captain Donald E. McLaren 
 
 48 
 
 (( 
 
 Captain Philip F. Fullard 
 
 48 
 
 (( 
 
 Captain R. A. Little 
 
 47 
 
 II 
 
 Captain G. E. H. McElroy 
 
 46 
 
 " 
 
 Captain Albert Ball 
 
 43 
 
 *' 
 
 Captain H. W. Wallet 
 
 43 
 
 (1 
 
 Captain L. Jones 
 
 40 
 
 II 
 
 Captain A. W. B. Proctor 
 
 30 
 
 (1 
 
 Major Roderic S. Dallas 
 
 39 
 
 " 
 
 Captain W. G. Claxton 
 
 37 
 
 (( 
 
 Captain F. R. McCall 
 
 34 
 
 " 
 
 Captain Frank G. Quigley 
 
 34 
 
 " 
 
 Major Albert D. Carter 
 
 31 
 
 " 
 
 Captain Cedric E. Howell 
 
 30 
 
 i( 
 
 Captain A. E. McKeever 
 
 30 
 
 Italian 
 
 Major Baracca 
 
 36 
 
 " 
 
 Lieutenant Florio Barachini 
 
 31 
 
 Belgian 
 
 Lieutenant Coppeus 
 
 30 
 
 German 
 
 Captain von Richthofen 
 
 80 
 
 »' 
 
 Lieutenant Udet 
 
 69 
 
 " 
 
 Lieutenant Lowenhardt 
 
 53 
 
 " 
 
 Lieutenant von Crefeld 
 
 49 
 
 " 
 
 Captain Boelke 
 
 40 
 
 *' 
 
 Lieutenant Gontermann 
 
 39 
 
 " 
 
 Captain Berthold 
 
 39 
 
 " 
 
 Lieutenant Max MUller 
 
 38 
 
 (( 
 
 Lieutenant Bongartz 
 
 36 
 
 ACH.SA 
 
 
 Lieutenant Max Buckler 
 
 34 
 
 Lieutenant Menckhoff 
 
 34 
 
 Lieutenant Loerzer 
 
 33 
 
 Lieutenant Carl Wolff 
 
 33 
 
 Lieutenant Klein 
 
 33 
 
 Lieutenant Roenneke 
 
 32 
 
 Lieutenant Bolle 
 
 31 
 
 Lieutenant KroU 
 
 31 
 
 Corporal Rumey 
 
 30 
 
 Lieutenant Schleich 
 
 30 
 
 Lieutenant Schaeffer 
 
 30 
 
 Lieutenant Almenroeder 
 
 30 
 
 The American aces who brought down at least 
 ten enemy aircraft are: 
 
 Captain E. V. Rickenbacker 
 Lieutenant Frank Luke 
 Major Raoul Lufberry 
 Lieutenant G. Vaughn 
 Lieutenant F. Kindley 
 Lieutenant D. Putnam 
 Lieutenant E. Springs 
 Lieutenant Reed Landis 
 Lieutenant J. M. Schwaab 
 
 2S 
 18 
 
 17 
 13 
 12 
 12 
 II 
 10 
 10 
 
 ACH.SA. — "Crossing the river Larissus, and 
 pursuing the northern coast of Peloponnesus south 
 of the Corinthian Gulf, the traveller would pass 
 into Achaia — a name which designated the narrow 
 strip of level land, and the projecting spurs and 
 declivities between that gulf and the northernmost 
 mountains of the peninsula. . . . Achaean cities — 
 twelve in number at least, if not more — divided 
 this long strip of land amongst them, from the 
 mouth of the Larissus and the northwestern Cape 
 Araxus on one side, to the western boundary of 
 the Sikyon territory on the other. According to 
 the accounts of the ancient legends and the belief 
 of Herodotus, this territory had been once occu- 
 pied by Ionian inhabitants, whom the Achaeans 
 had expelled." — G. Grote, History of Greece, v. 2, 
 pt. 2, ch. 4. — After the Roman conquest (see 
 Rome: B.C. 197-146) and the suppression of the 
 Achsan League, the name Achsa was given to the 
 Roman province then organized, which embraced 
 all Greece south of Macedonia and Epirus. — See 
 Greece: B. C. 280-146. — "In the Homeric poems, 
 where . . . the 'Hellenes' only appear in one dis- 
 trict of Southern Thessaly, the name Achaeans is 
 employed by preference as a general appellation * 
 for the whole race. But the Achaeans we may 
 term, without hesitation, a Pelasgian people, in so 
 far, that is, as we use this name merely as the 
 opposite of the term 'Hellenes,' which prevailed at 
 a later time, although it is true that the Hellenes 
 themselves were nothing more than a particular 
 branch of the Pelasgian stock. . . . [The name of 
 the] Acheeans, after it had dropped its earlier and 
 more universal application, was preserved as the 
 special name of a population dwelling in the north 
 of the Peloponnese and the south of Thessaly-" — 
 G. F. Schomann, .4ntiquities of Greece: The State, 
 Introd. — Legend has it that the Achaens were de- 
 scended from Achaeus, son of [uthus, who was the 
 son of Hellen. According to Homer and later 
 traditions they came to Greece about 1300 B. C. 
 and soon acquired control of all Greece. "The 
 ancients regarded them [the Achaeans! as a branch 
 of the .^i^olians, with whom they afterwards re- 
 united into one national body, i. e., not as an 
 originally distinct nationality or independent 
 branch of the Greek people. Accordingly, we 
 hear neither of an Achaean language nor of 
 Achcean art A manifest and decided influence of 
 the maritime Greeks, wherever the .Achseans ap- 
 
 31
 
 ACM^AN CITIES, LEAGUE OF 
 
 ACH^ANS 
 
 pear, is common to the latter with the yEoIians. 
 Achseans are everywhere settled on the coast, and 
 are always regarded as particularly near relations 
 of the lonians. The Achaeans appear scattered 
 about in localities on the coast of the ^gean so 
 remote from one another, that it is impossible to 
 consider all bearing this name as fragments of a 
 people originally united in one social community ; 
 nor do they in fact anywhere appear, properly 
 speaking, as a popular body, as the main stock of 
 the population, but rather as eminent families, 
 from which spring heroes; hence the use of the 
 expression 'Sons of the Achceans' to indicate noble 
 descent." — E. Curtius, History of Greece, bk. i, ch. 
 3. — See also Greece; Indo-European migrations. 
 
 Also in; M. Duncker, History of Greece, bk. 
 I, ch. 2 and bk. 2, ch. 2. 
 
 1205-1387. — Medieval principality. — Among the 
 conquests of the French and Lombard Crusaders 
 in Greece, after the taking of Constantinople, was 
 that of a major part of the Peloponnesus— then 
 beginning to be called the Morea — by William de 
 Champlitte, a French knight, assisted by Geoffrey 
 de Villehardouin, the younger — nephew and name- 
 sake of the Marshal of Champagne, who was 
 chronicler of the conquest of the Empire of the 
 East. William de Champlitte was invested with 
 this Principality of Achaea (or Morea). Geof- 
 frey Villehardouin represented him in the govern- 
 ment, as his "bailly," for a time, and finally suc- 
 ceeded in supplanting him. (See also Athens; 
 1205-1308). Half a century later the Greeks, who 
 had recovered Constantinople, reduced the territory 
 of the Principality of Achsa to about half the 
 peninsula, and a destructive war was waged be- 
 tween the two races. Subsequently the Principality 
 became a fief of the crown of Naples and Sicily, 
 and underwent many changes of possession until 
 the title was in confusion and dispute between the 
 houses of Anjou, Aragon and Savoy. Before it was 
 engulfed finally in the Empire of the Turks, it was 
 ruined by their piracies and ravages. — G. Finlay, 
 History of Greece from its conquest by the Cru- 
 saders, ch. 8. 
 
 ACHAEAN CITIES, League of— This, which 
 should not be confused with the Achaean League 
 of the Peloponnesus, was a league of early Greek 
 colonists in Italy. They arrived in the eighth 
 century B. C. and built their fortified towns 
 , or "cities" of which the most powerful were 
 Sybaris, Croton and Tarentum. The former in- 
 habitants, living side by side with the colonists, 
 adopted the superior culture of the Greeks and the 
 whole of central Italy became known as Magna 
 Graecia. "Of the Greek settlements, that which 
 retained most thoroughly its distinctive character 
 and was least affected by influences from without, 
 was the settlement which gave birth to the League 
 of the Achaean cities, composed of the towns of 
 Siris, Pandosia, Metabus or Metapontum, Sybaris 
 with its offsets Posidonia and Laus, Crotona, Cau- 
 lonia, Temesa, Terina and Pyxus. . . . The lan- 
 guage of Polybius regarding the Achaean sym- 
 machy [alliance] in the Peloponnesus may be ap- 
 plied also to these Italian Achaeans; 'not only did 
 they live in federal and friendly communion, but 
 they made use of the same laws, and the same 
 weights, measures and coins, as well as of the 
 same magistrates, councillors and judges.' " — T. 
 Mommscn, Historv of Rome, bk. i, ch. 10. 
 
 ACHAEAN FEDERATION. See Federal 
 government: Greek federations. 
 
 ACH.ffiAN LEAGUE, in early times a con- 
 federation of twelve .Achaean cities formed as a 
 protection against the raids of pirates to which, 
 because of their isolated position on the narrow 
 
 strips of plain, they were constantly exposed. Of 
 the functions of this early league we have no 
 definite record other than the worship of Zeus 
 Araarios and an occasional arbitration between 
 Greek belligerents. "Under the Macedonian su- 
 premacy the league was dissolved; but about the 
 year 280 [B.C.], four cities, Dyme, Patrae, 
 Pharae, and Tritaea, shook off the foreign yoke, 
 and united in a new league. Other city-states 
 were gradually added till 240 [B. C], when the 
 accession of Sicyon under the leadership of Aratus 
 made the union a power to be reckoned with in 
 international affairs. From that time Aratus was 
 the inspiring genius of the federation. Under his 
 direction it adopted a vigorous policy of freeing 
 all Peloponnesus from the despots and from Mace- 
 donian control, and of annexing the individual 
 states by negotiation or force." — (Polybius ii. 37 
 sg.) G. W. Botsford and E. G. Sihler, Hellenic 
 civilization, pp. 613-614. — "The object of the 
 union was the maintenance of peace within 
 its borders and protection from foreign 
 enemies. The federal power was limited 
 
 strictly to this object. It alone made war, peace, 
 and alliances, and managed all diplomatic mat- 
 ters. The army and navy though furnished by the 
 states according to their means, were solely at the 
 command of the federal power. It coined all 
 money, excepting small change, and enforced a 
 uniform system of weights and measures. Aside 
 from these necessary restrictions, the states were 
 sovereign and self-governing. The only require- 
 ment was that they should be republics and should 
 remain (jermanently in the union. They enjoyed 
 full rights of trade and intermarriage with one 
 another; and any state was free to admit to its 
 citizenship the inhabitants of any other. All stood 
 on an absolute political equality. To prevent any 
 one of them from gaining the leadership, it was 
 decided that the cities should serve in turn as the 
 place for holding the federal assembly." — G. W. 
 Bolsford, History of the ancient world, p. 301. — 
 The central government of the Achaean League, 
 as of the affiliated cities, was based on democratic 
 principles. An assembly of all the members over 
 thirty years of age constituted the chief legisla- 
 tive assembly, which met twice a year to decide 
 the league's future policies and to elect its magis- 
 trates. "Nowhere could be found a more unal- 
 loyed and deliberately established system of equal- 
 ity and absolute freedom, — in a word, of democ- 
 racy,- — than among the Achaeans. This constitu- 
 tion found many of the Peloponnesians ready 
 enough to adopt it of their own accord: many 
 were brought to share it by persuasion and argu- 
 ment: some though acting upon compulsion at 
 first, were quickly brought to acquiesce in its 
 benefits; for none of the original members hadj,any 
 special privilege reserved for them, but equal rights 
 were given to all comers: the object aimed at was 
 therefore quickly attained by the two most unfail- 
 ing expedients of equality and fraternity. This 
 then must be looked upon as the source and 
 original cause of Peloponnesian unity and conse- 
 quent prosperity." — G. W. Botsford and E. G. 
 Sihler, Hellenic cii'iti:ation, p. 615. — -During the 
 life of the league, however, federal wars were di- 
 rected against Macedonia (2 So B. C), /Etolia 
 (230-220 B. C), Spiarta (207 B. C, 201 B. C), 
 and Antiochus (100 B. C). In r^o B. C. a con- 
 troversy arose between the Achaean League and 
 Rome. An attack on Sparta by the federal troops 
 provoked war with Rome which soon ended the 
 influence of the league. See Megalopolis; B. C. 
 :.'-'. 10418^ — See also Gheece: B. C. 280-146. 
 ACH^ANS. See Ach.sa. 
 
 32
 
 ACH^MENES 
 
 ACOMA 
 
 ACH^MENES. See Ach-^menids. 
 
 ACH^MENIDS, the dynastic name (in Greek 
 form) of the kings of the Persian Empire founded 
 by Cyrus, derived from an ancestor, Achimenes 
 (see Athens: B.C. 460-455) probably a chief 
 of the Persian tribe of Pasargaai. "In the. in- 
 scription of Behistun, King Darius says: 'From 
 old time we were kings; eight of my family have 
 been kings, I am the ninth; from very ancient 
 times we have been kings.' He enumerates his 
 ancestors: 'My father was Vista(;pa, the father of 
 Vistai;pa was Arsama; the father of Arsama was 
 Ariyaramna, the father of Ariyaramna was Khais- 
 pis, the father of Khaispis was Hakharaanis; hence 
 we are called Hakhamanisiya (Achaemenids) .' In 
 these words Darius gives the tree of his own fam- 
 ily up to Khaispis; this was the younger branch 
 of the Achaemenids. Teispes, the son of Achae- 
 menes, had two sons; the elder was Cambyses 
 (Kambujiya), the younger Ariamnes; the son of 
 Cambyses was Cyrus (Kurus), the son of Cyrus 
 was Cambyses II. Hence Darius could indeed 
 maintain that eight princes of his family had pre- 
 ceded him; but it was not correct to maintain 
 that they had been kings before him and that he 
 was the ninth king." — M. Duncker, History oj an- 
 tiquity, V. 5, bk. 8, ch. 3. 
 
 Also in: G. Rawlinson, Family oj the Achce- 
 menidce, app. to bk. 7 of Herodotus. 
 
 A-CnJEMS (484-448 B.C.), a Greek tragic 
 dramatist and poet of Eretria; contemporary of 
 Sophocles and Euripides; author of forty-four 
 dramas, of which onlv fragments remain. 
 
 ACHAIA. See Ach.t.a. 
 
 ACHARN.S, the principal deme of Attica, di- 
 rectly north of Athens at the foot of Mount 
 Parnes. 
 
 ACHELOUS, (mod. Aspropotamo), the larg- 
 est river in Greece, rises in Epirus and empties 
 into the Ionian sea. This river, which formed 
 the boundary between ancient Acarnania and ^to- 
 lia in western Hellas, "by overflowing its delta 
 region, constantly obliterated the boundaries 
 agreed upon by the two neighbors, and thereby 
 gave rise to disputes that were only settled by 
 force of arms." — E. C. Semple, Influences of 
 geographic environment, p. 363. — It was doubt- 
 less as a personification of this river that the name 
 Achelous appears in mythology as the river-god 
 over whom Hercules won a great victory. 
 
 ACHESON, Edward Goodrich (1856- ), 
 American inventor; became Edison's assistant in 
 1880; invented widely used carborundum; dis- 
 covered artificial graphite which far surpasses the 
 natural; found a process for finely subdividing 
 graphite; responsible for the development of the 
 modern electric furnace, perfecting, a more dur- 
 able graphitized anode to replace the carbon 
 electrodes; invented siloxicon, a compound of car- 
 bon, silicon, and oxygen, to meet the requirement 
 for a highly refractory material ; was awarded 
 in 1 9 10 the Perkin Medal of the Society of Chem- 
 ical Industry, for the most valuable work in ap- 
 plied chemist rv 
 
 ACHEULIAN INDUSTRY AND IMPLE- 
 MENTS. See Europe: Stone Age, Divisions. 
 
 ACHEULIAN MAN. See Europe: Prehis- 
 toric period. 
 
 ACHI BABA, a hill 700 feet high, near the 
 southwestern end of the Gallipoli peninsula ; the 
 main position of the Turkish defense in the fight- 
 ing of iQii;. 
 
 ACHIET-LE-PETIT, France.— Taken by the 
 British (1918). See World War: iqi8: II. West- 
 ern front, k, 1. 
 
 ACHILL ISLAND, a large island off the west 
 
 coast of Ireland. Its jagged cUffs and bogs, in- 
 capable of cultivation, leave only fishing and an 
 exceedingly scant and difficult farming of oats as 
 a means of livelihood. Its people have remained 
 distinctly Gaelic in language and custom. There 
 are antiquarian remains near Slievemore. 
 
 ACHILLES, one of the most famous lege«dary 
 heroes of ancient Greece, and one of the most 
 prominent leaders in the Trojan War. "The Black 
 sea and the Propontis were the special domain of 
 the sea-god AchiHes, whose fame grew greater 
 by his association as a hero with the legend of 
 Troy. He was worshipped along the coasts as 'lord 
 of the Pontus'; and in Leuce, the 'shining island' 
 near the Danube's mouth, the lonely island where 
 no man dwelled, he had a temple, and the birds 
 of the sea were said to be its warders." — J. B. 
 Bury, History oj Greece, p. 92. 
 
 ACHILLINI, Alessandro (1463-1512). See 
 Science: Middle Ages and the Renaissance: l6th 
 century. 
 
 ACHIN (Dutch Atjeh), a region formerly an 
 independent sultanate, now a Dutch administra- 
 tive district in the northwestern extremity of Su- 
 matra. The city of Kotaraja, the old Achinese 
 capital, was once the center of considerable wealth 
 and power and had diplomatic relations with 
 European powers. It was visited by Marco Polo 
 at the end of the thirteenth century and by the 
 Portuguese in 1506. In the first half of the sev- 
 enteenth century, the sultan of Achin had an ex- 
 tensive empire, including portions of the Malay 
 peninsula. A century later it was but a petty 
 state protected by the British until 1S71. Since 
 that time it has been a party to bitter and inter- 
 mittent wars with the Dutch, and even now 
 (1920) there are portions of the interior not en- 
 tirely subdued. 
 
 Hostilities with the Dutch. See Netherlands: 
 1904. 
 
 ACHMET. See Ahmed. 
 
 ACHRADINA, a part of the ancient city of 
 Syracuse, Sicily, known as the "outer city," occu- 
 pying the peninsula north of Ortygia, the island, 
 which was the "inner city." 
 
 ACHRIDA, Kingdom of.— After the death of 
 John Zimisces who had reunited Bulgaria to the 
 Byzantine Empire, the Bulgarians were roused to 
 a struggle for the recovery of their independence, 
 under the lead of four brothers of a noble family, 
 all of whom soon perished save one, named Sam- 
 uel. Samuel proved to be so vigorous and able 
 a soldier and had so much success that he as- 
 sumed presently the title of king. His authority 
 was established over the greater part of Bulgaria, 
 and extended into Macedonia, Epirus and Illyria. 
 He established his capital at .Achrida (modern 
 Ochrida, in Albania), which gave its name to his 
 kingdom. The suppression of this new Bulgarian 
 monarchy occupied the Byzantine Emperor, Basil 
 II., in wars from 981 until loiS, when its last 
 strongholds, including the city of Achrida, were sur- 
 rendered to him. — G. Finlay, //(sfory oj the Byzan- 
 tine Empire jrom 716 to 1057, bk. 2. sh. 2, sect. 2. 
 
 ACILIUS GLABRIO. See Glabrio. 
 
 ACKERMAN, Francis (1335-1387), Flemish 
 diplomat and soldier. Took a prominent part in 
 the struggle between the burghers of Ghent and 
 Louis II, count of Flanders; helped to sign the 
 peace treaty between the city of Ghent and Philip 
 the Bold, duke of Burgundy. 
 
 ACKERMAN, or Akkerman, Convention of 
 (1826). See Turkey: 1826-1829. 
 
 ACOLHUAS. See Mexico: Aboriginal peoples. 
 
 ACOLYTH. See Varangians or Warings. 
 
 ACOMA, an Indian pueblo in New Mexico, not 
 
 zz
 
 ACKA 
 
 ACRE DISPUTES 
 
 far from Albuquerque. It was visited by Coro- 
 nado's expedition (1540), by Espejo (1583) and 
 Juan de Oiiate (1508). Because of the fidelity 
 with which it has preserved its ancient customs, 
 it has become in recent years one of the chief 
 centers of interest to students of Indian antiquities. 
 ACRA, Mount of. See Jerusalem: .\. D. 33; 
 see also Chrisiianitv: Map of Jerusalem. 
 
 ACRABA, Battle of (633). See Yemama, Bat- 
 tle OF. 
 
 ACRABATENE, Battle of (B.C. 164). A 
 sanguinary defeat of the Idumeans or Edomites 
 by the Jews under Judas Maccabaeus. — Josephus, 
 Antiquities of the Jews, bk. 12, ch. 8. 
 ACRAGAS. See Acrigentum. 
 ACRE, a city and seaport of Syria, known in 
 antiquity as Ptolemais and in the days of the 
 Crusades as St. Jean d'.Acre. Though once re- 
 garded as the key to Palestine, it has been sup- 
 planted by Haifa to the south. In consequence of 
 its strategic position it has been the scene of many 
 famous sieges. See Crtsades: Map (after 1204). 
 1104-1110. — Conquest, pillage and massacre by 
 the Crusaders and Genoese. See Crusades: 
 I 104-1 III. 
 
 1187. — Taken from the Christians by Saladin. 
 See Jerusalem: ii 44-1 187, 
 
 1189-1191. — Great siege and reconquest by the 
 Crusaders. See Crusades: 1188-1192, also Mili- 
 tary aspect. 
 
 1256-1258. — Quarrels and battles between the 
 Genoese and Venetians. See Venice: 1256-1258. 
 1291. — Final triumph of the Moslems. See 
 Crusades: Military aspect; Jerusalem: i2gi. 
 
 1517. — Taken by Selim I. Captured in his 
 Syrian campaign, it fell rapidly into decay 
 
 18th century. — Restored to importance by 
 Sheik Daher. — ".^cre . . . had, by the middle of 
 the iSth century, been almost entirely forsaken, 
 when Sheik Daher, the .Arab rebel, restored its 
 commerce and navigation. This able prince, whose 
 sway comprehended the whole of ancient Galilee, 
 was succeeded by the infamous tyrant, Djezzar- 
 Pasha, who fortified .Acre, and adorned it with a 
 mosque, enriched with columns of antique marble, 
 collected from all the neighbouring cities." — M. 
 Malte-Brun, System of universal geograplty, t'. i, 
 bk. 28. 
 
 1799. — Unsuccessful siege by Napoleon. See 
 France: I7q8-i700 (.\ugust-.-\ugust). 
 
 1832. — Siege and capture by Mehemet AH. — 
 Recovery for the sultan by the western powers. 
 See Turkey: 1831-1840. 
 
 1918. — Capture by British. See World W.ar: 
 IQ18: \I Turkish theater: c, 13 and c, 19. 
 
 ACRE DISPUTES.— Claims on the region by 
 Brazil, Peru, and Bolivia. — A considerable terri- 
 tury of much richness in the southwestern part of 
 the Amazon valley, around the upper waters of 
 the Madeira, the .Aquiry, and the Purus tributaries, 
 was long in dispute between Brazil, Bolivia, and 
 Peru, and became a cause of serious quarrel be- 
 tween the two first named in IQ03. (See Latin- 
 .■\merica: Map of South .America.) The then 
 Brazilian president, Rodriguez .Alves, in his first 
 annual message, May, 1003, stated the situation 
 from the Brazilian standpoint as follows: 
 
 "Our former relations of such cordial friendship 
 with Bolivia have suffered a not insignificant 
 strain since the time when the Government of that 
 *ister Republic, unable to maintain its authority in 
 the .Acre region, inhabited exclusively, as you 
 know, by Brazilians who, many years previously, 
 had established themselves there in good faith, 
 saw fit to deliver it over to 3 foreign syndicate 
 upon whom it conferred powers almost sovereign. 
 
 That concession, as dangerous for the neighboring 
 nations as for Bolivia itself, encountered general 
 disapproval in South .America. As the most im- 
 mediately interested, Brazil, already in the time 
 of my illustrious predecessor, protested against the 
 contract to which I refer, and entered upon the 
 policy of reprisals, prohibiting the free transit 
 by the .Amazon of merchandise between Bolivia 
 and abroad. Neither that protest nor the coun- 
 sels of friendship produced at that time the de- 
 sired effect in La Paz, and, far from rescinding 
 the contract or making the hoped-for modifications 
 therein, the Bolivian Government concluded an 
 especial arrangement for the purpose of hurrying 
 . . . the syndicate into the . . . territory. 
 
 "When I assumed the government that was the 
 situation, and in addition the inhabitants of the 
 Acre, who had again proclaimed their indepen- 
 dence, were masters of the whole country, except- 
 ing Puerto .Acre, of which they did not get pos- 
 session until the end of January. .Although since 
 January negotiations have been initiated by us 
 for the purpose of removing amicably the cause 
 of the disorders and complications which have had 
 their seat of action in the .Acre ever since the time 
 when for the first time the Bolivian authorities 
 penetrated thither, in iSqo. yet the Government of 
 La Paz has nevertheless thought proper that its 
 President and his minister of war should march 
 against that territory at the head of armed forces 
 with the end in view of crushing its inhabitants 
 and then establishing the agents of the syndicate." 
 
 The Brazilian president proceeded then to re- 
 late that he had notified the Bolivian government 
 of the intention of Brazil to "defend as its bound- 
 ary the parallel of 10^ 20' south," which it held 
 to be the line indicated by the letter and the spirit 
 of a treaty concluded in 1867 ; and that Bolivia 
 had then agreed to a settlement of the dispute 
 through diplomatic channels. "Upon the Bolivian 
 Government agreeing to this," he continued, "we 
 promptly reestablished freedom of transit for its 
 foreign commerce by Brazilian waters. Shortly 
 after this the syndicate, by reason of the indem- 
 nity which we paid it, renounced the concession 
 which had been made it, eliminating thus this dis- 
 turbing element." 
 
 In conclusion of the subject. President Alves re- 
 ported: "To the Peruvian Government we have 
 announced, very willingly, since January, that we 
 will examine, with attention, the claims which in 
 due time they may be pleased to make upon the 
 subject of the territories now in dispute between 
 Brazil and Bolivia." 
 
 The result of the ensuing negotiations between 
 Brazil and Bolivia was a treaty signed in the 
 following November and duly ratified, the terms 
 of which were summarized as follows in a despatch 
 from the .American Legation at La Paz, December 
 26: "Three months after exchange of ratifications 
 Brazil is to pay an indemnity of £1,000,000 and 
 in March, IQ05, £i,ooc,ooo. A small strip of ter- 
 ritory, north Marso, Brazilero, embracing Bahia 
 N'egra and a port opposite Coimbra, on Paraguay 
 River, are conceded, and all responsibilities re- 
 specting Peruvian contentions are assumed. The 
 disputed Acre territon,' is conceded by Bolivia. A 
 railroad for the common use of both countries is 
 to be built from San .Antonio, on Madeira River, 
 to Cuajar .Ameren, on Mamore River, within four 
 years after ratification. Free navigation on the 
 .Amazon and its Bolis-ian affluents is conceded A 
 mixed commission, with umpire chosen from the 
 diplomatic representation to Brazil, will treat all 
 individual .Acre claims." 
 
 Subsequently it was determined in Bolivia that 
 
 34
 
 ACRE DISPUTES 
 
 ACROPOLIS OF ATHENS 
 
 the entire indemnity received from Brazil should 
 be expended on railroads, with an additional sum 
 of £3,500,000, to be raised by loan. 
 
 For the settlement of the remaining question of 
 rights in the Acre territory, between Bolivia and 
 Peru, a treaty of arbitration, negotiated in De- 
 cember, i()02, but ratified with modifications by 
 the Bolivian Congress in October, moj, provided 
 that "the high contracting parties submit to the 
 judgment and decision of the Government of the 
 Argentine Republic, as arbitrator and judge of 
 rights, the question uf limits now pending between 
 both republics, so as to obtain a definite and un- 
 appealable sentence, in virtue of which all the 
 territory which in 1810 belonged to the jurisdic- 
 tion or district of the Ancient Audience of Char- 
 cas, within the limits of the viceroyalty of Buenos 
 Ayres, by acts of the ancient sovereign, may belong 
 to the Republic of Bolivia; and all the territory 
 which at the same date and by acts of equal origin 
 belonged to the viceroyalty of Peru may belong 
 to the Republic of Peru." 
 
 1909. — Final partition. — The case was pending 
 until July, 1900, when judgment favorable to the 
 ilaims ol Peru was pronounced by the President of 
 Ihe Argentine Republic, Serior Figueroa Alcorta. 
 .According to the award, as announced ofiicially 
 from Peru, the line was drawn to "follow the riv- 
 ers Heath and Madre de Dios up to the mouth of 
 the Toromonas and from there a straight line as 
 far as the intersection of the river Tehuamanu with 
 meridian 6q. It will then run northwards along 
 this meridian until it meets the territorial sov- 
 ereignty of another nation " 
 
 The Bolivians were ehraged by the decision 
 against them, and riotous attacks were made on 
 the Argentine Legation at La Paz, the Bolivian 
 capital, and on .Argentine consulates elsewhere 
 Worse than this in offensiveness was a published 
 declaration by President Montes of Bolivia that 
 the arbitration award respecting the frontiers of 
 Bolivia and Peru had been given by Argentina 
 without regard to Bolivia's petition that an actual 
 itispection of the territory should be made in case 
 (he documents and titles submitted were unsatis- 
 factory. "Had this been done," said the president 
 of Bolivia, "the arbitrator would have been con- 
 vinced of the respective possessions of the two 
 countries. It is inexplicable how the arbitrator, 
 after examining the titles and documents, could 
 give such a decision. He passed over the elemen- 
 tary principles of international rights in awarding 
 to Peru territory which had never been questioned 
 as belonging to Bolivia. As a consequence Bolivia 
 rejects the award." 
 
 The insulted government of Argentina demanded 
 explanations; diplomatic relations between the two 
 countries were broken off, and war seemed immi- 
 nent. Fortunately the term of President Montes 
 was near its close, and a man of evidently cooler 
 temper, Elidoro Villazon, succeeded him in the 
 presidency on August 12. The new President, 
 in his message to Congress next day, while char- 
 acterizing the award as unjust, said: "We must 
 proceed circumspectly, and be guided by interna- 
 tional rights and the customs of civilized nations 
 in similar cases. I consider it right to avail our- 
 selves of the means offered bv diplomacy to obtain 
 a rectification of the new frontier line given by 
 arbitration, thus saving the compromised posses- 
 sions of Bolivia." 
 
 With this better spirit entering into the contro- 
 versy, Bolivia was soon able to arrange with Peru 
 for a concession from the latter which made her 
 people willing to recognize the award. This 
 agreement was effected on the nth of September, 
 
 and its terms, as made known in a despatch from 
 Rio de Janeiro, were as follows: "Peru surrenders 
 to Bolivia a very small extent of territory lying 
 between the Madre de Dios River and the Acre, 
 traversed by the rivers Tahuamano and Buyamaro, 
 which together form the river Orton, an affluent 
 of the Beni River. This territory, with an area of 
 about 6,500 square kilometres, was discovered and 
 colonized by Bolivians, who to-day are in posses- 
 sion of numerous prosperous industries there. 
 Peru gets possession of all the upper course of the 
 Madre de Dios, from its head waters to its con- 
 fluence with the river Heath. Such a slight modi- 
 lication as the foregoing from the decision reached 
 by the arbitrator in no way disturbs the Argentine 
 Republic." 
 
 As between Peru and Brazil the boundary ques- 
 tion was settled by a treaty signed at Rio de 
 Janeiro on the Sth of September, three days be- 
 fore the Bolivian pacification. 
 
 This probably closes a territorial dispute which 
 has troubled four countries in South America for 
 many years, and brought quarrelling couple-s to 
 the verge of war a number of times. 
 
 ACROCERAUNIAN PROMONTORY. See 
 
 CORCVRA. 
 
 ACROPOLIS, literally "the upper city" (or the 
 highest part of the city), a term applied to the 
 citadel or fortified part of an ancient Greek city. 
 For purposes of defence the earliest settlements 
 were usually made upon some lofty hill or other 
 natural stronghold, further protected by fortifi- 
 cation. As the town increased in size and more 
 extensive walls were built, the acropolis, gradually 
 losing its military character, was given over to 
 temples, theatres and other public buildings dedi- 
 cated to the protecting deity of the city. Among 
 the more noteworthy of such acropolises were 
 those at .Athens and Corinth, Troy, Mycenae and 
 Tirviis, Thebes, .^rgos, Messene (q. v.). 
 
 ACROPOLIS OF ATHENS, a precipitous and 
 lofty tlat-topped hill near the center of the city of 
 Athens, forming a natural stronghold which be- 
 came the seat of the earliest settlement. It meas- 
 ures about 1,000 feet long by 500 feet wide and 
 reaches its maximum elevation of 512 feet on the 
 northeast side. "In the early days, when the 
 Acropolis was essentially a fortified castle, the 
 bastion on which the temple of Athena Victory 
 was afterwards built was an effective outwork 
 against approaching enemies, who, as at Tiryns and 
 other primitive citadels, could be attacked from 
 above on their unshielded right side. The wall of 
 the bastion has been repeatedly rebuilt, but the 
 evidence is too scanty to permit as yet a final 
 interpretation of its history, and opinions are still 
 diverse." — C. H. Weller, Athens and its monu- 
 ments, pp. 240-241. — Long before the Per.sian 
 wars, the city having outgrown these narrow con- 
 fines, the acropolis had been consecrated to the 
 patron goddess .Athena, for whose worship mag- 
 nificent shrines were erected. "The private dwell- 
 ings of the Athenians and even their state offices 
 were small and inexpensive. Religion alone in- 
 s|ilrfd them to buiki beautifully and grandly. 
 When the Persians entered Athens, they burned 
 the temples and other buildings, leaving the Acrop- 
 olis strewn with heaps of ruins. For a time after 
 their return the citizens had neither the leisure nor 
 the means of restoring these shrines. Cimon, how- 
 ever, completing a work begun by Themistocles, 
 levelled the surface of the Acropolis to fit it better 
 for buildincs. This end was accomplished bv 
 erecting a h'gh wall along the southern edee, a 
 lower one along the northern, and filling up the 
 space thus made with earth and rubbish The 
 
 35
 
 ACROPOLIS OF ATHENS 
 
 ACTON— BURNELL 
 
 present steep appearance of the hill is due chiefly 
 to this work. But it was left to Pericles to build 
 the temple on the ground thus prepared. For this 
 purpose Pericles used some of the funds from the 
 imperial treasury. Revenues from other sources 
 were likewise used; and as the state owned the 
 marble quarries on Mount Pentelicus, the chief 
 cost was for the labor.'' — G. W. Botsford, History 
 of the ancient world, p. 207. — In accordance with 
 this plan there were erected, during the adminis- 
 tration of Pericles and under the able direction of 
 Phidias, Mnesicles, Ictinus, Callicrates and other 
 artists, those magnificent buildings, the ruins of 
 which are still the marvel of the world. 
 
 "Nothing in ancient Greece or Italy could be 
 compared with the Acropolis of Athens, in its 
 combination of beauty and grandeur, surrounded 
 as it was by temples and theatres among its rocks, 
 and encircled by a city abounding with monu- 
 ments, some of which rivalled those of the .Acrop- 
 olis. Its platform formed one great sanctuary, 
 partitioned only by the boundaries of the . . . 
 sacred portions. We cannot, therefore, admit the 
 suggestion of Chandler, that, in addition to the 
 temples and other monuments on the summit, there 
 were houses divided into regular streets. This 
 would not have been consonant either with the 
 customs or the good taste of the Athenians. When 
 the people of Attica crowded into Athens at the 
 beginning of the Peloponnesian war, and religious 
 prejudices gave way, in every possible case, to the 
 necessities of the occasion, even then the Acropolis 
 remained uninhabited." 
 
 Since the only access from the lower city to the 
 summit of the Acropolis was by way of a chariot 
 road running zig-zag up the slope at the western 
 end, and since the total breadth of the hill at this 
 point was only 168 feet, it seemed advisable "to 
 till up the space with a single building which 
 should serve the purpose of a gateway to the cita- 
 del, as well as of a suitable entrance to that glo- 
 rious display of architecture and sculpture which 
 was within the inclosure. This work [the Propy- 
 lia], the greatest production of civil architecture 
 in Athens, which rivalled the Parthenon in felicity 
 of execution, surpassed it in boldness and origi- 
 nality of design. ... It may be defined as a wall 
 pierced with five doors, before which on both sides 
 were Doric hexastyle porticoes." — W. M. Leake, 
 Topography of Athens, sect. 8. — "On entering 
 through the gates of the Propylaea a scene of un- 
 paralleled grandeur and beauty burst upon the 
 eye. No trace of human dwellings anywhere ap- 
 peared, but on all sides temples of more or less 
 elevation, of Pentelic marble, beautiful in design 
 and exquisitely delicate in execution, sparkled like 
 piles of alabaster in the sun. On the left stood 
 the Erectheion, or fane of Athena. Polias; to the 
 right, that matchless edifice known as the Heca- 
 tompedon of old, but to later ages as the Parthe- 
 non. Other buildings, all holy to the eye of an 
 Athenian, lay grouped around these master struc- 
 tures, and, in the open spaces between, in what- 
 ever direction the spectator might look, appeared 
 statues, some remarkable for their dimensions, 
 others for their beauty, and all for the legendary 
 sanctity which surrounded them. No city of the 
 ancient or modern world ever rivalled .Athens in 
 the riches of art. Our best filled museums, though 
 teeming with her spoils, are poor collections of 
 fragments compared with that assemblage of gods 
 and heroes which peopled the Acropolis, the genu- 
 ine Olympos of ihe arts" — J .\ St John. The 
 Hellenes, bk i, ch. 4 — "Unlike the famous struc- 
 tures of the .Ancient East, it was not the immense 
 size of the Parthenon, but its beautiful propor- 
 
 tions, exquisite adornment and ideal sculptures 
 that make it memorable. It was 100 feet wide, 
 226 feet lon4, and 65 feet high, built of marble 
 and painted in harmonious colors. A row of 46 
 Doric columns surrounded it, and every available 
 space above the columns within and without was 
 carved in relief with scenes representing glorious 
 events in the religious history of Athens. A won- 
 derfully sculptured frieze, extending for more than 
 500 feet around the inner temple, depicted with a 
 variety and energy never surpassed scenes in the 
 Panathenaea, the festival in honor of the patron 
 goddess Athena. In the temple stood a statue of 
 the deity, the masterpiece of Phidias, made of 
 ivory and gold, 38 feet in height, including the 
 pedestal. Though this statue has long since dis- 
 appeared and the temple itself is but a rum, the 
 remains of it illustrate supremely the chief features 
 of Greek architecture, 'simplicity, harmony, refine- 
 ment, the union of strength and beauty.' " — G. S. 
 Goodspeed, History of the ancient uiorld, pp. 148- 
 14Q. — See also Athe.ns: 461-431, and Map of an- 
 cient Athens; Parthenon. 
 
 ACS, Battle of (1849). See Austria; 1848- 
 1840. 
 
 ACT OF ABJURATION, MEDIATION, SE- 
 CURITY, etc. See .Abjuration', Act of, etc. 
 
 ACT OF GOD, a legal term denoting the opera- 
 tion of uncontrollable natural forces, really con- 
 fined to unforseeable disasters. Prof. James H. 
 Robinson derives the phrase from the usage of the 
 Middle Ages, when the general abysmal ignorance 
 attributed any unusual or startling occurrence to 
 the intervention of either God or the devil, lead- 
 ing at that time to the worship of what Harnack 
 has called "a God of .Arbitrariness." 
 
 ACT OF UNION (1535). See Wales: 1535- 
 
 IQ2I. 
 
 ACT RESCISSORY. See Scotland: 1660-1666. 
 
 ACTA DIURNA, a Roman daily chronicle, said 
 to have been originated by Julius Cssar (50 B. C.) 
 who designed it to disclose the acts of the various 
 public officers. It served the purpose, in a limited 
 sense, of the modern newspaper. The acta were 
 published on white boards so that anybody might 
 read them. 
 
 ACTA SENATUS (Commentarii senatus), the 
 record of the proceedings and decisions of the 
 Roman Senate. Cssar was the first consul to issue 
 officially and publicly the proceedings of the 
 Senate 
 
 ACTION OF EJECTMENT: Its use. See 
 Common law: 1400. 
 
 ACTIUM: B. C. 434.— Naval battle of the 
 Greeks. — A defeat inflicted upon the Corinthians 
 by the Corcyrians, in the contest over Epidamnus 
 which was the prelude to the Peloponnesian War. 
 — E. Curtlus, History of Greece, bk. 4, ch. i. 
 
 B. C. 31. — Victory of Octavius. See Egypt: 
 B. C. 30; Ro.mf: B C. 31. 
 
 ACTON, John Emerich Edward Dalberg 
 Acton, 1st Baron (1834-1Q02), English historian, 
 and ardent Liberal in politics; was Gladstone's 
 advisor and intimate friend; represented Great 
 Britain at the coronation of Alexander II in 
 1S56. A devoted read?r, scholar and master of 
 the more important foreign languages; gave evi- 
 dence of historical learning at an early age, yet 
 never applied himself to any appreciable extent 
 to original work : had a great fund of knowledge 
 and was considered one of the most learned men 
 of his time; in 180.'; accepted the appointment to 
 the Regius professorship of Modern History at 
 Cambridge. 
 
 ACTON-BURNELL, a village in Shropshire, 
 England ; here are the remains of an ancient castle 
 
 36
 
 ACTS OF SETTLEMENT 
 
 ADAMS 
 
 where Edward I in 12S3 issued the famous "Stat- 
 ute merchant" protecting the credit of merchants. 
 The Statute of Acton-BurncU was repealed by 
 act of Parliament in iSb%. 
 
 ACTS OF SETTLEMENT: Attempt to re- 
 store rights of loyal Irish. See iRELANn: lobo- 
 ibb^. 
 
 ACTS OF SUBSCRIPTION. See Ireland; 
 
 1653- 
 ACULCO, Battle of (1810). See Mexico: 
 
 1810-1819. 
 
 ACUSILAUS. See History; 16. 
 
 A. D. (Anno Domini), in the Year of our Lord. 
 
 AD DECIMUS, Battle of (533). See Van- 
 dals: 533-534- 
 
 AD HOC CORPORATIONS. Sec Municipal 
 governmen't: Early development of public works. 
 
 AD SALICES, Battle of (378). Sec Rome: 
 ibi-MO- 
 
 AD SEPTEM FRATRES, ancient name of 
 Ceuta. 
 
 AD VALOREM DUTIES. See Tariff: 1894. 
 
 Underwood tariff. See Tariff: 1913. 
 
 ADAIM 1917: Occupied by British. See 
 World War: 1917: VI: Turkish theater: a, 2, i. 
 
 ADAIS — These Indians were a "tribe who, 
 according to Dr. Sibley, lived about the year i8oo 
 near the old Spanish fort or mission of Adaize, 
 'about 40 miles from Natchitoches, below the Yat- 
 tassees, on a lake called Lac Macdon, which com- 
 municates with the division of Red River that 
 passes by Bayou Pierre' [Lewis and Clarke). A 
 vocabulary of about 250 words is all that remains 
 to us of their language, which according to the 
 collector, Dr. Sibley, 'differs from all others, and 
 is so difficult to speak or understand that no na- 
 tion can speak ten words of it. ... A recent com- 
 parison of this vocabulary by Mr. Gatschet, with 
 several Caddoan dialects, has led to the discovery 
 that a considerable percentage of the Adai words 
 have a more or less remote affinity with Caddoan, 
 ind he regards it as a Caddoan dialect." — J. W. 
 Powell, Seventh annual report, Bureau of ethnol- 
 ogy, PP- 45-46- 
 
 ADAIZE. See Texas: Aboriginal inhabitants. 
 
 ADALBERO, or Adalberon, archbishop of 
 Reims (d. 088) . Made Reims a center of in- 
 tellectual culture; was an important influence in 
 substituting the Capetian line for the Carolingian; 
 chancellor of France under Lothair and Louis V ; 
 lord high chancellor under Hugh Capet. 
 
 ADALBERON, or Ascelin, bishop of Laon 
 in 977, not to be confounded with his namesake, 
 Adalbero of Rheims. Was imprisoned in qSS by 
 Charles, duke of Lorraine, who captured the city 
 of Laon ; soon escaped and received the protection 
 of Hugh Capet, king of France; succeeded in 
 winning the confidence of Charles of Lorraine, and 
 was restored to his see ; betrayed Charles and the 
 city of Laon into the hands of his former bene- 
 factor; died 1030 or 1031. 
 
 ADALBERT, or Adelbert (c. 1000-1072), 
 archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen, his province in- 
 cluding Scandinavia and most of Northern Ger- 
 many. As a friend of the German king, Henry 
 III, and of the emperor of the Holy Roman Em- 
 pire, took a leading part in religious and civil 
 government; is said to have refused the papal 
 throne in 1046; was one of the most powerful and 
 famous ecclesiastics of his day. 
 
 ADALBERT (originally 'Voytech), (955-997), 
 known as the "Apostle to the Prussians"; in 983 
 chosen bishop of Prague. Devoted himself to mis- 
 sionary work, chiefly in North Germany and 
 Poland. 
 
 ADALIA, a seaport of Asia Minor on the Gulf 
 
 of Adalia, is built on a hill around the harbor so 
 that the .streets appear to rise behind each other 
 like an amphitheater ; population about 30,000, 
 mostly Mohammedans and Greeks; now heard of 
 most often in connection with recent Italian im- 
 migration and the claims of Italy to the country 
 around Adalia Bay as her portion of the Ottoman 
 inheritance 
 
 ADALIA RAILWAY. See Italy: 1920. 
 
 ADALING. See Adel. 
 
 ADALOALDUS, King of the Lombards, 616- 
 026. 
 
 ADAM, Adolphe Charles (1803-1856), French 
 operatic composer, follower of Auber in the opera 
 comi-que. See Music: 19th century: Opera before 
 Wagner. 
 
 ADAMAWA. See Cameroons. 
 
 ADAMNAN, or Adomnan (c. 624-704), Irish 
 saint and historian. Elected abbot of lona, 679; 
 tried unsuccessfully to enforce the adoption of the 
 tonsure and a change in the date of the celebration 
 of Easter. 
 
 ADAMS, Charles Francis (1807-1886), Amer- 
 ican diplomat and statesman. *Son of John Quincy 
 Adams; edited the "Letters of Abigail and John 
 Adams" and the "Works of John Adams"; mem- 
 ber of Congress, 1859-1861; minister to England, 
 1861-1868; prominent leader in the Liberal Re- 
 publican party in 1872 ; arbitrator for the United 
 States on the Geneva Tribunal, 1871-1872. — See 
 also U. S. A.: 1848: Free soil convention at Buffalo. 
 
 ADAMS, Ephraim Douglass (1865- ), 
 American educator and professor of history. See 
 History: 33. 
 
 ADAMS, George Burton (1851- ), Amer- 
 ican historian. Professor of history at Yale; presi- 
 dent of American Historical Association, IQ07- 
 1908; member of board of editors, American His- 
 torical Review 1895-1913; author of many works 
 on medieval and modern history. 
 
 ADAMS, Henry (1838-1918), American his- 
 torian. Third son of C. F. Adams (q. v.) ; chief 
 work, "History of the United States from 1801 to 
 181 7," a standard authority on the administra- 
 tions of Jefferson and Madison See History: 
 32. 
 
 ADAMS, Henry Carter (1851-1921), American 
 economist. Statistician to the Interstate Commerce 
 Commission, 1887-1911; professor of political econ 
 omy and finance at University of Michigan, 1887; 
 in 1913 became advisor to Chinese commission to 
 standardize railway records. 
 
 ADAMS, John (1735-1826), second president of 
 the United States. Pungent writer against the 
 Stamp Act; active delegate in the First Continental 
 Congress and the Provincial Congress of Massa 
 chusetts; member of the Committee of Five which 
 drew up the Declaration of Independence (sec 
 U. S. A.: 1776, January-June: King George's 
 measures; June: Resolutions for independence; 
 July) ; served on missions to France and at the 
 Hague (see U. S. A.: 1776-1778) ; first minister 
 of the United States to Great Britain ; prominent 
 Federalist ; first vice-president of the United States, 
 1789-1797 (see U. S. A.: 1789) ; president, 1797- 
 1801. 
 
 Views on independence. See U. S. A.: 1775 
 (January-,'\pril) . 
 
 At First Continental Congress. See U. S. A.: 
 
 1774 (September, and September-October). 
 
 At Second Continental Congress. See U.S.A.: 
 
 1775 (May-August). 
 
 Signed Declaration of Independence. See 
 U. S. A.: 1776 (July): Text of the Declaration. 
 
 Minister to Holland. See U. S. A.: 1782 
 (April). 
 
 37
 
 ADAMS 
 
 ADAMSON LAW 
 
 Peace with England. See U. S. A.: 178J 
 (September). 
 
 Distrust of French aims in America. See 
 U. S. A.: 1782 (September-November). 
 
 Opinion on peace treaty. See U. S. .\.: 1783- 
 1787- 
 
 Treaty of peace with England disputed. See 
 U. S. A.: 17S4-1788. 
 
 Negotiations with Barbary States, 1795. — 
 War against them. See Barb.\ry St.mes: 1783- 
 1801. 
 
 Defense of Bicameral system. See Biwme- 
 
 RAL SVSTtM. 
 
 Second presidential election. See U. S. A.: 
 
 I7Q2- 
 
 Third presidential election. See U. S. A.: 
 1706. 
 
 Attitude towards alien and sedition laws. 
 See U. S. A.: iSoo-iSot. 
 
 Death. Soc U, S. A.: 1826. 
 
 ADAMS, John Couch (iSio-iSq2), English 
 astronomer and mathematician. By pure calcula- 
 tion he was able to demonstrate in 1S45 the exist- 
 ence and the exact position of Neptune (facts 
 determined at the same time by an independent 
 investigation of the French astronomer, Leverrier) . 
 This mathematical discovery of an unknown 
 planet is accounted one of the greatest triumphs 
 of science. 
 
 ADAMS, John Quincy (1767-1848), sixth presi- 
 dent of the United States. Lawyer, statesman, and 
 diplomat; minister to England, 1812-1817; secre- 
 tary of state in the cabinet of President Monroe 
 (see U. S. A.: 1816) ; celebrated as "the old man 
 eloquent" in the House of Representatives, 1831- 
 1848. 
 
 Denies Russian claims along the western 
 coast. See Orf,con: 1741-1S36. 
 
 Negotiations at Treaty of Ghent. See U.S. A.: 
 1814 (December): Treaty of peace concluded. 
 
 Monroe Doctrine. See U. S. A.: 1823. 
 
 Election. — Administration. See U. S. A.: 
 :824; 1825-182S, 
 
 Ideas on Opium War of England and China. 
 See Opium problem: 1S40. 
 
 Defense of the Right of Petition.— Opposition. 
 See U. S. A.: 1S42: Victory of John Quincy .'Vdams. 
 
 ADAMS, John Quincy ( i8.v?-i8q4), American 
 politician: member of Massachusetts legislature; 
 Democratic nominee for vice-president. See U.S.A.: 
 1872. , 
 
 ADAMS, Samuel (1722-1803), American revo- 
 lutionary leader. Author of many important state 
 papers; sent to the Continental Concress, 1774- 
 1781 (see U. S. A.: 1774. September): three times 
 elected governor of Massachusetts, 1704-1707; 
 though he opposed the Federal constitution in 
 1788, his final adherence secured its ratification 
 by Massachusetts. 
 
 Importance in town-meeting. See Township 
 
 AND TOWN-MKETIXG. 
 
 Opposition to English taxation in Massa- 
 chusetts. — Committee of correspondence. See 
 U. S. A . 1772-1773 
 
 On use of the caucus. See Caucus: Origin. 
 
 Aid rendered in American revolution. — Ac- 
 tions in Canada. See U. S. A: i77S (May). 
 
 Signed Declaration of Independence. See 
 U. S A.: 1776 (Julv): Text of Declaration. 
 
 ADAMS, WUliam (d. 1620), English pilot in 
 Japan. See Japan: 1593-1625. 
 
 ADAMS ACT (1006). See Education, Agri- 
 cultural: United States: Experiment stations acts. 
 
 ADAMSON LAW.— "The outbreak of the 
 World War and the consequent increase in the 
 volume of the foreign trade of the United States 
 led to very great confusion and congestion in the 
 
 railway system. When, in February of 1916, 400,- 
 coo railroad trainmen demanded an eight-hour 
 day for the freight service, without reduction of 
 the existing ten-hour day wage, and time and a 
 half pay for overtime, the whole industrial and 
 commercial situation became threatening. In June 
 the managers met the officers of the Four Broth- 
 erhoods of trainmen (Locomotive Engineers, Loco- 
 motive Firemen, Railway Conductors and Railway 
 Trainmen) in a conference. The managers re- 
 fused the mens demand, but offered to submit it 
 to arbitration along with certain grievances ot 
 the railroads. ... In June no agreement could be 
 reached. The meeting broke up and the brother- 
 hood chieftains took a strike vote. They found 
 themselves authorized by over 05 per cent, of theii 
 constituents to call a strike unless the railroads 
 gave in. With this power the brotherhood leaders 
 met the railroad managers in a second series 01 
 conferences in .August. Now for the first time the 
 country realized the seriousness of the situation. 
 .Ml eyes were on the conferees in N«w York. 
 .Xgain they found themselves in deadlock. Then, 
 as provided in the Newlands .■\ct, one of the par- 
 tics to the controversy, the railroads, invoked the 
 F'ederal Board of Mediation and Conciliation, 
 which found it impossible to mediate and sug- 
 gested arbitration The men refused, even if the 
 roads were to agree to limit the arbitration pro- 
 ceedings to a consideration of the men's de- 
 mands alone ; that is, even if the roads agreed to 
 withdraw their complaints. ... .At this point 
 President Wilson stepped in. On .August fifteenth, 
 after seeing both men and managers, he made his 
 proposition that the railroads grant the request of 
 the men for ten hours" pay for the first eight hours 
 of work and that the men agree to arbitrate the 
 question of getting more than pro rata for over- 
 time. That is, he asked that the men be given 
 their main demand, and that their minor demand 
 alone be investigated. The committee of railroad 
 managers could not see their way clear to the as- 
 sumption of this extra wage roll, without investi- 
 gation. Nothing was more certain than that the 
 burden would eventually have to be shifted to the 
 public, in the form of higher rates, if the financial 
 standing of the railroads was to be maintained 
 ... It is fair to present the President's viewpoint. 
 In describing these negotiations, he said to Con- 
 gress on .August twenty-ninth: 'The railway man- 
 agers based their decision to reject my counsel in 
 this matter on their conviction that they must at 
 any cost to themselves or to the country stand 
 firm for the principle of arbitration which the men 
 had rejected. I based my counsel upon the in- 
 disputable fact that there was no means of ob- 
 taining arbitration. The law supplied none. Ear- 
 nest efforts at mediation had failed to influence 
 the men in the least. To stand firm for the prin- 
 ciple of arbitration and yet not get arbitration 
 seemed to me' futile.' While negotiations were 
 still proceeding, on Monday, .August twenty-eighth, 
 the six hundred and forty brotherhood chairmen 
 left Washington. The President called on the 
 .steering committee of the Senate to plan legislation 
 that would satisfy the men and avert the pending 
 calamity. It transpired that when the brotherhood 
 chairmen left Washington, they carried sealed or- 
 ders in their hands for a strike, to become effective 
 at 7 a. m., September fourth. ... .At 2 p. m. on 
 Tuesday the President addressed Congress in joint 
 session. He told of the tragical consequences which 
 the strike would entail for the whole country. He 
 told of his proposed settlement: the temporary 
 granting of an eight-hour pay-day; a commission 
 to investigate the cost to the railroads; the .per- 
 
 38
 
 ADAMSON LAW 
 
 ADAMSON LAW 
 
 manent adjustment of all matters in dispute in ac- 
 cord with the commission's report. 'It seemed to 
 me,' he said, 'in considering the subject matter of 
 the controversy, that the whole spirit of the time 
 and the preponderant evidence of recent economic 
 experience spoke for the eight-hour day.' He fore- 
 casted the success of the strike, should it start. 
 He said that the railroad representatives had re- 
 jected his counsel: 'In the face of what I cannot 
 but regard as the practical certainty that they will 
 be ultimately obliged to accept the eight-hour day 
 by the concerted action of organized labor, backed 
 by the favorable judgment of society, the repre- 
 sentatives of the railway management have felt 
 justified in declining a peaceful settlement.' 
 
 "Finally, in order to prevent the strike and, above 
 all to prevent such a situation from ever arising 
 again, the President recommended these measures: 
 (i) An enlargement of the Interstate Commerce 
 Commission to deal with the burden of their 
 duties. (This recommendation had nothing to do 
 with the strike.) (2) Legislation making the 
 eight-hour day the basis for work and wages on 
 trains. (3) Authorization for the President to 
 appoint a commission to investigate the effect of 
 the wage increases. (4) Explicit approval given 
 by Congress to the Interstate Commerce Commis- 
 sion with regard to granting a rate increase, if 
 necessary, to offset the higher wages. (5) Amend- 
 ment to the Newlands .Act providing that the par- 
 ties to such a controversy as this in the future 
 shall be compelled to submit their causes to in- 
 vestigation, and, pending the completion of the 
 investigation, they shall be forbidden to strike or 
 lockout. (6) That the President be given author- 
 ity, in case of military necessity, to take control 
 of trains and operate them. (This was to meet 
 the peril to our expeditionary force on the Mexi- 
 can border, in case a strike occurred ) . . . These 
 Senate hearings had been held with regard to the 
 drafts of three separate bills, prepared by the 
 Attorney-General, acting for the President. They 
 carried all the President's recommendations for 
 legislation. This was on Wednesday. On Thurs- 
 day both Senate and House committees were busy 
 perfecting bills which they believed would satisfy 
 the views of the labor leaders, as expressed in the 
 Senate hearings and in frequent conferences at the 
 Capitol, and would induce them to call off the 
 strike, . . . The House leaders, having framed a 
 bill to suit their labor constituents on Friday night, 
 thoughtfully let the Congressmen disperse so that 
 on Saturday the Senate could not possibly do any- 
 thing but pass the House bill if the Monday morn- 
 ing strike was to be averted. Republican Senators 
 did protest, but at six o'clock the. Senate passed 
 the House bill by a partisan vote, forty-three to 
 twenty-eight. La Follette of the Republicans 
 voted for the bill, Hardwick of Georgia and Clarke 
 of Arkansas voted against it. Twenty-four Sen- 
 ators did not vote. In the House one hundred 
 and sixty-eight Democrats had been for the bill, 
 two against it; seventy Republicans had been for 
 it, fifty-four against ; one hundred and forty-one 
 Representatives did not vote on the measure." — 
 E. J. Clapp, Adamson law (Yale Review, Jan., 
 igiy, pp. 261-267), 
 
 Events preceding the law. See Arbitration 
 AND CONCILIATION, Ini)USTRIAl: United States: 
 i888-iq2i. 
 
 Analysis. — "In the first place, although 'eight 
 hours shall in contracts for labor and service, be 
 deemed a dav's work and the measure or stand- 
 ard of a day's work for the purpose of reckoning 
 the compensation for services of all employees . . . 
 actually engaged in any capacity in the operation 
 
 of trains,' this statute assuredly sets no limits to 
 the length of the working day. It bears not the 
 slightest resemblance to the Federal Hours of Ser- 
 vice Law, which positively fixes a maximum of 
 sixteen hours as a trainman's daily stint. Every 
 member of the Brotherhoods understands this per- 
 fectly. President Garretson, of the Order of Rail- 
 way Conductors, outlined the reason at the Sen- 
 ate Committee hearings; 'The charge . . . that 
 it was impossible to put in a true eight-hour day 
 on a railway is correct. It cannot be done. The 
 trainman cannot stop, because eight hours may 
 find him in a semi-desert country, or find him 
 fifty miles from his home ; therefore he is com- 
 pelled to go on and work; but he demands a 
 higher rate of speed.' The so-called Eight-Hour 
 Law, then, is a statute fixing wages, with only an 
 incidental bearing upon hours, as will soon appear. 
 The new statute is in effect a minimum wage law 
 for men engaged in a quasi-public employment. 
 . . . But this new statute of ours not only fixes 
 wages, it positively increases them by a substan- 
 tial amount. In effect the new law orders ten 
 hours' pay — that being roughly the former stand- 
 ard day — for eight hours' work, with the remain- 
 ing two hours at the same rate." — W. Z. Ripley, 
 Railroad eight -hour law (American Review of Re- 
 views, Oct. 1016, pp. 389-390). 
 
 Question of constitutionality. — "The railroads 
 immediately instituted proceedings in the courts to 
 test the constitutionality of this Act. As a result of 
 this action the Brotherhoods again threatened to 
 strike without awaiting the decision of the courts 
 if a settlement were not at once effected. The 
 President thereupon appointed a committee repre- 
 senting the Council of National Defense to attempt 
 the settlement of the controversy. On March 19, 
 1917, the committee made an award which was in 
 harmony with the eight-hour law but defined 
 somewhat more specifically the application of the 
 eight-hour basis to existing schedules and prac- 
 tices. This award provided for a Commission of 
 Eight, the railroads and Brotherhoods each being 
 represented by four commissioners, to decide dis- 
 putes arising under the award. The award was 
 accepted by both parties. On the same day, March 
 19, 1917, the Supreme Court of the United States 
 rendered its decision sustaining the constitution- 
 ality of the Adamson Act [by a vote of five to 
 four] (Wilson vs. New et al, 243 U. S. 332)." — 
 W. F. Willoughby, Government organization in 
 war time and after, pp. 183-184. — See also Su- 
 preme Court: 1917. 
 
 Economic considerations. — "With the estab- 
 lishment of federal control and the operation of 
 the railways as a consolidated system, numerous 
 economies became possible through the elimination 
 of expense due to competition of the different com- 
 panies with each other. Great publicity was given 
 to these savings, effected by the Administration. 
 Notwithstanding these economies, the large increase 
 in rates and the record breaking volume of traffic, 
 the net earnings of the railways have fallen far 
 below the amount necessary to pay the standard 
 return to the companies. The deficit for the two 
 years will probably exceed half a billion dollars, 
 and in addition, the physical condition of the rail- 
 ways has deteriorated materially. . . The chief 
 reason why railway net earnings have fallen off 
 is the great increase in railway wajes. The pub- 
 lic believes that the railway employe is a profiteer, 
 who is receiving higher wages than are warranted 
 and has been unduly favored by the federal Ad- 
 ministration in its grant of increased wages and 
 better working conditions. ... In 1016 and 1917 
 the railway employes were hard hit by the in- 
 
 39
 
 ADANA 
 
 ADELAIDE 
 
 crease in the cost of living and . . . the increase 
 of wages which the federal Administration granted 
 them in 1918 and igig was not sufficient to offset 
 the increase in the cost of goods Had the rail- 
 ways continued under private control, instead of 
 being taken over by the government, wages would 
 have had to be increased just the same. In fact, 
 the increases in wages to railway employes have 
 been less than the increases to factory workers. 
 But those who indict the federal Railway Admin- 
 istration declare that its yielding to the railway 
 employes on the eight hour day and on other 
 matters where conditions of working are con- 
 cerned, has also been responsible for a great in- 
 crease in railway expenses. There is a certain 
 measure of truth in this charge. The eight hour 
 day, it is fair to recall, however, was established in 
 train service by the Adamson law fifteen months 
 before the government took over the railways. Its 
 general extension to all classes of railway employes 
 was sooner or later inevitable. A number of other 
 concessions were made to the railway employes, 
 for some of which, very Hkely, the Administration 
 may properly be criticised. In dealing with the 
 general question before us, however, we must look 
 at the broad, general results in order to reach 
 sound conclusions, and not at minor details. It is 
 possible to determine from unimpeachable statistics 
 whether there has been actually a great falling off 
 in the amount of work done by the average rail- 
 way employe. If the eight hour law and the 
 other concessions in working conditions have 
 really greatly reduced the amount of work done 
 per employe, then there would have to be a large 
 increase in the number of employes. Indeed a 
 large increase would be looked for anyway, for 
 there has been a great increase in the volume of 
 traffic handled. The ton miles of freight traffic 
 were 25 per cent, greater in igi8 than in IQ13 
 (409 billion in igi8, and 301 bilUon in igi3). But 
 actually the number of employes in igi8, the first 
 year of federal control, was only 3 per cent greater 
 than in 1013, nothing like as large an increase as 
 the growth in traffic would call for. Of course, 
 in igi8 there was a great scarcity of labor. The 
 railways got along with as few employes as pos- 
 sible, and did as little as possible in the way of 
 maintenance, repairs and improvements In the 
 first six months of igig, however, when plenty of 
 men were obtainable, the number of employes was 
 not much increased. Surely the above figures are 
 a complete answer to the common belief that the 
 federal Administration has granted higher wages 
 or better working conditions to employes than 
 justice demands." — C. W. Baker, Government con- 
 trol and operation of industry in Great Britain 
 and the United States during the World War, pp. 
 4g-54. — See also U. S. A.: igi6 (.\ug.-Scpt.) . 
 
 ADANA, a city of Asiatic Turkey. Population, 
 60,000, mainly Armenian. Here the "Adana mas- 
 sacres" took place in loog. SeeTtiRKEv: loog; also 
 Arabia: Map; and Turkey: Map of Asia Minor. 
 
 ADDA, Battle of (490). See Rome: 488-526 
 
 ADDAMS, Jane (i860- ), American social 
 settlement leader; lecturer and writer on social 
 problems; in 1880 with Miss Ellen Gates Starr 
 established Hull House, a social settlement in Chi- 
 cago ; prominent in organizing the Progressive 
 Party in IQ12; member of the Henry Ford Peace 
 Mission, 1015-1016. 
 
 ADDICKS, John Edward (1814-igig), Amer- 
 ican capitalist in Delaware. See Delaware: igoi- 
 
 1903 
 
 ADDINGTON, Henry, Viscount Sidmouth 
 (1757-1844), English Tory statesman; speaker of 
 the House of Commons, 1780-1801; premier, 1801- 
 
 1804; concluded the Peace of Amiens (1802); he 
 upheld the Manchester massacre (i8ig) as Home 
 Secretary, and was author of four of the "six 
 acts." — See also England: 1801-1806. 
 
 ADDISON, Joseph (1672-1719), English poet 
 and essayist. Entered politics as a Whig in 1706; 
 secretary of state in 171 7. In 1704 wrote "The 
 Campaign," a poem on the victory of Blenheim. 
 Chief contributor to the Spectator from 1711 to 
 1 7 12, creating the character of Sir Roger de Cover- 
 ley. Author of the political tragedy, "Cato" 
 (1713). — See English literature: 1660-1780; 
 Printing and the press: 1700-1752. 
 
 "ADDLED" PARLIAMENT. See England: 
 1625: Gains of Parliament in the reign of James I; 
 Parliament, English: 1614. 
 
 ADDYSTON PIPE CASE (Addyston Pipe 
 and Steel Co, vs. United States, 175 U. S. 211) 
 decided in i8g9, is an important case construing 
 the extent of the regulative powers given to the 
 Federal Government under the commerce clause 
 of the Constitution, and defining the scope of the 
 Sherman Anti-Trust Law of i8go. In earlier cases 
 it had been held that the manufacture of com- 
 modities intended for export and, in fact, thus 
 exported, is to be distinguished from the interstate 
 transportation of those goods, that "commerce 
 succeeds to manufacture and is not a part of it," 
 and that the federal jurisdiction begins only when 
 transportation has begun. In the Sugar Trust 
 Case (United States vs. E. C. Knight Co., 156 
 U. S. i), decided in i8g5, the Supreme Court had, 
 for this reason, held that the act of i8go did not, 
 and constitutionally could not, relate to the ac- 
 quisition by one company of the stock of a num- 
 ber of other companies with a view to. and the 
 result of, establishing a substantial monopoly of 
 the business of refining sugar in the United States. 
 The fact that the product was, for the most part, a 
 subject of commerce among the states, was de- 
 clared immaterial. The importance of the Addy- 
 ston Pipe Case was that the court showed a wil- 
 lingness to give a more liberal interpretation to 
 the federal commercial power and to the act of 
 1800. and to bring within the constitutional scope 
 of the latter a combination or agreement between 
 manufacturers or dealers if it should appear that 
 in any way the agreement, in purpose or effect, 
 controlled the normal course of interstate com- 
 merce. In this case an agreement was held illegal 
 under which six companies, engaged in the manu- 
 facture or sale of iron pipe throughout the United 
 States, had allotted among themselves the terri- 
 tory within which each should have the exclusive 
 right to sell 
 ADEBEMAR OF PUY. See Adhemar de 
 
 MnNTEJL. 
 
 ADEE, Alvey Augustus (1842- ), 2d assist- 
 ant secretary of state (United States). 
 
 Reply to Colombian government concerning 
 action in Venezuela. See Colombia: igo5-igog. 
 
 ADEL, ancient name by which the northern 
 and central districts of Somaliland were known. 
 
 ADEL (Athel or iEthel), ADALING.— "The 
 homestead of the original settler, his house, farm- 
 buildings and enclosure, 'the toft and croft,' with 
 the share of arable and appurtenant common rights, 
 bore among the northern nations [early Teutonic] 
 the name of Odal. or Edhel ; the primitive mother 
 village was an .^thelby, or .■\thelham; the owner 
 was an .'Vthelbonde ; the same word \de\ or Athel 
 signified also nobility of descent, and an Adaling 
 was a nobleman." — W. Stubbs, Constitutional his- 
 tory of England, ch. 3, sect. 24. — See also ^^^thel, 
 .■Ethelixgs; Folcland. 
 
 ADELAIDE, Marie (i8g4- ), former grand 
 
 40
 
 ADELAIDE 
 
 ADIRONDACKS 
 
 duchess of Luxemburg, abdicated (see Luxem- 
 burg: iqi9-i92i) in favor of fier sister, Char- 
 lotte, January o, 1919. In 1914, the grand duchess 
 protested in vain against the German occupation 
 of Luxemburg. 
 
 ADELAIDE, or Adelheid (931-999), empress, 
 daughter of Rudolph II of Burgundy; wife of 
 Lothair of Italy. "Upon Lothair's death in 950, 
 she was imprisoned by Berengar who wanted her 
 to marry his son. She escaped and sent a piteous 
 appeal to Otto of Germany, who had already de- 
 fended her father's house in Burgundy. The pope 
 Agapitus alarmed for the safety of the papal 
 lands on the .Adriatic . . . joined in the appeal." — 
 E. Emerton, Medinval Europe, pp. 126-128. — Otto 
 marched into Italy and camped at Pavia. Here 
 he summoned Adelaide, who had found refuge with 
 the bishop Reggio, and offered his hand in mar- 
 riage. Adelaide accepted. It is believed to be due 
 to this marriage that the son of Otto I revolted 
 against him in 963, the crushing of which revolt 
 established Adelaide's power. She ruled Germany 
 from the death of Otto I in 973 until 906, when 
 Otto III was declared of age. For her devotion 
 to the church and the establishment of the Bene- 
 dictine cloister at Selz in Alsace, she v^as pro- 
 claimed a saint. — See also Germany: 936-976. 
 
 ADELAIDE, Australia, Founding and nam- 
 ing of. See Australia: 1800-1840; 1787-1840: 
 Penal settlements. 
 
 ADELANTADO, a medieval Spanish offi- 
 cial. "The king of Castile, in addition to being 
 recognized by most of the nobles as their overlord, 
 had his own domains in which he exercised the 
 same kind of proprietary sovereignty as the nobles 
 on their estates. The outlying royal territories, as 
 they increased in size and number, and as the 
 sovereigns became more sure of their heritage, were 
 divided for administrative purposes into royal dis- 
 tricts with a count, appointed by the king, as 
 administrative head of each. These counts were 
 the first officials with administrative, judicial and 
 military functions to represent the king at the 
 head of frontier districts and provinces. Their 
 duties were chiefly military, and these counts were 
 frequently obliged to go beyond their own frontiers 
 in the interest of the extension of the royal power. 
 The great drawback, however, from the viewpoint 
 of the king, consisted of the fact that the only 
 class from which these officials could be enlisted 
 was the noble class. In fact, they showed them- 
 selves to be more faithful to the aristocratic ele- 
 ment than to the royal interests, and for this 
 reason the counts were replaced by royal officials 
 called adelanlados, who were more completely de- 
 pendent on the royal power than their predecessors 
 had been. Antequera fails to give the date for the 
 inauguration of this reform, but since the Council 
 of Leon of 1020 defined the jurisdiction of the 
 frontier counts, we know that the adelanlados 
 were substituted for these officials at some subse- 
 quent date. 
 
 "The earliest regulations which apply to these 
 officials were the 'Laws of the Adelanlados May- 
 ores' of 125s and 1274. The frontier adelantado 
 has been noticed already. The provincial adelan- 
 tado was mentioned in the law referred to as hav- 
 ing been in charge of the larger and nearer prov- 
 inces of Castile, JLeon, Navarre, and Galicia. He 
 was at the same time provincial governor, judge, 
 and captain-general. Possibly the most far-reach- 
 ing and characteristic feature of this office was the 
 requirement that the adelanlado should be accom- 
 panied on his tours of inspection by letrados or 
 asesores— men of legal training, who should ad- 
 vise him in all questions of law, and assume re- 
 
 sponsibility for all his official acts of an adminis- 
 trative or judicial character. The adelanlados 
 were not trained lawyers or administrators, but 
 soldiers — the predecessors of the colonial captains- 
 general. They were empowered, however, to ren- 
 der legal opinions and dispense justice on the ad- 
 vice of, and by the assistance of the letrados. The 
 asesor or teniente lelrado played an important role 
 subsequently in the administration of justice in 
 the colonies. . . . The third type of adelantado 
 specified in the ordinance of 1274 was the ade- 
 lantado mayor. This magistrate, in contradistinc- 
 tion to the provincial adelantado, was a lawyer, 
 and his activities were confined exclusively to the 
 exercise of judicial functions. He was not accom- 
 panied, therefore, by an asesor. He was a peregri- 
 nating magistrate, holding court in difl'erent parts 
 of the kingdom. Finally, he was frequently desig- 
 nated for special service as adelantado mayor from 
 a higher tribunal of which he was a magistrate, 
 and this tribunal was called the curia, or corte del 
 rey, which was the forerunner of the royal 
 andiencia. . . . This magistrate was in reality a 
 judge of the first royal audiencia of Castile, and 
 his designation to try cases in the provinces was 
 identical in character with the subsequent designa- 
 tion of magistrates of colonial audiencias to try 
 cases and conduct special investigations." — C. H. 
 Cunningham, Institutional background of Spanish- 
 .'Unerican history {Hispanic American Historical 
 Review, Feb., 1918, pp. 26-30). — See also Audien- 
 cias. 
 ADELHEID, empress. See Adelaide or Adel- 
 
 HEtD. 
 
 ADEN is a rocky barren peninsula in south- 
 western Arabia on the Indian ocean about 100 
 miles east of the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. It is 
 one of the important fortified coaling stations on 
 the great highway from western Europe to India 
 and the East. A brief Portuguese occupation at 
 the beginning of the sixteenth century was fol- 
 lowed by Turkish seizure in 1535. In the seven- 
 teenth century Aden came under the rule of the 
 Sultan of Sana and native chiefs, which lasted 
 until 1830, when it was captured by the British in 
 punishment for native maltreatment of a ship- 
 wrecked British crew. The island of Sokotra off 
 the coast of Africa is under British protection, and 
 the Kuria Muria islands off the coast of Arabia are 
 attached to Aden. — See also Arabia: Political di- 
 visions; British empire: Extent. 
 
 ADERBEISAN, or Azerbaijan, north-western 
 province of Persia, anciently called atropatene. See 
 Atropatene. 
 
 ADHEMAR, Ademar, Aimar, Aelarz de 
 Monteil (d. 1098), bishop of Puy en Velay; one 
 of the leaders of the first crusade, which he accom- 
 panied as papal legate ; caused the Siege of An- 
 tioch to be raised. See Crusades: 1096-1090. 
 
 ADHERBAL (f\. 112 B.C.), king of Numidia. 
 See Numioia: B. C. 118-104. 
 
 ADIABENE, a name which came to be applied 
 anciently to the tract of country east of the middle 
 Tigris, embracing what was originally the proper 
 territory of Assyria, together with Arbelitis. Under 
 the Parthian monarchy formed a tributary king- 
 dom, much disputed between Parthia and Armenia. 
 It was seized several times by the Romans, but 
 never permanently held — G. Rawlinson, Sixth 
 great oriental monarchy, p. 140. 
 
 ADIGE, Counts of. See Tyrol: Origin. 
 
 ADIGE RIVER: Northern Italy.— Scene of 
 fighting (1916). See World War: 1916: IV: Aus- 
 tro-Italian front: b, 2. 
 
 ADIRONDACKS.— "This is a term bestowed 
 by the Iroquois, in derision, on the tribes who 
 
 41
 
 ADIS ABABA 
 
 ADMINISTRATIVE LAW 
 
 appear, at an early day, to have descended the 
 Utawas river, and occupied the left banks of the 
 St. Lawrence, above the present site of Quebec, 
 about the close of the isth century. It is said to 
 signify men who eat trees, in allusion to their 
 using the bark of certain trees for food, when re- 
 duced to straits, in their war excursions. The 
 French, who entered the St. Lawrence from the 
 gulf, called the same people Algonquins — a generic 
 appellation, which has been long employed and 
 come into universal use, among historians and 
 philologists. According to early accounts, the 
 .\dirondacks had preceded the Iroquois in arts and 
 attainments." — H. R. Schoolcraft, Notes on the 
 Iroquois, ch. 5. — See also below: Iroquois Cox- 
 FEDERACv: Their Conquests, &c. 
 
 ADIS ABABA, Convention of (1896). See 
 Abvssinw: 1806-1897. 
 
 ADITES.— "The Cushites, the first inhabitants 
 of Arabia, are known in the national traditions by 
 the name of Adites, from their progenitor, who is 
 called Ad, the grandson of Ham."— F. Lenormant, 
 Manual of ancient history, bk. 7, ch. 2.— See Ara- 
 bia. .•\ncient succession and fusion of races. 
 
 ADJUTATORS, or Agitators. See England: 
 i(j.j7 (April-August). 
 
 ADLERCREUTZ, Karl Johan, Count (i757- 
 1815), Swedish general; defeated in Finland in 
 iSoS by the Russians; assisted in the overthrow of 
 C.ustavus IV. 
 
 ADMINISTRATIVE LAW. — Definition.— 
 General survey.— Origin.— Character of tribu- 
 nals.— Administrative law is the portion of the 
 law dealing with the enforcement of the social will 
 as expressed by its authorized representatives in the 
 established legislative bodies. Administrative law- 
 includes the organization of the executive powers of 
 the State and of its general and local subdivisions, 
 together with the respective functions of the admin- 
 istrative officers, the limitations of their powers and 
 the remedies afforded in case of abuse of power or 
 dereliction of duty. In the United States this 
 branch of law would embrace all provisions relat- 
 ing to both elective and appointive officers, federal, 
 state, county, municipal or other. It would also 
 cover such matters as the law of municipal cor- 
 porations, the abatement of nuisances, taxation and 
 other revenue matters, such extraordinary legal 
 remedies as the writ of prohibition, mandamus, 
 injunction, habeas corpus, quo warranto and cer- 
 tiorari, and such equitable remedies as may be 
 applied to executive officials. 
 
 "On the continent of Europe, particularly in 
 France and Prussia, a special class of tribunals, 
 separate and distinct from the ordinary courts of 
 justice and constituted on different principles, has 
 been provided, for the determination of adminis- 
 trative controversies, that is, disputes between 
 private individuals and the public authorities as 
 well as disputes among administrative officials 
 themselves In general, where such a system pre- 
 vails, so-called administrative controversies are not 
 allowed to be determined by the regular judicial 
 courts. The idea originated in France at the time 
 of the Revolution, and may be said to have re- 
 sulted from the extreme conception of the doctrine 
 of the separation of powers, then held by the 
 French. Montesquieu's famous theory concerning 
 the necessity of intrusting the legislative, executive, 
 and judicial powers to separate and distinct organs 
 was embodied in extreme form in the 'declaration 
 of rights of man and the citizen' of 170T by the 
 Constituent Assembly, which asserted that if the 
 judiciary were permitted to meddle with adminis- 
 trative officials in the discharge of their duties the 
 constitution would be violated and the operations 
 
 of the government hindered. The administrative 
 authorities were therefore made completely inde- 
 pendent of judicial control, and the judges were 
 interdicted under pain of forfeiting their offices 
 from interfering in any manner with the acts of 
 the administration. This principle was in turn 
 introduced into other continental states, particu- 
 larly into Prussia and Italy, and has been retained 
 by them to the present day. 
 
 "The chief advantage claimed for the system is 
 that the subjection of the public authorities to the 
 continual control and interference of the judicial 
 courts is detrimental to prompt and efficient ad- 
 ministration. .Administrative controversies are 
 somewhat peculiar in their nature and involve 
 questions which for proper consideration require a 
 special and technical knowledge not ordinarily pos- 
 sessed by judges whose training and experience 
 have been confined to the field of private law, and 
 whose education has been academic rather than 
 practical. Such judges are likely to have exagger- 
 ated notions of the rights of private individuals, 
 as against those of the public; they are inclined to 
 a natural timidity in deciding issues between indi- 
 viduals and the government adversely to the claims 
 of the individual; and with their disposition to 
 adhere strictly to legal rules and traditions they 
 sometimes unnecessarily hamper and obstruct the 
 legitimate operations of the government. 
 
 "The history of administration in the United 
 States and England abounds in illustrations of the 
 truth of these observations. Only men who have 
 been trained in the study of administrative law 
 and who have had practical experience in the 
 actual work of public administration, it is said, are 
 capable of deciding wisely controversies involving 
 a technical knowledge of an administrative ques- 
 tion. Judges without such special knowledge or 
 experience are apt to apply to the interpretation 
 of controversies between private individuals and 
 the public authorities the pure principles of private 
 law, rather than those of the public law. This 
 sometimes leads to results that are wholly incon- 
 sistent with sound public policy and efficient ad- 
 ministration, for the rules of law governing the 
 organization and functions of the administration 
 are quite different from those governing the rela- 
 tions of private individuals, since the purpose of 
 the former is the public welfare rather than pri- 
 vate interests. When the government is a party 
 to a dispute it cannot be treated like a private 
 litigant without seriously injuring at times its effi- 
 ciency and impeding its operations. The law of 
 contract and tort, for example, which plays so 
 important a part in the regulation of the conduct 
 of private individuals, occupies a very unimportant 
 place in the law governing the relations of the 
 public authorities. The administration of two such 
 widely different bodies of rules requires, therefore, 
 different habits of mind, traditions, and training. 
 It is also to be remarked that the individual under 
 the continental system can often obtain redress 
 where he could not do so in .America or England. 
 as for example, in a case of neglect or abuse of 
 power by an official, who would not in .America 
 or England be liable in dam.ages. . . . 
 
 "Where there are two sets of tribunals and two 
 separate bodies of law, disputes must sometimes 
 arise as to which domain a particular controversy 
 belongs and which tribunal shfluld have jurisdic- 
 tion of it. For the determination of such disputes 
 of jurisdiction the French law provides for a tri- 
 bunal of conflicts, while in Germany there is usu- 
 allv a similar tribunal known as a competence- 
 conflict court. In both countries these courts arc 
 composed of a certain number of regular judges 
 
 42
 
 ADMINISTRATIVE LAW 
 
 Courts 
 
 ADMINISTRATIVE LAW 
 
 and of persons in the administrative service. In 
 the German imperial system, however, all conflicts 
 of jurisdiction between the imperial administrative 
 courts and the judicial courts are settled by the 
 latter, there being no special conflict courts. In 
 both countries the power of raising the question 
 of a conflict of jurisdiction belongs to the admin- 
 istration only, the theory being that it alone can 
 be interested. When the administration notifies 
 the judicial court that in taking jurisdiction over 
 a particular controversy, it is encroaching upon 
 the sphere of the administration, the court suspends 
 further proceedings, and the question of compe- 
 tence is referred to the tribunal of conflicts for de- 
 termination. If the decision is in favor of the 
 claim set up by the administration, the case is re- 
 moved to the administrative courts for final de- 
 cision, otherwise it is decided by the judicial court. 
 "In England and America, and in countries gen- 
 erally where English legal institutions have been 
 introduced, the doctrine of administrative jurisdic- 
 tion, as it is known and practiced on the continent 
 of Europe, is little known. There administrative 
 law is not a separate branch of jurisprudence, and 
 specially constituted administrative courts with 
 jurisdiction over controversies between private in- 
 dividuals and public officials do not exist, at least 
 not in the form in which they are found on the 
 continent. Disputes between the public authorities 
 and private citizens, like differences between pri- 
 vate individuals themselves, are decided by the 
 regular judicial courts and according to the ordi- 
 nary law of the land. Nevertheless, both in Eng- 
 land and America, there are numerous boards, 
 commissions, and authorities which possess what 
 may not improperly be described as administrative 
 jurisdiction. They are, in fact, often referred to 
 as administrative tribunals; they possess the power 
 of adjudication and determination in many cases, 
 and not infrequently their decisions are conclusive, 
 and hence not subject to review by the courts. 
 Although they are not a part of the judicial sys- 
 tem, their procedure when hearing and determining 
 controversies is often characterized by the for- 
 malism of the courts of justice. A regular system 
 of appeal is often allowed from one to another, 
 and in some cases their decisions are published and 
 cited as precedents. In England examples of au- 
 thorities which exercise a limited administrative 
 jurisdiction are the Railway Commission, the Local 
 Government Board, the Board of Trade, the Board 
 of Education, and the Board of Agriculture. In 
 the United States similar bodies are the Interstate 
 Commerce Commission, whose powers have been 
 described as 'quasi administrative, quasi judicial'; 
 the Pension Office, the Patent Office, the Land 
 Office, the Bureau of Immigration, the office of 
 Comptroller of the Treasury, the General Board of 
 Customs Appraisers, the United States Customs 
 Court, and the Court of Claims. In the state 
 governments there are almost countless boards and 
 commissions which possess similar powers, .\mong 
 these may be mentioned railroad commissions, 
 boards of health, departments of education, pure 
 food commissions, etc. There is, in fact, scarcely 
 any department of the administrative service in 
 which controversies involving both public and pri- 
 vate rights do not frequently arise, which can be 
 more wisely determined by the administration it- 
 self than by a court of justice. This fact has been 
 recently recognized by the Congress of the LTnited 
 States in the act creating a customs court vested 
 with power to determine controversies between 
 the government and importers, regarding the value 
 and classification of imported articles upon which 
 a customs tariff is imposed. Whatever, therefore, 
 
 may be said against the European system of ad- 
 ministrative justice and of administrative law, with 
 its somewhat exaggerated emphasis upon the rights 
 of the government in contradistinction to those of 
 private individuals, the fact remains that it exists 
 in England and America, though in less developed 
 form; and the role which it is destined to play in 
 the future is bound to increase with the multipli- 
 cation of governmental functions and the increas- 
 ing complexity of the governmental organization." 
 — J. W. Garner, Introduction to political science, 
 PP- S85-SQ4. — See also Cabinet; Commission gov- 
 ernment; Congress; Municipal government; 
 Representative government; Supreme court. 
 
 Administrative law in France. — "The terri- 
 torial unity of the French state was attained many 
 years ago. The great vassals who under a weak 
 monarchy might have developed into independent 
 princes, and whose domains might then have 
 formed separate commonwealths, were suppressed 
 by the kings and their lands became provinces of 
 the kingdom of France. Most matters of admin- 
 istration, which during the feudal regime had been 
 attended to by vassals, became a part of the royal 
 administration and were attended to by the royal 
 officers who were subject to a strong central con- 
 trol. These were the intendants, who date from 
 the time of Richelieu and Louis XIII, and whose 
 work was performed in the provinces or generali- 
 ties as they were sometimes called, and the council 
 of the king at the centre which directed all their 
 actions and heard appeals, taken by individuals 
 aggrieved, from their decisions. The great cen- 
 tralization of government under the absolute mon- 
 archy left little room for any important local au- 
 thorities; though we do find even in the times of 
 the most extreme centralization that there were in 
 certain of the provinces, called pays d'elats and 
 occupying a privileged position, local assemblies 
 having more or less control over the actions of the 
 intendants; and also that in some of the largest 
 of the cities the people had more or less well- 
 defined rights to elect their municipal officers, 
 rights, however, of which the king was endeavor- 
 ing in the interest of centralized government to 
 deprive them. The attempt made by the govern- 
 ment of Louis X\T just before the revolution to 
 introduce into all parts of the kingdom provincial 
 assemblies modelled on the assemblies of the pays 
 d'etats failed; and when the revolution came in 
 i/Sq it found a most highly centralized system of 
 administration — a system which hardly recognized 
 the local districts as anything more than adminis- 
 trative circumscriptions, possessing few if any cor- 
 porate powers. In these districts most matters of 
 administration were attended to by officers either 
 appointed and removed by the king in his pleasure, 
 or else subject to a strict central control. The 
 system which the revolution received as a legacy 
 from the absolute monarchy it made few radical 
 changes in. . . . The aim of the revolution was 
 social and political rather than administrative re- 
 form. The revolution destroyed the social system 
 on which the absolute monarchy rested and intro- 
 duced the political principle that the people should 
 have a larger influence in the management of the 
 government, but it did little more in the way of 
 permanent administrative reform than to make 
 the system more symmetrical than it had been be- 
 fore. The reason why no greater change was made 
 in the general character of the administrative sys- 
 tem was that the revolution really aimed at the 
 same end that had been before the eyes of the 
 absolute monarchy. This end was the crushing out 
 of feudalism, the taking away from the privileged 
 classes those semi-poUtical and social privileges and 
 
 43
 
 ADMINISTRATIVE LAW 
 
 France 
 
 ADMINISTRATIVE LAW 
 
 exemptions which had been the cause of so many 
 of the miseries of the absolute monarchy, but for 
 which the absolute monarchy was responsible only 
 in so far as it had allowed them to continue to 
 exist, after the duties which had been originally 
 associated with them had been assumed by the 
 Crown, and after the expenses which their per- 
 formance necessitated had been imposed upon the 
 tax-payers. The cause of the dissatisfaction of the 
 people with the absolute monarchy is to be found 
 not so much in the character of the government 
 which it gave the people as in the fact that its 
 progress in the desired direction of abolition of 
 feudal privileges seemed almost to have ceased. 
 Therefore we find that the chief reforms of the 
 revolution were social and, to a degree, political 
 but not administrative. The celebrated night of 
 the fourth of August, 1789, saw the abolition at 
 one time of about all that was left of the feudal 
 regime, while the exemption of the privileged 
 classes from taxation was done away with by the 
 new and proportional system of taxation formu- 
 lated and enacted by the revolutionary leaders in 
 the constituent assembly. After the constituent 
 assembly had thus cleared away the debris of the 
 feudal system it would have been suicidal for it to 
 establish any system of administration in which 
 large rights of local government were given to the 
 people of the localities. For the people, as a whole, 
 were so utterly incapacitated for political work, 
 through long administrative and governmental 
 tutelage, that it is improbable that they could have 
 succeeded in governing themselves well. At first it 
 is true there was a slight attempt in the direction 
 of decentralization, but this, as might have been 
 expected, was unsuccessful and led to disorganiza- 
 tion and inefficient government, as indeed, did all 
 attempts at reorganization until the government of 
 the directory when Napoleon came into power. 
 . . . Napoleon is to France what the Norman 
 kings are to England. He moulded the form of 
 her local institutions. The laws and decrees which 
 were passed during the period of his control of the 
 government have, it is true, received during this 
 century most important modifications, but the 
 main principles of the present system of local ad- 
 ministration are even now to be found in them. 
 Napoleon was satisfied that the social principles of 
 the revolution could be adhered to only through 
 the establishment of a most centralized system of 
 administration and government, by means of which 
 the impulse to action should come from the centre 
 and which should be controlled by those who were 
 in sympathy with the new order of things. Since 
 Napoleon's time, however, there has been great 
 progress in the direction of decentralization. This 
 began with the government of the restoration and 
 reached its climax in the communes act of 1884; 
 and has consisted in the recognition of the posses- 
 sion by the localities, or at least the most impor- 
 tant of the localities, of juristic personality and 
 that there belongs to them a sphere of action of 
 their own in which the central administration is 
 to interfere but little. 
 
 "But notwithstanding the decentralization which 
 has been going on, the French system of adminis- 
 tration retains even at the present time quite 
 enough of the old Napoleonic principles to make 
 it, as compared with our own, a system which 
 from the administrative point of view is quite 
 centralized. . . . 
 
 "Below the department district and canton we 
 find the commune as the lowest administrative 
 unit. The commune is either rural or urban, but 
 the French law makes no formal distinction in or- 
 ganization between the two, both being governed 
 
 by the same law, 1^12., the law of April Si 1884. 
 While the department is an artificial creation of 
 the revolutionary period, the commune is a natural 
 growth. Before the revolution we find that there 
 were, as a result of social and political concUtions, 
 two kinds of local communities in France, viz., the 
 urban communes and the rural communes. In the 
 former were an officer, called by different names 
 but performing for the most part executive func- 
 tions, and a deliberative council. In the rural 
 communes, and even in some of the cities, a gen- 
 eral meeting of the inhabitants was often found 
 together with a series of executive officers. A de- 
 cree of 1702 established in each of these rural com- 
 munes an officer called a syndic, who was to act 
 to a large extent under the supervision of the In- 
 tendant of the generality or province in which the 
 commune was situated. The acts of all these au- 
 thorities were subject, just before the revolution, 
 to very strict central control, which was one of 
 the results of the administrative centralization of 
 the absolute monarchy. In 1789 the constituent 
 assembly decided to efface all distinction in admin- 
 istrative organization between the rural and the 
 urban districts, and provided for the formation of 
 about 44,000 communes. Different experiments at 
 organization were made in the period between 1790 
 and the year VIII or iSoo when the Napoleonic 
 legislation was adopted. By this legislation there 
 were placed in each commune a mayor and a mu- 
 nicipal council, the former attending to executive 
 business, both that relating to the commune, which 
 was a municipal corporation, and that affecting the 
 state as a whole, and the latter attending simply 
 to local business. By this Napoleonic legislation, 
 both the mayor and the members of the municipal 
 council were appointed and could be removed by 
 the central administration, while the decisions of 
 the municipal council, even though they affected 
 simply the local affairs of the commune, were in 
 all cases subject to the approval of the central 
 administration. Since the overthrow of the empire 
 there has been an almost continuous tendency to 
 decentralize this extremely centralized system. In 
 183 1 the municipal council became elective, and by 
 a gradual process the mayor has become elected 
 by the municipal council in all the communes of 
 France. But up to about 1884 no actual power 
 of decision was given to the municipal council, 
 whose resolutions were in most cases subject to 
 central administrative approval. The law of April 
 5, 18S4, has made a most radical change in this 
 respect by providing that the decisions of the 
 municipal council are absolutely final except in 
 those cases in which. the law has specially provided 
 for central administrative approval. ... In each 
 commune at the present time are to be found a 
 mayor and several deputies who are to assist him 
 in the performance of his duties, all elected by the 
 municipal council. In both cases the choice of the 
 council is limited to its members. They ser\'e for 
 the term of the council, but may be suspended by 
 the prefect of the department for one month, by 
 the minister of the interior for three months, and 
 may be removed by the President of the republic. 
 Removal makes the person removed ineligible for 
 the period of one year. Further, the prefect has 
 quite a large control over the mayor in that the 
 law provides that if the mayor refuses to do an 
 act which he is obliged by law to do, the prefect 
 may step in and, after demand made by the mayor, 
 proceed to do the act himself or may have the act 
 done by a special appointee. Tne mayor and his 
 deputies are unsalaried and are not professional 
 officers like the prefect. Their official expenses are 
 to be paid, however Like the prefect, the mayor 
 
 44
 
 ADMINISTRATIVE LAW 
 
 France 
 Prussia 
 
 ADMINISTRATIVE LAW 
 
 is at the same time the agent of the central admm- 
 istration in the commune and is the representative 
 and the executive of the communal municipal cor- 
 poration. As an officer of the central administra- 
 tion he is in most cases under the supervision of 
 the prefect. Among his duties as such central offi- 
 cer may be mentioned his duty to keep a register 
 of vital statistics. As the French law expresses it, 
 he is an officer of the etat civil. As such he also 
 solemnizes all marriages. He is also an officer of 
 what is known as the judicial police and, as such, 
 has the power to file informations in purely petty 
 offences and may act as piublic prosecutor in the 
 smaller places. He has to publish and execute all 
 the laws and decrees within the commune, makes 
 up the election lists, the census tables for the re- 
 cruiting of the army, publishes the assessment rolls, 
 etc., etc. Finally the mayor has a large power of 
 local police. He has quite a large power of ordi- 
 nance, a power which, like the similar power of 
 the prefect, is always based upon some express 
 provision of law. The power of ordinance granted 
 by the statutes is, however, quite a general one. 
 fie has the right to issue such ordinances as may 
 be necessary to maintain good order, public secu- 
 rity and health. He has also a large power of issu- 
 ing orders of individual and not general applica- 
 tion, as, e. g., to fix the building line for particular 
 edifices, to grant building permits, to remove 
 nuisances, and so on. .\\\ such ordinances and 
 orders are sanctioned by the penal code, which 
 punishes the violation of all legal ordinances and 
 orders by a fine. An instance of the control which 
 the prefect has over the acts of the mayor when 
 the latter is acting as an officer of the general state 
 administration, is to be found in the case of these 
 ordinances and orders which may be repealed by 
 the prefect within a month after their issue. 
 
 "As the executive officer of the communal mu- 
 nicipal corporation the mayor has the appointment 
 of most of the communal officers, the only impor- 
 tant exceptions being found in the case of the local 
 constabulary who are, to a large extent, central 
 officers and under central control, the teachers, the 
 forest guards, and the communal treasurer. Fur- 
 ther the mayor is to attend to the detailed admin- 
 istration of all local property and is to supervise 
 the different administrative services which are at- 
 tended to by the commune. Thus in the financial 
 administration of the commune the mayor draws 
 up the budget of receipts and expenses of the com- 
 mune, orders all expenses to be paid, has the de- 
 tailed management of the revenue and property 
 of the commune, executes its contracts and super- 
 vises its accounts and its public institutions. But 
 in all these matters it must be remembered that 
 the mayor is simply to execute the decisions of the 
 municipal council, which has the final determina- 
 tion of all matters of communal interest. 
 
 "The municipal council is elected by universal 
 manhood suffrage Electors must have resided for 
 six months within the commune or have paid 
 direct taxes there. Electors must be registered in 
 order to be able to vote. The rules in regard to 
 eligibility are similar to those in force for the 
 general council of the department. The term of 
 office is four years. The council has four ordinary 
 sessions each year, but extraordinary sessions may 
 be called at any time. The meetings of the council 
 are generally public. The mayor presides at all 
 meetings of the council except when his accounts 
 are being examined. As a rule a majority of the 
 members constitutes a quorum. Finally the council 
 may be suspended for a month by the prefect ; and 
 may be dissolved by the President of the republic. 
 
 "The duties of the municipal council relate al- 
 
 most exclusively to the local affairs of the com- 
 mune, their general duties being so few in number 
 and so unimportant in character as not to deserve 
 special notice. In the legal provisions governing 
 the powers of the municipal council we find a good 
 example of the continental method of regulating 
 the participation of the localities in the work of 
 administration. The law of 1884 (the municipal 
 code of the present time) simply says that the 
 municipal council shall govern by its decisions the 
 affairs of the commune. In order, however, to 
 prevent the municipal council from being extrava- 
 gant or acting unwisely, article 68 of the law pro- 
 vides that in certain eumerated cases the approval 
 of some central authority, as a general rule the 
 prefect, shall be necessary, before the resolutions 
 of the council are of force. In general this ap- 
 proval of the central administration is necessary 
 for the sale or long lease of communal property, 
 for the undertaking of expensive public works, for 
 the change of use of buildings used for general 
 administrative purposes, for the regulation, laying 
 out or closing of streets, for the levy of taxes 
 above certain limits, and for the borrowing of 
 money beyond a certain amount, and the imposi- 
 tion of octroi taxes, i. c., indirect taxes on objects 
 consumed within the cities. Finally, the budget of 
 the commune must be submitted to the central ad- 
 ministration, which must approve it before it can 
 be executed. The purpose of submitting the bud- 
 get to the central administration, is to afford it an 
 opportunity to see if the municipal council has 
 made appropriation for the obligatory expenses 
 made necessary by law, and to prevent the council 
 from being extravagant. If the budget does not 
 provide for obligatory expenses, levies taxes or 
 borrows money beyond certain limits, or provides 
 for the payment of the current expenses of the 
 commune from loans or extraordinary revenue, the 
 central administration may make changes in the 
 budget so as to make it conform to the provisions 
 of law or to what the central administration re- 
 gards as proper. Otherwise the central administra- 
 tion may make no alterations in the budget as 
 voted by the council. Finally, in order to prevent 
 the municipal council from overstepping the 
 bounds of its competence as an authority for the 
 purposes of purely local administration and from 
 assuming functions of a central character, it is 
 provided that the central administration may de- 
 clare any act of the municipal council outside of 
 its jurisdiction to be void. In such case the muni- 
 cipal council or any one interested has the ri.:ht to 
 appeal from the decision, declaring the act of the 
 municipal council void, to the administrative 
 courts, which thus have the power of determining 
 finally the question of local jurisdiction." — F. J. 
 Goodnow, Comparative administrative law, v. 1. 
 pp. 268-272, 285-202. 
 
 Prussian administrative law. — "The present 
 form of local government in Prussia was fixed in 
 1807. The Prussia of the time previous to 1807 
 was feudal rather than modern. The collapse of 
 feudal Prussia at the time of the French invasion 
 In 1806 was so sudden and so complete as to prove 
 beyond pcradventure that the magnificent fabric 
 reared with so much pains by the great Prussian 
 kings of the eighteenth century rested on most in- 
 secure foundations. The administrative system 
 which had come down from the time of Frederick 
 William I was bureaucratic to the last degree. The 
 result of such a system was that the people partici- 
 pated hardly at all in the administration or even 
 in the government, and naturally not only had lost 
 all political capacity, but also had come to regard 
 the government either with indifference or with 
 
 45
 
 ADMINISTRATIVE LAW 
 
 Prussia 
 
 ADMINISTRATIVE LAW 
 
 absolute hatred. The social conditions of the 
 Prussian people also had been such as to favor 
 one class at the expense of the others and at the 
 same time to impoverish the country as a whole. 
 The distinctions of class had been so fixed as al- 
 most to divide the people into castes, and artificial 
 barriers placed about the freedom of trade and 
 labor in the interest of the richer classes had pre- 
 vented all classes alike from making the best use 
 of their opportunities. . . . After the fall of Prus- 
 sia, Baron Stein was made head of the adminis- 
 tration and during the one year of service, from 
 which he was fmally driven by the influence of 
 Napoleon, was the director of the policy of Prussia 
 and may well be regarded as the founder of the 
 Prussia of to-day. Recognizing the defects of the 
 Prussian system, he formulated and published his 
 plan of government; and although unable during 
 his short term of service to secure the adoption of 
 this plan, he left to his successors a model of ad- 
 ministrative reform in his great municipal corpora- 
 tions act of 1808. Besides this. Stein was able to 
 abolish serfdom, to make it possible for those not 
 of noble blood to acquire and hold land, and to 
 introduce important reforms in the general admin- 
 istrative system. Stein's concrete model of an ad- 
 ministrative system was to be found in the English 
 system as then existing. But his idea of granting 
 to the nobility large local powers, to be exercised 
 under central control so as to prevent the abuse of 
 the powers granted, was not adopted. The failure 
 of Stein's plans brought Hardenberg to the front in 
 1810. Hardenberg 's ideas were quite different from 
 those of Stein. Hardenberg felt that before many 
 privileges of local self-government could be granted 
 to the people, the poorer classes in the community 
 must he released from their economic dependence 
 upon the richer classses. He had the experience 
 of the French before him and believed that the 
 first thing to do was to establish a strongly cen- 
 tralized administration like the French, which 
 should be directed by men of liberal ideas. Har- 
 denberg was not. however, able to overthrow what 
 Stein had already establi.'^hed. .As a part of his 
 reform Stein had divided the country into govern- 
 ment districts ... at the head of each of which 
 was placed a board called the 'government' . . . 
 which attended to almost all central administrative 
 matters that in the nature of things could be at- 
 tended to in the localities. Purely local matters, 
 ;. f., matters recognized as belonging to the sphere 
 of local autonomy, which were quite unimportant, 
 were left in the charge of the cities and the rural 
 communities, which were to act under the super\'i- 
 sion of these 'governments.' Hardenberg suffered 
 this organization to remain, but. in order to in- 
 crease his influence over it. he put every two or 
 three districts under a provincial- governor who 
 was to repre.^ent the central government in the 
 province Below the district Stein had retained a 
 historic Prussian division, to wit the 'circle.' at the 
 head of which was the landrath, who was now 
 made the subordinate of the 'government ' All of 
 these authorities — the governor, the 'covernment,' 
 and the landrath — were placed under the direction 
 of the chancellor, which last position Hardenberg 
 had created for himself. Most of the officers in 
 this organization were salaried and professional in 
 character The system was therefore, as before, a 
 centralized bureaucracy. But it was better organ- 
 ized than before, and it was directed by a man 
 of advanced liberal ideas, and who made use of 
 the vast power he possessed to further the inter- 
 ests of the state as a whole. With this wonderfully 
 efficient instrument great progress was made in 
 carr>ing out the social and economic reforms begun 
 
 46 
 
 by Stein. . . . But before the reform could be 
 completed Hardenberg died (in 1S22) and a reac- 
 tion immediately set in. The great landholders, 
 whose privileges had been seriously diminished by 
 what had been accomplished, came forward and 
 managed to persuade the king to grant them cer- 
 tain powers in the domain of purely local govern- 
 ment. Local legislatures were formed in which the 
 landholders had almost complete control; and the 
 attempt was made later to form out of delegates 
 from these local legislatures a national parliament. 
 This attempt was frustrated by the revolution of 
 1848, which was largely a protest by the commer- 
 cial and industrial classes against the monopoly of 
 governing which the landholders were beginning to 
 claim. The result of the revolution was t-he for- 
 mation of a constitution in which the suffrage was 
 made to depend not upon the ownership of land 
 but upon the ownership of any kind of property. 
 M first the legislature which was formed on this 
 basis contained a liberal majority which set to 
 work to curtail the powers of the landowners. 
 This led to another reaction, viz.. the conservative 
 reaction of 1850-60, during which the entire power 
 of the administration was prostituted in the inter- 
 est of the Conservative party and the landholders. 
 This preying of one class upon another, which is 
 so characteristic of the internal history of Prussia 
 from 1S22 and 1S60, was largely the result of the 
 weakness of the monarchy during that period and 
 of the introduction of the principle of the parlia- 
 mentary responsibility of the ministry into a coun- 
 try in which the people had not as yet learned 
 how to govern themselves. It was only natural 
 therefore that, when the monarchy became stronger 
 by the accession of the late King William I. who 
 repudiated the principle of the parliamentary re- 
 sponsibility of his ministers, this class tyranny 
 should cease. The great constitutional conflict in 
 Prussia which followed his accession to the throne 
 (1860-4) showed the Prussian people that they had 
 found their master, and that the Crown in a mon- 
 archical country is the natural arbiter between 
 conflicting social classes and should protect the 
 weak against the aggressions of the strong. ... It 
 was seen that important changes must be made in 
 the system of local government in order to accus- 
 tom the people to exercise their powers with mod- 
 eration and with a regard for the interests of the 
 minority. The necessary concrete measures were 
 sketched by Dr. Gnei.<;t of the University of Berlin, 
 and one of the greatest of modern public lawyers, 
 in his little book entitled Dif Kreisordnnng. In 
 this work Dr. Gncist referred, as had Stein before 
 him, to the English system of local administration 
 which they both knew so well and admired so 
 much. .After a long discussion the plans advocated 
 by Gneist were for the most part incorporated into 
 the law of Dec. 13. 1872, commonly known as the 
 Kreisordnnng. The adoption of these plans was 
 largely due to Prince Bismarck, who believed 
 .strongly in local autonomy and self-administration, 
 and who supported the ideas advocated by Gnei.st 
 in the face of the opposition of the general public 
 and of that of his colleagues in the ministry and 
 the greater part of the government officials who 
 were loth to give up any of the powers which they 
 possessed in the organization founded by Harden- 
 berg. In addition to the Krrisprdnung several 
 other laws were passed in the course of the next 
 ten years, all either carrying the reform further, or 
 modifying details which experience had shown to 
 be faulty. The definite ends which this reform 
 has had in view are: First. The extension of the 
 sphere of local autonomv Second The introduc- 
 tion of a judicial control over the actions of ad-
 
 ADMINISTRATIVE LAW 
 
 Prussia 
 England 
 
 ADMINISTRATIVE LAW 
 
 ministrative officers in the hope of preventing a 
 recurrence of the prostitution of the powers of the 
 administration in the interest of party or social 
 faction. Third. The introduction of a non-pro- 
 fessional or lay element into the administration of 
 central as well as of local matters in the hope of 
 Micreasing the political capacity of the people. . . . 
 "In accordance with continental ideas as to the 
 territorial distribution of administrative functions 
 two spheres of administrative action are recognized 
 by the law: the one, central; the other, local. For 
 the purposes of the central administration which 
 needs attention in the localities, the country is 
 divided into administrative circumscriptions called 
 provinces, government districts, circles, etc., in 
 which are officers under the control of the heads 
 of the various executive departments at Berlin. 
 For the purposes of local government certain mu- 
 nicipal or public corporations have grown up which 
 have their own officers and their own property 
 separate and apart from that of the central gov- 
 ernment. At the time of the reform in many in- 
 stances the boundaries of the administrative cir- 
 cumscriptions for the purposes of central admin- 
 istration were not identical with those of the vari- 
 ous public corporations, e. g., the boundaries of the 
 administrative provinces were not the same as 
 those of the public corporations bearing the same 
 name. In most cases, further, the authorities for 
 the purposes of central administration were not the 
 same as those of the public corporations. The re- 
 form of 1872 has endeavored to simplify matters. 
 It has in the first place adopted the old divisions, 
 vis., the provinces, districts, and circles, but it has 
 added a new division, viz., the justice of the peace 
 division (..imlsbezirk) ; in the second place it has 
 in almost all instances insisted upon the coincidence 
 of the boundaries of the corresponding areas. Thus 
 at the present time in almost all cases the area of 
 the administrative province is the same as that of 
 the provincial corporation. In the third place the 
 central and local authorities within the same area 
 have in most cases been consolidated. In the 
 province, however, the attempts at such consoli- 
 dation were unsuccessful. ... As in the French, so 
 in the Prussian system of local government, the 
 interference of the central legislature in local af- 
 fairs is infinitesimal if it exists at all. Enough of 
 the old feudal ideas of local autonomy have re- 
 mained to permit of the development of the prin- 
 ciple that there is a sphere of administrative action 
 which must be left almost entirely to the localities; 
 that within this sphere the legislature should not 
 interfere at all; that any central interference or 
 control that may be required over this local ad- 
 ministration should come from the administration 
 and in the main from the lay authorities of the 
 administration, and should be confined simply to 
 preventing the localities from incurring too great 
 financial burdens. Therefore the law does not, as 
 in the United States and as it does to a certain 
 extent in England, enumerate the powers and 
 duties of the localities, but says simply that the 
 local affairs of particular districts shall be governed 
 ^v the decisions of local authorities in the nature 
 of local legislatures, and that in those cases only 
 in which the law has expressly given it the power, 
 may the central administration step in to protect 
 the localities from their own unwise action. This 
 system is one of general grants of local power 
 with the necessity in certain cases of central ad- 
 ministrative—not legislative — approval or control. 
 The benefits of such a" system cannot be over- 
 estimated Through its adoption all the evils of 
 local anrl special legislation are avoided. In place 
 of an irresponsible legislative control, which in the 
 
 United States has shown itself so incapable of pre- 
 venting the exPravagance of localities that in many 
 cases the power of the legislature to permit local 
 action has been curtailed by the constitutions, is 
 to be found a control exercised by responsible au- 
 thorities — authorities which have a certain perma- 
 nence and are well able to judge whether a given 
 action will be really hurtful to a locality or not. 
 .\t the same time the greater freedom from central 
 interference guaranteed to the localities by this sys- 
 tem is well calculated to encourage the growth of 
 local pride and responsibiUty." — F. J. Goodnow, 
 Comparative administrative law, v. i, pp. 295-302, 
 33<'-337. 
 
 Administrative law in England. — "The Eng- 
 lish administrative jurisdiction, whose main prin- 
 ciples have been adopted in the United States, is 
 simply an outgrowth of the original system of ad- 
 ministrative control. The Norman political system 
 made no distinction between governmental authori- 
 ties. .'\ll powers of government were consolidated 
 in the hands of the Crown. First to be differen- 
 tiated was the legislative authority, the Parliament. 
 But for a long time after the differentiation of 
 Parliament there was almost no legal distinction 
 between the position of the officers for the admin- 
 istration of justice and that of the officers for the 
 administration of government. Indeed most im- 
 portant officers ciischarged functions in both 
 branches and all alike were regarded as merely the 
 servants of the Crown. Some, it is true, were en- 
 gaged mainly in the application of the private law, 
 others were engaged mainly in the application of 
 the public and administrative law. But all were 
 officers of the Crown, which directly or indirectly 
 could remove them all from office and could dic- 
 tate to them what should be the decision of the 
 cases which were brought before them. To the 
 officers of one of the courts, viz., the court of 
 king's bench, which was regarded as occupying a 
 superior position because the Crown by a fiction 
 of the law was supposed always to be present in 
 it, was given a supervisory power over all other 
 authorities. If anyone was aggrieved by an act 
 of a subordinate officer of the Crown he had the 
 right to appeal to the Crown, who was the foun- 
 tain of justice, and such an appeal went to the 
 court of king's bench. At first it seems to have 
 gone to the Curia Regis or King's Council before 
 the development of the court of king's bench. In- 
 deed, after the development of the king's bench, 
 when with the usual habits of judges the members 
 of this court became very technical in their appli- 
 cation of the law, appeals went in many cases 
 directly to the Crown and were attended to gener- 
 ally by the chancellor or the council. For the 
 King at the time of the formation of the court of 
 king's bench especially reserved to himself the de- 
 cision of particularly difficult cases. From these 
 reserved judicial powers grew up the court of 
 chancery as well as other courts. In answer to 
 such appeals the court of king's bench issued in the 
 name of the Crown certain writs directed to the 
 officer whose decision was complained of, and so 
 formed as to afford the desired relief. Though 
 these writs were originally issued from the office of 
 the chancellor, the court soon obtained the right to 
 issue them directly. These writs were named from 
 the most prominent words in them — words 
 which largely expressed the purpose of the writ. 
 Thus, if anyone appealed to the Crown to force a 
 recalcitrant officer to do something which the law 
 of the land commanded the officer to do. the writ 
 which was issued in an.swer to the appeal was 
 called the writ of mandamus. But at the .same 
 time that the court of king's bench was developing 
 
 47
 
 ADMINISTRATIVE LAW 
 
 England 
 
 ADMINISTRATIVE LAW 
 
 these special remedies, which became known as 
 extraordinar>' legal remedies or prerogative writs, 
 the chancellor, the keeper of the King's conscience, 
 was, through the exercise of the reserved judicial 
 powers of the King, also developing a series of 
 special remedies called equitable remedies, the most 
 important of which, from the point of view of 
 administrative law, was the bill of injunction. 
 Originally, however, the injunction does not seem 
 to have been made use of commonly against offi- 
 cers. While most of the writs issued by the royal 
 courts were issued to litigants upon proper demand 
 de ctirsu, and were known as writs ex dehito jtis- 
 litiae, the writs by means of which the court of 
 King's bench exercised its supervisory powers over 
 the other authorities do not seem to have become, 
 in early times at any rate, writs of right, writs 
 ex debilo jtistitiw, but were issued only in extraor- 
 dinary cases when some gross injustice was done. 
 They were known, therefore, as 'prerogative writs. ' 
 The same was practically true of the equitable 
 remedies, and particularly of the bill of injunction. 
 Further on the return to these writs, generally only 
 questions of law were considered. They were made 
 use of simply to keep the lower authorities within 
 the bounds of the law, and could not be used, 
 after the practice in regard to them became crys- 
 tallized, to review any question of fact or expe- 
 diency. It therefore became necessary to develop 
 some further remedy, unless the lower authorities 
 were to be permitted to decide such questions free 
 from all control. Such a method was found in the 
 power which was granted to the individual to ap- 
 peal to the Privy Council. Such appeals the coun- 
 cil might hear as a result of the fact that the King 
 granted to a division of it, 37:., the star chamber, 
 a portion of his reserved judicial powers. This 
 body acted as the administrative superior of the 
 royal authorities in the localities, and on appeal to 
 it questions of fact and expediency, as well as of 
 law, could be considered. Formed in the time of 
 Henry VII to control the nobility, who had grown 
 turbulent during the wars of the Roses, it served at 
 first to protect the weaker classes of the commu- 
 nity against the arbitrariness of the administrative 
 authorities, which were largely chosen from the 
 nobility; but it was later, viz., under the Stuarts, 
 used in such a way that it was abolished on the 
 occasion of the revolution in 1640. In order to 
 offer an appeal similar to the one which disap- 
 peared on the occasion of its abolition, it was 
 provided in a series of statutes that the court of 
 quarter sessions of the justices of the peace, which 
 had been theretofore mainly an administrative au- 
 thority for the purpose of county administration, 
 could hear and decide appeals from those decisions 
 of the justices of the peace, acting singly or in 
 petty and special sessions, which affected property 
 and the richt of personal liberty. There was thus 
 formed for the deci.sion of questions of fact and 
 expediency, as well as of law, an administrative 
 court in each county, which came finally to have a 
 very wide power of control over the acts of sub- 
 ordinate administrative officers. Its members fur- 
 ther would certainly have special knowledge of 
 the law they had to apply and of the conditions 
 of administrative action, since they were engaged 
 in other capacities as administrative officers. Fur- 
 ther the commission of the justices of the peace 
 enjoined upon them in difficult cases to take the 
 advice of the royal courts. This came finally to 
 be done by 'stating a case' which was agreed upon 
 by the justices and the parties before them, and 
 which was then submitted to the royal courts, and 
 finally decided by them. In consequence of these 
 facts, one of the writs which were originally issued 
 
 by the court of king's bench, viz., the certiorari, 
 lost much of its earlier importance in England; 
 and we find that statute after statute was passed 
 which prohibited its use as a means of appealing 
 from the acts of administrative officers. But up to 
 the coming to the throne of the Orange-Stuarts in 
 i68g, all officers, whether judges or administrative 
 officers, held their office at the will of the Crown. 
 There was no judicial tenure as there was at the 
 time in both France and Germany. In this fact, 
 and in the existence in the Crown of reserved 
 judicial powers, are probably to be found the rea- 
 sons why the Crown permitted such a control over 
 the administration to be given to the courts. For 
 the Crown could exercise at any time a strong 
 personal influence over the judges of the courts; 
 and if it was found that the administration of the 
 law was becoming so technical as to hamper the 
 action of the administration, the Crown could at 
 any time exercise its reserved powers and transfer 
 any matter to a newly created and more pliable 
 authority. In 1701, however, all this was changed. 
 The act of settlement made the judges independent 
 of the royal power, and the whole tendency of 
 English development was to make the justices of 
 the peace actually, though not legally independent 
 of the Crown, .^n attempt by Lord Somers during 
 the reign of William III to coerce, through the 
 power of dismissal from office, numerous justices 
 of the peace raised such a storm of opposition that 
 no later ministry has dared to make use of such a 
 power. At the same time that the tenure of the 
 judges and the justices became independent of the 
 Crown their administrative jurisdiction remained 
 essentially the same, with the result that the con- 
 trol which might before have been regarded as 
 merely a part of the administrative control became 
 absolutely judicial in character, ;'. p., was exercised 
 by authorities independent of the administration 
 which was to be controlled. 
 
 "Such was the condition of the English adminis- 
 trative jurisdiction at the time the American 
 colonies were founded. At first, indeed, the Ameri- 
 can judges, like the English judges of the same 
 period, were both in tenure and action under the 
 control of the executive which they were to con- 
 trol, but soon their tenure was assured both against 
 the executive and the legislature, so that from a 
 very early time the higher courts exercised a really 
 judicial control over the actions of the administra- 
 tion. The justices of the peace did not, however, 
 at first become independent of the administration 
 in tenure. .And this was probably the reason why 
 our courts of quarter sessions were not able to 
 develop any very large administrative jurisdiction. 
 The appointment early in our history of other 
 officers for purely administrative purposes relegated 
 the justices to the position of inferior judicial offi- 
 cers who have a police jurisdiction and a minor 
 civil private law jurisdiction. They were left very 
 few administrative duties to perform. Notwith- 
 standing the fact that the justices of the peace in 
 the United States later on obtained a tenure inde- 
 pendent of the administration, in that they became 
 generally elected by the people for a fixed term of 
 office, they never got anything like the same ad- 
 ministrative jurisdiction that was given to their 
 English brothers. It is true that in special in- 
 stances we find appeals from the decisions of ad- 
 ministrative officers allowed to the courts of the 
 justices or their successors, the county courts 
 Especially is this true in^ some of the southern 
 commonwealths and in Pennsylvania. But it may 
 safely be said that there has never been, and is 
 not now in the United States any at all important 
 administrative jurisdiction except such as is to be 
 
 48
 
 ADMIRAL 
 
 ADMIRALTY 
 
 found in the writs which the higher courts, as a 
 result of their being the heirs of the Enghsh court 
 of king's bench, have the right to issue. We have 
 lost an important part of the English administra- 
 tive jurisdiction — particularly important because by 
 its means a host of questions of fact and of expe- 
 diency could be reviewed on appeal. With us such 
 questions are decided finally by the administration, 
 with the result that a most precious means of pro- 
 tecting individual rights has been lost." — F. J. 
 Goodnow, Comparative administrative law, v. 2, 
 pp. 192-1Q9. 
 
 ADMIRAL. — Origin of name. — Duties. See 
 Naval law: Origin. 
 
 ADMIRALTY.— Constitution of the British 
 Admiralty. — "The Navy, as every one knows, is 
 ruled by the .'\dmiralty, and the Admiralty is one 
 of the oldest organs of administration in this coun- 
 try [England]. It is also quite unique in its con- 
 stitution and characteristics. . . . The Admiralty, 
 indeed, has no iixcd constitution. There are cer- 
 tain documents which seem to define its duties, 
 functions, and responsibilities, but the inner spirit 
 of its working is not to be found in them. That 
 is embodied in a whole mass of usages, precedents, 
 prescriptions, and informal understandings, many 
 of which have come down from time immemorial, 
 none of which possesses the fixity of a constitu- 
 tional text, while all are endowed with a flexibility 
 which enables them to conform without stress or 
 friction to circumstances as they arise in any 
 emergency. Sir James Graham, a former First 
 Lord of the Admiralty who had closely studied its 
 constitution and who himself took a leading part 
 in one of its most memorable reorganizations, de- 
 clared in 1861 to a Committee of the House of 
 Commons, 'The more I have investigated the mat- 
 ter the more I am satisfied that, like the common 
 law in aid of the Statute Law, the power exercised 
 by the Board of .Admiralty and the different mem- 
 bers of it rests more upon usage than upon the 
 Patents, uninterrupted usage from a very early 
 period.' Mention is here made of 'the Patents.' 
 Each successive Board of Admiralty derives its 
 formal authority from a Patent issued by the 
 Crown, a new Patent being required whenever any 
 change is made in the personnel of the Board. But 
 these successive Patents are, and have been for 
 more than two centuries, issued in substantially the 
 same form. The Patent issued by Queen Anne 
 vesting in Commissioners — now officially known as 
 'My Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty' — all 
 the powers previously exercised by her husband. 
 Prince George of Denmark, as Lord High Admiral, 
 is, save for certain small alterations, omissions, and 
 additions, textually identical with that issued to the 
 present Board of Admiralty by King George V. 
 From it is nominally derived all the authority ex- 
 ercised by the Board of Admiralty over the whole 
 naval service and over the civil departments sub- 
 ject to its control, though in reality much of that 
 authority is of much earlier origin and date. The 
 Patent of Queen Anne is only one of a long series, 
 though it derives its special importance, on the one 
 hand, from the fact that it marks a break in that 
 series, and on the other from the fact that it has 
 survived to our own days. The essential thing to 
 bear in mind is that the Board of .'\dmiralty as we 
 know it is a body of Commissioners appointed by 
 the Crown to execute the office of Lord High 
 Admiral. Now the office of Lord High Admiral 
 goes back to the beginning of the fifteenth century, 
 its incumbent receiving a Patent of office just as 
 the Board of Admiraltv receives a similar Patent 
 to-day The powers conferred on successive Lords 
 High Admiral varied from time to time and were 
 
 gradually enlarged. As early as the reign of Henry 
 VI. the Patent had received a form and scope not 
 greatly differing from those of the Patent issued by 
 Queen Anne and her successors. We need not, 
 however, trace the office of Lord High Admiral 
 through its expansion in the time of Henry VIII 
 into an Office of Admiralty on the one hand and 
 a Navy Board on the other, or through its vicissi- 
 tudes in Stuart and Commonwealth times down to 
 its final abeyance on the death of Prince George of 
 Denmark. It was, it is true, revived for a short 
 period early in the last century in favour of the 
 Duke of Clarence, afterwards King William IV, 
 but the revival proved so disastrous to the welfare 
 and good government of the Navy that it soon 
 came to an end, and for all practical purposes it 
 may be said that the office of Lord High Admiral 
 has been in commission since Prince George of 
 Denmark died in 1709. But its spirit survives not 
 merely in the Patent of Queen Anne but in an 
 earlier declaratory Act passed in i6qo under Wil- 
 liam and Mary to define the powers of a Board 
 of Admiralty appointed at a time when the office 
 of Lord High Admiral was in temporary abeyance. 
 That Statute recited that 'all and singular authori- 
 ties, jurisdictions and powers which, by Act of 
 Parliament or otherwise," had been lawfully vested 
 in the Lord High ."Kdmiral of England, haci always 
 appertained and should appertain to the Commis- 
 sioners for executing the office for the time being 
 'to all intents and purposes as if the said Com- 
 missioners were Lord High Admiral of England.' 
 Whatever, therefore, the Lord High Admiral, in 
 the height and plenitude of his power, might law- 
 fully do, that the Board of Admiralty may also 
 lawfully do. Its power and authority extend far 
 beyond the Patent and the Statute of William and 
 Mary because both those instruments confirm the 
 powers of the Lord High Admiral without at- 
 tempting to define them." — C. Beresford, Book of 
 the Navy, pp. 120-132. 
 
 "We have dwelt upon this peculiar history be- 
 cause it affords an instructive insight into those 
 inestimable qualities of flexibility of administration 
 and ready adaptability to circumstances which 
 have made the Admiralty what it is. We have 
 seen that both an Office of Admiralty — constitut- 
 ing as it were the Staff of the Lord High Admiral 
 — and a Navy Board existed as early as the reign 
 of Henry VIII. The latter administered the civil 
 departments connected with the Navy in greater 
 or less subordination to the former, which in its 
 turn performed many of the directive and execu- 
 tive duties pertaining to the Lord High .\dmiral 
 himself. This was no very logical distribution of 
 the administrative work to be done, and those who 
 are familiar with the history of naval administra- 
 tion in the eighteenth century are well aware that 
 there was constant friction between the Navy 
 Board and the Admiralty and that the former 
 became in the course of time a very hotbed of 
 inefficiency and even corruption — vices, however, 
 from which the Admiralty itself was not entirely 
 free. Still, the system survived through the great 
 wars of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centu- 
 ries and provided a Navy which, thanks mainly 
 to the zeal and devotion of the officers who served 
 in it, was generally equal to the work it had to do. 
 It was abolished in 1832, when Sir James Graham 
 in a series of far-reaching reforms put an end to 
 what was regarded as a mischievous dual control. 
 The Navy Board, alwavs subordinate to the Ad- 
 miralty, was then finally incorporated with the 
 latter. . . . We must pass over the various forms 
 which the Board of Admiralty has assumed since 
 the Patent of Queen Anne finally settled such writ- 
 
 49
 
 ADMIRALTY 
 
 Functions 
 
 ADMIRALTY 
 
 ten constitution as it has, and come at once to its 
 structure and organization at the present day 
 The pivot and centre of the whole is the First 
 Lord of the Admiralty. In the eighteenth century 
 it was not uncommon for a naval officer of high 
 rank and repute, such as Anson, Hawke, St. 
 Vincent, Barham, and others, to hold the office 
 of First Lord. But in more modern times the First 
 Lord of the Admiralty has always been a civilian, 
 and a politician with a seat in the Cabinet. The 
 professional element so necessary to the govern- 
 ment and control of a great fighting service is to 
 be found in the naval members of the Board — Sea 
 Lords as they are officially designated — and not in 
 the statesman who presides over them. The pow- 
 ers, functions, and responsibilities of the First Lord 
 have never been very precisely determined. He is 
 not a Lord High Admiral, since he is only the 
 chief of a body of Commissioners for executing 
 the office of that functionary, and the powers con- 
 ferred by the Patent are conferred not on any indi- 
 vidual but on 'any two or more of you.' Nor can 
 he as a Minister representing his Department in 
 the Cabinet and in Parliament act wholly inde- 
 pendently of his colleagues on the Board. Theo- 
 retically he could, perhaps, and there may in past 
 times have been a few exceptional cases in which 
 a First Lord has so acted. But in these days a 
 First Lord who took important decisions in oppo- 
 sition to the judgment of his professional colleagues 
 would very soon find his position untenable. As 
 a rule, then, the First Lord is the intermediary 
 between the Cabinet and the Board, and the repre- 
 sentative of his Department in Parliament, deriving 
 immense authority and influence from the fact 
 that — under the Cabinet which can always overrule 
 him — he is directly responsible to Parliament and 
 the country for the efficiency and sufficiency of 
 the Fleet, the other members of the Board being in 
 like manner directly responsible to him. . . . The 
 Board of Admiralty as now constituted consists of 
 the First Lord, who presides over it, of the First, 
 Second, Third, and Fourth Sea Lords, of the Civil 
 Lord, of the additional Civil Lord — who holds an 
 office which formerly existed for a short time and 
 was revived for special purposes by Mr. Churchill 
 in January, 1Q12 — of the Parliamentary Secretary, 
 and of the Permanent Secretary. The whole of 
 the business of the Admiralty is distributed among 
 these several members of the Board according to a 
 standing scheme known as the 'Distribution of 
 Business.' This scheme is modified from time to 
 time and revised according to circumstances, but 
 as it stands for the time being it clearly defines the 
 sphere of administration for which each member 
 of the Board is responsible. Thus, according to 
 the scheme at present in force, the First Lord is 
 responsible for the 'general direction of all busi- 
 ness' — a comprehensive range of responsibility 
 which of itself invests the First Lord with a large 
 measure of authority over each and all of his col- 
 leagues. The First Sea Lord is responsible for 
 'organization for war and distribution of the 
 Fleet' and for all executive and administrative 
 questions relating thereto. In particular he is 
 charged with the supervision of the War Staff, 
 about which we shall have more to say hereafter. 
 The Second Sea Lord is responsible for all ques- 
 tions relating to 'Personnel' and the Third Sea Lord 
 for all questions relating to 'Materiel ' The Fourth 
 Sea Lord is responsible for all questions relating to 
 'Stores and Transport,' The Civil Lord is respon- 
 sible for all questions relating to 'Works, Build- 
 ings, and Oreenwich Hospital.' and the .Additional 
 Civil Lord for all questions relating to 'Contracts 
 and Dockyard Business.' The Parliamentary Sec- 
 
 retary is at the head of the department of 
 'Finance' and the Permanent Secretary superin- 
 tends all '.Admiralty Business.' He controls the 
 internal administration of the Department, and all 
 communications from 'My Lords Commissioners 
 of the Admiralty' pass through his office and are 
 signed by him. . . . Thus all the master threads of 
 a vast network of administration, affecting every 
 branch of naval policy, naval preparation, naval 
 construction, and naval finance, pass in due order 
 into the Board Room, thence, after due delibera- 
 tion and decision, to issue in the form of execu- 
 tive orders and directions. This is the paramount 
 function of the Board, a function which immemo- 
 rial usage and that flexibility of adaptation which 
 is native to the sea service enable it to discharge 
 with rare efficiency and, on occasion, with unex- 
 ampled celerity and dispatch, all Statutes, Patents, 
 and Orders in Council notwithstanding. As Lord 
 George Hamilton, a former First Lord of great 
 experience, told a Royal Commission in 1887, 'It 
 has this advantage, that you have all departments 
 represented round a table, and that if it is neces- 
 sary to take quick action, you can do in a few 
 minutes that which it would take hours under any 
 other system to do.' Lastly, there is one vital 
 organ of naval administration which has already 
 been mentioned above, but which will well repay 
 some further consideration. This is the War Staff. 
 In its present form the War Staff is a newly-con- 
 stituted department — the country owes it to the 
 initiative of the present First Lord — though its 
 constituent elements, imperfectly articulated and 
 co-ordinated, have existed at the Admiralty for 
 many years past. .\ Foreign Intelligence Branch 
 was first established in 1883. This developed in a 
 few years into the Naval Intelligence Department, 
 its development in that direction having been 
 greatly advanced by that gallant and zealous offi- 
 cer Admiral Lord Charles Beresford, who as Fourth 
 Sea Lord of the Admiralty from 1886 to 1888 
 strenuously insisted on its vital importance, and 
 is believed to have resigned in the latter year be- 
 cause he could not overcome the apathy of his 
 colleagues on the subject. The Naval Intelligence 
 Department has now in its turn been absorb.cd into 
 a fully constituted War Staff, of which the best 
 description is to be found in the following extracts 
 from a Memorandum drawn up by the present 
 First Lord [Winston S. Churchill] and issued by 
 the Admiralty on January i, 1Q12: — 
 
 "'. . . Naval war is at once more simple and 
 more intense than war on land. The executive ac- 
 tion and control of fleet and squadron commanders 
 is direct and personal in a far stronger degree than 
 that of generals in the field, especially under mod- 
 ern conditions. The art of handling a great fleet 
 on important occasions with deft and sure judg- 
 ment is the supreme gift of the admiral, and prac- 
 tical seamanship must never be displaced from its 
 position as the first qualification of every sailor. 
 The formation of a War Staff does not mean the 
 setting up of new standards of professional merit 
 of the opening of a road of advancement to a dif- 
 ferent class of officers. The War Staff is to be the 
 means of preparing and training those officers who 
 arrive, or are likely to arrive by the excellence of 
 Iheir sea service, at stations of high responsibility 
 for dealing with the more extended problems which 
 await them there. It is to be the means of sifting, 
 developing, and applying the results of history and 
 experience, and of preserving them as a general 
 stork of reasoned opinion available as an aid 
 and as a guide for all who are called upon to 
 determine, in peace or war, the naval policy of 
 the country. . . . 
 
 50
 
 ADMIRALTY 
 
 ADMIRALTY ISLANDS 
 
 " 'It should not be supposed that these functions 
 find no place in Admiralty organization at the 
 present time. On the contrary, during the course 
 of years, all or nearly all the elements of a War 
 Staff at the Admiralty have been successively 
 evolved in the practical working of every-day af- 
 fairs, and have been developing since the organiza- 
 tion of the Foreign Intelligence Branch in 18S3. 
 The time has now come to combine these elements 
 into an harmonious and effective organization, to 
 invest that new body with a significance and influ- 
 ence it has not hitherto possessed, and to place it 
 in its proper relation to existing power. 
 
 " 'Since, however, under the distribution of Ad- 
 miralty business on the Board, the First Sea Lord 
 occupies for certain purposes, especially the daily 
 distribution of the Fleet, on which the safety of 
 the country depends, the position of a Com- 
 mander-in-Chief of the Navy, with the First Lord 
 immediately over him, as the delegate of the 
 Crown in exercising supreme executive power, it 
 follows that the War Staff must work at all times 
 directly under the First Sea Lord. His position 
 is different in important respects from that of the 
 senior member of the .'\rmy Council as constituted. 
 The First Sea Lord is an executive officer in active 
 control of daily Fleet movements, who requires, 
 like a General in the field, to have at his disposal 
 a Chief of the Staff, but who is not the Chief of 
 the Staff himself. 
 
 " 'A proper staff, whether naval or military, 
 should comprise three main branches — namely, a 
 branch to acquire the information on which action 
 may be taken; a branch to deliberate on the facts 
 so obtained in relation to the policy of the State, 
 and to report thereupon; and, thirdly, a branch to 
 enable the final decision of superior authority to 
 be put into actual effect. The War Staff at the 
 Admiralty will, in pursuance of this principle, be 
 organized from the existing elements in three divi- 
 sions — the Intelligence Division, the Operations Di- 
 vision, and the Mobilization Division. These may 
 be shortly described as dealing with war informa- 
 tion, war plans, and war arrangements respectively. 
 The divisions will be equal in status, and each 
 will be under a director, who will usually be a 
 Captain of standin.'. The three divisions will 
 be combined together under a Chief of the 
 Staff. 
 
 " 'The Chief of the Staff will be a Flag Officer. 
 He will be primarily responsible to the First Sea 
 Lord, and will work under him as his principal as- 
 sistant and agent. He will not, however, be the 
 sole channel of communication between the First 
 Sea Lord and the Staff; and the First Lord and 
 the First Sea Lord will, whenever convenient, con- 
 sult the Directors of the various Divisions or 
 other officers if necessary. . . . The Chief of the 
 War Staff will guide and co-ordinate the work of 
 the Staff in all its branches. He will, when de- 
 sired, accompany the First Lord and the First Sea 
 Lord to the Committee of Imperial Defence. . . . 
 " 'The functions of the W'ar Staff will be advi- 
 sory. The Chief of the Staff, when decision has 
 been taken upon any proposal, will be jointly re- 
 sponsible with the Secretary for the precise form 
 in which the necessary orders to the Fleet are is- 
 sued, but the Staff will possess no executive au- 
 thority. It will discharge no administrative duties. 
 Its responsibilities will end with the tendering of 
 advice and with the accuracy of the facts on which 
 that advice is based. 
 
 " 'Decision as to accepting or rejecting the ad- 
 vice of the Staff wholly or in part rests with the 
 First Sea lord, who, in the name of the Board of 
 Admiralty, discharges the duties assigned to him 
 
 by the Minister. In the absence of the First Sea 
 Lord for any cause the Second Sea Lord would 
 act for him. . . . 
 
 " 'The selection and training of the officers to 
 compose a Staff of the nature described as impor- 
 tant Hitherto no special qualifications have been 
 regarded as essential for the officers employed in 
 the Intelligence and Mobilization Departments, 
 because the ordinary sea training of naval officers 
 was supposed to supply all that was required. 
 This training, however, although admirable on its 
 practical side, affords no instruction in the 
 broader questions of strategy and policy, which be- 
 come increasingly important year by year, A 
 change in this respect is therefore considered ad- 
 visable, and a special course of training at the War 
 College will form an essential part of the new 
 arrangements. The President of the College will 
 be entrusted with this important duty, and in 
 order that it may be carried out to the best effect, 
 he will at all times be in close touch and associa- 
 tion with the Chief of the Staff. In course of 
 time the appointment will be held by a Flag Offi- 
 cer who has been a Staff Officer himself. Candi- 
 dates for the Staff will be selected from volunteers 
 among lieutenants of suitable seniority as well as 
 officers of other branches throughout the Service 
 irrespective .of their previous qualifications as 
 specialist officers or otherwise, and those who pass 
 the necessary examinations at the end of or during 
 the War College course will be eligible to receive 
 appointments either at the Admiralty or on the 
 Staff of Flag Officers afloat as they fall vacant. 
 In all cases, however, regular periods of sea-going 
 executive duty will alternate with the other duties 
 of Staff Officers of all ranks, in order that they 
 may be kept up to the necessary standard as prac- 
 tical sea officers. .'\ll appointments on sea-going 
 staffs will in the course of time be filled by these 
 officers, and form the proper avenue to eventual 
 employment in the highest Staff positions at the 
 ■Admiralty. . . ." — Ibid., 1,^3-137, 130-144. 
 
 1912-1920. — Reorganizations. — There have been 
 two important reorganizations of the Admiralty in 
 recent years, the first being part of Winston 
 Churchill's naval schemes, the second made neces- 
 sary by the increased responsibilities of the World 
 War, In igi2, the various members of the board 
 of Admiralty were made responsible for special 
 functions: — the First Lord, general direction of 
 business; First Sea Lord, organization for war and 
 distribution of the fleet; Second Sea Lord, per- 
 sonnel; Third Sea Lord, stores and transport; Civil 
 Lord, works, buildings, and hospital; Additional 
 Civil Lord, contracts and dockyard business; Par- 
 liamentary Secretary, finance; Permanent Secre- 
 tary, admiralty business. The reorganization of 
 iqi7 took place on May 14, the principal feature 
 being that a Naval Staff was embodied in the 
 Board. At present fio::] the duties of the Ad- 
 miralty are divided into the two departments of 
 operations and maintenance. The first division has 
 as its functions naval policy and the general direc- 
 tion of operations, war operations in home waters 
 and elsewhere, trade protection and anti-submarine 
 operations. The officers in charge are the First 
 Sea Lord and Chief of the Naval Staff, and the 
 Deputy and .Assistant Chiefs of the Naval Staff. 
 The maintenance division is in charge of the Sec- 
 ond. Third, and Fourth Sea Lords, and the Civil 
 Lord, and is concerned with personnel, finance, 
 supplies and transport. 
 
 ADMIRALTY ISLANDS, a small group of 
 tropical islands, off the northeastern coast of New 
 Guinea, forming a part of the Bismarck Archipel- 
 ago. Became a German protectorate in 1884. The 
 
 51
 
 ADMIRALTY LAW 
 
 ADMIRALTY LAW 
 
 principal island is Taui, or Manus. On September 
 12, igi4, they were occupied by an Australian force 
 and were awarded to Australia as mandatory in 
 igig. — See also Bismarck archipelago; Melane- 
 sia. 
 
 ADMIRALTY LAW, the system of law and 
 procedure referring to maritime transactions. The 
 term originated in England from the fact that this 
 branch of law was originally administered by the 
 Lord High Admiral. At present, the Court of 
 Admiralty in that country forms a separate part of 
 the High Court of Justice, being grouped with the 
 Probate and Divorce Courts in a special division. 
 Its jurisdiction includes actions to recover posses- 
 sion of a ship, to recover damages for injuries to 
 shipping, to recover seamen's wages, for necessaries 
 furnished to a ship, for bottomry [a loan on the 
 ship], respondentia |a loan on the goods in the 
 ship] and mortgage, for pilotage and towage, for 
 salvage, for restoration of goods taken by pirates, 
 for assaults and batteries on the high seas and all 
 actions of similar scope. In the United States, the 
 federal judiciary possesses exclusive jurisdiction in 
 all maritime cases. This includes all cases arising 
 on the high seas or Great Lakes, and most of those 
 on navigable rivers and canals within the territory 
 of the United States. In this country there is no 
 special Admiralty Court. .^dmiralty cases are 
 heard in the first instance in the United States 
 District Courts, from which they may be appealed 
 to the Circuit Court of Appeals and finally to the 
 United States Supreme Court. — See also Naval 
 law: Court of Admiralty. 
 
 1183. — Law as to shipwrecks. — "The Emperor 
 Constantine, or Antonine (for there is some doubt 
 as to which it was), had the honour of being the 
 first to renounce the claim to shipwrecked property 
 in favor of the rightful owner. But the inhuman 
 customs on this subject were too deeply rooted to 
 be eradicated by the wisdom and vigilance of the 
 Roman law givers. The legislation in favor of the 
 unfortunate was disregarded by succeeding em- 
 perors, and when the empire itself was overturned 
 by the northern barbarians, the laws of humanity 
 were swept away in the tempest, and the continual 
 depredations of the Saxons and Normans induced 
 the inhabitants of the western coasts of Europe to 
 treat all navigators who were thrown by the perils 
 of the sea upon their shores as pirates, and to 
 punish them as such, without inquiry or discrim- 
 ination. The Emperor Andronicus Comncnus, who 
 reigned at Constantinople in 1183, made great 
 efforts to repress this inhuman practice. His edict 
 was worthy of the highest praise, but it cea.sed to 
 be put in execution after his death. . . . VaUn 
 says, it was reserved to the ordinances of Lewis 
 XIV. to put the finishing stroke towards the ex- 
 tinction of this species of piracy,- by declaring that 
 shipwrecked persons and property were placed un- 
 der the special protection and safe guard of the 
 crown, and the punishment of death without hope 
 of pardon, was pronounced against the guilty." — 
 J. Kent, hilrrnntiPiHi! Ia-d\ p. 31. 
 
 1537. — Jurisdiction.— The act of 28 Henry 
 VIII, c. T?, granted jurisdiction to the lord high 
 admiral of England. 
 
 1575. — Jurisdiction.— "The request of the Judge 
 of the Admiralty, to the Lord Chief Justice of her 
 Majesty's bench and his colleagues, and the Judges' 
 .Agreement 7th May 157,=;, "^by which the long 
 controversy between these courts as to their rela- 
 tive jurisdiction was terminated, will be found in 
 full in E. C. Benedict, American Admiralty, 4lh 
 ed., p 7,0. 
 
 1664. — Tide-mark. — The space between high 
 and low water mark is to be taken as part of the 
 
 sea, when the tide is in.— E. C. Benedict, American 
 Admiralty, 4th ed., p. a. 
 
 1789. — United States Judiciary Act. — The Act 
 of I78g declared admiralty jurisdiction to extend 
 to all cases "where the seizures are made on waters 
 which are navigable from the sea by vessels of ten 
 or more tons burthen." — Judiciary Act, U. S. stat- 
 utes at large, v. 1, p. 76. — See also Supreme Court: 
 I78g-i835. 
 
 1798. — Lord Stowell and admiralty law. — 
 "Lord Mansfield, at a very early period of his 
 judicial life, introduced to the notice of the Eng- 
 lish bar the Rhodian laws, the Consolato del Mare, 
 the laws of Oleron, the treatises of Roccus, the 
 laws of Wisbuy, and, above all, the marine ordi- 
 nances of Louis XIV, and the commentary 'f 
 Valin. These authorities were cited by him in 
 Luke V. Lyde (2 Burr. 882), and from that time a 
 new direction was given to English studies, and 
 new vigor, and more liberal and enlarged views, 
 communicated to forensic investigations." — J. Kent, 
 Commentaries, pi. 5, lecture 42. — The old maritime 
 codes brought before the English bar at this time 
 were among the most important in the develop- 
 ment of maritime law. The Rhodian laws dating 
 back possibly to the third century stated that "if 
 cargo is thrown overboard to lighten a ship all 
 must contribute to make good the loss incurred for 
 the benefit of all." The laws of Oleron, compiled 
 in the twelfth century by order of Eleanor of 
 Aquitaine were made up of the judgments of the 
 court of Oleron, an important shipping center, and 
 of the usages of the sea having force among the 
 mariners of that island. The Consolato del Mare, 
 compiled in the fourteenth century by the Catalans 
 of Barcelona, was made up of the settled uses of 
 trade and navigation of the maritime provinces of 
 the Mediterranean. The laws of Wisby were the 
 mercantile customs and regulations from Wisby, 
 Sweden, compiled in the last years of the thirteenth 
 century, and in force throughout the Baltic sea. 
 They were the basis of the maritime regulations 
 of the Hanseatic League. In 1681, Louis XIV had 
 collected and systematised the whole law of ship- 
 ping, navigation, marine insurance, bottomry, etc. 
 — "Since the year 1708, the decisions of Sir William 
 Scott (now Lord Stowell) on the admiralty side of 
 Westminster Hall, have been read and admired in 
 every region of the republic of letters, as models 
 of the most cultivated and the most enlightened 
 human reason. . . . The doctrines are there rea- 
 soned out at large, and practically applied. The 
 arguments at the bar, and the opinions from the 
 bench, are intermingled with the greatest reflec- 
 tions, . . the soundest policy, and a thorough 
 acquaintance with all the various topics which 
 concern the great social interests of mankind." — 
 Ibid. 
 
 1803-1809 — Impressment of American seamen 
 by British navy. See U S ,\ : 1803: Report on 
 British impressment; 1804-1800. 
 
 1841-1842. — Jurisdiction. — The act 3 and 4 Vic, 
 c b^, restored to the English .Xdmiralty some juris- 
 diction of which it had been deprived by the Com- 
 mon Law Courts. — E. C. Benedict, American Ad- 
 miralty, p. .s6 
 
 1845. — Extension of admiralty jurisdiction. — 
 "It took the Supreme Court of the United States 
 more than fifty years to reject the antiquated doc- 
 trine of the English courts, that admiralty juris- 
 diction was confined to salt water, or water where 
 the tide ebbed and flowed. Congress in 184S 
 passed an act extending the admiralty jurisdiction 
 of the Federal courts to certain cases upon the 
 great lakes, and the navigable waters connecting 
 the same. The constitutionality of this act was 
 
 52
 
 ADMIRALTY LAW 
 
 ADRIA 
 
 seriously questioned, and it was not till. 1851 that 
 the Supreme Court, by a divided court, in the case 
 of the Genesee Chief, which collided with another 
 vessel on Lake Ontario, sustained the constitu- 
 tionality of the act, and repudiated the absurd 
 doctrine that tides had anything to do with the 
 admiralty jurisdiction conferred by the constitution 
 upon Federal courts." — L. Trumbull, Precedent ver- 
 sus justice {American Law Review, v. 27, p. 324). 
 Also in: Act of 1845,5 U.S. Statutes at large, 726. 
 1873. — Division of loss in case of collision 
 settled by Judicature Act. — "The rule that where 
 both ships are at fault for a collision each shall 
 recover half his loss from the other, contradicts 
 the old rule of the common law that a plaintiff 
 who is guilty of contributory negligence can re- 
 cover nothing. This conflict between the common 
 law and the law of the Admiralty was put an end 
 to in 1873 by the Judicature Act of that year, 
 which (s. 25, subs, g) provides that 'if both ships 
 shall be found to have been in fault' the Ad- 
 miralty rule shall prevail. . . . There can be no 
 doubt that in some instances it works positive in- 
 justice; as where it prevents the innocent cargo- 
 owner from recovering more than half his loss 
 from one of the two wrong-doing shipowners. 
 And recent cases show that it works in an arbi- 
 trary and uncertain manner when combined with 
 the enactments limiting the shipowner's liability 
 for damage done by his ship. The fact, however, 
 remains, that it has been in operation with the 
 approval of the shipping community for at least 
 two centuries, and probably for a much longer 
 period; and an attempt to abolish it at the time 
 of the passing of the Judicature Acts met with 
 no success. The true reason of its very general 
 acceptance is probably this — that it gives effect to 
 the principle of distributing losses at sea, which is 
 widely prevalent in maritime affairs. Insurance, 
 limitation of shipowner's liability, and general 
 average contribution are all connected, more or 
 less directly, with this principle." — R. G. Marsden, 
 Two points of admiralty law (Law Quarterly 
 Review, v. 2, pp. 357-362). 
 
 An enumeration of the various maritime codes 
 with their dates may be found in E. C. Benedict, 
 American admiralty, pp. 88-Qq, 4tli ed. — G. B, 
 Davis, Outlines of international law, pp. 5-6. 
 
 1917-1921.— Effect of Supreme Court de- 
 cisions. See Supreme Court: 1017-1021. 
 
 1920. — American principle in admiralty pro- 
 cedure. — Federal jurisdiction. — Federal and 
 state regulations. — "The wisdom of our ancestors, 
 in laying the foundations of the Republic, is in 
 nothing more evident than in our organic regula- 
 tions in relation to commerce. For all commercial 
 purposes we must be one people; no different rules 
 must be applied in our maritime commerce in the 
 ports of different states; perfect freedom and equal- 
 ity of trade and navigation amon,' ourselves is con- 
 stitutionally secure. If it had not been so, long be- 
 fore this time we should have been divided, weak 
 and antagonistic sections, the fragments of our orig- 
 inal Union. How easy it is to perceive that our har- 
 mony might be interrupted, and our strength im- 
 paired, if each state might adopt and enforce, on 
 its half of a river, its section of a lake, its short 
 stretch of coast, in its own ports and harbors and 
 local waters, to which all states have a common 
 right of use, a system of commercial and maritime 
 law, repealing, or conflicting with that great sys- 
 tem of commercial law which is known as the 
 Admiralty and Maritime Law, and which alone 
 can secure those equal state rights which it was 
 one great object of the Constitution to protect." — 
 E. C. Benedict, American admiralty, 4tli ed., p. 112 
 
 The Constitution of the United States pro- 
 vides (Art. 3, Sect. 2) that the judicial power of 
 the United States should extend to all cases of 
 admiralty and maritime jurisdiction. Art. i, Sec- 
 tion 8 gives Congress power to make all laws neces- 
 sary to carry into execution the powers vested in 
 the Federal government. 
 
 The Federal Constitution adopted and established, 
 as part of the laws of the United States, approved 
 rules of the general maritime law, and empowered 
 Congress to legislate in respect of them and other 
 matters within the admiralty and maritime juris- 
 diction. Moreover, it took from the states all 
 power, by legislation or judicial decision, to con- 
 travene the essential purposes of, or to work ma- 
 terial injury to, characteristic features of such law, 
 or to interfere with its proper harmony and uni- 
 formity in its international and interstate relations. 
 (Knickerbocker Ice Co. vs. Stewart, 1920), 253 
 U. S. 149). 
 
 See also Armed merch.^ntmen ; Asylum, right 
 of; Continuous voyage; Freedom of the seas: 
 1650-1815; Hague conference: IQ07; London, 
 Declaration of; Navigation laws; Paris, Dec- 
 laration of. 
 
 ADOLPH of NASSAU (1255-1298), German 
 king, son of Walram, count of Nassau, chosen 
 king to succeed Rudolph I, on May 5, 1292, being 
 crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle on July i. To 
 strengthen his position in 1204 he allied himself 
 with Edward I of England, against France, but 
 failed to aid him. Was deposed in 1298 as a re- 
 sult of the conspiracy against him by Albert I of 
 Austria and VVenceslaus II of Bohemia, Albert suc- 
 ceeding him. See Austria: 1291-1349. 
 
 ADOLPHUS FREDERICK (1710-1771), king 
 of Sweden. After being bishop of Liibeck, was in 
 1743 chosen as heir to the Swedish throne; became 
 king in 1751 and reigned until 1771. Due to the 
 wrangling in the Riksdag which was composed of 
 the two political cliques, the Caps and the Hats, 
 his position was without real power. See Sweden: 
 1720-1792. 
 
 ADONIJAH, son of David; attempted to gain 
 throne from Solomon. See Jews: Kingdoms of 
 Israel and Judah. 
 ADOPTION, Roman. See Roman FAinLv. 
 ADOPTIONISM, a doctrine, condemned as 
 heretical in the eighth century, which taught that 
 "Christ, as to his human nature, was not truly the 
 Son of God, but only His son by adoption." The 
 dogma is also known as the Felician heresy, from 
 a Spanish bishop, Felix, who was prominent among 
 its supporters. Charlemagne took active measures 
 to suppress the heresy. — J. I. Mombert, History of 
 Charles the Great, bk. 2, ch. 12. 
 
 ADOR, Gustave, (1845- ), president of 
 Switzerland during igiq and during the World War 
 was president of International Committee of the 
 Red Cross. See Switzerland: Swiss Red Cross 
 and the World War. 
 
 ADORNI FACTION: Genoa. See Genoa: 
 1458-1464. 
 ADOWA, Battle of. See Italy: 1895-1896. 
 ADRAR, an oasis in the western part of the 
 Sahara, on the caravan route of Morocco; by the 
 agreement of 1892 a part of French Sahara. 
 
 ADRENALINE, Isolation and development 
 of. See Chemistry: Practical application: Drugs. 
 ADRIA, a town and episcopal see in the prov- 
 ince of Rovigo, Italy, the ancient Atria (the form 
 Hadria is less correct) . About 30 miles southwest 
 of Venice; was originally an island, and in the 
 time of the Romans, a naval station and flourish- 
 ing port but is now far inland; has numerous 
 antiquities, having been successively an Illyrian, a 
 
 53
 
 ADRIAN 
 
 ADRIATIC QUESTION 
 
 Greek, and a Roman town; population {1Q20) 
 about 17,000. 
 
 ADRIAN, or Hadrian (Lat. Hadrianus), the 
 name of six popes. 
 
 Adrian I, pope from 772 to 795; found it neces- 
 sary to call upon Charlemangne to drive out Desi- 
 derius, King of the Lombards, from the territory 
 bestowed on the popes by King Pepin. .Adrian was 
 faithful to the Prankish alliance throughout his 
 reign. Charlemagne wrote the epitaph upon 
 Adrian's death which may be seen to this day on 
 the door of the Vatican basilica. 
 
 Adrian 11, pope from 867-872, assuming his 
 duties at an advanced age. He spent his last years 
 in a vain effort to mediate between the quarrels of 
 the Prankish princes. Adrian II was forced to sub- 
 mit to Emperor Louis II in numerous temporal 
 disputes. 
 
 Adrian III, pope, succeeding Marinus I in 884. 
 Died the following year while journeying to 
 Worms. 
 
 Adrian IV (Nicholas Breakspeare), pope from 
 1 1 54 to 1150, the only Englishman who has oc- 
 cupied the papal chair; born at Langjey in Hert- 
 fordshire before 1100; served as legate in Scan- 
 dinavia from 1 1 52 to 1 1 54; placed Rome under 
 the interdict because of the murder of one of the 
 cardinals. Adrian I\' bestowed the soverei nty of 
 Ireland on Henry H of England. In 11 55 he used 
 drastic measures in putting down the democratic 
 aspirations of the Roman people under Arnold of 
 Brescia whom he succeeded in having executed. 
 He virtually began the bitter struggle between the 
 papal power and the House of Hohenstaufen and 
 died just as he was about to march at the head of 
 the Italian forces against Emperor Frederick I. 
 
 Adrian V (Ottobuono de Fieschi), became pope 
 July II, 127b, succeeding pope Innocent I\'; lived 
 but five weeks following his election to the papal 
 chair, dying at \iterbo on .August 18. 
 
 Adrian VI (Adrian Dedel, 1450-1523), pope, 
 1522-1523; appointed tutor by the Emperor Max- 
 imilian to his seven-year-old grandson, Charles, 
 who later became Charles V. Adrian's former 
 pupil made him regent of Spain in 1520, under 
 which regency a serious revolt broke out. As 
 pope, Adrian sought to correct many ecclesiastical 
 abuses. Because of his brief occujiancy of the 
 papal throne, however, his efforts as reformer were 
 hardly effective. — See also Pap.^cy: 1522-1525; 
 Sfain: 1518-1522. 
 
 ADRIANOPLE (Hadrianople), a city in 
 Thrace founded by the Emperor Hadrian and 
 designated by hi? name. It was the scene of Con- 
 stantine's victory over Licinius in 323 (see Rome: 
 305-323), and of the defeat and death of Valens 
 in battle with the Goths (see Goths: Visigoths: 
 37Q-382; Rome: 363-370). In-1361 it became for 
 some years the capital of the 'Turks in Europe. 
 It was occu[)ied by the Russians in 1820, and 
 again in 1878, and gave its name to (he treaty 
 negotiated in 1820 between Russia and the Porte. 
 In the first Balk:in War it was captured and 
 annexed by Bulgaria; in the second, Bulgaria 
 being at war with Greece. Serbia, Montenegro and 
 Rumania, the Turks were able to recapture their 
 ancient capital (1013). fSee Balkan States: 1878; 
 1Q12-1Q13; Turkey: 1012-1013.) .As a result of 
 the World War, it is now included in the posses- 
 sions of Greece — See also Balkan States: Map 
 
 ADRIANOPLE, Treaty of, the treaty estab- 
 lishing Greek in<lependence 'The uprising of the 
 Greeks [1821] awakened general en(hii?ia=m 
 throughout Europe, and m:my ardent lovers of 
 ancient Hellas, among them the English poet 
 Byron, volunteered to help in the Greek struggle 
 
 for independence. In spite of many valorous 
 deeds, the Greeks would have succumbed to the 
 superior forces of Turkey had not Russia, England, 
 and Prance intervened in their behalf. The Powers 
 were induced to champion the cause of Greece 
 chiefly through the influence of thousands cf their 
 citizens in whom the memory of the ancient land 
 of philosophy, literature, and art had roused an 
 intense desire to see it freed from Turkish misrule. 
 In 1827 the representatives of the Powers met in 
 London and demanded an armistice of the Sultan; 
 but before final arrangements for this were made, 
 a Turkish squadron was destroyed by the fleets of 
 the Allies at the Battle of Navarino. The Sultan 
 was furious, and he determined to resist the de- 
 mands of the Powers at all costs. England now 
 withdrew from the alliance because she feared that 
 a war might lead to the destruction of Turkey, a 
 consummation which she by no means desired. 
 Tsar Nicholas I decided to wage war on his own 
 account. Russian armies defeated the Turks in 
 several battles and began marching toward Con- 
 stantinople. .'Vt the same time Prench armies drove 
 the Turks out of Morea, or southern Greece. 
 These reverses compelled the Sultan to sue for 
 peace, and he signed the Treaty of Adrianople 
 (1820) granting complete independence to Greece. 
 In 1S33 the latter was organized as a constitutional 
 monarchy with a Bavarian prince, Otto, as her 
 first king." — J. S. Schapiro, Modern and contem- 
 porary European history, p. 62S. — "By the settle- 
 ment, Turkey virtually acknowledged the inde- 
 pendence of Greece ; granted practical autonomy 
 to Serbia and to the principalities of Moldavia 
 and Wallachia (modern Rumania) ; surrendered 
 claims on Georgia and other provinces of the Cau- 
 casus to Russia ; and recognized the exclusive juris- 
 diction of Russian consuls over Russian traders in 
 Turkey." — C. J. Hayes, Politkal and social history 
 of modern Europe, v. 2, pp. 4Q-50. — See also 
 Serbia: 1S04-1S17; Turkey: 1826-18213. 
 
 ADRIATIC, Wedding of. See Vemce: 1177; 
 14th centiirv. 
 
 ADRIA'TIC QUESTION.— FricUon between 
 Italy and Jugo-Slavia. — Treaty of Rapallo, 
 Nov. 12, 1920. — "We do not think we are wrong,' 
 wrote the Weser Zeilung, in December, IQ16, 
 'in regarding the Adriatic question as the surest 
 source of future discord within the ranks of 
 the present Allies.' The grave events of which 
 Piume and Ljubljana (Laibach) have lately been 
 the scene, and which are the direct and natural 
 result of the unsound principles underlying the 
 Austro-Hungarian armistice, are giving point to 
 the enemy's comment, and convince us of the need 
 for plain speech, before the growing breach be- 
 tween the Italians and Jugoslavs becomes irrepara- 
 ble . . . The relations between Italy and the 
 Jugoslavs are one of the pivotal problems of the 
 war and its settlement, both as regards the fulfil- 
 ment of the public pledges towards 'the small 
 nations,' and also as regards territories once known 
 as the Habsburg Monarchy." — R. W. Seton-Wat- 
 son, Europe in the melting pot, p. 297. — "The 
 areas involved in the dispute are not large com- 
 pared with other regions which have been re- 
 assigned fby the treaty of Versailles] nor are they 
 particularly fertile or wealthy. They are, however, 
 so situated as to be of considerable importance 
 strategically and economically and the question of 
 their control and of the allegiance of their inhabi- 
 tants has become a matter of national honor and 
 prestige. Questions of this type are especially deli- 
 cate Concretely the clash is over the political 
 future of the eastern part of the Tstrian Peninsula, 
 the town and district of Fiume, northern Dalmatia, 
 
 54
 
 ADRIATIC QUESTION 
 
 yVew 
 Italian Frontiers 
 
 ADRIATIC QUESTION 
 
 and a number of the islands of the eastern Adri- 
 atic. Closely linked with these is the future of 
 part of Albania. With the e.xception of the city of 
 Fiume, which enjoyed a degree of local self-gov- 
 ernment under the Hungarian crown, the disputed 
 areas formed part of the former Austrian Empire. 
 The population is predominantly South Slav, but 
 in the towns, and notably in Fiume and Zara, 
 there is an important ItaUan element. By the 
 terms of the treaty signed by Austria, and that 
 presented to Hungary, the principal Allied and 
 Associated Powers are to dispose of these terri- 
 tories. Italy has therefore the advantage of being 
 both a judge and claimant." — A. P. Scott, Intro- 
 duction to the peace treaties, p. 270. — By the 
 treaty of Rapallo, November 12, 1920, between 
 Jugo-Slavia and Italy, the city of Zara was as- 
 signed to Italy, the remainder of Dalmatia being 
 given to Jugo-Slavia. To the north Italy re- 
 ceived a favorable frontier. Fiume was to be inde- 
 pendent. All concerned seemed fairly satisfied 
 with this compromise, with the exception of 
 DAnnunzio, the master of Fiume, who at the end 
 of 1920 still maintained his defiant attitude there, 
 but he finally relinquished control and left the 
 city. The civil authorities then adhered to the 
 treaty, made peace with Italy and prepared to 
 govern Fiume as an independent state. 
 
 Problem of Italy's new frontiers. — "The story 
 of Fiume is closely linked with the whole problem 
 of Italy's new frontiers. Both in the Trentino on 
 the north and in the region of the Isonzo on the 
 east Italy suffered before the war from frontiers 
 which were geographically unsound, and which 
 invited invasion by a dangerous neighbor. The 
 boundary ran either close to the southern margin 
 of the Alps, or actually down on the piedmont 
 plain south of them, leaving almost the whole of 
 the formidable mountain mass in Austria as a well- 
 nigh impregnable defense against Italy, while Italy 
 remained virtually defenseless against possi()!e Aus- 
 trian aggression. ... If we are to appreciate the 
 Italian point of view, we must try to put our- 
 selves in the position of a people who find the 
 gateways into their country held by an hereditary 
 enemy, who have often suffered from invasions 
 through those gateways in the past, and who know 
 that they are held by the enemy for the deliberate 
 purpose of making any possible future invasion 
 easy. Add to this the further fact that Austria's 
 .strategic designs against Italy involved the enslave- 
 ment of hundreds of thousands of Italians, both 
 in the north and in the east, and it is not difficult 
 to understand that the battle-cry of 'Trent and 
 Trieste !' should awaken the fighting spirit of every 
 patriotic Italian. Whatever the objectives of the 
 then-existing government of Italy, it would seem 
 clear that the great mass of the people, who knew 
 nothing of the terms of the secret Treaty of Lon- 
 don, entered the war not to subject large areas of 
 Germanic and Slavonic territory to their rule, nor 
 even to gain the port of Fiume, with its remote 
 islet of Italian population ; rather, they entered the 
 war in a fervor of exalted patriotism, to complete 
 the great work of unification of Italy by freeing 
 truly Italian territory from a foreign yoke, and to 
 drive the enemy from the very threshold of their 
 homes back into his own domain. Since certain 
 aspects of the Trentino or Tyrol problem are in- 
 separable from the story of Fiume, let us pass in 
 brief review the salient features of that problem. 
 The Italian Government demanded the whole Tren- 
 tino, to the line of the Brenner Pass, and in the 
 secret Treaty of London the Allies promised it as 
 part of the compensation to be given Italy for 
 her aid against the Central Powers. At the Peace 
 
 Conference Italy increased her demands, claiming 
 in addition to what the treaty allowed her several 
 important areas on the northern slopes of the 
 watershed having considerable strategic impor- 
 tance. As the Italian claims would certainly be 
 supported by racial, historical, geographic, and 
 strategic arguments, it was necessary for the Amer- 
 ican speciaUsts to examine fully into every aspect 
 of the problem. It is true that in the drainage 
 basin of the Adige River, forming most of the 
 Trentino, the majority of the population is Italian. 
 But it is equally true that even the Italian authori- 
 ties on the distribution of races in the Trentino 
 admit that the Italian majority is largely confined 
 to the south, while the northern parts of the basin 
 are overwhelmingly German and have been so for 
 centuries. It was found possible to draw in the 
 Trentino one of the cleanest-cut ethnographic 
 frontiers in the world, leaving few Germans to the 
 south and few Italians to the north of it. A care- 
 ful study of the theory that the watershed cross- 
 ing the Brenner Pass was the only natural north- 
 ern frontier for Italy, and that the drainage basin 
 of the Adige River constituted an indivisible geo- 
 graphic unit, did not substantiate that view. In 
 the Alps, as is so often the case in glaciated moun- 
 tains, the drainage divide is in places determined 
 by some insignificant topographic detail, such as a 
 small moraine or a tiny alluvial fan in the bottom 
 of a great valley. The Adige watershed, instead 
 of following along Alpine ridges, actually descends 
 into and cuts squarely across the floor of the 
 Pusterthal, thus dividing in an accidental and ab- 
 normal manner one of the most striking geographic 
 units in the Alps. The true boundary between 
 geographic units, the real topographic barrier sep- 
 arating German and Italian lands in that part of 
 the Alps east of the Brenner Pass, lies not on the 
 watershed, but some distance south of it. Italy's 
 historical claim to a frontier on the Brenner Pass 
 seemed equally weak. The former extent of the 
 Roman Empire over the coveted area could not 
 seriously be regarded as a basis of territorial 
 awards in the twentieth century. The argument 
 that Napoleon's annexation of the upper Adige to 
 the kingdom of Italy showed the military and po- 
 litical necessity of granting Italy a frontier on the 
 Brenner, fell to the ground in view of the fact that 
 the 'Upper Adige' of Napoleon's time stopped far 
 short of the Brenner and included little beyond the 
 lands which to-day are unquestionably Italian. If 
 Napoleon's action proved anything, it proved that 
 that military genius did not regard a frontier on 
 the Brenner as vital to Italy. Yet the strategic 
 arguments in favor of Italy's claim to the whole 
 of the Trentino were the strongest which rould be 
 advanced. The long, narrow form of the Italian 
 peninsula, by rendering peculiarly difficult the 
 mobilization of Italy's man-power, makes the need 
 of a strong frontier on the north especially urgent. 
 Fifty per cent of the defenders of the frontier 
 must come from south of the constriction of the 
 peninsula near the latitude of Bologna, and must 
 journey to and through that constriction on four 
 main railway lines, of which three traverse the 
 .'\pennines mountain barrier and two can be de- 
 stroyed from the sea. Hence, Italy might with 
 some show of reason demand a strategic frontier 
 so strong that in case of attack a fraction of her 
 man-power could defend it successfully against 
 superior enemy forces until the whole could be 
 mobilized. 
 
 "The geographic character of Italy's northern 
 frontier compels her to maintain two campaigns 
 against a Teutonic or a combined Teutonic- 
 Slavonic aggression. Italy's northern plain is vul- 
 
 55
 
 ADRIATIC QUESTION 
 
 Jugo-Slavia 
 
 ADRIATIC QUESTION 
 
 nerable from the north and from the east. The 
 armies defending the eastern frontier depend upon 
 supply lines which traverse the Venetian plain for 
 ISO miles in sight of an enemy advancing over the 
 northern mountains. Hence the eastern armies 
 must always fight under the menace of a disaster 
 which is inevitable if the enemy on the north suc- 
 ceeds in reaching the plain and cutting their com- 
 munications. In the present war Cadorna's eastern 
 operations came to an abrupt halt in May, 1916, 
 when he was compelled to transfer large forces 
 westward to check the dangerous Austrian advance 
 across the Asiago plateau almost to the edge of 
 the plains. Irretrievable disaster to the eastern 
 armies was narrowly averted. The magnitude of 
 the Caporetto disaster, consequent upon the Teu- 
 tonic armies' breaking through to the plains near 
 the extreme eastern end of the northern frontier, 
 enables one to picture the far more serious conse- 
 quences which must ensue if ever the northern 
 mountain barrier is breached farther west, and the 
 communications of the eastern armies destroyed 150 
 miles in their rear. Since Italy's military forces 
 will not admit of two offensive campaigns against 
 so powerful an enemy, at least one of these cam- 
 paigns must be defensive. Topographic conditions 
 dictate that the defensive campaign should be the 
 northern one, for a successful offensive across the 
 main Alpine barrier, supported by but one through 
 railway line, has less chance of success than an 
 offensive in the east, where the terrain is less diffi- 
 cult, railways are more numerous, and support by 
 sea is possible. Hence we conclude that Italy's 
 northern frontier should be strategically so strong 
 as to render a defensive campaign In the north 
 comparatively simple and assured of success, leav- 
 ing the bulk of her forces free to defend the east- 
 ern gateways. It so happens that the Central Alps 
 provide a series of natural trenches and mountain 
 barriers together constituting one of the strongest 
 defensive terrains in the world. But the Austrian 
 province of the Trentino drove a wedge clear 
 through the system, rendering the defense of Italian 
 territory extremely difficult, and assuring tremen- 
 dous advantage to a possible Teutonic Invasion. 
 In the opinion of the .'\merican specialists, to push 
 the frontier nortliward only so far as the ethno- 
 graphic frontier would still leave Austria, or Ger- 
 many and Austria combined in case of their fu- 
 ture union, in possession of very great strategic 
 advantages over their Latin neighbor, advantages 
 which might invite aggression. To push the bound- 
 ary farther north, to the natural topographic 
 barrier referred to above, would give reasonable 
 protection to Italy by making invasion from the 
 north so difficult as to be highly improbable, and 
 would add the minimum German population to 
 Italy compatible with securing a good geographic 
 and defensive frontier for the southern Kingdom. 
 To push the frontier clear to the Brenner and 
 eastward into the Pusterthal, as Italy asked, would 
 be to carry it far into purely Germanic territory, 
 to enlarge the German irredenta to dangerous pro- 
 portions, and to split the geographic and economic 
 unit of the Pusterthal. In favor of the latter pro- 
 posal it could, however, be urged that the terri- 
 tory to the Brenner had secretly been promised to 
 Italy by England and France in order to secure 
 Italy's entry into the war on the .\llied side, that 
 a frontier well advanced Into Germanic territory 
 would still more effectively protect Italian terri- 
 tory, and that generous treatment of Italy's de- 
 mands on the northern frontier, where the moun- 
 tainous terrain was not in any sense vital to the 
 development of neighboring lands, might make 
 Italy more willing to reduce her demands on the 
 
 east where she claimed areas the annexation of 
 which would render impossible the free economic 
 development of her neighbors. 
 
 "The Conference decided in favor of the most 
 generous fulfilment of Italian ambitions on the 
 north, and gave her not only all the territory to 
 the watershed frontier promised by the Treaty of 
 London, but in addition the Sexten valley district 
 lying beyond the watershed and conferring impor- 
 tant strategic advantages on its possessor. With 
 Italy's frontier established In an impregnable posi- 
 tion on the north, and all danger of invasion from 
 that direction eliminated, we may now consider 
 the eastern frontier in its proper relation to Italy's 
 frontier problem as a whole. On the east the 
 Italian Government had demanded as one of the 
 conditions of Italy's entrance into the war, and in 
 the Treaty of London England and France had 
 promised to give, not only the ItaUan-lnhabited 
 areas around Goritzla and Trieste, but vast areas 
 of almost pure Slavonic country about the head 
 of the Adriatic and on the eastern shores of that 
 sea, as well as a large proportion of the Slav- 
 populated Islands fringing the eastern coast. The 
 American Government not only consistently re- 
 fused to recognize the Treaty of London, a docu- 
 ment held to be, both in the manner of its execu- 
 tion and in Its precise terms, fundamentally in 
 opposition to the very principles for which America 
 was fighting, but early recognized the right of the 
 Jugo-Slavs to rule themselves. President Wilson 
 took certain other steps more or less incompatible 
 with the fulfilment of the terms of the treaty, such 
 as securing the consent of the Allied Powers to 
 make peace on terms which provided for the 
 determination of Italy's new frontiers 'along clearly 
 recognizable lines of nationality.' Throughout the 
 negotiations the American Government held to the 
 view that the Treaty of London was obsolete in 
 view of the disappearance of Austria-Hungary as 
 a great Power (at whose expense the treaty was 
 to have been executed), the agreement of the Allies 
 to erect a new Jugo-Slav nation associated with 
 them and Italy, the entry into the war of new 
 nations not parties to the treaty, and the agree- 
 ment of the Allies, Italy included, to make peace 
 on a new basis of right and justice. . . , Such was 
 the background of the thorny problem of Flume 
 and the Adriatic when it came before the Peace 
 Conference. Instead of reducing their territorial 
 demands to accord with the provisions of the Pact 
 of Rome and the Fourteen Points, the Italian 
 representatives believed themselves justified in in- 
 creasing them even beyond the limits of the Treaty 
 of London. While insisting upon the execution of 
 the Treaty of London in respect to the territories 
 which it assigned to Italy, the Italian representa- 
 tives asked that it be revised where favorable 
 to the Jugo-Slavs, in order that Flume, definitely 
 assigned to Croatia by the treaty, should be given 
 to Italy. Other territories of much strategic or 
 economic value, lying beyond the Treaty of Lon- 
 don line, were also included in the Italian de- 
 mands." — E. M. House and C. Seymour, What 
 really happened at Paris, pp. 112-121. — See also 
 LoNmiN', Tkkatv or pact of. 
 
 Jugo-Slav contention. — "It is generally admitted 
 that no frontier question before the Conference is 
 so complex as that provided by the Adriatic, and 
 yet, shorn of a multitude of secondary considera- 
 tions which have been deliberately introduced, 
 there is none in which it is easier to establish the 
 facts. To take, for instance, the question of the 
 nationality of the inhabitants of Flume, Dalmatia, 
 etc. The facts in this matter are by no means 
 difficult to ascertain. It has been suggested that 
 
 56
 
 ADRIATIC QUESTION Treaty of London ADRIATIC QUESTION 
 
 the Yougo Slav majority on the Adriatic coast 
 was deliberately created for political purposes by 
 the Habsburg authorities. The fallacy of this argu- 
 ment is shown by the existence of no less than 
 60,000 Slavs who inhabited the district of the 
 Udine, and who were there before there was a 
 political, or even a national, Italy. Nor can it be 
 allowed that Austria invented the Slav names of 
 the cities, villages, rivers, and mountains of the 
 Eastern Adriatic. Trieste, for instance, is built on 
 purely Slovene territory. . . . Even the sons of 
 Italian immigrants adopted Slav nicknames. We 
 find the Magyar historian Fcst stating that 'they 
 (the Italian immigrants) arc being Slavizcd by the 
 local Slav influence.' In the fifteenth century the 
 tradesmen of Fiume labelled their occupations with 
 Slav words; thus, for instance, a bootmaker would 
 be called postolar. The judges and priests of the 
 same era were exclusively Slav. ... As a matter 
 of fact, the history of the period 1392-1600 indi- 
 cates the name of one hundred and seven local 
 judges, all of whom, with the exception of twelve, 
 were Slavs. We are further indebted to Kobler 
 {Memorie, pp. 149-252) for a list of the judges of 
 Fiume from 1651-1776, and among them the Ital- 
 ian and German names are merely sporadic. 
 When we examine the lists of the Church digni- 
 taries, we find that from 1371-1780 twenty-one 
 Archdeacons out of twenty-five were Slavs. From 
 1371-1626 there appear the names of forty Slav 
 and only four Italian canons. So far as the dialect 
 of the city is concerned, Professor N. G. Bartoli, 
 of the University of Torino, has confirmed that 
 this is of very recent origin. From Monfalcone 
 to Albania, the Slav element has been autochtho- 
 nous since the seventh century. It is true that in 
 the coast towns it came under the influence of 
 the stronger Latin culture, and began to use the 
 Italian tongue in commercial intercourse with its 
 neighbours. Yet ever since the decay of the 
 Roman Empire, Dalmatia has maintained its de- 
 votion to the Slavonic idea, concerning which Maz- 
 zini and Tommaseo have written epic pages. This 
 idea manifested itself in the national folk-lore and 
 in the great works of the Slav poets, scholars, and 
 artists of Dalmatia. And it is a significant fact 
 that whilst at the courts of Italian princes and at 
 the university of Florence the Serbo-Croatian lan- 
 guage was placed next to Greek and Latin, Venice, 
 the mistress of Dalmatia, did not benueath to the 
 country a single national school or printing press. 
 ... It is fundamentally wrong to judge the na- 
 tional character of the Eastern Adriatic by marble 
 monuments and a study of history which does not 
 take into consideration the national spirit. The 
 Italian, defeated in argument, will urge that in this 
 dispute numbers alone cannot -decide. Yet,- for the 
 sake of argument, even that theory may be ad- 
 mitted, for the Yougo Slavs arc ready at any mo- 
 ment to discuss the relative cultural progress of 
 their peasantry in the occupied territory with any 
 Italian groups save the Calahreze, Sicilians, etc. 
 Yougo Slavs have urged since the beginning of 
 this war that their problem should be discussed by 
 the great Western democracies; but it is to be 
 feared that the discussion has degenerated into 
 propaganda of a more or less sensational order. 
 The real point has been lost sight of. It -is not 
 merely the question of Fiume, nor a certain area 
 of Dalmatia, nor the Slovenian territory on the 
 Isonzo which are at issue. These are all parts of 
 the same problem — the accomplished fact of Yougo 
 Slav unification and the attitude which should be 
 adopted towards it by the Italian nation. The 
 Yougo Slavs, as the children of the twentieth cen- 
 tury and as collaborators in the Great War, ask 
 
 that their problem should be solved on the basis 
 of nationality, and not by jorce majeure. They, 
 as a cultured people, do not relish being compared 
 with the negroes of Middle Africa." — J. Yedlowski, 
 Thoiighls on the Adriatic dispute (Balkan Review, 
 June, rgig, pp. 375-378)- 
 
 Treaty of London, April 26, 1915. — "The root 
 of the whole evil lies in the secret treaty con- 
 cluded on April 26, 1915, by Great Britain, France, 
 and Russia with Italy. The main lines of this in- 
 iquitous arrangement had already leaked out soon 
 after its conclusion, but it was not until the 
 Bolsheviks obtained control in Petrograd that the 
 actual text of the treaty became known. . . . The 
 territorial concessions thus secured by Italy in- 
 clude, not merely Southern Tirol to the Brenner, 
 Gorizia, Trieste, the line oi the Julian Alps to near 
 Fiume, and the whole of Istria (with the islands 
 of Lussin and Cherso), but also the whole of 
 Northern Dalmatia, including Zara, Sebenico and 
 their hinterland, and even the southern islands of 
 Lissa, Lesina, Curzola, and Meleda. This involves 
 the annexation of nearly three-quarters of a million 
 Slovenes and Croats, living in compact masses and 
 with a keenly developed national consciousness. 
 . . . The Italian Government insisted, as a pre- 
 liminary to negotiations, that the whole trans- 
 action should be concealed from the knowledge of 
 the Serbian Government. . . . Meanwhile, quite 
 apart from all moral considerations, the terms of 
 the treaty are entirely meaningless, save on the 
 assumption that Austria-Hungary is to survive as 
 a Great Power. . . . The effect of the treaty, when 
 hints as to its contents trickled through to Austria, 
 was exactly that which all competent observers 
 had prophesied at the time. Italy, who by unre- 
 servedly entering the war upon the basis of the 
 Mazzinian principle of liberation, could have ral- 
 lied all the subject-races of Austria-Hungary to 
 her standard, saw herself regarded by them with 
 alarm and suspicion, which Viennese and Magyar 
 intrigue did everything to inflame. The false pol- 
 icy of Sonnino and his group galvanized Austria- 
 Hungary into fresh life, and has cost the lives of 
 many thousands on both sides of the black-and- 
 yellow frontier. Nothing can better illustrate the 
 unnatural situation thus produced than the fact 
 that while Austria-Hungary was employing every 
 measure of repression and persecution against the 
 Jugoslavs at home, and while thousands of their 
 volunteers were 'fighting heroically in the ranks of 
 the Serbian .Army in Macedonia and the Dobrudja, 
 other Slav regiments stubbornly defended the 
 Carso against Italy in the belief that they were 
 saving their national territory 'from foreign im- 
 perialistic designs. The absurdity of denouncing 
 as Austrophile this action of a race of Austro- 
 phobes is at last becoming clear even to the most 
 wilfully blind: for the Serbs of the kingdom are 
 absolutely solid with their kinsmen of Croatia and 
 Slovenia in resisting Italian aggression. . . . From 
 1915-1017 Italy reaped the fruit of her'shortsighted 
 policy, but nothing occurred to shake the attach- 
 ment of the leading Entente statesmen to the old 
 diplomatic methods. But the situation was com- 
 pletely transformed by the Russian Revolution and 
 the entry of America into the war. For, on the 
 one hand, the young Russian Democracy, as yet 
 free from Bol.shevist infection, repudiated the secret 
 methods of Tsardom and inscribed the watchword 
 of Self-Determination upon its banners; while, on 
 the other hand, .America was entirely free from 
 any European engagements and had not the slight- 
 est intention of entangling herself in diplomatic 
 commitments savoring of the Congresses of Vienna 
 and Berlin." — R. W Seton-Watson, Europe in the 
 
 57
 
 ADRIATIC QUESTION Congress at Rome ADRIATIC QUESTION 
 
 melting pot, p. 299. — Sec abo Africa; Modern 
 European occupation: igiS-io^o. 
 
 Torre-Trumbitch agreement. — Congress at 
 Rome (April 8-10, 1918).— Pact of Rome.— 
 "In such circumstances it became more and more 
 obvious that, unless professions and practice could 
 be squared, eventual disaster was inevitable. As 
 official circles in the three Western countries 
 showed a complete inability to grasp this situation 
 or to find a new and sounder basis of policy, a 
 number of private individuals in Italy, France, and 
 Britain set themselves to create a favourable at- 
 mosphere in the press and public opinion for the 
 new ideas. In particular an attempt was made to 
 bring together the more progressive political lead- 
 ers of Italy and the e.xiled Jugoslav representa- 
 tives — it being recognised that an understanding 
 between Italians and Jueoslavs was an essential 
 condition to a sound collective Entente policy 
 towards Austria, and therefore towards the whole 
 problem of racial and political reconstruction in 
 Southern Europe. .After a number of preliminary 
 meetings and discussions, an agreement was reached 
 last March, between Signor Torre, representmg a 
 large proportion of Italian senators and deputies, 
 and Dr. Trumbic, the President of the Jugoslav 
 Committee and co-signatory with Mr. Pasic of the 
 Declaration of Corfu of July, 1917. The Torre- 
 Trumbic agreement formed the basis of the Con- 
 gress of Oppressed .Austrian Nationalities which 
 met in .April [loiSl in the Roman capital, and 
 inaugurated a political campaign which contributed 
 so materially towards sapping the final resistance 
 of the Dual Monarchy. The public endorsement 
 of the agreement by the Italian Premier, Signor 
 Orlando, was generally regarded as an acceptance 
 of the principle of revision of the London Conven- 
 tion. . . . The inclusion in the .Austro-Hungarian 
 armistice of the territorial line conceded to Italy 
 , by the London Convention — a step which has ab- 
 solutely no military sisnificance in view of the 
 break-up of .Austria-Huncary into distinct national 
 units — has not unnaturally been regarded in all 
 Slav circles as the affirmation of Italy's extreme 
 territorial claim. The fact that the Italians have 
 not even rested content with the line assigned to 
 them by the .Armistice, but have pushed forward 
 into territory to which they have no conceivable 
 claim, has greatly increased the danger of the 
 situation and has led the Zagreb Government to 
 lodge a formal appeal with the Entente, demanding 
 that Italian troops shall be replaced by British, 
 French, and .American troops on Jugoslav terri- 
 tory, lest Italy should attempt by occupation to 
 create some kind of title of possession. . . . Mean- 
 while, the Pact of Rome remains the charter of 
 all who still uphold the cause of Italo-Jugoslav 
 friendship: and it is safe to assert that it will also 
 remain one of the historic documents of the war. 
 Its text runs as follows: The representatives of 
 the nationalities subjected, in whole or in part, to 
 the rule of .Austria-Hunear\- — the Italians, Poles, 
 Roumanians. Czechs, and Jugoslavs — join in af- 
 firming their principles of common action as fol- 
 lows: (i) Each of these peoples proclaims its 
 right to constitute its own nationality and State 
 unity or to complete it and to attain full political 
 and economic independence: f:) Each of these 
 peoples recoenises in the Auslro-Hungarian Mon- 
 archy the instrument of German domination and 
 the fundamental obstacle to the realization of its 
 aspirations and rights; (3) The assembly recog- 
 nises the necessity of a common struggle against 
 the common oppressors, in order that each people 
 may attain complete liberation and national unity 
 within a free State unit. The representatives of 
 
 the Italian people and of the Jugoslav people in 
 particular agree as follows: (i) In the relations 
 between the Italian nation and the nation of the 
 Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes — known also under the 
 name of the Jugoslav nation — the representatives 
 of the two peoples recognise that the unity and 
 independence of the Jugoslav nation is a vital in- 
 terest of Italy, just as the completion of Italian 
 national unity is a vital interest of the Jugoslav 
 nation. .And therefore the representatives of the 
 two peoples pledge themselves to employ every 
 effort in order that, during the war and at the 
 moment of the peace, these decisions of the two 
 nations may be completely attained; (2) They 
 declare that the liberation of the .Adriatic Sea and 
 its defense against every present and future enemy 
 is a vital interest of the two peoples; (3) They 
 pledge themselves also, in the interest of good and 
 sincere relations between the two peoples in the 
 future, to solve amicably the various territorial 
 controversies on the basis of the principles of na- 
 tionality and of the right of peoples to decide their 
 own fate, and in such a way as not to injure the 
 vital interests of the two nations, such as shall be 
 defined at the moment of peace; (4) To such 
 racial groups of one people as it may be found 
 necessary to include within the frontiers of the 
 other, there shall be recognised and guaranteed the 
 right to their language, culture, and moral and 
 economic interests." — R. W. Seton-Watson, Europe 
 in the melting pot. p. 303. 
 
 Summary of arguments of both sides. — "The 
 great mass of arguments, maps, statistics, and 
 rhetoric emanating from the rival camps may be 
 roughly grouped as geographic, including strategic 
 considerations and economic outlet to the sea; his 
 torical, cultural, and nationalistic; and political, 
 diplomatic, and practical. Perhaps the best way 
 to secure some idea of the opposing points of view 
 is through a summary of the claims and counter- 
 claims, arguments and refutations, under these gen- 
 eral headings. The Italians assert that the 'nat- 
 ural' frontier of Italy follows the watershed of the 
 .Alps around the north-east curve of the .Adriatic 
 and down the mountain crests into Dalmatia and 
 Albania. They are invincibly persuaded that Na- 
 ture intended the .Adriatic to be an Italian lake. 
 Their military and naval experts point out that the 
 eastern coast of Italy possesses very few good 
 harbors or naval bases, while the opposite coast of 
 the .Adriatic contains maay. In order to end for- 
 ever the possibility of a hostile navy in the .Adri- 
 atic, Italy must control alt points of strategic 
 value on the farther shore. Otherwise one of the 
 principal objects of the war would be lost. From 
 the military point of view the defensible mountain 
 barrier of Dalmatia is a necessary precaution 
 against a possible Balkan Confederation or a re- 
 vived Pan-Slavism. The South Slavs and their 
 sympathizers reply that they have no navy, that 
 they could not possibly afford to build one, that 
 they are willing to agree to disarmament under 
 the League of Nations, to demilitarization of the 
 eastern coast, and to the possession by Italy of a 
 number of islands They point out that from the 
 military point of view the defense of a narrow 
 strip of difficult country, with poor communica- 
 tions and across a body of water, would call for a 
 large army, and would in an emergency prove a 
 weakness rather than a source of strength, par- 
 ticularly if it were purchased at the cost of the 
 friendship of the South Slavs. The Italians have 
 had some hopes of using the Dalmatian base for 
 commercial penetration of tlie Balkans. .Again the 
 South Slavs warn of the bad psychology of making 
 enemies of potential customers. But vigorously 
 
 58
 
 ADRIATIC QtUESTION 
 
 ADVENTISTS 
 
 and affirmatively the South Slavs claim the entire 
 coast north of Albania as necessary to that 'free 
 and secure access to the sea' which is guaranteed 
 them by the eleventh of the Fourteen Points. To 
 the Italian assertion that ample seacoast is left to 
 them without northern Dalmatia and Fiume they 
 retort that the closeness of the mountains to the 
 sea makes it impossible to make extensive use of 
 any port but Fiume except at prohibitive cost for 
 construction and hauling. Only at Fiume is there 
 a standard-pauRc railroad to the interior, and no- 
 where else is it practicable to build one The 
 Italians keep insisting that something 'just as good' 
 might be improvised elsewhere, but neutral geog- 
 raphers seem to agree with the Jugo-Slavs. It is 
 admitted that Fiume is the natural outlet for the 
 great hinterland of Hungary, for much of the 
 South Slav territory, and in part for Czecho- 
 slovakia and Rumania. The Italians insist that 
 under their control it would continue to be avail- 
 able for this purpose. Some critics, however, ex- 
 press the suspicion that in practice Trieste would 
 be favored. When the Itahans point out that 
 only a relatively small part of South Slav com- 
 merce used to go through Fiume the obvious an- 
 swer is that, the new situation would be entirely 
 different from that of the Magyar regime. 
 
 "Historically neither state has claims of any par- 
 ticular force. The Italians go back to the days of 
 the Roman Empire, and the time when the Re- 
 public of Venice held a part of Dalmiitia. They 
 point to the Roman ruins; they speak feelingly of 
 the impress of Italian culture on the whole eastern 
 shore of the Adriatic. More stress is laid upon 
 nationalistic arguments, and much emotion has 
 been roused in favor of redeeming the Italian- 
 speaking communities at Fiume, Zara, and other 
 scattered centers. The South Slavs are equally 
 vigorous in their nationalistic claims. They deny 
 that the culture of the region is predominantly 
 Italian. The language statistics show that about 
 07 per cent, of Dalmatia is Slavic. Even granting 
 the most extreme Italian corrections of the .'\us- 
 trian census, not over lo per cent, of the popula- 
 tion is Italian. To the argument that this minority 
 is the educated, progressive, civilized, capable, and 
 hence politically dominant element, the South Slavs 
 indignantly reply that the principle of self-deter- 
 mination precludes the surrender of overwhelming 
 majorities to any alien rule. They offer the most 
 solemn guarantees that the ItaHan minority will 
 be protected in its linguistic, religious, educational, 
 and cultural rights; but an arrangement which 
 would sacrifice nine or ten Slavs for the sake of 
 'redeeming' one Italian they denounce as a travesty, 
 not a vindication, of the principle of nationalism. 
 
 "From the practical point of view, both sides 
 speak of the sacrifices made during the war, and 
 the right to demand compensation. Officially they 
 pomt out the advantages of concessions for the 
 sake of future friendship; unofficially they accuse 
 each other of imperialism. The Italians keep re- 
 ferring to the Treaty of London ; the Slavs retort 
 that they have never been officially informed that 
 such a treaty exists; that they never agreed to it; 
 and that in any case it has been rendered inopera- 
 tive by the acceptance of the Fourteen Points. 
 As a matter of fact the terms of the Treaty by 
 which Italy was promised Istria and Dalmatia soon 
 became known to the South Slavs both in Serbia 
 and .Austria-Hungary. The Serbians regarded 
 themselves as rather badly treated, and the Austro- 
 Hungarian authorities used the news to stimulate 
 their Croatian and Slovene recruits to hatred of 
 Italy. On December q, iqig, an agreement was 
 reached between the English, French, and Ameri- 
 
 can representatives in Paris on the general prin- 
 ciples which should determine the .Adriatic settle- 
 ment. President Wilson had long before indicated 
 the boundary line in Istria which seemed to him 
 satisfactory. In general the South Slavs were will- 
 ing to accept it, but the Italians did not regard it 
 as strategically adequate. The creation of a sep- 
 arate buffer state of Fiume was now proposed. 
 Dalmatia was to go to the South Slavs. In their 
 conferences at London early in iq2o the Italian, 
 French, and British premiers drew up a somewhat 
 different settlement, and attempted to force the 
 South Slav Kingdom to accept it on penalty of 
 having the Treaty of London put in force. Presi- 
 dent Wilson with unexpected vigor denounced this 
 proposal, and insisted that the principles of De- 
 cember should not be modified. The compensa- 
 tion of the South Slavs at the expense of Albania, 
 which was part of the suggested settlement, he 
 refused to countenance for a moment. All con- 
 cerned then urged Italians and South Slavs to 
 attempt to reach a settlement [which they did) 
 by direct negotiation" — A. P. Scott, Introduction 
 lo the peace treaties, pp. 271-275. — See also Aus- 
 tria: 1Q17: Division into separate nationalities; 
 B.\LKAN states: Map showing distribution of na- 
 tionalities; Itai-y: igiS-igio; Fiume: Attitude of 
 President Wilson, also 1919-1921 
 
 ADRIATIC SEA. — 1378-1379. — Battles be- 
 tween Genoese and Venetians. See Venice: 
 1378-1379- 
 
 1915. — Naval operations of Italians and Aus- 
 trians. — Closed by Italians. See World War; 
 1915: IX. Naval operations: b, 4. 
 
 1917. — Military operations of Austrians and 
 lalians. See World War: 1917. IX. Naval 
 operations: b. 
 
 1918. — Italian expedition to Pola. See World 
 War: 1918: IX. Naval operations: b. 
 
 ADRUMENTUM. See Carthage, Dominion of. 
 
 ADUATUCI. See Belg.e. 
 
 ADULLAM, a Canaanite city of Judea, the 
 exact location of which is uncertain .Although 
 David was said to have twice taken refuge in the 
 "Cave" of Adullam, this is a scribal error, and his 
 retreat was really the stronghold of the city. 
 When he had been cast out by the Philistines, 
 among whom he sought refuge from the enmity of 
 Saul, "his first retreat was the Cave of .Adullam, 
 probably the large cavern not far from Bethlehem, 
 now called Khureitun. From its vicinity to Beth- 
 lehem, he was joined there by his whole family, 
 now feeling themselves insecure from Saul's fury. 
 . . . Besides these were outlaws from every part, 
 including doubtless some of the original Canaan- 
 ites — of whom the name of one at least has been 
 preserved, Ahimelech the Hittite. In the vast 
 columnar halls and arched chambers of this sub- 
 terranean palace, all who had any grudge against 
 the existing system gathered round the hero of the 
 coming age." — Dean Stanley, Lectures on the his- 
 tory of the Jewish church, lect. 22. — In modern 
 American and British politics the expression "Cave 
 of Adullam" has been frequently used to denote 
 any body of seceders or political irreconcilables. 
 .Abraham Lincoln in 1864 and John Bright in 1866 
 used the term. 
 
 ADULLAMITES. See Engund: 1865-1868; 
 Liberal p.^^rtv: 1866-1900. 
 
 ADVENTISTS.— "This is the general name of 
 a family of denominations whose leading tenet is a 
 belief in the proximate and personal second com- 
 ing of Christ. The movement began in Massachu- 
 setts in 1 83 1, under the leadership of William 
 Miller, who previously had been a member of the 
 Baptist Church. As a result of much study of the 
 
 59
 
 ADVOCATUS 
 
 iEGEAN 
 
 prophecies, Miller became convinced that the sec- 
 ond coming of Christ was near at hand, and began 
 to lecture on the subject. In 1833 he published a 
 pamphlet entitled 'Evidences from Scripture and 
 History of the Second Coming of Christ about the 
 year 1843 and of His Personal Reign of One Thou- 
 sand V'ears.' Miller made many converts to his 
 views, and the doctrine announced in his pamphlet 
 was widely proclaimed. Upon the failure of his 
 prophecy for the year 1843, he fixed 1844 — to be 
 exact, October 22 of that year — as the date of the 
 second advent. When this prophecy failed, his fol- 
 lowers became divided. It is estimated that at the 
 time of Miller's death (1840) they numbered 
 50,000. As a result of various divisions, there are 
 now six bodies of Adventists, who, as a rule, sim- 
 ply await the second coming of Christ without 
 attempting to fix a date for it All hold, however, 
 that it is near at hand, and they generally look 
 for the personal reign nf Christ on earth. All 
 agree also in practicing immersion as the mode of 
 baptism" — M. Phelan, Handbook of all denomina- 
 tions, p. q. 
 
 ADVOCATUS (Vogt), a layman of high stand- 
 ing who "represented the abbey in its dealing with 
 the outside world. . . . The advocate of a large 
 monastery, especially if, as was often the case, he 
 held the advocacy of several houses at once, tried 
 naturally to make his office hereditary. . . . The 
 advocacy of the Frauenmiinster at Ziirich by the 
 Hapsburg family was the entering w'edge for their 
 claims over the Forest Cantons which finally re- 
 sulted in the formation of the Swiss Confedera- 
 tion," — E. Emerton, Medieval Europe, p. 574. 
 
 ADWALTON MOOR, the scene of a battle 
 fought near Bradford in Yorkshire, England, June 
 2Q, 1643, in which the Parliamentary forces, under 
 Lord Fairfax, were routed by the Royalists, under 
 Newcastle. — C. R. Markham, Life of the great Lord 
 Fairfax, ch. 11. 
 
 ADYE, Sir John (1857- ), British major- 
 general who captured Ukerewe Island in igi6. 
 See World War: iqi6: VII African theater: a, 12. 
 
 Defense of southern Egypt. See World War: 
 1016: V'l. Turkish theater: b, 1. 
 
 ADYNATI, those who, because of physical in- 
 firmity, received pensions from the Athenian state. 
 
 JEACl^M (.ffiakids), the supposed descendants 
 of the dcmi-god .^acus, whose grandson was 
 Achilles. Miltiades, the hero of Marathon, and 
 Pyrrhus, the warrior King of Epirus, were among 
 those claiming to belong to the royal race of 
 .r^acida;. 
 
 JEACVS. See ^acid.i! (.-Eakids) ; Myrmi- 
 dons. 
 
 /EDESIUS (d. A.D. 355), Neoplatinist philos- 
 opher. See Abyssinia: 4th centurv. 
 
 ,ffiDHILING. See .^thel; ^^'thelino. 
 
 .£DILE, the name of a certain class of magis- 
 trates in ancient Rome. According to Cicero the 
 aediles were supposed to take care of the city's 
 various departments, to have jurisdiction over pro- 
 visions and correctness of weights and measures 
 and to superintend and organize the public games. 
 The office was created in the year 404 B. C The 
 name is probably derived from (rdis. meaning tem- 
 ple, since one of the chief duties of the jediles was 
 
 to take care of the temple of Ceres. Their persons 
 >vere inviolable. See Civil law: B.C. 471 ; Rome: 
 B. C. 404-402; 133. 
 
 /EDILES PLEBIS. See Suffrage, Manhood: 
 B C. 3d century. 
 
 .^DUI. — "The two most powerful nations in 
 Gallia were the .-I'^dui lor Hsdui] and the Arverni. 
 The /Edui occupied that part which lies between 
 the upper valley of the Loire and the Saone, which 
 river was part of the boundary between ihem and 
 the Sequani. The Loire separated the /Edui from 
 the Bituriges, whose chief town was Avaricum on 
 the site of Bourges. At this time [121 B. C] the 
 Arverni, the rivals of the .-Edui, were seeking the 
 supremacy in Gallia. The Arverni occupied the 
 mountainous country of Auvergne in the centre of 
 France and the fertile valley of the Elaver (Allier) 
 nearly as far as the junction of the Allier and the 
 Loire, . . . They were on friendly terms with the 
 Allobroges, a powerful nation east of the Rhone, 
 who occupied the country between the Rhone and 
 the Isara (Isere). ... In order to break the for- 
 midable combination of the Arverni and the Allo- 
 broges, the Romans made use of the ^dui, who 
 were the enemies both of the Allobroges and the 
 Arverni. ... A treaty was made eit,her at this 
 time or somewhat earlier between the ,4idui and 
 the Roman senate, who conferred on their new 
 Gallic friends the honourable title of brothers and 
 kinsmen. This fraternizing was a piece of political 
 cant which »he Romans practiced when it was use- 
 ful." — G. Long, Decline of the Roman republic, v. 
 I, ch. 21. — Later the Sequani, neighbors with whom 
 the .'Edui were continually at odds, invaded them. 
 The .'Edui appealed to the Roman senate for help; 
 but it was not forthcoming until Caesar's arrival in 
 Gaul (58 B. C), when he restored their inde- 
 pendence. — See also Gaul; Csesar's description. 
 
 A. E. F. Popular abbreviation for the American 
 Expeditionary Forces in the World War. See Amer- 
 ican Expeditionary Forces. 
 
 .SGATIAN ISLES, Naval battle of (241 
 B C) See Punic War, First. 
 
 .ffiGEALEA, .SGEALEANS. — The original 
 name of the northern coast of Peloponnesus, and 
 its inhabitants. See Greece: Migrations. 
 
 .SGEAN, that part of the Mediterranean sea 
 lying between Greece and Asia Minor, connected 
 by the Dardanelles with the Sea of Marmora and 
 the Black sea. It washes the shores of a large 
 number of islands known as the Grecian archi- 
 fielago. Before the World War groups of these 
 islands, including the Cyclades, the Northern 
 Sporades, Euboea and a few others belonged to 
 Greece, the Dodecanese to Italy, and most of the 
 others to Turkey. After the war all of the islands 
 belonging to Turkey, except Imbros, Tenedos, and 
 Castelorizo, and all the Dodecanese except Rhodes, 
 were ceded to Greece. The rocky elevations 01 
 these islands, many of which are of volcanic forma- 
 tion, though they lend a most picturesque appear- 
 ance to the .^-^^gean, nevertheless render navigation 
 by large modern vessels especially hazardous. 
 Some of the larger islands contain well watered 
 and fertile valleys in which are raised the usual 
 liroducts of Mediterranean lands. The inhabitants 
 arc of the vigorous Greek type. 
 
 60
 
 -ffiGEAN CIVILIZATION 
 
 ^GEAN CIVILIZATION 
 
 -ffiXJEAN CIVILIZATION 
 
 The ancient culture of the eastern Mediterranean 
 basin, covering the period up to 1200 B. C, and 
 including Greece, the islands of the .^i^gean sea, 
 Crete and parts of North Africa, has been vari- 
 ously designated Mycenx'an, Minoan, and ^gean. 
 The terra Mycensan, however, has in recent years 
 been to a great extent displaced by the other two. 
 "Whether the word Minoan was the best one to 
 substitute is of course another matter. It is 
 argued by some German archaeologists, such as Dr. 
 Dorpfeld and Professor Reisch, that it is absurd to 
 describe periods that stretch over thousands of 
 years by a name that was presumably given to one 
 particular historical personage. For the plea 
 which they put in for the time-honoured word 
 Mycenaean, consecrated by Schliemann's epoch- 
 making discoveries, we have much sympathy, and 
 there is no doubt that the ambiguity that now 
 involves the term Mycena;an, used sometimes in its 
 old generic and sometimes in its new specific sense, 
 will, for a long time to come, lead to confusion. 
 On the other hand the argument that the term is 
 inapplicable to the early periods that are almost 
 unrepresented at or near Mycens is unanswer- 
 able. . . . 'yEgean,' on the other hand, which Pro- 
 fessor Reisch supports, will possibly prove ulti- 
 mately the best generic word for the civilization 
 as a whole, while Mycenaean and Minoan will fit 
 into it, as representing certain stages of its devel- 
 opment in different localities. . . ." — R. M. Bur- 
 rows, Discoveries in Crete, pp. 41-42. 
 
 "Till recently historians have begun their account 
 of Greek affairs with the eighth century B. C, 
 some of them precisely with the year 776; and for 
 the first century and a half they have given hardly 
 more than a few bare dates. But all this has been 
 changed by explorations in the .-Egean area. The 
 pioneer in the work was Heinrich Schliemann. In 
 his boyhood he learned the stories told by the 
 Hellenic poet Homer of the deeds of mighty heroes 
 during the Trojan war; and thinking them real 
 history, he believed the ancient city of Troy 
 might be found buried beneath the earth. To 
 achieve this task became the inspiration of his life. 
 After amassing a fortune in business, in 1870 he 
 began digging on the hilltop where, from Homer's 
 description, he concluded Troy must have stood. 
 This hill is in northwestern Asia Minor, not far 
 from the sea. The result more than justified his 
 hopes. On this spot he and his successor in the 
 work unearthed the ruins of nine settlements, built 
 above one another and belonging to different ages. 
 It is calculated that the lowest settlement, a rude 
 village, was inhabited about 3500 B. C, and that 
 the sixth, which shows a highly developed civiliza- 
 tion, flourished isooriooo. Afterward Schliemann 
 excavated Tiryns and Mycenae in Argolis, Greece. 
 They were contemporary with the sixth city at 
 Troy. Mycenae showed such signs of wealth and 
 culture that he believed it to have been the centre 
 of the civilization which flourished at that time on 
 the shores of Greece and in Troy. Hence he called 
 the civilization Mycenican." — G. W. Botsford, His- 
 tory of ancient world, p. 68. 
 
 EXCAVATIONS AND ANTIQUITIES 
 
 Mycenaean area: Researches at Troy, My- 
 cenae, Tiryns and Vaphio. — "In 1882 Schliemann 
 went to Troy again, and resumed his excavations 
 in company with a German architect, Dr Dorp- 
 feld, whose help was of the greatest value. Schlie- 
 
 61 
 
 mann himself was no architect, and was not even 
 a scientifically-trained observer ... he was often 
 too downright in his methods, and might at times 
 be accused of vandalism in the pursuit of his end 
 —the discovery of the Heroic civilization of 
 Greece. He cut through everything ruthlessly. 
 . . . Dorpfeld was a guarantee of more scientific 
 methods, necessary in a site like Troy, with its su- 
 perimposed strata of different ages of settlement, 
 very different from the simple grave-clearing at 
 Mycenae. The result of the renewed work was 
 eventually the discovery of the 'Mycenaean' city of 
 Troy."— H. R. Hall, /Egean archaotogy, p. 8.— "Dr. 
 Dorpfeld finished in 1804 the exploration which he 
 had begun in i8q3 on the site of the excavations of 
 Schliemann at Hissarlik (Troia). It appears to 
 be established that Schliemann, carried away by 
 his zeal, had overlooked the very end which he 
 wished to attain, and that the burnt city, which 
 he thought to be the real Troia, is a more ancient 
 foundation going back beyond the year 2000 B. C. 
 M. Dorpfeld discerned, in one of the layers of 
 ruins (discovered but disregarded by Schliemann), 
 a city which must be the Ilios of Priam contem- 
 poraneous with the Mykenai of Agamemnon: he 
 removed the surrounding walls, the towers, and 
 some of the houses that filled it. It is to be under- 
 stood that this little acropolis, analoous to that 
 of Tiryns, is not the whole of the city but simply 
 its citadel, which Homer called 'Pergamos.' It 
 was surrounded, lower down, by a city reserved for 
 the habitation of the common people, some traces 
 of which also have been found." — American Joiir- 
 iiai of Archceology, iSoo. — "There was no doubt 
 as to the position of Mycens, as there had been 
 about that of Troy. The Lion Gate was there, 
 marking the ancient site which since 456 B.C. had 
 been desolate. Schliemann passed through and 
 struck spade into the earth beyond it in the year 
 1878 A. D. Immediately beyond the gate was a 
 circular space enclosed by weather-worn and 
 lichen-covered stone slabs. Within this stone circle 
 Schliemann dug and discovered what he hoped to 
 find: the graves of the heroes of Mycenae men- 
 tioned by Pausanias. . . . Pausanias says there 
 were six graves. Schliemann found five, and then 
 stopped. After he left, a sixth was found. . . . 
 Outside the grave-precinct was found amid house- 
 ruins a stone chamber possibly a cellar, into which 
 had been placed a remarkable treasure of gold, 
 consisting of solid drinking-cups, and some fine 
 signet-rings which are famous on account of the 
 curious religious scenes engraved upon them. . . . 
 Looking out over the ravine are the two great 
 'beehive tombs' or tholoi, known as the 'Treasuries 
 of .'\treus and Klytaimnestra.' . . . Atreus's Treas- 
 ur>- has indeed lost the two great pilasters of 
 grey-green stone that seemed to support the heavy 
 architrave of its entrance-door. . . . The interior, 
 though but 50 feet in height, is more impressive 
 than anything Egypt has to show. . . . The great 
 explorer interrupted his Trojan work in 1884 to 
 go to Tiryns. 
 
 "The result of the excavations of 1884 and 1885 
 was the discovery of the ground plan of a palace 
 within the walls, placed on the top of the long 
 rock, sixty feet above the plain. Its entrance gate, 
 with doorposts and threshold of breccia is as huge 
 as are the casemates. The plan of the palace itself 
 shews that it was a building of later date than the 
 wall-framework, and quite lately renewed excava- 
 tions have brought to light the remains of a much
 
 JEGEAN CIVILIZATION 
 
 Cretan Area 
 
 iEGEAN CIVILIZATION 
 
 earlier palace. At Tiryns Schliemann found the 
 famous kyanos-frieze, the remains of a carved ala- 
 baster slab-decoration inlaid with hard blue glass, 
 which at once was identified as the Homeric 
 kyanos. Here, too, were found fragments of wall- 
 painting which gave a foretaste of what was to 
 come at Knossos. ... In i8Sq our knowledge of 
 prehistoric Greek art took a great step in advance 
 when the 'beehive tomb' at Vaphio in Laconia was 
 e.xcavated b.\ Mr. Tsountas for the Greek Ar- 
 chslogical Society, and the famous 'Vaphio Cups' 
 were found. . . . Later finds in Crete have shown 
 us that they could make better things than the 
 Vaphio Cups; but in iSSq these two little golden 
 vases with their repousse designs of men captur- 
 ing bulls were regarded as extraordinary. It is 
 not too much to say that the X'aphio Cups re- 
 called the flagging attention of the world of 
 artists and archsologists to the work of excava- 
 tion in Greece. Big discoveries were now looked 
 
 1300 B. C.) is certain from the distinctive Myce- 
 nasan pottery that was found in it : Schliemann, 
 however, with his rough-and-ready methods, had 
 not identified it. This distinction was reserved 
 for Dbrpfeld, and was the result of his more sci- 
 entific operations. The discovery was announced 
 in 1803. • • ■ Schliemann intended to follow up 
 his work, but difficulties ensued with the Turkish 
 authorities in the island with regard to the ac- 
 c|uisition of the site, and death carried him off 
 before he could get to work. We may — with all 
 respect to Schliemann's memory be it said — be not 
 altogether sorry that his somewhat summary 
 methods were not allowed by fate to be exercised 
 on Knossos, and that it was written that not he, 
 but the Englishman Evans, was to excavate the 
 palace of Minos and the Italian Halbherr to dis- 
 inter the companion palace at Phaistos. Both 
 were, when they began their work trained scholars 
 and archaeologists, and the excavation of these two 
 
 THE THRONE ROOM AT CNOSSUS 
 
 Showing tbrniie and fresco of hemldic gnardiaii Hon 
 
 for. They did not come at once, but when they 
 did the promise of the V'aphio Cups was more 
 than fulfilled. In iSqo and. i8qi the 'beehive 
 tombs' at Thorikos in Attica and at Kampos in 
 Messenia were excavated by Tsountas, and in the 
 last-named was found the well-known leaden 
 statuette of a man making an offering which has 
 figured in so many books as a good illustration of 
 Mycensan male costume 
 
 "The next important event after the discovery 
 of the \'aphio Cups was the identification of the 
 Sixth Trojan City as Mycensan, or affected by 
 Mycensan influence. ... It is the Sixth City, 
 however, which succeeded the second after its 
 total destruction by burning (after an interval 
 filled by three small village settlements in suc- 
 cession) that is undoubtedly the Troy of legend, 
 round which gathered the traditions of the great 
 siege. It was the only important settlement after 
 the Second City, the succeeding settlements being 
 unimportant and unjustified. Its date (circa 1400- 
 
 splendid monuments of the older civilization of 
 Greece could not have fallen into more capable 
 hands than theirs." — H. R. Hall, Aigean arcltce- 
 ology. pp. Q-27. 
 
 Cretan area.— Results c»f extraordinary im- 
 portance have been already obtained from explo- 
 rations in Crete, carried on during i8qo and 1900 
 by the British School at .Athens, under the direc- 
 tion of Mr. D. G. Hogarth, and by Mr. .\rthur 
 J. Evans, of the .Ashmolean Museum, working 
 with the aid of a small Cretan Exploration Fund, 
 raised in England. The excavations of both par- 
 ties were carried on at Knossos. but the latter 
 was the most fortunate, having opened the site of 
 a prehistoric palace which is yielding remarkable 
 revelations of the legendary age in Crete. In a 
 communication to the London Timfs of October 
 31, iQoo, Mr. Evans gave the following account 
 of the results so far as then obtained: 
 
 "The discoveries made at Knossos throw into 
 the shade all the other exploratory campaigns of 
 
 62
 
 ^GEAN CIVILIZATION 
 
 Cnossus 
 
 ^GEAN CIVILIZATION 
 
 last season in the Eastern Mediterranean, by 
 whatever nationality conducted. It is not too 
 much to say that the materials already gathered 
 have revolutionized our knowledge of prehistoric 
 tireece, and that to find even an approach to the 
 results obtained we must go back to Schliemann's 
 great discovery of the Royal tombs at Mycenae. 
 The prehistoric site, of which some two acres have 
 now been uncovered at Knossos, proves to con- 
 tain a palace beside which those of Tiryns and 
 Mycenae sink into insignificance. By an un- 
 hoped-for piece of good fortune the site, though 
 in the immediate neighbourhood of the greatest 
 civic centres of the island in ancient, medieval, 
 and modern times, had remained practically un- 
 touched for over 3,000 years. At but a very slight 
 depth below the surface of the ground the spade 
 has uncovered great courts and corridors, propy- 
 laea, a long succession of magazines containing 
 gigantic store jars that might have hidden the 
 I'orty Thieves, and a multiplicity of chambers, 
 [ire-eminent among which is the actual throne- 
 nium and council-chamber of Homeric kings. 
 The throne itself, on which (if so much faith be 
 jiermitted to us) Minos may have declared the 
 law, is carved out of alabaster, once brilliant with 
 coloured designs and relieved with curious tracery 
 and crocketed arcading which is wholly unique in 
 ancient art and exhibits a strange anticipation of 
 i.^th century Gothic. In the throne-room, the 
 western entrance gallery, and elsewhere, partly 
 still adhering to the walls, partly in detached 
 |)ieces on the floors, was a series of fresco paint- 
 ings, excelling any known examples of the art 
 in Mycenaean (!reece. A beautiful life-size paint- 
 ing of a youth, with a European and almost clas- 
 ■-ically Greek profile, gives us the first real knowl- 
 edge of the race who produced this mysterious 
 early civilization. Other frescoes introduce us to 
 .t lively and hitherto unknown miniature style, 
 representing, among other subjects, groups of 
 women engaged in animated conversation in the 
 courts and on the balconies of the Palace. The 
 monuments of the sculptor's art are eciually strik- 
 ing. It may be sufficient to mention here a mar- 
 ble fountain in the shape of a lioness's head with 
 enamelled eyes, fragments of a frieze with beauti- 
 fully cut rosettes, superior in its kind to anything 
 known from Mycenae ; an alabaster vase natu- 
 ralistically copied from a Triton shell ; a porphyry 
 lamp with graceful foliation supported on an 
 Egyptianising lotus column. The head and parts 
 of the body of a magnificent painted relief of a 
 bull in gesso duro are unsurpassed for vitality and 
 strength. 
 
 "It is impossible here to refer more than inci- 
 dentally to the new evidence of intercourse be- 
 tween Crete and Egypt at a very remote period 
 supplied by the Palace finds of Knossos. It may 
 be mentioned, however, as showing the extreme 
 antiquity of the earlier elements of the building 
 that in the great Eastern Court was found an 
 Egyptian seated figure of diorite, breken above, 
 which can be approximately dated about 2000 
 B. C. Below this again extends a vast Stone Age 
 settlement which forms a deposit in some places 
 24 ft. in thickness. 
 
 "Neither is it possible here to dwell on the new 
 indications supplied by some of the discoveries in 
 the 'House of Minos' as to the cult and religious 
 beliefs of its occupants. It must be sufficient to 
 observe that one of the miniature frescoes found 
 represents the facade of a Mycenaean shrine and 
 that the Palace itself seems to have been a sanc- 
 tuary of the Cretan God of the Double Axe, as 
 well as a dwelling place of prehistoric kings. 
 
 63 
 
 There can be little remaining doubt that this huge 
 building with its maze of corridors and tortuous 
 passages, its medley of small chambers, its long 
 succession of magazines with their blind endings, 
 was in fact the Labyrinth of later tradition which 
 supplied a local habitation for the Minotaur of 
 grisly fame. The great figures of bulls in fresco 
 and relief that adorned the walls, the harem 
 scenes of some of the frescoes, the corner stones 
 and pillars marked with the labrys or double axe 
 — the emblem of the Cretan Zeus, explaining the 
 derivation of the name 'Labyrinth' itself — are so 
 many details which all conspire to bear out this 
 identification. In the Palace-shrine of Knossos 
 there stands at last revealed to us the spacious 
 structure which the skill of Daedalus is said to 
 have imitated from the great Egyptian building 
 on the shore of Lake Moeris, and with it some 
 part at least of his fabled masterpieces still cling- 
 ing to the walls." — Up to iqo6 Sir Arthur Evans 
 attracted the attention of archseologists to his 
 excavations at Cnossus, where he recovered nu- 
 merous valuable specimens of ancient art, which 
 were deposited in the museum at Candia. Par- 
 ticular interest attaches to the architecture of the 
 palace, disclosing among its wonders a remarkable 
 grand staircase with decorated walls, and a series 
 of sunken rooms which presumably were baths. 
 Much, no doubt, still remains to be brought to 
 light in this region ; various circumstances have 
 combined since 1Q06 to arrest the progress of the 
 work. In the early 'sixties of last century the site 
 of Phaestus, or Phaistos, was discovered by a 
 British naval officer. A famous city in the legen- 
 dary history of ancient Crete, Phaestus boasted a 
 palace outranking even that of Cnossus. This 
 building, together with a similar one on a lesser 
 scale of magnificence and situated to the east of it, 
 was uncovered by Italians. Among the treasures 
 recovered were some fine specimens of gilt stone 
 cups, imitations of the Vaphio, of c. 1600 B.C. 
 A pottery sarcophagus, representing scenes from 
 funeral ceremonials, was discovered in iqoS. At 
 Phaestus the British school discovered several in- 
 scriptions dating from the sixth century B.C. The 
 characters seem to be (Jreek but the language it is 
 impossible to read. Scholars believe that it is 
 related to the non-Aryan tongues which were 
 spoken in its near neighborhood. Its chief inter- 
 est to us lies in the fact that it is undoubtedly 
 the speech of the Bronze Age Cretans with their 
 pictographs and hieroglyphics. To the east at 
 Palaikastro the work of the British school was 
 crowned with complete success. Here they dis- 
 covered a complete town with shaft graves and 
 cups corresponding in style and age to those at 
 Mycenae. Nearby Professor Myres discovered 
 some interesting pottery showing the dress and 
 costumes of the Minoan of the Middle Ages. A 
 little further south Mr. Hogarth excavated a site 
 of the best period with many fine vases and clay 
 impressions of seals, which emphasized the bizarre 
 side of Cretan art. — See also Greece: ,1£gean or 
 Minoan civilization. 
 
 Upon the advice of Dr. Evans, two Americans, 
 Miss Harriet Boyd and Mr. R. B. Seager, discov- 
 ered in iqo3 a complete little town of the Bronze 
 age called Gournia. This town like Pompeii now 
 stands with its streets and houses opened to the 
 sky. Its surprisingly narrow streets, the rough- 
 walled chambers of its houses and its more pros- 
 perous market places give us a good idea of how 
 the ordinary people of the Bronze age lived. 
 Nearby at Pseira Mr. Seager found some objects 
 of art which compared favorably in workman- 
 ship and beauty with the best products of the
 
 JEGEAN CIVILIZATION 
 
 Significance of 
 Cretan Discoveries 
 
 ^CEAN CIVILIZATION 
 
 Japanese. On the small island nearby, Mochlos, 
 Mr. Seager discovered several tombs in which were 
 found furniture of thin gold and beautiful little 
 vases of stone. These objects are contemporary 
 with the second city of Troy. — Brilliant as are 
 the illustrations thus recovered of the high civili- 
 zation of Crete and of the substantial truth of 
 early tradition, they are almost thrown into the 
 shade by a discovery which carries back the ex- 
 istence of written documents in the Hellenic lands 
 some seven centuries beyond the first known 
 monuments of the historic Greek writing. In the 
 chambers and magazines of the Palace [of Cnos- 
 sus] there came to light a series of deposits of clay 
 tablets, in form somewhat analogous to the Baby- 
 lonian, but inscribed with characters in two dis- 
 tinct types of indigenous prehistoric script — one 
 hieroglyphic or quasi-pictorial, the other linear. 
 The existence of a hieroglyphic script in the island 
 had been already the theme of some earlier re- 
 searches by the explorer of the Palace, based on 
 the more limited material supplied by groups of 
 signs on a class of Cretan seal-stones, and the 
 ample corroboration of the conclusions arrived at 
 was, therefore, the more satisfactory. These 
 Cretan hieroglyphics will be found to have a spe- 
 cial importance in their bearing on the origin of 
 the Phoenician alphabet. 
 
 "But the great bulk of the tablets belonged to 
 the linear class, exhibiting an elegant and much 
 more highly-developed form of script, with let- 
 ters of an upright and singularly European aspect. 
 The inscriptions, over i,ooo of which were col- 
 lected, were originally contained in coffers of clay, 
 wood, and gypsum, which had been in turn se- 
 cured by clay seals impressed with finely-engraved 
 signets and counter-marked and counter-signed by 
 controlling officials in the same script while the 
 clay was still wet. The clay documents them- 
 selves are, beyond doubt, the Palace archives. 
 Many relate to accounts concerning the Royal 
 Arsenal, stores, and treasures. Others, perhaps, 
 like the contemporary cuneiform tablets, refer to 
 contracts or correspondence. The problems at- 
 taching to the decipherment of these clay records 
 are of enthralling interest, and we have here locked 
 up for us materials which may some day enlarge 
 the bounds of history." — London Times, Oct. 31, 
 1000. 
 
 In an earlier communication to The Times (Sep- 
 tember 15), Mr. Evans had explained more dis- 
 tinctly the importance of the clay tablets found 
 at Cnossus, as throwing light on the origin of the 
 alphabet: "In my excavation of the prehistoric 
 Palace at Knossos," he wrote, "I came upon a 
 series of deposits of clay tablets, representing the 
 Royal archives, the inscriptions on which belong 
 to two distinct systems of writing — one hiero- 
 glyphic and quasi-pictorial ; the other for the most 
 part linear and much more highly developed. Of 
 these the hieroglyphic class especially presents a 
 series of forms answering to what, according to the 
 names of the Phoenician letters, we must suppose 
 to have been the original pictorial designs from 
 which these, too, were derived. A series of con- 
 jectural reconstructions of the originals of the 
 Phoenician letters on this line were in fact drawn 
 out by my father. Sir John Evans, for a lecture 
 on the origin of the alphabet given at the Royal 
 Institution in 1872, and it may be said that two- 
 thirds of these resemble almost line for line actual 
 forms of Cretan hieroglyphics. The oxhead 
 (Aleph), the house (Bethi, the window (He), the 
 peg (Van), the fence (Cheth), the hand (Yod) 
 seen sideways, and the open palm (Kaph), the 
 fish (Nun), the post or trunk (Samekh), the eye 
 
 (Ain), the month (Pe), the teeth (Shin), the cross- 
 sign (Tau), not to speak of several other prob- 
 able examples, are all literally reproduced. The 
 analogy thus supplied is indeed overwhelming. It 
 is impossible to believe that, while on one side of 
 the East Mediterranean basin these alphabetic 
 prototypes were naturally evolving themselves, 
 the people of the opposite shore were arriving at 
 the same result by a complicated process of selec- 
 tion and transformation of a series of hieratic 
 Egyptian signs derived from quite different ob- 
 jects. The analogy with the Cretan hieroglyphic 
 forms certainly weighs strongly in favour of the 
 simple and natural explanation of the origin of 
 the Phoenician letters which was held from the 
 time of Gesenius onwards, and was only disturbed 
 by the extremely ingenious, though over-elaborate, 
 theory of De Rouge." 
 
 At the annual meeting of the subscribers to the 
 British School at Athens, held in London, Octo- 
 ber 30, 1000, Mr Hogarth, the Director, spoke 
 with great enthusiasm of the significance of the 
 Cretan discoveries already made, and of the prom- 
 ise of enlarged knowledge which they gave. He 
 said: "The discovery made 25 years ago [by 
 Schliemann] that no barbarians, but possessors of 
 a very high and individual culture, preceded the 
 Hellenic period in Greece — a culture which could 
 not but have affected the Hellenic — had been de- 
 veloped in various ways since. It had been es- 
 tablished that this culture had had a very long 
 existence and development; it covered completely 
 a large geographical area; it developed various 
 local characteristics in art production which 
 seemed to be gathered again into one by the typi- 
 cal art of Mycenae. But the most important his- 
 torical points remained obscure. Where was the 
 original home of this new civilization; what fam- 
 ily did the race or races belong to ; of what speech 
 were they and what religions; what was the his- 
 tory of their societies and art during their domi- 
 nance, and what became of them after? Neither 
 mainland Greece nor the Aegean islands answered 
 these. But there were two unknown quantities, 
 Crete and .^ste Minor, with Rhodes. One of these 
 we have now attacked. Crete by its great size and 
 natural wealth, its position, and its mythologic 
 fame was bound to inform us of much. It is too 
 early to say that the questions will all be answered 
 by Crete, but already we have much light. The , 
 discovery of written documents and of shrines has 
 told us more than any other evidence of the origin 
 and family. The Knossos frescoes show us the 
 racial type ; the Dictaean Cave, and Knossos 
 houses illuminate the religion. New arts have 
 been discovered, and the relation to Egypt and 
 Asia are already far better understood. It remains 
 now to find the early tombs, and clear the lower 
 stratum of the Palace ruins at Knossos, to know 
 more of the earliest Cretan race, to explore the 
 east or 'Eteocretan' end of the island, to obtain 
 light on the language and relations to Egypt and 
 Asia, and »to investigate the 'Geometric' period, 
 which is the transition to the Hellenic." 
 
 Commenting in another place on the discoveries 
 in Crete, Mr. Hogarth has pointed out their effect 
 in modifying the ideas heretofore entertained of 
 the importance of Phoenician influence in the rise 
 of European civilization. "For many years now," 
 he writes, "we have had before our eyes two 
 standing protests against the traditional claim of 
 Phoenicia to originate European civilization, and 
 those protests come from two regions which Phoe- 
 nician influence, travelling west, ought first to 
 have affected, namely, Cyprus and Asia Minor. In 
 both these regions exist remains of early systems 
 
 64
 
 ^GEAN CIVILIZATION 
 
 Northern Greece 
 and Islands 
 
 ^GEAN CIVILIZATION 
 
 of writing which are clearly not of Phoenician 
 descent. Both the Cypriote syllabic script and the 
 'Hittite' symbols must have been firmly rooted in 
 their homes before ever the convenient alphabet 
 of Sidon and Tyre was known there. And now, 
 since Mr. Evans has demonstrated the existence of 
 two non-Phoenician systems of writing in Crete 
 also, the use of one of which has been proved to 
 extend to the Cyclades and the mainland of 
 Greece, it has become evident that we have to deal 
 in south-eastern Europe, as well as in Cyprus 
 or Asia Minor, with a non-Phoenician influence of 
 civilization which, since it could originate that 
 greatest of achievements, a local script, was quite 
 powerful enough to account by itself also for the 
 local art. Those who continue to advocate the 
 Phoenician claim do not seem sufficiently to real- 
 ize that nowadays they have to take account 
 neither only of the Homeric age nor only of even 
 half a millennium before Homer, but of an almost 
 geologic antiquity. Far into the third millennium 
 B. C. at the very least, and more probably much 
 eailier still, there was a civilization in the Aegean 
 and on the Greek mainland which, while it con- 
 tracted many debts to the East and to Egypt, was 
 able to assimilate all that it borrowed, and to re- 
 issue it in an individual form, expressed in prod- 
 ucts which are not of the same character with 
 those of any Eastern civilization that we know." — 
 D. G. Hogarth, Authority and archaeology sacred 
 and profane, pt. 2, pp. 237-238. — "During the past 
 season, Evans, discoverer of the now famous early 
 Cretan systems of writing, Halbherr and other 
 Italians, as well as the French, have been proving 
 what was already foreshadowed, that in Crete we 
 find in its purest form and in all its historic and 
 racial phases that Mediterranean civilization, — 
 Pelasgic and Achaean. — that culminated in Tiryns 
 and Mykenae. We now see that Homer sings of 
 the closing years of a Culture that dates back 
 of the 'Trojan War' at least for fifteen hundred 
 years. Crete is found to be covered with ruined 
 Pelasgic cities, surrounded by gigantic polygonal 
 walls, crowned by acropoli, adorned with royal 
 palaces, defended by forts, connected by artificial 
 highways, and with necropoli of vaulted tombs 
 like those discovered by Schliemann at Mykenae. 
 Already the royal palaces and libraries are being 
 unearthed at Cnossos and 'Goulas' with sculptures 
 and decoration of the most novel description and 
 early date. A literature in an unknown tongue 
 and in undeciphered scripts is being found, to 
 puzzle scholars as much perhaps as the Hittite and 
 Etruscan languages. Some day these 'Pelasgic' 
 documents will disclose the secrets of a neglected 
 civilization and fill up the gap between early 
 Eastern and Hellenic cultures." — A. L. Frothing- 
 ham, Jr., Archaeological progress {International 
 Monthly, Dec, iqoo). — See also Crete: Effect of 
 position and physical features upon Cretan civili- 
 zation. 
 
 Northern Greece and the islands. — It seems 
 strange that the Germans did not follow out the 
 work of Schliemann at Troy and Mycenje ; on 
 the other hand they have made brilliant finds at 
 Olympia. Semi-elliptical stone houses of primitive 
 type and shaft graves of the Mycensan type to- 
 gether with fine vases in imitation of the Cretan 
 originals were discovered. It is possible that these 
 vases were actually imported from Crete The 
 wall paintings found here present an interesting 
 modification of Cretan art. 
 
 "Finally, we come to the latest and in some 
 ways the most startling of all the discoveries. This 
 is the fact, established by excavations in Boeotia, 
 Phokis, and Thessaly, that down to the latest 
 
 period of the ^gean Bronze Age, North Greece 
 still remained in the Chalcohthic period. Excava- 
 tions by M. Tsountas at Sesklo and Dimini in 
 Thessaly, and by M. Sotiriadis at Chaironeia in 
 Bceotia, had revealed a Stone Age culture with re- 
 markable painted handmade pottery, resembling 
 that from the neolithic sites of Southern Russia. 
 The date of this was naturally assumed to be alto- 
 gether earlier than the Bronze Age in Greece, and 
 was equated with that of the neolithic strata of 
 Troy and Crete. But it is always unsafe to as- 
 sume absolute contemporaneity of Stone Age with 
 Stone Age and Bronze Age with Bronze Age, even 
 in the same quarter of the world, especially when, 
 as in this case, the neolithic products of the one 
 country in no way resemble those of the other. 
 Cyprus never seems to have had a Stone Age at 
 all, properly speaking, but we cannot suppose that 
 the island was uninhabited when Crete was using 
 stone weapons and tools. In fact it is a mistake 
 to suppose an universal Age of Stone all over one 
 portion of the earth's surface coming to an end 
 everywhere at the same time, and succeeded by a 
 Copper and then a Bronze Age which equally 
 came to their conclusions everywhere at the same 
 time. Troy seems never to have had a Copper 
 Age at all, but passed straight from the Stone 
 period to that of Bronze; Cyprus and the Cyclades 
 had a Copper Age ; Egypt only reached the true 
 Bronze Age — after long centuries of simple copper- 
 using (though she knew both bronze and iron and 
 occasionally used them) — not very long before she 
 began commonly to use iron, and that was not 
 long before iron began to be used even in Greece. 
 The works of man's hands do not develop evenly 
 everywhere, and an invention of the highest mo- 
 ment may be disregarded by one people for hun- 
 dreds of years after it has been adopted by a 
 neighbour. So it seems to have been in Greece. 
 The adoption of metal in the /Egean lands and 
 in Southern Greece, which brought about the 
 whole magnificent development of /Egean civili- 
 zation, was not imitated in the north, and the men 
 of Thessaly continued to use their stone weapons 
 and their peculiar native pottery until the Bronze 
 Age culture of the South had reached its deca- 
 dence, and the time for the introduction of iron 
 from the North had almost arrived." — H. R. Hall, 
 Aigean archceology, pp. 40-41. 
 
 To the imagination and energy of Schliemann 
 who was a pioneer in this field the world owes a 
 real debt of gratitude. It is only fair to state, 
 however, that his work paled into insignificance 
 before the discoveries of Sir Arthur Evans. His 
 patience, his energy and self-sacrifice, shown in 
 particular at Cnossus, have resulted in discov- 
 eries which revolutionized our knowledge of early 
 Greece. Moreover, his explorations opened to 
 archteologists a vast new field for future endeavor. 
 The cost of this work and the extent of the field 
 have made it impossible for individuals to under- 
 take this work at their own expense. Fortunately 
 private munificence has made it possible for na- 
 tional societies to follow up this work. Scientists 
 of each country have decided upon their own 
 territory, and while there has been a keen sense 
 of rivalry there have also been encouraging in- 
 stances of cooperation. 
 
 Also in: H. Boyd, Transactions of the depart- 
 ment of arckwology. — R. B. Seager, Exploration 
 in the Island of Mochlos; Excavations on the 
 Island of Pseira. — T. D. Atkinson, Excavations at 
 Philakopi in Melos.-rA. J. B. Wace and M. S. 
 Thompson, Prehistoric Thessaly.— E. H. Hall, 
 Excavations in eastern Crete. — A. Evans, Atlas of 
 Cnossian antiquities. 
 
 65
 
 iEGEAN CIVILIZATION Neolithic Age -AEGEAN CIVILIZATION 
 
 NEOLITHIC AGE 
 
 B. C. 12000-3000.— Evolution of pottery.— Pol- 
 ished stone implements. — Dress. — "The first nine 
 epochs designated as Minoan immediately suc- 
 ceed the Neolithic Age. Its deposit reaches to a 
 depth of 17 feet below the surface of the soil, 
 while below it the Neolithic remains are found, 
 at one testing-point to a farther depth of nearly 
 2 1 feet, at another to one of 26 feet. Mr. Evans 
 seeks to fix its date by certain connections that 
 its remains show with those of early Egypt. If 
 we thus allow about 3 feet of deposit for every 
 millennium, we get a great age for the NeoUthic 
 strata that are below. Progress moves slowly in 
 the dim early periods, and we need not shrink 
 from the dates of 10,000 or 12,000 B.C. which are 
 thus given to the first settlement of man upon the 
 hill at Knossos. The black hand-burnished ware, 
 or 'Bucchero' that it had inherited from Neo- 
 lithic times is not what is most characteristic of 
 Early Minoan. ... It was the achievement of the 
 Early Minoan Age to produce, by painting on the 
 flat, the geometric effects that hitherto had been 
 produced by the white filling, and it is possible 
 that the very pigment used was the same white 
 gypsum treated differently. The invention once 
 made, there were rapid developments. A lustrous 
 black glaze was spread as a slip over the surface, 
 so that the lustreless white patterns over it gave 
 the effect of the best old incrusted ware; and the 
 black glaze, once discovered, was seen itself to 
 have possibilities as decoration, and was in other 
 vases laid on in black bands on the natural light 
 buff of the clay." — R. M, Burrows, Discoveries in 
 Crete, pp. 44-48- 
 
 "Except in the case of Egypt pottery is our only 
 guide in the study of neolith'c civilisation. The 
 objects of wood and leather and the clothing have 
 all disappeared in the destruction caused by damp 
 and weather and the lapse of time. Only the im- 
 plements of bone and stone and the terra cotta 
 vases have remained. The walls are very rare and 
 without mortar, and even bricks are late in ap- 
 pearing. Modeling and design had their first 
 expression in pottery, and by means of this we 
 can follow the progress of the people in their first 
 steps towards civilisation. X plastic material like 
 clay is not alone sufficient for pottery, for it loses 
 moisture in drying and contracts. It is necessary 
 to add something to the clay to prevent the vase 
 from breaking after it is made. The firing ol 
 pottery presents another difficulty, for if the clay 
 is very greasy and tenacious, it does not keep its 
 shape, but cracks in the furnace. Some substance 
 had to be mixed with the earth to render it 
 porous, so that the vapour from the water could 
 escape easily. The potters of the neolithic age 
 had discovered that by adding powdered carbon 
 to the clay this effect was obtained. Hencefor- 
 ward black pottery was not a caprice of fashion 
 but a technical necessity. . . . Mitr having learnt 
 to polish the surface of the vases by burnishing 
 with the bone or smooth stone spatula, the potters 
 observed that when these black vases were placed 
 in the flame or upon hot coals they became red in 
 the parts where the fire was hottest ; to avoid 
 producing these red. yellow, or drab marks, which 
 were the effect of firing by an open fire, they dis- 
 covered how to bake fine pottery so that it was 
 bright and black as ebony. 
 
 "In the neolithic soil of Phaestos were found the 
 three stone axes. They are oval-shaped flints, 
 sharpened on one side to giVe a cutting edge, and 
 with the other end left rough where it would be 
 fixed on the handle. . . . Among the ruins of the 
 
 primitive palace of Phaestos we had proof of the 
 skill of the Cretans of the neolithic age in working 
 stone, and in piercing the axes in order to fasten 
 them to the handle, besides making double axes. 
 In a niche we found some pieces of polished stone, 
 fragments of broken a.xes; and amongst these a 
 round piece of very hard green stone, about the 
 size of a common cork. To make a hole in an axe 
 they used a cane and some sand and water. The 
 cane was spun round quickly and the stone was 
 pierced by it with the help of the sand, and a 
 circular hole was made. When half through, the 
 stone was turned and the drilling recommenced 
 on the opposite side. . . . When the first palace 
 of Phaestos was built, the age of bronze was 
 reached, the age of copper was past, and prob- 
 ably no flint weapons had been made for centuries. 
 The sight of these useless fragments collected in 
 a niche of the early palace convinced me that the 
 tradition of the neolithic age was not spent and 
 that the cult of the ancestor was still alive. One 
 of the most important things (in my opinion) 
 which came to light in my excavations beneath the 
 foundations of the palaces of Phaestos was the 
 discovery that even in the' neolithic age the Cre- 
 tans had learnt the art of giving colour to their 
 pottery by a decoration of red and brown lines. 
 From the pile dw'ellings beyond the .Alps, in Sicily 
 and the Balkan Peninsula, from Greece to Troy, 
 from France to Spain, female figures, decorated in 
 the same manner, represent the rst traces of 
 female costume in the stone age. The linen in 
 which the neolithic bodies in Egypt are wrapped is 
 so fine as to allow us to believe that semi-trans- 
 parent robes may have been made at that period, 
 as was the case under the early dynasties. The 
 neolithic linen of Egypt is like canvas, so far apart 
 are the threads of the web, and it was woven in 
 so thin a texture that with the embroideries it 
 might have a similar effect to this figure. Th,- 
 woman who is pouring out the liquid has a soit 
 of white skirt made from the ,*kin of an animal, 
 as have also the men who bear offerings. The 
 torso is not bare but covered by a bodice with 
 sleeves which end above the elbow. Broad blue 
 bands pass round the neck and down the sleeve; 
 the girdle, too, is formed by a strip of blue, and a 
 band of the same colour probably crosses on the 
 breast, for another priestess, turned to the right, 
 has the same kind of sash The next figure, a 
 woman with two pails hung from her shoulders, 
 wears a long blue dress with the lower edge 
 adorned by flounces. The neck and sleeves are 
 edged by a band of three colours, and this woman 
 also has a red sash edged with two black lines 
 passing obliquely across the chest We know that 
 from the time of the first dynasties in Egypt the 
 priests wore panther's skins at the religious func- 
 tions, and here, too, the priestesses also wear a 
 skin tight to the waist, with an appendage like 
 a tail." — .K. Mosso, Dawn of Mediterranean civi- 
 lisation, pp. 79-iQS. — See also Europe: Prehis- 
 toric period. 
 
 MINOAN AGE 
 
 B. C. 3000-1200. — Chronology.— "The 'Minoan 
 Age,' as defined by Sir .Arthur Evans, includes the 
 whole of the bronze age. It is classified in three 
 principal periods, early, middle, and late: and 
 each of these similarly into three sub-divisions, 
 forming a ninefold series in which each phase is 
 sufficiently distineuished bv changing stvles of 
 potterv and other manufactures, sufficiently re- 
 flected in the analogous products of Melos, Thera, 
 and other sites, to provide a standard series for 
 
 66
 
 JEGEAN CIVILIZATION 
 
 Minoan Ages ^GEAN CIVILIZATION 
 
 the whole Aegean area. Objects of foreign, and 
 particularly of Egyptian make, and of known 
 date, are found at sufficiently numerous points in 
 this series, to permit us to regard the Early- 
 Minoan period as contemporary with Dynasties 
 I-VI in Egypt; the many-coloured pottery of the 
 Middle-Minoan is found on Egyptian sites ac- 
 curately dated to Dynasty XII; and at Cnossus 
 the deposits classed as Middle-Minoan-3 yield an 
 Egyptian statuette of Dynasty XIII and an in- 
 scription of the Shepherd-King Khyan, between 
 1900 and 1600. The Late-Minoan period is more 
 precisely dated still. Its first two pha.ses, 'L. M. i 
 and 2' are contemporary with Dynasty XVIII, 
 and datable to iboo-1400; they serve in turn to 
 date the royal tombs at Mycenae, and the Va- 
 phio tomb in Laconia with its magnificent em- 
 bossed gold-cups." There was sudden destruction 
 of the Cnossian Palace, to which last phase be- 
 long the third city at Phylakopi, the later graves 
 at Mycenae and lalysus, the 'Sixth City' at Troy, 
 and the large Minoan settlements in Cyprus and 
 Sicily. "Rather later than these, but still within 
 the Late-Minoan period, comes the attempt . . . 
 to occupy Thessaly: and the first contact with the 
 west coast of Asia Minor. 
 
 "Then, with the cessation of intercourse with 
 Egypt, Palestine, and Cyprus, and the simulta- 
 neous, though gradual, introduction of iron, first 
 for tools, then for weapons — it had been known 
 as a 'precious metal' in the /Ei^ean since 'L. M. 3' 
 or even 'L. M. 3'; of a new sort of costume 
 which required safety-pins (fibula) ; of a new 
 type of decorative art, non-representative, with a 
 limited stock of stiff geometrical designs based on 
 basketwork and incised ornament; and of the 
 practice of cremation — wholly new in the ^^gean, 
 but long familiar in the forest-clad north, begins 
 a new period, the Early Iron Age, with a new 
 distribution of settlements, and centers of power 
 and industry, and almost total extinction of the 
 Late Minoan culture, which was still relatively 
 high, though already far gone in decadence, by the 
 eleventh century." — J. L. Myres, Dawn of his- 
 tory, pp. I73-I7.';. 
 
 B. C. 3000-2200. — Early Minoan age.— .\t the 
 opening of this period potters discovered a black 
 glaze for coating the wares on which they painted 
 white or red bands or sometimes stripes. Natu- 
 rally as time went on, the shapes of these vases 
 became more regular. From this fact we must 
 conclude the invention of the potters' wheel. Vase 
 decoration, too, became more varied when potters 
 began to depict the human body. At first this 
 work was done in the geometric style — that is, 
 with straight lines alone. We must remember that 
 at this time the chief centre of culture was Melos 
 rather than Crete. LTndoubtedly this was due to 
 the fact that here were available large quantities 
 of hard stone from which could be fashioned all 
 manner of sharp or pointed instruments such as 
 knives and razors, as well as weapons. These 
 wares were exported to the nearby Cyclades, to 
 Troy and to the mainland of Greece. Unfortu- 
 nately, we know little of the life and customs of 
 these early people. They usually lived in rec- 
 tangular stone houses with one or more rooms 
 according to the wealth of the owner. Many of 
 the chieftains built palaces of which the ones at 
 Troy and Tiryns are best known. Rough walls 
 of Cyclopean masonry were constructed about 
 these palaces to prevent raids from neighbouring 
 chieftains or even from foreign invaders. It is 
 interesting to note that due to their geographic 
 isolation the palaces of Crete remained unpro- 
 tected. The most important families built sub- 
 
 terranean dome-shaped tombs modelled after those 
 in which they lived. Here they placed articles of 
 daily use for the disembodied spirit. — R. M. Bur- 
 rows, Discoveries in Crete, ch. 3. — A. Mosso, Dawn 
 oj Mediterranean civilisation, ch. 6. — C. Tsountas 
 and I. Manatt, Mycencean age, pp. 44-55. — "The 
 great innovation of the age was the introduction 
 of copper most probably from Egypt and Cyprus. 
 Silver and gold became known in the same period. 
 For a long time, however, stone maintained its 
 place in the useful arts. Equally important was 
 the adoption of the system of picture writing, 
 pictographs. They are found in Crete on seals of 
 ivory, stone, and other material, in the form of 
 cylinders, buttons, and prisms. Their near re- 
 semblance to Egyptian types proves a close inter- 
 course between these two countries." — G. W. Bots- 
 ford, Hellenic history, ch. 2. 
 
 B. C. 2200-1600.— Middle Minoan Age.— "Dur- 
 ing this period the chief seats of culture were 
 Cnossus and Phaestus in central Crete, where we 
 find Minoan civilization at its most brilliant 
 height. By this time pottery had become really 
 a fine art of which the specimens of the Kamares 
 type are the most beautiful. In the egg-shell thin- 
 ness of their walls they may be compared with 
 the best Haviland china of today. At first art- 
 ists paid little attention to a realistic represen- 
 tation of nature but aimed to create a brilliant 
 harmony of colors. Gradually, however, the color 
 scheme became more simple and artists attempted 
 to depict natural objects as they really existed. 
 This was also a period of the great Palace of 
 Cnossus. By the end of this age pictographs gave 
 way to linear writing in pen and ink." — A. Evans, 
 Scripta Minoa, i. 19/. — C. H. and H. Hawes, Crete, 
 the joreninner oj Greece, pp. 136-139. — "Hiero- 
 glyphic writing is at its best, and the first kind of 
 linear signs. Class A, though apparently only just 
 come into fashion, had made rapid progress. 
 They could indeed be used so flexibly that we 
 find inside two cups of the period an inscription 
 written in ink, in a cursive hand. If we are to 
 judge too from the fact that the lines of the 
 letters show a tendency to divide, it was written 
 with a reed pen. What the medium was on which 
 such pen and ink were ordinarily used, -we can- 
 not tell; imported papyrus, or palm-leaves, per- 
 haps, or even parchment. The invention, we may 
 be sure, once made, was not confined to the inside 
 of pottery. The king who built the stately Tomb 
 to rest in at Isopata, between the harbour and 
 the town, on the hill that overlooked the sea, may 
 have had his deeds recorded, not on clay tablets, 
 but on something more worthy of a literature." — 
 R. M. Burrows, Discoveries in Crete, pp, 64-65, 
 
 B. C. 1600-1200. — Late Minoan or Mycenaean 
 age. — "Before the end of the Middle Minoan .\ge, 
 the inventive spirit of Crete had achieved its ut- 
 most and had begun to stagnate, no longer creat- 
 ing new forms but satisfying itself with stereo- 
 typed conventions. For a time, however, we 
 find a political advance. Power, concentrating in 
 Cnossus involved the downfall of country towns. 
 The palace attained the acme of its grandeur 
 (about 1500). To this period belong most of the 
 frescoes still preserved as well as a remarkably 
 realistic style of reliefs. In vase ornamentation 
 the characteristic development was the 'palace' 
 style, which sacrificed the natural to a desire for 
 decorative unity. The age attained great skill in 
 bronze work and in inlaying metals. In writing, 
 linear script superseded the pictographs, and a 
 new and improved linear stvle usurped the place 
 of the old. Before this age has far advanced the 
 interest shifts, from Crete to Troy, and still more 
 
 67
 
 iEGEAN CIVILIZATION 
 
 ./lirtoan Age 
 C/uiracteristics 
 
 ^GEAN CIVILIZATION 
 
 to the Greek Continent, where Archomenus, 
 Tiryns, and Mycenae were entering upon an era 
 of artistic and political splendor." — 0. VV. Bots- 
 ford, Hellenic history, ch. 2. — "The language of 
 the script is not yet deciphered, but from the form 
 of the written documents, which Arthur Evans has 
 found in very large numbers in the palace archives 
 of Cnossus, and other explorers in smaller quan- 
 tity at Phaestos and Agia Triadha, it is possible 
 to learn something ol Minoan government and 
 organization. Most of the tablets are inven- 
 tories of treasure and stores, and receipts for 
 chariots, armour, metal vessels, ingots of copper 
 such as have been found in store at .^gia Triadha, 
 and singly in Cyprus and Sardinia; and smaller 
 quantities of unworked gold by weight. Other 
 tablets contain lists of persons, male and female ; 
 perhaps tribute paid in slaves, or in person, as in 
 the Greelc legend of the Minotaur. Clearly we 
 have to do with the details of a va.^t and exact 
 administration, far more extensive than Cnossus 
 itself would justify ; and the comparative insignif- 
 icance of other Cretan towns during the great 
 'Palace Period' ('Late-Minoan 2'), the temporary 
 extinction of some of them, and the traces of a 
 system of highly engineered roads and forts over 
 the mountain passes, confirra the impression that 
 the later Greeks were right in the main, in regard- 
 ing Minos of Cnossus as a monarch who ruled the 
 seas and terrorized the land, absolute and ruth- 
 less, if only because inflexibly just." — J. L. Myres, 
 Dawn of history, pp. i83-iS4.-"Minoan religion 
 cannot be fully studied until the Cretan writing is 
 deciphered. It is evident, however, from the ar- 
 tistic remains that the chief figure in the cult of 
 the island was a goddess. She is represented in 
 many ways, from Neolithic nude figures in the 
 form of an excessively fat woman (many primi- 
 tive races have regarded obesity as an element of 
 feminine beauty) to the goddess with a flounced 
 skirt, tight-fitting waist, and bare breast, of the 
 Late Minoan period, who holds serpents in her 
 hands. The serpents apparently typify her con- 
 nection with the earth. Doves and lions were 
 often associated with her. She was, then, god- 
 dess of the air and of wild animals. The bull 
 was sacred to her. He was most often offered 
 in sacrifice, his horns adorned her altars and 
 temples, and ritual ve.ssels were made in his form. 
 The goddess was served by priestesses and wor- 
 shiped at times in wild dances. As in other 
 countries that worshiped goddesses, she was 
 thought to have a son. Later Greek myths 
 traced the birth of Zeus to the Dictean cave in 
 Crete, or to Mount Ida, where Rhea, his mother, 
 secretly brought him forth. . . . The son was thus 
 identified in later time with the Greek Zeus. 
 Cyprus shared in the /Egeari civilization, but 
 Semitic colonies were also established there, and 
 the ^gean goddess was blended with the Semitic. 
 When Minoan civilization was dominant in Greece 
 in the Mycenaian age, the cult of the goddess was 
 firmly established in many parts of the land. She 
 became Rhea, mother of Zeus, Poseidon, and 
 other deities. She became Hera, goddess of Argos, 
 Athena in Attica, and Artemis in .'\ttica and .^r- 
 cada. .\t Corinth, where formative influences 
 may have come from Cyprus, she became Aphro- 
 dite." — G. .\. Barton, Religious oj the world, pp. 
 247-248. — "The dwellings of the dead passed 
 through many changes of fashion during the Mi- 
 noan Agp, and it has been reasonably argued from 
 this that we may be dealing with more than one 
 set of beliefs, perhaps held and put in practice h*' 
 peoples of different origin .\11 .^Jgean rituals, 
 however, agree in this, that the dead are biiried, 
 
 not burned, and that they are provided with 
 copious equipment for their other life. The lux- 
 ury of the rich late graves, and even of some of 
 the earlier, is comparable with that of Egypt 
 itself. The earliest tombs are 'contracted burials,' 
 in cist-graves like those of pre-dynastic Egypt, and 
 of most other parts of the Mediterranean world, 
 as well as of the western regions which have been 
 reached by Mediterranean man. As in Egypt, 
 also, some localities, in early periods, practised 
 secondary burial; the body was interred provi- 
 sionally until it was well decayed, and then the 
 bones were transferred to the common charnel- 
 house, as in a modern Greek churchyard. Later, 
 families of distinction practised coffin-burial in 
 larger and larger chambers, constructed under- 
 ground or in hillsides, and (on the mainland) 
 with domed masonry linings. The coffins are of- 
 ten of clay, richly painledi or frescoed as at Agia 
 Triadha with funerary scenes. In the latest 
 phases, such chambers on a smaller scale, with 
 flat roofs, became common and superseded the 
 old 'cist -graves'; but the royal tombs at Mycenae 
 still preserve, on a glorified plan, and with bodies 
 at full length, the form of the primitive 'cist- 
 grave.' Among other originalities, Minoan dresa 
 and armour deserve brief mention, if only for 
 their contrast with that of the .'Egean in Hellenic 
 times. The men's dress was of the simplest; long 
 hair-plaits without other head-dress, strong top- 
 boots (as in modern Crete) for scrubland walk- 
 ing, and a loin-cloth or kilt, plain or fringed, and 
 upheld by a wasp-waisted belt: elders and officials 
 indulged in ample cloaks, and quilted sleeveless 
 capes, like a crinoline hung from the shoulders. 
 Women wore shaped and flounced skirts, richly 
 embroidered, with 'zouave' jackets, low in front, 
 puff-sleeved, with a standing collar or a peak be- 
 hind the neck; they were tight-laced, and the 
 skirts were belted like the men's? Gay curls and 
 shady hats with ribbons and rosettes completed 
 the costume, which resembles more than anything 
 the peasant-girls' full dress in a Swiss valley, and 
 may be 'alpine' too. Armour was simple; for 
 attack, a long spear, and dagger-like sword with 
 two straight hollow-ground edges; on the head a 
 conical helmet of leather, strengthened with metal 
 plates or boar's tusks in rows: and for other pro- 
 tection, the ordinary high boots, and a flexible 
 shield of leather, oblong or oval, with metal rim, 
 but no handle or central boss. It was slung over 
 the left shoulder by a strap, and became distorted 
 by its own weight to a quaint S-shape ; however, 
 it wholly enveloped the wearer from ankles to 
 chin, and could be bent so as to enclose him on 
 each side. The horse was in use, and was brought 
 from oversea; it was driven, not ridden, appar- 
 ently; and light chariots were used both for hunt- 
 ing and in war." — J. L. Myres, Dawn oj history, 
 pp. 186-188. 
 
 B. C. 1600-1200. — Laborers and artisans of 
 the Minoan Age. — "Many laborers busied them- 
 selves with tilling the soil and with rearing 
 cattle, sheep, goats, and swine. They ground their 
 barley or wheat in querns or crushed it in stone 
 mortars still preserved. .'Vmong their fruits were 
 the fig and the olive, whose oil entered into the 
 preparation of food. Trades were specialized as 
 in the Orient. Among the craftsmen were potters, 
 brickmakers, and carpenters, whose bronze saws, 
 axes, files, and other tools resemble in pattern 
 those of today. Naturally in an age of bronze 
 the workers in that metal filled a large place. 
 Stone, while still serving the le.sser arts, had be- 
 come the essential architecture, and throughout 
 all histon' wood has furnished a convenient ma- 
 
 68
 
 ^^T^f^TTy^"' 'jv^-y^/'^^^ 
 
 ^"^ "y*'''*^ "^ "-^ '7^ 
 
 
 
 
 Courteay of the Metropolitan Museum of Art 
 
 ARCH.^OLOGICAL FINDINGS FROM .?5:GEAN AREA 
 I, The golden Vaphio cups (Laconia). 2, Inlaid daggers (Mycenae, 1600-1100 B.C.). 3, Mndel? 
 of house facades (Crete, 1500-1350 B.C.). 4. Statu tte of a snake goddess (Cnossus, 1800-1500 B.C.), 
 5, Fresco of flying-fish (Phylakopi, Melos, 1600-15 >> B.C.). 
 
 69
 
 ^GEAN CIVILIZATION 
 
 Minoan 
 Decline 
 
 JEGEAN CIVILIZATION 
 
 terial for building and for a great variety of 
 furniture. Among the most remarkable of skilled 
 industries was the cutting and engraving of pre- 
 cious stones, which included practically all known 
 to the moderns excepting the diamond. On these 
 gems the engraver skillfully wrought varied scenes 
 from nature and human life. The highest de- 
 velopment of art is found in the work of the 
 goldsmith — an achievement of the painstaking ex- 
 perience of centuries. This metal was more com- 
 mon than silver. Among his products were beads 
 adorned with scenes in intaglio and rings with 
 similarly decorated bezels used as seals. He could 
 inlay gold, as well as ivory and other material, 
 on bodies of different substance, so as to produce 
 a polychrome effect. He wrought bracelets, di- 
 verse artistic patterns repousse on thin plate and 
 graceful drinking cups. Famed for l>eauty are 
 the two gold cups from a beehive tomb at 
 X'aphio, Laconia. The scenes which adorn them 
 are bold, spiritual, and lifelike." — G. W Botsford, 
 Hellenic history, ch. 2. 
 
 Natural conditions had favored the growth of 
 just such a Minoan world: "easy livelihood from 
 small secluded corn-lands, and abundant culture 
 of fruit-bearing trees; supplemented by upland 
 pasturage, and the harvest of the sea. Lasy in- 
 tercourse with many similar lands, or coast plains 
 of the same land, identical in natural economy, 
 almost infinitely various in mineral resources and 
 in artistic and industrial dialect. Intercourse less 
 easy, but within the power of moderate seaman- 
 ship in the sailing season, with a venerable centre 
 of art and luxury, like Egypt, .^bove all, a land- 
 scape of exceptional beauty, of brilliant atmos- 
 phere; grandly contrasted profile of ridge and 
 promontory ; infinitely various form and colour- 
 ing of spring flowers and sponge-diver's trophies, 
 seaweed, shells, and sea-anemones. It is not sur- 
 prising, then, that it is here that man first 
 achieved an artistic style which was naturalist and 
 idealist in one ; acutely observant of the form and 
 habit of living things, sensitive to the qualities 
 and potentialities of raw material, wonderfully 
 skilled in the art of the potter, painter, gem-en- 
 graver, and goldsmith ; and above all, able to draw 
 inspiration from other styles and methods, with- 
 out losing the sureness of its own touch, or the 
 power to impress its own strong character on its 
 works of art." — J. L. Myres, Daivn of history, 
 pp. 180-181. 
 
 B. C. 1600-1200. — Minoan architecture. — Pri- 
 vate Dwellings. — The Palace. — "Private dwellings 
 of the wealthy were surprisingly modern They were 
 built on no fixed plan, but followed the necessity 
 of the site and the taste of the owner. Some 
 were three or four stories high and comprised a 
 multitude of rooms The owners furnished them 
 comfortably and developed cooking to a high de- 
 gree of perfection." — G. W. Botsford, Hellenic 
 history, ih. 2. — "Private houses were constructed 
 of mixed timber and stone with stuccoed fronts, 
 many windows, and flat roofs. They crowded 
 one another along narrow tortuous alleys on un- 
 even ground, more stair than street ; and the gen- 
 eral effect of a Minoan town must have been very 
 like what is still to be seen in the Cretan vil- 
 lages. The palace architecture gives the impres- 
 sion of great luxury based on abundant wealth 
 of oil and other produce ; supplemented by skill 
 in applied science, mechanical, hydraulic, sani- 
 tary, which is unparalleled till modern times. On 
 to a central court, entered by an elaborate gate- 
 way, opened halls of reception, with deep porti- 
 coes and antechambers. Others, more secluded, 
 opened on to terraces and bastioned platforms 
 
 down the slope Between and behind these prin- 
 cipal suites, winding corridors gave access to mag- 
 azines and smaller living rooms. Staircases led 
 to upper stories, with two or even three floors in 
 some places. Practical convenience laid greater 
 stress on inner planning, and room-decoration by 
 fresco and line stone panelling, than on external 
 design. Only the plinths of a few original walls, 
 facing on to the great courts, show any promise 
 of a fine faqade; and there was in any case so 
 much rcbuildinc and patchwork addition, that the 
 general effect must have been that of a crowded 
 village rather than a single residence." — J. L. 
 Myres, Dav:n of history, pp. i84-i8s.^"Naturally 
 the palace was incomparably larger and more 
 magnificent than the richest private dwellings. 
 The residence of the King at Cnossus occupied 
 more than five acres and stood at least four stories 
 high. Its irregularity of plan may be due to ad- 
 ditions and modifications by successive rulers. It 
 comprised an immense central court, smaller 
 courts, long corridors, a theatral space, audience 
 rooms, sanctuaries, an industrial quarter, and 'a 
 system of drainage not equalled in Europe be- 
 tween that day and the nineteenth century.' We 
 may notice more particularl.\ the room in which 
 the throne of gypsum stands against the wall and 
 is fianked on both sides with long benches of the 
 same material. Here in the midst of his noble 
 councillors sat the king on the 'oldest throne in 
 Europe,' presumably to receive embassies and to 
 transact business with his subjects. The indus- 
 trial quarter swarmed with artists and artisan,^ 
 whose labors extended over a wide range of ac- 
 tivities from the preparation and storage of wine 
 and olive oil in huge earthenware jars to the 
 finest gold work and elaborate mural frescoes. 
 One chamber, fitted up with benches and 'a seat 
 for the master,' is thought to be a school room, 
 in which the young learned to mould clay into 
 little tablets and to inscribe them with linear 
 writing Elsewhere were the archives in which 
 those tablets were stored by the thousands. Al- 
 though the script has not yet been deciphered, 
 the inscriptions thus far discovered seem to be 
 accounts of stores and of receipts and dues. \ 
 larger tablet, a case shrine has the appearance of 
 a list of rings. If the Cretans possessed a litera- 
 ture of songs, epics and chronicles, as is not un- 
 likely, it must have been written on perishable 
 material, for nothing of the kind has been dis- 
 covered " — G W. Botsford. Hellenic hist., ch. 2. 
 
 B. C. 1400-1200.— Decline and fall of Minoan 
 culture. — "In the main, the .-Egean was at peace 
 in the Minoan .^ge, a striking contrast with the 
 wear-and-tear of the Hellespontine bridge, as suc- 
 cessive 'cities' reveal it at Troy. In the south, on 
 the contrary, it is difficult to trace any non- 
 .^igean enemy either in Crete or even in the 
 islands, down to the fall of Cnossus; and it re- 
 mains obscure whether this last catastrophe was 
 not due to internal discord; the circumference, 
 as has been recently suggested, turning against 
 the centre, and terminating its tyranny. Cretan 
 tradition told also, later, how a lord of Cnossus 
 went on a Sicilian expedition, with all his force, 
 and never came back. But at this point in the 
 story, Egyptian records come to our aid where 
 Cretan archives are still dumb. They know of a 
 change in the name and behaviour of the 'people 
 from over-sea' ; and they give a clue to the decline 
 and fall of the Cretan culture." — J. L. Myres, 
 Da-ii'n of Itislory, pp. t88-iSq. — See also Greece: 
 /Egean or Minoan civilization. 
 
 "These conditions were suddenly brought to an 
 end by the destruction of the palace The black- 
 
 70
 
 ^GEAN CIVILIZATION 
 
 Assimilation 
 by Hellas 
 
 ^GEAN CIVILIZATION 
 
 ened walls, the charred ends of beams, the al- 
 most complete absence of gold and bronze seem to 
 proclaim the sack and burning of the city. As 
 the same thing happened at Phaestus and Hagia 
 Triada no long time afterward we conclude that 
 the catastrophe was this time due to no accident 
 or dynastic revolution or uprising of the masses. 
 We can explain the event best by supposing it to 
 have been the work of raiders, who swept over 
 the wealthy cities of the island in their career of 
 plunder, whose object was not colonization but 
 booty. This event occurred about 1400 B. C. It 
 came as a premonition of an upheaval of <^igean 
 populations whose waves of migration were to 
 reach the shores of Syria and Egypt." Among 
 them were peoples whose names sound like Sar- 
 dinians, Sicilians, Achaeans, Lycians and Tyrsen- 
 ians (Etruscans), ".Although we may not with 
 certainty identify all these peoples, we may be 
 sure there were among them vEgean and European 
 tribes." — G. W. Botsford, Hellenic history, ch. 2. 
 
 B. C. 1200-750. — Assimilation of Minoan cul- 
 ture by the peoples of Hellas. — "It was reserved 
 for British archaeologists, Messrs. Wace, Droop, 
 and Thompson, to prove by their excavations of 
 the magoulas or village-mounds of Thessaly and 
 Phokis that it was not till the 'Mycenaean' period 
 that the ,^Jgean culture, with its bronze, reached 
 Northern Greece, and that before then there had 
 existed no proper Bronze Age in the North. The 
 remarkable remains of the northern stone-using 
 culture are, then, not all contemporary with the 
 Stone Age in the South; only the earliest of them 
 are. The Cretan Stone Age never developed very 
 highly; it was early supplanted by the introduc- 
 tion of copper from Cyprus. But the Northern- 
 ers, without metal, developed their primitive cul- 
 ture more highly, especially in the ceramic art, 
 and almost reached the height which was attained 
 by the stone-users of South Russia, whose culture 
 seems to have died out before metal could reach 
 it." It was, however, impossible that the North- 
 erners should be entirely without knowledge of 
 the great civiHzation and art almost at their 
 doors ; "^gean pottery must have reached them 
 before the general civilization of the .4i;gean im- 
 posed itself upon them in the 'Mycenaean' or Late 
 Bronze Age. And that it did and left traces upon 
 their pottery even in the earlier Bronze Age we 
 see not only from M. Sotiriadis's find, but from 
 traces of spirals, the most charactenistic form of 
 /Egean decorations, in the Neolithic decoration 
 scheme, which was severely geometrical, thus dif- 
 fering in tola from that of the South. . . . But 
 this would not account for the finds in Phokis 
 and Bcpotia, and the ^^Cgeans were from the be- 
 ginning seafarers who could easily reach the 
 Pagasaean Gulf. The facts are very difficult of 
 explanation. A large number of sites of this 
 Northern neolithic culture and its succeeding Chal- 
 colitic development, which lasted down to the 
 time of the Third Late Minoan period of the 
 South, have been excavated from Chaironeia, 
 Schiste, and Drakhmani in Phokis through Liano- 
 kladhi in the Spercheios Valley to Rakhmani in 
 Northern and Tsani Magoula in West-central 
 Thessaly. Besides those mentioned, the chief sites 
 are Dimini, Sesklo, Zerelia, and Tsangli, all in 
 Thessaly." — H. R. Hall, Mgean archceology, pp. 
 41-42. 
 
 The period beginning about 1200 B. C, when 
 the Minoan decorative style has yielded to the 
 geometric, and extending to about the middle of 
 the eighth century, when written documents be- 
 gin, "resembles the European Middle Ages in that 
 both followed the inroads of barbarians and that -i 
 
 both were marked by a vast decline and an incipi- 
 ent recovery of culture. ... In this period the 
 colonial movement from the Greek peninsula east- 
 ward to the Anatolian coast, begun in the preced- 
 ing age, was completed. The chief feature, how- 
 ever, was the blending of the northern invaders 
 with the native Minoans, and through it the for- 
 mation of the Hellenic race and Hellenic culture. 
 We discover the process of assimilation at various 
 stages. In Crete were communities of diverse 
 speech existing side by side ; in Ionia the mingling 
 of peoples was under way, whereas in Attica and 
 in Laconia we come upon the completed blend. 
 Within the .^gean area the Minoan civilization 
 had been most intense from Crete and Laconia 
 northward to Attica and the Cyclades, in other 
 words the region which in the Middle Age came 
 to be occupied by the Dorians and the lonians. 
 A map of Hellas in the Middle Age accordingly 
 will show this area fundamentally Minoan, though 
 necessarily modified by external and internal 
 forces. . . . For example, there prevailed through- 
 out the area a nearly uniform social structure, 
 in which the great lord commanded the labor of a 
 multitude of serfs, whose rights and duties were 
 clearly defined by customary law. The mnoitae 
 of Crete, the Laconian helots, the hectemori of 
 Attica, and the gergiths of Ionia seem to be 
 remnants of Minoan serfdom. In Ionia, too, as 
 in Crete and Laconia, the citizens ate at public 
 tables. The leadership in the fine arts at first 
 belonged to Crete but soon passed to Ionia The 
 Phoenicians were also heirs of Minoan culture. 
 Their chief contribution to civilization was neither 
 in art nor in navigation, but in the transmission 
 of writing from the Minoans to the Hellenes of 
 the Middle Age In the view now most probable 
 the Minoan linear script through wearing and 
 selection gradually grew simpler, the Cypriote 
 syllabary being a stage in the process. A further 
 simplification took place in northern Syria when 
 the number of characters was reduced to twenty- 
 two. This system the lonians adopted and by 
 further changes made phonetic. . . . Perhaps no 
 external feature of life so characterizes the classical 
 Greeks as their loose, graceful dress. From this 
 point of view their ancestors of the Middle Age 
 seem foreign. Among the laborers the Minoan 
 waist-cloth continued far down into historical 
 times. An innovation, however, was the chiton, 
 probably of Oriental origin. Its tightness is 
 reminiscent of Minoan conditions. Woman's dress 
 was more conservative. Doubtless the grand lady, 
 like Artemis Orthia of Sparta, wore a low-cut 
 waist with shoulder straps, a belt, and a tight 
 skirt of strongly Minoan aspect. The introduc- 
 tion of the fibula, however, was bringing about a 
 revolution in dress This method of fastening 
 was used in the peplos, which gradually prevailed 
 over other styles and became the Doric gown of 
 the historical age. Garments of both sexes were 
 elaborately adorned with inwoven or embroid- 
 ered patterns of the prevailing geometric style. 
 The hair of women and men alike grew long, and 
 hung down in several heavy strands on both sides 
 of the face, and was held in order by a band en- 
 circling the head. Although these styles of dress 
 began to appear early in the Mycenaean .\ge (about 
 1500 B. C), it was not till the Middle Age that 
 they displaced the Minoan patterns. One of the 
 most important constructive elements in the new 
 civilization which gradually emerged from the 
 decadence of the old was the rise of an iron in- 
 dustry. The controversy over the place of its 
 origin is now definitely settled by documentary 
 evidence in favor of the Hittite country in eastern 
 
 71
 
 ^GEAN CIVILIZATION 
 
 MGINA 
 
 Asia Minor (Mitteilungen der V orderasiatischen 
 Gesellschaft, XVIII. 6i, «. I). This industr>', in- 
 cluding the process of hardening to steel, must 
 have flourished as early as the fourteenth century. 
 In the thirteenth it made its way to Crete, whence 
 it passed more slowly over the disturbed ^gean 
 region to Laconia, Attica, Thessaly, and their 
 colonies. While the metal was still scarce in La- 
 conia, it began to be used as money. It is un- 
 necessary here to dilate on the increased efficiency 
 brought by the use of iron and steel to every walk 
 of life. No human activity felt the impetus more 
 lieenly than warfare, which at the same time was 
 affected by new economic and political causes. 
 The clumsy chariot was consigned to the archseo- 
 logical junk-heap and horse-back riding was sub- 
 stituted for it. Meanwhile the extension of pros- 
 perity, involving military and political aspirations, 
 to a w'idcr circle of the population brought into 
 existence a body of troops which we may de- 
 scribe as heavy-armed, though their shields were 
 lighter than the Minoan. It was mainly the in- 
 troduction of steel swords and lance-points that 
 compelled the strengthening of the defensive ar- 
 mor. The round or oval targe, reinforced by a 
 central boss, became the normal shield. ... In 
 religion, too, great changes took place. Among 
 the Minoans the burial of the unburned body, 
 involving a worship of the dead, prevailed with 
 but the slightest trace of cremation. The custom 
 of burning the dead, now introduced by the 
 Northerners, doubtless weakened the belief in the 
 power of ghosts and in the need of ancestor wor- 
 ship. Gradually, however, inhumation reasserted 
 itself; and henceforth the two forms existed side 
 by side, yet with inhumation more common than 
 burning. It is a curious fact that within this 
 sphere of thought and usage historical Greece pre- 
 served more than half of its Minoan heritage. 
 The work of analyzing the greater gods of Hellas 
 into their Minoan and Indo-European elements 
 has scarcely begun, and yet enough has been done 
 to warrant the assumption that in all probabil- 
 ity no single historical deity of Greece is in char- 
 acter and attributes wholly Indo-European or 
 wholly M,inoan. . . . Identifying their own sky- 
 deity Zeus with the god of the double axe, they 
 converted the shrines and sacred domains of the 
 Carian deity to their own service. No less than 
 six altars to Zeus Labraundios accordingly have 
 been found in Miletus. In like manner their 
 .\rtemis usurped the property and various attri- 
 butes of the .\natolian Great Mother. The char- 
 acter and functions of ."Vpollo, especially his heal- 
 ings, purifications, and oracles, seem to be in con- 
 siderable part Minoan. These are but suggestions 
 of a vast and intricate amalgamation which can- 
 not as yet be analyzed in detail. • The prevailing 
 tendency to-day is to assign to the invading people 
 the sunnier aspects of religion, while leaving to 
 the natives the gloomy features, including magic, 
 the worship of ghosts, the doctrine of sin, and 
 its purification by washing in blood. This con- 
 trast seems justified but should not be pushed to 
 extremes. The great deities were mainly god- 
 desses as in the Minoan past; and correspondingly 
 women occupied a high place in society. . . . This 
 is but a hasty view of the Ionian-Dorian civiliza- 
 tion during the Middle Age. With due apprecia- 
 tion of the danger of attributing too much to 
 the brilliant Cretans the present writer cannot 
 escape the conviction that the life of this area in 
 the period under consideration was more Minoan 
 than Indo-European." — G. W. Botsford, Construc- 
 tion of a chapter on the Greek Middle Age 
 {American Historical Review, Jan., 1918, pp. 351- 
 
 V 
 72 
 
 353). — It is safe to conclude that "'Mycenaean' 
 culture had dominated all the southern ^gean in 
 the later bronze age, and most of mainland Greece, 
 as far north as South Thessaly, and as far west 
 as Cephallenia ; that it was probably of indigenous 
 growth; that its intercourse with Egypt was ex- 
 tensive ; and that, whatever its origin or precise 
 date, it was wholly prior to that of historic 
 Greece, and separated from it by a violent ca- 
 tastrophe, in which cities were sacked and deserted, 
 palaces and tombs looted, and the whole distribu- 
 tion not only of political power, but of economic 
 vigour, was fundamentally changed, in a 'dark 
 age' of tumult and barbarism." — J. L. My res, 
 Dawn of history, p. 168. — See also Europe: His- 
 toric period: Greek civilization: Cretan and .-Egean. 
 
 Also in: C. H. and H. Hawcs, Crete, the 
 forerunner of Greece (a clear summary). — J. 
 Baikie, Sea-kings of Crete (popular). — A. Mosso. 
 Dawn of Mediterranean civilization; Palaces of 
 Crete (useful for special topics). — C. Tsountas and 
 I. Manatt, Mycenaean age (brilliant but in need 
 of revision). — H. R. Hall, /Egean archaeology; 
 Ancient history of the Near East. — E. H. Hall, 
 Decorative art of Greece in Bronze age (pottery, 
 the alphabet of archeology well treated here). — 
 R. M. Burrows, Discoveries in Crete (problems). 
 G. W. Botsford and E. G. Sihler, Hellenic civiliza- 
 tion: literary sources and their interpretation. — .■\. 
 Evans, Nine Minoan periods (summary) ; Atlas 
 of Cnossian antiquities, -with explanatory text. 
 
 .ffiOEAN ISLANDS. See Asw Minor: Earlier 
 kingdoms and people; Cvcladf.s. 
 
 B. C. 416. — Siege and conquest of Males by 
 Athenians. — Massacre of inhabitants. See 
 Greece: B. C. 416. 
 
 B. C. 8th century. — Migrations to. See Greece: 
 Migrations to .^sia Minor and islands of the --Egean. 
 
 A. D. 1146. — Ravage of islands by Roger of 
 Sicily. See Bvzantinx empire: 114b. 
 
 1204-1567. — Medieval dukedom of Naxos. See 
 Naxos: 1204-1567. 
 
 1821-1829. — In Greek war for independence 
 against Turks. See Greece: 1821-1820. 
 
 1912. — Temporary Italian occupation and final 
 evacuation. See Turkey: iqii-igi2. 
 
 .ffiOIDIUS, king of the Franks (457-464). See 
 G.wl: 417-486. 
 
 iEGIKOREIS. See Phyl.c: Phratiae: Gentes. 
 
 .ffiOINA, a small rocky island in the Saronic 
 gulf, between .'\ttica and .-Vrgolis. First colonized 
 by Achsans it was afterwards occupied by Dori- 
 ans (see Greece: Migrations) and was unfriendly 
 to Athens. During the sixth century B. C. it rose 
 to great power and commercial importance, and 
 became for a time the most brilliant center of 
 Greek art. .\t the period of the Persian war, 
 /Egina was "the first maritime power in Greece." 
 But the .-Eginetans were at that time engaged in 
 war with .Athens, as the allies of Thebes, and 
 rather than forego their enmity, they offered sub- 
 mission to the Persian king. The .Athenians there- 
 upon appealed to Sparta, as the head of Greece, 
 to interfere, and the ^Eginetans were compelled 
 to give hostages to .Athens for their fidelity to the 
 Hellenic cause. (See Greece: B. C. 492-491.) 
 They purged themselves to a great extent of their 
 intended treason by the extraordinary valor with 
 which they fought at Salamis. — C. Thirlwall, His- 
 tory of Greece, v. i, ch. 14. — See abo Athens: 
 B. C. 490-485. 
 
 B. C. 458-456. — Alliance with Corinth in war 
 with Athens and Megara. — Defeat and subju- 
 gation. See Athens: B. C. 457-456; Greece, B. C. 
 458-456. 
 
 B. C. 431. — Expulsion of the .Sginetans from
 
 iEGIRA 
 
 COHANS 
 
 theii island by the Athenians. — Their settlement 
 at Thyrea. 
 B. C. 210.— Desolation by the Romans.— The 
 
 first appearance of the Romans in Greece, when 
 they entered the country as the allies of the 
 ..^tolians, was signalized by the barbarous de- 
 struction of /Egina. The city having been taken, 
 B. C. 210, its entire population was reduced to 
 slavery by the Romans and the land and build- 
 ings of the city were sold to Attalus, king of Per- 
 gamus. — E. A. Freeman, History oj federal gov- 
 ernment, ch. 8, sect. 2. 
 
 .£GIRA, a town of Achsa, Greece, near the 
 Corinthian Gulf. 
 
 iEGITIUM, Battle of (B. C. 426).— A reverse 
 experienced by the Athenian General, Demos- 
 thenes, in his invasion of .-Etolia, during the Pelo- 
 ponnesian War. — Thucydides, History, bk. 3, sect. 
 
 97- 
 
 JEGON, ruling house of Argos. See Greece: 
 B. C. 8th Century. 
 
 iEGOSPOTAMI (goat streams), a small creek 
 in the Thracian Chersonesus (modern Gallipoli), 
 flowing into the ilellespont or Dardanelles, where 
 the Spartans destroyed the last remaining naval 
 force of Athens, thus leading to the end of the 
 Peloponnesian War (405 B. C). See Greece: 
 B. C. 405. 
 
 .SHRENTHAL, Alois von, Count Lexa (1854- 
 igi2), Austro-Hungarian statesman; appointed 
 minister to Rumania, 1S88; ambassador to Russia, 
 1889; premier and minister of foreign affairs, 1Q06; 
 brought about the annexation of Bosnia and 
 Herzegovina, 1908. — Sec also World War: Diplo- 
 matic background: 8. 
 
 Opinion on Friedjung forgeries. See Aus- 
 tria-Hungary: iqoS-iqog. 
 
 Plans in Novi Bazar. See Novi Bazar. 
 
 A. E. I. O. U. — "The famous device of Aus- 
 tria, A. E. I. O. U., was first used by Frederic III 
 [1440-1493], who adopted it on his plate, books, 
 and buildings. These initials stand for 'Austriae 
 Est Imperare Orbi Univcrso'; of, in German, 'Alles 
 Erdreich ist Osterreich Unterthan'; a bold assump- 
 tion for a man who was not safe in an inch of his 
 dominions." — H. Hallam, Middle Ages, i>. 2, p. 8q, 
 foot-note. — See also Austria; 1477-1495. 
 
 iELFRED. See Alfred. 
 
 .SLFRIC (c. 950-1021), writer in early English 
 prose. See English Literature: 6th-iith cen- 
 turies. 
 
 JELIA CAPITOLINA, the new name given to 
 Jerusalem bv Hadrian. See Jews: 130-134. 
 
 .ffiLIAN AND FUFIAN LAWS.— "The JE\mn 
 and Fufian laws (leges /Elia and Fufia) the age 
 of which unfortunately we cannot accurately de- 
 termine . . . enacted that a popular assembly [at 
 Rome] might be dissolved, or, in other words, 
 the acceptance of any proposed law prevented, if 
 a magistrate announced to the president of the 
 assembly that it was his intention to choose the 
 same time for watching the heavens. Such an 
 announcement (obnuntiatio) was held to be a 
 sufficient cause for interrupting an assembly." — W. 
 Ihne, History of Rome, bk. 6, ch. 16. 
 
 .ffiLIUS, Pons, a Roman bridge and military 
 station on the Tyne, where Newcastle is now 
 situated. 
 
 .£LLE, leader of the South Saxons. See Ella. 
 
 .ffiMILIA, or Fulvia, secular basilica in Rome, 
 built in 167 B. C. and later rebuilt by Paulus 
 i^milius in 50 B. C. It is remarkable for its 
 monolithic columns of pavonazetto marble. 
 
 iEMILIAN WAY.— "M. .^milius Lepidus, Con- 
 sul for the year 180 B. C. . . c»nstructed the 
 great road which bore his name. The .'Emilian 
 
 Way led from Ariminum through the new colony 
 of Bononia to Placentia, being a continuation of 
 the Flaminian Way, or great north road, made 
 by C. Flaminius in 220 B. C. from Rome to 
 Ariminum. .^t the same epoch, Flaminius the 
 son, being the colleague of Lepidus, made a 
 branch road from Bononia across the Appenines 
 to Arretium."— H. G. Liddell, History of Rome, 
 bk. 5, cit. 41. 
 
 .a;MILIANUS, Roman emperor, A. D. 253. 
 See Rome: 192-284. 
 
 .ffiMILIANUS, P. Cornelius Scipio, Roman 
 consul. See Rome: B. C. 149-146. 
 
 .ffiMILIUS GENS.— One of the most famous 
 ancient patrician houses at Rome, The first mem- 
 ber to obtain the consulship was L. .Emilius 
 Mamercus in 484 B. C; family names are Bar- 
 hula, Buca, Lepidus, Mamercus, Papus, Paulus, 
 Regillus, and Scaurus. 
 
 .ffiMILIUS PAULUS, Roman consul (217-216 
 B. C.) ; defeated at Cannae by Hannibal. See 
 Rome: B.C. 218-202; Punic Wars: Second. 
 
 .ffiNEAS.— "When the Greeks had taken Troy 
 by means of the wooden horse and were slaying 
 the inhabitants, -^neas escaped by sea together 
 with many followers. And though angry Junu 
 threatened him with storms and beset his path 
 with trials and dangers, his goddess mother, 
 Venus, guided him safely through every peril, and 
 brought him after many wanderings to a haven on 
 the west coast of Italy. There he landed and 
 began to build a city. Trojans and natives lived 
 together in peace, all taking the name of Latins, 
 A son of i^neas founded Alba Longa." — G. W. 
 Botsford, History of the ancient world, p. 324. — 
 Roman myth further tells us that ^neas was the 
 ancestor of Romulus, the founder of Rome. 
 
 .ffiOLIANS.— "The collective stock of Greek 
 nationalities falls, according to the view of those 
 ancient writers who laboured most to obtain an 
 exact knowledge of ethnographic relationships, into 
 three main divisions, .Cohans, Dorians and loni- 
 ans. . . . All the other inhabitants of Greece [not 
 Dorians and lonians] and of the islands included 
 in it, are comprised under the common name of 
 /Eolians — a name unknown as yet to Homer, and 
 which was incontestably applied to a great diver- 
 sity of peoples, among which it is certain that no 
 such homogeneity of race is to be assumed as 
 existed among the lonians and Dorians. Among 
 the two latter races, though even these were 
 scarcely in any quarter completely unmixed, there 
 was incontestably to be found a single original 
 stock, to which others had merely been attached, 
 and as it were engrafted, whereas, among the 
 peoples assigned to the /Eolians, no such original 
 stock is recognizable, but on the contrary, as great 
 a difference is found between the several members 
 of this race as between Dorians and lonians, and 
 of the so-called Cohans, some stood nearer to the 
 former, others to the latter. ... A thorough and 
 careful investigation might well lead to the con- 
 clusion that the Greek people was divided not 
 into three, but into two main races, one of which 
 we may call Ionian, the other Dorian, while of 
 the so-called .-Eolians some, and probably the 
 greater number, belonged to the former, the rest 
 to the latter." — G. F. Schbman, Antiquity of 
 Greece: The state, pi. i, ch. 2, — In Greek myth- 
 ology, i^olus, the fancied progenitor of the 
 Eolians, appears as one of the three sons 
 of Hellen, "^olus is represented as having 
 -eigned in Thessaly: his seven sons were Kre- 
 theus, Sisyphus, Athamas, Salmoneus, Deion, Mag- 
 nes and Perieres: his five daughters, Canace, Al- 
 cyone, Peisidike, Calyce and Permede. The fables 
 
 73
 
 a;olis 
 
 ^SCLEPIADAE 
 
 of this race seem to be distinguished by a con- 
 stant introduction of the God Poseidon, as well 
 as by an unusual prevalence of haughty and pre- 
 sumptuous attributes among the .-Eolid heroes, 
 leading them to affront the gods by pretences of 
 equality, and sometimes even by defiance." — G. 
 Grote, History oj Greece, pt. i, ch. 6. — See also 
 Achaea; .^ioLis; Asia Minor: Greek colonies; 
 Thessaly, Dorians and Ionians. 
 
 ^OLIS (^olia), an ancient district of West- 
 ern Asia Minor, extending along the .-Egean coast 
 from the river Hermus to the promontory of Lec- 
 tum; settled by the so-called ^olian Greeks, who 
 before looo B. C. had founded Cyme and several 
 other cities both on the mainland and on the 
 island of Mytilene. — See also Romans. 
 
 iEOLOPELE, device showing power of steam. 
 See Steam and Gas Engines: Development up to 
 Watt's time. 
 
 ^OLUS. See ^olians. 
 
 ^OUI (^quians), an ancient tribe of Italy 
 who occupied the territory called Latium, a sec- 
 tion east of Rome ; frequently fought with Rome 
 but were not subdued until the lifth century B. C. 
 See Rome: B. C. 45S; 300-347. 
 
 ^OUINOCTIA, the name given by E. C. 
 Abendanon to an old Paleozoic continent, now 
 sunk below the sea. From observations, he draws 
 the following conclusions regarding this ancient 
 continent: "The gneiss, the mica schists, the 
 phyllites, and the real 'old' schists, must be Ar- 
 chean and pre-Cambrian rocks. They once built 
 up an old Paleozoic continent, which extended at 
 least over an area of 45° in latitude, between the 
 tropics, from the southeast of Asia to the east of 
 Australia. Its development from the southwest 
 to northeast is unknown, owing to the presence of 
 the Indian and Pacific oceans, but at all events this 
 continent must have included most of Sumatra 
 and the Philippine Islands, as in those countries 
 also there has not yet been found any fossil of 
 the Old Paleozoic. To the west, it may have 
 stretched out as far as Madagascar. In the cen- 
 tral part, north and south of the equator, moun- 
 tain ranges of an almost east-west direction must 
 have played an important part in this very old 
 continent ."^E. C. Abendanon, Mquinoctia (Jour- 
 nal oj Geology, Oil.. 1010, pp. 562-578). 
 
 ^RARII, .ffirarians, a class of Roman cit- 
 izens who were subjected to a poll-tax by the 
 censor, usually placed upon inhabitants of con- 
 quered towns. Full Roman citizens were some- 
 times punished for certain dishonorable acts in 
 private life by being placed among this class. 
 See Censors: Roman. 
 
 ^RARIUM, the name given by the ancient 
 Romans to the public treasury containing the ac- 
 counts and moneys of the state,- the standards of 
 the legions, engraved public laws and other official 
 registers and papers. The aerarium was virtual'y 
 under the administration of the Roman emperors 
 although the latter had separate exchequers, called 
 fiscus. In time the emperors were privileged with 
 an aerarium privatum, apart from the fiscus, an- 
 other allotment which they could use either for 
 their personal purposes or to the interest of the 
 empire. — See also Fisci^s. 
 
 AERIAL ARMAMENT. See World War: 
 Miscellaneous auxiliarv services: IV. Aviation: a, 3. 
 AERIAL DERBY FLIGHT. See Aviation: 
 Important flights since 1000: 1014. 
 
 AERIAL FOREST PATROL. See Aviation: 
 Development of airplanes and air service iqi8- 
 iq2i: Mr service after World War. 
 
 AERIAL LAW. See Aviation: Development 
 of airplanes and air service: I9i8-ig2i: Aerial law. 
 
 AERIAL LEAGUE OF THE WORLD: Its 
 aims. See Aviation: Development of airplanes 
 and air service; 1918-192 1: Aerial law. 
 
 AERIAL MAIL. See .Aviation: Development 
 of airplanes and air service: 1918-1921: ."Vir service 
 after World War. 
 
 AERIAL NAVIGATION, Provisions regard- 
 ing, in treaty of Versailles. See Versailles, 
 Treaty of: Part XI 
 
 AERIAL NAVIGATION LAWS. See .\via- 
 tion: Development of airplanes and air service: 
 1918-1921: .\erial law. 
 
 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY, in city planning. 
 See City planning: .Aeroplane in city planning; 
 World War: Miscellaneous auxiliary services: IV. 
 .Aviation: a, 1. 
 
 AERIAL POSTAL SERVICE. See Avution: 
 1021: .American aerial mail service 
 
 AERIAL TRANSPORTATION. See Avia- 
 tion. 
 
 AERIAL WARFARE. See World War: 1915: 
 1916: IQ17 and 19 18: .Aerial operations. 
 
 AERODROMES, Floating. See Aviation: 
 Development of airplanes and air service: 1910- 
 1920. 
 
 AERODROMES, Langley's. See .A«ation: 
 Development of airplanes and air service: 1889- 
 1900: .Aerial law 
 
 AERODROMES, Laws concerning. See 
 .Aviation: Development of airplanes and air serv-- 
 ice: 1918-IQ21: .Aerial law. 
 
 AERONAUTIC MAPS. See Aviation: Devel- 
 opment of airplanes and air service: 1908-1920. 
 AERONAUTICS. See Aviation. 
 AEROPLANE IN CITY PLANNING. See 
 City planntxg: .Aeroplane in city planning. 
 AEROPLANES. See Avlation. 
 AERSCHOT, or Aarschot, a town of Bel- 
 gium, province of Brabant. Scene of the first acts 
 of terrorism by the Germans in their invasion of 
 Belgium, .August, 1914. See Belciu.m: 1914; World 
 War: 1014: I. Western front: c, 1 and e; also 
 1916: X. German rule in northern France and Bel- 
 gium: b, 3; also Miscellaneous auxiliary services: 
 X. .Alleged atrocities and violations of international 
 law: a, 7. 
 
 .ffiSCHINES (389-314 B. C), celebrated 
 Athenian statesman and orator. Sent as a mem- 
 ber of the embassy to Philip of Macedon, 347 
 B. C. From that time he actively favored Philip 
 and became the leader of the peace party at 
 Athens as against Demosthenes. In 330 B. C. 
 /Eschines unsuccessfully attacked Ctesiphon's ef- 
 forts to reward Demosthenes with a golden crown 
 for his services to the state. .As a result of this 
 defeat he went into voluntary exile at Rhodes. 
 vEschines' most famous contributions to oratory, 
 the three speeches referred to as "The Three 
 Graces," rank close to those of Demosthenes. — 
 See also .Athens: 336-322 B. C. 
 
 .ESCHINES (5th century B; C), an .Athenian 
 philosopher and friend of Socrates; held in con- 
 tempt by Plato and .Aristotle. He was one of the 
 most gifted orators of his time. His work is con- 
 sidered as the standard of the pure .Attic stvle. 
 
 .ffiSCHYLUS (525-456 B. C ), first of the'three 
 great Greek tragedians. Fought at Marathon and 
 Salamis. His ninety plays,, grouped in threes, ex- 
 tend over a period of forty years, during which 
 time he won the first prize thirteen times. His 
 plays, of which seven are extant, show the charac- 
 ters gradually displacing the chorus as protagonist. 
 — See also Drama: Origin: Greek tragedy: Rise 
 and development 
 
 .ffiSCLEPIADAE. See Medical science: 
 .Ancient Greece 
 
 74
 
 ^SCULAPIUS 
 
 ^THELWULF 
 
 ^SCULAPIUS, Greek god of medicine. See 
 Medical science: Ancient Greece. 
 
 .ffiSOPUS INDIANS. See Algonquian fam- 
 ily. 
 
 .ESTHETICS: Croce. See Art: Croce's Aes- 
 thetic. 
 
 .ffiSTII, or .ffistyi.— "At this point [beyond 
 the SuionesJ the Suevic Sea [the Baltic], on its 
 eastern shore, washes the tribes of the .-Estii, whose 
 rites and fashions and styles of dress are those of 
 the Suevi, while their language is more like the 
 British. They worship the mother of the gods 
 and wear as a religious symbol the device of a 
 wild boar. . . . They often use clubs, iron weap- 
 ons but seldom. They are more patient in cul- 
 tivating corn and other produce than might be 
 expected from the general indolence of the Ger- 
 mans. But they also search the deep and are 
 the only people who gather amber, which they 
 call glesum." — "The .-Estii occupied that part of 
 Prussia which is to the north-east of the Vistula. 
 . . . The name still survives in the form Estonia." 
 — Tacitus, Germany, tr. by Church and Brodribb, 
 with nole. 
 
 .ffiSYMNET.^;.— Among the Greeks, an ex- 
 pedient "which seems to have been tried not un- 
 frequently in early times, for preserving or re- 
 storing tranquillity, was to invest an individual 
 with absolute power, under a peculiar title, which 
 soon became obsolete: that of aesymnets. At 
 Cuma, indeed, and in other cities, this was the 
 title of an ordinary magistracy, probably of that 
 which succeeded the hereditary monarchy; but 
 when applied to an extraordinary office, it was 
 equivalent to the title of protector or dictator." — 
 C. Thirlwall, History of Greece, ch. lo 
 
 .ffiTHEL, .aiTHELINGS. — .-Etheling, an 
 Anglo-Saxon word compounded of "aethele" or 
 "ethel," meaning "noble," and "ing," belonging; 
 akin to the modern German words "adel," "no- 
 bility" and "adelig," "noble," was used to denote 
 members of a royal family. "The sons and broth- 
 ers of the king [of the English] were distinguished 
 by the title of Aethelings. The word .-Etheling, 
 like eorl, originally denoted noble birth simply ; 
 but as the royal house of Wessex rose to pre-emi- 
 nence and the other royal houses and the nobles 
 generally were thereby reduced to a relatively lower 
 grade, it became restricted to the near kindred of 
 the national king." — T. P. Taswell-Langmead, Eng. 
 Const. Hist., p 2q. — "It has been sometimes held 
 that the only nobility of blood recognized in Eng- 
 land before the Norman Conquest was that of the 
 king's kin. The statement may be regarded as de- 
 ficient in authority, and as the result of a too 
 hasty generalization from the fact that only the 
 sons and brothers of the kings bear the name of 
 aetheling. On the other hand must be alleged the 
 existence of a noble (edhiling) class among the 
 continental Saxons who had no kings at all. . . . 
 The laws of Ethelbert prove the existence of a 
 class bearing the name of eorl of which no other 
 interpretation can be given. That these, curls and 
 aethel, were the descendants of the primitive nobles 
 of the first settlement, who, on the institution of 
 royalty, sank one step in dignity from the ancient 
 state of rude independence, in which they had elect- 
 ed their own chiefs and ruled their own dependents, 
 may be very reasonably conjectured. . . . The 
 ancient name of eorl, like that of aetheling, changed 
 its application, and, under the influence, perhaps, of 
 Danish association, was given like that of jarl to 
 the official ealdorman. Henceforth the thegn takes 
 the place of the aethel, and the class of thegns 
 probably embraces all the remaining families of 
 noble blood. The change may have been very 
 
 gradual; the 'north people's law' of the tenth or 
 early eleventh century still distinguishes the eorl 
 and aetheling with a wergild nearly double that 
 of the ealdorman and seven times that of the 
 thegn; but the north people's law was penetrated 
 with Danish influence, and the eorl probably rep- 
 resents the jarl rather than the ealdorman, the great 
 eorl of the fourth part of England as it was 
 divided by Canute. . . . The word eorl is said to 
 be the same as the Norse jarl and another form of 
 ealdor {?); whilst the ceorl answers to the Norse 
 Karl; the original meaning of the two being old 
 man and young man."— W. Stubbs, Constitutional 
 History of England, ch. 6, sect. 64, and note. 
 
 -ffiTHELBALD, one of the most powerful 
 kings of Mercia, controlling all of Britain up to 
 the Humber; invaded Wessex in 733 and North- 
 umbria in 740; slain by his guards in 757 at Seck- 
 ington, Warwickshire. 
 
 .ffiTHELBALD, king of Wessex; defeated the 
 Danes (851) with the help of his father, ^thel- 
 wulf. ^thelbald married his father's widow in 
 858 and ruled until his death in 860 
 
 .ffiTHELBERHT OF KENT, Saint (SS2{?)- 
 616), king of Kent, 560 to 616. Established his 
 supremacy over all the English south of the Hum- 
 ber in 593, after the death of Ceowlin, king of 
 the West Saxons; married the daughter of Chari- 
 bert, king of the Franks, agreeing to permit her 
 to practice her own (Christian) religion ; was him- 
 self converted by St. Augustine in 597 and founded 
 the bishopric of Rochester and erected the church 
 of St. Paul in London; is author of first written 
 Saxon laws. 
 
 .ffiTHELBERHT, king of the West Saxons; 
 younger brother of .^thelbald, king of Wessex 
 whom he succeeded upon the latter's death in 860. 
 The Danes made two attacks upon his kingdom; 
 in one of these (860) destroyed Winchester. Died 
 in 865. — See also England: 855-880. 
 
 .ffiTHELFLED, daughter of King Alfred. 
 See Education: Medieval: 871-900: England: King 
 Alfred. 
 
 .ffiXHELFRITH, king of Northumberland, 
 593-617 
 
 .ffiTHELRED, king of Mercia from 675 to 704. 
 From 704 till his death in 716 he was abbot of 
 Bardnev. 
 
 .ffiTHELRED, king of Wessex, A. D. 866-871. 
 .SITHELRED II (968-1016), surnamed "The 
 Unready"; in 991 instituted the payment of 
 "danegeld" as a price of peace with the Danes; or- 
 dered a general massacre of the Danes in 1002 
 which caused more ravages of England by the 
 Danes under King Sweyn, who marched upon 
 London and deposed .^thclred whom the people 
 deserted; was restored to the throne in 1014. — See 
 also England: 979-1016. 
 
 .ffiTHELSTAN (c. 894-940) succeeded his 
 father. King Edward the Elder, as king of the 
 Saxons (924). Thirteen years later he had es- 
 tablished himself as sovereign over the whole of 
 England and Scotland. 
 
 .ffiXHELSWISTHA, son of King Alfred. 
 See Education: Medieval: 871-900: England: King 
 Alfred. 
 
 .ffiXHELWEARD, Anglo-Saxon historian; au- 
 thor of a Latin Chronicle extending to 975; in 
 991 was associated with Archbishop Sigeric in the 
 conclusion of a peace with the Danes. 
 
 .ffiXHELWERD, son of King Alfred. See 
 Education: Medieval: 871-900: England: King 
 Alfred. 
 .ffiXHELWULF, king of Wessex, 839-858. 
 Viking invasions. See Scandinavian States: 
 8th-9th centuries. 
 
 75
 
 -ETIUS 
 
 AFGHANISTAN 
 
 ^TIUS (d. 4S4), Roman general under Val- 
 entinian III ; won many notable \'ictories in 
 twenty years of warfare in Gaul, thereby delay- 
 ing the collapse of the Roman empire; won a 
 great victory over Attila and the Huns at Chalons- 
 sur-Marne (September 20, 451). ^-Etius, in 454, 
 formally asked \ alentinian to give his daughter in 
 marriage to his son Gaudentius. Suspecting de- 
 signs upon his power, the emperor assassinated his 
 general. — See also Barbarian invasions: 4-3-455; 
 Huns; 451. 
 
 JETIUS, founder of an extreme sect of Arians; 
 surnamed "the Atheist"; banished from Alexan- 
 dria in 356 b\- Constantius for preaching Arian- 
 ism; was a favorite with the emperor Julian who 
 recalled him and presented him with an estate; 
 died at Constantinople in 367. 
 
 ^TNA INSURANCE COMPANY. See In- 
 surance: Fire insurance: Development in United 
 States. 
 
 JETOLIA, a district of central Greece, directly 
 south of Thessaly and Epirus, bordering on the 
 gulfs of Calydon and Corinth. In ancient times 
 the inhabitants of this district were known as a 
 backward and barbarous people. As late as the 
 fifth century they were still bands or tribes under 
 the leadership of plunderers who styled them- 
 selves "kings." The rise of .^itolia as a distinct 
 power may be ascribed to the formation of the 
 .•Etolian League, which was originally intended to 
 meet any invasion by the Macedonian regents, 
 Antipater and Craterus. The confederacy, the 
 members of which were the districts of .-Etolia, 
 F;iis, Locris, Phocis, Bu;otia, CEtsa and Phthio- 
 tis, continued to extend its influence to the north- 
 ern sections of central Greece (2Q0 B. C). The 
 .-Etolian League reached the zenith of its power 
 between the years 245-240 B. C, when the naval 
 power of the .E^tolians extended to the .Egian 
 islands and to the Hellespont. .M this time all 
 central Greece was under the control of the league. 
 .\n inscription recently unearthed, indicates the 
 extent of the .■Etolian League's influence upon the 
 other states of central Greece. "This inscription, 
 discovered at Avaritza in Southern Thessaly, on 
 the site of the ancient Melitea, records a decision 
 of arbitrators appointed by the .E^tolian League in 
 a dispute between the city-state of Melitea and the 
 neighboring settlement of Perea. The two were, 
 at the time, politically united into one com- 
 munity, but the Pereans evidently were dissatis- 
 fied and desired the right of seceding if they 
 should choose to do so. This the decision granted 
 to them, and it also provided for the subsequent 
 relations between the two communities, besides 
 defining the boundar\- line, in the event of a sep- 
 aration. The inscription not only shows the pre- 
 ponderant influence of the .-Etolian League in dis- 
 putes between its member states, but also gives 
 an interesting hint regarding the basis of repre- 
 sentation in the federal council. The date is the 
 last quarter of the third century B. C, when the 
 power of the League extended into Southern Thes- 
 saly."— G. W. Botsford, and E. G Sihler, Hellenic 
 civUizalion, p. 622. — Towards the close of the 
 third century B. C. the /Etolians became greatly 
 alarmed at the growing power of the Macedonians 
 and in order to check the inroads of the Macedo- 
 nian king. Demetrius (230-220 B. C), they joined 
 forces with their former rivals, the .\chcEans. 
 But this did not save their rapidly waning power, 
 for in 228 their .Arcadian po.ssessions were aban- 
 doned to Sparta and in 224 B. C. B(Colia and 
 Phocis were lost to .\ntigonus Doson, son of 
 Demetrius. New enemies began to arise in all 
 directions. The Illyrian pirates, who far sur- 
 
 passed the .iEtolians in unscrupulous barbarity, 
 raided numerous towns. Subsequent raids into 
 Achsan territory by .Eltolian chiefs brought about 
 a coalition between Achaea and Philip V of Mace- 
 don. The combined forces attacked the .E)tolians, 
 drove them out of the Peloponnesus, marched into 
 .-Etolia and there sacked the capital, Thermon. 
 Peace was finally purchased in 217 B. C. with the 
 loss of .\carnania. Thereupon the .-Etolians con- 
 cluded an arrangement with Rome which helped 
 to support its rapidly declining influence. The 
 combined forces of Rome and the .Etolians in- 
 flicted severe punishment upon the Macedonian 
 troops under Philip V at the battle of Cynoceph- 
 als (iQ7 B. C). Central Greece was again 
 restored to the .-Etolian League. The withholding 
 of the League's former Thessalian possessions by 
 the Romans, however, excited the .-Etolians to 
 such resentment that they concmded a compact 
 wUh .Antiochus III of Syria and war with Rome 
 followed. But in 191 15. C. the .Etolians gave 
 very poor support to Antiochus. Their failure to 
 defend Thermopylse forced him to leave Greece 
 .Alone on the field against the greatest power in 
 the Mediterranean, the .-Etolians- vainly pleaded 
 for some compromise. Their surrender in 189 
 practically brought the league to an end. The 
 .•Etolian League's constitution, which the .\chian 
 league used as a model for their own, provided for 
 the yearly convocation of a general assembly, 
 which elected officials and usually shaped the 
 league's policies. Although these general as- 
 semblies were open to all freemen they were 
 usually controlled by .E)tolian chiefs. The strait- 
 ens (general) who had complete control in the 
 field, presided over the assembly. Outlying de- 
 pendencies, which were usually considered as pro- 
 tectorates, were rarely represented in the general 
 law making body. .Although the /Etolian troops 
 were reputed to be ruthless and lawless, the re- 
 sponsibility for which rested with their generals 
 and chiefs who enjoyed unlimited powers, .Etolia 
 and the league contributed invaluable aid to the 
 defence of Greece against foreign aggression. In 
 1205 .-Etolia became part of the old Greek Em- 
 pire. In the fifteenth century it fell under the con- 
 trol of Scanderbeg, and was in turn under the 
 Venetians and the Turks. — See also Gaul: B. C. 
 280-270. . 
 
 JETOLIAN LEAGUE. See ^tolm; Federal 
 GOVEKNMF.NT : Greek federations. 
 
 AFAR PEOPLE. See Eritrea. 
 
 AFER, Domitius (d. -A. D. 60), a Roman ora- 
 tor who accused Claudia Pulcra, cousin of .Agrip- 
 pina (.A. D. 26) of having designs .against the 
 emperor. 
 
 AFFONSO. See .Alfonso. 
 
 AFGHANA, founder of the Afghan race. See 
 .Afghanisian: The name. 
 
 AFGHANISTAN.— The Name.— The People. 
 — "The name .Afghanistan was invented in the six- 
 teenth century and seventeenth century, as a con- 
 venient term by the Mochul government of India, 
 and since then it has become current in the mouths 
 of foreigners. The .Afghans speak of their country 
 as Wilayat and less commonly as Khurassan 
 IKhorasanl, although .Afghanistan covers less than 
 a third of that ancient Division of .Asia." — G. P. 
 Tate, Kingdom of Afgliani^tan. — -Although a na- 
 tion of anti Semites, the .Afghans take great pride 
 in their supposed Hebrew lineage. They call them- 
 selves Beni-lsrael (Children of Israel), and claim 
 descent from King Saul, through .Afghana, son of 
 Jeremiah, son of Saul, from whose country they 
 were forced to migrate by Nebuchadnezzar. This 
 claim is not substantiated bv obtainable historical 
 
 76
 
 AFGHANISTAN, B.C. 330 
 
 AFGHANISTAN, 1803-1838 
 
 Jata, but the unmistakable Hebrew cast of the 
 Afghan countenance, as well as the opinions of 
 Europeans resident in Afghanistan, put it within 
 (he range of possibility. Nine years after Mo- 
 hammed's announcement of his mission, the "dc- 
 scendents of Afghana" heard of the new prophet 
 and sent to Medina a deputation headed by Kais, 
 to make inquiry. These, won over to the new 
 belief, on their return converted their counlry- 
 men, and from Kais and his three sons the whole 
 body of genuine Afghans claim descent. 
 
 Geographic description. — "Between the Rus- 
 sian Dominions in .Asia and the Indian Empire of 
 Great Britain, Afghanistan is placed, like a nut 
 between the levers of a cracker. The rivalry be- 
 tween the great powers which are the neighbors 
 of Afghanistan has led to the careful demarcation 
 of the boundaries of that State with the excep- 
 tion of a short and unimportant length on the 
 west and east. The generally accepted area of 
 243,000 sq. miles, therefore, may be regarded as 
 correct. While, however, a fairly accurate general 
 knowledge exists with regard to Ihc geography of 
 Afghanistan, very little is known as to the num- 
 ber of inhabitants the country supports. From 
 observations made in Seistan, in IQ04, there is 
 reason to believe that an average density of 50 
 souls to a square mile, is not an excessive estimate 
 or (say) 12,000,000 souls for the population of 
 the country. The richer lands in the wider val- 
 ley drained by the principal rivers of the country 
 carry the densest population. In the more ele- 
 vated and poorer districts, there are fewer inhabi- 
 tants, and they are to a certain extent migratory. 
 Those who arc able to avoid the rigorous winter, 
 descend to the lower levels on the approach of 
 that season. Above these districts again, are 
 others to which shepherds resort in the spring, 
 and in which during the summer, a considerable 
 population is to be found. These tracts are 
 vacated as winter draws on. The flocks are driven 
 down to warmer districts, where fodder is pro- 
 curable and in which during the early spring (the 
 lambing season) the climate is not too severe for 
 the young stock. . . . The great range of the Hin- 
 du-Kush divides Afghanistan into two unequal 
 parts, about a third part lying to the north of the 
 watershed. The country generally consists of nar- 
 row valleys sheltered by giant spurs, and ridges of 
 inferior elevation, which descend from the parent 
 range. The Heri-Rud, the River of Herat, drains 
 )he western end of this trough. Within the pres- 
 ent limits of .Afghanistan, permanent snow covers 
 only the loftier summits of the range or collects 
 at the head of the mo.st elevated valleys, which 
 descend on either side, but the heavy snowfall of 
 winter, on the whole range, and rain which falls 
 at cerfain seasons replenish the rivers which rise 
 high up on the slopes of the mountains. The 
 southern ridge of the Hindu-Kush is pierced by 
 the beds of the principal rivers of Afghanistan, 
 and the northern ridge is broken by torrential 
 streams which descend toward the Oxus; but only 
 the more important of these actually join that 
 river. The beds of these streams and rivers are 
 followed by the routes which cross the lofty sad- 
 dles of the range, and the lowest of these passes 
 is the Khawak, considerably over 11,000 feet above 
 sea-level. The two ridges culminate in the vicinity 
 of the mass of Tirish Mir, close to the eastern 
 boundary of Afghanistan, the highest peak of 
 which attains to an altitude of 25,426 feet above 
 the sea. . . . There is no part of Afghanistan 
 where snow never falls. The rainfall is very small, 
 and except on irrigated lands there is an absence 
 of moisture and the climate of the country is very 
 
 unfavorable to human existence. About 43,000 
 square miles of unproductive desert exists in the 
 extreme southern portion of Afghanistan. . . . Ten 
 per cent, of the whole area of Afghanistan may 
 perhaps represent the area which might be culti- 
 vated. . . . The mineral resources of the country 
 arc as yet unexplored, and as it is a task which 
 can be successfully carried out only by foreign 
 experts, progress in this [direction] must be slow." 
 — G. P. Tate, Kingdom of Afghnnislan, pp. i-ii. 
 B. C. 330-A. D. 1747.— Under foreign rulers.— 
 The territory now embraced in Afghanistan has fre- 
 quently changed hands. It was a part of Alexan- 
 der's empire, of the Bagdad Caliphate, of the empire 
 of theSamanids, of the territories of the Ghaznevid 
 dynasty, of the Mongol Empire, the empire of 
 Timur, and of the Mogul Empire. The invasion 
 of Persia in 1722 by the Afghan chieftain Mahmud 
 resulted a few years later in an expedition under 
 Nadir Kuli, who drove the Afghans out of Persia 
 and made the last great conquest of Afghanistan. 
 Nadir Shah was assassinated in 1747, and was 
 succeeded by Ahmed Shah, one of his own officers, 
 who established the Durani dynasty in Afghanistan 
 and the independent status of the country. Ahmed 
 made considerable conquests in India, but none 
 of a permanent nature. 
 
 B. C. 330.— Conquest by Alexander the Great. 
 —Founding of Herat and Kandahar. See 
 MACEno.MA: B. C. 330-323. 
 
 B. C. 301-246.— In the Syrian empire. See 
 Macedonia: B. C. 310-301 ; Seleucidae. 
 
 13th century. — Conquest by Jenghiz Khan. 
 See India: 077-1200. 
 
 1380-1386.— Conquest by Timur. See Timur. 
 1722. — Mahmoud's conquest of Persia. See 
 Persia: 1490-1887. 
 
 1732-1800.— Conquest by Nadir Kuli. See 
 Persia: 1400-1887. 
 
 1755-1761. — War against Mahrattas. See In- 
 dia: 1747-1761. 
 
 1803-1838. — Shah Shuja and Dost Mohammed. 
 — English interference. — "Shah Soojah-ool Moolk, 
 a grandson of the illustrious .Ahmed Shah, reigned 
 in Afghanistan from 1S03 till iSoo. His youth had 
 been full of trouble and vicissitude. He had 
 been a wanderer, on the verge of starvation, a 
 pedler, and a bandit, who raised money by plun- 
 dering caravans. His courage was lightly reputed, 
 and it was as a mere creature of circumstance that 
 he reached the throne. His reign was perturbed, 
 and in i8oq he was a fugitive and an exiled 
 Runjeet Singh, the Sikh ruler of the Punjaub, 
 defrauded him of the famous Koh-i-noor, which 
 is now the most precious of the crown jewels of 
 England, and plundered and imprisoned the fallen 
 man. Sh.ih Sonjah at 'length escaped from La- 
 hore. After further misfortunes he at length 
 reached the British frontier station of Loodianah, 
 and in 1816 became a pensioner of the East India 
 Company. After the downfall of Shah Soojah, 
 Afghanistan for many years was a prey to an- 
 archy. At length in 1826, Dost Mahomed suc- 
 ceeded in making himself supreme at Cabul, and 
 this masterful man thenceforward held sway until 
 his death in 1865, uninterruptedly save during the 
 three years of the British occupation. Dost Ma- 
 homed was neither kith nor kin to the legitimate 
 dynasty which he displaced. His father Poyndah 
 khan was an able statesman and gallant soldier. 
 He left twenty-one sons, of whom Futteh Khan 
 was the eldest, and 'Dost Mahomed one of the 
 youngest. . . . Throughout his long reign Dost 
 Mahomed was a strong and wise ruler. His youth 
 had been neglected and dissolute. His education 
 was defective, and he had been addicted to wine. 
 
 77
 
 AFGHANISTAN, 1803-1838 
 
 AFGHANISTAN, 1838-1S42 
 
 Once seated on the throne, the reformation of our 
 Henr>- V. was not more thorough than was that 
 of Dost Mahomed. He taught himself to read 
 and write, studied the Koran, became scrupulously 
 abstemious, assiduous in affairs, no longer trucu- 
 lent, but courteous. . . . There was a fine rugged 
 honesty in his nature, and a streak of genuine 
 chivalry ; notwithstanding what he suffered at 
 our hands, he had a real regard for the English, 
 and his loyalty to us was broken only by his 
 armed support of the Sikhs in the second Punjaub 
 war. The fallen Shah Soojah, from his asylum 
 in Loodianah, was continually intriguing for his 
 restoration. His schemes were long inoperative, 
 and it was not until 1832 that certain arrange- 
 ments were entered into between him and the 
 Maharaja Runjeet Singh. To an application on 
 Shah Soojah's part for countenance and pecuniary 
 aid, the Anglo-Indian Government replied that to 
 afford him assistance would be inconsistent with 
 the policy of neutrality which the Government 
 had imposed on itself ; but it unwisely contributed 
 financially toward his undertaking by granting 
 him four months' pension in advance. Sixteen 
 thousand rupees formed a scant war fund with 
 which to attempt the recovery of a throne, but 
 the Shah started on his errand in February, 1833. 
 After a successful contest with the Ameers of 
 Scinde, he marched on Candahar, and besieged 
 that fortress. Candahar was in extremity when 
 Dost Mahomed, hurrying from Cabul, relieved it, 
 and joining forces with its defenders, he defeated 
 and routed Shah Soojah, who fled precipitately, 
 leaving behind him his artillery and camp equi- 
 page. During the Dost's absence in the south, Run- 
 jeet Singh's troops crossed the Attock, occupied 
 the Afghan province of Peshawur, and drove the 
 Afghans into the Khyber Pass. No subsequent 
 efforts on Dost Mahomed's part availed to expel 
 the Sikhs from Peshawur, and suspicious of British 
 connivance with Runjeet Singh's successful aggres- 
 sion, he took into consideration the policy of for- 
 tifying himself by a counter alliance with Persia. 
 As for Shah Soojah, he had crept back to his 
 refuge at Loodianah. Lord Auckland succeeded 
 Lord W'ilUam Bentinck as Governor-General of 
 India in March, 1836. In reply to Dost Ma- 
 homed's letter of congratulation, his lordship 
 wrote: 'You are aware that it is not the practice 
 of the British Government to interfere with the 
 affairs of other independent States;' an abstention 
 which Lord Auckland was soon to violate. He 
 had brought from England the feeling of dis- 
 quietude in regard to the designs of Persia and 
 Russia which the communications of our envoy in 
 Persia had fostered in the Home Government, but 
 it would appear that he was wholly undecided 
 what line of action to pursue. 'Swayed,' says Dur- 
 and, 'by the vague apprehensions of a remote dan- 
 ger entertained by others rather than himself,' he 
 despatched to Afghanistan Captain Burnes on a 
 nominally commercial mission, which, in fact, was 
 one of political discovery, but without definite in- 
 structions. Burnes, an able but rash and ambitious 
 man, reached Cabul in September, 1837, two 
 months before the Persian army began the siege 
 of Herat. . . . The Dost made no concealment to 
 Burnes of his approaches to Persia and Russia, in 
 despair of British good offices, and being hungry 
 for assistance from any source to meet the en- 
 croachments of the Sikhs, he professed himself 
 ready to abandon his negotiations with the west- 
 ern powers if he were given reason to expect 
 countenance and assistance at the hands of the 
 Anglo-Indian Government. . . The situation of 
 Burnes in relation to the Dost was presently com- 
 
 plicated by the arrival at Cabul of a Russian of- 
 ficer claiming to be an envoy from the Czar, whose 
 credentials, however, were regarded as dubious, 
 and who, if that circumstance has the least weight, 
 was on his return to Russia utterly repudiated by 
 Count Nesselrode. The Dost took small account 
 of this emissary, continuing to assure Burnes that 
 he cared for no connection except with the Eng- 
 lish, and Burnes professed to his Government his 
 fullest confidence in the sincerity of those declara- 
 tions. But the tone of Lord Auckland's reply, 
 addressed to the Dost, was so dictatorial and 
 supercilious as to indicate the writer's intention 
 that it should give offence. It had that effect, 
 and Burnes' mission at once became hopeless. . . . 
 The Russian envoy, who was profuse in his prom- 
 ises of everything which the Dost was most anx- 
 ious to obtain, was received into favour and 
 treated with distinction, and on his return jour- 
 ney he effected a treaty with the Candahar chiefs 
 which was presently ratified by the Russian min- 
 ister at the Persian Court. Burnes, fallen into 
 discredit at Cabul, quitted that place in August 
 1838. He had not been discreet, but it was not 
 his indiscretion that brought about the failure of 
 his mission. A nefarious transaction, which Kaye 
 denounces with the passion of a just indignation, 
 connects itself with Burnes' negotiations with the 
 Dost ; his official correspondence was unscrupu- 
 lously mutilated and garbled in the published 
 Blue Book with deliberate purpose to deceive the 
 British public. Burnes had failed because, since 
 he had quitted India for Cabul, Lord Auckland's 
 policy had gradually altered. Lord Auckland 
 had landed in India in the character of a man 
 of peace. That, so late as .^pril 1837, he had no 
 design of obstructing the existing situation in 
 Afghanistan is proved by his written statement 
 of that date, that 'the British Government had 
 resolved decidedly to discourage the prosecution 
 by the ex-king Shah Soojah-ool-Moolk, so long 
 as he may remain under our protection, of further 
 schemes of hostility against the chiefs now in' 
 power in Cabul and Candahar.' Vet, in the fol- 
 lowing June, he concluded a treaty which sent 
 Shah Soojah to Cabul, escorted by British bayo- 
 nets. Of this inconsistency no explanation pre- 
 sents itself. It was a far cry from our frontier 
 on the Sutlej ,to Herat in the confines of Central 
 Asia — a distance of more than 1,200 miles, over 
 some of the most arduous marching ground in the 
 known world. . . . Lord William Bentinck, Lord 
 Auckland's predecessor, denounced the project as 
 an act of incredible folly. Marquis Wellesley re- 
 garded 'this wild expedition into a distant region 
 of rocks and deserts, of sands and ice and snow,' 
 as an act of infatuation. The Duke of Welling- 
 ton pronounced with prophetic sagacity, that the 
 consequence of once crossing the Indus to settle a 
 government in Afghanistan would be a perennial 
 march into that country." — A. Forbes, Afghan 
 ■wars, ch. i. 
 
 Also in: J. P. Ferrier, History of the Afghans, 
 ch. TO-20. — Mohan Lai, Life of Amir Dost Mo- 
 hammed Khan. x\ 1 
 
 1808-1810. — Border wars. See India: 1805-1816. 
 
 1837. — War with British in India. See India: 
 I 836- I 84 5 
 
 1838-1842. — English invasion, and restoration 
 of Shuja Dowlah. — Revolt at Cabul. — Horrors 
 of the British retreat. — Destruction of the entire 
 army, save one man, only. — Sale's defence of 
 Jellalabad. — "To approach Afghanistan it was 
 necessary to secure the friendship of the Sikhs, 
 who were, indeed, ready enough to join against 
 their old enemies; and a threefold treaty was con- 
 
 78
 
 AFGHANISTAN, 1838-1842 
 
 AFGHANISTAN, 1838-1842 
 
 traded between Runjeet Singh, the English, and 
 Shah Soojah for the restoration of the banished 
 house. The expedition — which according to the 
 original intention was to have been carried out 
 chiefly by means of troops in the pay of Shah 
 Soojah and the Sikhs — rapidly grew into an Eng- 
 lish invasion of Afghanistan. A considerable force 
 was gathered on the Sikh frontier from Bengal; a 
 second army, under General Keane, was to come 
 up from Kurrachee through Sindh. Both of these 
 armies, and the troops of Shah Soojah, were to 
 enter the highlands of Afghanistan by the Bolan 
 Pass. As the Sikhs would not willingly allow the 
 free passage of our troops through their country, 
 an additional burden was laid upon the armies, — 
 the independent Ameers of Sindh had to be 
 coerced. At length, with much trouble from the 
 difficulties of the country and the loss of the com- 
 missariat animals, the forces were all collected 
 under the command of Keane beyond the passes. 
 The want of food permitted of no delay; the 
 army pushed on to Candahar. Shah Soojah was 
 declared Monarch of the southern Principality. 
 Thence the troops moved rapidly onwards towards 
 the more important and difficult conquest of Ca- 
 bal. Ghuznee, a fortress of great strength, lay 
 in the way. In their hasty movements the English 
 had left their battering train behind, but the gates 
 of the fortress were blown in with gunpowder, and 
 by a brilliant feat of arms the fortress was 
 stormed. Nor did the English army encounter 
 any important resistance subsequently. Dost 
 Mohamed found his followers deserting him, and 
 withdrew northwards into the mountains of the 
 Hindoo Koosh. With all the splendour that could 
 be collected. Shah Soojah was brought back to 
 his throne in the Bala Hissar, the fortress Palace 
 of Cabul. . . . For the moment the policy seemed 
 thoroughly successful. The English Ministry could 
 feel that a fresh check had been placed upon its 
 Russian rival, and no one dreamt of the terrible 
 retribution that was in store for the unjust vio- 
 lence done to the feelings of a people. . . . Dost 
 Mohamed thought it prudent to surrender him- 
 self to the English envoy. Sir William Macnagh- 
 ten, and to withdraw with his family to the Eng- 
 lish provinces of Hindostan [November, 1840]. 
 He was there well received and treated with liber- 
 ality; for, as both the Governor-General and his 
 chief adviser Macnaghten felt, he had not in fact 
 in any way offended us, but had fallen a victim 
 to our policy. It was in the full belief that their 
 pohcy in India had been crowned with perma- 
 nent success that the Whig Ministers withdrew 
 from office, leaving their successors to encounter 
 the terrible results to which it led. For while the 
 English officials were blindlv congratulating them- 
 selves upon the happy completion of their enter- 
 prise, to an observant eye signs of approaching 
 difficulty were on all sides visible. . . . The re- 
 moval of the strong rule of the Barrukzyes opened 
 a door for undefined hopes to many of the other 
 families and tribes. The whole country was full 
 of intrigues and of diplomatic bargaining, carried 
 on by the English political agents with the various 
 chiefs and leaders. But they soon found that the 
 hopes excited by these negotiations were illusory. 
 The allowances for which they had bargained were 
 reduced, for the English envoy began to be dis- 
 quieted at the vast expenses of the Government. 
 They did not find that they derived any advan- 
 tages from the establishment of the new puppet 
 King, Soojah Dowlah ; and every Mahomedan, 
 even the very king himself, felt disgraced at the 
 predominance of the English infidels. But as no 
 actual insurrection broke out, Macnaghten, a man 
 
 of sanguine temperament and anxious to believe 
 what he wished, in spite of unmistakable warn- 
 ings as to the real feeling of the people, clung with 
 almost angry vehemence to the persuasion that all 
 was going well, and that the new King had a real 
 hold upon the people's affection. So completely 
 had he deceived himself on this point, that he had 
 decided to send back a portion of the English 
 army, under General Sale, into Hindostan. He 
 even intended to accompany it himself to enjoy 
 the peaceful post of Governor of Bombay, with 
 which his successful policy had been rewarded. 
 His place was to be taken by Sir Alexander 
 Burnes, whose view of the troubled condition of 
 the country underlying the comparative calm of 
 the surface was much truer than that of Mac- 
 naghten, but who, perhaps from that very fact, 
 was far less popular among the chiefs. The army 
 which was to remain at Candahar was under the 
 command of General Nott, an able and decided if 
 somewhat irascible man. But General Elphin- 
 stone, the commander of the troops at Cabul, was 
 of quite a different stamp. He was much respected 
 and liked for his honourable character and social 
 qualities, but was advanced in years, a confirmed 
 invalid, and wholly wanting in the vigour and 
 decision which his critical position was likely to 
 require. The fool's paradise with which the Eng- 
 lish Envoy had surrounded himself was rudely 
 destroyed. He had persuaded himself that the 
 frequently recurring disturbances, and especially 
 the insurrection of the Ghilzyes between Cabul 
 and Jellalabad, were mere local outbreaks. But in 
 fact a great conspiracy was on foot in which the 
 chiefs of nearly every important tribe in the 
 country were implicated. On the evening of the 
 ist of November [1841] a meeting of the chiefs 
 was held, and it was decided that an immediate 
 attack should be made on the house of Sir Alex- 
 ander Burnes. The following morning an angry 
 crowd of assailants stormed the houses of Sir 
 Alexander Burnes and Captain Johnson, murder- 
 ing the inmates, and rifling the treasure-chests be- 
 longing to Soojah Dowlah's army. Soon the whole 
 city was in wild insurrection. The evidence is 
 nearly irresistible that a little decision and rapidity 
 of action on the .part of the military would have 
 at once crushed the outbreak. But although the 
 attack on Burnes's house was known, no troops 
 were sent to his assistance. Indeed, that unbroken 
 course of folly and mismanagement which marked 
 the conduct of our military affairs throughout this 
 crisis had already begun. Instead of occupying 
 the fortress of the Bala Hissar, where the army 
 would have been in comparative security, Elphin- 
 stone had placed his troops in cantonments far 
 too extensive to be properly defended, surrounded 
 by an entrenchment of the most insignificant char- 
 acter, commanded on almost all sides by higher 
 ground. To complete the unfitness of the position, 
 the commissariat supplies were not stored within 
 the cantonments, but were placed in an isolated 
 fort at some Httle distance. All ill-sustained and 
 futile assault was made upon the town on the 3d 
 of November, but from that time onwards the 
 British troops lay with incomprehensible supine- 
 ness awaiting their fate in their defenceless posi- 
 tion. The commissariat fort soon fell into the 
 hands of the enemy and rendered their situation 
 still more deplorable. Some flashes of bravery 
 now and then lighted up the sombre scene of 
 helpless misfortune, and served to show that de- 
 struction might even yet have been averted by a 
 little firmness. . . . But the commander had al- 
 ready begun to despair, and before many days 
 had passed he was thinking of making terms with 
 
 79
 
 AFGHANISTAN, 1838-1842 
 
 AFGHANISTAN, 1838-1842 
 
 the enemy. Macnaghten had no course open to 
 him under such circumstances but to adopt the 
 suggestion of the general, and attempt as well as 
 he could by bribes, cajolery, and intrigue, to di- 
 vide the chiefs and secure a safe retreat for the 
 EngUsh. Akbar Khan, the son of Dost Mohamed, 
 though not present at the beginning of the in- 
 surrection, had arrived from the northern moun- 
 tains, and at once asserted a predominant influ- 
 ence in the insurgent councils. With him and with 
 the other insurgent chiefs Macnaghten entered 
 into an arrangement by which he promised to 
 withdraw the English entirely from the country 
 if a safe passage were secured for the army 
 through the passes. . . . The horrors of the retreat 
 form one of the darkest passages in English military 
 history. In bitter cold and snow, which took all 
 life out of the wretched Sepoys, without proper 
 clothing or shelter, and hampered by a disorderly 
 mass of thousands of camp-followers, the array en- 
 tered the terrible defiles which lie between Cabul 
 and Jellalabad. Whether .Akbar Khan could, had 
 he wished it, have restrained his fanatical followers 
 is uncertain. As a fact the retiring crowd — it can 
 
 reached Jellalabad to tell fhc tale. Literally one 
 man, Dr. Brydon, came to Jellalabad [January 
 13] out of a moving host which had numbered 
 in all some 16,000 when it set out on its march. 
 The curious eye will search through history or 
 fiction in vain for any picture more thrilling with 
 the suggestions of an awful catastrophe than that 
 of this solitary survivor, faint and reeling on his 
 jaded horse, as he appeared under the walls of 
 Jellalabad, to bear the tidings of our Thermopylae 
 of pain and shame. This is the crisis of the story. 
 With this at least the worst of the pain and. shame 
 were destined to end. The rest is all, so far as 
 we are concerned, reaction and recovery. Our 
 successes are common enough ; we may tell their 
 tale briefly in this instance.. The garrison at Jella- 
 labad had received before Dr. Brydon's arrival an 
 intimation that they were to go out and march 
 toward India in accordance with the terms of the 
 treaty extorted from Elphinstone at Cabul. They 
 very properly declined to be bound by a treaty 
 which, as General Sale rightly conjectured, had 
 been "forced from our envoy and military com- 
 mander with the knives at their throats.' General 
 
 ■ ■S*:->,:»iik 
 
 ^ 
 
 JAMRLU) FOKT .\T KNTRANCE OF FAMOUS KHYBER PASS 
 
 scarcely be called an army — was a mere unresist- 
 ing prey to the assaults of the mountaineers. Con- 
 stant communication was kept up with Akbar; on 
 the third day all the ladies and children with the 
 married men were placed in his hands, and finally 
 even the two generals gave themselves up as host- 
 ages, always in the hope that the remnant of the 
 army might be allowed to escape." — J. F. Bright, 
 History of England, v. 4, pp. 61-66. — "Then the 
 march of the army, without a general, went on 
 again. Soon it became the story of a general 
 without an army ; before very long there was 
 neither general nor army. It is idle to lengthen a 
 tale of mere horrors. The straggling remnant of 
 an army entered the Jugdulluk Pass — a dark, 
 steep, narrow, ascending path between crags. The 
 miserable toilers found that the fanatical, impla- 
 cable tribes had barricaded the pass. All was over. 
 The army of Cabul was finally extineuished in 
 that barricaded pass. It was a trap; the British 
 were taken in it. A few mere fugitives escaped 
 from the scene of actual slaughter, and were on 
 the road to Jellalabad, where Sale and his little 
 army were holding their own. When they were 
 within sixteen miles of Jellalabad the number was 
 reduced to six. Of these six fix^e were killed by 
 straggling marauders on the way. One man alone 
 
 Sale's determination was clear and simple. 'I pro- 
 pose to hold this place on the part of Govern- 
 ment until I receive its order to the contrary ' 
 This resolve of Sale's was really the turning point 
 of the history. Sale held Jellalabad; Nott was 
 at Candahar. Akbar Khan besie.:ed Jellalabad. 
 Nature seemed to have declared herself emphat- 
 ically on his side, for a succession of earthquake 
 shocks shattered the walls of the place, and pro- 
 duced more terrible destruction than the most 
 formidable guns of modern warfare could have 
 done. But the garrison held out fearlessly ; they 
 restored the parapets, re-established every battery, 
 retrenched the whole of the gates and built up all 
 the breaches. They resisted every attempt of 
 Akbar Khan to advance upon their works, and 
 at length, when it became certain that General 
 Pollock was forcing the Khyber Pass to come to 
 their relief, they determined to attack Akbar 
 Khan's army; they issued boldly out of their 
 forts, forced a battle on the Afghan chief, and 
 completely defeated him. Before Pollock, having 
 gallantly fought his way through the Khyber Pass, 
 had reached Jellalabad [.April 16] the beleaguer- 
 ing army had been entirely defeated and dis- 
 persed. . . . Meanwhile the unfortunate Shah Soo- 
 jah, whom we had restored with so much pomp 
 
 80
 
 AFGHANISTAN, 1842-1869 
 
 AFGHANISTAN, 1869-1881 
 
 of announcement to the throne of his ancestors, 
 was dead. He was assassinated in Cabul, soon 
 after the departure of the British, . . . and his 
 body, stripped of its royal robes and its many 
 jewels, was flunf; into a ditch." — J. McCarthy, 
 History of our own times, v. i, cli. ii. 
 
 Also in: J. W. Kaye, History of the war in 
 Afghanistan. — G. R. Gleig, Sale's Brigade in 
 Afghanistan. — Lady Sale, Journal of the disasters 
 in Afghanistan.— Mohan Lai, Life of Dost Mo- 
 hammed, eh. 15-18 (v. 2). 
 
 1842-1869. — British return to Cabul. — Restora- 
 tion of Dost Mahommed. — It was not till Septem- 
 ber that General Pollock "could obtain permis- 
 sion from the Governor-General, Lord Ellenbor- 
 ough, to advance against Cabul, though both he 
 and Nott were burning to do so. When Pollock 
 did advance, he found the enemy posted at Jug- 
 duUuck, the scene of the massacre. 'Here,' says 
 one writer, 'the skeletons lay so thick that they 
 had to be cleared away to allow the guns to pass. 
 The savage grandeur of the scene rendered it a 
 fitting place for the deed of blood which had been 
 enacted under its horrid shade, never yet pierced 
 in some places by sunlight. The road was strewn 
 for two miles with mouldering skeletons like a 
 charnel house.' Now the enemy found they had 
 to deal with other men, under other leaders, for, 
 putting their whole energy into the work, the 
 British troops scaled the heights and steep as- 
 cents, and defeated the enemy in their strongholds 
 on all sides. After one more severe fight with 
 Akbar Khan, and all the force he could collect, 
 the enemy were beaten, and driven from their 
 mountains, and the force marched quietly into 
 Cabul. Nott, on his side, started from Candahar 
 on the 7th of .\ugust, and, after fighting several 
 small battles with the enemy, he captured Ghuzni, 
 where Palmer and his garrison had been destroyed. 
 From Ghuzni General Nott brought away, by 
 command of Lord Elienborough, the gates of 
 Somnauth [said to have been taken from the 
 Hindu temple of Somnauth by Mahmoud of 
 Ghazni. the first Mohammedan invader of India, 
 in 1024], which formed the subject of the cele- 
 brated 'Proclamation of the Gates,' as it was 
 called. . . . These celebrated gates, which are be- 
 lieved to be imitations of the original gates, are 
 now lying neglected and worm-eaten, in the back 
 part of a small museum at Agra. But to return. 
 General Nott, having captured Ghuzni and de- 
 feated Sultan Jan, pushed on to Cabul, where he 
 arrived on the 17th of September, and met Pol- 
 lock. The English prisoners (amongst whom were 
 Brigadier Sheltnn and Lady Sale), who had been 
 captured at the time of the massacre, were 
 brought, or found their own way, to General Pol- 
 lock's camp. General Elphinstone had died during 
 his captivity. It was not now considered neces- 
 sary to take any further steps; the bazaar in Cabul 
 was destroyed, and on the 12th of October Pol- 
 lock and Nott turned their faces southwards, and 
 began their march into India by the Khyber route. 
 The Afghans in captivity were sent back, and the 
 Governor-General received the troops at Feroze- 
 poor. Thus ended the Afghan war of 1838-42. 
 . . . The war being over, we withdrew our forces 
 into India, leaving the son of Shah Soojah, Fathi 
 Jung, who had escaped from Cabul when his 
 father was murdered, as king of the country, a 
 position that he was unable to maintain long, 
 being very shortly afterwards assassinated. In 
 1842 Dost Mahomed, the ruler whom we had de- 
 posed, and who had been living at our expense in 
 India, returned to Cabul and resumed his former 
 position as king of the country, still bearing ill- 
 
 81 
 
 will towards us, which he showed on several oc- 
 casions, notably during the Sikh war, when he 
 sent a body of his horsemen to fight for the 
 Sikhs, and he himself marched an army through 
 the Khyber to Peshawur to assist our enemies. 
 However, the occupation of the Punjab forced 
 upon Dost Mahomed the necessity of being on 
 friendly terms with his powerful neighbour; he 
 therefore concluded a friendly treaty with us in 
 1854, hoping thereby that our power would be 
 used to prevent the intrigues of Persia against his 
 kingdom. This hope was shortly after realized, 
 for in 1856 we declared war against Persia, an 
 event which was greatly to the advantage of Dost 
 Mahomed, as it prevented Persian encroachments 
 upon his territory. This war lasted but a short 
 time, for early in 1857 an agreement was signed 
 between England and Persia, by which the latter 
 renounced all claims over Herat and Afghanistan. 
 Herat, however, still remained independent of 
 Afghanistan, until 1863, when Dost Mahomed at- 
 tacked and took the town, thus uniting the whole 
 kingdom, including Candahar and Afghan Turke- 
 stan, under his rule. This was almost the last 
 act of the Ameers life, for a few days after tak- 
 ing Herat he died. By his will he directed that 
 Shere Ali, one of his sons, should succeed him as 
 Ameer of Afghanistan. The new Ameer imme- 
 diately wrote to the Governor-General of India, 
 Lord Elgin, in a friendly tone, asking that his 
 succession might be acknowledged. Lord Elgin, 
 however, as the commencement of the Liberal 
 policy of 'masterly inactivity' neglected to answer 
 the letter, a neglect which cannot but be deeply 
 regretted, as Shere Ali was at all events the de 
 facto ruler of the country, and even had he been 
 beaten by any other rival for the throne, it would 
 have been time enough to acknowledge that rival 
 as soon as he was really ruler of the country. 
 When six months later a cold acknowledgement of 
 the letter was given by Sir William Denison, and 
 when a rcciuest that the Ameer made for 6,000 
 muskets had been refused by Lord Lawrence, the 
 Ameer concluded that the disposition of England 
 towards him was not that of a friend; particu- 
 larly as, when later on, two of his brothers re- 
 volted against him, each of them was told by the 
 Government that he would be acknowledged for 
 that part of the countrj- which he brought under 
 his power. However, after various changes in 
 fortune, in i86q Shere Ali finally defeated his two 
 brothers Afzool and Azim, together with Afzool's 
 son, Abdurrahman." — P. F. Walker, Afghanistan, 
 
 PP- 45-Si- 
 
 Also in: J. W. Kaye, History of the war in 
 Afghanistan. — G. B. Malleson, History of .ifghan- 
 islan, eh. il. 
 
 1869-1881. — Second war with the English and 
 its causes. — The period of disturbance in Afghan- 
 istan, during the struggle of Shere Ali with his 
 brothers, coincided with the vice royalty of Lord 
 Lawrence in India. The policy of Lord Lawrence, 
 "sometimes slightingly spoken of as masterly in- 
 activity, consisted in holding entirely aloof from 
 the dynastic quarrels of the Afghans . . . and in 
 attempting to cultivate the friendship of the Ameer 
 by gifts of money and arms, while carefully avoid- 
 ing topics of offence. . . . Lord Lawrence was 
 himself unable to meet the Ameer, but his suc- 
 cessor. Lord Mayo, had an interview with him at 
 Umballah in i86q. . . . Lord Mayo adhered to the 
 policy of his predecessor. He refused to enter 
 into any close alliance, he refused to pledge him- 
 self to support any dynasty. But on the other 
 hand he promised that he would not press for 
 the admission of any English officers as Residents
 
 AFGHANISTAN, 1869-1881 
 
 AFGHANISTAN, 1869-1881 
 
 in Afghanistan. The return expected by England 
 for this attitude of friendly non-interference was 
 that every other foreign state, and especially Rus- 
 sia, should be forbidden to mix either directly or 
 indirectly with the affairs of the country in which 
 our interests were so closely involved. . . . But a 
 different view was held by another school of In- 
 dian politicians, and was supported by men of 
 such eminence as Sir Bartle Frere and Sir Henry 
 Rawlinson, Their view was known as the Sindh 
 Policy as contrasted with that of the Punjab. It 
 appeared to theni desirable that English agents 
 should be established at Quetta, Candahar, and 
 Herat, if not at Cabul itself, to keep the Indian 
 Government completely informed of the affairs of 
 Afghanistan and to maintain English influence in 
 the country. In 1874, upon the accession of the 
 Conservative Ministry, Sir Bartle Frere pro- 
 duced a memorandum in which this policy was 
 ably maintained. ... A \ iceroy whose views were 
 more in accordance with those of the Govern- 
 ment, and who was likely to be a more ready in- 
 strument in lits] hands, was found in Lord Lyt- 
 ton, who went to India intrusted with the duty of 
 giving effect to the new policy. He was instructed 
 ... to continue payments of money, to recog- 
 nise the permanence of the e.xisting dynasty, and 
 to give a pledge of material support in case of 
 unprovoked foreign aggression, but to insist on 
 the acceptance of an English Resident at certain 
 places in Afghanistan in exchange for these ad- 
 vantages. . . . Lord Lawrence and those who 
 thought with him in England prophesied from the 
 first the disastrous results which would arise from 
 the alienation of the Afghans. . . . The suggestion 
 of Lord Lytton that an English Commission should 
 go to Cabul to discuss matters of common inter- 
 est to the two Governments, was calculated . . . 
 to excite feelings already somewhat unfriendly to 
 England. He (Sherc .\\i] rejected the mission, and 
 formulated his grievances. . . . Lord Lytton 
 waived for a time the despatch of the mission, and 
 consented to a meeting between the Minister of 
 the Ameer and Sir Lewis Pelly at Peshawur. . . . 
 The English Commissioner was instructed to de- 
 clare that the one indispensable condition of the 
 Treaty was the admission of an English represen- 
 tative within the limits of .Afghanistan. The al- 
 most piteous request on the part of the Afghans 
 for the relaxation of this demand proved unavail- 
 ing, and the sudden death of the Ameer's envoy 
 formed a good excuse for breaking off the nego- 
 tiation. Lord Lytton treated the .\meer as in- 
 corrigible, gave him to understand that the Eng- 
 lish would proceed to secure their frontier without 
 further reference to him. and withdrew his native 
 agent from Cabul While the relations between 
 the two countries were in this uncomfortable con- 
 dition, information reached India that a Russian 
 mission had been received at Cabul. It was just 
 at this time that the action of the Home Govern- 
 ment seemed to be tending rapidly towards a war 
 with Russia. ... As the despatch of a mission 
 from Russia was contrary to the engagements of 
 that country, and its reception under existing cir- 
 cumstances wore an unfriendly aspect. Lord Lyt- 
 ton saw his way with some plausible justification 
 to demand the reception at Cabul of an English 
 embassy. He notified his intention to <he Ameer, 
 but without waiting for an answer selected Sir 
 Neville Chamberlain as his envoy, and sent him 
 forward with an escort of more than 1,000 men, 
 too large, as it was obser\'ed, for peace, too 
 small for war As a matter of course the mission 
 was not admitted . . .An outcry was raised both 
 in England and in India. . . . Troops were hastily 
 
 collected upon the Indian frontier; and a curious 
 light was thrown on what had been done by the 
 assertion of the Premier at the Guildhall banquet 
 that the object in view was the formation of a 
 'scientific frontier;' in other words, throwing aside 
 all former pretences, he declared that the policy 
 of England was to make use of the opportunity 
 offered for direct territorial aggression. ... As 
 had been foreseen by all parties from the first, the 
 English armies were entirely successful in their 
 first advance [November, 1878]. . . . By the close 
 of December Jellalabad was in the hands of 
 Browne, the Shutargardan Pass had been sur- 
 mounted by Roberts, and in January Stewart es- 
 tablished himself in Candahar. \Vhen the re- 
 sistance of his army proved ineffectual, Shere AU 
 had taken to flight, only to die. His refractory 
 son Vakoob Khan was drawn from his prison and 
 assumed the reins of government as regent. . . . 
 Yakoob readily granted the English demands, con- 
 senting to place his foreign relations under Brit- 
 ish control, and to accept British agencies. With 
 considerably more reluctance, he allowed what was 
 required for the rectification of the frontier to 
 pass into English hands. He received in exchange 
 a promise of support by the British Government, 
 and an annual subsidy of £00,000. On the con- 
 clusion of the treaty the troops in the Jellalabad 
 \'alley withdrew within the new frontier, and 
 Vakoob Khan was left to establish his authority 
 as best he could at Cabul, whither in July Cavag- 
 nari with an escort of twenty-six troopers and 
 eighty infantry betook himself. Then was enacted 
 again the sad story which preluded the first Af- 
 ghan war. All the parts and scenes in the drama 
 repeated themselves with curious uniformity — the 
 English Resident with his little garrison trusting 
 bUndly to his capacity for influencing the Afghan 
 mind, the puppet king, without- the power to make 
 himself respected, irritated by the constant pres- 
 ence of the Resident, the chiefs mutually distrust- 
 ful and at one in nothing save their hatred of 
 English interference, the people seething with anger 
 against the infidel foreigner, a wild outbreak which 
 the .Ameer, even had he wished it, could not con- 
 trol, an attack upon the Residency and the com- 
 plete destruction [Sept., 1870! after a gallant but 
 futile resistance of the Resident and his entire es- 
 cort. Fortunately the extreme disaster of the pre- 
 vious war was avoided. The English troops which 
 were withdrawn from the country were still within 
 reach. . . . About the 24th of September, three 
 weeks after the outbreak, the Cabul field force 
 under General Roberts was able to move. On the 
 5th of October it forced its way into the Logar 
 Valley at Chara.ssiab, and on the 12th General 
 Roberts was able to make his formal entry into 
 the city of Cabul. . . . The Ameer was deposed, 
 martial law was established, the disarmament of 
 the people required under pain of death, and the 
 country scoured to bring in for punishment those 
 chiefly implicated in the late outbreak. While thus 
 engaged in carrying out his work of retribution, 
 the wave of insurrection closed behind the Eng- 
 lish general, communication through the Kuram 
 Valley was cut off, and he was left to pass the 
 winter with an army of some 8,000 men con- 
 nected with India only by the Kybur Pass. . . . 
 ■A new and formidable personage . . . now made 
 his appearance on the scene. This was Abdurah- 
 man, the nephew and rival of the late Shere Ali, 
 who upon the defeat of his pretensions had sought 
 refuge in Turkestan, and was supposed to be sup- 
 ported by the friendship of Russia. The expected 
 attack did not take place, constant reinforcements 
 had raised the Cabul army to 20,000, and ren- 
 
 8i
 
 AFGHANISTAN, 1893-1895 
 
 AFGHANISTAN, 1907 
 
 dered it too strong to be assailed. ... It was 
 thought desirable to break up Afghanistan into a 
 northern and southern province. . . . The policy 
 thus declared was carried out. A certain Shere 
 Ali, a cousin of the late Ameer of the same name, 
 was appointed Wali or Governor of Candahar. 
 In the north signs were visible that the only pos- 
 sible successor to the throne of Cabul would be 
 Abdurahman. . . . The Bengal army under Gen- 
 eral Stewart was to march northwards, and, sup- 
 pressing on the way the Ghuznee insurgents, was 
 to join the Cabul army in a sort of triumphant 
 return to Peshawur. The first part of the pro- 
 gramme was carried out. . . . The second part of 
 the plan was fated to be interrupted by a serious 
 disaster which rendered it for a while uncertain 
 whether the withdrawal of the troops from Af- 
 ghanistan was possible. . . . Ayoob had always 
 expressed his disapproval of his brother's friend- 
 ship for the English, and had constantly refused 
 to accept their overtures. Though little was known 
 about him, rumours were afloat that he intended 
 to advance upon Ghuznee, and join the insurgents 
 there. At length about the middle of June [1880] 
 his army started. . . . But before the end of June 
 Farah had been reached and it seemed plain that 
 Candahar would be assaulted. . . . General Bur- 
 rows found it necessary to fall back to a ridge 
 some forty-five miles from Candahar called Kush- 
 y-Nakhud. There is a pass called Maiwand to the 
 north of the highroad to Candahar, by which an 
 army avoiding the position on the ridge might ad- 
 vance upon the city On the 27th of July the 
 Afghan troops were seen moving in the direction 
 of this pass In his attempt to stop them with 
 his small force, numbering about 2,500 men. Gen- 
 eral Burrows was disastrously defeated. With dif- 
 ficulty and with the loss of seven guns, about half 
 the English troops returned to Candahar. Gen- 
 eral Primrose, who was in command, had no 
 choice but to strengthen the place, submit to an 
 investment, and wait till he should be rescued. 
 . . . The troops at Cabul were on the point of 
 withdrawing when the news of the disaster reached 
 them." General Roberts at once pushed forward 
 to the beleaguered city, and dispersed the army 
 of the Amir. Candahar was then held by the 
 British until the fall of 1881, when they withdrew, 
 Abdurahman having apparently established him- 
 self in power, and the country being in a quieted 
 state. — J. F. Bright, History of England, period 
 
 4. pp. 534-544- 
 
 Also in: Lord Roberts' Forty-one years in 
 India. 
 
 1893-1895. — Relinquishment of claims over 
 Swat, Bajour and Chitral. See India; 1805 
 ( March-September ) . 
 
 1895. — Anglo-Russian agreement. — Determina- 
 tion of the northern frontier. — The joint Anglo- 
 Russian commission for fixing the northern fron- 
 tier of Afghanistan, from Zultikar on the Heri- 
 Rud to the Pamirs, finished its work in July, 
 i8qs. This was consequent upon an agreement 
 between the governments of Great Britain and 
 Russia which had been reduced to writing on the 
 previous nth of March. In part, that agreement 
 was as follows; "Her Britannic Majesty's Gov- 
 ernment and the Government of His Majesty the 
 Emperor of Russia engage to abstain from exer- 
 cising any political influence or control, the for- 
 mer to the north, the latter to the south, of the 
 above line of demarcation. Her Britannic Ma- 
 jesty's Government engage that the territory lying 
 within the British sphere of influence between the 
 Hindu Kush and the line running from the east 
 end of Lake Victoria to the Chinese frontier shall 
 
 form part of the territory of the Ameer of Af- 
 ghanistan, that it shall not be annexed to Great 
 Britain, and that no military posts or forts shall 
 be established in it. The execution of this Agree- 
 ment is contingent upon the evacuation by the 
 Ameer of Afghanistan of all the territories now 
 occupied by His Highness on the right bank of 
 the Panjah, and on the evacuation by the Ameer 
 of Bokhara of the portion of Darwaz which lies 
 to the south of the Oxus, in regard to which Her 
 Britannic Majesty's Government and the Govern- 
 ment of His Majesty the Emperor of Russia have 
 agreed to use their influence respectively with the 
 two Ameers." — Great Britain, Papers by com- 
 mand: Treaty series, no. 8, 1895. — See also India: 
 189s (March-September). 
 
 1896. — Conquest of Kafiristan. — By the agree- 
 ment of 1S93, between the Amir of Afghanistan 
 and the government of India, the mountain dis- 
 trict of Kafiristan was conceded to the former, 
 and he presently set to work to subjugate its 
 warlike people, who had never acknowledged his 
 yoke. By the end of 1896 the conquest of these 
 Asiatic Kafirs was believed to be complete. 
 
 1901-1906. — Death of Abdurahman. — Succes- 
 sion of his son, Habibullah. — Signs of a pro- 
 gressive spirit in the new Amir. — The late Amir, 
 Abdurahman, died in October, 1901, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his eldest son, Habibullah. Early in 
 the third year of his reign the new Amir began 
 to show signs of a wish to have his country move 
 a little on the lines of European progress, in the 
 march which so many of his Asiatic neighbors 
 were joining. His undertakings were disturbed 
 for a time by trouble with his half-brother, Omar 
 Jan, and with the latter's mother, the Bibi Halima 
 or Queen of the Harem; but he brought the 
 trouble to an end which does not seem to have 
 been tragical, and that, in itself, is a notable mark 
 in his favor. The Russo-Japanese War interested 
 him immensely, and he established a daily post 
 between Khyber and Cabul to bring speedy news 
 of events. He then read the reports in public, with 
 expositions, to make the listening people under- 
 stand the bearing of what was happening on their . 
 own interests, and the lessons they should learn 
 from what the Japanese were doing. He is said 
 to have done much in the way of improving agri- 
 culture and horse-breeding in Afghanistan ; he had 
 a desire to establish a Chiefs' college, with the 
 English language as the basis of instruction, but 
 he met with strong opposition in this undertaking; 
 and he introduced electric lighting, with probably 
 other luxuries of modern science, in Kabul. Such 
 things in Afghanistan mark a highly progressive 
 man. His political intelligence was proved by the 
 cordiality of his relations with the British Indian 
 Government, .^n interesting account of conditions 
 in the Amir's country in 1004 was given by D. C. 
 Boulger, in the Fortnightly Revieiv of December, 
 that year, under the title of "The Awakening of 
 Afghanistan." 
 
 1905. — The Amir becomes king. — In a new 
 treaty between the Government of Great Britain 
 and the Amir of Afghanistan, the latter was rec- 
 ognized as king. 
 
 1907. — Convention between Great Britain and 
 Russia relative to Afghanistan. See Anglo-Rus- 
 sian AGREEMENT OF 100?. 
 
 1907. — Effect of Russian and British agree- 
 ment on Afghan trade. — "Russian goods enter 
 Afghanistan chiefly through Herat, near to Kush- 
 kinski Post in Russian Turkestan, the terminus of 
 the Nurghab Valley Railway, which connects with 
 the Trans-Siberian Railway into European Rus- 
 sia. The treaty signed between Russia and Great 
 
 83
 
 AFGHANISTAN, 1915-1916 
 
 AFGHANISTAN, 1921 
 
 Britain in 1907 concerning Persia, Afghanistan, and 
 Tibet, states that the British Government engages 
 to exercise its influence in Afghanistan only in a 
 pacific sense, and will not encourage Afghanistan 
 to take any measures threatening Russia, while 
 the Russian Government on its part recognizes 
 that Afghanistan is outside the sphere of Russian 
 influence, and that all political relations with this 
 country shall be conducted through the intermedi- 
 ary of His Britannic Majesty's Government. 
 Further, it engages not to send any agents into 
 Afghanistan, though Russian and Afghan authori- 
 ties may establish direct relations for the settle- 
 ment of local questions of a non-political char- 
 acter. The British Government engages not to 
 interfere in the internal administration of the 
 country, provided that the Ameer fulfills the 
 treaty engagements already contracted by him 
 toward the British Government. Both countries 
 affirmed their adherence to the principle of equal- 
 ity of commercial opportunity in Afghanistan. 
 For whatever diplomatic intercourse is required 
 between .Afghanistan and British India the Indian 
 Government has political agents at Kabul and 
 Kandahar, who, in accordance with treaty regu- 
 lations, must always be Mohammedans, while the 
 .■\fghan Government, on its part, maintains an 
 agent at the capital of India. Interesting evidence 
 as to the awakening of the closed country of Af- 
 ghanistan to modern progressive ideals of civiliza- 
 tion is to be found in important construction 
 works now being carried out under circumstances 
 of great difficulty, especially those connected with 
 costly and difficult transport of needed machinery 
 and other material. The most interesting develop- 
 ment of this sort is a project now under way for 
 transmitting 44,000 volts of electrical energy from 
 a waterfall about 120 feet high to Kabul, the 
 capital, situated about 40 miles away. . . . This 
 hydroelectric scheme will cost between $500,000 
 and $600,000 when completed, about 5;300,ooo be- 
 ing for machinery and materials. The water 
 power will be used for distributing cheap electrical 
 energy to the pun factory, shoe factory, projected 
 woolen mill, and other industries at Kabul, under 
 control of the Government of the .Ameer; also for 
 electric lighting of the royal palace, other resi- 
 dences. Government offices and street lighting 
 The machinery and material, including switches, 
 generators, steel towers, and copper-covered steel 
 wires, arc being imported chiefly from the United 
 States. The development should particularly bene- 
 fit the industries of Kabul, which have been handi- 
 capped by the excessive cost of fuel. There are 
 no coal mines in the country, and wood is scarce; 
 for factories at Kabul wood has to be carried 
 many miles on hacks of camels. . . . The difficulty 
 of transporting the machinery and ironwork 
 through Khyber Pass and over almost impassable 
 roads to Kabul is delaying the project, which may 
 require several years to complete. The attempt 
 to use motor lorries imported for this purpose 
 failed, owing to the bad condition of the road 
 to Kabul, and it is only by use of elephants 
 that the heavy and bulky articles required can 
 reach Kabul." — H. D. Baker, British India, pp. 543- 
 
 .■;44- 
 
 1915-1916. — Maintenance of neutrality during 
 the war. — "The .Amir of .Afghanistan m.iintained 
 his neutrality in the great war, and the principal- 
 ity did not become involved in the troubles of 
 Persia. At the end of iqi6 information was pub- 
 lished concerning a German mission sent to .Af- 
 ghanistan in the previous year. It appears that 
 the Emperor William had sent a German officer, 
 Lieutenant von Hentig, accompanied by certain 
 
 Indian revolutionaries who had resided in Berliii, 
 on a mis.-ion to the Amir, with the object of in- 
 ducing him to attack India. The members of the 
 mission had succeeded in making their way 
 through Persia, by breaking up into small parties, 
 and they had remained in .Afghanistan nearly a 
 year. Nevertheless, the Amir had refused the 
 Turko-German proposals, and after the mission 
 left Afghanistan in May, 1916, some of the 
 members were captured by the Russians and 
 British as they were trying to get back to 
 Turkey. 
 
 "On November 29 an interesting statement was 
 made by Mr. Chamberlain on the failure of a Ger- 
 man mission to .Afghanistan. The mission, he 
 said, consisted of two Indian anarchists, a party 
 of German officers and some Turks. The prin- 
 cipal German Officer was the bearer of a letter 
 from the German Chancellor to the Amir, in 
 which the latter was invited to advise how best 
 India might be liberated from British tyranny. 
 The party were arrested on their arrival in Af- 
 ghanistan and eventually conducted to Kabul 
 where the Amir and his people quickly appraised 
 them at their true value. .At the outbreak of the 
 war the .Amir had given the Viceroy the most 
 solemn assurances of his intention to preserve 
 neutrality, and Mr. Chamberlain acknowledged 
 with great satisfaction the loyalty he had shown 
 to his pledged word." — Annual Register, igio, pp. 
 
 200, 192. 
 
 1919. — Assassination of the Amir. — Accession 
 of his son. — Attack on India. — On February 20, 
 iQio, Habibullah Khan, .Amir of Afghanistan, 
 otherwise known as Siraj-ul-Millat-Wad-din, WuS 
 assassinated in his camp in the Jelallabad district. 
 .As soon as this became known, Nasrullah Khan, 
 brother of Habibullah. had himself proclaimed 
 ■Amir, after forcing the submission of the late 
 monarch's two older sons. His reign was exceed- 
 ingly brief, however, for .Amanullah Khan (born 
 1892), third son of Habibullah, who had man 
 aged to get control of the treasury and of the 
 military supplies immediately after his father's 
 assassination, won over to his cause the nobles 
 and the soldiers, and thus simply secured the 
 throne for himself. For complicity in the death 
 of Habibullah, Nasrullah was condemned to life 
 imprisonment, the actual murderer. Colonel Shah 
 .Ali Raza being put to death, while a third person 
 said to be implicated shared the fate of Nasrullah. 
 The new amir found his jiosition very insecure 
 and sought to gain popularity at home by em- 
 barking on a war of aggression upon India. Hos- 
 tilities broke out early in May and ended with 
 a treaty of peace signed at Rawalpindi on .August 
 8. By this war all former treaties between Af- 
 ghanistan and Great Britain were cancelled and 
 the subsidy paid to former amirs was declared for- 
 feited, but the internal and external independence 
 of -Afghanistan was formally recognized by Great 
 Britain. 
 
 1920 (April-July). — Discussions were held at 
 Mussoorie, India, between British and Afghan 
 delegates with a view to a permanent treaty of 
 friendship. 
 
 1921. — Alliance with Russia.— Shortly after the 
 accession of .Amanullah an .Afghan mis.sion was 
 sent to Moscow to establish relations with Soviet 
 Russia. The negotiations developed into a treaty 
 of .Alliance concluded Feb. 28, 1021. A few days 
 later a solemn reception was held at the Afghan 
 embassy in Moscow to celebrate the anniversary 
 of Afghan independence. Two representatives of 
 the People's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs were 
 present, also a delegation of the Turkish National 
 
 84
 
 APRANIUS 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 Assembly and members of the regular Turkish 
 Delegation, representatives of the Persian embassy, 
 the Khiva and Bokhara missions, and representa- 
 tives of Esthonia, Latvia, Finland, etc. 
 
 AFRANIUS, Lucius, Roman general. Lived 
 
 about the period of the third Mithridatic War 
 (74-61 B.C.). Consul in 60 B.C.; governor of 
 Cisalpine Gaul in 59 B. C. Assisted Pompey 
 against Csesar, sustaining a severe defeat at Ilerda 
 (49 B.C.). 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 The name Africa was originally applied by the 
 Romans to part of the southern shore of the 
 Mediterranean in the vicinity of Carthage, but 
 later extended to include the entire continental 
 mass e.ttending southwest from Eurasia; the 
 second largest of the world's great land divisions, 
 by far the greater part of which lies within the 
 tropics. See Libyans. 
 
 GEOGRAPHIC DESCRIPTION 
 
 General features. — "The comparative uniform- 
 ity of the Continent of Africa, and the fact of its 
 having been so repellent to the intervention of 
 white races reared in temperate latitudes, can to 
 a large extent be accounted for by comparing the 
 lie of Africa with that of the other continents. It 
 lies almost evenly balanced on each side of the 
 equator, between about 40^ north and 40° south. 
 The equinoctial line which passes through its 
 centre does not touch the Euro-Asiatic continent. 
 . . . While the climate of the southern shores of 
 Europe is very similar to that of the Mediterra- 
 nean coast of Africa, and while the southern pen- 
 insulas of Asia are purely tropical, every variety 
 of climate is found between that and the ice- 
 bound shores of Siberia. In the other hemisphere, 
 while the feet of the North American continent 
 are laved by the warm waters of the Gulf Stream, 
 its head is almost within hail of the North Pole. 
 . . . Africa, then, is the tropical continent par 
 excellence. Of its total area some two-thirds, al- 
 most 8,000,000 square miles, lie between the trop- 
 ics, and have the sun vertical twice a year, while 
 the rest of the Continent is more or less sub- 
 tropical; so that, so far as climate goes, the 
 popular conception is not far wrong Even of 
 America only about one-third of the land is within 
 the tropics. . . . But there are other geographical 
 factors to be taken into account, which modify the 
 general effects of latitude, partly mitigating, partly 
 intensifying them. We have seen how Africa lies 
 compared with the situation of other continents. 
 What about its relation to the great water-mass of 
 the globe ? We lind its southern shores looking 
 out upon the Antarctic, a long way off; from its 
 western shores the broad Atlantic bears away 
 without obstruction, and nothing intervenes be- 
 tween its eastern coast and the genial influence of 
 the Indian Ocean. The northern and north-east- 
 ern coasts of the Continent are much less fortu- 
 nately situated, only the narrow waters of the 
 Mediterranean and the Red Sea separate Africa 
 from the vast land-mass of Europe and Asia." — 
 J. S. Keltic, Partition of Africa, p. 460. 
 
 Coastline. — "Though Africa is more than three 
 times the size of Europe, and although it is prac- 
 tically an island while Europe has an extensive 
 land frontier, the coast-line of Africa measures 
 only about 15,000 miles in length, while that of 
 Europe is iq.ooo miles. A glance at a map of the 
 world will show how this marked difference arises. 
 There is not a single indentation on the coast of 
 Africa worthy of the name; the coast-line all 
 round looks like a barrier to keep back the benefi- 
 cent advances of the ocean. . . . There is noth- 
 
 ing in the whole round of the African coast to 
 compare on the one hand with the gieat sea-arms 
 and magnificent natural harbours that mark the 
 west coast of Europe, nor with the richly broken 
 Atlantic coast of North America on the other. 
 There is only one estuary of real magnitude on 
 the whole continent, that of the Congo; hence 
 partly the great hopes entertained of the future 
 of that river. Such second-rate harbours as those 
 of Delagoa Bay and Mombasa are reckoned valu- 
 able possessions in Africa, for which nations 
 struggle. This monotonous outline of the African 
 coast acts disadvantageously in two ways from 
 the point of view of European enterprise. In the 
 first place, the lack of deep oceanic indentations 
 deprives the great bulk of the Continent of the 
 beneficent influences which contiguity to the sea 
 brings with it; and in the second place, it de- 
 prives the enterprising navigator and trader of 
 ready highways to the interior. Thus the mere 
 character of the contour of the coast has con- 
 tributed to retard the development of the Conti- 
 nent. At the same time, let us recall the fact that 
 the spread of railways over the Continent would 
 tend greatly to counteract the commercial disad- 
 vantages arising from the lack of deep arms of 
 the sea, navigable rivers, and natural harbours. 
 Railways are the great levellers, shattering old 
 geographical traditions, and tending to place all 
 continents on an equal footing, so far as communi- 
 cations are concerned." — Ibid., pp. 463-464. 
 
 Mountains and plateaus. — "Passing from the 
 contour of the coast-line to the configuration of 
 the surface of the Continent, we find here again 
 certain characteristics which distinguish Africa 
 from all the other continents, except perhaps Aus- 
 tralia, which might have been as far behind in 
 civilisation as Africa had its latitude been different. 
 The surface of Africa is nearly as monotonous as 
 its outline. There is only one mountain range 
 worthy of the name, that of the Atlas, which ex- 
 tends along the northern rim of the Continent 
 from Tunis to the Atlantic coast of Morocco. . . . 
 But when all is put together the really mountain- 
 ous regions of Africa amount to little compared 
 with the great size of the Continent. We have 
 nothing in Africa that can compare in compara- 
 tive mass and extent with the Alps, the Pyrenees, 
 the Apennines, the Carpathians, the Scandinavian 
 ranges, in Europe, not to mention the Himalayas, 
 the stupendous ranges of Central .\sia. . . . This 
 lack of great mountain ranges upon the African 
 Continent must be regarded as another serious 
 drawback to its economical development, since it 
 markedly affects its rainfall and the distribution 
 of its water supply. ... In a general way the 
 composition of the soil of Africa is favourable 
 enough to the varied requirements of humanity; 
 its great want is water. 
 
 "It is a striking fact that, notwithstanding the 
 paucity of great mountain ranges in .Africa as com- 
 pared with Europe and Asia, the general mean 
 elevation of the former is greater than in either 
 of the latter. . . . This reveals to us the great 
 characteristic feature of the surface of Africa, that 
 of a high plateau, descending almost everywhere 
 
 85
 
 AFRICA 
 
 Climate 
 Early Races 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 in terraces to the coast. ... All round the coast 
 is seen a strip varying in breadth, but generally 
 comparatively narrow, of not more than 500 feet 
 in height. But the great bulk of the Continent is 
 a plateau of from 500 to 2000 feet, much nearer 
 to the latter than the former. ... In Africa, in 
 short, the relief of the land, instead of being con- 
 centrated in one or two enormous mountain 
 ranges, has been spread over the Continent with 
 wonderful equality. The practical importance of 
 the plateau character of the surface of .'\frica will 
 be apparent when the influence of latitude in 
 modifying temperature is i:ept in view. . . . The 
 mean annual isotherm of 80° is in the north al- 
 most coincident with the Tropic of Cancer, and 
 on the south enters at the Guinea Coast, but 
 sweeps so abruptly south as to include the bulk 
 of Africa south of the equator. These are enor- 
 mous average temperatures to embrace a conti- 
 nent; no other land-mass has anything like them. 
 . . . More trying even than this, according to 
 many reliable authorities, is the excessive varia- 
 tion of temperature between day and night. The 
 difference between summer and winter tempera- 
 ture in some parts of Africa is very great. . . . 
 Such a difference can be provided for. But when 
 there is a sudden lowering of the temperature at 
 sundown in a tropical or subtropical moisture- 
 laden atmosphere it is apt to tell severely on the 
 European constitution. . . . These are a few of 
 the advantages and disadvantages of the plateau 
 character of Tropical .-Vfrica, so far as concerns 
 the influence of the climate on the European con- 
 stitution. It entails, however, still another ob- 
 stacle to free commercial enterprise. The plateau, 
 which prevails almost everywhere, slopes down 
 in terraces more or less rapidly to the coast, and 
 down these terraces the rivers from the interior 
 must make their way with the result that we fmd 
 the courses of the Nile, the Niger, the Congo, the 
 Zambezi, more or less interrupted by cataracts. 
 These are a serious obstacle to navigation. For 
 tunately on the Niger the break occurs far up the 
 river, leaving a long, clear waterway, but on the 
 Congo we meet with some 200 miles of unnavi- 
 gable cataracts, beginning at about 150 miles 
 from the sea, and so cutting off from direct ac- 
 cess the 1000 miles of splendid waterway above, 
 which leads into the heart of .Africa. Had it not 
 been for this we cannot doubt that the Congo 
 would have been traced from below long before 
 Stanley's brilliant achievement from above. At 
 the same time, as has already been pointed out, 
 these geographical disadvantages can be almost 
 nullified by the construction of railways. No 
 doubt both in Europe and .America river-naviga- 
 tion is of importance but it is insignificant com- 
 pared with the importance of railway communica- 
 tion. In fact, the judicious introduction of rail- 
 ways would greatly enhance the value of the 
 African waterway." — J. S. Keltie, Partition of 
 Africa, pp. 464-468. 
 
 Climate. — "Prevailing winds have much to do 
 with temperature, and still more perhaps with 
 rainfall; and it is to be feared that here we touch 
 upon one of the weakest of Africa's many weak 
 points. On the east coast the prevailing winds 
 are towards the Continent, bringing with them a 
 fair supply of moisture, while farther south the 
 cold Benguela current will tend to diminish the 
 supply. The north-east trades just skirt the Sa- 
 hara coast, and do it little good, while the winds 
 that cross the Mediterranean and Red Sea have 
 already parted with most of their moisture to 
 the Euro-Asiatic land-mass, and what little re- 
 mains is, levied by the coast-lands. . . . Thus, 
 
 then, except in the centre of the Continent, ,in 
 Tropical Africa the rainfall is almost everywhere 
 inadequate for industrial operations; so that 
 where Europeans might settle, so far as tempera- 
 ture goes, the water-supply is defective. Even, 
 however, in the central belt, especially in East 
 .Africa, there are considerable areas of desert met 
 with, where the water-supply is almost nil. . . . 
 It is not surprising, then, to lind that the rivers 
 of Africa, with one exception, draw their supplies 
 from the centre of the Continent. . . . But as a 
 general rule, outside the tropical area, permanently 
 flowing water is rare. . . . Between the north of 
 the central belt and the Mediterranean coast, and 
 also over most of the northeast horn of Africa, is 
 found an area cither absolutely desert, or the 
 next stage to it — poor steppe, scrub, or other land 
 of a like nature. This area covers something like 
 4,000,000 square miles — one-third of the Conti- 
 nent. Of this about one-half is pure desert, the 
 veritable sandy Sahara. ... On the other side of 
 .Africa we find a strip of true desert along the 
 west coast from the Coanza to the Orange River. 
 This spreads out on the south of the Zambezi. 
 Over about two-thirds of South Africa, and ex- 
 tending well to the south of the Orange River, 
 we have the scrub or steppe characteristics known 
 in the Cape region as the Karroo." — J. S. Keltie, 
 Partition of Africa, pp. 475-476. 
 
 RACES OF AFRICA 
 
 Prehistoric peoples. — "There is no exact data 
 on the origin of the people of North Africa. The 
 men of the Stone Age have left numerous traces 
 in the country, and one finds everywhere, in 
 caves, a few arms and implements of flint. Many 
 stone implements and arms of various paleolithic 
 types, as well as neolithic hatchets have been 
 found in North .Africa, in Algeria (at TIemcen), 
 in south .Algeria (at El-Golea), up to Timbuctu. 
 Finally there is in Tunis (at Gafsa and in gen- 
 eral west of the Gulf of Gabes) a series of paleo- 
 lithic implements resembling very closely those of 
 Europe. The country bordering on the oasis of 
 Gafsa, at one time wooded, is now completelv 
 denuded and unfertile, and the desert plain and 
 mountains reveal the ancient flints level with the 
 ground. To the east of the oasis considerable 
 heaps of debris and stone chips can be seen at 
 intervals. These first inhabitants belong without 
 doubt to a race which came from the south, after 
 having been expelled from the desert. On the 
 other hand, everything conduces to the behef that 
 at that ancient time, North Africa was connected 
 to Europe by two large Iberian and Italian isth- 
 muses or peninsulas, and it is possible that all the 
 banks of the Mediterranean were inhabited by 
 the same race. 
 
 " 'Two human groups,' says Tissot, 'have, then, 
 at the most remote period, peopled the Atlantic 
 massif; one coming up from the Sahara toward 
 the north, the other descending from southern 
 Europe towards the south. Such seems to us to 
 be the first groundwork of the Berber race, and 
 since that time we distinguish by this the two 
 ethnic elements of which trace is found in the 
 traditions of the following ages, and also as found 
 in African anthropology, a brown European race, 
 and a brown Saharan race, fundamentally dis- 
 tinct from the black race.' To this foundation 
 the blond men were afterward added, who came 
 originally from the north of Europe, as well as 
 Iberians. The date of the invasion of the fair- 
 headed men is uncertain We can only say that 
 it is previous to the loth Egyptian dynasty. Be- 
 
 86
 
 AFRICA 
 
 Early Races 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 fore the igth dynasty, in fact, the inhabitants of 
 the west were represented on the Egyptian monu- 
 ments only by brown men, and after that time, 
 blond men are figured among them. It is cer- 
 tain that the blond race was of considerable im- 
 portance in all the Barbary coast. Even today one 
 discovers numerous types of blonds in Tunis and 
 in Algeria; in Morocco, about one-third of the 
 population is blond; the tribes which inhabit the 
 high regions of the Atlas are exclusively blond. 
 The Iberians penetrated into .'Africa at about the 
 same time. Tissot puts the invasion of the Iber- 
 ians after the European immigration, while re- 
 marking at the same time that in this matter it is 
 impossible to be certain, and that the question is 
 connected with that of the origin of the Iberians. 
 It is to them, according to the same author, that 
 we must attribute the state of civilisation as ad- 
 vanced as Egyptian documents establish, in the 
 north of Libya, at a time previous to the lirst 
 known oriental invasions. 
 
 "The principal thing to remember is that the 
 inhabitants of the north side of the Atlas alone 
 seem to have been intermingled with new ar- 
 rivals: one can see them modify themselves 
 little by little at their contact, while the 
 inhabitants of the southern side of the high 
 plateaux remain unchanged and just as one 
 finds them today. Among the people of the first 
 race, one must range, in going from west to east, 
 the Moors, the Numidians, and the Libyans. The 
 people of the second race have received the name 
 of Gaetulians and gave rise to the Zcnete and 
 Sanhadja Berbers, as well as to various Tuareg 
 tribes. Finally, the influence of peoples inhabiting 
 eastern Egypt and Africa on the population of 
 Barbary was without doubt considerable, although 
 not well defined. The Nefzaoua — inhabiting the 
 oasis of Djerid — have saved in their traditions the 
 memory of the Kouschite invasion, and the history 
 of Egypt, at that time, is intimately connected 
 with that of Barbary. Traces have been found 
 in Egyptian documents, of numerous expeditions 
 when cutlasses of bronze were taken from the 
 Libyans, as well as money, gold, silver, bows, 
 javelins and chariots. 
 
 "One may conclude, that since the 14th century 
 before Christ the Libyans had a civilisation and 
 industry. They already had hereditary kings and 
 had concluded alliances with the people of the 
 islands and with the Tyrians in particular. At 
 the other extremity of North Africa the Maure- 
 tanians appear to have arrived, at the same time, 
 at a certain degree of civilisation. We have no 
 exact data on the first inhabitants of North 
 Africa. . . . Herodotus, who has left us the first 
 historic data on North Africa, speaks only of the 
 inhabitants of the eastern part. The Latin and 
 Greek historians have left us some references to 
 these people. The Libyans are represented as 
 vigorous men and long-lived. They had white 
 skin, blue eyes, blond or chestnut hair and 
 beard, which were carefully curled in the 
 manner still used by the Amazigh of the Rif. 
 The headdress of the chiefs was surmounted by 
 two ostrich plumes. The costume of the Libyans 
 consisted of a piece of cloth or of cotton girding 
 the loins and of a dress of wool open the whole 
 length, the upper ends of which were simply 
 knotted on the left shoulder. They carried on 
 their heads a sort of round cap with a necker- 
 chief, like those still worn by women of certain 
 Tripolitan tribes today."— Tr. from V. Piquet, 
 Les civilisations de I'Ajrique du nord, pp. 1-6. — 
 See also Hamites: Hamitic languages; Uganda. 
 
 "They lived in huts formed of stakes holding 
 
 up woven rushes or stems of the asphodel. 'The 
 chiefs of the Libyans,' said Diodorus of Sicily, 
 'had no cities, but only, in the neighborhood of 
 the springs, towers in which they concealed their 
 riches.' Polybius represents them as leading a 
 most miserable existence across their woods and 
 plains. Those of the fertile regions lived on agri- 
 culture and obeyed their kings; the others lived 
 on brigandage and established themselves nowhere. 
 Their arms were sometimes a shield with two 
 sides, an axe, bows and arrows, sometimes a 
 round shield, three javelins and stones kept in a 
 leather bag. All these peoples sacrificed victims 
 to the sun or to the moon. They also worshipped 
 the old sovereigns, the guardian angels of the 
 cities. Each people had in addition, its particu- 
 lar god: it was Sinifere or Mastiman, Ifri or 
 Ifru, god of the caves, or Gurzil to whom human 
 sacrifices were made. Certain peoples offer in- 
 teresting peculiarities. The Mauretanians were 
 the most advanced. They dressed their hair with 
 care and carried jewels; they fought on horseback 
 with a long lance and swords, the infantry carry- 
 ing shields of elephant skin. 
 
 "The Nasamonians married several women, who 
 were not, however, held to fidelity. This people 
 honored the memory of the men who were dis- 
 tinguished by their justice and their valor. The 
 Nasamonians knew no other divinities than the 
 souls of the dead, swore by them and consulted 
 them like oracles. To that purpose they slept on 
 the tombs of their ancestors and regulated their 
 conduct according to the dreams that were sent 
 them. Certain Barbary tribes of the Sahara have 
 kept this custom. They sheltered themselves 
 among the rocks, and the first caves of the coun- 
 try of the Matmata were excavated by them. 
 Like the Nasamonians the Garamantes went about 
 almost nude, protected only by a shield of skin 
 and by long javelins. The Anceans distinguished 
 themselves by the arrangement of their hair, of 
 which one still finds examples among the Amazigh 
 of the Rif. Their women wore, besides their 
 tunic, an undergarment of goatskin, decorated with 
 a fringe. To the east of Cyrene, finally, the 
 tribes took the Egyptian customs. The Gaetu- 
 lians, who lived on the south side of the high 
 plateaux, remained sheltered from contact with the 
 people who invaded the neighboring regions at 
 different times. The origin of their name — from 
 which might be derived the name of certain 
 Berber tribes, the Guezzoula, for example — is not 
 known. Grouped in families, they wandered with- 
 out covering, in the train of their troops, wearing 
 nothing but a floating tunic and a cloak of skins 
 attached by a clasp. 
 
 "The question of the sepulchres of these people 
 is particularly interesting, and has given rise to 
 numerous works. One meets with tumuli, or 
 redjem, masses of stones, covering in general a 
 rudimentary sarcophagus formed of large slabs 
 of marble; dolmens, resembling those of other 
 Mediterranean regions and forming a funeral 
 chamber of variable size; and finally, some round 
 tombs which are called clwuclieis. The tumuli 
 are particularly numerous in Oran and in the 
 Hodna, the dolmens on the contrary, in the east 
 (ancient Numidia) ; they are unknown in the 
 Sahara. Nevertheless, one can conclude nothing 
 from the presence of these monuments as to the 
 origin of the populations, one cannot even date 
 them. It is certain only that some of them are 
 relatively recent, and that their structure was 
 maintained in Africa longer than the others." — 
 Tr. from V. Piquet, Les civilisations de I'Ajrique 
 du nord, pp. 1-6. — "The ancient world had really 
 
 87
 
 AFRICA 
 
 Modern Peoples 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 very little knowledge of the Dark Continent. 
 These facts about Africa they did know, however; 
 they had an almost correct idea of the bulk of 
 Africa, they knew lower and middle Egypt, the 
 Mediterranean and Atlantic shores, Cyrenaica to 
 Cape Jubi, and the shores of the Indian ocean 
 to Mozambique. But beyond some military pene- 
 tration of the desert and the marshes of the Nile, 
 they were never in direct touch with the black 
 races properly speaking. However, the Sahara 
 offers only a slight obstacle to relations between 
 the peoples who live on its borders. The entire 
 Sudan was thus open to the penetration, although 
 indirect, of the inventions and ideas inherited by 
 the Ethiopians through their contacts with the 
 Egyptians." — Tr. from O. Meynier, L'Afrique 
 noire, p. 69. — See also Mythology: African myth- 
 ology. 
 
 Modern peoples. — "Africa contains infinitely 
 diversified populations which could not be assimi- 
 lated, less because of different origin than because 
 of dissimilarity of social life and customs. Inter- 
 breeding is not rare, however, and one can even 
 foresee in the distant future the formation of a 
 purely African race, having well defined charac- 
 teristics, some of which one can almost predict 
 even now. But for the present it is still easy to 
 distinguish them from one another and to make 
 a very clear classification. According to a divi- 
 sion generally admitted (and one which does not 
 include the inhabitants of the lower valley of the 
 Nile, descendants of the ancient Egyptians), the 
 people of Africa may be divided into six great 
 classes: (i) The Berbers, (2) Arabs, (3) Fulas, 
 (4) Negroes, properly speaking, (5) Hottentots 
 and Bushmen, and (6) Europeans. 
 
 "Scientific research up to our day has not been 
 able to establish exactly whether the Berbers were 
 aboriginal inhabitants or whether the source of 
 their migration might not be referred to one of 
 those historic movements which, like the exodus of 
 the famous Hyksos (18th century B. C.) would 
 have led them from the centre of Asia to the 
 north of .\frica, passing through Egypt. The 
 Berbers inhabit the largest part of the regions 
 bordering on the Mediterranean west of Egypt. 
 In the desert they form the principal element of a 
 rather thin but very virile population. Finally 
 they meet and combine with the black element 
 on the southern border of the Sahara, from .Abys- 
 sinia to Senegal. Individuals of pure Berber types 
 are quite exceptional. In the north of the conti- 
 nent they were subjected to the influence of all 
 the invasions that succeeded one another in that 
 region, Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans, and Van- 
 dals have left on the Berbers visible traces of 
 their blood. But the deepest influence has been 
 exercised by the Arabs, who gave a great part of 
 their religion, their art, and in many cases, their 
 language itself to the Berbers The Moorish 
 tribes of the desert, above all the Tuaregs, seem, 
 as far as one can tell, to have better preserved 
 their individuality. The very constitution of a 
 nomad tribe, the spirit of independence which 
 animates it seem, in fact, to have enabled the 
 Berbers to protect themselves from foreign in- 
 fluences more easily than the non-migratory or- 
 ganizations of the north However, the Arabs 
 were still able to establish their influence, to give 
 their language as well as their religion to most of 
 the Moorish tribes of the west. In the south of 
 the Sahara, fre(|uent inter-breeding with the black 
 race occurred. Without counting the . . . rather 
 more mongrel types, combinations of Moors, 
 Tuaregs and negroes, there are peoples either 
 black or red, who by their type, sometimes even 
 
 by their name (Berberi, Berabras, etc.), have very 
 probably a Berber origin. 
 
 "There is much more knowledge on the origin 
 of the Arabs than on that of the Berbers. His- 
 tory and tradition show the Arabs, even before 
 the Hegira, crossing the same waters their sail- 
 ing vessels travel over in our day, and coming to 
 establish flourishing sultanates on the coast of 
 Zanzibar and of Mozambique. .After the death of 
 Mohammed, the Arabs, fired with the enthusiasm 
 of their faith, made a definite invasion of Africa. 
 At two different resumptions of the attack their 
 warlike tribes, issuing from Egypt, where one of 
 their most powerful empires was established, 
 spilled upon the African shores of the Mediter- 
 ranean. . . . The number of the conquerors was 
 relatively small, nevertheless the influence that 
 they exercised upon the original inhabitants was 
 considerable. The Berbers borrowed their civiliza- 
 tion, their art, their religion. Many of them even 
 renounced their own language for that of their 
 conquerors, and even today it is difficult to dis- 
 tinguish between pure Arabs and Arabic Berbers, 
 as Moslems everywhere have a strong tendency 
 to claim direct descent from the prophet or his 
 family. The .Arabs have found, in the valley of 
 the Nile, another route for their migrations. 
 Some of their tribes ascended to the sources of 
 the Nile planting their colonies on its banks ; 
 meeting near the great lakes the tribes from the 
 littoral of the Indian Ocean. Others finally pene- 
 trated the west, following the course of the Bahr- 
 el-Ghazal toward the Ouadai and the Bagirmi. 
 These last were crossed like the Berbers with the 
 original black population and of this mixture of 
 blood resulted the Chuas, who are found in great 
 numbers in Central Africa, showing by more deli- 
 cate features and slightly corrupted language their 
 Semitic origin. 
 
 "Of all the races of Africa, the Fulas have the 
 most uncertain and most controverted derivation. 
 The physical type, characterized by graceful struc- 
 ture and fine features, yellow or red skin, a lan- 
 guage altogether different and admirably homoge- 
 neous wherever spoken — all these attracted the at- 
 tention of scholars. . . . [There are several ex- 
 [jlanations of their origin, but none of them is 
 verifiable.] The Fulas are found in all Sudan 
 from rthe] Senegal to the Ouadai. They are, in 
 general, shepherds with little settlements here and 
 there. One finds some of them interested in let- 
 ters, some even scholars. They have produced, 
 particularly in the last century, a whole line of 
 distinguished statesmen and warriors. A remark- 
 able faculty for adapting themselves as easily as 
 possible to whatever conditions of climate, food, 
 and surroundings their travels and wars might 
 expose them to, has made the Fulas an object of 
 wonder. They frequently allied themselves with 
 the original black population ; the results of these 
 crosses have been new races which have all played 
 an important part in the history of Africa, and 
 which have preserved, for the most part, the lan- 
 guage and pastoral habits of the mother race. 
 
 "Considerations mainly of a philological nature 
 have induced geographers to refer back the whole 
 of the black population to a single type, which 
 would be the Banlii race. Unquestionably the 
 pure negroes of the Sudan, those of the equatorial 
 regions, and of eastern and southern Africa, pre- 
 sent among themselves some remarkable likenesses 
 in the matter of physique, and even of character, 
 institutions, customs and language. . . . But the 
 black race has not everywhere remained pure. In 
 particular on the southern border of the desert 
 (Sahara], Berbers, Arabs and Fulas are crossed 
 
 88
 
 AFRICA 
 
 Ancient Civilization 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 with them. Because ot a great power of absorp- 
 tion due to superior numbers, the negro has seemed 
 sometimes to efface the principal traits of the other 
 elements of the crossing. In reality, the superior 
 races have left their mark. Not only has the 
 physical type been modified, but their ciualities 
 of intelligence and of character have been influ- 
 enced by these accumulated inheritances. . . . The 
 primitive negro race lives, however, in many places. 
 The equatorial forests conceal in their depths some 
 miserable beings who, without material or moral 
 needs, live in a state of complete brutality. But 
 even numerically they form the exception and 
 French Senegalese aborigines speak of them con- 
 temptuously as 'savages.' The negroes are uni- 
 formly settled and mostly agricultural. There- 
 fore they are only met with in the desert oases. 
 Outside of the desert, in the neighborhood of Tan- 
 giers, especially, they are found up to the present 
 only in a state of slavery. When the Europeans, 
 after having rounded the coast of Africa, came 
 to establish colonies in Southern Africa, they 
 found there, settled alongside of the blacks, Kafirs 
 and Zulus, populations of a lighter color, yellow 
 or brown, of gentle and peaceable customs, cul- 
 tivating the land and raising flocks. They were 
 the HolteiUols. Departing soon to explore new 
 lands or fleeing in their ox-wagons before the at- 
 tacks of the English, the descendants of the Dutch 
 and French colonists, the Boers, advanced fur- 
 ther north where they met tribes of hunters, 
 Bushmen, living in the great plateaus of the north 
 and the extended deserts of Kalahari, on the un- 
 certain products of the chase — antelopes, giraffes 
 and ostriches. Today it is believed that the Hot- 
 tentots and Bushmen belong to a common family, 
 and a Malay-Polynesian origin is attributed to 
 them. To speak truly, this hypothesis rests on 
 very weak proofs, and the fact, reported by Prc- 
 ville, that the Hottentots claim to have descended 
 from individuals who had come from the East by 
 the sea, in 'great baskets,' constitutes but a feeble 
 argument in its favor." — Tr. from O. Meynier, 
 L'Ajrique noire, pp. 3q-4S. — Extensive European 
 settlements are in the main confined to Algeria 
 and South Africa, with beginnings in Brit- 
 ish East Africa. In most parts of the continent, 
 officials and traders form practically the only 
 European element. — See also Abyssinia. 
 
 ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL 
 CIVILIZATION 
 
 Development of Egyptian civilization. — "In 
 Africa, in the valley of the Nile, was born and 
 developed the most ancient civili/.ation of the west- 
 ern world. The Egyptians, who may have been 
 of African origin, were established at first in the 
 delta of the river, but moved later towards its 
 source, obeying the law imposed by nature on all 
 the masters of the lower valley of the Nile. 
 Under the Memphite emperors, Egyptian power 
 grew constantly and the city of Elephantine, on 
 the island of the same name, became the head- 
 quarters of trade with the Sudan. The Nubian 
 tribes acknowledged the sovereignty of Pharaoh: 
 visited by official missions in the time of Papi I, 
 they were colonized, and later under the first 
 Theban kings assimilated by the rest of Egypt. 
 The rapids of Wadi Haifa formed henceforth the 
 frontier of the empire. Commercial expeditions 
 attacked Barbary and under the eighteenth The- 
 ban dynasty, Ethiopia was conquered to Egyptian 
 customs. In the fourteenth century B. C, Egypt 
 extended her dominion south of the conjunction 
 of the White Nile and the Blue Nile, and over 
 
 the whole coast of the Red Sea. The great queen 
 Hatsheput even sent a commercial expedition to 
 obtain incense in the fabulous country of Pouanit 
 (probably the coast of SomaLiland). Egyptian 
 dominion was not to progress any further. The 
 old empire exhausted itself in opposing attacks 
 from Asia. Egypt was conquered first by the 
 Assyrians, then by the Persians. She sent fewer 
 vessels to the islands of the /Egean Sea, but re- 
 ceived at her ports those of the Phoenicians and 
 the Greeks. The Greeks established themselves 
 in the cities of the Delta. Certain of the cities, 
 Miletus in particular, founded sizable colonies 
 there. In the seventh century B. C. Greek in- 
 fantry fought on the side of Psammetichus I for 
 the liberty of Egypt, and from that time on the 
 merchants from the North exercised a considerable 
 growing influence on the ancient empire of the 
 Pharaohs without ever being either loved or un- 
 derstood. They respected, however, the glory of 
 her past, attested by her magnificent monuments, 
 and the mysterious science of her priests. Alex- 
 ander never took the trouble to conquer P^gypt 
 and make her adore him. As the situations of 
 Thebes, Sais, and Memphis did not satisfy actual 
 commercial needs, he established, opposite the 
 Island of Pharos, at the town of Rakottis, a city 
 to which he gave his name (332 B C). At the 
 death of the conqueror, Egypt, with Lybia and 
 Arabia, was willed to Ptolemy Soter. This was a 
 period of remarkable prosperity. 'Alexander was 
 the centre of the world's commerce and Egyptian 
 vessels went from the coasts of India and of 
 Ethiopia to Italy and Spain and into the sea.' " — 
 Tr. from R. Ronze, La question d'Afrique. — See 
 also Carthage; Egypt; Libyans; Numidians, 
 
 Carthaginian empire. — Since about 813 B.C. 
 another empire had grown up on the coast of 
 Africa. The great Phoenician colony of Car- 
 thage had established its authority over a great 
 territory, occupying part of Tunis and Tripoli. 
 And, in her turn, she had established her colonics 
 on the edge of the Mediterranean. Overcoming 
 the distance which separated her from the Atlan- 
 tic, she had sent her vessels to trade with the 
 Canaries and the coast of Morocco. The pros- 
 perity of African Carthage, her maritime triumph 
 and her conquests which led her to the gates of 
 Rome caused her downfall. There was no room 
 in the ancient world for two powerful cities." — 
 Tr. from R. Ronze, La question d'Afrique. — See 
 also Carthage, 
 
 Carthage after Justinian's conquest. See 
 Carthage: 534-558. 
 
 Roman occupation. — "The feeling in Rome that 
 Carthage had to be destroyed led in 146 B. C. to 
 the capture and destruction of the great Punic 
 city by Scipio. The Carthaginian territory was 
 
 reduced to a Roman province Beyond that, 
 
 extended the territories of Mauretania and Nu- 
 midia, which Scipio was careful to separate from 
 the province directly under the supervision of 
 Rome. After the battle of Thapsus (46 B. C), 
 Cjesar extended the limits of Roman Africa by 
 including Numidia. ... In the year 30 B. C. at 
 the death of Cleopatra, the race of Lagides being 
 extinct, Egypt was reduced to the position of a 
 province. [Sec also Egypt: 30 B. C.l. Finally 
 Mauretania, given by Augustus to Juba 11, was 
 retaken in 40 A. D. by Caligula from the son of 
 that prince and incorporated in the Empire. Latin 
 civilisation penetrated largely into the Roman 
 provinces of Africa: Egypt, Cyrenaica, Numidia 
 and Mauretania, that is to say in all of northern 
 Africa save in Morocco, where it was halted by 
 the desert of Malva. The Arabs themselves were 
 
 89
 
 AFRICA 
 
 Roman Occupation 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 struck by the size and the number of the ruins, 
 and they said when showing them to those they 
 called the Rourais (from Rome, properly Roman- 
 Arab name for Christian) 'Vour ancestors be- 
 lieved then that they would never die!' The role 
 that Roman Africa played in the Empire was 
 great. She was not only Italy's granary, but she 
 also furnished the Empire with raw army recruits 
 as well as with the emperors: Septimus-Severus, 
 Albinus, and Macrinus. From Hadrumetum 
 came the great jurist Salvus Julianus who under 
 Hadrian revised the law of the provinces ; and 
 the church of Africa can pride itself on the great 
 names of Tertullian, Minutius Felix, Saint Cyprian, 
 Arnobus, Finnianus, Lactantius and Saint Augus- 
 tine. 'The Roman Empire fell in 420 under the 
 attack of the X'andals. During a century from 
 42g to 520, the barbarian vandal submerged Af- 
 rica. Reconquered by Belisarius and the patriarch 
 Solomon, 'from TripoUtania to the confines of 
 CcBsarian Mauretania, from the sea to the region 
 of the lakes of Algeria and from Tunis to the 
 mountains of Aurcs and the plateaux of Hodna, 
 the ancient province of Africa recognised (in 5,50) 
 the dominion of the very pious emperor Jus- 
 tinian.'" — Tr. ' from R. Ronze, La question 
 d'Ajrique. — See also Carthage; Founding of. 
 
 "Inscriptions innumerable bear ample testimony 
 to the condition of the .\frican population at this 
 period, and monumental remains, which still greet 
 the traveller in some of the less trodden parts of 
 this fair land, bear ample evidence of the pres- 
 ence of large communities enjoying the full bene- 
 fits of civilised life. If we turn to inscriptions 
 relating to municipal life, we find that obedience 
 to ruling authority and loyalty to the Emperor 
 are seldom wanting. The discipline which was 
 maintained in Rome till the fall of the Western 
 Empire was equally potent in the provinces. We 
 find the same degrees of magistracy, the same 
 laws so adjusted as not to press too heavily on 
 the old-world traditions of native races, the same 
 gods and ranks of priesthood, and the same public- 
 minded spirit which prompted Roman citizens in 
 all parts of the Empire to ennoble the country of 
 their adoption by works of munificence or general 
 utility. . . . 
 
 "Allusion has been made to Carthage and Cirta 
 as the great centres of scholarship, proving as at- 
 tractive to students in literature and philosophy 
 as the university towns of our own day in Great 
 Britain or other European countries. A long roll 
 of names, mostly bearing the stamp of Italian 
 origin, has been transmitted to us by various con- 
 temporary writers. Some of these distinguished 
 African scholars were descendants of settlers in 
 the early days of colonisation, and may fairly lay 
 claim to be classed as Africans; while others were 
 of a rambling order, passing from Athens or 
 Corinth, Alexandria or Rome, to take part in some 
 educational movement, or to exhibit their skill in 
 some school of rhetoric or philosophy. The inti- 
 mate commercial relations between Carthaginians 
 and Greeks, prior to the Roman occupation, tended 
 to the spread of Hellenism in the coast tou'ns of 
 North Africa ; while the establishment of Greek 
 merchants in the chief cities of Numidia gave an 
 impetus to the general use of Greek among the 
 better educated classes. ... At a still later period, 
 under the .Antonines, Greek was the accepted lan- 
 guage of the coast towns. Latin had made little 
 progress, and the Punic tongue largely prevailed 
 among the peasantry and labouring classes. . . . 
 "The stamp of originality impressed upon so 
 many literary creations in North Africa is con- 
 spicuous by its absence in all that relates to the 
 
 artistic products of the country. . . . The reason 
 for this absence of artistic proclivities is not far 
 to seek. The line arts never flourished at Car- 
 thage, and certainly every exploration, either on 
 the site of the city itself or the numerous emporia 
 on the coast, favours this statement. As a tributary 
 of Egypt for a long period the Carthaginians, in 
 spite of their wealth and power, were satisfied 
 with borrowing from their master the skilled prod- 
 ucts of a neighbouring country. And in later 
 years, when Carthage had to contend with Greeks 
 in the fair island of Sicily, resplendent with 
 temples and palaces, embellished with sculpture of 
 the best . period of Greek art, and rich in works 
 of jewellery and specimens of the plastic art, 
 Hellenism exercised an irresistible attraction, tes- 
 tified in a measure by Carthaginian coins which 
 have been transmitted to us almost as perfect as 
 on the day when they were minted. "These two 
 consecutive influences, Egyptian and Greek, have 
 left their mark on the numerous remains which 
 may still be studied in the galleries of the Louvre 
 or in the museum on Carthage hill, where deco- 
 rative forms associated with Egyptian and Hel- 
 lenic art may be seen side by side. . . . 
 
 "The difficulties which beset the Romans in their 
 career of conquest, at the close of the second 
 Punic war, arose in a great measure from the 
 general configuration of the country, which seemed 
 fatal also to the native races in their attempts to 
 expel the invader. The three zones of the country, 
 separated by high mountains, never impassable, 
 but presenting natural difficulties in the transport 
 of large bodies of disciplined troops, may be said 
 to represent three distinct regions. On the north 
 was the broad stretch of sea — the Mare saevum 
 which, for so many generations, proved an in- 
 superable barrier to Roman advancement, and on 
 the south the sea of sand — the mysterious desert 
 stretching across the equator, and unfit for habi- 
 tation by European races. To these peculiar fea- 
 tures of North Africa may be attributed the par- 
 tial success which attended the rising of frontier 
 and desert tribes at all periods of the Roman 
 occupation, fully sufficient to account for diffi- 
 culties experienced by the Roman legions in sup- 
 pressing a long series of tribal revolts. Till the 
 time of Trajan, colonisation by the Latin race 
 was confined mostly to the towns already peopled 
 by Carthaginians or the descendants of old Phoe- 
 nician traders. The accession of this princely 
 ruler marks a starting-point in the history of 
 Roman .Africa. Under the twelve Caesars prog- 
 ress had been checked by the almost insuperable 
 difficulties attending the invasion of an unknown 
 country, peopled by races whose habits of life 
 and methods of warfare had nothing in common 
 with the more advanced civilisation of the people 
 of Italy, and the islands under Roman domina- 
 tion. Trajan seems to have been born at the 
 right time. His noble bearing and distinguished 
 generalship, coupled with administrative abilities 
 of a high order, roused the enthusiasm of his sub- 
 jects to a degree unknown since the days of 
 .Augustus. The African provinces reaped a full 
 share of benefits from the career of such a ruler. 
 Colonisation was attended with marked success. 
 Cities and towns sprang up at the Emperor's bid- 
 ding. Native tribesmen found themselves un- 
 molested, their forms of religion and habits of 
 life undisturbed, and encouragement given to a 
 free interchange of commercial products. Under 
 the Antonincs the good work still progressing, was 
 checked for a time under the strong hand of 
 Septimius Severus. 
 "It is difficult to ascertain from the latest Latin 
 
 90
 
 AFRICA 
 
 Arab Occupation 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 authors, or from Byzantine and Arab writers, 
 whether the boundaries of Roman administration 
 were definitely tixea, and whether the subjugation 
 of the country was ever regarded as complete. 
 Fortunately, archaeology comes to our aid. . . . 
 The remains of a clearly defined line of fortresses 
 and military posts stretching across the mountain 
 ranges of the Tell, and along the desert frontier 
 from Cyrene to the confines of Western Maure- 
 tania, bear ample testimony to the nature of the 
 defensive measures adopted by the Romans against 
 invasion from the west and south, and to a feel- 
 ing of insecurity in the presence of native races so 
 little desirous of cultivating more civilised ways 
 of life. Till the close of the Empire these fron- 
 tier strongholds were mostly occupied by veterans, 
 whose services to the State in limes of raid or in- 
 surrection are recorded in several inscriptions still 
 extant. From the time, of their lirst encounter 
 with the Berbers of the hill country or the rude 
 warriors from the desert, the Romans must have 
 recognised the almost insuperable difficulties in 
 waging irregular warfare with unorganised tribes, 
 having no seat of government and no settled habi- 
 tations — here to-day and gone to-morrow, the hills- 
 man secure in some inaccessible mountain retreat, 
 the man of the desert lost to sight in a whirlwind 
 of sand as he scampered across his trackless do- 
 main. This sense of insecurity seems to have 
 been never absent from the Roman mind, and 
 was particularly apparent at a late period of the 
 Empire, when Diocletian attached the province of 
 Muritania Tingitana to the diocese of Spain, as 
 a means of checking the piratical raids of Moorish 
 corsairs on both shores of the Mediterranean It 
 was also indicated by the unusual authority given 
 to the commander of the legion in Africa, who, 
 from the time of Caligula, received his orders di- 
 rect from the Emperor, and exercised more power 
 than the governor of the province. Exceptional 
 circumstances demanded exceptional forms of gov- 
 ernment, and the defensive measures found neces- 
 sary for the protection of large communities en- 
 joying all the privileges of civilised life redound 
 to the credit of the Roman world; yet, looking 
 back at the six centuries of work accomplished by 
 the Romans in their attempt to make North 
 Africa a prolongation of Italy, one is forced to 
 admit that the subjugation of the country was 
 never complete, and that the native races were 
 never conquered 
 
 "The climatic condition and the general aspect. 
 of the country in the early days of Roman occu- 
 pation were much as they are in our own time, 
 except, perhaps, on the southern frontiers over- 
 looking the great desert. But with the develop- 
 ment of Roman civilisation a new order of things 
 changed the face of the land. Recognising the 
 value of natural resources, and bending the ele- 
 ments to his indomitable will in the service of 
 mankind, the Roman colonist controlled the water- 
 courses, constructed gigantic reservoirs to meet 
 the necessities of a thirsty soil, encouraged for- 
 estry, and converted a region of desolation into 
 a garden of cultivation. And this is amply borne 
 out in the statements of Arab authors of the 
 seventh century, who are profuse in their praise 
 of the fair land which had fallen into their hands. 
 From Carthage to Tangier, stretching a thousand 
 miles from east to west, the whole country was 
 clothed with timber, and in many parts of the 
 south, olive woods were so dense that you could 
 travel from village to village under a roof of 
 foliage. It may be asserted, with an equal show 
 of truth, that the condition of North Africa as a 
 colony in the present day, and in full recognition 
 
 of the enlightened policy of the French, as masters 
 of the larger portion, bears a strong resemblance 
 to that which prevailed under the broad but 
 sterner rule of the Roman Emperors. We hear 
 of the same occasional disturbances on the fron- 
 tiers, the same forced submission of the hill tribes, 
 the same difficulties in guarding the outposts from 
 the dangers of tribal revolt, and the same racial 
 antagonism to the methods and habits of civilisa- 
 tion. The Libyan gave place to the Phoenician as 
 a commercial necessity, and surrendered the com- 
 mand of the coast without appeal to arms or the 
 sacrifice of human life. The Carthaginian, in his 
 turn, converted the factories and storehouses of 
 his ancestors into temples and palaces, and a coun- 
 try of traders became the most formidable nation 
 of the old world." — A. Graham, Roman Africa, 
 pp. 207-307. 
 
 Arab occupation. — Relations with Europe. — 
 Effects of Arab influence. — "During the great 
 offensive movement of Islam at the beginning of 
 the 7th century, the Arabs penetrated into Egypt 
 (638) ; and she succumbed in 641. A first assault 
 upon the Byzantine province permitted the Mus- 
 sulman cavalry to ravage Byzacene after having 
 conquered and killed the patriarch Gregory, who 
 had himself proclaimed emperor of Carthage be- 
 fore he fled from the invaders About 665, the 
 conquest was repeated. A great battle before 
 Tiaret gave the Arabs the chance to break the 
 resistance of the Berbers, and to penetrate to the 
 Atlantic Carthage, taken for the first time in 
 bpS; delivered in 6g7 by the patriarch John, was 
 lost forever in 6q8. In 7oq Count Julian handed 
 over Septem Fratrcs (Ccuta), the last Byzantine 
 citadel, to the Arabs. [See also Caliphate: 647- 
 709.] The Arabs did not stop at the sea. Under 
 . . . Barbar Tarik, lieutenant to , Mussa-ben- 
 Noceir, they crossed over near the place where Gib- 
 raltar stancis (Djcbel Tarik) and conquered Spain 
 In 718 they crossed the Pyrenees and penetrated 
 into Gaul. The victory of Charles Martel at Poi- 
 tiers (732) stopped their progress. They returned 
 over the Pyrenees, but kept Spain. Separated 
 from Europe, Mohammedan Spain went on re- 
 ceiving African rulers at different intervals dur- 
 ing four centuries. While the Christian redemp- 
 tion (reconquicta) was being carried out, the 
 great sovereigns ot Morocco were often called to 
 the aid of the Spanish Mohammedans attacked by 
 the infidels, Vousscf-bcn-Tachfin, founder of the 
 d\nasty of the .Mmohadcs, defeated Alphonse VI, 
 king of Castille and Leon at Zailarca in 1086 and 
 subdued Spain .Abd-el-Moumen (1130-1163) 
 reigned over southern Spain and over all of North 
 .Africa from Tangiers to Barka. He drove from 
 Africa those Sicilian Normans who under the 
 leadership of Roger II, had from 1143 to 1148 
 conquered all the country which extends from 
 Tripoli to the neighborhood of Tunis and from the 
 sea to Kairwan (1160). His grandson, Yacoub- 
 el-Mansour (1184-1108) took Madrid. But in the 
 13th century, the decadence began. The Almohad 
 Empire fell and from its ruins the three kingdoms 
 of Fez, of TIemcen and of Tunis, were born. The 
 African offensive on Europe was stopped, and 
 during nearly a century, friendly relations were 
 established between the commercial towns of south- 
 ern France, Spain, Italy, and Northern Africa. 
 Even in the time of the Almohades, Marseilles, 
 Pisa, and Genoa had signed treaties of commerce 
 by which, by paying certain customs duties 
 (about lo'/'^), the Christians could unload their 
 merchandise in certain ports where a strip of 
 land outside the walls was conceded to them, a 
 strip known to them as the factory on which they 
 
 91
 
 AFRICA 
 
 Arab Influence 
 European Occupation 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 could build their warehouses and a chapel near 
 which they buried their dead. From the 12 th to 
 the 14th centuries, Venice, Florence, Majorca and 
 Barcelona came to the same arrangements with 
 the three old commercial cities. At the foot of 
 the eastern Mediterranean, Alexandria in Egypt 
 was then, as in ancient times, a great port, a link 
 between the East and the West. Whatever hor- 
 ror may have been inspired by the Sultan of 
 Egypt, the Christians lived in peace with him 
 ever since they had felt the power of his arms in 
 the Holy Land, and since Louis IX, after the 
 disastrous defeat of Mansural (February, 1250; 
 had had to pay him ransom. . . . The other pow- 
 ers continued their peaceful commerce with 
 Africa. But they were not slow to realize the 
 effect of the decadence of the empires of Northern 
 Africa. As the kings were in no position to police 
 the seas, the Barbary pirates began their fruitful 
 operations, and soon they were dreaded by all 
 sailors. Captive Christians could be found in 
 great numbers in all the cities. . . . The coasts of 
 North Africa had then not ceased to be frequented 
 by Europeans in the Middle Ages. Intercourse 
 between Mohammedan rulers of Africa and Euro- 
 pean kings had been frequent, often warlike, but 
 now and then friendly. But although North 
 Africa was rather well known, as maps would 
 testify, on the other hand Europe was ignorant of 
 almost all of dark Africa at least until the end of 
 the ijth century." — Ibid., pp. 307-308. — "I^et us 
 recapitulate . . . the exposition ... of the Ara- 
 bian attempts at colonization in black Africa. 
 We have seen, on one hand, real colonies, in the 
 modern sense of the word, founded by organized 
 states, Morocco or .Arabia, for the well determined 
 purpose of exploiting the gold of the Niger, or 
 the ivory of eastern Africa. For a certain time, 
 these colonies enjoyed a certain prosperity. As 
 long as the relations with the central government 
 limited the authority of the governors and the 
 first colonists were fortified by the arrival of new 
 blood, the enterprise was, although with difficulty, 
 kept up. But, as soon as the colonies gained their 
 independence through the decadence of the mother 
 country, when the merchants and soldiers who 
 were the support of the administration no longer 
 felt any check upon their cupidity or their thirst 
 for blood, the whole edifice of civilization was 
 upset. Social disorganization followed political 
 anarchy. The civilization of the day before pre- 
 ceded a return to barbarism. The dominant race 
 itself had been slowly but surely absorbed by the 
 greater virility and numbers of the aborigines; 
 who also, in spite of the general work of destruc- 
 tion resulting from these crises, were unable to 
 return to their former depths of barbarity. Else- 
 where, .Arab tribes, or at least tribes that had been 
 arabized (Ouled-Sliman), nomads of the western 
 Sahara, .^rabs of the valley of the Nile, had tried 
 to establish their authority over the settled people 
 who were their neiehbors. But, lacking any strong 
 base of operations, and induced by thqir spirit of 
 independence to oppose any degree of centraliza- 
 tion, their work, based on force, could lead only 
 to destruction and anarchy Before centralized 
 states (Bornu, Bagirmi, Ouadai) Ihey were help- 
 less. At times they have been subjucatrd, re- 
 duced to vassalage; finally in all probability they 
 were absorbed by the Sudanese. . . . But, before 
 states in the process of formation, or even of de- 
 composition, these tribes could exercise all the re- 
 sources of their warlike and destructive spirit 
 The Kanem, cradle of ancient societies, had been 
 ruined. The rich countries of the Senegal were 
 sacked by their Moorish invaders. Sometimes we 
 
 see that direct contacts of the .\rab race with the 
 Sudanese were followed with disastrous effects. 
 It would be unjust, however, to generalize beyond 
 measure and to say that the arrival of the Arabs 
 was an evil for Africa. Besides the benefits which 
 their civilization had brought, the traces of Sem- 
 itic blood which were introduced by them (as well 
 as by the Berber strain) into the Sudan, will give 
 to the future populations of Africa distinctive 
 traits characteristic of a higher civilization." — 
 Tr. from O. Meynier, L'Ajrique noire, pp. 126-128 
 — "The achievements of the Romans are a land- 
 mark in the history of mankind, and can never 
 be ignored. Then came the destructive Vandals 
 (sec also X'andals: 42g-439; 431-533], followed 
 by the hybrid Byzantines, and with their final 
 expulsion by .\rabs the history of antiquity 
 may be said to have come to a close. Today is 
 but the yesterday of sixteen hundred years ago. 
 'The .^rab has replaced the Phoenician,' (as M. 
 Paul Monccaus has observed), 'and the Frenchman 
 has replaced the Roman. But that is all.' The 
 primitive races — the ancient Berbers of the Desert 
 or the mountain ranges, are still in possession, 
 preserving their old traditions of tribal and social 
 life, and speaking almost the same tongue as their 
 ancestors did some three thousand years ago. The 
 Numidian, the Moor, and the Getulian are there 
 also, cultivating their olives in the land of their 
 forefathers, tending their sheep on the broad 
 plains of the Metidja or Chelif, or moving si- 
 lently from place to place, like true sons of the 
 Desert." — A. Graham, Roman Africa, p. 308. 
 
 MODERN EUROPEAN OCCUPATION 
 
 Beginnings of European exploration. — "The 
 
 Genoese were the first to set out on the discovery 
 of the oceanic coasts of Africa. At about the end 
 of the 13th century, they knew the Canary Islands. 
 In 1202, one of the galleys of the expedition of 
 the brothers X'ivaldi reached the mouth of a river 
 which their maps call Gohou and which seems to 
 have been the Senegal. In the middle of the 
 14th ccntun.- they knew Madeira and the coast 
 opposite, of which the Medician map of 1351 gives 
 an almost correct drawing. About 1365 the first 
 Frenchmen, Normans, were established in Africa; 
 traders from Dieppe and Rouen having associated 
 themselves in 1364 for commerce on the coast of 
 western .Africa built some warehouses at the out- 
 let of the Senegal, in Gambia, on the coasts of 
 Sierra-Leone and of Malaguettc. In 1402, the 
 Norman Jean de Bethcncourt arrived at the Ca- 
 naries from La Rochelle with 53 companions and 
 took possession of the islands in the name of the 
 queen of Castile. So vigorous was this commer- 
 cial movement between France and western Af- 
 rica that it was not halted despite the wars in 
 which France was engaging and the invasion of 
 Normandy by the English. However the Normans 
 pushed their expeditions no further, and it is to 
 the Portuguese that the honor of discovering the 
 coasts of Africa is due." — Tr. from R Ronze, La 
 question d'Afriqiie. — See also Caliphate: 640-646, 
 647-700, 008-1171; Barbarv states: i';43-t;6o. 
 
 Chronology of European exploration, mis- 
 sionary settlement, colonization and occupation. 
 
 1415.— Conquest of Ceuta by the Portuguese 
 
 1434-1461. — Portuguese explorations down the 
 western coast, from cape Bojador to cape Mesu- 
 rado, in Liberia, under the direction of Prince 
 Henrv, cal'ed the Navigator. 
 
 1442. — First .\frican slaves brought into Europe 
 by one nf the ship? of Prince Henry. 
 
 1463-1498. — Portucuese explorations by Prince 
 
 02
 
 AFRICA, 1471-1482 
 
 Exploration 
 Settlement 
 
 AFRICA, 1831 
 
 Henry, the Navigator. See Portugal: 1463-1498. 
 
 1471-1482. — Portuguese explorations carried be- 
 yond the Guinea Coast, and to the Gold Coast, 
 where the first settlement was established. 
 
 1482. — Discovery of the mouth of the Zaire 
 or Conco by the Portuguese explorer, Diogo Cam 
 
 1485-1596. — Establishment of Roman Catholic 
 missions on the western coast. 
 
 1486. — Unconscious rounding of the Cape of 
 Good Hope by Bartholomew Diaz. 
 
 1490-1527.^Visit to Abyssinia of Pero Covilham, 
 the Portugue.se explorer. 
 
 1497. — Voyage of Vasco da Gama round the 
 Cape of Good Hope to India. 
 
 1505-1508. — Portuguese settlements and fortified 
 stations established on the eastern coast. 
 
 1506. — Discovery of Madagascar by the Portu- 
 guese. 
 
 1552-1553. — Beginning of English voyages to the 
 Guinea and Gold Coasts 
 
 1560. — French trading to the Senegal and Gam- 
 bia begun. 
 
 1562. — First slave-trading voyage of Sir John 
 Hawkins to the Guinea Coast. 
 
 1578. — Founding of St Paul de Loando, Portu- 
 guese capital on the west coast. 
 
 1582 (about). — Founding of the French post, St. 
 Louis, at the mouth of the Senegal. 
 
 1595. — Opening of trade on the western coast by 
 the Dutch. 
 
 17th century. — Settlements in West Africa by 
 British. See British empire: Expansion: 17th 
 century: .'\frica: West Africa. 
 
 1618-1621.^Exploration of the river Gambia for 
 the Royal Niger company of England 
 
 1644. — Fort Dauphin founded by the French in 
 the island of Madagascar 
 
 1652. — Dutch settlement at the Cape of Good 
 Hope. 
 
 1672. — Africa company chartered See British 
 empire: Expansion: 17th centurj : Africa: West 
 Africa: 1672 
 
 1694-1724. — Exploration of the river Senegal for 
 the Royal Senegal company. 
 
 18th century: British acquire Sierra Leone. 
 See British empire: Expansion: iSth century: 
 .Africa: West Africa. 
 
 1723. — Exploration of the Gambia for the Eng- 
 glish Royal African company 
 
 1736. — Moravian mission on the Gold Coast. 
 
 1737. — Beginning of missionary work. See Mis- 
 sions, Christian: Near East. Moravian mission 
 planted by George Schmidt among the Hotten- 
 tots. 
 
 1754. — Substantial beginning of the domination 
 in Madagascar of the Hovas. 
 
 1761-1762. — Dutch expedition from Cape Colony 
 beyond the Orange river. 
 
 1768-1773. — Journey of James Bruce to the foun- 
 tains of the Blue Nile in Abyssinia. 
 
 1774. — Founding of a French colony in Mada- 
 gascar bv Count Bcnvowskv. 
 
 1781-l'785.— Travels of M.le Vaillant among the 
 Hottentots and Kaffirs. 
 
 1787. — Founding of the English settlement for 
 freed slaves at Sierra Leone. 
 
 1788. — Formation of the African association in 
 England, for systematic exploration. 
 
 1795. — The Cape Colony taken from the Dutch 
 by the English. 
 
 1795-1797. — The first exploring journey of Mungo 
 Park, in the service of the African association, 
 from tht Gambia. 
 
 1798. — Mission of Dr. John Vanderkemp to the 
 Kaffirs, for the London Missionary society. 
 
 1798. — Journey of the Portuguese Dr. Lacerda 
 
 from the Lower Zambezi to the kingdom of 
 Cazembe, on lake Moero. 
 
 1802-1806.— Restoration of Cape Colony to the 
 Dutch and its reconquest by the English. 
 
 1802-1811. — Journey of the Pombeiros (Negroes) 
 across the continent from Angola to Tetc. 
 
 1804. — Founding of the Church of England mis- 
 sion in Sierra Leone. 
 
 1805. — Second expedition of Mungo Park from 
 the Gambia to the Niger, from which he never 
 returned. 
 
 1805. — Travels of Dr. Lichtenstein in Bechuana- 
 land. 
 
 1808. — Beginning of missionary efforts in colo- 
 nizing Liberia. See Liberia: Early history. 
 
 1810. — Missions in Great Namaqualand and 
 Damaraland begun by the London Missionary 
 society. 
 
 1812. — Exploration of the Orange river and the 
 Limpopo by Campbell, the missionary. 
 
 1812-1815.— Journey of Burckhardt under the 
 auspices of the African association, up the Nile, 
 through Nubia, to Berbera, Shendi, and Suakin; 
 thence through Jidda to Mecca, in the character 
 of a Mussulman. 
 
 1816-1818.— Fatal and fruitless attempts to ex- 
 plore the lower course of the Niger, 
 
 1818. — Mission in Madagascar undertaken by the 
 London Missionary society. 
 
 1818. — Beginning;, on the Orange river, of the 
 missionary labors of Robert Moffat in South 
 Africa. 
 
 1818. — Exploration of the sources of the Gambia 
 by Gaspard Mollien, from Fort St. Louis, at the 
 mouth of the Senegal. 
 
 1818-1820. — Exploration of Fezzan to its south- 
 ern limit, from Tripoli, by Captain Lyon. 
 
 1820. — First Wesleyan mission founded in Kaffir- 
 land, 
 
 1820. — Treaty abolishing the slave-trade in Mad- 
 agascar. 
 
 1821. — Mission-work in Kaffraria undertaken by 
 the Glasgow Missionary society. 
 
 1822. — Founding of the republic of Liberia. See 
 Slavery, Negro: 1816-1847 
 
 1822. — Official journey of Lieutenant Laing 
 from Sierra Leone in the "Timannee, Kooranko 
 and Soolima" countries, 
 
 1822-1825. — Expedition of Captain Clapperton, 
 Dr. Oudney, and Colonel Denham, from Trip- 
 oli to lake Chad and beyond. 
 
 1825-1826. — Expedition of Major Laing, in the 
 service of the British Government, from Tripoli, 
 through the desert, to Timbuktu, which he 
 reached, and where he remained for a month. 
 Two days after le-iving the city he was mur- 
 dered. 
 
 1825-1827. — Expedition of Captain Clapperton 
 from the bight of Benin to Sokoto. 
 
 1827. — Moravian mission settled in the Tam- 
 bookie territory. South Africa. 
 
 1827. — Journey of Linant de Bellefonds, for the 
 African Association, up the White Nile to 13° 6' 
 north latitude. 
 
 1827-1828. — Journey of Caille from a point on 
 the west coast, between Sierra Leone and the 
 Gambia, to Jenne and Timbuktu; thence to Fez 
 and Tangier. 
 
 1828. — Undertakings of the Basle Missionary so- 
 ciety on the Gold Coast. 
 
 1830-1831. — Exploration of the Niger to the sea 
 by Richard and John Lander, solving the question 
 as to its mouth. 
 
 1830-1846. — French conquest and subjugation of 
 Algiers. 
 
 1831. — Portuguese mission of Major Monteiro 
 
 93
 
 AFRICA, 1831 
 
 Exploration 
 Settlement 
 
 AFRICA, 1855 
 
 and Captain Gamitto to the court of Muata 
 
 Cazembe. • .■ u 
 
 1831.— Absorption of the African association Dy 
 the Royal Geographical society of London 
 
 1832-1834.— First commercial exploration of the 
 lower Niger, from its mouth, by Macgregor Laird, 
 with two steamers. ,_,.... .v, 
 
 1833.— Mission in Basutoland established by tne 
 Evangelical Missionary society of Paris. 
 
 1834. Beginning of missionary labors under the 
 
 American Board of Missions in South .\frica. 
 
 1834— Mission founded at cape Palmas on the 
 western coast, by the American Board of Foreign 
 
 Missions. „ . t. t _ 
 
 1834— The great trek of the Dutch Boers from 
 
 Cape Colony and their founding of the republic 
 
 of Natal. „ . u,. u J 
 
 1835.— Mission among the Zulus established cy 
 
 the American Board of Foreign Missions. 
 
 1835.— Founding of Senussia sect. See Senussia. 
 
 DR. DAVID LIVINGSTONE 
 
 1835-1849.— Persecution of Christians in Mada- 
 
 ^'' 1836-1837.— Explorations of Captain Sir James 
 E Alexander in the countries of the Great Nama- 
 quas, the Bushmen and the Hill Damaras. 
 
 1839-1841.— Egyptian expeditions sent by^Me- 
 hemet Ali up the White Nile to latitude 6 35 
 N.; accompanied and narrated in part by Ferdi- 
 nand Werne. t T^ i' o„f 
 
 1839-1843.— Missionary residence of Ur. Krapi 
 in the kingdom of Shoa, in the Ethiopian high- 
 lands. . • c *v. 
 
 1840.— Arrival of Dr. Livingstone in t)0uth 
 
 Africa as a missionary. , .,, , 
 
 1841.— Expedition of Captains Trotter and .\llen, 
 sent by the British government to treat with 
 tribes on the Niger for the opening of commerce 
 and the suppression of the slave trade. 
 
 1842.— Travels of Dr. Charles Johnston in south- 
 ern Abyssinia. 
 
 1842 —Gaboon mission, on the western coast near 
 the equator, founded by the American Board ot 
 Foreign Missions. 
 
 1842— The Rhenish mission established by Ger- 
 man missionaries at Bethany in Namaqualand. 
 1842.— Wesleyan and Norwegian missions opened 
 
 in Natal 
 
 1842-1862.— French occupation of territory on 
 the Gaboon and the Ogowe. 
 
 1843.— British annexation of Natal, and nugra- 
 tioii ul the Boers to found the Orange Free 
 State. , , . 
 
 1843.— Exploration of the Senegal and the 
 Faleme bv Huard-Bessinieres and Raffenel. 
 
 1843-1845.— Travels and residence of Mr. Par- 
 kvns in Abyssinia. , „ , r^ 
 
 1843-1848.— Hunting journeys of Gordon Lum- 
 ming in South Africa. 
 
 1844.— Mission founded by Dr. Krapf at Mom- 
 basa, on the Zanzibar coast. 
 
 1845.— Duncan's journey for the Royal Geo- 
 graphical societv from Whydah, via Abome, to 
 
 Adofudia . ,. . j u 
 
 1845.— Mission to the Cameroons established by 
 the Baptist Missionary society of England. 
 
 1846.— Unsuccessful attempt of Raffenel to cross 
 Africa from Senegal to the Nile, through the 
 Sudan. 
 
 1846.— Mission of Samuel Crowther (afterwards 
 Bishop of the Niger), a native and a liberated 
 slave, to the Yoruba country. 
 
 1846.— Mission on Old Calabar river founded by 
 the United Presbyterian Church in Jamaica 
 
 1847-1849. — Interior explorations of the German 
 missionaries Dr. Krapf and Mr. Rebmann, from 
 Mombasa on the Zanzibar coast. 
 
 1843.— Founding of the Transvaal republic by 
 
 the Boers . . . • ■ 
 
 1849.— Missionary journey of David Livingstone 
 
 northward from the country of the Bechuanas, 
 
 and his discovery of Lake Ngami. 
 
 1849-1851.— Journey of Laszlo Magyar from 
 
 Benguela to the kingdoms of Bihe and Molua on 
 
 the interior table-land, and across the upper end 
 
 of the Zambezi Valley .... 
 
 1850.— Sale of Danish forts at Kwitta, .\ddah, 
 
 and Fingo, on the western coast, to threat Brit- 
 
 1850-1851.— Travels of Andersson and Gallon 
 from VValfish bay to Ovampoland and lake 
 Ngami, , , „ . ,. 
 
 1850-1855 —Travels of Dr. Barth from Tripoli 
 to lake Chad, Sokoto and the Upper Niger to 
 Timbuktu, where he was detained for nine 
 
 months . . , _ ... 
 
 1851.— Discovery of the Zambezi by Dr. Living- 
 stone. ,. . , 
 
 1852-1863.— Hunting and trading journeys ot 
 Mr Chapman in South Africa, between Natal 
 and Walfish bay and to lake Ngami and the 
 
 1853 —Founding of the diocese of Natal by the 
 English Church and appointment of Dr. Colenso 
 to be its bishop. . . . , i 
 
 1853-1856.— Journey of Dr. Livingstone from 
 Linyante, the Makololo capital, up the Zambezi 
 and across to the western coast, at St. Paul de 
 Loando, thence returning entirely across the con- 
 tinent, down the Zambezi to Quilimane at its 
 mouth, discovering the Victoria falls on his 
 
 ^^853-1858.- Ivory-seeking expeditions of John 
 Petherick, up the Bahr-el-Ghazal 
 
 1853-1859.— Roman Catholic mission established 
 at Gondokoro, on the Upper Nile. 
 
 1854 —Exploration of the Somali country— the 
 "eastern horn of Africa"-by Captains Burton 
 
 ''"l85^5'?-Beginnin • of attempts by the French gov- 
 
 94
 
 AFRICA, 1856-1859 
 
 Exploration 
 Settlement 
 
 AFRICA, 1873-1875 
 
 ernor of Senegal, General Faidherbe, to carry the 
 flag of France into the western Sudan. 
 
 1856-1859.— Journeys of Du Chaillu in the west- 
 ern equatorial regions, on the Gaboon and the 
 Ogobai. 
 
 1857-1858. — Expedition of Captains Burton and 
 Speke, from Zanzibar, through Uzaramo, Usagara, 
 Ugogo, and Unyamwezi, to Ujiji, on lake Tan- 
 ganyika — making the first European discovery of 
 the lake; returning to Kaze, and thence continued 
 by Speke alone, during Burton's illness, to the 
 discovery of lake Victoria Nyanza. 
 
 1858. — Journey of Andersson from Walfish bay 
 to the Okavango river. 
 
 1858. — English mission station founded at Vic- 
 toria on the Cameroons coast. 
 
 1858-1863. — Expedition of Dr. Livingstone, in 
 the service of the British government, exploring 
 the Shire and the Rovuma, and discovering and 
 exploring lake Nyasa — said, however, to have been 
 known previously to the Portuguese. 
 
 1860-1861. — Journey of Baron von Decken from 
 Mombasa on the Zanzibar coast, to Mt Kiliman- 
 jaro 
 
 1860-1862. — Return of Speke, with Captain 
 Grant, from Zanzibar to lake Victoria Nyanza, 
 visiting Karagwe, and Uganda, and reaching the 
 outlet of the Nile ; thence through Unyoro to 
 Gondokoro, and homeward by the Nile. 
 
 1861. — Establishment of the Universities mission 
 by Bishop Mackenzie on the Upper Shire. 
 
 1861-1862. — English acquisition of the town and 
 kingdom of Lagos on the bight of Benin by ces- 
 sion from the native ruler. 
 
 1861-1862. — Sir Samuel Baker's exploration of 
 the .^b\s?inian tributaries of the Nile 
 
 1861-1862. — Journey of Captain Burton from 
 Lagos, on the western coast, to .-Mjeokuta, the 
 capital of the Akus. in Voruba. and to the Cam- 
 aroons mountains, 
 
 1861-1862. — Journey of Mr Baincs from Wal- 
 fish bay to lake Ngami and Victoria falls. 
 
 1862. — Resumption of the Christian mission in 
 Madagascar, long suppressed. 
 
 1862-1867.— Travels of Dr Rohlfs in Morocco, 
 Algeria and Tunis, and exjjloring journey from 
 the gulf of the Syrtes to the gulf of Guinea 
 
 1863. — Travels of Winwood Reade on the west- 
 ern coast. 
 
 1863. — Incorporation of a large part of Kaffraria 
 with Cape Colony. 
 
 1863. — -Second visit of Du Chaillu to the west- 
 ern equatorial region and journey to Ashango- 
 Land. 
 
 1863-1864. — Official mission of Captain Burton 
 to the king of Dahomey. 
 
 1863-1864.— Exploration of the Bahr-el-Ghazal 
 from Khartoum by the wealthy Dutch heiress, 
 Miss Tinne, and her party. 
 
 1863-1865. — Expedition by Sir Samuel Baker and 
 his wife up the White Nile from Khartum, re- 
 sulting in the discovery of lake Albert Nyanza, 
 as one of its sources. 
 
 1864. — Mission of Lieutenant Mage and Dr. 
 Quintin, sent by General Faidherbe from Senegal 
 to the king of Segu, in the Sudan. 
 
 1866. — Founding of a Norwegian mission in 
 Madagascar. 
 
 1866-1873. — Last journey of Dr. Livingstone, 
 from the Rovuma river, on the eastern coast, to 
 lake Nyassa; thence to lake Tanganyika, lake 
 Mweru, lake Bangweolo, and the Lualaba river, 
 which he suspected of flowing into the Albert 
 Nyanza, and being the ultimate fountain head 
 of the Nile, 'n November, 1.S71, Livingstone was 
 found at Ujiji, on lake Tanganyika, by Henry 
 
 M. Stanley, leader of an expedition sent in search 
 of him Declining to quit the country with 
 Stanley, and pursuing his exploration of the Lu- 
 alaba, Livingstone died May i, 1873, on lake Bang- 
 weolo. 
 
 1867. — Mission founded in Madagascar by the 
 Society of Friends. 
 
 1867-1868. — British expedition to Abyssinia for 
 the rescue of captives; overthrow and death of 
 King Theodore. 
 
 1868. — British annexation of Basutoland in South 
 Africa. 
 
 1869. — Christianity established as the state re- 
 ligion in Madagascar. 
 
 1869. — Fatal expedition of Miss Tinne from 
 Tripoli into the desert, where she was murdered 
 by her own escort. 
 
 1869-1871.— Explorations of Dr. Schweinfurth 
 between the Bahr-el-Ghazal and the Upper Con- 
 go, discovering the Welle river. 
 
 1869-1873.— Expedition of Dr. Nachtigal from 
 Tripoli through Kuka, Tibesti, Borku, Wadai, 
 D.irfur, and Kordofan, to the Nile. 
 
 SIR HENRY M. STANLEY 
 
 1870-1873. — Official expedition of Sir Samuel 
 Baker, in the service of the khedive of Egypt, 
 Ismail Pasha, to annex Gondokoro, then named 
 Ismailia, and to suppress the slave-trade in the 
 Egyptian Sudan, or Equatoria. 
 
 1871. — Transfer of the rights of Holland on the 
 Gold Coast to Great Britain. 
 
 1871. — Annexation of Griqualand West to Cape 
 (\)lony. 
 
 1871. — Scientific tour of Sir Joseph D. Hooker 
 and Mr. Ball in Morocco and the Great Atlas. 
 
 1871.— Missionary journey of Mr. Charles New 
 in the Masai country and ascent of Mt. Kiliman- 
 jaro. 
 
 1871-1880. — Hunting journeys of Mr. Selous in 
 South .'\frica, beyond the Zambezi. 
 
 1872-1875. — Travels of the naturalist, Reinhold 
 Buchholz, on the Guinea coast. 
 
 1872-1879. — Travels of Dr. Holub between the 
 South African diamond fields and the Zambezi. 
 
 1873-1875. — Expedition of Captain V. L. Cam- 
 eron, from Zanzibar to lake Tanganyika, and 
 
 95
 
 AFRICA, 1873-1875 
 
 Exploration 
 Settlement 
 
 AFRICA, 1880-1886 
 
 exploration of the lake; thence to Nyangwe on the 
 Lualaba, and thence across the continent, through 
 Ulundi, to the Portuguese settlement at Benguela, 
 on the Atlantic coast. 
 
 1873-1875.— Travels of the naturalist, Frank 
 Gates, from Cape Colony to the Victoria falls. 
 
 1873-1876. — Explorations of GiissfeJdt, Falken- 
 stein and Pechuel-Loesche, under the auspices of 
 the German African association, from the Loango 
 coast, north of the Congo. 
 
 1874. — British expedition against the Ashantees, 
 destroying their principal town Kumasi. 
 
 1874. — Mission of Colonel Chaille-Lon^ from 
 General Gordon, at Gondokoro, on the Nile, to 
 M'tese, king of Uganda, discovering lake Ibrahim 
 on his return, and completing the work of Speke 
 and Baker, in the continuous tracing of the 
 course of the Nile from the Victoria Nvanza. 
 
 1874-1875.— Expedition of Colonel C. Chaillf- 
 Long to lake Victoria Nyanza and the Makraka 
 Niam-Niam country, in the Egyptian service. 
 
 1874-1876. — First administration of General Gor- 
 don, commissioned by the khedive as governor 
 of Equatoria. 
 
 1874-1876. — Occupation and exploration of Dar- 
 fur and Kordofan by the Egyptians, under Colo- 
 nels Purdy, Mason, Prout and Colston. 
 
 1874-1877.— Expedition of Henry M. Stanley, 
 fitted out by the proprietors of the New York 
 Herald and the London Daily Telegraph, which 
 crossed the continent from Zanzibar to the mouth 
 of the Congo river; making a prolonged stay in 
 the empire of Uganda and acquiring much knowl- 
 edge of it ; circumnavigating lakes X'ictoria and 
 Tanganyika, and exploring the then mysterious 
 great Congo river throughout its length. 
 
 1874-1877.— Explorations of Dr. Junker in Upper 
 Nubia and in the basin of the Bahr-el-Ghazal. 
 
 1875. — Expedition of Dr. Pogge, for the German 
 African association, from the west coast, south 
 of the Congo, in the Congo basin, penetrating to 
 Kawende, beyond the Ruru or Lulua river, capital 
 of the Muata Vanvo, who rules a kingdom as 
 large as Germany. 
 
 1875. — Expedition of Colonel Chaille-Long into 
 the country of the Makraka Niam-Niams. 
 
 1875. — Founding by Scottish subscribers of the 
 mission station called Livingstonia, at cape Mac- 
 lear, on the southern shores of lake Nyasa; head- 
 quarters of the mission removed in i88i to 
 Bandawe, on the same lake. 
 
 1875. — Mission founded at Blantyre, in the high- 
 lands above the Shire, by the Established Church 
 of Scotland. 
 
 1875-1876. — Seizure of Berbera and the region 
 of the Juba river, on the Somali coast, by Colonel 
 Chaille-Long, for the khedive of Egypt, and their 
 speedy evacuation, on the remonstrance of Eng- 
 land. 
 
 1876. — Conference at Brussels and formation of 
 the International African association, under the 
 presidency of the king of the Belgians, for the 
 exploration and civilization of Africa. 
 
 1876. — Voyage of Romolo Gcssi around lake Al- 
 bert Nyanza. 
 
 1876.— Mission in Uganda established by the 
 Church Missionary society of England. 
 
 1876-1878. — Scientific explorations of Dr. 
 Schweinfurth in the .Arabian desert between the 
 Nile and the Red sea 
 
 1876-1880. — Explorations and French annexa- 
 tions by Savorgnan de Brazza between the Ogow^ 
 and the Congo 
 
 1876-1890. — Congo region explored. See Belgian 
 Congo: 1876-18QO. 
 
 1877. — The Livingstone Inland mission, for 
 
 Christian work in the Congo Valley, established 
 by the East London Institute for Home and 
 Foreign Missions. 
 
 1877-1879. — Second administration of General 
 Gordon, as governor-general of the Sudan, Darfur 
 and the equatorial provinces. 
 
 1877-1879.— War of the British in South Africa 
 with the Zulus, and practical subjugation of that 
 nation. 
 
 1877-1879. — Journey of Serpa Pinto across the 
 continent from Benguela via the Zambezi. 
 
 1877-1880. — Explorations of the Portuguese offi- 
 cers, Capello and Ivens, in western and central 
 Africa, from Benguela to the territory of Yacca, 
 for the survey of the river Cuango in its relations 
 to the hydrographic basins of the Congo and the 
 Zambezi. 
 
 1878. — Founding in Glasgow of the African 
 Lakes company, or "The Livingstone Central Af- 
 rica company," for trade on lakes Nyasa and 
 Tanganyika ; by which company the "Stevenson 
 road" was subsequently built between the two 
 lakes above named. 
 
 1878. — Walfish bay and fifteen miles around it 
 (on the western coast, in Namaqualand) declared 
 British territory. 
 
 1878. — Journey of Paul Soleillet from Saint 
 Louis to Segu. 
 
 1878-1880. — Royal Geographical society's East 
 Central African expedition, under Joseph Thom- 
 son, to the Central African lakes, Tanganyika, 
 Nyasa and Leopold, from Zanzibar. 
 
 1879. — Establishment, by the Belgian Interna- 
 tional society, of a station at Karema, on the 
 eastern shore of lake Tanganyika. 
 
 1879. — Formation of the International Con^o 
 association and the engagement of Mr. Stanley in 
 its service. 
 
 1879. — Missionary expeditions to the Upper 
 Congo region by the Livingstone Inland mission 
 and the Baptist Missionary society. 
 
 1879. — Journey of Mr. Stewart, of the Living- 
 stonia mission, on lake Nyasa, from that lake to 
 lake Tanganyika. 
 
 1879. — Discovery of the sources of the Niger, in 
 the hills about 200 miles east of Freetown, the 
 capital of Sierra Leone, by the French explorers, 
 Zweifel and Moustier. 
 
 1879-1880. — Journey of Dr. Oskar Lenz, under 
 the auspices of the German African society, from 
 Morocco to Timbuktu, and thence to the .Atlantic 
 coast in Senegambia. The fact that the Sahara is 
 generally above the sea-level, and cannot there- 
 fore be flooded, was determined by Dr. Lenz. 
 
 1879-1881. — Expedition of Dr. Buchner from 
 Loanda to Kawende and the kingdom of the 
 Muata Yanvo. where six months were spent in 
 vain efforts to procure permission to proceed 
 further into the interior, 
 
 1880. — Mission established by the American 
 Board of Foreign Missions in "the region of Bih^ 
 and the Kwanza," or Quanza, south of the Congo. 
 
 1880-1881.— War of the British with the Boers 
 of the Transvaal. 
 
 1880-1881. — Official mission of the German ex- 
 plorer, Gerhard Rohlfs, accompanied by Dr. 
 Stecker, to .Abyssinia. 
 
 1880-1884. — Campaigns in Upper Senegal, ex- 
 tending French supremacy to the Niger 
 
 1880-1884. — German East African expedition to 
 explore, in the Congo basin, the region between 
 the Lualaba and the Luapula. 
 
 1880-1886. — Explorations of Dr. Junker in the 
 country of the Niam-Niam, and his journey from 
 the equatorial province, through Unyoro and 
 Uganda, to Zanzibar. 
 
 96
 
 AFRICA, 1880-1889 
 
 Exploration 
 Settlement 
 
 AFRICA, 1885-1889 
 
 1880-1889. — Journey of Captain Casati, as cor- 
 respondent of tfie Italian geograpfiical review, 
 "L'Exploratore," from Suakin, on the Red sea, into 
 the district of the Mangbettu, west of lake Albert, 
 and the country of the Niam-Niam ; in which 
 travels he was arrested by the revolt of the Mahdi 
 and forced to remain with Erain Pasha until 
 rescued with the latter by Stanley, in iSSg. 
 
 1881. — French protectorate over Tunis. 
 
 1881. — Portuguese expedition of Captain An- 
 drada from Senna on the Zambezi river to the 
 old gold mines of Manica. 
 
 1881. — Journey of F. L. and W. D. James from 
 Suakin, on the Red sea, through the Base country, 
 in the Egyptian Sudan. 
 
 1881. — Founding of a mission on the Congo, at 
 Stanley Pool, by the Baptist Missionary society 
 of England. 
 
 1881-1884. — Expedition of Dr. Pogge and Lieu- 
 tenant Wissraann to Nyangwe on the Lualaba, 
 from which point Lieutenant Wissmann pursued 
 the journey to Zanzibar crossing the continent. 
 
 1881-1885.— Revolt of the Mahdi in the Sudan; 
 the mission of General Gordon ; the unsuccessful 
 expedition from England to rescue him; the fall 
 of the city and his death. , 
 
 1881-1887. — French protectorate established on 
 the Upper Niger and Upper Senegal. 
 
 1882. — Italian occupation of Abyssinian territory 
 on the bay of Assab. 
 
 1882-1883. — German scientific expedition, under 
 Dr. Bohm and Herr Reichard, to lakes Tanganyika 
 and Mweru. 
 
 1882-1883. — Journey of Mr. H. H. Johnston on 
 the Congo. 
 .1883. — Delagoa bay arbitration. See Delagoa 
 
 BAY ARBITRATlbN. 
 
 1883. — German acquisition of territory on Angra 
 Pequeria bay, in Great Namaqualand. 
 
 1883. — Exploration of Masailand by Dr. Fischer, 
 under the auspices of the Hamburg Geographical 
 society. 
 
 1883. — Explorations of Lieutenant Giraud in East 
 Central Africa, descending for some distance the 
 Luapula. 
 
 1883. — Scientific investigation of the basins of 
 lakes Nyasa and Tanganyika, by Mr. Henry 
 Drummond, for the African Lakes company. 
 
 1883. — Journey of M. Revoil in the south Somali 
 country to the Upper Juba. 
 
 1883-1884.— Explorations of Mr. Joseph Thom- 
 son from Mombasa, through Masailand, to the 
 northeast corner of the Victoria Nyanza, under 
 the auspices of the Royal Geographical society. 
 
 1883-1885.— War of the French with the Hovas 
 of Madagascar, resulting in the establishment of a 
 French protectorate over the island. 
 
 1883-1885. — Exploration of Lieutenant Giraud in 
 the lake region. 
 
 1883-1886. — Austrian expedition, under Dr. Ho- 
 lub, from Cape Colony, through the Boer states, 
 Bechuanaland and Matabeleland to the Zambezi, 
 and beyond. 
 
 1884. — Annexation by Germany of the whole 
 western coast (e.xcept Walfish bay) between the 
 Portuguese possessions and those of the British 
 in South Africa. 
 
 1884. — German occupation of territory on the 
 Cameroon River, under treaties with the native 
 chiefs. English treaties securing contiguous terri- 
 tory to and including ihe delta of the Ni 'er. See 
 Cameroons: Occupation by Germany. 
 
 1884.- — German protectorate over Togoland on 
 the Gold Coast declared. See Togoland. 
 
 1884. — Expedition of Dr. Peters, representing the 
 Society of German Colonization, to the coast re- 
 
 gion of Zanzibar, and his negotation of treaties 
 with ten native chiefs, ceding the sovereignty of 
 their dominions. See Tanganyika territory: 
 German colonization. 
 
 1884. — Crown colony of British Bechuanaland 
 acquired from the South African republic. 
 
 1884. — Portuguese government expedition, under 
 Major Carvalho, from Loanda to the Central Af- 
 rican potentate called the Muata Yanvo. 
 
 1884. — Exploration of the Benue and the Adam- 
 awa, by Herr Flegel. 
 
 1884. — Scientific expedition of Mr. H. H. John- 
 ston to Mt. Kilimanjaro. 
 
 1884. — Discovery of the M'bangi or Ubanghi 
 River (afterwards identified with the Welle), by 
 Captain Hansens and Lieutenant Van Gele. 
 
 1884. — Exploration of Reichard in the south- 
 eastern part of the Congo State. 
 
 1884-1885. — The Berlin Conference of Powers, 
 held to determine the limits of territory conceded 
 to the International Congo association, to estab- 
 lish freedom of trade within that territory, and 
 to formulate rules for regulating in future the 
 acquisition of .African territory. See Berlin Act. 
 
 1884-1885.— Journey of Mr. Walter M. Kerr 
 from Cape Colony, across the Zambezi, to Lake 
 Nyasa, and down the Shire river to the coast. 
 
 1884-1885.— Travels of Mr. F. L. James and 
 party in the Somali country. 
 
 1884-1887. — Exploration by Dr. Schinz of the 
 newly acquired German territories in Africa. 
 
 1884-1893. — England, France and Germany on 
 the Niger coast. Settlement of the boundary of 
 Sudan and Sahara sphere. See Nigeria, Protector- 
 ate of: 1882-1899. 
 
 1885. — Transfer of the rights of the Society of 
 German Colonization to the German East Africa 
 company, and extension of imperial protection to 
 the territories claimed by the company. German 
 acquisition of Witu, north of Zanzibar. 
 
 1885. — Agreement between Germany and France, 
 defining their respective spheres of influence on 
 the bight of Biafra, on the slave coast and in 
 Senegambia. 
 
 1885. — Transformation of the Congo association 
 into the independent state of the Congo, with 
 King Leopold of Belgium as its sovereign. 
 
 1885. — British protectorate extended to the Zam- 
 bezi, over the country west of the Portuguese 
 province of Sofala, to the 20th degree of east 
 longitude. 
 
 1885. — British protectorate extended over the 
 remainder of Bechuanaland. 
 
 1885. — Italian occupation of Massawa, on the 
 Red sea. 
 
 1885. — Mission of Mr, Joseph Thomson, for the 
 National African company, up the Niger, to Sokoto 
 and Gando, securing treaties with the sultans 
 under which the company acquired paramount 
 rights. 
 
 1885-1888. — Mission of M. Eorelli to the king- 
 dom of Shoa (southern Ethiopia) and south of it. 
 
 1885-1889.— When, after the fall of Khartum 
 and the death of General Gordon, in 1885, the 
 Sudan was abandoned to the Mahdi and the fa- 
 natical Mohammedans of the interior, Dr. Eduard 
 Schnitzer, better known as Emin Pasha, who had 
 been in command, under Gordon, of the province 
 of the equator, extending up to lake Albert, was 
 cut off for six years from communication with the 
 civilized world. In 1887 an expedition to rescue 
 him and his command was sent out under Henry 
 M. Stanley. It entered the continent from the 
 west, made its way up the Congo and the Aruwimi 
 to Yambuya ; thence through the unexplored region 
 to lake Albert Nyanza and into communication 
 
 97
 
 AFRICA, 1886 
 
 Exploration 
 Settlement 
 
 AFRICA, 1890-1891 
 
 with Emin Pasha; then returning to Yambuya for 
 the rearguard which had been left there ; again 
 traversing the savage land to lake Albert, and 
 passing from there, with Emin and his companions, 
 by way of lake Albert Edward Xyanza (then 
 ascertained to be the ultimate reservoir of the 
 Nile system) around the southern extremity of 
 the \ictoria Xyanza, to Zanzibar, which was 
 reached at the end of 1889. 
 
 1886.— Settlement between Great Britain and 
 Germany of the coast territory to be left under 
 the sovereignty of the sultan of Zanzibar, and 
 of the "spheres of influence" to be appropriated 
 respectively by themselves, between the lakes and 
 the eastern coast, north of the Portuguese posses- 
 sions. 
 
 1886.— Agreement between France and Portugal 
 defining limits of territory in Senegambia and at 
 the mouth of the Congo. 
 
 1886. — Transformation of the National African 
 company into the British Royal Niger company, 
 with a charter giving powers of administration 
 over a large domain on the river Niger. 
 
 1886. — Mission station founded by Mr. Arnot at 
 Bunkeya, in the southeastern part of the Congo 
 State. ' 
 
 1886-1887. — Journey of Lieutenant Wissmann 
 across the continent, from Luluaburg. a station of 
 the Congo association, in the dominion of Muata 
 Yanvo. to Nyangwe, on the Lualaba, and thence 
 to Zanzibar. 
 
 1886-1889. — Expeditions of Dr. Zintgraff in the 
 Cameroons interior and to the Benue, for the 
 bringing of the country under German influence. 
 
 1887. — .Annexation of Zululand. partly to the 
 Transvaal, or South .African republic, and the re- 
 mainder to the British possessions. 
 
 1887. — French gunboats launched on the Upper 
 Niger, making a reconnoissance nearly to Tim- 
 buktu. 
 
 1887.— Identity of the Welle river with the 
 M'bangi or Ubanghi established by Captain Van 
 Gele and Lieutenant Lienart. 
 
 1887. — First ascent of Kilimanjaro by Dr. Hans 
 Meyer. 
 
 1887-1889. — Exploration by Captain Binger of 
 the region between the great bend of the Niger 
 and the countries of the Gold Coast 
 
 1887-1890.— Expedition of Count Teleki through 
 Masailand, having for its most important result 
 the discovery of the Basso-Narok. or Black lake. 
 to which the discoverer gave the name of lake 
 Rudolf, and lake Stefanie. 
 
 1888. — Chartering of the Imperial British East 
 .Africa company, under concessions granted by the 
 sultan of Zanzibar and by native chiefs, with 
 powers of administration over a region defined 
 ultimately as extending from the river Umba 
 northward to the river Juba. and inland to and 
 across lake Victoria near its middle to the eastern 
 boundary of the Congo Free State. 
 
 1888. — British supremacy over Matabeleland se- 
 cured by treaty with its King Lobengula. 
 
 1888. — British protectorate extended over .Ama- 
 tongaland. 
 
 1888. — Ascent of Mt Kilimanjaro by Mr. Ehlers 
 and Dr. .Abbott ; also by Dr. Hans Meyer. 
 
 1888. — Travels of Joseph Thomson in the .Atlas 
 and southern Morocco. 
 
 1889. — Royal charter granted to the British 
 South Africa company, with rights and powers 
 in the region called Zambezia north of British 
 Bechuanaland and the South .African republic, and 
 between the Portuguese territory on the east and 
 the German territory on the west. 
 
 1889. — Will of King Leopold, making Belgium 
 
 heir to the sovereign rights of the Congo Free 
 State. 
 
 1889. — Protectorate of Italy over Abyssinia ac- 
 knowledged by the Negus. 
 
 1889. — Portuguese Roman Catholic mission es- 
 tablished on the south shore of lake Nyasa. Por- 
 tuguese exploration under Serpa Pinto in the lake 
 Nyasa region, with designs of occupancy frus- 
 trated by the British. 
 
 1889. — Journey of M. Crampel from the Ogowe 
 to the Likuala tributary of the Congo, and return 
 directly westward to the coast. 
 
 1889. — Di. Wolf's exploration of the southeast 
 Niger basin, where he met his death. 
 
 1889. — Major Macdonald's exploration of the 
 Benue, sometimes called the Tchadda (a branch 
 ot the Niger), and of its tributary the Kebbi. 
 
 1889. — Journey of Mr. H. H. Johnston north of 
 lake Nyasa and to lake Leopold. 
 
 1889. — Journey of Mr. Sharpe through the coun- 
 try lying between the Shire and Loangwa rivers. 
 
 1889. — Mr. Pigott's journey to the Upper Tana, 
 in the service of the Imperial British East Africa 
 company. 
 
 1889-1890.— British protectorate declared over 
 Nyasaland and the Shire highlands. 
 
 1889-1890. — Italian protectorate established over 
 territory on the eastern (oceanic) Somali coast, 
 from the gulf of Aden to the Juba river. 
 
 1889-1890.— Imperial British East .Africa com- 
 pany's expedition, under Jackson and Gedge, for 
 the exploring of a new road to the Victoria Ny- 
 anza and Uganda. 
 
 1889-1890. — Captain Lugard's exploration of the 
 river Sabaki for the Imperial British East Africa 
 company. 
 
 1889-1890. — Journey of Lieutenant ilorgen from 
 the Cameroons. on the western coast to the Benue. 
 
 1889-1890. — French explorations in Madagascar 
 by Dr. Catat and MM. Maistre and Foucart. 
 
 1890. — .Anglo-German convention, defmin; bound- 
 aries of the territories and "spheres of influence" 
 respectively claimed by the two powers; Germany 
 withdrawing from Wiiu, and from all the eastern 
 mainland coast north of the river Tana, and con- 
 ceding a British protectorate over Zanzibar, in 
 exchange for the island of Heligoland in the North 
 sea. 
 
 1890. — French "sphere of influence" extending 
 over the Sahara and the Sudan, from Algeria to 
 lake Chad and to Say on the Niger, recognized 
 by Great Britain. 
 
 1890. — Exploration of the river Sangha, an im- 
 portant northern tributarv of the Congo, by 
 M. Cholet. 
 
 1890. — Exploring journey of M. Hodislcr, agent 
 of the Upper Congo company, up the Lomami 
 river and across country to the Lualaba, at 
 N\angwe. 
 
 1890. — Journey of Mr. Garrett in the interior 
 of Sierra Leone to the upper waters of the Niger. 
 
 1890. — Journey of Dr. Fleck from the western 
 coast across the Kalihuri to lake Ngami. 
 
 1890-1891. — Italian possessions in the Red sea 
 united in the colony of Eritrea. 
 
 1890-1891. — Mission of Captain Lugard to 
 Uganda and signature of a treaty by its king 
 acknowledging the supremacy of the British East 
 Africa company. 
 
 1890-1891. — Exploration by M. Paul Crampel of 
 the central region between the French territories 
 on the Congo and Lake Chad, ending in the mur- 
 der of M. Crampel and several of his companions. 
 
 1890-1891. — Journey of Mr. Sharpe from Man- 
 dala, in the Shire highlands, to Garenganze, the 
 empire founded by an .African adventurer, Msidi, 
 
 98
 
 AFRICA, 1890-1891 
 
 Exploration 
 Settlement 
 
 AFRICA, 1893-1894 
 
 in the Katanga copper country, between lake 
 Mweru and the Luapula river on the east, and 
 the Lualaba on the west. 
 
 1890-1891. — Journey of Lieutenant Mizon from 
 the Niger to the Congo. 
 
 1890-1891. — Journey of Captain Becker from 
 Vambuya, on the Aruwimi, north-northwest to 
 the Welle. 
 
 1890-1892. — Italian explorations in the Somali 
 countries by Signor Robecchi, Lieutenant Baudi 
 di Vesme, Prince Ruspoli, and Captains Bottego 
 and Grixoni. 
 
 1890-1893. — Expedition of Dr. Stuhlmann, with 
 Emin Pasha, from Bagamoyo, via the Victoria 
 Nyanza and the Albert Edward, to the plateau 
 west of the Albert Nyanza. From this point Dr. 
 Stuhlmann returned, while Emin pursued his way, 
 intending, it is said, to reach Kibonge, on the right 
 bank of the Congo, south of Stanley falls. He 
 was murdered at Kinena, 150 miles northeast of 
 Kibonge, by the order of an Arab chief. 
 
 1891. — E-xtension of the British protectorate of 
 Lagos over the neighboring districts of Addo, 
 Igbessa, and Ilaro, which form the western bound- 
 ary of Yoruba. 
 
 1891. — Treaty between Great Britain and Portu- 
 gal defining their possessions ; conceding to the 
 former an interior extension of her South .'\frican 
 dominion up to the southern boundary of the 
 Congo Free State, and securing to the latter de- 
 fined territories on the Lower Zambezi, the Lower 
 Shire, and the Nyasa, as well as the large block 
 of her possessions on the western coast. 
 
 1891. — Convention between Portugal and the 
 Congo Free State for the division of the disputed 
 district of Lunda. 
 
 1891. — Convention of the Congo Free State with 
 the Katanga company, an international syndicate, 
 giving the company preferential rights over re- 
 puted mines in Katanga and Urua, with a third 
 of the public domain, provided it established an 
 effective occupation within three years. 
 
 1891. — French annexation of the Gold Coast be- 
 tween I^iberia and the Grand Bassam. 
 
 1891. — Opening of the Royal Trans-African rail- 
 way, in West Africa, from Loanda to Ambaca, 1^0 
 miles. 
 
 1891. — Survey of a railway route from the east- 
 ern coast to Victoria lake by the Imperial British 
 East Africa company. 
 
 1891. — Exploration of the Juba river, in the 
 Somali country, by Commander Dundas. 
 
 1891. — Exploration by Captain Dundas, from the 
 eastern coast, up the river Tana to Mount Kenia 
 
 1891. — Mr. Bent's exploration of the ruined cities 
 of Mashonaland. 
 
 1891. — Journey of M. Maistre from the Congo 
 to the Shari. 
 
 1891.^ — Journeys of Captain Gallwey in the Benin 
 country. West Africa. 
 
 1891. — Mission established by the Berlin Mission- 
 ary Society in the Konde country, at the northern 
 end of lake Nyasa. 
 
 1891-1892. — Incorporation of the African Lakes 
 company with the British South .Africa company. 
 Organization of the administration of northern 
 Zambezia and Nyasaland. 
 
 1891-1892. — Expedition of the Katanga company, 
 under Captain Stairs, from Bagamoyo to lake 
 Tankanyika, thence through the country at the 
 head of the most southern affluents of the Congo, 
 the Lualaba and the Luapula. 
 
 1891-1892. — Belgian expeditions under Captain 
 Bia and others to explore the southea^^tem por- 
 tion of the Congo basin, on behalf of the Katanga 
 company, resulting in the determination of the 
 
 fact that the Lukuga river is an outlet of Lake 
 Tanganyika. 
 
 1891-1892.— Journey of Dr. James Johnston 
 across the continent, from Benguela to the mouth 
 of the Zambezi, through Bihe, Ganguela, Barotse, 
 the Kalihari desert, Mashonaland, Manica, Goron- 
 goza, Nyasa, and the Shire highlands. 
 
 1891-1892.— Expedition of Mr. Joseph Thomson, 
 for the British South .Africa company, from Kili- 
 manc or Quillimane on the eastern coast to lake 
 Bangweolo. 
 
 1891-1892. — Journey of Captain Monteil from 
 the Niger to lake Chad and to Tripoli. 
 
 1891-1892.— Exploration by Lieutenant Chaltin 
 of the river Lulu, and the country between the 
 Aruwimi and the Welle Makua rivers, in the 
 Congo State. 
 
 1891-1893. — Journey of Dr. Oscar Baumann 
 from Tanga, on the eastern coast; passing to the 
 south of Kilimanjaro, discovering two lakes be- 
 tween that mountain and the Victoria Nyanza. 
 
 1891-1894. — Expedition under the command of 
 Captain Van Kerckhoven and M. de la KethuUe 
 de Ryhove, fitted out by the Congo Free State, 
 for the subjugation of the Arabs, the suppression 
 of the slave trade, and the exploration of the 
 country, throughout the region of the Welle or 
 Ubanghi Welle and to the Nile. 
 
 1892. — Decision of the Imperial British East 
 .'\frica company to withdraw from Uganda. 
 
 1892. — Practical conquest of Dahomey by the 
 French, 
 
 1892. — Journey of M. Mery in the Sahara to 
 the south of Wargla, resulting in a report favor- 
 able to the construction of a railway to tap the 
 Central Sudan. 
 
 1892. — French expedition under Captain Binger 
 to explore the southern Sudan, and to act con- 
 jointly with British officials in determining the 
 boundary between French and English yjossessions. 
 
 1892. — Journey of Mr. Sharpe from the Shire 
 river to lake Mweru and the Upper Luapula. 
 
 1892-1893. — Construction of a line of telegraph, 
 by the British South ."Xfrican company, from 
 Cape Colony, through Ma.shonaland, to Fort Salis- 
 bury, with projected extension across the Zambezi 
 and -by the side of lakes Nyasa and Tanganyika to 
 Uganda, — and ultimately down the valley of the 
 Nile. 
 
 1892-1893. — French scientific mission, under M. 
 Decle, from Cape Town to the sources of the Nile. 
 
 1892-1893. — Italian explorations, under Captain 
 Bottego and Prince Ruspoli, in the upper basin of 
 the river Juba. 
 
 1893. — Brussels antislavery conference, ratified in 
 its action by the Powers. 
 
 1893. — Official mission of Sir Gerald Porter to 
 L'ganda, sent by the British government to report 
 - as to the expediency of the withdrawal of British 
 authority from that country. 
 
 1893. — Scientific expedition of Mr. Scott-Elliot 
 to Uganda. 
 
 1893. — Scientific expedition of Dr. Gregory, of 
 the British Museum, from Mombasa, on the east- 
 ern coast, through Masailand to Mt. Kenia. 
 
 1893. — Journey of Mr. Bent to .^ksum, in Abys- 
 sinia, the ancient capit.al and sacred city of the 
 Ethiopi.ms. 
 
 1893-1894. — German scientific survey of Mt. Kili- 
 manjaro, under Drs. Lent and Volken.s. 
 
 1893-1894. — Expedition of Mr. .\stor Chanler 
 and Lieutenant von Hiilincl from Witu, on the 
 eastern coast, to the Jombini range and among 
 the Rendile 
 
 1893-1894. — Explorations of Baron von Uechtritz 
 and Dr. Passarge on the Beniie. 
 
 99
 
 AFRICA, 1893-1894 
 
 Exploration 
 Settlement 
 
 AFRICA, 1897 
 
 1893-1894. — Journey of Baron von Scheie from 
 the eastern coast to lake Nyasa, and thence by a 
 direct route to Kihsa. 
 
 1893-1894. — Journey of Count von Gotzen across 
 the continent, from Dar-es-Salaam, on the eastern 
 coast, to the Lower Congo. 
 
 1894. — Treaty between Great Britain and the 
 Congo Free State, securing to the former a strip 
 of land on the west side of the Nile between the 
 Albert Xyanza and io° north latitude, and to the 
 latter the large Bahr-el-Ghazal region, westward. 
 This convention gave offense to France, and that 
 country immediately exacted from the Congo Free 
 State a treaty stipulating that the latter shall not 
 occupy or exercise political influence in a region 
 which covers most of the territory assigned to it 
 by the treaty with Great Britain. 
 
 1894. — Franco-German treaty, determining the 
 boundary line of the Cameroons, or Kamerun. 
 
 1894. — Treaty concluded by Captain Lugard, 
 November lo, at Nikki, in Borgu, confirming the 
 rights claimed by the Royal Niger company over 
 Borgu, and placing that country under British 
 protection. 
 
 1894. — AL'reement between the British South 
 Africa company and the government of Great 
 Britain, signed November 24, 1894, transferring 
 to the direct administration of the company the 
 protectorate of Nyasaland, thereby extending its 
 domain to the south end of lake Tanganyika. 
 
 1894.— Renewed war of France with the Hovas 
 of Madagascar. 
 
 1894. — Expedition of Dr. Donaldson Smith from 
 the Somali coast, stopped and turned back by the 
 .\byssinians, in December. 
 
 1894. — Completed conquest of Dahomey by the 
 French; capture of the deposed king, January 25, 
 and his deportation to exile in Martinique. De- 
 cree of the French government, June 22, directing 
 the administrative organization of the "colony of 
 Dahomey and dependencies." 
 
 1894. — Occupation of Timbuktu by a French 
 force. 
 
 1894. — Journey of Count von Gotzen across the 
 continent, from the eastern coast, through Ruanda 
 and the great forest to and along the Lowa, an 
 eastern tributary of the Congo. 
 
 1894. — Exploration of the Upper Congo and the 
 Lukuga by Mr. R. Dorsey Mohun, .American agent 
 on the Congo, and Dr. Hinde. 
 
 1894. — Scientific expedition of Mr. Coryndon 
 from the Cape to the Zambezi and lake Tan- 
 ganyika. 
 
 1894-1895. — War of the Italians in their colony 
 of Eritrea with both the .•\byssinians and the 
 Mahdists. Italian occupation of Kassala. See 
 Italy: 1805-1896. 
 
 1895. — Franco-British agreement, signed January 
 21, 1805, respecting the "hinterland" of Sierra 
 Leone, which secures to France the Upper Niger 
 basin. 
 
 1895. — Convention between Belgium and France 
 signed Februar>' s, recognizing a right of preemp- 
 tion on the part of the latter, with regard to the 
 Congo State, in case Belgium should at any time 
 renounce the sovereignty which King Leopold 
 transferred to it. 
 
 1895. — Several Bechuana chiefs visited England 
 to urge that their country should not be absorbed 
 by Cape Colony or the British South .\frica com- 
 pany. An agreement was made with them which 
 reserved certain territories to each, but yielded 
 the remainder to the administration of the British 
 South .Africa company. 
 
 1895. — The territories previously administered by 
 the Imperial British East Africa company (except- 
 
 ing the Uganda protectorate, which had been trans- 
 ferred in 1804) were finally transferred to the 
 British government on July i. At the same time, 
 the dominion of the sultan of Zanzibar on the 
 mainland came under the administrative control 
 of the British consul-general at Zanzibar. 
 
 1895. — Proceedings for the annexation of British 
 Bechuanaland to Cape Colony were adopted by 
 the Cape parliament in August. 
 
 1895. — In June, M. Chaudie was appointed gov- 
 ernor-general of French West Africa, his jurisdic- 
 tion extending over Senegal, the Sudan possessions 
 of France, French Guinea, Dahomey, and other 
 French possessions in the gulf of Benin. 
 
 1895. — A resolution making overtures for a fed- 
 eral union with the Transvaal was passed by the 
 Volksraad of the Orange Free State in June. 
 
 1895. — By a proclamation in February, the 
 Transvaal government assumed the administration 
 of Swaziland and installed King Buna as para- 
 mount chief. 
 
 1895. — A strip of territory west of Amatonga- 
 land, along the Pondoland river to the Maputa 
 was formally added to Zululand in May, the South 
 .African republic protesting. 
 
 1895-1896. — The Portuguese were involved in 
 war with Gungunhana, king of Gazaland, which 
 lasted from September, 1805, until the following 
 spring, when Gungunhana was captured and car- 
 ried a prisoner, with his wives and son, to Lisbon. 
 
 1895-1897.— Creation of British East Africa. See 
 British East Africa: 1805-1897. 
 
 1896. — British protectorate over Sierra Leone; 
 hut tax; insurrection of natives. See Sierra Leone: 
 1896. 
 
 1896. — On the sudden death (supposed to be 
 from poison) of the sultan of Zanzibar, .August 
 25, his cousin. Said Khalid, seized the palace and 
 proclaimed himself sultan. Zanzibar being an 
 acknowledged protectorate of Great Britain, the 
 usurper was summoned by the British consul to 
 surrender. He refused, and the palace was bom- 
 barded by war vessels in the harbor, with such 
 effect that the palace was speedily destroyed and 
 about 500 of its inmates killed. Khalid fled to the 
 German consul, who protected him and had him 
 conveyed to German territory. A new sultan. 
 Said Hamud-bin-Mahomed, was at once pro- 
 claimed. 
 
 1897. — The Congo troops of an expedition led 
 by Baron Dhanis mutinied and murdered a num- 
 ber of Belgian officers. Subsequently they were 
 attacked in the neighborhood of lake .Albert Ed- 
 ward Nyanza and mostly destroyed. 
 
 1897. — By a convention concluded in July be- 
 tween Germany and France, the boundary between 
 German possessions in Togoland and those of 
 France in Dahomey and the Sudan was defined. 
 
 1897. — In January and February, the forces of 
 the Royal Niger company successfully invaded the 
 strong Fula states of Nupe and Ilorin, from which 
 slave raiding in the territor*' under British pro- 
 tection was carried on. Bida, the Nupe capital, 
 was entered on January 27, after a battle in which 
 800 Hausa troops, led by European officers, and 
 using heavy artillery, drove from the field an army 
 of cavalry and foot estimated at 30,000 in num- 
 ber. The emir of Nupe was deposed, another set 
 up in his place, and a treaty signed which es- 
 tablished British rule. The emir of Ilorin sub- 
 mitted after his town had been bombarded, and 
 bowed himself to British authority in his govern- 
 ment. .At the <;ame time, a treaty settled the 
 Lagos frontier. Later in the year, the stronghold 
 at Kifti of another slave-raider, Arku, was 
 stormed and burned 
 
 TOO
 
 AFRICA, lf)TH CENTURY 
 
 European 
 Possessions 
 
 AFRICA, 19T11 CENTURY 
 
 1897. — Under pressure from the British govern- 
 ment, the sultan of Zanzibar issued a decree, on 
 April 6, i8g7, terminating the legal status of slav- 
 ery, with compensation to be awarded on proof 
 of consequent loss. 
 
 1897. — By act of the Natal parliament in De- 
 cember, i8q7, Zululand (with Amatongaland al- 
 ready joined to it) was annexed to Natal Colony, 
 and Dinizulu, son of the last Zulu king, was 
 brought from captivity in St. Helena and rein- 
 stated. 
 
 1899-1902.— Boer War. 
 
 1901. — British control over Somaliland. See 
 British East .'\frica: iqoo-iqoi. 
 
 1904. — Anglo-French agreement concerning Egypt 
 and Morocco. 
 
 1905. — Railroads. See Cape to Cairo railway. 
 
 1906. — Algeciras conference. 
 
 1909. — Establishment of the Union of South 
 Africa. See Sou"th Africa, Union of. 
 
 1911. — Franco-German agreement concerning 
 Morocco. 
 
 1911. — Accjuisition of part of French Congo. See 
 Germany: igii: Acquisition of part of French 
 Congo. 
 
 1911. — Italian occupation of Tripoli. See Italy: 
 
 IQII. 
 
 1913. — German colonies. — Anglo-German agree- 
 ments. See World War: Diplomatic background: 
 71, xii. 
 
 1918. — Campaigns in East Africa during World 
 War. See World War: igiS: VII. East African 
 theater: a. 
 
 1919. — Repartition of Africa in consequence of 
 the World War. Nationalist movements in Egypt 
 and Union of South Africa. See Egypt: igig; 
 and South Africa, Union or: igig. 
 
 1920. — Organization of German East Africa un- 
 der British rule. See Tanganyika territory. 
 
 1921. — British East Africa re-named Kenya ter- 
 ritory (q. v.) Cape-to-Cairo aerial mail route es- 
 tablished. See Aviation: 1021. 
 
 Early 19th century: European possessions In 
 Africa. — In the year 1815 "the eleven and one- 
 half million square miles of Africa formed no part 
 of the great world settlement after the Napoleonic 
 wars. The European State had scarcely pene- 
 trated anywhere into the Continent. On the whole 
 northern coast Europe had no footing at all, for 
 Turkey is not a part of Europe. The whole of 
 the west coast was 'independent' except for the 
 following minute European claims or encroach- 
 ments: I, France possessed the Senegal coast from 
 Cape Blanco to the Gambia, but had nowhere 
 penetrated inland except for a short distance along 
 the Senegal River; 2, Britain had possession of 
 small patches of territory on the Gambia, and the 
 Gold Coast and in Sierra Leone; 3, Portugal 
 claimed territory stretching from what is now 
 the southern boundary of French Congo down 
 to Cape Frio, but she actually occupied only a 
 few places on the coast in what is now Angola. 
 She also possessed the Cape Verde Islands and 
 a small extent of territory in Portuguese Guinea ; 
 4, Spain held Fernando Po, and Denmark and 
 Holland a few stations on the coast. 
 
 "In the whole of the rest of Africa there were 
 only two places where the European State had 
 set foot. In the south Britain occupied 120,000 
 square miles of territory in her Cape Colony, and 
 on the east coast Portugal had an undefined claim 
 to a strip of the coast between Lourenqo Marques 
 and Cape Delgado. Thus in 1815 Europe's claims 
 to African territory amounted to considerably less 
 than 500,000 square miles. . . . But we must re- 
 turn to the period 1815-80. The increase in the 
 
 territory dominated by the European State was 
 due entirely to the French conquest of Algeria 
 in the north, and to the extension of the British 
 colony in the south. There was no change upon 
 the western and eastern coasts of Africa." — L. 
 Woolf, Empire and commerce in Ajrica, pp. 55-Sg. 
 
 Later 19th century: Partitioning of Africa 
 among European powers. — "For centuries, col- 
 onisation in Africa was confined to the coast. 
 Though the Portuguese traversed the continent 
 from Angola and Mozambique, their occupation 
 of the interior was never effective, and even on 
 the coast their claims were ill-defined. Africa 
 possessed few attractions. It had been drawn 
 into the life of Europe only because it offered har- 
 bours on the route to India, a source of supply 
 for the rough labour needed in tropical colonies, 
 and a scanty trade in such commodities as palm- 
 oil and gold-dust. During the middle years of the 
 nineteenth century, France was active and ambi- 
 tious in Africa. She established her power in Al- 
 geria, and, extending her influence also along the 
 Senegal to the source of the Niger, planned the 
 union of these dependencies in a great West Afri- 
 can empire. In South Africa England had strong 
 colonies; but, with a dominion vaster than public 
 sentiment approved, she refused to extend her 
 dominion northwards where Dutch exiles were 
 planting new States. In her West African settle- 
 ments she took little interest. . . . Gambia, Sierra 
 Leone, the Gold Coast, and Lagos, which was 
 acquired in 1861, formed the group; from all of 
 which, save Sierra Leone, England trusted ulti- 
 mately to withdraw. But destiny was too strong 
 for her. First the Danes (1850), and then the 
 Dutch (1871), handed over their forts, and thus 
 left her for the time the only Power established 
 on the historic Guinea coast. As the trade in 
 tropical commodities increased, the English de- 
 veloped commercial interests on the Niger mouth, 
 in the Cameroons, and in Zanzibar, which in- 
 terests German merchants came to share. [See 
 also British empire: Expansion: igth century: 
 Africa.] 
 
 "Meanwhile, a generation of great explorers was 
 opening the way for the rapid occupation of Af- 
 rica. When Livingstone died in 1873, the chief 
 problems of African geography were near to their 
 solution. Stanley, De Brazza, Thomson, and other 
 bold travellers, completed the work. The courses 
 of the Niger, the Nile, and the Congo were made 
 known, and the commercial value of the interior 
 regions of a neglected continent was revealed. 
 Signs of a new period dawning followed each 
 other quickly. The English changed their policy 
 in South Africa; the French increased their ac- 
 tivity in West Africa. In i87g. King Leopold of 
 Belgium formed the Brussels International Asso- 
 ciation for the exploration of Central Africa. 
 This body divided itself into national committees, 
 of which the Belgian concentrated itself on the 
 Congo and prepared the way for the Congo State. 
 In 1882 England commenced that fateful inter- 
 vention in Egypt which led on to a protectorate, 
 to the conquest of the Egyptian Sudan, and the 
 control of the upper waters of the Nile. Most 
 significant of all was the entrance of Germany 
 into the colonial field. ... In 1878 the German 
 African Society, and in 1882 the German Colonial 
 Society, were formed. The arguments of mer- 
 chants with substantial interests in Africa, the 
 commercial needs of a great empire, the course 
 of events in Africa, at last convinced Bismarck 
 that the time had come for action. In Damara- 
 land and N'amaqualand German missionaries had 
 taught, and German merchants traded, for forty 
 
 lOI
 
 AFRICA, lO.'.Il CliNTUKT 
 
 European 
 Possessions 
 
 AFRICA, I'Jl'H CENTURY 
 
 years; and, since Great Britain hesitated to under- 
 take the responsibihties of government outside of 
 Walfisch Bay, a German protectorate was in 18S4 
 proclaimed over the remainder of the coast. To- 
 goland and the Cameroons also were immediately 
 afterwards annexed; and Great Britain, thus antic- 
 ipated in several quarters, now hastened to ex- 
 tend her sovereignty over the mouths of the Niger 
 and the Oil rivers. It was in these circumstances 
 that in 1SS4 an international Conference assembled 
 at Berlin to con.sider certain African questions. 
 The main interest was concentrated on the Congo. 
 The State which King Leopold had created re- 
 ceived recognition, and the Congo basin was de- 
 clared open to the trade and navigation of all 
 nations. All the Powers concerned bound them- 
 selves to suppress the slave trade. They declared 
 occupation of territory to be valid only when 
 effective, and they defined a 'sphere of influence' 
 as an area within which some one Power possessed 
 a priority of claim. This preliminary agreement 
 facilitated very much the peaceful settlement of 
 the subsequent territorial controversies. 
 
 "Africa is not divided into very clearly marked 
 geographical areas, but the problems of partition 
 have had certain defniite centres and are capable 
 of being grouped. West Africa, the western Sudan, 
 and the Niger basin formed one sphere of opera- 
 tions; the Congo Basin another; the upper Nile 
 and the region of the great lakes a third; Africa 
 south of the Congo and the lakes a fourth. Out- 
 side of these there remain Morocco, the Mediter- 
 ranean littoral, Abyssinia, Somaliland, and the 
 surrounding islands." — Cambridge modern history, 
 V. 12, pp. 257-25g. — See also Slavery: Negro; 
 South Africa, Union or; Sudan. 
 
 West Africa, western Sudan and Niger basin. 
 — "In West Africa, the French, extending along 
 the Senegal to the upper waters of the Niger, 
 broke the power of the independent native states, 
 once part of a great Moslem empire in Central 
 .■\frira which barred the way, and in 1S81 estab- 
 lished a protectorate over the left bank of the 
 upper Niger. They occupied points on the coast 
 between the existing settlements of the English 
 and Portuguese, which they linked up with their 
 acquisitions in the interior. They overthrew the 
 kingdom of Dahomey in 1892-4, and in 1803 en- 
 tered Timbuktu. Tlius, by their earlier and su- 
 perior energy, they secured the upper Niger and 
 much of the country within its great bend; while 
 closing the door on the expansion of the English 
 and Portuguese settlements, whose natural hin- 
 terland this would have been. On the lower Niger 
 the course of events was different. The English 
 merchants established there united in 1879 to form 
 a single company, which, after a severe struggle, 
 defeated and bought out a rivah French institution. 
 By Treaties with the Sultans of Sokoto and 
 Gando (1885), it secured access to the Benuo and 
 Lake Chad, which the Germans, operating from 
 the Cameroons, were preparing to close. In 1886 
 it received a charter of incorporation as the Royal 
 Niger Company, and untlertook the task of pene- 
 trating and administering an immense country. 
 A triple contest had now begun for the trade of 
 the central Sudan. The French from the west, the 
 English up the Niger and Benuc, the Germans 
 from the Cameroons, all pressed towards Lake 
 Chad, where they met, and, by a series of agree- 
 ments between i886 and igo6, divided their 
 spheres of influence. England left to Germany 
 the area between the Cameroons and British East 
 Africa, which Germany divided with Fraace, re- 
 signing to her the territory east of the Shari and 
 making her England's neighbour in Darfur and 
 
 Bahr-el-Gazal. France (hus gained the oppor- 
 tunity of extending her North African empire to 
 the Nile and the Congo; but, while she linked up 
 the French Congo with her other possessions, her 
 advance to the Nile was frustrated by the simul- 
 taneous approach of the English southwards from 
 Egypt. 
 
 "Thus has North-western Africa been divided 
 up [1919]. In the northern corner lies the un- 
 tamed empire of Morocco whose trade and sea- 
 ports have proved a dangerous cause of dispute 
 amongst the Powers. Then Spain holds Tiris, and 
 the English the river Gambia, though its trade is 
 now largely in French hands; while, between 
 Cape Roxo and the river Cajet, Portugal retains 
 a last foothold on the coast which her navigators 
 first explored. Save for these two places, the 
 French hold all the coast from Cape Blanco to the 
 English colony of Sierra Leone, now an important 
 commercial emporium through which much trade 
 with the interior passes. Liberia, a Negro republic, 
 adjoins it, while on the historic Ivory Coast the 
 French again are established. The Gold Coast 
 retains its ancient name, though it has added a 
 considerable hinterland. It still yields gold with 
 other more valuable products, but suffers from 
 want of means of communication. In Togoland, 
 as in the Cameroons, the Germans have made con- 
 siderable progress. To the east lies the territory 
 subjugaterl by the French in 1892-4, and east of 
 that the colony of Lagos, now included in Nigeria. 
 In iQoo, the Royal Niger Company, after con- 
 quering the Sultan of Nupe in 1897, surrendered 
 its political privileges to the Crown; and the vast 
 areas which it had governed, together with Lagos 
 and the Oil rivers, were formed into the two pro- 
 tectorates of Northern and Southern Nigeria. 
 Shortlived as it was, it takes a place amongst the 
 great commercial companies which have extended 
 and upheld imperial as well as trading interests in 
 distant and difficult lands, in the face of severe 
 rivalries and great financial difficulties. Envelop- 
 ing Nigeria and the Cameroons as well as the 
 older and smaller settlements, and stretching from 
 the Mediterranean in the north and the Atlantic in 
 the west to Darfur and the Congo east and 
 south, sweeps the great dominion of the French, 
 to whom has fallen the interior, immense in area 
 though often of little value. In igo2, it was 
 divided into five administrative territories, with 
 a Governor-General resident at Dakar." — Cam- 
 bridge modern history, v. 12. 
 
 Upper Nile and region of tue great lakes. — 
 "Between the Portuguese settlement of Mozam- 
 bique in the south and Somaliland in the north, 
 the Sultan of Zanzibar ruled, having control of 
 the coast and vague claims over the interior. The 
 commerce of his kingdom was largely in the 
 hands of English and Indian merchants, and its 
 administration was in 1878, and again in 1881, 
 offered to the British Government. In the par- 
 tition of Africa, his territories have been divided 
 between England and Germany. Though England 
 and France had agreed in 1862 to recognise the in- 
 dependence of Zanzibar, German emissaries in 
 1884, taking advantage of the weakness of the 
 Sultan's position in the interior, negotiated trea- 
 ties with some of the inland tribes, and, in 1885, 
 a German East Africa Company was formed to 
 develop the territop.- thus acquired. About the 
 same time a British East Africa Company was 
 formed, and the two associations were soon in 
 competition. An Anglo-German agreement in 
 1886 made the first delimitation of their respective 
 spheres, and confined the Sultan's territory to a 
 narrow strip of coast ... on parts of which both 
 
 102
 
 AFRICA, 1884-1899 
 
 European 
 Agreements 
 
 AFRICA, 1884-1899 
 
 Powers speedily obtained leases, lasting for two 
 years (1888-9)." The result was the supersession 
 of the company by the Imperial German Gov- 
 ernment and the purchase from the sultan of the 
 leased territory (1890). "The claims which the 
 Germans had acquired on various parts of the 
 coast and in the interior placed them in a posi- 
 tion to circumvent the English on the north and 
 west, and to gain access to the upper Nile. ' By 
 an important agreement in iSgo, which settled 
 many difficulties, their sphere was more expressly 
 delimited. They surrendered their claims on the 
 coast between VVitu and the river Jub. The 
 northern boundary of their territory was carried 
 from the Victoria Nyanza to the Congo State, 
 excluding them from the upper Nile ; and a Hne 
 was drawn on the south from Lake Nyasa to Lake 
 Tanganyika dividing their possessions from British 
 Central Africa. The British Government declared 
 a protectorate over the islands of Pemba and 
 Zanzibar, and the dominions of the Sultan were 
 thus finally partitioned. While Germany thus 
 withdrew from the contest for the upper Nile, 
 France and the Congo State remained as rivals 
 of Great Britain. In 1890, the British East Africa 
 Company, which had received a charter in 1888, 
 asserted its authority in Uganda — a country di- 
 vided at the time by fierce feuds of a mixed re- 
 ligious and political character. The resources of 
 the Company proved unequal to the task, and 
 two years later it withdrew; but its action resulted 
 in the proclamation of a British protectorate in 
 1894. In the following year, the Company, which 
 had remained in control of the coast, sold its 
 assets to the State, and the British East Africa 
 Protectorate was formed. To this Company the 
 British owe their position in East Africa, for, 
 though it never prospered, it carried British in- 
 fluence into the interior, and, when it failed, 
 stronger hands took up its work. England thus 
 secured her position on the upper Nile, and, by 
 leasing the Lado enclave to King Leopold, en- 
 abled him also to attain an end which he had 
 sought since 1SS4. But the arrangement which 
 had been made by the two Powers in 1S94 — 
 that King Leopold should have the Bahr-el-Gazal 
 basin and Great Britain a strip of territory be- 
 tween the Albert Nyanza and Tanganyika, link- 
 ing up her East and Central African possessions — 
 was rescinded, in consequence of the opposition 
 of France and Germany. The attempt of the 
 French to reach the Nile at Fashoda was foiled 
 by the English conquest of the Sudan (1898). 
 Experience has shown that East Africa is of more 
 commercial value than Uganda, and, owing to its 
 altitude, capable in part of European settlement. 
 In 189S, the construction of a railway was begun 
 from Mombasa to the Victoria Nyanza, which it 
 reached in 1902. The possession of Uganda is 
 of great political importance, since it both secures 
 the command of the upper Nile and offers to the 
 spread of Islamic movements the barrier of a 
 Christian native State." — Cambridge modern his- 
 tory, V. 12. 
 
 Congo basin. — "In the Congo basin, an inter- 
 national . . . undertaking issued in the formation 
 of an independent State, which, in the process of 
 time, has become a Belgian dependency. The 
 labours of English and American explorers pre- 
 pared the way for its foundation ; but the State 
 itself was organised by King Leopold, who?e posi- 
 tion as its sovereign was recognised by the Berlin 
 Conference and the Great Powers. By successful 
 war and more successful diplomacy, he enlarged 
 its territories and raised its status. . . . The Congo 
 State was in 1908 transferred to Belgium, and its 
 
 rulers have thus become responsible to the public 
 opinion of a nation." — Cambridge modern history, 
 
 V. 12. 
 
 Southern Africa. — "Africa south of the Congo 
 State and the great lakes has been divided be- 
 tween the Portuguese operating from their his- 
 toric settlements, the English advancing north- 
 wards from Cape Colony, and the Germans. The 
 ambition which the Portuguese cnerished to unite 
 Angola and Mozambique in a transcontinental do- 
 minion was frustrated by the activity of the Eng- 
 lish in Central Africa. Since 1878, English mis- 
 sionaries and traders had established interests in 
 the region between Lakes Nyassa, Tanganyika, 
 and Bangweolo. This region the Portuguese en- 
 deavored to secure, and an important expedition 
 was dispatched under Major Serpa Pinto to extend 
 their claims in the Zambesi basin (1889). In 
 1S91, an Anglo-Portuguese agreement divided the 
 disputed territory. Mashonaland was secured to 
 the British South Africa Company, and a British 
 protectorate was formed in Central Africa, a large 
 part of which was in 1894 added to the Com- 
 pany's sphere of operations. The share which 
 Portugal has thus obtained in the partition of 
 Africa, though not commensurate with her his- 
 torical place in its occupation, has been more than 
 commensurate with her capacity to develop its 
 resources. . . . The Anglo-German agreements of 
 1885 and 1890, and a German-Portuguese agree- 
 ment in 1 886, fixed its boundaries, bringing it at 
 one point to the Zambesi. But the colony has 
 proved expensive and disappointing. Namaqualand 
 is dry and barren, though Damaraland is capable 
 of development and, possibly, of European settle- 
 ment. In 1904 a serious revolt of the Hottentots 
 and Hereros arrested their progress, and has only 
 recently been suppressed." — Cambridge modern his- 
 tory, V. 12. 
 
 Eastern area. — "In the eastern horn of Africa 
 Italy marked out for herself a sphere of expan- 
 sion. Occupying first the bay of Assab in 1870, 
 she secured her hold in 18S2, and extended her 
 influence along the Red Sea coast to Obok, where 
 the French had established themselves in 1862. 
 The dependency of Eretrea thus created proved 
 expensive; but the Italians intended to use it as 
 a base from which to penetrate Abyssinia. That 
 mountain kingdom lay aloof and independent. 
 In 1868 it had been involved in war with England. 
 When the proud warrior king, Theodore, offended 
 by the action of the British Government, threw 
 the British consul and other European residents 
 into prison, Abyssinia was invaded and Magdala 
 stormed; but no lasting intervention followed. 
 Italy was less happy. Near Adowah, in 1896, her 
 forces suffered a disastrous defeat and her inten- 
 tion was foiled. Meanwhile, on the other side 
 of the horn she established a protectorate over 
 a large part of Somaliland, where she found a 
 rival in Great Britain, with whom the country 
 was divided. The prosperity of British Somali- 
 land was disturbed by a destructive war, which 
 broke out in zqoi"— Cambridge modern history, 
 I, 12. — For European occupation of the Mediter- 
 ranean area, see Morocco; Algeria; Tunis; 
 Libya; Egypt. 
 
 1884-1899. — Agreements among European 
 powers on the partitioning of the interior. — 
 "The partition of .\irica may be said to date from 
 the Beriin Conference of 1884-85. Prior to that 
 Conference the question of inland boundaries was 
 scarcely considered. . . . The founding of the 
 Congo Independent State was probably the most 
 important result of the Conference. . . . Two 
 months after the Conference had concluded its 
 
 103
 
 AFRICA, 1884-1899 
 
 European 
 
 Agreements 
 
 AFRICA, 1884-1899 
 
 labours, Great Britain and Germany had a serious 
 dispute in regard to their respective spheres of in- 
 fluence on the Gulf of Guinea. . . . The com- 
 promise . . . arrived at placed the Mission Sta- 
 tion of Victoria within the German sphere of in- 
 fluence." The frontier between the two spheres 
 of ijifluence on the Bight of Biafra was subse- 
 quently defined by a line drawn, in iS86, from 
 the coast to Yola, on the Benue. The Royal Niger 
 Company, constituted by a royal charter, "was 
 given administrative powers over territories cov- 
 ered by its treaties. The regions thereby placed 
 under British protection . . . apart from the Oil 
 Rivers District, which is directly administered by 
 the Crown, embrace the coastal lands between 
 Lagos and the northern frontier of Camarons, the 
 Lower Niger (including territories of Sokoto, 
 Gandu and Borgo), and the Benue from Yola to 
 its confluence." By a protocol signed December 
 24, 1S85, Germany and France "defined their re- 
 spective spheres of influence and action on the 
 Bight of Biafra, and also on the Slave Coast and 
 in Senegambia." This "fi.xed the inland exten- 
 sion of the German sphere of influence (Camarons) 
 at is° E. longitude, Greenwich. ... At present 
 it allows the French Congo territories to expand 
 along the western bank of the M'bangi . . . pro- 
 vided no other tributary of the M'bangi-Congo is 
 found to the west, in which case, according to 
 the Berlin Treaty of 1884-85, the conventional 
 basin of the Congo would gain an extension." 
 On May 12, 1880, France and Portugal signed 
 a convention by which France "secured the ex- 
 clusive control of both banks of the Casaraanza 
 (in Senegambia), and the Portuguese frontier in 
 the south was advanced approximately to the 
 southern limit of the basin of the Casini. On the 
 Congo, Portugal retained the Massabi district, to 
 which France had laid claim, but both banks of 
 the Loango were left to France." In 1884 three 
 representatives of the Society for German Coloni- 
 zation — Dr. Peters, Dr. Jiihlke, and Count Pfeil — 
 quietly concluded treaties with the chiefs of Use- 
 guha, Ukami, Nguru, and Usagara, by which those 
 territories were conveyed to the society in ques- 
 tion. "Dr. Peters . . . armed with his treaties, 
 returned to Berlin in February, 1885. On the 
 27th February, the day following the signature of 
 the General Act of the Berlin Conference [See 
 Berlin .^ct], an Imperial Schutzbrief, or Charter 
 of Protection, secured to the Society for German 
 Colonization the territories . . . acquired for them 
 through Dr. Peters' treaties: in other words, a 
 German Protectorate was proclaimed. When it 
 became known that Germany had seized upon the 
 Zanzibar mainland, the indignation in colonial 
 circles knew no bounds. . . . Prior to 1S84, the 
 continental lands facinc Zanzibar were almost ex- 
 clusively under British influence. The principal 
 traders were British subjects, and the Sultan's Gov- 
 ernment was administered under the advice of the 
 British Resident. The entire region between the 
 Coast and the Lakes was regarded as being under 
 the nominal suzerainty of the Sultan. . . . Still, 
 Great Britain had no territorial claims on the 
 dominions of the Sultan." The sultan formally 
 protested and Great Britain championed his cause; 
 but to no effect. In the end the sultan of Zan- 
 zibar yielded the German protectorate over the 
 four inland provinces and over Witu, and the 
 British and German Governments arranged ques- 
 tions between them, provisionally, by the .■\nglo- 
 German Convention of 1886, which was after- 
 wards superseded by the more definite Convention 
 of July 1800, which will be spoken of below. 
 In April 1887, the rights of the Society for Ger- 
 
 man Colonization were transferred to the Ger- 
 man East Africa Association, with Dr. Peters at 
 its head. The British East Africa Company took 
 over concessions that had been granted by the 
 sultan of Zanzibar to Sir WiUiam Mackinnon, 
 and received a royal charter in September 1888. 
 In South-west .Africa, "an enterprising Bremen 
 merchant, Herr Liideritz, and subsequently the 
 German Consul-General, Dr. Nachtigal, concluded 
 a series of political and commercial treaties with 
 native chiefs, whereby a claim was instituted over 
 Angra Pequeiia, and over vast districts in the In- 
 terior between the Orange River and Cape Frio. ' 
 ... It was useless for the Cape colonists to pro- 
 test. On the 13th October 1884 Germany for- 
 mally notified to the Powers her Protectorate over 
 South-VVest Africa. ... On 3rd August 1885 the 
 German Colonial Company for South-West Africa 
 was founded, and . . . received the Imperial sanc- 
 tion for its incorporation. But in August 1886 
 a new Association was formed — the German West- 
 Africa Company — and the administration of its 
 territories was placed under an Imperial Commis- 
 sioner. . . . The intrusion of Germany into South- 
 west Africa acted as a check upon, no less than 
 a spur to, the extension of British influence north- 
 wards to the Zambezi. Another obstacle to this 
 extension arose from the Boer insurrection." The 
 Transvaal, with increased independence had 
 adopted the title of South African Republic. 
 "Zulu-land, having lost its independence, was par- 
 titioned; a third of its territories, over which a 
 republic had been proclaimed, was absorbed (Oc- 
 tober 1SS7) by the Transvaal; the remainder was 
 added (14th May 1887) to the British possessions 
 Amatonga-land was in 1888 also taken under 
 British protection. By a convention with the 
 South African republic, Britain acquired in 1884 
 the Crown colony of Bechuana-land; and in the 
 early part of 1885 a British Protectorate was pro- 
 claimed over the remaining portion of Bechuana- 
 land." Furthermore, "a British Protectorate was 
 instituted [1885] over the country bounded by the 
 Zambezi in the north, the British possessions in 
 the south, 'the Portuguese province of Sofala' in 
 the east, and the 20th degree of east longitude in 
 the west. It was at this juncture that Mr. Cecil 
 Rhodes came forward, and, having obtained cer- 
 tain concessions from Lobengula, founded the 
 British South Africa Company. ... On the 2Qth 
 October i8Sg, the British South Africa Company 
 was granted a royal charter. It was declared in 
 this charter that 'the principal field of the opera- 
 tions of the British South African Company shall 
 be the region of South Africa lying immediately 
 to the north of British Bechuanaland, and to the 
 north and west of the South African Republic, 
 and to the west Of the Portuguese dominions.' " 
 No northern limit was given, and the other bound- 
 aries were vaguely defined. The position of 
 Swaziland was definitely settled in 1800 by an 
 arrangement between Great Britain and the South 
 African repubUc, which provides for the continued 
 independence of Swaziland and a joint control 
 over the white settlers. .\ British Protectorate was 
 proclaimed over Nyasa-land and the Shire High- 
 lands in i88g-QO. To return now to the proceed- 
 ings of other Powers in Africa: "Italy took formal 
 possession, in July 1882, of the bay and territory 
 of Assab. The Italian coast-line on the Red Sea 
 was extended from Ras Kasar (18° 2' N. Lat.) 
 to the southern boundary of Raheita, towards 
 Obok. During i8Sq, shortly after the death of 
 King Johannes, Keren and Asmara were occupied 
 by Italian troops. Menelik of Shoa, who suc- 
 ceeded to the throne of Abyssinia after subjugat- 
 
 104
 
 AFRICA, 1884-1899 
 
 European 
 Agreements 
 
 AFRICA, 1884-1899 
 
 ing all the Abyssinian provinces, except Tigre, dis- 
 patclied an embassy to King Humbert, the result 
 of which was that the new Negus acknowledged 
 (2gth September, 1889) the Protectorate of Italy 
 over Abyssinia, and its sovereignty over the ter- 
 ritories of Massawa, Keren and Asmara." By the 
 protocols of March 24 and April 15, i8gi, Italy 
 and Great Britain define their respective spheres of 
 influence in East Africa. "But since then Italy 
 has practically withdrawn from her position. She 
 has absolutely no hold over Abyssinia. . . . Italy 
 has also succeeded in establishing herself on the 
 Somal Coast." By treaties concluded in iS8g, 
 "the coastal lands between Cape Warsheikh (about 
 2° 30' N. lat.), and Cape Bedwin (8 3' N. lat.) — 
 a distance of 450 miles — were placed under Itahan 
 protection. Italy subsequently extended (1890) 
 her Protectorate over the Somal Coast to the Jub 
 river. . . . The British Protectorate on the Somal 
 Coast facing Aden, now extends from the Italian 
 frontier at Ras Hafiin to Ras Jibute (43° 15' E. 
 long.). . . . The activity of France in her Sene- 
 gambian province, . . . during the last hundred 
 years . . . has finally resulted in a considerable 
 expansion of her territory. . . . The French have 
 established a claim over the country intervening 
 between our Gold Coast Colony and Liberia. A 
 more precise delimitation of the frontier between 
 Sierra Leone and Liberia resulted from the treaties 
 signed at Monrovia on the nth November 1887. 
 In 1888 Portugal withdrew all rights over Da- 
 home. . . . Recently, a French sphere of in- 
 fluence has been instituted over the whole of the 
 Saharan regions between Algeria and Senegambia. 
 . . . Declarations were exchanged (sth August 
 1890) [between France and Great Britain! with 
 the following results: France became a consenting 
 party to the Anglo-German Convention of ist July 
 i8qo. (2) Great Britain recognised a French 
 sphere of influence over Madagascar. . . . And 
 (3) Great Britain recognised the sphere of in- 
 fluence of France to the south of her Mediter- 
 ranean possessions, up to a line from Say on the 
 Niger to Barrua on Lake Tsad, drawn in such a 
 manner as to comprise in the sphere of action 
 of the British Niger Company all that fairly be- 
 longs to the kingdom of Sokoto." The Anglo- 
 German convention of July, 1890, already referred 
 to, established by its main provisions the following 
 definitions of territory: "(i.) The Anglo-German 
 frontier in East Africa, which, by the Convention 
 of 1886, ended at a point on the eastern shore of 
 the Victoria Nyanza was continued on the same 
 latitude across the lake to the confines of the 
 Congo Independent State ; but, on the western 
 side of the lake, this frontier was, if necessary, to 
 be deflected to the south, in order to include 
 Mount M'fumbiro within the British sphere. . . . 
 Treaties in that district were made on behalf of 
 the British East Africa Company by Mr. Stanley, 
 on his return (May i88q) from the relief of 
 Emin Pasha. . . . (2.) The southern boundary of 
 the German sphere of influence in East Africa was 
 recognised as that originally drawn to a point on 
 the eastern shore of Lake Nyassa, whence it was 
 continued by the eastern, northern, and western 
 shores of the lake to the northern bank of the 
 mouth of the River Songwe. From this point the 
 Anglo-German frontier was continued to Lake 
 Tanganika, in such a manner as to leave the 
 Stevenson Road within the British sphere. (3.) 
 The Northern frontier of British East Africa was 
 defined by the Jub River and the conterminous 
 boundary of the Italian sphere of influence in 
 Galla-land and Abyssinia up to the confines of 
 Egypt; in the west, by the Congo State and the 
 
 Congo-Nile watershed. (4.) Germany withdrew, in 
 favor of Britain, her Protectorate over Vitu and 
 her claims to all territories on the mainland to 
 the north of the River Tana, as also over the 
 islands of Patta and Manda. (5.) In South-West 
 Africa, the Anglo-German frontier, originally fixed 
 up to 22 south latitude, was confirmed; but from 
 this point the boundary-line was drawn in such a 
 manner eastward and northward as to give Ger- 
 many free access to the Zambezi by the Chobe 
 River. (6.) The Anglo-German frontier between 
 Togo and Gold Coast Colony was fixed, and that 
 between the Camarons and the British Niger Ter- 
 ritories was provisionally adjusted. (7.) The Free- 
 trade zone, defined by the Act of Berlin (1885) 
 was recognised as applicable to the present ar- 
 rangement between Britain and Germany. (8.) A 
 British Protectorate was recognised over the do- 
 minions of the Sultan of Zanzibar within the 
 British coastal zone and over the islands of Zan- 
 zibar and Pemba. Britain, however, undertook 
 to use her influence to secure (what have since 
 been acquired) corresponding advantages for Ger- 
 many within the German coastal zone and over 
 the island of Mafia. Finally (9.), the island of 
 Heligoland, in the North Sea, was ceded by Britain 
 to Germany." By a treaty concluded in June, 
 1891, between Great Britain and Portugal, "Great 
 Britain acquired a broad central sphere of in- 
 fluence for the expansion of her possessions In 
 South Africa northward to and beyond the Zam- 
 bezi, along a path which provides for the unin- 
 terrupted passage of British goods and British 
 enterprise, up to the confines of the Congo Inde- 
 pendent State and German East Africa. . . . Por- 
 tugal, on the East Coast secured the Lower Zam- 
 bezi from Zumbo, and the Lower Shire from the 
 Ruo Confluence, the entire Hinterland of Mosam- 
 bique up to Lake Nyasa and the Hinterland of 
 Sofala to the confines of the South African Re- 
 public and the Matabele kingdom. On the West 
 Coast, Portugal received the entire Hinterland be- 
 hind her provinces in Lower Guinea, up to the 
 confines of the Congo Independent State, and the 
 upper course of the Zambezi. ... On May 25th 
 1891 a Convention was signed at Lisbon, which 
 has put an end to the dispute between Portugal 
 and the Congo Independent State as to the pos- 
 session of Lunda. Roughly speaking, the coun- 
 try was equally divided between the disputants. 
 . . . Lord Salisbury, in his negotiations with Ger- 
 many and Portugal, very wisely upheld the prin- 
 ciple of free-trade which was laid down by the 
 Act of Berlin, 1885, in regard to the free transit 
 of goods through territories in which two or more 
 powers are indirectly interested. Thus, by the 
 Anglo-German compact, the contracting powers 
 reserved for their respective subjects a 'right of 
 way,' so to speak, along the main channels or 
 routes of communication. Through the applica- 
 tion of the same principle in the recent Anglo- 
 Portuguese Convention, Portugal obtains not only 
 a 'right of way' across the British Zambesi zone, 
 but also the privilege of constructing railways and 
 telegraphs. She thereby secures free and unin- 
 terrupted connection between her possessions on 
 the East Coast and those on the West Coast. A 
 similar concession is made to Britain in the Zam- 
 besi basin, within the Portuguese sphere. Finally, 
 the Zambesi itself has been declared free to 
 the flags of all nations. Britain has stipulated 
 for the right of preemption in the event of Por- 
 tugal wishing to dispose of territories south of 
 the Zambesi."— A. S. White, Development of 
 Africa, 2d. e(f.— See also Delagoa bay arbitra- 
 tion. 
 
 105
 
 AFRICA, 1890-1906 
 
 Distribution of 
 European Sovereignty 
 
 AFRICA, 1914 
 
 1890-1906. — Agreements among European 
 powers on the regulation of the slave trade and 
 the liquor traffic. — On July 2, 1S90, a convention 
 relative to the .African slave trade was framed at 
 a conference of the representatives of European, 
 .\merican, African, and .\siatic states, at Brussels. 
 The treaty, known as the General .\ct of Brussels, 
 was signed July 2, iSgo, but did not come into 
 force until .^pril 2, 1804. The text of it may be 
 found in (U. S.) House Doc. No. 2-0, sbth Con- 
 gress, 3d Sess. It put an end to the slave trade 
 (See Slavery: 1860-1803) and either forbade en- 
 tirely or greatly restricted traffic in arms or liquors 
 in specified regions. Without interfering with 
 European settlements in the North and South, the 
 .■\ct was designed to protect the native races. In 
 June, iSqo, representatives of the governments of 
 Great Britain, Germany, Belgium, Spain, the 
 Congo State, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Por- 
 tugal, Russia, Sweden and Norway, and Turkey, 
 assembled at Brussels, with due authorization, 
 and there concluded an international convention 
 resf)ecting the liquor traffic in Africa. Subse- 
 quently the governments of Austria-Hungary, the 
 United States of .\merica, Liberia and Persia, gave 
 their adhesion to the convention, and ratifications 
 were deposited at Brussels in June, 1900. The 
 convention was, in a measure, supplemental to the 
 General Act of Brussels. It provided; "Article 
 I. From the coming into force of the present 
 Convention, the import duty on spirituous liquors, 
 as that duty is regulated by the General Act of 
 Brussels, shall be raised throughout the zone where 
 there does not exist the system of total prohibition 
 provided by Article XCI. of the said General Act, 
 to the rate of 70 fr. the hectolitre at 50 degrees 
 centigrade, for a period of six years. It may, ex- 
 ceptionally, be at the rate of 60 fr. only the 
 hectolitre at 50 degrees centigrade in the Colony 
 of Togo and in that of Dahomey. The import 
 duty shall be augmented proportionally for each 
 degree above 50 degrees centigrade ; it may be 
 diminished proportionally for each degree below 
 50 degrees centigrade. .\t the end of the above- 
 mentioned period of six years, the import duty 
 shall be submitted to revision, taking as a basis 
 the results produced by the preceding rate. The 
 Powers retain the right of maintaining and increas- 
 ing the duty beyond the minimum fixed by the 
 present Article in the regions where they now 
 possess that right. .Article II. In accordance with 
 .Article XCIII. of the General .Kat of Brussels, 
 distilled drinks made in the regions mentioned in 
 Article XCII. of the said General .\ct. and intended 
 for consumption, shall pay an excise duty. This 
 excise duty, the collection of which the Powers 
 undertake to insure as far as possible, shall not 
 be lower than the minimum import duty fixed by 
 Article I. of the present Convention. Article III. 
 It is understood that the Powers who signed the 
 General Act of Brussels, or who have acceded to 
 it, and who are not represented at the present 
 Conference, preserve the right of acceding to the 
 present Convention." — Great Britain, Parliamen- 
 tarv publications {Papers by command: Treaty 
 series, no. 13, iqoo). — A later conference at Brus- 
 sels in iqo6 again increased the duties on liquors, 
 and as we shall see below, the World War settle- 
 ments secured still greater protection for the 
 African native. 
 
 1890-1914. — Extension of e.^isting European 
 possessions. — "The period 1800-1014 again shows 
 a change in the nature of Europe's penetration 
 into Africa. On the east and west coasts the 
 claims of po,sterify had been fully pegged out by 
 the different States. The increase in territory ap- 
 
 propriated was therefore caused by extension of 
 existing possessions on the coast into the hinter- 
 lands. In fact in these regions the States were 
 occupied not in acquiring new possessions, but in 
 rounding off their previous conquests, and in con- 
 verting spheres of interest into full colonial do- 
 minion. .\nd, since in tropical Africa there was 
 nothing left for Europe to do but attempt to di- 
 gest what she had swallowed, those who still had 
 cravings for 'expansion' and for economic imperi- 
 alism had to turn once more to the only remain- 
 ing places where it was possible to expand, the 
 north and the south. Consequently the history of 
 our last period, 1890-1014, reverts to that of our 
 first, 1S15-80, the penetration of France into the 
 north by the acquisition of Tunis and Morocco, 
 and the penetration of the south by Britain 
 through the conquest or absorption of Rhodesia, 
 the Transvaal, and the Orange Free State." — L. 
 Woolf, Empire and commerce in Africa (1915), 
 pp. 58-50. 
 
 1914. — Distribution of European sovereignty 
 in Africa. — "The following European Powers pos- 
 sessed sovereign rights in .Africa before the war: 
 — Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, Portugal, 
 Italy, and Spain. In addition, and as the result 
 of the Boer War, the various British Colonies in 
 South Africa had been welded together and 
 formed, with the newly-annexed Boer Republics, 
 a self-governing British Dominion, a State in 
 .\frica controlled by, and in part composed of, 
 men of European blood, but .\frican-born, known 
 as The Union of South Africa, and stretching from 
 Capetown to the Zambesi. The only part of 
 Africa enjoying its own native government was 
 .\byssinia. For although a certain area on the 
 Kru Coast, together with its hinterland, known 
 as Liberia, supposedly constitutes a 'government' 
 . . . and is recognised as an Independent State, 
 its 'government' consists of a few thousand de- 
 scendants of repatriated .American blacks, who en- 
 joy no authority outside the confines of their set- 
 tlements on the coast line. Egypt was virtually, 
 although not then nominally, a British dependency. 
 I give below the African dependencies of the 
 various European government? with their area and 
 population, ... as they existed at the outbreak 
 of the war. 
 
 BRITISH AFRICA 
 
 {.\: Controlled by the Colonial Office) 
 
 .Area in 
 Square Miles Population 
 
 Nigeria 336,080 1 7,100,000 
 
 British East .Africa 246,822 4,038,000 
 
 Uganda 121,437 2,803,494 
 
 Sierra Leone 31.000 1,400,000 
 
 Nyasaland 39,801 i ,000,000 
 
 Gold Coast 24.33s 853,766 
 
 .Ashanti 24,800 287,814 
 
 Northern Territories .... 31.100 361,806 
 
 Basutoland 11.716 405.Q1.? 
 
 Somaliland 68,000 310,000 
 
 Gambia 4.S00 146,100 
 
 Bechuanaland 275,000 125,35° 
 
 Swaziland 6.536 9P.«59 
 
 (B: Controlled by the British South Africa 
 Company) 
 
 .Area in 
 Square Miles Population 
 
 Rhodesia 4.^8.575 i.772,S" 
 
 106
 
 AFRICA, IQH 
 
 (C: Set j -governing Dominion) 
 
 Distribution of 
 European Sovereignty 
 
 AFRICA, 1914 
 
 Area in 
 Square Miles Population 
 The Union of South Africa 
 comprising the prov- 
 inces of the Cape, 
 Natal, Transvaal, and 
 Oranse Free State 473, loo 5.073.394 
 
 To this list must now be added as definiti'ly 
 British: — 
 
 Area in 
 Square Miles Population 
 
 Egypt 400,000 11,287,300 
 
 The Sudan 984,520 3,000,000 
 
 "The total of British Africa covers, therefore 
 (exclusive of German African territory conquered 
 since the war) an area of 3,517,322 square miles 
 with an estimated population of 51,055,407. Of 
 this total population about I'/j millions are Euro- 
 [jeans or half-breeds; and of the i^-j millions, 
 more than i'^ millions reside in the territories of 
 riie South African Union. This leaves 250,000 
 
 Europeans for the remainder of the gigantic area 
 affected, and Egypt accounts for more than half 
 of these. It will be well to bear this fact care- 
 fully in mind when, later on, we pass to a con- 
 sideration of the African problem in its funda- 
 mental aspects. 
 
 FKENCII AFRICA 
 
 -Area in 
 Square Miles Population 
 
 Ateeria 343.500 S.563,828 
 
 Tunis 50,000 1,780,527 
 
 West Africa 1,478,000 10,465,072 
 
 French Congo 669,280 9,000,000 
 
 Saharan region 1,544,000 800,000 
 
 Somali Coast 5. 790 208,000 
 
 Madagascar 228,000 3,104,881 
 
 Morocco 219,000 5,000,000 
 
 "The total of French Africa embracefl, there- 
 fore, before the war an area of 4,537,570 square 
 miles with an estimated population of 35,922,308. 
 -'Mgeria is looked upon as an extension of France. 
 The total European population — chiefly French, 
 
 AFRICA IN 1914 
 107
 
 AFRICA, 1914 
 
 Summary of 
 Eufopcan Occupation 
 
 AFRICA, 1914 
 
 Italian and Spanish — in igii was 752,043. The 
 census of igii showed a European and mixed 
 European population in Tunis of 126,265, of whom 
 46,044 were French (exclusive of the army of 
 occupation) ; in Madagascar 12,000, of whom some 
 10,000 were French; in West Africa 7,104, of 
 whom 6,377 were French. Before the war there 
 were a considerable number of French troops and 
 French colored troops in Morocco, and a few 
 hundred French and other European residents. 
 In 1Q14 the European population of French Af- 
 rica, apart from the white troops in Algeria, 
 Morocco, and Tunis, was slightly in excess of a 
 million. 
 
 GERMAN AFRICA 
 
 "When the war broke out Germany possessed 
 three considerable dependencies in .Africa, and one 
 small dependency. These were: 
 
 Area in 
 Square Miles Population 
 
 Karaerun (the Came- 
 
 roons) 281,950 3,720,000 
 
 German East .Africa 384,000 7,651,106 
 
 German South-Wtst Af- 
 rica 322'.450 94,386 
 
 Togo 33,700 1,031,078 
 
 ".\ total of 1,022,100 square miles with a popu- 
 lation of 12,497,470. 
 
 'The European population, mostly German, 
 numbered under 20,000. 
 
 BELGIAN AFRICA 
 
 "In October, 1008, Belgium annexed the Congo 
 Free State founded, under Treaty stipulations, by 
 King Leopold 11 in 1S84-5, and thereby became an 
 .\frican Power. The area of the Belgian Congo is 
 just under one million square miles with a native 
 population enormously reduced from the Stanleyan 
 period. In igoS the British Consular staff, basing 
 its calculations on the taxable returns, estimated 
 the population at some eight millions. There were 
 4,000 Europeans in the territory, a little over one- 
 half of this number being Belgians. 
 
 PORTUGUESE AFRICA 
 
 Area in 
 Square Miles Population 
 
 Angola (and Kabinda)... 480,000 5,000.000 
 
 Portuguese East .Africa... 300.000 3,200,000 
 
 Portuguese Guinea 13.Q40 820,000 
 
 The Cocoa Islands (San 
 
 Thome and Principe).. 442 45,ooo 
 
 ITALIAN AFRICA 
 
 Area in 
 Square Miles Population 
 
 Tripoli 406,000 523,176 
 
 Italian Somaliland 130,430 400,000 
 
 Eritrea 45,800 450,000 
 
 SPANISH AFRICA 
 
 -Area in 
 Square Miles Population 
 
 Rio de Oro 73,000 12.000 
 
 Spanish Guinea 12,000 200,000 
 
 Various enclaves north of 
 the Congo and the Is- 
 land of Fernando Po.. 814 23,844 
 
 A narrow strip of territory on the Mediterranen 
 coastline of Morocco and a small 'Enclave' on the 
 .Atlantic coast-line of Morocco." — E. D. Morel, 
 Africa and the peace of Europe, pp. 11-15. 
 
 Summary of European occupation. — "Such, in 
 brief outline, is the process by which Africa has 
 been conquered and partitioned. Africa has been 
 an eas>- prey because of its divisions, its military 
 weakness, and its low civilisations. Though no 
 one of the incoming Powers has established its 
 position without a struggle, only in Morocco and 
 Abyssinia has the native opposition proved really 
 formidable. More serious difficulties have been 
 encountered in the settlement of rival claims. 
 England and Portugal came to the brink of war 
 over Central Africa in 1891, as did England and 
 France over the Sudan in 1898, and France and 
 Germany over Morocco in 1904. The wide field 
 of enterprise which has given scope to the ambi- 
 tions of every colonising Power, a spirit of reason- 
 ableness, and the definite principles previously 
 agreed upon for the decision of doubtful questions, 
 have made it possible hitherto to reach a peace- 
 ful settlement of all disputes. The political di- 
 visions have not been formed according to geo- 
 graphical divisions — no one of the great river 
 basins belongs exclusively to a single Power — 
 but exhibit a strange diversity, being, in each 
 sphere, a resultant of the forces which historic 
 position and, later, energy and foresight, gave to 
 the competing Powers. England owes much to the 
 happy possession of points of access to the interior 
 from south and north, much also to the energy of 
 private persons acting singly or through Compa- 
 nies, and to the far-reaching conceptions of a few 
 great leaders ; as usual, she owes least of any 
 Power to the direct intervention of Government 
 France, too, has expanded her rule from historic 
 settlements, and owes her great dominion to the 
 imagination which outlined, and the steadfastness 
 which pursued, a vast ambition. The pertinacity 
 with which the Germans discovered weak points 
 in existing claims, the swiftness of their action, 
 their unyielding diplomacy, . . . enabled them, 
 while starting without advantages, to secure ex- 
 tensive possessions. [See also Germany; 1906- 
 1907.] Belgium owes her share to the activity of 
 her late sovereign, who by benevolent profession 
 rescued a mighty domain from the international 
 scramble to transform it into an estate for private 
 gain. The Portuguese hold, much diminished, the 
 heritage bequeathed them from a distant past. . . . 
 The work of conquest and poUtical organiza- 
 tion is too recent for us to estimate its effects on 
 the peoples of .Africa, and that of economic organi- 
 zation is but beginning. One general end the Pow- 
 ers have had in view — the suppression of the 
 slave trade at its sources — now practically achieved 
 after a century of effort. Domestic slavery — an 
 ancient African institution — is a different problem, 
 but it has been discouraged in lands under direct 
 British government. Tribal life continues and is 
 deliberately preserved. The transformation of the 
 native economy has not been attempted. Whether 
 desirable or not, it is beyond the strength of any 
 Government yet established in tropical Africa. 
 Economic development in most cases proceeds but 
 slowly. Governments are poor, for their subject? 
 are poor; and the problem of adapting taxation 
 to the organization of primitive peoples, though 
 varying in difficulty, has nowhere been found 
 easy. The immense task of associating the native 
 in the development of the country on European 
 lines requires so considerable a change in his ideas 
 and life that it may take a long time to carry 
 out, save where it is attempted by methods of 
 
 108
 
 AFRICA, 1914-1920 
 
 Obstacles: 
 Climate 
 
 AFRICA, 1914-1920 
 
 compulsion which public opinion more and more 
 decisively condemns. Yet, without the aid of the 
 native, the value of these tropical regions to their 
 European conquerors is much diminished. In 
 Europe, the occupation of Africa has increased 
 wealth and trade, and cheapened some of the 
 comforts of life ; what it will mean for Africa can- 
 not yet be judged." — E. A. Bcnians, European 
 colonies {Cambridge modern history, pp. 057-666). 
 
 1914-1920. — Obstacles to European occupa- 
 tion. — There are many obstacles to the white race 
 from Europe overrunning and colonizing the conti- 
 nent of Africa as it has overrun and colonized the 
 two .'\mcricas and Australasia. One is the insalu- 
 brity of the well-watered regions and the unin- 
 habitability of the desert tracts, that is, the cli- 
 matic conditions. Another is the opposition of 
 strong indigenous races influenced by successful 
 Moslem occupation and proselytizing. A third ob- 
 stacle is the lack of adequate railway communica- 
 tion, although, as we shall see, efforts have been 
 made to build many new lines. Another obstacle 
 is the labor problem, and still another is a body 
 of adverse public opinion at home, based largely 
 on the fact that many of the colonies are not 
 self-supporting, but a source of expense. 
 
 (i) Climatic conditions and topographical 
 FEATURES. — "Deserts, to be made habitable and cul- 
 tivable, only need irrigation, and apparently there 
 is a subterranean water supply underlying most 
 African deserts which can be tapped by artesian 
 wells. The extreme unhealthiness of the well- 
 watered parts of Africa is due not so much to 
 climate as to the presence of malaria in the sys- 
 tems of the Negro inhabitants. This malaria is 
 conveyed from the black man to the white man 
 by certain gnats of the genus .Anopheles — possibly 
 by other agencies. But the draining of marshes 
 and the sterilisation of pools, together with other 
 measures, may gradually bring about the extinc- 
 tion of the mosquito ; while, on the other hand, it 
 seems as though the drug (Cassia Beareana) ob- 
 tained from the roots of a cassia bush may act as 
 a complete cure for malarial fever. . . . 
 
 "For practical purposes the only areas south 
 of the Sahara Desert which at the present time 
 are favourable to white colonisation arc the fol- 
 lowing. In West Africa there can be no while 
 colonisation under existing conditions; the white 
 man can only remain there for a portion of his 
 working life as an educator and administrator. 
 ... In North-East Africa, .^byssinia and Eritrea 
 will suggest themselves as white man's countries — 
 presenting, that is to say, some of the conditions 
 favourable to European colonisation. The actual 
 coast of Eritrea is extremely hot, almost the hot- 
 test country in the world, but it is not necessarily 
 very unhealthy The heat, however, apart from 
 the existence of a fairly abundant native popula- 
 tion, almost precludes the idea of a European set- 
 tlement. But on the mountains of the hinterland 
 which are still within Italian territory there are 
 said to be a few small areas suited at any rate 
 to settlement by Italians, who, by-the-by, seem 
 to be getting on very well with the natives in that 
 part of Africa. But a European colonisation of 
 Abyssinia, possible as it might be climatically, is 
 out of the question in view of the relatively abun- 
 dant and warlike population indigenous to the 
 Ethiopian Empire. . . . 
 
 "Then comes Central Africa, which may be 
 taken to range from the northern limits of the 
 Congo basin and the Great Lakes on the north 
 to the Cunene River and the Zambesi on the south. 
 British East Africa and Uganda offer probably 
 the largest continuous area of white man's countn,' 
 
 in the central section of the continent. The 
 Ankole country in the southwest of the Uganda 
 Protectorate and the highlands north of Tangan- 
 yika, together with the slopes of the Ruwenzori 
 range, offer small tracts of land thoroughly suited 
 to occupation by a white race so far as climate and 
 fertility are concerned; but these countries have 
 already been occupied, to a great extent, by some 
 of the earliest forerunners of the Caucasian (the 
 Bahima), as well as by sturdy Negro tribes who 
 have become inured to the cold. To the northeast 
 of the Victoria Nyanza, however, there is an 
 area which has as its outposts the southwest coast 
 of Lake Rudolf, the great mountains of Debasien 
 and Elgon, and the snow-clad extinct volcanoes of 
 Kenia and Kilimanjaro. This land of plateaux 
 and rift valleys is not far short of 70,000 square 
 miles in extent, and so far as climate and other 
 physical conditions are concerned is as well suited 
 for occupation by British settlers as Queensland 
 or New South Wales. But nearly 50,000 square 
 miles of this East African territory is more or 
 less in the occupation of sturdy Negro or Negroid 
 races whom it would be neither just nor easy to 
 expel. ... 
 
 "The only portion of German East Africa which 
 is at all suited to European settlement lies along 
 the edge of the Nyasa-Tanganyika Plateau. Here 
 is a district of a little more than a thousand square 
 miles which is not only elevated and healthy, but 
 very sparsely populated by Negroes. A lew 
 patches in the Katanga district and the extreme 
 southern part of the Congo Free State offer simi- 
 lar conditions. 
 
 "In British Central Africa we have perhaps 6,000 
 square miles of elevated, sparsely populated, fer- 
 tile country to the northwest of Lake Nyasa and 
 along the road to Tanganyika. There is also land 
 of this description in the North-East Rhodesian 
 province of British Central Africa, in Manikaland, 
 and along the water-parting between the Congo 
 and the Zambesi systems. Then in the southern- 
 most prolongation of British Central .\lnc3. are 
 the celebrated Shire Highlands, which, together 
 with a few outlying mountain districts to the 
 southwest of Lake Nyasa, may offer a total area 
 of about 5,000 square miles suitable to European 
 colonisation. A small portiorf of the Mozambique 
 province, in the interior of the .\ngoche coast, 
 might answer to the same description. Then 
 again, far away to the west, under the same lati- 
 tudes, we have, at the back of Mossamedes and 
 Benguela, other patches of white man's country 
 in the mountains of Bailundo and Sheila. 
 
 "In South Africa, beyond the latitudes of the 
 Zambesi, we come to lands which are increasingly 
 suited to the white man's occupation the further 
 we proceed south. Nearly all German South- 
 west Africa is arid desert, but inland there arc 
 plateaux and mountains which sometimes exceed 
 8,000 feet in altitude, and which have a sufficient 
 rainfall to make European agriculture possible. 
 . . . About two-thirds of the Transvaal, a third 
 of Rhodesia, a small portion of southern Bechuana- 
 land, two-thirds of the Orange River Colony, four- 
 fifths of Cape Colony, and a third of Natal sum 
 up the areas attributed to the white man in South 
 Africa. The remainder of this part of the con- 
 tinent must be considered mainly as a reserve 
 for the black man, and to a much smaller degree 
 (in South-East Africa) as a field for Asiatic colo- 
 nisation, preferentially on the part of British In- 
 dians. 
 
 "Counting the white-skinned Berbers and Arabs 
 of North Africa, and the more or less pure- 
 blooded, light-skinned Egyptians, as white men. 
 
 109
 
 AFRICA, 1914-1920 
 
 Obstacles: 
 Moslem Occupation 
 
 AFRICA, 1914-1920 
 
 and the land tlicy occupy as part of the white 
 man's share of the Dark Continent, we may then 
 by a rough calculation arrive (by adding to white 
 North Africa the other areas enumerated in the 
 rest of the continent) at the following estimate: 
 that about 070,000 square miles of the whole Af- 
 rican continent may be attributed to the while 
 man as his legitimate share. If, however, we are 
 merely to consider the territory that lies open to 
 European colonisation, then we must considerably 
 reduce our North African estimate." — H. H. John- 
 ston, White man's place in Africa (Nineteenth 
 Century, June, 1904). 
 
 "What is Europe going to do with Africa? It 
 seems to me there are three courses to be pursued, 
 corresponding with the three classes of territory 
 into which Africa falls when considered geographi- 
 cally. There is, to begin with, that much restricted 
 . . . area, lying outside the tropics (or in very rare 
 cases, at great altitudes inside the tropics), where 
 the climate is healthy and Europeans can not only 
 support existence under much the same conditions 
 as in their own lands and freely rear children 
 to form in time a native European race, but where 
 at the same time there- is no dense native popula- 
 tion to dispute by force or by an appeal to com- 
 mon .fairness the possession of the soil. Such 
 lands as these are of relatively small extent com- 
 pared to the mass of Africa. They are confined 
 to the districts south of the Zambezi (with the 
 exception of the neighborhood of the Zambezi and 
 the eastern coast-belt) ; a few square miles on 
 the mountain plateaux of North and South Nyasa- 
 land; the northern half of Tunisia, a few dis- 
 tricts of North-east and North-west Algeria and 
 the Cyrenaica (northern projection of Barka) ; 
 perhaps also the northernmost portion of Morocco. 
 The second category consists of countries like 
 much of Morocco, .Mgeria, Tunis, and Tripoli; 
 Barka, Egypt, .\byssinia and parts of Somaliland; 
 where climatic conditions and soil are not wholly 
 opposed to the healthful settlement of Europeans, 
 but where the competition or numerical strength 
 or martial spirit of the natives already in posses- 
 sion are factors opposed to the substitution of a 
 large European population for the present own- 
 ers of the soil. The third category consists of all 
 that is left of .\frisa, mainly tropical, where the 
 climatic conditions make it impossible for Euro- 
 peans to cultivate the soil with their own hands, 
 to settle for many years, or to bring up healthy 
 families. Countries lying under the first category 
 I should characterize as being suitable for Euro- 
 pean colonies, a conclusion somewhat belated, 
 since they have nearly all become such. The second 
 description of territory I should qualify as 'tribu- 
 tary states,' countries where good and settled 
 government cannot be maintained by the natives 
 without the control of a European power, the 
 European power retaining in return for the ex- 
 pense and trouble of such control the gratification 
 of performing a good and interesting work, and a 
 field of employment for a few of her choicer sons 
 and daughters. The third category consists of 
 'plantation colonies' — vast territories to be gov- 
 erned as India is governed, despotically but wisely, 
 and with the first aim of securing good govern- 
 ment and a reasonable degree of civilization to a 
 large population of races inferior to the European." 
 Here, however, the Europeans may come in small 
 numbers with their capital, their energy, and their 
 knowledge to develop a most lucrative commerce, 
 and obtain products necessary to the use of their 
 advanced civilization. — H. H. Johnston, Coloniza- 
 tion of Africa, pp. 278-279. 
 
 (2) Moslem occupation. — Another great obsta- 
 
 cle in the way of European colonization is the op- 
 position offered to Christian nations by the rapid 
 spread af the Moslem faith. 
 
 "The reasons for the great strides that Moham- 
 medanism has made among the primitive, pagan 
 tribes of Africa are not far to seek. Before an 
 aggressive, coordinating faith like Islam, the in- 
 ferior civilization of the negro kingdoms and states 
 in the interior practising polytheism and fetichism, 
 continually at war with each other and thus in a 
 perpetual state of trade stagnation, must inevit- 
 ably give way." Through the ubiquitous Arab 
 traders, all of whom are potential missionaries, 
 the new, simple, quasi-political doctrine is pecu- 
 liarly attractive. "And it has progressed in the 
 same ratio as European nations have penetrated 
 to the interior, and pushed their hinterlands 
 against the savage negro societies, leaving them 
 exposed to the fierce light of civilization. Thus, in 
 Islam, these kingdoms and principalities of back- 
 ward races are finding a ready and effective 
 method of centralization and government. Pagan 
 tribes like the Gallas and Shoans of Ethiopia, un- 
 der centuries of fierce and perpetual persecution 
 from their Abyssinian rulers, successfully resisted 
 Christianity ; yet they have easily fallen under the 
 sway of Islam. Even so in the interior of .'Xfrica 
 and along the coast, wherever Christian mission- 
 aries have . . . [come in] contact with them, the 
 savage tribes have proved impervious to all Chris- 
 tian advances, but have readily turned to Islam, 
 in spite of the fact that for centuries they were 
 cruelly exploited by the Moslem Arab slave- 
 dealers, before the European nations stamped out 
 the trade. The virtue of such wholesale conver- 
 sions lies in the ease with which Islam, like Hin- 
 duism in India, has adopted the customs and tra- 
 ditions of its rude adherents. The community life 
 of these savages is allowed to continue. Rigid 
 though Islam is on the subject of liquor, yet many 
 of these tribes still retain their native habits of 
 intemperance: likewise it must be said that those 
 tribes on the coast that have suffered from the 
 early European drink traffic, being of a higher 
 order of intelligence and orthodoxy, have re- 
 nounced liquor with their conversion to Islam 
 The cannibalism of British Ashantee, of French 
 Dahomey, the fetichism and idolatry of the rest 
 of Africa, have passed away in the wake of Islam, 
 degenerating though the new influences may be in 
 the eyes of the orthodox Islamic pundits of .-M- 
 .\zhar in Cairo. Too much, however, cannot be 
 made of the reforming influence of Islam among 
 the savage Africans. . . . The .•\siatic, and like- 
 wise the African, finds himself forlorn and isolated 
 in Christianity, and no amount of official protec- 
 tion can save him from the social and economic 
 tyranny to which all such converts are subjected 
 In Africa, the pagan negro races find themselves 
 welcome in Islam with all their native customs. 
 They are allowed to practise their polygamy, and 
 their family or home unit is emphasized — a factor 
 of prime importance in .Asiatic psychology from 
 China to Turkey. On the other hand, too much 
 must not be made of the fact that Islam encour- 
 ages lust and easy divorce. Accurate observers 
 report that this offers no particular attraction to 
 savage converts, especially when such vices have 
 long been endemic among African, and some 
 .\siatic tribes. Not the least picturesque feature 
 of the conversions to Islam in Asia and Africa is 
 the important part played by women, particularly 
 when we consider that the Prophet degraded 
 women and barred them from the rewards of a 
 future [life]. In an unconscious way, Islam has 
 spread through their efforts. Among the raiding 
 
 no
 
 AFRICA, 1914-1920 
 
 Obstacles: 
 Lack of Railroads 
 
 AFRICA, 1914-1920 
 
 nations of Asia, like the Mongols, and in India, 
 under the early dynasties and later under the 
 Mughals, the propagation of Islam went apace. 
 When a raid was made into Moslem territory the 
 women were carried off and helped to convert the 
 pagan tribe, or when a mercenary Moslem army 
 lent aid to a foreign kingdom, as in the case of 
 China, and was invited to settle, the Mohamme- 
 dans took to wife the women of the country, and 
 thus formed another outpost of Islam. 
 
 "In India the Mughal consorts founded mad- 
 rasahs or endowed schools, which, together with 
 libraries, were attached to their tombs and 
 mosques. In the course of the many ruthless in- 
 vasions that have swept India, when devastation 
 was invariably practised, these scmi-religiou? foun- 
 dations have alone survived as examples of their 
 culture, and they must have exerted an enormous 
 influence from decade to decade. In Africa the 
 fanatical Scnussei sect opened schools for girls in 
 the region north of Lake Chad. This form of 
 feminine proselytism has also been most active in 
 Africa, especially on the east coast. In the Sudan, 
 Islam has spread through the Egyptian army — 
 every fellah recruit being circumcised at enlist- 
 ment and given a rudimentary education. On the 
 expiration of his term of service, he goes back to 
 his pagan village to be an ardent proselytiser 
 through his wife. In German East Africa the 
 negroes recruited from railway and plantation 
 work form temporary unions with the Moslem 
 women, and since these women insist upon the 
 Moslem rite of circumcision, the men are thus 
 converted to Islam, and eventually take the new 
 creed back to their villages. Perhaps the strong- 
 est reason for the success and appeal of Islam 
 throughout the Orient and Africa is the . . . insti- 
 tution of concubinage and marriage. A Moslem 
 will cherish a son by his negro wife or slave, while 
 he readily offers his daughter in marriage to a 
 Moslem negro. Many a sultan and pasha, many 
 an imam and saint, has not considered it a dis- 
 grace to acknowledge the negro blood in his 
 veins. Thus, in Africa, the lack of any social dis- 
 crimination or ostracism, together with a com- 
 pensating social rise, makes admission into the 
 Islamic brotherhood attractive. 
 
 "Another appeal lies in the chance the religion 
 gives warlike tribes to continue in the profession 
 of arms, since the Faith countenances conversion 
 through conquest. Wherever such races in Asia 
 or Africa have been prevented by twentieth cen- 
 tury laws and order, by the press of western in- 
 fluence or domination, from indulging in their 
 hereditary pursuit (excepting a few military 
 Hindu tribes like the Sikhs, Gurkhas and Rajputs 
 in India) they will be found to flourish under the 
 semi-military caste of Islam. It is not strange, 
 therefore, that the Turko-Teuton regime seized 
 upon the Moslem idea of jihad as a vehicle for 
 galvanizing the warlike spirit of Islam. . . . 
 
 "In Africa, as I have endeavored to show, Islam 
 is rapidly expanding in its pristine eighth-cen- 
 tury character, appealing to the dark world of 
 witchcraft and cannibalism that has for centuries 
 made the African a problem to civilization. Writ- 
 ing in 1887 Bosworth Smith said: 'It is hardly 
 too much to say that half of the whole of Africa 
 is already dominated by Islam, while, of the re- 
 maining half, a quarter is leavened and another 
 threatened by it.' In this great Asiatic religion the 
 African negro is finding a facile medium of com- 
 munication and expression ; and the future of 
 Africa's destiny would seem to lie with Islam." — 
 W. G. Tinckom-Fernandez, Asia in Africa (.Asia, 
 Nov., igi7.) — See also Wahhabis. 
 
 (3) Lack of railway and industrial develop- 
 ment IN Africa. — Negotiations for the Cape-to- 
 Cairo railway. — A third obstacle to European col- 
 onization lies in the lack of adequate railway 
 facilities. "Africa is a big continent — about as 
 large as the United States of America, Mexico, 
 Australia, and the Continent of Europe put to- 
 gether — and as late as 1876 the whole of this vast 
 area possessed less than 400 miles of railway. 
 It has been the last of the great areas of this 
 world to become civilized, and as Livingstone — 
 greatest and best and wisest of all explorers — ■ 
 predicted, Africa's salvation is coming through 
 its industrial development. When I first sailed for 
 Africa in 1881 the railway had only been extended 
 to Beaufort West, joo miles north of Cape Town, 
 where I took the coach to Kimberley. In 1885 
 the railway reached Kimberley. The main line 
 was next pushed north to the Rand — the greatest 
 goldfield in the world — and the shorter 'economic' 
 lines were built to connect with Delagoa Bay and 
 Natal. The Rand was discovered by the British, 
 and the people of this country put millions into 
 its development. It was not long, however, be- 
 fore financiers of German extraction became to a 
 large extent masters of the Rand, as they had 
 become of Kimberley. 
 
 "Rhodesia was the next big mineral develop- 
 ment, and therefore the next of Africa's milestones 
 on the road to civilization. At that date, iSgo, 
 the terminus of the main line was at Vryburg, and 
 it reached Bulawayo in 1807. Rhodes wanted me 
 to report on the mineral prospects of Rhodesia. 
 I started in March, 1891, and reported to Rhodes 
 that the minerals were there all right, but that 
 he must have a shorter economic railway from 
 Beira to make them pay. That line was com- 
 pleted to Bulawajo in 1Q02. Rhodes had a des- 
 perate strug'j;le with the finance of the Rhodesian 
 railways. He had asked the British Government 
 to guarantee the interest, and . . . that Govern- 
 ment refused. . . . Rhodes's friend Pauling, the fa- 
 mous railway contractor, and the Messrs. Erianger,' 
 bankers of this city, came to the rescue — they, too, 
 greatly aided the development of the British Em- 
 pire, for they raised about £10,000,000 sterling to 
 finance African railways. . . . The next great min- 
 eral milestone stands 1,000 miles further north, in 
 the very heart of Africa, namely, Katanga. In 
 1805 Rhodes was anxious to find mineral wealth 
 in Northern Rhodesia, and I sent up one or two 
 of my best men with instructions to examine an 
 area several hundred miles south of Katanga, 
 where gold had been reported to exist. As my 
 men found nothing of value. I stopped operations 
 there and did nothing further until iSqS, when, 
 once again at Rhodes's request, I agreed to make 
 another effort, as Rhodes was most anxious to 
 find minerals that would help his railway forward. 
 But as my services at that time were exclusively 
 bound to the Zambesia Exploring Company, 
 Rhodes granted certain rights in which that com- 
 pany should have a large interest. This grant 
 included the right to locate a 2,000 square mile 
 mineral area anywhere in Northern Rhodesia, to- 
 gether with a township and pier at the bottom 
 uid of Lake Tanganyika which was intended to 
 be the terminus in Chartered Territory of the 
 Cape-to-Cairo Railway. I organized a prospect- 
 ing expedition, and appointed the late Mr. George 
 Grey (Viscount Grey's brother) as leader, with 
 instructions to search for minerals as close up to 
 the Congo State frontier as possible. He and 
 his party discovered the Kansanshi copper mine 
 in Rhodesia, 12 miles south of the Belgian Congo 
 frontier. 
 
 Ill
 
 AFRICA, 1914-1920 
 
 Obstacles: 
 Lack of Railroads 
 
 AFRICA, 1914-1920 
 
 "Meantime, I approached King Leopold, and 
 succeeded in making an agreement with him which 
 gave the Tanganyika Company the sole pros- 
 pecting rights for minerals over 60,000 square 
 miles of the Katanga district of the Congo State, 
 adjoining Northern Rhodesia. The King did not 
 believe I should prove mineral wealth to exist in 
 his country, as Professor Cornet, the well-known 
 Belgian geologist, had been sent out by him to 
 examine certain old native workings which had 
 been the subject of comment by Livingstone, 
 Cameron, Stanley, and others. The report by 
 Professor Cornet (which had never been published) 
 had been so unfavourable that the Belgians made 
 no further effort for eight years. George Grey 
 and his staff, in a very short time located these 
 mines, probablj' the greatest in all the world, 
 extending over about 250 miles of country — in 
 short, a copper Rand — and many other deposits, 
 including gold, tin, and diamonds. Katanga is 
 now giving tangible proof of its mineral resources. 
 The smelting works there have already yielded a 
 total value of over £6,000,000 sterling, although 
 they only started to produce on a small scale in 
 1 91 2. They are at the present moment produc- 
 ing at the rate of 30,000 tons of copper per an- 
 num, of a value of about £4,000,000, and this 
 output will go on increasing steadily year by year. 
 The railway developments which have also re- 
 sulted from the opening up of this latest mineral 
 zone will, when completed, be probably the great- 
 est in all Africa. Railways are now coming from 
 the north, south, east, and west towards this 
 great mineral and future industrial centre. Thus 
 are minerals once again proving themselves verit- 
 able milestones in the progress of African civiliza- 
 tion. 
 
 "At the date when these discoveries were made, 
 it was Rhodes's intention to take his Cape-to- 
 Cairo Railway to the southern end of Lake 
 Tanganyika, and to utilize the 400-mile waterway 
 as part of the route towards the north. But Ger- 
 many thwarted his scheme by refusing to recog- 
 nize the cession of the strip of Congo territory 
 between Lake Tanganyika and Kivu, granted by 
 King Leopold to JEngland to enable Rhodes to 
 carry forward this railway. The reason we all 
 now know. Germany had already fixed her eyes 
 on the Congo. Rhodes would have liked to run 
 his line through the Congo State, and he tried to 
 negotiate this with King Leopold, but had failed, 
 and he suggested I should approach the King 
 with a view to securing the right to build the 
 Cape-to-Cairo Railway through the Congo State 
 to the Nile. . . . The scheme fell through. I saw 
 I was stone-walled, and I therefore studied the 
 map of Africa to find an alternative route. I saw 
 that the shortest route to the sea was along the 
 same great divide between the Congo and Zam- 
 besi Rivers, as that on which we had discovered 
 the minerals. It led from Katanga in an almost 
 straight line westward to the old Portuguese town 
 of Benguella. I saw instinctively that the eco- 
 nomic route from Katanga to the coast lay along 
 the old slave-road, and moreover that this route, 
 with Lobito Bay as its terminus, was nearer by 
 about 3,000 miles to England. I pointed this out 
 to King Leopold, and. having got his approval 
 and promise of cooperation. I went to Lisbon 
 and without the knowledge of the British Govern- 
 ment secured from the Portuguese Government 
 the right to construct the Benguella Railway. But 
 Germany had already grasped the value of this 
 route; had already seen the future agricultural and 
 trade prospects of Angola, and realized the mag- 
 nificent advantages of the natural harbour of 
 
 Lobito Bay, how valuable it would be as the 
 Western port to her Central African Empire. 
 Four years before Portugal granted me the Ben- 
 guella Railway Concession Germany had induced 
 the British Government to enter into a secret 
 agreement, under which our Government had 
 pledged itself not to interfere with Germany's 
 political efforts in Angola — the very country in 
 which I had secured the right to build a trunk 
 railway." 
 
 "Mr. Williams' continued efforts to .^iecure British 
 backing for the completion of the Cape-to-Caifo 
 railway were also futile. He went to London to 
 ask Mr. Joseph Chamberlain about obtaining the 
 support of the Government, but Mr. Chamber- 
 lain's interest in the project was not of a mate- 
 rial nature and the Government was unwilling to 
 guarantee the interest on a loan to the railway. 
 "I again met King Leopold, and we resolved upon 
 a great cooperative railway scheme, comprising 
 over 3,000 miles of railway. We agreed to build 
 the Katanga Railway jointly, in order to link up 
 the Rhodesian Railway with the navigable Congo 
 River at Bukama. The King undertook to con- 
 struct a railway from Leopoldville to Bukama; 
 also the section that would connect the Benguella 
 Railway with the Katanga Railway and the cop- 
 per belt, and the earnings of all these railways 
 were to be 'pooled.' 
 
 "The last link in this international chain of 
 railways proved the most difficult of all to pro- 
 vide for, although it was only 132 miles in 
 length and lay in British territory. It was the 
 little bit between Broken Hill in Rhodesia and 
 the Congo frontier. There the railway stood 
 literally dying for want of traffic, unwilling 
 to extend itself to serve British or Belgium 
 interests. I saw that if it was to be done, I must 
 do it myself, and I wrote to Dr. Jameson telling 
 him I would arrange the finance for the Rhodesian 
 section on certain conditions, with which I need 
 not trouble you. Suffice it to say, that with the 
 assistance of Mr. George Pauling, the great Af- 
 rican railway contractor, and the Messrs. Erlangef, 
 bankers of this city, I surmounted the difficulty. 
 The Cape-to-Cairo Railway was arranged for at 
 last."^R. Williams, Railway developments in Cen- 
 tral Africa (The Times [London] May 11, igi?)- 
 — See also R.\ilro.\ds: 1805. 
 
 "Railroad development in Africa has been rapid 
 in the past few years and seems but the beginning 
 of a great system which must contribute to the 
 rapid development, civilization, and enlightenment 
 of the Dark Continent. .Already [in i8qo] rail- 
 roads run northwardly from Cape Colony about 
 1,400 miles, and southwardly from Cairo about 
 1,100 miles, thus making 2,500 miles of the 'Cape- 
 to-Cairo' railroad complete, while the interme- 
 diate distance is about 3,000 miles. ... .A line 
 has already been constructed from Natal on the 
 southeast coast; another from Louren(;o Mar- 
 quez in Portuguese territory and the gold and dia- 
 mond fields; another from Beira, also in Portu- 
 guese territory, but considerably farther north, 
 and destined to extend to Salisbury in Rhodesia; 
 . . . still another is projected from Zanzibar to 
 Lake Victoria Nyanza, to connect, probably, at 
 Tabora, with the transcontinental line; another line 
 is under actual construction westward from Pan- 
 gani just north of Zanzibar, both of these being in 
 German East Africa; another line is being con- 
 structed northwestwardly from Mombasa, in Brit- 
 ish territory, toward Lake Victoria Nyanza, and 
 is completed more than half the distance, while at 
 the entrance to the Red Sea a road is projected 
 westwardly into .\byssinia, and is expected to 
 
 112
 
 AFRICA, 1914-1920 
 
 Obstacles: 
 Lack of Railroads 
 
 AFRICA, 1914-1920 
 
 pass farther toward the west and connect with 
 the main Une. At Suakim, fronting on the Red 
 Sea, a road is projected to Berber, the present 
 terminus of the line running southwardly from 
 Cairo. On the west of Africa lines have begun to 
 penetrate inward, a short line in the French Sudan 
 running from the head of navigation on the Sene- 
 gal eastwardly toward the head of navigation on 
 the Niger, with the ultimate purpose of connecting 
 navigation on these two streams. In the Kongo 
 Free State a railway connects the Upper Kongo 
 with the Lower Kongo around Livingstone Falls; 
 in Portuguese Angola a road extends eastwardly 
 
 these branches connecting it with either coast. 
 Another magnificent railway project, which was 
 some years ago suggested by M. Leroy Beaulieu, 
 has been recently revived, being no less than an 
 cast and west transcontinental line through the 
 Sudan region, connecting the Senegal and Niger 
 countries on the west with the Nile Valley and 
 Red Sea on the east and penetrating a densely 
 populated and extremely productive region of 
 which less is now known, perhaps, than of any 
 other part of Africa. At the north numerous 
 lines skirt the Mediterranean coast, especially in the 
 French territory of Algeria and in Tunis, where the 
 
 MODERN RAILROAD LINES IN AFRICA 
 
 from Loanda, the capital, a considerable distance, 
 and others are projected from Benguela and Mos- 
 samedes with the ultimate purpose of connecting 
 with the 'Cape-to-Cairo' road and joining with the 
 lines from Portuguese East Africa, which also 
 touch that road, thus making a transcontinental 
 line from east to west, with Portuguese territory 
 at either terminus. Farther south on the west- 
 ern coast the Germans have projected a road 
 from Walfisch Bay to Windhoek, the capital of 
 German Southwest Africa, and this will probably 
 be extended eastwardly until it connects with the 
 great transcontinental line from 'Cape-to-Cairo,' 
 which is to form the great nerve center of the 
 system, to be contributed to and supported by 
 
 length of railway is, in round numbers, 2,250 miles 
 while the Egyptian railroads are, including those 
 now under construction, about i,soo miles in 
 length. Those of Cape Colony and Natal are near- 
 ly 3,000 miles, and those of Portuguese East Africa 
 and the South African Republic another thousand. 
 Taking into consideration all of the roads now 
 constructed, or under actual construction, their 
 total length reaches nearly 10,000 miles, while 
 there seems every reason to believe that the great 
 through system connecting the rapidly develop- 
 ing mining regions of South Africa with the north 
 of the continent and with Europe will soon be 
 pushed to completion. A large proportion of the 
 railways thus far constructed are owned by the 
 
 113
 
 AFRICA, 1914-1920 
 
 Obstacles: 
 Labor Problems 
 
 AFRICA, 1914-1920 
 
 several colonics or States which they traverse, 
 about 2,000 miles of the Cape Colony system 
 belonging to the Government, while nearly all 
 that of Egypt is owned and operated by the State." 
 — U. S. Bureau of Statistics, Monthly summary, 
 August, 1899. — See also Cape-to-Cairo railway. 
 
 No transcontinental line has as yet (1921) been 
 completed, but in the years preceding the World 
 War much of the abov-e mentioned mileage was 
 constructed. The Cape was connected with the 
 navigable Congo at Bukama. When fmances per- 
 mit, it is intended to construct the main line 
 northward through Tanganyika Territory (for- 
 merly German East Africa) to connect with the 
 Egyptian system, thus realizing the plan of Cecil 
 Rhodes. From Dakar at Cape Verde, connection 
 was made with the upper Niger. On the east the 
 road from Jibuti, French Somalilaiid, was extended 
 to the Abyssinian capital. .Algerian lines were 
 carried farther. No early day, however, can be 
 set for the completion of a through East and 
 West road, a trans-Sahara route or even a Cape- 
 to-Cairo Railway. 
 
 (4) Labor problems. — A fourth obstacle to 
 European colonization and the most difficult 
 "problem of trade facing the administration in 
 Africa is that of labour. The question is com- 
 plicated by the absence of certain factors which 
 minimise the difficulty of the labour problem in 
 the West. Machinery has not been extensively 
 introduced. This is largely due to the absence 01 
 railways, a fact which also influences the problem 
 when the difficulty of transporting native labour 
 has to be considered. White labour, whether 
 skilled or unskilled, can be obtained only in very 
 small quantities. The vast mining concerns of 
 South Africa, the great rubber and cocoa planta- 
 tions of West Africa, the growing cotton indus- 
 try of Uganda, together with the palm-oil trade 
 which spreads right across the continent, are de- 
 pendent upon native labour, or, failing that, upon 
 some substitute which will be equally cheap. The 
 problem of the industrial companies of .Africa is 
 to obtain cheap labour. White labour is too 
 highly paid to make possible any large demand 
 for white labourers in those classes of work where 
 muscle rather than brain is required. Cheap la- 
 bour may be bad labour, but white labour is often 
 impossible where a considerable margin of profit 
 is essential. In course of time it may be possible 
 to secure better labour by the payment of higher 
 wages. But the wages offered can never be so 
 high as those demanded by white men in tropical 
 and subtropical countries. Therefore the bulk 
 of the labour demand will continue to be supplied 
 by natives. The increase in wages will be met by 
 better production Therein lies another difficulty 
 which should only be transient! The native, at 
 present, is only capable of performing work of a 
 certain low standard. Higher wages will not im- 
 mediately, and ipso facto, coax from him better 
 work. He is incapable of it until education, civi- 
 lisation and Christianity have removed certain 
 deficiencies from his character. At the present 
 time the .\frican native is too unstable, too apt 
 to abandon his work under slight provocation, too 
 thriftless in the use to which he puts his money, 
 and consequently thriftless of his efficiency as a 
 worker, to make it desirable, or even profitable, 
 to pay him higher wages. These deficiencies 
 sometimes arise from the conditions of his work, 
 and from the treatment meted out to him by over- 
 seers and paymasters, though more frequently they 
 are due to weaknesses inherent in the native char- 
 acter. But — it is a fact to be emphasised — the 
 development of the natives, in many individual 
 
 cases, proves that he is capable of overcoming 
 these faults, and promises a time when he will 
 justifiably demand a higher wage, and when the 
 increased return made by his work will enable the 
 employer to meet the demand. The Kibour prob- 
 lem in Africa is most acute on the Rand. It is 
 said that the white man cannot work on the 
 deep levels in the subtropical climate of South 
 Africa. But Cornish miners are able to work on 
 the deep levels of the Comstock mine in Nevada. 
 . . . The real objection lies in the fact that the 
 white man is ashamed to work in the presence of 
 black men. He becomes an autocrat of the worst 
 type. He shirks work because physical exertion 
 'looks bad.' But apart from these considerations, 
 two insurmountable difficulties lie in the way of 
 employing white labour for unskilled work in the 
 mines: the white population is small; it is not 
 possible to pay wages sufficiently high to attract 
 men in large numbers from the West. The prob- 
 lem has not been completely solved by resorting 
 to black labour. Fresh difficulties have been 
 created, while some of those attached to the sup- 
 ply of white labour have not been overcome. 
 Black labour in South .Africa is not sufficient to 
 meet the requirements of the mines. It has been 
 estimated that only fifty per cent, of the demand 
 can be supplied by the native races which dwell 
 south of the Zambesi, in spite of large sums of 
 money spent in recruiting. 
 
 "While the native races of South Africa have 
 long since abandoned those warlike and migratory 
 habits which made concentration upon settled 
 labour an impossibility, they have not yet become 
 wearied by the habits of an agricultural and 
 pastoral life, nor have their numbers increased 
 .sufficiently to necessitate a periodical movement 
 towards the centres of urban industry, such as 
 takes place in the older agricultural communities 
 of the West. Provided they can obtain a satis- 
 factor\' settlement on the land, together with the 
 ownership of a certain number of cattle, they 
 have little spontaneous inducement to send them 
 to the mines. The wants of the native are few. 
 They are easily satisfied by a slight cultivation of 
 the soil, and by the cattle which he allows to roam 
 at random over the veldt. Moreover, these wants 
 are supplied by a ver>- limited amount of per- 
 sonal activity. His occupations on the . . . veldt 
 afford him an easy means of livelihood at the cost 
 of a small amount of labour. It is a simple, 
 though not an idle life, suited to his somewhat 
 indolent and unenterprising habits. The South 
 .African native is now a home-loving creature. 
 His social insticts are largely developed. Like the 
 Jew. his great ambition is to found a family. 
 Until the time arrives when, by the process of 
 'labola,' he is able to make an arrangement with 
 the father of his selected wife, he is content to 
 remain in close touch with his own father's kraal. 
 Since the cessation of intertribal w'ars, the native 
 has swung over to an opposite extreme so far as 
 his migratory habits are concerned. He fears lone 
 journeys, especially when the goal will bring him 
 into a sphere of activity unknown to his past and 
 present experience. Moreover, when the allure- 
 ments of the labour agent, supported by his own 
 desire to hasten the day when he may be .ible to 
 take to himself a wife, have .it last brought him 
 to the mines, he does not often remain at work 
 for any length of time. From three to six months 
 is the average period during which the native 
 stays on the Rand, with the result that the whole 
 labour personnel of the mines changes every two 
 years. His temperament is too uncertain, his 
 moods too changeable, he is too prone to take 
 
 114
 
 AFRICA, 1914-1320 
 
 Obstacles: 
 Adverse Opinion 
 
 AFRICA, 1914-1920 
 
 offence under slight provocation, to make possible 
 a sojourn at the mines which would be more 
 profitable to production. To these causes, which 
 belong to the native himself, and which can only 
 be removed by the processes of civilisation, others 
 have to be added. They are created by the ad- 
 ministration of labour, and are, therefore, a matter 
 for the attention of the white man. The treat- 
 ment offered to the natives in the mines is not 
 always equitable. It is sometimes even harsh. 
 The white overseers arc often impatient of at- 
 tempting to understand the native mind and the 
 difficulties which new work under strange condi- 
 tions presents. . . . Labour agents and paymasters 
 have not always fulfilled the promises made to the 
 native recruit. Pay has been held back or dimin- 
 ished by the compulsory purchase of goods, sold 
 by interested persons on or near the mine com- 
 pounds. The accommodation offered has some- 
 times afforded a poor substitute for the kraals 
 on the open veldt. Overcrowded quarters, in- 
 sanitar>' conditions, surrounded by moral tempta- 
 tions, have impaired his physical fitness, so that 
 the arduous labour of the mines has become in 
 itself a cause of discontent. At the end of his 
 contract the native labourer often finds himself 
 at a loss to know how to return to his kraal. 
 Little advice is forthcoming from railway officials. 
 If any of the proceeds of his labour remain to 
 him, he is tempted to dispose of them in an un- 
 worthy manner, and at once becomes a member 
 of the community of low-class blacks and whites 
 who surround the mining towns, or attempts to 
 reach his own country by vagrant methods. 
 Perhaps the chief influences which make the 
 native' a bad labourer are not due to the na- 
 tive himself, or to his upbringing. They are due 
 to the aforementioned causes, or to others of a 
 similar nature. That is to say, they arc the con- 
 cern of the white man and his organisation. . . . 
 Men of varied experience in different parts of 
 Africa have testified to the efficiency and assiduity 
 of the native labourer when adequate supervision 
 and fair treatment are meted out to him. The 
 whole procedure, from the action of the labour 
 agent to the attitude of the repatriation officials, 
 needs to be revised. The recruiting of native la- 
 bour should be transferred from the control of 
 monopolist labour associations, which are con- 
 nected with the mining syndicates, to the native 
 affairs department, every care being taken that it 
 does not come within the duties of any revenue 
 official. The native should be transported to the 
 mines without being subjected to annoyance from 
 railway or mining ofticials, and, if necessary, his 
 ticket should be advanced and debited to the first 
 instalment of his wages. Such a system has been 
 introduced into the organisation of contract la- 
 bour in Portuguese West .Africa. 
 
 "Under the Portuguese regulations of January 
 20, iqo3, powers were conferred upon a central 
 committee for labour and emigration to appoint 
 and control labour agents, or their substitutes, for 
 the purpose of recruiting native labour. Funds 
 were to be supplied to the agents by applicants 
 for labour, and these payments were to be charge- 
 able upon the wages of the natives. The agents 
 were to co-operate with native chieftains in secur- 
 ing labourers. The native recruits were to be 
 conveyed to the centres of industry by the prin- 
 cipal railroads in the colony. They were to be 
 accompanied by the recruiting agents, who were 
 to supply them with proper food during the jour- 
 ney, whether by road or rail. During halts on 
 the journey the natives were to be lodged by the 
 agents In suitable depots where the sanitary con- 
 
 ditions were free from objection. When the la- 
 bourer had reached the centre of industry, he 
 v/ould be handed over to the master to whom he 
 had been assigned, and who was responsible for 
 the regular payment of his wages in coin. The 
 native labourers were to be suitably housed by 
 the masters in accommodations which resembled , 
 as nearly as possible tfie native huts. Proper food 
 and clothing, with adequate medical treatment, 
 was also to be supplied by the masters. The regu- 
 lations insisted that every master employing over 
 fifty labourers should maintain a separate in- 
 firmary for members of either sex. On planta- 
 tions where one thousand or more labourers were 
 employed, the doctors were required to pay a visit 
 every day ; where the number employed was less 
 than a thousand, but not less than six hundred, 
 the doctor must visit twice a week; in all other 
 cases once a week. The doctors were to be men 
 qualified at Lisbon, Oporto, or Coimbra. Simi- 
 lar regulations for the care of women and chil- 
 dren, especially in maternity cases, were drawn 
 up. At the close of the period of contract, the 
 labourers were to be returned to their own vil- 
 lages by the repatriation agents at the expense 
 of the masters. But they were free to engage for 
 a further contract. On the return journey simi- 
 lar care was to be taken with regard to accommo- 
 dation and food. The royal regulations of Janu- 
 ary 29, 1903, were revised by the Provisional 
 Republican Government on May 13, 1911. In 
 principle they remained the same. The whole 
 scheme received the congratulation of the British 
 Foreign Office and colonial officials. But later on 
 heavy criticism was directed against the Portu- 
 guese Government to the effect that the regula- 
 tions were not loyally carried out in West Africa, 
 and in particular [that] the option given to the 
 native to re-engage was abused by methods which 
 made re-engagement almost compulsory. The im- 
 portant lesson to be drawn from the Portuguese 
 regulations is the method employed in attempting 
 to secure that the recruiting, payment, accommo- 
 dation, and repatriation of native labour should 
 be conducted by responsible authority. The his- 
 tory of the Congo, and of the more recent Put- 
 umayo atrocities in South America, apart from 
 the past record of some British trading concerns 
 in West Africa, prove that trading companies are 
 not capable of restraining commercial enterprise 
 in the interest of the native, even where moral 
 and physical claims are clearly manifest. But 
 where these matters are placed in the hands of 
 an authority which has no commercial or even 
 administrative interest, some of the difficulties 
 which make native labour on the Rand, and else- 
 where, so wasteful and inefficient will be removed. 
 Recommendations similar to the regulations of the 
 Portuguese Government, but only general in char- 
 acter, were made by the South African Commis- 
 sion of 1003-5, and also by the Natal Commis- 
 sion of 1906-7. The practicability of reforms of 
 this nature is made apparent by the fact that for 
 some considerable time the housing, sanitation, 
 and medical treatment of the native labourers at 
 Cape Town, Kimberley, and Johannesburg have 
 been organised along these lines. The Commission 
 of IQ03-S drew attention to the conditions in 
 these towns. But there is need for extension and 
 room for improvement." — A. J. MacDonald, Trade 
 politics and Christianity in Africa and the East 
 pp. 11-20. 
 
 (5) Growth of adverse opinion. — Another ob- 
 stacle to European colonisation is the rapid growth 
 in recent years of a markedly adverse public opin- 
 ion. Owing to the fact that many of the African 
 
 115
 
 AFRICA, 1914-1916 
 
 Effects of 
 World War 
 
 AFRICA, 1918-1920 
 
 colonies at present cost more to administer than 
 their trade Ls worth, there is in each European 
 countrj- owning them a considerable group indif- 
 ferent or opposed to colonial undertakings. "Not 
 all the expectations of the enthusiastic advocates 
 of expansion were realized. The colonial trade 
 of Germany was insignificant, though the expense 
 of maintaining the colonies was very great. France 
 has been more successful ; but she, too, has had 
 to make u[> annually a large colonial deficit. 
 England has more to justify her imperialism than 
 any other country, for she has a large and grow- 
 ing colonial trade; but her important customers 
 are Germany, France, and the United States, and 
 not Canada, Australia, or South Africa. The 
 colonies have not proved successful in drawing 
 off the surplus population of the mother countries. 
 Because they were not attractive to white settle- 
 ment, very few Germans went to the German 
 colonies But many went to the British posses- 
 sions and to the United States. French colonies, 
 although near the mother country, contain few 
 Frenchmen besides military and civil officials. 
 The migration of Italians to Libya has hardly 
 justified Italy's 'war for a desert.' Even Great 
 Britain, with a large surplus population and colo- 
 nies in every climate, has failed to people the 
 Empire with her children. During 1870-1905, a 
 generation which saw the high tide of imperial- 
 ism, six and a half million emigrated from the 
 United Kingdom; of these, only two million set- 
 tled in the colonies, whereas four miUion went to 
 America and half a million to other places. So 
 reluctant are the English masses to go to the 
 colonies that societies have been organized to 
 encourage them to emigrate there." — J. S. Scha- 
 piro, Modern and contemporary European history, 
 p. 682. 
 
 1914-1916. — Part played by German colonies, 
 Seuthwest Africa, and East Africa in the World 
 War. See World War: 1914: VI. Africa; loi,?; 
 VIII. Africa; 1016: VII. African theatre: a. 
 
 1918-1920.— Effects of the World War upon 
 European occupation. — While it is as yet too 
 early to be certain of the results of the World 
 War on Africa, this much may be confidently 
 asserted. (1) A firmer hold upon their African 
 possessions has been secured by Great Britain, 
 France and Italy. (2) Africa seems destined to 
 be for a long time to come less and less a field 
 for European rivalry and conflict. (3) Under 
 the new mandatary system there is a recognition 
 before the world of a stewardship of the Great 
 Powers for their .\frican territories. (4) The ex- 
 cellent service of the Negro as a worker behind 
 the lines and as a soldier on the battlefields of 
 France has not only been accorded grateful rec- 
 ognition but has doubtless deepened the black 
 man's self-respect and consciousness of his rights 
 as a human being. One of the manifestations of 
 this new attitude on the part of both white and 
 black races is to be seen in the recent (iqiq) Con- 
 vention of the Powers regarding the liquor traffic 
 in Africa. The British government has made 
 public (Treaty series loio. No. lo) a parliamen- 
 t3r>' paper disclosing that on September iq, loio, 
 the United States and .\ssociated Powers entered 
 into a convention intended to safeguard .^frican 
 races from alcohol and displacing for that purpose 
 the Brussels Convention This convention super- 
 sedes, recodifies and amplifies "former interna- 
 tional conventions" dealing with the same sub- 
 ject. Thus come to an end the old liquor clauses 
 of the Brussels General .»\ct (1800I which with 
 their general revisions at periodical conferences 
 of the Powers (1890-1006) have regulated the 
 
 1 
 
 Central African spirit traffic. The area of the 
 present convention is almost identical with that 
 of the Brussels Act, though political areas are 
 substituted for arbitrary geographical boundaries. 
 Thus .\lgiers, Tunis, Morocco, Libya, Egypt and 
 the Union of South .Africa are excepted from the 
 agreement, and the islands lying within 100 nau- 
 tical miles of the coast are included in it. The 
 objects of the convention as set forth in the pre- 
 amble are to prohibit "the importation, distribu- 
 tion, sale and possession of trade spirits, absinthe," 
 and of other "distilled beverages" containing es- 
 sential oils or chemical products which are rec- 
 ognized as injurious to the health. Other forms 
 of spirits are to be subjected to a minimum duty 
 of 800 francs per hectolitre of pure alcohol, which 
 amounts to about 36 francs per gallon of pure 
 alcohol. By a further provision it is understood 
 that the existing areas of prohibition of all spirits 
 for the natives of these areas will be maintained. 
 This is the only mention of any race distinction 
 except in the preamble already quoted, reliance 
 being placed upon the exclusion of all cheap and 
 specially noxious distilled liquors. Exceptions are 
 allowed for distillation for scientific or pharmaceu- 
 tical purposes, or of industrial alcohol, but other- 
 wise distillation is not allowed. Italy is the only 
 one of the signatory powers which has claimed 
 any concession on certain of the conditions of the 
 convention. There is to be a Central Interna- 
 tional Office, in connection with the League of 
 Nations, for recording the statistics and regula- 
 tions put in force by each of the contracting par- 
 ties and the adhesion to the convention of the 
 other states exercising authority over the terri- 
 tories of the African continent will be Sought. 
 The convention is to come into force "for each 
 signatory power from the date of the deposit of 
 its ratifications," which ratifications will be de- 
 posited in the archives of the French government. 
 Signatories: — The United States of America, Bel- 
 gium, Great Britain, Canada, Australia, South 
 .Africa, France, Italy, Japan, Portugal. 
 
 TeRRITORIAI, ACQUISITION'S OF FRANCE AND GREAT 
 
 Britain. — Under the mandate provisions of the 
 Treaty of Versailles, in effect January to, 1920, 
 German Southwest .Africa and German East .Af- 
 rica became practically British possessions. A dis- 
 trict in the extreme northwest of the latter colony 
 was assigned to the Belgian Congo. Cameroon 
 and Togo, the other two former German colonies 
 in .Africa, were divided between Great Britain and 
 France. The latter country received the entire 
 coast and rather more than half of Togo and about 
 nine-tenths of Cameroon, incidentally regaining 
 the large districts which France had ceded to Ger- 
 many in 191 1 as a result of the .Agadir crisis in 
 Morocco. -A strip of varying width along the 
 northwest boundary of Cameroon was given to 
 Great Britain and added to the British colony of 
 Nigeria This strip includes the great Cameroon 
 Mountain near the sea, and adds to the Bornu 
 district near Lake Chad the part of that ancient 
 sultanate formerly held by Germany. The port 
 of Duala and the main routes to the interior are 
 in the hands of the French. 
 
 Italy's territorial .\couisitions. — In accordance 
 with provisions included in the Treaty of London, 
 which was followed by Italy's entrance into the 
 World War, negotiations were begun early in 1920 
 to carry out the promises made Italy by Great 
 Britain and France in 1915, by adding generously 
 to Italy's possessions in Africa. The provision in 
 question, article XIII, stipulated that, in the event 
 that France and England should increase their 
 colonial possessions in Africa as a result of the 
 
 16
 
 AFRICA, BRITISH CENTRAL 
 
 AFRICAN SQUADRON 
 
 World War, Italy too must be compensated in an 
 equitable manner, particularly in the extension 
 of the frontiers of her colonies of Eritrea, Ital- 
 ian Somaliland and Tripoli (Libia Italiana). 
 
 France offered to cede the territory lying east of 
 the line running north and south between the 
 oases Ghadames and Ghat. This offer the Italian 
 government was ready to accept but is still mak- 
 ing efforts to have the Tibesti and Borku oases, 
 south of the Libyan desert, included in the grant. 
 The British government offered to cede Italy the 
 Egyptian oasis of Jarabub. This has been prac- 
 tically accepted by the Italian government. Great 
 Britain also offered to cede to Italian Somaliland 
 extensive territory along the Juba river. This 
 would give Italy the port of Kismayu, which has 
 a better harbor than any port along the 1,200 mile 
 coast line of Somaliland. Mindful of the value 
 of this accession Italy accepted Great Britain's 
 offer, which greatly increases the value of Italian 
 Somaliland. The border with British Somaliland 
 at the north has also been rectified in Italy's favor. 
 Italy further sought to obtain part of the Anglo- 
 Egyptian Sudan bordering on her colony of Eritrea. 
 The concessions secured by Italy a.ssure her of 
 better facilities for developing her large colonies 
 ill Africa. 
 
 Africa under the League of Nations. — "In 
 addition to these territories which are to be 
 emancipated under the protection of stronger 
 states, there are the former colonies of Germany, 
 some of which are to be administered by a man- 
 datary under a separate form of government and 
 others to be administered as integral portions of 
 the territory of the mandatary. In both cases 
 provision is made in the covenant and in the body 
 of the treaty that the administration shall be con- ' 
 ducted under conditions approved by the league, 
 by which equal opportunity for trade will be al- 
 lowed to all members of the league, and certain 
 abuses, such as the trade in slaves, arms, and 
 liquor, will be prohibited; and the requirement is 
 laid down that the mandatary shall render to the 
 council of the league an annual report in reference 
 to the territory committed to its charge. The 
 value of these provisions, if it is not too much 
 to assume their observance, lies not only in the 
 fact that they attempt to protect the backward 
 peoples of Africa against possible exploitation, but 
 that they introduce a new principle of interna- 
 tional responsibility into the relations of nations, 
 in that they recognize that the development of 
 such peoples forms 'a sacred trust of civilization.' 
 If the league can secure the fulfillment of the 
 promises thus made, a strong impetus will be 
 given to the further development of international 
 administrative law. At the present moment the 
 functions of the permanent mandates commission, 
 which is to receive the reports of the several 
 mandataries, have been outlined and the person- 
 nel of the commission is about to be appointed." 
 — American Political Science Review, Aug., ig20, 
 p. 487. 
 
 AFRICA, British Central. See Nyasaland 
 
 PROTECTORATE. 
 
 AFRICA, East. See Ken'\'A colony. 
 
 AFRICA, East Central. See Darfur. 
 
 AFRICA, Masonic societies in. See Masonic 
 societies: Africa. 
 
 AFRICA, Northwest. See Nigeria protectorate. 
 
 AFRICA, Portuguese East. See Portugitese 
 East Africa. 
 
 AFRICA, South. See South Africa, Union of. 
 
 AFRICA, West. See Dahomey. 
 
 AFRICAN ASSOCIATION IN ENGLAND, 
 Formation of (1788). See Africa: Modern Euro- 
 
 pean occupation: Chronology of European explor- 
 ation. 
 
 AFRICAN METHODIST EPISCOPAL 
 CHURCH. See Methodists; Colored. 
 
 AFRICAN SQUADRON.— Although the Con- 
 gress (United States) in 1808 passed an act pro- 
 hibiting the importation of slaves, a good many 
 were smuggled in. The rather unsuccessful at- 
 tempt to suppress this illicit trade is shown in the 
 following articles of the Webster-Ashburton Treats , 
 1842: 
 
 "Art. VIIL— The parties [United States and 
 Great Britain] mutually stipulate that each shall 
 prepare, equip, and maintain in service on the coast 
 of Africa a sufficient and adequate squadron or 
 naval force of vessels of suitable numbers and 
 descriptions, to carry in all not less than eighty 
 guns, to enforce, separately and respectively, the 
 laws, rights, and obligations of each of the two 
 countries for the suppression of the slave-trade, 
 the said squadrons to be independent of each 
 other, but the two Governments stipulating, 
 nevertheless, to give such orders to the officers 
 commanding their respective forces as shall enable 
 them most effectually to act in concert and co- 
 operation, upon mutual consultation, as exigencies 
 may arise, for the attainment of the true object 
 of this article, copies of all such orders to be 
 communicated by each Government to the other, 
 respectively. 
 
 ",^rt. IX. — Whereas, notwithstanding all ef- 
 forts which may be made on the coast of Africa 
 for suppressing the slave-trade, the facilities for 
 carrying on that traffic and avoiding the vigilance 
 of cruisers, by the fraudulent use of flags and 
 other means, are so great, and the temptations for 
 pursuing it, while a market can be found for 
 slaves, so strong, that the desired result may 
 be long delayed unless all markets be shut against 
 the purchase of African negroes, the parties to 
 this treaty agree that they will unite in all be- 
 coming representations and remonstrances with 
 any and all Powers within whose dominions such 
 markets are allowed to exist, and that they will 
 urge upon all such Powers the propriety and .duty 
 of closing such markets effectually, at once and 
 forever." — W. Macdonald, Select documents illus- 
 trative of history of United States, pp. 341-342. 
 
 "By the cruising convention clause [of the Web- 
 ster-Ashburton Treaty], which the President him- 
 self bore a conspicuous part in arranging, the deli- 
 cate point of 'right of search' was avoided; for 
 instead of trusting Great Britain as the police of 
 other nations for suppressing the African slave- 
 trade, each nation bound itself to do its full duty 
 by keeping up a sufficient squadron on the Afri- 
 can coast. It so happened that Great Britain, 
 by softening the old phrase 'right of search' into 
 'right of visitation,' had been inducing other na- 
 tions to guarantee this police inspection of sus- 
 pected slave vessels. In December, 1841, am- 
 bassadors of the five great European powers ar- 
 ranged in London a quintuple league of this char- 
 acter. But France, hesitating to confirm such an 
 arrangement, rejected that league when the Ash- 
 burton treaty was promulgated, and hastened to 
 negotiate in its place a cruising convention simi- 
 lar to ours on the slave-trade suppression; nor 
 was the right of search, against which America 
 had fought in the war of 1812, ever again invoked, 
 even as a mutual principle, until by 1S62 the 
 United States had grown as sincere as Great Brit- 
 ain herself in wishing to crush out the last remnant 
 of the .African traffic. This cruising convention, 
 however, left the abstract question of search un- 
 touched, and in that light Sir Robert Peel de- 
 
 117
 
 AFRIDIS 
 
 AGER PUBLICUS 
 
 fended himself in Parliament." — Schouler, History 
 of the United States, v. iv, pp. 401-402. 
 
 AFRIDIS, a powerful warlike Afghan or 
 Pathan tribe inhabiting the mountains of the 
 Peshawar border of the north-west frontier of 
 India; are said to have Israelite blood in their 
 veins, and a Semitic cast of features. 
 
 AFRIKANDER BUND. See South Africa, 
 Union- of: 1877-1870; 1881-1888; 1898; i8q8 
 (March-October). 
 
 AFRIKANDER CONGRESS. See South 
 .•Xfrica, Union of: 1900 (December). 
 
 AFRIKANDERS: Relations with the Boers. 
 See South .\frica, Union of: 1S99 (October- 
 November) and 1000 (May). 
 
 AFZELIUS, Adam (1750-1837), Swedish bot- 
 anist. He founded the Linnaean Institute at Up- 
 sala, 1S02, and subseijuently wrote the standard 
 biography of Linnaeus, 1823. 
 
 AGA, or Agha, a word supposedly of Tartar 
 origin, meaning lord or excellency, applied in 
 Turkey to military commanders and other high 
 officials; also used as a general term of respect in 
 addressing person? of the wealthv leisure class. 
 
 AGA KHAN I, His Highness the (1800-1881), 
 the title accorded to Hasan .'\ii Shah by the Brit- 
 ish government. Was governor of Kerman for 
 Persia until, incurring the displeasure of the ruler, 
 he fled to Bombay ; assisted his protectors in deal- 
 ing with the natives over whom he held religious 
 sway as leader of the Ismailiah sect of Moham- 
 medans. 
 
 AGA KHAN III, Aga Sultan Mohammed 
 Shah (1S77- ). In 1885, succeeded his father, 
 .\ga Khan II, to the leadership of the Ismailiah 
 Mohammedans. In World War he brought his 
 support to the side of the .'\llies. See Arabu: 
 1916. 
 
 AGADE. See .^kk.^d. 
 
 AGADIR, a small seaport on the south-western 
 coast of Morocco, formerly of some commercial 
 importance. .Acquired international fame in 1911 
 when the German gunboat Pantlur entered the 
 harbor to maintain imperial economic interests. 
 This, event, known as the ".■\gadir incident" pre- 
 cipitated the second and most acute Moroccan 
 crisis. — See also Fr.\ncf.: 1910-1014; Italy: ioii. 
 
 AGAGIA, Egypt: defeat of Senussi (1916). 
 See World War: iqi6: VI. Turkish theater: b, 1. 
 
 AGAMEMNON, a Greek hero of the Homeric 
 age; son of .Atreus and brother of Menelaus. 
 Ruled at Mycenae; leader of the Greeks in the 
 Trojan War. 
 
 AGAMEMNON, British warship at the Dar- 
 danelles^ See World War: 1915: VI. Turkey: a, 1. 
 
 AGANA, a fortified town, on the western side 
 of the .American inland of Guam, formerly the 
 Spanish capital of the Ladrone 'Islands. It has 
 several schools, convents, and government build- 
 ings. Sec Guam: i 900-1 921 ; U. S. .A.: 1S9S (June). 
 
 AGAPETUS I, pope S35-536; collaborated 
 with Cassiodorus in founding a library of 
 ecclesiastical authors at Rome; in 536 was sent 
 by King Theodahad on an embassy to Constan- 
 tinople and there deposed Anthimus from the 
 patriarchal see of Con.stantinople. He died there. 
 
 Agapetus II, pope 946-955, a Roman by birth; 
 established political rule over the churches of the 
 Empire; also invoked aid of Otto I against Ber- 
 enger II. king of Italy, who proved troublesome 
 to the pontifical state, 
 
 AGAS. Outer and inner. See Sublimf Porte. 
 
 AGASSIZ, Alexander Emanuel (1835-igio), 
 American scientist. Only son of Louis .Agassiz; 
 specialized in marine ichthyology ; acquired a for- 
 tune in mining, es[)ecially from the famous Cal- 
 
 umet and Hecla copper mine, Michigan; gave 
 large sums and much time to biological research. 
 
 AGASSIZ, Jean Louis Rodolphe (1S07-1873), 
 American scientist. Born in Switzerland, coming 
 to America in 1846; Harvard professor and an 
 enthusiastic and effective teacher; made extensive 
 researches in ichthyology and palaeontology ; en- 
 joyed a world-wide reputation as a biologist, 
 writer and lecturer. 
 
 AGATHO, pope 678-781, one of the most cour- 
 ageous pontifls who ever occupied the papal chair; 
 compelled St. Wilfrid to restore the bishopric at 
 York (679) and established a precedent by refus- 
 ing to pay tribute on election to the emperor at 
 Constantinople. 
 
 AGATHOCLES (361-289 B. C), the son of a 
 potter who became tyrant of Syracuse. .After 
 putting thousands of his enemies to death 
 .Agathocles succeeded in taking Syracuse, which 
 he subsequently lost. He ruled over Sicily towards 
 the close of his life. See Syracuse: B. C 317-289 
 
 AGATHYRSI, a people of Thracian origin who 
 once occupied the plain of Moris in the region of 
 Transylvania ; had luxurious habits, tattooed their 
 bodies, had wives in common, and like Gallic 
 Druids, recited their laws in sing-song to prevent 
 their being forgotten ; were later driven further 
 north and were unknown to the Romans in their 
 original home. 
 
 AGBATANA. See Ecbatana. 
 
 AGE OF STONE, AGE OF BRONZE, etc. 
 See /tcEAN civiLiz.\TioN; .Africa: Races of Africa: 
 Prehistoric peoples; Europe: Prehistoric period; 
 Stone age. 
 
 AGED, Care of. See Charities. 
 
 AGELA. — The youths and young men of an- 
 cient Crete were publicly trained and disciplined 
 in divisions or companies, each of which was called 
 an .Agela, and its leader or director the .Agelatas. 
 
 AGELATAS. See Acela. 
 
 AGEMA, the royal escort of .Alexander the 
 Great. 
 
 AGENAIS, or Agenois, a former province of 
 France in what is now the department of Lot-et- 
 Garonne. The district was purchased in 1038 
 by the dukes of .Aquitaine. Thus, with the mar- 
 riage of Eleanor of .Aquitaine to Henry Plantag- 
 enet (1152) the province was brought under Eng- 
 lish control. Subsequently, it was returned to 
 French rule (1271) with the marriage of Richard 
 Coeur-de-Lion's sister to Raymund VI, count of 
 Toulouse, but restored once more to England in 
 1279. During the wars between the French and 
 English (fourteenth fifteenth centuries), the prov- 
 ince again passed through a number of similar 
 changes. With the retreat of the English in 
 1453 -Agenais linally found itself peaceably pos- 
 sessed by the French. 
 
 AGENDICUM, or Agedincum. See Senones. 
 
 AGER PUBLICUS.— "Rome was always mak- 
 ing fresh acquisitions of territory in her tarly 
 history. . . . Large tracts of country became Ro- 
 man land, the property of the Roman state, or 
 public domain (ager publicus), as the Romans 
 called it. The condition of this land, the use to 
 which it was applied, and the disputes which it 
 caused between the two orders at Rome, are 
 among the most curious and perplexing questions 
 in Roman history. . . . That part of newly-ac- 
 quired territory which was neither sold nor given 
 remained public property, and it was occupied, 
 according to the Roman term, by private persons, 
 in whose hands it was a Possessio. Hyginus and 
 Siculus Flaccus represent this occupation as being 
 made without any order. Every Roman took 
 what he could, and more than he could use profit- 
 
 118
 
 AGER ROMANUS 
 
 AGNOSTICISM 
 
 ably. . . . We should be more inclined to believe 
 that this public land was occupied under some 
 regulations, in order to prevent disputes; but if 
 such regulations existed we know nothing about 
 them. There was no survey made of the public 
 land which was from time to time acquired, but 
 there were certainly general boundaries fixed for 
 the purpose of determining what had become pub- 
 lic property. The lands which were sold and 
 given were of necessity surveyed and fixed by 
 boundaries. . . . There is no direct evidence that 
 any payments to the state were originally made 
 by the Possessors. It is certain, however, that at 
 some early time such payments were made, or, 
 at least, were due to the state." — G, Long, De- 
 cline oj the Roman republic, ch. ii. — See also 
 AcF.ARiAN laws; Land titles: Roman titles; 
 Rome: Republic: P.. C. 133-121. 
 
 AGER ROMANUS. See Land titles: Roman 
 colonial titles. 
 
 AGESILAUS II, king of Sparta, 401-361 B. C; 
 helped the ."Xsiatic Greeks when attacked by the 
 Persians (306 B. C), defeating the Satraps, Tis- 
 saphernes and Pharnabazus. When recalled to 
 Greece to defend Sparta against the combined 
 forces of Athens, Thebes, Corinth and Argos, Ages- 
 ilaus defeated the allied armies indecisively at 
 the battle of Coronea, Boeotia (304). Various 
 small expeditions followed. Agesilaus spent the 
 last two years of his life in Egypt trying to raise 
 sufficient money to bring Sparta to her former 
 supremacy and died on his way home {361) at the 
 age of 84. — See also Greece: B. C. 4th century, 
 399-387- 
 
 AGGER. See Castra. 
 
 AGHA MOHAMMED KHAN, Shah of Per- 
 sia, 1705-1707. 
 
 AGHLABITE DYNASTY. See Caliphate: 
 715-750; Sicily: S27-878. 
 
 AGHRIM, or Aughrim, Battle of (i6qi). See 
 Ireland; i68o-i6qi. 
 
 AGHYL BAIR.— Attacked by British (iqi5). 
 See World War: 1015: VI. Turkey: a, 4, x.xvii. 
 
 AGHYL DERE.— Attacked by British (1015). 
 .See World War: 1015: VI. Turkev: a, 4, xxvi. 
 
 AGILULPHUS, King of the Lombards, soo- 
 616. 
 
 AGINCOURT (Azincourt), a village of north- 
 ern France in the department of Pas de Calais, 
 twenty-nine miles southeast of Boulogne; made 
 famous by the victory of Henry V of England 
 over the French under Constable d'.'Vlbret, October 
 25, 1415. See France: 141 5. 
 
 AGIS I, king of Sparta about 1032 B. C. Tra- 
 dition says the maritime city of Helos fell under 
 his attack. 
 
 Agis II, king of the Spartans about 427 B. C; 
 led his forces to victory at Mantineia (41S B. C.) 
 and helped to blockade Athens (405 B. C). 
 
 Agis III, king of Sparta, 338-331 B, C; re- 
 volted against Macedonia (333 B. C.) with the 
 aid of the Persians but failed; slain in the de- 
 ciding battle (331 B. C). 
 
 Agis IV, succeeded his father, Eudamidas II, 
 as king of Sparta at the age of twenty. .\ note- 
 worthy figure in Spartan history who tried to stay 
 the ruin of the state. 
 
 AGITATORS, Council of, the name given to a 
 body of representatives elected in 1647 by regi- 
 ments of the English Parliamentary army. They 
 prevented the disbanding of the army in April 
 and again in June, 1647. A council composed of 
 officers and agitators refused the offers of Par- 
 liament and demanded a march on London. See 
 England: 1647 (April-August). 
 
 AGLIPAY, Gregorio (i860- ), Roman 
 
 Catholic archbishop; seceded 1902; founded the 
 sect of the Independent Catholics. See Philippine 
 Islands: 1002. 
 
 AGNADELLO, Battle of (1500). See Venice: 
 1508-1500. 
 
 AGNATI. See Gens: Gentes: Gentiles. 
 
 AGNES, Saint, the patron saint of voung girls. 
 Martyred in Rome by order of Diocletian at the 
 age of thirteen. Her feast day is January 21, 
 and her svmbol the lamb. 
 
 AGNES OF MERAN (d. 1201), queen of 
 France, daughter of Bertold IV, duke of Meran, 
 Tyrol. In iig6 became second wife of Philip II, 
 after his repudiation of his first queen. Papal 
 opposition, culminating in an interdict, forced a 
 separation in 1200. 
 
 AGNES OF POITIERS (i025?-i077), em- 
 press of Germany, daughter of William V of 
 Aquitaine. In 1043 became second wife of Henry 
 III of Germany. Regent for her son, Henry IV, 
 1056-1062; her weak rule was finally overthrown 
 by powerful nobles and she fled to Italy. 
 
 AGNIERS. — Among several names which the 
 Mohawks (sec Iroquois) bore in early colonial his- 
 tory was that of the Agniers. — F. Parkman, Con- 
 spiracy of Pontiac, v. i, p. o, foot-note. 
 
 AGNOSTICISM, the doctrine that there is no 
 certain knowledge as to the existence of God, a 
 future life or the essential nature of things. Con- 
 trary to Atheism (q.v.), .^gnosticism makes no de- 
 nials, and affirms nothing but present ignorance 
 with reference to ultimate realities. It does not 
 even assert that knowledge may not at some fu- 
 ture time become possible. The term was coined 
 in i86q by Professor Huxley; but the doctrine is 
 extremely old, being essentially contained in the 
 teaching of Protagoras, Pyrrho and the entire 
 skeptical school of Greek philosophers. (See 
 Christianity: 100-300: Church in Alexandria. The 
 majority of modern Freethinkers may properly be 
 classed as .^Kgnostics, rather than Atheists. The 
 late Col. Robert G. Ingcrsoll was perhaps the 
 most notable among the aggressive champions of 
 .^gnosticism, although Charles Darwin, Herbert 
 Spencer, Thomas Huxley, and other prominent 
 scientists and men of letters in England and 
 .'\merica may be cited as adherents of this doctrine, 
 .Agnosticism was, therefore, historically in vogue in 
 the latter decades of the nineteenth century, when 
 it denoted (a) a form of the philosophic revolt 
 against the prevalent mid-Victorian theology, and 
 (b) more broadly a form of philosophic doubt in 
 the minds particularly of "Darwinian" scientists 
 arid the "sensationalist" school of thinkers as to 
 accepting the reality of many current forms of 
 human knowledge in general. In fact they de- 
 nied the validity of any transcendental or extra- 
 empirical tenets. The term "agnostic," invented 
 by Huxley, is unfortunately correlative to the 
 term "Gnostics" of early Christian history. Ag- 
 nostics were engaged in combating latter-day 
 church-men and others in their bigoted opposi- 
 tion to the tenets of modern "Darwinian" science 
 and pushed them hard from many prevalent 
 "Christian" notions. But unfortunately for ag- 
 nosticism intellectual people — whether churchmen 
 or not — cannot rest in suspension of judgment, 
 still less be content with assertions of unknow- 
 ableness. Not merely idealists, but pracmatists 
 and neo-realists "carry on" and agnosticism is 
 simply outgrown. "What Strabo said nineteen 
 centuries ago still holds true. 'It is impossible,' 
 said the old Greek, 'to conduct women and the 
 gross multitude, and to render them holv, pious, 
 and upright by the precepts of reason and phi- 
 losophy ; superstition or the fear of the gods 
 
 119
 
 AGNOSTICISM 
 
 AGNOSTICISM 
 
 must be called in aid, the influence of which is 
 founded on fiction or prodigies. For the thunder 
 of Jupiter, the aegis of Minerva, the trident of 
 Neptune, the torches and snakes of the Furies, 
 the spears of the gods adorned with ivy, and the 
 whole ancient theology are all fables which the 
 legislators who formed the political constitution 
 of states employ as bugbears to overawe the 
 credulous and simple." — J. Burroughs, LiglU of 
 day, pp. iob-107. — "The name .\gnostic, originally 
 coined by Professor Huxley about i86g, has 
 gained general acceptance." It is sometimes used 
 to indicate the philosophical theory which Mr. 
 Herbert Spencer, as he tells us, developed from 
 the doctrine of Hamilton and Mansel. Upon that 
 theory I express no opinion. I take the word in 
 a vaguer sense, and am glad to believe that its 
 use indicates an advance in the courtesies of con- 
 troversy. The old theological phrase for an in- 
 tellectual opponent was Atheist — a name which 
 still retains a certain flavour as of the stake in 
 this world and hell-fire in the next, and which, 
 moreover, implies an inaccuracy of some impor- 
 tance. Dogmatic Atheism — the doctrine that there 
 is no God, whatever may be meant by God — is, 
 to say the least, a rare phase of opinion. The 
 word Agnosticism, on the other hand, seems to 
 imply a fairly accurate appreciation of a form of 
 creed already common and daily spreading. The 
 Agnostic is one who asserts — what no one denies 
 — that there are limits to the sphere of human 
 intelligence. He asserts, further, what many theo- 
 logians have e.xpressly maintained, that those limits 
 are such as to exclude at least what Lewes called 
 'metempirical' knowledge. But he goes further, 
 and asserts, in opposition to theologians, that 
 theology lies within this forbidden sphere. This 
 last assertion raises the important issue; and, 
 though I have no pretension to invent an opposi- 
 tion nick-name, I may venture, for the purposes 
 of this article, to describe the rival school as 
 Gnostics. The Gnostic holds that our reason can, 
 in some sense, transcend the narrow limits of ex- 
 perience. He holds that we can attain truths 
 not capable of verification, and not needing veri- 
 fication, by actual experiment or observation. He 
 holds, further, that a knowledge of those truths 
 is essential to the highest interests of mankind, and 
 enables us in some sort of way to solve the dark 
 riddle of the universe. A complete solution, as 
 everyone admits, is beyond our power. But some 
 answer may be given to the doubts which harass 
 and perplex us when we try to frame any adequate 
 conception of the vast order of which we form 
 an insignificant portion. We cannot say why this 
 or that arrangement is what it is ; we can say, 
 though obscurely, that some answer exists, and 
 would be satisfactory, if we could only find it. 
 Overpowered, as every honest and serious thinker 
 is at times overpowered, by the sight of pain, 
 folly, and helplessness, by the jarring discords 
 which run through the vast harmony of the uni- 
 verse, we are yet enabled to hear at times a whis- 
 per that all is well, to trust to it as coming from 
 the most authentic source, and to know that only 
 the temporary bars of sense prevent us from rec- 
 ognising with certainty that the harmony beneath 
 the discords is a reality and not a dream. This 
 knowledge is embodied in the central dogma of 
 theology. God is the name of the harmony; and 
 God is knowable. Who would not be happy in 
 accepting this belief, if he could accept it honestly? 
 Who would not be glad if he could sav with con- 
 fidence, the evil is transitory, the good eternal: 
 our doubts are due to limitations destined to be 
 abolished, and the world is really an embodiment 
 
 of love and wisdom, however dark it may appear 
 to our faculties? And yet, if the so-called knowl- 
 edge be illusory, are we not bound by the most 
 sacred obligations to recognise the facts? Our 
 brief path is dark enough on any hypothesis. We 
 cannot afford to turn aside after every ignis jatuus 
 without asking whether it leads to sounder footing 
 or to hopeless quagmires. Dreams may be pleas- 
 anter for the moment than realities; but happiness 
 must be won by adapting our lives to the reali- 
 ties. And who, that has felt the burden of ex- 
 istence, and suffered under well-meant efforts at 
 consolation, will deny that such consolations are 
 the bitterest of mockeries? Pain is not an evil; 
 death is not a separation; sickness is but a bless- 
 ing in disguise. Have the gloomiest speculations 
 of avowed pessimists ever tortured sufferers hke 
 those kindly platitudes? Is there a more cutting 
 piece of satire in the language than the reference 
 in our funeral service to the 'sure and certain hope 
 of a blessed resurrection'? To dispel genuine hopes 
 might be painful, however salutary. To suppress 
 these spasmodic eftorts to fly in the face of facts 
 would be some comfort, even in the distress which 
 they are meant to alleviate. Besides the impor- 
 tant question whether the Gnostic can prove his 
 dogmas, there is, therefore, the further question 
 whether the dogmas, if granted, have any mean- 
 ing. Do they answer our doubts, or mock us 
 with the appearance of an answer? The Gnostics 
 rejoice in their knowledge. Have they anything 
 to tell us? They rebuke what they call the 'pride 
 of reason' in the name of a still more exalted 
 pride. The scientific reasoner is arrogant because 
 he sets limits to the faculty in which he trusts, 
 and denies the existence of any other faculty. 
 They are humble because they dare to tread in 
 the regions which he declares to be inaccessible. 
 But without bandying such accusations, or ask- 
 ing which pride is the greatest, the Gnostics are 
 at least bound to show some ostensible justifi- 
 cation for their complacency. Have they discov- 
 ered a firm resting-place from which they are 
 entitled to look down in compassion or contempt 
 upon those who hold it to be a mere edifice of 
 moonshine? If they have diminished by a scruple 
 the weight of one passing doubt, we should be 
 grateful: perhaps we should be converts. If not, 
 why condemn Agnosticism? I have said that our 
 knowledge is in any case limited. I may add 
 that, on any showing, there is a danger in failing 
 to recognise the limits of possible knowledge. The 
 word Gnostic has some awkward associations. It 
 once described certain heretics who got into 
 trouble from fancying that men could frame 
 theories of the Divine mode of existence. The 
 sects have been dead for many centuries. Their 
 fundamental assumptions can hardly be quite ex- 
 tinct. . . ." — L. Stephen, An agnostic's apology 
 and other essays, pp. 1-5. — " 'The great uncertainty 
 I found in metaphysical reasonings,' writes Ben- 
 jamin Franklin, referring to his youthful specula- 
 tions, 'disgusted me, and I quitted that kind of 
 reading and study for others more satisfactory.' 
 Are we to conclude from this that the future 
 statesman, once having ceased applying himself to 
 metaphysics, was thenceforth emancipated from 
 the intellectual attitude which had previously ac- 
 counted for the practice? .Apparently yes. but in 
 reality no; for to the end of his long life — albeit 
 he was not primarily a metaphysicist — Franklin 
 remained, in spite of himself, indelibly stamped 
 with a metaphysical cast of mind The mental 
 experience of the celebrated American philosopher, 
 far from bemg unique or even markedly out of 
 the ordinary, might be paralleled in the lives of 
 
 120
 
 AGODE 
 
 AGRAM TRIALS 
 
 countless other thinkers, both professional and 
 amateur. Whether or not the phenomenon be 
 traceable to temperamental factors of a basic and 
 ineradicable nature, it cannot be denied that cer- 
 tain persons, once blessed or cursed — let the reader 
 take his choice — with the desire to probe the cos- 
 mos to its very bottom, persist therein even after 
 they have become convinced of the utter futility 
 of such investigation. Like Tantalus of the myth, 
 they must needs make the effort to drink time and 
 time again, though time and time again they fail 
 to quench (heir thirst. Can it be that they are, 
 after all, never qiiile convinced that the quest of 
 ultimate truth is a barren one? Can it be that 
 in an ever-recurring doubt must be sought the 
 reason for the constant renewal of a search which 
 th". mind repeatedly renounces as hopeless? It 
 is not the search for deity with which I am here 
 concerned: I as.sume that the majority of us are 
 agreed in rejecting such doctrines as posit or pro- 
 fess to demonstrate the existence of a personal 
 God, and in maintaining a defmitely Agnostic at- 
 titude with regard to other more or less attenuated 
 phases of Theism. What I have reference to is 
 the fact that many thinking men and women, in- 
 cluding not a few whose Negativism and Agnos- 
 ticism in the realm of theology are unequivocal, 
 seem to fmd it possible to take a positive mental 
 stand as respects the field of general metaphysics — 
 to give assent, that is, to what sometimes is aptly 
 designated as a 'philosophical creed.' Yet there 
 can be no more justification, intellectually speak- 
 ing, for assuming a positive position in the one 
 case than in the other, since in both spheres the 
 natural limitations of the human mind are equally 
 pronounced. . . . \nA what Sir Leslie Stephen, in 
 An Agnostic's Apology, asserts of natural theology 
 is applicable to the entire field of metaphysics — 
 namely, that 'there is not a single proof ... of 
 which the negative has not been maintained as 
 vigorously as the affirmative.' " — A. Kadeson, 
 Through agnostic spectacles, pp. 16-IQ. — "Science 
 deals entirely with phenomena, and has nothing 
 to say as to the nature of the ultimate reality 
 which may lie behind phenomena. There are four 
 possible attitudes to this ultimate reality. There 
 is the attitude of the metaphysician and theolo- 
 gian, who are convinced not only that it exists 
 but that it can be at least partly known. There 
 is the attitude of the man who denies that it 
 exists; but he must be also a metaphysician, for 
 its existence can only be disproved by metaphysi- 
 cal arguments. Then there are those who assert 
 that it exists but deny that we can know anything 
 about it. And finally there are those who say 
 that we cannot know whether it exists or not. 
 These last are 'agnostics' in the strict sense of the 
 term, men who profess not to know. The third 
 class go beyond phenomena in so far as they 
 assert that there is an ultimate though unknow- 
 able reality beneath phenomena. But agnostic is 
 commonly used in a wide sense so as to include 
 the third as well as the fourth class — those who 
 assume an unknowable, as well as those who do 
 not know whether there is an unknowable or 
 not. Comte and Spencer, for instance, who be- 
 lieved in an unknowable, are counted as agnos- 
 tics." — J. B. Bury, History of the freedom of 
 thought, pp. 213-214. 
 
 AGODE. See Babylonia: Early Chaldean mon- 
 archy. 
 
 AGOGE, the public discipline enforced in an- 
 cient Sparta ; the ordinances attributed to Lycur- 
 gus, for the training of the young and for the 
 regulating of the lives of citizens. — G. Schomann, 
 Antiquity of Greece: the Stale, pi. 3, ch. i. 
 
 AGOMAH.— Burned by the British (1916). 
 See World War: igi6: V. Balkan theater: b, 2, ii. 
 
 AGONCILLA, F., foreign agent and high 
 commissioner of Philippines. Suggested negotia- 
 tions with United States, but his proposition was 
 refused. See U. S. A.: 1897 (November). 
 
 AGORA.— The market-place of an ancient 
 Greek city was, also, the center of its political 
 life. "Like the gymnasium, and even earlier than 
 this, it grew into architectural splendor with the 
 increasing culture .of the Greeks. In maritime cities 
 it generally lay near the sea; in inland places at 
 the foot of the hill which carried the old feudal 
 castle. Being the oldest part of the city, it natur- 
 ally became the focus not only of commercial, 
 but also of religious and political life. Here even 
 in Homer's time the citizens assembled in consul- 
 tation, for which purpose it was supplied with 
 seats; here were the oldest sanctuaries; here were 
 celebrated the first festive games; here centred the 
 roads on which the intercommunication, both re- 
 ligious and commercial, with neighbouring cities 
 and states was carried on ; from here started the 
 processions which continually passed between holy 
 places of kindred origin, though locally separated. 
 Although originally all public transactions were 
 carried on in these market-places, special local ar- 
 rangements for contracting public business soon 
 became necessary in large cities. At Athens, for 
 instance, the gently rising ground of the Philo- 
 pappos hill, called Pnyx, touching the Agora, was 
 used for political consultations, while most likely, 
 about the time of the Pisistratides, the market of 
 Kerameikos, the oldest seat of Attic industry (ly- 
 ing between the foot of the Akropolis, the Areopa- 
 gos and (he hill of Theseus), became the agora 
 proper, i. e., the centre of Athenian commerce. 
 . . . The description by Vitruvius of an agora evi- 
 dently refers to the splendid structures of post- 
 Ale.xandrine times. According to him it was quad- 
 rangular in size [ ? shape] and surrounded by wide 
 double colonades. The numerous columns carried 
 architraves of common stone or of marble, and on 
 the roofs of the porticoes were galleries for walk- 
 ing purposes. This, of course, does not apply to 
 all market-places, even of later date; but, upon 
 the whole, the remaining specimens agree with 
 the description of Vitruvius." — E. Guhl and W. 
 Koner, Life of the Greeks and Romans, pt. i, sect. 
 26. — In the Homeric time, the general assembly 
 of freemen was called the Agora. — G. Grote, His- 
 tory of Greece, pt. i, ch. 20. — See also Athens: 
 B.C. .161-431: General aspect of Periclean Athens 
 
 AGORANOMI, magistrates in the Greek re- 
 publics, similar to the aediles in Rome. They 
 maintained order in the markets, settled disputes, 
 collected harbor dues, and inspected goods offered 
 for sale. 
 
 AGRA, an ancient city of northern India, cap- 
 ital of a district and of a division of the same 
 name in the United Provinces; principally famous 
 for the Taj Mahal, the supremely beautiful mau- 
 soleum built in 1632 by the Mogul emperor Shah 
 Jahan, for the remains of his favorite wife; also 
 noted for the Pearl Mosque and other fine speci- 
 mens of architecture; at one time capital of the 
 Mogul empire; under British rule since 1803, and 
 today a prosperous railroad, manufacturing and 
 commercial center. — See also India: 1798-1805, and 
 Map. 
 
 AGRAM, in Slavic, ZSgrSb, capital of Croatia 
 and Slavonia, an old but thoroughly modernized 
 town, with handsome public buildings, churches, 
 and monuments, higher colleges and academies. 
 
 AGRAM TRIALS. See Austria-Hungary: 
 1 908- 1 909. 
 
 T2I
 
 AGRARIAN LAWS 
 
 AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES 
 
 AGRARIAN LAWS (of ancient Rome) (Lat. 
 ager, land), laws which dealt with the disposi- 
 tion of the public land, since it was unconstitu- 
 tional to gratuitously dispose of the state's prop- 
 erty without the consent of the people. Such 
 land was the property of the Roman state by 
 virtue of the conquests, and was used by the 
 Republic as a means of defrayinR in part the 
 expenses of administration, cither throueh a direct 
 sale, or through the leasing of it to private citi- 
 zens. Often another object was achieved by means 
 of this propcrt\' — the satisfaction of the poorer 
 citizens. In such cases, contrary to instances when 
 property was leased out, the state henceforth 
 ceased to have any right in the land. The state 
 availed itself of still another method of disposing 
 of its surplus properties, that is through a gratui- 
 tous assignment to an organization a colony, or a 
 settlement. In such cases the ownership passed 
 entirely into the hands of the assignee. In 232 
 B. C, C. Flaminius enacted a law by means of 
 which tracts of land held by large landowners 
 were redistributed in smaller allotments to the 
 poorer people. Still a third method for providing 
 land for unpropertied people was attempted. In 
 63 B. C. Servilius Rullus tried to have a law en- 
 acted which would have allowed the sale of foreign 
 lands gained through conquests and the purchase 
 of land in Italy with that money, and finally the 
 allotment of this land to the citizens. Cicero's 
 opposition to the bill caused its withdrawal. — 
 "Great mistakes formerly prevailed on the nature 
 of the Roman laws familiarly termed .Agrarian. 
 It was supposed that by these laws all land w'as 
 declared common property, and that at certain 
 intervals of time the state resumed possession and 
 made a fresh distribution to all citizens, rich and 
 poor. It is needless to make any remarks on the 
 nature and consequences of such a law; sufficient 
 it will be to say. what is now known to all, that 
 at Rome such laws never existed, never were 
 thought of. The lands which were to be distrib- 
 uted by Agrarian laws were not private property, 
 but the property of the state. They were, origi- 
 nally, those public lands which had been the do- 
 main of the kings, and which were increased 
 whenever any city or people was conquered by the 
 Romans; because it was an Italian practice to 
 confiscate the lands of the conquered, in whole 
 or in part." — H. G. Liddell. History of Rome, bk. 
 2, ch. 8. — ^Sec also Rome: Republic: B C. 133-121; 
 .V.RicuLxrRF.: Modern period: United States: 1833- 
 1860; Ireland: 1858-1860; Russu: iqoq (April) 
 and 1Q16: Condition of peasantry; Yucatan: igii- 
 
 IQlS. 
 
 AGRARIAN LEAGUE. See German\-: 1890- 
 
 1804: i8o!;-i8q8. 
 AGRARIAN MOVEMENT. See AcRictn.- 
 
 TURE. 
 
 AGRARIAN PARTY. Sec .\x'Stria: 1006- 
 1000; Finland: iq20. 
 
 AGRARIAN REFORM: Rumania. See Ru- 
 MANU: Break up of large estates. 
 
 AGREEMENTS, International: Copyrights, 
 Extradition, etc. See .American republics, Ixter- 
 national union of: iqoi-1002; .Arbitration, In- 
 ternational; also under specific articles 
 
 AGRI DECUMATES.— "Between the Rhine 
 and the Upper Danube there intervenes a triangu- 
 lar tract of land, the apex of which touches the 
 confines of Switzerland at Basel ; thus separating, 
 as with an enormous wedge, the provinces of Gaul 
 and Vindelicia, and presenting at its base no nat- 
 ural line of defence from one river to the other 
 This tract w-as. however, occupied, for the most 
 part, by forests, and if it broke the line of the 
 
 Roman defences, it might at least be considered 
 impenetrable to an enemy. Abandoned by the 
 warlike and predatory tribes of Germany,, it was 
 seized by wandering immigrants from Gaul, many 
 of them Roman adventurers, before whom the 
 original inhabitants, the Marcomanni, or men of 
 the frontier, seem to have retreated eastward be- 
 yond the Hercynian forest. The intruders claimed 
 or solicited Roman protection, and offered in re- 
 turn a tribute from the produce of the soil, whence 
 the district itself came to be known by the title 
 of the -Agri Decumates, or Tithed Land. It was 
 not, however, officially connected with any prov- 
 ince of the Empire, nor was any attempt madt- 
 to provide for its permanent security, till a period 
 much later than that on which we are now en- 
 gaged [the period of .Augustus]." — C. Merivale, 
 History of the Romans under the empire, ch. 36. — 
 "Wurtcmburg, Baden and Hohenzollern coincide 
 with the .Agri Decumates of the Roman writers. ' 
 — R. G. Latham, Ethnology of Europe, ch. 8. 
 
 AGRICOLA, Georg (1400-155.0, founder of 
 modern metallurgy. See Science: Middle Ages and 
 the Renaissance. 
 
 AGRICOLA, Gnaeus Julius (AD. 37-92), 
 Roman general and statesman; held various posts; 
 commanded a legion in Britain, 70-73; governor of 
 .Aquitania, 74-7S; of Britain, 78-85; built a wall 
 from the Frith of Forth, to the Frith of Clyde. 
 See Britain: A.D. 7S-S4, 
 
 AGRICULTURAL AGENCIES, need of co- 
 operation. See .Agriculture: Modern period: 
 United States: Rural policv. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL BANKS. See Rur.al 
 credit. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. See 
 Chemistry. .Agricultltral. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES. See Educa- 
 tion. .ACRlrULTl'RAL. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL COOPERATION. See 
 
 Cooperation: Belgium. 
 AGRICULTURAL CREDIT. See Rural 
 
 CREDIT 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. See Edu- 
 cation, .AGRICl'LTURiL. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EXPANSION IN 
 UNITED STATES. See Agriculture: Modern 
 period: United States: 1860-18S8: Expansion after 
 the Civil War. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STA- 
 TIONS. See Education, .Agricultural: United 
 States. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION WORK. 
 See Education, .Agricultural: United States: Sta- 
 tistics of agricultural colleges. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS, Im 
 provement of. See .AcRicirLTURE : Modern period: 
 United States: i860- 1888: Expansion after the Civil 
 War. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL LAND BILL. See Eng- 
 land: iSofi. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS. See Educa- 
 tion, .AC.RICULTUR.\L. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES, associations 
 for the promotion of agricultural science and 
 knowledge, composed of farmers and other inter- 
 ested persons. .Agricultural associations were first 
 formed in the middle of the eighteenth century, 
 some of the most important now in existence dat- 
 ing from that time. In recent years the tendency 
 has been to form agricultural associations not only 
 for purposes of education and research, but also 
 in order to assist the farmer directly through co- 
 operation. 
 
 A list of the most important agricultural so- 
 cieties is appended: 
 
 1 22
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 1. Denmark: 
 
 Royal Danish ARiicultiiral Society. 
 
 2. France: 
 
 Society of Auricullurista of France. 
 National Society of Agriculture. 
 
 3. Germany: 
 
 German ."VRricultural Society. 
 
 4. United Kingdom: 
 
 Bath and West of England Society 
 
 (1774)- 
 Highland and Agricultural Society of 
 
 Scotland (17S4). 
 Roval Agricultural Socictv of ICngland 
 
 Agricultural Organization Society, Eng- 
 land and Wales — cooperative (igoi). 
 Royal Dublin Society (1749). 
 S- United States: 
 
 Farmers' Alliance. 
 
 Patrons of Husbandry (the Grange). 
 Farmers' Educational and Cooperative 
 Union. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL SYSTEM: Relation to 
 slavery. See .\griculture: .\ncient period: De- 
 velopment of the servile system among the Ro- 
 mans; Sl.werv; United States. 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 "So bountiful has been the earth and so se- 
 curely have we drawn from it our substance, that 
 wc have taken it all for granted as if it were only 
 a gift, and with little care or conscious thought of 
 the consequences of our use of it; nor have we 
 very much considered the essential relation that 
 we bear to it as living parts in the vast creation. 
 Wc may distinguish three stages in our relation 
 to the planet, — the collecting stage, the mining 
 stage, and the producing stage. These overlap and 
 perhaps are nowhere distinct, and yet it serves 
 a purpose to contrast them. At first man sweeps 
 the earth to see what he may gather, — game, wood, 
 fruits, fish, fur, feathers, shells on the shore. A 
 certain social and moral life arises out of this 
 relation, seen well in the woodsmen and the fish- 
 ers — in whom it best persists to Vai present day — 
 strong, dogmatic, superstitious folk. Then man 
 begins to go beneath the surface to see what he 
 can fmd, — iron and precious stones, the gold of 
 Ophir, coal, and many curious treasures. This 
 develops the exploiting faculties, and leads men 
 into the uttermost parts. In both these stages 
 the elements of waste and disregard have been 
 heavy. Finally, we begin to enter the productive 
 stage, whereby we secure supplies by controlling 
 the conditions under which they grow, wasting 
 little, harming not. Farming has been very much 
 a mining process, the utilizing of fertility easily 
 at hand and the moving-on to lands unspoiled of 
 quick potash and nitrogen. Now it begins to be 
 really productive and constructive, with a range 
 of responsible and permanent morals. . . . Neces- 
 sarily, the proportion of farmers will decrease. 
 Not so many arc needed, relatively, to produce the 
 requisite supplies from the earth. Agriculture 
 makes a great contribution to human progress by 
 releasing men for the manufactures and the trades. 
 In proportion as the ratio of farmers decreases it 
 is important that wc provide them the best of 
 opportunities and encouragement: they must be 
 better and better men. .And if we are to secure 
 our moral connection with the planet to a large 
 e.xtent through them, we can see that they bear a 
 relation to society in general that we have over- 
 looked. ... If the older stages were strongly ex- 
 pressed in the character of the people, so will this 
 new stage be expressed ; and so it is that we are 
 escaping the primitive and should be coming into 
 a new character. We shall find our rootage in 
 the soil." — L. H. Bailey, Holy earth, pp. 22-24.— 
 See also Europe: Stone h%c. 
 
 "The history of our Domestic Animals and Cul- 
 tivated Plants is a subject of absorbing interest to 
 the educated man, and (if he knew it) to the un- 
 educated man too. It forms no small part of the 
 history of Man himself and his slow advance to 
 civilization. . . . .\nd who can state the sum of 
 
 our obliguliuub to the shccii, the pig, the camel, 
 the dog, and even poor mou.sing Puss? Or why 
 should Chanticleer and his family, with other 
 bipeds of the poultry-yard, be forgotten? .And 
 much the same may be said of Cultivated Plants 
 —the grains, the potherbs, garden-flowers, fruit- 
 trees, timber, and even ornamental trees. Now 
 the history of the Plants and .\nimal5 of Europe— 
 of their reclamation from a wild state to the 
 service of man, and their distribution in their 
 present locale— is susceptible of two or three dif- 
 ferent methods of investigation, which sometimes 
 clash, and lead to opposite conclusions. It is 
 certain that some of them are not natives of the 
 countries where we find them; that they have 
 been imported from abroad. But which of them? 
 whence, and along what route? how early, and by 
 whom? Our answers to these questions will be 
 different, accordingly as wc lean chiefly on Natural 
 Science, or on Ancient History, Literature, and 
 even Language. . . . That the animal and vege- 
 table worlds— that is to say, the whole physiog- 
 nomy of life, labour, and landscape in a country 
 — may, in the course of centuries, be changed 
 under the hand of Man is an ex-perimental fact 
 that, especially since the discovery of America, 
 cannot be contradicted. During the last three 
 centuries — in a purely historical period, since the 
 invention of printing, and in full view of the 
 civilized world— the native animals and plants in 
 newly discovered islands and in the colonized 
 countries of the Western Hemisphere have been 
 supplanted b>- tho.se of Europe, or by a flora and 
 fauna collected from all parts of the globe." — 
 V. Hehn, Citllivated plants and domestic ani- 
 mals, pp. vii-viii, 17. 
 
 ANCIENT PERIOD 
 
 Beginnings of plant cultivation. — "In the 
 progress of civilization the beginnings are usually 
 feeble, obscure, and limited. There are reasons 
 why this should be the case with the first attempts 
 at agriculture and horticulture. Between the cus- 
 tom of gathering wild fruits, grain, and roots and 
 that of the regular cultivation of the plants v.-hich 
 produce them there are several steps. . . . Cer- 
 tain trees may exist near a dwelling without our 
 knowing whether they were planted, or whether 
 the hut was built beside them in order to profit 
 by them. War and the chase often interrupt at- 
 tempts at cultivation. Rivalry and mistrust cause 
 the imitation of one tribe by another to make but 
 slow progress. If some great personage command 
 the cultivation of a plant, and institute some cere- 
 mony to show its utility, it is probably because 
 obscure and unknown men have previously spoken 
 of it, and that successful experiments have already 
 
 123
 
 AGRICULTURE, ANCIENT 
 
 Plant 
 CuUivation 
 
 AGRICULTURE, ANCIENT 
 
 been made. A longer or shorter succession of local 
 and short-lived ejiperiments must have occurred 
 before such a display, which is calculated to im- 
 press an already numerous public. It is easy to 
 understand that there must have been determin- 
 ing causes to excite these attempts, to renew them, 
 to make them successful. The first cause is that 
 such or such a plant, offering some of those ad- 
 vantages which all men seek, must be within 
 reach. The lowest savages know the plants of 
 their country ; but the example of the Austra- 
 lians and Patagonians shows that if they do not 
 consider them productive and easy to rear, they 
 do not entertain the idea of cultivating them. 
 Other conditions are sufficiently evident: a not 
 too rigorous climate ; in hot countries, the moder- 
 ate duration of drought ; some degree of security 
 and settlement; lastly, a pressing necessity, due 
 to insufficient resources in fishing, hunting, or in 
 the production of indigenous and nutritious plants, 
 such as the chestnut, the datepalm, the banana, 
 or the bread fruit tree. When men can live with- 
 out work it is what they like best. Besides, the 
 element of hazard in hunting and fishing attracts 
 primitive, and sometimes civilized, man more than 
 the rude and regular labor of cultivation. . . . The 
 various causes which favor or obstruct the begin- 
 nings of .agriculture explain why certain regions 
 have been for thousands of years peopled by hus- 
 bandmen, while others are still inhabited by no- 
 madic tribes. It is clear that, owing to their well- 
 known qualities and to the favorable conditions of 
 climate, it was at an early period found easy to 
 cultivate rice and several leguminous plants in 
 Southern Asia, barley and wheat in Mesopotamia 
 and in Egypt, several species of Panicum [millet 
 and other grains] in Africa, maize, the potato, 
 the sweet potato, and manioc in America. Centers 
 were thus formed whence the most useful species 
 were diffused. In the north of Asia, of Europe, 
 and of America the climate is unfavorable and 
 the indigenous plants are unproductive ; but as 
 hunting and fishing offered their resources, agri- 
 culture must have been introduced there late, and 
 it was possible to dispense with the good species of 
 the south without great suffering. It was differ- 
 ent in .Australia, Patagonia, and even in the south 
 of .Africa. They were out of reach of the plants 
 of the temperate region in our hemisphere, and 
 the indigenous species were very poor. It is not 
 merely the want of intelligence or security that 
 has prevented the inhabitants from cultivating 
 them. Europeans established in these countries 
 for a hundred years have cultivated only a single 
 species, and that an insignificant green vegetable. 
 "The ancient Egyptians and the Phtrnicians 
 propagated many plants in the region of the Medi- 
 terranean, and the .'\ryan nations,' whose migrations 
 toward Europe began about 2500, or at latest 
 2000 B. C, carried with them several species al- 
 ready cultivated in Western Asia. Some plants 
 were probably cultivated in Europe and in the 
 north of -Africa prior to the .Aryan migration. 
 This is shown by names in languages more ancient 
 than the .Aryan tongues; for instance, Finn, 
 Ba.sque, Berber, and the speech of the Guanches 
 of the Canary Isles. However, the remains, called 
 kitchen middens, of ancient Danish dwellings have 
 hitherto furnished no proof of cultivation or any 
 indication of the possession of metal. This ab- 
 sence of metals does not in these northern coun- 
 tries argue a greater antiquity than the age of 
 Pericles, or even the palmy days of the Roman 
 republic Later, when bronze was known in Swe- 
 den — a region far removed from the then civilized 
 countries — agriculture had at length been intro- 
 
 duced. .Among the remains of that epoch was 
 found a carving of a cart drawn by two oxen and 
 driven by a man. The ancient inhabitants of 
 Eastern Switzerland, at a time when they pos- 
 sessed instruments of polished stone and no metals, 
 cultivated several plants, some of which were of 
 .Asiatic origin. The remains of the Lake-dwellers 
 of .Austria prove likewise a completely primitive 
 agriculture: no cereals have been found at Laibach 
 and only a single grain of wheat at the Mondsce. 
 The backward condition of agriculture in this east- 
 ern part of Europe is contrary to the hypothesis, 
 based on a few words used by ancient historians, 
 that the .\ryans sojourned first in the region of the 
 Danube. In spite of this example, agriculture ap- 
 pears in general to have been more ancient in the 
 temperate parts of Europe than we should be 
 inclined to believe from the Greeks, who were dis- 
 posed to attribute the origin of all progress 10 
 their own nation. 
 
 "In .\merica agriculture is perhaps not quite so 
 ancient as in .Asia and Egypt, if we are to judge 
 from the civilization of jlexico and Peru, which 
 does not date even from the first centuries of the 
 Christian era. [See Peru: Empire of the Incas; 
 1200-1527.] However, the widespread cultiva- 
 tion of certain plants, such as maize, tobacco, 
 and the sweet potato, argues a considerable an- 
 tiquity, perhaps two thousand years or there- 
 abouts. History is at fault in this matter and we 
 can only Jiope to be enlightened by the discov- 
 eries of archseology and geology. Men have not 
 discovered and cultivated within the last two 
 thousand years a single species which can rival 
 maize, rice, the sweet potato, the potato, the 
 breadfruit, the date, cereals, millets, sorghums, the 
 banana, soy. These date from three, four, or five 
 thousand years, perhaps even in some cases six 
 thousand years. The species first cultivated dur- 
 ing the Grsco-Roman civilization and later . . 
 nearly all answer to more varied or more refined 
 needs. \ great dispersion of the ancient species 
 from one country to another took place, and at 
 the same time a selection of the best varieties de- 
 veloped in each species. . . . The peoples of South- 
 ern and Western .^sia innovated in a certain de- 
 gree by cultivating the buckwheats, several cu- 
 curbitacea? [cucumbers, melons, etc.], a few al- 
 liums [garlic, chives, leek], etc. In Europe, the 
 Romans and several peoples in the Middle Ages 
 introduced the cultivation of a few vegetables and 
 fruits, and that of several fodders. In .Africa, a 
 few species were then first cultivated separately. 
 .After the voyages of Vasco da Gama and of 
 Columbus a rapid diffusion took place of the 
 species already cultivated in either hemisphere. 
 These transports continued during three centuries 
 without any introduction of new species into cul- 
 tivation. We must come to the middle of the 
 present [10] century t^ find new cultures of any 
 value from the utilit.-.rian point of view, such as 
 the Eiicalyplus globulus of .Australia and the Cin- 
 chonas of South .America." — .A. P. De Candolle. 
 Beginnings of plant cjiUivation (E. G. Nourse, 
 Agricultural economics, pp. 2,^-27). 
 
 Tree and vine culture. — "WTierever the cultiva- 
 tion of the three . . . plants— the vine, the fii;, 
 and the olive — was prosecuted on a large scale, 
 there the face of the country and the habits and 
 manners of the people were of necessity changed. 
 Tree-culture was one step more on the path to 
 settled habitations; with and by it men first be- 
 came permanently domiciled. The transition from 
 a nomadic to a settled life has nowhere been sud- 
 den ; it was always accomplished in many inter- 
 mediate stages, at each one of which the shepherd 
 
 124
 
 AGRICULTURE, ANCIENT £,ome//if "imma/s AGRICULTURE, ANCIENT 
 
 hastily sows a piece of ground, from which he as 
 hastily gathers the ensuing harvest ; next spring 
 he chooses another and iresh piece, which is no 
 sooner stripped ol its spoils than he neglects it 
 in turn. When a tribe has settled on some es- 
 pecially fertile spot, building fragile huts, there too 
 the soil is exhausted in a few years; the tribe 
 breaks up its quarters, loads its animals and wag- 
 gons with its movable goods, and goes on to new 
 ground. Even when such a settlement has be- 
 come more permanent, the idea of individual right 
 to the ground is not yet realized. The cultivated 
 land, of which there is an abundance in compari- 
 son to the scanty population, is common prop- 
 erty like the pastures, and is divided anew among 
 the people every year. Such was the condition of 
 the Germans in the time of Tacitus, and this is 
 the plain meaning of that historian's words, which 
 have been carefully explained in a contrary and 
 more welcome sense by patriotic commentators. 
 The communistic, half-nomadic form of civiliza- 
 tion, which was closely connected with ancient 
 patriarchal life, still prevails in many parts of 
 Russia, among the Tartars, Bedouins, and other 
 races. During this first stage of agriculture, cattle- 
 breeding is still the principal occupation, milk and 
 flesh are the staple food, roving and plunder the 
 ruling passion. The huts or houses are lightly 
 built of wood, and easily take lire; the plough is 
 nothing but a pointed branch guided by slaves 
 taken in war, and only slightly scratches the 
 ground ; the foresight of the community is very 
 short, extending only from spring to autumn. The 
 sowing of seed in winter is a considerable ad- 
 vance, but the decisive step is taken when the 
 Culture of Trees commences. Then only arises the 
 feeling of a settled home and the idea of property. 
 For a tree requires nursing and watering for many 
 years before it will bear fruit, after which it yields 
 a harvest every year, while the covenant with the 
 annual 'grass' which Demeter taught men to sow 
 is at an end the moment the grain is gathered. 
 A hedge, the sign of complete possession, is raised 
 to protect the vineyard or the orchard; for the 
 mere husbandman a boundary stone had been suf- 
 ficient. The sown field must wait for dew and 
 rain, but the tree-planter teaches the mountain 
 rivulet to wind round his orchards, and in so doing 
 gets involved in questions of law and property 
 with his neighbours — questions that can only be 
 solved by a fixed political organization. One of 
 the oldest political documents with which we are 
 acquainted, the treaty sworn to by the Delphic 
 Amphictyons, contains a decree that 'running water 
 shall not be cut off from any of the allied cities 
 either in peace or in war.' " — V. Hehn, Cultivated 
 plants and domestic animals. 
 
 Domestic animals. — "In the East and around 
 the Mediterranean, wherever the summers are rain- 
 less, vegetation was threatened with destruction by 
 drought during the three or four hot months of 
 every year. In these countries, therefore, from the 
 earliest times, the art of irrigation, the banking 
 and diverting of streams, their horizontal distribu- 
 tion, the digging of canals, the making of dams 
 and bores, of water-wheels and wells, were prac- 
 tised. So necessary was all this labour under the 
 sunny skies, that it was continued from generation 
 to generation until it became a second nature and 
 innate skill. And as the art of irrigation was 
 originally a sign of awakening reason, it also be- 
 came a powerful stimulant to further mental de- 
 velopment. It bound man to man, not by the 
 stupid natural gregariousness common to beasts, 
 but by free reciprocity, the first germ of all com- 
 munities and states. . . . When the great Aryan 
 
 Migration brought the first inhabitants of a higher 
 race, that we are historically acquainted with, into 
 the two peninsulas which afterwards became the 
 scene of classic culture, those lands (we may 
 imagine) were covered with thick, impenetrable 
 forests of dark firs and evergreen ilexes, or decidu- 
 ous oaks . . . interspersed in the river valleys 
 with more open stretches of meadow land, grazed 
 by the herds of the newcomers, and with many a 
 naked or grass-grown precipice, climbed by the 
 nibbling sheep, from whose summits here and 
 there could be seen the waste, unfruitful sea. The 
 swine found plenteous nourishment in the abun- 
 dant acorns, the dog guarded the flocks, wild 
 honey-combs furnished wax and honey, wild apple, 
 pear, and sloe trees afforded a hard, sour fruit; 
 at the stag and boar, wild ox and ravening wolf 
 the arrow sped from the bow, or the sharp, stone- 
 tipped spear was hurled. Game and domestic ani- 
 mals furnished all that was needed: skins for 
 clothing, horns for drinking vessels, sinews and 
 entrails for bow-strings, bones for tools and their 
 handles. Raw hides were the principal material, 
 and needles of bone or horn served to stitch them 
 together. The osier boat was covered with hide, 
 and the leathern coat was sewed together with the 
 sinews of bulls. . , . From the bark of trees, es- 
 pecially of the lime tree, and from the fibres of 
 the stalks of many plants, principally of the nettle 
 kind, the women plaited (plaiting is a very an- 
 cient art, the forerunner of weaving, which it 
 nearly resembles) mats and web-like stuffs, hunt- 
 ing and fishing nets. Milk and flesh were the 
 staple food, and salt a favourite condiment, but 
 difficult to procure, and sought for on the sea- 
 shore and in the ashes of plants. The farther 
 south the easier it became to winter the cattle, 
 which up in the north found but scanty nourish- 
 ment beneath the snow, and in severe seasons must 
 have perished wholesale ; for the sheltering of 
 cattle and the storing of dried grass against the 
 winter are inventions of later origin, that followed 
 in the wake of a somewhat advanced husbandry. 
 The domestic animals were of poor breed. The 
 pig, for example, was the small so-called peat- 
 pig (torf-swine), far inferior to the animal now 
 improved by cultivation and commerce. In winter 
 the human dwelling-place was a hole in the 
 ground, artificially dug, and roofed over with turf 
 or dung; in summ&r it was the waggon itself, or, 
 in the woods, a light tent-like hut, made of 
 branches and wicker work. . . . The noble horse, 
 the darling and companion of the hero, the de- 
 light of poets (witness the splendid descriptions 
 in the Book of Job and in Homer's Iliad) — that 
 glossy, proud, aristocratic, quivering, nervous ani- 
 mal, with its rhythmic action — has his home never- 
 theless in one of the wildest and most inhospitable 
 regions of the world — the steppes and pasture- 
 lands of Central Asia, the realm of storms. There, 
 we are assured, the wild horse still roams under 
 the name of Tarpan, which tarpan cannot always 
 be distinguished from the only half-wild Musin, 
 or fugitive from tame or half-tame herds. It 
 grazes in troops, under a wary leader, always 
 moving against the wind, nostrils and ears alert 
 to every danger, and not seldom struck by a wild 
 panic which drives it full speed across the im- 
 measurable plain. During the terrible winter of 
 the steppes, it scrapes the snow away with its 
 hoofs, and scantily feeds on the dead grasses and 
 leaves which it finds beneath. It has a thick, 
 flowing mane and bushy tail, and when the winter 
 cold commences, the hair all over its body grows 
 into a kind of thin fur. And in this very region 
 lived the first equestrian races of whom we have 
 
 125
 
 AGRICULTURE, ANCIENT Domestic Animals AGRICULTURE, ANCIENT 
 
 any knowledge — in the east the Mongols, in the 
 west the Turks; taking those names in their wid- 
 est sense. . . . That the horse in its original wild- 
 ness also roamed westward of Turkestan, over 
 the steppes of the present South-eastern and 
 Southern Russia, and to the foot of the Carpathi- 
 ans, seems likely enough; not so likely that even 
 the forest region of Central Europe once abounded 
 in troops of that animal. .\nd yet much his- 
 torical testimony seems to put the fact beyond a 
 doubt. Varro speaks of Spanish wild horses; 
 and Strabo writes, 'In Iberia there are many deer 
 and wild horses.' Wild horses as well as wild 
 bulls lived among the Alps, as we learn again 
 from Strabo ; and Pliny tells us, not only in the 
 Alps but in the north generally. Nor are ihe 
 Middle Ages wanting in proofs of the existence 
 ul wild horses in Germany and the countries east 
 of Germany. At the time of Venantius Fortunatus 
 the onager — under which name may be understood 
 the wild horse — was hunted in the Ardennes, as 
 well as bears, stags, and wild boars. In Italy 
 wild horses were seen for the first time during 
 the rule of the Longobards, under King Agilulf. 
 ... If wild horses were thus found in the culti- 
 vated west and south of Germany, they must have 
 existed still longer in the wild country on the 
 Baltic, in Poland and Russia. In fact, we find 
 innumerable proofs of this down to modern times. 
 At the time of Bishop Otto of Bamberg, in the 
 first half of the twelfth century, Pomerania was 
 rich in all kinds of game, including wild oxen and 
 horses. At the same period wild horses are men- 
 tioned as extant in Silesia, whence Duke Sobeslaus 
 in 1 132 'carried away many captives, and herds 
 of wild marcs not a few.' It is known, and is 
 confirmed by many literary allusions, that till the 
 time of the Reformation, and even later, the 
 woods of Prussia were inhabited by wild horses. 
 . . . Turning from the European chase to the 
 steppes of Asia, the true home of the wild horse, 
 we meet with the important fact, that the farther 
 a country lies from this point of departure, the 
 later is the appearance of the horse and its his- 
 torical mention in that country, and the more 
 clearly are the modes of breeding the animal seen 
 to be derived from neighbouring nations to the 
 east and north-east of it. In Egypt, to begin with 
 the remotest member, no figure of a horse or of a 
 war-chariot has ever been found under the so- 
 called 'old kingdom.' It is only when the period 
 of the Shepherd Kings is over, and the eighteenth 
 dynasty with its campaigns has commenced (about 
 1800 B. C), that we find both pictorial repre- 
 sentations and the first mention in the papyri (so 
 far as they have been deciphered) of the horse 
 and of war-chariots equipped in, Asiatic fashion. 
 ... As to the time when the horse became known 
 to the Semites of Western .'Vsia, we are limited to 
 the evidence of the Old Testament — the Penta- 
 teuch, the Book of Joshua, etc.; but when were 
 these books written? There is not a i)iece in this 
 collection that does not consist of different parts, 
 or that has not passed through the hands of suc- 
 cessive revisers. . . . Descriptions of the horse are 
 not wanting in the so-called books of Moses, nor 
 in the historical books. . . . But in these descrip- 
 tions the horse is never mentioned as a domesti- 
 cated animal; it has nn share in the wanderings 
 and battles of the Children of Israel ; it is the war- 
 like .servant of their neichbours and enemies, 
 prancing and stamping before the war-chariot or 
 beneath the rider As a war-horse, and as such 
 only, it is also celebrated in the fitic description in 
 the Book of Job. In the household its place is 
 taken by the ass. 'Thou shalt not covet,' says 
 
 the Decalogue, the commands of which were de- 
 rived from a relatively very ancient period, 'thy 
 neighbour's wife, . . . nor his ox, nor his ass, 
 nor anything that is his.' The horse, the chief ob- 
 ject of rapine among mounted nomads, is here, very 
 signihcantly, never mentioned. . . . We are told 
 later that King Josiah abolished, among other 
 heathen abominations, the horses and chariots that 
 were sacred to the sun — this was a feature of the 
 Iranian worship of the sun introduced from 
 Media. . . . Nowhere in the Old Testament do we 
 find horses accompanying the shepherds of the Ara- 
 bian desert ; those people travel only with camels 
 and asses, and the mode of warfare in the despotic 
 kingdoms from the Tigris to the Nile is unknown 
 to them. Quite in agreement with the above is 
 the fact that the Arabs in the army of Xerxes rode 
 only on camels. Herodotus writes, 'The .\rabs 
 were all mounted on camels, which yielded not to 
 horses in swiftness.' And Strabo informs us that 
 in Arabia FelLx there were neither horses nor 
 mules: 'There is a superfluity of domestic ani- 
 mals and herds, with the exception of horses, 
 mules, and swine.' " — V. Hehn, Cultivated plants 
 and domestic animals, pp. 26, 30-32, 35, 37-38, 
 40-42. 
 
 "If we take all the above data together, we 
 find that nowhere in Europe, neither among the 
 classic nations of the south, nor the North-Euro- 
 pean nations from the (relts in the west to the 
 Slavs in the east, is the high antiquity of the horse 
 and of its subjugation to man betrayed by any 
 clear traces or undoubted evidence. Many facts, 
 indeed, seem positively to exclude any acquaint- 
 ance with the animal in early times; for instance, 
 the fact of the Homeric Greeks not riding, as they 
 must have dune had they possessed the animal 
 from the first, but only driving, as they had seen 
 the .Asiatics do. We have therefore no ground 
 for imagining the Indo-Germans (.\ryans) in their 
 earliest migrations as a horse-riding people, gal- 
 loping over Europe with loose rein, and catching 
 men and animals with horse-hair lasso. But if 
 the horse did not then accompany them on their 
 great march through the world, it must have been 
 the Iranian branch, which remained near the 
 original point of departure, that learnt the art of 
 riding later; and from whom did they learn it if 
 not from Ihe Turks, who dwell next behind them, 
 and in course of time' drew nearer and nearer? 
 Contemporaneous with the adoption of the novel 
 culture, because closely connected with it, were 
 the introduction of the Ass, the breeding of .Kfutes, 
 and the propagation of the Goat. The patient, 
 hardworking, and intelligent Ass, which obediently 
 fulfilled many domestic duties — driving the mill 
 and the draw-well; carrying baskets full of earth 
 to the hills ; and accompanying its master to 
 market and feast, loaded with the produce of the 
 soil — had no need of fat meadows, shady trees, 
 and ample space like the ox ; it was content with 
 what c.'une first, the way-side herb, the refuse of 
 the table, with straw, twigs, thistles, and brambles. 
 That the ass came to Greece from Semitic .'\sia 
 Minor and Syria^though its original home may 
 have been .•\frica, where its relations still live — 
 is taught us by the history of language, and con- 
 firmed by the oldest known conditions of nations 
 and culture. In the epic time, when cattle-breed- 
 ing and agriculture were the chief occupations, the 
 ass had not yet become a common domestic ani- 
 mal; it is only mentioned cure in the lli:id. and 
 that only in a simile invented and inserted by a 
 poet who was prejuilked against the S dam'nians 
 and .Athenians; the simile is paradoxical and awk- 
 wardly paired with the one preceding. In the 
 
 126
 
 AGRICULTURE, ANCIENT Domesfic Animals AGRICULTURE, ANCIENT 
 
 Odyssey, the second part of which afforded plenty 
 of opportunity for noticing such an animal, the 
 ass is never named at all ; nor is it spoken of by 
 Hesiod. As the Latin word asinus has an archaic 
 form which seems to reach back to a period pre- 
 ceding the Greek colonization, the animal must 
 have come into Italy overland through the lUyrian 
 tribes; or must we suppose that the people of 
 Cumas, wher) they founded their first city on the 
 present Isle of Ischia, still said asiiosr' Later on, 
 in Italy the ass, besides being valued for the do- 
 mestic duties he performed, was of great use in 
 facilitating import and export in the mountainous 
 parts of the peninsula. Oil and wine and even 
 corn were carried on donkey-back from the in- 
 terior to the sea ; Varro tells us that merchants 
 kept herds of asses expressly for that purpose. 
 The ass, and with it its name, accompanied the 
 progress of the culture of the vine and olive to 
 the north, not crossing the limits of that culture. 
 In proportion as the ure-ox, the bison, and the 
 elk died out, the long-eared foreign beast became 
 domesticated in Gaul, receiving various names, 
 and living in the customs, jokes, proverbs, and 
 fables of the people. Germany, however, proved 
 too cold for the animal. The Mule, already fre- 
 quently mentioned by Homer, came from Pontic 
 Asia Minor, or, as Homer expressly says, from 
 the Henetians, a Paphlagonian people. 
 
 "The Mulus, or mule, was brought to Italy, as 
 the name proves, from Greece. The Latin name 
 was afterwards used by all the nations which 
 adopted the animal. In V'arro's time, just as now, 
 cars were drawn along the high-roads by mules, 
 which were not only strong, but pleased the eye 
 by their handsome appearance. The Greeks were 
 equally delighted with the animal, and Nausicaa's 
 car is drawn to the sea-shore and back by mules. 
 The Goat was used as a domestic animal in the 
 mountainous districts of the south, where culti- 
 vation more resembled that of gardens than of 
 fields. It feeds on the spicy herbs that grow on 
 sun-heated cliffs, is content with tough shrubs, 
 and yields aromatic milk. Stony Attica, which 
 was rich in figs and olives, also nourished in- 
 numerable goats; and one of the four old Attic 
 phylae was named after the goat. Even if the 
 animal came into Europe with the first Aryan 
 immigrants,, and accordingly the Hellenes and Ital- 
 ians had not to make its acquaintance after reach- 
 ing their new home, yet it was only there, and 
 under the Semitic mode of cultivation there 
 adopted, that it found its proper place and true 
 use. It is obvious, too, that the keeping of Bees 
 could only have been adopted after the rise of 
 tree-culture. The man who planted his owrt 
 olives, for the fruit of which he had to wait for 
 years, could easily keep beehives within his en- 
 closed ground, nursing the bees through the winter, 
 increasing their number by colonies derived from 
 the parent-stock, and in due season receiving the 
 reward of his exertions in the shape of honey 
 and wax. Aristasus, the inventor of oil, also in- 
 vented apiculture, and Autuchos, i, e., the self- 
 possessing, is named as his brother. Homer knows 
 nothing of beehives; the simile of the Achaeans 
 gathering together 'like bees flying out of a cleft 
 in the rock.' is derived from the swarming of 
 wild bees. We first meet with an artificial bee- 
 hive in a not very old passage in Hesiod's The- 
 ogony ; in it the working-bees are distinguished 
 from the drones, which latter are compared to 
 women I In those days the shepherd robbed the 
 wild honeycombs which he found in the forest, 
 and if the spoil was abundant be made mead of 
 the honey ; the husbandman fermented his flour 
 
 into a kind of raw beer; the vintner often mixed 
 the honey from his hives with his wine, which he 
 then called muhum, and believed that the enjoy- 
 ment of this beverage would lengthen his days. 
 . . . The domestic joid made its appearance in 
 Western .'Vsia and in Europe much later than one 
 would imagine. The civilized Semitic races can- 
 not have been acquainted with the fowl, for it is 
 nowhere mentioned in the Old Testament. It is 
 never seen on Egyptian monuments otherwise so 
 lull of the details of ancient housekeeping on the 
 Nile. There we see tlocks of tame geese being 
 driven home from the pasture, we see them and 
 their eggs being carefully counted, but nowhere 
 cocks and henS; and when Aristotle and Diodorus 
 say that eggs were artificially hatched in Egypt 
 by burying them in dung, they must mean the 
 eggs of geese and ducks, or refer to a period later 
 than the Persian conquest, which Diodorus seems 
 to hint, for lie commences his account of the 
 tiatcliing ovens with the words: 'The Egyptians 
 inherited many customs relating to the breeding 
 and rearing of animals from their fore-fathers, 
 but other things they have invented, among which 
 the most wonderful is the artificial hatching ot 
 eggs.' The domestic fowl is aboriginal in India, 
 where its supposed parent species, the Bankiva 
 fowl, still exists from Further India and the 
 Indian islands to Cashmere. The domestic fowl 
 first migrated to the West with the Medo-Per- 
 sian invaders. In a work on the Temple of the 
 Samian Hera, Herodotus says that as the cock 
 spread from Persis, so the sacred pe.icuck spread 
 from the Temple of Hera to the surrounding dis- 
 tricts. In the religion of Zoroaster the dog and 
 the cock were sacred animals; the first as the 
 faithful guardian of house and flocks, the second 
 as the herald of dawn and the symbol of light and 
 the sun, , . , Soon after the appearance of cocks 
 and hens in Greece, whole families of these fowls 
 must have been transported to Sicily and South 
 Italy, and there, as in Greece, spread from house 
 to house. That the Sybarites would suffer no 
 cocks near them for fear of being disturbed in 
 their sleep is one of those late-invented anecdotes 
 by which people proved their wit. Sybaris was 
 destroyed in 510 B, C., when the cock was un- 
 known in Italy, or only just introduced. The 
 figure of a cock may be seen on coins of Himera 
 in Sicily, and sometimes the figure of a hen on 
 the reverse side, perhaps as an attribute of .'\sk- 
 lepios, the genius of the healing springs of the 
 lilace. The oldest representations of the cock on 
 coins and vases in Greece, Sicily, and Italy, never 
 go beyond the date we have given, namely, the 
 second half of the sixth century B, C, The 
 Romans, to whom the bird was brought either 
 directly or indirectly from one of these Greek 
 towns, made use of it with truly Roman religious 
 craft as a means of prophecy in war. . . . There 
 is no direct historical testimony as to the manner 
 in which domestic fowls were introduced into 
 Central and Southern Europe. They may have 
 come straight from Asia to the kindred nations 
 of the South Russian steppes and the eastern 
 slopes of the Carpathian mountains, whose religion 
 agreed with that of the other Iranian races, and 
 some of whom already practised agriculture in 
 the time of Herodotus; or by way of the Greek 
 colonies on the Black Sea, the influence of which, 
 as is well known, spread far and wide; or from 
 Thrace to the tribes on the Danube; or from 
 Italy by way of the ancient commercial roads 
 across the Alps; or through Massilia to the regions 
 of the Rhone and Rhine; or, finally, by several 
 of these ways at once. The more a people of 
 
 127
 
 AGRICULTURE, ANCIENT 
 
 %7men/plZd" AGRICULTURE, ANCIENT 
 
 nomadic habits accustomed themselves to a set- 
 tled mode of life, the. more easily would the do- 
 mestic fowl find shelter and acceptance among 
 them. In the middle of the first century B. C. 
 Caesar found fowls among the Britons, though 
 perhaps only among those who tilled the ground 
 near the south coast and had adopted the cul- 
 ture of the Gauls. . . . While the number of mam- 
 malia that man has tamed and made companions 
 of has only slightly increased in historical times, the 
 farms and settlements of men have become en- 
 riched, at a comparatively late period, with va- 
 rious tame birds, among which the domestic fowl is 
 the most important. Bird and cattle-breeding are 
 to a certain extent opposed to one another. It 
 is not where wide plains fertilized by copious 
 droppings stretch in immeasurable corn-fields and 
 green meadows, and are bordered by thick forests, 
 but in the sunny districts of more restricted horti- 
 culture, where farm stands close to farm, and 
 hedge succeeds to hedge — it is here that the winged 
 tribe peck and flutter about the human habita- 
 tion, forming a not-to-be-undervalued source of 
 sustenance and income in the system of the house- 
 hold. Thus in Europe the Romance nations are, 
 in accordance with tfieir habitat and tradition, the 
 bird-breeding, bird-eating peoples: the Germans, 
 on the contrary, feed principally on the flesh and 
 milk of their cattle. France, at a moderate cal- 
 culation, possesses above a hundred million fowls, 
 and exports to England yearly above four hun- 
 dred million eggs. In southern countries the only 
 meat that the traveller tastes, often for months 
 together, and that the native peasant regales him- 
 self with on feast-days, is a fowl roasted or boiled 
 with polenta. The taming of the Goose and the 
 Dtick is far more ancient than that of the birds 
 hitherto mentioned; and, what is more, they were 
 not introduced from Asia, but have been re- 
 claimed from the wild native species. ... By the 
 Greeks the goose was considered a graceful bird, 
 admired for its beauty, and an elegant present for 
 favoured friends. In the Odyssey, Penelope has a 
 little flock of twenty geese, in which she takes 
 much pleasure, as we learn from the beautiful 
 passage in which she relates her dream to her dis- 
 guised husband. Here the geese appear as do- 
 mestic animals, kept more for the pleasure the 
 sight of them affords than for any profit they 
 might bring. So, in the Edda, Gudrun keeps 
 geese, which scream when their mistress laments 
 over the corpse of Sigurd. At the same time, the 
 Greeks valued geese as careful guardians of the 
 house ; on the grave of a good housewife was 
 placed the figure of a goose as a tender tribute 
 to her quality of — vigilance ! Among the Romans 
 perfectly white geese were carefully selected and 
 used for breeding, so that in course of time a 
 white and lamer species was produced, which 
 differed considerably from the grey wild goose and 
 its direct descendants. In ancient as in modern 
 Italy the goose was not so commonly found on 
 small farms as in the North, partly because the 
 necessary water was scarce, and partly because 
 of the damage she caused to the young vegeta- 
 tion. But numerous flocks of this bird cackled 
 in the huge goose-pens of breeders and proprietors 
 of villas; there the enormous liver that made the 
 mouth of the gourmand water was produced by 
 forced fattening — an artificial disease which was 
 poor thanks for their saving of the Capitol. The 
 use of goose feathers for stuffing beds or cushions 
 was foreign to early antiquity ; the later Romans 
 first learned the practice from the Celts and Ger- 
 mans. . . . 
 "It was also in consequence of the Migration of 
 
 I 
 
 Nations that the Bos family — that first friend of 
 man when emerging out of barbarism — was en- 
 riched by the addition of a kinsman from the 
 South, endowed with tremendous pulling power, 
 the black and scowling Buffalo. He now lives in 
 the moist, hot malaria plains of Italy, enjoying 
 their slime, and defying their venomous vapours; 
 the maremmas of Tuscany, the bottomlands about 
 the Tiber's mouth, the Pontine marshes, the 
 swamps of Psstum, the Basilicata; also in the 
 landes of Gascony, in many parts of Hungary, 
 etc. The Pontine buffaloes wallow like immense 
 swine in the high reeds of the swamps, standing 
 still at the sound of a carriage on the high road, 
 and stupidly staring at the traveller; or, when 
 teased by gad-flies, hiding up to the muzzle in 
 the water. The buffalo is employed, like the ox, 
 in dragging the heavy plough, or the loaded har- 
 vest waggon; its milk is made into highly valued 
 cheese (called in Naples muzzarello), and, after 
 death, its thick, heavy skin forms the strongest 
 leather. . . . While progressive culture has almost 
 exterminated those savage, obstinate, and kingly 
 inhabitants of the European forests, the ure-ox 
 and the bison, the buffalo was brought by immi- 
 grating nations from the borders of India to the 
 southern coasts of Italy. Aristotle describes a 
 wild ox living in Arachosia, near modern Kabool, 
 which can be no other than our present buffalo. 
 During the succeeding centuries that animal must 
 have migrated farther west. It was first seen in 
 Italy about the year 600 A. D., in the reign of 
 the Longobardian king, Agilulf — Paul. Diac. 4, 
 11: 'Then for the first time wild horses and buf- 
 faloes were brought to Italy, and regarded as 
 wonders by the Italian people.' We must be 
 grateful to the Longobardian monk for this re- 
 port, for how seldom do the historians, who have 
 enough to do with questions of war and govern- 
 ment, throw us a crumb of what relates to cul- 
 ture; but we should have liked something still 
 more exact." — V. Hehn, Cultivated plants and do- 
 mestic animals, pp. 59, et seg. 
 
 Pastoral life of the Homeric period. — The 
 early Greeks, "as they come before us in the 
 Homeric poems, are rather a pastoral than an 
 agricultural race. It is in their herds of cattle, 
 sheep, and swine, rather than in the produce of 
 their lands, that the wealth of the heroic kings 
 consisted. It was cattle which furnished them 
 with a measure of value; and cattle, together with 
 slaves, were the most valuable spoil which they 
 secured in their military and piratical expedi- 
 tions. Thucydides traces the same lines as Homer. 
 In early times, he tells us, the insecurity of prop- 
 erty was too great to allow of the planting of 
 trees, which would of course lie at the mercy of 
 an invading enemy. .And although men tilled the 
 ground, the harvest would very often fall to the 
 foe, whereas cattle could on an alarm be driven 
 to a place of safety. "^ — P. Gardner and F. B. 
 Jones, .igricultural development of ancient na- 
 tions (E. G. Nourse, .igricultural economics, pp. 
 20-30) . — "Cattle raising seems to have been more 
 important in the Homeric age than afterwards, 
 when the needs of the population could not be 
 satisfied by the home growth, and importation of 
 foreign cattle from the Black Sea and from Africa 
 was necessary. The small number of herds of 
 cattle was probably due to the fact that in Greek 
 antiquity very little cow's milk was drunk, but, 
 chiefly goat's milk. Sheep-rearing, however, was 
 very general, and brought to great perfection, 
 since they not only used the flesh and milk of 
 the sheep for food, but in particular required their 
 skin and wool for clothing. . . . Excellent quali- 
 
 28
 
 AGRICULTURE, ANCIENT 
 
 Homeric Period 
 Roman System 
 
 AGRICULTURE, ANCIENT 
 
 ties [of sheep's wool] were produced by Hellas 
 proper, as well as by the Greek colonies in Asia 
 Minor and Lower Italy, and a great deal of it 
 was exported to foreign countries. . . . The goat's 
 hair was woven into stuff, not in Greece itself, 
 but probably in Northern Africa and Cilicia, 
 where a kind of coarse cloth was manufactured 
 of it, which, however, was not often used for 
 clothing. The facility of goat-rearing, which re- 
 quired no special care, and could be carried on 
 even on rocky ground, where but little grass 
 grew, enabled it to become very extensive, and 
 we find it, in fact, throughout almost the whole 
 of Greece in ancient times. The labor of slaves 
 being very cheap and ineffective, shepherds and 
 goatherds were very numerous in proportion to 
 the number of animals they tended, — at least one 
 to every hundred, more often one to fifty. 
 Swine-rearing, on the other hand, played a very 
 small part, for it was not sufficiently remuner- 
 ative. Although the flesh was used for food, yet 
 in the historic period it was not so popular a 
 dish as in the age of Homer, and they did not 
 understand how to draw a profit in other ways 
 from swine. "In its technical aspects, ancient 
 agriculture remained in much the same state 
 throughout the whole of antiquity as it occupied 
 in the heroic age, and probably this was the com- 
 mon inheritance of the Indo-Germanic race. In 
 Homer, we find the custom, which always pre- 
 vailed afterwards, of alternating only between har- 
 vest and fallow; even the succeeding ages seem 
 to have known nothing of the rotation of crops. 
 The implements used for necessary farming occu- 
 pations were of the simplest kind, in particular 
 the primitive plough, which was not sufficient to 
 tear up the earth, so that they had to use the 
 mattock in addition ; they had no harrow or 
 .scythe, in place of which they used the sickle, 
 and their threshing arrangements were most un- 
 satisfactory, since they simply drove oxen, horses, 
 or mules over the threshing floor, and beat out 
 the ears with their hoofs, by which means a great 
 part of the harvest was lost. It was only the 
 large number of labourers at the disposal of the 
 farmers (in consequence of the numerous slaves, 
 to which at times, when there was a press of 
 work, they added hired labourers), and the great 
 care taken in manuring and improving the ground, 
 etc., that enabled them to earn a living at all. 
 Great wealth was never attained in ancient Greece 
 by agriculture, certainly not by growing corn; 
 vines and olives supplied better profits, though 
 here too the instruments used were of the sim- 
 plest, but the ground was especially favourable to 
 their cultivation. Oil in particular, could be sup- 
 plied by Greece to foreign countries, but corn did 
 not grow in a quantity sufficient to provide their 
 own population, and consequently they had to 
 import a great deal from foreign countries, es- 
 pecially from the Black Sea, and afterwards too 
 from Egypt." — A. E. Zimmern, Home life of the 
 ancient Greeks, pp. 4Q.';-4q7. — "It is probable that 
 the downfall of the Achaean race was followed by 
 a time of greater simplicity, when the aristocracy 
 of the Greek tribes lived on their estates in the 
 midst of slaves and retainers, as did the wealthy 
 inhabitants of Elis even in the time of the 
 Acheean League. But Greek civic life began to 
 develop with irresistible attraction. The rich 
 thronged into cities, and left the work of their 
 farms to bailiffs and slaves. There were in par- 
 ticular two states wherein the country life fell 
 into the background — Athens and Sparta. But 
 even at Athens, although the witty and luxurious 
 citizens ridiculed the yeoman as a lout, they could 
 
 not deny his solid virtues. As a whole, Greece 
 is a country by no means favorable to agriculture. 
 The country is mostly rocky, barren, and uneven, 
 especially unsuited for large farms. The system 
 of farming was that adapted to peasant proprie- 
 tors or yeomen. There can be no doubt that ag- 
 riculture in Attica suffered more and more as 
 time went on, though to a less degree than that 
 of Italy in imperial times, from the competition 
 of richer soils. Great cargoes of corn from Egypt 
 and Sicily and the Black Sea constantly arrived 
 in the Piraeus, and the people of Athens learned 
 the fatal lesson that it was easier to buy agri- 
 cultural produce with money wrung from the 
 allies or extracted from the mines of Laurium than 
 to grow it on the rugged soil around Athens." — 
 P. Gardner and F. B. Jevons, Agriailtttral de- 
 velopment of ancient nations (E. G. Nourse, Agri- 
 cultural economics, pp. 29-31). 
 
 Development of the servile system among the 
 Romans. — The spread of slavery among ancient 
 peoples was accompanied by a corresponding 
 change in agrarian organization. In the early days 
 of the Roman Republic, "the farm was the only 
 ■place where slaves were employed. The fact that 
 most of the Romans were farmers and that they 
 and their free laborers were constantly called 
 from the fields to fight the battles of their coun- 
 try led to a gradual increase in the number of 
 slaves, until they were far more numerous than 
 the free laborers who worked for hire. ... In 
 the last century of the Republic all manual labor, 
 almost all trades, and certain of what we now call 
 professions were in the hands of slaves. . . . The 
 small farms were gradually absorbed in the vast 
 estates of the rich, the sturdy yeomanry of Rome 
 disappeared, and by the time of Augustus the 
 freeborn citizens of Italy who were not soldiers 
 were either slave holders themselves or the idle 
 proletariate of the cities. . . . The slaves that were 
 employed upon the vast estates were known as 
 familia rustica; that very name implies that the 
 estate was no longer the only home of the master. 
 He had become a landlord, living in the capital 
 and visiting his lands only occasionally for pleas- 
 ure or for business. The estates may, therfore, 
 be divided into two classes: country seats for 
 pleasure and farms or ranches for profit. The 
 former were selected with great care, the pur- 
 chaser having regard to their proximity to the 
 city or other resorts of fashion, their healthful- 
 ness, and the natural beauty of their scenery. 
 They were maintained upon the most extravagant 
 scale. There were villas and pleasure grounds, 
 parks, game preserves, fish ponds and artificial 
 lakes, everything that ministered to open air lux- 
 ury. Great numbers of slaves were required to 
 keep these places in order, and many of them 
 were slaves of the highest class: landscape garden- 
 ers, experts in the culture of fruits and flowers, 
 experts even in the breeding and keeping of the 
 birds, game, and fish, of which the Romans were 
 inordinately fond. These had under them assist- 
 ants and laborers of every sort, and all were sub- 
 ject to the authority of a supermtendent or stew- 
 ard (.vilicus), who had been put in charge of the 
 estate by the master. But the name familia rus- 
 tica is more characteristically used of the drudges 
 upon the farms, because the slaves employed upon 
 the country seats were more directly in the per- 
 sonal .service of the master and can hardly be 
 said to have been kept for profit. The raising of 
 grain for the market had long ceased to be profit- 
 able, but various industries had taken its place 
 upon the farms. Wine and oil had become the 
 most important products of the soil, and vineyards 
 
 129
 
 AGRICULTURE, ANCIENT 
 
 Roman System 
 Fall of Empire 
 
 AGRICULTURE, ANCIENT 
 
 and olive orchards were found wherever climate 
 and other conditions were favorable. Cattle and 
 swine were raised in countless numbers, the for- 
 mer more for draft purposes and the products of 
 the dairy than for beef. Sheep were kept for the 
 wool, and woolen garments were worn by the rich 
 and poor alike. Cheese was made in large quan- 
 tities, all the larger because butter was unknown. 
 The keeping of bees was an important industry, 
 because honey served, so far as it could, the pur- 
 poses for which sugar is used in modern times. 
 Besides these things that we are even now accus- 
 tomed to associate with farming, there were others 
 that are now looked upon as distinct and separate 
 businesses. Of these the most important, perhaps, 
 as it was undoubtedly the most laborious, was the 
 quarrying of stone; another was the cutting of 
 timber and working it up into rough lumber, and 
 finally the preparing of sand for the use of the 
 builder. This last was of much greater importance 
 relatively then than now, on account of the ex- 
 tensive use of concrete at Rome. In some of 
 these tasks intelligence and skill were required as 
 they are to-day, but in many of them the most 
 necessary qualifications were strength and endur- 
 ance, as the slaves took the place of much of the 
 machinery of modern times. This was especially 
 true of the men employed in the quarries, who 
 were usually of the rudest and most ungovernable 
 class, and were worked in chains by day and 
 housed in dungeons by night, as convicts have 
 been housed and worked in much later times. The 
 management of such an estate was also intrusted 
 to a vilicus, who was proverbially a hard task- 
 master, simply because his hopes of freedom de- 
 pended upon the amount of profits he could turn 
 into his master's coffers at the end of the year. 
 His task was no easy one. Besides planning for 
 and overseeing the gangs of slaves already men- 
 tioned, he had under his charge another body of 
 slaves only less numerous, employed in providing 
 for the wants of the others. Everything neces- 
 sary for the farm was produced or manufactured 
 on the farm. Enough grain was raised for food, 
 and this grain was ground in the farm mills and 
 baked in the farm ovens by millers and bakers 
 who were slaves on the farm. The task of turn- 
 ing the mill was usually given to a horse or mule, 
 but slaves were often made to do the grinding as 
 a punishment. Wool was carded, spun, and woven 
 into cloth, and this cloth was made into clothes 
 by the female slaves under the eye of the steward's 
 consort, the vilka. Buildings were erected, and 
 the tools and implements necessary for the work 
 of the farm were made and repaired. These things 
 required a number of carpenters, smiths, and 
 masons, though they were not riecessarily work- 
 men of the highest class. It was the touchstone 
 of a good vilicus to keep his men always busy, 
 and it is to be understood that the slaves were 
 alternately plowmen and reapers, vinedressers and 
 treaders of the grapes, perhaps even quarrymen 
 and lumbermen, according to the season of the 
 year and the place of their toiling." — H. W. John- 
 ston, Private life of the Romans, pp. 87, 05-08. 
 
 "Meanwhile out in the country we can perceive 
 the farm, with its hedges of quick-set, its stone 
 walls, or its bank and ditch. The rather primi- 
 tive plough — though not always so primitive as it 
 was a generation or so ago in Italy — is being 
 drawn by oxen, while, for the rest, there are in 
 use nearly all the implements which were em- 
 ployed before the quite modern invention of ma- 
 chinery. It may be remarked at this point that 
 the rotation of crops was well understood and 
 regularly practised. Then there are the pasture- 
 
 lands, on the plains in the winter, but in summer 
 on the hills, to which the herdsmen drive their 
 cattle along certain drove-roads till they reach 
 the unfenced domains belonging to the state. . . . 
 It is probable, doubtless, that the greater propor- 
 tion of the slave body were employed as domestic 
 servants. But many others tilled the lands of the 
 larger proprietors. Others laboured under the 
 contractors who constructed the public works. 
 Others were used as assistants in shops and fac- 
 tories. It is obvious that such competition re- 
 duced the field of free labour, when it did not 
 close it entirely, and the free labour must have 
 been unduly cheapened. But to suppose that all 
 the Roman work, whether in town or country, 
 was done by slaves is to be grossly in the wrong. 
 Romans were to be found acting as ploughmen 
 and herdsmen, workers in vineyards, carpenters, 
 masons, potters, shoemakers, tanners, bakers, 
 butchers, fullers, metalworkers, glass-workers, 
 clothiers, greengrocers, shopkeepers of all kinds. 
 There were Roman porters, carters, and wharf- 
 labourers, as well as Roman confectioners and 
 sausage-sellers. To these private occupations 
 must be added many positions in the lower public 
 or civil service. There was, for example, abundant 
 call for attendants of the magistrates, criers, mes- 
 sengers, and clerks. Unfortunately our informa- 
 tion concerning all this class is very inadequate. 
 The Roman writers — historians, philosophers, rhet- 
 oricians, and poets — have extremely little to say 
 about the humble persons who apparently did 
 nothing to make history or thought " — T. li. 
 Tucker, Life in the Roman ivorld of Nero and St. 
 Patil, pp. 246-247, 252-253. 
 
 Discouragement of agriculture in Europe 
 after the fall of the Roman empire. — "The state 
 of Europe during and alter the period of the bar- 
 barian invasions was not conducive to the best 
 cultivation of either urban or rural lands. The 
 confusion was not so great, however, as to blinil 
 the invading chieftains to the value of the terri- 
 tory under their dominion, and it was not long 
 before all the land occupied by these people was 
 gathered together under the proprietorship of a 
 small number of the barbarian leaders. The huge 
 estates so created escaped division, first, by the 
 establishment of the law of primogeniture, and 
 second, by the introduction of entails. From these 
 great proprietors nothing could be expected in the 
 way of improved methods of agriculture. Prima- 
 rily fighting men, these landowners at first had no 
 time, and later no taste for devotion to agricul- 
 tural pursuits, a profession that requires great 
 care, a certain amount of frugality, and an exact 
 consideration of small advantages to be gained 
 from plodding work. If little improvement was 
 to be expected from such great proprietors, still 
 less was to be hoped for from those who occupied 
 the land under them. In the ancient state of 
 Europe, the occupiers of land were all tenants at 
 will. They were all, or almost all, slaves, but 
 their slavery was of a milder kind than that 
 known among the ancient Greeks and Romans, or 
 even in our West Indian colonies. They were 
 supposed to belong more directly to the land 
 than to their master. . » . Whatever cultivation 
 and improvement could be carried on by means of 
 such slaves was properly carried on by their 
 ma.ster. It was at his expense The seed, the 
 cattle, and the instruments of husbandry were all 
 his. It was for his benefit. Such slaves could 
 acquire nothing but their daily maintenance. It 
 was properly the proprietor himself, therefore, 
 that occupied his own lands and cultivated them 
 by his own bondmen 
 
 130
 
 AGRICULTURE, MEDIEVAL 
 
 Manorial 
 Syatem 
 
 AGRICULTURE, MEDIEVAL 
 
 "The experience of all ages and nations, I be- 
 lieve, demonstrates that the work done by slaves, 
 though it appears to cost only their maintenance, 
 is in the end the dearest of any. . , , Under all 
 these discouragements, little improvement could be 
 expected from the occupiers of land. The ancient 
 policy of Europe was, over and above all this, 
 unfavourable to the improvement and cultivation 
 of land, whether carried on by the proprietor or 
 by the farmer; first, by the general prohibition of 
 the exportation of corn, without a special license, 
 which seems to have been a very universal regu- 
 lation; and, secondly, by the restraints that were 
 laid upon the inland commerce, not only of corn, 
 but of almost every other part of the produce of 
 the farm, by the absurd laws against engrossers, 
 forestallers, and regraters, and by the privileges 
 of fairs and markets." — T. N. Carver, Middle 
 Ages (E. G. Nourse, Agricultural economics, pp. 
 36-38). 
 
 Bibliography: Of contemporary works on an- 
 cient agriculture, Hesiod, Works and days, will 
 serve for Greek rural life; while Cato, De re rus- 
 lica, and Varro, Rerum rusticarum, are the stand- 
 ard works on Roman agriculture. However, a 
 great many distinguished men of letters in Rome 
 took up farming as a hobby, with the result that 
 whole volumes, as well as many less direct and 
 comprehensive discussions of farming are to be 
 found among the works of such men as Pliny, 
 Vergil and Cicero. Some recent treatments of the 
 subject are contained in Glover's From Pericles 
 to Philip, cli. 9-11, Charles Daubeny, Lectures on 
 Roman husbandry, and in Vladimir G. Simk- 
 hovitch's Rome's jail reconsidered {Polilical 
 Science Quarterly, June, 1916). Ancient and prim- 
 itive agriculture in other parts of the world is 
 handled — for China and Japan, by Franklin H. 
 King, Farmers of forty centuries (Madison, Wis., 
 iQii); in Peru, by O. F. Cook, Staircase farms of 
 tile ancients (Sational Geographic Magazine, May, 
 1Q16) ; in the tropics, by J. C. Willis, Agriculture 
 in the tropics, ch. viii; and in France, by .'\lbert 
 Babeau, La vie rurale dans Vancienne France. 
 Other material on primitive agriculture may be 
 found in the Scientific .American for March 16, 
 IQ18: Masterpieces of primitive engineering; Max 
 Ringelmann, Essai sur I'histoire du genie rural 
 {.Annates de I'Institule Rationale Agronomique, 
 deuxieme serie, v. ii-i.x), and Le travail dans 
 Vantiquite, by Rene Menard and Claude Sauva- 
 geot, 
 
 MEDIEVAL PERIOD 
 
 Manorial system. — "The history of agrarian or- 
 ganisation in western Europe since the opening of 
 the Christian era falls into three great stages, which 
 may be designated the servile, the manorial, and 
 the contractual. Exact chronological delimitation 
 is impossible, for even within the bounds of a 
 single country these stages overlap by very wide 
 margins. Speaking broadly, however, the servile 
 stage comprises the era of the Roman Empire 
 and is marked by a rural economy involving own- 
 ership of the soil by great proprietors and culti- 
 vation mainly by slaves; the manorial stage in- 
 cludes large portions of the Middle .Ages and is 
 distinguished by a quasi-feudal type of agrarian 
 organisation, involving ownership by feudal lords 
 and cultivation by persons neither slave nor free 
 but of status varying widely between the two 
 conditions TSee also Slavery: 6oo-gool ; and the 
 contractual stage comprises the modern era, char- 
 acterised in a degree by the increased number of 
 proprietors but mainly by the full establishment 
 
 of agrarian relationships upon the basis of volun- 
 tary contract. [See also Feudalism.] [The first 
 of these three stages, the servile, has already been 
 described in the preceding section.] The methods 
 of agriculture and the conditions of the agricul- 
 tural population in all western countries at the 
 present day have been determined fundamentally 
 by the changes involved in the transition from the 
 second to the third of these stages, i. e.., by the 
 break-up of the manorial system. . . . The manor, 
 which was the economic unit and the social cell 
 of the Middle Ages, was an estate owned by a lord 
 and occupied by a community of dependent cul- 
 tivators. The proprietorship of the lord was ac- 
 quired by feudal grant, by purchase, by usurpa- 
 tion, by commendation, or in some other way ; 
 while the tenants were the descendants of owners 
 or occupiers of lands drawn under the lord's con- 
 trol, of persons who had become permanently in- 
 debted to the lord, or of settlers who had sought 
 the lord's favour and protection. Throughout 
 the Middle Ages practically all lands belonged to 
 some manor, and until after commerce, industry, 
 and town life had acquired fresh importance in 
 the 1 2th and 13th centuries, almost the whole of 
 the population was manorial. [See Manors.] 
 Speaking broadly, the cardinal features of the 
 manor were everywhere and at all times the same. 
 The inhabitants dwelt, not apart in isolated farm- 
 houses, but in a 'nucleated' village, consisting of 
 huts grouped about the parish church and the 
 manor-house of the proprietor. Attached to the 
 manor-house, which might be occupied by the pro- 
 prietor himself or by a steward, was usually a 
 courtyard, surrounded by buildings for brewing, 
 cooking, and general farm purposes; and at some 
 distance, situated if possible on a stream, was a 
 mill. The houses of the tenants were likely to be 
 thatch-roofed, one-roomed, cheerless, and closely 
 adjoined by stables and granaries. From the village 
 stretched in all directions the open fields, the 
 cultivated portions lying nearest, with the mead- 
 ows and waste-land beyond. The most charac- 
 teristic feature of agriculture in the Middle .^ges, 
 and one which persisted in some regions until the 
 nineteenth century, was the open-field system. 
 Not only were the holdings of different persons on 
 the manor not fenced off one from another; there 
 were no durable enclosures at all. Growing crops 
 were protected by rudely constructed barriers, as 
 were the meadows during the weeks while the hay 
 was maturing. But after harvest the hedges were 
 removed, the cattle were turned in to graze, and 
 the arable land was treated as common waste or 
 pasture. In the lack of scientific schemes of crop 
 rotation and of fertilisation it was not feasible to 
 cultivate a piece of ground uninterruptedly year 
 after year. Hence there had been devised, very 
 early, the 'two-field' and the 'three-field' systems. 
 Under the two-field system the arable land of the 
 manor was divided into two large tracts, each 
 to be cultivated in alternate years. Under the 
 three-field system the arable land was divided into 
 three parts, two being cultivated and one lying 
 fallow every year. Of the cultivated fields under 
 the latter arrangement, one was planted ordi- 
 narily with wheat, rye, or other crops sowed in 
 the fall and harvested the next summer and the 
 other with oats, barley, peas, or other crops 
 planted in the spring and harvested in the fall. 
 By rotating the three fields, each was given an 
 opportunity every third year to recuperate. Al- 
 though not so widely prevalent as at one time 
 was supposed, the three-field system was probably 
 the more common, A further important feature 
 of the open-field system was the division of the 
 
 131
 
 AGRICULTURE, MEDIEVAL 
 
 Manorial 
 Syatern 
 
 AGRICULTURE, MEDIEVAL 
 
 cultivated plots into strips lor assignment to the 
 tenants. To every land-holding inhabitant of the 
 manor was assigned a number of the strips, not 
 contiguous, but lying in different fields, and fre- 
 quently in different parts of the same field. . . . 
 The origins of this practice are obscure, and sev- 
 eral conflicting theories . respecting them have been 
 advanced. There is no need to assume that they 
 were everywhere the same. The basis of the strip 
 system seems very generally to have been, how- 
 ever, the desire to ensure equity uf allotment. Fields 
 were likely not to be uniform in fertility and ease 
 
 tem was universal. An arable lield was thus 
 made up of any number of blocks of strips set at 
 right angles or inclined one to another, presenting 
 the checkered and variegated appearance of a 
 patchwork quilt. On every manor were meadows 
 sufficient to produce the supply of hay required 
 for the sustenance of the live-stock through the 
 winter months. Sometimes these lay in a block; 
 sometimes they comprised two or more tracts in- 
 terspersed with the cultivated fields." — F. A. Ogg, 
 Economic drvelopmenl of modirn Europe, pp. 
 18-22. — See also Fertilisers: Origin. 
 
 Ir'low used hy Ancient 
 
 ancient Husba-ndnnen CH 
 
 E^yptia.fL 
 Plow 
 
 Plov^ o/^ Ancient Greece 
 
 TKe New 
 plow o 
 
 1797^ 
 
 
 Ea.rly 6erma.n. plow 
 
 16"^!:! CenlviFy ^S^xon. 
 
 TYPKS OK EARLY AGKICULTUUAI, IMI'LKMEXTS 
 
 of cultivation, and their minute division into strips 
 was calculated to prevent the more desirable areas 
 from being monopolised by favoured or fortunate 
 persons. In large portions of England the strips 
 were arranged to be forty rods, or a furlong (i. e., 
 a 'furrow-long,' or the normal length of a fur- 
 row), in length and four rods in width, giving an 
 area of one acre. Strips two rods wide contained 
 a half-acre and one rod wide a 'rood,' or quarter- 
 acre. The strips were separated by narrow belts 
 of unploughed turf, or simply by little ridges, 
 which might be marked also with stones. The 
 ridged surface of the fields in many districts to-day 
 bears testimony to the employment of these primi- 
 tive division lines, or 'balks' On the continent 
 arrangements varied in detail, bnl (lie strip sys- 
 
 "VV'hile the manorial type of rural organization 
 as a method of land tenure was undoubtedly a 
 great advance upon the servile system, farm im- 
 plements and methods of tillage on the other 
 hand showed but little improvement upon those 
 in use in the days of the Roman Empire. Plough- 
 ing was still done by oxen, usually three times a 
 year, in the autumn, in April and in midsummer; 
 the furrows were a foot apart and the plough 
 went no more than two inches deep. Seed was 
 still scattered by hand, grain harvested by sickle 
 and threshed by flail or oxen. Crops were conse- 
 quently not only uncertain and uneven, but piti- 
 fully small. "The amount of wheat, rye, beans, 
 and peas usually sown to the acre was only two 
 bushels; and of oats and, strangely enough, of 
 
 13-2
 
 AGRICULTURE, MEDIEVAL 
 
 Manorial 
 System 
 
 AGRICULTURE, MEDIEVAL 
 
 barley, four bushels. The yield of wheat rarely 
 exceeded fivefold, or ten bushels to the acre ; that 
 of leguminous crops ranged from three to sixfold, 
 or from six to twelve bushels to the acre; that of 
 oats and barley varied from three to fourfold, or 
 from twelve to sixteen bushels to the acre. Con- 
 siderable care was exercised in the choice and 
 change of the seed-corn, which was often one of 
 the produce-rents of the tenants. Wheat rarely 
 followed a spring grain crop. The most important 
 crops of the farm were the corn, crops of wheat, 
 rye, and barley, which were raised for human 
 food and drink. For such ready money as he 
 needed, the lord looked mainly to the produce of 
 his live stock. For their consumption were grown 
 the remaining crops — the hay, beans, peas, and 
 oats; though oats were not only used for human 
 food, but in some districts were brewed into in- 
 ferior beer. Horse-farms appear in some estate 
 accounts; but they probably supplied the 'great 
 horse' used for military purposes. As a rule, 
 oxen were preferred to horses for farm work. 
 Though horses worked more quickly when the 
 ploughman allowed them to do so, they pulled 
 less steadily, and sudden strams severely tested 
 the primitive ploughgcar. On hard ground they 
 did less work, and only when the land was stony 
 had they any advantage. Economical reasons 
 further explain the preference for oxen. . . . The 
 winter-keep of horses was about four times that 
 of oxen. In addition to this, the more delicate 
 construction of horses required careful attendance 
 and greater expense than did the stolid and less 
 susceptible oxen. Then again the ox, when no 
 longer available for work, made excellent food, 
 while the horse at that time was only worth his 
 hide. Lack of feeding stuff for live stock made 
 fresh butchers' meat a rarity, as the common 
 pasturage ground supplied no more food for the 
 cattle than was sufficient to keep the animals ali^e, 
 never enough to fatten them. . . . The dairy pro- 
 duce was a greater source of money revenue, 
 though the home consumption of cheese must 
 have been very large. But the management was 
 necessarily controlled, like the management of the 
 stock, by the winter scarcity. The yield of a 
 cow during the twenty-four weeks from the middle 
 of April to Michaelmas was estimated at four- 
 fifths of her total annual yield. Sheep were the 
 sheet anchor of farming. But it was not for their 
 mutton, or their milk, or even for their skins, 
 that they were chiefly valued. Already the me- 
 diaival agriculturist took his scat on the wool-sack. 
 .■Xs a marketable commodity, both at home and 
 abroad, English long wool always commanded a 
 price. It was less perishable than corn, and more 
 easily transported even on the worst of roads. 
 From Martinmas to Easter sheep were kept in 
 houses, or in movable folds of wooden hurdles, 
 thatched at the sides and tops. During these 
 months they were fed on coarse hay or peas- 
 haulm, mixed with whcaten or oaten straw. For 
 the rest of the year they browsed on the land for 
 fallows, in woodland pastures, or on the sheep- 
 commons. Diseases made sheep-farming, in spite 
 of its profits, a risky venture. Swine were the 
 almost universal live stock of rich and poor. As 
 consumers of refuse and scavengers of the vil- 
 lage, they would, on sanitarv grounds, have re- 
 paid their keepers. But mediaeval pigs profited 
 their owners much, and cost them little. A pig 
 was more profitable than a cow. For the greater 
 part of the year pigs were expected to pick up 
 their own living. When the wastes and woodlands 
 of a manor were extensive, they were, except dur- 
 ing three months of the year, self-supporting. 
 
 They developed the qualities necessary for taking 
 care of themselves. The ordinary pigs of (be 
 Middle Ages were long, fiat-sided, coarse-boned, 
 lop-eared, omniverous animals, whose agility was 
 more valuable than their early maturity. . . ,. 
 [The keeping of poultry, too, was at the time uni- 
 versal, so much so that, when sold, they were 
 almost absurdly cheap. The keeping of fowls, 
 ducks, and geese must, however, have materially 
 helped the peasant in eking out his food supply, 
 or in paying that portion of his rent which was 
 paid in kind.] On the outskirts of the arable 
 fields nearest to -the village lay one or more 
 'hams' or stinted pastures, in which a regulated 
 number of live stock might graze, and which 
 therefore supplied superior feed. Besides the open 
 arable fields, the meadows, and the stinted hams, 
 there were the common pastures, fringed by the 
 untilled wastes which were left in their native 
 wildness. These wastes provided fern and heather 
 for litter, bedding, or thatching; small wood for 
 hurdles; tree-loppings for winter browse of live 
 stock ; furze and turves for fuel ; large timber for 
 fencing, implements, and building; mast, acorns, 
 and other food for the swine. Most of these 
 smaller rights were made the subject of fixed an- 
 nual payments to the manorial lord; but the 
 right of cutting fuel was generally attached to the 
 occupation, not only of arable land, but of cot- 
 tages. The most important part of these lands 
 were the common pastures, which were often the 
 only grass that farmers could command for their 
 live stock. They therefore formed an integral 
 and essential part of the village farm. No rights 
 were exercised upon them by the general public. 
 On the contrary, the commons were most jealously 
 guarded by the privileged commoners against the 
 intrusion or encroachments of strangers." — R. E. 
 Prothero, Manorial husbandry (E. G. Nourse, 
 Agricultural economics, pp. 38-43). 
 
 The medieval manor was thus from one point 
 of view "a compactly organized, economically self- 
 sufficing, and socially independent unit. Defects, 
 however, are obvious. The acquisition of land by 
 small proprietors was rendered difficult. The deal- 
 ings of the lord, or of his steward or bailiff, with 
 the tenants were likely to be arbitrary and harsh. 
 The scattered character of the holdings involved 
 waste of the cultivator's time and effort. The 
 lack of permanent fences tempted to trespassing 
 and produced much quarrelling. The rotation of 
 crops, the time of ploughing and sowing, the use 
 of meadow and pasture, the erection and removal 
 of hedges, and the maintenance of roads and paths 
 were determined entirely by the community, on 
 the basis usually of rigid custom, and the individ- 
 ual enjoyed little or no freedom or initiative. 
 Experimentation was almost impossible. In con- 
 sequence, largely, of the restraints which have 
 been mentioned, agriculture continued throughout 
 the Middle Ages to be extremely crude. It is 
 doubtful, indeed, whether prior to the eighteenth 
 century the soil was cultivated again in any con- 
 siderable portions of Europe with either the 
 science or the practical skill which were common 
 in rural husbandry in the best days of the Roman 
 Empire." — F. A. Ogg, Economic development of 
 modern Europe, pp. 24-25. 
 
 14th-17th centuries. — Displacement of serfdom 
 by free tenantry. — Growth of enclosures for 
 pasturage. — Beginnings of the contractual sys- 
 tem. — By the middle of the thirteenth century in 
 England, a remarkable change had begun to affect 
 the condition of the serfs or villeins under the 
 manorial system, a change not effected on the 
 Continent till three centuries later, "by which the 
 
 133
 
 AGRICULTURE, MEDIEVAL 
 
 14th-nth 
 Centuries 
 
 AGRICULTURE, MODERN 
 
 villeins became free tenants, subject to a fixed 
 money rent for their holdings. This rent was 
 rapidly becoming a payment in money and not in 
 labour, for the lords of the manors were frequently 
 in want of cash, and were ready to sell many of 
 their privileges. The change was at first gradual, 
 but by the time of the Great Plague (1348) [see 
 also England: 1348-1349: Black Death], money 
 rents were becoming the rule rather than the ex- 
 ception, and though labour rents were not at all 
 obsolete, it was the ill-advised attempt to insist 
 upon them unduly that was the prime cause of 
 Wat Tyler's insurrection (1381). [See also Eng- 
 land: 1381: Wat Tyler's Insurrection.] Before 
 the Plague, in fact, villeinage in the old sense 
 was becoming almost extinct, and the peasants, 
 both great and small, had achieved a large measure 
 of freedom. The richer villeins had developed into 
 small farmers, while the poorer villeins, and es- 
 pecially the cottars, had formed a separate class 
 of agricultural labourers, not indeed entirely with- 
 out land, but depending for their livelihood upon 
 being paid for helping to cultivate the land of 
 others. . . . .^t the end of the thirteenth century 
 we can trace three classes of tenants — (i) Those 
 who had entirely commuted their services for a 
 fixed money rent; (2) those who gave services 
 or paid money according as their lord preferred; 
 and (3) those who still paid entirely, or almost 
 entirely, in services. Throughout the whole of 
 this period the yast majority of the population 
 were continuously engaged in agricultural pursuits, 
 and this was rendered necessary owing to the very 
 low rate of production consequent upon the primi- 
 tive methods of agriculture. [In England the 
 displacement of serfdom by free tenantr>' bore a 
 very close relation to the great increase of sheep- 
 farming which took place after the Great Plague 
 (1348)]. This from two causes. The rapid in- 
 crease of woolen manufacturers, promoted by 
 Edward III, rendered wool-growing more profit- 
 able, while at the same time the scarcity of la- 
 bour, occasioned by the ravages of the Black 
 Death and the consequent higher wages demanded, 
 naturally attracted the farmer to an industry 
 which was at once very profitable, and required 
 but little paid labour. So, after the Plague, we 
 find a tendency among large agriculturists to 
 turn ploughed fields into permanent pasture . . . , 
 instead of turning portions of the 'waste' into 
 arable land. Consequently from the beginning of 
 the fifteenth century we notice that the agricul- 
 tural population decreases in proportion as sheep- 
 farming increases. . . . One consequence of this 
 more extensive sheep-farming was the great in- 
 crease in enclosures made by the landlords in the 
 sixteenth century. So great were those encroach- 
 ments and enclosures in north-east England, that 
 they led, in 154Q, to a rebellion against the en- 
 closing system, headed by Ket ; but though more 
 marked perhaps in Henry VIII's reign, the prac- 
 tice of sheep-farming had been growing steadily 
 in the previous century. ... In fact, it is very 
 clear that at this time a great change was passing 
 over English agriculture, and the old agricultural 
 system was becoming seriously disorganised."^ 
 H. De B. Gibbins, Industry in England, pp. iii- 
 110. — The second great stage in western European 
 agriculture, the medieval manorial system, was 
 fast giving way before the encroachments of its 
 successor, the modern contractual type of agrarian 
 organization. "During the changes that had been 
 taking place the villein had finally disappeared 
 He was now in many cases a copyholder, and like 
 his neighbour, the yeoman, held his own estate of 
 from JO to ISC acres, and in the smaller farms 
 
 worked it mainly by the help of his family. The 
 yeomanry, who formed something like one-sixth 
 of the population, found in the seventeenth cen- 
 tury their golden age. Their estates varied con- 
 siderably in size and importance ; the best of them 
 were scarcely inferior in status to the country 
 gentry. To be counted a yeoman, a man had to 
 possess an income of at least forty shillings a 
 year derived from his own freehold land. An act 
 of Parliament of 1430 had made this the quali- 
 fication for the parliamentary vote in the county 
 areas, and the yeomen were proud of this privi- 
 lege and showed their independence in the e.xer- 
 cise of it. The tenant farmers were also pros- 
 perous and occupied a good position, though their 
 social status was inferior to that of the yeomanry. 
 As for the labourers, if they were poorly paid 
 they were in most cases well fed, and, as we have 
 already pointed out, they still had domestic in- 
 dustries and small holdings of land to help them. 
 Unmarried servants of both sexes lived in the 
 houses of the farms on which they worked, and 
 shared in the food of the household. Married 
 labourers supplemented their wages by domestic 
 industries, and could obtain a postion of their 
 food from the little plots of five or six acres at- 
 tached to many cottages, and from the possession 
 of a cow which they could graze upon the com- 
 mon lands. Their wives and children shared in 
 this work and also in agricultural work generally. 
 One of the worst hindrances of the labourer was 
 the Act of Settlement of ib62. This prevented 
 his movement from one district to another in 
 search of higher wages and better employment, 
 and might mean his having to journey a consider- 
 able distance to his work owing to the action of 
 landlords who kept out the undesirable poor by 
 forbidding the erection of cottages upon their 
 estates." — F. W. Tickner, Social and industrial 
 history of England, pp. 336-330. 
 
 During this period from the fourteenth century 
 to the seventeenth, as wc have seen, there hafi 
 begun in England a gradual disintegration of the 
 manorial system which was destined to be com 
 pleted only throuKh the tremendous forces of the 
 agricultural revolution of the later eighteenth 
 century. In the meantime, however, two oppos- 
 ing tendencies were noticeable: on the one hand 
 the displacement of serfdom by free tenantry 
 with its accompanying development of small hold- 
 ings and a self-sufficing yeomanry ; on the other 
 the transformation of arable manor land and com- 
 mons into sheep-farms for the production of raw 
 wool for continental markets The growth of en 
 closures for pasturage reached its climax, how- 
 ever, during the sixteenth century, while the num- 
 ber of small holdincs continued to increase dur- 
 ing the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, 
 when new methods and new forces introduced the 
 modern period of agricultural development. 
 
 MODERN PERIOD 
 
 General survey. — .Agricultural progress in 
 modern times has been profoundly affected by 
 the great revolutions which have occurred in the 
 last two hundred years, particularly those in science, 
 mechanical devices, and transportation .Mthough, 
 unlike the European and .\merican countries, Asia 
 has maintained the use of rude implements, her 
 agriculture has not been untouched by the deep- 
 rooted changes of modern times During the seven- 
 teenth and eighteenth centuries economic forces 
 were at work both in England and on the Con- 
 tinent which were destined to change the entire 
 system of agrarian organization as it had existed 
 
 134
 
 AGRICULTURE, MODERN 
 
 General 
 Survey 
 
 AGRICULTURE, MODERN 
 
 during the Middle Ages. It was in England that 
 these forces first became apparent, and there, too, 
 that the resultng changes were soonest effected; 
 but the movement spread rapidly during the early 
 nineteenth century to France, Prussia and other 
 continental nations, and while it presented in each 
 country slightly differing phases due to local eco- 
 nomic and social conditions, the directing forces 
 and the changes wrought, with some noteworthy 
 exceptions, parallel very closely those to be ob- 
 served in England. 
 
 "A principle woven deeply into the American 
 national system at its beginning is that of full 
 and free industrial opportunity. For an Ameri- 
 can, therefore, it is difficult to conceive how com- 
 pletely the agriculture, the manufactures, and the 
 trade of France, Germany, and other continental 
 European countries were shacliled but four or five 
 generations ago by status, by custom, and by con- 
 tractual arrangements. The guild, the manor, the 
 state, and even the Church, imposed each its pe- 
 culiar restrictions, and the industrial status and 
 prospect of the individual were determined quite 
 as largely by agencies beyond his power to con- 
 trol as by his own habits of enterprise and thrift. 
 It is only within decades comparatively recent that 
 the mass of men in Europe have acquired substan- 
 tial freedom of industrial initiative and achieve- 
 ment. If the key-note of the economic history 
 of the United States since 1780 has been expan- 
 sion, that of the economic development of con- 
 tinental Europe during the same period has been 
 liberation. Speaking broadly, one may say that 
 the first great advance in the direction of libera- 
 tion was accomplished by the Revolution in 
 France in 1789-1704 [see P'ood rf.gulatio.n": 1793- 
 1794]; that a second was realized under Na- 
 poleon, though accompanied by a certain amount 
 of retrogression; that the period 1815-1845 wit- 
 nessed small progress, except on the side of in- 
 dustrial technique; but that after 1S45-1850 the 
 triumph of the liberalizing principle was rapid 
 and thoroughgoing. The transformations by means 
 of which liberation has been wrought took place 
 within all of the three principal tields of eco- 
 nomic activity, — agriculture, manufacturing, and 
 trade; and in any attempt to measure the pro- 
 gress of the average man during the period in 
 hand the nature and extent of the changes in these 
 three fields must continually be taken into ac- 
 count. 
 
 "Since 1789 the acreage of land cultivated in 
 most continental countries has been enormously 
 extended and new appliances and methods have 
 been introduced, with the result of an increase that 
 is remarkable in the yield both of foodstuffs and 
 of materials for manufacture. Even more im- 
 portant, however, has been the sweeping read- 
 justment of the position occupied by the tillers of 
 the soil themselves. Emancipated from oppres- 
 sive dues and services to landlord and state, and 
 enabled to acquire land of their own, the rural 
 inhabitants of almost every continental country 
 have been brought up to a status vastly superior 
 to that which their ancestors occupied a century 
 and a half ago. The first nation within which the 
 agricultural liberation took place was France. As 
 has been indicated, one of the earliest decisive 
 achievements of the Revolution in France was the 
 abolition of all survivals of feudalism and serf- 
 dom; and this reform was accompanied by the 
 conversion of numerous tenants, dependent cul- 
 tivators, and ordinary laborers into independent, 
 self-sustaining landholders. It used to be supposed 
 that the multiplicity of little proprietorships which 
 lends distinction to France to-day was wholly a 
 
 consequence of the Revolution. Research has 
 shown that this is not true — that, in fact, the 
 breaking up of the agricultural lands of France 
 into petty holdings was already under way long 
 before 1789. Some students of the subject have 
 gone so far as to maintain, indeed, that the num- 
 ber of landed proprietorships in France was 
 scarcely smaller prior to 1789 than it is to-day. 
 There can be no question, however, that during 
 the Revolution the growth of little holdings was 
 greatly accelerated, notably through the sale of es- 
 tates confiscated from the crown, the nobility, and 
 the Church; nor that the general effect of the Rev- 
 olution was to enhance the agricultural prosperity 
 of France. . . . Throughout modern times France 
 has been preeminently an agricultural country, 
 and to this day the nation's enormous wealth is 
 derived principally from the products of the soil 
 rather than from manufactures and trade. Nearly 
 one-half of the population of the republic to-day 
 is employed upon the land, whereas in England 
 and Wales the proportion is but one-tenth. No 
 bu.siness has come to be better understood than 
 husbandry, and the nation not only is entirely 
 .self-supporting in the matter of foodstuffs, such 
 as cereals, meat, and dairy produce, but exports 
 these articles heavily to other portions of the 
 world. The great mass of cultivators are pro- 
 prietors of little estates ranging in area from five 
 to fifty acres. Three million proprietors occupy 
 holdings of less than twenty-five acres apiece. Of 
 waste land very little remains. 
 
 "In considerable portions of Germany agricul- 
 tural advance in the earlier nineteenth century fol- 
 lowed a course roughly analogous to that observed 
 in France, although the remarkable expansion in 
 Germany since 187 1 of industry and of trade has 
 brought that nation into an economic position 
 fundamentally unlike that which France now 
 occupies. At the beginning of the Hast] century 
 Germany was even more purely agricultural than 
 was France. In 1804, 73 per cent of the popula- 
 tion of Pru.ssia was rural, and throughout Ger- 
 many as a whole the proportion of the popula- 
 tion engaged in agriculture was not less than 80 
 per cent. The natural resources of the country 
 were then, as they are now, less favorable for ag- 
 riculture than those of France, and agricultural 
 methods were very poorly developed, with the con- 
 sequence that the product was inferior and agri- 
 cultural wealth meagre. Advance in technique, 
 even past the middle of the nineteenth century, 
 was distinctly slower than in France, but the 
 changes wrought in the status of the agricultural 
 laborer were in no small measure the same. The 
 Napoleonic era became in Prussia a period of 
 economic transformation, involving the abolition 
 of serfdom Throughout other portions of Ger- 
 many serfdom had all but disappeared prior to the 
 close of the eighteenth century, the serfs having 
 obtained their freedom in some instances by pur- 
 chase, but more frequently through the simple 
 evaporation by imperceptible degrees of the tradi- 
 tional seigncurial rights. The non-existence of 
 serfdom was recognized In all of the states, by 
 1820. In Germany, as in France, the beginnings of 
 petty peasant holdings antedate the nineteenth 
 century, but by the rise of the agricultural popu- 
 lation from dependency to freedom the tendency 
 toward the multiplication of these holdings was 
 greatly accentuated. Just as in France, however, 
 the small-holding idea did not work out every- 
 where alike, so that the holdings of the northwest 
 became, on the average, considerably larger than 
 those of the .south, so in Germany the principle 
 was very variously applied, and, in truth, in some 
 
 13s
 
 AGRICULTURE, MODERN 
 
 Auslralia 
 British Isles 
 
 AGRICULTURE, MODERN 
 
 important portion of the countr>- was not applied 
 at all. In the northeast, beyond the Elbe, the 
 same thing happened that happened in the England 
 of the eighteenth century, namely, the concentra- 
 tion of land in estates even larger than those 
 which had prevailed in earlier 'days. But in both 
 the northwest and southwest the number of hold- 
 ings was increased and their average size decreased, 
 the principal difference being that in the north 
 the holdings were as a rule larger than in the 
 south. In the northeast, especially in Mecklen- 
 burg and Silesia, such small holders as there were 
 fell pretty generally, by 1S50, to the status of 
 landless agricultural laborers, and their holdings 
 were absorbed in the large estates, the consequence 
 being that sharp diffentiation of landlords and 
 rural wage-earners which to the present day has 
 comprised one of the principal problems of the 
 east Prussian provinces. Agricultural development 
 in Germany during the course of the nineteenth 
 century was notably inferior to that which took 
 place in France, and the state of German agricul- 
 ture to-day is by no means wholly satisfactory. 
 Between 1816 and 18S7 the acreage under tillage 
 was increased from 23,000,000 to 44,000,000, and 
 in the same period the production of grain was 
 more than doubled. The three decades from 1840 
 to 1870 were, on the whole, an era of rural pros- 
 perity, marked by an increased price of products 
 and a decreased cost of production, arising prin- 
 cipally from the introduction of agricultural ma- 
 chinery and of scientific methods of cultivation. 
 About 1874-75, however, there set in, as at the 
 same time in England, a pronounced agricultural 
 depression, from which there has never as yet 
 been any considerable recovery. The fundamental 
 cause of depression, as also largely in England, 
 was the decline in the price of agricultural prod- 
 ucts arising from the competition of American 
 grains and meats. Despite tariffs designed to 
 counteract competition, the price of wheat and of 
 rye fell between 1876 and iSq8 by 14 per cent and 
 that of barley by 11. Other contributing causes, 
 however, have been the scarcity and irregularity 
 of labor, the necessity of paying increased wages, 
 the heavy mortgages which to-day encumber half 
 of the agricultural land of the country, and the 
 unbusinesslike methods which long operated to 
 impede the conduct of agricultural operations. 
 Through the spread of education among the agra- 
 rian classes and the estaWishment of cooperative 
 societies, the state of agriculture is tending some- 
 what to be improved, but it is still by no means 
 favorable. In iqoo only 47.6 per cent of the area 
 of the country was under cultivation, as com- 
 pared with upwards of 80 per cent in France. In 
 respect to foodstuffs the nation is not self-sufficing, 
 and there is every reason to suppose that its de- 
 pendence upon supplies obtained from the out- 
 lying world will tend steadily to be increased. 
 Since 1000 the importation of cereals alone has 
 averaged from 4,500,000 to 6,000.000 tons a year." 
 — F. A. Ogg, Social progress in contemporary 
 Europe, pp. 08-106. 
 
 Australia. See Australia: Agriculture; New 
 South Wales: 1855-1803 ; South Australia: i8q6. 
 
 Baltic Provinces. See B.\ltic provinces: 1020. 
 
 Belgium: 1918. — Reconstruction. See World 
 War: Miscellaneous auxiliar.- services: XII. Recon- 
 struction, b, 1. 
 
 Bosnia-Herzegovina: Land tenure. See Bos- 
 nia-Herzegovina: 1878-1008. 
 
 British Isles: 16th-18th centuries. — Capitalis- 
 tic enterprises. See Capitalism: i6th-i8th cen- 
 turies: .^!Irirulfure in Enclish capitalism. 
 
 British Isles: 17th-18th centuries. — Adoption 
 
 of root crops and improved methods of farming. 
 — Growth of the domestic system of industry. — 
 Its effects upon agrarian organization. — Dur- 
 ing the seventeenth century in En-'land "several 
 improvements were made under the influence 
 of foreign refugees. . . . The inhabitants of the 
 Low Countries . . . now introduced into England 
 the cultivation of winter roots. . . . The introduc- 
 tion of hops also was of great importance. . . . 
 As the use of winter roots had been the special 
 feature of the seventeenth century, so the feature 
 of the eighteenth was the extension of artificial 
 pasture and the increased use of clover, sainfoin, 
 and rye-grass; not of course, that these had been 
 hitherto unknown, but now their seeds were regu- 
 larly bought and used by any farmer who knew 
 his business. At first, like all other processes of 
 agriculture, the development was ver>- slow and 
 gradual, but it went on steadily nevertheless." — 
 H. De B. Gibbins, Industry in England, pp. 206- 
 270. — "Many new crops were introduced from 
 Holland, where the advantages of turnips and such 
 artificial grasses as clover, sainfoin, and lucerne 
 were well known. Potatoes, too, began to be an 
 important field crop after the middle of the sev- 
 enteenth century, though they had not become a 
 common food but remained rather a delicacy even 
 at its close. . . . Attention was also paid to the 
 implements employed, and the older crude and 
 clumsy tools began to be replaced by better ones. 
 The plough was improved, and drills for sowing 
 began to be employed. The Dutch also taught 
 the importance of the use of the spade. . . . Im- 
 provements were also effected in the use of ma- 
 nures. Liming and marling were renewed, and 
 new forms of manuring were adopted. The use 
 of sand, seaweed, oyster shells, and fish as manures 
 was now known, and these were employed wher- 
 ever the situation of the land made their use 
 possible. The newly formed Royal Society paid 
 much attention to the question of agriculture, 
 and made many useful and profitable suggestions. 
 But the greatest difficulty in the way of improve- 
 ment was the innate conservatism of the farmers, 
 who objected to new crops and new methods and 
 tried to retain the customs of their forefathers. 
 Where the land was still open-field progress was 
 well-nigh impossible; on the enclosed farms there 
 were enlightened agriculturists who were leading 
 the way along better lines." — F. W. Tickner, So- 
 cial and industrial history of England, pp. 337- 
 3iS. — "The pioneers of this improved agriculture 
 came from Xorlolk, among the first being Lord 
 Townshend and Mr. Coke, the descendant of the 
 great Chief Justice. The former introduced into 
 Norfolk the growth of turnips and artificial 
 grasses, and was laughed at by his contemporaries 
 as Turnip Townshend; the latter was the prac- 
 tical exponent of .\rthur Voung's theories as to 
 the advantages to be derived from large farms and 
 capitalist farmers. With improvements in culti- 
 vation, and the increase both of assiduity and 
 skill, came a corresponding improvement in the 
 live stock. The general adoption of root crops 
 in place of bare fallows, and the extended cultiva- 
 tion of artificial grasses, supplied the farmer with 
 a great increase of winter feed, the quality and 
 nutritive powers of which were greatly improved. 
 Hence with abundance of fodder came abundance 
 of stock, while at the same time great improve- 
 ments took place in breeding. This was mainly 
 due to Bakewell (1760-1785), who has been aptly 
 described as 'the founder of the graziers' art.' 
 'He was the first scientific breeder of sheep and 
 cattle, and the methods which he adopted with 
 his Leicester sheep and longhorns applied through- 
 
 136
 
 AGRICULTURE, MODERN 
 
 British Isles 
 lSth-19th Centuries 
 
 AGRICULTURE, MODERN 
 
 out the country by other breeders to their own 
 animals.' The growth of population also caused 
 a new impetus to be given to the careful rearing 
 and breeding of cattle for the sake of food, while 
 the sheep especially became even more useful than 
 before, since, in addition to the value of its fleece, 
 its carcase now was more in demand than ever for 
 meat. In various ways, therefore, the improve- 
 ments in agriculture mark a very important ad- 
 vance, and the close of the eighteenth century 
 witnessed changes in the field as great in their 
 way as those in the factory." — H. De B. Gib- 
 bins, Industry in England, pp. 429-430. 
 
 "In order to understand the nature and extent 
 of the changes wrought by the agricultural-in- 
 dustrial revolution [of the late eighteenth and 
 early nineteenth centuries] it is necessary to bear in 
 mind certain facts regarding the economic situa- 
 tion in England before the transformation came 
 about. In the first place, England was still pre- 
 dominantly an agricultural country. Not until 
 1792 did the production. of British grain fall below 
 the volume of home consumption, so that it began 
 to be necessary for the nation to rely regularly 
 in some degree upon imported foodstuffs. Long 
 past the middle of the eighteenth century the till- 
 ing of the soil was the standard occupation of the 
 laboring masses. Cities were few and small, and 
 city life played a minor part in the economy of 
 the nation. In the second place, it is to be noted 
 that the conditions of land tenure were still 
 largely mediaeval. In portions, of the country 
 where the manorial system had never been estab- 
 lished, land was possessed outright by individual 
 proprietors, but in more than half of the kingdom 
 at the close of the eighteenth century the forms 
 of tenure were governed by survivals of the man- 
 orial regime. ... It was the proprietor who 
 owned the land ; the tenants were owners only of 
 certain 'rights' and 'interests' which the proprietor 
 vested in them. On the manors generally the an- 
 cient methods of administration . . . still pre- 
 vailed. The third point of importance is the 
 inseparable association in the eighteenth century 
 of the cultivation of land and the domestic sys- 
 tem of industry. The ordinary rural family de- 
 rived its support at the same time from agricul- 
 ture and manufacture. The industrial output of 
 England in the earlier eighteenth century was 
 large, but it was the output, not of factories, but 
 of the numerous and widely scattered 'little in- 
 dustries' of the kingdom. And these little indus- 
 tries were, in the main, not urban, but rural. . . . 
 In days when the processes of manufacture in- 
 volved simple handicraft, not the use of com- 
 plicated and costly machines, this was perfectly 
 practicable. One of the most widespread forms 
 of domestic industry was the making of woolen 
 cloth. In the manufacture of this commodity 
 virtually every process involved could be, and 
 was, carried on under the roof of the humblest 
 cottager. . . . Woolen fabrics commanded a ready 
 sale, usually at a good price, and the petty agri- 
 culturist who would have found it difficult enough 
 to support his family solely from the product of 
 his bits of ground had in the woolen and other 
 industries a welcome opportunity to supplement 
 his scant means of livelihood. ... In his 'Tour 
 through Great Britain,' written at the end of the 
 first quarter of the eighteenth century, Daniel 
 Defoe affords an interesting gUmpse of domestic 
 manufacturing as he found it in the region of 
 Halifax, in Yorkshire. 'The land,' he says, 'was 
 divided into small enclosures from two acres to 
 six or seven each, seldom more, every three or 
 four pieces of land having a house belonging to 
 
 them; hardly a house standing out of speaking 
 distance with another. At every considerable 
 house there was a manufactory. Every clothier 
 keeps one horse at least to carry his manufactures 
 to the market; and every one generally keeps a 
 cow or two, or more, for his family. By this 
 means the small pieces of enclosed land about each 
 house are occupied for they scarce sow corn enough 
 to feed their poultry. The houses are full of 
 lusty fellows, some at [the] dye-vat, some at 
 the looms, others dressing the cloths, the women 
 and children carding or spinning ; being all em- 
 ployed, from the youngest to the oldest.' 
 
 "It is but fair to observe that the conditions of 
 domestic manufacture varied widely in different 
 regions. . . . Even where the measure of indus- 
 trial independence was largest, the domestic sys- 
 tem operated unquestionably in the eighteenth 
 century to the deterioration at some points of the 
 working population. Competition grew keener; 
 wages fell ; child labor became more common ; 
 workmen were led to dispose of their lands be- 
 cause they had ceased to be able to find time to 
 cultivate them." — F. A. Ogg, Social progress in 
 contemporary Europe, pp. 63-67, 
 
 British Isles: Late 18th to early 19th cen- 
 turies. — Agricultural revolution.— "During the 
 later eighteenth century and the earlier nineteenth 
 England underwent a social and economic read- 
 justment . , , essentially industrial and social. For 
 present purposes . . . [these changes] may be 
 grouped with convenience under two heads: (i) the 
 transformation of agriculture, and (2) the revolu- 
 tion in industry. . . . Properly considered, the in- 
 dustrial revolution was the transformation which 
 came about in the process and conditions of manu- 
 facture in consequence of the invention of ma- 
 chinery, especially machinery which involved the 
 application of steam-power. , , . The 'agricultural 
 revolution' meant different things in different parts 
 of Europe, , , , What it meant in England was, 
 in brief, the concentration of the ownership and 
 control of land in the hands of a decreasing body 
 of proprietors, the enclosure of the common lands 
 upon the use of which the cottager class had been 
 largely dependent, the reduction of many men to 
 the status of wage-earning agricultural laborers, 
 and the driving of many from agricultural em- 
 ployment altogether. It began toward the close 
 of the eighteenth century and had run its course 
 practically by 1845," — F, A, Ogg, Social Progress 
 in contemporary Europe, pp. 62-63. — See also In- 
 dustrial revolution: France; Industrial revolu- 
 tion: Germany; Industrial revolution: United 
 States. 
 
 "The formative period of the factory system 
 was the period also in England of the beginnings 
 of the revolutionizing of agriculture. Of the two 
 things each served in part both as cause and as 
 effect. The rise of the factory was facilitated by 
 the dislodgement of large numbers of people who 
 had been accustomed to live by agriculture and 
 domestic manufacturing conjointly. Conversely, 
 the alteration of agricultural economy was stimu- 
 lated by the drawing off to the towns of the sur- 
 plus rural population and by the greatly increased 
 demand for foodstuffs for the support of the in- 
 dustrial and trading classes. . . . The revolution in 
 agriculture worked itself out in a variety of di- 
 rections, but the principal elements in it were (i) 
 a marked improvement in the technique of hus- 
 bandry; (2) a greatly increased application of 
 capital to agricultural operations; (3) the concen- 
 tration of land in great estates owned by a small 
 body of aristocratic proprietors and operated un- 
 der the immediate direction of capitalistic entre- 
 
 137
 
 AGRICULTURE, MODERN 
 
 British Isles 
 lSth-19tli Centuries 
 
 AGRICULTURE, MODERN 
 
 preneurs known technically as 'farmers'; and (4) 
 the virtual disappearance of the cottager class by 
 which formerly the tilling of the soil had been 
 carried on in connection with domestic industry. 
 The stimulus came originally from the steady rise 
 after 1760 in the price of agricultural produce, 
 occasioned by the increase of population and of 
 wealth derived from manufactures and commerce. 
 With the growth, especially alter 1775, of the fac- 
 tory system great industrial centres appeared, 
 whence came ever increasing demand fur food, 
 and it was in no small measure to meet this de- 
 mand that farms, instead of continuing small self- 
 sufficing holdings, were enlarged and converted 
 into manufactories of grain and meat. Within the 
 domain of agriculture, as in that of industry, 
 science and skill were brought to bear, to the end 
 that the product might be greater and the cost 
 of production less. Rational schemes of crop- 
 ping replaced antiquated ones, the art of cattle- 
 breeding was given fresh attention, and agricul- 
 tural machinery, which called for considerable ini- 
 tial outlays, was widely introduced. The hus- 
 bandry of the new type involved the employment 
 of capital and the carrying on of farming opera- 
 tions upon a large scale. The average English 
 husbandman of the eighteenth century, however, 
 possessed no capital and had very little land. 
 With the capitalistic agriculturists of the later 
 decades he found it more and more difficult to 
 compete, and the consequence was that gradually 
 but inevitably he was forced into an entirely 
 novel economic position. Through the revival of 
 enclosures he lost his rights in the common lands 
 of his parish ; the land which he had owned or 
 held individually he was compelled to sell or other- 
 wise alienate; while he himself either went off to 
 become a workman in a factory town or sank to 
 the status of a wage-earning agricultural laborer. 
 "Gradually from the readjustment emerged the 
 three great classes of men concerned in the Eng- 
 lish agriculture of later times, and of to-day: (i) 
 the landed proprietors, who let out their land in 
 large quantities to farmers in return for as con- 
 siderable a rental as they can obtain; (2) the 
 farmers, who, possessing no proprietary interest in 
 the soil and no direct community of interest with 
 either landlords or laborers, carry on agricultural 
 operations upon these rented lands as capitalistic, 
 profit-making enterprises; (3) the agricultural la- 
 borers who neither own land nor manage it, but 
 simply work under orders for weekly wages, as 
 do the operatives in the factories. It is in conse- 
 quence of this great transformation that it has 
 been brought about that among western European 
 nations to-day it is Great Britain which has the 
 largest average holding, the smallest projjortion of 
 cultivators who own their holdings, and the small- 
 est acreage owned by its cultivators. In 1876 
 there was published in England a body of land 
 statistics commonly designated the New Domesday 
 Book. By this return it was shown that the ag- 
 gregate number of landowners in England (out- 
 side London) was q66,:75, of which number only 
 262,886 possessed more than one acre, .^t the 
 same time France, with a population only a third 
 larger, had some 5.600,000 landed proprietors, and 
 Belgium, with a population of but 7,000.000, had 
 as many as 1,000,000. From the return it further 
 appeared that 28 English dukes held estates ag- 
 gregating nearly 4,000,000 acres; ,^3 marquises 
 i,Soo,ooo acres; 104 earls, 5,862.000 acres; and 
 270 viscounts and barons, 3,785,000 acres. Nearly 
 one-half of the enclosed land of England and 
 Wales was owned by 2250 persons; while at the 
 same time nine-tenths of Scotland was owned bv 
 
 1700, and two-thirds of Ireland by 1942. The 
 divorce of the agricultural laborer from proprie- 
 tary interest in the soil, which was the outcome 
 of the capitalistic, concentrating transformation of 
 agriculture between 1775 and 1850, is above all 
 other things the distinctive feature of British ag- 
 ricultural economy in the last two generations. 
 
 "By the break-up of the domestic system of in- 
 dustry, occasioned by the development of large- 
 scale manufacturing and of factory methods, the 
 position of the small-farming population must in 
 any case have been altered profoundly for the 
 worse. The process was vastly accelerated, how- 
 ever, by the widespread revival in the later eight- 
 eenth and earlier nineteenth centuries of the en- 
 closure of common lands. To 'enclose' a parish 
 meant to redistribute its open fields, its waste- 
 land, and its meadows among all those who pos- 
 sessed land rights within the parish in such man- 
 ner that each of these persons should obtain one 
 continuous and enclosed holding which would be 
 equivalent to his former scattered holdings in the 
 open fields plus the rights in meadow and waste 
 appurtenant to these holdings. The processes by 
 which enclosure was effected were various. Where 
 it was possible to secure the unanimous consent 
 of the holders of rights and interests of all kinds 
 within the parish, the change might be carried 
 through by the authorities of the parish them- 
 selves. Unanimous consent, however, was not 
 likely to be obtained and in practice the process 
 was pretty certain to involve two stages — first, 
 the procuring of the assent of the possessors of 
 four-fifths of the aggregate value of the land in- 
 volved and, second, the passage of a special act 
 by Parliament authorizing the enclosure and com- 
 pelling the dissenting minority to acquiesce. .\s 
 a rule enclosure measures, in which were stipu- 
 lated the necessary arrangements for surveys, com- 
 pensation, and redistribution, were actually drawn 
 by the large landholders and other persons of in- 
 fluence in the parishes concerned. In 1801 a 
 statute was enacted to make easier the passage of 
 private bills for enclosure. An act of 1836 went 
 further and made it possible, with the consent of 
 two-thirds of the persons interested to enclose 
 certain kinds of common lands 'without specific 
 authorization of Parliament. .And a general en- 
 closure act of 1845 created a board of Enclosure 
 Commissioners authorized to decide upon the ex- 
 pediency of projected enclosures and to carry 
 them into execution if approved. 
 
 "The number of enclosure acts passed by Par- 
 liament* between 1700 and 1S50 and the approxi- 
 mate area of the lands enclosed were as follows: 
 
 No. of En- Acres 
 
 closure .^cts Enclosed 
 
 1700-sq 244 337,877 
 
 1760-60 385 704,550 
 
 1770-70 660 1,207,800 
 
 1780-81) 246 450,180 
 
 1700-00 46Q 858,270 
 
 i8oo-oq 847 1,550,010 
 
 1810-19 853 1,560,000 
 
 i820-2g 20s 375.150 
 
 1830-39 136 248,880 
 
 1840-49 66 394,747 
 
 "During the period 1760-1S30 enclosures were 
 especially numerous, and after 1850 little open 
 land remained. The lands enclosed, unlike those 
 enclosed in the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth 
 centuries, were intended for cultivation, and care 
 was taken, as a rule, furthermore, that every 
 possessor be compensated, either in land or in 
 money, for all of the common rights of which he 
 
 138
 
 AGRICULTURE, MODERN 
 
 British Isles 
 1815-1875 
 
 AGRICULTURE, MODERN 
 
 was deprived. None the less, the effects of en- 
 closure upon the average small holder were likely 
 to be disadvantageous. Heretofore the tenant had 
 been accustomed to utilize his own allotments of 
 land entirely for the growing of crops. His cow, 
 his donkey, his flock of geese, found such sus- 
 tenance as they could on the common lands of 
 the parish. Now the common lands disappeared 
 and the cottager must not only grow loudstuffs for 
 his family upon his bit of ground, but must ulso 
 provide upon it pasturage and meadow for his 
 live stock. To share in the use of an open com- 
 mon might be, and generally was, more desirable 
 than to occupy exclusively a petty enclosed hold- 
 ing. Not infrequently the compensation which 
 the individual cottager obtained for the common 
 rights which he yielder], took the form of money. 
 Such sums, however, were easily expended, and the 
 cottager was apt to find himself without anything 
 to show for the valuable rights which once he had 
 possessed. To his difficulties was added the fact 
 that the application of capital to agriculture on 
 the part of the large landholders, and the intro- 
 duction of methods of cultivation which were fur 
 him impracticable, placed him at a distinct disad- 
 vantage in the growing of marketable produce " — • 
 F. A. Ogg, Social progress in conlempurary Eu- 
 rope, pp. 62-63, 70-78. 
 
 "That the changes induced by the new system 
 have been beneficial to agriculture no one will at- 
 tempt to deny, just as no one can dispute the 
 benefits conferred upon industry by the use of ma- 
 chinery ; but, at the same time, one cannot be 
 bhnd to the fact that these great industrial 
 changes, both in manufactures and agriculture, 
 brought a great amount of misery with them, both 
 to the smaller employers and the mass of the em- 
 ployed. The change in agriculture brought with 
 it a new agricultural and social crisis more severe 
 than that of the Tudor period. The jeighteenth] 
 century closed with the miseries that resulted from 
 enclosures, consolidation of holdings, and the re- 
 duction of thousands of small farmers to the 
 ranks of wage-dependent labourers. The result 
 of the crisis was to consolidate large estates, ex- 
 tinguish the yeomanry and peasant proprietary, to 
 turn the small farmers into hired labourers, and 
 to sever the connection of the labourer from the 
 soil. In a comparatively short time the face of 
 rural England was completely changed; the com- 
 mon fields, those quaint relics of primitive times, 
 were almost entirely swept away, and the large 
 enclosed fields of to-day, with their neat hedge- 
 rows and clearly-marked limits, had taken their 
 places. The improvements in agriculture, the en- 
 closures, the consolidation of small into large 
 farms, and the appearance of the capitalist farm- 
 er are, then, the chief signs of the Agricultural 
 Revolution. They form an almost exact parallel 
 to the inventions of machinery, the bringing to- 
 gether of workers in factories, the consolidation 
 of small by-occupations into larger and more defi- 
 nite trades, and the appearance of the capitalist 
 millowner in the realm of manufacturing indus- 
 try." — H. De B. Gibbins, Lidustry in England, pp. 
 431-432. — See also Absenteeism. 
 
 British Isles: 1815-1875.— Prosperity.— "In the 
 history of agriculture in the British Isles during the 
 past hundred years there are to be distinguished 
 two general stages. The first, extending from the 
 close of the Napoleonic wars to about 1875, was 
 a period of intermittent, but on the whole sub- 
 stantial, prosperity. The second, extending from 
 1875 or 1880 to the present day, has been an 
 epoch of almost unrelieved depression. The prin- 
 cipal facts concerning the first of these periods 
 
 T 
 
 can be stated briefly. At the outset it is to be 
 borne in mind that there went on steadily, from 
 beginning to end, and without longer occasioning 
 much comment, the extension of the large farm 
 system which had set in during the preceding 
 century. The enclosing of waste and other com- 
 mon land continued, the number of enclosure acts 
 passed between 1815 and 1845 being 244 and the 
 area enclosed being 199,300 acres; and wherever 
 small farms were given up they were practically 
 certain to be added to larger holdings. Consoli- 
 dation proceeded with equal rapidity in arable 
 and grazing districts. The first half of the period, 
 furthermore, witnessed the almost tt)tal disappear- 
 ance of the yeomanry. The greater part of this 
 once important element in the country's popula- 
 tion had vanished prior to 1815. Between that 
 date and the middle of the century the remainder 
 largely succumbed, and to-day the class is rep- 
 resented by only scant survivors in Westmoreland, 
 Somersetshire, and a few other remoter counties. 
 In legislation of i8iq and 1832 attempt was made 
 to offset the tendencies of the time by provisions 
 under which local authorities should acquire land 
 and allot it to poor and industrious persons; but 
 the effect was negligible. Whereas in i8n the 
 agricultural population comprised thirty-four per 
 cent, of the whole, in 182 1 it comprised but thirty- 
 two per cent.; in 1831, twenty-eight per cent.; in 
 1841, twenty-two per cent.; in 1851, sixteen per 
 cent.; and in 1861, ten per cent. The social dis- 
 tress occasioned by this continued readjustment 
 was at times scarcely less severe than in earlier 
 decades. To such elements as were in a position 
 to profit from the new conditions, however, the 
 period brought a large measure of prosperity. Pri- 
 marily these were, of course, the greater land- 
 owners. In the first place, the prices of agricul- 
 tural products, while subject to much fluctuation, 
 •continued as a rule to be high. Prior to 1846 
 they were supported, or were supposed to be, by 
 the Corn Laws; although, contrary to all expecta- 
 tion, the repeal of those measures was followed 
 by no serious fall in the price of wheat and other 
 grains during a period of thirty years. Until the 
 last quarter of the century, the British producers 
 held their own against the vast grain-yielding 
 areas of Russia, America, Egypt, and India, and 
 it was only when, through the improvement and 
 extension of steamship and railway lines, the trans- 
 portation of bulky commodities to great dis- 
 tances had been made convenient, speedy, and 
 cheap that the force of foreign competition became 
 sufficient to involve the British corn-growers in 
 disaster. Until that time production did not 
 decline, and home-grown grain was only supple- 
 mented, not displaced, by the imported com- 
 modity. Between 1853 and 1873 the seasons, with 
 (miy two or three exceptions, were favourable, and 
 it is commonly regarded that for the agricultural 
 interests these decades were the most prosperous 
 of the century. Throughout the whole of the 
 second and the third quarters of the century, 
 moreover, agricultural technique was undergoing 
 steady improvement. The studied application of 
 science to agriculture really began in the nineteenth 
 century, when the chemical composition of soils 
 was first determined carefully, and the means of 
 its restoration made a matter of common knowl- 
 edge and use. Nitrate of soda and guano were 
 employed from about 1835 on; and superphos- 
 phate of lime, first recommended by the German 
 chemist Litbig, was introduced into England by 
 Sir J. B. Lawes, who obtained this by dissolving 
 bone-dust in sulphuric acid The gradual intro- 
 duction of phosphates and ammoniacal manures,
 
 AGRICULTURE, MOHERN 
 
 British Isles 
 1875-19UU 
 
 AGRICULTURE, MODERN 
 
 the increased attention paid to the cultivation of 
 artificial grasses and the selection of seeds, the 
 use of superior machines for agricultural purposes — 
 the sub-soil plough, Meilde's threshing-machine, 
 drilling and reaping machines — all these operated 
 to increase the prosperity of the agricultural 
 classes. "The list of field crops was extended by 
 the addition of Italian rye-grass, winter beans, 
 Belgian carrots, and alsike clover. Stock-breeding 
 was given increased attention, and the better 
 breeds were disseminated more widely through the 
 country. An interest in agricultural science was 
 promoted by the establishment of the Royal Ag- 
 ricultural Socie^ in 1838 and of the Royal Agri- 
 cultural College at Cirencester and the Agricul- 
 tural Chemistry -Association in 1842. In 1S04 the 
 government began the systematic collection and 
 publication of agricultural statistics. Finally may 
 be mentioned the fact that, whereas throughout 
 most of the period arable farming strongly pre- 
 dominated, after about 1865 there was a notable 
 extension of pasture-farming, so that the two were 
 carried on more generally together, and with in- 
 creased profit." — F. A. Ogg, Economic development 
 of modern Europe, pp. 159-161. — See also Tarut: 
 1815-1828. 
 
 British Isles: 1875-1900. — Decline. — "As a 
 great department of economic activity, agriculture 
 had long since been eclipsed, in point of numbers and 
 of value of output, by manufacturing. Under con- 
 ditions thus fundamentally altered, however, the 
 agriculture of the middle portion of the nineteenth 
 century was prosperous, and its well-being was 
 prolonged almost unimpaired until the immediate 
 eve of the great era of depression. ... In 1876 
 and 1877 poor harvests, cattle-plague, and sheep- 
 rot involved the agricultural classes in dire dis- 
 aster. In 18S2 a government commission testified 
 mournfully to the 'great extent and intensity of 
 the distress which has fallen upon the agricultural 
 community.' And as time went on it began to 
 appear that, far from being merely ephemeral, the 
 adverse conditions which had arisen were perma- 
 nent and perhaps largely irremediable. In point of 
 fact, the depression which had thus settled upon 
 the agrarian portion of the country has continued 
 with only a modicum of relief to the present day. 
 The statistics of the decline of agricultural pros-' 
 perity are easier to ascertain than are the causes 
 involved; and the causes are less difficult to de- 
 termine than are the remedies. The first matter 
 to be observed is the sharp reduction since 1875 of 
 the amount of land under cultivation and the con- 
 siderable increase of the amount utilized for graz- 
 ing. . . .The total area devoted to wheat fell 
 from about 3,700,000 acres in 1870 to 3,100,000 
 acres in 1880; 2,500.000 in iSoo,' and 1,700,000 in 
 iQoo. In iQii it was about 1,900,000 acres. The 
 decline in acreage has been heaviest in the case 
 of wheat ; but it has appeared in some measure 
 in all corn crops grown in the United Kingdom 
 except oats. Taking corn crops as a whole, the 
 area cultivated was diminished by three million 
 acres, or almost forty per cent., in the three dec- 
 ades 1876-1006. TDuring the Great War there was 
 a marked increase. The acreage of wheat was 
 2,221,000 in iQiq.J From these facts it follows 
 that there has been a large falling off in the out- 
 put of agricultural product. The production of 
 wheat in the United Kingdom, which in the years 
 1841-1845 was sufficient for 24,000,000 persons, 
 or almost ninety per cent, of the population, has 
 declined until home-grown wheat in 1006 fed but 
 4,500,000 persons, or 10.6 per cent, of the popula- 
 tion. The area under grass increased by almost 
 one-third in 1876-IQ06; yet the quantity of meat 
 
 produced from home-fed stock was increased by 
 only five per cent. From this situation it arises 
 that the British people have become dependent 
 in a fairly astounding degree upon foodstuffs im- 
 ported from abroad. In 1S75 ^^^ value of im- 
 ported food supplies of all kinds was £124,000,000; 
 in IQ05 it was £205,000,000. On their face these 
 figures, however, convey no adequate impression 
 of the magnitude of the change. . . . This factor 
 taken into consideration, it appears that the volume 
 of food imports was increased during the period by 
 130 per cent., or almost four times the increase in 
 population." — Ibid., pp. 101-162. 
 
 British Isles: 20ih century. — Development. — 1 
 "Speaking generally the British Isles are inten- 
 sively cultivated, the amount of land available 
 being small and the agricultural population high- 
 ly skilled in their industry. .\t the same time 
 the proximity of valuable industries with a high 
 rate of wages has drawn the agricultural popula- 
 tion off all land that does not yield a high return 
 to the cultivator, and in consequence there are in 
 the British Isles many comparatively large areas 
 which can hardly be said to be farmed at all, 
 though they pay a trifling return per acre on an 
 inconsiderable expenditure for labour. The den- 
 sity of the agricultural population in England 
 averages about 125 per square mile, in Ireland 
 about iqo, both very high figures as compared 
 with America and other new countries, but far 
 below those which prevail in India, China, and 
 Japan. They are also exceeded on the continent 
 of Europe in Belgium, Holland, and Denmark, 
 though not to any marked degree. The average 
 yield per acre is only exceeded in Belgium, Hol- 
 land, and Denmark. . . . 
 
 "The most characteristic feature of the agricul- 
 ture of Great Britain is [that] the greater part 
 of the land is farmed by comparatively large 
 tenant farmers holding from 200 to 500 acres of 
 land and possessed of both a considerable amount 
 of capital and a high standard of cultivation. On 
 less than 12 per cent, of the land are the occu- 
 piers owners, and the occupier-owners have stead- 
 ily decreased of late years. . . . The British sys- 
 tem of land tenure with its comparatively 
 large holdings is in the main the ' outcome 
 of the enclosures of the old common fields which 
 took place most markedly towards the end of the 
 eighteenth century. In a few districts the land 
 has not been enclosed but is still held in narrow 
 strips of one-acre and half-acre pieces. ... In the 
 British system of tenant farming the owner not 
 only provides the land and buildings but is also 
 responsible for all the permanent improvements 
 upon the farm, and continues to supply material 
 for gates, fences, drains, and repairs to the fabric. 
 He thus becomes a very considerable partner in 
 the farming enterprise, and it has been shown 
 that on many of the large estates the rent does 
 not represent a commercial interest on the capital 
 that has been expended on the land during the 
 last century, without allowing any value to the 
 land itself. The development of British farming 
 and the comparatively advan.ced stage it has 
 reached have been due to the manner in which 
 the tenant's capital has thus been free for the 
 purposes of his business; he has been tempted to 
 embark his capital freely by possessing a prac- 
 tical security of tenure and yet no obligation to 
 remain if the business became unprofitable. The 
 majority of the farms in Great Britain are held 
 on yearly tenure, long leases being very uncom- 
 mon The effectiveness of the system may be 
 judged not only from the comparatively high 
 \ields per acre but also from the improvement 
 
 140
 
 AGRICULTURE, MODERN 
 
 British Isles 
 20ih Century 
 
 AGRICULTURE, MODERN 
 
 that has been effected in the breeds of live stock, 
 chiefly by tenant farmers. The conscious forma- 
 tion of specific breeds of live stock began in Eng- 
 land in the latter part of the eighteenth century, 
 and in no other country has attained to such a 
 degree of perfection. As a consequence the newer 
 countries which have been so largely opened up 
 during the nineteenth century have been peopled 
 almost exclusively with British breeds of live 
 stock. The great cattle ranches of America, Ar- 
 gentina, and Austraha are exclusively occupied 
 by British stock, chiefly Shorthorns and Herefords, 
 and certain British races of sheep have an equally 
 wide distribution ; in fact the only continental 
 races that have been developed out of their own 
 districts are the Holstein-Friesian dairy cattle and 
 the Merino sheep. At the present time Great Brit- 
 ain is still resorted to by the breeders of all coun- 
 tries for sires whereby to improve their country 
 stock and a valuable export trade in pedigree ani- 
 mals is carried on. One of the most marked fea- 
 tures of English farming is the number of sheep 
 that are carried . . . and though the British num- 
 bers are exceeded in Australia, . . . Argentina . . . 
 and the United States ... the density of the 
 sheep in Great Britain is far greater than in any 
 other country. In England also the sheep are 
 almost as abundant on arable land as on the 
 grass, because of the practice prevailing on all the 
 lighter soils of consuming turnips and other green 
 crops by sheep folded on the arable land. ... It 
 is difficult to trace any general causes at work in 
 the distribution of large or small holdings. Poor 
 land that is still fit for arable farming is generally 
 divided into extensive farms, as for example, the 
 land lying on the chalk, where the holdings are 
 very often of 800 acres and upwards. On the 
 other hand, the poorest land in the country is 
 often cut up into comparatively small farms be- 
 cause it has never been sufficiently tempting to 
 the large capitalist farmer. . . . Light soils in the 
 neighbourhood of good markets arc generally oc- 
 cupied by small holders engaged in market-garden- 
 ing, milk production and other intensive forms of 
 agriculture demanding a good deal of labour. . . . 
 In Ireland, in Wales, and in Scotland away from 
 the rich arable land in the eastern straths, we find 
 the land divided into small grazing farms occu- 
 pied by comparatively poor men employing little 
 or no additional labour and content to work for 
 a small pecuniary return. Finally, on the extreme 
 western seaboard of Scotland and Ireland where 
 both the land and the climate are unfavourable 
 to agriculture we have a population of crofters 
 tilling very small areas for a bare subsistence, far 
 below the usual economic level prevailing in the 
 British Isles. [For statistics of production see 
 England: iqoi.] 
 
 "The cultivated land in Scotland is confined to 
 the fringe of lowlands on the eastern coast, the 
 broad river valleys and straths and the western 
 seaboard of the lowland counties below the eleva- 
 tion of 600 feet or so. Of the cultivated land the 
 greater proportion is under arable cultivation, but 
 a large proportion of this is occupied by tempo- 
 rary grass which is left down for two or three 
 years before coming into crop again. . . . Scot- 
 tish farming generally is distinguished by a very 
 high level of skill, culminating in the Lothians, 
 where the most highly developed arable farming 
 in the world may be seen. The statistics of pro- 
 duction bear evidence of the general excellence of 
 Scottish agriculture. [See ScoTL.xNn: T75o-ig2i.] 
 . . . The holdings in Wales are . . . small, and be- 
 cause of the elevnted . . country and the high 
 rainfall only a small proportion of the land is un- 
 
 der arable cultivation, except on some of the allu- 
 vial soils in the valleys and in Anglesey. The up- 
 lands are chiefly occupied by sheep, of which two 
 races may be distinguished — the true mountain 
 sheep and the forest sheep, which more properly 
 belong to the march countries, Radnor and Mont- 
 gomery. From the latter stock one or two distinct 
 breeds have been segregated; indeed the widely 
 distributed Shropshire breed has originated from it 
 through a certain infusion of South Down blood. 
 . . . Speaking generally Welsh farms are small and 
 the land not rich, but even in the favourable dis- 
 tricts, as in the island of .Anglesey, the agriculture is 
 backward and undeveloped. 
 
 "In many respects it is difficult to compare the 
 farming of Ireland with that of the rest of Great 
 Britain, so entirely different has been the sys- 
 tem of land tenure. In Ireland the landlord has 
 never carried out the improvements, but merely 
 allowed his tenants the use of the land. [See 
 also Absenteeism.] The absence of any compet- 
 ing industries, to draw the sons of the farmers off. 
 the land, also resulted in continued subdivision, 
 until the average size of the holding has become 
 very small — 28 acres, as compared with 63 acres 
 in Great Britain. Having to such an extent made 
 their farms, the tenants acquired, first by custom 
 and then by law, a tenant-right in their improve- 
 ments, which within the last few years has de- 
 veloped into a system of State-aided purchase, 
 which will eventually make the tenants owners of 
 their own farms. Owing to the comparatively 
 high rainfall, the indifferent drainage of the river 
 valleys in the central plain, and the equable tem- 
 perature, Ireland as a whole is a country more 
 suited to the growth of grass than to corn, and 
 over a large part of the country very little arable 
 farming is to be found. By temperament also 
 the Irishman seems to be rather a grazier than a 
 farmer. . . . With this restriction of arable farm- 
 ing to the better lands, and the equable climate 
 and rainfall, the yields per acre of corn and es- 
 pecially of roots in Ireland are comparatively 
 high. The area under tillage, however, is only 
 just beginning to show signs of increase, though 
 it is difficult to see how holdings of the Irish 
 size can be economically profitable, except under 
 intensive arable cultivation. The most strongly- 
 marked farming district in Ireland lies in the east- 
 ern side of Ulster and comprises County Down 
 and other counties abutting on Lough Neagh. 
 These are arable counties, except where the eleva- 
 tion is too great or the land too boggy ; the land 
 is mostly divided into small farms, not exceeding 
 50 acres, occupied by men of Scottish origin. 
 Very fine farming is to be found in Ulster; par- 
 ticularly the crops of potatoes and roots are 
 often very large. Little wheat is grown, but on 
 the coast of County Down, especially in the Ards 
 peninsula, barley becomes an important crop; 
 everywhere else oats form the chief and almost 
 only cereal. Flax-growing forms an important 
 feature in the Ulster farming; except on a small 
 recently revived area in Cork, flax is now confined 
 to Ulster, where the acreage undergoes rapid fluc- 
 tuations from year to year according to the de- 
 mand for fibre. Another characteristic crop of the 
 district is grass seed. Cattle are extensively bred, 
 there being a number of pedigree Shorthorn herds 
 in the neighbourhood of Lough Neagh ; but sheep 
 are unimportant. This district has an export 
 trade in oats, potatoes, and hay with Glasgow and 
 Liverpool. Going southivard the arable land does 
 not extend much past Dundalk, but in the South 
 of Louth, Meath, and northern Kildare passes into 
 a great area of rich grassland — a thinly populated 
 
 141
 
 AGRICULTURE, MODERN 
 
 British Isles 
 20ih Centurv 
 
 AGRICULTURE, MODERN 
 
 country given over to the summer grazing of bul- 
 locks and commanding lor that purpose excep- 
 tional rents up to £3 an acre or more. These fa- 
 mous Meath grazings are largely let on terms of 
 eleven months only, so as to prevent the occupier 
 acquiring any tenant-right by a continuous ten- 
 ancy. Below the central grazing district will be 
 found a few areas of arable farming in south Kil- 
 dare, Queen's County, Tipperary, and Kilkenny; 
 similar areas occur in Wexford and again in Cork, 
 though the farming in the centre and south of 
 Ireland rarely reaches the general high pitch of 
 Ulster. The Shannon counties, and particularly 
 Limerick, form the great dairying district of Ire- 
 land, and here also are raised the store cattle 
 
 British Isles: Ireland. — Wyndham Act. Sec 
 Ireland: 1903. 
 
 Also in: Journals of the Board of Agriculture 
 and Fisheries and the Royal Agricultural Society 
 (London). — Journal of Agricultural Science, igo5 
 seq. — C. E. Green and D. Young, Encyclopedia of 
 agriculture. — Sir H. R. Haggard, Rural England. 
 — F. G. Heath, British rural life and labour. — R 
 Wallace, Farm live stock of Great Britain. — R. 
 Wallace and E. Brown, British breeds of live 
 slock.— Sir A. Fitzherbert, Boke of husbandrie 
 (1523). — J. Tull, Horse-shoring husbandry (1733). 
 ■ — A. Young, Annals of agriculture. — Vinogradoff, 
 Growth of the manor. — R. M. Gamier, History of 
 the English landed interest. — W. Hasbach, History 
 
 LEVELLING A FAR-EASTERN RICE FIELD FOR SOWING 
 Rice is one of the most important cereal foods in the world 
 
 © Elmendorf 
 Frniu E. Galloway 
 
 which cross the Channel in such large numbers 
 to be fattened by the English graziers. Lastly, 
 on the western seaboard in Clare, Galway, Mayo, 
 and Donegal come the congested districts, where 
 an impoverished population wring a bare suste- 
 nance out of entirely inadequate patches of land 
 that have been reclaimed from the mountain and 
 bog.— A. D. Hall. Oxford survey of the British 
 empire, pp. 148- 171. —See also Conservation or 
 NATURAL resources: Great Britain; Ireland: 1881- 
 1882. 
 
 British Isles: Ireland. — Land Act. See Ire- 
 land: 1870; 1882. 
 
 British Isles: Ireland. — Land Commission. 
 See Ireland: 1885-1Q03. 
 
 British Isles: Ireland. — Land League. See 
 Ireland: 1873-1870. 
 
 British Isles: Ireland. — Land Purchase Acts. 
 See Ireland: 1000-1911. 
 
 of the English agricultural laborer. — W. MacDon- 
 ald. Makers of modern agriculture. — H. Bradley, 
 Enclosures in England. — VV. Somerville, Agricul- 
 tural progress in the nineteenth century (Journal 
 of the Bath and West and Southern Counties So- 
 ciety, 1001-1002). — W. H. R. Curtlcr, Short history 
 of English agriculture. — M. Fordham, Short his- 
 tory of English rural life. — R. E. Prothero, Eng- 
 lish farming past and present. — J. E. T. Rogers. His- 
 tory of agriculture and prices. — Traill, Social Eng- 
 land. — W. Cunningham, Growth of English indus- 
 try and commerce during the Middle Ages; Growth 
 of English industry and commerce in modern times. 
 
 Canada. See Canada: .^griculture. 
 
 China. See China: .Agriculture 
 
 France: Development since the Revolution. — 
 Small holdings. — "The continental country in 
 which the liberation of agriculture first took place 
 upon a considerable scale was France. There, as 
 
 142
 
 AGRICULTURE, MODERN 
 
 France 
 
 AGRICULTURE, MODERN 
 
 elsewhere, the development presents three prin- 
 cipal phases: (i) the emancipation of the rural 
 labourer in respect to his person; (2) the release 
 of agricultural technique from the fetters imposed 
 by law and custom; and (3) the liberation of the 
 land, similarly, from ancient legal and customary 
 fetters, and the opening of it to the possession 
 of large numbers of people. One of the capital 
 achievements of the Revolution was the aboHtion 
 of all survivals of feudalism and serfdom. The 
 number of serfs remaining to be set free in 178Q 
 was not large. None the less, the liberation of 
 such as there were, together with the cancellation 
 of an intricate mass of surviving feudal and mano- 
 rial obligations, was a step necessary to be taken 
 before the French agricultural classes could be put 
 in the way of the largest prosperity. By it the 
 French people were guaranteed for the first time 
 a universal status of personal legal freedom. The 
 liberation of technique, involving especially the 
 abandonment of the threc-tield system and the 
 introduction of machinery and of new methods 
 of cultivation, came gradually and did not reach 
 full fruition before the second half of the nine- 
 teenth century. In some of its aspects, at least, 
 it was promoted, as well as accompanied, by a 
 development which must be considered much the 
 most important of all, i. c., the conversion of 
 tenants, dependent cultivators, and ordinary la- 
 bourers into independent, self-sustaining landhold- 
 ers; and attention must first be directed in some 
 detail to this fundamental matter. Formerly it 
 was supposed that the multiplicity of small pro- 
 prietorships which is the distinguishing feature of 
 rural France to-day was wholly a consequence of 
 the Revolution. Research has shown that this is 
 not true — that, on the contrary, the breaking up 
 of the agricultural lands of France into little hold- 
 ings was already under way long before 1789. . . . 
 Throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth cen- 
 turies impoverished seigneurs in increasing num- 
 bers had been obliged to sell land to their tenants; 
 while the number of small holdings had been in- 
 creased steadily by the redemption of waste land 
 and by the enclosure and division of common land. 
 No reliable statistics of French landholding prior 
 to 1789 exist. Arthur Young, however, says that 
 in 1787 a third of the land was tilled by peasant 
 owners; and it has been estimated that at the out- 
 break of the Revolution the total number of pro- 
 prietors was about three millions, of whom three- 
 fifths would be classified to-day as small proprie- 
 tors. . . . After full allowance has been made for 
 the growth of small holdings before the Revolu- 
 tion, the fact remains that the development was 
 much accelerated by the Revolution itself. In the 
 first place, the improvement of the conditions of 
 landholding, through the suppression of manorial 
 obligations, stimulated the desire of larger num- 
 bers of men to become proprietors. In the second 
 place, the Revolution emphasised the principle — 
 and Napoleon sought to enforce it in the Code — 
 of egalitarian inheritance, in accordance with 
 which the bulk of a testator's property was re- 
 quired to he divided equally among all of his 
 children, without distinction of age or sex. . . . 
 More important than these influences, however, 
 was the extensive sale of lands confiscated from 
 the crown, from the emigres, and from the 
 Church. Through the years 1790-1705 large areas 
 were placed upon the market. Prices were low, 
 payment was spread over a period of twelve or 
 more years, a clear title was given, and no com- 
 plicating obligations were imposed. The law of 
 May 14, 1700. specifically enjoined that the lands 
 should be sold in small portions, the large estates 
 
 being broken up for the purpose, to the end that 
 the number of 'happy proprietors' might be in- 
 creased. Until 1793, when the practice was pro- 
 hibited, peasants frequently combined to purchase 
 large tracts which they forthwith divided among 
 themselves." — F. A. Ogg, Economic development of 
 modern Europe, pp. 188-190. 
 
 France: Land tenure in recent times.^ — "From 
 the Revolution to the present day France has re- 
 mained a land of numerous and small holdings. 
 The law of partible inheritance has been, however, 
 the theme of heated controversy. . . . Statistics* 
 prepared in 1862 showed that in that year 56.29 
 per cent, of all holdings in the country had an 
 area of five hectares {a little less than twelve 
 and one-half acres) or less; 30.47 per cent., an 
 area of between five and twenty hectares; 8.47 
 per cent., an area of between twenty and forty 
 hectares; and only 4.77 per cent., an area of 
 more than forty hectares. . . . 
 
 "At the present day there are somewhat more 
 than three million proprietors whose holdings are 
 under ten hectares in extent, and these holdings 
 aggregate upwards of twenty per cent, of the 
 total arable area of the country. The remainder 
 is owned by some 750,000 proprietors — half of it 
 by 150,000 whose holdings exceed one hundred 
 and sixty hectares, the other half by 600,000 whose 
 holdings fall between ten and one hundred and 
 sixty hectares. About eighty per cent, of all hold- 
 ings to-day are cultivated by their owners. Of 
 the remainder, thirteen per cent, are leased and 
 seven per cent, are worked under the system 
 known as metayage, involving the division of the 
 produce, on some designated percentage basis. 
 between proprietor and cultivator. The number 
 of small holders continues to increase. . . . The 
 French peasant still displays a deep attachment 
 for the soil. The ground is not so rich or well- 
 favoured that hard work is not required for its 
 tillage, but it repays the husbandmen's effort to 
 his reasonable satisfaction." — F. A. Ogg, Economic 
 development of modern Europe, pp. 190-194. 
 
 France: Century of agricultural development. 
 — "While Great Britain was becoming distinctly 
 an industrial and commercial nation and Ger- 
 many, at a later period, was tending strongly in 
 the same direction, France remained a predomi- 
 nantly agricultural country. And such she still 
 is. . . . Throughout the past hundred years ag- 
 ricultural progress has been more steady and sub- 
 stantial than in any [other] country of Europe, 
 with the possible exception of Belgium and Den- 
 mark. In the Napoleonic period Flemish and 
 English systems of crop rotation were introduced 
 and the cultivation of many products — dyes, chic- 
 ory, flax, hemp, and beet-root — was begun or 
 extended; although it must be added that after 
 the restoration of normal trade relations in 1814- 
 15 some of the newer forms of cultivation (c g., 
 that of beet-root) which had been undertaken as 
 a means of providing substitutes for commodities 
 cut off by the war languished. The period 181S- 
 47 was, in general, a time of rapid agricultural 
 advance and of great rural prosperity. The coun- 
 try was at peace externally, and the people, al- 
 though at times agitated by political questions, 
 were in the main profitably employed and con- 
 tented. After 1848 advance was somewhat re- 
 tarded. The political unsettlement incident to the 
 overthrow of the Orleanist monarchy and the es- 
 tablishment of the Second Empire, the Crimean 
 War and the war with Austria in 1859. outbreaks 
 of the cholera, and the poor har\'ests of 1853 and 
 r855 operated, along with other circumstances, 
 to withdraw men from the land and to jeopardize 
 
 143
 
 AGRICULTURE, MODERN 
 
 United States 
 Beginnings 
 
 AGRICULTURE, MODERN 
 
 agriculture interests. At no time during the second 
 half of the century did these interests quite re- 
 gain their former prosperity. After i860, how- 
 ever, the reclamation of waste land set in upon 
 a large scale, and likewise the introduction of 
 agricultural machinery. . . . Scientific methods of 
 rotation, soil-preparation, and fertilization were 
 introduced, and between 1818 and i88q the aver- 
 age yield of wheat per acre was raised from eleven 
 to seventeen and one-half bushels, and between 
 1S25 and 1S75 that of barley was increased by 
 •eight bushels, ajid that of oats by ten bushels. 
 ... In the matter of foodstuffs France today is 
 practically self-supporting, and her exports of ag- 
 ricultural products are extensive. A main char- 
 acteristic of the agriculture of the country is the 
 diversity of its products. Wheat and wine are 
 the staples, but there is a heavy output of rye, 
 barley, buckwheat, oats, maize, fruits and dairy 
 produce. Almost one-third of the cultivated land 
 is devoted to cereals. ... Of a total of 105,000 
 square miles of arable land, 171,000 square miles, 
 or eighty-eight per cent., are steadily under cul- 
 tivation." — F. A. Ogg, Economic development of 
 modern Europe, pp. i88-iq4. 
 
 "The agricultural interests in France receive the 
 assistance of the government mainly through the 
 imposition of duties on imported agricultural 
 commodities, a policy which reached its culmina- 
 tion in the decade 1881-1800 and has been en- 
 forced to this day bj' successive tariff legislation. 
 The Ministry of Agriculture maintained by the 
 state is a thoroughly modern and well-equipped 
 institution, with an advisory council of politicians 
 and agricultural experts, and a body of inspectors 
 who travel ov-er the country and indicate direc- 
 tions for state assistance to the farmer. One of 
 the most important respects in which agriculture 
 has been liberated by the state is the freedom of 
 association, which was not granted in France until 
 1884. Before that time, agricultural societies were 
 mainly of a scientific nature, although quite 
 among the best of their kind in Europe. The 
 great need for and impulse toward association is 
 shown by the rapid growth of agricultural so- 
 cieties, of which there were 648 in 1800, with 
 234,234 members, and 6,178 in IQ13, with q76,i57 
 members. Membership is limited by region and 
 by class, but there are small unions of the various 
 local societies as well as the Union Centrale des 
 Syndicats Agricoles, an association of about 2500 
 of the local societies. The purpose of these or- 
 ganizations is to promote the interests of the ag- 
 ricultural class through governmental interposi- 
 tion, through instruction of the farmer in the bet- 
 terment of his own situation, and through secur- 
 ing the benefits of cooperation.":— /hjrf. — See also 
 AcRictiLnTRF.: Modern period: General survey; 
 Cooperation: France. 
 
 France: 1914-1918. — Damages from war. See 
 World War: Miscellaneous auxiliary services: XI. 
 Devastation, b, 2. 
 
 France: 1918. — Reconstruction work follow- 
 ing war. See World War: Miscellaneous auxiliary 
 services: XII. Reconstruction, a, 4. 
 
 Germany: 19th-20th centuries. — Agricultural 
 development. See above under General survey. 
 
 Germany: Food policy during the World 
 War. See Food reguxation: iqi4-iqi8: German 
 food policy. 
 
 Germany: Illicit trade during World War. 
 See Food regulation: iqi4-iqi8: Rationing. 
 
 India. See India: Agriculture. 
 
 Japan. See Japan: Agriculture. 
 
 Korea. See Korea: Agriculture. 
 
 Mexico. See Latin- America: Agriculture. 
 
 Poland. See Poland: iq2i. 
 Russia. See Russia: igoq; 1916: Condition of 
 peasantry; 1917-1920; Land distribution by the 
 Bolsheviki. — See also Baltic provinces: 1920. 
 Siam. See Siam; Agriculture. 
 South America. See Latin- America : Agricul- 
 ture. 
 Spain: Canal irrigation. See Spain: 1759-1788. 
 United States: Beginnings of American ag- 
 riculture. — "The agricultural as well as the polit- 
 ical history of the United States is divided into 
 two eras. The first is the colonial era, lasting 
 from 1607 to 1770. The second is the era of 
 national development, lasting from 1776 to the 
 present time. This era of national development, 
 ho%vever, is divisible into four distinct periods; 
 first, from 1776 to 1833; second, from 1833 to 
 1864; third, from 1864 to 1888; fourth, from 1888 
 to the present time. The first era, being con- 
 temporaneous with the colonial era of our politi- 
 cal history, may be called the era of establish- 
 ment. It was the time during which the colonists 
 transplanted European methods of agriculture to 
 American soil and readaptcd them to the new con- 
 ditions. This readaptation consisted in learning 
 how to live a wilderness life, and to clear wild 
 land of trees, stumps, and stones. It consisted 
 also in learning by experiment what crops were 
 adapted to the soil and climate, and what methods 
 of cultivation were best calculated to insure satis- 
 factory returns. The first European settlers in 
 America . . . learned many of their first and, as 
 it proved, most valuable lessons directly from the 
 Indians. . . . They taught our ancestors how to 
 grow two crops which were destined to play a 
 large part in our national economy. The.se crops 
 were tobacco and Indian corn, or maize. The 
 former was the most important money crop in 
 the southern colonies during the entire colonial 
 period, and remained in the lead until 1801, when 
 it was outstripped by cotton. During our entire 
 history corn has been the leading agricultural prod- 
 uct of the country as a whole, and still retains 
 that position with no other crop even, a close 
 second. The history of land tenure in colonial 
 times was one that was natural to the circum- 
 stances of a new country, sparsely settled under 
 conditions of great hardship. In the first place, 
 all titles were derived ultimately from the British 
 Crown, which made grants to various companies, 
 which in turn made grants to individuals. This 
 was true of Virginia, after a period of unsuccess- 
 ful communal ownership, but in New England the 
 system was somewhat different. There grants were 
 made to groups of individuals for the purpose of 
 establishing a settlement or town. The middle 
 colonies had several forms of land tenure — New 
 York under the Dutch having the semi-feudal 
 patroon system, while Pennsylvania, New Jersey 
 and Delaware were under the proprietary system, 
 upon which their government was based. It was 
 not many years after settlement that speculation, 
 which has been a characteristic of American ex- 
 pansion westward almost up to our own time, 
 became a common practice. In colonial times it 
 took this form: — that an individual or a group 
 of persons would obtatin a grant for a large tract 
 of land, organize settlers on part of it, and hold 
 the remainder of the tract until a high price could 
 be demanded for it. While the early colonists 
 learned their first lessons in successful agriculture 
 from the Indians, and began growing corn or to- 
 bacco after the manner of their teachers, they 
 were naturally unwilling to follow the Indian type 
 of agriculture exclusively. Accordingly a great 
 many experiments were tried. In Virginia especi- 
 
 144
 
 AGRICULTURE, MODERN 
 
 United States 
 1776-1833 
 
 AGRICULTURE, MODERN 
 
 ally these experiments were numerous. An at- 
 tempt was made to develop the silk industry be- 
 cause mulberry trees were found growing wild, 
 and to develop grape culture and wine making be- 
 cause wild grapes were found; and attempts were 
 also made to grow the fig, the olive, and other 
 semi-tropical fruits. . . . But after all their ex- 
 perimenting the Southern colonists fell back upon 
 corn and tobacco as their leading field crops, 
 though European grains, vegetables, and fruits 
 were also introduced. Indigo and rice also be- 
 came important crops in South Carolina and 
 Georgia. In the middle colonies wheat became the 
 staple crop, though corn was always grown, and 
 European fruits and vegetables were cultivated in 
 considerable quantities. There grew up a consider- 
 able export trade in wheat to the West Indies. 
 In New England there were no great staple crops 
 produced for export. Farming was of a more 
 general sort, and products were grown mainly for 
 the local markets. 
 
 "One of the most interesting phases of our 
 colonial agricultural history is the live stock in- 
 dustry. All the domestic animals and fowls now 
 grown in the United States, except the turkey, 
 were first brought from Europe. Everywhere the 
 hog flourished, running half wild in the woods, 
 living upon mast and roots, and multiplying rap- 
 idly in spite of the depredations of wolves, bears 
 and marauding Indians. Early in our colonial era 
 Virginia hams and bacon acquired high reputa- 
 tion. Goats flourished also, being better able than 
 sheep to protect themselves against wolves. Later, 
 however, as the country became more settled, 
 sheep displaced goats as a form of live stock. 
 Sheep were grown in all the colonies where condi- 
 tions were sufficiently settled to furnish protec- 
 tion from wolves. Cattle were naturally better 
 fitted than sheep to defend themselves against the 
 savage denizens of the woods, and have been bred 
 in considerable numbers on the frontier ever since 
 the earliest settlement. In Virginia and the Caro- 
 linas a flourishing cattle business, resembling mod- 
 ern cattle ranching, grew up. . . . The first [Euro- 
 pean animals] to reach the New World were 
 brought by Columbus to the West Indies on his 
 second voyage in 1403. Horses, cattle, hogs, goats, 
 sheep, asses, chickens, ducks, and geese were known 
 to have been brought at that time. During the 
 colonial period there was considerable trade be- 
 tween our own colonies and the West Indies, and 
 it is not improbable that specimens of all these 
 Spanish varieties may have found their way to 
 our shore. This is known to have been the case 
 with horses, cattle, hogs, and sheep. Dutch cattle 
 were brought to New York and Danish cattle to 
 New Hampshire. In general, however, our farm 
 animals came from the British Isles." — T. N 
 Carver, Principles of rural economics, pp. 63-72. 
 
 United States: 1776-1833. — National develop- 
 ment. — Public land policy. — Cotton industry. — 
 Westward migration. — Live stock. — "The War 
 of Independence marks an era in our agricul- 
 tural as well as in our political history. Shortly 
 after this event a series of epoch-making changes 
 began in agriculture. In the first place, the fron- 
 tier moved rapidly westward into the great in- 
 terior valley. The life of the pioneers on our 
 frontier, wherever that frontier may happen to 
 have been, has always retained certain of the 
 essential features which it possessed in the colonial 
 era. The next great epoch-making event was the 
 establishment of the public-land policy of the 
 federal government. At the close of the Revolu- 
 tion the land was all regarded as the property of 
 the various states. By a series of acts the greater 
 
 part of the unoccupied or unsold lands were ceded 
 to the central government, which then began to 
 devise plans for their sale to private individuals. 
 No other poUcy than that of turning the public 
 domain as rapidly as possible into private prop- 
 erty for individual farmers ever seems to have 
 been seriously considered. At first the policy was 
 to sell the lands for the benefit of the national 
 Treasury and the extinction of the national debt. 
 By a scries of changes the financial motive was 
 abandoned altogether, and a policy was adopted 
 which aimed to put the land in the hands of ac- 
 tual settlers without any direct profit to the 
 national Treasury whatever. . . . 
 
 "The next epochal change in the agricultural 
 history of this period was the rise of cotton to 
 the first place among Southern products. During 
 the colonial era, and down to 1803, tobacco held 
 first place, but at this date cotton began to out- 
 strip it and soon left it far behind. This rise of 
 cotton to a position of predominance came about 
 as a result of several factors working together. 
 During the latter half of the eighteenth century 
 there had been a remarkable series of inventions, 
 mainly in England, for the manufacture of cloth. 
 These had greatly increased the demand for 
 cotton on the markets of the world. In 1786 the 
 long-staple or sea-island cotton was introduced 
 and proved to be well adapted to the low lands 
 of South Carolina and Georgia. But more im- 
 portant than all other factors was the invention 
 of the saw gin in 1703. This was the first suc- 
 cessful device for separating the seed from the 
 short-staple or upland cotton. This is the kind 
 of cotton from which the great bulk of the cotton 
 fabrics of the world are manufactured, and the 
 saw gin made its production profitable in this 
 country where labor was scarce and land abun- 
 dant. One of the unpleasant results of this rise 
 of the cotton industry, however, was to give slav- 
 ery a new lease of life. . . . The almost complete 
 exclusion of white labor from cotton growing was 
 by far the most importont effect of slavery upon 
 .American agriculture. Three other effects are 
 commonly attributed to it. First, it is held re- 
 sponsible for the process of 'land killing,' by 
 which is meant the practice of growing a few 
 crops from a piece of land until its original virgin 
 fertility was partially exhausted and then aban- 
 doning it for a new and unexhausted tract. It is 
 doubtful, however, whether this practice was due 
 more to slavery than to the presence of indefinite 
 supplies of new land. . . . Second, slavery tended 
 to concentrate cotton growing in large plantations 
 worked by gangs of slaves under supervision. . . . 
 Third, the tools and implements used in Southern 
 agriculture remained crude and heavy long after 
 improvements had been introduced in the North. 
 Tobacco, live stock, and general farming con- 
 tinued in the northern belt of slave states, that 
 is, in Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Ken- 
 tucky, Tennessee, and Missouri; but through the 
 institution of slavery these found their interests 
 to be with the cotton states to the south of them 
 rather than with the free states of the North. The 
 cotton states furnished a market for slaves and 
 also for the horses, mules, cattle, hogs, hay, and 
 grain produced by these border states. . . . [See 
 Maryland: 1660-1776.] 
 
 "The opening up of the Northwest Territory 
 under the ordinances of 1785 and 1787 stimulated 
 a rapid migration westward to this new territory. 
 Inasmuch as the government at this period sold 
 land to speculators as well as to settlers, this 
 westward migration was made up of very diverse 
 elements, though then, as well as later, the home 
 
 145
 
 AGRICULTURE, MODERN 
 
 United States 
 1833-1860 
 
 AGRICULTURE, MODERN 
 
 seeker predominated. The land sought during this 
 early period all lay in the continuous stretch of 
 forest which extended westward from the coast 
 to the present state of Indiana. Therefore the 
 pioneering of this period differed, in some re- 
 spects, from that which we have known later in 
 the prairie states, though resembling that of the 
 colonial period on the Atlantic seaboard. After 
 locating his land and building a shelter, the first 
 task of the settler was to clear his land of timber. 
 The work of destroying the forest was prosecuted 
 with such vigor and ingenuity as have probably 
 never been equaled in the history of the world. 
 
 "There were few changes in agricultural imple- 
 ments until after 1833. The plow and harrow 
 were almost the only tools not driven by human 
 muscle. The wooden plow with an iron share was 
 still in use, through sometimes the wooden mold- 
 board was protected b.\- .strips of iron. In 1798 
 Thomas Jefferson wrote a treatise on the proper 
 form of a moldboard of a plow. A year earlier 
 Charles Newbold of New Jersey had invented a 
 cast-iron plow having the share, moldboard, and 
 land side all in one piece. It did not come into 
 general use at once because some one invented the 
 absurd doctrine, which farmers seem to have be- 
 lieved, that the cast-iron plow poisoned the land 
 so that crops would not grow. Jethro Wood of 
 New York, a correspondent of Jefferson, took 
 out patents for cast-iron plows in 1814 and 1810. 
 He had designed a moldboard resembling some- 
 what those now in use. Though there were few 
 significant inventionsi of agricultural implements 
 during the period from 1776 to 1833, there was 
 the beginning of an interest in agricultural im- 
 provement which promised well for the future. 
 Agricultural societies were founded in South Caro- 
 lina in 1784, in Pennsylvania in 1785, in New 
 York in 1701, in Massachusetts in 1792. In 18 10 
 an exhibition of agricultural products was held in 
 Georgetown, D. C, and another in Pittsfield, 
 Massachusetts. In 1816 a somewhat larger ex- 
 hibition was held in Brighton, Massachusetts. 
 These were the forerunners of the agricultural fairs 
 which have since had such a large development. 
 During this period there were new importations 
 of improved live stock, particularly Shorthorn 
 and Hereford cattle, Kentucky, Massachusetts, 
 and New York taking the lead. . . . One of the 
 most interesting chapters in the history of .Ameri- 
 can husbandry relates to the general introduction 
 of the Merino sheep. The first animals of this 
 breed were imported in 1773, but the industry 
 was not yet in a flourishing condition. With the 
 restrictions upon trade growing out of the Na- 
 poleonic disturbances in Europe, there grew up a 
 necessity for a domestic supply of wool. At the 
 same time the Peninsular War created such con- 
 ditions in Spain that the herds of Merinos, which 
 up to that time had been guarded as a quasi- 
 national monopoly, were broken up and offered 
 for sale. Enterprising American farmers began 
 buying them, and by iSoo there were said to be 
 5000 in the country. The price of Merino wool 
 soared, and the prices of sheep soared still higher. 
 There grew up a speculative craze in Merinos, 
 and some fabulous prices were paid. Hogs have 
 always been an important agricultural product in 
 the United States. The earliest settlers in all the 
 co-'l^tTO.had found hogs very adaptable, multi- 
 plyflur'Tapidly and flourishing on the food found 
 in the forest. . . . During the period we are now 
 studying, Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky, and Tennessee 
 were the principal hog-growing states, and Cin- 
 cinnati, the center of this region, soon became 
 famous as the center of a large pork-packing in- 
 
 dustry, a position which she held until surpassed 
 by Chicago many years later. In 1805 fat cattle 
 began to be driven across the .Alleghcnies to the 
 eastern seaport cities, but a good part of the 
 produce of the Ohio valley found its way south- 
 ward, first to New Orleans and later to supply 
 the cotton states. In 1825 the Erie Canal, con- 
 necting the Great Lakes with the .\tlantic, was 
 opened. This marked the beginning of a new out- 
 let for the products of the great interior, es- 
 pecially the northern belt of that interior. Wheat 
 became the leading export from the Northwest, 
 but corn, beef, and pork remained the leading 
 products of the Ohio River region." — T. N. Car- 
 ver, Principles of rural ecomimics, pp. 74-84. 
 
 United States: 1833-1860.— Transformation.— 
 Cattle raising. — "Beginning with 1833; there oc- 
 curred on American soil during the next lhirt\' 
 years one of the most remarkable agricultural 
 transformations ever known in the history of the 
 world. In 1S33 practically all the work of the 
 farm e.xcept plowing and harrowing was done by 
 hand. Though there had been minor improve- 
 ments in hand tools, and considerable improve- 
 ment in livestock and crops, particularly in 
 Europe, yet it is safe to say that so far as the 
 general character of the work actually performed 
 by the farmer was concerned, there had been 
 practically no change for 4000 years. Small grain 
 was still sown broadcast, and reaped either with a 
 cradle or the still more primitive sickle. The 
 cradle, however, was a relatively new invention, 
 being a modification of the scythe, which had been 
 used for centuries in mowing grass. The addition 
 of the frame and 'fingers' to the old-fashioned 
 scythe, together with a few changes in the handle 
 to restore the balance, made it into a so-called 
 cradle and adapted it to the reaping of grain 
 But the sickle or reaping hook had been in use 
 for thousands of years. ... It is still in use in 
 oriental countries and in some parts of Europe 
 Grain was still threshed with a flail in 1833, or 
 trodden out by horses and oxen, as it had been in 
 ancient Egypt or Babylonia. Hay was mown with 
 a scythe and raked and pitched by hand. Corn 
 was planted and covered b_\' hand and cultivated 
 with a hoe. By 1806 every one of these opera- 
 tions U'as done by macliinery driven by horse 
 power, except in the more backward sections of 
 the country. The increased use of farm machin- 
 ery also helped the horse to displace the ox as a 
 draft animal, the former being much better suited 
 than the latter to the drawing of these improved 
 implements. . . . The transformation which took 
 place in the agriculture of the North was due to 
 several causes, any one of which might be called 
 epoch making. The first was the railroad. At 
 the beginning of this period there were none. By 
 i860 there were 30,000 miles in operation and 
 they had penetrated every state east of the Mis- 
 souri River. While the markets of the world were 
 brought nearer to the Western farms by the build- 
 ing of the railroads, the markets themselves were 
 growing larger. The building of the factory towns 
 of New England called for larger supplies of food. 
 In 1846 the English Corn Laws were repealed, 
 though the repeal did not go into effect until 
 1840, when American foodstuffs began to be ad- 
 mitted to that country free of duty. The great 
 Irish potato famine began in 1846. The continent 
 of Europe was disturbed by the revolutions of 
 1848 and by the Crimean War of 1854, . . . An- 
 other set of causes was at work in the form of a 
 more liberal land policv. . . . Another factor of 
 great importance was the development of prairie 
 farming. At the beginning of this period the van- 
 
 146
 
 AGRICULTURE, MODERN 
 
 Unifed States 
 1833-1860 
 
 AGRICULTURE, MODERN 
 
 guard of the westward-movinR army of settlers 
 was just emerging from the great primeval forest, 
 which covered the entire eastern third of the con- 
 tinent, and was beginning to settle in the great 
 natural meadows of the upper Mississippi Valley. 
 In this new region the settler was saved the enor- 
 mous task of clearing his land of timber. . . . 
 But the most important factor of all was the series 
 of inventions of agricultural machinery by means 
 of which horse power was substituted for human 
 muscles as a motor force. In 1831 William Man- 
 ning of New Jersey was granted a patent for a 
 mowing machine. In 1833 and 1S34 Obed Hussey 
 of Baltimore and Cyrus McCormick were each 
 granted patents for reaping machines. After 1840, 
 when these machines had been improved and their 
 practicability demonstrated, they began to come 
 into general use. About the same time the thresh- 
 ing machine began to be widely used, and very 
 soon displaced the old primitive methods. It was 
 not, however, until about 1850 that the 'thresher' 
 and the 'separator,' that is, the machine for beat- 
 ing out the grain and the machine for separating it 
 
 only those sections suitable for dairying, stock 
 raising, and market gardening continued to pros- 
 per. The competition of the Eastern farmer with 
 the farmer of the Western prairies might have 
 been foreseen to be a helpless one. . . . Sometimes 
 it was not even necessary to plow the prairie land 
 before the crop could be raised. Furrows were 
 plowed across the sod and the corn was planted 
 in the bottom of these and covered with a hoe. 
 The soil was so very rich and there were so few 
 pests that a fair crop could be grown the first 
 year with practically no cultivation. Another 
 method of growing the tirst crop, however, was 
 to plow the land and plant the corn in the up- 
 turned sod by means of an ax or mattock. ... It 
 was the smoothness of this prairie land as much 
 as anything else which led to the rapid develop- 
 ment of farm machinery during this period when 
 the prairie states were being settled. When these 
 states began to be cultivated by means of ef- 
 fective modern machinery, and when the railroads 
 began to transport the products of these states to 
 the eastern seaboard, it became impossible for the 
 
 COMBINED RKAPER ANO THRESHER. DRAWN BV A TR^VCTOR 
 
 from the straw and chaff, were combined. These 
 machines were usually run by horse power, though 
 a steam thresher was beginning to be used before 
 1864. John Deere made his first steel plow from 
 an old saw blade in 1837. Scarcely less important 
 than the mower, the reaper, and the thresher were 
 the corn planter and the two-horse cultivator, 
 which came into use during this period. (See also 
 Inventions: igth century: Reapers.] . . . Every 
 part of the work of growing corn, except that of 
 husking the crop, was done by horse power be- 
 fore 1864, e.xcept in certain sections where corn 
 is a minor crop. In view of the fact that corn 
 is and always has been our principal crop, it is 
 doubtful whether the grain-harvesting machinery 
 effected a greater saving of labor than did these 
 improvements in the implements for corn produc- 
 tion, by means of which horse power was sub- 
 stituted for man power. ... It was during this 
 period also, and as a result of the changes already 
 described, that the agricultural decHne in New 
 England began. As early as 1S40 the abandon- 
 ment of the hill farms began to attract attention. 
 General farming on these rocky hills in compe- 
 tition with the prairie farms and machine culti- 
 vation of the West was no longer possible, and 
 
 farmer on the hilly lands of the Appalachian slopes 
 to hold his own in competition with them." — T. 
 N. Carver, Principles of rural economics, pp. 84-00. 
 "During the period now under discussion the 
 cattle industry in the Far West underwent a most 
 interesting and spectacular development. Cattle 
 ranching has always been associated with our fron- 
 tier life, particularly in Virginia and the Carolinas. 
 After the acquisition of Texas the American cattle- 
 man who had already penetrated that Territory 
 took over the ranching business and reorganized it. 
 The descendants of the Spanish cattle brought 
 over by Cortes and his followers had multiplied 
 rapidly in the mild climate of Mc^iico, which then 
 included Texas, where they had run wild for more 
 than two hundred years. . . . Under American 
 dominion, however, American cattlemen made vari- 
 ous attempts to open up a market for Texas beef. 
 As early as 1857 a few Texas cattle were driven to 
 the cornfields of Illinois, but they did not become 
 popular. During the Civil War the outlet for 
 Texas cattle was cut off and yet the cattle con- 
 tinued to multiply. Consequently the ranges were 
 ready to swarm in the late sixties. The quality of 
 the grass in the northern plains is somewhat better 
 than that in the Texas ranges, and it was dis- 
 
 147
 
 AGRICULTURE, MODERN 
 
 United States 
 1860-1888 
 
 AGRICULTURE, MODERN 
 
 covered that the Texas cattle gained in weight more 
 rapidly in the north than on their native ground. 
 . . . From 1870 to the close of the period we are 
 now considering, the great cattle trail was pretty 
 well marked as the route over which vast num- 
 bers of cattle drifted north from the great breed- 
 ing grounds of Texas. The migrating cattle were 
 mainly young steers, besides some heifers taken 
 north for the stocking of the northern ranges. 
 Inasmuch as cattle seemed to multiply more rap- 
 idly in Texas, because apparently cows were more 
 prolific in the milder climate of that state, and 
 inasmuch as young cattle grew more rapidly after 
 being moved north, a territorial division of labor 
 grew up. The ranches of the south supplied the 
 young and immature cattle, and those of the north 
 matured them and prepared them for beef. . . . 
 After 1885 the importance of the great cattle trail 
 began to decline. The westward advance of the 
 line of settlements tended to cut off this line of 
 march, but the chief factor of the decline was the 
 competition of the railroads, which were built into 
 the heart of the cattle country and which trans- 
 
 row and planting the corn in the bottom by means 
 of an automatic seeder. . . . This method of 
 planting . . . has certain advantages, chief of 
 which is that the deeper planting of the seed en- 
 ables the crop to withstand drouth somewhat more 
 successfully than does the shallower planting prac- 
 ticed farther east. Though the expansion of agri- 
 culture during the period immediately preceding 
 the Civil War had been marvelously rapid, it was 
 even more rapid during the period immediately 
 following. The Civil War scarcely imposed even 
 a temporary check upon the development of agri- 
 culture in the North, though it completely dis- 
 organized the cotton industry of the South and 
 involved it in temporary ruin. [See also North 
 Carolina; 1870-1892.] During the preceding 
 period agriculture had . . . passed into the com- 
 mercial stage, where farmers were living upon the 
 profits of farming rather than on the products of 
 the farm itself, and it was now ready to respond to 
 the new opportunities . . . created by the railroads, 
 the inventions of farm machinery, the opening 
 of the prairie states, and the development of the 
 
 VVALLli. 1K.'VC1\)K rl l.LliNl, (.ASK DISC I'LOW A.M) HARROW 
 
 ported the cattle more quickly and almost as 
 cheaply as they could be driven overland." — 
 T. N. Carver, Principles of rural economics, pp. 
 101-104. 
 
 United States: 1860-1888.^Expansion after 
 the Civil War. — "The invention of the twine 
 binder, by increasin.; the amount which a farmer 
 could harvest, increased . . . the quantity which 
 he could profitably grow. In other words, it was 
 the twine binder more than any other single ma- 
 chine or implement that enabled the country to 
 increase its production of grain, especially wheat, 
 during this period. . . . Among the improved 
 articles of machinery used in growing corn was 
 the 'check rower.' This device attached to a 
 corn planter enabled one man to do work which 
 had formerly required two. It automatically 
 drops the seed in rows running across the field at 
 right angles to the direction in which the planter 
 is being driven, thus planting the rows in two 
 directions and permitting of cross cultivation. In 
 the somewhat drier regions west of the Missouri 
 corn came to be planted by means of the 'lister,' — 
 a double-moldboard plow, throwing a deep fur- 
 
 county fairs There followed, therefore, such an 
 expansion of agricultural enterprise as the world 
 had never seen before, so far as we have any record, 
 and such as it may never see again. The chief 
 factors in stimulating this remarkable expension 
 were the Homestead Laws of 1862 and 1864, the 
 disbanding of the armies, the invention of the 
 twine binder, the roller process of manufacturing 
 flour, the building of the transcontinental rail- 
 roads, the permeation of every nook and corner of 
 the Mississippi \allcy by the so-called 'granger 
 roads,' and the development of the immense cattle 
 ranches of the Far West. [See U, S. A : 1866-1877.] 
 While this tremendous expansion was going on in 
 the North and West the cotton industry was under- 
 going a complete transformation in the South and 
 getting ready for the expansion ... to come later. 
 This transformation . . . was made necessary by 
 the abolition of slavery. Durine the next decade, 
 however, that is, from 1870 to 1880, over 207,000 
 square miles, a territory equal in extent to Great 
 Britain and France combined, were added to the 
 cultivated area of the United States. This in- 
 crease in the cultivated area was due partly to 
 
 148
 
 AGRICULTURE, MODERN 
 
 United States 
 1880-1916 
 
 AGRICULTURE, MODERN 
 
 the increased effectiveness of labor when it was 
 equipped with the improved machinery which had 
 come into use, partly to the westward migration 
 of our native population, and partly to the enor- 
 mous immigration of that decade. . . . 
 
 "The following figures from the United States 
 census will show the increase in the principal grain 
 crops since the census of 1840. 
 
 Corn Wheat Oats 
 
 (bushels) (bushels) (bushels) 
 
 iSsQ 377,531,875 84,823,272 123,071,341 
 
 1849 592,071,104 100,485,944 146,584,179 
 
 1859 838,792,742 173,104,924 172,643,185 
 
 1869 760,944,549 287,745,626 282,107,157 
 
 1879 i,7S4,59i,676 459.483,137 407.858,999 
 
 1889 2,122,327,547 468,373,968 809,250,666 
 
 1899 2,666,440,279 658,534,252 943,389,375 
 
 I9I9* 2,900,000,000 918,000,000 1,220,000,000 
 
 * In round numbers. [Last figures obtained. — Ed.] 
 
 heaviest work, such as breaking the sod, the latter 
 seem to have been preferred. Since this time oxen 
 have continued to be used in small numbers and 
 in backward sections, but this date may be fixed 
 upon as the turning point in the transition from 
 the ox to the horse as the typical draft animal. 
 . . . Among the more important inventions of 
 agricultural machinery during this period the 
 twine binder stands preeminent." — T. N. Carver, 
 Principtts oj rural economics, pp. 92-95. See also 
 Black Belt; U. S. A.: 1919. 
 
 United States: 1880-1916.— New problems. — 
 "Thirty years ago this country was in ... a period 
 of agricultural depression ; those were 'hard times' 
 for farmers. . . . Railroads were being built into 
 the West ; population was advancing rapidly upon 
 the new, rich soil ; crops increased faster than the 
 demand for the products; prices were low and 
 falling lower. Before the year 1900, a new era 
 of prosperity for farmers began, which we still 
 enjoy. The supply of land ready for cultivation 
 approached exhaustion, and immigration poured 
 
 IkRICATION TRENCHES IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA 
 
 "One result of this enormous increase in our agri- 
 cultural productivity was the increase in the ex- 
 portation of breadstuffs. This did not begin on a 
 large scale until after 1S60, but after that date it 
 increased by leaps and bounds until within twenty 
 years, that is, by 1880, this country had become 
 the world's greatest exporter of wheat. Only a 
 small fraction of the corn crop has ever been ex- 
 ported in the form of corn, a greater part being fed 
 to live stock; our exports of corn, therefore, have 
 been mostly in the form of animals and animal 
 products. . . . Before this period [1860-1888! both 
 horses and o.\en were used, but for much of the 
 
 in from foreign countries; hence population caught 
 up with the production of foods, causing the 
 prices of agricultural products to advance. . . . 
 In the decade 1900-1910, the population of cities 
 increased three times as fast as rural population. 
 The effect of these new conditions is also seen in 
 the increased value of farm land, which more 
 than doubled the same years. In 1900 the aver- 
 age value of a farm was $3,563. In 1910 this 
 value had increased to $6,444. These figures in- 
 clude not only the land itself, but also the build- 
 ings, machinery, improvements, and stock. Mr. 
 James Wilson, who was Secretary of Agriculture 
 
 149
 
 AGRICULTURE, MODERN 
 
 United States 
 JS86-19J0 
 
 AGRICULTURE, MODERN 
 
 from 1891-1913, called attention to the remark- 
 able agricultural advance of the country during 
 that time. When Mr. Wilson took office, the 
 farm products of each year were worth $4,000,- 
 000,000. When he retired they were worth more 
 than double that amount, $0,500,000,000 being 
 the figure for 1012. Only a part of this increase 
 is accounted for by larger crops, since there has 
 also been a great increase in the prices ol farm 
 products. Besides increased crops and greater 
 values, many other changes have come about in 
 our agriculture. . . . One of the greatest of these 
 is seen in the increased use of mixed farm- 
 ing. . . . Where once were seen wheat fields, em- 
 bracing thousands of acres, there now are seen 
 much smaller fields producing a variety of grains; 
 and these are interspersed with orchards, pastures, 
 and crops of clover and alfalfa. (See South D.4- 
 kota: 1913.] Where once a crop failure meant 
 ruin, we now find the farmers secure from such 
 disaster, because their capital is invested in a 
 dozen crops instead of one. The growth of stock 
 and dairy interests is adding still greater security 
 to intelligent farming. For those who wish to 
 continue the old methods of extensive farming, 
 with single crops and speculation in land values, 
 the door to western Canada is wide open, and 
 thousands of farmers from the Middle States have 
 gone there. . . . Fruit growing (see also Califor- 
 nia: 1900) is a phase of agriculture that de- 
 serves treatment by itself. The spread of this 
 industry has been made possible, not only by 
 scientific discoveries, but also by improvements in 
 transportation and by the use of refrigeration. 
 Refrigeration in the shipment of perishable crops 
 was first tried about the year 1866, the fruit being 
 packed with ice in chests. Soon afterwards the 
 idea of refrigerator cars was worked out, and by 
 1872 this method had proved successful. Refrig- 
 eration made possible the rapid development of 
 truck farming — one of the remarkable features of 
 recent agriculture. Truck farming on a large 
 scale had its beginnings in the decade between 
 1840 and 1850, in the region about Norfolk, \'ir- 
 ginia. ... At present, -many special districts in 
 the South have been developed, where particular 
 crops are raised, such as watermelons in Georgia, 
 and sweet potatoes in eastern Maryland. In ad- 
 dition, all the common vegetables and small fruits 
 are produced in immense quantities throughout 
 the year for Northern markets. Consequently, 
 dwellers in cities and the larger towns may enjoy 
 fresh fruits and vegetables all through the winter 
 months. This means much for the general health 
 of the people. 
 
 "With the changes in this great era of pros- 
 perity there have come many problems. . . . One 
 of these is the question of tenantry. To-day, 
 more than one-third of our six million farmers 
 rent their farms instead of owning them. In 
 1880, but one-fourth were tenants; so the num- 
 ber of tenants is increasing faster than the num- 
 ber of farmers. One reason for this condition is 
 found in the great rise of land values within re- 
 cent years. A laborer now must have consider- 
 able capital before he can buy a farm ; so he is 
 often obliged to become a tenant, if he would be 
 a farmer at all. In the Middle West, a- great 
 many farmers whose lands have become valuable 
 move to town and live upon the income received 
 from renting their farms. Besides, the increase 
 in land values has caused many city dwellers to 
 purchase farms, hoping to sell later at a profit : in 
 the meantime thev rent their farms to tenants. 
 ... A more serious problem faces the .American 
 farmer to-day -that of the scarcity of labor This 
 
 is one reason why many farmers have preferred 
 to rent their farms, and why others have sold out 
 and moved to town. It is not a new problem, 
 for back in colonial times it was impossible to 
 keep farm hands; they went off to get land for 
 themselves, and only those who were in compul- 
 sory service (indentured servants and slaves) could 
 be held for any considerable time. But in recent 
 years the problem has become more acute. The 
 growth of cities has emphasised the differences 
 between rural and urban life. The farm has 
 come to seem relatively less attractive; the growth 
 of manufactures has enticed laborers from the 
 farms by offers of higher wages. These are not 
 necessaril>' bad signs, for the>' may represent the 
 striving of individuals for a higher standard of 
 living. The conclusion follows that, in order to 
 obtain a supply of the best farm laborers^ farm- 
 ers must offer inducements that equal those of 
 city life. In recent years farm wages have risen; 
 but this is not a complete remedy. Social life on 
 the farm must be made more attractive if the 
 laborers are to be held The increased use ol 
 machinery and the keeping of fine stock call for 
 a type of skilled laborers for farm work. This 
 demand will best be met when homes are pro- 
 vided on farms where married men may live com- 
 fortably as hired workers. This is the condition 
 under which workmen prove to be most satisfac- 
 tory in city employments — why not on the farm?" 
 — .\. H. Sanford, Story oj agriculture in the United 
 Slates, pp. .378-3S3. 
 
 United States: 1886-1910. — Dry farming in 
 the West. — The Campbell system. — For twenty 
 consecutive years, in scores of places from the 
 James river to the .Arkansas, H. W. Campbell, of 
 Lincoln, Nebraska, the pioneer "dry farmer" of arid 
 ■America, "has been uniformly successful in pro- 
 ducing without irrigation the same results that are 
 expected with irrigation, with comparatively little 
 additional expense, but not without a great deal 
 more watchfulness and labor. UTiat Western 
 people have become accustomed to calling the 
 'Campbell system of dry farming' consists simply 
 in the exercise of intelligence, care, patience, and 
 tireless industry. It differs in details from the 
 'good-farming' methods practised and taught at the 
 various agricultural experiment stations; but the 
 underlying principles are the same. 
 
 "These principles are two in number. First to 
 keep the surface of the land under cultivation 
 loose and finely pulverized. This forms a soil 
 mulch that permits the rains and melting snows 
 to percolate readily through to the compacted 
 soil beneath; and that at the same time prevents 
 the moisture stored in the ground from being 
 brought to the surface by capillary attraction, to 
 be absorbed by the hot, dry air. The second is to 
 keep the sub-soil finely pulverized firmly com- 
 pacted, increasing its water-holding capacity and 
 its capillary attraction and placing it in the best 
 possible physical condition for the germination of 
 seed and the development of plant roots. The 
 'dry farmer' thus stores water not in dams and 
 artificial reservoirs, but right where it can be 
 reached by the roots of growing crops. 
 
 "Through these principles, a rainfall of twelve 
 inches can be conserved so effectively that it will 
 produce better results than :>re usually expected 
 of an annual precipitation of twenty-four inches 
 in humid .America. The aiscoverer and demon- 
 strator of the.se principles deserves to rank among 
 the greatest of national benefactors." — John L. 
 Cowan, Dry jarming, the hope oj the West (Cen- 
 tury Magazine. July. looft! — "Just as the sheep- 
 men, by determination and plodding methods, 
 
 150
 
 AGRICULTURE, MODERN 
 
 United States 
 World War 
 
 AGRICULTURE, MODERN 
 
 have all but driven the cattlemen from the range 
 — those that remain are dying hard — another in- 
 dustry is slowly arising, which appears destined, 
 within ten years, to put an end to the sheepman 
 as he conducts his business to-day. This menace 
 to the free and open range is the dry farmer. 
 Within the past two years thousands of soil tillers 
 have settled upon the prairies of Wyoming and 
 Montana. Agriculturalists are beginning to learn 
 that farm produce will grow, luxuriantly, profit- 
 ably, in these high areas where the annual [rain] 
 precipitation is fifteen inches and less, if a man 
 knows how to cultivate. The state of Wyoming 
 has taken official cognizance of dry farming, and 
 is doing all that can be done to encourage it. An 
 expert. Dr. V. T. Cooke, of Oregon, has been em- 
 ployed at a salary of $2,000 a year to show farm- 
 ers how to succeed without irrigation. The office 
 (if state dry farmer was created two years ago, at 
 which time an appropriation barely sufficient to 
 pay Dr. Cooke was grudgingly made. The legis- 
 lature of iQOQ, convinced and enlightened by the 
 success of the several experimental farms, made an 
 appropriation of .$10,000 to carry on this work. 
 The State .Agricultural College of Wyoming also 
 is doing a great deal along this lead, issuing bulle- 
 tins of information to farmers, encouraging the 
 movement in every way. It is well known that 
 increased cultivation will be followed by increased 
 rainfall. This has been demonstrated in the great 
 wheat belt of Kansas, once almost as arid as the 
 plateaus of the West. But there is no quarrel 
 between the farmer and the sheepman. Home- 
 steading the range means smaller flocks, the sheep- 
 men admit, and [will put] an end to promiscuous 
 grazing. It will necessitate, however, the feeding 
 of flocks in winter, at once disposing of the farm- 
 er's output and saving the percentage of loss now 
 suffered through starvation. Dr. Cooke, Wyo- 
 ming's expert at dry farming, speaking of the in- 
 dustry, said: 'Dry farming is already established 
 in the semi-arid West. Some parts of California, 
 with an annual precipitation of ten inches, have 
 been dry farming for over forty years, eastern 
 Oregon and eastern Washington for over twenty- 
 five years, with an annual precipitation as low as 
 eight inches, and Utah, Idaho, and Montana have 
 been dry farming for years. Colorado, Wyoming, 
 and western Nebraska have also been dry farm- 
 ing for several years, but only in the last two or 
 three years has it been brought intelligently to 
 the front. Many early settlers failed — and will 
 continue to do so — principally through ignorance 
 of how to do their work properly, through mis- 
 information, and through having too good an 
 opinion of what they know. A man must be 
 ready to take the advice of those that know in 
 this business. The effect of dry farming in Wyo- 
 ming to the stockmen will be that instead 
 of losing vast numbers of sheep and cattle 
 during the winter and early spring through neglect 
 of providing feed for them, they will be able to 
 buy feed from the farmer and save the stock 
 from starvation. The ranges have been over- 
 stocked. The government has made stockmen 
 take their fences from immense areas of public 
 land, thereby preventing them from holding 
 pastures for the winter. The average stockman 
 never has pretended to feed his stock at all, so, 
 the range being overstocked, with no fenced winter 
 pastures, it is easy to understand that the dry 
 farmer is really a necessity, a benefit, rather than 
 an ill, as some of the stockmen believed at first.' 
 Dr. Cooke says that most of the grains, except 
 corn, will grow in Wyoming under the dry method, 
 and that the secret of dry farming is 'the use of 
 
 brains and muscle, deep plowing, cultivation at 
 the proper time, the use of labor-saving machin- 
 ery and seeds that are adapted to the climate.' So 
 a few more years will see this last romantic phase 
 of Western range life pass away. The sheep- 
 herder will go as the cowboy has gone, the flock- 
 master will turn his attention to the soil, and 
 where immense flocks now roam in the owner- 
 ship of one man scores of smaller bands will feed 
 in comfort upon the new farms of the semi-arid 
 West. With the old order of romance and pic- 
 luresqueness will vanish the hardship and cruelty 
 to flocks and herders alike; and the West, under 
 Ihe coming conditions, will yield more and better 
 sheep than in the past." — G. W. Ogden, Dry farm- 
 ing in Wyoming (Evervbod\'s, Sept., igio). 
 
 United States: Effects of the World War. 
 — War gardens. — Relation of agriculture to 
 cost of living. — Farmers' associations. — County 
 agents. — "In nearly all important respects with 
 regard to foodstuffs .America has been not only 
 substantially self-sufficing but a country of sur- 
 plus. This has been true for many years, both 
 before and during the war. Incidentally we were 
 dependent upon our neighbors for certain com- 
 mercial fertilizers, and the difficulties attendant 
 upon getting along without them or getting them 
 elsewhere are very great. However, America has 
 been and is a land of surplus food. While this is 
 true beyond all controversy, it is just as true and 
 nu doubt a good deal more astonishing to notice 
 that the amount of the surplus has for some years 
 been steadily on the decline. The occasion for this 
 lessening surplus is not mysterious. Of course if 
 all the land in use were to be used to its fullest 
 extent by the entire population, that is, if the 
 country produced the minimum amount of other 
 goods and utilities, devoting itself exclusively or 
 mainly to agriculture, there would be an enormous 
 surplus of food products. But since the normal 
 course is to produce that which society wants most 
 rather than that for which it will pay relatively 
 little, we have no cause for complaint on account 
 of the failure to make the land produce to its 
 physical and biological maximum. Farmers, both 
 consciously and unconsciously, limit their efforts in 
 accordance with economic returns, instead of in 
 accordance with the limits set by the laws of 
 physics and biology. ... In 1880 the population 
 of the country was 70.5 per cent rural. In iqio 
 it was s,v7 per cent rural. Thus the proportion 
 of producers to eaters has been undergoing a rapid 
 change. Actually on farms the proportion is by 
 no means S,v7 per cent, since in this classification 
 there were included in rural population all villages 
 and towns of less than 2,500 inhabitants. The 
 farm population therefore was in loio, as nearly 
 as can well be estimated, about one-third of the 
 entire population of the country. This is a rapidly 
 decreasing proportion, yet it is still in marked 
 contrast to the very small proportion of the popu- 
 lation of England and Wales engaged in agricul- 
 ture, where there are but 8 per cent so reported. 
 On the other hand it coincides rather closely with 
 the German situation where 20,000,000 people out 
 of 70,000,000 are getting their living by, or im- 
 mediately out of, agriculture. . . . 
 
 "In normal times Great Britain, France and 
 Italy import about 313,000,000 bushels of wheat. 
 This supply comes largely, but by no means ex- 
 clusively, from the United States and Canada. 
 Under the conditions existing since the beginning 
 of the war in 1Q14 the supply has come more and 
 more from these two sources. Ordinarily the 
 United States and Canada furnish for export about 
 two-thirds as much wheat as the three European 
 
 151
 
 AGRICULTURE, MODERN 
 
 Uniied States 
 World War 
 
 AGRICULTURE, MODERN 
 
 Allies import. Under war conditions the produc- 
 tion of wheat by the Allies has been greatly re- 
 duced, notwithstanding the slight increase in 
 Great Britain. On account of bad weather the 
 supply of American wheat has been hardly above 
 the amount required at home for normal con- 
 sumption during the two years igi6 and igi?- 
 The United States wheat crop of 1014 was the 
 heaviest ever known and constituted almost one- 
 fourth of the world's crop. Following as it did 
 rather heavy crops for the two years preceding, 
 the amount of wheat on hand at the outbreak of 
 the war was by far greater than normal. . . . 
 [See Food regul.^tion: 1SS5-1Q14.] 
 
 "From the standpoint of world production the 
 United States occupies the predominating position 
 with respect to corn, producing from two-thirds to 
 three-fourths of the world supply. In 1914 the 
 world production was, according to the reports, 
 3,878,000,000 bushels, of which the United States 
 produced 2,673,000 bushels or 6q per cent. The 
 production of oats in the United States, in terms 
 of bushels, ranks next to corn. In value oats 
 rank normally below wheat. The acreage of oats 
 has increased more, relatively, during the past 
 forty years than have the acreages of either corn 
 or wheat. In 1014 the world crop was 4035,- 
 000,000 bushels, of which the United States pro- 
 duced 1,141,000,000 bushels, or 28 per cent. The 
 importance of the oat crop is largely indirect so 
 far as food is concerned since no considerable part 
 is eaten. However, as a war commodity oats play 
 an important role as feed for horses. . . . None 
 of the other cereals enter greatly either directly 
 or indirectly, into the food supply of the United 
 States. As a barley producing nation the United 
 States ranks second only to Russia, but even so 
 the production in this country is normally under 
 200,000,000 bushels per year, or only about a 
 quarter that of wheat, and not a tenth that of 
 corn. Barley does not enter greatly into the food 
 of the people of the United States nor of the 
 European Allies. One of the most important food 
 crops other than the cereals is the potato. The 
 normal potato crop of the countn,' ranges from 
 300,000,000 to 400,000,000 bushels, it being a crop 
 which varies widely according to weather condi- 
 tion. To this may be added the sweet potato 
 crop of 60,000,000 to 75,000,000 bushels. . . . 
 Compared with that of other countries the potato 
 crop of the United States is not large. The world 
 crop is over 5,000.000,000 bushels, of which the 
 United States produces but about 7 per cent. . . . 
 No doubt the most important crop other than the 
 cereals is sugar. The United States, including 
 island possessions, produces from two to two and 
 a half million tons, or four to fi\'e billion pounds, 
 annually This is about half of the amount con- 
 sumed, the additional amount coming mainly from 
 Cuba. . . . With the European supply mainly cut 
 off the Allies are obliged to get their sugar in large 
 part from Cuba, which is also the source of the 
 .American importations. In this roundabout man- 
 ner the supply of sugar for .American use is seri- 
 ously reduced. . . . The production of beet sugar 
 was begun in earnest about 1800. In 1006 the 
 beet sugar production exceeded the cane sugar pro- 
 duction [See also Loutsian.^: 1014-1016.! . . . 
 The cotton crop is sometimes second and sometimes 
 third in value of all crops, it being exceeded uni- 
 formly by corn and part of the time by hay. 
 Cotton is the most important commercial crop of 
 the countn.', outranking corn in this respect be- 
 cause of the fact that substantially all cotton is 
 sold as such by the producer, while corn has 
 many uses, and is turned into other products 
 
 without leaving the farm. Three-fifths of the 
 world's supply of cotton is grown in the United 
 States. The yield ranges from 10,000,000 to 16,- 
 000,000 bales per year varying greatly with 
 weather conditions. . . . While there is almost 
 without fail a reduction in the cotton acreage fol- 
 lowing an unusually heavy yield with its attendant 
 lower price it so happened that for the two years 
 preceding the war the acreage and yield were both 
 above normal, with the result that an unprece- 
 dented supply of cotton was on hand when hos- 
 tilities began in Europe in IQ14. . . . An idea of 
 the growth of the Cotton industry may be had 
 from the fact that the acreage increased from 
 13,000,000 in 18S0 to 37,000,000 in 1913. And 
 the importance of the supply on hand in 1914 
 may be gathered from the figures showing an 
 average yield from iqo6 to igog of 11,000,000 
 bales per year, while from loio to 1014 this aver- 
 age was 14,000,000 bales."— B. H. Hibbard, Effects 
 of the war upon agriculture (Department of Agri- 
 culture Yearbook, pp. 3-12). 
 
 It has been conservatively estimated that the 
 gardens throughout the countr>' trebled in area 
 in IQ17 when a concerted effort was made to in- 
 crease the food supply in the United States. In 
 practically every city, suburb and village home 
 gardens were enlarged. Many thousands of acres 
 of idle land, which heretofore had been wastefuUy 
 neglected, were utilized during the World War, 
 by individuals, municipalities and corporations, in 
 the production of such staples as corn, potatoes, 
 cabbage, turnips, onions, etc., as well as other 
 perishable vegetables. Factors which gave in- 
 valuable aid to the spirit of utilizing gardens for 
 food production were the extension services of 
 the United States Department of Agriculture, as 
 well as of the various State departments, the ag- 
 ricultural and the general press. All these agen- 
 cies actively cooperated in furnishing assistance 
 and information dealing both with the culture and 
 consecvation of vegetables. Where no garden 
 space was available, the practice in the homes was 
 to can and dry large quantities of vegetables. 
 Although the season was unfavorable for suc- 
 cessful cultivation in many localities, especially in 
 cases of amateur gardening, the net result was an 
 important addition to the countr\''s supply of 
 fresh, dried and canned vegetables, which brought 
 about the release of a considerable amount of 
 food td the soldiers and sailors of our army and 
 nav>' and those of our allies. 
 
 "It is customar>' to attribute the high cost of 
 living to lessened production due to a supposed de- 
 cline of agriculture, and to advise, therefore, that 
 more persons engaiie in farming for the purpose of 
 increasing the product. This position is met by an 
 editorial of the Nexv York Tribune, which holds 
 that intermediary trading combinations are respon- 
 sible: 'It is true that the raising of cattle for the 
 market has almost ceased in the East and that agri- 
 culture generally has not kept pace with the demand 
 for food products. Yet it is hard to believe that 
 agriculture in any part of the Union would 
 steadily decline in the face of an enormous ap- 
 preciation of the cost to the consumer of all farm 
 products, were there not some powerful disturb- 
 ing factor operating to deny the farmer the bene- 
 fits of that appreciation. If the Eastern farmer 
 could have reaped a legitimate share of the in- 
 crease in the price of farm produce which has 
 taken place in the last twenty years, he would cer- 
 tainly be in a position to command all the labor 
 he needs and to develop resources now neglected 
 because it does not pay to develop them. 'Yet 
 economic law has not operated to stimulate agri- 
 
 152
 
 AGRICULTURE, MODERN 
 
 United States 
 Rural Policy 
 
 AGRICULTURE, MODERN 
 
 culture, because the returns from steadily mount- 
 ing prices have not really reached the producer. 
 Thirty years ago the fattening of steers for the 
 local markets was common in the East. But when 
 the vast Western ranges were opened, and the 
 great packing houses were established, the cheap- 
 ness of range beef, refrigerated and delivered in 
 Eastern cities, was used as a weapon to kill off 
 the cattle industry of the East. When the Eastern 
 cattleman was driven out of business, the price of 
 beef rose, but virtually all the increase has gone 
 to the packing combinations, which fix their own 
 price to the Western range man and their own 
 price to the consumer and artificially control the 
 supply so as to discourage increased production 
 in the West and to prevent a revival of produc- 
 tion in the East. The country is growing in popu- 
 lation at the rate of twenty to twenty-five per 
 cent each decade. But Secretary Wilson has 
 shown that the supply of food animals is not 
 being maintained in proportion to population. In 
 the last decade cattle have remained about sta- 
 tionary in numbers, swine are actually decreasing, 
 and, while more sheep are available, the supply 
 has diminished relatively to population.' " — L. H. 
 Bailey, Country-li^e movement in the United 
 States, pp. 153-155. — See also Conservation of 
 j^ATURAL resources: United States. 
 
 Two associations of farmers have recently been 
 formed and are at work in the United States to 
 improve the conditions of farming and of farm- 
 ers. One, the American Farm Bureau Federation, 
 had been encouraging cooperative action on the 
 part of farmers in order to lessen the profits of 
 middlemen; while the other, the National Board 
 of Farmers' Organizations was formed during the 
 war to unify the agricultural interests and bring 
 their cause before the people. Its activities con- 
 tinued after the war, and recently it announced 
 the intention of building a "temple of agriculture" 
 at Washington to act as headquarters for the or- 
 ganized farmers of the United States. Another 
 agency for improving agricultural conditions has 
 been employed in some of the States, notably in 
 New York, namely, the farm county agents. On 
 July I, igiS, there were over 6,200 farm county 
 agents employed in this country. Farmers are 
 coming to demand a larger share in the adminis- 
 tration of the government, claiming that theirs is 
 the largest single industry in America and repre- 
 sents the largest investment. The presidential 
 candidates of both great parties in iq20 acknowl- 
 edged the justice of these claims and pledged to 
 the farmers more representation on government 
 boards. (See U. S. A.: 1020: Democratic platform. 
 Republican platform). The junior agricultural 
 movement in the country schools has developed 
 rapidly in recent years, and the accomplishments 
 of children in the schools along these lines form 
 a prominent feature of the exhibits at country 
 fairs. (See U. S. Bovs working re.serve.) The 
 bitterest feelings have been engendered in the 
 rural districts by the attempt to prolong the 
 daylight saving laws and the farmers were 
 mainly instrumental in effecting their repeal. — 
 See also Agricultural education ; Agricultural 
 societies; California: 1917 (Breed bill) ; Day- 
 light SAVING movement: 1Q19; Food regulation: 
 1920. 
 
 United States: Rural policy. — Information. — 
 "A policy may be simply that which actually hap- 
 pens through a series of years, but a policy for the 
 New Day, a real policy, implies adequate knowledge, 
 definite plans, correlation of effort. So in our 
 governmental affairs, whatever is done or advo- 
 cated by departments, boards or bureaus, should 
 
 be the result of a well-founded and well-rounded 
 policy. Probably there is in these agencies no 
 lack of definite knowledge, and it should be easy 
 for them to make plans. But it is more difficult 
 to secure their cooperation. Within the state, for 
 example, how may we adjust the administrative 
 functions of a department of agriculture and the 
 educational functions of a college of agriculture? 
 We find in Washington half a dozen or more 
 bureaus or boards dealing with matters of agricul- 
 tural education. If these cannot be consolidated, 
 at least they ought to be forced to cooperate in- 
 timately and freely and unreservedly. Perhaps an 
 agricultural development committee in each state 
 and in Washington might be a means of grace in 
 this connection. The British .Agricultural Develop- 
 ment Committee is virtually an advisory commit- 
 tee to Parliament. It has no direct authority, but 
 its recommendations as to appropriations and as 
 to the work of the different governmental agencies, 
 both national and local, carry far in Parliament. 
 [See Food regulation: 1914-iqiS: Legislative 
 enactments in Great Britain] Some such group 
 authorized by law, and composed of representatives 
 of the public agencies involved, with additional 
 members appointed by the President and in the 
 state by governors, might be able to secure the 
 necessary cooperation of governmental agencies. It 
 is not too strong a statement to say that we are 
 on the verge of chaos with reference to the inter- 
 relationships of public boards, departments and 
 bureaus. It is a serious situation and there is only 
 one way out. There must be cooperation, if not 
 voluntary, then compulsory. 
 
 "Whatever our conclusions as to the place 
 of the government dealing with agricultural 
 matters, there is clearly one task that it 
 can perform better than any other agency and 
 which is evidently its duty. That is the task of 
 discovering and disseminating information. This 
 function embraces the necessity for accurate in- 
 vestigations, for wise and clear interpretation of 
 these investigations, for well planned and numer- 
 ous demonstrations of the applicability of the 
 principles worked out as the result of investiga- 
 tion, and for widespread publicity that will reach 
 the masses of farmers with understandable expert 
 advice. Government, both state and national, 
 should gather and distribute the fullest possible 
 information on all of the different aspects of 
 the rural problem. Its duty does not stop 
 with information about production, but in- 
 cludes the field of distribution of farm products 
 and the welfare or country life phase of the farm- 
 ers' interests. This information should not only 
 be made available to all the farmers, but they 
 must be all but compelled to listen if they arc 
 unresponsive." — K. L. Buttcrfield, Farmer and 
 the new day, pp. 193-195. — See also Agriculture, 
 Department of (United States). 
 
 United States: Railroad problem. — The prog- 
 ress of agriculture and the welfare of the farmer 
 have been continuously bound up with the railroad 
 question, and many states have seriously under- 
 taken to bring closer cooperation between agricul- 
 tural interests and the railroads. — See also Minne- 
 sota: 1916; North Dakota: 1880-1916; 1892-1896. 
 
 See also Alaska: 1919-1920; Indians, American: 
 1920: Review of agricultural development; Philip- 
 pine Islands: 1917-1918; U. S. A.:: Economic map. 
 
 Also in: Annah of the American Academy of 
 Political and Socio} Science, March, 1912. — J. M. 
 Gillette, Conditions and needs of country life. — 
 K. L. Buttcrfield, Rural sociology as a college dis- 
 cipline. — F. B. Mumford, Education for agricul- 
 ture. — T. N. Carver, Economic significance of 
 
 153
 
 AGRICULTURE, DEPARTMENT OF 
 
 AGRICULTURE, INSTITUTE OF 
 
 changes in country population. — L. C. Gray, South- 
 ern agriculture. — G. F. Wells, Rural church. — H, W. 
 Fought, Country school. — S. G. Dixon, Rural 
 home. — J. Hamilton, Influences exerted by agri- 
 cultural fairs. — R, B. Watrous, Civic arts and 
 country lije. — J. C. Marquis, Social significance of 
 the agriciilturai press. — M. T. Scudder, Rural rec- 
 creation, a socializing factor. — Cyclopedia of 
 American agriculture, 4 v., edited by L. H. Bailey, 
 New York, 1917. — K. L. Butterlield, Chapters in 
 rural progress, Chicago, igoS. — G. W. James, Re- 
 claiming the arid West. — Scientific American, .\pril 
 27, IQ18. — .igricultural revolution in the South. 
 — C. Turnor, Land probletns and national welfare. 
 — J. Wilson and H. Wallace, .igricultural conditions 
 in Great Britain and Ireland. 
 
 AGRICULTURE, Biology as applied to. See 
 BioLOGv ; Applications. 
 
 AGRICULTURE, Department of (United 
 States), had its origin in one of Ihc early duties 
 of the Patent Bureau, that of the distribution of 
 seeds and plants to farmers. In 1802 a bureau of 
 agriculture was created and in i8Sg it w»s raised 
 to the dignity of an executive department, with 
 a secretary having a seat in the cabinet. The 
 weather bureau has charge of weather forecasts, 
 including warnings of storms, cold waves, frosts 
 and floods; it also reports temperature and rain- 
 fall conditions for agricultural staples. The bureau 
 of animal industry conducts the inspection of ani- 
 mals slaujhtercd for food. The bureau of plant 
 industry takes charge of the scientilic investiga- 
 tion of plant life and the distribution, through 
 members of Congress, of flower and garden seeds. 
 The bureau of statistics prepares crop reports. 
 The bureau of chemistry takes charge of the en- 
 forcement of the Pure Food and Drug Act. The 
 forest service has charge of the national forest re- 
 serves and cooperates with state governments and 
 private owners of forests. The bureau of ento- 
 mology investigates injurious insects affecting crops, 
 fruits and forests. The bureau of biological sur- 
 vey enforces federal laws for the protection of 
 birds and game, has charge of the bison range and 
 the protection of migratory birds. The bureau of 
 soils, the division of publications, the office of 
 experiment stations and the office of public roads 
 have duties such as their titles suggest. 
 
 The work of the department as a whole "is cov- 
 ered in three general classes: (i) Research work, 
 which includes the scientific study of the funda- 
 mental problems of agriculture. (2) Educational 
 or extension work, which aims to make available 
 to the rural population the results of the depart- 
 ment's experiments and discoveries. (3) Regulatory 
 work which includes the enforcement of statues re- 
 lating to meat inspection, animal and plant quar- 
 antine, foods and drugs, game -and migratory birds, 
 seed adulteration, insecticides and fungicides, the 
 manufacture of vaccines and viruses, and the ad- 
 ministration of the national forests. There stands 
 to the credit of the Department of Agriculture the 
 eradication of the cattle tick from 204,000 square 
 miles of territory in ten years, the suppression of 
 the foot-and-mouth disease in all the country from 
 Massachusetts to Montana, the saving of the citrus 
 industry of California, and a score of other in- 
 valuable services protecting the orchards and fields 
 and forests from destruction by insect and fungus 
 pests. In addition, new farm products to the 
 value of $270,000,000 have been promoted by the 
 introduction and development of new crops, and 
 one-third of the total area of the United States 
 has been covered by the soil surveys conducted 
 by this Department." — J. C. Hemphill, ,4 great 
 farmer, David Franklin Houston (North American 
 
 Review, June, 1917). — "The federal and state gov- 
 ernments at present do little directly to aid in 
 preserving and improving the fertility of the soil ; 
 but the experiments in advanced methods of cul- 
 tivation carried on by the Department of Agricul- 
 ture, the Experiment Stations, and state agricul- 
 tural colleges, are doing much to show the farm- 
 ers how to make the best use of their land and 
 at the same time to conserve it for the use of 
 posterity. Science will become the servant of 
 agriculture as well as of industry." — C. A. Beard, 
 .\merican government and politics, p. 408. — See 
 also Food regulation: 1917-1918: Food control in 
 the United States. 
 
 AGRICULTURE, International Institute of. 
 — The idea of an international organization for 
 systematizmg the agricultural production of the 
 world and regulating the markets of food prod- 
 ucts, by constant and authentic knowledge ol 
 crops and conditions, was conceived some years 
 ago by Mr. David Lubin, of California. It was 
 first expressed by him publicly at Budapest in i8gft, 
 but was the growth of thirteen years of thought 
 preceding that date. As the result of Mr. Lubin's 
 efforts to interest governments and peoples in the 
 project. King Victor Emmanuel III, of Italy, be- 
 came its hearty patron in 1903, and took the initial 
 step toward effecting an organization as wide as the 
 civilized world, by inviting all nations to take 
 part in a convention of delegates for the purpose, 
 at Rome, in May, 1905. The invitation, as ad 
 dressed to the Government of the United States 
 by the Italian ambassador at Washington, on Feb- 
 ruary 26, igos, was in these words: "By order 
 of my government, I have the honor to inform 
 your excellency that His Majesty the King, my 
 august sovereign, has taken the initiative in the 
 formation of an international institute of agricul- 
 ture to be composed of representatives of the great 
 agricultural societies of the various countries and 
 of delegates from the several governments. This 
 institute, being devoid of any political intent, 
 should tend to brinff about a community of inter- 
 ests among agriculturists and to protect these in- 
 terests in the markets of the world. It will study 
 agricultural conditions in the different countries, 
 periodically indicating the supply and the quality 
 of products with accuracy and care, so as to pro- 
 portion production to demand, increase and dis- 
 tribute the various crops according to the rate of 
 consumption, render the commerce of agricultural 
 products less costly and more expeditious, and suit- 
 ably determine the prices thereof. Acting in 
 unison with the various national bureaus already 
 existing, it will furnish accurate information on 
 conditions regarding agricultural labor in various 
 localities, and will regulate and direct the cur- 
 rents of emigration It will favor the institution 
 of agricultural exchanges and labor bureaus. It 
 will protect both producers and consumers against 
 the excesses of transportation and forestalling syn- 
 dicates, keeping a watch on middlemen, pointing 
 out their abuses, and acquainting the public with 
 the true conditions of the market. It will foster 
 agreements for common defense against the dis- 
 eases of plants and live stock, against which in- 
 dividual defense is less effectual. It will help to 
 develop rural cooperation, agricultural insurance, 
 and agrarian credit. It will study and propose 
 measures of general interest, preparing interna- 
 tional agreements for the benefit of agriculture 
 and the agriculturil classes Carrving out the in- 
 tention of His Majesty, the Italian Government 
 appeals to all friendly nations, each of which 
 ought to have its own representatives in the in- 
 stitute, appointed to act as the exponents of their 
 
 154
 
 AGRICULTURE, INSTITUTE OF 
 
 AGRICULTURE, INSTITUTE OF 
 
 respective governments, as organs of mutual rela- 
 tions, and as mediums of reciprocal influence and 
 information. It accordingly now invites them to 
 participate through their delegates in the lirst con- 
 vention, which is to be held at Rome next May 
 for the purpose of preparing rules for the new 
 institute. The king's government trusts that the 
 United States will be vrtlling to cooperate in the 
 enterprise, the first inspiration of which is due 
 an American citizen, and that, accepting the invi- 
 tation to the conference at Rome, it will send 
 thither a delegation commensurate with its im- 
 portance as the foremost agricultural nation in the 
 world." 
 
 1905. — Conference at Rome. — Gratifying re- 
 sponses to the invitation were made by most, if 
 not all, of the governments addressed, and a royal 
 proclamation was issued calling an international 
 conference at Rome to which thirty-eight powers 
 responded. It concluded its sessions on June 7, 
 iQOS, by adopting a final act embodying the reso- 
 lutions upon which they had agreed. The text 
 of the act follows: 
 
 "Article i. There is hereby created a perma- 
 nent international institute of agriculture, having 
 its seat at Rome. 
 
 "Article 2. The international institute of agri- 
 culture is to be a government institution, in which 
 each adhering power shall be represented by dele- 
 gates of its choice. The institute shall be com- 
 posed of a general assembly and a permanent com- 
 mittee, the composition and duties of which 
 arc defined in the ensuing articles. 
 
 "Article 3. The general assembly of the insti- 
 tute shall be composed of the representatives of 
 the adhering governments. Each nation, what- 
 ever be the number of its delegates shall be en- 
 titled to a number of votes in the assembly 
 which shall be determined according to the group 
 to which it belongs, and to which reference will 
 be made in article 10. 
 
 "Article 4. The general assembly shall elect for 
 each session from among its members a president 
 and two vice-presidents. The sessions shall take 
 place on dates fixed by the last general assembly 
 and according to a programme proposed by the 
 permanent committee and adopted by the adher- 
 ing governments. 
 
 "Article .$. The general assembly shall exercise 
 supreme control over the international institute of 
 agriculture. It shall approve the 'projects prepared 
 by the permanent committee regarding the or- 
 ganization and internal workings of the institute. 
 It shall fix the total amount of expenditures and 
 audit and approve the accounts. It shall submit 
 to the approval of the adhering governments modi- 
 fications of any nature involving an increase in 
 expenditure or an enlargement of the functions of 
 the institute. It shall set the date for holding the 
 sessions. It shall prepare its regulations. The 
 presence at the general assemblies of delegates rep- 
 resenting two-thirds of the adhering nations shall 
 be required in order to render the deliberations 
 valid. 
 
 "Article 6. The executive power of the insti- 
 tute is intrusted to the permanent committee, 
 which, under the direction and control of the gen- 
 eral assembly, shall carry out the decisions of 
 the latter and prepare propositions to submit to 
 it. 
 
 "Article 7. The permanent committee shall be 
 composed of members designated by the respective 
 governments. Each adhering nation shall be rep- 
 resented in the permanent committee by one mem- 
 ber. However, the representation of one nation 
 may be intrusted to a delegate of another adher- 
 
 ing nation, provided that the actual number of 
 members shall not be less than fifteen. The con- 
 ditions of voting in the permanent committee shall 
 be the same as those indicated in article 3 for the 
 general assemblies. 
 
 ".Article 8. The permanent committee shall elect 
 from among its members for a period of three 
 years a president and a vice-president, who may 
 be reelected. It shall prepare its internal regula- 
 tions, vote the budget of the institute within the 
 limits of the funds placed at its disposal by the 
 general assembly, and appoint and remove the of- 
 ficials and employees of its office. The general 
 secretary of the permanent committee shall act as 
 secretary of the assembly. 
 
 ".Article 0. The institute, confining its opera- 
 tions within an international sphere, shall — 
 
 "(a) Collect, study, and publish as promptly as 
 possible statistical, technical, or economic informa- 
 tion concerning farming, both vegetable and ani- 
 mal products, the commerce in agricultural prod- 
 ucts, and th£ prices prevailing in the various 
 markets; 
 
 "(h) Communicate to parties interested, also as 
 promptly as possible, all the information just re- 
 ferred to ; 
 
 "(c) Indicate the wages paid for farm work; 
 
 "(d)Mdkc known the new diseases of vegetables 
 which may appear in any part of the world, 
 showing the territories infected, the progress of 
 the disease, and, if possible, the remedies which 
 are effective in combating them ; 
 
 "(e) Study questions concerning agricultural 
 cooperation, insurance, and credit in all their as- 
 pects; collect and publish information which might 
 be useful in the various countries in the organiza- 
 tion of works connected with agricultural coop- 
 eration, insurance, and credit ; 
 
 "(/) Submit to the approval of the govern- 
 ments, if there is occasion for it, measures for the 
 protection of the common interests of farmers and 
 for the improvement of their condition, after hav- 
 ing utilized all the necessary sources of informa- 
 tion, such as the wishes expressed by international 
 or other agricultural congresses or congresses of 
 sciences applied to agriculture, agricultural socie- 
 ties, academies, learned bodies, etc. 
 
 "All questions concerning the economic inter- 
 ests, the legislation, and the administration of a 
 particular nation shall be excluded from the con- 
 sideration of the institute. 
 
 "Article 10. The nations adhering to the insti- 
 tute shall be classed in five groups, according to 
 the place which each of them thinks it ought to 
 occupy. The number of votes which each nation 
 shall have and the number of units of assessment 
 shall be established according to the following 
 gradations: 
 
 Groups of 
 nations 
 
 Numbers 
 of votes 
 
 Units of 
 assessment 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 Ill 
 
 s 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 8 
 
 4 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 IV 
 
 V 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 "In any event the contribution due per unit of 
 assessment shall never exceed a maximum of 2,500 ■ 
 francs. As a temporary provision the assessment 
 for the first two years shall not exceed 1,500 
 francs per unit. Colonies may, at the request of 
 the nations to which they belong, be admitted to 
 form part of the institute on the same condi- 
 tions as the independent nations. 
 
 155
 
 AGRIGENTUM 
 
 AHMAD SHAH 
 
 "Article ii. The present convention shall be 
 ratified and the ratifications shall be exchanged as 
 soon as possible by depositing them with the Ital- 
 ian Government." 
 
 On March 27, iqo6, the Italian ambassador at 
 Washington was able to announce that "the States 
 which were represented at the conference of last 
 year at Rome . . . have now all sanctioned by the 
 signature of their plenipotentiaries, the Conven- 
 tion drafted at that Conference," As appears from 
 a copy transmitted, the convention had been signed 
 by the plenipotentiaries of forty nations, includ- 
 ing twelve .\merican republics besides the United 
 States. At the second general meeting of the in- 
 stitute at Rome, Dec. 12, iqog, at which more 
 than one hundred foreign delegates were present, 
 Victor Emmanuel III of Italy bestowed upon it a 
 yearly allowance of 300,000 lire. This generous 
 grant was used in the construction of a palace, 
 which the institute now occupies. The organiza- 
 tion carried on its work throughout the duration 
 of the World War, supplying the data upon which 
 all food commissions based their plans for con- 
 servation. Today (1021) fifty-eight nations are 
 members of the institute and until his recent death 
 David Lubin had a goodly share in its fine work. 
 Upon learning that Belgium, Germany and Italy 
 were far better organized for farm credit than the 
 United States, he urged the United States to ap- 
 point a commission to study cooperation in rural 
 credit and finance. This they did, and partly as 
 a result of the work of this commission we have 
 the establishment of the Federal Farm Loan banks 
 in 1Q16. 
 
 AGRIGENTUM (Acragas), one of the young- 
 est of the Greek colonies in Sicily, founded about 
 582 B. C. by the older colony of Gela, became in 
 the fifth century B. C. one of the largest and 
 most splendid cities of the age, as is testified by 
 its ruins. It was the scene of the notorious 
 tyranny of Phalaris, as well as that of Theron. 
 Agrigentum was destroyed by the Carthaginians, 
 405 B. C, and rebuilt by Timoleon, but never 
 recovered its former importance and grandeur. 
 — E. Curtius, History oj Greece, bk. 4, cli. 3. 
 See Sicily: B.C. 400-405. — It was the scene of a 
 great defeat of the Carthaginians by the Romans, 
 in 262 B. C. See Punic W.\rs: First. 
 
 AGRIPPA, Baths of. Among the principal Ro- 
 man baths said to have been built 21 B. C. im- 
 mediately behind the Pantheon. See Baths. 
 
 AGRIPPA, Herod, I. (c. B C. lo-A. D. 44), 
 king of Judea, the grandson of Herod the Great; 
 was a great favorite with Gains fCaUgula) who 
 gave him jurisdiction over Batansa and Tracho- 
 nitis, later adding the tetrarchy of Herod Anti- 
 pas (A. D. 39), whose, banishment he procured. — 
 See also Jews: B. C. 40-A. D. 44; Christianity: 
 .'\. D. ^■^-^o. 
 
 AGRIPPA, Herod, II (A.D. 27-100), the last of 
 the descendants of Herod the Great; king of 
 Judea, following his father Agrippa I; deprived 
 of the tetrarchy of Chalcis by Claudius in A. D. 
 53. — See also Jews: B. C. 40-.^. D. 44. 
 
 AGRIPPA, Marcus Vipsanius (63-12 B. C), 
 Roman general and statesman ; advisor to the em- 
 peror Augustus who succeeded Julius Caesar (44 
 B. C.) ; carried on successful expeditions against 
 the Aquitanians and the Germans 38 B. C; was 
 made consul in 37 B. C; defeated Pompeius at 
 Mylae, 36 B. C, and was responsible for the vic- 
 tory at .Actium (^i B. C). 
 
 AGRIPPINA,' the "younger" (A. D. 16-50), 
 daughter of Agrippina the elder and sister of Gaius 
 fCaligula). She was (he mother of Nero whom 
 she placed upon the throne through intrigue. Nero 
 
 had her put to death. — See also Rome: A. D. 47- 
 '54: and A. D. 54-64. 
 
 AGUESSEAU, Henri Francois d' (166S- 
 1751), illustrious chancellor of France; at twenty- 
 one was appointed advocate-general to the Parlia- 
 ment of Paris and procurator-general in 1700. 
 
 AGUILA, Don Juan de: Commander of Span- 
 ish fleet sent to aid Ulster. See Ulster: 1585-1608. 
 
 AGUILAR Y CORREA, Antonio, Marques de 
 la \'ega de .^rmijo (1824-1000), Spanish states- 
 man. Associated with the Union Liberal party, 
 1855-1866; in 1873 became ambassador to France; 
 played a prominent part in frustrating the plans 
 of the Carlists. Held many ministerial positions 
 in Spain, among others, minister of state. 
 
 AGUINALDO, Emilio (1S70- ), a Filipino 
 mestizo of Chinese and Tagolog parentage, and 
 the leader first of the revolt against Spain, and 
 then of the insurrection against the United States 
 He was educated at the College of San Juan de 
 Letran and at the University of St, Thomas in 
 Manila. He became mayor of Cavite Viejo. 
 While still a very young man, he became inter- 
 ested in the liberal movement in the Philippines. 
 When the insurrection of i8q6 was suppressed, he 
 was the chief of the revolutionary leaders exiled 
 by Spain to Hongkong. (See Philippine Islands: 
 1806-1808). With Hongkong as a center, Agui- 
 naldo contrived to continue his machinations 
 against Spain until they culminated in the insur- 
 rections of i8q8, when he returned to Manila to 
 aid the United States against Spain. (See U. S. A.: 
 i8q8 (April-May): Philippines). Aguinaldo ar- 
 rived in Manila May lo, iSgS, and proceeded to 
 organize the insurgent forces. Although Aguinal- 
 do's first attitude towards the United States in the 
 Philippines was one of welcome and cooperation, he 
 gradually became antagonistic toward the Ameri- 
 can army, and with him also many of the more 
 notable Filipinos. (See U. S. A.: 1898 (July- 
 August): Philippines). When the manifesto es- 
 tablishing a protectorate over the Philippines was 
 issued, Aguinaldo, who had proclaimed himself 
 president of the Philippine Republic (see U. S. A.: 
 i8qS (July-September)), met it with a counter- 
 proclamation asserting the independence of the 
 islands, saying, "The United States did not take 
 me out of Hongkong to make war for their own 
 benefit." (See Philippint; Islands: i8q8-i8qq: 
 December-January). This manifesto he followed 
 with an armed insurrection against the llnited 
 States forces. After three years' fighting Aguinaldo 
 was forced to flee to the mountains of Luzon. (Sec 
 Pun^iPPiNE Islanos: i8qq: Armed opposition to 
 establishment of American government.) He was 
 finally captured in iqoi by Brigadier-General Fun- 
 ston at Palawan, Luzon, and capitulated with some 
 grace by issuing an address to his countrymen ask- 
 ing them to acknowledge the sovereignty of the 
 United States. (See Philippine Islands: iqoi: Es- 
 tablishment of civil government). He retired from 
 public life. 
 
 A. H. (Anno hejirae). See Chronology: 
 Era of the hcgira. 
 
 AHENOBARBUS ("brazen-bearded"), a ple- 
 beian family of Rome, the name being derived from 
 the peculiar fact that most of the members of the 
 family had red hair or beards. Some of the mem- 
 bers of this family were: Gnaeus Domitius Aheno- 
 barbus, tribune (104 B. C), Lucius Domitius 
 Ahenobarbus, consul in 54 B. C, and Gnsus 
 Domitius Ahenobarbus, son of the above, consul 
 in the year 32 B. C. and supporter of Octavius 
 against .\ntnnv. 
 
 AHMAD SHAH (1724-1773'. the founder of 
 the Durani dynasty in Afghanistan ; led a revolt of 
 
 156
 
 AHMADIYA 
 
 AIRCRAFT 
 
 the Afghanistan tribes in 1747 and was crowned 
 sovereign in October of that year. He was the 
 possessor cA the famous Koh-i-noor diamond; 
 gained control of the Punjab in 1751, subdued 
 Kashmir the following year and pillaged Delhi in 
 1756. Ahmad inflicted a serious defeat upon the 
 Mahrattas who essayed to take possession of the 
 Punjab (1758), which he later lost to the Sikhs. — 
 See also India: 1747-1761; Afghanistan; 330- 
 
 1747- 
 
 AHMADIYA. — "A sect which claims to have 
 500,000 members in various parts of India is the 
 Ahmadiya. It was founded in iSSq by Mirza 
 Ghulam Ahmad, who was born at Quadian near 
 Batala about fifty years earlier. He claimed to 
 be the promised Mahdi of the Moslems, the Mes- 
 siah of the Christians, and the Avatar of the 
 Hindus; and taught that Mohammed revealed the 
 same great truths as are contained in other re- 
 ligions and embodied them in the Koran. Mr. 
 O'Malley writes of the cult in the Census Re- 
 port : 
 
 " 'One significant feature of the cult is its op- 
 position to Christianity. According to Mussalman 
 belief, when the end of the world approaches^ 
 Dajjal (Anti-Christ) will rule, and the powers of 
 evil will reign till Christ reappears, and, with the 
 help of Mahdi, overthrows Dajjal and converts 
 the whole world to Islam. The Ahmadiya re- 
 jects this doctrine and identifies Dajjal with the 
 teachings of the Christian Church, such as the 
 atonement and the divinity of Jesus Christ. In 
 fact, he holds that the prophecy of the advent 
 of Dajjal has been fulfilled by the spread of 
 Christian missionaries.' " — S. M. Zwemer, Disin- 
 tegration, of Islam, p. loi. 
 
 AHMAR, Mahomet Ibn-Al (Mohammed I, 
 of Granada) : Founder of the Alhambra. See 
 SrAiN: 1238-1273. , 
 
 AHMED I (158Q-1617), Turkish sultan. 
 
 Ahmed II (1643-1605), Turkish sultan. 
 
 Ahmed III. (1637-1736), Turkish sultan. Shel- 
 tered Charles XII of Sweden, after the battle of 
 Poltava. Fought a successful war with Russia, 
 but was defeated in other contests. Deposed by 
 the Janissaries, and died in prison. 
 
 Struggle with Hungarians. See Hungary: 
 i6Qg-i7i8. 
 
 AHMED (Al Mostanser Billah), last caliph 
 of Bagdad. See Bagdad: 12 58. 
 
 AHMED ARABI (Arabi Pasha) (c. 183Q- ), 
 Egyptian revolutionary leader. See Egypt: 1875- 
 1882. 
 
 AHMED MIRZA (i8q8- ), shah of Persia, 
 succeeding his deposed father in igoq, in the midst 
 of unsettled conditions. See Persia: igoS-igog. 
 
 AHMED VEFIK, Pasha (1819-1801), Turkish 
 statesman and man of letters. Furthered the 
 spread of French culture by translations; editor 
 of the first official annual of his country ; am- 
 bassador to Persia, 1851-1855; president of the 
 Turkish parliament in 1877; prime minister in 
 1878 and 1S82. As vali of Brusa (1878-1882) in- 
 augurated many internal reforms. 
 
 AHMEDABAD, British India, scene of a re- 
 beUion in iqiS. See Indi^: igig. 
 
 AHMEDNAGAR, or Ahmadnagar, city and 
 district of British India in the central division of 
 Bombay. The city, founded 1494, was the seat 
 of a monarchy until 1636; in 1803 captured by 
 the British (see India: 1708-1805), who obtained 
 possession of it bv the Treaty of Poona, 181 7. 
 
 AHTENA INDIANS. See Indians, Ameri- 
 can: Mackenzie .^rea. 
 
 AHURAMAZDA, Zoroastrian deity. See ZoRO- 
 ASTKiANs: Magians: Parsees. 
 
 AHVAZ, Persia.— 1914.— Held by Turks. See 
 World War: igi4: IV. Turkey: i. 
 
 1915. — Turks driven from it. See World War: 
 igiS: VI. Turkey: c, 1. 
 
 AIBAK, ruler in India. See India: 977-i2go. 
 
 AIDAN, or Aedan (d. 651), first bishop of 
 Lindisfarne (about 634) ; helped in the restoration 
 of Christianity in Northumbria See Christian- 
 ity: 5g7-8oo: Lindisfarne: 635-664. 
 
 AIDIN, a town in the former Turkish vilayet 
 of the same name, situated near the river Men- 
 dere, about seventy miles southeast of Smyrna, 
 the capital. It is near the ruins of ancient Tralles 
 and contains numerous fine bazaars, Greek relig- 
 ious edifices and several Turkish mosques. In i8gg 
 the town was greatly damaged by an earthquake. 
 After the World War the greater part of the vila- 
 yet, including the city of Smyrna, was placed 
 under the mandate of Greece. 
 
 AIGINA. See ^gina. 
 
 AIGUILLON, Emmanuel Armand de Wigne- 
 rod du Plessis de Richelieu, Due d' (1720-1782), 
 French statesman and nephew of the Marechal de 
 Richelieu ; took part in the campaign against Italy 
 and in the War of the Austrian Succession; ap- 
 pointed governor of Brittany, 1753. 
 
 AIGUILLON, Siege of, a notable siege in the 
 Hundred Years' War, 1346. An English garrison 
 under the famous knight, Sir Walter Manny, held 
 the great fortress of Aiguillon, near the confluence 
 of the Garonne and the Lot, against a formidable 
 French army. — J. Froissart, Chronicles, v. i, bk. 1, 
 ell. 120. 
 
 AILETTE, a river in France, flowing into the 
 Oise; south of St. Gobain forest and north of the 
 Chemin des Dames; was the scene of severe, fight- 
 ing in the World War, especially in 1017 and igi8. 
 — See also World War: 1017: II. Western front: 
 b, 2, i; igi8: II. Western front: g, 1, g, 6. 
 
 AILLES, taken by the French (1017). See 
 World War: 1Q17: II. Western front: f, 3. 
 
 AIN KOHLEH, Palestine.— 1917.— British ob- 
 jective. See World War: 1917: VI. Turkish 
 theater: c, 2, iii. 
 
 AINCREVILLE, French town, north-west of 
 Verdun, taken by the Allies in igiS. See World 
 War: igi8: II. Western front: x, 4. 
 
 AINOS, aborigines of Japan. See Japan: In- 
 habitants and their origins. 
 
 AINTAB, Syrian town in the vilayet of Aleppo 
 with a large population of Armenians and Greek 
 Christians. It is the site of the Central Turkey 
 College, founded by the American Board of For- 
 eign Missions, and in March, igog, was included 
 in the Adana massacres, during which 15,000 Ar- 
 menians were killed in three days. — See also Tur- 
 key: igog. 
 
 Siege of Aintab. — French forced to evacuate 
 (ig2o). See Syria: igo8-ig2i. 
 
 AIR BRAKE: Various forms. See Inven- 
 tions: igth century: Railroad air brake. 
 
 AIR NAVIGATION, Commission on. See 
 Aviation: Development of airplanes and air ser- 
 vice: igi8-ig2i: Aerial law. 
 
 AIR RAIDS. See England: igi4 (Dec. 16, 
 24); Londos: igi5-igi7; Paris: igi4; World 
 War: igis: X. War in the air; 1918: VIII. Avia- 
 tion. 
 
 AIR ROUTES, Africa, England, France, Ger- 
 many, Italy, U. S. See Aviation: Development of 
 airplanes and air service: igi8-io2i: Air service 
 after World War; also Cape-to-Cairo railway: Air 
 route established. ;; 
 
 AIR SERVICE, American. See Aviation: De- 
 velopment of airplanes and air service: igi4-igi8. 
 
 AIRCRAFT. See Aviation. 
 
 157
 
 AIRCRAFT 
 
 AIRCRAFT: Military. See Aviation: 1896- 
 'loio- 1014: Aviation in war. 
 
 AIRCRAFT PRODUCTION, Bureau of. See 
 
 ^A^IRCRAFT PRODUCTION INVESTIGA- 
 
 "ATR-E.'^Fr^nfe:^Ca'p\u^re by Marlborough 
 
 ^^i'^iRr ^n™cTld'^r-^'navigation 
 
 CANAL. See Canals: Principal European canals: 
 
 British Isles. , „ „a ^ 
 
 AIREY, Richard Airey, Baron {1803-1881), 
 Bn^ish general. Served in the Cnn.ea governor 
 of Gibraltar, 1865 1870; presided over the cele 
 brated Airev commission on army relorms. 
 
 AIRPLANE. See Aviation: Development ot 
 airplanes and air service: 1809-1874; 18S9-1Q00; 
 
 '^AIRSHIPS: Invention. See Aviation: Devel- 
 opment of balloons and dirigibles: 1884-1SP7. 
 
 AIRY Sir George Biddell (i8oi-i8gi), Eng- 
 lish astronomer. Conducted the astronomical ob- 
 servations preliminary to the boundary survey be- 
 tween the United States and Canada, and mvented 
 a device to correct the compass variations on war 
 ships. See Astronomy. . ^ ,• u >i; 
 
 AISLABIE, John (1670-1742), English poli- 
 tician In 1 7 18 became chancellor ol the ex- 
 chequer; supported the P'^P^'^f f'^' ^^"'^„ ^he 
 Company to pay the national debt and on he 
 collapse of that company w.as expelled from the 
 
 TlSNE a French river flowing through Soissons, 
 tributarv 'to the Gise. Tlie Germans occupied 
 strong positions north of the A.sne after their 
 retreat from the Marne, September 12-28 iqi4- 
 The Allied forces succeeded in partially dislodg- 
 ing the Germans from these positions and some 
 of the most bitter fighting of igi" and iqi8 took 
 place in this vicinity. The valley ol the A.sne 
 with its chief affluents, the Aire and the Vesle, 
 constitutes one of the natural highways from the 
 Belgian frontier to the neighborhood of Faris. 
 AISNE, Department of: 1600.— Cession to 
 France. See France: 1599-1610. 
 
 Topography of area. See World War: 1Q14: 
 I. Western front: s, 1. 
 
 1914.— Scene of fighting. See World War. 
 IQ14: I. Western front: p; p, 3; and r 
 
 1914.— First battle of. See World War: 1914: 
 I Western front: s, and 3, 4. ,. , c 
 
 1914 —Weakening of German attacks, bee 
 World War: 1Q14: I- Western front: s, 3. 
 
 1914.— Troyon. See World War: 1914: 1- West- 
 ern front: s, 5. .^, » j \.„ 
 1917— Gained by French.— Threatened by 
 Germans.- Offensive by French. See World 
 War: igi7: H Western front: b, 1; b, 1, 1; and 
 
 b, 2, iii. „ . ca. 
 
 1917— Chemin des Dames offensive. bee 
 World W.^r: IQ17: " Western front: b, 1, 11. 
 
 1917._Second battle of. See World War. 
 IQI7- II Western front: f, and f, 3. 
 
 1918.— Third battle of. See World War: 1918: 
 n. Western front: a, 3. 
 
 1918— Aisne River reached and crossed by 
 Germans. See World War: igiS: II. Western 
 front: f, 1, and g, 1. 
 
 1918— Region of fighting. €ee World War^ 
 igi8: II. Western front: d, 19; g, 6; g, 9, iv; and 
 
 ' Devastation by the Germans. See World 
 War: Miscellaneous auxiliary services: XI. Devas- 
 tation: C. , , , -A T„ 
 
 AISTULF, king of the Lombards, 749-756. in 
 751 seized Ravenna and soon after threatened 
 
 I 
 
 AIX-LA-CHAPELtE 
 
 * 
 
 Rome The pope secured the aid of Pepin, who 
 defeated Aistulf at Pavia and forced him to return 
 the Exarchate of Ravenna to the papacy, bee 
 Italy- 568-800; Lombards: 754-774- 
 
 AITKEN, Major-General John James (b. 
 1878), Campaign against Tanga. See World War: 
 1914: VI. .\frica: c, 1. , „ 1, a., 
 
 AIX, a city in the department of Bouches-du- 
 Rhone, France, known to the Romans as Aqus 
 Sextia? It was founded as a military colony in 
 ,21 B C. In the vear 102 B. C. not far from the 
 city Marius defeated the Teutones and their allies. 
 It was later the capital of Provence and a liter- 
 arv center Before the French Revolution it was 
 the seat of one of the chief provincial parle- 
 
 ments. . r 
 
 AIX, a small island off the western coast of 
 France between the mouth of the Charente and 
 the Island of Oleron. The roadstead near the 
 Wand affords the best anchoras-.e between the 
 mouths of the rivers Loire and tlironde. It was 
 here in 181S that Napoleon went aboard the 
 -Bellerophon," which took him to England, 
 whence he was sent to St. Helena. ^ .^ , ^ 
 AIX-LA-CHAPELLE: The Capital of 
 Charlemagne.— The favorite residence and one ot 
 the two capitals of Charlemagne was the city 
 which the Germans call Aachen and the French 
 have named Aix-la-Chapelle. "He ravished the 
 ruins of the ancient world to restore the monu- 
 mental arts. A new Rome arose in the depths ol 
 the forests of Austrasia— palaces, gates, bridges, 
 baths, galleries, threatres, churches,— for the erec- 
 tion of which the mosaics and marbles ot Italy 
 were laid under tribute, and workmen summoned 
 from all parts of Europe. It was there that an 
 extensive library was gathered, there that the schoo 
 of the palace was made permanent, there that 
 foreign envovs were pompously welcomed, there 
 that the monarch perfected his plans lor the in- 
 troduction of Roman letters and the improvement 
 of music."— P; Godwin, History of France: .in- 
 dent Gaul, bk. 4, ch. 17. 
 
 Cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle.-A famous 
 cathedral founded by Charlemagne, the plan ol 
 which bears resemblance to San Vitale and simi- 
 lar Italian buildings. It consists of a polygonal 
 structure built in 796 and a fourteenth century 
 pointed choir. 
 Treaty of 803. See Venice: 697-810- . 
 
 Modern city.-The city lies forty-four miles 
 west of Cologne on the great railway trunk line 
 Berlin— Brussels— Paris. Previous to 1914 Aix-la- 
 Chapelle (Aachen) was made a place of great 
 miUtary importance by means of a network ol 
 strategic railwavs. With the outbreak of the 
 World War it became with Metz the prmcipal 
 detraining station for the German arniies and 
 therefore the principal gateway trough which 
 thev poured, for the invasion ol Belgium and 
 northern France.-See also Germany: Map. 
 
 Congresses of Aix-la-Chapelle.-Three con- 
 gresses have been held by the European Powers at 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, a city in Prussia, the lirst in 1668, 
 the second in 1748 and the third m 1818. 
 ■ (I) The Treaty of .\ix-l.^-Chapelte, May 2, 
 1668 put an end to the W'lr of Revo u 
 tion and closed the Treaty of St. Ger- 
 ml which was signed April 15 of that year by 
 representatives of France and the nations m he 
 Triple Alliance France gained '"^''"';''l>' '^\»'^! 
 orovisions of the treaty, being permitted to hold 
 all heTerritorv she conquered in Flanders durmg 
 ?he campaign of i667.-See also Netherlands: 
 
 '^^2) The Congress and Treaty which ended 
 
 58
 
 AIX-LA-CHAPELLE 
 
 Congress of 174S 
 Congress of 1818 
 
 AIX-LA-CHAPELLE 
 
 THE War of the Austrian Succession (1748). — 
 The War of the Austrian Succession, which raged 
 in Europe, on the ocean, and in India and America, 
 from 1740 to 1748 (see Austria: 1718-1738, 1740- 
 1741, and after), was brought to an end in the 
 latter year by a congress of all the belligerents 
 which met at Aix-la-Chapelle, in April, and which 
 concluded its labors on October 18 following. "The 
 influence of England and Holland . . . forced the 
 peace upon Austria and Sardinia, though both 
 were bitterly aggrieved by its conditions. France 
 agreed to restore every conquest she had made 
 during the war, to abandon the cause of the 
 Stuarts, and expel the Pretender from her soil ; to 
 demolish, in accordance with earlier treaties, the 
 fortifications of Dunkirk on the side of the sea, 
 while retaining those on the side of the land, and 
 to retire from the conquest without acquiring any 
 fresh territory or any pecuniary compensation. 
 England in like manner restored the few conquests 
 she had made [see England: 1754-1755!, and sub- 
 mitted to the somewhat humiliating condition of 
 sending hostages to Paris as a security for the 
 restoration of Cape Breton. . . . The disputed 
 boundary between Canada and Nova Scotia, which 
 had been a source of constant difficulty with 
 France, was left altogether undefined. [See also 
 New England: 1745-1748.I The Assiento treaty 
 for trade with the Spanish colonies was confirmed 
 for the four years it had still to run ; but no real 
 compensation was obtained for a war expenditure 
 which is said to have exceeded sixty-four millions, 
 and which had raised the funded and unfunded 
 debt to more than seventy-eight millions. Of the 
 other Powers, Holland, Genoa, and the little state 
 of Modena retained their territory as before the 
 war, and Genoa remained mistress of the Duchy of 
 Finale, which had been ceded to the king of Sar- 
 dinia by the Treaty of Worms, and which it had 
 been a main object of his later policy to secure. 
 Austria obtained a recognition of the election of 
 the Emperor, a general guarantee of the Pragmatic 
 Sanction, and the restoration of everything she hud 
 lost in the Netherlands, but she gained no addi- 
 tional territory. She was compelled to confirm the 
 cession of Silesia and Glatz to Prussia, to abandon 
 her Italian conquests, and even to cede a consid- 
 erable part of her former Italian dominions. To 
 the bitter indignation of Maria Theresa, the Duch- 
 ies of Parma, Placentia and Guastella passed to 
 Don Philip of Spain, to revert, however, to their 
 former possessors if Don Philip mounted the 
 Spanish throne, or died without male issue. The 
 King of Sardinia also obtained from Austria the 
 territorial cessions enumerated in the Treaty of 
 Worms [see Italy: 1743; also 1740-1752], with 
 the important excejitions of Placentia, which 
 passed to Don Philip, and of Finale, which re- 
 mained with the Genoese. For the loss of these 
 he obtained no cnm]wnsation. Frederick [the 
 Great, of Prussia] obtained a general guarantee 
 for the possession of his newly acquired territory, 
 and a long list of old treaties was formally con- 
 firmed. Thus small were the changes effected in 
 Europe by so much bloodshed and treachery, by 
 nearly nine years of wasteful and desolating war. 
 The design of the dismemberment of Austria had 
 failed, but no vexed questions had been set at 
 rest. ... Of all the ambitious projects that had 
 been conceived during the war, that of Frederick 
 alone was substantially realized." — W. E. H. 
 Lecky, England in the iS(/i century, ch. 3. — "Thus 
 ended the War of the .Austrian succession. In its 
 origin and its motives one of the most wicked of 
 all the many conflicts which ambition and per- 
 fidy have provoked in Europe, it excites a pecul- 
 
 iarly mournful interest by the gross inequality in 
 the rewards and penalties which fortune assigned 
 to the leading actors. Prussia, Spain and Sardinia 
 were all endowed out of the estates of the house 
 of Hapsburg. But the electoral house of Bavaria, 
 the most sincere and the most deserving of all the 
 claimants to that vast inheritance, not only re- 
 ceived no increase of territory, but even nearly 
 lost its own patrimonial possessions. . . . The most 
 trying problem is still that offered by the mis- 
 fortunes of the Queen of Hungary [Maria The- 
 resa]. . . . The verdict of history, as expressed by 
 the public opinion, and by the vast majority of 
 writers, in every country except Prussia, upholds 
 the justice of the queen's cause and condemns the 
 coalition that was formed against her." — H. Tuttle, 
 History oj Prussia, 1745-1756, ch. 2. 
 
 (3) Conference of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818). — 
 The negotiations carried on in 1818 at Aix-la-Cha- 
 pelle and the subsequent treaty had to deal with 
 problems so akin to those confronting the delegates 
 to the Versailles Conference in iqiq that it has been 
 thought best to treat them quite fully, "The great 
 problem that confronted the statesmen of the Res- 
 toration was how to prevent the order estab- 
 lished by the Congress of Vienna from being de- 
 stroyed by revolutionary outbreaks. France, es- 
 pecially, as the home of revolution, needed care- 
 ful watching. A coalition of great powers known 
 as the Quadruple Alliance, composed of Russia, 
 .'\ustria, Prussia, and England, was organized, in 
 1815, for the purpose of preserving the 'tranquillity 
 of Europe.' It was to meet every year to hold a 
 sort of political inquest on the state of Europe, 
 to suppress rebellions, and to advise on the best 
 means of preventing the spread of democratic 
 ideas. The moving spirit of this league to en- 
 force autocracy was the Austrian Prince Metter- 
 nich who was firmly convinced that the only way 
 to fight revolutionary movements which, owing to 
 the French Revolution, had become international, 
 was by a compact of the despots pledged to sup- 
 port one another in case of an uprising. If revo- 
 lution was to be international, so would be re- 
 pression. Because of this Metternich developed 
 his theory of 'intervention'; namely, that Europe 
 was a social and political unit with a uniform sys- 
 tem of government and society ; hence an attack 
 on any part of it would be fatal to the whole 
 unless defended by the whole. International con- 
 gresses were held at .Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818, at 
 Troppau in 1820, and at Laibach in 1821, where 
 the principle of 'intervention' was adopted by the 
 Powers." — J. S. Schapiro, Modern and contem- 
 porary European history, pp. 20-21. 
 
 "The Conference of Aix-la-Chapelle, of which 
 the first session was held on September 30th, was 
 attended by the Emperor Alexander of Russia, the 
 Emperor Francis of Austria, and King Frederick 
 William of Prussia in person, while Cireat Britain 
 uas represented by Wellington and Castlereagh. 
 The ministers of the other Powers were Capo 
 d'Istria and Nesselrode for Russia. Richelieu, 
 though not admitted to the conferences, was pres- 
 ent on behalf of France. The first question dis- 
 cussed was that of the withdrawal of the Allied 
 army of occupation, and on this there was com- 
 plete unanimity. At the second session, on Oc- 
 tober ist, the four Powers signed a protocol agree- 
 ing to the principle of the evacuation of France 
 at the end of the third year, or earlier if possible, 
 subject to satisfactory arrangements being made 
 for the payment of the instalments of the indem- 
 nity still due, which amounted to 265,000,000 
 francs. In regard to this latter, Wellington had 
 been empowered to make an arrangement with the 
 
 159
 
 ;>IX-LA-CHAPELLE 
 
 Congress of 1818 
 
 AIX-LA-CHAPELLE 
 
 financial houses of Hope, of Amsterdam, and Bar- 
 ing, by which these agreed to take over the debt on 
 certain terms, thus converting it into an ordinary 
 pubhc obligation, which, to use the language of a 
 draft memorandum laid before the Cabinet, could 
 not be repudiated by the French Government with- 
 out an act of violent bankruptcy. The details of 
 the negotiation outstanding on September 30th 
 were soon settled, and on October qth a treaty 
 was signed by which the Allies agreed to withdraw 
 their troops from French soil by November 30th. 
 ... In coming to this decision there was complete 
 harmony among the Powers; there was, however, 
 no such harmony on the question of what further 
 consequences were to follow on it. The Due de 
 Richelieu argued that the same reasoning which 
 had induced the Powers to put an end to the 
 armed occupation should lead them, as a logical 
 consequence, to admit France to the Alliance on 
 equal terms. This was, however, far from repre- 
 senting the mind of the .Allies, whose policy of 
 evacuation had not been inspired by any confi- 
 dence in the improved temper of the French 
 people. The autocratic Powers especially were 
 seriously alarmed by what they considered the 
 weak attitude of the French Government towards 
 the Liberal Revival, to which recent elections had 
 borne disquieting evidence. . . . On the question 
 of admitting France to the Alliance on the basis 
 of the Treaty of Chaumont the British Cabinet 
 was at one with the other Allies, for Castlereagh 
 and his colleagues had a strong sense of the pre- 
 carious tenure of the restored monarchy in France, 
 and believed that the maintenance of the Quad- 
 ruple Alliance was essential to the peace of Europe; 
 they realized, too, the paradox involved in making 
 France a party to a treaty which was primarily 
 directed against herself. On the other hand, were 
 she to be altogether excluded, she would inevitably 
 become the nucleus of a separate alliance, and 
 everything that had been gained by the European 
 Concert would be placed in jeopardy. . . . The 
 problem of the future relation of France to the 
 Alliance thus opened up at .'\ix-la-Chapelle the 
 whole broader question of the future form of the 
 'Confederation of Europe.' As to this, much of 
 course depended upon the attitude of the Em- 
 peror Alexander. His first care on arriving at 
 Aix had been to place beyond doubt his own ab- 
 solute loyalty to the European .Alliance. In an 
 interview with Metternich on September 20th he 
 indignantly repudiated the truth of the rumours 
 that he had been meditating a breach with the 
 Alliance and a separate understanding with France. 
 ... In subsequent interviews with Wellington and 
 Castlereagh he used the same language, insisting 
 that his army was the army of Europe, and that 
 he could not admit that it would be otherwise 
 employed than with Europe, to repress any at- 
 tempt that might be made to shake the system of 
 which his empire formed only a part. . . . Mean- 
 while, Castlereagh had laid before the Powers the 
 proposal of the British Government . . . which 
 Metternich at once approved, while Hardenberg 
 and Bernstorff gave it a friendly but more re- 
 served reception. This formed the basis of the 
 negotiations that followed, and in a couple of 
 days Castlereagh reported home that the probable 
 result of the Conference would be (i) to adhere 
 strictly to the treaties, especially those of Chau- 
 mont and Paris, which constituted the Quadruple 
 Alliance; (2) not to admit France to them, not 
 to replace them by a Quintuple Alliance; (3) to 
 invite France to join in the deliberations of the 
 Powers under Article VI of the Treaty of .Alliance 
 of November 2oth, which, as this article is the 
 
 I 
 
 only one that survived the war or that would be 
 operative so long as France kept quiet, would in 
 effect place her in a line with the other Powers 
 so long as the state of peace subsisted; (4) in 
 order to calm the alarm of the other Powers, to 
 issue a declaration to the effect that, by these 
 regular assemblies the Powers had no intention of 
 arrogating to themselves any supremacy, or of 
 interfering in the politics of other states in any 
 way not warranted by the law of nations. . . . 
 These proposals, however, did not go far enough 
 for the P^mperor Alexander. On the one hand, he 
 was eager to publish to all the world the renewal 
 of the disciplinary Alliance of Chaumont, which 
 the others were anxious to keep effective, but in 
 the background. On the other hand, he was bent 
 on using this opportunity of realizing his political 
 ideal of a confederated Europe. The outcome of 
 this religious fervour was the presentation to the 
 other -Allies on October Sth of a confidential mem- 
 orandum of the Russian cabinet drafted by Pozzo 
 di Borgo, stating the Tsar's views on the measures 
 to be adopted in order to ])reserve Europe from 
 a return of revolutions and of the principle that 
 might is right. Europe, it is said, had been restored 
 in 181 5 and served till now by the .Alliance of the 
 great states, unalterable in principle, but extending 
 its sphere according to circumstances, and becom- 
 ing thus the Alliance of all the states. The re- 
 sults thus far achieved had been due, less to the 
 uncertain combinations of men than to that Su- 
 preme Intelligence to which the sovereigns had 
 done homage by the act of September 20, 1815. 
 The woes of humanity had been caused by egoism 
 and partial combinations in politics, and the proof 
 of this was the good derived from the empire of 
 Christian morality and of the Rights of Man which 
 had given Europe peace. The system of Europe 
 was a general association, which had for founda- 
 tion the Treaties of Vienna and Paris, for con- 
 servative principle the fraternal union of the Al- 
 lied Powers, for aim the guaranteed best interests 
 of the great European family ; and it was the 
 work not of any man but of Providence. Its 
 moral support lay in the Quadruple .Alhance and 
 the Holy .Alliance, its material support in the 
 armed occupation of France. . . . The Emperor 
 then proposed: (i) That the Quadruple .Alliance 
 should be preserved as against danger from France; 
 (2) that a general Alliance should be formed, con- 
 sisting of all the signatories of the Treaties of 
 Vienna, having as its object the guarantee of the 
 state of territorial possession and of sovereignty 
 al> antiquo. The first of these objects was to be 
 established by a protocol defining the casus 
 jcederis and the military measures to be taken 
 should this arise, and arranging for future meet- 
 ings. The second was to be accomplished by a 
 declaration of the Great Powers announcing to 
 Europe the results of their deliberations at .Aix, 
 to which declaration, since the (Quadruple .Alliance 
 was not a partial combination but the basis of the 
 General Alliance, all the states which had signed 
 the acts of 1S15 should be invited to subscribe. 
 The Quadruple Alliance, the memorandum e.x- 
 plained, was held together as yet only by the 
 sentiment of the parties to it ; but if it formed 
 part of a wide European association no Power 
 could break away from it without being at once 
 isolated. The Quadruple and General .Alliance 
 would be proclaimed as a single and indivisible 
 system by the signatures of the Powers to the 
 declaration. Such a svstem would guarantee the 
 security of Governments by putting the rights of 
 nations under a guarantee analogous to that which 
 protects individuals The Governments, for their 
 
 60
 
 AIX-LA-CHAPELLE 
 
 Congresa of 18IS 
 
 AIX-LA-CHAPELLE 
 
 parts, being relieved from fear of revolutions could 
 offer to their peoples Constitutions of a similar 
 type ... so that the liberties of peoples, wisely 
 regulated, would arise without effort from this 
 state of affairs once recognized and publicly 
 avowed. . . . 
 
 "So far as the European Concert was concerned, 
 then, the outcome of the Conference of Aix-la- 
 Chapelle was a compromise, embodied in two in- 
 struments signed on November 15th. The first, in 
 the form of a secret protocol, renewed the Quad- 
 ruple Alliance for the purpose of watching over 
 France in case of fresh revolutionary outbreaks 
 menacing the peace of Europe ; this was com- 
 municated in confidence to Richelieu. The second, 
 to which France was invited to adhere, was a dec- 
 laration, which ran as follows: 'The Convention 
 of October 9, 1818, which definitely regulated the 
 execution of the engagements agreed to in the 
 Treaty of Peace of November 20, 1815, is consid- 
 ered by the sovereigns who concurred therein as 
 the accomplishment of the work of peace, and as 
 the completion of the political system destined to 
 secure its soHdity. The intimate union established 
 among the monarchs, who are joint-parties to this 
 system, by their own principles, no less than by 
 the interests of their people, offers to Europe the 
 most sacred pledge of its future tranquillity. The 
 object of the union is as simple as it is great and 
 salutary. It does not tend to any new political 
 combinations — to any change in the relations sanc- 
 tioned by existing treaties ; calm and consistent 
 in its proceedings, it has no other object than the 
 maintenance of peace, and the guarantee of those 
 transactions on which the peace was founded and 
 consolidated. The sovereigns, in forming this 
 august union, have regarded as its fundamental 
 basis their invariable resolution never to depart, 
 either among themselves or in their relations with 
 other states, from the strictest observation of the 
 principles of the rights of nations: principles, 
 which, in their application to a state of perma- 
 nent peace, can alone effectually guarantee the 
 independence of each Government, and the stabil- 
 ity of the general association. Faithful to these 
 principles, the sovereigns will maintain them 
 equally in those meetings at which they may be 
 personally present, or in those which shall take 
 place among their ministers; whether they be for 
 the purpose of discussing in common their own 
 interests, or whether they shall relate to questions 
 in which other Governments shall formally claim 
 their interference. The same spirit which will 
 direct their councils and reign in their diplomatic 
 . communications will preside also at these meet- 
 ings; and the repose of the world will be con- 
 stantly their motive and their end. It is with 
 these sentiments that the sovereigns have consum- 
 mated the work to which they were calle(,i. They 
 will not cease to labour for its confirmation and 
 perfection. They solemnly acknowledge that their 
 duties towards God and the people whom they 
 govern make it peremptory on them to give to the 
 world, as far as it is in their power, an example 
 of justice, of concord, and of moderation ; happy 
 in the power of consecrating, from henceforth, all 
 their efforts to protect the arts of peace, to in- 
 crease the internal prosperity of their states, and 
 to awaken those sentiments of religion and mo- 
 rality whose influence has been but too much en- 
 feebled by the misfortunes of the times.' . . . 
 These debates, however, by no means occupied the 
 whole time of the Conference, It had been decided 
 to use the occasion of its meeting to settle if pos- 
 sible a number of questions of common interest, 
 of which the most important were defined in the 
 
 memorandum of the British Cabinet already 
 quoted. These were: (i) The effective suppres- 
 sion of the Slave Trade, which had been abolished 
 in principle at Vienna; (2) the suppression of the 
 Barbary pirates; (3) the refusal of the King of 
 Sweden to carry out the provisions of the Treaty 
 of Kiel; and (4 J— the most fateful of all — the 
 proposed general mediation between Spain and her 
 revolted American colonies. 
 
 "It is clear that at this period the Alliance was 
 looked upon even by British statesmen as some- 
 thing more than a mere union of the Great Pow- 
 ers for preserving peace on the basis of the trea- 
 ties; and in effect, during its short session the Con- 
 ference acted, not only as a European representa- 
 tive body, but as a sort of European Supreme 
 Court, which heard appeals and received peti- 
 tions of all kinds from sovereigns and their sub- 
 jects alike. The German mediatized princes in- 
 voked the aid of the Powers against the tyranny 
 of their new overlords, and received satisfaction. 
 The Elector of Hesse begged to be allowed to ex- 
 change his now meaningless title for that of king; 
 a request which was refused because it was judged 
 inexpedient to make the royal style too common. 
 The mother of Napoleon, in a pathetic letter, pe- 
 titioned for the release of her son, pleading that 
 he was now too ill ever again to be a menace to 
 Europe, a petition refused on the ostensible ground 
 that there was proof that the letter was a pohtical 
 move and had been concocted under Napoleon's 
 own direction. The people of Monaco presented 
 a list of grievances against their prince. Questions 
 as various as the settlement of the ranks of diplo- 
 matic agents, the rival claims of Bavaria and the 
 Hochberg line to the succession in Baden, a quarrel 
 between the Duke of Oldenburg and Count Ben- 
 tinck about the lordship of Kniphaussen, the situa- 
 tion of the Jews in Austria and Prussia, were 
 brought under discussion, settled or postponed. In 
 general, on these minor matters it was possible to 
 come to an agreement. It is, however, significant 
 that on the greater issues discussed there was no 
 such edifying harmony. The Powers had already 
 agreed in principle to the suppression of the Slave 
 Trade; jealousy of British sea-power prevented 
 their accepting that mutual 'right of search' by 
 which alone it could have been suppressed. The 
 Barbary pirates were the scourge of the whole 
 continental sea-board; they held up trading ves- 
 sels at the mouth of the Elbe, and in the Medi- 
 terranean no vessel was safe that did not sail 
 under the British or the Ottoman flag; yet it was 
 found impossible to concert measures against them 
 because of British jealousy of Russian intervention 
 in the Mediterranean. The struggle between Spain 
 and her colonies was regarded as a serious menace 
 to the peace of Europe ; the Powers were agreed 
 as to the principle of mediation, but could not 
 agree as to its form. They did agree in calling 
 the King of Sweden to order. He obeyed, but at 
 the same time protested against the 'dictatorship' 
 arrogated to themselves by the Great Powers, a 
 protest reinforced by an indignant letter from the 
 King of VViirttemberg. ... Of the more important 
 questions thus discussed and left unsettled at Aix- 
 la-Chapelle, the most interesting, from our pres- 
 ent point of view, was that of the Spanish colo- 
 nies, the debates on which opened up the whole 
 question of the relations of the Old World and 
 the New, and even foreshadowed the idea of that 
 world-alliance which has been imperfectly realized 
 in the Hague Conventions." — W. .\. Phillips, Con- 
 federation of Europe, pp. 163-191. — See also 
 France: 1815-1830. 
 
 Also in W. Russell, History of modern Europe, 
 
 161
 
 AIX-LES-BAINS 
 
 pt 2, letter 30.-W. Coxe, History of the House of 
 
 •""Afx'LES-1irNS;a watering place in the de- 
 panme^t ot Sivoie, France. Celebrated m Roman 
 trr^efunder the name of Aqux Grat.an* he s.te 
 o, numerous ancient «.™-'"^ ^ ^ P°P"^;;'"'^ "" 
 '-A^-^l^^yrt^e's^Ldrfcrs'trstatesman 
 of Mvste Indi:^ promoted internal improvement, 
 Ld^'purt'^he^tate La sound Jinanaal footmg^ 
 AIZNADIN, Battle of (034) ■ ^^e lalipha. 
 
 ''a?AN, ancient name by which the northeast 
 
 ^"llclS^a'fo^tS Xe"of Arabia on the 
 PMf nf Akabah It was formerly the seat of the 
 
 ^'iKARNAmANtEAGUE. See Acak^aku. 
 
 '''^a'^karNANIANS. See Acarnanians. 
 
 IkBAR Jelfaladin Mahomn.ed (i542-x6o5) 
 
 AK-HVNATON See Amenophis iv. 
 ^^St AT Battle at See Turkey: 1063-1073- 
 iKlNDJALliTaken by the British (1916). 
 Se^ WoRLO War: 1Q16: V. Balkan theater: b, 
 
 ^'AkKAD-"The beginnings of the history of 
 BaSfa^are shrouded in darkness and un«r- 
 
 tainty P-'-'-lJ-^'rdisUnct'^ra-'ce's occupying 
 ?riand S^m'iUc and Sumerian. The SemUes oc- 
 cupied the northern part of the land, called Akkad 
 
 Td'the other ^^ ^^^ ttS^ 
 Scholars =>f^«=?_''?at neither pe p ^^^^,^^. 
 
 iTa^e^^rVVv net- it'is'htghTp^obable that 
 vallev is not known. —A. 1. >.-iay, /*" > 
 
 rule 'the four quarters (of ^e wor.a ^^ ^.^ 
 
 still earlier kmg Lugal-zaggisi in 
 authority in Sumer, adopted the it ^^^ 
 
 a pardonable one 1- vv .^ ^^ 
 
 a«d Akkad, pp. 14-15— • ■ • •^°'*"^ -5"" 
 
 ALABAMA 
 
 calculated, King Sargon of Akkad carried his "fns 
 beyond the limits of Shinar east and west and 
 north and south. . . . He ^ad conquered almost the 
 whole world known to the men «' Sh"^'' ^^^''""^'^ 
 there was onlv barbarian darkness-except, 01 
 course \n the Nile Valley, whose kings, about the 
 same ime as the conquests of Sargon, were an- 
 ne™ng pTlestine and Pha-nicia, and must have had 
 dpomatic relations with the King «' ^kkad^ 
 Sargon was now "lord of the lour quarters o he 
 earth" for the men of Shinar did not think ol the 
 barbarian^ darkness beyond 'he ran«e o| th 
 knowledge as worth reckoning Th s 7 'd t^a 
 Sargon conquered in the middle of the third mil 
 Sum before Christ is to^ay a l^W for the 
 operations of armies come in part from the lana 
 orCia, far beyond the hills of Elam on the 
 east"-E Bevan, Land oj the two rivers pp. 
 ffe 27-See also Babylonia: Earliest inhabitants; 
 Jews: Early Semitic migrations; Religion: B.C. 
 
 2000-200; Semites. i,a.,f,\ See 
 
 AKKERMAN, Convention of (1826). see 
 
 AKOMINATOS, Michael, metropolitan ot 
 Attnfu'bo), in defence of Athens. See Athens: 
 
 120^-1308. 
 
 aKRAGAS See .\crigentum. 
 
 AKROKERAUNIAN PROMONTORY. See 
 
 ^AKRON, Ohio.-Housing problem. See 
 »?.7r BA^RADAlI-'leader of Jacobite Church. 
 '"a^TaDSHrTtTI (d. 1007), Spanish mathe- 
 -IrrBAMl-Onrof the Southern States of the 
 United States, bordering on the Gulf ol Mexico 
 kjpp TI S ■K • Economic map. 
 
 Aboriginal inhabitants. See Cherokees, 
 MusKiioGEAN or Maskoki t.amily. 
 
 il29.-Embraced in the Carolina grant to Sir 
 Pnhprt Heath. See Ameuica: 1620. 
 
 1663.-Emb;aced in the Carolina grant to 
 Monk, Shaftesbury, and others. See North Car- 
 
 " m2 im -French occupation and first set- 
 tlement!-Founding of Mobile.-See Louisiana. 
 
 "'?7i2'r810-Early settlement by Americans.- 
 "In th^ eadv davs territorial Alabama was made 
 up\ftorLricts, based on the riv.rs>.tems^^^^^^ 
 
 "rnded by the French and later developed by th 
 English -d Sp..,.r<^s^ Th- . 
 
 Tbe and a;:^und Mobile in Uat is "ow Baldwin 
 MobUe and Washington Counties, even before aU 
 this had become American territory. In 7Q-. 
 afer M6bile itself, the most PoP"'""* ."f thes« 
 ttUements was that upon the Tensas River. It 
 
 carried on pack horses. ^^"^ ,, •* t,,,„,,^:„i,„» River 
 the American settlements on he Tomb^^eR..^^ 
 
 I'^h'the' CmbiVe This -- -de -n I7,7jnd 
 i, believed to be one of «»^'^..';^'^ ^^^ The set- 
 ;i:;^t^:or:::^r,r;hljMI^^eek country 
 
 62
 
 ALABAMA, 1779-1781 
 
 ALABAMA, 1848 
 
 from Georgia. . . . From the time that the claims 
 of Georgia to the Mississippi territory were ex- 
 tinguished (1804), immigrants began to flock into 
 what is now Alabama. One party left North Caro- 
 lina, scaled the Blue Ridge with their wagons, and 
 descended into the valley of the Tennessee. At 
 Knoxville they built flatboats and floated down 
 the river to the Muscle Shoals, where they disem- 
 barked their goods, placed them on pack horses, 
 which had been brought overland from Knoxville, 
 and from the Muscle Shoals as a new basis, de- 
 parted overland for the English settlements on the 
 Tombigbee, about St. Stephens, in southern Ala- 
 bama, thus traversing in a journey of 120 days 
 from North Carolina nearly the whole length of 
 the state from north to south. 
 
 "The northern section of Alabama, the Tennessee 
 valley region, was settled mainly from Tennessee, 
 as early as 1787, and in the earlier period filled up 
 more rapidly than some of the other sections. 
 These immigrants came overland from the Cum- 
 berland settlements or floated down the river in 
 flatboats from the settlements farther east. The 
 fourth district was that along the Alabama River, 
 with centers near Claiborne, in Monroe county, 
 and along the Alabama River from the confluence 
 of the Coosa and the Tallapoosa rivers down to 
 and including the present city of Montgomery. 
 This section was settled mainly by Georgians and 
 Carolinians, who came in over the government 
 road. From these four centers population grew 
 and extended to the intervening sections." — S. B. 
 Weeks, United States Bureau of Education {Bulle- 
 tin 12, 1915, pp. 11-12). 
 
 1779-1781.— Reconquest of West Florida by 
 the Spaniards. See Fi.orid.a: 1770-1781. 
 
 1783. — Mostly covered by the English cession 
 Jo the United States. See U. S. A.: 1783 (Sep- 
 tember) . 
 
 1783-1787. — Partly in dispute with Spain. See 
 Florida: 1783-1787. 
 
 1798-1804.— All but the West Florida district 
 embraced in Mississippi territory. See Mis- 
 sissippi: 1708-1804. 
 
 1803. — Portion acquired by the Louisiana pur- 
 chase. See Louisiana: 1798-1803. 
 
 1804. — Embraced in Mississippi Territory. See 
 Mississippi: 1708-1804. 
 
 1813-1814.— Creek War. See U. S. A.: 1813- 
 1814 (August- — April). 
 
 1817. — Detached from Mississippi and made 
 territory of Alabama. Sec Mississippi: 181 7. 
 
 1817-1819. — Organized as a territory. — Con- 
 stituted a state, and admitted to the Union. — 
 "By an act of Congress dated March i, 1817, Mis- 
 sissippi Territory was divided. Another act, bear- 
 ing the date March 3, thereafter, organized the 
 eastern portion into a Territory, to be known as 
 Alabama, and with the boundaries as they now 
 exist. ... By an act approved March 2, i8ig, 
 congress authorized the inhabitants of the Terri- 
 tory of Alabama to form a state constitution, 
 'and that said Territory, when formed into a 
 State, shall be admitted into the Union upon the 
 same footing as the original States.' . . . The joint 
 resolution of congress admitting Alabama into the 
 Union was approved by President Monroe, De- 
 cember 14, 1810." — W. Brewer, Alabama, ch. 5. 
 
 1830-1833. — Alabama's first railroads. — The 
 Tuscumbia Railway Company, incorporated Jan. 
 26, 1830, completed a track of two and one-eighth 
 miles and celebrated the event by the firing of 
 cannon, and the giving of a dinner and ball on 
 June 12, 1832. This was the first railway track 
 laid west of the Alleghany mountains. By the 
 4,th of July, 1833, the Tuscumbia, Courtland and 
 
 Decatur Railroad Company (inc. 1832) had con- 
 structed eight and seven-tenths miles of road from 
 Tuscumbia toward Decatur. Among the pro- 
 moters of these railroad enterprises were the lead- 
 ing citizens and business men of the Tennessee 
 valley. The General Assembly was now called on 
 at each session to incorporate one or more rail- 
 road companies. 
 
 1835-1838.— Removal of the Indians.— "And 
 now came the end of the Indian question in Ala- 
 bama. All but a few of the Creeks departed for 
 their new lands in the west. The stronger race 
 had driven out the weaker; but none of us who 
 now possess the ancient home of the Muscogees 
 can fail to respect the courage with which they 
 battled against their fate. Only the Cherokees re- 
 mained, and the final treaty for their removal was 
 already concluded. It was dated December 29, 
 1835, and its provisions resembled those of the 
 final treaty with the Creeks. New homes in the 
 west and a large sum of money were given to the 
 Cherokees, and in return they gave up all their 
 lands east of the Mississippi. But among them 
 also, as among the Creeks, there was a strong 
 party that opposed the treaty, and threatened to 
 make trouble. However, a large force of volun- 
 teers was assembled, including some fifteen hun- 
 dred Alabamians, and the Cherokees were removed 
 in 1838 without an outbreak. There were left in 
 Alabama only a few scattered families of Indians, 
 who for many years used to peddle bows and 
 arrows and blow-guns to the children of their con- 
 querors."- — W. G. Brown, History oj Alabama, p. 
 170. 
 
 1848. — Alabama platform. — Before 1832 the 
 Democratic party ruled the state of Alabama with- 
 out a rival for its power. However, about that 
 time the question of nullification caused a split in 
 the ranks, some adhering to the Jacksonian prin- 
 ciple, and others to the State's Rights, Calhoun, 
 principle. William L. Yancey, leader of the 
 State's Rights men, the minority party, neverthe- 
 less was active and able enough to impose upon 
 the whole Democratic party in the state the most 
 radical views of his faction, which he embodied 
 in a series of resolutions proposed to the Demo- 
 cratic state convention of 1848. 
 
 "The resolutions, in principle, were the same the 
 committee had reported, except that they included 
 in their condemnation of unconstitutional political 
 propositions, the new doctrine of squatter sov- 
 ereignty ; and, in this, they were in advance of 
 the Democratic party. They became the historic 
 .Alabama Platform bearing no less important rela- 
 tion to the great events of 1861, in the United 
 States, than the resolutions of Patrick Henry bore 
 to the crisis of 1776. 
 
 " 'Whereas, Opinions have been expressed by 
 eminent members of the Democratic party and by 
 a convention of the party assembled in New 
 York to appoint deleeates to the Baltimore Con- 
 vention, that the municipal laws of the Mexican 
 territory, ceded to the United States, should not 
 be changed and that slavery could not be re-es- 
 tablished except by authority of the United States 
 or of the Territorial government, therefore, to the 
 end that no doubt should be allowed to exist upon 
 a subject so important and at the same time so 
 exciting. Be it ... : 
 
 " '9. Resolved, That the treaty of cession should 
 contain a clause securing an entry into those 
 Territories to all citizens of the United States 
 together with their property of every description 
 and that the same should remain protected by the 
 United States while the Territories are under its 
 authority. . . . 
 
 163
 
 ALABAMA, 1860 
 
 ALABAMA, 1861 
 
 "'ii. Resolved, That the opinion advanced or 
 maintained by some that the people of a Terri- 
 tory acquired by the common toil, suffering, blood 
 and treasure of the people of all the States, can, 
 in other event than the forming of a State Con- 
 stitution preparatory to admittance as a State into 
 the Union, lawfully or constitutionally prevent any 
 citizen of any such States from removing to or 
 settling in such Territory with his property, be it 
 slave property or other, is a restriction as inde- 
 fensible in principle as if such restriction were 
 imposed by Congress. 
 
 "'i2. Resolved, That the Democratic party is, 
 and should be, co-extensive with the Union; and 
 that while we disclaim all intention to interfere 
 in the local divisions and controversies in any of 
 our sister States, we deem it a solemn duty, which 
 we owe to the Constitution, to ourselves and to 
 that party, to declare our unalterable determina- 
 tion, neither to recognize as Democrats or to hold 
 fellowship or communion with those who attempt 
 to denationalize the South and its institutions, 
 calculated to array one section in feeling and senti- 
 ment against the other; and we hold the same to 
 be alike treason to party faith and to the per- 
 petuity of the Union of these States. 
 
 " '13. Resolved, That this convention pledge 
 itself to the country, and the members pledge 
 themselves to each other under no political neces- 
 sity whatever to support for the offices of Presi- 
 dent and vice-President of the United States, any 
 persons who shall not be openly and unequivocally 
 opposed to either of the forms of excluding slav- 
 ery from the Territories of the United States, men- 
 tioned in these resolutions, as being alike in viola- 
 tion of the Constitution and of the just and equal 
 rights of the citizens of the slaveholding States. 
 
 "'14. Resolved, That these resolutions be con- 
 sidered as instructions to our delegates to the 
 Baltimore Convention to guide them in their votes 
 in that body ; and that they vote for no men for 
 President and vice-President who will not un- 
 equivocally avow themselves to be opposed to 
 either of the forms of restricting slavery which are 
 described in these resolutions.' 
 
 "The Alabama Legislature endorsed the Alabama 
 Platform by special resolutions; the Legislature 
 of Georgia endorsed it. The press of the party 
 throughout the South repeated the praises of 
 Yancey, confessing him to be the leader of the 
 first organized effort to resist revolution." — J. C. 
 DuBose, Lije and times of William L. Yancey. — 
 See also U. S. A.; 1850 (June). 
 
 I860.— Occupation of Fort Mobile. See U. S. A.: 
 i860 (December-February). 
 
 1861. — Attitude of North Alabama toward 
 secession. — Proposed state of Nickajack. — "To 
 the convention of 1861 forty-four members from 
 north Alabama were elected as cooperationists, 
 that is, in favor of a union of the southern states, 
 within the old Union, for the purpose of securing 
 their rights under the Constitution or of securing 
 safe secession. They professed to be afraid of 
 separate state secession as likely to lead 
 to disintegration and war. Thirty-one of 
 these cooperationists voted against the ordinance 
 of secession, and twenty-four of them (mostly 
 members from the northern hill counties) refused 
 lo sign the ordinance, though all expressed the in- 
 tention to submit to the will 'of the majority, and 
 to give the state their heartiest support. When 
 war came all espoused the Confederate cause The 
 cooperafionist party as a whole supported the 
 Confederacy faithfully, though nearly always in a 
 more or less disapproving spirit toward the ad- 
 ministration, both state and Confederate. North 
 
 Alabama differed from other portions of the state 
 in many ways. There was no railroad connect- 
 ing the country north of the mountains with the 
 southern part of the state, and from the northern 
 counties it was a journey of several days to reach 
 the towns in central and south Alabama. Hence 
 there was little intercourse between the people of 
 the two sections, though the seat of government 
 was in the central part of the state; even to-day 
 the intimacy is not close. For years it had been 
 a favorite scheme of Alabama statesmen to build 
 railroads and highways to connect more closely 
 the two sections. Geographically, this northern 
 section of the state belonged to Tennessee. The 
 people were felt to be slightly different in char- 
 acter and sympathies from those of central and 
 south Alabama, and whatever one section favored 
 in public matters was usually opposed by the 
 other. Even in the northern section the population 
 was more or less divided. The people of the val- 
 ley more closely resembled the west Tennesseeans, 
 the great majority of them being planters, having 
 little in common with the small farmers of the 
 hill and mountain country, who were like the 
 east Tennesseeans. Of the latter the extreme ele- 
 ment was the class commonly known as 'moun- 
 tain whites' or 'sand-mountain' people. These 
 were the people who gave so much trouble during 
 the war, as 'Tories' and from whom the loyal 
 southerners of north Alabama suffered greatly 
 when the country was stripped of its men for the 
 armies. Yet it can hardly be said that they ex- 
 ercised much influence on politics before the war. 
 Their only representative in the convention of 
 1861 was Charles Christopher Sheets, who did not 
 speak on the floor of the convention during the 
 entire session. On the part of all in the northern 
 counties there was a strong desire for delay in 
 secession, and they were angered at the action of 
 the convention in not submitting the ordinance 
 to a popular vote for ratification or rejection. 
 Many thought the course taken indicated a sus- 
 picion of them or fear of their action, and this 
 they resented. Their leaders in the convention 
 expressed the belief that the ordinance would have 
 easily obtained a majority if submitted to the 
 popular vote. Much of the opposition to the or- 
 dinance of secession was due to the vague sec- 
 tional dislike between the twi parts of the state. 
 It was felt that the ordinance was a south Ala- 
 bama measure, and this was sufficient reason for 
 opposition by the northern section. Throughout 
 the entire session a local sectional spirit dictated 
 a course of obstruction. In January and February 
 of 1861 there was some talk among the discon- 
 tented people of seceding from secession, of with- 
 drawing the northern counties of Alabama and 
 uniting with the counties of east Tennessee to 
 form a new state, which should be called Nick- 
 a-Jack, an Indian name common in East Tennes- 
 see. Geographically this proceeding would have 
 been correct, since these two parts of the country 
 are closely connected, the people were alike in 
 character and sentiment, and the means of inter- 
 course were better. The people of the valley and 
 many others, however, had no sympathy with this 
 scheme. Lacking the support of the politicians 
 and no leaders appearing, the plan was abandoned 
 after the proclamation of Lincoln, April 10, 1861. 
 Had the war been deferred a few months, it is 
 almost certain that the discontented element of the 
 population would have taken positive steps to em- 
 barrass the administration; many believed that 
 reconstruction would take place. Only after four 
 years of war was there after this any appreciable 
 number of the jjeople willing to listen again to 
 
 164
 
 ALABAMA, 1861-1865 
 
 ALABAMA, 1866 
 
 such a proposition." — W. L. Fleming, Civil war 
 and reconstruction in Alabama, pp. loq-iii. 
 
 1861-1865. — Agriculture in the Black Belt. 
 See Black belt. 
 
 1861 (January). — Secession from the Union. 
 See U. S. A.: iS6i (January-February). 
 
 1861 (February). — Convention of Confederate 
 states at Montgomery. See U. S. A.: i86i (Feb- 
 ruary) : Adoption of a constitution for "The Con- 
 federate States of America." 
 
 1862. — General Mitchell's expedition. See 
 U. S. A.: 1862 (April-May: Alabama). 
 
 1864 (August). — The battle of Mobile bay. — 
 Capture of Confederate forts and fleet. See 
 U. S. A.: 1804 (.August; Alabama). 
 
 1865 (March— April).— The fall of Mobile.— 
 Wilson's raid. — End of the rebellion. See U. S. A.: 
 1805 (April-May). 
 
 1865. — Losses from the Civil War.— "The num- 
 ber of soldiers furnished by Alabama to the Confed- 
 erate service will never be known. The estimates 
 range from 60,000, the number given by Col. M. V. 
 Morre, in the Louisville Evening Post of May 
 30th, iQoo, to 122,000 claimed by Governor Par- 
 sons in his proclamation of July, 1865. Like- 
 wise the number of Alabama soldiers who lost 
 their lives on the battlefield and from wounds, or 
 from disease directly traceable to exposure in the 
 army during the Confederate war will never be 
 known. We only know that Alabama soldiers were 
 buried in every battle-field of importance east of 
 the Mississippi, near every large hospital through 
 the same extent of country, in all cemeteries of 
 the war prisons of the North, and in every grave- 
 yard in this State. . . . The property losses of 
 the people of Alabama during the war were tre- 
 mendous. We can form no just conception of 
 them, except by comparing some items of the cen- 
 sus of T860 with those of 1870. . . . Nearly all 
 the manufacturing industries of Alabama were 
 burnt by the Federals. Most of the engines, cars, 
 steam-boats, warehouses and depots were de- 
 stroyed, a number of railroad bridges and trestles 
 were burnt and most of the rails, which were made 
 of iron, were worn out, 50 that the transporta- 
 tion property of the State was worth many mil- 
 lions of dollars less in 1S65 than in i860. An- 
 other heavy loss, which cannot be estimated, was 
 the complete destruction of State and Confederate 
 scrip and bonds, and railroad bonds and stocks, 
 and all banking capital and securities. The mer- 
 chandise in the stores, usually amounting to many 
 millions of dollars, was all gone at the close of 
 the war. Town property had depreciated in value. 
 In the Tennessee valley hundreds of thousands of 
 dollars' worth of private residences and public 
 buildings were burnt, and the people stripped of 
 nearly everything that they could not carry off or 
 hide successfully. The property losses of the 
 people of Alabama could not have been less than 
 $300,000,000, besides the loss of 435,000 slaves, 
 which were worth $500 each in gold or a total of 
 $217,000,000, making the total property losses not 
 less than $500,000,000 in Alabama." — L. D. Miller, 
 History of Alabama, p. 233. — See also U. S. A.: 
 r86s: Civil War losses. 
 
 1865 (December). — Ratification of 13th amend- 
 ment. — On December 2, 1865, the thirteenth 
 amendment to the Constitution of the United 
 States was ratified. 
 
 Also in: Owen, Annals of Alabama, ch. 6. 
 
 1865-1868. — Reconstruction. See Black and 
 TAN conventions; U. S. a : 1865 (May — July), to 
 1868-1870: Reconstructiim complete. 
 
 1866. — Rejection of 14th amendment. — "In the 
 fall of 1866 the proposed Fourteenth Amendment 
 
 was submitted to the legislature. There was no 
 longer any belief that further yielding would do 
 any good ; the more the people gave the more was 
 asked. State Senator E. A. Powell wrote to John 
 W. Forney that the people would do nothing about 
 the Fourteenth Amendment because they were con- 
 vinced that any action would be useless. Condi- 
 tion after condition had been imposed and had 
 been absolved ; slavery had been abolished, seces- 
 sion acknowledged a failure, and the war debt 
 repudiated by the convention ; the legislature had 
 ratified the Thirteenth Amendment, had secured 
 the negro in all the rights of property and person ; 
 and after all the state was no nearer to restoration. 
 This was the view of nearly all the newspapers of 
 the state, and in this they represented popular 
 opinion. They were intensely irritated by the fact 
 that, although they had made so many concessions, 
 still they were excluded from representation in 
 Congress, and were heavily and unjustly taxed. 
 Moreover, they were opposed to the amendment 
 because it branded their best men as traitors. 
 One newspaper, alone, advocated adoption of the 
 amendment as the least of evils. ... By most 
 persons the question of negro political rights was 
 considered to belong to the state and was not a 
 matter for the Federal government to regulate. 
 'Loyalists' as well as 'rebels' were afraid to leave 
 negro affairs to the regulation of Congress. In 
 his annual message to the legislature, in November 
 1866, Governor Patton advised the legislature not 
 to ratify the Fourteenth Amendment, on the 
 ground that it could do no good and might do 
 harm. It involved the creation of a penalty after 
 the act. On this point, he said that it was an 
 ex post facto law, and contrary to the whole spirit 
 of modern civilization ; that such a mode of deal- 
 ing with citizens charged with offences against 
 government belonged only to despotic tyrants; 
 that it might accomplish revengeful purposes, but 
 that was not the proper mode of administering 
 justice, that adoption would vacate nearly all 
 offices in most of the unrepresented states — gov- 
 ernors, judges, legislators, sheriffs, justices of peace, 
 constables — and the state governments would be 
 completely broken up and reduced to utter and 
 hopeless anarchy; that the disabilities imposed by 
 the test oath were seriously detrimental to the 
 interests of the government ; that ratification of 
 the Amendment could not accomplish any good to 
 the country and might bring upon it irretrievable 
 disaster. Under the circumstances, the legislature 
 refused to consider the Amendment. But the gov- 
 ernor during the next few weeks was induced by 
 various considerations to recommend the ratifica- 
 tion, and on December 7, 1866, he sent a special 
 message stating that there was a purpo.se on the 
 part of those who controlled the national legisla- 
 tion to enforce their own terms of restoration at 
 all hazards; and that their measures would im- 
 measurably augment the distress already existing 
 and inaugurate endless confusion. The cardinal 
 principle of restoration seemed to be, he said, fav- 
 orable action on the Fourteenth Amendment. 
 Upon principle he was opposed to it. Yet neces- 
 sity must rule. So now he recommended recon- 
 sideration. If they should ratify and restoration 
 should follow, they might trust to time and their 
 representatives to mitigate its harshness. If they 
 should ratify and admission should be delayed, it 
 would serve as a warning to other states and thus 
 prevent the necessary number for ratificalion." 
 W. L. Fleming, Cii'i! war and reconstruction in 
 Alabama, p. 304. — ^See also Suffrage, Manhood: 
 U. S. A.: 1864-102 1. — In spite of the governor's ur- 
 gent recommendation, the legislature refused to 
 
 165
 
 ALABAMA, 1867 
 
 ALABAMA, 1886-1907 
 
 ratify the amendment, and Alabama, together with 
 nine other southern states, prevented the fourteenth 
 amendment from becoming a Federal law As a 
 result, Alabama was put under military government 
 by the Reconstruction Act of 1S67 and the state 
 came under the sway of the negro and the "carpet- 
 bagger." 
 
 1867 (November).— Meeting of the constitu- 
 tional convention. — In the fall of 1867 a con- 
 stitution was framed for .Alabama in accordance 
 with the principles of the Reconstruction .Act and 
 the fourteenth amendment. 
 
 1868 (February). — Constitution ratified. — 
 When the constitution received a bare majority of 
 the vote cast, but not a majority of the registered 
 vote. Congress declared the constitution in effect 
 by hurriedly changing the law which necessitated a 
 state constitution receiving a majority of the 
 registered vote. 
 
 1868 (June). — Ratification of 14th amendment. 
 — Readmission to the union. — In the spring of 
 1868 the fourteenth amendment was adopted and 
 Alabama was admitted to the union, June 25, iSbS. 
 
 1868 (July 14). — Cessation of military rule.— 
 Military rule ceased on this date and .-Mabama took 
 up her own administration. 
 
 1870 (November 16).— Ratification of 15th 
 amendment. 
 
 1874. — Whites regain control of the govern- 
 ment. — "By 1874, the State had become bankrupt; 
 its credit was gone; city and county indebtedness 
 had grown, with few betterments to show for the 
 expenditures; and 'more intolerable were the tur- 
 moil and strife between whites and blacks kept 
 alive' for political hold on the Negro vote. Every 
 office was to be filled at a general election in 
 November. .As early as April 2Qth the Demo- 
 cratic and Conservative convention was organized 
 in Montgomery. George Houston, the old 'Bald 
 Eagle of the Mountains' from north .Alabama, was 
 chosen by acclamation for Governor. Houston, 
 many years a member of Congress, and personally 
 opposed to secession, had taken no part in the 
 war. He was neither a full-fledged Confederate 
 nor an offensive Unionist. Of the more important 
 planks in the platform, the first averred 'that the 
 radical and dominant faction of the Republican 
 Party in this state persistently and by fraudulent 
 representations have inflamed the passions and 
 prejudices of the Negroes as a race against the 
 white people, and have thereby made it necessary 
 for the white people to unite and act together in 
 self-defense and for the preservation of white civi- 
 lization.' The third plank denounced the so-called 
 'Civil Rights Bill' then pending in Congress, and 
 the fifth plank advocated economy. The Republi- 
 cans renominated David P. Lewis for Governor, 
 and in section 5 of their platform declared: 'We 
 only ask equal advantages in matters of public 
 and common right. This we consider to be all 
 that is embraced in the Civil Rights Bill, and in 
 order that we may be understood, and no_ false 
 charges made against us, we hereby declare that 
 the Republican Party does not desire mixed schools 
 or mixed accommodations — we want no social 
 equality enforced by law.' . , . On October igth 
 the Committee issued an appeal to the voters 
 urging them to close their 'several places of busi- 
 ness on the third day of November,' and to dedi- 
 cate 'their individual 'and collective exertion to 
 the redemption of Alabama.' ... As the end 
 of the canvass approached the forces making for 
 good government were in line as never before in 
 the history^ of the state. Every precaution was 
 taken to have the polls guarded on Nov. 3. Every 
 highway leading into the state was watched to 
 
 prevent the importation of voters. Railroad com- 
 panies for days Jjcfore the election reported every 
 negro that came in and the station where he de- 
 barked. Victory was so important to our future 
 that thousands were prepared to leave the state 
 and seek homes where the Negro did not control, 
 in case the election went against us — as many 
 thousands had already done since March, 1868. 
 ... At the election there wa? rioting in Mobile, at 
 Belmont, and at Gainesville, and one Negro was 
 killed at each of these places. At Eufaula oc- 
 curred the most serious riot of the Reconstruction 
 period. Both whites and blacks were armed. 
 While the whites were trying to protect from a 
 mob a colored Democrat who was offering to vote 
 a Negro fired a shot. Four Negroes were killed 
 and sixty wounded. Ten whites were wounded. 
 The whole Democratic State ticket was elected by 
 majorities ranging more than 10,000 and the Su- 
 preme Court and both Houses of the Legislature 
 were ours. Alabama was redeemed," — H. A. Her- 
 bert, How we redeemed Alabama {Century, v. 85, 
 pp. 850-862). 
 
 1875 (September-October). — Constitutional 
 convention. — The convention was held from Sep- 
 tember to October 2. A new constitution was 
 adopted, omitting the guaranty of the "carpet- 
 baggers' " constitution that no one should be denied 
 suffrage on account of race, color, or previous con- 
 dition of servitude. It also forbade the state to 
 engage in internal improvements. 
 
 1883 (February). — Establishment of a rail- 
 road commission. — A railroad commission was 
 established in .Alabama February 26, 1883. 
 
 1886-1887. — Farmers' Alliance. — The Farmers' 
 .Alliance of .Alabama was incorporated by the ses- 
 sion of the legislature of 1886-1887, and was then 
 a strictly non-partisan agricultural organization. 
 It was the forerunner of the Populist party, which 
 was destined to play an important part in the 
 politics of Alabama. 
 
 1886-1907. — Child labor legislation. — "Alabama 
 began agitation against the child labor system in 
 1886. On page ninety of the .Acts of the Legisla- 
 ture, 1886-7, will be found the law passed in this 
 state against the employment of children and 
 women in factories and manufacturing establish- 
 ments, except as therein provided. The act was 
 crude and carried no provisions for enforcement. 
 It showed, however, that the public mind of the 
 state had been aroused to the necessity of pro- 
 tecting those in need of protection. The act of 
 1886 remained on the statute books until the ses- 
 sion of the legislature in 1804-5, when it was re- 
 pealed through the efforts oi a lobby sent to 
 Montgomery by the cotton mills, headed by a 
 superintendent of one of the New England mills 
 which had lately been established in the state. 
 There was no more child labor legislation until 
 1903, when mainly through the earnest and zeal- 
 ous work of Edgar Gardner Murphy, the second 
 child labor law for Alabama was enacted. The 
 law of 1Q03 was by no means satisfactory to 
 those who had been contending for an effective 
 child labor law. The provisions of this law made 
 the age limit twelve years, but orphans and chil- 
 dren of dependent families were exempt. No child 
 under ten years of age was permitted to work 
 under any circumstances. No child under 
 thirteen years of age could be employed at 
 night work, and none under twelve was allowed 
 to work more than thirty-six hours per week. In 
 IQ07 a more acceptable law was enacted. The age 
 limit was placed at twelve, without exception, and 
 night work was permitted only by children of six- 
 teen years of age and over. Provision was also 
 
 166
 
 ALABAMA, 1897-1898 
 
 ALABAMA, 1916 
 
 made for inspection, the state inspector of prisons 
 and almshouses being empowered to inspect cot- 
 ton mills and factories. There was general dis- 
 appointment over the practical failure of the in- 
 spection feature of the law of 1007. Governor 
 O'Neal has recommended in a message to the leg- 
 islature raising the age limit of children working 
 in cotton mills to fourteen years. He has also 
 pointed out a defect in our present law which has 
 greatly weakened the statute, namely the pro- 
 vision that the employer must 'knowingly violate' 
 the law before any punishment can be imposed for 
 its violation." — Dr. B. J. Baldwin (Annals of the 
 American Academy of Political and Social Science, 
 July, iQii, pp. 111-113). — A law was passed by 
 the Alabama legislature which went into effect 
 Sept. I, 191S, providing that no children under 
 thirteen should be permitted to work and a year 
 afterward no children under fourteen. 
 
 1897-1898. — Period of great industrial depres- 
 sion. — During this period the price of cotton 
 dropped to 4V2 cents per pound. 
 
 1898. — Part played in Spanish-American War. 
 — Like every other state, Alabama responded loy- 
 ally to the call for troops in the war with Spain. 
 Members of the national guard and many other 
 citizens joined the colors, and Alabama had her 
 due representation in the regular army and navy. 
 After the Civil War General Joseph Wheeler of 
 the Confederate army settled in Alabama, where 
 he lived as farmer, merchant and lawyer. He was 
 in 1882 elected to Congress, in which he served 
 continuously for eighteen years. In 1898, Presi- 
 dent McKinley appointed him a major-general of 
 volunteers, and he served with distinction in the 
 Santiago campaign. In the navy, the most con- 
 spicuous enterprise of daring was led by a native 
 of Alabama, Richmond Pearson Hobson. With 
 seven men he attempted to block the channel of 
 Santiago harbor and "bottle up" the fleet of Ad- 
 miral Cervera. He took the collier Merrimac 
 into the narrow passage and sunk her, but the 
 ship did not completely obstruct the channel. 
 Although under heavy fire, the men escaped in- 
 jury, and were taken prisoners. Hobson after- 
 wards represented his state in Congress. 
 
 1899. — Dispensary laws. — Acts applying the 
 South Carolina "dispensary" system of regula- 
 tion for the liquor traffic (see South Carolina: 
 1892-1890) to seventeen counties, but not to the 
 state at large, were passed by the legislature. 
 
 1901. — Alabama's new constitution. — "The new 
 Constitution in Alabama was adopted by a re- 
 ported majority of nearly thirty thousand. The 
 important provisions of the new Constitution are 
 as follows: (i) Disfranchisement for crime or for 
 failure to pay a voluntary poll tax of $1.50 a 
 year eight months before the election. This ap- 
 plies to whites and blacks alike. (2) Disfranchise- 
 ment for illiteracy, unless the illiterate has been a 
 soldier or is descended from a soldier, or is thought 
 by the registrars of election to be of good char- 
 acter and to understand the duties of citizenship. 
 The enfranchised illiterate must be enrolled as a 
 voter before 1903. After that date the illiteracy 
 disqualification applies to new voters of both 
 races alike. (3) But after January i, 1903, every 
 male of age, white or black, literate or illiterate, 
 may register and vote on his proving ownership, 
 in his own or his wife's right, of property of tax- 
 able value of $300. (4) Four-year terms for 
 Governor and Legislature, the legislative session 
 to last only fifty days. (5) A State tax of three 
 mills for school purposes, with permission to lo- 
 calities to levy an additional tax of one mill. The 
 State tax, together with the poll taxes and other 
 
 167 
 
 funds, insures a school revenue of $1,100,000 a 
 year, or one-fifth more than the revenue last 
 year." — Outlook, Nov. 23, 1901, p. 571. 
 
 "In Alabama — where a little more than 14 per 
 cent of the adult male whites of American par- 
 entage are reported as illiterate, while 59.5 per 
 cent of the male negroes of voting age are illiter- 
 ate, — it is declared that the new constitution was 
 adopted by popular vote on November 11, and 
 under the operation of the clauses relating to the 
 franchise this entire mass of negro illiteracy will 
 be at once excluded from the voting privilege. 
 Most of the white illiterates will probably be 
 able, under exceptional clauses, to place their 
 names on the registration books. But after a 
 limited period the system will work with prac- 
 tical equality, and every man of whatever race 
 who knows enough to be morally entitled to exer- 
 cise poHtical privileges will be allowed to register 
 and vote. These Southern franchise systems, — 
 viewed broadly in their main features rather than 
 narrowly in their minor details, — bid fair to be 
 of advantage to both races. They supply the most 
 powerful incentive to education and personal im- 
 provement. They create at once a bold and 
 sweeping division between the enfranchised and 
 the disenfranchised, but they do not erect an ar- 
 bitrary or difficult barrier. An object-lesson in 
 the disadvantages of illiteracy will be constantly 
 before the eyes of the rising generation of both 
 races. The children of native-born Americans will 
 be impelled to follow the example of the Ameri- 
 can-born children of foreign parents and acquire 
 the rudiments of an ordinary education." — .Ameri- 
 can Review of Reviews, Dec, iqoi, p. 650. — See 
 also Suffrage: Manhood: United States: 1804-1921. 
 
 Also in: A. E. McKinley, Constitution of Ala- 
 bama {Political Science Quarterly, Sept., 1903). 
 
 1903. — Law against boycott. See Boycott: Re- 
 cent judicial decisions. 
 
 1909. — Sixteenth Federal amendment ratified. 
 — The income tax amendment to the Federal con- 
 stitution was ratified .\ugust 17, 1909. 
 
 1911. — Case of Alonzo Bailey in United States 
 Supreme Court. — This decision grew out of the 
 case of a Negro, .Alonzo Bailey, who had been 
 hired as a plantation hand. His wage was set at 
 .$12 a month and he was paid in advance .$15. 
 Before the month was over he left and according 
 to the existing law was considered guilty of fraud- 
 ulent intention, in not returning the money ad- 
 vanced. He was obliged to prove his innocence 
 which was not easy to do, since he could not 
 testify as to his intentions. He could therefore 
 according to the state law be convicted and forced 
 to work without remuneration. The decision was 
 rendered by Justice Hughes who held that the 
 state law was contrary to the constitution. 
 
 1911. — Arbitration board created. See Arbi- 
 tration AND CONCILIATION, INDUSTRIAL: United 
 States: 1886-1920. 
 
 1912. — Internal improvements. — By the char- 
 tering of the Interstate Power Company a large 
 plan of internal improvements was begun, to cost 
 in the neighborhood of $50,000,000 before com- 
 pleted. A dam and lock on the Coosa river was 
 the first piece of construction and by this electric 
 power was created for Birmingham, Montgomery, 
 .\nniston, Gadsden and Huntsville. 
 
 1916. — Educational revival. — Constitution 
 amended. — "Alabama, as she herself fully admits, 
 is down close to the bottom on the Hst of States 
 made up according to literacy tests. Until re- 
 cently Alabama raised most of her school funds 
 by the State tax of three mills on the dollar. This 
 gave her about $1,813,000 to spend on her public
 
 ALABAMA 
 
 ALABAMA CLAIMS 
 
 schools each year. The Legislature sometimes 
 supplemented this fund by special appropriations 
 averaging about $283,000 yearly. In addition, 
 some of the counties voted a one-mill local tax 
 for their respective schools, one mill being the 
 limit established by the State Constitution to 
 which any county could tax itself for public edu- 
 cation. As a result of this constitutional limi- 
 tation Alabama has had no free school system 
 to speak of except in the cities. The rural dis- 
 tricts, the sources of production and wealth, have 
 been miserably provided with schools. The little 
 one-teacher school has been open seventy-five or 
 eighty, or possibly a hundred, days in the year. 
 Ten per cent of the children were, according to 
 recent statistics, illiterate. The total number of 
 illiterates in the State, was 360,000. Of these 
 93,000 were white, many of them men and women 
 of middle age. This was the situation that Mr. 
 William F. Feagin, State Superintendent of Educa- 
 tion, determined to alter, if possible, during the 
 recent Presidential campaign. His idea was to 
 carry an amendment to the State Constitution 
 that would give each county and also each school 
 district the right to tax itself for long-term con- 
 solidated schools. By a preliminary campaign he 
 succeeded in having placed on the ballots a con- 
 stitutional amendment enabling each county to 
 tax itself three mills on the dollar for its own 
 schools, and in addition enabling each district to 
 tax itself three mills — a tax right of six mills in 
 all. . . . Even those who supported Mr. Feagin's 
 plan supposed that the people were in no mood 
 to consider additional taxation, and, generally 
 speaking, they are always against constitutional 
 amendments. But, nothing daunted. Superintend- 
 ent Feagin plunged in to organize the entire 
 State, county by county. The people of .Alabama 
 were waked up. They were expecting an un- 
 eventful election, with the usual Democratic ma- 
 jority for the President and Congressmen. But 
 they found themselves in the midst of a regular 
 old-time enthusiastic campaign, and for educa- 
 tion per se. . . . When the votes were counted it 
 was found that the amendment had been carried 
 by more than 20,000 majority. The campaign and 
 amendment have given public education an im- 
 petus in Alabama which will be very far-reaching 
 in its effects." — L. McClurg, Educational revival 
 in Alabama (Outlook, Feb. 28, iqi?). 
 
 1917-1918.— Part played in the World War.— 
 The state furnished in all 67,000 soldiers, and es- 
 tablished two National Guard camps; Camp Mc- 
 Clelland at Anniston and Camp Sheridan at Mont- 
 gomery. 
 
 1919. — Industrial development resulting from 
 the World War. — The effect of the war was to 
 stimulate the industrial development of the state. 
 The United States Steel Corporation, through the 
 Tennessee Iron and Railroad Company initiated 
 important enterprises. Plate mills were opened at 
 Birmingham and a ship-building plant was estab- 
 lished at Mobile. The federal government also 
 opened a nitrocen plant at Sheffield to extract 
 nitrogen from the air. 
 
 1919 (January). — Eighteenth Federal amend- 
 ment ratified. — The prohibition amendment to the 
 federal constitution was ratified on January 14, 
 igiq. 
 
 1919 (September 2). — Nineteenth amendment 
 defeated (woman suffrage). 
 
 ALABAMA (Confederate cruiser). See Ala- 
 bama claims: 1862-1864. 
 
 ALABAMA CLAIMS: 1861-1862.— Origin.— 
 Earlier confederate cruisers. — Precursors of the 
 Alabama. — The commissioning of privateers, and 
 
 of more officially commanded cruisers, in the 
 .American Civil War, by the government of the 
 Southern Confederacy, was begun early in the 
 progress of the movement of rebellion, pursuant 
 to a proclamation issued by Jefferson Davis on 
 .April 17, 1S61. "Before the close of July, i86i, 
 more than 20 of those depredators were afloat, 
 and had captured millions of property belonging 
 to .American citizens. The most formidable and 
 notorious of the sea-going ships of this character, 
 were the Nashville, Captain R. B. Pegram, a Vir- 
 ginian, who had abandoned his flag, and the Sum- 
 ter [a regularly commissioned war vessel], Cap- 
 tain Raphael Semmes. The former was a side- 
 wheel steamer, carried a crew of eighty men, and 
 was armed with two long 12-pounder rifled can- 
 non. Her career was short, but cjuite successful. 
 She was finally destroyed by the Montauk, Cap- 
 tain Worden, in the Ogeechee River. The career 
 of the Sumter, which had been a New Orleans and 
 Havana packet steamer named Marquis de Ha- 
 bana, was also short, but much more active and 
 destructive. She had a crew of sixty-five men 
 and twenty-five marines, and was heavily armed. 
 She ran the blockade at the mouth of the Missis- 
 sippi River on the 30th of June, and was pursued 
 some distance by the Brooklyn. She ran among 
 the West India islands and on the Spanish Main, 
 and soon made prizes of many vessels bearing the 
 American flag. She was everywhere received in 
 British Colonial ports with great favor, and was 
 afforded every facility for her piratical operations. 
 She became the terror of the American merchant 
 service, and everywhere eluded National vessels 
 of war sent out in pursuit of her. At length she 
 crossed the ocean, and at the close of 1861 was 
 compelled to seek shelter under British guns at 
 Gibraltar, where she was watched by the Tus- 
 carora. Early in the year 1862 she was sold, and 
 thus ended her piratical career. Encouraged by 
 the practical friendship of the British evinced for 
 these corsairs, and the substantial aid they were 
 receiving from British subjects in various ways, 
 especially through blockade-runners, the conspira- 
 tors determined to procure from those friends some 
 powerful piratical craft, and made arrangements 
 for the purchase and construction of vessels for 
 that purpose. Mr. Laird, a ship-builder at Liver- 
 pool and member of the British Parliament, was 
 the largest contractor in the business, and, in de- 
 fiance of every obstacle, succeeded in getting pirate 
 ships to sea. The first of these ships that went to 
 sea was the Oreto, ostensibly built for a house in 
 Palermo, Sicily. Mr. Adams, the .American min- 
 ister in London, was so well satisfied from infor- 
 mation received that she was designed for the 
 Confederates, that he called the attention of the 
 British government to the matter as early as the 
 i8th of February, 1862. But nothing effective was 
 done, and she was completed and allowed to de- 
 part from British waters. She went first to Nas- 
 sau, and on the 4th of September suddenly ap- 
 peared off Mobile harbor, flying the British flag 
 and pennants. The blockading squadron there 
 was in charge of Commander George H. Preble, 
 who had been specially instructed not to give of- 
 fense to foreign nations while enforcing the block- 
 ade. He believed the Oreto to be a British vessel, 
 and while deliberating a few minutes as to what 
 he should do, she passed out of range of his guns, 
 and entered the harbor with a rich freight. For 
 his seeming remissness Commander Preble was 
 summarily dismissed from the service without a 
 hearing — an act which subsequent events seemed 
 to show was cruel injustice. Late in December, 
 the Oreto escaped from Mobile, fully armed for a 
 
 68
 
 ALABAMA CLAIMS 
 
 ALABAMA CLAIMS 
 
 piratical cruise, under the command of John New- 
 land Maffit. . . . The name of the Oreto was 
 changed to that of Florida," — B. J. Lossing, Pic- 
 torial field book of the Civil War, v. 2, cli. 21. 
 
 Also in: J. Davis, Rise and fall of the confed- 
 erate government, v. 2, ch. 30-31. 
 
 1862-1864. — The Alabama, her career and her 
 fate. — "The Alabama (the second cruiser built in 
 England for the Confederates] ... is thus de- 
 scribed by Semmes, her commander: 'She was of 
 about goo tons burden, 230 feet in length, 32 feet 
 in breadth, 20 feet in depth, and drew, when 
 provisioned and coaled for cruise, 15 feet of water. 
 She was barkentine-rigged, with long lower masts, 
 which enabled her to carry large fore and aft sails, 
 as jibs and try-sails. . . . Her engine was of 300 
 horse-power, and she had attached an apparatus 
 for condensing from the vapor of sea-water all the 
 fresh water that her crew might require. . . . Her 
 armament consisted of eight guns.' . . . The Ala- 
 bama was built and, from the outset, was 'in- 
 tended for a Confederate vessel of war.' The 
 contract for her construction was 'signed by Cap- 
 tain Bullock on the one part and Messrs. Laird 
 on the other.' ... On the 15th of May [1862] 
 she was launched under the name of the 2qo. Her 
 officers were in England awaiting her completion, 
 and were paid their salaries 'monthly, about the 
 first of the month, at Eraser, Trenholm & Co.'s 
 office in Liverpool.' The purpose for which this 
 vessel was being constructed was notorious in 
 Liverpool. Before she was launched she became 
 an object of suspicion with the Consul of the 
 United States at that port, and she was the sub- 
 ject of constant correspondence on his part 
 with his Government and with Mr. Adams. . . . 
 Early in the history of this cruiser the point was 
 taken by the British authorities — a point main- 
 tained throughout the struggle — that they would 
 originate nothing themselves for the maintenance 
 and performance of their international duties, and 
 that they would listen to no representations from 
 the officials of the United States which did not 
 furnish technical evidence for a criminal prosecu- 
 tion under the Foreign Enlistment .Act. ... At 
 last Mr. Dudley [the Consul of the United States 
 at Liverpool] succeeded in finding the desired 
 proof. On the 21st day of July, he laid it in the 
 form of affidavits before the Collector at Liver- 
 pool in compliance with the intimations which Mr. 
 Adams had received from Earl Russell. These 
 affidavits were on the same day transmitted by the 
 Collector to the Board of Customs at London, 
 with a request for instructions by telegraph, as 
 the ship appeared to be ready for sea and might 
 leave any hour. . . . It . . . appears that not- 
 withstanding this official information from the Col- 
 lector, the papers were not considered by the law 
 advisers until the 28th, and that the case appeared 
 to them to be so clear that they gave their advice 
 upon it that evening. Under these circumstances, 
 the delay of eight days after the 21st in the order 
 for the detention of the vessel was, in the opinion 
 of the United States, gross negligence on the part 
 of Her Majesty's Government, On the 2Qth the 
 Secretary of the Commission of the Customs re- 
 ceived a telegram from Liverpool saying that 'the 
 vessel 2qo came out of dock last night, and left 
 the port this morning.' . . . After leaving the dock 
 she 'proceeded slowly down the Mersey.' Both the 
 Lairds were on board, and also Bullock. . . . The 
 2go slowly steamed on to Moelfra Bay, on the 
 coast of Anglesey, where she remained 'all that 
 night, all the next day, and the next night ' No 
 effort was made to seize her. . . . When the Ala- 
 bama left Moelfra Bay her crew numbered about 
 
 90 men. She ran part way down the Irish Chan- 
 nel, then round the north coast of Ireland, only 
 stopping near the Giant's Causeway. She then 
 made for Terceira, one of the Azores, which she 
 reached on the loth of August. On i8th of August, 
 while she was at Terceira, a sail was observed mak- 
 ing for the anchorage. It proved to be the 'Agrip- 
 pina of London, Captain McQueen, having on 
 board six guns, with ammunition, coals, stores, etc., 
 for the Alabama.' Preparations were immediately 
 made to transfer this important cargo. On the 
 afternoon of the 20th, while employed discharging 
 the bark, the screw-steamer Bahama, Captain 
 Tessier (the same that had taken the armament 
 to the Florida, whose insurgent ownership and 
 character were well known in Liverpool), arrived, 
 'having on board Commander Raphael Semmes 
 and officers of the Confederate States steamer Sum- 
 ter.' There were also taken from this steamer two 
 32-pounders and some stores, which occupied all 
 the remainder of that day and a part of the next. 
 The 22d and 23d of August were taken up in 
 transferring coal from the Agrippina to the Ala- 
 bama. It was not until Sunday (the 24th) that 
 the insurgents' flag was hoisted. Bullock and 
 those who were not going in the 2qo went back to 
 the Bahama, and the Alabama, now first known 
 under that name, went off with '26 officers and 
 8s men.' "—Case of the United States before the 
 tribunal of arbitration at Geneva (42^ Congress, 
 2d Session, Senate Executive Document, No. 31, 
 146-171). — The Alabama "arrived at Porto Praya 
 on the 10th August. Shortly thereafter Capt. 
 Raphael Semmes assumed command. Hoisting the 
 Confederate flag, she cruised and captured several 
 vessels in the vicinity of Flores. Cruising to the 
 westward, and making several captures, she ap- 
 proached within 200 miles of New York; thence 
 going southward, arrived, on the iSth November, 
 at Port Royal, Martinique. On the night of the 
 igth she escaped from the harbour and the Fed- 
 eral steamer San Jacinto, and on the 20th Novem- 
 ber was at Blanquilla. On the 7th December she 
 captured the steamer Ariel in the passage between 
 Cuba and St. Domingo. On January 11, 1863, 
 she sunk the Federal gunboat Hatteras off Gal- 
 veston, and on the joth arrived at Jamaica. 
 Cruising to the eastward, and making many cap- 
 tures, she arrived on the loth April, at Fernando 
 de Noronha, and on the nth May at Bahia, where, 
 on the 13th, she was joined by the Confederate 
 steamer Georgia. Cruising near the line, thence 
 southward towards the Cape of Good Hope, 
 numerous captures were made. On the 2gth July 
 she anchored in Saldanha Bay, South Africa, and 
 near there on the sth August, was joined by the 
 Confederate bark Tuscaloosa, Commander Low. 
 In September, 1863, she was at St. Simon's Bay, 
 and in October was in the Straits of Sunda, and 
 up to January 20, 1864, cruised in the Bay of 
 Bengal and vicinity, visiting Singapore, and mak- 
 ing a number of very valuable captures, including 
 the Highlander, Sonora, etc. From this point she 
 cruised on her homeward track via Cape of Good 
 Hope, capturing the bark Tycoon and ship Rock- 
 ingham, and arrived at Cherbourg, France, in 
 June, 1864, where she repaired. A Federal steamer, 
 the Kearsarge, was lying off the harbour. Capt. 
 Semmes might easily have evaded this enemy; 
 the business of his vessel was that of a privateer; 
 and her value to the Confederacy was out of all 
 comparison with a single vessel of the enemy. , . . 
 But Capt, Semmes had been twitted with the name 
 of 'pirate;' and he was easily persuaded to at- 
 tempt an eclat for the Southern Confederacy by 
 a naval fight within sight of the French coast, 
 
 169
 
 ALABAMA CLAIMS 
 
 ALABAMA CLAIMS 
 
 which contest, it was calculated would prove the 
 
 sibly to revive '•°'' 4" ju g^r^t motives 
 
 Paris and London. These ^"<=J°f p"^ Semmes 
 of the gratuitous fight with wh.chCapt^ Semmes 
 
 ned four broad. me 3 H ,^ ^^^^ thus 
 
 mie 28-pound rifle , ^l^^ ,^;° ^.^nt ■ and their 
 
 ,bout equal ■"-l'^^;;^^?!^ A Pollard, /--t 
 tonnage was a^outhse^.^^^^^^^^^^^^.^ 
 
 anise, p. 549- }■ >^„^^ i:par-;aree in a report to 
 United States f,;^;"" ,,*r^^; ttl^'on the afternoon 
 the Secretary of he Na> w^" Alabama, June 
 "' 'iLfU- ' hav the honor to inform the 
 
 Snrcr^n i.r. »«■ — -s.-™;;; 
 
 sail was made 0," ^" ^^hen the object was 
 
 again «ach>ng Cherbourg^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ 
 
 apparent he ^"rsarge was ^^^^^^^ 
 
 nf the Alabama lor a raKiug "i^^, tt_^p. 
 
 «Sil 53"js ^i^'S 
 
 TheKearsarge; whom we were tr>-in. to m We s 
 
 ^"■"Ihrthe DeSu^d Xarmovi^g^r I could 
 me that tne uceniuunu vessel 
 
 prevent it, but continued to k^eP "ur boaU jj 
 ro-s^yXf^tm^:raU:n%TD"erhlp m| 
 
 ^-C^^ro^-^totr^^^ 
 !!7n;f ^i.r later report Captain VV nslow gav. 
 
 I'jtlioSTl sta^d shi'discrarged ..o or more 
 she 1 and shot, was not of serious damage to the 
 
 STan/:^.^ih:u,:n;ro^^1S 
 
 H^^^sSinJten-o^:ir,^ 
 fire of the Kearsarge, although only i73 projectile. 
 
 knocked down."-«ebc/;;o« record, v. 9, PP- 221 
 
 "Lso in: J. R. Soley, B/oc^oj/. a«<i {'- ^-^,^« 
 (iVoi.v in the Civil War. v. i, c''- 7).-J- J^;, =°'7 ' 
 J McI Kell and J. M, Browne. Conjederalecrus- 
 Irs^Banle. and leaders, v. 3>.-R- «-,fX, 
 5 .Xf i/.^" "/ ''- confederate states ^n Europe, 
 "■iRfi2''l865 -Other Confederate cruisers.-''A 
 
 s'73np» '£::-;*""— 
 
 which made 10 The Florida was captured in the 
 
 Bwrnrnm 
 
 iSU'rJS . i.,. tail, in Bri.1.1, .bipy.rf.'- 
 "id 'oncb.,. .».il »d" b„ ».« »»- ; 
 
 K;.,'if 'i. 't S-iribiS'-K-dS-ved . 
 
 s;;:„s^t.r.b=*r.b:?;s3t';;; 
 
 \ii ^,f 'KioQoooo and considering that it oc 
 Tred 'tr'months after the Confederacy had 
 
 •n'ally passed out of existence >t -V ^^^ /^^ ^ 
 acterized as the most ^^^^^^'i "^he e'pta'" °^ 
 
 he had news o. th^ « ^ ' ^f ^o thrBritish govern- 
 i^tent-^w^hl^hlliv^redTel 1^ the United States.- 
 
 70
 
 ALABAMA CLAIMS 
 
 ALABAMA CLAIMS 
 
 J. R. Soley, Conjederate cruisers (Battles and 
 leaders, v. 4) . For statistics of the total losses 
 inflicted by the eleven Confederate cruisers for 
 which Great Britain was held responsible, see 
 U. S. A.: 1865 (May). 
 
 1862-1869. — Definition of the indemnity claims 
 of the United States against Great Britain. — 
 First stages of the negotiation. — Rejected John- 
 son-Clarendon treaty. — "A review of the history 
 of the negotiations between the two Governments 
 prior to the correspondence between Sir Edward 
 Thornton and Mr. Fish, will show . . . what was 
 intended by these words, 'generically known as the 
 Alabama Claims,' used on each side in that cor- 
 respondence. The correspondence between the two 
 Governments was opened by Mr. Adams on the 
 20th of November, 1862 (less than four months 
 after the escape of the Alabama), in a note to 
 Earl Russell, written under instructions from the 
 Government of the United States. In this note 
 Mr. Adams submitted evidence of the acts of the 
 Alabama, and stated: 'I have the honor to inform 
 Your Lordship of the directions which I have re- 
 ceived from my Government to solicit redress for 
 the national and private injuries thus sustained.' 
 . . . Lord Russell met this notice on the igth of 
 December, 1862, by a denial of any liability for 
 any injuries growing out of the acts of the Ala- 
 bama. . . » As new losses from time to time were 
 suffered by individuals during the war, they were 
 brought to the notice of Her Majesty's Govern- 
 ment, and were lodged with the national and in- 
 dividual claims already preferred ; but argumen- 
 tative discussion on the issues involved was by 
 common consent deferred. . . . The fact that the 
 first claim preferred grew out of the acts of the 
 Alabama explains how it was that all the claims 
 growing out of the acts of all the vessels came 
 to be 'generically known as the Alabama claims.' 
 On the 7th of April, 1865, the war being virtually 
 over, Mr. Adams renewed the discussion. He 
 transmitted to Earl Russell an official report show- 
 ing the number and tonnage of American vessels 
 transferred to the British flag during the war. He 
 said: 'The United States commerce is rapidly van- 
 ishing from the face of the ocean, and that of 
 Great Britain is multiplying in nearly the same 
 ratio.' 'This process is going on by reason of the 
 action of British subjects in cooperation with emis- 
 saries of the insurgents, who have supplied from 
 the ports of Her Majesty's Kingdom all the ma- 
 terials, such as vessels, armament, supplies, and 
 men, indispensable to the effective prosecution of 
 this result on the ocean.' ... He stated that he 
 'was under the painful necessity of announcing 
 that his Government cannot avoid entailing upon 
 the Government of Great Britain the responsibility 
 for this damage.' Lord Russell . . . said in reply, 
 'I can never admit that the duties of Great Britain 
 toward the United States are to be measured by 
 the losses which the trade and commerce of the 
 United States have sustained. . . . Referring to 
 the offer of arbitration, made on the 26th day of 
 October, 1863, Lord Russell, in the same note, 
 said: 'Her Majesty's Government must decline 
 either to make reparation and compensation for 
 the captures made by the Alabama, or to refer 
 the question to any foreign State.' This termi- 
 nated the first stage of the negotiations between 
 the two Governments. ... In the summer of 1866 
 a change of Ministry took place in England, and 
 Lord Stanley became Secretary of State for For- 
 eign Affairs in the place of Lord Clarendon. He 
 took an early opportunity to give an intimation 
 in the House of Commons that, should the rejected 
 claims be revived, the new Cabinet was not pre- 
 
 pared to say what answer might be given them; in 
 other words, that, should an opportunity be of- 
 fered. Lord Russell's refusal might possibly be re- 
 considered. Mr. Seward met these overtures by 
 instructing Mr. Adams, on the 27th of August, 
 1S66, 'to call Lord Stanley's attention in a respect- 
 ful but earnest manner,' to 'a summary of claims 
 of citizens of the United States, for damages which 
 were suffered by them during the period of the 
 civil war,' and to say that the Government of 
 the United States, while it thus insists upon these 
 particular claims, is neither desirous nor willing 
 to assume an attitude unkind and unconciliatory 
 toward Great Britain. . . . Lord Stanley met this 
 overture by a communication to Sir Frederick 
 Bruce, in which he denied the liability of Great 
 Britain, and assented to a reference, 'provided that 
 a fitting Arbitrator can be found, and that an 
 agreement can be come to as to the points to 
 which the arbitration shall apply.' ... As the first 
 result of these negotiations, a convention known 
 as the Stanley-Johnson convention was signed at 
 London on the loth of November, 1868. It proved 
 to be unacceptable to the Government of the 
 United States. Negotiations were at once resumed, 
 and resulted on the 14th of January, i86q, in the 
 Treaty known as the Johnson-Clarendon conven- 
 tion [having been negotiated by Mr. Reverdy 
 Johnson, who had succeeded Mr. Adams as United 
 States Minister to Great Britain]. This latter 
 convention provided for the organization of a 
 mixed commission with jurisdiction over "all 
 claims on the part of citizens of the United States 
 upon the Government of Her Britannic Majesty, 
 including the so-called Alabama claims, and all 
 claims on the part of subjects of Her Britannic 
 Majesty upon the Government of the United States 
 which may have been presented to either govern- 
 ment for its interposition with the other since the 
 26th July, 1853, and which yet remain unsettled.' " 
 — Argument of the United States delivered to the 
 tribunal of arbitration at Geneva, June 15, 1872, 
 Division 13, sect, 2. 
 
 "It came up there [in the Senate] April 13, 
 when Andrew Johnson was no longer president, 
 and was defeated by a vote of 54 to i. Sumner 
 alone spoke against it. As chairman of the sen- 
 ate's foreign committee he felt it his duty to sum 
 up the case for the United States, and his speech 
 was printed for the information of the people. 
 Through his bold handling, our case against Eng- 
 land became far-reaching. He demanded satis- 
 faction, first for all the losses of Americans through 
 England's recognition of belligerency for the Con- 
 federacy, secondly for losses due to the activity 
 of the Alabama and other ships which England's 
 negligence suffered to take the sea, and thirdly 
 for the expenses of prolonging the war through the 
 hope of the South that England would assist her. 
 From the first class, he said, the losses amounted 
 to $100,000,000, from the second to .fi5,ooo,ooo, 
 and from the third the inference was — although he 
 wo'uld name no figure — a loss of $2,000,000,000. 
 Mr. Rhodes pronounces Sumner's claim 'outra- 
 geous.' It is evident that Sumner himself did not 
 expect England to pay the amounts specified, but 
 stated them in this way so that England and the 
 world migh't realize the vast wrong done us. But 
 it was an unwise utterance. It raised too high the 
 expectation of the American people, and if it were 
 insisted upon by the government, it made impos- 
 sible further negotiation by England. John Bright, 
 one of our best friends in England, said that either 
 Sumner was a fool or thought the English people 
 were fools. No immediate action, however, fol- 
 lowed the speech, and after a time the passions it 
 
 171
 
 ALABAMA CLAIMS 
 
 ALABAMA CLAIMS 
 
 raised were cooled by sober thought. It was for 
 the skillful hand of Hamilton Fish, Grant's secre- 
 tary of state, to reopen the question in a more 
 reasonable spirit and carry it to successful -solu- 
 tion." — J. S. Bassett, Short history of the United 
 States, p. 671. 
 
 1869-1871. — Renewed negotiations. — Appoint- 
 ment and meeting of the joint high commission. 
 — The action of the Senate in rejectinf; Ihc John- 
 son-Clarendon treaty was taken in April, iSoo, a 
 few weeks after President Grant entered upon his 
 office. At this time "the condition of Europe 
 was such as to induce the British Ministers to take 
 into consideration the foreign relations of Great 
 Britain; and, as Lord Granville, the British Min- 
 ister of Foreign Affairs, has himself stated in the 
 House of Lords, they saw cause to look with solici- 
 tude on the uneasy relations of the British Govern- 
 ment with the United States, and the inconvenience 
 thereof in case of possible complications in Europe. 
 Thus impelled, the Government dispatched to 
 Washington a gentleman who enjoyed the con- 
 fidence of both Cabinets, Sir John Rose, to ascer- 
 tain wTiether overtures for reopening negotiations 
 would be received by the President in spirit and 
 terms acceptable to Great Britain. ... Sir John 
 Rose found the United States disposed to meet 
 with perfect correspondence of good-will the ad- 
 vances of the British Government. Accordingly, 
 on the 26th of January, 1871, the British Govern- 
 ment, through Sir Edward Thornton, ftnally pro- 
 posed to the American Government the appoint- 
 ment of a joint High Commission to hold its ses- 
 sions at Washington, and there devise means to 
 settle the various pending questions between the 
 two Governments affecting the British possessions 
 in North America. To this overture Mr. Fish 
 replied that the President would with pleasure ap- 
 point, as invited. Commissioners on the part of 
 the United States, provided the deliberations of the 
 Commissioners should be extended to other dif- 
 ferences, — that is to say, to include the differ- 
 ences growing out of incidents of the late Civil 
 War. . . . The British Government promptly ac- 
 cepted this proposal for enlarging the sphere of 
 the negotiation." The joint high commission was 
 speedily constituted, as proposed, by appointment 
 of the two governments, and the promptitude of 
 proceeding was such that the British commission- 
 ers landed at New York in twenty-seven days after 
 Sir Edward Thornton's suggestion of January 26 
 was made. They sailed without waiting for their 
 commissions, which were forwarded to them by 
 special messenger. The high commission was made 
 up as follows; "On the part of the United States 
 were five persons, — Hamilton Fish, Robert C. 
 Schenck, Samuel Nelson, Ebenezer Ruckwood 
 Hoar, and George H. Williams, — eminently fit rep- 
 resentatives of the diplomacy, the bench, the bar, 
 and the legislature of the United States: on the 
 part of Great Britain, Earl De Grey and Ripon, 
 President of the Queen's Council; Sir Stafford 
 Northcote, Ex-Minister and actual Member of the 
 House of Commons; Sir Edward Thornton, the 
 universally respected British Minister at Washing- 
 ton; Sir John [A.] Macdonald, the able and elo- 
 quent Premier of the Canadian Dominion; and, in 
 revival of the good old time, when learning was 
 equal to any other title of public honor, the Uni- 
 versities in the person of Professor Montague Ber- 
 nard. ... In the face of many difficulties, the 
 Commissioners, on the 8th of May, 187 r. com- 
 pleted a treaty [known as the Treaty of Washing- 
 ton], which received the prompt approval of their 
 respective Governments." — C. Cushing, Treaty of 
 Washington, pp. 18-20 and ii-i.s. 
 
 Also in: A. Lang, Life, letters, and diaries of 
 Sir Stafford Northcote, first earl of Iddesleigh, v. 2 
 ch. 12. — \. Badeau, Grant in peace, ch. 25. 
 
 1871.— Treaty of Washington.— The treaty 
 signed at Washington on May 8, 187 1, and the 
 ratifications of which were exchanged at London 
 on June 17 following set forth its principal agree- 
 ment in the first two articles as follows: "Whereas 
 ilifferences have arisen between the Government 
 of the United States and the Government of Her 
 Britannic Majesty, and still exist, growing out of 
 the acts committed by the several vessels which 
 have given rise to the claims generically known 
 as the 'Alabama Claims;' and whereas Her Bri- 
 tannic Majesty has authorized Her High Com- 
 missioners and Plenipotentiaries to express in a 
 friendly spirit, the regret felt by Her Majesty's 
 Government for the escape, under whatever cir- 
 cumstances, of the Alabama and other vessels from 
 British ports, and for the depredations committed 
 by those vessels: Now, in order to remove and 
 adjust all complaints and claims on the part of 
 the United States and to provide for the speedy 
 settlement of such claims which are not admitted 
 by Her Britannic Majesty's Government, the high 
 contracting parties agree that all the said claims, 
 growing out of acts committed by the aforesaid 
 vessels, and generically known as the 'Alabama 
 Claims,' shall be referred to a tribunal, of arbi- 
 tration to be composed of five Arbitrators, to be 
 appointed in the following manner, that is to say: 
 One shall be named by the President of the United 
 States; one shall be named by Her Britannic 
 Majesty ; His Majesty the King of Italy shall be 
 requested to name one; the President of the Swiss 
 Confederation shall be requested to name one; and 
 His Majesty the Emperor of Brazil shall be re- 
 quested to name one. . . . The Arbitrators shall 
 meet at Geneva, in Switzerland, at the earliest 
 convenient day after they shall have been named, 
 and shall proceed impartially and carefully to ex- 
 amine and decide all questions that shall be laid 
 before them on the part of the Ciovernments of 
 the Llnited States and Her Britannic Majesty re- 
 spectively. .\\\ questions considered by the tribu- 
 nal, including the final award, shall be decided by 
 a majority of all the Arbitrators. Each of the 
 high contracting parties shall also name one per- 
 son to attend the tribunal as its .Agent to represent 
 it generally in all matters connected with the arbi- 
 tration." Articles 3, 4 and 5 of the treaty specify 
 the mode in which each party shall submit its case. 
 .■\rticle 6 declares that, "In deciding the matters 
 submitted to the -Arbitrators, they shall be gov- 
 erned by the following three rules, which are 
 agreed upon by the high contracting parties as 
 rules to be taken as applicable to the case, and 
 by such principles of international law not incon- 
 sistent therewith as the .Arbitrators shall determine 
 to have been applicable to the case: A neutral 
 Government is bound — First, to use due diligence 
 to prevent the fitting out, arming, or equipping, 
 within its jurisdiction, of any vessel which it has 
 reasonable ground to believe is intended to cruise 
 or to carry on war against a Power with which 
 it is at peace; and also to use like diligence to 
 prevent the departure from its jurisdiction of any 
 vessel intended to cruise or carry on war as above, 
 such vessel having been specially adapted, in whole 
 or in part, within such jurisdiction, to warlike 
 use. Secondly, not to permit or suffer either bel- 
 ligerent to make use of its ports or waters as the 
 base of naval operations against the other, or for 
 the purpose of the renewal or augmentation of 
 military supplies or arms, or the recruitment of 
 men Thirdly, to exercise due diligence in its own 
 
 172
 
 ALABAMA CLAIMS 
 
 ALABAMA CLAIMS 
 
 ports and waters, and, as to all persons within 
 its jurisdiction, to prevent any violation of the 
 foregoing obligations and duties. Her Britannic 
 Majesty has commanded her High Commissioners 
 and Plenipotentiaries to declare that Her Majesty's 
 Government cannot assent to the foregoing rules 
 as a statement of principles of international law 
 which were in force at the time when the claims 
 mentioned in Article i arose, but that Her Maj- 
 esty's Government, in order to evince its desire 
 of strengthening the friendly relations between the 
 two countries and of making satisfactory provision 
 for the future, agrees that in deciding the questions 
 between the two countries arising out of those 
 claims, the Arbitrators should assume that Her 
 Majesty's Government had undertaken to act upon 
 the principles set forth in these rules. And the 
 high contracting parties agree to observe these 
 rules as between themselves in future, and to bring 
 them to the knowledge of other maritime powers, 
 and to invite them to accede to them." Article 
 7 to 17, inclusive, relate to the procedure of the 
 tribunal of arbitration, and provide for the de- 
 termination of claims, by assessors and commis- 
 sioners, in case the arbitrators should find any 
 liability on the part of Great Britain and should 
 not award a sum in gross to be paid in settlement 
 thereof. Articles 18 to 25 relate to the Fisheries. 
 By article 18 it is agreed that in addition to the 
 liberty secured to American fishermen by the con- 
 vention of 1S18, "of taking, curing and drying fish 
 on certain coasts of the British North American 
 colonies therein defined, the inhabitants of the 
 United States shall have, in common with the sub- 
 jects of Her Britannic Majesty, the liberty for [a 
 period of ten years, and two years further after 
 notice given by either party of its wish to ter- 
 minate the arrangement] ... to take fish of every 
 kind, except shell fish, on the sea-coasts and shores, 
 and in the bays, harbours and creeks, of the prov- 
 inces of Quebec, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, 
 and the colony of Prince Edward's Island, and of 
 the several islands thereunto adjacent, without be- 
 ing restricted to any distance from the shore, with 
 permission to land upon the said coasts and shores 
 and islands, and also upon the Magdalen Islands, 
 for the purpose of drying their nets and curing 
 their fish ; provided that, in so doing, they do not 
 interfere with the rights of private property, or 
 with British fishermen, in the peaceable use of any 
 part of the said coasts in their occupancy for the 
 same purpose. It is understood that the above- 
 mentioned liberty applies solely to the sea-fishery, 
 and that the salmon and shad fisheries, and all 
 other fisheries in rivers and the mouths of rivers, 
 are hereby reserved exclusively for British fisher- 
 men." Article lo secures to British subjects the 
 corresponding rights of fishing, &c., on the eastern 
 sea-coasts and shores of the United States north of 
 the 3gth parallel of north latitude. Article 20 re- 
 serves from these stipulations the places that were 
 reserved from the common right of fishing under 
 the first article of the treaty of June 5, 1854. 
 Article 21 provides for the reciprocal admission 
 of fish and fish oil into each country from the 
 other, free of duty (excepting fish of the inland 
 lakes and fish preserved in oil). Article 22 pro- 
 vides that, "Inasmuch as it is asserted by the Gov- 
 ernment of Her Britannic Majesty that the privi- 
 leges accorded to the citizens of the United States 
 under Article XVIII of this treaty are of greater 
 value than those accorded by Articles XIX and 
 XXI of this treaty to the subjects of Her Bri- 
 tannic Majesty, and this assertion is not admitted 
 by the Government of the United States, it is 
 further agreed that Commissioners shall be ap- 
 
 pointed to determine ... the amount of any com- 
 pensation which in their opinion, ought to be paid 
 by the Government of the United States to the 
 Government of Her Britannic Majesty." Article 
 23 provides for the appointment of such commis- 
 sioners, one by the president of the United States, 
 one by her Britannic majesty, and the third by 
 the president and her majesty conjointly ; or, 
 failing of agreement within three months, the third 
 commissioner to be named by the Austrian Min- 
 ister at London. The commissioners to meet at 
 Halifax, and their procedure to be as prescribed 
 and regulated by articles 24 and 25. Articles 26 
 to 31 define certain reciprocal privileges accorded 
 by each government to the subjects of the other, 
 including the navigation of the St. Lawrence, 
 Yukon, Porcupine and Stikine rivers, lake Michi- 
 gan, and the Welland, St. Lawrence and St. Clair 
 Flats canals; and the transportation of goods in 
 bond through the territory of one country into 
 the other without payment of duties. Article 32 
 extends the provisions of articles 18 to 25 of 
 the treaty to Newfoundland if all parties con- 
 cerned enact the necessary laws, but not otherwise. 
 Article 33 limits the duration of articles 18 to 25 
 and article 30, to ten years from the date of their 
 going into effect, and "further until the expira- 
 tion of two years after either of the two high 
 contracting parties shall have given notice to the 
 other of its wish to terminate the same." The 
 remaining articles of the treaty provide for sub- 
 mitting to the arbitration of the German Emperor 
 the northwestern water-boundary question (in the 
 channel between Vancouver Island and the conti- 
 nent) — to complete the settlement of northwestern 
 boundary disputes. — Treaties and conventions be- 
 tween the United States and other Powers (ed. oj 
 i88q), pp. 478-403. 
 
 Also in: C. Cushing, Treaty oj Washington, app. 
 
 1871-1872. — Tribunal of arbitration at Geneva, 
 and its award. — Summary of the controversy. — 
 "The appointment of .Arbitrators took place in 
 due course, and with the ready good-will of the 
 three neutral governments. The United States ap- 
 pointed Mr. Charles Francis Adams; Great Britain 
 appointed Sii- .Alexander Cockburn ; the King of 
 Italy named Count Frederic Sclopis; the President 
 of the Swiss Confederation, Mr. Jacob Stsmpfli; 
 and the Emperor of Brazil, the Baron d'ltajuba. 
 Mr. J. C. Bancroft Davis was appointed Agent of 
 the United States, and Lord Tentcrden of Great 
 Britain. The Tribunal was organized for the re- 
 ception of the case of each party, and held its first 
 conference [at Geneva, Switzerland] on the 15th 
 of December, 1871," Count Sclopis being chosen to 
 preside. "The printed Case of the United States, 
 with accompanying documents, was filed by Mr. 
 Bancroft Davis, and the printed Case of Great 
 Britain, with documents, by Lord Tenterden. The 
 Tribunal made regulation for the filing of the 
 respective Counter-Cases on or before the 15th day 
 of April next ensuing, as required by the Treaty ; 
 and for the convening of a special meeting of the 
 Tribunal, if occasion should require; and then, at 
 a second meeting, on the next day, they adjourned 
 until the 15th of June next ensuing, subject to a 
 prior call by the Secretary, if there should be oc- 
 casion." The sessions of the tribunal were re- 
 sumed on June 15, 1872. according to the adjourn- 
 ment, and were continued until September 14 fol- 
 lowing, when the decision and award were an- 
 nounced, and were signed by all the arbitrators 
 except the British representative. Sir Alexander 
 Cockburn, who dissented. It was found by the 
 tribunal that the British government had "failed 
 to use due diligence in the performance of its 
 
 173
 
 ALABAMA CLAIMS 
 
 ALABAMA CLAIMS 
 
 neutral obligations" with respect to the cruisers 
 Alabama and Florida, and the several tenders of 
 those vessels; and also with respect to the Shen- 
 andoah after her departure from Melbourne, Feb. 
 18, 186S, but not before that date. With respect 
 to the Georgia, the Sumter, the Nashville, the 
 Tallahassee and the Chickamauga, it was the find- 
 ing of the tribunal that Great Britain had not failed 
 to perform the duties of a neutral power. So far 
 as relates to the vessels called the Sallie, the Jef- 
 ferson Davis, the Music, the Boston, and the V. H. 
 Joy, it was the decision of the tribunal that they 
 ought to be excluded from consideration for want 
 of evidence. "So far as relates to the particulars 
 of the indemnity claimed by the United States, the 
 costs of pursuit of Confederate cruisers" are de- 
 clared to be "not, in the judgment of the Tribunal, 
 properly distinguishable from the general expenses 
 of the war carried on by the United States," and 
 "there is no ground for awarding to the United 
 States any sum by way of indemnity under this 
 head." A similar decision put aside the whole 
 consideration of claims for "prospective earnings." 
 Finally, the award was rendered in the following 
 language; "Whereas, in order to arrive at an 
 equitable compensation for the damages which 
 have been sustained, it is necessary to set aside all 
 double claims for the same losses, and all claims 
 for 'gross freights' so far as they exceed 'net 
 freights;' and whereas it is just and reasonable to 
 allow interest at a reasonable rate; and whereas, 
 in accordance with the spirit and letter of the 
 Treaty of Washington, it is preferable to adopt 
 the form of adjudication of a sum in gross, rather 
 than to refer the subject of compensation for 
 further discussion and deliberation to a Board of 
 .\ssessors, as provided by .Article X of the said 
 Treaty; The Tribunal, making use of the author- 
 ity conferred upon it by .Article \'n of the said 
 Treaty, by a majority of four voices to one, 
 awards to the United States the sum of fifteen mil- 
 lions five hundred thousand Dollars in gold as the 
 indemnity to be paid by Great Britain to the 
 United States for the satisfaction of all the claims 
 referred to the consideration of the Tribunal, con- 
 formably to the provisions contained in .\rticle VII 
 of the aforesaid Treaty." It should be stated that 
 the so-called "indirect claims" of the United States, 
 for consequential losses and damages, growing out 
 of the encouragement of the southern Rebellion, 
 the prolongation of the war, &c., were -dropped 
 from consideration at the outset of the session ot 
 the tribunal, in June, the arbitrators agreeing then 
 in a statement of opinion to the effect that "these 
 claims do not constitute, upon the principles of 
 international law applicable to such cases, good 
 foundation for an award of compensation or com- 
 putation of damages between nations." This 
 declaration was accepted by the United States as 
 decisive of the question, and the hearing pro- 
 ceeded accordingly. — C. Gushing, Treaty of Waslt- 
 ingtoi:. 
 
 An excellent summary of the .Mabama contro- 
 versy by Prof. W. .X Dunning makes clear the 
 general background of public opinion in the United 
 States and Great Britain. .After an account of the 
 diplomatic preliminaries of the Treaty of Washing- 
 ton. Prof. Dunning says; — "As to the .Uahama 
 claims, the agreement embodied in the treaty sig- 
 nified great concessions on both sides in the in- 
 terest of an amicable settlement. Great Britain 
 expressed regret 'for the escape, under whatever 
 circumstances, of the Alabama and other vessels 
 from British ports, and for the depredations com- 
 mitted by those vessels' In addition to this 
 soothing admission that something disagreeable had 
 
 happened to the United States, the British Gov- 
 ernment consented to arbitration in the fullest 
 sense in reference to all the claims. [See Arbitra- 
 tion, International; Modern Period; 1871-1872.] 
 Three rules were laid down as to the duties of 
 a neutral government, and the arbitral trib- 
 unal was enjoined to base its judgment on 
 these rules, though the British Government 
 recognized them, not as a statement of principles 
 of international law in force in 1861-65, but as 
 principles that ought in the future to be adopted 
 by maritime powers, and that Great Britain had, 
 in fact, sought to live up to during the .American 
 War. The three rules defined the duty of a neu- 
 tral government, in respect to the fitting out and 
 supplying of war-ships, in such terms as to make 
 it morally certain that judgment would be adverse 
 to Great Britain on the case of the Alabama, if 
 not as to other of the Confederate cruisers. The 
 British Government, in short, not only assumed 
 a somewhat apologetic attitude at the outset, but 
 also submitted to be judged by principles that 
 were not obligatory as rules of international con- 
 duct at the time of the acts concerned, and that 
 insured an unfavorable decision. A proud and 
 powerful nation does not put itself in such a posi- 
 tion without potent motives. One such was ob- 
 vious and unconcealed: the general adoption of 
 rigorous rules of neutral duty would be very ad- 
 vantageous to Great Britain whenever she should 
 become a belligerent. More influential than this 
 selfish interest, however, was the desire, in no 
 small measure purely sentimental, to be on friendly 
 terms with the United States. The American 
 democracy had proved in the severest of tests its 
 fitness to survive, and the homage of a people and 
 a generation in whom Darwinism was taking deep 
 root was generously bestowed on the people who 
 so opportunely illustrated the dogma of science 
 Not all the concession in the Treaty of Washing- 
 ton was on the part of the British. One point 
 that had been strenuously insisted on as the origi- 
 nal grievance of them all by Secretary Seward and 
 Mr. Sumner was allowed by Secretary Fish to 
 recede quietly into the background. This was the 
 premature recognition of the Confederacy as a 
 belligerent. Fish took the position that this 
 action of the British Government was evidence 
 of an unfriendly spirit, but could in no sense be 
 the ground of a claim for compensation. This 
 admission was regarded as having a bearing on the 
 general question of the national or indirect claims 
 These were not the subject of any reference or 
 allusion in the treaty, and it was understood by 
 the British negotiators that the .American Govern- 
 ment had definitely abandoned them, as it was 
 known to have ignored the demand of Sumner that 
 a withdrawal of the British flag from the Western 
 Hemisphere should be a preliminary condition to 
 any settlement whatever. .As a matter of fact, the 
 .Americans had no desire to urge the extravagant 
 claims that Sumner had made so conspicuous. The 
 British commissioners, on their side, were with- 
 out authority to consider them. Yet bccau.se pop- 
 ular feeling was so sensitive about them on both 
 sides of the water the negotiators avoided all ref- 
 erence to them, and by this very excess of caution 
 left room for a dangerous misunderstanding. The 
 tribunal of arbitration met and organized at 
 Geneva. Switzerland, in the middle of December, 
 1871. It consisted of five arbitrators, appointed 
 respectively by the governments of the United 
 States, Great Britain. Italy. Switzerland, and 
 Brazil. The cases of the two contending govern- 
 ments were at once presented in printed form 
 That of the United States was found to include, 
 
 174
 
 ALABAMA CLAIMS 
 
 ALAND ISLANDS 
 
 in addition to thf claims for losses due to the de- 
 struction of vessels by the cruisers and to the pur- 
 suit of the cruisers, claims also for the loss in- 
 volved in the transfer of the merchant marine to 
 the British flag, the increased cost of insurance, 
 and the prolongation of the war. That is, the in- 
 direct or national claims were laid before the 
 tribunal along with the rest. Protests arose at 
 once from every organ of opinion in Great Britain. 
 To admit responsibility for that kind and degree 
 of loss would mean, it was declared, national hu- 
 miliation and financial ruin. The government and 
 the negotiators contended that the wording of the 
 treaty excluded the indirect claims from submission 
 to the tribunal, and that such exclusion had been 
 agreed to in conference by the American negotia- 
 tors. The latter denied any such agreement or in- 
 terpretation. Great Britain stood firm in her con- 
 tention, however, and her agent was directed to 
 withdraw from the arbitration in case considera- 
 tion of the indirect claims should be persisted in. 
 After many months of tension and of deep distress 
 among the friends of peace and amity, a way out 
 of the impasse was found that was acceptable to 
 both parties. The tribunal itself declared that 
 it did not consider itself authorized, under inter- 
 national law, to award money compensation for 
 such losses as those involved in the indirect claims. 
 The American agent thereupon refrained from 
 demands upon the arbiters for further attention 
 to these claims. This happy outcome of the dis- 
 pute was quite as pleasing to the American as to 
 the British Government. Fish and his coadjutors 
 had no expectation or desire that Great Britain 
 should be mulcted in consequential damages. Sum- 
 ner's speech had created a surprisingly strong senti- 
 ment in support of such mulcting, and it was 
 problematical whether the administration could 
 afford, in the year of a presidential election, to run 
 counter to this sentiment. Animosity toward the 
 Southerners was at this time a strong factor in the 
 politics of the Republican party, and it fell in well 
 with this feeling to disparage the South by con- 
 tending that the remarkable prolongation of its 
 resistance to the North was due solely to the aid 
 it received from Great Britain. The rejection of 
 the indirect claims by the tribunal of arbitra- 
 tion itself relieved the administration of all re- 
 sponsibility for abandoning them, and. passed 
 without noteworthy effect on American public 
 opinion. The judgment of the tribunal needs but 
 casual mention. In respect to three of the Con- 
 federate cruisers, the Alabama, the Florida, and 
 the Shenandoah* Great Britain was found to have 
 contravened the three rules of neutral conduct 
 laid down by the treaty, and the damages due to 
 the United States on account of the dereliction 
 were assessed at .$15,500,000. Sir Alexander Cock- 
 burn, the British arbitrator, dissented from the 
 judgment of the tribunal on all but a single point, 
 namely, that due diligence had not been used in 
 ascertaining the character of the Alabama and pre- 
 venting her departure from Liverpool. The dis- 
 senting opinions of the Englishman were embodied 
 in a very lengthy document, in which he expressed 
 with unjudicial candor his contempt for the in- 
 telligence of his fellow arbitrators and for the 
 methods and attainments of those who conducted 
 the American case. Corkburn's caustic criticism 
 found some reflection in the Tory press, and there 
 appeared more or less of the once familiar diatribe 
 against the Yankees In general, however, the 
 judgment was acquiesced in by British public 
 opinion with good grace. Even Cockburn ended 
 his offensive opinion with an expression of the 
 hope and desire that the arbitration would prove 
 
 a potent influence in maintaining amity between 
 the two kindred peoples. In the United States 
 the announcement of the actual award attracted 
 little attention or comment. It came in the midst 
 of a heated electoral campaign, and was little avail- 
 able for partisan purposes. The Treaty of Wash- 
 ington had afforded to the Americans their most 
 substantial victory a year earlier, whei Great Brit- 
 ain expressed her regret and agreed to arbitration. 
 The carrying out of the treaty was followed with 
 the somewhat languid interest of him who gathers 
 up the trophies after the victory is won." — W. A. 
 Dunning, British empire and the United Slate), 
 pp. 251-257. 
 
 Also in: J. K. Hosmer, Appeal to arms, pp. 
 315-317- — W. A. Dunning, Reconstruction, political 
 and economic, pp. I5q-i63, 166-167, 16Q-170. — 
 A. B. Hart, National ideals historically traced, p. 
 315. — J. F. Rhodes, History oj the United States 
 V. 6, pp. 335-344. 349. 351. 354-361. 364, 376.— 
 C. F. Adams, Jr., Life oj Charles Francis Adams, 
 American Statesmen Series. — A. E. Conning, Ham- 
 ilton Fish. — F. Wharton (Digest of International 
 Laiv oj United Stales, v. 3, ch. 21). — J. B. Moore, 
 Digest of international lar.K 
 
 ALACAB, or Toloso, Battle of (1212). See 
 Almohades. 
 
 ALAMANCE, Battle of (1771). See North 
 Carolin.a: 1766-1771. 
 
 ALAMANNI. See .Alemanni. 
 
 ALAMO, a Franciscan mission situated in San 
 Antonio, Texas, so called from the grove of cotton- 
 wood in which it stands; built about 1722; used 
 occasionally after 1703 as a fort. Bought by the 
 state in 1883 and maintained as a public monu- 
 ment. For the massacre of the .Alamo (1836), see 
 Te.xas: 1835-1S36. 
 
 ALAMOOT, or Alamout, Castle of.— The 
 stronghold of the "Old Man of the Mountain," or 
 sheikh of the terrible order of the Assassins, in 
 northern Persia. Its name signilies "the eagle's 
 nest," or "the vulture's nest." See Assassins. 
 
 ALAffD ISLANDS, an archipelago of about 
 300 islands situated in the Baltic sea, at the en- 
 trance to the Gulf of Bothnia. The western part 
 of the Baltic, which extends from the Iliig^ten 
 lighthouse to that of the Lagskar and separates 
 the Aland Islands from Sweden, is called the 
 Aland sea. The sea to the eastward, separating 
 Aland from the coast of Finland, is full of small 
 islands and islets, eighty of which are inhabited. 
 The rest are rocky islets, reefs and skerries. The 
 largest island is that which gives its name to the 
 group, Aland proper; its length is twenty-three 
 miles and its greatest width twenty miles. The 
 total area of the islands is about 550 square miles 
 and the population numbers nearly 27,000, mostly 
 of Swedish blood. The only town on the islands, 
 which are sparsely populated, is Mariehamm, sit- 
 uated on the south coast of .Mand. 
 
 12th century to World War. — In the 12th 
 century the islands were occupied by Eric, the 
 Saint; by the peace of Noteborg (1323) they were 
 incorporated together with Finland in Sweden, 
 after they had been a duchy since 1284. In the 
 Union of Calmar, 1307-1523, the Danes had con- 
 trol, but in 1634 'he islands were made part of 
 the government of Finland by the Swedish con- 
 stitution. Peter the Great conquered the islands 
 in 1714, but restored them to Sweden in 1721. 
 Part of Finland fell under Russian rule in 1 743 ; 
 after the war between Russia and Sweden (1808), 
 both Finland and the islands were ceded to Russia 
 by the treaty of Frederikshamm. By the treaty 
 of Paris, in 1856, Russia was prohibited from erect- 
 ing fortifications on the islands, despite which some 
 
 T75
 
 ALAND ISLANDS 
 
 defence works were constructed while in 1906 a 
 Russian garrison was installed there. In the fol- 
 fowSg v'ar Russia requested France and Grea 
 BrilaSi to cancel the convention of 1856, aboui 
 fh 'Tme time a secret treaty was cone udedbe^ 
 tween Germany and Russia, by which the latter 
 was promised a free hand with «g-/d 'o \he '^^ 
 bnd- This agreement was first published to the 
 world by Leon' Trotsky Bolshevis|^ore.gnmmis- 
 ter, in December, 1917. I" the Baltic Treat> con 
 eluded in iqo8 between Russia, Germans, Svseaen 
 and Denmark, no specific mention was made o^ 
 ?he Alands, but the memorandum appended taken 
 
 ?he World War broke out, the Russians lost no 
 ime in fortifying the islands, and in January, 
 Z\ the assured Sweden that the fortifications 
 ^^' „nlv temDorarv This assurance was re- 
 pe'atedTn'w t?n^ in Vpi6 and confirmed by Brit- 
 Fsh and French ministers. Great excitement was 
 aroused fn Sweden, and military ineasures were 
 openly advocated. The ebullition, however, died 
 Hnwn in the greater turmoil of the war 
 
 1917-1919 -The Russian revolution mtroduced 
 a new perfod in the history of inland and the 
 question of the Aland islands, "« longer one 
 merely of fortifications, became acute. On -^u 
 Tust '-o 1Q17, a communal assembly was held in 
 fh! inlands consider the question of reunvon 
 ',lu Sweden A delegation was sent to Sweden 
 o urge he execution of that P-I^Vh '"n the"!!' 
 Decei^ber 25-29 a plebiscite was h'-'d m the «^ 
 lands, at which 95 per cent, of the adult male and 
 female population voted for reunion. A petition 
 to that effect was sent to Stockholm and favor^ 
 ably rec ived by the king. Meanwhile Sweden 
 had addressed a note to Germany, Austria-Hun- 
 gary and^Turkey requesting that the .^andques^ 
 Uon should be considered at Brest-L.tovsk n 
 nrder to safeguard vital interests of Sweden m 
 hoL inlands." The Swedish governn^nt was 
 urged bv the country to occupy the island., Dui 
 "hfBolsheviki forestalled them by landing ;0°° 
 trooDs together with a number of "Red Guards 
 rom F nTami. Outrages were committed on the 
 inhabitants, who appealed to Sweden for a>d . A 
 Swedish military expedition arnved to protect their 
 co-nationals, forced the Russians and R^ds to 
 retire but were forced to evacuate their position 
 by German troops, which occupied the islands on 
 March 6 iQiS. The German force remained till 
 Octol^r 19^8 By Article \T of the Brest-Litovsk 
 ?r°a5 (March 3^ X9i8), Russia w.s obhgated o 
 evacuate the islands and remove the f<" 'i^"""^^ 
 as soon as possible. On December 31. i9iS. it was 
 announced ^hat an agreement had been signed be_ 
 tween Sweden, Finland and Germany with regard 
 rthe postponed demolition of the Aland for ito^ 
 tions, and that the agreement was to be ratified 
 at once On March 24. i9io, a dispatch from 
 Sweden announced that the new Aland expedition 
 wouW leave Stockholm on March 31 t°."™™^"« 
 The destruction of the fortifications. Finland, the 
 other claimant, had meanwhUe not been .dle_ In 
 March 1918, the Finnish government had issi^ed 
 a decree declaring their intention of forming the 
 islands into a separate province ""der a civil and 
 militarv governor. Then came the islanders ap 
 ^lafandTe Swedfeh and German occupations al- 
 
 ALAND ISLANDS 
 
 ^.- rpterred to In Februar%-, 1919, a deputation 
 
 rte Afandert proceeded to Paris to Uy their 
 
 rase before the Powers. On March 18, the t)wea 
 
 sh government suggested that the Peace Conf«^ 
 
 nee' should consider the Aland q"«"on^-Ba^d 
 
 on Handbook Ac. 48. prepared under the d^ec 
 
 "°" oV'%9i:-"I^n eSMto^^the'difpu't^dq"::- 
 C^on ?the Aland I^"ands^.hich had been agitating 
 both Finland and Sweden ever since the Russian 
 Revolution, the Paris Peace Conference deeded 
 That the islands should be neulralued under the 
 'guarantee of the League of Nations."-.4««<^ 
 
 ^?j20-FiL''no-Swe''dish quarrek- Intervention 
 of the' League of Nations.-The dispute between 
 Finland and Sweden over the disposition of the 
 \hnd Islands reached an acute ^tage. Sweden 
 wthdrew her minister from the . Finnish capi 1 
 and a conflict loomed on the horizon The Brit 
 ish government brought the matter to the atten 
 ion of the secretariat of the League; the latter 
 promptly intervened and induced the disputan^ 
 to debate the case under the supervision of the 
 League Council itself.— 4 H«»a/ Reg>ster, 1920, PP. 
 mn-mi— See also Finland: 1920. 
 I920-Problem submitted to arbitration of 
 iurists -"The Swedes claimed that the Alanders 
 debt of self-determination was an 'nternationa^ 
 question. The Finns claimed that the probl m 
 was one within the domestic Jurisdiction of Fin- 
 Ind The Council of the League of Nations de- 
 cked to submit this preliminary con ention to a 
 mall committee of international jurists^ The fd- 
 lowine three were chosen; Herr Huber (Swiss), 
 M LLnaude (French), and Mynherr Steruyck n 
 (Dutch) This Commission decided the initial 
 iuestion in favor of the Swedes and A anders^ and 
 Reported that the question was essentially an in 
 ternational one. This, however, was onl> the pre 
 Um"narv point, and although representatives of the 
 LMgueof Nations proceeded to the Alands m the 
 tutumn the Council of the League had reached 
 no d^ci^ion up to the end of the year."-.4«««a/ 
 
 ^t;f-S 'report of commission.-lsUnds 
 awa ded to Finland.-League o* N*'?""" *^'^; 
 tion -"Great excitement was manifested in all the 
 Swedish press over the announcement from Ge 
 bweais^ pre commission appointed 
 
 ro'e'xamine the Question whether the Aland Islands 
 n he Baltic should belong to Sweden or Finland 
 had found for the latter country. Keen disap- 
 pfmtment and indignation fr^ted the repor 
 „,,.,. rViori. with expression of the hope mai hk 
 S: wo'uld 'rdu:e'to adopt the recommendation, 
 c^w., \, =anftion Ihe report, according to Tidmit- 
 ™r SliSo m° t 'vooW del Ih. doathbloc to 
 lid,.? cStoco In th, will ol tb. L..;n. »^ 
 
 E.ff;oi;rnt:^5'ad:o;'-oZ^.r^ 
 r'i'sfST,r^^s,^fr"H 
 
 •, Tn the course of its 36,000-word report, the 
 commiSion Vat^d that the Aland Islands fotrn a 
 
 fbi; tZ f pfebSrfhe^rf^ouldrdolte^dfy 
 afoV Swefen it is questionable whether any one 
 hl,d the right to take them away from Finland 
 The desire of the Alanders to join Sweden was 
 ?ound to be mainly due to their anxiety to main- 
 tabi their Swedish language and culture. As Fm- 
 uITh fs readv to grant satisfactory guarantees to 
 1?." Afandert the commission urged that it would 
 
 176
 
 ALAND 
 
 ALARODIANS 
 
 be unjust to deprive Finland of the islands. Fur- 
 thermore, the Aland population is too small to 
 stand alone, and the islands are in other ways 
 hardly capable of survivinR as an independent 
 State. Therefore, the commission recommends that 
 the Alands remain under Finland, but that Fin- 
 land grant certain linguistic, cultural and trade 
 guarantees to the Swedish population of the archi- 
 pelago. . . . The commission recommends that the 
 Alanders should have the right tc present to the 
 Finnish government a list of three candidates for 
 Governor of the islands, and that the Governor 
 be chosen from this list. The report ends the 
 procedure begun in July, iq2o, when Swedo-Fin- 
 nish relations over the Aland question became 
 acute, and Earl Curzon referred the question to 
 the League of Nations." — Neiv York Times Cur- 
 rent History, June, 1021, pp. 543-544. — It may be 
 added that this report w.ie based on investigations 
 conducted by Mr. A. Elkus, former United States 
 Ambassador to Constantinople; M. Calonder, 
 former President of the Swiss Confederation, and 
 Baron Beyens, former Belgian Minister to Ger- 
 many. On June 24, iq2i, the Council of the 
 League of Nations finally decided that the Alands 
 should definitely be placed under the rule of Fin- 
 land, but neutralized in regard to military af- 
 fairs, while the guarantees recommended by the 
 commission (see above, 1Q21), were also adopted. 
 
 Also in: C. Hallendorf, La question d'Aland 
 avant et pendant la guerre de Crimee (Stockholm, 
 1917). — E. Sjaestedt, La question des lies d'Aland 
 (Paris, igig).- — S. Tunberg, Les lies d'Aland dans 
 I'histoire {Paris, iqig). — Sir E. Hertslet, Map of 
 Europe hv treaty 4 v., iSyq-iSqi. 
 
 ALANO.—igis.— Stormed by Italians. See 
 World War: iqi8: IV. Austro-Italian theater: c, 5. 
 
 ALANS, or Alani. — "The Alani are first 
 mentioned by Dionysius the geographer (B. C. 
 30-10) who joins them with the Daci and the 
 Tauri, and again places them between the latter 
 and the Agathyrsi. A similar position (in the 
 south of Russia in Europe, the modern Ukraine) 
 is assigned to them by Pliny and Josephus. Seneca 
 places them further west upon the Ister. Ptolemy 
 has two bodies of Alani, one in the position above 
 described, the other in Scythia within the Imaus, 
 north and partly east of the Caspian. It must 
 have been from these last, the successors, and, 
 according to some, the descendants of the ancient 
 Massagetje, that the Alani came who attacked 
 Pacorus and Tiridates [in Media and Armenia, 
 A. D. 75]. . . . The result seems to have been that 
 the invaders, after ravaging and harrying Media 
 and Armenia at their pleasure, carried off a vast 
 number of prisoners and an enormous booty into 
 their own country." — G. Rawlinson, Sixth great 
 oriental monarchy, ch. 17. — E. H. Bunbury, His- 
 tory of ancient geography, ch. 6, note H. — "The 
 first of this [the Tartar] race known to the Ro- 
 mans were the Alani. In the fourth century they 
 pitched their tents in the country between the 
 Volga and the Tanais. — J. C. L. Sismondi, Fall 0} 
 the Roman empire, -ch. 3. See also Europe: Eth- 
 nology: Migrations: Map showing barbaric migra- 
 tions. 
 
 406-409. — Final invasion of Gaul. See Galtls: 
 406 -4og. 
 
 409. — Invasion of Cartagena. See Cartagena: 
 409-713; Spain: 400-414. 
 
 429. — With the Vandals in Africa. See Van- 
 dals: 429-439. 
 
 451.— At the Battle of Chalons. See Huns: 
 451- 
 
 ALARCON, Hernando de (fl. 16th century), a 
 Spanish navigator sent in 1540 to assist Coronado 
 
 in New Mexico. Entered the gulf of California, 
 explored, and made an excellent map of that ter- 
 ritory; dispelled the popular belief that California 
 was an island; explored Colorado river to point 
 above Fort Yuma. 
 ALARCOS, Battle of (1195). See Almohades. 
 ALARIC I (Gothic, Ala-reiks, "all ruler") 
 (370-410), renowned chieftain of the Visigoths. 
 In 395 he was chosen by the Visigoths to be their 
 leader. "The very year of the death of Theodo- 
 sius (A. D. 395), the Visigoths rose under Alaric, 
 their chieftain, and marched into Greece. [See 
 -Athens: 395.] Seven years later they attacked 
 Italy. Stilicho, the general of Honorius, success- 
 fully resisted them, until, out of jealousy and 
 fear, he was murdered by his royal master. Then 
 Alaric was able to overrun Italy and even to cap- 
 ture Rome (A. D. 410). It was ... in this crisis 
 that the Roman legions departed from Britain, 
 leaving it exposed to the attacks of the Picts and 
 Scots." — G. Goodspeed, History of the Ancient 
 World, pp. 427-428. — "For the first time in 800 
 years, foreign soldiers were marched into the 
 Forum and encamped in the streets of Rome. For 
 three days and nights Alaric gave up the city to 
 plunder. Then he gathered his forces together and 
 started for southern Italy."— A. M. Wolfson, An- 
 cient civilization, p. 106. 
 
 While preparing to invade Sicily and Africa, 
 Alaric died and was buried with a vast treasure 
 in the bed of the river Busento. The Visigoths 
 then left Italy and moved into Spain, where they 
 established a kingdom (412) which lasted for 
 three hundred years. — See also Barbarian inva- 
 sions: 395-408, 408-410; Goths: 395, 400-403; 
 Roip: 394-39S, 408-410; Europe: Ethnology; Mi- 
 grations: Map showing barbaric migrations. 
 
 Alaric II (d. 507), King of Visigoths. See 
 Goths: 507-500. 
 
 ALARODIANS, IBERIANS, COLCHIANS. 
 — "The Alarodians of Heroditus, joined with the 
 Sapeires ... are almost certainly the inhabitants 
 of Armenia, whose Semitic name was Urarda, 
 or Ararat. 'Alarud,' indeed, is a mere variant 
 form of 'Ararud,' the 1 and r being undis- 
 tinguishable in the old Persian, and 'Ararud' serves 
 determinately to connect the Ararat of Scripture 
 with the Urarda, or Urartha of the Inscriptions. 
 . . . The name of Ararat is constantly used in 
 Scripture, but always to denote a country rather 
 than a particular mountain. . , , The connexion 
 ... of Urarda with the Babylonian tribe of 
 Akkad is proved by the application in the inscrip- 
 tions of the ethnic title of Burbur (?) to the Ar- 
 menian king , . . ; but there is nothing to prove 
 whether the Burbur or Akkad of Babylonia de- 
 scended in a very remote age from the mountains 
 to colonize the plains, or whether the Urardians 
 were refugees of a later period driven northward 
 by the growing power of the Semites. The former 
 supposition, however, is most in conformity with 
 Scripture, and incidentally with the tenor of the 
 inscriptions." — H. C. Rawlinson, History of Herod- 
 otus, bk. 7, app. 3. — "The broad and rich valley 
 of the Kur, which corresponds closely with the 
 modern Russian province of Georgia, was [an- 
 ciently] in the possession of a people called by 
 Herodotus Saspeires or Sapeires, whom we may 
 identify with the Iberians of later writers. Ad- 
 joining upon them towards the south, probably in 
 the country about Erivan, and so in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Ararat, were the Alarodians, whose 
 name must be connected with that of the great 
 mountain. On the other side of the Sapeirian 
 country, in the tracts now known as Mingrelia and 
 Imeritia, regions of a wonderful beauty and fer- 
 
 177
 
 ALARUD 
 
 ALASKA 
 
 tility, were the Colchians, — dependents, but not 
 exactly subjects, of Persia." — G. Rawlinson, Five 
 great monarchies: Persia, cli. i. 
 
 ALARUD. See Alarodians; Iberians; Col- 
 chians. 
 
 ALASHEHR. See Philadelphia, Asia Minor. 
 
 Battle of (1920). See Greece; 1920. 
 
 ALASKA, a territory of the United States, 
 situated at the extreme northwestern extremity of 
 North .■\merica. Until 1867 it was known as 
 Russian America. The name .Maska was given 
 by William H. Seward, and is derived from the 
 Aleut word alak' sliak or al-ay' ek-sa, meaning "a 
 great country." The range of climate is great with 
 wider extremes than from Maine to Florida. Only 
 the northern third of the territory has a really 
 .Arctic climate, and the warm waters and winds 
 of the Pacific make the southern seaboard com- 
 paratively temperate. .-Maska has an area of 500,- 
 884 square miles Not all of this is well-known — 
 the density of population is a little more than 
 I person per 10 square miles — but the general 
 characteristics are a matter of common knowledge 
 and the resources have been roughly estimated. 
 
 ,;■.■!..-».: 
 
 TYPES OF TOTEM POLES, AL.ASKA 
 
 Exploration has been going on from its acquisi- 
 tion right up to the present, so continually, that 
 a statement of the most recent knowledge is soon 
 superseded by later discoveries. 
 
 Natives. — The natives of the interior include 
 two races, the Indian and the Esquimo. The 
 valley of the Yukon is inhabited by the Indians, 
 down to three or four hundred miles of its mouth, 
 while its lower valley, as well as those of the Kus- 
 kokwim and the rivers that drain into the Arctic 
 Ocean west and north are occupied by the Es- 
 quimos. (See also Indians. .American: Cultural 
 areas in North .America: Eskimo area.) "The 
 Indians of the interior of .Alaska are a gentle, 
 . . . kindly . . . tractable people. They have old 
 traditions of bloody tribal warfare that have grown 
 in ferocity, one supposes, with the lapse of time. 
 
 for it is . . . difficult for one who knows them 
 to believe that so mild a race could ever have 
 been pugnacious or bloodthirsty. ... It is true 
 that . . . murders . . . have been committed — 
 murders of white men . . . ; but in the sixty years 
 from the Nulato massacre of 1851, over the whole 
 vast interior, these crimes can be counted on the 
 fintiers of one hand. They are not a revengeful 
 people. . . . The Indian is ... in most cases eager 
 to learn and eager that his children may learn. . . . 
 The government has undertaken the education of 
 the Indian, and has set up a bureau charged with 
 the establishment and conduct of native schools. 
 There are five such schools on the Yukon between 
 Eagle and Tanana, including these two points, 
 amongst Indians all of whom belong to the Epis- 
 copal Church, and five more between Tanana and 
 .Anvik, amongst natives divided in allegiance be- 
 tween the Episcopal and the Roman Catholic 
 Churches. When, somewhat late in the day, the 
 government set its hand to the education of the 
 natives, mission schools had been conducted for 
 many years at the five stations of the Episcopal 
 Church above Tanana and at the various mission 
 stations below that point. . . . That the Indian 
 race of interior .Alaska is threatened with extinc- 
 tion, there is unhappily little room to doubt. . . . 
 .At most places where vital statistics are kept the 
 death-rate exceeds the birth-rate, though it is 
 sometimes very difficult to secure accurate sta- 
 tistics. . . . Certain diseases that have played havoc 
 in the past are not much feared now. ... In the 
 last few years there have been no serious epi- 
 demics; but epidemic disease does not constitute 
 the chief danger that threatens the native. That 
 chief danger looms from two things; tuberculosis 
 and whiskey. Whether tuberculosis is a disease 
 indigenous to these parts, or whether it was intro- 
 duced with the white man, has been disputed and 
 would be difficult of determination. Probably it 
 was always present amongst the natives; the old 
 ones declare that it was; but the changed condi- 
 tions of their lives have certainly . , . aggravated 
 it. They lived much more in the open when they 
 had no tree-felling tool but a stone-axe and did 
 not build cabins. Perhaps as great a cause of the 
 spread of tuberculosis is the change in clothing. 
 The original native was clad in skins, which are 
 the warmest clothing in the world. The Indian 
 usually sells all his furs and then . . . buys manu- 
 factured clothing from the trader at a fancy price. 
 That clothing is almost always cotton and shoddy. 
 . . . But far , . . beyond any other cause of the 
 native decline stands the curse of the country, 
 whiskey. Recognising by its long Indian experi- 
 ence the consequences of . . . liquor-drinking 
 habits amongst the natives, the government has 
 forbidden under penalty the giving or selling of 
 any intoxicants to them. A few years ago a new 
 law [was] passed making such giving or selling a 
 felony. The Indian is the only settled inhabitant 
 of interior .Alaska to-day ; for the prospectors and 
 miners, who constitute the bulk of the white pop- 
 ulation, are not often very long in one place. 
 Many of them might rightly be classed as perma- 
 nent, but very few as settled inhabitants. It is 
 the commonest thing to meet men a thousand miles 
 away from the place where one met them last. 
 It is unquestionable that the best natives in the 
 country are those that have had the least inti- 
 macy with the white man. and it follows that the 
 most hopeful and promising mission stations are 
 those far up the tributarv- streams, away from min- 
 ing camps and off the routes of travel, difficult of 
 access, winter or summer, never seen hy tourists 
 at all : seen only by those who seek them with 
 
 178
 
 ALASKA, 1741-1787 
 
 ALASKA, 1787-1867 
 
 cost and trouble At such stations the improve- 
 ment of the Indian is manifest and the popula- 
 tion increases." — H. Stuck, Ten thousand miles 
 with a dog sled, pp. 349-368. — See also Athapascan 
 family: Chippewyans: Tinneh: Sarcees; EsKi- 
 
 MAUAN FAiULY. 
 
 Also in: H. Stuck, Voyages on the Yukon and 
 Us tributaries, 1917. — G. B. Gordon, In the Alas- 
 kan wilderness, 1918. — E. Higginson, Alaska, the 
 gieat country, 1909. — J. J. Underwood, Alaska, an 
 empire in the making, 1913. 
 
 1741-1787. — Early Russian exploration in 
 Alaska. — Attitude of Peter the Great towards 
 the new-found territory. — Catherine II refuses 
 to colonize Alaska. — Establishment of Russian 
 supremacy through private enterprise. — "Unlike 
 other European powers Russia came into posses- 
 sion of territory in America by accident and not 
 by design. Bering was sent to determine the re- 
 lation between the old and the new worlds. Peter 
 the Great had in mind scientific discovery and not 
 Ihe acquisition of new lands. When it was re- 
 ported that Bering had located the northwest coast 
 of America, the government took no steps to hold 
 it. Who cared far a distant land inhabited by 
 savages? Until the time of Cook the e.xact geo- 
 graphic situation of the islands and their relation 
 to the mainland were matters of speculation. The 
 statesmen in St. Petersburg had their faces turned 
 towards the Near East and not the Far East. Had 
 it not been for fur-traders, who, regardless of the 
 neglect of the government, exploited one island 
 after another, the term Russian-America would 
 not have appeared on the maps. Catherine had 
 not been on the throne very long before the newly 
 discovered islands were called to her attention in 
 various ways. The profitable trade attracted many 
 adventurers, and the wealthier traders came to the 
 capital to ask for special privileges, and to bring 
 charges against their competitors. To gain their 
 point they painted in bright colors the new pos- 
 sessions, the limitless territory for expansion, — the 
 great future empire. In addition to these Russian 
 promoters there were others of foreign counties 
 who offered to lead expeditions of discovery and 
 to extend Russia's commerce and empire in the 
 Indies and Am.erica. It should be remembered that 
 this was the last part of the eighteenth century, 
 when the atmosphere of Europe was full of such 
 projects, the voyages of Cook and La Perouse 
 being evidence enough on that point. Here was 
 a serious and thoughtful problem for Catherine to 
 decide. Catherine understood that in order to hold 
 dominions out in the ocean and far from the me- 
 tropolis a nation must have an over-flowing popu- 
 lation, a strong navy, and a merchant marine. 
 Russia had none of these. In order then to un- 
 derstand Russia's problem in Alaska, one should 
 constantly keep in mind these factors — the need of 
 population and of a navy. After thinking the 
 subject over the Empress decided on a line of 
 action. In a letter to her minister, Panin, written 
 in 1769, in answer to various projects of foreign 
 adventurers, she said: 'It is for traders to traffic 
 where they please. I will furnish neither men, nor 
 ships, nor money, and I renounce forever all lands 
 and possessions in the East Indies and in America.' 
 That was a clear statement of policy and could 
 not be misunderstood. ... In 1787, two Siberian 
 merchant adventurers laid before the Empress a 
 petition in which they undertook, in exchange for 
 special commercial privileges in Alaska, to colo- 
 nize that land and to extend the limits of the 
 Russian Empire in America. Catherine drew up a 
 paper in reply covering the questions of coloniza- 
 tion and expansion in the North Pacific. In the 
 
 first place she declared that the proposition was an 
 impracticable one because the population for the 
 proposed colonies would have to be drawn from 
 Siberia, and that country had none to spare; 
 one hundred people in Siberia, were equal to a 
 thousand in Europe. . . . Russia would not benefit 
 from expansion in the Pacific; to claim a territory 
 and trade in a colony was one thing, to hold and 
 govern it was another."— F. A. Colder in Pacific 
 ocean in history, pp. 269-273.— In spite of the lack 
 of encouragement on the part of the government, 
 numerous voyages were made to Alaska by private 
 adventurers and considerable wealth was accumu- 
 lated by them. In 1767 "the merchants Polo- 
 ponissof and Popof also sent out a ship, the Joann 
 Predtecha, which returned after an absence of five 
 years with 60 sea-otters, 6,300 fur-seals, and 1,280 
 blue foxes. This ends the list of private enter- 
 prises prior to the resumption of exploration by 
 the imperial government. . . . The gradual es- 
 tablishment of Russian supremacy in north-west- 
 ermost America upon a permanent basis had not 
 escaped the attention of Spanish statesmen. . . . 
 Alarmed by tidings of numerous and important 
 discoveries along the extension of her own South 
 Sea coast line, Spain ordered an expedition for 
 exploring and seizing the coast to the northward 
 of California in 1773." — H. H. Bancroft, History 
 of jilaska (Works of H. H. Bancroft, v. 33), pp. 
 156, 194. — In 1786 French and English ships were 
 cruising the coasts of Alaska and reporting on the 
 fur-trade. 
 
 1787-1867. — Formation of United American 
 Company. — Name changed to Russian American 
 Company and first charter granted, 1799. — Sec- 
 ond charter, 1821. — Company in the favor of the 
 imperial government. — Third charter, 1841. Re- 
 fusal to grant fourth charter. — Growth of 
 friendly relations between Russia and United 
 States and desire of Russia to sell Alaska. — In 
 1787 "the idea of a subsidized monopoly of trade 
 and industry, to embrace all Russian discoveries 
 and colonies on the shores of the north Pacific, first 
 arose in the fertile brain of Grigor Shelikof. ... In 
 pursuance of this report an imperial oukaz was 
 issued September 28, 1788, granting the company 
 exclusive control over the region actually occupied 
 by them. ... It was at first feared that the de- 
 cease of Catherine II. would be a death-blow to the 
 ambitious schemes of the Shelikof party, for it was 
 known that her successor, Paul I., was opposed to 
 them. But ... on the nth of August, 1790, the 
 act of consolidation of the United American Com- 
 pany was confirmed by imperial oukaz, and the 
 association then received the name of the Rus- 
 sian American Company. 'By the same oukaz,' 
 continues the report, 'the company was granted 
 full privileges, for a period of twenty years, on 
 the coast of northwestern America. . . . [The chief 
 manager of the company under this charter was 
 Baranof.] Baranof's complaints of foreign en- 
 croachment appear to have been well grounded. 
 . . . 'The Americans,' writes the chief manager, 
 'have been acquainted with these tribes for two 
 or three years, and have sent from six to eight 
 ships each year. ... At the end of the twenty 
 years for which the exclusive privileges of the 
 Russian American Company were granted, we find 
 this powerful monopoly firmly established in the 
 favor of the imperial government, many nobles 
 of high rank and several members of the royal 
 family being among the shareholders. The com- 
 pany already occupied nearly all that portion of 
 the American continent and the adjacent islands 
 south of the Yukon River now comprised in the 
 territory of Alaska. . . . While the company's 
 
 179
 
 ALASKA, 1787-1867 
 
 ALASKA, 1787-1867 
 
 business was thus progressing satisfactorily, a deud 
 arose in the diplomatic horizon, which at one time 
 threatened the very existence of the colonies. [In 
 1 82 1 the Tsar of Russia issued a ukase forbidding 
 the vessels of any other nation to approach within 
 100 rniles of the coast of Alaska above the tifty- 
 first parallel.] As soon as the arbitrary measure 
 of Russia became known to English and .American 
 northwest traders, protestations and complaints 
 were forwarded to their respective governments. 
 The matter was discussed with some heat in the 
 United States congress, causing voluminous diplo- 
 matic correspondence. [This attitude of Russia 
 towards her colonial territories was backed by the 
 Holy Alliance whose pledge to restore the power 
 and possession of all the 'legitimate thrones' was 
 causing diplomatic complications.) In the mean- 
 time some traffic was carried on under protest, 
 and the matter was finally settled by the .Anglo- 
 Russian and Russo-.American treaties of 1824 and 
 1825. . . . [From 1S20 to 1825 the Russian gov- 
 ernment prohibited foreign trade to such an extent 
 that the company was on the brink of financial 
 ruin. Foreign intercourse was necessary to supply 
 the needs of the colony and develop its re- 
 sources.] The expense of supporting the colonies, 
 apart from the sums required for the home office, 
 taxes, and other items, increased from about 676,- 
 000 roubles, scrip, in 1821, to over i,2iq,ooo 
 roubles in 1841, and amounted for the whole period 
 to nearly 18,000.000 roubles. ... At the request 
 of the directors, and after a careful investigation 
 into the condition of the colonies, the imperial 
 council at St. Petersburg decided, on the sth of 
 March, 1841, to renew the charter of the Rus- 
 sian American Company for a further period of 
 twenty years.'' — Ibid., pp. 305-566. — "From 1S20 
 to i860 .\laska became more and more a burden 
 on the Empire. The fur-bearing animals were 
 being killed off, the natives were dying out. and 
 it was difficult to persuade Russians to engage for 
 service in Alaska when Siberia and the .Amur of- 
 fered so many better opportunities. The men who 
 did come were in large part worthless. New in- 
 ternational problems were coming up. The Cri- 
 mean War demonstrated that Russia was not in a 
 position to defend the colonies from an enemy 
 unless she possessed a navy. If some agreement 
 had not been reached as to the neutralization of 
 .Alaska. England would have captured it without 
 any difficulty in 1854. There was also the finan- 
 cial question. The government stood back of the 
 company and had to protect its credit by advanc- 
 ing loans to pay its bills. These were some of the 
 considerations the Russian statesmen had to take 
 into account when a request was made for a fourth 
 charter. Before this was granted a committee was 
 ordered to .Alaska to make a report, which report 
 did not promise much for the future of the ter- 
 ritory. [In the meantime exposure of abuses in 
 the company's affairs caused the government to 
 refuse to renew the charter except on such terms 
 as the company was unwilling to accept and in 
 1862 an officer of the imperial government was sent 
 to take charge of the company's affairs] The gov- 
 ernment realized that the only sensible thing to do 
 with its .American possession was to get rid of it. 
 Even before i86o it was proposed to sell it to the 
 United States, but the war interfered. .As soon 
 as peace was declared the proposition was taken 
 up again and successfully carried through. In a 
 letter to the minister of finance written by 
 Stoeckl. the Russian minister in Washington, a 
 number of reasons are given why the sale was 
 necessary, i. With the exception of England every 
 European nation, that at one time or other had 
 
 I 
 
 acquired colcnies in America, has lost them. Eng- 
 land still retains Canada but it is only a matter 
 of years before that territory will become inde- 
 pendent. If all these nations could not hold their 
 colonies, it is not likely that Russia will be able 
 to keep Alaska indefinitely. 2, In case of war 
 Russia is in no position to defend her American 
 territory. To be obliged to protect the large 
 stretch of American coast would be a source of 
 weakness. 3, The ports of .Alaska are closed to 
 American shipping If the government of the 
 United States should retaliate by closing the Pa- 
 cific coast markets to Russian vessels the Alas- 
 kan trade would be badly affected. Should .Alas- 
 ka be thrown open to the Yankees they would soon 
 exhaust it. If they close their ports to us we are 
 lost; if we open ours to them we are equally lost. 
 4. The .American people believe that it is their 
 'manifest destiny' to expand on the Pacific coast 
 . . . By handing the territory to the United States 
 we bind that nation in friendship to us. Russia, 
 too. has her manifest destiny, but it is on the 
 other side of the Pacific, along the .Amur. Our 
 men and resources are needed there and should not 
 be wasted in .America. 5. From the very begin- 
 ning .Alaska- has brought nothing but embarrass- 
 ment, diplomatic complications, financial sacrifices 
 and loss in men. If Russia should keep it there 
 would be more trouble and additional sacrifices 
 Is .Alaska worth the price? Looking at the matter 
 from the point of view of the good of Russia we 
 mu.st answer in the negative." — F. A. Colder. Pa- 
 cific ocean in history, pp. 260-273. — ".As early as 
 1861. the executive governments of the two coun- 
 tries came to an understanding to act in concert 
 with a view to the establishment of a connection 
 between San Francisco and St Petersburg, by an 
 interoceanic telegraph line across Behring's Straits 
 .At a subsequent day Congress sanctioned and gave 
 its co-operation to that policy. On the 2tith ol 
 December. 1864. the Secretary of State, by direc- 
 tion of the President, invited the Emperor of 
 Russia to send his principal advisor, the Grand 
 Duke Constantine. upon a visit to the United 
 States, intimating an opinion that such a visit 
 would be beneficial to the United States, and by 
 no means unprofitable to Russia, and giving the 
 assurance that the Grand Duke, coming as a na- 
 tional guest, would receive a cordial and most 
 demonstrative welcome by the government and 
 people of the United States. The condition of 
 domestic affairs in Russia fat that time] prevented 
 the acceptance of this invitation. . . . The me- 
 morial of the legislature of Washington Territory 
 to the President, received in February, 1866, was 
 made an occasion, in general terms, for communi- 
 cating to Mr. de Stoeckl the importance of some 
 early and comprehensive arrangement between the 
 two countries, to prevent the growth of difficul- 
 ties arising out of the fisheries in the Russian pos- 
 sessions. In the spring of 1866, Mr. Fox, late 
 .Assistant Secretary of the Na\'y. was made the 
 bearer of the expressions of national .sympathy 
 with the Emperor, arising out of the attempt at 
 his assassination. He was especially charged to 
 express the most friendly feelings towards the gov- 
 ernment and people of Russia. In the month of 
 October, 1866, Mr. de Stoeckl. who had long been 
 the Russian minister here, and enjoyed in a high 
 degree the confidence of the government of the 
 United States, went home on a leave of absence, 
 promising his best exertions to facilitate the es- 
 tablishment of good relations upon a permanent 
 basis. He returned to Washington early in the 
 month of March last. The treaty for the cession 
 of Russian .American to the United States was 
 
 80
 
 ALASKA, 1867 
 
 ALASKA, 1884-1912 
 
 concluded and signed on the 30th day of March 
 [1867]." — Papers relating to the cession and trans- 
 fer of Alaska to the United States in 1867, p. 324. 
 
 1867. — Purchase by the United States. — In 
 March, 1867, definite negotiations on the subject 
 were opened by the Russian minister at Washing- 
 ton, and on the 23d of that month he received from 
 Secretary Seward an offer, subject to the presi- 
 dent's approval, of $7,200,000, on condition that 
 the cession be "free and unencumbered by any 
 reservations, privileges, franchises, grants, or pos- 
 sessions by any associated companies, whether cor- 
 porate or incorporate, Russian, or any other. Two 
 days later an answer was returned, stating that 
 the minister believed himself authorized to accept 
 these terms. On the 20th final instructions were 
 received by cable from St. Petersburg. On the 
 same day a note was addressed by the minister to 
 the secretary of state, informing him that the tsar 
 consented to the cession of Russian America for 
 the stipulated sum of $7,200,000 in gold. At four 
 o'clock the next morning the treaty was signed by 
 the two parties without further phrase or nego- 
 tiation. In May the treaty was ratified, and on 
 June 20, 1867, the usual proclamation was issued 
 by the president of the United States." On Oc- 
 tober 18, 1867, the formal transfer of the terri- 
 tory was made, at Sitka, General Rousseau taking 
 possession in the name of the Government of the 
 United States.— H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pa- 
 cific states, V. 28, ch. 28. 
 
 Also in: W. H. Dall, Alaska and its resources, 
 pt. 2, ch. 2. — W. A. Dunning, Paying for Alaska 
 (Political Science Quarterly, Sept., iqi2). 
 
 1867-1883. — Lack of government in Alaska. — 
 Geodetic surveys. — Obstacles in the establish- 
 ment of civil government. — The only govern- 
 ment in Alaska between 1867 and 1877 was that 
 of more or less formal military authority. Dur- 
 ing these years considerable work was done in 
 charting the coast, locating new harbors and ex- 
 ploring the sources of the Yukon. From 1877 
 to 1884, Alaska was almost entirely without gov- 
 ernment, both as to laws and officers. "The main 
 obstacle in the establishment of some form of civil 
 government for Alaska appears to have been the 
 difficulty in reconciling the conflicting claims of 
 the several sections, separated as they are by a 
 vast extent of territory, and having few interests 
 in common, ... In 1883 Alaska was but a cus- 
 toms district, with a collector and a few deputies. 
 For laws, the territory had the regulations made 
 by the secretary of the treasury ; and for protec- 
 tion, the presence of a single war-vessel, the crew 
 of which was sometimes employed as a police 
 force among the settlements of the .Alexander 
 Archipelago." — H. H. Bancroft, History of Alaska, 
 (Works of H. H. Bancroft, v. 33) p. 627. 
 
 1884-1912. — Civil government. — First estab- 
 lishment and development. — Defects. — Civil gov- 
 ernment was first established in Alaska in May, 
 1884. Better provision was made by an act which 
 passed Congress after much debate and was ap- 
 proved by the President on June 6, iqoo. It con- 
 stituted Alaska a civil and judicial district, with 
 a governor invested with the duties and powers 
 that pertain to the governor of a territory, and a 
 district court of general jurisdiction, civil and 
 criminal, and in equity and admiralty, the court 
 being in three divisions, each with a district judge. 
 The act also provided a civil code for the district. 
 The Civil Government Act of iqi2, approved by 
 President Taft on August 24, altered the status of 
 Alaska to that of an organized territory, with a 
 capital at Juneau. (Previously for many years 
 the government headquarters were at Sitka.) A 
 
 18 
 
 legislature, consisting of a senate and a house of 
 representatives was created. Constitutional hmits 
 set to the powers of the legislature preclude the 
 authority to grant divorces, special privileges and 
 private charters; its fiscal policy is prescribed in 
 regard to taxation, while its borrowing powers 
 are limited to administrative expenditure, "The 
 development of Alaska is held up by the laws 
 governing it. Alaska's government is a motley 
 affair. Franklin K. Lane, Secretary of the Inte- 
 rior [died May, 192 1], who understands the situ- 
 ation admirably, calls it a patchwork. Many of 
 the laws that govern it are passed by Congress. 
 There is a territorial government, but here again 
 Congress holds the controlling power, for their 
 are many federal restrictions and all laws passed 
 by the home legislature must be transmitted to 
 Congress and if disapproved by the legislative body 
 at Washington they are void. To be sure, Alaska 
 has a delegate at the national capital, but he has 
 no vote. . . . Thus, in its practical working out, 
 Alaska is largely governed from Washington. . . . 
 This distant lawmaking, inefficient as it is, is not 
 all of the maladministration of -'Vlaskan affairs. 
 Many departments and bureaus have the carrying 
 out of the laws passed. This results in almost in- 
 extricable confusion. There is a government for 
 certain public lands and forests, another for other 
 lands and forests. There is one procedure for 
 making homesteads, mineral and other land entries 
 within the national forests; another procedure for 
 making such entries in land outside the forest re- 
 serves. Certain islands along the southern coast of 
 Alaska may be leased for fox farming by the De- 
 partment of Commerce; adjoining unreserved 
 islands may not be leased, but may be acquired 
 under the general land laws from the Department 
 of the Interior. Still other islands are reserved 
 for special purposes under the control of the De- 
 partment of Agriculture. Vast areas in the for- 
 est reserves are entirely untimbered, but are held 
 under the regulations of the Forest Service, while 
 timbered lands in other sections are unprotected. 
 Some of the timbered islands off the coast are in- 
 cluded within the forest reserves. Other islands 
 equally well timbered are not. Homesteads within 
 the forest reserves are surveyed by the Forest 
 Service without cost to the entry man. Homestead- 
 ers on unsurveyed lands outside the Forest Re- 
 serves must pay for their own surveys. It has 
 happened that three separate investigations of 
 mineral claims have been made by field officers 
 of the Forest Service Land Office and Geological 
 Survey. Roads and trails within the Forest Re- 
 serves are built by the Forest Service Roads and 
 trails outside these reserves are built by a com- 
 mission of army officers. Still a third depart- 
 ment having charge of road building has now been 
 established by the Territorial Legislature. . . . 
 Nor is this interlocking and overlapping of many 
 governmental bureaus the only cause of confu- 
 sion. In the individual department there is much 
 distraction. The Land Office, one of the most 
 vital to the fullest development of Alaska, is a 
 fair sample. The administration of laws here is 
 not plain and simple. They need many construc- 
 tions to arrive at their meaning. And the regu- 
 lations and reservation orders are many, ambigu- 
 ous, and not known to the settler. . . . The legis- 
 lative power of the Territory itself is vested in a 
 Territorial Legislature consisting of a Senate and 
 a House of Representatives, The Senate consists 
 of eight members, two from each of the four 
 judicial divisions into which Alaska is now di- 
 vided. The House of Representatives consists of 
 sixteen members, four from each of the four ju- 
 
 I
 
 ALASKA, 1884-1922 
 
 ALASKA, 1898-1899 
 
 dicial divisions. The term of each member of the 
 Senate is four years, one member from each judi- 
 cial division being elected ever>- two years. The 
 term of each member of the House of Representa- 
 tives is two years. The legislature convenes bi- 
 annually at Juneau on the first Monday of March 
 in odd years, and the length of the session is 
 limited to sixty days, but the governor is em- 
 powered to call an extra session. The executive 
 power is vested in the governor, who is appointed 
 by the President for a term of four years by and 
 with the advice of the United States Senate." — 
 A. k. Hurr, Alaska, pp. 401-412. 
 
 1884-1922. — Governors of Alaska. — "After the 
 purchase of the territory of -■Vlaska in 1867, Lovell 
 H. Rousseau was appointed a special commissioner 
 to formally take possession of the region, but aside 
 from that, .-Maska practically remained without 
 civil government until May 17, 1884, when, by 
 act of congress, it was created a 'civil and judicial 
 district,' with executive officers appointed by the 
 president for four years, but without representa- 
 tive institutions (until 1Q12]. — J. H. Kinkead, ex- 
 governor of Nevada, was appointed first governor 
 by Pres. .Arthur in 1884, but he resigned the 
 following year upon the inauguration of Pres. 
 Cleveland, and Mr. [.Alfred P.] Swineford suc- 
 ceeded to the office [May 0, 18S5I and served for 
 four years. He was deeply interested in the de- 
 velopment of the territory and repeatedly urged 
 its organization. . . . On .Apr. 20, 1880, . . . 
 I Lyman E. Knapp] was appointed governor of 
 .■\laska, serving until .Aug. 20, 1803. During his 
 administration the development of the material 
 industries, mines, fisheries and other resources of 
 the territory marked an important era. The or- 
 ganization of the Indian police, the local militia, a 
 territorial historical society and library, improve- 
 ment in the public buildings and methods of con- 
 ducting the public business, the more rapid prog- 
 ress in civilization by the natives, and improve- 
 ments in the laws concerning town sites and pre- 
 emption of lands occupied his attention. Nearly 
 the whole of the seal fisheries controversy occurred 
 during his administration and he was called upon 
 to aid in the investigations made by both .Ameri- 
 can and English Government vessels. [See U. S. 
 A.: i88q-i8q2.} He earnestly labored for better 
 mail service in the territory and succeeded in se- 
 curing an extension of more than sixteen hundred 
 miles of the established mail routes. He published 
 many reports, official and unofficial, on .Alaska and 
 discussions of important public questions, among 
 them 'The Legal and Political Status of the Na- 
 tives of Alaska,' in the '.American Law Register,' 
 May, i8qi. [See Territories and dependencies of 
 THE United St.\tes.1 ... [In 18Q3 James Sheak- 
 ley became fourth governor of .Alaska] ... In 
 1887 Pres. Cleveland appointed him as one of the 
 U. S. commissioners of Alaska, while the educa- 
 tional department made him superintendent of 
 schools for southeast .\laska. Upon the expiration 
 of his term as U. S. commissioner in 1802, he re- 
 signed the superintendency of the schools. . . . He 
 was appointed governor of .Alaska by Pres. Cleve- 
 land, June 28, 1803, entered upon his official duties 
 .Aug. 2q, and served in that position four years. 
 Gov. Sheakley gave every encouragement to the 
 cause of education, assisted the missionaries of all 
 denominations, and did what he could to protect, 
 improve, and civilize the native Indians. The rich 
 placer mines of British Columbia were discovered, 
 and the great rush to the Klondike mining region 
 began during his administration. In the fall of 1807 
 the San Francisco chamber of commerce sent him 
 East, for the purpose of giving the public correct 
 
 information in regard to the Klondike mines. . . . 
 [In 1897 John G. Brady was appointed fifth 
 governor of .Alaska]. In 1878 Mr. Brady went to 
 .Alaska as a missionary, with Dr. Sheldon Jack- 
 son, and later became manager of the Sitka 'Trad- 
 ing Co. On June 16, 1807, he was appointed to 
 succeed James Sheakley as governor of .Alaska. 
 Under his administration there has been marked 
 progress in the development of its resources, the 
 expansion of trade and increase of population. On 
 July I, i8gq, a new code of criminal procedure 
 went into effect, and it has been of the greatest 
 advantage to the territory. .A territorial conven- 
 tion met in Juneau in October the same year, and 
 submitted a memorial to congress petitioning for 
 various reforms and for a delegate to that body. 
 Gov. Brady in his annual reports ha? supported 
 many of the measures asked for in the petition and 
 has especially urged the extension of the land 
 laws, the adoption of a code of civil procedure 
 and the necessity for roads, telegraphs, and the 
 erection of lighthouses upon dangerous points of 
 the coast. His administration was so successful 
 that on June 6, iqoo, he was reappointed governor, 
 his second term expiring in 1Q04." — Xalional cyclo- 
 pedia of American biography, pp. 355-356. — Gov- 
 ernor Brady was again reappointed in 1904 an<l 
 served until 1006. The governors of Alaska who 
 have served since then are as follows: Wilfred B. 
 Hogatt, iqo6-iQio; Walter E. Clark, 1010-1014; 
 John F. Strong, 1014-1018; Thomas Riggs, Jr., 
 iqiS-iq22. Scott Bone has been appointed to begin 
 his term in 1022. 
 
 1897. — Gold discoveries in the Klondike re- 
 gion. See Klondike gold fields. 
 
 1898-1899. — Discovery of the Cape Nome gold 
 mining region. — The Cape Nome mining region 
 lies on the western coast of .Alaska, just beyond 
 the military reservation of St. Michael and about 
 120 miles south of the .\rctic Circle. It can be 
 reached by an ocean voyage of ten or twelve 
 days from Seattle. It had long been known that 
 gold existed in the general vicinity of Cape Nome, 
 and during the years 1804-1808 a few adventurous 
 miners had done more or less prospecting and 
 claim staking throughout the district lying be- 
 tween the Norton and Kotzebue sounds. During 
 the winter of i8q8-i8oq, a large number of miners 
 entered the Kotzebue country, while others spent 
 the season in the vicinity of Golofnin bay. On 
 Oct. 15, i8q8, a party of seven men reached Snake 
 river in a schooner. "Between that date and the 
 18th a miners' meeting was held, the boundaries 
 of a district 25 miles square were established, local 
 mining regulations were formulated, and Dr. Kit- 
 tleson was elected recorder for a term of two years. 
 .After organizing, the district natives were hired 
 to do the necessary packing, and a camp was es- 
 tablished on .Anvil Creek. The prospecting outfits 
 were quickly brought into service. In one after- 
 noon S76 was panned out on Snow Creek. Encour- 
 aged by this showing lumber was carried up from 
 the schooner and two rockers were constructed. . . . 
 In four or five days over Si, 800 was cleaned up 
 with these two rockers. . . . The weather turne<l 
 cold and the water was frozen up. .As it was im- 
 possible to do any more work with the rockers the 
 party broke camp on the 3d of November and 
 returned to the schooner, which they found frozen 
 solid in 2 feet of ice. They then made their way 
 in a small boat to an Indian village, near Cape 
 Nome, where they obtained dogs and sleds, and 
 a little farther on they were met by reindeer from 
 the Swedish Mission, with which they returned to 
 Golofnin Bay. 
 
 "The lucky miners had agreed among themselves 
 
 182
 
 ALASKA, 1898-1899 
 
 ALASKA, 1904-1911 
 
 that their discovery should be held secret, but the 
 news was too good to keep, and soon leaked out. 
 A general stampede commenced at once and con- 
 tinued all winter. Every available dog and rein- 
 deer was pressed into the service, and they were 
 soon racing with each other for the valuable claims 
 which had been left unstaked in the vicinity of 
 Anvil Creek. As soon as that creek had been all 
 taken up the stampede extended to the neighboring 
 streams and gulches, and Glacier and De.xter 
 creeks, as well as many others which have not 
 [iroved equally valuable, were quickly staked and 
 recorded. By the 25th of December a large party 
 armed with numerous powers of attorney had 
 entered the district, and as the local regulations 
 allowed every man to stake on each creek one 
 claim of the full legal dimensions (660 by 1,320 
 feet), it was not long until the whole district had 
 been thoroughly covered, and nearly every stream 
 had been staked with claims, which in some cases 
 were 'jumped' and the right of possession disputed. 
 
 "The news of a rich strike at Nome worked its 
 way up the Yukon River during the winter, and 
 as soon as the ice broke in June a large crowd 
 came down from Rampart City, followed by a 
 larger crowd from Dawson. . . . Those to whom 
 enough faith had been given to go over to Cape 
 Nome were disgusted and angered to find that 
 pretty much the whole district was already staked, 
 and that the claims taken were two or three 
 times as large as those commonly allowed on the 
 upper river. Another grievance was the great 
 abuse of the power of attorney, by means of 
 which an immense number of claims had been 
 taken up, so that in many cases (according to 
 common report) single individuals held or con- 
 trolled from so to 100 claims apiece. . . . 
 
 "A miners' meeting was called by the new- 
 comers to remedy their grievances. Resolutions 
 were prepared, in which it was represented that 
 the district had been illegally organized by men 
 who were not citizens of the United States and 
 who had not conformed with the law in properly 
 defining the boundaries of the district with ref- 
 erence to natural objects, in enacting suitable and 
 sufficient mining regulations, and in complying 
 with any of the details of organization required 
 by law. It was intended by the promoters of 
 this meeting to reorganize the district in such a 
 way as would enable them to share the benefits of 
 the discovery of a new gold field with the men 
 who had entered it the previous winter, and, as 
 they expressed it, 'gobbled up the whole country.' 
 It is, of course, impossible to say what would have 
 been the result if their attempt had not been in- 
 terfered with. ... On the 28th of June Lieuten- 
 ant Spaulding and a detachment of 10 men from 
 the Third Artillery had been ordered to the vi- 
 cinity of Snake River, and on the 7th of July 
 their numbers were increased by the addition of 
 15 more. As soon as it was proposed to throw 
 open for restaking a large amount of land already 
 staked and recorded an appeal was made to the 
 United States troops to prevent this action by 
 prohibiting the intended meeting, which was called 
 to assemble July 10. It was represented to them 
 that if the newcomers should attempt, under the 
 quasi-legal guise of a miners' meeting, to take 
 forcible possession of lands already claimed by 
 others, the inevitable consequence would be a 
 reign of disorder and violence, with 'the possibility 
 of conpiderable bloodshed. On the strength of this 
 representation and appeal the army officers decided 
 to prevent the adoption of the proposed resolu- 
 tions. The miners were allowed to call their 
 meeting to order, but as soon as the resolutions 
 
 were read Lieutenant Spaulding requested that 
 they be withdrawn. He allowed two minutes for 
 compliance with his request, the alternative bein^ 
 that he would clear the hall. The resolutions were 
 not withdrawn, the troops were ordered to fix 
 bayonets, and the hall was cleared quietly, with- 
 out a conflict. Such meetings as were subse- 
 quently attempted were quickly broken up by 
 virtue of the same authority. The light in which 
 this action is regarded by the people at Nome 
 depends, of course, upon the way in which their 
 personal interests were affected. . . . 
 
 "The great discontent which actually did exist at 
 this time found sudden and unexpected relief in 
 the discovery of the beach diggings. It had long 
 been known that there was more or less gold on 
 the seashore, and before the middle of July it 
 was discovered that good wages could be taken 
 out of the sand with a rocker. Even those who 
 were on the ground could hardly believe the story 
 at first, but its truth was quickly and easily dem- 
 onstrated. Before the month was over a great 
 army of the unemployed was engaged in throwing 
 up irregular intrenchments along the edge of the 
 sea, and those who had just been driven nearly to 
 the point of desperation by the exhaustion of all 
 their resources were soon contentedly rocking out 
 from $10 to $50 each per day and even more 
 than that. This discovery came like a godsend to 
 many destitute men, and was a most fortunate 
 development in the history of the camp. 
 
 "Meantime the men who were in possession of 
 claims on Anvil and Snow creeks were beginning 
 to sluice their ground and getting good returns for 
 their work, while others were actively making 
 preparations to take out the gold which they knew 
 they had discovered. More sluice boxes were con- 
 structed and put into operation as rapidly as 
 possible. A town site was laid off at the mouth 
 of Snake River, and on the 4th of July a post- 
 office was established. The town which has sprung 
 so suddenly into existence is called 'Nome' by the 
 Post-Office Department, but at a miners' meeting 
 held February 28, it was decided to call it 'Anvil 
 City,' and this is generally done by the residents 
 of the district, as well as in all official records. 
 .'\t a meeting held in September, however, the 
 name was again changed to 'Nome.' " — United 
 States, S^tk Cong., ist sess., Senate Doc. No. 357, 
 pp. 1-4- 
 
 1900. — Explorations in the north. See Arctic 
 F..\PLORATio.\: iqoo. 
 
 1903. — Settlement of boundary question with 
 Canada. See Al.aska boundary question. 
 
 1904-1911. — Coal-Iand controversy. — Cunning- 
 ham claims. — Ballinger vs. Pinchot. — The de- 
 velopment of the coal deposits in Alaska has been 
 retarded by the lack of transportation facilities and 
 the controversies over the administration of the 
 coal lands. The two issues at stake in the coal 
 land controversy, which aroused considerable dis- 
 cussion from ic)04 to igii, were the fate of the 
 principle of conservation and the rapid economic 
 ilevelopment of Alaska. Some of the claims en- 
 tered previous to 1Q06, when the Alaska coal fields 
 were withdrawn from entry by executive order, 
 were charged with fraud because monopoly in- 
 terests (especially the Alaska, or Morgan-Guggen- 
 heim syndicate) were supposed to be getting con- 
 trol of the coal lands. The investigation of the 
 notable Cunningham group of claims dragged on 
 in the Department of the Interior for several years 
 and eventually gained publicity, resulting in a 
 heated dispute between Chief Forester Pinchot and 
 Secretary of the Interior Ballinger. Pinchot was 
 removed by President Taft for insubordination 
 
 183
 
 ALASKA, 1906 
 
 ALASKA, 1918 
 
 and Ballinger, accused of collusion, although up- 
 held by a congressional investigating committee, 
 resigned in ign. Soon after, the Cunningham 
 claims were cancelled, this acting as a precedent 
 for the rejection of most of the remaining claims. 
 The opening up of 12,800 acres of coal land with- 
 drawn from the Chugach National Forest in Oc- 
 tober of iqio raised again the fear of monopoly 
 by the "Morgan-Guggenheim Syndicate," through 
 its control of terminal facilities. President Taft 
 and Secretary of the Interior Fisher defended this 
 executive order by stating that the territory opened 
 was guarded from monopoly by the reservation of 
 80-rod strips between the better claims. — See also 
 Conservation': ioio; 1010-1012. 
 
 1906. — Election of a delegate to Congress. — 
 .\n act to authorize the election of a delegate to 
 Congress from the territory of .Alaska was ap- 
 proved by the President May 7, iqo6. 
 
 1911. — First territorial legislature and its 
 work. — "The more important legislation is sum- 
 marized as follows: An act revising and making 
 additions to the territorial licenses and taxes, and 
 an act creating a territorial treasury and provid- 
 ing for the appointment of a treasurer; an act 
 making important and comprehensive amendments 
 to the general mining law as applied to Alaska; 
 an employers' liability act; a poll-tax law, the 
 poll taxes to be applied exclusively to the con- 
 struction of wagon-roads; arbitration of labor dis- 
 putes; a miners' labor-lien law; two acts limit- 
 ing hours of labor, the first prescribing eight hours 
 in all metalliferous lode mines, and the other plac- 
 ing the same limit on all labor in connection with 
 public works for the territory ; regulating banks 
 and banking, and providing for examination; en- 
 abling municipal corporations to extend their 
 boundaries; quarantine law and a simple sanitary 
 code ; compulsory registration ol births, marriages 
 and deaths; compulsory school attendance; pro- 
 viding for incorporated towns of the second class ; 
 extending the eJective franchise to women. The 
 first two named are the most important of all, 
 because of their fundamental nature, but I would 
 not be understood as implying that the measure 
 which I have mentioned last is, in my opinion, of 
 least importance. In respect to the general tax 
 and license measure, the difficulty was encountered 
 at the beginning of its consideration, of raising 
 revenues in a territory whose population is small 
 and whose developed resources are already taxed 
 under federal laws. The new revenue law is some- 
 what unequal as to the various taxes imposed, but 
 it is not a vicious or very burdensome measure. 
 It is roughly estimated that it will yield about 
 $240,000, per annum. The appropriations author- 
 ized by the legislature amount to about S6o,ooo 
 per annum for the next two years." — Alaskans first 
 legislature {American Review of Reviews, v. 48, 
 pp. 402-403). 
 
 1912. — Eruption of Mount Katmai.— "This 
 volcanic ridge, a great lissure or vent it is supposed 
 to be, extends on down the .Alaska Peninsula where 
 its most famous peak is Mt. Katmai. The erup- 
 tion of this mountain in June, 1012, was the most 
 tremendous volcanic explosion ever recorded. . . . 
 The explosions and the shocks threw men and 
 horses to the ground four hundred miles away. It 
 was felt to the .shore of the .Arctic Ocean. The 
 ash fell nine hundred miles away, and according 
 to scientists the fine dust went into the higher 
 regions of the atmosphere over the whole world 
 and affected the weather for the summer, being 
 the cause of the cold, wet season of that year. . . . 
 Professor Robert F. Griggs, who was the leader 
 of the expedition sent by the National Geographic 
 
 Society to Katmai after the disaster, computes that 
 the ashes that fell, buried an area as large as the 
 State of Connecticut to a depth varying from ten 
 inches to more than ten feet. . . . Fortunately, 
 the disaster did not occur in a settled district. 
 Kodiak was the chief sufferer and its green beauty 
 became a gray desert. Though one hundred miles 
 away, the island was buried under ash. The roofs 
 of the houses were broken in by the ashes that 
 settled on them. The land was a land of dark- 
 ness and stifling fumes and all the water was 
 poisoned. .A vessel that happened to be in the 
 harbor of Kodiak took the people on board and 
 supplied their needs as best it could until a weird, 
 gray dawn at last broke and they returned to 
 their homes and began the task of rehabilitation. 
 Many of the cattle on the island perished for 
 there was neither food nor drink. The govern- 
 ment experimental station shipped its herd to the 
 States until vegetation again appeared. But the 
 greatest desolation was wrought on the Alaska 
 Peninsula in the immediate vicinity of the moun- 
 tain. The little village of Katmai though five 
 times as far away as Pompeii from Vesuvius or St. 
 Pierre from Mt. Pelee was a barren waste. The 
 roofs were sunken in on the houses and the build- 
 ings were filled with pumice. The church stood 
 in a sea of liquid mud. Trees were dead. Pumice 
 was everywhere. To add to the destruction, if 
 this were possible, a lake that had been formed by 
 rubbish that had gathered across a stream and 
 dammed it, broke and a flood swept down bring- 
 ing boulders and trees and leaving a great plain 
 of sticky mud. For several years after the ex- 
 plosion columns of steam a mile high and a thou- 
 sand feet in diameter poured from other volcanoes 
 of the group. New volcanoes came into existence 
 at the time. Katmai itself really blew its head off 
 and is to-day but a stub of what it was before 
 the explosion. The force of the explosion right 
 at the peak was so great that rocks were literally 
 blown to pieces and the lava was so charged with 
 gas it became steam." — A. R. Burr, Alaska, pp. 
 176-178. 
 
 1914. — Coal lands opened up by Congress 
 under limitations. — Law passed to build a Fed- 
 eral railroad in Alaska. — By a law passed in 
 iqi4, the Secretary of the Interior was permitted 
 to lease coal lands in blocks of forty acres or 
 multiples to 2,560 acres. .A royalty was fixed of 
 not less than two cents a ton. In the same year 
 a bill was passed authorizing a bond issue of 
 $35,000,000 for the purpose of building a Fed- 
 eral railroad in .Alaska. The bill was vigorously 
 opposed by the Guggenheim interests. "The gov- 
 ernment aims. Secretary Lane says, will be not 
 merely to construct a railroad from the sea to the 
 interior, but to select a route that will develope 
 both the agricultural and mineral resources of the 
 countn.' 'so that we may have a road that will 
 tap large coal fields and have other freight to 
 carry.'" — Independent, March 23, IQ14. 
 
 1915-1918 — Important legislation. — In IQ15 a 
 workmen's compensation law was adopted which 
 surpassed that of other sections in its liberality. 
 The following year the Mount McKinley district 
 was set a.side as a national park. The year loi" 
 was marked by two laws of note: an eight hour 
 day law and a land law. In accordance with this 
 latter law, homeseekers are allowed to secure titles 
 though they aVe not residents on the land. In 
 1Q18 the prohibition law was passed. 
 
 1918.— Part played in the World War.— The 
 territory furnished over 3,000 men for the service, 
 and outranked all sections in purchase of war 
 stamps. It was also a liberal subscriber to bonds. 
 
 184
 
 V. 
 
 
 eiMoltypalsdleatMicUtlT* < . „ ' 
 
 I^ogltuile -tg"' 'f"" QraWWlM 1 
 
 Maps prepared specially for (he NEW LARNED 
 under direction of thf editors and publishers. 
 
 ^ 
 
 o.^ 
 
 o
 
 ALASKA, 1919-1920 
 
 ALASKA, 1919-1920 
 
 1919-1920. — Phases of economic development. 
 — Problem of transportation. — Common car- 
 riers. — Roads. — Construction of the Federal 
 railroad. — Mining handicapped. — Fisheries 
 menaced. — Growth of agriculture and forest 
 products. — "The great outstanding problem of 
 Alaska is that of transportation. The public of 
 coastal Alaska is served by three regular passenger 
 and freight steamship lines — two American and one 
 Canadian — representing about 25 per cent of the 
 tonnage operating in the Territory. The Yukon 
 River system is served by one line of river steam- 
 ers of the White Pass & Yukon Route presumably 
 controlled by British capital. The Kushokwim 
 River is served by a small, combination freight 
 and passenger ship sailing from San Francisco to 
 Bethel, while the inhabitants of the valley itself 
 are dependent upon one small American river 
 steamer. There are a few semicommon carriers 
 operating locally with indifferent success. The 
 Copper River & Northwestern Railroad runs from 
 Cordova to Kennecntt, a distance of iq6 miles, 
 and is primarily an ore-carrying road, but per- 
 forms the function of a common carrier The 
 railroad of the White Pass & Yukon Route ex- 
 tends from Skagway in Alaska to Whitehorse in 
 Yukon Territory, a distance of no miles, 2,1 of 
 which are in Alaska. The Yakutat & Southern 
 Railroad, from Yakutat to the Sectuck River, 
 carries little besides fish. The Government rail- 
 road from Seward to Fairbanks is still under con- 
 struction. . . , [Its progress was handicapped dur- 
 ing the World War for lack of labor and inade- 
 quacy in appropriations] This, then, in brief prac- 
 tically covers the common-carrier systems to and 
 within Alaska. . . . The Alaska Road Commission, 
 constituted by act of Congress approved January 
 27, 1Q05, is composed of three officers of the 
 Army, reporting to the War Department through 
 the Chief of Engineers. . . . Approximately 5,000 
 miles of wagon road, sled road, and trail have 
 been constructed and maintained by this board 
 since 1Q05. Of the roads constructed about 400 
 miles have a gravel surface and are suitable for 
 light automobile traffic. ... In addition to roads 
 constructed and maintained directly through Fed- 
 eral appropriation or authorization the legisla- 
 ture, at its last session, appropriated .$375,000 for 
 roads and trails. . . . Not a great deal was ac- 
 complished in actual new construction of the 
 Government railroad in Alaska during the first few 
 months of the fiscal year 1020 because of the lack 
 of appropriation and the uncertainty surrounding 
 it. The original authorization of $35,000,000 was 
 almost exhausted and data was being assembled 
 for presentation to Congress asking for an addi- 
 tional authorization of $17,000,000, This was pre- 
 sented in July, iQio, and after extended hearings 
 Congress granted the additional authorization in 
 an act which was approved by the President on 
 October 18, iqio (Public No. 50). Of course, 
 during these months the road was operated and 
 maintained as well as possible under the circum- 
 .stances, and some construction work done." — Re- 
 port of the governor of Alaska to the Secretary 
 of the Interior, 1020, pp. 11-15. 
 
 One of the most important industries of Alaska 
 is mining: gold, silver, copper and coal are found 
 in large quantities. "It is true that mining has 
 never before been so handicapped as at present, 
 that operating costs are practically prohibitive in 
 places, and that transportation could hardly be 
 worse. . . . The winning of some $20,000 worth 
 of gold from placer mines near Juneau in 1880 
 marked the beginning of the great mining industry 
 of Alaska, the value of whose total product up to 
 
 the close of 1919 is $438,161,000. Alaska's de- 
 veloped mineral deposits are chiefly gold and 
 copper. Hence, her mining industry in igig was 
 subject to the same depression that affected gold 
 and copper mining throughout the world. This 
 f.act explains in large measure why the value of 
 Alaska's mineral output in 1919 is only about 
 $19,620,000, while that of 1918 was $28,254,000. 
 . . . The outlook of gold mining in Alaska under 
 present economic conditions is not hopeful, yet 
 the continued success of certain larger ventures, 
 like dredging, shows that it is by no means hopeless. 
 Such operations and the mining of bonanza de- 
 posits will continue. Alaska still contains large 
 reserves of gold-bearing gravels that can be mined 
 profitably when transportation conditions are im- 
 proved. No one can foretell whether any more 
 bonanza camps will be found, and therefore the 
 only certain future lies in the development of de- 
 posits of lower grade. Therefore the most im- 
 portant event of the year for the future of mining 
 in Alaska was the continuation of the work on the 
 Government railroad and the assurance by congres- 
 sional action of the money needed to complete 
 the line. It is now certain that in three years 
 there will be a standard-gauge railway connecting 
 tidewater on the Pacific with Fairbanks and navi- 
 gable waters on the Yukon. To give its full 
 benefit to the mining industry, however, the Alaska 
 Railroad must be connected with mining centers 
 by good wagon roads." — Ibid., pp. ig-24. — The 
 production of coal, which reached a value of $411,- 
 850 in iqi8, was largely the work of the .Alaskan 
 Engineering Commission, which was responsible 
 for 84 per cent of the total output. The copper 
 production has been increasing regularly until it 
 reached 88,703,400 pounds, worth $24,240,508 in 
 1Q17. A decrease in production the following year 
 was due to the shortage of labor and ships. 
 
 Fishing came to the fore in Alaska life in the 
 'eighties of the last century, when pelagic sealing 
 had already made serious inroads into the seal- 
 herds of the surrounding seas. The catching and 
 canning of salmon, at first undertaken as a rather 
 puny substitute for seal catching, has in recent 
 years become the most important industry of 
 Alaska, being in iqi8 three and a half times 
 greater than that of copper, which is next in rank. 
 "Alaska's at present most important industry is 
 seriously menaced. There must be speedy action 
 of sorts taken by the Government or the salmon- 
 fishing industry, normally furnishing trade to the 
 United States in the sum of approximately $50,- 
 000,000 annually, will be slowly wiped out. . . . 
 In igio the salmon pack was only about two- 
 thirds that of igi8, but a partial report of the 
 canneries to the Territorial treasurer shows the 
 profits of those reporting to have been considerably 
 over $2,000,000. Present indications are that the 
 pack for 1020 will be less than that of loig. . . . 
 Due to overfishing both in and outside of salmon 
 streams in iqi8, igig, and ig2o, the cyclic return 
 of salmon spawned in those years is becoming, and 
 will become, less and less. As the runs decrease, 
 newly devised and increased numbers of floating 
 and fixed gear further decrease the escapement of 
 spawning fish. . . . The take of seal and fox skins 
 from the Pribilof Islands for 1917 and igi8 will 
 net the Government $6,400,000. In this large 
 amount the Territory participates in not the 
 slightest measure. Under careful governmental 
 supervision the herd, at one time on the verge of 
 annihilation, has increased to about 525,000 ani- 
 mals, which inhabit the waters of Alaska during 
 the summer season." — Ibid., pp. 48-51. See Fish- 
 eries; Bering sea QUEsnoN. 
 
 i8s
 
 ALASKA BOUNDARY QUESTION 
 
 ALASKA BOUNDARY QUESTION 
 
 The agricultural value of Alaska has only re- 
 cently been shown — certain grasses, grains, live- 
 stock and vegetables being suitable to the climate. 
 Alaska is expected to have as much arable land as 
 Finland, a country which exports agricultural prod- 
 ucts and also supports a population of 2,500,000. 
 To further agricultural progress, government ex- 
 periment stations have been established (see Edu- 
 cation, .'\gricultur.\l: United States), and an 
 agricultural college has been founded at Fairbanks. 
 Recently two industries related to agriculture have 
 been developed. The breeding of reindeer as a 
 native industry has increased considerably, the 
 reindeer numbering, in iqiQ, over 125,000 head, of 
 which only about 28 per cent are not owned by 
 the Indians. Within the last year (1Q20) prepara- 
 tions have been made for the opening up of vast 
 national forests for the manufacture of wood 
 pulp. Alaska's resources in this direction are 
 stated by Chief Forester W. B. Greeley who says 
 that Alaska contains 100,000,000 cords of pulp- 
 wood. She has the resources to produce 1,500,000 
 tons of paper yearly. With reasonable care, under 
 the methods followed by the Forest Service, this 
 output can be kept up perpetually. 
 
 1920. — Education. — "The public schools of 
 Alaska are under the direction of the Territorial 
 board of education with the commissioner of 
 education, Juneau. Alaska, as executive head. They 
 are maintained for white children and for children 
 of mixed blood leading a civilized life, and are 
 administered under both Federal and Territorial 
 laws. . . . There are 163 teachers in the schools 
 of .Alaska. . . . Schools in the following towns 
 offer four years of high school work: .\nchorage, 
 Douglas, Fairbanks, Juneau, Ketchikan. Nome, and 
 \aldez. . . . .Alaska high schools are in general ac- 
 credited at the leading State universities. . . ."— 
 Report of the governor of Alaska to lite Secretary 
 oj Ike Interior, 1020, pp. 11-15. PP- 64-65.— See 
 also Epi'Cattox: Alaska. 
 
 1920. — Population. — Increase. — Effects of the 
 World War.— "The white population of .Alaska, 
 ^0,000 in iQio, increased by IQ15 to about 50.000. 
 From IQIS to iqi8, owing to war conditions, the 
 population declined, but in igiq the tide set north- 
 ward again and there was a slight increase, which 
 will probably continue in 1020. The present white 
 population of the Territor>- is estimated to be 
 36,000, in addition to about 25,000 natives, some 
 of whom are civilized. The industrial population 
 of the Territory exceeds 40,000. The loss in popu- 
 lation during the period of the war was due to 
 ( I ) men entering the militan,' service, estimated 
 to number 3,000, (2) high wages in the States. (3) 
 the decrease in number of men employed in mining. 
 In 1015 about 0,600 men wpre employed in the 
 .Alaska mining industry as compared with about 
 4,500 in IQIQ." — Ibid., p. 104. 
 
 ALASKA BOUNDARY QUESTION.— 1867- 
 1903.— Basis of dispute.— Failure of Anglo- 
 American joint commission to settle question in 
 1898._Modus Vivendi.— Hay-Herbert Conven- 
 tion, 1903.— "When Alaska was acquired from 
 Russia bv purchase in 1867, the boundary-line 
 separating that territory from the British pos- 
 sessions had never been marked or even accurately 
 surveved, though the treaty between Great Brit- 
 ain and Russia, on which the controversy turned, 
 had been made as far back as 1S25. The language 
 of this treaty seemed to exclude Great Britain al- 
 together from the coast north of 54 degrees and 
 40 minutes. . . . But owing mainly to the expenses 
 of a survey in that deserted region the matter was 
 indefinitely deferred by both government? There 
 had never been any difference of opinion expressed 
 
 I 
 
 as to the general interpretation to be given to the 
 treaty, and the question of marking the boundary 
 was regarded merely as a surveying problem to be 
 settled by commissioners appointed in the usual way 
 and with the usual powers. The discovery of gold 
 in the Klondike district, on the upper tributaries 
 of the Yukon, in Canadian territory, in 1807, put 
 a very different aspect on the matter. The short- 
 est and quickest route to the gold-bearing region 
 was by the trails leading up from Dyca and Skag- 
 way on the headwaters of Lynn Canal — Skagway 
 being about 11 15 miles from Seattle and less than 
 boo miles from Dawson. The Yukon, or all-water 
 route, was much easier but slower — the distance 
 from Seattle to St. Michael by ocean steamer being 
 2700 miles and from that point to Dawson by 
 river steamer 1300 miles. Dyea and Skagway 
 soon became important places, and the population 
 rapidly increased. The Canadians now laid claim 
 to these ports on Lynn Canal, and pushed their 
 outposts down in that direction. Serious difficul- 
 ties threatened from the conflict of authority over 
 the collection of customs. The general question 
 of the boundary was, therefore, referred to the 
 .Anglo-.American joint high commission, which met 
 at Quebec in the summer of 1808 for the purpose 
 of adjusting matters relating to commercial reci- 
 procity and fisheries. The commission not only 
 failed to reach an agreement on this question, but 
 it developed here for the first time that the Canadi- 
 ans had set up an entirely new theory as to the 
 interpretation to be given to the treaty of 1825, 
 so as greatly to narrow the American coast strip 
 and throw the boundary line across the heads of 
 inlets and channels in such a way as to give the 
 Canadians access to several deep-water harbors. 
 . . . The United Slates commissioners naturally 
 did not feel authorized to trade off .American ter- 
 ritory in this way. When this interpretation was 
 set up, it became at once evident that the perma- 
 nent adjustment of the boundary was a matter 
 that would require long diplomatic negotiation. 
 Meanwhile there was a steady movement of men 
 and supplies to the Klondike by way of Dyea and 
 Skagway; and the situation of the headwaters of 
 Lynn Canal, where both United States and Cana- 
 dian officials claimed jurisdiction, was growing 
 serious. Under these circumstances the L'nited 
 States agreed upon a modus viveiidi with Great 
 Britain, fixing a provisional line at certain points, 
 and accordingly notes were exchanged October 20, 
 i8oq; the line thus established gave the Canadians 
 temporary possession of several points which had 
 always been regarded as within .American juris- 
 diction. The main question was left for future 
 adjustment, it being specifically provided that this 
 provisional line was fixed 'without prejudice to 
 the claims of either party in the permanent ad- 
 justment of the international boundan,'.' Finally, 
 on January 24, 1003, Mr. Hay signed a convention 
 with Sir Alichael Herbert, agreeing to submit the 
 question to a limited sort of arbitration: the tribu- 
 nal was to consist of three .Americans and three 
 British members. ... .As the tribunal was finally 
 constituted, no decision could be reached unless at 
 least one commissioner failed to sustain the con- 
 tention of his own government and upheld that 
 of the other. The American members were Elihu 
 Root, at that time secretary of war; Senator 
 Henry Cabot Lodge, of Massachusetts; and ex- 
 Senator George Turner of Washington. The Brit- 
 ish members were Lord Alverstone, lord chief 
 justice of England; Sir Louis .Amable Jette, lieu- 
 tenant-governor of the province of Quebec; and 
 .Allen B. Aylesworth, of Toronto. ... It was evi- 
 dent from the first that the trial was really before 
 
 86
 
 ALASKA BOUNDARY QUESTION 
 
 ALASKA BOUNDARY QUESTION 
 
 Lord Alverstone, the chief justice of England; in 
 case he sustained the American contention, there 
 would be an end of the controversy; in case he sus- 
 tained the Canadian view, there would be an even 
 division, and matters would stand as they stood be- 
 fore the trial began, except that a great deal more 
 feeling would have been engendered, and the United 
 States might have had to make good its claim 
 by force. . . . After a good deal of diplomatic 
 sparring over points connected with the presenia- 
 tion of the cases, the members of the tribunal met 
 m London September 3, iQo.i." — J. H. Latane, 
 Amerka as a world power, pp. 102-203 
 
 1903. — Disputed treaty clauses. — Contentions 
 of both sides. — Decision and award of arbitra- 
 tors, Oct. 20, 1903. — As stated above the contro- 
 versy arose over the ambiguous language of the 
 Anglo-Russian treaty of 1825, Articles ill and IV 
 of which had been mcorporated in the treaty of 
 cession of the territory to the United States in 
 1867. These articles read as follows: "III. The 
 line of demarcation between the possessions of the 
 High Contracting Parties upon the Coasts of the 
 Continent and the Islands of America to the 
 North-West, shall be drawn in the following man- 
 ner: Commencing from the southernmost point 
 of the Island called Prince of Wales Island, which 
 point lies in the parallel of 54 degrees 40 minutes, 
 North Latitude, and between the 131st and 133d 
 Degree of West Longitude (Meridian of Green- 
 wich), the said line shall ascend to the North 
 along the Channel called Portland Channel, as far 
 as the Point of the Continent where it strikes the 
 56th Degree of North Latitude; from this last 
 mentioned Point the line of demarcation shall fol- 
 low the summit of the mountains situated parallel 
 to the coast, as far as the point of intersection of 
 the 141st Degree of West llongitude (of the same 
 meridian), and, finally, from the said point of in- 
 tersection, the said Meridian Line of the 141st 
 Degree, in its prolongation as far as the Frozen 
 Ocean, shall form the limit between the Russian 
 and British Possessions on the Continent of Amer- 
 ica to the North-West. 
 
 "IV. With reference to the line of demarca- 
 tion laid down in the preceding Article, it is un- 
 derstood: ist. That the Island called Prince of 
 Wales Island shall belong wholly to Russia. 2d. 
 That wherever the summit of the mountains which 
 extend in a direction parallel to the Coast, from 
 the S6th Degree of North Latitude to the point of 
 intersection of the 141st Degree of West Longitude, 
 shall prove to be at the distance of more than ten 
 marine leagues from the Ocean, the limit between 
 the British Possessions and the line of Coast which 
 is to belong to Russia, as above mentioned, shall 
 be formed f)y a line parallel to the windings of the 
 Coast, and which shall never exceed the distance 
 of ten marine leagues therefrom. 
 
 "This language was indefinite in several particu- 
 lars. In the first part of the boundary described 
 — that is, from the southernmost point of Prince 
 of Wales Island along Portland Channel to the 
 56th degree, there was room for doubt as to the 
 side of the line on which the islands at the mouth 
 of Portland Channel should fall ; and there was the 
 further difficulty that Portland Channel does not 
 extend as far north as the 56th degree. In the 
 second part of the line described — that is, from 
 the 56th degree of north latitude to the 141st de- 
 gree of west longitude (Mount St. Elias approxi- 
 mately) — there is no dominant range of moun- 
 tains parallel to the coast corresponding to the 
 language of the treaty, though such a range was 
 prominently marked on the maps of Vancouver 
 of 1798, and on the maps of other cartographers 
 
 prior to 1825. In 1893 a joint international sur- 
 vey of the coast between Portland Channel and 
 Lynn Channel was undertaken by the United 
 States and Great Britain, and in their report the 
 American commissioners testified 'that throughout 
 the lisiere the mountains are composed of numer- 
 ous isolated peaks and short ridges running in 
 different directions, and that within ten leagues of 
 tidewater there is no defined and continuous range 
 such as appears upon the early maps and charts 
 following the sinuosites of the coast.' As to the 
 third section of the line — that is, from Mount St. 
 Elias to the Arctic Ocean^there has never been 
 any dispute. A number of specific questions were 
 submitted to the tribunal for decision. The most 
 important of these was number five: 'Was it the 
 intention and meaning of said convention of 1825 
 that there should remain in the exclusive posses- 
 sion of Russia a continuous fringe or strip of coast 
 on the mainland, not exceeding ten marine leagues 
 in width, separating the British possessions from 
 the bays, ports, inlets, havens, and waters of the 
 ocean?' If this question should be answered in 
 the negative, the tribunal was to tell how the li- 
 siere was to be measured, whether from the line of 
 the general direction of the mainland coast, or 
 from the line separating the territorial waters from 
 the waters of the ocean or from the heads of 
 inlets and bays. The English contention was that 
 the line should follow certain peaks along the coast 
 and run parallel with the general direction of the 
 mainland coast, cutting through inlets, bays, and 
 headlands. This interpretation ignored the meaning 
 of the word sinuosities, and failed to construe the 
 plain intent of the negotiators. The United States 
 claimed: (i) that the treaty of 1825 confirmed 
 in full sovereignty to Russia a strip of territory 
 along the continental shore from the head of 
 Portland Canal to Mount St. Elias, ten marine 
 leagues in width measured from the heads of all 
 gulfs, bays, inlets, and arms of the sea — that is, 
 from tidewater — unless within that distance from 
 tidewater there was a range of mountains lying 
 parallel to the sinuosities of the coast, in which 
 case the summit of such range was to form the 
 boundary; (2) that the acts of Great Britain sub- 
 sequent to this treaty, and the universal inter- 
 pretation given it by governments, geographers, 
 cartographers, and historians, agreed with and con- 
 firmed the intention and meaning as above stated; 
 (3) that the United States purchased Alaska, en- 
 tered into possession of and occupied the lisiere 
 above described, and exercised sovereign rights 
 therein, and remained in possession for thirty 
 years without any notice from Great Britain that 
 she claimed any portion of the territory ceded by 
 Russia; (4) that there being no continuous range 
 of mountains between Portland Channel and 
 Mount St. Elias parallel with the sinuosities of 
 the coast, the width of the lisiere above described 
 was limited by the agreed distance of ten marine 
 leagues from tidewater. In support of its claims 
 the United States showed from the records of the 
 negotiations leading up to the treaty of 1S25 that 
 Sir Charles Bagot, the English negotiator, made 
 effort after effort to secure an outlet to deep 
 water through the lisiere, and was finally forced to 
 yield the point. The most interesting feature of 
 the case was the overwhelming array of maps 
 presented by the United States, including British, 
 and Canadian, showing the boundary line claimed 
 by Russia and the United States. It was also 
 shown that both the Canadian and British authori- 
 ties had, by repeated acts, recognized our title to 
 the strip in dispute. The decision of the tribu- 
 nal was rendered October 20, igo3. On all the 
 
 187
 
 ALASKA BOUNDARY QUESTION 
 
 ALBA 
 
 important points the vote stood four to two, Lord 
 Alverstone, Root, Lodge, and Turner concurring 
 in the decision ; and the two Canadian members 
 dissenting. The decision sustained in the main the 
 American claim, holding that it was the intention 
 of the treaty of 1S25 to shut England out from 
 access to tidewater through the lisiere. Wales and 
 Pearse islands, at the entrance of Portland Chan- 
 nel, were awarded to England, and the line from 
 the head of Portland Channel to Mount St. Elias 
 was slightly drawn in, though it ran well around 
 the heads of all inlets. The tribunal designated 
 certain mountain peaks as the mountains referred 
 to as parallel to the coast, except between the 
 Stikine and Taku rivers. From the greater part 
 of the distance between these rivers the tribunal 
 declared that 'in the absence of further survey 
 the evidence is not sufficient to enable the Tribunal 
 to say which are mountains parallel to the coast 
 within the meaning of the treaty.' The commis- 
 sioners appointed later to complete this part of 
 the boundary agreed on what is practically a 
 straight line, and this was accepted by both gov- 
 ernments as final. The decision was, of course, 
 a disappointment to the Canadians, but it did not 
 justify the charge that I^ord Alverstone had sacri- 
 ficed their interests in order to further the British 
 policy of friendly relations with the United States." 
 — J. H. Latane, /4merjra as a world power, pp. 103- 
 203. — See also Arbitration, International: 1003; 
 U. S. A.: 1892: Settlement of Alaskan boundary. 
 
 1906-1914. — Convention to provide for final 
 establishment of the boundary line. — Surveys. — 
 Boundary line completed. — Final proceedings for 
 establishing the boundary line of Alaska were pro- 
 vided for in a convention between the United 
 States and Great Britain, signed April 21, igo6. 
 Tlie need and object of the convention were set 
 forth in its preamble as follows: 
 
 "Whereas by a treaty between the United 
 States of America and His Majesty the Emperor 
 of all the Russias, for the cession of the Russian 
 possessions in North America to the United States, 
 concluded March 30, 1867, the most northerly part 
 of the boundary line between the said Russian 
 possessions and those of His Britannic Majesty, 
 as established by the prior convention between 
 Russia and Great Britain, of February 2S-16, 182,1;, 
 is defined as following the 141st degree of longi- 
 tude west from Greenwich, beginning at the point 
 of intersection of the said 141st degree of west 
 longitude with a certain line drawn parallel with 
 the coast, and thence continuing from the said 
 point of intersection, upon the said meridian of 
 the 141st degree in its prolongation as far as the 
 Frozen Ocean, 
 
 "And whereas, the location of said meridian of 
 the 141st degree of west longitude between the 
 terminal points thereof defined in said treaty is 
 dependent upon the scientific ascertainment of con- 
 venient points along the said meridian and the 
 survey of the country intermediate between such 
 points, involving no question of interpretation of 
 the aforesaid treaties but merely the determination 
 of such points and their connecting lines by the 
 ordinary processes of observation and survey con- 
 ducted by competent astronomers, engineers and 
 surveyors ; 
 
 "And whereas such determination has not hith- 
 . erto been made by a joint survey as is requisite in 
 order to give complete effect to said treaties." 
 
 To make such determination it was agreed that 
 each Government should "appoint one Commis- 
 .sioner, with whom may be associated such sur- 
 veyors, astronomers and other assistants as each 
 Government may elect." The work of surveying 
 
 continued year by year, and at its completion, in 
 igi4, a well-defined boundary line lay between 
 Alaska and Canada. — See also Alaska: Map. 
 
 Also in: Message of President Roosevelt, Dec. 
 7, 1Q03. — British Parliamentary Papers by com- 
 mand (U. S., So. I, 1004) Cd. 1877. — Alaskan 
 Boundary Tribunal: cases, counter-cases, argu- 
 ments, aliases oj United States and Great Britain 
 (Washington, 1003). — T. W. Balch, Alaska-Can- 
 ada frontier. 
 
 ALASKA-YUKON-PACIFIC EXPOSITION. 
 Sec Skattle: iooq. 
 
 ALASKAN ENGINEERING COMMIS- 
 SION, Duties of. See Interior, Department of 
 
 THE. 
 
 ALATOONA, Battle of. See U. S. A.: 1864 
 (September-October: Georgia). 
 
 ALA-UD-DIN, founder of the Bahmani dy- 
 naslv in the Deccan in 1347. 
 
 ALA-UD-DIN KHILJI (d. c. 1316), sultan 
 of Delhi after assassinating Feroz II, his uncle; 
 subjected the Deccan and Gujarat to the rule of 
 Islam. See India: 1200-1308. 
 
 ALAUNG PAYA or Alompra. Sec Alompra, 
 Aloii.vg Houra. 
 
 ALAVA, Miguel Ricardo de (1771-1843), 
 Spanish soldier and diplomat. Fought under Wel- 
 lington in the Peninsular campaign; opposed Don 
 Carlos; ambassador to England, 1834, and to 
 France, 1835. 
 
 ALAVA, province in Spain. See Basque prov- 
 inces; Basques. 
 
 ALBA, Celtic form for Caledonia. See Scot- 
 land: The name. 
 
 ALBA. — Alban Mount.— "Cantons . . . having 
 their rendezvous in some stronghold, and including 
 a certain number of clanships, form the primitive 
 political unities with which Italian history begins 
 At what period, and to what extent, such cantons 
 were formed in Latium, cannot be determined with 
 precision ; nor is it a matter of special historical 
 interest. The isolated Alban range, that natural 
 stronghold of Latium, which offered to settlers the 
 most wholesome air, the freshest springs, and the 
 most secure position, would doubtless be first oc- 
 cupied by the new comers. Here accordingly, along 
 the narrow plateau above Palazzuola, between 
 the .\lban lake (Lago di Castello) and the .'Vlban 
 mount (Monte Cavo) extended the town of Alba, 
 which was universally regarded as the primitive 
 .seat of the Latin stock, and the mother-city of 
 Rome, as well as of all the other Old Latin com- 
 munities. Here, too, on the slopes lay the very 
 ancient Latin canton-centres of Lanuvium, Aricia, 
 and Tusculum. ... All these cantons were in 
 primitive times politically sovereign, and each of 
 them was governed by its prince with the co-oper- 
 ation of the council of elders and the assembly of 
 warriors. Nevertheless the feeling of fellowship 
 based on community of descent and of language 
 not only pervaded the whole of them, but mani- 
 fested itself in an important religious and political 
 institution — the perpetual league of the collective 
 Latin cantons. The presidency belonged originally, 
 according to the universal Italian as well as Hel- 
 lenic usage, to that canton within whose bounds 
 lay the piecting-place of the league; in this case 
 it was the canton of .Mba. . . . The communities 
 entitled to participate in the league were in the 
 beginning thirty. . . . The rendezvous of this 
 union was, like the Pambceotia and the Panionia 
 among the similar confederacies of the Greeks, the 
 'Latin festival' (feria- Latinae) at which, on the 
 Mount of .\lba, upon a day annually appointed by 
 the chief magistrate for the purpose, an ox was 
 offered in sacrifice by the assembled Latin stock 
 
 188
 
 ALBA DE TORMES 
 
 ALBANIA, ANCIENT 
 
 to the 'Latin god' {Jupiter Latiaris)." — T. Moram- 
 sen, History of Rome, bk. i, ch. 3. 
 
 Also in: W. Gell, Topograph^/ of Rome, v. i. 
 
 ALBA DE TORMES, Battle of. See Spain: 
 1809 (Aui;ust-\ovcmber.) 
 
 ALBA GR^CA, ancient name. See Belgrade. 
 
 ALBAIAS. See Pampas tribes. 
 
 ALBAN, Kingdom of. See Albion; Scotland: 
 8th-oth centuries. 
 
 ALBANIA, tlie name given in ancient geography 
 to a portion of the eastern Caucasus and a region 
 west of the Caspian sea. The inhabitants, known 
 as Albani, were spread over an extensive region to 
 the northwest and up in the Caucasus mountains. 
 They were described by Strabo as a people of line 
 physique and excellent character, but in a primi- 
 tive stage of culture. Although they were a nomad 
 people their form of government was a monarchy. 
 In the wars between the Romans and Mithradates 
 (King of Pontus) they came to the attention of 
 Porapey, who subjected them to a formal recog- 
 nition of Roman authority. At the time of the 
 barbarian invasion in the second century A. D., 
 Albania was invaded by the Alani. These were 
 afterwards driven into Armenia by the Khazars. 
 Still later the country was conquered by Persia 
 under its Sassanid rulers. The successive inva- 
 sions of the Huns, Mongols, and other barbarians 
 effaced Albania from the map. This .Albania must 
 not be confused with the modern state of that 
 name on the Adriatic coast of the Balkan Penin- 
 sula, (q, v.) 
 
 ALBANIA. — Name and people. — Lack of po- 
 litical organization. — Population. — Religion. — 
 Language. — In a modern geographical sense 
 Albania is a name applied to a region on the 
 western shores of the .'\driatic north of Greece, 
 west of Macedonia and south of Serbia. It con- 
 stituted part of what the Romans called Illyriu, 
 but has no easily defmed natural boundaries. The 
 entire region is extremely rough and mountainous, 
 being traversed from northwest to southwest by a 
 number of parallel mountain chains. Although the 
 climate is salubrious and bracing and much of the 
 soil fertile, the country as a whole has no in- 
 dustrial development and appears to have always 
 been extremely poor. The people are famed for 
 their mixed primitive virtues of honesty, lawless- 
 ness and courage, but do not seem to lend them- 
 selves to high political organization. "The Al- 
 banian people . . . are liqisl not a unit in race, 
 language, religion or any other vital interest. They 
 have refused to accept the political unity of the 
 state, and have not progressed in thought beyond 
 the stage of clan-organization. But they are a 
 unit in not being related to any one else in the 
 peninsula. When the invading swarms of Slavs, 
 Bulgars and the like swept over the Peninsula, 
 they swept the earlier inhabitants before them 
 and in the almost inaccessible mountain fastnesses 
 of the extreme south-west those who refused to 
 be conquered or absorbed found a refuge. So in 
 the Pyrenees and the Caucasus we Imd remnants 
 of earlier races which the immigrant hosts have 
 crowded out of their path and left as a glacier 
 leaves its terminal or lateral moraines." — 11. H. 
 Powers, Things men fought for. — "The .Mbanian 
 population may be reckoned at about two and a 
 half million souls, the large majority of whom in- 
 habit the southwestern portion of the Balkan 
 Peninsula. The Albanians belong to three relig- 
 ions: the Roman Catholic Chur(h, the Greek Or- 
 thodox Church, and to Islam, The Mohammedans 
 exceed in number both the Catholics and Ortho- 
 dox put together. The members of these three 
 faiths all live together, but the Catholics are more 
 
 numerous in the north and the Orthodox in 
 the south. The Mohammedans are found every- 
 where, but form compact masses in the center of 
 the country. . . . The language is one and the 
 same. It is, moreover, one of the oldest languages 
 in Europe, and our people have clung to it tena- 
 ciously in the face of much enemy opposition." — 
 M. B. Konitza, Albanian question (International 
 Conciliation, May, 1919). — See also Balkan 
 states: Races existing; and Maps; Europe: Mod- 
 ern: Political map of Europe. 
 
 Early history. — Rule of Pyrrhus. — Entrance 
 of Christianity. — Under the Roman empire. — 
 Invasion of Slavs. — "We first hear of our ances- 
 tors from classical authors who describe and give 
 the names of many of the independent clans who 
 inhabited the Balkan Peninsula when its history 
 dawns. All authorities agree that they are not 
 Greek. The Greeks, in fact, designated them 'bar- 
 barians.' The main groups formed by these clans 
 were known as Macedonia, Illyria, and Epirus. 
 The inhabitants of all three, so Strabo informs 
 us, spoke the same tongue and had similar cus- 
 toms. The very name of Macedonia, formerly 
 known as 'Emathia,' derives in all probability 
 from the Albanian word E Madhia (the great). 
 As for Illyria, 'liria' in Albanian means 'freedom,' 
 and we Albanians' mterpret it as 'land of the 
 free.' [Throughout their history the Albanians 
 obstinately resisted subjugation from invading foes 
 and were in the main successful. They were under 
 the rule of Pyrrhus, however, from 296-272 B. C] 
 Christianity arrived early in Illyria. 'Round about 
 Illyria,' says St. Paul, 'have I fully preached the 
 Gospel of Christ.' The Albanians claim hira as 
 the first missionary among them. Illyria formed 
 part of the Patriarchate of Rome at an early date, 
 and a large number of the North Albanians 
 (Ghegs) are faithful to Rome to this day. Scutari 
 and Antivari have been bishoprics since the fourth 
 century. The Roman Empire in the East was 
 repeatedly invaded by hordes of barbarians from 
 beyond the Danube. [Fourth and fifth centuries.] 
 The Avars devastated wide tracts, and after them 
 came the Slavs [640]. These, the ancestors of 
 the Serbs, Montenegrins, and Bosniaks, swarmed 
 in in overpowering numbers. They settled first in 
 some districts depopulated by the Avars, and by 
 the seventh century were widely spread in the 
 Peninsula. They were a tribal and a pastoral 
 people, and, taking possession of the rich plains 
 for their flocks, they drove Roman civilization to 
 the coast of the Adriatic, where it has never com- 
 pletely died out. (From 640-1360 with some in- 
 terruptions the .Albanians were under Serbian rule.l 
 Of the native Illyrian population, that of the 
 north disappeared. But southward the Illyrians 
 defended themselves in the mountains of modern 
 .Albania, and there they preserved their language 
 and customs uninterruptedly, up to the present 
 day, against all comers." — Ibid. 
 
 Medieval period. — Bulgarian kingdom in 
 Albania. — Byzantine, Norman and Sicilian con- 
 quests. — Rise of the Serbian kingdom of Rashia. 
 — Reign of Stefan Dushan. — "From the settle- 
 ment of the Servian Sclavonians within the bounds 
 of the empire [during the reign of Heraclius, 
 first half of the seventh century], we may . . . 
 venture to date the earliest encroachments of the 
 Illyrian or .Albanian race on the Hellenic popula- 
 tion. The Albanians or .Arnauts, who are now 
 called by themselves Skiptars, are supposed to be 
 remains of the great Thracian race which, under 
 various names, and more particularly as Paion- 
 ians, Epirots and Macedonians, take an important 
 part in early Grecian history. No distinct trace 
 
 189
 
 ALBANIA, MEDIEVAL 
 
 ALBANIA, MEDIEVAL 
 
 of the period at which they began to be co-pro- 
 prietors of Greece with the Hellenic race can be 
 found in history. ... It seems very difficult to 
 trace back the history of the Greek nation with- 
 out suspecting that the germs of their modern 
 condition, like those of their neighbours, are to 
 be sought in the singular events which occurred 
 in the reign of Heraclius." — G. Finlay, Greece un- 
 der the Romans, cli. 4, sect. 6. — "The most un- 
 changed people in the [ Balkan 1 peninsula must 
 be the Albanians, called by themselves Skipelar, 
 the representatives of the old Illyrians. . . . Before 
 the end of the twelfth century the other primi- 
 tive nations of the peninsula . . . began to show 
 themselves more distinctly alongside of the Greeks. 
 We now first hear of Albanians and Vlaclis by 
 those names." — E. A. Freeman, Historical grog- 
 
 united Bulgar force. In the twelfth century they 
 united under the rule of the remarkable line of 
 Xemanya princes, and established the Kingdom of 
 Rashia and extended it rapidly. Rashia, in Al- 
 banian, means plain. It is possible, therefore, that 
 Rashia was the original Illyrian name of the plains 
 of Kosovo. The Serbs were, in fact, known by 
 the name of Rashians even into the eighteenth 
 century. Each of the Ncmanya kings extended his 
 realm by conquest. They spread over North Al- 
 bania and seized Scutari. Scutari, the capital of 
 North .Albania, is one of the oldest capitals in 
 Europe. It is first mentioned under its native 
 name of Scodra in 004 B. C. And as Shkodra it 
 is known still to all Albanians. The name of 
 Scutari was given to it by the Venetians in the 
 thirteenth century. That the Albanians were, 
 
 GkOl r OF .MODEliN AI.B.\NI.\NS 
 In thr ancient MohammetJan dre.ss still worn 
 
 raphy of Europe. — In 861 the Bulgars conquered 
 the southern portion of .Albania and gradually 
 extended their sway northward. This Bulgarian 
 kingdom was brought to a close by the victory 
 of Basil II in 1014. Albania continued under 
 Byzantine rule until 1204, but not without numer- 
 ous revolts. In loSi the Normans seized Durazzo, 
 returning to Italy in iioo. In iiSo the Serbians 
 established an independent kingdom in upper .Al- 
 bania. From 1204 to 13 18 Epirus was held by 
 Comnenus, a member of the imperial family at 
 Constantinople who was forced to flee when the 
 capitol was taken by the Crusaders, but Durazzo 
 was under Sicilian kings of the house of .Anjou 
 (1271-1368). In the meantime the Serbian king- 
 dom in the north was rising in importance. "Not 
 till the fall of the . . . Bulgar Empire did the 
 Serbs play an important part in Balkan affairs. 
 .\ tribal people, they had been weak before the 
 
 when conquered by the Serbs, Roman Catholic, 
 is evident from contemporary accounts. In 1321 
 they appealed to Charles of Anjou and to Filippo 
 of Taranto to force the Serb King Milutin to 
 respect their religious rights. [In 1331 the greatest 
 of the Nemanya kings, Stefan Dushan ascended 
 the throne. His rule lasted until 135S. He in- 
 cluded all of .Albania in his kingdom and ruled 
 under the title "Imperator Romaniae, Slavoniae et 
 Albaniae."] In 1332 the French friar, Pere Bro- 
 chard, describes the land and people. 'It is in- 
 habited,' he says, 'by two peoples, the Albanians 
 and the Latins, who both belong to the Church 
 of Rome. The .Albanians have a language quite 
 other than Latin. . . . They have four Bishops 
 under the Archbishop of Antivari. . . . Both these 
 peoples are oppressed under the very hard servi- 
 tude of the most hateful and abominable lord 
 ship of the Slavs ' That the friar did not exag- 
 
 190
 
 ALBANIA, 1338-1443 
 
 ALBANIA, 1478-1880 
 
 gerate is shown by the extremely severe laws en- 
 acted against the [Roman] Catholics by the great 
 Czar Stefan Dushan in 1349 in his celebrated 
 canon. Here we find that those of the Latin 
 heresy who refuse to be converted are punishable 
 by death, as are also Latin priests who attempt to 
 convert anyone to the Latin faith." — M. B. 
 Konitza, Albanian question (International Con- 
 ciliation, May, 1919). 
 
 1358-1443. — Growth of native rule after the 
 fall of the Serbian kingdom. — Despotat of 
 Epirus under the house of Thopia. — Venetian, 
 Greek and Turkish invasions. — "On the break-up 
 of that power [the Serbian] came a time oi utter 
 confusion and endless shiftings, which has, how- 
 ever, one marked feature. The Albanian race now 
 comes fully to the front. Albanian settlers press 
 into all the southern lands, and Albanian princi- 
 palities stand forth on a level with those held by 
 Greek and Latin lords. The chief Albanian power 
 which arose within the bounds of the despotat 
 [of Epirus] was the house of Thopia in northern 
 Epeiros. They called themselves Kings oj Al- 
 bania; they won Durazzo from the Angevins, and 
 their power lasted [1359-1392] till that duchy 
 passed to Venice. ... In Epeiros the Servian and 
 Albanian despots had both to yield to Italian 
 princes. . . . Early in the fifteenth century the 
 Turk won all Albania, except the Venetian posts. 
 [The Turkish advance began with the capture of 
 lannina in 1431] Seventeen years later came a 
 revolt and a successful defence of the country, 
 whose later stages are ennobled by the name of 
 George Kastriota of Croja, the famous Scander- 
 beg." — E. A. Freeman, Historical geography oj 
 Europe, pp. 423-425. — During this period of native 
 rule from the middle of the fourteenth century to 
 the early fifteenth, part of upper Albania was 
 ruled by the Balsha dynasty (1366- 142 1) and a 
 southern section by the Musaki (1368-1476). 
 Towards the close of the century Albanian prin- 
 cipalities fell by degrees under Venetians and 
 Greeks. 
 
 1443-1467. — Scanderbeg's war with the Turks. 
 — "John Castriot, Lord of Emalthia (the 
 modern district of Moghlene) [in Epirus or Al- 
 bania] had submitted, like the other petty despots 
 of those regions, to Amurath early in his reign, 
 and had placed his four sons in the Sultan's hands 
 as hostages for his fidelity. Three of them died 
 young. The fourth, whose name was George, 
 pleased the Sultan by his beauty, strength and 
 intelligence. Amurath caused him to be brought 
 up in the Mahometan creed; and, when he was 
 only eighteen, conferred on him the government of 
 one of the Sanjaks of the empire. The young 
 Albanian proved his courage and skill in many 
 exploits under Amurath's eye, and received from 
 him the name of Iskanderbeg, the lord Alexander. 
 When John Castriot died, Amurath took posses- 
 sion of his principalities and kept the son con- 
 stantly employed in distant wars. Scanderbeg 
 brooded over this injury ; and when the Turkish 
 armies were routed by Hunyades in the campaign 
 of 1443, Scanderbeg determined to escape from 
 their side and assume forcible possession of his 
 patrimony. He suddenly entered the tent of the 
 Sultan's chief secretary, and forced that function- 
 ary, with the poniard at his throat, to write and 
 seal a formal order to the Turkish commander of 
 the strong city of Croia, in Albania, to deliver that 
 place and the adjacent territory to Scanderbeg, 
 as the Sultan's viceroy. He then stabbed the 
 secretary and hastened to Croia, where his strate- 
 gem gained him instant admittance and submis- 
 sion. He now publicly abjured the Mahometan 
 
 faith, and declared his intention of defending the 
 creed of his forefathers, and restoring the indepen- 
 dence of his native land. The Christian popula- 
 tion, flocked readily to his banner and the Turks 
 were massacred without mercy. For nearly twen- 
 ty-five years Scanderbeg contended against all the 
 power of the Ottomans, though directed by the 
 skill of Amurath and his successor Mahomet, the 
 conqueror of Con.stantinople." — E. S. Creasy, His- 
 tory oj the Ottoman Turks, ch. 4. — "Scanderbeg 
 died a fugitive at Lissus on the Venetian territory 
 I1467]. His sepulchre was soon violated by the 
 Turkish conquerors ; but the janizaries, who wore 
 his bones enchased in a bracelet, declared by this 
 superstitious amulet their involuntary reverence 
 for his valour . . . His infant son was saved from 
 the national shipwreck; the Castriots were invested 
 with a Neapolitan dukedom, and their blood con- 
 tinues to flow in the noblest families of the realm." 
 — E. Gibbon, History oj the decline and jail oj the 
 Roman empire, ch. 67. 
 
 Also in: A. Lamartine, History oj Turkey, bk. 
 II, sect. 1 1-25. 
 
 1478-1880.— Albania under Turkish rule.— 
 Struggles for independence. — Effect of the 
 Treaty of Berlin. — Struggle for education. — 
 Between 1478 to 1502 the most important Vene- 
 tian strongholds in Albania were captured by the 
 Turks, including Scutari and Durazzo (see Greece: 
 1454-1479) and by 1571 the Turks were masters 
 of Albania. The Christians either emigrated or 
 fled to the mountains, but the Turks were never 
 able fully to convert Albania to Islam and the 
 country was torn by endless strife between the 
 mountainers and the Turks, the Christians and 
 the Mohammedan converts. When the Turkish 
 power began to wane towards the end of the 17th 
 century, anarchy and confusion were abundant 
 (See TuRKEv: 1684-1696). "There was nothing 
 for it but to accept Turkish rule. From the be- 
 ginning the Albanians had contrived to retail local 
 autonomy. In the seventeenth century many be- 
 gan to go over to Islam. But, as above stated, 
 unlike the other Balkan peoples, when Moham- 
 medanized they retained their strong sense of 
 nationality. No sooner did the Moslem Albanian 
 chiefs rise to power than they began to work for 
 independence. The Albanians, both Moslem and 
 Christian, descended from the mountains and be- 
 gan a struggle to retake the plains from which 
 their forefathers had been driven by the conquer- 
 ing Serbs. Bit by bit they regained territory and 
 settled upon it. Attacked by the Albanians on the 
 one side, and oppressed on the other by the Turk- 
 ish government, and oppressed also by the Greek 
 Church — which strove ever to replace the Serb 
 and Bulgar churches by Greek ones throughout 
 Turkey in Europe — the Serbs of Kosovo, led by 
 the Patriarch of Ipek, decided to emigrate and 
 moved in vast masses into Austria, where they 
 were given land in the Banat by the Emperor. 
 The Albanians speedily resettled the vacated lands, 
 occupying the whole of the Kosovo district as 
 far as Mitrovitza and northeast as far as Nish 
 and Uskub Eastward they spread as far as Mon- 
 astir, and the greater part of the Moslem villages 
 of Macedonia are Albanian. In truth, they thus 
 retook a great part of their ancient Illyria and 
 Macedonia. Christian and Moslem united to pre- 
 serve and maintain their customs, rights, and 
 language, and brooked but little Turkish inter- 
 ference. [In the latter half of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury, Moslem chieftans set up independent prin- 
 cipalities, but failed to maintain their sovereignty 
 against the Porte except for short periods. The 
 last of these, the dynasty of Scutari, came to aa 
 
 191
 
 ALBANIA, 1478-1880 
 
 ALBANIA, 1908-1914 
 
 end in 1831 with the surrender of its head to the 
 Grand Vizier Reshid Pasha.] The beginning of 
 the nineteenth century was a time of great stress 
 and struggle in the Balkan Peninsula. Repeated 
 attacks by the Russians and Austrians, who each 
 pretended they were animated by a desire to free 
 the Christians from Turkish rule, and were in 
 truth aiming only at territorial gains, had greatly 
 weakened Turkish power and roused, too, the 
 hopes of the subject peoples. Serbia rose first 
 and, with the aid of both Austria and Russia, at- 
 tained autonomy. Greece rose shortly afterward 
 and, also with European help, obtained her free- 
 dom. 
 
 "The Greeks were greatly helped, too, by the Al- 
 banians of the south, of whose valor Lord Byron 
 tells. In return for this help they hoped that 
 Greece would aid them, too, when their time 
 came. . . . Far from aiding Albania to gain free- 
 dom, Greece has had but one object, and that is to 
 obtain more and more of Albanian territory. . . . 
 In 1880 an International Commission, called the 
 Eastern Roumelian Commission, was appointed 
 to regulate the affairs of Turkey. Great Britain 
 was ably represented by Lord Edmund Fitzmau- 
 rice, who recognized the important fact that if 
 peace were to be permanent in the Balkan the 
 rights of each nationality must be considered. 
 Convinced, after careful examination, that the Al- 
 banians had been treated with great injustice, he 
 made strong representations on the subject, and 
 recommended the immediate formation of a large 
 and autonomous Albania, which should become 
 independent on the break-up of the Turkish Em- 
 pire in Europe. Having caused inquiries to be 
 made about the population of the various vilayets, 
 he recommended that the state of Albania should 
 consist of the whole of the vilayets of Scutari and 
 Janina, the larger part of the vilayet of Kosovo, 
 and a large part of the vilayet of Monastir. In 
 this scheme he was strongly supported by [the 
 British] Ambassador at Constantinople, Lord 
 Goschen. The formation, however, of an inde- 
 pendent Albania did not suit the ambitious plans 
 either of Austria or of Russia. And, unfortunately 
 for Europe, nothing was done save to recommend 
 certain reforms to the Turks. [See B.^lkan states: 
 1878] The Albanian question remained and re- 
 mains unsolved. . . . Though by means of the Al- 
 banian League a certain amount of Albanian terri- 
 tory was saved, yet the Treaty of Berlin resulted 
 disastrously for Albania." — M. B. Konitza, Albanian 
 question (International Conciliation, May, iqig). 
 — The Albanian League was formed to resist the 
 concessions granted by the Treaty of Berlin (July 
 13, 1878) to Austria-Hungary, Servia and Monte- 
 negro, but in spite of the efforts of the league, the 
 independence of Montenegro and Serbia were guar- 
 anteed with portions of Albanian territory. — "Al- 
 bania's struggle to obtain national education in the 
 face of difficulties merits a chapter in the history 
 of education. . . . Books and papers printed in 
 London, Brussels, and Bucharest were smuggled 
 into the country at great risk and eagerly studied, 
 in spite of the fact that anyone found in posses- 
 sion of such works was liable to even fifteen 
 years' imprisonment. Many people, both Moslem 
 and Christian, studied their own language from 
 the Gospels and the Book of Genesis which were 
 published in Albanian by the British and Foreign 
 Bible Society and circulated with great difficulty. 
 Schoolmasters found guilty of teaching .\lbanian 
 were severely punished^in some cases the extreme 
 sentence of fifteen years being inflicted. But the 
 Albanians did not relax their efforts. In South 
 Albania the Americans, to whom Albania is deeply 
 
 indebted, opened a Girls' School at Koritza which 
 was protected by the great Republic. This was a 
 center of national enthusiasm. The girls taught 
 their brothers to write their mother tongue. In 
 the north education was better provided for. Both 
 Italy and Austria, being anxious to obtain in- 
 fluence there, opened schools for boys, girls, and 
 infants in Scutari and Durazzo. And the Abbott 
 of the Mirdites started a school in his mountains." 
 —Ibid. 
 
 1908-1914. — Young Turk revolution. — Balkan 
 wars. — Temporary monarchy under Prince 
 William of Wied. — Independence granted by 
 the powers under an International Council of 
 Control. — Revolt of Essad Pasha. — "Such was 
 the situation of Albania when the Young Turk 
 revolution took place in 190S. To this the Al- 
 banians at first lent their hearty support, believ- 
 ing that it meant equal opportunities for all 
 races. They were soon undeceived. The Young 
 Turks began a policy of forcible Ottomanization 
 and the Albanians rose against it. [See also 
 Turkey: igoS.] This most useful and loyal 
 corner of the sultan's dominions was turned into 
 a country of perennial revolutions, which started 
 soon after the inauguration of the constitutional 
 regime. In the winter of igii-1912, when the 
 group of Albanian deputies in the Ottoman ParUa- 
 ment saw their demands for reforms rejected 
 by the cabinet, and even the right of dis- 
 cussion of their complaints refused on the floor 
 of Parliament, the Albanians north and south, Ro- 
 man Catholics and Moslems, united in resistance 
 to the Turkish authorities that extended to Uskub 
 and Monastir. After the spring elections of igu, 
 the resistance became a formidable revolt. (See 
 also Turkey: igio-igii.) For the Young Turks 
 had rashly maneuvered the balloting with more 
 than Tammany skill. The Albanians were left 
 without representatives in Parliament. Former 
 deputies, such as Ismail Kemal Bey, and chiefs 
 such as Isa Boletinatz, Idris Sefer, and Ali Riza 
 joined in a determination to demand autonomy by 
 force of arms. When, in July, the cabinet decided 
 to move an army against the Albanians, there were 
 wholesale desertions from the garrison at Monastir, 
 and of Albanian officers from all parts of Euro- 
 pean Turkey. Mahmud Shevket Pasha was com- 
 pelled to resign the ministry of war, and was fol- 
 lowed by Said Pasha and the whole cabinet. The 
 Albanians demanded as a sine qua non the disso- 
 lution of Parliament. The Mukhtar cabinet agreed 
 to the dissolution, and accepted almost all the de- 
 mands of the rebels in a conference at Pristina." — 
 M. B. Konitza, Albanian question (International 
 Conciliation, May, igig). 
 
 The situation was still further complicated by a 
 split in the Albanian provisional government, Es- 
 sad Pasha, minister of the interior and lately de- 
 fender of Scutari, having refused to recognize Av- 
 lona as the seat of government, and having started 
 a government of his own at Durazzo, apparently 
 with the object of having himself elected Prince 
 of Albania, as he possessed great influence in that 
 part of the country where his extensive estates 
 were situated. Meanwhile Serbia marched her 
 troops into Albania as a counter-attack to the 
 .Albanian raid, but she withdrew them a week 
 after in response to a peremptory summons to do 
 so from the Austro-Hungarian government. On 
 November 23, igi3, Prince William of Wied, 
 nephew of the queen of Rumania, an officer in the 
 Prussian army, regarded as a well-informed and 
 capable soldier, was selected by the powers as the 
 future sovereign of Albania. (See Serbia: 1909- 
 1913) 
 
 192
 
 ALBANIA, 1908-1914 
 
 ALBANIA, 1915-1917 
 
 "The principle of the erection of Albania into 
 an independent State was, of course, adopted by 
 what used to be known as the Concert of Europe 
 some years before the decision to liberate the small 
 peoples who had long lived under the alien domi- 
 nation became the most widely advertised object 
 of the Associated Powers in the present [world] 
 war. When, after the first Balkan War, the 
 Powers attempted to elaborate a settlement of the 
 Balkan question, they decided that the moment 
 had arrived to grant Albania its independence, and, 
 following a series of difficult and long-drawn-out 
 negotiations, the representatives of the six great 
 European States, united under the presidency of 
 Sir Edward Grey, created an independent, autono- 
 mous, and hereditary principality of Albania. The 
 reasons which motived that decision still exist, and 
 have been strengthened rather than weakened by 
 the international changes which have taken place 
 in the meantime. But Albania had been so neg- 
 lected by Turkey that she could not reasonably be 
 expected to work out her own salvation single- 
 handed, and, in order to assist her organization, 
 the Powers accorded her assistance in the form of 
 an International Council of Control. From its 
 very inauguration this Council produced excellent 
 results; the statute elaborated by it was admirably 
 suited to a country such as mine, and it is in many 
 ways unfortunate that the world war put an end 
 to its mandate." — Essad Pasha, My policy for Al- 
 bania (Balkan Review, London, June, igig, pp. 
 329-330). 
 
 "Prince William of Wied . . . arrived at Du- 
 razzo, which he constituted his capital, on March 
 7, 1914. The fact that his regime was a total 
 failure is due in part to the international conditions 
 then prevailing and in part to the role he person- 
 ally played. On the international side trouble 
 arose from the fact that Albania had been con- 
 stituted largely in order to relieve European ten- 
 sion and some of the ever-recurring difficulties be- 
 tween the Great Powers. [See Balkan states: 
 1912-1913.] Moreover, whilst Europe had nomi- 
 nally fixed the northern and southern frontiers, 
 she took no effective measures to hand over to 
 the prince territory which was his. In the south, 
 the Greeks remained in (jossession of large areas 
 of Albania until the end of March, 1914. Most, 
 if not all, of these districts were then officially 
 evacuated. But, instead of the Greek regular 
 army, there came the Epirote insurgents and the 
 Epirote independent government, who, secretly 
 supported from Athens, maintained a reign of ter- 
 ror in an area actually alloted to Albania. Thus 
 throughout the stay of the 'Mpret,' as the Alba- 
 nians called their ruler, the European concert, if 
 concert it can be called, ignored the necessity for 
 taking the measures essential for the protection of 
 the country and looked on passively whilst the 
 Greeks infringed the frontiers already delimited 
 in the south and whilst the insurgents threatened 
 and practically besieged Durazzo in a manner 
 which finally confined the powers of the prince 
 almost to the very precincts of his palace. Thus 
 enormous difficulties must have beset any ruler of 
 Albania. His Royal Highness, whose shortcom- 
 ings were apparent from the first, made little en- 
 deavor to overcome them. To say nothing of his 
 attitude towards the southern frontier question, 
 concerning which he should have made some stipu- 
 lation with the Great Powers before he ever en- 
 tered upon his new task, the prince made at least 
 two fundamental mistakes. By arriving at Durazzo, 
 instead of entering his new country by way of Sku- 
 tari, which was still in the hands of the interna- 
 tional forces which occupied it in the first Balkan 
 
 War, and which was therefore more or less neutral 
 country, the new ruler seemed to show his par- 
 tiality towards Essad Pasha and thus offended 
 all the enemies of a man, who, if then powerful in 
 the center of the country, was certainly not be- 
 loved beyond the confines of his own particular 
 district. [Essad Pasha soon led a rebellion against 
 him and had himself proclaimed president.] Sub- 
 sequently, instead of trying to take the people into 
 his confidence before it was too late, and of en- 
 deavoring to travel among them, the prince ap- 
 peared to think that he could maintain his author- 
 ity by encouraging one section of the community 
 to support him against the other and that he could 
 succeed in Albania without any display of cour- 
 age. Thus on May 24, a few days after the ban- 
 ishment of Essad Pasha, at a time when Durazzo 
 was threatened by the insurgents, the prince and 
 his family took refuge on an Italian warship — 
 an act which was enough to seal his fate in a 
 country where cowardice is not one of the faults 
 of the people. [Before Albania had time even to 
 organize gendarmerie, the Greeks attacked and oc- 
 cupied a large part of south Albania, and the com- 
 mission looked on and did nothing.] As time 
 wore on things went from bad to worse until the 
 outbreak of the war, immediately before which the 
 international contingent vacated Skutari and im- 
 mediately after which [Sept. 3] the prince and 
 the International Commission of Control left 
 Durazzo."— H. C. Woods, Albania and the Alba- 
 nians (Geographical Review, April, 1918, pp. 257- 
 273). — During the early months of the war Essad 
 Pasha made an effort to have his title of president 
 confirmed by the Powers. As soon as Italy en- 
 tered the war he went to Rome to persuade Gen- 
 eral Porro to attack Austria-Hungary by way of 
 the Balkans, but he was unsuccessful in both un- 
 dertakings. — See also World War: 1914: III. Bal- 
 kans: e. 
 
 1915. — Agreement of Allies and Italy over Al- 
 bania, by Treaty of London. See London, Treaty 
 OR Pact of. 
 
 1915-1917.— Effect of Serbian debacle.— Italian 
 advance. — Independence proclaimed, July 3, 1917. 
 — "The Montenegrins, though ostensibly engaged 
 in opposing Austria, poured their troops into de- 
 fenseless Scutari and remained there. No protest 
 was made by the Powers for this unprovoked vio- 
 lation of the decision made by them in 1913 when 
 they unanimously declared Scutari to be Alba- 
 nian territory. The Serbs also entered Albania for 
 a short time, but withdrew again. Then came the 
 debacle of the Serbs and their flight across the 
 Albanian mountains into Scutari. This was fatal 
 for Albania. The Austrian and Bulgarian forces 
 poured into Albania in pursuit of them. All mem- 
 bers of the Entente departed, and Albania was 
 left to her fate. The Bulgars withdrew, but three- 
 quarters of Albanian territory have been mili- 
 tarily occupied by Austria until the last few 
 weeks. Meanwhile, Italy had advanced in the 
 south and occupied Tepelen and Argyrokastro. 
 The Greek troops of King Constantine had poured 
 into South Albania and were using Koritza as a 
 center through which Austrian and German couri- 
 ers could pass to or from Athens. They exported 
 the foodstuffs, and the Albanian population was 
 reduced to great straits. The French reached 
 Koritza in December, 1916, evicting Greek troops; 
 and at the request of the inhabitants of the whole 
 district hoisted the Albanian flag at Koritza and 
 proclaimed it an Albanian Republic. The Italians 
 extended their occupation, and on July 3, 191 7, 
 General Ferrero at Argyrokastro proclaimed the 
 independence of the whole of Albania under the 
 
 193
 
 ALBANIA, 1918 
 
 ALBANIA, 1919 
 
 protection of Italy. We must now consider the 
 question of Italy with regard to Albania, [See 
 also Italy: igi2-iQi4.] Albania's independence 
 was proclaimed in 1912. But before she had time 
 to organize or establish herself she was at once 
 caught up by the whirlwind of opposing interests 
 — those of Italy and Austria. [See World War: 
 Diplomatic background; 71, iv.] Not only did the 
 two currents paralyze Albania, but they encouraged 
 the neighbor states to make existence impossible 
 to her. Today [igig] the situation is altogether 
 changed. Austria has broken up completely, and 
 on the frontier Albania will see arising in her place 
 a large Slav State which is frankly hostile to her. 
 To guard against possible danger, Albania must 
 seek a support, and this time she will have no 
 difficulty of choice. But if Albania needs the 
 support of Italy, Italy, too, needs the support of 
 Albania. For to Italy this state is of vital im- 
 portance." — M. B. Konitza, Albanian question 
 {International Conciliation, May, igig).^ — "I am 
 often asked if Albania can ever become a self- 
 supporting state. History, I am convinced, will 
 reply to that question in the affirmative. Few 
 countries have been subjected to so many changes 
 and to so many dominations. But just as from 
 ancient times she has been condernned to alien 
 rule, so from ancient times she has fought for her 
 independence. She has never been subjected. Even 
 though a great part of the population adhered to 
 the Moslem faith, and though the land remained 
 under the nominal sovereignty of the Ottomans 
 for centuries, she never submitted to Turkish rule, 
 and her people rejected all attempts to 'Ottoman- 
 ize' them. Even the Turks admitted this fact. 
 When, in 1913, the Great Powers proposed that 
 the Porte should maintain its sovereignty over 
 Albania, Mahmud Shevket Pasha, the Grand Vi- 
 zier, categorically declined the proposition, recall- 
 ing to the London Conference that five hundred 
 years of such sovereignty had merely involved his 
 country in frequent, expensive, and disastrous 
 campaigns. Albania has passed through a variety 
 of crises without the character of her people hav- 
 ing been subjected to the slightest alteration — a 
 fact due to her social organization and the oral 
 transmission of her laws and customs from gener- 
 ation to generation from the early days of history. 
 The code which governs the conduct of the people 
 and the administration of justice is that of the 
 'Law of Lek Dukaghin,' in whom some of us 
 recognize the personality of the Duke Jean 
 D'Anjou. Despite all the political changes that 
 have taken place, the language has remained as it 
 was in early days, and its persistence is all the 
 more remarkable in that this is exclusively the re- 
 sult of the will of the people, for neither alphabet 
 nor grammar have existed to perpetuate any par- 
 ticular system. There is not only every reason to 
 believe that Albania can be formed into a self- 
 supporting State, but it is obvious, even from the 
 facts I have cited above, that any decision to 
 throw the country back under foreign domination 
 will conflict with the aspirations of the people, 
 possibly with unhappy results for the peace of the 
 Balkan Peninsula." — Essad Pasha, My policy for 
 Albania (Balkan Review, London, June, 1919, pp. 
 320-331). — See also World War: 1916: IV. Austro- 
 Italian front: d; V. Balkan theater: a. 
 
 1918. — Campaign of Italians and French. See 
 World War: iqi8: V. Balkan theater: a. 
 
 1918. — Property loss due to war. See World 
 War: Miscellaneous auxiliary services: XIV. Cost 
 of war: b, 4. 
 
 1919. — Italy's strategic claims. — Albanian 
 problem at the Peace Conference. — "The position 
 
 of Albania at the Peace Conference has been seri- 
 ously compromised by the attempt of certain Al- 
 banians, who do not represent the people and 
 whose only claim to notoriety would seem to con- 
 sist in their former relations with the States with 
 whom Britain, France, and America are now at 
 war, to put themselves forward as the spokesmen 
 of our people." — Essad Pasha, My policy for Al- 
 bania (Balkan Review, London, June, igig, /i. 331). 
 — "Much of the business which occupied the at- 
 tention of the (Peace) Council was formal in 
 character. The smaller states, excluded from its 
 deliberations, demanded at least the opportunity 
 to present to it their claims, and many hearings 
 were granted to their representatives. . . . Every 
 one recognized the extravagance and unreality of 
 many of the nationalist demands. . . . [By the 
 Italian representatives] control over all Albania, 
 instead of the portion tentatively assigned to Italy 
 by the Treaty of London, was asked. The Italian 
 representatives felt that Italy was entitled to in- 
 creased compensation partly because the war had 
 lasted longer than anticipated, and partly because 
 the collapse of Russia had thrown a heavier bur- 
 den upon Italy than was foreseen when the Treaty 
 of London was negotiated. ... It could not be 
 forgotten that one of the potent causes of unrest 
 in the Balkans had long been the mistaken policy 
 of blocking Serbia's effors to obtain 'free and se- 
 cure access to the sea.' The possible political con- 
 sequence of sanctioning Italy's desire to obtain a 
 solid foothold in the Balkans through control of 
 Albania and the annexation of Slavonic territories, 
 against the bitter protests of both peoples con- 
 cerned, appeared most grave. The people who 
 were rejoicing over the elimination of Austrian 
 interference in Balkan affairs were evidently 
 equally hostile to anything which might savor of 
 Italian interference. I'nder these conditions it 
 was believed that to grant Italy's claims to the 
 eastern islands and main-land must be to sow the 
 seeds of a new Balkan conflict. When examined 
 from the standpoint of strategic geography the 
 three main areas along the eastern Adriatic coast 
 claimed by Italy were seen to possess tremendous 
 military value. It was the manifest duty of the 
 American specialists, without in the least degree 
 questioning the motives actuating the Italian 
 claims, to study the inevitable consequences which 
 must necessarily follow upon granting them. [See 
 Balkan states: ig2i: .Albania.] It seemed ob- 
 vious that the Fiume region and adjacent terri- 
 tory at the head of the .Adriatic, by dominating 
 the great northwestern gateway into the Balkans 
 . . . and Albania with Valona, by commanding the 
 most important southern routes into the Balkans 
 and blocking access to and egress from the .Adriatic 
 Sea, did in effect constitute three extremely strong 
 and admirably strong military bridge-heads, as- 
 suring to Italy the possibility of moving across 
 the .Adriatic and advancing them into the Balkans, 
 should occasion require. . . . Every direct access 
 to the sea possessed by the Jugo-Slav lands would 
 be blocked, and the power of resistance to an 
 Italian advance enormously curtailed." — E. M. 
 House and C. Seymour, What really happened at 
 Paris, pp. 127-130. 
 
 "In Albania Italy had always maintained a lively 
 interest, more particularly because of the magni- 
 ficent harbour of Valona, situated on the eastern 
 shore of the Strait of Otranto, and less than fifty 
 miles from the Italian coast. The first object of 
 her policy was to prevent the port from falling 
 directly or indirectly into the hands of Austria, 
 while the latter was equally concerned to prevent 
 Italy from acquiring a position which would en- 
 
 194
 
 ALBANIA, 1920 
 
 ALBANY PLAN OF UNION 
 
 able her to bottle up the Adriatic. The two al- 
 lies intrigued actively against each other with the 
 Albanian tribes, planting rival schools in the 
 country and seeking to extend their influence over 
 the clan chiefs. The result was a stalemate which 
 was recognized in the mutual self-denying ordi- 
 nance of 1906, by which the two Powers agreed 
 to abstain from any attempt to obtain political 
 dominion over the coveted territory. For the rest 
 this agreement was never whole-hearted, and 
 merely registered the fact that the two States, 
 unable to bring their plans to fruition at the mo- 
 ment, were willing to hang the matter up till a 
 more propitious moment for one or the other. 
 Under pretext that the Turks had failed to fulfill 
 the provisions of the Treaty of Lausanne, Italy 
 had maintained her occupation of the Twelve 
 Islands (the Dodecanese), but it was during the 
 negotiations in London in the winter of 1912 that 
 Italy first showed her hand openly in the matter 
 of the Western Balkans. . . . [The Italian press] 
 loudly proclaimed the necessity for a big Albania 
 which should include Prizren and Pec in the north, 
 as wel^ as Debar (Dibra) and other territories in 
 the centre, and Northern Epirus in the south ; the 
 two allies, in short, while jealous of each other, 
 had no mind to tolerate the presence of a third 
 competitor in the Adriatic." — A. H. E. Taylor, 
 Italy and the Balkans, pp. 344-345. — See also Italy; 
 1914: Military coup in Albania. — "The Alban- 
 ians number 1,000,000 people. Like the states 
 about them, they have slowly gained political self- 
 consciousness. Their homeland is a broken coun- 
 try, and a large part of the population leads a 
 pastoral life. Its coastal towns and lowland cities 
 are intimately tied up with the commercial sys- 
 tems of its neighbors, and its mountain popula- 
 tion retains the primitive organization of the clan. 
 Under these circumstances it is obvious that the 
 Albanians should not have had a strong national 
 programme or the means to advance it. . . . Had 
 the terms of the secret Treaty of London of 1915 
 been carried out, Albania would have been di- 
 vided. The central portion would have been an 
 autonomous Mohammedan state under Italian pro- 
 tection ; the northern part would have been under 
 the protection of Jugo-Slavia, and the southern 
 part was to have been divided between Greece 
 and Italy. Koritsa would have become a Greek 
 city, Valona an Italian stronghold and point of 
 penetration; Scutari and the Drin valley would 
 have become an outlet for Jugo-Slavia 's trade — 
 and all of these points would have become places 
 for military and political conflict, for the Alba- 
 nians; though having no unity of sentiment regard- 
 ing a national programme, are united in the be- 
 lief that they can manage their affairs better than 
 the people about them. The Italians have been 
 driven from Valona by the efforts of the Albanians 
 themselves, and Albanian independence has been 
 recognized by the Council of the League of Na- 
 tions." — E. M. House and C. Seymour, What 
 really happened at Paris, pp. 174-175. 
 
 1920. — Admitted to the League of Nations. 
 See League of nations: First meeting of the as- 
 sembly. 
 
 1920 (June). — Murder of Essad Pasha.— On 
 June 13, 1920, Essad Pasha was shot dead in the 
 city of Paris by an Albanian student named Aveni 
 Rustem. 
 
 Also in: C. A. Chekrezi, Albania past and 
 present (New York, 1919). — C. A. Dako, Albania, 
 the master key to the Near East (Boston, 1919)- 
 - .^I. J. Cassavetes, Question of Northern Epirus 
 at the Peace Conference (Boston, 1919). — R- 
 Puaux, Sorrows of Epirus (London, 1918). — I. D. 
 
 Levine, Resurrected nations. — J. C. Powell, Italy 
 in Albania (New Europe, Aug. 26, 1920). — M. E. 
 Durham, Story of Essad Pasha (Contemporary 
 Review, Aug., 1920).— J. S. Schapiro, Modern and 
 contemporary European history.— E. M. House and 
 C. Seymour, What really happened at Paris, Story 
 of the Peace Conference — Memorandum submitted 
 by the Albanian Delegation to the Peace Confer- 
 ence (published by the Association for Interna- 
 tional Conciliation, American Branch, New York, 
 1919). — C. H. Haskins and R. H. Lord, Some prob- 
 lems of the Peace Conference. — C. Seymour, Diplo- 
 matic background of the war, 1870-1914. 
 
 ALBANIA, Latin form for Caledonia. See 
 Scotlanu: The name. 
 
 ALBANO, Elias Fernandez (d. 1910), vice- 
 president of Chile. See Chile: 1910. 
 
 ALBANY, N. Y.— The capital, since 1797, of 
 New York state, claims to be the oldest perma- 
 nently settled town of the original thirteen colo- 
 nies. As far back as 1540 a French trading post 
 stood near its present site, though its continuous 
 history begins with its first settlement by some 
 Dutch families about 1623. In 1614, the year after 
 the first Dutch traders had established their opera- 
 tions on Manhattan island, they built a trading 
 house, which they called Fort Nassau, on Castle 
 island, in the Hudson river, a little below where 
 the city now stands. Three years later this small 
 fort was washed away by a flood and the island 
 abandoned. In 1623 Fort Orange, a more im- 
 portant fortification was erected on the site after- 
 wards covered by the business part of Albany, 
 when the settlement took place. "As soon as the 
 colonists had built themselves 'some huts of bark' 
 around the fort, the Mahikanders or River Indians 
 [Mohegans], the Mohawks, the Oneidas, the 
 Onondagas, the Cayugas, and the Senecas, with 
 the Mahawawa or Ottawawa Indians, 'came and 
 made covenants of friendship . . . and desired 
 that Ihey might come and have a constant free 
 trade with them, which was concluded upon.' " — 
 J. R. Brodhead, History of the state of New 
 York, V. I, pp. 55, I5i- 
 
 1630.^Embraced in the land purchase of the 
 Patroon Kiliaen Van Rensselaer. (See New York: 
 1621-1646.) The original name was the Fuyck, or 
 "hoop-net;" afterwards it was known as Be- 
 verwyck. 
 
 1664. — Occupied and named Albany by the 
 English, in honor of the duke of York and Albany 
 (James II). See New York: 1664. 
 
 1673. — Again occupied for a short time by the 
 Dutch. See New York: 1673. 
 
 1686. — City charter received from Governor 
 Dongan. 
 
 1777. — Encounters during revolution. See 
 U. S. A., 1777 (July-October). 
 
 1866. — International Convention of Y. M. C. A. 
 — International committee. See Young Men's 
 Chkistian .Association: 1865-1870. 
 
 ALBANY CONGRESS. See Albany plan of 
 
 UNION. 
 
 ALBANY PLAN OF UNION 1754.— For the 
 purpose of securing a better treaty with the Six 
 Nations, commissioners from the colonies of New 
 Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connect- 
 icut, New York, Pennsylvania and Maryland met 
 at Albany in the Iroquois country. The meeting 
 was suggested by the Lords of Trade. Councils 
 were held with the Iroquois chieftains and Indian 
 affairs were discussed. 
 
 The convention drew up a general plan of union 
 which seems to have been mainly the work of 
 Franklin. This plan proposed an act of Parliament 
 creating "one general government" in America. 
 
 195
 
 ALBANY REGENCY 
 
 The sovereign of England was to appoint and pay 
 a president-general. The assemblies of the colo- 
 nies were to choose delegations to a colonial grand 
 council, the number being in proportion to taxes 
 paid, provided that no colony could have less than 
 two nor more than seven. All acts of the council 
 needed the assent of the governor-general. To- 
 gether thev could control Indian affairs, regulate 
 Indian trade, raise troops and levy taxes. Laws 
 were to be submitted to the king and council and 
 if not disapproved within three years were to 
 remain in force. Neither the colonies nor the 
 English government adopted the plan.— See also 
 
 U. S. A.: 1754- ,„,.-• , ,, 
 
 Also in' G E. Howard, Prehmmaries of the 
 Revolution, pp. 13. i4, 226.— W. MacDonald, 
 Select charters (1004), pp. 253-257. 
 
 ALBANY REGENCY.— A group of clever 
 politicians of New York state who manipulated 
 the Democratic party machinery of that state from 
 about 1820 to the middle of the nineteenth cen- 
 tury. Martin Van Buren, Silas Wright, William 
 L. Marcv and John A. Dix were among its lead- 
 ers They maintained a strict party discipline by 
 a strict svstem of rewards to the faithful, usually 
 in the form of patronage, and by making offenders 
 of the ring conscious of their displeasure. It 
 derived its name from its position at the state 
 capital. The steadfast support of one another 
 as politicians, and friends, caused General Jackson 
 to say, "I am no politician, but if I were one, I 
 would be a New York politician."— See also New 
 York: 1823. . , . 
 
 Also in: W. Wilson, History of the American 
 
 "^ALBATEGNIUS (c. 8so-92g), Arabian astron- 
 omer See Scienx-e: Ancient: Arabian science. 
 
 ALBATROS D-III AEROPLANE. See 
 World W.\r; Miscellaneous auxiliary services: IV. 
 .\viation. b. „ o . 
 
 ALBEMARLE, Confederate ram. See U. S. A.: 
 1864 (.^pril-May: North Carolina) ; 1864 (October; 
 North Carolina) 
 
 ALBEMARLE, Earls and dukes of.— The 
 name Albemarle, now the title held by the English 
 familv of Keppel, is derived from the French 
 Aumale (Latin, Alba Maria). Albemarle was "a 
 town and territorv in the dukedom of Normandy" 
 -ranted by William III to Arnold Joost van 
 keppel in i6q6-i6g7. He was the first earl of 
 \lbemarle and was born in 1670; he served with 
 the English and Dutch troops, was a major-gen- 
 eral in i6q7, and governor of Bois-le-Duc. He 
 commanded at the siege of Aire in 17 10, led Marl- 
 borough's second line in 1711, and was general 
 of the Dutch forces in 171 2. He died on May 30, 
 1718, leaving a son William .\nne, who succeeded 
 him as the second earl of Albemarle. Of the later 
 earls, George Thomas Keppel (1700-1801), the sixth 
 earl, is worthy of mention. He entered the army 
 in 1S15 and rose to the rank of general. He trav- 
 elled extensively and published several accounts of 
 his journevs. From 1832-1S35 he was a member 
 of Parhanient for East Norfolk. In t66o Charles 
 II bestowed the title of Duke of Albemarle on the 
 famous General George Monk; this dukedom be- 
 came extinct in 1088 on the death of Christopher, 
 the Second duke. The earldom of Albemarle sur- 
 vives. 
 
 ALBEMARLE, N. C— 1667-1669.— Settlement 
 under Stephens. See North Carolin.^; 1663-1670. 
 ALBERCA COURT. See Alil-vmbra. 
 ALBERIC I (d 025), a Lombard adventurer, 
 who, joininn forces with Berengar, became mar- 
 grave of Camerino and later duke of Spoleto. 
 Through marriage with Marozia he became the 
 
 ALBERT 
 
 most powerful noble in Rome. In 916 he assisted 
 Pope John X in e.xpelling the Saracens from 
 Italy. 
 
 Alberic II (d. 954), son of Alberic I and 
 Marozia. Rebelling against the authority of his 
 mother, in 933 he overthrew her alien husband 
 (second), Hugh, temporal ruler of Rome, and im- 
 prisoned Pope John XI, her son; for this, he was 
 made "prince and senator of all the Romans;" 
 ruled Rome wisely and moderately until his death. 
 — See also Rome; Q03-964. 
 
 ALBERONI, Giulio, Cardinal (1664-1752), 
 Spanish-Italian statesman. Consular agent for 
 Parma to the court of Philip V of Spain. Prime 
 minister of Spain in 1715 and cardinal in 1717; 
 banished from Spain in 171Q. In 1724 he was 
 proposed for the papal chair, receiving ten votes. 
 Founded the Collegio .Mberoni, a school for train- 
 ing poor boys for the priesthood. For details of 
 his Spanish Ministry see Spain: 1713-1725; Italy: 
 
 I7I5-173S- , , „ , . 
 
 ALBERT I (187s- ), king of the Belgians. 
 Succeeded his uncle, Leopold II, in iqoq; upheld the 
 neutrality of Belgium in August, 1914, so dtlaying 
 the Germans' advance as to defeat their plan for 
 the quick capture of Paris; remained at the head 
 of his little army to see final triumph and a re- 
 stored Belgium.^ee also Belgium: 1909 (De- 
 cember); Belgium; 1914: World War; World 
 War; iqi8: II. Western front; b; XI. End of the 
 war; d; and d, 1; 1919: Visit of royal family to 
 United States. a 
 
 Albert I, German king, 1 298-1308. .^s duke 
 of .Austria contended for the German throne with 
 .•Vdolph of Nassau, who was defeated and slain by 
 Albert's army in 1298; at first antagonized and 
 later cultivated Philip IV of France; recognized 
 by Pope Boniface in 1303; tried unsuccessfully to 
 extend his sway over Holland and Thuringia. — 
 See also .Austria; 1291-1349; Germany: 1273- 
 1308. 
 
 Albert II (1397-1439), German king, 1438- 
 1439. As duke of .Austria (with the title of Al- 
 bert V) was successively chosen king of Hungary, 
 king of Bohemia and German king; fought the 
 disaffected Bohemians, also the Turks; showed 
 ability in his short reign.— See also Austria; 143S- 
 1403. Hungary; 1301-1342. 
 
 Albert, Hungarian king. See .Albert II, Ger- 
 man king (1307-1430). 
 
 Albert II, kin^ of Sweden, 1363-1389. Son 
 of Albert I of Mecklenburg; held his throne with 
 some difficullv and in 1389 was defeated and im- 
 prisoned bv Queen Margaret of Denmark and Nor- 
 wav. widow of King Haakon; released in 1305 he 
 renounced the throne and returned to rule over 
 Mecklenburg until his death in 1412. 
 
 Albert (1819-1801), prince consort of Eng- 
 land. -A member of the house of Saxe-Coburg- 
 Gotha and first cousin of Queen Victoria of Eng- 
 land, whom he married in 1840; by tact and abil- 
 ity in affairs overcame earh prejudice against him; 
 he was cut off in the prime of life by a sudden 
 illness, to the overwhelming grief of the queen 
 and the mourninn of the nation, which has since 
 remembered him as Albert the Good.— See also 
 England: 1840: Queen's marriage. 
 
 Albert, (1848- ), prince of Monaco. Con- 
 ductor of oceanographic research around Spits- 
 bergen. See Spitsbergen: 1006-1921. 
 
 Albert (1550- 1621), archduke of .Austria. He 
 was sixth son of the emperor Maximilian II, arid 
 was brought up at the Spanish court; was made 
 cardinal in i577. archbishop of Toledo m 1584 
 and viceroy of Portugal in 1594; governor-general 
 of the Netherlands; renounced his religious vows 
 
 iq6
 
 ALBERT 
 
 ALBIGENSES 
 
 in isqS and married the Infanta Isabella; engaged 
 in constant warfare in the unsuccessful attempt to 
 subdue, the rebellious Low Countries. — See also 
 Netherlands; i5S8-i5g3 and 1594-1 bog. 
 
 Albert I, duke of Austria. See Albert I, Ger- 
 man king, 12Q8-1308. 
 
 Albert V, duke of Austria. See Albert II, 
 German king, I3g7-i43q. 
 
 Albert (1490-1568), first duke of Prussia and 
 grand master of the Teutonic Order. Third son 
 of Frederick of Hohenzolk'rn; as grand master 
 engaged in struggles and negotiations over East 
 Prussia ; followed the advice of Martin Luther to 
 marry and make Prussia an hereditary duchy; in- 
 vested with the duchy in 1525 by Sigismund I, 
 king of Poland ; founded the university of Kbnigs- 
 berg. — See also Poland; 13.3,^-1572. 
 
 Albert, duke of Wiirtemberg, commander of 
 the fourth Germany army, directed against south- 
 eastern Belgium at the opening of the World War. 
 His army was the German center at the battle of 
 the Marne. In October-November (1914) he 
 opened the first drive to the Channel ports by an 
 attack on Ypres and Dixmude (battle of the Yser), 
 and in igi6 commanded the northern army group 
 opposed to the Anglo-Belgian armies. 
 
 Albert III, elector of Brandenburg, 1470-1486. 
 Third son of Frederick I of Hohenzollern; early 
 began a stormy career as a German prince, rul- 
 ing over Ansbach, but failing in several attempts 
 at wider power; inherited Bayrcuth from his 
 brother John in 1464; six years later became 
 elector of Brandenburg on the abdication of his 
 other brother, Frederick II; acrjuircd Pnnierania 
 and put down a revolt ; one of the most energetic 
 and ambitious rulers of the fifteenth century.- — 
 See also Brandenburg: 1417-1640. 
 
 Albert, the Bear (1100-1170), margrave of 
 Brandenburg. See Brandenburg; 1142-1152. 
 Control of Lauenburg. See Saxony; 1180-1553. 
 Albert, The Great. See Aleertus Mag- 
 nus. 
 
 ALBERT, Marcellin, leader of the wine-grow- 
 ers revolt in France. See France; 1907 (May- 
 July). 
 
 ALBERT, a town of France in the department 
 of the Somme, eighteen miles northeast of Amiens, 
 situated on a small stream, the Ancre. During the 
 battle of the Somme it was the "jumping-off 
 place" of the British attacks in the direction of 
 Bapaume. Was captured by the Germans in 
 March of 1918 and recovered by the British in 
 August of that same year. — See World War: 1918; 
 II Western front; a, 1 ; c, 26; i; k, 1. 
 
 ALBERT ACHILLES OF BRANDEN- 
 BURG. See Albert III; Brandenburg, 1470- 
 1486. 
 
 ALBERT CROSS OF WAR.— Its origin and 
 pattern. See World War: Miscellaneous auxiliary 
 services; VIII. War medals: a. 
 
 ALBERT EDWARD, Prince of Wales. See 
 Edward VII. 
 
 ALBERTA, since 1905 a province of the Do- 
 minion of Canada, east of British Columbia and 
 north of western Montana. In 1S67, when the 
 British North American Act was passed. Alberta 
 was a part of the Northwest Territories. The prov- 
 ince is governed by a uni-cameral legislature, the 
 legislative assembly and a cabinet known as the 
 executive council. The nominal head of the ex- 
 ecutive department is a lieutenant-governor, ap- 
 pointed by the Canadian government. Woman 
 suffrage exists. Area 406,525 square miles. Ed- 
 monton is the capital and Calgary the chief city. — 
 See also Canada; 1905, also 1914-1918: War-time 
 prohibition ; and Map of Dominion of Canada and 
 
 Newfoundland; Northwest territory; Tele- 
 graphs AND telephones; 1916; U. S. A.: Economic 
 map. 
 
 ALBERTINE LINE OF HOUSE OF SAX- 
 ONY. See Sa.xony; 1180-1553 
 
 ALEERTUS MAGNUS (1193- or 1206- 
 12S0), Count of Bollstiidt, German scholastic phi- 
 losopher. Distin;uished for his wide learning and 
 his interest in the spread of knowledge, particu- 
 larly the doctrines of Aristotle. Lectured at Paris, 
 where he had as pupil Thomas Aquinas. Endeav- 
 ored to reconcile philosoiihy and theology, using 
 Aristotelian principles. Preached the eighth Cru- 
 sade in Austria. Member of the Dominican order, 
 and one of its ardent defenders. He was the most 
 learned man of his time, and his writings dealt with 
 philosophy and the Aristotelian sciences. — See also 
 Universities and colleges: 1348-1826. 
 
 ALBI, capital of the department of Tarn, 
 France; gives its name to the Albigenses (q. v.). 
 Site of the cathedral of St. Cecile, a fortress-church 
 in unornamented Gothic style with slit-like win- 
 dows. From the twelfth century, authority was 
 usurped by the bishops of AIbi until, after the 
 Albigensian War, the land passed to the crown of 
 France. — See also Albigenses. 
 
 ALBICI. — A Gallic tribe which occupied the 
 hills above Massilia (Marseilles) and who are de- 
 scribed as a savage people even in the time of 
 Caesar, when they helped the Massiliots to defend 
 their city against him. — G. Long, Decline of the 
 Roman republic, v. 5, cit. 4. • 
 
 ALBIGENSES. -"The Albigensians, so called 
 from the town of AIbi in Languedoc, were a 
 branch of a widely spread group of persons who 
 could not be satisfied with the Christian theory 
 of the universe and its government. While they 
 differed very widely in details, all members of 
 the group agreed in their fundamental notion that 
 the only reasonable explanation of the existence 
 of evil in the world was to give up, once for all, 
 the idea of a single administration of the uni- 
 verse. If there were only one God and that an all- 
 powerful one, why had he not done his work 
 better? Why haci he, the all-good, allowed so 
 much evil to get into the world? Why had he, 
 the all-wise, apparently made so many mistakes in 
 his management of things? The ready answer to 
 all this was, that there was not one God but two, ' 
 one good, wise, perfect, absolute; the other evil, 
 capable of errors, imperfect, limited. Such reason- 
 ing has satisfied vast masses of men. For in- 
 stance, it forms the basis of the great Persian re- 
 ligion, which has been for centuries the religious 
 inspiration of a race allied to our own by com- 
 munity of descent. When, however, men came 
 to apply it to Christianity, and especially to Chris- 
 tianity as the outcome of Judaism, they found 
 themselves involved in many difficulties. One of 
 the first consequences of the dualistic theory was 
 that the God of the Jews, as described in their 
 writings, could never have been the good God, 
 but must have been the lesser power, used by the 
 greater as a convenient, though unconscious, agent 
 in the creation of the world The dualists there- 
 fore rejected the Old Testament as authority. An- 
 other consequence was the drawing of a sharp 
 line between the spiritual and the material. What- 
 ever was material belonged in the domain of the 
 lower deity and was essentially base in its char- 
 acter. Man, therefore, in so far as he was a ma- 
 terial being, was evil and his body was in a con- 
 dition of hopeless conflict with his soul. The 
 only way for the race of man to be redeemed was 
 through a gradual process of spiritualization. . . . 
 Then again the idea that the great God could have 
 
 197
 
 ALBIGENSES 
 
 First Crusade 
 
 ALBIGENSES 
 
 come down to earth and actually have become a 
 man was beyond all conception to the dualist. 
 The thing we call Christ was only an emanation 
 from the deity and was not at all a man, excepting 
 in the mere form. His life on earth was only a 
 vision, intended to impress men with the truth of 
 his teaching, but not essentially the life of a man. 
 Hence followed naturally the rejection of the doc- 
 trine of the Eucharist." — E. Emerton, Mediaeval 
 Europe, pp. 33S-336. — "Nothing is more curious in 
 in Christian history than the vitality of the Mani- 
 chean opinions. That wild, half poetic, half ra- 
 tionalistic theory of Christianity, . . . appears al- 
 most suddenly in the 12th century, in living, al- 
 most irresistible power, first in its intermediate 
 settlement in Bulgaria, and on the borders of the 
 Greek Empire, then in Italy, in France, in Ger- 
 many, in the remoter West, at the foot of the 
 Pyrenees. . . . The chief seat of these opinions 
 was the south of France. Innocent III., on his 
 accession, found not only these daring insurgents 
 scattered in the cities of Italy, even, as it were, 
 at his own gates (among his first acts was to sub- 
 due the Paterines of Vitcrbo), he found a whole 
 province, a realm, in some respects the richest and 
 noblest of his spiritual domain, absolutely dis- 
 severed from his Empire, in almost universal re- 
 volt from Latin Christianity." — H. H Milman, 
 Latin Christianity, bk. q, r/i. 8. — "Of the secta- 
 ries who shared the errors of Gnosticism and Mani- 
 chiism and opposed the Catholic Church and her 
 hierarchy, the .Mbigenses were the most thorough 
 and radical. Their errors were, indeed, partly 
 Gnostic and partly Manichaean, but the latter was 
 the more prominent and fully developed. . . . They 
 are called Cathari and Patarini in the acts of the 
 Council of Tours (1163), and in those of the third 
 Lateran, Publiciani (i. e., Pauliciani). Like the 
 Cathari, they also held that the evil spirit created 
 all visible things."— J. Alzog, Manual of universal 
 church history, periad 2, epoch 2, pt. 1, ch. 3, sect. 
 236. 
 
 "It is not without significance that these ideas 
 found their readiest acceptance in a population 
 that was, probably, as keenly intelligent as any 
 in Europe. The citizens of the great industrial 
 towns of southern France caught at the teachings 
 of the dualistic missionaries. . . . They did not 
 proceed to any violence, but simply w'ithdrew 
 themselves from the association of the dominant 
 religion. Their secular rulers, especially the count 
 Raymond V'l of Toulouse, finding nothing of- 
 fensive to the public welfare in their doctrines, 
 let them alone or even directly protected them 
 from attack. Under these conditions they in- 
 creased so rapidly that practically whole com- 
 munities became converted, and the machinery 
 of the church found itself for the moment inca- 
 pable of dealing with so obstinate a resistance. . . . 
 In addition to this all-sufficient religious motive 
 for persecution there were not wanting others of a 
 more practical sort. There was, first, the antag- 
 onism of North and South, an opposition which, 
 in spite of all efforts on the part of the French 
 government, was still far from being overcome. 
 The chief feudal prince in the South was Raymond 
 of Toulouse, one of the leading feudatories of the 
 crown. If he could be brought down by a com- 
 bination of the crown with the papacy, the game 
 was worth the candle. If his lands could be 
 brought into the hands of more pliant subjects, it 
 would be so much gain in the great effort of Philip 
 Augustus to make himself king indeed of all 
 France The tempting bait of the rich lands of 
 Languedoc was enough to secure abundant fighting 
 material and the dangers of this domestic crusade 
 
 were as nothing compared with those of an ex- 
 pedition to the East. The crusading ardor was 
 at this moment decidedly on the wane. Jlhe re- 
 sult of the fourth Crusade had been far from en- 
 couraging to the purely religious interests con- 
 cerned. It had ended in the capture of the friendly 
 and Christian Constantinople by the crusading 
 army under the lead of the clever traders of Ven- 
 ice and in much negotiation, with mutual good- 
 will, between the heathen and the Christian lead- 
 ers. 
 
 "The outlook in southern France seemed to offer 
 to the ambition of Innocent III the compensation 
 he needed. There is probably no doubt whatever 
 as to the personal integrity of his purposes. . . . 
 Certainly it cannot be said that Innocent resorted 
 to the sword until he had exhausted all the re- 
 sources of peaceful endeavor. Almost immedi- 
 ately upon his accession he had sent two legates 
 into the infected districts and had called upon the 
 local clergy to assist them in converting or in 
 punishing the heretics. The response was not en- 
 couraging. It became evident that the . . . prin- 
 ciple of toleration had made great progress in the 
 land. The local clergy knew too intimately the 
 quality of the persons they were called upon to 
 discipline and it was clear that a foreign agent 
 would be needed. This point is characteristic of 
 the whole history of the persecution. Nowhere 
 in Europe, probably, was there a population more 
 loyal to itself. A series of foreign, i. e., French 
 monastic clergymen, Arnold of Citeaux and Peter 
 of Castelnau the most prominent, headed the work 
 of peaceful exhortation. The inhabitants made no 
 resistance, were in fact more than willing to set 
 their own champions against the strongest debaters 
 of the Roman church ; but this process did not 
 succeed. The more the method of argument 
 was tried, the more the heresy grew. . . . For 
 nearly ten years the campaign of ideas went 
 on ; then a crisis came at the murder of Castel- 
 nau, possibly with the connivance of Count Ray- 
 mond. 
 
 "From that time on there was no hesitation on 
 the part of the pope. All previous efforts to rouse 
 the crusading temper had failed. Philip Augustus, 
 the overlord of the land, had his hands full in 
 the north and the great barons of France were not 
 yet ready to act. The murder of the papal legate 
 seemed to break all restraints. Innocent renewed 
 his summons to all the faithful in Europe. . . . The 
 response this time was unexpectedly gratifying. 
 Philip of France took no action himself, fearing 
 possibly lest the appearance of wanting the south- 
 ern lands for the crown might alienate the loyalty 
 of his nearer neighbors; but he placed no obstacles 
 in the way of his barons. Recruits of every de- 
 scription poured in from all over Europe, indi- 
 viduals and groups drawn together by the curious 
 combination of motives usual in all the crusading 
 armies." — E. Emerton, Mediaeval Europe, pp. 337- 
 340 — Sec also Cathari; Paulicians. 
 
 1209. — First Crusade. — Pope "Innocent III., in 
 organizing the persecution of the Catharians [or 
 Catharistsl, the Patarins, and the Pauvres de 
 Lyons, exercised a spirit, and displayed a geniu? 
 similar to those which had already elevated him 
 to almost universal dominion ; which had enabled 
 him to dictate at once to Italy and to Germany ; 
 to control the kings of France, of Spain, and of 
 England ; to overthrow the Greek Empire, and to 
 substitute in its stead a Latin dynasty at Constan- 
 tinople. In the zeal of the Cistercian Order, and 
 of their .^bbot. .■Vrnaud .^malric ; in the fiery and 
 unwearied preaching of the first Inquisitor, the 
 Spanish Missionary, Dominic; in the remorseless 
 
 198
 
 ALBIGENSES 
 
 Second Crusade 
 
 ALBIGENSES 
 
 activity of Foulquet, Bishop of Toulouse; and 
 above all, in the strong and unpitying arm of 
 Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester, Innocent 
 found ready instruments for his purpose. Thus 
 aided, he excommunicated Raymond of Toulouse 
 [1207], as Chief of the Heretics, and he promised 
 remission of sins, and all the privileges which had 
 hitherto been exclusively conferred on adventurers 
 in Palestine, to the champions who should enroll 
 themselves as Crusaders in the far more easy en- 
 terprise of a Holy War against the Albigenses. In 
 the first invasion of his territories [1209], Ray- 
 mond VI. gave way before the terrors excited by 
 the 300,000 fanatics who precipitated themselves 
 on Languedoc; and loudly declaring his personal 
 freedom from heresy, he surrendered his chief 
 castles, underwent a humiliating penance, and 
 tooli the cross against his own subjects. The brave 
 resistance of his nephew Raymond Roger, Viscount 
 of Bezieres, deserved but did not obtain success. 
 When the crusaders surrounded his capital, which 
 was occupied by a mixed population of the two 
 Religions, a question was raised how, in the ap- 
 proaching sack, the Catholics should be distin- 
 guished from the Heretics. 'Kill them all,' was the 
 ferocious reply of Amalric; 'the Lord will easily 
 know His own.' In compliance with this advice, 
 not one human being within the walls was permit- 
 ted to survive ; and the tale of slaughter has been 
 variously estimated, by those who have perhaps 
 exaggerated the numbers, at 60,000, but even in 
 the extenuating despatch, which the Abbot him- 
 self addressed to the Pope, at not fewer than 
 15,000. Raymond Roger was not included in this 
 fearful massacre, and he repulsed two attacks upon 
 Carcassonne, before a treacherous breach of faith 
 placed him at the disposal of de Montfort, by 
 whom he was poisoned after a short imprisonment. 
 The removal of that young and gallant Prince was 
 indeed most important to the ulterior project of 
 his captor, who aimed at permanent establishment 
 in the South. The family of de Montfort had 
 ranked among the nobles of France for more than 
 two centuries; and it is traced by some writers 
 through an illegitimate channel even to the throne: 
 but the possessions of Simon himself were scanty ; 
 necessity had compelled him to sell the County of 
 Evreux to Philippe Auguste; and the English Earl- 
 dom of Leicester which he inherited maternally, 
 and the Lordship of a Castle about ten leagues 
 distant from Paris, formed the whole of his reve- 
 nues." — E. Smedley, History of France, cli. 4. — See 
 also Christianity: iith-i6th centuries. 
 
 Also in J. C. L. de Sismondi, History of the 
 crusades against the Albigenses, ch. i. — H. H. Mil- 
 man, History of Latin Christianity, bk. g, ch. 8. 
 — J. Alzog, Manual of universal church history, 
 period 2, epoch 2, pt. i, ch. 3. 
 
 1210-1213. — Second Crusade.— "The conquest 
 of the Viscounty of Beziers had rather inflamed 
 than satiated the cupidity of De Montfort and the 
 fanaticism of Amalric [legate of the Pope] and 
 of the monks of Citeaux. Raymond, Count of 
 Toulous, still possessed the fairest part of Langue- 
 doc, and was still suspected or accused of afford- 
 ing shelter, if not countenance, to his heretical sub- 
 jects. . . . The unhappy Raymond was . . . again 
 excommunicated from the Christian Church, and 
 his dominions offered as a reward to the cham- 
 pions who should execute her sentence against him. 
 To earn that reward De Montfort, at the head of 
 a new host of Crusaders, attracted by the promise 
 of earthly spoils and of heavenly blessedness, once 
 more marched through the devoted land [1210], 
 and with him advanced .Amalric. At each succes- 
 sive conquest, slaughter, rapine, and woes such as 
 
 may not be described tracked and polluted their 
 steps. Heretics, or those suspected of heresy, 
 wherever they were found, were compelled by the 
 legate to ascend vast piles of burning fagots. . . . 
 At length the Crusaders reached and laid siege to 
 the city of Toulouse. . . . Throwing himself into 
 the place, Raymond . . . succeeded in repulsiog 
 De Montfort and Amalric. It was, however, but 
 a temporary respite, and the prelude to a fearful 
 destruction. From beyond the Pyrenees, at the 
 head of 1,000 knights, Pedro of Arragon had 
 marched to the rescue of Raymond, his kinsman, 
 and of the counts of Foix and of Comminges, and 
 of the Viscount of Beam, his vassals; and their 
 united forces came into communication with each 
 other at Muret, a little town which is about three 
 leagues distant from Toulouse. There, also, on 
 the 12th of September [1213], at the head of the 
 champions of the Cross, and attended by seven 
 bishops, appeared Simon de Montfort in full mili- 
 tary array. The battle which followed was fierce, 
 short and decisive. . . . Don Pedro was numbered 
 with the slain. His army, deprived of his com- 
 mand, broke and dispersed, and the whole of the 
 infantry of Raymond and his allies were either 
 put to the sword, or swept away by the current 
 of the Garonne. Toulouse immediately surren- 
 dered, and the whole of the dominions of Raymond 
 submitted to the conquerors. At a council subse- 
 quently held at Montpellier, composed of five 
 archbishops and twenty-eight bishops, De Mont- 
 fort was unanimously acknowledged as prince of 
 the fief and city of Toulouse, and of the other 
 counties conquered by the Crusaders under his 
 command." — Sir J. Stephen, Lectures on the history 
 of France, led. 7. — See also Aragon. 
 
 Also in: J. C. L. de Sismondi, History of crus- 
 ades against the Albigenses, ch. 2. 
 
 1217-1229. — Renewed Crusades. — Dissolution 
 of the county of Toulouse. — Pacification of 
 Languedoc. — "The cruel spirit of De Montfort 
 would not allow him to rest quiet in his new Em- 
 pire. Violence and persecution marked his rule ; 
 he sought to destroy the Proven(;al population by 
 the sword or the stake, nor could he bring him- 
 self to tolerate the liberties of the citizens of Tou- 
 louse. In 12 17 the Toulousans again revolted, and 
 war once more broke out betwixt Count Raymond 
 and Simon de Montfort. The latter formed the 
 siege of the capital, and was engaged in repelling 
 a sally, when a stone from one of the walls struck 
 him and put an end to his existence. . . . Amaury 
 de Montfort, son of Simon, offered to cede to the 
 king all his rights in Languedoc, which he was 
 unable to defend against the old house of Tou- 
 louse. Philip [."Vugustus] hesitated to accept the 
 important cession, and left the rival houses to the 
 continuance of a struggle carried feebly on by 
 either side." King Philip died in 1223 and was 
 succeeded by a son; Louis VIII, who had none of 
 his father's reluctance to join in the grasping per- 
 secution of the unfortunate people of the south. 
 Amaury de Montfort had been fairly driven out of 
 old Simon de Montfort's conquests, and he now 
 sold them to King Louis for the office of constable 
 of France. "A new crusade was preached against 
 the Albigenses; and Louis marched towards Lan- 
 guedoc at the head of a formidable army in the 
 spring of the year 1226. The town of Avignon 
 had proferred to the crusaders the facilities of cross- 
 ing the Rhone under her walls, but refuged entry 
 within them to such a host. Louis having arrived 
 at Avignon, insisted on passing through the town: 
 the Avignonais shut their gates, and defied the 
 monarch, who instantly formed the siege. One 
 of the rich municipalities of the south was almost 
 
 199
 
 ALBIGENSES 
 
 ALBION 
 
 a match for the king of France. He was kept three 
 months under its walls ; his array a prey to fam- 
 ine, to disease and to the assaults of a brave gar- 
 rison. The crusaders lost 20,000 men. The people 
 of Avignon at length submitted, but on no dis- 
 honourable terms. This was the only resistance 
 that Louis experienced in Languedoc. . . . All sub- 
 mitted. Louis retired from his facile conquest; 
 he himself, and the chiefs of his army stricken by 
 an epidemic which had prevailed in the con- 
 quered regions. The monarch's feeble frame could 
 not resist it; he expired at Montpensier, in Au- 
 vergne, in November, 1226.'' Louis \III was suc- 
 ceeded by his young son, Louis IX (St. Louis), 
 then a boy, under the regency of his energetic and 
 capable mother, Blanche of Castile. "The termi- 
 nation of the war with the Albigenses, and the 
 pacification, or it might be called the acquisition, 
 of Languedoc, was the chief act of Queen 
 Blanche's regency. Louis VIII had overrun the 
 country without resistance in his last campaign; 
 still, at his departure, Raymond VI. again ap- 
 peared, collected soldiers and continued to struggle 
 against the royal lieutenant. For upward of two 
 years he maintained himself; the attention of 
 Blanche being occupied by the league of the barons 
 against her. The successes of Raymond VII., ac- 
 companied by cruelties, awakened the vindictive 
 zeal of the pope. Languedoc was threatened with 
 another crusade; Raymond was willing to treat, 
 and make considerable cessions, in order to avoid 
 such extremities. In April, I2 2q, a treaty was 
 signed: in it the rights of De Montfort w'ere passed 
 over. About two-thirds of the domains of the 
 count of Toulouse were ceded to the king of 
 France; the remainder was to fall, after Raymond's 
 death, to his daughter Jeanne, who by the same 
 treaty was to marry one of the royal princes: 
 heirs failing them, it was to revert to the crown 
 [which it did in 1271]. On these terms, with the 
 humiliating addition of a public penance, Ray- 
 mond VII. once more was allowed peaceable pos- 
 session of Toulouse, and of the part of his do- 
 mains reserved to him. Alphonse, brother of 
 Louis IX., married Jeanne of Toulouse soon after, 
 and took the title of count of Pointiers; that pro- 
 vince being ceded to him in apanage. Robert, an 
 other brother, was made count of Artois at the 
 same time. Louis himself married Margaret, the 
 eldest daughter of Raymond Berenger, count of 
 Province." — E. E. Crowe, History of France, v. i, 
 eft. 2-3- 
 
 Results of the Crusades. — "The struggle ended 
 in a vast increase of the power of the French 
 crown, at the expense alike of the house of Tou- 
 louse and of the house of Aragon. The domin- 
 ions of the count of Toulouse- were divided. A 
 number of fiefs, Beziers, Narbonne, Nimes, Albi, 
 and some other districts were at once annexed to 
 the crown. The capital itself and its county passed 
 to the crown fifty years later. ... The name of 
 Toulouse, except as the name of the city itself, 
 now passed away, and the new acquisitions of 
 France came in the end to be known by the name 
 of the tongue which was common to them with 
 Aquitaine and Imperial Burgundy [Provence]. 
 Under the name of Languedoc they became one 
 of the greatest and most valuable provinces of 
 the French kingdom." — E. A. Freeman, Historical 
 geography of Europe, ch. q. — "So far as the ap- 
 parent purpose of the crusade, the purifying of the 
 land from heretical thought was concerned, the 
 papacy might well congratulate itself. It had dis- 
 tinctly established the principle that, if political 
 allies could be found, divergence from its system 
 might successfully be met with the sword. Its 
 
 most important result was the permanent estab- 
 lishment of the Holy Tribunal of the Inquisition. 
 The proceedings against the heretics of 'Toulouse 
 had shown how utterly useless it was to entrust 
 the pursuit of heresy to the local episcopal author- 
 ity. Not only was the episcopate very largely con- 
 taminated by wordliness in every f onn ; it was 
 bound up with local interests in too many ways 
 to make it a safe instrument of persecution. The 
 next recourse had been to papal legates, specially 
 created for this purpose, but this had only been 
 able to call forth a lukewarm assistance from the 
 existing local authorities. The only effective 
 method was to create a new tribunal which should 
 be composed of men who had no other interests. 
 Such men were provided by the new mendicant 
 orders and within a few years after the death of 
 Innocent, we find the formal recognition by the 
 papacy of the Domincans as the regular organ 
 for the searching out of heresy and its trial. From 
 about 1230 on, it is fair to speak of the Inquisi- 
 tion as permanently established. . . . The politi- 
 cal result of the crusade was the definite breaking- 
 up of the overgrown power of the counts of Tou- 
 louse. ... In this way the French monarchy 
 gained the south of France, and perhaps its suc- 
 cess there w'ould have been long postponed if the 
 religious troubles had not offered it this entering 
 wedge." — E. Emerton, Mediaeval Europe, pp. 341- 
 342. — "The Church of the Albigenses had been 
 drowned in blood. These supposed heretics had 
 been swept away from the soil of France. The 
 rest of the Langucdocian people had been over- 
 whelmed with calamity, slaughter, and devasta- 
 tion. The estimates transmitted to us of the num- 
 bers of the invaders and of the slain are such as 
 almost surpass belief. We can neither verify nor 
 correct them ; but we certainly know that, during 
 a long succession of years, Languedoc had been in- 
 vaded by armies more numerous than had ever 
 before been brought together in European warfare 
 since the fall of the Roman empire. [We know 
 that these hosts were composed of men inflamed by 
 bigotry and unrestrained by discipline; that they 
 had neither military pay nor magazines; that they 
 provided for all their wants by the sword, living 
 at the expense of the country, and seizing at their 
 pleasure both the harvests of the peasants and the 
 merchandise of the citizens.] More than three- 
 fourths of the landed proprietors had been de- 
 spoiled of their fiefs and castles. In hundreds of 
 villages, every inhabitant had been massacred. . . . 
 Since the sack of Rome by the Vandals, the Euro- 
 pean world had never mourned over a national 
 disaster so wide in its extent or so fearful in its 
 character." — J. Stephen, Lectures on the history 
 of France, led. 7. 
 
 Albigenses in Bosnia. See Bosnia: 12th cen- 
 turv. 
 
 ALBIGEOIS. See Albigenses. 
 
 ALBINUS, Clodius' (d. iq? A. D.), Roman 
 commander. Governor of Gaul and Britain; in 
 104 was made Cssar by Septimius Severus. 
 
 ALBION, ancient name for the island of Great 
 Britain ; generally confined to England. "The most 
 ancient name known to have been given to this 
 island [Britain] is that of Albion. . . . There is, 
 however, another allusion to Britain which seems 
 to carry us much further back, though it has usu- 
 ally been ill understood. It occurs in the story 
 of the labours of Hercules, who, after securing 
 the cows of Geryon, comes from Spain to Liguria, 
 where he is attacked by two giants, whom he kills 
 before making his way to Italy. Now, according 
 to Pomponius Mela, the names of the giants were 
 .Mbiona and Bergyon, which one may, without 
 
 200
 
 ALBIS 
 
 ALCANTARA 
 
 much hesitation, restore to the forms of Albion 
 and Iberion, representing, undoubtedly, Britain 
 and Ireland, the position of which in the sea is 
 most appropriately symbolized by the story mak- 
 ing them sons of Neptune or the sea-god. . , . 
 Even in the time of Pliny, Albion, as the name of 
 the island, had fallen out of use with Latin au- 
 thors; but not so with the Greeks, or with the 
 Celts themselves, at any rate those of the Goidelic 
 branch ; for they are probably right who suppose 
 that we have put the same word in the Irish and 
 Scotch Gslic Alba, genitive Alban, the kingdom of 
 Alban or Scotland beyond the Forth. Albion 
 would be a form of the name according to the 
 Brythonic pronunciation of it. . . . It would thus 
 appear that the name Albion is one that has re- 
 treated to a corner of the island, to the whole of 
 which it once applied." — J. Rhys, Celtic Britain, 
 ch. b. — See also Britannia; Scotland; Sth-gth cen- 
 turies. 
 
 Also in: E. Guest, Origines Celticae, ch. i. 
 
 ALBIS, the ancient name of the river 
 Elbe. 
 
 ALBIZZI, Rinaldo de (d. 1452), Florentine 
 statesman who opposed Medici. See Florence: 
 1433-1464. 
 
 ALBOIN (d. c. 573), king of the Lombards, son 
 of Audoin, whom he succeeded. He destroyed the 
 kingdom of the Gepidae and married Rosamund, 
 daughter of the slain king Cunimund. In 568 
 he invaded and conquered a large portion of Italy. 
 At ,the instigation of his queen he was assassinated 
 by his chamberlain Peredeo, in revenge for having 
 forced her to drink wine from a cup formed from 
 her father's skull. — See also Lombards: 568- 
 
 573. 
 
 ALBORNOZ, Gil Alvarez de (c. 1310-1367), 
 Spanish cardinal. Fought in the battles of Tarifa 
 (1340) and Algeciras (1344), sent to Italy as papal 
 legate and paved the way for the return of Urban 
 V to Rome; founder of the college of St. Clement 
 at Bologna and author of a work on the constitu- 
 tion of the Roman church. — See also Papacy: 1352- 
 
 1378 
 ALBRET, Lordship of, in the Landes, France, 
 
 gave its name to a powerful feudal family, whose 
 members distinguished themselves in local wars; 
 during the fourteenth century supported first the 
 English cause and later the French. By the ac- 
 cession of Henry IV whose mother was Jeanne 
 d'Albret the dukedom came under the crown ; in 
 165 1, was granted to the family of La Tour 
 d'Auvergne. Jean d'Albret, belonging to a younger 
 branch, was employed by Francis I in his intrigues 
 to become emperor. — See also Navarre: 1528- 
 1563. 
 
 ALBRIGHT, Jacob (1759-1808), founder of the 
 Evangelical Association (q.v.). 
 
 ALBRIGHT ART GALLERY. — "Incorpor- 
 ated 1862. Occupies magnificent gallery of white 
 marble in Delaware Park [Buffalo, N. Y.l built 
 and endowed by John J. Albright in IQ05. Collec- 
 tions comprise 2S6 modern oil paintings by Ameri- 
 can, English, Scottish, German, French, Dutch, 
 Austrian, Italian, Spanish and Scandinavian art- 
 ists; 7g6 engravings, including a historical collec- 
 tion of the masters of engraving and an almost 
 complete collection of the works of Sir Seymour 
 Haden; Arundel prints, cartoons, drawings, sculp- 
 tures and casts and various art objects — a total 
 of over 1,300 exhibits. Maintains an art school 
 attended by some 300 students and publishes a 
 quarterly art magazine, 'Academy Notes.' The 
 commission for two caryatid-porticos in white 
 marble, for the north and south wings of the art 
 building, was given to Augustus St. Gaudens, and 
 
 the eight beautiful statues were his last work." — 
 Year's art, 1920, p. 238. 
 
 ALBU, Celtic form for Caledonia. See Scot- 
 land: The name. 
 
 ALBUERA, or Albuhera, La, a small village 
 in Spain in the province of Badajoz, celebrated 
 for the victory of the British, Portuguese and 
 Spaniards over the French in the Peninsular War, 
 May, 1811. 
 
 ALBUM (Latin, albus, white), a board chalked 
 or painted white, on which decrees, edicts, and 
 other public notices were inscribed in black, in 
 ancient Rome. In medieval and modern times 
 album denotes a book of blank pages in which 
 verses, autographs, sketches and the like are col- 
 lected. In law, the word is the English equivalent 
 of "mailles blanches," for rent paid in silver 
 ("white") money. 
 
 ALBUMAZAR (805-885), Arabian astrologer. 
 Author of over fifty works which contained some 
 serious errors, but several of which were never- 
 theless translated into Latin. 
 
 ALBUQUERQUE, Affonso d', surnamed "the 
 Great" and "the Portuguese Mars" (1453-1515), 
 was a celebrated Portuguese navigator and con- 
 queror, being the founder of the Portuguese em- 
 pire in the east; made his first expedition to India 
 in 1503; conquered Goa, the whole of Malabar, 
 Ceylon, the Sunda Islands, the peninsula of Ma- 
 lacca and the island of Ormuz. — See also Com- 
 merce: Era of geographic expansion: I5th-i7th 
 centuries: Leadership of the Portuguese. 
 
 'ALBUQUERQUE, the largest city of New 
 Mexico and the capital of Bernalillo county ; situ- 
 ated on the Rio Grande, 60 miles southwest of 
 Sante Fe. Due to its climate, which is especially 
 adapted for the treatment of tuberculosis, it has 
 become a famous health resort. It was founded 
 in 1706, and named in honor of the duke of Al- 
 buquerque, viceroy from Spain 1702-1710. Dur- 
 ing the Civil War it was occupied by Confederate 
 troops under General Henry Hopkins Sibley. The 
 modern city really dates from the completion of 
 the first railway to Albuquerque in 1880. 
 
 ALCALA DE HENARES, a town of Spain, 
 in New Castile, the birthplace of Cervantes, 1547; 
 its once famous university founded by Cardinal 
 Jimenez in 1510 was removed to Madrid in 1836. 
 The city is supposed to be on the site of the Ro- 
 man Complulnm, hence the name Compluteiisian 
 Polyglot which was given to the famous edition of 
 the Bible prepared here between 1514 and 1517. 
 
 ALCALA UNIVERSITY. — 1510. — Founded 
 by Ximenes. — Constitution. See Universities 
 
 AND COLLEGES: I240-Ii;iO. 
 
 ALCALDE, ALGUAZIL, CORREGIDOR.— 
 
 "The word alcalde is from the Arabic 'al cadi,' the 
 judge or governor. . . . Alcalde mayor signifies a 
 judge, learned in the law, who exercises [in Spain] 
 ordinary jurisdiction, civil and criminal, in a town 
 or district." In the Spanish colonies the alcalde 
 mayor was the chief judge. "Irving (Columbus, 
 ii. 331) writes erroneously alguazil mayor, evi- 
 dently confounding the two ofiices. ... An al- 
 guacil mayor, was a chief constable or high sher- 
 iff." "Corregidor, a magistrate having civil and 
 criminal jurisdiction in the first instance ('nisi 
 prius') and gubernatorial inspection in the political 
 and economical government in all the towns of the 
 district assigned to him." — H. H. Bancroft, History 
 of the Pacific states, v. i, pp. 207 and 250, foot- 
 notes. — See also Audiencias; Holy Brotherhood 
 or Herman'dad. 
 
 ALCANTARA, town of western Spain on the 
 Tagus, seven miles from the Portuguese frontier. 
 The town was famous as the stronghold of the 
 
 201
 
 ALCANTARA 
 
 ALDEN 
 
 kjiightly order of Alcantara ; and also for the 
 bridge over the Tagus built by Trajan in A. D., 
 lOS and still in a tine state of preservation. From 
 Arabic, al Kantara, "the bridge." For the bat- 
 tle of Alcantara (1580). See Portugal: 157Q- 
 1580. 
 
 ALCANTARA, Knights of. See Alcantara, 
 Order of. 
 
 ALCANTARA, Order of.— "Towards the close 
 of Alfonso's reign [Alfonso VIII of Castile and 
 Leon, who called himself 'the Emperor,' 1126- 
 1157], may be assigned the origin of the military 
 order of Alcantara. Two cavaliers of Salamanca, 
 don Suero and don Gomez, left that city with the 
 design of choosing and fortifying some strong 
 natural frontier, whence they could not only arrest 
 the continual incursions of the Moors, but make 
 hostile irruptions themselves into the territories of 
 the misbelievers. Proceeding along the banks pf 
 the Coales, they fell in with a hermit, Araando by 
 name, who encouraged them in their patriotic de- 
 sign and recommended the neighbouring hermitage 
 of St. Julian as an excellent site for a fortress. 
 Having examined and approved the situation, they 
 applied to the bishop of Salamanca for permission 
 to occupy the place: that permission was readily 
 granted: with his assistance, and that of the her- 
 mit Amando, the two cavaliers erected a castle 
 around the hermitage. They were now joined by 
 other nobles and by more adventurers, all eager 
 to acquire fame and wealth in this life, glory in 
 the ne.xt. Hence the foundation of an order which, 
 under the name, first, of St. Julian, and subse- 
 quently of Alcantara, rendered good ser\'ice alike 
 to king and church." — S. A. Dunham, History of 
 Spain and Portugal, bk. 3, sect. 2, ch. i, div. 2. 
 
 ALCAZAR, or "The Three Kings," Battle of 
 (1578 or 1570). See Morocco: 647-1860; Portu- 
 gal: 1579-1580. 
 
 ALCEDO, United States patrol boat sunk by a 
 German submarine during the World War. See 
 World War: 1Q17: IX. Naval operations: c, 4. 
 
 ALCESTER, Frederick Beauchamp Paget 
 Seymour, Baron (1821-1895), British admiral. 
 Commanded the naval brigade in New Zealand 
 during the Maori War; commanded the squadron 
 sent to Albania in 1880 to compel the Porte to 
 cede Dulcigno to Montenegro; commander of the 
 British fleet at the bombardment of Alexandria, 
 1882. 
 
 ALCHEMY.— "The term 'alchemy,' or, as it 
 was spelt until the nineteenth century, alchymy, 
 derived from the Arabic, is said to have come 
 originally from a Greek word (chyma) signifying 
 things melted and poured out. It is more probably 
 derived from Kliem, 'the land of Egypt,' which 
 was so named from the dark colour of its soil, 
 composed of crumbling syenite. Alchemy, accord- 
 ing to this derivation, is the 'art of the black 
 country,' the Black Art. In Egypt it was carried 
 to a high degree of development, and consequently 
 this theory of the origin of the name receives sup- 
 port from the philological character of the deriva- 
 tives — al, the .Arabic definite article, and Khem, 
 dark — because the term first came into use when 
 the Arabian Mohammedans dominated Egypt, 
 learned the secrets of the temple laboratories, and 
 spread throughout the civilized parts of Western 
 Europe the knowledge they had thus acquired. 
 The application of the term has frequently, but 
 wrongfully, been restricted to the pretended arts 
 of making gold and silver, and the more profitable 
 arts of adulterating and of imitating gold. It 
 had, however, a wider application, and ought to 
 be regarded as including all the arts known in an- 
 cient times, which dealt with things now compre- 
 
 hended in the science of chemistry." — J. C. Brown, 
 History of chemistry, p. 2. — See also Chemistry, 
 
 Practiced by Arabs. See Science: .\ncient: 
 Arabian Science. 
 
 ALCHUINE. See Alcuin, 
 
 ALCIBIADES (c, 450-404 B.C.), Athenian 
 politician and general. Commander of the Athe- 
 nians in the enterprise against Syracuse. To escape 
 trial for mutilation of statues, lied to Sparta where 
 he arranged an alliance with Persia and an Ionian 
 revolt against .Athens; later assisted the .Athenians 
 by defeating the Lacedsmonians and returned to 
 his native city in triumph. — See also Athens: B.C. 
 413-411; Greece; B. C. 421-418; 419-416; 413-412; 
 411-407; Syracuse: B.C. 415-413. 
 
 ALCLYDE. — Rhydderch, a Cumbrian prince of 
 the sixth century who was the victor in a civil 
 conflict, "fixed his headquarters on a rock in the 
 Clyde, called in the Welsh Alclud [previously a 
 Roman town known as Theodosia], whence it was 
 known to the EnglLsh for a time as Alclyde ; but 
 the Goidels called it Dunbrettan, or the fortress of 
 the Brythons, which has prevailed in the slightly 
 modified form of Dumbarton. . . . Alclyde was 
 more than once destroyed by the Northmen." — J. 
 Rhvs, Celtic Britain, ch. 4. — See also Cumbria. 
 
 ALCMAEONIDAE, a distinguished family in 
 Athens. The family was banished about 596 B. C, 
 for the slaying of Cylon by Archon Megacles ; re- 
 turned in 510 through the aid of Sparta. To this 
 family belonged Clisthenes, Pericles and ."Mcibiades. 
 — See also .\thens: B.C. 612-595; Greece; B, C, 
 Sth-5th centuries. 
 
 ALCOCK, Captain Sir John William, mem- 
 ber of the Royal .Mr Force, decorated in IQ19 for 
 first crossing the .Atlantic in an airplane, from 
 Newfoundland to Clifden, Ireland. [See Avia- 
 tion: Important flights since igoo: 1919 (June).] 
 Alcock was created knight in 1919. He died Dec. 
 1 8 of the same vear. 
 
 ALCOCK, Sir Rutherford (1809-1897), Eng- 
 lish diplomat. Consul to China, 1844-1846; con- 
 sul-general in Japan, 1846-1865, where he stayed 
 through the period of feudal anarchy. Served as 
 minister plenipotentiary to Peking until 1871. 
 Brought the art of Japan to the world's no- 
 tice. 
 
 ALCOHOL PROBLEM. See Liquor problem. 
 
 ALCOLEA, Battle of (1868). See Spain: 
 1868-1873. 
 
 ALCORTA, Jos§ Figueroa, President of Ar- 
 gentine republic, 1906-1910. See Acre disputes. 
 
 ALCUIN, or Albinus Flaccus (735-804), cele- 
 brated English prelate and scholar at the time of 
 Charlemagne; active in ecclesiastical and literary 
 movements on the Continent ; writer of many 
 learned treatises on grammar, rhetoric, theology 
 and philosophy; at Troyes from 78 j to 790; his 
 school conducted for Charlemagne and his en- 
 tourage, was instrumental in introducing Latin cul- 
 ture (see School of the palace, Charlemagne's) ; 
 spent last years as abbot at Tours; a facile writer 
 of prose and verse, and the leading intellectual 
 figure of the Carolingian Renaissance. — See also 
 Annals: French, German, Italian and Spanish an- 
 nals; Christianity: 597-800: English church; Edu- 
 cation: Medieval: 724-814; Charlemagne and 
 Alcuin, 
 
 ALDBOROUGH, England, called by the Ro- 
 mans Isurium Brigantum. See Isurium, 
 
 ALDEN, Ichabod (1739-1778), .\merican officer. 
 See U. S. .\: 1778 (June-November). 
 
 ALDEN, John (1599-1687), one of the Pilgrim 
 Fathers, who emigrated to .America in the May- 
 flower in 1620. One of the first settlers of Dux- 
 bury. Of great assistance in the government of 
 
 202
 
 ALDERNEY ISLAND 
 
 the colony, and the last male survivor of the origi- 
 nal group. The romance of his marriage to Pris- 
 cilla Mullens was the theme of Longfellow's poem 
 "The Courtship of Miles Standish " 
 ALDERNEY ISLAND. See Channel islands 
 ALDERSHOT COMMAND, the body of 
 troops stationed at the great military camp estab- 
 lished in 1855 at Aldershot, Hampshire, England. 
 The permanent force is made up of troops avail- 
 able for service with the first army corps 
 
 ALDERSON, Sir Edwin Alfred Herrey 
 (1859- ), British Lieutenant-general. See World 
 War: igis: II. Western front: c, 11. 
 
 ALDIE, Battle of. See U. S. A.: 1863 (June- 
 July: Pennsylvania ) . 
 
 ALDINE PRESS. See Printinc and the 
 Press: 1460-1515. 
 
 ALDOBRANDINI, Florentine family. See 
 Rome: 1600-1656. 
 
 ALDRED, or Ealdred (d. 1069), English arch- 
 bishop. In 1046 led an unsuccessful expedition 
 against the Welsh, supported the cause of Edgar 
 the ^theling, but later submitted to William the 
 Conqueror, and crowned the Norman king 
 
 ALDRICH, Nelson Wilmarth (1841-1915), 
 Republican member of the United States Senate 
 from Rhode Island for thirty years; previously in 
 the House of Representatives, 187S-1S80. He evi- 
 denced an unusual skill in parliamentary organiza- 
 tion as leader of the conservative faction in the 
 Seriate; chiefly responsible for the Payne-.'^ldrich 
 tariff act, which was received with keen disappoint- 
 ment by tariff reformers; responsible for the en- 
 actment of the Aldrich-Vreeland currency law. 
 (q. V.) As chairman of the National Monetary 
 Commission, he recommended revision of the bank- 
 ing laws, which furnished the basis for the Federal 
 Reserve act of 1913. See Tariff: 1909; U. S. A.: 
 1910 (March-June). 
 
 ALDRICH-VREELAND ACT (1908), Ameri- 
 can monetary act. "The Aldrich-Vreeland act, 
 1908, undertook to supply the need [of a more 
 elastic currency] by allowing banks to issue 
 additional notes on depositing approved state, 
 country, or municipal bonds and by forming as- 
 sociations with joint responsibility to issue notes 
 secured by commercial paper. ... In the Aldrich- 
 Vreeland act was a provision for a monetary com- 
 mission. Senator Aldrich becoming chairman." — 
 J. S. Bassett, Short history of the United States, 
 p. 850. See Money and banking: Modern period: 
 1912-1913: Federal reserve system. 
 
 ALDRINGER, Johann, Count von (1588- 
 1634), general in the imperial German army during 
 the Thirty Years' War. Served under Wallenstein 
 and Tilly, on the death of the latter (1632) suc- 
 ceeding to his command ; fought against the Swedes 
 on the Danube. 
 
 ALEANDRO, Cirolamo (Hieronymus Alex- 
 ander, 1480-1542), Italian ecclesiastic (cardinal) 
 and scholar; author of a "Lexicon grjeco-latinum" 
 (1512), etc.; was several times papal legate to 
 Germany, and an ardent opponent of the Reforma- 
 tion. 
 
 ALEICHEM, Sholem (1859-1916), pseud, of 
 Solomon J. Rabinowitz, Jewish author. See Jews: 
 Language and literature. 
 
 ALEMAN, Louis (c. 1390-1450), French 
 cardinal ; member of the council of Basel where 
 he maintained the supremacy of a council over 
 the pope. In 1440 proclaimed the deposition 
 of Pope Eugenius IV, elevating the antipope 
 Felix V. 
 
 ALEMANNI, or Alamanni. — 213. — Origin 
 and first appearance. — "Under Antoninus, the 
 Son of Severus, a new and more severe war once 
 more (213) broke out in Raetia This also was 
 
 ALEMANNI 
 
 waged against the Chatti; but by their side a 
 second people is named, which we here meet for 
 the first time— the Alamanni. Whence they came, 
 we know not. According to a Roman writing a 
 little later, they were a conflux of mixed elements; 
 the appellation also seems to point to a league of 
 communities, as well as the fact that, afterwards, 
 the different tribes comprehended under this name 
 stand forth— more than is the case among the 
 other great Germanic peoples— in their separate 
 character, and the Juthungi, the Lentienses, and 
 other Alamannic peoples not seldom act independ- 
 ently. But that it is not the Germans of this region 
 who here emerge, allied under the new name and 
 strengthened by the alliance, is shown as well by 
 the naming of the Alamanni along side of the 
 Chatti, as by the mention of the unwonted skil- 
 fulness of the Alamanni in equestrian combat. On 
 the contrary, it was certainly, in the main, hordes 
 coming on from the East that lent new strength to 
 the almost extinguished German resistance on the 
 Rhine; it is not improbable that the powerful Sem- 
 nones, in earlier times dwelling on the middle 
 Elbe, of whom there is no further mention after 
 the end of the second centurv, furnished a strong 
 contingent to the Alamanni."— T. Mommsen, His- 
 tory of Rome, bk. 8, ch. 4.— "The standard quota- 
 tion^respecting the derivation of the name from 
 'al' — 'all' and 'm-n' = 'man,' so that the word 
 (somewhat exceptionably) denotes 'men of all sorts,' 
 is from .'\gathias, who quotes Asinius Quadratus. . . . 
 Notwithstanding this, I think it is an open ques- 
 tion, whether the name may not have been applied 
 by the truer and more unequivocal Germans of 
 Suabia and Franconia, to certain less deiinitely 
 Germanic allies from Wurtemberg and Baden, — 
 parts of the Decumates Agri — parts which may 
 have supplied a Gallic, a Gallo-Roman, or even a 
 Slavonic element to the confederacy ; in which 
 case, a name.so German as to have given the pres- 
 ent French and Italian name for Germany, may, 
 originally, have applied to a population other 
 than Germanic. . . . The locality of the Alemanni 
 was the parts about the Limes Romanus, a bound- 
 ary which, in the time of Alexander Severus, Nie- 
 buhr thinks they first broke through. Hence they 
 were the Marchmen of the frontier, whoever those 
 Marchmen were. Other such Marchmen were the 
 Suevi; unless, indeed, we consider the two names 
 as synonymous. Zeuss admits that, between the 
 Suevi of Suabia, and the Alemanni, no tangible 
 difference can be found." — R. G. Lathan, Germania 
 of Tacitus; EpUegomena, sect. 11. — See also Ger- 
 many: 3d century. 
 Also in: T. Smith, Arminiiis, pt. 2, cli. i. 
 259. — Invasion of Gaul and Italy.— The Ale- 
 manni, "hovering on the frontiers of the Empire 
 . . . increased the general disorder that ensued 
 after the death of Decius. They inflicted severe 
 wounds on the rich provinces of Gaul ; they were 
 the first who removed the veil that covered the 
 feeble majesty of Italy. A numerous body of the 
 .•Memanni penetrated across the Danube and 
 through the Rhaetian Alps into the plains of Lom- 
 bardy, advanced as far as Ravenna and displayed 
 the victorious banners of barbarians almost in 
 sight of Rome [259]. The insult and the danger 
 rekindled in the senate some sparks of their ancient 
 virtue. Both the Emperors were engaged in far 
 distant wars — Valerian in the East and Galienus 
 on the Rhine" The senators, however, succeeded 
 in confronting the audacious invaders with a force 
 which checked their advance, and they "retired 
 into Germany laden with spoil" — E. Gibbon, His- 
 tory of the decline and fail of the Roman empire, 
 ch. 10. 
 
 203
 
 ALEMANNI 
 
 ALENgON 
 
 270. — Invasion of Italy. — Italy was invaded by 
 the Alemanni, for the second time, in the reign of 
 Aurelian, 270. They ravaged the provinces from 
 the Danube to the Po, and were retreating, laden 
 with spoils, when the vigorous Emperor intercepted 
 them, on the banks of the former river. Half the 
 host was permitted to cross the Danube ; the other 
 half was surprised and surrounded. But these last, 
 unable to regain their own country, broke through 
 the Roman lines at their rear and sped into Italy 
 again, spreading havoc as they went. It was only 
 after three great battles, — one near Placenlia, in 
 which the Romans were almost beaten, another 
 on the Metaurus (where Hasdrubal was defeated), 
 and a third near Pavia, — that the Germanic invad- 
 ers were destroyed. — E. Gibbon, History 0) the 
 decline and fall of the Ro"nan empire, ch. 11. — See 
 also Barbaria.\ i.vv.hsio.ns: 3d century. 
 
 355-361.— Repulse by Julian. See Gaul: 35s- 
 
 361. 
 
 365-367.— Invasion of Gaul.— The Alemanni 
 invaded Gaul in 305, committing widespread rav- 
 ages and carrying away into the forests of Ger- 
 many great spoil and many captives. The ne.vt 
 winter they crossed the Rhine, again, in still 
 greater numbers, defeated the Roman forces and 
 captured the standards of the Herulian and Ba- 
 tavian auxiliaries. But \ alentinian was now 
 Emperor, and he adopted energetic measures. His 
 lieutenant Jovinus overcame the invaders in a 
 great battle fought near Chalons and drove them 
 back to their own side of the river boundary. 
 Two years later, the Emperor, himself, passed the 
 Rhine and inflicted a memorable chastisement on 
 the Alemanni. At the same time he strengthened 
 the frontier defences, and, by diplomatic arts, fo- 
 mented quarrels between the .Aiemanni and 
 their neighbors, the Burgundiuns, which weak- 
 ened both. — E. Gibbon, History of the decline and 
 fall of the Roman empire, ch. 25. 
 
 378. — Defeat by Gratian. — On learning that the 
 young Emperor Gratian was preparing to lead 
 the military force of Gaul and the West to the 
 help of his uncle and colleague, X'alens, against 
 the Goths, the Alemanni swarmed across the 
 Rhine into Gaul. Gratian instantly recalled the 
 legions that were marching to Pannonia and en- 
 countered the German invaders in a great battle 
 fought near Argentaria (modern Colmar) in the 
 month of May, .\. D. 378. The .Memanni were 
 routed with such slaughter that no more than 
 S.ooo out of 40,000 to 70,000, are said to have 
 escaped. Gratian afterwards crossed the Rhine 
 and humbled his troublesome neighbors in their 
 own country. — E. Gibbon, History of the decline 
 and fall of the Roman empire, ch. 26. 
 
 496-504. — Overthrow by the" Franks. — "In the 
 year 4g6 the Salians ISalian Franks 1 began that 
 career of conquest which they followed up with 
 scarcely any intermission until the death of their 
 warrior king. The Alemanni, extending them- 
 selves from their original seats on the right bank 
 of the Rhine, between the Main and the Danube, 
 had pushed forward into Germanica Prima, where 
 they came into collision with the prankish sub- 
 jects of King Sigebert of Cologne. Clovis flew to 
 the assistance of his kinsman and defeated the 
 Alemanni in a great battle in the neighbourhood 
 of Ziilpich [called, commonly, the battle of Tol- 
 biac]. He then established a considerable number 
 of his Franks in the territory of the Alemanni. 
 the traces of whose residence are found in the 
 names of Franconia and Frankfort." — W. C. 
 Perry, The Franks, ch. 2. — "Clovis had been in- 
 tending to cross the Rhine, but the hosts of the 
 Alamanni came upon him, as it seems, unexpvct- 
 
 204 
 
 edly and forced a battle on the left bank of the 
 river. He seemed to be overmatched, and the 
 horror of an impending defeat overshadowed the 
 Frankish king. Then, in his despair, he bethought 
 himself of the God of Clotiiaa [his queen, a Bur- 
 gundian Christian princess, of the orthodox or 
 Catholic faith]. Raising his eyes to heaven, he 
 said: 'Oh Jesus Christ, whom Clotilda declares 
 to be the Son of the living God, who art said to 
 give help to those who are in trouble and who 
 
 trust in Thee, I humbly beseech Thy succor ! I 
 have called on my gods and they are far from 
 my help. If Thou wilt deliver me from mine ene- 
 mies, I will believe in Thee, and be baptised in 
 Thy name.' At this moment, a sudden change 
 was seen in the fortunes of the Franks. The .Ala- 
 manni began to waver, they turned, they fled. 
 Their king, according to one account was slain; 
 and the nation seems to have accepted Clovis as 
 its over-lord." The following Christmas day Clo- 
 vis was baptised at Reims and 3,000 of his war- 
 riors followed the royal example. "In the early 
 years of the new century, probably about 503 or 
 504, Clovis was again at war with his old ene- 
 mies, the .Alamanni. . . . Clovis moved his army 
 into their territories and won a victory mucli 
 more decisive, though less famous than that of 
 406. This time the angry king would make no 
 such easy terms as he had done before. From 
 their pleasant dwellings by the Main and the 
 Neckar, from all the valley of the Middle Rhine, 
 the terrified .Alamanni were forced to flee. Their 
 place was taken by Frankish settlers, from whom 
 all this district received in the Middle .Ages the 
 name of the Duchy of Francia, or, at a rather later 
 date, that of the Circle of Franconia. The .Ala- 
 manni, with their wives and children, a broken 
 and dispirited host, moved southward to the 
 shores of the Lake of Constance and entered the 
 old Roman province of Rhastia. Here they were 
 on what was held to be, in a sense, Italian 
 ground; and the arm of Theodoric, as ruler of 
 Italy, as successor to the Emperors of the West, 
 was stretched forth to protect them. . . . Eastern 
 Switzerland, Western Tyrol. Southern Baden and 
 WiJrtemberg and Southwestern Bavaria probably 
 formed this new .Alamannia, which will figure in 
 later history as the 'Ducatus Alamanniae.' or the 
 Circle of Swabia." — T. Hodgkin, Italy and her in- 
 vaders, bk. 4, ch. p. — See also Suevi: 460-500; 
 F'ranks: 4S1-511; SwiTZERtAND: Celtic inhabitants; 
 ist-3d centuries; Europe: Ethnology: Migrations: 
 Map showing Barbaric migrations. 
 
 528-729. — Struggles against the Frank domin- 
 ion. See Ger.manv: 4S1-768. 
 
 547. — Final subjection to the Franks. See 
 Bavaria: 547. 
 
 .Also in: P. Godwin, History of France: Ancient 
 Gaul, bk. 3, ch. 11. 
 
 ALEMANNIA: Mediaeval duchy. See Ger- 
 many: 843-002. 
 
 ALEN^ON, Counts and dukes of.— First line 
 founded by Yves, lord of Belesmc, who fortified 
 the town of .AIen(;on in tenth century. All his 
 successors were involved in the wars of the kings 
 of England, in Normandy. Mabille, countess of 
 .AIeni;on and heiress of this family, married Roger 
 de Montgomery, and thus a second house of Alen- 
 i;on was started, which became extinct with the 
 death of Robert IV. Established in a third house 
 in the person of Charles of Valois, it was raised 
 to a peerage in 1367 and into a dukedom in 1414. 
 John, first duke of .Alen(;on, was killed at Agin- 
 court on October 25, 141 s, after having killed the 
 duke of York. The dukedom reverted back to 
 the crown in 1524, was given to Catherine de
 
 ALEPPO 
 
 ALEXANDER 
 
 Medici in 1559, and as an appanage to her son 
 Francis in 1566. Henry IV pawned it to the duke 
 of Wiirtembcrg, and, by grant of Louis XIII, it 
 passed to Gaston, duke of Orleans. 
 
 ALEPPO (Haleb), a vilayet of the former 
 Turkish empire including northern Syria and 
 northwestern Mesopotamia. The city of the same 
 name is the junction point of the Bagdad and 
 Hejaz railways, and with the surrounding ter- 
 ritory was captured by General Allenby in igi8. 
 
 Location. See Arabu: Map; Turkey: Map of 
 Asia Minor. 
 
 637. — Surrender to Moslems. See Caliphate: 
 632-639. 
 
 638-969. — Taken by the Arab followers of Mo- 
 hammed in 638, this city was recovered by the 
 Byzantines in 969. See Byzantine empire; 963- 
 1025. 
 
 1260. — Destruction by the Mongols. — The 
 Mongols, under Khulagu, or Houlagou, brother 
 of Mangu Khan, having overrun Mesopotamia 
 nnd extinguished the caliphate at Bagdad, crossed 
 the Euphrates in the spring of 1260 and advanced 
 to Aleppo. The city was taken after a siege of 
 seven days and given up for five days to pillage 
 and slaughter. "When the carnage ceased, the 
 streets were cumbered with corpses. ... It is said 
 that 100,000 women and children were sold as 
 slaves. The walls of Aleppo were razed, its 
 mosques destroyed, and its gardens ravaged." 
 Damascus submitted and was spared. Khulagu 
 was meditating, it is said, the conquest of Jeru- 
 salem, when news of the death of the Great Khan 
 called him to the east. — H. H. Howorth, History 
 of the Mongols, pp. 200-211. 
 
 1401. — Sack and massacre by Timur. See 
 
 TiMUR. 
 
 16th-18th centuries. — Conquest by the Otto- 
 mans. — Revival of trade. — Under the strong rule 
 of the Ottomans, who took possession of Aleppo 
 in 1517, its trade with the East revived and in- 
 creased. In the reign of James I one of the first 
 provincial factories and consulates of the British 
 Turkey Company was established there. It was 
 long the eastern outpost of the company's opera- 
 tions, and was connected by private postal serv- 
 ice with the western outpost of the East India 
 Company in Bagdad. Aleppo's importance in 
 trade was first diminished by the discovery of the 
 Cape route to India; the opening of a land route 
 through Egypt to the Red sea lessened it further; 
 and the making of the Suez canal struck the final 
 blow. 
 
 1916 (May). — Declared independent with 
 French and English spheres of influence. See 
 Syria: 1908-1921. 
 
 1918. — Captured and occupied by British. See 
 World War: 1918: VI. Turkish theater: c, 13 and 
 24. 
 
 ALERIA, Naval battle of (537 B.C.). See 
 Rome: Ancient kingdom: B.C. 753-510. 
 
 ALESIA, ancient name for a hill in central 
 France now Alise-Ste.-Reine, where in 52 B. C. 
 Ciesar besieged Vercingctorix, forced him to sur- 
 render and completed the conquest of Gaul. Ex- 
 cavations of the siege works were made by Napo- 
 leon III. See Gaul: B.C. 58-51. 
 
 ALESSANDRI, Arturo, president of Chile, 
 1920. As the result of a disputed election in 1920, 
 a court of honor was appointed, and after careful 
 examination, Seiior Alessandri was declared elected. 
 The result was accepted by the people. — See also 
 Chile: 1920 (June). 
 
 ALESSANDRIA: Creation of the city (1168). 
 See Italy: i 174- it 83. 
 
 ALEUTIAN ISLANDS, a chain of islands ex- 
 
 tending westward from the coast of Alaska into the 
 Pacific ocean. See Alaska: Map. 
 
 Inhabitants. Sec Eskimauan family. 
 
 1741.— Bering's exploration.— Russian claims. 
 See Oregon: 1741-1836. 
 
 ALEXANDER I, pope (A. D. 106-115). 
 
 Alexander II, pope, 1061-1073 coadjutor of 
 Hildebrand in suppressing simony ; was threat- 
 ened by the pretentions of the German anti-pope 
 Honorarius II, who was soon deposed. 
 
 Alexander III, pope, 1159-1181; opposed Fred- 
 erick Barbarossa who withheld recognition of him 
 as pope until 1177. Held the third Lateran Synod; 
 humbled Henry II of England in the Thomas 
 Becket affair; confirmed the kingship of Alphonso 
 I of Portugal; excommunicated William the Lion 
 of Scotland and laid the interdict on that coun- 
 try. — See also Italy: 1154-1162 to 1174-1183; 
 Papacy: 1122-1250; Venice: 1177. 
 
 Alexander IV, pope, 1254-1261 ; opposed the 
 Hohenstaufens under Conradin and Manfred ; 
 tried to unite the Greek and Latin churches; es- 
 tablished the Inquisition in France; attempted to 
 organize a Crusade against the Tatars. See Ve- 
 rona: 1236-1259. 
 
 Alexander V, pope, 1409-1410; promoted the 
 council of Pisa, which elected him to supersede 
 the two rival claimants to the papal succession in 
 order to effect a solution of the Great Schism; 
 conferred investiture of the kingdom of Sicily on 
 Louis II of Anjou. — See also Papacy: 1377- 
 1417. 
 
 Alexander VI, pope, 1492- 1503, lived a purely 
 secular life, using all his power to gain wealth 
 and station for his children. Intervened in the 
 Franco-Spanish quarrels over the possession of 
 Naples; attempted the conquest of central Italy. 
 Crushed the power of several of the great fami- 
 lies of Italy; patron of Italian art. — See also 
 Papacy: 1471-1513; America: 1492; 1493; Flor- 
 ence: 1490-1498. 
 
 Alexander VII, pope, 1655-1667, patron of 
 literature and art; favored the Jesuits; carried on 
 protracted controversies with France and Portu- 
 gal. — See also Papacy: 1644-1667; Port Royal and 
 THE Jansenists: 1602-1700. 
 
 Alexander VIII, pope, 1689-1691, condemned 
 the proclamation of the liberties of the Galilean 
 church made in 1682; indulged in nepotism; con- 
 demned the Jesuit doctrine of philosophic sin. 
 
 Alexander, of Battenberg (1857-1893). Made 
 prince of Bulgaria in 1879 through the influence 
 of the Russian tsar. In 1881 assumed absolute 
 power, but restored the constitution in 1883; as- 
 sumed the government of the revolted East Rume- 
 lia in 1885, causing a war with Serbia which' he 
 closed successfully ; was forced by Russian influ- 
 ence to abdicate in 1886. — See also Bulgaria: 
 1885-1886; 1879. 
 
 Alexander III, the Great (356-323 B.C.), king 
 of Macedon. Was ambitious to establish a Pan- 
 hellenic empire; subdued Greece, the greater part 
 of Asia Minor, and Egypt, where he founded the 
 city that bears his name. Completely routed the 
 Persians under Darius, and extended his empire to 
 India. Attempted to fuse Oriental and Greek 
 civilizations. — Sec also Asia: B.C. 334-A. D. 1498; 
 Athens: B. C. 336-322 ; Egypt: B. C. 332 ; 332-322 ; 
 Gaza: B.C. 332; Gordian knot; Greece: B.C. 
 336-335; India: B.C. 327-312; Macedonia: B.C. 
 334-330; B.C. 330-323; Persepolis: B.C. 330; 
 Rhodes, Island of: B.C. 332; Samaria: Change 
 of population by Alexander the Great; Sidon; 
 Tyre: B.C. 332. 
 
 Alexander (1893-1920), king of Greece, second 
 son of king Constantine, whom he succeeded on 
 
 20:
 
 ALEXANDER 
 
 ALEXANDRIA, B.C. 332 
 
 his abdication, June, igt?. Died, October, 1920. 
 See Greece: 1916; 1920-1021; World War: iqi7: 
 V: Balkan theatre: a, 1; a, 5; a, 7. 
 
 Alexander (1461-1506), IcinK of Poland, 1501- 
 1507. The parsimony of the Polish nobles, who 
 controlled the mint, forced him to sue for peace 
 with Russia, and assisted Prussia and Moldavia 
 in their efforts to secure their freedom. See Po- 
 land: 1333-1572 
 
 Alexander I (Aleksander Pavlovich) (1777- 
 1825), tsar of Russia, 1801-1825. Posed as a re- 
 former, but did little; made war on Napoleon, 
 but became his ally at Tilsit. Took Finland from 
 the Swedes (1809). After Napoleon's downfall, 
 formed the Holy Alliance; was patron of liberal 
 government in Europe until 1818 when Metter- 
 nich gained influence over him ; refused aid to the 
 Greeks, but later threatened war upon Turkey. — 
 See also Austrl\: 1809-1814 ; Holy Alliance; 
 Russia; 1801 ; 1807-1820. 
 
 Alexander II (1818-1881), tsar of Russia. Came 
 to the throne 1855. In 1861 emancipated the 
 serfs, retaining the communal system ; organized 
 the army and navy ; drew up a new judicial ad- 
 ministration, a new penal code, a system of rural 
 government. Made war on Turkey 1877 to pro- 
 tect Christians in the east, but lost much of his 
 gain at the Congress of Berlin. Assassinated, 
 March 13, 1881. See Europe: Modern period: 
 Russia in the 19th century; Russia: 1879-1881. 
 
 Alexander III (1845-1894), tsar of Russia. A 
 firm believer in autocracy and an ardent Slavo- 
 phil. Annulled his father's reforms in local gov- 
 ernment, centralizing the imperial administration. 
 He was the father of the last Russian tsar, Nich- 
 olas II. — See also Europe: Modern period: Russia 
 in the loth century; Russu: 1881-1894; 1894. 
 
 Alexander I (1078-1124) king of Scotland, 
 son of Malcolm Canmore and Margaret, sister of 
 Edgar the .-Etheling ; brother of Edgar whom he 
 succeeded to the Scottish throne in 1107. He 
 married Sibylla, daughter of Henry I of England. 
 Gained the title of "the Fierce" by his ruthless 
 suppression of an insurrection in his northern 
 dominion. 
 
 Alexander II (1198-1240), king of Scotland, son 
 of William the Lion, whom he succeeded in 1214; 
 surnamed "the Peaceful." Led an army into 
 England to support the English barons against 
 John in their struggle for Magna Carta. 
 
 Alexander III (i 241 -1285), king of Scotland, son 
 of Alexander II, whom he succeeded in 1249 Mar- 
 ried Princess Margaret, eldest daughter of Henry 
 III of England in 1251; defeated the Norwegians 
 in their attempt at invasion in 1263. 
 
 Alexander (il, 323 B.C.), Greek painter. See 
 Painting: Greek. 
 
 ALEXANDER, The Great. See .Alexander 
 UI (356-323 B.C.). 
 
 ALEXANDER, Sir James Edward (1S03- 
 1885), British soldier, traveler and author. Served 
 in the war against Burma (1825); conducted an 
 exploring expedition into .Africa 1836-18^7. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Joshua Willis (1S52- ), 
 appointed secretary of commerce. See \J. S. A: 
 1919-1920. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Sir William (1567-1640) See 
 America; Map of early colonial grants; New Eng- 
 land: 1621-1631; Nova Scotia: 1621-1668. 
 
 ALEXANDER OF HALES (d. 1245). English 
 theologian Received a doctor's degree at Paris 
 where he was a celebrated teacher Hi? work, the 
 "Summa Theologiae," formulates a system of edu- 
 cation and is the first philosophical contribution of 
 the Franciscan order, which Alexander had entered 
 in 1222. 
 
 ALEXANDER JANNAEUS (d. 76 B.C.), 
 
 king of the Jews. See Gaza: B. C. 100 
 
 ALEXANDER KARAGEORGEVICH, prince- 
 regent of Serbia and successor of Peter I, as king of 
 the United Kingdom of Jugo-Slavia (1888- ); 
 distinguished himself in the national struggle 
 against .'\ustria and Bulgaria, 1914-1918. 
 
 ALEXANDER NEVSKY, Saint (1220-1263), 
 grand duke of Vladimir. Fought against Germans, 
 Swedes and Lithuanians, who attacked Russia 
 after the Tatar invasions, in 1262, to prevent a 
 revolt, induced the Tatars to lighten the yearly 
 tribute and abolish military service rendered by the 
 Russians to the Tatars. 
 
 ALEXANDER OBRENOVICH (1876-1903), 
 king of Serbia, 1889-1903; in 1893 overthrew the 
 regency and took authority into his own hands 
 Restored the conservative constitution of i86g 
 To appease the people's anger at his marriage to a 
 lady of the court, granted a bi-cameral legisla- 
 ture; was assassinated with his consort by revo- 
 lutionists, June II, 1903. See Serbia: 1885-190^ 
 
 ALEXANDER SEVERUS (AD. 209-235). 
 Roman emperor. Defeated .\rtaxerxes, king of 
 Persia; defended his borders from the German in- 
 vaders; killed in an insurrection in the army; 
 though a pagan, reverenced the teachings of 
 Christianity. See Rome: 192-284. 
 
 ALEXANDER-SINCLAIR, Sir Edwyn Sin- 
 clair (1867- ), Rear-admiral served in battle of 
 Jutland. See World War: igi6: IX. Naval opera- 
 tions: a. 
 
 ALEXANDERSON. Ernst Fredrik 'Werner 
 (1878- ). See Electrical discovery: Telegra- 
 phy and telephony: Alexanderson alternator. 
 
 ALEXANDRA FEODOROVNA, Princess 
 .Mix of Hesse (1872-1918), last empress of Russia 
 through marriage to Tsar Nicholas II in 1894; 
 was a grand daughter of Queen Victoria ; was 
 made prisoner by the Soviet government, and put 
 to death with her husband and children. See Rus- 
 sia: 1916: Opposition of Duma to cabinet. 
 
 ALEXANDRETTA, or Iskanderun, a town of 
 North Syria, the key to Beisan Pass; scene of the 
 victory of Ibrahim Pasha in 1832 which opened 
 Cilicia to his advance. 
 
 1920. — Recognized as of international interest 
 by treaty of Sevres. See Sevres, Treaty of: 
 1020: Contents of treaty: Part XI. Ports, water- 
 ways and railways 
 
 1921. — French administration. See Sevres, Treaty 
 of: 1921: Secret pact of France with Turkey 
 
 ALEXANDRIA.— B. C. 332.— Founding of the 
 city. — "When Alexander reached the Egyptian 
 military station at the little town or village of 
 Rhakotis, he saw with the quick eye of a great 
 commander how to turn this petty settlement into 
 a great city, and to make its roadstead, out of 
 which ships could be blown by a change of wind, 
 into a double harbour roomy enough to shelter 
 the navies of the world. .Ml that was needed was 
 to join the island by a mole to the continent 
 The site was admirably secure and convenient, a 
 narrow strip of land between the Mediterranean 
 and the great inland Lake Mareotis. The whole 
 northern side faced the two harbours, which were 
 bounded east and west by the mole, and beyond 
 by the long, narrow rocky island of Pharos, 
 stretching parallel with the coast On the south 
 was the inland port of Lake Mareotis The 
 length of the city was more than three miles, the 
 breadth more than three-quarters of a mile; the 
 mole w^ above thref-quarters of a mile long and 
 six hundred feet broad; its breadth is now doubled, 
 owing to the silting up of the sand. Modern 
 Alexandria until lately only occupied the mole, 
 
 206
 
 ALEXANDRIA, B.C. 304 
 
 ALEXANDRIA, B.C. 282-246 
 
 and was a great town in a corner of the space 
 which Alexander, with large provision for the 
 future, measured out. The form of the new city 
 was ruled by that of the site, but the fancy of 
 Alexander designed it in the shape of a Mace- 
 donian cloak or chlamys, such as a national hero 
 wears on the coins of the kings of Maccdon, his 
 ancestors The situation is excellent for commerce. 
 .Alexandria, with the best Egyptian harbour on the 
 Mediterranean, and the inland port connected 
 with the Nile streams and canals, was the natural 
 emporium of the Indian trade. Port Said is supe- 
 rior now, because of its grand artificial port and 
 the advantage for steamships of an unbroken sea- 
 route." — R S. Poole, Cities oj Egypt, ch. 12. — See 
 also Macedonia, &c.: B. C. 334-330; and Egypt: 
 B. C. ir- 
 
 B. C. 304. — Antigonus and Demetrius make 
 war on Ptolemy. — Rhodes sends fleet to aid 
 Egyptian king. See Rhodes, Island of: B. C. 304. 
 
 B.C. 282-246.— Reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus. 
 — Greatness and splendor of the city. — Com- 
 merce. — Libraries. — Museum. — Schools. — 
 Ptolemy Philadelphus, son of Ptolemy Soter, suc- 
 ceeded to the throne of Egypt in 282 B. C. when 
 his father retired from it in his favor, and reigned 
 until 246 B. C. "Alexandria, founded by the great 
 conqueror, increased and beautified by Ptolemy 
 Soter, was now far the greatest city of Alexan- 
 der's Empire. It was the first of those new foun- 
 dations which are a marked feature in Hellenism; 
 there were many others of great size and impor- 
 tance — above all, Antioch, then Seleucia on the 
 Tigris, then Nicomedia, Nica^a, Apamea, which 
 lasted; besides such as Lysimacheia, Antigoneia, 
 and others, which early disappeared, . . . Alexan- 
 dria was the model for all the rest. The inter- 
 section of two great principal thoroughfares, 
 adorned with colonnades for the footways, 
 formed the centre point, the omphalos of the city. 
 The other streets were at right angles with these 
 thoroughfares, so that the whole place was quite 
 regular. Counting its old part, Rhakotis, which 
 was still the habitation of native Egyptians, Alex- 
 andria had five quarters, one at least devoted to 
 Jews who had originally settled there in great 
 numbers. The mixed population there of Mace- 
 donians, Greeks, Jews, and Egyptians gave a pe- 
 luliarly complex and variable character to the 
 population. Let us not forget the vast number 
 of strangers from all parts of the world whom 
 trade and politics brought there It was the great 
 mart where the wealth of Europe and of Asia 
 changed hands. .Alexander had opened the sea- 
 way by exploring the coasts of Media and Persia 
 Caravans from the head of the Persian Gulf, and 
 ships on the Red Sea, brought all the wonders of 
 Ceylon and China, as well as of Further India, to 
 .Alexandria. There, too, the wealth of Spain and 
 Gaul, the produce of Italy and Macedonia, the 
 amber of the Baltic and the salt fish of Pontus, 
 the silver of Spain and the copper of Cyprus, the 
 timber of Macedonia and Crete, the pottery and 
 oil of Greece — a thousand imports from all the 
 Mediterranean — came to be exchanged for the 
 spices of Arabia, the splendid birds and embroider- 
 ies of India and Ceylon, the gold and ivory of 
 Africa, the antelopes, the apes, the leopards, the 
 elephants of tropical climes. Hence the enormous 
 wealth of the Lagidje, for in addition to the mar- 
 vellous fertility and great population — it is said to 
 have been seven millions — of Egypt, they made all 
 the profits of this enormous carrying trade. We 
 gain a good idea of what the splendours of the 
 capital were by the very full account preserved 
 to us by Athenaeus of the great feast which inaugu- 
 
 rated the reign of Philadelphuf. ... All this 
 seems idle pomp, and the doing of an idle syba- 
 rite. Philadelphus was anything but that. ... It 
 was he who opened up the Egyptian trade with 
 Italy, and made Puteoli the great port for ships 
 from Alexandria, which it remained for centuries. 
 It was he who explored Ethiopia and the southern 
 parts of Africa, and brought back not only the 
 curious fauna to his zoological gardens, but the 
 first knowledge of the Troglodytes for men of 
 science. The cultivation of science and of letters 
 too was so remarkably one of his pursuits that the 
 progress of the Alexandria of his day forms an 
 epoch jn the world's history, and we must sepa- 
 jate his University and its professors from this 
 summary, and devote to them a separate section. 
 . . . The history of the organization of the Uni- 
 versity and its staff is covered with almost im- 
 penetrable mist. For the Museum and Library 
 were in the strictest sense what we should now 
 call an University, and one, too, of the Oxford 
 type, where learned men were invited to take 
 Fellowships, and spend their learned leisure close 
 to observatories in science, and a great library of 
 books. Like the mediaeval universities, this en- 
 dowment of research naturally turned into an 
 engine for teaching, as all who desired knowledge 
 flocked to such a centre, and persuaded the Fel- 
 low to become a Tutor. The model came from 
 Athens. There the schools, beginning with the 
 .Academy of Plato, had a fixed property — a home 
 with its surrounding garden, and in order to make 
 this foundation sure, it was made a shrine where 
 the Muses were worshipped, and where the head 
 of the school, or a priest appointed, performed 
 stated sacrifices. This, then, being held in trust 
 by the successors of the donor, who bequeathed it 
 to them, was a property which it would have been 
 sacrilegious to invade, and so the title Museum 
 arose for a school of learning. Demetrius the 
 Phalerean, the friend and protector of Theophras- 
 tus, brought this idea with him to Alexandria, 
 when his namesake drove him into exile and it was 
 no doubt his advice to the first Ptolemy which 
 originated the great foundation, though Philadel- 
 phus, who again exiled Demetrius, gets the credit 
 of it. The pupil of Aristotle moreover impressed 
 on the king the necessity of storing up in one 
 central repository all that the world knew or 
 could produce, in order to ascertain the laws of 
 things from a proper analysis of detail. Hence 
 was founded not only the great library, which in 
 those days had a thousand times the value a great 
 library has now, but also observatories, zoologi- 
 cal gardens, collections of exotic plants, and of 
 other new and strange things brought by exploring 
 expeditions from the furthest regions of Arabia and 
 Africa. This library and museum proved indeed a 
 home for the Muses, and about it a most brilliant 
 group of students in literature and science was 
 formed. The successive librarians were Zcnodotus, 
 the grammarian or critic; Callimachus, to whose 
 poems we shall presently return ; Eratosthenes, the 
 astronomer, who originated the process by which 
 the size of the earth is determined to-day ; .Appol- 
 lonius the Rhodian, disciple and enemy of Calli- 
 machus; Aristophanes of Byzantium, founder of a 
 school of philological criticism; and Aristarchus of 
 Samos, reputed to have been the greatest critic of 
 ancient times. The study of the text of Homer 
 was the chief labour of Zenodotus, Aristophanes, 
 and Aristarchus, and it was Aristarchus who 
 mainly fixed the form in which the Iliad and 
 Odyssey remain to this day. . . The vast collec- 
 tions of the library and museum actually deter- 
 mined the whole character of the literature of 
 
 207
 
 ALEXANDRIA, B.C. 282-246 
 
 ALEXANDRIA, B.C. 48-47 
 
 Alexandria. One word sums it all up — erudition, 
 whether in philosophy, in criticism, in science, 
 even in poetry. Strange to say, they neglected not 
 only oratory, for which there was no scope, but 
 history, and this we may attribute to the fact that 
 history before .Alexander had no charms for Hel- 
 lenism. Mythical lore, on the oth;r hand, strange 
 uses and curious words, were departments of re- 
 search dear to them. In science they did great 
 things, so did they in geography. . . . But weie 
 they original in nothing? Did they add nothmg of 
 their own to the splendid record of Greek litera- 
 ture? In the next generation came the art of 
 criticism, which .Aristarchus developed into a real 
 science, and of that we may speak in its* place; 
 but even in this generation we may claim for them 
 the credit of three original, or nearly original, de- 
 velopments in literature — the pastoral idyll, as we 
 have it in Theocritus; the elegy, as we have it in 
 the Roman imitators of Philetas and Callimachus; 
 and the romance, or love story, the parent of our 
 modern novels. .'\ll these had early prototypes in 
 the folk songs of Sicily, in the love songs of Mim- 
 nermus and of .^ntimachus, in the tales of Miletus, 
 but still the revival was fairly to be called origi- 
 nal. Of these the pastoral idyll was far the most 
 remarkable, and laid hold upon the world for 
 ever." — J. P. Mahaffy, Story of Alexavder's em- 
 pire, ch. 13-14. — "Tbere were two Libraries of 
 Alexandria under the Ptolemies, the larger one in 
 the quarter called the Bruchium, and the smaller 
 one, named 'the daughter,' in the Serapeum. which 
 was situated in the quarter called Rhacotis. The 
 former was totally destroyed in the conflagration 
 of the Bruchium during Cssar's Alexandrian War 
 fsee below: 48-47 B. C] ; but the latter, which was 
 of great vahie, remained uninjured (see J. Mat- 
 ter, Essai Itistorique siir I'Ecole d'Alexandric, v. i, 
 p. 133 seg., 237 seq.). It is not stated by any 
 ancient writer where the collection of Pcrgamus 
 was placed, which Antony gave to Cleopatra 
 (Plutarch, Anton., c. 58) ; but it is most probable 
 that it was deposited in the Bruchium, as that 
 quarter of the city was now without a library, and 
 the queen was anxious to repair the ravage; occa- 
 sioned by the civil war. If this supposition is cor- 
 rect, two Alexandrian libraries continued to exist 
 after the time of Cfesar, and this is rendered still 
 more probable by the fact that during the first 
 three centuries of the Christian era the Bruchium 
 was still the literary quarter of .Alexandria. But a 
 great change took place in the time of .■\ureli3n. 
 This Emperor, in suppressing the revolt of Firmus 
 in Egypt, A.D. 273 [see below: 273I is said to 
 have destroyed the Bruchium : and though this 
 statement is hardly to be taken literally, the 
 Bruchium ceased from this time to be included 
 within the walls of .Mexandria, and was regarded 
 only as a suburb of the city. Whether the great 
 library in the Bruchium with the museum and its 
 other literary establishments, perished at this time, 
 we do not know; but the Scrapcum for the next 
 century takes its place as the literary quarter of 
 Alexandria, and becomes the chief library in the 
 city. Hence later writers erroneously speak of the 
 Serapeum as if it had been from the beginning 
 the great Alexanddan library. . . . Gibbon seems 
 to think that the whole of the Serapeum was de- 
 stroyed [38q, by order of the Emperor Theodo- 
 sius — see below! ; but this was not the case. It 
 would appear that it was only 'M'l sanctuarv of 
 the god that was levelled with the ground, and 
 that the library, the halls and other buildings in 
 the consecrated ground remained standing long 
 afterwards." — E. Gibbon, History of the decline 
 and fall of the Ronian empire, ch. 2S. Notes by 
 
 Dr. William Smith.- — Concerning the reputed final 
 destruction of the library by the Moslems, see 
 below; A.D. 641-646. — See also Education: An- 
 cient: .Alexandria; Europe; Historic period; Spread 
 of Hellenism; Hellenism: Hellenism and Alexan- 
 dria; iNVExnoNs: Greek; Libraries: Ancient Alex- 
 andria; Painting: Greek. 
 
 .Also in: O. Delepierre, Historical difficulties 
 and contested events, ch. 3. — S. Sharpe, History of 
 l^Sypty <"''• 7' 8 and 12. 
 
 "If we consider in its large features what the 
 early Hellenistic period has done for us in litera- 
 ture, we may divide its action into the care and 
 preservation of Hellenic masterpieces, and the pro- 
 duction of works of its own. .As regards the 
 former, there can be no douiit that the creation of 
 the great cosmopolitan library at .Alexandria, and 
 the great trade in books which came thence, were 
 the greatest acts of protection ever done for the 
 greatest literature the world has seen. And not 
 only were all the masterpieces of the Golden .Age 
 sought out and catalogued, but the chief librarian 
 made it his business to publish critical studies on 
 the purity of the texts, and to see that the .Alex- 
 andrian text represented the best and soundest tra- 
 dition. ... So there was collected at this wonder- 
 ful library all that was rare and precious, ordered 
 and catalogued by competent scholars. I go a 
 step farther, and say that, though we have no 
 explicit record telling us the fact, there must have 
 been some regular permission to copv books in the 
 library, and, multiplying them by slave hands, to 
 disperse them by way of trade all over the Greek- 
 speaking world." — See also Greece, Literature of: 
 Development of philosophical Ulerature. — "We have 
 from Alexandria, Theocritus, and we have the love- 
 novel. I will here add a word upon two more of 
 these poets. . . . The first is Aratus, who was in- 
 deed a Hellenistic, but not an .Alexandrian, poet, 
 whose didactic work on the astronomy of use for 
 navigation, and on the signs of the weather of 
 use for farming, has survived to us complete. . . . 
 Wc still possess the Argonautics of ApoUonius the 
 Rhodian — a pedant-poet of the same generation. 
 In the midst of pages of tedious prolixity, which 
 have forever damned the popularity of the work, 
 occurs the great episode of the meeting and love 
 at first sight of Medea and Jason. The treat- 
 ment of this world-w'ide, but never world-worn, 
 theme is so wholly fresh, so wholly un-Hellenic, 
 that it requires no subtle criticism to see in it the 
 broad light of the oriental love-novel which had 
 first dawned in the East upon the companions of 
 .Alexander. It is no longer the physical, but the 
 sentimental side of that passion which interests the 
 poet and his readers. The actual marriage of the 
 lovers is but an episode, in which the surrounding 
 anxieties and the unhappy omens take the foremost 
 place." — J. P. Mahaffy, Story of Alexander's em- 
 pire, p. 100. 
 
 B.C. 48-47. — Caesar and Cleopatra. — Rising 
 against the Romans. — Siege. — Destruction of the 
 great library. — Roman victory. — From the battle 
 field of Pharsalia Pompey fled to .Alexandria tn 
 Egypt, and was treacherously murdered as he 
 stepped on shore. C<esar arrived a few days after- 
 wards, in close pursuit, and shed tears, it is said, 
 on being shown his rival's mangled head. He had 
 brought scarcely more than 3,000 of his soldiers 
 with him, and he found Egypt in a turbulent state 
 of civil war. The throne was in dispute between 
 children of the late king, Ptolemaeus Auletes. 
 Cleopatra, the elder daughter, and Ptolemaeus, a 
 son, were at war with one another, and Arsinoe. 
 a younger daughter, was ready to put forward 
 claims. Notwithstanding the insignificance of his 
 
 208
 
 ALEXANDRIA, A. D. 100-312 
 
 ALEXANDRIA, A. D. 389 
 
 force, Caesar did not hesitate to assOme to occupy 
 Alexandria and to adjudicate the dispute. But the 
 fascinations of Cleopatra (then twenty years of 
 age) soon made him her partisan, and her scarcely 
 disguised lover. This aggravated the irritation 
 which was caused in Alexandria by the presence of 
 Cjesar's troops, and a furious rising of the city 
 was provoked. He fortified himself in the great 
 palace, which he had taken possession of, and 
 which commanded the causeway to the island, 
 Pharos, thereby commanding the port. Destroy- 
 ing a large part of the city in that neighborhood, 
 he made his position exceedingly strong. At the 
 same time he seized and burned the royal fleet, and 
 thus caused a conflagration in which the greater of 
 the two priceless libraries of Alexandria — the 
 library of the Museum — was, much of it, con- 
 sumed. [See above; B.C. 282-246.] By such 
 "measures Caesar withstood, for several months, a 
 siege conducted on the part of the Alexandrians 
 with great determination and animosity. It was 
 not until March', 47 B.C., that he was relieved 
 from his dangerous situation, by the arrival of a 
 faithful ally, in the person of Mithradates, of 
 Pergamum, who led an army into Egypt, reduced 
 Pelusium, and crossed the Nile at the head of the 
 Delta. Ptolemffius advanced with his troops to 
 meet this new invader and was followed and over- 
 taken by Caesar. In the battle which then oc- 
 curred the Egyptian army was utterly routed and 
 Ptolemeeus perished in the Nile. Cleopatra was 
 then married, after the Egyptian fashion, to a 
 younger brother, and established on the throne, 
 while Arsinoe was sent a prisoner to Rome. — A. 
 Hirtius, Alexandrian war. 
 
 A. D. 100-312. — Early Christian church. — Its 
 influence. See CuRisn.^NiTv; 33-100: Rise of the 
 churches: Alexandria, also 100-312: Period of 
 growth and struggle: Alexandria. 
 
 116. — Destruction of the Jews. See Jews: 116. 
 
 215. — Massacre by Caracalla. — "Caracalla was 
 the common enemy of mankind. He left the capi- 
 tal (and he never returned to it) about a year 
 after the murder of Geta [213]. The rest of his 
 reign [four years] was spent in the several 
 provinces of the Empire, particularly those of the 
 East, and every province was, by turns, the scene 
 of his rapine and cruelty. ... In the midst of 
 peace, and upon the slightest provocation, he issued 
 his commands at Alexandria, Egypt [215], for a 
 general massacre. From a secure post in the tem- 
 ple of Serapis, he viewed and directed the slaugh- 
 ter of many thousand citizens, as well as stran- 
 gers, without distinguishing either the number or 
 the crime of the sufferers." — E. Gibbon, History 
 of the decline and fall of the Roman empire, ch. 6. 
 
 260-272. — Tumults of the third century. — 
 "The people of Alexandria, a various mixture of 
 nations, united the vanity and inconstancy of the 
 Greeks with the superstition and obstinacy of the 
 Egyptians. The most trifling occasion, a transient 
 scarcity of flesh or lentils, the neglect of an accus- 
 tomed salutation, a mistake of precedency in the 
 public baths, or even a religious dispute, were at 
 any time sufficient to kindle a sedition among that 
 vast multitude, whose resentments were furious 
 and implacable. After the captivity of Valerian 
 [the Roman emperor, made prisoner by Sapor, 
 king of Persia, 260] and the insolence of his son 
 had relaxed the authority of the laws, the Alex- 
 andrians abandoned themselves to the ungoverned 
 rage of their passions, and their unhappy country 
 was the theatre of a civil war, Vv'hich continued 
 (with a few short and suspicious truces) above 
 twelve years. All intercourse was cut off between 
 the several quarters of the afflicted city, every 
 
 street was polluted with blood, every building of 
 strength converted into a citadel; nor did the 
 tumult subside till a considerable part of .Mexan- 
 dria was irretrievably ruined. The spacious and 
 magnificent district of Bruchion, with its palaces 
 and museum, the residence of the kings and phi- 
 losophers of Egypt, is described, above a century 
 afterwards, as already reduced to its present state 
 of dreary solitude." — E. Gibbon, History of the 
 decline and fall of the Roman empire, ch. 10. 
 
 273. — Destruction of the Bruchium by Aure- 
 lian. — After subduing Palmyra and its queen Ze- 
 nobia, 272, the emperor Aurclian was called into 
 Egypt to put down a rebellion there, headed by 
 one Firmus, a friend and ally of the Palmyrene 
 queen. Firmus had great wealth, derived from 
 trade, and from the paper-manufacture of Egypt, 
 which was mostly in his hands. He was defeated 
 and put to death. "To Aurelian's war against 
 Firmus, or to that of Probus a little before in 
 Egypt, may be referred the destruction of Bru- 
 chium, a great quarter of Alexandria, which ac- 
 cording to Ammianus Marcellinus, was ruined un- 
 der Aurelian and remained deserted ever after." — 
 J. B. L, Crevier, History of the Roman emperors, 
 bk. 27. 
 
 296. — Siege by Diocletian. — A general revolt 
 of the African provinces of the Roman empire 
 occurred 206. The barbarous tribes of Ethiopia 
 and the desert were brought into alliance with the 
 provincials of Egypt, Cyrenaica, Carthage and 
 Mauretania, and the flame of war was universal. 
 Both the emperors of the time, Diocletian and 
 Maximian, were called to the African field. "Dio- 
 cletian, on his side, opened the campaign in Egypt 
 by the siege of Alexandria, cut off the aqueducts 
 which conveyed the waters of the Nile into every 
 quarter of that immense city, and, rendering his 
 camp impregnable to the sallies of the besieged 
 multitude, he pushed his reiterated attacks with 
 caution and vigor. After a siege of eight months, 
 Alexandria, wasted by the sword and by fire, im- 
 plored the clemency of the conqueror, but it ex- 
 perienced the full extent of his severity. Many 
 thousands of the citizens perished in a promiscu- 
 ous slaughter, and there were few obnoxious per- 
 sons in Egypt who escaped a sentence either of 
 death or at least of exile. The fate of Busiris 
 and of Coptos was still more melancholy than that 
 of Alexandria; those proud cities . . . were utterly 
 destroyed." — E. Gibbon, History of the decline 
 and fall of the Roman empire, ch. 13. 
 
 389. — Destruction of the Serapeum. — "After 
 the edicts of Theodosius had severely prohibited 
 the sacrifices of the pagans, they were still toler- 
 ated in the city and temple of Serapis. . . . The 
 archepiscopal throne of Alexandria was filled by 
 Thcophilus, the perpetual enemy of peace and 
 virtue; a bold, bad man, whose hands were al- 
 ternately polluted with gold and with blood. His 
 pious indignation was excited by the honours of 
 Serapis. . . . The votaries of Serapis, whose 
 strength and numbers were much inferior to those 
 of their antagonists, rose in arms [380] at the in- 
 stigation of the philosopher Olympius, who ex- 
 horted them to die in the defence of the altars of 
 the gods. These pagan fanatics fortified them- 
 selves in the temple, or rather fortress, of Serapis; 
 repelled the besiegers by daring sallies and a reso- 
 lute defence; and, by the inhuman cruelties which 
 they exercised on their Christian prisoners, obtained 
 the last consolation of despair. The efforts of the 
 prudent magistrate were usefully exerted for the 
 establishment of a truce till the answer of Theo- 
 dosius should determine the fate of Serapis." The 
 judgment of the emperor condemned the great 
 
 209
 
 ALEXANDRIA, 413-1882 
 
 ALEXEIEV 
 
 temple to destruction and it was reduced to a heap 
 of ruins. "The valuable library of Alexandria 
 was pillaged or destroyed ; and, near twenty years 
 afterwards, the appearance of the empty shelves 
 excited the regret and indignation of every spec- 
 tator whose mind was not totally darkened by re- 
 ligious prejudice." — E. Gibbon, History of the de- 
 cline and Jail of the Roman empire, ch. 28. — Gib- 
 bon's statement as to the destruction of the great 
 library in the Serapeum is called in question by 
 his learned annotator, Dr. Smith. See above, B. C. 
 282-246. 
 
 413-415. — Patriarch Cyril and his mobs. — 
 "His voice [that of Cyril, patriarch of Alexandria, 
 412-444] inflamed or appeased the passions of the 
 multitude: his commands were blindly obeyed by 
 his numerous and fanatic parabolani, familiarized 
 in their daily office with scenes of death ; and the 
 prjefects of Egypt were awed or provoked by the 
 temporal power of these Christian pontiffs. Ar- 
 dent in the prosecution of heresy, Cyril auspi- 
 ciously opened his reign by oppressing the No- 
 vations, the most innocent and harmless of the 
 sectaries. . . . The toleration, and even the priv- 
 ileges of the Jews, who had multiplied to the 
 number of 40,000, were secured by the laws of 
 the Cssars and Ptolemies, and a long prescription 
 of 700 years since the foundation of Alexandria. 
 Without any legal sentence, without any royal 
 mandate, the patriarch, at the dawn of d.ay, led 
 a seditious multitude to the attack of the syna- 
 gogues. Unarmed and unprepared, the Jews were 
 incapable of resistance : their houses of prayer 
 were levelled with the ground, .ind the episcopal 
 warrior, after rewarding his troops with the plun- 
 der of their goods, expelled from the city the 
 remnant of the misbelieving nation. Perhaps he 
 might plead the insolence of their prosperity, and 
 their deadly hatred of the Christians, whose blood 
 they had recently shed in a malicious or accidental 
 tumult. Such crimes would have deserved the 
 animadversions of the magistrate; but m this pro- 
 miscuous outrage the innocent were confounded 
 with the guilty." — E. Gibbon, Hilary of the de- 
 dine and fall of the Roman empire, ch. 47.— "Be- 
 fore long the adherents of the archbishop were 
 guilty of a more atrocious and unprovoked crime, 
 of the guilt of which a deep suspicion attached to 
 Cyril. All Alexandria respected, honoured, took 
 pride in the celebrated Hypatia. She was a woman 
 of extraordinary learning ; in her was centred the 
 lingering knowledge of that Alexandrian Platonism 
 cultivated by Plotinus and his school. Her beauty 
 was equal to her learning; her modesty commended 
 both. . . . Hypatia lived in great intimacy with 
 the praefect Orestes ; the only charge whispered 
 against her was that she encouraged him in his 
 hostility to the patriarch. . . . Some of Cyril's 
 ferocious partisans seized this woman, dragged her 
 from her chariot, and with the most revolting in- 
 decency tore her clothes off and then rent her 
 limb from limb." — H. H. Milman, History of Latin 
 Christianity, bk. 2, ch. 3. 
 
 Also in: C. Kingsley, Hypatia. 
 
 641-646. — Moslem conquest. — The precise date 
 of events in the Moslem conquest of Egypt, by 
 .Amru, lieutenant of the Caliph Omar, is uncertain. 
 Sir WiUiam Muir fixes the first surrender of .Alex- 
 andria to Amru in 641. .After that it was reoccu- 
 pied by the Byzantines either once or twice, on 
 occasions of neglect by the .Arabs, .is they pur- 
 sued their conquests elsewhere. The probability 
 seems to be that this occurred only once, in 646. 
 Tt seems also probable, a? remarked bv Sir William 
 Muir, that the two sieges on the taking and re- 
 taking of the city — 641 and 646 — have been much 
 
 confused in the scanty accounts which have come 
 down to us On the first occasion Alexandria would 
 appear to have been generously treated ; while, on 
 the second, it suffered pillage and its fortifications 
 were destroyed. How far there is truth in the 
 commonly accepted story of the deliberate burn- 
 ing of the great Alexandrian library — or so much 
 of it as had escaped destruction at the hands of 
 Roman generals and Christian patriarchs — is a 
 question still in dispute. Gibbon discredited the 
 story, and Sir William Muir, the latest of students 
 in Mohammedan history, declines even the men- 
 tion of it in his narrative of the conquest of 
 Egypt. But other historians of repute maintain 
 the probable accuracy of the talc told by \h\i\- 
 pharagus — that Caliph Omar ordered the destruc- 
 tion of the library, on the ground that, if the books 
 in it agreed with the Koran they were useless, it 
 they disagreed with it they were pernicious. Sec 
 Caliphate: 640-646. 
 
 829.— Translation of the body of St. Mark to 
 Venice. See Venice: 820. 
 
 llth-15th centuries.— Trade. See Commerce: 
 Medieval: iith-ihth centuries. 
 
 1798. — Captured by the French under Bona- 
 parte. See France: 1708 (May-Auuust) . 
 
 1801-1802.— Battle of French and English.— 
 Restoration to the Turks. See France: 1801- 
 1802. 
 
 1807.— Surrendered to the English.— Brief 
 occupation and humiliating capitulation. See 
 Turkey: 1806-1807. 
 
 1840. — Bombardment by the English. See 
 Titrkey, 1831-1840. 
 
 1882. — Bombardment by the English fleet. — 
 Massacre of Europeans. — Destruction. See 
 Egypt: 1875-1882; 1882-1883. 
 
 ALEXANDRIA, University of. See Alexan- 
 dria: B. C. 282-246. 
 
 ALEXANDRIA, Library of. See Alexandria: 
 B.C. 282-246. 
 
 ALEXANDRIA, LA., Burning of. See U. S. A'.: 
 
 1864 (March-May; Louisiana). 
 ALEXANDRIA, VA.: 1861 (May).— Occupa- 
 tion by Union troops. — Murder of Colonel Ells- 
 worth. See U. S. .\.: 1861 (May: Virginia). 
 
 1861 (July). — Alexandria government. — After 
 the secession of Virginia in 1861, unionist delegates 
 meeting at Wheeling set up on July i a "reorgan- 
 ized state government" which was recognized by 
 Congress. Its governor was Francis H. Pierpont. 
 .After the admission of West Virginia as a separate 
 state (June 20, i86.^1, the capital of the unionist 
 government of Virginia was transferred to Alex- 
 andria, where Governor Pierpont asserted juris- 
 diction over all the counties of Virginia lying 
 within the federal lines. This "Alexandria gov- 
 ernment" continued until the close of the war in 
 
 1865 when a new state government was set up at 
 Richmond. 
 
 ALEXANDRINE SCHOOL. See Eclecti- 
 cism. 
 
 ALEXANDROPOL, a Russian town and for- 
 tified camp in Transcaucasia, the scene of the de- 
 feat of the Turks by the Russians in 1853. In 
 iQio, an important center for American relief 
 work in the Near East. 
 
 ALEXEIEV, Eugene Ivanovitch, Count 
 (1845- ), Russian admiral and the tsar's viceroy 
 in the Far East. Regarded as responsible for pre- 
 cipitating the Russo-Japanese War (1Q04) through 
 his aggressive policy in seeking valuable conces- 
 sions in Korea; established his headquarters at 
 Port .Arthur when the Japanese suddenly attacked, 
 opening hostilities without a declaration of 
 war. 
 
 210
 
 ALEXEIEV 
 
 ALFRED, THE GREAT 
 
 ALEXEIEV, M. V. (1843- ), Russian gen- 
 eral. Commander of the 3d Army in Manchuria, 
 Russo-Japanese War, and chief of headquarters 
 staff ; commander of one of the Russian armies in 
 the World War; chief of staff under the tsar when 
 the latter took personal command in September, 
 1915; with other generals secured the abdication 
 of the tsar at Pskov, March 15, iqi?; commander- 
 in-chief under Kerensky's provisional government ; 
 succeeded by Brussilov in June, iqi", Rerensky at 
 the time, as minister of war, endeavoring to rally 
 the troops for what proved to be a short-lived 
 offensive. — See also Russia: 1918-1920; World 
 War: 1916: III. Eastern front: a. 
 
 ALEXIS, tsar of Russia. See Alexius Mik- 
 
 HAILOVITCH. 
 
 ALEXIUS I, Comnenus (1048-1118), son of 
 John Comnenus, brother of the emperor Isaac 
 Comnenus. In loSi with the aid of soldiery, sup- 
 planted the old and feeble emperor Nicephorus Bo- 
 tantiates, who retired to a monastery. Was By- 
 zantine emperor from 108 1 to 11 18, and during 
 that time successfully defended his empire against 
 the Petchenegs, the Turks and the Normans. The 
 first Crusade also occurred during his reign ; he 
 used the Crusaders as his instruments to recon- 
 quer the islands and coast? of Asia Minor from 
 the Turks. — See also Byzantine empire: 1081- 
 1085; Crusades: 1096-iooq; Venice: iooq-iioi. 
 
 Alexius II, Comnenus (1167-1183), Byzan- 
 tine emperor from 1180 to 11S3, having succeeded 
 his father Manuel I. Was strangled by his uncle, 
 Andronicus. 
 
 Alexius III, Angelus (d. 12 10), brother of 
 Isaac II, Byzantine emperor, whose throne he 
 usurped in iiQS; was emperor until 1203, when an 
 army of Crusaders besieged and captured Con- 
 stantinople, deposed him, and reinstated Isaac II. 
 Alexius died a few years later in exile. — S^e also 
 Byzantine empire: 1203-1204. 
 
 Alexius IV, Angelus (d. 1204), Byzantine 
 emperor 1203- 1204, son of Isaac II, Angelus. Was 
 associated with his father in the government ; put 
 to death by Alexius V after a reign of six months. 
 
 Alexius V, (d. 1204), surnamed Ducas Murt- 
 zuphlos, became Byzantine emperor in 1204 after 
 the death of Alexius IV by usurping the throne, 
 but was driven from Constantinople by the Cru- 
 saders, who had resolved to partition the empire. 
 He fled to Morea where he was seized, tried for 
 the murder of Alexius IV, and executed. 
 
 ALEXIUS COMNENUS (1180-1222), a 
 grandson of Andronicus I. In 1204, while the 
 Crusaders were besieging Constantinople, he cap- 
 tured Trebizond, and some other cities on the 
 Black sea. He took the title of Grand Comnenus, 
 and became governor or duke of Trebizond. His 
 family ruled there for two and a half centuries, 
 his grandson having assumed the title of emperor. 
 — See also Trebizond: i204-i4bi. 
 
 ALEXIUS MIKHAILOVITCH (1629-1676), 
 second Russian tsar of the Romanoff line; son of 
 Michael Romanoff, whom he succeeded in 1645. 
 Early part of his reign was stormy, due to his 
 youthfulness, but in ten years he quelled all in- 
 surrections; waged war on Poland from 1654 to 
 1667, acquiring possession of Smolensk and east- 
 ern Ukraine. In a war with Sweden from 1655 to 
 1658 he conquered a part of Livonia and Inger- 
 manland. but by the treaty of Kardis of June 21, 
 1661, he had to relinquish this territory. He also 
 extended his conquests to eastern Siberia, codified 
 the laws of the various provinces of Russia, and 
 began to introduce European civilization, thus 
 paving the way for his son, Peter the Great.- — See 
 also Russia: 1645-1675. 
 
 ALEXIUS PETROVITCH (1690-1718), eld- 
 est son of Peter the Great ; entered a monastery 
 rather than acquiesce in Peter's reforms and in- 
 novations; was disinherited in 1718 and con- 
 demned to death after an investigation followed by 
 the discovery of a conspiracy to undo the re- 
 forms of Peter. Soon afterward he was par- 
 doned, but the terror and agitation of the trial, 
 and the torture to which he had been subjected, led 
 to his death in 1718. To avoid scandal, Peter pub- 
 lished the proceedings of the trial. 
 
 ALEXSINAC: Occupied by Bulgarians. See 
 World War: 1915: V. Balkans; b, 4. 
 
 ALFARO, Eloy, General, president of Ecuador, 
 1897-1001. See Ecuador: 1888-1899. 
 
 ALFIERI, Vittorio Amadeo (1749-1803), Ital- 
 ian dramatist. See Italian literature: 1710-1890 
 
 ALFONSO I, king of Aragon and Navarre, 
 1104-1134. See Aragon. 
 
 Alfonso II, king of Aragon, 1162-1196. See 
 Aragon. 
 
 Alfonso III, king of Aragon, 1285-1291. Sec 
 Cortes. 
 
 Alfonso IV, king of Aragon, 1327-1336. 
 
 Alfonso V, king of Aragon and I as king of 
 Sicily, 1416-1458; I of Naples, 1443-1458. See 
 Italy: 1412-1447. 
 
 Alfonso I, king of Castile, 1072-1109 and VI of 
 Leon, 1065-1109. 
 
 Alfonso II, king of Castile, 1126-1157. 
 
 Alfonso III, king of Castile, 1158-1214. 
 
 Alfonso I, king of Leon and the Asturias, or 
 Oviedo, 739-757. See Spain: 713-950. 
 
 Alfonso II, king of Leon and the Asturias, or 
 Oviedo 791-842. 
 
 Alfonso III, king of Leon and the Asturias, or 
 Oviedo, 866-910. 
 
 Alfonso IV, king of Leon and the Asturias, or 
 Oviedo, 925-930. 
 
 Alfonso V, king of Leon and the Asturias, or 
 Oviedo, 999-1027. 
 
 Alfonso VI, king of Leon, 1065-1109, and I, as 
 king of Castile, 1072-1109. 
 
 Alfonso VII, king of Leon, 1109-1126 and I, as 
 king of Aragon. 
 
 Alfonso VIII, king of Leon, 1126-1157. 
 
 Alfonso IX, king of Leon, 1 188-1230. 
 
 Alfonso X, king of Leon and Castile, 1252- 
 1284. See Cadiz: 1262; Cortes; Spain: 1248-1350. 
 
 Alfonso XI, king of Leon and Castile, 13 12- 
 1350. 
 
 Alfonso II, king of Naples, 1494-1495. 
 
 Alfonso I (Alfonso Henriques) (1094-1185), 
 king of Portugal, 1112-1185. See Portugal: 1095- 
 
 1325- 
 
 Alfonso II, king of Portugal, 1211-1223. See 
 Portugal: 1095-1325. 
 
 Alfonso III, king of Portugal, 1248-1279. See 
 Portugal: 1095-1325. 
 
 Alfonso IV, king of Portugal, I325-I3S7- 
 
 Alfonso V, king of Portugal, 1439-1481. 
 
 Alfonso VI, king of Portugal, 1656-1667. 
 
 Alfonso I, king of Sicily, 1416-1458. 
 
 Alfonso XII, king of Spain, 1874-1885. See 
 Spain: 1S74-18S5. 
 
 Alfonso XIII (1886- ), king of Spain. 
 Born a king, being the posthumous son of Alfonso 
 XII ; he assumed the duties of a constitutional 
 monarch in 1902 at the age of 16. In iqo6 he mar- 
 ried Princess Victoria Ena of Battenberg, niece of 
 Edward VII of England. See Spain: 1885-1896; 
 1902-1906; 1914-1918. 
 
 ALFORD, Battle of (1645). See Scotland: 
 1644-1645. 
 
 ALFRED, the Great (848-900), king of Wessex, 
 871-900. He repelled the invasions of the Danes. 
 
 211
 
 ALFRED UNIVERSITY 
 
 ALGERIA 
 
 in a battle at Edington in Wiltshire, 878, thereby 
 promoting the consoUdation of the country. He 
 furthered the spread of learning by translations 
 of books on history and philosophy from the Latin 
 and the initiation of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. 
 — See also Bible, English: 8th- nth centuries; Ed- 
 ucation: Medieval: 871-qoo; England: King Al- 
 fred; Engl.^nd: 855-8S0; English literature: 
 bth-iith centuries. 
 
 ALFRED UNIVERSITY, a non-sectarian, 
 coeducational, American university at Alfred, N. Y. 
 Chattered in 1S57. Has sixteen university build- 
 ings, including a new Carnegie library. Depart- 
 ments of industrial mechanics, theology, music, fine 
 arts. Has state school of clayworking and cera- 
 mics and state school of agriculture. Presidents of 
 the university have been William Kenyon, Jona- 
 than Allen, Arthur Elwin Main and Boothe Cowell 
 Davis. 
 
 ALFUROS. See Celebes. 
 
 ALGARDI, Ale^sandro (1602-16S4), Italian 
 sculptor. The statue of San Filippo Neri, the 
 Villa Doria Pamfili, the monument of Leo XI, a 
 bronze statute of Innocent X, and La Fuega d'At- 
 tila mark the high points of his career. 
 
 ALGAU, Battle of (1525). See Germany: 
 1524-1525. 
 
 ALGEBRA is a branch of mathematics which 
 treats of the relation of quantities by means of 
 letters and symbols. The word is of Arabic 
 origin. First mention of algebra is found in a 
 work called ilm al-jebr wa'l-muqabala. by Mo- 
 hammed ben musa al-Khowarizmi, who lived in 
 the ninth century. It is interesting to note that a 
 celebrated Moorish savant by the name of Geber, 
 living in the eleventh century, was at one time 
 believed to have been the founder of algebra. 
 Proof, however, exists that the subject was 
 treated as early as 1700 B. C. by Ahmes, an 
 Egyptian. The invention of algebra was at one 
 time attributed to the Greeks; but this theory 
 has been discarded since Eisenlohr's decipherment 
 of the "Rhind papyrus," inasmuch as distinct 
 signs of an algebraic analysis are in evidence in 
 this work. Egyptian algebra was probably of an 
 elementary type, as Greek geometers ignore the 
 subject. The earliest work on algebra, which ex- 
 ists only in translation, is by Diophantus (about 
 350 A. D.), an Alexandrian mathematician, who 
 probably followed earlier investigators. It was 
 the Hindus, however, who extended the scope of 
 algebra. They evolved a method of solving de- 
 terminate equations, and made even greater prog- 
 ress in their treatment of indeterminate equations 
 of the first and second degrees. Aryabhatta is the 
 mathematician who is generally recognized as the 
 man responsible for this extended study of the sub- 
 ject. Hankel credits the Brahmans with being 
 the real inventors of algebra. With regard to the 
 Arabs in the west, Cordova, the capital of the 
 Moorish empire in Spain, like Bagdad in the east, 
 became a center of learning, particularly along 
 mathematical lines. The most famous Spanish 
 mathematician is Al Madshritti (1007), who con- 
 tributed an excellent dissertation on amicable num- 
 bers. Following the decline of the Moorish em- 
 pire, the Arabs in the west failed to produce an- 
 other mathematician comparable with the bril- 
 liant minds of the seventh to the eleventh centu- 
 ries. Leonardo of Pisa, an Italian merchant, in 
 1202, published a work called "Liber abaci," thus 
 bringing algebra into Christendom. Contempor- 
 aneously with this (Pisa's) historic achievement 
 the popularity of algebra spread ta Germany, 
 France, and England. The writings of the German 
 mathematicians, Michael Stifel and Johann Scheu- 
 
 belius (Scheybl, 1494-1570), are marked by the 
 fact that they introduced into the field of algebra 
 a more complete symbolism for quantities and op- 
 erations. It was in consequence of their work 
 that the sign ( + ) for addition or a positive quan- 
 tity, the sign ( — ) for subtraction or the minus 
 quantity, and ( V ) for denoting the square root, 
 were aciopted and are still in use to-day. In 1552 
 Robert Recorde published the first treatise on al- 
 gebra in English. He it was who introduced the 
 sign (=^) for equality. Early in the seventeenth 
 century many new terms and symbols were intro- 
 duced through the works of Franciscus Victa, re- 
 published at Leiden in 1646. He also vastly im- 
 proved the methods for solving equations and 
 devised a new means for determining approxi- 
 mate values of the roots of equations. In 1673 
 Rene Descartes, the famous French philosopher, 
 rendered invaluable service to algebra by develop- 
 ing the modern theory of analytical geometry and 
 by demonstrating the relationship between algebra 
 and geometry. The seventeenth century also 
 brought forward the epoch-making discoveries of 
 Ke[)ler and Bonaventura Cavalicri, upon the 
 foundation of which both Newton and Leibnitz 
 brought to light the infinitesimal calculus. Early 
 in the nineteenth century-, Benjamin and Charles 
 S. Pierce, father and son respectively, devised sys- 
 tems of pure symbolic algebra. 
 
 Also in: T. H. Heath, Diophantus, (Greek al- 
 gebra). — Wallis, Opera mathematics (16Q3-16Q9). 
 — Hutton, Mathematical and philosophical dic- 
 tionary (181S). — F. Cajori, History of mathemat- 
 ics, iQiq. — G. R. Kaye, /«rf;(7H mathematics. 1015. — 
 M. Cantor, Vorlesiingen iiber Geschichte der Math- 
 matic, 1007. — D. E. Smith, History of modern 
 mathematics. 
 
 ALGECIRAS, a seaport in southern Spain, four 
 miles west of Gibraltar. It was perhaps the 
 Portus Albus of the Romans and was probably 
 refounded in 1713 by the Moors; taken by Alfonso 
 XI in 1344 after a long siege and destroyed; re- 
 built by King Charles III in 1760; in 1801 the 
 scene of a naval encounter between the English 
 and Franco-Spanish fleets. In 1006 the important 
 international conference on Morocco (q.v.) was 
 held here. See France: 1004-1906; Italy: 1906: 
 Part of Italy at .Mgeciras conference; Tangier: 
 1Q06; U. S. A.: 1005-T906. 
 
 1907. — Demonstration against French occupa- 
 tion. See Morocco: 1907-1000. 
 
 ALGER, Russell Alexander (1836-1907), 
 .American soldier and politician. Served in the 
 Civil War; governor of Michigan, 1885-1897; 
 secretary of war. 1897-1890 (See U. S. A.: 1897, 
 March; iSgS, July-.'Xugust: .Army administration), 
 appointed L'nited States senator, 1902, and elected 
 to that office, 1903. 
 
 ALGERIA, a Mediterranean country forming 
 part of French .Africa. It is bounded on the 
 east by Tunis, on the west by Morocco, and on 
 the south by the Sahara, all now under French 
 control. (See .Africa: Map). .After the Turkish 
 conquest, the name .Algeria was applied to a ter- 
 ritory which in ancient times was occupied in 
 the cast by the Numidians. and in the west by the 
 Moors (or Mauri). 
 
 1516-1535. — Under Barbarossa rule. See Bar- 
 
 BARY states: 1516-1535. 
 
 1541. — Disastrous invasion of Charles V. See 
 Barbarv states: 1541. 
 
 1815. — War with the U. S. A. See Barbary 
 states: 181 5. 
 
 1816.— War with England. — Exmouth's expe- 
 dition. — Slavery abolished. See Barbary states: 
 1816. 
 
 212
 
 ALGERIA, 1830-1898 
 
 ALGERIA, 1898-1912 
 
 1830. — Conquest by the French. See Barbary 
 states: 1830; France: 1815-1830. 
 
 1830-1846. — Abd-el-Kader and the war with 
 France. See Barbarv states: 1830-1846. 
 
 1830-1898. — French colonization. — Beginning 
 of the French African empire. — "The establish- 
 ment of the French Protectorate over Morocco in 
 igi2 was the culmination of eighty years of effort 
 in North .Africa. . . . The French African empire 
 started on the Mediterranean under Louis Philippe, 
 was spread to West Africa under Napoleon III, 
 and across the Sahara and through the Sudan to 
 Central Africa under the Third Republic. Algeria 
 was the nucleus on the Mediterranean, and Senegal 
 on the Atlantic. It has been a curious combina- 
 tion of foresight and luck, the building of this 
 empire, and, as in the case of every other African 
 colony and every other Power, more the latter 
 than the former. The late Europeanization of 
 the Mediterranean is the great enigma of modern 
 history. While remote regions of the globe were 
 being transformed and brought under the aegis of 
 European civilization, the Mediterranean remained 
 under the shadow of Islam, a closed sea, whose 
 waters washed nations in the embryo and vast 
 coasts where anarchy had reigned for fifteen cen- 
 turies since the disappearance of the Roman Em- 
 pire. France went into Algeria in 1830, and in- 
 augurated the modern era of the Middle Sea, not 
 because of a conviction that the time had come 
 to do away with the pirates of the Barbary Coast, 
 but because ol a trivial dispute between the Bey 
 of Algiers and the French Consul over a question 
 of grain ! It was an auspicious moment, however. 
 The sea power of the Ottoman Empire had been 
 irrevocably destroyed three years before at the 
 battle of Navarino. Mohammed .\\i was severing 
 in Egypt the essential link of the chain that bound 
 Africa to Turkey. Christian civilization was be- 
 ing reestablished in the Hellenic peninsula. Italy 
 was at the threshold of the generation which was 
 to bring national unity. . . . Fashoda was the 
 awakening. This humiliation had to come. With 
 aims definitely centered on 'definitely assured ter- 
 ritories, the builders of the colonial empire were 
 able to proceed to administrative organization 
 along lines that would bring financial results. The 
 money needed for economic development could 
 then be solicited and obtained from Parliament 
 and from private capital. . . . Napoleon's idea 
 of an Arab empire was abandoned. The natives 
 could not be assimilated. Algeria could not be 
 held indefinitely as a vast military camp. A 
 European element — for the most part French — 
 must be introduced, given means of acquiring 
 land, and encouraged to come and stay by the 
 granting of privileges not enjoyed by the natives. 
 The first step was the law of 1873 concerning 
 native property. It resulted in the unjust and 
 wholly indefensible eviction of thousands of pro- 
 prietors from their lands. Then followed the sup- 
 pression of the Moslem system of administering 
 justice through kadis, which resulted in the op- 
 pression of the natives and the awakening of re- 
 ligious antagonism. The third step was the ex- 
 tension to Algeria of the new French municipal 
 law. This put the government of communes into 
 the hands of minor officials and white colonists, 
 who became legally the masters of the destinies of 
 the natives among whom they lived. All sorts of 
 advantages were granted to colonists to bring them 
 and to keep them in Algeria: partial exemption 
 from military service, partial exemption from tax- 
 ation, and a gift of lands of dispossessed natives. 
 At the same time, the process of governing from 
 Paris resulted in arrested economic development 
 
 and administrative confusion. The Governor of 
 Algeria had no control over the military authori- 
 ties. Administrations, depending upon ministries 
 in Paris, were directed by considerations and gov- 
 erned by rules totally contrary to the interests of 
 Algeria and unsuited to its different economic and 
 political situation and its peculiar problems. There 
 was no coordination of policy and effort between 
 branches of the Government. Finances were man- 
 aged from Paris, revenues collected by Paris, and 
 credits voted in the general French budget. . . . 
 ."Vlgeria did not prosper. The natives regarded 
 the French, as they had every right to do, as 
 gendarmes and merchants whose one thought was 
 to exploit them and to treat them unjustly. They 
 resented bitterly a regime which farced intruders 
 upon them, gave the intruders exemption from 
 military service and taxation, and imposed upon 
 them (the natives] the burdens from which the 
 intruders were free. The colonists felt that they 
 had exchanged ihe orderly civil administration at 
 home for a half-baked, improvised uncertain regime 
 that was neither military nor civil, and under 
 which they did not know exactly where they 
 stood. They did not enjoy all the rights of French 
 citizens, especially in the matter of voting upon 
 how the money they paid in taxes and the revenue 
 from the wealth they created should be spent. 
 Essential reforms were enacted after Fashoda, 
 reforms that have brought wealth and prosperity, 
 and make the days of the nineteenth century 
 seem like an ugly dream." — H. A. Gibbons, New 
 map of Africa, pp. 130-133. — See also Africa: Mod- 
 ern European occupation: Later iqth century. 
 
 1896-1906. — Encroachments on the Moroccan 
 boundary. See Morocco: 1895-1906. 
 
 1898-1912. — Economic and cultural develop- 
 ment under the French. — Attitude of French in- 
 habitants towards the natives. — "In 1898, three 
 delegations, to be elected separately by French cit- 
 izens, taxpayers other than citizens, and natives, 
 were established to decide upon the expenditure of 
 the tax-payers' money. This was the beginning of 
 self-government. But it had no real importance 
 until the law of December 24, iqoo, separated .Al- 
 gerian from French finances, and establfshed a dis- 
 tinct Algerian budget. The Algerian delegations, 
 now masters of their finances, discussed and de- 
 cided how their money should be spent. The re- 
 sult was magical. Immediately there was an ex- 
 tension of public works. Natives as well as 
 colonists began to take an interest in their coun- 
 try. Let one illustration suffice. Before 1900, the 
 forests of .Algeria brought in only several hundred 
 thousand francs, which represented fines collected 
 from natives. To-day there are practically no 
 fines. But forest products figure in the budget 
 for more than five million francs. Since 1900, Al- 
 geria has become, after Great Britain, Germany, 
 Belgium, and the United States, the best client of 
 France. Eighty per cent, of her trade, which 
 amounts to nearly $250,000,000 per annum, is with 
 the mother country. Railways have been extended 
 [see Africa: Modern European occupation: Sum- 
 mary: Modern railroad and industrial development] 
 so that Algeria, whose means of transportation 
 were limited fifteen years ago, has now two thou- 
 sand miles in exploitation. This has meant a 
 rapid development of mineral wealth, and the 
 possibility of using forest produce, especially cork. 
 The great prosperity of Algeria, however, is in 
 agriculture, where dry farming has brought under 
 cultivation cereal-bearing areas that the natives 
 never utilized. The most remarkable phenomenon 
 in Algeria, from the standpoint of the colonists, is 
 the way the soil takes to vines. .Algerian wine 
 
 213
 
 ALGERIA 
 
 ALGONQUIAN FAMILY 
 
 has become a factor in the French markets, and 
 brings to its producers financial returns far beyond 
 their dreams. Algeria is also looked upon as a 
 most important source of mutton for French 
 markets. Popular education was established in 
 Algeria in 1892, and is more extended than any- 
 where else in Africa except in the South African 
 Commonwealth. Since the inhabitants received 
 ihe privilege of voting the budget, sums are al- 
 lotted that would make possible primary educa- 
 tion everywhere were it not for the unfortunate 
 -system of communal responsibility. There are 
 still a hundred thousand boys in populated cen- 
 ters who have no school facilities, and little has 
 been done to educate girls. But it is the will of the 
 Government to give education to all, and the 
 funds for that purpose are provided. In the 
 matter of schools the French in Algeria have felt 
 much more keenly their stewardship than the 
 British in Egypt. The effort they are making in 
 all their colonies is rivaled only by what the 
 United States is doing in the Philippines. But 
 education brings its problems, especially in old 
 Moslem countries where the natives believes that 
 they are superior to their rulers. In their attitude 
 socially toward natives, the French are found by 
 subject races to be far more pleasant to live with 
 than the British. Especially among the upper 
 classes life is happier and richer for French than 
 for British subject races. . . . The Frenchman 
 feels no racial antipathy for the natives and the 
 native knows it. So the Frenchman has not as 
 much to fear from Moslem education as the 
 Englishman. His political interest does not suf- 
 fer greatly by the spread of primary education. 
 Higher education of native races is not a night- 
 mare for him. He can conceive of the day when 
 the native holds the franchise, full and free of 
 French citizenship. What he asks is that the 
 native learn to speak French and become im- 
 pregnated with French ideals. His only fear is 
 being too greatly outnumbered in the midst of a 
 native population. Between iqoi and igos, the 
 territory of Algeria was greatly extended into the 
 hinterland. By the decree of August 14, 1905, 
 Southern Algeria was organized. It includes the 
 oases on the northern edge of the Sahara. The 
 extension of the railway to the desert and the paci- 
 fication of the Sahara enabled the civil authori- 
 ties to take over much sooner than was anticipated 
 the administration of the Algerian hinterland. Not 
 many years ago, a deputy declared in the Palais 
 Bourbon that France would never hold Southern 
 .Algeria in any other way than by military posts, 
 whose garrisons would be afraid to go out for a 
 walk unless they were all together and all armed. 
 Garrisons are few to-day, especially since they are 
 needed more in France than in Algeria." — H. A. 
 Gibbons, New map of Africa, pp. 133-140. 
 
 1919. — Fiscal reform. — "On January i, iqig, an 
 important fiscal reform went into effect. From 
 that time on. native tax-payers in Northern Algeria 
 were subjected to the same municipal and depart- 
 mental charges as the European colonist?, while 
 they were freed from the whole of the special 
 charges known as "impots arabes." The new sys- 
 tem of taxation includes (i) a land tax on prop- 
 erty not devoted to building purposes, to be fixed 
 generally at five per rent, of the taxable revenue 
 of such property, and affecting Europeans in the 
 same way as natives; (2) taxes on industrial and 
 commercial profits, on profits of agriculture and 
 development, on public and private salaries, and 
 on the incomes in non-commercial professions; 
 and (3) a comprehensive tax on income as a 
 whole Equality between Europeans and natives 
 
 in regard to taxation has by now been established 
 in all French colonies in the north of Africa." — 
 Ibid., p. 141. 
 
 Also in: Cat, Petite histoire de I'Algerie, Tunisie, 
 Maroc. — H. D. Gramont, Histoire d'Alger sous la 
 domination turque. — P. Leroy-Beaulieu, L'Algerie 
 el la Tunisie. — P. Masson, Histoire des etablisse- 
 ments et du commerce fran(ois dans I'Afrique bar- 
 baresque. — E. Plantet, Correspondance des deys 
 d'Alger avec la cour de France.— C. Rousset, La 
 Conquete de /'.l/genV.— Thomas-Stamford, About 
 Algeria. — M. Wahl, L'Algerie. — Watson, Voice of 
 the South. — T. Wolf, Im Land des Lichts 
 
 ALGERIAN HINTERLAND. See Algeria: 
 1898-1912. 
 
 ALGIERS, the capital and largest city of Al- 
 geria, on the west shore of the Bay of Algiers. It 
 is of great commercial importance. 
 
 1666. — Bombardment by French. See Barbary 
 states: 1004-1684. 
 
 1684. — Bombardment by French. See Barbary 
 states: 1604-1684. 
 
 1785-1801.— Tribute exacted for navigation of 
 Mediterranean. See Barbary states: 1 785-1801. 
 
 1795.— Treaty with United States. See Bar- 
 bary states: 1785-1801. 
 
 ALGIHED, the term by which a war is pro- 
 claimed among the Mahommedans to be a Holy 
 War. Also written Al Jihad. 
 
 ALGONQUIAN (Algonkin) FAMILY.— 
 "About the period 1500- 1000, those related tribes 
 whom we now know by the name of Algonkins were 
 at the height of their prosperity. They occupied 
 the Atlantic coast from the Savannah river on the 
 south to the strait of Belle Isle on the north. . . . 
 The dialects of all these were related, and evi- 
 dently at some distant day had been derived from 
 the same primitive tongue. Which of them had 
 preserved the ancient forms most closely, it may 
 be premature to decide positively, but the tendency 
 of modern studies has been to assign that place to 
 the Cree — the northernmost of all. We cannot 
 erect a genealogical tree of these dialects. . . . We 
 may, however, group them in such a manner as 
 roughly to indicate their relationship. This I do" 
 — in the following list: "Cree. — Old Algonkin. — 
 Montagnais. — Chipeway, Ottawa, Pottawattomie, 
 Miami, Peoria, Pea, Piankishaw, Kaskaskia, Me- 
 nominee, Sac, Fox, Kikapoo. — Sheshatapoosh, Se- 
 coffee, Micmac, Melisceet, Etchemin, Abnaki. — 
 Mohe.'an, Massachusetts, Shawnee, Minsi, Unami, 
 Unalachtigo [the last three named forming, to- 
 gether, the nation of the Lenape or Dela wares), 
 Nanticoke, Powhatan, Pampticoke. — Blackfoot, 
 Gros Ventre, Sheyenne. . . . kW the Algonkin na- 
 tions who dwelt north of the Potomac, on the east 
 shore of Chesapeake Bay, and in the basins of the 
 Delaware and Hudson rivers, claimed near kinship 
 and an identical origin, and were at times united 
 into a loose, defensive confederacy. By the west- 
 ern and southern tribes they were collectively 
 known as Wapanachkik — 'those of the eastern re- 
 gion' — which in the form Abnaki is now confined 
 to the remnant of a tribe in Maine. . . . The mem- 
 bers of the confederacy were the Mohegans (Mahi- 
 canni) of the Hudson, who occupied the valley of 
 that river to the falls above the site of Albany, 
 the various New Jersey tribes, the Delawares proper 
 on the Delaware river and its branches, including 
 the Minsi or Monseys, among the mountains, the 
 Nanticokes, between Chesapeake Bay and the At- 
 lantic, and the small tribe called Canai, Kanawhas 
 or Ganawese, whose towns were on tributaries of 
 the Potomac and Patuxent. . . . Linguistically, the 
 Mohegans were more closely allied to the tribes of 
 New England than to those of the Delaware Val- 
 
 214
 
 ALGONQUIAN FAMILY 
 
 ALGONQUIAN FAMILY 
 
 Jey. Evidently, most of the tribes of Massa- 
 chusetts and Connecticut were comparatively 
 recent offshoots of the parent stem on the Hudson, 
 supposing the course of migration had been east- 
 ward. . . . The Nanticokes occupied the territory 
 between Chesapeake Bay and the ocean, except its 
 southern extremity, which appears to have been 
 under the control of the Powhatan tribe of Vir- 
 ginia." — D. G. Brinton, Lenape and their legends, 
 ch. 1-2. — "Mohegans, Munsees, Manhattans, Me- 
 toacs, and other affiliated tribes and bands of Al- 
 gonquin hneage, inhabited the banks of the Hudson 
 and the islands, bay and seaboard of New York, 
 including Long Island, during the early periods of 
 the rise of the Iroquois Confederacy. . . . The 
 Mohegans finally retired over the Highlands east 
 of them into the valley of the Housalonic. The 
 Munsees and Nanticokes retired to the Delaware 
 river and reunited with their kindred, the Lenapees, 
 or modern Delawares., The Manhattans, and nu- 
 merous other bands and sub-tribes, melted away 
 under the influence of liquor and died in their 
 tracks." — H. R. Schoolcraft, Notes on the Iroquois, 
 ch. 5. — "On the basis of a difference in dialect, that 
 portion of the Algonquin Indians which dwelt in 
 New England has been classed in two divisions, one 
 consisting of those who inhabited what is now the 
 State of Maine, nearly up to its western border, 
 the other consisting of the rest of the native popu- 
 lation. The Maine Indians may have been some 
 iS,ooo in number, or somewhat less than a third 
 of the native population of New England. That 
 portion of them who dwelt furthest towards the 
 east were known by the name of Etetchemins. 
 The Abenaquis, including the Tarratines, hunted on 
 both sides of the Penobscot, and westward as far 
 as the Saco. if not quite to the Piscataqua. The 
 tribes found in the rest of New England were 
 designated by a greater variety of names. The 
 home of the Penacook or Pawtucket Indians was 
 in the southeast corner of what is now New Hamp- 
 shire and the contiguous region of Massachusetts. 
 Next dwelt the Massachusetts tribe, along the bay 
 of that name. Then were found successively the 
 Pokanokets, or Wampanoags, in the southeasterly 
 region of Massachusetts, and by Buzzard's and 
 Narragansett Bays; the Narragansetts, with a trib- 
 utary race called Nyantics in what is now the 
 western part of the State of Rhode Island ; the 
 Pequots, between the Narragansetts and the river 
 formerly called the Pequot River, now the Thames ; 
 and the Mohegans, spreading themselves beyond 
 the River Connecticut. In the central region of 
 Massachusetts were the Nipmucks, or Nipnets; and 
 along Cape Cod were the Nausets, who appeared 
 to have owed some fealty to the Pokanokets. The 
 New England Indians exhibited an inferior type of 
 humanity. . . . Though fleet and agile when ex- 
 cited to some occasional effort, they were found to 
 be incapable of continuous labor. Heavy and 
 phlegmatic, they scarcely wept or smiled." — J. G. 
 Palfrey, Compendious history of Neiv England, bk. 
 i,v.\, ch. 3. — "The valley of the 'Cahohatatea,' or 
 Mauritius River fi. e., the Hudson river, as now 
 named] at the time Hudson first ascended its 
 waters, was inhabited, chiefly, by two aboriginal 
 races of Algonquin lineage, afterwards known 
 among the English colonists by the generic names 
 of Mohegans and Mincees. The Dutch generally 
 called the Mohegans, Mahicans ; and the Mincees, 
 Sanhikans. These two tribes were subdivided into 
 numerous minor bands, each of which had a dis- 
 tinctive name. The tribes on the east side of the 
 river were generally Mohegans; those on the west 
 side, Mincees. They were hereditary enemies. . . . 
 Long Island, or 'Sewan-hacky,' was occupied by 
 the savage tribe of Metowacks, which was sub- 
 
 divided into various clans. . . . Staten Island, on 
 the opposite side of the bay, was inhabited by the 
 Monatons. . . . Inland, to the west, hved the Rar- 
 itans and the Hackinsacks; while the regions in 
 the vicinity of the well-known 'Highlands,' south of 
 Sandy Hook, were inhabited by a band or sub- 
 tribe called the Nevesincks or Navisinks. ... To 
 the south and west, covering the centre of New 
 Jersey, were the Aquamachukes and the Stanke- 
 kans; while the valley of the Delaware, northward 
 from the Schuylkill, was inhabited by various tribes 
 of the Lenape race. . . . The island of the Man- 
 hattans" was occupied by the tribe which received 
 that name Lsee Manhattan]. On the shores of 
 the river, above, dwelt the Tappans, the Weck- 
 quaesgeeks, the Sint Sings, "whose chief village was 
 named Ossin-Sing, or 'the Place of Stones,' " the 
 Pachami, the Waorinacks, the Wappingers, and the 
 Waronawankongs. "Further north, and occupying 
 the present counties of Ulster and Greene, were the 
 Minqua clans of Minnesincks, Nanticokes, Mincees, 
 and Delawares. These clans had pressed onward 
 from the upper valley of the Delaware. . . . They 
 were generally known among the Dutch as the 
 .■Esopus Indians." — J. R. Brodhead, History of the 
 slate of New York, v. i, ch. 3. — "The area formerly 
 occupied by the Algonquian family was more ex- 
 tensive than that of any other linguistic stock in 
 North .'Xmerica, their territory reachin; from Lab- 
 rador to the Rocky Mountains, and from Churchill 
 River of Hudson Bay as far south at least as 
 Pamlico Sound of North Carolina. In the eastern 
 part of this territory was an area occupied by 
 Iroquoian tribes, surrounded on almost all sides 
 by their Algonquian neighbors. On the south the 
 Algonquian tribes were bordered by those of Iro- 
 quoian and Siouan (Catawba) stock, on the south- 
 west and west by the Muskhogean and Siouan 
 tribes, and on the northwest by the Kitunahan 
 and the great Athapascan families, while along the 
 coast of Labrador and the eastern shore of Hudson 
 Bay they came in contact with the Eskimo, who 
 were gradually retreating before them to the north. 
 In Newfoundland they encountered the Beothukan 
 family, consisting of but a single tribe. A portion 
 of the Shawnee at some early period had separated 
 from the main body of the tribe in central Ten- 
 nessee and pushed their way down to the Savannah 
 River in South Carolina, where, known as Savan- 
 nahs, they carried on destructive wars with the sur- 
 rounding tribes until about the beginninj of the 
 iSlh century they were finally driven out and 
 joined the Delaware in the north. Soon afterwards 
 the rest of the tribe was expelled by the Cherokee 
 and Chicasa, who thenceforward claimed all the 
 country stretching north to the Ohio River. The 
 Cheyenne and Arapaho, two allied tribes of this 
 stock, had become separated from their kindred on 
 the north and had forced their way through hostile 
 tribes across the Missouri to the Black Hills coun- 
 try of South Dakota, and more recently into Wy- 
 oming and Colorado, thus forming the advance 
 guard of the Algonquian stock in that direction, 
 having the Siouan tribes behind them and those 
 of the Shoshonean family in front. [The following 
 are the] principal tribes: Abnaki, Algonquin, Ara- 
 paho, Chevenne, Conoy, Cree, Delaware, Fox, Illi- 
 nois, Kick'apoo, Mahican, Massachuset, Menomi- 
 nee, Miami, Micmac, Mohegan, Monta'-nais, Mon- 
 tauk, Munsee, Nanticoke, Narraganset, Nauset, 
 Nipmuc, Ojibwa, Ottawa, Pamlico, Pennacook, 
 Pequot, Piankishaw, Pottawotomi, Powhatan, Sac, 
 Shawnee. Siksika. Wampanoag, Wappinger. The 
 present number of the .Mgonquian stock is about 
 QS 600, of whom abovit 60,000 are in Canada and 
 the remainder in the United States."—! W. Powell, 
 Seventh annual report (Bureau of Ethnology, pp. 
 
 2T5
 
 ALGONQUIN 
 
 ALIEN ENEMIES 
 
 4J.48). — See also Blackfeet; Howkans; Hurons; 
 Indians, Amepjcan: Cultural areas in North Amer- 
 ica; Eastern woodlands area, also Linguistic char- 
 acteristics; Iroquois confederacy; New England; 
 1637 (Pequot War), 1674-1075 to 1676-1678 (King 
 Philip's War) ; Pontiac's War ; Shoshonean fam- 
 
 Also in: J. W. DeForest, History of the Indians 
 of Connecticut.— \. Gallatin, Synopsis of the In- 
 dian tribes (Archaologia Americana, v. 2), inlrod., 
 sect. 2— S. G. Drake, Aboriginal races of North 
 America, bk. 2-3. 
 
 ALGONQUIN, an American steamship sunk, 
 March \ 1017, by a German submarine which 
 continued to shell the ship after it had stopped; 
 although there was no loss of life, the crew was 
 twenty -seven hours in open boats, before reach- 
 ing the Irish coast. One of a series of mcidents 
 directly leading to America's entry of the World 
 War.-^See also U. S. A.; 1917 (Feb.-April.) 
 
 ALGUAZIL. See Alcalde. 
 
 ALHAMA, Fall of (1476-1492). See Spain; 
 
 '''aLHAMBRA, Granada, the most interesting 
 example of the splendid citadel-palaces built by 
 the Moorish conquerors. It was begun in 124S 
 by Mohammed-ben-Al-Hamar, enlarged in 1279 by 
 his successor, and again in 1306, when its mosque 
 was built. It "represents the best preserved as well 
 as the most perfect example of the Moorish-Arabic 
 genius It was a fortress-palace, much of it built 
 on the brink of the rock, the steep slopes of which 
 were used to construct the lower stories of baths, 
 offices, and guard-rooms. The exterior has no im- 
 pressiveness, though the original grouping of walls 
 and roofs must have been highly picturesque. Its 
 halls, chambers, and remains of a mosque are 
 clustered about two rectangular courts or patios, 
 which are joined like the two parts of an 'L'—the 
 •Court of the Alberca' and the 'Court of the Lions.' 
 From one of the ends of the Alberca Court pro- 
 jects the 'Hall of the Ambassadors'; from the 
 other the 'Hall of the Tribunal,' while the long 
 sides of the Court of Lions open respectively into 
 the 'Hall of the Abencerrages' and the 'Hall of the 
 Two Sisters.' The 'Court of the Lions' is so called 
 from the fountain in its centre, an immense marble 
 basin supported, upon twelve lions, which form a 
 remarkable exception to the Muhammedan rule 
 against representing the image of any living thing. 
 Both these Courts are arcaded, the columns, set 
 singly or in pairs, or groups, exhibiting, as do all 
 the columns in the Alhambra, distinctive features 
 in their capitals, which are separated by a high 
 necking from the shaft. It is, however, in the 
 interior of the halls that the decoration reaches 
 its finest pitch and nowhere more than in the 'Hall 
 of the Two Sisters,' which form'ed the culminating 
 feature of the harem quarters. The name is sup- 
 posed to have been derived from two slabs of 
 marble in the pavement but may well have been 
 suggested bv the window, which occupies a bay 
 and is divided by a small column and two arches 
 into two lights. The walls, above a high wainscot 
 of lustred tiles, are encrusted with flat moulded 
 arabesques, representing a delicate lacelike tracery 
 of leafy vines and tendrils, still tinctured with the 
 red, blue, and gold that formerly enriched them. 
 The arabesques melt into the stalactite embellish- 
 ments which completely cover the hollow of the 
 dome; created, as it seems, by giant bees, whose 
 cells hang down like grape-clusters in an endless 
 profusion of exquisite intricacy Time was when 
 this unsurpassable delicacy of magnifuence glowed 
 with gold touched into a thousandfold diversity 
 of tones, by the light of hanging lamps. As an 
 
 expression of the Arabic genius in the direction 
 of subtlety, this represents finality. It embodies 
 the culture of a race that in its learning as in 
 its art had been devoted to the exaltation of 
 details; and embodies also the latent instinct of 
 a desert-wandering race whose eye had been little 
 habituated to varieties of form, but saturated 
 with colour and in the watches of the night had 
 been long familiar with the mystery of vaulted 
 sky, sown with star-clusters and hung with the 
 jewelled lamps of planets. It was characteristic 
 also of the Oriental fondness of abstraction that 
 revels in subtleties and loves to merge itself in 
 the contemplation of the infinite. It is the kind 
 of decoration that being denied the reinforcement 
 of nature was bound to evolve sterility." — C. H. 
 Caffm, How to study architecture, pp. 226-227. — 
 See also Architecture: Mohammedan; Spain: 
 1238-1273. 
 
 ALHAZEN (d. T038), Arabian astronomer 
 and mathematician. See Science; Ancient: Ara- 
 bian. 
 
 ALI (Ali ben Abu Talib) (c. 600-661), fourth 
 caliph. See Caliphate; 661; Suhtes. 
 
 ALI DINAR, appointed sultan of Darfur (q.v.) 
 in iSgq; grandson of Mahommed-el-Fadhl. 
 
 Raids the British border of the Sudan.— Loss 
 of his monarchy. See Sudan; 1014-1020. 
 
 ALI MUNTAR: British operations and cap- 
 ture. See World W.«; 1Q17: \L Turkish theatre: 
 c, 1, iii and iv. 
 
 ALI PASHA (1741-1S22), Turkish pasha of 
 lannina. Called the "Lion," because of his power 
 and bravery; by brigandage and strategem over- 
 powered neighboring pashas and took over their 
 territories; put his enemies to death without 
 scruple; by bribery gained favor at Constantinople 
 and in 178S was made pasha of lannina (.Mbania) ; 
 in turn cultivated relations with the French and 
 the English; for a time master of .Mbania, Epirus 
 and Thessaly, controlling Morea and Lepanto 
 through his sons; even dared intrigue at Constan- 
 tinople to further his inordinate ambitions. He 
 was murdered in the spring of 1822, while suing 
 for peace with Constantinople. 
 
 ALIBAMUS, or Alabamas. See Muskhogean 
 FA^^LY. 
 
 ALICULUFS. See Pat.agonians. 
 ALIEN ANARCHiST BILL: Passed June 5, 
 1920. See U. S. \.: 1920 (June). 
 ALIEN AND SEDITION LAWS. See U.S.A.; 
 
 1798. 
 
 ALIEN CONTRACT LABOR LAW (1885). 
 See L.VBOR legislation; 1S64-1020. 
 
 ALIEN ENEMIES, residents or sojourners in 
 a country who are citizens or subjects of a hos- 
 tile State Their legal position is accurately indi- 
 cated bv the assurance addressed by the President 
 to alien enemies in the United States, in his proc- 
 lamation of April 6, 1917. that so long as they 
 refrained from acts of hostility toward the United 
 States and obeyed the laws they should "be un- 
 disturbed in the peaceful pursuit of their hves and 
 occupations and be accorded the consideration due 
 to all peaceful and law-abiding persons, except so 
 far as restrictions may be necessar>- for their own 
 protection and for the safety of the United States. ' 
 
 Restrictions in United States.— These were 
 prescribed by the President in his proclamations of 
 April 6 and' November 16, 1017, by virtue of au- 
 thority conferred upon him by paragraphs 4067- 
 4070 of the Revised Statutes. By the earlier proc 
 lamation alien enemies were forbidden to have in 
 their possession any firearms, ammunition, explo- 
 sives, wireless apparatus or parts thereof; or to 
 approach within one-half mile of any fort, camp, 
 
 16
 
 © E. M. Newman 
 
 COURT OF THE LIONS IN THE ALHAMBRA, GRANADA, SPAIN
 
 ALIEN IMMIGRATION LAWS 
 
 ALLEGHANS 
 
 arsenal, aircraft station, navel vessel, navy yard, or 
 munitions factory; or to write, print, or publish 
 any attack upon the Government of the United 
 States, Congress, or any person in the service of 
 the United States, or upon any measure of the 
 Government ; or to abet any hostile acts against 
 the United States, or to give its enemies informa- 
 tion or aid and comfort. Alien enemies transgress- 
 ing those restrictions were liable to summary ar- 
 rest and to removal to any place designated by 
 the President. Finally, no alien enemy could 
 either leave or enter the United States except under 
 restrictions to be prescribed by the President. The 
 supplementary proclamation of November i6 for- 
 bade alien enemies to "enter or be found within" 
 the District of Columbia or the Panama Canal 
 Zone; or within loo yards of any canal, wharf, 
 pier, dry dock, warehouse, elevator, railroad ter- 
 minal, etc.; or to be found on the waters within 
 i miles of the shore line of the United States, or 
 on any of the Great Lakes, except on public fer- 
 ries; or to ascend in any airplane, balloon, etc. 
 It also provided for the registration and issuance 
 of registration cards to all alien enemies, with pro- 
 hibition of change of abode or travel except on 
 permission ; and for monthly, weekly, or other 
 periodical report to Federal, State, or local au- 
 thorities as might be specified. Subsequent in- 
 structions to water-front operators provided for 
 cooperation with United States troops in guard- 
 ing docks, piers, warehouses, etc. — Sec also World 
 War: 1Q17: VIII. United States and the war: e; 
 also Alien property custodian; U. S. A.: igi7 
 (October) : Trading with the Enemv Act. 
 
 ALIEN IMMIGRATION LAWS: Canada. 
 See Immigration and emigration: Canada: 
 ig20. 
 
 ALIEN LAND LAWS.— In many countries 
 laws exist limiting or prohibiting the ownership of 
 real estate by aliens. At common law it was not 
 allowed, but in England and in most of the States 
 in this country the disability has been removed 
 since 1870. Various countries for obvious military 
 reasons prohibit alien land ownership in frontier 
 districts. Japan prohibits the owning of land by 
 foreigners, but seeks for her nationals a continuance 
 of the privilege of holding land in California. In 
 view of the referendum of 1020, by which the 
 people of California voted in favor of prohibitmg 
 alien land ownership, a controversy developed with 
 Japan. There arose from this the question of the 
 validity of state law if in seeming conflict with a 
 national treaty. — See also California: iqoo-iq20. 
 
 ALIEN LAW: Venezuela. See Venezuela: 
 iqiQ. 
 
 In Australia. See Immigration and emigra- 
 tion: Australia: 1Q00-1021. 
 
 ALIEN PROPERTY CUSTODIAN, United 
 States, an official created during the World War 
 by the Trading with the Enemy Act, with power to 
 require, at his discretion, any property held within 
 the United States for, or on behalf of, an "enemy" 
 or "ally of enemy," to be transferred to him, and to 
 hold the same as trustee till the end of the war. The 
 primary purpose of the measure was to prevent 
 the property of the enemy from being used in the 
 service of the enemy and to safeguard well-dis- 
 posed enemy aliens from having their property 
 thus abused. It also put it in the power of the 
 government to requisition easily such property 
 when it might require the same for the prosecu- 
 tion of the war, or even to confiscate it should 
 Germany confiscate the property of Americans held 
 in Germany. The provisions of the act applied to 
 patents, debts, and readv money, and the latter 
 was expected to be invested in Liberty Bonds. It 
 
 should be added that German subjects and the 
 subjects of her allies, resident in the United States, 
 did not, from the mere fact of their nationality, 
 fall within the operation of the act.— See also 
 U. S. A.: 1917 (Oct.): Trading with the Enemy 
 Act. 
 
 .ALIENATION, Right of. See Common law: 
 i2qo. 
 
 ALIENS ACT: England. See Immigration 
 and emigration: England: iqos-igoq. 
 
 ALIGARH, district and city of British India. 
 The city contains Fort Aligarh, which was stormed 
 by the British in 1803, and the Mohammedan An- 
 glo-Oriental College. See India: i7o8-i."<o5. 
 
 ALIORUMNAS. See Huns: Gothic account 
 of. 
 
 ALIWAL, Battle of (1846). See India: 1845- 
 1840. 
 
 ALJUBARROTA, Battle of (1385). See 
 Portugal: 1383-1385; Spain: 1368-1479. 
 
 ALKMAAR, a town of north Holland. 
 
 1573. — Siege and deliverance. See Nether- 
 lands: i.i;73-iS74- 
 
 1799 (September).— Battle of. See France: 
 1 790 (September-October). 
 
 1799 (October). — Convention, by the terms of 
 which the Anglo-Russian army under the Duke of 
 York evacuated the Netherlands. 
 
 ALL GERMAN INDUSTRIAL COMBINA- 
 TIONS. See Trusts: Germany: 1920. 
 
 ALL INDIA MOSLEM LEAGUE. See 
 India: 1907-1921. 
 
 ALL RUSSIAN CENTRAL EXECUTIVE 
 COMMITTEE: Organization, powers and du- 
 ties. See Russia, Soviet constitution or. 
 
 ALL RUSSIAN CONGRESS. See Bolshe- 
 viKi: Development and political form of their 
 power; Russia: 1917: Disintegrating propaganda, 
 etc.; Russia, Soviet constitution of. 
 
 ALL RUSSIAN GOVERNMENT (1918). 
 See Russia: 1918-1920: Anti-Bolshevik movement. 
 
 "ALL THE TALENTS" MINISTRY. See 
 England: 1806-1812. 
 
 ALLANSON, Cecil John Lyons (1877- ), 
 British lieutenant colonel. See World War: 1915: 
 VI. Turkev: a, 4 (xxx). 
 
 ALLATOONA. See Alatoona. 
 
 ALLDEUTCHER VERBUND. See Pan- 
 Germanism. 
 
 ALLECTUS, Minister of Carausius in Brit- 
 ain. — Battle with the Romans. See Britain: 288- 
 2q7. ' 
 
 ALLEGEWIS. See Alleghans. 
 
 ALLEGHANS, or AUegewi, or Talligewi.— 
 "The oldest tribe of the United States, of which 
 there is a distinct tradition, were the Alleghans 
 The term is perpetuated in the principal chain 
 of mountains traversing the country. This tribe, 
 at an antique period, had the seat of their power 
 in the Ohio Valley and its confluent streams, 
 which were the sites of their numerous towns and 
 villages. They appear originally to have borne the 
 name of AUi, or AUeg, and hence the names of 
 Talligewi and AUegewi. (Trans. Am. Phi. Soc, 
 vol. I.) By adding to the radical of this word the 
 particle 'hany' or 'ghany,' meaning river, they de- 
 scribed the principal scene of their residence — name- 
 ly, the Alleghany, or River of the Alleihans, now 
 called Ohio. The word Ohio is of Iroquois origin, 
 and of a far later period; having been bestowed 
 by them after their conquest of the country, in 
 alliance with the Lenapees, or ancient Delawares. 
 (Phi. Trans.) The term was applied to the entire 
 river, from its confluence with the Mississippi, to 
 its origin in the broad spurs of the AUeghanies, in 
 New York and Pennsylvania. . . . There are evi- 
 
 217
 
 ALLEGIANCE 
 
 ALLEN 
 
 dences of antique labors in the alluvial plains and 
 valleys of the Scioto, Miami, and Muskingum, the 
 Wabash, Kaskaskia, Cahokia, and Illinois, denoting 
 that the ancient AUeghans, and their allies and 
 confederates, cultivated the soil, and were serai- 
 agriculturists. These evidences have been traced, 
 at late periods, to the fertile table-lands of Indiana 
 and Michigan. The tribes lived in Axed towns, cul- 
 tivating extensive fields of the zea-maize; and also, 
 as denoted by recent discoveries, ... of some spe- 
 cies of beans, vines, and esculents. They were, in 
 truth, the mound builders." — H. R. Schoolcraft, 
 Information respecting the Indian tribes, pi. s, p. 
 133. — This conclusion, to which Mr. Schoolcraft 
 had arrived, that the ancient AUeghans or Tallegwi 
 were the mound builders of the Ohio valley is 
 being sustained by later investigators, and seems 
 to have become an accepted opinion among those 
 of highest authority. The AUeghans, moreover, 
 are being identified with the Chcrokees of later 
 times, in whom their race, once supposed to be 
 extinct, has apparently survived; while the fact, 
 long suspected, that the Cherokee language is of 
 the Iroquois family is being proved by the latest 
 studies. According to Indian tradition, the Al- 
 leghans were driven from their ancient seats. Ion.; 
 ago, by a combination against them of the Lenape 
 (Delawares) and the Mengwe (Iroquois). The 
 route of their migrations is being traced by the 
 character of the mounds which they built, and of 
 the remains gathered from the mounds. "The gen- 
 eral movement [of retreat before the Iroquois and 
 Lenape] . . . must have been southward, . . . and 
 the exit of the Ohio mound builders was, in all 
 probability, up the Kanawah Valley on the same 
 line that the Cherokees appear to have followed 
 in reaching their historical locality. ... If the 
 hypothesis here advanced be correct, it is apparent 
 that the Cherokees entered the immediate valley of 
 the Mississippi from the northwest, striking it in 
 the region of Iowa." — C. Thomas, Problem of the 
 Ohio mounds (Bureau of Ethnology, i8Sq). See 
 Cherokees; Iroquois coxfeder.*cy ; also America, 
 Prehistoric. 
 
 Ai^o in: C. Thomas, Burial mounds of Northern 
 sections of the U. S. (Fifth An. Rept. of the 
 Bureau of ethnology, 1883-84) . — J. Heckeweldcr, 
 Account of the Indian Nations, ch. i. 
 
 ALLEGIANCE, the fidelity owed by every 
 person to a ruler or to a state. Developing from 
 feudal times, when it was a personal obligation 
 to the subject's liege lord, it« is in modern mon- 
 archies a duty owed nominally to the sovereign 
 but really to the country which he personifies. 
 In the United States of America, allegiance is due 
 the state itself. It readily falls into three classes: 
 (i) natural allegiance, due to birth within the 
 country; (2) acquired allegiance, due to volun- 
 tary naturalization or to acquiescence in citizen- 
 ship granted in connection with the transfer of 
 territory from one country to another; (3) tem- 
 porary limited allegiance, due from a foreigner to 
 the country in which he is sojourning, and involv- 
 ing proper obedience to authority. This last ob- 
 ligation is terminated on departure from the coun- 
 try. Natural allegiance also applies to those born 
 abroad under certain circumstances, and cases of 
 ambiguity are settled by voluntary election of 
 citizenship. For example, if an American citizen 
 has a child born abroad, it is considered a natural 
 born .American. At the same time the child born 
 in America of foreign parents may choose Ameri- 
 can allegiance and automatically assume American 
 citizenship. The right of voluntarv naturalization 
 and transfer of allegiance has been generally rec- 
 ognized since about 1870 by most civilized nations, 
 
 although previously allegiance was regarded as in- 
 alienable. The former doctrine had led to the 
 British claim of the right to impress seamen of 
 alleged British birth ; and to demands of conti- 
 nental countries that their nationals should not 
 escape military duty by American naturalization. 
 The late German empire asserted the right of dual 
 citizenship and actually passed a law by which 
 Germans could retain the rights and duties of 
 German allegiance even after taking oath to sup- 
 port and defend another country. — See also Brit- 
 ish empire: Citizenship; Naturalization; U. S.A.; 
 1812 and 1814. 
 
 ALLEGRI, Gregorio (1584-1652), Italian 
 composer. Entered the Papal chapel in 1629. His 
 works are chiefly motets, the most famous of which 
 is the Miserere sung annually by the Pontifical 
 choir on Wednesday and Friday of Holy Week. 
 See Music: i6th century. 
 
 ALLEMAGNE, the French name for Germany, 
 derived from the confederation of the Alemanni. 
 See Alsace-Lorraine; 1871. 
 
 ALLEMANT, France, taken by the French 
 (1017). See World War: 191 7: II. Western front: 
 f, 3. 
 
 ALLEN, Charles Herbert (1848- ), Amer- 
 ican politician and banker. Appointed governor of 
 Porto Rico. See Porto Rico: 1900 (May), (No- 
 vember-December) . 
 
 ALLEN, Ethan (1737-1789), American sol- 
 dier. Upheld the rights of New Hampshire against 
 New York state for jurisdiction over the "New 
 Hampshire Grants," now \ermont. To protest 
 against the disregard of this claim, he organized 
 the Green Mountain Boys, and at the outbreak of 
 the Revolution offered their services to the Ameri- 
 can cause. Captured Fort Ticonderoga in 1775. 
 Accompanied the Montgomery expedition to Mon- 
 treal and was made prisoner. His correspondence 
 with Governor Haldimand of Canada laid him 
 open to a charge of treason which was never sub- 
 stantiated. — See also Vermont: 1749-1774, 1781; 
 U. S. A.: 1775 (Mav), (August-December). 
 
 ALLEN, Grant '(1848-1899). See Art: What 
 is art. 
 
 ALLEN, Henry Justin (1868- ), American 
 editor and statesman; governor of Kansas, 191Q- 
 192 1. An independent Republican. Broke a coal 
 miners' strike by calling upon citizens to serve as 
 volunteer miners. Sponsored some drastic legis- 
 lation for compulsory arbitration of industrial dis- 
 putes which he defended in debate with Samuel 
 Gompers. — See also Arbitration and Conciliation, 
 Industrial: United States: 1020-1921. 
 
 ALLEN, Horatio (1802-1S89), American en- 
 gineer. Inventor of the swivelling truck for loco- 
 motives. See Railroads: 1830-1880. 
 
 ALLEN, Ira (1751-1814), brother of Ethan 
 .Mien, one of the founders of Vermont. See Ver- 
 mont: 1 781. 
 
 ALLEN, James Lane (1849- ), American 
 novelist and short-story writer. Graduate of Ken- 
 tucky University (1S72), where he later taught 
 languages. Since 1S86 he has devoted himself to 
 the writing of novels dealing almost wholly with 
 the 'blue-grass region' and containing studies of 
 nature and the pioneers. 
 
 ALLEN, Sir James (1855- ), Prime Minis- 
 ter of New Zealand since 1912 and minister of 
 finance and education from 1012 to i9i.S- For his 
 action in the New Zealand coal strike see Labor 
 
 STRIKES AND BOYCOTTS: 191? 
 
 ALLEN, William (1806-1879), American 
 statesman. Member of Congress from Ohio. 1833- 
 3,!;: United States senator, 1837-49. Elected Dem- 
 ocratic governor of Ohio, 1873. Favored green- 
 
 18
 
 ALLENBY 
 
 ALMA-TADEMA 
 
 Jjack paper money. Defeated for reelection by 
 R. B. Hayes. Reputed author of the slogan "Fif- 
 ty-four forty, or fight." Known in the senate as 
 "Earthquake Allen," and "The Ohio Gong." 
 
 ALLENBY, Edmund Henry Hynman, Vis- 
 count (1861- ), British field marshal; served in 
 South Africa in various campaigns from 1884 to 
 igo2, commanding cavalry in the Boer War and 
 being cited and decorated; had important cavalry 
 command at beginning of World War, being pro- 
 moted to lieutenant-general; commander-in-chief 
 Egyptian Expeditionary Force, I9i7-i9ig; served 
 throughout Palestine campaign and was made field- 
 marsbal and viscount; captured Jerusalem in 191 7 
 and in the campaign of IQ18 crushed Turkish re- 
 sistance m Syria. In 1920, made High Commis- 
 sioner for Egypt. — See also Egypt: 1918-1919. 
 
 British retreat. See World War: 1914: I. 
 Western front: n. 
 
 At the battle of the Aisne. See World War: 
 1914: I. Western front: s, 1. 
 
 Operations around Lys. See World War: 
 1014: I. Western front: w, 4. 
 
 At the battle of Ypres. See World War: 1914: 
 I. Western front: w, 14. 
 
 In command of the British third army. See 
 World War: 1915: H, Western front; a, 7. 
 
 At the battle of the Somme. See World War: 
 1916: H. Western front: d, 5. 
 
 At the battle of Arras. See World War: 1917: 
 n. Western front: c, 4. 
 
 Capture of Jerusalem. — Despatches. See 
 Jerusalem: 1917; World War: 1917: VI. Turkish 
 theater: c; c, 2; c, 2, vii; c, 2, ix; c, 3. 
 
 ALLENDE, Ignacio (1779-1811), Mexican gen- 
 eral. See Mexico: 1810-1810. 
 
 ALLENSTEIN, a town of East Prussia, sixty 
 miles south of Konigsberg, on the Thorn-Kovno 
 railroad. Figured prominently in the maneuvers 
 preliminary to the battle of Tannenberg, August, 
 IQ14. — See also World War; 1914: II. Eastern 
 front: c, 3. 
 
 ALLENTICAN INDIANS. See Indians, 
 American; Cultural areas in South America: Pam- 
 pean area 
 
 ALLERHEIM, Battle of (or Second battle 
 of Nordlingen, 1645). See Germany: 1640-1645. 
 
 ALLIA, Battle of (390 B.C.). See Rome: 
 B.C. 300-347- 
 
 ALLIANCE, Dual, Holy, etc. See under name, 
 as Dual alliance, Holy alliance. For list of 
 alliances, see League. 
 
 ALLIANCE ISRAELITE UNIVERSELLE. 
 See Jews; i8th-ioth centuries, and Zionism. 
 
 ALLIGEWI INDIANS. See Iroquois con- 
 federacy. 
 
 ALLISON, William Boyd (1829-1908), Ameri- 
 can legislator, served as Republican in House of 
 Representatives (1863-1871) ; elected to Senate in 
 1873 and reelected in 1878, 1884, 1890, 1896 and 
 1902; assured the passage of the Silver Coinage 
 Act of 1878, known as the Bland-Allison Act, by 
 amending Bland's original bill and striking out the 
 provision for "free and unlimited" silver coinage. 
 
 ALLIZE: French minister at Munich and 
 Bavaria. See World War; Diplomatic back- 
 ground: 12, and 4. 
 
 ALLMAN, George James (1812-1898), Scot- 
 tish zoologist ; Regius professor of natural history 
 in Edinbur^'h University, 1855; president of the 
 Linnaean Society, 1874, and president of the British 
 Association, 1870. 
 
 ALLOBROGES, Conquest of the.— The Allo- 
 broges having sheltered the chiefs of the Salyes, 
 when the latter succumbed to the Romans, and 
 having refused to deliver them up, the proconsul 
 
 Cn. Domitius marched his army toward their 
 country, B. C. 121. The Allobroges advanced to 
 meet him and were defeated at V'indalium, near 
 the junction of the Sorgues with the Rhone, and 
 not far from Avignon, having 20,000 men slain 
 and 3,000 taken prisoners. The Arverni, who were 
 the allies of the Allobroges, then took the field 
 crossing the Cevennes mountains and the river 
 Rhone with a vast host, to attack the small Roman 
 army of 30,000 men, which had passed under the 
 command of Q. Fabius Maximus ^milianus. On 
 the 8th of August, B. C. 121, the Gaulish horde 
 encountered the legions of Rome, at a point near 
 the junction of the Isere and the Rhone, and were 
 routed v/ith such enormous slaughter that 150,000 
 are said to have been slain or drowned. This 
 battle settled the fate of the Allobroges, who 
 surrendered to Rome without further struggle; 
 but the Arverni were not pursued. The final con- 
 quest of that people was reserved for Caesar. — G. 
 Long, Decline nf the Roman Republic, v. i, cli. 21. 
 
 ALLOTMENTS.— "From 1882 to 1890, [in 
 England] a series of allotment Acts were passed to 
 enable the local authorities to acquire lands to 
 rent in small parcels. This was followed in 1892, 
 by the Small Holdings Act, empowering County 
 Councils to obtain lands and advance sums of 
 money to those who desired to purchase holdings 
 of fifty acres or under. But none of these meas- 
 ures proved effective ; for in fifteen years not more 
 than 850 acres were sold. A new Small Holdings 
 and Allotments Act of 1907, authorizing the 
 County Councils to take lands at the current 
 price with or without the consent of the large 
 owners, has proved more successful, and within 
 three years nearly 100,000 acres were allotted to 
 small cultivators. At present [1920], plans are 
 under discussion to improve the housing conditions 
 of the agricultural laborer, to raise his wages, to 
 secure deserving tenants against eviction, and to 
 increase still further the number of peasant pro- 
 prietors." — A. L. Cross, History of England and 
 Greater Britain, pp. 742-7^13. 
 
 ALLOUEZ, Claude Jean (1620-1689), one of 
 the early French Jesuits to visit the Great Lakes. 
 Founded the Mission of the Holy Ghost on Lake 
 Superior in 1665, explored Green Bay and estab- 
 lished missions among the Illinois Indians. — See also 
 Canada: 1634-1673; Wisconsin; 1658-1669. 
 
 ALLPORT, Sir James Joseph (1811-1892), 
 F.nglish railway manager. Was connected with the 
 growth and development of railway lines from 
 their beginning and rose to be manager of the 
 great Midland system, one of the most important 
 in England. Developed the third-class passenger 
 service at a penny a mile. 
 
 ALLSTON, Washington (1779-1843), Ameri- 
 can historical painter and poet. "Elijah in the 
 wilderness," "The Prophet Jeremiah" and "Saul 
 and the Witch of Endor" are among his most noted 
 works. 
 
 ALMA, Battle of (1854). See Russia: 1854- 
 18S6. 
 
 ALMAGEST OF PTOLEMY. See Science: 
 Ancient: Greek. 
 
 ALMAGRO, Diego de (1475-1538). See Amer- 
 ica; 1524-1528; Chile: 1535-1724; Peru: 1528- 
 1531. iS3i-i,«3, 1533-1548. 
 
 ALMANSOR, Jacob. See Almohades. 
 
 ALMANZA, or Almansa, Battle of. See 
 Spain: 1707. 
 
 ALMA-TADEMA, Sir Laurence (Laurens) 
 (1836-1912), Dutch-British painter. Many of his 
 paintings were designed to reproduce the life of 
 ancient Egypt, Greece and Rome. "The education 
 of the children of Clovis," "An Egyptian at his 
 
 219
 
 ALMEIDA 
 
 ALOD 
 
 doorwaj'," "The mummy," "Phidias and the Elgin 
 marbles," and "The vintage festival" are among 
 his most notable works. 
 
 ALMEIDA, Francisco de (c. 1450-1510), Por- 
 tuguese warrior. Served against the Moors ; estab- 
 lished Portuguese fortresses in Cochin, Ceylon and 
 Sumatra ; destroyed the Egyptian fleet at Diu in 
 1508. — See also Commerce; Era of geographic ex- 
 pansion: I5th-i7th centuries: Leadership of the 
 Portuguese; India: 1408-1580. 
 
 ALMENARA, Battle of (1710). See Spain: 
 1707-1710. 
 
 ALMERIC. See AAtALRic. 
 
 ALMOGAVARES, mercenary Spanish soldiers 
 of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. They 
 originally came from the Pyrenees, though they 
 were later recruited from Navarre, Aragon, and 
 Catalonia. They were frontier foot-soldiers, light- 
 ing with javelins, short stabbing swords, and 
 shields. The culmination of their achievements 
 was the foundation of the .■\ragonese duchy of 
 Athens. The name died out in the sixteenth cen- 
 tury. 
 
 ALMOHADES.— The empire of the Almora- 
 vides, in Morocco and Spain, which originated in a 
 Moslem missionary movement, was overturned in 
 the middle of the twelfth century by a movement 
 of somewhat similar nature. The agitating cause 
 of the revolution was a religious teacher named 
 Mahomet ben Abdallah, who rose in the reign of 
 .All (successor to the great Almoravide prince, 
 Joseph), w'ho gained the odor of sanctity at Mo- 
 rocco and who took the title of AI Mehdi, or El 
 Mahdi, the Leader, "giving himself out for the 
 person whom many Mahometans expect under 
 that title. As before, the sect grew into an army, 
 and the army grew into an empire. The new dyn- 
 asty were called .\lmohades from Al Mehdi, and 
 by his appointment a certain .'\bdelmumen was 
 elected Caliph and Commander of the Faithful. 
 Under his vigorous guidance the new kingdom 
 rapidly grew, till the Almohades obtained quite 
 the upper hand in .Africa, and in 1146 they too 
 passed into Spain. [See Spain: 1146-1232.] Un- 
 der Abdelmumcn, Joseph and Jacob Almansor, the 
 .Mmohades entirely supplanted the .Mmoravides, and 
 became more formidable foes than they had been 
 to the rising Christian powers. Jacob .Almansor 
 won in 1105 the terrible battle of Alarcos against 
 Alfonso of Castile, and carried his conquests deep 
 into that kingdom. His fame spread through the 
 whole Moslem world. . . . With Jacob .Mmansor 
 perished the glory of the .Mmohades. His succes- 
 sor, Mahomet, lost in 1211 [June i6l the great 
 battle of .Alacab or Tolosa against .\lfonso, and 
 that day may be said to have decided the fate of 
 Mahometanism in Spain. The . Almohadc dynasty 
 gradually declined. . . . The .\lmohades, like the 
 Ommiads and the .'\lmoravides. vanish from his- 
 tory amidst a scene of confusion the details of 
 which it were hopeless to attempt to remember." 
 — E. -A. Freeman, History and conqufsts of the 
 Saracens, ted. $. — See also .Africa: Ancient and 
 medieval civilization: .Arab occupation. 
 
 Also tn H. Coppee, History of the conquest of 
 Spain hx the Arah-.\foors, bk. 8, ch. 4. 
 
 ALMONACID, Battle of (1800). See Spain: 
 1800 (.August-November). 
 
 ALMORAVIDES.— During the confusions of 
 the nth century in the Moslem world, a mission- 
 ary from Kairwan — one .Abdallah — preaching the 
 faith of Islam to a wild tribe in Western North 
 Africa, created a religious movement which "na- 
 turally led to a political one." 
 
 "The tribe now called themselves .Almoravides, 
 or more properly Morabethah, which appears to 
 
 mean followers of the Marabout or religious 
 teacher. .Abdallah does not appear to have him- 
 self claimed more than a religious authority, but 
 their princes Zachariah and .Abu Bekr were com- 
 pletely guided by his counsels. After his death 
 .Abu Bekr founded in 1070 the city of Morocco. 
 There he left as his lieutenant his cousin Joseph, 
 who grew so powerful that .Abu Bekr, by a won- 
 derful exercise of moderation, abdicated in his 
 favour, to avoid a probable civil war. This 
 Joseph, when he had become lord of most part of 
 Western Africa, was requested, or caused himself 
 to be requested, to assume the title of Emir al 
 Momenin, Commander of the Faithful. As a loyal 
 subject of the Caliph of Bagdad, he shrank from 
 such sacrilegious usurpation, but he did not 
 scruple to style himself Emir Al Muslemin, Com- 
 mander of the Moslems. . . . The Almoravide 
 Joseph passed over into Spain, like another Tarik; 
 he vanquished .Alfonso [the Christian prince of 
 the rising kingdom of Castile] at Zalacca [Oct. 23, 
 10S6] and then converted the greater portion ot 
 Mahometan Spain into an appendage to his own 
 kingdom of Morocco. The chief portion to escape 
 was the kingdom of Zaragossa, the great out-post 
 of the Saracens in northeastern Spain. . . . The 
 great cities of Andalusia were all brought under a 
 degrading submission to the .Almoravides. Their 
 dynasty hoivever was not of long duration, and it 
 fell in turn [1147] before one whose origin was 
 strikingly similar to their own" [the Almohades 
 q.v.]. — E. A. Freeman, History and conquests of 
 the Saracens, led. 5. — See also Crusades: Map; 
 AD. 1097; PoRTUCU.; Early history; Sp.ain: 1146- 
 1232. 
 
 Also in: H. Coppee, History of the conquest of 
 Spain by the Arab-Moors, bk. 8, ch. 2 and 4. 
 
 ALMUTZ, Siege of (1758). See Germany: 
 1758. 
 
 ALNWICK CASTLE, a British merchant ship 
 torpedoed March 19, iqi7, by a German submarine 
 without warning 320 miles from land; the crew was 
 forced to take to six open boats, some of which 
 were lost. After several days of severe sufferins the 
 survivors were rescued by the French steamer Vene- 
 zia. 
 
 ALOD, ALODIAL.— "It may be questioned 
 whether any etymological connexion exists between 
 the words odal and alod, but their signification ap- 
 plied to land is the same: the alod is the heredi- 
 tary estate derived from primitive occupation; 
 for which the owner owes no service except the 
 personal obligation to appear in the host and in 
 the council . . . The land held in full ownership 
 might be either an ethcl, an inherited or other- 
 wise acquired portion of original allotment ; or an 
 estate created by legal process out of public land. 
 Both these are included in the more common term 
 alod; but the former looks for its evidence in the 
 pedicree of its owner or in the witness of the com- 
 munity, while the latter can produce the charter 
 or book by which it is created, and is called boc- 
 land. .As the primitive allotments gradually lost 
 their historical character, as the primitive modes of 
 transfer became obsolete, and the use of written 
 records took their place, the ethel is lost sight of 
 in the bookland. .All the land that is not so ac- 
 counted for is folcland, or public land." — W. 
 Stubbs, Constitutional history of Eni;land, ch. 3, 
 sect. 24, and ch. 5, sect. 36. — ".Alodial lands are 
 commonly opposed to beneficiary or feudal; the 
 former being strictly proprietary, while the latter 
 depended upon a superior. In this sense the word 
 is of continual recurrence in ancient histories, laws 
 and instruments. It sometimes, however, bears the 
 sense of inheritance. . . . Hence, in the charters 
 
 220
 
 ALOMPRA 
 
 ALPHABET 
 
 of the eleventh century, hereditary fiefs are fre- 
 quently termed alodia." — H. Hallam, View of the 
 slate oj Europe during tlie Middle Ages, cli. 2, pi. 
 I, nole. — See also Folcland. 
 
 Also in: J. M. Kemble, Saxons in England, bk. 
 I, ch. II. 
 
 ALOMPRA, Aloung P'Houra (1711-1760), 
 founder of the last Burmese dynasty. Ousted the 
 invading Peguans in 1753, and seized the Burmese 
 throne; founded the city of Rangoon. In 1757 
 conquered Pegu, making himself one of the most 
 powerful of eastern monarchs. — See also Burma: 
 Early history. 
 
 ALONZO, Severe, president of Bolivia, i8q6- 
 1S99. See Bolivi.a: iSqq. 
 
 ALOST, a town in central Belgium, the old 
 capital of East Flanders, thirty miles west of 
 Louvain. Printing was introduced into Belgium in 
 1475 by Thierry Martens, a native of Alost. In 
 1914 the scene of military severities and violations 
 of the laws of war by the Germans. See Belgium: 
 1667; World War: Miscellaneous auxiliary serv- 
 ices: X. Alleged atrocities and violation of inter- 
 national law: a, 11. 
 
 ALP, the name given by the Swiss inhabitants 
 of the Alpine valleys to the summer pastures situ- 
 ated on the slopes of the mountains, below the 
 snow line. These mountain pastures, found 
 throughout the Alpine system, have been in use 
 for more than a thousand years; references to 
 their existence in the years 730, 868 'and gqg have 
 been noted. In the German-speaking mountain 
 districts these alps are the centers of the pastoral 
 life of the inhabitants. Statistics show that there 
 are 4778 such pastures now in the country, 45% 
 of which are owned jointly or exclusively by the 
 communes, 54 '/r by individuals, and the remaining 
 I'/f by the state or a few of the larger monasteries. 
 
 Also in: J. Ball, Hints and notes, practical and 
 scientific, jar travellers in the Alps (art. X and 
 pp. Ivii-lxv). 
 
 ALP ARSLAN, or Mohammed ben Da'ud 
 (102Q-1072), sultan of Khorasan, 105Q-1072. Con- 
 quered Georgia and .'Armenia about 1064; in 107 1 
 captured Aleppo and took prisoner the Byzantine 
 emperor Romanus Diogenes; founder of the Sel- 
 juk empire of Rum. See Turkey: 1063-1073. 
 
 ALPHABET.— Importance of the alphabet.— 
 "To us nothing seems more natural or more easy 
 than to express on paper the sounds of our spoken 
 words by means of those twenty-six simple signs 
 which we call the letters of the Alphabet. The 
 phrase 'as easy as A. B. C has actually become a 
 proverbial expression. And yet, if we set aside 
 the still more wonderful invention of speech, the 
 discovery of the Alphabet may fairly be accounted 
 the most difficult as well a? the most fruitful of 
 all the past achievements of the human intellect. 
 It has been at once the triumph, the instrument, 
 and the register of the progress of our race. But, 
 long before the Alphabet had been invented, men 
 had contrived other systems of graphic represen- 
 tation by means of which words could be recorded. 
 The discovery of some rude form of the art of 
 writing was, we may believe, the first permanent 
 step that was taken in the progress towards civ- 
 ilization. Till men could leave behind them a 
 record of acquired knowledge the sum of their 
 acquisitions must have remained almost stationary. 
 Thus only could successive generations be enabled 
 to profit by the labours of those who had gone 
 before, and begin their onward progress from the 
 most advanced point which their predecessors had 
 attained. It is true that at a time when writing 
 was unknown it would be possible for civiliza- 
 tion to advance in certain defined directions. 
 
 There would, for example, be nothing to prevent a 
 considerable development of artistic skill ; the me- 
 tallurgic, the ceramic, and the textile arts might 
 flourish, and certain forms of poetry — lyric, epic, 
 and dramatic — would not altogether be impossible. 
 All this might easily be the case, but, on the other 
 hand, law would be mainly custom, science could 
 be little more than vague traditions, history would 
 be uncertain legend, while religion must have con- 
 sisted mainly of rhythmic adorations, and of for- 
 mulas of magical incantation. The \'edic hymns, 
 the Arval chants, the Rhapsodies of the Kalevala, 
 the metrical maledictions of Accadian priests, the 
 tale of Troy, the legend of Romulus, the tradi- 
 tional folk lore of the Maoris, may give us a 
 measure of the extreme limits which are attain- 
 able by the religion, the literature, the history, and 
 the science of unlettered nations. It is more than 
 a mere epigram to affirm that unlettered races 
 must of necessity be illiterate. But not only may 
 a people have a literature without letters, but they 
 may possess the Art of Writing without the knowl- 
 edge of an Alphabet. Every system of non- 
 alphabetic writing will, however, either be so limited 
 in its power of expression as to be of small prac- 
 tical value, or, on the other hand, it will be su 
 difficult and complicated as to be unsuited for gen- 
 eral use. It is only by means of the potent sim- 
 plicity of the alphabet that the art of writing 
 can be brought within general reach. The famil- 
 iar instances of Egypt, Assyria, and China are 
 sufficient to prove that without the alphabet any 
 complete system for the graphic representation of 
 speech is an acquirement so arduous as to de- 
 mand the labour of a lifetime. Under such condi- 
 tions, science and religion necessarily tend to re- 
 main the exclusive property of a sacerdotal ca.ste; 
 any diffused and extended national culture be- 
 comes impossible, religion degenerates into magic, 
 the chasm which separates the rulers and the 
 ruled grows greater and more impassable, and the 
 very art of writing, instead of being the most 
 effective of all the means of progress, becomes one 
 of the most powerful of the instruments by which 
 the masses of mankind can be held enslaved. 
 Hence it must be admitted that the really impor- 
 tant factor in human progress is not so much the 
 discovery of a method by which words can be 
 recorded, as the invention of some facile graphic 
 device, such as the alphabet, by means of which 
 the art of writing can be so far simplified as to 
 become attainable before the years of adolescence 
 have been passed." — I. Taylor, History of the al- 
 phabet, pp. 1-3. 
 
 Earliest stages of development. — "The art of 
 writing involves very complex factors. It can 
 hardly be in doubt that man learned that art by 
 slow and painful stages. The conception of such 
 an analysis of speech-sounds as would make the 
 idea of an alphabet possible must have come as 
 the culminating achievement of a long series of 
 efforts. The precise steps that marked this path 
 of intellectual development can for the most part 
 be known only by inference; yet it is probable 
 that the main chapters of the story may be repro- 
 duced with essential accuracy. For the very first 
 chapters of the story we must go back in imagina- 
 tion to the prehistoric period. Even barbaric man 
 feels the need of self-expression, and strives to 
 make his ideas manifest to other men by pictorial 
 signs. The cave-dweller scratched pictures of men 
 and animals on the surface of a reindeer horn or 
 mammoth tusk as mementos of his prowess. The 
 American Indian does essentially the same thing 
 to-day, making pictures that crudely record his 
 successes in war and the chase. The Northern 
 
 221
 
 ALPHABET 
 
 Earliest Stages 
 
 ALPHABET 
 
 Indian had got no farther than this when the 
 white man discovered Amerira ; but the Aztecs of 
 the South-west and the Maya people of Yucatan 
 had carried their picture-makinp to a much higher 
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 of pictographs or hieroglyphics that would doubt- 
 less in the course of generations have been elabo- 
 rated into alphabetical systems, had not the Euro- 
 peans cut off the civilization of which they were 
 the highest exponents. What the Aztec and Maya 
 
 
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 EXAMPLES OF EARLY ALPHABETS 
 222
 
 ALPHABET 
 
 Deciphering 
 Hieroglyphs 
 
 ALPHABET 
 
 were striving toward in the sixteenth century 
 A. D., various Oriental nations had attained at least 
 five or six thousand years earlier. In Egypt at the 
 time of the pyramid-builders, and in Babylonia 
 at the same epoch, the people had developed sys- 
 tems of writing that enabled them not merely to 
 present a Hmited range of ideas pictorially, but to 
 express in full elaboration and with finer shades 
 of meaning all the ideas that pertain to highly 
 cultured existence. The man of that time made 
 records of military achievements, recorded the 
 transactions of every-day business life, and gave 
 expression to his moral and spiritual aspirations 
 in a way strangely comparable to the manner of 
 our own time. He had perfected highly elaborate 
 systems of writing. Of the two ancient systems 
 of writing just referred to as being in vogue at the 
 so-called dawning of history, the more picturesque 
 and suggestive was the hieroglyphic system of the 
 Egyptians. This is a curiously conglomerate sys- 
 tem of writing, made up in part of symbols rem- 
 iniscent of the crudest stages of picture-writing, 
 in part of symbols having the phonetic value of 
 syllables, and in part of true alphabetical letters. 
 In a word, the Egyptian writing represents in itself 
 the elements of the various stages through which 
 the art of writing has developed. We must con- 
 ceive that new features were from time to time ad- 
 ded to it. while the old features, 'curiously enough, 
 were not given up. Here, for example, in the midst 
 of unintelligible lines and pothooks, are various 
 pictures that are instantly recognizable as repre- 
 sentations of hawks, lions, ibises, and the like. It 
 can hardly be questioned that when these pictures 
 were first used calligraphically they were meant to 
 represent the idea of a bird or animal. In other 
 words, the first stage of picture-writing did not 
 go beyond the mere representation of an eagle by 
 the picture of an eagle. But this, obviously, would 
 confine the presentation of ideas within very nar- 
 row limits. In due course some inventive genius 
 conceived the thought of syombolizing a picture 
 To him the outUne of an eagle might represent not 
 merely an actual bird, but the thought of strength, 
 of courage, or of swift progress. [See also Aztec 
 AND Maya picture writing.] Such a use of sym- 
 Dols obviously extends the range of utility of a 
 nascent art of writing. Then in due course some 
 wonderful psychologist — or perhaps the joint ef- 
 forts of many generations of psychologists — made 
 the astounding discovery that the human voice, 
 which seems to flow on in an unbroken stream of 
 endlessly varied modulations and intonations, may 
 really be analyzed into a comparatively limited 
 number of component sounds — into a few hun- 
 dreds of syllables. That wonderful idea conceived, 
 it was only a matter of time until it would occur 
 to some other enterprising genius that by selecting 
 an arbitrary symbol to represent each one of these 
 elementary sounds it would be possible to make 
 a written record of the words of human speech 
 which could be reproduced — rephonated — by some 
 one who had never heard the words and did not 
 know in advance what this written record con- 
 tained. This, of course, is what every child learns 
 to do now in the primer class, but we may feel 
 assured that such an idea never occurred to any 
 human being until the peculiar forms of picto- 
 graphic writing just referred to had been practised 
 for many centuries. Yet, as we have said, some 
 genius of prehistoric Egypt conceived the idea and 
 put it into practical execution, and the hierogly- 
 phic writing of which the Egyptians were in full 
 possession at the very beginning of what we term 
 the historical period made use of this phonetic 
 system along with the ideographic system already 
 
 described." — H. S. Williams, History of the Al- 
 phabet (Harper's Magazine, v. loS, pp. 534-535). 
 Deciphering the hieroglyphs. — "Of all the 
 splendid achievements of archaeological research 
 during the present century, there are none of more 
 universal interest and importance than those which 
 are revealing the origin and history of letters. . . . 
 .\t the beginning of the present [igj century the 
 great mass of testimony now laid open before us 
 was an apparently impenetrable mystery. Egyp- 
 tian hieroglyphics and cuneiform inscriptions yet 
 remained, for the most part, but confusion of or- 
 nament and meaningless signs. Some little ad- 
 vance, it is true, had been reached during the 
 latter part of the eighteenth century, as to the 
 signification of certain hieroglyphic characters, but 
 these were as yet but conjecture; a groping in the 
 dark, with no means to verify, uncertain, unas- 
 sured. [See also Cuneiform writing.] With 
 the opening of the present century two events 
 occurred which were to place in the hands 
 of scholars the keys to these mysteries. The 
 first in date of these discoveries, through not in 
 results, was the finding of the Rosetta Stone in 
 1799. This was an outcome of the French scien- 
 tific expedition to Egypt under the first Napoleon. 
 At this date, a French artillery officer, named 
 Boussard, while digging among some ruins at 
 Fort St. Julian, near Rosetta, discovered a large 
 stone, of black basalt, covered with inscriptions. 
 This tablet, now known as 'The Rosetta Stone,' 
 was of irregular shape, portions having been 
 broken from the top and sides. The inscriptions 
 were in three kinds of writing ; the upper text in 
 hieroglyphic characters, the second in a later form 
 of Egyptian writing, called enchorial or demotic, 
 and the third was in Greek. No one of these had 
 been entirely preserved. Of the hieroglyphic text, 
 a considerable portion was lacking; perhaps thir- 
 teen or fourteen lines at the beginning. From the 
 demotic, the ends of about half the lines were lost, 
 while the Greek text was nearly perfect, with the 
 e.xception of a few words at the end. The im- 
 mediate inferences were that these three inscrip- 
 tions were but different forms of the same decree, 
 and that in the Greek would be found some clew 
 for the decipherment of the others. It was first 
 presented to the French Institute at Cairo where 
 it was destined not long to remain. The sur- 
 render of Alexandria to the British, in 1801, placed 
 the Rosetta Stone, by the terms of the treaty, in 
 the hands of the British commissioner. This gen- 
 tleman, himself a zealous scholar and keenly alive 
 to the importance of the treasure, at once dis- 
 patched it to England, where it was presented by 
 George III to the British Museum. A fac-simile 
 of the inscriptions was made in 1802, by the So- 
 ciety of Antiquaries, of London, and copies were 
 soon distributed among the scholars of Europe. 
 When the Greek inscription was read, it was found 
 to be a decree by the priests of Memphis in honor 
 of King Ptolemy Epiphanes, B. C. iqS: That, in 
 acknowledgment of many and great benefits con- 
 ferred upon them by this king, they had ordered 
 this decree should be engraved upon a tablet of 
 hard stone in hieroglyphic, enchorial and Greek 
 characters; the first, the writing sacred to the 
 priests; the second, the language or script of the 
 people, and the third that of the Greeks, their 
 rulers. Also, that this decree, so engraved, should 
 be set up in the temples of the first, second and 
 third orders, near the image of the ever living 
 King. It might be supposed that with this clew 
 the work of decipherment would be readily ac- 
 complished. On the contrary, many of the most 
 distinguished scholars of Europe tried, during the 
 
 223
 
 ALPHABET 
 
 Theories 
 of Origin 
 
 ALPHABET 
 
 twenty following years, without success. The chief 
 obstacle in the way was the prevailing opinion 
 that the pictorial forms of Egyptian hieroglyphs 
 were mainly ideographic symbols of things. In 
 consequence, the absurd conceptions read into these 
 characters, led all who attempted the decipher- 
 ment of these far away from the truth. It is 
 true that Zoega, a Danish archaeologist, and 
 Thomas Young, an English scholar, each inde- 
 pendently, about 1787, had made the discovery 
 that the hieroglyphs in the ovals represented royal 
 names, and were perhaps alphabetic ; but the sig- 
 nification of these characters were never fully com- 
 prehended by either of these great scholars. The 
 claim made by the friends of Mr. Young as the 
 first discoverer of the true methods of decipher- 
 ment, rests upon the fact that he gave the true 
 phonetic values to five of these characters in the 
 spelling of the names of certain royal personages, 
 and in 1819 published an article announcing this 
 discovery. He seems, however, to have had so 
 little confidence in this conception that he went 
 no farther with it, and still later, in 1823, lost the 
 prestige he might have gained, by the publication 
 as his belief, that the Egyptians never made use 
 of signs to express sound until the time of the 
 Roman and Greek invasions of Egypt. The real 
 work of decipherment was reserved for Champol- 
 lion, who, born at Grenoble, in 1700, was but nine 
 years old when the famous stone was discovered 
 which later on was to yield to him the long lost 
 language of the hieroglyphs. Among the characters 
 on the Rosetta Stone, in the hieroglyphic text, 
 were to be found certain pictorial forms enclosed 
 in an oval. It had hitherto been suggested that 
 these ovals contained characters signifying royal 
 names. Were these symbolic signs, or how were 
 they to be interpreted? Champgllion concluded 
 that some of these signs expressed sound and were 
 alphabetic in character. Thus, if the signs in the 
 cartouche supposed to signify Ptolemy, could be 
 found to be identical, letter for letter, with the 
 Ptolemaioi of the Greek inscription, an important 
 proof would be obtained. It so happened that on 
 an obelisk found at Phila; there was a hieroglyphic 
 inscription, which, according to a Greek text on 
 the same shaft should be that of Cleopatra. If, 
 then, the signs for P, t and / in Ptolemaios cor- 
 responded with the signs for p, t and / in Cleo- 
 patra, the identity of these as alphabetic signs 
 would be confirmed. The comparison fully justi- 
 fied his theory, and further confirmation was sup- 
 plied by further comparisons, until he finally came 
 into possession of hieroglyphic signs for all the 
 consonants."— F. D. Jermain, hi the path of the 
 alphabet, pp. q-14. 
 
 Theories of origin and • development. — "At 
 first .sight the diversity of alphabets seems as little 
 connected as the diversity of languages. But as 
 the labours of the philologist have gradually traced 
 the various relations of the better-known languages 
 one to the other, so likewise the epigraphist has 
 dealt with the varieties of the Greek and Roman 
 alphabets which are the more familiar, v/hilc the 
 archaologist has yet to trace and connect the al- 
 phabets of the less-known races, many of which 
 were used for languages which are still unread. 
 The more obvious questions of the origins and 
 connections of the better-known alphabets of var- 
 ious countries seemed to have been fairly settled 
 and put to rest a generation ago; the more remote 
 alphabets and the more ancient signary had not 
 then been brought to light to complicate the sub- 
 ject. The old traditional view of the derivation 
 of the western alphabets from the Phoenician fitted 
 well enough to most of the facts then known, and 
 
 was readily accepted in general. Further, De 
 Rouge's theory of the derivation of the Phcenician 
 from the Egyptian hieratic writing of the xiith 
 dynasty was plausible enough to content most en- 
 quirers, though only two out of twenty-two let- 
 ters were satisfactorily accounted for. In 1883 
 Isaac Taylor could safely claim that he had 'sum- 
 marised and criticised all previous discoveries and 
 researches as to the origin and development of 
 alphabets' by his general outline in his work on 
 The Alphabet: in that book a sound general basis 
 seemed to have been reached, and only minor 
 questions needed further discussion and adjust- 
 ment. Yet the voice of caution was heard even 
 then. Dr. Peile, in 1SS5, when judicially report- 
 ing on Isaac Taylor's work, and while agreeing 
 that 'his book deserves to be, and doubtless will 
 be, the standard book in England on the history 
 of the alphabet,' yet saw that other solutions might 
 arise. He added: 'But no proof of the affilia- 
 tion of the Phcenician alphabet can be complete 
 without evidence from writing to fill up the long 
 gap between the period of the Papyrus Prisse and 
 that of the Baal Lebanon and Moabite inscriptions. 
 In default of this it must always be possible that 
 the Phoenician alphabet is descended from some 
 utterly lost, non-Egyptian system of writing, 
 traces of which may some day turn up as unex- 
 pectedly as the- so-called Hittite hieroglyphs.' 
 Within a generation later this possibility clearly 
 appears to be the forecase of the real history." — 
 W. M. Flinders Petrie, Formation of the alpliabet, 
 pp. 1-2. 
 
 "The investigation of the origin of our alphabet, 
 always a subject of great interest, has been stimu- 
 lated in recent years by the discovery of writing 
 in Crete, and by the claim of Sir .Arthur Evans 
 that this .Aegean writing was the source of the so- 
 called Phoenician alphabet. In the midst of the 
 present writer's work on the subject, in all too 
 brief intervals snatched from other pressing duties, 
 the trend of his own results has meantime received 
 unexpected confirmation from the remarkable es- 
 say of Dr. .\lan H. Gardiner revealing the exis- 
 tence of a hitherto unknown script of Egyptian 
 origin in Sinai, which may have been a form of 
 the Proto-Semitic script, posited by Praetorius as 
 the probable ancestor of both the Phoenician and 
 South Semitic alphabets, .\t the same time the 
 thoughtful remarks of Schaefer, in a discussion of 
 the reasons for the vowelless character of the 
 Phoenician alphabet, have likewise lent further 
 support to the author's conviction that the old 
 and now widely rejected hypothesis of an Egyp- 
 tian origin of the alphabet commonly called Phoe- 
 nician must be carefully re-examined. One of the 
 neglected aspects of the entire problem has been 
 its connection with the related question of the 
 physical process and material equipment of writ- 
 ing in the Near East. This subject has bearing, 
 and important bearing, on the whole question of 
 the influence of any given system of writing in 
 the eastern Mediterranean. ... An examination 
 of the civilizations of the Near East shows clearly 
 that (excluding monumental documents) there 
 were two physical processes of writing in the east- 
 ern Mediterranean world. One, which grew up < 
 the Nile, consisted in applying a colored fluid to a 
 vegetable membrane ; the other, which arose in the 
 Tigris-Euphrates world, incised or impressed its 
 signs on a yielding or plastic surface which later 
 hardened. Both of these methods reached the 
 classical world: in the wax tablet for the Greek or 
 Roman gentleman's memoranda, and in the pen, 
 ink, and paper (papyrus) which have descended 
 to our own day. "The early geographical line to 
 
 224
 
 ALPHABET 
 
 Theories 
 of Origin 
 
 ALPHABET 
 
 be drawn between these two methods of writing 
 may be indicated in the shortest terms by saying 
 that the practice of incision on a plastic surface 
 was Asiatic; the process employing pen, ink, and 
 vegetable paper was Egyptian. ... If anyone has 
 a lingering doubt about the Egyptian character of 
 the writing equipment of these Aramean scribes 
 in the Assyrian reliefs, such doubt will I am sure 
 disappear on examination of a relief of the Ara- 
 mean king of Samal, discovered at Senjirli by von 
 Luschan. . . . The king is seated on his throne at 
 the left, while before him stands his secretary, with 
 an object under his left arm, which looks surpris- 
 ingly like a book, but as this is impossible it may 
 perhaps be a roll partly unrolled. In his left hand, 
 however, he carries an unmistakable Egyptian 
 writing outfit. . . . This Egyptian writing outfit, 
 carried by the Aramean secretary of Samal, of 
 course contained reed pens with a soft brush point 
 like those we have found in Egypt. If this official 
 were to begin taking down his lord's dictation, he 
 would spread his papyrus paper on his left hand, 
 as we have seen the Egyptian scribe doing, and 
 after him the Aramean scribes on the Assyrian re- 
 liefs. The pen would make the same broad strokes 
 produced by the Egyptian scribe, and to settle 
 the matter once for all it is important to notice at 
 this point that the Aramaic ostraca found at 
 Samaria, perhaps reaching back into the ninth 
 century B. C, clearly show that the soft-pointed 
 Egyptian brush pen was employed in writing them. 
 Finally we know exactly how these Aramean docu- 
 ments of Western Asia looked, since we have been 
 able to hold in our hands the Elephantine papyri. 
 The system of writing which employed pen, ink, 
 and paper was the only one which possessed an 
 alphabet, and which wrote that alphabet without 
 vowels. It is evident that the pen-ink-and-paper 
 method of writing came from Egypt into Asia and 
 spread there at the very time when the alphabet 
 also was appearing and coming into common use 
 in the same region. It follows therefore that the 
 Egyptian system of writing was in most intimate 
 contact with the whole scribal situation in West- 
 ern Asia, and it is highly unlikely that we can 
 entirely dissociate the physical process and material 
 equipment contributed by Egypt to Asia at this 
 time from the alphabet which Asia Hkewise gained 
 at the same time." — J. H. Breasted, Physical pro- 
 cesses of writing in the early Orient and their re- 
 lation to the origin of the alphabet (American 
 Journal of Semitic Languages, July, igi6, pp. 230- 
 248). — See also ^gean civii-ization: Minoan age: 
 B. C. 1200-750. 
 
 "The vexed question of the origin of our alpha- 
 bet has given rise to a long series of controversies 
 and theories, but of recent years the matter ap- 
 pears to have been comfortably settled among 
 philologists. A recent discovery of great impor- 
 tance has caused us, however, to reconsider our 
 ideas and to push back farther into the mists of 
 antiquity. It is, of course, a matter of common 
 knowledge that our English alphabet is taken di- 
 rectly from that of the ancient Greeks, who in 
 their turn received it from the Phoenicians. It is 
 indeed true that not later than 1,000 years before 
 the Christian era a perfect alphabet of twenty-two 
 consonants, but without vowels, was used upon 
 Phoenician soil, and it is clear that Greece adopted 
 most of the letters of this script, although possibly 
 in an earlier stage of development than that in 
 which we first encounter it. Some of the Greek 
 letters, however, seem to have a closer affinity 
 with those of another Semitic alphabet, akin to 
 Phoenician, but used In slightly varying forms in 
 South Arabia and Abyssinia, and generally known 
 
 as South Semitic, the North Semitic being Phoeni- 
 cian proper. The mutual relations of the North 
 and South alphabets seem to postulate a common 
 parent which came into existence at least anterior 
 to 1000 B. C, and which may be called Original 
 Semitic. Opinions differ considerably as to the 
 origin of this hypothetical script, and a cluster of 
 divergent theories ascribe its origin respectively 
 to Babylonian cuneiform, Egyptian hieratic, the 
 lately discovered Cretan, and finally a number of 
 marks and other symbols found on Egyptian pot- 
 tery, but certainly not Egyptian in origin. All 
 these derivations present diificulties, and a different 
 solution of the problem has been presented by Dr. 
 Alan H. Gardiner, who has studied the subject 
 exhaustively and whose researches have already 
 been propounded by Mr. T. E. Peet. Our data 
 are the early forms of the letters, and their names, 
 which can be shown with great probability to be 
 as old as the letters themselves. The signs were 
 originally chosen on the acrophonic principle; 
 thus, in order to represent the sound B, a com- 
 mon object, whose name began with B — namely, 
 BET, 'a house' — was chosen. The sign was hence 
 called BET, which has survived in the Greek 
 BETA. Can we see this process in its early 
 stages? In the peninsula of Sinai, on a plateau 
 called Serabit-el-Khadim, anciently frequented by 
 the Egyptians for the purpose of turquoise-mining, 
 stood a temple dedicated to the goddess Hathor, 
 really called 'the Lady of the Turquoise.' In this 
 temple the expedition sent by the Egypt Explora- 
 tion Fund in 1905 discovered various monuments 
 bearing inscriptions in an unknown script, and 
 near the turquoise mines in the same district were 
 found seven further inscriptions in the same writ- 
 ing. Careful copies were made of these documents, 
 but it was not until 1Q14 that their true significance 
 was realized, when Dr. Alan H. Gardiner, submit- 
 ted them to a long and minute study. It soon 
 became manifest to Dr. Gardiner that, though the 
 language was not Egyptian, many of the characters 
 were taken from Egyptian hieroglyphs, but this 
 borrowing was confined merely to the forms of 
 the sign and not to their Egyptian values. As 
 Semites are known from other evidence to have 
 accompanied the Egyptian expeditions to Sinai, Dr. 
 Gardiner argued that the new script might well 
 be Semitic, and he proceeded to fix the values of 
 the signs on the acrophonic principle already al- 
 luded to. These signs being only thirty-two in 
 number could scarcely be other than alphabetic. 
 Having thus determined the values of fifteen signs, 
 with their help a group of four signs which recurs 
 in several of the texts was found to read BA'ALAT 
 — the Semitic word for Lady, or Goddess — the evi- 
 dent equivalent of the Hathor of the purely Egyp- 
 tian inscriptions of this site. Dr. Gardiner and 
 other scholars have added new readings for other 
 groups of signs, but none of these are quite as 
 convincing as the instance just quoted. Here, then, 
 in Sinai, we have at a date probably earlier than 
 1500 B. C. a Semitic people apparently in the 
 very act of borrowing signs from the Egyptian 
 hieroglyphic script, in order to form on the acro- 
 phonic principle a true alphabet which would suf- 
 fice to write their own speech. For B they bor- 
 rowed the Egyptian sign for 'house' because their 
 own word BET began with the b-sound, and so 
 on. From the very crude alphabet which these in- 
 scriptions reveal, it is possible to trace many of 
 the letters of the Phoenician alphabet, and thus to 
 show that they are conventionalized forms of ob- 
 jects selected originally from the Egyptian hiero- 
 glyphs on the acrophonic principle. If we have 
 not here the actual origin of the Phoenician — and 
 
 225
 
 ALPHEUS 
 
 ALPS 
 
 hence of our own — alphabet, we have at least a 
 striking example of the process to which both are 
 due." — W. R. Dawson, Egyptian origin of the al- 
 phabet (Asiatic Review, Jan., 1920, pp. i24-i2b). 
 — See also Arabia: The Sabaeans; Runes; Semitic 
 
 LITERATURE. 
 
 Origin of the English alphabet. — "The printed 
 letters or sound-signs which compose our alphabet 
 are about two thousand five hundred years old. 
 'Roman type' we call them, and rightly so, since 
 from Italy they came. They vary only in slight 
 degree from the founts of the famous printers of 
 the fifteenth century, these being imitations of the 
 beautiful 'minuscule' (so called as being of smaller 
 size) manuscripts of four hundred years earlier. 
 Minuscule letters are cursive (i.e. running) forms 
 of the curved letters about an inch long called 
 'uncials' (from Latin uncia, 'an inch,' or from 
 uncus, 'crooked'), which were themselves derived 
 from the Roman letters of the Augustan age. 
 These Roman capitals, to which those in modern 
 use among us correspond, are practically identical 
 with the letters employed at Rome in the third 
 century B. C; such, for instance, as are seen in 
 the well-known inscriptions on the tombs of the 
 Scipios, now among the treasures of the Vatican. 
 These, again, do not differ very materially from 
 forms used in the earliest existing specimens of 
 Latin writing, which may probably be referred to 
 the end of the fifth century B. C. Thus it appears 
 that our English alphabet is a member of that 
 great Latin family of alphabets, whose geographical 
 extension was originally conterminous, or nearly 
 so, with the limits of the Western Empire, and 
 afterwards with the ancient obedience to the Ro- 
 man." — E. Clodd, Story oj the alphabet, pp. 34-35. 
 
 Slavonic alphabet. — Invented by Cyril and 
 Methodius. See Russian literature: gth-i4th 
 centuries. 
 
 Russian alphabet first used by Peter the Great. 
 See Russian literature: 1680-1752. 
 
 ALPHEUS, the principal river of the Pelopon- 
 nesus, the modern Morea. The Modern Ruphia, 
 which rises near Asea, is for the most part a shal- 
 low, rapid stream. It flows into the Ionian Sea. 
 For a short space the stream flows beneath the 
 ground, hence, the fable that it passed underneath 
 the sea and rose in Svracuse, Sicily. 
 
 ALPHONSO. See Alfonso. 
 
 ALPINI: On Grappa front. See World W.\r: 
 1Q17: IV. Austro-Italian front: e, 5. 
 
 ALPS. — The name Alps has been given to the 
 crescent-shaped mountain system of Europe, ex- 
 tending from Savona, Italy to Vienna, Austria. 
 The system covers part of Italy, France, Switzer- 
 land, Bavaria and Austria. The length of the 
 chain along the main line is 660 miles, and the 
 area of the surface covered by the entire range is 
 said to be 80,000 square miles. In the main the 
 range is a continued chain of towering mountains, 
 with sharp, abrupt peaks. Among the rivers which 
 flow from the slopes of the Alps are the Rhine, 
 Rhone, Danube and Po. The loftiest and most 
 famous summits of the Alps are. Mount Blanc 
 (15,782 ft.); Monte Rosa (15,215 ft,); Weisshorn 
 (14,804 ft.); Breithorn (13,685 ft.) and Matter- 
 horn (14,780 ft.). .Metsch is the name of the larg- 
 est glacier in the .'Mps system, being thirteen miles 
 long. The origin of the word Alps is uncertain, 
 writers differing between a derivation from the 
 Celtic root "alb" (height), and the Latin adjective 
 "albus," white. The word Alps should not be con- 
 fused with Alp, which is the name given to the 
 summer mountain pastures by the natives of the 
 Alpine valleys (See .Alp ) .Among the first men 
 who did extensive exploration work in the ice 
 
 and snow regions were Horace Benedict de Saus- 
 sure (1740-179Q), and Placidus a Spescha (1752- 
 1833), the Benedictine monk of Disentis. The first 
 known English .\lpine climber was Colonel Mark 
 Beaufoy (1764-1S27). The higher Alps are per- 
 petually covered with snow, offering, with their 
 picturesque glaciers, cascades and forests, scenery 
 which is famous throughout the world for grand- 
 eur and magnificence. Several important moun- 
 tain groups, although they might be considered in- 
 dependent ranges, are arranged in such a manner 
 as to appear connected with the main system. It 
 is therefore incorrect to suppose that the .\lps form 
 strictly a single range. It may be said, more ac- 
 curately, that the main chain or group is flanked 
 on either side by other important ranges, which, 
 however, are not comparable with the main group, 
 in point of height, grandeur or picturesqueness. 
 
 Concerning the early inhabitants of the Alps we 
 know little more than what has come down to us 
 from the Roman and Greek historians. Other than 
 that a number of Alpine tribes were conquered by 
 .Ai^'ustu3, we are in ignorance of the history of 
 the Alpine dwellers previous to the early part of 
 the eleventh century, when the Carolingian em- 
 pire was finally dismembered. In 1349 Dauphine 
 became France's prize, following a prolonged 
 struggle for the Alpine region between the feudal 
 lords of Savoy, Dauphine and Provence. The 
 county of Nice, which was formerly part of Pro- 
 vence, fell to the feudal house of Savoy in 1388, 
 as did Piedmont and other lands on the Italian 
 side of the .Alps. France began to drive back the 
 house of Savoy across the range, however, even- 
 tually forcing it to limit its power solely to Italy. 
 (See also Venice: 1508-1509.) In i860 this rivalry 
 came to an end when the rest of the county of 
 Nice and Savoy were given over to France, making 
 the latter a definite power in the Alpine region. 
 This reversal of power is significant of the marked 
 historical influence which the physical aspect of 
 the .Alpine ranges has exerted upon the Central 
 European countries, particularly upon Italy. 
 
 As barriers. — Importance of passes. — It is to 
 be noted that the .Alps have had a great influ- 
 ence upon history. Passable only at a few points 
 and there not leadily, they have made it hard 
 for the invadei of Italy. Hannibal's failure to 
 crush Rome in 218 B. C. was undoubtedly due 
 to the hardships suffered by his army in crossing 
 the bleak Alpine passes. As a result of the World 
 War, Italy's northeastern frontier has been ex- 
 tended to the crest of the eastern Alps, making the 
 country easier to defend on that side. 
 
 "The vast majority of these [passes] are natu- 
 rally of no practical importance. Armies cannot 
 use them: traffic over them is impossible. ... At 
 the utmost some of them may serve, as in the 
 Pyrenees, for a smuggling trade, but even this dis- 
 appears when the profits of smuggling cease to be 
 great. There are, however, an appreciable number 
 of gaps in the chain, by which there was never 
 any difficulty for travellers on foot or with laden 
 animals, over which in modern limes good car- 
 riage roads have been made. These gaps occur at 
 fairly long intervals, and in all parts of the Alps." 
 — H. B. George, Relations oj geography and liis- 
 tory, p. 202. — The natives of the Alpine regions 
 were probably the first to use these passes, al- 
 though the outside world first learned of their 
 existence when they were crossed by the Romans 
 during military expeditions. It is more than likely 
 that the inhabitants themselves pointed out these 
 convenient paths to the Romans. Cisar makes 
 no mention of the .Alps beyond that he has crossed 
 them; when scmie of the mountain tribes try to 
 
 226
 
 ALPS 
 
 Passes 
 
 ALPS 
 
 block the passage of Roman merchants or armies, 
 they become important enough to be conquered. 
 It was not till after the Cimbri in 102 B, C. in- 
 vaded Italy by the Brenner route that the Romans 
 realized the value of Rhaetia (Tyrol) as a thor- 
 oughfare from Italy to Germany, and began its 
 conquest in 36 B. C. We know for certain that 
 the Romans availed themselves of the Mont Ge- 
 nevre Pass, later used by Charles VIII in 1404 in 
 his invasion of Italy ; in the Central Alps the Ro- 
 mans used the Spliigen and Septimer routes, as well 
 as the Great St. Bernard, farther west, subse- 
 quently so advantageously made use of by Napo- 
 leon in his conquest of Italy. [See also Com- 
 merce: Ancient: 200-600.) 
 
 "The Alps long retarded Roman expansion into 
 central Europe, just as they delayed and obstructed 
 the southward advance of the northern barbarians. 
 Only through the partial breaches in the wall 
 
 Provincia. . . . Mountains folded into a succes- 
 sion of parallel ranges are greater obstructions than 
 a single range like the Erz, Black Forest, and 
 Vosges, or a narrow, compact system like the West- 
 ern Alps, which can be crossed by a single pass. 
 Owing to this simple structure the Western Alps 
 were traversed by four established routes in the days 
 of the Roman Empire. These were: I. The Via 
 Aiirelia between the Maritime Alps and the sea, 
 where now runs the Cornice Road. II. The Alons 
 Malrona (Mont Genevre Pass, 6080 ft. or 1854 
 meters) between the headstream of the Dora 
 Riparia and that of the Durance, which was the 
 best highway for armies. III. The Little St. Ber- 
 nard (7075 ft. or 2157 meters), from Aosta on the 
 Dora Baltea over to the Isere and down to Lug- 
 dunum (Lyons). IV. The Great St. Bernard (8ioq 
 ft. or 2472 meters) route, which led northward 
 from Aosta over the Pennine Alps to Octodurus at 
 
 ALL'S 
 Roaii over the St. (nittliarcl Pass 
 
 known as passes did the .Alps admit small, divided 
 bodies of the invaders, like the Cimbri and Teu- 
 tons, who arrived, therefore, with weakened power 
 and at intervals, so that the Roman forces had 
 time to gather their strength between successive 
 attacks, and thus prolonged the life of the declin- 
 ing empire. So in the Middle Ages, the Alpine 
 barrier facilitated the resistance of Italy to the 
 German emperors, trying to enforce their claim 
 upon this ancient seat of the Holy Roman Em- 
 pire. The northern expansion of the Romans, re- 
 buffed by the high double wall of the Central Alps, 
 was bent to the westward over the Maritime, Cot- 
 tine and Savoy Alps, where the barrier offered 
 the shortest and easiest transmontane routes. 
 Hence Germany received the elements of Mediter- 
 ranean culture indirectly through Gaul, second- 
 hand and late. The ancient Helvetians, moving 
 southward from northern Switzerland into Gaul, 
 took a route skirting the western base of the .'Mps 
 by the gap at Geneva, and thus threatened Roman 
 
 2 
 
 the elbow of the upper Rhone, where Martigny 
 now stands. Across the broad double rampart of 
 the central Alps the Roman used chiefly the Bren- 
 ner route, which by a low saddle unites the deep 
 reijntrant valleys of the Adige and Inn rivers, and 
 thus surmounts the barrier by a single pass. How- 
 ever, a short cut northward over the Chalk Alps 
 by the Fern Pass made closer connection with 
 Augusta Vindelicorum (.Augsburg). The Romans 
 seem to have been ignorant of the St. Gotthard, 
 which, though high, is the summit of an unbroken 
 ascent from Lake Maggiore up the valley of the 
 Ticino on one side, and from Lake Lucerne up the 
 Reuss on the other. . . . Mountains are seldom 
 equally accessible from all sides. Rarely does the 
 crest of a system divide it symmetrically. This 
 means a steep, diflicult approach to the summit 
 from one direction, and a longer, more gradual, 
 and hence easier ascent from the other. It mean-; 
 also in general a wide zone of habitation and food 
 supply on the gentler slope, a better commissary 
 
 227
 
 ALPS 
 
 Roman Period 
 Medieval Times 
 
 ALPS 
 
 and transport base whence to make the final as- 
 cent, whether in conquest, trade or ethnic growth. 
 Its boundary along the crest of the Alps from 
 Mont Blanc to the Mediterranean brings over two- 
 thirds of the upheaved area within the domain of 
 France, and gives to that country great advantages 
 of approach to the Alpine passes at the expense of 
 Italy. With the exception of the ill-matched con- 
 flict between the civilized Romans and the barba- 
 rian Gauls, it is a matter of hi,story that from the 
 days of Hannibal to Napoleon III, the campaigns 
 over the Alps from the north have succeeded, 
 while those from the steep-rimmed Po Valley have 
 miscarried. The Brenner route favored alike the 
 Cimbri hordes in 102 B. C. and later the medieval 
 German Emperors invading Italy from the upper 
 Danube. The drop from the Brenner Pass to 
 Munich is «8oo ft.; to Rovereto, an equally dis- 
 tant point on the Italian side, the road descends 
 3770 ft. . . . The strategic importance of pass 
 peoples tends early to assume a poUtical aspect. 
 The mountain state learns to exploit this one ad- 
 vantage of its ill-favored geographical location. 
 The cradle of the old Savoyard power in the late 
 Middle Ages lay in the Alpine lands between Lake 
 Geneva and the western tributaries of the Po 
 River. This location controlling several great 
 mountain routes between France and Italy gave 
 the Savoyard princes their first importance. The 
 autonomy of Switzerland can be traced not less 
 to the citadel character of the country and the 
 native independence of its people, than to their po- 
 litical exploitation of their strategic position." — 
 E. C. Semple, Infiuences of geographic environ- 
 ment, pp. 4, 532-554. — See also Brenner P.ass. 
 
 The formation of the Swiss Confederation, be- 
 tween 1281 and 181S, marked a consolidation of 
 the smaller and weaker cantons on the northern 
 side of the Central Alpine chain. This unification 
 of the smaller states, made possible by their strate- 
 gic advantages, successfully achieved the desired re- 
 sult of maintaining a combined defen.se against 
 foreign aggression. That the policy of the Swiss 
 Federation has been exemplary has been borne out 
 during the Great War when Switzerland insisted 
 on maintaining strict neutral relations with all the 
 warring nations unless an act of aggres.'iion were 
 made against it. In consequence of this policy 
 Switzerland was the only European country which 
 held strictly to its neutrality although completely 
 surrounded by neighbors warring against each 
 other in a life-and-death struggle, 
 
 Roman period. — Hannibal's crossing of the 
 Alps. — Medieval times.— "The position of the 
 territories once occupied by the Etruscans, Tus- 
 cany and much of the Po basin, seems to imply 
 that they [the Greeks] followed- the Latins rather 
 than preceded them, and traces of them are sup- 
 posed to show that they came in from the north, 
 through what are called the Rhaetian ."Mps. More 
 confidently it can be affirmed that the Gallic 
 tribes, who by the end of the fifth century B.C. 
 had spread over the whole plain of the Po, came 
 over the western .^Ips, though it is of course im- 
 possible to guess by what routes. They continued 
 to form the bulk of the population north of the 
 Apennines, even after Rome had in some sense 
 conquered them in the interval between the first 
 and second Punic wars, and were no small sup- 
 port to Hannibal, after he had crossed from the 
 land of their kindred beyond the .-Mps info Cisal- 
 pine Gaul — the name of Italy was not yet extended 
 to the plain of the Po. 
 
 "The most remarkable historical event connected 
 with the passes of the .\lps is certainly the passage 
 of Hannibal ; and much critical energy has been 
 
 expended in trying to determine his route, with- 
 out further success than showing that he must 
 certainly have crossed by some pass south of Mont 
 Blanc. . . . Hannibal, coming from distant Car- 
 thage, had of course to rely upon guidance from the 
 Gauls: he obviously knew before starting that the 
 Alps were passable, but there is no indication that 
 he had any knowledge either of the difficulties of 
 the task, or that there was any choice of routes. 
 . . . All that he knew himself was doubtless that 
 his guides undertook to take him across into 
 Cisalpine Gaul. The conduct of Scipio, the Roman 
 general commanding against Hannibal, also tends 
 to show that Roman knowledge of the Alpine 
 passes was slight. Scipio, when he found that the 
 Carthaginians had marched up the Rhone, took 
 for granted that they were going to cross the Alps, 
 and removed his army by sea to Italy, in order 
 toi meet the enemy in the plain of the Po. Scipio 
 was not wanting in capacity, as this prompt ac- 
 tion shows. It is no unfair conjecture that if he 
 had possessed any definite knowledge of the Al- 
 pine valleys, he would have landed at Genoa, and 
 posted himself at Turin, in order to encounter 
 Hannibal before he could reach the open plains, 
 where the famous .African cavalry would have free 
 scope. If, however, he knew that there were various 
 routes, but had only confused and imperfect in- 
 formation about them, the course which he adopted, 
 of waiting on the Ticino, was obviously right. 
 
 "The historical importance of Hannibal's feat 
 is not however concerned with the determination 
 of his exact route. It was a revelation to the 
 world that an army, as distinguished from a mere 
 horde — that an army with all its impedimenta 
 could be conveyed across a great mountain range. 
 Nor was it long before his example was followed. 
 His brother Hasdrubal led an army into Italy ten 
 years later, apparently by one of the passes from 
 the Isere, with unexpected ease and speed. .\ cen- 
 tury afterwards occurred another invasion of Italy, 
 which illustrates the difficulty of defending a 
 mountain frontier such as the .\lps. The Romans 
 were by that time effectively masters of the whole 
 Po basin, as well as of Provence; geographical 
 Italy was also now politically united under one 
 government. They were aware that the hordes 
 of barbarians, known to history as the Cimbri 
 and Teutones, were on the move for Italy. These 
 formidable enemies had either trampled over, or 
 won to their side, the tribes beyond the .Alps, both 
 in the Rhone-land and in the modern Switzerland. 
 They apparently formed a scheme, highly advanced 
 for their stage of civilization, of entering Italy by 
 two widely distant entrances, and joining forces 
 on the Po. The Romans were informed of their 
 purpose, and sent one consul to Provence, while 
 the other waited on the .Adige. Unfortunately our 
 authorities are so brief that they give no hint as 
 to the route by which the Cimbri entered Italy; 
 all we know is that the consul Catulus failed to 
 stop them, and that they moved westwards up the 
 north bank of the Po to meet their kindred. For- 
 tunately Marius had destroyed the Teutones in 
 Provence, and was in time to join his colleague, 
 and cru'^h the Cimbri also, not far from the Ti- 
 cino. One may conjecture that the St. Gotthard 
 pass was unknown at the time, or the Cimbri, 
 who were guided by their Helvetian allies, would 
 not have gone so far to the eastwards as they 
 did; though whether they crossed from the head 
 of the Rhine, or made the still longer circuit by 
 the Inn and .\dige, we cannot even guess. 
 
 ".As the Roman empire extended to its ultimate 
 limits in Europe, the .Alps became no longer a 
 frontier. Naturallv therefore centuries elapsed be- 
 
 28
 
 ALPS 
 
 ALSACE-LORRAINE 
 
 fore they again figured in history. In the convul- 
 sions which followed the death of Nero, two can- 
 didates for the imperial throne successively en- 
 tered north Italy, one from the west, the other 
 from the east. Each in turn defeated the rival in 
 possession on the Lombard plain, and as it hap- 
 pened on the same battlefield, but in neither case 
 was there any defence of the mountain passes. In 
 the break up of the Western empire, the Teuton 
 tribes seem to have entered Italy as they pleased: 
 the Alps might as well not have existed. Through- 
 out the Middle Ages, the regions on both sides of 
 the Alps were divided up into so many small 
 states (if the word can be reasonably applied), 
 all virtually independent, and all formally included 
 in the Empire, that the mountains continued to 
 be of little political importance. If the Emperor 
 had to expect opposition on one route, he could 
 take another; practically his communications with 
 Italy lay chiefly over the Brenner and its varia- 
 tions. From western Europe the usual routes were, 
 as has been said, the Great St. Betnard and the 
 Mont Cenis; but nothing historically turned on 
 this fact, travel over the Alps being substantially 
 that of private persons, largely on business con- 
 nected with the Church." — H, B. George, Relations 
 oj geography and history, pp. 211-212, 213-215. 
 
 Aerial flight over the Alps (igio). Sec Avia- 
 tion; Important flights since 1900: igio. 
 
 Factor in World War. See World War: iqi6: 
 IV. Austro-Italian front: a; b, 2; b, 4; and c; 
 1917: I. Summary: b, 8; 1918: IV. Austro-Italian 
 theater: c, 3; c, 12. 
 
 Frontiers of Italy. — Peace Conference claims. 
 — "Now if there is one country in Europe of 
 which nature has made a geographic unity it is 
 Italy. In all epochs, geographers have seen in the 
 Alps the natural frontiers of that peninsula des- 
 tined to be the first hearth of civilization in Eu- 
 rope. It can easily be understood, therefore, how 
 Italy came [at the Peace Conference] to include 
 among her war ambitions, the aim of gathering to 
 herself the northern and eastern crests of the Alps, 
 that is to say, the frontiers which Augustus had 
 assigned to Italy, but which were held in 1Q14, by 
 the Austrian Empire. By advancing to that line, 
 and by annexing the Trenlino and Istria, Italy 
 would achieve, at one and the same time, both 
 her geographical and her national unity. She would 
 be, in Europe, the almost perfect model of the 
 nation which, should a desire for war seize upon 
 her, must face the greatest difficulties in attacking 
 others, possessing, the while, the best facilities of 
 defense in case she were attacked by others." — G. 
 Ferrero, National aspirations of Italy (in Le Fi- 
 garo, quoted in Tlie Living Age, April 26, 1919). 
 —See also Italy: IQ15: Treaty of London. 
 
 Also in: J. Ball, Alpine guide. — T. G. Bonney, 
 Alpine regions of Switzerland and the neighbour- 
 ing countries. — Sir M. Conway, The Alps, and Alps 
 from end to end. — G. Allais, Le Alpi occidentali 
 nell' antichila. — E. Oehlmann, Die Alpenpdsse im 
 Mittelalter.^A. Smith, Story of Mont Blanc. — 
 A. B. Edwards, Untrodden peaks and unfrequented 
 valleys. — A. F. Mummery, My climbs in the Alps. 
 — Sir L. Stephen, Playground of Europe. — E. 
 Whymper, Scrambles amongst the Alps.— P. J. de 
 Bourcet, Memoires militaires sur les frontieres de 
 la France, du Piemont, et de la Savoie (1801). 
 
 AL-RUNAS. See Huns: Gothic account of. 
 
 ALSACE. — Name. See Alemanni: 213. 
 
 1648. — Ceded to France by peace of West- 
 phalia. See Alsace-Lorraine: 1552-1789; West- 
 phalia, Peace of. 
 
 1672-1714.— Frederick William's attempted re- 
 covery. See Austria: 1672-17x4. 
 
 ALSACE-LORRAINE.— Its history as af- 
 fected by its position. — The history of Lorraine 
 up to modern times will be found under Lorraine. 
 The French geographer and historian Vidal de la 
 Blache has characterized Alsace-Lorraine as 
 "France of the east," a region between the Rhine, 
 the Meuse, and the Ardennes. This territory has 
 always been historically a frontier country lying 
 at the junction of France, Belgium, Germany and 
 Switzerland, and without such natural frontiers 
 as might mark it off definitely from these neigh- 
 boring countries. To be sure, Alsace is bounded on 
 the east by the Rhine, but Lorraine has always 
 had entirely artificial boundaries. The fate of Al- 
 sace-Lorraine has been complicated by the fact 
 that it has been a meeting-place of two powerful 
 aggressive peoples, the French and the German, 
 and also because it lay on the cross-roads between 
 the Rhine and the Danube valleys as well as the 
 historic routes leading through the Alps from the 
 Po valley and from the Rhone valley through the 
 gap at Belfort. It may be said then, that this 
 region has no geographic unity. Until very recent 
 times Lorraine was closer to France than it was 
 to Alsace, while Alsace itself is divided into a 
 number of natural regions having little intricate 
 indications. Although it was as late as 1648 when 
 France secured possession of the greater part of 
 Alsace [see also Germany: 1648] and not until 
 more than one hundred years later that she ac- 
 quired Lorraine, the process of assimilation was 
 completed over a century ago. It was the French 
 Revolution that made Alsace-Lorraine an integral 
 part of the French nation. The development of 
 communications, particularly canals and railroads, 
 connected this territory with France and with the 
 Rhine, so that by 1S71 an economic unity with 
 France was achieved. 
 
 Early history. — Romans, Gauls and Huns. — 
 "But the Roman conquest was accomplished at 
 last in Belgium and in the rest of Celtic land, and 
 then was extended over the Rhine until the bar- 
 barian tribes were so interwoven with the Roman 
 legions that it was hard to distinguish between 
 them. Ruins of monuments planned by Romans 
 and constructed by barbarian labour are scattered 
 over Western Europe to tell the tale of who built, 
 who saw, and who destroyed. In .Msace, the 
 earliest ruins are not, however, these. There are 
 still traces of preceding occupation. Parts of a 
 great wall, the so-called Heidenmauer, are to be 
 seen on the Odilienburg, showing how primitive 
 people of the Vosges highlands tried to protect 
 themselves against assault. Then there are many 
 Druid remains, some near the sites of the Roman 
 temples which are found in considerable numbers. 
 Of Latin theatres, arches, aqueducts, such as blos- 
 somed in many parts of Gaul, there are no ex- 
 amples in Alsace. Fortifications and highways, 
 however, remain to prove that the Romans did not 
 neglect the Vosges region. Argentoratum, followed 
 by Strasburg, was one of the Roman strongholds 
 which has never ceased to be a fortified place. The 
 splendid military roads show the best work of 
 the Romans in this section of their domain. . . . 
 Some of the most important ran from Besani;on 
 (to use modern terms) to Strasburg, on to May- 
 ence, to Ell, Breisach, and on to the Rhine, from 
 Brumath to Saverne and Metz, from .\lsace into 
 Lorraine through the valley of Schirmeck, from 
 Alsace into Lorraine through the valley of the 
 Villi, and in many other directions. If the Peu- 
 tinger map be rightly dated, many of these high- 
 ways were later than 200 A. D. But on it can 
 be seen three highways leading out of Strasburg, — 
 Argentoratum. The end of the Gallo-Roman 
 
 229
 
 ALSACE-LORRAINE 
 
 Treaty of 
 Verdun 
 
 ALSACE-LORRAINE 
 
 period came imperceptibly. Roman domination 
 simply ceased to exist, and oflicials of northern races 
 who had administered affairs in the name of Rome 
 continued to hold sway without respect to trans- 
 Alpine authority. German settlement, pre-emi- 
 nently Prankish and Teutonic, in the V'osges tract 
 westward of the Rhine was not the result of de- 
 cisive conquest. It was merely gradual trans- 
 Rhenish migration, not differing radically from the 
 kind that had been inaugurated by Ariovistus and 
 checked by Julius Caesar, except that it was less 
 aggressive and in smaller numbers. The Celtic 
 inhabitants were neither entirely dispossessed nor 
 enslaved by the German colonists, to whom, more 
 over, they did not remain antagonistic. This must 
 be taken into account in attempting to arrive at 
 any conclusion as to the ultimate racial status of 
 the Alsatian tract. Whether in the course of the 
 centuries before Soo A. D. the predominant ele- 
 ment remained as essentially Gallo-Frankish, with 
 the characteristics of activity, enterprise, energy, 
 independence, irony, and badinage ascribed to the 
 people of the French realm, as it finally took shape, 
 or whether an inherent Teutonic quality continued 
 to differentiate the Alsatians from their French 
 neighbours on the other side of the Vosges, re- 
 mains a moot question. ... As far as geographic 
 nomenclature is concerned, it must be conceded 
 that the dominant note in the formative period 
 was Germanic. Strasburg, Breisach, Ebersheim, 
 Rouffac, Seltz, Ell-Sass, itself, however spelled at 
 different epochs, all tell one story, and they arc 
 not names that have changed radically during the 
 last phase of political affiliation. . . . Many of 
 those that passed over Alsatian soil did not trouble 
 themselves, indeed, to leave any constructive trace 
 of themselv-es, though they left trace enough of 
 the damage they wrought. After the Burgundians 
 came Attila, who destroyed Argentoratum — where 
 Strasburg later came to replace the Roman city 
 — and various other settlements. That was in the 
 middle of the fifth centun.', not long before the 
 invaders were repulsed at Chalons (451 .\. D.) by 
 Romans and Germans fishting as allies, .attila 
 went on to Italy and gradually the .Msatians stole 
 down to the plains from) the highlands where, like 
 other Gauls, they had taken refuge, and took up 
 their life again amidst the ruins of the Roman 
 civilization, which had indeed retreated, but which 
 had left a permanent impress upon the land be- 
 tween the Rhine and mountains. There came a 
 time when the Prankish sovereicns of Gaul rec- 
 ognized .the individuality of the province so far 
 as to create a duke of Alsace, and we hear of one 
 Ettich or Attich as bearing that title before Chris- 
 tian times. Legends have clustered about his 
 daughter Odilia, who brought bitter disappoint- 
 ment to her father at her birth, because she was 
 not only a girl when he had desired a boy, but 
 blind at that. The water of baptism finally gave 
 her sight, and the Odilienberg, where she grew 
 up, away from her father's unfriendly eyes, re- 
 mains to bear witness to the miracle of her con- 
 version to Christianity. The Bishop of Strasburg, 
 too, comes upon the scene and .Msarc thus be- 
 comes a duchy anrl has 3 bishopric, is Christian 
 and provincial. . . . Had this title of duke not 
 come into being there might never have been an 
 AUace. but the name persisted even though the 
 unit was fractured." — R. Putnam, Alsace and Lor- 
 raine, pp. 15-21. 
 
 842-1477.— Strasburg Oath.— Treaty of Ver- 
 dun. — Foundation of House of Hapsburg. — 
 Treaty of St. Omer. — "The Treaty of Verdun, 
 84.1 A. D , between the three grandsons of Charles 
 the Great (Charlemagne seems far more befitting 
 
 that sovereign) gave to Charles the Bald the nu- 
 cleus of prc^ent-day France, to Louis the German, 
 trans-Rhine territory as far as the River Elbe, 
 while to Lothaire, eldest son and Emperor, fell a 
 middle realm between the two familiar divisions 
 of modern Europe. It was Lotharii regniim, a 
 realm which bequeathed to posterity one legacy 
 in the name Lotliaringia, Lolhriiigen, Lorraine, 
 and another in the phantom of an ideal kingdom. 
 One bequest was permanent, though applied to 
 units of different area, the other intermittent in 
 vitality. Modern Lorraine, .Msace, Burgundy, 
 Provence, and Italy, excepting the States of the 
 Church, were all comprised within Lothaire's 
 heritage, in addition to the imperial title. [See 
 also Lorr.hine: S43-870.] But that allotment was 
 of brief duration. Lothaire II. succeeded his 
 father, indeed, but on his death, his uncle:-. 
 Charles the Bald and Louis the German, took 
 it upon themselves to make a fresh division of 
 the Carolingian empire into only two parts as 
 far as Europe north of the Alps was concerned 
 The son of Lothaire II. was permitted to retain 
 the Italian provinces alone of the paternal 'Mid- 
 dle Kingdom,' while the remainder was parcelled 
 out between his great-uncles, thus marking the 
 confines of Prance, Germany, and Italy, or rather 
 indicating those three geographical unities. More- 
 over, not only did modern European boundary 
 lines cast their shadows before at the crisis of 
 these territorial division but an interesting evi- 
 dence of the linguistic scission between the sub- 
 jects of the Prankish sovereigns remains as one 
 result of these fraternal bargains. This is the 
 document containing the oaths sworn at Stras- 
 burg, 842 A. D., as a prelude to the formal tri- 
 angular convention at X'erdun, the following year 
 The two younger brothers safe-guarded them- 
 selves against their senior by interchanging pledges 
 of mutual support. The occasion was a formal 
 and solemn function. The brothers were accom- 
 panied by their armies, who were taken into their 
 confidence, each over-lord addressing his own sol- 
 diers in their own vernacular, explaining the 
 reasons for enmity towards Lothaire, and then 
 proceeding to give the formal oath each to the 
 adherents of his brother, Louis the German speak- 
 ing in the lingua romana, the speech of Roman- 
 ized Gaul, and Charles, sovereign of the same 
 realm, using the lingua teudisca, spoken across 
 the Rhine. The phrases that were comprehen- 
 sible to these ninth-century French and Germans 
 look like a very queer jumble of words. Their 
 interest lies in the fact that both vernaculars were 
 probably comprehensible to the bystander in Stras- 
 burg, just as the two more polished languages 
 have been in our day. It is probable that thu.s 
 early the children of the borderland had their 
 ears attuned to bi-lingual addresses. The words of 
 Louis were: 'Pro Deo amur et pro christian 
 poblo et nostro commun salvament, dist di in 
 avant, in quant Deus savir et podir me dunat, si 
 salvaraeio cist meon fradre Karlo et in adiudha et 
 in cadhuna cosa, si cum om per dreit son fradra 
 salvar dist, in n quid il mi allresi fazet ; et ab 
 Ludhcr nul plaid numquam prindrai, qui meon 
 vol cist meon fradre Karle in damno sit.' 
 
 "The form of Charles' oath was: 'In Codes 
 minna ind in thes christianes folches ind unser 
 bedhero gealtnissi. fon thesemo dagc frammordes, 
 so fram so mir Got gewizci indi madh furgibit, 
 50 haldih tesan minan bruodher, soso man mit 
 rehtu sinan bruodhfr seal, in thiu, thaz er mig 
 sosoma duo; indi mit Ludheren in nonheiniu thing 
 ne gegango the minan willon imo ce scadhen 
 werhen.' 
 
 230
 
 ALSACE-LORRAIN E 
 
 Hapsburg 
 Dominion 
 
 ALSACE-LORRAINE 
 
 "[For the love of God, and for the sake as well 
 of our peoples as of ourselves, I promise that 
 from this day forth, as God shall grant me wisdom 
 and strength, 1 will treat this my brother as one's 
 brother ought to be treated, provided that he 
 shall do the same by me. And with Lothair I will 
 not willingly enter into any dealings which may 
 injure this my brother." — E. Emerton, Medioeval 
 Europe, p. 27.] 
 
 "The actual division between Louis and Charles 
 of Lothaire's 'Middle Kingdom' did not take 
 place until many years after the Treaty of Ver- 
 dun. It was not until about 870 that Louis the 
 German entered into the possession of his share, 
 which included Alsace as well as other of the 
 Lotharingian parcels. Then the Vosgcs Moun- 
 tains, instead of the Rhine River, became the 
 boundary between the Germanic and Prankish 
 kingdoms. . . . Germany counted her own birthday 
 as the day when the Treaty of Verdun was signed. 
 A thousand years of existence was celebrated in 
 1843. Into that thousand-year nationality, Alsace 
 did not enter either at the beginning or the end. 
 On both days her fate was linked to another sov- 
 ereignty. . . . 
 
 "Had the realm covered by the titular authority 
 of Charles the Great remained intact, the Alsatian 
 tract might have had a different history, for the 
 great Carolingian made Colmar and Schlestadt 
 his residence from time to time, and a mid-Euro- 
 pean capital might have grown into importance, — 
 a capital looking east and west over a wide im- 
 perial domain. But after 870 A. D. the lot of 
 Alsace as a border land on Germanized territory 
 was practically decided, although confusing changes 
 continued to make her ultimate political affiliations 
 look very uncertain from time to time. [See also 
 Lorraine: pii-q8o.l The trail of hazardous for- 
 tune cannot be followed in detail. In the twelfth 
 century her fealty was due to the great German 
 King and Roman Emperor (1152), Frederick Bar- 
 barossa, while her immediate control was in the 
 hands of various lesser authorities. A new power 
 was springing into being at that period, destined 
 to affect European life more than was possible 
 for the sovereign, seldom seen by the people at 
 large. That was the free city, waxing into prowess 
 by means of valuable privileges bought from em- 
 perors who wished to obtain money for schemes 
 of conquest or personal ambition, or bestowed 
 by them voluntarily for the purpose of erecting 
 burgher bulwarks against over-powerful nobles. 
 In course of time, ten of these communes came 
 into being in Alsace, while Strasburg besides being 
 a city state continued to exert influence as a 
 dominant episcopal see. Long before the two 
 Pragmatic Sanctions of Frederick II (1220 and 
 1232) endowed bishops and nobles with supremacy 
 in their own towns, — except when the Emperor 
 was present in person, — this Alsatian bishopric had 
 accjuired territorial independence and a high de- 
 gree of temporal power. Once, indeed, when the 
 city attempted to use influence in an imperial 
 election, it suffered seriously at the hands of the 
 successful candidate whom it had opposed to no 
 purpose, but as a rule it managed to hold its 
 own against any interference from without. By 
 the third C|uarter of the fifteenth century, the 
 state of Alsatian administration was as follows: 
 First, it must be noted that after the episode of 
 Duke Ettich — Eticho, Attich — the dukedom does 
 not seem to have been revived as such. Without 
 examining too curiously how it all happened, we 
 find in existence two landgraviates, dividing Alsace 
 into two gaueit, the Sundgau and the Nordgau, 
 the latter. Lower Alsace, dependent on the see of 
 
 Strasburg, the former, Upper Alsace, in the hands 
 of the cadet branch of the House of Habs- 
 hurg. . . . Financial embarrassments led to a 
 curious commercial transaction in regard to the 
 lands to which the Habsburgs had title. Sigis- 
 mund of Austria mortgaged his rights to Charles 
 of Burgundy and the report made to the latter 
 by Jean Poinsot and Jean Pellot, June 13, 1471, 
 gives a detailed account of the condition of Al- 
 sace. Here is the story of what happened and 
 what led to such happening. 
 
 "The Habsburgs took the title by which they 
 have so long been known from a castle built in 
 the eleventh century by one bishop of Strasburg 
 and his brother Radbod upon the Aar, in Swiss 
 territory, not far from the border of Upper Alsace. 
 Tradition has it that Radbod followed his hawk— 
 Habicht — into an unknown region and was so 
 much charmed with the beauty of the spot that 
 he decided to build a castle there and, later, 
 named the house Habichlsburg from the guide 
 who had led him thither. The longer term con- 
 tracted, naturally, by easy transition into Habsburg 
 and has held its own to this day. Little by little, 
 the family grew to be one of the foremost in 
 the Empire, and in 1273 its reputation was en- 
 hanced by the elevation of Rudolph, Count of 
 Habsburg, to the imperial dignity, — the first of 
 many sons of the race to hold that office, although 
 it did not become the assured perquisite of the 
 Habsburgs until later. [See also Austria: 124b- 
 1282.] It may be added that Radbod and his 
 brother the bishop, Werner, who collaborated in the 
 castle building on the heights of the Wulpelsberg, 
 are alleged to be descendants of Duke Ettich of 
 Alsace. Possibly the tradition originated to ac- 
 count for the partition of the two gauen or dis- 
 tricts of Alsace between the see of Strasburg and 
 the count of Habsburg. After three centuries of 
 fortunes, more or less fair, we find Frederick III, 
 Emperor, and his cousin the Archduke Sigismund, 
 of the cadet branch, in possession of the Habsburg 
 lands in Tyrol in various other places, besides 
 being Landgrave of the Sundgau and holding other 
 estates in Alsace. Sigismund did not have a com- 
 pact principality to administer from his capital, ' 
 Innspruck, and perhaps that was the reason why 
 he fell into serious difficulties in every direc- 
 tion. . . . There was a group of princes in Europe 
 at this epoch (1460), Louis XI. of France, Charles 
 of Burgundy, Frederick III. and his son Maxi- 
 milian, who spent their lives in trying to over- 
 reach each other. Frederick could not help his 
 cousin, so Sigismund applied to Louis XL for 
 assistance, but fear of the Swiss made the King 
 refuse. Then the Archduke went down to the 
 Netherlands with his petition and found Charles 
 more amenable. The reason was plain. Charles 
 was most desirous of uniting his Netherland group 
 of duchies, countships, and seigniories with his 
 two Burgundies, and the territories offered to him 
 by Sigismund lay so as to fill in part of the gap 
 between. The Burgundian's hope of erecting a new 
 edition of a 'Middle Kingdom' affected his policy 
 in many respects and never more markedly than 
 in this transaction with Sigismund. The bargain 
 was made. Perhaps the fact that the applicant 
 was pretty close to the Emperor, who alone could 
 turn a duke into a real king, made Charles espe- 
 cially willing to oblige his needy visitor. At St. 
 Omer on May qth another of the long row of 
 treaties was signed which, without the slightest 
 concern for the will of the inhabitants, disposed 
 of the political control of Alsatian soil. Charles 
 agreed to pay Sigismund ten thousand florins im- 
 mediately and forty thousand before Septembe- 
 
 231
 
 ALSACE-LORRAINE 
 
 French 
 Ownership 
 
 ALSACE-LORRAINE 
 
 24th in return for the cession of all Sigismund's 
 seigniorial rights in the landgraviate of Alsace, the 
 county of Ferrette, and in certain Rhine towns. If 
 he found himself in possession of means to buy 
 back his landgraviate, Sigismund was to be per- 
 mitted so to do, provided that he could produce 
 at Besani;on tlie whole sum at once, that aug- 
 mented by all the outlays made by the Burgundian 
 upon the property. ... No real gain came to 
 Charles from the Treaty of St. Omer. The Aus- 
 trian dukes had not been popular in Alsace, but 
 their poverty had prevented them from being hard 
 masters even where they retained the right to 
 exert any local authority at all. . . . Before the 
 death of Charles at Nancy in 1477, Sigismund had 
 drawn back the Alsace estates to the Habsburgs. 
 His friends rallied around him when they saw what 
 Charles was about. Money was found for the 
 Archduke, who was enabled to offer his creditor 
 full redemption, with the required payment in one 
 sum. Charles had refused to accept this and, 
 as far as appears clearly, no money ever did 
 return to the Burgundian treasury." — R. Putnam, 
 Alsace and Lorraine, pp. 22-37. 
 
 843-870. — Included in the kingdom of Lor- 
 raine. See Lorraine: 843-870. 
 
 10th century. — Joined to the Holy Roman em- 
 pire. See Lorraine: qii-gSo. 
 
 13th century. — Origin of the house of Haps- 
 burg. See Austria: 1246-1282. 
 
 1525. — Revolt of the peasants. See Germany: 
 1 524-1525. 
 
 1552-1774.— Medieval period.— Thirty Years' 
 War. — Under Louis XIV, acquired by Louis 
 XV. — "In the later Middle Ages Lorraine formed 
 a duchy, within which lay a number of small 
 and in some cases independent feudal states and 
 the city of Metz, a free city of the Holy Roman 
 Empire whose people spoke French. In 1552, on 
 the petition of certain German Protestant princes, 
 Metz was placed under the protection of the king 
 of France, who took possession of the city and 
 the surrounding territory subject to it. In 1613 
 the bishopric of Metz and its lands were taken 
 over by the F'rench king, the whole being com- 
 bined with Toul and Verdun into the three prov- 
 inces of the Three Bishoprics (Trois Eveches), 
 and the cession was confirmed by the Emperor in 
 the treaty of Westphalia of 1648. [See also Ger- 
 many: 1648.1 Further acquisitions made in the 
 seventeenth century, notably Sierck and Saarlouis, 
 gave France a strategic line of communication 
 through Lorraine to Alsace. The duchy of Lor- 
 raine, which had likewise been dependent on 
 the Holy Roman Empire, was declared free by 
 Emperor Charles V and was gradually drawn into 
 the French sphere of influence. Relinquished by 
 its Hapsburg duke in 1736, in 1738 by the treaty 
 of Vienna it was handed over to a Polish duke, 
 Stanislas Leszcynski, on condition that at his death 
 it should pass to his son-in-law, Louis XV of 
 France, by whom it was accordingly acquired in 
 1766. Certain small enclaves within Lorraine did 
 not pass to France until the Revolution. Alsace, 
 except the city of Miilhouse, was annexed to 
 France in the course of the reign of Louis XIV. 
 The Middle .\ges had broken the countr\- up into 
 a great variety of feudal states and free cities; 
 the Reformation divided it still further by re- 
 ligious dissensions. In the Thirty Years' War 
 France intervened on the side of the Protestant 
 princes of Germany ; at its close France received 
 considerable possessions in .Msace, in much the 
 same way that Brandenburg (the future Prussia) 
 then secured valuable additions in the north. The 
 treaty of Westphalia (1648) assured to France 
 
 2y. 
 
 certain lands and certain governmental rights pos- 
 sessed by the Emperor in his imperial capacity and 
 as head of the house of Hapsburg, but the pro- 
 visions were, possibly with intention, left vague 
 at certain points and became the occasion of pro- 
 tracted legal and historical disputes. By a com- 
 bination of undoubted grants, more or less justi- 
 fied legal interpretations, and the direct seizure 
 of the city of Strasburg, Louis XIV rounded out 
 his possession of the whole of Alsace. [See 
 also France: 1679-1681.] The sole exception, 
 Miilhouse, allied with the Swiss Confederation, 
 voluntarily offered itself to France in 1798." — C. H. 
 Haskins and R. H. Lord, Some problems of the 
 Peace Conference, pp. 77-79. 
 
 1621-1622. — Invasions by Mansfeld and his 
 predatory army. See Germany: 1021-1623. 
 
 1636-1639. — Invasion and conquest by Duke 
 Bernhard of Weimar. — Secured for France by 
 Richelieu. See Germany: 1634-1639. 
 
 1659. — Renunciation of the claims of the king 
 of Spain. See France: 1659-1661. 
 
 1674-1678. — Ravaged in the campaigns of 
 Turenne and Cond£. See Netherlands; 1674- 
 1678. 
 
 1744. — Invasion by the Austrians. See Aus- 
 tria: 1 743- 1 744. 
 
 1789-1794. — French revolution period. — Origin 
 of the Marseillaise. — The abolition of feudal 
 privileges was one of the first steps of the Revo- 
 lution, which reverberated in Alsace, where Ger- 
 man princes held feudal privileges. These being 
 directly threatened, the rulers appealed to the 
 emperor, .\cording to Maurice Leon, this attempt 
 by a handful of German princes to force their 
 feudal claims upon the country that first abol- 
 ished them in Europe precipitated the war of 
 monarchical Europe against revolutionary France 
 and the consequent attempt to suppress repub- 
 licanism in France. The Revolution, however, won 
 the day ; the people of Alsace and Lorraine sent 
 delegates to the Assembly, while the princes held 
 aloof. The stirring strains of the "Marseillaise" were 
 first sung in Strassburg in 1792, and breathe de- 
 fiance to the German invaders from Prussia. — See 
 also Music: Folk music and nationalism: France. 
 
 1871. — Cession to Germany. — "At the close of 
 the Franco-Prussian war Germany required of 
 France the cession of Alsace and Lorraine, with 
 a boundary on the west which was defined by the 
 treaty of Frankfort in 1871. In the next forty 
 years Alsace-Lorraine passed through various 
 stages of government, from military dictatorship 
 through a certain amount of territorial indepen- 
 dence to the definite constitution imposed by the 
 Reichstag in 191 1. Those who had hoped for 
 autonomy were disappointed in this instrument, 
 which failed to elevate the Rcichsland to the posi- 
 tion of a federated state of the empire, although 
 an anomalous provision was made for its repre- 
 sentation in the Bundesrat. Legally Alsace-Lor- 
 raine was still a subject territory of the em- 
 pire. . . . For more than half a century the prob- 
 lem of Alsace-Lorraine has been debated back and 
 forth with arguments which have had no effect 
 on the opposite sides of the controversy. . . . 
 To the French ."Msace and Lorraine had become 
 and remained fundamentally French, having been 
 assimilated gradually and without violence in 
 the eighteenth century, French most of all by 
 having entered fully into the spirit of the French 
 Revolution and taken an active part therein. They 
 begged to remain a part of France in 1871, as the 
 unanimous protests of their representatives show, 
 and they continued French at heart against the 
 strongest pressure in the opposite direction. In
 
 ALSACE-LORRAINE 
 
 German Rule 
 
 ALSACE-LORRAINE 
 
 spite of differences of language, sucli as exist in 
 other parts of France, Alsace and Lorraine were 
 Frencfi in social structure, in political ideals, and 
 in the sympathies of the population Without 
 these lost provinces France was a mutilated coun- 
 try, not fully France. Furthermore, the posses- 
 sion of Metz and the Vosges by a military power 
 like Germany constituted a standing menace to a 
 peaceful country like the French Republic; it also 
 menaced the economic life of France and its de- 
 fence by making possible, as in IQ14, immediate 
 seizure of the richest part of its iron supply. 
 France was robbed of these provinces by force 
 in 187 1, and the wrong had to be righted, not only 
 in the interest of France but for the sake of the 
 inhabitants." — C. H. Haskins and R. H. Lord, 
 Some problems of the Peace Conference, pp. 80-85. 
 — "The French call their neighbour [Germany] 
 Allemagne, after an unimportant Teuton people 
 that settled in and about Alsace in the break-up 
 of the Western empire. . . . Teutonic Alsace, 
 Protestant and German-speaking, was conquered by 
 France in the seventeenth century, the last stage 
 of the conquest being marked by circumstances 
 of exceptional treachery and wrong. Neverthe- 
 less it became thoroughly French in sentiment, and 
 strongly resented being re-transferred to Germany 
 in 1871. On which side is the principle of nation- 
 ality to be invoked in the case of Alsace — for or 
 against the present [1907] state of things? There 
 is nothing but sentiment to draw it towards France, 
 nothing except sentiment to alienate it from Ger- 
 many." — H. B. George, Relations of geography and 
 history, pp. 58, 65-66. — "The last great cession 
 of territory in Europe I1871] deprived France 
 of its piece of territory bordering on the Rhine, 
 and restored to Germany a district German in race 
 and language." — Ibid., p. 30. — "The German con- 
 quest of 1870 made the political frontier corre- 
 spond much more nearly to the division of races 
 and languages, though entirely against the wish 
 of the people, who had in the interval been incor- 
 porated in France. It is instructive to compare 
 the fate of Lorraine with that of Savoy, that is 
 to say with the composite state over which the 
 dukes of Savoy ruled. Both were divided in 
 language, and more or less in race: both were 
 situated between two great and often hostile pow- 
 ers: both were to a certain extent, in the person 
 of their princes, attracted towards France. Yet 
 Lorraine was, so to speak, squeezed to death be- 
 tween France and Germany, while the house of 
 Savoy throve on the vicissitudes of several cen- 
 turies, and ultimately became sovereigns of united 
 Italy. . . . But the main reason for the contrast 
 between Lorraine and Savoy is geographical. It 
 has been pointed out . . . how the Alps between 
 Savoy and Piedmont helped the fortunes of those 
 princes. Lorraine had no such backbone: it lay 
 completely open to France, and Germany had no 
 particular motive for defending it ; for it can 
 hardly be said that Metz, in French hands, con- 
 stituted a menace to Germany, however the case 
 may be now that it has reverted to German 
 hands [in 1871]. The acquisition of Alsace by 
 France marks the end of the period of religious 
 wars, as the seizure of the three bishoprics marks 
 the beginning. It was a piece of sheer undis- 
 guised'conquest, without any excuse of nationality 
 or of a personal convention between any Alsatian 
 ruler and France. Richelieu simply took advantage 
 of the distractions of Germany to lay hands on 
 a German province ... a province essentially 
 German ever since the Allemanni invaded the 
 Roman empire, and Protestant in addition. Louis 
 XIV completed the robbery, and indeed improved 
 
 on the method. During a period of general peace 
 he seized Strassburg and other places — which, 
 though situated within Alsace, were politically in- 
 dependent of it — and the Empire was not strong 
 enough to resent the outrage." — Ibid., pp. 237-238. 
 — See also France: 1871 (January-May;. 
 
 1871-1879. — Organization of government as a 
 German imperial province. See Germany: 1871- 
 1879. 
 
 1879-1894. — Manteuffel era of German rule. — 
 Administration of Hohenlohe as Statthalter. — 
 Policy of Alsatian minister Puttkammer. — "The 
 'Manleuliel Era,' as this period of Alsatian history 
 is called, lasted six years, from 1879 to 1885. If 
 anyone could have succeeded in the role he had 
 mapped out Manteuffel could have. Believing 
 correctly that no government is successful for 
 any length of time that does not have the people 
 on its side, Manteuffel sought first to know those 
 among whom he had come to rule. He traveled 
 much through the country, trying to impart his 
 ideas to local officials and notabihties, municipal 
 councilors, clergymen, and teachers, to say the 
 happy and healing word to everyone. He told the 
 people of Alsace and Lorraine that he understood 
 and respected their sentiments, that he did not 
 ask for an enthusiastic adhesion to the new order 
 of things, but only a reasoned submission to the 
 ineluctable fact. He warned them, however, that 
 he would proceed d outrance against anyone who 
 should conspire with the foreigner. He announced 
 that as the Doge of Venice had solemnly wedded 
 the Adriatic, so he wbhed to woo Alsace-Lorraine 
 and obtain her liberties for her. ... In his per- 
 sonal capacity he won general esteem. Accessible 
 to all, receiving freely even workingmen who came 
 to present their grievances, he exemplified the fine 
 politeness of the Old Regime and was a more pop- 
 ular figure than his predecessor or than any of 
 his successors were to be. ... In his fundamental 
 purpose Manteuffel could not succeed. Moreover, 
 he did not have the support of his own officials 
 whose conduct served more or less to nullify and 
 insulate the Staathalter. All through his regency 
 the bureaucrats of Alsace-Lorraine, big and little, 
 carried on an incessant and perfidious campaign 
 in the German press, seeking to undermine him. 
 Harassed by the Germans who criticised his mod- 
 eration and irritated by the Alsatians and Lor- 
 rainers whose passive resistance to the one thing 
 that counted revealed the essential superficiality 
 of the 'pacification,' moreover compelled from 
 time to time in the discharge of his obligations 
 to the authorities in Berlin to adopt harsh and 
 unpopular measures, such as the suppression of 
 certain newspapers. . . . Manteuffel stood inse- 
 curely upon treacherous sands. So strong was the 
 opposition to his policy in Germany that he would 
 have been recalled had it not been that the octo- 
 genarian Emperor, William I, did not like to dis- 
 miss old friends and advisers. . . . Manteuffel's 
 programme, the only wise one, could only succeed 
 if assured of length of years for its realization. 
 And these were not to be vouchsafed the sagacious 
 experiment. . . . Manteuffel's official days were 
 numbered. But he was spared the crowning hu- 
 miliation of recall because his earthly days were 
 also numbered. He died on June 17, 18S5, and 
 the policy for which he stood died with him. . . . 
 As the Manteuffel regime had not, in the brief 
 space of six years, reconciled Alsace to Germany, 
 as the process of comparatively mild Germaniza- 
 tion had made no appreciable advance, the Ger- 
 man government now resorted to methods with 
 which it was more familiar, and in which it had 
 a more robust faith. Coercion, pure and simple, 
 
 233
 
 ALSACE-LORRAINE 
 
 Constitution 
 
 ALSACE-LORRAINE 
 
 coercion thorough and undisguised, applied at every 
 point considered dangerous and applied without 
 hesitation and without interruption, was hence- 
 forth the programme of the government. To pre- 
 side over the execution of this policy a new 
 Statthalter, Prince Chlodwig von Hohenlohe- 
 Schillingsfiirst was appointed. . . . The period of 
 greatest tension since 1S71 now began and lasted 
 for several years, indeed all through this regency, 
 which ended only with the promotion of Hohen- 
 lohe to the chancellorship of the Empire in 1804. 
 It was a period of danger, replete with incidents 
 that set Germany, France, and Alsace-Lorraine 
 on edge. . . . Meanwhile Hohenlohe had tried to 
 use the war scare in Alsace to secure from the 
 voters the election of candidates favorable to the 
 project of the Chancellor. He told the Alsatians 
 that, if war came, their province would inevitably 
 be the theater of hostilities and would be fear- 
 fully harried by the contending armies. The re- 
 sult of his intervention was quite unexpected. . . . 
 Candidates patronized and supported by the Stat- 
 thalter were decisively defeated. A solid delega- 
 tion of fifteen 'protestataires' was sent to the 
 Reichstag. Of 314,000 registered voters, the 'pro- 
 testers' received 247,000 votes, that is 82,000 more 
 than had been cast for them in 1884. So stiff- 
 necked a f)eople needed emphatically to be tamed 
 and tamed it should be. Bismarck went at the 
 congenial task with determination, exceedingly ir- 
 ritated by the overwhelming condemnation of his 
 policy in Alsace at the time it was so overwhelm- 
 ingly approved throughout the Empire. Extraor- 
 dinary, exceptional measures now rained upon 
 the devoted heads of this independent people. The 
 leading Alsatian minister, Hoffman, considered too 
 mild for the work, was recalled and Puttkammer, 
 J, relative of Bismarck, was appointed in his place, 
 and began at once a policy of punishment and 
 repression. Puttkammer had declined even to 
 accept his post, that of Secretary of State and 
 President of the Ministry of .Msace-Lorraine, until 
 Antoine, deputy from Metz . . . had been ex- 
 pelled from the Reichstag. Accordingly the Reich- 
 stag expelled him on March 31, 1887, an act en- 
 tirely pleasing to those who did not care for par- 
 liamentary immunities. Against another deputy 
 from Alsace, Lalance of Mulhouse, a decree of 
 expulsion was issued, then suspended, then re- 
 placed by judicial prosecution and finally by a 
 mere administrative measure, which forced the 
 unwelcome deputy to depart. A vigorous attack 
 was made forthwith on various Alsatian organiza- 
 tions, art clubs, the medical society of Strasburg, 
 botanical and zoological societies. Other organiza- 
 tions which refused to admit the German immi- 
 grants to their membership, such as gymnastic 
 and choral and student clubs, were likewise dis- 
 solved by administrative decree. ... A series of ' 
 incidents also occurred, alarming and calculated 
 to increase the irritation and tension of the times, 
 such as the brutal arrest, on Alsatian soil, of 
 Schnaebele, a French railway official at Pagny-sur- 
 Moselle, by his German colleague of Noveant who 
 had summoned him hither for the transaction of 
 routine business, an incident that for several days 
 caused all Europe to hold its breath (April 20, 
 1887). . . . This policy of intimidation received 
 its appropriate coronation in a measure, which, 
 in the opinion of the German government would 
 completely subdue the recalcitrants, a new and 
 drastic regulation prescribine the use of passports, 
 a measure put into force June 1, 1888. Hence- 
 forth certain categories of people were absolutely 
 excluded from .Alsace-Lorraine, for instance, any- 
 one connected with the French armv. Everv 
 
 other person, not a German, who wished to enter 
 Alsace-Lorraine, must get a passport viseed at 
 the German embassy in Paris, and it was intended 
 that this passport should be granted only in ex- 
 ceptional cases." — C. D. Hazen, Alsace-Lorraine 
 under German rule, pp. 125-134. 
 
 1911. — Constitution. — "The people of Alsace- 
 Lorraine had for forty years been in absolute 
 subjection to other wills than their own. Though 
 allowed a Delegation or Landesausschuss, before 
 which routine legislative proposals were laid, yet 
 that body was elected not directly by the people 
 but indirectly and largely by and from district 
 and municipal councils, so that, by reason of its 
 complicated and carefully controlled composition 
 as well as because of the humble character of its 
 powers, it could only be servile. It could at any 
 moment be overruled by outside powers, by the 
 local executive, appointed from Berlin, or by Ber- 
 lin itself. There was in this form of government 
 no satisfaction given to the legitimate desire of the 
 Alsatians to manage their own affairs. . . . On 
 March 15, iqio, the Chancellor of the Empire, 
 Bethmann-Hollweg, announced in the Reichstag 
 that the Emperor had agreed with the confeder- 
 ated governments to grant a more autonomous 
 constitution to Alsace-Lorraine. This announce- 
 ment was received with lively satisfaction. But 
 the people of the Rfichsland were soon to learn 
 that the Greeks are not the only people to suspect 
 when they come forward bearing gifts. When, on 
 June 20, the members of the Landesausschuss ex- 
 pressed the desire that the Landesausschuss should 
 be consulted beforehand as to the constitutional 
 changes under consideration in Berlin they were 
 informed by the Alsatian ministry that the Im- 
 perial Government did not recognize the right of 
 the Landesausschuss to mix in questions which be- 
 longed exclusively to the Bundersrath and the 
 Reichstag. Indeed, the speech of the Chancellor 
 ought to have checked any undue optimism on the 
 part of the Alsations. Stating that it was neces- 
 sary to grant 'a greater political independence to 
 Alsace,' the Chancellor proceeded to lecture both 
 the Pan-Germanists — for their opposition to any 
 concessions — and those whom he called the 'Pan- 
 French,' for their particularistic and Francophile 
 agitation. The cry 'Alsace for the .\lsatiuns' had, 
 he said, a seductive sound, but he added that this 
 could never be realized as long as the leaders of 
 the movement affected not to recognize the fun- 
 damentally German character of the population 
 and aimed at G'allicizing the country in the face 
 
 of ethnography and history The cause of 
 
 Alsace was thus really lost in advance. . . . The 
 actual plan for reform was not laid before the 
 Reichstag until December, igio. Its discussion 
 dragged from the start. When the Landesausschuss 
 expressed opposition to certain features of the plan 
 its session was abruptly closed, May g, iqii, an 
 action which naturally produced a bad impression 
 upon the country. On May 26, ign, the 
 new Constitution of Alsace-Lorraine was voted 
 by the Reichstag. Violently opposed by the Pan- 
 Germanists and betrayed by those so-called liberal 
 parties in the Reichstag whose supposed princi- 
 ples required that they support it. .Alsatian au- 
 tonomy came out practically by the same door 
 wherein it went. Only one change of any impor- 
 tance was made. The Landesausschuss. or single- 
 chambered body, was now to give way to a bi- 
 cameral legislature which was henceforth to be 
 the sole source of legislation for Alsace-Lorraine. 
 The lower house was to be elected by secret and 
 practically manhood suffrage, but this house was 
 to be balanced by an upper house in which the 
 
 234
 
 ALSACE-LORRAINE 
 
 Constitution 
 
 ALSACE-LORRAINE 
 
 Government would always be assured of a major- 
 ity. The control of the legislature over the budget, 
 a vital test of its importance, was affirmed but 
 was rendered illusory by the provision that if 
 it should refuse to vote it, then the Government 
 ahould be entirely free to levy taxes and incur 
 expenses on the basis of the preceding budget, that 
 is, to raise and spend as much money as ever. 
 Moreover the legislature, in this respect like the 
 other legislatures of Germany, would have no 
 means of enforcing its wishes. The executive 
 power remained concentrated, as before, in the 
 hands of the Statthalter who would reside, it is 
 true, in Strasburg, but whose inspiration and in- 
 structions would come, as hitherto, from Berlin. 
 The local ministry was to be, as hitherto, respon- 
 ible not to the elected chamber, but to the Stat- 
 thalter alone, and the Statthalter was responsible 
 only to the Emperor. As the Statthalter and the 
 ministry were to appoint and control the bureau- 
 iiacy, or civil service, Alsace would remain, as 
 ill the past, entirely subject to an oligarchy of 
 lorcign officials, the detested immigrants from 
 Germany, and to the daily vexations and irrita- 
 cions of a despotic bureaucracy. Every individual 
 in Alsace would be subjected as during the past 
 lOrty years to the system of espionage which is 
 one of the ubiquitous elements of modern Ger- 
 man government. The Constitution of iqii pre- 
 tended to raise Alsace-Lorraine to the rank of a 
 German state, to place it on a plane of equality 
 with the other twenty-five members of the con- 
 federation. In practice it did nothing of the 
 kind. It allowed her three votes in the Bundes- 
 rath. She would thus, like all the other states, 
 be represented in both the Bundesrath and the 
 Reichstag. But the three delegates from Alsace- 
 Lorraine were to receive their instructions from 
 the Statthalter, were to vote in the Bundesrath as 
 he might direct. But the Statthalter was not 
 an independent sovereign like the King of Saxony 
 or the Duke of Mecklenburg, ruling by his own 
 right ; nor was he an elected republican head of 
 the state. He was appointed by the Emperor, 
 and was his representative, revocable at will and 
 consequently not likely to do anything distasteful 
 to him. The Constitution of iqii increased 
 greatly the power of the Emperor; it did not in- 
 crease the power of the people. In theory Alsace- 
 Lorraine was given statehood; in practice, she 
 was to be as tightly bound as ever. . . . The 
 Alsatians were shown, in all this campaign of 
 much talk about nothing, that nowhere in Ger- 
 many did they have any friends in their desire 
 for real self-government, not even in the Center 
 and Socialist parties which decisively betrayed 
 their allies in the Reichsland for the sake of the 
 immediate political advantages which offered them- 
 L^elves. The latter cooperated with the Conserva- 
 tives and the Pan-Germanists in granting this 
 mockery of autonomy. The trail of Pan-German- 
 ism was everywhere to be seen in the annexed 
 provinces during the few remaining years of peace. 
 It was indeed provided by Article 28 that any 
 further modification of the new Constitution should 
 be made by the Reichstag and the Bundesrath. 
 The people themselves of the new 'state' would 
 not be able to change their fundamental law in 
 any particular. Their Constitution of ion, like 
 that of 187Q, now superseded, was blighted in the 
 same way. . . . .\t any moment the legislative 
 organs of the German Empire were at liberty 
 to withdraw it or to alter it. Alsace-Lorraine re- 
 mained what she had always been in theory and 
 in fact, an Imperial Territory, a Reichsland, the 
 property of the collective states of the confedera- 
 
 tion. . . . The period from igii to igi4 was the 
 last act in the long and ignoble history of op- 
 pression which since 1870 has been the sign man- 
 ual of German rule. The situation became stead- 
 ily more and more critical for the Alsatians and 
 Lorrainers. 
 
 "After 1911 a species of terrorization was or- 
 ganized in Alsace-Lorraine. Spies infested the 
 country, denouncing every manifestation of oppo- 
 sition or criticism. Even local officials like the 
 Statthalter, Wedel, or the chief secretary, Zorn 
 von Eulach, a native Alsatian who had long ago 
 gone over to the German official side, were re- 
 proached bitterly . . . with lukewarmness and in- 
 difference to the welfare of the Fatherland. . . . 
 During the three years preceding . . . [the World 
 War] the cloven hoof appeared repeatedly. The 
 public opinion of the provinces was exacerbated 
 and alarmed by a series of irritating episodes which 
 showed the people the humiliation of their posi- 
 tion, the fragility, indeed the non-existence, of 
 any guarantee of their liberties. Hansi (J. J. 
 Waltz), a native Alsatian, was thrown into prison 
 ... for having caricatured a Pan-German high 
 school teacher, Herr Gneisse, and in 1Q14 he was 
 . . . prosecuted for high treason in the federal 
 court at Leipsic because of caricatures which in 
 any self-governing country would pass current 
 as the most ordinary satires upon the foibles and 
 pretensions of the official class. Abbe Wetterle, 
 editor of a newspaper in Colmar, and formerly a 
 member of the Reichstag, was condemned to fine 
 and imprisonment for protesting against the in- 
 solence of the Pan-Germans. A merchant of Miil- 
 house was expelled from Alsace for having asked a 
 hotel orchestra to play the Marseillaise. During 
 these years, also, the authorities proceeded against 
 numerous Alsatian societies and clubs in a way 
 that could only create widespread irritation and 
 resentment, against choral unions, gymnastic clubs, 
 and societies founded for the purpose of caring for 
 the graves of Alsatians who died on Alsatian soil 
 during the Franco-German war. In addition to 
 military and political pressure, economic pressure 
 was also used to further the programme of Ger- 
 manization. Alsatian economic interests were re- 
 peatedly sacrificed in the interest of neighboring 
 states like Baden or of the powerful Rhenish- 
 Westphalian steel-and-iron-mongers. Alsatian man- 
 ufacturers or merchants were the victims of despic- 
 able informers and all who were suspected of 
 French sympathies were made to fee! the full 
 displeasure of the government. The great locomo- 
 tive corporation of Graffenstaden, on which the 
 life of that town absolutely depended, was in- 
 formed that there would be no more government 
 contracts, unless it dismissed a manager whom the 
 Pan-Germanists considered Francophile As the 
 business would have been ruined without govern- 
 ment orders, the corporation submitted. . . The 
 reaction of all these incidents, grave or petty as 
 the case might be, was exactly what might have 
 been expected. The Alsatians and Lorrainers 
 united as one man against this recrudescence of 
 tyranny. Dropping their differences of opinion, 
 ignoring party lines, they joined in indignant pro- 
 test against a government which subjected them 
 to continued maltreatment, which failed to assure 
 them the most elementary rights of free men. 
 The hollowness and the mockery of the boasted 
 Constitution of loii were patent to all the world 
 in the light of these events "—C. D. Hazen, .4/- 
 sace-Lorrniiir under German rule. pp. 175-186. 
 
 1913.— Zabern (Saverne) affair.— "The Berlin 
 government was harassed by the fear of treason- 
 able arrangements between Alsace-Lorraine and 
 
 235
 
 ALSACE-LORRAINE 
 
 Returned to 
 France 
 
 ALSACE-LORRAINE 
 
 Paris. That this fear was well grounded was 
 made more than probable by the fact that with 
 the declaration of martial law in the 'Imperial 
 Land' after the war tocsin sounded at the begin- 
 ning of August, 1914, several prominent Alsatians, 
 including Wetterle fled across the border into 
 France, and that others who were not so fortu- 
 nate as to make their escape were arrested and 
 found guilty of treasonable acts. As it was, how- 
 ever, the threats against the constitution and the 
 various pin pricks which the government was able 
 to inflict effectively destroyed any national patri- 
 otism which the granting of the constitution might 
 have inspired. Popular irritation grew and showed 
 itself in many ways, culminating in the incident 
 at Zabern in December, 1013. In this busy Alsa- 
 tian town of some ten thousand inhabitants a 
 Prussian regiment of infantry was quartered. Sol- 
 diers on duty at the barracks and at liberty in the 
 town had been subjected to insults, and in sev- 
 eral cases to rough treatment on the part of rude 
 fellows of the baser sort among the populace. 
 Their officers, filled with the Prussian tradition 
 of military supremacy, ordered the privates to 
 make forcible resistance, employing at the same 
 time the rugged language of the barracks, which 
 being faithfully reported in the town, added still 
 further to the excitement. A crisic was reached 
 in an encounter between civilians anJ a squad 
 of soldiers led by a young lieutenant, in which 
 the latter fearing, as he claimed, that he would 
 be assaulted by a civilian of the lower class, 
 with the consequent irreparable loss of honor 
 according to the peculiar Prussian military tradi- 
 tion, sabred a lame shoemaker. In the riot which 
 resulted Colonel Reutter, in command at the bar- 
 racks, took over the administration of public order, 
 brusquely thrusting aside the civil officials and 
 pacifying the city by the abrupt methods of the 
 military. Instantly a shout of protest arose, not 
 only from Alsace-Lorraine, but from all non-feudal 
 circles in Germany as well. The rude supplant- 
 ing of the civil power by the military \yas re- 
 garded as a recession to the most autocratic days 
 of Prussian history, and in the Reichstag loud 
 calls went up for an authoritative statement from 
 the Kaiser. The Imperial Diet recorded a vote 
 of censure upon the Chancellor for a speech in 
 which the majesty of the law was not vindicated. 
 The whole matter went to the Emperor as supreme 
 military authority and the net result was the trans- 
 ferring of the regiment and the court-martialing 
 of its officers. The latter were finally acquitted, 
 and Colonel Reutter soon after was promoted by 
 the Emperor. The feeling of the feudal classes 
 was summed up in the words of the reactionary 
 Police President of Berlin, Voii Jagow: 'Alsace- 
 Lorraine is the enemy's country.' Non-feudal Ger- 
 many accepted a technical statement from the 
 ministry confirming the supremacy of the consti- 
 tution over the military power, with a further 
 promise from the government that a certain old 
 Prussian cabinet order of 1S20 which might be 
 interpreted to the contrary would be amended. 
 Radical and Socialist were the more ready to 
 still their attacks and hush the matter up, be- 
 cause the French journals, always ready to foment 
 discord in the lost provinces, had seized upon the 
 situation."— R H. Fife, German empire between 
 two wars. pp. 227-230. 
 
 1914-1918.— Part in the World War.— Alsace- 
 Lorraine lay close to the scene of conflict, but was 
 only occasionaliv the actual scene of severe fierht- 
 ing except during the first two months of the 
 war A little fringe of western Alsace was occu- 
 pied uninterruptedly by the French throughout 
 
 the great struggle and was also the scene of occa- 
 sional local fighting.— See also World War: 1914'. 
 I. Western front; h. 
 
 1915. — Department of Haut-Rhin formed. See 
 Frj\nce; 1915 (January). 
 
 1918 (Nov.) — Germany forced to evacuate. 
 See World War: Miscellaneous auxiliary services: 
 I. Armistices: f, 1; and IQ18: XI. End of the 
 war: c. 
 
 1918.— Political aspects of recovery by France. 
 See France: igiS (November). 
 
 1918. — President Wilson's peace program.— 
 Lloyd George's and President Wilson's declara- 
 tion of war aims. — Count Hertling's attitude. 
 See World War: igi8: X. Statement of war aims; 
 b; and d. 
 
 1918-1920. — Reconstruction work. See World 
 War; Miscellaneous auxiliary services: XII. Recon- 
 struction; a, 3. 
 
 1919. — Peace Conference decision. — "Alsace- 
 Lorraine took little of the time of the peace con- 
 ference. This would have seemed strange at any 
 time during the war or the generation which pre- 
 ceded it, for .Msace-Lorraine was an open wound 
 which, in President Wilson's phrase, 'had unset- 
 tled the peace of the world for nearly fifty years.' 
 It was not a direct cause of the war, but it be- 
 came a burning issue as soon as the war broke 
 forth, and it remained one of the chief obstacles 
 to any peace of compromise. But the problem of 
 .Msace-Lorraine was settled by the .Allied victory 
 and evacuation required by the armistice, and 
 these military acts were sealed by the enthusiastic 
 reception of the French troops immediately there- 
 after. There was no way of reopening the ques- 
 tion at the conference, for the Germans had 
 accepted President Wilson's eighth point requiring 
 that the wrong done to France should be righted, 
 and by their enforced evacuation they were no 
 longer in a position to delay or to interfere. Nev- 
 ertheless at \'ersailles Germany put up a last fight 
 for the retention of these territories, tied up as 
 they were with Germany's imperial tradition, with 
 her strategic position, and with her supply of iron 
 ore She demanded that there should be a popu- 
 lar vote. For this there was no legal ground, 
 the language of President Wilson speaking only 
 of the wrong done to France, and the armistice 
 having assimilated .Msace-Lorraine to other occu- 
 pied territories. . . . Since the signing of the treaty 
 the secret propaganda of the German Heimat- 
 dienst [Home Service! has been active in Al- 
 sace-Lorraine, keeping alive German feeling where 
 it still exists and in particular fomenting a so- 
 called Neutralist movement for the separation of 
 this region as a neutralized state under the pro- 
 tection of the League of Nations. . . . With the 
 major question of the return of the lost provinces 
 to France settled in advance, the Paris confer- 
 ence had only to deal with matters of detail, such 
 as naturallv arise in a retrocession from one coun- 
 trv to another. The draft of such clauses was 
 submitted bv the French and referred by the 
 council of four to the special committee of three, 
 Messrs Tardieu, Headlam-Moriey, and Haskins, 
 which had already been at work on the Saar 
 valley. . . The clauses respectine citizenship are 
 particularlv complicated, and much depends upon 
 the spirit of liberality with which these and the 
 economic clauses are interpreted by the French 
 administration"— E. M. House and C. Seymour, 
 What really happened at Paris, story 0/ the Peace 
 Conference, pp. 46-4S. 
 
 "The treaty therefore restored the provmces 
 with the frontiers of 187 r. Since Germany had 
 refused to assume any share of the French debt in 
 
 236
 
 ALSACE-LORRAINE 
 
 ALTAR 
 
 1871, France now recovers the provinces free of 
 obligations as to the German national debt. Simi- 
 larly German state property including railroads 
 is transferred without payment or credit on Ger- 
 many's reparation account. Other articles fix the 
 details as to customs, court proceedings, and the 
 like. For five years products of Alsace-Lorraine 
 are to enter Germany duty-free, up to the average 
 amounts of 1911-1913. Germany also is to allow 
 free export and re-import ot yarns and textile 
 products. The French government has the right 
 to exclude German capital from public utilities 
 and mines, and it also reserves the right (0 retain 
 and liquidate the property of German citizens in 
 Alsace-Lorraine. An annex provides for the restor- 
 ation to French citizenship of the old Alsace- 
 Lorrainers and their descendants, with some ex- 
 ceptions. Various others within a year may claim 
 French nationality, thou.;h in individual cases the 
 French may reject the claim. Germans born or 
 domiciled in Alsace-Lorraine before the war must 
 be naturalized, a period of three years from No- 
 vember I, 1918, being required." — A. P. Scott, /«- 
 troduction to the peace treaties, p. 16. — See also 
 Versaii,les, Treaty of: Part III; Section V. 
 
 "France had not provoked the war in order to 
 regain Alsace-Lorraine ; but from the moment the 
 war began, every Frenchman was determined that 
 the old 'open wound' in the side of France must 
 be healed. Although during the war there had 
 been some talk among outside observers of a pos- 
 sible division •of Alsace-Lorraine along the lines 
 of the prevailing languages, and although Presi- 
 dent Wilson had not specified just how 'the 
 wrong done to France in 1871' was to be righted, 
 there was not the slightest doubt after the armis- 
 tice that Alsace-Lorraine should be restored entire 
 to France. The Germans admitted that in spite 
 of their historic and nationalistic claims, they had, 
 according to present conceptions of right, done 
 an injustice in 1871, when they had not consulted 
 the»peoplc of Alsace-Lorraine. In acordance with 
 the new principle of self-determination, however, 
 they demanded a plebiscite, which should decide 
 whether the region wished to join France or Ger- 
 many or become a free state. This proposal was 
 summarily rejected. It was felt that restoration 
 to France was necessary to redress the injustice 
 of 1871. The will of the inhabitants had been 
 shown by their protests at that time, and later. 
 Practically, a fair plebiscite would have been dif- 
 ficult in view of the fact that many French sym- 
 pathizers had left after 1871, that many Germans 
 had come in since then, and that during the war 
 the Germans had treated the territory as enemy 
 country. The treaty therefore restored the prov- 
 inces to France with the frontiers of 1871. . . . 
 The restoration of Alsace-Lorraine is doubly sig- 
 nificant. It has a moral and sentimental value, 
 as marking the failure of that Prussian policy of 
 blood and iron which seemed so triumphant in 
 1871. For France, the stronger frontier and the 
 added population are additional safeguards. But 
 still more important is the iron of Lorraine, the 
 richest field in Europe. From it Germany drew 
 nearly all her ore. With it Germany was able 
 tn forge her industrial and military machine. 
 Without it Germany will be helpless fo' aggression, 
 and dependent for her industrial development on 
 the cultivation of friendly economic relations with 
 France." 
 
 With the signing of the armistice, the transition 
 period began. The French government by the de- 
 cree of November 26, IQ18, took over the ad- 
 ministration of the country and French troops 
 displaced the Germans. On March 22, 1919, M. 
 
 .Alexandre Millerand was appointed first governor- 
 general. The task of submitting civil officials and 
 courts for the administration of French law and 
 of organization of the educational system along 
 French lines, has been substantially achieved. Seri- 
 ous difficulties were encountered due to French 
 unfamiliarity with the country and the barrier of 
 languages, for, in Alsace at least, the great ma- 
 jority of the people speak a German dialect. 
 The currency question also offered certain peculiar 
 difficulties of its own. The franc was made to 
 take the place of the mark. Altogether there 
 was much confusion and disappointment over these 
 various diftkultics in spite of the great popular 
 acclaim with which the transfer of these last 
 provinces from German to French sovereignty was 
 received. 
 
 "For France the reacquisition of the lost prov- 
 inces brings not only renewed strength but per- 
 plexing problems and responsibilities. Germany 
 had signally failed to win the affection and loy- 
 alty of Alsace-Lorraine. On the other hand, the 
 German connection had brought much prosperity 
 to the provinces, and by no means all — perhaps 
 not even a majority — of the people were in 1914 
 anxious to return to France. In 1918, however, 
 the French were welcomed with a heartiness which 
 even the Germans had to admit. The problem of 
 the complete reincorporation of the provinces in 
 France is not a simple one. Great caution will 
 have to be e.xercised in applying the French laws 
 as to the separation of church and state, and 
 limiting clerical control of education. If Alsace- 
 Lorraine should prove less prosperous than under 
 German rule, or if the anti-clericalism of France 
 should offend the strong Catholic sentiment of the 
 people, grave dissatisfaction may yet arise. It is 
 to be hoped that as little occasion as possible will 
 be given for the growth of a new irredentism, and 
 that the historic wrong of 1871 may have found 
 its final solution." — A. P. Scott, Introduction to 
 the peace treaties, pp. nS-118. — See also France: 
 1918 (November). 
 
 Also in: E. A. Vizetelly, True story of Alsace- 
 Lorraine. — C. Phillipson, Alsace-Lorraine. — -G. W. 
 Edwards, Alsace-Lorraine described and pictured 
 (London, 1919). — B. Cerf, Alsace-Lorraine since 
 1870 (New York, 1919). — Marie Harrison, Stolen 
 lands: Study on Alsace-Lorraine (London, iqi8). 
 — C. Phillipson, Alsace-Lorraine, past, present, and 
 future (London, 1918). — C. D. Hazen, .Alsace-Lor- 
 raine under German rule (New York, 1917).— 
 D. S. Jordan, Alsace-Lorraine (1916). 
 
 ALSO? CLAIM. See Chile: 1909. 
 
 ALSUA, Enrigue Dorn y de, Representative 
 from Ecuador at the Peace Conference (loio). See 
 Versailles, Treaty of: Conditions of peace. 
 
 ALT AUTZ, Poland: Taken by the Germans 
 (1915). See World War: 1915: III. Eastern front: 
 g, 8. 
 
 ALTA CALIFORNIA (Upper California). 
 See California. 
 
 ALTAMIRA, caves in northern Spain wherein 
 notable examples of prehistoric paintings were 
 found. See Painting: Pre-classical. 
 
 ALTAMSH, or Altimsh (d. 1236), king of 
 Delhi. See India: 977-1290. 
 
 ALTAR, a raised place of earth, stone or other 
 material, which forms the central point of worship 
 in the sacred building or enclosure of any reli- 
 gion. In the older religions it was upon the altar 
 that sacrifices were made, libations poured, or 
 gifts deposited. In the liturgical Christian churches 
 the sacrament is administered from the altar. In 
 the Protestant churches, the altar has disappeared, or 
 has been replaced by the simple communion table. 
 
 2Z7
 
 ALTDORFER 
 
 AMALEKITES 
 
 ALTDORFER, Albiccht ( ?i48o-i53S), Ger- 
 man painter and engraver, called the "Giorgionc 
 of the North." His engravings on wood and 
 copper rank next to those of Albrecht Diirer. 
 ALTEN, Sir Charles (1704-1S40), Hanoverian 
 and British soldier. Participated in the cainpaign 
 in the Low Countries, 1703-1705, in the Hano- 
 verian expedition 1S05, was with Moore in the 
 expedition to Spain, and commanded Wellington's 
 third division at Waterloo. 
 
 ALTENBURG: Its origin and dukedom. See 
 Saxony: i 180- is ^3 
 
 ALTENHEIM, Battle of (1675). See Neth- 
 erlands: 1674-1678. 
 
 ALTGELD, John Peter (1847-1002), governor 
 of Illinois, 1S03-1807; came to the United States 
 from Germany at an early age. While governor 
 he was severely criticized for his leniency in par- 
 doning three anarchists, said to have been guilty 
 of exploding a bomb in Chicago during a strike 
 in 1886. He again showed that his sympathies 
 were with the workers when he refused to call 
 out the militia in 1804, during the Pullman strikes. 
 President Cleveland sent federal troops over Alt- 
 geld's protest on the ground that his action was 
 necessary to protect the federal mills. He 
 supported William J. Bryan in the iSq6 and 
 iQoo presidential campaigns, in favor of "free 
 silver," and was a strong advocate of prison 
 reform. 
 ALTHING. See Thing. 
 
 ALTHING (General Diet): Denmark. See 
 Denmark: 1S00-1S74. 
 
 ALTINUM, an ancient town of Venitia, de- 
 stroyed bv Attila in 452. Sec Venice: 452. 
 
 ALTITUDE RECORDS. See Aviation: De- 
 velopment of airplanes and air service: 1008-1020. 
 ALTMAN, Benjamin (1840-1913), American 
 art collector and merchant. See Gifts and be- 
 quests. 
 
 ALTOBELLI, Argentina (c. i860- ), Italian 
 communist. In 1020 she was head of the union 
 of peasants or land workers, and an influential 
 agitator in the Italian industrial struggle. 
 
 ALTON, a railroad town of Madison Co., 111., 
 on the Mississippi, which is here spanned by a 
 bridge, first settled in 1783. In 1837, during the 
 anti-slavery agitation. Elijah P, Lovejoy, a prom- 
 inent abolitionist, was killed in what was known 
 as "the Alton riot." 
 
 ALTON A, Schleswig-Holstein: 1713.— Burned 
 by the Swedes. See Sweden: 1707-1718. 
 
 ALTOPASCIO, Battle of (1325)- See Italy: 
 1313-1330. 
 
 ALVA, or Alba, Fernando Alvarez de To- 
 ledo, Duke of (1508-1583), famous Spanish gen- 
 eral and statesman ; prime minister and general 
 of the armies of Spain under Charles V and Philip 
 II; fought in the campaigns of Charles V, and 
 was important factor in the victory at Mijhlberg 
 (1547) against Elector John Frederick of Saxony; 
 was victorious against the combined French and 
 Papal forces in the Italian campaign (1555); was 
 sent to suppress Dutch revolt in Netherlands 
 (1567) ; in 1580. conducted a campaign against 
 Don Antonio of Portugal. — See also Netherlands: 
 i,S67-iS73; 1573-1574; Rome: Modern city: 1537- 
 1621. 
 
 ALVARADO, Pedro de (1405-1541), Spanish 
 soldier appointed commander of a fleet for the 
 conquest of Mexico. He later conquered Guate- 
 mala, and in 1527 was appointed governor of the 
 captured territory by Charles V. See Me-\ico: 
 1510-1520; i=;2i (Mav-Julv). 
 
 ALVARADO, Salvador (1880- ), Mexican 
 general and statesman; governor of the state of 
 
 Yucatan (1015-1917) under socialistic system; gov- 
 ernor of state of Tabasco for a short time; par- 
 ticipated in revolution of 1920 which caused the 
 downfall of Carranza ; special envoy to Washington 
 for General Alvaro Obregon, leader of the revo- 
 lution; made minister of finance under the Obre- 
 gon government; sent on. mission to New York, 
 Washington, and European capitals to discuss re- 
 sumption of payments on Mexican foreign debt. 
 — Sec also Y'ucatan: 1911-1918. 
 
 ALVAREZ, Juan (1780-1897), President of 
 Mexico. See Mexico: 1848-1861. 
 
 ALVEAR, Carlos Maria (c. 1785-1850), aids 
 Uruguay to establish its independence. See Uru- 
 guay: 1821-1905. 
 
 ALVERSTONE (Sir Richard Everard Web- 
 ster), Baron (1842-1915), lord chief justice of 
 England. Counsel for The Times in the Parnell 
 inquiry ; in 1803 represented England in the Ber- 
 ing sea arbitration; in 1903 a member of the 
 .Maska boundary commission (q.v.). 
 
 ALVES, Rodriquez, president of Brazil, 1918- 
 1922. Sec Brazil: 1918. 
 ALWANIYAH See Dervishes. 
 ALYATTES (609-500 B.C.), king of Lydia, 
 founder of the Lydian empire. Fixed the Halys 
 as the boundary between Media and Lydia; drove 
 the Cimmcrii from .\sia, subdued the Carians. 
 His tomb at Sardis was excavated in 1854. 
 
 A.M. (Anno mundi), the Year of the World, or 
 the year from the beginning of the world, accord- 
 ing to the formerly accepted chronological reck- 
 oning of .Archbishop Usher and others. Computed 
 from biblical sources, the date of the creation 
 was set at 4004 B. C, a theory no longer accepted 
 bv scientists. 
 
 AMADE, Albert d', French general. In 1914, 
 with a newly-formed corps, delayed the attempted 
 German drive between the British and French 
 armies. See World War: 1914; Western front 
 For operations in Morocco see Morocco: 1907- 
 1909; 1909. 
 
 AMADEO, king of Spain, 1871-1873- See 
 Amedeo Ferdinando Maria di Savoia. 
 AMAHUACO. See Andesians. 
 AMAL, the name of the leading family of the 
 Ostrogoths, from which nearly all their kings, 
 known as .Amalings, were chosen. 
 
 AMALEKITES.— "The Amalekites were usu- 
 ally regarded as a branch of the Edomites or 
 'Red-skins.' Amalek, like Kenaz, the father ol 
 the Kenizzites or 'Hunters,' was the grandson of 
 Esau (Gen. 36: 12, 16). He thus belonged to the 
 group of nations, — Edomites, .Ammonites, and 
 Moabites, — who stood in a relation of close kin- 
 ship to Israel. But they had preceded the Israelites 
 in dispossessing the older inhabitants of the land, 
 and establishing themselves in their place. The 
 Edomites had partly destroyed, partly amalgamated 
 the Horites of Mount Seir (Deut. 2:12); the 
 Moabites had done the same to the Emlin, a 
 people great and many, and tall as the Anakim' 
 (Deut. 2:10). while the .Ammonites had extirpated 
 and succeeded to the Rephaim or 'Giants,' who in 
 that part of the country were termed Zamzum- 
 min (Deut. 2:20; Gen.' 14:5^ Edom however 
 stood in a closer relation to Israel than its two 
 more northerly neighbours. . . . Separate from 
 the Edomites or .Amalekites were the Kenites or 
 wandering 'smiths.' They formed an important 
 Guild, in an age when the art of metallurgy was 
 confined to a few. In the time of Saul we hear 
 of them as camping among the Amalekites (I. 
 Sam. 15:6.) . . . The Kenites . . did not con- 
 stitute a race, or even a tribe. They were, at 
 most, a caste. But they had originally come, 
 
 ^38
 
 AMALFI 
 
 AMATONGALAND 
 
 like Ihe Israelites or the Edomites, from those bar- 
 ren regions of Northern Arabia which were peo- 
 pled by the Menti of the Egyptian inscriptions. 
 Racially, therefore, we may regard them as allied 
 to the descendants of Abraham. While the Kenites 
 and Amalckites were thus Semitic in their origin, 
 the Hivites or 'Villagers' are specially associated 
 with Amorites." — A. H. Sayce, Races of the Old 
 Testament, cli. 6. — See also Jews; Israel under the 
 Judges, and Kingdoms of Israel and Judah; Chris- 
 tianity: Map of Sinaitic peninsula. 
 
 Also in: H. Ewald, History of Israel, bk. i, 
 sect. 4. 
 
 AMALFI, a seaport town in Campania, south 
 Italy. It is about twenty-two miles southeast of 
 Naples, on the Gulf of Salerno. An interesting 
 building is the old cathedral, with bronze doors 
 cast in Constantinople in the nth century. A 
 hotel now makes use of an old Capuchin monas- 
 tery, which dates from the beginning of the 13th 
 century. "It was the singular fate of this city 
 to have filled up the interval between two periods 
 of civilization, in neither of which she was destined 
 to be distinguished. Scarcely known before the 
 end of the sixth century, Amalfi ran a brilliant 
 career, as a free and trading republic which was 
 checked by the arms of a conqueror in the mid- 
 dle of the twelfth. . . . There must be, I suspect, 
 some exaggeration about the commerce and opu- 
 lence of Amalfi, in the only age when she pos- 
 sessed any at all." — H. Hallam, Europe during the 
 Middle Ages, cit. g, pt. i, with note. — "Amalfi 
 and Atrani lie close together in two . . . ravines, 
 the mountains almost arching over them, and the 
 sea washing their very house-walls. ... It is not 
 easy to imagine the time when Amalfi and Atrani 
 were one town, with docks and arsenals and har- 
 bourage for their associated fleets, and when these 
 little communities were second in importance to 
 no naval power of Christian Europe The Byzan- 
 tine Empire lost its hold on Italy during the 
 eighth century; and after this time the history 
 of Calabria is mainly concerned with the republic 
 of Naples and .Amalfi, their conflict with the Lom- 
 bard dukes of Benevento, their opposition to the 
 Saracens, and their final subjugation by the Nor- 
 man conquerors of Sicily. Between the year 83q 
 when Amalfi freed itself from the control of 
 Naples and the yoke of Benevento, and the year 
 1 13 1, when Roger of Hauteville incorporated the 
 republic in his kingdom of the Two Sicilies, this 
 city was the foremost naval and commercial port 
 of Italy. The burghers of Amalfi elected their 
 own doge ; founded the Hospital of Jerusalem, 
 whence sprang the knightly order of S. John ; gave 
 their name to the richest quarter in Palermo; and 
 owned trading establishments or factories in all the 
 chief cities of the Levant. Their gold coinage of 
 'tari' formed the standard of currency before the 
 Florentines had stamped the lily and S. John upon 
 the Tuscan florin. Their shipping regulations 
 supplied Europe with a code of maritime laws. 
 Their scholars, in the darkest depths of the dark 
 ages, prized and conned a famous copy of the 
 Pandects of Justinian, and their seamen deserved 
 the fame of having first used, if they did not 
 actually invent, the compass. . . . The republic 
 had grown and flourished on the decay of the 
 Greek Empire. When the hard-handed race of 
 Hauteville absorbed the heritage of Greeks and 
 Lombards and Saracens in Southern Italy these 
 adventurers succeeded in annexing Amalfi. But it 
 was not their interest to extinguish the state. On 
 the contrary, they relied for assistance upon the 
 navies and the armies of the little commonwealth. 
 New powers had meanwhile arisen in the North 
 
 of Italy, who were jealous of rivalry upon the open 
 seas; and when the Neapolitans resisted King 
 Roger in 1135, they called Pisa to their aid, and 
 sent her fleet to destroy Amalfi. The ships of 
 Amalfi were on guard with Roger's navy in the 
 Bay of Naples. The armed citizens were, under 
 Roger's orders, at Aversa. Meanwhile the home 
 of the republic lay defenceless on its mountain- 
 girdled seaboard. The Pisans sailed into the har- 
 bour, sacked the city and carried off the famous 
 Pandects of Justinian as a trophy. Two years 
 later they returned, to complete the work of de- 
 vastation. Amalfi never recovered from the in- 
 juries and the humiliation." — J. A. Symonds, 
 Sketches and studies in Italy, pp. 2-4. 
 
 AMALFITAN TABLES'. See International 
 law: Maritime codes. 
 
 AMALGAMATED CLOTHING WORKERS 
 STRIKE. See Arbitration and conciliation. In- 
 dustrial: United States: loiS-ioiq. 
 
 AMALGAMATED LABOR UNION. See 
 American Federation of Labor: 1881-1886. 
 
 AMALIKA. See Arabia: Ancient succession 
 and fusion of races. 
 
 AMALINGS, or Amals. — The royal race of 
 the ancient Ostrogoths, as the Balthi or Balthings 
 were of the Visigoths, both claiming a descent 
 from the gods. 
 
 AMALRIC I (113S-1174), king of Jerusalem. 
 Reigned from 1162 till his death. Made several 
 unsuccessful incursions into Egypt. See Jerusa- 
 lem: 1144-1187. 
 
 Amalric II (1144-1205), king of Jerusalem 
 from 1 197 to his death. Merely nominal ruler, 
 as Jerusalem remained in the hands of the Saracens 
 throughout his reign; was also king of Cyprus, 
 as Amalric I, from 1194. See Jerusalem: 1187- 
 1229. 
 
 AMANA COMMUNIT"if, German religious 
 communistic society of Iowa. See Socialism: 1843- 
 1874. 
 
 AMANDO. See Alcantra, Knights of. 
 
 AMANI (East Africa), Battle of. See World 
 War: 1916: VII. African theater: a, 11. 
 
 AMAPALA, Treaty of (1895). See Central 
 America: 1895-1002. 
 
 AMARA, Mesopotamia, Captured by British 
 (1915). See World War: 1915: VI. Turkey: c, 2. 
 
 AMARYNTHUS, (i), king of Eubrea; (2) a 
 town under the rule of King Amarynthus, famed 
 for its temple of Artemis. 
 
 AMASIA, a small Turkish city in Asia Minor 
 about 200 miles southwest of Trebizond, in an- 
 cient times the capital of the kingdom of Pon- 
 tus. Strabo, the father of geography, was born 
 here. 
 
 AMASIS I (c. 1700 B.C.), founder of the 
 Eighteenth Dynasty in Egypt. Waged successful 
 wars against the Hyksos princes. 
 
 Amasis II, last great ruler of Egypt, 570-526 
 B. C; usurped the throne of King Apries; main- 
 tained friendly relations with Greece. See Egypt: 
 
 B. C. 670-525. 
 
 AMATHUS, an ancient Phcenician city on the 
 southern coast of Cyprus. It was involved in 
 the successful revolt of Cyprus against Persian 
 rule (500-494 B. C). Amathus refused to join the 
 phil-Hellene league; that refusal brought on a 
 siege of the city by Onesilas of Salamis, who was 
 captured and executed when his attempt failed. 
 
 AMATI, Nicolo (1596-1684), the most famous 
 of the Amati family that founded the Cremona 
 school of violin makers. Nicolo was the teacher 
 of Andrea Guarnicri and Antonio Stradivari. 
 
 AMATONGALAND, or Tongaland.— On the 
 cast coast of South .Africa, north of Zululand, un- 
 
 239
 
 AMAURY 
 
 AMAZON RIVER 
 
 der British protection since 1888. See Africa; 
 Modern European occupation: 1884-1S89. 
 
 AMAURY. See Aiialrk. 
 
 AMAZIGH OF THE RIF, Characteristics of. 
 See Africa: Races of Africa: Prehistoric peoples. 
 
 AMAZON INDIANS. See India.ns, Amer- 
 ican: Cultural areas in South America: Amazon 
 area. 
 
 AMAZON RIVER: Its course.— Madeira- 
 Mamore railway. — The .\mazon is a river of 
 South America, and is the longest and most ex- 
 tensive inland waterway in the world. Its length 
 is variously estimated at between 3,000 and 4,000 
 miles; with more than ;oo tributaries this great 
 fluvial system drains an area of over 2,700,000 
 square miles. About 2.500 miles of its length 
 courses through Brazil. Rising in the Peruvian 
 Andes in two main arteries, the Maranon or Tingu- 
 ragua and the Ucayali, also known as the Apuri- 
 mac, the stream becomes united at Tabatinga on 
 the borders of Peru and Brazil, abou. 5 south and 
 flows eastward as the SoHmoens river to the Rio 
 Negro confluence. From this point the Amazon 
 proper, or lower course, winds through Brazil 
 and empties itself into the .Atlantic directly on 
 the equator. From Tabatinga the two sections 
 of the main stream, together with most of their 
 ramifying branches, are comprised within Brazil- 
 ian territory ; the upper section, together with the 
 upper valleys of some of the Solimoens affluents, 
 belong entirely to Peru. Here rise and flow for 
 hundreds of miles the Maraiion, the Huallaga, and 
 the Ucayali, that is, the three farthest head- 
 streams of the whole system with which the Paute, 
 Pastaza, Tigre and Napo from Ecuador converge 
 above Tabatinga to form the Solimoens. It is 
 apparently owing to its westernmost position, far- 
 thest from the ."Atlantic, that the Marafion is com- 
 monly regarded as the true upper source of the 
 Amazon. Judging by length and volume, however, 
 this distinction should be awarded to the Ucayali, 
 which is the largei; of the two at the confluence 
 and has also a much longer course. 
 
 "From Para to the Amazon proper much can be 
 seen, but by far the greater interest lies in the pas- 
 sage through the narrows; that is, the latter part of 
 this stretch, and it can be enjoyed only by day- 
 light, when the sometimes threatening closeness 
 to the banks permits those on the deck of the 
 steamer to catch the details within or about the 
 small thatched huts (barracas) of the natives; to 
 watch the children at their games, which are much 
 the same as games of children in other parts of 
 the world; and to study the endless variety of the 
 crowded, impenetrable vegetation of the forest. 
 Here the trees appear to be higher and greener, 
 the sparse clearings, whether made by nature or 
 man, farther apart; but the huts are numerous, 
 and the traveler can fancy a certain degree of 
 neighborhood life among the simple people. One 
 seldom sees a patch along the water's edge be- 
 tween any two huts, or settlements, but the water 
 is always there, and it affords the only traveled 
 highway for either sociability or commence. The 
 main river to the novelty-seeking tourist may be 
 somewhat disappointing. He who has seen the 
 Rhine, the Thames, the Danube, or the Hudson is 
 apt to come away with the fixed opinion that the 
 Amazon is rather monotonous. The only reason 
 upon which such an opinion can be based is the 
 fact that the four or five days on the river to Man- 
 aos present no striking views of constantly varying 
 scenery, no great evidences of the struggles of 
 nature when the earth was forming, and only here 
 and there substantial traces of man's conquest of 
 the land. The stream flows practically due east 
 
 from the Andes with only a few turns in its 
 course, although the channel alters from season 
 to season. The numerous islands are in general 
 indistinguishable from the mainland; the entrance 
 of any one of the many important tributaries cre- 
 ates little disturbance and seems not to increase 
 at all the tremendous volume of water between 
 the two banks. . . . Only three places really at- 
 tract notice on the through voyage — Obidos, San- 
 tarem, and Itacoatiara a few miles below the 
 mouth of the Madeira River. The two former 
 are historical, being early settlements grown into 
 cities since the time of the Province and the 
 Empire; the latter was originally an Indian vil- 
 lage and once had the name of Serpa which is 
 yet heard on the lips of experienced river men. 
 Para is one of the oldest cities in Brazil, and offers 
 for the tourist much that is interesting from any 
 point of view. Manaos, on the contrary, is one 
 of the newest cities in Brazil, and illustrates fairly 
 well what Brazilians can do in civic foundation 
 and improvement. ... To those who are travelers 
 with a different purpose, however, the Amazon 
 Valley is a wonderland, the richest in opportunity 
 of any of the world's hitherto unoccupied spaces. 
 For the botanist, for instance, an unlimited field 
 for investigation is still open, and the studies of 
 Bates, Spruce, or others have merely hewn a slight 
 path through this most luxuriant of nature's gar- 
 dens. For the biologist and zoologist, the amount 
 of the unknown is fascinating, and the needed re- 
 searches into the natural history of this region will 
 furnish activity for inquiring minds during the 
 greater part of the present century. The eth- 
 nologist also must be fascinated by the chance 
 here offered to discover man in an environment 
 which, while leaving him essentially savage, has 
 yet developed in him many of the better phases 
 of human nature. In fact every student of what- 
 ever degree or inclination should know that here 
 is a theater that calls him most ardently to ac- 
 tion now, and in which there need be not one 
 moment of dullness or monotony. . . . One of 
 the seven wonders of the first part of the twen- 
 tieth century . . . [is] the Madeira-Mamore Rail- 
 way. ... In a sentence, the Madeira-Mamore 
 Railway is to Brazil and Bolivia what the Panama 
 Canal is to Chile and Peru. . . . The Madeira- 
 Mamore Railway is 363.4 kilometers long (202 
 miles). It extends in a direction almost due south, 
 within the Brazilian State of Matto Grosso, be- 
 tween the terminals Porto Velho at the north, on 
 the Madeira River, to Guajara-Mirim at the south, 
 on the Mamore River. . . . The Madeira-Mamore 
 Railway was built to avoid the rapids and falls 
 of the Madeira River, and it is evident, when 
 passing over the line, that the result was most 
 satisfactorily obtained." — H. Hale, Valley of the 
 river Amazon. — Madeira-Mamore Railway Com- 
 pany {Pan American Union, Dec., 1912). — See also 
 Brazil: Geographic description; Latin America: 
 Map of South America. 
 
 Discovery and naming. — The mouth of the 
 great river of South America was discovered in 
 1500 by Pinzon, or Pincon, who called it "Santa 
 Maria dc la Mar Dulc" (Saint Mary of the fresh- 
 water sea). "This was the first name given to 
 the river, except that older and better one of 
 the Indians, 'Parana,' the Sea; afterwards it was 
 Maraiion and Rio das Amazonas, from the female 
 warriors that were supposed to live near iti 
 banks. . . . After Pinion's time, there were others 
 who saw the fresh-water sea, but no one was 
 hardy enough to venture into it. The honor of 
 its real discovery was reserved for Francisco de 
 Orellana; and he explored it, not from the east, 
 
 240
 
 AMAZON RIVER 
 
 AMAZON RIVER 
 
 but from the west, in one of the most daring 
 voyages that was ever recorded. It was accident 
 rather than design that led him to it. After . . . 
 Pizarro had conquered Peru, he sent his brother 
 Gonzalo, with 340 Spanish soldiers, and 4,000 
 Indians, to explore the great forest east of Quito, 
 'where there were cinnamon trees.' The expe- 
 dition started late in 1539, and it was two years 
 before the starved and ragged survivors returned 
 to Quito. In the course of their wanderings they 
 had struck the river Coco; building here a brig- 
 antine, they followed down the current, a part of 
 them in the vessel, a part on shore. After a while 
 they met some Indians, who told them of a rich 
 country ten days' journey beyond — a country of 
 gold, and with plenty of provisions. Gonzalo 
 placed Orellana in command of the brigantine, and 
 ordered him, with 50 soldiers, to go on to this gold- 
 land, and return with a load of provisions. Orel- 
 lana arrived at the mouth of the Coco in three 
 days, but found no provisions; 'and he considered 
 that if he should return with this news to Pizarro, 
 he would not reach him in a year, on account of 
 the strong current, and that if he remained where 
 he was, he would be of no use to the one or to 
 the other. Not knowing how long Gonzalo Pizarro 
 would take to reach the place, without consulting 
 any one he set sail and prosecuted his voyage on- 
 ward, intending to ignore Gonzalo, to reach Spain, 
 and obtain that government for himself.' Down 
 the Napo and the Amazons, for seven months, 
 these Spaniards floated to the Atlantic. At times 
 they suffered terribly from hunger: 'There was 
 nothing to eat but the skins which formed their 
 girdles, and the leather of their shoes, boiled with 
 a few herbs. ' When they did get food they were 
 often obliged to fight hard for it; and again they 
 were attacked by thousands of naked Indians, who 
 came in canoes against the Spanish vessel. At 
 some Indian villages, however, they were kindly 
 received and well fed, so they could rest while 
 building a new and stronger vessel. . . . On the 
 26th of August, 1541, Orellana and his men sailed 
 out to the blue water 'without either pilot, com- 
 pass, or anything useful for navigation ; nor did 
 they know what direction they should take.' Fol- 
 lowing the coast, they passed inside of the island 
 of Trinidad, and so at length reached Cubagua in 
 September. From the king of Spain Orellana re- 
 ceived a grant of the land he had discovered; but 
 he died while returning to it, and his company 
 was dispersed. It was not a very reliable account 
 of the river that was given by Orellana and his 
 chronicler. Padre Carbajal. So Hcrrera tells their 
 story of the warrior females, and very properly 
 adds: 'Every reader may believe as much as he 
 likes.' " — H. H. Smith, Bra::i!, the Amazons, and 
 the coast, ch. i. — In chapter eighteen of this same 
 work "The Amazon Myth" is discussed at length, 
 with the reports and opinions of numerous travel- 
 lers, both early and recent, concerning it. Mr. 
 Southey had so much respect for the memory of 
 Orellana that he made an effort to restore that 
 bold but unprincipled discoverer's name to the great 
 river. "He discarded Maranon, as having too 
 much resemblance to Maranham, and Amazon, as 
 being founded upon fiction and at the same time 
 inconvenient. Accordingly, in his map, and in all 
 his references to the great river he denominates it 
 Orellana. This decision of the poet-laureate of 
 Great Britain has not proved authoritative in 
 Brazil. O Amazonas is the universal appellation 
 of the great river among those who float upon its 
 waters and who live upon its banks. . . . Para, 
 the aboriginal name of this river, was more appro- 
 priate than any other. It signifies 'the father of 
 
 waters.' . . . The origin of the name and mystery 
 concerning the female warriors, I think, has been 
 solved within the last few years by the intrepid 
 Mr. Wallace. . . . Mr. Wallace, I think, shows 
 conclusively that Friar Gaspar [Carbajal] and his 
 companions saw Indian male warriors who were 
 attired in habiliments such as Europeans would 
 attribute to women. ... I am strongly of the 
 opinion that the story of the Amazons has arisen 
 from these feminine-looking warriors encoun- 
 tered by the early voyagers."— J. C. Fletcher 
 and D. P. Kidder, Brazil and the Brazilians, 
 ch. 27. 
 
 Also in: A. R. Wallace, Travels on the Ama- 
 zon and Rio Negro, ch. 17. — R. Southey, History 
 of Brazil, v. i, ch. 4. 
 
 Tributaries. — River of Doubt.— Development 
 of river system.— The more important of the many 
 tributaries of the Amazon are: Tocantins, Xingu, 
 Tapajos, Purus, Jurua, Japura, Rio Negro and Ma- 
 deira. One of the largest affluents of this great arm 
 of the Amazon is the Rio Teodoro, which was named 
 in honor of the discoverer, the late ex-president, 
 Theodore Roosevelt, who led the Roosevelt-Ron- 
 don exploration expedition through the Brazilian 
 wilderness in 1914 "On February 27, 1914, shortly 
 after midday, we started down the River of 
 Doubt (Rio Teodoro) into ihe unknown. We 
 were quite uncertain whether after a week we 
 should find outselves in the Gy-Parana, or after 
 six weeks in the Madeira, or after three months 
 we knew not where. ... We put upon the map 
 a river some fifteen hundred kilometres in length, 
 of which the upper course was not merely utterly 
 unknown to, but unguessed at by, anybody; 
 while the lower course, although known for years 
 to a few rubber-men, was utterly unknown to 
 cartographers. It is the chief affluent of the Ma- 
 deira, which is itself the chief affluent of the .Ama- 
 zon. The source of this river is between the 12th 
 and 13th parallels of latitude south and the ^gth 
 and 60th degrees of longitude west from Green- 
 wich ... we finally entered the wonderful Ama- 
 zon itself, the mighty river which contains one- 
 tenth of all the runnin; water of the globe. It 
 was miles across, where we entered it; and indeed 
 we could not tell whether the farther bank, which 
 we saw, was that of the mainland or an island. 
 . . . The mightiest river in the world is the 
 Amazon. It runs from west to east, from the 
 sunset to the sunrise, from the Andes to the At- 
 lantic. The main stream flows almost along the 
 equator, while the basin which contains its af- 
 fluents extends many degrees north and south of 
 the equator. This gigantic equatorial river basin 
 is filled with an immense forest, the largest in 
 the world, with which no other forests can be 
 compared save those of western Africa and Ma- 
 laysia." — T. Roosevelt, Through the Brazilian wil- 
 derness. 
 
 "So fertile is the soil of the Amazon that it is 
 claimed that for every bushel of maize, rice, or 
 beans planted over 800 bushels are harvested . . . 
 '.Amazonia' is an agricultural El Dorado, and it is 
 an amazing incongruity that food should ever 
 have been imported into the valley, where enough 
 rice, for instance, could be raised to feed the en- 
 tire world ; yet until two or three years ago rice 
 was imported, some of it from China." — J. F. 
 Barry, Great possibilities of Amazonia (Pan Amer- 
 ican Union, Mar., 1920).— The last ten years 
 have brought great changes in the civilization and 
 commercial life of the .Amazon and "Amazonia." 
 Probably the most important factors in the de- 
 velopment of this fabulously wealthy river system 
 are the construction of the railroad line from Porto 
 
 241
 
 AMAZON RUBBER COMPANY 
 
 AMBROSIAN CHANT 
 
 Velho to Guajara-Wirim, and the establishment of 
 the Amazon iNavigation Company in 1912. The 
 importance of the latter undertaking, to the hfe 
 and progress 0! the Brazilians, can hardly be over- 
 estimated. The Amazon Navigation Company, 
 which operates under a federal charter, covers fif- 
 teen routes and a total distance of 235,552 miles 
 annually. The fleet consists of about 100 crafts, 
 some of which have been taken from the old (Eng- 
 lish) Amazon Navigation Company The steamers 
 ply not only on the .Amazon but also on all of its 
 more important affluents, such as the Tapajos, the ' 
 Javory. the Madeira, the Rio Negro, the Purus 
 and the lurua. 
 
 AMAZON RUBBER COMPANY: Putumayo 
 rubber atrocities. Sec Pkku: 1012-1013. 
 
 AMAZONS. — "The .Vmazons, daughters of Ares 
 and Harmonia, are both early creations, and fre- 
 quent reproductions, of the ancient epic. ... A 
 nation of courageous, hardy and indefatigable 
 women, dwelling apart from men, permitting only 
 a short temporary intercourse for the purpose of 
 renovating their numbers, and burning out their 
 right breast with a view of enabling themselves to 
 draw the bow freely, — this was at once a general 
 type stimulating to the fancy of the poet, and a 
 theme eminently popular with his hearers. Nor 
 was it at all repugnant to the faith of the latter — 
 who had no recorded facts to guide them, and no 
 other standard of credibility as to the past except 
 such poetical narratives themselves — to conceive 
 communities of .Amazons as having actually existed 
 in anterior time. Accordingly we find these war- 
 like females constantly reappearing in the ancient 
 poems, and universally accepted as past realities 
 In the Iliad, when Priam wishes to illustrate em- 
 phatically the most numerous host in which he 
 ever found himself included, he tells us that it was 
 assembled in Phrygia, on the banks of the Sanga- 
 rius, for the purpose of resisting the formidable 
 Amazons When Bellerophon is to be employed 
 on a deadly and perilous undertaking, by those 
 who indirectly wish to procure his death, he is 
 despatched against the Amazons. . . . The ."Xrgo- 
 nautic heroes find the .Amazons on the river Ther- 
 modon in their expedition along the southern coast 
 of the Euxine. To the same spot Herakles goes to 
 attack them, in the performance of the ninth la- 
 bour imposed upon him by Eurystheus, for the 
 purpose of procuring the girdle of the .\mazonian 
 queen, Hippolyte; and we are told that they had 
 not yet recovered from the losses sustained in this 
 severe ag -rcssion when Theseus also assaulted and 
 defeated them, carrying off their queen Antiope. 
 This injury they avenged by invading .Attica . . . 
 and penetrated even into Athens itself: where the 
 final battle, hard-fought and at one time doubtful, 
 by which Theseus crushed them, was fought — in 
 the very heart of the city, .\ttic antiquaries con- 
 fidently pointed out the exact position of the two 
 contending armies. . . . No portion of the ante- 
 historical epic appears to have been more deeply 
 worked into the national mind of Greece than this 
 invasion and defeat of the .^mazons. . . . Their 
 proper territory was asserted to be the town and 
 plain of Themiskyra, near the Grecian colony of 
 Amisus, on the river Thermodon [northern Asia 
 Minor], a region called after their name by Roman 
 historians and geographers. . . . Some authors 
 placed them in Libya or Ethiopia." — G. Grote, 
 Hislorv of Greece, pt. i, ch. 11. 
 
 AMA-ZULU. See Zululaxd. 
 
 AMBACTI.— "The Celtic aristocracy [of Gaull 
 . . . developed the .system of retainers, that is. the 
 privilege of the nobility to surround themselves 
 with a number of hired mounted servants — the am- 
 
 bacti as they were called — and thereby to form a 
 state within a state; and, resting on the support 
 of these troops of their own, they defied the legal 
 authorities and the common levy and practically 
 broke up the commonwealth. . . . This remark- 
 able word [ambacti] must have been in use as 
 early as the sixth century of Rome among the 
 Celts in the valley of the Po. ... It is not merely 
 Celtic, however, but also German, the root of our 
 'Amt,' as indeed the retainer-system itself is com- 
 mon to the Celts and the Germans. It would be 
 of great historical importance to ascertain whether 
 the word — and therefore the thing — came to the 
 Celts from the Germans or to the Germans from 
 the Celts. If, as is usually supposed, the word 
 is originally German and primarily signified the 
 servant standing in battle 'against the back' ('and' 
 =against, 'bak'=back) of his ma.ster. this is not 
 wholly irreconcilable with the singularly early oc- 
 currence of the word among the Celts. ... It is 
 . . . probable that the Celts, in Italy as in Gaul, 
 employed Germans chiefly as those hired servants- 
 at-arms. The 'Swiss guard' would therefore in 
 that case be some thousands of years older than 
 people suppose." — T. Mommsen. History of Rome, 
 hk. 5, cli. 7. and foot-note. 
 
 AMBAN, the title of two imperial Chinese resi- 
 dents in Lhasa. Tibet, who supervised the man- 
 agement of all secular affairs of the country by 
 the four ministers of state. See Tibet: 1902 -1904; 
 1010-IQ14, 
 
 AMBARRI, a small tribe in Gaul which occu 
 pied anciently a district between the Saone. the 
 Rhone and the Ain. 
 
 AMBASSADOR SERVICE. See Diplomatic 
 
 AND COXSULAR SERVICE. 
 
 AMBASSADORS, Hall of. See Ai.hambra. 
 
 AMBIANI. See Belg.t.. 
 
 AMBIORIX, prince of the Eburones in Belgian 
 Gaul. Fought unsuccessfullv against Cjesar in 54 
 B. C. See Eburones; Gaul: B. C. 58-51. 
 
 AMBITUS. — Bribery at elections was termed 
 ambitus among the Romans, and many unavail- 
 ing laws were enacted to check it. — W. Ramsay, 
 Manual of Roman antiquity, ch. g. 
 
 AMBI'VARETI, a tribe in ancient Gaul which 
 occupied the left bank of the Meuse, to the south 
 of the marsh of Peel. 
 
 AMBLEVE, Battle of (716). See Franks: 
 511-752 
 
 AMBOISE, Georges d' (1460-1510), French 
 cardinal and prime minister in the reign of Louis 
 XII. In 150^, made papal legate to France for 
 life. 
 
 AMBOISE, a town of central France, on the 
 left bank of the Loire. It is noted for the chateau, 
 overlooking the Loire from the eminence above the 
 town. The Logis du Roi, the chief part, was built 
 by Charles VIII. the other wing by Louis XII and 
 Francis I. 
 
 AMBOISE, Conspiracy or Tumult of. See 
 France: ii;^Q-i=;6i. 
 
 AMBOISE, Edict of. See France; 1560-1563. 
 
 AMBOYNA, Massacre of. See India: 1600- 
 1702. 
 
 AMBRACIA (Ambrakia). See Corcyra. 
 
 AMBRONES, a Germanic tribe which joined 
 the Tcutones against the Romans in 102 B. C. See 
 CiMBRi AND Teutones: B.C. 113-101. 
 
 AMBROSE, Saint (340-307), celebrated Father 
 of the ancient church: unanimously elected bishop 
 of Milan in 374; reputed author of the .^mbrosian 
 ritual. See Milan: 374-307; Music: Ancient: 
 B.C 4-A D. 307 
 
 AMBROSIAN CHANT, the ecclesiastical mode 
 of saying and singing Divine service, organized by 
 
 242
 
 AMBROSINl 
 
 AMENDMENTS 
 
 St. Ambrose about 3S4 for the cathedral of Milan. 
 — See also Milan: 374-397; Music: Ancient: 
 B.C. 4-A. D. 307, and 540-604. 
 
 AMBROSINl, Bartolomeo (1588-1657), Ital- 
 ian naturalist, director of the botanical garden at 
 the university of Bologna, succeeding Aldrovandi, 
 whose pupil he was. 
 
 AMBROSIUS AURELIANUS, leader of the 
 Britons against the Saxons in the fifth century; 
 identified by some with Uther-Pendragon, father 
 of King .\rthur. — See also .'Vrthurian legend. 
 
 AMBULANCE CORPS, American. See 
 American ambulance. 
 
 AMEDEO FERDINANDO MARIA DI SA- 
 VOIA (1845-1800), king of Spain, 1870-1873. 
 Third son of Victor Emmanuel II of Italy; elected 
 by the Cortes after disturbances following the 
 revolution of 1868, by which Isabella II had been 
 deposed; abdicated February 11, 1873, after which 
 the Republic was proclaimed. See Spain: 1868- 
 1873. 
 , AMEER. See .Amir. 
 
 AMEIXIAL (Estremos), Battle of (1663). 
 See Portugal: 1637-1668. 
 
 AMELIA CASE.— The Amclin had sailed from 
 Hamburg to Calcutta and on the return voyage 
 was captured by the French, who held her about 
 ten days, when she was captured by the Constitu- 
 tion, commanded by Captain Silas Talbot, U. S. N. 
 Talbot had brought suit in the New York district 
 court that the Amelia be judged lawful prize, 
 which the owners disputed, since Hamburg and the 
 United States were not at war. Seeman appealed 
 from the decision of the district court, and Tal- 
 bot from that of the circuit court. The supreme 
 court ordered the vessel to be sold and the costs 
 to be paid from the proceeds of the sale; of the 
 residue one-sixth was to go to the libellant, for 
 commander and crew, the remainder to the own- 
 ers of the vessel. This practically reaffirmed the 
 decision of the circuit court. The decree was 
 handed down in August, iSoi. Jared Ingersoll was 
 principal counsel for plaintiff, .\lexander James Dal- 
 las for defendant. — J. A. Bayard, Annual report of 
 the American Historical Association, 1013, p. 123. 
 
 AMELIUS (fl. 246-260), Greek philosopher. 
 See Neoplatonism. 
 
 AMEL-MARDUK, or Amil-Marduk, king of 
 Babvlonia. See Babylonia: Decline of the Empire. 
 AMENDMENTS TO CONSTITUTIONS: 
 United States. — To the Federal constitution. — 
 The framers of the Constitution of the United 
 States seem to have felt that the sovereignty of the 
 states would be best protected by the legislatures of 
 the several states. They provided that Congress 
 may propose amendments by a two-thirds vote of 
 each house, but that such amendments must be 
 ratified by three-fourths of the several states 
 either through their legislatures or by conventions. 
 The states themselves may take the initiative in 
 proposing amendments and Congress is required to 
 call a convention for this purpose on application 
 of the legislatures of two-thirds of the states. One 
 part of the Constitution is virtually unamendable 
 because of the provision "that no State, without 
 its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage 
 in the Senate." Between 1780 and 1Q20, nineteen 
 amendments were adopted. The first ten, however, 
 were adopted at one time and comprise a Bill of 
 Rights omitted from the original Constitution be- 
 cause the framers of the Constitution took these 
 rights for granted. (See also U. S. A.: 1701.) 
 The eleventh amendment prevents the Federal 
 Government from being party in law suits brought 
 by citizens of any state against the government 
 of another state. The twelfth amendment chanced 
 
 the manner of voting in the electoral college. The 
 thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth amendments 
 were adopted after the Civil War. The thirteenth 
 gives the slaves their freedom, [see also U. S. A.: 
 1865 (January)] the fourteenth gives civil rights 
 to the freedman and defines citizens as "all persons 
 born or naturalized in the United States and sub- 
 ject to the jurisdiction thereof." It also forbids 
 any state to abridge the privileges or immunities 
 of citizens of the United Stales" or to "deprive any 
 person of life, liberty, or property without due 
 process of law." [See also Suffrage, Manhood: 
 United States: 1864-1921; U. S. A.: 1S66 (June), 
 1866-1867 (October-March), looi (January).] 
 The fifteenth amendment provides that "the right 
 of citizens of the United States to vote shall not 
 be denied or abridged by the United States or by 
 any stale on account of race, color, or previous 
 conditions of servitude." [See also U. S. A.: i8b8- 
 1870: Process of reconstruction; also 1869-1870] 
 ."Vmcndment sixteen empowers Congress to levy and 
 collect taxes on incomes. [See U. S. A: igoo 
 (July).] The seventeenth amendment provides 
 for the election of United States senators by vote 
 of » the people. [See also Arizona: 1912.] The 
 eighteenth is as follows [Constitutional League of 
 America, p. 31] :— "Section I.— After one vear from 
 the ratification of this article the manufacture, 
 sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors with- 
 in, the importation thereof into, or the exportation 
 thereof from the United States and all territory 
 subject to the junsdicion thereof for beverage pur- 
 poses is hereby prohibited. Section II.— The Con- 
 gress and the several States shall have concurrent 
 power to enforce this article by appropriate legis- 
 lation. Section III. — This article shall be inoper- 
 ative unless it shall have been ratified as an 
 amendment to the Constitution by the Legislatures 
 of the several States, as provided in the Constitu- 
 tion, within seven years from the date of the sub 
 mission thereof to the States by the Congress." 
 [See also Liquor problem: United States: 1913- 
 1919.] The nineteenth amendment forbids any 
 state to deny suffrage to a citizen because of sex. 
 [See Suffrage, Woman: United States: 1851-1920.] 
 It will thus be seen that in this period of over a 
 century and a quarter the Constitution has been 
 amended at only eight different times. It requires 
 a strong popular demand to get Congress to pass a 
 proposed amendment. More than one-half of 
 eighteen hundred propositions of this sort intro- 
 duced into Congress in the first hundred years were 
 "pigeon-holed" or killed in committees. — See also 
 U. S. A.: Constitution. 
 
 Court decisions covering amendments to Fed- 
 eral constitution. — "In March, 1920, a United 
 States District Court held that both the Amend- 
 ment and the National Prohibition Act are valid; 
 that there is nothing in the subject-matter of the 
 .Amendment incompetent or improper to form part 
 of the Constitution; that there is no usurpation 
 of powers properly belonging to the States alone; 
 that since an amendment of the Constitution pro- 
 vides that future amendments shall be ratified by 
 the Legislatures of the States, the objection urged 
 as regards States which have a referendum law, 
 namely, that the .Amendment should have been 
 submitted to referendum, is of no force; that Con- 
 gress had a right to define (as it has defined, by 
 the 'half of one per cent.' provision in the Volstead 
 Law) what intoxicating liquor is; and that the 
 contention that the plaintiff's property has been 
 destroyed without compensation, contrary to the 
 Constitution, has no basis, because Congress has 
 the right to determine whether compensation shall 
 be made when the property (as here) is not taken 
 
 24 3
 
 AMENDMENTS 
 
 for public use. The discussion by Judge Rellstab 
 orth'e meaning of the clause •concurrent power to 
 enforce by appropriate legislation is i^ull ana '" 
 erestng He rejects any dictionary fhrn ,on of 
 the word 'concurrent' which would restrict the ac- 
 tion of Congress and the Legislatures to agree- 
 
 is"if^^^.^\^^io1SSet^ 
 rei^^^:ci^^^^vr5^£ 
 
 P^-T'har'merniS'Xh will carry out the in- 
 tended pur^e of'congress should be given to this 
 word The thing sought to be prohibited is the 
 T^anufac lire of and commerce in intoxicating hq- 
 ^ fnr heverige purposes, and the prohibition 
 rndfthrrugS^he' United States aiid all ter 
 
 ii:-^^u:j^oh^;^^r^bi:^rtti| 
 
 slat ^e power, and this power is delegated to both 
 Congres^nd the several States^ If Congressidha 
 Sn to be effective is dependent upon each of 
 ?he States joining with it in its enforcemen leg s- 
 ation an absolute failure to effect such legis a- 
 tion "s not merely possible but decidedly pM\e 
 '""in another form the anti-nulhfying o-e of this 
 decision is expressed in the words: When Con 
 gress acts to enforce this Amendment its com 
 mands extend throughout the Union This is cer- 
 U nlv plain and direct doctrine It - — ^'f/^ 
 by k reference to a statement of Chief-Justce 
 Marshall, of the United States Supreme Court, 
 manv vears ago. Justice Marshall said 
 
 "•Should this collision [between an act of Con- 
 gress and New York [legislation] exist, '» will be 
 immaterial whether those laws were passed in vir- 
 tue of a concurrent power 'to regulate commerce 
 with foreign nations and among the several States, 
 ; in virtue of a power to regulate their domestic 
 trade and police. In one case and the other the 
 acts of New York must yield to the law of Con- 
 gress and the decision sustaining the privilege 
 ?hev confer, against a right given by a law o 
 the Union, must be erroneous. . . . The nullity ot 
 anv act, inconsistent with the Constitution is pro- 
 duced bv the declaration, that the Constitution is 
 
 ''^'pSr JuTge Rellstab holds 'The prohibi- 
 torv section of the Eighteenth Amendment is of 
 national scope and operation and its efficacy de- 
 pends upon its bein: nationally enforced. Us en- 
 forcement section was nationally envisaged, as was 
 he need of the co-operation of the several States 
 secure general observance. To carry out such 
 a concept Congress alone, of all the legislative 
 bodies r^ust take the lead, and its leadership, when 
 assumed, dominates."-OK//oofe, March 31, 1920- 
 See also Supreme Court: 1882-1808; lOM^io^i^ 
 
 The Supreme Court held, in the case of Hollings- 
 worth tv. Virginia (3 Dallas 78) that the president 
 had nothing to do with the proposing or adoptmg 
 
 of amendments. <:„,„„ 
 
 Amendment of state constitutions.-Referen- 
 dum -There is as yet no uniform practice with 
 regTrd to consulting the people before calling a 
 constitutional convention In nearly th>ft> /'ates 
 the legislature mav use its discretion as to the time 
 of consulting the' people. In several ^t^'- New 
 York among the number, the people must be con- 
 sulted at stated intervals on the question of hold- 
 ng a constitutional convention. Thomas Jefferson 
 held that once in each generation a new constitu- 
 
 AMENDMENTS 
 
 but a few states leave these details entirely to leg- 
 [J^ative discretion. In the states that have the 
 d re t popular initiative the voters are 'nc^ependent 
 of the legislatures in the matter of calling and 
 organizing constitutional conventions These 
 S number more than a third of the total 
 
 There is no uniform practice in the matter 01 
 securing the approval of the electorate alter con- 
 s Hut^^ns have been revised. New England New 
 York and Virginia led the way in the practice of 
 Securing popular approval to propose amendmen s 
 and it is^ow general, though there has been m 
 recent vears some departure f^<"",/^is custorn. 
 For a discussion of these cases, consult W. F Dodd, 
 Revlion and amcdment of stale conMuUons, 
 (,-, (,-71 _See also Minnesota: iSqb. 
 ^^Other methods of amending sta e constitu- 
 tions.-"In the beginning there seems to have been 
 no clear recognition of the necessity for a distinc- 
 tion bctween'the revision and the amendment of 
 state constitutions. In the original states the prac- 
 tice varied Onlv three of the original state con- 
 stitutions contained any special provisions for 
 their amendment by legislative action. Delaware 
 provided that certain parts of the constUution 
 should not be subject to amendment at al , and 
 hat 'no other part should be altered except with 
 the consent of five out ot;^ the seven members o 
 the legislative assembly and ^e^'e" ,?"' ° .'^^^ " "„'_ 
 members of the legislative council. South Laro 
 Una also established a distinction between the proc- 
 ess of ordinary legislation and that of constitu- 
 tional amendment by requiring an exceptional ma^ 
 ioritv for the adoption of a measure of the latter 
 ch-i!acter Marvland made a sharper distinction 
 between constitutional amendments and prdinary 
 statutes by requiring that the former, having been 
 adopted bv the legislature, should be published at 
 ea^r three months before the fction of he next 
 lecislature, and then readopted by the latter, m 
 order to become effective. The Maryland plan of 
 action by two successive legislatures was accepted 
 Sy South Carolina in 1790 and by Delaware m 
 1702 and grafted upon their own original devices^ 
 This arrangement was generally considered at he 
 time to give adequate popular control over the 
 pro ess of' amendment, and was adopted in severa 
 other states; but the only state which till clings 
 ^0 dav to a process of amendment which makes 
 no provision for a special popular vote upon each 
 proposed amendment is Delaware. A somewhat 
 more democratic practice was adopted m Alabama 
 in ,8iQ. This consisted in the provision that an 
 amend'„,ent proposed by the 'eP'^lature shouM be 
 voted on directly by (he people, mstead of be ng 
 merely published for their information but he 
 nower to take final action was still vested in the 
 xTsuc^ceeding legislature. This plan was never 
 widelv copied, and exists to-day in only t^vo states 
 South Carolina and Mississippi. A still more dem- 
 nrratic practice was Inaugurated in Connecticut in 
 8 lns?eld of placing the popular vote between 
 he two successive legislative actions the popular 
 ote was placed after the second legislative action 
 hi s giving to the electorate the final decision, and 
 making Hs action definitive instead of mere V ad- 
 v'ov The Connecticut plan was adopted in 
 Mline in 1810 and simplified by the omission of 
 ?Se requirement that a second legislature endo se 
 proposed amendments, thus enabhng any legisla- 
 
 244
 
 AMENEMHAT 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 ture to submit its proposals directly to the people. 
 The Connecticut and Maine plans have since been 
 widely copied, and popular control over the process 
 of amendment through legislative initiative has 
 been almost completely established. The final stage 
 in the evolution of the amending process has been 
 the adoption of the direct popular initiative, thus 
 dispensing altogether with legislative intervention. 
 This stage was first entered upon in Oregon in 
 igo2, and is now established in twelve states." — 
 A. N. Holcombe, Slate government in the United 
 States, pp. 98-9Q. — See also Initiative and ref- 
 erendum; South Dakota: 18S0-1012. 
 
 The method of altering constitutions piece- 
 meal by separate amendments seems to be 
 yielding to the method of general overhauling by 
 constitutional conventions. In none of the states 
 is action by the governor necessary in amending 
 the state constitution. The growing tendency to 
 distrust the legislature and to make the state con- 
 stitutions resemble a group of statutes has made it 
 necessary to amend the fundamental law rather 
 often. For further details of state constitutional 
 amendments see various states as Arkansas: 1S85- 
 IQ08; California: iqoo-iqoq: Constitutional 
 changes; Immigration and emigration: United 
 States: 1920-1021: Anti-Japanese law in California; 
 Indiana: 1918; North Carolina: 1900. 
 
 .^Lso in: F. N. Thorpe, Federal and state con- 
 
 stitutions; colonial charters, and other organic 
 taws of the state, territories, and colonies now or 
 heretofore forming the United States of America, 
 7 I'., Washington, igog. 
 
 For amendments to constitution in other countries, 
 see country head, as Australia, Constitution. 
 
 AMENEMHAT, or Amenemhe, I, King of 
 Egypt (c. B. C. 2130), founder of the twelfth dyn- 
 asty. See Moeris, Lake. 
 
 Amenemhat II, King of Egypt (c. B. C. 2066- 
 2031). 
 
 Amenemhat III, King of Egypt (c. B. C. 1986- 
 1942). See Moeris, Lake. 
 
 Amenemhat IV, King of Egypt (c. B. C. 1941- 
 1932)- 
 
 AMENHOTEP. See Amenophis. 
 
 AMENOPHIS I, Egyptian pharaoh (c. B.C. 
 1778). See Egypt; About B.C. 1700-1300. 
 
 Amenophis II, Egyptian pharaoh (c. B. C. 
 1687). See Egvpt: About B.C. 1700-1300. 
 
 Amenophis III, King of Egypt (c. B.C. 1493). 
 See Egypt: B. C. 1414-1379. 
 
 Amenophis IV (died c. 1350 B.C.), one of 
 the Pharoahs of the Eighteenth Dynasty in Egypt; 
 endeavored to substitute exclusive worship of the 
 sun for Egyptian polytheism and shifted his capital 
 to the city of Tell-El-.Amarna. After his reign of 
 about 18 years, his reforms were soon abolished. 
 — See also Egypt: B. C. 1379. 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 Politico-geographical survey. — Arrival of the 
 white man. — Influence of the discovery on 
 European history. — Geography and climate: 
 factors in settlement. — Natural resources. — 
 Area. — "The history of America covers but a 
 short period, and the political conditions have been 
 peculiar. It furnishes very few instances, similar 
 to those afforded in abundance by European his- 
 tory, of the influence of geography on the political 
 destinies of nations. Though the whole of South 
 America, e.xcejbt the European settlements in 
 Guiana, is now partitioned among independent na- 
 tions, they are all of one type; and their turbu- 
 lent annals record no events of the slightest in- 
 terest from the geographical point of view. The 
 same holds good of the southern portion of North 
 America: the descendants of the Spanish conquer- 
 ors have mingled with the natives, and have 
 formed states like their southern neighbors, with 
 a similar veneer of modern civiHzation largely due 
 to immigrants from Europe, and a similar sub- 
 stratum of comparative barbarism. The United 
 States were saved by the triumph of the North 
 in the war of secession from breaking up into 
 separate nations, so that a single government rules 
 the whole centre of the continent from ocean to 
 ocean. Similarly the whole of America north of 
 the United States is occupied by the single domin- 
 ion of Canada, loyal to the British crown, but in 
 other respects an independent nation. The fron- 
 tier between the two is in most of its length ab- 
 solutely conventional, but happily there have been 
 only trifling wars upon it. The geography of 
 North America to some extent accounts for the 
 fact that two great nations now occupy the whole 
 of it, north of the comparatively narrow portion 
 which tapers down to the isthmus of Panama The 
 Rocky mountains, which form the watershed be- 
 tween the Atlantic and the Pacific, run close to the 
 western side of the continent. East of them is 
 one boundless plain, not of couri^e altogether flat, 
 but containing no chain of mountains long or 
 high enough to form a definite barrier. Even the 
 
 Alleghanies are not hard to cross, and sink away 
 into the plain at each end. Thus when the white 
 men, having settled along the Atlantic coast, began 
 to push their way westward, they encountered no 
 geographical obstacles. The question as to which 
 of the European peoples should dominate America 
 was fought out before the great expansion began." 
 — H. B. George, Relations of geography and his- 
 tory, pp. 294-295. 
 
 "Two great events happened within thirty years 
 of each other, the discovery of the New World 
 and the Reformation. These two events closely 
 involved with two others, viz., the consolidation 
 of the great European States and the closing of 
 the East by the Turkish Conquest, caused the vast 
 change which we know as the close of the Middle 
 Ages and the opening of the modern period. But 
 of the two leading events the one was of far more 
 rapid operation than the other. The Reformation 
 produced its effect at once and in the very front 
 of the stage of history. . . . Meanwhile the occu- 
 pation of the New World is going on in the back- 
 ground, and does not force itself upon the atten- 
 tion of the student who is contemplating Europe. 
 The achievements of Cortez and Pizarro do not 
 seem to have any reaction upon the European 
 struggle. And perhaps it is not till near the end 
 of the sixteenth century, when the raids of Francis 
 Drake and his fellows upon the Spanish settle- 
 ments in Central America mainly contributed to 
 decide Spain to her great enterprise against Eng- 
 land, perhaps it is not till the time of the Spanish 
 Armada, that the New World begins in any per- 
 ceptible degree to react upon the Old. But from 
 this time forward European affairs begin to be 
 controlled by two great causes at once, viz., the 
 Reformation and the New World, and of these the 
 Reformation acts with diminishing force, and the 
 New World has more and more influence. . . . 
 fin the eighteenth centuryl the religious question 
 with all its grandeur has sunk to rest, and the 
 colonial question, made up of worldly and material 
 considerations, has taken its place Now the New 
 
 245
 
 AMERICA 
 
 Politico- geographical 
 Survey 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 World, considered as a boundless territory open 
 to settlement, would act in two ways upon the 
 nations of Europe. In the first place it would 
 have a purely political effect, that is, it would act 
 upon their governments. For so much debatable 
 territory would be a standing cause of war. It 
 is this action of the New World that we have 
 been considering hitherto, while we have observed 
 how mainly the wars of the eighteenth century, 
 and particularly the areat wars of England and 
 France, were kindled by this cause. But the New 
 World would also act upon the European com- 
 munities themselves, modifying their occupations 
 and ways of life, altering their industrial and eco- 
 nomical character." — Sir J. Seeley, Expansion of 
 England, pp. 7S-80. 
 
 "For over one hundred years after the discovery 
 of .America the Spanish and the Portuguese were 
 permitted to select the sites of their colonies and 
 occupy as much of the land of the new continent 
 as they desired, undisturbed by any interference 
 of the English or French. Fortunately for the 
 future of Anglo-Sa.\on supremacy in North .Amer- 
 ica, the Portuguese directed their efforts to South 
 America, .Africa, and southeastern .Asia. The Span- 
 iards followed in a general way the tracks of 
 Columbus and concentrated their efforts upon the 
 West Indies, and Central and South .America. The 
 initial impulse which was given to exploration and 
 settlement in this region was retjnforced by the 
 finding of precious metals in Mexico and Peru. 
 For generations afterwards, the energies of Spain 
 were concentrated here, leaving the northern part 
 of the .American continent to others. This was 
 largely accident, although the winds and ocean 
 currents had been the chief factors in tak- 
 ing Columbus over the course which he sailed 
 and bringing him to the particular portion of 
 the newly discovered lands which he actually 
 reached. 
 
 "Similarly, the claims of the New World which 
 were staked out by the English, French, and Dutch 
 were determined in the first instance mainly by 
 geographical considerations The North .Atlantic 
 is relatively narrow between Newfoundland on the 
 one side and Ireland and Brittany on the other. 
 Knowledge that the Spaniards had already pre- 
 empted the lands for the south also directed the 
 later arrivals to the more northern portion of 
 North America. All these influences combined to 
 apportion in a rough way the newly discovered 
 lands among the maritime powers. The new con- 
 ditions of life which the English and French found 
 awaiting them were arduous enough to discourage 
 the timid and weed out the unfit, without abso- 
 lutely discouraging immigration from Europe. The 
 climate of our Atlantic seaboard is more rigorous 
 than that of France and the British Isles but it is 
 a white man's country and makes no impossible 
 demands upon a European's powers of adaptation. 
 South of Chesapeake Bay many districts suffered 
 from malaria which, combined with the hot sum- 
 mers, put a premium upon negro slavery. On the 
 northern end of the habitable area, in the St. 
 Lawrence region, agriculture was made difficult 
 by severe winters and a thin soil. Physiography 
 and climate, therefore, discouraged the growth of 
 a dense population in what is now lower Canada 
 and hampered the growth of the French settle- 
 ments there, despite the profits in the fur trade. 
 
 "The main outlines of the growth of the English 
 colonies were also fixed fairly early by these same 
 natural features The climate, the configuration 
 of the land, the presence or absence of natural 
 harbors, the fertility of the soil, and the fauna 
 and flora directed industrs- into this or that chan- 
 
 nel. The mountain wall of the Appalachians 
 flanked by dense forest growths opposed a mighty 
 barrier to westward migration, while the warlike 
 aborigines assisted the mountains and forests in 
 hemming in the English colonists close to the At- 
 lantic shore-land." — D. E. Smith, in J. N. Lamed, 
 Ed., English leadership, pp. 210-212. 
 
 "The first Europeans in America were doomed 
 to many a disappointment in the matter of climate 
 The effects of the Gulf Stream, which carries the 
 heat of the Gulf of Mexico away from North 
 .America to warm the shores of western Europe, 
 were at first not recognized by the newcomers. 
 Their natural expectation was that in a given lati- 
 tude the climate of America would approximate 
 that of Europe. New England, from June to Sep- 
 tember, did appear in the same latitude. A New 
 England winter, on the other hand, resembled that 
 of Norway or Sweden, while Labrador, which was 
 only as far north as England, had a climate which 
 in Europe was known only within the .Arctic 
 Circle. . . . Low-lying shores, cut by numerous 
 navigable streams, rendered the .Atlantic coast of 
 .North .America more easy of access than was the 
 Pacific coast. The majority of these Atlantic riv- 
 ers were short and swift, and possessed of water 
 power well suited to the manufacturing which was 
 to spring up in later centuries. The interior of 
 the continent could not easily be penetrated along 
 these streams, for the reason that some few miles 
 inland they were usually broken in their cour.=e 
 by rapids and falls, which were difficult of pas- 
 sage. Still farther inland they lost themselves in 
 a mountain barrier, the .Appalachians, which ex- 
 tended parallel to the seashore as far south as 
 Georgia. The waters of the St. Lawrence cut this 
 barrier in the north, but it v.as early found that 
 this waterway, filled with rapids and frozen over 
 for nearly half the year, was not all that could 
 be desired as a key to the interior of the continent 
 Nor was the Mississippi a much more satisfactory 
 route inland, since hidden shoals rendered its as- 
 cent so difficult that navigation of its waters could 
 be easily accomplished only southward with the 
 current. Confronted bv these conditions, the Eu- 
 ropean settlers quite naturally contented themselves 
 at first with the coast. They did nut explore the 
 passes over the mountains to the west till almost 
 a century after their first settlement, and they 
 did not push through these barriers in any con- 
 siderable numbers for another half century. . . . 
 Fortunately the Europeans found the struggle for 
 existence in .America comparatively easy. The .At- 
 lantic Ocean, from Newfoundland to Cape Cod, 
 contained an abundance of .sea food, particularly 
 the valuable codfish and mackerel, which were 
 highly esteemed as early as the days of Columbus 
 and have constituted the basis of a valuable in- 
 dustry down to the present time. On land the 
 fertile soil responded quickly to the efforts of the 
 husbandmen. .As has been well said, raising their 
 own food has seldom been a serious problem for 
 the settlers in virgin .America. Over and above 
 its own needs, the country has usually been able 
 to furnish a surplus for consumption abroad. 
 Supplies of game, such as deer, elk. wild geese, 
 and turkeys, abounded. The forests, extending as 
 far west as the plains of the interior, furnished an 
 abundance of lumber; and everywhere, in forests, 
 streams, and plains, the beaver, otter, sable, badger, 
 buffalo, deer, and other fur-bearing animals yielded 
 rich returns to the fur trader. The vast mineral 
 resources of gold, silver, copper, coal, iron, and 
 petroleum, though not yielding up their treasure 
 to the early settlers, have added immensely to 
 the wealth of the countr\-, as fnmi time to lime 
 
 246
 
 AMERICA 
 
 Prehistoric 
 Period 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 the secret of their existence has been wrested from 
 nature. 
 
 "The vastness of the new continent surprised the 
 Europeans. Both North America, with 8,000,000 
 square miles, and South America, with 6,800,000 
 square miles, are larger than Europe, which totals 
 only 3,700,000 square miles. Exclusive of the 
 island possessions, the present area of the United 
 States, 3,600,000 square miles, is almost as large 
 as the whole of Europe." — E. D. Fife, History of 
 the United Stales, pp. 26-28. 
 
 Name. See below: 1500-1514. 
 
 Aboriginal inhabitants. See Indians, A\rER- 
 ican; Mythology: Primitive mytholoKy; also un- 
 der the names of the tribes, and under countries, 
 e.g., Mexico: Aboriginal inhabitants, etc. 
 
 the theme of many an essay on the wonders of 
 ancient civilization. The research of the past years 
 has put this subject in a proper light. First, the 
 annals of the Columbian epoch have been care- 
 fully studied, and it is found that some of the 
 mounds have been constructed in historical time, 
 while early explorers and settlers found many ac- 
 tually used by tribes of North American Indians; 
 so we know that many of them were builders of 
 mounds. Again, hundreds and thousands of these 
 mourfds have been carefully examined, and the 
 works of art found therein have been collected 
 and assembled in museums. At the same time, the 
 works of art of the Indian tribes, as they were 
 produced before modilication by European culture, 
 have been assembled in the same museums, and 
 
 Photogrftph. Department at Interior 
 
 CLIFF DVVF.r.LINGS IN MESA VFROE N.^TIO.N.M. P.VRK. COI.OK.\DO 
 Oldest signs of human habitations in America 
 
 Prehistoric. — "Widely scattered throughout the 
 United States, from sea to sea, artificial mounds 
 are discovered, which may be enumerated by the 
 thousands or hundreds of thousands. They vary 
 greatly in size; some are so small that a half- 
 dozen laborers with shovels might construct one 
 of them in a day, while others cover acres and 
 are scores of feet in height. These mounds were 
 observed by the earliest explorers and pioneers 
 of the country. They did not attract great at- 
 tention, however, until the science of archaeology 
 demanded their investigation. Then they were as- 
 sumed to furnish evidence of a race of people 
 older than the Indian tribes. Pseud-archa^ologists 
 descanted on the Mound-builders that once inhab- 
 ited the land, and they told of swarming popula- 
 tions who had reached a high condition of culture, 
 erecting temples, practicing arts in the metals, and 
 using hieroglyphs. So the Mound-builders formed 
 
 the two classes of collections have been carefully 
 compared. All this has been done with the great- 
 est painstaking, and the Mound-builder's arts and 
 the Indian's arts are found to be substantially 
 identical. No fragment of evidence remains to 
 support the figment of theory that there was an 
 ancient race of Mound-builders superior in culture 
 to the North American Indians. . . . That some 
 of these mounds were built and used in modern 
 times is proved in another way. They often con- 
 tain articles manifestly made by white men, such 
 as glass beads and copper ornaments. ... So it 
 chances that to-day unskilled archa;ologists are 
 collecting many beautiful things in copper, stone, 
 and .shell which were made by white men and 
 traded to the Indians. Nov,;, some of these things 
 are found in (he mounds; and bird pipes, elephant 
 pipes, banner stones, copper spear heads and 
 knives, and machine-made wampum are collected 
 
 247
 
 AMERICA 
 
 Prehistoric Period 
 Arvheological Research 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 in quantities and sold at high prices to wealthy 
 amateurs. . . . The study of these mounds, his- 
 torically and archaeologically, proves that they 
 were used for a variety of purposes. Some were 
 for sepulture, and such are the most common and 
 widely scattered. Others were used as artilicial 
 hills on which to build communal houses. . . . 
 Some of the very large mounds were sites of large 
 communal houses in which entire tribes dwelt. 
 There is still a third class . . . constructed as 
 places for public assembly. . . . But to explain 
 the mounds and their uses would expand this article 
 into a book. It is enough to say that the Mound- 
 builders were the Indian tribes discovered by white 
 men. It may well be that some of the mounds 
 were erected by tribes extinct when Columbus first 
 saw these shores, but they were kindred in cul- 
 ture to the peoples that still existed. In the south- 
 western portion of the United States, conditions 
 of aridity prevail. Forests are few and are found 
 only at great heights. . . . The tribes lived in the 
 plains and valleys below, while the highlands were 
 their hunting grounds. The arid lands below were 
 often naked of vegetation ; and the ledges and 
 cliffs that stand athwart the lands, and the canyon 
 walls that inclose the streams, were everywhere 
 quarries of loose rock, lying in blocks ready to 
 the builder's hand. Hence these people learned to 
 build their dwellings of stone; and they had large 
 communal houses, even larger than the structures 
 of wood made by the tribes of the east and north. 
 Many of these stone pueblos are stiJl occupied, but 
 the ruins are scattered wide over a region of 
 country embracing a little of California and Ne- 
 vada, much of Utah, most of Colorado, the whole 
 of New Mexico and Arizona, and far southward 
 toward the Isthmus. . . . No ruin has been dis- 
 covered where evidences of a higher culture are 
 found than exists in modern times at Zuni, Oraibi, 
 or Laguna. The earliest may have been built 
 thousands of years ago, but they were built by 
 the ancestors of existing tribes and their congeners. 
 .\ careful study of these ruins, made during the 
 last twenty years, abundantly demonstrates that 
 the pueblo culture began with rude structures of 
 stone and brush, and gradually developed, until 
 at the time of the exploration of the country by 
 the Spaniards, beginning about 1540, it had reached 
 its highest phase. Zuni [in New Mexico] has been 
 built since, and it is among the largest and best 
 villages ever established within the territory of 
 the United States without the aid of ideas de- 
 rived from civilized men." With regard to the 
 ruins of dwellings found sheltered in the craters of 
 extinct volcanoes, or on the shelves of cliffs, or 
 otherwise contrived, the conclusion to which all 
 recent archsological study tends -is the same "All 
 the stone pueblo ruins, all the clay ruins, all the 
 cliff dwelUngs, all the crater villages, all the cavate 
 chambers, and all the tufa-block houses are fully 
 accounted for without resort to hypothetical 
 peoples inhabiting the country anterior to the 
 Indian tribes. . . . Pre-Columbian culture was in- 
 digenous; it began at the lowest stage of savag- 
 ery and developed to the highest, and was in many 
 places passing into barbarism when the good queen 
 sold her jewels." — J. W. Powell, Prehistoric man in 
 America (.Forum, Jan., iSgo). — "The writer believes 
 . . . that the majority of American archaeolo- 
 gists now sees no sufficient reason for supposing 
 that any mysterious superior race has ever lived 
 in any portion of our continent. They find no 
 archzeological evidence proving that at the time 
 of its discovery any tribe had reached a stage of 
 culture that can properly be called civilization 
 Fven if we accept the exaggerated statements of 
 
 the Spanish conquerors, the most intelligent and 
 advanced peoples found here were only semi-bar- 
 barians, in the stage of transition from the stone 
 to the bronze age, possessing no written language, 
 or what can properly be styled an alphabet, and 
 not yet having even learned the use of beasts of 
 burden." — H. W. Haynes, Prehistoric archaeology 
 of North America {Narrative and Critical History 
 of America, v. i, ch. 6). — "It may be premised 
 . . . that the Spanish adventurers who thronged 
 to the New World after its discovery found the 
 same race of Red Indians in the West India Islands, 
 in Central and South America, in Florida and in 
 Mexico. In their mode of life and means of sub- 
 sistence, in their weapons, arts, usages and customs, 
 in their institutions, and in their mental and physi- 
 cal characteristics, they were the same people in 
 different stages of advancement. . . . There was 
 neither a political society, nor a state, nor any 
 civiUzation in America when it was disco%'ered; 
 and, excluding the Eskimos, but one race of In- 
 dians, the Red Race." — L. H. Morgan, Houses and 
 house-life of the American aborigines {Contribu- 
 tions to North American Ethnology, v. 4, ch. 
 10). — "We have in this country the conclusive evi- 
 dence of the existence of man before the time of 
 the glaciers, and from the primitive conditions of 
 that time, he has lived here and developed, through 
 stages which correspond in many particulars to 
 the Homeric age of Greece." — F. W. Putnam, Re- 
 port Peabody Museum of Archaeology, 1886. 
 
 "In recent years archeologists have uncovered a 
 number of interesting ancient Indian villages in 
 the southwestern part of the United States where 
 the four states of Arizona, Utah, Colorado and 
 New Mexico corner. It is a collection of remark- 
 able ruins called Mummy Lake Village, so named 
 from a mummy pit found there. It contains a 
 strange three-story house 113 feet long and no 
 feet wide; a large front court is inclosed with a 
 stone wall. The house had more than 100 rooms. 
 In one of these southwestern villages an ancient 
 fire-place was found and a grinding mill with the 
 grinding stones still in their original position. 
 Aztec Spring City is another interesting place. 
 It extends over 15 acres and the stone wall built 
 into it is estimated to contain 2,000,000 cubic feet 
 It seems queer that the stones had to be carried 
 from a distance. This village has been dug into 
 considerably by grave robbers. At Goodman 
 Point Village there was a large building in the 
 center, apparently a community house, and similar 
 structures around it. \ community spring fur- 
 nished water for the villagers. The National 
 Geographic Society through the Yale University 
 Expedition to Peru in 1915 resulted in making 
 known to the world the marvelous civilization of 
 the early Peruvian Indians. Megalithic or big stone 
 people were probably the ancestors of the modern 
 Quichuas, a tribe of the Incas whom the Spaniards 
 conquered. It is clear that there were settled agri- 
 cultural communities centuries before America was 
 discovered by Columbus. These .Aborigines had 
 tillage agriculture, used fertilizer, and irrigated arid 
 regions. They also built terraces with large stones 
 carefully fitted together behind which soil, brought 
 from a distance, was placed for the growing of 
 crops. River courses were straightened and this 
 valley land was reclaimed for agriculture. The 
 Peruvian Indians placed more importance on the 
 raising of crops than on the tombs of the dead. 
 Their agricultural terraces show finer workman- 
 ship than their dwellings. Early Spanish historians 
 tell us that they had special gardens for raising po- 
 tatoes for the royal household. Among the crops 
 of the ancient Peruvians were the sweet potato. 
 
 248
 
 AMERICA 
 
 Prehistoric Connections 
 with Africa and Asia 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 I he potato, the tomato and Indian coin. When we 
 think of the importance of the potato as an ar- 
 ticle of food today we can see that the real treas- 
 ure of the Incas was not their gold but their 
 agriculture. In the masonry of these Staircase 
 Farms are some joints so delicate as to be invisible 
 to the naked eye, indicating the finest craftsman- 
 ship." — O. F. Cook, Staircase farms of the ancients 
 {National Geographic Magazine, May, iqi6). 
 
 Also in: L. Carr, Mounds of the Mississippi Val- 
 ley. — C. Thomas, Burial mounds of the northern 
 sections of the United States: Annual report of the 
 Bureau of Ethnology, 1883-1884.— Marquis de Na- 
 daillac, Prehistoric American. — J. Fiske, Discovery 
 of America, ch. i. — J. W. Fewkes, Bureau of 
 American Ethnology. Bulletin 51. — Indian mound 
 groups and village sites about Madison (.American 
 Antiquarian, v. 33, Oct., 240-241). — W. P» Lewis, 
 Published facts relating to early man in North 
 America (Archceological Bulletin 2, Sept., pp. 
 102-106). — K. Sumner, Cave and cliff -dwellings of 
 the Southwest (Ameri<-ana, v. 6, .iug., pp. 738-743). 
 — E. S. Curtis, North American Indian, VI, VII. 
 — A. W. Ivins, Record keeping among the Aztecs 
 (Utah General and Historical Magazine, v. 2, 
 April, pp. go-92), — J. C. Morton, Vanishing race 
 (Ohio Archwological and Historical Publication, 
 v. 2, January, pp. 48-56). — C, Wissler, Research 
 and exploration among the Indians of the northern 
 plains (American Museum Journal, v. 11, April, 
 pp. 126-127). 
 
 Theory of a land bridge from Africa. — Read- 
 ers conversant with various theories of the origin 
 of the American Indians and their culture will 
 recognize immediately the significance of the hy- 
 pothesis of a land bridge between America and 
 Africa in pre-historic times. The idea is not new 
 but it has been given a new interest because its 
 defense has been taken up recently by M. Joleaud. 
 The existence of such a land bridge extending in 
 recent geologic times from the West Indies to 
 Morocco, would explain most of the heretofore 
 inexplicable similarities between Aztec and Inca 
 civilization on the one hand, and Egyptian civiliza- 
 tion on the other. This theory has also been 
 sponsored recently by Professor Leo Wiener of 
 Harvard, in a work entitled Africa and the discov- 
 ery of America. Professor Wiener induces the aid of 
 philology and archaeology to prove that African 
 negroes, mainly from the neighborhood of the river 
 Niger, crossed the Atlantic and settled in America 
 long before the arrival of Columbus. He claims 
 that many Indian words quoted by Columbus are 
 in reality of African origin ; and that the habit of 
 smoking, and the cultivation of certain plants, 
 were practiced by Africans before they were taken 
 up by American Indians. 
 
 Theory of a cultural wave across Asia. — An- 
 other theory of the origin of ancient civilization 
 in America was presented by Mr. G Elliot Smith in 
 Science, August 11, iqi6. He holds that the dis- 
 tinguishing characteristics of American cultures, 
 such as the mummifying of the dead, the use of 
 irrigation canals and pyramidal structures, come 
 from the ancient civilization of Egypt through a 
 'great cultural wave.' He believes that this cul- 
 tural wave passed from the valley of the Nile by 
 way of Assyria into India, Korea, Siberia, the Pa- 
 cific islands and America. He thinks it started 
 about 900 B. C. He says: — "In the whole range 
 of ethnological discussion perhaps no theme has 
 evoked livelier controversies and excited more 
 widespread interest than the problems involved in 
 the mysteries of the wonderful civilization that re- 
 vealed itself to the astonished Spaniards on their 
 first arrival in America. During the last century, 
 
 which can be regarded as covering the whole peri- 
 od of scientific investigation in anthropology, the 
 opinions of those who have devoted attention to 
 such inquiries have undergone the strangest fluc- 
 tuations. If one delves into the anthropological 
 journals of forty or fifty years ago they will be 
 found to abound in careful studies on the part 
 of many of the leading ethnologists of the time, 
 demonstrating, apparently in a convincing and un- 
 questionable manner, the spread of curious cus- 
 toms or beliefs from the Old World to the New. 
 Then an element of doubt began to creep into the 
 attitude of many ethnologists, which gradually 
 stiffened until it set into the rigid dogma — there is 
 no other term for it — that as the result of 'the 
 similarity of the working of the human mind' 
 similar needs and like circumstances will lead vari- 
 ous isolated groups of men in a similar phase of 
 culture independently one of the other to invent 
 similar arts and crafts, and to evolve identical be- 
 liefs. The modern generation of ethnologists has 
 thoughtlessly seized hold of this creed and usefl 
 it as a soporific drug against the need for mental 
 exertion. For when any cultural resemblance is 
 discovered there is no incentive on the part of 
 those whose faculties have been so lulled to sleep to 
 seek for an explanation ; all that is necessary is 
 to murmur the incantation and bow the knee to 
 a fetish certainly no less puerile and unsatisfy- 
 ing than that of an African negro. It does not 
 seem to occur to most modern ethnologists that 
 the whole teaching of history is fatal to the idea 
 of inventions being made independently. Origi- 
 nality is one of the rarest manifestations of human 
 faculty. . . . From Indonesia the whole eastern 
 Asiatic littoral and all the neighboring islands were 
 stirred by the new ideas; and civilizations bearing 
 the distinctive marks of the culture-complex which 
 I have traced from Egypt sprang up in Cochin- 
 China, Corea, Japan and eventually in all the 
 islands of the Pacific and the western coast of 
 America. The proof of the reality of this great 
 migration of culture is provided not merely by 
 the identical geographical distribution of a very 
 extensive series of curiously distinctive, and often 
 utterly bizarre, customs and beliefs, the precise 
 dates and circumstances of the origin of which are 
 known in their parent countries; but the fact that 
 these strange ingredients are compounded in a 
 definite and highly complex manner to form an 
 artificial cultural structure, which no theory of 
 independent evolution can possibly explain, be- 
 cause chance played so large a part in building it 
 up in its original home. For instance, it is quite 
 conceivable (though I believe utterly opposed to 
 the evidence at our disposal) that different people 
 might, independently the one of the other, have in- 
 vented the practises of mummification, building 
 megaUthic monuments, circumcision, tattooing and 
 terraced irrigation ; evolved the stories of the petri- 
 fication of human beings, the strange adventures 
 of the dead in the underworld, and the divine ori- 
 gin of kings; and adopted sun-worship. But why 
 should the people of America and Egypt who 
 built megalithic monuments build them in accord- 
 ance with very definite plans compounded of 
 Egyptian, Babylonian, Indian and East Asiatic 
 models? And why should the same people who 
 did so also have their wives' chins tattooed, their 
 sons circumcised, their dead mummified? Or why 
 should it be the same people who worshiped the 
 sun and adopted the curiously artificial winged- 
 sun-and-serpent symbolism, who practised terraced 
 irrigation in precisely the same way, who made 
 idols and held similai beliefs regarding them, who 
 had identical stories of the wanderings of the dead 
 
 249
 
 Prehistoric Connections AMERICA 
 
 AMERICA ^jffj Africa and Asia 
 
 cthnoRraphy of their country have called forth the 
 adoration of all anthropologists, seriously to re- 
 consider the significance of the data they are amass- 
 
 '"objection was urged to this theory by Mr. 
 Philip Ainsworth Means in Saaicc Oc( 13. ig'^ 
 He says: "This theory is important. But there 
 are several serious objections to 1 . (O " Mf 
 Elliot Smith is right in thinking that the Ameri- 
 can aborigines in Mexico, Peru, etc., "sed py- 
 ramidal structures, numerous irrigation systems, 
 and manv customs closely resembling those of the 
 ancient Egyptians because their culture was really 
 an offshoot of the Egyptian culture how can it 
 be explained that in all pre-Columbian America 
 there was no such thing as a wheeled vehicle i- 
 Chariots of various sorts were much used in an- 
 cient Egvpt, as well as in the intervening areas, 
 vet there is not a shred of evidence to prove that 
 the Indians of America ever knew anything even 
 remotely resembling them. Had the founders o 
 \merican culture come from an area where wheclecl 
 vehicles were known, is it not inevitable that they 
 would have made use of such vehicles during then- 
 long journcv? Does it not seem that wheeled 
 vehicles would be more useful to them than pyr- 
 amids, and that therefore they would have been 
 remembered first on the arrival of the wanderers 
 in their new land? It is difficult to be leve that 
 the American aborigines were the cultural descend- 
 ants of a wheel-using people, for wheels, being 
 essentially useful, would inevitably have Persisted 
 as a feature of their material culture, had that 
 been the case. (2.) In a like manner, one is 
 puzzled bv a lack of any ships or vessels of ad- 
 vanced type among the .\merican Indians. Even 
 in Mexico, Yucatan and Peru, where civilization 
 was. in other respects, of a well-advanced type, 
 there were no really complicated vessels before th" 
 coming of the Spaniards. On the coast of Ecuador 
 there was found the most elaborate type of boa 
 known to the Indian race. It consisted of a raft of 
 light wood with a flimsy platform on which stood 
 a rude shelter A simple sail, sometimes even 
 two, was used. Large canoes with sails were 
 also used in Yucatan Not one of these however 
 is'worthv to be compared with even the earlies 
 and simplest ships used in Egypt It is known, of 
 course, that boat-building reached very early a 
 high development in Babylonia, India and China, 
 through all of which the 'cultural wave is said to 
 have passed (3 ) Finally, the date B. C. Qoo is 
 altogether too late for the beginning of the alleged 
 migration of cultures If this migration took place 
 at all, it must have left Egypt much earlier than 
 this for we have the Tuxtla statuette (dated about 
 B C 100) to prove that even before the conv 
 mencement of our era the Maya calendar had 
 already gone through its long preliminary stages 
 and was already in existence in P^^etica lly its 
 final form. No doubt every one will admit that 
 fhe period B. C ooo-.oc is entirely too short for 
 a 'great cultural wave' to roll from Egypt to 
 America. The year B. C. 1500 is much more 
 likely to be the date needed. In conclusion, the 
 present writer admits that, despite the three ob- 
 jections here noted (and several others , the e 
 s a large amount of seemingly ^"""borative evi- 
 dence that tends to support the views « M/ ^ ''^ 
 Smith It will, however, be a long time before 
 American anthropologists will be forced to accept 
 thTse views as final, and many tests, based on 
 physical anthropology, history, archeology, etc 
 win have to be successfully applied be ore the 
 Egyptian source of American civilization is finally 
 proved" 
 
 in the underworld? If any theory of evolution of 
 customs and beliefs is adequate to explain the 
 independent origin of each item in the extensive 
 repertoire, either of the New Empire Egyptian o 
 the Pre-Columbian American civilization (which 1 
 deny) it is utterly inconceivable that the fortui- 
 tous combination of hundreds °\f'"^y Z.°7Zc 
 ous and fantastic elements could possibly have 
 happened twice. It is idle to deny the complete- 
 n sTof the demonstration which the existence e 
 such a civilization in America supplies of the fact 
 that it was derived from the late New Empire 
 Egyptian civilization, modified by Ethiopian, 
 Mediterranean, West Asiatic, Indian mdone^^n. 
 East Asiatic and Polynesian influences. The com 
 Plate overthrow of all '^e objections a gen- 
 eral nature to the recognition of the facts has 
 already been ex|)lained. There is nothing to hinder 
 one, therefore, 'from accepting the obvious signift- 
 can^e of the evidence. Moreover every ink m 
 this chain of connections is admitted by inycsAi- 
 gators of localized areas along the great migra- 
 ?ion route, even by those who most s renuous^ 
 deny the more extensive migrations of evilturc^ Ihe 
 
 connections of the New E-^P'^-:. •^•^V ""' w\th 
 Soudan and with Syria and its relat ons with 
 Babylonia; the intercourse betwxen the latter and 
 India in the eighth and seventh centuries B. C , 
 the migrations of culture from India to Indonesia 
 and To the farthest limits of Polynesia-all these 
 are well authenticated and generally admitted 
 111 that I claim, then, is that the mfluence o 
 Egypt was handed on from place to place; that 
 (he links which all ethnologists recognize as gen- 
 uine bonds of union can with equal certamty be 
 joined up into a cultural chain uniting Egypt to 
 Cerica In almost every one of the ocal point 
 along this great migration route the folk-lore ot 
 ?o day has preserved legends of the culture^heroes 
 who 'introduced some one or other of the ele- 
 ments of this peculiarly distinctive civilization 
 Those familiar with the literature of ethnology 
 must be acquainted with hundreds of scraps of 
 corroborative evidence testifying to the reality of 
 the spread postulated. For I have mentioned only 
 a small part of the extraordinary cargo of bizarre 
 practises and beliefs with which these ancient 
 mariners (carrying of course their characterise 
 ideas of naval construction and craftsmanship) set 
 out from the African coast more than twenty-tive 
 centuries ago on the great expedition which e-en- 
 tuallv led their successors some centuries later to 
 the New World At every spot where they touched 
 and tarried, whether on the coasts of Asia the 
 islands of the Pacific or on the continent of Amer^ 
 ica, the new culture took root and flourished in 
 its own distinctive manner, as it was subjected 
 to the influence of the aborigines or to that ot 
 later comers of other ideas and traditions ; and 
 each place became a fresh focus from which the 
 new knowledge continued to radiate for long a;es 
 after the primary inoculation. The first great 
 cultural wave (or the series of waves of whicti 
 it was composed) continued to flow for several 
 centuries It must have begun some time after 
 B C QOO because the initial equipment of the great 
 wanderers included practises which were not in- 
 vented in Egypt until that time. The last of 
 the series of ripples in the creat wave set out from 
 India just after the practise of cremation made 
 its appearance there, for at the end of the series 
 the custom of incinerating the dead made its ap- 
 pearance in Indonesia, Polynesia,- Mexico and else- 
 where . I wish especially to appeal to that 
 band of American ethnolocists, whose devo ed 
 labors in rescuini: the information concernmg the 
 
 250
 
 AMERICA 
 
 Discoveries of 
 the Northmen 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 In a rejoinder to Mr. Means, Mr. Smith writes 
 in Science, March g, 1917. — "It is signilkant that, 
 when citing six memoirs relating to shippnig, some 
 of them quite irrelevant, Mr. Means should have 
 omitted all reference to the writings of Paris, Pitt- 
 Rivers, Assmann and Friederici, where he will fmd 
 the evidence he imagines to be non-existent. But 
 does the argument from ships really help his case ? 
 Where is the 'similarity of the workin.; of the human 
 mind' if the highly civiUzed people of Peru and 
 Mexico hadn't sufficient of what Dr. Goldcnweiser 
 calls 'happy thoughts' to accomplish more in the 
 way of ship-building? Is not this paucity of ship- 
 ping merely a token of the remoteness of America 
 from the home of its invention? The fact that the 
 culture-bearers who first crossed the Pacific by 
 the Polynesian route were searching for pearls 
 and precious metals is surely a sufficient explana- 
 tion of their desertion of the sea once they reached 
 the American eldoradn. Another of Mr. Means's 
 difficulties I fail to understand. Why was eight 
 centuries too brief a time for a ship to have made 
 its way from the Red Sea to America? Before the 
 introduction of steam-ships what was to prevent 
 a vessel doing the journey as quickly in the eighth 
 century B. C. as in the eighth, or perhaps even the 
 eighteenth, A. D.? There are reasons, given in de- 
 tail by Aymonier and others, for believing that 
 western culture had already made its influence felt 
 in Cambodia before the close of the seventh cen- 
 tury B. C. ; Indonesia and even Japan received the 
 leaven at the same time; and it can hardly be in 
 doubt that the ancient mariners did not limit their 
 easterly wanderings to Indonesia, but pushed out 
 into the Pacific, and soon afterwards crossed it 
 to America. The remaining difficulty which is 
 holding Mr. Means back is that the Pre-Columbian 
 Americans did not use wheeled vehicles. Seeing 
 that the whole of the migration, which I have 
 described as extending from the Red Sea to Amer- 
 ica, consisted of a series of maritime expeditions, 
 it is not altogether clear what Mr. Means is re- 
 ferring to when he asks; 'Is it not inevitable that 
 they would have made use of such vehicles during 
 their long journey?' .At the time the great cultural 
 movement took place it is quite likely that none 
 of the wanderers had ever seen, or even perhaps 
 heard of, a wheeled vehicle. Even if, on some 
 rare occasion of state, in Egypt or one of the 
 Asiatic monarchies, they had seen the king drive in 
 a chariot, was that an adequate reason why these 
 sailors, when, after many years of adventure, they 
 at last reached the American coast, teeming with 
 the spoils they coveted, should have remembered 
 the chariot, and at once set to work to build carts 
 and train llamas to draw them? Surely the utter 
 improbability of this whittles down Mr. Means's 
 difficulty to the vanishing point. Or alternatively, 
 if there is any substance in the 'psychic unity' 
 hypothesis, why didn't the Americans get a 'happy 
 thought' and invent 'so simpfe and obvious a de- 
 vice' as a wheeled vehicle?" 
 
 lOth-llth centuries. — Supposed discoveries by 
 the Northmen. — "The fact that the Northmen 
 knew of the existence of the Western Continent 
 prior to the age of Columbus, was prominently 
 brought before the people of this country in the 
 year 18.^7, when the Royal Society of Northern 
 Antiquaries at Copenhagen published their work 
 on the Antiquities of North America, under the 
 editorial supervision of the great Icelandic scholar. 
 Professor Rafn. But we are not to suppose that 
 the first general account of these voyages was then 
 given, for it has always been known that the his- 
 tory of certain early voyages to America by the 
 Northmen were preserved in the libraries of Den- 
 
 mark and Iceland. . . . Vet, owing to the fact that 
 the Icelandic language, though simple in construc- 
 tion and easy of acquisition, was a tongue not un- 
 derstood by scholars, the subject has until recent 
 years been suffered to lie in the background, and 
 permitted, through a want of interest, to share in 
 a measure the treatment meted out to vague and 
 uncertain reports. ... It now remains to give the 
 reader some general account of the contents of 
 the narratives which relate more or less to the dis- 
 covery of the western continent. . . . The first 
 extracts given are very brief. They are taken from 
 the 'Landanama Book,' and relate to the report 
 in general circulation, which indicated one Guinni- 
 born as the discoverer of Greenland, an event 
 which has been fixed at the year 876. . . . The 
 next narrative relates to the rediscovery of Green- 
 land by the outlaw, Eric the Red, in qS.j, who 
 there passed three jcars in exile, and afterwards 
 returned to Icelanci. About the year q86, he 
 brought out to Greenland a considerable colony 
 of settlers, who fixed their abode at Brattahlid, 
 in Ericsfiord. Then follow two versions of the 
 voyage of Biarne Heriulfson, who, in the same 
 year, q86, when sailing for Greenland, was driven 
 away during a storm, and saw a new land at the 
 southward, which he did not visit. Next is given 
 three accounts of the voyage of Leif, son of Eric 
 the Red, who in the year 1000 sailed from Brat- 
 tahlid to find the land which Biarne saw. Two of 
 these accounts are hardly more than notices of the 
 voyage, but the third is of considerable length, and 
 details the successes of Leif, who found and ex- 
 plored this new land, where he spent the winter, 
 returning to Greenland the following spring [hav- 
 ing named different regions which he visited Hellu- 
 land, Markland and Vinland, the latter name in- 
 dicative of the finding of grapes.) After this 
 follows the voyage of Thorvald Ericson, brother of 
 Leif, who sailed to Vinland from Greenland, which 
 was the point of departure in all these voyages. 
 This expedition was begun in 100:, and it cost 
 him his life, as an arrow from one of the natives 
 pierced his side, causing death Thorstein, his 
 brother, went to seek Vinland, with the inten- 
 tion of bringing home his body, but failed in the 
 attempt. The most distinguished explorer was 
 Thorfinn Karlsefne, the Hopeful, an Icelander 
 whose genealogy runs bark in the old Northern 
 annals, through Danish, Swedish, and even Scotch 
 and Irish ancestors, some of whom were of ro\al 
 blood. In the year 1006 he went to Greenland, 
 where ho met Gudrid, widow of Thorstein, whom 
 he married. Accompanied by his wife, who urged 
 him to the undertaking, he sailed to Vinland in 
 the spring of 1007, with three vessels and 160 men, 
 where he remained three years. Here his son 
 Snorre was born. He afterwards became the 
 founder of a great family in Iceland, which gave 
 the island several of its first bishops. Thorfinn 
 finally left Vinland because he found it difficult 
 to sustain himself against the attacks of the na- 
 tives. The next to undertake a voyage was a 
 wicked woman named Freydis, a sister to Leif 
 Ericson, who went to Vinland in ion, where she 
 lived for a time with her two ships, in the same 
 places occupied by Leif and Thorfinn. Before 
 she returned, she caused the crew of one ship to 
 be cruelly murdered, assisting in the butchery with 
 her own hands. After this we have what are 
 called the Minor Narratives, which are not essen- 
 tial." — B. F. De Costa, Pre-Columbian discovery 
 of America, general introduction. — "By those who 
 accept fully the claims made for the Northmen, 
 as discoverers of the .American continent in the 
 voyages believed to be authentically narrated in 
 
 ^Si
 
 AMERICA 
 
 Search for 
 Trade Routes 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 these sagas, the Helluland of Leif is commonly iden- 
 tified with Newfoundland, Markland with Nova 
 Scotia, and Vinland with various parts of New 
 England. Massachusetts bay, Cape Cod, Nantucket 
 island, Martha's Vineyard, Buzzards bay, Narra- 
 gansett bay. Mount Hope bay. Long Island sound, 
 and New York bay are among the localities sup- 
 posed to be recognized in the Norse narratives, or 
 marked by some traces of the presence of the Vi- 
 king explorers. Prof. Gustav Storm, the most re- 
 cent of the Scandinavian investigators of this sub- 
 ject, finds the Helluland of the sagas in Labrador 
 or Northern Newfoundland, Markland in New- 
 foundland, and Vinland in Nova Scotia and Cape 
 Breton island." — G. Storm, Studies of the Vine- 
 land voyages. — "The only discredit which has been 
 thrown upon the story of the Vinland voyages, 
 in the eyes either of scholars or of the general 
 public, has arisen from the eager credulity with 
 which ingenious antiquarians have now and then 
 tried to prove more than facts will warrant. . . . 
 Arch^ological remains of the Northmen abound 
 in Greenland, all the way from Imraartinek to near 
 Cape Farewell; the existence of one such relic 
 on the North .American continent has never yet 
 been proved. Not a single vestige of the North- 
 men's presence here, at all worthy of credence, 
 has ever been found. . . . The most convincing 
 proof that the Northmen never founded a colony 
 in America, south of Davis Strait, is furnished by 
 the total absence of horses, cattle and other domes- 
 tic animals from the soil of North America until 
 they were brouchf hither by the Spanish, French 
 and English settlers" — J. Fiske, Discovery of 
 America, ch. 2. — "What Leif and Karlsefne knew 
 they experienced," writes Prof. Justin Winsor, 
 "and what the sagas tell us they underwent, must 
 have just the difference between a crisp narrative 
 of personal adventure and the oft-repeated and 
 embellished story of a fireside narrator, since the 
 traditions of the Norse voyages were not put in 
 the shape of records till about two centuries had 
 elapsed, and we have no earlier manuscript of such 
 a record than one made nearly two hundred years 
 later still. ... .A blending of history and myth 
 prompts Horn to say that 'some of the sagas were 
 doubtless oricinally based on facts, but the telling 
 and retelling have changed them into pure myths.' 
 The un.sympathetic stranger sees this in stories that 
 the patriotic Sandinavians are over-anxious t.j 
 make appear as genuine chronicles. . . . The 
 weight of probability is in favor of a Northman 
 descent upon the coast of the American mainland 
 at some point, or at several, somewhere to the 
 south of Greenland; but the evidence is hardly 
 that which attaches to well established historical 
 records. . . . There is not a 'single item of all 
 the evidence thus advanced from time to time 
 which can be said to connect by archa>ological 
 traces the presence of the Northmen on the soil of 
 North .\merica south of Davis' Strait?" Of other 
 imagined pre-Columban discoveries of .American, 
 by the Welsh, by the .Arabs, by the Basques. &-c., 
 the possibilities and probabilities are critically dis- 
 cussed by Professor Winsor in the same connection. 
 — J. Winsor, Narrative and critical history of 
 America, v. i, cli. 2, and Critical notes to the 
 same. — See also below: 1404. 
 
 Also in: Bryant and Gay, Popular history of 
 the United States, ch. 3.— E. F. Slafter. ed. Voy- 
 ages of the Northmen to .America (Prince So- 
 ciety, 1877). — E. F. Slafter, Discovery of America 
 by the Northmen (New Hampshire Historical 
 Society, t888). — N. L. Beamish, Discovery of 
 America by the Northmen. — .A. J. Weise, Dis- 
 coveries of America, ch, i. — O. Mossmiiller, Erik 
 
 the Red, Leif the Lucky, and other pre-Columbian 
 discoveries of America, translated Irom the German 
 by P. Upton. — F. Nanscn, in northern mists; Arctic 
 exploration in early times. — T. S. Lonergan, Was 
 iit. Brendan .-Imerica's first discoverer f (Ameri- 
 cana, V. 0, Oct., pp. 953-964). — B. L. Wick, Did the 
 Norsemen erect the Newport round towerl — C. K. 
 Adams, Recent discoveries concerning Columbus 
 (Report American Historical Association gi, pp. 
 4, 89-99) ■ — W. E. Curtis, E.xisting autographs, v. 94, 
 pp. 445-451. — J. B. Thacher, Christopher Colum- 
 bus, his life, his work, his remains. — E. G. Bourne, 
 Spain in .America. — J. Winsor, Christopher Colum- 
 bus (1892).— R. H. Major, Select letters of Co- 
 lumbus (2nd ed., 1890). — C. R. Markham, Life 
 of Christopher Columbus. — H. Latane, America 
 as a world power, p. 16. 
 
 15th century. — Need of new trade routes. — 
 "During this period the city republics of Italy were 
 losing their prosperity, their wealth, their enter- 
 prise, and their vigor. This was due, as a matter 
 of fact, to a variety of causes, internal and ex- 
 ternal, political and economic; but the sufferings 
 in the wars with the Turks and the adverse con- 
 ditions of the Levant trade on which their prosper- 
 ity primarily rested were far the most important 
 causes of their decline. Thus the demand of 
 European markets for Eastern luxuries could no 
 longer be met satisfactorily by the old methods; 
 yet that demand was no less than it had been, 
 and the characteristic products of the East were 
 still sought for in all the market-places of Eu- 
 rope. Indeed, the demand was increasing. As 
 Europe in the fifteenth century became more 
 wealthy and more familiar with the products o' 
 the whole world, as the nobles learned to demanc. 
 more luxuries, and a wealthy merchant class grew 
 up which was able to gratify the same tastes as 
 the nobles, the demand of the West upon the East 
 became more insistent than ever. Therefore, the 
 men, the nation, the government that could find 
 a new way to the East might claim a trade of 
 indefinite extent and extreme profit. This is the 
 explanation of that eager search for new routes 
 to the Indies which lay .at the back of so many 
 voyages of discovery of the fifteenth and sixteenth 
 centuries. Southward along the co.ast of .Africa, in 
 the hope that that continent could be rounded to 
 the southeast ; northward along the coast of Eu- 
 rope in search of a northeast passage; westward 
 relying on the sphericity of the earth, and hoping 
 that the distance from the west coast of Europe to 
 the east coast of Asia would prove not to be 
 interminable ; after .America was reached, again 
 northward and southward to round and pass be- 
 yond that barrier, and thus reach .Asia — such was 
 the progress of geographical exploration for a 
 century and a half, during which men gradually 
 became familiar with a great part of the earth's 
 surface. .A study of the history of trade-routes 
 corroborates the fact disclosed by many other 
 lines of study — that the discovery of America was 
 no isolated phenomenon: it was simply one step 
 in the development of the world's history. Changes 
 in the e.astern Mediterranean led men to turn their 
 eyes in other directions looking for other sea 
 routes to the East When they had done so, alone 
 with much else that was new, .America was dis- 
 closed to their vision . . . but the diversion of 
 commercial interest was only a part: the restless 
 energies of the Latin races of southern Europe 
 turned into a new channel; search for trade led 
 to discovery, discovery to exploration, explora- 
 tion to permanent settlement : and settlement to 
 the creation of a new centre of commercial and 
 political interest, and eventually to the rise of 
 
 252
 
 AMERICA, 1484-1492 
 
 First Voyage 
 of Columbus 
 
 AMERICA, 1492 
 
 a new nation." — E. P. Cheyney, European back- 
 ground of American history, 1300-1600, pp. 38-40. 
 — See also Commerce: Era of geographic expan- 
 sion: 15th. 17th centuries: Spanish enterprise. 
 
 1484-1492. — Great project of Columbus, and 
 the sources of its inspiration. — Seven years' suit 
 at the Spanish court. — Departure from Palos. — 
 ".\\\ attempts to diminish the glory of Columbus' 
 Lichievement by proving a previous discovery 
 whose results were known to him have signally 
 failed. . . . Columbus originated no new theory 
 respecting the earth's form or size, though a pop- 
 ular idea has always prevailed, notwithstanding 
 the statements of the best writers to the contrary, 
 that he is entitled to the glory of the theory as 
 well as to that of the execution of the project. He 
 was not in advance of his age, entertained no new 
 theories, believed no more than did Prince Henry, 
 his predecessor, or Toscanclli, his contemporary; 
 nor was he the first to conceive the possibility of 
 reaching the east by sailing west. He was however 
 the first to act in acordance with existing beliefs. 
 The Northmen in their voyages had entertained no 
 ideas of a New World, or of an Asia to the West. 
 To knowledge of theoretical geography, Columbus 
 added the skill of a practical navigator, and the 
 iron will to overcome obstacles. He sailed west, 
 reached Asia as he believed, and proved old 
 theories correct. There seem to be two undecided 
 points in that matter, neither of which can ever 
 be settled. First, did his experience in the Portu- 
 guese voyages, the perusal of some old author, or 
 a hint from one of the few men acquainted with 
 old traditions, first suggest to Columbus his proj- 
 ect? .. . Second, to what extent did his voyage 
 to the north [made in 1477, probably with an 
 English merchantman from Bristol, in which voy- 
 age he is believed to have visited Iceland] influ- 
 ence his plan? There is no evidence, but a strong 
 probability, that he heard in that voyage of the 
 existence of land in the west. . . . Still, his visit 
 to the north was in 1477, several years after the 
 first formation of his plan, and any information 
 gained at the time could only have been confirma- 
 tory rather than suggestive." — H. H. Bancroft, 
 History of the Pacific states, v. i, summary ap- 
 pended to ch. I.— "Of the works of learned men, 
 that which, according to Ferdinand Columbus, had 
 most weight with his father, was the 'Cosmo- 
 graphia' of Cardinal Aliaco. Columbus was also 
 confirmed in his views of the existence of a west- 
 ern passage to the Indies by Paulo Toscanelli, the 
 Florentine philosopher, to whom much credit is 
 due for the encouragement he afforded to the enter- 
 prise. That the notices, however, of western lands 
 were not such as to have much weight with other 
 men, is sufficiently proved by the difficulty which 
 Columbus had in contending with adverse geog- 
 raphers and men of science in general, of whom he 
 says he never was able to convince any one. .'\fter 
 a new world had been discovered, many scattered 
 indications v/ere then found to have foreshown it. 
 One thing which cannot be denied to Columbus Is 
 that he worked out his own idea himself. . . . He 
 first applied himself to his countrymen, the Geno- 
 ese, who would have nothing to say to his scheme. 
 He then tried the Portuguese, who listened to what 
 he had to say, but with bad faith sought to antici- 
 pate him by sending out a caravel with instruc- 
 tions founded upon his plan. . . . Columbus, dis- 
 gusted at the treatment he had received from the 
 Portuguese Court, quitted Lisbon, and. after visit- 
 ing Genoa, as it appears, went to see wh.at favour 
 he could meet with in Spain, arriving at Palos In 
 the year 1485." The story of the long suit of 
 Columbus at the court of Ferdinand and Isabella; 
 
 of his discouragement and departure, with intent to 
 go to France; of his recall by command of Queen 
 Isabella; of the tedious hearings and negotiations 
 that now took place; of the lofty demands ad- 
 hered to by the confident Genoese, who required 
 "to be made an admiral at once, to be appointed 
 viceroy of the countries he should discover, and to 
 have an eighth 01 the profits of the expedition;" 
 of his second rebuff, his second departure for 
 France, and second recall by Isabella, who finally 
 put her heart into the enterprise and persuaded 
 her more skeptical consort to assent to it — the 
 story of those seven years of the struggle of Co- 
 lumbus to obtain means for his voyage is familiar 
 to all readers. "The agreement between Colum- 
 bus and their Catholic highnesses was signed at 
 Santa Fc on the 17th of April, 1492; and Colum- 
 bus went to Palos to make preparation for his 
 voyage, bearing with him an order that the two 
 vessels which that city furnished annually to the 
 crown for three months should be placed at his 
 disposal. . . . The Pinzons, rich men and skilful 
 mariners of Palos, joined in the undertaking, sub- 
 scribing an eighth of the expenses; and thus, by 
 these united exertions, three vessels were manned 
 with 90 mariners, and provisioned for a year. At 
 length all the preparations were complete, and 
 on a Friday (not inauspicious in this case), the 
 3d of August, 1492, after they had all confessed 
 and received the sacrament, they set sail from the 
 bar of Saltes, making for the Canary Islands." — 
 Sir A. Helps, Spanish conquest in America, bk. 2, 
 ch. I. 
 
 Also in: J. Winsor, Christopher Columbus, ch. 
 5-9, and 20. 
 
 1492. — First voyage of Columbus. — Discovery 
 of the Bahamas, Cuba and Haiti. — The three 
 vessels of Columbus were called the Santa Maria, 
 the Pinta and the Nina. "All had forecastles and 
 high poops, but the 'Santa Maria' was the only one 
 that was decked amidships, and she was called a 
 'nao' or ship. The other two were caravelas, a 
 class of small vessels built for speed. The 'Santa 
 Maria,' as I gather from scattered notices in the 
 letters of Columbus, was of 120 to 130 tons, like 
 a modern coasting schooner, and she carried 70 
 men, much crowded. Her sails were a foresail 
 and a foretop-sail, a sprit-sail, a main-sail with 
 two bonnets, and maintop sail, a mizzen, and a 
 boat's sail were occasionally hoisted on the poop. 
 The 'Pinta' and 'Nifia' only had square sails on 
 the foremast and lateen sails on the main and 
 mizzen. The former was 50 tons, the latter 40 
 tons, with crews of 20 men each. On Friday, the 
 3d of August, the three little vessels left the 
 haven of Palos, and this memorable voyage was 
 commenced. . . . The expedition proceeded to the 
 Canary Islands, where the rig of the 'Pinta' was 
 altered. Her lateen sails were not adapted for 
 running before the wind, and she was therefore 
 fitted with square sails, like the 'Santa Maria.' 
 Repairs were completed, the vessels were filled up 
 with wood and water at Gomera, and the expedi- 
 tion took its final departure from the island of 
 Gomera, one of the Canaries, on September 6th, 
 1492. . . . Columbus had chosen his route most 
 happily, and with that fortunate prevision which 
 often waits upon genius. From Gomera, by a 
 course a little south of west, he would run down 
 the trades to the Bahama Islands. From the 
 parallel of about 30'' N. nearly to the equator 
 there is a zone of perpetual winds — namely, the 
 north-east trade winds — always moving in the 
 same direction, as steadily as the current of a 
 river, except where they are turned aside by 
 local causes, so that the ships of Columbus were 
 
 253
 
 AMERICA, 1492 
 
 Second Voyage 
 of Coliiml)H:i 
 
 AMERICA, 1492 
 
 steadily carried to their destination by a law 
 of nature which, in due time, revealed itself to 
 that close observer of her secrets. The constancy 
 of the wind was one cause of alarm among the 
 crews, for they began to murmur that the pro- 
 visions would all be exhausted if they had to 
 beat against these unceasing winds on the return 
 voyage. The next event which excited alarm 
 among the pilot? was the discovery that the com- 
 passes had more than a point of easterly varia- 
 tion. . . . This was observed on the 17th of Sep- 
 tember, and about 300 miles westward of the 
 meridian of the Azores, when the ships had been 
 eleven days at sea. Soon afterwards the voyagers 
 found themselves surrounded by masses of sea- 
 weed, in what is called the Sargasso Sea, and this 
 again aroused their fears. They thought that the 
 ships would get entangled in the beds of weed and 
 
 was on the poop and saw a light. ... At two 
 next morning, land was distinctly seen. . . . The 
 island, called by the natives Guanahani, and by 
 Columbus San Salvador, has now been ascer- 
 tained to be VVatUng Island, one of the Bahamas, 
 14 miles long by 6 broad, with a brackish lake in 
 the centre, 24° 10' 30" north latitude. . . . The 
 difference of latitude between Gomera and VVat- 
 ling Island is 235 miles. Course, W. s" S.; dis- 
 tance 3,114 miles; average distance made good 
 daily, 85'; voyage 35 days. . . . After discovering 
 several smaller islands the fleet came in sight of 
 Cuba on the 27th of October, and explored part 
 of the northern coast. Columbus believed it to be 
 Cipango, the island placed on the chart of Tos- 
 canelli, between Europe and Asia. •. . . Crossing 
 the channel between Cuba and St. Domingo [or 
 Hayti], they anchored in the harbour of St. 
 
 i..\\iiiN(; OF cm I'Mi'.i'S 
 
 From the painting !»>■ \'anci<-rlyn 
 
 become immovable, and that, the beds marked 
 the limit of navigation. The cause of this accumu- 
 lation is well known now. If bits of cork are put 
 into a basin of water, and a circular motion given 
 to it, all the corks will be found crowding to- 
 gether towards the centre of the pool where there 
 is the least motion. The .Atlantic Ocean is just 
 such a basin, the Gulf Stream is the whirl, and 
 the Sargasso Sea is in the centre. There Colum 
 bus found it, and there it has remained to this day, 
 moving up and down and changing its position ac- 
 cording to seasons, storms and winds, but never 
 altering its mean position. ... As day after day 
 passed, and there was no sign of land, the crews 
 became turbulent and mutinous. Columbus en- 
 couraged them with hopes of reward, while he 
 tnid them plainly that he had come to discover 
 India, and that, with the help of God, he would 
 [lersevere until he found it At length, on the 
 nth of October, towards ten at night, Colimibus 
 
 Nicholas Mole on December 4th. The natives came 
 with presents and the country was enchanting. 
 Columbus . . . named the island 'Espaiiola' lor 
 Hispaniola] But with all this peaceful beauty 
 around him he was on the eve of disaster." The 
 Santa Maria was drifted by a strong current upon 
 a sand bank and hopelessly wrecked. "It was 
 now necessary to leave a small colony on the 
 island. . . . .\ fort was built and named 'La Navi- 
 dad,' 30 men remaining behind supplied with 
 stores and provisions," and on Friday, Jan. 4, 1493, 
 Columbus began his homeward voyage. Weather- 
 ing a dangerous gale, which lasted several days, 
 his little vessels reached the Azores Feb. 17. and 
 arrived at Palos March 15, bearing their marvel- 
 lous news. — C. R. Markham, Sea fathers, ch. 2. — 
 The same. Life of Columbtta, ch. 5. — The state- 
 ment above that the island of the Bahamas on 
 which Columbus first landed, and which he called 
 San Salvador, "has now been ascertained to be Wat-
 
 AMERICA, 1492 
 
 Papal Bnll 
 
 AMERICA, 1493 
 
 ling Island" seems hardly justified. The question be- 
 tween Watling island, San Salvador or Cat island, 
 Samana, or Attwood's Cay, Mariguana, the Grand 
 Turk, and others is still in dispute. Professor 
 Justin Winsor says "the weight of modern testi- 
 mony seems to favor Watling 's Island;" but at 
 the same time he thinks it "probable that men 
 will never quite agree which the Bahamas it was 
 upon which these startled and exultant Europeans 
 lirst stepped." — J. Winsor, CItrisloplier Colum- 
 bus, ch. Q. — The same. Narrative and critical history 
 of America, v. 2, ch. i, note B. — Professor John 
 Fiske says: "All that can be positively asserted 
 of Guanahani is that it was one of the Bahamas; 
 there has been endless discussion as to which one, 
 and the question is not easy to settle. Perhaps 
 the theory of Captain Gustavus Fox, of the United 
 States Navy, is on the whole best supported. Cap- 
 tain Fox maintains that the true Guanahani was 
 the little Island now known as Samana or Att- 
 wood's Cay." — J. Fiske, Discovery of America, v. 
 I, ch. S- 
 
 Also in: U. S. Coast and geodetic survey, Rep., 
 1880, app. 18. 
 
 1492. — Discovery of the Virgin Islands. See 
 Virgin Islands: Discovery and settlement. 
 
 1493. — Papal grant of the New World to 
 Spain. — Demarcation of maritime and colonial 
 domains of Spain and Portugal. — "Spain was at 
 this time connected with the Pope about a most 
 momentous matter. The Genoese, Cristoforo Co- 
 lombo, arrived at the Spanish court in March, 
 1493, with the astounding news of the discovery of 
 a new continent. . . . Ferdinand and Isabella 
 thought it wise to secure a title to all that might 
 ensue from their new discovery. The Pope, as 
 Vicar of Christ, was held to have authority to 
 dispose of lands inhabited by the heathen ; and 
 by papal Bulls the discoveries of Portugal along 
 the African coast had been secured. The Portu- 
 guese showed signs of urging claims to the New 
 World, as being already conveyed to them by 
 the papal grants previously issued in their favour. 
 To remove all cause of dispute, the Spanish mon- 
 archs at once had recourse to Alexander VI., who 
 issued two Bulls on May 4 and 5 [1493] to de- 
 termine the respective rights of Spain and Portu- 
 gal. In the first, the Pope granted to the Spanish 
 monarchs and their heirs all lands discovered or 
 hereafter to be discovered in the western ocean. 
 In the second, he defined his grant to mean all 
 lands that might be discovered west and south of 
 an imaginary line, drawn from the North to the 
 South Pole, at th^ distance of a hundred leagues 
 westward of the Azores and Cape de Verd Islands. 
 In the light of our present knowledge we are 
 amazed at this simple means of disposing of a 
 vast extent of the earth's surface." Under the 
 Pope's stupendous patent, Spain was able to claim 
 every part of the American Continent e.^cept the 
 Brazilian coast. — M. Creighton, History of the 
 Papacy: during the period of the Reformation, bk. 
 5, v. 3, ch. 6. 
 
 "Perhaps there are, in the whole history of di- 
 plomacy, no documents which have aroused more 
 passionate discussions and given occasion to more 
 divergent commentaries, than the bulls of Alexan- 
 der VI. relating to the colonial expansion of Spain. 
 Promulgated at a critical moment in the evolution 
 of Europe, a moment marked by the rise of the 
 modern states and a decline of the papacy, they 
 belong to a period of political and religious transi- 
 tion. If they have obtained so extraordinary a 
 prominence, it is because of the mass of various 
 and important events with which they were asso- 
 ciated: the rapid enlargement of the geographical 
 
 horizon, colonial expansion, religious propaganda, 
 the foundation of international law, the trans- 
 formation of the relations between Church and 
 State. They have been published in the great 
 diplomatic collections, and the chief of them (Inter 
 caetera, May 4) is found in the Corpus of the 
 Catholic canon law. It is nowise surprising that 
 they have been considered from very different 
 points of view: they have been of interest alike 
 to geographers and to historians, to theologians, 
 statesmen, and jurists, and the opinions expressed 
 regarding them have varied with the different 
 epochs, quite as much as with the different minds 
 of those expressing them. To relate the history 
 of the discussions occasioned by these documents 
 would be to set forth comprehensively all the 
 transformations of modern and contemporary his- 
 toriography. Even to-day, despite the searching 
 investigations to which these bulls have been sub- 
 jected, despite the publication of a number of 
 sources already considerable, opinions are much 
 divided, and several problems, enigmas even, are 
 still to be solved, with respect to their scope and 
 meaning. In the first place what was the role of 
 Alexander \'l. himself? Did he undertake a veri- 
 table partition of the world? And did he do this 
 in the capacity of an arbiter, of a supreme judge, 
 of a guardian of the peace, or otherwise? Was 
 he protecting the interests of the two leading 
 colonial powers, or only those of one of them? 
 What was, at the beginning, the importance of the 
 line of demarcation, and who was its author? 
 What force did the Spanish sovereigns and the 
 princes of the period ascribe to the bulls in ques- 
 tion ? The opinion which has long prevailed is 
 that which regards Alexander VI. as an arbiter. 
 This opinion was sustained especially by Hugo 
 Grolius, and one of its principal upholders at the 
 present time is L. Pastor. According to this au- 
 thor, the pope, at the time of the conflict which 
 arose between Spain and Portugal with respect 
 to the lands discovered by Columbus, was in- 
 vited to act as mediator; he decided in a peaceful 
 manner a series of very thorny boundary ques- 
 tions, and these decisions are to be regarded as 
 one of the glories of the papacy. Another view, 
 held by E. G. Bourne, S. E. Dawson, and H. 
 Harrisse, is that Alexander VI. intervened in the 
 conflict between Spain and Portugal, not as an 
 arbiter, but as supreme judge of Christendom, 
 or guardian of its peace. It is asserted that, at 
 least in respect of certain dispositions appearing in 
 the bulls, he took the initiative in order to prevent 
 strife. Finally, an opinion completely differing 
 from all the preceding has been expressed by E. 
 Nys. He beHeves it possible to prove that the 
 role of Alexander VI. was absolutely a nullity, 
 his bulls containing neither an arbitral decision 
 nor even an ascription of sovereignty. . . . ."Xt the 
 moment when Columbus was undertaking the ex- 
 ploration of the Atlantic, the Spanish sovereigns 
 had renounced for the benefit of Portugal all 
 colonial expansion 'beyond or on this side of the 
 Canaries over against Guinea.' Sixtus IV. (1481) 
 had confirmed this treaty as well as the bulls 
 granted to the Portuguese by Nicholas V. and 
 Calixtus III. The same pope had assured to the 
 Portuguese the discoveries which should be made 
 in Guinea and beyond in the direction of these 
 'southern regions,' sanctioning thus the bulls of his 
 predecessors, notably that which Nicholas V. 
 (1454) issued in consequence of the Portuguese 
 discoveries 'in the Ocean Sea toward the regions 
 lying southward and eastward ' Out in the At- 
 lantic the maps of the period place the mysteri- 
 ous island Antilia or Island of the Seven Cities. 
 
 ^55
 
 AMERICA, 1493 
 
 Papal Bull 
 
 AMERICA, 1493 
 
 In 1475 and in i486 the King of Portugal had 
 granted it, together with neighboring islands and 
 lands, to F. Telles and to Dulrao respectively. He 
 considered the 'Ocean Sea' as his domain, imagin- 
 ing, as did all his contemporaries, that it lay 
 chiefly in the equatorial zone. On the return from 
 his first voyage Columbus, as is well known, landed 
 in Port''gal. King John II., declaring that he 
 had operated in 'the seas and limits of his lord- 
 ship of Guinea,' had the discoverer brought be- 
 fore him (about March 6, 1403) and Columbus 
 declared to him that he was returning from 'Cy- 
 pangu and Antilia,' islands which formed the ap- 
 proaches to India. Shortly after, Peter Martyr, 
 the Italian humanist, chaplain of Isabella, spoke 
 of the 'western Antipodes' discovered by Chris- 
 topher Columbus in contrast to the 'southern An- 
 tipodes,' toward which the Portuguese navigators 
 sailed. But it was believed that the chief trans- 
 oceanic lands lay in the southern hemisphere, bal- 
 ancing thus the Eurasian continent. Zurita, chron- 
 icler of Aragon under Charles V. and Philip II., 
 alludes to the fact that the ancients represented 
 this southern world in the form of islands, large 
 and small, separated by great distances. John II. 
 went to Torres Vedras to pass Easter (.4pril 7). 
 Two days before, he sent to the court of Spain 
 the alcalde mayor of that town, Ruy de Sande, 
 to ascertain whether Columbus intended to pur- 
 sue his discoveries to the south, or would confine 
 his enterprises to the west. But this envoy did 
 not arrive till after the departure from Barcelona 
 (April 22) of the Spanish ambassador charged to 
 announce to the King of Portugal the discovery, 
 on behalf of the Spanish sovereigns, of the islands 
 and continents situated in the direction of the 
 Indies. Ferdinand and Isabella had not waited 
 till this time to obtain from the sovereign pontiff 
 a monopoly of the discoveries and the right of 
 commercial exploitation in the Oceanic Sea and in 
 the islands of the Indies. As early as March 30, 
 they had addressed their congratulations to Co- 
 lumbus, 'Admiral of the Ocean Sea and viceroy 
 and governor of the islands discovered in the In- 
 dies.' They no doubt hastened to address to their 
 agents or permanent ambassadors at the court of 
 Rome the instructions necessary to enable the 
 latter to assert title as soon as possible, over 
 against the claims which would without question 
 be asserted by the King of Portugal. The re- 
 ception which the Curia would give to this de- 
 mand could not fail to be most favorable. The 
 many bonds which attached Alexander VI. to 
 Spain during the first years of his pontificate are 
 well known, as also the care with which he strove 
 then to maintain them in spite of all sorts of dif- 
 ficulties. Though he had not- lived long in his 
 native country he had remained a true .Aragonese, 
 and had constantly surrounded himself by compa- 
 triots and by other Spaniards in the course of his 
 cardinalate. ... An upholder of Spanish-Neapoli- 
 tan policy during his cardinalate, Alexander VI. 
 treated it with solicitude at the beginning of his 
 pontificate, and was able to derive from his rela- 
 tions with the Spanish sovereigns valuable ad- 
 vantages for his family. As is well known, he 
 sacrificed everything, both spiritual and temporal 
 interests, to his children ; in the first place to Juan, 
 whose 'fortunes and influence depended entirely 
 upon the prosperity and strength of Spain. The 
 death of Pedro Luis, duke of Gandia, had caused 
 that duchy in 148S to pass to Juan, for whom 
 the pope obtained the hand of Dona Maria En- 
 riquez, fiancee of the deceased (August, 1403). 
 Meanwhile, however, Alexander VI. allowed him- 
 self to be drawn away by Cardinal .Ascanio, to 
 
 whom he owed the tiara, toward the Milano-Ve- 
 netian alliance, hostile to the King of Naples and 
 favorable to France. Ascanio Sforza, brother of 
 Ludovico il Moro, after becoming vice-chancellor 
 exercised for some time a considerable ascendancy 
 over the pope, and so caused him to attach him- 
 self to that alliance, represented as intended to 
 insure the peace of Italy (.'\piil 25). It was just 
 at this time that the Spanish sovereigns requested 
 the bull of donation of the islands recently dis- 
 covered. To secure their pardon, so to speak, for 
 his equivocal course, Alexander VI. took pains to 
 give them satisfaction and at the same time to 
 address to them a formal document attested by a 
 notary {instrumenlum publicum), by which he 
 declared that he 'desired that even his allies should 
 preserve entire and inviolable the bond which 
 united him to these sovereigns, and this under all 
 circumstances whatever.' He also informed Ferdi- 
 nand and Isabella of the conditions of the alliance 
 which he had concluded with Milan and Venice, 
 and made his excuses for not having offered his 
 mediation between Spain and France by declaring 
 that he had supposed peace to have been concluded 
 by the restoration of Perpignan and Roussillon 
 to the first of these powers. Finally, he sent 
 them, by the hand of the same nuncio, the cor- 
 respondence e.xchanged between the Emperor and 
 the King of France relating to a plan of peace. 
 The pope visibly exerts himself to please the mon- 
 archs to whom he was soon about to grant the 
 title of 'Catholic,' and informs them of his whole 
 policy. The conclusion of the letter which Podo- 
 catharus addressed in his name to the nuncio 
 in Spain contains this interesting recommendation: 
 'Moreover tell them distinctly with what care 
 we lay ourselves out to satisfy them in all things 
 and to furnish to all the world proofs of the 
 paternal affection we have for them.' Evidently 
 then Alexander VI. could refuse nothing to Ferdi- 
 nand and Isabella ; eager to give them evidences 
 of his good-will he did not hesitate to comply 
 entirely with their request relative to the discov- 
 eries made by Columbus, without examining 
 whether their claim menaced the rights of other 
 sovereigns or not. He was to continue in this 
 attitude of favor until the time when he came 
 under the influence of his son, Caesar, that is to 
 say, after the death of Juan, duke of Gandia 
 (1407). The question has often been discussed, 
 whether Ferdinand and Isabella needed a papal 
 grant in order to acquire the sovereignty of lands 
 discovered by one of their agents. This question 
 directly depends upon that of the nature of the 
 papal power, and opinions relating to the latter 
 vary according to place and time. By the terms 
 of the bull itself, the pope disposed, in favor of 
 the Spanish monarchs, of the temporal sovereignty 
 [dominium) of lands discovered or to be discov- 
 ered in a certain region. While the Catholic sov- 
 ereigns clearly held at that time that they had in 
 temporal matters no superior within theif own 
 dominions, including all lands of which they had 
 made effective acquisition, the bulls in question 
 were titles to future discoveries, and were de- 
 signed to repeal bulls which previous popes had 
 promulgated in favor of the kings of Portugal. 
 Proof that Ferdinand and Isabella attached a 
 great value to them is seen in their anxiety that 
 the things which they desired should be incor- 
 porated in them, and also in the revisions to 
 which, as we shall see, they subsequently caused 
 them to be subjected. Before the end of May, 
 negotiations had begun between John II. and the 
 Spanish monarchs. They were conducted with 
 peaceful intentions on both sides. In the course 
 
 256
 
 Euriipe It ikown at at Iht aecnUon nf Charten l', ISI3. 
 - Tht dalt o//iiunilallun glveii a/ler Inwnnamti. 
 Cvlmiitt anil dtprn(tttnflrt In ItiO, eclartit tl-iil- 
 
 Jlnglish 1 I Frtncl. \ ' \ 
 
 Maps preparcl specially for the NEW LARNED 
 under direction of the editors aud publishers. 
 
 c
 
 AMERICA, 1493 
 
 Papal Bull 
 
 AMERICA, 1493 
 
 of them, Ferdinand and Isabella obtained a fuller 
 knowledge of the extent of the claims made by 
 the Portuguese king, and of his intention to re- 
 serve to himself discoveries made toward the south 
 and the Ocean Sea. Thereupon the dispositions 
 made by the bull of May 3 became inadequate, 
 for Columbus counted with certainty, as we have 
 seen, upon making new expeditions, and first of all 
 toward the south. He was urgent that this bull 
 should be replaced by another, containing a new 
 stipulation with respect to the maritime and colo- 
 nial dominion of Spain. The Spanish monarchs 
 desired to include in that dominion the whole 
 Atlantic, as is proved by the confirmation of priv- 
 ileges which was granted to Columbus on May 
 28. 'This sea,' they say, 'belongs to us to the 
 west of a line passing through the Azores and 
 the Cape Verde Islands, and extending from north 
 to south, from pole to pole.' It is manifest with 
 what insistence they claim the Ocean Sea in both 
 hemispheres. Columbus however suggested that 
 the line should be set further to the west, a hun- 
 dred leagues from the Portuguese islands in ques- 
 tion. That fact is explicitly shown in a letter 
 which the sovereigns addressed to him later (Sep- 
 tember 5) and which reports a rumor that had 
 been spread of the existence of very rich lands 
 between that line and the southern part of Africa, 
 lands of which they feared that they might be 
 deprived in virtue of the terms of the bull already 
 amended. The text of the latter must have been 
 drawn up during the month of June and sent then 
 to the Spanish agents at the court of Rome. The 
 determination of Columbus to operate in the south 
 of the Ocean Sea as well as in the west gave rise 
 to the repetition of the words 'toward the west 
 and the south' which determined in so strange 
 a fashion the position of the boundary in the 
 ocean between the Spanish and the Portuguese 
 dominions. It was, then, at the instance of Co- 
 lumbus that the line of demarcation was mentioned 
 in the papal document. Was he himself the 
 author of that line, and if so on what basis did 
 he select it? It does not appear to have been 
 suggested to him by his sovereigns. The instruc- 
 tions which they gave him at the beginning of 
 September, 1403, and a little earlier, with a view 
 to his second voyage, were merely that he should 
 sail as far as possible from the Portuguese posses- 
 sions. On the other hand, everything leads us to 
 believe that both the papal chancery and the pope 
 himself were entirely strangers to the establish- 
 ment of this line. If they did not take the initia- 
 tive in the case of any of the essential stipulations 
 contained in the bulls in question, why should 
 they have done so in precisely that one which con- 
 cerns the delimitation of the two colonial domains, 
 so advantageous to Spain? The supposition of 
 Alexander von Humboldt attributing to Columbus 
 the authorship of the line of demarcation appears 
 accordingly very plausible, and in the present state 
 of the sources, practically certain. Whether Co- 
 lumbus, in establishing the line, was guided by 
 facts of physical geography observed in the course 
 of his first voyage — changes in the stars, the aspect 
 of the sea, the temperature, the variation of the 
 compass and the like — drawing inferences from 
 these as to the beginning of the Orient and the 
 end of the Occident, may be doubted, but it is 
 no longer possible to deny him an essential part 
 in the planning of the famous line of demarca- 
 tion. . . . We do not enter now into the history 
 of those diplomatic negotiations between Spain and 
 Portugal, which, beginning on August 18, 1403, 
 resulted in the treaty of Tordesillas (June 7, 1494). 
 Early in the course of those negotiations the Span- 
 
 ish sovereigns, in a letter of September S, ad- 
 dressed to Columbus, asked his advice as to 
 whether it was not necessary to modify the 'bull' 
 — evidently that of May 4. His reply was no 
 doubt affirmative. Such a modification might be 
 brought about through a simple additional and 
 amplifying bull. Columbus intended to pursue 
 his discoveries to the very Orient itself, where the 
 Portuguese hoped to arrive soon. He wished to 
 plant the standard of Castile in the eastern as 
 well as in the southern Indies and it was no doubt 
 for this reason that he requested the papal ratifi- 
 cation of the Spanish monopoly of conquests be- 
 yond the sea, by way of the west, in all regions 
 not occupied by Christians, especially in the 
 Orient and in the Indies. The bull, dated Sep- 
 tember 26, revoked, it will be recalled, all con- 
 trary dispositions in previous bulls granted to kings, 
 princes, infantes, or religious or military orders 
 (this stipulation is evidently directed at Portugal), 
 even when granted for motives of piety, the spread 
 of the gospel, or the ransom of captives. It also 
 gave expression to the principle that the posses- 
 sion of territories, to be valid, must be effective; 
 but its chief object was to secure to Spain access 
 to the Orient, where it was customary to locate In- 
 dia properly so called. The position of India is 
 however not clearly defined in the papal document ; 
 it names it at first in connection with the 'orien- 
 tal regions,' and then after a mention of these 
 regions. That the King of Portugal did not suc- 
 ceed in preventing so considerable an extension 
 of the sphere of influence of Spain must probably 
 be attributed to the fact that at this time he was 
 making it the chief objective of his policy to pro- 
 cure that his natural son, Dom Jorge, should be 
 recognized as his heir presumptive to the prej- 
 udice of his brother Manoel, and to obtain for 
 him the hand of a Spanish infanta. The decision 
 of the Spanish and Portuguese ambassadors that 
 the line of demarcation should be set at a point 
 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands dif- 
 fering considerably from that set forth in the 
 bull of May 4, 1493, the contracting parties agreed 
 to insert in the treaty of Tordesillas a clause 
 stipulating that the papal confirmation should be 
 sought; but that no papal mot it propria should 
 dispense either one of the two parties from ob- 
 serving the convention. The maintenance of the 
 treaties was thus guaranteed against the arbitrary 
 action of the plenitudo poteslatis of the sovereign 
 pontiff. The confirmation of the treaty was not 
 obtained under the pontificate of Alexander VI., 
 nor until January 24. 1506. The other European 
 states bordering on the Atlantic, contrary to what 
 has generally been believed, made no account of 
 the bulls issued in favor of the first two colonial 
 powers. . . . The kings of France, like those of 
 England, whose line of conduct with respect to 
 the pope they had imitated, did not recognize the 
 supreme jurisdiction of the Holy See even in 
 ecclesiastical matters; naturally they were still 
 less disposed to recognize it in temporal affairs. 
 To sum up, then, the bull of demarcation, like 
 the other bulls delivered to Spain in 1403, con- 
 stituted at first a grant exclusively Spanish; it 
 was in large part, if not wholly, shaped by the 
 chancery of Ferdinand and Isabella; the line of 
 demarcation itself, which played so important a 
 part in subsequent transactions, had been sug- 
 gested and probably first devised by Christopher 
 Columbus. Moreover, the different bulls of that 
 year were but successive increments of the favors 
 granted to the Spanish sovereigns, Alexander VI. 
 being at that time but an instrument in their 
 hands. Friction with Portugal was increased 
 
 257
 
 AMERICA, 1493-1496 
 
 Second Voyage 
 of Columbus 
 
 AMERICA, 1494 
 
 rather than diminished by the granting of these 
 bulls. Far from recognizing the prior rights of 
 that country in the Atlantic, the Holy See re- 
 stricted them more and more, in the interest of 
 Spain. The difficulties between the two powers were 
 smoothed away by their own diplomatic means 
 and Portugal distinctly repudiated the incidental 
 arbitration of the pope or of any other authority. 
 If later she relied upon the bull of demarcation, 
 it was because new circumstances brought her 
 into that attitude, for the force of a diplomatic 
 document arises less from the conditions under 
 which it has been shaped than from the events 
 with which it is subsequently associated, and which 
 usually modify its range of application." — H. Van- 
 der Linden, Alexander VI and the demarcation of 
 the maritime and colonial domains of Spain and 
 Portugal, 1403-1404 (American Historical Review, 
 Oct., 1916, pp. 1-20). 
 
 Also in: E. G. Bourne, Demarcation line of 
 Pope .Alexander VI (Yale Review, May, 1920). — 
 J. Fiske, Discovery of .imerica, v. i, ch. 6. — J. 
 Gordon, Bulls distributing America (American 
 Society of Church History, v. 4). 
 
 1493-1496. — Second voyage of Columbus. — 
 Discovery of Jamaica and the Caribbees. — Sub- 
 jugation of Hispaniola. — "The departure of Co- 
 lumbus on his second voyage of discovery 
 presented a brilliant contrast to his gloomy em- 
 barkation at Palos. On the 25th of September 
 [1493], at the dawn of day, the bay of Cadiz 
 was whitened by his fleet. There were three large 
 ships of heavy burden and fourteen caravals. . . . 
 Before sunrise the whole fleet was under way." 
 Arrived at the Canaries on the ist of October, 
 Columbus purchased there calves, goats, sheep, 
 hogs, and fowls, with which to stock the island 
 of Hispaniola; also "seeds of oranges, lemons, 
 bergamots, melons, and various orchard fruits, 
 which were thus first introduced into the islands 
 of the west from the Hesperiodes or Fortunate 
 Islands of the Old World." It was not until the 
 13th of October that the fleet left the Canaries, 
 and it arrived among the islands since called the 
 Lesser Antilles or Caribbees, on the evening of 
 Nov. 2. Sailing through this archipelago, dis- 
 covering the larger island of Porto Rico on the 
 way, Columbus reached the eastern extremity of 
 Hispaniola or Haiti on the 2 2d of November, 
 and arrived on the 27th at La Navidad, where 
 he had left a garrison ten months before. He 
 found nothing but ruin, silence and the marks 
 of death, and learned, after much inquiry, that 
 his unfortunate men, losing all discipline after 
 his departure, had provoked the natives by rapac- 
 ity and licentiousness until the latter rose against 
 them and destroyed them. Abandoninc the scene 
 of this disaster, Columbus found an excellent har- 
 bor ten leagues east of Monte Christi and there 
 he began the founding of a city which he named 
 Isabella. "Isabella at the present day is quite 
 overgrown with forests, in the midst of which are 
 still to be seen, partly standing, the pillars of 
 the church, some remains of the king's store- 
 houses, and part of the residence of Columbus, all 
 built of hewn stone." While the foundations of 
 the new city were being laid, Columbus sent 
 back part of his ships to Spain, and undertook 
 an exploration of the interior of the island — the 
 mountains of Cibao — where abundance of gold was 
 promised. Some gold washings were found — far 
 too scanty to satisfy the expectations of the Span- 
 iards; and, as want and sickness soon made their 
 appearance at Isabella, discontent was rife and 
 mutiny afoot before the year had ended. In .\pril, 
 :494, Columbus set sail with three caravels to 
 
 revisit the coast of Cuba, for a more extended 
 exploration than he had attempted on the first 
 discovery. "He supposed it to be a continent, and 
 the extreme end of Asia, and if so, by following 
 its shores in the proposed direction he must even- 
 tually arrive at Cathay and those other rich and 
 commercial, though semi-barbarous countries, de- 
 scribed by Mandeville and Marco Polo." Re- 
 ports of gold led him southward from Cuba until 
 he discovered the island which he called Santiago, 
 but which has kept its native name, Jamaica, sig- 
 nifying the Island of Springs. Disappointed in 
 the search for gold, he soon returned from Jamaica 
 to Cuba and sailed along its southern coast to 
 very near the western extremity, confirming him- 
 self and his followers in the belief that they skirted 
 the shores of Asia and might follow them to the 
 Red Sea, if their ships and stores were equal to so 
 long a voyage. "Two or three days' further sail 
 would have carried Columbus round the extremity 
 of Cuba; would have dispelled his illusion, and 
 might have given an entirely different course to 
 his subsequent discoveries. In his present convic- 
 tion he lived and died; believing to his last hour 
 that Cuba was the extremity of the .Asiatic conti- 
 nent." Returning eastward, he visited Jamaica 
 again and purposed some further exploration of 
 the Caribbee Islands, when his toils and anxieties 
 overcome him. "He fell into a deep lethargy, re- 
 sembling death itself. His crew, alarmed at this 
 profound torpor, feared that death was really at 
 hand. They abandoned, therefore, all further 
 prosecution of the voyage ; and spreading their 
 sails to the east wind so prevalent in those seas, 
 bore Columbus back, in a state of complete insen- 
 sibility, to the harbor of Isabella," Sept. 4. Re- 
 covering consciousness, the admiral was rejoiced to 
 find his brother Bartholomew, from whom he had 
 been separated for years, and who had been sent 
 out to him from Spain, in command of three ships. 
 Otherwise there was little to give pleasure to Co- 
 lumbus when he returned to Isabella. His follow- 
 ers were again disorganized, again at war with 
 the natives, whom they plu.idered and licentiously 
 abused, and a mischief-making priest had gone 
 back to Spain, along with certain intriguing of- 
 ficers, to make complaints and set enmities astir 
 at the court. Involved in war, Columbus prose- 
 cuted it relentlessly, reduced the island to submis- 
 sion and the natives to servitude and misery by 
 heavy exactions. In March. 1496, he returned to 
 Spain, to defend himself against the machinations 
 of his enemies, transferring the government of His- 
 paniola to his brother Bartholomew. — W. Irving, 
 Life and voyages of Columbus, bk. 6-8, v. 1-2. 
 
 .^Lso in: H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific 
 states, v. I, ch. 2. — J. Winson, Christopher Co- 
 lumbus, ch. 12-14. 
 
 1494. — Treaty of Tordesillas. — Amended par- 
 tition of the New World between Spain and 
 Portugal. — "When speaking or writing of the 
 conquest of .America, it is generally believed that 
 the only title upon which were based the con- 
 quests of Spain and Portugal was the famous 
 Papal Bull of partition of the Ocean, of 1403. Few 
 modern authors take into consideration that this 
 Bull was amended, upon the petition of the King 
 of Portugal, by the [Treaty of Tordesillas], signed 
 by both powers in 1494, augmenting the portion 
 assigned to the Portuguese in the partition made 
 between them of the Continent of America. The 
 arc of meridian fixed by this treaty as a dividing 
 line, which gave rise, owing to the ignorance of 
 the .age, to so many diplomatic congresses and 
 interminable controversies, may now be traced by 
 anv student of elementary mathematics. This 
 
 = 58
 
 AMERICA, 1497 
 
 Cabot and 
 Vespucci 
 
 AMERICA, 1497-1498 
 
 line . . . runs along the meridian of 47° 32' 56" 
 west of Greenwich. . . . Ihe name Brazil, or 'tierra 
 del Brazil,' at that time [the middle of the i6th 
 century] referred only to the part of the conti- 
 nent producing the dye wood so-called. Nearly 
 two centuries later the Portuguese advanced toward 
 the South, and the name Brazil then covered the 
 new possessions they were acquiring." — L. L. 
 Dominguez, Introd. to "The conquest oj the River 
 Plate" (Hakliiyt Society Publications, No. 81). 
 
 1497. — Discovery of the North American con- 
 tinent by John Cabot. — "The achievement of 
 Columbus, revealing the wonderful truth of which 
 the germ may have existed in the imagination of 
 every thoughtful mariner won [in England] the 
 admiration which belonged to genius that seemed 
 more divine than human; and 'there was great talk 
 of it in all the court of Henry VII.' A feeling of 
 disappointment remained, that a series of disasters 
 had defeated the wish of the illustrious Genoese 
 to make his voyage of essay under the flag of Eng- 
 land. It was, therefore, not difficult for John 
 Cabot, a denizen of Venice, residing at Bristol, to 
 interest that politic king in plans for discovery. 
 On the 5th of March, 1406, he obtained under the 
 great seal a commission empowering himself and 
 his three sons, or either of them, their heirs, or 
 their deputies, to sail into the eastern, western, or 
 northern sea with a fleet of five ships, at their 
 own expense, in search of islands, provinces, or 
 regions hitherto unseen by Christian people ; to 
 affix the banners of England on city, island, or 
 continent; and, as vassals of the English crown, to 
 possess and occupy the territories that might be 
 found. It was further stipulated in this 'most 
 ancient American State paper of England,' that 
 the patentees should be strictly bound, on every 
 return, to land at the port of Bristol, and to pay 
 to the king one-fifth part of their gains; while the 
 exclusive right of frequenting all the countries 
 that might be found was reserved to them and to 
 their assigns, without limit of time. Under this 
 patent, which, at the first direction of English 
 enterprise toward America, embodied the worst fea- 
 tures of monopoly and commercial restriction, John 
 Cabot, taking with him his son Sebastian, em- 
 barked in quest of new islands and a passage to 
 Asia by the north-west. After sailing prosper- 
 ously, as he reported, for 700 leagues, on the 24th 
 day of June [1407] in the morning, almost four- 
 teen months before Columbus on his third voyage 
 came in sight of the main, and more than two 
 years before Amerigo Vespucci sailed west of the 
 Canaries, he discovered the western continent, prob- 
 ably in the latitude of about 56° degrees, among 
 the dismal cliffs of Labrador. He ran along the 
 coast for many leagues, it is said even for 300, and 
 landed on what he considered to be the territory 
 of the Grand Cham, But he encountered no 
 human being, although there were marks that the 
 region was inhabited. He planted on the land a 
 large cross with the flag of England, and, from 
 affection for the republic of Venice, he added the 
 banner of St. Mark, which had never been borne 
 so far before. On his homeward voyage he saw 
 on his right hand two islands, which for want of 
 provisions he could not stop to explore. After an 
 absence of three months the great discoverer re- 
 entered Bristol harbor, where due honors awaited 
 him. The king gave him money, and encouraged 
 him to continue his career. The people called him 
 the great admiral; he dressed in silk; and the 
 English, and even Venetians who chanced to be 
 at Bristol, ran after him with such zeal that he 
 could enlist for a new voyage as manv as he 
 pleased. ... On the third day of the month of 
 
 February ne.xt after his return, 'John Kaboto, 
 Venecian,' accordingly obtained a power to take 
 up ships for another voyage, at the rates fixed 
 for those employed in the service of the king, and 
 once more to set sail with as many companions 
 as would go with him of their own will. With this 
 license every trace of John Cabot disappears. He 
 may have died before the summer; but no one 
 knows certainly the time or the place of his end, 
 and it has not even been ascertained in what 
 country this finder of a continent first saw the 
 light."— G. Bancroft, History of the United States 
 (Author's last Revision), pt. i, ch. i. — In his crit- 
 ical work on the discovery of America, published 
 in i8g2, Mr. Henry Harrisse states his conclusions 
 as to the Cabot voyages, and on the question 
 whether the American discoveries were made by 
 John Cabot or his son Sebastian, as follows: . 
 "i. — The discovery of the continent of North 
 America and the first landing on its east coast 
 were accomplished not by Sebastian Cabot, but by 
 his father John, in I4g7, under the auspices of 
 Kin; Henry VII. 2.— The first landfall was not 
 Cape Breton Island, as is stated in the planisphere 
 made by Sebastian Cabot in 1544, but eight or ten 
 degrees further north, on the coast of Labrador; 
 which was then' ranged by John Cabot, probably 
 as far as Cape Chudley. 3. — This fact was tacitly 
 acknowledged by all pilots and cosmographers 
 throughout the first half of the i6th century; and 
 the knowledge of it originated with Sebastian 
 Cabot himself, whatever may have been after- 
 wards his contrary statements in that respect. 
 4- — The voyage of 1408, also accomplished under 
 the British flag, was likewise carried out by John 
 Cabot personally. The landfall on that occasion 
 must be placed south of the first; and the ex- 
 ploration embraced the northeast coast of the 
 present United States, as far as Florida. 5. — In 
 the vicinity of the Floridian east coast, John Cabot, 
 or one of his lieutenants, was detected by some 
 Spanish vessel, in 1498 or T4Q9. 6. — The English 
 continued in 1501, 1502, 15^,4, and afterwards, to 
 send ships to Newfoundland, chiefly for the pur- 
 pose of fisheries." — H. Harrisse, Discovery of North 
 America', pt. i, bk. 8, ch. 5. 
 
 Also in: Narrative and critical history of 
 America, v. 3, ch. x. Critical essay (C. Deane). — 
 R. Biddle, Memoir of Sebastian Cabot, ch. 1-8. — 
 G. E. Winship, Cabot bibliography. — E. G. Bourne, 
 Spain in America, p. 328. — C. R. Beazley, John 
 and Sebastian Cabot (iSqS). — The principal Cabot 
 documents are found in translation in Markham, 
 Journal of Christopher Columbus (1803). 
 
 1497-1498. — First voyage of Vespucci. — Mis- 
 understandings and disputes concerning it. — 
 Vindication of the Florentine navigator. — His 
 exploration of 4,000 miles of continental coasL. 
 — "Our information concerning Americus Vespu- 
 cius, from the early part of the year 1406 until 
 after his return from the Portuguese to the Span- 
 ish service in the latter part of 1504, rests primarily 
 upon his two famous letters; the one addressed 
 to his old patron Lorenzo di Pier Francesco de' 
 Medici (a cousin of Lorenzo the Magnificent) and 
 written in March or April, 1503, giving an ac- 
 count of his third voyage; the other addressed to 
 his old school-fellow Piero Sodcrini [then Gon- 
 faloniere of Florence] and dated from Libson, 
 September 4, 1504. giving a brief account of four 
 voyages which he had made under various com- 
 manders in the capacity of astronomer or pilot. 
 These letters . . . became speedily popular, and 
 many editions were published, more especially in 
 France, Germany, and Italy. . . . The letter to 
 Soderini gives an account of four voyages in wh:ch 
 
 259
 
 AMERICA, 1497-1498 
 
 Explorations 
 of Vespucci 
 
 AMERICA, 1497-1498 
 
 the writer took part, the first two in the service 
 of Spain, the other two in the service of Portu- 
 gal. The first expedition sailed from Cadiz, May 
 10, 1497, and returned October 15, 1498, after 
 having explored a coast so long as to seem un- 
 questionably that of a continent. This voyage, 
 as we shall see, was concerned with parts of 
 .America not visited again until 1513 and 1517. 
 It discovered nothing that was calculated to invest 
 it with much importance in Spain, though it by no 
 means passed without notice there, as has often 
 been wrongly asserted. Outside of Spain it came 
 to attract more attention, but in an unfortunate 
 way, for a slight but very serious error in proof- 
 reading or editing, in the most important of the 
 Latin versions, caused it after a while to be prac- 
 tically identified with the second voyage, made 
 two years later. This confusion eventually led to 
 most outrageous imputations upon the good name 
 of Americus, which it has been left for the present 
 century to remove. The second voyage of Ves- 
 pucius was that in which he accompanied Alonso 
 de Ojeda and Juan de la Costa, from May 20, 
 14QQ, to June, 1500. They explored the northern 
 coast of South America from some point on what 
 we would now call the north coast of Brazil, 
 as far as the Pearl Coast visited by Columbus in 
 the preceding year; and they went beyond, as 
 far as the Gulf of Maracaibo. Here the squadron 
 seems to have become divided, Ojeda going over 
 to Hispaniola in September, while Vespucius re- 
 mained cruising till February. ... It is certainly 
 much to be regretted that in the narrative of his 
 first expedition, Vespucius did not happen to men- 
 tion the name of the chief commander. . . . How- 
 ever ... he was writing not for us, but for his 
 friend, and he told Soderini only what he thought 
 would interest him. ... Of the letter to Soderini 
 the version which has played the most important 
 part in history is the Latin one first published 
 at the press of the little college at Saint-Die in 
 Lorraine, .April 25 (vij Kl' Maij), 1507. ... It 
 was translated, not from an original text, but 
 from an intermediate French version, which is lost. 
 Of late years, however, we have detected, in an 
 excessively rare Italian text, the origfnal from 
 which the famous Lorraine version was ultimately 
 derived. ... If now we compare this primitive 
 text with the Latin of the Lorraine version of 
 1507, we observe that, in the latter, one proper 
 name — the Indian name of a place visited by .Amer- 
 icus on his first voyage — has been altered. In 
 the original it is 'Lariab;' in the Latin it has be- 
 come 'Parias.' This looks like an instance of in- 
 judicious editing on the part of the Latin trans- 
 lator, although, of course, it may be a case of 
 careless proof-reading. Lariab is a queer-looking 
 word. It is no wonder that a scholar in his study 
 among the mountains of Lorraine could make noth- 
 ing of it. If he had happened to be acquainted 
 with the language of the Huastecas, who dwelt at 
 that time about the river Panuco — fierce and 
 dreaded enemies of their southern neighbours the 
 Aztecs — he would have known that names of 
 places in that region were apt to end in ab. . . . 
 But as such facts were quite beyond our worthy 
 translator's ken, we cannot much blame him if he 
 felt that such a word as Lariab needed doctoring. 
 Parias (Paria) was known to be the native name 
 of a region on the western shores of the .Atlantic, 
 and so Lariab became Parais. As the distance 
 from the one place to the other is more than two 
 thousand miles, this little emendation shifted the 
 scene of the first voyage beyond all recognition, 
 and cast the whole subject into an outer darkness 
 where there has been much groaning and gnash- 
 
 ing of teeth. .Another curious circumstance came 
 in to confirm this error. On his first voyage, 
 shortly before arriving at Lariab, Vespucius saw 
 an Indian town built over the water, 'like Venice.' 
 He counted 44 large wooden houses, 'like bar- 
 racks,' supported on huge tree-trunks and com- 
 municating with each other by bridges that could 
 be drawn up in case of danger. This may well 
 have been a village of communal houses of the 
 Chontals on the coast of Tabasco; but such vil- 
 lages were afterwards seen on the Gulf of Mara- 
 caibo, and one of them was called Venezuela, or 
 'Little Venice,' a name since spread over a terri- 
 tory nearly twice as large as France. So the 
 amphibious town described by Vespucius was in- 
 continently moved to Maracaibo, as if there could 
 be only one such place, as if that style of de- 
 fensive building had not been common enough in 
 many ages and in many parts of the earth, from 
 ancient Switzerland to modern Siam. . . . Thus in 
 spite of the latitudes and longtitudes distinctly 
 stated by Vespucius in his letter, did Lariab and 
 the little wooden Venice get shifted from the Gulf 
 of Mexico to the northern coast of South Amer- 
 ica. . . . We are told that he falsely pretended to 
 have visited Paria and Maracaibo in 1407, in order 
 to claim priority over Columbus in the discovery 
 of 'the continent.' What continent ? When Ves- 
 pucius wrote that letter to Soderini, neither he 
 nor anybody else suspected that what we now call 
 .America had been discovered. The only continent 
 of which there could be any question, so far as 
 supplanting Columbus was concerned, was .Asia. 
 But in 1504 Columbus was generally supposed to 
 have discovered the continent of .Asia, by his new 
 route, in 1402. ... It was M. Varnhagen who 
 first turned inquiry on this subject in the right 
 direction. . . . Having taken a correct start by 
 simply following the words of Vespucius himself, 
 from a primitive text, without reference to any 
 preconceived theories or traditions, M. Varnhagen 
 finds 'that .Americus in his first voyage made land 
 on the northern coast of Honduras; that he 
 sailed around Yucatan, and found his aquatic vil- 
 lage of communal houses, his little wooden Venice, 
 on the shore of Tabasco.' Thence, after a fight 
 with the natives in which a few tawny prisoners 
 were captured and carried on board the caravels, 
 Vespucius seems to have taken a straight course 
 to the Huasteca country by Tampico, without 
 touching at points in the region subject or tribu- 
 tary to the Aztec confederacy. This Tampico 
 country was what Vespucius understood to be 
 called Lariab. He again gives the latitude defi- 
 nitely and correctly as 23° N., and he mentions 
 a few interesting circumstances. He saw the na- 
 tives roasting a 'dreadfully ugly animal,' of which 
 he gives what seems to be 'an excellent descrip- 
 tion of the iguana, the flesh of which i? to this day 
 an important article of food in tropical .Amer- 
 ica. . . . .After leaving this country of Lariab the 
 ships kept still to the northwest for a short dis- 
 tance, and then followed the windings of the coast 
 for 870 leagues. , . . After traversing the 870 
 leagues of crooked coast, the ships found them- 
 selves 'in the finest harbour in the world' [which 
 M. Varnhagen supposed, at first, to have been 
 in Chesapeake Bay, but afterwards reached con- 
 clusions pointing to the neighbourhood of Cape 
 Caiiaveral. on the Florida coast] . It was in June, 
 1408, thirteen months since they had started from 
 Spain. . . . They spent seven-and-thirty days in 
 this unrivalled harbour, preparing for the home 
 voyage, and found the natives very hospitable. 
 These red men courted the aid of the 'white 
 strangers,' in an attack which they wished to 
 
 260
 
 AMERICA, 1497-1498 
 
 Second Voyage 
 of Cabot 
 
 AMERICA, 1498 
 
 make upon a fierce race of cannibals, who inhab- 
 ited certain islands some distance out to sea. 
 The Spaniards agreed to the expedition, and 
 sailed late in August, taking seven of the friendly 
 Indians for guides, 'After a week's voyage 
 they fell in with the islands, some peopled, others 
 uninhabited, evidently the Bermudas, 600 miles 
 from Cape Hatteras as the crow flies. The Span- 
 iards landed on an island called Iti, and had a 
 brisk fight,' " resulting in the capture of more than 
 200 prisoners. Seven of these were given to the 
 Indian guides, who paddled home with them. 
 " 'We also [wrote Vespucius] set sail for Spain, 
 with 222 prisoners, slaves; and arrived in the port 
 of Cadiz on the 15th day of October, 149S, where 
 we were well received and sold our slaves.' . . . 
 The obscurity in which this voyage has so long 
 been enveloped is due chiefly to the fact that it 
 was not followed up till many years had elapsed, 
 and the reason for this neglect impresses upon us 
 forcibly the impossibility of understanding the 
 history of the Discovery of America unless we 
 bear in mind all the attendant circumstances One 
 might at first suppose that a voyage which re- 
 vealed some 4,000 miles of the coast of North 
 America would have attracted much at- 
 tention 'in Spain and have become altogether too 
 famous to be soon forgotten. Such an argument, 
 however, loses sight of the fact that these early 
 voyagers were not trying to 'discover America.' 
 There was nothing to astonish them in the exis- 
 tence of 4,000 miles of coast line on this side of 
 the Atlantic. To their minds it was simply the 
 coast of Asia, about which they knew nothing ex- 
 cept from Marco Polo, and the natural effect of 
 such a voyage as this would be simply to throw 
 discredit upon that traveller." — J Fiske, Discov- 
 ery oj America, v. 2, ch. 7. 
 
 The arguments against this view are set forth 
 by Mr. Clements R, Markham, in a paper read 
 before the Royal Geographical Society, in 1802, as 
 follows: "Vespucci was at Seville or San Lucar, 
 as a provision merchant, from the middle of April, 
 1497, to the end of May, 1598, as is shown by the 
 official records, examined by Muiioz, of expenses 
 incurred in fitting out the ships for western ex- 
 peditions. Moreover, no expedition for discovery 
 was despatched by order of King Ferdinand in 
 I4Q7; and there is no allusion to any such expedi- 
 tion in any contempor.iry record The internal evi- 
 dence against the truth of the story is even 
 stronger. Vespucci says that he sailed W. S. W. for 
 nearly 1000 leagues from Grand Canary. This 
 would have taken him to the Gulf of Paria, which 
 is rather more than ooo leagues W. S. W. from 
 Grand Canary. ... No actual navigator would 
 have made such a blunder. He evidently quoted 
 the dead reckoning from Ojeda's voyage, and in- 
 vented the latitude at random. . . . His statement 
 that he went N. W. for 870 leagues (2,610 miles) 
 from a position in latitude 23° N. is still more 
 preposterous. Such a course and distance would 
 have taken him right across the continent to some- 
 where in British Columbia. The chief incidents in 
 the voyage are those of the Ojeda voyage in 1409. 
 There is the village built on piles called Little 
 Venice. . . . There was the encounter with na- 
 tives, in which one Spaniard was killed and 22 
 were wounded. These numbers are convincing 
 evidence." — C. R. Markham, Columbus (Royal 
 Geographical Society Proceedings, Sept., 1892). 
 
 Also in: J. Winsor. Christopher Columbus, ch. 
 
 IS- 
 
 1498. — Second voyage of John Cabot, some- 
 times ascribed to his son Sebastian. — "Very 
 soon after his return, John Cabot petitioned Henry 
 
 26 
 
 VII. for new letters patent, authorizing him to 
 visit again the country which he had just discov- 
 ered. The King granted his request on the 3rd 
 of February, 1498. There is no ground whatever 
 for the assertion, frequently repeated, that John 
 Cabot did not command this second expedition, or 
 that it was undertaken after his death. On the 
 contrary, Pasqualigo and Soncino mention him by 
 name exclusively as the party to whom Henry 
 VII. intended to entrust the fleet. Besides, this 
 time, John Cabot is the only grantee, and the new 
 letters patent omit altogether the names of Sebas- 
 tian and of his brothers. Moreover, John ex- 
 plained in person to Soncino his plans for the 
 second voyage ; and July 25, 1498, Puebia and 
 Ayala announced officially to the Spanish Sov- 
 ereigns that the vessels had actually sailed out 'con 
 otro ginoves como Colon,' which description does 
 not apply certainly to Sebastian, but to John Ca- 
 bot, as we know from corroborative evidence al- 
 ready stated. The fact is that the name of Se- 
 bastian Cabot appears in connection with those 
 voyages, for the first time, in Peter Martyr's ac- 
 count, printed twenty years after the event, and 
 taken from Sebastian's own lips; which ... is 
 not a recommendation. In England, his name 
 reveals itself as regards the discovery of the New 
 World at a still later period, in John Stow's 
 Chronicle, published in 1580. And, although both 
 that historian and Hakluyt quote as their author- 
 ity for the statement a manuscript copy of Robert 
 Fabian's Chronicle, everything tends to show that 
 the name of Sebastian Cabot is a sheer interpola- 
 tion. . . . The expedition was composed of five 
 vessels, fitted out at the expense of John Cabot, 
 or of his friends: 'paying for theym and every of 
 theym.' We have not the exact date when the 
 fleet sailed. It was after April i, 1498, as on that 
 day Henry VII. loaned £30 to Thomas Bradley 
 and Louncelot Thirkill, 'going to the New Isle.' 
 On the other hand, Pedro de Ayala already states, 
 July 25, 1498, that news had been received of the 
 expedition, which was obliged to leave behind, in 
 Ireland, one of the ships, owing to a severe storm. 
 The vessels therefore set out (from Bristol?) in 
 May or June. Puebia states that they were ex- 
 pected back in the month of September follow- 
 ing: 'Dizen que seran venydos para el Sep- 
 tiembre;' yet the vessels had taken supplies for 
 one year: 'fueron proueydas por hun ano.' We 
 possess no direct information concerning this voy- 
 age, nor do we know when Cabot returned to 
 England. It is important to note, however, that 
 the expeditions of 1497 and 1408 are the only 
 ones which in the fifteenth century sailed to the 
 New World under the British flag, and comprise, 
 therefore, all the transatlantic discoveries made 
 by Cabot before the year 1500. Our only data 
 concerning the north-west coast, which the Vene- 
 tian navigator may have visited in the course of 
 his second voyage, are to be found in the map 
 drawn by Juan de la Cosa in the year 1500. . . . 
 In that celebrated chart, there is. in the proximity 
 and west of Cuba, an unbroken coast line, deline- 
 ated like a continent, and extending northward to 
 the extremity of the map. On the northern por- 
 tion of that seaboard La Cosa has placed a con- 
 tinuous line of British flags, commencing at the 
 south with the inscription ; 'Mar descubierta por 
 ingleses;' and terminating at the north with 'Cape 
 of England: — Cauo de ynglaterra.' Unfortunately, 
 those cartographical data are not sufficiently pre- 
 cise to enable us to locate the landfalls with ade- 
 quate exactness Nor is the kind of projection 
 adopted, without explicit degrees of latitude, of 
 such a character as to aid us much in determining 
 
 I
 
 AMERICA, 1498-1505 
 
 Later Voyages 
 of Columbus 
 
 AMERICA, 1498-1505 
 
 positions. We are compelled, therefore, to resort 
 to inferences. . . . Taking the distance from the 
 equator to the extreme north in La Cosa's map 
 as a criterion for measuring distances, and com- 
 paring relatively the points named therein with 
 points corresponding for the same latitude on mod- 
 ern planispheres, the last English flagstaff in the 
 southern direction seems to indicate a vicinity 
 south of the Carolinas. . . . This hypothetical es- 
 timate finds a sort of corollary in Sebastian Ca- 
 bot's account, as reported by Peter Martyr. In 
 describing his alleged north-western discoveries, 
 Sebastian said that icebergs having compelled him 
 to alter his course, he steered southwardly, and 
 followed the coast until he reached about the lati- 
 tude of Gibraltar. . . . Several years afterwards, 
 Sebastian Cabot again mentioned the matter in 
 his conversation with the Mantua gentleman; but 
 this time he extended the exploration of the north- 
 west coast five degrees further south, naming Flori- 
 da as his terminus. . . . Twenty years after . . . 
 Sebastian . . . declared, under oath before the 
 Council of the.Indies, December 31, 1535, that 
 he did not know whether the mainland continued 
 northward or not from Florida to the Bacallaos 
 region." — H. Harrisse, Discovery of America, pt. 
 I, bk. 2. 
 
 1498-1505. — Third and fourth voyages of 
 Columbus. — Discovery of Trinidad, the northern 
 coast of South America, the shores of Central 
 America and Panama. — When Columbus reached 
 Spain, June, 1496, "Ferdinand and Isabella received 
 him kindly, gave him new honors and promised 
 him other outfits. Enthusiasm, however, had died 
 out and delays took place. The reports of the re- 
 turning ships did not correspond with the pictures 
 of Marco Polo, and the new-found world was 
 thought to be a very poor India after all. Most 
 people were of this mind ; though Columbus was 
 not disheartened, and the public treasury was read- 
 ily opened for a third voyage. Coronel sailed 
 early in 140S with two ships, and Columbus fol- 
 lowed with six, embarking at San Lucas on the 
 30th of May. He now discovered Trinidad (July 
 31), which he named either from its three peaks, 
 or from the Holy Trinity ; struck the northern 
 coast of South America, and skirted what was later 
 known as the Pearl coast, going as far as the 
 Island of Margarita. He wondered at the roaring 
 fresh waters which the Ch-onoco pours into the 
 Gulf of Pearls, as he called it, and he h;ilf be- 
 lieved that its exuberant tide came from the ter- 
 restrial paradise. He touched the southern coast 
 of Hayti on the 30th of August. Here already his 
 coltjnists had established a fortified post, and 
 founded the town of Santo Domingo. His brother 
 Bartholomew had ruled ener.gftically during the 
 Admiral's absence, but he had not prevented a re- 
 volt, which was headed by Roldan. Columbus on 
 his arrival found the insurgents still defiant, but 
 he was able after a while to reconcile them, and 
 he even succeeded in attaching Roldan warmly to 
 his interests. Columbus' absence from Spain, 
 however, left his good name without sponsors; 
 and to satisfy detractors, a new commissioner was 
 sent over with enlarged powers, even with author- 
 ity to supersede Columbus in general command, 
 if necessary. This emissary was Francisco de Bo- 
 badilla, who arrived at Santo Domingo with two 
 caravels on the 23d of .August, 1500, finding Diego 
 in command, his brother, the Admiral, being ab- 
 sent. An issue was at once made. Diego refused 
 to accede to the commissioner's orders till Colum- 
 bus returned to judge the case himself; so Boba- 
 dilla assumed charge of the crown property vio- 
 lently, took possession of the Admiral's house, and 
 
 when Columbus returned, he with his brother was 
 arrested and put in irons. In this condition the 
 prisoners were placed on shipboard, and sailed 
 for Spain. The captain of the ship offered to re- 
 move the manacles; but Columbus would not per- 
 mit it, being determined to land in Spain bound 
 as he was; and so he did. The effect of his degra- 
 dation was to his advantage; sovereigns and people 
 were shocked at the sight ; and Ferdinand and 
 Isabella hastened to make amends by receiving 
 him with renewed favor. It was soon apparent 
 that everything reasonable would be granted him 
 by the monarchs, and that he couid have all he 
 might wish short of receiving a new lease of power 
 in the islands, which the sovereigns were determ- 
 ined to see pacified at least before Columbus 
 should again assume government of them. The 
 Admiral had not forgotten his vow to wrest the 
 Holy Sepulchre from the Infidel; but the monarchs 
 did not accede to his wish to undertake it. Dis- 
 appointed in this, he proposed a new voyage; and 
 getting the royal countenance for this scheme, he 
 was supplied with four vessels of from fifty to sev- 
 enty tons each. ... He sailed from Cadiz, May 9, 
 1502, accompanied by his brother Bartholomew 
 and his son Fernando. The vessels reached San 
 Domingo June 29. Bobadilla, whose rule of a 
 year and a half had been an unhappy one, had 
 given place to Nicholas de Ovando; and the fleet 
 which brought the new governor — with Maldo- 
 nado. Las Casas and others — now lay in the har- 
 bor waiting to receive Bobadilla for the return 
 voyage. Columbus had been instructed to avoid 
 Hispaniola; but now that one of his vessels leaked, 
 and he needed to make repairs, he sent a boat 
 ashore, asking permission to enter the harbor. He 
 was refused, though a storm was impending. He 
 sheltered his vessels as best he could, and rode out 
 the gale. The fleet which had on board Bobadilla 
 and Roldan, with their ill-gotten gains, was 
 wrecked, and these enemies of Columbus were 
 drowned. The Admiral found a small harbor 
 where he could make his repairs; and then, July 
 14, sailed westward to find, as he supposed, the 
 richer portions of India. ... A landing was made 
 on the coast of Honduras, August 14. Three days 
 later the explorers landed again fifteen leagues 
 farther east, and took possession of the country 
 for Spain. Still east tLey went; and, in gratitude 
 for safety after a long storm, they named a cape 
 which they rounded, Gracias a Dios — a name still 
 preserved at the point where the coast of Honduras 
 begins to trend southward. Columbus was now 
 lying ill on his bed, placed on deck, and was half 
 the time in revery. Still the vessels coasted south," 
 along and beyond the shores of Costa Rica ; then 
 turned with the bend of the coast to the northeast, 
 until they reached Porto Bello, as we call it, where 
 they found houses and orchards, and passed on "to 
 the farthest spot of Bastidas' exploring, who had, 
 in 1 501, saileci westward along the northern coast 
 of South America." There turning back, Colum- 
 bus attempted to found a colony at Veragua, on 
 the Costa Rica coast, where signs of gold were 
 tempting. But the gold proved scanty, the natives 
 hostile, and, the Admiral, withdrawing his colony, 
 sailed away. "He abandoned one worm-eaten 
 caravel at Porto Bello, and, reaching Jamaica, 
 beached two others. A year of disappointment, 
 grief, and want followed. Columbus clung to his 
 wrecked vessels. His crew alternately mutinied 
 at his side, and roved about the island. Ovando, 
 at Hispaniola, heard of his straits, but only tardily 
 and scantily relieved him. The discontented were 
 finally humbled : and some ships, despatched by 
 the Admiral's agent in Santo Domingo, at last 
 
 62
 
 AMERICA, 1499-1500 
 
 Second Voyage 
 of Vespucci 
 
 AMERICA, 1499-1500 
 
 reached him and brought him and his companions 
 to that place, where Ovando received him with 
 ostentatious kindness, lodging him in his house till 
 Columbus departed for Spain, Sept. 12, 1504," 
 Arriving in Spain in November, disheartened, 
 broken with disease, neglected, it was not until 
 the following May that he had strength enough to 
 go to the court at Segovia, and then only to be 
 coldly received by King Ferdinand — Isabella being 
 dead. "While still hope was deferred, the infirmi- 
 
 turers who accompanied Columbus on his second 
 
 voyage (in 1493) was Alonzo de Ojeda, Ojeda 
 quarrelled with the Admiral and returned to Spain 
 in 1498. Soon afterwards, "he was provided by 
 the Bishop Fonseca, Columbus' enemy, with a frag- 
 ment of the map which the Admiral had sent to 
 Ferdinand and Isabella, showing the discoveries 
 which he had made in his last voyage. With this 
 assistance Ojeda set sail for South America, accom- 
 panied by the pilot, Juan de la Cosa, who had 
 
 FIRST MAP SHOWING AMERICAN CONTINENT 
 Sketch of map drawn by La Costa in 1500 
 
 ties of age and a life of hardships brought Colum- 
 bus to his end; and on Ascension Day, the 20th 
 of May, 1506, he died, with his son Diego and a 
 few devoted friends by his bedside." — J. Winsor, 
 Narratwe and critical history of America, v. 2, 
 cli. I. — See also Venezuela: 1409-1550. 
 
 Also in: H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific 
 states, V. I, ch. 2 atjd 4. — W. Irving, Life and 
 voyages of Cobimbtis. bk. 10-18, v. 2. 
 
 1499-1500. — Voyages and discoveries of Ojeda 
 and Pinzon. — Second voyage of Vespucci. — One 
 of the most daring and resolute of the adven- 
 
 accompanied Columbus in his first great voyage in 
 1492, and of whom Columbus complained that, 
 'being a clever man, he went about saying that he 
 knew more than he did,' and also by Amerigo 
 Vespucci. They set sail on the 20th of May, 1499. 
 with four vessels, and after a passage of 27 days 
 came in sight of the continent, 200 leagues east of 
 the Oronoco. At the end of June, they landed on 
 the shores of Surinam, in six degrees of north lati- 
 tude, and proceeding west saw the mouths of the 
 Essequibo and Oronoco. Passing the Boca del 
 Drago of Trinidad, they coasted westward till they 
 
 263
 
 AMERICA, 1500 
 
 Third Voyage 
 of Vespucci 
 
 AMERICA, 1500-1514 
 
 reached the Capo de la Vela in Granada. It was in 
 this voyage that was discovered the Gulf to which 
 Ojeda gave the name of Venezuela, or Little Ven- 
 ice, on account of the cabins built on piles over 
 the water, a mode of life which brought to his 
 mind the water-city of the Adriatic. From the 
 American coast Ojeda went to the Caribbee Islands, 
 and on the 5th of September reached Vaguimo, in 
 Hispaniola, where he raised a revolt against the 
 authority of Columbus. His plans, however, were 
 frustrated by Roldan and Escobar, the delegates of 
 Columbus, and he was compelled to withdraw from 
 the island. On the sth of February, 1500, he re- 
 turned, carrying with him to Cadiz an extraordi- 
 nary number of slaves, from which he realized an 
 enormous sum of money. At the beginning of 
 December, 1400, the same year in which Ojeda set 
 sail on his last voyage, another companion of Co- 
 lumbus, in his first voyage, Vicente Yafiez Pinzon, 
 sailed from Palos, was the first to cross the line on 
 the American side of the Atlantic, and on the 
 20th of January, 1500, discovered Cape St. Augus- 
 tine, to which he gave the name of Cabo Santa 
 Maria de la Consoiacion, whence returning north- 
 ward he followed the westerly trending coast, and 
 so discovered the mouth of the Amazon, which he 
 named Paricura. Without a month after his de- 
 parture from Palos, he was followed from the same 
 port and on the same route by Diego de Lepe, who 
 was the first to discover, at the mouth of the 
 Oronoco, by means of a closed vessel, which only 
 opened when it reached the bottom of the water, 
 that, at a depth of eight fathoms and a half, the 
 two lowest fathoms were salt water, but all above 
 was fresh. Lepe also made the observation that 
 beyond Cape St. Augustine, which he doubled, as 
 well as Pinzon, the coast of Brazil trended south- 
 west." — R. H. Major, Life of Prince Henry of 
 Portugal, ch. lo. 
 
 Also in: W. Irving, Life and voyages of Colum- 
 bus, I'. 3, ch. 1-3. 
 
 1500. — Voyages of the Cortereals to the far 
 north and of Bastidas to the Isthmus of Darien. 
 — "The Portuguese did not overlook the north 
 while making their important discoveries to the 
 south. Two vessels, probably in the spring of 
 1500, were sent out under Caspar Cortereal. No 
 journal or chart of the voyage is now in existence, 
 hence little is known of its object or results. Still 
 more dim is a previous voyage ascribed by Cor- 
 deiro to Joao Vaz Cortereal, father of Caspar. . . , 
 Touching at the .Azores, Caspar Cortereal, possibly 
 following Cabot's charts, struck the coast of New- 
 foundland north of Cape Race, and sailing north 
 discovered a land which he called Terra Verde, 
 perhaps Greenland, but was stopped by ice at a 
 river which he named Rio Nevado, whose loca- 
 tion is unknown. Cortereal returned to Lisbon 
 before the end of 1500. ... In October of this 
 same year Rodrigo de Bastidas sailed from Cadiz 
 with two vessels. Touching the shores of South 
 America near Isla V'erde, which lies between Guad- 
 alupe and the main land, he followed the coast 
 westward to El Retrete, or perhaps Nombre de 
 Dios, on the Isthmus of Darien, in about g" 30' 
 north latitude. Returning he was wrecked on Es- 
 panola toward the end of 1501, and reached Cadiz 
 in September, 1502. This being the first authentic 
 voyage by Europeans to the territory herein de- 
 fined as the Pacific States, such incidents as are 
 known will be given hereafter." — H. H. Bancroft, 
 History of the Pacific states, v. i, p. 113 — "We 
 have Las Casas's authority for saying that Bastidas 
 was a humane man toward the Indians. Indeed, 
 he afterwards lost his life by this humanity; for, 
 when governor of Santa Martha, not consenting to 
 
 harass the Indians, he so alienated his men that a 
 conspiracy was formed against him, and he was 
 murdered in his bed. The renowned Vasco Nunez 
 [de Balboa] was in this expedition, and the knowl- 
 edge he gained there had the greatest influence on 
 the fortunes of his varied and eventful life." — 
 Sir A. Helps, Spanish conquest of America, bk. 5, 
 ch. I. — See also Newtoundland: 1501-1578. 
 
 Also in: J. G. Kohl, History of the discovery 
 of Maine, ch. S- — R. Biddle, Memoir of Sebastian 
 Cabot, bk. 2, ch. 3-5. 
 
 1500-1514. — Voyage of Cabral. — Third voyage 
 of Vespucci. — Exploration of the Brazilian 
 coast for the king of Portugal. — Curious evolu- 
 tion of the continental name "America."^ 
 "Affairs now became curiously complicated. King 
 Emanuel of Portugal intrusted to Pedro Alvarez 
 de Cabral the command of a fleet for Hindustan, 
 to follow up the work of Gama and established a 
 Portuguese centre of trade on the Malabar coast. 
 This fleet of 13 vessels, carrying about 1,200 men, 
 sailed from Lisbon March 9, 1500. After passing 
 the Cape V'erde Islands, March 22, for some reason 
 not clearly known, whether driven by stormy 
 weather or seeking to avoid the calms that were 
 apt to be troublesome on the Guinea coast, Cabral 
 took a somewhat more westerly course than he 
 realized, and on April 22, after a weary progress 
 averaging less than 60 miles per day, he found 
 himself on the coast of Brazil not far beyond the 
 limit reached by Lepe. . . . Approaching it in such 
 a way Cabral felt sure that this coast must fall 
 to the east of the papal meridian. Accordingly on 
 May day, at Porto Seguro in latitude 16° 30' S., he 
 took formal possession of the country for Portu- 
 gal, and sent Caspar de Lemos in one of tis ships 
 back to Lisbon with the news. On May 32 Cabral 
 weighed anchor and stood for the Cape of Good 
 Hope. . . . Cabral called the land he had found 
 Vera Cruz, a name which presently became Santa 
 Cruz; but when Lemos arrived in Lisbon with 
 the news he had with ^im some gorgeous paro- 
 quets, and among the earliest names on old 
 maps of the Brazilian coast vve find 'Land of Paro- 
 quets' and 'Land of the Holy Cross.' The land 
 lay obviously so far to the east that Spain could 
 not deny that at last there was something for 
 Portugal out in the 'ocean sea.' Much interest "was 
 felt at Lisbon. King Emanuel began to prepare 
 an expedition for exploring this new coast, and 
 wished to secure the services of some eminent pilot 
 and cosmographer familiar with the western wa- 
 ters. Overtures were made to Americus, a fact 
 which proves that he had already won a high 
 reputation. The overtures were accepted, for 
 what reason we do not know, and soon after his 
 return from the vovage with Ojeda, probably in 
 the autumn of 1500, Americus passed from the 
 service of Spain into that of Portugal. ... On 
 May 14, 1 501, Vespucius, who was evidently prin- 
 cipal |)ilot and guiding spirit in this voyage under 
 unkown skies, set sail from Lisbon with three 
 caravels. It is not quite clear who was chief cap- 
 tain, but M. Varnhagen has found reasons for 
 believing that it was a certain Don Nuno Manuel. 
 The first halt was made on the African coast at 
 Cape Verde, the first week in June. . . . After 67 
 days of 'the vilest weather ever seen by man' they 
 reached the coast of Brazil in latitude about 5° S., 
 on the evening of the i6th of .\ugust, the festival- 
 day of San Roque, whose name was accordingly 
 given to the cape before which they dropped an- 
 chor. From this point .they slowly followed the 
 coast to the southward, stopping now and then 10 
 examine the countrv'. ... It was not until All 
 Saints day, the first of November, that they 
 
 264
 
 AMERICA, 1500-1514 
 
 Evolution 
 of the Name 
 
 AMERICA, 1500-1514 
 
 reached the bay in latitude 13° S., which is still 
 known by the name which they gave it, Bahia de 
 Todos Santos, On New Year's day, 1502, they 
 arrived at the noble bay where 54 years later the 
 chief city of Brazil was founded. They would 
 seem to have mistaken it for the mouth of an- 
 other huge river, like some that had already been 
 seen in this strange world; for they called it Rio 
 de Janeiro (River of January). Thence by Feb- 
 ruary 15 they had passed Cape Santa Maria, when 
 they left the coast and took a southeasterly course 
 out into the ocean. Americus gives no satisfactory 
 reason for this change of direction. . . . Perhaps 
 he may have looked into the mouth of the river 
 La Plata, which is a bay more than a hundred 
 miles wide ; and the sudden westward trend of the 
 shore may have led him to suppose that he had 
 reached the end of the continent. At any rate, 
 he was now in longitude more than twenty de- 
 grees west of the meridian of Cape San Roque, 
 and therefore unquestionably out of Portuguese 
 waters. Clearly there was no use in going on and 
 discovering lands which could belong only to 
 Spain. This may account, I think, for the change 
 of direction." The voyage southeastwardly was 
 pursued until the little fleet had reached the icy 
 and rocky coast of the island of South Georgia, 
 in latitude 54° S. It was then decided to turn 
 homeward. "Vespucius . . . headed straight N. N. 
 E. through the huge ocean, for Sierra Leone, and 
 the distance of more than 4,000 miles was made — 
 with wonderful accuracy, though Vespucius- says 
 nothing about that — in 33 days. . . . Thence, af- 
 ter some further delay, to Lisbon, where they ar- 
 rived on the 7th of September, 1502. Among all 
 the voyages made during that eventful period there 
 was none that as a feat of navigation surpassed 
 this third of Vespucius, and there was none, except 
 the first of Columbus, that outranked it in his- 
 torical importance. For it was not only a voyage 
 into the remotest stretches of the Sea of Dark- 
 ness, but it was preeminently an incursion into the 
 antipodal world of the Southern hemisphere. . . . 
 A coast of continental extent, beginning so near 
 the meridian of the Cape Verde islands and run- 
 ning southwesterly to latitude 35° S. and perhaps 
 beyond, did not fit into anybody's scheme of 
 things. ... It was land unknown to the ancients, 
 and Vespucius was right in saying that he had 
 beheld there things by the thousand which Pliny 
 had never mentioned. It was not strange that he 
 should call it a 'New World,' and in meeting with 
 this phrase, on this first occasion in which it ap- 
 pears in any document with reference to any 
 part of what we now call America, the reader 
 must be careful not to clothe it with the meaning 
 which it wears in our modern eyes. In using the 
 expression 'New World' Vespucius was not thinking 
 of the Flor'da coast which he had visited on a 
 former voyage, nor of the 'islands of India' dis- 
 covered by Columbus, nor even of the Pearl Coast 
 which he had followed after the Admiral in ex- 
 ploring. The expression occurs in his letter to 
 Lorenzo de' Medici, written from Lisbon in March 
 or April 1503, relating solely to this third voyage 
 The letter begins as follows: 'I have formerly 
 written to you at sufficient length about my return 
 from those new countries which in the ships and 
 at the expense and command of the most gracious 
 King of Portugal we have sought and found. It 
 is proper to call them a new world.' Observe that 
 it is only the new countries visited on this third 
 voyage, the countries from Cape San Roque south- 
 ward, that Vespucius thinks it proper to call a new 
 world, and here is his reason for so calling them; 
 'Since among our ancestors there was no knowl- 
 
 edge of them, and to all who hear of the affair it 
 is most novel. For it transcends the ideas of the 
 ancients, since most of them say that beyond the 
 equator to the south there is no continent, but 
 only the sea which they call the Atlantic, and if 
 any of them asserted the existence of a continent 
 there, they found many reasons for refusing to 
 consider it a habitable country. But this last voy- 
 age of mine has proved that this opinion of theirs 
 was erroneous and in every way contrary to the 
 facts.' . . . This expression 'Novus Mundus' [New 
 World], thus occurring in a private letter, had a 
 remarkable career. Early in June, 1503, about the 
 time when Americus was starting on his fourth 
 voyage, Lorenzo died. By the beginning of 1504, 
 a Latin version of the letter [translated by Gio- 
 vanni Giocondo] was printed and published, with 
 the title 'Mundus Novus.' . . . The little four- 
 leaved tract, 'Mundus Novus,' turned out to be 
 the great literary success of the day. M. Harrisse 
 has described at least eleven Latin editions prob- 
 ably published in the course of 1504, and by 1506 
 not less than eight editions of German versions had 
 been issued. Intense curiosity was aroused by 
 this announcement of the existence of a populous 
 land beyond the equator and unknown (could such 
 a thing be possible) to the ancients," — who did 
 know something, at least, about the eastern parts 
 of the Asiatic continent which Columbus was sup- 
 posed to have reached. The "Novus Mundus," 
 so named, began soon to be represented on maps 
 and globes, generally as a great island or quasi- 
 continent lying on and below the equator. "Eu- 
 rope, Asia and Africa were the three parts of the 
 earth [previously known], and so this opposite re- 
 gion, hitherto unknown, but mentioned by Mela 
 and indicated by Ptolemy, was the Fourth Part. 
 We can now begin to understand the intense and 
 wildly absorbing interest with which people read 
 the brief story of the third voyage of Vespucius, 
 and we can see that in the nature of that interest 
 there was nothing calculated to bring it into com- 
 parison with the work of Columbus. The two 
 navigators were not regarded as rivals in doing 
 the same thing, but as men who had done two very 
 different things ; and to give credit to one was by 
 no means equivalent to withholding credit from 
 the other." In 1507, Martin Waldseemiiller, pro- 
 fessor of geo.;raphy at Saint-Die, published a small 
 treatise entitled "Cosmographie Introductio," with 
 that second of the two known letters of Vespucci — 
 the one addressed to Soderini, of which an account 
 is given above (1407-1498) — appended to it. "In 
 this rare book occurs the first suggestion of the 
 name America. After having treated of the di- 
 vision of the earth's inhabited surface into three 
 parts — Europe, Asia, and Africa — Waldseemiiller 
 speaks of the discovery of a Fourth Part," and 
 says: " 'Wherefore I do not see what is rightly 
 to hinder us from calling it Amerige or America, 
 i. e., the land of Americus, after its discoverer 
 Americus, a man of sagacious mind, since both 
 Europe and Asia have got their names from 
 women.' . . . Such were the winged words but for 
 which, as M. Harrisse reminds us, the western hem- 
 isphere might have come to be known as Atlantis, 
 or Hesperides, or Santa Cruz, or New India, or per- 
 haps Columbia. ... In about a quarter of a cen- 
 tury the first stage in the development of the nam- 
 ing of America had been completed. The stage 
 consisted of five distinct steps: i. Americus called 
 the regions visited by him beyond the equator 'a 
 new world' because they were unknown to the an- 
 cients; 2. Giocondo made this striking phrase 
 'Mundus Novus' into a title for his translation of 
 the letter. ... ; 3. the name Mundus Novus got 
 
 ^6S
 
 AMERICA, 1502 
 
 Settlement 
 at Darien 
 
 AMERICA, 1509-1511 
 
 placed upon several maps as an equivalent for 
 Terra Sanctae Crucis, or what we call Brazil; 4. 
 the suggestion was made that Mundus Novus was 
 the Fourth Part of the earth, and might properly 
 be named America after its discoverer; 5. the name 
 America thus got placed upon several maps I the 
 first, so far as known, being a map ascribed to 
 Leonardo da Vinco and published about 1514, and 
 the second a globe made in 1515 by Johann 
 Schbner, at Nuremberg] as an equivalent for what 
 we call Brazil, and sometimes came to stand alone 
 as an equivalent for what we call South America, 
 but still signified only a part of the dry land be- 
 yond the Atlantic to which Columbus had led the 
 way. . . . This wider meaning [of South America] 
 became all the more firmly established as its nar- 
 rower meaning was usurped by the name Brazil. 
 Three centuries before the time of Columbus the 
 red dye-wood called brazil-wood was an article of 
 commerce, under that same name, in Italy and 
 Spain. It was one of the valuable things brought 
 from the East, and when the Portuguese found the 
 same dye-wood abundant in those tropical forests 
 that had seemed so beautiful to X'espucius, the 
 name Brazil soon became fastened upon the coun- 
 try and helped to set free the name America from 
 its local associations." When in time, and by slow 
 degrees, the great fact was learned, that all the 
 lands found beyond the Atlantic by Columbus and 
 his successors, formed part of one continental sys- 
 tem, and were all to be embraced in the concep- 
 tion of a New World, the name which had become 
 synonymous with New World was then naturally 
 extended to the whole. The evolutionary process 
 of the naming of the western hemisphere as a 
 whole was thus made complete in 1541, by Mer- 
 cator, who spread the name America in large let- 
 ters upon a globe which he constructed that year, 
 so that part of it appeared upon the northern and 
 part upon the southern continent. — J. Fiske, Dis- 
 covery of America, ch. 7, v. 2. 
 
 Also in: W. B. Scaife, Americn: its geographi- 
 cal history, section 4. — R. H. Major, Life 0/ Prince 
 Henry 0/ Portugal, ch. ig. — J. Winsor, Narrative 
 and critical history of America, v. 2, ch. 2, notes. 
 — H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific states, v. 
 ii PP- 9Q-II2, and 123-125. 
 
 Complete bibliography of the Vespucci question 
 and of the name America prepared by G. Fuma- 
 galli for G. Uzielli's new edition of A. M. Ban- 
 dini. Vita di Amerigo Vespucci (1893). A good 
 modern critical discussion of the Vespucci ques- 
 tion is that by Hugues, in Raccolta Columbiana. 
 A good resume of the diffusion of the name Amer- 
 ica is L. Hugues, La Vicende del yome "America" 
 (i8q8). Also in H. Ludin, Naming of America, 
 {Americana, v. 6, Dec, pp. 1174-1176). 
 
 1502. — Second voyage of Ojeda. — The first 
 voyage of .Monzo de Ojeda, from which he re- 
 turned to Spain in June 1500, was profitable to 
 nothing but his reputation as a bold and enterpris- 
 ing explorer. By way of reward, he was given "a 
 grant of land in Hispaniola, and likewise the gov- 
 ernment of Coquibacoa, which place he had dis- 
 covered [and which he had called Venezuela]. 
 He was authorized to fit out a number of ships 
 at his own expense and to prosecute discoveries 
 on the coast of Terra Firma. . . . With four ves- 
 sels, Ojeda set sail for the Canaries, in 1502, and 
 thence proceeded to the Gulf of Paria, from which 
 locality he found his way to Coquibacoa. Not lik- 
 ing this poor country, he sailed on to the Bay of 
 Honda, where he determined to found his settle- 
 ment, which was, however, destined to be of short 
 duration. Provisions very soon became scarce; 
 and one of his partners, who had been sent to 
 
 procure supplies from Jamaica, failed to return 
 until Ojeda's followers were almost in a state of 
 mutiny. The result was that the whole colony 
 set sail for Hispaniola, taking the governor with 
 them in chains. All that Ojeda gained by his 
 expedition was that he at length came off winner 
 in a lawsuit, the costs of which, however, left him 
 a ruined man." — R. G. Watson, Spanish and Por- 
 tuguese Soulli America, bk. i, ch. i. , 
 
 1503-1504. — Fourth voyage of Vespucci. — 
 First settlement in Brazil. — In June, 1503, 
 ■■.\merigo sailed again from Lisbon, with six ships. 
 The object of this voyage was to discovered a cer- 
 tain island called Melcha, which was supposed to 
 lie west of Calicut, and to be as famous a mart in 
 the commerce of the Indian world as Cadiz was in 
 Europe. They made the Cape de Verds, and then, 
 contrary to the judgment of Vespucci and of all 
 the fleet, the Commander persisted in standing for 
 Serra Leoa." The Commander's ship was lost, and 
 \'espucci, with one vessel, only, reached the coast 
 of the New World, finding a port which is thought 
 to have been Bahia. Here "they waited above two 
 months in vain expectation of being joined by the 
 rest of the squadron. Having lost all hope of this 
 they coasted on for 260 leagues to the Southward, 
 and there took port again in 18° S. 35 W. of the 
 meridian of Lisbon. Here they remained five 
 months, upon good terms with the natives, with 
 whom some of the party penetrated forty leagues 
 into the interior; and here they erected a fort, in 
 which they left 24 men who had been saved from 
 the Commander's ship. They gave them 12 guns, 
 besides other arms, and provisions for six months; 
 then loaded with brazil [w-ood], sailed homeward 
 and returned in safety. . . . The honour, therefore, 
 of having formed the first settlement in this coun- 
 try is due to Amerigo Vespucci. It does not ap- 
 pear that any further attention was at this time 
 paid to it. . . . But the cargo of brazil which Ves- 
 pucci had brought home tempted private adven- 
 turers, who were content with peaceful gains, to 
 trade thither for that valuable wood; and this 
 trade became so well known, that in consequence 
 the coast and the whole country obtained the name 
 of Brazil, notwithstanding the holier appellation 
 [Santa Cruz] which Cabral had given it."— R, 
 Southey, History of Brazil, v. i, ch. i. 
 
 1509-1511. — Expeditions of Ojeda and Nlcuesa 
 to the Isthmus. — Settlement at Darien.— ''For 
 several years alter his ruinous, though successful 
 lawsuit, we lose all traces of .\lonzo de Ojeda, ex- 
 cepting that we are told he made another voyage 
 to Coquibacoa [\'enezucla], in 1505. No record 
 remains of this expedition, which seems to have 
 been equally unprofitable with the preceding, for 
 we find him, in 1508, in the island of Hispaniola as 
 poor in purse, though as proud in spirit, as ever. 
 . . . About this time the cupidity of King Ferdi- 
 nand was preatly excited by the accounts by Co- 
 lumbus of the gold mines of Veragua, in which the 
 admiral fancied he had discovered the Aurea Cher- 
 sonesus of the ancients, whence King Solomon pro- 
 cured the gold used in building the temple of 
 Jerusalem. Subsequent voyagers had corroborated 
 the opinion of Columbus as to the general riches 
 of the coast of Terra Firma ; King Ferdinand re- 
 solved, therefore, to found regular colonies along 
 that coast, and to place the whole under some 
 capable commander." Ojeda was recommended for 
 this post, but found a competitor in one of the 
 gentlemen of the Spanish cotirt, Diego de Nicuesa. 
 "King Ferdin^md avoided the dilemma by favoring 
 both : not indeed by furnishing them with ships and 
 money, but by granting patents and dignities, which 
 cost nothing, and might bring rich returns. He 
 
 266
 
 AMERICA, 1509-1511 
 
 Discovery 
 of Florida 
 
 AMERICA, 1512 
 
 divided that part of the continent which lies along 
 the Isthmus of Darien into two provinces, the 
 boundary line running through the Gulf of Uraba. 
 The eastern part, extending to Cape de la Vela, 
 was called New Andalusia, and the government 
 of it given to Ojeda. The other to the west [called 
 Castilla del Oro], including Veragua, and reaching 
 to Cape Gracias a Dios, was assigned to Nicuesa. 
 The island of Jamaica was given to the two gov- 
 ernors in common, as a place whence to draw sup- 
 plies of provisions." Slender means for the equip- 
 ment of Ojeda's expedition were supplied by the 
 veteran pilot, Juan de la Cosa, who accompanied 
 him as his lieutenant. Nicuesa was more amply 
 provided. The rival armaments arrived at San 
 Domingo about the same time (in 1509), and much 
 quarreling between the two commanders ensued. 
 Ojeda found a notary in San Domingo, Martin Fer- 
 nadez de Enciso, who had money which he con- 
 sented to invest in the interprise, and who prom- 
 ised to follow him with an additional ship-load of 
 recruits and supplies. Under this arrangement 
 Ojeda made ready to sail in advance of his com- 
 petitor, embarking Nov. 10, 1509. Among those 
 who sailed with him was Francisco Pizarro, the 
 future conqueror of Peru. Ojeda, by his energy, 
 gained time enough to nearly ruin his expedition 
 before Nicuesa reached the scene ; for, having 
 landed at Cartagena, he made war upon the na- 
 tives, pursued them recklesslj' into the interior of 
 the country, with 70 men, and was overwhelmed 
 by the desperate savages, escaping with only one 
 companion from their poisoned arrows. His faith- 
 ful friend, the pilot, Juan de la Cosa, was among 
 the slain, and Ojeda himself, hiding in the forest, 
 was nearly dead of hunger and exposure when 
 found and ref-cued by a searching party from his 
 ships. At this juncture the fleet of Nicuesa made 
 its appearance. Jealousies were forgotten in a 
 common rage against the natives and the two ex- 
 peditions were joined in a attack on the Indian 
 villages which spared nothing. Nicuesa then pro- 
 ceeded to Veragua, while Ojeda founded a town, 
 which he called San Sebastian, at the east end 
 of the Gulf of Uraba. Incessantly harassed by the 
 natives, terrified by the effects of the poison which 
 these used in their warfare, and threatened with 
 starvation by the rapid exhaustion of its supplies, 
 the settlement lost courage and hope. Enciso and 
 his promised ship were waited for in vain. At 
 length there came a vessel which certain piratical 
 adventurers at Hispaniola had stolen, and which 
 brought some welcome provisions, eagerly bought 
 at an exorbitant price. Ojeda, half recovered from 
 a poisoned wound, which he had treated heroically 
 with red-hot plates of iron, engaged the pirates to 
 convey him to Hispaniola, for the procuring of 
 supplies. The voyage . was a disastrous one, re- 
 sulting in shipwreck on the coast of Cuba and a 
 month of desperate wandering in the morasses of 
 the island. Ojeda survived all these perils and 
 sufferings, made his way to Jamaica, and from 
 Jamaica to San Domingo, found that his partner 
 Enciso had sailed for the colony long before, with 
 abundant supplies, but could learn nothing more. 
 Nor could he obtain for himself any means of 
 returning to San Sebastian, or of dispatching re- 
 lief to the place. Sick, penniless and disheart- 
 ened, he went into a convent and died. Meantime 
 the despairing colonists at San Sebastian waited 
 until death had made them few enough to be all 
 taken on board of the two little brigantines which 
 were left to them; then they sailed away, Pizarro 
 in command. One of the brigantines soon went 
 down in a squall; the other made its way to the 
 harbor of Cartagena, where it found the tardy 
 
 Enciso, searching for his colony. Enciso, under 
 his commission, now took command, and insisted 
 upon going to San Sebastian. There the old ex- 
 periences were soon renewed, and even Enciso 
 was ready to abandon the deadly place. The latter 
 had brought with him a needy cavalier, Vasco 
 Nufiez de Balboa — so needy that he smuggled him- 
 self on board Enciso's ship in a cask to escape 
 his creditors. Vasco Nuiiez who had coasted this 
 region with Bastidas, in 1500, now advised a re- 
 moval of the colony to Darien, on the opposite 
 coast of the Gulf of Uraba. His advice, which 
 was followed, proved good, and the hopes of the 
 settlers were raised; but Enciso's modes of govern- 
 ment proved irksome to them. Then Balboa 
 called attention to the fact that, when they 
 crossed the Gulf of Uraba, they passed out of 
 the territory covered by the patent to Ojeda, 
 under which Enciso was commissioned, and into 
 that granted to Nicuesa. On this suggestion 
 Enciso was promptly deposed and two alcaldes 
 were elected, Balboa bemg one. While events in 
 one corner of Nicuesa's domain were thus estab- 
 lishing a colony for that ambitious governor, he 
 himself, at the other extremity of it, was faring 
 badly. He had suffered hardships, separation 
 from most of his command and long abandonment 
 on a desolate coast; had rejoined his followers af- 
 ter great suffering, only to suffer yet more in their 
 company, until less than one hundred remained of 
 the 700 who sailed with him a few months before. 
 The settlement at Veragua had been deserted, and 
 another, named Nombre de Dios undertaken, with 
 no improvement of circumstances. In this situa- 
 tion he was rejoiced, at last, by the arrival of one 
 of his lieutenants, Rodrigo de Colmenares, who 
 came with supplies. Colmenares brought tidings, 
 moreover, of the prosperous colony at Darien, 
 which he had discovered on his way, with an in- 
 vitation to Nicuesa to come and assume the gov- 
 ernment of it. He accepted the invitation with 
 delight; but, alas, the community at Darien had 
 repented of it before he reached them, and they 
 refused to receive him when he arrived. Permitted 
 finally to land, he was seized by a treacherous 
 party among the colonists — to whom Balboa is 
 said to have opposed all the resistance in his 
 power — was put on board of an old and crazy 
 brigantine, with seventeen of his friends, and com- 
 pelled to take an oath that he would sail straight 
 to Spain. "The frail bark set sail on the first of 
 March, 15 11, and steered across the Caribbean 
 Sea for the island of Hispaniola, but was never 
 seen or heard of more." — W. Irving, Life and voy- 
 ages of Columbus and his companions, v. 3. 
 
 Also in: H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific 
 stales, V. I, ch. 6. 
 
 1510-1661. — Portuguese and Dutch in Brazil. 
 See Brazil: 1510-1661. 
 
 1511. — Spanish conquest and occupation of 
 Cuba. See Cuba: 1511. 
 
 1512. — Voyage of Ponce de Leon in quest of 
 the fountain of youth, and his discovery of 
 Florida. — "Whatever may have been the South- 
 ernmost point reached by Cabot in coasting 
 America on his return, it is certain that he did not 
 land in Florida, and that the honour of first ex- 
 ploring that country is due to Juan Ponce de 
 Leon. This cavalier, who was governor of Puerto 
 Rico, induced by the vague traditions circulated 
 by the natives of the West Indies, that there was 
 a country in the north possessing a fountain whose 
 waters restored the aged to youth, made it an 
 object of his ambition to be the first to discover 
 this marvellous region. With this view, he re- 
 signed the governorship, and set sail with three 
 
 267
 
 AMERICA, 1513-1517 
 
 Discovery 
 of the Pacific 
 
 AMERICA, 1513-1517 
 
 caravels on the 3d of March 1512. Steering N. 
 J4 N., he came upon a countr>' covered with flow- 
 ers and verdure ; and as the day of his discovery 
 happened to be Palm Sunday, called by the Span- 
 iards 'Pasqua Florida,' he gave it the name of 
 Florida from this circumstance. He landed on 
 the 2d of April, and took possession of the country 
 in the name of the king of Castile. The warlike 
 people uf the coast of Cautio (a name given by 
 the Indians to all the country lying between Cape 
 Cafiaveral and the southern point of Florida) soon, 
 however, compelled him to retreat, and he pursued 
 his e.xploration of the coast as far as 30 8' north 
 latitude, and on the 8th of May doubled Cape 
 Caiiaveral. Then retracing his course to Puerto 
 Rico, in the hope of finding the island of Bimini, 
 which he believed to be the Land of Youth, and 
 described by the Indians as opposite to Florida, he 
 discovered the Bahamas, and some other islands, 
 previously unkown. Bad weather compelling him 
 to put into the isle of Guanima to repair dam- 
 ages, he despatched one of his caravels, under the 
 orders of Juan Perez de Ortubia and of the pilot 
 Anton de Alaminos, to gain information respecting 
 the desired land, which he had as yet been totally 
 unable to discover. He returned to Puerto Rico 
 on the 2ist of September; a few days afterwards, 
 Ortubia arrived also with news of Bimini. He re- 
 ported that he had explored the island, — which he 
 described as large, well wooded, and watered by 
 numerous streams, — but he had failed in discover- 
 ing the fountain. Oviedo places Bimini at 40 
 leagues west of the island of Bahama. Thus all 
 the advantages which Ponce de Leon promised 
 himself from this voyage turned to the profit of 
 geography: the title of 'Adelantado of Bimini and 
 Florida,' which was conferred upon hira, was purely 
 honorary ; but the route taken by him in order to 
 return to Puerto Rico, showed the advantage of 
 making the homeward voyage to Spain by the 
 Bahama Channel." — W. B. Rye, Introduction to 
 "Discovery and conquest of Terra Florida, by a 
 gentleman oj Elvas" (Hakluyt Society, 1851). 
 
 .\i.so i.v: G. R. Fairbanks. History of Florida. 
 ch. I. — E. G. Bourne, Spain in America. — J. B 
 Shea, Ancient Florida in Winsor, Narrative and 
 critical history, 11. 
 
 1513-1517.— Discovery of the Pacific by Bal- 
 boa. — Pedrarias Davila on the isthmus. — With 
 Enciso deposed from authority and Nicuesa sent 
 adrift, Vasco Nuiiez de Balboa seems to have 
 easily held the lead in affairs at Darien, though not 
 without much opposition ; for faction and turbu- 
 lence were rife. Enciso was permitted to carry 
 his grie%'ances and complaints to Spain, but Bal- 
 boa's colleague, Zamudio, went with him, and an- 
 other comrade proceeded to Hispaniola, both of 
 them well-furnished with gold. For the quest of 
 gold had succeeded at last. The Darien adven- 
 turers had found considerable quantities in the 
 possession of the surrounding natives, and were 
 gathering it with greedy hands. Balboa had the 
 prudence to establish friendly relations with one 
 of the most important of the neisihhorirg caciques. 
 whose comely daughter he wedded — according to 
 the easy customs of the country — and whose ally 
 he became in wars with the other caciques. By 
 gift and tribute, therefore as well as by plunder. 
 he harvested more gold than any before him had 
 found since the ransacking of the new world be- 
 gan. But what they obtained seemed little com- 
 pared with the treasures reported to them as e^xist- 
 ing beyond the near mountains and toward the 
 south. One Indian youth, son of a friendly ca- 
 cique, particularly excited their imaginations by 
 the tale which he told of another great sea, not 
 
 far to the west, on the southward-stretching shores 
 of which were countries that teemed with every 
 kind of wealth. He told them, however, that the/ 
 would need a thousand men to fight their way to 
 this Sea. Balboa gave such credence to the story 
 that he sent envoys to Spain to solicit forces from 
 the king for a adequate expedition across the moun- 
 tains. They sailed in October, 151 2, but did not 
 arrive in Spain until the following May. They 
 found Balboa in much disfavor at the court. En- 
 ciso and the friends of the unfortunate Nicuesa 
 had unitedly ruined him by their complaints, and 
 the king had caused criminal proceedings against 
 him to be commenced. Meantime, some inkling 
 of these hostilities had reached Balboa, himself, 
 conveyed by a vessel which bore to him, at the 
 same time, a commission as captain-general from 
 the authorities in Hispaniola. He now resolved to 
 become the discoverer of the ocean which his In- 
 dian friends described, and of the rich lands bord- 
 ering it, before his enemies could interfere with him. 
 "Accordingly, early in September, 1513, he set out 
 on his renowned expedition for finding 'the other 
 sea,' accompanied by 190 men well armed, and by 
 dogs, which were of more avail than men, and by 
 Indian slaves to carry the burdens. He went by 
 sea to the territory of his father-in-law. King 
 Careta, by whom he was well received, and ac- 
 companied by whose Indians he moved on into 
 Poncha's territory." Quieting the fears of this 
 cacique, he passed his country without fighting. 
 The next chief encountered, named Quarequa, at- 
 tempted resistance, but was routed, with a great 
 slaughter of his people, and Balboa pushed on. 
 "On the 25th of September, 1513, he came near 
 to the top of a mountain from whence the South 
 Sea was visible. The distance from Poncha's 
 chief town to this point was forty leagues, reck- 
 oned then six days' journey; but Vasco Xunez and 
 his men took twenty-five days to accomplish it, 
 as they suffered much from the roughness of the 
 ways and from the want of provisions. A little 
 before Vasco Nuiiez reached the height, Quarequa's 
 Indians informed him of his near approach to the 
 sea. It was a sight in beholding which, for the 
 first time, any man would wish to be alone. Vasco 
 Nufiez bade his men sit down while he ascended, 
 and then, in solitude, looked down upon the vast 
 Pacific — the first man of the Old World, so far as 
 we know, who had done so. Falling on his knees, 
 he gave thanks to God for the favour shown to 
 him in his being permitted to discover the Sea of 
 the South. Then with his hand he beckoned to his 
 men to come up. When they had come, both he 
 and they knelt down and poured forth their thanks 
 to God. He then addressed them. . . . Having 
 . . . addressed his men, Vasco Nunez proceeded to 
 take formal possession, on behalf of the kings of 
 Castile, of the sea and of all that was in it; and 
 in order to make memorials of the event, he cut 
 down trees, formed crosses, and heaped up stones. 
 He also inscribed the names of the monarchs of 
 Castile upon great trees in the vicinity." After- 
 war Is, when he had descended the western slope 
 and found the shore, "he entered the sea up to his 
 thighs, having his sword on. and with his shield 
 in his hand; then he called the by-standers to 
 witness how he touched with his person and took 
 possession of this sea for the kings of Castile, and 
 declared that he would defend the possession ol 
 it against all comers. .After this, Vasco Nunez made 
 friends in the usual manner, first conquering and 
 then npL'otiati'.-.g with" the several chiefs or caciques 
 V hose territories came in his way. He explored the 
 Gulf of San Miguel, finding much wealth of pearls 
 in the region, and returned to Darien by a route 
 
 268
 
 AMERICA, 1513-1517 
 
 Discovery 
 of Mexico 
 
 AMERICA, 1517-1518 
 
 which crossed the isthmus considerably farther to 
 the north, reaching his colony on the 2Qth of Janu- 
 ary, 1514, having been absent nearly five months. 
 "His men at Darien received him with exultation, 
 and he lost no time in sending his news, 'such sig- 
 nal and new news,' ... to the King of Spain, ac- 
 companying it with rich presents. His letter, which 
 gave a detailed account of his journey, and which, 
 for its length, was compared by Peter Martyr to 
 the celebrated letter that came to the senate from 
 Tiberius, contained in every page thanks to God 
 that he had escaped from such great dangers and 
 labours. Both the letter and the presents were 
 intrusted to a man named Arbolanche, who de- 
 parted from Darien about the beginning of March, 
 1514. . . . Vasco Nunez's messenger, Arbolanche, 
 reached the court of Spain too late for his master's 
 interests." The latter had already been superseded 
 in the Governorship, and his successor was on the 
 way to take his authority from him. The new 
 governor was one Pedrarias De Avila, or Davila, as 
 the name is sometimes written ; — an envious and 
 malignant old man, under whose rule on the isth- 
 mus the destructive energy of Spanish conquest 
 rose to its meanest and most heartless and brain- 
 less development. Conspicuously exposed as he 
 was to the jealousy and hatred of Pedrarias, Vasco 
 Nunez was probably doomed to ruin, in some 
 form, from the first. At one time, in 1516, there 
 seemed to be a promise for him of alliance with 
 his all-powerful enemy, by a marriage with one 
 of the governor's daughters, and he received the 
 command of an expedition which again crossed the 
 isthmus, carrying ships, and began the exploration 
 of the Pacific. But circumstances soon arose which 
 gave Pedrarias an opportunity to accuse the ex- 
 plorer of treasonable designs and to accomplish 
 his arrest — Francisco Pizarro being the officer fitly 
 charged with the execution of the governor's war- 
 rant. Brought in chains to Ada, Vasco Nunez was 
 summarily tried, found guilty and led forth to 
 swift death, laying his head upon the block (1517). 
 "Thus perished Vasco Nuiiez de Balboa, in the 
 forty-second year of his age, the man who, since 
 the time of Columbus, had shown the most states- 
 manlike and warriorlike powers in that part of 
 the world, but whose career only too much re- 
 sembles that of Ojeda, Nicuesa, and the other 
 unfortunate commanders who devastated those 
 beautiful regions of the earth." — Sir A. Helps, 
 Spanish conquest in America, bk. 6, v. 1. — "If I 
 have applied strong terms of denunciation to 
 Pedrarias Davila, it is because he unquestionably 
 deserves it. He is by far the worst man who came 
 officially to the New World during its early gov- 
 ment. In this all authorities agree. And all 
 agree that Vasco Nunez was not deserving of 
 death." — H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific 
 states, v. I, ch. 8-12 [foot-note, p. 458). 
 
 Also in: W. Irving, Life and voyages of Co- 
 lumbus and his companions, v. 3. — E. G. Bourne, 
 .Spain in America, pp. loS-iii, 331. — C. L. G. 
 Anderson, Old Panama and Caslilla del Oro. 
 
 1515. — Discovery of La Plata by Juan de 
 Soils. See PARAGUA^■: 7515-1557. 
 
 1517-1518. — Spaniards find Mexico. — "An hi- 
 dalgo of Cuba, named Hernandez de Cordova, 
 sailed with three vessels on an expedition to one of 
 the neighbouring Bahama Islands, in quest of In- 
 dian slaves (Feb. 8, 1517). He encountered a 
 succession of heavy gales which drove him far 
 out of his course, and at the end of three weeks 
 he found himself on a strange and unknown coast. 
 On landing and asking the name of the country, 
 he was answered by the natives 'Tectelan,' mean- 
 ing 'I do not understand you,' but which the Span- 
 
 iards, misinterpreting into the name of the place, 
 easily corrupted into Yucatan. Some writers give 
 a different etymology. . . . Bernal Diaz says the 
 word came from the vegetable 'yuca' and 'tale,' the 
 name for a hillock in which it is planted. . . . M. 
 Waldeck finds a much more plausible derivation 
 in the Indian word 'Ouyouckatan,' 'listen to what 
 they say.' . . . Cordova had landed on the north- 
 eastern end of the peninsula, at Cape Catoche. He 
 was astonished at the size and solid materials of 
 the buildings constructed of stone and lime, so dif- 
 ferent from the frail tenements of reeds and rushes 
 which formed the habitations of the islanders. 
 He was struck also, with the higher cultivation o£ 
 the soil, and with the delicate texture of the cotton 
 garments and gold ornaments of the natives. 
 Everything indicated a civilization far superior to 
 anything he had before witnessed in the New 
 World. He saw the evidence of a different race, 
 moreover, in the warlike spirit of the people. . . , 
 Wherever they landed they were met with the 
 most deadly hostility. Cordova himself, in one of 
 his skirmishes with the Indians, received more than 
 a dozen wounds, and one only of his party es- 
 caped unhurt. At length, when he had coasted 
 the peninsula as far as Compeachy, he returned to 
 Cuba, which he reached after an absence of sev- 
 eral months. . . . The reports he had brought back 
 of the country, and, still more, the specimens of 
 curiously wrought gold, convinced Velasquez [gov- 
 ernor of Cuba] of the importance of this discov- 
 ery, and he prepared with all despatch to avail 
 himself of it. He accordingly fitted out a little 
 squadron of four vessels for the newly discovered, 
 lands, and placed it under the command of his 
 nephew, Juan de Grijalva, a man on whose prob- 
 ity, prudence, and attachment to himself he knew 
 he could rely. The fleet left the port of St. 
 Jago de Cuba, May i, 1518. . . . Grijalva soon 
 passed over to the continent and coasted the pen- 
 insula, touching at the same places as his prede- 
 cessor. Everywhere he was struck, like him, with 
 the evidences of a higher civilization, especially 
 in the architecture ; as he well might be, since 
 this was the region of those extraordinary remains 
 which have become recently the subject of so 
 much speculation. He was astonished, also, at 
 the sight of large stone crosses, evidently objects 
 of worship, which he met with in various places. 
 Reminded by these circumstances of his own coun- 
 try, he gave the peninsula the name New Spain, 
 a name since appropriated to a much wider extent 
 of territory. Wherever Grijalva landed, he experi- 
 enced the same unfriendly reception as Cordova, 
 though he suffered less, being better prepared to 
 meet it." He succeeded, however, at last, in open- 
 ing a friendly conference and traffic with one of 
 the chiefs, on the Rio de Tabasco, and "had the 
 satisfaction of receiving, for a few worthless toys 
 and trinkets, a rich treasure of jewels, gold orna- 
 ments and vessels, of the most fantastic forms and 
 workmanship. Grijalva now thought that in this 
 successful traffic — successful beyond his most san- 
 guine expectations — he had accomplished the chief 
 object of his mission." He therefore dispatched 
 Alvarado, one of his captains, to Velasquez, with 
 the treasure acquired, and continued his voyage 
 along the coast, as far as the province of Panuco, 
 returning to Cuba at the end of about six months 
 from his departure. "On reaching the Island, he 
 was surprised to learn that another and more for- 
 midable armament had been fitted out to follow up 
 his own discoveries, and to find orders at the same 
 time from the governor, couched in no very cour- 
 teous language, to repair at once to St. Jago. He 
 was received by that personage, not merely with 
 
 269
 
 AMERICA, 1519-1524 
 
 Voyage of 
 Magellan 
 
 AMERICA, 1519-1524 
 
 coldness, but with reproaches, for having neg- 
 lected so far an opportunity of establishing a 
 colony in the country he had visited.'' — W. H. 
 Prescott, Conquest of Mexico, bk. 2, cli. i. 
 
 Also in: C. St. J. Fancourt, History of Yuca- 
 tan, ch. 1-2. — Bernal Diaz del Castillo, Memoirs, 
 V. I, cb. 2-19. 
 
 1519-1524. — Spanish conquest of Mexico. See 
 Mexico: 1519 C February- April) ; 1519-1520; 1520 
 (June-July); 1520-1521; 1521 (May-July) ; 1521 
 (July); 1521 (.\ugust) ; 1521-1524. 
 
 1519-1524. — Voyage of Magellan and Sebas- 
 tian del Cano.— New World passed and the 
 earth circumnavigated. — Congress at Badajoz. — 
 Fernando Magellan, or Magalhaes, was "a disaf- 
 fected Portuguese gentleman who had served his 
 country for five years in the Indies under Albu- 
 querque, and understood well the secrets of the 
 Eastern trade. In 1517, conjointly with his geo- 
 graphical and astronomical friend, Ruy Falerio, 
 another unrequited Portuguese, he offered his ser- 
 vices to the Spanish court. At the same time these 
 two friends proposed, not only to prove that the 
 Moluccas were within the Spanish lines of demar- 
 cation, but to discover a passage thither different 
 from that used by the Portuguese. Their schemes 
 were listened to, adopted and carried out. The 
 Straits of Magellan were discovered, the broad 
 South £ea was crossed, the Ladrones and the 
 Phillipines were inspected, the Moluccas were 
 passed through, the Cape of Good Hope was 
 doubled on the homeward voyage, and the globe 
 was circumnavigated, all in less than three years, 
 from i5ig to 1522. Magellan lost his life, and 
 only one of his five ships returned [under Sebas- 
 tian del Cano] to tell the marvelous story. The 
 magnitude of the enterprise was equalled only by 
 the magnitude of the results. The globe for the 
 first time began to assume its true character and 
 size in the minds of men, and the minds of men 
 began soon to grasp and utilize the results of this 
 circumnavigation for the enlargement of trade and 
 commerce, and for the benefit of geography, as- 
 tronomy, mathematics, and the other sciences. 
 This wonderful story, is it not told in a thousand 
 books? . . . The Portuguese in India and the 
 Spiceries, as well as at home, now seeing the in- 
 evitable conflict approaching, were thoroughly 
 aroused to the importance of maintaining their 
 rights. They openly asserted them, and pro- 
 nounced this trade with the Moluccas by the Span- 
 ish an encroachment on their prior discoveries and 
 possession, as well as a violation of the Papal 
 Compact of 1494, and prepared themselves en- 
 ergetically for defense and offense. On the other 
 hand, the Spaniards as openly declared that 
 Magellan's fleet carried the first XThristians to the 
 Moluccas and by friendly intercourse with the 
 kings of those islands, reduced them to Chris- 
 tian subjection and brought back letters and 
 tribute to Caesar. Hence these kings and their 
 people came under the protection of Charles V. 
 Besides this, the Spaniards claimed that the Moluc- 
 cas were within the Spanish half, and were there- 
 fore doubly theirs. . . . Matters thus waxing hot. 
 King John of Portugal begged Charles V. to delay 
 dispatching his new fleet until the disputed points 
 could be discussed and settled. Charles, who 
 boasted that he had rather be right than rich, 
 consented, and the ships were staid. These two 
 Christian princes, who owned all the newly dis- 
 covered and to be discovered parts of the whole 
 world between them by deed of gift of the Pope, 
 agreed to meet in Congress at Badajos by their 
 representatives, to discuss and settle all matters 
 in dispute about the division of their patrimony, 
 
 and to define and stake out their lands and waters, 
 both parties agreeing to abide by the decision of 
 the Congress. Accordingly, in the early spring of 
 1524, up went to this little border town four- 
 and-twenty wise men, or thereabouts, chosen by 
 each prince. They comprised the first judges, 
 lawyers, mathematicians, astronomers, cosmogra- 
 phers, navigators and pilots of the land, among 
 whose names were many honored now as then — 
 such as Fernando Columbus, Sebastian Cabot, 
 Estevan Gomez, Diego Ribero, etc. . . . The de- 
 bates and proceedings of this Congress, as re- 
 ported by Peter Martyr, Oviedo, and Gomara, are 
 very amusing, but no regular joint decision could 
 be reached, the Portuguese decUning to subscribe 
 to the verdict of the Spaniards, inasmuch as It 
 deprived them of the Moluccas. So each party 
 published and proclaimed its own decision after the 
 Congress broke up in confusion on the last day 
 of May, 1524. It was, however, tacitly under- 
 stood that the Moluccas fell to Spain, while Brazil, 
 to the extent of two hundred leagues from Cape 
 St. Augustine, fell to the Portuguese . . . How- 
 ever, much good resulted from this first geograph- 
 ical Congress. The extent and breadth of the 
 Pacific were appreciated, and the influence of 
 the Congress was soon after seen in the greatly 
 improved maps, globes, and charts." — H. Stevens, 
 Historical and geographical notes, 1453-1530. — • 
 "For three months and twenty days he [Magellan] 
 sailed on the Pacific and never saw inhabited 
 land. He was compelled by famine to strip off 
 the pieces of skin and leather wherewith his 
 rigging was here and there bound, to soak them 
 in the sea and then soften them with warm 
 water, so as to make a wretched food; to eat the 
 sweepings of the ship and other loathsome mat- 
 ter; to drink water gone putrid by keeping; and 
 yet he resolutely held on his course, though his 
 men were dying daily. ... In the whole his- 
 tory of human undertakings there is nothing that 
 exceeds, if indeed there is anything that equals, 
 this voyage of Magellan's. That of Columbus 
 dwindles away in comparison. It is a display of 
 superhuman courage, superhuman perseverance." — 
 J. W. Draper, History of the intellectual de- 
 velopment of Europe, ch. 19. — "The voyage [of 
 Magellan] . . . was doubtless the greatest feat of 
 navigation that has ever been performed, and 
 nothing can be imagined that would surpass it 
 except a journey to some other planet. It has not 
 the unique historic position of the first voyage 
 of Columbus, which brought together two streams 
 of human life that had been disjoined since the 
 Glacial Period. But as an achievement in ocean 
 navigation that voyage of Columbus sinks into 
 insignificance by the side of it, and when the earth 
 was a second time encompassed by the greatest 
 English sailor of his age, the advance in knowledge, 
 as well as the different route chosen, had much 
 reduced the difficulty of the performance. When 
 we consider the frailness of the ships, the immeas- 
 urable extent of the unknown, the mutinies that 
 were prevented or quelled, and the hardships 
 that were endured, we can have no hesitation 
 in speaking of Magellan as the prince of navi- 
 gators." — J. Fiske, Discovery of America, v. 2, 
 ch. 7. 
 
 .'\i-SO in: Lord Stanley of Alderley, First voyage 
 round the world (Hakluyt Society. 1874). — R. 
 Kerr, Collection of voyages, v. 10. — F. H. H. Guil- 
 lemard, Life of Ferdinand Magellan and the first 
 circumnavigation of the globe (1891). — E. G. 
 Bourne, Spain in America. — C. R. Markham, 
 Early Spanish voyage (Hakluyt Society, 2nd 
 series, v. 38, 12). 
 
 270
 
 AMERICA, 1519-1525 
 
 Voyages of 
 V errazano 
 
 AMERICA, 1523-1524 
 
 1519-1525. — Voyages of Garay and Ayllon. — 
 Discovery of the mouth of the Mississippi. — 
 Exploration of the Carolina coast. — In 1519, 
 Francisco de Garay, governor of Jamaica, who 
 liad been one of the companions of Columbus on 
 his second voyage, having heard of the richness 
 and beauty of Yucatan, "at his own charge sent 
 •out four ships well equipped, and with good 
 pilots, under the command of Alvarez Alonso de 
 Pineda. His professed object was to search for 
 some strait, west of Florida, which was not yet 
 certainly known to form a part of the continent. 
 The strait having been sought for in vain, his ships 
 turned toward the west, attentively examining the 
 ports, rivers, inhabitants, and everything else that 
 seemed worthy of remark; and especially noticing 
 the vast volume of water brought down by one 
 very large stream. At last they came upon the 
 track of Cortes near Vera Cruz. . . . The care- 
 fully drawn map of the pilots showed distinctly 
 the Mississippi, which, in this earliest authentic 
 trace of its outlet, bears the name of the Espiritu 
 Santo. . . . But Garay thought not of the Mis- 
 sissippi and its valley: he coveted access to the 
 wealth of Mexico; and, in 1523, lost fortune and 
 life ingloriously in a dispute with Cortes for the 
 government of the country on the river Panuco. 
 A voyage for slaves brought the Spaniards in 
 1520 still farther to the north. A company of 
 seven, of whom the most distinguished was Lucas 
 Vasquez de Ayllon, fitted out two slave ships 
 from St. Domingo, in quest of laborers for their 
 plantations and mines. From the Bahama Islands 
 they passed to the coast of South Carolina, which 
 was called Chicora. The Combahee river re- 
 ceived the name of Jordan ; the name of St. Helena, 
 whose day is the iSth of August, was given to a 
 cape, but now belongs to the sound." Luring a 
 large number of the confiding natives on board 
 their ships the adventurers treacherously set sail 
 with them; but one of the vessels foundered at 
 sea, and most of the captives on the other sick- 
 ened and died. Vasquez de Ayllon was rewarded 
 for his treacherous exploit by being authorized and 
 appointed to make the conquest of Chicora "For 
 this bolder enterprise the undertaker wasted his 
 fortune in preparations; in 1525 his largest ship 
 was stranded in the river Jordan ; many of his 
 men were killed by the natives ; and he himself 
 escaped only to suffer from the consciousness of 
 having done nothing worthy of honor Yet it may 
 be that ships, sailing under his authority, made 
 the discovery of the Chesapeake and named it the 
 bay of St. Mary; and perhaps even entered the 
 bay of Delaware, which, in Spanish geography, 
 was called St. Christopher's." — G Bancroft, History 
 of the United States, pt. i, cli. 2. 
 
 Also in: H, H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific 
 states, V. 4, ch. 11, and v. J, ch. 6-7. — W. G 
 Simms, History of South Carolina, bk. i, ch. i. 
 
 1523-1524. — Voyages of Verrazano. — First un- 
 dertakings of France in the New World. — "It is 
 constantly admitted in our history that our kings 
 paid no attention to America before the year 
 1523 Then Francis I., wishing to excite the emu 
 lation of his subjects in regard to navigation and 
 commerce, as he had already so successfully in 
 regard to the sciences and fine arts, ordered John 
 Verazani, who was in his service, to go and ex- 
 plore the New Lands, which began to be much 
 talked of in France . . Verazani was accord- 
 ingly sent, in i,';23, with four ships to discover 
 North America ; Ijut our historians have not spoken 
 of his first expedition, and we should be in igno- 
 rance of it now, had not Ramusio preserved in his 
 great collection a letter of Verazani himself ad- 
 
 dressed to Francis I. and dated Dieppe, July 8, 
 1524. In it he supposes the king already informed 
 of the success and details of the voyage, so that 
 he contents himself with stating that he sailed 
 from Dieppe in four vessels, which he had safely 
 brought back to that port. In January, 1524, he 
 sailed with two ships, the Dauphine and the Nor- 
 mande, to cruise against the Spaniards. Towards 
 the close of the same year, or early in the next, 
 he again fitted out the Dauphine, on which, em- 
 barking with 50 men and provisions for eight 
 months, he first sailed to the island of Madeira." — 
 Father Charlevoix, History of New France (trans- 
 lated by J. G. Shea), bk. i.— "On the 17th of 
 January, 1524, he [Verrazano] parted from the 
 'Islas desiertas,' a well-known little group of is- 
 lands near Madeira, and sailed at first westward, 
 running in 25 days 500 leagues, with a light and 
 pleasant easterly breeze, along the northern bor- 
 der of the trade winds, in about 30" N. His 
 track was consequently nearly like that of Colum- 
 bus on his first voyage. On the 14th of February 
 he met 'with as violent a hurricane as any ship 
 ever encountered.' But he weathered it, and pur- 
 sued his voyage to the west, 'with a little deviation 
 to the north;' when, after having sailed 24 days 
 and 400 leagues, he decried a new country which, 
 as he supposed, had never before been seen 
 either by modern or ancient navigators. The 
 country was very low. From the above descrip- 
 tion it is evident that Verrazano came in sight of 
 the east coast of the United States about the loth 
 of March, 1524. He places his land-fall in 34° 
 N., which is the latitude of Cape Fear." He 
 first sailed southward, for about 50 leagues, he 
 states, looking for a harbor and finding none. 
 He then turned northward. "I infer that Verra- 
 zano saw little of the coast of South Carolina 
 and nothing of that of Georgia, and that in these 
 regions he can, at most, be called the discoverer 
 only of the coast of North Carolina. ... He 
 rounded Cape Hatteras, and at a distance of about 
 SO leagues came to another shore, where he an- 
 chored and spent several days. . . . This was 
 the second principal landing-place of Verrazano 
 If we reckon 50 leagues from Cape Hatteras, it 
 would fall somewhere upon the east coast of 
 Delaware, in latitude 38° N., where, by some 
 authors, it is thought to have been. But if, as 
 appears most likely, Verrazano reckoned his dis- 
 tance here, as he did in other cases, from his last 
 anchoring, and not from Cape Hatteras, we must 
 look for his second landing somewhere south of 
 the entrance to Chesapeake Bay, and near the en- 
 trance to Albemarle Sound. And this better 
 agrees with the 'sail of 100 leagues' which Ver- 
 razano says he made from his second to his third 
 landing-place, in New York Bay. ... He found 
 at this third landing station an excellent berth, 
 where he came to anchor, well-protected from 
 the winds, . . . and from which he ascended the 
 river in his boat into the interior. He found 
 the shores very thicklv settled, and as he passed 
 up half a league further, he discovered a most 
 beautiful lake ... of three leagues in circum- 
 ference Here, more than 30 canoes came to him 
 with a multitude of people, who seemed very 
 friendly . . This description contains several ac- 
 counts which make it still more clear that the 
 Bay of New York was the scene of these occur- 
 rences" — Verrazano's anchorage having been at 
 Gravesend Bay, the river which he entered being 
 the Narrows, and the lake he found being the 
 Inner Harbor From New York Bay Verrazano 
 sailed eastward, along the southern shore of Long 
 Island, and following the New England coast, 
 
 271
 
 AMERICA, 1524 
 
 Voyage of the 
 Dauphine 
 
 AMERICA, 1524 
 
 (ouching at or describing points which are iden- 
 tified with Narragansett Bay and Newport, Blocli 
 Island or Martha's Vineyard, and Portsmouth. 
 His coasting voyage was pursued as far as 50' N., 
 from which point he sailed homeward. "He en- 
 tered the port of Dieppe early in July, 15:4. Hia 
 whole exploring expedition, from Madeira and 
 back, had accordingly lasted but five and a half 
 months." — J. G. Kohl, History of the discovery 
 of Maine (Maine Historical Society Collection, 
 2d Series, v. i, cli. 8) . 
 
 1524. — Verrazano's voyage along the Atlantic 
 coast of North America. — Letter of Bernardo 
 Carli to his father about Verrazano's voyage. — 
 "So there being here news recently of the ar- 
 rival of Captain Giovanni da Verrazano, our 
 Florentine, at the port of Dieppe, in Normandy, 
 with his ship, the Dauphine, with which he sailed 
 from the Canary islands the end of last January, 
 to go in search of new lands for this most serene 
 crown of France in which he displayed very 
 noble and great courage in undertaking such an 
 unknown voyage with only one ship, which was 
 
 a caraval of hardly tons, with only fifty men, 
 
 with the intention, if possible, of discovering 
 Cathay [China], taking a course through other 
 climates than those the Portuguese use in reach- 
 ing it by the way of Calicut [Calcutta], but going 
 towards the northwest and north, entirely believing 
 that, although Ptolemy, .-Aristotle and other cos- 
 mographers affirm that no land is to be found to- 
 wards such climates, he would find it there never- 
 theless. And so God has vouchsafed him as he 
 distinctly describes in a letter of his to this 
 S.M.; of which, in this, there is a copy. And for 
 want of provisions, after many months spent in 
 navigating, he asserts he was forced to return 
 from that hemisphere into this, and having been 
 seven months on the voyage, to show a very great 
 and rapid passage, and to have achieved a won- 
 derful and most extraordinary feat according to 
 those who understand the seamanship of the world. 
 Of which at the commencement of his said voyage 
 there was an unfavorable opinion formed, and 
 many thought there would be no more news either 
 of him or of his vessel, but that he 'might be 
 lost on that side of Norway, in consequence of 
 the great ice which is in that northern ocean; 
 but the Great God, as the Moor said, in order 
 to give us every day proofs of his infinite power 
 and show us how admirable is this worldly ma- 
 chine, has disclosed to him a breadth of land, 
 as you will perceive, of such extent that according 
 to good reasons, and the degrees of latitude and 
 longtitude, he alleges and shows it greater than 
 Europe, Africa and a part of Asia; ergo mundiis 
 novus [Note. — Translation: 'therefore a new 
 world.' Ed] : and this exclusive of what the 
 Spaniards have discovered in several years in 
 the west. . . . What this our captain has brought 
 he does not state in this letter, except a very 
 young man taken from those countries; but it is 
 supposed he has brought a sample of gold which 
 they do not value in those parts, and of drugs 
 and other aromatic liquors for the purpose of 
 conferring here with several merchants after he 
 shall have been in the presence of the Most Serene 
 Majesty. And at this hour he ought to be there, 
 and from choice to come here shortly, as he is 
 much desired in order to converse with him; 
 the more so that he will find here the Majesty, 
 the King, our Lord, who is expected here in three 
 or four days. And we hope that S.M. will en- 
 trust him again with half a dozen good vessels 
 and that he will return to the voyage. And if 
 our Francisco Carli be returned from Cairo, 
 
 advise him to go, at a venture, on the said voyage 
 with him; and I believe they were acquainted at 
 Cairo where he has been several years; and not 
 only in Egypt and Syria, but almost through all 
 the known world, and thence by reason of his 
 merit is esteemed another Amerigo Vespucci; an- 
 other Fernando Magellan and even more; and we 
 hope that being provided with other good ships 
 and vessels, well built and properly victualled, he 
 may discover some profitable traffic and matter; 
 and will, our Lord God granting him life, do 
 honor to our country, in acquiring immortal fame 
 and memory." 
 
 History of the Dauphine and its voyage. — 
 Selections from a letter of the Navigator 
 Giovanni da Verrazano to the King of France, 
 Francis I, Patron and Director of the Explora- 
 tion, about the Voyage which He Made along the 
 Eastern Coast of the Present United States and 
 during which He Entered the Harbor of the 
 Present City of New York.) 
 
 From Madeira to the New World. — Tempest 
 ON the ocean. — "From the deserted rock near to 
 the island of Madeira of the Most Serene King 
 of Portugal a- (Note a — commencing 1524.) 
 [Lettered notes are the annotations found in 
 the manuscnpt Ed.j with the said Dau- 
 phine, on the XVII of the month of 
 January past, with fifty men, furnished with vic- 
 tuals, arms and other instruments of war and 
 naval munitions for eight months, we departed, 
 sailing westward by an east-south-east wind blow- 
 ing with sweet and gentle lenity. In XXV days we 
 sailed eight hundred leagues. The XXIIII days 
 of February ^ (Note a — perhaps 16 hours) we 
 suffered a tempest as severe as ever a man who 
 has navigated suffered. From which, with the 
 divine aid and the goodness of the ship, adapted 
 by its glorious name and fortunate destiny to 
 support the violent waves of the sea, we were de- 
 livered. We pursued our navigation continuously 
 toward the west, holding somewhat to the north 
 In XXV more days we sailed more than 400 leagues 
 where there appeared to us a new land never be- 
 more seen by anyone, ancient or modern." 
 
 Land first seen in 34° North latitude. — "At 
 first it appeared rather low; having approached 
 to within a quarter of a league, we perceived it, 
 by the great fires built on the shore of the sea, 
 to be inhabited We saw that it ran toward 
 the south ; following it, to find some port where 
 we could anchor with the ship and investigate its 
 nature, in the space of fifty leagues we did not 
 find a port or any place where it was possible to 
 stay with the ship. And having seen that it 
 trended continually to the south^', (Note 6 — 
 in order not to meet with the Spaniards) we de- 
 cided to turn about to coast it toward the north, 
 where we found the same place. (Note — ^That is, 
 to the place where he first came in sight of 
 land — about 34 degrees north latitude.) We an- 
 chored by the coast, sending the small boat to 
 land. We had seen many people who came to 
 the shore of the sea and seeing us approach fled, 
 sometimes halting, turning back, looking with 
 great admiration. Reassuring them by various 
 signs, some of them approached, showing great 
 delight at seeing us, marvelling at our clothes, fig- 
 ures and whiteness, making to us various signs 
 where we could land more conveniently with the 
 small boat, offering to us of their foods." 
 
 First landing and the first indigenes. — "We 
 were on land, and that which we were able to learn 
 of their life and customs I will tell Your Majesty 
 briefly: They go nude of everything except that 
 . . . they wear some skins of little animals like 
 
 272
 
 ^S8T?rr-r-.° 
 
 M U D&OtsI 
 
 CORTEZ 
 
 AMERICAN EXPLORERS
 
 AMERICA, 1524 
 
 Voyage of the 
 Dauphine 
 
 AMERICA, 1524 
 
 martens, a girdle of fine grass woven with various 
 tails of other animals which hang around the 
 body as far as the knees; the rest nude; the head 
 likewise. Some wear certain garlands of feathers 
 of birds. They are of dark color not much un- 
 like the Ethiopians, and hair black and thick, 
 and not very long, which they tie together back 
 on the head in the shape of a little tail. As for 
 the symmetry of the men, they are well propor- 
 tioned, of medium stature, and rather exceed us. 
 In the breast they are broad, their arms well 
 built, the legs and other parts of the body well 
 put together. There is nothing else, except that 
 they incline somewhat to broadness in the face ; 
 but not all, for in more we saw the face clear- 
 cut. The eyes black and large, the glance intent 
 and quick. They are not of much strength, in 
 craftiness acute, agile and the greatest runners. 
 From what we were able to learn by experience, 
 they resemble in the la.st two respects the Orien- 
 tals, and mostly those of the farthest Sinarian 
 regions. (Note — Ramusio's text has the 'regions 
 of China.') We were not able to learn with par- 
 ticularity of the life and customs of these people 
 because of the shortness of the stay we made on 
 land, on account there being few people and the 
 ship anchored in the high sea." [Here follows a 
 description of the country and the climate in the 
 vicinity of the Carolinas.] 
 
 Sailor among the indigenes. — "We left this 
 place continually skirting the coast, which 
 we found turned to the east. Seeing every- 
 where great fires on account of the mul- 
 titude of the inhabitants, anchoring there off 
 the shore because it did not contain any port, on 
 account of the need of water we sent the little 
 boat to land with XXV men. Because of the 
 very large waves which the sea cast up on the 
 shore on account of the strand being open, it was 
 not possible without danger of losing the boat for 
 any one to land. We saw many people on shore 
 making us various signs of friendship, motioning 
 us ashore ; among whom I saw a magnificent 
 deed, as Your Majesty will hear. Sending ashore 
 by swimming one of our young sailors carrying 
 to them some trinkets, such as little bells, mirrors, 
 and other favors, and being approached within 4 
 fathoms of them, throwing the goods to them and 
 wishing to turn back he was so tossed by the 
 waves that almost half dead he was carried to 
 the edge of the shore. Which having been seen, 
 the people of the land ran immediately to him; 
 taking him by the head, legs and arms, they 
 carried him some distance away. Where, the 
 youth, seeing himself carried in such way, stricken 
 with terror, uttered very loud cries, which they 
 did similarly in their language, showing him that 
 he should not fear. After that, having placed him 
 on the ground in the sun at the foot of a little 
 hill, they performed great acts of admiration, re- 
 garding the whiteness of his flesh, examining him 
 from head to foot. Taking off his shirt and hose, 
 leaving him nude, they made a very large fire 
 near him, placing him near the heat. Which hav- 
 ing been seen, the sailors who had remained in the 
 small boat, full of fear, as is their custom in every 
 new case, thought that they wanted to roast him 
 for food His strength recovered, having remained 
 with them awhile, he showed by signs that he 
 desired to return to the ship; who, with the 
 greatest kindness, holding him always close with 
 various embraces, accompanied him as far as the 
 sea, and in order to assure him more, extending 
 themselves on a high hill, stood to watch him 
 until he was in the boat. Which young man 
 learned of this people that they are thus: of dark 
 
 color like the others, the flesh more lustrous, of 
 medium stature, the face more clear-cut, much 
 more delicate of body and other members, of 
 much less strength and even of intelligence. He 
 saw nothing else." [Here follows an annota- 
 tion on the names which Verrazano gave to various 
 places in this locality.] 
 
 Three days in 'Arcadia' (Note — Maryland or 
 Delaware) : A boy stolen. — "Having departed 
 thence, following always the shore which 
 turned somewhat toward the north, we came 
 in the space of fifty leagues to another 
 land which appeared much more beautiful and 
 full of the largest forests. Anchoring at which, 
 XX men going about two leagues inland, we found 
 the people through fear had fled to the woods. 
 Seeking everywhere, we met with a very old 
 woman and a damsel of from XVIII to XX years, 
 who through fear had hidden themselves in the 
 grass. The old one had two little girls whom she 
 carried on the shoulders, and back on the neck 
 a boy, all of eight years of age. The young 
 woman had as many . . . but all girls. Hav- 
 ing approached toward whom, they began to 
 cry out, [and] the old woman to make signs 
 to us that the men had fled to the woods. We 
 gave them to eat of our viands, which she ac- 
 cepted with great gusto; the young woman re- 
 fused everything and with anger threw it to the 
 ground. We took the boy from the old woman 
 to carry to France, and wishing to take the young 
 woman, who was of much beauty and of tall 
 stature, it was not however possible, on account 
 of the very great cries which she uttered, for 
 us to conduct her to the sea. And having to pass 
 through some woods, being far from the ship, we 
 decided to release her, carrying only the boy." 
 
 Textile plants and the grapes: the offering 
 OF FIRE. — Here is given a description of the prod- 
 ucts found in the vicinity of Maryland and Dela- 
 ware] "Having remained in this place three days, 
 anchored off the coast, we decided on account of 
 the scarcity of ports to depart, always skirting the 
 shore''- . (Note a — which we baptized Arcadia on 
 account of the beauty of the trees.) In Arcadia 
 we found a man who came to the shore to see 
 what people we were ; who stood hesitating and 
 ready for flight. Watching us, he did not permit 
 himself to be approached. He was handsome, 
 nude, with hair fastened back in a knot, of olive 
 color. We were about XX [in number] ashore 
 and coaxing him he approached to within about 
 two fathoms, showing a burning stick as if to 
 offer us fire. .\n6 we made fire with powder and 
 flint-and-steel and he trembled all over with ter- 
 ror and we fired a shot. He stopped as if as- 
 tonished and prayed, worshipping like a monk, lift- 
 ing his finger toward the sky, and pointing to the 
 ship and the sea he appeared to bless us. [We 
 sailed] toward the north and east, navigating by 
 daylight and casting anchor at nights. (Note 6 — 
 we followed a coast very green with forests but 
 without ports, and with some charming promon- 
 tories and small rivers. We baptized the coast 
 'di Lorenna' on account of the Cardinal; the first 
 promontory 'Lanzone," the second 'Bonivetto,' the 
 largest river 'Vandoma,' and a small mountain 
 which stands by the sea 'di S. Polo' on account 
 of the Count.)" 
 
 Land of Angouleme, Bay Saint Margherita 
 (New York), River Vendome (Hudson), Island 
 OF Queen Louisa' (Block Island?). — "At the end 
 of a hundred leagues we found a very agree- 
 able situation located within two small promi- 
 nent hills, in the midst of which flowed to the sea 
 a very great river, which was deep within the 
 
 273
 
 AMERICA, 1524 
 
 Voyage of the 
 Dauphinc 
 
 AMERICA, 1524 
 
 mouth; and iTom the sea to the hills of that 
 [place] with the rising of the tides, which we 
 found eight feet, any laden ship might have passed. 
 On account of being anchored off the coast in 
 good shelter, we did not wish to adventure in with- 
 out knowledge of the entrances. We were with 
 the small boat, entering the said river to the 
 land, which we found much populated. The peo- 
 ple, almost like the others, clothed with the 
 feathers of birds of various colors, came toward 
 us joyfully, uttering very great exclamations of 
 admiration, showing us where we could land with 
 the boat more safely. We entered said river, 
 within the land, about half a league, where we 
 saw it made a very beautiful lake with a circuit 
 of about three leagues; through which they [the 
 Indians] went, going from one and another part to 
 the number of XXX of their little barges, with 
 innumerable [jeoplc, who passed from one shore 
 and the other in order to see us. In an instant, 
 as is wont to happen in navigation, a gale of un- 
 favorable wind blowing in from the sea, we were 
 forced to return to the ship, leaving the said 
 land with much regret because of its commodious- 
 ness and beauty, thinking it was not without some 
 properties of value, all of its hills showing indica- 
 tions of minerals.'- (Note a — called Angoleme 
 from the principality which thou attainedst in 
 lesser fortune, and the bay which that land makes 
 Santa Margherita from the name of the sister 
 who vanquishes the other matrons of modesty and 
 art.) The anchor raised, sailing toward the east, 
 as thus the land turned, having traveled LXXX 
 leagues always in sight of it, we discovered an 
 island triangular in form, distant ten leagues from 
 the continent, in size like the island of Rhodes, 
 full of hills, covered with trees, much populated 
 [judging] by the continuous fires along all the 
 surrounding shore which we saw they made. W'e 
 baptized it in the name of your most illustrious 
 mother'" (Note 6 — Aloysia) ; not anchoring there 
 on account of the unfavorableness of the weather." 
 "Refugio," the very beautiful port (New- 
 port), AND ITS TWO KINGS. — "We Came to another 
 land, distant from the island XV leagues, where we 
 found a very beautiful port, and before we entered 
 it, we saw about XX barges of the people who 
 came with various cries of wonder round about the 
 ship. Not approaching nearer than fifty paces, 
 they halted, looking at the edifice [that is, the 
 ship], our figures and clothes; then altogether 
 they uttered a loud shout, signifying that they 
 were glad. Having reassured them somewhat, 
 imitating their gestures, they came so near that 
 we threw them some little bells and mirrors and 
 many trinkets, having taken which, regarding 
 them with laughter, they entered the ship con- 
 fidently. There were among them two Kings, of 
 as good stature and form as it would be possible 
 to tell; the first of about XXXX years, the other 
 a young man of XXIIII years, the clothing of 
 whom was thus: the older had on his nude body 
 a skin of a stag, artificially adorned like a damask 
 with various embroideries; the head bare, the hair 
 turned back with various bands, at the neck a 
 broad chain ornamented with many stones of 
 diverse colors. The young man w.as almost in the 
 same style. This is the most beautiful people 
 and the most civilized in customs that we have 
 found in this navigation. They excel us in size; 
 they are of bronze color, some inclining more 
 to whiteness, others to tawnv color; the face 
 sharply cut, the hair long and black, upon which 
 they bestow the greatest study in adorning it ; the 
 eyes black and alert, the bearing kind and gentle, 
 imitating much the ancient [manner]. Of the 
 
 other parts of the body I will not speak to Your 
 Majesty, having all the proportions which belong 
 to every well built man. Their women are of the 
 same beauty and charm ; very graceful ; of comely 
 mien and agreeable aspect; of habits and be- 
 havior as much according to womanly custom as 
 pertains to human nature; they go nude with only 
 one skin of the stag embroidered like the men, 
 and some wear on the arras very rich skins of the 
 lynx; the head bare, with various arrangements 
 of braids, composed of their own hair, which 
 hang on one side and the other on the breast. 
 Some use other hair-arrangements like the women 
 of Egypt and of S\ ria use, and these are they 
 who are advanced in age and are joined in wed- 
 lock. They have in the ears various pendent 
 trinkets as the orientals are accustomed to have, 
 the men like the women, among which we saw 
 many plates wrought from copper, by whom it 
 is prized more than gold; which, on account of 
 its color, they do not esteem; wherefore among 
 all it is held by them more worthless ; on the 
 other hand rating blue and red above any other. 
 That which they were given by us which they 
 most valued were little bells, blue crystals and 
 other trinkets to place in the ears and on the 
 neck. They did not prize cloth of silk and of 
 gold nor even of other kind, nor did they care 
 to have them; likewise with metals like steel and 
 iron ; for many times showing them our arms they 
 did not conceive admiration for them nor ask for 
 them, only examining the workmanship. They 
 did the same with the mirrors; suddenly looking 
 at them, they refused them laughing. They are 
 very liberal, so much so that all which they 
 have they give away. We formed a great friend- 
 ship with them, and one day, before we had 
 ente''ed with the ship in the port, remaining on 
 account of the unfavorable weather conditions 
 anchored a league at sea, they came in great num- 
 bers in their little barges to the ship, having 
 painted and decked the face with various colors, 
 showing to us it was evidence of good feeling, 
 bringing to us of their food, signaling to us where 
 for the safety of the ship we ought anchor in 
 the port, continually accompanying us until we 
 cast anchor there." 
 
 Fifteen days among the indigenes of "Refu- 
 gio." — "In which we remained XV days, supplying 
 ourselves with many necessities; where every day 
 the people came to see us at the ship, bringing 
 their women, of whom they are very careful ; 
 because, entering the ship themselves, remaining a 
 long time, they made their women stay in the 
 barges, and however many entreaties we made 
 them, offering to give them various things, it was 
 not possible that they would allow them to enter 
 the ship. And one of the two Kings (Note — 
 When Roger Williams went to this same country 
 over a century later he found that they had two 
 chief kings or sachems, Canonicus and Mianto- 
 nomo) coming many times with the Queen and 
 many attendants through their desire to see us, 
 at first always stopped on a land distant from 
 us two hundred paces, sending a boat to inform 
 us of their coming, saying they wished to come 
 to see the ship ; doing this for a kind of safety. 
 \nA when they had the response from us, they 
 came quickly, and having stood awhile to look, 
 hearing the noisy clamor of the sailor crowd, sent 
 the Queen with her damsels in a very light barge 
 to stay on a little island distant from us a quarter 
 of a league ; himself remaining a very long time, 
 discoursing by signs and gestures of various fanci- 
 ful ideas, examining all the equipments of the 
 ship, asking especially their purpose, imitating 
 
 274
 
 AMERICA, 1524 
 
 Discovery 
 of Peru 
 
 AMERICA, 1524-1528 
 
 our manners, tasting our foods, then parted from 
 us benignantly. And one time, our people re- 
 maining two or three days on a httle island near 
 the ship for various necessities as is the custom 
 of sailors, he came with seven or eight of his 
 attendants, watching our operations, asking many 
 times if we wished to remain there for a long 
 time, offering us his every help. Then, shooting 
 with the bow, running, he performed with his at- 
 tendants various games to give us pleasure. . . ." 
 [Here follows a description of the land and the 
 products in the vicinity of Newport. This is 
 followed by a description of the coasts of Cape Cod 
 and those to the north of that cape. Then follows 
 a description of the Indians living along those 
 coasts.] 
 
 The return. — "We departed, skirting the coast 
 between east and north. . . . [Here follows 
 a description of a coast with many islands, prob- 
 ably the coast of Maine.] Navigating between 
 east-south-east and north-north-east, in the space 
 of CL leagues we came near the land which the 
 Britons found in the past, which stands in fifty 
 degrees, and having consumed all our naval stores 
 and victuals, having discovered six hundred leagues 
 and more of new land, furnishing ourselves with 
 water and wood, we decided to turn toward 
 France. . . ." 
 
 Object of the voyage. — "My intention was in 
 this navigation to reach Cathay and the 
 extreme east of Asia, not expecting to find 
 such an obstacle of new land as I found ; and if 
 for some reason I expected to find it, I thought 
 it to be not without some strait to penetrate to 
 the Eastern Ocean. And this has been the opin- 
 ion of all the ancients, believing certainly our 
 Western Ocean to be one with the Eastern Ocean 
 of India without interposition of land. This 
 Aristotle affirms, arguing by many similitudes, 
 which opinion is very contrary to the moderns 
 and according to experience untrue. Because the 
 land has been found by them unknown to the 
 ancients, another world with respect to the one 
 which was known to them, it manifestly shows 
 itself to be larger than our Europe and Africa and 
 almost Asia, if we estimate correctly its size; 
 as briefly I will give Your Majesty a little ac- 
 count of it." 
 
 New lands form a great continent. — [Here 
 are put some more mathematical calculations.] 
 "On the other hand, we, in this navigation 
 made by order of Your Majesty beyond Q2 
 degrees, etc., from said meridian toward the west 
 to the land we first found in 34 degrees'^, (Note a 
 — land near Temistitan) navigated 300 leagues 
 between east and north and almost 400 leagues 
 to the east uninterruptedly along the shore of the 
 land, attaining to 54 degrees, leaving the land that 
 the Lusitanians'' (Note b — that is, Bacalaia, so 
 called from a fish) found a long time ago, which 
 they followed farther north as far as the Arctic 
 circle leaving the end unknown. Therefore the 
 northern latitude joined with the southern, that is, 
 54 degrees with 66 degrees, make 120 degrees, more 
 latitude than Africa and Europe contain, because 
 joining the extremity of Europe which the limits 
 of Norway form [and] which stand in 71 degrees 
 with the extremity of Africa, which is the Promon- 
 tory of Good Hope in 35 degrees, makes only 106 
 degrees, and if the terrestrial area of said land 
 corresponds in extent to the seashore, there is no 
 doubt it exceeds Asia in size. ... In such way 
 we find the globe of the Earth much larger than 
 the ancients have held and contrary to the Mathe- 
 maticians who have considered that relatively to 
 the water it [the land] was smaller, which we 
 
 have found by experience to be the reverse. And 
 as for the corporeal area of space, we judge there 
 cannot be less land than water, as I hope on a 
 better occasion by further reasoning to make 
 clear and proven to Your Majesty." 
 
 New World is isolated. — "All this land or 
 New World which above I have described is con- 
 nected together, not adjoining Asia nor Africa 
 (which I know to a certainty) ; it may join Europe 
 by Norway and Russia ; which would be false ac- 
 cording to the ancients, who declare almost all the 
 north from the promontory of the Cimbri to 
 have been navigated to the east, going around as 
 far as the Caspian Sea itself they affirm. It would 
 therefore remain included between two seas, be- 
 tween the Eastern and the Western, and that, ac- 
 cordingly (secondo), shuts off one from the other; 
 because beyond 54 degrees from the equator to- 
 ward the south it [the new land] extends toward 
 the east for a long distance, and from the north 
 passing 66 degrees it continues, turning toward 
 the east, reaching as far as 70 degrees. I hope we 
 shall have better assurance of this, with the aid 
 of Your Majesty, whom God Almighty prosper in 
 everlasting glory, that we may see the perfect 
 end of this our cosmography, and that the sacred 
 word of the evangelist may be accomplished: 
 'Their sound has gone out into all the earth,' etc.— 
 In the ship Dauphine, VIII of July, M. D. XXIIII. 
 Humble servant, Janus Verazanus." 
 
 Also in: G. Dexter, Corlereal, Verrazano, etc. 
 (Narrative and Critical History of America, v. 4, 
 cli. i), — Relation of Verrazano (New York His- 
 torical Society Collection, v. i, and new series, v. 
 I). — J. C. Brevoort, Verrazano the Navigator. — 
 B. Suite, Verrazano et Cartier, Society geograph- 
 ique Quebec Bulletin V, No. 6, Nov., 378-381. — J. 
 Fiske, Dutch and Quaker colonies I, 58. — H. C. 
 Murphy, Voyage of Verrazano. Good discussions 
 of the Verrazano question are those of Hughes 
 in the Raccolta Columbiana and Harrisse in the 
 Discovery of North America. 
 
 1524-1528. — Explorations of Pizarro and dis- 
 covery of Peru. — "The South Sea having been 
 discovered, and the inhabitants of Tierra Firraa 
 having been conquered and pacified, the Governor 
 Pedrarias de Avila founded and settled the cities 
 of Panama and of Nata, and the town of Nom- 
 bre de Dios. At this time the Captain Francisco 
 Pizarro, son of the Captain Gonzalo Pizarro, a 
 knight of the city of Truxillo, was living in the 
 city of Panama; possessing his house, his farm 
 and his Indians, as one of the principal people of 
 the land, which indeed he always was, having 
 distinguished himself in the conquest and settling, 
 and in the service of his Majesty. Being at rest 
 and in repose, but full of zeal to continue his 
 labours and to perform other more distinguished 
 services for the royal crown, he sought permis- 
 sion from Pedrarias to discover that coast of the 
 South Sea to the eastward. He spent a large part 
 of his fortune on a good ship which he built, and 
 on necessary supplies for the voyage, and he set 
 out from the city of Panama on the 14th day of 
 the month of November, in the year 1.S24. He 
 had 112 Spaniards in his company, besides some 
 Indian servants. He commenced a voyage in 
 which they suffered many hardships, the season 
 being winter and unpropitious." From this un- 
 successful voyage, during which many of his men 
 died of hunger and disease, and in the course of 
 which he found no country that tempted his 
 cupidity or his ambition, Pizarro returned after 
 some months to "the land of Panama, landing at 
 an Indian village near the island of Pearls, called 
 Chuchama. Thence he sent the ship to Panama, 
 
 275
 
 AMERICA, 1524-1528 
 
 European 
 Rivalry 
 
 AMERICA, 1528-1648 
 
 for she had become unseaworthy by reason of the 
 teredo; and all that had befallen was reported to 
 Pedrarias, while the Captain remained behind to 
 refresh himself and his companions. When the 
 ship arrived at Panama it was found that, a few 
 days before, the Captain Diego de Almagro had 
 sailed in search of the Captain Pizarro, his com- 
 panion, with another ship and 70 men." Almagro 
 and his party followed the coast until they came 
 to a great river, which they called San Juan [a 
 few miles north of the port of Buenaventura, in 
 New Granada]. . . . They there found signs of 
 gold, but there being no traces of the Captain 
 Pizarro, the Captain Almagro returned to Chu- 
 chama, where he found his comrade. They agreed 
 that the Captain Almagro should go to Panama, 
 repair the ships, collect more men to continue the 
 enterprise, and defray the expenses, which 
 amounted to more than 10,000 castellanos. At 
 Panama much obstruction was caused by Pedrarias 
 and others, who said that the voyage should not 
 be persisted in, and that his Majesty would not 
 be served by it. The Captain .Almagro, with 
 the authority given him by his comrade, was very 
 constant in prosecuting the work he had com- 
 menced, and . . . Pedrarias was forced to allow 
 him to engage men. He set out from Panama 
 with no men; and went to the place where 
 Pizarro waited with another 50 of the first no 
 who sailed with him, and of the 70 who accom- 
 panied Almagro when he went in search. The 
 other 130 were dead. The two captains, in their 
 two ships, sailed with 160 men, and coasted along 
 the land. When they thought they saw signs of 
 habitations, they went on shore in three canoes 
 they had with them, rowed by 60 men, and so 
 they sought for provisions. They conlinued to 
 sail in this way for three years, suffering great 
 hardships from hunger and cold. The greater 
 part of the crews died of hunger, insomuch that 
 there were not 50 surviving, and during all those 
 three years they discovered no good land. All was 
 swamp and inundated country, without inhabitants. 
 The good country they discovered was as far as 
 the river San Juan, where the Captain Pizarro 
 remained with the few survivors, sending a cap- 
 tain with the smaller ship to discover some good 
 land further along the coast. He sent the other 
 ship, with the Captain Diego de Almagro to 
 Panama to get more men." At the end of 70 days, 
 the exploring ship came back with good reports, 
 and with specimens of gold, silver and cloths, 
 found in a country further south. "As soon as the 
 Captain Almagro arrived from Panama with a 
 ship laden with men and horses, the two .ships, 
 with their commanders and all their people, set 
 out from the river San Juan, to -go to that newly- 
 discovered land. But the navigation was difficult; 
 they were detained so long that the provisions 
 were exhausted, and the people were obliged to 
 go on shore in search of supplies. The ships 
 reached the bay of San Mateo, and some villages 
 to which the Spaniards gave the name of Santiago. 
 Next they came to the villages of Tacamez fAta- 
 cames, on the coast of modern Ecuador], on 
 the sea coast further oi\. These villages were 
 seen by the Christians to be large and well peo- 
 pled: and when 00 Spaniards had advanced a 
 league beyond the villages of Tacamez, more than 
 10,000 Indian warriors encountered them ; but see- 
 ing that the Christians intended no evil, and did 
 not wish to take their goods, but rather to treat 
 them peacefully, with much love, the Indians 
 desisted from war. In this land there were abun- 
 dant supplies, and the people led well-ordered 
 lives, the villages having their streets and squares. 
 
 One village had more than 3,000 houses, and 
 others were smaller. It seemed to the captains 
 and to the other Spaniaids that nothing could 
 be done in that land by reason of the smallness of 
 their numbers, which rendered them unable to cope 
 with the Indians. So they agreed to load the 
 ships with the supplies to be found in the villages, 
 and to return to an island called Gallo, where 
 they would be safe until the ships arrived at 
 Panama with the news of w-hat had been dis- 
 covered, and to apply to the Governor for more 
 men, in order that the Captains might be able to 
 continue their undertaking, and conquer the land. 
 Captain .•\lmagro went in the ships. Many per- 
 sons had written to the Governor entreating him 
 to order the crews to return to Panama, saying that 
 it was impossible to endure more hardships than 
 they had suffered during the last three years. 
 The Governor ordered that all those who wished 
 to go to Panama might do so, while those who 
 desired to continue the discoveries were at liberty 
 to remain. Sixteen men stayed with Pizarro, and 
 all the rest went back in the ships to Panama. 
 The Captain Pizarro was on that island for five 
 months, when one of the ships returned, in which 
 he continued the discoveries for a hundred leagues 
 further down the coast. They found many vil- 
 lages and great riches; and they brought away 
 more specimens of gold, silver, and cloths than 
 had been found before, which were presented by 
 the natives. The Captain returned because the 
 time granted by the governor had expired, and the 
 last day of the period had been reached when he 
 entered the port of Panama. The two Captains 
 were so ruined that they could no longer prose- 
 cute their undertaking. . . . The Captain Fran- 
 cisco Pizarro was only able to borrow a little more 
 than 1,000 castellanos among his friends, with 
 which sum he went to Castile, and gave an ac- 
 count to his Majesty of the great and signal 
 services he had performed." — F. de Xeres (Secre- 
 tary of Pizarro), Account of the province of 
 Cuzco; tr. and ed. by C. R. Markham (Hakluyt 
 society, 1872). 
 
 Also in: W. H. Prescott, History of the 
 conquest of Peru, v. i, bk. 2, ch. 2-4. — J. H. 
 Campe, Francisco Pizarro, translated from the 
 German by P. Upton (Life stories for young 
 people) . 
 
 1525. — Voyage of Gomez. See Canada: The 
 name. 
 
 1526-1531. — Voyage of Sebastian Cabot and 
 attempted colonization of La Plata. See Para- 
 guay: 1515-1557- 
 
 1528-1542. — Florida expeditions of Narvaez 
 and Hernando de Soto. — Discovery of the Mis- 
 sissippi. See Florida: 1528-1542. 
 
 1528-1648. — America and European diplomacy, 
 to Treaty of MUnster. — "The history of the strug- 
 gle of the European nations for participation in 
 the profits of the American trade naturally falls 
 into three periods. In the first, France was the 
 most formidable opponent of the Spanish-Por 
 tuguese monopoly. Jean Ango and his pilots led 
 the attacking forces. This phase ended with the 
 treaty concluded between France and Spain at 
 Cateau-Cambresis in 15.^0. In the second period 
 England took the place of France as the principal 
 antagonist. Hawkins and Drake were the most 
 conspicuous foes of Spain. This epoch extended 
 to the treaty concluded between England and 
 Spain at London in 1604. In the third period 
 commercial maritime supremacy passed from Eng- 
 land to the LTnited Provinces. The Dutch West 
 India Co., organized within this epoch, played 
 a role similar in many respects to that of the 
 
 276
 
 AMERICA, 1528-1648 
 
 European 
 Rivalry 
 
 AMERICA, 1528-1648 
 
 French corsairs and English privateers; but in 
 addition posessed great administrative powers. 
 This period ended with the treaty concluded be- 
 tween the United Provinces and Spain at Miinster 
 in 1648. Jean Ango and his pilots, Hawkins and 
 Drake, and the Dutch West India Co., each at- 
 tacked the Spanish-Portuguese monopoly for the 
 sake of pecuniary gain ; each represented a syndi- 
 cate of capitalists, and had government support; 
 and the profits of each were derived partly from 
 trade and partly from booty. 
 
 "Throughout the first period, to 1559, France 
 and Portugal were at peace; while during a 
 part of the same interval France and Spain were 
 at war. As between France and Spain, Portugal 
 posed as neutral. This, however, clid not suft^ce 
 to protect her vast colonial trade and territory, 
 which she was unable to defend. Jean Ango, 
 like the directors of the Dutch West India Co., 
 'dreamed of an empire in Brazil.' But when his 
 pilots reached Brazilian waters they met the crud- 
 est of receptions ; and their sufferings caused them 
 to undertake reprisals. The complaints arising 
 from these reprisals, which Portugal, from 15 10 
 onward, repeatedly made to France, proved un- 
 availing and Portugal endeavored to frighten off 
 the intruders. In 1526 the King of Portugal or- 
 dered his subjects under pain of death to run 
 down all French vessels going to or returning from 
 these distant territories. This and other instances 
 of harshness on the part of Portugal and also of 
 Spain toward interlopers were defended chiefly 
 on the ground that thci intruders were pirates, and 
 that treaties provided that pirates should be put 
 to death. On this pretext Charles V refused for 
 a time to send back to France the companions 
 of Fleury (the captor of Montezuma's treasure), 
 although the treaty of Cambray had provided for 
 the mutual return of all prisoners of war. For 
 the same reason Philip II refused to deliver over 
 the survivors of the Florida massacre, although 
 the French ambassador protested that their enter- 
 prise was authorized by the Admiral of France. 
 Under this name Hawkins, returning to England 
 after a peaceful trading voyage, was denounced 
 by the Spanish ambassador. Other instances might 
 be cited. But whatever the excuse for Portugal's 
 treatment of French corsairs, France could not 
 tamely accept it. In 1528 Francis I affirmed the 
 principle of freedom of trade 'as of all rights one 
 of the most natural.' Following a practice then 
 in use, he granted to Ango and to one of his 
 associates letters of marque, giving them the right 
 to reimburse themselves for the losses which they 
 had suffered from the Portuguese. General letters 
 of marque were also issued enjoining the French 
 admirals to permit all their captains, wherever 
 they should be, to run down the Portuguese, seize 
 their persons, goods, or merchandise and bring 
 them to France. In 1531 the King of Portugal 
 complained that the French had captured 300 of 
 his ships. Unable to defend himself by force, he 
 employed gold, and by bribing the French admiral 
 managed to have Ango's letters of marque revoked. 
 In obtaining this revocation he v/as also helped 
 by the intervention of the Emperor, Charles V, 
 who in the matter of defending the oversea trade 
 identified the interests of Portugal with his own. 
 The reasons for this identification is not far to 
 seek — the Portuguese Islands of Madeira and the 
 Azores were situated on or near the routes of 
 ocean commerce. The Spanish fleets returning 
 from America put in at the Azores, hence Spain 
 must always keep on the best terms with Portu- 
 gal. Hence, also, the Emperor's displeasure when 
 *in 1536 Portugal concluded a treaty with France 
 
 which permitted the French to bring their prizes 
 — i. e., Spanish ships — into all Portuguese havens 
 and had the effect of making the harbors of the 
 Azores and Madeira as well as of Portugal lurk- 
 ing places from which the French preyed upon the 
 ocean shipping of Spain. In return Francis I 
 forbade his subjects to sail to Brazil and Guinea; 
 but when a few years later Portugal's bribery of 
 the French admiral was discovered this prohibi- 
 tion was revoked. The activities of Ango's cap- 
 tains were directed not only against their Portu- 
 guese friends but also against their Spanish ene- 
 mies. The sensational capture made by one of 
 them of a part of Montezuma's treasure has al- 
 ready been referred to. In 1523 and 1525 the 
 Cortes of Castile complained of the frequent and 
 intolerable depredations committed by the French 
 at sea, and their feeling appears to be reflected in 
 the treaty of Madrid in 1526. The question of 
 admitting the French to the American trade seems 
 to have been discussed in the negotiations for the 
 Franco-Spanish truce of 1538, as it certainly was 
 in connection with the treaty of 1544. In 1544 
 the Emperor had been greatly disturbed by Car- 
 tier's plan to colonize in Canada. Despairing of 
 keeping the French altogether away from the new 
 world, Charles V was willing to come to terms 
 with them. An article signed by the French com- 
 missioners in 1544 contained the following stipula- 
 tion: That the King of France, his successors and 
 subjects, would leave the Emperor and the King 
 of Portugal at peace in all that concerned the 
 East and West Indies and would not attempt any 
 discoveries or other enterprises there. French sub- 
 jects might, for purposes of trade only, go to both 
 the East and the West Indies, but if they com- 
 mitted any acts of violence in going or returning 
 they should be punished. This article was appar- 
 ently acceptable to the Emperor and Prince Philip 
 and to the president of the Council of the Indies. 
 Other councilors believed that the permission to 
 trade would lead to further trouble, because the 
 French would not conduct it in accordance with 
 regulations. The Council of the Indies urged that 
 in this as in former treaties matters pertaining to 
 the Indies should not be mentioned at all. If, 
 however, the French were permitted to trade they 
 should be held to the laws prohibiting the removal 
 of gold and silver from territory subject to Cas- 
 tile, even in exchange for merchandise, and their 
 homeward-bound ships should be obliged to ti^uch 
 at Cadiz or San Lucar. The King of Portugal 
 also objected to the article, declaring that the 
 French went in armed ships not only for the pur- 
 pose of trading but in order to rob with more 
 security. The article seems never to have been 
 ratified. In the truce between France and Spain 
 concluded in 1556 it was agreed that during the 
 period of the truce the French should not sail to 
 or trade in the Spanish Indies without license from 
 the King of Spain. In a few months the truce was 
 violated. The Venetian ambassador ascribed the 
 rupture partly to the sending of French ships to 
 the Indies 'to occupy some place and hinder the 
 navigation.' The reference is to Villegagnon's 
 colony in Brazil, which seemed a danger to Spain 
 as well as to Portugal. In the negotiations for 
 the treaty of Cateau-Cambresis, in 1550, the right 
 of the French to go to the Spanish Indies was dis- 
 cussed repeatedly and at length. [See also France; 
 1547-1550.1 The Spanish commissioners urged that 
 Villegagnon .should be recalled. They based their 
 claim to a monopoly of the western navigation on 
 the bulls of Popes Alexander VI and Julius II, 
 and on the fact that Spain alone had borne the 
 labor and expense of discovery. The French depu- 
 
 277
 
 AMERICA, 1528-1648 
 
 European 
 Rivalry 
 
 AMERICA, 1528-1648 
 
 ties argued that the sea was common. They would 
 not consent to exclude Frenchmen from places dis- 
 covered by them and not actually subject to the 
 Kings of Portugal or Castile. On the other land, 
 they would agree that the French should keep away 
 from lands actually possessed by the aforesaid 
 sovereigns ; or, as an alternative, that the Indies 
 should not be mentioned, and if Frenchmen were 
 found doing what they should not there, they 
 might be chastised. King Philip did not approve 
 of the former alternative. The Indies were there- 
 fore not mentioned in the treaty, but an oral 
 agreement was made, the precise wording of which 
 is not known. . From accounts in Spanish and 
 French documents it appears that it was to the 
 effect that Spaniards and Frenchmen encountering 
 one another west of the prime meridian might 
 treat each other as enemies, without thereby giv- 
 ing ground for complaint of the violation of exist- 
 ing treaties. The location of the prime meridian 
 remained a matter of dispute. In 1634 the King 
 of France placed it at the island of Ferro, in the 
 Canaries. Richelieu stated that Spain preferred 
 to locate it farther west, in the Azores, because 
 ships captured west of the prime meridian must 
 be declared good prize. The rule that might 
 would be the only right recognized between na- 
 tions west of the prime meridian was the one 
 permanent result of Spanish-French diplomacy re- 
 garding America up to 1559, or indeed up to 1648. 
 In the treaty of Vervins, in 1508, no better ar- 
 rangement could be agreed on. [See also France: 
 1593-1508.] 
 
 "During the wars of religion in France the mari- 
 time strength of that nation fell to its lowest 
 ebb. Leadership in maritime affairs, and hence in 
 the effort to force an entrance into the American 
 trade, passed to England — the second great an- 
 tagonist of the Portuguese-Spanish monopoly. In 
 1553 3 joint-stock company was founded in Lon- 
 don for the Guinea trade. This intrusion of the 
 English into regions claimed by Portugal led to 
 repeated complaints by the ambassador of Portu- 
 gal, who was supported by the ambassador of 
 Spain. Important negotiations relative to the com- 
 merce with Portuguese colonies were in progress 
 in 1555, 1561, 1562, and from 1569 to 1576. The 
 treaty signed in 1576 permitted the English to 
 trade in Madeira and the Azores, but did not men- 
 tion Barbary, Guinea, or Brazil. Between 1562 
 and 1568 Hawkins made three slave-trading voy- 
 ages to the West Indies. Subsequently English 
 privateers played havoc with Spanish shipping 
 there, and in 1580 Drake returned from his voyage 
 around the globe with treasure e-timated at a mil- 
 lion and a half sterling. The Spanish ambassador 
 in London wrote that Drake was preparing for 
 another voyage and that everybody wanted to 
 have a share in the expedition. He therefore con- 
 sidered it in the King of Spain's interest that or- 
 ders be given that no foreign sh-'p should be 
 spared in either the Spanish or the Portuguese In- 
 dies, but that every one should be sent to the bot- 
 tom. War followed in a few years. Peace nego- 
 tiations took place in 1588, 1600, and 1604. The 
 negotiations of 1588 were insincere, at least on 
 the part of Spain, in whose ports the Armada was 
 preparing. But they have an interest as indicating 
 England's attitude. Of her two main grievances 
 against Spain, one was the restrictions imposed by 
 Spain upon English trade to the newly discovered 
 lands. The instructions issued to Elizabeth's com- 
 missioners also, in so far as they relate to the 
 West Indies, are of interest. For they indicate 
 that England based her claim to trade in the Indies 
 lipon the ancient treaties concluded between 
 
 Charles V and Henry VIII providing for reciprocal 
 
 trade in all of her dominions. On this ground, in 
 1566, Cecil asserted a right to the Indian trade, 
 and the claim seems to explain Philip II's reluc- 
 tance to renew these treaties. The Spanish view 
 was that the Indies were a new world, to which 
 treaties between European powers did not apply 
 unless the Indies were indubitably referring to 
 them. 
 
 "Not until after the death of Elizabeth could 
 peace be made. After the accession of King James 
 negotiations were again undertaken. Concerning 
 trade to the East and West Indies an arrangement 
 was then effected, though no real agreement was 
 reached. The instructions of the English commis- 
 sioners in this matter were identical with those for 
 the negotiations of 1600. They sanctioned only 
 one concession, that Englishmen should be pro- 
 hibited from going to any places in the Indies 
 where the Spaniards were actually 'planted' — a 
 principle embodied in the charter granted to the 
 English East India Co. on December 31, 1600. It 
 was rejected by the Spaniards, who insisted that 
 the English should be excluded from every part 
 of the Indies, either expressly or by clear impli- 
 cation; or else that the King of England should 
 declare in writing that his subjects would trade in 
 the Indies at their own peril. These demands the 
 English refused. Cecil and Northampton alleged 
 that an express prohibition to trade would wrong 
 James's honor since Spain had not put it in the 
 treaties made with France and other princes. Af- 
 ter much debate it was resolved that intercourse 
 should be permitted in those places 'in which there 
 was commerce before the war, according to the 
 observance and use of former treaties.' These 
 words were differently interpreted by each party. 
 Soon after the conclusion of the treaty Cecil wrote 
 to the English Ambassador in France: 'If it be 
 well observed how the (ninth) article is couched, 
 you shall rather find it a pregnant affirmative for 
 us than against us; for, sir, where it is written 
 that we shall trade in all his dominions, that com- 
 prehends the Indies; if you will say, secundum 
 tractatus antiquos, no treaty excluded it.' When 
 the Venetian ambassador wished to hear from his 
 majesty's own lips how he read the clause about 
 the India navigation, and said, 'Sire, your sub- 
 jects may trade with Spain and Flanders, but not 
 with the Indies.' 'What for no?' said the king. 
 'Because,' I replied, 'the clause is read in that 
 sense.' 'They are making a great error whoever 
 they are who hold this view,' said His Majesty; 
 'the meaning is quite clear.' The Spaniards, on the 
 other hand, resolutely affirmed that the terms of 
 the peace excluded the English from the Indies. 
 However, as was remarked in the instructions, 
 Spain was not able to bar out the English by 
 force, and the latter not only continued their 
 trade in the East, but in spite of Spanish opposi- 
 tion proceeded to colonize Virginia under a char- 
 ter which allotted to the grantees a portion of 
 America 'not actually possessed by any Christian 
 prince.' The memorable year of 1580, which saw 
 Drake's return to England, witnessed also Spain's 
 annexation of Portugal's vast empire and trade. 
 The threat of Spnin's sudden aggrandizement 
 brought France and England together; and toward 
 the close of the century the United Provinces 
 ioined the alliance against the common enemy. 
 Several treaties pro-ided for joint naval opera- 
 tions by England and the United Provinces against 
 Spain. Early in the seventeenth century the Dutch 
 outstripped Spain in the rare for commercial su- 
 premacy The Dutch East India Co., founded in 
 1602, undermined the power of the Portuguese iif 
 
 278
 
 AMERICA, 1528-1648 
 
 Treaty of 
 Miinster 
 
 AMERICA, 1528-1648 
 
 the East; and in Guiana, Brazil, Guinea, Cuba, and 
 Hispaniola, the Dutch were also prosecuting an 
 active trade. In 1607 peace negotiations between 
 Spain and the United Provinces began. The hope 
 of expelling the Dutch from the forbidden regions 
 was believed by many to be the principal motive 
 that induced Spain to treat. Another reason was 
 the project of a Dutch West India Co. 'that should 
 with a strong fleet carry at once both war and 
 merchandize into America.' During the protracted 
 negotiations one of the main points of dispute was 
 the India trade. Both sides regarded the question 
 as vital. The States brought forward three al- 
 ternative means of accommodation ; peace, with 
 free trade to those parts of the Indies not actually 
 possessed by Spain; peace in Europe, and a truce 
 in the Indies for a term of years with permission 
 to trade during that period; trade to the Indies 
 'at their peril' after the example of the French 
 and English. The Catholic deputies totally re- 
 jected the first and third propositions, but would 
 submit the second to Spain if it were acceptably 
 modilied. They wished the States to declare ex- 
 pressly that they would abstain from going to the 
 West Indies, and that in the East Indies they 
 would not visit the places held by the Portuguese. 
 The Dutch, who meanwhile had tried to frighten 
 their opponents by showing a renewed interest in 
 the West India Co., finally drafted what was 
 deemed an acceptable article, but Spain insisted on 
 their prompt withdrawal from both the East and 
 West Ind'es as one of the two indispensable con- 
 ditions for her recognition of their independence. 
 Peace was unattainable, and negotiations were 
 broken off. The French ambassador, however, 
 persuaded the States to revive negotiations for a 
 truce and to employ the French and English am- 
 bassadors as intermediaries. The principal point 
 of difficulty was the India trade. The French am- 
 bassador labored for the end desired by the Dutch 
 not because France wished to strengthen them un- 
 duly but because she was unwiUing to restore 
 Spain to her former power or to play into the 
 hands of the English, who were believed to desire 
 the trade for themselves. An article was finally 
 agreed on which was a concession of the India 
 trade veiled by circumlocutions. Traffic was per- 
 mitted in Spain's European lands and in any other 
 of her possessions where her allies were permitted 
 to trade. Outside these limits (i. e., in the Indies) 
 subjects of the States could not traffic without ex- 
 press permission from the King in places held by 
 Spain, but in places not thus held they might trade 
 upon permission of the natives without hindrance 
 from the King or his officers. The agreement that 
 Spain would not hinder the subjects of the States 
 in their trade 'outside the limits' was also strength- 
 ened by a special and secret treaty in which the 
 name Indies was again avoided. The name, how- 
 ever, appeared in an act signed by the French 
 and English ambassadors, which certified that the 
 archdukes' deputies had agreed that, just as the 
 Dutch should not traffic in places held by the King 
 of Spain in the Indies v/ithout his permission, so 
 subjects of the King of Spain should not traffic 
 in places held by the States in the Indies with- 
 out their permission. In 162 1 the truce of 1609 
 expired and Spain declared war on the United 
 Netherlands. Between 162 1 and 1625 the Dutch 
 negotiated with Denmark, France, and England 
 to secure their alliance against Spain. The States 
 General earnestly desired that these nations should 
 cooperate with the Dutch West India Co., char- 
 tered by the States in 162 1 for the purpose of at- 
 tacking Spain's American possessions and treasure 
 fleets as well as for trade, but the Danes and 
 
 French preferred rather to share in the East India 
 commerce. In 1621 the Dutch and Danish com- 
 missioners signed an agreement that in their jour- 
 neys, trade, and nav'^ition in the East and West 
 Indies, Africa, and Terra Australis subjects 01 
 either party should befriend subjects of the other. 
 The treaty between the Dutch and French merely 
 stipulated that the question of traffic to the East 
 and West Indies should be treated later by the 
 French ambassador. The offensive alliance with 
 England in 1625 enjoined attacks by both parties 
 on Spain's dominions on both sides of the line and 
 especially on the treasure fleets, and one of the 
 results of this treaty was the opening of trade 
 between the Dutch and the English colonists in 
 North America. [See also Commerce: Medieval: 
 8th-i6th (Centuries.] During the 20 years following 
 162 T there were repeated negotiations for peace 
 between the United Provinces and Spain. The 
 most important took place in 1632 and 1633. They 
 failed chiefly because no agreement could be 
 reached on colonial matters, particularly those in 
 which the Dutch West India Co. was involved. 
 Since this company had captured the port of 
 Pemambuco, in Brazil, it looked forward to a 
 rapid extension of its authority and trade in this 
 region and to profits from raids undertaken thence 
 against the Spanish treasure fleets, the West India 
 Islands, and Central America, Having acquired a 
 great fleet equipped for war, it opposed any peace 
 or truce with Spain that should extend beyond the 
 Line, unless, indeed, Spain would permit the Dutch 
 to trade in both Indies. Since Spain refused these 
 demands, negotiations ended fruitlessly. 
 
 "The negotiations at Miinster from 1646 to 1648 
 were carried on under widely different circum- 
 stances from those of 1632, 1633, just mentioned. 
 In 1646 peace was essential to the Spanish Govern- 
 ment, exhausted by its efforts against domestic and 
 foreign foes. Moreover, the chief obstacle to peace 
 had been removed by her loss of Brazil and other 
 Portuguese colonies. On the other hand, the Dutch 
 East and West India companies would willingly 
 have continued the war. The West India Co. con- 
 sidered that if the two companies should be united 
 it would be more profitable to continue hostilities 
 in both Indies anci Africa than to conclude any 
 peace or truce with Spain. In case of a peace or 
 truce the company desired freedom to trade in all 
 places within the limits of its charter where the 
 King of Spain had no castles, jurisdiction, or ter- 
 ritory, and it further sought the exclusion of Span- 
 iards from trade in all places similarly held by the 
 company unless like privileges were granted to the 
 company in places under the dominion of Spain. 
 These stipulations were practically those agreed 
 to in the truce of 1600. Somewhat modified they 
 were finally included in the treaty of Miinster, a 
 treaty in which for the first time Spain granted 
 to another nation, as a permanent concession, in 
 clear and explicit terms, and with mention of the 
 Indies, the right to sail to, trade, and acquire ter- 
 ritory in America. By treaties concluded in 1641 
 and 1642, Portugal, newly liberated from Spain, 
 had legalized the trade which the Dutch and Eng- 
 lish had previously established with the African 
 coast, and recognized Dutch possession of a part 
 of Brazil. Thus, in the fifth decade of the sev- 
 enteenth century, the two Iberian powers, then 
 bitterly estranged from each other, were both com- 
 pelled to concede to certain European nations the 
 right to occupation and trade in those oversea 
 lands from which, since the period of discovery, 
 they had endeavored to exclude them. But, as old 
 walls were breached, new ones were erected. The 
 Dutch, English, and French, having acquired much 
 
 279
 
 AMERICA, 1531-154b 
 
 Explorations 
 by Cartier 
 
 AMERICA, 1534-1535 
 
 oversea territory and commerce, each tried to use 
 them for the exclusive profit of their respective 
 peoples, or even oi certain of their own trading 
 companies. Hence in 1648 the ideal of free ocean 
 commerce and navigation, conceived long before 
 by Grotius, remained unrealized." — F. G. Daven- 
 port, American and European diplomacy to i64S 
 (Annual Report American Historical Association, 
 J915, pp. i53> 161). 
 
 1531-1548. — Pizarro's conquest of Peru. See 
 Peru: i5:'S-i53i; 1531-1533; and 1533-1548. 
 
 1531-1641.— Republic of St. Paul in jrazU. — 
 Jesuits. — Mamelukes in Brazil. See Brazil: 1531- 
 1041. 
 
 1533. — Spanish conquest of the kingdom of 
 Ouito. See Ecuador: Aboriginal kingdom of 
 Quito. . 
 
 1534-1535. — Exploration of the St. Lawrence 
 to Montreal by Cartier. — ".At last, ten years after 
 [the voyages of \'errazano], Philip Chabot, Ad- 
 miral of France, induced the king [Francis I.] to 
 resume the project of founding a French colony 
 in the New World whence the Spaniards daily 
 drew such great wealth ; and he presented to him 
 a Captain of St. Malo, by name Jacques Cartier, 
 whose merit he knew, and whom that prince ac- 
 cepted. Cartier having received his instructions, 
 left St. Malo the 2d of .April, 1534, with two ships 
 of 60 tons and 122 men. He steered west, inclin- 
 ing slightly north, and had such fair winds that, 
 on the loth of May, he made Cape Bonavista, in 
 Newfoundland, at 46" north. Cartier found the 
 land there still covered with snow, and the shore 
 fringed with ice, so that he could not or dared not 
 stop. He ran down si.x degrees south-southeast, 
 and entered a port to which he gave the name of 
 St. Catharine. Thence he turned back north. . . . 
 After making almost the circuit of Newfoundland, 
 though without being able to satisfy himself that 
 it was an island, he took a southerly course, 
 crossed the gulf, approached the continent, and 
 entered a very deep bay, where he suffered greatly 
 from heat, whence he called it Chaleurs Bay. He 
 was charmed with the beauty of the country, and 
 well pleased with the Indians that he met and 
 with whom he exchanged some goods for furs. . . . 
 On leaving this bay, Cartier visited a good part 
 of the coasts around the gulf, and took possession 
 of the country in the name of the most Christian 
 king, as \'erazani had done in all the places where 
 he landed. He set sail again on the isth of -Au- 
 gust to return to France, and reached St. Malo 
 safely on the 5th of September. ... On the report 
 which he made of his voyage, the court concluded 
 that it would be useful to France to have a set- 
 tlement in that part of America ; but no one took 
 this affair more to heart than the Vice-.Admiral 
 Charles de Mony, Sieur de la' Mailleraye. This 
 noble obtained a new commission for Cartier, more 
 ample than the first, and gave him three ships 
 well equipped. This fleet was ready about the 
 middle of May, and Cartier . . . embarked on 
 Wednesday the loth. His three vessels were sep- 
 arated by violent storms, but found one another, 
 near the close of July, in the gulf which was their 
 appointed place of rendezvous. 'On the ist of 
 -August bad weather drove him to take refuge 
 in the port of St. Nicholas, at the mouth of the 
 river on the north. Here Cartier planted a cross, 
 with the arms of France, and remained until the 
 7th This port is almost the only spot in Canada 
 that has kept the name given by Cartier. ... On 
 the loth the three vessels re-entered the gulf, and 
 in honor of the saint whose feast is celebrated on 
 that day, Cartier gave the gulf the name of St. 
 Lawrence; or rather he gave it to a bay lying 
 
 between Anticosti Island and the north shore, 
 whence it e-xtended to the whole gulf of which 
 this bay is part; and because the river, before that 
 called River of Canada, empties into the same 
 gulf, it insensibly acquired the name of St. Law- 
 rence, which it still bears. . . . The three vessels 
 . . . ascended the river, and on the ist of Septem- 
 ber they entered the river Saguenay. Cartier 
 merely reconnoitered the mouth of this river, and 
 . . . hastened to seek a port where his vessels 
 might winter in safety. Eight leagues above Isle 
 aux Coudres he found another much larger and 
 handsomer island, all covered with trees and vines. 
 He called it Bacchus Island, but the name has been 
 changed to Isle d'Orleans. The author of the re- 
 lation to this voyage, printed under the name of 
 Cartier, pretends that only here the country be- 
 gins to be called Canada. But he is surely mis- 
 taken ; for it is certain that from the earliest times 
 the Indians gave this name to the whole country 
 along the river on both sides, from its mouth to 
 the Saguenay. From Bacchus Island, Cartier pro- 
 ceeded to a little river which is ten leagues off, 
 and comes from the north; he called it Riviere de 
 Ste Croix, because he entered it on the 14th of 
 September (Feast of the Exaltation of the Holy 
 Cross) ; but it is now commonly called Riviere de 
 Jacques Cartier. The day after his arrival he re- 
 ceived a visit from an Indian chief named Donna- 
 cona, whom the author of the relation of that voy- 
 age styles Lord of Canada. Cartier treated with 
 this cliief by names of two Indians whom he had 
 taken to France the year before, and who knew a 
 little French. They informed Donnacona that the 
 strangers wished to go to Hochelaga, which seemed 
 to trouble him. Hochelaga was a pretty large 
 town, situated on an island now known under the 
 name of Island of Montreal. Cartier had heard 
 much of it, and was loth to return to France with- 
 out seeing it. The reason why this voyage troubled 
 Donnacona was that the people of Hochelaga were 
 of a different nation from his, and that he wished 
 to profit exclusively by the advantages which he 
 hoped to derive from the stay of the French in 
 his country.' Proceeding with one vessel to Lake 
 St. Pierre, and thence in two boats, Cartier reached 
 Hochelaga Oct. 2. 'The shape of the town was 
 round, and three rows of palisades inclosed in it 
 about so tunnel shaped cabins, each over 50 paces 
 long and 14 or 15 wide. It was entered by a 
 single gate, above which, as well as along the first 
 palisade, ran a kind of gallery, reached by lad- 
 ders, and well provided with pieces of rock and 
 pebbles for the defence of the place. The inhabi- 
 tants of the town spoke the Huron language. They 
 received the French very well. . . . Cartier visited 
 the mountain at the foot of which the town lay, 
 and gave it the name of Mont Royal, which has 
 become that of the whole Island [Montreal]. 
 From it he discovered a great extent of country, 
 the sight of which charmed him. ... He left 
 Hochelaga on the 5th of October, and on the nth 
 arrived at Sainte Croix.' Wintering at this place, 
 where his crews suffered terribly from the cold and 
 from scurvy, he returned to France the following 
 spring. 'Some authors . . . pretend that Cartier, 
 disgusted with Canada, dissuaded the king, his 
 master, from further thoughts of it; and Cham- 
 plain seems to have been of that opinion. But 
 this does not agree with what Cartier himself says 
 in his memoirs. . . . Cartier in vain extolled the 
 country w-hich he had discovered. His small re- 
 turns, and the wretched condition to which his 
 men had been reduced by cold and scurvy, per- 
 suaded most that it would never be of any use to 
 France. Great stress was laid on the fact that he 
 
 280
 
 AMERICA, 1535-1540 
 
 Coronado's 
 Expedition 
 
 AMERICA, 1540-1541 
 
 nowhere saw any appearance of mines; and then, 
 even more than now, a strange land which pro- 
 duced' 'neither gold nor silver was reckoned as 
 nothing.' " — Father Charlevoix, History oj New 
 France, bk. i. 
 
 Also in: R. Kerr, General collection of voyages, 
 pt. 2, bk. 2, cli. 12.— F. X. Garneau, History of 
 Canada, v. i, cli. 2.— H. P. Biggar, Precursors 
 of Jacques Cartier; Ottawa, Government printing 
 bureau 213 (Publication of the Canadian Archives 
 No. S). — H. B. Stephens, Jacques Cartier and his 
 four voyages to Canada (Gives modern English 
 translations). — J. Winsor, America, v. 4, pp. 62-68. 
 — J. Winsor, Cartier to Frontenac. — H. P. Biggar, 
 Early trading companies of New France. — For the 
 question of Cartier's route consult W. F. Ganong, 
 Royal Society of Canada's transactions, V., sect. 2, 
 p. 121, and Bishop Howley, Ibid., XII, sect. 2, 
 p. 151. — C. Channing, History of the United States, 
 V. I. — R. G. Thwaitcs, France in America. — B. Suite, 
 Vcrrazano et Cartier (Societe Geographique, Que- 
 bec, Bulletin 5, no. 6, Nov., pp. 37S-381). 
 
 1535-1540. — Introduction of printing in Mex- 
 ico. See Printing and the press: 1535-1709. 
 
 1535-1550. — Spanish conquests in Chile. See 
 Chile: 1535-1724- 
 
 1536-1538. — Spanish conquests of New Gra- 
 nada. See Colombia; 1536-1731. 
 
 1540-1541. — Coronado expedition. — "Its [De 
 Soto's expedition] only parallel is the contemporary 
 enterprise of Coronado, which did for the south- 
 west what De Soto did for the eastern and central 
 belt. If Cabeqa de V'aca's reports of the riches of 
 Florida spurred on De Soto and his followers in 
 Spain they were not less exciting in Mexico. 
 There the ground had been in a measure prepared 
 by the fusing of an Indian folk tale of seven caves 
 with the old geographical myth of the Seven 
 Cities; and the whole was made vivid by the 
 stories told by an Indian of a visit when a child 
 to these seven towns, which he compared to the 
 city of Mexico. It seemed advisable to Mendoza, 
 the viceroy of New Spain, to explore the region, 
 and he chose a Franciscan, Friar Marcos, of Nizza, 
 or Nice, who had been in Peru with Pizarro, and 
 in Mexico had had some missionary experience in 
 the frontier, to make a reconnoissance. He was 
 now instructed to make careful observations of 
 the country, its products and people, and to re- 
 port them in detail to Mendoza. The negro Ste- 
 phen, who had come with De Vaca, was given 
 to him to serve as a guide, and he was also at- 
 tended by some Christianized Pima Indians. Friar 
 Marcos left Culiacan in the western frontier of 
 Sinaloa a few weeks before De Soto landed in 
 Florida. Following the coast as far as the Yaqui, 
 he then went nearly due north, veering later 
 towards the east, until he came within sight of 
 the Zuni villages in western New Mexico. The 
 negro Stephen had gone on ahead with a retinue 
 of Indians, and Friar Marcos now learned that he 
 had been killed by the Indians of Cibola, the first 
 of the seven cities (which are now usually identi- 
 fied with the Zuni pueblos) . From a distant point 
 of view, the pueblo seemed to the friar in that 
 magnifying atmosphere as large as the city of 
 Mexico. The magic of the association with the 
 legend of the 'Seven Cities' reinforced the im- 
 pression made by the narrative of the friar, some 
 of whose exaggerated reports may have arisen 
 from imperfectly understanding his informants; 
 and elaborate preparations were at once made to 
 invade the new land of wonder, and to repeat, if 
 possible, the history of the conquest of Mexico. 
 The enterprise was placed in the charge of Fran- 
 cisco de Coronado, the recently appointed gov- 
 
 ernor of New Galicia, the northern frontier prov- 
 ince of New Spain, and a personal friend of Men- 
 doza. The vigor and energy ot Mendoza's gov- 
 ernment as well as the resources of New Spain at 
 that early date are strikingly displayed in the 
 preparations for what is perhaps the most elabo- 
 rate single enterprise of exploration in North .Amer- 
 ican history. The land force under Coronado num- 
 bered three hundred Spaniards and eight hundred 
 Indians, and was accompanied by a large number 
 of extra horses and droves of sheep and pigs. 
 There was in addition a sea force of two ships 
 under Hernando de Alarcon to cooperate with 
 Coronado by following the coast of the Gulf of 
 California and keeping in communication with the 
 army and carrying some of its baggage. Alarcon 
 discovered the mouth of the Colorado River, and 
 August 26, 1540, started to explore it with boats. 
 In the second of his two separate trips he ap- 
 parently got as far as the lower end of the canon, 
 about two hundred miles up, as he estimated it. 
 Coronado himself set out in February, 1540, march- 
 ing up the west coast of Mexico. At Culiacan he 
 left the main force and went ahead with about 
 fifty horsemen, some foot-soldiers, and most of the 
 Indian allies. Passing across the southwestern sec- 
 tion of .Arizona they verged to the eastward till 
 they came to Cibola, which was captured. Here 
 they were profoundly disappointed. However 
 plausible Friar Marcos's comparison of the distant 
 view of the pueblo with the city of Mexico may 
 be made to seem in our time, there is no doubt 
 that it completely misled the men of that day who 
 knew Mexico. Coronado now sent back Melchior 
 Diaz to order up the main force. Diaz did so, and 
 then set out to explore the region at the head of 
 the Gulf of California. He crossed the Colorado 
 River and penetrated the country to the west. 
 Another important side expedition during this sum- 
 mer was that of Pedro de Tovar to the province 
 of Tusayan, northwest of Cibola, which led to the 
 discovery of the Grand Cafion of the Colorado by 
 De Gardenas. As they looked into its depths it 
 seemed as 'if the water was six feet across, al- 
 though the Indians said it was half a league 
 wide.' They tried to get down to the stream, but 
 in vain. 'Those who stayed above had estimated 
 that some huge rocks on the sides of the cliffs 
 seemed to be about as tall as a man, but those 
 who went down swore that when they reached 
 these rocks they were bigger than the great tower 
 of Seville.' When the main army reached Cibola, 
 Coronado moved with it to about the middle of 
 New Mexico, where he went into winter quarters 
 at Tiguex, on the Rio Grande. Here the burden 
 of requisitions for supplies and individual acts of 
 outrage against the Indians of Tiguex provoked 
 them to an attack on the Spaniards, which was 
 successfully repelled. The cruelty of the reprisals 
 inflicted on the Indian prisoners exceeded anything 
 done by De Soto, and constitutes a dark stain on 
 the expedition. In the spring of 1541, Coronado 
 set out to reach Quivira, a town of which an In- 
 dian prisoner had given a glowing description. It 
 seems probable that the thirty-seven days' march 
 took them northeasterly, but constantly verging 
 to the right, across the plains until they reached 
 the borders of the [former] Oklahoma Territory. 
 A further advance with the main force now seemed 
 inadvisable ; but to verify, if possible, the stories 
 about Quivira, Coronado went on early in June 
 with thirty horsemen to the northeast. After a 
 ride of about six weeks the goal was reached, and 
 proved to be nothing more than a village of semi- 
 nomadic Indians in the centre of the present state 
 of Kansas. A few hundred miles to the southeast 
 
 281
 
 AMERICA, 1541 
 
 Voyages of 
 Hawkins 
 
 AMERICA, 1562-1567 
 
 De Soto at this same time was exploring Arkansas. 
 An Indian woman who had run away from Cor- 
 onado's army fell in with De Soto's nine days 
 later. Fertile as was the soil of the western pra- 
 ries, the region had nothing at that time adequate 
 to reward settlement so far inland; and Coronado 
 in the following spring returned to New Spain with 
 all his force save two missionaries and a few 
 others. The expedition, like De Soto's, failed of 
 its immediate object, but it revealed the character 
 of a large part of the southwest and of the trans- 
 Mississippi plains; and the branch expeditions had 
 proved that Lower California was a peninsula and 
 not an island." — E. G. Bourne, Spain in America, 
 pp. 16S-172. — In regard to the literature of south- 
 western exploration, G. P. Winship, Bibliography 
 of the Coronado Expedition, is a very valuable 
 guide. It was appended to his edition of all the 
 Coronado documents in English translation, in- 
 cluding the original Spanish text, not previously 
 ptinted, of Castaneda's narrative, published by the 
 United States Bureau of EtLnoIogy, Fourteenth 
 Annual Report (1896). The translations have 
 been revised in G. P. Winship 's Journey of Coro- 
 nado (1Q04). 
 
 Also in: L. D. Scisco, Coronado's march across 
 the high plains (Americana, VI, pp. 237-24S). — • 
 C. F. Lummis, Spanish pioneers. — Coronado's ex- 
 petition (Papers of the American Historical Asso- 
 ciation, V. 3, pp. 168-171). — Report American his- 
 torical association, p'p. 83-92, 94 (article by C. P. 
 Winship). 
 
 1541. — Spanish settlement in Yucatan. See 
 Yucat.'\n: Gaographical description. 
 
 1541-1603. — Cartier's last voyage. — Abortive 
 attempts at French colonization in Canada.^ 
 "Jean Francois de la Roque, lord of Roberval, a 
 gentleman of Picardy, was the most earnest and 
 energetic of those who desired to colonize the lands 
 discovered by Jacques Carticr. . . . The title and 
 authority of lieutenant-general was conferred upon 
 him ; his rule to extend over Canada, Hochelaga, 
 Saguenay, Newfoundland, Belle Isle, Carpon, Lab- 
 rador, La Grand Baye, and Baccalaos. with the 
 delegated rights and powers of the Crown. This 
 patent was dated the 15th of January, iS40- 
 Jacques Cartier was named second in command. 
 . . . Jacques Cartier sailed on the 23d of May, 
 1 54 1, having provisioned his fleet for two years." 
 He remained on the St. Lawrence until the follow- 
 ing June, seeking vainly for the fabled wealth of 
 the land of Saguenay, finding the Indians strongly 
 inclined to a treacherous hostility, and suffering se- 
 vere hardships during the winter. Entirely dis- 
 couraged and disgusted, he abandoned his under- 
 taking early in the summer of 1542, and sailed 
 for home. On the road of St. John's, Newfound- 
 land, Cartier met his tardy chief, Roberval, just 
 coming to join him; but no persuasion could in- 
 duce the disappointed explorer to turn back. "To 
 avoid the chance of an open rupture with Rober- 
 val, the lieutenant silently weighed anchor during 
 the night, and made all sail for France. This in- 
 glorious withdrawal from the enterprise paralyzed 
 Roberval's power, and deferred the permanent set- 
 tlement of Canada for generations then unborn. 
 Jacques Cartier died soon after his return to 
 Europe." Roberval proceeded to Canada, built a 
 fort at Ste Croix, four leagues west of Orleans, 
 sent back two of his three ships to France, and 
 remained through the winter with his colony, hav- 
 ing a troubled time. There is no certain account 
 of the ending of the enterprise, but it ended in 
 failure. For half a century afterwards there was 
 little attempt made by the French to coloni:^e any 
 part of New France, though the French fisheries 
 
 on the Newfoundland Bank and in the Gulf of 
 St. Lawrence were steadily growing in actiyity and 
 importance. "When, after fifty years of civil strife, 
 the strong and wise sway of Henry IV. restored 
 rest to troubled France, the spirit of discovery 
 again arose. The Marquis de La Roche, a Breton 
 gentleman, obtained from the king, in 1598, a 
 patent granting the same powers that Roberval 
 had possessed." But La Roche's undertakmg 
 proved more disastrous than Roberval's had been. 
 Yet, there had been enough of successful fur- 
 trading opened to stimulate enterprbe, despite 
 these misfortunes. "Private adventurers, unpro- 
 tected by any special privilege, began to barter 
 for the rich peltries of the Canadian hunters. 
 A wealthy merchant of St. Malo, named Pont- 
 grave, was the boldest and most successful of 
 these traders ; he made several voyages to Ta- 
 dousac, at the mouth of the Saguenay, bringing 
 back each time a rich cargo of rare and valuable 
 furs." In 1600, Pontgrave effected a partner- 
 ship with one Chauvin, a naval captain, w'ho 
 obtained a patent from the king giving him a 
 monopoly of the trade; but Chauvin died in 1602 
 without having succeeded in establishing even a 
 trading post at Tadousac. De Chatte, or De 
 Chastes, governor of Dieppe, succeeded to the 
 privileges of Chauvin, and founded a company 
 of merchants at Rouen [1603] to undertake the 
 development of the resources of Canada. It was 
 under the auspices of this company that Samuel 
 Champlain, the founder of New France, came 
 upon the scene. — E. Warburton, Conquest of Can- 
 ada, V. I, ch. 2-3. — See also France: Colonial em- 
 pire. 
 
 Also in: F. Parkman, Pioneers of France in 
 the Xew World: Champlain, ch. 1-2. 
 
 1542-1648. — Jesuit missionaries. See Jesuits: 
 1542-164S. 
 
 1562-1567. — Slave-trading voyages of Haw- 
 kins. — Beginnings of English enterprise in the 
 New World. — "The history of English America 
 begins with the three slave-trading voyages of John 
 Hawkins, made in the years 1562, 1564, and 1S67. 
 Nothing that Englishmen had done in connection 
 with .America, previously to those voyages, had 
 any result worth recording. England had 
 known the New World nearly seventy years, for 
 John Cabot reached it shortly after its discovery 
 by Columbus; and, as the tidings of the dis- 
 covery spread, many English adventurers had 
 crossed the Atlantic to the .\merican coast. But 
 as years passed, and the excitement of novelty 
 subsided, the English voyages to America had 
 become fewer and fewer, and at length ceased 
 altogether. It is easy to account for this. 
 There was no opening for conquest or plunder, 
 for the Tudors were at peace with the Spanish 
 sovereigns: and there could be no territorial 
 occupation, for the Papal title of Spain and 
 Portugal to the whole of the new continent 
 could not be disputed by Catholic England. 
 No trade worth having existed with the natives: 
 and Spain and Portugal kept the trade with their 
 own settlers in their own hands. ... As the 
 plantations in America grew and multiplied, the 
 demand for negroes rapidly increased. The Span- 
 iards had no .African settlements, but the Portu- 
 guese had many, and, with the aid of French and 
 English adventurers, they procured from these 
 settlements slaves enough to supply both them- 
 selves and the Spaniards. But the Brazilian plan- 
 tations grew so fast, about the middle of the 
 century, that they absorbed the entire supply, and 
 the Spanish colonists knew not where to look for 
 negroes. This penury of slaves in the Spanish 
 
 282
 
 AMERICA, 1562-1567 
 
 Drake's 
 Voyages 
 
 AMERICA, 1572-1580 
 
 Indies became known to the English and French 
 captains who fiequcntcd the Guinea coast; and 
 John Hawkins, who had been engaged from boy- 
 hood in the trade with Spain and the Canaries, 
 resolved in 1502 to take a cargo of negro slaves 
 to Hispaniola. The little squadron with which 
 he executed this project was the first English 
 squadron which navigated the Vv'est Indian seas. 
 This voyage opened those seas to the English. 
 England had not yet broken with Spain, and the 
 law excluding English vessels from trading with 
 the Spanish colonists was not strictly enlorced. 
 The trade was profitable, and Hawkins found no 
 difficulty in disposing of his cargo to great advan- 
 tage. A meagre note . . . from the pen of Hak- 
 luyt contains all that is known of the first Amer- 
 ican voyage of Hawkins. In its details it must 
 have closely resembled the second voyage. In the 
 first voyage, however, Hawkins had no occasion 
 to carry his wares further than three ports on 
 the northern side of Hispaniola. These ports, 
 far away from San Domingo, the capital, were 
 already well known to the French smugglers. He 
 did not venture into the Caribbean Sea; and 
 having loaded his ships v>'ith their return cargo, 
 he made the best of his way back. In his 
 second voyage ... he entered the Caribbean 
 Sea, still keeping, however, at a safe distance 
 from San Domingo, and sold his slaves on the 
 mainland. This voyage was on a much larger 
 scale. . . . Having sold his slaves in the conti- 
 nental ports [South American], and loaded his 
 vessels with hides and other goods bought with 
 the produce, Hawkins determined to strike out a 
 new path and sail home with the Gulf-stream, 
 which would carry him northwards past the 
 shores of Florida. Sparke's narrative . . . 
 proves that at every point in these expeditions the 
 Englishman was following in the track of the 
 French. He had French pilots and seamen on 
 board, and there is httle doubt that one at least 
 of these had already been with Laudonniere in 
 Florida. The French seamen guided him to 
 Laudonniere's settlement, where his arrival was 
 most opportune. They then pointed him the 
 way by the coast of North America, then uni- 
 versally known in the mass as New France, to 
 Newfoundland, and thence, with the prevailing 
 westerly winds, to Europe. This was the pioneer 
 voyage made by Englishmen along coasts after- 
 wards famous in history through English colo- 
 nization. . . . The extremely interesting narrative 
 . . . given . . . from the pen of John Sparke, one 
 of Hawluns' gentlemen companions . . . contains 
 the first information concerning America and its 
 natives which was published in England by an 
 English eye-witness." Hawkins planned a third 
 voyage in 1566, but the remonstrances of the Span- 
 ish king caused him to be stopped by the English 
 court. He sent out his ships, however, and they 
 came home in due time richly freighted, — from 
 what source is not known. "In another year's 
 time the aspect of things had changed." England 
 was venturing into war with Spain, "and Haw- 
 kins was now able to execute his plans without 
 restraint. He founded a permanent fortified fac- 
 tory on the Guinea coast, where negroes might 
 be collected all the year round. Thence he sailed 
 for the West Indies a third time. Young Francis 
 Drake sailed with him in command of the 'Judith,' 
 a small vessel of fifty tons " The voyage had a 
 prosperous beginning and a disastrous ending. 
 After disposing of most of their slaves, they were 
 driven by storms to take refuse in the Mexican 
 port of Vera Cruz, and there they were attacked 
 by a Spanish fleet. Drake in the Judi'l' and 
 
 Hawkins in another small vessel escaped. But the 
 latter was overcrowded with men and obliged to 
 put half of them ashore on the Mexican coast 
 I'he majority of those left on board, as well as a 
 majority of Drake's crew, died on the voyage home, 
 and it was a miserable remnant that landed in 
 England, in January, 1569. — E. J. Payne, Voyages 
 of Elizabethan seamen to America, ck. 1. 
 
 Also in; Hawkins' voyages; ed. by C. R. Mark- 
 ham (Hakluyl Society, No. 57). — R. Southey, 
 Lives of the British admirals, v. 3. 
 
 1572-1580. — Piratical adventures of Drake and 
 his encompassing of the world. — "Francis Drake, 
 the first of the English Buccaneers, was one of 
 the twelve children of Edward Drake of Tavistock, 
 in Devonshire, a staunch Protestant, who had fled 
 his native place to avoid persecution, and had 
 then become a ship's chaplain. Drake, like Colum- 
 bus, had been a seaman by profession from boy- 
 hood; and . . . had served as a young man, in 
 command of the Judith, under Hawkins. . . . 
 Hawkins had confined himself to smuggling: Drake 
 advanced from this to piracy. This practice was 
 authorized by law in the middle ages for the pur- 
 pose of recovering -debts or damages from the 
 subjects of another nation. The English, espe- 
 cially those of the west country, were the most 
 formidable pirates in the world ; and the whole 
 nation was by this time roused against Spain, in 
 consequence of the ruthless war waged against 
 Protestantism in the Netherlands by PhiUp II. 
 Drake had accounts of his own to settle with the 
 Spaniards. Though Elizabeth had not declared 
 for the revolted States, and pursued a shifting 
 policy, her interests and theirs were identical; and 
 it was with a view of cutting off those supplies of 
 gold and silver from America which enabled Philip 
 to bribe politicians and pay soldiers, in pursuit 
 of his policy of aggression, that the famous voy- 
 age was authorized by English statesmen. Drake 
 had recently made more than one successful voy- 
 age of plunder to the American coast." In July, 
 
 1572, he surprised the Spanish town of Nombre 
 de Dios, which was the shipping port on the 
 northern side of the Isthmus for the treasures of 
 Peru. His men made their way into the royal 
 treasure-house, where they laid hands on a heap 
 of bar-silver, 70 feet long, 10 wide, and 10 high; 
 but Drake himself had received a wound which 
 compelled the pirates to retreat with no very large 
 part of the splendid booty. In the winter of 
 
 1573, with the help of the runaway slaves on the 
 Isthmus, known as Cimarrones, he crossed the 
 Isthmus, looked on the Pacific ocean, approached 
 within sight of the city of Panama, and waylaid a 
 transportation party conveying gold to Nombre 
 de Dios; but was disappointed of his prey by the 
 excited conduct of some of his men. When he saw, 
 on this occasion, the great ocean beyond the Isth- 
 mus, "Drake then and there resolved to be the 
 pioneer of England in the Pacific; and on this 
 resolution he solemnly besought the blessing of 
 God. Nearly four years elapsed before it was exe- 
 cuted; for it was not until November, 1577, that 
 Drake embarked on his famous voyage, in the 
 course of which he proposed to plunder Peru it- 
 self. The Peruvian ports were unfortified. The 
 Spaniards knew them to be by nature absolutely 
 secured from attack on the north; and they never 
 dreamed that the English pirates would be daring 
 enough to pass the terrible straits of Magellan and 
 attack them, from the south. Such was the plan 
 of Drake; and it was executed with complete 
 success." He sailed from Plymouth, Dec. 13, 1577, 
 with a fleet of four vessels, and a pinnace, but lost 
 one of the ships after he had entered the Pacific, 
 
 283
 
 AMERICA, 1580 
 
 Guilberfs 
 Expedition 
 
 AMERICA, 1584-1586 
 
 in a storm which drove him southward, and which 
 made him the discoverer of Cape Horn. Another 
 of his ships, separated from the squadron, re- 
 turned home, and a third, while attempting to do 
 the same, was lost in the river Plate. Drake, in 
 his own vessel, the Golden Hind, proceeded to the 
 Peruvian coasts, where he cruised until he had 
 taken and plundered a score of Spanish ships. 
 "Laden with a rich booty of Peruvian treasure 
 he deemed it unsafe to return by the way that he 
 came. He therefore resolved to strike across the 
 Pacific and for this purpose made the latitude 
 in which this voyage was usually performed by 
 the Spanish government vessels which sailed an- 
 nually from Acapulco to the Philippines. Drake 
 thus reached the coast of California, where the 
 Indians, delighted beyond measure by presents of 
 clothing and trinkets, invited him to remain and 
 rule over them. Drake took possession of the 
 country in the name of the Queen, and refitted his 
 vessel in preparation for the unknown perils of 
 the Pacific. The place where he landed must have 
 been cither the great bay of San Francisco or the 
 small bay of Bodega, which lies a few leagues 
 further north. The great seaman had already 
 coasted five degrees more to the northward before 
 finding a suitable harbour. He believed himself 
 to be the first European who had coasted these 
 shores; but it is now well known that Spanish 
 explorers had preceded him. Drake's circum- 
 navigation of the globe was thus no deliberate 
 feat of seamanship, but the necessary result of 
 circumstances. The voyage made in more than 
 one way a great epoch in English nautical history." 
 Drake reached Plymouth on his return Sept. 26, 
 1580. — E. J. Payne, Voyages of the Elizabethan 
 seamen to America, pp. 141-143. 
 
 Also in: F. Fletcher, World encompassed by 
 Sir Drake (Hakluyt Society, 1854). — J. Barrow, 
 Life of Drake. — R. Southey, Lives of British ad- 
 mirals, V. 3. — Nuno de Silva, Report on a part 
 of Francis Drake's famous voyage of circumnavi- 
 gation. — J. Corbett, Drake and the Tudor navy. 
 — E. Channing, History of the United States, 
 V. I, pp. 116, 133, 141. — L. G. Tyler, England 
 in America, pp. 10, 13, 25. — Papers American 
 Historical Association, v. 2, p. 168; v. 5, pp. 
 303, 950. — Reports American Historical Associa- 
 tion. 
 
 1580. — Final founding of the city of Buenos 
 Ay res. See .Argentina: i 580-1 777. 
 
 1583. — Expedition of Sir Humphrey Gilbert. — 
 Formal possession taken of Newfoundland. — In 
 1578, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, an English gentleman, 
 of Devonshire, whose younger half-brother was 
 the more famous Sir Walter Raleigh, obtained from 
 Queen Elizabeth a charter empo'wering him, for 
 the next six years, to discover "such remote heathen 
 and barbarous lands, not actually possessed by any 
 Christian prince or people," as he might be shrewd 
 or fortunate enough to find, and to occupy the 
 same as their proprietor. Gilbert's 'rst expedi- 
 tion was attempted the next year, with Sir Walter 
 Raleigh associated in it; but misfortunes drove 
 back the adventurers to port, and Spanish intrigue 
 prevented their sailing again. "In June, 1583, 
 Gilbert sailed from Cawsand Bay with five vessels, 
 with the general intention of discovering and col- 
 onizing the northern parts of .\merica. It was 
 the first colonizing expedition which left the shores 
 of Great Britain; and the narrative of the expe- 
 dition by Hayes, who commanded one of Gil- 
 bert's vessels, forms the first page in the history 
 of English colonization. Gilbert did no more than 
 go through the empty form of taking possession of 
 the island of Newfoundland, to which the English 
 
 name formerly applied to the continent in general 
 . . . was now restricted. . . . Gilbert dallied here 
 too long. When he set sail to cross the Gulf of 
 St. Lawrence and take possession of Cape Breton 
 and Nova Scotia the season was too far advanced; 
 one of his largest ships went down with all on 
 board, including the Hungarian scholar Parmenius, 
 who had come out as the historian of the ex- 
 pedition ; the stores were exhausted and the crews 
 dispirited; and Gilbert resolved on sailing home, 
 intending to return and prosecute his discoveries 
 the next spring. On the home voyage the little 
 ves.sel in which he was sailing foundered ; and the 
 pioneer of English colonization found a watery 
 grave. . . . Gilbert was a man of courage, piety, 
 and learning. He was, however, an indifferent 
 seaman, and quite incompetent for the task of 
 colonization to which he had set his hand. The 
 misfortunes of his expedition induced Amadas and 
 Barlow, who followed in his steps, to abandon the 
 northward voyage and sail to the shores intended 
 to be occupied by the easier but more circuitous 
 route of the Canaries and the West Indies." — E. J. 
 Payne, Voyages of Elizabethan seamen to America, 
 pp. 173-174. — "On Monday, the gth of Septem- 
 ber, in the afternoon, the frigate [the 'Squirrel'] 
 was near cast away, oppressed by waves, yet at 
 that time recovered; and giving forth signs of joy, 
 the general, sitting abaft with a book in his hand, 
 cried out to us in the 'Hind' (so oft as we did 
 approach within hearing), 'We are as near to 
 heaven by sea as by land,' reiterating the same 
 speech, well beseeming a soldier resolute in Jesus 
 Christ, as I can testify he was. On the same 
 Monday night, about twelve o'clock, or not long 
 after, the frigate being ahead of us in the 'Golden 
 Hind,' suddenly her lights were out, whereof as it 
 were in a moment we lost the sight, and withal our 
 watch cried the General was cast away, which was 
 too true; for in that moment the frigate was de- 
 voured and swallowed up by the sea. Yet still we 
 looked out all that night and ever after, until we 
 arrived upon the coast of England. ... In great 
 torment of weather and peril of drowning it pleased 
 God to send safe home the 'Golden Hind,' which 
 arrived in Falmouth on the 2 2d of September, bein^ 
 Sunday." — E. Haies, A report of the voyage by 
 Sir Humphrey Gilbert (reprinted in Payne's Voy- 
 ages) . 
 
 Also in: E. Edwards, Life of Raleigh, v. i, ch. 5. 
 — R. Hakluyt, Principal navigations; edited by E. 
 Goldsmid, v. 12. — L. G Tyler, England in Amer- 
 ica, pp. 13-21. — E. Channing, History of the 
 United States, pp. 122-124. — Prince Society, Sir 
 Humphrey Gylberte and his enterprise of colo- 
 nization in .'imerica; edited by C. Slafter. — G. Pat- 
 terson, Royal Society of Canada's transactions, 
 second series, p. 113. — W. G. Gosling, Life of Sir 
 Humphrey Gilbert (Calendar of State Papers, Col. 
 1.S74-1674. p. 17). 
 
 1584-1586. — Raleigh's first colonizing attempts 
 and failures. — "The task in which Gilbert had 
 failed was to be undertaken by one better qualified 
 to carry it out. If any Englishman in that age 
 seemed to be marked out as the founder of a 
 colonial empire, it was Raleigh. Like Gilbert, he 
 had studied books; like Drake he could rule 
 men. . . . The associations of his youth, and the 
 training of his early manhood, fitted him to sym- 
 pathize with the aims of his half-brother Gilbert, 
 and there is little reason to doubt that Raleigh had 
 a share in his undertaking and his failure. In 
 1584 he obtained a patent precisely similar to 
 Gilbert's. His first step showed the thoughtful and 
 well-planned system on which he began his task. 
 Two ships were sent out, not with any idea of 
 
 284
 
 AMERICA, 1584-1586 
 
 Raleigh's 
 Colonization 
 
 AMERICA, 1584-1586 
 
 settlement, but to examine and report upon the 
 country. Their commanders were Arthur Barlow 
 and Philip Amidas. To the former we owe the 
 extant record of the voyage: the name of the 
 latter would suggest that he was a foreigner. 
 Whether by chance or design, they took a more 
 southerly course than any of their predecessors. 
 On the 2d of July the presence of shallow water, 
 and a smell of sweet flowers, warned them that land 
 was near. The promise thus given was amply 
 fullilled upon their approach. The sight before 
 them was far different from that which had met 
 the eyes of Hore and Gilbert. Instead of the 
 bleak coast of Newfoundland, Barlow and Amidas 
 looked upon a scene which might recall the soft- 
 ness of the Mediterranean. . . . Coasting along 
 for about 120 miles, the voyagers reached an inlet 
 and with some difficulty entered. They then 
 solemnly took possession of the land in the Queen's 
 name, and then delivered it over to Raleigh ac- 
 cording to his patent. They soon discovered that 
 the land upon which they had touched was an 
 island about 20 miles long, and not above six 
 broad, named, as they afterwards learnt, Roanoke. 
 Beyond, separating them from the mainland, lay an 
 enclosed sea, studded with more than a hundred 
 fertile and well-wooded islets." The Indians 
 proved friendly, and were described by Barlow as 
 being "most gentle, loving and faithful, void of all 
 guile and treason, and such as live after the man- 
 ner of the golden age." "The report which the 
 voyagers took home spoke as favourably of the 
 land itself as of its inhabitants. . . . With them 
 they brought two of the savages, named Wanchese 
 and Manteo. A probable tradition tells us that the 
 queen herself named the country Virginia, and that 
 Raleigh's knighthood was the reward and ac- 
 knowledgment of his success. On the strength 
 of this report Raleigh at once made preparations 
 for a settlement. A fleet of seven ships was pro- 
 vided for the conveyance of 108 settlers. The 
 fleet was under the command of Sir Richard Gren- 
 ville, who was to establish the settlement and leave 
 it under the charge of Ralph Lane. . . . On the 
 gth of April [1585] the emigrants set sail." For 
 some reason not well explained, the fleet made a 
 circuit to the West Indies, and loitered for five 
 weeks at the island of St. John's and at Hispaniola, 
 reaching Virginia in the last days of June. Quar- 
 rels between the two commanders, Grenville and 
 Lane, had already begun, and both seemed equally 
 ready to provoke the enmity of the natives. In 
 August, after exploring some sixty miles of the 
 coast, Grenville returned to England, promising to 
 come back the next spring with new colonists and 
 stores. The settlement, thus left to the care of 
 Lane, was established "at the north-east corner 
 of the island of 'Roanoke, whence the settlers 
 could command the strait. There, even now, 
 choked by vines and underwood, and here and 
 there broken by the crumbling remains of an 
 earthen bastion, may be traced the outlines of the 
 ditch which enclosed the camp, some forty yards 
 square, the home of the first English settlers in 
 the New World. Of the doings of the settlers 
 during the winter nothing is recorded, but by the 
 next spring their prospects looked gloomy. The 
 Indians were no longer friends. . . . The settlers, 
 unable to make fishing weirs, and without seed 
 corn, were entirely dependent on the Indians for 
 their daily food. Under these circumstances, one 
 would have supposed that Lane would have best 
 employed himself in guarding the settlement and 
 improving its condition. He, however, thought 
 otherwise, and applied himself to the task of ex- 
 ploring the neighbouring territory." But a wide 
 
 combination of hostile Indian tribes had been 
 formed against the English, and their situation be- 
 came from day to day more imperilled. At the 
 beginning of June, 1586, Lane fought a bold bat- 
 tle with the savages and routed them ; but no sign 
 of Grenville appeared and the prospect looked 
 hopeless. Just at this juncture, a great English 
 fleet, sailing homewards from a piratical expedition 
 to the Spanish Main, under the famous Captain 
 Drake, came to anchor at Roanoke and offered 
 succor to the disheartened colonists. With one voice 
 they petitioned to be taken to England, and Drake 
 received the whole party on board his ships. "The 
 help of which the colonists had despaired was in 
 reality close at hand. Scarcely had Drake's fleet 
 left the coast when a ship well furnished by 
 Raleigh with needful supplies, reached Virginia, 
 and after searching for the departed settlers re- 
 turned to England. About a fortnight later Gren- 
 ville himself arrived with three ships. He spent some 
 time in the country exploring, searching for the 
 settlers, and at last, unwilling to lose possession of 
 the country, landed fifteen men at Roanoke well 
 supplied for two years, and then set sail for 
 England, plundering the Azores, and doing much 
 damage to the Spaniards." — J. A. Doyle, Engliili' 
 in America: Virginia, &c., ch. 4. — "It seems to be 
 generally admitted that, when Lane and his com- 
 pany went back to England, they carried with 
 them tobacco as one of {he products of the coun- 
 try, which they presented to Raleigh, as the 
 planter of the colony, and by him it was brought 
 into use in England, and gradually in other Euro- 
 pean countries. The authorities are not entirely 
 agreed upon this point. Josselyn says: 'Tobacco 
 first brought into England by Sir Tohn Hawkins, 
 but first brought into use by Sir Walter Raleigh 
 many years after.' Again he says: 'Now (say 
 some) Tobacco was first brought into England by 
 Mr. Ralph Lane, out of Virginia. Others will 
 have Tobacco to be first brought into England 
 from Peru, by Sir Francis Drake's Mariners.' 
 Camden fixes its introduction into England by 
 Ralph Lane and the men brought buck with him 
 in the ships of Drake. He says: 'And these men 
 which were brought back were the first that 
 I know of, which brought into England that 
 Indian plant which they call Tobacco and Nicotia, 
 and use it against crudities, being taught it by the 
 Indians.' Certainly from that time it began to be 
 in great request, and to be sold at a high rate. . . . 
 Among the 108 men left in the colony with Ralph 
 Lane in 1585 was Mr. Thomas Harlot, a man of a 
 strongly mathematical and scientific turn, whose 
 services in this connection were greatly valued. 
 He remained there an entire year, and went back 
 to England in 1586. He wrote out a full account 
 of his observations in the New World." — I. N. 
 Tarbox, Sir Walter Raleigh and his colony iti Amer- 
 ica (Prince Society, 1884). 
 
 Also in: T. Hariot, Brief and true report (re- 
 printed in above-named Prince Society Publica- 
 tion). — F. L. Hawks, History of North Carolina, v 
 I (containing reprints of Lane's Account, Harlot's 
 Report, &c. — Original documents edited by E. E. 
 Hale (Archa-ologia Americana, v. 4). — A. Brown 
 Genesis of the United States, v. i, p. i8g. — E. C 
 Breece, Lounging in the footprints of the pioneers 
 (Harper's Magazine, v. 2, p. 730). — T. Williams 
 Surroundings of Raleigh's colony (Papers of the 
 American Historical Association, 1895, p. 17).— 
 H. Macmillan, Sir Walter Raleigh's lost colony.— 
 L. G. Tyler, England in America, pp. 15-3S1 56-— 
 E. Channing, History of the United States, v. i. 
 pp. 124-12Q, 141-142, 156. — E. Edwards, Life of 
 Raleigh. 
 
 285
 
 AMERICA, 1587-1590 
 
 Lost Colony 
 of Roanoke 
 
 AMERICA, 1602-1605 
 
 1587-1590. — Lost colony of Roanoke. — End of 
 the Virginia undertakings of Raleigh. — 'Ra- 
 leigh, undismayed by losses, determined to plant 
 an agricultural state; to send emigrants with their 
 wives and families, who should make their homes 
 in the New World; and, that life and property 
 might be secured, in January, 15S7, he granted 
 a charter for the settlement, and a municipal gov- 
 ernment for the city of 'Raleigh.' John White 
 was appointed its governor; and to him, with 
 eleven assistants, the administration of the colony 
 was intrusted. Transport ships were prepared at 
 the expense of the proprietary ; 'Queen Elizabeth, 
 the godmother of Virginia,' declined contributing 
 'to its education.' Embarking in April, in July 
 they arrived on the coast of North Carolina; 
 they were saved from the dangers of Cape Fear; 
 and, passing Cape Hatteras, they hastened to the 
 isle of Roanoke, to search for the handful of men 
 whom Grenville had left there as a garrison. They 
 found the tenements deserted and overgrown with 
 weeds; human bones lay scattered on the field 
 where wild deer were reposing. The fort was in 
 ruins. No vestige of surviving life appeared. The 
 instructions of Raleigh had designated the place 
 for the new settlement on the bay of Chesapeake. 
 But Fernando, the naval officer, eager to renew a 
 profitable traffic in the West Indies, refused his 
 assistance in exploring the coast, and White was 
 compelled to remain on Roanoke. ... It was there 
 that in July the foundations ot the city of Raleigh 
 were laid." But the colony was doomed to disaster 
 from the beginning, being quickly involved in 
 warfare with the surrounding natives. "With the 
 returning ship White embarked for England, un- 
 der the excuse of interceding for re-enforcements 
 and supplies. Yet, on the iSth of .\ugust, nine 
 days previous to his departure, his daughter Eleanor 
 Dare, the wife of one of the assistants, gave birth 
 to a female child, the first offspring of English 
 parents on the soil of the United States. The 
 infant was named from the place of its birth. The 
 colony, now composed of 89 men, 17 women, and 
 two children, whose names are all preserved, might 
 reasonably hope for the speedy return of the gov- 
 ernor, as he left with them his daughter and his 
 grandchild, Virginia Dare. The farther history 
 of this plantation is involved in gloomy uncer- 
 tainty. The inhabitants of 'the city of Raleigh,' 
 the emigrants from England and the first-born of 
 America, awaited death in the land of their adop- 
 tion. For, when White reached England, he found 
 its attention absorbed by the threats of an invasion 
 from Spain. . . . Yet Raleigh, whose patriotism did 
 not diminish his generosity, found means, in .^pril 
 1588, to despatch White with supplies in two ves- 
 sels. But the company, desiring a gainful voy- 
 age rather than a safe one, ran in chase of prizes, 
 till one of them fell in with men of war from 
 Rochelle, and, after a bloody fight, was boarded 
 and rifled. Both ships were compelled to return 
 to England. The delay was fatal: the English 
 kingdom and the Protestant reformation were in 
 danger; nor could the poor colonists of Roanoke 
 be again remembered till after the discomfiture of 
 the Invincible Armada. Even then Sir Walter 
 Raleigh, who had already incurred a fruitless ex- 
 pense of £40,000, found his impaired fortune in- 
 sufficient for further attempts at colonizing 
 Virginia. He therefore used the privilege of his 
 patent to endow a company of merchants and ad- 
 venturers with large concessions. Among the men 
 who thus obtained an assignment of the proprie- 
 tary's rights in Virginia is found the name of 
 Richard Hakluyt ; it connects the first efforts of 
 England in North Carolina with the final coloniza- 
 
 tion of Virginia. The colonists at Roanoke had 
 emigrated with a charter; the instrument of March, 
 1589, was not an assignment of Raleigh's patent, 
 but the extension of a grant, already held under 
 its sanction by inci easing the number to whom 
 the rights of that charter belonged. More th.in 
 another \ear elapsed before White could return 
 to search for his colony and his daughter; and 
 then the island of Roanoke was a desert. An in- 
 scription on the bark of a tree pointed to Croatan; 
 but the season of the year and the dangers from 
 storms were pleaded as an excuse for an immediate 
 return. The conjecture has been hazarded that the 
 deserted colony, neglected by their own country- 
 men, were hospitably adopted into the tribe [the 
 Croatans] of Hatteras Indians. Raleigh long cher- 
 ished the hope of discovering some vestiges ol 
 their existence, and sent at his own charge, and, 
 it is said, at five several times, to search for his 
 liege men. But im.agination received no help in 
 its attempts to trace the fate of the colony of 
 Roanoke." — G. Bancroft, History of the United 
 Stales, pt. I, V. I, ch. 5. — "The Croatans of to-day 
 claim descent from the lost colony. Their habits, 
 disposition and mental characteristics show traces 
 both of savage and civilized ancestors. Their lan- 
 guage is the English of 300 years ago, and their 
 names are in many cases the same as those borne 
 by the original colonists. No other theory of their 
 origin has been advanced." — S. B. Weeks, Lost col- 
 ony of Roanoke (American Historical Association 
 Papers, v. 5, pt. 4). — "The last expedition [of 
 White, searching for his lost colony] was not de- 
 spatched by Raleigh, but by his successors in the 
 American patent. .And our history is now to take 
 leave of that illustrious man, with whose schemes 
 and enterprises it ceases to have any further con- 
 nexion. The ardour of his mind was not exhausted, 
 but diverted by a multiplicity of new and not lesa 
 arduous undertakings. . . . Desirous, at the same 
 time, that a project which he had carried so far 
 should not be entirely abandoned, and hoping that 
 the spirit of commerce would preserve an inter- 
 course with Virginia that might terminate in a 
 colonial establishment, he consented to assign his 
 patent to Sir Thomas Smith, and a company of 
 merchants in London, who undertook to estab- 
 lish and maintain a traffic between England and 
 Virginia ... It appeared very soon that. Raleigh 
 had transferred his patent to hands very different 
 from his own. . . . Satisfied with a paltry traffic 
 carried on by a few small vessels, they made no at- 
 tempt to take possession of the country: and at the 
 period of Elizabeth's death, not a single Englishman 
 was settled in .America.'' — J. Grahame, History of 
 the rise and progress of the United States of North 
 America, till 1688, ch. i. 
 
 .Also in: W. Stith, History' of Virginia, bk. i. — 
 F. L. Hawks, Hist, of Korth Carolina, v. i, Nos. 7-8. 
 
 17th century. — British settlements. See British 
 empire: Expansion: 17th century: North .America. 
 
 17th century. — Colonial women in industry. 
 See Woman's rights: 1644-1852. 
 
 1602-1605. — Voyages of Gosnold, Pring, and 
 Weymouth. — First Englishmen in New Eng- 
 land. — Batholomew Gosnold was a West-of-Eng- 
 land mariner who had served in the expeditions 
 of Sir Walter Raleigh to the Virginia coast. Un- 
 der his command, in the spring of 1602, "with the 
 consent of Sir Walter Raleigh, and at the cost, 
 among others, of Henry Wriothesley, Earl of 
 Southampton, the accomplished patron of Shakes- 
 peare, a small vessel, called the Concord, was 
 equipped for exploration in 'the north part of Vir- 
 ginia,' with a view to the establishment of a 
 colony. At this time, in the last year of the Tudor 
 
 286
 
 AMERICA, 1602-1605 
 
 Gosnold, Pring 
 and Weymouth 
 
 AMERICA, 1609 
 
 dynasty, and nineteen years after the fatal ter- 
 mination of Gilbert's enterprise, there was no Euro- 
 pean inhabitant of North America, except those 
 of Spanish birth in Florida, and some twenty or 
 thirty French, the miserable relics of two frus- 
 trated attempts to settle what the; called New 
 France. Gosnold sailed from Falmouth with a 
 company of thirty-two persons, of whom eight 
 were seamen, and twenty were to become planters. 
 Taking a straight course across the Atlantic, in- 
 stead of the indirect course by the Canaries and 
 the West Indies which had been hitherto pur- 
 sued in voyages to Virginia, at the end of seven 
 weeks he saw land in Massachusetts Bay, probably 
 near what is now Salem Harbor. Here a boat 
 came off, of Basque build, manned by eight na- 
 tives, of whom two or three were dressed in Euro- 
 pean clothes, indicating the presence of earlier for- 
 eign voyagers in these waters. Next he stood to 
 the southward, and his crew took great quantities 
 of codfish by a head land, called by him for that 
 reason Cape Cod, the name which it retains. 
 Gosnold, Brereton, and three others, went on 
 shore, the first Englishmen who are known to 
 have set foot upon the soil of Massachusetts. 
 . . . Sounding his way cautiously along, first in 
 a southerly, and then in a westerly direction, and 
 probably passing to the south of Nantucket, Gos- 
 nold ne.ijt landed on a small island, now called 
 No Man's Land. To this he gave the name of 
 Martha's Vineyard, since transferred to the larger 
 island further north. . . . South of Buzzard's Bay, 
 and separated on the south by the Vineyard 
 Sound from Martha's Vineyard, is scattered the 
 group denoted on modem maps as the Elizabeth 
 Islands. The southwesternmost of these, now 
 known by the Indian name of Cuttyhunk, was 
 denominated by Gosnold Elizabeth Island. . . . 
 Here Gosnold found a pond two miles in cir- 
 cumference, separated from the sea on one side by 
 a beach thirty yards wide, and enclosing 'a 
 rocky islet, containing near an acre of ground, 
 full of wood and rubbish.' This islet was fixed 
 upon for a settlement. In three weeks, while a 
 part of the company were absent on a trading 
 expedition to the mainland, the rest dug and 
 stoned a cellar, prepared timber and built a house, 
 which they fortified with palisades, and thatched 
 with sedge. Proceeding to make an inventory of 
 their provisions, they found that, after supplying 
 the vessel, which was to take twelve men on the 
 return voyage, there would be a sufficiency for only 
 six weeks for the twenty men who would remain. 
 A dispute arose upon the question whether the 
 party to be left behind would receive a share in the 
 proceeds of the cargo of cedar, sassafras, furs, and 
 other commodities which had been collected. A 
 small party, going out in quest of shell-fish, was 
 attacked by some Indians. With men having al- 
 ready, it is likely, little stomach for such cheer- 
 less work, these circumstances easily led to the 
 decision to abandon for the present the scheme 
 of a settlement, and in the following month the 
 adventurers sailed for England, and, after a voy- 
 age of five weeks, arrived at Exmouth. . . . The 
 expedition of Gosnold was pregnant with conse- 
 quences, though their development was slow. The 
 accounts of the hitherto unknown country, which 
 were circulated by his company on their return, 
 excited an earnest interest." The next year (.^pril, 
 1603), Martin Pring or Prynnc was sent out, by 
 several merchants of Bristol, with two small ves- 
 sels, seeking cargoes of sassafras, which had ac- 
 quired a high value on account of supposed medic- 
 inal virtues. Pring coasted from Maine to Mar- 
 tha's Vineyard, secured his desired cargoes, and 
 
 gave a good account of the country. Two years 
 later (March, 1605), Lord Southampton and Lord 
 Wardour sent a vessel commanded by George Wey- 
 mouth to reconnoitre the same coast with an eye 
 to settlements. Weymouth ascended either the 
 Kennebec or the Penobscot river some 50 or bo 
 miles and kidnapped five natives. "Except for 
 this, and for some addition to the knowledge of 
 the local geography, the voyage was fruitless." — 
 J. G. Palfrey, Compendious history oj New 
 England, v. i, ch. 2. 
 
 Also in: Massachusetts Historical Society Col- 
 lection, id series, v. 8 (1843), — J. McKeen, On the 
 voyage of Geo. Weymouth (Maine Historical So- 
 ciety Collection, v. s). — L. G. Tyler, England in 
 America, pp. 34, 4.-!, 49, 51, 35, 39.— E. Channing, 
 History of the United States, v. i, pp. 156, i6q, 
 170, 171, 1S7. — Report American Historical Associ- 
 ation V. 95, p. 546. 
 
 1603-1608. — First French settlements in Arca- 
 dia. See Canada; 1603-1605. 
 
 1607. — Land law. See Land titles: 1607. 
 
 1607. — Founding of the English colony of 
 Virginia, and the failure in Maine. See British 
 empire: Expansion: 17th century: North America; 
 Virginia: 1606-1607, and after; M.aine: 1607-1608. 
 
 1607-1608. — First voyages of Henry Hudson. 
 — "The first recorded voyage made by Henry Hud- 
 son was undertaken . . . for the Muscovy or Rus- 
 sia Company [of England]. Departing from 
 Gravesenci the first of May, 1607, with the in- 
 tention of sailing straight across the north pole, by 
 the north of what is now called Greenland, Hud- 
 son found that this land stretched further to the 
 eastward than he had anticipated, and that a wall 
 of ice, along which he coasted, extended from 
 Greenland to Spitzbcrgen. Forced to relinquish the 
 hope of finding a passage in the latter vicinity, he 
 once more attempted the entrance of Davis' Straits 
 by the north of Greeland. This design was also 
 frustrated and he apparently renewed the attempt 
 in a lower latitude and nearer Greenland on his 
 homeward voyage. In this cruise Hudson attained 
 a higher degree of latitude than any previous navi- 
 gator. ... He reached England on his return on 
 the 15th September of that year [1607]. ... On 
 the 22d of April, 1608, Henry Hudson commenced 
 his second recorded voyage for the Muscovy or 
 Russia Company, with the desi.'n of 'finding a 
 passage to the East Indies by the north-east.' 
 ... On the 3d of June, 1608, Hudson had reached 
 the most northern point of Norway, and on the 
 nth was in latitude 75° 24', between Spitzbergen 
 and Noza Zembla." Failing to pass to the north- 
 east beyond Nova Zembla, he returned to England 
 in August. — J. M. Read, Jr., Historical inquiry 
 concerning Henry Hudson, pp. 133-138. 
 
 Also is: G. M. Asher, Henry Hudson, the navi- 
 gator (Hakluyt Society, i860). 
 
 1608-1616. — Champlain's explorations in the 
 valley of the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes. 
 See Canada: 1608-1611, also 1611-1616. 
 
 1609. — Hudson's voyage of discovery for the 
 Dutch. — "Henry Hudson comes into the historian's 
 notice in 1607, and he disappears in the ice and 
 mist of Hudson Bay in 161 1. In this brief period 
 he gained a 'farther north' than any other man 
 for many a long year and made two memorable 
 voyages which are commemorated in the names 
 Hudson River and Hudson Bay. His antecedents 
 are unknown, though conjectures have not been 
 wanting; J. R. Read [Historical inquiry concern- 
 ing Henry Hudson'] gives many facts about sundry 
 Hudsons who lived in the reigns of Elizabeth and 
 James I; but the links connecting these persons 
 with the navigator are still lacking. The sources 
 
 287
 
 AMERICA, 1609 
 
 Henry Hudson 
 
 AMERICA, 1609 
 
 are given in the original and in translation in 
 Asher's Henry Hudson, tlie navigator (Hakiuyt So- 
 ciety Publications, i860). H. C. Murphy, to whom 
 students of New York history are largely in- 
 debted, printed the contract between the Dutch 
 East India Company and Hudson in his Henry 
 Hudson in Holland. For some inscrutable rea- 
 son, he refused Asher a sight of the brochure, 
 which was designed for private distribution, nor is 
 there any certain information as to the reasons for 
 his voyaging in the service of the Dutch East In- 
 dia Company. Unquestionably he was an English- 
 man, and as certainly he sailed, in i6og, in search 
 of a new waterway to India and Cathay. His 
 vessel was named the Half -Moon; she was a 'fly- 
 boat,' or fast sailing vessel whose speed was secured 
 by making her long in proportion to her beam ; 
 she carried eighteen or twenty men. The Haif- 
 Moon's crew was ill-assorted of Englishmen and 
 
 "On the morning of the live-and-twentieth,' so the 
 chronicler of the expedition informs us, 'we manned 
 our scute with four muskets and sixe men and tooke 
 one of their shallops and brought it abroad. 
 Then we manned our boat and scute with twelve 
 men and muskets and two stone pieces or mur- 
 derers, and drave the savages from their houses, 
 and tooke the spoyle of them, as they would have 
 done of us,' — which was quite likely after the un- 
 provoked seizure of their boat. Once again, the 
 Halj-Moon steered to the south and, rounding 
 Cape Cod, made the Virginia coast. After coast- 
 ing southward for a time, Hudson turned to the 
 north again and possibly entered Chesapeake Bay. 
 [Asher's Hudson, 73, note ] He certainly sailed 
 into Delaware Bay and, not liking the looks of 
 the shoal water, soon ran out again, and, steer- 
 ing northward, anchored inside of Sandy Hook. 
 On the 4th of August, i6oq, a party went on 
 
 HENRY HUDSON AND SON CAST ADRIFT IN HUDSON BAY BY 
 MUTINOUS SAILORS, 161 1 
 
 Dutchmen and was soon discouraged by ice and 
 storms. Hudson, therefore, abandoned his north- 
 ward course through Arctic seas and steered west- 
 ward for America, to which he was drawn by the 
 knowledge of Weymouth's voyage and of the dis- 
 coveries of the Virginia explorers. [Murphy's 
 Hudson, pp. 47, 63, and .■\sher's Hudson, p. 148. 
 The former is in many ways to be preferred.] It 
 is not unlikely that this following up of the Eng- 
 lish explorations was in the minds of Hudson and 
 his Dutch employers before he sailed from the 
 Texel. In her westward course across the At- 
 lantic, the Half-Moon encountered gale after gale. 
 In one of these her foremast was injured, but on 
 she kept under such sail as she could carry. Off 
 Newfoundland, Hudson sighted some French fish- 
 ing vessels, and stopped long enough for his men 
 to catch 'one hundred and eighteen great coddes. 
 On the 17th of July, in the heat and fog of a 
 Maine summer, he anchored in the vicinity of 
 Penobscot Bay. While lying at his moorings the 
 natives came to the ship in two 'French shallops.' 
 
 shore, — tradition says on Coney Island, but the 
 landing might have been at almost any other 
 point. Carefully exploring the Narrows, Hudson 
 navigated the Half-Moon into the upper bay, and 
 then into the mouth of the river which now bears 
 his name. The water was salt, and the tide 
 ebbed and flowed with great force. Here, at last, 
 seemed to be the long-looked-for passage to 
 the Pacific Ocean. For eleven days, therefore, 
 the Half-Moon drifted and sailed northwardly. 
 The wonderful scenery of the Hudson — the Pali- 
 sades, the Donderberg, West Point, and the Cat- 
 skills — impressed the explorers. Above the site 
 of the modern Albany the water became too shoal 
 for the ship, but a boat party proceeded eight 
 or nine leagues farther on. [Brodhead, in his 
 New York (i, 31), identifies localities.] While 
 the Half-Moon was at anchor in one of the north- 
 ern reaches, Hudson invited a party of Indians into 
 the cabin and 'gave them much wine and aqua- 
 vitae, that they were all merrie. In the ende one 
 of them was drunke.' As a requital for this hos- 
 
 288
 
 
 S - £ 
 ►4 S
 
 AMERICA, 1609-1755 
 
 Capf. John Smith 
 Plymouth Colony 
 
 AMERICA, 1620 
 
 pitality, the Indians the next day presented Hud- 
 son with tobacco, wampum, and venison. These 
 natives were Iroquois of the Mohawk tribe. A 
 traditional account of a scene of revelry at the 
 first coming of the whites was preserved among 
 them until the American Revolution; it is generally 
 regarded as descriptive of the coming of Hudson 
 and his crew, but it may possibly refer to earlier 
 French explorers. Two things, however, seem to 
 be reasonably certain. The first is that the Iro- 
 quois appreciated the attentions of the early Dutch 
 navigators and fur traders, who supplied them 
 with fire water and firearms. [See New York His- 
 torical Society's Collections, New Series, i, 71, and 
 Asher's Hudson, 173.] The other assured fact is 
 that these Indians had had slight intercourse with 
 white men, or they would not have been so friendly 
 The natives of the lower Hudson showed their fa- 
 miliarity with the whites by attacking the Half- 
 Moon at every good opportunity. The future 
 careers of the Half-Moon and her gallant captain 
 were not fortunate; putting into Dartmouth, 
 England, Henry Hudson was forbidden to remain 
 longer in the service of the Dutch, and in April, 
 1610, he sailed from the Thames on his last voyage 
 in quest of the Northwest Passage. Fourteen 
 months later he was set adrift in a shallop in 
 Hudson Bay by a panic-stricken mutinous crew, 
 and no trace of him has since been found. As 
 to the Half-Moon, she gained a Holland port 
 early in 161 1, and four years later was wrecked on 
 the shore of the island of Mauritius." — E. Chan- 
 ning. History of the United States, v. i, pp. 439- 
 442. 
 
 Also in: G. Bancroft, History of the United 
 States, ch. 15 (or pt. 2, ch. 12 of "Author's last 
 revision"). — H. R Cleveland, Life of Henry Hud- 
 son, ch. 3-4. — R Juet, Journal of Hudson's voy- 
 age (New York Historical Society Collection, 
 second series, v. i), — J. V. N, Yates and J. W. 
 Moulton, History of the State of New York, pt. i. 
 
 1609-1755. — Slavery in colonial New York. 
 See Slavery: 1600-1755 
 
 1610-1614. — Dutch occupation of New Neth- 
 erlands, and Block's coasting exploration. See 
 New York State: 1610-1614. 
 
 1614-1615.— Voyages of Capt. John Smith to 
 North Virginia. — Naming of the country New 
 England. — "From the time of Capt Smith's de- 
 parture from Virginia [see Virginia: 1607-1610], 
 till the year 1614, there is a chasm in his bio- 
 graphy. ... In 1614, probably by his advice and 
 at his suggestion, an expedition was fitted out by 
 some London merchants, in the expense of which 
 he also shared, for the purposes of trade and dis- 
 covery in New England, or, as it was then called 
 North Virginia. ... In March, 1614, he set sail 
 from London with two ships, one commanded by 
 himself, and the other by Captain Thomas Hunt. 
 They arrived, April 3olh, at the island of Man- 
 hegin, on the coast of Maine, where they built 
 seven boats The purposes for which they were 
 sent were to capture whales and to search for 
 mines of gold or copper, which were said to be 
 there, and, if these failed, to make up a cargo of 
 fish and furs. Of mines, they found no indi- 
 cations, and they found whale-fishing a 'costly 
 conclusion;' for, although they saw many, and 
 chased them too, they succeeded in taking none 
 They thus lost the best part of the fishing season ; 
 but, after giving up their gigantic game, they 
 diligently employed the months of July and Au- 
 gust in taking and curing codfish, an humble, 
 but more certain prey. While the crew were thus 
 employed. Captain Smith, with eight men in a 
 small boat, surveyed and examined the whole coast, 
 
 from Penobscot to Cape Cod, trafficking with the 
 Indians for furs, and twice fighting with them, 
 and taking such observations of the prominent 
 points as enabled him to construct a map of the 
 country. He then sailed for England, where he 
 arrived in August, within six months after his 
 departure. He left Captain Hunt behind him, with 
 orders to dispose of his cargo of fish in Spain. 
 Unfortunately, Hunt was a sordid and unprinci- 
 pled miscreant, who resolved to make his coun- 
 trymen odious to the Indians, and thus prevent 
 the establishment of a permanent colony, which 
 would diminish the large gains he and a few 
 others derived by monopolizing a lucrative traffic. 
 For this purpose, having decoyed 24 of the natives 
 on board his ship, he carried them off and sold 
 them as slaves in the port of Malaga. . . . Cap- 
 tain Smith, upon his return, presented his map of 
 the country between Penobscot and Cape Cod to 
 Prince Charles (afterwards Charles I.), with a re- 
 quest that he would substitute others, instead of 
 the 'barbarous names' which had been given to 
 particular places. Smith himself gave to the coun- 
 try the name of New England, as he expressly 
 states, and not Prince Charles, as is commonly 
 supposed. . . . The first port into which Captain 
 Smith put on his return to England was Plymouth. 
 There he related his adventures to some of his 
 friends, 'who,' he says, 'as I supposed, were in- 
 terested in the dead patent of this unregarded 
 country.' The Plymouth Company of adven- 
 turers to North Virginia, by flattering hopes and 
 large promises, induced him to engage his services 
 to them." Accordingly in March, 1615, he sailed 
 from Plymouth, with two vessels under his com- 
 mand, bearing sixteen settlers, besides their crew. 
 A storm dismasted Smith's ship and drove her 
 back to Plymouth. "His consort, commanded by 
 Thomas Dermer, meanwhile proceeded on her voy- 
 age, and returned with a profitable cargo in Au- 
 gust ; but the object, which was to effect a per- 
 manent settlement, was frustrated. Captain 
 Smith's vessel was probably found to be so much 
 shattered as to render it inexpedient to repair 
 her; for we find that he set sail a second time 
 from Plymouth on the 24th of June, in a small 
 bark of 60 tons, manned by 30 men, and carry- 
 ing with him the same 16 settlers he had taken be- 
 fore. But an evil destiny seemed to hang over 
 this enterprise, and to make the voyage a succes- 
 sion of disasters and disappointments." It ended 
 in Smith's capture by a piratical French fleet and 
 his detention for some months, until he made a 
 daring escape in a small boat. "While he had been 
 detained on board the French pirate, in order, as 
 he says, 'to keep my perplexed thoughts from too 
 much meditation of my miserable estate,' he em- 
 ployed himself in writing a narrative of his two 
 voyages to New England, and an account of the 
 country. This was published in a quarto form in 
 June, 1616 . . . Captain Smith's work on New 
 England was the first to recommend that country 
 as a place of settlement." — G. S. Hillard, Life and 
 adventures of Captain John Smith, ch. 14-1S. 
 
 Also in: Captam John Smith, Description of 
 New England. — L. G. Tyler, England in America, 
 pp. 150-152. — Papers, American Historical Associa- 
 tion, V. 4, p 395- 
 
 1619. — Introduction of negro slavery into 
 Virginia. See Virginia: 1610. 
 
 1620. — Planting of the Pilgrim colony at 
 Plymouth, and the chartering of the council for 
 New England. See Massachusetts: 1620; New 
 England: 1620-1623. 
 
 1620. — Formation of the government of Rio 
 de La Plata. See Argentina: 1580-1777. 
 
 289
 
 AMERICA, 1620-1660 
 
 Grants and C/iarters 
 Buccaneers 
 
 AMERICA, 1639-1700 
 
 1620-1660.— Puritans in New England. See 
 
 Puritans: 1620-1660. 
 
 1621. — Conflicting claims of England and 
 France on the north-eastern coast. — Naming 
 and granting of Nova Scotia. See New Eng- 
 land: 1621-1631. 
 
 1629.— Carolina grant to Sir Robert Heath.— 
 "Sir Robert Heath, attorney-general to Charles I., 
 . obtained a grant of the lands between the 38th 
 [36th?] degree of north latitude to the river St 
 Matheo. His charter bears date of October s, 
 1629. . . . The tenure is declared to be as ample as 
 any bishop of Durham [Palatine], in the kingdom 
 of England, ever held and enjoyed, or ought or 
 could of right have held and enjoyed. Sir Rob- 
 ert, his heirs and assigns, are constituted the true 
 and absolute lords and proprietors, and the coun- 
 try is erected into a province by the name of 
 Carolina [or Carolana], and the islands are to be 
 called the Carolina islands. Sir Robert conveyed 
 his right some time after to the earl of Arundel. 
 This nobleman, it is said, planted several parts of 
 his acquisition, but his attempt to colonize was 
 checked by the war with Scotland, and afterwards 
 the civil war. Lord Maltravers, who soon after, 
 on his father's death, became earl of -Arundel and 
 Sussex . . . made no attempt to avail himself of 
 the grant. ... Sir Robert Heath's grant of land, 
 to the southward of Virginia, perhaps the most 
 e-xtensive possession ever owned by an individual, 
 remained for a long time almost absolutely waste 
 and uncultivated. This vast extent of territory oc- 
 cupied all the country between the 30th and 36th 
 degrees of northern latitude, which embraces the 
 present states of North and South Carolina, 
 Georgia, [.Alabama], Tennessee, Mississippi, and, 
 with very little exceptions, the whole state of 
 Louisiana, and the territory of East and West 
 Florida, a considerable part of the state of Mis- 
 souri, the Mexican provinces of Texas, Chiuhaha, 
 &c. The grantee had taken possession of the coun- 
 try, soon after he had obtained his title, which he 
 afterwards had conveyed to the earl of Arundel 
 Henry Lord Maltravers appears to have obtained 
 some aid from the province of Virginia in 1639, 
 at the desire of Charles I., for the settlement of 
 Carolana, and the country had since become the 
 property of a Dr. Cox; yet, at this time, there 
 were two points only in which incipient English 
 settlements could be discerned; the one on the 
 northern shore of .Albemarle Sound and the streams 
 that flow into it. The population of it was very 
 thin, and the greatest portion of it was on the 
 north-east bank of Chowan river. The settlers had 
 come from that part of Virginia now known as 
 the County of Nansemond. , . . They had been 
 joined by a number of Quakers and other sectaries, 
 whom the spirit of intolerance had driven from 
 New England, and some emigrants from Bermudas 
 . . The other settlement of the English was at 
 the mouth of Cape Fear river; . . those who 
 composed it had come thither from New England 
 in 1659. Their attention was confined to rearing 
 cattle. It cannot now be ascertained whether the 
 assignees of Carolana ever surrendered the charter 
 under which it was held, nor whether it was con- 
 .sidered as having become vacated or obsolete by 
 non-user, or by any other means." — F. X Martin, 
 History of North Carolina, v. i, ch. $ and 7. 
 
 Also in: L. G. Tyler, England in America, p 
 120. — C. McL. .Andrews, Colonial self-government, 
 pp. 130, 134. — Papers American Historical Associa- 
 tion, V. 5, p. 443. — Reports American Historical 
 Association, 190^, "'. i, p. 105, 
 
 1629. — Attempted settlement in the Bahama 
 Islands. See Bahama Islands. 
 
 1629. — Royal charter to the governor and 
 company of Massachusetts bay. See Massachu- 
 setts: 1623-1020. 
 
 1629-1631. — Dutch occupation of the Dela- 
 ware. Sec Delaware: 1029-1631. 
 
 1629-1632.— English conquest and brief occu- 
 pation of New France. See Canada: 1628-1635 
 
 1632. — Charter to Lord Baltimore and the 
 founding of Maryland. — Boundaries of original 
 grant. See Marvlaxd: 1632. 
 
 1633-1637.— Charter to Cecil, Lord Baltimore 
 and the planting of the colony at St. Mary's. — 
 Catholicism. See Makvland: 1633-1637 
 
 1638. — Planting of a Swedish colony on the 
 Delaware. See Delaware: 1638-1640. 
 
 1638-1781. — Slaves in Massachusetts. See 
 Slavery: 163S-17S1. 
 
 1639-1663. — Pioneer and unorganized coloniza- 
 tion in North Carolina. See North Carolina: 
 1639-1663. 
 
 1639-1700, — Buccaneers and their piratical 
 warfare with Spain.— "The 17th century gave 
 birth to a class ol rovers wholly distinct from any 
 of their predecessors in the annals of the worici, 
 differing as widely in their plans, organization and 
 exploits as in the principles that governed their ac- 
 tions , , . .After the native inhabitants of Haiti 
 had been exterminated, and the Spaniards had 
 sailed farther west, a few adventurous men from 
 Normandy settled on the shores of the island, 
 for the purpose of hunting the wild bulls and hogs 
 which roamed at will through the forests. The 
 small island of Tortugas was their market ; thither 
 they repaired with their salted and smoked meat, 
 their hides, &c., and disposed of them in exchange 
 for powder, lead, and other necessaries The places 
 where these semi-wild hunters prepared tLe slaugh- 
 tered carcases were called 'boucans,' and they 
 themselves became known as Buccaneers. Prob- 
 ably the world has never before or since witnessed 
 such an extraordinary association as theirs Un- 
 burdened by women-folk or children, these men 
 lived in couples, reciprocally rendering each other 
 services, and having entire community of property 
 — a condition termed by them niatelotage, from the 
 word 'matelot,' by which they addressed one an- 
 other. , , , A man on joining the fraternity com- 
 pletely merged his identity Each member received 
 a nickname, and no attempt was ever made to 
 inquire into his antecedents. When one of their 
 number married, he ceased to be a buccaneer, hav- 
 ing forfeited his membership by so civilized a pro- 
 ceeding He might continue to dwell on the coast, 
 and to hunt cattle, but he was no longer a 'mate- 
 lot' — as a Benedick he had degenerated to a 
 'colonist,' , , . L'ncouth and lawless though the 
 buccaneers were, the sinister signification now at- 
 taching to their name would never have been 
 merited had it not been for the unreasoning jeal- 
 ousy of the Spaniards. The hunters were actually 
 a source of profit to that nation, yet from an in- 
 sane antipathy to strangers the dominant race 
 resolved on exterminating the settlers Attacked 
 whilst dispersed in pursuance of their avocations, 
 the latter fell easy victims ; many of them were 
 wantonly massacred, others dragged into slavery. 
 . . Breathing hatred and vengeance, 'the brethren 
 of the coast' united their scattered forces, and a 
 war of horrible reprisals commenced. Fresh 
 troops arrived from Spain, whilst the ranks of 
 the buccaneers were filled by adventurers of all 
 nations, allured by love of plunder, and fired with 
 indignation at the cruelties of the aggressors , . , 
 The Spaniards, utterly failing to oust their oppo- 
 nents, hit upon a new expedient, so short-.sighted 
 that it reflects but little credit on their statesman- 
 
 290
 
 .OS" 
 ■S-SaSa 
 
 
 © s 
 
 -■SB I sls-s^;..*- 
 
 • H as 5 i"
 
 AMERICA, 1639-1700 
 
 Buccaneers 
 Colonial Conflicts 
 
 AMERICA, 1720-1744 
 
 bhip. This was the extermination of the horned 
 cattle, by which the buccaneers derived their means 
 of subsistence; a general slaughter took place, and 
 the breed was almost extirpated. . . . The puffed 
 up arrogance of the Spaniard was curbed by no 
 prudential consideration ; calling upon every saint 
 in his calendar and raining curses on the heretical 
 buccaneers, he deprived them of their legitimate 
 occupation, and created wilfully a set of desper- 
 ate enemies, who harassed the colonial trade of 
 an empire already betraying signs of feebleness 
 with the pertinacity of wolves, and who only de- 
 sisted when her commerce had been reduced to in- 
 significance. . . . Devoured by an undying hatred 
 of their assailants, the buccaneers developed into a 
 new association — the freebooters." — C. H. Eden, 
 West Indies, ch. 3. — "The monarchs both of Eng- 
 land and France, but especially the former, con- 
 nived at and even encouraged the freebooters [a 
 name which the pronunciation of French sailors 
 transformed into 'hlibustiers,' while that corruption 
 became Anglicized in its turn and produced the 
 word filibusters], whose services could be obtained 
 in time of war, and whose actions could be dis- 
 avowed in time of peace. Thus buccaneer, fili- 
 buster, and sea-rover, were for the most part at 
 leisure to hunt wild cattle, and to pillage and 
 massacre the Spaniards wherever they found an op- 
 portunity. When not on some marauding expedi- 
 tion, they followed the chase." The piratical buc- 
 caneers were first organized under a leader in 1630, 
 the islet of Tortuga being their favorite rendezvous. 
 "So rapid was the growth of their settlements that 
 in 1641 we find governors appointed, and at San 
 Christobal a governor-general named De Poincy, 
 in charge of the French filibusters in the Indies. 
 During that year Tortuga was garrisoned by 
 French troops, and the English were driven out, 
 both from that islet and from Santo Domingo, se- 
 curing harborage elsewhere in the islands. Never- 
 theless corsairs of both nations often made common 
 cause. ... In [1654] Tortuga was again recap- 
 tured by the Spaniards, but in 1660 fell once more 
 into the hands of the French; and in their con- 
 quest of Jamaica in 1655 the British troops were 
 reenforced by a large party of buccaneers." The 
 first of the more famous buccaneers (and appar- 
 ently the most ferocious among them all, was a 
 Frenchman called Fran(;ois L'Olonnois, who be- 
 tween 1600-1665 harried the coast of Central Amer- 
 ica with six ships and 700 men. At the same time 
 another buccaneer named Mansvelt, was rising in 
 fame, and with him, as second in command, a 
 Welshman, Henry Morgan, who became the most 
 notorious of all. In i6b8, Morgan attacked and 
 captured the strong town of Portobello, on the 
 Isthmus, committing indescribable atrocities. In 1671 
 he crossed the Isthmus, defeated the Spaniards in 
 battle and gained possession of the great and 
 wealthy city of Panama — the largest and richest in 
 the New World, containing at the time 30,000 in- 
 habitants. The city was pillaged, fired and totally 
 destroyed. The exploits of this ruffian and the 
 stolen riches which he carried home to England 
 soon afterward gained the honors of knighthood 
 for him, from the worthy hands of Charles II. 
 In 1680, the buccaneers under one Coxon again 
 crossed the Isthmus, seized Panama, which had 
 been considerably rebuilt, and captured there a 
 Spanish fleet of four ships, in which thev launched 
 themselves upon the Pacific. From that time 
 their plundering operations were chieflv directed 
 against the Pacific coast. Towards the close of 
 the seventeenth century, the war between England 
 arid France, and the Bourbon alliance of Spain 
 with France, brought about the discouragement, 
 
 the decUne and finally the extinction of the bucca. 
 neer organization. — H. H. Bancroft, History of the 
 Pacific states: Central America, v. 2, ch. 26-30. — 
 See also Jamaica: 1655; 1655-1796. 
 
 Also in; W. Thornbury, Tlie Buccaneers. — A.O. 
 Exquemelin, History of the Buccaneers. — J. Bur- 
 ney, History of the Buccaneers of .Imerica. 
 
 1655. — Submission of the Swedes on the 
 Delaware to the Dutch. See Delaware: 1640- 
 1656. 
 
 1660-1776. — Production of tobacco in Mary- 
 land. See M.\ryland: 1660-1776. 
 
 1663. — Grant of the Carolinas to Monk, 
 Clarendon, Shaftesbury, and others. See North 
 Carolina: 1663-1670. 
 
 1664. — English conquest of New Netherland. 
 See New York: 1664. 
 
 1669-1693. — Failure of Locke's Fundamental 
 Constitutions in America. See North Carolina: 
 1669-1693. 
 
 1673. — Dutch reconquest of New Netherland. 
 See New York: 1673. 
 
 1673-1682. — Discovery and exploration of the 
 Mississippi, by Marquette and La Salle. — 
 Louisiana named and possessed by the French. 
 See Canada: 1634-1673; 1669-1687. 
 
 1674. — Final surrender of New Netherland to 
 the English. See Netherlands: 1674. 
 
 1681. — Proprietary grant to William Penn. 
 See Pennsylvania: 1681. 
 
 1685. — Trade with Bristol. Sec Bristol: 1685. 
 
 1688-1780. — Beginning and growth of anti- 
 slavery sentiment among the Quakers. — Eman- 
 cipation in Pennsylvania. See Slavery: 1688- 
 17S0. 
 
 1689-1697. — First inter-colonial war: King 
 William's War (the War of the League of 
 Augsburg). See Canada: 1689-1690; 1692-1697; 
 also Newfoundland: 1694-1697. 
 
 1690. — First colonial congress. See U. S. A.: 
 1690; also Canada: 16S0-1600. 
 
 1698-1712. — French colonization of Louisiana. 
 — Broad claims of France to the whole valley of 
 the Mississippi. See Louisiana: 1698-1712; 1699- 
 1763. 
 
 1698-1776. — English monopoly of supply of 
 slaves to Spanish colonies. — Asiento contract. 
 Sec Slavery: 1698- 1776. 
 
 1699-1763. — French and English trade with the 
 Indians. See Louisiana: 1690- 1763. 
 
 1700-1735. — Spread of French occupation in 
 the Mississippi valley and on the lakes. See 
 Canada: 1700- 173 5 
 
 1702. — Union of the two Jerseys as a royal 
 province. See New Jersey: 1688-1738. 
 
 1702-1713. — Second inter-colonial war; Queen 
 Anne's War (the War of the Spanish Succes- 
 sion). — Final acquisition of Nova Scotia by the 
 English. See Canada: 1711-1713; New England: 
 1702-1710. 
 
 1704-1729. — Early newspapers in America. See 
 Printing and the press: 1704-1729. 
 
 1713. — Division of territory between England 
 and France by the Treaty of Utrecht. See 
 Canada: 1713; Utrecht; 1712-1714. 
 
 1713-1776. — English crown opposes the aboli- 
 tion of slavery in the colonies. See Slavery: 
 171,^1776. 
 
 1720-1744.— Relations of England with Span- 
 ish America. — "The imperial policy, the English 
 Government's plans and their execution are by no 
 means of the same importance in the English colo- 
 nies on the mainland, because these were self- 
 sufficient and independent enough to work out 
 their own development, and could easily confront 
 imperial regulations by a passive resistance or by a 
 
 291
 
 AMERICA, 1720-1744 
 
 England and 
 Spanish- America 
 
 AMERICA, 1720-1744 
 
 practical evasion. This method was more difficult 
 in the West Indies; the islands had actually to 
 be fed with Irish salt beef, Old English herrings, 
 and New English com. They were continually 
 subject to inspection by the British fleet, by Brit- 
 ish mihtary officers, and by governors who were 
 not in general liable to the same pressure from their 
 assemblies as were those on the continent. Speaii- 
 ing broadly, the continental colonies developed 
 along their own lines, hampered but not checked 
 permanently by restrictive commercial and politi- 
 cal regulations. The West Indies grew up under 
 the imperial shadow, and felt the influence of 
 Burke's 'winged messengers of vengeance who car- 
 ried (England's) bolts in their pounces to the re- 
 motest verge of the sea.' During our period the 
 West Indies were important to England on every 
 ground, popular, parliamentary, strategic, and com- 
 mercial. It was in the West Indies that Drake 
 and Hawkins had reaped a golden harvest, and 
 the popular imagination still regarded the isles as 
 the outposts from which assaults could be made 
 on the treasure houses of the Incas. Pious Protes- 
 ant adventurers could be trusted to destroy the 
 popish inquisition at the same time that they de- 
 prived Spain of the gold of Eldorado. To the out- 
 bursts of the mob and of popular feeling neither 
 of England's two real rulers in this period were 
 ever indifferent. To parUaraentary pressure W'al- 
 pole and Newcastle were even more susceptible, and 
 there were in the House of Commons not only 
 mem'oers of the South Sea Company, but also West 
 Indian landlords. The West Indian archipelago, 
 unlike the American continent, was in large part 
 settled and exploited by men who lived in England, 
 and who employed agents or factors to manage 
 their West Indian estates. Such men often found 
 it convenient or commercially profitable to ob- 
 tain seats in the Commons, and the young Glad- 
 stone was perhaps the last man who represented 
 the West Indian slavery interest in that body. It 
 was as literally true to say that the West Indies 
 were represented in British Parliament as it was 
 absurd to assert that the American colonies were. 
 Commercial considerations were the most impor- 
 tant of all; in the early eighteenth century Eng- 
 land judged colonies by the value of their trade 
 even more than by their provision of materials — 
 raw and human — for the British Navy. From 
 the trade test the West Indies emerged triumph- 
 antly. The English exports to the West Indies 
 differed so amazingly from the imports that even 
 contemporaries ceased to trust entirely to the bal- 
 ance of trade as a measure of value. By the 
 import test the West Indian trade was about equal 
 during this period to that from the northern colo- 
 nies, and it brought more direct gains to English 
 pockets. Unlike the continental colonies the West 
 Indies could not rival English manufactures, for 
 coffee, cocoa, indigo, cotton, fruits, and sugar were 
 all tropical products. The West Indies were also 
 the center and clearing house of that traffic in 
 negroes, which was so dear to the hearts and 
 pockets of the merchants of Liverpool, Bristol, and 
 London. But more important than all this, they 
 were the subterranean channel which micht con- 
 vey to England the whole measureless volume of 
 Spanish trade, the silks and tea of the East, car- 
 ried from .^capulco to Mexico and thence to Vera 
 Cruz, the Peruvian gold piled high on the quays 
 of Porto Bello, the galleons laden with jewels and 
 plate which sailed from Cartagena and Havana. 
 Bv the .^siento treaty England, and England alone 
 of European powers, had the opportunity of tap- 
 ping these boundless resources. This treaty gave 
 England the sole contract for supplying negroes 
 
 to Spanish America and also permission to un- 
 lade in Spanish America the cargo of one large 
 ship filled with English goods. Both these privi- 
 leges could be used to open up the Spanish trade. 
 The limited right of entry for English goods might 
 well become an unlimited one under an easy-going 
 Spanish governor. Even when he refused to wink 
 at an illicit commerce, he was often quite unable 
 to police the coast and suppress the smugglers. An 
 enormous illicit trade with the Spanish islands 
 and the mainland was thus promoted or permitted 
 by the interest, the impotence, or the supineness of 
 the Spanish governors themselves. Other coun- 
 tries were not so fortunate in their attempts to 
 smuggle goods into Spanish America. Newcastle 
 admitted to Keene (England's ambassador to 
 Spain) that the 'Dutch trade in the West Indies 
 in general is much more confined than ours, and 
 that which they carry on to the Spanish colo- 
 nies is altogether an illicit one.' As their trade 
 was altogether illicit the poor Dutch could not 
 complain of confiscated goods, but by the .^siento 
 it was hard to draw the line between the avowed 
 English trade and the smuggling. Keene and Vil- 
 larias (the Spanish foreign minister) both declared 
 that the French Government had almost entirely 
 stopped French illicit practices in the West Indies. 
 Even if we do not altogether accept this state- 
 ment it seems safe to assume that the English 
 illicit trade with Spanish America was far larger 
 than the French or the Dutch. It is at least 
 worthy of note that in 1762 the French trade to 
 Spanish America was reckoned at £1,250,000 and 
 the English at ii, 090,000. This was 23 years 
 after 1730, the year in which England's privileged 
 monopoly practically ceased, and we must assume, 
 therefore, that in the interval the destruction of 
 English privilege enabled France to equalize mat- 
 ters. In January, 1738, Horatio Walpole. not the 
 most delightful of historical gossips but his uncle, 
 the most learned and informed of contemporary 
 English diplomatists, wrote a famous secret me- 
 moir for the British Government. In it he re- 
 viewed the whole subject of the English relations 
 with Spanish .America, and his arguments formed 
 the basis of all the diplomacy which led up to 
 the war of 1739. He begins by surveying the 
 treaties between Spain and England and admits 
 that a beneficial construction of treaties had given 
 a large amount of illicit trade to England until 
 the end of the seventeenth century, 'which with- 
 out doubt was by connivance and indulgence on 
 the part of Spain, by treating us in a more fa- 
 vorable manner than any other country whatso- 
 ever.' Spain even extended their indulgence, with 
 respect to navigation and trade, farther than we 
 could pretend to claim by treaty.' When Spain 
 ceased to be England's ally, beneficial construc- 
 tions ceased also. But in 1713 came the peace of 
 Utrecht (q.v.) and the Asiento, which increased 
 the possibility of smuggling. From 1717 to 1710 
 and from 1726 to 1727 there was actual war be- 
 tween the two countries. From 1734 to 1737 
 there was, however, again greater freedom of in- 
 tercourse, but from 1737 onward a greater Span- 
 ish severity than at any previous period in the 
 eighteenth century. Walpole's general conclusion 
 as to England issuing letters of reprisal on Spain 
 in case of war is interesting. He avows that this 
 is not a good plan, because the Spaniards have 
 nothing worth taking even in the galleons; 'two- 
 thirds or one-half at least of all these rich load- 
 ings belonged to the French.' Reprisal mav, there- 
 fore, embroil against us those nations 'that have 
 a chief property in the galleons. ' On the other 
 hand, England's rich and valuable West Indian 
 
 292
 
 AMERICA, 1720-1744 
 
 Spanish- America 
 American Colonies 
 
 AMERICA, 1776 
 
 trade will be at the mercy of all pirates and in- 
 terlopers, as well as privateers in case of reprisal. 
 Accordingly he does not recommend action against 
 Spain, but the conclusion of an agreement by 
 which both nations should arrange to restrain by 
 legislation illicit intercourse between their subjects 
 in the West Indies. Hardwicke or Newcastle wrote 
 a note on the margin of the memoir as follow: 
 'The trade to the Spanish West Indies, although 
 illicit by treaties between sovereign and sovereign, 
 is so very lucrative that the Parliament will never 
 pass such a law, and the Enghsh merchant will 
 run the hazard of carrying it on in spite of treaty.' 
 This aristocratic Government was singularly defer- 
 ential to the trader. Newcastle complains how he 
 had to endure threats from deputations of mer- 
 chants 'who used in times past to come cap in 
 hand . . . now and the second word is . . . you 
 shall hear of it in another place' (meaning the 
 Commons), and the duke also approved of 'yield- 
 ing to the times' (meaning not the newspaper but 
 the London mob). It was quite clear that neither 
 Newcastle nor Walpole could oppose the Commons 
 or the capital too far, and in fact the main cause 
 of the war of 1739 appears to have been an out- 
 cry of Parliament and people, stimulated by com- 
 mercial influence. If we survey the facts, we 
 shall, I believe, find that during 173S-3Q, the ques- 
 tion of Spanish-American trade dominated and 
 subordinated to itself the w^hole domestic and 
 colonial policy of England. There was in 1739 a 
 popular clamor about Jenkins and his ear [see 
 England i 739-1 741], about outrages on English- 
 men by Spanish governors, and about the tortur- 
 ing of Protestants by Jesuits. There was also a 
 very strong commercial pressure on the Govern- 
 ment to preserve the whole of the existing illicit 
 trade with Spain and Spanish America. None the 
 less it remains a striking fact that, at one point in 
 the negotiations to preserve peace in 1738-30, Wal- 
 pole and Newcastle were willing to suppress a 
 large part of that illicit trade with Spain. They 
 actually prepared and drafted articles for a treaty 
 which would have suppressed the illicit trade of 
 private adventurers to the Spanish Indies and 
 mainland. They were not, however, prepared to 
 suppress the illicit trade conducted by the South 
 Sea Co. under the shadow of the .^siento. They 
 were willing enough to put pressure on private ad- 
 venturers and smugglers because these undercut 
 the profits of the South Sea Co., but they abso- 
 lutely refused to put any pressure on the company 
 to force it to trade fairly. The reason I believe 
 to be rather an interesting one. The English Gov- 
 ernment was financially and officially committed to 
 the support of the South Sea Co., which was 
 an English venture and which had an important 
 parliamentary interest. Private individuals who 
 smuggled on the Spanish M^in were some of them 
 perhaps English, more were West Indians, the ma- 
 jority were from the continental colonies, espe- 
 cially from. New England. The continental colo- 
 nies possessed very little interest in Parliament, 
 the West Indian smugglers had less than the South 
 Sea Co. Hence, if there was to be a suppression 
 of illicit trade that of private individuals must 
 suffer. In a sense this action was a sacrifice of 
 colonial interests to purely English ones. In a 
 way it is a more serious instance of such sacrifice 
 than Walpole's sugar act of 1733. He never at- 
 tempted to enforce the prohibitions of that act, but 
 he did seriously contemplate this other suppres- 
 sion of illicit trade. Thus we see as far back as 
 1730, a growing difference of treatment and a pos- 
 sible cause of irritation arising between mother- 
 land and her continental colonies. When the wars 
 
 were over, the separation of commercial interests 
 between the two was soon to be revealed, and to 
 set one fighting against the other. But as yet the 
 difference was hidden in ministerial portofolios. 
 W'hen war broke out in 1739 the New Englanders 
 fitted out ships and spent money to aid the Old 
 Englanders against the Spaniards, and side by side 
 they shared the triumphs and treasure of Porto 
 Bello and disease and defeat beneath the fever- 
 haunted walls of Cartagena." — H. W. V. Temper- 
 ley, Relations of England with Spanish America, 
 1 720-1 744 (American Historical Association, pp. 
 231-237). — See also Commerce: Era of geographic 
 expansion: I7th-i8th centuries: North American 
 colonies. 
 
 1729. — End of the proprietary government in 
 North Carolina. See North Carolina: 1688- 
 1729. 
 
 1729-1730. — Founding of Baltimore. See Mary- 
 land: I 72 Q- I 730. 
 
 1732. — Colonization of Georgia by General 
 Oglethorpe. See Georgia: 1732-1739. 
 
 1744-1748. — Third inter-colonial war: King 
 George's war (War of the Austrian Succes- 
 sion). See New England: 1744; 1745; and 1745- 
 174S. 
 
 1748-1760. — Unsettled boundary disputes of 
 England and France. — Fourth and last inter- 
 colonial war, c.-illed the French and Indian War 
 (Seven Years War of Europe) — English con- 
 quest of Canada. See Canada: 1750-1753; 1756; 
 1759; 1760; Nova Scotia: 1749-1755; 1755; Ohio 
 (Valley): i 748-1 754; 1754; 1755; Cape Breton 
 Island: 1758-1760. 
 
 1749. — Introduction of negro slavery into 
 Georgia. See Georgia: 1735-1749. 
 
 1750-17S3. — Dissensions among the English 
 colonies on the eve of the great French war. 
 See U. S. A.: 1750-1753. 
 
 1754. — Colonial congress at Albany. — Frank- 
 lin's plan of union. See .'\lbany plan of union; 
 U. S. A.: 1754. 
 
 1756. — Extent and distribution of slavery in 
 the English colonies. Sec Slavery: 1756. 
 
 1762-1803. — Spanish rule in Louisiana. See 
 Missouri: 1762-1803. 
 
 1763. — Peace of Paris. — Canada, Cape Breton, 
 Newfoundland, and Louisiana east of the Mis- 
 sissippi (except New Orleans) ceded by France 
 to Great Britain. — West of the Mississippi an-d 
 New Orleans to Spain. — Florida by Spain to 
 Great Britain. See Seven Years War. 
 
 1763-1764. — Pontiac's War. See Pontiac's 
 War. 
 
 1763-1765. — Growing discontent of the Eng- 
 lish colonies. — Question of taxation. — Stamp Act 
 and its repeal. See U. S. A.: 1760-1775, to 1766. 
 1766. — Russians on the northwestern coast of 
 United States. See Oregon: 1741-1S36. 
 
 1766-1769. — Spanish occupation of New Or- 
 leans and Western Louisiana, and the revolt 
 against it. See Louisiana: i 766-1 768, and 1769. 
 1769-1785. — Abolition of slavery in Connect- 
 icut and New Hampshire. See Slavery: 1769- 
 178S. 
 
 1774. — Rhode Island prohibits the introduction 
 of slaves. See Sl.avery: 1774. 
 
 1775. — Committee of secret correspondence. 
 See State Department, LT^jj^q States: 1774-1789. 
 1775-1783. — Independence of the English colo- 
 nies achieved. See U. S. A.: 1775 (.'\pril) to 1783 
 (September) . 
 
 1776. — Political powers of Maryland vested in 
 a convention. See Maryland: 1776. 
 
 1776. — Rhode Island declares its independence. 
 See Rhode Island: 1776. 
 
 293
 
 AMERICA, CENTRAL 
 
 AMERICAN ASSOCIATION 
 
 1776.— Erection of the Spanish vice-royalty 
 of Buenos Ayres. See Arcextina; 1580-1777. 
 
 1776-1784. — Maryland's influence on the 
 founding of the western domain. See Mary- 
 land: 1 776-1 784. 
 
 1776-1784.— Ordinance of 1784.— Confederation 
 and attitude of Maryland. See M.\r\i.and: 1776- 
 
 1784. 
 
 1776-1808. — Anti-slavery sentiment in south- 
 ern states. — Its disappearance. See Slavery: 
 1776-1808. 
 
 1792-1807. — Attempts to suppress the slave 
 trade. See Slavery: 17Q2-1S07. 
 
 1803-1812. — Control of Louisiana by United 
 States. See Missouri: 1803- 181 2. 
 
 1810-1816. — Revolt, independence and confed- 
 eration of the Argentine provinces. See Argen- 
 tina: 1806-1S20. 
 
 1815.— Declaration of the Powers against the 
 slave trade. See Slavery: 1815. 
 
 1818. — Chilean independence achieved. See 
 
 Chile: 1S10-181S. 
 
 1820-1821. — Independence acquired by Mex- 
 ico and the Central American states. See 
 Mexico: 1820-1826; and Central America: 1S21- 
 1871. 
 
 1823. — Enunciation of Monroe Doctrine. See 
 Monroe Doctrine. 
 
 1824. — Peruvian independence won at Aya- 
 cucho. See Perli; 1S20-1S26. 
 
 1835. — Russian and British claims in Oregon. 
 — Compromise. See Oregox: 1741-1836. 
 
 For the detailed development of the various 
 countries in both North and South .America, sec 
 Alaska; .\rgentina; Bolhia; Brazil; Canada; 
 Central America; Colombia; Ecuador; Mexico; 
 Paraguay; Peru; U. S. A.; Uruguay; Venezuela; 
 also American republics, International Union 
 of; Latin America; Railroads: U. S. A.: Inter- 
 continental. 
 
 AMERICA, Central. See Central America. 
 
 AMERICAN ABORIGINES. See Indians, 
 .\merican; also under the names of various 
 tribes. 
 
 AMERICAN ACADEMY IN ROME, an in- 
 stitution for the cultivation of American talent in 
 the field of art, founded in 1865 by a group of 
 men among whom were Charles F. McKim, .Augus- 
 tus Saint-Gaudens, Francis D. Millet, J. Pier- 
 po'nt Morgan, and William K. Vanderbilt. "The 
 Academy offers fellowships to men and women 
 who have already had a preliminary education in 
 the arts and have given evidence of being poten- 
 tial creators of art of the hiehest order. It holds 
 out to the gifted youth throughout the Union ex- 
 actly the same privileges which the French Acad- 
 emy offers to the geniuses of France. Fellows, or 
 prize-holders, are given an opportunity of living 
 in an artistic environment and meeting with great 
 minds in their own and allied arts and letters. 
 That the American .\cademy fills a long-felt want, 
 and that the plan upon which it was founded is 
 ideal, is attested by the fact that during the past 
 quarter of a century it has produced, in the fine 
 arts, such men as John Russell Pope, Harry Al- 
 len Jacobs, Paul Manship, Herman A. MacNeil, 
 George Breck and Eugene Savage. From its classi- 
 cal studies fellowships, it has furnished our uni- 
 versities and schools with nearly one hundred and 
 fifty professors trained in the humanistic as op- 
 posed to the pedantic spirit." — G. Rene du Bois, 
 American Art (Arls and Decoration, Mar. 25, 
 1020.1 
 
 AMERICAN AIR SERVICE. See .\\x\tion: 
 Development of airplanes and air service: 1914- 
 1918. 
 
 AMERICAN ALLIANCE FOR LABOR 
 AND DEMOCRACY. See American Federa- 
 tion or Labor: 1017-1018. 
 
 AMERICAN AMBULANCE. — "During the 
 first eight months of the World War the .American 
 .Ambulance continually hoped to extend its work 
 to an .Ambulance Service delinitely connected 
 with the armies in the field, but not until April, 
 1015, were these hopes delinitel\' realized. The 
 history, however, of these lirst eight months is 
 important ; its mistakes showed the way to suc- 
 cess; its expectations brought gilts of cars, in- 
 duced volunteers to come from .America, and laid 
 the basis upon which the present service is founded. 
 A gift of ten ambulances, whose bodies were made 
 out of packing-boxes, enabled the .American Am- 
 bulance, at the very outset of the war, to take 
 part in the transportation service, and as more and 
 more donations were made, small squads were 
 formed in an attempt to enlarge the work. ... In 
 .April, iqi5, . . . the French authorities made a 
 place for American .Ambulance Sections at the 
 front on trial. .A squad of ten ambulances was 
 sent to V'osges, and this croup attracted the at- 
 tention of their commanding officers, who asked 
 that it be increased by ten cars so as to form it 
 into an independent Sanitary Section. -As soon 
 as this was done, the unit took its place in con- 
 junction with a French Section in an important 
 Sector on the front in .Alsace. With this initial 
 success a new order of things began, and in the 
 same month a second Section of twenty cars was 
 formed and was stationed, again in conjunction 
 with an cxistins French service, in the much-bom- 
 barded town of Pont-a-Mousson. In the mean- 
 time, two squads of five cars each had been work- 
 ing at Dunkirk. These were now reenforced by 
 ten more and the whole Section was then moved 
 to the French front in Belgium, with the result 
 that at the end of the month of .April, 1015, the 
 Field Service of the American .Ambulance had 
 really come into existence. It comprised three 
 Sections of twenty ambulances, a staff car, and a 
 supply car. . . . The story of the next year is one 
 of real achievement, in which the three Sections 
 emerged from the test with a record of having 
 fulfilled the highest expectations of proving their 
 utility to France. . . . The ambulances were 
 manned chiefly by .American college men who 
 agreed to serve not less than six months, and who 
 brought to the work youth and intelligence, initia- 
 tive and courage. ... In November, 1015, at the 
 request of General Headquarters, a fourth Section, 
 made possible through the continued aid of gen- 
 erous friends in .America, took its place in the field 
 ... In Feb:uary, loib. Section 2 was summoned 
 to the vicinity of Verdun at the moment of the 
 great battle, and in March definite arrangements 
 for a fifth Section was completed." — H. S. Harri- 
 son and S. Galatti, Friends of France, pp. 1-4. — By 
 the end of the war, 47 companies had been or- 
 ganized with a personnel of 4,760 men. After 
 bringing the men together and instructing them in 
 first-aid. the Red Cross turned them over to the 
 .Army Medical Department and they were at once 
 mustered into service. All of them were motor 
 companies. Until 1Q16 the .Army had made no 
 provision for such motorized companies, and ani- 
 mal-drawn vehicles were used in all cases. 
 
 AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE. See Ar- 
 chitectire: Modern: .America. 
 
 AMERICAN ART. See Painting: American; 
 Sculpture: Modern: .American sculpture. 
 
 AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR LABOR 
 LEGISLATION, an organization affiliated with 
 the International .Association for Labor Legisia- 
 
 294
 
 AMERICAN ASSOCIATION 
 
 AMERICAN COMMISSION 
 
 tion; founded igo6; interests itself chiefly in la- 
 bor problems and endeavors to influence legislation 
 for the betterment of labor conditions throughout 
 the country ; has been a great influence in the en- 
 actment of federal and state workmen's compensa- 
 tion and insurance laws. The association publishes 
 a quarterly, American Labor Legislation Review. — 
 See also Labok legislation: igo6-iQ2i. 
 
 AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE 
 ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, the most 
 important American scientific society ; was organ- 
 ized in Boston in 1S47. It was an outgrowth of 
 the Association of American Geologists and Natur- 
 alists, The society is organized in sections, each 
 of which holds its own convention at the time of 
 the annual meeting of the association. These sec- 
 tions include: A, mathematics and astronomy; B, 
 physics; C, chemistry; D. mechanical science and 
 engineering; E, geology and geography; F, zool- 
 ogy; G, botany; H, anthropology and psychology; 
 I, social and economic science; K, physiology and 
 experimental medicine; L, education. Since igoi 
 the journal Science has been the semi-official organ 
 of the association. 
 
 AMERICAN BLACKLIST. See Blacklist: 
 American. 
 
 AMERICAN CABINET. See Cabinet, Amer- 
 ican. 
 
 AMERICAN-CANADIAN FISHERIES 
 CONFERENCE. See Alaska: 1914-1918. 
 
 AMERICAN CIVIC ASSOCIATION.— "Or- 
 ganized effort for the systematic makin-^ of a beau- 
 tiful America did not manifest itself until within 
 comparatively recent years. Prior to 1904 there had 
 been various short-lived state associations, a few 
 interstate societies and two national organizations, 
 working with the same general objects in view. 
 But at St. Louis, in 1Q04, the year of the great 
 exposition, a merger of the two national organiza- 
 tions brought forth the American Civic Association 
 which, since that time, has carried on with increas- 
 ing success and popular support the greatly needed 
 work for a- 'More Beautiful America'; and since 
 that time it has been recognized as the one great 
 national agency for the furtherance of that work. 
 With its purpose as staled in its constitution 
 clearly before it, it has constantly widened the circle 
 of its usefulness until recently they were grouped 
 under fifteen general departments, each department 
 headed by an expert in his or her particular spec- 
 ialty. In classifying its varied activities, the As- 
 sociation announces that it aims 'to make Ameri- 
 can hving conditions clean, healthful, attractive; 
 to extend the making of public parks; to promote 
 the opening of gardens and playgrounds for chil- 
 dren and recreation centers for adults; to abate 
 public nuisances — including objectionable signs, un- 
 necessary poles and wires, unpleasant and wasteful 
 smoking factory chimneys ; to make the buildings 
 and the surroundings of railway stations and fac- 
 tories attractive; to extend the practical influence 
 of schools; to protect existing trees and to en- 
 courage intelligent tree planting ; to preserve great 
 scenic wonders (such as Niagara Falls and the 
 White Mountains) from commercial spoliation. 
 So vigorously has it pursued these activities that it 
 has seen some of them develop to such proportions 
 that they were ready to swing off from the par- 
 ent circle into spheres of their own. Such was 
 the case with the playground movement, which for 
 years was fostered most energetically by the .Ameri- 
 can Civic Association until it grew into an inde- 
 pendent organization known as the National Play- 
 ground Association, and which is now an agency 
 of splendid achievements in its one specialized func- 
 tion." — B. Watrous, American Civic Association 
 
 {American City, October, 1909). — During 1913 a 
 group of the association's members visited various 
 European countries to study the civic progress 
 there and to see what methods of efficient adminis- 
 tration might be adapted to American needs. From 
 Oct. 13-15, 1920 the American Civic Association 
 held its sixteenth annual convention at Amherst. — 
 See also Civic beauty; City planning; Bill- 
 boards: Efforts of women. 
 
 AMERICAN CIVIL WAR. See U. S. A.: 
 i860 (November-December) and after. 
 
 AMERICAN COLONIES. See America; 
 U. S. A.: 1607 and after. 
 
 Development of agriculture. See Agricul- 
 ture: Modern period: United States: Beginnings. 
 
 AMERICAN COLONIZATION SOCIETY, 
 an organization formed in 1816 for the purpose of 
 returning negroes to Africa. It had strong support, 
 especially in the South and was aided by some 
 state governments and by federal appropriations. 
 It formed a settlement called Liberia on the Af- 
 rican coast to which it sent out some negroes. — See 
 also Liberia; Early history. 
 
 Also in: H. T. McPherson, History of Liberia 
 — A. B. Hart, Slavery and abolition. 
 
 AMERICAN COMMISSION FOR RELIEF 
 IN BELGIUM. See Belgium; 1914. 
 
 AMERICAN COMMISSION IN SYRIA. 
 See International relief: Near East. 
 
 AMERICAN COMMISSION TO NEGO- 
 TIATE PEACE.— "The Paris Conference was 
 opened in January [1919]. . . . The President of 
 the United States, Dr. Woodrow Wilson, had ar- 
 rived in Europe in the previous month; and the 
 American representatives being present in Paris, no 
 time was lost in making arrangements for the Con- 
 ference. Dr. Wilson was accompanied by Mr. 
 Robert Lansing (Secretary of State), and by Colo- 
 nel E. M. House, Mr. Henry White, and General 
 T. H. Bliss. The last-named delegate had previous- 
 ly been the American representative on the Supreme 
 War Council at Versailles, and hence he was, of 
 course, well-known in Paris." — Annual Register for 
 1919, p. ISO. — The Commission was accompanied 
 by a band of expert advisers. "As to personnel, 
 the problem proved to be less difficult than at 
 first it threatened to be. . . . Work of such de- 
 tail could not be expected of statesmen and diplo- 
 mats, nor would they have been competent for it. 
 The need was for men expert in research. Con- 
 sequently the staff was in the main recruited from 
 strong universities and colleges but also from 
 among former officials, lawyers, and business men. 
 The studies that were made during the winter, 
 spring and autumn of 1918 in the geography, his- 
 tory, economic resources, political organization and 
 affiliations, and ethnic and cultural characteristics 
 of the peoples and territories in Europe, Africa, 
 Asia, and the islands of the Pacific, served as tests 
 for the selection and elimination of workers; the 
 men making these studies and reporting thereon 
 were under constant observation, and as a result 
 the best fitted among them emerged and were put 
 in charge of various subdivisions of the work and 
 assigned groups of assistants. As a consequence, 
 by the fall of 1918 The Inquiry was thus organ- 
 ized: 
 
 "Director, Dr. S. E. Mezes, College of the City 
 of New York. 
 
 "Chief Territorial Specialist, Dr. Isaiah Bowman, 
 American Geographical Society. (Dr. Bowman 
 was named executive officer in the summer of 
 1918, after Mr. Walter Lippmann resigned as sec- 
 retary to undertake intelligence work for the army 
 in France.) 
 
 "Regional Specialiits: 
 
 295
 
 AMERICAN DRAMA 
 
 AMERICAN EXPEDITIONARY FORCES 
 
 For the northwestern frontiers — Dr. Charles H. 
 Haskins, Harvard University. 
 
 For Poland and Russia — Dr. R. H. Lord, Har- 
 vard University. 
 
 For Austria-Hungary — Dr. Charles Seymour, 
 Yale University. 
 
 For Italian boundaries — Dr. W. E. Lunt, Hav- 
 erford College. 
 
 For the Balkans — Dr. Clive Day, Yale Univer- 
 sity. 
 
 For Western Asia — Dr. W. L. Westermann, Uni- 
 versity of Wisconsin. 
 
 For the Far East— Capt. S. K. Hornbeck, 
 U. S. A. 
 
 For Colonial Problems — Mr. George L. Beer, 
 formerly of Columbia University. 
 
 "Economic Specialist, Dr. A. A. Young, Cornell 
 University 
 
 "Librarian and Specialist in History, Dr. James 
 T. Shotwell, Columbia University. 
 
 "Specialist in Boundary Geography, Maj. Doug- 
 las Johnson, Columbia University. 
 
 "Chief Cartographer, Prof. Mark Jefferson, State 
 Normal College, Ypsilanti, Michigan. 
 
 "Besides The Inquiry proper, and affiliated with 
 
 they would have on the spirits of the allied peoples, 
 and the first division under Pershing was dis- 
 patched. .'\t the same time steps were taken to 
 raise a great army." — J. S. Bassett, Our u<ar with 
 Germany, pp. iSg-igo. — General Pershing reached 
 Paris on June 13, igi7, and the first contingent of 
 American troops arrived at the port of St. Na- 
 zaire, France, on June 25, igi?. "The first Ameri- 
 can artillery in France undertook a schedule of 
 studies in an old French artillery post located near 
 the Swiss frontier. This place is called Valda- 
 hon, and for scores of years had been one of the 
 training places for French artillery. But during 
 the third and fourth years of the war, nearly all 
 of the French artillery being on the front, all sub- 
 sequent drafts of French artillery received their 
 training under actual war conditions. ... It was 
 after midnight that our men reached the front 
 line. It was the morning of October 23, igiy, that 
 American infantrymen and Bavarian regiments of 
 Landwehr and Landsturm faced one another for 
 the first time in front line position on the Euro- 
 pean front. . . . The first shot was fired at 6:5:10 
 [5 minutes and 10 seconds after 6 o'clock] A. M., 
 October 23, igi7. The missle fired was a 75-mil- 
 
 .fi&OV,/ 4S00O 
 
 ICMtSTtR 4M0 
 veRPOOL S44(M0 
 tSTOL PORTS 11000 
 
 ■ALMOUTM 1000 
 
 ^LYMOUTM 1000 
 
 Y/scurnArtpjxM S70CO 
 
 fyLQNDON 6t00tt 
 
 MOVEMENT OF AMERICAN EXPEDITIONARY FORCES TO EUROPE 
 
 although distinct from it, were the experts in in- 
 ternational law, Mr. David Hunter Miller and 
 Major James Brown Scott. This body of men 
 proceeded to Paris at the opening of December, 
 1918, except Mr. Miller, who had gone in Oc- 
 tober. In Paris they assisted the commissioners 
 plenipotentiary with data and recommendations, 
 and themselves served on commissions dealing with 
 three types of problems: First, territorial; second, 
 economic questions and reparation; third, interna- 
 tional law and the League of Nations. ... As it 
 turned out, the staff of The Inquiry were concerned 
 in Paris, as members of commissions, with delicate 
 questions of policy, and it may be noted that the 
 decisions which they had a part in negotiating 
 were only in the rarest instances modified by the 
 supreme council." — E. M. House and C. Seymour, 
 What reallv happened in Paris, pp. 6-8. 
 
 AMERICAN DRAMA. See American litera- 
 ture: 17S0-1861. 
 
 AMERICAN EMBARGO CONFERENCE. 
 See U. S. A.: 1014-1017. 
 
 AMERICAN EXPEDITIONARY FORCES. 
 — "Interviews with members of the French and 
 British missions that arrived in Washington in 
 April [191 7] convinced the president that we 
 ought to send troops [to Europe] for the effect 
 
 limetre or 3-inch high-explosive shell. The target 
 was a German battery of iso-millimctre or 6-inch 
 guns located two kilometres back of the German 
 first line trenches, and one kilometre in back of 
 the boundary line between France and German- 
 Lorraine. The position of that enemy battery on 
 (he map was in a field 100 metres west of the town 
 which the French still call Xaurey, but which the 
 Germans have called Scheuris since they took it 
 from France in 1870. Near that spot . . . fell 
 the first .American shell fired in the Great War.. 
 . . . The first executive work of the American Ex- 
 peditionary Forces overseas was performed in a 
 second floor suite of the Crillon Hotel in the 
 Place de la Concorde in Paris. This suite was the 
 first temporai-y headquarters of the American com- 
 mander." — F. Gibbons, And they thought we 
 ■wouldn't fight, p. g6. — "The American Expedition- 
 ary Force . . . was composed of forty-two divi- 
 sions, twenty-nine of which were combat units. 
 In the last week of October, igi8, when these 
 twenty-nine were in action, they held loi miles 
 of front, or twenty-three per cent, of the Allied 
 line. They advanced in battle 485 miles, and 
 captured 63,o7g prisoners and 1,378 guns. The 
 part taken by the American Expeditionary Force 
 in the fighting on the Western Front [may be 
 
 296
 
 AMERICAN FABIUS 
 
 AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR 
 
 summarized as follows:] . . . The First Division 
 captured Cantigny, in the Amiens sector, on May 
 28th. The Second Division, with elements of the 
 Third and Twenty-eighth, helped to stop the Ger- 
 man advance in the neighbourhood of Chateau- 
 Thierry. The Second Division (June sth-iith) 
 took Bourcsches, Torcy, and Belleau Wood — a 
 brilliant operation. Eighty-live thousand Ameri- 
 can troops cooperated in the repulse of Luden- 
 dorff's Fifth Offensive — the Forty-second Division 
 fighting with Gouraud, in Champagne, east of 
 Rheims, and the Third and Twenty-eighth fight- 
 ing with de Mitry south of the Marne. Eight di- 
 visions — the First, Second, Third, Fourth, Twenty- 
 sixth, Twenty-eighth, Thirty-second, and Forty- 
 second were employed in Foch's attack against the 
 Aisne-Marne salient, beginning July 18th. Ele- 
 ments of the Thirty-third Division took part in 
 Haig's offensive against the Montdidier salient, be- 
 ginning -August Sth. They helped the AustraHans 
 to storm Chipilly Ridge, on the north side of the 
 Somme. The Twenty-seventh and Thirtieth di- 
 visions were used in conjunction with the Austra- 
 lians to break the Hindenburg Line about Le Cate- 
 let and in the subsequent advance toward Mau- 
 beuge. The Twenty-eighth, Thirty-second, and 
 Seventy-seventh divisions participated in the first 
 stages of General Mangin's Oise-Aisne offensive, 
 beginning August i8th. The Twenty-seventh and 
 Thirtieth divisions, before storming the Hinden- 
 burg Line, had helped to recapture Mount Kem- 
 mel. On October 31st two other American divi- 
 sions — the Thirty-seventh and Ninety-first — were 
 sent to Flanders from the Meuse. They took part 
 in the last stages of the Ypres-Lys offensive, reach- 
 ing the line of the Scheldt." — W. L. McPherson, 
 Short history of the great war, pp. 385-386. — • 
 With the termination of hostilities (November 11, 
 igiS), the American Expeditionary Forces took 
 over the administration of the city of Coblenz. 
 Out of a total mobilization of 4,272,521 fighting 
 men, of which more than half comprised the A. 
 E. F,, the greater part of the remaining force 
 awaiting orders to join the A. E. F., the total cas- 
 ualties were 274,659. This figure included the 
 67,813 dead, the 192,483 wounded and the 14,363 
 prisoners or missing.— See also Trench warfare: 
 Defensive weapons; World War: 191 7: VIII. 
 United States and the war: j. 
 
 Also in: W. R. Skillman, A. E. P.: Who they 
 were I what they did! how they did it! — B. Crow- 
 ell and R. F. Wilson, How America went to war. 
 
 AMERICAN FABIUS, a sobriquet bestowed 
 upon George Washington for his tactics against 
 the British forces. Like the old Roman Dictator, 
 Fabius Cunctator (Delayer), he harassed the en- 
 emy, but avoided open battle. This policy was un- 
 popular and nearly led to Washington's removal. — 
 See also U. S. A.: 1783 (November-December). 
 
 AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR: 
 1881-1886. — Organization. — Early relations with 
 Knights of Labor. — "A call was issued conjointly 
 by the 'Knights of Industry' and a society known 
 as the 'Amalgamated Labor Union' — an offshoot of 
 the Knights of Labor, composed of disaffected 
 members of that order — for a convention to meet 
 in Terre Haute, Ind., on August 2, 1881. . . . The 
 Terre Haute convention had for its object the es- 
 tablishment of a new secret order to supplant the 
 Knights of Labor, although on the face of the 
 call, its object was stated to be to establish a 
 national labor congress. There was a large rep- 
 resentation of delegates present from St. Louis, 
 Cleveland, Chicago, and other western cities, but 
 the only eastern city represented was Pittsburgh. 
 The trade union delegates represented the largest 
 
 constituency, but were less in number themselves 
 than the delegates of the other societies. But, by 
 the exercise of tact and diplomacy, the trades 
 union men, who were at that time also members 
 of the Kriights of Labor, successfully opposed the 
 project of adding another new organization to the 
 list of societies already in existence, and, for the 
 time being, the friends of the proposed secret or- 
 ganization were defeated. A call was published, 
 however, for subsequent convention, to be held 
 in Pittsburgh on November 15, 1S81, and this gath- 
 ering proved to be the most important of its kind 
 that had thus far been held. . . . There were 107 
 delegates present at the Pittsburgh convention, rep- 
 resenting 262,000 workingmen, A permanent or- 
 ganization was formed and named the Federation 
 of Organized Trades and Labor Unions of the 
 United States and Canada. A legislative commit- 
 tee, now known as the Executive Council, was ap- 
 pointed. . . . Knights of Labor assemblies and 
 trades unions were equally represented, and it was 
 thoroughly understood that the trade unionists 
 should preserve their form of organization and the 
 Knights of Labor should maintain theirs, and that 
 the two should work hand in hand for the thorough 
 amalgamation of the working people under one 
 of these two heads. . . . [The convention of 1883] 
 favored arbitration instead of strikes. The eight- 
 hour rule was insisted upon and laws were de- 
 manded to limit the dividends of corporations and 
 to introduce governmental telegraph systems. . . . 
 The 1885 convention in Washington was princi- 
 pally directed to strengthening the national or- 
 ganization and preparing for the eight-hour move- 
 ment. . . . The 1886 convention was originally 
 called to meet in St. Louis in the latter part of 
 the year, but the stirring events incident to the 
 eight-hour strikes and the difficulties existing with 
 the Knights of Labor led to the memorable con- 
 ference of the officers of the trades unions on May 
 iS, when defensive measures were outlined to pro- 
 tect the trades unions and to secure harmony with 
 the Knights of Labor. A committee attended the 
 special session of the Knights' General Assembly, 
 at Cleveland, on May 26, and, after several days' 
 waiting, marked by long and animated discussions 
 ... no definite assurances were obtained, and no 
 action was taken. The trades union committee a 
 second time met the Knights of Labor Executive 
 Board on September 26, and secured promises that 
 definite action would be taken at the Richmond 
 General Assembly, which would lead to harmony 
 between the two organizations. The trade unions 
 objected to the admission to the Knights of Labor 
 of members who had been suspended, expelled, or 
 rejected for cause by their own organization ; they 
 opposed the formation of Knights of Labor as- 
 semblies in trades already thoroughly organized 
 into trades unions, and complained of the use of 
 Knights of Labor trade-marks or labels, in com- 
 petition with their own labels, notably so in the 
 case of the Cigar Makers' International Union. 
 At the Richmond General Assembly, the trade 
 union chiefs presented a mass of grievances, show- 
 ing where their local unions had been tampered 
 with by Knights of Labor organizations, where 
 movements had been made to disrupt them, and 
 where, in cases where such disruption could not be 
 effected, antagonistic organizations were formed by 
 the Knights. The General Assembly, however, in- 
 stead of removing these alleged evils or giving sat- 
 isfactory redress to the trade union element, ad- 
 ministered to the Federation a slap in the face, as 
 the latter understood it, by passing a resolution 
 compelling the members of Cigar Makers' Interna- 
 tional Union connected with the Knights of Labor 
 
 297
 
 „^« AMVRICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR 
 AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR AMERICAN 
 
 to withdraw from the order. The call for the St. 
 
 ^^^-^.a^^^S^^and^f^^ers^^^ 
 elected. Re^ol"''""^^ St-h'^urul? demanding 
 
 'VY "'"^''thetssa^e of a compulso'ry indenture 
 of Congress the passage m "^ , Protective 
 
 deliberation, a co"-i organization 
 
 ganizations, to secure s establishment of na- 
 
 ana luc h .:j;i,„ and encouragement ol tne 
 
 bodies; and '^^.^ ^'™",f,3^ .._An.erican Federation 
 
 iijij' sitp^ rnnvention, and iviay i, 
 
 S. It *..'''" *,S,..;^». .--»...-; 
 
 Fach local union was asked to vote on lue h 
 
 sSfilliSi 
 
 ^-J:eded'L^"Vurn.u.^-^^^^ 
 mised on nme hours. The Carpente^ ^.^^^ ^^ 
 eight hours in seven cities and c p^^^^ ^^^^^^^^ 
 nine m eighty-four. . . . ivia> , \^^ j^v. 
 
 fh";Xgg.e: "^^rLccessfu, in U, citie. be.^ 
 fitting 47.IP7 ^^"^''"?!" ,,3,-,tm go^g on. It was 
 
 strike for eight hours, and t w ^^^^ ^^ 
 
 through trade umon activity, the A. !■. oi i> 
 
 sistently demanded the shorter work-day loj^l'L 
 
 r^Ti'^hfa^rTi:s.^t^:ithrre't^ 
 
 tfe^'bu w't wholW dependent on the view- 
 .nint nf the federal official having the power to 
 point ol tne i"ierd. Congress enacted an 
 
 being enforced. It also was soon found that th 
 
 ■isb"'" w-"'" -""""■' '■'• 
 
 meni Owing to the emergencies created by he 
 
 ^:i:t wooing ^^^,,:if L^-„,^ri:w 
 
 '^nTrcrarv- tt "SeV that ''all overtime 
 hould be paid for at the rate of time and a haf^ 
 
 TWs mainlined the ,eight-hour principle while 
 meeting an emergency^ -/W.,PP^ i°-^ - 
 of^S-7i"ghrrgrst°the'mT iuiance U 
 ?'ade ut^ons 'see Labor strikes a.o bovcotts: 
 
 '*?^«''°°Trouble over Buck stove and range 
 boy?ou-'^s7e"tvc^^^ Recent judicia^^^^^^^^^^^ 
 1910.-Admi3sion of Negroes. See Race pbob 
 
 "igTl-Union'with W. F. M. See Ikousxrial 
 WORKERS OP THE WORUK R-ent tendencies. 
 
 Wo^d-X-'AtearAuLncelor Labor and 
 KcrYcy:-War,,.abor boards S,ppo^ 
 
 states support the government but they caMmto 
 existence [in 'be summei^ oj i i , -Pa^^^ ^^^„ 
 
 ine weeiv " .,, , ^^ organized labor m 
 
 served as Losalty \\eeK d> "6 pffectivelv to 
 
 anti-American propaganda^ -F^L XV ar^ lif labor 
 
 298
 
 AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR 
 
 AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR 
 
 as they got into working order, the work of the 
 Cominiliec on Labor of the Council of National 
 Deleiisc became, relatively at least, less important. 
 At the outset, however, the whole work of de- 
 termining fiindcimEntal policies and of taking ac- 
 tion to secure their adoption fell upon this body. 
 The Committee was formally constituted on Feb- 
 ruary 13, 1917. The first step taken by Mr. 
 Gompers was to secure a general agreement on the 
 part of organized labor as to the attitude it would 
 take towards the war and the problems engen- 
 dered by it. In his capacity as President of the 
 American Federation of Labor he iirst called a 
 preliminary conference of representatives of or- 
 ganized labor on February 28, and a meeting of 
 the Executive Committee of the Federation on 
 March g. This was followed by a general con- 
 ference in Washington on March 9, 1017, of the 
 executive officers of all the leading labor organiza- 
 tions of the United States. At this meeting, which 
 was a very important gathering attended by more 
 than ISO persons, there was adopted a formal dec- 
 laration of principles setting forth the attitude of 
 union labor towards the war. In this declaration 
 organized labor pledged its unqualified support of 
 the war and made known its demands. Among 
 them were the demands that Government should 
 take energetic steps to curb profiteering, and that 
 labor should have adequate representation in all 
 bodies created by the Government for the handling 
 of industrial matters. This meeting of labor was 
 followed by a general conference of representatives 
 of labor, employers' organizations, and others 
 prominent in the field of social reform at Wash- 
 ington on April 2, 1917, called by Mr. Gompers 
 as Chairman of the Committee on Labor of the 
 Council of National Defense. The persons invited 
 to participate in this conference, numbering from 
 180 to 200 persons, effected a permanent organiza- 
 tion as the full Committee on Labor of the Coun- 
 cil of National Defense. It thereupon organized 
 itself into numerous subcommittees to deal with 
 specific phases of the labor problem and provided 
 for the creation of an Executive Committee of 11 
 members who should act for the whole Committee. 
 This E.xecutive Committee on April 6, 1917, 
 adopted a formal resolution, the most important 
 provision of which was a recommendation that 
 the Council of National Defense should issue a 
 statement to employers and employees in all in- 
 dustrial establishments and transportation sys- 
 tems, advising that 'neither employers nor em- 
 ployees shall endeavor to take advantage of the 
 country's necessities to change existing standards.' " 
 — W. F. Willoughby, Government organization in 
 war time and after, pp. 207-210. — "For the pur- 
 pose of formulating a national labor policy and 
 for devising and providing a method of labor ad- 
 justment which would be acceptable to employers 
 and employes at least for the war emergency pe- 
 riod, the Wilson administration created on Janu- 
 ary 28, 1918, the War Labor Conference Board 
 consisting of five representatives of employers, five 
 representatives of employes, and two of the gen- 
 eral public. . . . The five representatives of the 
 employes were officials of national and interna- 
 tional labor unions whose members were almost 
 entirely engaged in war production. The mem- 
 bers of the board were appointed by the Secretary 
 of Labor upon nomination by the president of 
 the National Industrial Conference Board, an or- 
 ganization of employers, and the president of the 
 American Federation of Labor, the latter repre- 
 senting all the more important labor unions of the 
 country with the exception of the four railway 
 brotherhoods whose members were engaged in 
 
 the operation of trains. Each of the two groups 
 thus selected chose one of the two representatives 
 of the public. This board presented a formulation 
 of industrial principles which represented the Ad- 
 ministration's labor policy and which were to 
 govern the relations between workers and employ- 
 ers in war industries for the duration of the war. 
 These principles are [in part] as follows: There 
 should be no strikes or lockouts during the war. 
 The right of workers to organize in trade unions 
 and to bargain collectively through chosen repre- 
 sentatives is recognized and affirmed. [The ana- 
 logous right of the employers was also recognized 
 and affirmed.] . . . Employers should not dis- 
 charge workers for membership in trade unions, 
 nor for legitimate trade union activities. The 
 workers, in the exercise of their right to organize, 
 shall not use coercive measures of any kind to 
 induce persons to join their organizations, nor to 
 induce employers to bargain or deal therewith. 
 In establishments where the union shop exists the 
 same shall continue and the union standards as to 
 wages, hours of labor, and other conditions of 
 employment shall be maintained. . . . Established 
 safeguards and regulations for the protection of 
 the health and safety of workers shall not be re- 
 laxed. If it shall become necessary to employ 
 women on work ordinarily performed by men, they 
 must be allowed equal pay for equal work and 
 must not be allotted tasks disproportionate to 
 their strength. The basic eight hour day is rec- 
 ognized as applying in all cases in which existing 
 law requires it. . . . The right of all workers, in- 
 cluding common laborers, to a living wage is 
 hereby declared." — F. J. Warne, Workers at war, 
 pp. 84-87. — "Among the most important of these 
 [agencies to control labor relations] is the Na- 
 tional War Labor Board recommended by the War 
 Labor Conference Board in its report of March 29 
 and created by Presidential Proclamation April 8, 
 1918. This board had jurisdiction over all mat- 
 ters of labor controversies between employers and 
 employes in all fields of industrial or other activ- 
 ity affecting war production where there did not 
 already exist by agreement or federal law a means 
 of settlement. Even where such agencies were 
 provided, jurisdiction was with the War Labor 
 Board in case these agencies failed to secure ad- 
 justment. . . . The War Labor Board consisted of 
 the same members selected in the same manner 
 and by the same agencies as the War Labor Con- 
 ference Board." — Ibid., pp. 131-132. — "On Novem- 
 ber g [1919] a specially called meeting of the ex- 
 ecutive council of the American Federation of La- 
 bor, representing 114 national and international 
 unions and an individual membership of more than 
 four miUion workers engaged in all the occupa- 
 tions throughout the country, took up considera- 
 tion in a most serious attitude of mind the coal 
 miners' strike and the action of the Government 
 in relation to it. . . . The attitude of organized 
 labor as represented by this supreme advisory au- 
 thority of the labor unions was expressed in an 'ap- 
 peal to the public' containing among other things 
 the following: . . . 'By all the facts in the case 
 the miners' strike is justified. We indorse it. We 
 are convinced of the justice of the miners' cause. 
 We pledge the miners the full support of the 
 .American Federation of Labor and appeal to the 
 workers and the citizenship of our country to give 
 like endorsement and aid to the men engaged in 
 this momentous struggle." — Ibid., pp. 172-173. — 
 See also Labor p.^rties: 1868-1019. 
 
 1919. — Thirty-ninth Annual Convention. — "The 
 30th annual convention of the American Federation 
 of Labor was held in Atlantic City, N. J., from 
 
 299
 
 AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR 
 
 AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR 
 
 June 7 to June 24, 191Q. . . . Almost all official 
 recommendations were upheld by an overwhelming 
 vote, the only evidence of any dissenting opinion 
 being the nature of some of the 211 resolutions 
 introduced but always defeated when of a radical 
 nature. . . . 'The conflict for industrial democracy 
 is just beginning,' declared Samuel Gompers, presi- 
 dent of the American Federation of Labor, in his 
 openirfg address to the convention. . . . Previous 
 to Gompers' address, which was the key-note 
 speech of the convention and sounded the new in- 
 ternational relationship of labor thiough the 
 League of Nations, a cablegram was read from 
 President Wilson, lauding Gompers for having es- 
 tablished in international circles as well as at home, 
 the reputation of the .'Vmerican Federation of La- 
 bor for sane and helpful counsel.' . . . The after- 
 noon of the first day was consumed with the read- 
 ing of the report of the .'\merican Federation of 
 Labor Delegation to the Peace Conference by 
 James Duncan, first vice-president. . . . Miss Mar- 
 garet Bonfield, fraternal delegate from the British 
 Trades Union Congress, addressed the convention 
 bringing the greetings of the organized wage earn- 
 ers of Great Britain. . . . One of the most note- 
 worthy [speeches was] an address by Glenn E. 
 Plumb, counsel of the four railroad brotherhoods, 
 advocating the railroad workers' plan for govern- 
 ment ownership and democratic control of the rail- 
 roads. The executive council of the Federation 
 was later instructed to take necessary steps toward 
 realizing this project. . . . The one successful at- 
 tack on the administration was the overturn of 
 the committee on resolutions' recommendation 
 'that the principle of self-determination of small 
 nations applies to Ireland' for the stronger amend- 
 ment from. the convention itself calling for recog- 
 nition of the Irish republic and later providing in 
 the indorsement of the League of Nations that this 
 ?hould not exclude Irish independence. The Irish 
 nationalists in the convention backed by the radi- 
 cals anxious to score over the administration and 
 demonstrate the imperialist character of the peace 
 settlement forced the issue and defeated the com- 
 mittee recommendation ... by a vote of 181 to 
 150 and adopted the amendment asking recogni- 
 tiofi for Ireland by the Peace Conference. . . . 
 This was the only revolt of the convention, the 
 Irish being placated and assisting in the condem- 
 nation of the Russian Soviet republic soon there- 
 after. . . . John P. Frey, secretary of the resolu- 
 tions committee, brought in a recommendation as 
 a substitute [for three other resolutions] urging 
 the Government to withdraw all troops from Rus- 
 sia but refusing the endorsement of the Soviet 
 Government or any other Russian government un- 
 til a constituent assembly has been held to estab- 
 lish 'a truly democratic form of government.' . . . 
 Vigorous opposition . . . failed to change the re- 
 sult and the recommendation of the committee was 
 adopted. . . . One of the favorable results of the 
 convention was the support obtained by the Negro 
 workers from the e.\ecutive council and the con- 
 vention, tending to break down the bars against 
 admission of colored workers in the international 
 unions. Nearly fifty of the international officials 
 reported that they raised no barrier against the 
 Negro, and the convention authorized the forma- 
 tion of federal locals of all colored workers re- 
 fused membership in any international union. . . . 
 The most dramatic incident of the convention was 
 the solitary stand made against the League of 
 "Nations covenant and the labor charter contained 
 in the peace treaty by Andrew Furuseth, the sea- 
 men's leader. . . . The entire executive council of 
 the American Federation of I^abor and its national 
 
 officials were re-elected. . . . Samuel Gompers was 
 appointed to represent the Federation at the meet- 
 ing of the Trades Union International Congress in 
 Amsterdam on July 25." — C. Laue, igig A. F. oj 
 L. convention (American Labor Year Book, igig- 
 ig20, pp. I4g-is5), — See also Labor parties; igiS- 
 iQ2o; R.ULROADs: igig: Plumb plan. 
 
 1920. — Fortieth Annual Convention. — Statistics 
 of the federation. — ^Gompers and the national 
 election. — "The American Federation of Labor 
 met in annual convention for the fortieth time at 
 Montreal, Canada, on June 7, ig20. . . . The most 
 contentious issue fought out on the floor of the 
 convention during its 12 days' session was the ques- 
 tion of Government ownership of the railroads. 
 The resolution in favor of Government ownership 
 and democratic operation, which was passed by a 
 vote of 20,058 to 8,348, is as follows: 
 
 "Resolved, That the Fortieth Annual Conven- 
 tion of the American Federation of Labor go on 
 record as indorsing the movement to bring about 
 a return of the systems of transportation to Gov- 
 ernment ownership and democratic operation; and 
 be it further 
 
 "Resolved, That the executive Council be, and 
 are hereby, instructed to use every effort to have 
 the transportation act of ig2o repealed and legis- 
 lation enacted providing for Government owner- 
 ship and democratic operation of the railroad sys- 
 tems and the necessary inland waterways. . . . 
 
 "The convention indorsed the covenant of the 
 League of Nations without reservations. 'It is not 
 a perfect document and perfection is not claimed 
 for it. It provides the best machinery yet devised 
 for the prevention of war. It places human rela- 
 tions upon a new basis and endeavors to enthrone 
 right and justice instead of strength and might as 
 the arbiter of international destinies.' Other reso- 
 lutions adopted by the convention may be sum- 
 marized as follows: Compulsory military train- 
 ing and military training in schools were con- 
 demned as 'unnecessary, undesirable, and un- 
 .American.' Public oflicers were urged to make all 
 possible effort to release political prisoners. The 
 Kansas court of industrial relations was condemned 
 and its abolition urged. Four resolutions on this 
 subject were referred to the executive council of 
 the Federation for action in bringing about the 
 repeal of the law involved. Congress was enjoined 
 to enact immediately the legislation necessary to 
 establish the United States Employment Service as 
 a permanent bureau in the Department of Labor. 
 The creation of a Federal compensation insurance 
 fund for maritime workers, under the administra- 
 tion of a Federal or State compensation commis- 
 sion, was urged to offset the recent decision of the 
 United States Supreme Court denying longshore- 
 men the benefits of State workmen's compensation 
 laws. Reclassification of the civil service was ad- 
 vocated and the adoption of a wage scale com- 
 mensurate with the 'skill, training, and responsi- 
 bility involved in the work performed.' Enact- 
 ment of legislation granting civil-service employees 
 the right to a hearing and to an appeal from judg- 
 ment in case of demotion or dismissal was also 
 urged. The nonpartisan political campaign inau- 
 gurated by the Federation at its .Atlantic City con- 
 vention in igiq to defeat candidates for office 
 'hostile to the trade-union movement' and 'elect 
 candidates who can be relied upon to support 
 measures favorable to labor,' was indorsed. A 
 fund of $20,545.42 was donated to the campaign 
 committee by members of the Federation between 
 February 24, 1020, and April 30, ig20. Repeal of 
 the Lever law and of the espionage act and other 
 wartime legislation was demanded. Legislation 
 
 300
 
 AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR 
 
 AMERICAN HISTORICAL 
 
 against profiteering, in support of the Women's 
 Bureau and of a Federal housing program was 
 advocated, and the strengthening of the Depart- 
 ment of Labor was urged. Continued organization 
 of the steel industry and particular attention to 
 organization of laundry workers and telephone op- 
 erators were ordered. The Nolan minimum-wage 
 bill (H. R. 5726), providing a minimum wage of 
 $3 a day for Federal employees, was approved. 
 The secession movement of the 'outlaw' railway 
 unions was condemned. The convention adopted a 
 resolution in favor of the independence of Ireland 
 and voted against recognition of the Soviet Gov- 
 ernment. Cooperation between labor unions and 
 the farmers was advocated. A committee was ap- 
 pointed to report upon the question of health in- 
 surance to the IQ2I convention of the Federation. 
 On the question of Asiatic immigration, the con- 
 vention concurred in the resolution proposed by 
 the Building Trades Council of California urging 
 upon Congress: 'First, cancellation of the "gentle- 
 men's agreement;" second, exclusion of "picture 
 brides" by action of our Government; third, ab- 
 solute exclusion of Japanese, with other Asiatics, 
 as immigrants; fourth, confirmation and legaliza- 
 tion of the principle that Asiatics shall be forever 
 barred from American citizenship; fifth, amend- 
 ment of section i of Article XIV of the Federal 
 Constitution, providing that no child born in the 
 United States of Asiatic or Oriental parents shall 
 be eligible to American citizenship unless both 
 parents are eligible for such citizenship.' The em- 
 ployment of alien labor on the Panama Canal was 
 protested. Fullest support was pledged to 'rees- 
 tablish the rights of free speech, free press, and 
 free assemblage,' wherever denied. A congressional 
 investigation into conditions in the West Virginia 
 coal fields was asked. Congress was urged to 
 make adequate provision for World War veterans. 
 Relief for the people of Austria, Serbia, Armenia, 
 and neighboring countries was urged. . . . 
 
 "Membership in the American Federation of 
 Labor has passed the four million mark. In iqoo it 
 was over half a million, in iqo2 over one million, 
 in 1914 over two million, and in igig over three 
 million. The paid-up and reported membership 
 of affiliated unions for the year ending April 30, 
 ig20, was 4,078,740. This number does not in- 
 clude the 207,065 members of the national organ- 
 izations at present suspended from the Federation, 
 nor does it include the membership of those rail- 
 way brotherhoods partially affiliated. The mem- 
 bership of the Federation in iq2o represents an 
 increase of 100.6 per cent over the membership in 
 igiS, when it was 1,946,347 [having fallen slightly 
 from igi4]. There are 36,741 local unions in the 
 no national and international unions directly af- 
 filiated with the Federation in addition to the 
 1,286 local trade and federal labor unions, which 
 are similarly affiliated. The strike benefits paid 
 by the Federation to local trade and federal unions 
 for the year ending April 30, ig2o, totaled $67,- 
 9i2.gs. A total of $3,213,406.30 in death benefits, 
 $937,2 ig. 25 in sick benefits, and $65,026.42 in un- 
 employed benefits, was paid during the same period 
 by affiUated international organizations. These 
 figures do not include the benefits paid by local 
 unions, many of which provide death, sick, and 
 out-of-work benefits, and therefore represent but a 
 small proportion of the aggregate sum paid by 
 trade unions for these purposes." — Monthly Labor 
 Review (Ihiiled Stales Bureau of Labor Statistics, 
 August, 1920, pp. 168-171).- — In line with the fed- 
 eration's political policy of "rewarding its friends 
 and punishing its enemies," Mr. Gompers during 
 the presidential campaign urged organized labor to 
 
 vote for James Cox, the Democratic candidate; 
 Cox received about seven million votes fewer than 
 Harding. — See also Railroads; 1920: Esch-Cura- 
 mins .-^ct. 
 
 1921. — Forty-first Annual Convention. — The 
 federation held its forty-first annual convention at 
 Denver, Colo., June 13 to 25, ig2i. One notable 
 feature of the convention was the contesting of 
 the election for the presidency. John L. .Lewis, 
 president of the United Mine Workers of America, 
 was the opposition candidate, but Samuel Gompers 
 was reelected by a vote of 25,022 to 12,324; not 
 voting, 1,984. This was Mr. Gompers' fortieth 
 election to the presidency of the federation. At 
 one of the opening sessions, J. H. Thomas, British 
 fraternal delegate to the convention, warned the 
 federation against encouraging any American in- 
 tervention in the Irish question. This question 
 aroused much discussion at various sessions; Irish 
 sympathizers gradually divided into those who fav- 
 ored a resolution calling for American recognition 
 of Ireland as a republic and those who favored a 
 resolution demanding a boycott of English- 
 made goods. The resolution of the "recognition" 
 was finally adopted. The convention defeated by 
 a roll call vote of 21,742 to 14,530 a resolution 
 proposing that the war-making power be taken 
 from Congress and given to the people to be exer- 
 cised through a referendum. The convention 
 adopted a resolution favoring public ownership of 
 the railroads, after a clause providing for govern- 
 ment control of all basic industries had been 
 stricken out. Definite action on the campaign for 
 a six-hour day was postponed. A resolution offered 
 by negro delegates asking the federation to take 
 steps toward abolishing the Ku-Klux-Klan was 
 opposed. The convention declined to interfere 
 with the autonomy of international or national 
 unions in regard to the membership of women or 
 negroes. It endorsed the Sheppard-Towner bill 
 (to aid in the establishment of maternity centers), 
 called for federal control and development of na- 
 tural resources, declared against universal military 
 training and denounced the "growing abuse of in- 
 junctions in labor disputes." 
 
 1921. — Unemployment statistics. See U. S. A.: 
 1921 (May); Unemployment figures. 
 
 AMERICAN FICTION. See American lit- 
 erature; 1790-1860. 
 
 AMERICAN FUR TRADING COMPANY. 
 See Oregon: 1808-1826; TJ'isconsin: 1812-1825; 
 WYOi.nxG: 1S07-1833. 
 
 AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. — Executive. 
 See President; Cabinet members; also department 
 heads under name of department as. Labor, De- 
 partment or. 
 Judicial. See Supreme court; Courts, etc. 
 Legislative. See Congress of the United 
 States; Federal government; Representative 
 government. 
 
 state. See State go\'ERNMENt. 
 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIA- 
 TION, founded at Saratoga in 18S4. An Ameri- 
 can Historical Society had been founded in Wash- 
 ington in 1835 by Peter Force and others. It had 
 had John Quincy Adams, Lewis Cass and Levi 
 Woodbury as presidents and had published one vol- 
 ume of transactions. The call for the meeting at 
 which the American Historical Association was or- 
 ganized was signed by John Eaton, President, and 
 Frank B. Sanborn, Secretary of the Social Science 
 Association, Charles Kendall Adams of Ann Arbor, 
 Moses Coit Tyler of Ithaca and Herbert B. Adams. 
 About forty responded to the call. A constitution 
 was prepared by C. K. Adams, H. B. Adams, Clar- 
 ence W. Bowen, Ephraim Emerton, M. C. Tyler 
 
 301
 
 AMERICAN HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 and William B. Weeden. The first paper was read 
 by President Andrew D. White of Cornell On 
 studies in general history and the history of civili- 
 zation," Mr. White was the first and George Ban- 
 croft the second president of the Association^ On 
 January 4, iSSq, President Cleveland signed the 
 act of incorporation of the Association in the Dis- 
 trict of Columbia, "for the promotion of historica 
 studies, the collection and preservation of historical 
 manuscripts, and for kindred purposes in the in- 
 terest of American history and of history in 
 America." This act requires the Association to 
 have its principal office in Washington and to re- 
 port annually to the secretary of the Smithsonian 
 Institution concerning its proceedings and the con- 
 dition of historical study in America. The annual 
 reports were to be published by the public printer. 
 Prior to 188Q the publications were known as 
 Papers of the American Historical Association. The 
 connection with the government has brought some 
 disadvantages, such as the barring from publica- 
 tion in the annual reports of some discussions on 
 reUgious questions and the papers of the Churcti 
 History section. The Association has a Historical 
 Manuscripts Commission which has done much to 
 preserve valuable historical manuscnpt material. 
 Members of the Association were prominent in the 
 founding of the American Historical Review in 
 180'; [The issue of October, ig20, contains the 
 history of its first 25 years.] At the meeting m 
 i8q6 a Committee of Seven on the teachmg of his- 
 tory in secondary schools was appointed at the in- 
 stance of Professor Henry Morse Stephens. The 
 report of this committee did much to improve the 
 teaching of history in high schools and acadernics. 
 Since i8q8 the Association has aided the Amencan 
 Historical Review and distributed it to all the 
 members. Standing committees on bibliography 
 and publications and a Public Archives Cominis- 
 .ion have done good work. The Association 
 awards prizes for historical essays. In 1904 a 
 Committee of Eight was appointed to prepare a re- 
 port on the studv of history in elementary schools 
 after the analogy of the Committee of Seven. 
 
 "The Committee on History and Education lor 
 citizenship in the Schools was constituted in 191 8, 
 first by the National Board for Historical Service 
 and later bv the Association, in order to consider 
 those extensive modifications in the methods of 
 historical teaching in the Schools which it was 
 then felt, must be brought about as a result of the 
 Great War, in order that history might do its 
 full part in training the minds of the young for 
 proper service to a new era."— Amencan Historical 
 Revie-w. AprU. 1021, p. 410-During the World 
 War the Association rendered valuable services for 
 the Committee on Public Information and the 
 National Board of Historical Service. 
 
 AMERICAN HISTORICAL REVIEW.-A 
 periodical, founded in 1895. See American his- 
 torical ASSOCIATION. 
 
 AMERICAN INDIANS. See Indians, Amer- 
 ican; also under the names of various tribes^ 
 
 AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF INTERNA- 
 TIONAL AFFAIRS.— "Because these facts [in- 
 creasing international relationships] are recognized, 
 simultaneous efforts are being made [October, 1Q20I 
 in several nations to build up institutes of inter- 
 national affairs. Such organizations have already 
 been established in the United States, in Great 
 Britain and in Japan. The American branch is 
 now in the process of reor ;anization and ot com- 
 bination with the Council on Foreign Relations 
 under the title of the American Institute of Inter- 
 national Affairs. The undertaking, it is significant 
 to note, arose out of the informal meeUngs which 
 
 AMERICAN INSTITUTE 
 
 were held by the experts of the American and 
 British peace delegations at Paris. Lmdsay Russell, 
 Chairman of the Council on Foreign Relations, is 
 actively aiding the reorganization. Concerning the 
 activities of the new body, he said . . . 'What is 
 being attempted is to establish a national centre 
 of international thought. ... The Amencan Insti- 
 tute of which Whitney Shepardson is secretary, 
 has established a nucleus for an international 
 library and outlined the publication of monographs 
 on international topics which concern us as a 
 nation The first work of the American Insti- 
 
 tute has been to co-operate with the British Insti- 
 tute in causin; to be published a voluminous his- 
 tory of the Peace Conference [in five volumes, 
 edited bv H. W. V. Temperleyl. This has been 
 distributed to libraries. It is important to note 
 that the American Institute of International Attairs 
 is designed to be a source and centre of informa- 
 tion, but not of propaganda. .\s such, the institute 
 can formulate no policies. ... The British were 
 wilUng to undertake the first work, that of pre- 
 paring the history of the treaty. The Americans 
 among them Thomas W. Lamont, provided a part 
 of the funds for the work."-W. L. Chenery, For 
 amitv of nations (New York Times, October 31. 
 
 AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF INTERNA- 
 TIONAL LAW, "organized at Washington m 
 October, 1912, is a body which is likely to have 
 great influence in promoting the peace and wel- 
 fare of this hemisphere. The Institute is compos°d 
 of five representatives from the national society ot 
 international law in each of the twenty-one Ameri- 
 can republics. At the suggestion of Secretary 
 Lansing the Institute at a session held in the city 
 of Washington, January 6, 1Q16, adopted a Dec- 
 laration of the rights and duties of Nations, which 
 was as follows: I. Every nation has the right to 
 exist and to protect and to conserve its existence , 
 but this right neither implies the right nor jus- 
 tifies the act of the state to protect itself or to con- 
 >;erve its existence by the commission of unlawful 
 acts against innocent and unoffending states. U. 
 Every nation has the right to independence in the 
 sense that it has a right to the pursuit of happiness 
 and is free to develop itself without interference 
 or control from other states, provided that in so 
 doing it does not interfere with or violate the 
 rights of other states. HI. Every nation is m 
 law and before law the equal of every other na- 
 tion belonging to the society of nations, and all na- 
 tions have the right to claim and according to the 
 Declaration of Independence of the United States, 
 'to assume, among the powers of '^e earth the 
 separate and equal station to which the laws of 
 nature and of nature's God entitle them^ IV. 
 Everv nation has the right to territory within de- 
 fined boundaries, and to exercise exclusive juris- 
 diction over its territory, and all persons whether 
 native or foreign found therein V Every na- 
 tion entitled to a right by the law of nations is 
 entitled to have that right respected and protected 
 bv all other nations, for right and duty are corre- 
 lative, and the right of one is the duty of all to 
 observe VI. International law is at one and the 
 same time both national a"fi i"t""'>'!°"^' ' , "f T 
 tional in the sense that it is the law of the land 
 and applicable as such to the decision of all ques- 
 tions involving its P"nciples . international in the 
 sense that it is the law of the society of nations 
 and applicable as such to all questions bet;yeen and 
 among the members of the society n^t'O"^. ^"- 
 vTlving its principles.' This Declaration has been 
 criticized as being too altruistic for a world n 
 which diplomacy has been occupied with selfish 
 
 302
 
 AMERICAN KNIGHTS 
 
 AMERICAN LEGION 
 
 aims." — J. H. Latane, United States and Latin 
 America, pp. 304-306. — See also • Internationai. 
 law: 1856-iQog. 
 
 AMERICAN KNIGHTS, Order of. See 
 Knights of the Golden Circle. 
 
 AMERICAN KNIGHTS OF LABOR. See 
 American Federation of Labor: 1881-1886; 
 Knights of Labor. 
 
 AMERICAN LABOR PARTY. See Labor 
 parties: 1Q18-1920. 
 
 AMERICAN LEAGUE OF ANTI-IMPERI- 
 ALISTS. — Indianapolis declaration. See U.S.A.: 
 1900 (Mav-November) . 
 
 AMERICAN LEGION, an organization of 
 American veterans of the World War. "The pur- 
 pose of the American Legion is . . . twofold: ser- 
 vice to ex-service persons and service to the coun- 
 try. The organization is exerting ... its influence 
 and strength to the end that all ex-service men, es- 
 pecially the disabled and their dependents, and the 
 dependents of the those who [were killed, should] 
 receive that just and fair treatment which they 
 have reason to expect from a patriotic and Uberal 
 country. In serving the country, the organization 
 is endeavoring to keep alive that spirit of service 
 which induced all to respond to the country's call 
 in time of need. . . . The American Legion is not 
 a military organization, nor does membership 
 therein affect or increase liability for military or 
 police service. It is absolutely non-political and 
 is not to be used for the dissemination of partisan 
 principles or for promoting the candidacy of any 
 person seeking public office or preferment. The 
 constitution of the American Legion provides for 
 active membership only. There is no honorary 
 membership in the Legion. The following are 
 eligible to membership: i, Men and women who 
 served honorably in any branch of the army, navy, 
 or marine corps for any length of time between 
 April 6, 1917, and November 11, 1918. 2, Men 
 and women who served in the naval, military, or 
 air forces of any nation associated with the United 
 States in the war, provided that at the time of 
 their entry into this service they were American 
 citizens and that they have resumed their Ameri- 
 can citizenship by the time they apply for mem- 
 bership in the Legion, and received upon discharge 
 an Honorable Discharge or its equivalent." — Facts 
 about the American Legion (Publications of the 
 A merifan Legion ) . 
 
 Women's Auxiliary. — "The first National Con- 
 vention, held at Minneapolis, provided for the 
 formation of an Auxiliary Organization to be 
 governed by the rules and regulations prescribed 
 by the National Executive Committee, to be 
 known as the Women's Auxiliary of the Ameri- 
 can Legion. Those eligible to this auxiliary are 
 the mothers, wives, daughters and sisters of the 
 members of the American Legion; the mothers, 
 wives, daughters and sisters of all men and women 
 who were in the military or naval service of the 
 United States at some time between April 6, 1017, 
 and November 11, 1918, and died in line of duty 
 or after honorable discharge and prior to Novem- 
 ber II, 1920. Mothers, wives, sisters and daugh- 
 ters by law have been ruled eligible to member- 
 ship in this auxiliary organization, on the ground 
 that any person related to any member of the 
 Legion, either by birth or by law, under the above 
 classification, is entitled to membership in this or- 
 ganization." — Facts about the American Legion 
 (Publications of the American Legion). 
 
 Organization. — "Each state constitutes a de- 
 partment of the ,\merican Legion and has direc- 
 tion of all posts within its area. Each department 
 has a department commander, a department adju- 
 
 tant, and a department executive committee and 
 such other officers as the department may deter- 
 mine. Post officers are determined by the various 
 state constitutions. The organization is thoroughly 
 democratic. From the Sergeant-at-Arms of the 
 smallest post to the national commander, every 
 Legion official in the organization is chosen by ma- 
 jority vote of the members or their duly elected 
 representatives. Any fifteen ex-service persons 
 eligible to membership can form a post on appli- 
 cation to the Commander of the department in 
 which the post is to be located. Any ex-service 
 person desiring to enroll in the Legion who does 
 not know of a post in his community should write 
 the department commander. The National Con- 
 vention is the law-making body, the administrative 
 authority being vested in the National Executive 
 Committee, between conventions. The National 
 Convention elects the National commander, five 
 National vice-commanders, and a National chap- 
 lain. The National commander appoints the Na- 
 tional adjutant. The Executive Committee ap- 
 points the National treasurer and such officials and 
 standing committees as may be necessary. The 
 E.xecutive Committee is composed of the National 
 commander and Vice-commanders in office, and 
 one representative and one alternate from each de- 
 partment, to be elected as such department shall 
 determine. The American Legion is financed by 
 membership dues, and from such other sources as 
 may be approved by the National Executive Com- 
 mittee, as provided by the Constitution. The 
 Minneapolis convention last year fixed the annual 
 dues for the fiscal year 1920, at one dollar a mem- 
 ber, this to cover the cost of maintaining head- 
 quarters and publishing the American Legion 
 Weekly." — Facts about the American Legion (Pub- 
 lications oj the American Legion). 
 
 Policies. — "The American Legion assembled in 
 convention at Minneapolis November 10, 11 and 
 12, 1919, went on record as follows: 
 
 " 'Americanism. — That relief to civilian popula- 
 tion of countries now or lately our enemies be ex- 
 tended only through agencies incorporated by Con- 
 gress. That all foreign language papers be re- 
 quired to furnish a true and correct translation, 
 properly sworn, to the Postmaster-General of the 
 United States. That proper punishment be meted 
 out to all slackers and to those who aided and 
 abetted slackers. That any attempt at this time 
 to resume relationship with German activities be 
 condemned, as well as the resumption of German 
 operas, instruction of German in the schools and 
 public performances of German and Austrian per- 
 formers. That all American Indians who served 
 in the war be given the full rights of citizenship, 
 provided they did not attempt to evade full and 
 complete performance of such services. That the 
 Government's Thrift, Savings and Investment Cam- 
 paign be heartily supported. That the immigra- 
 tion policy be revised along the lines of adaptabil- 
 ity of alien races for American citizenship. That 
 the so-called "Gentlemen's .'\greement ' with Japan 
 be abrogated. That foreign-born Japanese be 
 forever barred from American citizenship. That 
 all other aliens advocating the overthrow of our 
 Government by force and violence be tried and 
 if possible convicted and deported. That a course 
 in citizenship be made a part of the curriculum of 
 every school in the country. That the Department 
 of Justice be changed from a passive, evidence- 
 collecting organization to a militant and active 
 group of workers whose findings shall be forcefully 
 acted upon. That all ahens who withdrew appli- 
 cation for American citizenship because of Ameri- 
 ca's participation in the war be deported. That 
 
 303
 
 AMERICAN LEGION 
 
 Policies 
 Chronology 
 
 AMERICAN LEGION 
 
 a list of names of all persons granted exemption 
 from the selective sen'ice laws on the grounds of 
 alienage be compiled and published for the Bureau 
 of Naturalization. That all aliens in the United 
 States be required to learn the American language 
 and that all instruction in the elementary, public 
 and private schools be in the American language. 
 That the War Department recall all honorable dis- 
 charges granted to conscientious objectors and that 
 legislation be enacted providing for their prompt 
 punishment. [See also Americaniz.mion.] 
 
 " 'Compensation. — That the Sweet Bill, provid- 
 ing increased compensation for disabled men, pay- 
 ment of insurance in a lump sum, or installments, 
 covering three years, be passed. That war risk in- 
 surance rates be revised to actual mortality costs. 
 That the Government pay $75.00 a month to all 
 ex-service persons disabled by tuberculosis, and 
 a special payment of ?5o.oo a month to all other 
 disabled men and women. That all disabled of- 
 ficers and enlisted personnel be placed on the same 
 basis as to retirement for disability whether they 
 served in the Regular Army, National Guard, Na- 
 tional Army or Reserve Corps. That all ex-service 
 persons suffering from the recurrence of disease, 
 or other disability, resulting from service, become 
 automatically eligible to all provisions of the War 
 Risk or Vocational Rehabilitation Act. That all 
 unproductive lands be reclaimed by direct Gov- 
 ernment operation for settlement by service men 
 and women. That Government credit be extended 
 for settlement of rural communities by service men 
 and women. That no child born to parents in- 
 eligible to citizenship be granted citizenship in this 
 country. That every public and private school be 
 required to devote at least ten minutes of each day 
 to patriotic exercises and that the American flag 
 be raised over each school during the day, weather 
 permitting. That all aliens tried, convicted or in- 
 terned as enemies of our Government be deported. 
 That the Government lend money to service men 
 and women for the purchase and development of 
 farms, or for the purchase of city homes. That the 
 obligation which the 'Government owes to all ser- 
 vice men and women to relieve the financial dis- 
 advantages incidental to their military service be 
 left to Congress to discharge. 
 
 " 'Employment. — That preference be given to ex- 
 service men in all civil service appointments and 
 to the widows of those who laid down their lives 
 in service, absolute preference being given to those 
 physically disabled. That only ex-service men be 
 employed in the quartermasters' depots and navy 
 commissary stores. 
 
 " 'Memorial. — That the National Executive Com- 
 mittee select a site for a memorial in France and 
 organize a movement to raise a popular subscrip- 
 tion fund for the erection of such a memorial. 
 That the American Legion co-operate with the 
 G. A. R. and Confederate Veterans in their memo- 
 rial services. That the bodies of the American 
 dead be not returned from France except where the 
 parents or next of kin desire that the Government 
 return them. That arrangements be made with the 
 people of France to maintain as permanent memo- 
 rials of America's unselfish service to humanity, 
 the graves of those who made the supreme sacri- 
 fice. 
 
 " 'Miscellaneous. — That the achievements of the 
 Boy Scouts be commended and the work of the 
 organization aided by various Posts. [See Boy 
 Scouts: Cooperation with American legion.] That 
 nurses should have absolute rank, with opportunity 
 of promotion. That the Articles of War and 
 Court Martial laws be revised. That a program 
 of social and community service be outlined. That 
 
 the efficiency of the Finance Office be improved.' " 
 — Facts about the American Legion {Publications 
 oj the American Legion). — At the Minneapolis 
 convention a committee of military policy was ap- 
 pointed. The Legion favors military training in 
 high schools and colleges, universal miUtary train- 
 ing with safeguards for civilian control and pro- 
 tection against a military caste. It favors measures 
 to eradicate illiteracy and believes that "the only 
 agitator that eventually need be feared is injus- 
 tice." The Legion stands unreservedly for law 
 and order. Persons who were not in active ser- 
 vice during the war are not eligible to member- 
 ship. Membership in the Students' army training 
 corps is not sufficient for eligibility to membership 
 in the Legion. Members of the Red Cross, Y. M. 
 C. A. and similar welfare organizations are not 
 eligible. Members of exemption boards and the 
 public health service board are not eligible. 
 
 Chronology. — "February 15, 1919, Paris. — Idea 
 of a war veteran's organization crystalUzed at meet- 
 ing of twenty members of the A. E. F. 
 
 "March 15-17, igig, Paris. — A. E. F. Caucus, rep- 
 resentatives of all divisions and S. O. S. sections, 
 temporary constitution adopted and plans formu- 
 lated to organize in the United States. Executive 
 Committee of one hundred elected. Name chosen. 
 
 "April 7, 1 91 9, Paris. — Executive Committee or- 
 ganized and appointed committee of fifteen to 
 work in the United States, and also arranged for 
 exploitation of work in France. 
 
 "May 8-9-10, 1019, St. Louis. — Caucus of dele- 
 gates representing troops at home, temporary con- 
 stitution adopted, general policies formulated and 
 plans perfected for organizing the Legion prepara- 
 tory to first national convention on November 10, 
 II, 12, 1919. 
 
 "May 23, 1 91 9, New York. — Amalgamation of 
 Paris and St. Louis Executive Committee into 
 Joint National Executive Committee responsible 
 for organization of the American Legion on tem- 
 porary basis preparatory to national convention. 
 
 "June 9, 1919, New York. — Formal amalgama- 
 tion of Paris and St. Louis sub-committees ef- 
 fected at meeting of Joint Executive Committee 
 of thirty-four. 
 
 "September 16, igig^^Congressional Charter 
 granted, incorporating the American Legion. 
 
 "November 10-11-12, igig, Minneapolis. — First 
 national convention of the American Legion, per- 
 manent organization effected, permanent consti- 
 tution adopted, policies projected. Franklin D'Olier 
 elected National Commander. 
 
 "November 24, 1919, Indianapolis. — Permanent 
 National Headquarters established at Indianapolis 
 pursuant to mandate of National Convention. 
 
 "December 12, 1919. — Conference in Washington 
 on Sweet Bill. 
 
 "December 19-20, iqig, Indianapolis. — First 
 meeting National Executive Committee. 
 
 "January iq, 1920, Indianapolis. — First meeting 
 of National Americanism Commission. 
 
 "February 9. 1920, Indianapolis. — Meeting Mili- 
 tary Policy Committee. 
 
 "February 22, 1020. — Legionnaires throughout 
 country as part of Washington's birthday cere- 
 mony, bestowed French certificates on next of kin 
 of those who died in the war. 
 
 "March 22-23-24, 1920, Washington. — Special 
 conference of Executive Committee and Depart- 
 ment representatives to discuss adjusted compen- 
 sation, and four-fold plan was adopted. 
 
 ".April 22-23-24, IQ20, Indianapolis. — First con- 
 ference of Department Adjutants." 
 
 The preamble of the National Constitution of 
 the American Legion is as follows: 
 
 304
 
 AMERICAN LEGION 
 
 Chronology 
 
 AMERICAN LEGION 
 
 "For God and Country, we associate ourselves 
 together for the following purposes: To uphold 
 and defend the Constitution of the United States 
 of America ; to maintain law and order ; to foster 
 and perpetuate a one-hundred-per-cent American- 
 ism; to preserve the memories and incidents of 
 our association in the Great War; to inculcate a 
 sense of individual obligation to the community, 
 state and nation; to combat the autocracy of both 
 the classes and the masses; to make right the 
 master of might ; to promote peace and good will 
 on earth; to safeguard and transmit to posterity 
 the principles of justice, freedom and democracy; 
 to consecrate and sanctify our comradeship by 
 our devotion to mutual helpfulness." — Facts about 
 the American Legion (Publications of the Ameri- 
 can Legion). — The American Legion's constitution 
 is drafted on a non-partisan basis and prominent 
 members from General Pershing down have stressed 
 the importance of keeping it non-partisan. The 
 forces likely to bring the American Legion to par- 
 ticipation in political affairs have been thus pre- 
 •sented: — "Can you picture the American soldier 
 sitting idle in a crisis? Did he play a spectator's 
 part at Chateau-Therry ? Then can you picture 
 the new civilian taking no part in government at 
 a time when it is so obvious that the most im- 
 portant duty of an American is to see that chang- 
 ing conditions are changed rightly ? It is too 
 pessimistic a picture. Too large a part of the 
 Nation is made up of returned soldiers. It is hard 
 to see how they can hold aloof, for there are live 
 millions of them with a similar point of view, and 
 a body of men of that size would make its influ- 
 ence felt if it were deaf and dumb. In the light 
 of many discussions at sea, it is impossible to be- 
 lieve that the soldier intends to neglect civil duties 
 in which he showed such decided interest. He is 
 too good an American. He feels too keenly that 
 he has had an experience denied to most men, and 
 is a better man for it. When the American Legion 
 decides to stay out of politics, it must be because 
 the former service man has decided that his ideal 
 of government cannot be achieved by 'political' 
 methods. Whatever power the American Legion is 
 to exercise will be derived from the lessons learned 
 in military life. In that, and in that, alone, the 
 returned soldier differs from the rest of the popu- 
 lation. . . . The man in service learned to work 
 his utmost at his own job. He learned that re- 
 sults were the only things which counted, and that 
 two men doing one man's work was a clear waste, 
 not of one man, but of two, for neither did it. He 
 learned that the way to get things done was to 
 take up the little things which were wrong one 
 at a time and get them right, and not try to win 
 the whole war by his lonesome. He learned chiefly 
 to do his work and forget about promotion — to do 
 his bit for the good of the service. He came back 
 to this side and found that, as far as he could 
 see, politicians were genuinely concerned with the 
 triumph of the party at the next election. That 
 he cannot stomach. .It is in some such way as 
 this that the American Legion will manifest itself 
 in politics. For its members had an opportunity 
 to see at first hand the methods and the results 
 of monarchy. They returned determined to take 
 more interest in the affairs of the republic." — R. R. 
 Perry, American Legion in politics (Outlook, Jan. 
 
 14, IQ20). 
 
 September 27-28-25, 1Q20. — The annual con- 
 vention of the American Legion was held in 
 Cleveland, Ohio, September 27, 28 and 20, 1020. 
 Eleven hundred delegates, representing a milUon 
 members, took the following important action: 
 "Pledged the American Legion to continued ser- 
 
 vice to the country in accordance with the Pre- 
 amble of its Constitution, Reaffirmed the cardinal 
 principle that the Legion's first thought is for the 
 sick and wounded, and Ln accordance with that 
 principle recommended that a new cabinet officer 
 be created to coordinate and direct the Bureau of 
 War Risk Insurance, the United States Public 
 Health Service, the Federal Board for Vocational 
 Education and other Government agencies for the 
 assistance of the sick and wounded. Reiterated 
 the Legion's intention to work unremittingly for 
 justice to all veterans by obtaining the enactment 
 in Congress of the fourfold plan of beneficial legis- 
 lation, based on adjusted compensation. Re- 
 affirmed emphatically the Legion's policy of abso- 
 lute political neutrahty. Confirmed the Legion's 
 established stand for impartiality in disputes be- 
 tween capital and labor, while pledged to the pres- 
 ervation of law and order. Recorded its support 
 of the new Army act of June 4, 1920, promising tc 
 help upbuild under that Act the National Guard 
 and Organized Reserve and anticipating the adop- 
 tion of universal military service. Extended to 
 the Legion's affiliated women's organization full 
 opportunity and encouragement for independent 
 development and management. Condemned the 
 Government agencies responsible for neglecting to 
 take proper steps for the deportation of alien 
 slackers and for withholding the publication of 
 lists of known draft dodgers and deserters. Voted 
 for the continuance of the Legion's work in Ameri- 
 canism to assist aliens to become good citizens and 
 to foster the growth of patriotic devotion among 
 all citizens. Designated that the 1921 Convention 
 of the American Legion be held in Kansas City, 
 Mo., October 31, November i and 2. Adopted 
 the Shirley poppy as the official flower of the 
 American Legion. . . . The convention declared 
 with determination that the Legion should press 
 ahead in its fight for justice to all veterans by 
 continuing to champion before Congress the four- 
 fold plan of beneficial legislation, embodying ad- 
 justed compensation, which already has passed the 
 House of Representatives and now awaits action 
 by the Senate. By a vote practically unanimous 
 the convention recorded itself in favor of all four 
 of the provisions which this bill contains — for 
 aid in buying homes or farms, for vocational 
 training, for land settlement and for adjusted cash 
 compensation based on length of service. . . . Some 
 southern delegates opposed the adjusted cash 
 compensation, or 'bonus,' on the ground that it 
 would have a bad effect on the negro ex-service 
 men, and that it would probably be spent un- 
 wisely in many cases. . . . Several state delega- 
 tions came instructed to secure some modification 
 of the Legion's constitutional ban on political ac- 
 tivities, and the Constitution Committee reported 
 favorably what it called a clarifying resolution. 
 The delegates, however, defeated the resolution by 
 a vote of 06.^ to 142. The defeated resolution, after 
 reaffirming the non-political and non-partisan char- 
 acter of the Legion, nevertheless went on to say: 
 'Now therefore, be it resolved by the American 
 Legion in National convention assembled that the 
 Legion is not prohibited by its Constitution and 
 charter from supporting and promoting those poli- 
 cies and principles within the purposes enumerated 
 in the preamble to its National Constitution, as 
 interpreted by acts of its National conventions and 
 rulings of its National Executive Committee; and 
 be it further — Resolved, that the Legion through 
 its organization has the right under its charter 
 and constitution to ascertain, for the information 
 of its members, the attitude of candidates for 
 public office towards such policies and principles.' 
 
 305
 
 AMERICAN LEGION 
 
 AMERICAN LITERATURE 
 
 The convention was unanimous in declaring the 
 Legion's intention to give serious and continued 
 support to the new Army plan provided for by 
 the Army reorganization act of June 4, 1920. It 
 expressed its belief that the success of the National 
 Guard and Organized Reserve under that bill de- 
 pends largely on the cooperation of the American 
 Legion and pledged support for the recruiting and 
 the maintenance of these forces at their proper 
 standards. It also declared in favor of the policy 
 of universal military training of young men and 
 expressed the hope that this policy might later be 
 legally adopted by a change in the new Army act. 
 The creation of a new cabinet position to deal 
 exclusively with the United States Air Service was 
 advocated, and other recommendations were 
 adopted favoring rules permitting Army enlisted 
 men to retire on part pay after ib, 20 and 25 
 years of service and the extension of the war 
 time system of family allowances for the benefit of 
 the enlisted men of the Army in peace time. 
 
 "The report of the Convention Committee on 
 Americanism was adopted after a lively debate on 
 a single feature — the recommendation dealing with 
 Japanese immigration. The committee merely re- 
 affirmed the resolution adopted at Minneapolis the 
 previous year: 'That we go on record as being in 
 favor of the cancellation of the so-called "gentle- 
 men's agreement," exclusion of "picture brides," 
 and the rigorous exclusion of Japanese as immi- 
 grants,' and 'that we enter a vigorous protest 
 against the demand of Japan that naturalization 
 rights be granted to its nationals now located in 
 the United States and that we earnestly request 
 the State Department of the United States in its 
 settlement of this question not to consider any 
 proposition which will grant rights of naturaliza- 
 tion to this unassimilable people.' . . . The other 
 recommendations of the Committee were for the 
 Americanization of the Territory of Hawaii, the 
 continuance of the Legion's National .Americanism 
 Commission and its removal to headquarters at 
 Indianapolis, and for free education in English, 
 .American history and civil government for foreign 
 and native born illiterates." — American Legion 
 Weekly, Oct. 15, 1920. 
 
 October 31, November 1-2, 1921, Kansas City. — 
 Third national convention of The American Legion 
 decided; "'To support the \'eterans Bureau in 
 every way to carry out the plans for hospitalization 
 and handling of claims, insisting that the letter and 
 spirit of the law be observed in decentralizing the 
 agencies for the benefit of disabled ex-service men 
 and that politics must not interfere with the bu- 
 reau's work. To continue the Legion's stand for 
 the .Adjusted Compensation Bill and to fight for its 
 earliest possible enactment. To adopt the daisy as 
 the official flower in place of the poppy. To con- 
 tinue its opposition to immigration and naturaliza- 
 tion of Orientals. To ask a suspension of all immi- 
 gration for five years, and to ask the strictest 
 examination of immigrants at ports of embarka- 
 tion in the absence of a restriction law. To urge 
 legal punishment for disloyalty in the schools. To 
 oppose a pardon for Eugene V. Debs and to insist 
 on the return and prosecution of Grover Cleveland 
 Bergdoll. To support limitation of armaments, 
 while insisting upon adequate military protection 
 for the United States. To recognize officially La 
 Societe des 40 Hommes et 8 Chevaux as the "Le- 
 gion playground" and to consider the establishment 
 of a Father's Auxiliary' The American Legion 
 Auxiliary [the re-christened Women's .Auxiliary] 
 came into being November 2nd at Kansas City — 
 a perfected national organization . . . The name 
 was selected by delegates of the Women's Auxiliary 
 
 of The American Legion from every State but Ala- 
 bama, Arkansas, Maryland, Tennessee, Utah, West 
 Virginia and Wyoming, and these seven States had 
 unofficial representatives without vote on the floor. 
 The Territory of Hawaii was represented by a duly 
 authorized delegate." — American Legion Weekly, 
 Nov. 18, 1921. — Hanford MacNider of Mason City 
 was chosen national commander of the American 
 Legion. 
 
 AMERICAN LIBRARY ASSOCIATION. 
 See Libraries: Modern: United States: American 
 library association. 
 
 War service. See Libraries: Modern: United 
 States: Effects of the World War; World War: 
 Miscellaneous au.xiliary services: XIV. Cost of war: 
 b, 8. 
 
 AMERICAN LITERATURE: General Char- 
 acteristics. — "American literature is a branch of 
 English literature, as truly as are English books 
 written in Scotland or South Africa. Our litera- 
 ture lies almost entirely in the nineteenth century 
 when the ideas and books of the western world 
 were freely interchanged among the nations and. 
 became accessible to an increasing number of 
 readers. In literature nationality is determined by 
 language rather than by blood or geography. M. 
 Maeterlinck, born a subject of King Leopold, be- 
 longs to French literature. Mr. Joseph Conrad, 
 born in Poland, is already an English classic. 
 Geography, much less important in the nineteenth 
 century than before, was never, among modern 
 European nations, so important as we sometimes 
 are asked to believe. Of the ancestors of English 
 literature 'Beowulf is scarcely more significant, 
 and rather less graceful, than our tree-inhabiting 
 forebears with prehensile toes; the true progeni- 
 tors of English literature are Greek, Latin, Hebrew, 
 Italian, and French. . . . 
 
 "American literature is English literature made 
 in this country. Its nineteenth-century character- 
 istics are evident and can be analyzed and dis- 
 cussed with some degree of certainty. Its 'Ameri- 
 can' characteristics — no critic that I know has ever 
 given a good account of them. You can define 
 certain peculiarities of American politics, American 
 agriculture, American public schools, even Ameri- 
 can religion. But what is uniquely American in 
 .American literature? Poe is just as .American as 
 Mark Twain ; Lanier is just as American as Whit- 
 tier. . . . The ideas at work among these English 
 men of letters are world-encircling and fly between 
 book and brain. The dominant power is on the 
 British Islands, and the prevailing stream of in- 
 fluence flows west across the .Atlantic. Sometimes 
 it turns and runs the other way. Poe influenced 
 Rossetti; Whitman influenced Henley. . . . For a 
 century Cooper has been in command of the Brit- 
 ish literary marine. . . . The catholicity of Eng- 
 lish language and literature transcends the tem- 
 poral boundaries of States. 
 
 "What, then, of the 'provincialism' of the Ameri- 
 can province of the empire of British literature? 
 Is it an observable general characteristic, and is it 
 a virtue or a vice? There is a sense in which 
 .American literature is not provincial enough. . . . 
 The welcome that we gave Whitman betrays the 
 lack of an admirable kind of provincialism ; it 
 shows us defective in local security of judgment. 
 Some of us have been so anxiously abashed by 
 high standards of European culture that we could 
 not see a poet in our own back yard until Euro- 
 pean poets and critics told us he was there. This 
 is queerly contradictory to a disposition found in 
 some .Americans to disregard world standards and 
 proclaim a third rate poet as the Milton of Osh- 
 kosh or the Shelley of San Francisco. ... Of pro- 
 
 306
 
 AMERICAN LITERATURE 
 
 Colonial 
 
 AMERICAN LITERATURE 
 
 vincialism of the narrowest type American writers, 
 like other men of imagination, are not guilty to 
 any reprehensible degree. It is a vice sometimes 
 imputed to them by provincial critics who view 
 literature from the office of a London weekly re- 
 view or from the lecture rooms of American col- 
 leges. Some American writers are parochial, for 
 e.xample, Whittier. Others, like Mr. Henry James, 
 are provincial in outlook, but cosmopolitan in 
 experience, and reveal their provinciality by a self- 
 conscious internationalism." — J. Macy, Spirit oj 
 American literature, cli. i, 
 
 1607-1740. — Colonial literature. — "An instruc- 
 tive impression of the character of Hterature in 
 America during the seventeenth century may be 
 derived from a glance at the titles recorded in Mr. 
 Whitcomb's 'Chronological Outlines.' Speaking 
 roughly, — and in considerations like this minute 
 precision is of little importance, — we may say that 
 out of about two hundred and fifteen of these 
 titles one hundred and ten deal with matters which 
 may unquestionably be described as religious, and 
 that of these all but one name books produced in 
 New England. The next most considerable class of 
 writings includes matters which may be called 
 historical or biographical, beginning with 'The 
 True Relation' of Captain John Smith, — a work 
 hardly to be included in any classification of 
 American literature which should not equally in- 
 clude M. de Tocqueville's study of our democracy 
 and Mr. Bryce's of our contemporary common- 
 wealth; this list also includes such biographies as 
 those of Cotton Mather, whose main purpose was 
 quite as religious as it was biographical. Out of 
 fifty-five titles thus comprehensively grouped, 
 thirty-seven are of New England origin ; the other 
 eighteen, including the separate works of Captain 
 John Smith, come either from Virginia or from 
 the middle colonies. Twenty of Mr. Whitcomb's 
 titles, including such things as 'The Freeman's 
 Oath,' of 163Q, said to have been the first product 
 of the press in the United States, may be called 
 political ; only three of these twenty are not from 
 New England. Of nineteen other titles, including 
 almanacs and works of scientific character, which 
 may best be classified with miscellanies, all but 
 two originated in this same region. Finally there 
 are nine titles to which the name of literature 
 may properly be applied, if under the head of 
 literature one include not only the poems of that 
 tenth Muse, Mrs. Anne Bradstrect, but the 'Bay 
 Psalm Book,' and so pervasively theological a 
 poem as Michael Wigglesworth's 'Day of Doom,' 
 and the first version of the 'New England Primer.' 
 Of the nine books thus recorded only Sundays's 
 translation of Ovid did not proceed directly from 
 Itew England. Now, the men who founded the 
 colonies of Virginia and of New England were on 
 the one hand men of action, and on the other, men 
 of God. It is precisely such matter as their Eliza- 
 bethan prototypes left in books now remembered 
 only as material for history that the fathers of 
 America produced throughout the first century of 
 our national inexperience." — B. Wendell, Literary 
 history oj America, ch. 4., pp. 35-37. 
 
 1750-1861. — Development of American drama. 
 — "It is possible to trace in the development of 
 the drama in this country before the Civil War 
 certain fairly distinct periods. The first ends with 
 the closing of the theatres in 1774 and has as its 
 principal event the production of The Prince oj 
 Parthia in 1767. The second, from 1774 to 1787, 
 includes the Revolutionary satirists and is a tran- 
 sition period. The third begins with the produc- 
 tion of The Contrast in 1787 and closes with the 
 termination of Dunlap's first period of managership 
 
 in 1805. It was a period of tentative effort, partly 
 under the influence of German and French models. 
 The fourth period from 1805 to 1825 is one of 
 development, with considerable native effort, but 
 still largely under foreign influence, both English 
 and Continental. The fifth was a significant and 
 creative period, from 1825 to the Civil War, with 
 its climax in Francesca da Rimini in 1855. This 
 development was interrupted naturally by the Civil 
 War. What would have been its course had the 
 war not occurred it is perhaps fruitless to speculate. 
 There were signs of a quickening of dramatic in- 
 terest in the late fifties under the encouragement of 
 such managers as Lester Wallack and Laura Keene; 
 but the domination of the stage by Dion Boucicault 
 and John Brougham, while it resulted in some sig- 
 nificant plays, especially in a later period, was 
 not an unmixed blessing from the point of view 
 of the production of American drama. The dram- 
 atization of English and French novels with re- 
 sultant long runs; indeed the very success of Bou- 
 cicault's original dramas, made for conditions in 
 which the work of new play-wrights became less 
 in demand. The old days in which a manager was 
 willing to put on a play for a few nights were 
 going fast, and with them went our early drama. 
 That its significance in the history of our litera- 
 ture has never been appreciated is due largely per- 
 haps to the fact that some of its most important 
 monuments are still unprinted. But of its signifi- 
 cance both in itself and for the later drama there 
 is no shadow of doubt." — W. P. Trent, History oj 
 American literature, p. 231 ct seg. 
 
 1775-1789. — Revolutionary period. — "A wide 
 reader of Colonial literature notes two general 
 characteristics: its narrowness and its isolation. 
 Almost every writer dwells apart from the world; 
 his book is as a voice crying in the wilderness; 
 and life seems to him only a pilgrimage, a brief 
 day of preparation for eternity. Hence poetry, 
 history and biography are all alike theological, that 
 is, they interpret the human in terms of the divine 
 life. In Revolutionary literature there is no isola- 
 tion, but rather a splendid sense of comradeship, 
 strong and loyal. When the Colonies draw near 
 together, after the Stamp Act, they find themselves 
 one in spirit. Otis and Henry voice the thought 
 and feeling of a multitude; Hamilton and Jeffer- 
 son appeal not only to the new nation but to the 
 men of every land who have pondered the problems 
 of democracy. Even in the satires of Freneau, in 
 the ballads of Hopkinson against the Tories, and 
 of Odell against the Patriots, there is no sense of 
 solitariness; for each writer is but the voice of 
 a great party which cherishes the same ideals and 
 follows the same leader. As American literature 
 thus emerges from its isolation, we note instantly 
 that it has become more practical, more worldly, 
 more intent on solving the problems of the present 
 than of the future life. In nearly all books of 
 the period the center of interest shifts from heaven 
 to earth; theology gives way to politics; and the 
 spiritual yearnings of an earlier age, which reached 
 a climax in Jonathan Edwards, are replaced by the 
 shrewd, practical 'philosophy of common sense,' 
 with Benjamin Franklin as its chief apostle. Not 
 only the spirit but the form also of literature is 
 changed in the Revolutionary period. The great 
 social movement which we have outlined gave 
 rise to numerous newspapers and magazines, with 
 their poems, satires, essays, stories, — a bright and 
 varied array compared with the Colonial product. 
 More significant of the new social life are the 
 crude plays of Royall Tyler and William Dunlap, 
 which were immensely popular in the new play- 
 houses, and the romances of Charles Brockden 
 
 307
 
 AMERICAN LITERATURE 
 
 The 
 
 Novel 
 
 AMERICAN LITERATURE 
 
 Brown, which at the close of this period mark 
 the beginning of the American novel. Just as the 
 new social life brought forth this ephemeral writ- 
 ing — a kind of literature of amusement, to be en- 
 joyed to-day and forgotten to-morrow — so the 
 various political movements had each its distinctive 
 form of literary expression. The years following 
 the obnoxious Stamp .^ct saw the beginning of that 
 brilliant oratory which was, and still is, one of 
 the great molding influences in American Ufe and 
 literature. The strife of Whigs and Tories is mir- 
 rored in a host of ballads, songs and satires in 
 verse; and the struggle between Federalists and 
 Anti-Federalists over the Constitution produced, 
 in the writings of John Adams, Washington, Madi- 
 son, Jay, Hamilton, Jefferson, and many others, a 
 new form of political writing, the first true litera- 
 ture of Democracy, which had influence far beyond 
 the borders of the American nation. 
 
 "If the lonely Colonial writers impress us as 
 voices crying in the wilderness, the Revolutionary 
 authors seem like men speaking in a great as- 
 sembly ; and their words have power because they 
 voice the thought and aspiration of a multitude. 
 For a new problem has been suddenly thrust upon 
 the Colonies by the Revolution. It is the problem 
 of forming one union out of many states, of mak- 
 ing one government out of many factions, of 
 bringing a multitude of all sorts and conditions of 
 men into national peace and harmony. Hence the 
 orators and prose writers, if they are to help solve 
 that mighty problem, must appeal to the love of 
 freedom and the sense of justice which lie deep in 
 the hearts of men ; they must emphasize ideals 
 which are acknowledged by rich and poor, wise 
 and ignorant, and, like Bradford, they must have 
 an eye single to the truth in all things. That they 
 felt their responsibility, that they used voice and 
 pen nobly in the service of the nation, is evident 
 enough to one who reads even a part of the prose 
 literature appearing between Henry's impassioned 
 'Liberty or Death' speech and Washington's calm 
 and noble 'Farewell Address' to his people. Clear- 
 ness, force, restraint ; here a touch of humor, when 
 the crowd must be coaxed; there a sudden exalta- 
 tion of soul, when the old Saxon ideal of liberty 
 is presented, — all the elements of a fine prose 
 style are manifest; but it is not so much the form 
 as the substance that appeals to us, and especially 
 the greatheartedness of the Revolutionary writers. 
 They gave the world the first example of what 
 has been well called 'citizen literature,' that is, the 
 expression of the ideals of a whole commonwealth, 
 and to this day their work remains unrivaled in 
 its own political field. This Revolutionary prose 
 belongs largely to the 'literature of knowledge' 
 and is seldom found in literary .textbooks; but it 
 is well to remember two things concerning it: that 
 it began with our national Ufe ; and that it re- 
 flects a strong, original and creative impulse of 
 the American mind. It was as if Democracy, si- 
 lent for untold ages, had at last found a voice, 
 and the voice spoke, not doubtfully, fearfully, but 
 in trumpet tones of prophecy. It gave the startled 
 old world something new and vital to think about; 
 and it is quite as remarkable in its way as are the 
 forest and sea romances of Cooper, which sur- 
 prised and delighted all Europe a half century 
 later." — W. J. Long, American literature, p. 92-qg. 
 — "Springing from a common stock, the two 
 branches of eighteenth-century English literature 
 showed many similarities. The charge of imita- 
 tion and even of plagiarism has been brought 
 against the American writers of that period; but 
 it seems in no way unsafe to point to the single 
 origin as the probable cause of the same character- 
 
 istics appearing in the literature produced here, 
 and that produced in the mother-country. No one 
 can deny, of course, that not a few of our au- 
 thors went to school to Englishmen, but the asser- 
 tion that America until recently has produced 
 nothing but pinchbeck literature is as false as it 
 is absurd. That like produces like may be a trite 
 saying, but its frequent repetition does not impair 
 its truth. The English mind, whether expressing 
 itself at home or in the colonies, naturally put 
 forth the same kind of shoots: that their develop- 
 ment was not in all respects equally rapid, that 
 in time they became so much unlike as to appear 
 unrelated, can be traced, no doubt, to the un- 
 sheltered fortune of the American scion in early 
 days, and to the complete removal of the slip 
 from the parent stem in after-years. With this 
 thought in mind, the most thorough-going Ameri- 
 can may admit, without apologetic reserve, that 
 the essayists of eighteenth-century England have 
 counterparts in Irving and certain of his contem- 
 poraries, and that those of a slightly later date 
 have much in common with Emerson and Thoreau. 
 Should one feel, however, that excusable pride is 
 to be taken only in those authors who exhibit 
 qualities indigenous to America, one may trium- 
 phantly mention Warner, and Lowell, and Mar- 
 garet Fuller; for, although these essayists show 
 the racial instinct of English writers, they are 
 none the less emphatically American in thought, 
 tone, and expression." — F. Stanton, ed., Manual of 
 American literature, p. 321. 
 
 1790-1860. — New tendencies. — Cooper and the 
 novel. — Bryant and the new poetry. — Poe, Haw- 
 thorne and the short atory. — -"Aside from oratory 
 and politics, in spite of the early literary superiority 
 of the Puritan, the foundations of our really na- 
 tional literature were laid in the Middle States. 
 Poetry really found its voice, not in the pretentious 
 efforts of the New En^landers, Barlow, Trumbull, 
 or Dwight, but in the verse of the Philadelphian 
 William Clifton, or yet more indubitably in a few 
 lyrics of the New Jersey poet Philip Freneau. In 
 romance, through the stories of Charles Brockden 
 Brown, the Middle States were not only in advance 
 of the rest of the country, but were practically 
 without a rival. In the first quarter of the century 
 the leadership of the middle region of the country 
 became even more marked, and in that great sec- 
 tion New York succeeded Philadelphia as a literary 
 center. . . . From the literary advent of Irving in 
 1807 to the decisive entrance of Longfellow and 
 Emerson about 1S36, the work of our greatest men 
 of letters was centered in New York. Two of our 
 then most famous authors, Irving and Cooper, were 
 sons of the Middle States; the third, Bryant, chose 
 New York city as the sphere of his literary career. 
 Besides the greater lights, there were many others of 
 lesser magnitude. Althou h our literature thus had, 
 for the time, its center in New York, it must not be 
 inferred that other parts of the country were en- 
 tirely unproductive. While New England could 
 boast of no writers comparable to those in the 
 Middle States, we note the signs of the great litei^ 
 ary awakening of New England which was near at 
 hand. ... A new spirit, the realization of the 
 beautiful, was softening the crude but intense and 
 vigorous intellect of the Puritan." — H. S. Pancoast, 
 Introduction to American literature, pt. Ill, ch. i. 
 
 "After the Revolution the novel-reading habit 
 grew, fostered by American publishers and cried out 
 against by many moralists whose cries appeared in 
 magazines side by side with moral tales. Nearly 
 every grade of sophistication applied itself to the 
 problem. It was contested that novels were lies; 
 that they served no virtuous purpose ; that they 
 
 308
 
 AMERICAN LITERATURE 
 
 New Poetry 
 Bryant 
 
 AMERICAN LITERATURE 
 
 melted rigorous minds; that they crowded out bet- 
 ter books; that they painted adventure too roman- 
 tic and love too vehement, and so unfitted readers 
 for solid reality ; that, dealing with European man- 
 ners, they tended to confuse and dissatisfy republi- 
 can youth. In the face of such censure, native nov- 
 elists appeared late and apologetically, armed for the 
 most part with the triple plea that the tale was true, 
 the tendency heavenward, and the scene devoutly 
 American. Before 1800 the sweeping philippic of 
 the older school had been forced to share the field 
 of criticism with occasional efforts to distinguish 
 good novels from bad. No critical game was more 
 frequently played than that which compared Field- 
 ing and Richardson. Fielding got some robust 
 preference, Smollett had his imitators, and Sterne 
 fathered much 'sensibility,' but until Scott had 
 definitely set a new mode for the world, the potent 
 influence in American fiction was Richardson. . . . 
 The amiable ladies who produced most of these 
 early novels commonly held, like Mrs. Rowson, 
 that their knowledge of life had been 'simply 
 gleaned from pure nature,' because they dealt with 
 facts which had come under their own observation, 
 but like other amateurs they saw in nature what art 
 had assured them would be there. Nature and 
 Richardson they found the same. Whatever bias 
 they gave this Richardsonian universe was due to 
 a pervading consciousness of the sex which read 
 their novels. The result was a highly domestic 
 world, limited in 'outlook, where the talk was of 
 careless husbands, grief for dead children, the peril 
 of many childbirths, the sentiment and the religion 
 which enabled women to endure their sex's des- 
 tiny. Over all hangs the furious menace of the 
 seducer, who appears in such multitudes that one 
 can defend the age only by blaming its brutality 
 less than the pathetic example of Clarissa Harlowe. 
 Thus early did the American novel acquire the 
 permanent background of neutral domestic fiction 
 against which the notable figures stand out." — Cam- 
 bridge history of American literature, p. 284, et seq. 
 —"In 1820, American literature, so far as it has 
 survived, consisted of the novels of Brockden 
 Brown then ten years dead, and of Irving's Sketch 
 Book, which had begun to appear the year before. 
 Apart from these works, what had been produced 
 in this country was so obviously imitative as to ex- 
 press only a sense on the part of our numerous writ- 
 ers that they ought to copy the eminent authors of 
 England. In 1S20 appeared the first work of a 
 new novelist, soon to attain not only permanent 
 reputation in America, but also European recogni- 
 tion. This was James Fenimore Cooper (lySg- 
 1851). His first novel was Precaution, his second 
 The Spy, published the following year. When 
 The Spy was published, the novels of Brockden 
 Brown were already almost forgotten; and Irving 
 had produced only the Knickerbocker History and 
 the admirable essays of his Sketch Book. The 
 Spy is an historical novel of the American Revo- 
 lution. ... In The Pilot . . . instead of laying 
 the scene on American soil. Cooper lays it for the 
 first time in literature on board an American ship. 
 . . . The Last of the Mohicans, published in 1826, 
 is probably the best [of the Leatherstocking sto- 
 ries]. . . . These are, in their order as successive 
 chapters in the life of their hero: The Deer slayer 
 (1841); The Last of the Mohicans (1826); The 
 Pathfinder (1840); The Pioneers (1823); The 
 Prairie (1827). . . . 
 
 "The three writers . . . Brockden Brown, Ir- 
 ving, and Cooper — were the only Americans who 
 between 1708 and 1832 achieved lasting names in 
 prose. Though they form no school, though they 
 are very different from one another, two or three 
 
 things may be said of them in common. They all 
 developed in the Middle States, the names of all 
 are associated with the chief city of that region, 
 New York. The most significant work of all as- 
 sumes a form which in the general history of litera- 
 ture comes not early but late, — prose fiction. . . . 
 This prose . . . was the most important literature 
 produced in New York, or indeed in America, dur- 
 ing the period. . . ." — B. Wendell and C. N. Green- 
 ough. History of literature in America, pp. 148, 151- 
 
 152, 156-157- 
 
 "By 1851 there were, or had been, many hovel- 
 ists whose names could find place only in .an ex- 
 tended account of American fiction: writers of 
 adventure stories more sensational than Simms's 
 or of moral stories more obvious than Miss Sedg- 
 wick's and Mrs. Childs's, authors for children, 
 authors preaching causes, authors celebrating fash- 
 ionable or Bohemian life in New York. Not only 
 regular novels and romances but briefer tales mul- 
 tiplied. The period which could boast in Cooper 
 but one novelist of first rank could show three such 
 tale-tellers as Irving, Hawthorne, and Poe. The 
 annuals and maga^^ines met the demand for such 
 amusement and fostered it, but the novel was en- 
 couraged more than it was hurt by the new type. 
 Prose fiction, in fact, though somewhat late in 
 starting, had firmly established itself in the United 
 States by the middle of the century, and Cooper, 
 followed in Great Britain by the nautical romancers, 
 and on the Continent by such writers about wild 
 life as Karl Anton Postl ('Charles Sealsfield'), Fried- 
 rich Gerstacker, and Gustave Aimard, and every- 
 where read, had become a world figure." — Cam- 
 bridge history of American literature, p. 284, el seq. 
 
 "Our earlier poets, that is, [those who came] im- 
 mediately after the Revolution, but a.'ain, and 
 especially, after the War of 181 2, had confirmed 
 our sense of national solidarity, are much given 
 to the utterance of their patriotism. . . . Key's 
 'Star-Spangled Banner' (1814), conceived at the 
 close of the second war, antedates 'The American 
 Flag' (1819) of Drake by but five years; these 
 two, with Hopkinson's 'Hail Columbia' (i7g8), and 
 'America' (1832), the well-known hymn by S. F. 
 Smith, whatever their relative or obsolute merits 
 as literature, remain our most cherished national 
 poems," — L. Cooper, Poets, in T. Stanton, Manual 
 of American literature, pp. 244-245. 
 
 "William Cullen Bryant is designated by Eng- 
 jiishmen as the first American poet, and the 
 Americans are not disinclined to subscribe to that 
 judgment. And since the poem Thanatopsis, upon 
 which this judgment is based, appeared in 1S17, 
 that year is straightway designated as the natal 
 year of American poetry. This sort of criticism 
 and literary history presupposes iron-bound rules 
 of literary jesthetics. For the present, such r"o not 
 exist for us. One cannot, therefore, go so far as 
 to annihilate at a stroke the whole of the some- 
 what ample body of poetry before Bryant." Among 
 poets of this period should be mentioned Philip 
 Freneau (1752-1832), John Trumbull (1752-1831), 
 J. H. Payne (1791-1852) author of "Home Sweet 
 Home," Fitz-Green Halleck (1700-1867), Nathaniel 
 Parker Willis (1806-1867), and Joseph Rodman 
 Drake (1705-1820). William Cullen Bryant (1704- 
 1878) was "by far the most eminent man of let- 
 ters in our chief city [New York]. . . . His first 
 published work — a very precocious one . . . — had 
 appeared before Brockden Brown died. . . . Inci- 
 dentally, Bryant was for a full half-century at the 
 head of the New York Evening Post ... a news- 
 paper in which from beginning to end the editor 
 could feel honest pride. As a journalist, indeed. 
 . Bryant belongs to [a later time]. ... As a poet,- 
 
 309
 
 AMERICAN LITERATURE p^^ ^^°'''^j°'^>^^^^g AMERICAN LITERATURE 
 
 however, — and it is as a poet that we are consid- 
 ering him here, — he belongs to the earliest period 
 of American letters." — B. Wendell and C. N. Green- 
 ough, History oj literature in America, p. 159. 
 — "When 'Thanatopsis' was submitted by the 
 poet's father to The North American Review (in 
 1817), people would hardly believe that such an 
 exalted strain had been conceived outside of Eng- 
 land. . . . 'To a waterfowl' was published with 
 several other poems, including 'Thanatopsis,' in 
 1821. , . . By 1S32 he was ready to publish an- 
 other edition of his 'Poems,' adding more than 
 eighty pieces that were new — notably, the 'Forest 
 Hymn,' the 'Song of Marion's Men,' and 'The 
 Death of the Flowers.' At intervals of a few years 
 . . . other editions or volumes followed. . . . The 
 achievement of Bryant's declining years was his 
 translation of Homer." — L. Cooper, Poets, in T. 
 Stanton, Manual oj American literature, pp. 257- 
 260. — "His work was really the first which proved 
 to England what native American poetry might be. 
 The old world was looking for some wild mani- 
 festation of this new, hardly apprehended, western 
 democracy. Instead, what it found in Bryant, the 
 one poetic contemporary of Irving and Cooper 
 whose writings have lasted, was fastidious over- 
 refinement, tender sentimentality, and pervasive 
 luminosity. ... In its beginning the .American lit- 
 erature of the nineteenth century was marked 
 rather by delicacy than by strength, by palpable 
 consciousness of personal distinction rather than 
 by any such outburst of previously unphrased 
 emotion as on general principles democracy might 
 have been e.xpected to excite." — B. Wendell, Lit- 
 erary history oj America, p. 203. — "After Bryant 
 it is convenient to speak of a few poets, very 
 different from him, and for the most part from 
 each other, whose contemporaneous presence in 
 New York is almost the only thing that con- 
 nects them." Among these are John G. Saxe 
 (1816-1887), Herman Melville (i8ig-i8gi), Alice 
 Cary (1820-1871), and her sister Phcebe (1824- 
 1871). "We turn to a number of writers 
 whose careers are to be more closely identified 
 with New England. Many of these, like Rich- 
 ard Henry Dana, senior (1787-1870), of Boston 
 were only poets secondarily. Dana was a jour- 
 nalist and a politician." Others are Sprague, Hill- 
 house, Pierpont, Warren. "The same genera- 
 tion produced several women of note, whose 
 poetry demands some attention ; in particular, 
 Lydia Huntley Sigoumey (1701-1865)." — L. 
 Cooper, Poets, in T. Stanton, Manual oj Ameri- 
 can literature, pp. 262-265. — Edgar Allan Poe 
 (1809-1840) figures in American literature both as 
 poet and prose-writer. He it was who developed 
 the short story to its highest perfection. "Born 
 fifteen years later than Bryant and dead twenty- 
 nine years earlier, Poe . . . seems to belong to 
 an earlier period of our letters; but really, as 
 we have seen, Bryant's principal work was done 
 before 1832." — B. Wendell and C. N. Greenough, 
 History oj literature in .imerica, p. 171. — "In Bos- 
 ton in 1827 he had published a thin little book 
 called 'Tamerlane and Other Poems. . . . Two 
 years later in Baltimore he had published what 
 was really an enlargement of this first venture. 
 . . . He began to write short-stories; and one of 
 these, a tale of striking vigor and novelty, the 
 'MS. found in a Bottle,' won him a . . . prize. . . . 
 At last in 1835, one of [his! friends got him the 
 post of assistant editor of the Southern Literary 
 Messenger. . . . Poe printed in it his own poems 
 and short-stories, and thus began to make himself 
 known as an imaginative writer of strange orig- 
 inality and power. As a critic also he revealed 
 
 unexpected strength. . . . After leaving Richmond 
 Poe published, in 1S38, the 'Narrative of Arthur 
 Gordon Pym, and ... in 1840 . . . the 'Tales of 
 the Grotesque and the Arabesque,' the most origi- 
 nal collections of short-stories written by any 
 American author. ... As a writer his reputation 
 steadily rose." The "Murders in the Rue Morgue," 
 the "(iold Bug," and other stories, as well as the 
 "Raven" and other poems, added to his in- 
 creasing fame. "By long study he had made 
 himself a master of the tcchnic of verse, and he 
 combined with extraordinary skill all the effects to 
 be derived from lilting rhythm, intricate rhyme, 
 artful repetition, and an aptly chosen refrain. He 
 bent words to do his bidding, and he made his 
 verse so melodious that it had almost the charm of 
 music." — B. Matthews, Introduction to American 
 literature, pp. 85-86, 00-03. — In 1S37 Nathanial 
 Hawthorne published his "Twice-Told Tales." "Af- 
 ter the publication of this collection of short- 
 stories, Hawthorne ceased to be what he once 
 called himself, 'the obscurest man of letters in 
 ■America.' ... It was five years before his next 
 book was published. ... In 1846 [he published] 
 'Mosses from an Old Manse.' . . . [HeJ was forty- 
 six when he sent forth the 'Scarlet Letter' in 
 1850. With the striking exception of 'Uncle Tom's 
 Cabin,' no American work of fiction has had the 
 quick and lasting popularity of the 'Scarlet Letter.' 
 . . . The 'House of Seven Gables' was published in 
 1851." — Ibid., pp. 1 15-119. — Other books appeared 
 in following years, the "Marble Faun," the last to be 
 published during his life-time, appearing in i860. 
 
 1830-1845. — Period of New England leader- 
 ship. — Oratory. — Humanitarian movements. — 
 "From about 1830-40 New England entered upon 
 a long period of literary supremacy. The in- 
 tellectual awakening which preceded and accom- 
 panied this literary period began in Boston and its 
 vicinity, and Boston rapidly distanced New York 
 as a literary center, as New York had distanced 
 Philadelphia. Between 1826 and 1S40 nearly all 
 of the great New England writers of this period 
 had definitely begun their work. Longfellow 
 published his first collection of poems in 1826. 
 Holmes began his work in 1827, and Hawthorne 
 in 1828. Emerson, Prescott, Lowell, Whittier, and 
 Motley all followed between 1830 and 1840. The 
 expression of the New England mind in the works 
 of this group of writers constitutes, as a whole, 
 our most memorable contribution to literature; 
 it is one of the greatest and most lasting achieve- 
 ments of our American civilization." — H. H. Pan- 
 coast, Introduction to .American literature, p. 160. 
 • — "During her years of intellectual leadership 
 New England led the country in oratory also, and 
 the work of her succession of great orators belongs, 
 at least in part, to literature. We have said that 
 in the Revolutionary period and during the 
 early days of the Republic the supremacy in ora- 
 tory lay with the South. But as the present cen- 
 tury advanced and the country passed into the 
 shadow of those anxious years when sla- 
 very threatened the very existence of the Union, 
 it was New England that gave America, in 
 Daniel Webster (1782-1852), her greatest orator. 
 It was New England also that gave us 
 Edward Everett (1704-1865), the master of a 
 finished and scholarly eloquence; Wendell Phil- 
 lips (1811-1884), and Charles Sumner (1811- 
 1874), the orators of the Abolitionists. ... As 
 we look back upon the work of these great ora- 
 tors of New England as a whole, from Web- 
 ster to Sumner and Phillips, as we recall its ster- 
 ling quality and its incaluable effects upon our na- 
 tional history, we see that it was by no means the 
 
 310
 
 AMERICAN LITERATURE Humanitarians AMERICAN LITERATURE 
 
 least important part of New England's service to 
 the country at large. To all that the Puritan gave 
 us we add this also. We appreciate that in those 
 years of her full strength New England not only 
 wrote our greatest poetry, our best histories, and 
 our keenest political satire ; that she not only 
 charmed us with her humor, and led the way in 
 scholarship, but that, besides all this, she gave 
 us men who, in a time of national uncertainty and 
 peril, could lead opinions and control events by 
 their genius for speech." — Ibid., pi. lll,cli. 2. p. 230. 
 "There has been but one movement in the his- 
 tory of the American mind which has given to 
 literature a group of writers having coherence 
 enough to merit the name of a school. This was 
 the great humanitarian movement, or series of 
 movements, in New England, which, beginning in 
 the Unitarianism of Channing, ran through its later 
 phase in transcendentalism, and spent its last 
 strength in the anti-slavery agitation and the en- 
 thusiasms of the Civil War. The second stage 
 of this intellectual and social revolt was tran- 
 scendentalism . . . Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803- 
 82) was the prophet of the sect, and Concord was 
 its Mecca; but the influence of the new ideas was 
 not confined to the little group of professed tran- 
 scendentalists ; it extended to all the young writ- 
 ers within reach, who struck their roots deeper 
 into the soil that it had loosened and freshened. 
 We owe to it in great measure, not merely Emer- 
 son, [A. B.] Alcott, Margaret Fuller, and Thoreau, 
 but Hawthorne, Lowell, Whittier, and Holmes. In 
 its strictest sense transcendentalism was a restate- 
 ment of the idealistic philosophy, and an applica- 
 tion of its beliefs to religion, nature, and life. 
 But in a looser sense, and as including the more 
 outward manifestations which drew popular at- 
 tention the most strongly, it was the name given 
 to that spirit of dissent and protest, of universal 
 inquiry and experiment, which marked the third 
 and fourth decades of this century in America, and 
 especially in New England." — H. A. Beers, Short 
 hist, of Eng. and Amer. literature, pp. gS-gb. — "In 
 1836, he [Emerson] put forth his first book, 'Na- 
 ture,' and the next year he delivered an oration on 
 'The American Scholar,' Hitherto little had hap- 
 pened to him except the commonplaces of exist- 
 ence; thereafter, though his life remained tran- 
 quil, he was known to the world at large. He 
 was greeted as are all who declare a new doctrine ; 
 welcomed by some, abused by many, misunder- 
 stood by most. Proclaiming the value of self-re- 
 liance, Emerson denounced man's slavery to his 
 own worldly prosperity, and set forth at once the 
 duty and the pleasure of the plain living which 
 permits high thinking. ... He never put himself 
 forward; and yet from that time on there was 
 no denying his leadership of the intellectual ad- 
 vance of the United States. The most enlight- 
 ened spirits of New England gathered about him; 
 and he found himself in the center of the vague 
 movement known as 'Transcendentalism.' ... He 
 edited for a while the Dial, a magazine for which 
 the Transcendentalists wrote, and which existed 
 from 1840 to 1844. But he took no part in an 
 experiment of communal life undertaken by a 
 group of Transcendentalists at Brook Farm 1841 
 to 1847. ... In 1841 Emerson published his first 
 volume of his 'Essays'; and he sent forth a second 
 series in 1844. In his hands the essay returns 
 almost to the form of Montaigne and Bacon; it is 
 weighty and witty; but it is not so light at it was 
 with Addison and Steele, with Goldsmith and Ir- 
 ving. He indulged in fancies sometimes, and he 
 strove to take his readers by surprise, to startle 
 them, and so to arouse them to the true view of 
 
 life. Nearly all his essays had been lectures, and 
 every paragraph had been tested by its effect upon 
 an audience. Thus the weak phrases were dis- 
 carded one by one, until at last every sentence, 
 polished by wear, rounded to a perfect sphere, 
 went to the mark with unerring certainty. . . . 
 Emerson's first volume of 'Poems' was published in 
 1846. Ten years before he had written the hymn 
 sung at the completion of the monument com- 
 memorating the Concord fight. . . . This is one of 
 the best, and one of the best known, of the poems 
 of American patriotism. But Emerson cared too lit- 
 tle for form often to write so perfect a poem. . . . 
 Following Bryant, Emerson put into his verse na- 
 ture as he saw it about him — the life of American 
 woods and fields. . . . One of Emerson's poems 
 most richly laden with emotion and experience is 
 the 'Threnody,' which he wrote after the death of 
 his first-born. . . . Certain of the lectures prepared 
 for delivery in England supplied the material for 
 his next book — 'Representative Men' — published in 
 1S50. Only two of Emerson's books have any 
 singleness of scheme, and this is one of them." — ■ 
 B. Matthews, Introduction to the study of Ameri- 
 can literature, pp. 96, 100-103, 106. 
 
 "While several of those who composed the group 
 of Transcendental thinkers in the Concord circle 
 became more or less noted either for eccentricity or 
 utterance, the most remarkable among them all, 
 after Emerson, was Henry David Thoreau [1817- 
 1862]. A genuine lover of nature — a naturalist 
 first of all — he was also a philosopher and a poet, 
 too, although a crude one. . . . His acquaintance 
 with Emerson began early. ... In 1845 Thoreau 
 built for himself a cabin on the shore of Walden 
 Pond, and here for two years he lived. ... It is 
 this experience in his life with its subsequent record 
 which has more than anything else aroused interest 
 in the personality of Thoreau. . . . Walden, or Life 
 in the Woods, contains the stor>' and the thought 
 of these two years ; it reveals Thoreau at his best 
 and has long since become an American classic. . . . 
 An earlier volume [1840] . . . was . . . A Week 
 on the Concord and Merrimac Rivers. His journal 
 was . . . drawn up by others after his death . . . 
 and published. . . . Various articles by Thoreau 
 were published in The Dial and, through the friend- 
 ship and assistance of Horace Greeley, in the New 
 York magazines as well as in the Tribune itself." — 
 W. E. Simonds, Student's history of American lit- 
 erature, pp. 177-180, 1S2. 
 
 " 'The Autocrat of the Breakfast-Table' [by Oli- 
 ver Wendell Holmes] has already given evidence 
 that it will outlast 'Elsie Venner' and 'The Guar- 
 dian Angel'; yet if the miscellanies of Dr. Holmes 
 (1809-04) possess more vitality than his novels, 
 this is in some measure due to the 'Autocrat's' oc- 
 casional employment of verse. In the 'Breakfast- 
 Table' series appeared 'The Chambered Nautilus' 
 and 'The Wonderful "One-Hoss Shay," ' which, 
 with his youthful 'Old Ironsides,' and 'The Broom- 
 stick Train,' have retained the firmest hold on the 
 popular memory. Holmes was pleased to trace his 
 ancestry back to Anne Bradstreet, the first Ameri- 
 can poetess. His own poetry commenced with a 
 schoolboy rendering into heroic couplets from Vir- 
 gil, and hardly ended with his tribute to the mem- 
 ory of Whittier in 1S02. In the standard edition 
 of his works his poems occupy three volumes. 
 Many of them, corresponding to his turn for the 
 novel, are narrative; for story-telling he had a 
 knack amounting to a high degree of talent. His 
 sense of order and proportion is stronger than that 
 of other members of the New England school, and 
 he has a command of at least formal structure. 
 One may not unreasonably attribute this com- 
 
 311
 
 AMERICAN LITERATURE 
 
 Anti-slavery 
 Movement 
 
 AMERICAN LITERATURE 
 
 mand in part to his studies in human anatomy. At 
 the same time Holmes is beset with the temptation 
 to value manner and brilliancy rather than sub- 
 stance, and he will go out of his way for a fanci- 
 ful conceit or a striking expression. In the use of 
 odds and ends of recondite lore his cleverness Is 
 amazing. He had a tenacious memory and a habit 
 of rapid association, so that as a punster he is al- 
 most without a match. However, his glance is 
 not deeply penetrating ; he sees fantastic resem- 
 blances between things that are really far removed 
 from one another, not so often the fundamental 
 similarities in things whether near or apart. . . . 
 A constructive criticism, however, will lay stress, 
 not on his inheritance of New England provin- 
 cialism or his slight tendency to be flippant, but 
 on his kindliness, his inexhaustible good humour, 
 his quick and darting intellectual curiosity, and 
 on the appeal which his sprightly moralising makes 
 to the young. It is not a little thing to say of 
 a wit and a power of epigram like this that they 
 were ever genial, and ever on the side of some- 
 thing better than a merely conventional morality." 
 — T. Stanton, Manual of American literature, pp. 
 294-295; 207. 
 
 1830-1890. — Antislavery movement and Civil 
 War.— "Uncle Tom's Cabin."— Lincoln.— Whit- 
 tier. — Whitman. — Longfellow. — Lowell. — Many 
 of the early "antislavery men did some of their 
 chief work when the cause they advocated seemed 
 far from public favor. We come to a book pro- 
 duced by the antislavery movement, which sud- 
 denly proved that movement popular. This was 
 Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe's (1S12-1896) Uncle 
 Tom's Cabin, published in 1852, the year after 
 Sumner had entered the Senate from Massachusetts, 
 and two years after Webster's Seventh of March 
 speech. ... At first little noticed, this book rap- 
 idly attracted popular attention. During the next 
 five years above half a million copies were sold in 
 the United States alone; and it is hardly excessive 
 to say that wherever Uncle Tom's Cabin went, 
 public conscience was aroused. Written carelessly, 
 and full of crudities, Uncle Tom's Cabin remains a 
 remarkable piece of fiction. The truth is, that al- 
 most unawares Mrs. Stowe had in her the stuff of 
 which good novelists are made. . . . Should any 
 one doubt Mrs. Stowe's power as a writer, re- 
 membering only that in Uncle Tom's Cabin she 
 achieved a great popular success, partly caused by 
 the changing public opinion of her day, we 
 need only glance at some of her later work to make 
 sure that she had in her a power which, if circum- 
 stances had permitted its development, might have 
 given her a distinguished place in English fiction. 
 Her best book is probably Oldtown Folks (1S69). 
 . . . Mrs. Stowe differed from most American 
 novelists in possessing a spark of 'genius. Had this 
 genius pervaded her work, she might have been a 
 figure of lasting literary importance. Even as it 
 was, she had power enough to make Uncle Tom's 
 Cabin the most potent literary force of the anti- 
 slavery days. 
 
 "Uncle 'Tom's Cabin was published in 1852. To 
 its unprecedented popularity may perhaps be traced 
 the final turn of the public tide. [See also U. S. A.: 
 1852: Appearance of "Uncle Tom's Cabin."] With- 
 in ten years the conflict between the slave States 
 and the free reached the inevitable point of civil 
 war. The ist of January, 1863, saw [thel final 
 proclamation of emancipation. . . . We can hardly 
 speak of the Emancipation Proclamation without 
 touching for a moment upon the great name in 
 .American history of the nineteenth centur\'. .Abra- 
 ham Lincoln (1800-1865) proved himself in the 
 Lincoln-Douglas campaign such a master of debate. 
 
 and in his inaugural addresses and m the famous 
 Gettysburg speech such a master of simple and 
 powerfully eloquent Enghsh, that, aside from his 
 great political services, any account of American 
 oratory or of antislavery would be incomplete with 
 out some mention of him. But Lincoln s historical 
 importance is so great that any discussion of him 
 would lead us far afield. . . . Among the anti- 
 slavery leaders of Massachusetts was one who, with 
 the passing of time, seems more and more distin- 
 guished as a man of letters. John Greenleaf Whit- 
 tier {1807- 1892), born at Haverhill, Massachusetts, 
 came of sound country stock, remarkable only be- 
 cause for several generations the family had been 
 Quakers. . . . Though Whittier was precocious, 
 and his Hterary career extended over more than 
 sixty-five years, he was not prolific. He never 
 wrote much at a time, and he never wrote 
 anything long. . . . His masterpiece, if the word 
 be not excessive, is 'Snowbound,' written when he 
 was about fifty years old. . . . Such vividness as 
 distinguishes the descriptive passages of 'Snow- 
 Bound' appears throughout Whittier's descriptive 
 verse, ... for example, [in] . . . the 'Prelude' 
 which take [s] one to the very heart of our drowsy 
 New England summers. ... In general, of course, 
 the most popular literature is narrative. So Whit- 
 tier's Yankee ballads often seem his most obvious 
 works, — 'Skipper Ireson's Ride,' for example, ot 
 that artlessly sentimental 'Maud Muller.' " — B. 
 Wendell, and C. N. Greenough, History of litera- 
 ture in America, pp. 284-294.^"At heart Whittier 
 was no more stirred than were the other anti- 
 slavery leaders, nor was he gifted with such literary 
 power as sometimes revealed itself in the speeches 
 of Parker or of Phillips, or as enlivened Mrs. 
 Stowe's novel with its gleams of creative genius. 
 But Whittier surpassed all the rest in the impreg- 
 nable simplicity of his inborn temper, derived from 
 his Quaker ancestry and nurtured by the guile- 
 lessness of his personal life." — B. Wendell, Literary 
 history of .America, pp. 366-367. 
 
 "Walt VV'hitman {1819-1892) was almost exactly 
 contemporary with Lowell. No two lives could 
 have been much more different. . . . The contrast 
 between Whitman and Whittier, however, is al- 
 most as marked as that between Whitman and 
 Lowell. . . . The first edition of Whitman's Leaves 
 of Grass appeared in 1855, the year which pro- 
 duced the Knickerbocker Gallery. During the Civil 
 War he served devotedly as an army nurse, .^fter 
 the war, until 1S73, he held some small Govern- 
 ment clerkships at Washington. In i87'3 a paralytic 
 stroke brought his active life to an end; for his 
 last twenty years he lived an invalid at Camden, 
 New Jersey. Until 1855, when the first edition of 
 Leaves of Grass appeared in a thin folio, some of 
 which he set up with his own hands. Whitman 
 had not declared himself as a man of letters. 
 From that time to the end he was constantly pub- 
 lishing verse, which from time to time he collected 
 in increasing bulk under the old title. He pub- 
 lished, too, some stray volumes of prose, — Demo- 
 cratic Vistas (1S71), Specimen Days and Colled 
 (1882-83), and the like. Prose and poetry alike 
 seem full of a conviction that he had a mission to 
 express and to extend the spirit of democracy, 
 which he believed characteristic of his country. 
 Few men have ever cherished a purpose more lit- 
 erally popular. Yet it is doubtful whether any 
 man of letters in this country ever appealed less 
 to the masses. . . . Sometimes, of course, he was 
 more articulate. The Civil War stirred him to his 
 depths; and he d'-ew from it such noble verses 
 as 'My Captain,' his poem on the death of Lin- 
 coln, or such little pictures as 'Ethiopia Saluting 
 
 312
 
 AMERICAN LITERATURE 
 
 Realism 
 
 AMERICAN LITERATURE 
 
 the Colors.' Even in bits like these, however, 
 which come so much nearer forra than is usual 
 with Whitman, one feels his perverse rudeness of 
 style. Such eccentricity of manner is bound to 
 affect different people in different ways. One kind 
 of reader, naturally eager for individuality and 
 fresh glimpses of truth, is disposed to identify odd- 
 ity and originality. Another kind of reader in- 
 stinctively distrusts literary eccentricity. In both 
 of these opinions there is an element of truth. . . . 
 In one aspect he is thoroughly American. The 
 spirit of his work is that of world-old anarchy ; 
 his style has all the perverse oddity of paralytic 
 decadence; but the substance of which his poems 
 are made — their imagery as distinguished from 
 their form or their spirit — comes wholly from his 
 native country. In this aspect, then, though prob- 
 ably in no other, he may, after all, l^hrow light on 
 the future of literature in America." — B. Wendell 
 and C. N. Greenough, History of literature in Amer- 
 ica, pp. 371-378. 
 
 "Henry Wadsworth Longfellow . . .was born in 
 Portland, Maine, February 27, 1807. ... At the 
 age of thirteen, Longfellow printed four stanzas, 
 'The Battle of Lovell's Pond,' in a corner of The 
 Portland Gazette. Within the next six years he 
 wrote a considerable number of poems for The 
 United States Literary Gazette By 1S33, in ad- 
 dition to text-boo.ks for his classes, he had, in vari- 
 ous magazines, published original articles, stories, 
 and several reviews; among them an important 
 estimate, of poetry, especially the poetry of Amer- 
 ica, in a notice of 'Sidney's Defense of Poesy' 
 contributed to The North American Revieiv; as 
 well as translations from the Spanish of Manrique 
 and others, with an 'Introductory Essay on the 
 Moral and Devotional Poetry of Spain' (1833). 
 'Outre-Mer,' first published as a series of sketches, 
 appeared in book form in 1835, 'Hyperion' in 
 1830, and 'Voices of the Night' in the same year 
 as 'Hyperion.' 'Voices of the Night' made Long- 
 fellow's reputation as a poet ; the edition was im- 
 mediately exhausted. 'Hyperion,' which eventu- 
 ally EoM well, though at present it is not often 
 enough read, was at first unfortunate, the pub- 
 lisher failing before this book had a fair start. 
 Of Longfellow's better known works, published 
 during the latter half of his lifetime, his 'Ballads 
 and Other Poems' appeared in 1841, 'The Spanish 
 Student.' in 1843, 'Evangeline' in 1847, 'Kavanagh,' 
 another prose romance, in 1840, 'Hiawatha' in 
 1855, 'The Courtship of Miles Standish' in 1858, 
 'The Golden Legend' in 1872, and 'Aftermath' 
 in 1873. The 'Tales of a Wayside Inn' came out in 
 1863, 1872, and 1S73, the First Day separately, the 
 Second and Third Day in company with other writ- 
 ings. . . . Longfellow was the most popular poet 
 ever brought forth on this continent. . . . "By gen- 
 eral consent, Longfellow is our American poet, par 
 excellence, Emerson our philosopher, James Russell 
 Lowe!! our man of letters. . . . No one, however, 
 when his initial talents are considered, has pro- 
 duced so much poetry as Longfellow; no one in 
 the realm of philosophic thought has been so pa- 
 tiently influential as Emerson; and no one, not 
 even Irving, had fared well in so many avenues 
 of literature and popular scholarship as Lowell. 
 He was poet, critic, professor, editor, diplomat, 
 patriot, humanist; and withal he was a man and 
 a friend. ... It is well-nigh impossible to char- 
 acterise Lowell briefly. An attempt to sum up a 
 personality that chose so many avenues of expres- 
 sion, and that at bottom was not thoroughly uni- 
 fied, can hardly do justice to the component parts. 
 The most striking thing about the man was his 
 fertiUty, if not in great constructive ideas, at all 
 
 events in separate thoughts. What he writes is 
 full of meat. His redundancy is not in the way of 
 useless verbiage; he wants to use all the materials 
 that offer. A less obvious thing in Lowell is what 
 we may term his lack of complete spiritual or- 
 ganization. He lived in an age of dissolving beliefs 
 and intellectual unrest. Though he was not tor- 
 mented, as were others, by fierce internal doubts, 
 he yet failed ever to be quite clear with himself 
 on fundamental questions of philosophy and re- 
 ligion. He was never quite at one with himself. 
 As a writer, his serious and his humorous moods 
 were continually interrupting each other. Partly 
 on ..his account, he did not possess an assured 
 style. . . . The fact is that he wrote mainly for his 
 own time, and was bound to have but a tempo- 
 rary reward. This is not saying that the reward 
 was not worth while. His interpretations of Spen- 
 cer, of Dante, of Milton, of the elder dramatists, 
 sent to those poets many a reader who would not 
 otherwise have gone; for America, he opened the 
 road in the study of Chaucer; and his own 'Vision 
 of Sir Launfal' has unlocked many a hard heart to 
 divine influences. When he wrote in dialect, as in 
 the 'Biglow Papers,' he was manifestly writing for 
 a time; but in their time the second series did 
 more to justify the Northern cause than almost 
 any other publication that could be mentioned, 
 Whittier's poems not excepted It may be thought 
 that his wonderful command of dialect, contrasted 
 with a less perfect and less instinctive success in 
 any higher medium, marks him as above all else 
 a satiric poet When he was once sitting for his 
 portrait, he so denominated himself, speaking gener- 
 ally — 'a bored satiric poet.' Yet were we to name 
 Lowell the greatest of all American satirists, his 
 urgent poems of patrioitism — 'The Washers of the 
 Shroud,' the 'Commemoration Ode' — his 'Vision of 
 Sir Launfal,' and 'The Cathedral' would imme- 
 diately proclaim him something greater than any 
 satiric poet could be Last of all, nobler than the 
 sum of his writings was the work which he effected 
 in bringing together his native land and the mother 
 country, England, in a bond of sympathy unknown 
 smce their separation." — T. Stanton, Manual of 
 American literature, pp. 275-290. 
 
 1865-1900.— Literature after the Civil War.— 
 Realistic school. — American humor. — "Following 
 the lead of certain great contemporary novelists in 
 Russia, France, and Spain, many of our later fic- 
 tion-writers have aimed to reproduce, with an un- 
 relieved and unswerving truth and minuteness, just 
 those every-day. aspects of .American society which 
 their great predecessors instinctively idealized or 
 ignored. A so-calied 'realistic' school of fiction has 
 consequently risen up among us, which, according to 
 one definition, 'aims at em.bodying in art the com- 
 mon landscape, common figures, and common hopes 
 and loves and ambitions of our common life.' In 
 nearly every great section of our huge country 
 keen-eyed observers have been recording in fiction 
 one or another of the almost innumerable phases of 
 American society. Taken together, these studies 
 give to the careful reader a fairly accurate notion 
 of our composite national life. But life in this 
 country is as yet such a roughly-pieced patch- 
 work of local differences, that the novelist who 
 aims at a faithful reproduction of it often gets no 
 further than a study of some particular locality, 
 which he paints over and over again up to the 
 extreme limits of endurance. The last thirty 
 years has given us a long procession of these local 
 studies; it has produced writers who are practically 
 specialists on some particular and often narrow 
 plot of ground. We have had experts on the old 
 lady of the New England village, on the Tennes- 
 
 3^3
 
 AMERICAN LITERATURE 
 
 Humor 
 
 AMERICAN LITERATURE 
 
 see mountaineer and the plantation negro ; or, 
 among the novelists who have taken a somewhat 
 wider outlook, we have had elaborate studies of 
 society life in Boston, Washington, Newport, Phila- 
 delphia, or New York. . . . New England has not 
 lacked some notable writers in recent years, some 
 of wh»m have been clearly leaders in the especial 
 line to which they have devoted themselves. In 
 fiction. New England life, particularly in the coun- 
 try districts and the smaller towns, has been por- 
 trayed with minuteness and fidelity by such writers 
 as Elizabeth Stuart Phelps, Harriet Prescott Spof- 
 ford, Sarah Orne Jewett, and Mary E. Wilkins. 
 John Fiske has become widely known as a scien- 
 tist and philosophical thinker, and more recently 
 as one of our ablest writers on American history. 
 The labors of a group of writers in this Last-named 
 field — Justin Winsor (1831-1807), the author of a 
 scholarly and elaborate history of America ; Henry 
 Adams, Henry Cabot Lodge, and others — are too 
 important to be passed over. Indeed it may be 
 said here that outside of New England as well as 
 within its limits an increasing attention to our 
 country's history and institutions has been one of 
 the distinctions of these later years. In the South 
 the labors of Professor Herbert B. Adams, of 
 Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, have been 
 instrumental in raising up a school of capable stu- 
 dents and historians of our institutions and our 
 past. The Middle States have given us the ad- 
 mirable works of Professor [President] Woodrow 
 Wilson, [formerly] of Princeton University and 
 of John Bach McMaster, Professor of .American 
 History at the LTniversity of Pennsylvania. . . . 
 One characteristic feature of our recent literature 
 — its humor — we have reserved for a separate men- 
 tion. Probably no other element in our literature 
 is so distinctly and exclusively American. Imita- 
 tive as much of our serious work may be, our 
 humor is unmistakably a genuinely national pro- 
 duction. Even the English, while their perception 
 of the American joke is apt to be delayed and un- 
 certain, admit that our humor is ours alone. They 
 may call it 'vulgar.' or 'rudimentary,' or 'middle- 
 class,' but they acknowledge that we are at least 
 entitled to say of it, 'a poor thing, sir, but mine 
 own.' A leading English critic and essayist, for in- 
 stance, writes: 'The Americans are of our own 
 stock, yet in their treatment of the ludicrous how 
 unlike us they are ! As far as fun goes, the race 
 has certainly become differentiated.' In fact, 
 humor is a charactertistic clement in the American 
 people. Neither our poetry nor our scholarship 
 rests on such a broad basis of popular apprecia- 
 tion Our sense of the ludicrous is not the pos- 
 session of a limited class; it is a national trait. 
 It declares itself in the funny columns of count- 
 less newspapers, in our popular songs, our min- 
 strels, our theatres, our slang: it is stamped on 
 thousands of funny stories that, handed on from 
 one to another, traverse the whole country with 
 wonderful swiftness. No wonder, then, that when 
 some of this popular sense of humor gets into liter- 
 ature we recognize in it marks of a national trait." 
 — H. S Pancoast, Introduction to American liter- 
 ature, pt. Ill, ch. S- 
 
 "Samuel Langhorne Clemens, 'Mark Twain,' 
 (1835-1010), after an apprenticeship to a printer, 
 became a pilot on the Mississipi River in 1851. 
 Later he tried mining, and still later journalism 
 in California. Thence he removed to Hawaii, and 
 finally to Hartford, Connecticut. ... In 1884 he 
 founded the publishing firm of C. L. Webster S: 
 Company; he lost heavily by its failure His sub- 
 sequent labor to pay its debts suggests the similarly 
 heroic efforts of Sir Walter Scott. His first book. 
 
 Tli€ Jumping Frog and Other Skelcltes, came out 
 in 1867, Innocents Abroad in 1869, Adventures of 
 Tom Sau^yer in 1876, Life on the Mississippi in 
 1883, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn in 1885, 
 Pudd'n-head Wilson in 1894, snd Personal Recol- 
 lections of Joan of Arc in 1805-1896. The earlier 
 work of Mark Twain seemed broadly comic — only 
 another manifestation of that rollicking sort of 
 journalistic fun which is generally ephemeral. As 
 the years . . . passed, however, he . . . slowly dis- 
 tinguished himself more and more from anyone else. 
 No other . . writer, for one thing, so completely 
 exemplifies the kind of humor which is most char- 
 acteristically .\merican — a shrewd sense of fact ex- 
 pressing itself in an inextricable confusion of literal 
 statement and wild extravagance, uttered with no 
 lapse from what seems unmoved gravity of man- 
 ner." — B. Wendell and C. N. Grcenough, History of 
 literature in America, pp. 421-422. 
 
 "I suppose that Mark Twain transcends all other 
 .American humorists in the universal qualities. He 
 deals very little with the pathetic, which he never- 
 theless knows very well how to manage, . . . but 
 there is a poetic lift in his work, even when he per- 
 mits you to recognize it only as something satirized. 
 There is always the touch of nature, the presence 
 of a sincere and frank manliness in what he says, 
 the companionship of a spirit which is at once de- 
 lightfully open and deliciously shrewd . . . His 
 humor is at its best the foamy break of the strong 
 tide of earnestness in him But it would be limiting 
 him unjustly to describe him as a satirist; and it is 
 hardly practicable to establish him in people's minds 
 as a moralist ; he has made them laugh too 
 long. ... I prefer to speak of Mr. Clemens's ar- 
 tistic qualities because it is to these that his humor 
 will owe its perpetuity. ... He portrays and inter- 
 prets real types, not only with exquisite apprecia- 
 tion and sympathy, but with a force and truth of 
 drawing that makes them permanent. . . . One of 
 the characteristics I observe in him is his sinle- 
 minded use of words. ... He writes English as if 
 it were a primitive and not a derivative language. 
 . . . The result is the Enghsh in which the most 
 vital works of English literature are cast. . . . What 
 you will have in him is a style which is as personal, 
 as biographical as the style of any one who has 
 written, and expresses a civilization whose courage 
 of the chances, the preferences, the duties, is not the 
 measure of its essential modesty. It has a thing to 
 say, and it says it in the word that may be the first 
 or second or third choice, but will not be the in- 
 strument of the most fastidious car, the most del- 
 icate and exacting sense, though it will be the word 
 that surely and strongly conveys intention from 
 the author's mind to the reader's. It is the .^bra- 
 ham Lincolnian word, ... it is American, West- 
 ern." — W. D Howells, My Mark Twain, pp. 140- 
 141, 143, 169-170. 
 
 "Among the representatives of the 'New South,' 
 Sidney Lanier (1842-81), musician, poet, teacher of 
 English, is easily foremost . . . The poor recep- 
 tion given to his 'Tiger Lilies' (1867), a novel 
 based on experiences in the army, did not dis- 
 hearten him. In 1875 he definitely announced him- 
 self by his poem entitled 'Corn,' published in Lip- 
 pincolt's Magazine, a vision of the South restored 
 through agriculture. This brought him the oppor- 
 tunity of writing the 'Centennial Cantata' for the 
 Philadelphia Exposition, where he expressed the 
 faith he now had in the future of the reunited na- 
 tion. The Cantata finished, he immediately be- 
 gan a much longer centennial ode, his 'Psalm of the 
 West' (1876), which appeared in Lippincott's 
 Magazine, and which, with 'Corn' and 'The Sym- 
 phony,' made part of a small volume published in 
 
 .^14
 
 AMERICAN LITERATURE 
 
 English 
 Influence 
 
 AMERICAN LITERATURE 
 
 the autumn of 1876 Lanier's important critical 
 works were the product of the years between 
 1876 and his death. Some three years after he died, 
 his poems were collected and edited by his wife 
 If we had to rely upon one poem to keep alive the 
 fame of Lanier, thinks his biographer, Mr. Edwin 
 Mims, we 'could single out "The Marshes of Glynn" 
 with assurance that there is something so individual 
 and original about it, and that, at the same time, 
 there is such a roll and range of verse in it, that 
 it will surely live not only in American poetry but 
 in English. He is the poet of the marshes as 
 surely as Bryant is of the forests.' " — T. Stanton, 
 Manual oj American literature, pp. 272-274. 
 
 1894-1915. — Significant phases. — Howells and 
 James. — "The death of Holmes in the fall of 1894, 
 following fast upon the deaths of Whittier and of 
 Parkman and of Lowell, marked the close of an 
 epoch. The leaders of the great New England 
 group of authors had gone; and the period of 
 American literature which they had made illustri- 
 ous was completed In the first half of the nine- 
 teenth century the literary center of the United 
 States had been in New York, where were Irving 
 and Cooper, Bryant, Halleck, and Drake. Toward 
 the middle of the century the literary center had 
 shifted to Boston, in which city or in its imme- 
 diate vicinity were the homes of Emerson, Long- 
 fellow, Whittier, Holmes, Parkman, Lowell, and 
 Thoreau. When these had departed they left no 
 successors there of the same relative influence. 
 The nation has been spreading so fast and the men 
 of letters are so scattered, that there is in the last 
 years of the nineteenth century no single group of 
 authors whose position at the head of American 
 literature is beyond question. . . The example 
 .set by Irving has been followed by writers who 
 happened to have special knowledge of this or 
 that portion of the country, until there is now 
 hardly a corner of the United States which has 
 not served as the scene of a story of some sort 
 Many of these local fictions are short stories, but 
 some of them are long novels. As was natural, 
 New England is the portion which has been most 
 carefully explored. But of late the young writers 
 of the South and of the West have been almost 
 more successful in this department of literature 
 than the writers of New England and of New York 
 In story and in sketch we have had made known 
 to us the Southern gentleman of the old school, 
 the old negro body-servant, the field hand, and the 
 poor white. In like manner we have had faithfully 
 observed and honestly presented to us the more 
 marked types of Western character. What gives 
 its real value to these studies of life in the South 
 and in the West is that they are studies of life, 
 that they have the note of sincerity and of real- 
 ity, that they are not vain imaginings merely, but 
 the result of an earnest effort to see life as it is 
 and to tell the truth about it — the whole truth, and 
 nothing but the truth. Many of these Southern and 
 Western tales, even more than the New York and 
 New England tales on which they are modeled, 
 abound in humor, which sometimes refines itself 
 into delicate character-drawing, and which some- 
 times breaks out into more hearty fun. Franklin 
 was perhaps the earliest of .American humorists; 
 after him came Irving, and then Lowell ; and they 
 have to-day many followers not unworthy of them. 
 
 "The earlier American historians, Prescott and 
 Motley and Parkman, have also many not un- 
 worthy followers, working to-day as loyally as 
 did their great predecessors. At no time since the 
 United States became an independent nation has 
 there been greater interest in historical study. At 
 no time have more able writers been devoting 
 
 themselves to the history of our own country. 
 Although we have now no essayist of the stipulat- 
 ing force of Emerson, and no critic with the in- 
 sight and the equipment of Lowell, yet there is 
 no lack of delightful essayists and of accomplished 
 critics Indeed the general level of American criti- 
 cism has been immensely raised since the days of 
 Poe. American critics are far more self-reliant at 
 the end of the nineteenth century than they were 
 at the beginning They hare lost the colonial at- 
 titude, for they no longer look for light across the 
 Atlantic to England only. They know now that 
 American literature has to grow in its own way and 
 of its own accord Yet they are not so narrow 
 as they were, and they are ready to apply far 
 higher standards. An American poet or novelist or 
 historian is not now either unduly praised or 
 unduly condemned merely because he is an Ameri- 
 can. He is judged on his own merits, and he is 
 compared with the leading contemporary, writers 
 of England and of France, of Germany, of Italy. 
 and of Spain. It is by the loftiest standards of 
 the rest of the world that .'\merican literature 
 must hereafter be measured " — B. Matthews, In- 
 trodiKlion to the study oj American literature, p. 
 229-233. 
 
 "One who compares American literature of the 
 last fifty years with that of the preceding half 
 century will be struck first of all by the scarcity of 
 great writers, the very large number of minor au- 
 thors, and the high average of talent shown, espe- 
 cially in prose. This literary talent is well dis- 
 tributed. New England and the Middle States hav- 
 ing lost the preeminence they once had The lack 
 of a literary metropolis deprives .American authors 
 of a valuable stimulus and hinders an all-Ameri- 
 can point of view ; yet the fact that our men of 
 letters work alone, or in literary centres far apart 
 in space and widely different in temper and tradi- 
 tions, encourages originality and the use of varied 
 material ; and if we ever have a more unitary and 
 national literature, these pictures of local condi- 
 tions in North, South, and West will prove to 
 have been of much value as preliminary studies. 
 Largely because of such studies there has emerged 
 another marked feature of the new literature, its 
 .Americanism in subject and spirit. While Ameri- 
 can writers are more cosmopolitan than ever be- 
 fore in the sense of being open to the cultures of 
 the world, foreign influence as a whole is rela- 
 tively less apparent than formerly, and American 
 literature is much more the product of American 
 soil This is due in part to the Civil War, which 
 brought the country to a new sense of its power 
 and even of its fundamental unity, for during thai 
 struggle the men of the East and the West and 
 the South came to know one another better, recog- 
 nizing in comrades and foes alike a common .Amer- 
 icanism. The fading away of the Old South as 
 a result of the war, and the disappearance of the 
 most picturesque features of the West in the re- 
 cent rapid expansion of population and wealth, 
 gave a heightened value to these aspects of .Ameri- 
 can life in the eyes of writers and readers. To 
 these causes has been added of late a growing feel- 
 ing of independence, the natural result of greater 
 maturity and power. The present generation cares 
 less than did its forefathers for the censure or the 
 approval of Europe, and is rather amused than ir- 
 ritated by Old World misunderstanding and con- 
 descension, feeling that if it has much to learn it 
 has also much to teach" — W. C. Bronson, Short 
 history of American literature, p. 282-283 
 
 "It is in accordance with the spirit of the time 
 that recent tendencies in novel writings are in the 
 direction of realism and character analysis. There 
 
 315
 
 AMERICAN LITERATURE 
 
 Howells 
 and James 
 
 AMERICAN LITERATURE 
 
 have been occasional violent reactions in the direc- 
 tion of ultra-romanticism, and about the close of 
 the century the country suffered from an epidemic 
 of hastily written historical novels. The two most 
 distinguished [contemporary] American novelists, 
 William Dean Howells [d. 1920] and Henry James 
 [d. 1916] stand, however, for the study and por- 
 trayal of things as they are. In the recent develop- 
 ment of the short story as a distinct literary form 
 America has done its full share, and more; and 
 perhaps American writers of short stories are rela- 
 tively more distinguished than American authors 
 in any other field of literature. The increasing 
 number of magazines offers opportunities for the 
 publication of short stories, and short stories in 
 turn help to make the magazines possible and popu- 
 lar. Many young persons with literary interests 
 have found time to attempt the briefer form when 
 circumstances would have prevented them from 
 writing an old-fashioned two volume novel; and 
 though this has led to the production of an im- 
 mense amount of experimental and mediocre work, 
 it has developed a few writers who might not 
 otherwise have been discovered The valuable 
 achievement of the last quarter-century in poetry 
 has been small. The best work has been done by 
 writers who made their reputation before 1883. The 
 fashion has set toward short and epigrammatic 
 lyrics, and few poems on an ambitious scale have 
 been attempted. The Americans who have had 
 most influence on their latest successors are Em- 
 erson and Whitman. There are many experiments 
 in the manner of European poets and of other 
 times, but there is little that seems a high and 
 genuine expression of to-day. An increasing num- 
 ber of younger men have been tempted to the 
 writing of plays, and some of them have produced 
 work admirably suited to effective presentation by 
 the complex art of the modern stage. There have, 
 however, been no dramas of the first literary rank, 
 and few of the second. The perpetual demand for 
 sensational plays has been filled by melodramas 
 which stage-craft is able to make more lurid than 
 ever before; but the tendency in the drama, as in 
 prose fiction, is toward realism. It may be partly 
 as a result of that tendency that the sucessful ac- 
 tion plays written within the last few years have 
 been almost all in prose. Within recent years 
 there have been many writers of good prose essays, 
 but none of preeminent distinction. The sharp dif- 
 ferentiation of the short story from the essay has 
 modified the latter, and no recent writings are of 
 the same order as some of the most charming 
 work of Addison, Lamb, and Irving. Essays on 
 various aspects of nature-study haye become popu- 
 lar, and discussions of literary and artistic matters 
 are more widely read than ever before. In the 
 better newspapers lighter discussions of social 
 questions and of evils of the day have been more 
 refined and more truly humorous than formerly. 
 Though these can hardly be classed as literature 
 their improvement indicates better popular taste. 
 With the development of modern ideals of scholar- 
 ship the writings of scholars take less and less 
 rank as literature. Thoroughness of investigation 
 and impartiality of statement are the chief mer- 
 its of the monograph or treatise; and many in- 
 vestigators seem to fear that literary graces are 
 to be shunned lest they seduce the writer from 
 accuracy in the presentation of facts." — W. B. 
 Cairns, History of American literature, pp. 463- 
 465. 
 
 "The first thing which it occurs to me to note is 
 that the relation between American and British lit- 
 erature has become closer. I say 'British,' not for 
 the sake of including more categorically Scottish 
 
 3 
 
 and Irish, but because American literature is neces- 
 sarily 'English' in the larger, which is also the 
 truer, sense of the term. All that is written in 
 English, wherever it is written, is English litera- 
 ture because it descends <rom the same source — 
 viz., the great writers of the seventeenth century, 
 when the people now poUtically separated were one 
 people, and because every part of it has continued 
 to affect and mold every other part. To-day peo- 
 ple in Britain read books published in America and 
 Americans read books published in Britain, far 
 more generally than was ever the case before. The 
 taste and the criticism of each country are more 
 influenced by that of the other. When living in the 
 United States [as British ambassador] I was con- 
 stantly struck by the fact that a new British writer 
 of some fresh quality was often sooner known and 
 more promptly appreciated there than in his own 
 country. The same thing happens, though less 
 markedly, in Great Britain. ... As respects what 
 may be called 'solid literature,' that is to say books 
 on history, philosophy, economics, and all the so- 
 called human or 'social' sciences, the greatest change 
 of recent years is the enormously increased Amer- 
 ican output. . . . These books and articles are emi- 
 nently painstaking and accurate, disdaining no 
 facts, however trivial they may seem. Comparatively 
 few large historical works are produced, for the 
 writers are occupied not so much in rearing edi- 
 fices as in laying foundations, or perhaps in quar- 
 rying stones and carrying them to the place where 
 the building is to be erected. They are regardful 
 rather of the substance than of the style and man- 
 ner of their compositions, and are right in this, for 
 the work is of a class in which accuracy is the one 
 essential thing. Nevertheless, the treatises of Henry 
 
 C. Lea, most learned of all American historians, and 
 those of Francis Parkman and of John Fiske, were 
 of admirable quality ; nor are their successors 
 wanting among living writers, whom I do not men- 
 tion because selection would be invidious where 
 there are several of conspicuous excellence. Much 
 of this work relates to local history or State his- 
 tory, and makes its special appeal to citizens 
 of the United States. But much also deals with 
 large constitutional questions and with problems in 
 political science that are of universal interest. 
 Americans have begun to realize that their country 
 is both the workshop and the laboratory of democ- 
 racy. In their forty-eight States and their Congress 
 they are trying experiments in every form of popu- 
 lar government by which the whole world may 
 profit, and indeed is profiting. The other field 
 from whose heavy soil a large crop is being raised 
 is the field of economics and of the social sciences 
 in their application to social progress. Here the af- 
 finities of American authors are rather with Eng- 
 land than with Germany, for the exaggerated doc- 
 trines of State omnipotence which German think- 
 ers have (to their own injury) embraced do not 
 commend themselves to English-speaking men nur- 
 tured in the principles of liberty. The substantial 
 identity of industrial problems, and social problems 
 generally, in Britain and the United States, as v/e\\ 
 as the similarity of spirit and aims, has made the 
 experiments and the literature bearing on these 
 subjects especially helpful to both countries. When 
 one passes from these grave subjects to the greener 
 and gayer meadows of fiction, the change from 
 forty years ago shows itself rather in quality than 
 in quantity. In the seventies few novels of liter- 
 ary merit were appearing in America, certainly 
 very few that won reputation in Europe, until 
 those who are now illustrious veterans — Mr. W. 
 
 D. Howells and Mr. Henry James — made them- 
 selves known. Isolated works of striking indi- 
 
 16
 
 nlph wa 
 
 \a/a; 
 noted american writers
 
 AMERICAN LITERATURE 
 
 AMERICAN POLITICAL SCIENCE 
 
 viduality shone out now and then, like the best of 
 Mark Twain's, but there was no such number of 
 really finished and artistic story-tellers as America 
 has to-day, when at least three novelists (besides 
 the veterans just referred to) are admittedly equal 
 to the best of their En dish competitors. The 
 American novel is now no longer content to de- 
 pict phases of local life, though that is still ef- 
 fectively done, and the romantic element that has 
 long been associated with the Far West is now 
 so fast fading away that it will soon cease to be 
 available for local color. But several of the best 
 writers of to-day are grappling with the newer 
 issues of life, in an imaginative way, and in a 
 more 'continental' spirit, so to speak, than any of 
 their predecessors. They are less influenced by 
 French models than most of our English writers 
 have been; and in their hands realism does not so 
 much occupy itself with sm.all details. One is now 
 struck by the presence of what European travelers 
 when they return from America used to complain 
 of as wanting there: I mean delicate elaboration 
 in workmanship. This care and finish are now 
 evident not only in fiction, but in literary criti- 
 cism also. Good criticism is almost as rare both 
 in literature and in art, as good original work; 
 and in the United States there was but little of 
 it in the seventies or eighties, and far less than 
 one finds now. ... It is now more than thirty 
 years since the chief names in poetry were ceasing 
 to write both in America and in Britain; and just 
 as in the latter the places left vacant by the disap- 
 pearance of Tennyson, Browning, Matthew Ar- 
 nold, and Swinburne have not been filled, so neither 
 have any successors to Longfellow, Lowell, Emer- 
 son, Bryant, Holmes, or Whitticr — some might add 
 Whitman — attained an equally conspicuous posi- 
 tion. It is not that in either country people care 
 less for poetry — all the verses of merit that appear 
 are eagerly read — but not only these two countries, 
 but the nations of continental Europe also, still 
 await the great geniuses who will doubtless, as 
 after former periods of comparative quies- 
 cence, at last swim into the sky. The question 
 may also be put: Are British and Amer- 
 ican literature drawing closer to each other with 
 the immensely increased personal intercourse 
 of the two peoples and the better knowledge 
 each has of the other? They are doubtless 
 more occupied with the same subjects than they 
 used to be, because the United States is altogether 
 in fuller touch with the Old World. But the dis- 
 tinctive color or flavor, whichever one is to call it, 
 of the New World is still evident. When one opens 
 a book without knowing who the author is or 
 where it is published, there is something not 
 merely in the words or style, but in the way of 
 thinking, and in the atmosphere (so to speak) 
 which the thoughts breathe, which reveals the au- 
 thor's nationality. The difference between spirit 
 and flavor of the literature of the two peoples 
 seems to me personally less marked than are the 
 differences between their institutions and their re- 
 spective national characters. Neveretheless, it 
 exists, and it seems likely to continue. That it 
 should continue is much to be desired by those who 
 value individuality and who feel that the ideas 
 and tastes of mankind may some day find them- 
 selves in danger of becoming too uniform. The 
 more variety there is, so much the more progress, 
 for variety is stimulating as well as enjoyable." — 
 J. Brj'ce, Stray thoughts on American literature 
 (North American Review, March, 1Q15). 
 
 "Both in New York and in New England the 
 most popular form of recent literature has prob- 
 ably been the short story. From influences in a 
 
 way common to both regions, combined with in- 
 fluences quite distinct, there have emerged mean- 
 while the three American novelists who have at- 
 tained such eminence as to demand separate con- 
 sideration. One — Howells — is completely Ameri- 
 can; the other two — James and Crawford — are 
 Americans whose principal work has been deeply 
 affected by European environment." — B. Wendell, 
 and C. N. Greenough, History oj literature in 
 America, pp. 395. 
 
 Review of the literature of Virginia. See 
 Virginia: 1900. 
 
 AMERICAN LYCEUM. See Education: 
 Modern developments: Extension work: Lyceum. 
 
 AMERICAN MUSIC. ^See Music: 1774-1908; 
 also Folk music and nationalism; United States. 
 AMERICAN NATIVE RACES.— Archaeo- 
 logical study. See Archaeology: Importance of 
 American field. 
 
 AMERICAN PACIFISTS BROTHER- 
 HOOD OF RECONCILIATION. See Peace 
 movements: Constructive plans. 
 
 AMERICAN PAINTING. See Painting: 
 Modern: American. 
 
 AMERICAN PARTY, or Know-Nothing 
 Party. See Massachusetts: 1852-1865; U. S. A.: 
 1S52; 1855-1856. 
 
 AMERICAN PEACE SOCIETY.— This soci- 
 ety was founded 1^28 by William Ladd and in- 
 corporated various organizations going back to 
 1815; it was reorganized in 191 1. The program 
 of the society calls for the organization of the 
 nations of the world with a court and an inter- 
 national legislature. The decrees of this tribunal 
 are to supplant armed force in the settlement of 
 international disputes. The headquarters of the 
 society are in Washington, D. C. See League of 
 nations: Former projects. 
 
 AMERICAN POETRY. See American lit- 
 erature: 1790-1860. 
 
 AMERICAN POLITICAL SCIENCE AS- 
 SOCIATION.— In December, 1902, "at the Phila- 
 delphia meeting [of the American Historical As- 
 sociation, q. v.] a number of persons who were 
 members either of the Historical Association or of 
 the Economic Association met and discussed the 
 advisability of forming an association devoted to 
 the study and discussion of topics in political 
 science. It was then decided to take the matter 
 under advisement and to give it serious consider- 
 ation. A committee, appointed at Philadelphia 
 to investigate the subject and gather opinions, re- 
 ported at New Orleans in favor of establishing an 
 organization not affiliated formally with either of 
 the older associations. In accordance with that 
 recommendation, a new society called the American 
 Political Science Association was formed. Its pur- 
 pose is to advance the study of politics, public 
 law, administration, and diplomacy. There was 
 a general feeling among the men who formed this 
 association that their fields of work were so de- 
 cidedly different from the fields of economics and 
 history that only by the formation of a separate 
 society could their topics receive proper attention 
 and be sufficiently discussed." — Meeting of the 
 American Historical Association at New Orleans 
 (American Historical Review, April, 1904, p. 439). 
 — "The need for such an association as this, which 
 should do for political science what the American 
 Economic and American Historical Associations 
 are doing for economics and history respectively, 
 had been felt for a number of years. ... At a 
 meeting of those interested, in the Tilton Memo- 
 rial Library of Tulane University, December 30, 
 1903, there was established, as has been said, The 
 American Political Science Association. As its 
 
 317
 
 AMERICAN PROTECTIVE 
 
 AMERICAN REPUBLICS 
 
 first president was elected Dr. Frank J. Goodnow, 
 professor of administrative law in Columbia Uni- 
 versity. . . . Professor W. W. Willoughby of Johns 
 Hopkins University was elected as the -secretary 
 and treasurer." — W. W. Willoughby (American 
 Political Science Quarterly, March, 1904, p. log- 
 in). — Since that time the Association has had, 
 through its annual meetings and its publication, 
 the American PolHical Science Review, a stimulat- 
 ing effect on political thought and teaching. 
 
 AMERICAN PROTECTIVE ASSOCIA- 
 TION, or A. P. A., a secret order formed in 
 1887 at Clinton, Iowa, under the leadership of 
 Henry F. Bowers. It was an outgrowth of the 
 Know-Nothing Party and was opposed to Roman 
 Catholic influence in politics, and in the schools. Its 
 influence was greatest in 1896, after which its power 
 declined rapidly. 
 
 Also in: H. J. Desmond, A. P. A. movement. — 
 Congressional Record, Oct. 31, 1893. 
 
 AMERICAN PROTECTIVE LEAGUE. See 
 World War: Miscellaneous auxiliary services: II. 
 Espionage: a, 4. 
 
 AMERICAN RAILWAY EXPRESS COM- 
 PANY. See R.MLRO.xus: 1916-1920. 
 
 AMERICAN RAILWAY UNION. See U.S.A.: 
 1894: Strike at Pullman. 
 
 AMERICAN RED CROSS. See Red cross: 
 American National Red Cro?s; 1917-1919; 1919- 
 
 AMERICAN RELIEF ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 See I.VTERN.^TIONAL RELIEF. 
 
 AMERICAN REPUBLICS, Bureau of. See 
 
 .American republics, International union of. 
 
 AMERICAN REPUBLICS, International 
 Union of. — South and Central American na- 
 tions: Their recent rapid advance in character, 
 dignity, and importance. — In iSoo, when Mr. 
 Blaine, as secretary of state, opened the first well- 
 planned erideavor of the government of the United 
 States to put itstif into such relations with them, 
 of friendly influence, there was little appreciation 
 of the importance of the movement. Even Mr. 
 Blaine did not seem to be fully earnest and fully 
 sanguine in it, or else his chief and his colleagues 
 in the government were not heartily with him ; 
 for his admirable scheme of policy was almost 
 wrecked in the second year of its working, by ill 
 feelings aroused between Chile and the United 
 States, casting suspicion on the motives with 
 which the great republic of North America had 
 made overtures of fraternity to the republics of 
 the south and freshening an old distrust in their 
 minds. Happily, however, Mr. Blaine, in 1890, 
 had brought about the creation of a harmonizing 
 and unifying agency which needed only time to 
 effect great results. This was the bureau of the 
 American republics, established at Washington, by 
 a vote of the delegates from eighteen North, 
 South and Central .■\merican governments, at an 
 International American Conference, held in that 
 city in March of the year named. Its immediate 
 purpose was the promotion of commercial inter- 
 course; but the information spread with that ob- 
 ject, through all the countries concerned, has car- 
 ried with it every kind of pacific understanding 
 and stimulation. The common action with com- 
 mon interests thus organized must have had more 
 than anything else to do with the generating of a 
 public spirit in the Spanish-American countries 
 very different from any ever manifested before. 
 The Central and South American republics had so 
 little standing among the nations that few of them 
 were invited to the Peace Conference of 1899, 
 and the invitation was accepted by none. Span- 
 ish America was represented by Mexico alone. At 
 
 the conference of 1907 at The Hague there were 
 delegates from all, and several among their dele- 
 gates took a notably important part, giving a 
 marked distinction to the peoples they represented. 
 It was by special effort on the part of our then 
 secretary of state that they were brought thus into 
 the council of nations. Mr. Root had great suc- 
 cess, indeed, in realizing the aim of the policy 
 projected and initiated by Mr. Blaine. He did 
 much to clear away distrust and to win the confi- 
 dence of the .Americans at the middle and south of 
 the hemisphere. 
 
 1890. — First International American Confer- 
 ence at Washington. — Pan-American Union and 
 its bureau created. — .\ "bureau, or agency, repre- 
 senting the Republics of the Western Hemisphere, 
 was suggested to the delegates accredited to the In- 
 ternational American Conference held in Wash- 
 ington in 18S9-90, by the conference held at Brus- 
 sels in May, 1888, which planned for an interna- 
 tional union for the publication of customs tar- 
 iffs, etc. . . . On March 29, 1S90, the International 
 American Conference, by a unanimous vote of the 
 delegates of the eighteen countries there represented, 
 namely: The Argentine Republic, Bolivia, Brazil, 
 Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Guatemala, 
 Haiti, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Paraguay, 
 Peru, Salvador, United States, Uruguay, and Vene- 
 zuela, provided for the establishment of an asso- 
 ciation to he known as 'The International Union 
 of .American Republics for the Prompt Collection 
 and Distribution of Commercial Information,' 
 which should be represented at the capital of the 
 United States by a Bureau, under the title of 'The 
 Bureau of the American Republics.' This organ, 
 so to speak, of the independent governments of the 
 New World was placed under the supervision of 
 the Secretary of State of the United States, and 
 was to continue in existence for a period of ten 
 years, and. if found profitable to the nations par- 
 ticipating in its advantages, it was to be maintained 
 for successive periods of ten years indefinitely. .At 
 the first session of the Fifty-first Congress of the 
 United States, that body, in an '.Act making ap- 
 propriations for the support of the Diplomatic and 
 Consular Ser\"ice, etc.,' approved July 14,1800, gave 
 the President authority to carry into effect the 
 recommendations of the Conference so far as he 
 should deem them expedient, and appropriated 
 ,$36,000 for the organization and establishment of 
 the Bureau, which amount it had been stipulated by 
 the delegates in the Conference assembled should 
 not be exceeded, and should be annually advanced 
 by the United States and shared by the several Re- 
 publics in proportion to their population. . . . The 
 Conference had defined the purpose of the Bureau 
 to be the preparation and publication of bulletins 
 concerning the commerce and resources of the 
 -American Republics, and to furnish information of 
 interest to manufacturers, merchants, and shippers, 
 which should be at all times available to persons 
 desirous of obtaining particulars regarding their 
 customs tariffs and regulations, as well as commerce 
 and navigation." — Bulletin of the Bureau of Ameri- 
 can republics, June, 1898. — .A plan of government 
 for the international union, by an executive com- 
 mittee composed of representatives of the .Ameri- 
 can nations constituting the union, was adopted 
 in 1896, but modified at a conference held in 
 Washington, March 18, 1899. .As then adopted, the 
 plan of government is as follows: "The Bureau of 
 the .American Republics will be governed under the 
 supervision of the Secretary of State of the United 
 States, with the cooperation and advice of four rep- 
 resentatives of the other Republics composing the 
 International Union, the five persons indicated to 
 
 318
 
 AMERICAN REPUBLICS 
 
 1901-1902 
 
 AMERICAN REPUBLICS 
 
 constitute an Executive Committee, of which the 
 Secretary of State is to be ex-officio Chairman, or, 
 in his absence, the Acting Secretary of State. The 
 other four members of the Executive Committee 
 shall be called to serve in turn, in the alphabetical 
 order of the official names of their nations in one 
 of the four languages of the Union, previously se- 
 lected by lot at a meeting of the representatives of 
 the Union. At the end of each year the first of 
 these four members shall retire, giving place to an- 
 other representative of the Union, in the same al- 
 phabetical order already explained, and so on until 
 the next period of succession. . . . The interest 
 taken by the various States forming the Interna- 
 tional Union of American Republics in the work of 
 its organic bureau is evidenced by the fact that for 
 the first time since its creation in i8qo all the re- 
 publics of South and Central America are now 
 I iSgg] represented in it. The unanimous recom- 
 mendation of the International American Confer- 
 ence, providing for the International Union of 
 American Republics, stated that it should continue 
 in force during a term of ten years from the date 
 of its organization, and no country becoming a 
 member of the union should cease to be a member 
 until the end of said period of ten years, and un- 
 less twelve months before the expiration of said 
 period a majority of the members of the union 
 had given to the Secretary of State of the United 
 States official notice of their wish to terminate the 
 union at the end of its first period, that the union 
 should continue to be maintained for another period 
 of ten years, and thereafter, under the same con- 
 ditions, for successive periods of ten years each. 
 The period for notification expired on July 15, 
 1899, without any of the members having given 
 the necessary notice of withdrawal. Its mainte- 
 nance is therefore assured for the next ten years." 
 — Message of the president of the United Slates, 
 December 5, 1899.— See also U. S. A.; 1889-1891. 
 
 1901-1902. — Second International American 
 Conference, held at the City of Mexico. — Its 
 proceedings, conventions, resolutions, etc. — On 
 the suggestion of President McKinley and on the 
 invitation of President Diaz, of Mexico, a second 
 conference was convened at the city of Mexico, on 
 October 23, 1901. The sessions of this conference 
 were prolonged until January 31, 1902. It was at- 
 tended by delegates from every independent nation 
 then existing in America, being twenty in number ; 
 but the delegation of Venezuela was withdrawn by 
 the government of that state on January 14 and 
 the withdrawal was made retroactive to and from 
 the preceding December 31. The delegation from 
 the United States was composed of ex-United 
 States Senator Henry G. Davis; Mr. William I. 
 Buchanan, formerly envoy extraordinary and min- 
 ister plenipotentiary to the Argentine Republic ; 
 Mr. John Barrett, formerly minister resident of 
 the United States to Siam; and Messrs. Charles M. 
 Pepper and Volney W. Foster. The following ac- 
 count of the work of the conference and its re- 
 sults is compiled from the report made by the 
 delegates of the United States to the Department 
 of State: "Sefior Raigosa, chairman of the Mexi- 
 can delegation, was chosen temporary president, 
 and the Conference then proceeded to its perma- 
 nent organization by the election of his excellency 
 Senor Lic.Don Ignaci Mariscal, minister of 
 foreign affairs of Mexico, and Hon. John Hay, 
 Secretary of State of the United States, honorary 
 presidents; Seiior Lic.Don Genaro Raigosa, of 
 Mexico, president; Senor Don Jos6 Hygino Duarte 
 Pereira, of Brazil, first vice-president, and Senor 
 Doctor Don Baltasar Estupinian, of Salvador, sec- 
 ond vice-president. . . . Under the rules adopted 
 
 19 committees were appointed and the work of 
 
 the conference was apportioned among them. . . . 
 Discussion between the representatives of the Re- 
 publics that would constitute the conference began 
 months previous to its opening upon the subject 
 of arbitration, and while every desire was mani- 
 fested then and thereafter by all to see a conclusion 
 reached by the conference in which all might join, 
 unsettled questions existed between some of the 
 Republics that would participate in the conference 
 of a character that made their avoidance difficult 
 in any general discussion of the subject. . . . This 
 difficulty became more apparent as the conference 
 proceeded with its work, ... It was tacitly agreed 
 between delegations, therefore, that the discussion 
 of the subject should be confined, so far as possible, 
 to a committee. . . . There was at no time any 
 difficulty with regard to securing a unanimous re- 
 port favoring a treaty covering merely arbitration 
 as a principle; all delegations were in favor of that. 
 The point of discussion was as to the extent to 
 which the principle should be applied. Concern- 
 ing this, three views were supported in the confer- 
 ence: (a) Obligatory arbitration, covering all ques- 
 tions pending or future when they did not affect 
 either independence or the national honor of a 
 country; (b) Obligatory arbitration covering future 
 questions only and defining what questions shall 
 constitute those to be excepted from arbitration; 
 and (c) Facultative or voluntary arbitration, as 
 best expressed by The Hague convention. ... A 
 plan was finally sugested providing that all dele- 
 gations should sign the protocol for adhesion to 
 the convention of The Hague, as originally sug- 
 gested by the United States delegation, and that 
 the advocates of obligatory arbitration sign, be- 
 tween themselves, a project of treaty obligating 
 their respective governments to submit to the per- 
 manent court at The Hague all questions arising or 
 in existence, between themselves, which did not 
 affect their independence or their national honor. 
 Both the protocol and treaty were then to be 
 brought before the conference, incorporated in the 
 minutes without debate or action, and sent to 
 the minister of foreign relations of Mexico, to be 
 officially certified and transmitted by that official 
 to the several signatory governments. After pro- 
 longed negotiations this plan was adopted and car- 
 ried out as outlined above, all of the delegations 
 in the conference, excepting those of Chile and 
 Ecuador, signing the protocol covering adherence 
 to The Hague convention before its submission 
 to the conference. These, after a protracted debate 
 on a point of order involving the plan adopted, 
 later accepted in open conference a solution which 
 made them — as they greatly desired to be. in an- 
 other form than that adopted — parties to the proto- 
 col. The project of treaty of compulsory arbitra- 
 tion was signed by the delegations of the Argen- 
 tine Republic, Bolivia, Santo Domingo, El Salva- 
 dor, Guatemala, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, 
 and Venezuela. . . . 
 
 "In addition to accepting The Hague conven- 
 tion the conference went further. It accepted the 
 three Hague conventions as principles of public 
 American international law, and authorized and 
 requested the President of the Mexican Republic^ 
 as heretofore explained, to enter upon negotiations 
 with the several American Governments looking 
 toward the most unrestricted application of arbi- 
 tration possible should the way for such a step 
 appear open. In addition to the protocol and 
 treaty referred to, another step was taken in the 
 direction of the settlement of international con- 
 troversies by the adoption and signing, on the part 
 of every country represented in the conference, of 
 
 319
 
 AMERICAN REPUBLICS 
 
 1906 
 
 AMERICAN REPUBLICS 
 
 a project of treaty covering the arbitration of 
 pecuniary claims. Under this the several repubUcs 
 (obligated] themselves for a period of five years 
 to submit to the arbitration of the court at The 
 Hague all claims for pecuniary loss or damage 
 which [might] be presented by their respective 
 citizens and which [could not] be amicably ad- 
 justed through diplomatic channels when such 
 claims [were] of sufficient importance to warrant 
 the expense of arbitration. . . . 
 
 "Among the most important recommendations 
 made by the First International American Confer- 
 ence, held in Washington in i88q-Qo, with a view 
 to facilitating trade and communication between 
 the American Republics, was that looking to the 
 construction of an intercontinental railway, by 
 which all of the republics on the American conti- 
 nent would be put into rail communication with 
 each other. In pursuance of the recommendations 
 of that conference, an international railway com- 
 mission was organized, and under its direction sur- 
 veys were made which showed that it would be 
 entirely practicable, by using, as far as possible, 
 existing railway systems and filling in the gaps 
 between them. . . . The report of the interconti- 
 nental railway commission showed that the dis- 
 tance between New York and Buenos .\yres by 
 way of the proposed line would be 10.471 miles, 
 of which a little less than one-half had then been 
 constructed, leaving about 5456 miles to be built. 
 Following up the work of the first conference and 
 the intercontinental railway commission, the [sec- 
 ond] conference adopted a strong report and a 
 series of carefully considered recommendations on 
 this subject. . . . Another resolution ... is that 
 regarding quarantine and sanitary matters. In 
 dealing with this subject the object of the confer- 
 ence was to malie sanitation take the place of 
 quarantine. . . . 
 
 "The conference fully recognized the value and 
 importance to all the Republics of the Interna- 
 tional Bureau of the American Republics, which 
 was established m Washington in pursuance of 
 the action of the First International .American 
 Conference. . . . With a view to .rendering the 
 Bureau still more useful to all the countries rep- 
 resented in its administration, and making it still 
 more valuable in establishing and maintaining 
 closer relations between them, the conference 
 adopted a plan of reorganization, or rather of 
 broadening and expanding the existing organiza- 
 tion. . . . The new regulations adopted [provided] 
 that the Bureau [should] be under the management 
 of a governing board to be composed of the Sec- 
 retary of State of the United States, who [was] 
 to be its chairman, and the diplomatic representa- 
 tives in Washington of all the other governments 
 represented in the Bureau. This governing board 
 [was] to meet regularly once a month, excepting 
 in June, July, and .August of each year. ... In 
 order that the archaeological and ethnological re- 
 mains existing in the territory of the several Re- 
 publics of the Western Hemisphere might be sys- 
 tematically studied and preserved, the conference 
 adopted a resolution providing for the meeting of 
 an American international archaeological com- 
 mission in the city of Washington, D. C, within 
 two years from the date of the adoption of the 
 resolution. . . . The conference gave its most 
 hearty indorsement to the project for the construc- 
 tion of an interoceanic canal by the Government 
 of the United States. . . . The recommendation of 
 the conference that there be established in New 
 York, Chicago, San Francisco, New Orleans, 
 Buenos Ayres, or any other important mercantile 
 center, a bank with branches in the principal cities 
 
 in the American republics, [was] in line with the 
 similar resolution adopted by the First Interna- 
 tional .American Conference in Washington in 1889- 
 QO. 
 
 "In addition to the protocol for the adhesion of 
 the American Republics to the Convention of The 
 Hague, the treaty of compulson.' arbitration signed 
 by nine delegations, and the treaty for the arbi- 
 tration of pecuniary claims, the Conference agreed 
 to and signed a treaty for the extradition of crimi- 
 nals, . . . including a clause making anarchy an 
 extraditable offense when it shall have been de- 
 fined by the legislation of the respective countries; 
 a convention on the practice of the learned pro- 
 fessions, providing for the reciprocal recognition 
 of the professional diplomas and titles granted 
 in the several Republics; a convention for the 
 formation of codes of public and private inter- 
 national law ; . . . a convention on literary and 
 artistic copyrights; ... a convention for the ex- 
 change of official, scientific, literary, and indus- 
 trial publications; ... a treaty on patents of in- 
 vention, etc.; . . . and a convention on the rights 
 of aliens." The treaty on patents and the conven- 
 tion on the rights of aliens could not be signed by 
 the delegates cf the United States, for reasons set 
 forth in their report. — 571'/! Congress, isl Session 
 i90i-igo2, Senate Document 330. — See also Arbi- 
 TRATiox, IxTtRNATioxAL: Modcm period: 1902; 
 Mexico: 1004-1005. 
 
 1906. — Third International American Confer- 
 ence, at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. — Proceedings, 
 conventions, resolutions. — The third international 
 conference of American republics was held at Rio 
 de Janeiro, Brazil, from July 21 to August 26, 1906. 
 It was attended by delegates from each of the 
 twenty-one .'\merican republics, excepting only 
 Hayti and Venezuela. The delegates from the 
 United States of .America were the Hon. William I. 
 Buchanan, chairman, formerly envoy extraordi- 
 nary and minister plenipotentiary to the Argentine 
 RepubUc; Dr. L. S. Rowe, professor of political 
 science. University of Pennsylvania; Hon. A. J. 
 Montague, cx-governor of Virginia; Mr. Tulio Lar- 
 rinaga, resident commissioner from Porto Rico in 
 Washington; Mr. Paul S. Reinsch, professor of 
 political science, university of Wisconsin; Mr. Van 
 Leer Polk, ex-consul-general ; with a staff of secre- 
 taries, etc., from several departments of the public 
 service at W'ashington. The conference was at- 
 tended also by the secretary of state of the United 
 States, the Hon. Elihu Root, incidentally to an 
 important tour through many parts of South 
 .America which he made in the months of that 
 summer. In the course of his journey he visited, 
 on invitation, not only Brazil, but Uruguay, Ar- 
 gentina, Chile, Peru, Panama, and Colombia; and, 
 as stated in the next annual message of President 
 Roosevelt, "he refrained from visiting Paraguay, 
 Bolivia, and Ecuador only because the distance of 
 their capitals from the seaboard made it imprac- 
 ticable with the time at his disposal. He carried 
 with him a message of peace and friendship, and 
 of strong desire for good understanding and mu- 
 tual helpfulness ; and he was every w here received 
 in the spirit of his message." 
 
 In the instructions to the delegates from the 
 United States, prepared by Secretary Root, this 
 wise admonition was conveyed: — It is important 
 that you should keep in mind and, as occasion 
 serves, impress upon your colleagues, that such a 
 conference is not an agency for compulsion or a 
 tribunal for adjudication ; it is not designed to 
 compel States to make treaties or to observe trea- 
 ties; it should not sit in judgment upon the con- 
 duct of any State, or undertake to redress alleged 
 
 320
 
 AMERICAN REPUBLICS 
 
 1906 
 
 AMERICAN REPUBLICS 
 
 wrongs, or to settle controverted questions of right. 
 A successful attempt to give such a character to 
 the Conference would necessarily be fatal to the 
 Conference itself, for few if any of the States 
 represented in it would be willing to submit their 
 sovereignty to the supervision which would be ex- 
 ercised by a body thus arrogating to itself supreme 
 and indefinite powers. The true function of such 
 a conference is to deai with matters of common in- 
 terest which are not really subjects of controversy, 
 but upon which comparison of views and friendly 
 discussion may smooth away differences of detail, 
 develop substantial agreement and lead to coopera- 
 tion along common lines for the attainment of 
 objects which all really desire. It follows from 
 this view of the functions of the Conference that 
 it is not expected to accomplish any striking or 
 spectacular final results; but is to deal with many 
 matters which, not being subjects of controversy, 
 attract little public attention, yet which, taken to- 
 gether, are of great importance for the develop- 
 ment of friendly intercourse among nations; and it 
 is to make such progress as may now be possible 
 toward the acceptance of ideals, the full realizStion 
 of which may be postponed to a distant future. 
 All progress toward the complete reign of justice 
 and peace among nations is accomplished by long 
 and patient effort and by many successive steps; 
 and it is confidently hoped that this Conference 
 will mark some substantial advancement by all the 
 American States in this process of developing 
 Christian civilization. Not the least of the bene- 
 fits anticipated from the Conference will be the 
 establishment of agreeable personal relations, the 
 removal of misconceptions and prejudices, and 
 the habit of temperate and kindly discussion among 
 the representatives of so many Republics." 
 
 The following account of the conference and 
 its action is derived from the subsequent official 
 report of the delegates of the United States: — 
 "The sessions of the Conference were held in a 
 spacious and ornate building, erected especially for 
 this purpose by the Brazilian Government, and 
 situated on the superb new boulevard that for 
 nearly four miles follows the shore of the Bay of 
 Rio, and at the end of the new Avenida Central. 
 The building is a permanent one, reproduced in 
 granite and marble from the plans of the palace 
 erected by Brazil at the Louisiana Purchase Ex- 
 position, at St. Louis. ... It was christened 'The 
 Monroe Palace' by special action of the Brazilian 
 Government. The Brazilian Government installed 
 in the palace a complete telegraph, mail, and tele- 
 phone service, and telegrams, cables, and mail of 
 the different delegations and of individual dele- 
 gates were transmitted free. . . . The governments 
 of the Argentine Republic, Paraguay, Uruguay, and 
 Chili . . . officially extended, through the director 
 of telegraphs of Brazil, the courtesy of free transit 
 for all telegrams sent by delegates over the tele- 
 graph lines of their respective countries. ... In 
 connection with the work of the Conference, the 
 Brazilian Government organized and maintained at 
 its expense an extensive and competent 'corps of 
 translators, stenographers, and clerical assistants, 
 whose services were at all times at the command 
 of the delegates. . . . The palace was elaborately 
 lighted and was the center of attraction day and 
 night for great crowds of people, and nothing in 
 connection with its equipment and administration 
 or that concerned the comfort or convenience of 
 delegates was left undone by the Brazilian Govern- 
 ment. 
 
 "The Conference was formally opened in the pres- 
 ence of a large and distinguished audience on the 
 evening of July 23, IQ06, by His Excellency the 
 
 Baron do Rio Branco, the distinguished Brazilian 
 minister for foreign affairs. The approaches to 
 the palace were lined with troops, the public 
 grounds and avenues of the city brilliantly illumi- 
 nated and packed with people. . . . The Confer- 
 ence unanimously chose as its president. His Ex- 
 cellency Seiior Dr. Joaquim Nabuco, the BraziUan 
 Ambassador to the United States; as honorary 
 vice-presidents. His Excellency the Baron do Rio 
 Branco, and the Hon. Elihu Root, Secretary of 
 State of the United States, and as its Secretary- 
 General, His Excellency, Senor Dr. J. F. de Assis- 
 Brasil, the Brazilian envoy extraordinary and 
 minister plenipotentiary to the Argentine Repub- 
 lic. The Conference was attended by delegates 
 from each of the 21 American Republics, with the 
 exception of Haiti and Venezuela. The extraordi- 
 nary session of the Conference to receive the Sec- 
 retary of State of the United States was held on 
 the evening of July 31 and was one of great bril- 
 liancy. In introducing the Secretary of State to 
 the Conference, His Excellency Dr. Joaquim Na- 
 buco, the BraziUan Ambassador to the United 
 States and President of the Conference, delivered 
 a notable address, to which the Secretary of State 
 replied." Mr. Roofs address well deserved the 
 distinction that was accorded to it by the presi- 
 dent of the United States, when he appended it 
 to his message to Congress the following Decem- 
 ber. Much of it gains new significance from the 
 World War. 
 
 "I bring from my country," said the secretary, 
 "a special greeting to her elder sisters in the civi- 
 lization of America. Unlike as we are in many 
 respects, we are alike in this, that we are all en- 
 gaged under new conditions, and free from the 
 traditional forms and limitations of the Old World 
 in working out the same problem of popular self- 
 government. It is a difficult and laborious task 
 for each of us. Not in one generation nor in one 
 century can the effective control of a superior 
 sovereign, so long deemed necessary to government, 
 be rejected and effective self-control by the gov- 
 erned be perfected in its place. The first fruits of 
 democracy are many of them crude and unlovely; 
 its mistakes are many, its partial failures many, its 
 sins not few. Capacity for self-government does 
 not come to man by nature. It is an art to be 
 learned, and it is also an expression of character 
 to be developed among all the thousands of men 
 who exercise popular sovereignty. To reach the 
 goal toward which we are pressing forward, the 
 governing multitude must first acquire knowledge 
 that comes from universal education, wisdom that 
 follows practical experience, personal independence 
 and self-respect befitting men who acknowledge no 
 superior, self-control to replace that external con- 
 trol which a democracy rejects, respect for law, 
 obedience to the lawful expressions of the public 
 will, consideration for the opinions and interests 
 of others equally entitled to a voice in the state, 
 loyalty to that abstract conception — one's country 
 — as inspiring as that loyalty to personal sovereigns 
 which has so illumined the pages of history, sub- 
 ordination of personal interests to the public good, 
 love of justice and mercy, of liberty and order. 
 All these we must seek by slow and patient effort; 
 and of how many shortcomings in his own land 
 and among his own people each one of us is con- 
 scious! Yet no student of our times can fail to 
 see that not America alone but the whole civilized 
 world is swinging away from its old governmental 
 moorings and intrusting the fate of its civilization 
 to the capacity of the popular mass to govern. By 
 this pathway mankind is to travel, whithersoever 
 it leads. Upon the success of this our great un- 
 
 321
 
 AMERICAN REPUBLICS 
 
 1906 
 
 AMERICAN REPUBLICS 
 
 dertaking the hope of humanity depends. Nor can 
 we fail to see that the world makes substantial 
 progress towards more perfect popular self-govern- 
 ment. ... It is not by national isolation that 
 these results have been accomplished or that this 
 progress can be continued. No nation can live 
 unto itself alone and continue to !'ve. Each na- 
 tion's growth is a part of the development of the 
 race. There may be leaders and there may be 
 laggards, but no nation can long continue very far 
 in advance of the general progress of mankind, 
 and no nation that is not doomed to extinction 
 can remain very far behind. It is with nations 
 as with individual men ; intercourse, association, 
 correction of egotism by the influence of others' 
 judgment, broadening of views by the experience 
 and thought of equals, acceptance of the moral 
 standards of a community the desire for whose 
 good opinion lends a sanction to the rules of right 
 conduct — these are the conditions of growth in 
 civilization. ... To promote this mutual inter- 
 change and assistance between the American re- 
 publics, engaged in the same great task, inspired 
 by the same purpose, and professing the same 
 principles, I understand to be the function of the 
 American Conference now in session. There is 
 not one of all our countries that cannot benefit the 
 others; there is not one that cannot receive benefit 
 from the others; there is not one that will not 
 gain by the prosperity, the peace, the happiness of 
 all. . . . The association of so many eminent men 
 from all the Republics, leaders of opinion in their 
 own homes; the friendships that will arise among 
 you ; the habit of temperate and kindly discussion 
 of matters of common interest; the ascertainment 
 of common sympathies and aims; the dissipation 
 of misunderstandings; the exhibition to all the 
 American peoples of this peaceful and considerate 
 method of conferring upon international questions 
 — this alone, quite irrespective of the resolutions 
 you may adopt and the conventions you may sign, 
 will mark a substantial advance in the direction 
 of international good understanding. These benefi- 
 cient results the Government and the people of 
 the United States of America greatly desire. We 
 wish for no victories but those of peace ; for no 
 territory except our own ; for no sovereignty ex- 
 cept the sovereignty over ourselves. We deem 
 the independence and equal rights of the smallest 
 and weakest member of the family of nations en- 
 titled to as much respect as those of the greatest 
 empire, and we deem the observance of that respect 
 the chief guaranty of the weak against the oppres- 
 sion of the strong. We neither claim nor desire 
 any rights, or privileges, or powers that we do 
 not freely concede to every American republic. 
 We wi^ to increase our prosperity, to expand our 
 trade, to grow in wealth, in wisdom, and in spirit, 
 but our conception of the true way to accomplish 
 this is not to pull down others and profit by their 
 ruin, but to help all friends to a common pros- 
 perity and a common growth, that we may all 
 become greater and stronger together. Within a 
 few months, for the first time the recognized pos- 
 sessors of every foot of soil upon the American 
 continents can be and I hope will be represented 
 with the acknowledged rights of equal sovereign 
 states in the great World Congress at The Hague. 
 This will be the world's formal and final accept- 
 ance of the declaration that no part of the Ameri- 
 can continents is to be deemed subject to coloniza- 
 tion. Let us pledge ourselves to aid each other 
 in the full performance of the duty to humanity 
 which that accepted declaration implies; so that 
 in time the weakest and most unfortunate of our 
 republics may come to march with equal step by 
 
 the side of the stronger and more fortunate. Let 
 us help each other to show that for all the races 
 of men the liberty for which we have fought and 
 labored is the twin sister of justice and peace. 
 Let us unite in creating and maintaining and mak- 
 ing effective an all-American public opinion, whose 
 power shall influence international conduct and 
 prevent international wrong, and narrow the causes 
 of war, and forever preserve our free lands from 
 the burden of such armaments as are massed be- 
 hind the frontiers of Europe, and bring us ever 
 nearer to the perfection of ordered liberty. So 
 shall come security and prosperity, production and 
 trade, wealth, learning, the arts, and happiness for 
 us all." — See also Peace movement: Attitude of 
 governments. 
 
 The fruits of the conference were embodied in 
 four conventions and a number of important reso- 
 lutions. One convention agreed to, established be- 
 tween the states signing it the status of naturalized 
 citizens who again take up their residence in the 
 country of their origin. (See Naturalization.) 
 Another, which amended and extended the opera- 
 tion of a treaty signed at the second conference, 
 at Mexico, in IQ02, is as follows: "Sole article. 
 The treaty on pecuniary claims signed at Mexico 
 January thirtieth, nineteen hundred and two, shall 
 continue in force, with the exception of the third 
 article, which is hereby abolished, until the thirty- 
 first day of December, nineteen hundred and 
 twelve, both for the nations which have already 
 ratified it, and for those which may hereafter 
 ratify it." The third convention signed was a 
 modification and extension of another of the agree- 
 ments of the second conference, at Mexico, having 
 relation to patents of invention, literary property, 
 etc. The fourth convention provided for an "in- 
 ternational Commission of Jurists, composed of 
 one representative from each of the signatory 
 States, appointed by their respective Governments, 
 which Commission shall meet for the purpose of 
 preparing a draft of a code of Private Interna- 
 tional Law and one of Public International Law, 
 regulating the relations between the nations of 
 America " The more important of the resolutions 
 adopted were the following: "To ratify adher- 
 ence to the principle of arbitration , and, to the 
 end that so high a purpose may be rendered prac- 
 ticable, to recommend to the Nations represented 
 at this Conference that instructions be given to 
 their Delegates to the Second Conference to be 
 held at The Hague, to endeavor to secure by the 
 said Assembly, of world-wide character, the cele- 
 bration of a General Arbitration Convention, so 
 effective and definite that, meriting the approval 
 of the civilized world, it shall be accepted and put 
 in force by every nation. To recommend to the 
 Governments represented therein that they consider 
 the point of inviting the Second Peace Conference, 
 at The Hague, to examine the question of the 
 compulsory collection of public debts, and, in gen- 
 eral, means tending to diminish between Nations 
 conflicts having an exclusively pecuniary origin." 
 Other resolutions of the conference were directed 
 to a broadening of the work and an enlargement 
 of the influence of the international bureau of the 
 American republics ; to the erection of a building 
 for that bureau and for the contemplated library 
 in memory of Columbus; to the erection in the 
 bureau of a section having "as its chief object a 
 special study of the customs legislation, consular 
 regulations and commercial statistics of the Re- 
 publics of America," with a view to bringing them 
 into more harmony, and to securing the greatest 
 development and amplification of commercial re- 
 lations between American republics; to promote 
 
 322
 
 AMERICAN REPUBLICS 
 
 1906-1920 
 
 AMERICAN REPUBLICS 
 
 the establishment and maintenance of navigation 
 lines connecting the principal ports of the Ameri- 
 can continent; to bring about more effective co- 
 operation in international sanitary measures; to 
 advance the construction of lines that shall form, 
 connectedly, the desired Pan-American railway, 
 extending through the two continents. 
 
 1906-1908. — Bureau's increased efficiency. — 
 Building given by Andrew Carnegie. — The in- 
 ternational bureau of the American republics as- 
 sumed larger functions and increased importance 
 in 1906, after the return of Mr. Root, United 
 States secretary of state, from his tour of visits 
 to the South American states. The Hon. John 
 Barrett, who had successively represented the gov- 
 ernment of the United States in Panama, in Ar- 
 gentina and in Colombia, as well as at the second 
 Pan-.\merican conference, in Mexico, was made 
 Director of the Bureau and entered upon his duties 
 with a strong belief in the possibilities of good to 
 be done in the American hemisphere by an ener- 
 getic promotion of more intimate relations be- 
 tween its peoples. At the same time a new dig- 
 nity was given to the international union of the 
 American republics, embodied in the work of the 
 bureau, by the provision of a stately building for 
 its use. Mr. Root had persuaded Congress to 
 appropriate $200,000 for the site and building of 
 such a home, to be offered to the union, and this 
 inadequate sum was supplemented by a generous 
 private gift from Andrew Carnegie, who offered 
 an addition of $750,000 to the fund for the Pan- 
 American building. The site secured for the struc- 
 ture was that of the old Van Ness mansion, about 
 half-way between the State, War and Navy build- 
 ings and the Potomac River. It covers a tract of 
 five acres, facing public parks on two sides. There 
 the corner stone of a central seat of Pan-American 
 cooperations and influences was laid in May, 1908, 
 in the presence of official representatives from 
 twenty-one American republics, and under their 
 assembled flags. — See also ABC Conferenxe. 
 
 1910. — Fourth International American Confer- 
 ence, at Buenos Aires. — "It was notable for 
 having finally dealt with all the subjects on its 
 program, including treaties relating to patents, 
 trademarks, and copyrights. A treaty was also 
 made for the indefinite extension of the agreement 
 for the arbitration of pecuniary claims. In the 
 report of the delegates to the fourth conference 
 special reference is made to the harmony which 
 characterized its deliberations. There can be no 
 doubt that, quite apart from the actual work ac- 
 complished, the free interchange of views in 
 friendly conference between representative men 
 from all parts of America cannot fail to create a 
 better understanding and to draw closer the re- 
 lations between the countries concerned. This is 
 indeed one of the chief benefits of the Interna- 
 tional American Conferences. The process of as- 
 similating or harmonizing legal rules and remedies 
 in countries whose systems of jurisprudence are 
 derived from different sources is necessarily slow 
 and uncertain. But this by no means implies the 
 existence of a serious obstacle to the promotion 
 of a free and beneficial intercourse." — J. B. Moore, 
 Principles of American diplomacy, p. 3Q2. — See 
 also American Institute of Ixternation.al Law. 
 1914. — Pan-American Neutrality. — On Dec. 8, 
 1914, a meeting of the governing board of the Pan- 
 American Union was held in Washington to con- 
 sider the question of Pan-American neutrality in 
 the War, and appointed a committee to study the 
 problems of the War. 
 
 1915. — Pan-American Financial Conference. 
 See Pan-American hnancial conference. 
 
 1915. — Conference aiming to formulate plans 
 for a provisional government for Mexico. — 
 Recognition of Carranza. See U. S. A.: 1915 
 (August-October). 
 
 1915-1916. — Pan-American Scientific Con- 
 gress. See Pan-American scientific congress 
 
 1915-1920.— Effect of World War.— Closer 
 union. — "One of the most significant effects of the 
 war upon the southern Republics was the change 
 which it wrought in their relations with one an- 
 other. I do nut refer to the formation of such 
 political or diplomatic associations as the so-called 
 ABC arbitration league of May, 1915. 
 More significant and fundamental, though far less 
 spectacular than this, are the prosaic commercial, 
 economic, and social bonds which have grown up 
 among them during the enforced cessation of many 
 of their contacts with the outside world from 1914 
 to 1919. For the first time in their history they 
 were compelled to become acquainted with one an- 
 other, and the effects of this are strikingly apparent 
 to any observer who has been in a position to com- 
 pare prewar impressions with those of to-day. 
 Just as the preoccupations of Europe in its pre- 
 vious great cataclysm, the Napoleonic war, enabled 
 Latin America to achieve her political independence, 
 so has the recent upheaval in the Old World giveii 
 the southern Republics their first real appreciation 
 of their own capacity for self-development and 
 interregional cooperation along economic and social 
 lines. . . . Since 1918 detailed plans or arrange- 
 ments have bee 1 made for the construction in Latin 
 America of at least five international railways and 
 six or more international cable and telegraph lines. 
 . . . The noteworthy point is the fact that the 
 majority of these enterprises are being undertaken 
 with local capital. Commercial changes of the same 
 sort are noticeable on every hand, due especially to 
 the extraordinary diversification of industries and 
 production in the past six years. Since 1914 the 
 trade between Argentina and Brazil has grown 500 
 per cent, and all the latest statistics point to even 
 further expansion. Mexican commerce with the 
 more important South .'\merican countries, includ- 
 ing such items as foodstuffs, oil, fibers, and even 
 newsprint paper, has been more than quadrupled 
 during the war, and the most rapid growth has 
 come in the past two years. During 1919 and 1920 
 at least five inter-Latin American congresses were 
 held, not with the object of exchanging those beau- 
 tiful expressions of fraternal affection which too fre- 
 quently befog the atmosphere of such assemblages. 
 Quite the contrary; their subject matter in each case 
 was prosaic and unpicturesque, but at the same 
 time definite and constructive — dairying and pas- 
 toral argriculture, police regulations, immigration, 
 architecture, and physical education. . . . Before 
 1914 there was not one American branch bank in 
 Latin America, while to-day there are over a hun- 
 dred; that there are nearly a dozen American cham- 
 bers of commerce in the southern Republics, the 
 oldest of them having been founded about two 
 years ago; that important new .American cable con- 
 nections and the valuable services of the two great 
 American news-gathering associations have been 
 greatly extended in that field ; and that American 
 ships are now sufficiently numerous in southern 
 waters to carry nearly 50 per cent of our trade 
 there, which is five times the proportion carried 
 in 1914. The Inter-American High Commission has 
 since loiS been unostentatiously but surely working 
 out a definite and effective series of bonds in the 
 shape of uniform commercial law and practice — a 
 constructive program of the highest value." — J. 
 Klein, Monroe Doctrine as a regional understand- 
 ing (Pan-American Union, Bulletin, v. 52, No. 2, 
 
 323
 
 AMERICAN RESCUE WORKERS 
 
 AMERICANIZATION 
 
 Feb., 1921, pp. 140-142). — The same author states: 
 
 "It would be absurd, of course, to suggest that 
 the years 1914-iqiS had delivered Latin America 
 from any further economic dependence upon 
 Europe ; but in view of certain significant facts . . . 
 it would be equally ridiculous to assume that Latin 
 America will continue to look to Europe, or even 
 to the United States, for the fulfillment of all of 
 her needs for manufactured commodities, and even 
 for capital and fuel. The amount of evidence on 
 this point is ample, and instead of falling off after 
 iqi8, it has steadily increased. . . . Argentine citi- 
 zens recently loaned 1,500,000,000 lire to the Italian 
 Government ; the .'\rgentine Government has ad- 
 vanced 140,000,000 to the .Mlies." — Ibid. — See also 
 Pan-Americ.a.nism and names of American repub- 
 lics. 
 
 AMERICAN RESCUE WORKERS, the out- 
 come of a secession movement from the Salvation 
 .Army in 1882. There are 2p organizations in the 
 eastern part of the United States. — United States 
 Census, Religious bodies. IQIO, pt. 2, p. 35. 
 
 AMERICAN REVOLUTION. See U. S. A.: 
 177S-1782. 
 
 AMERICAN RITE. See Masonic socrenEs: 
 Masonic bodies. 
 
 AMERICAN SCHOOL FOR ORIENTAL 
 RESEARCH IN JERUSALEM. See .Arch^o- 
 
 LOCICAL IxSIITVTE OF .AMERICA. 
 
 AMERICAN SCULPTURE. See Sculpture: 
 Modern: .American. 
 
 AMERICAN SECRET SERVICE. See 
 World War: Miscellaneous auxiliary services: II. 
 Espionage: a, 4. 
 
 AMERICAN SOCIETY OF INTERNA- 
 TIONAL LAW. See International law: 1850- 
 1Q09. 
 
 AMERICAN SUGAR REFINING COM- 
 PANY (the Sugar Trust). See Trusts: 1907- 
 iQog: Thievery of the sugar trust; U. S. A.: 1909 
 (October-November) . 
 
 AMERICAN SUPPLY SERVICE. See 
 World War: Miscellaneous auxiliary services: V. 
 Moving men and material: a. 
 
 AMERICAN SYSTEM, a tariff system pro- 
 posed by Henry Clay, about the time of the be- 
 ginning of protectionism, by which home manu- 
 factures were to be protected for the greater de- 
 velopment of the cities, and raw materials were to 
 be protected for the advantage of western farmers. 
 Such an arrangement would be mutually profit- 
 able to the North and the West, but distinctly un- 
 favorable to the South, where high tariffs on im- 
 ported manufactured goods created strong opposi- 
 tion to the .American system. — See also Tariff: 
 1808-1824, 1832. 
 
 AMERICAN TOBACCO COMPANY: Su- 
 preme Court case. See Supreme Court: 1888- 
 
 1913- 
 
 AMERICAN VOLUNTEERS. See S.alvation 
 .Ar.mv: 1896-1000. 
 
 AMERICANISM. See .American' Legion: Pol- 
 icies; also .America.nization'. 
 
 AMERICANIZATION.— Early work for im- 
 migrants. — ".Americanization is the educational 
 process of unifying both native-born and foreign- 
 born Americans in perfect support of the prin- 
 ciples of liberty, union, democracy, and brother- 
 hood. It selects and preserves the best qualities in 
 our past and present .Americanism ; it singles out 
 and fosters such traits of the foreign-born as will 
 contribute to the welfare of our people." — E. S. 
 Bogardus, Essentials of .imericanization. pp. 11. — 
 Most of the early work for immigrants was done 
 by churches, Bible societies, etc. "The first and 
 most primitive form of work among immigrants 
 
 was that of the Bible Society. The form this 
 work took was "colportage,' the peddling of Bibles 
 Yet something more than the ability ol the book- 
 agent to make sales was required of the 'colporteur'. 
 . . . The men chosen to sell Bibles in immigrant 
 communities were often foreigners, many of them 
 men who were preparing themselves for mission- 
 ary work in their own countries." The Young 
 'Women's Christian .Association was one of the 
 pioneers in the tield, working through its depart- 
 ment for foreign born women for the mothers and 
 the industrial girls of foreign communities. "In- 
 ternational Institutes," with both .American and 
 foreign-speaking nationality workers, provide edu- 
 cation, recreation, and training in home-making 
 and citizenship. "In point of time, the first so- 
 cieties for immigrants in the field were those main- 
 tained by their own people. Their object was 
 chiefly benevolent. The German Society for ex- 
 ample was organized in 1784, the French Be.ievo- 
 lent Society goes back to 1809, the Irisn Emigrant 
 Society gives 1841 as the date of foundation, the 
 Swiss Benevolent Society was organized in 1851, 
 the Home for Scandinavian Immigrants in 1881, 
 the Spanish Benevolent Society in 1882, the So- 
 ciety for Italian Immigrants in 1901 and so on. 
 It is interesting that the society administering the 
 Baron de Hirsch Fund for Roumanian, Russian 
 and Galician Immigrants, as well as the Hebrew 
 Sheltering and Immigrant Aid Society, are the only 
 foreign societies which for years have made the 
 .Americanization of immigrants one of the objects 
 of their organizations. Of course this is explained 
 by the fact that the majority of the immigrants 
 handled by these societies had a nationality — to 
 gain and none to lose in coming to this country. 
 However, we now have the swing-back of the 
 penduluum and see the Jews claiming territorial 
 rights in Palestine. . . . 
 
 'The Slavonic peoples also establish benefit so- 
 cieties for the purpose of aiding the needy among 
 their co-nationals. Those coming from countries 
 where they were deprived of the means of educa- 
 tion often pursue educational aims. For example, 
 the National Slovak Society of the United States 
 of .America states as its object: 'To educate the 
 Slovak immigrants ... to teach them to love 
 their adopted country and to become useful citi- 
 zens of this republic' The non-sectarian Cleveland 
 Slovak union insists that all members become U. S. 
 citizens within six years after arrival. The Sokels, 
 ostensibly an athletic organization, have every- 
 where a strong national background. In illustra- 
 tion of this, you will find its members in America 
 enlisting in the Polish .Army, the Czecho-Slovak 
 Legions, etc., rather than under the U. S. flag. 
 Representatives of various nationalities have joined 
 in a League of Foreign-born Citizens of which 
 Wm. Fellows Morgan, President of the Mer- 
 chants .Association, is the head This League con- 
 cerns itself with the education and naturaliza- 
 tion of the foreisn born. It is rather interesting 
 that one of the earliest .American societies concern- 
 ing itself with immigrants was organized with a 
 view to the reslrielion of immigrations. This is 
 the Immigration Restrictions League with head- 
 quarters in Boston founded in 1894. This League 
 was one of the warmest supporters of the Burnett 
 bill— or literacy test. It has stood for a higher 
 head-tax, the abolition of the bond, the deporta- 
 tion of aliens without time-limit, etc. In contrast 
 to this Leaeue, we have five corrective (among 
 them), the National LiDeral Immigration League, 
 which pleads for distribution and education and 
 vigorously opposes indiscriminate restriction. Like 
 the Restrictions League it disseminates information 
 
 324
 
 AMERICANIZATION 
 
 Effects of 
 World War 
 
 AMERICANIZATION 
 
 and seeks to influence legislation. Like the Restric- 
 tion League it has a racial axe to grind, with this 
 difference — that the Restriction League would de- 
 crease the non-Anglo-Saxon percentage of our 
 population, while the Liberal League discounten- 
 ances all legislation unfavorable to the admission 
 of an oppressed people in Eastern Europe. . . . 
 Like the National Liberal Immigration League, 
 the Chicago Immigrant Protective League was 
 founded in igo8 with Judge Mack as President, 
 Jane Addams as Vice-president and Miss Grace 
 Abbott, author of 'The Immigrant and the Com- 
 munity' as Director. . . . From the beginning the 
 League has had a staff of foreign visitors. This 
 League stresses what so many Americanization 
 agencies either disregard or forget, and that is, the 
 necessity for reaching the immigrant in his own 
 language before he learns English and loses in the 
 process the ideals of America which he brought 
 with him. . . . 
 
 "The foregoing represent some of the agencies 
 which for the last decade or so have been working 
 for the gradual adjustment of the alien to Ameri- 
 can environment, without ever saying very much 
 about Americanization. Their chief concern has 
 been for the immigrant himself. The unemploy- 
 ment situation due to the great war drew the in- 
 terest of quite different organizations into the field 
 — whose chief concern became not the immigrant, 
 but the rest of us — America ! Their entrance is 
 marked by such slogans as 'America First'; their 
 platform is a common language, a united citizen- 
 ship, an American standard of living, a home-stake 
 in America. Their heaviest emphasis is laid on 
 the teaching of English. Among them the Cham- 
 ber of Commerce of the United States has taken 
 tirst place and has rendered invaluable service in 
 the way of publicity to the whole movement. 
 Through its Committee on Immigration it has 
 conducted preliminary surveys of immigration con- 
 ditions in i6s industrial towns." — Address at Na- 
 tional Training School, Y. W. C. A., February, 
 igig. — See also Immigration and emigration: 
 United States: iqio-iq2o; Naturalization. 
 
 Effect of World War and later development. 
 — "The current emphasis upon Americanization 
 had its origin in igi4 when the European War 
 started and a renaissance of nationalism oc- 
 curred. Americanization Day had its beginning on 
 July 4, IQ14, in Cleveland, Ohio; it was fathered 
 by the 'sane Fourth committee.' In igi5 at least 
 I. so cities observed Americanization Day. In that 
 same year, the National Americanization Commit- 
 tee was organized by the Committee for Immi- 
 grants in America for the purpose of furthering a 
 nationalization movement that would unify the 
 various peoples in the United States. In iqi8, the 
 government undertook specific Americanization 
 work. In the Department of the Interior, the 
 Bureau of Education outlined an Americanization 
 program which has been endorsed and furthered 
 by the National and State Councils of Defense and 
 which has resulted in the appointment of county 
 Americanization councils, and of regional directors 
 under the supervision of the Division of American- 
 ization of the Bureau of Education." — E. S. Bo- 
 gardus. Essentials of Americanization, pp. 12. 
 
 The World War brought increased recognition 
 of the importance of the work of Americanization. 
 The census of loio had indicated an illiteracy of 
 7 or 8%, but investigations made at the army 
 camps preliminary to the use of the intelligence 
 tests showed that a much larger proportion of 
 young men were practically illiterate, being unable 
 to read the newspaper or to write a letter home. 
 The proportion ran as high as 17.18% in one 
 
 camp, and as high as 41.08% in another. It has 
 been estimated that one-fourth of the members 
 of the American Expeditionary Forces were prac- 
 tically illiterate. This illiteracy was not confined 
 to any particular section of the country. White 
 soldiers from the Soilth were almost as frequently 
 illiterate as the colored soldiers. Non-English- 
 speaking illiterate young men from New York, 
 New Jersey, and New England were sufticiently 
 numerous to shake the confidence of the North 
 in the effectiveness of its education. Illiteracy 
 seemed to be a national problem. The war re- 
 vealed the fact that many of our naturalized citi- 
 zens were not truly American in spirit. Early in 
 the year 1916 there was held in Philadelphia a 
 great national conference on immigration and 
 Americanization, participated in by many people 
 of note, such as Mary Antin, P. P. Claxton, United 
 States Commissioner of Education, and Governor 
 Brumbaugh of Pennsylvania. It was pointed out 
 that there are ten million negroes and thirteen 
 million white persons of alien birth in the United 
 States, and that 330,000 men, women and chil- 
 dren born outside of this country represent fifty- 
 nine per cent of the depositors in postal banks and 
 seventy-two per cent of the $70,000,000 deposits. 
 Among the valuable results of the conference was 
 the formation of a National .Americanization 
 Council, for the cooperation of public and private 
 agencies. Among the various suggestions were: a 
 Congressional appropriation of $50,000 for the 
 Bureau of Education's work in eliminating illiter- 
 acy among the foreign ; a Federal picture-poster 
 of welcome to women aliens as well as to men; 
 Federal protection for women as for men ; the 
 abolition of the head-tax on immigrants; the 
 keeping of naturalization courts open at night, and 
 Dr. Sidney Gulick's sane propositions for immi- 
 grant registration and the open door. Betterment 
 of laws is anticipated to provide for the education 
 of the foreigner, to guide him into suitable em- 
 ployment, to give him proper housing facilities, to 
 protect him from accident and industrial diseases, 
 and furnish accident compensation. 
 
 Hyphenism. — On several public occasions Presi- 
 dent Wilson called attention to the danger from 
 hyphenated Americans. In May of 1017 he spoke 
 in New York City at the unveiling of a monument 
 to John Barry, the man who held the first com 
 mission in the American Navy. He said: "John 
 Barry was an Irishman, but his heart crossed the 
 Atlantic with him. He did not leave it in Ireland 
 Some Americans need hyphens in their names be- 
 cause only part of them have come over, but who'i 
 the whole man has come over, heart and though' 
 and all, the hyphen drops of its own weight out 
 of his name. This man was not an Irish-American, 
 but was an Irishman who became an American. I 
 venture to say that if he voted, he voted with 
 regard to the questions as they looked on th's 
 side of the water, and not on the other side, and 
 that is my infallible test of the genuine American 
 This man illustrates for me all the splendid strength 
 which was brought into this country by the magnet 
 of freedom. Men have been drawn to this coun- 
 try by the same thing that made them love this 
 country, by the opportunity to live their own 
 lives and to think their own thoughts and to let 
 their whole natures expand with the expansion of 
 this free and mighty nation. We have brought out 
 of the stocks of all the world all the best im- 
 pulses, and have appropriated them and American- 
 ized them and translated them into the glory and 
 majesty of this great country." In his annual 
 message to Congress in iqi6 at the opening of its 
 session President Wilson denounced the hyphenates 
 
 325
 
 AMERICANIZATION 
 
 Methods 
 
 AMERICANIZATION 
 
 and asked for means to restrict their activities. 
 He said: "I am sorry to say that the gravest 
 threats against our national peace and safety have 
 been uttered within our own borders. There are 
 citizens of the United States, I blush to admit, bom 
 under other flags, but welcomed under our gen- 
 erous naturalization laws to the full freedom and 
 opportunity of America, who have poured the 
 poison of disloyalty into the very arteries of our 
 national life; who have sought to bring the au- 
 thority and good name of our Government into 
 contempt, to destroy our industries wherever they 
 thought it effective for their vindictive purposes to 
 strike at them, and to debase our politics to the 
 uses of foreign intrigue. Their number is not so 
 great as compared with the whole number of 
 those sturdy hosts by which our nation has been 
 enriched in recent generations out of virile foreign 
 stocks; but is great enough to have brought deep 
 disgrace upon us and to have made it necessary 
 that we should promptly make use of processes of 
 law by which we may be purged of their corrupt 
 distempers. ... A little while ago such a thing 
 would have seemed incredible. Because it was in- 
 credible we made no preparation for it. . . . But 
 the ugly and incredible thing has actually come 
 about, and we are without adequate Federal laws 
 to deal with it. I urge you to enact such laws at 
 the earliest possible moment and feel that in doing 
 so I am urging you to do nothing less than save 
 the honor and self-respect of the nation." 
 
 Theodore Roosevelt said: "There is no room 
 in this country for hyphenated Americanism. 
 When I refer to hyphenated Americans, I do not 
 refer to naturalized Americans. Some of the very 
 best Americans I have ever known were natural- 
 ized Americans, Americans born abroad. But a 
 hyphenated American is not an American at all. 
 This is just as true of the man who puts 'native' 
 before the hyphen as of the man who puts Ger- 
 man or Irish or English or French before the 
 hyphen. .Americanism is a matter of the spirit 
 and of the soul. Our allegiance must be purely 
 to the United States. We must unsparingly con- 
 demn any man who holds any other allegiance. 
 But if he is heartily and singly loyal to this Re- 
 public, then no matter where he was born, he is 
 just as good an American as any one else. The 
 one absolutely certain way of bringing this na- 
 tion to ruin, of preventing all possibility of its 
 continuing to be a nation at all, would be to per- 
 mit it to become a tangle of squabbling nationali- 
 ties, an intricate knot of German-.Americans, Irish- 
 ,'\mericans, English-.Americans, Frcnch-.\raericans, 
 Scandinavian-Americans, or Italian-Americans, each 
 preserving its separate nationality, each at heart 
 feeling more sympathy with purop>eans of that 
 nationality than with the other citizens of the 
 American Republic. The men who do not be- 
 come Americans and nothing else are hyphenated 
 Americans; and there ought to be no room for 
 them in this country. The man who calls him- 
 self an American citizen and who yet shows by 
 his actions that he is primarily the citizen of a 
 foreign land, plays a thoroughly mischievous part 
 in the life of our body politic. He has no place 
 here: and the sooner he returns to the land to 
 which he feels his real heart-allegiance, the better 
 it will be for every good American. There is no 
 such thing as a hyphenated American who is a 
 good American. The only man who is a good 
 American is the man who is an American and 
 nothing else."— -T. Roosevelt, Fear God and take 
 your oicn part, pp. ,^6r-,^63. 
 
 Program and methods. — Foreign-born peoples 
 should be Americanized "by calling upon the fine 
 
 things that are within them; by appreciating what 
 they have to offer us, and by revealing to them 
 what we have to offer them. The best test of 
 whether or not we are Americans will come when 
 we, all together, recognize that there are defects 
 in our land and lacks in our system; that our pro- 
 grams are not perfect; that our institutions can 
 be bettered; but look forward constantly by co- 
 operation, to making this a land in which there 
 will be a minimum of fear and a maximum of 
 hope." — F. K. Lane, (World Outlook, Nov., 1919). 
 — "Americanization is the uniting of new with 
 native-born Americans in fuller common under- 
 standing and appreciation to secure by means of 
 self-government the highest welfare of all. Such 
 Americanization should produce no unchangeable 
 political, domestic and economic regime delivered 
 once for all to the fathers, but a growing and 
 broadening national life, inclusive of the best wher- 
 ever found. With all our rich heritages Ameri- 
 canism will develop best through a mutual giv- 
 ing and taking of contributions from both newer 
 and older Americans in the interest of the com- 
 mon weal." — Evening schools of New I'ork City 
 {School and Society, Jan. 12, 1918). — "The prob- 
 lems of Americanization usually are conceived as 
 questions of assimilation of the European alien. 
 . . . But it should be borne in mind that America 
 of today has taken over also the assimilation of 
 the Negro, the Indian, the Creole, the Filipino, 
 the Porto Rican, the natives of Alaska, of Haiti, 
 of San Domingo, of the Virgin Islands, and of 
 Hawaii, as well as large numbers of Mexican 
 peons, and a few hundred thousand Chinese, Nip- 
 ponese and other Asiatic immigrants. [See also 
 Race problems.] It is well to remind ourselves 
 that we have not yet really set ourselves to 
 work in earnest at Americanizing some of our 
 native-born, for example the isolated mountain 
 whites of Kentucky and West Virginia, the dwell- 
 ers in the flatlands of the Mississippi Valley, the 
 decadents and defectives of the New England 
 Hinterland, the absentee director in industry, and 
 the insulated devotee to wealth and class." — W. 
 Talbot, Americanization, p. 74. — The necessity 
 for Americanization work has been summarized 
 as follows by Howard C. Hill, of the School of 
 Education, University of Chicago: "(i) There are 
 13,000,000 persons of foreign birth and 33.000,000 
 of foreign origin living in the United States. (2) 
 Over 100 different foreign languages and dialects 
 are spoken in the United States. (3) Over 1,300 
 foreign-language newspapers are published in the 
 United States, having a circulation estimated at 
 10,000,000. (4) Of the persons in the United 
 States 5,000,000 are unable to speak English. (5) 
 Of these persons 2,000,000 are illiterate. (6) Of 
 the unnaturalized persons 3,000,000 are of mili- 
 tary age. (7) In iqio, 34 per cent of alien males 
 of draft age were unable to speak English; that is, 
 about half a million of the registered alien males 
 between twenty-one and thirty-one years of age 
 were unable to understand military orders given 
 in English. ... (0) Only about 13 per cent of 
 adult non-English-speaking aliens are reached by 
 the schools. (10) Many large schools in American 
 cities have been spending more for teaching Ger- 
 man to .American children than for teaching Eng- 
 lish and civics to aliens." — H. C Hill, Americaniza- 
 tion movement (American Journal of Sociology, 
 May, iqio, pp. 600-642). — According to Henry 
 Pratt Fairchild, Americanization is simply "assimi- 
 lation into America." He sounds a warning against 
 our assuming that the Melting-pot is melting be- 
 cause of the "readiness with which the immigrants 
 adopt American clothes, the eagerness with which 
 
 326
 
 AMERICANIZATION 
 
 Problems 
 
 AMERICANIZATION 
 
 they attend the night schools, the enthusiasm with 
 which they sing The Star-Spangled Banner, and 
 the fluency with which their children use American 
 swear words." He says that "Americanization to 
 a foreigner may mean locating him within a cer- 
 tain area, or mingling him with a certain group 
 of people, or conferring naturalization upon him, 
 or imbuing him with a certain set of ideas and 
 ideals. It needs merely the statement to make 
 plain that it is the last of these four possibilities 
 which constitutes the only Americanization worth 
 talking about." — H. P. Fairchild, Americanizing the 
 immigrant (Yale Review, July, 1916, pp. 731-740). 
 Problems of language and segregation. — 
 Theodore Roosevelt in his last public message, writ- 
 ten just before his death, expressed as follows his 
 conception of the Americanization problem; "There 
 must be no discrimination because of creed or birth- 
 place or origin in the case of any American who be- 
 comes an American and nothing but an American. 
 But if he tries to keep segregated with men of his 
 own origin and separated from the rest of Amer- 
 ica then he isn't an American. There can be no 
 divided allegiance here. Any man who says he 
 is an American, but something else also, isn't an 
 American at all. We have room for but one flag, 
 the American flag, and this excludes the red 
 flag, which symbolizes all wars against liberty and 
 civilization, just as much as it excludes any foreign 
 flag of a nation to which we are hostile. We 
 have room for but one language here, and that is 
 the English language, for we intend to see that 
 the crucible turns our people out as Americans, of 
 American nationality, and not as dwellers in a 
 polyglot boarding-house; and we have room for 
 but one soul — loyalty, and that is loyalty to the 
 American people." Some students of Americaniza- 
 tion do not share Mr. Roosevelt's opposition to a 
 foreign language. For example: "The persistent 
 confusion exists in the popular mind that no one 
 can be an American who does not readily under- 
 stand, read and speak the English language. Sen- 
 ator Kenyon's bill (S. 3315 — entitled 'Americaniza- 
 tion of Aliens') provides for the expenditure of 
 $6,500,000 annually after June 30, 1920, for 'com- 
 pulsory teaching of English to illiterates and those 
 unable to speak, read or write the English lan- 
 guage.' Secretary Lane in his report to the Presi- 
 dent says: 'Twenty-five per cent of the 1,600,000 
 men between 21 and 31 years of age who were 
 first drafted into the Army could not read nor 
 write our language, and tens of thousands could 
 not speak it nor understand it. To them the daily 
 paper telling what Von Hindenburg was doing was 
 a blur. To them the appeals of Hoover came by 
 word of mouth, if at all. To them the messages 
 of their commander-in-chief were as so much 
 blank paper. To them the word of mother or 
 sweetheart came filtering in through other eyes 
 that had to read their letters ' While the Secre- 
 tary's pity for some of the foreign-born may not 
 be amiss, it certainly cannot apply to those who 
 could speak, read, or write some other language 
 than English. It is absurd to suppose that be- 
 cause many of the men were ignorant of English, 
 'the daily paper telling what Von Hindenburg was 
 doing was a blur.' Thousands of those men were 
 diligently reading in another tongue every move 
 made in the theater of war. They knew, moreover, 
 the very territory over which the Armies were 
 moving and had a more vital interest in the suc- 
 cess of the Allied Armies than many of the native- 
 born in this country could ever conjure up. Else 
 why did tens of thousands of Czechs, Slovaks, 
 Poles, Jugoslavs (Croatians, Slovakes, Serbians), 
 Italians and others enlist in the United States 
 
 Army and not wait for the draft?"— S. P. Hrb- 
 kova, Bunk in Americanization (Forum, April, 
 1920). — See also American Legion: Policies. — 
 Several state legislatures, however, took ac- 
 tion designated to suppress the foreign language 
 newspaper and the teaching of foreign languages 
 in the schools. Early in 1919 Nebraska passed the 
 Siman law which wiped out temporarily instruc- 
 tion in every language except English. Oregon by 
 an act of January, 1920, made it unlawful to print, 
 publish, circulate, display, sell or offer for sale 
 any newspaper or periodical in any language other 
 than the English, unless the same contain a hteral 
 translation thereof in the English language of the 
 same type and as conspicuously displayed, and 
 providing a penalty therefor of imprisonment in 
 the county jail not to exceed six months or by 
 fine not exceeding five hundred dollars, or by both 
 such imprisonment and fine. 
 
 "The measure of [the foreigners'] value as po- 
 tential members of American citizenship is some- 
 times sought in the rapidity with which such po- 
 tential citizens give up their methods of life, their 
 language, their religion, their dress, their leisure- 
 time predilections. The foreigner who changes his 
 whole mode of Hfe with the ease and carelessness 
 with which he takes off his coat is erroneously 
 considered a good prospective American. This 
 standard of measuring assimilation is as dangerous 
 as it is unfair to those who preserve a certain loy- 
 alty to their traditions and customs, etc., and 
 change them only as they become convinced that 
 the new is better than the old. 'In Rome do as the 
 Romans do' is not assimilation but simulation. 
 . . . The Americanization movement should not 
 only tolerate these exotic manifestations of creative 
 thought and creative functioning, but it should con- 
 sider the conservation of these creative instincts 
 as a means of accelerating progress and of increas- 
 ing the variability and creative powers of the na- 
 tion. Native music, native Uterature, native arts 
 and crafts, the native dance, philosophic thought, 
 political idealism, etc., are all to be found among 
 the foreign people. These represent potentially 
 their contribution toward native creative genius, 
 they are capable of new interpretations for their 
 own perfecting, and they may interpret America 
 from new angles and with benefit to all. They 
 constitute an aspect of Americanization that will 
 save this country from the decadence that has 
 overcome Spain and the stifling rigidity of the 
 Pan-Germanic chamber of horrors. . . . The open- 
 ing of adequate schools for the teaching of English, 
 the proper subsidy of all institutions of learning 
 which undertake the teaching of English to both 
 adults and children, and similar friendly efforts are 
 the only effective means of achieving this end. 
 Love of country requires no special language, but 
 it does require a spirit of loyalty and service and 
 devotion beyond the bounds of any known tongue. 
 . . . The evidence seems to lead to the conclusion 
 that in so far as illiteracy or the learning of the 
 English language is concerned there has been no 
 serious difficulty created by the immigrants them- 
 selves. The main difficulties, however, are to be 
 found in the lack of facilities for learning English, 
 the low grade of teachers provided, the hours and 
 conditions under which teaching must be done, the 
 failure to employ teachers with experience in 
 handling foreign adults, and above all the fact 
 that most adult foreigners during their first years 
 in the United States must earn their living in 
 ill paid and exhausting occupations which leave 
 them physically unfit for any mental effort. With 
 about three million persons still to be trained in 
 the use of the English language, the federal, state, 
 
 327
 
 AMERICANIZATION 
 
 Problems 
 
 AMERICANIZATION 
 
 and local governments should develop well-trained 
 teachers and proper conditions of teaching during 
 hours when mental effort is least difficult. Per- 
 haps there is no nation in the world that is so 
 non-linguistic as are the natives of this country, 
 and they should have a sympathetic understanding 
 of the difficulties of learning a new language, par- 
 ticularly by people with a limited education or al- 
 together without education. While language is the 
 common denominator of all social and political ed- 
 ucation among the people already assimilated, it 
 must be recognized that the most important period 
 of political and social education in the life of the 
 immigrant is during the first twelve months or 
 two years in this country. It is then that the im- 
 pressions are strongest and count the most in the 
 future adjustments to the new environment. It 
 is obvious, therefore, that a prohibition of the use 
 of a foreign language in public meetings, and par- 
 ticularly the abolition of the foreign press in this 
 country, would be nothing short of a calamity. 
 They are the channels through which the foreigner 
 can keep in touch with conditions, and all leader- 
 ship of the foreigners is impossible unless it is ex- 
 pressed in the native tongue. To assume that any 
 foreigner can acquire a knowledge of English so 
 as to listen to or read intelligently during a period 
 of less than two years is to expect a great deal 
 more than many intelligent American travelers have 
 been able to achieve in their sojourns in foreign 
 lands. . . . We need the music of Italy, the clear 
 thinking of France, the industry and thoroughness 
 of Germany, the truthfulness and art of Russia. 
 . . . The din of the reiterated panacea that the 
 distribution of immigrants would solve the Ameri- 
 canization problem is in everyone's ears. Take 
 the foreigner out of the congested cities, place him 
 in small communities or on the farm, isolate him 
 from his fellow-countrymen, surround him by 
 Americans and compel him to speak nothing but 
 Enghsh and you have solved the whole problem. 
 This method sounds so simple and practical that 
 it is bound to be impractical and inconsistent with 
 the experience of society. It is clear to anyone 
 familiar with immigrant hfe that congestion, poor 
 sanitation, low standards of living, are not the 
 reasons why the immigrants prefer the cities with 
 all their attending evils. These conditions are 
 merely the commodities as they find them when 
 they reach these shores, and their control depends 
 not upon the new arrival who has no voice in 
 government and whose economic position is too 
 precarious to afford a choice, but upon the already 
 assimilated people participating in the conduct and 
 control of our social and political institutions. The 
 Irish and the German immigrants were the fore- 
 runners of the Italian and the Polish, and their 
 transition into Americanism took place through 
 slums that were even worse than what we now 
 find on the lower east side of New York, or in 
 the stockyard district of Chicago. When we an- 
 alyze the causes of congestion among the immi- 
 grants we find that they are fundamentally eco- 
 nomic. A large proportion of our immigrants are 
 unskilled workers or tradesmen with skill and 
 training which require new adjustments to indus- 
 tries in which the division of tasks, the trade pro- 
 cesses, and the conditions of labor are essentially 
 different from those found in the same industries in 
 the old country. Unskilled trades and the semi- 
 skilled trades employ large numbers of workers 
 and these are largely open to the immigrant. 
 Without a knowledge of the language and igno- 
 rant of American methods of work and employ- 
 ment he must depend upon the people of his 
 own race or nationality for guidance and assistance. 
 
 3 
 
 In learning a new trade he must be able to under- 
 stand instructions, and in looking for a job he 
 must be able to speak and read the language of his 
 employer or his agent. If he desires to go out on 
 the farm the only choice he has is day labor, a 
 very precarious occupation with all the attending 
 evils of seasonal employment, ignorance of the 
 newer methods of cultivation and complete isola- 
 tion from those who in time of need can under- 
 stand and help meet difficulties. To become a farm 
 owner requires capital and a knowledge of Ameri- 
 can methods of cultivation, marketing, and busi- 
 ness. For these reasons the immigrant remains in 
 his colony. He also has certain social needs which 
 he cannot get in an American environment. The 
 church, the lodge, the social center, cannot exist 
 except when there are present in the community 
 or neighborhood large enough groups of the same 
 nationality or race to justify their presence and 
 guarantee their maintenance. All these institutions 
 if conducted in English are of no value to the im- 
 migrant for at least the first two or three years of 
 his stay in the United States. Even evening schools 
 for foreigners for the purpose of teaching them 
 the English language cannot be maintained with 
 any degree of efficiency without having a certain 
 amount of segregation. The very work of Ameri- 
 canization cannot function unless it can deal with 
 groups instead of individuals. To endeavor Ameri- 
 canization by scattering individual immigrants in 
 American communities is to attempt Americani- 
 zation by a process of gradual social and eco- 
 nomic suffocation." Aronovici holds that environ- 
 ment is an important socializing factor in Ameri- 
 canization ; that the workers for social insurance 
 and the abolishment of child labor have done more 
 toward Americanizing the immigrant than all the 
 special leagues, societies, and commissions organ- 
 ized for Americanization work. Concerning the 
 American overseas army he says: "A polyglot 
 army with differing traditions, born in every cor- 
 ner of the accessible areas of the globe, with re- 
 ligious beliefs representing every creed and de- 
 nomination known to the civilized world, fought 
 for democracy in the trenches of Europe They 
 were Yanks in spirit and in aspiration, those mil- 
 lions who went overseas prepared for the supreme 
 sacrifice, but in their veins flowed the blood of all 
 nations and in their hearts were hidden treasures 
 of tradition and culture that have not been and 
 will not be discovered and developed until the 
 Americanization movement realizes that a new na- 
 tionalism must be created out of the old." — C. 
 Aronovici, Americanization: its meaning and Junc- 
 tion (American Journal of Sociology, May, iq2o). 
 — Another student stresses the following principles 
 of Americanization work: "(i) .Americanization 
 cannot be defined as simply learning the language. 
 It is exceedingly broad in its scope, and the learn- 
 ing process continues throughout the life of the 
 individual. (2) Americanization work should not 
 be confined to persons of non-.\merican extraction. 
 Many people born in the United States need to be 
 brought into sympathy with the non-American just 
 as much as he needs to be brought into sympathy 
 with them (3) The learning of the language pro- 
 vides only the tools of contact to the individual, 
 so that he may be enabled to develop an intelligent 
 appreciation of .American conduct and ideals. (4) 
 The menace of the non-English-speaking alien is 
 so great to his community and to himself that we 
 ought to consider carefully the desirability of in- 
 sisting upon his learning the language if he is to 
 remain in the country (5) Those undertaking 
 Americanization work should be absolutely sincere 
 in their purpose, as any scheme which bears even 
 
 28
 
 AMERICANIZATION 
 
 Libraries 
 and Schools 
 
 AMERICANIZATION 
 
 the faintest taint of exploitation will react harm- 
 fully upon the worker and upon the cause of 
 Americanization. (6) It must be constantly borne 
 in mind that no element of condescension can 
 safely be introduced into Americanization work. 
 There is much that the new American can teach 
 us if we are in the right attitude of mind, and we 
 can teach him very little if we are not. (7) Above 
 all things avoid paternalism. (8) The final pur- 
 pose of all Americanization work is to develop self- 
 acting progressive Americans, (g) Education is 
 primarily a public function and the industry should 
 take the initiative only where the community has 
 failed. It should always be ready to cooperate. 
 (10) Above all things it should be borne in mind 
 that 'Americanism' is a state of the heart as much 
 as it is a state of the mind. It is a feeling as much 
 as it is a thought." — C. H. Paull, Aims and stand- 
 ards in industrial Americanization (Industrial Man- 
 agement, Feb., iQiQ, pp. 148-151). — The view of a 
 naturalized American may be seen in these extracts 
 from an address by Edward A. Steiner, Professor 
 of Applied Christianity, Grinnell College, Iowa: 
 "I am not sure that we can, or that we ought, to 
 accelerate Americanization. Thus far it has been 
 a contagion with no artificial stimulus. When we 
 shall say 'Go to, we will Americanize you,' there 
 will be organized efforts to resist us, and the re- 
 sistance will grow with our insistence. We have, 
 I am sure, lost many opportunities to interpret 
 America to the immigrant, especially to the adult. 
 He does not come in contact with any of our na- 
 tional institutions except the saloon and the police 
 court. If he does become a citizen he usually at- 
 tains to that high and holy privilege through the 
 venal politician. The whole process of naturaliza- 
 tion, which has received some attention in these 
 later years, needs to be further revised and im- 
 proved ; especially by dignifying it and by making 
 the applicant realize that it is a privilege which 
 he may forfeit if he does not perform its duties 
 conscientiously. I am not sure that the attempt 
 to accelerate naturalization, by making the process 
 easier, may not end in cheapening it still further. 
 I believe that every man who wishes to become a 
 citizen ought to be willing to take pains and make 
 sacrifices, if necessary to gain that end. Citizen- 
 ship is too valuable a possession to be thrown at 
 people, and it is a mistaken notion to believe that 
 because a man has taken out his naturalization 
 papers he is necessarily a patriot. In fact, we 
 know that the two are not identical, and I can 
 easily imagine myself loving this country and being 
 ready to sacrifice myself for it, even had I not the 
 sometimes doubtful privilege of voting. .We should 
 apply a test more searching than the mere an- 
 swering of a few questions which may be learned 
 by rote. No man should be allowed to become a 
 citizen unless his conduct, during five years' resi- 
 dence in this country, has proved that he is already 
 an American in spirit ; that he knows the meaning 
 of liberty and has not abused it; and that he is 
 capable of cooperating with others in realizing that 
 freedom. He ought to be able to prove that he 
 has left behind him Europe's racial, religious and 
 national animosities and prejudices. He ought 
 not to become a child of this democracy, and, as 
 often happens, an added care, until he has proved 
 that he knows its meaning and has lived up to it. 
 ... A rigid insistence upon economic and social 
 justice, and the assurance that the state looks upon 
 them as something more than animated machines, 
 to be used and abused at the owners' will, would 
 bind these millions in gratitude to the country of 
 which they know Httle or nothing except when 
 they are punished for breaking its laws. I have 
 
 strongly urged, but thus far in vain, that every 
 ship which carries in immigrants should have on 
 board a United States officer who would use the 
 time of transit to instruct the people coming to 
 us. They should be told of their privileges and 
 their duties, the nature of our government and 
 the part they may ultimately have in it. I have 
 often acted voluntarily in such a capacity, and 
 have found that by the aid of immigrants who 
 are returning to us, such instruction can be effec- 
 tively given. Much of the preliminary work of 
 inspection could thus be done. I know there are 
 difficulties in the way, but they are not insur- 
 mountable. The immigrant-receiving station should, 
 not be merely a heartless machine for this sifting 
 of human material. The government ought to 
 do something more for these people than put a 
 chalk mark upon their coats, or open the gate of 
 a strange and new country without a word of ad- 
 vice or warning. Consider the attitude of the 
 average American toward the government of his 
 city or country, the low tone of our discussion of 
 public issues, the ridicule* which we heap upon 
 our officials, from which even the chief magis- 
 trate is not spared; the personal and partisan sel- 
 fishness so strongly in evidence even in this most 
 critical moment of our national life. Need we 
 then wonder if every hyphenated citizen does not 
 manifest the gracious unselfishness of a George 
 Washington or the sacrificial devotion of an Abra- 
 ham Lincoln?" — E. A. Steiner, Confession of a 
 hyphenated American, pp. 51-63. 
 
 Cooperation by the libraries. — Mr. George 
 B. Utley, secretary of the American Library Asso- 
 ciation, has summarized as follows what the libra- 
 ries have done to promote good citizenship: "(i) 
 They have gained the adult foreigner's confidence 
 and good will. (2) They have educated themselves 
 in his needs, prejudices, racial characteristics and 
 native responses. (3) They have afforded him 
 democratic, hospitable places — libraries — in which 
 the usefulness and the recreational quality of books, 
 magazines and newspapers have been discovered 
 by him and to him. (4) They have cooperated 
 with established organizations, local, state and fed- 
 eral, for his education, (s) They have instituted 
 new ways of procedure in helping him, such as 
 the use of the foreign-language press as a medium 
 of instruction; of foreign-language lectures for 
 teaching citizenship, English language and home- 
 making. (6) They have given or promoted home- 
 lands exhibits and municipal parties at which re- 
 spect and admiration have been shown for his 
 handiwork and customs with an increase of his 
 own self-respect." — Statement furnished for Ameri- 
 canization (Handbook Series, p. 344) . 
 
 Cooperation by the public schools. — In the 
 public schools of many large cities* more atten- 
 tion has recently been given to the teaching of 
 government. In the City of New York a required 
 course of not less than four periods a week for one 
 half year aims to acquaint freshmen high school 
 pupils with the government of their city and its 
 state and federal relations. The following are 
 among the topics taught. — The city's water supply, 
 The part of the citizen in government. Parties and 
 elections, etc.. Protecting the health of the people, 
 Protecting the food of the people, Disposal of 
 city's wastes. Regulation of buildings. Lighting, 
 Heating, etc.. Communication and transportation, 
 Safeguarding life and property. Public regulation 
 of work. Clothing, Public provision for recreation, 
 City planning, and Civic beauty. Care of the city's 
 wards (Public welfare). Care of the city's wards 
 (Correction), Public education, Making the laws, 
 Carrying out the laws. Judicial action and Paying 
 
 329
 
 AMERICANIZATION 
 
 AMIDA, SIEGES OF 
 
 the city's bills. In the great work of making our 
 population American in spirit, we can probably do 
 nothing better than to strengthen the agencies al- 
 ready at work and furnish them adequate financial 
 support, particularly the public schools, the libra- 
 ries, the churches, the social settlements, the com- 
 munity centers, the immigrant protective leagues 
 and the legal aid societies. 
 
 Various agencies. — Due to the present univer- 
 sahty of the work, only a few of the leading agen- 
 cies are enumerated under each heading. 
 
 Federal agencies. — Department of the Interior: 
 Bureau of Education; Department of Labor: 
 Bureau of Naturalization; Bureau of Immigration 
 (controls immigration of entire country) ; Immi- 
 gration stations. 
 
 Slate agencies. — Councils of national defense; 
 immigrant commissions; industrial departments; 
 state boards of education. 
 
 Municipal agencies. — City boards of education; 
 community councils; official municipal agencies 
 [Americanization committees, research bureaus, 
 etc.] 
 
 Universities and colleges. — [Surveys, Americani- 
 zation training courses, etc. Among these are] 
 University of State of New York (maintains di- 
 rector of immigrant education, with a staff; 
 makes surveys, . . . conducts institutes for teach- 
 ers in Americanization, methods of teaching Eng- 
 lish to foreigners, etc.) ; Columbia University 
 (maintains Columbia House ... for centralization 
 of American activities . . . ) ; University of Wis- 
 consin (first university to establish a chair of 
 Americanization; [and others]. 
 
 Special immigrant organizations. — Immigrants' 
 Protective League; North American Civic League 
 for Immigrants; Immigration Restriction League; 
 National Liberal Immigration League; Immigrant 
 Education Society; Baron de Hirsch fund (estab- 
 lished for the benefit of Galician, Russian and 
 Roumanian Jews); Council of Jewish Women; 
 Y. W. C. A.; Y. M. C. A.; Y. M. H. A.; National 
 Committee for Constructive Immigration Legisla- 
 tion; World Alliance for International Friendship 
 (specially concerned with adjustmert of relations 
 with the Orient); Hebrew Sheltering and Immi- 
 grant Aid Society of America; Jewish Agricultural 
 and Industrial Aid Society. 
 
 Religious organizations. — Church home mission 
 work, port work, recreation, etc. 
 
 Foreign organizations. — League of Foreign-born 
 Citizens (first organization instituted for the pur- 
 pose of helping the 'foreign-born to become Ameri- 
 can citizen and appreciate American institutions) ; 
 American Waldensian Aid Society; Armenian 
 Colonial Association; Ukrainian National Alliance; 
 Ukrainian Federation of the United States;' Greek- 
 American National Union ; Czecho-Slovak National 
 Alliance; Czecho-Slovak Sokel Organizations; Am- 
 erican Lettish Baptist Literary Society; Slavonic 
 Immigrant Society; Syrian-American Club; Slo- 
 vak League of America; Polish Falcon's Alliance 
 in America. 
 
 Private organizations. — Sons of the American 
 Revolution; Daughters of the American Revolu- 
 tion; Educational Alliance (Hebrew); Carnegie 
 Corporation; Conference of Social Work; General 
 Federation of Women's Clubs. 
 
 Women's Committees.— [C\v\c and municipal; 
 conduct classes, clubs, lectures, etc.] 
 
 Miscellaneous. — Chambers of commerce; clubs; 
 industries; libraries; settlements; parent-teacher as- 
 sociations. — From list compiled by division for for- 
 eign-bom women. National Y. W. C. A., July 
 1919. 
 Also in: C. S. Cooper, American jieo/j.— Royal 
 
 Dixon, Americanization. — H. P. Fairchild, Immi- 
 gration: A world movement and its American 
 significance. — E. A. Steiner, Nationalizing America. 
 — F. V. Thompson, Schooling of the immigrant. 
 
 AMERIGO VESPUCCI. See Vespucci, Amer- 
 igo. 
 
 AMERONGEN, a village in Holland, to which 
 the deposed German Emperor fled in November, 
 1918, after the collapse of his army. He found 
 asylum in the chateau of Count Bentinck. 
 
 AMERVAL. See World War: 1918: II. West- 
 ern front: s, 1. 
 
 AMES, Fisher (1758-1808), orator, political 
 writer and statesman, graduate of Harvard, mem- 
 ber of the Massachusetts legislature, conspicuous 
 in the Massachusetts convention of 1788 to ratify 
 the Federal Constitution; a Federalist leader in 
 Congress 1789-1797; made an able defense of the 
 Jay treaty ; prominent member of the Essex Junto 
 (q.v.). Complete edition of his works published 
 by his son, Seth Ames, 1854. 
 
 AMES, Oakes (1804-1873), manufacturer; Re- 
 publican member of Congress from Massachusetts, 
 1862-1873; censured by House" of Representatives 
 for his connection with the Credit Mobilier (q. v.) 
 and later vindicated by Massachusetts legislature. 
 See Credit Mobilier scandal. 
 
 AMETER. See Electrical discoveries: Meas- 
 uring instruments. 
 
 AMHERST, Jeffrey Amherst, Baron (1717- 
 1797), British soldier; in War of Austrian Suc- 
 cession and Seven Years' War; commanded expe- 
 dition against Louisburg 1758; made Commander- 
 in-chief of English forces in America 1759; cap- 
 tured Ticonderoga and Crown Point and later 
 Montreal; made Governor-general of British North 
 America; unsuccessful in war against Pontiac ; re- 
 fused to serve against .American colonists in the 
 Revolution ; aided in suppressing Gordon Riots, 
 1780. The city of Amhei'st, Mass., was named in 
 his honor by Governor Pownall in 1759. — See also 
 Canada: 1758; 1759 (July-August); 1763-1774; 
 South Carolina: i 750-1 761. 
 
 Also in: G. O. Trevelyan, American Revolution, 
 V. 2, pp. 208-218. 
 
 AMHERST, William Pitt, Earl (i773-i857). a 
 British diplomat; Governor-general of India 1823- 
 1828; created earl in 1826, in recognition of his 
 services in the' first Burmese war in 1824, which 
 resulted in the cession of .\rakan and Jenasserim 
 to Great Britain. — See also India: 1823-1833. 
 
 AMHERST COLLEGE, Founding of. See 
 Education, Modern: U. S. A.: 1821 (Massa- 
 chusetts); UNrVERSITIES AND COLLEGES: 1818-182I. 
 
 AMICALES". See France: 1919-1920. 
 
 AMICITI.S;. See Guilds of Flanders. 
 
 AMIDA, Sieges of. — The ancient city of Amida, 
 now Diarbekr, on the right bank of the Upper 
 Tigris was thrice taken by the Persians from the 
 Romans, in the course of the long wars between 
 the two nations. In the first instance, A. D. 359, 
 it fell after a terrible siege of seventy-three days, 
 conducted by the Persian king Sapor in person, 
 and was given up to pillage and slaughter, the 
 Roman commanders crucified and the few surviv- 
 ing inhabitants dragged to Persia as slaves. The 
 town was then abandoned by the Persians, repeo- 
 pled by the Romans and recovered its prosperity 
 and strength, only to pass through a similar ex- 
 perience again in 502, when it was besieged for 
 eighty days by the Persian king Kobadh, carried 
 by storm, and most of its inhabitants slaughtered 
 or enslaved. A century later, in 60S, Chosroes 
 took Amide once more, but with less violence. — 
 G. Rawlinson, Seventh great oriental monarchy, ch. 
 9, ig and 24. — See also Persia: (A. D.) 226-627. 
 
 330
 
 AMIDEI FAMILY 
 
 AMORIAN DYNASTY 
 
 AMIDEI FAMILY, Florence: Rise of Guelf 
 and Ghibelline strife. See Italy: 1215. 
 
 AMIENS, a city in northern France 81 miles 
 from Paris, situated on the river Somme, a textile 
 manufacturing center ; surprised by the Spaniards 
 in 15Q7 and recovered same year by Henry IX (see 
 France; I5g3-I5Q8) ; gavv; its name to the treaty 
 of 1802 between Great Britain, France, Spain and 
 Holland [see England: 1801-1806; France: 1801- 
 1802]; captured by the Germans in 1870 (see 
 France: 1870-1871) and again in 1914, when they 
 held it for a time in the first advance on Paris, 
 later withdrawing ; was the objective of some of 
 the greatest German onslaughts in 1918, but was 
 held by the Allies. (See World War; 1915: X. 
 War in the air; 1918; II. Western front: c, 27; 
 c, 32; j.) For origin of name, see Belgae. 
 
 AMIENS, Cathedral of, the largest cathedral 
 of France, begun in 1220 by Robert de Luzarches 
 and continued by Thomas de Cormont and his son 
 Renault. The plan of the building is typical of 
 French Gothic architecture. The groin rib and 
 pointed arch have taken the place of the sex- 
 partite plan and the bays are oblong. While the 
 area of Amiens is smaller than the Hypostyle Hall 
 at Karnak the height of its nave is 140 feet as 
 compared with 80 at Karnak. As in all French 
 cathedrals the west front is a special feature of the 
 exterior. The Romanesque twin towers are con- 
 nected by an arcade and there is a rose or wheel 
 window above the central recessed door. Speak- 
 ing of its interior as an example of Gothic archi- 
 tecture, Charles H. Caffin says: "It is as if some 
 power had pulled the older form upward into a 
 slenderer, more elastic fabric ; less massive, possi- 
 bly less stately, but also less inert, infinitely alive 
 in its inspiring growth, with grace of movement 
 as well as dignity." — C. H. Caffin, How to study 
 architecture, p. 284, 
 
 AMIENS, Treaty of (1527), negotiated by 
 Cardinal Wolsey, between Henry VIII of England 
 and Francis I of France, establishing an alliance 
 against the emperor, Charles V. The treaty was 
 sealed and sworn to in the cathedral church at 
 Amiens, Aug. 18, 1527.— J. S. Brewer, Reign of 
 Henry VIII, v. 2, ch. 26 and 28. — See also Italy: 
 1527-1529. 
 
 AMIENS, Treaty of (1802). See France: 1801- 
 1802. As affecting Knights of the Order of St. 
 John, see Hospitallers of St. John of Jeru- 
 salem: 1565-1870. 
 
 AMIN AL, Caliph, 809-813, son and successor 
 of Harun al-Rashid. After a troublous reign, which 
 was due to his own misgovernment, he was de- 
 feated by a revolting faction, captured and put to 
 death, 
 
 AMINULLAH KHAN, Amir. See Afghanis- 
 tan; igig. 
 
 AMIR, also written Ameer and Emir, Moham- 
 medan title of nobility, especially used to refer to 
 the rulers of Afghanistan and Scinde. 
 
 AMIR TOMAN, Persian army officer. See 
 World War; 1915; VII. Persia and Germany. 
 
 AMIRANTES. See Mascarene Islands. 
 
 AMISTAD, Case of.— The Amistad was a 
 Spanish vessel bound from Havana to Puerto 
 Principe with a cargo of slaves in 1839. The 
 slaves killed the whites and took possession of 
 the ship. A United States war vessel seized the 
 Amistad off Long Island and took it into New 
 London harbor. The United States district court 
 of Connecticut held that the slaves were "prop- 
 erty rescued from pirates" and that they should be 
 returned to their Spanish owners according to the 
 treaty between the United States and Spain. This 
 decision was reversed by the Supreme court of the 
 
 United States. According to this tribunal the ne- 
 groes were free men, having been kidnapped from 
 a foreign country. — See also Slavery: Negro: 19th 
 Century. 
 
 AMISUS, Siege of.— The siege of Amisus by 
 Lucullus was one of the important operations of 
 the third Mithridatic war. The city was on the 
 coast of the Black sea, between the rivers Halys 
 and Lycus; it is represented in site by the modern 
 town of Samsun. Amisus, which was besieged in 
 73 B. C, held out until the following year. Tyran- 
 nion the grammarian was among the prisoners 
 taken and sent to Rome. — G. Long, Decline of the 
 Roman republic, v. 3, ch. 1 and 2. 
 
 AMITABHA. See Mythology: Eastern Asia: 
 Indian and Chinese influences. 
 
 AMMAN, Palestine.— Captured by British 
 (1918). See World War: 1918: VI. Turkish the- 
 ater: c, 5; c, 13; c, 20. 
 
 AMMANATI, Bartolomeo (1511-1592), Flor- 
 entine architect and sculptor; designed many 
 buildings in Rome, Lucca and Florence, an addi- 
 tion to the Pitti Place being one of his most cele- 
 brated works. — See also Sculpture: High Renais- 
 sance. 
 
 AMMANN, title of the mayor, or president of 
 the Swiss Communal Council or Gcmeinderat. See 
 Switzerland; 1848-1890. 
 
 AMMISM. See Mythology: Greek mythology: 
 Anthropomorphic character of Greek myth. 
 
 AMMON, a god of Egypt.— Power of his 
 priests. See Egypt; B.C. 1379. 
 
 AMMON, Temple and Oracle of.— The Am- 
 monium or Oasis of .^mmon, in the Libyan desert, 
 which was visited by Alexander the Great, has 
 been identified with the oasis now known as the 
 Oasis of Siwah. "The Oasis of Siwah was first 
 visited and described by Browne in 1792; and its 
 identity with that of Amnion fully established by 
 Major Rennell (Geography of Herodotus, pp. 577- 
 591). . . . The site of the celebrated temple and 
 oracle of Ammon was first discoveted by Mr. Ham- 
 ilton in 1853. Its famous oracle was frequently 
 visited by Greeks from Cyrene, as well as from 
 other parts of the Hellenic world, and it vied in 
 reputation with those of Delphi and Dodona." — 
 E. H. Bunbury, History of ancient geography, ch. 
 8, sect. I, and ch. 12, sect, i and note E. — An ex- 
 pedition of 50,000 men sent by Cambyses to Am- 
 mon, B.C. 525, is said to have perished in the 
 desert, to the last man. See Egypt: B.C. 525- 
 332- 
 
 AMMONITES. — According to the ■ narrative in 
 Genesis xix: 30-39, the Ammonites were descended 
 from Ben-Ammi, son of Lot's second daughter, as 
 the Moabites came from Moab, the eldest daugh- 
 ter's son. The two people are much associated in 
 Biblical history. "It is hard to avoid the conclu- 
 sion that, while Moab was the settled and civilized 
 half of the nation of Lot, the Bene Ammon formed 
 its predatory and Bedouin section." — G. Grove, 
 Dictionary of the Bible. — See also Amalekites; 
 Jews; Conquest of Canaan, and Israel under the 
 Judges; Moabites; Christianity: Map of Sinaitic 
 peninsula. 
 
 AMMONITI, political party. See Florence: 
 1358. 
 
 AMMONIUS SACCAS, Greek philosopher. 
 See Neoplatonism. 
 
 AMNAS: Occupied by the British. See World 
 War; 1917: VI. Turkish theater; c, 2, vi. 
 
 AMNESTY PROCLAMATION. See U. S. A.: 
 1863 (December). 
 
 AMOOR. See Amur. 
 
 AMORIAN DYNASTY. See Byzantine em- 
 pire: 820-1057. 
 
 331
 
 AMORIAN WAR 
 
 AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL 
 
 AMORIAN WAR.— The Byzantine emperor, 
 Theophilus, in war with the Saracens, took and de- 
 stroyed, with peculiar animosity, the town of 
 Zapetra or Sozopetra, in Syria, which happened to 
 be the birthplace of the reigning caliph, Motassem, 
 son of Harun al-Rashid. The caUph had conde- 
 scended to intercede for the place, and his enemy's 
 conduct was personally insulting to him, as well 
 as atrociously inhumane. To avenge the outrage 
 he invaded Asia Minor, A. D. S3S, at the head of 
 an enormous army, with the special purpose of de- 
 stroying the birthplace of Theophilus. The unfor- 
 tunate town which suffered that distinction was 
 Amorium in Phrygia, — whence the ensuing war 
 was called the .■\morian War. Attempting to de- 
 fend .\morium in the field, the Byzantines were 
 hopelessly defeated, and the doomed city was left 
 to its fate. It made an heroic resistance for fifty- 
 five days, and the siege is said to have cost the 
 caliph 70,000 men. But he entered the place at last 
 with a merciless sword, and left a heap of ruins 
 for the monument of his revenge. — E. Gibbon, His- 
 torv oj the decline and fall of the Roman empire, 
 ch.'s--. 
 
 AMORITES.— "The Hittites and Amorites were 
 . . . mingled together in the mountains of Pales- 
 tine like the two races which ethnologists tell 
 us go to form the modern Kelt. But the Egyptian 
 monuments teach us that they were of very dif- 
 ferent origin and character. The Hittites were a 
 people with yellow skins and 'Mongoloid' features, 
 whose receding foreheads, oblique eyes, and pro- 
 truding upper jaws, are represented as faithfully 
 on their own monuments as they are on those of 
 Egypt, so that we cannot accuse the Egyptian art- 
 ists of caricaturing their enemies. If the Egyp- 
 tians have made the Hittites ugly, it was because 
 they were so in reality. The Amorites, on the 
 contrary, were a tall and handsome people. They 
 are depicted with white skins, blue eyes, and red- 
 dish hair, all the characteristics, in fact, of the 
 white race. Mr. Petrie points out their resem- 
 blance to the Dardanians of .\sia Minor, who form 
 an intermediate link between the white-skinned 
 tribes of the Greek seas and the fair-complexioned 
 Libyans of Northern Africa. The latter are still 
 found in large numbers in the mountainous regions 
 which stretch eastward from Morocco, and are 
 usually known among the French under the name 
 of Kabyles. The traveller who first meets with 
 them in Algeria cannot fail to be struck by their 
 likeness to a certain part of the population in the 
 British Isles. Their clear-white freckled skins, 
 their blue eyes, their golden-red hair and tall 
 stature, remind him of the fair Kelts of an Irish 
 village; and when we find that their skulls, which 
 are of the so-called dolichocephalic or 'long-headed' 
 type, are the same as the skulls discovered in the 
 prehistoric cromlechs of the country they still in- 
 habit, we may conclude that they represent the 
 modern descendants of the white-skinned Libyans 
 of the Egyptian monuments. In Pale=tine also 
 we still come across representatives of a falr-com- 
 plexioned blue-eyed race, in w'hom we may see the 
 descendants of the ancient .Amorites, just a? we 
 see in the Kabyles the descendants of the ancient 
 Libyans. We know that the .^morite type con- 
 tinued to exist in Judah long after the Israelit- 
 ish conquest of Canaan The captives taken from 
 the southern cities of Judah by Shishak in the time 
 of Rehoboam, and depicted by him upon the walls 
 of the great temple of Karnak, are people of 
 Amorite origin. Their 'regular profile of sub- 
 aquiline cast,' as Mr, Tomkins describes it. their 
 high cheek-bones and martial expression, are the 
 features of the .Amorites, and not of the Jews. 
 
 Tallness of stature has always been a distinguish- 
 ing characteristic of the white race. Hence it was 
 that the Anakim, the Amorite inhabitants of He- 
 bron, seemed to the Hebrew spies to be as giants, 
 while they themselves were but 'as grasshoppers' 
 by the side of them (Num. xiii: a). After the 
 Israelitish invasion remnants of the Anakim were 
 left in Gaza and Gath and Ashkelon (Josh xi. 22), 
 and in the time of David, Goliath of Gath and 
 his gigantic family were objects of dread to their 
 neighbors (2 Sam. xxi: 15-22). It is clear, then, 
 that the Amorites of Canaan belonged to the same 
 white race as the Libyans of Northern Africa, and 
 like them preferred the mountains to the hot plains 
 and valleys below. The Libyans themselves be- 
 longer to a race which can be traced through the 
 peninsula of Spain and the western side of France 
 into the British Isles. Now it is curious that wher- 
 ever this particular branch of the white race has 
 extended it has been accompanied by a particular 
 form of cromlech, or sepulchral chamber built of 
 large uncut stones, ... It has been necessary to 
 enter at this length into what has been discovered 
 concerning the Amorites by recent research, in or- 
 der to show how carefully they should be dis- 
 tinguished from the Hittites with whom they af- 
 terwards intermingled. They must have been in 
 possession of Palestine long before the Hittites ar- 
 rived there. They extended over a much wider 
 area." — \. H. Sayce, Hittites, ch. i, — -See also Ca- 
 naan; Jews: Israel under the Judges, 
 
 AMORTIZATION. See Rural credit: Amor- 
 tization, 
 
 AMOS, Hebrew prophet. See Jews: Religion 
 and the prophets, 
 
 AMO'Y, Chinese seaport on the south-eastern 
 coast. See China: 1839-1842; Map. 
 
 AMPERE, Andre Marie (1775-1836), a French 
 physicist, famous for his service to science in es- 
 tablishing the relation between electricity and mag- 
 netism. The unit of measurement of the intensity 
 of electric currents is named "ampere" after him. — 
 See also Electrical discovery: 1784-1800. 
 
 AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL, AMPHICTY- 
 ONY. — ".An .Amphiktyonic, or, more correctly, an 
 .■\mphiktionic, body was an assembly of the tribes 
 who dwelt around any famous temple, gathered 
 together to manage the affairs of that temple. 
 There were other Amphiktyonic Assemblies in 
 Greece [besides that of Delphi], amongst which 
 that of the isle of Kalaureia, off the coast of 
 Argolis, was a body of some celebrity. The Am- 
 phiktyons of Delphi obtained greater importance 
 than any other .Amphiktyons only because of the 
 greater importance of the Delphic sanctuary, and 
 because it incidentally happened that the greater 
 part of the Greek nation had some kind of repre- 
 sentation among them. But that body could not 
 be looked upon as a perfect representation of the 
 Greek nation which, to postpone other objections 
 to its constitution, found no place for so large a 
 fraction of the Hellenic body as the Arkadians 
 Still the .\mphiktyons of Delphi undoubtedly came 
 nearer than any other existing body to the char- 
 acter of a general representation of all Greece. 
 It is therefore easy to understand how the relig- 
 ious functions of such a body might incidentally 
 assume a political character. . . . Once or twice 
 then, in the course of Grecian history, we do find 
 the .Amphiktyonic body acting with real dignity in 
 the name of united Greece. . . , Thouch the list 
 of members of the Council is eiven with some 
 slight variations bv different authors, all agree in 
 making the constituent members of the union 
 tribes and not cities. The representatives of the 
 Ionic and Doric races sat and voted as single mem 
 
 ii^
 
 AMPHILOCHIANS 
 
 AMSTERDAM 
 
 bers, side by side with the representatives of 
 petty peoples like the Magnesians and Phthiotic 
 Achaians, When the Council was first formed, 
 Dorians and lonians were doubtless mere tribes of 
 northern Greece, and the prodigious development 
 of the Doric and Ionic races in after times made 
 no difference in its constitution. . . . The Amphi- 
 ktyonic Council was not exactly a diplomatic con- 
 gress, but it was much more like a diplomatic con- 
 gress than it was like the governing assembly of 
 any commonwealth, kingdom, or federation. The 
 Pylagoroi and Hieromncmo were not exactly 
 Ambassadors, but they were much more like mem- 
 bers of a British Parliament or even an American 
 Congress. . . . The nearest approach to the Am- 
 phiktyonic Council in modern times would be if 
 the College of Cardinals were to consist of mem- 
 bers chosen by the several Roman Catholic nations 
 of Europe and America." — E. A. Freeman, History 
 of federal government, v. i, cli. 3. — See also 
 Greece: B. C. 8th and 6th centuries: Economic con- 
 ditions; and B.C. 357-336; Ionic (Pan-Ionic) Am- 
 
 PHICTYONY. 
 
 AMPHILOCHIANS. See Acarnanians. 
 
 AMPHIPOLIS.— This town in Macedonia, oc- 
 cupying an important situation on the eastern 
 bank of the river Strymon, just below a small lake 
 into which it widens near its mouth, was originally 
 called "The Nine Ways," and was the scene of a 
 horrible human sacrifice made by Xerxes on his 
 march into Greece. — Thirlwall, History of Greece, 
 ch. 15. — It was subsequently taken by the Athe- 
 nians, B. C. 437, and made a capital city by them, 
 dominating the surrounding district, its name be- 
 ing changed to Amphipolis. During the Pelopon- 
 nesian war B. C. 424, the able Lacedsmonian 
 general, Brasidas, led a small army into Macedonia 
 and succeeded in capturing Amphipolis, which 
 caused great dismay and discouragement at Athens. 
 (See Athens: B.C. 426-422) Thucydides, the his- 
 torian, was one of the generals held responsible 
 for the disaster and he was driven as a conse- 
 quence into the fortunate exile which produced the 
 composition of his history. Two years later the 
 .Athenian demagogue-leader, Cleon, took com- 
 mand of an expedition sent to recover .Amphipolis 
 and other points in Macedonia and Thrace. It 
 was disastrously beaten and Cleon was killed, but 
 Brasidas fell likewise in the battle. Whether 
 Athens suffered more from her defeat than Sparta 
 from her victory is a question. — Thucydides, His- 
 tory, bk. 4, sect. 102-135, bk. 5, sect. i-ii. — Am- 
 phipolis was taken by Philip of Macedon, B.C. 
 358. See Greece: 350-358; Map of ancient Greece. 
 AMPHISSA, Seige and capture by Philip of 
 Macedon (B.C. 339-338). See Greece: B.C. 357- 
 336. 
 
 AMPHITHEATER, in Roman antiquity, a 
 building much hke a double theater, circular in 
 plan, with the seats of the spectators surround- 
 ing the place of exhibition. Wooden theaters 
 seem to have been numerous, but the first stone 
 one, the Coliseum (q.v.), was built in the reign 
 of Augustus. Amphitheaters were later erected in 
 almost all of the large cities, the finest being at 
 Verona, Capua, Pozzuoli and Nimes. "There was 
 hardly a town in the [Romanl empire which had 
 not an amphitheatre large enough to contain vast 
 multitudes of spectators. The savage excitement 
 of gladiatorial combats seems to have been almost 
 necessary to the Roman legionaries in their short 
 intervals of inaction, and was the first recreation 
 for which they provided in the places where they 
 were stationed. . . . Gladiatorial combats were 
 held from early times in the Forum, and wild 
 beasts hunted in the Circus; but until Curio built 
 
 his celebrated double theatre of wood, which could 
 be made into an amphitheatre by turning the two 
 semi-circular portions face to face, we have no 
 record of any special building in the peculiar form 
 afterwards adopted. It may have been, therefore, 
 that Curio's mechanical contrivance first suggested 
 the elliptical shape. ... As specimens of architec- 
 ture, the amphitheatres are more remarkable for 
 the mechanical skill and admirable adaptation to 
 their purpose displayed in them, than for any 
 beauty of shape or decoration. The hugest of 
 all, the Coliseum, was ill-proportioned and un- 
 pleasing in its lines when entire." — R. Burn, Rome 
 and the campagna, introduction. — See also Arena; 
 Coliseum. 
 
 AMPHORA, MODIUS.— "The [Roman] unit 
 of capacity was the Amphora or Quadrantal, 
 which contained a cubic foot . . . equal to 5.687 
 imperial gallons, or 5 gallons, 2 quarts, i pint, 2 
 gills, nearly. The Amphora was the unit for both 
 liquid and dry measures, but the latter was gen- 
 erally referred to the Modius, which contained one- 
 third of an Amphora. . . . The Culeus was equal 
 to 20 Amphora." — W. Ramsay, Manual of Roman 
 antiquities cli. 13. 
 
 AMPTHILL, Ode William Leopold Russell, 
 1st baron (1829-1884), British diplomat. Held 
 various diplomatic positions in Vienna, Paris, Con- 
 stantinople, Florence and Rome and was British 
 ambassador to Berlin from 1871 until his death. — • 
 See also Masonic societies: England: Ideals of 
 Freemasonry. 
 
 AMPUDIA, Pedro de, Mexican general. See 
 Mexico: 1846-1847. 
 
 AMR-IBN-EL-ASS, or Amru (d. 664), a dis- 
 tinguished Arabian general under Mohammed and 
 his immediate successors. The conquest of Syria 
 and Egypt and the final triumph of the Omayyads 
 over the followers of AH were due largely to him. 
 See Cai^ii'iiate: 640-646. 
 
 AMRITSAR, a city of British India, in the 
 Punjab; long celebrated as a holy place of the 
 Sikhs (q. v.) ; while the place is one of the rich- 
 e;;t trading bazars of India, the most remarkable 
 feature is the great fortress built by Runjit Singh 
 in 1809. In 1919 there were riots and disturb- 
 ances which were quickly subdued by the British 
 military under General Dyer, who was removed 
 from his command and censured for his severity. 
 — See also I.n'dia: 1919; Map. 
 
 AMRU, Mosque of, one of the oldest mosques 
 in Cairo, Egypt, a splendid example of Moham- 
 medan architecture. It was founded immediately 
 after the conquest of the country in 643, and con- 
 siderably enlarged in the succeeding periods. Its 
 distinguishing features are "a square open court, 
 surrounded by arcades, set at right angles to the 
 mihrab and supported by columns taken from 
 Byzantine and Roman buildings." — C. H. Caffin, 
 Hoiv to study architecture, p. 223. 
 
 AMSTERDAM, the "most important city of 
 Holland, situated in the province of North Hol- 
 land, on the Y river, an arm of thcZuider Zee. 
 Amsterdam, or the "dyke of the Amste'l," is named 
 after the Amstel, the canalized river passing through 
 the city to the Y. The city has a population of 
 almost 640,000. Between the years 1640-1656, the 
 famous portrait painter Rembrandt lived in the 
 Jewish center of Amsterdam, which also boasts 
 of the birth of the philosopher Spinoza (1632). 
 
 The city was virtually founded by Giesebrecht 
 II and III of Amstel. The former, in 1204, found 
 .Amsterdam but a fishing hamlet, and constructed 
 a castle in the vicinity. The latter, the son of 
 the builder of the castle, constructed a dam in 
 1240 to keep the sea out. The place passed out 
 
 333
 
 AMSTERDAM, BANK OF 
 
 ANABAPTISTS OF MUNSTER 
 
 of the control of the house of Amstel in i2q6 when 
 Giesebrecht IV was found to have taken part in the 
 murder of Count Floris V of Holland. The fief 
 passed into the hands of Guy of Hainaut who 
 gave the town its first charter (1300). "The 
 town was early admitted to the fellowship of the 
 Hansa League; and, in 1342, having outgrown its 
 primary limits, required to be enlarged. For this 
 an expensive process, that of driving piles into the 
 swampy plain, was necessary ; and to this circum- 
 stance, no doubt, it is owing that the date of 
 each successive enlargement has been so accurately 
 recorded." — \V. T. McCullagh, Industrial history 
 of free nations, v. 2, ch. g. — The walls about the 
 town were built in 1482. The city began to de- 
 velop and prosper most rapidly. With the be- 
 ginning of the i6th century the signing of the 
 treaty of Westphalia in 1648 proved most favor- 
 able to the city inasmuch as, by one of its pro- 
 visions, the Scheldt was closed, thereby bringing 
 ruin upon Antwerp, Amsterdam's commercial 
 rival. Holland's chief commercial center was oc- 
 cupied successively by the Prussians in 1787 and 
 the French, under Pichegru, in 1705. — See also 
 Netherlands: Map of the Netherlands and Bel- 
 gium. 
 
 1813. — Revolt against the French. See Neth- 
 erlands: 1 81 3. 
 
 1904. — Congress of, International. See Inter- 
 national: 1Q04. 
 
 1907. — Meeting of International Woman Suf- 
 frage Alliance. See Suffrage, Women. 
 
 AMSTERDAM, Bank of. See Bank of Am- 
 sterdam. 
 
 AMSTERDAM, New. See New York (State): 
 1634; 1653; 1664. 
 
 AMSTERDAM CANAL. See Canals: Princi- 
 pal European canals: Holland. 
 
 AMULIUS, legendary king of Alba Longa, 
 Italy, in the seventh century B.C.; usurped the 
 throne of his younger brother Numitor, whose 
 grandchildren, Romulus and Remus, set adrift in 
 the river Tiber by Amulius, survived to slay the 
 usurper and to found Rome. 
 
 AMUNDSEN, Roald (1872- ), Norwegian 
 arctic explorer; made magnetic survey of North 
 Pole regions in IQ03; achieved Northwest Passage 
 in IQ05; discovered South Pole in Dec. 14, 1911. 
 See Antarctic explorations: igii-iqia; Map of 
 .Antarctic regions; Arctic explorations: 1901- 
 iQoo; Spitsbergen: 1906-1921. 
 
 AMUR, or Amoor, river and district of East 
 Siberia. See Siberia: Land; World War: igiS: 
 III. Russia: e, 1; China: Map. 
 
 AMURATH. See Murad. 
 
 AMYCL.S;, chief city of Laconia while that 
 district of Peloponnesus was occupied 1 . the 
 .•VchcEans, before the Doric invasion and before 
 the rise of Sparta. It maintained its independence 
 against the Doric Spartans for a long period, but 
 succumbed at length under circumstances which 
 gave rise to a proverbial saying among the Greeks 
 concerning "the silence of Amycls." "The peace 
 of .Amyclae, we are told, had been so often dis- 
 turbed by false alarms of the enemy's approach, 
 that .at length a law was passed forbidding such 
 reports, and the silent citv was taken bv surprise." 
 — C. Thirlwall, History ' of Greece, eh. 7.— This 
 sforv is also told of a city of the same name in 
 Latium. Ttnlv. 
 
 AMYNTAS I, king of Macedonia c. S40-408 
 B. C. Submitted to the Persians about 513 B. C. 
 See Macedonia: B.C. 700-3^9. 
 
 Amyntas II (or III) , king of Macedonia c. 394- 
 369 B.C. See Macedonia: B.C. 700-359. 
 
 AN, City of. See On. 
 
 ANABAPTISTS.— "None of the sects which 
 sprang up in the wake of the Reformation pro- 
 duced so great a ferment as the Anabaptists. The 
 name, which signifies rebaptizers, was affixed to 
 them by their adversaries for the reason that they 
 rejected infant baptism and baptised anew all of 
 their number who had received the sacrament in 
 infancy. The Anabaptists were the radicals of the 
 Reformation. They considered that the Reformers 
 had left their work half done. . . . The Church, 
 they insisted, must be composed exclusively of the 
 regenerate, and religion is not a matter to be regu- 
 lated and managed by civil rulers. Under the 
 name of Anabaptists are included different types 
 of doctrine and of Christian life. It is a gross in- 
 justice to impute to them all the wild and de- 
 structive fanaticism with which a portion of them 
 are chargeable. This fanatical class are first heard 
 of in Germany, under Thomas Miinzer, as a leader, 
 who ... in the Peasants' War in 1525 sought to 
 establish his revolutionary doctrines. These in- 
 volved the abolition of all existine authorities in 
 Church and State, and the substitution of a king- 
 dom of the saints, in which he was to be the chief. 
 . . . Very different from the disciples of Miinzer, 
 however, were Grebel and other Anabaptists who 
 organized themselves at Zurich. . . . They were en- 
 thusiasts but not fanatics. They were peaceful 
 in their spirit, and, as it would appear, were sin- 
 cerely devout. These traits, however did not pro- 
 tect them from harsh and unwarrantable treat- 
 ment. . . . Some of them were put to death. . . . 
 They went no farther, however, than to maintain 
 that no Christian could be a magistrate, or take 
 part in the infliction of capital punishment. . . . 
 in the third and fourth decades of the sixteenth 
 century 'Anabaptism spread like a burning fever 
 through all Germany ; from Swabia and Switzer- 
 land, along the Rhine to Holland and Friesland. 
 from Bavaria, Middle Germany, Westphalia, and 
 Saxony, as far as Holstein.' In the Netherlands, 
 in the time of Charles V., Anabaptists were guilty 
 of offences against decency and morality which 
 were repaid with savage penalties. Afterwards, v/e 
 find that a numerous body who were stigmatized 
 by the same name but were of a totally different 
 spirit were organized under the guidance of Menno 
 Simonis, a religious and conscientious man. . . . 
 English Brownists, or Independents, who came 
 over to Holland, were brought into connection with 
 the Mennonites. . . . After 1535 many Anabaptists 
 crossed over to England and formed congrega- 
 tions. . . . They were reinforced by certain Brown- 
 ists who had espoused .Anabaptist opinions in Hol- 
 land." — G. P. Fisher, History of the Christian 
 Church, pp. 424-426. — See also .A.vabapiists of 
 Mi'NSTER ; Baptists; Mennonites. 
 
 ANABAPTISTS OF MUNSTER.— "Munster 
 is a town in Westphalia, the seat of a bishop, 
 walled round, with a noble cathedral and many 
 churches; but there is one peculiarity about Miin- 
 ster that distinguishes it from all other old Ger- 
 man towns; it has not one old church spire in it. 
 Once it had a great many. How comes it that 
 it now has none? In Miinster lived a draper, 
 Knipperdolling by name, who was much excited 
 over the doctrines of Luther, and he gathered 
 many people in his house, and spoke to them bit- 
 ter words against the Pope, the bishops, and the 
 clergy. The bishop at this time was Francis of 
 Waldeck, a man much inclined himself to Lu- 
 theranism; indeed, later, he proposed to suppress 
 Catholicism in the diocese, as he wanted to seize 
 on it and appropriate it as a possession to his 
 family. Moreover, in IS44> he joined the Protest- 
 ant princes in a league against the Catholics; but 
 
 334
 
 ANABAPTISTS OF MUNSTER 
 
 ANESTHETICS 
 
 he did not want things to move too fast, lest he 
 should not be able to secure the wealthy See as 
 personal property. Knipperdolling got a young 
 priest, named Rottmann, to preach in one of the 
 churches against the errors of Catholicism, and 
 he was a man of such fiery eloquence that he 
 stirred up a mob which rushed through the town, 
 wrecking the churches. The mob became daily 
 more daring and threatening. They drove the 
 priests out of the town, and some of the wealthy 
 citizens tied, not knowing what would follow. 
 The bishop would have yielded to all the religious 
 innovations if the rioters had not threatened his 
 temporal position and revenue. In 1532 the pas- 
 tor, Rottmann, began to preach against the bap- 
 tism of infants. Luther wrote to him remonstrat- 
 ing, but in vain. The bishop was not in the town; 
 he was at Minden, of which See he was bishop as 
 well. Finding that the town was in the hands 
 of Knipperdolling and Rottman, who were con- 
 fiscating the goods of the churches, and exclud- 
 ing those who would not agree with their opin- 
 ions, the bishop advanced to the place at the 
 head of some soldiers. Miinster closed its gates 
 against him. Negotiations were entered into ; the 
 Landgrave of Hesse was called in as pacificator, 
 and articles of agreement were drawn up and 
 signed. Some of the churches were given to the 
 Lutherans, but the Cathedral was reserved for the 
 Cathohcs, and the Lutherans were forbidden to 
 molest the latter, and disturb their religious serv- 
 ices. The news of the conversion of the city of 
 Miinster to the gospel spread, and strangers came 
 to it from all parts. Among these was a tailor 
 of Leyden, called John Bockelson. Rottman now 
 threw up his Lutheranism and proclaimed him- 
 self opposed to many of the doctrines which 
 Luther still retained. Amongst other things he re- 
 jected was infant baptism. This created a spHt 
 among the reformed in Miinster, and the disorders 
 broke out afresh. The mob now fell on the ca- 
 thedral and drove the Catholics from it, and 
 would not permit them to worship in it. They 
 also invaded the Lutheran churches, and filled them 
 with uproar. On the evening of January 28, 1534, 
 the Anabaptists stretched chains across the streets, 
 assembled in armed bands, closed the gates and 
 placed sentinels in all directions. When day 
 dawned there appeared suddenly two men dressed 
 Hke Prophets, with long ragged beards and 
 flowing mantles, staff in hand, who paced through 
 the streets solemnly in the midst of the crowd, 
 who bowed before them and saluted them as 
 Enoch artd Elias. These men were John Bockelson, 
 the tailor, and one John Mattheson, head of the 
 Anabaptists of Holland. Knipperdolling at once 
 associated himself with them, and shortly the 
 place was a scene of the wildest ecstacies. Men 
 and women ran about the streets screaming and 
 leaping, and crying out that they saw visions of 
 angels with swords drawn urging them on to the 
 extermination of Lutherans and Catholics alike. 
 ... A great number of citizens were driven out, 
 on a bitter day, when the land was covered with 
 snow. Those who lagged were beaten ; those who 
 were sick were carried to the market-place and re- 
 baptized by Rottman. . . . This was too much to 
 be borne. The bishop raised an army and marched 
 against the city. Thus began to siege which was 
 to last sixteen months, during which a multitude 
 of untrained fanatics, commanded by a Dutch 
 tailor, held out against a numerous and well-armed 
 force. Thenceforth the city was ruled by divine 
 revelations, or rather, by the crazes of the dis- 
 eased brains of the prophets. One day they de- 
 clared that all the officers and magistrates were to 
 
 be turned out of their offices, and men nominated 
 by themselves were to take their places; another 
 day Mattheson said it was revealed to him that 
 every book in the town except the Bible was to 
 be destroyed; accordingly all the archives and li- 
 braries were collected in the market-place and 
 burnt. Then it was revealed to him that all the 
 spires were to be pulled down; so the church 
 towers were reduced to stumps, from which the 
 enemy could be watched and whence cannon could 
 play on them. One day he declared he had been 
 ordered by Heaven to go forth, with promise of 
 victory, against the besiegers. He dashed forth at 
 the head of a large band, but was surrounded and 
 he and his band slain. The death of Mattheson 
 struck dismay into the hearts of the Anabaptists, 
 but John Bockelson took advantage of the mo- 
 ment to establish himself as head. He declared 
 that it was revealed by him that Mattheson had 
 been killed because he had disobeyed the heavenly 
 command, which was to go forth with fe.w. In- 
 stead of that he had gone with many. Bockelson 
 said he had been ordered in vision to marry Mat- 
 theson's widow and assume his place. It was fur- 
 ther revealed to him that Miinster was to be the 
 heavenly Zion, the capital of the earth, and he 
 was to be king over it. . . . Then he had another 
 revelation that every man was to have as many 
 wives as he liked, and he gave himself sixteen 
 wives. This was too outrageous for some to en- 
 dure, and a plot was formed against him by a 
 blacksmith and about 200 of the more respectable 
 citizens, but it was frustrated and led to the seizure 
 of the conspirators and the execution of a number 
 of them. ... At last, on midsummer eve, 1536, 
 after a siege of sixteen months, the city was taken. 
 Several of the citizens, unable longer to endure 
 the tyranny, cruelty and abominations committed 
 by the king, helped the soldiers of the prince- 
 bishop to cUmb the walls, open the gates, and sur- 
 prise the city. A desperate hand-to-hand fight 
 ensued; the streets ran with blood. John Bockel- 
 son, instead of leading his people, hid himself, 
 but was caught. So was Knipperdolling. When 
 the place was in his hands the prince-bishop en- 
 tered. John of Leyden and Knipperdolling were 
 cruelly tortured, their flesh plucked off with red- 
 hot pincers, and then a dagger was thrust into 
 their hearts. Finally, their bodies were hung in 
 iron cages to the tower of a church in Miinster. 
 Thus ended this hideous drama, which produced 
 an indescribable effect throughout Germany. 
 Miinster, after this, in spite of the desire of the 
 prince-bishop to establish Lutheranism, reverted to 
 Catholicism, and remains Catholicto this day." — 
 S. Baring-Gould, Slory of Germany, ch. 36. 
 
 Also in: L. von Ranke, History of the Reforma- 
 tion in. Germany, bk. 6, ch. 9, v. 3. — C. Beard, Re- 
 formation, (Hibbert Lectures, 1883). 
 
 ANABASIS, the name given by Xenophon to 
 his account of the retreat of the 10,000 Greeks after 
 the battle of Cunaxa (401 B.C.). See Persia: 
 B.C. 401-400; also History: 16. 
 
 ANABASIS OF ALEXANDER. See Arrian. 
 
 ANACLETUS (d. 1138), anti-pope from 1130 
 till his death, maintaining his rule in Rome against 
 Innocent II. 
 
 ANACONDA COPPER MINE (Montana). 
 See Montana: 1Q07-1917. 
 
 ANACTORIUM. See Corcyra. 
 
 ANAESTHESIA: In the Middle Ages. See 
 Medical science: Ancient: loth century. 
 
 AN.a;STHETICS, Discovery of. See Medicai. 
 science: Modern: 19th century: Discovery of an- 
 aesthetics; Chuvhstry: Practical application: 
 Drugs. 
 
 335
 
 ANAFARTA 
 
 ANARCHISM 
 
 ANAFARTA: Object of British attack. See 
 World War; 1915: \'I. Turkey: a, 4, xxxviii. 
 
 ANAH: Occupied by the British. See World 
 War: 191S: VI. Turkish, theater: a, 1. 
 
 ANAHUAC— "The word Anahuac signifies 
 'near the water.' It was, probably, first applied 
 to the country around the lakes in the Mexican 
 Valley, and gradually extended to the remoter re- 
 gions occupied by the Aztecs, and the other semi- 
 civilized races. Or, possibly, the name may have 
 been intended, as Veytia suggests (Historical An- 
 tiquities, lib. I, cap. i), to denote the land be- 
 tween the waters of the .\tlantic and Pacific." — 
 W. H. Prescott, Conquest of Mexico, bk. i, ch. i, 
 note II. See Mexico: Aboriginal inhabitants; also 
 1325-1502. 
 
 ANAKIM. See Amorites. 
 
 ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY. See Chem- 
 istry: Analytical. 
 
 ANAM. See .^nnam. 
 
 ANAPA, Russia. Frontier town originally built 
 by the Turks for defense purposes. Finally taken 
 by the Russians in 1828 and ceded to them in the 
 treaty of Adrianople in 1829. See Turkey: 1826- 
 1829. 
 
 ANARCHISM.— Definition and theory.— An- 
 cient theories. — "Anarchism, as its derivation in- 
 dicates, is the theory which is opposed to every 
 kind of forcible government. It is opposed to 
 the State as the embodiment of the force employed 
 in the government of the community. Such gov- 
 ernment as Anarchism can tolerate must be free 
 government, not merely in the sense that it is that 
 of a majority, but in the sense that it is that as- 
 sented to by all. Anarchists object to such insti- 
 tutions as the police and the criminal law, by 
 means of which the will of one part of the com- 
 munity is forced upon another part. In their 
 view, the democratic form of government is not 
 very enormously preferable to other forms so long 
 as minorities are compelled by force or its poten- 
 tiality to submit to the will of majorities. Lib- 
 erty is the supreme good in the Anarchist creed, 
 and liberty is sought by the direct road of abolish- 
 ing all forcible control over the individual of the 
 community. Anarchism, in this sense, is no new 
 doctrine. It is set forth admirably by Chuang 
 Tzu, a Chinese philosopher, who lived about the 
 year 300 B. C. . . . Ancient Greece also had its 
 anarchistic philosophers, of whom the most im- 
 portant was Zeno {342-267 B.C.). Zeno denied 
 omnipotence such as Plato desired, to the state, 
 and pled for the elevation of individual moral 
 law in the place of organized police power as 
 wielded by the state. The modern Anarchism, 
 in the sense in which we shall be concerned with 
 it, is associated with belief in the communal own- 
 ership of land and capital, and is thus in an im- 
 portant respect akin to Socialism. The doctrine 
 is properly called .'\narchist Communism, but as 
 it embraces practically all modern Anarchism, we 
 may ignore individualist Anarchism altogether and 
 concentrate attention upon the communistic form. 
 Socialism and .Anarchist Communism alike have 
 arisen from the perception that private capital is 
 a source of tyranny by certain individuals over 
 others. Orthodox Socialism believes that the in- 
 dividual will become free if the State becomes the 
 sole capitalist. Anarchism, on the contrary, fears 
 that in that case the State might merely inherit the 
 tyrannical propensities of the private capitalist. 
 Accordingly, it see"ks for a means of reconciling 
 communal ownership with the utmost possible 
 diminution in the powers of the State, and indeed 
 ultimately with the complete abolition of the State. 
 It has arisen mainly within the Socialist move- 
 
 ment as its extreme left wing. " — B. Russell, Pro- 
 posed roads to freedom, p. 33. — See also Socialism: 
 Definition of terms. 
 
 "In the popular mind an anarchist is identified 
 with one who desires to destroy existing govern- 
 ment through the use of the bomb and other vio- 
 lent means. It is quite true that many adherents 
 to this school do advocate the use of violence in 
 achieving their ends. It is important to bear in 
 mind, however, that we are here dealing only with 
 means, not the end itself. The really important 
 thing, at least from the standpoint of political 
 science, is the end or the principle which the users 
 of these means seek to make prevail. The anar- 
 chistic school represents the extreme school of in- 
 dividual rights. There are many persons who be- 
 long to this school who do not approve of the use 
 of violence. They constitute what are known as 
 scientific anarchists. Prince Kropotkin [died 192 1] 
 is probably the most distinguished representative 
 of this class, and in his writings one can find the 
 best exposition of the philosophy of this school. 
 It is the belief of this school, not only that the 
 principles for which they stand are theoretically 
 sound, but are susceptible of successful applica- 
 tion in practice. It is their belief that common 
 action for the general welfare should rest upon 
 voluntary association rather than state compulsion. 
 They point to the fact that great branches of ac- 
 tivities are now conducted in this way. Men form 
 all sorts of associations for common action in which 
 the principle of compulsion is absent. Especially 
 is the great success achieved in the field of dis- 
 tributive cooperation in England and Europe gen- 
 erally referred to as an example of what can be 
 done through purely voluntary association. In 
 boards of trade, chambers of commerce, trade 
 unions, and like organizations, are found other 
 illustrations." — W. F. Willoughby, Governments of 
 modern states, p. 170. 
 
 1578-1652. — Anarchy in Poland. See Poland: 
 1578-1652. 
 
 1793. — Godwin's theory. — William Godwin, an 
 Englishman (1756-1836), published his famous 
 "Enquiry Concerning Political Justice, and Its In- 
 fluence on General Virtue and Happiness," in 1793. 
 It contained the first modern formulation of the 
 principles of anarchism. He based his theory on 
 the doctrine of natural rights and demanded the 
 abolition of all laws and government as being 
 false and unnecessary. Small, self-governing com- 
 munities, he held, made up the most equitable so- 
 ciety. From the conviction that "monarchy was a 
 species of government unavoidably corrupt," he ar- 
 rived at the conclusion that "government by its 
 very nature counteracts the improvement of orig- 
 inal mind." Despite its importance in the do- 
 main of political literature, however, Godwin's 
 essay bore little fruit, and the history of anarchism 
 proper begins with Pierre Joseph Proudhon (1809- 
 186S). 
 
 1839-1894. — Proudhcn and his doctrines. — Max 
 Stirner and the individualistic school of an- 
 archists.— "Of the Socialistic thinkers who serve 
 as a kind of link between the Utopists and the 
 school of Socialism of historical evolution, or 
 scientific Socialists, by far the most noteworthy 
 figure is Proudhon, who was born at Besanqon 
 in 1809. By birth he belonged to the working 
 class, his father being a brewer's cooper, and he 
 himself as a youth followed the occupation of cow- 
 herding. In 1838, however, he published an es- 
 say on general grammar, and in 1839 he gained a 
 scholarship to be held for three years, a gift of 
 one Madame Suard to his native town. The result 
 of his advantage was his most important though 
 
 33^
 
 ANARCHISM, 1839-1894 
 
 ANARCHISM, 1839-1894 
 
 far from his most voluminous work, published 
 the same year as the essay which Madame Suard's 
 scholars were bound to write: it bore the title of 
 'What is Property?' {Qu' est-ce que la propriete?) 
 his answer being Property is Robbery (La 
 propriete est le vol). As may be imagined, this 
 remarkable essay caused much stir and indigna- 
 tion, and Proudhon was censured by the Besangon 
 Academy for its production, narrowly escaping a 
 prosecution. In 1841 he was tried at Besan(;on 
 for a letter he wrote to Victor Considerant, the 
 Fourierist, but was acquitted. In 1846 he wrote 
 his 'Philosophie de la Misere' (Philosophy of 
 Poverty), which received an elaborate reply and 
 refutation from Karl Marx. In 1847 he went to 
 Paris. In the Revolution of 1848 he showed him- 
 self a vigorous controversialist, and was elected 
 Deputy for the Seine. . . . After the failure of 
 the revolution of '48, Proudhon was imprisoned 
 for three years, during which time he married a 
 young woman of the working class. In 1858 he 
 fully developed his system of 'Mutualism' in his 
 last work, entitled 'Justice in the Revolution and 
 the Church.' In consequence of the publication 
 of this book he had to retire to Brussels, but 
 was amnestied in i860, came back to France and 
 died at Passy in 1865."— W. Morris and E. B. Bax, 
 Socialism, its growth and outcome, ch. 18. — "In 
 anarchism we have the extreme antithesis of so- 
 cialism and communism. The socialist desires so 
 to extend the sphere of the state that it shall em- 
 brace all the more important concerns of life. 
 The communist, at least of the older school, would 
 make the sway of authority and the routine which 
 follows therefrom universal. The anarchist, on the 
 other hand, would banish all forms of authority 
 and have only a system of the most perfect lib- 
 erty. The anarchist is an extreme individualist. 
 . . . Anarchism, as a social theory, was first elabo- 
 rately formulated by Proudhon. In the first part 
 of his work, 'What is Property?' he briefly stated 
 the doctrine and gave it the name 'anarchy,' ab- 
 sence of a master or sovereign. In that connec- 
 tion he said: 'In a given society the authority of 
 man over man is inversely proportional to the 
 stage of intellectual development which that so- 
 ciety has reached. . . . Property and royalty have 
 been crumbling to pieces ever since the world be- 
 gan. As man seeks justice in equality, so society 
 seeks order in anarchy.' About twelve years be- 
 fore Proudhon published his views Josiah War- 
 ren reached similar conclusions in America. But 
 as the Frenchman possessed the originality neces- 
 sary to the construction of a social philosophy, we 
 must regard him as altogether the chief authority 
 upon scientific anarchism. . . . Proudhon's social 
 ideal was that of perfect individual liberty. Those 
 who have thought him a communist or socialist 
 have wholly mistaken his meaning. . . . Proudhon 
 believed that if, the state in all its departments 
 were abolished, if authority were eradicated from 
 society, and if the principle of laissez faire were 
 made universal in its operation, every form of so- 
 cial ill would disappear. According to his views 
 men are wicked and ignorant because, either di- 
 rectly or indirectly, they have been forced to be 
 so: it is because they have been subjected to the 
 will of another, or are able to transfer the evil 
 results of their acts to another. If the individual, 
 after reaching the age of discretion, could be freed 
 from repression and compulsion in every form and 
 know that he alone is responsible for his acts and 
 must bear their consequences, he would become 
 thrifty, prudent, energetic; in short he would al- 
 ways see and follow his highest interests. He 
 would always respect the rights of others; that 
 
 is, act justly. Such individuals could carry on 
 all the great industrial enterprises of to-day either 
 separately or by voluntary association. No com- 
 pulsion, however, could be used to force one to ful- 
 fil a contract or remain in an association longer 
 than his interest dictated. Thus we should have a 
 perfectly free play of enlightened self-interests: 
 equitable competition, the only natural form of 
 social organization. . . . Proudhon's theory is the 
 sum and substance of scientific anarchism. 
 
 "Opposed to the communist anarchism of God- 
 win and Proudhon is revolutionary individualist 
 anarchism, of which Max Stirner (pseudonym 
 for Kaspar Schmidt) was the ablest exponent. 
 Stirner's main thesis was the fullest development 
 of the individual, the highest elevation of the 
 ego — not of the majority of men, but of the bet- 
 ter endowed,^and the aboUtion of morals in con- 
 nection with 'the association of the egotists.' [See 
 also Individualistic school. 1 . . . How closely 
 have the American anarchists adhered to the teach- 
 ings of their master? One group, with its centre at 
 Boston and with branch associations in a few other 
 cities, is composed of faithful disciples of Proud- 
 hon. They believe that he is the leading thinker 
 among those who have found the source of evil 
 in society and the remedy therefor. They accept 
 his analysis of social phenomena and follow his 
 lead generally, though not implicitly. They call 
 themselves Individualistic Anarchists, and claim 
 to be the only class who are entitled to that name. 
 They do not attempt to organize very much, but 
 rely upon 'active individuals, working here and 
 there all over the country.' It is supposed that 
 they may number in all some five thousand ad- 
 herents in the United States. . . . They, like 
 Proudhon, consider the government of the United 
 States to be as oppressive and worthless as any 
 of the European monarchies. Liberty prevails 
 here no more than there. In some respects the 
 system of majority rule is more obnoxious than 
 that of monarchy. It is quite as tyrannical, and 
 in a republic it is more difficult to reach the source 
 of the despotism and remove it. They regard the 
 entire machinery of elections as worthless and a 
 hindrance to prosperity. They are opposed to po- 
 litical machines of all kinds. They never vote or 
 perform the duties of citizens in any way, if it 
 can be avoided. . . . Concerning the. family rela- 
 tion, the anarchists believe that civil marriage 
 should be abolished and 'autonomistic' marriage 
 substituted. This means that the contracting par- 
 ties should agree to live together as long as it 
 seems best to do so, and that the partnership 
 should be dissolved whenever either one desires 
 it. Still, they would give the freest possible play 
 to love and honor as restraining motives. . . . 
 [Probably the most influential American anarchist 
 was Benjamin R. Tucker, who was an admirer 
 and follower of the economic doctrines of Proud- 
 hon, several of whose works he translated. Lib- 
 erty, a leading anarchist journal, was established 
 by him in 1881.] "The Individualistic Anarchists 
 . . . profess to have very little in common with 
 the Internationalists. The latter are Communistic 
 .Anarchists. They borrow their analysis of exist- 
 ing social conditions from Marx, or more accurately 
 from the 'communistic manifesto' written by Marx 
 and Engels in 1847. In the old International 
 Workingman's association they constituted the left 
 wing, which, with its leader, Bakunine, was ex- 
 pelled in 1872. Later the followers of Marx, the 
 socialists proper, disbanded, and since 1883 the In- 
 ternational in this country has been controlled 
 wholly by the anarchists. Their views and meth- 
 ods are similar to those which Bakunine wished to 
 
 337
 
 ANARCHISM, 1861-1876 
 
 ANARCHISM, 1872-1912 
 
 carry out by means of his Universal Alliance, and 
 which exist more or less definitely in the niinds 
 of [the former] Russian Nihilists. [See also 
 Nihilism.] Like Bakunine, they desire to organ- 
 ize an international revolutionary movement of 
 the laboring classes, to maintain it by means of 
 conspiracy and, as soon as possible, to bring about 
 a general insurrection. In this way, with the help 
 of explosives, poisons and murderous weapons of 
 all kinds, they hope to destroy all existing insti- 
 tutions, ecclesiastical, civil and economic. Upon 
 the smoking ruins they will erect the new and 
 perfect society. Only a few weeks or months will 
 be necessary to make the transition. During that 
 time the laborers will take possession of all lands, 
 buildings, instruments of production and distribu- 
 tion. With these in their possession, and without 
 the interposition of government, they will organize 
 into associations or groups for the purpose of car- 
 rying on the work of society." — H. L. Osgood, 
 Scientific anarchism {Political Science Quarterly, 
 March, i88g). 
 
 Also in: F. Dubois, Anarchist peril. 
 
 1861-1876. — Bakunin and the International. — 
 "In the same sense in which Marx may be re- 
 garded as the founder of modern Socialism, Ba- 
 kunin may be regarded as the founder of Anarch- 
 ist Communism. . . . Michael Bakunin was born 
 in 1814 of a Russian aristocratic family. ... In 
 1857, after eight years of captivity, he was sent 
 to Siberia. From there, in 1861, he succeeded in 
 escaping to Japan, and thence through America to 
 London. From this time onward, he devoted him- 
 self to spreading the spirit of Anarchist revolt, 
 without, however, having to suffer any further 
 term of imprisonment. For some years he lived in 
 Italy, where he founded in 1S64 an 'International 
 Fraternity' or '.\Uiance of Socialist Revolutionaries.' 
 This contained men of many countries, but ap- 
 parently no Germans. It devoted itself largely to 
 combating Mazzini's nationalism. In 1867 he 
 moved to Switzerland, where the following year 
 he helped to found the 'International Alliance of 
 Socialist Democracy,' of which he drew up the pro- 
 gram. This program gives a good succinct resum6 
 of his opinions: 'The .Alliance declares itself 
 atheist ; it desires the definitive and entire abolition 
 of classes and the political equality and social 
 equalization of individuals of both sexes. It de- 
 sires that the earth, the instrument of labor, like 
 all other capital, becoming the collective property 
 of society as a whole, shall be no longer able to be 
 utilized except by the workers, that is to say, by 
 agricultural and industrial associations. It recog- 
 nizes that all actually existing political and au- 
 thoritarian States, reducing themselves more and 
 more to the mere administrative' functions of the 
 public services in their respective countries, must 
 disappear in the universal union of free associa- 
 tions, both agricultural and industrial.' The In- 
 ternational Alliance of Socialist Democracy desired 
 to become a branch of the International Working 
 Men's Association, but was refused admission on 
 the ground that branches must be local and could 
 not themselves be international. The Geneva group 
 of the Alliance, however, was admitted later, in 
 July, i86q. The International Working Men's 
 Association had been founded in London in 1864, 
 and its statutes and prograth were drawn up by 
 Marx. Bakunin at first did not expect it to prove 
 a success and refused to join it. But it spread 
 with remarkable rapidity in many countries and 
 soon became a great power for the propagation of 
 Socialist ideas. Originally it was by no means 
 wholly Socialist, but in successive Congresses Marx 
 won it over more and more to his views. At its 
 
 third Congress, in Brussels in September, 1868, it 
 became definitely Socialist. Meanwhile Bakunin, 
 regretting his earlier abstention, had decided to 
 join it, and he brought with him a considerable 
 following in French-Switzerland, France, Spain 
 and Italy. At the fourth Congress, held at Basle 
 in September, 1869, two currents were strongly 
 marked. The Germans and English followed Marx 
 in his belief in the State as it was to become after 
 the abolition of private property; they followed 
 him also in his desire to found Labor Parties in 
 the various countries, and to utilize the machinery 
 of democracy for the election of representatives of 
 Labor to Parliaments. On the other hand, the 
 Latin nations in the main followed Bakunin in 
 opposing the State and disbelieving in the ma- 
 chinery of representative government. The con- 
 flict between these two groups grew more and 
 more bitter, and each accused the other of various 
 offences. The statement that Bakunin was a spy 
 was repeated, but was withdrawn after investiga- 
 tion. Marx wrote in a confidential communication 
 to his German friends that Bakunin was an agent 
 of the Pan-Slavist party and received from them 
 25,000 francs a year. Meanwhile, Bakunin be- 
 came for a time interested in the attempt to stir 
 up an agrarian revolt in Russia, and this led him 
 to neglect the contest in the International at a 
 crucial moment. During the Franco-Prussian war 
 Bakunin passionately took the side of France, es- 
 pecially after the fall of Napoleon III. He en- 
 deavored to rouse the people to revolutionary re- 
 sistance like that of 1793, and became involved in 
 an abortive attempt at revolt in Lyons. The 
 French Government accused him of being a paid 
 agent of Prussia, and it was with difficulty that he 
 escaped to Switzerland. The dispute with Marx 
 and his followers had become exacerbated by the 
 national dispute. Bakunin, like Kropotkin after 
 him, regarded the new power of Germany as the 
 greatest menace to liberty in the world. He hated 
 the Germans with a bitter hatred, partly, no doubt, 
 on account of Bismarck, but probably still more 
 on account of Marx. To this day. Anarchism has 
 remained confined almost exclusively to the Latin 
 countries, and has been associated with a hatred 
 of Germany, growing out of the contests between 
 Marx and Bakunin in the International. The final 
 suppression of Bakunin's faction occurred at the 
 General Congress of the International at the Hague 
 in 1872. The meeting-place was chosen by the Gen- 
 eral Council (in which Marx was unopposed), with 
 a view — so Bakunin's friends contend — to making 
 access impossible for Bakunin (on account of the 
 hostility of the French and German governments) 
 and difficult for his friends. Bakunin was expelled 
 from the International as the result of a report 
 accusing him inter alia of theft backed up by in- 
 timidation. The orthodoxy of the International 
 was saved, but at the cost of its vitality. From 
 this time onward, it ceased to be itself a power, 
 but both sections continued to work in their vari- 
 ous groups, and the Socialist groups in particular 
 grew rapidly. Ultimately a new International was 
 formed (1880) which continued down to the out- 
 break of the [World] War. By this time Baku- 
 nin's health was broken, and except for a few brief 
 intervals, he lived in retirement until his death in 
 i8y6." — B. Russell, Proposed roads to jreedom, 
 
 P- 36. 
 
 1872-1912. — Kropotkin's system. — Scientific 
 anarchism. — "We do not find in Bakunin's works 
 a clear picture of the society at which he aimed, 
 or anv argument to prove that such a society 
 could be stable. If we wish to understand An- 
 archbm we must turn to his followers, and espe- 
 
 338
 
 ANARCHISM, 1878 
 
 ANARCHISM, 1898-1900 
 
 daily to Kropotkin [died igJi], like him, a Rus- 
 sian aristocrat familiar with the prisons of Europe, 
 and, like him, an Anarchist who, in spite of his in- 
 ternationalism, is imbued with a fiery hatred of the 
 Germans. Kropotkin has devoted much of his writ- 
 ing to technical questions of production. In 'Fields, 
 Factories and Workshops' and 'The Conquest of 
 Bread' he has set himself to prove that, if produc- 
 tion were more scientific and better organized, a 
 comparatively small amount of quite agreeable 
 work would suffice to keep the whole population 
 in comfort. Even assuming, as we probably must, 
 that he somewhat exaggerates what is possible with 
 our present scientific knowledge, it must never- 
 theless be conceded that his contentions contain a 
 very large measure of truth. In attacking the 
 subject of production he has shown that he knows 
 what is the really crucial question. If civilization 
 and progress are to be compatible with equality, 
 it is necessary that equality should not involve 
 long hours of painful toil for httle more than the 
 necessaries of life, since, where there is no leisure, 
 art and science will die and all progress will be- 
 come impossible. The objection which some feel 
 to Socialism and Anarchism alike on this ground 
 cannot be upheld in view of the possible produc- 
 tivity of labor. The system at which Kropotkin 
 aims, whether or not it be possible, is certainly one 
 which demands a very great improvement in the 
 methods of production above what is common at 
 present. He desires to abolish wholly the system 
 of wages, not only, as most Socialists do, in the 
 sense that a man is to be paid rather for his willing- 
 ness to work than for the actual work demanded 
 of him, but in a more fundamental sense: there is 
 to be no obligation to work, and all things are 
 to be shared in equal proportions among the whole 
 population. Kropotkin relies upon the possibility 
 of making work pleasant: he holds that, in such 
 a community as he foresees, practically everyone 
 will prefer work to idleness, because work will not 
 involve overwork pr slavery, or that excessive 
 specialization that industrialism has brought about, 
 but will be merely a pleasant activity for certain 
 hours of the day, giving a man an outlet for his 
 spontaneous constructive impulses. There is to be 
 no compulsion, no law, no government exercising 
 force; there will still be acts of the community, 
 but these are to spring from universal consent, not 
 from any enforced submission of even the smallest 
 minority." — B. Russell, Proposed roads to freedom, 
 p. 51. 
 
 1878. — Anarchist attempt to assassinate King 
 Humbert of Italy. Two attempts on William I, 
 German emperor. 
 
 1878-1879. — Two anarchist attempts on life of 
 King Alfonso XII of Spain. 
 
 1883. — Repudiated by Socialists. See Social- 
 ism: 1874-1901. 
 
 1885. — Anarchists expelled from Switzerland. 
 
 1886. — Chicago Haymarket bomb explosions 
 by anarchists. See Chicago: 1886-1887. 
 
 1892. — Bomb explosions by anarchists in Italy 
 and Spain. 
 
 1892-1894.— Anarchist terrorism.— "We should 
 be doing more than justice to Anarchism if we 
 did not say something of its darker side, the side 
 which has brought it into conflict with the police 
 and made it a word of terror to ordinary citizens. 
 In its general doctrines there is nothing essentially 
 involving violent methods or a virulent hatred of 
 the rich and many who adopt these general doc- 
 trines are personally gentle and temperamentally 
 averse from violence. But the general tone of the 
 Anarchist press and public is bitter to a degree 
 thai seems scarcely sane. One of the most curious 
 
 features of popular anarchism is its martyrology, 
 aping Christian forms, with the guillotine (in 
 France) in place of the cross. Many who have suf- 
 fered death at the hands of the authorities on ac- 
 count of acts of violence were no doubt genuine 
 sufferers for their belief in a cause, but others, 
 equally honored, are more questionable. One of 
 the most curious examples of this outlet for the 
 repressed religious impulse is the cult of Ravachol, 
 who was guillotined in 1S92 on account of various 
 dynamite outrages. As was natural, the leading 
 Anarchists took no part in the canonization of his 
 memory ; nevertheless it proceeded, with the most 
 amazing extravagances. It would be wholly un- 
 fair to judge Anarchist doctrine, or the views of 
 its leading exponents, by such phenomena ; but it 
 remains a fact that Anarchism attracts to itself 
 much that lies on the borderland of insanity and 
 common crime. This must be remembered in 
 exculpation of the authorities and the thoughtless 
 public, who often confound in a common detesta- 
 tion the parasites of the movement and the truly 
 heroic and high-minded men who have elaborated 
 its theories and sacrificed comfort and success to 
 their propagation. The terrorist campaign in 
 which such men as Ravachol were active prac- 
 tically came to an end in 1894. After that time, 
 under the influence of Pelloutier, the better sort 
 of Anarchists found a less harmful outlet by 
 advocating Revolutionary Syndicalism in the 
 Trade Unions and Bourses du Travail. [See also 
 Labor organization: 1867-1912.] The economic 
 organization of society, as conceived by Anarchist 
 Communists, does not differ greatly from that 
 which is sought by Socialists. Their difference 
 from Socialists is in the matter of government: 
 they demand that government shall require the con- 
 sent of all the governed, and not only of a major- 
 ity."— /Wd., pp. 51-52. 
 
 1893 (February).^Bomb explosions in Rome. 
 
 1893 (Sept. 23). — At Barcelona, a bomb, thrown 
 among a party of officers at a military review by 
 an anarchist, killed Captain-General Martinez 
 Campos and a guard. For this crime Codina and 
 five accomplices were shot on May 21, 1894. 
 
 1893 (Dec. 9). — Vaillant, an anarchist of Ger- 
 man descent (real name, Konigstein), threw a 
 bomb from the gallery in the Chamber of Deputies 
 in Paris. A woman caught his arm and the bomb, 
 striking a chandelier, exploded without fatal re- 
 sults. A law was passed making attempts of this 
 nature a capital crime, even if no deaths ensued, 
 and Konigstein was guillotined. A week after the 
 execution another anarchist, Emile Henry, threw a 
 bomb in the cafe of the Hotel Terminus, Paris, for 
 which he suffered the death penalty. 
 
 1894 (June 24). — French President, Marie F. 
 Sadi Carnot, stabbed to death by an Italian an- 
 archist named Caserio at a banquet in Lyons. 
 The same year French government issued an "an- 
 archist album" containing portraits of about 500 
 anarchists. — See also France: 1804-1895. 
 
 1894 (Nov. 7). — Bomb thrown by an anarchist 
 in a Barcelona theater killed thirty people and 
 wounded eighty. The perpetrator was executed. 
 
 1897 (Aug. 8). — Assassination of CAnovas del 
 Castillo, Spanish premier. See Spain: 1897 
 (Aug.-Oct.). 
 
 1898 (Sept. 10). — Assassination of the Em- 
 press Elizabeth of Austria. See Austwa-Hun- 
 cary: 1808 (September). 
 
 1398 (Nov. 24-Dec. 21). — International anti- 
 anarchist conference (in camera) held in Rome. 
 See Rome: Modern city: 1871-1007. 
 
 1898-1900. — Anarchy in Italy. See Italy: 1898; 
 I 899- I 900. 
 
 339
 
 ANARCHISM, 1900 
 
 ANARCHISM, 1919 
 
 1900 (July 29). — Assassination of King Hum- 
 bert of Italy at Monza. See Italy: 1899- 1900; 
 1900 (July-September) ; Rome: Modem city: 1871- 
 1907. 
 
 1901 (Sept. 6). — Assassination of President 
 McKinley. See McKixlev, William; 1901. 
 
 1906 (April 17).— Death of Johann Most, Ger- 
 man-American anarchist editor. 
 
 1906 (May 31).— Attempt to assassinate king 
 and queen of Spain on their wedding day. See 
 Spain: 1900. 
 
 1909. — Barcelona riots. — Accusation of Fran- 
 cisco Ferrer of anarchistic propaganda. — His 
 execution (Oct. 12). See Spain: 1909. 
 
 1909. — Assassination of Colonel Falcon. See 
 Argentina; 1909; Assassination of Colonel Falcon. 
 
 1910. — Emma Goldman's definition. — "The phi- 
 losophy of a new social order based on liberty un- 
 restricted by man-made law; the theory that all 
 forms of government rest on violence, and are 
 therefore wrong and harmful, as well as unneces- 
 sary. The new social order rests, of course, on 
 the materialistic basis of life; but while all An- 
 archists agree that the main evil today is an eco- 
 nomic one, they maintain that the solution of that 
 evil can be brought about only through the con- 
 sideration of every phase of life, — individual, as 
 well as the collective; the internal, as well as the 
 external phases. A thorough perusal of the his- 
 tory of human development will disclose two ele- 
 ments in bitter conflict with each other; elements 
 that are only now beginning to be understood, not 
 as foreign to each other, but as closely related and 
 truly harmonious, if only placed in proper environ- 
 ment: the individual and social instincts. The in- 
 dividual and society have waged a relentless and 
 bloody battle for ages, each striving for supremacy, 
 because each was blind to the value and importance 
 of the other. The individual and social instincts, 
 — the one a most potent factor for individual en- 
 deavor, for growth, aspiration, self-realization ; the 
 other an equally potent factor for mutual helpful- 
 ness and social well-being. The explanation of 
 the storm raging within the individual, and be- 
 tween him and his surroundings, is not far to 
 seek. The primitive man, unable to understand 
 his being, much less the unity of all life, felt him- 
 self absolutely dependent on blind, hidden forces 
 ever ready to mock and taunt him. Out of that 
 attitude grew the religious concepts of man as a 
 mere speck of dust dependent on superior powers 
 on high, who can only be appeased by complete 
 surrender. .\l\ the early sages rest on that idea, 
 which continues to be the leit-motif of the biblical 
 tales dealing with the relation of man to God, to 
 the State, to society, .■^gain and again the same 
 motif, man is nothing, the powers- are everything. 
 Thus Jehovah would only endure man on condi- 
 tion of complete surrender. Man can have all the 
 glories of the earth, but he must not become con- 
 scious of himself. The State, society, and moral 
 laws all sing the same refrain: Man can have 
 all the glories of the earth, but he must not be- 
 come conscious of himself Anarchism is the only 
 philosophy which brings to man the consciousness 
 of himself: which maintains that God, the State, 
 and society arc non-existent, that their promises 
 arc null and void, since they can be fulfilled only 
 through man's subordination. .Anarchism is there- 
 fore the teacher of the unity of life: not merely in 
 nature, but in man. There is no conflict between 
 the individual and the social instincts, any more 
 than there is between the heart and the lungs: 
 the one the receptacle of a precious life essence, 
 the other the repo5itor\' of the element that keeps 
 the essence pure and strong. The individual is the 
 
 heart of society, conserving the essence of social 
 life; society is the lungs which are distributing 
 the element to keep the life essence — that is, the 
 individual — pure and strong. .Anarchism is the 
 great liberator of man from the phantoms that 
 have held him captive; it is the arbiter and paci- 
 fier of the two forces for individual and social 
 harmony. To accomplish that unity, .Anarchism 
 has declared war on the pernicious influences which 
 have so far prevented the harmonious blending of 
 individual and social instincts, the individual and 
 society. Religion, the dominion of the human 
 mind; Property, the dominion of human needs; 
 and Government, the dominion of human conduct, 
 represent the stronghold of man's enslavement and 
 all the horrors it entails." — Emma Goldman, An- 
 archism. 
 
 1912. — Assassination of Spanish premier Can- 
 alejas. See Sp.«n; 1Q12. 
 
 1913. — Assassination of George I, king of the 
 Hellenes, by an anarchist. See Greece: 1913- 
 
 1919. — Compatability with American citizen- 
 ship. — "Michael Stuppiello, an Italian by birth, a 
 cobbler by trade and an anarchist by profession, 
 after residing in the United States for a period of 
 fifteen years, became a naturalized citizen. In his 
 declaration of intention and petition for naturaliza- 
 tion he stated that he was not an anarchist nor 
 opposed to organized government. Later he was 
 arrested charged with being an anarchist, which, 
 upon his examination, he admitted, but. being a 
 citizen, he was released from custody. The Gov- 
 ernment subsequently brought an action in the 
 Federal District Court for the Western District of 
 New York to cancel his naturalization certificate, 
 and the decree was in its favor. Judge Hazel, who 
 wrote the opinion of the court, which is published 
 in United States vs. Stuppiello, 260 Federal Re- 
 porter, 4S3, in discussing the case, said in part: 
 
 " '.At the trial the defendant frankly admitted 
 that he was an anarchist, coupling his admission 
 with the statement that he did not believe in the 
 use of force or violence for the overthrow of the 
 Government, but simply believed in philosophical 
 anarchy — anarchy tantamount to that entertained 
 by political philosophers — or, as he puts it. in 
 "evolution by education, in order to reach a state 
 of education of mind that it won't be necessary to 
 have a Government." He limited his definition of 
 an anarchist to a person who believed in violence 
 or the destruction of the Government by force of 
 arms. .Although he testified before the Bureau of 
 Immigration that he did not believe in the form 
 of government of the United States, he now modi- 
 fies such testimony by stating that he believes it 
 necessary to have a Government as society is at 
 present organized. He was uncertain as to whether 
 or not he entertained such views at the time of 
 his naturalization, but finally admitted having them 
 for about five, six or seven years. If the de- 
 fendant had declared on the hearing of his ap- 
 plication for citizenship that he was a philosophical 
 anarchist, as distinguished from a dynamic or ni- 
 hilistic anarchist, or one who believes in destroying 
 the Government by violence, and a disbeliever in 
 organized Government as now constructed, it is 
 inconceivable that his application would have been 
 granted. 
 
 " 'In a popular sense, it is true, an anarchist is 
 regaided as one who seeks to overturn by violence 
 all constituted forms of society and government, 
 including all law and order and all rights of prop- 
 erty, without intending to establish any other sys- 
 tem of order in place of that destroyed. — Century 
 Dictionary. Yft the word is also defined as one 
 who advocates the absence of government as a 
 
 340
 
 ANASTASIS 
 
 ANCRUM MOOR 
 
 political ideal — a believer in an anarchic theory of 
 society. In using the word "anarchist" without 
 qualification Congress intended to include all 
 aliens who had in mind a theory of anarchy, or 
 the absence of all direct government, in opposition 
 to that of organized government. The former is 
 diametrically opposed to the latter, and the philo- 
 sophical anarchist who exploits and expounds his 
 views is none the less dangerous to the welfare of 
 the country than the anarchist who believes in 
 overthrowing or destroying the Government by 
 force or violence. The means of accomplishing the 
 end, though different, are both destructive ; one 
 consisting of insidious propaganda to arouse senti- 
 ment in opposition to the Government, and the 
 other to incite violence and disorder. Both are 
 designed to discredit constituted authority.' " — 
 New York Times. — See also Naturalization. 
 
 1920. — Legislation against alien anarchists in 
 United States. See U. S. A.: 1920 (June). 
 
 1921. — Anarchism in Spain. See Spain; 1921: 
 Political outlook in Spain. 
 
 Also in: P. Kropotkin, Anarchist communism: 
 its basis and principles. — P. Eltzbacher, Anarchism. 
 — G. B. Shaw, Impossibilities of anarchism. — B. R. 
 Tucker, Instead of a book: a fragmentary exposi- 
 tion of phiiosophical anarchism. — Also the writings 
 of Bakunin, Proudhon, Tolstoi, Zenker, Max 
 Stirner, Staatenlose Oekonomie. 
 
 ANASTASIS, sacred building of Jerusalem con- 
 taining the Holv Sepulcher. See Holy Land. 
 
 ANASTASltlS I, pope, 399-401. 
 
 Anastasius II, pope, 4961-498. 
 
 Anastasius III, pope, 911-913. 
 
 Anastasius IV, pope, 1153-1154. 
 
 Anastasius I, Roman emperor (Eastern), 491- 
 518. See Rome: 400-518. 
 
 Anastasius II, Roman emperor (Eastern), 
 713-716. 
 
 ANATOLIA, name for Asia Minor. See Asia 
 Minor; also Turkey: Land, and 1915-1916; Map 
 of Asia Minor. 
 
 ANATOLIA RAILROAD. See Railroads: 
 1899-1916. 
 
 ANATOMY. See Medical science: Ancient: 
 2nd century; Ancient: Hindu; Modern; i8th cen- 
 tury: Work of John Hunter in surgery and anatomy, 
 also Physiological views of Bichat; Science; Mid- 
 dle Ages and the Renaissance: i6th centurv. 
 
 ANAXAGORAS (c. 500-428 B.C.), Greek phi- 
 losopher, ■ whose advanced teachings on scientific 
 subjects led to his arrest and banishment from 
 Athens. See Evolution: Historical evolution of 
 the idea. 
 
 ANAXIMANDER, Greek philosopher. See 
 Evolution; Historical evolution of the idea; 
 Miletus: ico-1920. 
 
 A. N. C. (ante navitatem Christi), an abbrevi- 
 ation occasionally used in place of A. C or B. C. 
 
 ANCA INDIANS. See Pampas tribes. 
 
 ANCALITES, a tribe of ancient Britons whose 
 home was near the Thames, 
 
 ANCASTER, England, Origin of. See Cau- 
 senn.»;. 
 
 ANCEANS, Manners and customs. See Af- 
 rica: Races of .Africa: Prehistoric peoples. 
 
 ANCESTOR WORSHIP. See Church and 
 state: Totemism. 
 
 Africa. See Mythology: Latin American myth- 
 ology: African mythology. 
 
 Aryans. See Religion: B.C. 1000. 
 
 China. See China: Religion of the people. 
 
 Japan. See Mythology: Japan: Characteristics 
 of Japanese Kami or gods, 
 
 ANCHORITES, HERMITS. — "The fertile 
 and peaceable lowlands of England . . . offered 
 
 few spots sufficiently wild and lonely for the habi- 
 tation of a hermit ; those, therefore, who wished 
 to retire from the world into a more strict and 
 solitary life than that which the monastery af- 
 forded were in the habit of immuring themselves, 
 as anchorites, or in old English 'Ankers,' in little 
 cells of stone, built usually against the wall of 
 a church. There is nothing new under the sun; 
 and similar anchorites might have been seen in 
 Egypt, 500 years before the time of St. Antony, 
 immured in cells in the temples of Isis or Serapis. 
 It is only recently that antiquaries have discovered 
 how common this practice was in England, and 
 how frequently the traces of these cells are to be 
 found about our parish churches." — C. Kingsley, 
 Hermits, p. 329. — The term anchorites is applied, 
 generally, to all religious ascetics who lived in 
 solitary cells. — J. Bingham, Antiquities of the 
 Christian church, bk. 7, ch. i, sect. 4. — "The es- 
 sential difference between an anker or anchorite 
 and a hermit appears to have been that, whereas 
 the former passed his whole life shut up in a 
 cell, the latter, although leading indeed a solitary 
 life, wandered about at liberty." — R. R. Sharpe, 
 Introduction to "Calendar of wills in the court 
 of busting, London," v. 2, p. 21.— See also Chris- 
 tianity: 312-337; Church and the Empire. 
 
 ANCIEN REGIME.— The political and social 
 system in France that was destroyed by the Revo- 
 lution of 1789 is commonly referred to as the 
 "ancien regime." Some writers translate this in 
 the Uteral English form — "the ancient regime"; 
 others render it more appropriately, perhaps, the 
 "old regime." Its special application is to the state 
 of things described under France: 1789. 
 
 ANCIENTS, Council of the, governing body 
 provided for by the Constitution of the year III. 
 See France: 1795 (June-September); 1797 (Sep- 
 tember); 1799 (November). 
 ANCON, Treaty of. See Chile; 1894-1900. 
 AN CON A, Italian city and seaport on the 
 western coast of the Adriatic. The place played 
 a minor part in the World War as the chief Ital- 
 ian naval base for operations a,'ainst Austria. — See 
 also Adriatic question. 
 
 1814. — Surrender to Murat. See Italy: 
 1814. 
 
 1832. — Occupied by France. See Austria: 
 1815-1846. 
 
 1914. — Revolutionary riots. See Italy: 191 2- 
 1914; Labor strikes and boycotts: 19x4. 
 
 1915. — Bombarded by Austrians. See World 
 War; 1915: IX. Naval operations: b, 2. 
 
 ANCONA, an Italian steamship, which while 
 sailing from Genoa with Americans on board, was 
 shelled and torpedoed by an Austro-Hungarian 
 submarine in November, 1Q15, before the crew and 
 passengers had been put in a place of safety or 
 even given suflicient time to leave the vessel. 
 After two protests by the American Secretary of 
 State Lansing, the Austro-Hungarian government 
 acknowledged "that hostile private ships, in so 
 far as they do not flee or offer resistance, may 
 not be destroyed without the persons on board 
 having been placed in safety," and agreed to in- 
 demnify the American sufferers. — See also U. S. A.: 
 1915 (December). 
 
 ANCRE, the name of a region and river of 
 France, the scene of intense fighting during the 
 World War See World War; 1916: II. Western 
 front: c, 1 ; c, 4; d, 3; d, 16; d, 17; e; e, 1; e, 4; 
 1917: II. Western front; a; 1918: II. Western 
 front; c, 18; k, 1. 
 
 ANCRUM MOOR, Battle of.— A success ob- 
 tained by the Scots over an English force making 
 an incursion into the border districts of their 
 
 341
 
 ANGUS MARCIUS 
 
 ANDESIANS 
 
 country in 1545.— J. H. Burton, History of Scot- 
 land, ch. 35, V. 3. 
 
 ANGUS MARGIUS (640-616 B.C.), fourth 
 legendary king of Rome; conquered the Latins, 
 fortified the Janiculum, founded the port of Ostia. 
 As builder of a bridge across the Tiber, he may be 
 a priestly duplicate of Numa, and his second name 
 is Numa Marcius. — See also Rome: Ancient king- 
 dom: 753-5IO- 
 
 ANCYRA. See Angora. 
 
 ANDALUSIA: Name.— "The Vandals, . . . 
 though they passed altogether out of Spain, have 
 left their name to this day in its southern part, 
 under the form of Andalusia, a name which, under 
 the Saracen conquerors, spread itself over the 
 whole peninsula." — E. A. Freeman, Historical geog- 
 rapky of Europe, ch. 4, sect. 3. — See also Baltica; 
 Vandals: 428. — Roughly speaking, Andalusia rep- 
 resents the country known to the ancients, first as 
 Tartessus, and later as Turdetania. 
 
 1702. — Resistance to English and Dutch dur- 
 ing the sacking of Gadiz. See Cadiz: 1702. 
 
 ANDALUSIAN SCHOOL.— A Spanish school 
 of painting, "came into existence about the middle 
 of the sixteenth century. Its chief centre was at 
 Seville, and its chief patron the church rather than 
 the king. Vergas (1502-1568) was probably the 
 real founder of the school, though De Castro and 
 others preceded him." — J. C. Van Dyke, Text-book 
 of the history of painting, p. 180. — Other promi- 
 nent members of this school were Cespedes, Roe- 
 las, Pacheco, Herrera the Elder, Zurbaran, Cano, 
 and Murillo. 
 
 ANDAMAN ISLANDS, a group of islands in 
 the Bay of Bengal, in number 204, mentioned by 
 Marco Polo. The British government established 
 a penal colony there in 1858. See India: Inhabi- 
 tants, Aboriginal. 
 
 ANDASTES. See Iroquois confederacy; 
 Shawanese; Susquehannas. 
 
 ANDEGAVI, the ancient name of the city of 
 Angers, France, and of the tribe which occupied 
 that region. 
 
 ANDEGHY, town of France south-east of 
 Amiens. See World War: 1915: II. Western front: 
 j, 6; 1918: II Western front: c, 22. 
 
 ANDERIDA, or Anderida Sylva, or An- 
 dredsweald. — A ^reat forest which anciently 
 stretched across Surrey, Sussex and into Kent 
 (southeastern England) was c::lled Anderida Sylva 
 by the Romans and .^ndredsweald by the Saxons. 
 It coincided nearly with the tract of country called 
 in modern times the Weald of Kent, to which it 
 gave its name of the Wald or Weald. On the 
 southern coast-border of the Anderida Sylva the 
 Romans established the important fortress and 
 port of Anderida, which has been identified with 
 modern Pevensey. Here the Romano-Britons made 
 an obstinate stand against the Saxons, in the fifth 
 century, and Anderida was only taken by Ella 
 after a long siege. In the words of the Chronicle, 
 the Saxons "slew all that were therein, nor was 
 there henceforth one Briton left." — J. R. Green, 
 Making of England, ch. 1. 
 
 hiso in: T. Wright, Celt, Roman, and Saxon, 
 ch. 5. 
 
 ANDERSON, Judge Albert Barnes (1857- ). 
 — Acquittal of the Standard Oil Company. See 
 Tri'sts: U. S. a. 1Q04-1000. 
 
 ANDERSON, John (1833-iqoo). — Scottish 
 scientist. Professor of comparative anatomy at 
 Calcutta Medical College 1S64-1886. 
 
 ANDERSON, Robert (1805-1871), defender of 
 Fort Sumter at the outbreak of the Civil War. 
 See U S A : i860 (December) ; 1861 (March- 
 AprU); 186S (February: South Carolina) 
 
 ANDERSON, General Thomas M. McArthur 
 (1836-1917). — Correspondence with Aguinaldo. 
 See U. S. A.: 1898 (April-July) ; 1898 (July- 
 August : Philippines) . 
 
 ANDERSON v. UNITED STATES (1869- 
 1870). See U. S. A.: 1869-1872. 
 
 ANDERSONVILLE PRISON-PENS. See 
 Prisons and prison-pens. Confederate. 
 
 ANDES, or Andi, or Andecavi. See Veneh of 
 
 WESTERN CAUL. 
 
 ANDESIANS.— "The term Andesians or An- 
 tesians, is used with geographical rather than eth- 
 nological Umits, and embraces a number of tribes. 
 First of these are the Cofan in Equador, east of 
 Chimborazo. They fought valiantly against the 
 Spaniards, and in times past killed many of the 
 missionaries sent among them. Now they are 
 greatly reduced and have become more gentle. The 
 Huamaboya are their near neighbors. The Jivara, 
 west of the river Pastaca, are a warlike tribe, who, 
 possibly through a mixture of Spanish blood, have 
 a European cast of countenance and a beard. The 
 half Christian Napo or Quijo and their peaceful 
 neighbors, the Zaporo, live on the Rio Napo. The 
 Yamco, living on the lower Chambiva and cross- 
 ing the Maraiion, wandering as far as Saryacu,have 
 a clearer complexion. The Pacamora and the Yu- 
 guarzongo live on the Maraiion, where it leaves its 
 northerly course and bends toward the east. The 
 Cochiquima live on the lower Yavari; the Mayo- 
 runa, or Barbudo, on the middle Ucayali beside 
 the Campo and Cochibo, the most terrible of South 
 American Indians ; they dwell in the woods between 
 the Tapiche and the Maraiion, and like the Jivaro 
 have a beard. The Pano, who formerly dwelt in 
 the territory of Lalaguna, but who now live in 
 villages on the upper Ucayali, are Christians. . . . 
 Their language is the principal one on the river, 
 and it is shared by seven other tribes called col- 
 lectively by the missionaries Manioto or May- 
 no. .. . Within the woods on the ri.-ht bank live 
 the Amahuaca and Shacaya. On the north they 
 join the Remo, a powerful tribe who are dis- 
 tinguished from all the others by the custom of 
 tattooing. Outside this Pano linguistic group stand 
 the Campa, Campo, 0/ Antis on the east slope of 
 the Peruvian Cordillera at the source of the Rio 
 Beni and its tributaries. The Chontaquiros, or 
 Piru, now occupy almost entirely the bank of the 
 Ucayali below the Pachilia. The Mojos or Moxos 
 live in the Bolivian province of Moxos with the 
 small tribes of the Baure, Itonama, Pacaguara. A 
 number of smaller tribes belonging to the Antesian 
 group need not be enumerated. The late Pro- 
 fessor James Orton described the Indian tribes of 
 the territory between Quito and the river Amazon. 
 The Napo approach the type of the Quichua. . . . 
 Among all the Indians of the Provincia del Oriente, 
 the tribe of Jivaro is one of the largest. These 
 people are divided into a great number of sub- 
 tribes. All of these speak the clear musical Jivaro 
 language. They are muscular, active men. . . . 
 The Morona are cannibals in the full sense of the 
 word. . . . The Campo, still very little known, is 
 perhaps the largest Indian tribe in Eastern Peru, 
 and, according to some, is related to the Inca race, 
 or at least with their successors. They are said 
 to be cannibals, though James Orton does not think 
 this possible. . . . The nearest neighbors of the 
 Campo are the Chontakiro, or Chontaquiro, or 
 Chonquiro, called also Piru, who, according to Paul 
 Marcoy, are said to be of the same origin with the 
 Campo; but the language is wholly different. . . . 
 .Among the Pano people are the wild Conibo ; they 
 are the most interesting, but are passing into ex- 
 tinction " — Standard natural history (J. S. Kings- 
 ley, ed.), V. 6, pp. 227-331. 
 
 342
 
 ANDEVANNE 
 
 ANGARIA 
 
 ANDEVANNE: 1918.— Taken by allies. See 
 World War: iqiS: II. Western front: v, 10; x, 4. 
 ANDORRA, a little semi-republic in the Span- 
 ish Pyrenees. Enjoying a certain self-government 
 since the French Revolution, it is practically a part 
 of Spain. The inhabitants are exempt, however, 
 from Spanish conscription. 
 
 ANDOVER, a town and borough of Hamp- 
 shire, England. Site of several Roman villas and 
 early earthworks, and of the traditional meeting 
 between /Ethelrcd and Olaf the Dane; meeting 
 place of the Witenagemot. 
 
 ANDRADA E SYLVA, Bonifacio Joze d' 
 { 1 765-1838), Brazilian statesman. Was made min- 
 ister of the interior and of foreign affairs when the 
 independence of Brazil was declared in 1822, but 
 was banished to France in 1823 because of his 
 democratic principles and lived there in exile till 
 i82g. 
 
 ANDRASSY, Count Julius (1823-1800), fa- 
 mous Hungarian statesman. Prominent adherent 
 of the revolution of 1S4S; member of the Diet, 
 1861 ; prime minister after reconstruction of Aus- 
 tria and Hungary on a dual basis, 1867 ; minister 
 of foreign affairs, 1871 ; with Bismarck drew up the 
 famous "Andrassy note," 1S76; chief representa- 
 tive of .\ustria-Hungary at the Congress of Ber- 
 lin, 1878; largely responsible for the making of 
 the Hungarian state and constitution. — See also 
 Austria: 1866-1867; Berlin, Congress of; Hun- 
 gary: 1856-1868; Triple Alliance: Austro-Ger- 
 man Alliance of 1879. 
 
 ANDRASSY, Count Julius (i860- ), Hun- 
 garian political leader, son of the foregoing Count 
 Andrassy. Minister of interior, iQo6-igoq, in 
 Wekerle cabinet; as Austrian delegate tried to pre- 
 vent Balkan War, 1Q12; opposition leader, igi2- 
 igi8. — See also Austria-Hungary: i903-igo5; 
 igos-igo6; igi4-igis; Hungary: 1918 (Novem- 
 ber). 
 
 ANDRE, John (1751-1780), British soldier. 
 Negotiated with Benedict Arnold in 1780 for the 
 betrayal of West Point; taken prisoner by the 
 Americans and hanged as a spy October 2, 1780. 
 —See also U. S. A.: 1780 (August-September). 
 
 ANDREA, Johann Valentin (1586-1654), Ger- 
 man theologian. See Rosicrucians: Illuminati. 
 
 ANDREA DEL SARTO (1487-1531), Floren- 
 tine pamter of the Renaissance. The Last Supper, 
 Madonna de Sacco, and the Apparition of the An- 
 gel to Zaeliarias are among his most celebrated 
 \yorks. See Painting: Italian: Early Renaissance. 
 
 ANDREANI, Andrea (c. 1540-1023), Italian 
 engraver on wood, in chiaroscuro. Among others 
 the most remarkable of his works are Mercury 
 and Ignorance, the Deluge, and Pharaoh's host 
 drowned in the Red Sea. 
 
 ANDREDSWEALD. See Anderida, Anber- 
 IDA Sylva. a ndredsweald. 
 
 ANDR^E, Solomon August (1854-1807), 
 Swedish engineer and aeronaut. See Aviation: 
 Development of balloons and dirigibles: i87o-igi3. 
 
 ANDREEV, Leonid (Andreieff, Leonid Niko- 
 laevich'), Russian writer. See Russian literature: 
 i883-igo5. 
 
 ANDREW I, king of Hungary, 1046-1060. 
 
 Andrew II (1175-1235), king of Hungary, 
 1205-1235; participated in the fifth Crusade in 
 1217; forced by Hungarian barons to sign the 
 Golden Bull, the Magna Carta of Hungary, in 
 1222. See Crusades: I2i6-i22g; Hungary: 1116- 
 1301. 
 
 Andrew III, king of Hungary, i2go-i30i. See 
 Hungary: 1116-1301. 
 
 Andrew, prince of Hungary, murder of. See 
 Italy (Southern) : 1343-1389. 
 
 ANDREW, John Albion (1818-1867), Amer- 
 ican statesman ; prominent as the Republican war 
 governor of Massachusetts (1861-1866) ; was one 
 of the first northern governors to send troops to 
 the war; organized the first colored regiment 
 (1863). 
 
 ANDREWS, Thomas (1813-1885), Irish chem- 
 ist and physicist. Studied medicine and the physi- 
 cal sciences at Glasgow, Paris, Edinburgh, and 
 Dublin ; professor of chemistry in Queens Col- 
 lege, Belfast, i845-i87g; made important discov- 
 eries on the liquefaction of gases. See Chemistry; 
 Physical. 
 
 ANDRONICUS 1 (Comnenus) (c. 1110-1185), 
 Roman emperor in the East, 1183-1185. See By- 
 zantine empire: 1203-1204. 
 
 Andronicus II (Palseologus (1260-1332), 
 Roman emperor in the East, 1282-1328. 
 
 Andronicus III (1296-1341), Roman emperor 
 in the East, 1328-1341. 
 
 ANDRONICUS OF CYRRHUS, Greek archi- 
 tect and astronomer. Lived in the first century 
 B. C. He erected at Athens the so-called Tower 
 of the Winds on which was a turning figure of 
 Triton with his spear, the prototype of the later 
 weathercock. 
 
 ANDROPHAGI ("man-eaters"), a race of 
 northern cannibals mentioned by Herodotus. It is 
 supposed that they were related to the Finns. 
 
 ANDROS, Sir Edmund (1637-1714), English 
 colonial governor in America. Served in the army 
 of Prince Henry of Nassau, appointed governor 
 of New York and the Jerseys, 1674; capable but 
 unpopular governor. Recalled 1681. Knighted, 
 1678; governor of the "Dominion of New Eng- 
 land," i686-i68g (see also Connecticut: 1685- 
 1687) ; deposed by the colonists after the over- 
 throw of James II; governor of Maryland, i6g3- 
 i6g4; governor of Guernsey, 1704-1706. — See also 
 Massachusetts: i686-i68g; New York: 1688; 
 U. S. A.: 1678-1780; 1686-1689. 
 
 ANDROS, the largest of the Cyclades, situated 
 in the /Egean sea southeast of Euboea. The island 
 supplies ships to Xerxes in 480 B.C. In 408 B.C. 
 the inhabitants of Andros successfully withstood 
 an Athenian attack. Subsequently it became, in 
 turn, the possession of Athens, Macedon, Pergamus 
 and Rome. 
 
 ANECDOTE, Early use of. See Arabic lit- 
 erature, 
 
 ANEGADA ISLAND. See Virgin islands. 
 
 ANERIO, Felice (1560-1630?), Italian com- 
 poser of the Roman school. A boy soprano in the 
 papal choir (1575-1579); upon the death of Pal- 
 estrina succeeded him as composer to the choir in 
 
 1504. 
 
 ANFU CLUB, the name of a political faction 
 prominent in the affairs of northern China, during 
 the troublous times following the overthrow of the 
 Manchu dynasty in iqi2. The name is made up 
 of the first syllables of the names of the provinces 
 Anhwei and Fukien, and was meant to symbolize 
 the combination of the leaders controlling the Chi- 
 nese army and navy. The idea back of this union 
 is similar to that which in Japan brou ht about 
 the famous Sat-Cho combination. Traditionally, 
 the Japanese army is controlled by the Satsuma 
 clan, and the navy, by the clan of Choshu. Hence, 
 the Anfu Club has been regarded as typifying a 
 military clique, dominating the country by force. — 
 See also China: 1920. 
 
 ANGA, Bengal. See Bengal. 
 
 ANGARIA, a relay system of mounted couriers 
 for the transmission of intelligence, adopted under 
 the Roman empire from the example of the an- 
 cient Persians. 
 
 343
 
 ANGARY, RIGHT OF 
 
 ANGLES 
 
 ANGARY, Right of (Lat, jus angarice), the 
 right of a belligerent to commandeer and seize 
 any sort of enemy or neutral property on belliger- 
 ent territory if needed for military use. This right 
 has been exercised from the earliest times, and is 
 recognized by articles 53 and 54 of the Hague 
 regulations of i8gg, which further state that at 
 the conclusion of peace the property must be re- 
 stored and indemnity paid for its use. The seiz- 
 ure of Dutch merchantmen in IQ18 by the United 
 States was defended as being in conformity with 
 the right of angary. 
 
 ANGAS, George Fife (i78g-i879), a founder 
 of South Australia, who devised a system of land 
 settlement. See South .Australia: 1834-1836. 
 
 ANGELES, Felipe, Mexican revolutionary gen- 
 eral. Executed, 1520. 
 
 ANGELICO, Fra (1387-1455), Italian painter. 
 Entered Dominican order in 1408. Angelico's art 
 is essentially pietistic. Two of the subjects he 
 most frequently painted were the Last Judgment 
 and the Annunciation.— See also Painting: ItaUan: 
 Early Renaissance. 
 
 ANG^LIQUE (Arnauld, Jacqueline Marie 
 Angelique) (1591-iobi), abbess at Port Royal. 
 See Port Royal and the Jansenists: 1002-1700. 
 
 ANGELL, George Thorndike (1823-1909), 
 American educator and philanthropist. Founded 
 Massachusetts Society for Prevention of Cruelty to 
 Animals and American Humane Education So- 
 ciety. 
 
 ANGELL, James Burrill (1829-1916), Ameri- 
 can educator and diplomat, professor of modern 
 languages of Brown University, 1853-1860; editor 
 of Providence Journal, 1860-1866; president of the 
 University of Vermont, 1866-1871, and of Univer- 
 sity of Michigan, 1871-1909; United States minister 
 to China, 1880-1SS1 and to Turkey, 1897-1898; 
 made president emeritus of University of Michigan 
 in 1909. 
 
 ANGELL, James Rowland (1869- ), psy- 
 chologist and educator, son of James Burrill Angell ; 
 professor of psychology at University of Chicago, 
 190S; dean of the university faculties, 1911; 
 acting president, 191S-1919; president of Yale, 
 1921. 
 
 ANGELL, Norman, pseud. See Lane, Ralph 
 Norman Angell. 
 
 ANGELO, Michael. See Michelangelo. 
 
 ANGELUS, Isaac, emperor in the East. See 
 Byzantine empire: 1203-1204. 
 
 ANGERS, Origin of. See Veneti of Western 
 Gaul. 
 
 ANGEVIN KINGS AND ANGEVIN EM- 
 PIRE. — The Angevin kings of England were so- 
 called since their family, the Plantagenets, came 
 from .■\njou in France. (See England: 1154-11S9.) 
 About the middle of the thirteenth century Anjou 
 was bestowed on Charles, son of Louis VIII of 
 France, who became the founder of the Angevin 
 kings in Naples and Sicily in 1266. See Anjou: 
 1206-1442. 
 
 Defeat of the Angevins in Naples. See Italy 
 (Southern): 1386-1414. 
 
 Defeat of the Angevins by Alphonao. See 
 Italy: 1412-1447. 
 
 ANGHIARI, Battle of (1425). See Italy: 
 1412-1447. 
 
 ANGKOR, a group of ruins in Cambodia, relics 
 of the ancient Khmer civilization. They include 
 remains of the town of ,\ngkor-Thom and the 
 temple of Angkor- Vat. The ornamentation con- 
 sists of reliefs of men, gods and animals displayed 
 on every flat surface ; the stones are cut in huge 
 blocks carefully fitted together without the use of 
 cement. 
 
 ANGLES.— The mention of the Angles by Tac- 
 itus is in the following passage: "Next [to the 
 Langobardi] come the Reudigni, the Aviones, the 
 Anglii, the Varini, the Eudoses, the Suardones, and 
 Nuithones, who are fenced in by rivers or forests. 
 None of these tribes have any noteworthy fea- 
 ture, except their common worship of Ertha, or 
 mother-Earth, and their belief that she interposes 
 in human affairs, and visits the nations in her car. 
 In an island of the ocean there is a sacred grove, 
 and within it a consecrated chariot, covered over 
 with a garment. Only one priest is permitted to 
 touch it. He can perceive the presence of the god- 
 dess in this sacred recess, and walks by her side 
 with the utmost reverence as she is drawn along 
 by heifers. It is a season of rejoicing, and fes- 
 tivity reigns wherever she deigns to go and be re- 
 ceived. They do not go to battle or wear arms; 
 every weapon is under lock; peace and quiet are 
 welcomed only at these times, till the goddess, 
 weary of human intercourse, is at length restored 
 by the same priest to her temple. Afterwards the 
 car, the vestments, and, if you like to believe it, 
 the divinity herself, are purified in a secret lake. 
 Slaves perform the rite, who are instantly swal- 
 lowed up by its waters. Hence arises a mysteri- 
 ous terror and a pious ignorance concerning the 
 nature of that which is seen only by men doomed 
 to die. This branch indeed of the Suevi stretches 
 into the remoter regions of Germany." — Tacitus, 
 Germany; translated by Church and Brodribb, 
 ch. 40. — "In close neighbourhood with the Saxons 
 in the middle of the fourth century were the 
 Angli, a tribe whose origin is more uncertain and 
 the application of whose name is still more a mat- 
 ter of question. If the name belongs, in the pages 
 of the several geographers, to the same nation, it 
 was situated in the time of Tacitus east of the 
 Elbe; in the time of Ptolemy it was found on the 
 middle Elbe, between the Thuringians to the south 
 and the Varini to the north; and at a later period 
 it was forced, perhaps by the growth of the Thu- 
 ringian power, into the neck of the Cimbric penin- 
 sula. It may, however, be reasonably doubted 
 whether this hypothesis is sound, and it is by no 
 means clear whether, if it be so, the Angli were 
 not connected more closely with the Thuringians 
 than with the Saxons. To the north of the Angli, 
 after they had reached their Schleswig home, were 
 the Jutes, of whose early history we know nothing, 
 except their claims to be regarded as kinsmen of 
 the Goths and the close similarity between their 
 descendants and the neighbour Frisians." — W. 
 Stubbs, Constitutional history of England, v. i, ch. 
 3. — "Important as are the Angles, it is not too 
 much to say that they are only known through 
 their relations to us of England, their descendants; 
 indeed, without this paramount fact, they would 
 be liable to be confused with the Frisians, with the 
 Old Saxons, and with even Slavonians. This is 
 chiefly because there is no satisfactory trace or 
 fragment of the Angles of Germany within Ger- 
 many ; whilst the notices of the other writers of 
 antiquity tell us as little as the one we find in 
 Tacitus. And this notice is not only brief but 
 complicated. ... I still think that the Angli of 
 Tacitus were — i: The Angles of England; 2: Oc- 
 cupants of the northern parts of Hanover; 3: 
 At least in the time of Tacitus; 4: .\nd that to 
 the exclusion of any territory in Holstein, which 
 was Frisian to the west, and Slavonic to the east. 
 Still the question is one of great magnitude and 
 numerous complications." — R. G. Latham, Ger- 
 many of Tacitus; Epilegomena. sect. 49. — See also 
 Aviones; Saxons. — The conquests and settlements 
 of the Jutes and the Angles in Britain are de- 
 
 344
 
 ANGLESEY 
 
 ANGLO-JAPANESE ALLIANCE 
 
 scribed under Barbarian invasions: 5th-6th cen- 
 turies; England: 547-633; see also Europe: Eth- 
 nology: Migrations: Map. 
 
 Anglic kingdom of Bernicia. See Scotland: 
 7th century. 
 
 Also in: J. M. Lappenberg, History of England 
 under the Anglo-Saxon kings, v. i, pp. 89-95. 
 
 ANGLESEY, Arthur Annesley, 1st earl of, 
 (1014-1686); English statesman, member of Crom- 
 well's parliament of 1658; president of council of 
 state 1660, and aided in restoration of Charles 
 II; lord privy seal 1672-1682. 
 
 ANGLESEY, Henry William Paget, 1st mar- 
 quess of (1768-1854), English field-marshal and 
 statesman; served in Spain and in the Low Coun- 
 tries 1 808- 1 809, and commanded British cavalry at 
 Waterloo; lord-lieutenant of Ireland, 1828-1829 and 
 1830-1833. 
 
 ANGLESEY, Ancient. See Normans: 8th-9th 
 Centuries. 
 
 ANGLI. See Aviones. 
 
 ANGLICAN CHURCH. See Church or 
 England. 
 
 Orders of. — Declared invalid by Pope Leo 
 XIII. See Papacy: 1896 (September). 
 
 ANGLO-ABYSSINIAN TREATY. See 
 Abyssinia: 1896-1897. 
 
 ANGLO-BELGIAN CONVERSATIONS. See 
 World War: Diplomatic background: 35. 
 
 ANGLO-DUTCH WAR: 1652-1654. See Eng- 
 land: 1652-1654. 
 
 ANGLO-EGYPTIAN CONDOMINIUM. See 
 Sudan or Soudan: 1899. 
 
 ANGLO-FRENCH AGREEMENT: 1890. 
 See Madagascar. 
 
 1904. See Entente Cordiale; Nigeria, protec- 
 torate of: 1901-1913. 
 
 ANGLO-FRENCH MILITARY CONSUL- 
 TATIONS. See World War: Diplomatic back- 
 ground: 56. 
 
 ANGLO-FRENCH RELATIONS: Entente 
 Cordiale (1904). See England: 1912. 
 
 ANGLO-FRENCH WARS: 1294-1297. See 
 France: 1285-1314. 
 
 1337-1453. See France: 1337-1360; 1360-1380; 
 1415; 1417-1422; 1429-1431; 1431-1453. 
 
 1491-1492. — Henry VII engaged in a war with 
 France because Charles VIII annexed Brittany. 
 The Peace of Estaples ended the war 
 
 1495. — Edward IV invaded France in league with 
 the duke of Burgundy, and laid claim to the French 
 crown. War was ended without a battle by the 
 Peace of Pequigny (1475). 
 
 1512-1515. See France: 1513-1515. 
 
 1557-1558. See France: 1547-1559. 
 
 1626-1630. See France: 1627-1628. 
 
 1689-1697. See England: 1690; 1692; Canada: 
 1689-1690; 1692-1697; France: 1689-1690; 1689- 
 1691; 1692; 1693; 1694; 1695-1696; 1697; New- 
 foundland: 1694-1697. 
 
 1740-1748. See France: 173 8- 17 70; Austria: 1740. 
 
 1755-1763. See Canada; 1755; (June-Sept.); 
 1756-1757; 1758; 1759; 1760; Ohio: 1755; Mi- 
 norca: 1756; Germany: 1757 (July-Dec); 1759 
 (April-August); 1760; 1761; 1762; Cape Breton 
 Island: 1758-1760; India: 1758-1761; England: 
 I7S4-I75S; 1757-1760; 1758; 1759. 
 
 1778-1783. See U. S. A.: 1778; 1780; 1782 ; 1783. 
 
 1793-1802. See France: 1792-1793; 1794 (March- 
 July); 1794-1795 (October-May); 1796 (Septem- 
 ber); 1798 ( May- August ) ; 1798-1799; 1799; 1800; 
 1801-1802. 
 
 1803-1814. See France: 1802-1803; 1805; 1806- 
 1810; 1814-1815; Spain: 1809-1810; 1810-1812; 
 1812; 1812-1814. 
 
 1815. See France: 1815. 
 
 ANGLO-GERMAN CONVENTION (1890). 
 See Africa: Modern European occupation: 1884- 
 1889. 
 
 ANGLO-GERMAN RELATIONS. See Eng- 
 land: 1912; 1912-1914; World War: Diplomatic 
 background: 71 x. 
 
 ANGLO-JAPANESE ALLIANCE.— "Great 
 Britain was the first to welcome Japan into ttie 
 ranks of the Great Powers. In 1902 a treaty of 
 friendship had been signed by the two island na- 
 tions [see Japan; 1895-1902; 1894-1Q14]; in 1905 
 this compact was greatly strengthened by a treaty 
 of alliance [see Japan: 1902-1905]. The latter 
 provided for (1) the preservation of peace in 
 Eastern Asia and India; (2) the maintenance of 
 the integrity of China and of the principle of the 
 'open door'; and (3) the defense of the territorial 
 rights of each party in Eastern Asia and India. 
 This treaty, which was renewed in 1911, gave 
 Japan a free hand in the Far East, so far as 
 England was concerned, in return for Japan's prom- 
 ise to safeguard British rule in India." — J. S. 
 Schapiro, Modern and contemporary European 
 history, pp. 670-671. 
 
 The text of the 1911 treaty between England and 
 Japan continuing the alliance for a ten-year period, 
 is as follows: 
 
 "Preamble. — The Government of Great Britain 
 and the Government of Japan, having in view the 
 important changes which have taken place in the 
 situation since the conclusion of the Anglo-Japa- 
 nese Agreement of the 12th August, 1905, and be- 
 lieving that a revision of that Agreement respond- 
 ing to such changes would contribute to general 
 stability and repose, have agreed upon the follow- 
 ing stipulations to replace the Agreement above 
 mentioned, such stipulations having the same ob- 
 ject as the said Agreement, namely: — (a) The con- 
 solidation and maintenance of the general peace 
 in the regions of Eastern Asia and of India; (b) 
 The preservation of the common interests of all 
 Powers in China by insuring the independence and 
 integrity of the Chinese Empire and the principle 
 of equal opportunities for the commerce and in- 
 dustry of all nations in China; (c) The mainte- 
 nance of the territorial rights of the High Con- 
 tracting Parties in the regions of Eastern Asia and 
 of India, and the defence of their special interests 
 in the said regions. Article I. It is agreed that 
 whenever, in the opinion of either Great Britain 
 or Japan, any of the rights and interests referred 
 to in the preamble of this Agreement are in jeop- 
 ardy, the two Governments will communicate with 
 one another fully and frankly, and will consider 
 in common the measures which should be taken 
 to safeguard those menaced rights or interests. 
 Article II. If by reason of unprovoked attack or 
 aggressive action, wherever arising, on the part of 
 any Power or Powers, either High Contracting 
 Party should be involved in war in defence of its 
 territorial rights or special interests mentioned in 
 the preamble of this Agreement, the other High 
 Contracting Party will at once come to the as- 
 sistance of its ally, and will conduct the war in 
 common, and make peace in mutual agreement 
 with it. Article III. The High Contracting Par- 
 ties agree that neither of them will, without con- 
 sulting the other, enter into separate arrange- 
 ments with another Power to the prejudice of the 
 objects described in the preamble of this Agree- 
 ment. .Article IV. Should either High Contract- 
 ing Party conclude a treaty of general arbitration 
 with a third Power, it is agreed that nothing in 
 this Agreement shall entail upon such Contract- 
 ing Party an obligation to go to war with the 
 
 345
 
 ANGLO-JAPANESE TREATY 
 
 Power with whom such treaty of arbitration is in 
 force. Article V. The conditions under which 
 armed assistance shaU be afforded by either Power 
 to the other in the circumstances mentioned in the 
 present Agreement, and the means by w^J'^^ such 
 assistance is to be made available, will be ar- 
 ranged by the Naval and MiUtary ^"'h^"^'" °^ 
 the High Contracting Parties, who «';ll/'^°°i .^""^ 
 to time consult one another fully and freely upon 
 all questions of mutual interest. Article \ I. ihe 
 nresenl Agreement shall come into effect immedi- 
 
 ^[ely after the date of its ^-^^-^'r^' ^T iT^s. 
 in force for ten years from that date I" "se 
 Neither the High Contracting Parties should 
 Save notified twelve months before the expira ion 
 of the said ten years the intention of termmating 
 it it shall remain binding until the expiration of 
 CM year from the day on which either of the 
 High Contracting Parties shall have denounced it. 
 But if when the date fixed for its expiration ar- 
 rives either allv is actually engaged in war, the 
 alliailce shall, ipso f'^to, continue until peace is 
 concluded. lli faith whereof the Undersigned, duly 
 authorized by their respective Governments have 
 signed this Agreement, and have affixed thereto 
 their Seals Done in dupUcate at London, the 13th 
 dS of Juy-'9ii."-E.C.Stowell,D,/-/«m«o' of the 
 7ar il\,PP. S4i-542.-See also PAcmc "cea^. 
 iqi8-iQ:!i ; U. S. A.: 1Q19-1921 ; World War. 1914- 
 V Tapan; b; Washington Conference 
 
 1921 -Question of its renewal. See British 
 EMPIRE- Colonial and Imperial conferences: 1921. 
 
 ANGLO-JAPANESE TREATY. See Anglo- 
 
 JTNGL0^'PA1L1STINE COMPANY, Ltd. See 
 
 Tews- Zionism; 20th century. 
 
 ANGLO-PERSIAN TREATY, an agreement 
 concluded between Great Britain and Persia on 
 August Q, 1919. In this treaty the British govern- 
 ment agreed to respect the independence and m- 
 tegrity of Persia ; to supply expert advisers tor tne 
 various civil departments and the army; to grant 
 a substantial loan; to aid in rai vyay and road 
 building and in tariff revLsion. Although Great 
 Britain denied any intention of absorbing Persia, 
 many foreign observers regarded the treaty as 
 amounting to a protectorate. However, on Feb. 27 
 1 92 1, the treaty was abrogated.— See also Persia. 
 
 '7nGLO-PORTUGUESE CONVENTION 
 (1891). See Africa: Modern European occupa- 
 
 ''°ANGLO-RUSSIAN AGREEMENT OF 1895. 
 
 'InGLoTuSSiInAGREEMENT of 1907. 
 —Convention between Great Britain and Rus- 
 sia, containing arrangements on the subject 
 of Persia, Afghanistan, and Tibet.-Parallel with 
 the Agreements-thc "Entente Cordide —of 1904 
 between England and France, in its purpose and 
 in its importance to Europe, was the Conven- 
 tion between England and Russia in 1007, which 
 harmonized the interests and the policy of the 
 two nations in matters relating to Persia, Afghanis- 
 tan and Tibet. In each case the dictating motive 
 looked not so much to a settlement of the particu- 
 lar questions involved, as to a general cxtingmsh- 
 ment of possible causes of contention which might 
 at some time disturb the peaceful or fnendlv- rela- 
 tions of the peoples concerned. Taken together, he 
 two formallv expressed understandings, Anglo- 
 French and Anglo-Russian, added to the Franco- 
 Russian Alliance of '^o? . '^'=<=, Fx*^^"'^- '^''S) 
 constituted, not a new Triple Alliance, set over 
 against that of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and 
 Italy, but an amicable conjunction which bore sug- 
 
 ANGLO-RUSSIAN AGREEMENTS 
 
 eestions of alliance, and which introduced a coun- 
 terweight in European politics that made undoubt- 
 edly for peace. The Anglo-Russian Convention, 
 signed August 31, i907. contained three distinct 
 "Arrangements," under a common preamble, as 
 follows: 
 
 "His Majesty the King of the United Km:dom 
 of Great Britain and Ireland and of the British 
 Dominions beyond the Seas, Emperor ol India, 
 and His Majesty the Emperor of AH the Russias 
 animated by the sincere desire to settle by mutual 
 agreement different questions concerning the inter- 
 ests of their States on the Continent of Asia, have 
 determined to conclude Agreements destined to 
 nrevent all cause of misunderstanding between 
 Great Britain and Russia in regard to the questions 
 referred to, and have nominated for this purpose 
 their respective Plenipotentiaries. . . Who, hav- 
 ing communicated to each other their full powers, 
 found in good and due form, have agreed on the 
 following: 
 
 "ARRANGEilENT CONCERNING PERSIA 
 
 "The Governments of Great Britain and Russia 
 having mutually enga-.ed to respect the mtegrity 
 and independence of Persia, and smcerely desurmg 
 'he preservation of order throughout that country 
 and its peaceful development, as weU as the per- 
 manent establishment of equal advantages for the 
 trade and industry of all other nations; 
 
 "Considering that each of them has, for geo- 
 graphical and economic reasons, a special mterest 
 in the maintenance of peace and order m certam 
 provinces of Persia adjoining, or in the neighbour- 
 hood of, the Russian frontier on the one hand, 
 and the frontiers of Afghanistan and Baluchistan 
 on the other hand; and being desirous avoiding 
 all cause of conflict between their .'^'^^P^t^t,'"!": 
 esls in the above-mentioned Provinces of Persia, 
 "Have agreed on the following terms: 
 "I Great Britain engages not to seek for hersell, 
 and not to support in favour of British subjects 
 or in favour of the subjects of third Powers any 
 Concessions of a political or commercial nature— 
 Sih as Concessions for railways, banks, telegraphs 
 roads transport, insurance, &c.-beyond a Ime 
 tart^g fror^ K^sr-i-Shirin, passing through Isfa- 
 han, Yezd, Kakhk and ending at ^^ P"""' °" ^= 
 Persian frontier at the intersection of the Russian 
 and Afghan frontiers, and not to oppose, directly 
 or indirectly, demands for ^iniUar Concessions in 
 
 this region which are ^"PP-'^^f ,^^ '^1 '^.boTe 
 Government. It is understood .^^l'^^^^^^ 
 mentioned places are •"^'"'^'^'i. '" '^1 \he Con" 
 which Great Britain engages not to seek tne «-on 
 
 "^^irRliSron'her part, engages not to s«k for 
 
 mmmm 
 
 telegraphs, roads^transport^nsurance,^&c^ J^ ^^ 
 a line going from the A'snan ^^^^ 
 
 Gazik, Birjand, ^"'"^"; /"I'uy or indirectly. 
 Abbas, and not to "PP^^^'^f^^f ''m^'tlns region 
 demands for similar Concession ^^^^^^„t 
 
 which are ="PP-^^^^ ^^^'^/bo,.' mentioned places 
 It s understood that tne auu „ : engages 
 
 are included in the region in wh^h Russia engag 
 
 British subjects in the regions of Persia situatea 
 
 346
 
 ANGLO-RUSSIAN AGREEMENTS 
 
 ANGLO-RUSSIAN AGREEMENTS 
 
 between the lines mentioned in Articles I and II. 
 Great Britain undertakes a similar engagement as 
 regards the grant of Concessions to Russian sub- 
 jects in the same regions of Persia. All Conces- 
 sions existing at present in the regions indicated in 
 Articles I and II are maintained. 
 
 "IV. It is understood that the revenues of all 
 the Persian customs, with the exception of those 
 of Farsistan and of the Persian Gulf, revenues 
 guaranteeing the amortization and the interest of 
 the loans concluded by the Government of the 
 Shah with the 'Banque d'Escompte et des Prets de 
 Perse' up to the date of the signature of the pres- 
 ent Arrangement, shall be devoted to the same pur- 
 pose as in the past. It is equally understood that 
 the revenues of the Persian customs of Farsistan 
 and of the Persian Gulf, as well as those of the 
 fisheries on the Persian shore of the Caspian Sea 
 and those of the Posts and Telegraphs, shall be 
 devoted, as in the past, to the service of the loans 
 concluded by the Government of the Shah with the 
 Imperial Bank of Persia up to the date of the 
 signature of the present Arrangement. 
 
 "V. In the event of irregularities occurring in 
 the amortization or the payment of the interest of 
 the Persian loans concluded with the 'Banque 
 d'Escompte et des Prets de Perse' and with the 
 Imperial Bank of Persia up to the date of the 
 signature of the present Arrangement, and in the 
 event of the necessity arising for Russia to estab- 
 lish control over the sources of revenue guarantee- 
 ing the regular service of the loans concluded with 
 the first-named bank, and situated in the region 
 mentioned in Article II of the present Arrange- 
 ment, or for Great Britain to establish control over 
 the sources of revenue guaranteeing the regular 
 service of the loans concluded with the second- 
 named bank, and situated in the region mentioned 
 in Article I of the present Arrangement, the British 
 and Russian Governments undertake to enter be- 
 forehand into a friendly exchange of ideas with a 
 view to determine, in agreement with each other, 
 the measures of control in question and to avoid 
 all interference which would not be in conformity 
 with the principles governing the present Arrange- 
 ment. 
 
 "Convention Concerning Aeghanistan 
 
 "The High Contracting Parties, in order to ensure 
 perfect security on their respective frontiers in 
 Central Asia and to maintain in these regions a 
 solid and lasting peace, have concluded the follow- 
 ing Convention: 
 
 "Article I. His Britannic Majesty's Govern- 
 ment declare that they have no intention of chang- 
 ing the political status of Afghanistan. His 
 Britannic Majesty's Government further engage 
 to exercise their influence in Afghanistan only in 
 a pacific sense, and they will not themselves take, 
 nor encourage Afghanistan to take, any measures 
 threatening Russia. The Russian Government, on 
 their part, declare that they recognize Afghanistan 
 «s outside the sphere of Russian influence, and they 
 engage that all their political relations with Afghan- 
 istan shall be conducted through the intermediary 
 of His Britannic Majesty's Government; they fur- 
 ther engage not to send any Agents into Afghan- 
 istan. 
 
 "Article II. The Government of His Britannic 
 Majesty having declared in the Treaty signed at 
 Kabul on the 21st March, 1905, that they recog- 
 nize the Agreement and the engagements concluded 
 with the late Ameer Abdur Rahman, and that they 
 have no intention of interfering in the internal 
 government of Afghan territory. Great Britain en- 
 gages neither to annex nor to occupy in contra- 
 
 vention of that Treaty any portion of Afghanistan 
 or to interfere in the internal administration of the 
 country, provided that the Ameer fulfils the en- 
 gagements already contracted by him towards His 
 Britannic Majesty's Government under the above- 
 mentioned Treaty. 
 
 "Article III. The Russian and Afghan author- 
 ities, specially designated for the purpose on the 
 frontier or in the frontier provinces, may establish 
 direct relations with each other for the settlement 
 of local questions of a non-political character. 
 
 "Article IV. His Britannic Majesty's Govern- 
 ment and the Russian Government affirm their 
 adherence to the principle of equality of commer- 
 cial opportunity in Afghanistan, and they agree 
 that any facilities which may have been, or shall 
 be hereafter obtained for British and British-Indian 
 trade and traders, shall be equally enjoyed by Rus- 
 sian trade and traders. Should the progress of 
 trade establish the necessity for Commercial Agents, 
 the two Governments will agree as to what meas- 
 ures shall be taken, due regard, of course, being 
 had to the Ameer's sovereign rights. 
 
 "Article V. The present Arrangements will 
 only come into force when His Britannic Majesty's 
 Government shall have notified to the Russian Gov- 
 ernment the consent of the Ameer to the terms 
 stipulated above. 
 
 "Arrangement Concerning Tibet 
 
 "The Governments of Great Britain and Russia 
 recognizing the suzerain rights of China in Thibet, 
 and considering the fact that Great Britain, by 
 reason of her geographical position, has a special 
 interest in the maintenance of the status quo in the 
 external relations of Thibet, have made the follow- 
 ing Arrangement: — 
 
 "Article I. The two High Contracting Parties 
 engage to respect the territorial integrity of Thibet 
 and to abstain from all interference in its internal 
 administration. 
 
 "Article II. In conformity with the admitted 
 principle of the suzerainty of China over Thibet, 
 Great Britain and Russia engage not to enter into 
 negotiations with Thibet except through the inter- 
 mediary of the Chinese Government. This engage- 
 ment does not exclude the direct relations between 
 British Commercial Agents and the Thibetan au- 
 thorities provided for in Article V of the Con- 
 vention between Great Britain and Thibet of 
 the 7th September, 1Q04, and confirmed by 
 the Convention between Great Britain and China 
 of the 27th April, iqo6; nor does it mod- 
 ify the engagements entered into by Great Britain 
 and China in Article I of the said Convention of 
 1906. 
 
 "It is clearly understood that Buddhists, subjects 
 of Great Britain or of Russia, may enter into chrect 
 relations on strictly religious matters with the Dalai 
 Lama and the other representatives of Buddhism 
 in Thibet; the Governments of Great Britain and 
 Russia engage, as far as they are concerned, not 
 to allow those relations to infringe the stipulations 
 of the present Arrangement. 
 
 "Article III. The British and Russian Govern- 
 ments respectively engage not to send Representa- 
 tives to Lhassa. 
 
 "Article IV. The two High Contractini? Parties 
 engage neither to seek nor to obtain, whether for 
 themselves or their subjects, any Concessions for 
 railways, roads, telegraphs, and mines, or other 
 rights in Thibet. 
 
 "Article V. The two Governments agree that 
 no part of the revenues of Thibet, whether in kind 
 or in cash, shall be pledged or assiirned to Great 
 Britain or Russia or to any of their subjects. 
 
 347
 
 ANGLO-RUSSIAN AGREEMENTS 
 
 ANGOLA 
 
 "Annex to the Arrangement between Great 
 Britain and Russia Concerning Tibet 
 
 "Great Britain reaffirms the Declaration, signed 
 by his Excellency the Viceroy and Governor-Gen- 
 eral of India and appended to the ratification of 
 the Convention of the 7th September, 1904, to the 
 effect that the occupation ol the Chumbi Valley 
 by British forces shall cease after the payment of 
 three annual instalments of the indemnity of 25,- 
 000,000 rupees, provided that the trade marts men- 
 tioned in Article II of that Convention have been 
 effectively opened for three years, and that in the 
 meantime the Thibetan authorities have faithfully 
 complied in all respects with the terms of the said 
 Convention of 1904. It is clearly understood that 
 if the occupation of the Chumbi Valley by the 
 British forces has, for any reason, not been ter- 
 minated at the time anticipated in the above 
 Declaration, the British and Russian Governments 
 will enter upon a friendly exchange of views on 
 this subject." 
 
 As an Inclosure with the Convention, Notes were 
 exchanged by the Plenipotentiaries, of which that 
 from Sir A. Nicolson was in the following words, 
 M. Isvolsky replying to the same effect. 
 
 "St. Petersburg, .\ugust 18 (31), 1907. 
 
 "M. LE MlNISTRE, 
 
 "With reference to the .Arrangement regarding 
 Thibet, signed to-day, I have the honour to make 
 the following Declaration to your E.xcellency; — 
 
 •• 'His Britannic Majesty's Government think it 
 desirable, so far as they are concerned, not to allow, 
 unless by a previous agreement with the Russian 
 Government, for a period of three years from the 
 date of the present communication, the entry into 
 Thibet of any scientific mission whatever, on con- 
 dition that a like assurance is given on the part 
 of the Imperial Russian Government. 
 
 " 'His Britannic Majesty's Government propose, 
 moreover, to approach the Chinese Government 
 with a view to induce them to accept a similar 
 obligation for a corresponding period; the Russian 
 Government will as a matter of course take sim- 
 ilar action. 
 
 " 'At the expiration of the term of three years 
 above mentioned His Britannic Majesty's Govern- 
 ment will, if necessary, consult with the Russian 
 government as to the desirability of any ulterior 
 measures with regard to scientific expeditions to 
 Thibet.' I avail, &c. 
 
 (Signed) A. Nicolson." 
 
 In authorizing Sir A. Nicolson to sign the above 
 Convention, Sir Edward Grey, the British Secretary 
 for Foreign .Affairs, wrote, on .August 29, as fol- 
 lows: 
 
 "I have to-day authorized your Excellency by 
 telegraph to sign a Convention with the Russian 
 Government containing .Arrangements on the sub- 
 ject of Persia, .Afghanistan, and Thibet. 
 
 "The Arrangement respecting Persia is limited 
 to the regions of that country touching the re- 
 spective frontiers of Great Britain and Russia in 
 Asia, and the Persian Gulf is not part of those 
 regions, and is only partly in Persian territory. 
 It has not therefore been considered appropriate 
 to introduce into the Convention a positive decla- 
 ration respecting special interests possessed by Great 
 Britain in the Gulf, the result of British action in 
 those waters for more than a hundred years. 
 
 "His Majesty's Government have reason to be- 
 lieve that this question will not give rise to diffi- 
 culties between the two Governments, should de- 
 velopments arise which make further discussion 
 
 affecting British interests in the Gulf necessary. 
 For the Russian Government have in the course 
 of the negotiations leadins up to the conclusion of 
 this Arrangement explicitly stated that they do not 
 deny the special interests of Great Britain in the 
 Persian Gulf — a statement of which His Majesty s 
 Government have formally taken note. 
 
 "In order to make it quite clear that the present 
 .Arrangement is not intended to affect the position 
 in the Gulf, and does not imply any change of 
 policy respecting it on the part of Great Britain, 
 His Majesty's Government think it desirable to 
 draw attention to previous declarations of British 
 poUcy, and to reaffirm generally previous state- 
 ments as to British interests in the Persian Gulf 
 and the importance of maintaining them. 
 
 "His Majesty's Government will continue to 
 direct all their efforts to the preservation of the 
 status quo in the Gulf and the maintenance of 
 British trade; in doing so, they have no desire to 
 exclude the legitimate trade of any other Power." — 
 Parliamentary Papers by Command. Russia. No. 
 I. 1907 (Cd. 3750). 
 
 ANGLO-RUSSIAN RELATIONS. See Triple 
 Entente: 1007; England: 1907. 
 
 ANGLO-RUSSIAN TREATY, 1825. See 
 Alaskan boundary question: Claims of both 
 sides. 
 
 ANGLO-SAXON, a term which may be con- 
 sidered as a compound of .Angle and Saxon, the 
 names of the two principal Teutonic tribes which 
 took possession of Britain and formed the English 
 nation by their ultimate union. As thus regarded 
 and used to designate the race, the language and 
 the institutions which resulted from that union, it 
 is only objectionable, perhaps, as being superfluous, 
 because English is the accepted name of the people 
 of England and all pertaining to them. But the 
 term .Anglo-Saxon has also been more particularly 
 employed to designate the early English people and 
 their language, before the Norman Conquest, as 
 though they were .Anglo-Saxon at that period and 
 became English afterwards. Modern historians arc 
 making strong protests against this use of the term. 
 Mr. Freeman {Norman conquest, v. i, note A) 
 says: "The name by which our forefathers really 
 knew themselves and by which they were known 
 to other nations was English and no other. '.Angli,' 
 'Engle,' '.Angel-cyn,' 'Englisc' are the true names 
 by which the Teutons of Britain knew themselves 
 and their language. ... As a chronological term, 
 .Anglo-Saxon is equally objectionable with faxon. 
 The 'Anglo-Saxon period,' as far as there evei was 
 one, is going on still. I speak therefore of our 
 forefathers, not as 'Saxons,' or even as '.Anglo- 
 Saxons,' but as they spoke of themselves, as Eng- 
 lishmen— '.Angli,' 'Engle,'— 'Anjelcyn.' "—See also 
 .Angles : Saxons. 
 
 ANGLO-SAXON CHRONICLE: See Ballad: 
 Ballad and history; English liter.\ture: 6th-i:th 
 centuries: History: 19. 
 
 ANGLO-SAXON LITERATURE. See Eng 
 lish liter.\ture: 6th- nth centuries. 
 
 ANGLON, Battle of (543) —Fought in Arme- 
 nia between the Romans and the Persians. 
 
 ANGOLA, the name now given to the territory 
 which the Portuguese have occupied on the western 
 coast of South .Africa since the sixteenth century, 
 extending from Belgian Congo, on the north, to 
 Damaraland, on the south, with an interior bound- 
 ary that is somewhat indefinite. It is divided 
 into fovr districts. Congo, Loando, Benguela. and 
 Mossamedc? For modern developments, railroads, 
 etc., see .Africa: Modern European occupation: 
 Summary of European occupation: Modern railway 
 and industrial development of .Africa; Map. 
 
 348
 
 ANGORA 
 
 ANJOU 
 
 ANGORA or Ancyra, a city of Asia Minor, fa- 
 mous in ancient times for its culture and trade. 
 On the walls of the beautiful Greek temple dedi- 
 cated to the emperor Augustus was found in 1553 
 the celebrated "Inscription of Ancyra" commemo- 
 rating his exploits. Goats and similar animals in 
 this district are famous for their long silky hair, 
 due apparently to peculiar conditions. 
 
 1402. — Battle of Angora. See Timur or Ti- 
 mour; Turkey: 1389-1403. 
 
 1915. — Massacre by Turks. See World War; 
 1915: VI. Turkey: d, 1. 
 
 1921. — Seat of Turkish Nationalist govern- 
 ment in Asia Minor. — War against Greece. See 
 Greece: 1921; Sevres, Treaty of: 1921: Near East 
 conference; also Bagdad railway: Plan; Turkey: 
 Map of Asia Minor. 
 
 ANGOSTURA, or Buena Vista, Battle of. See 
 Mexico: 1846-1847. 
 
 ANGOULEME, Charles De Valois, Due d' 
 (1573-1650), French statesman and general; il- 
 legitimate son of Charles IX and Marie Touchet ; 
 became Due d'Angouleme in 1619, three years 
 after his release from the Bastille, where he spent 
 eleven years for a conspiracy against Henry IV. 
 
 ANCOUMOIS, an old province of France, 
 ceded to England, 1360. See France: 1337-1360. 
 
 ANGRA PEQUENA, a harbor on the coast of 
 what later became German South West Africa (now 
 Southwest Africa Protectorate) ; German flag first 
 raised on African soil there, in 1884. 
 
 ANGREAU: 1918.— Taken by British. See 
 World War: 1918: II. Western front: w, 2. 
 
 ANGRES, France: 1917.— Occupied by Brit- 
 ish. See World War: 191 7: II. Western front: 
 c, 9. 
 
 ANGRIA, division of ancient duchy of Saxony. 
 See Saxony. 
 
 ANGRIVARII.— The Angrivarii were one of 
 the tribes of ancient Germany. Their settlements 
 were to the west of the Weser. See Bructeri. 
 
 ANGRO-MAINYUS, spirit of evil in dual doc- 
 trine of Zoroaster. See Zoroastrians. 
 
 ANHALT, a free state, was a duchy of Ger- 
 many and a state of the empire after 1871. It 
 was formed of Anhalt-Dessau-Cothen and Anhalt- 
 Bernburg in 1863. Originally (in the eleventh cen- 
 tury) a part of Saxony [see Saxony: ii 78-1 183], 
 it became united to the margravate of Branden- 
 burg in the twelfth century by Albert the Bear, 
 witfi whom the ruling dynasty of the duchy 
 originated. In 12 18, when Prince Henry became 
 count of Anhalt, it was separated from Saxony, 
 and was later divided by his sons into the three 
 principalities of Bernburg, .Aschersleben and 
 Zerbst. After a subsequent reunion in 1570, it 
 became again divided in 1603 into Dessau, 
 Bernburg, Plbtzkau, Zerbst, and Cbthen. This al- 
 ternation of split and reunion continued until the 
 interference of the Prussian rulers and the gradual 
 extinction of the individual lines led to the estab- 
 lishment of a joint constitution in 1859, and a final 
 unification under Leopold IV, in 1863. The last 
 reigning duke was Edward, who succeeded to the 
 throne on April 21, 1918. On July 18, 1919, An- 
 halt became a free state. Its constitution provides 
 for a diet to be elected by the people every three 
 years and for a state council of live members, the 
 chairman of which bears the title of president. 
 It is divided by Prussian Saxony into Eastern and 
 Western Anhalt (the latter also called Upper Duchy 
 or Ballenstedt), and b surrounded by* the Prussian 
 territories of Potsdam, MasFdcbursr and McrseburK 
 and by Brunswick along five miles on the west. 
 Its principal river is the Elbe, which intersects its 
 eastern part from east to west, and is joined by 
 
 the Saale and the Mulde, and minor tributaries. 
 It is mountainous in the southwest of its western 
 part, to which the Harz range extends, and becomes 
 level as it approaches the Elbe. E.xcept for the 
 portion east of the Elbe, which to a great extent 
 is a sandy plain, the soil is rich. In 1910, of the 
 total area of 888 miles, sixty per cent of the land 
 was cultivated ; seven per cent is pasture land, 
 which stretches along the Elbe, and twenty-five 
 per cent is forest-covered. The chief yields are 
 rye, wheat, potatoes and oats. Vegetables, corn, 
 fruits, beets, tobacco, flax, hops and linseed are 
 also grown. The forests abound in game and the 
 rivers in fish. Its chief mineral resources are salts 
 of different kinds and lignite. Before the World 
 War almost half of the population was occupied 
 in the mineral and manufacturing industries. The 
 country is crossed by 180 miles of railway. Its 
 largest cities are Dessau, the capital, Bernburg, 
 Cothen, Zerbst, and Rosslau. According to the 
 census of 1910 its population is 331,128. The 
 greater majority are Protestants; 12,755 are Catho- 
 lics, and 1,383 Jews. 
 
 Also in: W. Mueller, Die Entsteliung der an- 
 haitischen Slddte (Halle, 1912). — F. Knoke, An- 
 haltisclie Gesckichle (Dessau, 1893). — Siebigk, Das 
 Herzogtiium Anhalt historisch, geographisch und 
 statisthch dargestellt (Dessau, 1867). 
 
 ANHALT-DESSAU, Leopold I, prince of 
 (1676-1747), distinguished Prussian field-marshal; 
 served with Frederick the Great and gained im- 
 portant victory over the Austrians at Kesselsdorf, 
 1745. — See also Austria: 1744- 1745. 
 
 ANI, an ancient Armenian city, stormed by 
 Turks (1064). See Turkey: 1063-1073. 
 
 ANIDO, Martinez, governor of Barcelona. See 
 Spain: 192 i. 
 
 ANILINE DYES. See Chemistry: Practical 
 application: Dyes. 
 
 ANIMAL BOUNTIES. See Bounties: State 
 bounties on animals. 
 
 ANIMAL INDUSTRY, Bureau of. See Agri- 
 culture, Department of. 
 
 ANIMALS, Domestic. See Agriculture: 
 Early period. 
 
 ANIMISM. See Babylonia: Religion: From an- 
 imism to polytheism; Egypt: Religion; Religion: 
 Universal elements; Mythology: Egypt: Kinship 
 to savage; Mythology: India: Primitive elements; 
 Mythology: Rome. 
 
 ANIMUCCIA, Giovanni (d. 1571), Italian com- 
 poser; was choirmaster at St. Peter's (1555-1571), 
 filling the interval between Palestrina's terms; com- 
 posed the famous "Laudi, " which were sung at the 
 Oratorio of St. Filippo after the regular office, and 
 out of which the oratorio is said to have developed 
 
 ANJOU, Frangois (Hercule) de France, due 
 d', duke of Brabant, 1554-1584. See Netherlands: 
 1577-1581, 1581-1584. 
 
 ANJOU, a former province in the west of 
 France, now Maine-et-Loire. In ancient times in- 
 habited by the Andecavi ; became a center of power 
 under Geoffrey Martel (1040-1060); a possession 
 of the English crown during the Plantagenet mon- 
 archy (11 54- 1 203); seized by Philip .Augustus. 
 United with Provence under the rule of the king 
 of Naples; anne.xed to the royal dominions by 
 Louis XI in 1480. 
 
 Counts and dukes of (Summary). — Line orig- 
 inated with Ingelgerius, seneschal of Gatinais, who 
 received the countship from Charles the Bald in 
 870. Among his descendants were Fulk V, count 
 of Anjou, king of Jerusalem in 1131; Geoffrey IV, 
 le Plantagenet, who married Matilda, daughter of 
 Henry I of England, and Henry, son of Geoffrey 
 and grandson of Fulk V, who as Henry II was 
 
 349
 
 ANJO0 
 
 ANJOU 
 
 the first Plantagenet king of England. In the 
 reign of King John of England, the title of Anjou 
 passed to Philip Augustus of France, who granted 
 it to Charles, the brother of Louis IX. 
 
 Creation of the county. — Origin of the Plan- 
 tagenets. — "It was the policy of this unfairly de- 
 preciated sovereign [Charles the Bald, grandson of 
 Charlemagne, who received in the dismemberment 
 of the Carlovingian empire the Neustrian part, out 
 of which was developed the modern kingdom of 
 France, and who reigned from 840 to 877 J, to re- 
 cruit the failing ranks of the false and degenerate 
 Frankish aristocracy, by calling up to his peerage 
 the wise, the able, the honest and the bold of ig- 
 noble birth. ... He sought to surround himself 
 with new men, the men without ancestry ; and the 
 earliest historian of the House of Anjou both de- 
 scribes this system and affords the most splendid 
 example of the theory adopted by the king. Pre- 
 eminent amongst these parvenus was Torquatus 
 or Tortulfus, an Armorican peasant, a very rustic, 
 a backwoodsman, who lived by hunting and such 
 like occupations, almost in solitude, cultivating his 
 'quillets,' his 'cueillettes,' of land, and driving his 
 own oxen, harnessed to his plough. Torquatus 
 entered or was invited into the service of Charles- 
 le-Chauve, and rose high in his sovereign's confi- 
 dence: a prudent, a bold, and a good man. Charles 
 appointed him Forester of the forest called 'the 
 Blackbird's Nest,' the 'nid du merle,' a pleasant 
 name, not the less pleasant for its familiarity. This 
 happened during the conflicts with the Northmen. 
 Torquatus served Charles strenuously in the wars, 
 and obtained great authority. Tertullus, son of 
 Torquatus, inherited his father's energies, quick 
 and acute, patient of fatigue, ambitious and as- 
 piring; he became the liegeman of Charles; and his 
 marriage with Petronilla the King's cousin. Count 
 Hugh the Abbot's daughter, introduced him into 
 the very circle of the royal family. Chateau Lan- 
 don and other benefices in the Gastinois were ac- 
 quired by him, possibly as the lady's dowry. Sen- 
 eschal, also, was Tertullus, of the same ample Gas- 
 tinois territory. Ingelger, son of Tertullus and 
 Petronilla, appears as the first hereditary Count of 
 Anjou Outre-Maine, — Marquis, Consul or Count of 
 Anjou, — for all these titles are assigned to him. 
 Yet the ploughman Torquatus must be reckoned 
 as the primary Plantagenet: the rustic Torquatus 
 founded that brilliant family." — F. Palgrave, His- 
 tory of Normandy and England, bk. i, ch. 3. 
 
 Also in: K. Norgate, England under the An- 
 gevin kings, V. I, ck. 2. 
 
 987-1129. — Greatest of the old counts. — "Fulc 
 Nerra, Fulc the Black [987-1040] is the greatest 
 of the Angevins, the first in whom we can trace 
 that marked type of character which their house 
 was to preserve with a fatal constancy through two 
 hundred years. He was without natural affection. 
 In his youth he burned a wife at the stake, and 
 legend told how he led her to her doom decked 
 out in his gayest attire. In his old age he waged 
 his bitterest war against his son, and exacted from 
 him when vanquished a humiliation which men 
 reserved for the deadliest of their foes. 'You are 
 conquered, you are conquered!' shouted the old 
 man in fierce exultation, as Geoffry, bridled and 
 saddled like a beast of burden, crawled for pardon 
 to his father's feet. . . . But neither the wrath 
 of Heaven nor the curses of men broke with a 
 single mishap the fifty years of his success. At 
 his accession Anjou was the least important of the 
 greater provinces of France. At his death it stood, 
 if not in extent, at least in real power, first among 
 them all. . . . Hb overthrow of Brittany on the 
 field of Conquereux was followed by the gradual 
 
 absorption of Southern Touraine. . . . His great 
 victory at Pontlevoi crushed the rival house of 
 Blois; the seizure of Saumur completed his con- 
 quests in the South, while Northern Touraine was 
 won bit by bit till only Tours resisted the Ange- 
 vin. The treacherous seizure of its Count, Herbert 
 Wake-dog, left Maine at his mercy ere the old 
 man bequeathed his unfinished work to his son. 
 As a warrior, Geoffry Martel was hardly inferior 
 to his father. A decisive overthrow wrested Tours 
 from the Count of Blois; a second left Poitou at 
 his mercy ; and the seizure of Le Mans brought 
 him to the Norman border. Here . . . his advance 
 was checked by the genius of William the Con- 
 queror, and with his death the greatness of Anjou 
 seemed for the time to have come to an end. 
 Stripped of Maine by the Normans, and weakened 
 by internal dissensions, the weak and profligate ad- 
 ministration of Fulc Rechin left Anjou powerless 
 against its rivals along the Seine. It woke to fresh 
 energy with the accession of his son, Fulc of Jeru- 
 salem. . . . Fulc was the one enemy whom Henry 
 the First really feared It was to disarm his rest- 
 less hostility that the King yielded to bis son, Geof- 
 fry the Handsome, the hand of his daughter Ma- 
 tilda." — J. R. Green, Short history of the English 
 people, ch. 2, sect. 7. 
 
 Also in: K. Norgate, England under the Ange- 
 vin kings, V. I, ch. 2-4. 
 
 1154. — Counts become kings of England. See 
 England: ii 54-1 189. 
 
 1154-1360. — Extent of territory. See France: 
 Maps of medieval period: 1154-1300. 
 
 1204. — Wrested from the English King John. 
 See France: 1180-1224. . 
 
 1206-1442. — English attempts to recover the 
 county. — Third and fourth houses of Anjou. — 
 Creation of the dukedom. — King John, of Eng- 
 land, did not voluntarily submit to the sentence 
 of the peers of France which pronounced his for- 
 feiture of the fiefs of Anjou and Maine, "since he 
 invaded and had possession of Angers again in 
 1206, when. Gothlike, he demolished its ancient 
 walls. He lost it in the following year, and . . . 
 made no further attempt upon it until 1213. In 
 that year, having collected a powerful army, he 
 landed at Rochelle, and actually occupied Angers, 
 without striking a blow. But . . . the year 12 14 
 beheld him once more in retreat from .Anjou, never 
 to reappear there, since he died on the 19th of 
 October, 12 16. In the person of King John ended 
 what is called the 'Second House of Anjou.' In 
 1204, after the confiscations of John's French pos- 
 sessions, Philip Augustus established hereditary 
 seneschals in that part of France, the first of whom 
 was the tutor of the unfortunate Young .Arthur 
 [of Brittany], named William des Roches, who was 
 in fact Count in all except the name, over Anjou, 
 Maine, and Tourraine, owing allegiance only to 
 the crown of France. The Seneschal, William des 
 Roches, died in 1222. His son-in-law, Amaury de 
 Craon, succeeded him," but was soon afterwards 
 taken prisoner during a war in Brittany and in- 
 carcerated. Henry III. of England still claimed 
 the title of Count of Anjou, and in 1230 he "dis- 
 embarked a considerable army at St. Malo, in the 
 view of re-conquering Anjou, and the other for- 
 feited possessions of his crown. Louis IX , then 
 only fifteen years old . . . advanced to the attack 
 of the allies: but in the following year a peace was 
 concluded, the province of Guienne having been 
 ceded to the English crown. In 1241, Louis gave 
 the counties of Poitou and Auvergne to his brother 
 .Alphonso; and. in the year 1246, he invested his 
 brother Charles, Count of Provence, with the coun- 
 ties of Anjou and Maine, thereby annulling the 
 
 350
 
 ANJOU 
 
 ANNALS 
 
 rank and title of Seneschal, and instituting the 
 Third House of Anjou. Charles I., the founder 
 of the proud fortunes of this Third House, was 
 ambitious in character, and events long favoured 
 his ambition. Count of Provence, through the in- 
 heritance of his consort, had not long been in- 
 vested with Anjou and Maine, ere he was invited 
 to tie conquest of Sicily [see Italy (Southern): 
 1250-1268)." The third house of Anjou ended 
 in the person of John, who became king of France 
 in 1,350. In 1356 he invested his son Louis with 
 Anjou and Maine, and in 13O0 the latter was cre- 
 ated the first duke of Anjou. The fourth house 
 of Anjou, which began with this first duke, came 
 to an end two generations later with Rene, 
 or Regnier — the "good King Rene" of history 
 and story, whose kingdom was for the most 
 part a name, and who is best known to English 
 readers, perhaps, as the father of Margaret of 
 Anjou, the stout-hearted queen of Henry VI. On 
 the death of his father, Louis, the second duke, 
 Rene became by his father's will count of Guise, 
 his elder brother, Louis, inheriting the dukedom. 
 In 1434 the brother died without issue and Rene 
 succeeded him in Anjou, Maine and Provence. He 
 had already become duke of Bar, as the adopted 
 heir of his great-uncle, the cardinal-duke, and duke 
 of Lorraine (1430), by designation of the late 
 duke, whose daughter he had married. In 1435 he 
 received from Queen Joanna of Naples the doubt- 
 ful legacy of that distracted kingdom, which she 
 had previously bequeathed first, to Alphonso of 
 Aragon, and afterwards — revoking that testament 
 — to Rene's brother, Louis of Anjou. King Rene 
 enjoyed the title during his life-time, and the actual 
 kingdom for a brief period; but in 1442 he was 
 expelled from Naples by his competitor Alphonso 
 (see Italy: 1412-1447). — M. A. Hookham, Life 
 and times of Margaret of Anjou, introduction and 
 ch. 1-2. 
 
 1282. — Loss of Sicily. — Retention of Naples. 
 See Italy (Southern): 1282-1300. 
 
 1204-1311. — Rule in Athens. See Athens: 
 1205-1308. 
 
 1310-1382. — Possession of the Hungarian 
 throne. See Hungary: 1301-1442. 
 
 1370-1384. — Acquisition and loss of the crown 
 of Poland. See Poland: 1333-1572. 
 
 1381-1384. — Claims of Louis of Anjou. — His 
 expedition to Italy and his death. See Italy: 
 (Southern): 1343-1389, 
 
 1480. — Forced to recognize power of the 
 crown. See France: 1461-1468. 
 
 1492-1515.— Claims to throne of Sicily. See 
 France: 1492-1515. 
 
 ANJOU, Genealogical table. See France 
 
 ANJUMAN, or Enjumen, a term which seems 
 to signify in Persia either a local assembly or a 
 Ijolitical association of any nature. See Persia: 
 iqo8-iaoq. 
 
 ANKARSTROM, or Anckarstrom, Jakob 
 Johan ( 1 761 -1 792), the assassin of King Gustavus 
 III of Sweden. 
 
 ANICENDORFF, Battle of. See Germany: 
 1807 (Februar>'-June). 
 
 ANLEY, Frederick Gore (1864- ), British 
 brigadier-general at battle of Ypres. See World 
 War: 1914: I. Western front: w, 13. 
 
 ANN ARUNDEL COUNTRY. See Mary- 
 land: 1643-1640. 
 
 ANNA AMALIA (1739-1807), duchess of Saxe- 
 Weimar; a patroness of art and literature; made 
 Weimar the center of culture in Germany ; is com- 
 memorated in Goethe's work "Zum Andenken der 
 FUrstin Anna-Amalia." 
 
 ANNA IVANOVNA (1693-1740), empress of 
 
 Russia 1730-1740; participated in War of Polish 
 Succession and was successful against the Turks 
 in the Crimean War (1736-1739); reformed the 
 army, and granted greater liberty to the landed 
 gentry. — See also Russia: 1725-1739. 
 
 ANNAHAWAS. See Siouan family: Sioux. 
 
 "ANNALES" (of 'William Camden). See His- 
 tory: 23. 
 
 ANNALS, from the Latin annus, year, a rela- 
 tion of events in chronological order, wherein each 
 event is recorded under the year in which it oc- 
 curred. In a broader sense, the word is not in- 
 frequently used by writers to designate history in 
 general, as, for instance, "the most tremendous 
 event in our annals." In the singular, annal, it 
 may signify a record of a single event. Annals 
 differ from chronicles in that they are original 
 records set down from day to day, perhaps by 
 different writers, whereas by chronicles we under- 
 stand a complete written or edited narrative; 
 which may be the work of one author and bear 
 the impress of his individuality. Thus, to draw a 
 comparison, Hayden's "Dictionary of Dates" con- 
 tains the annals of the world; the "American 
 Year Book" and the ".Annual Register" each 
 present the chronicles (a connected narrative) of 
 a certain year. Annals are of Roman, chronicles 
 of Greek, origin; the latter term is derived from 
 chronos, meaning both time and year. Originally 
 signifying a chronological table, the word chronicle 
 during the Middle Ages came to include every form 
 of history. 
 
 Roman annals. — Ennius. — Livy. — Tacitus. 
 — "The Romans did not begin to write the history 
 of their city until about 200 B. C. Even then the 
 first histories were meager annals. For the early 
 centuries the composers found two kinds of ma- 
 terial, — scant official records and unreliable family 
 chronicles. . . . From such sources, early in the 
 second century B. C, Fabius Pictor wrote the first 
 connected history of Rome. He and his succes- 
 sors (mostly Greek slaves or adventurers) trimmed 
 and patched their narratives ingeniously to get rid 
 of gross inconsistencies ; borrowed freely from in- 
 cidents in Greek history, to fill gaps; and so pro- 
 duced an attractive story that hung together pretty 
 well in the absence of criticism. These early works 
 are now lost; hut, two hundred years later, they 
 furnished material for Livy and Dionysius, whose 
 accounts of the legendary age were accepted as 
 real history until after iSoo A.D." — W. M. West, 
 Ancient world, pp. 262-263. — "There grew up in 
 Rome (as in other Italian towns) two important 
 'colleges' of city priests, — pontiffs and augurs. The 
 six pontiffs had a general oversight of the whole 
 system of divine law, and they were also the guar- 
 dians of human science. Their care of the exact 
 dates of festivals made them the keepers of the 
 calendar and of the rude annals; they had over- 
 sight of weights and measures; and they themselves 
 described their knowledge as 'the science of all 
 things human and divine.'" — Ibid., pp. 272-273. — 
 The Romans called these writings the annales 
 pontificum or annales maximi, on account of their 
 being issued by the pontifex maximns. 
 
 "Ennius possessed great power over words, and 
 wielded that power skillfully. He improved the 
 language in its harmony and its grammatical forms, 
 and increased its copiousness and power. What 
 he did was improved upon, but was never un- 
 done, and upon the foundations he laid the taste 
 of succeeding ages erected an elegant and beauti- 
 ful superstructure. His great epic poem — the 'An- 
 nals' — gained him the attachment and admiration 
 of his countrymen. In this he first introduced the 
 hexameter to the notice of the Romans, and de- 
 
 351.
 
 ANNALS 
 
 Roman 
 Medieval 
 
 ANNALS 
 
 tailed the rise and progress of their national glory, 
 from the earliest legendary period down to his 
 own times. The fragments of this work which 
 remain are amply sufficient to show that he pos- 
 sessed picturesque power, both in sketching his 
 narratives and in portraying his characters, which 
 seem to live and breathe ; his language, dignified, 
 chaste and severe, rises as high as the most ma- 
 jestic eloquence, but it does not soar to the sub- 
 limity of poetry." — A. C. L. Botta, Hand book oj 
 universal literature, p. 132. — "Livy (5Q-i8 B.C.) 
 . . . was a warm and open admirer of the ancient 
 institutions of the country, and esteemed Pompey 
 as one of its greatest heroes; but Augustus did 
 not allow political opinions to interfere with the 
 regard which he entertained for the historian. His 
 great work is a history of Rome, which he mod- 
 estly terms 'Annals,' in 142 books, of which 35 
 are extant. Besides his history, Livy is said to 
 have written treatises and dialogues, which were 
 partly philosophical and partly historical." — Ibid., 
 p. i$i. — The historical writings of Tacitus deal- 
 ing with events befoie his time are called the 
 Annates; those treating of his own period, events 
 that happened within his own experience, bear the 
 name Hislorice, though it is doubted whether this 
 distinction was drawn by Tacitus himself or later 
 editors. — "The 'Annals' consist of sixteen books; 
 they commence with the death of Augustus, and 
 conclude with that of Nero (14-68 A. D.). The 
 object of Tacitus was to describe the influence 
 which the establishment of tyranny on the ruins 
 of liberty exercised for good or for evil in bring- 
 ing out the character of the individual. In the 
 extinction of freedom there still existed in Rome 
 bright examples of heroism and courage, and in- 
 stances not less prominent of corruption and deg- 
 radation. In the annals of Tacitus these indi- 
 viduals stand out in bold relief, either singly or 
 in groups upon the stage, while the emperor forms 
 the principal figure, and the moral sense of the 
 reader is awakened to admire instances of patient 
 suffering and determined bravery, or to witness 
 abject slavery and remorseless despotism." — Ibid., 
 p. 167. — See also Latin liter.'ITure. 
 
 Medieval annals. — Roman prototype. — Eccle- 
 siastical annals. — Sources of local history. — 
 Froissart. — De Commines. — The famous Chron- 
 ographus or Calendar, an official document of the 
 Roman empire, was completed in 354, and may be 
 regarded as the prototype of the long catalogue 
 of medieval annals. The range of its contents is 
 quite remarkable: It is an official calendar and a 
 universal chronicle (the latter to the year 338) ; 
 it contains a record of consular annals, a list of 
 the popes to Liberius (352-366), and the paschal 
 tables worked out up to the year 412. .^nglo-Saxon 
 missionaries introduced the custom of compiling 
 chronological lists into Germany and Gaul dur- 
 ing the seventh century. Paschal tables, fixing the 
 dates for Easter, were in use very early in the Brit- 
 ish Isles. Notes of important events were added 
 down the margins opposite the years in which they 
 occurred, and thus arose the institution of annals. 
 Elaborations of and additions to the list of popes 
 in the Chroiwgraphns gave rise to the Pontificale 
 Romantim, better known as the Lilier Pontifitalis, 
 from which there sprang a number of similar rec- 
 ords compiled in monasteries, abbeys, and cathe- 
 drals, dealing in the main with local affairs. In 
 the course of time these documents were copied, 
 passed around and compared ; discrepancies were 
 brought into harmony ; omissions were inserted 
 and errors rectified. When these data had been 
 arranged in chronological order, they represented a 
 mine of original sources and contemporary evi- 
 
 dence for future historians to explore and delve 
 in. 
 
 "Froissart (1337-1410) was an ecclesiastic of the 
 day, but little in his life or writings bespeaks the 
 sacred calling. Having little taste for the duties 
 of his profession, he was employed by the Lord 
 of Montfort to compose a chronicle of the wars 
 of the time; but there were no books to tell him 
 of the past, no regular communication between 
 nations to inform him of the present ; so he fol- 
 lowed the fashion of knights errant, and set out 
 on horseback, not to seek adventures, but, as an 
 itinerant historian, to find materials for his chroni- 
 cle. He wandered from town to town, and from 
 castle to castle, to see the places of which he would 
 write, and to learn events on the spot where they 
 transpired. His first journey was to England; 
 here he was employed by Queen Philippa of Hai- 
 nault to accompany the Duke of Clarence of Milan, 
 where he met Boccaccio and Chaucer. He after- 
 wards passed into the service of several of the 
 princes of Europe, to whom he acted as secretary 
 and poet, always gleaning material for historic 
 record. His book is an almost universal history 
 of the different states of Europe, from 1322 to 
 the end of the 14th century. He troubles him- 
 self with no explanations or theories of cause 
 and effect, nor with the philosophy of state policy ; 
 he is simply a graphic story-teller. Sir Walter 
 Scott called Froissart his master." — Ibid., p. 264- 
 265. 
 
 "Philippe de Commines (i445-i5og) was a man 
 of his age, but in advance of it, combining the 
 simplicity of the 15th century with the sagacity 
 of a later period. An annalist, like Froissart, he 
 was also a statesman, and a political philosopher; 
 embracing, like Machiavelli and Montesquieu, the 
 remoter consequences which flowed from the events 
 he narrated and the principles he unfolded. He 
 was an unscrupulous diplomat in the service of 
 Louis XL, and his description of the last years 
 of that monarch is a striking piece of history, 
 whence poets and novelists have borrowed themes 
 in later times. But neither the romance of Sir 
 Walter Scott nor the song of Beranger does jus- 
 tice to the reality, as presented by the faithful 
 Commines." — Ibid., p. 265. 
 
 English annals. — The more important annals in 
 England developed from the tables of Bede and 
 the paschal cycles. Among these the chief are 
 the .-iunales Cantuarienses (Canterbury Annals) of 
 6i8-6qo; the .Innales Nordhumbrani (Northumber- 
 land) of 734-802; the Hisloria Eliensis Ecclesice 
 (Church of Ely) dated 700; the .Annates Cam- 
 brice (Welsh Annals) of 440 to the Norman Con- 
 (|uest in 1066, and the .Annaies Lindisjarnenses 
 (Holy Island) of 532-oq3. The science of history 
 writing with any degree of accuracy in England 
 dates from 1066. 
 
 Irish annals. — "Among the various classes 
 of persons who devoted themselves to literature 
 in ancient Ireland, there were special Annalists, 
 who made it their business to record, with the 
 utmost accuracy, all remarkable events simply 
 and briefly, without any ornament of language, 
 without exaggeration, and without fictitious em- 
 bellishment. The extreme care they took that 
 their statements should be truthful is shown by 
 the manner in which they compiled their books. 
 As a general rule they admitted nothing into their 
 records except either what occurred during their 
 lifetime, and which may be said to have come 
 under their own personal knowledge, or what 
 they found recorded in the compilations of previ- 
 ous annalists, who had themselves followed the 
 same plan These men took nothing on hearsay: 
 
 352
 
 ANNALS 
 
 Irish 
 
 ANNALS 
 
 and in this manner successive annalists carried 
 on a continued ctironicle from age to age, thus 
 giving the whole series the force of contempo- 
 rary testimony. We have still preserved to us 
 many books of native Annals. . . . Most of the 
 ancient manuscripts whose entries are copied into 
 the books of Annals we now possess have been 
 lost; but that the entries were so copied is ren- 
 dered quite certain by various expressions found 
 in the present existing Annals, as well as by the 
 known history of several of the compilations. 
 The Irish Annals deal with the affairs of Ireland — 
 generally but not exclusively. Many of them re- 
 cord events occurring in other parts of the world; 
 and it was a common practice to begin the work 
 with a brief general history, after which the An- 
 nalist takes up the affairs of Ireland." — P. W. 
 Joyce, Social history of ancient Ireland, p. 224. 
 — "The Irish Annals record about twenty-five 
 eclipses and comets at the several years from 
 A. D. 496 to 1066. The dates of all these are 
 found, according to modem scientific calculation 
 and the records of other countries, to be correct. 
 This shows conclusively that the original records 
 were made by eye-witnesses, and not by calculation 
 in subsequent times: for any such calculation 
 would be sure — on account of errors in the meth- 
 ods then used — to give an incorrect result. A 
 well-known entry in the Irish account of the Bat- 
 tle of Clontarf, fought A. D. 1014, comes under 
 the tests of natural phenomena. The author of 
 the account, who wrote soon after the battle, 
 states that it was fought on Good Friday, the 23rd 
 of April, 1014; and that it began at sunrise, when 
 the tide was full in. To test the truth of this 
 . . . after a laborious calculation. Dr. [Rev. Sam- 
 uel] Haughton found that the tide was at its height 
 that morning at half-past five o'clock, just as the 
 sun was coming over the horizon: a striking con- 
 firmation of the truth of this part of the narra- 
 tive. It shows, too, that the account was writ- 
 ten by, or taken down from, an eye-witness of 
 the battle. Whenever events occurring in Ireland 
 in the Middle Ages are mentioned by British or 
 Continental writers they are always — or nearly 
 always — in agreement with the native records. 
 Irish bardic history relates in much detail how 
 the Picts landed on the coast of Leinster in the 
 reign of Eremon, the first Milesian king of Ireland, 
 many centuries before the Christian era. After 
 some time they sailed to Scotland to conquer a 
 territory for themselves: but before embarking 
 they asked Eremon to give them Irish women for 
 wives, which he did, but only on this condition, 
 that the right of succession to the kingship should 
 be vested in the female progeny rather than in the 
 male. And so the Picts settled in Scotland with 
 their wives. Now all this is confirmed by the 
 Venerable Bede, who says that the Picts obtained 
 wives from the Scots (i.e., the Irish) on condition 
 that when any difficulty arose they should choose 
 a king from the female royal line rather than from 
 the male; 'which custom,' continues Bede, 'has 
 been observed among them to this day.' ... All 
 the Irish Annals record a great defeat of the Danes 
 near Killarney in the year 812. This account is 
 fully borne out by an authority totally unconnected 
 with Ireland, the well-known Book of Annals, writ- 
 ten by Eginhard (the tutor of Charlemagne), who 
 was living at this very time. Under AD. 812 he 
 writes: — 'The fleet of the Northmen, having in- 
 vaded Hibernia, the island of the Scots, after a 
 battle had been fought with the Scots, and after 
 no small number of the Norsemen had been slain, 
 they basely took to flight and returned home.' 
 . . . References by Irishmen to Irish affairs are 
 
 found in numerous volumes scattered over all 
 Europe: — Annalistic entries, direct statements in 
 tales and biographies, marginal notes, incidental 
 references to persons, places, and customs, and 
 so forth, written by various men at various times; 
 which, when compared one with another, and with 
 the home records, hardly ever exhibit a disagree- 
 ment. The more the ancient historical records of 
 Ireland are examined and tested, the more their 
 truthfulness is made manifest. Their uniform 
 agreement among themselves, and their accuracy, 
 as tried by the ordeals of astronomical calcula- 
 tion and of foreign writers' testimony, have 
 drawn forth the acknowledgments of the greatest 
 Irish scholars and archaeologists, that ever lived." — 
 Ibid., pp. 225-228. 
 
 "The following are the principal books of Irish 
 Annals remaining. The 'Synchronisms of Flann,' 
 who was a layman, Ferleginn or chief professor of 
 the school of Monasterboice ; died in 1056. He 
 compares the chronology of Ireland with that of 
 other countries, and gives the names of the mon- 
 archs that reigned in the principal ancient king- 
 doms and empires of the world, with the Irish 
 kings who reigned contemporaneously. Copies of 
 this tract are preserved in the Books of Lecan and 
 Ballymote. The 'Annals of Tighernach' (Teerna): 
 Tighernach O'Breen, the compiler of these annals, 
 one of the greatest scholars of his time, was abbot 
 of the two monasteries of Clonmacnoise and Ros- 
 common. He was acquainted with the chief his- 
 torical writers of the world known in his day, com- 
 pares them, and quotes from them ; and he made 
 use of Flann's Synchronisms, and of most other 
 ancient Irish historical writings of importance. His 
 work is written in Irish mixed a good deal with 
 Latin; it has lately been translated by Dr. Stokes. 
 He states that authentic Irish history begins at the 
 foundation of Emania, and that all preceding ac- 
 counts are uncertain. Tighernach died in 10S8. 
 The 'Annals of Innisfallen' were compiled about 
 the year 1215 by some scholars of the monastery 
 of Innisfallen, in the Lower Lake of Killarney. 
 The 'Annals of Ulster' were written in the little 
 island of Senait MacManus, now called Belle Isle, 
 in Upper Lough Erne. The original compiler was 
 Cathal (Cahal) Maguire, who died of small-pox 
 in 1408. They have lately been translated and 
 published. The 'Annals of Lough Ce' (Key) were 
 copied in 1588 for Bryan MacDermot, who had 
 his residence on an island in Lough Key, in Ros- 
 common. They have been translated and edited 
 in two volumes. The 'Annals of Connaught,' from 
 1224 to 1562. The 'Chronicon Scotorum' (Chroni- 
 cle of the Scots or Irish), down to A. D. 113S, 
 was compiled about 1650 by the great Irish anti- 
 quary Duald MacFirbis. These annals have been 
 printed with translation. The 'Annals of Boyle,' 
 from the earliest time to 1253, are written in Irish 
 mi.xed with Latin; and the entries throughout are 
 very meagre. The 'Annals of Clonmacnoise,' from 
 the earliest period to 1408. The original Irish of 
 these is lost ; but we have an English translation 
 by Connell MacGeoghegan of Westmeath, which 
 he completed in 1627. The 'Annals of the Four 
 Masters,' also called the Annals of Donegal, are the 
 most important of all. They were compiled in the 
 Franciscan monastery of Donegal, by three of the 
 O'Clerys, Michael, Conary, and Cucogry, and by 
 Ferfesa O'Mulconry. who are now commonly 
 known as the Four Masters. They began in 1632, 
 and completed the work in 1636. The '.'\nn3ls of 
 the Four Masters' was translated with most elabo- 
 rate and learned annotations by Dr. John O'Dono- 
 van ; and it was published — Irish text, translation, 
 and notes — in seven large volumes. A book of an- 
 
 353
 
 ANNALS 
 
 ANNAPOLIS CONVENTION 
 
 nals called the 'Psalter of Cashcl,' was compiled 
 by Cormac MacCullenan, but this has been lost. 
 He also wrote "Cormac's Glossary-,' an explanation 
 of many old Irish words. This work has been 
 translated and printed. The Annals noticed so far 
 are all in the Irish language, occasionally mixed 
 with Latin ; but besides these there are Annals of 
 Ireland wholly in Latin; such as those of Clyn, 
 Dowling, Pembridge. Multylarnham, etc.. most of 
 which have been published." — Ibid., pp. 228-230. 
 
 "None of the Irish writers of old times conceived 
 the plan of writing a general history of Ireland. 
 The first history of the whole country was the 
 'Forus Feasa ar Erinn,' or History of Ireland, 
 from the most ancient times to the Anglo-Norman 
 invasion, written by Dr. Geoffrey Keating of 
 Tubbrid in Tipperary, a Catholic priest: died 1644. 
 Keating was deeply versed in the ancient language 
 and literature of Ireland; and his history, though 
 containing much that is legendary, is very interest- 
 ing and valuable. The genealogies of the princi- 
 pal families were most faithfully preserved in an- 
 cient Ireland. Each king and chief had in his 
 household a Shanachy ur Historian, whose duly 
 it was to keep a written record of all the ancestors 
 and of the several branches of the family. Many 
 of the ancient genealogies are preserved in the 
 Books of Leinster. Lecan, Ballymote, etc. But 
 the most important collection of all is the great 
 Book of Genealogies compiled in the years 1050 
 to loob in the College of St. Nicholas in Galway, 
 by Duald MacFirbis. In this place may be men- 
 tioned the Dmnsenchus ( Din-Shan'shus), a topo- 
 graphical tract giving the legendary history and 
 the etymology of the names of remarkable hills, 
 mounds, caves, cams, cromlechs, raths. duns, 
 plains, lakes, rivers, fords, islands, and so forth. 
 The stories are mostly fictitious, invented to suit 
 the really existing names: nevertheless this tract is 
 of the utmost value for elucidating the topography 
 and antiquities of the country. Copies of it are 
 found in several of the old Irish Books of mis- 
 cellaneous literature, as already mentioned. .An- 
 other very important tract — one about the names 
 of remarkable Irish persons, called Coir .-Knmann 
 ('Fitness of Names'), corresponding with the Dinn- 
 senchus for place-names, has been published with 
 translation by Dr. Stokes." — Ibid. pp. 230-232. — See 
 also Books: Books in medieval times; Celts: An- 
 cient Irish sagas. 
 
 French, German, Italian and Spanish annals. 
 — Early in the 8th century annals of Frankish 
 origin began to appear. The German historian 
 G. H. Pertz (1705-1876), in one of his numerous 
 literarv- exploration journeys, discovered some valu- 
 able annals in a manuscript of the St. Germain- 
 des-Pres church in Paris, founded by King Childe- 
 bert in 542 or 543. This collection of annals begin 
 with some short annotations from Lindisfarne in 
 the years 643-604 and from Canterbury for 673- 
 600. The manuscript, it appears, was brought 
 from England by .\lcuin, adviser of Charlemagne 
 and the most distinguished scholar of the 8th cen- 
 tury, to that monarch's court. From 782 to 787 
 .Alcuin had inserted for each year the names of the 
 places where Charlemagne had spent the Easter- 
 tide. The monks of St. Germain-des-pres had 
 during later years added matter taken from the 
 ancient annals of St. Denis up to 887. The earli- 
 est annals of the Carolingian period are divided by 
 historians into three groups: the Annales S. Amandi, 
 and their derivatives; those which grew out of the 
 historical annotations of the convent of Laurissa 
 or Lorsch in Germany; and the Annales Murba- 
 censes (Murbach in .Msace). These are all bald 
 records of events arranged in chronological order. 
 
 During the reign of Charlemagne, annals as- 
 sumed something of an official stamp and began 
 to develop a real historical character under patron- 
 age of the court. To distinguish them from the 
 ecclesiastic annals, they were styled Reichsannaien, 
 or "annals of the state." They betray a wide and 
 intimate knowledge of state affairs, while unpleas- 
 ant facts are diplomatically omitted. These stata 
 annals begin from the year 741 and contain much 
 material borrowed from earlier documents, notably 
 the Liber Pontificalis, Gesla Francorum, Bede's 
 Little Chronicle, and the chronicles of Fredegarius 
 and of Isidor of Seville. Under the Roman Em- 
 peror Louis the Pious (778-S40) and his successors 
 the Annales Fitldenses were brought out, containing 
 the history of the realm, with matter taken from 
 the Annales Lanrissenses minores and others to fill 
 in the history between 711 and 829. The Annales 
 S. Bertini (,830-835) are more ambitious in scope 
 and appear to have been heavily drawn upon in 
 the production of the Chronicon de gestis Korman- 
 noriim in Francid. .Another important collection 
 of the oth century arc the so-called Annales Ein- 
 hardi and the Annales Laiiresliamenses. Frotn this 
 stage the annals begin to develop into chronicles, 
 or carefully-written histories. They passed from 
 hand to hand as death removed the authors and 
 became merged in latter compilations under other 
 names. In Italy and Spain the output was poor 
 in comparison with that of the northern countries. 
 The principal Italian contributions are the Chronica 
 Sancti Benedict! Casinensis (014-934) ; the chroni- 
 cle of Bendict of St. .Andrew (q6S) ; the Construc- 
 tio Farfensis (about 848) ; and the more famous 
 Chronicon Salernilanum (074). The chief Spanish 
 products are: the De Sex aetatibus tnundi (from 
 B.C. 38). and the Chronicon of Bishop Idatius 
 (S70). 
 
 .^Lso in: S. R. Gardiner and J. B. Mullinger, In- 
 troduction to the study of English history. — C. W. 
 -N'itzsch, Die romische .innalistik — L O. Brocker, 
 Moderne Quellenforscher iind antike Geschicht- 
 schreiber. — Monod, Etude critique sur les sources 
 de Vhistoire carolinginne. — Wibel. Beilriige zur 
 Kritik der Annales Regni Francorum und .\nnales 
 qui dicuntur Einhardi. 
 
 ANNAM, or Anam, a French colony in south- 
 eastern .\sia, part of French Indo-China ; became 
 a French protectorate June 6, 1884. It is ruled 
 by King Khai-Dink who came to the throne in 
 1Q16. Internal affairs are administered by .\n- 
 namite officials in accordance with the advice of 
 the French government. — See also Fr.*N'CE: 1875- 
 iSSo. 
 
 Ancient mythology. See Mythology: Eastern 
 Africa: Indian and Chinese influences. 
 
 French trade with China. See Indo-China: 
 1787-1801. 
 
 Government. Sec Indo-Ciiina. 
 
 Native rule. See Indo-Ciiina: B.C. 2i8-.\. D. 
 1886. 
 
 ANNAPOLIS, Attack on (1744) See New 
 Excl-\nd: 1744. 
 
 ANNAPOLIS (Port Royal): 1713.— Relin- 
 quished to Great Britain. See Newtoundland, 
 DOMi.NioN- ok: 171 ( 
 
 ANNAPOLIS ACADEMY. See Annapolis 
 
 NaV.^I, .\C.-\DEMV. 
 
 ANNAPOLIS CONVENTION.— The necessity 
 for amending the articles of confederation became 
 patent immediately after peace was declared in 
 1783 The weakness of the union was emphasized 
 by the many inadjustable causes of difference be- 
 tween the states; commercial regulations were from 
 the beginning mutually incompatible, and it was 
 with difficulty that Madison finally convinced the 
 
 354
 
 ANNAPOLIS NAVAL ACADEMY 
 
 ANSON 
 
 Virginia legislature of the only possible remedy: 
 calling the other states to a convention for com- 
 mon action. He finally succeeded in this purpose — 
 delegates were to be sent from all states to con- 
 sider commercial regulations. "The place was to 
 be Annapolis, remote from New York, where con- 
 gress then sat, and far away from any large port 
 whose merchants might influence its deliberations. 
 The time of meeting was to be September ii, 178b. 
 This convention, be it remembered, was to be a 
 creature of the states, to report to them, and was 
 not concerned with the continental congress. At 
 the appointed time delegates assembled from Vir- 
 ginia, Pennsylvania, Delaware, New York, and 
 New Jersey; and Massachusetts, Rhode Island, 
 New Hampshire, and North Carolina named dele- 
 gates who did not attend. The other states, 
 Georgia, South Carolina, Maryland, and Connecti- 
 cut, took no notice of the call. More discourag- 
 ing than these absences was the fact that no real 
 good could be accomplished unless a power existed 
 strong enough to enforce common regulations, if 
 they were made. The convention, therefore, gave 
 up the task before it and issued an address to the 
 states urging them to call a constitutional conven- 
 tion to meet in Philadelphia the second Monday 
 in May. Its action was to be binding when ap- 
 proved by congress and confirmed by all the state 
 legislatures." — J. S. Bassett, Short history of the 
 United States, pp. 241-242. 
 
 ANNAPOLIS NAVAL ACADEMY.— "Estab- 
 lished at Annapolis | Maryland! in 1845, while 
 George Bancroft, the historian, was Secretary of 
 the Navy. It began on a small scale, by execu- 
 tive order ; and Congress gradually provided it 
 with buildings and funds. Its graduates enter the 
 Navy with commissions as ensigns. By the act of 
 February 15, igi6, three midshipmen may be ap- 
 pointed each year to the academy for each Sena- 
 tor, Representative, and Delegate in Congress, 
 while, by a later act of the same year, the number 
 of annual appointments at large was made 15, that 
 from among enlisted men of the Navy 25, and 
 the appointment of 4 Filipinos was authorized. 
 Finally, by the act of .^pril 25, IQ17, the appoint- 
 ment of one additional midshipman for each Sena- 
 tor, Representative, and Delegate in Congress 
 [was] authorized for the year 1Q17-1S. (At that 
 time] the possible maximum enrollment of the 
 academy [was] about 2,200. The selection of 
 candidates for nomination from any State, Terri- 
 tory, or congressional district is entirely in the 
 hands of the member of Congress entitled to the 
 appointment, but these appointments are now 
 made upon the basis of competitive examination. 
 A person securing such appointment must stand 
 rigid physical and mental examinations before be- 
 ing admitted to the academy." — War cyclopedia, 
 p. 184. 
 
 ANNATES, or First-fruits. — "A practice 
 had existed for some hundreds of years, in all 
 the churches of Europe, that bishops and arch- 
 bishops, on presentation to their sees, should trans- 
 mit to the pope, on receiving their bulls of in- 
 vestment, one year's income from their new prefer- 
 ments. It was called the payment of .Annates, or 
 first-fruits, and had originated in the time of the 
 crusades, as a means of providing a fund for the 
 holy wars. Once established it had settled into 
 custom, and was one of the chief resources of the 
 papal revenue " — J. A. Froude, History of England, 
 ch. 4. — "The claim [by the pope] to the first- 
 fruits of bishoprics and other promotions was ap- 
 parently first made in England by Alexander IV. 
 in 1256, for five years; it was renewed by Clement 
 V. in 1306, to last for two years; and it was in a 
 
 measure successful. By John XXII. it was claimed 
 throughout Christendom for three years, and met 
 with universal resistance. . . . Stoutly contested as 
 it was in the Council of Constance, and frequently 
 made the subject of debate in parliament and 
 council the demand must have been regularly com- 
 plied with." — W. Stubbs, Constitutional history of 
 England, ch. iq, sect. 718. — The papal exaction was 
 abolished in England in the reign of Henry VIII. 
 and later, during the same reign, right to annates 
 was annexed by the crown. 
 
 ANNE (1665-1714), queen of Great Britain and 
 Ireland 1702-1714; last of the house of Stuart; 
 sided with the Prince of Orange in the revolution 
 of 1688 against her father; successful participa- 
 tion in the War of the Spanish Succession, and 
 the union of Scotland and England in 1707 were 
 the most important events in her reign.— See also 
 England: 1702-1714, and after. 
 
 ANNE BOLEYN. See Boleyn, Anne; Eng- 
 land: I527-I534> and 1536-154.^ 
 
 ANNE OF AUSTRIA (1601-1666), queen of 
 France (1615-1006) through marriage to Louis 
 XIII; was concerned in conspiracies of Chalais 
 (1628) and Cinq-Mars (1642) against Richelieu; 
 regent (1643-1661) for her son, Louis XIV. — See 
 also France: 1042-1043, and 1651-1653. 
 
 ANNE OF BRITTANY (1477-1514), queen 
 of France; by her marriage to Charles VIII in 
 1491, Brittany, the last of the great fiefs, was 
 permanently united to the crown of France. Sec 
 Brittany: 1491. 
 
 ANNE OF CLEVES (1515-1557), queen of 
 England, fourth wife of Henry VIII ; was divorced 
 in the year of her marriage. See England: 1536-1543. 
 
 ANNEUX, France: 1917.— Taken by British. 
 See World War: 1917: II. Western front: g, 5. 
 
 1918. — Region of fighting. See World Wah: 
 1918: II. Western front: o, 1. 
 
 ANNO, or Hanno, Saint (c. 1010-1075), arch- 
 bishop of Cologne. Prominent in the government 
 of Germany during the minority of Henry IV. .^i 
 the synod of Mantua 1064, declared Alexander II 
 the rightful pope. 
 
 ANNOBON ISLAND, an island in the Gulf ol 
 Guinea, belonging to Spain. Discovered in 1471 
 bv the Portuguese; ceded to Spain in 1778. 
 
 ANNUNZIO, Gabriele d'. See D'Annunziu, 
 Gabriele. 
 
 ANSBACH. See Br.'^ndenburc: 1417-1640. 
 
 ANSCHAR, Saint. See Ansgar, Saint. 
 
 ANSELM (c. 1033-1109), early scholastic philos- 
 opher. .\ monk under Lanfranc, whom he suc- 
 ceeded as prior of Bee. In 1092 he was called to 
 England to become archbishop of Canterbury, in- 
 volving a dispute over investiture lasting until 
 1107. He advanced the ontological proof of the 
 existence of God, and is generally regarded as the 
 first of the schoolmen. — See also Abbot; England: 
 1087-1135. 
 
 ANSGAR or Anskar, Saint (801-865), French 
 preacher, called "the Apostle of the North" be- 
 cause of his labors to bring Christianity to Den- 
 mark, Sweden and Northern Germany ; first arch- 
 bishop of Hamburg. See Christianity: gth-iith 
 centuries; Swf.dk.n: uth-i2th centuries. 
 
 ANSON, George Anson, Baron (1697-1762), 
 English admiral and navigator. Fought against 
 Spain in the South Sea, 1740-1744; during this pe- 
 riod circumnavigated the globe and added much 
 to the knowledge of navigation and geography ; in 
 1747 defeated the French at Cape Finisterre. — See 
 also England: 1745-1747; Pacific ocean: 1513- 
 1764. 
 
 ANSON, Sir William Reynell (1843-1Q14), 
 English jurist. Member of Parliament; identified 
 
 355
 
 ANTALCIDAS, PEACE OF 
 
 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION 
 
 with educational movements; active in the estab- 
 lishment ot a school of law at Oxford; author of 
 many standard books on legal subjects. 
 
 ANTALCIDAS, Peace of (386 B.C.), named 
 after the Spartan statesman who defeated the 
 Athenians. It was ratified by all the Greek states, 
 and gave to Persia the Greek towns on the main- 
 land of Asia Minor and guaranteed independence 
 to all others. — See also Greece; 3Qq-3S7 B.C. 
 
 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION: Problem 
 or discovery. — Area. — Though quite as important 
 from the geographical and scientitic point of view 
 as the North Pole, the ."Vntarctic regions and the 
 South Pole had been comparatively neglected un- 
 til modern times. While the northern portion of 
 this planet has been practically overrun by ex- 
 plorers and expeditions during the past 300 years 
 and more, the south had long remained a terra 
 incognita. So far as is known, the southern ocean 
 was first navigated by Magellan during the first 
 quarter of the sixteenth century. Circumnavigat- 
 ing the earth in 1774, Captain Cook proved the 
 e.xistence of a circumpolar ocean, and concluded 
 that there was a great mass of land there. The 
 most striking information he gathered was the iso- 
 lation of the mythical Antarctic continent, and 
 that the strongest evidence of the presence of land 
 pointed to about no deg. W. long, and 71 deg. S. 
 lat. More definite knowledge, however, was hid- 
 den from human ken until the Australian whaling 
 fleet made incursions into those unknown waters. 
 It seems that the extent of land diminished as in- 
 vestigations progressed; whalers discovered land 
 close to the Antarctic circle a hundred years ago. 
 The honor of original discovery of the Antarctic 
 continent — or of the fact that it really is a con- 
 tinent — has been variously credited to the Rus- 
 sian, Capt. von Bellingshausen (1S20-1822) ; to an 
 American, Capt. N. B. Palmer (1821) ; and the 
 Englishman, Capt. John Biscoe (1831). Of more 
 than passing interest is the following excerpt from 
 the Annual Register of 1821, p. 686: "In Octo- 
 ber, i8ig, the brig Williams, of Blythe, Northum- 
 berland, Smith, master, on a voyage from Buenos 
 Ayres to Valparaiso, stretching to the south, from 
 contrary winds, discovered land, on which the cap- 
 tain landed, and performed the usual formalities of 
 taking possession, in the name of his late majesty, 
 George III." In 183Q began a systematic and in- 
 ternational attack upon the South. British, Ameri- 
 can, French and Russian expeditions had already 
 been dispatched, each returning with its quota of 
 useful results. 
 
 "Since the introduction of steam power in ships, 
 the facilities for fuller explorations have been 
 utilized, so that data, somewhat scanty, exist for 
 the outlining of the regions as. a whole. Among 
 distinguished scientists who have attempted to 
 solve this indeterminate equation. Sir John Mur- 
 ray, of the Challenger, is the most advanced and 
 definite. Basing his conclusions on a study of sedi- 
 ments from the southern sea, he outlined ... a 
 new southern continent, christened Antarctica." — 
 A. W. Greely, Handbook of polar discoveries, p. 
 276. — -According to Prof. T. W. Edgeworth David, 
 of the University of Sydney, who has given con- 
 siderable study to the .Antarctic continent, the area 
 of the land definitely known is estimated at 5,000,- 
 000 square miles. The coast line, Prof David had 
 calculated measures 14,000 miles long. This estimate 
 includes the seaward boundary of thick fast ice, a 
 large part of which, however, remains still undis- 
 covered The Antarctic region opens up an im- 
 mense field for research in meteorology. When 
 science acquires a more thoroueh knowledge of 
 glaciology, oceanography and meteorology of this 
 
 region, the cycle of weather conditions over all the 
 hemisphere will be understood much more readily. 
 
 1519-1819. — Early exploration. — Magellan. — 
 Drake. — Bouvet. — Duf resne. — Captain Cook. — 
 "The hbtory of .Antarctic discovery may be di- 
 vided at the outset into two categories. In the 
 first of these I would include the numerous voy- 
 agers who, without any definite idea of the form 
 or conditions of the southern hemisphere, set their 
 course toward the South, to make what landfall 
 they could. These need only be mentioned briefly 
 before passing to the second group, that of Ant- 
 arctic travellers in the proper sense of the term, 
 who, with a knowledge of the form of the earth, set 
 out across the ocean, aiming to strike the Antarc- 
 tic monster — in the heart, if fortune favoured 
 them. . . . We then meet with the greatest of the 
 older explorers, Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese 
 by birth, though sailing in the service of Spain. 
 Setting out in 1510, he discovered the connection 
 between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans in the 
 strait that bears his name. No one before him 
 had penetrated so far South — to about lat. 52" 
 S. One of his ships, the Victoria, accompUshed the 
 first circumnavigation of the world, and thus es- 
 tabhshed in the popular mind the fact that the 
 earth was really round. From that time the idea 
 of the Antarctic regions assumed definite shape. 
 There must be something in the South: whether 
 land or water the future was to determine. In 
 1578 we come to the renowned English seaman, 
 Sir Francis Drake. ... He rounded Cape Horn 
 and proved that Tierra del Fuego was a great 
 group of islands and not part of an Antarctic 
 continent, as many had thought. . . . The French- 
 man, Bouvet (1738), was the first to follow the 
 southern ice-pack for any considerable distance, and 
 to bring reports of the immense, flat-topped .Ant- 
 arctic icebergs. In 1756 the Spanish trading-ship 
 Leon came home and reported high, snow-covered 
 land in lat. 55^ S. to the east of Cape Horn. The 
 probabiUty is that this was what we now know 
 by the name of South Georgia. The Frenchman, 
 Marion-Dufresne, discovered, in 1772, the Marion 
 and Crozet Islands. In the same year Joseph de 
 Kergu^len-Tremarec — another Frenchman — reached 
 Kerguelen Land. This concludes the series of 
 expeditions that I have thought it proper to class 
 in the first group. . . . [See Pacific ocean: 1513- 
 1764.] 
 
 "Captain James Cook — one of the boldest and 
 most capable seamen the world has known — opens 
 the series of Antarctic expeditions properly so 
 called. The British .Admiralty sent him out with 
 orders to discover the great southern continent, or 
 prove that it did not exist. The expedition, con- 
 sisting of two ships, the Resolution and the Ad- 
 venture, left Plymouth on July 13, 1772. ... In 
 the course of his voyage to the south Cook passed 
 300 miles to the south of the land reported by 
 Bouvet, and thereby estabhshcd the fact that the 
 land in question — if it existed — was not continu- 
 ous with the great southern continent. On Janu- 
 ary 17, 1773, the Antarctic Circle was crossed for 
 the first time — a memorable day in the annals of 
 .Antarctic exploration. Shortly afterwards a solid 
 pack was encountered, and Cook was forced to re- 
 turn to the north. .A course was laid for the 
 newly discovered islands — Kerguelen, Marion, and 
 the Crozets — and it was proved that they had 
 nothing to do with the great southern land. In 
 the course of hi? further voyages in .Antarctic 
 waters Cook completed the most southerly cir- 
 cumnavigation of the globe, and showed that 
 there was nn connection between any of the lands 
 or islands that had been discovered and the great 
 
 356
 
 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION 
 
 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION 
 
 mysterious 'Antarctica.' His highest latitude 
 (January 30, 1774) was 71" 10' S. Cook's voy- 
 ages had important commercial results, as his re- 
 ports of the enormous number of seals round 
 South Georgia brought many sealers, both English 
 and American, to those waters, and these sealers, 
 in turn, increased the field of geographical dis- 
 covery. In i8iq the discovery of the South 
 Shetland? by the Englishman, Captain William 
 Smith, is to be recorded. And this discovery led 
 to that of the Palmer Archipelago to the south of 
 them." — R. Amundsen, South Pole, v. i, pp. 3-7. — 
 See also New Zealand: 1642-1814. 
 
 1819-1838. — Bellingshausen. — Weddell. — 
 d'Urville. — Wilkes. — "The next scientific expedi- 
 tion to the Antarctic regions was that despatched 
 by the Emperor Alexander I. of Russia, under the 
 command of Captain Thaddeus von Bellingshausen. 
 It was composed of two ships, and sailed from 
 Cronstadt on July 15, i8iq. To this expedition 
 belongs the honour of having discovered the first 
 land to the south of the Antarctic Circle — Peter I. 
 Island and Alexander I. Land." — Ibid., p. 8. 
 
 "In 1823 Capt. James Weddell discovered and 
 named the South Orkneys and penetrated 240 
 miles nearer the South Pole than any previous ex- 
 plorers. Among other valuable observations he no- 
 ticed the same slow vibrations of the compass 
 which Peary had noticed in the Arctic regions. 
 
 "The English firm of shipowners, Endcrby 
 Brothers, plays a not unimportant part in Ant- 
 arctic exploration. The Enderbys had carried on 
 sealing in southern waters since 1785. They were 
 greatly interested, not only in the commercial, but 
 also in the scientific results of these voyages, and 
 chose their captains accordingly. In 1830 the firm 
 sent out John Biscoe on a sealing voyage in the 
 Antarctic Ocean with the brig Tula and the cutter 
 Lively. The result of this voyage was the sight- 
 ing of Endeiby Land in lat. 66° 25' S., long. 4q' 
 18' E. In the following year Adelaide, Biscoe, and 
 Pitt Islands, on the west coast of Graham Land 
 were chartered, and Graham Land itself was seen 
 for the first time. . . . We then come to the cele- 
 brated French sailor. Admiral Jules Sebastien Du- 
 mont d'Urville. He left Toulon in September, 
 1837, with a scientifically equipped expedition, in 
 the ships Astrolabe and Zelee. The intention was 
 to follow in Weddell's track, and endeavour to 
 carry the French flag still nearer to the Pole, Early 
 in 1838 Louis Philippe Land and Joinville Island 
 were discovered and named. Two years later we 
 again find d'Urville's vessels in Antarctic waters, 
 with the object of investigating the magnetic con- 
 ditions in the vicinity of the South Magnetic Pole, 
 land was discovered in lat. 66" 3c' S. and long. 
 138° 21' E. With the exception of a few bare islets, 
 the whole of this land was completely covered 
 with snow. It was given the name of Adelie Land, 
 and a part of the ice-barricr lying to the west of 
 it was called Cote Clarie, on the supposition that 
 it must envelop a line of coast. 
 * "The American naval officer, Lieutenant Charles 
 Wilkes, sailed in August, 1S38, with a fleet of six 
 vessels. The expedition was sent out by Congress, 
 and carried twelve scientific observers. In Febru- 
 ary, iS3g, the whole of this imposing Antarctic 
 fleet was collected in Orange Harbour in the south 
 of Tierra del Fuego, where the work was divided 
 among the various vessels. As to the results of 
 this expedition it is difficult to express an opin- 
 ion. [The land claimed to have been discovered 
 by Wilkes has never been found.! Certain it is 
 that Wilkes Land has subsecjuently been sailed 
 over in many places by several expeditions. Of 
 what may have been the cause of this inaccurate 
 
 cartography it is impossible to form any opinion. 
 It appears, however, from the account of the whole 
 voyage, that the undertaking was seriously con- 
 ducted." — Ibid., pp. 8-10. 
 
 1839-1845.— Ross.— "Then the bright star ap- 
 pears, — the man whose name will ever be remem- 
 bered as one of the most intrepid polar explor- 
 ers and one of the most capable seamen the world 
 has produced — Admiral Sir James Clark Ross. The 
 results of his expedition are well known. Ross 
 himself commanded the Erebus and Commander 
 Francis Crozier the Terror. The former vessel, of 
 370 tons, had been originally built for throwing 
 bombs; her construction was therefore extraordi- 
 narily solid. The Terror, 340 tons, had been previ- 
 ously employed in Arctic waters, and on this ac- 
 count had been already strengthened. In pro- 
 visioning the ships every possible precaution was 
 taken against scurvy, with the dangers of which 
 Ross was familiar from his experience in Arctic, 
 waters. The vessels sailed from England in Sep- 
 tember, 183Q, calling at many of the Atlantic Is- 
 lands, and arrived in Christmas Harbour, Kergue- 
 len Land, in the following May. Here they stayed 
 two months, making magnetic observations, and 
 then proceeded to Hobart. Sir John Franklin, the 
 eminent polar explorer, was at that time Governor 
 of Tasmania, and Ross could not have wished for 
 a better one. Interested as Franklin naturally was 
 in the expedition, he afforded it all the help he 
 possibly could. During his stay in Tasmania Ross 
 received information of what had been accom- 
 plished by Wilkes and Dumont d'Urville in the 
 very region which the Admiralty had sent him to 
 explore. The effect of this news was that Rosa 
 changed his plans, and decided to proceed along 
 the 170th meridian E., and if possible to reach the 
 Magnetic Pole from the eastward. . . . After call- 
 ing at the Auckland Island and at Campbell Island, 
 Ross again steered for the South, and the Antarctic 
 Circle was crossed on New Year's Day, 1841. The 
 ships were now faced by the ice-pack, but to Ross 
 this was not the dangerous enemy it had appeared 
 to earlier explorers with their more weakly con- 
 structed vessels. Ross plunged boldly into the 
 pack with his fortified ships, and, taking advantage 
 of the narrow leads, he came out four days later, 
 after many severe buffets, into the open sea to the 
 South. ... It was in lat. 60° 15' S. and long. 
 176° 15' E. that Ross found the open sea. On the 
 following day the horizon was perfectly clear of 
 ice. . . . The course was set for the Magnetic Pole, 
 and the hope of soon reaching it burned in the 
 hearts of all. Then — just as they had accustomed 
 themselves to the idea of open sea, perhaps to the 
 Magnetic Pole itself — the crow's-nest reported 
 'High land right ahead.' This was the mountain- 
 ous coast of South Victoria Land. What a fairy- 
 land this must have seemed to the first voyagers 
 who approached it! Mighty mountain-ranges with 
 summits from 7,000 to 10,000 feet high, some 
 covered with snow and some quite bare — lofty and 
 rugged, precipitous and wild. It became apparent 
 that the Magnetic Pole was some 500 miles distant 
 — far inland, behind the snow-covered ridges. On 
 the morning of January 12 they came close under 
 a little island, and Ross with a few companions 
 rowed ashore and took possession of the country. 
 They could not reach the mainland itself on account 
 of the thick belt of ice that lay along the coast. 
 The expedition continued to work its way south- 
 ward, making fresh discoveries. On January 28 
 the two lofty summits. Mount Erebus and Mount 
 Terror, were sighted for the first time. The for- 
 mer was seen to be an active volcano, from which 
 smoke and fiames shot up into the sky. It must 
 
 357
 
 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION 
 
 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION 
 
 have been a wonderfully fine sight, this flaming 
 fire in the midst of the white, frozen landscape. 
 Captain Scott has since given the island, on which 
 the mountains lie, the name of Ross Island, after 
 the intrepid navigator. . . . From Ross Island, as 
 far to the eastward as the eye could see, there 
 extended a lofty, impenetrable wall of ice. . . . 
 .Ml they could do was to try to get round it. 
 .\nd then began the first examination of that part 
 of the great .•\ntarctic Barrier which has since been 
 named the Ross Barrier. The wall of ice was fol- 
 lowed to the eastward for a distance of 250 miles. 
 Its upper surface was seen to be perfectly flat. 
 The most easterly point reached was long. 107 ' W., 
 and the highest latitude 78° 4' S. No opening 
 having been found, the ships returned to the west, 
 in order to try once more whether there was any 
 possibility of reaching the Magnetic Pole. But this 
 attempt soon had to be abandoned on account of 
 the lateness of the season, and in April, 1841, Ross 
 returned to Hobart. His second voyage was full 
 of dangers and thrilling incidents, but added little 
 to the tale of his discoveries. On February 22, 
 1842, the ships came in sight of the Barrier, and, 
 following it to the east, found that it turned north- 
 eastward. Here Ross recorded an 'appearance of 
 land' in the very region in which Captain Scott, 
 sixty years later, discovered King Edward VII. 
 Land. On December 17, 1842, Ross set out on his 
 third and last .Antarctic voyage. His object this 
 time was to reach a high latitude along the coast 
 of Louis Philippe Land, if possible, or alterna- 
 tively by following Weddell's track. Both attempts 
 were frustrated by the ice conditions. On sighting 
 Joinville Land, the officers of the Terror thought 
 they could see smoke from active volcanoes, but 
 Ross and his men did not confirm this. About 
 fifty years later active volcanoes were actually dis- 
 covered by the Norwegian, Captain C. A. Larsen, 
 in the Jason. .^ few minor geographical discov- 
 eries were made, but none of any great impor- 
 tance. This concluded Ross's attempts to reach 
 the South Pole. .\ magnificent work had been 
 achieved, and the honour of having opened up the 
 way by which, at last, the Pole was reached must 
 be ascribed to Ross. 
 
 "The Pagoda, commanded by Lieutenant Moore, 
 was the next vessel to make for the South. Her 
 chief object was to make magnetic observations 
 in high latitudes south of the Indian Ocean. The 
 first ice was met with in lat. $y 30' S., on Janu- 
 ary 25, 1845. On February 5 the .\ntarctic Circle 
 was crossed in long, .^o' 45' E. The most south- 
 erly latitude attained on this voyage was 67' 50' 
 in long. 30' 41' E. 
 
 "This was the last expedition to visit the .Ant- 
 arctic regions in a ship propelled by sails alone. 
 . . . Less known, but no less efficient in their work, 
 were the whalers round the South Shetlands and in 
 the regions to the south of them. . . ." — Ibid., pp. 
 10-15. — Sec also Pacific ocean: 1764-1850. 
 
 1892-1893. — In i8Q2-i8g3 occurred the whaling 
 voyage of the Dundee vessels, the Balaena, Active, 
 Diana and Polar Star, equipped for geographical 
 observation by the Royal Geographical Society and 
 others interested, carrying William S. Bruce, C. W. 
 Donald, and W. G. Burn Murdoch. They were 
 accompanied by the Norwegian sealer Jaseii. under 
 Captain Larsen. South Shetlands and Graham 
 Land were visited and valuable observations made. 
 
 1894-1895. — ".\ most important whaling expedi- 
 tion ... is that of the Antarctic, under [the Nor- 
 wegian] Captain Leonard Kristensen. Kristensen 
 was an extraordinarily capable man, and achieved 
 the remarkable record of being the first to set foot 
 on the sixth continent, the great southern land — 
 
 'Antarctica.' " — Ibid., p. 18. — This commercial ex- 
 pedition was sent out by Captain Svcnd Foyii. 
 fitted out by H. J. Bull, and carried the scientist 
 Carsten E. Borchgrevink. The valuable right whale 
 was not found, but large beds of guano were dis- 
 covered in Victoria Land, where a landing was 
 made near Cape .'\dare. 
 
 1897. — "An epoch-making phase of .\ntarctic re- 
 search is now ushered in by the Belgica, under the 
 leadership of Commander .Adricn de Gerlache. 
 Hardly any one has had a harder fight to set his 
 enterprise on foot than Gerlache. He was success- 
 ful, however, and on .\ugust 16, 1807, the Belgica 
 left .Antwerp. The scientific staff had been able to 
 secure the services of exceedingly able men. His 
 second in command. Lieutenant G. Lecointe, a Bel- 
 gian, possessed every qualification for his difficult 
 position. It must be remembered that the Belgica's 
 company was as cosmopolitan as it could be — Bel- 
 gians, Frenchmen, .Americans, Norwegians, Swedes, 
 Rumanians, Poles, etc. — and it was the business of 
 the second in command to keep all these men to- 
 gether and get the best possible work out of them. 
 .And Lecointe acquitted himself admirably ; amiable 
 and firm, he secured the respect of all. . . . The 
 object of the expedition was to penetrate to the 
 South Magnetic Pole, but this had to be abandoned 
 at an early stage for want of time." — Ibid., p. 18. — 
 Near .Alexander I Land the Belgica caught in the 
 ice pack and held for a year, drifting as far south 
 as lat. 71° 36', in long. 87° 30' W. Finally re- 
 leased by the cutting of a canal through the ice. 
 This dreary winter was the first spent by men far 
 enough south to lose sight of the sun. The con- 
 tinent found to be mountainous, glaciated, and 
 without land animals except a few insects, though 
 sea fowl abounded. One flowering grass, and a few 
 mosses, rock lichens, and fresh-water algae consti- 
 tute the flora. Some 500 miles of coast charted. 
 
 1897. — -Anglo-.Australasian .Antarctic conference 
 was held in London. 
 
 1898. — Conference on .Antarctic exploration held 
 in the rooms of the Royal Society, London, Feb. 
 
 24- 
 
 Carsten E. Borchgrevink, the Norwegian ex- 
 plorer, who had led an expedition to the .Antarctic 
 in 1894-1805, led another in i8q8. The latter was 
 equipped by the late Sir George Newncs, and was 
 absent nearly two years. Borchgrevink penetrated 
 to the farthest point south that had ever been 
 reached, Lat. 78' 50' S., and fixed the magnetic 
 position of the South Pole at about latitude 73 
 degrees 20 minutes south, and 146 east. 
 
 1898-1899. — German expedition for deep-sea ex- 
 ploration in .Antarctic waters, in charge of Prof. 
 Carl Chun, on the Valdivia. Southern ocean 
 found to be of great depth. 
 
 1901-1909. — English, German, Swedish, and 
 Scottish expeditions. — Successes of Lieutenant 
 Shackleton. — In .April 1001. several expeditions to 
 the .Antarctic region were reported as being under 
 preparation, in England, Germany, and Sweden. 
 The English expedition, for which the ship Dis- 
 covery was being fitted out, sailed on .August 6. 
 iQoi, under the command of Capt Robert F. Scott, 
 with Lieut. Ernest H. Shackleton of the British 
 navy as second in command. Its object was a 
 further exploration of the ^real mountainous re- 
 gion named Victoria Land, which Capt James 
 Ross had disrovrred half a ccntur)- before. This 
 coast the Discovery reached in January 1Q02. and 
 followed it southward, to and beyond the Erebus 
 volcano, skirting the great ice barrier which 
 stretches far eastward, seeming to forbid a pene- 
 tration of the frozen territory it hems in. In this 
 survey the British explorers reached an unvisited 
 
 358
 
 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION 
 
 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION 
 
 section, which t'hey named King Edward Land. 
 They wintered that year near Mount Erebus, push- 
 ing sledge expeditions southward over the snow 
 fields, finding a more upheaved and broken sur- 
 face of land, less ice-capped, than is the common 
 feature of the Arctic polar zone. In the longest 
 of these sledge-trips the latitude of 82' 17' S. 
 was attaiiied, — far beyond any previous approach 
 to the southern pole, but still more than 500 miles 
 from that goal. Through a second winter the Dis- 
 covery was held fast in the ice, with considerable 
 sickness among officers and men, notwithstanding 
 which important additions to their survey of the 
 region were made. In Januar>' 1Q04, they were 
 reached by two relief ships, and escaped from the 
 ice in the following month, arriving at New Zea- 
 land not long after. 
 
 The German expedition commanded by Dr. 
 Drygalski, left Kiel August 11, looi, borne by 
 the steamer Gauss, built specially for battling with 
 ice. In January 1Q02, it took on stores at Ker- 
 guelen island, and proceeded thence to a point in 
 the Antarctic circle far eastward of that chosen 
 by the British explorers, being within the region 
 of the discoveries made by Captain Wilkes, about 
 sixty years before, and indefinitely named Wilkes 
 Land. It was the purpose of Dr. Drygalski to 
 establish a station on the section of this unex- 
 plored territory known as Termination Land and 
 from thence make thorough surveys. He failed, 
 however, to find the supposed land in its expected 
 place, and was unfortunately frozen in for a year, 
 with sledge expeditions baffled by the violence of 
 winter storms. In geographical exploration the 
 Gauss party seem to have accomplished little, but 
 they made rich collections of scientific data. As 
 soon as they were freed from the ice they received 
 orders from Berlin to return home. 
 
 The Swedish expedition, under Dr. Otto Nor- 
 denskjold [nephew of the famous discoverer of the 
 Northeast Passage], left Europe in October igoi, 
 in the ship Antarctk, destined for Graham Land, 
 south of the South .American continent. There, 
 on the east coast of that land, in Admiralty inlet. 
 Dr. Nordenskjold established winter quarters in 
 February IQ02, and the Antarctic was sent to South 
 America, to return thence some months later. 
 
 A Scottish expedition, under Dr. W. S. Bruce, 
 in the steamer Scotia, was sent out in October 
 iqo,!, for special oceanographic investigations in 
 Weddell sea, — south of the Atlantic ocean. 
 
 All previous Antarctic explorations were eclipsed, 
 in igoS-iqoQ, by that of Lieutenant Shackleton, 
 commanding the barkentine Nimrod. a converted 
 whaling vessel, much smaller than the Discovery, 
 on which Lieutenant Shackleton had accompanied 
 Captain Scott to the same region some years be- 
 fore. The Nimrod sailed from England in July 
 IQ07, and from New Zealand on New Year Day, 
 IQ08, going to the same section of the Arctic cir- 
 cle that the Discovery had sought. Winter quar- 
 ters were established at a point abort twenty miles 
 north of the spot where Scott and Shackleton had 
 wintered in 1Q02-1Q03. One of the first achieve- 
 ments of the party was the ascent of Mount Ere- 
 bus by six of the scientists of the expedition, who 
 began their difficult climb on March 5. Caught in a 
 blizzard on the second day of their undertaking, 
 they had to lie in their sleeping-bags for thirty 
 hours; but they made their way to the summit 
 and looked down into the live fire of the crater. 
 The party making this ascent were Lieutenant 
 Adams, R. N. R. (geologist). Sir Philip Brockle- 
 hurst (surveyor and map maker) , Professor David, 
 of Sydney University, Mr. A. Forbes Mackay, as- 
 sistant surgeon, Mr. Eric Marshall, surgeon and 
 
 cartographer, and Mr. Marson a scientist of Ade- 
 laide. Early in the spring the sledging journeys 
 were begun. 
 
 Speaking at a reception given to him by the 
 Royal Geographical Society, on his return to Eng- 
 land in June igog. Lieutenant Shackleton gave 
 a brief account of the most important of these 
 journeys, led by himself, with Lieutenant .Adams, 
 geologist. Surgeon Eric Marshall, and a third com- 
 panion named Wild. The march of the party was 
 directly toward the Pole: 
 
 On December 3 they climbed a mountain 4,000 
 feet high, and from its summit saw what they 
 believed to be a royal road to the Pole — an enor- 
 mous glacier stretching southwards. There was 
 only one pony left at this time, and, taking this 
 animal with them, they started the ascent of the 
 glacier, which proved to be seamed with crevasses. 
 Progress became very slow, for disaster threatened 
 at every step. On December 7 the remaining pony 
 was lost down a crevasse, very nearly taking Wild 
 and a sledge with it. Finally the party gained the 
 inland plateau, at an altitude of over 10,000 feet, 
 and started across the great white snow plain to- 
 ward the Pole. 
 
 They were short of food, and had cut down 
 their rations to an absolute minimum; the tempera- 
 ture at the high altitude was extremely low, and all. 
 their spare clothing had been deposited lower down 
 the glacier in order to save weight. On January 
 6 [1900], they reached latitude 88° 8' south, after 
 having taken the risk of leaving a depot of stores 
 on the plateau, out of sight of all land. Then a 
 blizzard swept down upon them, and for two days 
 they were unable to leave their tent, while, owing 
 to their weakened condition and the intense cold, 
 they suffered from frostbite even in their sleeping 
 bags. When the blizzard moderated on January q 
 they felt that they had reached their limit of endur- 
 ance, for their strength was greatly reduced and the 
 food was almost done. They therefore left the camp 
 standing, and pushing on for five hours, planted 
 Queen .Alexandra's flag in 88' 23' south, took pos- 
 session of the plateau for the King, and turned 
 their faces north again. 
 
 Lieut. Shackleton described the difliculties of the 
 journey back to the coast, when the men were 
 desperately short of food and nearly worn out, 
 and attacks of dysentery added to their troubles. 
 One day on the Barrier they were unable to 
 march at all, being prostrated with dysentery, and 
 they reached each depot with their food finished. 
 On February 23, however, they reached a depot 
 prepared for them by a party from the ship, and 
 on March i. Lieut. Shackleton and Wild reached 
 the Nimrod. Lieut. Shackleton at once led a relief 
 party back to get .Adams and Marshall, the latter 
 having been unable to continue the march owin; to 
 dysentery, and on March 4 all the men were safe 
 on board. 
 
 The following excerpts from the diary kept by 
 the leader of the party are taken from E. H. 
 Shacklcton's Heart of the Antarctic, pp. 208-210. 
 
 "January 8. .Again all day in our bags, suffering 
 considerably y^hysically from cold hands and feet, 
 and from hunger, but more mentalh-, for we can- 
 not get on south, and we simply lie here shivering. 
 Every now and then one of our party's feet go, 
 and the unfortunate beggar has to take his leg out 
 of the sleeping-bag and have his frozen foot nursed 
 into life again by placing it inside the shirt, against 
 the skin of his almost equally unfortunate neigh- 
 bour. We must do something more to the south, 
 even though the food is going, and we weaken 
 lying in the cold, for with 72' of frost the wind cuts 
 through our thin tent, and even the drift is find- 
 
 359
 
 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION 
 
 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION 
 
 ing its way in and on to our bags, which are wet 
 enough as it is. Cramp is not uncommon every 
 now and then, and the drift all round the tent has 
 made it so small that there is hardly room for us 
 at all. The wind has been blowing hard all day ; 
 some of the gusts must be over seventy or eighty 
 mi'es an hour. This evening it seems as though 
 it were going to ease down, and directly it does 
 we shall be up and away south for a rush. I feel 
 that this march must be our limit. We are so 
 short of food, and at this high altitude, ii,6oo ft., 
 it is hard to keep any warmth in our bodies be- 
 tween the scanty meals. We have nothing to read 
 now, having depoted our little books to save 
 weight, and it is dreary work lying in the tent with 
 nothing to read, and too cold to write much in 
 the diary. 
 
 "January g. Our last day outwards. We have 
 
 We stayed only a few minutes, and then, taking the 
 Queen's flag and eating our scanty meal as we 
 went, we hurried back and reached our camp 
 about 3 p. m. We were so dead tired that we only 
 did two hours' march in the afternoon and camped 
 at 5.30 p. m. The temperature was minus 10 
 Fahr. Fortunately for us, our tracks were not 
 obliterated by the blizzard; indeed, they_ stood up, 
 making a trail easily followed. Homeward bound 
 at last. Whatever regrets may be, we have done 
 our best." 
 
 1908-1910. — Charcot expeditions. — In iqo8 the 
 French physician and explorer Dr. Jean Baptiste 
 Charcot led his second scientific expedition to the 
 Antarctic. The following account of the voyage 
 of his ship the Potirquoi-pas? (Why Not?) is 
 translated from the explorer's first published ac- 
 count: "On leaving Deception Island (lat. 62 deg. 
 
 Photograph by Hurley 
 MEMBERS OF SHACKLETON'S PARTY Toderwood 4 Underwood 
 
 Abandoning the sinking "Endurance," they hiked 1,000 miles to the nearest Norwegian whaling station 
 
 shot our bolt, and the tale is latitude 88^ 23' South, 
 longitude 162° East. The wind' eased down at i 
 a. m., and at 2 a. m. we were up and had break- 
 fast. At 4 a. m. started south, with the Queen's 
 Union Jack, a brass cylinder containing stamps 
 and documents to place at the further south point, 
 camera, glasses and compass. At o a. m. we were 
 in 88° 23' South, half running and half walking 
 over a surface much hardened by the recent bliz- 
 zard. It was strange for us to go along without 
 the nightmare of a sledge dragging behind us. We 
 hoisted Her Majesty's flag and the other Union 
 Jack afterwards, and took possession of the pla- 
 teau in the name of His Majesty. While the Union 
 Jack blew out stiffly in the icy gale that cut us to 
 the bone, we looked south with our powerful 
 glasses, but could see nothins; but the dead white 
 snow plain. There was no break in the plateau as it 
 exlnded towards the Pole, and we feel sure that 
 the goal we have failed to reach lies on this plain. 
 
 55 min. S.), we made our way to Port Lockray, 
 where we commenced our work. From here I 
 made a trip of observation with Godcfroy and 
 Gourdon to Wandel, in order to study the lay of 
 the ice, which would save both coal and time. 
 This little journey of forty miles was exciting 
 enough, and the final result of it was satisfactory. 
 Some days later we arrived with the Pourquoi-pas? 
 at Wandel. . . . The creek w'as rather small for 
 our vessel ; we had not had the time to install a 
 satisfactory barrage, and the small ice did not pro- 
 tect us. For a week we were in danger there-r^ 
 unable to come out, assailed by enormous ice- 
 blocks, which had to be pushed off or lashed up 
 night and day. ... On January i, Godefroy, 
 Jacques, Gourdon, and I made a reconnaissance to 
 find a better shelter ... at Petcrmann Island. . . . 
 A few days after we brought the Pourquoi-pas? 
 round, having escaped from Wandel without suf- 
 fering any serious damage by gently wriggling 
 
 360
 
 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION 
 
 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION 
 
 round the icebergs. I set out the same day with 
 Godefroy and Gourdon to explore the south, chiefly 
 to climb some eminence to see whether we had 
 any channels to pass with the Pourquois-pas? be- 
 tween Biscoe Islands and the coast. As we reck- 
 oned upon returning the same day we had taken 
 neither supplies nor change of clothes. Our mis- 
 sion was easily fulfilled, and we saw that the coast 
 was blocked ; but when we wanted to retrace our 
 steps we found that our path was also blockaded 
 by the ice. During a four days' blinding snow- 
 storm we struggled to liberate ourselves — I will 
 pass over the details of that trail. We were in 
 peril of succumbing from hunger and cold; on the 
 fourth day we shouldered our traps and determined 
 to attempt some point of vantage on the ice cliffs, 
 whence our signals might be observed by our com- 
 rades, when the Pourquoi-pas? came to our rescue, 
 skilfully guided by Bongrain and Rouch, whose 
 operations on the syren could be heard through 
 the fog and snow. On the journey back, unfor- 
 tunately, the vessel stranded violently upon one 
 of the innumerable reefs level with the water ; we 
 had to unload, and, after three days' and three 
 nights' incessant labour, we got her off again. But 
 we had to leave behind a large piece of her prow, 
 and it was with this vessel that we accomplished 
 the whole of our expedition. From Petermann Is- 
 land we went towards the South, skirting the coast, 
 and completing the chart of the Fran(;ais [his ship 
 of the 1903 expedition]. We found the bay again 
 which was marked by Pendleton, American whaler, 
 and discovered to the north of Adelaide Island a 
 large bay, which we have since named Matha Bay. 
 We next took hydrographic observations of Ade- 
 laide Island, which has a very peculiar configura- 
 tion. But instead of being eight miles in length, 
 as is generally supposed, the configuration has a 
 length of seventy miles! South of Adelaide, in a 
 region neither explored nor even seen, we discov- 
 ered a great bay, which I have named Marguerite. 
 We entered here, despite the reefs and compact ice, 
 and anchored at a little isle which I named 'Jenny,' 
 after Bongrain's wife. We now encountered such 
 violent weather for four days that it was a mira- 
 cle the vessel escaped. An enormous iceberg ap- 
 peared in front of us, from which only a very rapid 
 tacking manoeuvre saved us. . . . To the south of 
 Marguerite Bay we were continually fighting our 
 way through ice and icebergs, but we managed to 
 explore the sea bottom round 120 miles of un- 
 known coast. After two attempts to find our 
 way across the ice to Alexander Land, we decided 
 to abandon the project till the following summer. 
 . . . Our winter station was organised as comfort- 
 ably as possible. . . . During the autumn we made 
 numerous excursions. We saw no sun for five 
 days; the wind blew strongly from N.E., and the 
 snow fell heavily. The ice floes were continually 
 shifting. Many icebergs passed. Despite all pre- 
 cautions, our barrage was frequently broken. The 
 ship was often in danger, and her rudder was 
 smashed; we constructed a new one by cutting 
 up a spar. ... An expedition to cross Graham's 
 I>and was prepared with great care. I intended to 
 lead it myself, but I was disabled by scurvy. 
 Gourdon took my place, setting out with six com- 
 panions. They brought back some interesting ob- 
 servations, but without being able to scale the in- 
 surmountable barrier of granite and ice. Other 
 excursions were also' made. After considerable 
 trouble, towards the end of November, we were 
 able to release the vessel. We returned to Decep- 
 tion Island, where we found some whalers who had 
 been held up by ice and bad weather. . . . From 
 Deception Island I wanted to make for Joinville 
 
 Land to seek for fossils, but the ice very quickly 
 compelled me to change my plan. We did not wish 
 to compromise our journey southward or to suffer 
 the fate which befell the Antarctic in the same lati- 
 tude. After a brief struggle we were beaten back 
 to Bridgeman Island, where we landed; then to 
 Admiralty Bay and the south coast of the Shet- 
 lands, where we did some good work. Thence we 
 set out to the south, the weather all along being 
 bad and misty, and the ice and icebergs abundant. 
 Nevertheless, we were able to go beyond all the 
 latitudes attained to the south-west of Alexander 
 Land, and to complete the chart. We then dis- 
 covered a series of new lands to the south and 
 west of Alexander Land, in an unexpected place, 
 thus solving an important problem. The deplor- 
 able ice-belt barred our nearer approach; in one 
 hour we got no further than ten yards! We 
 continued our route by following the ice barrier 
 until we reached Peter I. Island, which has not 
 been seen since Bellingshausen discovered it. 
 There we were overwhelmed by a tempest and 
 thick mist, during which we had to steer care- 
 fully among the icebergs. They were so numer- 
 ous that I estimated we saw more than 5000 of 
 them in less than a week. We had to drift with- 
 out steam, all the time, through a fog so dense 
 that we could not see further than twenty yards 
 ahead. Despite this and the strong gusts of wind 
 we reached the 126th deg. long. W., having sailed 
 from the place where the Belgica set out, between 
 6g deg. and 71 deg. lat., that is to say, well to 
 the south of both Cook and Bellingshausen. Our 
 stock of coal being exhausted, the health of several 
 of the party became alarming. We had to turn 
 our faces northward; for a long time the icebergs 
 had been innumerable, but they gradually dimin- 
 ished, and then we saw the last. The crossing of 
 the Antarctic to Cape Pillar was extremely rapid, 
 thanks to an uninterrupted series of southwesterly 
 and northwesterly winds, but the sea was terrific. 
 In ten days we arrived at the entrance of the 
 Magellan Straits, where we encountered severe 
 weather. . . . We anchored at Punta Arenas, where 
 we were heartily received after fourteen months' 
 absence." — London Standard, March 30, igio. 
 
 Also in: J. B. Charcot, Denxiemc expedition 
 antarctiqne franfoise igo8-igio; and Pourquoi- 
 pas? dans r Antarctiqne. 
 
 1910-1913. — Scott's expedition; discovery of 
 the Pole; fatal termination. — Results of the Ter- 
 ra Nova expedition. — "We find Captain Ro'uert F. 
 Scott in the spring of 1910 busily occupied in fur- 
 thering the departure of another British Antarctic 
 expedition. Captain Scott had planned this expe- 
 dition with the utmost detail and thoughtfulness. 
 Through the public press he had explained the man- 
 ner in which he desired to conduct his enterprise, 
 and aided by the members of the Royal Geographi- 
 cal Society and other learned bodies, a subscrip- 
 tion fund of $200,000 was raised to promote the 
 expedition. The Terra Nova, a Dundee whaling 
 ship, was selected and refitted. Prior to her last 
 voyage she had made several trips to Arctic waters 
 and had proved her efficiency in ice navigation. 
 Captain Scott made every preparation for the 
 equipment towards achieving the great results he 
 hoped from his undertaking. He carried with him 
 three newly devised motor sledges intended for ice 
 travel, as well as the usual dog sledges. The 'prob- 
 lem of reaching the South Pole from a wintering 
 station is purely one of transport,' wrote Captain 
 Scott before his departure. 'The distance to be 
 covered there and back is about 1,500 miles. The 
 time at the disposal of an explorer in a single sea- 
 son never exceeds 150 travelling days. An average 
 
 361
 
 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION 
 
 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION 
 
 of ten miles a day can easily be maintained by 
 men of good physique, provided adequate trans- 
 port facilities are made.' Accompanying him was 
 a carefully selected crew, and a highly efficient 
 scientific staff. Scott's plan was to arrange two 
 parties, one to leave King Edward Land, the other 
 to leave McMurdo Sound, to converge on the Pole. 
 Captain Scott purposed to follow his own track 
 and that of Sir' Ernest Shackleton, except for the 
 last hundred miles. The Terra Nova left England 
 June I, loio, and sailed for New Zealand. Cap- 
 tain Scott joined the party at Port Chalmers, near 
 Christchurch, and the final departure southward 
 was made November 2g, iqio. The personnel of 
 the shore party and crew numbered fifty men, of 
 which twenty-four officers and men were of the 
 Royal Navy, one from the Army and two from the 
 Public Services of India. The Terra Nova encoun- 
 lered bad weather and heavy seas from the outset, 
 and was over three weeks in pushing her way 
 through 380 miles of pack ice. By January 1st, 
 iqii, she stood in open water in Ross Sea and 
 
 to establish a supply depot at Corner Camp. On 
 the outward journey they passed the ponies going 
 well. Again blizzards delayed the return to camp 
 and when Scott returned he found the animals had 
 suffered so severely that a prompt retreat to Hut 
 Point was at once ordered. . . . The Western Geo- 
 graphical party which landed at Butter Point, be- 
 low Farrar Glacier, January 27, iqn, had made a 
 depot at Cathedral Rocks, and from this base they 
 took a sledge journey westward for miles down 
 the glacier. At an altitude of twenty-four hun- 
 dred feet above the glacier a crater was discovered 
 and basalt flows in places eighty feet in depth 
 From the glacier they entered a dry, snow-free 
 valley trending toward the sea. A freshwater 
 lake was discovered estimated about four miles in 
 length. On February 13th, they returned down the 
 Farrar Glacier and crossed the dangerous ice of 
 New Harbor . . . and finally reached Discovery 
 Hut after an absence of six weeks. The Western 
 party again set out on November 7, iqii, for 
 Granite Harbor. Owing to the exceptionally heavy 
 
 EARNEST HENRY SHACKLETON 
 
 ROALD AMUNDSEN 
 
 ROBERT F. SCOTT 
 
 sighted the Admiralty Mountains, Victoria Land 
 two days later. Pushing her way southward she 
 passed Cape Crozier and reached McMurdo Sound, 
 where winter quarters were established distant 
 about fourteen miles north of Discovery Station, 
 where the first Scott expedition had wintered, and 
 eight miles to the south of Cape Royds, The 
 work of landing stores proved exceedingly arduous 
 as the distance of transportation was a mile and 
 a half. Ponies, dogs and motor sledges were util- 
 ized by the men to assist in transportation and at 
 the end of a week the main work had been com- 
 pleted and the building of the house was begun. 
 The Terra Nova left Scott making ready for his 
 preliminary journeys southward. She steamed 
 eastward and surveyed the Great Ice Barrier as 
 far as 170° West longitude, when a gale forced 
 her to make for Cape Colbeck, where her further 
 progress to the east was prevented by the pack. 
 On the 4th of February the Terra Nova entered the 
 Bay of Whales and there found the Fram of the 
 Amundsen Antarctic Expedition. She then returned 
 to the depot-laying party and found all well. . . 
 
 "From the first Captain Scott seemed to have 
 worked against great odds. The depot-laying party 
 where left Cape Evans January 25, igii, con- 
 sisting of twelve men, eight ponies, and two dog 
 teams, made the most difficult progress over the 
 soft surface of the barrier and experienced a bliz- 
 zard which exhausted both men and beasts and re- 
 sulted in the loss of two ponies On Februan,' 24th, 
 Captain Scott started with men and a single pony 
 
 loads which they carried, they made the slow prog- 
 ress of about five miles a day, being forced to re- 
 lay the distance to a cape about nine miles inside 
 the harbor. Building a stone hut and erecting a 
 store as a base for scientific operations they devoted 
 the next two months to exploring the northern 
 shores and sledging around West Harbor where 
 remarkably large mineral deposits such as topaz 
 were discovered. Another curious discovery at their 
 headquarters was that of myriads of wingless in- 
 sects of two distinct varieties which clustered in a 
 half-frozen condition under every stone. Mean- 
 while Captain Scott had been completing his 
 preparations for his final journey to the Pole, On 
 November 2, iqii, the final start was made. 
 . . . Bad weather seemed to persist from the out- 
 set. It soon became necessary to sacrifice some of 
 the ponies to feed the dogs. December 4, iqii, 
 the party had reached 83.24, about twelve miles 
 distant from Mount Hope. Day by day these men 
 plodded on, in the face of snows, storms and gales. 
 ... As the main party advanced, sections of the 
 supporting parties turned back. Day and Hooper, 
 who had left Scott first, returned safely to Camp, 
 January 21st; a week later, Atkinson, Wright, 
 Gerrard and Keohane showed up. On December 
 2ist, Captain Scott had reached just beyond 85° 
 South, longitude 163 04 East, and an altitude 6,800 
 feet. On January 3, iqi2, he was within 150 
 miles of the South Pole, when he sent back the 
 following message: 'I am going forward with a 
 party of five men, sending three back under Lieu- 
 
 362
 
 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION 
 
 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION 
 
 tenant Evans with this note. The names and de- 
 scriptions of the advance party are: Capt. Scott, 
 R. N., Dr. Wilson, Chief of the scientil'ic staff; 
 Captain Gates, Inniskillen Dragoons, in charge of 
 the ponies and mules; Lieutenant Bowers, Royal 
 Indian Marine, commissariat ofticer; Petty Ofticer 
 Evans, R. N., in charge of sledges and equipment. 
 The advance party goes forward with a month's 
 provisions and the prospects of success seem good, 
 providing the weather holds and no unforeseen 
 ob.itacles arise. It has been very difficult to choose 
 the advance party, as every one was fit and able 
 to go forward. Those who return are naturally 
 much disappointed. Every one has worked his 
 hardest. The weather on the plateau has been 
 good, on the whole. The sun has never deserted 
 us, but the temperatures are low, now about minus 
 twenty degrees, and the wind pretty constant. How- 
 ever, we are excellently equipped for such condi- 
 tions, and the wind undoubtedly improves the sur- 
 face. So far all arrangements have worked out most 
 satisfactorily. It is more than probable no further 
 news will be received from us this year, as our re- 
 turn must necessarily be late.' " — H. S. Wright, 
 SeveuUi continent, pp. 330-336. 
 
 In the light of subsequent events there is some- 
 thing very touching in this last message before the 
 final dash to the Pole. Lieutenant Evans and his 
 companions bore it painfully, faithfully, in the face 
 of .scurvy and sickness, back over the frozen ice 
 sheets through snow and storm to the Discovery 
 Hut. "Our return must necessarily be late" — -the 
 words were a prophecy which he bravely fultilled. 
 On February 10, 1Q13, the news was flashed all 
 over the world that Captain R, L. Scott and his 
 four companions, who were returning to their base 
 after reaching the South Pole Ion Jan. 18, iqi2] 
 and finding Amundsen's records there, had per- 
 ished from starvation and cold within 11 miles 
 of a food depot and only 150 miles from their 
 headquarters. According to Captain Scott's diary, 
 which he kept up to the day of his death I March 
 25, IQ12], the party had been caught in a nine- 
 days' blizzard which prevented traveling until sup- 
 plies were exhausted and death was caused by ex- 
 posure. 
 
 "The British Museum has undertaken the publi- 
 cation of the Natural History results of the British 
 .Antarctic Expedition of iqio, better known as the 
 Terra Nova Expedition. . . . .An especial interest 
 attaches to the small collection of geological speci- 
 mens that were retrieved after the tragic death of 
 Captain Scott and his heroic associates, and the 
 present publication I part I, dealing with fossil 
 plants] bears ample testimony to the fact that 
 iheir efforts have not only furnished the world 
 with a lasting monument to British pluck and man- 
 hood but have also yielded facts of the greatest 
 scientific interest. 
 
 "Although determinable fossil plants are few in 
 number traces were seen, as well as numerous car- 
 bonaceous laminae and small seams of coal, at a 
 number of widely separated localities, particularly 
 in what is called the Beacon sandstone, which at 
 latitude 85° S. is 1,500 feet thick". This com- 
 prises an upper 500 feet of sandstone resting on 
 300 feet of interbedded standstone and shale with 
 several seams of coal, underlain by 700 feet of 
 similar sandstone conglomeratic at the base. The 
 character of the grains in the sandstone suggests 
 wind action, and sun cracks and ripple marks 
 have also been observed. This extensive forma- 
 tion has been traced from Mt. Nansen as far 
 south as latitude S5', a distance of over 700 miles. 
 The most significant plants are those representing 
 the genus GUn^npteri'i found at Mount Buckley or 
 
 Buckley Island which is situated just west of the 
 Beardmore Glacier in latitude 85°. These are 
 partly referred to the wide-spread Glossopteris in- 
 dica Schimper and in part described as a new va- 
 riety of that species. There are also represented 
 objects identified as those of Vertebraria and rep- 
 resenting the axial organs of Glossopteris, and 
 others doubtfully correlated with the scale leaves of 
 the latter genus. From the Priestley Clacier rather 
 indifferently preserved wood is described under the 
 name Antarcticoxyhn Priestleyi and considered as 
 a new type probably Araucarian in its relation- 
 ship. Winged pollen grains are described as Pity- 
 osporiles antarcticus. These are suggestive of the 
 Abietineae, but may be those of the Po- 
 docarpineae. The remainder of the collection has 
 little interest beyond its indication of the presence 
 of arboreal forms in high southern latitudes. The 
 exact age of these plant-containing beds can not 
 be definitely determined from the present collec- 
 tions, although there is no reason to doubt the le- 
 gitimacy of the author's conclusion that the Bea- 
 con sandstone is probably Permo- Carboniferous 
 in age with the further po.ssibility that its upper 
 part may be early Mesozoic. The demonstration 
 of the former presence of Glossopteris in Antarc- 
 tica is of the greatest importance. ... Its pres- 
 ence in Antarctica supplies an important link in 
 the chain connecting the now isolated land masses 
 of the southern hemisphere and also suggests the 
 possibility of this flora having originated on the 
 broad bosom of the Antarctic continent." — E. W. 
 Berry, Scientific results of the Terra Nova expedi- 
 tion (Science, June 4, 1Q15, pp. 830-831). 
 
 1911. — A Japanese expedition. — Lieutenant 
 Shirase of the Japanese navy headed an expedi- 
 tion which sailed from Wellington, New Zealand, 
 on Feb, 11, igii, with the object of reaching the 
 South Pole. Owing to insufficient equipment the 
 expedition was obliged to turn back a few months 
 later. 
 
 1911-1912. — Amundsen's successful expedition 
 to the South Pole. — "Amundsen as a veteran Polar 
 explorer and successful navigator of the North- 
 west Pa.ssage, had accompanied a previous expe- 
 dition to the South Polar regions. His original 
 plan, however, in equipping another expedition for 
 scientific research in Polar waters was not to ven- 
 ture south but to continue work beyond the Arc- 
 tic Circle. How the change of program was in- 
 augurated which finally resulted in one of the 
 greatest achievements on record is best told by 
 himself. T was preparing my trip toward the 
 North Polar regions,' Amundsen has explained, 'it 
 may be to the North Pole — in iqoo. It was not 
 very easy to start an expedition from Norway, for 
 it was hard work among us to raise money and I 
 was preparing this expedition slowly. Then sud- 
 denly the news flashed all over the world that the 
 North Pole had been attained, that Admiral Peary 
 had planted the Stars and Stripes up there. The 
 money which had been scarce now went down to 
 nothing. I could not get a cent more, and I was 
 in the midst of my preparations. One of the last 
 mysterious points of the globe had been discov- 
 ered. The last one still remained undiscovered, 
 and then it was that I took the decision to turn 
 from the north toward the south in order to try 
 to discover this last problem in the polar regions.' 
 .Amundsen's party made a successful landing on 
 the Ross Barrier in longtitude 162" W. about fifty 
 miles to the west of King Edward Land. He 
 established his winter quarters at a station which 
 he appropriately called fafttr his ship, the Fram\ 
 Framheim. and there in good health and spirits he 
 and his slunh companions parsed a cheerful and 
 
 3'^\3
 
 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION 
 
 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION 
 
 busy season. . . . The Norwegian expedition relied 
 on the most primitive methods for its success, fa- 
 vored by unusually good conditions of weather and 
 ice. 'Amundsen's victory is not due,' says Nansen, 
 'to the great inventions of the present day and the 
 many new appliances of every kind. The means 
 used are of immense antiquity, the same as were 
 known to the nomad thousands of years ago when 
 he pushed forward across the snow-covered plains 
 of Siberia and Northern Europe. But everything, 
 great and small, was thoroughly thought out, and 
 the plan was splendidly executed. It is the man 
 
 of these canine friends who occupied every avail- 
 able foot of room upon the decks and were 
 tethered upon the bridge as well. .Amundsen's 
 previous experience in the .Arctic as well as his Nor- 
 wegian training as a disciple of Nansen had 
 convinced him of the importance depending on 
 dogs in all human efforts to reach high latitudes. 
 Their superiority over ponies was demonstrated by 
 their being able to cross more easily the snow 
 ridges that span the dangerous crevasses of the 
 Barrier. . . . .Another important factor in favor of 
 dog teams is the fact that dog eats dogs in case of 
 
 v£) Uoited PTewBDaperB, London 
 From Underwood A I'nderwood 
 
 AMUNDSEN T.AKING OBSERVATIONS AT THE SOUTH I'OLE, 
 DECEMBER 14. 1911 
 
 that matters, here as everywhere. . . . Both the 
 plan and its execution are the ripe fruit of Nor- 
 wegian life and experience in ancient and modern 
 times,' and he comments, 'Like ever\thing great, 
 it all looks so plain and simple.' Amundsen had 
 placed his chief reliance for transportation of equip- 
 ment and supplies on the service of dogs. Nearly 
 one hundred of these animals had been secured 
 from Greenland, and these had increased in num- 
 bers during the long voyage of nearly 16,000 miles 
 through many waters and climes. The slogan 'Dogs 
 first and all the time,' seems to have inspired the 
 men from the start and the greatest care was taken 
 
 emergency, whereas extra food must be carried to 
 support 'poni»s during the entire journey. . _. . 
 From Amundsen's winter quarter? at Framheim 
 to the South Pole was a distance of 870 miles. 
 To cover this distance and return, the party of 
 five men took provision? for four months, with 
 four sledges, drawn by lifty-two dogs. .Amundsen 
 left Framheim on October 20, igii, and was ab- 
 sent three month? and five days, returning to head- 
 quarters with two sledges and eleven dogs Jan- 
 uary 25, 1912. When one recalls the uneven 
 surfaces over which the route was followed, the 
 high altitude of the undulating plateau, the moun- 
 
 364
 
 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION 
 
 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION 
 
 tainous rcRion to be crossed before the goal could 
 be reached and the herculean exertions which 
 Shackleton had made to reach that goal, and been 
 obliged to turn back, one marvels that these Nor- 
 wegian vikings returned with any dogs at all; 
 nevertheless, men and beasts not only returned 
 safely but in excellent condition. To be sure 
 Amundsen was singularly favored. There were 
 few accidents. Nevertheless they encountered bliz- 
 zards and were weather-bound in their tents on 
 more than one occasion. On December the qth 
 they passed the record of the 'Furthest South," 
 Amundsen writes . . . 'eighty-eight degrees and 
 23 minutes was passed ; we were further south than 
 any human being had been. No other moment of 
 the whole trip affected me like this. We all shook 
 hands with mutual congratulations; we had won 
 our way far by holding together and we would 
 go further yet — to the end.' The distant horizon 
 which Shackleton had seen with regretful eyes 
 Amundsen now saw. The road was straight ahead, 
 there to the south lay their goal. As was the case 
 in Peary's final success, so it was with Amundsen, 
 nothing untoward happened. No obstacles hin- 
 dered them, the weather favored them and on De- 
 cember 14th [iQii], the greatest day of all, they 
 experienced that sense of nervousness incident to 
 great expectations that were soon to be realized." 
 On this day Amundsen and his party reached the 
 South Pole, only four weeks before Captain Scott 
 arrived at the same destination. — H. S. Wright, 
 Seventh continent, pp. 337-342. 
 
 "Up to this moment the observations and our 
 reckoning had shown a surprising agreement. We 
 reckoned that we should be at the Pole on De- 
 cember 14. On the afternoon of that day we had 
 brilliant weather — a light wind from the south- 
 east with a temperature of — 10° F. The sledges 
 were going very well. The day passed without any 
 occurrence worth mentioning, and at three o'clock 
 in the afternoon we halted, as according to our 
 reckoning we had reached our goal. We all as- 
 sembled about the Norwegian flag — a handsome 
 silken flag — which we took and planted all together, 
 and gave the immense plateau on which the Pole 
 is situated the name of 'King Haakon VII's Pla- 
 teau.' It was a vast plain of the same character 
 in every direction, mile after mile. During the af- 
 ternoon we traversed the neighbourhood of the 
 camp, and on the following day, as the weather 
 was fine, we were occupied from six in the morn- 
 ing till seven in the evening in taking observations, 
 which gave us 8g" 55' as the result. In order to 
 take observations as near the Pole as possible, we 
 went on, as near true south as we could, for the 
 remaining nine kilometres. On December 16 we 
 pitched our camp in brilliant sunshine, with the 
 best conditions for taking observations. Four of 
 us took observations every hour of the day — twen- 
 ty-four in all. . . . We have thus taken observa- 
 tions as near to the Pole as was humanly possible 
 with the instruments at our disposal. We had a 
 sextant and artificial horizon calculated for a radius 
 of 8 kilometres. On December 17 we were ready 
 to go. We raised on the spot a little circular 
 tent, and planted above it the Norwegian flag 
 and the Frnin's pennant. The Norwegian camp 
 at the South Pole was given the name of 'Polheim.' 
 The distance from our winter quarters to the Pole 
 was about 870 English miles, so that we had cov- 
 ered on an average 15'/^ miles a day. We began 
 the return journey on December 17. The weather 
 was unusually favourable, and this made our re- 
 turn considerably easier than the march to the Pole. 
 We arrived at 'Fraraheim,' our winter quarters, in 
 January, 1912, with two sledges and eleven dogs. 
 
 all well. On the homeward journey we covered 
 an average of 22^2 miles a day. The lowest tem- 
 perature we observed on this trip was — 24° F., 
 and the highest + 23" F. The principal result — 
 besides the attainment of the Pole — is the deter- 
 mination of the extent and character of the Ross 
 Barrier. Next to this, the discovery of a connec- 
 tion between South Victoria Land and, probably. 
 King Edward VII Land through their continua- 
 tion in huge mountain-ranges, which run to the 
 southeast and were seen as far south as lat. 88 8', 
 but which in all probability are continued right 
 across the Antarctic Continent. We gave the name 
 of 'Queen Maud's Mountains' to the whole range 
 of these newly discovered mountains, about 530 
 miles in length. The expedition to King Edward 
 VII Land, under Lieutenant Prostrud, has achieved 
 excellent results. Scott's discovery was confirmed, 
 and the examination of the Bay of Whales and 
 the Ice Barrier, which the party carried out, is 
 of great" interest. Good geological collections 
 have been obtained from King Edward VII Land 
 and South Victoria Land. The Fram arrived at 
 the Bay of Whales on January g, having been 
 delayed in the 'Roaring Forties' by easterly winds. 
 . . . We are all in the best of health." — R. Amund- 
 sen, South Pole, Norwegian Antarctic expedition 
 with the Fram, 1910-1012, pp. 17-IQ. 
 
 1911-1913. — Dr. Mawson's Australasian expe- 
 dition. — An Antarctic expedition, financed by grants 
 amounting to $130,000 from the Australian, New 
 Zealand and British governments, set out from 
 Adelaide, South Australia, in the ship Aurora un- 
 der the leadership of Dr. D, Mawson on Nov. 20, 
 IQII. The expedition was provided with an oceon- 
 ographical equipment contributed by the prince 
 of IVIonaco. Dr. Mawson returned to Sydney in 
 the early spring of 1913, after having successfully 
 mapped about a thousand miles of Termination 
 Land. Two members of the expedition lost their 
 lives — Lieutenant Innes, who fell into a deep ice 
 crevasse, and Dr. Merz, who died from exposure. 
 
 1913. — Return of the German expedition under 
 Filchner. — "News was received by tele Taph on 
 January 7 of the return of Lieut. Filchner in the 
 Deutschland to Buenos Aires. The return was 
 somewhat earlier than had been anticipated, for 
 . . . the original programme had in view a com- 
 plete crossing of the South Polar area from the 
 Weddell to the Ross Sea; and though this was 
 afterwards abandoned, it was hoped to push a 
 long way south into the unknown region between 
 the Weddell Sea and the Pole. According to the 
 scanty telegrams made public at the time of writ- 
 ing, the farthest south reached seems to have been 
 in the neighbourhood of 79" S. Even this marks 
 an important advance on the farthest previously 
 reached on this side of the globe, or in fact in any 
 part of the Antarctic region apart from the Ross 
 Sea, and the lands to the south of it; no previous 
 navigator having crossed 75° S., except in the lat- 
 ter region — i. e. within the 60° of longitude between 
 i.=;o" E. and 150" W. .^ftcr crossing an ice-belt 
 1200 (sic; probably 120) miles wide, the expedi- 
 tion is said to have discovered, in 76° 35' S., 30° 
 W., a new land which continued as far as 70. To 
 this land Lieut. Filchner gives the name Prince Re- 
 gent Luitpold Land, after the late Regent of Ba- 
 varia, while an ice-barrier to the west has been 
 named the Kaiser Wilhelm Barrier. From the po- 
 sition assigned to the new discovery it might seerrt 
 to be a south-westward continuation of Coats 
 Land, discovered by Bruce in 1004. The state- 
 ment that in 78° S. the Weddell Sea forms its 
 southern boundary is somewhat puzzling, for even 
 were the new land an island, the Weddell Sea 
 
 365
 
 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION 
 
 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION 
 
 would, of course, be mainly north of it. Possibly 
 there is some mistake in the telegram, and the 
 meaning intended is that the land forms the south- 
 ern boundary of the Weddell Sea. Lieut. Filchner 
 hopes to return south to continue his explorations." 
 — Geographical Journal, February, 1913, p. I73- 
 
 1914-1916. — Shackleton's second Antarctic ex- 
 pedition. — "In February, 1014, Sir Ernest Shackle- 
 Ion presented before the Royal Geographical So- 
 ciety of London his program for a new ■'\ntarctic 
 Expedition, the purpose of which was to cross the 
 South Polar Continent from the Weddell Sea to the 
 Ross Sea. Such a journey was a stupendous un- 
 dertaking, but Shackleton hoped that from the 
 geographical point of view the complete conti- 
 nental nature of the Antarctic might be solved. It 
 was the purpose of the expedition to take con- 
 tinuous magnetic observations from Weddell Sea 
 right across the Pole, and to follow conscien- 
 tiously all branches of science, with the hoped-for 
 result of greatly adding to the sum total of human 
 knowledge. To carry out his bold project of a 
 trans-.\ntarctic expedition Shackleton had planned 
 to go with his party to the coast line on the Wed- 
 dell Sea, while Captain Mackintosh and nine com- 
 panies [in the Aurora'] were to start from the coast 
 nf Ross Sea, on the other side of the Pole, and 
 meet Shackleton's party at a point far inland. 
 Having received the encouragement and support of 
 the scientific world. Sir Ernest left Buenos ,\ires 
 on board the Endurance October ;5th, 1014, and 
 the last word was heard from him in February 
 of the following year. In May, 1Q16, Shackleton 
 cabled his arrival in the Falkland Islands, bringing 
 with him an account of his failure to reach his 
 destination, through adverse ice conditions. No at- 
 tempt at a trans-Antarctic journey could be made 
 — the Endurance was beset in January, and from 
 then on drifted at the mercy of the elements, 
 reaching the farthest South of 77^ in longitude 
 .VS" West. Then a zizzag drift was made across 
 Weddell Sea and she continued Northwest. In- 
 tense ice pressure was experienced in June when 
 the ridges of ice reached the height of twenty feet 
 near the ship, and during July they reached twice 
 that height. It was not until October, however, 
 that the pressure against the hull of the Endurance 
 became too much for the ship, and she was finally 
 crushed by the ice; all hands abandoned her, tak- 
 ing to boats and sledges, with a part of their pro- 
 visions. After a drift northward for two months, 
 the ice became strong enough to travel over it 
 and the march was pursued through deep snow. 
 During the next few months the party lived on the 
 ice floes, narrowly escaping death on more than 
 one occasion. In April, loifi, the ice suddenly 
 opened beneath them and forced them to take to 
 the open sea in boats. They made their way to 
 F^lephant Island and here they found themselves 
 in such dire straits that Sir Ernest with five men 
 in a small boat started for South Georgia 1750 
 miles] for assistance. This amazing journey, ac- 
 compHshed under such hazardous conditions, is 
 one of the most daring and heroic feats in Ant- 
 arctic history. .^fter reaching the Falklands, 
 Shackleton made several unsuccessful attempts to 
 rescue his men left on Elephant Island. The first 
 was made from South Georgia on May :3rd in a 
 whaling vessel furnished by a Norwegian whal- 
 ing station. The boat could not penetrate the 
 pack ice and was obliged to return to the Falkland 
 Islands, reaching Port Stanley on May 31st. On 
 the 8th of June a second attempt was made in 
 the steamer InslHufn Pesca of the Uruguayan 
 Bureau of Fisheries which loft Montevideo, stop- 
 ping en route at Port Stanley, June 17th, to pick 
 
 up Shackleton. It was found impossible lo reacli 
 Elephant Island because of the ice and the trip 
 was abandoned June 2Sth. The ship had aji 
 proached to within twenty miles of the Island, 
 and it was ascertained that penguins abounded in 
 the vicinity, giving reasonable assurance that the 
 men would be able to subsist until help came, al 
 though when their leader had left them they had 
 only five weeks' rations. Shackleton's third at- 
 tempt was made July 13th, when he set sail from 
 Punta Arenas on the schooner Emma. The 
 schooner was forced back by the terrific gales and 
 ice fields; with engines injured and a battered hull 
 she returned to the Falkland Islands on August 
 4th. Undaunted by repeated failures, worn in 
 body and mind from exhaustion and anxiety, this 
 heroic explorer renewed every effort to rescue the 
 twenty-two marooned men whose trust in him had 
 never wavered, and again set out upon his quest. 
 The fourth and successful journey was made from 
 Punta Arenas, where Sir Ernest chartered a steamer 
 and finally reached his men, when they had all 
 but given up hope of rescue. The party had en- 
 dured many hardships during the [seventeen 
 weeks'! absence of Shackleton. . . . 
 
 "Disaster had likewise pursued Captain Mackin- 
 tosh and his party. The Aurora, in which he bad 
 sailed, broke away in a blizzard off Ross Barrier, 
 leaving Mackintosh and his men stranded on shore. 
 The ship drifted to New Zealand, where she was 
 repaired and Sir Ernest Shackleton sailed in her 
 to the final rescue of the remaining band of ad- 
 venturous men. In their isolation of twenty 
 months three of their number had died, including 
 Captain Mackintosh, the leader, A. P. Spencer 
 Smith, and Victor G. Hayward. Part of the pro- 
 gram of the Ross Sea party had been to lay 
 depots on the Ross barrier ice, for the use of the 
 Shackleton party when it came down from the 
 .Antarctic plateau. This they did, in spite of their 
 abandonment, the last depot being made in Oc- 
 tober, at Mount Hope (83 ^ i^ S.), at the foot of 
 Beardman Glacier. . . "Though at every turn dis- 
 aster and misfortune followed Shackleton's last ex 
 pedition to Antarctica, the indomitable courage, 
 heroism, and faith exhibited by leader and men 
 will ever stand in this story of 'failure' as an ex 
 ample to all and stir the heart with the deepest 
 admiration and enthusiasm." — H. S. Wright, Sev- 
 enth continent, pp. 372-378. 
 
 Scientific observations. — Problems of the ice 
 age. — "Recent .Antarctic explorations and researches 
 have yielded significant evidence regarding the 
 problems of the Ice .Age, and of the similarity of 
 the succession of geological climates in polar with 
 those in other latitudes. These researches have 
 been prosecuted to the ultimate limit of courage, 
 devotion to duty and endurance — the noble sacri- 
 fice of life — as in the cases of Captain Scott, R.N., 
 and his devoted companions and members of the 
 expedition of Sir Ernest Shackleton. The data 
 secured by these expeditions are alone sufficient to 
 establish the following premises: (1) That Ant- 
 arctic ice, although covering areas several times 
 larger than all other ice covered areas, is slowly 
 decreasing in extent and depth (.') That the same 
 succession of genlneiral rlimates have prevailed in 
 .Antarctic as in other latitudes. So vital arc these 
 evidences of the retreat of .Antarctic ice that it 
 may be well to briefly quote or refer to the most 
 prominent instances: All these evidences and many 
 others . . . lead up to one great fact — namely, that 
 the glaciation of the .Antarctic regions is receding. 
 The ice is everywhere retreating. The high level 
 morains decrease in height above the present sur- 
 face of the ice, the debris being two thousand feet 
 
 366
 
 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION 
 
 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION 
 
 up near the coast and only two hundred feet 
 above near the plateau. 
 
 "This observation applies to an icc-covercd area 
 nf over 116,000 square miles. ... In speaking of 
 the evidence of ice retreat over Antarctic areas ex- 
 plored by him, Sir Ernest Shackleton said; 'Some 
 time in the future these lands will be of use to 
 humanity.' This impressive and conclusive evi- 
 dence is corroborated by the greater and still more 
 impressive evidences of the comparatively recent 
 uncovering of temperate land areas, and the pro- 
 gressive retreat of the snow line to higher eleva- 
 tions in temperate and tropical latitudes and 
 towards the poles at sea level, being far greater in 
 Arctic than in Antarctic regions. We are there- 
 fore confronted with the conclusions; (i) That 
 the disappearance of the Ice Age is an active pres- 
 ent process and must be accounted for by activities 
 and energies now at work, and that the use of as- 
 sumptions and hypotheses is not permissible; (2) 
 That the rates and lines of retreat are and have 
 been determined by exposure to solar energy and 
 the temperatures established thereby ; and by the 
 difference in the specific heat of tTie land and water 
 hemispheres; (3) That the lines of the disappear- 
 ance of ice are not conformable with those of its 
 deposition, and mark a distinctly different exposure 
 and climatic control from that which prevailed 
 prior to the culmination of the Ice Age. (4) This 
 retreat also marks a rise in mean surface tempera- 
 ture along these new lines, manifestly due to re- 
 cently inaugurated exposure to solar radiation 
 and also the inauguration of the trapping of 
 heat derived from such exposure ; which pro- 
 cess is cumulative and has a maximum not yet 
 reached. 
 
 "The researches under the direction of Captam 
 Scott and Sir Ernest Shackleton have therefore 
 very rigidly conditioned any inquiry as to the 
 causes of glacial accumulation and retreat. These 
 conditions are corrective and directive — correct- 
 ive, in that they have entirely removed any 
 doubts as to the alternate glaciation of the poles 
 under the alternate occurrence of aphelion and 
 perihelion polar winters by the precession of the 
 equinoxes, as advanced by Croll; directive, in that 
 they have imposed an appeal to energies now active 
 as causes of retreat, and divested the problem of 
 resorts to the fascinating but dangerous uses of 
 suppositions and hypotheses. 
 
 "They have, moreover, pointed out with unerring 
 accuracy the vital conclusion that the same ener- 
 gies which have but recently converted the glacial 
 lake beds of Canada into the most productive 
 grain fields of the world will in time convert the 
 tundras of to-day into the grain fields of to-mor- 
 row. The bearing of this conclusion upon the ul- 
 timate development of the human race is so far- 
 reaching in its consequences that the great sacrifice 
 of life attendant upon the prosecution of these 
 researches stands forever as a memorial in the 
 correction of the erroneous and wide spread con- 
 ception that the earth is in a period of refrigera- 
 tion, desiccation and decay ; and establishes the 
 conclusion that it is in the spring time of a new 
 climatic control during which the areas fitted for 
 man's uses are being extended and that the moss of 
 polar wastes will be replaced by rye and wheat." — 
 M. Manson, Bearing of the facts' revealed by Ant- 
 arctic research upon the problems of the ice age 
 (^Science. Dec. 28, iqi;, pp. 639-640). 
 
 Climatic conditions.— Fauna. — "The great se- 
 verity of climate in South Polar regions, the lack 
 of vegetation, the desolation of unpeopled lands 
 upon which no quadrupeds are to be found,— lands 
 that are mere barren wastes of snow and ice, so 
 
 different from the more hospitable coasts and val- 
 leys of the Arctic, where at equal distances from 
 the equator are found lands green with vegetation, 
 abounding with animal life and the habitat of the 
 hardy Esquimaux, — is accounted for by the pre- 
 dominance of sea in the South Polar regions. The 
 vast continental masses in the north are warmed 
 by the summer sun rays and become centers of 
 radiating heat; while the Antarctic lands are iso- 
 lated in the midst of frigid waters and constantly 
 chilled by cold sea winds 'which act at every sea- 
 son as refrigerators of the atmosphere.' 
 
 " 'In the north,' writes Hartwig, 'the cold currents 
 of the Polar Ocean, with their drift-ice and bergs, 
 have but the two wide gates of the Greenland Sea 
 and Davis Strait through which they can emerge 
 to the south, so that their influence is confined 
 within comparatively narrow limits, while the gelid 
 streams of the Antarctic seas branch out freely on 
 all sides, and convey their floating ice-masses far 
 and wide within the temperate seas. It is only to 
 the west of Newfoundland that single icebergs have 
 ever been known to descend as low as 39° of 
 latitude ; but in the southern hemisphere they have 
 been met with in the vicinity of Cape of Good 
 Hope (35° S. lat.) near Tristan da Cunha, oppo- 
 site to the mouth of the Rio de la Plata, and 
 within a hundred leagues of Tasmania. In the 
 north, finally, we find the gulf stream conveying 
 warmth even to the shores of Spitsbergen and 
 Novaya Zemblya ; while in the opposite regions of 
 the globe, no traces of warm currents have been 
 observed beyond 55° of latitude. Thus the pre- 
 dominance of vast tracts of flat land in the boreal 
 hemisphere, and of an immense expanse of ocean 
 in the Antarctic regions, sufficiently accounts for 
 the istival warmth of the former, and the com- 
 paratively low summer temperature of the latter. 
 In 182Q . , . the Chanticleer, Captain Foster, was 
 sent to New Shetland for the purpose of making 
 magnetic and other physical observations, and re- 
 mained for several months at Deception Island, 
 which was selected as a station from its affording 
 the best harbour in South Shetland. Though these 
 islands are situated at about the same distance 
 from the Pole as the Faroe Islands, which boast 
 nf numerous flocks of sheep, and where the sea 
 never freezes, yet, when the Chanticleer ap- 
 proached Deception Island, on January 5 (a 
 month corresponding to our July), so many ice- 
 bergs were scattered about that Foster counted at 
 one time no fewer than eighty-one. A gale having 
 arisen, accompanied by a thick fog, great care 
 was needed to avoid running foul of these float- 
 ing cliffs. After entering the harbour — a work of 
 no slight difficulty, from the violence of the wind 
 — the fogs were so frequent that, for the first ten 
 days, neither sun nor stars were seen; and 't was 
 withal so raw and cold, that Lieutenant Kendall, 
 to whom we owe a short narrative of the expedi- 
 tion, did not recollect having suffered more at any 
 time in the .Arctic regions, even at the lowest range 
 of the thermometer. In this desolate land, frozen 
 water becomes an integral portion of the soil; for 
 this volcanic island is composed chiefly of alter- 
 nate la\ crs of ashes and ice, as if the snow of each 
 winter, during a series of years, had been prevented 
 from melting in the following summer b.\- the 
 ejection of cinders and ashes from some part where 
 volcanic action still goes on. . . .' The absence of 
 quadrupeds south of 60° has already been noted, 
 but mention should be made of innumerable sea- 
 birds which, though they belong to the same fami- 
 lies as those of the north, are a 'distinct genera or 
 species, for with rare exceptions no bird is found 
 to inhabit both Arctic and Antarctic regions.' " — 
 
 367
 
 ANTESIGNANI 
 
 ANTHROPOLOGY 
 
 H. S. Wright, Seventh continent, pp. 92-g4. — See 
 also Arctic exploration. 
 
 Also in: H. R. Mill, Siege of the South Pole.— 
 K. Fricker, Antarctic regions. — C. E. Borchgrevink, 
 First on the Antarctic continent. — .Antarctic man- 
 ual (iQOi). — O. Nordenskjold and J. G. Andersson, 
 Antarctica. — E. H. Shacklcton, Heart of the Ant- 
 arctic. — Capt. R. F. Scott, Voyage of the Discov- 
 ery. — L. Bernacchi, To the South Polar regions. 
 
 ANTESIGNANI.— "In each cohort [of the 
 Roman legion, in Caesar's time] a certain number 
 of the best men, probably about one-fourth of the 
 whole detachment, was assigned as a guard to the 
 standard, from whence they derived their name 
 of Antesignani." — C. Merivale, History of the 
 Romans tinder the empire, ch. 15. 
 
 ANTHEMIUS, Roman emperor (Western), 
 467-472. See Rome: 455-476. 
 
 ANTHONY, Susan BrowBell (1820-1906), 
 American teacher, author, and woman suffragist. 
 Took a prominent part in temperance and anti- 
 slavery agitation; devoted herself especially to 
 woman's rights; published a weekly paper. The 
 Revolution, edited by Elizabeth Cady Stanton; 
 vice-president of the National Woman's Suffrage 
 Association, 1860-1892; became its president. She 
 drafted an amendment to the Constitution extend- 
 ing suffrage to women, which was passed by Con- 
 gress in igig and ratified by the necessary thirty- 
 six states in 1920. — See also Suffrage, Woman: 
 United States. 
 
 ANTHRACITE COAL: Control by railroads. 
 — Commodities clause of Hepburn Act. See 
 Railroads: 100S-190Q. 
 
 ANTHRACITE COAL COMBINATION. See 
 Trusts: 1Q07-1912. 
 
 ANTHRACITE COAL STRIKE COMMIS- 
 SION, appointed by President Roosevelt. See 
 Arbitration and conciliation. Industrial: U. S. 
 A.: 1902-1920; Labor strikes and boycotts: 1877- 
 1911; U. S. A.: 1Q02 (October). 
 
 ANTHROPOLOGY: Deanition.— Early re- 
 searches. — The simplest definition of anthropology 
 is found in the derivation of the word. "Anthro- 
 pos" is the Greek word for man; "logos" in Greek 
 means science or discourse ; therefore anthropology 
 is the science of man. Aristotle is supposed to be 
 the first f)erson to use the term. After that it is 
 not met with again until the i6th century when 
 the Latin word "anthropologium" is used to desig- 
 nate the study of bodily structure. In fact an- 
 thropological research in Europe until very re- 
 cently was limited to the field now called physical 
 anthropology. The development and growth of 
 anthropology into the comprehensive science that 
 it is to-day, is closely connected with the general 
 scientific development of Europe .during the 17th, 
 i8th and 19th centuries. "In earlier days certain 
 philosophers had been spoken of as anthropologists, 
 and again in later times, i. e. in the iSth century, 
 Anthropology was treated (by Kant and others) 
 as a branch of philosophy, rather than of biology. 
 The latter end of the 17th century was a most 
 important epoch in the history of Physical An- 
 thropology, using the term in the sense which it 
 has now acquired and which will presently be ex- 
 plained. In the year 1699, Dr. Edward Tyson, a 
 member of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, 
 published under the auspices of the Royal Society 
 a treatise entitled 'Orang-Outang, siva Homo Syl- 
 vestris. Or, the Anatomy of a Pygmie compared 
 with that of a Monkey, an Ape, and a Man.' 
 Without entering upon detailed criticism of this 
 Tifork, it will suffice to remark that it constitutes 
 a most remarkable anticipation of modern methods 
 of research, and still serves as a model for investi- 
 
 gations into the structure of Man and Apes. 
 Nevertheless, although so important in these re- 
 spects, the work was not described as one on An- 
 thropology, nor is it certain that Tyson made use 
 of the term in connection with it. The i8th cen- 
 tury in turn affords several notable names in the 
 hi5tor>' of Physical Anthropology. The chief con- 
 tributors to the subject were Linnzeus, Daubenton, 
 Camper, Hunter, Soemmering and Blumenbach. 
 The Systema Naturae of Linnaeus (of which the 
 first edition appeared in 1735) will remain for ever 
 memorable to anthropologists from the fact that 
 Man was therein restored definitely to a place with 
 other animals in a scheme of comparative zoology. 
 Daubenton (1764), a colleague of Buff on, is to be 
 credited with the first strictly scientific memoir in 
 which the comparative anatomy of the skull was 
 studied by means of angular measurements. 
 Camper's great work was first published in 1770. 
 Born at Leyden in 1722, Camper had attained the 
 age of sixty-seven when he died. But for the work 
 of Tyson, that of Camper would hold the place of 
 honour as anticipating the soundest and most pro- 
 ductive methods of modern physical anthropology. 
 Camper's researches dealt with the comparative 
 anatomy of the Orang-utan (a chapter being de- 
 voted specially to its comparison with Man), with 
 the different varieties of anthropoid apes, with the 
 organs of speech in the Orang-utan, with the sig- 
 nificance and origin of pigmentation in the negro 
 races, and finally with the comparative study of 
 skulls. In this connection, special reference is due 
 to the method employed, for it was based on the 
 principle of projections, i. e., the comparison of 
 forms and contours drawn in rectilinear projection. 
 Errors due to perspective, such as occur when the 
 object is viewed in the ordinary way, were thus 
 eliminated. In the same treatise, Camper defines 
 and explains the use of the facial angle which he 
 devised, and through which his name will be per- 
 petuated in the literature of craniometry. The 
 work of John Hunter (172S-1793) stands in a cate- 
 gory apart from all others. If not avowedly an- 
 thropological, the researches carried out by Hunter 
 in Comparative Anatomy define the field or extent 
 of the larger part of modern Physical Anthro- 
 pology. For the rest, it must be added that while 
 in Hunter's work the anatomical notes are num- 
 bered in thousands, the physiological background 
 is never lost to view. Herein, it is fair to believe, 
 a clue will be found to Hunter's success. This 
 vitalizing principle was rigidly maintained and 
 may be studied to-day, not only in the literary 
 monuments left by Hunter, but also in the noble 
 Collection by which his memory is perpetuated. 
 The accomplished anatomist Soemmering published 
 in 1785 a monograph on the anatomy of a Negro, 
 which has become classical. The author extended 
 the comparative methods employed by Camper in 
 the case of the external characters, to the details 
 of every part and structure of the body. In this 
 research again, we may notice the substitution of 
 exact and precise information for speculative sur- 
 mise. Not the least important point made by 
 Soemmering was his observation that the brain- 
 weight of his subject exceeded that of most Euro- 
 peans. This very paradox (as it seemed even then 
 to Soemmering) led him to anticipate (in part at 
 least) important researches carried out a century 
 later by Snell and Dubois. For Soemmering found 
 that while the Negro's brain exceeded that of the 
 European in weight, it held nevertheless a more 
 lowly position when judged by a comparison of 
 its size with the combined mass of the cerebral 
 nerves. The absolute weight taken alone is thus 
 deprived of value as an index of developmental 
 
 368
 
 ANTHROPOLOGY 
 
 Scope and 
 Methods of Study 
 
 ANTHROPOLOGY 
 
 status. It is further shewn that for the interpre- 
 tation of the significance of the brain-weight, the 
 size and complexity of the organs supplied by those 
 nerves must be held accountable for a certain part 
 (now called the 'corporeal concomitant'). And 
 finally, it is on the part which remains over, called 
 by Soemmering the 'superfluous quantity,' that 
 judgment as to the real 'size' of the brain is to 
 be passed. [See also Ary.^ns: Distribution.] 
 Blumenbach is distinguished particularly by his 
 studies in comparative human craniology. Bom at 
 Gotha in 1752, ... he studied ... at Jena and 
 at Gottingen, at which latter University he ob- 
 tained a professorial chair; and at Got- 
 tingen Blumenbach died in 1840. Three charac- 
 teristics seem to be prominent before all others 
 in the character of this remarkable man. His 
 extraordinary versatility in scientific pursuits has 
 rarely been surpassed, even in the fatherland 
 of Goethe, Helmholtz, and Virchow. Scarcely less 
 impressive was his enormous range of literary ac- 
 quaintance. A third point is that he was emi- 
 nently a laboratory worker ... for he travelled 
 but little. Blumenbach's principal contributions 
 to science consist of a treatise on the 'Natural 
 Varieties of the Human Species' and of numerous 
 craniological descriptions, to which must be added 
 certain essays on the Natural History of Man, in- 
 cluding an anatomical comparison of Man with 
 other animals. And the chief advances determined 
 by these researches may be summarized as fol- 
 lows: (i) The employment of the word 'an- 
 thropology' as descriptive of morphological studies. 
 
 (2) Recognition of the fact that no sharp lines 
 demarcate the several varieties of Mankind, the 
 transition from type to type being imperceptible. 
 
 (3) The clear enunciation of a classificatory scheme 
 of the varieties of Mankind, admittedly arbitrary, 
 but devised with the object of facilitating study: 
 the classification was based on considerations of 
 the characters of the skin, the hair, and the skull. 
 
 (4) A clear enunciation of the external causes in 
 producing and perpetuating variations in animals, 
 including Man; recognition of the origin of varie- 
 ties through 'degeneration'; Blumenbach thus very 
 nearly anticipated some important discoveries re- 
 served for Darwin at a later date. All differences 
 in the cranial forms of Mankind were referred 
 either to environment or to artificial interference. 
 At the same time, it is suggested that artificial 
 modifications may in time be inherited (cf. Blu- 
 menbach's Works, p. 121)." — W. L. H. Duckworth, 
 Morphology and anthropology, pp. 1-5. — See also 
 Europe: Prehistoric period: Earliest remains, etc.; 
 PAcrnc ocean: People. 
 
 Scope of study. — Historical method. — In- 
 fluence of evolutionary theories. — "This brings 
 us to the point when anthropology begins to as- 
 sume a wider aspect. Although in earlier periods 
 men noticed the differences in physical appearance 
 and culture existing among various peoples, the 
 discussions of such facts were not within the field 
 of anthropology. Observation of racial differences 
 are recorded on Egyptian monuments and in the 
 tales of early travellers. The Greek and Roman 
 writers mention it and later in the travels of Marco 
 Polo and explorers of the isth, i6lh and 17th cen- 
 turies there are very accurate accounts of primi- 
 tive customs. 'At the present time anthropologists 
 occupy themselves with problems relating to the 
 physical and mental life of mankind as found in 
 varying forms of society from the earliest times up 
 to the present period and in all parts of the 
 world.' In this way Franz Boas, the leader of 
 American anthropologists outlines the scope of an- 
 thropology. Naturally it is impossible for one 
 
 person to command such a range of knowledge, 
 and so distinct fields of specialization have sprung 
 up. The two main divisions are physical ancl cul- 
 tural anthropology, the latter often termed eth- 
 nology. Under physical anthropology are included 
 all studies relating to the physical characteristics of 
 man, his place in nature, comparative anatomy and 
 physiology, the antiquity of man as shown in 
 fossil remains, which evidences are correlated with 
 the findings of geology and a comparative study 
 of the physical characteristics of the different races 
 and subdivisions of races. Cultural anthropology 
 or ethnology deals with the antiquity of man as 
 shown by remains of his handiwork, a comparative 
 study of the arts and industries of man, specula- 
 tion as to their origin; their development and 
 geographical distribution. On the sociological side 
 we have the social and political organization of 
 various peoples; their ethics and religion. The 
 psychological side of life is studied through the 
 languages and mythologies. And finally when 
 these surveys are finished, the different peoples of 
 the world can be arranged into ethnic groups ex- 
 hibiting a certain degree of uniformity of cul- 
 ture. (See also Ethnology.) In anthropology 
 two distinct methods of research have developed, 
 the historical method which aims to reconstruct 
 the actual history of mankind, the other is the 
 generalizing method which attempts to establish 
 the laws of its development. 
 
 "About this time the historical aspect of the 
 phenomena of nature took hold of the minds of 
 investigators in the whole domain of science. Be- 
 ginning with biology, and principally through Dar- 
 win's powerful influence, it gradually revolutionized 
 the whole method of natural and mental science 
 and led to a new formulation of their problems. 
 The idea that the phenomena of the present have 
 developed from previous forms with which they 
 are genetically connected and which determine 
 them, shook the foundations of the Old principles 
 of classification and knit together groups of facts 
 that hitherto had seemed disconnected. Once 
 clearly enunciated, the historical view of the natu- 
 ral sciences proved irresistible and the old problems 
 faded away before the new attempts to discover 
 the history of evolution. From the very begin- 
 ning there has been a strong tendency to combine 
 with the historical aspect a subjective valuation 
 of the various phases of development, the present 
 serving as a standard of comparison. The oft- 
 observed change from simple forms to more com- 
 plex forms, from uniformity to diversity, was in- 
 terpreted as a change from the less valuable to 
 the more valuable and thus the historical view 
 assumed in many cases an ill-concealed teleological 
 tinge. The grand picture of nature in which for 
 the first time the universe appears as a unit of 
 ever-changing form and color, each momentary 
 aspect being determined by the past moment and 
 determining the coming changes, is still obscured 
 by a subjective element, emotional in its sources, 
 which leads us to ascribe the highest value to that 
 which is near and dear to us. The new historical 
 view also came into conflict with the generalizing 
 method of science. It was imposed upon that older 
 view of nature in which the discovery of general 
 laws was considered the ultimate aim of investi- 
 gation. . . . Anthropology also felt the quicken- 
 ing impulse of the historic point of view, and its 
 development followed the same lines that may be 
 observed in the history of the other sciences. The 
 unity of civilization and of primitive culture that 
 had been divined by Herder now shone forth as a 
 certainty. The multiplicity and diversity of cu- 
 rious customs and beliefs appeared as early steps 
 
 369
 
 ANTHROPOLOGY 
 
 Evolutionary 
 Theories 
 
 ANTHROPOLOGY 
 
 in the evolution of civilization from simple forms 
 of culture. The strlkinc similarity between the 
 customs of remote districts was the proof of the 
 uniform manner in which civilization had de- 
 veloped the world over. The laws according to 
 which this uniform development of culture took 
 place became the new problem which engrossed 
 the attention of anthropologists. This is the source 
 from which sprang the ambitious system of Her- 
 bert Spencer and the ingenious theories of Edward 
 Burnett Tylor. The underlying thought of the 
 numerous attempts to systematize the whole range 
 of social phenomena or one or the other of its 
 features — such as religious belief, social organiza- 
 tion, forms of marriage — has been the belief that 
 one definite system can be found according to 
 which all culture has developed, that there is one 
 type of evolution from a primitive form to the 
 highest civilization which is applicable to the whole 
 of mankind, that notwithstanding many varations 
 caused by local and historical conditions, the gen- 
 
 tian and Gcorg Gerland. Both were impressed by 
 the sameness of the fundamental traits of culture 
 the world over. Bastian saw in their sameness an 
 effect of the sameness of the human mind and 
 terms these fundamental traits 'Elementargedanken' 
 [elementary thoughts I, declining all further con- 
 sideration of their origin, since an inductive treat- 
 ment of this problem is impossible. For him the 
 essential problem of anthropology is the discovery 
 of the elementary ideas, and in further pursuit of 
 the inquiry, their modification under the influence 
 of geographical environment. Gerland's views 
 agree with those of Bastian in the emphasis laid 
 upon the influence of geographical environment on 
 the forms of culture. In place of the mystic ele- 
 mentary idea of Bastian, Gerland assumes that the 
 elements found in many remote parts of the world 
 are a common inheritance from an early stage of 
 cultural development. It will be seen that in both 
 these views the system of evolution plays a second- 
 ary part only, ajid that the main stress is laid 
 
 CHIMPANZEE 
 
 COMPARISON OF SKELETONS OF VERTEBRATES. SHOWING EVOLUTIONARY SIMILARITfES 
 
 Krom specimens in Royal College of Surgeons, London 
 
 cral type of evolution is the same everywhere. 
 This theory has been discussed most clearly by 
 Tylor, who finds proof for it in the sameness of 
 customs and beliefs the world over. The typical 
 similarity and the occurrence of certain customs in 
 definite combinations are explained by him as due 
 to their belonging to a certain stage in the develop- 
 ment of civilization. They do not disappear sud- 
 denly, but persist for a time in the form of sur- 
 vivals. These are, therefore, wherever they occur, 
 a proof that a lower stage of culture of which 
 these customs are characteristic has been passed 
 through. . . . The generalized view of the evolu- 
 tion of culture in all its different phases which is 
 the final result of this method may be subjected to 
 a further analysis regarding the psychic causes 
 which bring about the regular sequence of the 
 stages of culture. Owing to the abstract form of 
 the results, this analy.sis must be deductive. It 
 can not be an induction from empirical psychologi- 
 cal data. In this fact lies one of the weaknesses 
 of the method which led a number of anthropolo- 
 gists to a somewhat different statement of the 
 problem. I mention here particularly Adolf Bas- 
 
 on the causes which bring about modifications of 
 the fundamental and identical traits. There is 
 a close connection between this direction of an- 
 thropology and the old geographical school. Here 
 the psychic and environmental relations remain 
 amenable to inductive treatment, while, on the 
 other hand, the fundamental hypotheses exclude 
 the origin of the common traits from further in- 
 vestigation. The subjective valuation which is 
 characteristic of most evolutionary systems, was 
 from the very beginning part and parcel of evo- 
 lutionary anthropology. It is but natural that in 
 the study of the history of culture our own civiliza- 
 tion should become the standard, that the achieve- 
 ments of other times and other races should be 
 measured by our own achievements. In no case 
 is it more difficult to lay aside the 'Culturbrille' 
 [cultural spectacles] — to use Von den Steinen's apt 
 term — than in viewing our own culture For this 
 reason the literature of anthropology abounds in 
 attempts to define a number of stages of culture 
 leading from simple forms to the present civiliza- 
 tion, from savagery through barbarism to civiliza- 
 tion, or from an assumed pre -savagery through the 
 
 370
 
 ANTHROPOLOGY 
 
 Branches 
 of the Science 
 
 ANTHROPOLOGY 
 
 same stages to enlightenment. The endeavor to 
 establish a schematic hne of evolution naturally 
 led back to new attempts at classification in which 
 each group bears a genetic relation to the other. 
 Such attempts have been made from both the cul- 
 tural and the biological point of view." — F. Boas, 
 History oj anthropology (Science, Oct. 21, 1904). 
 — See also Evolution: Historical development, etc. 
 
 After this brief summary of the general method 
 of anthropology it is perhaps best to take each 
 branch of the science separately and show its de- 
 velopment, bearing in mind the aims of the entire 
 subject. 
 
 Linguistics. — The point of view of the student 
 of linguistics depends very much on his back- 
 ground. If he comes from physical anthropology 
 he is interested in correlating the phonetic system 
 with the structure of the organs of speech ; the 
 ethnologist studies language to gain light on ethnic 
 affinity and cultural contact, or if he is interested 
 in psychology, to learn categories of thought and 
 the trend of mental processes. The study of lin- 
 guistics was first directed to the investigation of 
 the "Aryan" question. "The connection between 
 linguistics and anthropology assumed its greatest 
 importance in the middle of the nineteenth cen- 
 tury, when the discoveries and theories of philol- 
 ogists were adopted wholesale to explain the 
 problems of European ethnology, and the Aryan 
 controversy became the locus of disturbance 
 throughout the Continent. No other scientific 
 question, with the exception, perhaps, of the doc- 
 trine of evolution, was ever so bitterly discussed 
 or so infernally confounded at the hands of Chau- 
 vinistic or otherwise biased writers." — A. C. Had- 
 don, History of anthropology, p. 144. 
 
 In recent years linguistics has assumed a broader 
 outlook and is studied by the anthropologist to- 
 day principally in the unwritten languages of prim- 
 itive people. "The origin of language was one of 
 the much-discussed problems of the nineteenth 
 century, and owing to its relation to the develop- 
 ment of culture, it has a direct anthropological 
 bearing. The intimate ties between language and 
 ethnic psychology were expressed by no one more 
 clearly than by Stcinthal, who perceived that the 
 form of thought is molded by the whole social 
 environment of which language is part. Owing 
 to the rapid change of language, the historical 
 treatment of the linguistic problem had developed 
 long before the historic aspect of the natural 
 sciences was understood. The genetic relationship 
 of languages was clearly recognized when the ge- 
 netic relationship of species was hardly thought of. 
 With the increasing knowledge of languages they 
 were grouped according to common descent, and 
 when no further relationship could be proved, a 
 classification according to morphology was at- 
 tempted. To the linguist whose whole attention is 
 directed to the study of the expression of thought 
 by language, language is the individuality of a 
 people, and therefore a classification of languages 
 must present itself to him as a classification of 
 peoples. No other manifestation of the mental life 
 of man can be classified so minutely and definitely 
 as language. In none are the genetic relations 
 more clearly established. It is only when no 
 further genetic and morphological relationship can 
 be found, that the linguist is compelled to coordi- 
 nate languages and can give no further clue re- 
 garding their relationship and origin. No wonder, 
 then, that this method was used to classify man- 
 kind, although in reality the linguist classified only 
 languages. The result of the classification seems 
 eminently satisfactory on account of its definiteness 
 as compared with the results of biological and 
 
 cultural classifications." — F. Boas, History of an- 
 thropology (Science, Oct. 21, 1904). 
 
 The study of linguistics together with the de- 
 velopment of physical anthropology brought about 
 theories which connected race and language. The 
 modern anthropologists have fought valiantly to 
 show why any such theory is untenable. "Mean- 
 while the methodical resources of biological or 
 somatic anthropology had also developed and had 
 enabled the investigator to make nicer distinctions 
 between human types than he had been able to 
 make. The landmark in the development of this 
 branch of anthropology has been the introduction 
 of the metric method, which -owes its first strong 
 development to Quetelet. ... A clearer definition 
 of the terms 'type' and 'variabihty' led to the 
 application of the statistical method by means of 
 which comparatively slight varieties can be dis- 
 tinguished satisfactorily. By the application of 
 this method it soon became apparent that the races 
 of man could be subdivided into types which were 
 characteristic of definite geographical areas and of 
 the people inhabiting them. The same misinterpre- 
 tation developed here as was found among the 
 linguists. As they identified language and people, 
 so the anatomists identified somatic type and 
 people and based their classification of peoples 
 wholly on their somatic characters. The two prin- 
 ciples were soon found to clash. Peoples genetic- 
 ally connected by language, or even the same in 
 language, were found to be diverse in type, and 
 people of the same type were found to be diverse in 
 language. Furthermore, the results of classifica- 
 tions according to cultural groups disagreed with 
 both the linguistic and the somatic classifications. 
 In long and bitter controversies the representatives 
 of these three directions of anthropological research 
 contended for the correctness of their conclusions. 
 This war of opinions was fought out particularly 
 on the ground of the so-called .Aryan question, and 
 only gradually did the fact come to be understood 
 that each of these classifications is the reflection of 
 a certain group of facts. The linguistic classifica- 
 tion records the historical fates of languages and 
 indirectly of the people speaking these languages; 
 the somatic classification records the blood rela- 
 . tionships of groups of people and thus traces an- 
 other phase of their history ; while the cultural 
 classification records historical events of still an- 
 other character, the diffusion of culture from one 
 people to another and the absorption of one cul- 
 ture by another. Thus it became clear that the 
 attempted classifications were expressions of his- 
 torical data bearing upon the unwritten history of 
 races and peoples, and recorded their descent, mix- 
 ture of blood, changes of language and develop- 
 ment of culture. Attempts at generalized classifi- 
 cations based on these methods can claim validity 
 only for that group of phenomena to which the 
 method applies. An agreement of their results, 
 that is, original association between somatic type, 
 language and culture, must not be expected." — 
 F. Boas, History of anthropology (Science, Oct. 
 21, 1004). 
 
 Just as the languages of Europe have been 
 grouped into a great family, so linguists have at- 
 tempted to do the same for .America. The atti- 
 tude toward this question as far as .American posi- 
 tion can best be seen in the following summary: 
 "As symptomatic of the synthetic tendency so 
 pronounced in recent years may be cited the sig- 
 nificant utterance of one of the most competent 
 collaborators, E. Sapir, to the effect that the fifty- 
 seven linguistic families hitherto officially recog- 
 nized will be ultimately reduced to not more than 
 about sixteen. On the other hand, a more skep- 
 
 371
 
 ANTHROPOLOGY 
 
 Branches 
 of the Science 
 
 ANTHROPOLOGY 
 
 tical attitude is maintained editorially. In his 
 'Introductory' statement Boas explains that while 
 far-reaching morphological resemblances may be 
 based on community of origin the absence of his- 
 torical data for primitive languages precludes t"he 
 evidence from becoming demonstrative; what is 
 interpreted by some as the result of an ultimate 
 connection may be due merely to assimilation re- 
 sulting from contact. Accordingly, Boas regards 
 the minute study of dialectic differentiation as af- 
 fording a more promising field for research than 
 the quest for remote relationships. He likewise 
 calls attention to the study of literary form as a 
 well-nigh neglected but extremely fruitful task for 
 the linguist. In spite of all methodological warn- 
 ings the consolidation of languages once reckoned 
 as distinct is progressing merrily, especially in Cali- 
 fornia, where Yuki now remains as the solitary 
 isolated form of speech, all others having been 
 linked with larger groups." — University oj Cali- 
 fornia publications, {American Archaeology and 
 Ethnology, v. 13, no. 1) . — See also Indians, Amer- 
 ican: Linguistic characteristics. 
 
 In a similar way Father Schmidt, the editor of 
 Anthropos, a German anthropological periodical, 
 has worked on the languages of Australia, and 
 British colonial offices and government ethnolo- 
 gists like N. W. Thomas are preparing the native 
 languages of Africa. 
 
 Physical anthropology. — Physical anthropology 
 deals with man past and present. In the late 
 years of the iqth century several remarkable finds 
 of remains of fossil man were made in Western 
 Europe. Famous among these are the Heidelberg 
 jaw, the Neanderthal skull, the Grunaldi and Cro- 
 magnon skeletons of Southern France and the Pilt- 
 down man of England. Still more important is 
 the Pithecanthropus Erectus found in iSgS bv E. 
 DuBois near the Frimil River in Java. From these 
 fossil remains physical anthropologists try to re- 
 construct the appearance of prehistoric man. Af- 
 ter the pioneers mentioned by Duckworth, there is 
 a group of distinguished men in the loth century 
 who each contributed something vital to physical 
 anthropology. Among them are A. de Quatrefages, 
 Topinard and Bertillon in France, Virchow in Ger- 
 many and Sergi in Italy and Galton and Pearson 
 in England. Bertillon first used the term anthro- 
 pometry to designate a system of identification de- 
 pending on the unchanging character of certain 
 measurements of parts of the human frame. His 
 methods were applied principally to criminology 
 and have been replaced by the finger print system 
 invented by Francis Galton. Craniometry was 
 begun very early by artists who wished to get more 
 accurate measurements of the human figure. Ex- 
 act measuring of the head was developed further 
 by Anders Retzius, w'ho worked out the system 
 of comparing various measurements of the skull in 
 indices and classifying objects accordincly. The 
 best known of these indices is the cephalic index, 
 the formula of which is: 
 
 Width of skull in millimeters x 100 
 Length of skull in millimeters x 100 
 
 This gives a percentage index and these indices 
 are classified: 
 
 X - 74.g dolichocephalic (long) 
 75.0 - 7Q.q mesocephalic (medium) 
 80.0 - X brachyccphalic (short) 
 
 Karl Pearson's contribution to physical anthro- 
 pology is the application of the methods of statis- 
 tical science in dealing with large numbers of bio- 
 metric data. 
 
 Ethnology. — .'Mtho the earliest ethnologists 
 were Herodotus, Strabo and Lucretius, it was only 
 comparatively recently that real ethnologies were 
 written. In 1850 there appeared one of the first 
 synthetic works which is still valuable to-day, 
 Waetz, 'Anthropologic der Naturvolker.' In 1885 
 Ratzel began to publish his \ blkerkunde. Later 
 Kean's 'Ethnology' and Deruber's book were de- 
 voted to an account of a single people. This sort 
 of monograph is becoming more and more com- 
 prehensive and is advocated especially by the his- 
 torical school of anthropologists, for it gives those 
 small blocks from which to build up culture. In 
 America especially these monographs have been 
 produced with great success. A good ethnological 
 monograph must include: arts and industries witn 
 exact descriptions of techniques employed; food, 
 how secured and its preparation; type of shelter, 
 how built, materials used; clothing and personal 
 decoration; social organization, political organiza 
 tion, religions, ceremonials; mythologv', folk tale, 
 and customs; relations to neighboring peoples; pas^ 
 history obtained through archeology if possible. 
 When an account like this is available for large 
 areas then generalizations about economic life, 
 social and religious developments, etc, can be 
 made. Before this comprehensive ethnology was 
 developed loth century writers spent much time 
 in the various fields of ethnology. In theories 
 about social organizations the names of Bachofen. 
 Morgan and ilcl.ennan must be mentioned. In 
 primitive religion Tylor, Herbert Spencer, Frazer 
 and Durkheim all figure as the authors of valu- 
 able treatises, the first three as exponents of the 
 evolutionary theory of culture. Economic life 
 and ethics have also been studied separately. The 
 former is a monumental work by Halen and the 
 latter by Westermarck on the 'Origin and Develop- 
 ment of Moral Ideas' and Hobhouse's, 'Morals in 
 Evolution.' Folklore and mythology is not con- 
 fined to primitive peoples but probably received 
 its first stimulations from the collection of Euro- 
 pean fairy tales made by the Grimm Brothers. — 
 See also Ethnology; Mythology: Meaning of 
 word. This summary of the progress of anthro- 
 pology can best be closed by quoting what Franz 
 Boas considers the outlook and value of anthro 
 pology: 
 
 ".\ last word as to the value that the anthropo- 
 logical method is assuming in the general system 
 of our culture and education. I do not wish to 
 refer to its practical value to those who have to 
 deal with foreign races or with national questions 
 Of greater educational importance is its power to 
 make us understand the roots from which our 
 civilization has sprung, that it impresses us with 
 the relative value of all forms of culture, and thus 
 serves as a check to an exaggerated valuation of 
 the standpoint of our own period, which we are 
 only too liable to consider the ultimate goal of 
 human evolution, thus depriving ourselves of the 
 benefits to be gained from the teachings of other 
 cultures and hindering an objective criticism of 
 our own work." — F. Boas, History of anthropology 
 (Science. Oct. 21, IQ04). — See also Africa: Races 
 of Africa: Prehistoric peoples; Haw.^han Islands: 
 Anthropology of the islands; Indians, American; 
 Origins of the American Indian ; M.\lav, Malaysian 
 OR BROWN race; Matriarchate ; Mexico: Aborig- 
 inal peoples; New Zealand: 1375-1642; Super- 
 stitions. 
 
 Also in: F. Boas, Mind of primitive man. — 
 R. H. Lowie, Primitive society. ^Ibid., Culture and 
 ethnology. — R. R. Marett, Anthropology .—K. F. 
 Osborn, Men of the old Stone Age. — E. B. Tylor, 
 Primitive culture. 
 
 372
 
 ANTHROPOMORPHISM 
 
 ANTI-FEDERALISTS 
 
 ANTHROPOMORP,HISM: Greek religion. 
 
 See Mvthology: Greek mythology: Anthropo- 
 morphic character of Greek myth. 
 
 ANTI-ADIAPHORISTS. See Germany: 
 1546-1552. 
 
 ANTI-BOLSHEVISM: Russia. See Russia: 
 iQi8-ig20, 1920, 1920 (October-November). 
 
 ANTI-BOYCOTT LAWS. See Boycott: Re- 
 cent judicial decisions. 
 
 ANTI-CLERICALISM, in European politics, 
 the doctrine of those opposing the influence of the 
 Roman Catholic hierarchy in secular affairs. In 
 France and Italy the anti-clerical elements have 
 perhaps been stronger than in other Catholic coun- 
 tries, but their influence in Germany, Spain and 
 Portugal has been considerable. 
 
 ANTI-COMBINE LAWS: Canada. See 
 Trusts: Canada; 1010-1912. 
 
 ANTI-CORN-LAW LEAGUE, an organiza- 
 tion in England which began to e.xercise great in- 
 fluence in politics about 1838, Richard Cobden and 
 John Bright being its leading spokesmen. The 
 corn laws had for many years imposed heavy 
 duties on grain, especially wheat. The agitation 
 conducted by the league and its able leaders helped 
 to bring about the reduction of the duties in 1846, 
 and their practical abolition in 1849. At this 
 period, free trade began to be adopted as the gen- 
 eral policy for the United Kingdom. — See also 
 Tariff: 1836-1841; 1S45-1S46. 
 
 ANTICOSTI: 1763.— Added to government 
 of Newfoundland. See Canada: i 763-1 774. 
 
 ANTIETAM, Battle of. See U. S. A.: 1862 
 (September: Maryland) : Lee's first invasion: 
 Harper's ferry. 
 
 ANTI-FEDERALISTS, a political party in the 
 United States opposed to the ratification of the 
 constitution, led by Patrick Henry and George 
 Clinton, and others. Their opposition was mani- 
 fested, though feebly, during the session of the 
 First Congress. "At one extreme of the Anti- 
 federal party was a body of men, numerous, re- 
 spectable, and not without influence, who leaned 
 toward monarchy and were for setting up a king. 
 They could, they protested, see no way out of 
 the ills that lay so thick on either hand but by 
 abandoning the attempt at republican government, 
 and taking refuge in that very system they had 
 with so much difficulty just thrown off. At the 
 other extreme were to be found many men of note ; 
 almost all the first characters in the country, and 
 a large proportion of the community. They ab- 
 horred, they said, the idea of a monarchy; they 
 would never give up the idea of a republic. But 
 they were convinced that no one republican gov- 
 ernment could rule harmoniously over so vast a 
 country, and over such conflicting interests. They 
 were therefore for three separate confederations, 
 marked off by such boundaries as difference of cli- 
 mate, diversity of occupations, and the natural 
 products of the soil required. Everybody knew 
 that the eastern men were fishers and shippers and 
 merchants, while the southern men were planters 
 and farmers. The late discussion over the Mis- 
 sissippi had shown how impossible it was to recon- 
 cile the interests of men so variously employed. 
 It was better, therefore, that they should part ; and 
 that, as Massachusetts built her ships and Virginia 
 raised her tobacco and her slaves under different 
 climates, they should do so under different flags. 
 They hoped there would be three republics: a 
 republic of the East, a republic of the Middle 
 States, and a republic of the South. . . . And now 
 the minority published an address. It was not, 
 they said, till the termination of the late glorious 
 contest that any defects were discovered in the 
 
 Confederation. Then of a sudden it was found 
 to be in such a shocking condition that a conven- 
 tion was called by Congress to revise it. To this 
 convention came a few men of the first character, 
 some men more noted for ambition and cunning 
 than for patriotism, and some who had always 
 been enemies to the independence of the States. 
 The session lasted four months, and what took 
 place during that time no one could tell. Tue 
 doors were closed. The members were put under 
 the most solemn engagements of secrecy. The jour- 
 nals of the conclave were still hidden. Yet i was 
 well known that the meeting was far from peace- 
 ful. Some delegates had quitted the hall before 
 the work was finished; some had refused to lend 
 their names to it when it was done. But the plan 
 came out in spite of this, and was scarce an hour 
 old when petitions, approving of the system and 
 praying the Legislature to call a convention, were 
 to be found in every coffee-house ^nd tavern in 
 the city. No means were spared to frighten the 
 people against opposing it. The newspapers teemed 
 with abuse; threats of tar and feathers were lib- 
 erally made. The petitions came in, the conven- 
 tion was called by a Legislature made up in part 
 of members who had been dragged to their seats 
 to make a quorum, and so early a day set for the 
 election of delegates that many people did not 
 know of it till the time had passed. The lists of 
 voters showed that seventy thousand freemen were 
 entitled to vote in Pennsylvania, yet the conven- 
 tion had been elected by but thirteen thousand. 
 Forty-six members had ratified the new plan, yet 
 these represented but six thousand eight hun- 
 dred voters. Some freemen had kept away from 
 the polls because of ignorance of the plan, some 
 because they did not think the convention had 
 been legally called, and some because they feared 
 violence and insult. The ratification was in their 
 opinion worthless. Twenty-one of the twenty- 
 three put their names to the address. . . . But the 
 Antifederalists were not, they maintained, to be 
 misled by the glamour of grea't names. They had 
 seen names as great as any at the foot of the 
 Constitution subscribed to the present reprobated 
 Articles of Confederation. Nay, some of the very 
 men who had put their hands to the one had also 
 put their hands to the other. Had not Roger 
 Sherman and Robert Morris recommended the 
 Confederation ? If these patriots had erred once, 
 was there any reason to suppose that they, or a 
 succeeding set, could not err a second time? Had 
 a few years added to their age made them in- 
 faUible? Was it not true that the Federalists, who 
 so warmly supported the new plan and would 
 force it down the throats. of their fellows because 
 Franklin had signed it, affected to despise the Con- 
 stitution of Pennsylvania which was the work of 
 no one so much as of that same venerable patriot? 
 What, then, was the value of these boasted great 
 names? Many of the signers, it was quite true, 
 had done noble deeds. No one could forget the 
 debt of gratitude the continent owed to the il- 
 lustrious Washington. But it was well known that 
 he was more used to command as a soldier than 
 to reason as a politician. Franklin was too old. 
 As for Hamilton and the rest of them, they were 
 mere boys. These unkind remarks called forth the 
 highest indignation from the Federalists. But party 
 spirit ran high, and it was not long before one of 
 their antagonists went so, far as to assert, that to 
 talk of the wisdom of the Great Commander and 
 the Great Philosopher was to talk nonsense; for 
 Washington was a fool from nature, and Franklin 
 was a fool from age." — J. C. McMaster, History 
 of the people of the United States, v. i, pp. 393, 
 
 373
 
 ANTIGONID KINGS 
 
 ANTIOCH 
 
 473, 406-467. — See also U. S. A.: 1787-1789; 1789- 
 1792. 
 
 Also in a broadside entitled, Address and rea- 
 sons of dissent of the minority of the convention 
 of the state of Pennsylvania to their constituents. 
 
 ANTIGONID KINGS. See Greece: B. C. 307- 
 
 197- 
 
 ANTIGONUS CYCLOPS (382-301 B.C.), 
 Macedonian king. See M.acedonxa ; B. C. 323-316, 
 315-310, 310-301 ; Rhiioks, Island of: B. C. 304. 
 
 ANTIGONUS GONATUS (c. 319-239 B.C.), 
 Macedonian king. See .\ihe.ns: B.C. 288-263; 
 M.ACEuu.sn: B.C. 277-244. 
 
 ANTIGUA, one of the British West Indian 
 islands. Discovered by Columbus in 1493, settled 
 by the British in 1632 ; in 1834 slavery was abol- 
 i.<ihed. 
 
 ANTI-IMPERIALISTS, League of American. 
 See U. S. A.: 1000 (Mav-Xovember) . 
 
 ANTI-JAPANESE AGITATION: Califor- 
 nia. See R.ACE problems: 1913-1021. 
 
 ANTILLES, ANTILIA.— "Familiar as is the 
 name of the ."Vntilles, few are aware of the an- 
 tiquity of the word ; while its precise significance 
 >ets etymology at defiance. Common consent 
 identified the Antilia of legend with the Isle of the 
 Seven Cities. In the year 734, says the story, the 
 .■\rabs having conquered most of the Spanish pen- 
 insula, a number of Christian emigrants, under 
 the direction of seven holy bishops, among them 
 the archbishop of Oporto, sailed westward with all 
 that they had, and reached an island where they 
 founded seven towns. .\rab geographers speak of 
 an .Atlantic island called in Arabic El-tennyn, or 
 .■M-tin (Isle of Serpents), a name which may f>os- 
 sibly have become by corruption Antilia. . . . The 
 seven bishops were believed in the i6th century 
 to be still represented by their successors, and to 
 preside over a numerous and wealthy people. Most 
 geographers of the 15th century believed in the 
 e.xistence of .Antilia. It was represented as lying 
 west of the .\zores. ... .As soon as it became 
 known in Europe that Columbus had discovered a 
 large island, Espanola was at once identified with 
 .Antilia, . . . and the name . . . has ever since 
 been applied generally to the West Indian islands." 
 — -E. J. Payne, History of the \ew World called 
 America, v. i, p. 98 — See also West Indies. 
 
 ANTILLES, U. S. army transport sunk by sub- 
 marine. See World W.\r: 1917: IX. Naval opera- 
 tions: c, 2. 
 
 ANTI-MASONIC PARTY, American, a party 
 opposed to secret societies, especially to Free Ma- 
 sons. The deeper causes of this movement are 
 probably to be found in the desire for social and 
 political reorganization which came with the new 
 democratic awakening after 1814, In 1826, Wil- 
 liam Morgan, of Batavia, N. Y., threatened to 
 reveal the secrets of the Masonic order. He was 
 arrested and a judgment was obtained against him 
 for debt. .After being taken to Niagara in a 
 closed carriage, he was never again heard of. In 
 western New York there developed an organized 
 opposition to freemasonry as subversive of religion 
 and good citizenship. A number of .Anti-Masons 
 were elected to the legislature, and there followed 
 legislative investigations of the Morgan incident 
 and of freemasonry in general. In 1830, Thurlow 
 Weed founded the Albany Evening Journal, which 
 became the leading .Anti-Masonic newspaper The 
 Anti-Masonic party soon displaced the National 
 Republicans as opponents of the Democrats in 
 New York, its leaders being William H Seward, 
 Thurlow Weed and Millard Fillmore. The party 
 was strong enough in some other states to affect 
 the elections, notablv in Pennsylvania and Ver- 
 
 mont. In their national convention in 183 1, the 
 first of the national nominating conventions, the 
 .Anti-Masons nominated William Wirt and Amos 
 Ellmaker, hoping to force Clay, who was a Mason, 
 out of the field. Wirt addressed the convention, 
 declared that he was a Mason and offered to with- 
 draw if he had been named under any misappre- 
 hension. The nomination was then unanimously 
 reaffirmed. Some of the more radical of the parts 
 were alienated by Wirt's nomination. In several 
 states the National Republicans indorsed the Anti- 
 Masonic electoral ticket, although Clay was Jack- 
 son's chief opponent in the country at large. Ver- 
 mont was the only state to give its electoral vote 
 to Wirt. After 1832 the party rapidly declined, as 
 it split on the questions of the United States Bank 
 and the tariff. — See also Masonic societies: Anti- 
 Masonic agitations; U. S. A.: 1832. 
 
 In Mexico. See Me.xico: 1822-1828. 
 
 ANTI-MILITARISM, the spirit of opposition 
 to large standing armies and extensive armaments 
 and to the growth of a military caste. In con- 
 tinental Europe during the years between the 
 Franco-Prussian War and the World War the anti- 
 militarists, including socialists and philosophical 
 pacificists, denounced conscription — universal on 
 the continent — and the increased production oi 
 arms and munitions. They condemned the spend- 
 ing of huge sums, the withdrawal of men from 
 industry and the tendency to exalt the military 
 over the civil power, and held that it was prepara- 
 tion for war that brought war. The sentiment 
 of anti-militarism has always been prevalent in the 
 United States of America, as is evidenced by the 
 fact that the country has never been prepared 
 for any of the wars in which it has engaged. 
 America has always clung to a small standing 
 army, has kept down expenditures for arms and 
 munitions, has not developed a military caste as 
 known in Europe and has adopted conscription 
 only in the two critical emergencies of the Civil 
 War and the World War. — See also Pe.^ce move- 
 ment; Intern'.^tion.al: i8Sq, 
 
 ANTI-MONOPOLY PARTY IN lO'WA. See 
 Io\v.\: 1871- 1874. 
 
 ANTINOMIAN CONTROVERSY: Anne 
 Hutchinson in conflict with the Puritans. See 
 M.ASSAfiu-SKiT^s: 1636-1038 
 
 ANTIOCH, (mod. Antakia) a city near what 
 is now .Aleppo, Syria, founded by Seleucus Nicator, 
 son of .Antiochus, (301 B.C.) (See Macedonia, 
 etc.: 310-301 B.C.; Seleucid.ic, Empire of the; 
 Syria: B.C. 332-167.) As the capital of Syria 
 (until the year 65 B.C.), the city rose to great 
 splendor. It became one of the earliest seats of 
 Christianity during the period 33- 100 (See 
 Christianity: AD. 33-52. According to tradition 
 the city was evangelized by Peter It is also said 
 that the converts were the first to be called 
 "Christians." .Antioch, more than any other 
 ancient city, suffered keenly from sporadic earth- 
 (|uakes. 
 
 A. D. 115. — Great earthquake.— "Early in the 
 year 115, according to the most exact chronology, 
 the splendid capital of Syria was visited by 
 an earthquake, one of the most disastrous appar- 
 ently of all the similar inflictions from which that 
 luckless city has periodically suffered. . . . The 
 calamity was enhanced by the presence of unusual 
 crowds from all the cities of the east, assembled 
 to pay homage to the Emperor [Trajan], or to 
 take part in his expedition [of conquest in the 
 eastl. .Among the victims were many Romans of 
 distinction . . Trajan, himself, only escaped by 
 creeping through a window." — C. Merivale, History 
 of the Romans, ch. 65. 
 
 374
 
 ANTIOCHUS 
 
 ANTI-TRUST DECISIONS 
 
 260. — Surprise, rriassacre and pillage by Sha- 
 pur, king of Persia. See Persia: 226-627. 
 272.— Battle of Antioch. See Palmyra. 
 526. — Destruction by earthquake. — During the 
 reign of Justinian (518-565) the cities of the Ro- 
 man empire "were overwhelmed by earthquakes 
 more frequent than at any other period of history. 
 Antioch, the metropolis of Asia, was entirely de- 
 stroyed, on the 20th of May, 526, at the very time 
 when the inhabitants of the adjacent country were 
 assembled to celebrate the festival of the Ascen- 
 sion; and it is affirmed that 250,000 persons were 
 crushed by the fall of its sumptuous edifices." — 
 J. C. L. de Sismondi, Fall of the Roman Empire, 
 ch. 10. 
 
 Also in: E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the 
 Roman Empire, ch. 43. 
 
 638. — Surrender to the Arabs. See Caliphate: 
 632-639. 
 
 969. — Recapture by the Byzantines. — After 
 having remained 328 years in the possession of the 
 Saracens, Antioch was retaken in the winter of 
 96Q by the Byzantine emperor, Nicephorus Phocas, 
 and became again a Christian city. Three years 
 later the Moslems made a sreat effort to recover 
 the city, but were defeated. The Byzantine arms 
 were at this time highly successful in the never 
 ending Saracen war, and John Tzimisces, succes- 
 sor of Nicephorus Phocas, marched triumphantly 
 to the Tigris and threatened even Bagdad But 
 most of the conquests thus made in Syria and 
 Mesopotamia were not lasting. — G. Finlay, History 
 of the Byzantine Empire, A. D. 716-1007, bk. 2, 
 ch. 2. — See also Byzantine empire: 963-1025. 
 
 1097-1098.— Siege and capture by the Cru- 
 saders. See Crusades: ioq6-ioqq. 
 
 1268. — Extinction of the Latin Principality. — 
 Total destruction of the city. — Antioch fell, be- 
 fore the arms of Bibars, the sultan of Egypt and 
 Syria, and the Latin principality was bloodily 
 extinguished, in 1268. "The first seat of the Chris- 
 tian name was dispeopled by the slaughter of sev- 
 enteen, and the captivity of one hundred thousand 
 of her inhabitants." This fate befell Antioch only 
 twenty-three years before the last vestige of the 
 conquests of the crusaders was obliterated at Acre. 
 — E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Em- 
 pire, ch. 50. — "The sultan halted for several weeks 
 in the plain, and permitted his soldiers to hold a 
 large market, or fair, for the sale of their booty. 
 This market was attended by Jews and pedlars 
 from all parts of the East. ... 'It was,' says the 
 Cadi Mohieddin, 'a fearful and heart-rending sight. 
 Even the hard stones were softened with grief.' 
 He tells us that the captives were so numerous 
 that a fine hearty boy might be purchased for 
 twelve pieces of silver, and a little girl for five. 
 When the work of pillage had been completed, 
 when all the ornaments and decorations had been 
 carried away from the churches, and the lead torn 
 from the roofs, Antioch was fired in different 
 places, amid the loud thrilling shouts of 'Allah 
 .\cbar,' 'God is Victorious.' The great churches of 
 St. Paul and St. Peter burnt with terrific fury for 
 many days." — C. G. Addison, The Knights Tem- 
 plars, ch. 6. 
 
 With the exception of the colossal ruins of the 
 Roman walls and aqueducts modern Antakia holds 
 little of the ancient city. Although superseded by 
 Aleppo as capital of N. Syria, Antakia is con- 
 stantly growing in importance. Its present popu 
 lation is 25,000. — See also Syria. 
 
 ANTIOCHUS, the name of thirteen kings of 
 the Seleucid dynasty of Syria. The most famous 
 are Antiochus III (223-187 B.C.) who sheltered 
 Hannibal and made war on Rome (See Seleuci- 
 
 dae: 224-187 B.C.), and Antiochus IV (176-164 
 B. C.) who attempted the suppression of Judaism 
 by persecution. See Jews; B.C. 332-167; 166- 
 40. 
 
 ANTIPATER (c. 398-319 B.C.), Macedonian 
 general under Philip and Alexander the Great. 
 Assisted the latter in establishing his kingdom; re- 
 gent of Macedonia during Alexander's Eastern ex- 
 pedition (334-323), and was left as ruler on the 
 death of the king. — See also Greece: B.C. 323- 
 322, 321-312. 
 
 ANTIPHONAL SINGING. See Music: An- 
 cient: B.C. 4-A. D. 397. 
 
 ANTI-POPE. See Papacy: 1056-1122 and 
 after. 
 
 ANTIQUITIES. See Arch.^solocical re- 
 search; ARcii.toLOGY ; also names of countries, 
 subhead Antiquities. 
 
 "ANTIQUITIES OF THE JEWS" (by Jo- 
 sephus). See History: 14. 
 ANTI-RENTERS. See Livingston Manor. 
 ANTI-SALOON LEAGUE, United States. 
 See Liquor problem: United States: 1913-1019. 
 
 ANTI-SEMITISM, a policy of agitation against 
 the Jews, on religious, political, social and eco- 
 nomic grounds. The anti-semitism of the hall- 
 century preceding the World War had its origin 
 in Germany and Austria and for many years 
 played a great part in parliamentary struggles. (See 
 Austria: 1895-1806, and after; Jews: Germany: 
 1914-1920.) In Russia and in Rumania it led 
 to severe persecutions. In France anti-semitism 
 culminated in the notorious Dreyfus case (1894- 
 1899) in which justice was finally done. (See 
 France: 1804-1906.) Since the World War, agi- 
 tation against the Jews has been overshadowed in 
 all countries by other political and social prob- 
 lems. (See Jews: 20th Century.) In 1919 and 
 1920, however, there appears to have been a re- 
 crudescence of anti-semitism in Hungary and Po- 
 land. — See also Jews: i8th-i9th centuries; 1914- 
 1920. 
 
 In Austria. — 1919. See Austria: 1919 (Septem- 
 ber). 
 
 In England. See Jews: England: 1189; Jews: 
 England: nth century. 
 
 In France. See Jews: France: 1791. 
 In Poland. See Poland: igig-1920: Status of 
 Jews. 
 
 In Russia. See Beiliss case; Jews: Russia: 
 1728-1880; 1817-1913; Jews: Russia: Ukraine; 
 Russia: 1903 (April) ; 1913. 
 
 In Spain. See Jews: Spain: 7th centurv. 
 ANTISEPTICS: In the Middle Ages. See 
 Medical science: Ancient: loth century. 
 
 Lister's reforms. See Medical science: Mod- 
 ern: 19th century: Antiseptic surgery and obstet- 
 rics. 
 
 ANTI-SLAVERY MOVEMENT. See Slav- 
 ER\ : 1688-1780, and after. 
 
 ANTISTHENES: Philosophy. See Ethics: 
 .Ancient Greece: B.C. 4th century. 
 
 ANTI-TOXINS, complex soluble chemical com- 
 pounds occurring in the blood, normally or under 
 special conditions, that have the property of neu- 
 tralizing some specific poison, usually those pro- 
 duced in the human body by pathogenic bacteria ; 
 they usually confer immunity or facilitate recovery 
 from the disease cau.sed by the bacteria. — See also 
 Medical science: Modern: 19th century: Anti- 
 toxin. 
 
 ANTI-TRUST ACT, or Sherman Act. See 
 Sherman anti-tri'St act. 
 
 ANTI-TRUST DECISIONS, in United States 
 Courts. See Supreme Court: 1887-1914; 1888- 
 1913; 1Q14-1921; Trusts: 1901-1Q06. 
 
 375
 
 ANTI-TRUST LEGISLATION 
 
 ANTWERP 
 
 ANTI-TRUST LEGISLATION. See Trusts: 
 1901-1Q06, igi4. 
 
 ANTIUM. — "Antium, once a flourishing city of 
 the V'olsci, and afterwards of the Romans, their 
 conquerors, is at present reduced to a small num- 
 ber of inhabitants. Originally it was without a 
 port ; the harbour of the Antiates having been the 
 neighbouring indentation in the coast of Ceno, now 
 Nettuno, distant more than a mile to the eastward. 
 . . . The piracies of the ancient Antiates all pro- 
 ceeded from Ceno, or Cerio, where they had 22 
 long ships. These Numicius took; . . . some were 
 taken to Rome and their rostra suspended in tri- 
 umph in the Forum. ... It [Antium] was reck- 
 oned 260 stadia, or about 3^ miles, from Ostia." — 
 Sir W. Cell, Topography of Rome, v. i. 
 
 ANTIVARI: 1915. — Promised to territory of 
 Croatia, Serbia and Montenegro by Treaty of 
 London. See London, Treaty or Pact of. 
 
 ANTIVESTjEUM. See Brit.mn: Celtic tribes. 
 
 ANTOFOGASTA: Trouble of Chile and Bo- 
 livia over town. See Bolivia: 1020-1021. 
 
 ANTOINE DE BOURBON, king of Navarre. 
 ii;54-i5ti2. See Navarre: 1528-1563. 
 'ANTOING, Belgium: 1918.— Captured by 
 British. See World War: 1918: II. Western front: 
 w, 2. 
 
 ANTONELLI, Giacomo (1806-1876), Italian 
 cardinal. Adviser of Pius IX, serving as presi- 
 dent of the council of state in 1847 ; premier of 
 the first constitutional ministry of Pius IX; secre- 
 tary of state in 1848. Opposed all liberalism and 
 especially the Risorgimento. See Rome: Modem 
 city: 1850-1870. 
 
 ANTONELLO DA MESSINA (1430-1479), 
 Italian painter, introduced Flemish tendencies and 
 invention into Italian painting. His work com- 
 prises renderings of "Ecce Homo," Madonnas, 
 saints, and half-length portraits, many of them 
 painted on wood. The nameless picture of a man 
 in the Berlin Museum is said to be the finest of 
 them all. 
 
 ANTONINES. See Rome: A. D. 138-180. 
 
 ANTONINUS, Marcus Aurelius. See Mas- 
 cus Aurelius .\ntoninus. 
 
 ANTONINUS PIUS, Roman emperor, A. D. 
 138-161. See Rome: Empire: 138-180. 
 
 ANTONIO, known as "The Prior of Crato" 
 '(1531-1595)1 a Portuguese monk, claimant of the 
 Ihrone of Portugal. Routed by the Duke of Alva 
 in 15S0 at Alcantara (See also Portugal: 1579- 
 1580) ; fled to France and later to England, whence 
 in 1590 he accompanied Drake and Norris to Por- 
 tugal in an unsuccessful attempt to provoke an 
 uprising against Philip II. 
 
 ANTONIUS, the name of many prominent cit- 
 izens of Rome, of the gens Antonia. The most 
 important are the following: 
 
 Antonius, Lucius, brother of the triumvir. 
 Tribune of the people in 44; supported his brother 
 after Caesar's murder; consul in 41. As defender 
 of those who suffered by the land distribution of 
 the triumvirate, entered the Persian War; defeated 
 and sent to Spain as governor by Octavius. 
 
 Antonius Marcus (143-87 B.C.), a distini;uished 
 orator; praetor in Cilicia; consul in 99 B.C. 
 
 Antonius Marcus (d. 72-71 B.C.), a military 
 leader, who failed in his operations against the 
 pirates and against the Cretans. 
 
 Antonius Marcus (S3 -30 B. C), known as Mark 
 Antony, the triumvir. Raised to power by Csesar; 
 triumvir with Octavius and Lepidus, his province 
 being Gaul ; fell a victim to the charms of Cleo- 
 patra ; by a new division of the empire, ruled the 
 East, where he attempted to eubdue the Parthians. 
 In 32 B. C. the senate deprived him of power and 
 
 declared war on Cleopatra. Antony, fighting in 
 her behalf, was defeated at Actium, 31 B.C. and 
 both committed suicide. — See also Egypt: B.C. 48- 
 30; Rome: Republic: B.C. 50-49, 48, 44-42, 44-31, 
 44: After Ca-sar's death, 31. 
 
 ANTRIM, a county of Ulster in the north-east 
 corner of Ireland. See Ireland: Historical map 
 
 ANTRUSTIONES.— In the Salic law, of the 
 Franks, there is no trace of any recognized order 
 of nobility. "We meet, however, with several titles 
 denoting temporary rank, derived from offices po- 
 litical and judicial, or from a position about the 
 person of the king. Among these the Antrustiones, 
 who were in constant attendance upon the king, 
 played a conspicuous part. . . . Antrustiones and 
 Convivae Regis [Romans who held the same posi- 
 tion] are the predecessors of the Vassi Dominici 
 of later times, and like these were bound to the 
 king by an especial oath of personal and perpetual 
 service. They formed part, as it were, of the 
 king's family, and were expected to reside in the 
 palace, where they superintended the various de- 
 partments of the royal household." — W. C. Perry, 
 The Franks, ch. 10. — See also Franks: 500-768. 
 
 ANTUNG-MUKDEN RAILWAY. See 
 Ciuna: 1905-1909. 
 
 ANTWERP.— Principal seaport and fortress of 
 Belgium and one of the great commercial cities of 
 the world. It is situated on the Scheldt sixty 
 miles from the North sea and twenty-eight north 
 of Brussels. 
 
 Name of the city. — Its commercial greatness 
 in the 16th century. — "The city was so ancient 
 that its genealogists, with ridiculous gravity, as- 
 cended to a period two centuries before the Tro- 
 jan war, and discovered a giant, rejoicing in the 
 classic name of Antigonus, established on the 
 Scheld. This patriarch exacted one half the mer- 
 chandise of all navigators who passed his castle, 
 and was accustomed to amputate and cast into the 
 river the right hands of those who mfringed this 
 simple tariff. Thus 'Hand-werpen,' hand-throwing, 
 became Antwerp, and hence, two hands, in the es- 
 cutcheon of the city, were ever held up in heraldic 
 attestation of the truth. The giant was, in his turn, 
 thrown into the Scheld by a hero, named Brabo, 
 from whose exploits Brabant derived its name. 
 . . . But for these antiquarian researches, a sim- 
 pler derivation of the name would seem 'an t' werf,' 
 'on the wharf.' It had now [in the first half of 
 the sixteenth century] become the principal en- 
 trepot and exchange of Europe . . . the commer- 
 cial capital of the world. . . . Venice, Nuremburg, 
 ."Xugsburg, Bruges, were sinking, but .Antwerp, with 
 its deep and convenient river, stretched its arm to 
 the ocean and caught the golden prize, as it fell 
 from its sister cities' grasp. . . . No city, except 
 Paris, surpassed it in population, none approached 
 it in commercial splendor." — J. L. Motley, Rise of 
 the Dutch republic. Historical introduction, sect. 
 13. — See also Netherlands: Map of the Nether- 
 lands and Belgium. 
 
 16th century. — Commercial importance. See 
 Commerce: Era of geographic expansion: i6th-i7th 
 centuries: Netherlands; and ComiiIekce: Medieval: 
 8th-i6th centuries. 
 
 16th century. — Famous school of art. See 
 Painting: Flemish. 
 
 1566. — Riot of the image-breakers in the 
 churches. See Netherlands: 1566. 
 
 1576. — Spanish Fury. See Netherlands: iS7S- 
 
 1577. 
 
 1577. — Deliverance of the city from its Span- 
 ish garrison. — Demolition of the citadel. See 
 Netherlands: 1577-1581. 
 
 1583. — Treacherous attempt of the duke of 
 
 376
 
 ANTWERP, SCHOOL OF 
 
 APALACHEE INDIANS 
 
 Anjou. — French Fury. See Netherlands: 1581- 
 1584- 
 
 1584-1585. — Siege and reduction by Alexander 
 Farnese, duke of Parma. — Downfall of pros- 
 perity. See Netherlands; 15S5. 
 
 1706. — Surrendered to Marlborough and the 
 Allies. See Netherlands: 1706-1707. 
 
 1832. — Siege of the citadel by the French. — 
 Expulsion of the Dutch garrison. See Belgium: 
 1830-1S32. 
 
 1914. — German occupation. — At the time of the 
 German invasion of Belgium, August, 1914, Ant- 
 werp would have been the natural place of debark- 
 ation of the British Expeditionary forces, but this 
 would have been a violation of international law 
 because the seaward approaches of Antwerp (the 
 mouths of Scheldt) lay in neutral Dutch territory. 
 After the fall of Brussels the entire Belgian de- 
 fense centered about Antwerp. On September 28, 
 1914, the Germans opened fire upon the outer 
 forts. On October 5 the Belgian army began to 
 withdraw from the city, and the Germans occupied 
 it on October q, 1914.^-See also World War: 1914: 
 Western front: c, 1; also Western front. 
 
 1916-1918. — German rule. — Retaken by the 
 Allies. See World War: X, German rule in north- 
 ern France and Belgium: b, 1; 1918; XI. End of 
 war: c; d, 1. 
 
 Modern aspects. — For centuries the city has 
 been regarded as one of the strongest fortiiied 
 places in Europe and during the middle of the 
 nineteenth century the fortifications were modern- 
 ized by the celebrated Belgian engineer Brialmont. 
 The waterfront of Antwerp was largely rebuilt by 
 Napoleon, but of the vast docks and basins which 
 he constructed but few remain in their original 
 form. The new wharves which have been built 
 since 1S77 are over three miles in length, so that 
 the modern harbor ranks with that of Hamburg as 
 the best on the continent of Europe. The famous 
 citadel dating from the sixteenth century was razed 
 in 1 8 74. The most recent of the modern con- 
 structions of the city is the great stadium specially 
 erected for the Olympic games of 1920. — See also 
 Belgium: 1920: Olympic games. 
 
 ANTWERP, School of, a sbtteenth century 
 school of Flemish painters begun with Matsys. 
 The pupils of this school, Mabuse, Frans Floris, 
 Bernard van Orley, Peter Pourbus, and Antonio 
 Moro went to Italy and eventually became Italian- 
 ized. — See also Painting: Flemish. 
 
 ANZAC, cove on the north-western coast of 
 Gallipoli, so-called because of the landing of the 
 Anzacs. See World War: 1915: VI. Turkey: a, 4, 
 XX ; a, 6. 
 
 ANZACS, a composite word used to designate 
 the British colonial troops engaged in the World 
 War, made by taking the initial letters of the 
 words Australia-New Zealand army corps. — See 
 also Australia: 1914-1915; World War: 1915: VI. 
 Turkey: a, 4, xvii; 1917: VI. Turkish theater: c, 
 1, ii; c, 1, iv. 
 
 AOSTA, Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of (i86g- ), 
 Italian general, cousin of Kin; Victor Emmanuel 
 III and a grandson of King Amadeus of Spain; 
 commanded the Italian 3d army in a well-conducted 
 retreat to the Piave river after the Caporetto dis- 
 aster of 1917. See World War: 1917: IV. Austro- 
 Italian front: e; d, 1. 
 
 Against Austrian offensive. See World War: 
 191S: I\^ .'\ustro-Italian theater: b. 
 
 APA SAHIB (d. 1840) : Revolts in India. See 
 India: 1816-1810. 
 
 APACHE INDIANS.— Under the general name 
 of the Apaches "I include all the savage tribes 
 roaming through New Mexico, the north-western 
 
 portion of Texas, a small part of northern Mexico, 
 and Arizona. . . . Owing to their roving procU\'- 
 ities and incessant raids they are led first in oat 
 direction and then in another. In general terms 
 they may be said to range about as follows: The 
 Comanches, Jetans, or Nauni, consisting of three 
 tribes, the Comanches proper, the Yamparacks, andi 
 Tenawas, inhabiting northern Texas, eastern Chi^ 
 huahua, Nuevo Leon, Coahuila, Durango, and por- 
 tions of SQuth-western New Mexico, by language 
 allied to the Shoshone family ; the Apaches, who 
 call themselves Shis Inday, or 'men of the woods,' 
 and whose tribal divisions are the Chiricaguis, 
 Coyoteros, Faraones, Gileiios, Lipancs, Llaneros, 
 Mescaleros, Mimbreiios, Nata'.:es, Pclones, Pina- 
 leiios, Tejuas, Tontos, and Vaqueros, roaming over 
 New Mexico, Arizona, Northwestern Texas, Chi- 
 huahua and Sonora, and who are allied by lan- 
 guage to the great Tinneh family; the Navajos, or 
 Tenuai, 'men,' as they designate themselves, having 
 linguistic affinities with the Apache nation, with 
 which they are sometimes classed, living in and 
 around the Sierra de los Mimbres; the Mojaves, 
 occupying both banks of the Colorado in Mojave 
 Valley ; the Hualapais, near the head-waters of Bill 
 Williams Fork; the Yumas, on the east bank of 
 the Colorado, near its junction with the Rio Gila; 
 the Cosninos, who, like the Hualapais, are some- 
 times included in the Apache nation, ranging 
 through the Mogollon Mountains; and the Yam- 
 pais, between Bill Williams Fork and the Rio Has- 
 sayampa. . . . The Apache country is probably the 
 most desert of all. ... In both mountain and des- 
 ert the fierce, rapacious Apache, inured from child- 
 hood to hunger and thirst, and heat and cold, finds 
 safe retreat. . . . The Pueblos . . . are nothing but 
 partially reclaimed Apaches or Comanches." — H. H. 
 Bancroft, Native races of the Pacific states, v. 1, 
 eh. 5. — Dr. Brinton prefers the name Yuma for the 
 whole of the Apache group, confining the name 
 Apache (that being the Yuma word for "fightine, 
 men") to the one tribe so called. "It has also beeni 
 called the Katchan or Cuchan stock." — D. G. Brin- 
 ton, The American race, p. 109. — See also Atha- 
 pascan faiuly; Indians, American: Cultural areaS' 
 in North America; Southwest area. 
 
 Subjugation. See Arizona: 1877; Indians, 
 American: 1S86; U. S. A.: 1S66-1876. 
 
 APALACHEE INDIANS.— "Among the ab- 
 original tribes of the United States perhaps none is 
 more enigmatical than the Apalaches. They are 
 mentioned as an important nation by many of the 
 early French and Spanish travellers and historians, 
 their name is preserved by a bay and river on the 
 shores of the Gulf of Mexico, and by the great 
 eastern coast ran;e of mountains, and has been 
 applied by ethnologists to a family of cognate na- 
 tions that found their hunting grounds from the 
 Mississippi to the Atlantic and from the Ohio river 
 to the Florida Keys; yet, strange to say, their own 
 race and place have been but guessed at." The 
 derivation of the name of the Apalaches "has been 
 a 'questio vexata' among Indianologists." We must 
 "consider it an indication of ancient connections 
 with the southern continent, and in itself a pure 
 Carib word '.^paliche' in the Tamanaca dialect of 
 the Guaranay stem on the Orinoco signifies 'man,* 
 and the earliest application of the name in the 
 northern continent was as the title of the chief 
 of a country, 'I'homme par excellence,' and hence, 
 like very many other Indian tribes (.Apaches, Lenni 
 Lenape, Illinois), his subjects assumed by eminence 
 the proud appellation of 'The Men.' . . . We have 
 . . . found that though no general migration took 
 place from the continent southward, nor from the 
 islands northward, yet there was a considerable in- 
 
 377
 
 APALACHEN 
 
 APOLLO 
 
 tcrcourse in both directions; that not only the 
 natives of the greater and lesser Antilles and Yu- 
 catan, but also numbers of the Guaranay stem of 
 the southern continent, the Caribs proper, crossed 
 the Straits of Florida and founded colonies on the 
 shores of the Gulf of Mexico; that their customs 
 and language became to a certain extent grafted 
 upon those of the early possessors of the soil; and 
 to this foreign language the name Apalache be- 
 longs. As previously stated, it was used as a gen- 
 eric title, applied to a confederation of many na- 
 tions at one time under the domination of one 
 chief, whose power probably extended from the 
 Alleghany mountains on the north to the shore of 
 the Gulf; that it included tribes speaking a tongue 
 closely akin to the Choktah is evident from the 
 fragments we have remaining. . . . The location of 
 the tribe in alter years is very uncertain. Dumont 
 placed them in the northern part of what is now 
 Alabama and Georgia, near the mountains that bear 
 their name. That a portion of them did live in 
 this vicinity is corroborated by the historians of 
 South Carolina, who say that Colonel Moore, in 
 1703, found them 'between the headwaters of the 
 Savannah and .Mtamaha.' . . . .According to all the 
 Spanish authorities, on the other hand, they dwelt 
 in the region of country between the Suwannee and 
 Apalachicola rivers — yet must not be confounded 
 with the .Apalachicolos. . . . They certainly had a 
 large and prosperous town in this vicinity, said to 
 contain 1,000 warriors. ... I am inclined to be- 
 lieve that these were different branches of the same 
 confederacy. ... In the beginning of the i8th cen- 
 tury they suffered much from the devastations of 
 the English, French and Greeks. [From 1702-1708 
 English from Carolina invaded .•Xpalaches territory 
 and nearly exterminated the tribe. The mission 
 churches (Spanish) were burned, the missionaries 
 slain, and over a i.ooo Indians were sold into 
 slavery.] . . . .\bout the time Spain regained pos- 
 session of the soil, they migrated to the West and 
 settled on the Bayou Rapide of Red River Here 
 they had a village numbering about 50 souls." — D. 
 G. Brinton, Notes on the Floridian peninsula, ch. 2. 
 — See also Muskhocean family. 
 
 APALACHEN. See Canada: Names. 
 APAMEA. — Apamea, a city founded by Seleu- 
 cus Nicator on the Euphrates, the site of which 
 is occupied by the modern town of Bir, h:id be- 
 come, in Strabo's time (near the beginning of the 
 Christian era) one of the principal centers of Asi- 
 atic trade, second only to Ephesus. Thapsacus, the 
 former customary crossing-place of the Euphrates, 
 had ceased to be so, and the passage was made at 
 Apamea. A place on the opposite bank of the 
 river was called Zeugma, or "the bridge." Bir "is 
 still the usual place at which travellers proceed- 
 ing from .^ntioch or .Meppo towards Bagdad cross 
 the Euphrates." — E. H. Bunbury, History of an- 
 cient geography, ch. 22, sect, i, v. 2, pp. 298 and 
 317. 
 APANAGE. See Appanage. 
 APATURIA.- An annual family festival of the 
 .Mhenians, celebrated for three days in the early 
 part of the month of October (Pyanepsion) . "This 
 was the characteristic festival of the Ionic race; 
 handed down from a period anterior to the con- 
 stitution of Kleisthcnes, and to the ten new tribes 
 each containing so many denies, and bringing to- 
 gether the citizens in their primitive unions of 
 family, gens, phratry, etc., the aggregate of which 
 had originally constituted the four Ionic tribes, 
 now superannuated. .\t the Apaturia, the family 
 ceremonies were gone through ; marriages were en- 
 rolled, acts of adoption were promulgated and cer- 
 tified, the names of youthful citizens first entered 
 
 on the gentile and phratric roll; sacrifices were 
 jointly celebrated by these family assemblages to 
 Zeus Phratrius, .\thenc, and other deities, accom- 
 panied with much festivity and enjoyment." — G 
 Grotc, History oj Greece, pt. 2, ch. 64, v. 7. 
 
 APELDERN, Albert von: Founder of town 
 of Riga. See Livonia: I2th-i3th centuries. 
 
 APELLA, Spartan assembly. See Sparta: Con- 
 stitution ascribed to Lycurgus. 
 
 APELLES, Greek painter of the fourth cen- 
 tury EC; friend of .Alexander, who sat for him 
 frequently ; his most famous works were mytho- 
 logical or allegorical; considered the greatest 
 painter of ancient times. — See also Cos. 
 
 APHEK, Battle of (845 B.C.), a great victory 
 won by .\hab, king of Israel, over Benhadad, king 
 of Damascus. — H. Ewald, History oj Israel, bk. 4, 
 sect. I. 
 
 APHET.ffi:. See Greece: B.C. 480: Persian 
 wars: .\rtcmisium. 
 
 APHRODITE, or Venus, the Greek goddess 
 of love and beauty ; often connected with the sea, 
 the lower world, and productivity in the animal 
 and vegetable kingdom. Her oriental prototype 
 was Astarte or .\5ht0reth, 
 
 APIA, principal town in the Samoan islands, 
 scene (March 15. iSSb) of a hurricane which de- 
 stroyed one American and two German war ves- 
 sels. Seized in IQ14 by an expeditionary force 
 from New Zealand. 
 
 APIU. See Thebes, Egypt. 
 
 APOCALYPSE, the last book of the New Tes- 
 tament, known as the Revelation of St. John the 
 Divine. See Christianity: ?5-6o. 
 
 APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE, works which 
 claim to be sacred, although excluded from ca- 
 nonical scriptures. These books are purported to 
 have been kept secret because they revealed events 
 unfulfilled at the time of their writing. The apoc- 
 ryphal books found in the Greek text but not in the 
 Hebrew or .\ramaic are as follows: Ecclesiasticus, 
 Wisdom of Solomon, Baruch, Epistle of Jeremiah, 
 Tobit, Judith, First and Second Maccabees, sec- 
 tions of Esther and sections of Daniel. These 
 were in the Latin Vulgate of the Middle Ages, and, 
 by the Council of Trent in 1546, the Roman Catho- 
 lic church declared them deutcrocanonical or in- 
 spired, but the Protestant churches and the Greek 
 Catholic (after the iSth century) pronounced them 
 apocryphal. Other books considered apocryphal 
 are First. Second, Third and Fourth Esdras and 
 the Prayer of Manasses. 
 
 APODACA, Juan Ruiz de (1770-1835), Span- 
 ish soldier and viceroy of Mexico. See Mexico: 
 1820-1826. 
 
 APODECT.ffi.— "When Aristotle speaks of the 
 officers of government to whom the public reve- 
 nues were delivered, who kept them and distributed 
 them to the several administrative departments, 
 these are called, he adds, apodectfe and treasurers. 
 In .\thens the apodectje were ten in number, in ac- 
 cordance with the number of the tribes. They 
 were appointed by lot . They had in their pos- 
 
 session the lists of the debtors of the state, re- 
 ceived the money which was paid in, registered an 
 account of it and noted the amount in arrear, and 
 in the council house in the presence of the council, 
 erased the names of the debtors who had paid the 
 demands against them from the list, and deposited 
 this again in the archives. Finally, they, tofjether 
 with the council, apportioned the sums received." 
 —A. Boeckh, Public economy oj the .Athenians 
 (tr. by Lamb), bk. 2, ch. 4. 
 
 APOLLO, Greek divinity of the sun, second in 
 importance only to Zeus; of his many attributes 
 the most important were those of prophecy, music 
 
 378
 
 APOLLO, ORACLES OF 
 
 APPONYI 
 
 and song; there arc innumerable representations 
 of him in art, notably in the temples of Delphi, 
 Naucratis, Palatine, and Tolosa; of the many con- 
 ceptions of him embodied in sculpture one ex- 
 treme is represented by the Riant Colossus of 
 Rhodes, the other by the Apollo Belvedere, found 
 at Frascati in 1455 and now in the Vatican. — See 
 also Mythology: Greek mythology: Anthropo- 
 morphic character of Greek myth; Religion: B.C. 
 7SO-A. D. 30; Delos. 
 
 APOLLO, Oracles of. See Oracles. 
 
 APOLLODORUS, of Damascus, a famous 
 Greek architect of the second century A. D. See 
 P.mmino: Greek. 
 
 APOLLONIA, an important group of more 
 than thirty ancient cities in lllyria, founded by the 
 Corinthians. (See CorcvRj\.) They played a 
 prominent part in the wars against Philip of Mac- 
 edon and the struggle between Pompey and 
 Caesar for Roman supremacy. This group was the 
 important center of culture and learning towards 
 the close of the Roman republic, and was famed 
 for Calamis' statue of Apollo, which was removed 
 to Rome. 
 
 APOLOGISTS OF CHRISTIANITY. See 
 Christianity: 100-300: Period of growth and 
 struggle. 
 
 APOSTASION. See Polet.?;, 
 
 APOSTLES. See CHRisnANiTv: 33-52, 33-70; 
 
 Miracles of. See Miracles: ist century. 
 APOSTOLIC BRETHREN. See Dulcinists. 
 APOSTOLIC CHRISTIAN CHURCH. See 
 
 Evangelistic associations. 
 
 APOSTOLIC CHURCH. See Evangelistic 
 associations. 
 
 APOSTOLIC CONSTITUTION OF THE 
 CURIA. See Papacy: 1008. 
 
 APOSTOLIC FAITH MOVEMENT. See 
 Evangelistic associations. 
 
 APOSTOLIC INQUISITION. See Inquisi- 
 tion. 
 
 APOSTOLIC SEDIS, papal bull. See Bulls, 
 Papal: 1800. 
 
 APOTHEOSIS.— Deification of a human be- 
 ing, thus raising him to the rank of a god; closely 
 allied with ancestor worship. The ancients often 
 deified the founder of a dynasty or a city. Sev- 
 eral Roman emperors received divine honors after, 
 and sometimes even before, death, by vote of the 
 Senate, and many Christians suffered martyrdom 
 for refusing to recognize such an apotheosis. 
 
 APPA SAHIB. See Apa Sahib. 
 
 APPAM.— "The Appam. a British merchant 
 vessel, was captured by the German cruiser Mowe 
 on January 15, iqi6, and was brought by a Ger- 
 man crew into Newport News, Va. The German 
 government claimed that under certain provisions 
 of the treaty of 1700 between Prussia and the 
 United States, carried over into the treaty of 
 1828, the vessel might remain as long as it pleased 
 in American waters. Secretary Lansing held that 
 inasmuch as the provisions in question were con- 
 trary to general principles of international law, 
 they must be strictly construed, and that they did 
 not give a German prize the right to enter Ameri- 
 can ports unattended by the capturing vessel. The 
 same view was adopted by Judge Waddell, of the 
 United States District Court, and, on appeal, by 
 the Supreme Court (Mar. 6, IQ17)." — War cyclope- 
 dia, p. 17. — See also U. S. A.: igi6 (February- 
 October); World War: iqi6: IX. Naval opera- 
 tions: c. 
 
 APPANAGE.— "The term appanage denotes 
 the provision made for the younger children of a 
 king of France. This always consisted of lands 
 
 and feudal superiorities held of the crown by the 
 tenure of peerage. It is evident that this usage, as 
 it produced a new class of powerful feudataries, 
 was hostile to the interests and policy of the sov- 
 ereign, and retarded the subjugation of the ancient 
 aristocracy. But an usage coeval with the mon- 
 archy was not to be abrogated, and the scarcity 
 of money rendered it impossible to provide for 
 the younger branches of the royal family by any 
 other means. It was restrained however as far 
 as circumstances would permit." — H. Hallam, Mid- 
 dle Ages, cli. I, pt. 2. — "From the words 'ad' and 
 'panis,' meaning that it was to provide bread for 
 the person who held it. A portion of appanage 
 was now [in the reign of Louis VIII, i223-i22()j 
 given to each of the king's younger sons, which 
 descended to his direct heirs, but in default of them 
 reverted to the crown."— T. Wright, History of 
 France, v. i, p. 308, twte. — The creation of the 
 appanage was an unfortunate reenforcement of 
 feudalism. It opened the way to strife among the 
 members of the king's family and retarded the 
 consolidation of the kingdom. See France: 1226- 
 1270. 
 
 APPELLANTS. See Convulsionists. 
 
 APPELOUSAS. See Texas: Aboriginal inhab- 
 itants. 
 
 APPERT, Benjamin Nicholas Marie (1797- 
 1847), French philanthropist and educator. Gave 
 much time and study to the question of educating 
 inmates of schools, prisons, and hospitals; it is 
 asserted that he taught at least 100,000 soldiers 
 to read and write. 
 
 APPIAN WAY.— Appius Claudius, called the 
 Blind, who was censor at Rome from 312 to 308 
 B.C. (See Rome: B.C. 312), constructed during 
 that time "the Appian road, the queen of roads, 
 because the Latin road, passing by Tusculum, and 
 through the country of the Hernicans, was so 
 much endangered, and had not yet been quite re- 
 covered by the Romans: the Appian road, passing 
 by Terracina, Fundi and Mola, to Capua, was in- 
 tended to be a shorter and safer one. . . . The 
 Appian road, even if .Appius did carry it as far as 
 Capua, was not executed by him with that splen- 
 dour for which we still admire it in those parts 
 which have not been destroyed intentionally: the 
 closely joined polygons of basalt, which thousands 
 of years have not been able to displace, arc of a 
 somewhat later origin. Appius commenced the 
 road because there was actual need for it ; in the 
 year A. U. 457 [207 B. C] peperino, and some 
 years later basalt (silex) was first used for paving 
 roads, and, at the beginning, only on the small 
 distance from the Porta Capena to the temple of 
 Mars, as we are distinctly told by Livy. Roads 
 constructed according to artistic principles had 
 previously existed." — B. G. Niebuhr, Lectures on 
 the history of Rome, led. 45. 
 
 Also in: Sir W. Gell, Topography of Rome, v. i. 
 — -H. G. Liddell, History of Rome, v. i, p. 251. 
 
 APPIUS CLAUDIUS, surnamed Caecus, Ro- 
 man censor. 312-308 B.C.; consul in 307 and 2q6; 
 leader of the spirited opposition of Rome to the 
 invasion of Pyrrhus; began the construction of 
 the .Appian Wav; in 312 extended the franchise t') 
 landless citizens. — See also Rome: Republic: B.C. 
 
 312- 
 
 APPOLONIUS, Phodius (c. 235 B.C.), libra- 
 rian. See Alexandria: B C. 282-246: Reign of 
 Ptolemv Philadelphus 
 
 APPOMATTOX COURT HOUSE: Surren- 
 der of confederates. See U. S. A.: 1865 (April: 
 Virginia) . 
 
 APPONYI, Count Albert (1846- ), Hungar- 
 ian statesman. Chosen President of Chamber of 
 
 379
 
 APPORTIONMENT 
 
 APPRENTICES, STATUTE OF 
 
 Deputies by Liberals, igoi; minister of education, 
 1906, in Wekerle cabinet; delegate to World's Peace 
 Conference in America, 191 1; leader of Constitu- 
 tional Democrats, IQ17; minister of education in 
 Hungarian cabinet, 1917. — See also Austria-Hun- 
 gary: 1900-1903; IQ04; 1905-1906; Hungary: 
 1914; 1918: End of the War; Slovaks. 
 
 APPORTIONMENT.— "Several methods of 
 apportioning or distributing legislative representa- 
 tives have been followed. One is to distribute them 
 among the political divisions of the 'State with- 
 out regard to their population, or at least without 
 exclusive regard to it. In all the important fed- 
 eral unions except the [former] German Empire 
 and the Dominion of Canada the principle ot 
 equality of representation among the component 
 members prevails in the construction of the upper 
 chambers. In the German Biindesratli the number 
 of votes to which each state of the empire [wasl 
 entitled varied from one to seventeen ; and in the 
 Canadian House of Lords the number varies from 
 four to twenty-four, the latter being the number 
 allowed the province of Quebec. In the French 
 Republic the number of senators from each depart- 
 ment varies from one to ten. Another method of 
 distribution is to apportion the representatives 
 among the political divisions of the state with some 
 regard to the amount or value of property in 
 each. The chief merit of such a method is that 
 it takes into consideration one of the important 
 elements which enter into the physical make-up 
 of the state. The doctrine that taxation should go 
 hand in hand with representation has long been a 
 cherished political theor>' of the people of .'\merica 
 and England, and perhaps no better system could 
 be devised for protecting the rights of property 
 than by giving it a share of representation in the 
 legislative branch. For other reasons, however, it 
 has not commended itself to the people of demo- 
 cratic states; and outside of a few European mon- 
 archies where property is taken into consideration 
 to some extent in organizing representation in the 
 upper chambers, the system no longer prevails. — 
 In no state is property to-day the sole basis of 
 representation in either chamber, and the few re- 
 maining traces of the principle that have survived 
 the nineteenth centurs' will doubtless disappear in 
 the course of time. Another principle is that 
 which bases representation on the total popula- 
 tion, citizens and aliens, male and female, en- 
 franchised and unenfranchised alike, and not on 
 the number of voters merely. This is now the al- 
 most universal rule governing the apportionment 
 of representation in lower chambers, and in some 
 states it is also the basis of representation in the 
 upper chambers. It possesses the element of sim- 
 plicity and uniformity and is regarded as being 
 more in harmony with presenl day notions of 
 representative government. The ratio of repre- 
 sentation varies widely among different states. . . . 
 The same variety prevails among the individual 
 states composing the federal republic of the United 
 States, where the principle of apportionment on 
 the basis of population is generally the rule for 
 the constitution of both the upper and lower cham- 
 bers. Perhaps an ideal system would be one 
 which would take into consideration the elements 
 of population, geographical area, and property com- 
 bined, if there are any criteria for determining the 
 relative weight which should be given to each of 
 these elements. As yet no satisfacton,- scheme of 
 this kind has been devised. For convenience in 
 choosing representatives it is customary to divide 
 the state into electoral circumscriptions or districts. 
 The entire body of representatives might be chosen 
 from the state at large on a general ticket, each 
 
 elector being allowed to cast a vote for the entire 
 
 number; but in states of considerable geographi- 
 cal area, where several hundred members are to 
 be elected, such a method would obviously be im- 
 practicable. The time and effort involved in vot- 
 ing such a ticket would be very great; and, what 
 is of more importance, the ignorance of the elec- 
 tor concerning the candidates from distant parts 
 of the state would be so great that an election 
 under such circumstances would be largely a farce. 
 The practice of all states, therefore, is to divide 
 their territory into electoral districts or to utilize 
 for this purpose the political subdivisions already 
 in existence. In constituting electoral districts two 
 methods are employed: one is to parcel the state 
 into as many districts as there are representatives 
 to be chosen and allow a single member to be 
 chosen from each ; the other is to create a smaller 
 number of districts, from each of which a number 
 of representatives is chosen on the same ticket. 
 The former is known as the single member dis- 
 trict plan ; the latter, as the general ticket method. 
 Each has been employed by most states at dif- 
 ferent times in their history, though nearly all 
 have come at last to the single member district 
 method." — J. W. Garner, Introduction to political 
 science, pp. 440-443. — See also Suffr.age; Elec- 
 tions, Presidential; Congress of the U. S.: 
 House: Reapportionment; U. S. A.: 1901 (Jan- 
 uary). 
 
 APPRENTICE SCHOOLS, IndustriaL See 
 Education: Modern developments: Vocational edu- 
 cation: Industrial education in the U. S. 
 
 APPRENTICES, Statute of.— "The Statute of 
 Apprentices (1562) fin England] was unquestion- 
 ably the most notable embodiment of the policies 
 that dominated industrial life until the Industrial 
 Revolution was far advanced. It was in a meas- 
 ure a codification of older statutes which had 
 been imperfectly administered, and the dominant 
 purpose seems to have been to prevent change 
 rather than to make innovations. In fact, how- 
 ever, the statute made a number of important in- 
 novations. It was hoped that the statute would 
 check the decline of the corporate towns, provide 
 for more adequate training of village artisans, as- 
 sure a more considerable supply of agricultural 
 labor, and afford some guarantee that wages 
 would be adjusted to the 'advancement of prices 
 of all things belonging to said servants and la- 
 borers.' Few social concerns were not in some 
 measure affected by this great codification of 
 industrial and social legislation. Thirty-two crafts, 
 including all the more important and frequent 
 occupations, are enumerated in the articles refer- 
 ring to the length of term for which such crafts- 
 men should be hired. These crafts were later desig- 
 nated as crafts to be taught in corporate and mar- 
 ket towns to the sons of freeholders. The mercers, 
 drapers, goldsmiths, ironmongers, and clothiers 
 were forbidden to take any person as apprentice 
 whose father or mother was not possessed of a 
 forty-shilling freehold. These were crafts whose 
 masters were characteristically employers so that 
 this distinction is significant. In another article 
 twenty-one crafts are enumerated which were al- 
 lowed to be taught either in towns or in the coun- 
 try; all of these crafts were to be open to persons 
 whose parents had no property at all. There are 
 thus implications that a wage-earning class was 
 alreadv established: it is assumed by the statute 
 that the larger proportion of artisans work for hire, 
 and it is for this reason that the regulation of 
 the waees of town artisans became a matter of 
 solicitude. The wages of agricultural laborers and 
 of certain 'artificers' had long been regulated by 
 
 380
 
 APRAKSIN 
 
 AQUEDUCTS 
 
 justices of the peace, but these 'artiiicers' seem 
 to have been the masons, smiths, carpenters, and 
 the like who were recognized as being a distinctly 
 rural group. The artisans of the towns had not 
 been included in earlier statutes, partly because 
 their interests were presumed to be in charge of 
 the municipality, but partly because they had not 
 been mere wage-earners. The statute must have 
 tended to accentuate the changes that were taking 
 place because the status of the various classes 
 was so specilically defined. The conditions of 
 entrance into the crafts practiced in towns 
 amounted to a real restriction. Every person was 
 ordered to adopt a definite profession or calling. 
 Excepting persons owning property, persons of 
 gentle birth, and scholars, every one must needs 
 choose between the sea, the crafts, and agricul- 
 ture. Any person failing to make a decision could 
 be required to work at agriculture. Freedom of 
 movement was likewise curtailed: no person 
 might leave the town or parish in which he had 
 been employed unless he obtained a formal testi- 
 monial from appropriate authorities or from two 
 householders. These restrictions destroyed the con- 
 ditions that had made craft autonomy possible in 
 the earlier period. In so far as craft organizations 
 continued to exist they were mere shadows of 
 what they had been formerly. The wage-fixing 
 clauses constitute perhaps the most famous por- 
 tion of the statute and their place in the history 
 of the centuries that followecl shows how great 
 a change had taken place in the position of the 
 craftsmen. The intent of these clauses, however, 
 was other than might be supposed. The provisions 
 were designed to assure the payment of not merely 
 a living wage, but an equivalent of the wages 
 that had prevailed before the rise in prices. The 
 clauses were not intended to guarantee an im- 
 provement in the relative well-being of the artisan, 
 but to protect him in his existing state against the 
 unfavorable effects of the price revolution. The 
 justices of the peace were presumed to ascer- 
 tain the cost of maintaining the appropriate stand- 
 ards of life and to regulate wages accordingly. 
 The notions underlying the statute were in some 
 respects similar to the thought expressed by the 
 phrase a 'Uving wage,' but there was no implica- 
 tion that the artisan had not been getting an 
 appropriate living." — A. P. Usher, Industrial his- 
 tory of England, pp. 192-194. — See also Guilds or 
 gilds: Operation. 
 
 APRAKSIN, Theodor Matvyeevich (1671- 
 1728), Russian admiral, friend and advisor of 
 Peter the Great. Creator of the Russian navy; 
 in 1708, saved St. Petersburg from the Swedes. 
 His victories in 17 13 gained the Baltic Provinces 
 for Russia at the peace of Nystad. 
 
 APRIES, an Egyptian king of the Twenty- 
 sixth Dynasty, 580 to 570 B. C. Aided the Jews 
 in their resistance to Nebuchadrezzar; warded off 
 a Babylonian attack upon Egypt. Dethroned by 
 Amasis.— See also Egypt: B. C. 670-525. 
 
 APRIL MOVEMENT, Netherlands. See 
 Netherlands: 1853. 
 
 APROS, Battle of (1307). See Catalan Grand 
 Company. 
 
 APSE, "a projecting room or wing of a build- 
 ing having its plan rounded or polygonal at the 
 outer end. In early Chri-stian churhes an apse 
 at one end generally contained the bishop's throne 
 and seats of the clergy, and sometimes a high altar. 
 In later churches the apse is a mere curved end- 
 ing of the choir, not often used in England but 
 commonly on the continent." — R. Sturgis, Short 
 history of architecture: Europe, p. 548. — Some ec- 
 clesiastical edifices, as for instance the cathedrals of 
 
 Pisa, Monreale and Worms, have several apses. 
 
 APULIA, _,e.:tiLiu of Italy along the Adriatic; 
 allied with Rome in 326 B. C, but generally un- 
 friendly durin; i^unic Wars. Much of the second 
 Punic War was fought in Apulia, where the battle 
 of Cannae occurred. After Hannibal's defeat 
 Apulia was subjugated by Rome. — See also Rome: 
 Map of ancient Italy, 
 
 1042-1127. — nlorman conquest and dukedom. — 
 Union with Sicily. See Italy (Souiiiern): io8i- 
 1194; 1282-ijoo. 
 
 15th century.— -Venetians acquire five cities. — 
 Settlement of Jews from Spain. See Venice: 
 1494-1503. 
 
 APULIANS. See Sabines or Sabellians. 
 
 APURIMAC RIVER. See Amazon: Course. 
 
 AQUA CLAUDIA. See Aquedticis: Roman 
 
 AQU^ GRATIN.S; (Ancient name). See 
 
 AlX-LES-BAINS. 
 
 AQVJE SEXTI.^;, or Aix. See Aix; Salyes. 
 
 Battle of. See Barbarian invasions: B.C. 113; 
 CiMBRi and Teutokls: B. C. 113-101. 
 
 AQVM SOLIS.— The Roman name of the 
 long famous watcr.ng-place known in modern Eng- 
 land as the city of Bath. It was splendidly adorned 
 in Roman times with temples and other edifices. — 
 T. Wright, Celt. Roman and Saxon, ch. 5. 
 
 AQUAS CALIENTES: 1914.— Convention at. 
 See Mexico: 1014-1915. 
 
 AQUAVIVA, Clodio (1543-1615), fifth general 
 of the Jesuits. See Jesuits: 1542-1648. 
 
 AQUAVIVA, Ottavio (c. 1560-1612), arch- 
 bishop of Naples and patron of learning. See Edu- 
 cation: Modern: 1540- 1756. ; 
 
 AQUEDUCTS, conduits for conveying water 
 from a distant source to a city, the pipes usually, 
 but not necessarily, being laid along elevated ma- 
 sonry for a considerable distance. Aqueducts of 
 this kind, as well as inverted syphons (by means 
 of which water is sent through pipes below the 
 surface of the earth under pressure) were built 
 by the ancients — the Persians, Phoenicians and 
 Greeks using the subterranean type for the most 
 part, the Romans coming eventually to use the 
 arched aqueduct exclusively. 
 
 Peruvian. — rhe Indians of ancient Peru built 
 aqueducts that are unequaled elsewhere. The best 
 account of these is to be found in an article by 
 O. F. Cook, Staircase farms of the ancients (Na- 
 tional Geographic Magazine, May, 1916). — Ac- 
 cording to Mr. Cook the construction of chan- 
 nels presented an engineering work perhaps not 
 equaled anywhere else in the world. .According 
 to Garcilasso, an early Spanish writer, one of them 
 was 360 miles long and 12 feet deep. Many miles 
 of the channels were paved with stones. 'Tunnels 
 were drilled in the mountains and channels cut in 
 the cliffs. Waters from these aqueducts seemed 
 to have been used for shower baths. — See also, 
 Peru: 1200-1527. 
 
 Roman. — Between 312 B. C. and A. D. 226 eleven 
 main aqueducts were built to supply the city of 
 Rome with water. The most famous of these — the 
 Aqua Claudia, begun by Caligula in A. D. 38 and 
 completed by Claudius in A. D. 52, was forty-five 
 miles long, of which ten miles are still in a re- 
 markable state of preservation. Roman aqueducts 
 are still to be found in Europe wherever ihe 
 empire extended. The most remarkable of these- 
 are at Nimes (Pont du Gard) and Segovia. (See 
 also Architecture: Etruscan.') Three tiers of 
 arches are superimposed upon one another to form 
 a bridse over the valley of the river Gard at 
 Nimes, the whole structure reaching a height of 
 160 feet The Segovian aqueduct also crosses a. 
 river and consist of two tiers 102 feet high. — See 
 
 381
 
 AQUEDUCTS 
 
 AQUEDUCTS 
 
 also Rome: Modern city: Population and water 
 supply. 
 
 Byzantine. — The work of the Romans was con- 
 tinued by the Byzantine emperors Valens and Jus- 
 tinian, the latter providing many eastern cities 
 with aqueducts. 
 
 Gothic. — The great viaduct at Spoleto is the 
 work of the Goths. 
 
 Moorish. — The Spanish Moors took up the 
 building ol aqueducts which the Goths had be- 
 gun in Spain, the most notable of which was the 
 aqueduct of Elvas. 
 
 Middle Ages. — During the Middle .Ages the 
 building of aqueducts was more or less inactive. 
 The best e.xamples of the period are the aque- 
 ducts at Solmona and Constances. 
 
 Renaissance. — The Roman popes of the six- 
 teenth century revived the construction of aque- 
 ducts. 
 
 the great artificial covered channel which leads the 
 water from the .\shokan reservoir into the city 
 [New York]. Owing to the varied character of 
 country lying between the mountains and the 
 city, the aqueduct is made up of several types 
 of conduit. Some portions are of plain Portland 
 cement concrete built in trenches and covered with 
 earth, known as cut-and-cover ; other portions are 
 tunnels through the mountains and hills or be- 
 neath the broad, deep valleys; while still other 
 portions are of steel and cast-iron pipes. It is of 
 sufficient capacity to deliver water at the rate of 
 about 600.000,000 gallons daily into the city, so 
 that even if out of service for short periods oc- 
 casionally for cleaning, inspection or repair, the 
 average rate of delivery will be equivalent to 
 500,000,000 gallons daily. Alpng the aqueduct 
 provisions have been made for storing a large 
 quantity of water near the c'ly in Kensico reser- 
 
 ANCIENT ROMAN AQUEDUCT, SEGOVIA, SPAIN 
 
 Modern. — In 1613 Marie de Medici built the 
 Arceuil at Paris and Louis XIV that of Mante- 
 non. The great aqueduct at Caserta was built 
 by Charles III (of Spain) in 1753 and the forty- 
 mile aqueduct of Marseilles was begun in 1S47. 
 From 1855 to 1800 an aqueduct was built from 
 Loch Catrine to Glasgow, and in 1868 an aqueduct 
 supplying Dublin was completed. In 1881 and 
 1885 conduits were built to supply Manchester and 
 Liverpool. In 1873 'he fifty-five mile aqueduct at 
 Vienna was completed, and in 1800 the second 
 Franz-Kaiser-Joseph aqueduct was begun to take 
 the place of the inadequate .system by the same 
 name. 
 
 American (1800-1013). — Notable aqueducts were 
 built for the following cities in the United States: 
 New York, 1842 fOld Croton), 1800 (New Cro- 
 ton) ; Boston, 1848, 1878, 1807; Brooklyn, 1850; 
 Baltimore, 1862, 1880: Washington, 1863, 1883; 
 St. Louis, 1S03: Jersey Citv. 1004; Los Angeles, 
 IQ13; New York, 1013 (Catsklll aouedurt) 
 
 Catskill aqueduct. — "The Catskill aqueduct is 
 
 voir; for equalizing the steady draft from Kensico 
 reservoir against the hourly fluctuating demands ol 
 the city, by means of Hill View reservoir; for 
 storing a few days' supply on Staten Island as 
 a local safeguard; for improving the quality 01 
 the water by aeration, filtration and other means; 
 and for measuring all the water drawn from the 
 reservoirs and sent into the City . . . From the 
 .■\shokan reservoir it is almost a three-days' jour- 
 ney for the water at the average velocity to flow 
 through the aqueduct to the Silver Lake terminal 
 reservoir on Staten Island, in the course of which 
 it flows along many a steep hillside, crosses sev- 
 eral broad plains, pierces mountains, descends be- 
 neath rivers and wide, deep valleys, traverses the 
 Boroughs of The Bronx. Manhattan and Brooklyn, 
 and crosses the Narrows of New York harbor. 
 . . . For surveys, real estate, construction, engi- 
 neering and general supervision, and all other items 
 except intere'^t on the bonds, the total cost of the 
 completed Catskill system will be about .•?: 77,000.- 
 000, of which $22,000,000 are for th" Sthohari 
 
 382
 
 AQUEDUCTS 
 
 AQUINAS 
 
 works. . . . The cut-and-cover aqueduct and the 
 tunnels are more than big enough for railroad 
 trains to pass through them with ease. Catskill 
 aqueduct is twice as long as the two Croton aque- 
 ducts put end to end. . . . The water used by 
 New York City each day weighs about eight times 
 as much as its population. The two deepest .shafts 
 of the City tunnel of the Catskill aqueduct, one 
 at the corner of Clinton and South streets, and 
 the other at the corner of Delancey and Eldridgc 
 streets, Manhattan, are each as deep as the tower 
 of the Woolworth Building is high. If the Eiffel 
 Tower could be stood with its foundations in the 
 Hudson River tunnel, its top would not appear 
 above the river surface, or if two Woolworth Build- 
 ings were stood one on top of the other, the lower 
 
 AQUILA, Battle of (1424). See Italy: 1412- 
 1447- 
 
 AQUILEIA. — Aquileia, at the time of the de- 
 struction of that city by the Huns, A. D. 452, 
 was, "both as a fortress and a commercial em- 
 porium, second to none in Northern Italy. It was 
 situated at the northernmost point of the gulf of 
 Hadria, about twenty miles northwest of Trieste, 
 and the place where it once stood is now in the 
 Austrian dominions, just over the border which 
 separates them from the kingdom of Italy. In 
 the year iSi B. C. a Roman colony had been 
 sent to this far corner of Italy to serve as an out- 
 post against pome intrusive tribes, called by the 
 vague name of Gaul. . . Posse.ssing a good 
 harbour, with which it was connected by a naviga- 
 
 CATSKILL AQUEDUCT. NEW YORK 
 Steel pipe siphon, mortar-lined and concrete-jacketed 
 
 one having its foundation in the Hudson River 
 tunnel, the top of the upper one would just reach 
 the level at which the water flows away through 
 the mountain on the east bank of the Hudson al- 
 ter rising in the shafts from the tunnel beneath 
 the river. If the Catskill aqueduct should be 
 out of service, Croton water could be admitted 
 to the city tunnel and conduits and delivered to 
 any of the boroughs, but of course only at the 
 lower pressure of the Croton system." — Annual 
 report, Department of Water Supply, gas and elec- 
 tricity, City of New York, IQ16. — See also New 
 York city: igos-iqiq. 
 
 Hetch Hetchv water project for San Fran- 
 cisco. See Hetch Hetchy water dam project. 
 
 Owen river, Los Angeles. See Los Angeles: 
 1Q05-100Q. 
 
 AQUIDAY, or Aquetnet, the native name of 
 Rhode Island. See Rhode Island: 1638-1640. 
 
 ble river, .Aquileia gradually became the chief en- 
 trepot for the commerce between Italy and what 
 are now the lllyrian provinces of Austria." — 
 T. Hodgkin, Italy and her invaders, bk. 2, ch. 4. 
 — See also Europe: Ethnology: Migrations: Map 
 showing barbaric invasions. 
 
 238. — Siege by Maximin. See Rome: 102-284. 
 
 388.— Overthrow of Maximus by Theodosius. 
 See Rome: FJmpire: i/Q-.^Q.s. 
 
 452.— Destruction by the Huns. See Barb.arian 
 invasions: 423-455; Huns: 452. 
 
 AQUILLIUS, Manius, Roman general, con- 
 sul in loi B. C. Put down a revolt of the slaves 
 in Sicily. In 88 acted as legate against Mith- 
 radates the Great ; defeated and imprisoned by 
 him. — See also Mithradatic Wars. 
 
 AQUINAS, Thomas, St. (c. 1227-1274I, great 
 lihilosopher and scholar. Made profound studies 
 in theology in Naples, Cologne, Paris, London, 
 
 383
 
 AQUITAINE 
 
 AQUITAINE 
 
 Rome, Bologna and other centers of learning; ex- 
 ercised great influence on the theological teachings 
 of the Western church, his doctrines remaining 
 authoritative to this day in the Roman Catholic 
 church; in philosophy a follower of Aristotle; en- 
 dorsed by various popes as a sound leader in re- 
 ligious doctrine and scholastic philosophy. — See 
 also Averroism; Astronomy: 130-1609; Capital- 
 ism: In antiquity; Universities and colleges: 
 ■ 1348-1826. 
 
 AQUITAINE, or Aquitania: Ancient tribes.^ 
 The Roman conquest of Aquitania was achieved, 
 56 B. C, by one of Caesar's lieutenants, the 
 Younger Crassus, who first brought the people 
 called the Sotiatcs to submission and then de- 
 feated their combined neighbors in a murderous 
 battle, where three-fourths of them are said to 
 have been slain. The tribes which then sub- 
 mitted "were the Tarbelli, Bigerriones, Preciani, 
 \'ocates, Tarusates, Elusates, Garites, Ausci, Ga- 
 rumni, Sibuzates and Cocosates. The Tarbelli 
 were in the lower basin of the Adour. Their 
 chief place was on the site of the hot springs of 
 Dax. The Bigerriones appear in the name Bi- 
 gorre. The chief place of the Elusates was Elusa, 
 Eause; and the town of Auch on the river Gers 
 preserves the name of the Ausci. The names 
 Garites, if the name is genuine, and Garumni 
 contain the same element, Gar, as the river Ga- 
 rumna [Garonne] and the Gers. It is stated by 
 Walckenaer that the inhabitants of the southern 
 part of Les Landes are still called Cousiots. 
 Cocosa, Causseque, is twenty-four miles from 
 Dax on the road from Dax to Bordeaux." — G. 
 Long, Decline of the Roman republic, v. 4, ch. 6. 
 — "Before the arrival of the brachycephalic Li- 
 gurian race, the Iberians ranged over the greatest 
 part of France. ... If, as seems probable, we may 
 identify them with the Aquitani. one of the three 
 races which occupied Gaul in the time of Caesar, 
 they must have retreated to the neighbourhood 
 of the Pyrenees before the beginning of the his- 
 toric period." — I. Taylor, Origin of the Aryans, 
 ch. 2, seel. 5. — See also Gaul: Caesar's description. 
 681-768. — Independent dukes and their subju- 
 gation. — "The old Roman Aquitania, in the first 
 division of the spoils of the Empire, had fallen 
 to the Visigoths, who conquered it without much 
 trouble. In the struggle between them and the 
 Merovingians, it of course passed to the victorious 
 party. But the quarrels, so fiercely contested be- 
 tween the different members of the Frank mon- 
 archy, prevented them from retaining a distant 
 possession within their grasp ; and at this period 
 [681-71S, when the mayors of the Palace, Pepin 
 and Carl, were gathering the reins of government 
 over the three kingdoms — .^ustrasia, Neustria and 
 Burgundy — into their hands], £udo, the duke of 
 Aquitaine, was really an independent prince. The 
 population had never lost its Roman character; 
 it was, in fact, by far the most Romanized in 
 the whole of Gaul. But it had also received a 
 new element in the Vascones or Gascons a tribe 
 of Pyrenean mountaineers, who descending from 
 their mountains, advanced towards the north until 
 their progress was checked by the broad waters of 
 the Garonne. .At this time, however, they obeyed 
 Eudo" This duke of Aquitaine. Eudo, allied 
 himself with the Neustrians against the ambitious 
 Austrasian Mayor, Carl Martel, and shared with 
 them the crushing defeat at Soissons, 718, which 
 established the Hammerer's power. Eudo acknowl- 
 edged allegiance and was allowed to retain his 
 dukedom. But. half-a-centurv afterwards, Carl's 
 son, Pepin, who had pushed the "faineant" Mero- 
 vingians from the Frank throne and seated himself 
 
 upon it, fought a nine years' war with the then 
 duke of Aquitaine, to establish his sovereignty. 
 "The war, which lasted nine years [760-768], was 
 signalized by fiightlul ravages and destruction 
 of life upon both sides, until, at last, the Franks 
 became masters of Berri, Auvergne, and the Limou- 
 sin, with their principal cities. The able and gal- 
 lant Guaifer [or W'aifer] was assassinated by his 
 own subjects, and Pepin had the satisfaction of 
 finally uniting the grand-duchy of Aquitaine to 
 the monarchy of the Franks." — J. G. Sheppard, 
 Fall of Rome, led. 8. — See also Germany: 687-800. 
 
 .'\lso in; P. Godwin, History of France: Ancient 
 Gaul, ch. 14-15. — W. H. Perry, Franks, ch. 5-6. 
 
 732, — Ravaged by the Moslems. See Cali- 
 phate: 715-732. 
 
 781. — Erected into a separate kingdom by 
 Charlemagne. — In the year 781 Charlemagne 
 erected Italy and .Aquitaine into separate king- 
 doms, placing his two infant sons, Pepin and Lud- 
 wig or Louis on their respective thrones. "The 
 kingdom of Aquitaine embraced Vasconia [Gas- 
 cony], Septimania, .Aquitaine proper (that is, the 
 country between the Garonne and the Loire) and 
 the county, subsequently the duchy, of Toulouse, 
 Nominally a kingdom, .Aquitaine was in reality a 
 province, entirely dependent on the central or per- 
 sonal government of Charles. . . . The nominal 
 designations of king and kingdom might gratify 
 the feelings of the Aquitanians, but it was a 
 scheme contrived for holding them in a state of 
 absolute dependence and subordination." — J. I. 
 Mombert, History of Charles the Great, bk. 2, ch. 
 II. 
 
 884-1151. — End of the nominal kingdom. — 
 Disputed ducal title. — 'Carloman [who died 884], 
 son of Louis the Stammerer, was the last of the 
 Carlovinsians who bore the title of king of Aqui- 
 taine. This vast state ceased from this time to 
 constitute a kingdom. It had for a lengthened 
 period been divided betueen powerful families, the 
 most illustrious of which are those of the Counts 
 of Toulouse, founded in the ninth century by 
 Fredelon, the Counts of Poitiers, the Counts of 
 .Auvergne, the Marquises of Septimania or Gothia, 
 and the Dukes of Gascony. King Eudes had given 
 William the Pius, Count of .Auvergne, the inves- 
 titure of the duchy of .Aquitaine. On the extinc- 
 tion of that family in 02S, the Counts of Toulouse 
 and those of Poitou disputed the prerogatives and 
 their quarrel stained the south with blood for a 
 long time. .At length the Counts of Poitou ac- 
 quired the title of Dukes of Aquitaine or Guy- 
 enne [or Guienne, — supposed to be a corruption 
 of the name of .Aquitaine, which came into use 
 during the Middle Ages], w'hich remained in their 
 house up to the marriage of Eleanor of Aquitaine 
 with Henry Plantagenet I. [Henn.' II], King of 
 England (1151)." — E. De Bonnechose, History of 
 France, bk. 2, ch. 3, foot-note. — "The duchy .Aqui- 
 taine, or Guyenne, as held by Eleanor's predeces- 
 sors, consisted, roughly speaking, of the territory 
 between the Loire and the Garonne. More ex- 
 actly, it was bounded on the north by .Anjou 
 and Touraine, on the east by Berry and .Auvergne, 
 on the south-east by the Qnercy or County of 
 Cahors, and on the south-west by Gascony, which 
 had been united with it for the last hundred 
 years. The old Karolingian kingdom of Aquitania 
 had been of far greater extent; it had, in fact, 
 included the whole country between the Loire, 
 the Pyrenees, the Rhone and the ocean. Over all 
 this vast territory the Counts of Poitou asserted 
 a theoretical claim of overlord^hip by virtue of 
 their ducal title: they had, however, a formidable 
 rival in the house of the Counts of Toulouse." — 
 
 384
 
 • 
 
 n
 
 AQUITAINE 
 
 ARABIA 
 
 K. Norgate, England under the Angevin kings, v. 
 I, ch. 10. — See also Toulouse: loth and nth cen- 
 turies. 
 
 1034. — Origin of Truce of God. See Truce of 
 God; France: Maps of medieval period: 1154-1360. 
 
 1137-H52. — Transferred by marriage from 
 the crown of France to the crown of England. — 
 In 1137, "the last of the old line of the dukes 
 of Aquitaine — William IX., son of the gay cru- 
 sader and troubadour whom the Red King had 
 hoped to succeed — died on a pilgrimage at Compo- 
 stella. His only son was already dead, and be- 
 fore setting out for his pilgrimage he did what 
 a greater personage had done ten years before: 
 with the consent of his barons, he left the whole 
 of his dominions to his daughter. Moreover, he 
 bequeathed the girl herself as wife to the young 
 king Louis [VII] of France. This marriage more 
 than doubled the strength of the French crown. 
 It gave to Louis absolute possession of all western 
 Aquitaine, or Guyenne as it was now beginning 
 to be called; that is the counties of Poitou and 
 Gascony, with the immediate overlordship of the 
 whole district lying between the Loire and the 
 Pyrenees, the Rhone and the ocean: — a territory 
 five or six times as large as his own royal do- 
 main and over which his predecessors had never 
 been able to assert more than the ;Tierest shadow 
 of a nominal superiority." In 1:52 Louis ob- 
 tained a divorce from Eleanor, surrendering all the 
 great territory which she had added to his do- 
 minions, rather than maintain an unhappy union. 
 The same year the gay duchess was wedded to 
 Henry Plantagenet, then Duke of Normandy, af- 
 terwards Henry II. King of England. By this 
 marriage Aquitaine became joined to the crown 
 of England and remained so for three hundred 
 years. — K. Norgate, England under the Angevin 
 kings, V. I, ch. 8. 
 
 1360-1453. — Full sovereignty possessed by the 
 English kings. — Final conquest and union with 
 France. — "By the Peace of Bretigny [see France: 
 1337-1360] Edward III. resigned his claims on the 
 crown of France ; but he was recognized in re- 
 turn as independent Prince of Aquitaine, without 
 any homage or superiority being reserved to the 
 French monarch. When Aquitaine therefore was 
 conquered by France, partly in the 14th, fully in 
 the 15th century [see France: 1360- 1380], it was 
 not the 'reunion' of a forfeited fief, but the 
 absorption of a distinct and sovereign state. The 
 feelings of Aquitaine itself seem to have been di- 
 vided. The nobles to a great extent, though far 
 from universally, preferred the French connexion. 
 It better fell in with their notions of chivalry, 
 feudal dependency, and the like; the privileges too 
 which French law conferred on noble birth would 
 make their real interests lie that way. But the 
 great cities and, we have reason to believe, the 
 mass of the people, also, clave faithfully to their 
 ancient Dukes; and they had good reason to do 
 so. The English Kings, both by habit and by in- 
 terest, naturally protected the municipal liberties 
 of Bourdeaux and Bayonne, and exposed no part 
 of their subjects to the horrors of French taxation 
 and general oppression." — E. A. Freeman, Franks 
 and the Gauls (Historical Essays, 1st series, no. 7). 
 
 ARAB BUABIN: 1917.— Occupied by British. 
 — Reoccupied by Turks. See World War: 1Q17: 
 VI. Turkish theater: a, 2. 
 
 ARABESQUE, a word technically used to de- 
 note "a fanciful, painted, modelled or carved orna- 
 mentation, composed of plant forms, often com- 
 bined with human, animal and grotesque forms. 
 Used by the Romans and revived by the Renais- 
 sance decorators. It was ako used by the Arabs — 
 
 hence the name — for a flatly modelled and coloured 
 ornament of intricate design, without human or, 
 generally, animal forms." — C. H. Coffin, How to 
 study architecture, pp. 479-480. 
 
 ARABI pasha, Ahmed (1839-1911), an 
 Egyptian soldier and nationalist revolutionary 
 leader; said to have been a descendant of Mo- 
 hammed; was the figure-head leader of a military 
 insurrection fomented by an oposition party to 
 Anglo-French domination; defeated at Tel-el- 
 Kebir (1882) by the British and e.xiled to Ceylon, 
 1883; permitted to return in iqoi. See Egypt: 
 1875-1882; 1882-1883. 
 
 ARABIA, ARABS. — Arabia is a large peninsula 
 in the southwestern part of Asia, bounded on the 
 north by Syria and the Sinai peninsula, on the 
 west by the Red sea, south by the Gulf of Aden 
 and the Indian ocean, and east by the Persian 
 gulf and the Gulf of Oman. The area is esti- 
 mated at about 1,000,000 square miles, with a 
 population of approximately 8,000,000. More than 
 a third of this territory is desert; the rest is 
 dotted with rich, fertile tracts, settled and culti- 
 vated. A large number of the population lead a 
 nomadic life driving their cattle and carrying 
 their tents from place to place. These itinerant 
 Arabs, known as Bedouins or Bedawi, entertain 
 a profound contempt for house-dwellers and are 
 not averse to combining the pursuit of guerrilla 
 warfare and robbery with the ideals of a peace- 
 ful, pastoral existence. The two principal regions 
 on the west, covering almost the entire length of 
 the Red sea, are known as the Hejaz and the Ye- 
 men ; they have an area of about 100,000 and 7S,- 
 000 square miles respectively. The portions of 
 the country capable of cultivation produce wheat, 
 barley, dates, tobacco, indigo, cotton, sugar, cof- 
 fee and spices. Dates and coffee are the most im- 
 portant exports. Arabia is a country better suited 
 for grazing than agriculture and is famous for its 
 horse-breeding, but in spite of this, the most 
 useful and characteristic animal of the peninsula 
 is the camel. The mineral resources of the coun- 
 try are iron, copper, lead and precious stones. 
 
 Political divisions. — (1) The Hedjaz or Hejaz, 
 with a population of about 1,000,000, emerged 
 from the World War as an independent Arab 
 kingdom under the rule of Hussein Ibn Ali Pasha, 
 the Grand Shereef of Mecca, who in June T916 
 raised the standard of revolt against the Turkish 
 rule and formally entered the war on the Allied 
 side; (2) The imamate of Yemen, with the capi- 
 tal at Sana, is ruled by an imam of the Zeidi sect 
 who traces his descent from the prophet's daugh- 
 ter; (3) Jcbel Shammar, an emirate in the cen- 
 tre of the peninsula, with a capital at Hail, con- 
 sists of a number of Bedouin tribes; (4) Nejd 
 and Hasa, an emirate of the fanatical Wahhabite 
 tribes of the eastern oases, has its center at Riadh; 
 (5) Asir, on the Red sea, is ruled by an Arab 
 prince of the Idrisi family; (6) The British pro- 
 tectorate of Aden, on the gulf of that name; (7) 
 Koweit, a sultanate on the northwestern coast of 
 the Persian gulf, is under British protection; and 
 (8) Oman, a sultanate, the independence of which 
 is guaranteed by Great Britain and France, on 
 the gulf of Oman. 
 
 Name. — "There can be no doubt that the 
 name of the Arabs was . . . given from their liv- 
 ing at the westermost part of Asia ; and their own 
 word 'Gharb,' the 'West,' is another form of the 
 original Semitic name Arab." — G. Rawlinson, 
 Notes to Herodotus, v. 2, p. 71, 
 
 Ancient succession and fusion of races. — 
 "The population of Arabia, after long centuries, 
 more especially after the propagation and triumph 
 
 8.=;
 
 ARABIA 
 
 Fusion of 
 Races 
 
 ARABIA 
 
 of Islamism, became uniform throughout the pen- 
 insula. . . . But it was not always thus. It was 
 very slowly and gradually that the inhabitants 
 of the various parts of Arabia were fused into 
 one race. . . . Several distinct races successively 
 immigrated into the peninsula and remained sepa- 
 rate for many ages. Their distinctive character- 
 istics, their manners and their civilization prove 
 that these nations were not all of one blood. 
 Up to the time of Mahomet, several different lan- 
 guages were spoken in Arabia, and it was the in- 
 troduction of Islamism alone that gave predomi- 
 nence to that one amongst them now called Arabic. 
 The few Arabian historians deserving of the name, 
 who have used any discernment in collecting the 
 traditions of their country, Ibn Khaldoun, for ex- 
 ample, distinguish three successive populations in 
 the peninsula. They divide these primitive, sec- 
 ondary, and tertiary Arabs into three divisions, 
 called Ariba, Motareba, and Mostareba. . . . 
 
 advanced civilisation analogous to that of Chaldaea, 
 professing a religion similar to the Babylonian ; a 
 nation, in short, with whom material progress 
 was allied to great moral depravity and obscence 
 rites. ... It was about eighteen centuries before 
 our era that the Joktanites entered Southern 
 Arabia. . . . According to all appearances, the in- 
 vasion, like all events of a similar nature, was 
 accomplished only by force. . . . After this in- 
 vasion, the Cushite element of the population, 
 being still the most numerous, and possessing great 
 superiority in knowledge and civilisation over the 
 Joktanites, who were still almost in the nomadic 
 state, soon recovered the moral and material su- 
 premacy, and political dominion. A new empire 
 was formed in which the power still belonged to 
 the Sabsans of the race of Cush. . . . Little by 
 little the new nation of .\d was formed. The cen- 
 tre of its power was the country of Shcba proper, 
 where, according to the tenth chapter of Genesis, 
 
 TOMB OF EVE AT njEDn.'\H (HEJAZ) 
 (From Arab Legend) 
 
 The Ariba were the first and most ancient inhabi- 
 tants of Arabia. They consisted principally of 
 two great nations, the Adites, sprung from Ham, 
 and the .'\maHka of the race of Aram, descend- 
 ants of Shem, mixed with nations of secondary 
 importance, the Thamudites of the race of Ham, 
 and the peo[3le of the Tasm, and Jadis, of the 
 family of Aram. The Motareba were tribes sprung 
 from Joktan, son of Eber, always in Arabian tra- 
 dition called Kahtan. The Mostareba of more 
 modern origin were Ismaelitish tribes. . . . The 
 Cushites, the first inhabitants of Arabia, are 
 known in the national traditions by the name of 
 Adites, from their progenitor, who is called Ad, 
 the grandson of Ham. All the accounts given 
 of them by Arab historians are but fanciful le- 
 gends. ... In the midst of all the fabulous traits 
 with which these legends abound, we may perceive 
 the remembrance of a powerful empire founded 
 by the Cushites in very early ages, apparently in- 
 cluding the whole of Arabia Felix, and not only 
 Yemen proper. We also find traces of a wealthy 
 nation, constructors of great buildings, with an 
 
 there was no primitive Joktanite tribe, although 
 in all the neighbouring provinces they were al- 
 ready settled. ... It was during the first centuries 
 of the second .^dite empire that Yemen was tem- 
 porarily subjected by the Egyptians, who called 
 it the land of Pun. . . . Conquered during the 
 minority of Thothmes III, and the regency of the 
 Princess Hatasu, Yemen appears to have been 
 lost by the Egyptians in the troublous times at the 
 close of the eichtcenth dynasty. Ramcses II re- 
 covered it almost immediately after he ascended 
 the throne, and it was not till the time of the 
 effeminate kings of the twentieth dynasty, that 
 this splendid ornament of Egyptian power was 
 finally lost. . . . The conquest of the land of Pun 
 under Hatasu is related in the elegant bas-reliefs 
 of the temple of Deir-el-Bahari, at Thebes, pub- 
 lished by M. Duemichen. . . . The bas-reliefs of 
 the temple of Deir-el-Bahari afford undoubted 
 proofs of the existence of commerce between In- 
 dia and Yemen at the time of the Egyptian ex- 
 pedition under Hatasu. It was this commerce, 
 much more than the fertility of its own soil and 
 
 386
 
 ARABIA 
 
 Ancient Trade 
 Sabaeans 
 
 ARABIA 
 
 its natural productions, that made Southern Arabia 
 one of the richest countries in the world. . . . For 
 a long time it was carried on by land only, by 
 means of caravans crossing Arabia ; for the navi- 
 gation of the Red Sea, much more difficult and 
 dangerous than that of the Indian Ocean, was 
 not attempted till some centuries later. . . . The 
 caravans of myrrh, incense, and balm crossing 
 Arabia towards the land of Canaan are mentioned 
 in the Bible, in the history of Joseph, which be- 
 longs to a period very near to the first establish- 
 ment of the Canaanites in Syria. As soon as com- 
 mercial towns arose in Phcenicia, we find, as the 
 prophet Ezekiel said, 'The merchants of Sheba 
 and Raamah, they were thy merchants: they oc- 
 cupied in thy fairs with chief of all spices, and 
 with all precious stones and gold.' ... A great 
 number of Phanician merchants, attracted by this 
 trade, established themselves in Yemen, Hadramaut, 
 Oman, and Bahrein. Phoenician factories were also 
 established at several places on the Persian Gulf, 
 amongst others in the islands of Tylos and Arvad, 
 formerly occupied by their ancestors. . . . This 
 commerce, extremely flourishing during the nine- 
 teenth dynasty, seems, together with the Egyptian 
 dominion in Yemen, to have ceased under the 
 feeble and inactive successors of Ramses III. . . . 
 Nearly two centuries passed away, when Hiram 
 and Solomon despatched vessels down the Red 
 Sea. . . . The vessels of the two monarch? were not 
 content with doing merely what had once before 
 been done under the Egyptians of the nineteenth 
 dynasty, namely, fetching from the ports of Ye- 
 men ■ the merchandise collected there from India. 
 They were much bolder, and their enterprise was 
 rewarded with success. Profiting by the regularity 
 of the monsoons, they fetched the products of 
 India at first hand, from the very place of their 
 shipment in the ports of the land of Ophir. or Ab- 
 hira. These distant voyages were repeated with 
 success as long as Solomon reigned. The vessels 
 going to Ophir necessarily touched at the ports 
 of Yemen to take in provisions and await favour- 
 able winds. Thus the renown of the two allied 
 kings, particularly of the power of Solomon, was 
 spread in the land of the Adites. This was the 
 cause cf the journey made by the queen of Sheba 
 to Jerusalem to see Solomon. . . . The sea voy- 
 ages to Ophir, and even to Yemen, ceased at the 
 death of Solomon. The separation of the ten 
 tribe?, and the revolutions that simultaneously took 
 place at Tyre, rendered any such expeditions im- 
 practicable. . . . The empire of the second Adites 
 lasted ten centuries, during which the Joktanite 
 tribes, multiplying in each generation, lived 
 amongst the Cushite Sabaeans. . . . The assimila- 
 tion of the Joktanites to the Cushites was so com- 
 plete that the revolution which gave political su- 
 premacy to the descendants of Joktan over those 
 of Cush produced no sensible change in the civilisa- 
 tion of Yemen. But although using the same lan- 
 guage, the two elements of the population of South- 
 ern Arabia were still quite distinct from each 
 other, and antagonistic in their interests. . , . Both 
 were called Sabasans, but the Bible always care- 
 fully distinguishes them by a different orthog- 
 raphy. . . . The majority of the Saba?an Cushites, 
 however, especially the superior castes, refused to 
 submit to the Joktanite yoke. A separation, there- 
 fore, took place, giving rise to the Arab proverb, 
 'divided as the Sabaeans,' and the mass of the Adites 
 pmisrated to another country. According to M. 
 C.TUEsin de Perceval, the passage of the Sabsans 
 into Abyssinia is to be attributed to the conse- 
 quences of the revolution that established Jok- 
 tanite supremacy in Yemen. . . . The date of the 
 
 passage of the Sabaeans from Arabia into Abys- 
 sinia is much more difficult to prove than the 
 fact of their having done so. . . . Y'arub, the con- 
 queror of the Adites, and founder of the new 
 monarchy of Joktanite Arabs, was succeeded on 
 the throne by his son, Yashdjob, a weak and 
 feeble prince, of whom nothing is recorded, but 
 that he allowed the chiefs of the various prov- 
 inces of his states to make themselves indepen- 
 dent. Abd Shems, surnamed Sheba, son of Yashd- 
 job, recovered the power his predecessors had lost. 
 . . . Abd Shems had several children, the most 
 celebrated being Himyer and Kahlan, who left a 
 numerous posterity. From these two personages 
 were descended the greater part of the Yemenite 
 tribes, who still existed at the time of the rise of 
 Islamism. The Himyarites seem to have settled in 
 the towns, whilst the Kahlanites inhabited the 
 country and the deserts of Yemen. . . . This is 
 the substances of all the information given by the 
 Arab historians." — F. Lenormant and E. Chevalier, 
 Manual of ancient history of the East, bk. 7, ch. 
 1-2, V. 2. — See also Semites. 
 
 Sabseans. — "For some time past it has been 
 known that the Himyaritic inscriptions fall into 
 two groups, distinguished from one another by 
 phonological and grammatical differences. One of 
 the dialects is philologically older than the other, 
 containing fuller and more primitive grammatical 
 forms. The inscriptions in this dialect belong to a 
 kingdom the capital of which was at Ma'in, and 
 which represents the country of the Mina^ans of 
 the ancients. The inscriptions in the other dialect 
 were engraved by the princes and people of Saba, 
 the Sheba of the Old Testament, the Sabaeans of 
 classical geography. The Sabcean kingdom lasted 
 to the time of Mohammed, when it was destroyed 
 by the advancing forces of Islam. Its rulers for 
 several generations had been converts to Judaism, 
 and had been engaged in almost constant warfare 
 with the Ethiopic kingdom of Axum, which was 
 backed by the influence and subsidies of Rome 
 and Byzantium. Dr. Glaser seeks to show that 
 the founders of this Ethiopic kingdom were the 
 Habasa, or Abyssinians, who migrated from Him- 
 yar to Africa in the 2d or ist century B. C. [See 
 also Africa: Ancient and medieval civilization: 
 Arab occupation] ; when we first hear of them in 
 the inscriptions they are still the inhabitants of 
 Northern Yemen and Mahrah. More than once the 
 Axumites made themselves masters of Southern 
 Arabia. About A. D. 300, they occupied its ports 
 and islands, and from 350 to 378 even the Sabaean 
 kingdom was tributary to them. Their last suc- 
 cesses were gained in 525, when, with Byzantine 
 help, they conquered the whole of Yemen. But the 
 Sabsean kingdom, in spite of its temporary sub- 
 jection to Ethiopia, had long been a formidable 
 State. Jewish colonies settled in it, and one of its 
 princes became a convert to the Jewish faith. His 
 successors gradually extended their dominion as 
 far as Ormuz, and after the successful revolt from 
 Axum in 37S, brought not only the whole of the 
 southern coast under their sway, but the western 
 coast as well, as far north as Mekka. Jewish in- 
 fluence made itself felt in the future birthplace of 
 Mohammed, and thus introduced those ideas and 
 beliefs which subsequently had so profound an ef- 
 fect upon the birth of Isalm. The Byzantines 
 and Axumites endeavoured to counteract the in- 
 fluence of Judaism by means of Christian colonies 
 and prosclytism. The result was a conflict between 
 Saba and its assailants, which took the form of a 
 conflict between the members of the two religions. 
 A violent persecution was directed against the 
 Christians of Yemen, avenged by the Ethiopian 
 
 387
 
 ARABIA, 5TH-8TH CENTURIES Sabaeans 
 
 Chronology 
 
 ARABIA, 1908-1916 
 
 conquest of the countr>- and the removal of its 
 capital to San'a. The intervention of Persia in 
 the struggle was soon followed by the appearance 
 of Mohammedanism upon the scene, and Jew, 
 Christian, and Parsi were alike overwhelmed by 
 the flowing tide of the new creed. The epigraphic 
 evidence makes it clear that the origin of the 
 kingdom of Saba went back to a distant date. Dr. 
 Glaser traces its history from the time when its 
 princes were still but Makarib, or 'Priest?,' like- 
 Jethro, the Priest of Midian, through the ages 
 when they were 'kings of Saba.' and later still 
 'kings of Saba and Raidan,' to the days when they 
 claimed imperial supremacy over all the princi- 
 palities of Southern .Arabia. It was in this later 
 period that they dated their inscriptions by an era, 
 which, as Halevy first discovered, corresponds to 
 15 B. C. One of the kings of Saba is mentioned 
 in an inscription of the Assyrian king Sargon 
 (B.C. 715), and Dr. Glaser believes that he has 
 found his name in a 'Himyaritic' text. When the 
 last priest, Samah'ali Darrahh. became king of 
 Saba, we do not yet know, but the age must be 
 sufficiently remote, if the kingdom of Saba already 
 existed when the Queen of Sheba came from 
 Ophir to visit Solomon. The visit need no longer 
 cause astonishment, notwithstanding the long jour- 
 ney by land which lay between Palestine and the 
 south of Arabia. ... As we have seen, the in- 
 scriptions of Ma'in set before us a dialect of more 
 primitive character than that of Saba. Hitherto 
 it had been supposed, however, that the two dia- 
 lects were spoken contemporaneously, and that the 
 Minasan and Sabsan kingdoms existed side by 
 side. But geography offered difficulties in the way 
 of such a belief, since the seats of the Minaean 
 power were embedded in the midst of the Sabaean 
 kingdom, much as the fragments of Cromarty are 
 embedded in the midst of other counties. Dr. 
 Glaser has now made it clear that the old suppo- 
 sition was incorrect, and that the Minsean king- 
 dom preceded the rise of Saba. We can now un- 
 derstand why it is that neither in the Old Testa- 
 ment nor in the Assyrian inscriptions do we hear 
 of any princes of Ma'in, and that though the 
 classical writers are acquainted with the Minsan 
 people they know nothing of a Minaean kingdom. 
 The Minaean kindgom, in fact, with its culture 
 and monuments, the relics of which still survive, 
 must have flourished in the gre> dawn of history, 
 at an epoch at which, as we have hitherto imag- 
 ined, Arabia was the home only of nomad bar- 
 barism. .And yet in this remote age alphabetic 
 writing was already known and practised, the al- 
 phabet being a modification of the Phcenician writ- 
 ten vertically and not horizontally. To what an 
 early date are we referred for the origin of the 
 Phoenician alphabet itself ! The Minsan Kingdom 
 must have had a long existence. The names of 
 thirty-three of its kings are already known to us. 
 ... A power which reached to the borders of 
 Palestine must necessarily have come into contact 
 with the great monarchies of the ancient world. 
 The army of .^^lius Callus was doubtless not the 
 first which had sought to gain possession of the 
 cities and spice-gardens of the south. One such 
 invasion is alluded to in an inscription which was 
 copied by M. Halevy. . . . But the epigraphy of 
 ancient .Arabia is still in its infancy. The inscrip- 
 tions already known to us represent but a small 
 proportion of those that are yet to be discovered. 
 . . . The dark past of the .Arabian peninsula has 
 been suddenly lighted up, and we find that long 
 before the days of Mohammed it was a land of 
 culture and literature, a seat of powerful king- 
 doms and wealthv commerce, which cannot fail 
 
 to have exercised an influence upon the general 
 history of the world."— A. H. Sayce, Ancient Arabia 
 (Contemporary Review, Dec, 1889). 
 
 Ancient Arabian calender. See Chronolocv : 
 Arabian and Mohammedan system. 
 
 Early Arabian medical schools. See Science: 
 .Ancient: .Arabian science. 
 
 5th-8th centuries. — Commerce. See Commerce: 
 Medieval: sth-Sth centuries. 
 
 6th century. — Partial conquest by the Abys- 
 sinians. See .Abvssi\-i.\: oth-ioth Centuries. 
 
 7th century. — Arab occupation of Africa. See 
 .Africa: .Ancient and medieval civilization: .Arab 
 occupation. 
 
 7th-llth centuries. — Medical progress. See 
 Medical science: .Ancient: 7th-iith centuries: 
 Medical art of the .Arabs. 
 
 632-634. — Conquest of Syria. See Caliph.'Vte: 
 032-030. 
 
 636. — Arab invasion of Armenia. See Ar- 
 menia: 387-000. 
 
 640-646. — Islamite conquest of Egypt. See 
 Calip.l^te: 640-640. 
 
 647-709. — Arab conquest of North Africa. See 
 Caliphate: 647-700. 
 
 698. — Conquest of Carthage. See Carthage: 
 6q8. 
 
 698. — Conquest of Morocco. See Morocco: 
 047-1800. 
 
 8th century. — Paper industry. See Printi.nu 
 AND THE press: Before 14th century. 
 
 700-1200. — Development of music. See Music: 
 .Ancient: B.C. 2000-.A. D.. 1200. 
 
 711-713. — Conquest of Spain. See Spain:- 711- 
 713- 
 
 711-828. — Invasion into India. See Indu: B.C. 
 
 240- .A. D. I2Q0. 
 
 823. — Conquest of Crete. See Crete: 823. 
 
 834-855.— Conquest of Zotts. See Gypsies. 
 
 870. — Conquest of Malta. See Malta, Island 
 of: 870-1530. 
 
 961-963. — Loss of Crete. See Crete: 961-063. 
 
 1517. — Brought under the Turkish' sovereign- 
 ty. SeeTi'RKEv: 14S1-1520. 
 
 1609. — Expulsion of Arabs from Spain. See 
 Moors or Mauri: 1402-1600. 
 
 1811-1918. — Wahhabi movement and influence. 
 — Capture of Mecca and Medina by Wahbabis. 
 See Wahhabis. 
 
 1827. — Beginning of missionary work. See 
 Missions, Christian: N'ear East. 
 
 1899. — Arab slave trade in Belgian Congo. See 
 Belgian Co.ngo: 1S85-1902. 
 
 1903-1905.— "Holy War" with the sultan. See 
 TiTfKEv: 1003-1905. 
 
 1908-1916. — Events leading up to the Arabian 
 revolt. — "Up to 1870 the .Arab tribes were left 
 almost entirely alone by the Turks. The Sultan 
 was recognized, but not obeyed. Tribes were of- 
 ten at war with each other, the one under Idriz 
 havin? been during the last fifteen years the most 
 powerful. During the same period an almost con- 
 tinuous attempt has been made to make Turkish 
 rule effective, but it is, and always has been, hate- 
 ful to the .Arabs. The Governors who have been 
 sent from Constantinople abused their position 
 mainly to fill their own pockets. The distance 
 from Constantinople, the absence of railways or 
 other roads, except an unsafe desert track, in- 
 fested always by robbers, were so great that Turk- 
 ish officials were able to plunder the .Arabs with 
 impunity. When the Revolution in 1Q08 occurred, 
 it was alleged that the Governor had made an 
 arrangement with a small .Arab tribe which com- 
 manded the route between Medina and Mecca, the 
 two most Holy Places, by which no one was al- 
 
 388
 
 ARABIA, 1913 
 
 Arab Revolt 
 Causes 
 
 ARABIA, 1916 
 
 lowed to pass unless he paid at least one Turkish 
 pound (i8s. 2d.), half of which was alleged to 
 go into the pocket of the Governor. While the 
 Arab tribes were often at war with one another, 
 they were all hostile to the Turks. This hostility 
 extended from Aden northward into Syria, where 
 Christian as well as Moslem Arabs have been 
 abominably treated. [See also Aden.] A constant 
 series of revolts against the Turks have occurred 
 during the last ten years, and troops were sent from 
 various parts of the Empire to attack the rebels. 
 The troops disliked the service, because the Arabs 
 fought bravely, and the Turks suffered badly from 
 the climate. Almost immediately after the revolu- 
 tion of July, igo8, Ratib Pasha, with the Turk- 
 ish troops under him, revolted against the Commit- 
 tee of Union and Progress, and joined the rebels. 
 The Hedjaz Railway, however, was opened on 
 September ist, iqo8, and Ratib himself was cap- 
 tured. The Committee promised various reforms, 
 and for a few months no revolt took place. In- 
 deed, an honest attempt was made by the Young 
 Turks to make arrangements in the Hedjaz which 
 would produce good government among the tribes. 
 A careful project was drawn up,' which is said 
 to have been satisfactory to all the Arab leaders. 
 Then there came a change of government. Kiamil 
 lost his position, and his successor opposed the 
 project, largely because it had been brought for- 
 ward by the e.x-Grand Vizier. No serious improve- 
 ments were made to secure Arab loyalty. Among 
 the many big blunders which the Committee made, 
 the greatest was that of attempting to Turkify the 
 whole country by forcing upon it the use of Turk- 
 ish instead of Arabic or Albanian or any other 
 of the native languages. So far as all the Arabs 
 of the Empire were concerned, it was an act of 
 madness. Arabic is the language of the Koran. 
 Turkish is detested, not merely as a barbarous 
 tongue, but as that of their oppressors. The feel- 
 ing of hostility between Arabs and Turks was in- 
 tensified. The Turk is a Moslem, on whom his 
 religion sits somewhat lightly ; the Arab is a fa- 
 natic. ... So long as the Arabs were let alone 
 by the Turks they do not seem to have greatly 
 objected to Turkish domination, and they had 
 grown used to the exactions of their Turkish Gov- 
 ernors; but when the Young Turks set aside the 
 arrangements which Kiamil and Hilmi and other 
 leading statesmen in Turkey had made and their 
 own leaders approved, they readily believed that 
 the Turkish 'unbelievers,' as they were persuaded 
 the Young Turks were, intended to gain the upper 
 hand. They were then always ready for revolt." — 
 E. Pears, Arab revolt (Living Age, Aug. 12, 1916, 
 pp. 438-440). — See also Turkey: igoq. 
 
 1913. — Syrian Arab congress at Paris. — Pro- 
 gram. See Syria: iqo8-iq2i. 
 
 1913-1920. — Relations with Abyssinia. See 
 Abyssinia: 1913-1920. 
 
 1915. — Arab revolt. — Shortly after the surren- 
 der of General Townshend at Kut, the Shereef 
 of Mecca informed the British government that 
 the Arabs could no longer submit to Turkish 
 rule and tyranny. He asked for assistance in 
 arms, food and money, which were duly promised 
 by the Allies. Almost from the outbreak of the 
 World War an attempt had been in progress under 
 German direction to preach a jehad or holy war. 
 "It was represented that the Kaiser was a con- 
 vert to Islam, and that presently the Khalif would 
 order a Jehad against the infidel. Stories were 
 told of the readiness of the Mohammedan sub- 
 jects of Britain, Russia and France to revolt at 
 this call, and preparations were made for the 
 manufacture of Indian military uniforms at Aleppo 
 
 to give proof to the Syrians that the Indian faith- 
 ful were on their side. Egypt, which had long 
 been the hunting-ground of German emissaries, 
 was considered ripe for revolt, and the Khedive 
 [Abbas Hilmi II, deposed in 1914] was known to 
 be friendly. . . . [The Young Turk Party] en- 
 visaged a Holy War, engineered by unbelievers, 
 which should beguile the Mohammedan popula- 
 tions of Africa and Asia, and they naturally leaned 
 on the broad bosom of Germany, who made a 
 specialty of such grandiose visions. There never 
 was a chance of such a Jehad suceeding. . . . 
 The Sultan's title to the Khalifate, too, was 
 fiercely questioned. The Turks had won it origi- 
 nally by conquest from the Abbasids, and the Arabs 
 had never done more than sullenly acquiesce. 
 Most important of all, the Turco-German alliance 
 was breaking its head against an accomplished fact. 
 By September [1914] the whole of Mohammedan 
 India and the leaders of Mohammedan opinion 
 in British Africa were clearly on the Allied side, 
 and their forces were already moving to Britain's 
 aid, while forty thousand Arab Moslems were 
 fighting for France in the battles of the West. 
 Islam had made its choice before Enver sent his 
 commissaries to buy Indian khaki in Aleppo and 
 inform the Syrians that the Most Christian Em- 
 peror had become a follower of the Prophet." — J. 
 Buchan, Nelson's history of Ike war, v. Hi, pp. 125- 
 I2q. — Another circumstance that undoubtedly con- 
 tributed largely towards swaying the bulk of the 
 Mohammedan world to the Allied cause as against 
 the Turks was the powerful manifesto issued to 
 Moslems by his highness the Aga Khan HI, who 
 is the recognized spiritual head of some 70,000,000 
 Mohammedans in India, and has, besides, a con- 
 siderable following in Persia, Afghanistan, Central 
 Asia, Syria and Morocco. Not only did the Aga 
 Khan utterly condemn the proposed jehad and 
 assert the justice of the Allied cause, but he even 
 volunteered to serve as a private in any infantry 
 regiment of the Indian Expeditionary Force. 
 
 "From the day when he took over the Emirship 
 [of Mecca, in 1910], Shereef Hussein ibn Ali 
 was a faithful counsellor and sincere supporter of 
 the Ottoman government. ... He and his four 
 sons — the Emirs Ali, Abdullah, Feisal and Zeid — 
 adhered so faithfully to this loyal policy that some 
 of the Arab Emirs ascribed to him arrant Tur- 
 kophilism. Then the 'Unionists' started their vio- 
 lent anti-Arab campaign of persecution and ex- 
 termination. Free-minded Arabs in Syria and EI 
 Irak thereupon turned to the great Emir of Arabia, 
 the guardian of the Holy Shrines of Islam, for suc- 
 cour and redress. He tried then to calm them 
 and comfort them with earnest promises of inter- 
 vention and at the same time he represented to 
 the Unionists the gravity of the situation and the 
 danger to which the Empire would be exposed if 
 such a policy were persisted in. Soon afterwards 
 the Great War broke out, and the Unionists were 
 not long in siding with the Germanic Powers 
 and throwing the fortunes of the Empire into the 
 melting pot. They had consulted the Grand She- 
 reef, informing him, at the same time, of their re- 
 solve to join the Central Powers. He wisely ad- 
 vised the strictest neutrality. Their object in con- 
 sulting him, however, had doubtless been to sound 
 his own and his people's feelings and intentions, 
 rather than to seek his advice. 
 
 ".'\bout four months later a rumour was cir- 
 culated in Constantinople as to the existence of a 
 movement in Syria and El Irak unsympathetic to 
 the alliance of Turkey with Germany. The Union- 
 ists seized this as an occasion, or rather pretext, 
 to send out to Syria Jemal Pasha, in order to carry 
 
 389
 
 ARABIA, 1916 
 
 Arab Revolt 
 Proclamation 
 
 ARABIA, 1916 
 
 out, with ruthless rigour, their programme for 
 crushing out the life and spirit of this 'Arab move- 
 ment,' by hanging its leaders, exiling the Arab 
 notables, and starving the masses. On his arrival, 
 however, Jemal found that the inhabitants were 
 peaceful, and practically all supporting the Gov- 
 ernment with their lives and property in its con- 
 duct of the war which it had imposed on them; 
 and that, therefore, there was nothing to justify 
 the institution of a reign of terror. Thereon, he, 
 with the characteristic cunning and deceit of the 
 Turk, tried at first to pose as the friend of the 
 Arabs, gathered round him the elite of Syria, and 
 lured them into confidence by falsely pretending 
 to approve and admire the Arab national move- 
 ment. It is even said that he went so far as to 
 make a speech, on the occasion of a banquet given 
 in his honour at Damascus, wherein he said; 'How 
 can we expect the fatherland to progress when 
 Arab and Turk forget and neglect their respective 
 national ideals and when ignorance prevails? On 
 suitable occasions he gave expression to other views 
 of a similar character, and thus entrapped the 
 Arab patriots, who revealed to him their inner- 
 most hopes and aspirations, assuring him, at the 
 same time, in all sincerity, that they were ready 
 to sacrifice their very lives on the altar of Empire, 
 provided the Government respected and recognised 
 their national claims and rights. He then started 
 dispersing Arab officers and men in the outlying 
 provinces of the Empire, in the Caucasus, the 
 Dardanelles and Persia, and organised an elabo- 
 rate system of spying; and when finally he saw 
 the country cleared of its militant elements, and 
 his position absolutely secure, he brought down 
 his heavy hand on the helpless population and 
 indulged in that series of atrocities that has horri- 
 fied the civilised world. When all this was re- 
 ported to the Grand Sherecf, he at once sent his 
 son Emir Faisal ... to remonstrate with Jemal 
 against this suicidal policy, and to advise him to 
 refrain from it. The Pasha promised to do so; 
 but hardly had Emir Faisal arrived back in the 
 Hejaz when the same ruthless policy was revived 
 with even greater violence. Cases of hanging and 
 exile became more frequent, and, worse than all, 
 the wilful starving of the population was inaugu- 
 rated. Meantime, the blockade of the Turkish 
 coasts had been declared, and as the Turks stopped 
 the carriage of all foodstuffs by the railway and 
 by caravan to the Hejaz, a state of famine was 
 brought about. 
 
 "The Unionists, meantime, had become so drunk 
 with the lust of blood that they actually set about 
 condemning, wholesale, Arab officers who were 
 fighting for them on distant fronts, and degrading 
 Arab soldiers to the position of slaves, and driving 
 them to menial work and calling, them on every 
 occasion 'traitors.' As a crowning of this mad 
 career they finally attacked the Arabs in their 
 most sensitive and vital point, the Sheriat, a well- 
 known member of the Committee, going so far as 
 to declare publicly his contempt for Islam and 
 its teachings. Finding that persuasion and argu- 
 ment were worse than useless with a people of 
 such temper and mind, the Grand Shereef finally 
 drew the sword as the final arbiter." — Near East, 
 Feb. 2, 1917. — On June g, 1916, the Grand She- 
 reef made his first move by declaring himself in- 
 dependent of the Turkish government. Mecca 
 and the surrounding district were loyal to him and 
 the Turkish garrison in Jeddah was overcome. 
 Taif was soon captured, hut with Turkish troops 
 in Medina it was too strong for the .\rabs (o in- 
 vest. The latter tore up over a hundred miles of 
 the Hejaz Railway tracks and thus severely handi- 
 
 capped the Turks in sending reinforcements. The 
 Turks, however, were too seriously involved else- 
 where to be able to devote any large force to 
 handle the rising. A decree was issued in Con- 
 stantinople deposing the Grand Shereef, who in 
 reply published a proclamation in Cairo setting 
 forth numerous indictments against the Turkish 
 Committee of Union and Progress in general and 
 against Enver Pasha, Talaat Bey and Jemal Pasha 
 in particular. — See also Wokld War: 1916: VI. 
 Turkish theater: c. 
 
 1915 (June). — Proclamation of the sherif of 
 Mecca. — "In the name of God, the Merciful, the 
 Compassionate. This is our general proclamation 
 to all our Moslem brothers. O God, judge be- 
 tween us and our people in truth ; Thou art the 
 Judge. The world knovveth that the first of all 
 Moslem princes and rulers to acknowledge the 
 Turkish Government were the Emirs of Mecca the 
 Blessed. This they did to bind together and make 
 strong the brotherhood of Islam, for they saw the 
 Sultans of the House of Osman (may the dust of 
 their tombs be blessed, and may they dwell in 
 Paradise!), how they were upright, and how they 
 carried out all the commandments and ordinances 
 of the Faith and of the Prophet (prayers be upon 
 him!) perfectly. Therefore they were obedient to 
 them at all times. For a token of this, remember 
 how in A. H. [.Anno Hegira] 1327 [1908] I with 
 my Arabs helped them against the Arabs, to save 
 Ebhah from those who were besieging it, and to 
 preserve the name of the Government in honor; 
 and remember how again in the next year I helped 
 them with my armies, which I entrusted to one of 
 my sons; for in truth we were one with the 
 Government until the Committee of Union and 
 Progress rose up, and strengthened itself, and 
 laid its hands on power. Consider how since then 
 ruin has overtaken the State, and its possessions 
 have been torn from it, and its place in the world 
 has been lost, until now it has been drawn into 
 this last and most fatal war. All this they have 
 done, being led away by shameful appetites, which 
 are not for me to set forth, but which are public 
 and a cause for sorrow to the Moslems of the 
 whole world, who have seen this greatest and 
 most noble Moslem Power broken in pieces and 
 led down to ruin and utter destruction. Our 
 lament is also for so many of its subjects, Moslems 
 and others alike, whose lives have been sacrificed 
 without any fault of their own. Some have been 
 treacherously put to death, others cruelly driven 
 from their homes, as though the calamities of war 
 were not enough. Of these calamities the heaviest 
 share has fallen upon the Holy Land. The poor, 
 and even families of substance, have been made to 
 sell their doors and windows, yea, even the wooden 
 frames of their houses, for bread, after they had 
 lost their furniture and all their goods. Not even 
 so was the lust of the [Party of] Union and Prog- 
 ress fulfilled. They laid bare all the measure of 
 their wicked design, and broke the only bond that 
 endured between them and the true followers of 
 Islam, They departed from their obedience to the 
 precepts of the Book. [Here follow a number 
 of charges, sacrilegious, etc., against the Turkish 
 government] . . . We leave all of this to the Mos- 
 lem world for judgment. Yes, we can leave the 
 judgment to the Moslem world; but we may not 
 leave our religion and our existence as a people 
 to be a plaything of the Unionists. God (Blessed 
 be He!) has made open for us the attainment 
 of freedom anti independence, and has shown us 
 a way of victory to cut off thi> hand of the oppres- 
 sors, and to cast out their garrison from our midst. 
 We have attained independence, an independence of 
 
 390
 
 ARABIA, 1916 
 
 Hussein Ibn Ali 
 King of Hejaz 
 
 ARABIA, 1918 
 
 the rest of the Ottoman Empire, which is still 
 groaning under the tyranny of our enemy. Our 
 independence is complete, absolute, not to be laid 
 hands on by any foreign influence or aggression, 
 and our aim is the preservation of Islam and the 
 uplifting of its standard in the world. We fortify 
 ourselves on the noble religion which is our only 
 guide and advocate in the principles of administra- 
 tion and justice. We are ready to accept all things 
 in harmony with the Faith and all that leads to 
 the Mountain of Islam, and in particular to up- 
 lift the mind and the spirit of all classes of the 
 people in so far as we have strength and ability. 
 This is what we have done according to the dic- 
 tates of our religion, and on our part we trust that 
 our brethren in all parts of the world will each do 
 his duty also, as is incumbent upon him, that the 
 bonds of brotherhood in Islam may be confirmed. 
 We beseech the Lord of Lords, for the sake of the 
 Prophet of Him who giveth all things, to grant 
 us prosperity and to direct us in the right way 
 for the welfare of the faith and of the faithful. 
 We depend upon God the AU-Powerful, whose de- 
 fence is sufficient for us. — Shereef and Emire of 
 Mecca, El Hussein ibn Ali, 25 Sha'ban 1334." 
 [June 27, 1916.] 
 
 "Later in the year another manifesto was pub- 
 lished, and finding that the Turkish government 
 was unable to send any large army to suppress 
 the revolt, Shereef Hussein became more daring. 
 On November 4 the Shereef had himself formally 
 proclaimed 'Sultan of Arabia'; and a large num- 
 ber of Arab chiefs assembled in Mecca for the cere- 
 mony." — Annual Register, 1916, p. 275. — "The offi- 
 cial recognition by England, France, and Italy 
 of the proclamation of the Grand Shereef of 
 Mecca as King of the Hejaz invests a really re- 
 markable figure with singular interest. . . . His 
 Majesty the King of the Hejaz Hussein Ibn Ali, 
 has the distinction of being able to claim what is 
 probably the purest and oldest lineage of all the 
 crowneci heads of the world. Added to his personal 
 qualities and achievements, this fact goes far to 
 account for the remarkable phenomenon of a prac- 
 tically unanimous acknowledgment of him as their 
 supreme lord by the great chieftains of Arabia, 
 whose mutual jealousies and exaggerated love of 
 personal authority are proverbial. Purity of line- 
 age is a source of great pride with the Arabs, and, 
 when it is traceable to their Prophet, it commands 
 the highest veneration on their part. The high 
 value they place on documents attesting the de- 
 scent of their thoroughbred horses may be cited 
 as a proof of the value they attach to the prin- 
 ciple of selection. Shereef Hussein Ibn Ali comes 
 from Beni Hashem, the quintessence, so to say, of 
 the tribe of Koreish. His descent is traceable, 
 through his immediate ancestors, Ali Ibn Moham- 
 med, Ibn Abdul Aziz, Ibn Aoun, back in unbroken 
 line to the Prophet Mohammed. All the Moslems 
 of the world acknowledge this lineage, and believe 
 in Ishmael as being the original ancestor of the 
 Arabs, whose lineage is again traced back to 
 Noah."— A^ear East, Feb. 2, 1917.— In their reply 
 to President Wilson's note of Dec. 20, 1916, the 
 Allied powers stated the general nature of their 
 war aims, and included among them "the setting 
 free of the populations subject to the bloody tyr- 
 anny of the Turks." And Mr. Balfour, in his 
 despatch of Jan. 16, 191 7, in which he explained 
 these aims from the point of view of Great Britain, 
 observed that "the interests of peace and the claims 
 of nationality alike require that Turkish rule over 
 alien races should, it possible, be brought to an 
 end." It was in the same spirit that President 
 Wilson, in his speech to the Senate on Jan. 23, 
 
 1917, proposed that the Monroe Doctrine be 
 adopted as the doctrine of the world, "that no na- 
 tion should seek to extend its polity over any other 
 nation or people." Thus the effort of the Arabs 
 of Hejaz to free themselves from the oppressive 
 rule of the Turks received the sanction of all the 
 Allies. The province of Western Arabia to which 
 the name of Hejaz has been given extends along 
 the Red Sea coast from the Gulf of Akaba to the 
 south of Taif. It is bounded on the north by 
 Syria, on the east by the Nafud desert, and by 
 Nejd, and on the south by Asir. Its length is 
 about 750 miles, and its greatest breadth from 
 the Harra, east of Khaibar, to the coast is 200 
 miles. Barren and uninviting mostly in its north- 
 ern part, yet with many very fertile and well-cul- 
 tivated portions in the southern section, sustaining 
 a brave, hardy and fearless population, the chief 
 claim of Hejaz to fame is that it contains the 
 holy cities of Mecca and Medina, to which Moham- 
 medan pilgrims come annually from all parts of 
 the world. During the World War the Arabs 
 rendered splendid services in fighting and harassing 
 the Turks. Of particular interest is the romantic 
 part played in the task of uniting the Arab tribes 
 by a young English Oxford graduate, Thomas 
 Lawrence. When the World War broke out he 
 was studying archsological inscriptions in Meso- 
 potamia. He was then twenty-six years old and 
 possessed a profound knowledge of the land and 
 its languages. Though he had had no military 
 experience, he was appointed an officer (colonel) 
 in the British army, but he usually wore the 
 costume of an Arab, which he carried like a na- 
 tive. Mounted on horse or camel, he led armies of 
 Arabs in many fights with the Turks. The latter 
 and their German allies were not slow to discover 
 that Lawrence was a mighty factor in the Arab 
 problem. — "Through their spies they learned that 
 Lawrence was the guiding spirit of the whole Ara- 
 bian revolution. They offered a reward of S.soo,- 
 000 for him, dead or alive. But the Bedouins 
 would not have betrayed their idolized leader for 
 all the gold in the fabled mines of Solomon." — 
 L. Thomas, Thomas Lawrence, Prince of Mecca 
 (Asia, Sept., 1919, p. 829). — After the capture of 
 Bagdad the British commander. General Maude, 
 issued a proclamation to the people of that ancient 
 city on March 19, 1917, in which the following 
 reference to the Arabs occurs: "In Hejaz the 
 Arabs have expelled the Turks and Germans who 
 oppressed them and proclaimed the Shereef Hus- 
 sein as their king, and his lordship rules in inde- 
 pendence and freedom, and is the ally of the na- 
 tions who are fighting against the power of Turkey 
 and Germany; so, indeed, are the noble Arabs, the 
 lords of Koweyt, Nejd, and Asir. Many noble 
 Arabs have perished in the cause of Arab freedom, 
 at the hands of those alien rulers, the Turks, who 
 oppressed them. ... It is the hope and desire of 
 the British people and the nations in alliance with 
 them that the Arab race may rise once more to 
 greatness and renown among the peoples of the 
 earth, and that it shall bind itself together to this 
 end in unity and concord. O people of Bagdad, 
 remember that for twenty-six generations you have 
 suffered under strange tyrants who have ever en- 
 deavored to set one Arab house against another 
 in order that they might profit by your dis- 
 sensions. This policy is abhorrent to Great Britain 
 and her Allies, for there can be neither peace nor 
 prosperity where there is enmity and misgovern- 
 ment." 
 
 1918. — Speech of Lloyd George on British war 
 aims. See World War: 191S: X. Statements of 
 war aims: a. 
 
 391
 
 ARABIA, 1918 
 
 Results of 
 World War 
 
 ARABIA, 1919 
 
 1918. — Aid to Allies against Turks in Meso- 
 potamian campaign. See World War: iqiS: VI. 
 Turkish theater: c, 4. 
 
 1918. — British attack Hejaz communications. 
 See World War: 1918: VI. Turkish theater: c, 5; 
 c, 6. 
 
 1918. — Conditions in Hejaz during British 
 campaign. See World War: iqi8: VI. Turkish 
 theater: c, 9. 
 
 1918 (September). — Aid to British in Palestine 
 campaign. See World War: 1918: VI. Turkish 
 theater: c, 12. 
 
 © E. M. Newman 
 KMIR FEISAL, KING OF IRAK (MESOPOTAMIA) 
 
 1919. — Results of the Treaty of Versailles. — 
 Spheres of influence and the Syrian problem.— 
 Dissatisfaction of the Arabs. — "After the prin- 
 cipal Allies had been allotted their quotas at the 
 Peace Conference, there was a belated announce- 
 ment that the Kingdom of the Hejaz would be 
 given two seats. That little Arab kingdom, rec- 
 ognized by France and England as a belligerent 
 Ally in 1916, had been left out, but Faisul, third 
 son of the King of the Hejaz (or, as the King pre- 
 fers to be called, Cherif of Mecca), and a young 
 English colonel named Lawrence, who had been 
 adopted into the family of the descendants of 
 the prophet Mohammed and was a major-general 
 in Faisul's Arab army, made a few spirited re- 
 marks about the share of the Arab army in the 
 
 liberation of Syria and the feelings which those 
 Arabs might entertain if omitted from the Peace 
 Conference; and the Kingdom of the Hejaz se- 
 cured its two seats. . . . Meantime certain states- 
 men in Europe had drawn up secret treaties ar- 
 ranging for a division of Syria and Mesopotamia 
 between Russia, France, and England. This was in 
 igi6, before the Russian Revolution and before the 
 Syrians had achieved their independence. France 
 was to receive the coast strip of Syria, the Vilayet 
 of Adana, and a large strip of land to the north; 
 Russia, in addition to Constantinople, most of 
 what is commonly called Armenia, and some of 
 the south coast of the Black Sea; England, south- 
 ern Mesopotamia and the Syrian ports of Caiffa 
 and .^crc. Palestine was to have a special regime ; 
 and the territory between the French and English 
 acquisitions was to be formed into a confedera- 
 tion of .Arab governments, or a single independent 
 Arab government, and was divided into 'zones' in 
 which France and England were to have varying 
 degrees of 'influence.' Faisul did not know of 
 this treaty when he led the Arab revolt ; nor did 
 the Arabs and Syrians when they revolted. No 
 one was satisfied with the old treaty. The Rus- 
 sians no longer wanted a share of the spoils; the 
 Syrians wanted real independence ; and certain 
 French interests wanted a 'unified Syria' under 
 French tutelage. ... To the Arab, Syria is sim- 
 ply a region where Arabs, a few of whom are 
 Christians, live more settled industrial lives; there 
 is no word for 'Syria' in the .\rab tongue." — Na- 
 tion, April ig, 1919. — "The .\rab world, where 
 considerations into which the wishes of the in- 
 habitants or the main interests of the country 
 did not always enter, have led to its division into 
 spheres of influence. It is unnecessary to go into 
 the different agreements. . . . The French at pres- 
 ent hold and administer the Syrian coast towns 
 from Tyre to Alexandretta inclusive, while the 
 Emir Feisal, the son of the King of the Hedjaz, 
 whose services to the Allies in the war are a mat- 
 ter of common knowledge, rules inland Syria 
 [whence he was expelled by the French in Au- 
 gust, 1920]. The cities of Damascus, Hama, Homs, 
 and Aleppo are [were until then] under his govern- 
 ment. . . . [He is now ruler of Irak (Mesopo- 
 tamia) under British mandate.] The Hedjaz it- 
 self is declared by the Treaty to be a free, in- 
 dependent state. Palestine is to remain under 
 the direct administration of the mandatory. Meso- 
 potamia and Syria are made independent states 
 in accordance with Article 22 of the League of 
 Nations, though they are to receive the advice 
 and assistance of mandatories until they are able 
 to stand alone. The boundaries of all three coun- 
 tries are to be fixed by the principal .Mlied Powers. 
 Many of the .\rabs object to the present arrange- 
 ment. Their view, which is shared by not a few 
 Europeans, is that it splits up into several parts 
 a country which is essentially one. In the end 
 they will, they say, certainly come together again 
 either in the form of a single state or of a confed- 
 eration. Nature herself favours this unity. The 
 great rivers would disregard division. So would 
 the nomad. He crosses the country from end to 
 end. There is summer pasture in Syria, while win- 
 ter grazing takes him as far as the Persian Gulf. 
 He is also the carrier of the desert, so that neither 
 Syria nor Arabia can be permanently cut off from 
 Mesopotamia. And the desert will only support a 
 limited number of people. In other countries the 
 surplus goes to America. Here the Bedu has an 
 .\merica at his tent door. He just goes to the 
 river strip or he settles in Syria, as he has done 
 from time immemorial. Its outlying settlements 
 
 392
 
 ARABIA 
 
 ARABIA, CASE OF 
 
 are his mark^ towns. The differences between 
 Arabs seem great to the stranger. They really 
 only go skin deep. Townsman, settler, and Bedu 
 may be kept apart by mutual contempt, but all 
 are proud of their descent from the desert. Like 
 their religion they belong to it. What keeps the 
 country one is something deeper than Arab na- 
 tionality, though the population is in any case 
 mainly Arab. So are its language and its civiliza- 
 tion. This applies to Syria and Palestine as well 
 as to the rest. In Palestine the Zionist claims are 
 based not on the present, but on the past and the 
 future ; they count on a large immigration of 
 Jews, who at present form only one-sixth to one- 
 ninth of the inhabitants. The Christian Syrians 
 of the coast and in the Lebanon are against com- 
 ing into an Arab confederation or kingdom. It 
 is not, however, because they are likely to be ill- 
 treated. Christians are already helping the Arabs 
 to build a state at Damascus. But the Christian 
 population is too small, and if the rest of the coun- 
 try one day comes together it will be impossible 
 to keep it from its natural outlet to the Mediter- 
 ranean. The Persian Gulf is only a back door." — 
 Round Table, June, 1920, p. 511. 
 
 Also in: L. Thomas, King Hussein and his Ara- 
 bian knights (Asia, May, IQ20). 
 
 1919. — King of Hejaz and the revolt of the 
 Wahabites. — "The Lebanon Syrian Committee in 
 the second week of August addressed to the Cen- 
 tral Syrian Committee located in Paris the follow- 
 ing telegram: 'The Arabian military authorities 
 at Damascus are continuing their arbitrary re- 
 cruiting. They have just decided to send an army 
 of Syrians to the Hejaz, on a payment of three 
 Egyptian pounds per man, probably to fight 
 against the Wahabites. They are thus treating 
 Syria as a country conquered by the Hejaz, and 
 are misapplying the subsidies furnished by the Al- 
 lies.' The Mussulman sect of the Wahabites is 
 at war with Hussein, King of Arabia. The causes 
 that led to these hostilities were briefly as follows: 
 When the Ottoman Empire joined the European 
 war the Hejaz and the other Emirates of Arabia 
 joined the Allies, who created Hussein King of 
 Arabia. Hussein played a prominent part from 
 this time on. He only was represented at the 
 Peace Conference. His son, Feisul, became a can- 
 didate for the throne of Hejaz under the aegis of 
 England. Hussein's proclamation of himself as 
 Khalif, or great religious leader of Islam, gave 
 offense to the Wahabites among other sects. His 
 subsequent proposal to unite Hedjaz with Nedj, 
 where the Wahabites are mainly centred, brought 
 on a crisis, and the conflict was declared by the 
 Wahabite leader." — Times Current History, Oct., 
 igiQ, p. 172. — See also Syria. — "The Arab tribes 
 are notoriously independent, and, so far as the 
 outside world knows, have not acted together since 
 the time of Mohammed and of the early con- 
 quests of Islam. Even then, some were lukewarm 
 and worse. It will, therefore, be in point to con- 
 sider the positions taken up by the other elements 
 in Arabia. Of the maritime states to the east, 
 Koweit, Bahrein, Oman, little need be said. The 
 Persian Gulf has known English control since the 
 seventeenth century, a control which is the oldest 
 element in the British Empire. It has known 
 also the Turks, and has no desire for further knowl- 
 edge. The population of Oman, also, is Ibadite, a 
 sect of Puritans, dissenting and protesting from 
 the earliest Moslem history and standing apart 
 from both Sunnites and Shi'ites. No call to a Holy 
 War from a schismatic Ottoman Caliph would 
 affect them. The great valley of Hadramaut has 
 sent its sons over the farthest seas and is more 
 
 cosmopolitan than any other part of Arabia. It, 
 too, has little use for Ottoman-German dreams. 
 The Yemen is a land where recorded history 
 reaches into Babylonian times. Since the renewed 
 occupation by the Turks, in 1871, it has been fight- 
 ing them; and at Sa'da and San'a there has been, 
 and is a line of Imams, of the Zaidite branch of 
 the Shi'ites, which dates its foundation back to a 
 certain Rassi in A. D. 860. The Zaidites are very 
 modified Shi'ites, holding principally to the di- 
 vine right to rule inherent in the blood of the 
 Prophet, and thus have found it possible to work 
 together with the Sharifs of Mecca. In Athir, 
 or Asir, a district on the Red Sea, a certain Imam 
 Idrisi has been in insurrection against the Turks 
 since, at least, the Turko-Italian war. The pres- 
 ent Great Sharif assisted the Turks then in reliev- 
 ing the Turkish garrison of Obha and securing 
 for it a safe retreat. Now, naturally, he is at one 
 with Idrisi and his followers. In the interior there 
 are two states, settled round greater oases, which 
 have made the politics of central Arabia for 
 about a century. One, to the southeast of Riyad, 
 is all of the Wahabite empire that maintains 
 independence. Once it threatened Syria and Egypt, 
 and indeed, the Moslem world, but now it is lim- 
 ited to a little island in the deserts. But it is still 
 war-like and maintains the traditions of the earliest 
 Islam. It is, in fact, a revival of the ideals of the 
 monkish state of Medina under the first succes- 
 sors of Mohammed. To the north, at Hayil, is 
 the dynasty of the Ibn Rashids. It may be best 
 compared to the Arab court of the Umayyads at 
 Damascus. The Ibn Rashids are orthodox Sun- 
 nite Moslems; but they wear their religion more 
 lightly than do the austere Wahabites to the 
 southeast of them. They appreciate literature and 
 poetry and the joy of life. Between them and the 
 Ibn Sa'ud at Riyad lies the headship of inner Ara- 
 bia. Now one and now the other has held it. But, 
 invariably, up till now, on every question they 
 have taken opposite sides." — G. B. Macdonald, 
 Arabian situation (Nation, Nov. 8, 1917, pp. 505- 
 507). 
 
 1920. — Separated from Turkey by Treaty of 
 Sevres. See Hejaz, kingdom of; Sevres, treaty 
 OF: 1920: Contents: Part HI. Pohtical clauses: 
 Hejaz. For further information on Arabia, see also 
 Caliphate; Mohammedanism. 
 
 Also in: T. Noldeke, Geschichte der Perser und 
 Araber zur zeit der Sassaniden. — S. Lane-Poole, 
 Mohammedan dynasties. — C. Huart, Geschichte der 
 Araber (2 vols., 1916). — S. M. Zwemer, Arabia, 
 the cradle of Islam. — R. F. Burton, Pilgrimage to 
 El Medinah and Meccah. — A. Sprenger, Alte Geog- 
 raphie Arabiens. — D. G. Hogarth, Penetration of 
 Arabia. — J. T. Bent, Southern Arabia. 
 
 ARABIA, Case of.— The sinking in the Med- 
 iterranean, on November 6, 1916, of the Peninsular 
 and Oriental Company's steamer Arabia with one 
 American on board was made the occasion of a 
 protest by the Department of State to the Ger- 
 man government, and a charge that the promise 
 made after the Sussex case had been broken. 
 "The German note on the Arabia, now made pub- 
 lic, gave as the reason for sinking her the belief that 
 she wa3 a transport. November 6, one hundred 
 miles west of the [Ionian] island of Cerigo, a 
 German submarine, said the note, fell in with a 
 large steamship coming from the Cerigo Straits. 
 She was painted black, and did not, as was usual 
 with the Peninsular and Oriental steamers, have 
 light-colored superstructures. Though identical 
 with the Arabia, she was off the route taken by 
 steamers between Port Said and Malta, and on 
 that taken by vessels of war. On board were 
 
 393
 
 ARABIA FELIX 
 
 AKABIC LITERATURE 
 
 'large batches of Chinese and other colored persons 
 in their national costumes.' Supposing them to be 
 workmen soldiers, 'such as are used in great num- 
 bers behind the Iront by the enemies of Germany,' 
 the submarine commander believed he was con- 
 cerned with a transport ship, and 'attacked with- 
 out delay and sank her.' Should the United States 
 give the data showing that the Arabia was an ordi- 
 nary passenger steamer, the action of the subma- 
 rine commander would not then be in accordance 
 with his instructions. The act would be a regret- 
 table mistake 'from which the German Government 
 would promptly draw the appropriate conse- 
 quences.' The British Government, when informed 
 of this reply and asked for the facts, answered that 
 the Arabia was not, when sunk, and never had 
 been, in the service of the Government ; that there 
 were no Asiatics on board save the Indian crew ; 
 and that she did not take the usual route, for fear 
 of submarines." — J. B. McMaster, United States 
 in the World War, pp. 280-2S1. — See also World 
 War: igi6: IX. Naval operations: b. 
 
 ARABIA FELIX: Conquests in. See Abys- 
 sinia: 6th-i6th centuries. 
 
 ARABIAN MUSIC. See Music: Ancient 
 period. 
 
 ARABIC, White Star liner, torpedoed by a 
 German submarine on August ig, 1915, while on a 
 voyage to New York. The attack, which occurred 
 near the scene of the Lusitania tragedy, was 
 without warning, and the vessel sank within 10 
 minutes, with resultant loss of fifty-four lives, in- 
 cluding three Americans. The German Govern- 
 ment at first asserted that the Arabic had attempted 
 to ram the submarine but later waived this con- 
 tention. While the case was in discussion between 
 the two Governments, Count von Bernstorff, on 
 September i, gave a pledge for his Government 
 that "liners will not be sunk by our (German) 
 submarines without warning and without safety of 
 the lives of noncombatants, provided that the lin- 
 ers do not try to escape or offer resistance." This 
 pledge was given in ostensible answer to the third 
 Lusitania note and without reference to tbe Arabic 
 sinking, which, however, was adjusted under it. 
 In a second note, dated October s, the German 
 ambassador notified the State Department that his 
 Government "regretted and disavowed" the sink- 
 ing of the Arabic, which "was undertaken against 
 the instructions issued to the commander," and 
 was "prepared to pay an indemnity for the Ameri- 
 can lives" lost. — See also U. S. A.: 1915 (May- 
 September); 191S (August); World War: 1915: 
 XI. Politics and diplomacv: d. 
 
 ARABIC LITERATURE.— Its characteris- 
 tics. — "Of no civilization is the complexion of 
 its literary remains so characteristic of its varying 
 fortunes as is that of the Arabic. The precarious 
 conditions of desert life and of the tent, the more 
 certain existence in settled habitations, the gran- 
 deur of empire acquired in a short period of en- 
 thusiastic rapture, the softening influence of luxury 
 and unwonted riches, are so faithfully portrayed 
 in the literature of the .^rabs as to give us a pic- 
 ture of the spiritual life of the people which no 
 mere massing of facts can ever give. Well aware 
 of this themselves, the .•Xrabs at an early dake com- 
 menced the collection and preservation of their old 
 literary monuments with a care and a studious 
 concern which must excite within us a feeling of 
 wonder. For the material side of life must have 
 made a strong appeal to these people when they 
 came forth from their desert homes. Pride in 
 their own doings, pride in their own past, must 
 have spurred them on ; yet an ardent feeling for 
 the beautiful in speech is evident from the begin- 
 
 ning of their history. The first 'knowledge that 
 we liave of the tribes scattered up and down the 
 deserts and oases of the Arabian peninsula comes 
 to us in the verses of their poets. The early Teu- 
 ton bards, the rhapsodists of Greece, were not lis- 
 tened to with more rapt attention than was the 
 simple Bedouin, who, seated on his mat or at the 
 door of his tent, gave vent to his feeling; of joy 
 or sorrow in such manner as nature had gifted 
 him. As are the ballads for Scottish history, so 
 are the verses of these untutored bards the record 
 of the life in which they played no mean part. 
 Nor could the splendors of court life at Damascus, 
 Bagdad, or Cordova make their rulers insensible 
 to the charms of poetry, — that 'beautiful poetry 
 with which Allah has adorned the Muslim.' \ 
 verse happily said could always charm, a satire 
 well appointed could always incite; and the true 
 .Arab of to-day will listen to those so adorned with 
 the same rapt attention as did his fathers of long 
 ago. This gift of the desert — otherwise so sparing 
 of its favors — has not failed to leave its impres- 
 sion upon the whole Arabic literature. Though it 
 has produced some prose writers of value, writing, 
 as an art to charm and to please, has always 
 sought the measured cadence of poetry or the un- 
 measured symmetry of rhymed prose. . . . 
 
 ".■\rabic poetry is thus entirely lyrical. There 
 was too little, among these tribes, of the common 
 national life which forms the basis for the Epos. 
 The Semitic genius is too subjective, and has never 
 gotten beyond the first rude attempts at dramatic 
 composition. I^ven in its lyrics, Arabic poetry is 
 still more subjective than the Hebrew of the 
 Bible. . . . The horizon which bounded the .Arab 
 poet's view was not far drawn out. He describes 
 the scenes of his desert life: the sand dunes; the 
 camel, antelope, wild ass, and gazelle; his bow and 
 arrow and his sword; his loved one torn from 
 him by the sudden striking of the tents and de- 
 parture of her tribe. The virtues which he sings 
 are those in which he glories, 'love of freedom, in- 
 dependence in thought and action, truthfulness, 
 largeness of heart, generosity, and hospitality.' 
 His descriptions breathe the freshness of his out- 
 door life and bring us close to nature ; his whole 
 tone rings out a solemn note, which is even in his 
 lighter moments grave and serious, — as existence 
 itself was for those sons of the desert, who had no 
 settled habitation, and who, more than any one, 
 depended upon the bounty of Allah." — F. F. .\r- 
 buthnot, Arabic authors, pp. 23-24. — See also Se- 
 mitic LITER.\TURE. — "The oral communications of 
 the ancient Egyptians, Medes and Persians, the 
 two classic tongues of Europe, the Sanscrit of the 
 Hindus and the Hebrew of the Jews, have long 
 since ceased to be living languages. For the last 
 twelve centuries no Western language has pre- 
 served its grammar, its style, or its literature intact 
 and intelligible to the people of the present day. 
 But two Eastern tongues have come down from 
 ages past to our own times, and continue to exist 
 unchanged in books, and, to a certain extent, also 
 unchanged in language, and these are Chinese and 
 .Arabic. . . . The unchangeable character of the 
 Ar.abic language is chiefly to be attributed to the 
 Koran, which has, from its promulgation to the 
 present time, been regarded by all Muhammedans 
 as the standard of religion and of literary composi- 
 tion. Strictly speaking, not only the history, but 
 also the literature of the .Arabs begins with Muham- 
 mad. Excepting the Mua'llakat, and other pre- 
 Islnmitic poems collected in the Hamasas of .Abu 
 Tammam and .Al-Bohtori, in Ibn Kutaiba and in 
 the Mofaddhaliat, no literary monuments that pre- 
 ceded his time are in existence. The Koran became^ 
 
 394
 
 ARABIC LITERATURE 
 
 ARABIC LITERATURE 
 
 not only the code of religious and of civil law, but 
 also the model of the Arabic language, and the 
 standard of diction and eloquence. Muhammad 
 himself scorned metrical rules; he claimed as an 
 apostle and lawgiver a title higher than that of 
 soothsayer and poet. Still, his poetic talent is 
 manifest in numerous passages of the Koran, well 
 known to those able to read it in the original, and 
 in this respect the last twenty-five chapters of that 
 book are, perhaps, the most remarkable. [See also 
 Koran.] Although the power of the Arabs has 
 long ago succumbed, their literature has survived, 
 and their language is still more or less spoken in 
 all Muhanimadan countries. Europe at one time 
 was Ughtened by the torch of Arabian learning, 
 and the Middle Ages were stamped with the genius 
 and character of Arab civilization." — R. A. Nichol- 
 son, Literary history of the Arabs, pp. xxi-xxii. 
 
 Pre-Mohammedan literature. — 'The oldest 
 monuments of written Arabic are modern in date 
 compared with the Sabeean inscriptions, some of 
 which take us back 2,500 years or thereabout. 
 Apart from the inscriptions of Hijr in the north- 
 ern Hijaz, and those of Safa in the neighbor hood 
 of Damascus (which, although written by northern 
 Arabs before the Christian era, exhibit a pecul- 
 iar character not unike the Sabaean and cannot be 
 called Arabic in the usual acceptation of the term), 
 the most ancient examples of Arabic writing which 
 have hitherto been discovered appear in the trilin- 
 gual (Syriac, Greek, and Arabic) inscription of 
 Zabad, south-east of Aleppo, dated 512 or 513 
 A. D., and the bilingual (Greek and Arabic) of 
 Harran, dated 568 A. D. With these documents 
 we need not concern ourselves further, especially 
 as their interpretation presents great difficulties. 
 Very few among the pre-Islamic Arabs were able 
 to read or write. Those who could read or write 
 generally owed their skill to Jewish and Christian 
 teachers, or to the influence of foreign culture radi- 
 ating from Hira and Ghassan. But although the 
 Koran, which was first collected soon after the 
 battle of Yamama (633 A. D.), is the oldest Arabic 
 book, the beginnings of literary composition in the 
 Arabic language can be traced back to an earlier 
 period. Probably all the pre-Islamic poems which 
 have come down to us belong to the century pre- 
 ceding Islam (500-622 A. D.), but their elaborate 
 form and technical perfection forbid the hypothesis 
 that in them we have 'the first sprightly runnings' 
 of Arabian song. It may be said of these magnifi- 
 cent odes, as of the Iliad and Odyssey, that 'they 
 are works of highly finished art, which could not 
 possibly have been produced until the poetical art 
 had been practised for a long time.' They were 
 preserved during hundreds of years by oral tradi- 
 tion . . . and were committed to writing, for the 
 most part, by the Moslem scholars of the early 
 Abbasid age, i. e., between 750 and goo A. D." — 
 Ibid., pp. xxi-xxii. 
 
 Influence of the Koran. — Mohammedan and 
 later literature. — "None of the prose of those 
 ancient times has come down to us. It was not 
 written, and was, indeed, not reckoned of suf- 
 ficient importance to merit such an honour. The 
 researches of the Arab philologists give us some 
 idea of what this very primitive stage of litera- 
 ture must have been like. There were evening 
 tales {samar) told under the nomads' tents, stories 
 which were already being carried from town to 
 town by the professional story-tellers, such as 
 Nadr ibn Harith, of Mecca, who had learnt the 
 fine legends of the ancient Persian kings at Hira, 
 and by them gained a fame which at one moment 
 counterbalanced that Mahomet owed to the Koran 
 stories, drawn from the Bible. The battle of Bedr 
 
 put an end to this dangerous competition. There 
 were also the legendary and not at all trustworthy 
 recitals of the Arab Days — tales of the great desert 
 battles; proverbs, collected at a later date by 
 philologists, and founded on forgotten incidents, 
 frequently incomprehensible, and explained by 
 purely imaginary comments and allocutions, whose 
 makers flattered themselves they would impress 
 the minds of their fellow-creatures. All these go 
 to make up the elements of a literary art of which 
 we possess no written specimens, but which was 
 eventually to undergo a great development."— 
 C. Huart, History of Arabic literature, pp. 31-32. — 
 "With the rise of the Abbassidcs (750), that 'God- 
 favored dynasty,' Arabic literature entered upon its 
 second great development ; a development which 
 may be distinguished from that of the Umayyids 
 (which was Arabian) as, in the very truth, Mu- 
 hammadan. With Bagdad as the capital, it was 
 rather the non-Arabic Persians who held aloft 
 the torch than the Arabs descended from Kureish. 
 It was a bold move, this attempt to weld the old 
 Persian civilization with the new Muhanimadan. 
 Yet so great was the power of the new faith that 
 it succeeded. The Barmecide major-domo ably 
 seconded his Abbasside master; the glory of both 
 rests upon the interest they took in art, literature, 
 and science. The Arab came in contact with a new 
 world. Under Mansiir (754), Harun al-Rashid 
 (786), and Ma'mun (813), the wisdom of the 
 Greeks in philosophy and science, the charms of 
 Persia and India in wit and satire, were opened 
 up to enlightened eyes. Upon all of these, what- 
 ever their nationality, Islam had imposed the Arab 
 tongue, pride in the faith and in its early history. 
 'Qur'an' exegesis, philosophy, law, history, and 
 science were cultivated under the very eyes and 
 at the bidding of the Palace. And at least for 
 several centuries, Europe was indebted to the cul- 
 ture of Bagdad for what it knew of mathematics, 
 astronomy, and philosophy. The Arab muse profited 
 with the rest of this revival. History and philoso- 
 phy, as a study, demanded a close acquaintance 
 with the products of early Arab genius. The great 
 philologian al-Asmai (740-831) collected the songs 
 and tales of the heroic age ; and a little later, with 
 other than philological ends in view, Abu Tamman 
 and al-Buchturi (816-913) made the first antholo- 
 gies of the old Arabic literatures (Hamasah). 
 Poetry was already cultivated: and amid the hun- 
 dreds of wits, poets, and singers who thronged the 
 entrance to the court, there are many who claim 
 real poetic genius. . . . During the third period — 
 from Ma'mun (813), under whom the Turkish 
 body-guards began to wield their baneful influence, 
 until the break-up of the Abbasside Empire in 
 1258 — there are many names, but few real poets, 
 to be mentioned. . . . Withal, the taste for poetic 
 composition grew, though it produced a smaller 
 number of great poets. But it also usurped for 
 itself fields which belong to entirely different liter- 
 ary forms. Grammar, lexicography, philosophy, 
 and theology were expounded in verse; but the 
 verse was formal, stiff, and unnatural. Poetic com- 
 position became a tour de force. ■ ■ . Such tales 
 as these, told as an exercise of linguistic gymnas- 
 tics, must not blind us to the presence of real 
 tales, told for their own sake. Arabic literature 
 has been very prolific in these. They lightened 
 the graver subjects discussed in the tent, — philoso- 
 phy, religion, and grammar, — and they furnished 
 entertainment for the more boisterous assemblies 
 in the coffee-houses and around the bowl. For 
 the .'\rab is an inveterate story-teller; and in nearly 
 all the prose that he writes, this character of the 
 'teller* shimmers clearly through the work of the 
 
 395
 
 ARACAUNO INDIANS 
 
 ARAGON 
 
 'writer.' He is an elegant narrator. Not only 
 does he intersperse verses and lines more frequently 
 than our own taste would license; by nature, he 
 easily falls into the half-hearted poetry of rhymed 
 prose, for which the rich assonances of his lan- 
 guage pre-dispose him. His own learning was 
 further cultivated by his early contact with Per- 
 sian literature; through which the fable and the 
 wisdom of India spoken from the mouths of dumb 
 animals reached him. . . . Nor were the Arabs 
 wanting in their own peculiar 'Romances,' influ- 
 enced only in some portions of the setting by Per- 
 sian ideas. Such were the 'Story of Saif ibn dhi 
 Yazan,' the 'Tale of al-Zir,' the 'Romance of 
 Dalhmah,' and esp)ecially the 'Romance of Antar' 
 and the 'Thousand Nights and A Night.' The last 
 two romances are excellent commentaries on Arab 
 life, at its dawn and at its fullness, among the 
 roving chiefs of the desert and the homes of revelry 
 in Bagdad. . . . Though the Arab delights to hear 
 and to recount tales, his tales are generally short 
 and pithy. It is in this shorter form that he de- 
 lights to inculcate principles of morality and 
 norms of character. He is most adroit at repartee 
 and pungent replies. He has a way of stating 
 principles which delights while it instructs. The 
 anecdote is at home in the East: many a favor is 
 gained, many a punishment averted, by a ciuick 
 answer and a felicitously turned expression. Such 
 anecdotes exist as popular traditions in very large 
 numbers, and he receives much consideration whose 
 mind is well stocked with them. Collections of 
 anecdotes have been put in writing from time to 
 time. Those dealing with the early history of the 
 caliphate are among the best prose that the Arabs 
 have produced." — C. D. Warner, ed.. Library of 
 the world's best literature, v. 2, pp. 669-675. — 
 See also Mohammedanism. 
 
 ARACAUNO INDIANS. See Pampas tribes. 
 
 ARACHOTI, a people who dwelt anciently in 
 the Valley of the Arghandab, or Urgundab, in east- 
 ern Afghanistan. Herodotus gave them the tribal 
 name of "Pactyes," and the modern .Afghans, who 
 call themselves "Pashtun" and "Pakhtun," signi- 
 fying "mountaineers," are probably derived from 
 them. — M. Duncker, History of antiquity, bk. 7, 
 ch. I. 
 
 ARACID DYNASTY. See Armenia: 387-600. 
 
 ARAD, temporary capital of Hungary. See 
 Hungary: 1847-1840. 
 
 ARADUS, or Arvad. See Ruad. 
 
 ARAGO, Dominique Frangois Jean (1786- 
 1853), French astronomer and physicist. Made 
 important contributions to astronomy and to our 
 knowledge of magnetism, galvanism and polariza- 
 tion of light ; discovered the development of mag- 
 netism by rotation ; as a Republican, took part 
 in the revolution of 1830, was :i member of the 
 Chamber of Deputies on the extreme Left; min- 
 ister of war and marine in the provisional govern- 
 ment of 1848; opposed the election of Louis Na- 
 poleon. 
 
 ARAGON. — The kingdom of .\ragon which was 
 one of the important independent states of West- 
 ern Europe during the Middle .Ages, lay in the 
 northeastern part of the Iberian peninsula. In 
 the eleventh century, it had already acquired a po- 
 sition of considerable importance through its ex- 
 pansion, at the expense of the Moors. In 1076, by 
 the annexation of the kingdom of Navarre, Aragon 
 became perhaps the strongest Christian state in 
 Spain. In the reign of .Alfonso I (1104-11.^4) oc- 
 curred the capture of Saragossa (1T18) which now 
 became the capital of the kingdom. Disputes over 
 the succession to the crown distracted the kingdom 
 for manv vears after the dealh of Alfonso But 
 
 in the reign of Alfonso II the important union of 
 Aragon and Catalonia took place (11 64). In the 
 course of the next few years Alfonso acquired ex- 
 tensive dominions in southern France though the 
 natural frontiers, especially the Pyrenees, inter- 
 fered with the real union of the French and Span- 
 ish elements in Alfonso's dominions. In 1x79, he 
 made a treaty with the King of Castile, by which 
 the two sovereigns agreed upon their respective 
 spheres of influence. 
 
 "The reign of Pedro II (11Q6-1213) was troubled 
 by the religious disturbances in the French part 
 of his dominion. Southern France was, at this 
 time, perhaps the most civilized part of Europe, 
 but was kept in a state of political distraction 
 through the turbulance of the nobility and the 
 ambition of the kings of France to extend their 
 authority over this region. By the end of the 
 twelfth century the Albigenian heresy had secured 
 a foothold in the country and was accepted by the 
 majority of the inhabitants and this was to in- 
 volve Pedro in a conflict with the redoubtable 
 Simon de Montfort who was engaged in the pious 
 and lucrative exercise of punishing heresy and 
 seizing the rich lands of the heretical nobility. 
 
 "In 1 2 13 the wicked and bloody, Albigensian 
 Crusade seemed drawing toward its end. The vic- 
 torious Crusaders had reduced their chief enemy, 
 the Count of Toulouse, and his allies the Counts 
 of Foix and the Comminges, to the lowest depths 
 of despair: there hardly remained anything to con- 
 quer save the towns of Toulouse and Montauban, 
 and the majority of the victors were already turn- 
 ing homeward, leaving Simon de Montfort and 
 the knights whom he had enfeoffed on the con- 
 quered land to deal the last blow at the exhausted 
 enemy. At this moment a new actor suddenly 
 appeared upon the scene. The King of Aragon had 
 long possessed a broad domain in Languedoc, and 
 looked with jealousy upon the establishment of a 
 new North-French power upon his borders. Car- 
 cassonne and other smaller places which owed 
 him homage had been stormed and plundered by 
 the Crusaders: Ihey sheltered themselves under 
 the plea of religion, and King Peter had long 
 been loth to intervene, lest he should be accused 
 of taking the side of the heretics. But as it grew 
 more and more obvious that the war was being 
 waged to build up a kingdom for Simon de Mont- 
 fort rather than to extirpate the Albigenses, he de- 
 termined at last to interfere. His vassals had been 
 slain, his towns harried, and he had every excuse 
 for taking arms against the Crusaders. Accord- 
 ingly he concluded a formal alliance with the 
 Counts of Toulouse and Foix, and promised to 
 cross the Pyrenees to their aid with a thousand 
 men-at-arms. He spent some months in preparing 
 his host, mortgaged royal estates and pawned his 
 jewels to raise money, and finally appeared near 
 Toulouse in the month of September with the 
 promised contingent. Most of his followers were 
 drawn from Catalonia ; his .Aragonese subjects 
 showed little liking for the expedition, fearing that 
 they might be sinning against Christendom by 
 lending aid to heretics. At the news of Peter's 
 approach the men of Languedoc took arms on all 
 sides, and the Counts of Toulouse and Foix were 
 soon able to assemble a large army beneath their 
 banners. They stormed Pujols, the nearest hos- 
 tile garrison, and slew sixty of De Montfort's fol- 
 lowers. The whole countryside was with them, 
 and Simon's newly-won realm seemed likely to dis- 
 appear in a moment." — C. Oman, History of the 
 art of war, pp. 448-44Q.— "In a few moments the 
 fight was over: King Peter was recognised and 
 slain by a band of Crusaders, who had sworn be- 
 
 396
 
 ARAGON 
 
 ARANJUEZ 
 
 fore the fight to mark him down and stoop at no 
 meaner prey. The most faithful of the knights of 
 his household fell around him. the rest dispersed 
 and fled in all directions. The slaughter was great, 
 for the victors gave little quarter to heretics, and 
 the prisoners were much less numerous than the 
 dead." — Ibid., pp. 455-456. — See also Albigenses: 
 1210-1213. 
 
 "After the death of Pedro II, the succession of 
 the crown fell to James I, the conqueror (1213- 
 1276). The first years of his reign were troubled 
 by civil wars but by 1228 he was in secure posses- 
 sion of the throne. His first conquest was the 
 Island of Majorca which had been, for many 
 years, a thorn in the side of the Catalans and was 
 now a strong center ol Moslem power. This con- 
 quest was achieved in i2 2g and in six more years 
 all the Balearic Isles were in his possession. Soon 
 after the conquest of the rich province of Valencia 
 was undertaken and by 1228 was completed by 
 the capture of the city of Valencia. In the years 
 1265-1266, the King of Aragon effected the con- 
 quest of Nurcia for the King of Castile. (See 
 also Albigenses: 1217-1229; Spain: 1212-1238.) 
 "Jaime was not only a great conqueror; he was 
 also a great administrator. Owing to the entry of 
 feudalism into northeastern Spain his nobles had 
 such power that even the able Jaime was obliged 
 often to compromise or to yield to their wishes. 
 He took steps to reduce their power, at the cost 
 of civil war, and in many other respects bettered 
 the administration of his kingdom. ... In 1276 
 when the great king died he left a will which con- 
 tradicted the policies of centralization and the 
 aggrandizement of the kingdom which in his life- 
 time he had unfailingly pursued. He divided his 
 realms, giving Aragon, Catalonia, and Valencia to 
 his eldest son, Pedro, and Majorca and the Rous- 
 sillon (in southern France) to his son Jaime. The 
 division was not to endure long, however." — C. E. 
 Chapman, History of Spain, p. 82. — See also Cata- 
 lonia: 7T2-IIQA; Spain: 1035-1258. 
 
 1133.— Beginning of popular representation in 
 the Cortes. — Monarchical constitution. See 
 Cortes: Early Spanish. 
 
 1164. — United with Catalonia. Sec Catalonia: 
 712-11Q6. 
 
 1218-1238. — Conquest of Balearic Islands. — 
 Subjugation of Valencia. See Spain: 1212-1238. 
 
 1282. — Claims to kingdom of Two Sicilies. See 
 Italy (Southern): 12S2-1300. 
 
 1301-1523. — Taxation through Cortes. See 
 Cortes: Early Spanish. 
 
 1410-1475. — Castilian dynasty. — Marriage of 
 Ferdinand and Isabella of Castile. See Spain: 
 1368-147Q. 
 
 1412-1447.— Defeat of Angevins. See Italy: 
 
 1412-1447- 
 
 1442-1521. — Union with Navarre. See Na- 
 varre: 1442-1521. 
 
 1469-1492. — War with Florence. See Florence: 
 1460-1402 
 
 1501-1504.— Desire for partition of Naples : 
 Quarrel with France. See Italy: 1501-1504. 
 
 1511. — Holy League against France. Sec 
 Italy: i 510- i 513. 
 
 1516.— United to Castile by Joanna, mother of 
 Charles V. See Spain: 1406-1517. 
 
 1809. — Siege of Gerona. See Spain: iSoq (Feb- 
 ruary-June). 
 
 ARAGON, House of: Control of Catalans 
 during 14th century. See Catalan Grand Com- 
 pany. 
 
 ARAICU INDIANS. See Guck or Coco 
 
 GROITP. 
 
 ARAK IBRAHIM. — Taken by the British 
 
 (igi8). See Wori,d War: 1918: VI. Turkish the- 
 ater: c, 1. 
 
 ARAKAN, Lower Burma; taken by the Eng- 
 lish in 1826. See India: 1823-1813. 
 
 ARAKCHEEV, Aleksyei Andreevich, Count 
 (1769-1834), Russian soldier and statesman. Hon- 
 ored by two Tsars, Paul and Alexander, for his 
 ability and devotion; an expert artillery officer; 
 was largely responsible for Russian victories in 
 the Napoleonic wars and for Russia's conquest of 
 Finland, in the Swedish war of i8og. 
 
 ARAM. See Arabia: Ancient succession and 
 fusion of races. 
 
 ARAMAEANS, or Arameans, a branch of 
 the Semites, who became very powerful in Syria 
 about icoo B.C.; they earlier inhabited the north- 
 ern border of Palestine. This people carried on 
 age-long disputes over the land east of the Jordan. 
 Damascus was their principal city and was taken 
 from them by David, to be restored by Solomon. 
 The city was later conquered by Assyria. The 
 Aramaean language became the common tongue in 
 Syria and Palestine. — See also Hittites ; Semites ; 
 Syria: B.C. 64-63; ftLPHABLT; Theories of origin 
 and development. 
 
 ARAMAEO-ARABS: Roman colonies among 
 the Arabs. See Syria: B.C. 64-63. 
 
 ARAMAIC LANGUAGE. See Jews: Lan- 
 guage and literature; Semitic literature; Syria: 
 B.C. 64-63. 
 
 ARAMBEC. See Norumbega. 
 
 ARAN ISLANDS, three small barren islands 
 in Galway bay, off the west coast of Ireland. The 
 life is exceedingly primitive and the entire popu- 
 lation very poor, for the only means of livelihood 
 is fishing. Gaelic costumes, language and customs 
 are here preserved to a remarkable degree. The 
 islands are famous for the number of antiquities 
 they contain, the best known being that of Dun- 
 Aengus, a fortress tower supposed to have been 
 built in the first century A. D. The islands are 
 the scene of several plays, particularly "Riders to 
 the Sea," by John Millington Synge, who made 
 four or five visits to them. It is from his account 
 that the following quotation is taken. "There are 
 three islands: .^ranmor [or Inishmorl, the north 
 island, about nine miles long; Inishmaan, the 
 middle island, about three miles and a half across, 
 and nearly round in form; and the south island, 
 Inishere — in Irish, east island, — like the middle 
 island but slightly smaller. They lie about thirty 
 miles from Galway, up the centre of the bay, but 
 they are not far from the cliffs of County Clare, 
 on the south, or the corner of Connemara 
 on the north. Kilronan, the principal vil- 
 lage on Aranmor, has been much changed by 
 the fishing industry. The other islands are 
 more primitive, but even on them many changes 
 are being made." — J. M. Synge, Aran Islands, pp. 
 11-12. 
 
 ARANDA, Pedro Pablo Abarca de Bolea, 
 Count of (1719-1798), Spanish statesman and 
 general of the period of "enlightened despotism." 
 Commanded the army against Portugal 1763; in 
 T764 became governor of Valencia. As president 
 of the council from 1766 to 1773 (see Sp.mn: 17S9- 
 178S) he restored order and expelled the Jesuits 
 (see also Jesuits: 1757-1773); ambassador to 
 Paris until 1787; prime minister under Charles IV 
 for a brief time. 
 
 ARANJUEZ, town and royal residence of 
 Spain, on the Tagus in New Castile, about thirty 
 miles south of Madrid. It is noted for its beau- 
 tiful parks and gardens. The treaty between 
 France and Spain was signed here in 1772 The 
 uprising of the populace in 1808 led to the ab- 
 
 397
 
 ARAPAHOE INDIANS 
 
 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL 
 
 dication of Charles I\' and his flight into France, 
 accompanied by the Queen and Godov. 
 
 ARAPAHOE INDIANS. See 'Algonquian 
 (Algo.nkix) family; Indians, American: Cultural 
 areas in North America: Plains area; also 1865- 
 1S76; Pawnee family; Shoshonean family; Wy- 
 oming: 1851-1865. 
 
 ARAR, the ancient name of the river Saone in 
 France. 
 
 ARARAT, the name given to the high peak 
 of the .■\rmenian plateau, rising 17,000 feet above 
 sea level; according to one tradition, the landing 
 place of Xoah's ark. See Alakodians; Armenia: 
 B.C. 585-55. 
 
 ARARUD. See Al.akodlans. 
 
 ARAS, .Armenian river. See Araxes. 
 
 ARASON, Jon (1484-1551, the last Roman 
 Catholic bishop in Iceland. A celebrated poet of 
 his day, he introduced the art of printing in that 
 island. 
 
 ARATUS (271-213 B.C.), Greek statesman, 
 born at Sicyon, which he delivered from the rul- 
 ing tyrant and enrolled in the Achaean League; as 
 general of the League, won over Corinth, Megal- 
 opolis and Argos. His success in making the 
 League a weapon against tyrants and foreign 
 foes was undone by his opposition to demo- 
 cratic reforms. Sec Ach.ean League; Alexan- 
 dria: B.C. 282-241: Culture; Greece: B.C. 280- 
 146. 
 
 ARAUCA (Arawak) INDIANS. See Caries; 
 Indians, American: Cultural areas in South Amer- 
 ica: -Amazon area. 
 
 ARAUCANIAN INDIANS. See Chile: Ab- 
 origines; Indians, America: Cultural areas in South 
 .America: Pampean area. 
 
 ARAUCANIAN WAR OF INDEPEND- 
 ENCE. See Chile: 1535-1724. 
 
 ARAUSIO, a Roman colony, was founded by 
 .'\ugustus at Arausio, which is represented in name 
 and site by the modern town of Orange, in the 
 department of Vaucluse, France, eighteen miles 
 
 north of Avignon. — P. Godwin, History of France; 
 Ancient Gaul, bk. 2, cli. 5. 
 
 Battle of Arausio (B.C. 105). See Cimbri and 
 Teuiones: B.C. 113-101. 
 
 ARAVISCI AND OSI.— "Whether ... the 
 Aravisci migrated into Pannonia from the Osi, a 
 German race, or whether the Osi came from the 
 Aravisci into Germany, as both nations still re- 
 tain the same language, institutions and customs, 
 is a doubtful matter. The locality of the Ara- 
 visci was the extreme north-eastern part of the 
 province of Pannonia, and would thus stretch from 
 Vienna (Vindobona), eastwards to Raab (.\rrabo), 
 taking in a portion of the south-west of Hungary. 
 . . . The Osi seem to have dwelt near the sources 
 of the Oder and the Vistula. They would thus 
 have occupied a part of Gallicia." — Tacitus, Ger- 
 many. 
 
 ARAWAK (Arauaca) INDIANS. See Caribs; 
 Indians, American: Cultural areas in South Amer- 
 ica: .Amazon area. 
 
 ARAXES. — This name seems to have been ap- 
 plied to a number of Asiatic streams in ancient 
 times, but is connected most prominently with an 
 .Armenian river, now called the .\ras, which flows 
 into the Caspian. 
 
 AREAS, Battle of (581).— One of the battles 
 of the Romans with the Persians in which the for- 
 mer suffered defeat. 
 
 ARBE, island in the Adriatic, part of northern 
 Dalmatia, promised to territory of Croatia, Serbia, 
 and Montenegro, by Treaty of London. See Lon- 
 don, Treaty' or pact of. 
 
 ARBELA, or Gaugamela, Battle of (331 B.C.). 
 See M.acedonia: B. C. 334-330. 
 
 ARBELEST: Its use in warfare. See Long- 
 bow. , 
 
 ARBILITIS. See Adwbene. 
 
 ARBITRATION: Defined.— Its place in law. 
 See Common law: 1Q11-1921. 
 
 ARBITRATION, IndustriaL See Arbitration 
 
 AND conciliation, INDUSTRIAL. 
 
 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL 
 
 "The decision of disputes by international arbitra- 
 tion is a question of rapidly increasing importance, 
 especially in view of the growing agitation for in- 
 ternational peace. It is a mode of settling dis- 
 putes between two or more states by submitting 
 the controversy to the ultimate decision of third 
 parties. This is done by a form of treaty, which 
 provides for the appointment of the arbitrators, 
 rules of procedure, and all other matters necessary 
 to the arbitration. The award of the arbitrators 
 is as binding upon the parties as any treaty obliga- 
 tion, and the United States courts have held that 
 the finding of a court of arbitration will be 
 given the same effect in courts as a regular treaty. 
 The award may be avoided when the tribunal has 
 clearly exceeded its powers as conferred by the 
 treaty of arbitration, when the decision is an open 
 denial of justice, when the award has been secured 
 through fraud or corruption, and when the terms 
 of the finding are equivocal." — A. B. Hall. Outline 
 of international law, p. 64. — See also Treaties, 
 Making and termination of: Forms of interna- 
 tional contract. — "A host of support could be 
 marshalled for the contention that arbitral settle- 
 ment is one and the same thing as judicial settle- 
 ment, the distinction being not between law and 
 arbitration, but between arbitration and mediation. 
 The authorities have been collected by Balrh in 
 an article entitled 'Arbitration' as a Term of Inter- 
 
 national Law wherein the use of the term in in- 
 ternational law as opposed to municipal law is 
 traced. He finds little support for the theory that 
 international arbitration is a system of compro- 
 mise. He quotes Pufendorf, Kliiber, Rolin-Jac- 
 quemyns, Renault, Westlake, and Martens, all to 
 the same effect as John Bassett Moore, who says 
 [History and digest of international arbitrations, 
 1'. 5. P- 5042], 'It is important, from the practical 
 as well as the theoretical side of the matter, to 
 keep in view the distinction between arbitration 
 and mediation — a distinction either not understood 
 or else lost sight of by many who have under- 
 taken to discuss the one subject or the other. Me- 
 diation is an advisory, arbitration a judicial, func- 
 tion. Mediation recommends, arbitration de- 
 cides.' "— F. C. Hicks, AVti' world order, pp. 152- 
 153. — See also International law. 
 
 ANCIENT TIMES 
 
 "As early as the seventh century before Christ 
 the Greeks had already adopted the idea of arbi- 
 trating boundary questions and other disputes 
 which arose between the different city-states. 
 These must be regarded as real cases of inter- 
 state arbitration because the city-states con- 
 cerned were, in the earlier period, politically in- 
 dependent and approximately equal in military 
 
 .^98
 
 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL 
 
 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL 
 
 strength. In the period after the formation of the 
 Hellenic League their freedom of independent ac- 
 tion was, of course, curtailed. Philip of Macedon 
 and Alexander made a conscious and apparent at- 
 tempt to have the numerous disputes of the Greek 
 states settled by arbitral decisions, using the Gen- 
 eral Council of the Hellenic League in the work. 
 Under the Hellenistic kings who succeeded Alex- 
 ander, many of the Greek states retained complete 
 freedom and others a measure of their old inde- 
 pendence in their foreign relations. The Aetolian 
 and Achaean Leagues acknowledged the principle 
 and resorted to the use of arbitration. — [See also 
 AcH-EAN League.] We may, therefore, regard the 
 cases decided in that period as faUing under the 
 head of pure arbitration. With the advent of 
 Rome and the ascendancy of the Roman senate 
 in the affairs of the eastern Mediterranean, the 
 ba'ance of power had so markedly shifted to the 
 senate that it becomes increasingly difficult to de- 
 termine where arbitration ends and dictation to 
 inferior and semi-dependent powers begins. It is 
 safe to say that real arbitration between the Greek 
 city-states ceased after 146 B.C." — G. W. Bots- 
 ford and E. G. Sihler, Hellenic civilization, p. 579. 
 —"In ancient times, when war constituted the 
 normal state of peoples and the foreigner was 
 everywhere treated as an enemy, arbitrations were 
 necessarily rare, and we do not find either a gen- 
 eral system or harmonious rules governing the sub- 
 ject. There were a few cases of arbitration in the 
 East and in Greece, but the mode of procedure 
 was not suited to the temperament of the people, 
 and, after the peace of Rome was established, with 
 the civilized world under one government, there 
 was no place for it, since arbitration presupposes a 
 conflict between independent states." — M. A. Mer- 
 ignhac, Traite theorigue el pratique de I'arbitrage 
 international. 
 
 Also in: M. N. Tod, International arbitration 
 amongst the Greeks. 
 
 MIDDLE AGES 
 
 "In the Middle Ages, owing to the peaceful [and 
 powerful] influence of the church, arbitrations 
 were more frequent, and yet their influence was 
 far from producing all the results which might 
 have been expected, perhaps because Europe was 
 then divided into a great number of petty states, 
 or because the rude manners of the period were 
 intolerant of the idea of conciliation. . . . The 
 popes by degrees accepted the idea that they were 
 placed above sovereigns and were the representa- 
 tives of God on earth. In virtue of their divine 
 power the Roman pontiffs, recognized everywhere 
 as the delegates of God, from whom all sovereignty 
 emanates, constituted themselves judges of alt cases 
 and evoked to their tribunal all differences between 
 peoples and kings. Innocent III. declared that the 
 pope was the sovereign mediator on earth. . . . 
 The principle of pontifical sovereignty had so en- 
 tered into the manners of the times that popes were 
 often chosen also as voluntary arbitrators. It has 
 sometimes been said that their intervention, 
 whether spontaneous or specially invoked, was 
 more frequently employed in matters of private 
 interest and internal policy, than of actual inter- 
 national conflict. This may have been so in many 
 instances, but it cannot be denied that they were 
 also called upon to decide litigations much more 
 important, as certain examples will readily show. 
 Popes Alexander III., Honorius III., John XXII., 
 Gregory XI. were chosen as arbitrators in quar- 
 rels which agitated Europe ; and Pope Alexander 
 VI., by a decision of arbitration which is still cele- 
 
 brated, traced an imaginary line from pole to pole, 
 dividing between the Spaniards and the Portuguese 
 the possession of all countries discovered in the 
 new world. And even after the schism of England, 
 when the Papacy had lost Teutonic and Gallo- 
 Teutonic Europe, and when Gallo-Romanic Europe 
 was itself formed, the prestige of the popes was 
 still so great that it forced itself on the Poles and 
 the Muscovites. But acts of opposition, which 
 began to appear on the part of kings before the 
 i6th century, were accentuated after that time, 
 and the choice of the pope as arbitrator became 
 less frequent. . . . Beside the religious influence 
 of the popes, we should place, as having con- 
 tributed during the Middle Ages to the development 
 of arbitration, feudalism, which, while extending 
 itself over all Europe, naturally predisposed vassals 
 to accept their lords as judges of their respective 
 grievances. The most eminent of these lords, the 
 kings, were often chosen as arbitrators, chiefly the 
 kings of France. Saint Louis was constituted judge 
 between Henry III. of England and his barons, in 
 1263, and between the counts of Luxemburg and 
 of Bar, in 126S. Owing to his great wisdom and to 
 the authority of his character, Louis IX., says M. 
 Lacointa, rivalled the Papacy in the role of con- 
 ciliator and arbitrator. Philip VI., Charles V., 
 Charles VII., and Louis XI. were all chosen as ar- 
 bitrators. The other monarchs of Europe filled 
 the role, though not so often, notably the kings 
 of England, Henry II. and William III. But the 
 commission of arbitration was not generally con- 
 fided to sovereigns from whom were apprehended 
 attempts at absolute domination. . . . Occasionally 
 a city assumed the duties of arbitrator, but such 
 occasions were rare. . . . The parliaments of 
 France, renowned for their wisdom and equity, 
 were chosen to settle disputes between foreign 
 sovereigns. Besides popes, kings, cities, and great 
 constituted bodies, we may mention commissions 
 of arbitration instituted by parties in proportions 
 fixed in advance and invested with full power over 
 particular subjects. . . . The doctors of the Italian 
 universities of Perugia and Padua, and particularly 
 of the celebrated University of Bologna, were, says 
 Wheaton, on account of their fame and their 
 knowledge of law, often employed as diplomatists 
 or arbitrators, to settle conflicts between the dif- 
 ferent states of Italy. . . . Under the influence of 
 religious and feudal ideas arbitrations were very 
 frequent in the Middle Ages, which afford the re- 
 markable spectacle of conciliation and peace mak- 
 ing their way amid the most warlike populations 
 that have ever existed. They were especially fre- 
 quent in Italv, where in the 13th century there 
 were not less than a hundred between the princes 
 and inhabitants of that country. But when the 
 Papacy had renounced its rule over civil society, 
 and absolute monarchies gradually became estab- 
 lished in Europe on the ruins of feudalism, arbi- 
 trations became more rare. They diminished dur- 
 ing the course of the 14th and isth centuries, and 
 it is stated that from the end of the i6th centuVy 
 till the French Revolution they had almost dis- 
 appeared from international usage. ... If we 
 should trv to find judicial rules that governed ar- 
 bitration in the different periods at which we have 
 glanced, we should discover that they did not 
 present great stabiHty. . . . The procedure, also, 
 varied according to the case, but it usually afforded 
 certain guarantees and was invested with a certain 
 judicial aspect. . . . The arbitral clause, or stipula- 
 tion for the arbitration of difficulties that may 
 arise, does not appear to have been frequent in 
 the Middle Ages, or in later times, though we have 
 had occasion to cite some examples of it. It seems, 
 
 399
 
 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL 
 
 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL 
 
 however, to have been in use between the com- 
 mercial cities of Italy. Vattel relates that the 
 Swiss, in the alliances which they contracted, 
 whether among themselves or with foreign peoples, 
 had recourse to it; and he justly praised them for 
 it. We may cite two applications of it in the case 
 of the cities of Italy and the Swiss Cantons. In a 
 treaty of alliance concluded in 123S, between 
 Genoa and Venice, there is an article which reads 
 thus: 'If a difficulty should arise between the 
 aforesaid cities, which cannot easily be settled by 
 themselves, it shall be decided by the arbitration 
 of the Sovereign Pontiff; and if one of the parties 
 violate the treaty, we agree that His Holiness shall 
 excommunicate the offending city.' " — M. A. Mer- 
 inghac, Traite theorique et pratique de I'arbitrage 
 international. — The above is translated from the 
 French and quoted by Prof. John Bassett Moore, 
 in his History and digest of the international arbi- 
 trations to which the U . S. has been a party," v. J, 
 App. 3 (House of R. Mis. Doc. 212, 53 Cong., 2d 
 Sess.). 
 
 MODERN PERIOD 
 
 The period of the absolute monarchies did not 
 further the use of arbitration, but with the rise 
 of modern states, built as they are upon a com- 
 plexity of economic and social interdependence 
 that constantly increases as the means of com- 
 munication increase, arbitration has become a prac- 
 tical and accepted necessity. The tremendous eco- 
 nomic cost of war has strengthened the case of 
 the many humanitarians who support the societies 
 and conventions of the Peace Movement (q. v.) 
 and who urge arbitration as the basis of peace. 
 For the most part, the reformers have set before 
 themselves the ideal of an international tribunal 
 possessing, if not compulsory jurisdiction, at least 
 such moral weight that resort to its award, except 
 in case of extreme necessity, may become a duty 
 of customary obligation. This is an admirable 
 ideal, and the progress now made towards it is 
 considerable, when we remember how lately the 
 most that seemed practicable was a vague sugges- 
 tion of appeal to the good offices of some friendly 
 third power. But we must not forget that arbi- 
 tration in any form is only an instrument for 
 settling disputes, and is not equally appropriate 
 in all cases. It is not safe to -assume that all 
 questions between sovereign states are analogous 
 to those which cause litigation between individuals, 
 and that no difficulty remains in the way of judi- 
 cial solution if once an adequate judicial authority 
 can be found. This is far from being so. 
 
 Tjrpes and methods of arbitration. — "Interna- 
 tional controversies may be divided, for the pur- 
 pose in hand, into four classes. .... In the first are 
 such as relate to boundaries and territorial rights, 
 including the construction of any treaties or other 
 authentic documents bearing on such rights. Here 
 we have almost a perfect analogy to cases between 
 private owners. The main problem is to find an 
 arbitrator, board of arbitrators, or standing tribu- 
 nal, whose decision will command the respect of 
 both parties. . . . Moreover, it may be said of 
 these cases, as of similar cases in men's private 
 affairs, that a decision arrived at by competent 
 persons after argument is more likely to be just 
 in itself and, what is more, satisfactory to the 
 parties, than a compromise arrived at by direct 
 negotiation. We may place in the same category 
 with boundary settlements, though in a less im- 
 portant rank, the adjustment of pecuniary claims 
 by subjects of one State against the Government 
 of another, arising out of transactions or events 
 
 as to which no matter of principle is in dispute. 
 Such claims have often been dealt with by joint 
 Commissions proceeding in a more or less judicial 
 manner, and there is seldom much difficulty about 
 them, though the justice ultimately done is not 
 always prompt. Here there is still a good deal of 
 analogy to the ordinary civil business of municipal 
 Courts. A second class of controversies turns on 
 alleged breach or non-performance of active ob- 
 ligations arising out of the interpretation of treaties 
 or official declarations, or out of the common cus- 
 tomary duty of nations in particular circumstances, 
 as -where a breach of neutrality or excess in the 
 exercise of a belligerent's rights against neutrals is 
 complained of. ... A third class of cases is that 
 which is analogous to civil actions for wrongs. 
 Here, a sovereign State, for the most part repre- 
 senting individual grievances and claims of its sub- 
 jects, though not always or necessarily so, seeks 
 compensation for harm caused to innocent per- 
 sons, as owners of property or otherwise, by the 
 incidents of warlike operations or civil disorder 
 within the jurisdiction of the State to which the 
 complaint is addressed; by denial of justice to its 
 subjects in that jurisdiction ; by alleged illegal or 
 excessive proceedings of that other State's officers; 
 or by acts done under colour of exercising some in- 
 ternational right, but alleged to be a manifest 
 abuse. Arbitral proceedings and awards have been 
 of great use in these cases, but chiefly when the 
 rules to be applied have been already agreed upon 
 by the parties or are otherwise too plain for 
 serious dispute. Very difficult and delicate ques- 
 tions arise when an aribtrator or arbitral com- 
 mission has to consider whether acts done, perhaps, 
 in a remote quarter of the world and under a 
 foreign system of public law and legislation are to 
 be deemed illegal or in the nature of unfriendly 
 conduct. To whatever class a settled claim be- 
 longed in its inception, it would not be possible, 
 without enormous labour, to say with any certainty 
 what proportion of such claims have in substance 
 been incident to the working out of former agree- 
 ments, or otherwise mere items in a series of diplo- 
 matic transactions, or what proportion of the resi- 
 due were in themselves capable of leading to serious 
 trouble between the nations concerned. But it 
 may be observed as to doubts of this kind: first, 
 that accumulation of unsettled differences is a 
 source of risk directly and indirectly, though they 
 may be individually small; secondly, that the pre- 
 vention of war between powerful States, or the 
 termination of dangerous recrimination and ill- 
 will, is much to have been accomplished even in a 
 few cases. It is true that Governments submit to 
 arbitration only when they do not want to fight; 
 but it is also true that peaceful intentions are not 
 always easy to carry out in the face of excited 
 public opinion, and the existence of a known pro- 
 cedure which provides an honourable way of ac- 
 commodation may make all the difference. There 
 are moments when any expedient is good if only 
 it serves to gain time. But the following classifi- 
 cation may be useful. Nearly 200 cases of arbi- 
 tration between 1815 and the end of the nineteenth 
 century are collected in Mr. W. Evans Darby's 
 International Tribunals. Omitting from the total 
 the cases (nearly 10 per cent.) in which the pro- 
 ceedings were only after hostilities, were not of a 
 juridical character, led to no decision, or vyere not 
 between independent States, a rough analysis shows 
 the remaining effective arbitrations to fall into the 
 following groups: — questions of title and bounda- 
 ries, about 30 per cent. ; pecuniary claims of citizens 
 in miscellaneous civil matters, about 20 per cent.; 
 construction of treaties (other than boundary), 
 
 400
 
 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL 
 
 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL 
 
 about 10 per cent.; claims arising out of warlike 
 operations and for alleged illegal proceedings, or 
 denial of justice, about 40 per cent. . . . There re- 
 mains a fourth kind of differences between States, 
 and the most dangerous; those which do not ad- 
 mit of reduction to definite issues at all. . . . Con- 
 tests for supremacy or predominant influence are 
 not disposed of by argument, in whatever shape 
 they are disguised; indeed, the Powers concerned 
 are usually less willing to invite or tolerate inter- 
 ference in proportion as the formal cause of quar- 
 rel is weak. . . . Only one remedy would be quite 
 effectual, namely, that a coalition of Powers of 
 superior collective strength should be prepared to 
 enforce the principles which now stand unani- 
 mously acknowledged by the Second Peace Con- 
 ference of the Hague. A certain number of minor 
 wars have already been prevented, or kept within 
 bounds, by influence of this kind; but the benc- 
 ficient arts of diplomacy as hitherto practised have 
 certainly not lost their importance in maintaining 
 peace among the Great Powers. It is a grave mis- 
 take to depreciate them, as unthinking or ignorant 
 enthusiasts for arbitration have sometimes done. 
 They have probably been successful in our own 
 time oftener and on more critical occasions than 
 the Governments concerned have yet thought it 
 wise to make public. . . . Broadly speaking, there 
 are two methods of international arbitration, and 
 subdivisions of procedure within each of them. 
 First, the parties may refer the matter in difference 
 to a judge or judges of their own choice, in pur- 
 suance of a standing treaty or a special convention 
 for the case in hand. The arbiter may be the 
 ruler of a third State, or a tribunal composed of 
 persons named by the parties directly, or in part 
 by friendly Governments at their joint request. 
 Secondly, the States concerned may prefer to use 
 the machinery provided by a standing international 
 agreement of more general scope." — F. Pollock, 
 Modern law of nations (Cambridge Modern His- 
 tory, pp. 716-71Q). 
 
 The lead in developing the principle of arbitra- 
 tion has been taken by United States and Great 
 Britain. The two governments have intermittently 
 advanced proposals for an Anglo-United States 
 arbitral treaty since the time of William Jay's pro- 
 posal (1842)' and that of John Bright (1887).— 
 See also Diplomatic and consular service; Peace 
 
 MOVEMENT. 
 
 1794. — Jay treaty. — The treaty between United 
 States and Great Britain, negotiated by John Jay 
 in 1704, which referred several questions to arbi- 
 tration, may be said to have paved the way for 
 the revival of modern arbitration. By this treaty 
 three mixed commissions were provided: one to 
 settle the boundary along the St. Croix river; one 
 to settle the question of contraband, prizes, and 
 rights of neutrals; and one to decide upon the 
 compensation due Great Britain for the violation 
 of the peace treaty (1783) by the states in pre- 
 venting the collection of debts due British creditors. 
 See U. S. .\ : 1704. 
 
 1814.— Treaty of Ghent. — Three commissions 
 were provided to arbitrate between the United 
 States and Great Britain: one to settle the owner- 
 ship of islands in the Bay of Fundy and Passama- 
 quoddy Bay; a second to settle the boundary be- 
 tween the St. Croix and the St. Lawrence; a third 
 to settle the boundary between U. S. and Canada 
 along the middle of the Great Lakes to the Lake 
 of the Woods. 
 
 1818. — Agreement between United States and 
 Great Britain regarding restoration of slaves. — 
 The question regarding the restoration of slaves 
 taken by the British from their possessions up to 
 
 the signing of the treaty of Ghent was referred 
 to the Emperor of Russia who judged that the 
 United States was entitled to compensation. 
 
 1819.— Treaty of Florida.— United States 
 agreed to settle by arbitration her claims against 
 Spain during her occupation of Florida. 
 
 1827. — North-Eastern boundary question. — 
 The United States and Great Britain agreed to ar- 
 bitrate this question, but later the United States 
 refused to accept the award of the King of Ihe 
 Netherlands who was chosen arbitrator. The 
 question was compromised by the Webster-Ash- 
 burton treaty. 
 
 1831. — Settlement of claims between United 
 States and France. — The two countries agreed 
 to arbitrate the claims of United States citizens 
 for losses at sea during the Napoleonic wars, the 
 claim to commercial privileges under the Louisiana 
 Cession Treaty and the French Beaumarchais claim. 
 
 1835. — Compromise between Russia and Great 
 Britain regarding claims in North America. 
 See Oregon: 1741-1836. 
 
 1855.— "Reserved Fisheries Rights."— This 
 question was settled by a mixed commission agreed 
 upon between Great Britain and the United States. 
 Privileges renounced in 1818 of taking and curing 
 fish in unsettled bays and harbors along the Cana- 
 dian shore were renewed. 
 
 1856. — Creation of Commission of the Danube. 
 See Danube: 1850-1916. 
 
 1871-1872. — Alabama claims. — "The arbitra- 
 tion between Great Britain and the United States 
 on the claims generically known as the Alabama 
 claims, for damage done by the Confederate cruis- 
 ers equipped or harboured in British ports during 
 the American Civil War, was provided for by (he 
 Treaty of Washington of 1871; the award was 
 made by a composite tribunal sitting at Geneva in 
 1872. This case is commonly said to have given 
 great encouragement to the promoters of interna- 
 tional arbitration, and cited as a kind of preroga- 
 tive instance. An admirable example was certainly 
 set by the determination of the two Powers to 
 come to an understanding, and by the skill and 
 lact of the diplomatists who settled the Treaty 
 under anything but favourable conditions. The 
 immediate effect in England was certainly not to 
 increase the favour in which international arbi- 
 tration was held; nor could it well be disputed, in 
 the result, that the damages were excessive, since 
 the balance for which no claimants could be found 
 was left in the hands of the United States. Never- 
 theless, a fruitful example remained. A dispute 
 between two Powers of the first rank, which, rea- 
 sonably or not, had in fact become acute and even 
 dangerous, was reduced to terms of judicial com- 
 pensation without loss of honour on either side. 
 Perfection was not to be looked for in an experi- 
 ment of such novelty. . . ." — F. Pollock, Modern 
 law of nations (Cambridge modern history, pp. 
 720-721). — See also Alabama Claims: 1871-1872. 
 
 1884. — Berlin Act. See Berlin Act. 
 
 1889-1890. — Inter-Parliamentary Union for 
 International Arbitration established. — In 1880 
 there was held in Paris the first meeting of the 
 Inter-Parliamentary LTnion (founded in 1887) for 
 International Arbitration (q. v.), an association 
 composed of members or former members of the 
 legislatures of the world. In this body centered 
 the activities of the promoters of an international 
 court and the Hague Tribunal was largely a re- 
 sult of these activities. The year 1889 also saw 
 the initial meeting of the Pan-American Congress, 
 attended by representatives of all the American 
 states but Santo Dommgo. The International 
 Bureau of American Republics was established and 
 
 401
 
 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL 
 
 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL 
 
 in 1890 a general treaty of compulsory arbitration 
 was proposed, to apply to all the American states 
 for a period of twenty years. The proposal failed 
 of ratification. 
 
 1889-1899.— Claims to Samoa by the United 
 States, Great Britain and Germany. — The three 
 powers agreed in 1889 to arbitrate their claims, but 
 resulting complication caused the joint high com- 
 mission (.in 1S99) to proceed to the islands, and 
 there an agreement was signed for their partition. 
 See Samoa: 18S9-1900. 
 
 1890. — First Pan-American Conference. See 
 American republics, IxiERNAnoNAL union of: 
 1890. 
 
 1891. — Delagoa Bay arbitration. See Delagoa 
 Bay arbitration. 
 
 1892. — Arbitration of Bering sea seal fisheries 
 question between United States and Great 
 Britain. See Bering sea iiuestion; U. S. A.: 18S9- 
 1892. 
 
 1893. — Arbitration on bimetallism. See Money 
 AND banking: Modern: 1S67-1803. 
 
 1893. — Arbitration of boundary dispute be- 
 tween Colombia and Costa Rica. See Colombu: 
 1803-1000. 
 
 1897. — Settlement of Nicaragua and Costa 
 Rica boundary dispute. See Central America: 
 1397. 
 
 1897. — Proposed Anglo-American arbitration 
 treaty. — Secretary of State Olney and Lord Paunce- 
 fote negotiated in 1S97 an arbitration treaty be- 
 tween the United States and Great Britain. The 
 treaty, submitted to the United States Senate by 
 President Cleveland, was rejected by that body. 
 It lacked only two votes of the necessary two- 
 thirds because of the oft-recurrent question of 
 Constitutional usage: the impairing of the Senate's 
 treaty-making power by dispensing with the need 
 for Senatorial consent in a matter adjusted by 
 arbitration. 
 
 1897-1899. — Venezuela and Great Britain. — 
 Guiana boundary. See Venezuela: 1896-1899; 
 U. S. A.: 1897 (January-May). 
 
 1898. — Argentina and Chile. See Argentina: 
 1898. 
 
 1898. — Treaty between Italy and Argentina. 
 See Argentina: 1898. 
 
 1898-1899. — Tsar's rescript. — First Hague 
 Conference. — Permanent Court of Arbitration 
 established. — In .August, 1898, the late tsar Nich- 
 olas II issued his famous "Peace Manifesto" calling 
 the nations to a conference. The stated object was 
 the diminution and regulation of armaments to re- 
 lieve the heavy burden of taxation which oppressed 
 the peoples, and the prevention of war by diplo- 
 matic-judicial procedure. The first conference 
 opened at The Hague on May 18, 1899, under the 
 presidency of a Russian jurist, the late Frederic de 
 Martens, and sat till July 29. The greatest 
 achievement of the conference was the establish- 
 ment of a permanent court of arbitration at The 
 Hague. (See below: 1907: Second Peace Con- 
 ference at The Hague. ".At the First Peace Con- 
 ference, of 1899. an attempt, strongly supported, 
 was made to frame and secure the adoption of a 
 treaty of arbitration by which the nations would 
 bind themselves to arbitrate a carefully selected 
 list of subjects. This failed, owing to the opposi- 
 tion of Germany. .As a compromise. .Article lo 
 of the convention for the peaceful adjustment of 
 international differences was adopted: 'Inde- 
 pendently of existing general or special treaties im- 
 posing the obligation to have recourse to arbitra- 
 tion on the part of any of the Signatory Powers, 
 these powers reserve to themselves the richt to 
 conclude, either before the ratification of the pres- 
 
 ent convention or subsequent to that date, new 
 agreements, general or special, with a view of ex- 
 tending the obligation to submit controversies to 
 arbitration to all cases which they consider suit- 
 able for such submission' (reenacted in 1907 as 
 Article 40). The article did not seem at the time 
 to be of any special importance and it was gen- 
 erally looked upon as useless because independent 
 and sovereign States possess the right without 
 special reservation to conclude arbitration agree- 
 ments, general or special, without being specifically 
 empowered to do so. The fact is, however, that 
 this article, insignificant and useless as it may seem, 
 marks, one may almost say, an era in the history 
 of arbitration. The existence of the article has 
 called attention to the subject of arbitration and 
 by reference to it many States have negotiated 
 arbitration treaties. It is true that there is no 
 legal obligation created by the article and it is 
 difficult to find a moral one, for it is not declared 
 to be the duty of any State to conclude arbitra- 
 tion treaties. The moral effect of the article has, 
 however, been great and salutary, and the exist- 
 ence of numerous arbitration treaties based upon 
 the reservation contained in the article shows the 
 attention and respect which nations pay to the 
 various provisions of The Hague Conference." — 
 J. B. Scott, Hague Peace Conferences of 1899 and 
 1907. 
 
 "For an unquestioned example of a court 
 of arbitration open to the whole world we must 
 turn to the Permanent Court of Arbitration set up 
 by The Hague Conference of 1899. . . Chapter 
 II of the Convention sets up the court and provides 
 rules of procedure. It has been said of this tribu- 
 nal that it is neither a court nor permanent ; but 
 we have the opinion of Professor John Bassett 
 Moore written in 1914 that the convention estab- 
 lishing it 'is the highest achievement of the past 
 twenty years in the direction of an arrangement 
 for the peaceful adjustment of international con- 
 troversies.' — [J. B. Moore, International arbitra- 
 tion; a survey of the present situation.^ The Con- 
 vention was revised by the Conference of 1907, 
 the changes being largely verbal, or concerned 
 with procedure. The essential character of the 
 court and its jurisdiction remain as originally pro- 
 vided. The features of permanent organization 
 are: first, a list of judges made up of not more 
 than four persons of known competency in ques- 
 tions of international law and of the highest moral 
 reputation, chosen by each contracting state. By 
 agreement the same person may be selected by 
 different powers. The judges are appointed for six 
 years and their appointments may be renewed. 
 . . . The Court has no obligatory jurisdiction but 
 is competent to decide all cases submitted to it by 
 agreement of the contracting parties. Its jurisdic- 
 tion may. within the regulations, be extended to 
 disputes between non-contracting powers [i. e., 
 those not signers of The Hague agreement] or be- 
 tween contracting powers and non-contracting 
 powers, on joint petition of the parties to such dis- 
 putes. . . . The decisions are not made jointly by 
 all members of the Court. When it has been 
 agreed to submit a case to the Court, each party 
 must choose its arbitrators from the general list. 
 The number may be decided upon by the parties, 
 but if they cannot acree the Convention stipulates 
 that each party shall choose two arbitrators from 
 the list, only one of whom can be its national ap- 
 pointee to the list, and these four arbitrators choose 
 an umpire. . . . Pleadings are conducted by the 
 presentation of cases, counter cases, and replies, 
 accompanied with papers and documents; and the 
 arguments are developed by oral discussions. . . . 
 
 402
 
 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL 
 
 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL 
 
 The decision of the court is arrived at in private 
 by majority vote, and the proceedings remain 
 secret. ... As pointed out by Professor Wilson in 
 the preface to his Hague Arbitration Cases, the 
 work of the Court has amply justified its creation. 
 Fifteen cases have been decided relating to a va- 
 riety of questions, including not only financial 
 questions, but those of more delicate character 
 such as the violation of territory, the right to fly 
 the flag, the delimitation of boundaries, etc. The 
 fact that these questions have been submitted is of 
 great significance. Seventeen different states in all 
 have been parties in cases before the Court. . . ." 
 F. C. Hicks, New world order, pp. 158-161. — See 
 also Hague conferences: iSqq. 
 
 Following is a list of the cases decided with the 
 dates of the awards: 
 
 Mexico V. United States, Pious fund case, October 
 14, 1902. 
 
 Germany, Great Britain, Italy v. Venezuela, Vene- 
 zuelan preferential claims, February 22, 1904. 
 
 France, Germany, Great Britain v. Japan, Japa- 
 nese house tax case, May 22, '1Q05. 
 
 France v. Great Britain, Muscat Dhows case, Au- 
 gust 8, 1005. 
 
 France v. Germany, Casablanca case. May 22, 1Q09. 
 
 Norway 11. Sweden, Grisbadarna case, Oct. 23, igog. 
 
 Great iSritain v. United States, North Atlantic fish- 
 eries case, September 7, igio. 
 
 United States v. Venezuela, Orinoco Steamship Co. 
 case, October 25, igio. 
 
 France v. Great Britain, Savarkar case, February 
 
 24, 1911. 
 
 Italy V. Peru, Canevaro case. May 3, igi2. 
 
 Russia V. Turkey, Russian indemnity case, Novem- 
 ber II, igi2. 
 
 France v. Italy, Carthage and Manouba cases, May 
 6, igi3- 
 
 Netherlands v. Portugal, Island of Timor case, June 
 
 25, 1914. 
 
 Commission of Inquiry Cases 
 Great Britain v. Russia, Dogger Bank case, Feb- 
 ruary 26, igoS. 
 France v. Italy, Tavignano, Camouna, and Gau- 
 
 lois cases, July 23, igi2. 
 Spain, France, Great Britain v. Portugal, Seizure 
 of pious funds in Portugal, Pending. 
 
 In about one-half the cases no parties to the 
 controversy have sat as arbitrators. Nearly one- 
 half the cases have been before three judges. 
 
 Also in; G. G. Wilson, Hague arbitration cases. — 
 J. B. Scott, Hague court reports. 
 
 1900. — Brazil and French Guiana boundary 
 dispute. See Brazil: igoo. 
 
 1900. — Panama and Costa-Rica boundary dis- 
 pute. See Costa-Rica: igoo. 
 
 1900. — Compulsory arbitration proposed at the 
 Spanish-American Congress. See Spain: 1900 
 (November) . 
 
 1902. — Arbitration of Argentina and Chile 
 boundary dispute. See Argentina: igo2. 
 
 1902. — Second Pan-American Conference. — 
 Compulsory arbitration project. — Central Amer- 
 ican states. — "Ten of the nineteen nations repre- 
 sented at the City of Mexico [Second Pan-Amer- 
 ican Conference, igo2] united in the project of a 
 treaty, to be ratified by their respective govern- 
 ments, providing for compulsory arbitration of all 
 controversies which, in the judgment of any of the 
 interested nations, do not affect either their inde- 
 pendence or national honor; and it is prescribed 
 that in independence and national honor are not in- 
 cluded controversies concerning diplomatic privi- 
 leges, limits, rights of navigation, or the validity, 
 
 interpretation, and fulfillment of treaties. [The 
 treaty was signed by Argentine, Bolivia, Guate- 
 mala, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, Dominican Repub- 
 lic, Salvador and Uruguay and became effective 
 Jan. 31, igo3.j "Mexico became a party to this 
 project, but the United States declined; thus show- 
 ing an entire change of attitude on the part of 
 these two nations since the Washington conference 
 of iSgo. Mexico had in the meantime adjusted its 
 boundary dispute with Guatemala. But since Mr. 
 Blaine's ardent advocacy of compulsory arbitration 
 the Senate of the United States had manifested its 
 opposition to the policy by the rejection of the 
 Olney-Pauncefote arbitration treaty of i8g7, and 
 it is to be inferred that the Secretary of State did 
 not think it wise to commit our government to a 
 measure which had been cUsapproved of by the co- 
 ordinate branch of the treaty-making power." — 
 J. W. Foster, Pan-American diplomacy (.itlantic 
 Montlily, April, igo2). — In fulfillment of the agree- 
 ment at Mexico City a treaty of compulsory arbi- 
 tration and obhgatory peace was signed on Jan. 20, 
 1902, by the Central American states: Nicaragua, 
 Salvador, Honduras, and Costa Rica, and they 
 were joined on March i, igo2, by Guatemala. A 
 third treaty was signed at the Conference, Jan. 
 30th, between seventeen states, including the 
 United States, relating to the adjustment by means 
 of arbitration of difficulties resulting from finan- 
 cial questions. — See also American Republics, In- 
 ternational UNION of: igoi-1902. 
 
 1902-1904. — Claims against Venezuela. See 
 Venezuela: 1902 -1904. 
 
 1903. — Alaska boundary question. See Alas- 
 ka BOUNDARY QUESTION: I9O3. 
 
 1904. — Arbitration of boundary dispute be- 
 tween Brazil and British Guiana. See Brazil: 
 igo4. 
 
 1904. — Orinoco Steamship Company case. See 
 Orinoco Steamship Company case. 
 
 1905. — Arbitration of boundary dispute be- 
 tween Peru, Colombia, and Ecuador. See Peru: 
 1905. 
 
 1905. — President Roosevelt's treaty negotia- 
 tions. — Arbitration treaties drawn up between 
 the United States and Germany, Switzerland, Por- 
 tugal and Great Britain, were in igo5 submitted 
 by President Roosevelt to the United States Senate 
 for ratification. The treaties were finally ratified 
 after such, changes had been made that Roosevelt 
 said, "they probably represent not a step forward 
 but a step backward as regards the question of 
 international arbitration," and he refused to carry 
 the matter further. — See also U. S. A.: 1905 (June- 
 October). 
 
 1905. — Fisheries questions between United 
 States and Great Britain. See Newfoundland, 
 DoinNiON of: 1905-1909. 
 
 1906. — Third Pan-American conference at Rio 
 de Janeiro. See American Republics, Interna- 
 tional UNION of: igo6. 
 
 1907. — Central American court of arbitration 
 established. — The five Central American states, 
 meeting at the Central American Peace Conference 
 at Washington, established in 1907 a court of com- 
 pulsory arbitration. To this (Central American 
 Court of Justice the states agreed "to submit all 
 controversies or questions which might arise among 
 them, of whatsoever nature, and no matter what 
 their origin may be, in case the respective depart- 
 ments of foreign affairs should not be able to 
 reach an understanding." — See also Central Amer- 
 ica: 1907. 
 
 1907. — Second Peace Conference at The 
 Hague. — Representatives of forty-five states met 
 at The Hague in 1907 at the call for the second 
 
 403
 
 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL 
 
 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL 
 
 Peace Conference. The principal achievement of 
 this conference was the revision and ampHfication 
 of work initiated by the conference of iSgg, es- 
 pecially in the case of consolidating the Perma- 
 nent Court of Arbitration. Constructive work 
 was also accomplished in laying foundations for 
 the International Prize Court. "The Second Hague 
 conference also declared itself in principle in favor 
 of obligatory arbitration and stated that those dif- 
 ferences relating to the interpretation of interna- 
 tional conventional stipulations are susceptible of 
 being submitted to obligatory arbitration without 
 any reservation. The failure of this conference to 
 agree upon a definite plan of obligatory arbitra- 
 tion was mainly due to the opposition of Germany 
 and .\ustria." — C. H. Stowell, Outlhtrs oj interna- 
 tional law, pp. 276-277. — "As to arbitration, the 
 constitution of the permanent Court of Arbitra- 
 tion is confirmed. Its essential feature is a stand- 
 ing list of qualified arbitrators, not more than four 
 being named by each contracting Power. When a 
 Court has to be made up, each Power concerned 
 in the cause chooses two members from the list, 
 and the arbitrators choose an umpire; there are 
 further and seemingly effectual provisions in case 
 they fail to agree. The bureau international, which 
 is the permanent office or chancellery of the Court, 
 is under the direction of a diplomatic board at The 
 Hague. Terms of reference are, as a rule, to be 
 handed in by the parties; but the Court may 
 settle them itself if so requested by both parties, 
 or under certain conditions even if only required 
 by one. Elaborate provisions are made for the 
 conduct of the proceedings. Further, a more sum- 
 mary form of arbitration with two arbitrators and 
 an umpire may be adopted in affairs of less weight. 
 All this appears, from a lawyer's point of view, to 
 be sound and businesslike work. Doubtless, the 
 jurisdiction is voluntary: but so was all jurisdio 
 tion in its beginning. As time goes on, it will be 
 less and less reputable among civilized States to 
 talk of going to war without having exhausted the 
 resources of the Hague Convention ; and the ne- 
 cessity of any formal international declaration in 
 that behalf may be avoided altogether, if the tribu- 
 nal acquires by custom, as one hopes it will, a 
 stronger authority than any express form of words 
 would confer. That the time is not now ripe for 
 any such form is shown by the vague and baiting 
 recognition 'in principle' of a general duty of ar- 
 bitration which is embodied in the Final Act of the 
 Conference. Nor do we sec much reason to regret 
 the failure of an attempt to set up a new tribunal 
 of arbitral justice, with permanent paid judges, 
 which was to be more formal, more continuous, 
 and less dependent on the parties' choice, and, it 
 was hoped, would eventually supersede the existing 
 Court. This scheme was brought forward by the 
 United States. It broke down on the impossibility 
 of agreeing in what manner and proportions judges 
 should be appointed by the several Powers; the rec- 
 ognized equality of all independent States before 
 the law of nations being extended by several mem- 
 bers of the Conference, especially the leading South 
 -American delegates, to a claim for absolute equality 
 in all political and administrative schemes. This 
 interpretation, we submit, is perverse; but, on more 
 than one occasion, it was among the gravest hin- 
 drances to the work of the Conference. In our 
 opinion, however, there were much better reasons 
 for not being in haste to imitate the forms of a 
 Court exercising true federal jurisdiction. What 
 is wanted to promote peace is not the nearest ap- 
 proach to compulsion, nor the most imposing 
 Court, nor the most learned decisions possible, nor 
 yet the speediest (for sometimes delay is rather of 
 
 advantage), but a working plan for producing, 
 with as little friction as may be, decisions likely to 
 be accepted. This the two Peace Conferences at 
 the Hague have given us, and it is much." — F. 
 Pollock, Modern law oj nations (Cambridge 
 modern history, v. 12, p. 72b). — As regards the 
 American plan for the arbitral tribunal, the posi- 
 tion is made clear in Secretary Root's instructions 
 to the American delegation. It reads as follows: 
 "It has been a very general practice for arbitra- 
 tors to act, not as judges deciding questions of 
 fact and law, upon the record before them, under 
 a sense of judicial responsibility but as negotiators 
 effecting settlement of the questions brought before 
 them in accordance with traditions and usages and 
 subject to all the considerations and influences 
 which affect diplomatic agents. The two methods 
 are radically different, proceed upon different stand- 
 ards of honorable obligation, and frequently lead 
 to widely differing results. It very frequently hap- 
 pens that a nation which would be willing to sub- 
 mit its differences to an impartial judicial deter- 
 mination is unwilling to subject them to this kind 
 of diplomatic process. If there could be a tribunal 
 which would pass upon questions between nations 
 with the same impartial and impersonal judgment 
 that the Supreme Court of the United States gives 
 to questions arising between citizens of the differ- 
 ent states, or, between foreign citizens and the 
 citizens of the United States, there can be no 
 doubt that nations would be more ready to submit 
 their controversies to its decision than they are 
 now to take the chance of arbitration. It should 
 be your effort to bring about in the 2nd confer- 
 ence a development of The Hague tribunal into a 
 permanent tribunal composed of judges who are 
 judicial officers and nothing less, who are paid 
 adequate salaries, who have no other occupation, 
 and who will devote their entire time to the trial 
 and decision of international causes by judicial 
 methods and under a sense of judicial responsi- 
 bility. These judges should be so selected from 
 the different countries that the different systems of 
 law and procedure and the principal languages shall 
 be fairly represented. The court should be made 
 of such dignity, consideration and rank that the 
 best and ablest jurist will accept appointment to 
 it, and that the whole world will have absolute con- 
 fidence in its judgments." — Sec also Hague con- 
 ferences: 1007. 
 
 1907-1909. — Casablanca incident, between Ger- 
 many and France, at The Hague. See Morocco: 
 igo7-iooo. 
 
 1908-1909. — General treaties. — The extended 
 confidence in the Permanent Court of The Hague 
 after the second Hague Conference resulted in the 
 signing of numerous treaties designating the Per- 
 manent Court as the agreed tribunal in cases of 
 arbitration. At the outbreak of the World War 
 the only great power which was not a party to 
 one or more of these agreements was Germany. 
 (See below. Treaties ) The treaties of this date, 
 technically called Conventions, were all very simi- 
 lar and practically all of five-year duration. 
 Through the efforts of Elihu Root, then Secretary 
 of State, the United States became a party to 
 twenty-four of these agreements. Recognition is 
 given to the constitutional position of the Senate 
 in the United States by requiring a special agree- 
 ment of reference to be entered into by the presi- 
 dent "with the advice and consent of the Senate." 
 The distinctive article of the 1008-iqog treaties is 
 given under Treaties. Note "C," where it is stated 
 in elastic phrasing that differences shall be arbi- 
 trated provided, nevertheless, "that they do not 
 affect the vital interests, the independence, or the 
 
 404
 
 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL 
 
 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL 
 
 honour of the two Contracting States, and do not 
 concern the interests of third Parties. . . . Lord 
 SaUsbury wrote, in the course of the negotiations 
 preceding the unratified treaty of 1897 with the 
 United States: 'Neither Government is wilHng to 
 accept arbitration upon issues in which the na- 
 tional honour or integrity is involved.' Clearly, no 
 nation will submit to any tribunal the question 
 whether it shall accede to demands which its rul- 
 ers consider ruinous or humiliating. What arbi- 
 trable question was there between Elizabeth of 
 England and Philip of Spain when the Armada was 
 off the Lizard? or, as has been pertinently asked, 
 between Austria and France in 1850, or Russia and 
 Turkey in 1877? Therefore, some such clause of 
 exception appears unavoidable if the good faith 
 of treaties is to be upheld, and we confess that we 
 do not attach much importance to its exact form. 
 It may be said that these exceptions can be used 
 frivolously or in bad faith. But the same draw- 
 back exists in the construction and application of 
 all treaties whatever. Well-meant proposals were 
 made at the Hague for settling a list of causes of 
 differences which should not be deemed vital; but 
 the only result that appeared practicable was an 
 enumeration of such matters of current business as 
 have commonly been found well within the re- 
 sources of diplomacy, and the project was wisely 
 dropped." — F. Pollock, Modern law oj nations 
 (Cambridge modern history, v. 12, p. 727). 
 
 1909. — Dutch Guiana boundary settlement with 
 Brazil. See Brazil; iqoq. 
 
 1909. — Alsop claim of United States against 
 Chile. See Chile; iqcq. 
 
 1909. — World petition for a general treaty 
 of obligatory arbitration. — At the annual meet- 
 ing of the International Peace Bureau at Brussels, 
 October q, igoQ, the following resolution was 
 adopted, expressing approval of the world-petition 
 to the third Hague conference in favor of a general 
 treaty of obligatory arbitration; "Whereas, Public 
 opinion, ij recorded, will prove an influential factor 
 at the third Hague Conference; and Wherea^i, The 
 'world-petition to the third Hague Conference' has 
 begun to successfully establish a statistical record 
 of the men and women in every country who desire 
 to support the governments in their efforts to per- 
 fect the new international order based on the prin- 
 cipal of the solidarity of all nations; Resolved, 
 That the Commission and the General Assembly 
 of the International Peace Bureau, meeting of 
 Brussels October 8 and q, looq, urgently recom- 
 mend the signing of the 'world-petition to the 
 third Hague Conference.' " 
 
 1909 (October). — American proposal that the 
 prize court now established be also a court of 
 arbitral justice. — By reference to the proceedings 
 of the second peace conference at The Hague, as 
 set forth above, it will be seen that the conference 
 gave favorable consideration to a draft convention 
 for the creation of a "judicial arbitration court" 
 (the text of which draft is given at the end of 
 said proceedings) , and that the conference went so 
 far as to declare the "advisability of adopting . . . 
 and of bringing It into force as soon as an agree- 
 ment has been reached respecting the selection of 
 the judges and the constitution of the Court." 
 It will be seen, also, that the conference adopted 
 measures for the creation, of an international prize 
 court, preliminary to which an international naval 
 conference was held in London from December 4, 
 iqo8, until February 26, iqoo. At that conference 
 a suggestion was made that "the jurisdiction of the 
 International Prize Court might be extended, by 
 agreement between two or more of the signatory 
 Powers, to cover cases at present excluded from 
 
 its jurisdiction by the express terms of the Prize 
 Court Convention, and that in the hearing of 
 such cases that Court should have the functions 
 and follow the procedure laid down in the draft 
 Convention relative to the creation of a Judicial 
 Arbitration Court, which was annexed to the 
 Final Act of the Second Peace Conference, of 1007." 
 
 In Une with this suggestion, it was made known, 
 in the later part of the past year, that the gov- 
 ernment of the United States, through its state 
 department, had proposed in a circular note to the 
 Powers, that the prize court should be invested 
 with the jurisdiction and functions of the proposed 
 judicial arbitration court. The difficulties in se- 
 lecting judges for that contemplated court, which 
 caused the creation of it to be postponed in 1007, 
 would thus be happily surmounted, and, as re- 
 marked by Secretary Knox, there would be at once 
 given "to the world an international judicial body 
 to adjudge cases arising in peace, as well as con- 
 troversies incident to war." 
 
 1910. — Fourth Pan-American conference at 
 Buenos Aires. See American republics. Interna- 
 tional UNION of: iqio. 
 
 1911. — German government's views on arbi- 
 tration. — "World-embracing international arbitra- 
 tion treaties dictated by an international areopa- 
 gus I consider just as impossible as general inter- 
 national disarmament. Germany takes up no hos- 
 tile position toward arbitration. In all the new 
 German treaties of commerce there are arbitra- 
 tion clauses. In the main it was due to Germany's 
 initiative that an agreement was arrived at at the 
 second Hague conference for the establishment of 
 an International Prize Court. Arbitration treaties 
 can certainly contribute in a great measure to 
 maintain and fortify peaceful relations. But 
 strength must depend on readiness for war. The 
 dictum still holds good that the weak becomes 
 the prey of the strong. If a nation can not or 
 will not spend enough on its defensive forces to 
 make its way in the world, then it falls back into 
 the second rank." — German Imperial Chancellor 
 von Belhmann-Hollweg in Reichstag, Mar. 30, iqii. 
 
 1911-1912.— Treaties of the United States with 
 Great Britain and France. See U. S. A.; iqii- 
 iqi2. 
 
 1913. — President Wilson's proposal. See Latin 
 America: 1913. 
 
 1913. — Arbitration on Rumanian boundary. 
 See Rumania: iqi2-iqi3. 
 
 1913. — Bryan-Wilson treaties. — Body of the 
 treaties. — Character. — List of treaties from 1896- 
 1920, including the Bryan-Wilson treaties. — On 
 entering upon his duties as secretary of state Mr. 
 Bryan was faced with the problem of the re- 
 newal of the twenty-four treaties of iqoS-iqoq. 
 He proposed the insertion in the treaties of a 
 clause requiring that if a disagreement should oc- 
 cur between the contracting parties which, in the 
 terms of the arbitration treaty, need not be sub- 
 mitted to arbitration, they should, before declar- 
 ing war, submit the matter to the Hague Court 
 or to some other impartial tribunal for investi- 
 gation and report. The final form of the Bryan- 
 Wilson treaties, of which approximately thirty 
 are in force, is the development of the commis- 
 sion of inquiry and is not technically an arbi- 
 tration agreement. The body of these treaties is: 
 
 ".Article I. The high contracting parties agree 
 that all disputes between them, of every nature 
 whatsoever, "which diplomacy shall fail to adjust, 
 shall be submitted for investigation and report 
 to an International Commission, to be consti- 
 tuted in the manner prescribed in the next suc- 
 ceedinu Article; and they agree not to declare 
 
 405
 
 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL 
 
 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL 
 
 war or begin hostilities during such investigation 
 and report. 
 
 "Article II. The International Commission shall 
 be composed of five members, to be appointed as 
 follows: One member shall be chosen from each 
 country, by the Government thereof; one mem- 
 ber shall be chosen by each Government from 
 some third country; the fifth member shall be 
 chosen by common agreement between the two 
 Governments. The expenses of the Commission 
 shall be paid by the two Governments in equal 
 proportion. The International Commission shall 
 be appointed within four months after the ex- 
 change of the ratifications of this treaty ; and va- 
 cancies shall be filled according to the manner 
 of the original appointment. 
 
 "Article III. In case the high contracting par- 
 ties shall have failed to adjust a dispute by diplo- 
 matic methods, they shall at once refer it to the 
 International Commission for investigation and 
 report. The International Commission may, how- 
 ever, act upon its own initiative, and in such 
 case it shall notify both Governments and re- 
 quest their cooperation in the investigation. The 
 report of the International Commission shall be 
 completed within one year after the date on which 
 it shall declare its investigation to have begun, 
 unless the high contracting parties shall extend 
 the time by mutual agreement. The report shall 
 be prepared in triplicate; one copy shall be pre- 
 sented to each Government, and the third retained 
 by the Commission for its files. The high con- 
 tracting parties reserve the right to act independ- 
 ently on the subject-matter of the dispute after 
 the report of the Commission shall have been sub- 
 mitted. 
 
 "Article IV. Pending the investigation and re- 
 port of the International Commission the high 
 contracting parties agree not to increase their 
 military or naval programs, unless danger from a 
 third power should compel such increase, in which 
 case the party feeling itself menaced shall confi- 
 dentially communicate the fact in writing to the 
 other contracting party, whereupon the latter shall 
 also be released from its obligation to maintain 
 its military and naval status quo. 
 
 "Article V. The present treaty shall be ratified 
 by the President of the United States of America, 
 by and with the advice and consent of the Sen- 
 ate thereof; and by [the President of the Repub- 
 lic of Salvador] with the approval of the Con- 
 gress thereof; and the ratification shall be ex- 
 changed as soon as possible. It shall take effect 
 immediately after the exchange of ratifications, 
 and shall continue in force for a period of five 
 years; and it shall thereafter remain in force un- 
 til twelve months after one of the high contracting 
 parties have given notice to the other of ;fn in- 
 tention to terminate it. 
 
 ". . . The success of the Wilson-Bryan proposal 
 may be defined as due to its strict ad- 
 herence to the principle of the commission 
 of inquiry ; the advance it records is that 
 of the greatest possible development within the 
 limits of that principle. It brings forward into 
 the range of practical affairs the well-attested 
 maxim that war will not come in cold blood from 
 a dispute the facts of which are thoroughly at- 
 tested. It goes no further, for freedom of action 
 is reserved by both parties after the commission's 
 work is done. . . . The fact that the commission 
 becomes a permanent one makes appointments to 
 it on the part of the United States subject to con- 
 firmation by the Senate. On this account the Sen- 
 ate, as a coordinate part of the treaty-making 
 power, is in a position always to secure commis- 
 
 sion members for the American quota who are 
 satisfactory to it." — D. P. Myers, Commission of 
 inquiry {World Peace Foundation Pamphlet series, 
 V. 3, no. 2, p. 25). 
 
 Also in: Treaties for the advancement of peace 
 between the United States and other Powers, ne- 
 gotiated by the Honorable William J. Bryan, Sec- 
 retary of State of the United States. 
 
 The treaties differ in the range given to the 
 obligation imposed upon the signatory parties, as 
 to the nature of the differences they shall sub- 
 mit to arbitration. Most of them, however, are 
 divisible in this respect into three classes, distin- 
 guished by the reference letters "A," "B," and 
 "C," and the distinctions are described in J. B. 
 Scott, "Hague Peace Conferences of 1899 and 1907." 
 Treaties concluded by the United States have 
 otherwise distinctive characters, as explained in 
 notes "D" and "E." 
 
 "A. — The article of reference in these treaties is 
 substantially (when not identically) as follows: 
 
 " 'The high contracting parties agree to submit 
 to the permanent Court of Arbitration established 
 at The Hague by the Convention of July 29, 1890, 
 the differences which may arise between them in 
 the cases enumerated in Article 3, in so far as they 
 affect neither the independence, the honor, the 
 vital interests, nor the exercise of sovereignty of 
 the contracting countries, and provided it has 
 been impossible to obtain an amicable solution by 
 means of direct diplomatic negotiations or by any 
 other method of conciliation. 
 
 "'i. In case of disputes concerning the applica- 
 tion or interpretation of any convention concluded 
 or to be concluded between the high contracting 
 parties and relating — (a) To matters of interna- 
 tional private law; (b) To the management of com- 
 panies; (c) To matters of procedure, either civil or 
 criminal, and to extradition. 
 
 "'2. In cases of disputes concerning pecuniary 
 claims based on damages, when the principle of 
 indemnity has been recognized by the parties. 
 
 " 'Differences which may arise with regard to the 
 interpretation or application of a convention con- 
 cluded or to be concluded between the high con- 
 tracting parties and in which third powers have 
 participated or to which they have adhered shall 
 be excluded from settlement by arbitration.' 
 
 "B. — The treaties of this noble class are the few 
 thus far concluded which pledge the parties en- 
 gaged in them to submit all differences that may 
 arise between them to pacific arbitration, reserving 
 no dispute of any nature, to become a possible 
 entanglement in war. The formula of reference 
 in them is substantially this: 
 
 " 'The high contractin.' parties agree to submit to 
 the permanent Court of Arbitration established at 
 The Hague by the Convention of July 20, 1800, 
 all differences of every nature that may arise be- 
 tween them, and which cannot be settled by di- 
 plomacy, and this even in the case of such dif- 
 ferences as have had their origin prior to the con- 
 clusion of the present Convention.' 
 
 "C.— The reference clause in these treaties is sub- 
 stantially alike in all, to the following purpose: 
 
 " 'Differences which may arise of a legal nature, 
 or relating to the interpretation of treaties ex- 
 isting between the two contracting parties, and 
 which it mav not have been possible to settle by 
 diplomacv, shall be referred to the Permanent 
 Court of' Arbitration, established at The Hague by 
 the convention of the 20th July, 1800; provided, 
 nevertheless, that they do not affect the vital in- 
 terests, the independence, or the honor of the two 
 contracting States, and do not concern the interests 
 of third parties.' 
 
 406
 
 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL 
 
 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL 
 
 "D. — In these treaties of arbitration negotiated 
 by the United States the article of reference is 
 like that last quoted, in note C; but the following 
 is added to it: 
 
 " 'In each individual case the High Contracting 
 Parties, before appealing to the Permanent Court 
 of Arbitration, shall conclude a special Agreement, 
 deiining clearly the matter in dispute, the scope 
 of the powers of the arbitrators, and the periods 
 to be fixed for the formation of the Arbitral Tri- 
 bunal and the several stages of the procedure. It is 
 understood that on the part of the United States 
 such special agreements will be made by the Presi- 
 dent of the United States, by and Vv-ith the advice 
 and consent of the Senate thereof, and on the part 
 of Costa Rica shall be subject to tly; procedure 
 required by the Constitution and laws thereof.' 
 
 "This was required by the United States Senate, 
 which rejected a number of earlier arbitration trea- 
 ties, negotiated by Secretary Hay, because they 
 would have allowed cases of controversy with 
 other nations to be referred to The Hague tribunal 
 by the president without specific consent from the 
 Senate in each particular case. This brings the 
 general treaty of arbitration down very close to 
 absurdity, leaving almost nothing of its intended 
 pacific influence to act." 
 
 E. — The Bryan-Wilson treaties are designated by 
 the letter "E." The abbreviation "S" is used be- 
 fore the date of signature and "R" 'before the date 
 of the final ratification, or, in the case of the 
 Bryan-Wilson treaties, the "R" signifies the date of 
 the exchange of ratifications. 
 
 Under each country is given a list of the treaties 
 with other countries. Each treaty is mentioned 
 only once, with references to it from the other 
 countries concerned in Italics. 
 
 ARGENTINA 
 
 Bolivia. S. February 3, 1902; R. March 13, 1902. 
 
 Brazil. S. September 7, 1905; R. October 2, 190S. 
 
 Chile. S. May 28, 1902; Renew. September 13, 
 1910. 
 
 Colombia. S. January 20, 1912. 
 
 Ecuador. S. July '16, 1911. 
 
 France. S. September 7, 1910. 
 
 Italy. S. July 23, 1896; not ratified. 
 
 S. September 18, 1907; not ratified. 
 
 Paraguay. S. June 8, 1S90; R. December 21, 
 1901. 
 
 Additional Protocol. S. December 21, 1901; 
 R. December 18, igoi. 
 
 Portugal. S. August 27, 1909. 
 
 Spain S. January 28, 1902. 
 
 United States.'^ S. July 24, 1914; not ratified 
 (?). 
 
 Uruguay. S. June 8, 1899; R. December 21, 1901. 
 Additional Protocol. S. December 21, i go i ; 
 R. December 18, 1901. 
 
 Venezuela. S. July 24, igir. 
 
 (See above: 1902: Second Pan-American Con- 
 ference.) 
 
 austria-hungary 
 
 Brazil. S. October 19, 1910. 
 
 Great Britain.'' S. January 11, 1905; R. May 
 17, 1005. 
 
 Renew. S. July 16, 1910. 
 
 Portugal.^ S. February 13, 1906; R. October 16, 
 igo8. 
 
 Switzerland.'^ S. December 3, 1904; R. October 
 17, 1905. 
 
 United States, S. January 6, 1905; not ratified. 
 
 United States. d S. January 15, 1909; R. May 
 13, 1909. 
 
 Denmark.-A- S. April 26, 1905; R. May 2, 1906. 
 
 Greece. S. May 2, 1905; R. July 22, 1905. 
 
 Honduras. S. April 29, 1910. 
 
 Italy. S. November 18, 1910. 
 
 Nicaragua. S. March 6, 1906; not ratified. 
 
 Norway.'^ S. November 30, 1904; R. October 
 30, 1906. 
 
 Rumania. S. May 27, 1905; R. October 9, 1905. 
 
 Russia. S. October 30, 1904; R. September 9, 
 1905. 
 
 Spain. •'^ S. January 23, 1905; R. December 16, 
 1905. 
 
 Sweden.^ S. November 30, 1904; R. August 11, 
 1905 
 
 Switzerland.-^ S. November iS, 1904; R. Au- 
 gust, 1905. 
 
 See Argentina; Brazil. 
 
 Peru. S. November 21, 1901; R. December 29, 
 1903. 
 
 Peru. Renew. S. March 31, 1911. 
 
 See Spain; United Stales. 
 
 (See above: 1902: Second Pan-American Con- 
 ference.) 
 
 Argentina. S. September 7, 1905; R. October 2, 
 1908. 
 
 Austria-Hungary. S. October 19, 1910. 
 
 Bolivia. S. June 25, 1909. 
 
 Chile. S. May 18, 1899; R. March 7, 1906. 
 
 China. S. August 3, 1909. 
 
 Colombia. S. July 7, 1910. 
 
 Costa Rica. S. May 18, 1909. 
 
 Cuba. S. June 19, 1909. 
 
 Denmark. S. November 27, 1911. 
 
 Dominican Republic. S. April 29, 1910. 
 
 Ecuador. S. May 13, 1909. 
 
 France. S. April 7, 1909. 
 
 Great Britain. S. June 18, 1909. 
 
 Greece. S. August 28, 1910. 
 
 Haiti. S. April 25, 1910. 
 
 Honduras. S. April 26, 1909. 
 
 Mexico. S. April 11, 1909. 
 
 Nicaragua. S. June 28, 1909. 
 
 Norway. S, July 13, 1909. 
 
 Panama. S. May i, 1909. 
 
 Paraguay. S. February 24, 1911. 
 
 Peru. S. November 5, 1909. 
 
 Portugal. S. March 25, 1909. 
 
 Russia. S. August 26, 1910. 
 
 Salvador. S. September 3, 1909. 
 
 Spain. S. April 8, 1909. 
 
 Sweden. S. December 14, 1909. 
 
 United States. R. July 26, 191 1; automatic 
 renew. 1916, If not denounced by either coun- 
 try six months prior to July 26, 1921, will auto- 
 matically extend to 1926 and so on by five-year 
 periods. 
 
 United States.^ S. July 24, 1914; R- October 28, 
 1916. 
 
 Uruguay. S. January 12, 1911. 
 Renew. S. December 28, 1916. 
 
 (See above: 1902: Second Pan-American Con- 
 ference.) 
 
 See Argentina; Brazil; United States. 
 (See above: 1902: Second Pan-American Con- 
 ference.) 
 
 407
 
 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL 
 
 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL 
 
 CHINA 
 
 See Brazil; United States. 
 
 COLOMBIA 
 
 See Argentina; Brazil; Great Britain. 
 Peru. S. September 12, 1905; R. July 6, 1Q06. 
 See Spain. 
 
 (See above: 1902: Second Pan-American Con- 
 ference.) 
 
 costa rica 
 
 See Brazil; Italy; Panama; United States. 
 
 (See above: 1902-^ Second Pan-American Con- 
 ference; 1907: Central American court of arbi- 
 tration established.) 
 
 See Brazil. 
 
 CUBA 
 
 DENMARK 
 
 See Belgium; Brazil; France; Great Britain; 
 Italy; Netherlands; Norway; Portugal; Russia; 
 Spain; Sxveden; United States. 
 
 DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 
 
 See Brazil; Spain; United States. 
 
 (See above: 1902: Second Pan-American Con- 
 
 CREAT BRITAIN 
 
 Austria-Hungary .c S. January 11, 190S; R. May 
 
 i7> 1905- 
 
 Renew. S. July 16, 1910. 
 
 Brazil. S. June 18, 1909. 
 
 Colombia. S. December 30, 1908. 
 
 Denmark. S. October 25, 1905; R. May 4, 1906. 
 
 France.'' S. October 14, 1903; R. February 25, 
 1904. 
 
 Germany."" S. July 12, 1904; without reserve of 
 ratification. 
 
 Italy.'' S. February i, 1904; not ratified (?). 
 S. February i, 1907. 
 
 Netherlands.'" S. February 15, 1905; R- July ". 
 1005. 
 
 Norway.'^ S. August 11, 1904; R. November 9, 
 1904. 
 
 Portugal.c S. November 16, 1904; not ratified. 
 
 Spain.c S. February 27, 1904; R. March 16, 
 1904. 
 
 Sweden.c S. August 11, 1004; R. November 9. 
 1004. 
 
 Switzerland.'^ S. November 16, 1904; R. July 12, 
 1905. 
 
 United States. S. January 11, 1897. but not rat- 
 ified. (See above: 1897: Proposed Anglo-Ameri- 
 can ARBITRATION TRE.ATY.) 
 
 United States. (See above: 1905: President 
 Roosevelt's treaty negotiations.) 
 
 United States.^ S. .April 4, 1908; R. June 4, 1908. 
 Renew. April 10, 1914. (It had lapsed, June 
 4, 1913, but was kept in force by mutual agree- 
 
 ference; 1907: Central-American court of AR- ment. Again renewed September 24, 1918. To ex 
 
 \ r.'ww.a Tuna O .. T nt 1 \ 
 
 bitration established.) 
 
 ECUADOR 
 
 See Brazil; United States. 
 (See above: 1902: Second Pan-American Con- 
 ference.) 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 Argentina. S. September 7, 1910. 
 
 Brazil. S. April 7, 1909. 
 
 Denmarki^ S. September 15, 190.S; R. May 31, 
 1906; Renew. S. August 9, 1911. 
 
 Great Britain.*" S. October 14, 1903; R- Febru- 
 ary 25, 1904. 
 
 Italy.'" S. December 25, 1903; R. March 26, 
 1904. 
 
 Netherlands'" S. April 6, 1904; R July 5. iQOS- 
 
 Norway.'" S. July 9, 1904; R- November 9, 
 1904. 
 
 Portugal."^ S. Julv 9, 1906; not ratified. 
 
 Spain.t' s. February 26, 1904; R- April 20, 1904. 
 
 Sweden.'^' S. July 9, 1004; R- November 9, 1904. 
 
 Switzerland.'" S. December 14, 1904; R. July 
 13, 1905. 
 
 United States.r> s. February 10, 1908; R. March 
 12, 1908. 
 
 Renew. 1913, 1918. To expire February 23, 
 1923. 
 
 S. .August 3, 1911. 
 
 United States." S. September 15, 1914; R Janu- 
 ary 22, 1915. 
 
 GERMANY 
 
 Great Britain.<" S. July 12, 1004; without reserve 
 of ratification. 
 
 United States. S. November 22, 1904; not rati- 
 fied. (See above: 1905: President Roosevelt's 
 
 TREATY negotiations.) 
 
 Venezuela S. May 7, 1903; not ratified. 
 
 pire June 24, 1923.) 
 
 United States. S. August 3, 1911- 
 
 United States.'' S. September 15, 1Q14; R- No- 
 vember 10, 1914. 
 
 GREECE 
 
 See Belgium; Brazil; Italy; Spain; United 
 States. 
 
 GUATEMALA' 
 
 Nicaragua— Honduras— Salvador. S. November, 
 1903. See Spain; United States. 
 
 (See above: 1902: Second Pan-American Con- 
 ference; 1907: Central American court of ar- 
 bitration ESTABLISHED.) 
 
 See Brazil. 
 
 Guatemala— Nicaragua— Salvador. S. Novem- 
 ber, 1903- 
 
 HONDURAS 
 
 See Belgium; Brazil; Spain; United States. 
 
 (See above: 1902: Second Pan-,\merican Con- 
 ference; 1007: Central American court of ar- 
 bitration ESTABLISHED.) 
 
 ITALY 
 
 Argentina. S. Julv 23, 1896; not ratified. 
 
 Argentina. S. September 18, 1907 ; not ratified. 
 
 Belgium. S. November 18, 1910. 
 
 Costa Rica. S. January 8, 1910. 
 
 Denmark.^* S. December 16, 1905; R- May 22, 
 
 France.^ S. December 25, 1Q03; R- March 26, 
 1904. 
 
 408
 
 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL 
 
 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL 
 
 Great Britain.^ S. February i, 1904; not ratified 
 
 (?). 
 
 Greece. S. September 2, 1910. 
 
 Mexico. S. October 16, 1907; R. December 31, 
 1907. 
 
 Netherlands. S. November 21, 1909. 
 
 Norway. S. December 4, igio. 
 
 Panama. S. May 11, 1905. 
 
 Peru. S. April 18, 1905; R. November 11, igoS. 
 
 Portugal.*^' S. May 11, 1905; not ratified. 
 
 Russia. S. October 27, igio. 
 
 Spain. S. September 2, 1910. 
 
 Sweden. S. April 30, 191 1. 
 
 Switzerland.'' S. November 23, 1904; R. Decem- 
 ber s, 1905. 
 
 United States."^ S. March 28, igo8; R. January 
 22, IQ09. 
 
 Renew. 1914, 1919. To expire January 22, 
 1914. 
 
 United States.i^ S. May 5, 1914; R. March ig, 
 1915- 
 
 JAPAN 
 
 United States.D S. May 5, 1908; R. August 24, 
 1908. 
 
 Renew. 1914, made retroactive to igi3. 
 Renew. igi8. To expire August 24, 1923. 
 
 See Brazil; Italy; United States. 
 (See above; 1902: Second Pan-American Con- 
 ference.) 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 Denmark.B S. February 12, 1904; R. March 18, 
 1906. 
 
 See France; Great Britain; Italy. 
 
 Portugual. S. October i, 1904; R. October 29, 
 1908. 
 
 See United States. 
 
 See United States. 
 
 (See above: 1902; Second Pan-American Con- 
 ference.) 
 
 Mexico. S. May 14, 1902. 
 See United States. 
 
 See Bolivia; Brazil; Colombia; Italy; Para- 
 guay; United States. 
 
 (See above: igo2: Second Pan-.^merican Con- 
 ference.) 
 
 Argentina. S. August 27, 1909. 
 
 Austria-Hungary .c S. February 13, 1006; R. 
 October 16, iqo8. 
 
 Brazil. S. March 25, igog. 
 
 Denmark. B S. March 20, igo7; R. October 26, 
 1908. 
 
 France. S. July 29, 1906; not ratified. 
 
 Great Britain. S. Noven'rber 16, 1904; not rati- 
 fied. 
 
 Italy .c S. May 11, 1905; not ratified. 
 
 Netherlands. S. October i, 1904; R. October 29, 
 1008. 
 
 Nicaragua. S. July 17, igog. 
 
 Norway .<^ S. May 6, igos; not ratified. 
 S. December 8, igo8. 
 
 Spain. S. May 31, igo4; not ratified. 
 
 Sweden.c S. May 6, igoS; not ratified. 
 
 Switzerland. c S. August 18, igoS; R. October 
 23i igo8. 
 
 See United States. 
 
 RUMANIA 
 
 See Belgium. 
 
 NICARAGUA 
 
 See Belgium; Brazil. 
 
 Guatemala — Honduras — Salvador. S. November, 
 igo3. 
 
 See Portugal; Salvador; Spain; United States. 
 
 (See above: igo2: Second Pan-American Con- 
 ference; igo7: Central American court of ar- 
 bitration ESTABLISHED.) 
 
 Sec Belgium; Brazil. 
 
 Denmark.^ S. March i, igos; R. April 11- 
 April 3, igos. 
 See Italy. 
 Norway.-* S. December g, igo4; R February 27, 
 
 igos- 
 
 Sweden. A S. December g, igo4; R. February 25, 
 1 90s. 
 See United States. 
 
 See Belgium; Brazil. 
 
 Denmark. S. October 8, igo8; not ratified. 
 
 See France; Great Britain; Italy; Portugal; Rus- 
 sia; Spain. 
 
 Sweden. A S. October 26, 1905; without reserve 
 of ratification. 
 
 See Switzerland ; United States. 
 
 SALVADOR 
 
 See Brazil. 
 
 Guatemala — Honduras — Salvador. S. November, 
 1903- 
 
 Nicaragua. S. April 3, 1907; not ratified. 
 
 See Spain; United States. 
 
 (See above: 1902: Second Pan-American Con- 
 ference; igo7: Central American court of ar- 
 bitration established.) 
 
 See Brazil. 
 
 Costa Rica. S. March 17, igio. 
 See Italy; United States. 
 
 (See above: 1902: Second Pan-American Con- 
 ference.) 
 
 paraguay 
 
 See Argentina. 
 
 See Brazil. 
 
 Peru. S. May 18, 1903. 
 
 SIAM 
 
 See United Stales. 
 
 Argentina. S. January 28, 1902. 
 
 Belgium. A S. January 23, igoS; R. December 
 16, igos. 
 
 Bolivia. S. February 17, 1902; R. October 10, 
 1903. 
 
 409
 
 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL 
 
 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL 
 
 Brazil. S. April S, igog. 
 
 Colombia. S. February 17, 1902 ; R. July 18, 
 1902. 
 
 Denmark.^ S. December i, 1905; R. May 14, 
 igo6. 
 
 Dominican Republic. S. January 28, 1902; R. 
 July iS, 1902. 
 
 France."-' S. February 26, 1904; R. April 20, 1904. 
 
 Great Britain.'-' S. February 27, 1904; R. March 
 16, 1904. 
 
 Greece. S. December 16, 1909. 
 
 Guatemala. S. February 28, 1902; R. July 18, 
 1902. 
 
 Honduras. S. May 13, 1905; R. July 16, 1906. 
 
 Italy. S. September 2, 1910. 
 
 Mexico. S. January 11, 1902; R. July 18, 1902. 
 
 Nicaragua. S. October 4, 1904; R. March 19, 
 1908. 
 
 Norway. S. January 23, 190S; R. March 20, 1905. 
 
 Portugal. S. May 31, 1904; not ratified. 
 
 Russia S. August 15, 1910. 
 
 Salvador. S. January 28, 1902; R. July 8, 1902. 
 
 Sweden. S. January 23, 1905; R. March 20, 
 
 1905- 
 Switzerland.^ S. May 14, 1907; R. July 9, 1907. 
 
 See United States. 
 
 Uruguay. S. January 28, 1902; R. July 18, 
 1902. 
 
 See Belgium; Brazil. 
 
 Denmark. D S. July 17, 190S; not ratified. 
 
 See France; Great Britain; Italy. 
 
 Norway. S. October 26, 1905; without reserve of 
 ratification. 
 
 See Portugal; Russia. 
 
 See Switzerland.^ S. December 17, 1904; R. 
 July 13, 1905. 
 
 See United States. 
 
 SWITZERLAND 
 
 See Austria-Hungary; Belgium; France; Great 
 Britain; Italy. 
 
 Norway.-^ S. December 17, 1904; R. July 13, 
 
 See Portugal; Spain; Siaeden; United Stales. 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 Argentina. S. July 24, 1914; not ratified (?). 
 Austria-Hungary. S. January 6, 1Q05; not rati- 
 fied. 
 
 S. January 15, 1909; R. May 13, IQ09. 
 Bolivia. E S. January 22, 1914; R. January 8. 
 
 1915- 
 
 Brazil. R. July 26, 1911, automatic renew. iqi6. 
 If not denounced by either country six months 
 prior to July 26, iq2i, will automatically extend 
 to 1926 and so on by five-year periods. 
 
 Brazil. E S. July 24, 1914; R. October 28, 1916. 
 
 Chile. S. July 24, 1914; R. January 19, igi6. 
 
 China. u S. October 8, 190S; R. April 6, 1909. 
 
 China.E s. September 15, 1914; R. October 22, 
 
 1915. 
 
 Costa Rica.D S. January 13, 1909; R. July 20, 
 
 1909. 
 
 Renew. 1014. 
 
 Costa Rica.i= S. February 13, 1914; R. Novem- 
 ber 12, 1914. 
 
 Denmark. D S. May 18, 1908; R. March 29, 
 1909. 
 
 Denmark.!' S. .'Vpril 17, 1914; R. January iq, 
 1915. 
 
 Dominican Republic. S. February 17, 1914; not 
 ratified, 
 
 Ecuador. R. June 22, 1910, for five years, au- 
 
 tomatically renewed every year. Terminable upon 
 year's notice. 
 
 Ecuador. t^ S. October 13, 1914; R. January 22, 
 191 6. 
 
 France.!^ S. February 10, 190S; R. March 12, 
 1908. 
 
 Renew. 1913, 1918. Expires February 23, 
 
 1923- 
 
 S. August 3, 1911. 
 France.i=^ S. September 15, 1914; R. January 22, 
 
 IQI5- 
 
 Germany. S. November 22, 1904; not ratified. 
 
 Germany. (See above: 1905: President Roose- 
 velt's TREATY NEGOTIATIONS.; 
 
 Great Britain. S. January 11, 1897; not rati- 
 fied. (See above: 1897: Proposed Anglo-Ameri- 
 can ARBITRATION TREATY.) 
 
 Great Britain. (See 1905: President Roose- 
 \llt's treaty negotl^tioxs.) 
 
 Great Britain. d S. April 4, 1908; R. June 4, 
 iqoS. 
 
 Renew. April 10, iqi4. (It had lapsed June 
 4, 1913, but was kept in force by mutual agree- 
 ment) ; Renew. September 24, 191S. Expires June 
 
 24. 1923- 
 
 S. August 3, 1911. 
 Great Britain. '=' S. September 15, 1914; R. No- 
 vember 10, 1914. 
 Greece. S. February 29, 1908; not ratified (?) 
 Greece.^ S. October 13, 1914; not ratified (?) 
 Guatemala. '■^ S. September 20, 1913; R. Octo- 
 ber 13, 1914. 
 
 Honduras.^ S. November 3, 1913; R. July 27, 
 1916. 
 Italy. D S. March 28, 190S; R. January 22, 1909. 
 
 Renew. 1914, 1919. Expires Jan. 22, 1924. 
 Italy .^ S. May 5, 1914; R. March 19, 1915. 
 Japan. D S. May 5, igoS; R. August 24, 1908. 
 Renew. 1914, made retroactive to 1913. 
 Renew. 1918. Expires Au ust 24, 1923. 
 Mexico. t^ S. March "24, 190S; R. June 27, 1908. 
 Netherlands. D S. May 2, 1908; R. March 25, 
 1909. 
 
 Renew. 1915, 1919. 
 Netherlands.^ S. December 18, 1913; not rati- 
 fied. 
 
 Nicaragua.^ S. December 17, 1913; not ratified. 
 Norway. S. April 4, iqo8; R. June 24, 1908. 
 Renew. 1913, 1918. Expires June 24, 1923- 
 Norway .'^ S. June 24, 1914; R. October 21, 1914 
 Panama.''- S. September 20, 1913; not ratified. 
 Paraguay. J' S. August 29, 1914; R. March 9, 
 
 I9I.';- 
 
 Persia.'^ S. February 4, 1014; not ratified. 
 
 Peru."^ S. December s, iqoS; R. June 29, 1909. 
 
 Peru.'' S. July 14, 1914; R. March 4, 191S. 
 
 Portugal. D S. April 6, 190S; R. November 14, 
 1908. 
 
 Renew. 1913. 
 
 Portugal.'' S. February 4, 1914; R. October 24, 
 1914. 
 
 Russia.'' S. October i, 1914; R. March 22, 1914- 
 
 Salvador.^ S. December 21, 1908; R. July 3, 
 1000. 
 
 Renew. 19 14. 
 
 Salvador." S. August 7, 1913; not ratified. 
 
 Spain.i^ S. April 20, 1908; R. June 2, 1908. 
 Renew. 1913, 1919. Expires 1924. 
 
 Spain.E S. September 15, 1914; R. December 
 21, 1914. 
 
 Sweden.!^ S. May 2, 1908; R. August 18, iqo8. 
 Renew. 1013. 
 
 Sweden.E S. October 13, iqi4; R. January 11, 
 iqi.S- 
 
 Switzerland.'^ S. February 29, 1908; R. Decem- 
 ber 23, 1908. 
 
 10
 
 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL 
 
 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL 
 
 Switzerland. E S. February 13, 1914. 
 
 Uruguay. li^ S. July 20, 1914; R. February 24, 
 Renew. November 14, 1913, automatic renew. 
 igiS. Remains in force until a year after its de- 
 nunciation by either country. 
 
 Uruguay. li S. July 20, 1914; R. February 24, 
 
 1914- 
 
 Venezuela.^ S. March 21, 1914. 
 
 (See above: 1902: Second Pan-American Con- 
 ference.) 
 
 See Argentina; Brazil; Spain; United States. 
 (See above: 1902: Second Fan-American Con- 
 ference.) 
 
 venezuela 
 
 See Argentina; Germany; United States. 
 (See above: 1902: Second Pan-.'Xmerican Con- 
 ference.) 
 
 1914. — Arbitration agreements at the outbreak 
 of the World War. — Considering the number of 
 arbitration treaties in force in 1914 it is signifi- 
 cant that only three were operative between those 
 states which fought on opposing sides in the World 
 War. Of the three, that between Germany and 
 Great Britain expired by limitation on July i, 
 1914, or thirty-five days before the contracting 
 states were at war. The other two treaties were 
 between Austria-Hungary and Great Britain and 
 between Austria-Hungary and Portugal, respec- 
 tively. 
 
 1914. — Arbitration proposals to avoid the war. 
 — Count Berchtold, Austro-Hungarian foreign 
 minister, launched the fateful ultimatum to Ser- 
 bia on July 23, 1914. Of the ten demands pre- 
 sented in that document, the Serbian government, 
 acting on Russian advice, acceded to all with only 
 two reservations — articles 3 and 4, which they 
 asked to be permitted to submit to The Hague 
 tribunal. The request was rejected by Austria. 
 The late tsar Nicholas II telegraphed to the former 
 German emperor at the end of July a proposal to 
 submit the Austro-Serbian dispute to The Hague 
 tribunal — an appeal that received no answer. — See 
 also World War: Diplomatic background: 21; 22; 
 23; 26; 28. 
 
 1914. — Ratification of the convention adopted 
 at the Third Pan-American Conference (1906). 
 — Seventeen participants ratit'ied this convention, 
 the gist of which is as follows: The contracting 
 Powers agree not to have recourse to armed force 
 for the recovery of contract debts. This undertak- 
 ing is, however, not applicable when the debtor 
 state refuses or neglects to reply to an offer of arbi- 
 tration, or after accepting the offer, prevents any 
 compromise from being agreed on, or after the 
 arbitration fails to submit to the award. 
 
 1919. — Obligatory general arbitration treaty 
 between Paraguay and Uruguay. See Paraguay: 
 iqig (November). 
 
 1919-1920. — Arbitration provisions in the 
 League of Nations.— The nations of the league 
 agree to use arbitration to settle "arbitrable" dis- 
 putes in which diplomacy has failed and while 
 the league council stands as one tribunal it is 
 generally conceded that only extreme cases will 
 come before it, and a temporary arbitral com- 
 mission or The Hague permanent court will be 
 used. The league court for which provision is 
 made in the covenant is in no way intended to 
 take the place of The Hague permanent court of 
 
 arbitration. According to article 13 of the cove- 
 nant "Disputes as to interpretation of a treaty, 
 as to any question of international law, as to 
 the existence of any fact which, if established, 
 would constitute a breach of any international 
 obligation, or as to the extent and nature of the 
 reparation to be made for any such breach, are 
 declared to be among those which are generally 
 suitable for submission to arbitration." Article 
 21 reads: "Nothing in this covenant shall be 
 deemed to affect the validity of international 
 engagements, such as treaties of arbitration or re- 
 gional understandings like the Monroe Doctrine, 
 for securing the maintenance of peace." 
 
 On Dec. 13, 1920, the session of the League of 
 Nations at Geneva adopted the proposal for the 
 establishment of a "permanent court of interna- 
 tional justice." "Before coming into operation, 
 the plan must be ratified by a majority of the 
 members of the League. The court, which is to 
 sit at The Hague, will be composed of eleven 
 judges chosen by the League, but not invested 
 with compulsory jurisdiction. Of the forty na- 
 tions represented, thirty-six favored compulsory 
 jurisdiction, while France, Great Britain, Italy 
 and Japan opposed it. The four great powers 
 carried their point, as the alternative lay be- 
 tween no court at all or a court unendowed with 
 compulsory jurisdiction. The plan to constitute 
 the court had been drafted by an international 
 group of jurists including Elihu Root, and com- 
 pulsory jurisdiction had been attached for the 
 valid reason that such a court would be useless 
 or at least impotent if resort to its mediation 
 were merely voluntary and not obligatory. Owing 
 to the opposition of the 'Big Four,' however, that 
 provision was eliminated, although particular 
 stress was laid on the point that had such a 
 court been in existence in 1914 it would have been 
 powerless to prevent the war, since Austria could 
 have refused to submit her quarrel with Serbia 
 to its adjudication. A proposal to abolish the 
 Hague arbitration court was rejected on the 
 ground that the new court would "render decisions 
 according to the rules and forms of law, and 
 that an institution [as that at The Hague] organ- 
 ized for purely arbitral decisions will still be re- 
 quired." — New York Times, Dec. 14, 1020. — The 
 league council has already proved its value as an 
 arbitral court. On September 17, 1920, Poland 
 and Lithuania invited its good offices as arbitrator 
 and the following day Finland and Sweden re- 
 ferred to it the disputed ownership of the Aland 
 islands (q. v.). "In production, in commerce and 
 in finance, the progress of invention and of world 
 organization has brought about an ever closer com- 
 munity of interest between the nations, and even 
 the countries which have sought to be self-con- 
 tained have been compelled to move with the 
 times and to base their welfare in an ever increas- 
 ing degree upon world production, upon interna- 
 tional trade, and upon world finance. But po- 
 litically, until the present war, the nations have 
 continued to pursue a purely individualistic policy. 
 Even now the policy of cooperation between the 
 various nations for the purpose of making war 
 has been pursued by most of them merely because 
 of the imminent and great danger to which they 
 were exposed until they did cooperate, not because 
 it is the wiser policy in peace as well as in war, 
 but because it is the only policy that can give to 
 the nations security under modern conditions. It 
 is true that some progress was made in this di- 
 rection prior to the war, but when one considers the 
 difficulty then experienced in inducing the nations 
 to take collective action, even about matters upon 
 
 411
 
 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL 
 
 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL 
 
 which every one seemed to be agreed in piinciplc, 
 and recollects the really trivial causes of interna- 
 tional friction that were allowed to endanger the 
 world's peace from time to time, one is compelled 
 to realize that politically the nations had lagged 
 far behind their economic, financial and intellectual 
 development. . . . The reasons for the backward- 
 ness of the world from the standpoint of inter- 
 national relations are obvious. For one thing, na- 
 tional matters are usually so much more immedi- 
 ate and more pressing than international prob- 
 lems, and consequently monopolize the attention of 
 politicians and statesmen to the exclusion of mat- 
 ters of more fundamental importance, except in 
 periods of temporary crisis. The second reason 
 is that in the past the number of persons who 
 concerned themselves with international affairs was 
 very limited, that consequently there was not the 
 same amount of constructive criticism devoted to 
 foreign affairs as to other branches of public policy, 
 that the few experts deprecated, and in some 
 measure resented, either public discussion or pub- 
 lic criticism, and that in consequence of lack of 
 information, lack of discussion and lack of criti- 
 cism, the general public was kept almost in com- 
 plete ignorance of world politics. The third rea- 
 son is that hitherto very few statesmen or ex- 
 perts in foreign affairs have realized the com- 
 munity of economic interest in all countries which 
 has been created by the wonderful improvements 
 in the means of communication and of intercourse, 
 
 and by the introduction of the credit system, all of 
 which have so greatly stimulated and assisted world 
 production and distribution of the necessaries of 
 life." — Sir G. Paish, Permanent league oj nations, 
 pp. 24-28. 
 
 1920-1921.— Aland Islands settlement. See 
 Aland Islands; 1920; iq2i. 
 
 1921. — Panama and Costa-Rica boundary dis- 
 pute. See Costa-Rica: 1921. 
 
 1921. — Vilna award. See Lithuania: 1021 
 (December). 
 
 Also in: W. E. Baff, Evolution of peace by ar- 
 bitration {American Law Review, igio, v. 53, pp. 
 229-268). — R. L. Bridgman, First book of world 
 law. — C. Heath, Pacific settlement of international 
 disputes. — W. H. Blymyer, International arbitra- 
 tion: the isolation plan. — T. Barclay, New' methods 
 of adjusting international disputes and the future 
 (1917). — J. B. Moore, History and digest of the in- 
 ternational arbitrations to which the United States 
 has been a party, together with appendices con- 
 taining the treaties relating to such arbitrations 
 and historical and legal notes on other interna- 
 tional arbitrations (189S). — See also the World 
 Pca^-c Foundation Pamphlet Series, to date, and the 
 Bulletins of the Carnegif Peace Foundation. 
 
 ARBITRATION, Permanent Court of: List 
 of cases arbitrated. See .Arbitration, Interna- 
 tional: Modern period: 1S98-1899; Hague confer- 
 ences: 1899: Convention for Pacific settlement; 
 Hague Tribunal. 
 
 ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION, INDUSTRIAL 
 
 The subject of industrial arbitration and concilia- 
 tion is intimately connected with nearly every phase 
 of the labor question, and the reader is therefore 
 referred to the articles Labor legislation, Labor 
 
 ORGANIZATION. LaBOR REMUNERATION, and LaBOR 
 
 strikes and boycotts for much information which 
 supplements and amplifies the material in this 
 article. 
 
 The interests of the public, of the employer, and 
 of the employee are served by continuity of pro- 
 duction, which depends in large part upon har- 
 monious relations between the management and 
 the workers. Conciliation, whereby a mediator 
 or mediating board, bringing the two sides to- 
 gether or acting as a go-between, effects a com- 
 promise, has often been of service in preserving 
 or renewing that harmony. In many cases, how- 
 ever, dependence has been placed upon arbitra- 
 tion, in which the decision is made by a third 
 party; the process leading to it may be voluntary, 
 or it may follow from investigation required by 
 law, or, in addition to the investigation being com- 
 pulsory, the award may be binding under law. 
 Legislation along these lines has concerned itself 
 chiefly with public utilities. Publicity for the 
 facts has at times accomplished much through the 
 force of aroused public opinion. 
 
 "In spite of its many obvious advantages the 
 method of arbitralion is not popular either with 
 employers or employed. Employers object to it 
 because it means (hat the method in which they 
 are to carry on their business is decided for them 
 by an outsider who is frequently not sufficiently 
 acquainted with the practical and technical diffi- 
 culties of the industry ; while employees on the 
 other hand object to it because they have found 
 that the arbitrator bases his award upon funda- 
 mental assumptions which they do not accept. 
 Thus, as Mr. and Mrs. Webb point out, arbitration 
 
 can only be successful when certain main points are 
 agreed upon as common ground between the parties, 
 as for example that a fixed minimum standard of 
 life should be regarded as a first charge upon the 
 industry of the country, or that wages should vary 
 with the selling price of the product. So long as 
 fundamental points and principles of this kind are 
 not agreed on by both sides, arbitration does not 
 stand much chance of satisfying the parties to a 
 dispute; and the real value which an arbitrator 
 performs as a rule in the settlement of disputes is in 
 the work of conciliation. .\n impartial outsider, 
 who is unaffected by any personal feeling in the 
 matter, may do a great deal to bring the parties to 
 a dispute together, and acting as a go-between may 
 thus prevent them from resorting to extreme meas- 
 ures. The real defect of arbitralion as a method 
 of settling trade disputes is that the award is not 
 binding on the parties, and there has consequently 
 been a strong tendency in some quarters in recent 
 years to provide a machinery which would have 
 I he effect of compelling emplo\ers and workmen to 
 submit their disputes for arbitration and to abide 
 by the result." — G. O'Brien, Labour organization 
 (1021), pp. 92-03. — "It will be seen , . . that 
 among the Australasian countries the general ten- 
 dency of legislation is to place a limitation, and 
 with practically one exception, a prohibition upon 
 the right to strike upon railway and practically all 
 other classes of industrial workers. Complete ma- 
 chinery, however, has been provided for the settle- 
 ment of controversies. Another group of countries, 
 on the other hand, such as Canada, the Transvaal, 
 Spain, and Portugal, have not denied employees 
 the right to strike, but have made the exercise of 
 this right contingent upon certain conditions — a 
 notification to the Government of the intention to 
 strike or after a governmental investigation and 
 report. In the case of other countries, as Rou- 
 
 412
 
 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL 
 
 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL 
 
 mania, the right of railway workers or other pub- 
 lic-utility employees to strike is absolutely prohib- 
 ited, and no machinery is provided for ventilating 
 grievances. Belgium and Holland also prohibit 
 strikes but have devised methods for employees to 
 take up grievances or requests with railroad man- 
 agers. Strikes are not formally prohibited in Ger- 
 many or Austria among railway workers, but are 
 practically prevented by the control of the au- 
 thorities over the trade-union affiliations of em- 
 ployees. In Germany, however, administrative 
 machinery has been provided through which trans- 
 portation workers may have a vent for their griev- 
 ances. Strikes are not prohibited by formal legis- 
 lative enactment on French railways, but are prac- 
 tically impossible, because of the policy of the Gov- 
 ernment in calling employees to the colors and 
 placing them under military orders in the event 
 of a strike. Italy depends upon the same policy to 
 prevent industrial conflict on her railways. In 
 Great Britain and the United States there is no 
 abridgement of the right to strike. Both countries 
 have provided official machinery for the adjustment 
 of wage and other difficulties between the railroads 
 and their operating forces." — American Labor Year 
 Book, 1917-1918, p. 145. 
 
 AUSTRALIA 
 
 1891-1912. — Early legislation in Australian 
 states. — Federal legislation. — Commonwealth 
 court established by the Act of 1904. — The first 
 Australian states to pass arbitration statutes were 
 Victoria and New South Wales, whose laws were 
 promulgated in 1801. South Australia followed in 
 1894, West Austrial in 1900. "By the act of 
 1891, Victoria provided for the voluntary arbi- 
 tration of collective disputes somewhat after 
 the system of the English councils of conciliation 
 act of 1867, except that the latter applied only to 
 individual disputes and enforced arbitration. . . . 
 In 1896, wages boards were introduced in Vic- 
 toria. . . . These might be appointed on applica- 
 tion of either party. A court of appeal, consist- 
 ing of a supreme judge, had power under the act 
 to review the determination of boards, and asses- 
 sors might be appointed to assist the judge. The 
 act fixed an absolute minimum wage. While it 
 was originally designed to guarantee a minimum 
 wage, it has gradually grown to be used more 
 for the purpose of conciliation. . . . New South 
 Wales passed its trade dispute conciliation and ar- 
 bitration act after the great strike of 1891. . . 
 The act was passed to continue four years but it 
 was a complete failure, only two of the sixteen 
 cases referred having been settled during the first 
 year of the operation of the act. ... A compul- 
 sory arbitration law, following somewhat the out- 
 lines of the New Zealand act but which did not 
 provide for conciliation, was passed in looi. . . . 
 The law was superseded by the industrial disputes 
 act of 1008 . . . (which was in turnl superseded 
 by the industrial arbitration act of 1012. This 
 act created a court of industrial arbitration con- 
 sisting of a Supreme Court judge and district court 
 judge or barrister of five years' standing, appointed 
 by the governor, also an additional judge and a 
 deputy judge. Boards under the old act Tof 1908I 
 were dissolved. Twenty-seven industries were 
 scheduled for which industrial boards were ap- 
 pointed on recommendation of the court by the 
 minister of the Crown. . . . These boards have 
 conciliatory powers. Special committees for con- 
 ciliation are provided for metal and coal miners 
 when more than five hundred are involved and a 
 
 special commissionei, appointed by the minister 
 of the Crown, is charged with wide powers to 
 bring about settlements in cases not covered by 
 the act. Lockouts and strikes are punishable by 
 heavy penalties, and heavy penalties are also pre- 
 scribed for breaches of awards and other offenses. 
 Boards have power to declare 'that preference of 
 employment shall be given to any industrial union 
 of employees over other persons offering their 
 labor at the same time, other things being equal.' 
 Declarations of preference may be suspended if 
 employees engage in strikes. About seventy-five 
 trades registered under the 1Q08 act. Twenty-four 
 trades, including sixty-two per cent, of the em- 
 ployees, had come under the jurisdiction of the 
 wages boards by 1911. In 1912, the court of ar- 
 bitration had made awards in one hundred thirty 
 cases, each affecting many other disputes. New 
 South Wales provided for the legal incorporation 
 of trade unions, under prescribed conditions, and 
 imposed legal responsibilities for the care of trade 
 union funds in 1912. South Australia provided 
 for the registration of trade unions and employ- 
 ers' associations, industrial agreements and boards 
 of conciliation, both public and private, in the 
 act of 1894. Awards under the act were compul- 
 sory and it was an offense for a registered or- 
 ganization to engage in a strike or lockout. It was 
 necessary for employers or employees to come 
 under the act, and as late as 1905 it was pro- 
 nounced a complete failure for the reason that 
 neither employers nor work people chose to ac- 
 cept what it offered them. South AustraUa 
 adopted a wages board system in 1908 and one 
 hundred thirty-nine boards had been created by the 
 middle of 1010. They had decided ninety cases. 
 Queensland has the wages board system. Western 
 Australia passed an act modeled after the New 
 Zealand law in 1900 but this act w«s replaced by 
 another in IQ02. ... In 1Q04, the Australian Par- 
 liament passed the commonwealth conciUation and 
 arbitration act, which provided a system of com- 
 pulsory arbitration similar to that in New Zealand 
 for all interstate labor disputes. The common- 
 wealth court was given power to employ the 
 usual methods of conciliation, and failing in that, 
 to make an equitable award binding on all parties. 
 Strikes and lockouts were subjected to a penalty 
 of four thousand eight hundred sixty dollars. 
 Breaches of the court's award were subject to a 
 penalty of four thousand eight hundred sixty dol- 
 lars iri ca.se of the employer and forty-eight dol- 
 lars and sixty cents in case of an individual em- 
 ployee. The power to fix a minimum wage was 
 lodged in the commonwealth court, also the right 
 to deprive those failing to observe an award of 
 all rights and* privileges under the act. One case 
 arose under the act of 1Q04 during the first five 
 years of -its existence involving four thousand men 
 in a New South Wales mine. It resulted in a 
 victory for the men. The decision, however, was 
 severely criticized by the employers and not wholly 
 satisfactory to the men. This act was amended 
 in 1000, 1910 and 19". The amendments of 
 iQoo prevented employers from discharging em- 
 ployees about to be registered under the act." — 
 C. H. Mote, Indmtrial arbitration, pp. 154-163. 
 
 1913-1917. — Success of the couirt in preventing 
 strikes.— "The Commonwealth Court of Arbitra- 
 tion has not had to deal with many disputes. Dur- 
 ing the vears loi.vioi? • • • 'f'^ number .settled 
 under this Court amounted to only twenty, but 
 these disputes, covering, as they did, employees in 
 two or more states of Australia, affected large in- 
 terests and many persons The subjects in dispute 
 comprised practically all conditions of the industry. 
 
 4T.3
 
 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL 
 
 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL 
 
 Thus, a claim made by the employees of the meat 
 industry in Victoria and South Australia included 
 regulation of rates of pay, hours of labor, holidays, 
 terms and conditions of employment, and prefer- 
 ence to unionists. The heanup of this claim occu- 
 pied the attention of the Court for forty-two court 
 days. There were 1,2:5 respondents in the case, 
 and the printed award covers sixty pages. The 
 award was preceded by a lengthy judgment in 
 which the President of the Court entered into a full 
 discussion of wages, prices, piece and time rates of 
 wages, the effect of wages upon prices, budgets of 
 income, questions of skill and effic-.ency, waiting 
 time, hours and wages in small shops and appren- 
 ticeship. In short, the Commonwealth Court of 
 Arbitration is significant, less for the number of 
 disputes it handles than for their size and impor- 
 tance, and for its success in preventing strikes. No 
 investigation is entered upon by its President till 
 work has been resumed, and only once has the 
 decision of the Court been followed by a strike." — 
 Arbitration and wage-fixing in Australia (Rfseardi 
 report No. 10. Oct., 1Q18, pp. 37-38.) 
 
 1915. — Arbitration in New South Wales coal 
 strike. See L.abok strikes .\nd boycotts: 1015 
 
 1917-1918. — Act of 1918. — "The war introduced 
 political elements that were reflected in the state's 
 industrial history. The question of conscription dis- 
 rupted the Labor party and threw it out of office. 
 Its experienced leaders were expelled. Extremists 
 gained control, both of the unions and the Labor 
 political organization, and in .\ugust, 1017. precip- 
 itated a trial of strength with organized govern- 
 ment. The employees of the state-owned railways 
 of New South Wales struck against a method 
 adopted by the Railway Commissioners to obtain 
 a better accounting system in their workshops. The 
 unions issued an ultimatum demanding the with- 
 drawal of the method, .^s all the employees were 
 servants of the state, the Government of New 
 South Wales, like the Government of France in 
 1910, joined issue on the question of control of 
 public services. A sympathetic strike involved ulti- 
 mately 76,000 persons, with a loss in wages esti- 
 mated at £1,700,000 (approximately ?S,5oo,ooo). 
 .\s the matter was one of principle, no measures of 
 conciliation were attempted till the strikers seemed 
 beaten. Aften ten weeks matters were adjusted. 
 The penal provisions of the ."Vet were set in motion 
 against striking unions. The result was such altered 
 conditions of industrial organization as to demand 
 important amendments to the Act. In February, 
 1Q18, Mr. G. S. Beeby, author of the Act of igi2, 
 introduced an amending bill which, after many 
 alterations in the legislative process, became law 
 on March 22, igi8. This measure is the most sig- 
 nificant worked out in the Australian laboratory of 
 social experimentation. Its chief provisions relate 
 to the distinction made between legal and illegal 
 strikes, the conditions under which strikes may be 
 legal, more extended machinery for conciliation, and 
 provisions for a more scientific calculation of the 
 minimum and living wage. This historical sum- 
 mary shows that without any alteration in princi- 
 ple, arbitration in New South Wales has increased 
 in complexity and extended in scope. The process 
 through which it has passed has been one of ex- 
 periment and amendment. From the very begin- 
 ning it has had the definite aim of fixing a living 
 wage and thereby minimizing industrial conflict. 
 But in the process there has been a change of atti- 
 tude toward strikes. It must be remembered that 
 arbitration is an alternative to the strike as a 
 method of industrial agreement, \ svstem of arbi- 
 tration, therefore, calls for measures to reduce or 
 prevent strikes. From 1901 to 1910 the adminis- 
 
 414 
 
 trative policy was definitely to penalize striking by 
 characterizing it as a misdemeanor, punishable with 
 line and imprisonment. From igic onwards a 
 large measure of conciliation was added to the 
 arbitration machinery, and striking was made 'an 
 extravagant proceeding,' which might involve the 
 offender in penalties and the attachment of his 
 wages. In igiS a more definite and extended sys- 
 tem of conciliation was adopted, to minimize the 
 number of trivial and resultless strikes, which in- 
 volved little that could be subjected to arbitration. 
 .\t the same time a distinction was made between 
 legal and illegal strikes. Strikes are declared illegal 
 in any industry under governmtnt or municipal 
 control, or under an industrial award or agreement, 
 or in case fourteen clear days notice had not been 
 given of the intention to strike. Illegal strikes arc 
 to be heavily penalized, penalties are specified 
 against the union, the individual strikers, and any 
 one encouraging them by word or act. A union 
 may, however, strike legally, but only after at 
 least twelve months trial of an award; further, a 
 secret ballot, in which two-thirds of its members 
 lake part must be held in all cases. The .^ct of 
 1018, therefore, while recognizing the right to strike 
 under certain conditions, nevertheless sharply limits 
 that right and lays far greater stress on the prin- 
 ciple of arbitration." — Ibid., pp. 20-21. 
 
 .Also in: H. B. Higgins, New province for law 
 and order (3 articles), {Harvard Law Review, No- 
 vember, igis; January, igig; December, 1920). 
 
 BELGIUM 
 
 1917-1918. — "Trade unions of employees of pub- 
 lic utilities are permitted under Government super- 
 vision. Employees may present grievances or re- 
 quests to the minister of railways, posts and tele- 
 graph through official channels. Strikes and lock- 
 outs prohibited on railroads and in all forms of th,- 
 public service (railway, postal, telegraph, and tele- 
 phone service, all of which are under state control) . 
 . . . There has been no serious strike on Belgian 
 railroads since their establishment. This is due to 
 the fact that positions on the railways are much 
 sought after because of stability of employment, 
 pensions, and on account of the prestige of being 
 in the Government service." — .American Labor Year 
 Book, igi7-igiS, pp. i3g-i40. 
 
 CANADA 
 
 1900-1918. — Industrial Disputes Investigation 
 Act. — Its predecessors. — Its successes. — Opposi- 
 tion to it. — "The Canadian Industrial Disputes 
 Investigation Act of 1907 is an outgrowth from, 
 and the result of experience under, earlier legisla- 
 tion. Two such earlier laws are of particular im- 
 portance. One of these, the Conciliation Act of 
 I goo, followed in a general way certain usages 
 long in operation, first as custom, and later as law, 
 in the coal-mining districts of England. That -Act 
 created a Department of Labour and provided a 
 machinery for mediation or arbitration, but its 
 use was left to voluntary action of the parties to 
 a dispute. This .Act had been supplemented to 
 some extent by the Railway Disputes .Act of 1003, 
 which gave to the Minister of Labour a limited 
 power of compulsion with respect to establishment 
 of conciliation boards in labor disputes between 
 railroad companies and their employees. Where 
 such a dispute arose, a Board of Conciliation could 
 be appointed by the Minister of Labour on the 
 request of either of the parties, without consent 
 of the other. These two Acts were consolidated,
 
 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL 
 
 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL 
 
 forming the Conciliation and Labour Act of 1906, 
 and are still [igiS] operative. In igo6 a bitter 
 and prolonged strike closed the coal mines of Leth- 
 bridge, Alberta. The Deputy Minister of Labour, 
 Hon. W. L. Mackenzie King, succeeded in bringing 
 about a settlement, but not until much public 
 hardship had developed. The failure of the exist- 
 ing Conciliation Act to prevent this strike revealed 
 the need of further legislation, and the Industrial 
 Disputes Investigation Act of 1907 was a direct 
 result of the sentiment thus aroused. The Cana- 
 dian Industrial Disputes Investigation Act of 1907 
 applies specifically only to transportation com- 
 panies, other public utilities and mines, but may 
 also be invoked for settlement of disputes in other 
 industries on application of both parties to a dis- 
 pute, that is, by mutual consent. Since the be- 
 ginning of the war, industries supplying war ma- 
 terials have been brought under the action of the 
 provisions previously applying only to transporta- 
 tion companies, other public utilities and mines. 
 On application in due form by either party, the 
 Minister of Labour appoints a Board of Reference 
 consisting of one nominee of each party and a 
 chairman selected by the two. No person having 
 a direct pecuniary interest in the dispute may be 
 appointed. To prevent a deadlock, in case all 
 other provisions of the Act governing applications 
 for a Board have been complied with, but where 
 either or both of the parties fail to agree on nomi- 
 nations, the Minister of Labour may both select 
 and appoint a Board. The Board fully investigates 
 the dispute and no strike or lockout may legally 
 occur before or during such investigation. Boards 
 are given power to summon witnesses, administer 
 oaths, and to compel witnesses to testify and pro- 
 duce books and other evidence in the same manner 
 as courts of record in civil cases. If settlement 
 of a dispute is reached by the parties during the 
 course of its reference to a Board, a brief memo- 
 randum drawn up by the Board and signed by 
 the parties is filed with the Minister of Labour. 
 If settlement is not arrived at during the refer- 
 ence, the Board is required to make a full written 
 report to the Minister of Labour, setting forth the 
 details of its investigation and its recommendation 
 for settlement of the dispute. The report is filed 
 in the office of the Registrar and copies are sent 
 free of charge to the parties and to any news- 
 papers in Canada which apply for them. The 
 Minister may also distribute copies in such manner 
 as he considers desirable, as a means of securing 
 compliance with the Board's recommendation. In 
 addition to this, for the information of Parliament 
 and the public, a copy of the report must be pub- 
 lished without delay in the Labour Gazette, and 
 be included in the annual report of the Depart- 
 ment of Labour to the Governor General. It can- 
 not be too strongly emphasized that the Act of 
 1907 is not a compulsory arbitration law. While 
 the Act undertook to carry the element of compul- 
 sion a step further, it did not alter the principle 
 of voluntary adjustment on which the old law 
 was founded. In pursuit of this aim, and to avoid 
 difficulties involved in compulsory arbitration, the 
 machinery was changed to consist of Boards of 
 Conciliation and Investigation and, although it was 
 the duty of these Boards to do all in their power 
 to affect conciliations, and to offer recommenda- 
 tions of settlement, compulsijn was restricted to 
 their investigatory function. Compliance with the 
 recommendations of the Reference Boards is op- 
 tional ; the weight of public opinion is relied on to 
 make settlements effective. . . . The only provision 
 giving mandatoi-y power to the finding of a Board 
 is that if, at any time before or after a Board 
 
 has made its report and recommendation, both 
 parties to the dispute agree in writing to be bound 
 by the recommendation of the Board in the same 
 manner as parties are bound in the case of a ref- 
 erence to arbitration on the order of a court of 
 record, the recommendation shall be made a rule 
 of the court on application of either party, and 
 shall be enforceable in like manner. Canadian 
 courts, however, have hesitated to regard such an 
 agreement as constituting a rule of court. . . . The 
 commonly accepted statement that the Act was 
 based on Australian labor legislation is historically 
 incorrect, and tends to give a mistaken conception 
 of the nature of the Act. Indeed, this statement 
 has not been without influence in the development 
 of a hostile attitude toward the Canadian Act, 
 which, unlike the Australian legislation, as far as 
 possible avoids compulsion, and instead is frankly 
 based on an appeal to the power of public opinion. 
 . . . The Minister of Labour, who is responsible 
 for the administration of the Act, thus far has 
 taken the stand that the penalty provided for 
 strikes or lockouts prior to investigations will be 
 imposed only where prosecution is initiated by 
 one or the other of the disputants, and although 
 there have been many 'illegal' strikes since the Act 
 became effective, the penally seldom has been im- 
 posed. This fact has led to the rather hasty as- 
 sumption in the United States that the compul- 
 sory feature is a failure in Canada. . . . While this 
 is to some extent true, it fails correctly to reflect 
 the spirit and intention of the Canadian Act, which 
 should be interpreted in the light of its original 
 purpose. Hon. W. L. Mackenzie King has said: 
 'The Government has never laid particular stress 
 on the penalty end of it. The penalty part . . . 
 has always been treated much in the same light as 
 penalty for trespass.' ... A procedure which ap- 
 pears to be responsible for much of the opposition 
 to the Act on the part of organized labor in Can- 
 ada is the use made of the discretion which it al- 
 lows to the Minister of Labour to grant or refuse 
 Boards of Investigation. Boards have been refused 
 in a number of cases where the workers felt that 
 they had a real grievance. Thus, in strikes involv- 
 ing several employers or several unions where these 
 employers or unions could not agree on a single 
 representative, the Minister of Labour has de- 
 clined to appoint a Board. A strike involving 
 many companies is regarded by the Minister of 
 Labour as a separate dispute for each company 
 and, where the various interests agree on a single 
 nomination, although one Board is appointed to 
 investigate the whole trouble, it is legally consid- 
 ered that there are as many separate Boards as 
 there are independent employers. . . . The opera- 
 tion of the Act has shown that the opinion of the 
 chairman usually controls the finding of the Board. 
 This arises naturally from the fact that employers 
 and employees each select a representative favor- 
 able to their respective cause, and it has gradually 
 come to pass that, in almost all cases, these two 
 members of the Board disagree and' the decision 
 rests with the chairman. It has even been sug- 
 gested on this account that, in the case of im- 
 portant disputes involving large public issues, the 
 position of the chairman be strengthened by ap- 
 pointment by the Minister of Labour of three out- 
 side representatives. It is believed that decisions 
 of a Board so constituted would inspire greater 
 public confidence. . . . The operation of the Act 
 has further developed the fact that Boards are most 
 successful when least formal, and particularly 
 when least legalistic in their attitude and proce- 
 dure. Boards of which prominent jurists have been 
 chairmen have notably failed. The difficulty of 
 
 415
 
 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL 
 
 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL 
 
 securing acceptable chairmen is very great. . . . Yet 
 another source of difficulty arising through the 
 operation of the Act and not directly from its pro- 
 visions, but apparently contrary to them, is the 
 delay which may occur in the appointment of a 
 Board. . . . For the nine-year period endin? March 
 31, 1Q16, igi applications for Boards have been 
 made, and i6q have been established. Of this 
 number only 60 were established within the 15 
 days. In 14 cases, between 46 and 61 days elapsed 
 between the application and the establishment of 
 the Board; in 21 cases, between 31 and 46 days; 
 in 66 cases, between 16 and 31 days. . . . The 
 Act also states that employers or employees shall 
 give at least thirty days' notice of an intended 
 change affecting conditions of employment with 
 respect to wages or hours, and provides a penalty 
 for disregard of this provision. ... In spite of 
 this provision no complaint among workmen is 
 more common than that wages and hours are 
 changed without notice, and are followed by de- 
 lays in appointment of Boards. ... In the first 
 year of the operation of the Act only three appli- 
 cations for Boards were refused, in the second 
 year two, in the third year one, in the fourth year 
 five, in the fifth year five. ... In the fourth and 
 fifth years there were four failures each year to 
 avert or end a strike after a Board had been ap- 
 pointed. ... In 889<' of the disputes referred to 
 Boards, strikes or lockouts were averted or ended. 
 If the number of applications refused is added to 
 the number of cases in which strikes or lockouts 
 were not prevented, as also indicating failure on 
 the part of the Act to meet the situation, the per- 
 centage of successful conciliations is reduced to 
 78%. . . . For the first two years of the operation 
 of the Act but little opposition appeared; but from 
 that time to the present, hostility among organ- 
 ized labor unions has steadily increased. This op- 
 position is most outspoken on the part of the in- 
 ternational labor organizations. . . . The rank and 
 file of Canadian labor express little opposition to 
 the principles of the Act, although some modifica- 
 tions are desired; the official attitude of the in- 
 ternational labor organizations in Canada, how- 
 ever, is increasingly hostile. ... It is difficult to 
 escape the conclusion that, whether or not the 
 penalties of the Act are enforceable against work- 
 ers, the very existence of the Act and the manner 
 of its administration is felt by them to hamper the 
 operations of the union, and particularly to limit 
 use of the strike to enforce demands. This conclu- 
 sion is strengthened by the fact that, of the recom- 
 mendations of Boards since the enactment of the 
 Act, Q0% favored the employees and granted a 
 major part of their demands. Also, more than 
 qo% of the Boards have been instituted on ap- 
 plication of employees. It is not, therefore, dis- 
 satisfaction in general with the recommendations 
 of the Boards that can account for organized 
 labor's opposition. This must arise from the gen- 
 eral ojieration of the Act and the effect of its con- 
 tinued existence on the statute books, which de- 
 prives striking employees who have not applied 
 for a Board of Investigation, of the moral support 
 of the community. But perhaps the fundamental 
 reason for this opposition, not to speak of possible 
 antipathy to certain officials, is the fact that the 
 settlement of disputes apart from the manipula- 
 tion of the union leaders, tends to weaken their 
 hold on the rank and file, and their relative im- 
 portance in gaining concessions for their followers." 
 — National Industrial Conference Board, Canadian 
 Industrial Disputes Investigation Act (Research 
 report No. 5, pp. 3-6, 8-q, 11-14, 16, 17, 18, 
 19-20. 
 
 DENMARK 
 
 1910-1918. — By a law passed in loio provision is 
 made for the appointment of a permanent arbitra- 
 tion court of six members selected from organiza- 
 tion of employers and employees with a president 
 and vice-president with qualifications of an ordi- 
 nary judge. It is the duty of this court to make 
 the parties to a dispute respect any agreement be- 
 tween them. A government conciliator is appointed 
 for two years. Whenever a strike or lockout is im- 
 pending (public notice being compulsory) it is his 
 duty to intervene and attempt to effect a settle- 
 ment. Strikes or lockouts are prohibited in cases 
 where court awards or trade agreements are broken. 
 In cases where no trade agreements exist, a strike 
 is legal, but public notice must be given before it 
 is started." — American Labor Year Book, 1917-1918, 
 pp. 140-141. 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 1806-1909. — Conseils des prud'hommes. — Arbi- 
 tration council.— "Industrial arbitration and con- 
 ciliation in France dates practically from the crea- 
 tion of the councils of experts {Conseils des Prud'- 
 hommes) by Napoleon I in 1806, after his return 
 from Elba. These councils were the successors to 
 the ancient corporative tribunals which had held 
 certain jurisdiction in the silk trade and which 
 were swept away when the trade guilds were abol- 
 ished in 1791. . . . Inhabitants of Lyons, center of 
 the silk industry, had been loyal to the first Na- 
 poleon and feted him on his return. Incidentally, 
 they took diplomatic adventage of his good feeling 
 toward them in 1806 to ask the restoration of the 
 corporative tribunals. The councils of experts 
 were created in response to this request. The 
 councils of experts originally were composed of 
 five employers and four foremen, while the guild 
 tribunal was composed entirely of manufacturers. 
 The councils of experts were established to settle 
 minor difficulties by conciliation, or, in the failure 
 of conciliation, to adjudicate formally any matter 
 involving less than sixty francs. The bureau of 
 conciliation, composed of one manufacturer and 
 one foreman, met once a day while the general 
 bureau of arbitration met once a week to decide 
 cases in which the bureau of conciliation had 
 failed. By 1804, fourteen French towns had es- 
 tablished councils of experts. In 1S94, there were 
 one hundred seventeen councils in France." — 
 C. H. Mote, Industrial arbitration, pp. 87-88. 
 — "The Conseils des prud'hommes . . . assumed 
 jurisdiction of individual disputes only. It was 
 not until the enactment of the conciliation 
 and arbitration law of 1802 that legal machinery 
 was created for the settlement of collective 
 disputes. Under the act of 1802, the initiative 
 may be taken by the parties themselves, or, in the 
 ca.se of actual strikes or lockouts, the initiative 
 may be taken by a justice of the peace. Both 
 parties may apply jointly for conciliation, or, if 
 only one applies, it is the duty of the justice of 
 the peace to notify the opposite party, who must 
 reply within three days. In the application for, 
 or acceptance of conciliation, each party must 
 name five persons to act as its representatives in 
 conciliation. If neither party applies for concilia- 
 tion, it is the duty of the justice of the peace to 
 request the parties to notify him of their willing- 
 ness or refusal to accept conciliation or arbitra- 
 tion. The justice of the peace is ex-officio chair- 
 man of the conciliation committee. Conciliation 
 failing, the justice of the peace must endeavor to 
 
 16
 
 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL 
 
 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL 
 
 obtain arbitration, each side to name an arbitrator 
 or both to agree on a common arbitrator. If ar- 
 bitrators can not agree, they may name an umpire, 
 and if they are unable to agree upon an umpire, 
 he is named by the president of the local tribunal. 
 Decisions must be in writing and the expenses of 
 hearings are borne by the Communes. Every 
 feature of the act is voluntary. Reports of con- 
 ciliat'on committees, arbitration boards and re- 
 quests for and refusal of conciliation or arbitration 
 arc to be made public." — Ibid., pp. loo-ioi. — By 
 an act of July 22, igoq, a permanent arbitration 
 council was created by the French government 
 with a view to investigating disputes between ship- 
 ping companies and their crews. The council has 
 headquarters in Paris. The council consists of 
 three members appointed for three years by decree 
 drawn up on the proposal of the keeper of seals, 
 minister of justice, and selected from among the 
 ordinary state councilors, also from the council- 
 ors of the Court of Cassation; also arbitrators se- 
 lected for three years by the employers, who shall 
 be present to the number of five at each arbitra- 
 tion ; also arbitrators elected for three years by 
 the employees, who shall be present to the num- 
 ber of five at each arbitration. The three mem- 
 bers from the State Council and Court of Cassa- 
 tion elect a president and vice-president and con- 
 stitute the central section of the Permanent Arbi- 
 tration Council. In each maritime district, the 
 ship owners elect five regular and five deputy ar- 
 bitrators. Each of four specified classes of em- 
 ployees in each maritime district elects five regular 
 and five deputy arbitrators. In detail the act sets 
 out how the council is made up for the settlement 
 of a collective dispute. The central section is al- 
 ways present. Detailed provisions are also set out 
 for the election of arbitrators and deputy arbitra- 
 tors every three years. When a collective dispute 
 arises, the parties may submit their controversy 
 to the Director of the Seamen's Register, or he 
 may take the initiative in an endeavor to concili- 
 ate the parties. Upon the failure of conciliation, 
 there is a roundabout process by which the ser- 
 vices of the arbitration council are offered the 
 parties. If they refuse arbitration, a certificate 
 to that effect is entered by the central section of 
 the council. If the parties agree to arbitration, 
 the court is convened. It has full power of in- 
 vestigation, hearing and of giving judgment, al- 
 though it does not appear that either party is 
 bound by the judgment. The judgment is pub- 
 lished. The public is not admitted to the council 
 meetings." — Ibid., pp. 112-113. 
 
 GERMANY 
 
 1890-1908. — Industrial courts. — "An act of 1890, 
 regulating industrial courts, was the first [German] 
 legislation recognizing the principle of collective 
 disputes and providing for collective bargaining. 
 These courts were empowered to act as concilia- 
 tion bureaus in disputes concerning the 'terms of 
 continuation or renewal of the labor contract,' but 
 only on condition that both parties requested ac- 
 tion, and, if they numbered more than three, ap- 
 pointed delegates to the hearing. Conciliation 
 bureaus consisted of the president of the court 
 and at least four members, two employers and two 
 workmen, but there might be added, and it was 
 compulsory when the delegates so requested, rep- 
 resentatives in equal number of employers and 
 employees. Representatives and miembers of the 
 bureau could not act if concerned in the dispute. 
 The bureau could hear and examine witnesses under 
 
 the act but could not compel their attendance. 
 After hearing, each side was required to formulate 
 its opinions of the allegations of the other side, 
 whereupon an effort at conciliation was to be made. 
 Failing in this, a decision followed and the dele- 
 gates were required to declare within a specified 
 time their acceptance or rejection of the award. 
 At the expiration of this time the decision was 
 published. In some cases, the president of these 
 courts intervened informally with conspicuous suc- 
 cess, but in three years, i8gg, 1900 and 1901, there 
 were nearly four thousand strikes, one hundred 
 thirty-two only having been settled by the in- 
 dustrial courts. The German law of 1890 was 
 quite successful in the settlement of individual 
 disputes but not successful in the settlement of 
 collective disputes. The act of iqoi took the ap- 
 pointment of arbitrators out of the hands of the 
 president and lodged it with the parties concerned 
 in a controversy. Not only regular assessors of the 
 court may be chosen but any other persons in 
 whom the parties have confidence. The new act 
 made the appearance of parties to a dispute com- 
 pulsory in the event one or both parties call upon 
 the court to act as a board of arbitration. When 
 both parties ask for arbitration, the court is con- 
 stituted as a formal board of arbitration. If only 
 one side applies, it is the president's duty to at- 
 tempt to obtain the cooperation of the other party. 
 If successful, the board is constituted for the pur- 
 pose of conciliation. If neither party applies for 
 arbitration, it is the president's duty to urge the 
 arbitration of the controversy. This provision per- 
 mits the court to intervene with a view to settling 
 threatened strikes and lockouts. There is nothing 
 novel in the proceedings before an industrial court 
 sitting as a board of arbitration. Failure to ap- 
 pear before the court in answer to a summons of 
 the president is punishable by a fine. Decisions 
 are given by a majority but the president may ab- 
 stain from voting if there is a tie. The acceptance 
 of the decision is not compulsory and a failure to 
 declare whether the decision is accepted is con- 
 strued as a refusal. An award is binding, however, 
 if both parties have previously agreed to such an 
 award. The Berlin court, between 1902 and iqo8, 
 was appealed to by both sides in one hundred 
 sixty-four cases and by one side in sixty instances. 
 Most of the applications from one side are from 
 the workers. Out of one hundred forty applica- 
 tions for arbitration in the empire in 1908, one 
 hundred thirty-four were from workmen while 
 only six came from the employers. Out of one 
 thousand two hundred sixty disputes submitted by 
 both parties in the empire between 1902 and 
 1908, nine hundred eight were settled cither by 
 agreement or awards acceptable to both parties. 
 In seventy-six cases the board failed to reach a 
 decision. Mercantile courts for the settlement of 
 disputes between merchants and their employees 
 were established in 1904. For the settlement of 
 individual disputes, the German industrial courts 
 are composed of at least four assessors and a presi- 
 dent and vice-president. The latter must belong 
 to neither side of the controversy. . . . Industrial 
 courts operate not only for the conciliation or legal 
 decision of individual disputes and the concilia- 
 tion and arbitration of collective disputes, but 
 for the guidance of public opinion and of public 
 officials and legislative bodies in matters where 
 expert advice is needed. The jurisdiction of in- 
 dustrial courts in individual disputes is limited by 
 the arbitration courts of the guilds, organized 
 quite like the industrial courts, or by legal statute, 
 but generally extending over all industrial occupa- 
 tions Special courts exist for special industries: 
 
 417
 
 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL 
 
 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL 
 
 Even after a court is organized for hearing in an 
 individual dispute or a collective dispute, it is 
 charged with the duty of attempting conciliation 
 at any time before a decision is given, if concilia- 
 tion seems feasible. Hearings generally are public, 
 though they may be private. The decisions of the 
 court in individual disputes are determined by a 
 majority vote." — Ibid., pp. 73-77. 
 
 1915-1919. — Creation of a labor department. — 
 "By an imperial decree of October 4, loiS, pub- 
 lished in the Beichsgesetzblatt, matters relating to 
 social policy administered hitherto by the Imperial 
 Economic Office {Beichswirtschajtiamt) , are hence- 
 forth to be within the province of a special central 
 authority, entitled the Imperial Labor Department 
 (Beichsarbeitsamt) . The decree orders the impe- 
 rial chancellor to arrange for the transfer of func- 
 tions and officials from the Imperial Economic Of- 
 fice to the new department. . . . 
 
 "Two tasks confront organized labor at the pres- 
 ent time: .A chamber of labor law corresponding 
 to their demands and the statutory regulation of 
 employment exchanges in agreement with the pro- 
 posals unanimously adopted by the Reichstag in 
 the spring of 1015, but hitherto neglected. A con- 
 ference of the combined associations of workmen, 
 minor oflicials, and salaried employees had been 
 called for the end of October, but it has been 
 abandoned, as it is expected that the new labor de- 
 partment will itself submit legislative proposals 
 satisfactjjry to the wage workers. A third task is 
 the reform of the right of coalition; with this is 
 connected the giving of a legal status to collective 
 agreements and the extension of the conciliation 
 principle to an imperial conciliation office " — Labor 
 bureau (Labor Review, January, loio). 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN 
 
 1562-1896. — Preliminary legislation. — "Provi- 
 sions for the settlement of individual disputes be- 
 tween master and workmen were common in 
 English laws as far back as the middle of the six- 
 teenth century. Beginning with the Statute of 
 .Apprentices in 1562 and ending with a special act 
 of Parliament in 1747, these laws simply referred 
 all disputes between employer and employee to the 
 local magistrate for adjudication. Reference of 
 disputes was compulsory on the request of either 
 party and decisions likewise were binding upon 
 both parties and enforceable by proceedings of dis- 
 tress and sale or imprisonment. . . . With the rise 
 of the industrial state and especially the cotton in- 
 dustry in England, disputes between employer 
 and employee multiplied. . . . The local magis- 
 trates were notoriously under the influence of the 
 employers, and justice was arbitrarily distorted 
 to the prejudice of the working classes. A jus- 
 tice of the peace was wholly unfit to act as media- 
 tor between employer and employee, because he 
 was always a party in interest. ... In the midst 
 of England's industrial revolution the English Par- 
 liament passed a series of four acts, in 1800, 1803, 
 1805 and 1813 applying to England, Scotland and 
 Ireland, and designed to regulate the relations be- 
 tween master and workmen A notable departure 
 from the earlier forms of this legislation was made. 
 Substantially the acts provided for the appoint- 
 ment of two arbitrators, one by the employers 
 and one by the employees, from nominations made 
 by the local justice of the peace. These laws ap- 
 plied only to the cotton trade Like the former 
 acts they made reference of disputes compulsory 
 and decisions binding. The act of 1824, which 
 consolidated the three acts then in force, extended 
 
 the operation of the principle of concihation and 
 arbitration, as defined by law, to all trades. To 
 insure the maintenance of the freedom of contract 
 between employer and employee, first secured by 
 the repeal of the Statute of .Apprentices in 1814, 
 mutual consent of master and workmen was made 
 necessary as a condition precedent to the fixing 
 by local magistrates of rate of wages or price 
 of labor or workmanship. This clause abolished 
 the compulsory features of earlier legislation on the 
 subject and is noteworthy only for this reason. 
 The consolidation act of 1824 remained in force 
 until i8q6. . . . The act of 1824 was amended in 
 1S37 to provide for compulsory arbitration be- 
 tween employers and workmen, upon the appli- 
 cation of either party. The local magistrate was 
 empowered to nominate four or six arbitrators, 
 half workmen and half masters. In the event of 
 the arbitrators' failure to agree, it was provided 
 that the case should be referred to the appointing 
 magistrate. Subjects for arbitration included price 
 for work done, hours of labor, injury or damage 
 to work, delay in completing work or bad ma- 
 terial. The act provided that in emergencies, the 
 justice of the peace might grant a summary hear- 
 ing. Mutual consent was a condition precedent to 
 the fixing of future rates of wages and standards 
 of workmanship. The awards of the boards could 
 be enforced by distress or imprisonment. This act 
 was intended mainly for the textile industries. The 
 council of conciliation act, drawn from the French 
 system, was passed in 1867. It made it possible for 
 any number of employers and workmen to agree 
 to create a council of conciliation and arbitration 
 and receive a license from the government with 
 all the powers of the boards under the act of 1824. 
 Fixing wages was expressly forbidden. Disputes, 
 before reaching the council, must have been re- 
 ferred first to the 'committee on conciliation,' con- 
 sisting of one master and one workman. .Although 
 this act remained in force until i8q6, it was never 
 more than a dead letter, no application for license 
 ever having been made under it. The only definite 
 answer offered in explanation of the failure of this 
 act, according to Leonard W. Hatch, in referring 
 to the later debates in Parliament, is that the act 
 was too inelastic, laying down too many hard and 
 fast rules as to the constitution and procedure of 
 the councils, so that no latitude was left to em- 
 ployers and workmen who might desire to form 
 them. The act provided for little more than 
 conciliation committees for collective disputes. 
 But this feature of the act is noteworthy for the 
 reason that it is the first instance of legal recog- 
 nition in England of collective disputes and con- 
 sequently of collective bargaining between em- 
 ployer and employee. Councils were empowered 
 to take cognizance of disputes involving one or 
 more workmen. In 1872 Parliament passed the 
 masters and workmen act. It provided that mas- 
 ters and workmen might contract as to terms of 
 employment and bind both parties to submit their 
 disputes to arbitration. It. however, offered no in- 
 ducement to the parties to enter into contracts 
 and permitted either party to withdraw from such 
 contracts after a brief notice to the other party 
 .Although penalties could be provided for under the 
 contracts, no provision was made to enforce them. 
 This act was in force until 1806, but no practical 
 results ever came of it. Private boards of concili- 
 ation were established in England as early as 1856, 
 and private voluntary boards were common in 
 England at the time of the passage of the council 
 of conciliation act in 1867 Trade boards of con- 
 ciliation and arbitration, made up of an equal 
 number each of employers and workmen, were 
 
 :l8
 
 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL 
 
 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL 
 
 quite successful in averting trouble in the iron 
 and steel industry in England. Joint committees 
 of conciliation and arbitration similar to the trade 
 boards but with less machinery and jurisdiction 
 in particular establishments also made notable 
 progress toward friendly relations between em- 
 ployer and employee. District boards of concilia- 
 tion and arbitration had general jurisdiction over 
 a variety of employments. The first permanent 
 and successful board of conciliation was organized 
 in iSoo in the hosiery and glass trade at Notting- 
 ham, England, by A. J. Mundella. Modern con- 
 ciliation and arbitration in England dates from the 
 dock laborers' strike in iS8q. The movement for 
 industrial peace following that strike was begun 
 by Sir Samuel Boulton." — C. H. Mote, Indtts- 
 trial arbitration, pp. 23-25, 32, 34-38. 
 
 1850. — Rate war of railroads in England. — 
 Gladstone's arbitration. — Octuple agreement. 
 See Railroads: 1759-18S1. 
 
 1889-1920. — Modern legislation. — "The Arbi- 
 bilration Act [of] i88q is not to apply to the set- 
 tlement by arbitration of such differences or dis- 
 putes, but the proceedings are to be conducted in 
 accordance with such of the provisions of that 
 Act, or such of the regulations of any Conciliation 
 Board, or under such other rules and regulations, 
 as may be mutually agreed upon by the parties to 
 the difference or dispute. The Act contains a fur- 
 ther provision (sect. 4) enabling the Board of Trade 
 (now the Minister of Labour), if it appears to 
 it that in any district or trade adequate means do 
 not exist for having disputes submitted to a Con- 
 ciliation Board for the district or trade, to ap- 
 point any person or persons to inquire into the 
 conditions of the district or trade, and to confer 
 with employers and employed, and if the Board 
 of Trade (now the Minister of Labour) thinks 
 iit, with any local authority or body, as to the 
 expediency of establishing a Conciliation Board 
 for the district or trade. These are the main 
 provisions of the Act, and it will be seen that 
 they furnish the means of (i) conciliation, (2) ar- 
 bitration on the application of the parties to the 
 dispute, and (3) without any application by them, 
 inquiry into the causes and circumstances of a dif- 
 ference. The Act was supplemented, however, on 
 the ist September, iqo8, by certain very impor- 
 tant administrative provisions. These had no statu- 
 tory force or authority, but they came into prac- 
 tical operation, having continued since, and their 
 principle was embodied in the Munitions of War 
 Act, lOiS, and the subsequent legislation, as will 
 be seen presently. The Conciliation Act, i8q6, 
 only provided for one arbitration tribunal, that is 
 to say, 'an arbitrator.' The administrative pro- 
 vision added a Court of Arbitration composed 
 of representatives of employers and workers re- 
 spectively, chosen from panels, with an indepen- 
 dent Chairman, also taken from a panel. The 
 administrative provisions were in the form of a 
 Memorandum, communicated to Chambers of Com- 
 merce and Employers' and Workmen's .Associations, 
 and were published in the Board of Trade Labour 
 Gazette for September, iqcS. The Memorandum 
 was as follows: '(t) Under the Conciliation Act 
 of 1806 the Board of Trade has power to appoint 
 a Conciliator in trade disputes and an .Arbitrator at 
 the request of both parties. These slender means 
 of intervention have been employed in cases 
 where opportunity has offered, and the work of the 
 Department in this sphere has considerably in- 
 creased of recent years. In igo; the Board of 
 Trade intervened in 14 disputes and settled them 
 all; in 1Q06 they intervened in 20 cases and settled 
 16; in TQcy they intervened in 39 cases and settled 
 
 32 ; while during the first eight months of the 
 present year [1908] no fewer than 47 cases of in- 
 tervention have occurred, of which 35 have been 
 already settled, while some of the remainder are 
 still being dealt with. (2) It is not proposed to 
 curtail or replace any of the existing functions or 
 practices under the Conciliation Act, nor in any 
 respect to depart from its voluntary and per- 
 missive character. The good offices of the De- 
 partment will still be available to all in industrial 
 circles for the settlement of disputes whenever 
 opportunity otfers; single Arbitrators and Concilia- 
 tors will still be undertaken in special cases, and 
 no element of compulsion will enter into any of 
 these proceedings. But the time has now arrived 
 when the scale of these operations deserves, and 
 indeed requires, the creation of some more formal 
 and permanent machinery ; and, with a view to 
 consolidating, expanding and popularising the 
 working of the Conciliation Act, I propose to set 
 up a Standing Court of Arbitration. (3) The 
 Court, which will sit wherever required, will be 
 composed of three (or five) members, according 
 to the wishes Of the parties, with fees and ex- 
 penses to members of the Court, and to the Chair- 
 man during sittings. The Court will be nominated 
 by the Board of Trade from three panels. The 
 first panel — of chairmen — will comprise persons 
 of eminence and impartiality. The second 
 will be formed of persons who, while pre- 
 serving an impartial mind in regard to the particu- 
 lar dispute, are nevertheless drawn from the "em- 
 ployer class." The third panel will be formed of 
 persons similarly drawn from the class of work- 
 men and Trade Unionists. . . . Lastly, in order 
 that the peculiar conditions of any trade may be 
 fully explained to the Court, technical assessors 
 may be appointed by the Board of Trade at the 
 request of the Court or of the parties to assist in 
 the deliberations, but without any right to vote. 
 (4) The state of public opinion upon the general 
 question of Arbitration in Trade Disputes may be 
 very conveniently tested by such a voluntary ar- 
 rangement. Careful inquiry through various chan- 
 nels open to the Board of Trade justifies the ex- 
 pectation that the plan would not be unwelcome in 
 industrial circles. The Court will only be called 
 into being if, and in proportion as, it is actually 
 wanted. No fresh legislation is necessary. (5) 
 Steps will now be taken to form the respective 
 panels.' 
 
 "The Munitions of War Act, iqi5, in providing 
 for the compulsory settlement of differences as to 
 rates of wages, hours of work, or otherwise as to 
 terms or conditions of, or affecting, employment on 
 the manufacture or repair of munitions of war, 
 provided three alternative forms of arbitrative 
 tribunals (Schedule I. to Munitions of War Act, 
 IQ15): — (a) The Committee on Production; (()) 
 A single arbitrator to be agreed upon by the par- 
 ties, or in default of agreement appointed by the 
 Board of Trade (afterwards the Minister of La- 
 bour) ; or (f) A Court of Arbitration consisting 
 of an equal number of persons representing em- 
 ployers, and persons representing workmen, with 
 a chairman appointed by the Board of Trade (af- 
 terwards the Minister of Labour). The tribunal 
 to which the reference was made was to be de- 
 termined by agreement between the parties to the 
 difference, or in default of agreement by the Board 
 of Trade (afterwards Minister of Labour), and the 
 Arbitration .Act, 1880, was not to apply to such 
 references. ... On the conclusion of the armistice 
 an .Act was passed, shortly entitled 'The Wages 
 (Temporary Regulation) Act, iqiq' fiQi8?l. The 
 principal object of this Act, the full title of which 
 
 419
 
 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL 
 
 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL 
 
 was 'An Act for prescribing Minimum Rates of 
 Wages during a limited period and for repealing 
 certain provisions of the Munitions of War Acts',' 
 and which was to be in force for six months only 
 (afterwards extended for a further period of six 
 months, to expire on the 21st November, igiS 
 [loig?], was the stabilisation of wages during the 
 abnormal conditions still prevailing on account of 
 the war and which were expected to continue to 
 prevail for a time. ... On the 21st November the 
 provisions of the Wages (Temporary Regulation) 
 Act, 1918, as extended for six months, were due 
 to come to an end. As a result all provisions for 
 enforcing the payment of a prescribed or substi- 
 tuted rate of wages would then cease, and the 
 Interim Court of Arbitration would determine. It 
 was under these circumstances that the Industrial 
 Courts Bill was introduced shortly before the 21st 
 November, loiq. ... Its objects may be sum- 
 marised as (i) continuation of the stabilisation of 
 wages until the 30th September, 1020; (2) pro- 
 vision of a standing Court for the settlement of 
 industrial disputes; and (3) a provision for ju- 
 dicial inquiry and report into the causes and cir- 
 cumstances of apprehended or existing trade dis- 
 putes. It was preservative for a limited period of 
 some of the provisions of the Wages (Temporary 
 Regulation) Act, iqi8, creative concurrently with 
 the Conciliation Act, 1806, of Courts and tribunals 
 of arbitration, and further developed in this 
 country [England] the machinery of Courts of 
 Inquiry and Investi;ation. ... By way of sum- 
 mary . . . conciliation is under the provisions of 
 the acts of 1806 and igig . . .; or under agree- 
 ments between Federations or Associations of em- 
 ployers or workers ; or under the National Indus- 
 trial Councils which have been established in some 
 industries. According to the Labour Gazette of 
 December, iqig, there were at the end of igig 
 fifty-one National Industrial Councils, the num- 
 ber formed during igig being thirty-one. Although 
 these cover a number of industries and workers, 
 yet they are very far short of [being] exhaustive 
 of the- various industries of the country, and a 
 large margin is therefore left for procedure under 
 the above Acts. . . . Arbitrations are now [ig2o] 
 either under — (i) The Conciliation Act, 1896; or 
 (2) The Industrial Courts Act, iqig. Under (i) all 
 that is required is the application of the parties to 
 the dispute for either a hearing before a single ar- 
 bitrator, or before a Court of Arbitration ... as- 
 suming that the provisions of the administrative 
 Memorandum [of September, igo8] ... are still in 
 continuance. Under (2), assuming that there do not 
 exist in the particular trade or industry concerned 
 arrangements for settlement made in pursuance of 
 an agreement between organizations of employers 
 and organizations of workmen representative respec- 
 tively of substantial proportions of the employers 
 and workmen engaged in that industry, the Min- 
 ister may at once, with the consent of the parties, 
 refer the matter for settlement either to the In- 
 dustrial Court or to the arbitration of one or more 
 persons appointed by him, or refer the matter to 
 a Board of Arbitration as set out in . . . the In- 
 dustrial Courts Act, igig. . . . Whether the matter 
 has been referred for settlement under the Con- 
 ciliation .\ct or under the Industrial Courts .'Vet, 
 the settlements or awards made are not compul- 
 sory on the parties."— W. H. Stoker, Industrial 
 courts aft, igig, and conciliation and arbitra- 
 tion in industrial disputes, pp. B-VC, 23-24.— 
 See also Whitley cottxcils: Organization and 
 method. 
 
 1915. — Arbitration in Clyde shipyard strike. 
 See Labor strikes and boycotts: igis. 
 
 HOLLAND 
 
 1903-1918. — "Delegates are selected from differ- 
 ent groups of railway employees who are authorized 
 to present the wishes and complaints of railway 
 workers before the managers. .Arbitration boards 
 have been established for the enforcement of pen- 
 alties imposed because of infractions of working 
 rules and conditions. Strikes in railway service are 
 prohibited. . . . Legislation prohibiting strikes was 
 the outcome of a general strike in the Dutch railway 
 service in igo3." — .imerican Labor Year Book, 
 igi7-igi8, p. 142. 
 
 ITALY 
 
 1917-1920.— Effect of World War. — National 
 Council of Labor instituted. — "The legislation re- 
 lating to labour disputes ... in force in 1918, 
 could not be called complete. . . . The principle of 
 state intervention for the amicable solution of la- 
 bour conflicts had not, before the outbreak of the 
 war, been applied to agriculture, except in isolated 
 cases. The state of public opinion, and the peculiar 
 industrial conditions which arose during the war 
 ... led the Government to enact measures similar 
 to those adopted in industry. The Decrees of 6 May 
 igi7 which codified several Decrees, including those 
 of 30 May igi6 and 2 November igi6, established 
 in every judicial district a district arbitration com- 
 mittee . . . empowered to intervene in disputes re- 
 lating to the prolongation of agrarian contracts, 
 and to the supply of horses, cattle, etc.; further, at 
 the request of one or both of the parties or of the 
 Prefect, in disputes relating to labour and wage 
 agreements and general collective disputes concern- 
 ing agricultural work in any way. . . . The concil- 
 iation settlement had the force of an agreement be- 
 tween the parties, who might also authorise the 
 committee to decide the dispute, acting as arbi- 
 trators with power to effect an amicable settlement. 
 . . . The system . . . was considerably altered by 
 the Decree of 14 September iqig. . . . These com- 
 mittees are presided over by a member of the trib- 
 unal and arc constituted of four members, two 
 landowners or large tenant farmers and two work- 
 ers, appointed by their respective organisations, or, 
 failing this, by the provincial agricultural commit- 
 tees. They may intervene with a view to settle- 
 ment by conciliation, at the request of the parties, 
 or of the Prefect, or on their own initiative, in col- 
 lective disputes relating to agricultural work. If 
 conciliation is successful the settlement has the 
 force of an agreement between the parties, but if 
 conciliation fails, the committee embodies its own 
 views in the form of a 'judgment' and suggests a 
 possible solution of the dispute. Both the district 
 arbitration committees and the committees attached 
 to the provincial agricultural committees have met 
 fairly regularly, and still continue to meet. They 
 have helped to solve a larce number of disputes, 
 to the satisfaction of the disputants. . . . The ma- 
 chinery for the settlement of labour conflicts is not 
 only increasing, but is gradually tending to assume 
 the form of real labour tribunals. . . . The Decree 
 of February igig. on agreements in private em- 
 ployment, provided for the institution of special 
 joint committees constituted of an equal number 
 of representatives of managements and employees. 
 These committees are competent to draw up draft 
 agreements for particular firms, and to intervene 
 in individual and collective disputes and in dis- 
 agreements about the interpretation of employment 
 contracts or work hours and work conditions. In 
 cases of collective disputes, the functions of these 
 committees are Hmitcd to attempting concilia- 
 
 420
 
 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL 
 
 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL 
 
 tion. . . . Other cases are referred to special arbi- 
 tration tribunals, constituted of five members, two 
 nominated by the plaintiff, two by the defendant, 
 and the fifth by agreement between the members. 
 . . . The importance of the tribunals as regards col- 
 lective disputes apears to consist less in their func- 
 tion of attempting to effect amicable settlements, 
 than in their power to prevent disputes by drawing 
 up draft agreements. . . . Both provincial commit- 
 tees, and later the joint tribunals, have in practice 
 rendered very valuable service by providing peaceful 
 solutions of a large number of disputes between 
 employers and employees. . . . The Bill on the in- 
 stitution of a National Council of Labour, which 
 was introduced in the Chamber of Deputies by the 
 Minister of Labour on lo November ig20, contains 
 some very important clauses on arbitration. Arti- 
 cle I id) of the Bill provides that the CouncU 
 shall arbitrate in industrial disputes at the request 
 of the parties. For this purpose the Council at its 
 first sitting appoints a conciliation and arbitration 
 committee, constituted of twelve members, six 
 elected by the representatives of employers and six 
 by the representatives of the workers, and with the 
 president of the Council as a chairman. The com- 
 mittee, or a sub-committee appointed by it from 
 time to time, may intervene at the request of the 
 Minister of Labour or of the parties, for the pur- 
 pose of settling by conciliation such disputes and 
 disagreements between employers and workers, as 
 concern whole industries or large districts or a 
 very large number of workers. If conciliation fails, 
 the Minister of Labour, with the consent of the 
 parties, may refer such disputes for arbitration to 
 special arbitration tribunals, chosen as the need 
 arises by the parties themselves, or, should they 
 fail to agree, by the Minister. These tribunals are 
 to be chosen from the members of the committee 
 and are to consist of an equal number of repre- 
 sentatives of employers and workers. The chair- 
 man shall be nominated by the members them- 
 selves, or, if they fail to agree, by the Minister of 
 Labour." — Labor conditions {International Labour 
 Review, March, 1921). 
 
 NEW ZEALAND 
 
 1892-1913. — Compulsory arbitration. — "From 
 the earliest times. New Zealand depended almost al- 
 together upon water transportation for communi- 
 cation between various parts of the two islands. 
 In i8q2, there occurred the organized strikes of 
 the workers in Australian colonies, in which the 
 Seamen's Union took a leading part. Sympathy 
 for the Australian cause practically resulted in a 
 general strike of the New Zealand Seamen's Union, 
 and trade was badly disorganized. As a result of 
 this strike, the New Zealand arbitration law was 
 passed in 1803 and became effective in 1894. The 
 minister of labor was designated to administer the 
 act. It provided for local boards of conciliation 
 in 'industrial disputes' and a general court of ar- 
 bitration. District boards were composed of three 
 or five members, the chairman being chosen by the 
 representative members from the working and em- 
 ploying classes who elected their members. They 
 were appointed by the governor from nominations 
 made by registered trade unions and registered em- 
 ployers' associations. The president of the court 
 was chosen directly by the governor from the 
 judges of the Supreme Court. Either party be- 
 fore a hearing had begun might require a dispute 
 to be referred from the district boards of concilia- 
 tion to the court of arbitration. Once a case was 
 referred for conciliation, it was unlawful to call a 
 strike or lockout. Agreements might be made be- 
 
 tween the parties, but their enforcement was com- 
 pulsory, the same as an award by the arbitration 
 court. Full power to compel the presence and 
 testimony of witnesses was given the district 
 boards of conciliation and the arbitration court. 
 Every industrial dispute, except indictable of- 
 fenses, came under the operation of the law, and 
 since the act was based upon a free recognition 
 of trade unionism, conciliation boards and the 
 court were required to give preference to the mem- 
 bers of trade unions. While this act was regarded 
 as a compulsory arbitration statute, there was no 
 penalty for failing to register, and unregistered 
 organizations did not come under the act. Awards 
 were automatically extended to whole industries 
 by the act of iqoo, the amendments of iqoi and 
 iqo3 and an interpretation of the court in iqo4. 
 Between 1896 and IQ03, two hundred thirteen 
 employers were charged with violating awards and 
 one hundred seventy-one were convicted. During 
 the same period, four employees were charged 
 with similar offenses and three convictions were 
 obtained. The industrial conciliation and arbitra- 
 tion acts were consolidated in iqo8 and amend- 
 ments were added in 1908 and 1910. The New 
 Zedand Official Vear-Book for igii gives a sum- 
 mary of the main provisions. Under the act the 
 Dominion of New Zealand is divided into eight 
 industrial districts. Any society consisting of not 
 less than three persons in the case of employers 
 or fifteen in the case of workers in any specified 
 industry or industries in an industrial district may 
 be registered as an industrial union. Any incor- 
 porated company may be registered as an indus- 
 trial union of employers. Any two or more in- 
 dustrial unions of employers or employees may 
 form an industrial association and register under 
 the act. Industrial associations are formed usu- 
 ally for the whole or greater part of New Zea- 
 land, comprising unions registered in the various 
 industries. Registration enables any union or as- 
 sociation to enter into and file an industrial agree- 
 ment setting out the conditions of employment. 
 Although this agreement is limited to a period of 
 three years, it remains in force until superseded by 
 another agreement or an award of the court of 
 arbitration, except where the registration of the 
 union of workers concerned is canceled. In the 
 event of a failure to reach an industrial agree- 
 ment, registration permits the parties to bring an 
 industrial dispute before the council of conciliation 
 and, if necessary, before the court of arbitration. 
 A council of conciliation has no compulsory powers 
 but merely makes an endeavor to bring about a 
 settlement which, if made, is filed as an industrial 
 agreement. If no settlement is reached, the council 
 of conciliation is required to refer the dispute to 
 the board of arbitration, which, after hearing the 
 parties, may make an award. Such awards, lilcc 
 industrial agreements, are binding on all parties 
 concerned. Unless otherwise provided, the award 
 applies to the industrial district in which it is 
 made. Awards are limited to a period of three 
 years but remain in force until superseded by an- 
 other award or by a subsequent agreement, ex- 
 cept where registration of the union of workers 
 has been canceled. It is now impossible to refer 
 a dispute directly to the court of arbitration with- 
 out waiting for a hearing by the board of con- 
 ciliation. Four conciliation commissioners, holding 
 office for three years, may be appointed and three 
 were appointed in 1911. and each of the eight 
 industrial districts was placed under the jurisdic- 
 tion of the commissioner. When a dispute arises, 
 the commissioner is notified and recommendations 
 are received for one, two or three assessors to act 
 
 421
 
 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL 
 
 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL 
 
 as representatives on the council of conciliation. 
 Councils of conciliation are set up after notice to 
 the other party by the commissioner and recom- 
 mendations by them of an equal number of as- 
 sessors. The court of arbitration is appointed for 
 all New Zealand and consists of three members, 
 one of whom, the permanent judge of the court, 
 possesses the same powers and privileKes as a 
 judge of the Supreme Court. The other judges 
 are nominated, one by the various unions of em- 
 ployers and one by the unions of workers and 
 their appointments determined by a majority of 
 the unions on each side respectively. They hold 
 office for three years and are eligible to reappoint- 
 ment. The judge and one member constitute a 
 quorum. There is no appeal from the decision 
 of the court, except in cases beyond the scope of 
 the act. Strikes and lockouts are illegal only if 
 the parties concerned arc bound by an award or 
 agreement. Workers arc subject to a penalty of 
 forty-eight dollars and sixty cents and employers 
 to a penalty of two thousand four hundred thirty 
 dollars for strikes and lockouts. Gifts of money 
 are deemed to be aiding or abetting a strike or 
 lockout and these are punishable by a fine. In 
 certain industries affecting the supply of water, 
 milk, meat, coal, gas or electricity, or the operation 
 of a ferry, tramway or railway, fourteen da\s" 
 notice must be given within one month of an 
 intended strike or lockout, whether subject to an 
 award or agreement, or not. Strikes and lock- 
 outs are forbidden during the hearing of a dis- 
 pute by the council or court of arbitration. 
 Breaches of awards and industrial agreements are 
 punishable by fines of four hundred eighty-six dol- 
 lars against a union, association or employer, and 
 twenty -four dollars and thirty cents against a 
 worker. Since the passage of the New Zealand act 
 in i8q3 to the thirty-first of March, igii, there 
 was a total of forty-two strikes, of which twelve 
 were of the slaughtermen. These twelve strikes 
 occurred in 1Q07. Of the twelve slaughtermen 
 strikes, six were within the scope of the act and 
 twenty-two outside the scope of the act. In loog, 
 there were four strikes in New Zealand, in 1010, 
 eleven, and in iqti, up to March 31, two strikes. 
 . . . Perhaps nothing so completely demonstrates 
 the strength of the New Zealand system of arbi- 
 tration and its underlying basis of social ju.-tice 
 as the Dominion's experiences with syndicalism and 
 the efforts of the syndicalists to carry out a gen- 
 eral strike during the latter part of iqii. loi^. 
 and 1013. The effort was a complete failure, and 
 although more than fifty strikes were called dur- 
 ing the period, all of them were lost ; direct action 
 was thoroughly discredited; the arbitration system 
 and the government which stood sponsor for it 
 emerged from the contest with added t;lorv. In 
 December, iqi3, a labor disputes investigation 
 act, similar to the Canadian statute, was made to 
 apply to workers' unions not registered under the 
 arbitration act." — C. H. Mote, Industrial arbitra- 
 tion, 1016, pp. 137-145. — "The statute in force to- 
 day [iqiqI is that of IQ08, with the important 
 amendment of that year and the minor amend- 
 ments of loii and 1013. A proposed addition to 
 the contemplated consolidated .4ct of 1Q13 was 
 made into a separate measure and passed as the 
 Labor Disputes Investigation Act, 1013. . . . 
 
 The .\mending Act of iqii dealt largely with the 
 form and force of awards. The important feature 
 of the Amending Act of 1013 was a provision that 
 where the parties to a dispute did not object to a 
 recommendation of a Council of Conciliation, this 
 should operate as an industrial agreement and not 
 as an award, thus limiting its application to the 
 
 parties specifically agreeing, whereas an award 
 covers all employers and all workers in the indus- 
 try in the particular district. . . . 
 
 The .'\mending Act of 1013 consisted of two 
 clauses, and was passed expressly to provide that 
 the recommendation of a Council of Conciliation 
 to which the parties had not objected should op- 
 erate as an industrial agreement, not an award. 
 In explanation of this distinction it should be said 
 that an industrial agreement binds only the par- 
 ties agreeing thereto, while an award covers all 
 employers and all workers in the industry in the 
 district specified." — Conciliation and arbitration in 
 yew Zealand (Research Report No. 23, Dec, igiq, 
 pp. 6, 7-8, 40.) — See also L.^bor strikes and boy- 
 cotts: iQ06-igi3. 
 
 NORWAY 
 
 1914-1916. — Obligatory arbitration boards.— 
 "In March 1014, a special congress of labor unions 
 was held, to oppose an attempt of the govern- 
 ment to make striking illegal and to introduce ob- 
 ligatory arbitration boards, by a general strike. 
 When the proposed bill was brought before the 
 Storthing in May, a general strike was ordered 
 for May 6th, which lasted until May ii, when the 
 bill was withdrawn. This, however, did not pre- 
 vent the government, a few months later, from 
 again attempting to introduce a similar bill — with- 
 out success. Later the government brought in a 
 bill, which provided for the settling of labor dis- 
 putes by arbitration boards. This bill, though not 
 quite as severe as the first one, was also opposed 
 by the Socialist Party, but was finally adopted by 
 Parliament. This law contains a number of ef- 
 fective repressive measures. All workers employed 
 in public industries must give 14 days' notice be- 
 fore laying down their work; furthermore the or- 
 ganization may be held responsible for the failure 
 of any of its members to comply with the con- 
 tract, through illegal strikes or lockouts. The 
 public arbitration commission has the power to 
 prohibit strikes and lockouts, so long as there 
 seems a possibility of arbitration. In July, igi6, 
 in the midst of tremendous conflicts between capi- 
 tal and labor, the government, under the direc- 
 tion of the employers, forced the passage of a bill 
 providing for obligatory arbitration boards. After 
 all parties, with the exception of the Social-De- 
 mocratic Party, had declared themselves in favor 
 of the bill, the labor unions, in accordance with 
 the decision of the labor congress held two years 
 before, declared a general strike .Mthough 120,000 
 persons answered the call, the law was passed, in 
 spite of this protest of organized labor, and after 
 eight days the strike was called off." — American 
 Labor Year Book, igi6, pp. 203-204. 
 
 SWEDEN 
 
 1920. — Central arbitration board.— "In accord- 
 ance with the decision of the Riksdag, a central 
 arbitration board for the settlement of labor dis- 
 putes has been appointed in Sweden [October, 
 1020I. This board consists of seven members; 
 three of these are appointed by the Government 
 and arc neutral, representing the interests neither 
 of employers nor of workix-ople. Of the four 
 remaining members, two are appointed by the 
 Council of the Employers' Association, and two by 
 the Workmen's National Council. The object of 
 the board is to render it easier for workmen and 
 their employers to have collective agreements cor- 
 rectly interpreted, thus obviating recourse to lock- 
 
 422
 
 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL 
 
 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL 
 
 outs or strikes. Appeals to the board ate to be 
 voluntary, and the decision of the board will be 
 final."— United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, 
 Monthly Labor Revinv, January, 1921, p. 232. 
 
 SWITZERLAND 
 
 1897-1918.— Effect on railway problem.— "The 
 Canton of Geneva has established a system of con- 
 ciliation and arbitration. Conciliators are elected 
 directlv by the two parties to the dispute. If they 
 cannot reach a settlement, recourse is had to an 
 arbitration board under Government auspices. 
 There is no law for the settlement of disputes in 
 the Federal railway service. Strikes are prohibited 
 in the Federal railway service and in the Canton of 
 Geneva whenever an industrial agreement or award 
 is broken. In the Federal service strikes are pun- 
 ishable by fines and reprimands. There are no pen- 
 alties in the Canton of Geneva. There have been 
 no strikes on the railways of Switzerland since their 
 nationalization in i8g7." — American Labor Year 
 Book, IQ17-1918, p. 143. 
 
 TURKEY 
 
 1917-1918. — "In the case of a dispute relative to 
 wages or working conditions, a conciliation board 
 is organized, composed of six members, three rep- 
 resenting employers and three representing em- 
 ployees. The boards are presided over by an of- 
 ficial appointed by the Government. The agree- 
 ments reached by these boards are enforced by the 
 Government. If the parties to the dispute cannot 
 agree, the employees are free to stop work, but 
 nothing must be done by them opposed to freedom 
 of action. Strikes in public utilities are unlawful 
 until grounds of dispute are communicated to the 
 Government and attempts at conciliation have 
 failed. . . . The organization of trade-unions in es- 
 tablishments carrying out any public service is for- 
 bidden."— .4 wpr;co« Labor Year Book, 1Q17-1918, 
 p. 144. 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 1886-1920. — State legislation for arbitration. — 
 "The seventeen states having permanent [arbitra- 
 tion] boards [in iqi6] and the dates of their 
 creation by statute .arc as follows: Massachusetts 
 and New York, 1886; Missouri, i88g; California, 
 1801 ; Ohio, 1803; Louisiana, 1894; Illinois, Con- 
 necticut, Minnesota and Montana, 1895; Utah, 
 1896; Oklahoma, 1907; Maine, 1909; Alabama, 
 1911 ; Vermont, 1912; Nebraska and New Hamp- 
 shire, 1913." — C. H. Mote, Industrial arbitration, 
 p. 199. — "A majority of the states have [1920] leg- 
 islation providing for the settlement of industrial 
 disputes, and Wyoming has a constitutional provi- 
 sion to the same effect. Many of these states have 
 permanent boards called boards of conciliation and 
 arbitration or some similar title, with from two to 
 six members, although three is the usual number. 
 It is provided in every state except Alabama that 
 one member shall be a representative of the em- 
 ployees, while all but Alabama and Connecticut 
 provide for representation of employers. The Ok- 
 lahoma board represents farmers in addition. 
 Many states forbicl that more than two members 
 of the board be chosen from the same political 
 party. In other states the labor commissioner acts 
 as mediator, as in Idaho, Indiana, and Maryland. 
 In states having industrial commissions, a chief 
 mediator is appointed along with temporary boards 
 for arbitration. In a score or so of states com- 
 
 pulsory investigation is provided for. The state 
 board of arbitration must proceed to make an in- 
 vestigation (i) on failure to adjust the dispute by 
 mediation or arbitration, as in Indiana and Massa- 
 chusetts; (2) when it is deemed advisable by the 
 governor, as in Alabama and Nebraska; or (3) 
 simply when the existence of the dispute comes to 
 the knowledge of the board, as in Colorado and 
 Vermont. In other states such investigation is 
 permissive. The board of arbitration may investi- 
 gate (i) when it is deemed advisable by the iri- 
 dustrial commission, as in New York. In Ohio 
 the Industrial commission can make an investi- 
 gation, if it deems necessary, where a strike exists 
 or is threatened, but if no settlement is obtained 
 on account of the opposition of one of the parties 
 investigation is to be made only if requested by 
 the other party. Compulsory investigation may 
 be employed (2) when both parties refuse arbitra- 
 tion and the public would suffer inconvenience, as 
 in Illinois and Oklahoma, or simply where the 
 parties do not agree to arbitration, as in New 
 Hampshire; (3) or generally, whenever a dispute 
 occurs, as in Connecticut and Minnesota. Pro- 
 vision for enforcement of an arbitration award 
 when arbitration has been agreed to by representa- 
 tives of both sides is made by about a dozen states. 
 In Illinois, if the court has ordered compliance 
 with an award, failure to obey is punishable as 
 contempt, but not by imprisonment. In Idaho and 
 Indiana the award is filed with the district court 
 clerk, and the judge can order obedience, viola- 
 tion being punishable as contempt, but imprison- 
 ment may be inflicted only for wilful disobedience. 
 In Missouri violation of a binding award 
 is punishable by a fine or jail sentence, and 
 in Ohio a binding award may be enforced in the 
 county court of common pleas as if it were a 
 statutory award. In Nevada, Texas, and Alaska 
 the award is filed with the district court clerk, 
 and may be specifically enforced in equity. In 
 Nevada appeal is made to the supreme court, in 
 Texas to the court of civil appeals, and in Alaska 
 to the United States Circuit Court of Appeals. 
 Colorado is the only state that has copied (1915) 
 the Canadian act forbidding strikes or lockouts m 
 certain industries pending investigation and recom- 
 mendation. In about twenty states [Alabama, 
 Alaska, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Indiana, 
 Iowa, Louisiana, Maine, Massachusetts, Montana, 
 Nebraska, New Hampshire, Ohio, Texas, Utah, 
 Vermont] the voluntary agreement to arbitrate 
 must contain a promise to abstain from strike or 
 lockout pending arbitration proceedings. In Mas- 
 sachusetts it is the duty of the parties to give 
 notice of impending stoppage of work. In Nevada 
 and Alaska strikes or lockouts, during arbitration, 
 and in Alaska for three months, after, without 
 thirty days' notice, are unlawful and ground for 
 damages."— J. R. Commons and J. B. Andrews, 
 Principles of labor legislation (2nd ed.), pp. 136- 
 
 138. 
 
 1888-1921.— Federal legislation.— "Federal legis- 
 lation on mediation and arbitration is comprised in 
 five acts concerning interstate commerce carriers," 
 the acts of 1888, of 1808 (the Erdman act [See 
 also U. S. A.: 1808 (June)], of 1913 (the Newlands 
 act), "Section 8 of the act creating the Department 
 of Labor, also enacted in 1913, and Title III of the 
 transportation act by which the railroads were re- 
 turned to private hands on March i, 1920, at the 
 end of the war-time period of government control 
 and operation."— /ftid., p. 138— "The general pop- 
 ular belief is that arbitration is the main feature 
 of our [American] present plan of settlement. . . . 
 Few understand that the chief and most success- 
 
 423
 
 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL 
 
 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL 
 
 ful part of our system is 'mediation,' or, as it is 
 sometimes called, 'conciliation.' ... In both the 
 national and state laws a sharp distinction is made 
 between mediation and arbitration. The first ef- 
 fort of public officials, when a dispute arises, is to 
 'mediate.' They interview each party to the dis- 
 pute separately and secure the utmost concessions 
 which each is willing to make. Next they try to 
 bring about a settlement on the basis of these con- 
 cessions. . . . Arbitration, however, is entirely dif- 
 ferent. If the officials fail to secure enough con- 
 cessions to settle the dispute, they bend their ef- 
 forts towards obtaining an agreement of the parties 
 to refer the dispute to a board of arbitration. This 
 is the substance of the Erdman Act, the Newlands 
 Act and all the state arbitration laws. . . . The 
 law of 1888 . . . provided that the President might 
 appoint two investigators who, together with the 
 United States Commissioner of Labor, should form 
 a temporary commission to examine the causes of 
 any interstate railway controversy, the conditions 
 which accompanied it, 'and the best means for ad- 
 justing it.' The report of this body was to be 
 transmitted to the President and Congress. Such 
 a purely investigating commission might be ap- 
 pointed on the request of either party or by the 
 President himself, or need not be appointed at all. 
 The act also contained a weak provision for a 
 board of arbitration to be chosen by the parties 
 if they wished, which should render a decision on 
 all the matters in dispute. This decision, however, 
 was not binding. That is, the parties might agree 
 to arbitration without consenting to abide by its 
 awards. This statute, which remained a dead letter 
 on the books for ten years, was never utilized. 
 The reasons are very simple and easily discovered: 
 (a) The balance of power lay entirely with the 
 railway managers; many of the strikes were com- 
 plete failures; the unions were on the defensive, 
 (ft) Both sides in the labor controversies of the 
 time were poorly organized. No principles or 
 methods of dealing between labor and capital had 
 yet been worked out. There were no established 
 habits of procedure, but each strike or dispute was 
 an event in itself, separate and distinct from all 
 others. We were in the 'rule of thumb' stage of 
 opinion on labor controversies. For these reasons 
 the decade i883-i8g8, and even to IQ05, represents 
 an era in w^hich arbitration was not the habitual 
 but the most unusual thing to do. The second 
 law, known as the Erdman .\ct, was passed in 
 1898 and provided that the federal officers, on 
 learning of a serious interstate dispute, should at- 
 tempt to mediate in the method already described. 
 Failing in this they should, if possible, persuade 
 the parties to sign a contract, the terms of which 
 were fixed by the law itself. This contract pro- 
 vided for the submission of the dispute to a board 
 of arbitration composed of three members chosen 
 by the parties themselves. The award made by 
 this board should be binding for a definite period. 
 An appeal might be taken from the board's de- 
 cision to the federal courts. It is a remarkable 
 fact that only one case was brought up under this 
 law in the first eight years of its history. This 
 shows clearly that the parties concerned, and public 
 opinion in general, had not yet developed to the 
 point where arbitration was a natural and in- 
 stinctive method of settlement. In the one case 
 that was presented during this time the railways 
 declined arbitration and the government system 
 failed. The employees voted to strike by an al- 
 most unanimous ballot, whereupon the managers 
 conceded the substance of the union's demands, — a 
 settlement that could have been easily made by 
 arbitration. Meanwhile in the period from 1901 
 
 to 190S there were 329 strikes affecting the rail- 
 ways, with only this single case of attempted ar- 
 bitration above described, and it a failure. This 
 would seem to show conclusively that the unwill- 
 ingness to make use of the previous act was not 
 due to the weakness of the law, but to the lack 
 of experience of the parties and the backward 
 state of public opinion. Beginning with 1905, 
 however, a complete reversal in conditions took 
 place. Despite the failure of several abortive at- 
 tempts, the unions had finally got a firm grip 
 upon all the labor supply of the interstate trains. 
 With this there had come a parallel development 
 in the control of railway capital; mergers had 
 taken place; railway systems had been more firmly 
 cemented together; the 'community of interest' be- 
 tween competing lines had become a familiar fea- 
 ture of transport management. In 1902 the public 
 had received that dramatic proof of the possibil- 
 ities of arbitration which we still refer to as 'the' 
 anthracite coal strike. This was probably the last 
 great controversy in which the mining companies 
 felt assured of success in a contest with labor or- 
 ganizations, and when victory was within their 
 reach it was wrested from them by the national 
 executive who forced arbitration. It is difficult to 
 exaggerate the spectacular effect of this case. It 
 established once for all the fact that arbitration 
 on a grand scale in a crisis of national proportions 
 is possible. The similarity of the issues with those 
 arising on the railways was also helpful. This 
 striking demonstration removed the chief obstacle 
 to the use of the Erdman Law, and in the next 
 eight years there followed in rapid succession a 
 series of 61 cases, most of which were finally 
 solved by mediation, there being only 12 in which 
 arbitration was necessary. The third act, known 
 as the Newlands Law, was passed in July, 1913. It 
 differs from the Erdman Act in only two important 
 points, — the boards of arbitration under the Erd- 
 man .■\ct were considered too small by the railway 
 managers; under the Newlands Act they may, by 
 consent of the parties, be doubled to six members 
 instead of three. The new law also provides that 
 the work of mediation shall be undertaken by a 
 special, permanent commissioner of mediation act- 
 ing with one or two other federal officers, to be 
 designated by the President, and forming a 'Board 
 of Mediation and Conciliation.' Following the 61 
 cases presented for settlement under the Erdman 
 Act, 60 more have already been brought up under 
 the Newlands Law, that is, in the last three years 
 [1914-1916] as many controversies have been sub- 
 mitted and settled as in the entire preceding 
 twenty-five years. Of these 60 cases, 51 have been 
 settled by mediation and 9 by arbitration. Taking 
 the entire results of the Erdman and Newlands 
 Laws since 1906, that is, since arbitration has be- 
 come an accepted method, we observe that a total 
 of 121 cases have been submitted. Of these over 
 70 were settled by mediation. Of the remainder, 
 21 cases were settled by arbitration, or by arbitra- 
 tion combined with mediation. In the remaining 
 cases, the services of the mediators were either re- 
 fused or a direct settlement made without resort 
 to arbitration. This is an astonishing record. Two 
 features stand out with especial prominence — the 
 rapid increase in effectiveness of mediation, and the 
 great importance and breadth of the problems sub- 
 mitted to arbitration. Mediation settled more than 
 half of the controversies brought up to the board 
 under the Erdman Law, and over four-fifths of 
 those brought in the last three years under the 
 Newlands Act. Among the matters subjected to 
 arbitration were issues ranging from the most 
 minute point up to the entire terms of employment 
 
 424
 
 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL 
 
 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL 
 
 on over 40 railroads; from the discharge of an 
 electric motorman for disobedience of orders to 
 the settlement of pay and basic hours of work per 
 day for many thousands of men." — J. T. Young, 
 Government arbitration and mediation (Annals of 
 the American Academy of Political and Social 
 Science, January, igi?, pp. 268-272). — "For the 
 four years ending June 30, 11,17, the Federal Board 
 of Mediation and Conciliation functioned in sev- 
 enty-one controversies, fourteen of which were 
 settled partly or wholly by arbitration, and fifty- 
 two by mediation. One dispute was settled by 
 Congressional action, the Adamson law, which 
 meant, in effect, the breakdown of the Newlands 
 act. The outstanding feature of events leading up 
 to the Adamson law of September, 1916, was the 
 failure of arbitration by existing agencies. The 
 demands of the railway brotherhoods were met 
 with counter-demands by the railway managers 
 and the proposal to refer demands of both sides 
 to arbitration under the Newlands act or by the 
 Interstate Commerce Commission. The brother- 
 hoods refused arbitration. Their experience with 
 settlements by third parties had not been fortunate, 
 they asserted. An overwhelming strike vote set 
 the stoppage of work for September 2, 1916. The 
 Federal Board of Mediation and Conciliation ex- 
 ercised its prerogative of offering mediation, but a 
 four-day conference failed to bring agreement. 
 Facing a country-wide railroad tie-up, the Presi- 
 dent conferred with both sides to the controversy 
 and proposed (i) the concession of the eight-hour 
 day, (2) postponement of the other demands until 
 a commission appointed to investigate the effect of 
 the eight-hour day reported. The brotherhoods 
 agreed, but the managers delayed. The President 
 asked Congress for legislation not only to deal 
 with the existing situation, but also to remedy the 
 all too apparent failure of the Newlands act. The 
 Congressional answer was the Adamson law, passed 
 on the day the strike was to have gone into effect. 
 The law embodied just the proposals made by the 
 President to the railroad men and employers. — 
 [See also Adamsox Law; American Federation of 
 Labor: 1S84-1017; Railroads: 1Q16.] It was plainly 
 evident that the Federal Board of Mediation and 
 Conciliation met defeat largely through the refusal 
 of the v/orkers to submit voluntarily to arbitration. 
 This difficulty was recognized by the President again 
 in December, igio, when he asked Congress for 
 compulsory arbitration legislation. War legislation 
 swamped Congress before action was taken on his 
 recommendation. The Newlands act again failed 
 in March, 1017. At that time the brotherhoods 
 renewed strike threats, owing to the delay of the 
 Supreme Court in deciding the constitutionality of 
 the Adamson Law and to the alleged evasions of 
 the railroad managers during the Supreme Court's 
 delay. Disregarding the existing Federal Board, 
 the President immediately appointed a committee 
 of the Council of National Defense to mediate. 
 Into the resulting agreement was written the es- 
 tablishment of the eight-hour day and provision 
 for a commission of eight, representing employers 
 and employees, to decide disputes under the agree- 
 ment. The Eight-hour Commission appointed un- 
 der the Adamson law reported inconclusively 
 shortly after the railroads were taken under control 
 by the government for the period of the war. 
 The labor situation was immediately taken hold 
 of when the government assumed railroad control 
 and operation in December, igi7. . . . A Railway 
 Wage Board was appointed in January to make 
 recommendations to the Director-General, and a 
 Division of Labor, headed by a brotherhood of- 
 ficial, was created in February to be the connecting 
 
 link between employees and officials on one band, 
 and Railway Boards of Adjustment, when later 
 instituted, on the other. The Railway Wage 
 Board's recommendations were accepted by the 
 Director-General and orders were issued providing 
 for substantial increases in wages among all classes 
 of employees. Thereafter a permanent advisory 
 board on 'Railway Wages and Working Conditions' 
 was created. — Successive orders of the Director- 
 General formulated a liberal labor policy and es- 
 tablished machinery for handling disputes under 
 these orders. Board of Adjustment No. i, dating 
 from March, igi8, dealt with controversies af- 
 fecting conductors, engineers, trainmen, firemen, 
 and enginemen ; up to December i, 1918, it had 
 docketed 408 cases and made 292 decisions. Board 
 of Adjustment No. 2, authorized in May, igiS, for 
 workers in mechanical departments, handled 147 
 cases and made 128 decisions up to December, 
 1918. Board of Adjustment No. 3, with jurisdic- 
 tion over telegraphers, switchmen, clerks, and main- 
 tenance-of-way men, had docketed only one case 
 in its fortnight's existence prior to December i, 
 igi8. In all cases coming before Boards of Ad- 
 justment it was obligatory that the usual attempt 
 at carrying the disagreement to the chief operating 
 official of the railroad be made before calling on 
 the boards. The boards were composed equally of 
 representatives of the administration and employ- 
 ees, and their liberal decisions did much to smooth 
 out the differences remaining after the breakdown 
 of the Newlands act and the enactment of the 
 Adamson law. While the railroad employees of- 
 ficially voiced their approval of the government 
 Boards of Adjustment, on which only the parties in 
 dispute were the arbitrators, they have consistently 
 opposed the submission of disagreements to a neu- 
 tral party which is in their opinion either biased 
 or ignorant. — [An order of Director General Payne, 
 issued December 9, 1920, provided for the aboli- 
 tion of Board No. i on February 15, 192 1, and of 
 Boards No. 2 and 3 on January 10, 1921.] The 
 act of March 4, igi3, creating a Department of 
 Labor, provides that the Secretary of Labor shall 
 have the power to act as mediator and to appoint 
 commissioners of conciliation in labor disputes, 
 whenever in his judgment the interest of industrial 
 peace may require it to be done. No appropria- 
 tion was made for the expenses of commissioners 
 till October, igi3, and none for their compensation 
 till April, 1914. Until the latter date, therefore, 
 it was necessary to detail government employees 
 from their regular work. An executive clerk was 
 appointed in July, igi4, and the work systema- 
 tized. In three important disputes the Secretary 
 of Labor's offer of mediation was rejected. In 
 the Pere Marquette Railroad shop strike, the Calu- 
 met copper miners' strike, and the Colorado coal 
 strike, mediation was desired by the employees, but 
 declined by the employers. In case mediation 
 fails, arbitration may be proposed by the medi- 
 ators, but they do not themselves act as arbi- 
 trators. In the five years 191S to 1919, inclusive, 
 the Secretary of Labor took cognizance of 3,644 
 cases, effecting 2,539 adjustments. During igig 
 alone, 1,780 assignments of commissioners of con- 
 ciliation resulted in r,233 adjustments, not includ- 
 ing 2ig cases referred to the National War Labor 
 Board. . . . The policy of having disputes settled 
 by representatives of the two parties most directly 
 at interest, the workers and the employers, was In 
 the main adopted in the transportation act of 
 1920. The act declares it the duty of the roads 
 and of their employees to 'exert every reasonable 
 effort and adopt every available means to avoid 
 any interruption to the operation of any carrier' 
 
 425
 
 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL 
 
 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL 
 
 growing out of any dispute. In case a dispute 
 arises, it is to be decided if possible in conference 
 between representatives of both sides. Such dis- 
 putes involving only grievances, rules, or working 
 conditions, as cannot be settled in this way, are 
 to go before 'railroad boards of labor adjustment,' 
 which may be established by agreement between 
 any road or group of roads and the employees. 
 Except that the boards are to [include] . . . rep- 
 resentatives of the organized workers, their size 
 and composition are left entirely to the parties 
 concerned. Matters may come before the adjust- 
 ment boards either upon application by the road 
 or the organized workers affected, upon written 
 petition of a hundred unorganized employees, upon 
 the boards' own motion, or upon the request of the 
 'Railroad Labor Board.' This Railroad Labor 
 Board is set up by the act as the final tribunal 
 for the settlement of railroad labor disputes. It 
 is composedi of nine members, appointed by the 
 President with the consent of the Senate, to rep- 
 resent in eflual proportion the workers, the ein- 
 plsyers and the public. The three representatives 
 <^.it})^ first .two groups are to be selected from a 
 J(gt.,c»t, not lees than six nominees submitted by the 
 it#'u,]g'iQups, themselves. Members of the board 
 ;ipa^;.riot, during their five-year term of office, be 
 .iy;t«.Yfi. n^enibers or officers of labor organizations 
 ;j»r. hold stocks or bonds of any carrier. Dis- 
 piites come before the Railroad Labor Board either 
 upon failure of the adjustment board, or 
 directly. All of its decisions must be by majority 
 vote, but on matters taken up directly one of the 
 members representing the public must concur in 
 the decision. The Railroad Labor Board also has 
 power to suspend any decision on wages made by 
 the initial conference, if it is of the opinion that 
 the decision 'involves such an increase in wages or 
 salaries as will be likely to necessitate a substan- 
 iial readjustment of the rates of any carrier.' In 
 such cases the Railroad Labor Board must, after 
 a hearing, affirm or modify the suspended decision. 
 As principles for settling standards of wages and 
 working conditions, consideration must be given to 
 wage scales in other industries, cost of living, haz- 
 ards of the employment, training and skill re- 
 quired, degree of responsibility, character and 
 regularity of the employment, and inequalities re- 
 sulting from previous adjustments. Hearings on 
 alleged violations of decisions are to be held by 
 the Railroad Labor Board, which must publish 
 its decision. [See also Labor legisl.mion: 1862- 
 iQ2o; Railroads: iq2o: Esch-Cummins Act.] The 
 Board of Mediation and Conciliation created in 
 J913 is still left in operation, but its jurisdiction 
 does not extend to any dispute under investigation, 
 by the boards established under the new act." — 
 J,,,R. Commons and J. B. Andrews, Principles of 
 labor legislation (2nd ed.). pp. 142-14S, 147-148. 
 .ili.898. — Interstate Commerce Commission cre- 
 i(tfid. See U. S. A.: i8q8 (June). 
 
 1902-1920. — Arbitration in the coal industry. 
 — "A semi-official instance of arbitration occurred 
 in the case of the great anthracite coal strike in 
 Pennsylvania in 1002. In this case the government 
 appointed an arbitration commission on the re- 
 quest of the parties without any special authority 
 in law. The miners wanted an agreement, the 
 operators felt that it would not be binding and 
 that the union obstructed discipline. In October, 
 five months after the beginning of the strike. Presi- 
 dent Roosevelt appointed the Anthracite Coal 
 Strike Commission The men returned to work 
 and the commission began its inquiry. It took the 
 testimony of 558 witnesses. The losses of the 
 strike were estimated at S2S,ooo,ooo in wages. 
 
 $1,800,000 in relief funds, $46,100,000 to the op 
 erators, and $28,000,000 in freight receipts to trans- 
 portation companies. The commission found the 
 underlying cause of the strike to be the issue of 
 recognition of the union. The award stated that 
 the commission would recommend recognition oi 
 the union, were the anthracite unions separated 
 from the bituminous unions, but that difficulties 
 should be referred to a permanent joint committee 
 of miners' and operators' representatives, with an 
 umpire appointed by the federal court, and that 
 the life of the award should be till March, igoo. 
 The commission further recommended a system of 
 compulsory investigation. The agreement has been 
 renewed, with modifications, and was still in force 
 at the beginning of 1020." — J. R. Commons and 
 J. B. .Andrews, Principles of labor legislation (2nd 
 ed.), pp. 148-149. — .\ bureau of labor was estab- 
 lished in the United States fuel administration to 
 take care of industrial disputes in the coal mining 
 industry. [See also U. S. A.; iqo2 (October).] For 
 the settlement of the coal strike of 1Q19, see Labor 
 STRIKES AND BOYCOTTS: iQip: Bituminous coal 
 strike. 
 
 1910-1916. — Protocol and arbitration in the 
 garment industry. — An interesting experiment "in 
 the adjustment of labor disputes is that represented 
 by what is generally known as the Protocol System 
 in the garment industry. The system derives its 
 name from the collective agreement made between 
 the Cloak Makers' Union of New York [and] . . . 
 an association of employers on September 2nd, 
 iQio. The agreement, formally designated 'Proto- 
 col of Peace,' was adopted at the conclusion 01 
 a long and embittered strike. It was drafted with 
 great care and with the aid of several eminent 
 students of social problems, prominent among 
 whom was Mr. Louis D. Brandeis, now [iqi6] a 
 Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. 
 . . . Essentially it was a collective agreement be- 
 tween an association of employers and a union of 
 workers, regulating hours of laboi, overtime- work, 
 holidays, week- wages, methods of adjusting piece 
 rates and other shop conditions. The novelty of 
 the arrangements consisted mainly in the attempt 
 to abolish all struggles between the individual em- 
 ployer and his workers and to substitute for them 
 a peaceful method of adjusting disputes. To this 
 end the workers surrendered their right to call shop 
 strikes for any grievance whatsoever, and the 
 Union bound itself to order its members back to 
 work in all cases in which such shop strikes would 
 break out. In return for this surrender of their 
 most effective weapon, the workers were promised 
 peaceful, fair and speedy adjustments of all their 
 grievances. To secure such adjustments an elab- 
 orate joint machinery was devised, consisting of 
 Chief Clerks with numerous staffs of assistance to 
 investigate and adjust grievances, a Grievance 
 Board, and subsequently a Committee on Imme- 
 diate Action, to pass upon disputed cases, and 
 finally a Board of Arbitration, acting as the su- 
 preme tribunal in the industry and vested with 
 judicial and legislative powers. It is this joint 
 machinery, which constitutes the distinguishing 
 feature of a Protocol, as the arrangement has come 
 to be generally known. The 'Protocol system' 
 seemed to be well adapted to the pecularities of 
 the needle industries with their highly seasonal 
 character, their irregular workings and countless 
 daily problems and shop disputes. Within the first 
 few years after its adoption in the New York cloak 
 trade the system spread to a number of kindred 
 trades. Collective agreements generally patterned 
 after the 'Peace Protocol' were adopted by associa- 
 tions of employers and unions of the workers in 
 
 426
 
 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL 
 
 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL 
 
 the various branches of the garment trade in the 
 cities of New York, Philadelphia, Boston, Chicago, 
 St. Louis and other centers of the tailoring indus- 
 try. At the beginning of iqi6, no less than 150,000 
 workers operated under that system." — M. Hill- 
 quit, "Protocol" in the needle industry {Ameri- 
 can Labor Year Book, iqi6, pp. 5S-S6)- — The em- 
 ployers' association broke up the arrangement by 
 abrogating the Protocol of Peace, after an exist- 
 ence of almost five years, on May 20, 1Q15. ... A 
 number of forces were .set to work to prevent a 
 general conflict. Mayor Mitchel of New York or- 
 ganized a Council of Conciliation, composed of 
 some of New York's best known citizens. . . . Af- 
 ter a series of remarkable public hearings which 
 lasted over three weeks at the New York City Hall, 
 the Council of Conciliation handed down a decision 
 which was . . . accepted by the union, and after- 
 wards agreed to . . . by the Manufacturers' As- 
 sociation. ... It raised the scale of wages for 
 piece and week workers, granted the right of re- 
 view of discharges, upheld the principle of col- 
 lective bargaining and renewed the Protocol peace 
 arrangements that existed heretofore. . . . Dissatis- 
 faction grew with startling rapidity and ... on 
 April 30 I1Q16] . . . after a second abrogation of 
 the Protocol the 400 members of the Association 
 ordered a lockout in all their shops. It w.is quick- 
 ly followed by the proclamation of a general strike 
 by the union on May 3, . . . involving 60,000 
 workers. . . . The strike was finally settled on 
 terms which represented strongly modified arrange- 
 ments from those prevailing under the Protocol. 
 The working hours were reduced from 50 to 40: 
 the wages for both piece and week workers were 
 materially increased, and principally, the right of 
 shop strikes was conceded to the union." — M. 
 Danish, Briej history of the International Ladies' 
 Garment Workers' Union (American Labor Year 
 Book, igi7-iqi8, pp. iio-iii). 
 
 1912-1913. — West 'Virginia coal strikes. See 
 West Virginia: 1002-1013. 
 
 1914. — Ohio coal miners' strike. See Labor 
 STRIKES AND BOYCOTTS: igi4-igi5. 
 
 1917-1918. — Bridgeport munitions strike. See 
 Labor strikes and boycotts: iqiy-iqiS. 
 
 1917-1919. — President's mediation commission. 
 — War Labor Board. — "In addition to the direct 
 efforts of the Secretary of Labor, two arbitration 
 boards were called into existence to meet exigencies 
 of war. The President's Mediation Commission, 
 appointed in the fall of iqi7, under the chairman- 
 ship of the Secretary of Labor, made settlements 
 or investigations in (i) the copper mines of Ari- 
 zona, (2) the California oil fields, (3) the Pacific 
 coast telephone dispute, (4) unrest in the lumber 
 industry of the Northwest, (5) the packing in- 
 dustry. It should be recalled that this commission 
 was a government enterprise beginning its study 
 generally after an acute situation had arisen. Its 
 primary intention was investigation rather than 
 arbitration ; but settlements were made in all dis- 
 putes except the lumber industry, largely because 
 existing means of arbitration had failed. The Na- 
 tional War Labor Board was the outgrowth of 
 conferences beiween representatives of employer?' 
 and employees' organizations, the public, and the 
 government. Its existence was not sanctioned by 
 specific legislation, but was the result of a Presi- 
 dential proclamation in April, iqi8. The member- 
 ship of the board consisted of joint chairmen rep- 
 resenting the public, selected respectively by em- 
 ployers' and employees' national organizations, and 
 five representatives of each of the two groups. 
 Premises to govern its decisions were the first 
 business of the board, and the following were ar- 
 
 rived at: (i) No strikes or lockouts during the 
 war, (2; settlement of controversies by mediation 
 or conciliation, (3) provision of machinery for 
 local mediation and conciliation, (4) summons of 
 parties to the controversy before the national board 
 in the event of failure of local machinery, (5) 
 failing to reach decision in the national board, 
 provision of an umpire appointed by national 
 board or by the President ironi a panel of disin- 
 terested persons, (b) refusal to take cognizance of 
 dispute where other means of setllenieiit b\ agree- 
 ment or federal law had not been invoked, (7) 
 right of employers and employees to organize with- 
 out discrimination, (8) right of collective bar- 
 gaining. Acting on these principles as an official 
 expression of the government's war labor policy, 
 the board received 1,24s controversies up to May 
 31, iqig. In 462 of these cases awards or finds 
 were made, 3qi were dismissed because of volun- 
 tary settlement, lack of jurisdiction, or for other 
 reasons, 315 were referred to other agencies having 
 primary jurisdiction, fifty-three, involving only 
 three distinct disputes, remained on the docket 
 because the board was unable to agree, twenty- 
 three were pending, and one was suspended. In 
 the enforcement of awards the National War Labor 
 Board had no specific legal sanction or penalty; 
 appeal was usually made to patriotic motives. 
 There were but three instances of resistance to the 
 board's awards. In one case the Western Union 
 Telegraph Company discriminated against union 
 employees and refused to abide by the board's de- 
 cision in favor of the men. The President was 
 rebuffed in his appeal for patriotic acquiescence, 
 but was sustained by Congress in taking over the 
 telegraph lines for the government. Later, in Sep- 
 tember, 1Q18, the organized workers at Bridge- 
 port, Conn., struck against an award of the board 
 but on the President's threat of unemployment 
 enforced by governmental agencies, they returned 
 to work. Finally, the Smith and Wesson Com- 
 pany in Springfield, Mass., manufacturing fire- 
 arms, refused to abide by the board's warning not 
 to discriminate against union employees, and the 
 President retaliated by ordering the War Depart- 
 ment to take over the factory. " — J. R. Commons 
 and J. B. .Andrews, Principles oj labor legislation 
 (2nd ed.), pp. 145-146- 
 
 ".\fter the armistice was signed . . . there were 
 very many cases in which both employers and em- 
 ployees disregarded complaints to the [War Labor] 
 Board and refused to submit to its jurisdiction and 
 carry out its findings. Shortly after the armistice 
 the Board decided not to entertain complaints after 
 December 5, iqi8, unless both sides agreed to 
 abide by its award or unless the President, through 
 the Secretary of Labor, specially requested the 
 Board to hear the case. In the absence of the ex- 
 treme pressure for uninterrupted production, which 
 had accompanied the war, the influence of the 
 Board grew le.ss and less until finally on June 25, 
 iqiq, the Board by resolution decided to receive 
 no more new cases or applications, to finish up 
 its work, and to transfer its records and files to 
 the Department of Labor. [It ceased to exist on 
 August 1 2. 1" — .•\. M. Bing, War-time strikes and 
 their adjustment, pp. 121-122. 
 
 1918-1919. — Failure in Seattle shipyards 
 strike. See Labor strikes and boycotts: iqiS- 
 iqiq: Seattle general strike. 
 
 1918-1919. — New York harbor strike. See La- 
 bor .strikfs and boycotts: iqi8-iqiq: New York 
 harbor strikes. 
 
 1918-1919. — War labor boards and the cloth- 
 ing industry. — On October 28, iqi8, the joint 
 board of the children's clothing grades began a 
 
 427
 
 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL 
 
 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL 
 
 general strike to enforce the demand for the es- 
 tablishment of. the forty-four hour week and for 
 wage increases of 20 per cent. "In the midst of 
 negotiations with Dr. William Z. Ripley, Adminis- 
 trator of Labor Standards for Army Clothing, lead- 
 ing to arbitration of the demands, the American 
 Men's and Boys' Clothing Manufacturers' Associa- 
 tion on November g locked out the workers in the 
 men's clothing industry, adding 50,000 to the num- 
 ber on strike in the children's clothing trade. The 
 New York Joint Board of the Amalgamated 
 Clothing Workers on November 11 called out all 
 workers from independent factories in a general 
 strike to light the lockout and to enforce demands 
 for the forty-four hour week and for wage in- 
 creases. The demand for the reduction in the 
 work week was made primarily to provide places 
 in the shops for thousands of clothing workers who 
 had entered the nation's fighting forces and to 
 ensure employment in civilian clothing factories of 
 the workers who had been making military cloth- 
 ing. . . . The conclusion of the New York strike 
 was brought about at conferences initiated by 
 Chairman Felix Frankfurter of the War Labor 
 Policies Board. Frankfurter on January 15 invited 
 both parties to come together to discuss possible 
 means of ending strife in the clothing industry. At 
 a meeting with Frankfurter the union and the em- 
 ployers' association agreed to continue conferences 
 with an Advisory Board composed of Frankfurter, 
 Dr. William Z. Ripley and Louis Marshall. The 
 Adviron.' Board on Januar>' 22 [igio] recommend- 
 ed the establishment of the forty-four hour week 
 not only for the New York market affected by the 
 general strike but also throughout the clothing in- 
 dustry. The .Advisory Board urged the scientific 
 computation of the effect of the increased cost of 
 living before the granting of wage increases and 
 recommended the selection of an impartial chairman 
 to adjust differences in the shops. The award of 
 the Advisory Board was approved at mass meetings 
 of the strikers on January 23, and the return to 
 work, with the forty-four hour week established, 
 was begun on January 27. George R. Bell, Execu- 
 tive Officer of the National War Labor Policies 
 Board, left that post on February 11 to become 
 Impartial Chairman in the relations between the 
 Amalgamated and the New York Employers' .As- 
 sociation and the machinery for amicable relations 
 was established." — I. W. Bird, Strike of the Amal- 
 gamated Clothing Workers of America (American 
 labor year book, iqio-iq20, pp. 166-167). — In the 
 summer of 1Q18 the Cleveland cloakmaker unions, 
 affiliated with the International Ladies' Garment 
 Workers' Union, presented demands to their em- 
 ployers for a raise in wages, standard union hours, 
 ■with a request that these demands be arbitrated. 
 The refusal by the employers to grant the cloak- 
 makers' demands was followed by a general strike. 
 "The National War Labor Board and Secretary 
 of War Baker, however, quickly took a hand in 
 the situation. The War Department asked both 
 sides to agree to arbitration, and the manufacturers 
 . . . accepted the invitation. Sccretarv- Baker 
 forthwith appomted a Board of Referees, headed 
 by President Hopkins of Dartmouth College, then 
 an assistant to the Secretary of War, which took 
 up the grievances of the workers for investigation 
 with powers of awarding an adjudication. The 
 workers meanwhile returned to their shops. . . . 
 After an exhaustive study of the conditions of the 
 cloak trade in Cleveland and elsewhere, the earn- 
 ings of the workers and their standards of work, 
 the referees rendered a decision w'hich was highly 
 favorable to the workers. Later this decision was 
 amplified; it provided for a scale of wages cover- 
 
 428 
 
 ing every part and section of the trade and for 
 its thoroughness was equal to the best scales in 
 the union towns in the East. It recognized shop 
 committees and also recommended a Board of Ar- 
 bitration to pass upon matters that could not be 
 settled between the union and the employers. 
 These were the maximum demands to which the 
 Cleveland workers had ever aspired." — M. Danish, 
 Cleveland cloakmakers' strike (American labor 
 year book, igiQ-1920, p. 175). 
 
 1919. — Bituminous coal strike. See Labor 
 STRIKES AND BOYCOTTS: igig; Bituminous coal 
 strike. 
 
 1919-1920. — Industrial conferences called by 
 President. — Proposed remedy for strikes. — On a 
 call by President Wilson, the industrial conference 
 met in Washington Oct. 6, igig. It was composed of 
 three groups, which represented the public, the 
 employers and the employees; the secretary of the 
 interior, Franklin K. Lane, was elected the perma- 
 nent chairman. Lack of harmony in the confer- 
 ence was soon evident. On October 22, Mr. Gom- 
 pers offered a resolution recognizing the right of 
 workers to organize, to bargain collectively and to 
 be represented by leaders of their own choice; the 
 employers' group opposed it and the employees' 
 group withdrew from the conference. The second 
 industrial conference, representing only the public, 
 was convened by President Wilson on December 
 I, igiQ. Before the end of that month it issued 
 "a tentative plan of machinery to adjust disputes 
 in general industry by conference, conciliation, in- 
 quirv' and arbitration." The conference reconvened 
 on January 12, iq2o, and issued its report on March 
 6, ig20. Its chairman was William B. Wilson, 
 secretary of labor, and its vice-chairman, Herbert 
 Hoover. The report says: "The Conference now 
 proposes joint organization of management and 
 employees as a means of preventing misunder- 
 standing and of securing cooperative effort. It 
 has modified the tentative plan of adjustment so 
 as to diminish the field of arbitration and enlarge 
 the scope of voluntary settlement by agreement. 
 .■\s modified the plan makes machinery available 
 for collective bargaining, with only incidental and 
 limited arbitration. The Conference has extended 
 the plan to cover disputes affecting public utilities 
 other than steam railroads and it has enlarged it to 
 cover the services of public employees. . . . Indus- 
 trial problems vary not only with each industry 
 but in each establishment. Therefore, the strategic 
 place to begin battle with misunderstanding is 
 within the industrial plant itself. Primarily the 
 settlement must come from the bottom, not from 
 the top. The Conference finds that joint organiza- 
 tion of management and employees where under- 
 taken with sincerity and good will has a record of 
 success. ... It is not a field for legislation, be- 
 cause the form which employee representation 
 should take may vary in every plant. The Con- 
 ference, therefore, does not direct this recommenda- 
 tion to legislators but to managers and employees. 
 If the joint organization of management and em- 
 ployees in the plant or industry fails to reach a 
 collective agreement, or if without such joint or- 
 ganization, disputes arise which are not settled by 
 existing agencies, then the Conference proposes a 
 system of settlement close at hand and under 
 governmental encouragement, and a minimum of 
 regulation. The entrance of the Government into 
 these problems should be to stimulate further 
 cooperation. The system of settlement consists 
 of a plan, nation-wide in scope, with a National 
 Industrial Board, local Regional Conferences and 
 Boards of Inquiry. . . . The plan provides ma- 
 chinery for prompt and fair adjustment of wages
 
 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL 
 
 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL 
 
 and working conditions of government employees. 
 It is especially necessary for this class of employees, 
 who should not be permitted to strike. The plan 
 involves no penalties other than those imposed by 
 public opinion. It does not iinpose compulsory 
 arbitration. It does not deny the right to strike. 
 It does not submit to arbitration the policy of 
 the 'closed' or 'open' shop. The plan is national 
 in scope and operation, yet it is decentralized. It 
 is different from anything in operation elsewhere. 
 It is based upon American experience and is de- 
 signed to meet American conditions. It employs 
 no legal authority except the right of inquiry. Its 
 basic idea is stimulation to settlement of differ- 
 ences by the parties in conflict, and the enlistment 
 of public opinion toward enforcing that method of 
 settlement." The general outline is as follows: 
 "The United States shall be divided into a speci- 
 fied number of industrial regions, in each of which 
 there shall be a chairman. Whenever a dispute 
 arises in a region, which can not be settled by ex- 
 isting machinery, the regional chairman may re- 
 quest each side to submit the dispute to a Regional 
 Adjustment Conference, to be composed of two 
 representatives from each side, parties to the dis- 
 pute, and two representatives to be selected by 
 each side from the panels herein provided for. The 
 regional chairman shall preside but not vote at the 
 Conference. If the Conference reaches a unanimous 
 agreement it shall be regarded as a collective bar- 
 gain between the parties to the dispute and shall 
 have the force and effect of a trade agreement. 
 If the Conference does not reach an agreement and 
 the disagreement relates to wages, hours or working 
 conditions, it shall make a finding of the material 
 facts, and state the reasons why it was unable to 
 reach an agreement. The regional chairman shall 
 report such finding and statement to the National 
 Industrial Board herein provided for, which shall 
 determine the matters so submitted as arbitrator. 
 If the National Industrial Board shall reach a 
 unanimous agreement, it shall report its determina- 
 tion back to the Regional Adjustment Conference, 
 which shall in accordance therewith state the agree- 
 ment between the parties to the dispute the same 
 as if the Conference had reached a unanimous con- 
 clusion. If the National Industrial Board shall 
 fail to reach a unanimous conclusion, it shall make 
 majority and minority reports and transmit them 
 to the regional chairman, who shall immediately 
 publish such reports, or such adequate abstracts 
 thereof, as may be necessary to inform the public 
 of the material facts and the reasons why the 
 Board was unable to reach an agreement. If the 
 Conference does not reach an agreement and its 
 disagreement relates to matters other than wages, 
 hours, or working conditions, it shall make and 
 publish its report, or majority and minority re- 
 ports stating the material facts and the reasons 
 why it was unable to reach an agreement. If the 
 parties to the dispute so desire, they may select 
 an umpire to act as arbitrator in place of the 
 National Industrial Board, and in such case, the 
 determination of the umpire shall be transmitted 
 to the Regional Adjustment Conference with the 
 same force and effect as a determination by the 
 National Industrial Board. The appointment of 
 representatives to the Regional Conference consti- 
 tutes a voluntary agreement, (a) that there shall 
 be no cessation of production during the processes 
 of adjustment, (b) to accept as an effective col- 
 lective bargain the unanimous agreement of the 
 Regional Adjustment Conference, (c) to accept as 
 an effective collective bargain, (in case of failure 
 of the Regional Adjustment Conference) the de- 
 cision of a mutually chosen umpire, (d) to accept 
 
 as an effective collective bargain, (in case of fail- 
 ure of the Regional Adjustment Conference, or 
 upon failure of the parties to agree upon an um- 
 pire) the unanimous decision of the National In- 
 dustrial Board upon wages, hours and working 
 conditions. If both parties to the dispute refuse 
 to submit it to a Regional Adjustment Conference 
 through the failure to appoint representatives 
 within the time allowed, the chairman shall or- 
 ganize forthwith, a Regional Board of Inquiry, con- 
 sisting of two employers from the top of the em- 
 ployers' panel for the industry concerned, and two 
 employees from the top of the employees' panel 
 for the craft or crafts concerned. The four so 
 chosen with the chairman shall constitute the 
 Board of Inquiry. If either side shall have selected 
 representatives, and thereby agreed to submit to 
 the process of adjustment of the dispute, such rep- 
 resentatives may select two names from their panel 
 in the same manner as for a Regional .Adjustment 
 Conference. Such representatives of ttie party to 
 the dispute, may sit on the Board of Inquiry and 
 take full part as members thereof. The six thus 
 selected, with the chairman, shall thereafter con- 
 stitute the Board of Inquiry. The Board of In- 
 quiry shall proceed forthwith to investigate the 
 dispute, and make and publish its report, and if not 
 in agreement, its majority and minority reports, in 
 order that the public may know the facts material 
 to the dispute, and the points of difference between 
 the parties to it." — Report of industrial conference 
 called by the president, pp. 5, 7, 8, 13, 14. 
 
 1920-1921. — Kansas Court of Industrial Rela- 
 tions. — "The Kansas law [of January, ig2ol cre- 
 ates a Court of Industrial Relations [organized 
 February 2, 1920] consisting of three judges, whose 
 term of office is three years [and who are ap- 
 pointed by the governor]. The jurisdiction of the 
 court is over the manufacture of food or clothing, 
 the mining of fuel, the transportation of these com- 
 modities and over public utilities. . . . These in- 
 dustries are declared by the Kansas law to be 
 'affected with a public interest.' In these indus- 
 tries there must be no strikes, and there must be 
 no suspension without the permission of the indus- 
 trial court. The penalties for violation of the law 
 are, if by a 'person' $1,000, or one year in jail, 
 or both; if by an official of a union or a corpora- 
 tion $5,000, or two years in jail, or both. The 
 court may intervene in the case of an industrial 
 dispute, either on its own motion or when requested 
 to do so by either one of the parties, or on the 
 appeal of ten citizens, or on the complaint of the 
 attorney-general of the state. It may issue a tem- 
 porary award at the outset and then after its 
 investigation a final award. The final award is to 
 be retroactive, so that if wages are raised the em- 
 ployees will be entitled to back pay from the date 
 that the investigation began. If the result is the 
 reduction of wages the employees will have to pay 
 back to the employer the amount that they have 
 received over and above the amount awarded by 
 the court. The court must proceed in accordance 
 with the rules of evidence as laid down by the 
 Supreme Court of the state. There are certain 
 protective features. Wages and profits are to be 
 'reasonable.' The workers are not to be discharged 
 on account of testimony given before the court, the 
 employer is not to be boycotted for anything he 
 has done in connection with the court, and the 
 right of appeal to the Supreme Court of the stale 
 by either side is affirmed." — J. A. Fitch, Govern- 
 ment coercion in labor disputes (Annals of the 
 American Academy of Political and Social Science, 
 Juh', 1020, pp. 76-77). — "The Industrial Welfare 
 Commission and the Department of Labor of the 
 
 429
 
 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL 
 
 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL 
 
 State of Kansas passed out of existence March 
 i6, iQJ!!, a bill having passed the legislature con- 
 solidating these two with the Industrial Court." — 
 United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, Monthly 
 Labor Review, April, 1921, p. 188. — "The first an- 
 nual report of the Kansas Court of Industrial Re- 
 lations covers a period of ten months, from the 
 establishment of the court February i, ig;o, to 
 November 30, ig20. The law providing for the 
 court conferred upon it the duty of carrying on 
 the work of the public utilities commission, so 
 that the two undertakings have gone on side by 
 side. On the industrial side only 28 cases were 
 actually filed during the period. Of these, 25 were 
 filed by labor and i by capital, while 2 were in- 
 vestigations initiated by the court. Of the 25 
 cases tiled by labor, 20 received formal reco.^nition 
 and decision. In 13 cases a wage increase was 
 granted, in 2 only working conditions were in- 
 volved, in 3 wages were found to be fair so that 
 no increase was allowed, while in i the complaint 
 of the employees was satisfied by the action of 
 the employers, the court simply approving the set- 
 tlement made. The remaining case was merely 
 referee action on a collective agreement. . . . Only 
 low-paid labor, as a rule, has been before the 
 court — a situation naturally resulting from the ob- 
 ject of the law to establish a minimum wage." — 
 Ibid., June, iq2i, p. 133. — "Employers arc forbid- 
 den to discharge employees because of testimony 
 given before the Court but no immunity is pro- 
 vided for discharge on account of union member- 
 ship or activity, and inasmuch as strikes are for- 
 bidden, it would seem as though the workers were 
 without any protection against the breaking up 
 of their unions by systematic discriminatory dis- 
 charges. The enactment of this law was vigorously 
 opposed both by organized labor and by many em- 
 ployers and since its passage labor unions all over 
 the country have made it the target for bitter at- 
 tacks. President Howatt of the Kansas [coal] 
 miners and a number of his associates were im- 
 prisoned because of their refusal to testify before 
 the Court, and both the enactment of the law 
 [and] . . . the imprisonment of Mr. Howatt re- 
 sulted in strikes of the miners. . . . Governor Al- 
 len toured the country explaining the nature of the 
 new Court and urging other states to adopt similar 
 measures, and bills patterned after the Kansas sta- 
 tute having been introduced in the legislatures 
 of a number of states." — A. M. Bing, War-time 
 strikes and their adjustment, pp. 146-147. 
 
 1920-1921. — One national and one local arbi- 
 tration agreement. — .•Xs examples of non-govern- 
 mcntal attempts to provide conciliation and arbi- 
 tration facilities, the following are described, one 
 dealing naturally with the electrical construction 
 industry and the other with the building industry 
 in San Francisco. "As a result of joint meetings 
 of five representatives each of the National Asso- 
 ciation of Electrical Contractors and Dealers and 
 of the National Brotherhood of Electrical Work- 
 ers, the following plan was drawn up early in 1920 
 and adopted in April [of the same year] . . . , 
 providing for the creation of a council of indus- 
 trial relations for the electrical construction indus- 
 try in the United States and Canada [the foregoing 
 being adopted as the council's official name]. The 
 purposes of this council are stated to be the 'pro- 
 motion of peace and harmony in the electrical in- 
 dustry, the adjudication of disputes between em- 
 ployers and employees, the establishment of friendly 
 relations between all parties interested, which 
 should ultimately result in the elimination of dis- 
 trust, suspicion, and the wasteful methods of the 
 old-fashioned strikes and lockouts.' The plan is 
 
 voluntary, no local union or employer being com- 
 pelled to refer a case to the council. [Certain sec- 
 tions from the text of the plan follow] . . . '(3) 
 That the Council shall consist of five representa- 
 tives appointed by each of the [two] member or- 
 ganizations. . . . (11) That the council shall adopt 
 the following procedure in the adjustment of dis- 
 putes; When a dispute arises which can not be 
 adjusted by the existing local machinery, and notice 
 to that effect is received by the secretary of the 
 council, from either of the parties to the dispute, 
 the secretary of the council after investigation may, 
 if circumstances warrant, request each side to sub- 
 mit the dispute to a board of conciliation to be 
 composed of two representatives from each side, 
 parties to the dispute, and one representative to be 
 selected by the council who shall act as chairman 
 but cast no vote. The appointment of representa- 
 tives by the parties to the dispute to act for them 
 on the board of conciliation shall constitute a 
 voluntary agreement between the parties to accept 
 as an effective agreement between them the unani- 
 mous decision of the board of conciliation. If the 
 board of conciliation does not reach an agreement 
 it shall make a finding of the material facts and 
 state the reasons why it has been unable to reach 
 an agreement. The chairmin shall report such 
 finding and statement to the council and the coun- 
 cil shall determine the matters so submitted as 
 arbitrator. If the council reaches a unanimous 
 agreement, it shall report its decision back to the 
 board of conciliation through its chairman, and the 
 board shall then state the agreement between the 
 parties to the dispute the same as if the board 
 itself had reached a unanimous decision. If the 
 council shall fail to reach a unanimous decision it 
 shall make majority and minority reports and 
 transmit them to the chairman of the board of 
 conciliation who shall immediately publish them 
 in order to inform the public of the material facts 
 and the reasons why the council has been unable 
 to reach an agreement.' " — United States Bureau 
 of Labor Statistics, Monthly Labor Review, March 
 1921, pp. 126-127. — ".\11 present and future dis- 
 |)Utcs [written in January, 192 1] relating to wages, 
 hours, and working conditions in the building 
 trades in San Francisco will be submitted to a per- 
 manent arbitration board for adjustment under an 
 agreement recently signed by the San Francisco 
 Building Trades Council representing the workers 
 and the San Francisco Builders' Exchange repre- 
 senting employers. The board consist of three 
 members, . . . [the] Archbishop of San Francisco, 
 . . . fal former justice of the Supreme Court of 
 California, and ... [a] consultant in industrial 
 relations and management. The findings and de- 
 cision of the board in each case will be accepted 
 as final by the parties to the agreement The 
 board may initiate investigations into all conditions 
 affecting the building trades and is empowered to 
 call for contracts of agreements pertaining to any 
 phase of the building situation. The hearings arc 
 to be public unless the board decides othervvlss and 
 the expense of operation is to be borne equally by 
 each party." — Ibid., p. 12S. 
 
 .\lso in: a. E. Suffern, Conciliation and arbitra- 
 tion in the coal industry of America. — G. E. Bar- 
 nctt and D. A. McCabe, Mediation. investif:,ation 
 and arbitration in industrial disputes. — D. Knoop, 
 Industrial conciliation and arbitration. — J. H. 
 Cohen, Law and order in industry. — M. T. Rankin, 
 .Arbitration and conciliation in Australasia. — J. N. 
 Stockett, Arbitral determination of railway wages. 
 — F. J. Warne, Workers at war. pp. 79-139. — W. F. 
 Willoughby, Government organization in war time 
 and after, pp. 221-257. 
 
 430
 
 ARBOGAST 
 
 ARCH 
 
 ARBOGAST (d. 394), officer in the Roman 
 army, though a barbarian (probably a Frank). In 
 388 overcame Maximus and pacified Gaul; made 
 chief minister for Valentinian II by Theodosius. 
 Overthrew Valentinian and invaded Italy, but was 
 defeated at Frigidus. — See also Rome: 379-395. 
 
 ARBOR DAY, a day set aside by most of the 
 states of the United States of America for the 
 planting of trees. In 1872 J. Sterling Morton of 
 the Nebraska state board of agriculture success- 
 fully inaugurated the plan, which received official 
 recognition in 1S74 and spread rapidly to other 
 states. The date is not uniform in the different 
 states; in the North it is May or near that date, 
 while in the South it is much earlier, 
 
 ARBUCKLE, Matthew (1776-1851), American 
 brigadier-general, established Forts Gibson and 
 Towson in. 1S24. See Oklahoma: 1806-1824. 
 
 ARBUTHNOT, Harriot (1711-1794), British 
 admiral See U. S. A.: 1780 (July). 
 
 ARBUTHNOT, Sir Robert Keith (1864- 
 1916), British rear-admiral. Commanded ist cruis- 
 er squadron in battle of Jutland (May 31, 1916), 
 losing three of his four ships (the Defence, War- 
 rior and Blaek Prince) and being killed in action. 
 — See also World War: 1916: IX. Naval opera- 
 tions: a, 1; also a, 9. 
 
 ARC DE TRIOMPHE DE L'ETOILE, 
 ("triumphal arch of the star"), largest triumphal 
 arch in the world, begun in 1806 by Napoleon I 
 but not completed until 1836. It is situated at the 
 head of the Champs Elyses, Paris, and commemo- 
 rates the triumphs of the Revolutionary and Na- 
 poleonic troops. Famous not only for its archi- 
 tectural features but also for the beautiful sculp- 
 tured monuments on its fai;ades. — See also Arch. 
 
 ARC DE TRIOMPHE DU CARROUSEL 
 ("triumphal arch of the tilting match"), an arch 
 built at Paris by Napoleon I to commemorate his 
 victories of 1805-1806. It stands in the square en- 
 closed by the Tuileries and the Louvre, and is a 
 smaller copy of the Arch of Constantine at Rome 
 — See also .\kch. 
 
 ARC LAMP. See Electrical discovery: Elec- 
 tric light. 
 
 ARCADE, "a system or range of arches, sup- 
 ported on columns, e.g., the range of arches and 
 columns on each side of the nave of a cathedral 
 or church. When used as an embellishment of 
 exterior or interior walls, it is distinguished as 
 Open or Blind ,\rcade, according as it is detached 
 from or attached to the plane of the >vall." — 
 C. H. Caffin, How to study architecture, p. 480. — 
 The earliest arcade was in the palace of Diocletion 
 in Dalmatia built c.300. During the middle ages 
 the use of the arcade increased ; the most noted 
 example of a Gothic arcade is in the cathedral of 
 Pisa. Beautiful street arcades are employed in 
 Bologna and Paris. 
 
 ARCADELT, Jacob (1,514-1556), one of the 
 most prominent among the distinguished Flemish 
 musicians who taught in Italy in the i6th century. — 
 See also Mtisic: 16th century: Transition period. 
 
 ARCADIA, the central' district of Pelopon- 
 nesus, the great southern peninsula of Greece, some- 
 times called "the Switzerland of Greece." It is "a 
 country consisting of ridges of hills and elevated 
 plains, and of deep and narrow valleys, with 
 streams flowing through channels formed by precip- 
 itous rocks; a country so manifestly separated by 
 nature from the rest of the Peloponnesus that, al- 
 though not politically united, it was always con- 
 sidered in the light of a single community."^— C. O. 
 Miiller, History and antiquity of the Doric race, 
 bk. I. ch. 4. — Arcadia played an important part in 
 Greek history owing to its strategic position be- 
 
 tween Sparta and the isthmus (of Morca). The 
 Spartans' attempts to force a passage thiough the 
 central plateau met with continual resistance from 
 the Arcadian cities. (See Greece: B.C. 480: 
 Wars: Thermopylae). It was not until the sec- 
 ond Messenian war that the land was finally sub- 
 jugated. Subsequent rebellions against Sparta's 
 rule were easily quelled. In 420 B. C, however, the 
 various cities, with the aid of Ar,;os, consolidated, 
 with the object of establishing their independence. 
 (See Greece: B.C. 421-418.) This attempt failed, 
 as did a subsequent one in 371 (see Greece: B.C. 
 371) when the .Arcadians suffered a disasterous 
 defeat at the hands of the Spartans (368). With 
 the formation of the Achsean and the Aetolian 
 leagues (q. v.) Arcadia once more became the 
 battle-ground for the Spartan and Macedonian 
 armies, due chiefly to the fact that the cities were 
 divided in their allegiance between the two pow- 
 ers. Several centuries later the country suffered 
 greatly from the internal disputes of its Frankish 
 barons (1205- 1460). Partly because of the way it 
 was used by the later Roman poets, the name, 
 .Arcadia, has come to signify an idyllic land of 
 pastoral simplicity and innocence. — See also 
 Greece: B.C. 371-362, 357-336, 280-146. 
 
 ARCADIAN ACADEMY. See Italian litera- 
 ture: 1000-, 800. 
 
 ARCADIUS (378-408), Roman emperor, first 
 emperor of the east. During his reign the control 
 of the government was in the hands of a series of 
 advisers and favorites. His rule was marked by 
 the invasion of the Goths and the spread of 
 Arianism. — See also Rome: Empire: 394-395. 
 
 ARCEUIL AQUEDUCT. See Aqueducts. 
 
 ARCH, Joseph (1826-1919), English social re- 
 former; founder of the National Agricultural La- 
 borers' JJnion in 1872; member of Parliament 
 1885-1886, and 1895-1900. 
 
 ARCH, "generally, a structure supported at the 
 sides or ends and composed of pieces, no one of 
 which spans the whole interval. Specifically, a 
 structure involving one or more curves, supported 
 at the sides, spanning an opening and capable of 
 supporting weight. Distinguished according to the 
 nature of the curve, as, segmental, semi-circular, 
 ogee, pointed, horseshoe, four-centred, trefoil, 
 cinquefoil, and multifoil. Arches involving straight 
 lines as well as curved, are known as 'shouldered.' " 
 — C. H, Caffin, How to study architecture, p. 480. 
 — The arch was used by the Egyptians, Babylon- 
 ians, Assyrians, Greeks and Etruscans; but the 
 Romans were the first to use it as a dominant 
 feature of both external and internal design, es- 
 pecially in secular buildings. Later in Europe 
 the arch became so great a feature in the con- 
 struction of ecclesiastical edifices as to charac- 
 terize distinct periods of architecture, notably the 
 Romanesque, or round-arched, style and the more 
 pointed (jothic, (See also Architecture,) Tri- 
 umphal or memorial arches, spanning a road, are 
 built to commemorate great military triumphs, 
 successful campaigns, or great events of peace. Al- 
 though temporary arches such as those of the p'cs- 
 ent day were erected in early Greece and Etruria, 
 the Romans were the first to erect such structures 
 in stone or marble and to enrich them with sculp- 
 ture or to raise on their summit the quadriga with 
 statues and trophies. There are two types of 
 arches: the single arches and those having a central 
 and two side arches which often displayed great 
 skill in architectural as well as sculptural design. 
 Several of the most famous are: the arch of Titus, 
 the arch of Trajan recording the Dacian victories, 
 the arches of Septimius Severus, Constantine, St. 
 Rcmy, Orange, and the Arc dc Triomphe de 
 
 431
 
 ARCH^ANAKTIDAE 
 
 ARCHAEOLOGY 
 
 I'Etoile. — See also Arc de Triomphe de L'£toile; 
 Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel; .\RCHirECTURE: 
 Oriental: India: Moslem architecture: 1300-1700. 
 
 ARCH^ANAKTIDAE OLIGARCHY. See 
 Bosporus: Citv and kinedom. 
 
 ARCH^ffiOLOGICAL^ INSTITUTE OF 
 AMERICA, a society founded in Boston in 1879 
 and incorporated by Act of Congress approved 
 May 26, 1006, with Washington as its head- 
 quarters. Its purpose is to promote archaeological 
 research, to increase and diffuse archaeological 
 knowledge, to stimulate the love of art, and to con- 
 tribute to the higher culture of the country. It 
 has founded the .American School for Oriental Re- 
 search in Jerusalem, the American Schools for 
 Classical Studies in ."Athens and in Rome, and the 
 School of American .Archeology in Santa Fe. It 
 has also departments of Medieval and Renaissance 
 Studies and Colonial and National .Art. It has 
 conducted notable excavations in .Asia Minor, 
 Greece, Cyrene, the Southwestern states and Cen- 
 tral America. It publishes besides its reports, etc., 
 a monthly illustrated magazine. Art and Archctol- 
 ogy; a quarterly, the American Journal of Archce- 
 ology; and a yearbook, the Bulletin of the Archce- 
 ological Institute. The society also maintains lec- 
 ture circuits in the United States and Canada, 
 thus bringing regularly to its members several 
 times a year the latest and most vital information 
 in the fields of archeology and art. The institute 
 is composed of affiliated societies, located m lead- 
 ing cities of the United States and Canada. The 
 American school at .Athens has been ably assisted 
 in some of its undertakings by the School of 
 Classical Studies at Rome, especially in its ex- 
 cavations at Heraeum and Argolid. The Car- 
 negie Institute supports a fellowship in the 
 school at Athens and pays ?i5oo yearly" for ex- 
 cavations. In 1 91 2 the school at Rome was ab- 
 sorbed by the .American .Academy at Rome, and 
 the American school at Jerusalem is working, 
 since the war, in cooperation with the British 
 school. 
 
 "The School of .American .Archeology was created 
 in 1907 by the Council of the Archeological Insti- 
 tute of America, with the object of organizing and 
 giving direction to the study in .America of this 
 and cognate branches, constituting the science of 
 man in a broader sense — anthropology. It is con- 
 trolled by a managing committee appointed by 
 the institute, consisting of thirty-three prominent 
 citizens and scientists of Canada, the United States 
 and Mexico; and its field of activity embraces 
 those countries, with the addition "of Central 
 America. .After canvass of various localities the 
 school was located at Santa Fe, New Mexico, be- 
 cause it is in the heart of a vast region of pre- 
 historic cultures upwards of i.oob miles long by 
 800 miles wide, extending from Utah to southern 
 Chihuahua. It thus dominates a typical field for 
 the investigation of the character and probable 
 origin of the native races of this continent. 
 The general plan of the school contemplates that 
 a portion of each year's work shall be done in the 
 field, in direct contact with the things to be 
 studied. The first fully organized session under this 
 plan was held during the summer of loio in the 
 region tributary to Santa Fe, under the personal 
 direction of Dr. Edgar L. Hcwett, Director of 
 American .Archeology, and of the school. . . . The 
 United States Bureau of Ethnology collaborates 
 with the school during four months of field work 
 and two months for preparation of reports, under 
 the joint authority of the chief of the bureau and 
 the director of the school. . . . The bureau, how- 
 ever, has nothing to do with the administration or 
 
 maintenance of the school — collaboration being ar- 
 ranged only for mutual benefit, and to avoid dupli- 
 cation of work in the field." — F. Springer, Field 
 session of the School of American ArchtEology 
 (.Science, Nov., 1910). — See also Arch.iology: Im- 
 portance of American field. 
 
 ARCH.ffi;OLOGY: DefiniUon.— "The deriva- 
 tion of the word archaeology gives little idea of its 
 present use. 'The study of antiquity' is at once 
 too broad in scope and too limited in time — for the 
 followers of a dozen other 'ologies' are studying 
 antiquity, while the archeologist does not confine 
 himself to that period. . . . Actually, time has 
 nothing whatever to do with the limitations of 
 archjeology ; to think of it as leaving off where 
 history begins, is to misconceive them both. The 
 only proper limitation upon archaeology lies in its 
 subject matter. I conceive that it cannot further 
 be defined than as, 'The scientific study of human 
 remains and monuments." . . . The first duty oi 
 the archaeologist is to discover such material and 
 to verify it; the next is to secure its preservation, 
 preferably its actual tangible preservation — but il 
 that is not possible, by description. Then comei 
 the task of studying it, classifying and arranging it, 
 and making it ready for use. At this point the 
 function of the archsologist ceases, and the duty 
 of the historian begins — to interpret it, and to 
 bring it into harmony with the recognized body of 
 information regarding the past. . . . When the 
 archieologist ceases from the preparation of his ma- 
 terial, and begins the reconstruction of the past, 
 he commences to act as an historian." — C. R. Fish, 
 Relation of arcbceology and history, pp. 146-148. — 
 ".Archaeology is the history of civilization told 
 through its monuments." Even this definition nar- 
 rows the field possibly mote than is strictly ad- 
 visable, for archsology, or, in English parlance, the 
 science of antiquities, is the broadest, most human 
 and progressive of sciences. Its scope includes man 
 and his history, the material things he has pro- 
 duced, the causes that produced them, the stories 
 they tell, and the feelings they evoke. New dis- 
 coveries are constantly adding to its material, open- 
 ing up fresh fields, and forcing revisions of opinion. 
 Such studies as religion and mythology, history, 
 politics and economics, arts and industries, man- 
 ners and customs, now depend largely on archae- 
 ology for progress not only in material but in 
 method. ... All works of architecture, sculpture, 
 and painting, of the industrial arts and numis- 
 matics, everything from a tombstone to an ivory 
 carving or an illuminated manuscript, belongs to 
 the domain of archeology. It is impossible to say 
 where art ends and archeology begins, because 
 art is merely one section of the subject. . . . The 
 process by which a work of art is characterized 
 and given its proper place, whether it is temple, 
 cathedral, statue, or painted vase, is made up of 
 elements both esthetic and archaeological. For 
 instance, the use of literary texts, of historical 
 documents, of deductions from site, structure, cir- 
 cumstances of find, are all in the archaeological do- 
 main. Also when generalization as to the charac- 
 ter of the artistic development of any period or 
 style are made, a? in the case of Greek sculpture 
 or Gothic architecture, nearly all the elements for 
 the construction of a theory of artistic evolution 
 are archaeological. By their means the monuments 
 are marshaled in ordered array, each made to take 
 its place and yield its secret. In other words, 
 without archaeology as a basis and co-efficient, 
 esthetics would not exist except in the form of 
 subjective effusions of doubtful value. [See also 
 .Architecture.! It is, then. archa?ology which 
 creates the Historv of Art. Of course it is, con- 
 
 432
 
 ARCHiEOLOGY 
 
 Definition 
 Significance 
 
 ARCHEOLOGY 
 
 versely, true that complete appreciation either of 
 a single work of art or of any group cannot be se- 
 cured without the element of esthetic understand- 
 ir;g which every true archjeoiogist should possess. 
 . . . Thus far archa;ology has been treated as fur- 
 nishing the materials for exact knowledge of the 
 past through the spade and through close study and 
 observation. But it has done far more than this. 
 It has developed gradually, during the course of a 
 century and a half, certain valuable scientific meth- 
 ods by which to utilize this material and draw from 
 it the most valuable conclusions. With these new 
 methods, of which it borrowed the principles from 
 the e.xact sciences, it has inoculated the fields of 
 history and philology, helping to rid them of much 
 loose and hypothetical thinking. In fact, it has 
 given a scientific and observational basis to a 
 large part of the field of the Humanities. Its care- 
 ful application of the inductive and deductive 
 methods in gathering and analyzing masses of ma- 
 terial and in using them to formulate results and 
 to state historic laws has made its work often safer 
 than in the case even in some fields of pure science, 
 because its data are more abundant and complete. 
 This has not only given their full value to what has 
 been discovered, but it has revolutionized the views 
 held of monuments always seen and known, but 
 never, as we now know, clearly understood." — A. 
 L. Frothingham, Where archwology comes in 
 (North American Review, v. 104, Oct., igii, pp. 
 580-582). — "The new conception, which perhaps 
 first came obviously forward in the discoveries of 
 prehistoric man, is that of materialized history in 
 place of written history. The permanence of the 
 traces of man and of the results of his acts and 
 works has never been grasped till the present gen- 
 eration. Even to this day the sites of ancient 
 cities and palaces are raked to pieces and destroyed 
 in the search for inscriptions, regardless of the 
 great amount of history shown in the material re- 
 mains, often much wider and fuller than any that 
 is recovered from inscriptions. The first use to 
 which material history is applied is the confirma- 
 tion and illustration of what is already recorded. 
 . . . These confirmations are the least important 
 use of material. The next use of material is to 
 fill out and consolidate the fragmentary statements 
 or bare outlines. . . . But the most valuable result 
 from material history is the extension of it to ages 
 before the written record of each country. So soon 
 as man becomes a settler, and acquires anything 
 beyond the skin and wood vessels of the nomad, he 
 begins to lay by history; so soon as he disturbs 
 the surface of the land by roads, entrenchments, 
 or fields, he leaves the proof of his industry to 
 the future, so soon as he even breaks a stone by 
 skill and design he leaves an imperishable trace of 
 his abilities. There is no land in which civilized 
 man has hved, in which we cannot reconstruct his 
 history entirely from his material remains. . . . 
 The history of artistic influence is an immense sub- 
 ject still awaiting study and classification, but it 
 will be seen to form an important part of the 
 material history of man. We may perhaps sum 
 up by saying that material history is the only 
 trace left of far the greater part of man's develop- 
 ment and duration ; it is quite on a par with writ- 
 ten history in ages where both are preserved, so 
 far as the whole of a people is studied as a com- 
 munity ; and the only peculiar province of writ- 
 ten history is in dealing with individual character 
 and influence. In the social view of history the 
 material history is far more important than the 
 written record as a whole; in the individualist 
 view the written record is unapproachable, as deal- 
 ing with the influences of the exceptional minds 
 
 which advance the frontier of ideas. Each has 
 its fit place, and each is entirely powerless in the 
 special region ot the other means of research. The 
 whole past of man during hundreds of thousands 
 of years, down to the little clear fringe bordering 
 on our own times, is entirely the province of ma- 
 terial history ; and even down to our own age it 
 shares with written history that power of inter- 
 preting human action and change which is perhaps 
 the most fascinating study that can engage our 
 minds." — W. M. Flinders-Petrie, Archaeological 
 evidence {Lectures on the method of science, pp. 
 225-230). — "The conservative historian might be 
 tempted to object at the start that however im- 
 portant the development of man would seem to be 
 before the opening of history, we can unfortunately 
 know practically nothing about it, owing to the 
 almost total lack of documents and records. 
 ArchKology has, of course, he would admit, re- 
 vealed a few examples of man's handiwork which 
 may greatly antedate the earhest finds in Egyptian 
 tombs; some skulls and bones and even skeletons 
 have been found, and no one familiar with the 
 facts doubts that man was living on the earth 
 thousands of years before the Egyptian civiliza- 
 tion developed. But what can be known about 
 him, except the shape of his jaw and the nature of 
 his stone and bone utensils, which alone survive 
 from remote periods? If we feel ill-informed 
 about the time of Diocletian or Clovis, how base- 
 less must be our conjectures in regard to the haoits 
 of the cave man ! It is certainly true that the home 
 life of the cave man is still veiled in obscurity and 
 is likely to remain so. Nevertheless, the mass or 
 information in regard to mankind before the ap- 
 pearance of the earliest surviving inscriptions has 
 already assumed imposing proportions. Its im- 
 portance is perhaps partially disguised by the un- 
 fortunate old term 'prehistoric' . . . However, 
 . . . the distinction between 'historic' and 'prehis- 
 toric' is after all an arbitrary one. 'Prehistoric' 
 originally meant such information as we had about 
 man before his story was taken up by Moses and 
 Homer, when they were deemed the earliest sur- 
 viving written sources. History, however, in the 
 fullest sense of the term, includes all that we know 
 of the past of mankind, regardless of the nature of 
 our sources of information. Archseological sources, 
 to which the student of the earlier history of man 
 is confined, are not only frequently superior in 
 authenticity to many written documents, but they 
 continue to have the greatest importance after the 
 appearance of inscriptions and books. We now 
 accept as historical a great many things which are 
 recorded neither in inscriptions nor in books." — 
 J. H. Robinson, New history, pp. 84-85. — "It is 
 from these diversified records, present and past, that 
 the story of the race — of the seven grand divisions 
 of human history — must be drawn. Archaeology 
 stands quite apart from this classification of the 
 science of man, since, . . . fit] claims for its own 
 more especially that which is old or ancient in 
 this vast body of data. It is even called on to 
 pick up the lost lines of the earlier written records, 
 as in the shadowy beginnings of glyphic and 
 phonetic writing, and restore them to history. It 
 must recover the secrets of the commemorative 
 monuments — the tombs, temples, and sculptures 
 intended to immortalize the now long-forgotten 
 great. It must follow back the obscure trails of 
 tradition and substantiate or discredit the lore of 
 the fathers. It must interpret in its way, so far 
 as interpretation is possible, the pictorial records 
 inscribed by the ancients on rock faces and cavern 
 walls, these being among the most lasting of pur- 
 poseful records. [See also Painting: Meaning of 
 
 433
 
 ARCHEOLOGY 
 
 Method 
 and Scope 
 
 ARCHEOLOGY 
 
 painting: Its progress. J All that archjeology re- 
 trieves from this wide field is restored to human 
 Knowledge and added to the volume ol written 
 history. Archsology is thus the great retriever of 
 history. The science of archseology is equally 
 useful in the field of the fortuitous records of hu- 
 manity, for its reads or interprets that which was 
 never intended to be read or interpreted. The prod- 
 ucts of human handicraft, present and past, which 
 have automatically recorded the doings of the ages, 
 are made to tell the story of the struggles, the 
 defeats, and the triumphs of humanity. The for- 
 tuitous records embodied in the nonmaterial pro- 
 ducts also of man's activities are made to cast a 
 strong light on the history and significance of the 
 material things of the past. Even the body of 
 knowledge gathered from many sources and stored 
 in the memory of the living, though untrustworthy 
 as a record, may be made, if wisely employed, to 
 illuminate the past; and the physical and psychical 
 man of to-day are in themselves records and may 
 be made to tell the story of their own becoming, 
 thus explaining the activities and the products of 
 activity throughout the ages. All that arch£Eology 
 
 Christ, while if the Greek historians had any ink- 
 ling of the advanced civilization that developed in 
 the ./Egean in the early second millennium, it con- 
 sisted only of such vague suggestions as are in- 
 corporated in the Platonic account of the lost At- 
 lantis. Modern interest in archaeology cannot be 
 said to be older than the seventeenth century and 
 dates from the time of the travels in the Levant 
 undertaken chiefly by the French and English. . . . 
 These early travelers have given us invaluable 
 records of numberless ruins that have long since 
 been destroyed ; but they are not men who would 
 initiate or advance a systematic study of objects 
 or sites, and that great achievement was left to a 
 German scholar, VVinckelmann, who published his 
 'History of Art,' the first modern work on archae- 
 ology, in the closing years of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury. The realization that a work of art is not 
 an isolated phenomenon, but can be understood 
 only in relation to its predecessors and successors, 
 was slow to penetrate, and after the discovery of 
 the statues of the /Eginetan pediments in 1811 
 Thorvaldsen was as supremely successful in recon- 
 stituting them perfect works of art as he was in- 
 
 ' ■nu^tps^■ -Mpfrop-ilif an .Muaeuri 
 
 REMOVING SPECIMENS EXCAVATED FROM THEBES 
 
 gathers from this wide field of research is con- 
 tributed to the volume of written history. It is 
 thus not only the retriever of that which was 
 treasured and lost, but equally the revealer of vast 
 resources of history of which no man had pre- 
 viously taken heed." — \V. H. Holmes, Place of ar- 
 chmology in human history (Proceedings of the 
 Second Pan-American Scientific Congress, Jan. 8, 
 iqi6, p. 188). 
 
 Method and scope. — "Archaeology has been 
 called the Queen of Sciences inasmuch as the 
 science of antiquity comprises all that the mind of 
 man in the past has conceived and then produced 
 in concrete form, from the primitive stone axe of 
 palajolithic times to Roman cities like Pompeii with 
 their innumerable ramifications of complex life. 
 Archaeology, therefore, is not limited to the .^Cgean 
 or the Mediterranean basin, but is all-comprehen- 
 sive in its scope, proceeding far and wide and es- 
 tablishing branches in every continent, in far and 
 near Asia, in Europe, North .Africa, and both 
 Americas. . . . The scientific study of archa;ology 
 is a purely modern development, and it has become 
 a commonplace to assert that the ceneration now 
 livinc knows far more about the Homeric Greeks 
 than did the dwellers in .\thens five centuries before 
 
 genious in his efforts to conceal the intention and 
 cover the hand of the artist who made them. The 
 result is that the statues as now exhibited in 
 Munich are not creations of the early fifth century 
 B. C, but such works as interpreted by an artist 
 who lived nearly twenty-five centuries later. The 
 sculptures of the Parthenon, brought from Greece 
 by Lord Elgin, escaped a similar fate only through 
 the subtle feeling and unerring taste of Canova, 
 who refused to desecrate masterpieces; and yet as 
 late as 1816 the English Government showed much 
 hesitancy about purchasing these very masterpieces 
 for the British Museum. .Artistic appreciation of 
 these products of Greek sculpture was expressed 
 grudgingly at first, but in due time with such 
 measure that an incessant demand for new ex- 
 amples led to a general ransacking of ancient sites 
 with much consequent destruction of interpretative 
 landmarks. Schliemann went to the Troad in 
 search of the city of Troy and returned with the 
 'Treasure of Priam'; but the brutal trench that 
 he drove through the mound revealed to him noth- 
 ing of its history while it obliterated countless 
 records which his successors would have prized. 
 It is only within the past few decades that a 
 method of archaeology has been universally rec- 
 
 4.14
 
 ARCHEOLOGY 
 
 Meihod 
 and Scope 
 
 ARCHEOLOGY 
 
 ngnized and adopted, and the secret of archjEologi- 
 cal method is the most intensively trained observa- 
 tion. . . . Perhaps this was first realized for a 
 Greek site with the beginning of the excavation of 
 the Acropolis at Athens (q. v.) in 1885, where the 
 fact was appreciated that in order to wrest its 
 secrets from a continuously occupied citadel no 
 mark on the stone could be overlooked and no 
 inch of earth disregarded Moreover the results 
 justified the method, and the history of the Acrop- 
 olis was revelaed, to the eye that can see, almost 
 from the time of Erecthcus to the present day. 
 But the best illustration of the way in which ar- 
 chsological method accomplishes remarkable re- 
 sults may be seen in the site of Knossos in Crete. 
 When Sir Arthur Evans began excavations here in 
 
 ever uniform the training may have been, and is 
 widely different at different periods of man's so- 
 cial development. The mental process of observa- 
 tion must, therefore, be immediately supplemented 
 by physical records in the form of notes, measure- 
 ments, drawings and photographs, which should 
 be complete and accurate and made irrespective 
 of preconceived theory on the subject treated. . . 
 This developed science of archseology has as its 
 broad aim the reconstitution of the past in the 
 terms of the present for the use of the future, and 
 this aim may be most easily interpreted by dis- 
 cussing the relation of archfeology to other im- 
 portant branches of knowledge. . . . The interrela- 
 tions of archeology and history are very intimate. 
 No archaeologist approaches an ancient site with 
 
 Courtesy Metropolitan Museum of Art 
 
 EXCAVATIONS AT THEBES, 1918-1919. 
 Coffin of Prince Anienemhet 
 
 11)00 everything he turned up was strange and new 
 in type. There were no parallels, no material for 
 comparison, no resemblances in product and style 
 to sites elsewhere, uncovered. So he was entirely 
 dependent on inductive reasoning, which through 
 his care in e.^cavation and closeness of observation 
 has enabled him to reconstruct the development 
 of Cretan civilization from a long period of stone- 
 age occupation to an era of the highest bloom in 
 art and culture about 2000-1800 B. C, with its 
 subsequent decadence and practical end possibly 
 by 1200 B C. — This archseological method with ob- 
 servation as its basis is not limited to cities and 
 citadels, but is equally applicable to the study of 
 individual works of art. . . . [But] observation is 
 not enough, because observation is a psychological 
 phenomenon that varies with each individual, how- 
 
 thc purpose of study or of excavation without per- 
 fect familiarity with every scrap of information 
 available in earlier writers. . . . History also re- 
 veals important data by means of which sites have 
 been identified and cities located. . . . Thus a 
 knowledge of ancient, medieeval, and modern his- 
 tory is a necessary preliminary to practical archae- 
 ology ; but on the other hand archa:ology U the 
 great maker of history. . . . Every inscription is a 
 contemporary historical document ; every site ex- 
 cavated writes a new chapter of history. But the 
 spade has gone even further and constructed whole 
 departments of history, which by way of distinc- 
 tion are called protohistory and prehistory; and 
 the prehistory of Crete furnishes us more infor- 
 mation of man's life, actions, and social develop- 
 ment than is available for many periods comprised 
 
 435
 
 ARCHJEOLOGY 
 
 Development 
 
 ARCHiEOLOGY 
 
 within historical limits." — T. L. Shear, Archa-ology 
 as a liberal study (Columbia University Quarterly, 
 June, IQI7, pp. 238-265). — See also /Egean crviL- 
 
 IZ.^TION. 
 
 Development. — "The excavations that have 
 given us the skulls of the earliest men, the rock- 
 pictures sonic fifteen or twenty thousand years old, 
 and the earliest fashioned implements and potteries 
 are archsology's contribution to anthropology and 
 pre-history. [See also Europe: Prehistoric period: 
 Paleolithic art] For the age when historic civiliza- 
 tions began, at the close of the Neolithic Age, after 
 Sooo or 4000 B. C, it is only necessary, in order to 
 realize the revolution brought about by archseology, 
 to pick out any ancient history written more than 
 seventy years ago, . . . and compare it with one 
 written during the last two or three decades. It 
 is difficult to realize that only a little more than 
 a century ago, almost nothing was known of 
 ancient history prior to the days of Greece and 
 Rome, except the account given in the Old 
 Testament. [See also Moabites.] Following the 
 discovery of the Rosetta Stone by one of Na- 
 poleon's soldiers in Egypt and its decipherment 
 by Champollion a few years later, many events in 
 the history of Egypt became known and inter- 
 est was aroused in other fields. [See also Archi- 
 tecture: Oriental: Egypt; Egypt: About B.C. 
 1500-1400; Jerusalem: 1850-1QO0; Jews; Children 
 of Israel in Egypt.] The rapid growth of modern 
 science in the early years of the nineteenth century, 
 the development of biblical criticism furnished 
 further motives for archaeological research. The 
 excavation and resurrection of the ancient cities 
 of Assyria, Babylonia [see also Arciiitecture : 
 Oriental: Mesopotamia; Babylon: Results of ex- 
 vacations; B.ABVLONIA: Nebuchadrezzar, and Ham- 
 urabi: His character and achievements], and Persia 
 through the efforts of Rawlinson, Botta, Layard 
 and others followed one after another with ever- 
 increasing interest, while the decipherment by Raw- 
 linson of the inscription of Behistun in 1837 
 opened the way for the interpretation of the 
 whole series of inscriptions, cuneiform tablets and 
 other records which had been unearthed. [See 
 also Alphabet: Deciphering the hieroglyphics.] 
 Since 1840 or 1850 archeology has practically 
 created for us four thousand years of history: 
 a new heaven as well as a new earth for the 
 pre-Hellenic world. Egypt, Babylonia, Assyria, 
 the Hittites have emerged from an almost Cim- 
 merian darkness. We can now decipher their 
 writings, read their literature, reconstruct their 
 annals, religion, and life, while looking into the 
 faces of the men and women of their race. The 
 Northern races that entered so much later into 
 the arena and yet were even more intangible than 
 these Eastern nations are being unveiled by 
 archiEology: Goths, Scandinavians, Celts [see 
 Ogam inscriptions], Gauls, Slavs, and Germans, 
 from the mountains of Armenia and the Caucasus 
 to Brittany, are being shown by their archa'olo- 
 gical remains as either half yielding to the in- 
 fluence of Greece and Rome or maintaining their 
 primitive integrity. Our science is helped at times 
 by literature, but often it is obliged to seek un- 
 aided for an answer in these fields of the primitive 
 and undeveloped races. This illustrates how much 
 broader as well as more faithful it is than litera- 
 ture. . . . .After this, in the main currents of his- 
 toric development, arch.Tology must share with 
 literature the credit of picturing the past. Yet we 
 hardly realize, perhaps, how little Greece would 
 be the Greece w'e visualize if we were to depend 
 entirely on her literature, eliminating her archi- 
 tecture and her sculpture, the embodiments of her 
 
 sense of beauty, and the minor arts which give the 
 picture of Greek dress, jewelry, arms, and furni- 
 ture, with all those concrete details of the daily 
 life, the games and wars, the religious ceremonies, 
 and the thousand and one things that literature 
 leaves untold while telling us so much. Even 
 Greek literature itself owes most of its recent slen- 
 der additions to the work of the archaeologists who 
 have unearthed the papyri preserved in the sands of 
 the Fayum. . . . The real significance of all the 
 material things produced by man, their relation 
 to thought and life and their correlation to one 
 another, is so recent and so blinding that it is 
 hardly as yet understood that any attempt to study 
 the world's past without their help is bound to be 
 futile, misleading, or superficial. It is, therefore, 
 customary to consider archaeology as a very mod- 
 ern study, and to speak of Winckelmann as its 
 founder after the middle of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury. While this is true in a large and critical 
 sense, it is interesting to note that there has been 
 at all times a certain amount of unconscious archae- 
 ology, and that the work of a student traveler 
 like Pausanias, under the Antonine emperors, is 
 even conscious archaeology. . . . When the Emperor 
 Augustus insisted on having copies of the best 
 works of Greek sculpture of different ages and 
 styles made in the exact manners of the originals, 
 including archaic works, he was obliging his sculp- 
 tors to be archsologists. ... It would not be 
 difficult to find examples in post-classical times; 
 among medieval miniaturists who reproduced il- 
 luminations several centuries old; among Renais- 
 sance artists like Michelangelo and Raphael, who 
 were so successful in reincarnating antique forms. 
 It is a curious fact that the one man who can be 
 pointed to as preceding Winckelmann to a certain 
 extent as a real scientific archaeologist is not in 
 the field of classical studies, but in that of Chris- 
 tian archsology. He is Bosio, a Roman priest of 
 the seventeenth century (1620), who originated 
 the scientific methods by which the Roman cata- 
 combs were made the basis for our study of early 
 Christian life. Winckelmann's revolutionary idea 
 was the formulation of a philosophy of the history 
 of art and of the theory that works of art and 
 archaeology should be studied for their own sakes, 
 instead of as illustrations of ancient literature, and 
 as parts of a well-ordered whole instead of as 
 unrelated objects of curiosity. It appears to be 
 forgotten that what he did for a History of Ancient 
 .'\rt the Frenchman Seroux d'.'Xgincourt attempted 
 immediately after to do for the entire post-classic 
 age. It seems also to be forgotten by many that, 
 while Winckelmann's methods w'ere published be- 
 tween 1760 and 1767, they did not bear full fruit 
 until after the founding at Rome in 1828 of the 
 International .'\rchsological Institute, with its splen- 
 did series of publications and its co-ordination of 
 effort. Ottfried Miiller gave, in 1830, the synthesis 
 of the new movement in his Manual of the archa- 
 otogy of art. In the great era of excavation 
 which had been opened by the discovery of Her- 
 culaneum in 171Q and continued at Pompeii after 
 1748, the increased knowledge of Roman art was 
 paralleled by additional revelations regarding 
 Greek sculpture through the bringing to Western 
 Europe of the archaic sculptures of ^Egina and 
 those of Phigaleia and the Parthenon. Very soon 
 the opening of numerous tombs in Italy disclosed 
 the wonderful minor arts of Hellas and Etruria, 
 especially in jewelry and painted vases. While 
 these early excavations previous to 1850 were in 
 the nature of looting forays, they afforded to 
 archaeologists for the first time a fairly well- 
 rounded survey of the various branches of the 
 
 436
 
 ARCHiEOLOGY 
 
 Fields of 
 Research 
 
 ARCHEOLOGY 
 
 art and industry of Greece and of the peoples 
 connected with her. The scholars of the Roman 
 Institute tool; instant advantage of this, and to 
 their inspiration was largely due the immediate 
 emulation in discovery of France, Germany, and 
 England. Previous centuries had been content to 
 travel and study what was above ground. The 
 new school realized that what was visible was but a 
 small fraction of what could be unearthed. At 
 the same time there was no surcease in explora- 
 tion. The new science gave different eyes for 
 
 of Austrian, English, and German excavators the 
 Greek cities of Asia Minor gave unexpectedly 
 fruitful finds at Pergamon, Halicarnassus, Miletus, 
 Ephesus, Priene, and Magnesia. At Priene an 
 entire city of the Alexandrian age was laid bare. 
 In several of these Asia Minor cities, and in others 
 whose ruins are above ground, we can also study 
 the amalgamation of Greek and Roman civiliza- 
 tion. Then a revelation of the purely Roman work 
 of extending civilization came in the exploration of 
 the abandoned cities of Central Syria [see AscA- 
 
 EXCAVATIONS IN ANCIENT BABYLON 
 The Esaglia Temple built to the god Marduc 
 
 understanding the things above ground. There 
 were also important regions of Asia Minor, Syria, 
 and Roman Africa which had never been archse- 
 ologically explored. Even now this work has 
 not been completed. The founding of the German 
 and French archaeological schools at Athens gave 
 a great impetus to excavation, especially after the 
 spectacular success of Dr. Schliemann at Troy 
 and Mycenae, and that of the Germans at Olym- 
 pia. [See ^gean civilization: Excavations and 
 antiquities; Troy.1 In quick succession came Eleu- 
 sis, Epidaurus, Delos, and Delphi. In the hands 
 
 lon], and in the . . . excavation of those in North 
 Africa through the occupation by the French of 
 Algeria and Tunisia. At the same time the period 
 immediately following, the age of the incubation 
 of Christianity, was revealed in the exploration 
 of the Roman catacombs by de Rossi and his 
 masterly unveiling of their secrets. The sharpening 
 of the critical and intuitive faculties upon this 
 mass of new material affected, as we saw in the 
 case of Gothic architecture, the attitude of schol- 
 ars toward the rest of the field, especially those 
 of the Medieval and Renaissance periods, where 
 
 4?>7
 
 ARCHEOLOGY 
 
 American 
 Field 
 
 ARCHAEOLOGY 
 
 there was little to uncover, but where application 
 of the new historico-scientific methods effected 
 quite as radical a revolution in the ability to un- 
 derstand and correlate the monuments. ISee also 
 Architecture: Classic] Between about 1850 and 
 i860 it may be said that the New Idea had pene- 
 trated every field and was being embodied in the 
 literature of the subject, and especially well in 
 such general histories of the monuments as Kugler 
 and Schnaase. In each country a solid basis was 
 being given to the history and science of the 
 national antiquities by the organization of asso 
 ciations, by congresses, and by the new chairs for 
 teaching the subject at the universities and eveii 
 the schools. In this process the science and its 
 irresistible trend is everything ; the individual is of 
 small account. Yet certain archaeologists of the 
 last fifty years emerge as among the greatest 
 scholars that the world has seen, directing the 
 current and setting a permanent seal upon men and 
 things. Such men were Mommsen, who practically 
 created the science of Roman antiquities and his- 
 tory; de Rossi, who gave us a complete science of 
 Early Christian archaeology ; Evans, who has 
 brought into being both the material and the sci- 
 ence of Early .•Egean civilization. Hundreds are 
 following the paths they have blazed. In Euro- 
 pean universities the teaching of archaeology as an 
 independent department has long been recognized 
 and is also carried on sometimes, as in the Ecole du 
 Louvre, in connection with large museums. Special 
 courses in Egyptian, Babylonian and Assyrian, 
 Greek, Roman, Christian, Medieval, and Renais- 
 sance monuments in many branches, have been well 
 established for thirty or forty years throughout 
 Europe. Only American institutions have remained 
 indifferent and retrograde. In the rank and file 
 of workers the Germans show the greatest perti- 
 nacity in elaborating special themes ; the French 
 are paramount in clear-eyed and facile exposition 
 without loss of scholarship." — A. L. Frothingham, 
 Where archaeology comes in (North American Re- 
 view, V. 194, Oct., iqii, pp. 577, 578, 584-587). 
 
 Remains in Britain and Ireland. See Ave- 
 bury; SrcNEitENCE. 
 
 Relics of Buddha. See Buddha: Discovery of 
 birthplace and tomb. 
 
 Paintings in caves of Altamira. See Painting: 
 Preclassical. 
 
 Importance of the American field. — "In Amer- 
 ican archeology man in the cultural process is the 
 unit of investigation. This establishes the limits 
 of the science. Its subject matter lies mainly in 
 the prehistoric period, but this must be studied in 
 the light of auxiliary sciences which have for 
 their field of investigation the living people. It 
 necessitates the study of all phenomena that will 
 add to our knowledge of the intellectual attainments 
 of the native .American races or illustrate the evo- 
 lution of their culture. It aims at a reconstruc- 
 tion and interpretation of the order of civilization 
 existing in America before the Caucasian occupancy. 
 . . . The first task of the archaeologist is to rescue 
 the material and intellectural remains of the peo- 
 ple whose history he is seeking to restore. It can 
 never be hoped that a continuous record will be 
 recovered, but the greater the amount of material 
 secured the more nearly complete can it be made. 
 But archaeological research is more than the re- 
 covery and study of material. As history is not 
 only a recital of events but an inquiry into their 
 genesis, it is imperative to investigate and describe 
 all phenomena upon which such events are condi- 
 tioned. Therefore it is the belief of the writer that 
 physiographic conditions are essentially correlative 
 with facts of culture, that physical and psvrhic 
 
 causes are to be held in the closest possible relation 
 if we are to correctly interpret the intellectual re- 
 mains of the native races of America, whether in 
 the form of myth, ritual and symbolism of plains 
 and desert tribes, or in architectural, sculptural, 
 pictorial, and glyphic remains of the Mexican and 
 Central American civilization." — E. L. Hewett, 
 Groundwork of American archaeology (American 
 Anthropologist, Oct., iqoS, pp. 5Q1-5QS). — See also 
 America: Prehistoric. . 
 
 "Perhaps no better indication of the importance I 
 of American archaeology can be given than to refer " 
 to several of the questions which it and it only can 
 solve. Among them are these, — ist. Who were 
 the mound builders, especially of the Ohio region 
 and other places where great heaps of dirt and 
 stone seem to be effigies and represent ::nimals 
 of different kinds, or, as at Seltzertown in Mis- 
 sissippi, are terraced with architectural skill? Were 
 they the same as Indians of historic times, or 
 were they a separate race ? If the former, were 
 they not of Choctaw and Cherokee origin, as 
 Brinton concludes? 2nd. Whence came the red 
 men of this continent ? Were they a separate 
 creation or did they immigrate from other con- 
 tinents? If they did, was the Pacific slope crossed 
 from China and Polynesia, and was the great 
 Mississippi basin settled from some eastern source, 
 or were all the red men of one stock ? Here 
 geology must tell us as to the connection of the 
 continents in tertiary times. 3rd. There being 
 evidently, as we have seen, a number of races on 
 this continent, what were their inter-migrations? 
 Did they come from North to South or East to 
 West? And what were the limits of these move- 
 ments? On this the spread of agriculture, partic- 
 ularly of maize and tobacco, native only to Te- 
 huantepec, may throw great light, while strange to 
 say the banana seems to come to America with 
 the whites. This becomes a part of the interesting 
 study of the distribution of plants on the earth 
 4th. What were the limits and boundaries of the 
 historic tribes? Language is teaching us something, 
 but only by a systematic study of the districts 
 inhabited by the respective tribes can we solve this 
 with any satisfaction. 5th. What degree of civil- 
 ization had been attained by these different tribes? 
 What advance had Chickasaws made over the 
 Choctaws or the Creeks over the Cherokees? How 
 do all compare with those of Mexico and Yucatan? 
 6th. There is one matter of greater interest and 
 greater value than all the other; and yet it is 
 seldom thought of. It is this, — can we recon- 
 struct the primeval speech of the inhabitants of 
 America ? If we can, we shall contribute more 
 than we imagine to the archaeology of the whole 
 world. This was first pointed out by Wilhelm 
 Von Humboldt, and in our own times by D. (^ 
 Brinton. The reason is that the Indian languages 
 seem to be based upon a different plan from those 
 of any other continent. What was the speech of 
 primeval man is a curious question but so far 
 utterly insoluble. It is thought we can see on the 
 earth's surface a few primary linguistic stocks. 
 ... It is the opinion of many good scholars that 
 the Indians when first discovered by Europeans 
 had preserved their ancient languages and lan- 
 guage plan better than any other races on the 
 globe. Even yet two hundred independent stocks 
 are known. If this is so, a study of their lan- 
 guages presents a unique field, one which will 
 carry us further back into the archreologic past 
 then any other linguistic stock. This feature of 
 .American archsology has not been sufficiently no- 
 ticed. The har\'est truly is plentiful, but the la- 
 borers are few. Finally therefore in studying 
 
 438
 
 ARCHiEOLOGY 
 
 American Field 
 Chronology 
 
 ARCHEOLOGY 
 
 Indian antiquities we are carrying ourselves further 
 back into the past of the human race, getting closer 
 to the primitive savage, than is possible in the 
 study of any other tribes on the globe, and be- 
 coming better able to decipher the beginnings of 
 all human civilization than is possible in any 
 other way!" — P. J. Hamilton, Importance of ar- 
 chaeology, pp. 263-264. — "It is sufficient for me, in 
 order to show wliat. significant impulses have pro- 
 ceeded from both the archeology and the ethnog- 
 raphy of America, to recall to you that the whole 
 modern development of primitive sociology took 
 its real beginning from the investigations of Lewis 
 H. Morgan into the tribal constitution of the 
 Iroquois, and that in the most recent researches into 
 the philosophy of religion the old Mexican belief 
 is beginning to play an increasingly important 
 part. American archeology and ethnography are 
 also of the greatest importance to general eth- 
 nology. . . . For that science, also, which tries to 
 search out the mysteries of the laws which have 
 governed the human mind in its development from 
 its obscure beginnings, the observations which we 
 have made or are in a position to make on Ameri- 
 can soil will be of greater importance than those 
 made in any other part of the world. For the 
 observations made here have all the advantages of 
 pure experiment. That is the special privilege of 
 American studies, and the special interest which 
 attaches to them. To provide the material for 
 that comprehensive science, the study of the human 
 race as a whole is thus not only the real and 
 greatest task of American archeology, but also 
 its most rewarding. It will be a great joy to me 
 if the conviction of this shall spread in ever wider 
 circles, and bring to American archeology the new 
 laborers of which it still has such pressing need." — 
 G. E. Seler, Problems of archeology (Congress of 
 Arts and Sciences, 1Q04, pp. 540-541.) — "There is 
 an awakening to the place of the native American 
 race in culture history which Americanists are 
 happy to see and encourage. There is a destiny 
 for the American Indians more honorable than to 
 be exploited as material for stirring fiction and 
 spectacular exhibition. They are being recognized 
 as representatives of a race of splendid works and 
 noble characteristics — a people who, in spite of the 
 appalling adversities of the last four centuries, may 
 look forward to a future on the high plane of 
 their ancient traditions. Masterpieces of art worthy 
 of presentation to the public in museums, galleries, 
 and publications devoted to art and culture ; archi- 
 tecture which in design and construction com- 
 mands the admiration of the master-builders of 
 today ; systems of government and religion, ideals 
 of right and practice of justice matching the most 
 exalted that civilization has brought forth — these 
 are achievements of the Indian race worthy of the 
 consideration of the educated. Classical archae- 
 ology has long had its constituency of scholars, 
 consistently true to the ancient shrines, keeping 
 alive the literature, art and drama of the people 
 who set standards for the modern world. There 
 has been no lack of capable exponents for every 
 branch of Caucasian culture through its own racial 
 eyes and mind and forms of expression. The 
 Indian race has had few to maintain its sacred 
 fires. The disposition has been to put them out 
 rather than to preserve them. History affords no 
 parallel to the absolute, relentless subjugation of 
 an entire race inhabiting a whole continent. It 
 has been interpreted to the world almost wholly 
 by its alien conquerors; less and less unsympathet- 
 ically as years go by, and in some instances with 
 rare understanding, but, nevertheless, by those of 
 other blood. ... It would do no harm to forget 
 
 most of the efforts that have been made to explain 
 the Indian race and let its works tell the story. . . . 
 Literary record is absent and vocal representation 
 not much used. But these can be spared, for the 
 race has, like every other, revealed itself in its art. 
 There was no conscious effort to do it. So the 
 picture is true. What the race actually thought, 
 felt, did, is clear. Words would only obscure it. 
 The vast archaeological heritage from the unknown 
 .America of two or three millenniums furnishes an 
 authentic history of the Indian people. It is their 
 own picture of themselves, their testimony as to 
 how they met and tried to solve the problems that 
 all humanity has confronted. There has been a 
 singular tendency to think of the ancient master- 
 works of the race found in Mexico [see Mitla], 
 Central .'\merica and South America, as other 
 than Indian art. It is necessary to repeat . . . 
 that all native American remains, whether of 
 plains, tribes, mound-builders, cliff-dwellers, Pue- 
 blo, Navaho, Toltec, Aztec, Maya [see Aztec and 
 Maya picture-writing], Inca [see Peru: 1200- 
 1527], are just the works of the Indian. Plain fic- 
 tion and romantic archaeology have a firm hold 
 on the reading public. The most homogeneous of 
 all racial art is that of the .'\merican Indian. 
 Chronologically it is without serious gaps, and 
 ethnologically it is unbroken. . . . The Indian race 
 and its achievements, then, constitute America's 
 archaeological heritage. It has a very intimate and 
 particular interest to us in the United States where 
 we have forcibly intervened in its destiny and 
 where it is being slowly incorporated into our 
 citizenship. . . . Viewed from any standpoint it 
 is a noble heritage that comes down to us from 
 the long past of America — a heritage of experience, 
 of thought, of expression, recorded in art, religion, 
 social order ; results of fervent aspiration and 
 mighty effort; a race pressing its way toward the 
 sun. Its study is the finest aspect of the con- 
 servation movement — the conservation of human- 
 ity; an attempt to rescue and preserve the life 
 history of a great division of the human species." — 
 E. L. Hewett, America's archceological heritage 
 {.Art and archceology, Dec, 1Q16, pp. 257-266). 
 
 For description and bibliography of archaeo- 
 logical research and antiquities, see names of the 
 various continents, peoples and countries; also 
 Architecture; Painting; Sculpture. 
 
 Chronology of important events in the devel- 
 opment of archaeological research: 
 
 1762-1816. Stuart and Revett's "Antiquities of 
 .Athens" (4 vols.). 
 
 1764. Winckelmann's "Geschichte der Kunst des 
 Altertums." 
 
 I7Q7. Treaty of Tolentino: Roman antiques de- 
 livered to France. 
 
 1708-1801. Bonaparte's Expedition to Egypt; 
 London acquires the Rosetta Stone. 
 
 I7gg. Pompeii: excavations by Championnet. 
 
 1800-3. Athens: Elgin works there. 
 
 1801. Opening of the Musee Napoleon. 
 
 1804. Paris: Societe des Antiquaires de France. 
 
 1805. London acquires the Townley collection. 
 1807. Wilkins, "Antiquities of Magna Gracia." 
 
 Pompeii: excavations under Queen Caro- 
 line. 
 
 1811-12. ^gina: pediment groups of the tem- 
 ple; acquired by Munich. 
 
 1812. Burckhardt discovers Petra. 
 
 1812-14. Bassi: the frieze; acquired by London. 
 
 1815. Visconti, "Memoires sur des ouvrages de 
 sculpture du Parthenon." 
 
 1816. The British Museum acquires the Elgin 
 Marbles. 
 
 439
 
 ARCHiEOLOGY 
 
 Chronology 
 of Research 
 
 ARCHJEOLOGY 
 
 1816. The antiques of the Musee Napoleon are 
 returned. 
 
 181 6-1 7. Laborde, "Monuments de la France." 
 1818. Quatremere, "Lettres a M. Canova." 
 
 1820. Aphrodite of Melos. 
 
 182 1. Nibby recognizes the groups of Galatians 
 from Pergamon. 
 
 1821-2. The Athenian Acropolis bombarded by 
 V'outier. 
 
 1822. 1824. Gerhard in Rome: in Etruria. 
 
 1823. Panofka in Rome; Society of the Roman 
 Hyperboreans. 
 
 1826. The Athenian Acropolis bombarded by 
 Reshid Pasha. 
 
 1827. Corneto; wall paintings. 
 
 1828-9. \'ulci: mural paintings; discovery of 
 vases 
 
 182S-30. Egypt: Italian expedition under the 
 direction of Rosellini and Champollion. 
 
 1S29. Rome: Institute di corrispondenza arche- 
 ologica. 
 
 Olympia: French excavations at the Tem- 
 ple of Zeus. 
 
 1830. The conquest of Algeria begun. 
 
 The Crimea: Dulrux opens the Kul Oba, 
 near Kertch. 
 
 Opening of the Museum in Berlin and 
 the Glyptothek in Munich. 
 
 1831. Pompeii: mosaic, Alexander the Great. 
 
 1832. Thomsen distinguishes the Stone Age, 
 Bronze Age, and Iron Age. 
 
 1833-6. Athens: clearing of the citadel by 
 Ross. 
 
 1834. Dodwell, "Views of Cyclopian Remains." 
 1834-42. Serradifalco, "Archita della Sicilia." 
 
 1835. Athens: reconstruction of the Temple of 
 Apteros Nike. 
 
 1836. Cervetri: the Regulini-Galassi Tomb. 
 
 1837. Rawlinson deciphers the inscription of 
 Behistun. 
 
 Athens: Pennethorne discovers the horizon- 
 tal curves on the Parthenon. 
 
 Athens: Founding of Greek Archaeolog- 
 ical Society. 
 
 Kramer on "The Origin and Style of Greek 
 Painted Pottery." 
 
 1838-44. Fellows travels in Lycia. 
 1830. Discovery of the Sophocles statue. 
 1 840- 1. Coste and Flandin travel in Persia. 
 1842. Luni: pediment groups of terra-cotta. 
 London acquires the Nereid Monument 
 from Xanthos. 
 
 1S43-4, 1845. Ross in Rhodes; inscriptions of 
 artists; work in Cyprus. 
 
 1843-5. Egypt: Lepsius directs the Prussian ex- 
 pedition. 
 
 1843-6. Khorsabad excavated by Botta. 
 1845-7. Layard excavates Niirfrud. 
 1846. Halicarnassos: reliefs sent to London. 
 The Apollo of Tenea discovered. 
 First find at Hallstatt. 
 
 Boucher de Perthes begins a prehistoric 
 publication. 
 
 Athens: ficole Frangaise. 
 1848. Rome: paintings of the Odyssey in the 
 Via Graziosa. 
 
 184Q. Rome: the Apoxyomenos of Lysippos. 
 Rome: discovery of the Catacomb of 
 Calixtus by De Rossi. 
 
 184Q-51. Excavations at Kuyunjik by Layard 
 and Rassam. 
 
 1849-52, 1853-5. Loftus in Babylonia. 
 1851. Penrose, "An Investigation of the Prin- 
 ciples of Athenian Architecture." 
 
 1851-5. Memphis: Marielte discovers the Sera- 
 peum. 
 
 1852. The Heraion near Argos examined. 
 
 Beginning of the excavations in southern 
 Russia. 
 
 1852-3. Athens: Beule uncovers the approach 
 to the citadel. 
 
 1S53. First discoveries in caves in southern 
 France. 
 
 The Marsyas of Myron recognized by 
 Brunn. 
 
 Vienna: Commission appointed for in- 
 vestigating and preserving architectural monuments. 
 1854. First discovery of pile-dwellings in 
 Switzerland. 
 
 Sardes: Spiegelthal examines the Tomb of 
 Alyattes. 
 
 1855-bo. Pompeii: the Stabian Therms. 
 
 1857. Halicarnassos: Newton uncovers the 
 Mausoleum. 
 
 1858. Athens: Odeion of Herodes .\tticus. 
 
 1859. Eleusinian relief discovered. 
 Lenormant discovers statuette of Athene. 
 London acquires vases from Karaeiros (Salz- 
 
 mann). 
 
 i860. Renan travels in Phcrnicia. 
 
 Cyrene: Smith and Porcher. 
 1860-75. Pompeii: Fiorelli directs the excava- 
 tions. 
 
 1861-2. Delphi: Foucart and Wescher. 
 
 De Vogue travels in the Hauran. 
 1861-9. Rome; excavations on the Palatine. 
 1862. Athens: Botticher (Acropolis), Curtius 
 (Pnyx), and Strack (theatre). 
 
 1862-3. Nikopol: discoveries of tombs. 
 1S63. Rome: Augustus from Prima Porta. 
 Samothrace: Nike (Champoiseau) . 
 Kirchoff, "Studien zur Geschichte des grie- 
 chischen Alphabets" (Chalcidian vases). 
 
 Friedrichs recognizes the Doryphoros of 
 Polykleitos. 
 
 1864. Thasos: Miller. 
 
 First discoveries at La Tene. 
 
 1565. Rome: the temple on the Capitoline. 
 .Alexandria: the sanctuary of Arsinoe. 
 
 1566. Smintheion and Temple of Athene at 
 Pricnc: PuUan. 
 
 1S66-Q. Humann in Asia Minor. 
 1S67-9. Cyprus: Cesnola. 
 
 1865. Schliemann visits the Homeric sites. 
 Hildeshcim: discover}' of the silver treas- 
 ures. 
 
 i860. Rome: House of Livia. 
 1860-74. Ephesus: Wood discovers the Arte- 
 mision. 
 
 1S70. Brunn recognizes the statues from the vo- 
 tive offering of .Aittalos. 
 
 Conze, "Zur Geschichte der Anfange der 
 griechischen Kunst" (Geometric style). 
 
 1870-71. .'Vthens: the Street of Tombs at the 
 Dipylon ; vases. 
 
 1870-4. Tanagra; the discovery of terra-cottas. 
 1871. Troy: Schliemann. 
 
 The Archsological Institute becomes a 
 Prussian government institution. 
 
 Helbig recognizes the Diadumcnos of Poly- 
 kleitos. 
 
 1S72. Rome: the reliefs of the tribune in the 
 Forum. 
 
 1873. Samothrace: .\ustrian excavations. 
 
 Mau distinguishes the periods of Pom- 
 pcian wall paintings. 
 
 Helbig, "Untcrsuchungen iiber die cam- 
 panische VVandmalerei" (Hellenism). 
 1S74. Mycens: Schliemann. 
 
 The German Archsological Institute be- 
 comes an imperial institution. 
 
 1875. Samothrace: Austrian excavations. 
 
 440
 
 ARCHiEOLOGY 
 
 Chronology 
 of Research 
 
 ARCHEOLOGY 
 
 1875-80. Olympia: German excavations. 
 1875-6. Rome: Temple of the Capitoline Jupi- 
 ter. 
 
 1876. Athens: Asklepieion: tower removed from 
 south wing of Propylaea. 
 
 La Tene: beginning of excavations. 
 
 1877. Olympia: the Hermes of Praxiteles. 
 Sparta: Myceneean finds. 
 
 1877-94. Delos: French excavations. 
 1877-1007. Carnuntum: excavations. 
 
 1878. Troy: Schliemann a second time. 
 Knossos: Kalokairinos' excavations. 
 Andreas at Persepolis. 
 
 1878-86. Pergamon: Prussian excavations. 
 
 1879. Samos: Girard investigates the Heraion. 
 London: Society for the Promotion of 
 
 Hellenic Studies. 
 
 Boston: Archaeological Institute of Amer- 
 ica. 
 
 1870-81. Duhn collects remains of the Augustan 
 Ara Pacis. 
 
 1880. Flinders Petrie begins to work in Egypt. 
 Delphi: Haussoullier. 
 
 Orchomenos: Schliemann. 
 Menidi: vaulted tomb. 
 F. Lenormant in Southern Italy. 
 1880-2. Myrina: French excavations. 
 18S1. Clermont-Ganneau travels in Phcenicia. 
 Maspero begins to work in Egypt. 
 Dijrpfeld, Borrmann, and others study col- 
 oured architectural terra-cottas. 
 
 Tunis under a French protectorate. 
 Constantinople: Museum in the Tchinili- 
 Kiosk. 
 
 1881-3. Assos: American excavations. 
 1881-1903. Hieron of Epidauros: Greek excava- 
 tions. 
 
 1882. Caria and Lycia: Austrian excavations 
 (Giblbashi). 
 
 Sardes: Dennis opens a tumulus. 
 Clazomenai: first painted terra-cotta sar- 
 cophagi found. 
 
 Samos: conduits of Eupalinos. 
 Wilson visits Petra. 
 
 Robert distinguishes a class of vases as 
 of Polygnotan style. 
 
 Athens: American School of Classical 
 Studies. 
 
 London: Egypt Exploration Fund. 
 1882-90. Eleusis: Greek excavations. 
 Adamklissi: Rumainian sxcavations. 
 
 1884. Crete: the grotto of Zeus on Mt. Ida, 
 Italian excavations. 
 
 Tiryns: Schliemann. 
 
 Athens: Stamatakes begins excavations on 
 the Acropolis. 
 
 Wright, "Empire of the Hittites." 
 
 Dorpfeld elucidates the most ancient Greek 
 architecture. 
 
 1885. Athens: British School. 
 Dorpfeld on the Propylaea. 
 
 1885-91. Athens: Kavvadias directs excavations 
 on the Acropolis. 
 
 1S86. Athens: statue of a woman by Antenor. 
 
 1886. 1889, 1895. Athens, Dionysic Theatre, 
 Dorpfeld. 
 
 1887. Sidon: Tombs of princes, Alexander sar- 
 cophagus. 
 
 Tell-el-Amarna: Archives on clay tablets. 
 Fayum: the first paintings on mummies. 
 Delphi: Pomtow. 
 Eleusis: Eubouleus. 
 Rome: Ludovisi marble throne. 
 1887-8. Athens: the Stoa of Eumenes. 
 
 Mantineia: French excavations, Praxitelean 
 reliefs. 
 
 1888. Vaphio, near Sparta: Greek excavations, 
 Mycenaean gold cups found. 
 
 Senjirli: first German excavations. 
 
 1888-99. Marzabotto: Italian excavations plan 
 of city. 
 
 1888-1900. Babylonia (Nippur): American ex- 
 cavations. 
 
 1889. Neandreia: Koldewey. 
 
 Locroi: Italian excavations (Ionian tem- 
 ple). 
 
 1889-90. Sikyon: American excavations (thea- 
 tre). 
 
 1890. Tell-el-Hesy: Flinders Petrie 's excava- 
 tions. 
 
 Troy: Schliemann works there a third time. 
 1890-1. Sinjirli: further German excavations. 
 
 Megalopolis: British excavations. 
 1800-3. Rome: investigations on the Pantheon. 
 
 1891. Delphi: agreement with France. 
 Rome: statue of Apollo found in the 
 
 Tiber. 
 
 1891-3. Magnesia: excavations of the Berlin 
 Museum. 
 
 1892-4. Sicily and lower Italy: Koldeway and 
 Puchstein investigate temple ruins. 
 
 1892-5. Heraion, near Argos: American excava- 
 tions. 
 
 1892-7. Athens: German excavations on the 
 Pnyx. 
 
 1892-1903. Investigations of the Ge/manic 
 Limes. 
 
 1893. Furtwangler recognizes the Lemnir.n 
 Athene of Phidias. 
 
 1893-4. Troy: Ddrpfela. 
 
 1S93-1901. Delphi: French excavations. 
 
 1894. Senjirli: German excavations. 
 
 Samos: Bohlau investigates the Necropolis. 
 Rome: Peterson reconstructs the Ara Pacis. 
 1894-5. Pompeii: House of the Vettii. 
 
 Boscoreale: villa rustica; the silver treas- 
 ure. 
 
 1894-6. Deir-el-Bahari: Temple of Hatshepsut. 
 
 1895. Tell-el-Amarna: British excavations (.\m- 
 enhotcp IV). 
 
 Borchardt begins work in Egypt. 
 
 1895-6. Didymaion: French excavations. 
 
 1895-9. Priene: excavations of the Berlin 
 Museum. 
 
 1896-7. Athens: the grotto of Pan, northwest 
 corner of the Acropolis. 
 
 1896-1901. Thera: Hiller von Gartringen. 
 
 1S96-1907. Ephesos: Austrian excavations. 
 
 1897. Nagada: tomb of Menes. 
 Susa: French excavations. 
 
 1897-9. Thermos: Greek excavations. 
 
 1898. Vienna: Austrian Archaeological Institute 
 Berlin: Deutsche Orient Gesellschaft. 
 
 189S-9. Alexandria: German excavations. 
 
 1899. Megara: German excavations, fountain. 
 Preuner recognizes the Ai;ias of Lysippos. 
 
 1899, 1904. Howard Crosby Butler travels in 
 Syria. 
 
 Baalbec: German investigations. 
 1899-1907. Babylon: excavations by the 
 Deutsche Orient Gesellschaft. 
 
 Miletos: excavations by the Berlin Museum. 
 iQoo. Antikythera: recovery of bronze statues 
 from the sea. 
 
 1900-8. Knossos: Arthur Evans. 
 
 Pergamon; new German excavations. 
 1901. Waldstein recognizes the Hera of Poly- 
 kleitos. 
 
 ^gina: Bavarian excavations of the Tem- 
 ple. 
 
 Romano-Germanic commission of the 
 Archaeological Institute. 
 
 441
 
 ARCHjEOLOGY 
 
 ARCHILOCHUS 
 
 1902. Samos: Greek excavations at the Heraion. 
 Delos: the French resume their excavations. 
 Treu recognizes the Maenad of Scopas. 
 Peterson, Ara Pacis Augustae. 
 
 1902-4. Kos: German excavations of Askle- 
 pieion. 
 
 Abusir: Borchardt investigates pyramids. 
 Tell-Taanek: .Austrian excavations. 
 Lindos: Danish excavations on the citadel. 
 .\rgos: Dutch excavations. 
 1902-5. Geser: British excavations. 
 
 1903. Pergamon: head of the Hermes by .M- 
 kamenes found. 
 
 1903-4. Rome: excavations to recover the .Ara 
 Pacis. 
 
 1903-7- Assur: excavations by the Deutsche 
 Orient Gesellschaft 
 
 IQ04. Karnak: ancient statues found. 
 
 Deir-el-Bahari: Temple of the Dead of 
 Mentuhotep. 
 
 1004-8. Leukas-Ithaca: Dorpfeld's excavation. 
 
 1006. Abyssinia: German expeditions. 
 
 1907. Jericho: .Austrian excavation. 
 
 1908. A. Evans excavating at Knossos. 
 German School excavating at Pergamon. 
 French School excavating at Delos. 
 British School excavating at Sparta. 
 American School excavating at Corinth 
 American School excavating at Moklos in 
 
 Crete. 
 
 Austri n School excavating at Ephesus. 
 
 1910. Opening of School of .American Arch<e- 
 ology. 
 
 1914-19. Research suspended by World War. 
 
 1020. Work resumed by British, .American, and 
 French Schools in Mediterranean area. 
 
 The above table with many omissions and some 
 additions is taken from .A. Michaelis, Century of 
 archdological discoveries, pp. 341-352. 
 
 Except for the maintenance of a very small 
 staff, the various schools excavating in Egypt, 
 Greece. Italy, Syria and other places of arch<E- 
 ological interest, were forced to suspend their 
 ivork during the World War and are only now. in 
 1921, beginning to resume work on a normal basis. 
 The war has in some ways opened up many new 
 avenues of research, as for example the concordat 
 of cooperation agreed upon between the British 
 and .American schools in Jerusalem; great results, 
 consequcntlv, arc anticipated in the near future, 
 
 ARCHAGET.a;, Spartan kings. Sec Sp.^rta: 
 Constitution ascribed to Lycurgus. 
 
 ARCHANGEL, a town of European Russia, 
 capital of the government of the same name, the 
 only large seaport on the north coast of Russia. 
 From its settlement in the sixteenth century by 
 English traders it flourished until the time of 
 Peter the Great, who sacrificed its development 
 for the benefit of St. Petersburg (Petrograd), 
 which supplanted .Archangel as the sole seaport of 
 Russia at that time The United States commer- 
 cial attache at Petrograd, Mr. H. D Baker, de- 
 scribes the startling rise of .Archangel to com- 
 mercial eminence a year after the opening of 
 the World War in Commerce Reports CWashinf,- 
 tpn: GovernmenI PrintitiR Office): "Previous to 
 the war the trade of this port was confined to 
 comparatively small exports of timber, fish, furs, 
 and other local products of northern Russia, and 
 a relatively small return movement of goods re- 
 quired for local consumption. Xow, however, 
 .Archangel is the only port of European Russia 
 open for foreign business by direct sea communi- 
 cation. . . . From a comparatively unimportant 
 port about a year ago, dependent chiefly upon its 
 
 44 
 
 sawmills and fishing fleet for prosperity, it has 
 suddenly become one of the most important ports 
 in the world, rivaling even New York in the 
 number and tonnage of ships arriving and depart- 
 ing between about May i and the close of 
 ice-free navigation. . . . The river begins freezing 
 in October, but is expected to be kept open from 
 Archangel out through the White Sea till Decem- 
 ber." Archangel was the most northerly point 
 in the railroad system of Europe until 191b when 
 the Murmansk railroad was built In 1918 a 
 force of English, French and .Americans seized the 
 city and outlying district to keep it and its ac- 
 cumulated military stores from falling into the 
 hands of the Russian Soviet government. The 
 city later became the headquarters of various mili- 
 tary undertakings launched against the Russian 
 Soviet government. — See also Russia: 1918-1020: 
 .Anti-Bolshevik movement; and Map; World War, 
 1918: III. Russia: d. 
 
 ARCHAVA, captured by the Russians during 
 the World War. See World War: 1916: VI. 
 Turkish theater: d, 1. 
 
 ARCHBISHOP, or Metropolitan, in the Cath- 
 olic hierarchy, is a bishop in a metropolis, who, 
 in addition to the government of his own diocese, 
 controls the bishops of other simple dioceses within 
 a definite district. (See Bishop: Investiture: Au- 
 thority.) In the .Anglican church there are two 
 archbishops, those of York and Canterbury. In 
 the Episcopal church in .America, it was proposed 
 in 1020 that there be an archbishop at Washington 
 to act as the supervisory head of the church in 
 .America. See Christianity: 312-337. 
 
 ARCHCHANCELLOR (Latin, archicancel- 
 larius), a title held by the highest official of the 
 Holy Roman Empire ; of modern interest mainly 
 because the officer was the i)rototype of the power- 
 ful imperial German chancellor, 1871-1018. 
 
 ARCHDEACON, an oflicial of the Christian 
 church, with executive powers subordinate to the 
 bishop. ".Above the rural dean we find the arch- 
 deacon, an officer placed over a larger group of 
 parishes and vested with much more extensive 
 functions." — E. Emcrton. Mediceval Europe, p. 553. 
 
 ARCHDUKE, the title of princes of the im- 
 perial family of .Austria. See .Austria: Singularity 
 of .Austrian historv. 
 
 ARCHELAUS (413-399 B.C.), king of Mace- 
 donia. Conducted internal reforms, organized the 
 army : fostered the spread ol Greek civilization 
 by entertaining celebrated men at his court. — See 
 also Greece: B. C. 8th-5th centuries: Growth of 
 Sparta. 
 
 ARCHELAUS OF CAPPADOCIA, general of 
 Mithradates the Great in the war with Rome. In 
 87 B. C. he was sent to Greece and was defeated 
 by Sulla in two battles; deserted to the Roman 
 side in the second and third wars. — See also 
 MiTHRAOATir Wars. 
 
 ARCHERY: Use of bows as weapons. Sec 
 Longbow, 
 
 ARCHIDAMUS, the name of five Spartan 
 rulers of the Eurypontid line The best known 
 are the following: 
 
 Archidamus II, ruled 476-427 B.C. Tried to 
 avert the Peloponnesian War; invaded .Attica, 
 4^1-4:9- See Grf.f.ce: B.C. 477-461; 43i; 429-427- 
 
 Archidamus III, 360.3.^8 B. C. Led the relief 
 force sent to the battle of Lcuctra; defeated the 
 Arcadians and their allies in the "tearless battle" 
 and captured Caryae, 367; defended Sparta against 
 Epaminondas. 
 
 Archidamus IV, defeated in 294 B. C. at Man- 
 tineia bv Demetrius Poliorcetes. 
 
 ARCHILOCHUS, Greek lyric poet and writer
 
 ARCHIMEDES 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 of scathing lampoons, who lived in the seventh 
 century B. C. He contributed much to met- 
 rical form, especially the iambic and its application 
 to satiric verse. 
 
 ARCHIMEDES (c. 287-212 B.C.), celebrated 
 Greek geometrician and inventor of antiquity. He 
 invented the spiral water-screw, known as the 
 screw of Archimedes, and discovered the principle 
 of the lever. By means of engines of war which 
 he invented, he aided King Hiero in delaying the 
 fall of Syracuse when attacked by Marcellus, the 
 story being (erroneously) that he burned the 
 Roman fleet by means of mirrors. Archimedes 
 
 was killed in the final capture of Syracuse. — See 
 also Hellenism: Science and invention; Science: 
 Development of science: Ancient Greek science. 
 
 ARCHIPRESBYTER, an administrative office 
 in the Christian church, between the parish clergy 
 and the archdeacon. "The immediate execution 
 of the episcopal orders was intrusted to the care 
 of an official called the arch-priest (arcliipresbyter) 
 or rural dean {decanns ruralis). himself a parish 
 clergyman, but set over a group of other parishes 
 as inspector of church life in general and with 
 certain minor judicial functions." — -E. Emerton, 
 Medimval Europe, p. 553. 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 Definition of Architecture. — "The art of 
 architecture has been defined very variously. It 
 was defined by Mr Garbett as 'the art of well 
 building; in other words, of giving to a building 
 all the perfection of which it is capable.' Mr. 
 Ru.'-kin defined it as 'the art which so disposes and 
 adorns the edifices raised by man, for whatever 
 uses that the sight of them may contribute to 
 his mental health, power, and pleasure.' In the 
 .'\merican Dictionary of Architecture and Building 
 
 ments. Now these two operations, the prelimi- 
 nary and the subsequent one, may be carried on by 
 the same individual, or they may not. . . . When 
 a large and important building is erected nowa- 
 days, one and the same man docs not undertake 
 both divisions of the work; one part of the work 
 is handed over to one man, the other part to 
 another; in modern parlance the first is the archi- 
 tect, the second the builder. And wc may be 
 sure that at all periods when any great building was 
 
 .STONEHENOK 
 Probal'ly erected in i6So U.C. 
 
 (1901) it is defined as 'the art of building with 
 some elaboration and skilled labour; and, in a 
 more limited sense, as 'the modification of the 
 structure, form, and colour of houses, churches, 
 and civic buildings, by means of which 
 they become interesting as works ot fine 
 art.' But it can hardly be held that there 
 is one art of making things well and another of 
 making them badly. There is not one art of mak- 
 ing clothes that fit and another art of making 
 misfits. One and the same art makes flower-pots 
 for the gardener and Worcester ware for the con- 
 noisseur. So it is with Architecture. It is simply 
 'the art of building.' Good architecture is indeed 
 the art of building beautifully and expressively; 
 and bad architecture is the reverse. But archi- 
 tecture is the art of building in general. . . . This 
 seems clear enough. But as a matter of fact the 
 definition contains an ambiguity in the use of the 
 term 'building.' In the erection of every edifice 
 the work necessarily falls into two parts. There 
 is the preliminary process of planning and de- 
 signing the buildings, and, it may be, of making 
 drawings, whether rough sketches, or drawings to 
 scale or full size, as well as that of superintend- 
 ence. There is also the actual putting together 
 of the materials by manual labour and the ma- 
 chinery so as to form roofs, supports, and abut- 
 
 erected, there was a similar division of func- 
 tions. ... To be accurate therefore, we must not, 
 except in comparatively small and unimportant 
 work, define 'architecture' as 'the art of building,' 
 but as 'the art of planning, designing, and drawing 
 buildings, and of directing the execution thereof.' " 
 — F. Bond, Gothic architecture in England, pp. 
 1-2. 
 
 PREHISTORIC 
 
 "Structures of the prehistoric period, although 
 interesting for archsological reasons, have little 
 or no architectural value. . . . The remains may 
 be classified under: — I. Monoliths, or single up- 
 right stones, also known as menhirs. ... II. Dol- 
 mens (Daul, a table, and maen, a stone), con- 
 sisting of one large flat stone supported by up- 
 right stones. . . . III. Cromlechs, or circles of 
 stone, as at Stonehenge, Avebury (Wilts), and 
 elsewhere, consisting of a series of upright stones 
 arranged in a circle and supporting horizontal 
 slabs. IV. Tumuli, or burial mounds, were prob- 
 ably prototypes of the Pyramids of Egypt. V. 
 Lake Dwellings as discovered in the lakes of Swit- 
 zerland, Italy and Ireland consisted of wooden 
 huts supported on piles, so placed for protection 
 against hostile attacks of all kinds. These fore- 
 
 443
 
 ARCHITECTURE, ORIENTAL 
 
 Egypt 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, ORIENTAL 
 
 going primitive or prehistoric remains have little 
 constructive sequence, and are merely mentioned 
 here to show from what simple beginnings the 
 noble art of architecture was evolved." — B. Fletcher 
 and B. F. Fletcher, History oj architecture on the 
 comparative method, p. 3. 
 
 America. — Architecture of American aborigines. 
 See Indians, American: Cultural areas in Mexico 
 and Central America: Maya area; Mexico: Aborig- 
 inal peoples; Pueblos. 
 
 ORIENTAL 
 
 Egypt: General characteristics. — Principal re- 
 mains. — -"W'e shall not attempt in such limited 
 space, to trace the development of architecture 
 during the successive dynasties of Egyptian histon.-, 
 but merely to note the conditions of climate, re- 
 ligion, and materials which gave rise to the style; 
 
 their massiveness that we realize their height. The 
 obelisk, which is the only aspiring form in Egyp- 
 tian architecture, is also the only one which has 
 no counterpart in nature, and is distinctly a prod- 
 uct of the imagination." — M. Brimmer, Three es- 
 says on the history, religion and art oj ancient 
 Egypt, P- b2- 
 
 "The brilliancy of light led to adopting an 
 architecture of blank walls without windows. 
 The reflected light through open doorways 
 was enough to show most interiors ; and for 
 chambers far from the outer door, a square open- 
 ing about six inches each way in the roof, or a 
 slit along the wall a couple of inches high, let 
 in sufficient light. The results of this system were, 
 that as the walls were not divided by structural fea- 
 tures, they were dominated by the scenes that 
 were carved upon them. . . . The most gigantic 
 buildings had their surfaces crowded with delicate 
 
 TEMPLE OF LUXOR AT THEBES 
 An example of Egyptian architecture 
 
 © Publisbsre' Photo Service 
 
 and to note the principal examples of it remain- 
 ing. The essential conditions in Egypt are be- 
 fore all, an overwhelming sunshine; next, the 
 strongest of contrasts between 3 vast sterility of 
 desert and the most prolific verdure of the narrow 
 plain; and thirdly, the illimitable level lines of 
 the cultivation, of the desert plateau, and of the 
 limestone strata, crossed by the vertical precipices 
 on either hand rising hundreds of feet without a 
 break."— W. M. F. Petrie, Arts and crafts of an- 
 cient Egypt, p. 2. — "Thus the outlines of the 
 pyramid, of the flat-roofed temple with its mas- 
 sive columns and of the rock tomb must have been 
 familiar to the eye of the early Egyptian architect 
 from the natural forms about him. The Sphinx 
 itself stands prefigured in its general outline by 
 the hand of nature. Both the scenery and archi- 
 tecture of Egypt convey the same general impres- 
 sion of form, not lofty, but broad, massive and 
 ponderous. Such is the effect of the pyramids 
 themselves when one first sees them. It is not 
 till our eyes have recovered from the effect of 
 
 sculpture and minute colouring. What would be 
 disproportianate elsewhere, seems in harmony amid 
 such natural contrasts." — W. M. F. Petrie, Arts 
 and crafts of ancient Egypt, pp. 3, 5. — "The char- 
 acter of Egyptian architecture was also in part 
 conditioned by religious beliefs, which demanded 
 the utmost permanence and grandeur for tombs and 
 temples, the residences of the dead and of the 
 gods, in contrast with the light and relatively 
 temporary houses which sufficed for even the 
 greatest of the living. Such permanence was 
 sought by the almost exclusive employment of 
 fine stone, which the cliffs of the Nile Valley 
 furnished in abundance, and by the adoption, as 
 the dominant constructive types, of the simple 
 mass, and of the column and the lintel. The arch 
 (q. v.). occasionally used from the earliest times, 
 was confined to substructures where it had ample 
 abutment and was little in view. The architec- 
 tural members, moreover, were generally of great 
 size and massiveness, although sometimes of ex- 
 treme refinement and . . . even of delicacy. Tra- 
 
 444
 
 ARCHITECTURE, ORIENTAL 
 
 Egypt 
 Babylonia 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, ORIENTAL 
 
 ditional elements of composition in plan recurred 
 in many types of buildings. These were the 
 open court, often surrounded by a continuous in- 
 terior colonnade or peristyle, and the rectangular 
 room opening on its broader front, with its coiling 
 supported by columns." — F. Rimball and G. H. 
 Edgell, Hiitory of architecture, pp. 15-16. — "The 
 architect employed only straight lines, these being 
 perpendiculars and horizontals, very boldly and 
 felicitously combined. The arch, although known, 
 was not employed as a member in architecture. 
 In order to carry the roof across the void, either 
 the simplest of stone piers, a square pillar of a 
 single block of granite was employed, or an al- 
 ready elaborate and beautiful monolithic column 
 of granite supported the architrave." — J. H. Breas- 
 ted, History of Egypt, p. 107. — "Of a very ancient 
 period, earlier than 2500 B.C., are the columns 
 of the rock-cut tombs at Beni Hassan, famous for 
 their resemblance to the Greek Doric, whose 
 earliest standing example is more than fourteen 
 hundred years later. Another form of column and 
 capital found at Beni Hassan, and at Thebes, of 
 the same early time, imitates a bunch of lotus buds 
 and stems, bound together. . . . Forms of the capi- 
 tal are noticeable in these ruins, resembling an in- 
 verted bell and representing an open lotus flower, 
 the qlosed lotus bud, etc. The Period of the 
 existing Egyptian ruins is generally much later 
 than that of the isolated columns of Beni Hassan 
 just mentioned. Between 1800 B.C. and 1200 
 B. C, a period of great building activity, were 
 erected most of the temples, now in ruins, at 
 Thebes. These are variously known, from the sites 
 of modern Arab villages erected at various points 
 of the ancient city, as the ruins of Karnak, of 
 Luxor, of Medinet Habou, and of Gourneh. . . . 
 Of a still older period than any of the temple 
 ruins now standing, and not later than 3800 B. C, 
 are the royal pyramid tombs near Cairo. . . .In 
 construction they consisted of a series of step- 
 like platforms, diminishing from base to summit, 
 and furnished with a casing of Umestone or red 
 granite, to fdl the angles, and present four pol- 
 ished surfaces against the attacks of time and 
 weather. . . . The largest pyramid, that of Shufu 
 (Cheops [Keeops] as Grecianized in pronuncia- 
 tion), covers nearly thirteen acres of ground, and 
 was once over four hundred and eighty feet high. 
 The adjacent pyramid of King Shatra (Chephren) 
 was four hundred and seventy feet. Beside it is 
 the colossal Sphinx, with human head and Hon's 
 body, possibly of still more ancient date, now 
 buried to the shoulders in sand, sixty-five feet 
 high, and one hundred and forty-two feet long. 
 This Sphinx is an emblem of the Egyptian Divin- 
 ity Horus, one of the forms of the Sun-god. 
 The most famous Egyptian temple ruin is the 
 'Great Hall' of Karnak, built in the 14th century 
 B. C. by the kings Seti I and Ramses II . . . The 
 temple at Abydos is a construction of Seti I. The 
 'Ramesseum' at Thebes dates from Ramses II. 
 There is a famous rock-cut temple in Nubia at 
 Ipsamboul dating from this last king. On this 
 upper portion of the Kile, above the limits of 
 Egypt proper, there are many other Egyptian ruins. 
 After the time of the ruin at Medinet Habou, 
 Thebes, about 1270 B.C., many centuries passed 
 of which no remains are now known. The tem- 
 ple of Edfou dates from the Greek rule over 
 Egypt, B. C. 332-B. C. 30. Of the same time are 
 the temple of Denderah and the temples at Philae. 
 The temples at Esneh and Kom Ambos belong to 
 the period of Roman rule." — W. H. Goodyear, 
 History of art, pp. 33-34.-866 also Egypt: Monu- 
 ments; Mastaba. 
 
 Mesopotamia: Chaldean. — Old Babylonian. — 
 Assyro-Babylonian.— "Remains at the Sumerian 
 center of Lagash, the modarn Tello, include a 
 building of the king Ur-Nina — the oldest struc- 
 ture yet found in Mesopotamia which can 
 be dated — built perhaps 3000 years before 
 Christ. There is also a fragment of the 
 staged tower built by Gudea about 2450 B.C. 
 incorporated in a later palace. The early Semitic 
 religious center was at Nippur, where the ruins of 
 the temple precinct include superposed remains of 
 several staged towers, dating from the very ear- 
 liest times. The general similarity of these build- 
 ings of Assyria and Babylon establishes the essen- 
 tion continuity of Mesopotamian architecture." — 
 F. Kimball and G. H. Edgell, History oj architec- 
 ture, p. 25. — "The buildings of the Babylonians 
 were made of brick, as there was very little stone 
 to be had in their marshy and low-lying country. 
 The clay from the banks of the great rivers, when 
 moulded, was either dried in the sun or baked in 
 kilns. When stone had to be used it was brought 
 from a distance and was generally of a hard 
 volcanic kind, such as basalt or diorite. Great 
 brick platforms were used as foundations for 
 buildings to raise them above the marshy ground. 
 The Assyrians followed Babylonian traditions in 
 building, as in everything else, and although drier 
 and firmer ground often rendered platforms un- 
 necessary, the people continued to build them as 
 foundations for temples and palaces. In the same 
 way bricks were universally used, although the 
 country possessed a fair supply of Umestone and 
 alabaster. The latter materials were employed in 
 decoration, and served to line walls and make 
 pavements and sometimes columns and plinths. 
 Wood was brought from a distance for pillars and 
 roofs, although the latter are thought to hjive 
 been frequently vaulted and made of brick. Many 
 bas-reliefs represent buildings as surmounted by 
 a series of small domes, and they also show, as an 
 almost invariable feature of Mesopotamian architec- 
 ture, a parapet with a crenelateci edge as the dec- 
 oration to a flat roof. Walls were of great thick- 
 ness. In Sargon's palace at Khorsabad the inner 
 ones measure from twelve to twenty-eight feet in 
 width, and this has been mentioned in support 
 of the theory of domed roofs which would neces- 
 sitate strong walls. Babylonian and Assyrian tem- 
 ples have been discovered in a worse state of 
 preservation than the palace. The earliest were 
 probably built with only one or two stages, but 
 later seven of these were frequently erected above 
 the artificial platform on which the temple stood. 
 These ziggurats or staged towers were built 'to 
 reach the heavens,' and as kings were sometimes 
 buried in them, some archsologists have drawn 
 a parallel between them and the Egyptian pyra- 
 mids. The temples, which were enclosed by mas- 
 sive walls, contained chambers for the priests' 
 treasure, houses, granaries, and enclosures for the 
 sacrificial victims. . . . Hidden in their inmost re- 
 cess, or sometimes erected on the highest stage of 
 the tower, was the holy of holies, containing the 
 golden table, mercy seat, altar, and statue of the 
 god." — M. Bulley, Ancient and medieval art, pp. 
 77-78.— "In Babylonian and Assyrian archiiecture 
 the tower is always separate from the temple 
 proper — as though to symbolize the independent 
 origin of the two structures, the mountain-motif 
 and the house-motif. ... In the case of many 
 mosques the Babylonian-Assyrian tradition is fol- 
 lowed through the virtual ndependence of the 
 minarets [lofty towers] as adjuncts to the mosque, 
 though in others the minaret is directly attached 
 and eventually becomes a steeple placed on or at 
 
 445
 
 ARCHITECTURE, ORIENTAL 
 
 Persia 
 Palestine 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, ORIENTAL 
 
 the side of the mosque. ... At Warka, Tello, 
 Nippur and Babylon remains of arches were found 
 at a depth which left no doubt as to the great 
 antiquity to which the construction of arches is 
 to be traced back in the Euphrates Valley — at 
 least to 3000 B. C. . . . These early arches were 
 used as tunnels through which drains passed to 
 carry off the rain water and the refuse from the 
 structures beneath which they were erected." — 
 M. Jastrow, Cii'ilization of Babylonia and Assyria, 
 pp. 377-378. — "Throughout ancient times, as now, 
 the normal method of rooting in IVlesopolamia 
 was by wooden beams supporting a mat of reeds, 
 and then a thick bed of clay graded with a slight 
 inclination to permit vater to run off. . . . Col- 
 umns were used but sparingly, as supports for 
 light, isolated structures, and in porticos along the 
 sides of a court. They were, for the most part, 
 apparently, of wood, painted or covered with 
 metal plates. . . . Winged bulls of stone carved 
 in high relief were used to decorate the jambs 
 of arched gateways and the bases of towers. 
 Friezes in low relief representing historical subjects 
 or hunting scenes ornamented the state apartments 
 of the palaces. Brick enameled in colors was 
 also a favorite mode of surface decoration." — 
 F. Kimball and G. H. Edgell, Hislory of archi- 
 tecture, pp. 30-32. — The palaces at N'imrud, Nine- 
 veh and Khorsabad are characteristic of the style 
 of the Assyrians and Babylonians. These palaces 
 were built on immense platforms of sun-dried 
 bricks, enclosed in masonry, and covering, as in 
 the case of the palace at Khorsabad, one million 
 square feet, raised forty-eight feet above the town 
 level. Factors of special note in the construction 
 of the palaces are: the great length of halls as 
 compared with the width; and the immense thick- 
 ness of the walls. "The famous 'hanging gardens' 
 of Babylon were built upon terraces supported by 
 pillars and arches, and formed one of the most dis- 
 tinctive features of the palaces. It is noticeable 
 that while in Egypt the temples were the buildings 
 of the greatest grandeur, in Babylonia and Assyria 
 the position is reversed, and the palaces were the 
 most splendid monuments." — M. H. Bulley, .in- 
 dent and medieval art, p. 7q. — See also B.abvlon: 
 Nebuchadrezzar and the wall of Babylon; Baby- 
 lonia: Earliest inhabitants. 
 
 Persia: Palaces. — Halls of Darius and Xerxes. 
 — "The architecture of the Persians . . . borrowed 
 certain forms from . . . Mesopotamia, Ionia and 
 Egypt. Nevertheless it retained a large native ele- 
 ment, suggestive of a primitive columnar archi- 
 tecture of wood. . . . The entablatures and roof 
 framing remained of wood throughout the .\chs- 
 menian period, making possible the unusual slen- 
 derness and wide spacing of the columns. The 
 roof itself was a thick mass of clay, terraced, with 
 very slight inclination. Though the Persians drew 
 some decorative forms from other countries, their 
 chief source of them was Assyria. The winged 
 bulls and bas-reliefs are but clumsily imitated and 
 even the polychrome friezes of enameled brick 
 from Susa are relatively crude compared with their 
 prototypes at Babylon. Zoroastrianism. the an- 
 cient religion of Persia, required neither true tem- 
 ples nor sepulchres. . . . More important are the 
 palaces, which reflect the proud absolutism of 
 the Great King. The Persian palaces at Pasar- 
 gadae and Persepolis stood on great platforms like 
 those of .Assyria. Here these were built of stone, 
 and served at once to give military security and 
 monumental setting. At Persepolis a vast double 
 staircase leads up from the plain, giving access 
 to the |)latform through a tall columnar porch 
 flanked with winged bulls. On lower platforms 
 
 resting on the larger one stand three palaces, 
 those of Darius, Xerxes and Artaxerxes III. They 
 are similar in general arrangement with a large, 
 square, columned hall, preceded by a deep portico 
 and surrounded by minor rooms. Independent of 
 the palaces are the magnificent audience-halls of 
 Darius and of Xerxes, each covering more than 
 an acre. In disposition they reproduce the cen- 
 tral feature of the palaces, but on a larger scale. 
 The hall of Darius has ten columns each way in- 
 closed by massive walls. . . . The hall of Xerxes 
 has but six, . . . but has porticos the full width 
 of this on three sides. With its columns thirty 
 feet apart and almost seventy feet high, this build- 
 ing takes rank with the greatest columnar buildings 
 of Egypt and of Greece. The earliest royal tomb, 
 supposed to be that of Cyrus, ... is obviously 
 imitative of Ionian architecture. . . . Those of later 
 monarchs seem to have been inspired by the rock- 
 cut tombs of Egypt. Their chief interest lies in 
 their representation of the Persian entablature of 
 wood. With its architrave of three superposed 
 bands, its projecting beam ends above, this is 
 clearly related in its origin to the forms of the Ionic 
 entablature in Greece. The Persian columns were 
 slender, and crowned with a peculiar capital in 
 which the heads and forequarters of two bulls are 
 united back to back in the direction of the archi- 
 trave. Beneath these were placed multiplied pairs 
 of volutes on end, and then bells, upright and 
 inverted, in incoherent sequence. Thus the capital 
 became long out of all proportion to the shaft 
 below. In its problems of the column and lintel, 
 Persian architecture was related to the classic archi- 
 tecture of Greece, which was roughly contemporary 
 with it, and which carried its solutions much 
 further in technical facility and refinement." — F. 
 Kimball and G. H. Edgell, History oj architecture, 
 pp. 32-36. 
 
 Palestine: Temple. — Lack of indigenous art. 
 — "The Hebrews borrowed from the art of every 
 people with whom they had relations, so that we 
 encounter in the few extant remains of their 
 architecture Egyptian, .Assyrian, Phoenician, Greek, 
 Roman, and Syro-Byzantine features, but nothing 
 like an independent national style. .Among the 
 most interesting of these remains are tombs of 
 various periods, principally occurring in the val- 
 leys near Jerusalem, and erroneously ascribed by 
 popular tradition to the judges, prophets, and kings 
 of Israel. Some of them are structural, some 
 rut in the rock; the former (tombs of .Absalom 
 and Zechariah) decorated with Doric and Ionic 
 engaged orders, were once supposed to be primi- 
 tive types of these orders and of great antiquity. 
 They are now recognized to be debased imitations 
 of late Greek work of the third or second century 
 B.C.... The one great achievement of Jewish 
 architecture was the national Temple of Jehovah, 
 represented by three successive editlces on Mount 
 Moriah, the site of the present so-called 'Mosque 
 of Omar.' The first, built by Solomon (101.! B.C.) 
 appears from the Biblical description to have 
 combined Egyptian conceptions (successive courts, 
 lofty entrance-pylons, the Sanctuary and the sekos 
 or 'Holy of Holies') with Phoenician and Assyrian 
 details and workmanship (cedar woodwork, em- 
 paistic decoration or overlaying with repousse 
 metal work, the isolated brazen columns Jachin 
 and Boaz). The whole stood on a mighty plat- 
 form built up with stupendous masonry and vaulted 
 chambers from the valley surrounding the rock on 
 three sides. This precinct was nearly doubled in 
 size by Herod (18 B.C.) who extended it south- 
 ward by a terrace-wall of still more colossal ma- 
 sonrv. Some of the stones are twenty-two feet 
 
 446
 
 ARCHITECTURE, ORIENTAL 
 
 The Temple 
 China 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, ORIENTAL 
 
 long; one reaches the prodigious length of forty 
 feet. The 'Wall of Lamentations' is a part of this 
 terrace, upon which stood the Temple on a raised 
 platform. As rebuilt by Herod, the Temple re- 
 produced in part the antique design, and retained 
 the porch of Solomon along the east side; but the 
 whole was superbly reconstructed in white mar- 
 ble with abundance of gilding. Defended by the 
 Castle of Antonia on the northwest, and embel- 
 lished with a new and imposing triple colonnade 
 on the south, the whole edifice, a conglomerate 
 of Egyptian, Assyrian, and Roman conceptions 
 and forms, was one of the most singular and yet 
 magnificent creations of ancient art. The temple 
 of Zerubbabel (515 B.C.), intermediate between 
 those above described, was probably less a re- 
 
 Phoenicia. — Very little remains of the archi- 
 tecture of the Phoenicians. They . . . built in 
 stone and like the Egyptians employed cyclopean 
 masonry. The great fortifications of Arvad, Tyre 
 and Sidon are the main examples of this. Their 
 temples were merely small shrines, and in general 
 their architecture was of a utilitarian nature. 
 
 China: Typical forms and materials. — Uses 
 of color. — "Early records prove that contemporary 
 Chinese architecture is still the same in essentials 
 as that of the fourth and fifth centuries B. C. 
 The most common form in building is the Ting, 
 which consists of a large and massive roof sup- 
 ported by a number of wooden columns. The 
 walls are formed by filling in the space between the 
 columns with stone and brick. The roof, which is 
 
 . 1 "^'^ ..'-'■ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 I I . I I 
 
 ' I > 
 
 - ■ E" 
 
 " tt;K J". 
 
 TEMPLE OF HEAVEN, FORBIDDEN riTY, PEKING 
 
 edification of the first, than a new design." — A. D. 
 F. Hamlin, Textbook oj the history of architecture, 
 pp. 3g-4i. — See also Jerusalem: B.C. 1400-700. — 
 "The Hebrews . . . had no art, and never pretended 
 to have one; they were contented with the art- 
 products which other nations made for them, in 
 perfect accordance with the clearly-expressed prom- 
 ise of the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob: 
 'That He would give them great and goodly cities, 
 which they would not build; and houses full of 
 good things, which they would not fill; and wells 
 digged, which they would not dig; and vineyards 
 and olive trees, which they would not plant.' 
 With such principles neither architecture, sculp- 
 ture, nor ornamentation could flourish." — G. G. 
 Zerffi, Manual of the historical development of art, 
 p. 151. 
 
 always the most important part of a Chinese build- 
 ing, is often a double or a triple one, with elab- 
 orately carved ridges and eaves, and is often cov- 
 ered with gay tiles. Another favourite archi- 
 tectural form is that of the Pai-lou. an elaborate 
 stone or wooden archway, generally built with 
 a tiled roof, and erected only by official consent 
 in commemoration of some famous person. A third 
 typical Chinese building is the T'ai or stone tower, 
 also known as pagoda. It is an octagonal struc- 
 ture with thirteen stories, and probably owes its 
 proportions to the same symbolic idea that sug- 
 gested the Gothic spire, although in this instance 
 the symbolism would refer to the Buddhist creed. 
 The Great Wall is one of the most famous ex- 
 amples nf Chinese building. It marks the boun- 
 daries of four northern provinces, and following 
 
 447
 
 ARCHITECTURE, ORIENTAL 
 
 China 
 Japan 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, ORIENTAL 
 
 the windings, is 1500 miles in length. It was 
 begun in the third century B.C., repaired in the 
 fifteenth centurj- A. D., and was extended some 
 300 miles in the sixteenth century. It generally 
 measures from 20 to 30 feet in height, and its 
 towers, which come at intervals of about 200 
 yards, are some 40 feet high. It measures 15 to 
 JS feet in breadth at its base."— M. H. Bulley, 
 Ancient and medieval art, p. in. — "The Chinese 
 idea of an architectural triumph is not that of a 
 single building rising in beautiful lines to a great 
 height, but a large number of buildings and patios 
 symmetrically arranged and covering a great deal 
 of ground. Individualism has always appealed 
 strongly to Western nations, and this ideal seems 
 to be expressed in our architecture. In the Orient, 
 on the contrary, the family has always been more 
 important than the ' individual. It is therefore 
 quite natural and in keeping that the group idea 
 should find expression in Chinese architecture. . . . 
 Instead of considering only how his buildings will 
 look to a person standing on the ground, the archi- 
 tect plans them in such a way that they will 
 present a symmetrical and harmonious group to 
 any one viewing them from a hill or a pagoda. 
 The fact that there may be no convenient hill or 
 pagoda from which his masterpiece may be viewed 
 does not concern him a great deal, for he expects 
 all those who really care anything about art to 
 have enough imagination to picture in their minds 
 the general harmony of his design, even though 
 they can only see a part of it at a time. Any one 
 who visits a Chinese temple or palace without no- 
 ticing that all the buildings in the enclosure blend, 
 into one harmonious whole has failed to get the 
 comprehensive idea of Chinese architecture. . . . 
 The Chinese house exhibits certain features which 
 can be traced back to the tents of the barbarian an- 
 cestors of the Chinese who wandered in from the 
 West. The roof, though made of heavy beams, 
 rafters, and tiles, still retains to same extent the 
 shape of a tent. . . . The roof does not rest on 
 the walls, but on pillars corresponding to the poles 
 of a tent. The roof hangs in graceful lines and is 
 caught up at the corners like looped canvas. . . . 
 .\ Chinese building owes a great deal of its beauty 
 to these graceful roof lines. . . . Internally as well 
 as externally the Chinese house reminds one of a 
 tent. There is no ceiling to hide the surface of 
 the sloping roof and its rafters. Instead of a 
 wooden floor there is only a layer of bricks paving 
 the cold earth, with mats and rugs covering this 
 flooring. The various buildings composing a house 
 are arranged so as to face a courtyard, much as 
 one would pitch tents around a campfire. The 
 beams and rafters supporting the roofs of the more 
 pretentious houses are decorated with curious de- 
 signs and miniature landscape paintings in pleas- 
 ing colors. Some of the courtyards are trans- 
 formed into miniature landscape gardens. There 
 are miniature mountains, precipices, lotus ponds, 
 bridges, grottos, and rustic nooks. The irregular 
 rocks are so well fitted together and built up 
 against the sides of the house that they seem to 
 have been placed there by nature long before the 
 houses were erected. The proportions are so care- 
 fully worked out that everything seems to be larger 
 than it really is. And the arrangement is so irreg- 
 ular that nature is simulated to perfection. . . . 
 A striking feature of Chinese architecture is the 
 coloring. The boldness with which the Chinese 
 employ bright colors is justified by their excel- 
 lent good taste. They comprehend better the 
 harmonious combination of bright colors than any 
 other people and are therefore able to produce ef- 
 fects at once startling and pleasing. The walls 
 
 of a Chinese house are constructed of brick, wood 
 being used for pillars, beams, rafters, window 
 frames, and doors. As a rule, only the woodwork 
 is painted, but in the more pretentious buildings, 
 such as palaces and temples, the e.xterior brick 
 work is covered with a coating of plaster which is 
 painted a deep red. The roofs of temples, palaces, 
 and pagodas are usually covered with tiles glazed 
 in beautiful colors. The Temple of Heaven in 
 Peking owes much of its beauty to the roof, which 
 is covered with blue tiles of a rare hue. The 
 palaces in Peking are roofed with yellow tiles, which 
 shine like gold in the sunlight. . . . Comparing 
 the buildings of the Chinese with those of the 
 ancient Egyptians we find that Chinese architecture 
 is weakest in that quality which the Egyptian 
 buildings possessed to the highest degree, namely 
 stability. The idea of building for future genera- 
 tions was never developed among the Chinese. 
 Their thoughts have always been directed more 
 to the past than to the future. Unless frequently 
 repaired their buildings soon fall into decay." — 
 L. Anderson, Splendor of Chinese architecture 
 (Asia, June, 1917). 
 
 Japan: Relation to Chinese architecture. — 
 Fragility. — "Japan, like China, possesses an archi- 
 tecture, but one exclusively of wood; for although 
 the use of stone for bridges, walls, etc., had been 
 general, all houses and temples were invariably • 
 built of wood until the recent employment of 
 foreigners led to the erection of brick and stone 
 buildings. The consequence has been that nearly 
 all the old temples have been burnt down and 
 rebuilt several times ; and though it is probable 
 that the older forms were adhered to when the 
 buildings were reerected, it is only by inference 
 that we can form an idea of the ancient archi- 
 tecture of the country. The heavy curved roofs 
 which are so characteristic of Chinese buildings 
 are found also in Japan, but only in the Buddhist 
 temples, and this makes it probable that this 
 form of roof is not of native origin, but was in- 
 troduced with the Buddhist cult (q. v.). A pe- 
 culiar feature of Japanese houses is that the 
 walls, whether external or internal, are not filled 
 in with plaster, but arc constructed of movable 
 screens which slide in grooves formed in the fram- 
 ing of the partitions. Thus all the rooms can 
 easily be thrown together or laid open to the outer 
 air in hot weather. . . . The chief effect in the 
 buildings of the Japanese is intended to be pro- 
 duced by colour, which is profusely used ; and 
 they have attained to a height of per- 
 fection in the preparation of varnishes and 
 lacquers that has never been equalled." — T. R. 
 Smith and B. A. Slater, Architecture, pp. 77-7P- 
 
 India. — It is impossible to do justice to the 
 architecture of India in a brief sketch, — partly be- 
 cause there is so much of it ; and partly because 
 it is bound up with a long and exceedingly com- 
 plex social, political, religious, and ethnological 
 history, and the details of it are alien to the west- 
 ern imagination. Roughly speaking, however, the 
 architecture may be divided into two chief types: 
 Hindu architecture and Moslem architecture. 
 
 Hindu architecture: B.C. 300-A. D. 1300. — 
 "While stone and brick are both used, sandstone pre- 
 dominating, the details are in large measure derived 
 from wooden prototypes. Structural lines are not 
 followed in the exterior treatment, purely decora- 
 tive considerations prevailing. Ornament is equally 
 lavished on all parts of the building, and is be- 
 wildering in its amount and complexity. Realistic 
 and grotesque sculpture is freely used, forming 
 multiplied horizontal bands of extraordinary rich- 
 ness and minuteness of execution. Spacious and 
 
 448
 
 © Publiahers' Photo Service 
 
 INDIAN ARCHITECTURE 
 
 Taj Mahal, Agra, India (16^9-1650). 
 
 Jain temple of Rai Buddree Das Bahadur, Calcutta.
 
 ARCHITECTURE, ORIENTAL 
 
 Moslem 
 Greek 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, CLASSIC 
 
 lofty interiors are rarely attempted, but wonderful 
 effects are produced by seemingly endless repeti- 
 tion of columns in halls and corridors, and by 
 external emphasis of important parts of the plan 
 by lofty tower-like piles of masonry. The source 
 of the various Indian styles, the origin of the 
 forms used, the history of their development, are 
 all wrapped in obscurity. All the monuments show 
 a fully developed style and great command of 
 technical resources from the outset. When, where, 
 and how these were attained is as yet an unsolved 
 mystery. In all its phases previous to the Moslem 
 conquest Indian architecture appears like an in- 
 digenous art, borrowing little from foreign styles, 
 and having no affinities with the arts of Occidental 
 nations." — A. D. F. Hamlin, Textbook of Ike his- 
 tory of architecture, pp. 402-403. 
 
 Moslem arciiitectuke: 1300-1700. — Infinitely 
 superior to the Hindu architecture in grandeur is 
 the Moslem architecture. The Moslems understand 
 pre-eminently the architectural value of space and 
 size, the dignity of the blank wall, and the use of 
 the arch and the dome. With the simplicity of 
 the great spaces and massive walls, in the finest 
 
 the most beautiful building in the world. It is 
 built of white marble so delicately sculptured in 
 places as to seem almost a fme pattern of lace, 
 and inlaid, in the interior, with semi-precious 
 stones. It is set, in a garden, like most Moslem 
 tombs, amidst pools and cypress trees, and if 
 anything is needed to complete the singular charm 
 of the building, it is supplied by the setting. 
 
 Also in: J. Burgess, Rock-cut temples of Ele- 
 phanta. — Idem., Buddhist Stupas of Amaravati. — 
 Idem., Ancient monuments, temples, sculptures in 
 India. — J. Ferguson, History of Indian and eastern 
 arcltitecture. — E. W. Smith, Mughal architecture 
 of Falepbur Sikri. — R. P. Spiers, Architecture East 
 and West. 
 
 CLASSIC 
 
 Greek Doric and Ionic styles: Most famous 
 buildings. — Restraint and balance. — "The posi- 
 tion with regard to our knowledge of Greek archi- 
 tecture is a peculiar one. . . . We find the differ- 
 ent styles of Greek architecture in a state of al- 
 most complete development ; the preparatory stages 
 
 THE PARTHENON 
 
 © Publish»r8* Photo Service 
 
 Moslem Ijuildings there goes a mastery of exquisite 
 and luxurious detail. Of the earlier Moslem struc- 
 tures one of the most perfect is the Kutab Miliar 
 on the plains outside of Delhi, one of the 'finest 
 pillars in the world. It is a shaft of red sandstone 
 240 high, ornamented by projecting balconies and 
 bands of fine sculpture. The most famous of the 
 Moslem buildings are the mosques, tombs, and 
 palaces in the Indian Saracenic style of the Mogul 
 emperors at Agra and Delhi and Fatephur Sikri. 
 The building material is either red sandstone often 
 inlaid with fine patterns ir> white and black marble 
 (as in the Jama Masjid, the noble mosque of Shah- 
 jehan at Delhi) or marble, either exquisitely sculp- 
 tured in geometrical patterns or inlaid with pat- 
 terns in semi-precious stones,— cornelian, jade, lapis 
 •lazuli, blood-stone, etc. The structure depends for 
 its effect on the fine proportioning of arch and 
 dome, and massive size and simplicity in the 
 main design, with detail in the ornament almost 
 of the most delicate and elaborate type. Of all 
 the buildings of the great line of Mogul emperors, 
 the most renowned is the tomb of Mumtaz Mahal, 
 the famous Taj Mahal (q. v.). Few who have seen 
 the lyrical grace of its snowy domes, and delicate 
 upspringing towers would dispute its claim to be 
 
 . are lacking. But we can perfectly well compre- 
 hend the nature of Greek architecture. The mov- 
 ing principle is the column. In point of form the 
 styles are divided into Doric and Ionic; for the 
 Corinthian is but a development of the latter. 
 The Doric style has a lofty simplicity, shown by 
 the absence of a special base and by unadorned 
 capital; the Ionic has more elegance: a diversified 
 base, a slenderer shaft, and a more elaborate capi- 
 tal; the entablature of the columns is also more 
 varied, but we miss the beautiful triglyphs and 
 metopes. The Doric style with its greater severity 
 (masculine as contrasted with the feminine Ionic) 
 gives the impression of greater originality. It is 
 highly probable that the Doric style was the re- 
 sult of Egyptian, and the Ionic more of Asiatic 
 influence. What are called proto-Doric columns 
 have been pointed out in Egypt. The character- 
 istic element of the Ionic capital, the volute, is a 
 very ancient mode of decoration, and appears 
 sometimes single and sometimes double, as in the 
 Ionic column. In its single form we meet with it 
 on the roof of the thesaurus at Orchomenus dis- 
 covered by Schliemann, and in its double form on 
 the gold plates of Mycenae. [See also ^gean 
 civilization: Excavations and antiquities: Mycen- 
 
 449
 
 ARCHITECTURE, CLASSIC 
 
 Greek 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, CLASSIC 
 
 nean area.] But to apply this well-known kind 
 of decoration to columns in such a way that it 
 fits them as if it were specially created for them 
 (as theorists have proved to their satisfaction), 
 marks the inventive genius of Greek art. [See also 
 Acanthus.] The remains of temples belonging to 
 the [early] period . . . are in the Doric style. 
 This may be due to the fact that the Doric style 
 was more in vogue than the Ionic at that time. 
 In any case, the Doric style was the favourite one 
 in the west. The Ionic is said to have first come 
 into use about the beginning of the sixth century 
 B. C, at the restoration of the temple of Artemis 
 at Ephesus ; yet there can be no doubt that it is 
 of higher antiquity. Strange to say, the archi- 
 tects of the Ephcsian temple were Cretans, Cher- 
 siphron of Cnossus and his son Metagenes. The 
 building was of vast extent, more than 400 feet 
 
 found in the swamps of Metapontum; at Paestum 
 (Poseidonia) there are three, all in an excellent 
 state of preservation, and presenting an imposing 
 spectacle in the desert plain surrounded by moun- 
 tains and the sea. At Syracuse there are also two 
 on the site of Ortygia, but the effect is spoiled by 
 the modern edifices, of which they actually form 
 a part; a third, standing in the open, has barely 
 two columns remaining. The ruins of Selinus are 
 on the grandest scale of all, and have proved of 
 great importance in the history of art ; they have 
 not, however, been sufficiently studied from an 
 architectural point of view. Some remains of 
 temples in Corfu and at Corinth are considered to 
 be the oldest Doric buildings extant." — A. Holm, 
 History of Greece, p. 354-357 — See also Alexan- 
 dria: B.C. 282-246: Architecture; Hellenism: 
 Hellenism and Alexandria. 
 
 THE ACKOPOLIS OF ATHENS 
 Restoration by G. Rehlender 
 
 long, and over 200 feet in breadth; it was a 
 dipteros, i.e. provided with a double peristyle of 
 separate columns. The lonians had probably gazed 
 on its colossal prototypes in Egypt and so been 
 inspired with the idea of imitating them. The 
 remains that have been lately discovered of the 
 temple belong to the time of its reconstruction, 
 after the famous fire at the birth of Alexander. 
 Another equally colossal building was the temple 
 of Hera in Samos, begun by the Samian Rhoecus 
 and completed by Polycrates. There were other 
 colossal temples of that period in Clarus, Phocaea 
 and Branchids. The principal divinities of Asia 
 Minor were meant to inhabit splendid dwellings; 
 and Peisistratus wished to erect a no less colossal 
 temple to the Olympian Zeus at Athens. In the 
 west, we find few records of the building of 
 temples, but some grand ruins, all in the Doric 
 style, and in places which became unimportant at 
 an early date in antiquity and have long since 
 become desolate. The remains of two temples are 
 
 "The Athenians, although lonians by blood, had 
 for centuries been ruled by Doric institutions, and 
 produced the most famous monument of Doric 
 architecture just before the decline of this style. 
 This was the Parthenon, the temple of the Virgin 
 Goddess Minerva (Greek, Athene), finished in 438 
 B. C. The supervising director of this building 
 was the sculptor Phidias, who designed its sculp- 
 ture decorations now known as the 'Elgin Marbles,' 
 and himself constructed for the interior a colossal 
 gold and ivory Minerva, long since destroyed. The 
 present ruined condition of this building is the* 
 result of a gunpowder explosion in the 17th cen- 
 tury. . . . The Propylaea, or entrance gates to the 
 Acropolis (Citadel Hill), on which the Parthenon 
 stood, were a scarcely less famous structure. They 
 were completed, also under the direction of Phidias, 
 between 437 and 430 B.C. On account of the 
 extra height required for the columns of the pas- 
 sage-way, these were made of the Ionic order, 
 whose proportions are more slender than the Doric. 
 
 450
 
 ARCHITECTURE, CLASSIC 
 
 Etruscan 
 Roman 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, CLASSIC 
 
 This is a rare case of mixture of the orders, which, 
 in the Greek period, were usually confined to dis- 
 tinct buildings. Even in the case of distinct 
 buildings, the orders were not in general use simul- 
 taneously. They represent, on the contrary, suc- 
 cessive tendencies of Greek history. The distinc- 
 tion between the period of conservative tendencies, 
 religious belief, and stern patriotism, and the period 
 of refined luxury, religious skepticism, and political 
 decay. The period of the Ionic Order, when gener- 
 ally diffused over Greece, is, in round numbers, 
 from 430 to 330 B. C. The Erechtheum is the most 
 famous Ionic building and ruin. Also on the Athe- 
 nian Acropolis, it was constructed between 430 and 
 400 B. C. The new Erechtheum was erected on 
 the site of an older building, whose irregular 
 ground plan was followed in the new structure 
 from a sentiment of reverence and religious tra- 
 dition. The name of the temple is derived from 
 an Athenian king and hero of the mythical period, 
 whose tomb was beneath the structure. [See also 
 Acropolis of Athens.] The little Temple of Nike 
 Apteros, or 'Wingless Victory,' generally so called, 
 but now known to have been a temple of Minerva, 
 has been chosen as type of the Ionic illustration 
 because the small size of the building allows a 
 larger view of its details. This little temple, also 
 on the Acropolis, was built about twenty years 
 before the Erechtheum. Its small dimensions show 
 how modestly the style first made its appearance 
 beside the older Doric at Athens." — W. H. Good- 
 year, History of art, pp. 51-57. — It should be noted 
 that in architecture, as in the other arts, the 
 Greeks displayed their characteristic acute aesthetic 
 perceptions. They did not plan great columnar 
 halls as did the Egyptians, but rather relied on 
 external effect, on proportion and refined line, one 
 exact balance of delicacy and stability. In fact 
 never until the period of decadence was there any 
 attempt at impressive size. This balance, restraint 
 and simplicity, given life and variety by masterly 
 use of sculptural decoration, shows the intensely 
 intellectual apprehension of integral design for 
 which the Greeks have been so justly famed. — See 
 also Art: Relation of art and history; Athens: 
 B.C. 461-431: General aspect of Periclean Athens, 
 and 1806; Theater. 
 
 Etruscan: Character and effect on Roman 
 architecture. — "In dealing with Roman Archi- 
 tecture mention must be made of the Etruscans 
 or early inhabitants of central Italy, who were 
 great builders, and those methods of construction 
 had a marked effect on that of the Romans. The 
 style dates from about B. C. 750, and from their 
 buildings it is known that they were aware of the 
 value of the true or radiating arch for constructive 
 purposes, and used it extensively in their buildings. 
 The architectural remains consist chiefly of tombs, 
 city walls, gateways (as in Perugia), bridges and 
 aqueducts, and their character is similar to the 
 early Pelasgic work at Tiryns and Mycenae. The 
 walls are remarkable for their great solidity of 
 construction, and for the cyclopean masonry, where 
 huge masses of stone are piled up without the use 
 of cement, or mortar of any kind. The 'Cloaca 
 Maxima' (c. B.C. 578), or great drain of Rome, 
 constructed to drain the valleys of Rome, has a 
 semicircular arch of 11 feet span, in three rings 
 of voussoirs, each 2 feet 6 inches high. There 
 are no remains of Etruscan temples, hut Vitruvius 
 gives a description of them. The Temple of Ju- 
 piter Capilolinus was the most important Etruscan 
 example (dedicated B.C. 5oq), and is generally 
 taken as being typical. Its cella was divided into 
 three chambers containing statues of Jupiter, Mi- 
 nerva (Livy VII., iii) and Juno, and was nearly 
 
 square in plan, with widely spaced columns and 
 wooden architraves. It was burnt in B. C. 83 
 and rebuilt by Sulla, who brought some of the 
 marble Corinthian columns from the Temple of 
 Zeus Olympius at Athens." — B. Fletcher and B. F. 
 Fletcher, History of architecture on the compara- 
 tive method, pp. 11 0-120. 
 
 Roman : Derivation. — Examples. — Develop- 
 ment of the arch and vaulting. — "What we call 
 Roman art is not merely Hellenistic art imported 
 into or copied in Italy, as has been too often 
 asserted. It is true that the imitation of Greek 
 works was an important factor in Roman art. 
 From the third century before Christ onwards, the 
 victorious generals of Rome enriched their city 
 with a quantity of Greek masterpieces from Sicily 
 and Southern Italy; later, after the year 150, the 
 methodical pillage of Greece and Asia Minor be- 
 gan, carried on not only by military leaders and 
 governors, but by influential private persons. On 
 the other hand, the wealth of Rome attracted the 
 Greek artists, who readily found purchasers for 
 their imitations or copies of classic works; the 
 houses, villas, and gardens of wealthy Romans, 
 such as Lucullus or Crassus, were veritable mu- 
 seums." — S. Reinach, Apollo, pp. 87-88. — "We now 
 reach the last of the classical styles of antiquity, 
 the Roman, — a style which, however, is rather an 
 adaptation or amalgamation of other styles than 
 an original and independent creation or a de- 
 velopment. ... In the earlier styles temples, 
 tombs, and palaces were the only buildings deemed 
 worthy of architectural treatment ; but under the 
 Romans baths, theatres, amphitheatres, basilicas, 
 aqueducts, triumphal arches &c., were carried out 
 just as elaborately as the temples of the gods. It 
 was under the Emperors that the full magnificence 
 of Roman architectural display was reached. . . . 
 It was not in Rome only that great buildings were 
 erected. The whole known civilised world was 
 under Roman dominion, and wherever a centre of 
 government or even a flourishing town existed there 
 sprang up the residences of the dominant race, and 
 their places of business, public worship, and public 
 amusement. . . . The ruins of a magnificent pro- 
 vincial Roman temple exist at Baalbek — the ancient 
 Heliopolis — in Syria, not far from Damascus. 
 This building was erected during the time of the 
 .'Xntonines. . . . Circular temples were an elegant 
 variety, which seems to have been originated by 
 the Romans, and of which two well-known ex- 
 amples remain — the Temples of Vesta at Rome and 
 at Tivoli. . . . Although the Romans were not par- 
 ticularly addicted to dramatic representations, yet 
 they were passionately fond of shows and games 
 of all kinds: hence, not only in Rome itself, but 
 in almost every Roman settlement, from Silchester 
 to Verona, are found traces of their amphitheatres, 
 and the mother-city can claim the possession of 
 the most stupendous fabric of the kind that was 
 ever erected — the Colosseum or Flavian Amphi- 
 theatre, which was commenced by Vespasian and 
 finished by his son Titus. [See Colosseum.] An 
 amphitheatre is really a double theatre without a 
 stage, and with the space in the centre unoccupied 
 by seats. This space, which was sunk several feet 
 below the first row of seats, was called the arena, 
 and was appropriated to the various exhibitions 
 which took place in the building. The plan was 
 elliptical or oval, and this shape [was] universal. 
 [See also Amphitheater ; Theater.] Nothing 
 can give us a more impressive idea of the 
 grandeur and lavish display of Imperial Rome 
 than the remains of the huge Thermae, or bathing 
 establishments, which still exist. Between the 
 years 10 A. D., when Agrippa built the first pubKc 
 
 451
 
 ARCHITECTURE, CLASSIC 
 
 Roman 
 Sassanian 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, CLASSIC 
 
 baths, and 324 A. D., when those of Constantine 
 were erected, no less than twelve of these vast 
 estabUshments were erected by various emperors, 
 and bequeathed to the people. . . . The baths of 
 Caracalla and of Diocletian are the only ones 
 which remain in any state of preservation, and 
 these were probably the most extensive and mag- 
 nificent of all. [See also Baths.] . . . The Pan- 
 theon is the finest example of a domed hall which 
 we have left. The building, which originally was 
 consecrated as a temple, has been considerably al- 
 tered at various times since its erection, and now 
 consists of a rotunda with a rectangular portico in 
 front of it."— T. R. Smith and B. A. Slater, Archi- 
 tecture, pp. 144-166. — See also Pantheon at 
 Rome. — "Within the last few years we have learnt 
 that the vault of the Pantheon was built in the 
 time, not of Augustus, but of Hadrian (A. D. 
 
 one among the Roman triumphal arches, that of 
 Titus, which commemorates the destruction of 
 Jerusalem, shows any actual beauty of execu- 
 tion; the others are chiefly interesting to archfe- 
 ologists. [See also Arch. J The same may be said of 
 the vast utilitarian works, aqueducts [see Aque- 
 ducts: Roman], bridges, dams, and sewers with 
 which Rome endowed all parts of her Empire. . . . 
 A characteristic of the architecture of the Roman 
 period, which gives it a certain affinity to that of 
 Egypt and Assyria, is its tendency to colossal pro- 
 portions, as exemplified in the temples of Baalbek 
 and of Palmyra, in Syria. These temples, imitated 
 from Greek models, are primarily remarkable for 
 their size; the decoration is as careless as it is 
 exuberant. But this exuberance, though it offends 
 our taste, does not lack originality ; it was in 
 Syria mainly that the new style was elaborated, 
 
 EXCAVATED STREET IN POMPEII 
 Casa di Cornelio Rufo 
 
 117-138). This date is of importance in the his- 
 tory of art, for it marks the definite adoption of 
 a system of construction, the further development 
 of which was to produce Byzantine and Roman- 
 esque architecture. From the first century after 
 Christ to the time of the completion of St. Peter's 
 at Rome, the problem of the vault never ceased 
 to occupy architects. The various solutions they 
 essayed had a powerful influence on the succes- 
 sive styles. Vaulted architecture was so essentially 
 a Roman product that it continued to develop 
 when sculpture had sunk to uniform mediocrity. 
 Constantine's basilica, built after 305 A.D., with 
 its three colossal vaults, the central one nearly 
 120 feet high, with a span of more than So feet 
 marks a great advance on former constructions; 
 it served as a model to the architects of the Renais- 
 sance. Bramante, when he conceived the plan of 
 St. Peter's, said that he intended 'to raise the 
 Pantheon over the basilica of Constantine.' Only 
 
 which gave birth to Byzantine decorative art." — 
 S. Reinach, Apollo, p. 8g-qo. — See also .\rt: Rela- 
 tion of art and history; Basilicas; Forums of 
 Rome; Rome: Modern city: 153 7-1 621. 
 
 Sassanian: Contribution to vaulting and dec- 
 oration. — "In return for its heritage from the 
 pre-classical civilization of the Levant, Greece en- 
 dowed the Asiatic empires of .Mexander and his 
 successors with a Hellenistic art, which extended 
 even beyond their borders. When the Parthian 
 rulers (130 B.C.-226 A.D.) overran Mesopo- 
 tamia, they adopted the Greek columnar system. 
 With the rise of the new Persian empire under the 
 Sassanian dynasty (227-641 A.D.), however, the 
 tide of art once more began to flow from East to 
 West. The subterranean vaults and occasional 
 domes of ancient Mesopotamia were taken as the 
 basis of a consistently vaulted style. In such in- 
 stances as the palace at Ctesiphon, with its great 
 elliptically arched hall and facade of blank ar- 
 
 452
 
 ARCHITECTURE, CLASSIC Byzantine ARCHITECTURE, CLASSIC 
 
 cades, this achieved new effects both monumental 
 and decorative. In other cases the dome, sup- 
 ported over a square room by means of diagonal 
 arches or squinches, was a notable feature. In its 
 westward expansion this virile art contributed 
 largely ... to the formation of the Byzantine sys- 
 tems of construction and ornament," — F, Kimball 
 and G. H. Edgell, History of architecture, p. 572. 
 Byzantine: Development. — St. Sophia and St. 
 Marco. — Plan and decoration. — "Byzantine art 
 
 with the Persians, and later with the Saracens, 
 almost stopped all building; and in the following 
 centuries the fury of the iconoclasts against images 
 and decoration generally, drove many of the best 
 workmen out of the country, and still further 
 impeded architectural progress. Under the domin- 
 ion of the house of Macedonia, 867-1057, a re- 
 vival commenced which is especially marked in 
 Venetian territory, where St. Mark's stands as the 
 rival of St. Sophia; but it was not until some 
 
 INTERIOR OF ST. SOPHIA 
 
 Byzantine style of architecture 
 
 is divided into two periods, each of which possesses 
 distinct characteristics. The two are separated 
 from one another by a considerable gap, during 
 which time few churches were built. The first and 
 greater period is that of the sixth century, when, 
 under Justinian, 527-65, a powerful movement, 
 which culminated in St. Sophia, Constantinople, 
 lifted architecture on to a high pedestal, and pro- 
 duced a renaissance which influenced all work for 
 many countries in the West. At the beginning of 
 the seventh century, the struggles of the Empire 
 
 years later, under the Comneni, who were em- 
 perors of the Eastern Empire from 1057-1185, that 
 this bore fruit. Most of the existing churches in 
 the capital, in Greece, Armenia, and in other parts 
 of the Empire belong to the second period." The 
 plan of the typical Byzantine church is a Greek 
 cross, the center covered with a dome supported 
 on pendcntives. The materials used are brick and 
 •stone, exteriors are as a rule plain and unimpres- 
 sive, but "the simplicity of the exteriors is atoned 
 for by the richness of the interiors. All the decor*- 
 
 453
 
 ARCHITECTURE, MEDIEVAL 
 
 Early Christian 
 Mohammedan 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, MEDIEVAL 
 
 tion is of an applied character; that is to say the 
 carcase of the building was built first, and was 
 allowed to take its bearings before the mosaics and 
 the marble linings for the doors, windows and 
 walls were added." — F. M. Simpson, History oj 
 architectural development, v. i, p. 213, 214, 219. — 
 "If the architectural type of the basilica, character- 
 ised by its rectangular plan and flat roof, predomi- 
 nates in the churches in Italy, those of Constan- 
 tinople applied and developed the principle of the 
 dome. The great church of Byzantium, St. Sophia, 
 was built between 532 and 562 under Justinian, by 
 Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus, that 
 is to say, by Asiatic architects. W'e have seen that 
 the cupola was known to the Assyrians ; the tradi- 
 tion had been preserved in Persia, whence it spread 
 into Syria towards the third century after Christ, 
 passing from Syria into Asia Minor in the fol- 
 lowing centuries. The architects of St. Sophia 
 were probably inspired by Asiatic models, and not 
 by the Roman Pantheon." — S. Reinach, Apollo, 
 p. 99. — "Byzantine architecture at its best, which 
 really means as seen in the interior of Hagia 
 Sophia (for there is nothing else equal to that) 
 is a remarkable combination of qualities not often 
 found together; it seems to combine the refinement 
 of Greek detail with the warmth and the colour 
 of Oriental art. From the coldness and the super- 
 ficial and pompous spirit of display which charac- 
 terize Roman architecture, it is as alien as pos- 
 sible." — H. H. Statham, Short critical history of 
 architecture, p. 219. — See also Byz.^xtine empike: 
 Part in history ; Saint Sophia. 
 
 MEDIEVAL 
 
 Early Christian: New spirit in architecture. 
 — "The debt of universal architecture to the early 
 Christian and Byzantine schools of builders is very 
 great. They evolved the church types, they car- 
 ried far the exploration of domical construction, 
 and made wonderful balanced compositions of 
 vaults and domes over complex plans. They 
 formed the belfry tower from the Pharos and 
 fortification towers. We owe to them the idea 
 of the vaulted basilican church, which, spreading 
 westward over Europe, made our great vaulted 
 cathedrals possible. They entirely recast the 
 secondary forms of architecture: 'the column was 
 taught to carry an arch,' the capital was recon- 
 sidered as a bearing block and became a feature of 
 extraordinary beauty. The art of building was 
 made free from formulas, and architecture became 
 an adventure in building once more. We owe to 
 them a new type of moulding, the germ of the 
 Gothic system, by the introduction of the roll- 
 moulding and their application of it to 'strings' 
 and the margins of doors. The first arch known 
 to me which has a series of roll-mouldings is in 
 the palace of M'shatta [Mashetta]. The tendency 
 to cast windows into groups, the ultimate source 
 of tracery, and the foiling of arches, has already 
 been mentioned. We owe to Christian artists the 
 introduction of delightfully fresh ornamentation, 
 crisp foliage, and interlaces, and the whole scheme 
 of Christian iconography." — W. R. Lethaby, Ar- 
 chitecture, pp. i5S-i';6. — "The Christian Church 
 is a place for the gathering together of the faith- 
 ful, thus differing es5enti,ally from the paean 
 temple, which was the abode of the divinity. The 
 first Christian churches were accordingly modelled 
 on those enclosed places of assembly known as 
 basihcas. fq. v.l . . . Amone the Roman basilicas, 
 that of St. Paul without-the-Walls, built by Con^ 
 Stantine and restored after a fire in 1823, may be 
 cited as a chaiacteristic example. It consists of a 
 
 large nave with a horizontal roof, and of two 
 lower side-aisles; the central nave is lighted by 
 windows above the side-aisles. At the end is a 
 gate called the Triumphal Arch, behind which is 
 the altar; the end wall is circular and forms the 
 apse. Both apse and triumphal arch are richly 
 decorated with glass mosaics on a blue or gold 
 ground, the splendour of which rivals that of 
 goldsmiths' enamels. . . . These mosaics ornament 
 the vertical walls and the vaults, instead of forming 
 pavements as in the Roman houses and temples. 
 Specimens of them, very beautiful in colour, and 
 grandiose though frigid in style, are to be seen in 
 Rome, and at Ravenna, which was the seat of the 
 Roman Court from 404, the residence of Theodoric, 
 King of the Goths, about 500, and an appanage of 
 Byzantium from 534 to 752. Several churches of 
 the sixth century still exist, as Sant' Apollinare 
 Nuovo, Sant' Apollinare in Classe {on the ancient 
 port) and San Vitale: the last is a circular domed 
 building, in which Byzantine influences are very 
 apparent; the others are basilicas, the interiors of 
 which are striking and majestic, though their ex- 
 ternal aspect is neither graceful nor cUgnified." — S. 
 Reinach, Apollo, pp. 98-99. 
 
 Mohammedan: Origin and development. — 
 General characteristics. — "The Sassanian em- 
 pire was brought to an end by the sudden ex- 
 pansion of Mohammedanism. In a few years from 
 the flight of its prophet from Mecca (622), his 
 followers conquered Mesopotamia (637), Egypt 
 (638) , Persia (642 ) , northern Africa and Spain (711). 
 ... At first Mohammedan architecture in these 
 regions was little else than the art of the differ- 
 ent conquered peoples adapted to the worship and 
 the customs of the conquerors. In Syria, in Egypt, 
 and in Spain the Romano-Byzantine column and 
 arch were employed for the construction of build- 
 ings such as the mosque of Amru at Cairo (642), 
 or the great mosques of Damascus and Cordova 
 (785-848). In Mesopotamia and Persia the domed 
 and vaulted halls of the Sassanians (q. v.) were 
 adopted as prominent features of the designs. 
 Besides the uniformity of the programs, however, 
 a certain community of artistic character between 
 different regions soon developed — a character pro- 
 nouncedly Oriental. This was due in part to the 
 taste and the traditions of the Arabs themselves, 
 but more largely to the earlier conquest of the 
 Eastern lands, the prestige of these as the seat of 
 the early caliphates of Damascus and Bagdad, and 
 the vitality of Eastern art as the general source 
 of inspiration in the early Middle Ages. Thus the 
 lace-like incised carving of Mschatta in Syria, 
 which had earlier contributed to Byzantine de- 
 velopment, now appeared in the earliest Arab 
 monuments of Africa and Spain. Thus, too, the 
 pointed arch, common in Persia from the eighth 
 century, appeared in Syria and Egypt from the 
 beginning of the ninth. The tall dome of pointed 
 silhouette, and the court with vaulted halls abut- 
 ting it — also Persian features — penetrated Egypt 
 in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The 
 conquest of northern India and its conversion to 
 Mohammedanism opened the way for Persian in- 
 fluence there in the fourteenth and fifteenth cen- 
 turies, while Persia itself then borrowed from In- 
 dia the ogee arch and the bulbous dome With 
 the conquest of Constantinople by the Ottoman 
 Turks (1453), finally, began a new return in- 
 fluence of Byzantine architecture in their Oriental 
 empire, through the imitation of Hagia Sophia 
 [Saint Sophia], which became the chief mosque 
 of the Turkish caliphs. The development of the 
 various schools which resulted from the mingling 
 of local traditions and distinct influences continued 
 
 454
 
 ARCHITECTURE, MEDIEVAL J*fohammedan ARCHITECTURE, MEDIEVAL 
 ' Coptic 
 
 uninterruptedly until the eighteenth and even the 
 nineteenth century, and has been checked only by 
 internal disorganization and by the conquests of 
 European powers. . . . For their formal places of 
 worship, the mosques, the early believers naturally 
 adopted the peristylar court — the universal scheme 
 of the Levant — the porticoes of which furnished 
 shelter from the tropical sun. The Mirltab, a small 
 niche in the outer wall, indicated the direction of 
 Mecca, and on this side of the court the porticoes 
 were deepened and multiplied. This fundamental 
 scheme is seen in the first great mosque built after 
 the conquest of Egypt, the mosque of Amru at 
 Cairo. [See also Amru, Mosque of.] The ten- 
 dency was to develop the deeper side of the court 
 into an inclosed building — often of vast extent, as 
 at Cordova — with aisle after aisle of columns and 
 arcades, carrying wooden beams and a terrace roof. 
 In later western mosques the aisle leading to the 
 mirhab was widened, and a special sanctuary pre- 
 ceded, by a vast open nave or niche was early 
 adopted, and corresponding features were intro- 
 duced at the other cardinal points of the court. 
 The Egyptian mosques based on Persian models, 
 such as the mosque of Sultan Hassan, have a court 
 so reduced that these features occupy the greater 
 part of each side, and the scheme becomes cruci- 
 form. On the capture of Constantinople, Hagia 
 Sophia — with its atrium, its main building to the 
 east, its great central nave, and its eastern apse — 
 was found perfectly adapted to Mohammedan wor- 
 ship. It was copied almost literally in the Mosque 
 of Suleiman at Constantinople {1550). In other 
 Ottoman mosques the possible variants were used, 
 especially the scheme of a central dome with four 
 abutting half domes, which the Byzantines them- 
 selves had not developed. Among minor elements 
 of the mosques, which are yet among their most 
 striking features, are the minarets, or slender tow- 
 ers, with corbeled balconies from which the muez- 
 zin gives the call to prayers. These were erected 
 at one or more of the corners of the buildings, in- 
 geniously incorporated with it. Their forms var- 
 ied much in different regions, the Ottoman form, 
 with a very tall cylindrical shaft ending in a slender 
 cone, being especially daring. The enjoyment of 
 worldly goods and pleasures was not despised by 
 Mohammedanism, and the absolute power and 
 vast revenue of the caliphs enabled them to gratify 
 their taste for splendor and luxury by the con- 
 struction of magnificent palaces. . . . The rooms 
 were distributed about one or more courts, the 
 facades made as blind as possible, except for 
 loggias and balconies high above the ground and 
 guarded by latticed screens. To relieve the heat 
 of the climate, the courts were surrounded by 
 shady porticoes and provided with basins and foun- 
 tains. A complex axial system governed the re- 
 lations of the principal rooms and the courts. The 
 luxurious elegance sometimes attained is well seen 
 in the Alhambra at Granada, built by the last 
 Mohammedan rulers of Spain, chiefly in the four- 
 teenth and fifteenth centuries. The Court of 
 Lions, with its slender columns, its delicate sta- 
 lactite decoration in stucco, colored and gilded, 
 shows Mohammedan architecture in the final de- 
 velopment of one of its local schools, when the 
 elements of diverse origin had been fused in a 
 characteristic whole. [See also Alhambra.] In 
 Egypt, in Persia, and especially in India, the 
 tombs of great monarchs rival the palaces and 
 mosques. The Indian type was a domed mauso- 
 leum, set in the midst of a garden. The most 
 noted example is the Taj Mahal at Agra [q.v.], 
 built by Shah Jahan in 1630, in which the central 
 domQ i?. flanked by four smaller domes, and the 
 
 principal, minor, and diagonal axes are marked on 
 the exterior by great arches expressively and har- 
 moniously proportioned. The Mohammedan build- 
 ers were confronted by few structural problems 
 for which solutions had not already been found 
 by late Roman, Byzantine, and Sassanian archi- 
 tecture. At first, like the early Christian build- 
 ers, they employed borrowed classical columns and 
 capitals, supporting impost blocks and stilted 
 arches. Their early domes rested on squinches. 
 Later their treatment of fundamental structural 
 elements, such as the arch and the vault, was 
 governed by decorative conceptions. In Spain and 
 Africa arches were given a horseshoe shape or were 
 cusped; in Persia, Egypt, and Spain vaults were 
 treated with a multitude of small squinches re- 
 sembling stalactites. Stalactite motives were also 
 used in some capitals, although in others modified 
 Corinthian motives were used, much as in the 
 most expressive Gothic examples. The ornamenta- 
 tion depended little on effects of bold relief, but 
 greatly on effects of line, of material, and, above 
 all, of color. The prohibition against representing 
 man and animals, with the mathematical bent of 
 the Arabs, resulted in a geometrical ornament of 
 interlacing figures, extraordinarily fertile and in- 
 tricate. Precious materials were freely used ; in 
 Persia whole buildings were faced with colored and 
 glazed faience in patterns suggested by rugs and 
 textiles."— F. Kimball and G. H. Edgell, History 
 of architecture, pp. 573-579. 
 
 Coptic: Relation to Byzantine. — "A side 
 glance should be bestowed, in passing, on the evi- 
 dences of Byzantine influence to be seen in the 
 plans of some of the ancient Coptic churches of 
 Egypt — not very certainly dated, but of a period 
 probably not long subsequent to the rise of By- 
 zantine architecture at Constantinople. These are 
 mostly of the aisle type of plan, but combined 
 with square domed compartments which are ob- 
 viously of Byzantine suggestion. The plan of the 
 church of Deir-Baramous with its three domed 
 compartments at the east end, given by Gayet in 
 his work on Coptic art, may be taken as a typical 
 example. The nave is barrel-vaulted, and there is 
 no central dome, but the three domed compart- 
 ments betray Byzantine influence. As is perti- 
 nently remarked by Mr. Russell Sturgis in the ar- 
 ticle, 'Coptic Architecture,' in his dictionary: 'It 
 argues great vitality in the Coptic architecture 
 proper, that, in the sixth century, it did not take 
 over the Byzantine style in its completeness.' Cop- 
 tic architecture, however, can only now be regarded 
 as a back-water outside of the main stream of 
 architectural development." — H. H. Statham, 
 Sltort critical history of architecture, pp. 2oq-2io 
 
 Romanesque. — "The term Romanesque is here 
 used to indicate a style of Christian architecture, 
 founded on Roman art, which prevailed through- 
 out Western Europe from the close of the period 
 of basilican architecture to the rise of Gothic; 
 except in those isolated districts where the in- 
 fluence of Byzantium is visible. By some writers 
 the significance of the word is restricted within 
 narrower limits; but excellent authorities can be 
 adduced for the employment of it in the wide 
 sense here indicated. Indeed some difficulty exists 
 in deciding what shall and what shall not be 
 termed Romanesque, if any more restricted defini- 
 tion of its meaning is adopted; while under this 
 general term, if applied broadly, many closely al- 
 lied local varieties — as, for example, Lombard, 
 Rhenish, Romance, Saxon, and Norman — can be 
 conveniently included." — T. R. Smith and J. Slater, 
 Architecture, p. 222. — "Our Romanesque and our 
 . Gothic are not two styles but one style. Gothic 
 
 455
 
 ARCHITECTURE, MEDIEVAL Romanesque ARCHITECTURE, MEDIEVAL 
 
 is perfected Romanesque; Romanesque is Gothic 
 not fully developed, nor carried structurally to 
 its logical conclusion." — F. Bond, Gothic architec- 
 ture in England, p. 12. 
 
 Lombard and German. — "By degrees, as build- 
 ings of greater extent and more ornament were 
 erected, the local varieties . . . began to develop 
 themselves. In Lombardy and North Italy, for 
 example, a Lombard Romanesque style can be 
 recognised distinctly; here a series of churches 
 were built, many of them vaulted, but not many 
 of the largest size. Most of them were on sub- 
 stantially the same plan as the Basilicas, though a 
 considerable number of circular or polygonal 
 churches were also built. Sant' Ambrogio at Milan, 
 and some of the churches at Brescia, Pavia, and 
 Lucca, may be cited as well-known examples of 
 early date, and a little later the cathedrals of 
 Parma, Modena, and Piacenza, and San Zenone at 
 Verona. These churches are all distinguished by 
 the free use of small ornamental arches and nar- 
 row pilaster-strips externally, and the employment 
 of piers with half-shafts attached to them, rather 
 than columns, in the arcades ; they have fine bell- 
 towers; circular windows often occupy the gables, 
 and very frequently the walls have been built of, 
 or ornamented with, coloured materials. The 
 sculpture — grotesque, vigorous, and full of rich 
 variety — which distinguishes many of these build- 
 ings, and which is to be found specially enriching 
 the doorways, is crl great interest, and began early 
 to develop a character that is quite distinctive. . . . 
 Turning to Germany, we find that a very strong 
 resemblance existed between the Romanesque 
 churches of that country and those of North Italy. 
 At Aix-la-Chapelle [q. v.] a polygonal church exists, 
 built by Charlemagne, which tradition asserts was 
 designed on the model of San Vitale at Ravenna. 
 The resemblance is undoubted, but the German 
 church is by no means an exact copy of Justinian's 
 building. Early examples of German Romanesque 
 exist in the cathedrals of Mayence, Worms, and 
 Spires." — T. R. Smith and J. Slater, Architecture, 
 pp. 224-225. — "The Romanesque of Germany is, on 
 the whole . . . the most distinctly national of the 
 countr\''s styles. [It] was extremely prolific and 
 lingered longer than in any other country. . . . 
 The most striking and typically German character- 
 istic of the style is its complexity and pictur- 
 esqueness, acquired by a multiplication of archi- 
 tectural members." — F. Kimball and G. H. Edgell, 
 History of architecture, pp. 242-243. 
 
 French and Norman. — "France exhibits more 
 than one variety of Romanesque; for not only 
 is the influence of Greek or Venetian artists trace- 
 able in the buildings of certain districts, especially 
 Perigueur, but it is clear that in others the exist- 
 ence of fine examples of Roman architecture af- 
 fected the design of buildings down to and during 
 the eleventh century. This influence may, for ex- 
 ample, be detected in the use, in the churches at 
 Autun, Valence, and .\vignon, of capitals, pil- 
 asters, and in the employment through a great part 
 of Central and Northern France of vaulted roofs. 
 A specially French feature is the chcvet, a group 
 of apsidal chapels which were combined with it 
 to make of the east end of a great cathedral a 
 singularly rich and ornate composition. This fea- 
 ture, originating in Romanesque churches, was 
 retained in France through the whole of the Gothic 
 period, and a good example of it may be seen in 
 the large Romanesque church of St. Sernin at 
 Toulouse. ... In Normandy, and generally in the 
 North of France, round-arched architecture was 
 excellently carried out, and churches remarkable 
 both for their extent and their great dignity and. 
 
 solidity were erected. Generally speaking, how- 
 ever, Norman architecture, especially as met with 
 in Normandy itself, is less ornate than the Roman- 
 esque of Southern France; in fact some of the 
 best examples seem to suffer from a deficiency of 
 ornament. The large and well-known churches at 
 Caen, St. Etienne, otherwise the Abbaye aux 
 Hommes — interesting to Englishmen as having been 
 founded by William the Conqueror immediately 
 after the Conquest — and the Trinite, or Abbaye 
 aux Dames, are excellent examples of early Nor- 
 man architecture. ... In Great Britain, as has 
 been already pointed out, enough traces of Saxon 
 — that is to say, Primitive Romanesque — architec- 
 ture remain to show that many simple, though 
 comparatively rude, buildings must have been 
 erected previous to the Norman Conquest. . . . 
 Shortly after the Conquest distinctive features be- 
 gan to show themselves. Norman architecture in 
 England soon became essentially different from 
 what it was in Normandy, and we possess in this 
 country a large series of fine works showing the 
 growth of this imported style, from the early sim- 
 plicity of the chapel in the Tower of London to 
 such elaboration as that of the later parts of Dur- 
 ham Cathedral. The number of churches founded 
 or rebuilt soon after the Norman Conquest must 
 have been enormous, for in examining churches of 
 every date and in every part of England it is com- 
 mon to find some fragment of Norman work re- 
 maining from a former church: this is very fre- 
 quently a doorway left standing or built into 
 walls of later date ; and, in addition to these frag- 
 ments, no small number of churches, and more 
 than one cathedral, together with numerous castles, 
 remain in whole or in part as they were erected by 
 the original builders. Norman architecture is con- 
 sidered to have prevailed in England for more than 
 a century ; that is to say, from the Conquest 
 (1066) to the accession of Richard I. (ii8g). The 
 oldest remaining parts of Canterbury Cathedral 
 are specimens of Norman architecture executed in 
 England immediately after the Conquest. . . . 
 More complete and equally ancient is the chapel 
 in the Tower of London, which consists of a small 
 apsidal church with nave and aisles, vaulted 
 throughout, and in excellent preservation. This 
 building, though very charming, is almost desti- 
 tute of ornament. A little more ornate, and still 
 a good example of early Norman, is St. Peter's 
 Church, Northampton. ... To these examples of 
 early Norman we may add a large part of Roch- 
 ester Cathedral, and the transepts of Winchester. 
 The transepts of Exeter present a specimen of 
 rather more advanced Norman work; and in the 
 cathedrals of Peterborough and Durham the style 
 can be seen at its best. [The parish church at 
 Ifflcy is also a notable example.] In most Nor- 
 man buildings we find ver>' excellent masonry and 
 massive construction. The exteriors of west 
 fronts, transepts, and towers show great skill and 
 care in their composition, the openings being al- 
 ways well grouped, and contrasted with plain wall- 
 spaces; and a keen sense of proportion is percep- 
 tible. The Norman architects had at command a 
 rich, if perhaps a rather rude, ornamentation, 
 which they generally confined to individual fea- 
 tures, especially doorways; on these they lavished 
 mouldings and sculpture, the elaboration of which 
 was set off by the plainness of the general struc- 
 ture. In the interior of the churches we usually 
 meet with piers of massive proportion, sometimes 
 round, sometimes octagonal, sometimes rectangular, 
 and a shaft is sometimes carried up the face of the 
 piers; as, for example, in Peterborough Cathedral. 
 The capitals of the columns and piers have a 
 
 456
 
 ARCHITECTURE, MEDIEVAL 
 
 Gothic 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, MEDIEVAL 
 
 square abacus, [q. v.] and, generally speaking, are 
 of the cushion-shaped sort, commonly known as 
 basket capitals, and are profusely carved. The 
 larger churches have the nave roofed with a timber 
 roof, and at Peterborough there is a wooden ceil- 
 ing; in these cases the aisles only are vaulted, but 
 in some small churches the whole building has 
 been so covered. Buttresses are seldom required, 
 owing to the great mass of the walls; when em- 
 ployed they have a very slight projection, but the 
 same strips or pilasters which are used in German 
 Romanesque occur here also. Low towers were 
 common, and have been not infrequently pre- 
 served in cases where the rest of the building has 
 been removed. As the style advanced, the propor- 
 tions of arcades became more lofty, and shafts be- 
 came more slender, decorative arcades became more 
 common, and in these and many other changes 
 the approaching transition to Gothic may be easily 
 detected."— T. R. Smith and J. S. Slater, Archi- 
 tecture, pp. 226-235. — See also Cathedral. 
 
 Gothic: Full development of vaulting. — Ar- 
 tistic value. — Centers of diffusion. — "In Gothic 
 the possibilities of Romanesque reach their logical 
 conclusions. More analytically and completely the 
 vault determines the rest of the structure. Down- 
 ward stress and lateral thrusts have been analyzed; 
 they have been gathered up and then distributed 
 in currents of pressure exerted along the lines of 
 the ribs of the vaulting. Each thrust or stress is 
 met by separate support of pillar or colonnette, 
 or by directly counteracting pressure of pier and 
 flying buttress. Through these the weight and lat- 
 eral thrusts of the building are conducted down- 
 ward and outward in channels as definite as the 
 gutters which lead the rain-water from the roof. 
 More especially the devices of rib and flying but- 
 tress have faciliated the use of the pointed arch, 
 and have lifted Romanesque from the earth ; while 
 the confinement of stresses to definite channels has 
 enabled the architect to replace opaque walls with 
 a many-colored translucency of glass, in which the 
 Christian story is painted in the light of heaven. 
 The architectural ornament emphasizes the struc- 
 ture of the building as determined by the require- 
 ments of the vault. Constructively, artistically, 
 and symbolically, the ornament of a Gothic church 
 completes and perfects it and renders it articulate. 
 The strength of the building is in its ribs and 
 arches, columns, piers, and flying buttresses. Their 
 sustaining forms render this strength visible." — 
 H. O. Taylor, Classical heritage oj the Middle 
 Ages, pp. 311-312. — "If the aim of architecture, 
 considered as an art, should be to free itself as 
 much as possible from subjection to its materials, 
 it may be said that no buildings have more suc- 
 cessfully realized this idea than the Gothic 
 churches." — S. Reinach, Apollo, p. 118. — "The new 
 style evolved with great rapidity. The Gothic 
 choir of the Abbey Church of St. Denis was begun 
 in ri44, the Church of Noyon in 1150, Notre Dame 
 (Paris) in 1163, Bourges in 1172, Chartres in 
 irg4, Reims in 1211, Amiens in 1215. [See also 
 Amiens, Cathedral of.] The Sainte-Chapelle of 
 Paris was consecrated in 124S. From the north of 
 France the Gothic type — propagated more espe- 
 cially by the monks of Citeaux — passed into Alsace 
 (Strasburg, 1277), into Germany (Cologne, 1248), 
 into Italy (Milan), into Spain, Portugal, Sweden, 
 Bohemia, and Hungary. The French Crusaders 
 introduced it into the island of Cyprus and into 
 Syria. In England, it assumed a national char- 
 acter, the main features of which were a greater 
 structural sobriety and care for solidity, combined 
 later with more richness and beauty in the ribbing 
 of vaults and in ornament generally, and a ten- 
 
 dency to rely upon the length for sublimity of 
 effect, rather than upon height, as did the French 
 architects. It has, however, been made a re- 
 proach to the English Gothic artists that they made 
 an excessive use of vertical lines, especially in 
 their windows. In 11 74, a French architect, Wil- 
 liam of Sens, rebuilt the cathedral of Canterbury 
 which had been, for the second time, destroyed by 
 fire. The choir of Lincoln was built from 1190 
 to 1200, that of Westminster Abbey from 1245 to 
 1269; Salisbury from 1220 to 125S. Everywhere 
 else, the French type prevailed. Chartres and 
 Bourges were the models for Spain; Noyon and 
 Laon were imitated at Lausanne and at Bamberg 
 (the towers); Cologne [q. v.] is a combination of 
 Amiens and Beauvais. The country which least 
 readily assimilated the Gothic style was Italy (Mi- 
 lan Cathedral). The Romanesque churches did not 
 disappear here ; there is an unbroken continuity 
 between them and the buildings of the Renaissance, 
 whereas Gothic art intervenes as a brilliant epi- 
 sode, the apogee of which was but little removed 
 from its decline. Three f)eriods have been dis- 
 cerned in Gothic architecture, determined by the 
 shape and decoration of the windows; to these 
 the terms a lancettes (lancet-shaped) or Primitive, 
 Rayonnant or Secondary, and Flamboyant or 
 Third Period, are applied in France, while in Eng- 
 land three distinct periods are also recognised, and 
 generically distinguished as Thirteenth Century, or 
 Early English; Fourteenth Century, or Decorated, 
 and Fifteenth Century, or Perpendicular. But all 
 these terms are somewhat loosely applied. It will 
 be enough to say here that the principle of Gothic 
 architecture led it on incessantly to increase the 
 height of vaults, to enlarge open spaces and win- 
 dows, to multiply belfries and pinnacles. The 
 Gothic churches of the fifteenth century are both 
 mannered, and alarming in the overslenderness 
 of their structure. Gothic art was not crushed 
 by the art of the Renaissance ; it fell a victim to 
 its inherent fragility. Churches were not the sole 
 fruit of Gothic art, though the cathedral is its 
 most perfect expression. Among the monuments 
 of its later period are the beautiful town-halls of 
 Flemish cities, which rose confronting the churches, 
 with belfries containing the municipal bells, as if 
 to symbolise the growth of a new power, that of 
 the civic laity. Other productions were magnificent 
 abbeys [see also Abbey: Abbeys in history, and 
 Architectural features] notably that of Mont St. 
 Michel, and charming private houses, such as the 
 Hotel de Cluny in Paris, and Jacques Coeur's House 
 at Bourges. Fortified castles, and keeps, or donjons 
 (from the Latin dominium) in the Romanesque 
 style had multiplied from the tenth century on- 
 wards. The exigencies of defence forbade the 
 full acceptance in these of a style in which open 
 spaces predominated; but Gothic art inspired the 
 interior arrangement, the decoration of the doors, 
 the windows, and the roof; it will suffice to in- 
 stance the castles of La Ferte-Milon and Pierre- 
 fonds, dating from the close of the fourteenth cen- 
 tury, buildings which have been justly eulogised 
 for 'their imposing masses, their noble outlines, the 
 Doric pride and frankness of their perpendicular 
 design.'" — S. Reinach, Apollo, pp. 116-117. — The 
 Spanish use of the Gothic was freer and more 
 genuine than that of Germany or Italy, and al- 
 though the French influence was dominant, cer- 
 tain characteristic features of plan and proportion 
 were developed, notably increased width of nave, 
 position of choir, internal buttresses and wide 
 vaulting. The Gothic style in Spain and also in 
 southern Italy and Sicily is noteworthy for Sara- 
 cen influence, as evidenced by rich surface decora- 
 
 457
 
 ARCHITECTURE, RENAISSANCE Ifaly ARCHITECTURE, RENAISSANCE 
 
 tions, pierced stonework tracery, and the horse- 
 shoe arch. — See also Art: Relation of art and his- 
 tory; Cathedral; Historical importance. 
 
 RENAISSANCE 
 
 Relation to preceding styles. — "Greek archi- 
 tecture is the embodiment of supreme serenity, of 
 self-restraint, and the sense of inevitable fate. 
 It is the expression of an ideal of life that never 
 sought to leave the earth, the ideal of a sound 
 mind in a sound body. Its impulse is purely 
 pagan. Roman architecture, with its bridges and 
 aqueducts, its triumphal arches, its domes and its 
 auditoriums, speaks of the majesty of the Roman 
 government, of the imperial scope of its power 
 and its law. When paganism had fallen and Chris- 
 tianity had built a new civilization upon the wreck 
 of the old, Gothic architecture gave expression to 
 the new spirit, to the new ideal of life, to the new 
 vision that soared aloft until it was lost in the 
 blue sky. Pure beauty w'as the sole object of 
 Hellenic art, but Gothic architecture strove to voice 
 the aspirations of the human soul. The predomi- 
 nant lines of classic architecture are horizontal 
 lines, which are restful and belong to the earth, 
 while those of Gothic architecture are vertical. 
 In a Gothic cathedral, slender window, towering 
 pillar, pointed arch, lofty vault, delicate pinnacle, 
 and soaring spire, irresistibly carry the eye upward. 
 Classic architecture was rooted in the rational fac- 
 ulty; Gothic was born of the spiritual. The ra- 
 tional faculty looks about it with understanding. 
 The spiritual faculty aspires with rapture to God. 
 But it is not form alone that creates the impres- 
 sion produced by a Gothic cathedral. The win- 
 dows, made up of separate fragments of glass, 
 ruby, or sapphire blue, or emerald green, let in 
 mellow light and permit mysterious shadows. The 
 lofty interior is steeped in the brooding richness 
 and solemn splendor of a strange twilight. The 
 effect is profoundly emotional. It is the language 
 of the soul become articulate. . . . Gothic archi- 
 tecture could not express the combination of clas- 
 sicism and modernity that formed the spirit of 
 the Renaissance. A new style of architecture was 
 required. The pure Gothic of northern and cen- 
 tral France had never found a congenial soil in 
 Italy. Only a modified form of Gothic, in which 
 the horizontal principle held an important part, 
 had flourished there. Breadth rather than height 
 was its characteristic attribute. The spire was 
 almost unknown, its place being taken by the 
 dome. In retaining something of the character of 
 classic architecture Italian Gothic expressed the 
 genius of the Italian people, a genius with classic 
 inheritance, as contrasted with the genius of the 
 French people, a genius with a marked Celtic 
 strain. In the creation of an architecture that 
 should give expression to the senii-classic spirit of 
 the Renaissance, a less radical change was re- 
 quired of the Italians than of the northern na- 
 tions. The spirit of the Renaissance appealed to 
 the Italian mind promptly and decisively. A new 
 style of architecture, that rapidly reached ma- 
 turity, gave expression to that spirit." — E. M. 
 Hulme, Renaissance, the Protestant Revolution and 
 the Catholic Reformation, pp. 108-110. 
 
 "Compared with the medieval architecture which 
 preceded it. Renaissance architecture was less con- 
 cerned with problems of structure and more with 
 those of pure form. As in the case of Roman 
 architecture, the forms of detail were sometimes 
 used as trophies of classical culture, with relative 
 indifference to their original structural functions. 
 The forms were not merely ends in themselves, 
 
 however, but means for a rhythmical subdivision 
 of space, more complex and more varied than 
 either ancient or medieval times had known. A 
 further contrast between the Middle Ages and the 
 Renaissance, though one which has often been 
 exaggerated, lay in the relation of the designer to 
 his work. The architect, in the ancient and in 
 the modern sense, reappeared. We now realize 
 that in both the Middle Ages and the Renaissance 
 the general design was controlled by a single mind, 
 and that in both periods there were sculptured 
 details of which the design was left to the initiative 
 of individual sculptors. Unlike the medieval 
 masterbuilder, however, the Renaissance architect 
 did not himself work on the scaffold, whereas he 
 did dictate, in a greater measure than his pre- 
 decessors, the form of many uniform details." — 
 F. Kimball and G. H. Edgell, History of archi- 
 tecture, pp. 345-346. 
 
 Italy. — "The first period of Renaissance archi- 
 tecture in Italy may be characterized as the at- 
 tempted fusion of the forms of the Middle Ages 
 and those of antiquity. Novelty is less apparent 
 at first in the conception of buildings than in their 
 decorations, in which Graeco-Roman motives play 
 a part. For the first time since the fall of the 
 Empire, civil architecture becomes more important 
 than religious architecture. This was a conse- 
 quence of the progress of the secular spirit. The 
 type of the new art is the Florentine palace, a 
 massive structure built round a quadrangular court 
 with a columned portico. The exterior still pre- 
 serves the character of the medisval fortresses, in 
 which solid surfaces occupy far more space than 
 apertures. It is in the interior, with its arcades, 
 its rows of columns, the decoration of its pilasters 
 and vaults that the imitation of antique models 
 manifests itself. Some of this decoration, no longer 
 realistic but fantastic, was inspired by that of the 
 Roman tombs lately excavated, and known as 
 grottoes; hence the term grotesque, which, in its 
 original sense, implies no sort of censure or ridi- 
 cule. The Renaissance church differs from the 
 Gothic church mainly in that it is generally 
 crowned by a cupola square in plan; clustered col- 
 umns are replaced by pillars; the vault on inter- 
 secting arches by a barrel vault or a horizontal 
 coffered ceiling; on the exterior we find columns, 
 pediments, and niches, all the various elements of 
 Roman art. The Florentine Brunellesco (1377- 
 1466) was the initiator of the first Renaissance. 
 From 1420 to 1434 he raised the dome of the 
 Cathedral of Florence to a height of about 300 
 feet. . . . About the year 1445, [he] began the 
 Pitti Palace at Florence. It is a building charac- 
 terised by a severe beauty, due mainly to the 
 clarity of the design and the perfection of the 
 proportions. Classic influences are more apparent 
 in the Riccardi Palace, the work of Michelozzo 
 about 1430, and in the Strozzi Palace, Florence, 
 built about 1489 by Benedetto da Majano and 
 Cronaca. This is surmounted by an attic or cor- 
 nice inspired by the best Roman models and justly 
 celebrated. . . . The marvellous fa<;ade of the Cer- 
 tosa at Pavia was built in 1491, two years later 
 than the Strozzi Palace. Here decoration abounds, 
 infinitely rich and varied; if it borrows elements 
 from antique art, it lavishes them with truly 
 Gothic exuberance. . . . 
 
 "The centre of true Renaissance architecture, 
 characterized by the constructive, non-decorative 
 use of columns and pilasters, was not Florence but 
 Rome, where the monuments of antiquity furnished 
 models. It began with Bramante of Urbino (1444- 
 1514), the director of the first works undertaken 
 at St. Peter's. His influence was principally ex- 
 
 458
 
 TYPES OF ITALIAN ARCHITECTURE • 
 Leaning Tower of Pisa. Cathedral of San Lorenzo, Genoa. 
 
 St. Peter's, Rome.
 
 ARCHITECTURE, RENAISSANCE 
 
 Italy 
 France 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, RENAISSANCE 
 
 ercised to restrain parasitical decoration and em- 
 phasise the structure of a building ; this formula 
 has become the law of modern architecture. Per- 
 haps the most gifted of his successors was Andrea 
 Palladio, who worked at Venice (1518-1580). A 
 characteristic work by him is the Church of the 
 Redentore in that city. As an example of a palace 
 built in this second phase of the Renaissance, we 
 may cite the beautiful Library of St. Mark at 
 Venice, the work of Jacopo Tatti, called Sansovino 
 (1486-1570), with its Doric ground floor, its Ionic 
 i^rst floor, its graceful frieze and balustrade en- 
 riched with statues. The third period was entirely 
 dominated by the influence of Michelangelo (1475-' 
 1564), especially from about the year 1550 on- 
 wards. This redoubtable genius imposed pic- 
 turesque elements and individual fancies upon ar- 
 
 tendency developed, at the close of the sixteenth 
 century, into the style known as Baroque, from 
 the name given by the Portuguese to irregularly 
 shaped pearls (barocco). It is a kind of de- 
 generescent Renaissance art, allied by its defects 
 to the Flamboyant Gothic of the fifteenth century, 
 its most pronounced characteristic being the prefer- 
 ence of the curved to the straight line. In the 
 interior of the churches of this period the so- 
 called Jesuit style held sway ; it aimed at dazzling 
 the eye by wealth and variety of motive, without 
 regard to the true function of ornament, which is 
 to emphasize form. This was the period of decor- 
 ation treated as an end in itself, introduced every- 
 where and in the most contradictory fashion, re- 
 sulting in feverish visions of tortured lines and 
 unexpected reliefs. The genius of the Renaissance 
 
 MICH.\ELANGELO'S STVLK dl KKX.M- ■ .ARCHITECTURE 
 
 Salon of Angeli at the Karnese Palace, Italy 
 
 chitecture. He continued, but did not finish, the 
 enormous Church of St. Peter, the plans of which 
 had already been modified by several architects, 
 Raphael among the number. After the death of 
 Michelangelo, the huge cupola, some 430 feet high, 
 was finished from his designs; but the fa<;ade was 
 spoilt in the seventeenth century by Maderna, and 
 more especially by Bernini, the author of two 
 lateral towers by no means pleasing in their effect. 
 ... It is the largest church ever built, covering 
 a superficies of over 225,000 square feet, while 
 Milan Cathedral and St. Paul's in London occupy 
 only some 118,300, St. Sophia some 107,000, and 
 Cologne Cathedral some 86,000. . . . The example 
 of Michelangelo inspired a taste for the colossal 
 and a straining after effect, to the detriment of 
 simplicity and good taste. His disciples have left 
 many powerful and original works, which are 
 marred by too great an exuberance of fancy. This 
 
 succumbed at last in this decorative orgy, though 
 down to the end of the eighteenth century it never 
 ceased to produce buildings remarkable for their 
 boldness or their elegance. As an example of the 
 latter, we may mention the Palazzo Pesaro [at 
 Venice or Bevilacqua at Bologna] where, in spite of 
 the profusion of useless ornament, the eye is 
 charmed by the nobility of the proportions and the 
 plavful fancy of the decorations (about 1650)." — 
 S. Reinach, Apollo, pp. 131-13S.— See also Venice: 
 i6th century. 
 
 France. — "Next to Italy it was France that 
 was the chief contributor to the Renaissance. But 
 the change from Gothic to pseudo-classic ideals 
 that began to overtake architecture in the fifteenth 
 century in that country cannot correctly be called 
 a revival because there had never been a time in 
 French history when architecture had been classic 
 in its spirit. ... In France Gothic architecture, 
 
 459
 
 ARCHITECTURE, RENAISSANCE 
 
 France 
 Germany 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, RENAISSANCE 
 
 born of the national spirit, had found its most 
 logical and artistic development ; and therefore 
 its modification and replacement were not accom- 
 plished without a struggle. Some things there 
 were that helped to make the change less difficult. 
 . . . The architectural needs of the time were 
 becoming secular and civic. . . . French artists 
 went to learn in Italy, and Italian artists came to 
 teach in France. It was not classic architecture 
 that found it3 way into France but rather the 
 varying Italian interpretations of that architecture. 
 The fusion of the flamboyant Gothic with the 
 florid Italian styles resulted at first in a transitional 
 style that was the autumnal splendor of the medie- 
 val manner; but about the middle of the sixteenth 
 century a decided break with the Gothic past 
 took place." — E. M. Hulme, Renaissance, the Pro- 
 testant Revolution, and the Catholic Rejormation, 
 pp. 3gi-392. — "The oldest monuments of the 
 French Renaissance are the country mansions built 
 in the valley of the Loire during the reign of 
 Francis I. They retain the high sloping roof, the 
 towers, turrets, and spiral staircases of the 
 Middle Ages; it is only in the decoration, that 
 Italian influences are revealed. . . . We need go 
 no further than Paris to study the beautiful gate 
 of the Chateau de Gaillon (1502-1510) built by 
 the Cardinal d'Amboise, and now erected in the 
 courtyard of the Ecole des Beaux-Arts. A bolder 
 example of the style is Chenonceaux on the Cher 
 (1512-1523), a well-preserved building, in which 
 Gothic forms are everywhere perceptible, under the 
 veil of Renaissance decoration. The masterpiece 
 of this style is Chambord, the work of Pierre 
 Trinqueau (c. 1523), with its forest of chimneys 
 and gables, a fairy apparition rising in the midst 
 of a desolate sandy plain. But if we examine it 
 closely, we are struck by the incongruities of 
 construction: a Gothic roof, a Renaissance main 
 building, and massive Romanesque towers. The 
 older parts of the Castle of Blois (especially on the 
 north) abound in charming Renaissance details, 
 still allied to Gothic elements. Fontainebleau is 
 severe in style, even a trifle wearisome ; the most 
 severe of all Francis I.'s chateaux is that of St. 
 Germain, where the austerity of the facade and 
 the flat roof recall the Florentine palaces of the 
 early Renaissance. The hybrid union of Gothic 
 and Renaissance is found in several of the churches 
 of this period, as, for instance, in St. Etienne-du- 
 Mont (1517-1540-1610) and St. Eustache (1532) 
 in Paris. Towards 1540 a purification of style 
 took place. Pierre Lescot, who worked at the 
 Louvre from the year 1546, Jean Bullant (1515- 
 1578), who built Ecouen and began the Tuileries, 
 completed by Philibert Delorme, were thoroughly 
 saturated with the spirit of the Italian Renais- 
 sance, but they also developed -a decorative and 
 picturesque talent which presaged the French art 
 of the Eighteenth century. The masterpiece of 
 French Renaissance architecture, and perhaps of 
 all modern architecture, is the Louvre. Of the 
 many who have seen it, but few know it, for its 
 different portions date from various periods, and 
 it requires careful scrutiny to grasp the distinctive 
 characteristics. The part of the Louvre courtyard 
 which we owe to Lescot (south-west) struck the 
 note that was taken up by his successors, and it 
 is not too much to say that this courtyard affords 
 the most admirable view of a palace in existence. 
 On the outside, facing the Rue du Louvre. Louis 
 Xr\\ commissioned Claude Perrault to build a long 
 monotonous faqade with double columns, which 
 gives the measure of the distance between the art 
 of the French Renaissance and that of the age 
 of Louis XIV. Even the exquisite grace of a Les- 
 
 cot seemed frivolous to that age; its artists no 
 longer sought inspiration in the Italy of the six- 
 teenth century, but found their models in imperial 
 Rome. The style then adopted is known as the 
 academic style, because it was enforced mainly by 
 the Academies of Sculpture, Painting, and Archi- 
 tecture founded by Mazarin (1648) and by Col- 
 bert (1671). . . . Perrault's collonade and the fa- 
 cade of the Palace of Versailles, completed by Jules 
 Hardouin Mansard (1646-170S), are memorable 
 examples of this sad, solemn, and lofty style, in 
 which symmetry is the supreme law, and every 
 picturesque and unexpected element is banished. 
 Mansard's best work is the dome of the Invalides 
 (1675-1706), the silhouette of which, at once ele- 
 gant and majestic, is much finer than that of the 
 Pantheon by Soufflot (1757-1784). The imposing 
 facade of St. Sulpice (1733) is the work of an 
 Italian architect, Servandoni. The two Garde- 
 Meubles, on the Place de la Concorde, akin to 
 Perrault's colonnade, but greatly superior to it, 
 are due to Gabriel, the best architect of the time 
 of Louis XV. These fine buildings have one very 
 unsuitable feature, the flat Italian roofs, so ill- 
 adapted to the climate of Paris. As it is absolutely 
 necessary to warm them, the roofs have been 
 crowned by a forest of chimney-pots, which pro- 
 duce a somewhat grotesque effect."- — S. Reinach, 
 Apollo, pp. 131-135- 
 
 Germany. — "In Germany the Renaissance move- 
 ment seems to have followed in the steps of French 
 Renaissance rather than of Italian. . . . But it is 
 somewhat difficult to assign any decisive tendency 
 to German architecture in the Renaissance period; 
 it seems to have varied very much with locality 
 and individual influence. The later work at Hei- 
 delberg shows a more Renaissance spirit than the 
 earlier part, but in a rather florid and tawdry 
 manner; while the portico of the Rathaus at 
 Cologne, with its two stories of orders on pedestals, 
 with round arches between, is almost academic in 
 style, and seems derived rather from Italian than 
 French influence. On the other hand, reminiscences 
 of Gothic . . . survive in the most surprising man- 
 ner in buildings of much later date than this. A 
 church at Biickeburg, for instance (1613), has 
 aisles defined by Corinthian columns, with the or- 
 thodox architrave blocks above the capitals, and 
 mullioned windows of the long three-light German 
 Gothic type, only with circular instead of pointed 
 tracery, and a fa(;ade of the most villainously 
 rococo character; and the Marien-Kirche at Wol- 
 fenbijttel, about the same date, has buttresses of 
 Gothic plan, but terminating in a frieze and cor- 
 nice, and the long three-light mullioned window 
 with pointed arches, but with the tracery-bars 
 ragged with ornamentation in reUef. One never 
 knows what one may find in German Renaissance 
 buildings; it is a period of experiments and vaga- 
 ries, often crude and coarse to a degree, yet not 
 without a certain picturesque effect, and Gothic 
 feeling is often quite prevalent even where nearly 
 all the details are Classic. One may take as an 
 example the Rathaus at Bremen (1612), with its 
 open arcade in the ground story, its balcony with 
 rococo carved ornament, and its mullioned win- 
 dows above, with Classic pediment heads, . . . and 
 it can hardly be denied that the total spirit of this 
 building, in spite of its little orthodox pediments 
 over the wuidows, is medieval rather than Renais- 
 sance. Medieval in feeling, too, are the frequent 
 high-gabled street fronts, such as that of the Ge- 
 wandhaus at Brunswick (1502), with four stories 
 each with an order, then an immense gable in 
 several diminishing stages with crude details of 
 pilasters and scrolls. The same kind of thing is 
 
 460
 
 AUCHITECTURE, RENAISSANCE 
 
 Spain 
 England 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, RENAISSANCE 
 
 shown more in detail in the illustration of a house 
 front at Heidelberg. There is a certain pictur- 
 esqueness about it, but alter all it is a kind of 
 nursery architecture, like children building with 
 toy bricks, that no French architect of the Renais- 
 sance would have descended to. Among German 
 buildings which exhibit something of the refine- 
 ment and sobriety of the Italian and French 
 Renaissance a favourable example is the Gymna- 
 sium in the Bank Platz at Brunswick (1592) in 
 which square-headed mullioned windows of the 
 Francis I. type are grouped in pairs, with a niche 
 and a statue between each pair ; and one may men- 
 tion also the Rathaus at Augsburg (1615), a plain 
 building with pedimented windows, somewhat re- 
 calling the style of the Farnese Palace. But the 
 general tendency of German Renaissance is to ec- 
 centricity and exuberance of ornamental detail, the 
 unquestionable vigour of which hardly compen- 
 sates for its want of refinement." — H. H. Statham, 
 Short critical history of architecture, pp. 4S7-494. 
 Spain. — "In Spain, as in France and other 
 countries outside of Italy, there was a mingling of 
 Italian forms with those already existing in the 
 native medieval architecture. Here, however, the 
 medieval style itself included a large admixture of 
 Moorish forms. Moriscoes, until their expulsion in 
 1610. remained prominent among artificers, and 
 thus had their influence on the Renaissance forms 
 as well Thus arose the Plateiesque or silver- 
 smith's style, so called from the intricate and deli- 
 cate ornament abounding in it. This, which cor- 
 responds with the early Renaissance, extended from 
 about 1500 to 1560. A notable example is the 
 Town Hall at Seville, built in 1527-32. Here there 
 is an application of engaged orders in two stories 
 which in its main lines is thoroughly grammatical, 
 but which has pilasters, columns, window enframe- 
 ments, and panels alike covered with the richest 
 arabesques and candelabra-like forms. Even more 
 characteristic in its mode of composition is the 
 doorway of the University at Salamanca. Here 
 the ornament is massed in a great panel above the 
 opening, which contrasts with the broad neighbor- 
 ing surfaces of unbroken masonry. Other notable 
 features of style are open arcaded loggias which 
 often terminate a fai;ade, as in the Casa de Mon- 
 terey at Salamanca (1530), and the courts or pa- 
 tios surrounded by galleries which are found in all 
 important buildings. Forms like those of the High 
 Renaissance in Italy first appeared in the palace 
 begun for Charles V. in the Alhambra (1527), by 
 Pedro Machuca. This building is square in plan 
 with a circular colonnaded court having super- 
 posed orders, Doric and Ionic. In purity and 
 classical quality the building holds its own with 
 contemporary monuments of Italy. .■ . . The con- 
 quest of the Indies made Spain, by the middle of 
 the sixteenth century, the greatest power in Eu- 
 rope. Philip II. gave expression to this power by 
 the building of the Escurial (1563-84), comprising 
 a votive church and mausoleum, monastery, and 
 palace, with every needful dependency for the ser- 
 vice of both church and state. Its building lay 
 chiefly in the hands of Juan de Herrera (1530-97), 
 whose work, severely academic in its forms, es- 
 tablished the post-Renaissance tendencies in Spain. 
 In the Patio of the Evangelists, to be sure, he 
 employed the Roman arch order with equal bays 
 and unbroken entablatures, but elsewhere the mem- 
 bering abounds in the complex grouping of sup- 
 ports, the breaking of horizontal members, the 
 uniting of interior spaces by penetrating vaults, 
 and the multiplication of aspects in perspective by 
 the combination of dome and towers. Herrera's 
 sobriety was soon superseded by baroque freedom. 
 
 which ultimately in the hands of Jose Churriguera 
 (1650-1723) became the boldest license. The na- 
 tional traditions of the Plateresque were reflected 
 in the 'Churngueresque' style, which paid less at- 
 tention to the creation of new forms of plan and 
 space than to the luxuriant elaboration of detail. 
 It reached its fullest development in the great por- 
 tals and altar-pieces, such as the high altar of the 
 church of El Salvador in Seville. The accession 
 of the Bourbons in 17 14, which marked the end 
 of Spanish domination in politics, brought also a 
 subordination of Spanish tendencies in art. The 
 palaces of the new rulers at La Granja and Madrid 
 imitated not only the worldliness of Versailles but 
 its architectural formalism. The baroque ten- 
 dency, which comported so well with national sym- 
 pathies, persisted nevertheless, now creating novel 
 forms of interior space, and still filling the frame- 
 work of the orders with an exuberance of orna- 
 ment." — F. Kimball and G. H. Edgell, History of 
 architecture, pp. 3S7-388, 420-422. 
 
 England. — "Gothic architecture endured longer 
 in England than elsewhere, and took a new lease 
 of life under the name of Tudor Style (1485-1558). 
 To this transitional style belong the Royal Chap- 
 els, St. George's at Windsor and Henry VII.'s 
 Chapel, Westminster Abbey, with their unique sys- 
 tem of fan-vaulting. Hampton Court Palace is a 
 charming example of the Tudor Style as applied to 
 domestic architecture. Renaissance architecture 
 only flournished in the time of Charles I., when 
 it was represented principally by Inigo Jones 
 (1572-1662), the author of the beautiful Banquet- 
 ing Hall of Whitehall, London, and by Christopher 
 Wren {1632-1723), the architect of the vast church 
 of St. Paul's, a building inspired by St. Peter's 
 at Rome, though not copied from it." — S. Reinach, 
 Apollo, p. 142. 
 
 MODERN 
 
 General tendencies. — Our discussion of modern 
 architecture is necessarily diverse and incomplete. 
 Any critical evaluation must be regarded rather 
 as a proposition for debate than as a final dictum. 
 "Although the kaleidoscopic interplay of forces 
 makes it difficult to generalize regarding the archi- 
 tectural characteristics of the period, they may be 
 conceived broadly as the result of a synthesis of 
 retrospective and progressive tendencies, which ex- 
 ist side by side, not unlike the academic and 
 baroque tendencies in the previous period. In 
 matters of form and detail it is the newly-won 
 historical understanding of previous styles which 
 has been chiefly influential resulting in a series of 
 attempted revivals followed by a season of eclec- 
 ticism. In matters of plan and construction, how- 
 ever, the growth of material civilization and the 
 development of new forms of government and 
 commerce have produced a multitude of novel 
 types of buildings as well as constant changes in 
 the form and importance of the old types, making 
 every supposed revival unconsciously a new crea- 
 tion. Finally there has begun a conscious move- 
 ment to give the new functional types and struc- 
 tural systems an expression that shall also be novel 
 and entirely characteristic." — F. Kimball and G. 
 H. Edgell, History of architecture, pp. 460-461. 
 
 Belgium. — "Belgium has produced, in the Law 
 Courts at Brussels, by Poelaert (18:6-1870), a 
 building which in the Classic revival period stands 
 almost alone as an attempt to use Classic ma- 
 terials in a free and original spirit both of com- 
 position and detail. It is not altogether satisfac- 
 tory ; there is a want of unity of design as a whole, 
 and a want of scholarly character in a class of 
 
 461
 
 ARCHITECTURE, MODERN 
 
 England 
 France 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, MODERN 
 
 detail in which we seem to require that char- 
 acter; but it is a building which gives evidence 
 of architectural genius." — H, H. Statham, Sltart 
 critical history of architecture, p. 541. 
 
 England. — "The early part of the [igth] century 
 was marked by a Greek revival ; a revulsion from 
 the austere and rather prim simplicity to which the 
 Renaissance had been reduced in the Georgian era, 
 when hardly anything of Renaissance architecture 
 was left except the Classical cornice and the sym- 
 metrical arrangement of windows. 'Back to 
 Greece,' was the cry, without any consideration as 
 to whether the climate of England and the condi- 
 tions of modern life were suitable to Greek archi- 
 tecture; and one of the earliest results was the 
 formation (1822) of the steeple of St. Pancras' 
 church by Inwood's simple process of putting imi- 
 tations of two small Greek buildings one on the 
 top of the other, above a main portico of Ionic 
 columns. Sir John Soane's (17S3-1837) earlier 
 treatment of the Bank of England was much better 
 than this; having to provide for a low building 
 with all the windows opening on the interior 
 courtyard, the employment of a large one-story 
 order as a means of giving decorative effect to 
 these blind walls was not a bad idea; and at all 
 events the building looks Hke a bank, and could 
 hardly be taken for anything else. Then we had 
 Wilkins's National Gallery and University Col- 
 lege, both with admirable details but rather weak 
 in general effect. . . . The great building of the 
 Greek revival is St. George's Hall at Liverpool, by 
 Elmes (1814-1847). ... St. George's Hall, Greek 
 externally and Roman in the interior of its great 
 hall, is a noble conception, and contains moreover 
 a certain originality in portions of the exterior, 
 which may be described as Egyptian motifs trans- 
 lated into Greek form; it is true that the interior is 
 very badly planned for its purposes, and the corri- 
 dors lamentably deficient in light ; but in those 
 days, and in Elraes's mind certainly, that was a 
 matter of quite secondary consequence provided 
 that a grand architectural effect were obtained; and 
 perhaps, for architecture, that extreme is better than 
 the opposite extreme of ultra-utilitarianism. . . . 
 The Gothic revival in England, a little before the 
 middle of the century, was more or less acted on 
 by an ecclesiastical or religious revival — at all 
 events the architectural and religious movements 
 went hand in hand, and the result was a wide- 
 spread erection of churches in imitation of those 
 of the medieval period, and a drastic restoration 
 of the cathedrals; in both classes of operation Sir 
 Gilbert Scott (1811-187S) was the largest operator. 
 . . . His churches, it must be admitted, are quite 
 uninteresting now; the stamp of imitation Gothic 
 is over them all. Pugin (181 2-1852), that im- 
 passioned modern mediaevalist, was also a leading 
 influence at the outset of the Gothic revival, and 
 had the faculty of ii^iparting a great impression 
 of height and scale to the interiors of his plastered 
 churches with their 'half-baked chalk rosettes,' 
 as Bishop Blougram expressed it. Street's (1824- 
 1881) churches have more individual character 
 than Scott's, and Butterfield's (1814-IQ00') still 
 more so; perhaps hi? .Ml Saints', Margaret Street, 
 is the one Gothic revival church which is still as 
 interesting, externally at least, as when it was built. 
 . . . The greatest modern Gothic building in Eng- 
 land, or in the world, the Houses of Parliament, 
 stands apart, as owing its style to influence? out- 
 side of the Gothic revival movement, which, in 
 fact, it rather preceded. The Tudor style appears 
 to have been dictated to the architect mainly for 
 historical reasons, as a typical English style; per- 
 haps also owing to the proximity of Henry VII .'s 
 
 chapel. Sir Charles Barry . . . has the merit of 
 having produced, though working in a style forced 
 upon him and with which he was not in sympa- 
 thy, one of the grandest and most picturesque 
 groups of architecture in the world, based on a 
 plan so fine and effective that it has been copied 
 again and again in buildings for a similar purpose, 
 notably in the Budapest Parliament House, which 
 is practically a reproduction of Barry's plan. . . 
 Since the collapse of the Gothic revival, English 
 architecture has taken a turn towards greater 
 freedom of design, and a tendency once more to 
 the employment of Renaissance materials and sug- 
 gestions, without too great deference to precedent. 
 Much may be hoped from this new movement in 
 English architecture." — Ibid., pp. 526-533. 
 
 France. — "France has had too much of the 
 sense of tradition in architecture to be taken cap- 
 tive by revivals. There is the great modern 
 Gothic church of Ste. Clotilde at Paris, about the 
 middle of the century, but there has been no 
 Gothic revival on a large scale in France. There 
 was, under the first empire, a certain tendency to 
 a Greek, or we should perhaps rather say a 
 Roman, revival, illustrated in such columned struc- 
 tures as the Bourse and the Madeleine, by 
 Brongniart and Vignon respectively; and the stu- 
 pendous Arc de I'Etoile [see also Arc de Tri- 
 OMPHE DE l'Etoile], in which the general effect 
 is better than the details, with the exception of 
 Rude's grand sculpture. But there was no gen- 
 eral movement like the Greek revival in England. 
 There was for a time a certain tendency to build 
 churches with details founded on Byzantine sug- 
 gestions, which were not successful ; the attempt 
 was not in harmony with the French genius, which, 
 in spite of the fact that France was the cradle 
 of mediaeval architecture, is now essentially Classic 
 in its tendencies The great church of the Sacr6 
 Cocur, by .Abadie (181 2-1884), which overlooks 
 Paris from the hill of Montmartre, is (like the 
 Roman Catholic cathedral in London) a frank 
 adoption of Byzantine architecture, and a grand 
 piece of work as such; but it is exceptional. The 
 characteristic successes of the French architects of 
 the century in church architecture are to be seen 
 in such buildings as the church of La Trinite, by 
 Ballu (1817-1885), in which a Gothic type of com- 
 position has been translated into Classic detail; 
 in Baltard's (1805-1874) domed church of St. Au- 
 gustin, where by a happy recognition of the fact 
 that the streets which limit the site meet at an 
 acute angle, the exterior lines of the building are 
 made to expand from the entrance front to the 
 base of the dome; and in Hittorff's (i 703-1867) 
 fine and severe basilica church of St. Vincent de 
 Paul. The new Hotel de Ville at Paris, built 
 after the Commune [1871], keeps a good deal to 
 the style of the earlier French Renaissance, being 
 partly influenced by the fact that the design of 
 the earlier building is reproduced in a portion of 
 the new one. .■Vt presenT the tendency of French 
 architecture is towards the use of the Classic 
 order, in large buildings, combined with a mod- 
 ern school of decorative detail which tends to 
 be a little too florid. The Opera House [built from 
 1861-1874I, by Chas. Gamier (1825-1898), is a 
 fine though somewhat too florid building, redolent 
 (as one may say) of the Second Empire; but the 
 modern French style receives its best exemplifica- 
 tion in the two great art-palaces at the Champs 
 Elysees, one of which, that called the Petit Palais 
 (though it is a very large building), by M. Gi- 
 rault, is also a really original conception in plan. 
 The Musee de Galliera at Paris, by the late M. 
 Ginain (1825-1898), is a little gem of modern 
 
 462
 
 ARCHITECTURE, MODERN 
 
 Germany 
 Vniied States 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, MODERN 
 
 Classic arhitecture, treated in a style distinctively 
 French but with perfect good taste and refine- 
 ment of detail. Speaking generally, however, what 
 modern French architecture needs is a greater 
 simplicity and reticence in decorative detail. But 
 France is the only country which seems to have 
 anything like a recognised tradition and a com- 
 sistent purpose in architecture." — H. H. Statham, 
 Short critical history of architecture, pp. 533-536. 
 Germany. — "Germany anticipated the Greek re- 
 vival, before the end of the eighteenth century, 
 in the erection of the Brandenburg Gate at Ber- 
 lin, with its great Doric columns. With the new 
 century the Germans went into Classic revival with 
 enthusiasm, and on a great scale, and their archi- 
 tects certainly did the thing exceedingly well. 
 Klenze's (1784- 1864) columned Ruhmes-Halle at 
 Munich, with its two projecting wings, forming 
 the architectural background to a colossal statue, 
 is a grand conception of its kind; his Glyptothek 
 at Munich, with its columned central portico and 
 plain contrasting wings, is a good composition, 
 and an appropriate fagade for a sculpture gallery. 
 The other and perhaps more important representa- 
 tive of Greek classicism in Germany in the early 
 part of the century was Schinkel (1781-1841), 
 who was an architect of some genius in rather 
 columnar Classic buildings at Berlin — the Museum, 
 a quadrangular building with an open colonnade 
 in front, and the Royal Theatre; and his pupil 
 Strack subsequently carried out, in a similar style, 
 the National Gallery at Berlin, also a fine build- 
 ing of its type. Schinkel could perceive, however, 
 that revived Greek was not everything in modern 
 architecture, and endeavoured to treat the Bau- 
 Akademie at Berlin in a modern style, with col- 
 oured brickwork and flat buttresses ; but he was 
 hardly at his best away from the Classic orders, 
 which he understood thoroughly how to use. His 
 Nikolai church at Potsdam, however, is a striking 
 and rather original building, with a columned 
 dome mounted on an immense square block of 
 wall with turrets at the angles, which rather re- 
 minds one of the masses of walling in Soufflot's 
 Pantheon, and was possibly suggested by it, though 
 the building is by no means equal to the Pantheon. 
 Semper (1803-1879) was a classical architect of 
 somewhat the same school as Schinkel, and is 
 credited with the designs of the Hofburg Theatre, 
 and the new crescent-shaped wing of the Hof- 
 burg Palace at Vienna, though they were not car- 
 ried out by him, but by Hasenauer after his death. 
 Vienna also contributed largely to revived Classic 
 architecture; the Parliament House, by Hansen 
 (1830-1890), about the middle of the century, is 
 to exterior appearance a group of temples of the 
 Corinthian order. At Vienna, however, though 
 there was nothing like a Gothic revival either 
 there or elsewhere in Germany, some large Gothic 
 churches were built, especially the Votive church 
 by Ferstel (1828-1883), which may be described 
 as a starved reproduction of Cologne Cathedral. 
 Vienna has also a Gothic Town Hall, by Schmidt 
 (1825-18Q1), which is better than the Votive 
 church. The more recent architecture of Ger- 
 many seems to present a dual aspect. It seems 
 still to be considered that revived Classic is the 
 style for national buildings of the first importance; 
 but the new Houses of Parliament with its [ugly] 
 square cupola and heavy details, is, as Classic 
 architecture, a sad descent from the scholarly re-- 
 finement of Klenze, Schinkel, and Semper; and 
 the new Berlin cathedral is like a bad St. Peter's. 
 But in the general trend of recent German archi- 
 tecture there is, along with a good deal of hor- 
 rible stuff which has the trail of I'art nouveau all 
 
 over it, a great deal of interesting novelty and 
 originality in design, sometimes rather eccentric, 
 but which at least shows that there is a spirit of 
 life in German architecture, in the more general 
 class of buildings, however they seem to fail at 
 present in great monumental works. . . . More- 
 over, the Germans pay great attention to sculptural 
 decoration in connection with architecture, and 
 introduce it so as to have a point and meaning in 
 relation to the purpose of the building.'' — H. H. 
 Statham, Short critical history of architecture, pp. 
 536-540. 
 
 Italy and Spain. — "In regard to recent archi- 
 tectural progress Italy and Spain may almost be 
 considered negligible." — H. H. Statham, Short 
 critical history of architecture (igi2), p. 541. 
 
 United States. — "The United States of America 
 occupy a somewhat important place in modern ar- 
 chitecture. The short history of American architec- 
 ture has been rather a curious one. In what is 
 called the 'old Colonial' period the houses and 
 other buildings, generally small, had often a good 
 deal of architectural interest from the fact that 
 they represented late English Renaissance carried 
 out in wood, as the most available material, in- 
 stead of in stone; and the difference in the character 
 of the material, and the treatment suited to it, 
 gave to the old architectural details a new effect 
 and expression. And apart from this use of tim- 
 ber, the early Colonial buildings in stone or 
 brick were of a simple and unaffected style which 
 rendered thera pleasing. With the development of 
 civilised America into a national power as the 
 United States, came a period of more pretentious 
 architecture with no artistic feeling behind it. 
 L'Enfant's scheme for the laying out of Washing- 
 ton was a fine one, which is only just now in 
 process of being carried out; but the Capitol it- 
 self is only an effort at sublimity in cement ; and 
 till about thirty years ago American architecture 
 (except for Richardson's short-lived movement in 
 favour of a kind of Romanesque-Byzantine) was 
 like bad English architecture. Since then it has 
 been, as far as public buildings are concerned, 
 like good French architecture, which in a sense 
 is the highest praise. . . . There is no doubt that 
 American architecture at the present moment takes 
 a very high place indeed, especially in the applica- 
 tion of Classic ideals to public buildings. It is 
 superior to that of either Germany or England; 
 and if we do not regard it as quite equal to that 
 of France, that would mainly be because it is 
 obviously derived from French study, and one nat- 
 urally feels that the copy cannot claim to be put 
 quite on a level with the original. As an ex- 
 ample of the best American architecture of the 
 day we might take perhaps the Field Columbian 
 Museum at Chicago, than which it would be diffi- 
 cult to find anything better in its way. There 
 are, however, two other phases of modern Ameri- 
 can architecture to be recognised. In small coun- 
 try houses, sea-side dwellings, &c., the American 
 architects of late years have shown a great deal 
 of invention and picturesqueness, combined as a 
 rule with perfectly good taste; and their country 
 houses of this class may be advantageously con- 
 trasted with the ugly vagaries of French and Ger- 
 man country-house architecture. ... A much less 
 pleasing phase of modern American architecture is 
 the development of the 'high building,' consisting 
 of a framework of steel construction with an outer 
 skin of masonry ; a manner of building suggested 
 entirely by the commercial consideration of get- 
 ting the greatest possible amount of rent out of 
 every square yard of site." — H. H. Statham, Short 
 critical history of architecture, pp. 541-543. — Among 
 
 463
 
 ARCHITECTURE, MODERN 
 
 ARCHON 
 
 the significant contributions of the United States 
 to architecture have been the colossal railway 
 terminals such as the Union Railway station at 
 Washington and the New York Central and Penn- 
 sylvania stations in New Vork City. Educational 
 architecture has occupied a very important and 
 prolific field during the early twejitieth century, 
 the most notable and extensive plans being carried 
 out at West Point, Annapolis, University of Cali- 
 fornia and Columbia University in New York City. 
 — See also Theater. 
 
 Recent tendencies: Classical tradition. — Mod- 
 ernism. — Functionalism. — "The modern and in- 
 creasing use of reinforced concrete construction has 
 been regarded by some as affording a basis for a 
 new architectural st\le; but there is no sign as yet 
 of anything worth calling by that name, nor does 
 it seem likely that so intractable and unsuggestive 
 a material could ever take the place of stone for 
 architecture of the highest class. The ultra-com- 
 mercial spirit in America, the spirit which regards 
 a building merely as a thing to be run up as 
 fast as possible to bring a commercial return, has 
 invaded London and is beginning to invade Paris; 
 and unless it is checked will be the death of 
 architecture. If there is one thing that a survey 
 of the history of architecture shows clearly, it is 
 that all that is great in architecture has arisen 
 from the desire to do something fine and noble 
 for its own sake ; and where there is not that 
 desire there will be no great architecture." — H. H. 
 Statham, Short critical history of architecture, 
 pp. 544-545. — Other critics find the industrial 
 phase of architecture not the most deplorable but 
 the most hopeful. "Modern armoured concrete is 
 only a higher power of the Roman system of con- 
 struction. If we could sweep away our fear that 
 it is an inartistic material, and boldly build a rail- 
 way station, a museum, or a cathedral, wide and 
 simple, amply lighted, and call in our painters to 
 finish the walls, we might be interested in building 
 again almost at once. . . . Our great difficulty is 
 lack of spontaneous agreement ; an expressive form 
 of art is only reached by building out in one di- 
 rection during a long time. No art that is only 
 one man deep is worth much ; it should be a thou- 
 sand men deep. We cannot forget our historical 
 knowledge, nor would we if we might. . . . Our 
 survey should have shown us that there is not one 
 absolute external form of beauty, but rather an 
 endless series of changing modes in which the uni- 
 versal spirit of beauty may manifest itself; that, 
 indeed, change of the form is one of the condi- 
 tions of its continuance. In Egyptian architecture 
 power, wonder, terror, are expressed; in the Greek, 
 serenity, measure and balance, fairness; in the 
 Roman, force and splendour; in the Byzantine, 
 solemnity, mystery, adoration ; in the Romanesque, 
 strife and life; in the Arab, elasticity, intricacy 
 and glitter, a suggestion of fountain spray and 
 singing birds; in the Gothic, intensity, swiftness, 
 a piercing quality, an architecture not only of 
 stone, but of stained glass, bells and organ music. 
 Beauty is the complexion of health, to reach it 
 we must put aside our preoccupation about differ- 
 ent sorts of rouge. We are always agonizing about 
 design, but design, as Rodin has said, is as noth- 
 ing compared to workmanship. Any one may see 
 a beautiful landscape composition, but it needs a 
 Turner to paint it. A rearing horse is a living 
 statue, but the difficulty is to carve like Phidias. 
 A skilful architect may design the lines of a 
 cathedral bigger than Bourges, and embodying sev- 
 eral excellent new ideas, before his breakfast, but 
 there is little virtue in writing '700 feet long,' or 
 in planning three transepts instead of one, or in 
 
 making the chapels quatrefoils instead of octag- 
 onal; these are nothing compared to great build- 
 ing skill." — W. R. Lethaby, Architecture , pp. 248- 
 250. — This revolt from the conservative and his- 
 torical tradition, strongest in Germany and Amer- 
 ica, is thus summarized. "The conscious en- 
 deavors in modern architecture to make the forms 
 of individual members correspond to their struc- 
 tural duties, to make the aspect of buildings char- 
 acteristic of their use and purpose, to make the 
 style of the time expressive of the distinguishing 
 elements in contemporary and national culture, 
 may be inclusively designated by the name func- 
 tionalism. . . . Sometimes the attempt has been to 
 give to new materials like steel or glass, or new 
 systems of construction like reinforced concrete, a 
 form suggested by their own properties. Some- 
 times the effort has been to express on the ex- 
 terior of buildings the function of each of their 
 component elements, and to endow each building 
 as a whole with a specific character in conformity 
 with its purpose. More recently there has been a 
 tendency not to remain satisfied unless all the 
 forms employed, even in the solution of time- 
 honored problems, owe as little as possible to the 
 historic styles, and thus are peculiarly and em- 
 phatically modern. ... At the moment of cessa- 
 tion of architectural activity in Europe due to the 
 great war, two contrary tendencies were struggling 
 for mastery in matters of style. One emphasizes 
 the elements of continuity with the past, the other 
 the elements of novelty in modern civilization. In 
 the Germanic countries it is the radical emphasis 
 on novel elements which has secured the advantage, 
 in France and England it is the conservative em- 
 phasis on continuity which on the whole retains 
 the supremacy. . . . Whether the present conserva- 
 tive or the present radical tendency may ultimately 
 be victorious, we may be sure that change in 
 architectural style is bound to be constant, and 
 that architecture will remain a living art, not less 
 expressive of the complicated texture of modem 
 life than it has been of the life of earlier and 
 simpler periods." — F. Kimball and G. H. Edgell, 
 History of architecture . pp. 400, 502, 517. 
 
 Also in: J. Fergusson, History of architecture. 
 — R. Sturgis and A. L. Frothingham, History of 
 architecture. — R. Sturgis, Dictionary of architecture 
 and building. — Sir J. Lubbock, Prehistoric times. — 
 G. C. C. Maspero, .irl in Egypt: Dawn of civiliza- 
 tion. — W. J. Anderson and R. P. Spiers, Architecture 
 of Greece and Rome. — A. L. Frothingham, Monu- 
 ments of Christian Rome. — T. G. Jackson, Byzan- 
 tine and Romanesque architecture. — C. H. Moore, 
 Character and development of Gothic architecture. 
 — F. Bond, Introduction to English church archi- 
 tecture. — C. E. Street, Gothic architecture in 
 Spain. — R. Blomfield, History of Renaissance archi- 
 tecture in England; History of Renaissance archi- 
 tecture in France. — F. Wallis, Old Colonial archi- 
 tecture and furniture. — R. Glazier, Manual of his- 
 toric ornament. — O. Jones, Grammar of orna- 
 ment. 
 
 ARCHIVE, the building in which public records 
 or state papers are kept ; also applied to the docu- 
 ments proper; generally used in the latter sense in 
 the plural. — See also Vatican: 1881. 
 
 ARCHON, the highest magisterial office in the 
 government of Athens, which, at its institution, 
 usurped many powers of the king. "The archon 
 was the supreme judge in all civil suits. At a 
 later time this sphere of judicial power was limited 
 and he judged mainly cases in which injured par- 
 ents, orphans, and heiresses were involved. He 
 held the chief place among the magistrates, hav- 
 ing his official residence in the Prytaneum where 
 
 464
 
 
 1. Public Library, New York. 
 
 2. State Capitol, Missouri. 
 
 3. Woolworth Building, New York, 
 
 EXAMPLES OF MODERN AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE 
 
 4. Municipal Building, New York. 
 
 5. Hotel Commodore, New York. 
 
 6. Union Railway Station, Washington.
 
 ARCIS-SUR-AUBE 
 
 ARCTIC EXPLORATION 
 
 was the public hearth, and his name appeared at 
 the head of official lists." — J. B. Bury, History of 
 Greece, p. 171. 
 
 ARCIS-SUR-AUBE, Battle of. See France: 
 1814 (January-March). 
 
 ARCOLA, Battle of (1796), See Fkance: 1796- 
 1797 (October-April). 
 
 ARCOT, the principal city in the district of 
 North Arcot near Madras, British India. The 
 eity played a prominent part in the conquest of 
 India. In the middle of the eighteenth century 
 the British and the French supported rival claim- 
 ants to the throne of the Carnatic. It was dur- 
 ing the ensuing war that the famous episode of 
 dive's capture and defense of Arcot occurred, 
 when with but a handful of native and white 
 troops the British general forced the far superior 
 forces of the enemy to abandon the city without 
 a. struggle. — See also India: 1743-1752. 
 
 ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1527-1773.— John 
 Davis rounds the southern end of Greenland. — 
 Hudson's record. — Dutch in the Arctic circle. 
 — Phipp's farthest north. — "The struggle for the 
 North Pole began nearly one hundred years before 
 the landing of the Pilgrim Fathers at Plymouth 
 Rock, being inaugurated (1527) by that king of 
 many distinctions, Henry VIII of England. In 
 1588 John Davis rounded Cape Farewell, the 
 southern end of Greenland, and followed the coast 
 for eight hundred miles to Sanderson Hope. He 
 discovered the strait which bears his name, and 
 gained for Great Britain what was then the record 
 for the farthest north, 72" 12', a point 1128 
 miles from the geographical North Pole. Scores 
 of hardy navigators, British, French, Dutch, Ger- 
 man, Scandinavian, and Russian, followed Davis, 
 all seeking to hew across the Pole the much- 
 coveted short route to China and the Indies. 
 The rivalry was keen and costly in lives, ships, 
 and treasure, but from the time of Henry VIII for 
 three and one-half centuries, or until 1882 (with 
 the exception of 1594-1606, when, through Wm. 
 Barents, the Dutch held the record), Great Brit- 
 ain's flag was always waving nearest the top of 
 the globe. The same year that Jamestown was 
 founded, Henry Hudson (1607), also seeking the 
 route to the Indies, discovered Jan Mayen, cir- 
 cumnavigated Spitzbergen, and advanced the eye 
 of man to 80° 23'. Most valuable of all, Hudsen 
 brought back accounts of great multitudes of 
 whales and walruses, with the result that for the 
 succeeding years these new waters were thronged 
 with fleets of whaUng ships from every maritime 
 nation. The Dutch specially profited by Hud- 
 son's discovery. During the 17th and i8th cen- 
 turies they sent no less than 300 ships and 15,000 
 men each summer to these arctic fisheries and 
 established on Spitzbergen, within the Arctic Circle, 
 one of the most remarkable summer towns the 
 world has ever known, where stores and warehouses 
 and reducing stations and cooperages and many 
 kindred industries flourished during the fishing 
 season. With the approach of winter all build- 
 ings were shut up and the population, numbering 
 several thousand, all returned home. Hudson's 
 record remained unequaled for 165 years, or until 
 1773, when J. C. Phipps surpassed his farthest 
 north by twenty-five miles." — G. H. Grosvenor, in 
 Foreword to Robert E. Peary's North Pole, pp. 
 xv-xvi. 
 
 1819-1848. — Parry's explorations beyond the 
 magnetic north pole. — His plan to dash to the 
 pole on foot. — Discoveries of Ross. — Sir John 
 Franklin's tragic expedition. — "The first half of 
 the 19th century witnessed many brave ships and 
 gallant men sent to the arctic regions. While 
 
 most of these expeditions were not directed against 
 the Pole so much as sent in an endeavor to find 
 a route to the Indies round North America — 
 the Northwest Passage — and around Asia — the 
 Northeast Passage — many of thera are intimately 
 interwoven with the conquest of the Pole, and 
 were a necessary part of its ultimate discovery. 
 England hurled e.xpedition after expedition, manned 
 by the best talent and energy of her navy, 
 against the ice which seemingly blocked every 
 channel to her ambitions for an arctic route to 
 the Orient. In 1819 Parry penetrated many in- 
 tricate passages and overcame one-half of the dis- 
 tance between Greenland and Bering Sea, winning 
 a prize of £5000, offered by Parliament to the 
 first navigator to pass the iioth meridian west of 
 Greenwich. He was also the first navigator to 
 pass directly north of the magnetic North Pole, 
 which he located appro.ximately, and thus the 
 first to report the strange experience of seeing the 
 compass needle pointing due south. So great was 
 Parry's success that the British government sent 
 him out in command of two other expeditions in 
 search of the Northwest Passage. In explorations 
 and discoveries the results of these two later ex- 
 peditions were not so rich, but the experience in 
 ice work so obtained gave Parry conclusions 
 which revolutionized all methods in arctic naviga- 
 tion. Hitherto all attempts to approach the Pole 
 had been in ships. In 1827 Parry suggested the 
 plan of a dash to the Pole on foot, from a base 
 on land. He obtained the assistance of the gov- 
 ernment, which for the fourth time sent him 
 to the Arctic provided with well-equipped ships 
 and able officers and men. He carried a number 
 of reindeer with him to his base in Spitzbergen, 
 purposing to use these animals to drag his 
 sledges. The scheme proved impracticable, how- 
 ever, and he was compelled to depend on the 
 ■muscles of his men to haul his two heavy sledges, 
 which were in reality boats on steel runners. 
 Leaving Spitzbergen on June 23 with twenty-eight 
 men, he pushed northward. But the summer sun 
 had broken up the ice floes, and the party re- 
 peatedly found it necessary to take the runners 
 off their boats in order to ferry across the stretches 
 of open water. After thirty days' incessant toil 
 Parry had reached 82° 45', about 150 miles north 
 of his base and 43s geographical miles from the 
 Pole. Here he found that, while his party rested, 
 the drift of the ice was carrying him daily back, 
 almost as much as they were able to make in the 
 day's work. Retreat was therefore begun. 
 Parry's accomplishments, marking a new era in 
 polar explorations, created a tremendous sensa- 
 tion. Knighthood was immediately bestowed upon 
 him by the King, while the British people heaped 
 upon him all the honors and applause with which 
 they have invariably crowned every explorer re- 
 turning from the north with even a measure of 
 success. In originality of plan and equipment 
 Parry has been equaled and surpassed only by 
 Nansen and Peary. In those early days, few men 
 being rich enough to pay for expeditions to the 
 north out of their own pockets, practically every 
 explorer was financed by the government under 
 whose orders he acted. In 1S29, however, Felix 
 Booth, sheriff of London, gave Captain John Ross, 
 an English naval officer, who had achieved only 
 moderate success in a previous expedition, a 
 small paddle-wheel steamer, the Victory, and en- 
 tered him in the race for the Northwest Passage. 
 Ross was assisted, as mate, by his nephew, James 
 Clark Ross, who was young and energetic, and who 
 was later to win laurels at the opposite end of the 
 globe. This first attempt to use steam for ice 
 
 465
 
 ARCTIC EXPLORATION, 1818-1848 
 
 ARCTIC EXPLORATION, 1850-1883 
 
 navigation failed, owing to a poor engine or in- 
 competent engineers, but in all other respects the 
 Rosses achieved gloriously. During their five 
 years' absence, i82g-i834, they made important 
 discoveries around Boothia Felix, but most valu- 
 able was their definite location of the magnetic 
 North Pole and the remarkable series of magnetic 
 and meteorological observations which they 
 brought back with them. No band of men ever 
 set out for the unknown with brighter hopes or 
 more just anticipation of success than Sir John 
 Franklin's expedition of 1845. The frightful trag- 
 edy which overwhelmed them, together with the 
 mystery of their disappearance, which baffled the 
 world for years and is not yet entirely explained, 
 forms the most terrible narrative in arctic history. 
 Franklin had been knighted in 1827, at the same 
 time as Parry, for the valuable and very exten- 
 sive explorations which he had conducted by snow- 
 shoes and canoe on the North American coast 
 between the Coppermine and Great Fislj rivers, 
 during the same years that Parry had been gain- 
 ing fame in the north. In the interval Franklin 
 had ser\'ed as Governor of Tasmania for seven 
 years. His splendid reputation and ability as an 
 organizer made him, though now fifty-nine years 
 of age, the unanimous choice of the government 
 for the most elaborate arctic expedition it had pre- 
 pared in many years. Franklin's fame and ex- 
 perience, and that of Crozier and his other lieu- 
 tenants, who had seen much service in the north, 
 his able ships, the Terror and the Erebus, which 
 had just returned from a voyage of unusual suc- 
 cess to the Antarctic, and his magnificent equip- 
 ment, aroused the enthusiasm of the British to the 
 highest pitch and justified them in their hopes 
 for bringing the wearying struggle for the North- 
 west Passage to an immediate conclusion. For 
 more than a year everything prospered with the 
 party. By September, 1846, Franklin had navi- ' 
 gated the vessels almost within sight of the coast 
 which he had explored twenty years previously, 
 and beyond which the route to Bering Sea was 
 well known. The prize was nearly won when the 
 ships became imprisoned by the ice for the winter, 
 a few miles north of King William Land. The 
 following June Franklin died; the ice continued 
 impenetrable, and did not loosen its grip all that 
 year. In July, 1848, Crozier, who had succeeded 
 to the command, was compelled to abandon the 
 ships, and, with the los survivors who were all 
 enfeebled by the three successive winters in the 
 Arctic, started on foot for Back River. How far 
 they got we shall probably never know. Mean- 
 while, when Franklin failed to return in 1848 — he 
 was provisioned for only three years — England be- 
 came alarmed and despatched relief expeditions by 
 sea from the Bering Sea and the Atlantic and by 
 land north from Canada, but all efforts failed to 
 gather news of Franklin till 1854, when Rae fell 
 in with some Eskimo hunters near King William 
 Land, who told him of two ships that were beset 
 some years previous, and of the death of all the 
 party from starvation. In 1857 Lady Franklin, 
 not content with this bare and indirect report of 
 her husband's fate, sacrificed a fortune to equip a 
 searching party to be commanded by Leopold 
 McClintock, one of the ablest and toughest travel- 
 ers over the ice the world has ever known. In 
 185Q McClintock verified the Eskimos' sad story 
 by the discovery on King William Land of a 
 record dated April, 1848, which told of Franklin's 
 death and of the abandonment of the ships He 
 also found among the Eskimos, silver plate and 
 other relics of the party ; elsewhere he saw one 
 of Franklin's boats on a sledge, with two skeletons 
 
 inside and clothing and chocolate; in another place 
 he found tents and flags; and elsewhere he made 
 the yet more ghastly discovery of a bleached hu- 
 man skeleton prone on its face, as though attest- 
 ing the truthfulness of an Eskimo woman who, 
 claiming to have seen forty of the survivors late 
 in 1848, said 'they fell down and died as they 
 walked.' ' — Ibid., pp xvi-xxi. 
 
 1850-1883. — Northwest passage accomplished 
 by Robert McClure. — Kane's achievements. — 
 Charles Francis Hall and the voyage of the 
 Polaris. — British explorations in 1875 and 1876. 
 — English record broken by Greely. — "The dis- 
 tinction of being the first to make the Northwest 
 Passage, which Franklin so narrowly missed, fell 
 to Robert McClure (1850-53) and Richard Collin- 
 son (1850-SS), who commanded the two ships sent 
 north through Bering Strait to search for Franklin. 
 McClure accomplished the passage on foot after 
 losing his ship in the ice in Barrow Strait, but 
 Collinson brought his vessel safely through to 
 England. The Northwest Passage was not again 
 made until Roald Amundsen navigated the tiny 
 Gjoa, a sailing sloop with gasoline engine, from 
 the Atlantic to the Pacific, 1903-06. Yankee 
 whalers each year had been venturing further 
 north in Davis Strait and Baffin Bay and Bering 
 Sea, but America had taken no active part in polar 
 exploration until the sympathy aroused by the 
 tragic disappearance of Franklin induced Henry 
 Grinnell and George Peabody to send out the Ad- 
 vance in charge of Elisha Kent Kane to search 
 for Franklin north of Smith Sound. In spite of 
 inexperience, which resulted in scurvy, fatal acci- 
 dents, privations, and the loss of his ship, Kane's 
 achievements (1853-55) were very brilliant. He 
 discovered and entered Kane Basin, which forms 
 the beginning of the passage of the polar ocean, 
 explored both shores of the new sea, and outlined 
 what has since been called the American route to 
 the Pole. Sixteen years later (1871) another 
 American, Charles Francis Hall, who had gained 
 much arctic experience by a successful search for 
 additional traces and relics of Franklin (i862-6g), 
 sailed the Polaris through Kane Basin and Ken- 
 nedy Channel, also through Hall Basin and Robe- 
 son Channel, which he discovered, into the polar 
 ocean itself, thus completing the exploration of 
 the outlet which Kane had begun. He took his 
 vessel to the then unprecedented (for a ship) 
 latitude of 82° 11'. But Hall's explorations, be- 
 gun so auspiciously, were suddenly terminated by 
 his tragic death in November from over-exertion 
 caused by a long sledge journey. Wnen the ice 
 began to move the ensuing year, his party sought 
 to return, but the Polaris was caught in the 
 deadly grip of an impassable ice pack. After two 
 months of drifting, part of the crew, with some 
 Eskimo men and women, alarmed by the groaning 
 and crashing of the ice during a furious autumn 
 storm, camped on an ice floe which shortly after- 
 wards separated from the ship. For five months, 
 December to April, they lived on this cold and 
 desolate raft, which carried them safely 1,300 miles 
 to Labrador, where they were picked up by the 
 Tigress. During the winter one of the Eskimo 
 women presented the party with a baby, so that 
 their number had increased during the arduous 
 experience. Meanwhile the Polaris had been 
 beached on the Greenland shore, and those re- 
 maining on the ship were eventually also rescued. 
 In 187s Great Britain began an elaborate attack 
 on the Pole via what was now known as the 
 American route, two ships most lavishly equipped 
 being despatched under command of George Nares. 
 He succeeded in navigating the Alert fourteen 
 
 466
 
 ARCTIC EXPLORATION, 1867-1901 
 
 ARCTIC EXPLORATION, 1867-1901 
 
 miles further north than the Polaris had pene- 
 trated four years previous. Before the winter set 
 in, Aldrich on land reached 82° 48', which was 
 three miles nearer the Pole than Parry's mark 
 made forty-eight years before, and the following 
 spring Markham gained 83° 20' on the polar ocean. 
 Other parties explored several hundred miles of 
 coast line. But Nares was unable to cope with 
 the scurvy, which disabled thirty-six of his men, 
 or with the severe frosts, which cost the life of 
 one man and seriously injured others. The next 
 expedition to this region was that sent out under 
 the auspices of the United States government and 
 commanded by Lieutenant A. W. Greely, U. S. A., 
 to establish at Lady Franklin Bay the American 
 circumpolar station (1881). Greely during the two 
 years at Fort Conger carried on extensive explora- 
 tions of Ellesmere Land and the Greenland coast, 
 and by the assistance of his two lieutenants, Lock- 
 wood and Brainard, wrested from Great Britain 
 the record which she had held for 30c years. 
 Greely 's mark was 83° 24', which bettered the 
 British by four miles. As the relief ship, promised 
 for 1883, failed to reach him or to land supplies 
 at the prearranged point south of Fort Conger, 
 the winter of 1883-84 was passed in great misery 
 and horror. When help iinally came to the camp 
 at Cape Sabine, seven men only were alive." — 
 Ibid., pp. xxii-xxiv. 
 
 1867-1901. — Explorations in the polar area 
 north of Siberia. — De Long's expedition. — Nan- 
 sen and the Fram. — Explorations along the arc- 
 tic coasts of Europe, Siberia and Greenland. — 
 "While these important events were occurring in 
 the vicinity of Greenland, interesting develop- 
 ments were also taking place in that half of the 
 polar area north of Siberia. When in 1867 an 
 American whaler, Thomas Long, reported new 
 land, Wrangell Land, about 500 miles northwest 
 of Bering Strait, many hailed the discovery as 
 that of the edge of a supposed continent ex- 
 tending from Asia across the Pole to Greenland, 
 for the natives around Bering Strait had long 
 excited explorers by their traditions of an icebound 
 big land beyond the horizon. Such extravagant 
 claims were made for the new land that Com- 
 mander De Long, U. S. N., determined to ex- 
 plore it and use it as a base for gaining the Pole. 
 But his ship, the Jeannette, was caught in the ice 
 (September, 1879) and carried right through the 
 place where the new continent was supposed to 
 be. For nearly two years De Long's party re- 
 mained helpless prisoners until in June, 1881, the 
 ship was crushed and sank, forcing the men to 
 take refuge on the ice floes in mid ocean, 150 
 miles from the New Siberian Islands. They saved 
 several boats and sledges and a small supply of 
 provisions and water. After incredible hardships 
 and suffering, G. W. Melville, the chief engineer, 
 who was in charge of one of the boats, with nine 
 men, reached, on September 26, a Russian village 
 on the Lena. All the others perished, some be- 
 ing lost at sea, by the foundering of the boats, 
 while others, including De Long, had starved to 
 death after reaching the desolate Siberian coast. 
 Three years later some Eskimos found washed 
 ashore on the southeast coast of Greenland sev- 
 eral broken biscuit boxes and lists of stores, which 
 are said to be in De Long's handwriting. The 
 startling circumstance that these relics in their 
 long drift from where the ship sank had neces- 
 sarily passed across or very near to the Pole aroused 
 great speculation as to the probable currents in 
 the polar area. Nansen, who had already made 
 the first crossing of Greenland's ice cap, argued 
 that the same current which had guided the relics 
 
 on their long journey would similarly conduct a 
 ship. He therefore constructed a unique craft, the 
 Fram, so designed that when hugged by the ice 
 pack she would not be crushed, but would be lifted 
 up and rest on the ice ; he provisioned the vessel 
 for five years and allowed her to be frozen in 
 the ice near where the Jeannette had sunk, 78° 50' 
 N., 134° E. (September 25,, .1893). When at the 
 end of eighteen months th^ ship had approached 
 314 miles nearer to the Pole, Nansen and one 
 companion, Johansen, with kayaks, dogs, sledges, 
 and three months' provisions, deliberately left the 
 ship and plunged northward toward the Pole, 
 March 14, 1805. In twenty-three days the two 
 men had overcome one-third of the distance to 
 the Pole, reaching 86° 12'. To continue onward 
 would have meant certain death, so they turned 
 back. When their watches ran down Providence 
 guided them, and the marvelous physique of both 
 sustained them through fog and storm and threat- 
 ened starvation until they reached Franz Josef 
 Land, late in August. There they built a hut of 
 stones and killed bears for meat for the winter. 
 In May, 1896, they resumed their southward jour- 
 ney, when fortunately they met the Englishman 
 Jackson, who was exploring the Archipelago. 
 Meanwhile the Fram, after Nansen left her, con- 
 tinued her tortuous drifting across the upper world. 
 Once she approached as near as 85° 57' to the 
 Pole — only fifteen miles less than Nansen's farthest. 
 At last, in August, 1896, with the help of dyna- 
 mite, she was freed from the grip of the ice and 
 hurried home, arriving in time to participate in 
 the welcome of Nansen, who had landed a few 
 days earlier. Franz Josef Land, where Nansen 
 was rescued by Jackson, has served as the base of 
 many dashes for the Pole. It was from its northern, 
 most point that the illustrious young member of 
 the royal family of Italy, the Duke of the Abruzzi, 
 launched the party captained by Cagni that won 
 from Nansen for the Latin race the honor of the 
 farthest north, 86° 34', in 1901. This land, which 
 consists of numerous islands, had been named 
 after the Emperor of Austria-Hungary by Wey- 
 precht and Payer, leaders of the Austrian-Hunga- 
 rian polar expedition of 1872-74, who discovered 
 and first explored the Archipelago. It was from 
 Spitzbergen that Andree, with two companions, 
 sailed his balloon toward the Pole, in July, 1897, 
 never to be heard from again, except for three 
 message buoys dropped in the sea a few miles from 
 the starting-point. The Northeast Passage was 
 first achieved in 1878-1879 by Adolph Erik Nor- 
 denskjold. Step by step energetic explorers, prin- 
 cipally Russian, had been mapping the arctic coasts 
 of Europe and Siberia until practically all the 
 headlands and islands were well defined. Nordensk- 
 jold, whose name was already renowned for im- 
 portant researches in Greenland, Nova Zembia, 
 and northern Asia, in less than two months guided 
 the steam whaler Vega from Tromsoe, Norway, 
 to the most easterly peninsula of Asia. But when 
 barely more than loo miles from Bering Strait, 
 intervening ice blocked his hopes of passing from 
 the Atlantic to the Pacific in a single season and 
 held him fast for ten months. . . . The preceding 
 brief summary gives only an inadequate concep- 
 tion of the immense treasures of money and lives 
 expended by the nations to explore the northern 
 ice world and to attain the apex of the earth. 
 All efforts to reach the Pole had failed, notwith- 
 standing the unlimited sacrifice of gold and en- 
 ergy and blood which had been poured out with- 
 out stint for nearly four centuries. But the sacri- 
 fice had not been without compensation. Those 
 who had ventured their lives in the contest had 
 
 467
 
 ARCTIC EXPLORATION, 1886-1909 
 
 ARCTIC EXPLORATION, 1886-1909 
 
 not been actuated solely by the ambition to 
 win a race — to breast the tape first — but to con- 
 tribute, in Sir John Franklin's words, 'to the ex- 
 tension of the bounds of science.' The scores of 
 expeditions, in addition to new geographical dis- 
 coveries, had brought back a wealth of informa- 
 tion about the animals and vegetable life, the 
 winds and currents, deep sea temperatures, sound- 
 ings, the magnetism of the earth, fossils and rock 
 specimens, tidal data, etc., which have enriched 
 many branches of science and greatly increased the 
 sum of human knowledge." — Ibid., pp. .x.xiv-xxviii. 
 1886-1909. — Peary's three expeditions in 
 search of the Pole. — Controversy between Peary 
 and Cook. — Peary recognized as the discov- 
 erer of the Pole. — His account. — "A brief summer 
 excursion to Greenland in i886 aroused Robert E. 
 Peary, a civil engineer in the United States navy, 
 to an interest in the polar problem. ... He 
 realized at once that the goal which had eluded so 
 many hundreds of ambitious and dauntless men 
 could be won only by a new method of attack. 
 The first arctic problem with which Peary grappled 
 was considered at that time in importance second 
 only to the conquest of the Pole; namely, to de- 
 termine the insularity of Greenland and the ex- 
 tent of its projection northward. At the very 
 beginning of his fiist expedition to Greenland, in 
 i8qi, he suffered an accident which sorely taxed 
 his patience as well as his body. ... As his ship, 
 the Kite, was working its way through the ice 
 fields off the Greenland shore, a cake of ice be- 
 came wedged in the rudder, causing the wheel to 
 reverse. One of the spokes jammed Peary's leg 
 against the casement, making it impossible to 
 extricate himself until both bones of the leg 
 were broken. The party urged him to return 
 to the United States for the winter and to resume 
 his exploration the following year. But Peary in- 
 sisted on being landed as originally planned at 
 McCormick Bay, stating that the money of his 
 friends had been invested in the project and that 
 he must 'make good' to them. The assiduous nurs- 
 ing of Mrs. Peary, aided by the bracing air, so 
 speedily restored his strength that at the ensuing 
 Christmas festivities which he arranged for the 
 Eskimos, he outraced on snowshoes all the natives 
 and his own men ! In the following May, with 
 one companion, Astrup, he ascended to the summit 
 of the great ice cap which covers the interior of 
 Greenland, 5,000 to 8,000 feet in elevation, and 
 pushed northward for 500 miles over a region 
 where the foot of man had never trod before, in 
 temperatures ranging from 10' to 50° below zero, 
 to Independence Bay, which he discovered and 
 named, July 4, iSq2. Imagine his surprise on 
 descending from the tableland to enter a little 
 valley radiant with gorgeous flowers and alive with 
 murmuring bees, where musk oxen were lazily 
 browsing. This sledding journey, which he dupli- 
 cated by another equally remarkable crossing of 
 the ice cap three years later, defined the northern 
 extension of Greenland and conclusively proved 
 that it is an island instead of a continent ex- 
 tending to the Pole. In boldness of conception and 
 brilliancy of results these two crossings of Green- 
 land are unsurpassed in arctic history. The mag- 
 nitude of Peary's feat is better appreciated when 
 it is recalled that Nansen's historic crossing of the 
 island was below the .\rctic Circle, i.ooo miles 
 south of Peary's latitude, where Greenland is some 
 250 miles wide. Peary now turned his attention to 
 the Pole, which lay 306 geographical miles far- 
 ther north than any man had penetrated on the 
 western hemisphere. To get there by the Ameri- 
 can route he must break a virgin trail every mile 
 
 north from Greely's 83° 24'. No one had pio 
 neered so great a distance northward. Markham 
 and others had attained enduring fame by ad- 
 vancing the Flag considerably less than 100 miles. 
 Parry had pioneered 150 miles, and Xansen 128 
 from his ship. His experiences in Greenland had 
 convinced Peary, if possible more firmly than 
 before, that the only way of surmounting this last 
 and most formidable barrier was to adopt the 
 manner of life, the food, the snowhouses, and the 
 clothing of the Eskimos, who by centuries of 
 experience had learned the most effective method 
 of combating the rigors of arctic weather ; to 
 utilize the game of the northland, the arctic rein- 
 deer, musk ox, etc., which his explorations had 
 proved comparatively abundant, thus with fresh 
 meat keeping his men fit and good-tempered 
 through the depressing winter night ; and lastly 
 to train the Eskimo to become his sledging crew. 
 In his first North Pole expedition, which lasted 
 for four years, 1808-1902, Peary failed to get 
 nearer than 343 ntilcs to the Pole. Each successive 
 year dense packs of ice blocked the passage to the 
 polar ocean, compelling him to make his base 
 approximately 700 miles from the Pole, or 200 
 miles south of the headquarters of Nares, too 
 great a distance from the Pole to be overcome 
 in one short season. During this trying period, 
 by sledging feats which in distance and physi.;al 
 obstacles overcome exceeded the extraordinary 
 records made in Greenland, he explored and 
 mapped hundreds of miles of coast line of Green- 
 land and of the islands west and north of Green- 
 land. On the next attempt, Peaiy insured reaching 
 the polar ocean by designing and constructing the 
 Roosevelt, whose resistless frame crushed its way 
 to the desired haven on the shores of the polar 
 sea. From here he made that wonderful march of 
 igo6 to 87° 6' a new world's record. Winds 
 of unusual fury, by opening big leads, robbed him 
 of the Pole, and nearly of his life." — Ibid., pp. 
 xxix-xxxi. 
 
 Also in: F. Nansen, In the mists: Arctic ex- 
 ploration in early times. 
 
 Once more, in July, 1008, Commander Peary 
 set his face Arcticward, on the staunch Roosevelt, 
 with two scientific companions, and equipped him- 
 self at Elah with Eskimos and dogs for another 
 journey across the ice-fields, from some point on 
 the Grant Land coast. On Sept. i, igoQ, the 
 whole world was startled and excited by a message, 
 flashed first to Lerwick, in the Shetland islands, 
 from a passing Danish steamer, the Hans Egede, 
 and thence to all corners of the earth, saying: 
 "We have on board the American traveller. Dr. 
 Cook, who reached the North Pole April 21, iqo8. 
 TDr. Frederick A. Cook was the physician on 
 Peary's expedition (1891-1892) and the Belgian 
 expedition (1897-1899) and had left for the Pole 
 in 1907.] Dr. Cook arrived at Upernivik (the 
 northernmost Danish settlement in Greenland, on 
 an island og the west coast) in May of iqoo 
 from Cape York (in the northwest part of Green- 
 land, on Baffin Bay). The Eskimos of Cape 
 York confirm Dr. Cook's story of his journey." 
 The next dav brought a cabled announcement 
 from Dr. Cook himself, to the New York Her- 
 ald, briefly telling of his triumph, "after a pro- 
 loneed fight against famine and frost," and de- 
 scribing the emotions with which he had found 
 himself at the goal which so many had striven 
 vainlv to attain. "What a cheerless spot," he 
 moralized, "to have aroused the ambition of 
 man for so many ages An endless field of 
 purple snows. No life. No land. No spot to 
 relieve the monotony of frost. We were the 
 
 468
 
 ARCTIC EXPLORATION, 1886-1909 
 
 ARCTIC EXPLORATION, 1886-1909 
 
 only pulsating creatures in a dead world of ice." 
 Two days later the hero was landed at Copen- 
 hagen, and all the excited world devoured 
 graphic descriptions of his reception by the en- 
 thusiastic Danes: by the Crown Prince, who 
 hastened to welcome him before he had stepped 
 from the ship; by the crowds who cheered him; 
 by the King, who dined him; by the University 
 of Copenhagen which awarded him an honorary 
 degree, and whose faculty he made happy and 
 proud by the promise that it should be the first 
 to examine the record of his observations and 
 the proofs in general that he had reached the 
 Pole. Two more days passed, and then the climax 
 of this world-spread excitement and astonish- 
 ment was marked by another radio-electric flash 
 of news out of the Arctic North, — this time 
 from the American North, — proclaiming another 
 conquest of the icy fortress of the Pole. It spoke 
 "to the Associated Press, New York," from "In- 
 dian Harbor, via Cape Ray, Nova Scotia," saying: 
 "Stars and Stripes nailed to North Pole. Peary." 
 It reached New York a little after noon of Sep- 
 tember 6th, and before night, evervwhere, people 
 in all languages were asking each other: "Is it 
 possible that two men had suddenly done what 
 none have been able to do before?" Other mes- 
 sages from Commander Peary which soon fol- 
 lowed the first one fixed the date of his attain- 
 ment of the Pole as having been April 6, igog, — 
 being fifteen days less than a year after Dr. Cook 
 claimed to have planted the American flag at the 
 same spot. They brought angry denunciations, 
 too, of Cook's pretension, which Peary had 
 learned of from the Eskimos in the North. "Cook's 
 story," he said in one despatch, "should not be 
 taken too seriously. The two Eskimos who accom- 
 panied him say he went no distance north and 
 not outside of land. Other members of the tribe 
 confirm their story." In another he declared: 
 "Cook has sold the public a gold brick." Dr. 
 Cook, meantime, gave out expressions as to Peary's 
 achievement very different in temper and tone. 
 He had no doubt that Commander Peary had 
 reached the Pole; but he. Cook, had been for- 
 tunately the first to enjoy the favorable condi- 
 tions which gave success to them both. His mag- 
 nanimity, his coolness, his easy self-confidence, in 
 contrast with Peary's words and bearing, won pub- 
 lic admiration and sympathy, and the majority in 
 most communities inclined strongly, for a time, 
 to the judgment that both explorers had done 
 what they said they did, but that Cook, in char- 
 acter, was the more estimable man. When he 
 arrived in New York, on the 2ist of September, 
 that city gave him almost as wild a hero worship 
 as Copenhagen had done. Commander Peary was 
 then just landing at Sydney, Nova Scotia, and 
 it was some weeks before he would proceed to 
 New York, or put himself at all in the way of 
 receiving any public deinonstrations of honor. 
 But grounds of skepticism as to Dr. Cook were 
 acquiring a rapid multiplication. When he pub- 
 lished his story in detail, or told it in lectures, 
 it started questions which people having critical 
 knowledge insisted that he must answer if he 
 could; but he made no attempt. He was in no 
 haste to produce the records which he had in- 
 sisted would prove his claims beyond a doubt. 
 He required weeks of time to prepare them for 
 examination, and they must go to the University 
 of Copenhagen before any other tribunal of sci- 
 ence could see them. Meanwhile, he was harvest- 
 ing large gains from lectures and newspaper pub- 
 lications, and seemed more interested in that pur- 
 suit than in the vmdication of his questioned 
 
 honor. Hence, suspicion of him grew, until it 
 made itself heard and felt at last with a force 
 which drove the Doctor to put his professed proofs 
 in shape and send them by the hand of his secre- 
 tary, Mr. Lonsdale, to Copenhagen. Before they 
 reached ■ their destination he, himself, disappeared 
 mysteriously from public view, nervously shattered, 
 it was said, and seeking some hidden place of 
 refuge abroad. On the 2ist of December the 
 report of the scientific committee of Copenhagen 
 university, to which the records forwarded by 
 Dr. Cook were submitted, was made public by 
 the University Council. "The report, which was 
 sent in by the committee on December i8, states 
 that the following papers were submitted to it for 
 investigation: i. A type- written report by Mr. 
 Lonsdale on Dr. Cook's Arctic voyage, consisting 
 of 6 1 folios. 2. A type-written copy of i6 folios, 
 made by Mr. Lonsdale, comprising the note-books 
 brought back by Dr. Cook from his journey 
 and covering the period from March i8 to June 
 13, iqo8, stated to have been written on the way 
 from Svartevaag to the Pole and back until a 
 place west of Heibergsland was reached. . . . The 
 committee points out as a result of its investiga- 
 tions that the aforementioned report of the jour- 
 ney is essentially identical with that published some 
 time ago in the New York Herald, and that the 
 copy of the note-books did not contain astro- 
 nomical records, but only results. In fact, the com- 
 mittee remarks that there are no elucidatory state- 
 ments which might have rendered it probable that 
 astronomical observations were really taken. 
 Neither is the practical side — namely, the sledge 
 journey — illuminated by details in such a way as 
 to enable the committee to form an opinion. 
 The committee therefore considers that from the 
 material submitted no proof can be adduced that 
 Dr. Cook reached the North Pole. The council 
 of the University accordingly declares as a re- 
 sult of the committee's report that the documents 
 submitted to Copenhagen University contain no 
 observations or explanations to prove that Dr. 
 Cook on his last Polar journey reached the North 
 Pole." 
 
 That Commander Peary had accomplished at last 
 the object of his indomitable striving was never in 
 doubt. His own testimony to the fact had sufficed 
 from the beginning, and the decision rendered on 
 the 3d of November by a committee of the Na- 
 tional Geographic Society, which examined the 
 records of his march to the Pole, added nothing 
 to the public belief. But his laurels had been 
 lamentably blighted by the atmosphere of scandal, 
 wrangle, and disgust with which Cook's monstrous 
 imposture had vulgarized the whole feeling that 
 attended the exploit. The incidents of the final 
 Peary expedition, from start to finish, were sum- 
 marized by the Commander in a message from 
 Battle Harbor to the London Times, Sept. 8th, as 
 follows: "The Roosevelt left New York on July 
 6, igo8. She left Sydney on July 17th; arrived 
 at Cape York, Greenland, on August ist; left 
 Etah, Greenland, on August Sth; arrived at Cape 
 Sheridan, Grant Land, on September ist, and win- 
 tered at Cape Sheridan. The sledge expedition left 
 the Roosevelt on February 15th, igog, and started 
 north of Cape Columbia on March ist. It passed 
 the British record on March 2d; was delayed by 
 open water on March 2d and 3d; was held up 
 by open water from March 4th to March nth; 
 crossed the 84th parallel on March nth and en- 
 countered an open lead on March isth; crossed 
 the 85th parallel on March i8th; crossed the 86th 
 parallel on March 22d and encountered an 
 open lead on March 23d; passed the Norwegian 
 
 469
 
 ARCTIC EXPLORATION, 1886-1909 
 
 ARCTIC EXPLORATION, 1886-1909 
 
 record on March 23d; passed the Italian record 
 on March 24th and encountered an open lead on 
 March 26th; crossed the 87th parallel on March 
 27th; passed the American record on March 28th 
 and encountered a lead on March 28th; held up 
 by open water on March 2gth; crossed the 88th 
 parallel on April 2d; crossed the 89th parallel on 
 April 4th, and reached the North Pole on April 6th. 
 On returning we left the Pole on April 7th; 
 reached Camp Columbia on April 23d, arriving 
 on board the Roosevelt on April 27th. The 
 Roosevelt left Cape Sheridan on July i8th, passed 
 Cape Sabine on August 8th, left Cape York on 
 August 26th and arrived at Indian Harbor. All 
 the members of the expedition are returning in 
 good health except Professor Ross G. Martin, who 
 unfortunately drowned on April loth, 45 miles 
 north of Cape Columbia, while returning from 
 86 degrees north latitude in command of a support- 
 ing party. 
 
 "The last march northward ended at ten o'clock 
 on the forenoon of April 6th. I had now made 
 the five marches planned from the point at which 
 Bartlett turned back, and my reckoning showed 
 that we were in the immediate neighborhood of 
 
 time, in case the sky should be clear, but at that 
 hour it was, unfortunately, still overcast. But 
 as there were indications that it would clear 
 before long, two of the Eskimos and myself made 
 ready a light sledge carrying only the instruments, 
 a tin of pemmican, and one or two skins; and 
 drawn by a double team of dogs, we pushed on an 
 estimated distance of ten miles. While we traveled, 
 the sky cleared, and at the end of the journey I 
 was able to get a satisfactory series of observa- 
 tions at Columbia meridian midnight. These ob- 
 servations indicated that our position was then 
 beyond the Pole. Nearly everything in the cir- 
 cumstances which then surrounded us seemed too 
 strange to be thoroughly realized; but one of the 
 strangest of those circumstances seemed to me to 
 be the fact that, in a march of only a few hours, 
 I had passed from the western to the eastern hemi- 
 sphere and had verified my position at the summit 
 of the world. It was hard to realize that, in 
 the first miles of this brief march, we had been 
 traveling due north, while, on the last few miles 
 of the same march, we had been traveling south, 
 although we had all the time been traveling 
 precisely in the same direction. It would be 
 
 ROBERT E, PEARY 
 
 THE ROOSEVELT 
 
 VILHJALMUR STEKANS.SON 
 
 the goal of all our striving. After the usual ar- 
 rangements for going into camp, at approximate 
 local noon, of the Columbia meridian, I made the 
 first observation at our polar camp. It indicated 
 our position as 89° 57'. We were now at the end 
 of the last long march of the upward journey. 
 Yet with the Pole actually in sight I was too 
 weary to take the last few steps. The accumu- 
 lated weariness of all those days and nights of 
 forced marches and insufficient sleep, constant peril 
 and anxiety, seemed to roll across me all at once. 
 I was actually too exhausted to realize at the 
 moment that my life's purpose had been achieved. 
 As soon as our igloos had been completed and 
 we had eaten our dinner and double-rationed the 
 dogs, I turned in for a few hours of absolutely 
 necessary sleep. Henson and the Eskimos having 
 unloaded the sledges and got them in readiness 
 for such repairs as were necessary. But, weary 
 though I was, I could not sleep long. It was, 
 therefore, only a few hours later when I woke. 
 The first thing I did after awaking was to write 
 these words in my diary: 'The Pole at last. The 
 prize of three centuries. My dream and goal 
 for twenty years. Mine at last. I cannot bring 
 myself to realize it. It seems all so simple and 
 commonplace.' Everything was in readiness for 
 an observation at 6 p. a.., Columbia meridian 
 
 difficult to imagine a better illustration of the 
 fact that most things are relative, .^gain, please 
 consider the uncommon circumstances that, in 
 order to return to our camp, it now became neces- 
 sary to turn and go north again for a few miles 
 and then to go directly south, all the time travel- 
 ing in the same direction. As we passed back 
 along that trail which none had ever seen before 
 or would ever see again, certain reflections intruded 
 themselves which, I think, may fairly be called 
 unique. East, west, and north had disappeared for 
 us. Only one direction remained and that was 
 south. Every breeze which could possibly blow 
 upon us, no matter from what point of the horizon, 
 must be a south wind. Where we were, one day and 
 one night constituted a year, a hundred such days 
 and nights constituted a century. Had we stood 
 in that spot during the six months of the arctic 
 winter night, we should have seen every star of 
 the northern hemisphere circling the sky at the 
 same distance from the horizon, with Polaris (the 
 North Star) practically in the zenith. All during 
 our march back to camp the sun was swinging 
 around in its ever-moving circle. At six o'clock 
 on the morning of April 7, having again arrived 
 at Camp Jesup, I took another series of observa- 
 tions. These indicated our position as being four 
 or five miles from the Pole, toward Bering Strait. 
 
 470
 
 ARCTIC EXPLORATION, 1886-1909 
 
 ARCTIC EXPLORATION, 1886-1909 
 
 Therefore, with a double team of dogs and a 
 light sledge, I traveled directly toward the sun 
 an estimated distance of eight miles. Again I 
 returned to the camp in time for a final and 
 completely satisfactory series of observations on 
 April 7 at noon, Columbia meridian time. These 
 observations gave results essentially the same as 
 those made at the same spot twenty-four hours 
 before. In traversing the ice in these various di- 
 rections as I had done, I had allowed approxi- 
 mately ten miles for possible errors in my ob- 
 servations, and at some moment during these 
 marches and counter-marches, I had passed over 
 or very near the point where north and south 
 and east and west blend into one. Of course 
 there were some more or less informal ceremonies 
 connected with our arrival at our difficult destina- 
 tion, but they were not of a very elaborate char- 
 
 appropriate to raise the colors of the Delta Kappa 
 Epsilon fraternity, in which I was initiated a 
 member while an undergraduate student at Bow- 
 doin College, the 'World's Ensign of Liberty and 
 Peace,' with its red, white, and blue in a field of 
 white, the Navy League flag, and the Red Cross 
 fiag. After I had planted the American flag in the 
 ice, I told Hensen to time the Eskimos for three 
 rousing cheers, which they gave with the greatest 
 enthusiasm. Thereupon, I shook hands with each 
 member of the party — surely a sufficiently un- 
 ceremonious affair to meet with the approval of 
 the most democratic. The Eskimos were childishly 
 delighted v^iith our success. While, of course, they 
 did not realize its importance fully, or its world- 
 wide significance, they did understand that it meant 
 the final achievement of a task upon which they 
 had seen me engaged for many years. Then, in a 
 
 MEMBERS OF PEARY'S POLAR EXPEDITION 
 
 Transferring supplies from the Roosevelt to winter quarters 
 
 acter. We planted five flags at the top of the 
 world. The first one was a silk American flag 
 which Mrs. Peary gave me fifteen years ago. 
 That flag had done more traveling in high lati- 
 tudes than any other ever made. I carried it 
 wrapped about my body on every one of my ex- 
 peditions northward after it came into my posses- 
 sion, and I left a fragment of it at each of my 
 successive 'farthest norths': Cape Morris K. Jesup, 
 the northernmost point of land in the known 
 world; Cape Thomas Hubbard, the northernmost 
 known point of Jesup Land, west of Grant Land; 
 Cape Columbia, the northernmost point of North 
 American lands; and my farthest north in igo6, lat- 
 itude 87° 6' in the ice of the polar sea. By the 
 time it actually reached the Pole, therefore, it was 
 somewhat worn and discolored. A broad diagonal 
 section of this ensign would now mark the far- 
 thest goal of earth — the place where I and my 
 dusky companions stood. It was also considered 
 
 space between the ice blocks of a pressure ridge, 
 I deposited a glass bottle containing a diagonal 
 strip of my flag and records of which the follow- 
 ing is a copy: 
 
 "'go N. Lat., North Pole, 
 " 'April 6, igog. 
 "'Arrived here to-day, 27 marches from C. 
 Columbia. I have with me 5 men, Matthew 
 Henson, colored, Gotah, Egingwah, Seegloo, and 
 Ookeah, Eskimos; 5 sledges and 38 dogs. My 
 ship, the S. S. Roosevelt, is in winter quarters 
 at C. Sheridan, go miles east of Columbia. The 
 expedition under my command which has suc- 
 ceeded in reaching the Pole is under the auspices 
 of the Peary Arctic Club of New York City, and 
 has been fitted out and sent north by the mem- 
 bers and friends of the club for the purpose of 
 securing this geographical prize, if possible, for 
 the honor and prestige of the United States of 
 
 471
 
 ARCTIC EXPLORATION, 1886-1909 
 
 ARCTIC EXPLORATION, 1910-1916 
 
 America. The officers of the club are Thomas IT. 
 Hubbarci, of New York, President ; Zenas Crane, 
 of Mass., Vice-president; Herbert L. Bridgman, 
 of New York, Secretary- and Treasurer. I start 
 back to Cape Columbia to-morrow. 
 
 " 'qo N. Lat., North Pole, 
 " '.April 6, iqog. 
 " 'I have to-day hoisted the national ensign of 
 the United States of .America at this place, which 
 my observations indicate to be the North Polar 
 axis of the earth, and have formally taken posses- 
 sion of the entire region, and adjacent, for and 
 in the name of the President of the United States 
 of .America. 
 
 " 'I leave this record and United States flag 
 ir possession. 
 
 '"Robert E. Peary, 
 
 "'United States Navy.' 
 
 "If it were possible for a man to arrive at 90° 
 north latitude without being utterly exhausted, 
 body and brain, he would doubtless enjoy a series 
 of unique sensations and reflections. But the 
 attainment of the Pole was the culmination of days 
 and weeks of forced marches, physical discomfort, 
 insufficient sleep, and racking anxiety. It is a 
 wise provision of nature that the human con- 
 sciousness can grasp only such degree of intense 
 feeling as the brain can endure, and the grim 
 guardians of earth's remotest spot will accept no 
 man as guest until he has been tried and tested 
 by the severest ordeal. Perhaps it ought not to 
 have been so, but when I knew for a certainty 
 that we had reached the goal, there was not a 
 thing in the world I wanted but sleep. But after 
 I had a few hours of it, there succeeded a con- 
 dition of mental exaltation which made further 
 rest impossible. For more than a score of years 
 that point on the earth's surface had been the 
 object of my every effort. To its attainment my 
 whole being, physical, mental, and moral, had been 
 dedicated. Many times my own life and the lives 
 of those with me had been risked. My own ma- 
 terial and forces and those of my friends had 
 been devoted to this object. This journey was 
 my eighth into the arctic wilderness. In that 
 wilderness I had spent nearly twelve years out of 
 the twenty-three between my thirtieth and my 
 fifty-third year, and the intervening time spent in 
 civihzed communities during that period had been 
 mainly occupied with preparations for returning 
 to the wilderness. The determination to reach the 
 Pole had become so much a part of my being that, 
 strange as it may seem, I long ago ceased to 
 think of myself save as an instrument for the 
 attainment of that end. To the layman this may 
 seem strange, but an inventor can understand it. 
 or an artist, or anyone who has devoted himself 
 for years upon years to the service of an idea. 
 But now, while quartering the ice in various di- 
 rections from our camp, I tried to realize that, 
 after twenty-three years of struggles and discour- 
 agement, I had at last succeeded in placing the 
 flag of my country at the goal of the world's de- 
 sire. It is not easy to write about such a thing, 
 but I knew that we were going back to civiliza- 
 tion with the last of the great adventure stories — 
 a story the world had been waiting to hear for 
 nearly four hundred years, a story which was to 
 be told at last under the folds of the Stars and 
 Stripes, the flag that during a lonely and iso- 
 lated life had come to be for me the symbol of 
 home and ever>'thing I loved — and might never 
 see again." — R. E. Peary, North pole, pp. 287- 
 300. 
 
 1901-1909. — Summary of other important ex- 
 plorations during the first decade of the twen- 
 tieth century. — Two expeditions were fitted out 
 in igoi and 1903, by Mr. Zicgler, of New York, 
 the former under Evelyn B. Baldwin, the latter 
 under .Anthony Fiala. The latter reached latitude 
 82' 13', remaining in the .Arctic regions until the 
 summer of 1905. In June, 1903, Captain Roald 
 .Amundsen, of Norway, sailed from Christiania 
 in the small sloop Gjoa, beginning a voyage which 
 carried him entirely through the Northwest Passage 
 from Baffin bay to Bering strait and which oc- 
 cupied three years. Much of that time, how- 
 ever, was devoted to studies and searches of great 
 value in determining the location of the Magnetic 
 Pole. In 1905 the ranks of the .Arctic explorers 
 were joined by the Duke of Orleans, who sailed 
 from Christiania in May, in the Belgica, com- 
 manded by Lieut, de Gerlache. In 1907, Mr. John 
 R. Bradley, of New York, supplied Dr. Frederick 
 A. Cook with equipments for an attempt to reach 
 the North Pole, and accompanied him in a schoon- 
 er yacht to Annatok, a little north of Etah, in 
 North Greenland, where the Doctor, with one 
 white man, Rudolph Francke, were landed, with 
 their supplies, to begin the undertaking. Sev- 
 eral attempts were made in successive years by 
 Mr. Walter Wellman to make the journey to the 
 Pole from Spitzbergen by a dirigible airship. Each 
 of them, down to 1000, was frustrated by mis- 
 fortunes of circumstance or weather. A tragically 
 ended survey of the northeast coast of Greenland 
 was accomplished in 1906-7 by Dr. Mylius Erichsen 
 and Lieutenant Hagen-Hagen, who perished while 
 groping their way southward in the growing dark- 
 ness of the approaching winter. These fill out 
 the important items of the record of Arctic explora- 
 tion, since .April, ipoi, down to the ist of Sep- 
 tember. lOOQ. 
 
 1910-1916. — Baffinland crossed by Hantzsch. — 
 Expedition of Schroder-Stranz. — Russian arctic 
 explorations. — ''.A young German traveller, hail- 
 ing from Dresden, Bernard Hantzsch by name, has 
 met his death in Baffinland. after effecting the 
 first crossing of that island ever made by a 
 European. Setting out in igio. with the support 
 of various German scientific bodies, the traveller, 
 after a preliminary trip to Labrador, passed over 
 to Cumberland sound, where he had the misfor- 
 tune to lose most of his equipment through ship- 
 wreck. .A relief fund was collected for him by 
 the Dresden Geographical Society, but he had 
 already set out for the interior before the fresh 
 supplies reached him, and he ap, rs to have been 
 brought to some straits in consequence. Only last 
 autumn, on the return of the yearlv vessel from 
 Baffinland, was the news received in Germany 
 that he had already succumbed to his hardships 
 in June, 1911, on Fox channel. Such results of 
 the journey (undertaken with a view to natural 
 history, ethnological, and geographical research) 
 as had reached Berlin, gave promise of valuable 
 additions to knowledge from the undertaking. The 
 expedition planned by Lieut. Schrbder-Stranz for 
 the achievement once more of the northeast passage 
 has already met with a severe check in its prelim- 
 inary stage. The leader undertook an expedition to 
 Spitsbergen last summer [1912! in order to prepare 
 himself for the more serious undertaking to follow. 
 He had intended to return in the autumn, but all 
 accounts show that the .Arctic winter set in un- 
 usually early last year, and when the last vessel 
 reached Europe without brineing him back, it was 
 realized that he would have to submit to an en- 
 forced detention. .Accounts received in the autumn 
 stated that the voyager had first attempted to push 
 
 472
 
 ARCTIC EXPLORATION, 1910-1916 
 
 ARCTIC EXPLORATION, 1913-1918 
 
 north along the ice-obstructed east coast of Spits- 
 bergen, but that, foiled here, he tried to reach the 
 north coast by way of the west. Wireless messages 
 received in Kristiania early in January from the 
 Norwegian station in Spitsbergen show that the 
 experiences of the expedition have been most un- 
 fortunate. Captain Ritschel, who commanded the 
 small vessel Herzog Ernst in which the expedition 
 sailed to Spitsbergen, arrived at Advent bay on 
 December 27 in a miserable condition after various 
 adventures, having pressed on and left his com- 
 panions behind exhausted with cold and hunger — ■ 
 the oceanographer Dr. Rudiger at Wijde bay, and 
 three others at Cape Petermann. He reports that 
 the Herzog Ernst was frozen in at Treurenburg 
 bay, but can be fetched off next summer. Lieut. 
 Schrbder-Stranz and his companions had left the 
 ship on a sledging expedition in August, and had 
 not since been heard of, though hopes are ex- 
 pressed that he may have reached the station at 
 Cross bay. Otherwise, as he had but few sup- 
 plies at his disposal, and an outbreak of scurvy 
 is reported, his position would seem precarious. A 
 relief party was at once organized at the wire- 
 less station at Advent bay on Captain Ritschel's 
 arrival. Both he and Dr. Rudiger had suffered 
 severely from frozen feet. Towards the end of 
 the summer [1Q12] Captain Russanof was re- 
 ported to be on the coast of Novaya Zemlya 
 (having first visited the coal-bearing region of 
 West Spitsbergen), about to set sail for the north- 
 west coast on his way east. His further inten- 
 tions seem somewhat obscure, but he is said to 
 have referred to a design of possibly making 
 his way to the New Siberia islands, or even, far- 
 ther. The particularly unfavourable conditions 
 which prevailed last year have given rise to some 
 uneasiness as to the fate of Lieut. Brussilof's ex- 
 pedition in the Saint Anna, which sailed from 
 Alexandrovsk on the Murman coast about the end 
 of August. ... At the opposite end of the Arctic 
 waters of Asia some success has attended the re- 
 newed endeavours to promote navigation between 
 Bering strait and the Kolyma and Lena. The ice- 
 breakers Taimyr and Vaigatz passed Cape Deshnef 
 on July 22 (Old Style), reaching the Lena in safety 
 on August 25. Soundings and coast surveys were 
 carried out en route. Depths of 15 feet were ob- 
 tained in the mouth of the Lena. Two attempts 
 to continue the voyage round the Taimyr penin- 
 sula to Archangel were frustrated by ice, shallow 
 water, and unfavourable weather, it being neces- 
 sary to turn back from 76"N. The return voy- 
 age through Bering strait was safely accomplished." 
 —Monthly record oj polar regions {Geographical 
 Journal, February, iqi,}). 
 
 Lieutenant Brussiloff, an officer of the Russian 
 navy, sailed in the Saint Anna in IQ12 by way of 
 the Kara sea, through Yugor Shar, the strait at 
 the northern extremity of Russia, which in recent 
 years has been used by commercial vessels plying 
 between the United States and the mouths of the 
 Ube and Yenisei rivers. Brussiloff pushed his way 
 north keeping close to the shore of the Yalmal 
 Peninsula to avoid the danger of ice floes. He 
 reached a point northeast of Franz Josef Land ; 
 beyond that little is known of the fate of Brussilov's 
 vessel or his party. It is believed that the Saint 
 Anna drifted north and was crushed in the ice. 
 The sea route to Siberia through the Kara sea, 
 however, is considered as established and practical 
 for commercial voyages. In iqi6 Jonas Lied suc- 
 cessfully completed his fifth trading voyage along 
 this route. The Kara sea is now [:q2o] fringed 
 with a number of wireless stations which give val- 
 uable aid to the navigators by sending out frequent 
 
 warnings when certain sea areas are obstructed by 
 ice. 
 
 1913-1918. — Canadian Arctic expedition. — 
 Stefansson expedition. — Anderson expedition. — 
 In the early summer of 19 13 Stefansson led the 
 northern division of the Canadian .Arctic Expedi- 
 tion into the Parry Archipelago and was not heard 
 of again until 1915. "One of the most important 
 events in the field of Arctic exploration was the 
 sudden reappearance in the fall of 1915 of Vil- 
 hjalmur Stefansson, who had been given up as 
 dead, with a record of distinct achievement. Arc- 
 tic explorers believed that the ice drift north of 
 .Alaska had taken Stefansson farther west where 
 a replenishment of his food supply would be an 
 impossibility. The ice drift, in fact, took him 
 east towards Banks Island where he purposed to 
 establish his winter quarters. Stefansson stored 
 up more than a sufficient food supply, while on 
 his way toward Banks Island, which place he did 
 not reach until the ice broke up. He finally landed 
 and wintered within thirty miles of the location 
 which was to have been his winter quarters. This 
 fact led whalers who frequented Banks Island to 
 spread the report that the whole crew probably 
 perished. The party finally landed on Banks 
 Island June 26, 1914, where it accumulated a 
 large supply of food, and in early February started 
 due north making but slow progress owing to thick 
 fogs and soft snow. "In igi6 Stefansson again 
 wintered on Banks Island, intermittently making 
 extended sledge journeys on the adjoining islands,, 
 which, subsequently, he partly surveyed. .On one 
 of these trips the party reached point So° 10' N. 
 latitude, 98" west longitude. Stefansson spent his 
 third winter (1916-1917) on Melville Island where 
 fish as well as game was found to be plentiful. The 
 Canadian Arctic Expedition under Stefansson ended 
 in November 1918 with the safe return of S. Stork- 
 erson. Owing to the daring explorer's vast explo- 
 rations the unknown areas of the polar western 
 hemisphere is placed at 100,000 square miles. His 
 discoveries, which cover about 70,000 square miles, 
 are undoubtedly the most important contributions 
 to geography of the unknown Arctic areas for 
 many years. Other important contributions by 
 Stefansson are his hydrographic observations which, 
 among other achievements, have outlined the con- 
 tinental shelf of the Arctic Ocean from Alaska 
 northeast to Prince Patrick Island. The Canadian 
 Arctic Expedition consisted of two main divisions, 
 the Northern Party, commanded by Vilhjalmur 
 Stefansson, and the Southern Party, under my 
 direction. The Northern Party was to devote its 
 chief attention to the Beaufort Sea in the region 
 west of the Parry Archipelago and north of Alaska 
 and Yukon Territory. The Southern Party 
 planned to explore the northern coast of Canada 
 between Cape Parry (124° W.) and Kent Penin- 
 sula (io8°W.). It was arranged to have its sur- 
 veys extend inland about 100 miles and also cover 
 the southern and eastern portions of Victoria 
 Island. . . . We cleared from Nome in the gasoline 
 schooner Alaska, July 19, 1913, reaching Point 
 Barrow on August 19, after some difficulty with 
 gales in Bering Sea and Kotzebue Sound. . . . 
 East of Point Barrow we found the Arctic Ocean 
 practically filled with heavy ice. In that part of 
 the world there are no true icebergs; but enor- 
 mous pressure ridges often form along tide-cracks 
 or are heaped up by gales along the edge of the 
 floefields, where they are cemented by spray and 
 by spring thaws and augmented by snowdrifts. 
 These masses are sometimes of immense size, rising 
 thirty or forty feet out of the water — too large to 
 melt during the short summer. ... In 1913, for 
 
 473
 
 ARCTIC EXPLORATION, 1917-1918 
 
 ARCTIC EXPLORATION, 1917-1918 
 
 the first time in about twenty-five years of whal- 
 ing in that region, no ship from the west was able 
 to reach Herschel Island. It was known as 'a bad 
 ice year.' . . . The Southern Party of the Cana- 
 dian Arctic Expedition entered upon the summer 
 of 1 91 6 with most of their originally outlined 
 work completed. Many cases of specimens in all 
 branches of science — geology, zoology, botany, 
 ethnology, archaeology — all had to be packed and 
 compressed into one small 6s-foot schooner. . . 
 We were well loaded down when we left Bernard 
 Harbor on the evening of July 13, 1916. We made 
 a quick and easy voyage out: Baillie Island, July 
 24; Herschel Island, July 28; Point Barrow, Au- 
 gust 8; and Nome, August 15. Our weather-beaten 
 schooner was left at Nome to be sold, while men 
 and specimens went on to Seattle and Victoria 
 through the famous Alaska and British Columbia 
 Inside Passage. Everything ultimately reached Ot- 
 tawa safely, and the scientific men of the expedi- 
 tion have spent the winter of 1Q16-1917 work- 
 ing up their reports. Maps have been computed 
 and plotted, mineral analyses made, plants and 
 animals are being identified and new species de- 
 scribed. Some of the collections represent speci- 
 mens of groups which have never been collected 
 anywhere in the western Arctic area, and prac- 
 tically all of them are from districts- and localities 
 which are unrepresented in collections anywhere 
 and from regions never before visited by a col- 
 lector." — R. M. Anderson, Recent explorations on 
 the Canadian Arctic coast (Georgraphical Review, 
 Oct., 1917, p. 241-266). 
 
 "But the most striking features of the expedi- 
 tion's work must be the wonderful results attained 
 in the application of the instruments developed 
 during the past twenty years. We say 'instruments' 
 with a 'feeling of apology; for we are sure that 
 the possibilities of the phonograph and the moving 
 picture — perhaps even of the ordinary- camera — as 
 scientific instruments are not fully realized by all 
 our readers. These have been of extraordinary 
 value to the ethnological branch of the expedition. 
 Phonographic records in considerable number have 
 been made of the folk-songs, the music, even the 
 language of various Eskimo tribes — notably of the 
 blonde Eskimos discovered by Stefansson himself 
 at an earlier date. Several thousand feet of cinema 
 films have been made showing certain features of 
 Eskimo life. Altogether, these items present a most 
 impressive demonstration of the present status of 
 scientific methods." — Return of the Scientific Sec- 
 tion of the Stefansson expedition (Scientific Ameri- 
 can, Aug. 26, 1916, p. 194). 
 
 1917-1918. — Journey round the arctic coast of 
 Alaska. — "A letter written by Archdeacon Stuck, 
 at Fort Yukon, Alaska, in June of this year [1918] 
 describing a journey made by him last winter round 
 the whole Arctic coast of Alaska, is abstracted in 
 the British Geographical Journal. The journey, 
 which naturally involved no small amount of 
 hardship, afforded an unrivalled opportunity for 
 gaining acquaintance with the Eskimo throughout 
 the great stretch of country traversed, as well as 
 for a comparative study of the work carried on 
 among them by the various Christian organizations 
 busy in that remote region. These Eskimos, the 
 writer says, are 'surely of all primitive peoples the 
 one that has the greatest claim to the generous con- 
 sideration of civilized mankind. Where else shall 
 a people be found so brave, so hardy, so indus- 
 trious, so kindly, and withal so cheerful and con- 
 tent, inhabiting such utterly naked country lashed 
 by such constant ferocity of weather?' Every- 
 where he received from them the greatest possible 
 help and kindness, and brought away the warmest 
 
 feeling of admiration and friendship. The start 
 was made on the west coast first made known to 
 the world by Cook and Kotzebue, Beechey, Col- 
 linson and Bedford Pirn, and here it was possible 
 to find some habitation, usually an underground 
 igloo, on every night but one of the journey. 
 Storms were encountered, but there were commonly 
 fair winds and there were no special hardships, 
 traveling being far more rapid than is usual in the 
 interior. At Point Barrow a halt of two weeks 
 gave opportunity for the study of the largest Es- 
 kimo village in Alaska. In spite of the advancing 
 season the difficulties increased with the resump- 
 tion of travel, March being the month in which 
 the severest weather is to be expected here. 
 Throughout the 250 miles to Flaxman Island the 
 party saw only one human being and were housed 
 only twice. 'It is,' says the writer, 'the barrenest, 
 most desolate, most forsaken coast I have ever seen 
 in my life; flat as this paper on which I write, the 
 frozen land merging indistinguishably into the 
 frozen sea; nothing but a stick of driftwood here 
 and there, half buried in the indented snow, gives 
 evidence of the shore.' The fortnight's travel along 
 this stretch was a constant struggle against a bitter 
 northeast wind with the thermometer 20° to 30° 
 below zero Fahrenheit, and at night, warmed only 
 by the primus oil cooking stove, the air within 
 their little snow house was as low as from 48° to 
 51° below zero. The almost ceaseless wind was 
 a torment, and the faces of all were continually 
 frozen. There are Eskimo on the rivers away 
 from the coast, but it was impossible to visit them. 
 East of Point Barrow all the dog-feed had to be 
 hauled on the sledge, and — for the first time since 
 the archdeacon had driven dogs — they occasionally 
 went hungry when there was no driftwood to cook 
 with. The heaviest task however came on the 
 journey inland to Fort Yukon. Beyond the moun- 
 tains the winter's snow lay unbroken, and for 
 eight days a trail down the Collen River had to 
 be beaten ahead of the dogs. At the confluence 
 of the Collen with the Porcupine Stefansson and 
 his party were met with, escorted on the way to 
 Fort Yukon by Dr. Burke, of the hospital there. 
 Stefansson had lain ill all the winter at Herschel 
 Island, and would never have recovered had he 
 not finally resolved to be hauled 400 miles to the 
 nearest doctor." — Journey round the Arctic coast 
 of Alaska (Science, Nov. 29, 1918). 
 
 Another Arctic explorer of recent years who 
 rendered distinguished services by his contributions 
 to geography, botany and geology is Knud Ras- 
 mussen, a Danish-Greenlander. Accompanied by 
 a Danish geologist, L. Koch and Dr. T. Wulff, 
 Swedish botanist, he set out in April, 1917, with a 
 small party of Eskimos, crossed the perpetual ice- 
 cap of Greenland and surveyed the western shore 
 while his colleagues accumulated a botanical and 
 geological collection. The party fell into desperate 
 straits owing to lack of food and the absence of 
 game. The botanist and the Eskimo hunter of 
 the expedition lost their lives. The rest of the 
 party was saved by Rasmussen's feat of obtaining 
 relief after a forced march to Etah and back, a 
 round distance of 280 miles, accompanied by one 
 Eskimo. 
 
 Chronological summary: 
 
 1262.— Hakonson wins Iceland for Norway. See 
 Iceland: 1262; and i2th-i3th century 
 
 14th-18th centuries. — Danish control of Iceland, 
 Commerce, and English interests. See Iceland: 
 I4th-i8th centuries. 
 
 1498. — Route of Sebastian Cabot in the explora- 
 tion of Greenland. See America: Map showing 
 voyages of discovery. 
 
 474
 
 ARCTIC EXPLORATION 
 
 Chronology 
 1500-1819 
 
 ARCTIC EXPLORATION 
 
 1500-1502. — Discovery and exploration of the 
 coast of Labrador and the entrance of Hudson 
 strait by the Corte-Reals. 
 
 1553. — Voyage of Willoughby and Chancellor 
 from London, in search of a northeast passage to 
 India. Chancellor reached Archangel on the White 
 sea and learned that he was in the dominions of 
 the sovereign of Muscovy or Russia. With much 
 difficulty he obtained permission to visit the court 
 at Moscow, and made the long journey to that city 
 by sledge over the snow. There he was admitted 
 to an interview with the Tsar, and returned with 
 a letter which permitted the opening of trade 
 between England and Russia. Willoughby, with 
 two vessels and their crews, was less fortunate. 
 His party, after wintering on a desolate shore, per- 
 ished the next year in some manner, the particulars 
 of which were never known. The two ships, with 
 their dead crews, were found long afterwards by 
 Russian sailors, and their log-book recovered, but 
 it tolJ nothing of the tragical end of the voyage. 
 The chartered company of London merchants 
 which sent out these expeditions is believed to have 
 been the first joint stock corporation of share- 
 holders formed in England. As the Russia Com- 
 pany, it afterwards became a rich and powerful 
 corporation, and its success set other enterprises 
 in motion. 
 
 1556. — Exploring voyage of Stephen Bur- 
 roughs to the northeast, approaching Nova Zem- 
 bla. 
 
 1576-1578. — Voyages of Frobisher to the coast 
 of Labrador and the entrance to Davis strait, dis- 
 covering the bay which bears his name, and which 
 he supposed to be a strait leading to Cathay ; af- 
 terwards entering Hudson strait. Having brought 
 from his first voyage a certain glittering stone 
 which English goldsmiths concluded to be ore of 
 gold, his second and third voyages were made to 
 procure cargoes of the imagined ore, and to found 
 a colony in the frozen region from which it came. 
 The golden ore proved delusive ; the colony was 
 never planted. 
 
 1580. — Northeastern voyage of Pet and Jack- 
 man, passing Nova Zembla. 
 
 1585-1587. — Three voyages of John Davis 
 from Dartmouth, in search of a northwestern 
 passage to India, entering the strait between 
 Greenland and Baffinland which bears his name 
 and exploring it to the 72nd degree north lat- 
 itude. 
 
 1594-1595. — Dutch expeditions (the first and 
 second under Barents) to the northeast, passing 
 to the north of Nova Zembla, or Novaya Zem- 
 lya, but making no progress beyond it, 
 
 1596-1597. — Third voyage of Barents, when 
 he discovered and coasted Spitsbergen, wintered in 
 Nova Zembla with his crew, lost his ship in the 
 ice, and perished, with one third of his men, in 
 undertaking to reach the coast of Lapland in open 
 boats. — See also Spitsbergen: i5q6-i82q. 
 
 1602. — Exploration for a northwest passage 
 by Captain George Weymouth, for the Muscovy 
 Company and the Levant Company, resulting in 
 nothing but a visitation of the entrance to Hud- 
 son strait. 
 
 1607. — Polar voyage of Henry Hudson, for 
 the Muscovy Company of London, attaining the 
 northern coast of Spitsbergen. 
 
 1608. — Voyage of Henry Hudson to Nova 
 Zembla for the Muscovy Company. 
 
 1610. — Voyage of Henry Hudson, in English 
 employ, to seek the northwest passage, being the 
 voyage in which he passed through the Strait and 
 entered the great Bay to which his name has been 
 given, and in which he perished at the hands of 
 
 a mutinous crew. — See also America: Map showing 
 voyages of discovery. 
 
 1612-1614. — Exploration of Hudson bay by 
 Captains Button, Bylot, and Baffin, practically dis- 
 covering its true character and shaking the previous 
 theory of its connection with the Pacific ocean. 
 
 1614. — Exploring expedition of the Muscovy 
 Company to the Greenland coast, under Robert 
 Fotherby, with William Baffin for pilot, making 
 its way to latitude 80°. 
 
 1616. — Voyage into the northwest made by 
 Captain Baffin with Captain Bylot, which resulted 
 in the discovery of Baffin bay. Smith sound, Jones 
 sound, and Lancaster sound. 
 
 1619-1620. — Voyage of Jens Munk, sent by 
 the King of Denmark to seek the northwest pas- 
 sage; wintering in Hudson bay, and losing there all 
 but two of his crew, with whom he succeeded in 
 making the voyage home. 
 
 1632. — Voyages of Captains Fox and James 
 into Hudson bay. 
 
 1670. — Grant and charter to the Hudson's Bay 
 Company, by King Charles II. of England, con- 
 ferring on the Company possession and govern- 
 ment of the whole watershed of the bay, and nam- 
 ing the country Prince Rupert Land. 
 
 1676. — Voyage of Captain John Wood to 
 Nova Zembla, seeking the northeastern passage. 
 
 1728. — Exploration of the northern coasts of 
 Kamchatka by the Russian Captain Vitus Bering, 
 and discovery of the strait which bears his name. 
 
 1741. — Exploration of northern channels of Hud- 
 son bay by Captain Middleton. 
 
 1743. — Offer of £20,000 by the British Parlia- 
 ment for the discovery of a northwest passage to 
 the Pacific. 
 
 1746. — Further exploration of northern chan- 
 nels of Hudson bay by Captains Moor and Smith. 
 
 1753-1754. — Attempted exploration of Hudson 
 bay by the colonial Captain Swaine, sent out 
 from Philadelphia, chiefly through the exertions of 
 Dr. Franklin. 
 
 1765. — Russian expedition of Captain Tchit- 
 schakoff, attempting to reach the Pacific from 
 Archangel. 
 
 1768-1769. — Exploration of Nova Zembla by a 
 Russian officer, Lieutenant Rosmyssloff. 
 
 1769-1770. — Exploring journey of Samuel 
 Hearne, for the Hudson's Bay Company, from 
 Churchill, its most northern post, to Coppermine 
 river and down the river to the Polar sea. 
 
 1773. — Voyage of Captain Phipps, afterwards 
 Lord Mulgrave, toward the North Pole, reaching 
 the northeastern extremity of Spitsbergen. 
 
 1779. — Exploration of the Arctic coast, east 
 and west of Bering strait, by Captain Cook, in 
 his last voyage. 
 
 1789. — Exioring journey of Alexander Mac- 
 kenzie, for the Northwest Company, and discovery 
 of the great river flowing into the Polar sea, which 
 bears his name. 
 
 1806. — Whaling voyage of Captain Scoresby 
 to latitude 81° 30' and longitude ig° east, a record 
 until Parry eclipsed it. 
 
 1818. — Unsatisfactory voyage of Commander 
 John Ross to Baffin bay and into Lancaster sound. 
 
 1818. — Voyage of Captain Buchan towards 
 the North Pole, reaching the northern part of 
 ■ Spitsbergen. 
 
 1819-1820. — First voyage of Lieutenant Parry, 
 exploring for a northwest passage, through Davis 
 strait, Baffin bay, Lancaster sound, and Barrow 
 strait, to Melville island. 
 
 1819-1820. — Journey of Captain (afterwards 
 Sir John) Franklin, Dr. Richardson, and Captain 
 (afterwards Sir George) Back, from Fort York, on 
 
 475
 
 ARCTIC EXPLORATION 
 
 Chronology 
 1819-1853 
 
 ARCTIC EXPLORATION 
 
 the western coast of Hudson bay by the way of 
 Lake Athabasca, Great Slave lake, and Copper- 
 mine river, to Coronation gulf, opening into the 
 Arctic ocean. 
 
 1819-1824. — Russian expeditions for the survey 
 of Nova Zembla. 
 
 1820-1824. — Russian surveys of the Siberian 
 polar region by Wraiigcll and Anjou. 
 
 1821-1823. — Second voyage of Captain Parry, 
 exploring for a northwest passage to the Pacific 
 ocean, through Hudson strait and Fox channel, 
 discovering the Fury and Hecla strait, the north- 
 ern outlet of the bay. 
 
 1821-1824. — Russian surveying expedition to 
 Nova Zembla, under Lieutenant Liitke. 
 
 1822. — Whaling voyage of Captain Scoresby 
 to the eastern coast of Greenland, which was con- 
 siderably traced and mapped by him. 
 
 1822-1823. — Scientific expedition of Captain 
 Sabine, with Commander Clavering, to Spits- 
 bergen and the eastern coast of Greenland. 
 
 1824-1825. — TUrd voyage of Captain Parry, 
 exploring for a northwest passage, by way of Davis 
 strait, Baffin bay, and Lancaster sound, to Prince 
 Regent inlet, where one of his ships was wrecked. 
 
 1825-1827. — Second journey of Franklin Rich- 
 ardson, and Back, from Canada to the Arctic 
 ocean \ Franklin and Back by the Mackenzie river 
 and westward along the coast to longitude 149^ 
 37'; Richardson by the Mackenzie river and the 
 .•\rctic coast eastward to Coppermine river. 
 
 1826. — Voyage of Captain Beechey through 
 Bering strait and eastward along the Arctic coast 
 as far as Point Barrow. 
 
 1827. — Fourth voyage of Captain Parry, at- 
 tempting to reach the North Pole, by ship to 
 Spitsbergen and by boats to 82° 45 north lati- 
 tude. — See also Spiisbergex; 1596-1827. ■ 
 
 1829-1833. — Expedition under Captain Ross, 
 fitted out by Mr. Felix Booth, to seek a north- 
 west passage, resulting in the discovery of the 
 position of the north magnetic pole, southwest of 
 Boothia, not far from which Ross' ship was ice- 
 bound for three years. .Abandoning the vessel at 
 last, the explorers made their way to Baffin bay 
 and were rescued by a whale-ship. 
 
 1833-1835. — Journey of Captain Back from 
 Canada, via Great Slave lake,, to the river which 
 he discovered and which bears his name, flowing 
 to the Polar sea. 
 
 1835-1837. — Voyage of Captain Back for sur- 
 veying the straits and channels in the northern 
 extremity of Hudson bay. 
 
 1837-1839. — Expeditions of Dease and Simp- 
 son, in the service of the Hudson Bay Company, 
 determining the .•\rctic coast line as far east as 
 Boothia. 
 
 1845. — Departure from Englind of the gov- 
 ernment expedition under Sir John Franklin, in 
 two bomb-vessels, the Erebus and the Terror. 
 which entered Baffin bay in July and were never 
 seen afterward. 
 
 1848. — Expedition of Sir John Richardson and 
 Mr. John Rae down the Mackenzie river, search- 
 ing for traces of Sir John Franklin and his crews. 
 1848-1849. — Expedition under Sir James Clarke 
 Ross to Baffin bay and westward as far as Leo- 
 pold Island, searching for Sir John Franklin. 
 
 1848-1851. — Searching expedition of the Her- ' 
 aid and the Plover, under Captain Kellett and 
 Commander Moore, through Bering strait and 
 westward to Coppermine river, learning nothing of 
 the fate of the Franklin party. 
 
 1850. — Searching expedition sent out by Lady 
 Franklin, under Captain Forsyth, for the exam- 
 ination of Prince Regent inlet. 
 
 1850-1851. — United States Grinnell expedition, 
 sent to assist the search for Sir John Frank- 
 lin and his crew, consisting of two ships, the Ad- 
 vance and the Rescue, fursished by Mr. Henry 
 Grinnell and officered and manned by the U. S. 
 government, Ueutenant De Haven commanding and 
 Dr. Kane surgeon. B'rozen into the ice in Welling- 
 ton channel, in September, 1S50, the vessels drifted 
 helplessly northward until Grinnell Land was seen 
 and named, then southward and westward until 
 the next June, when they escaped ill Baffin 
 bay. 
 
 1850-1851. — Franklin search expedition, sent out 
 by the British government, under Captain 
 Penny, who explored Wellington channel and 
 Cornwallis Island by sledge journeys. 
 
 1850-1851. — Discovery of traces of Franklin 
 and his men at Cape Riley and Beechey island, 
 by Captain Ommaney and Captain Austin, 
 
 1850-1852. — Franklin search expedition under 
 Captain Collinson, through Bering strait and east- 
 ward into Prince of Wales strait, sending sledge 
 parties to Melville island. 
 
 1850-1854. — Franklin search expedition under 
 Captain McClure, through Bering strait and 
 westward, between Banks Land and Prince Albert 
 Land, attaining a point within 25 miles of Melville 
 sound, already reached from the east ; thus dem- 
 onstrating the existence of a northwest passage, 
 though not accomplishing the navigation of it. 
 McClure received luiighthood, and a reward of 
 £10.000 was distributed to the officers and crew 
 of the expedition. 
 
 1851. — Expedition of Dr. Rae, sent by the Brit- 
 ish government to descend the Coppermine 
 river and search the southern coast of Wollaston 
 Land, which he did, exploring farther along the 
 coast of the continent eastward to a point opposite 
 King W'illiam's Land. 
 
 1851-1852. — Franklin search expedition sent out 
 by Lady Franklin under Captain Kennedy, for 
 a further examination of Prince Regent inlet and 
 the surrounding region. 
 
 1852-1854. — Franklin search expedition of five 
 ships sent out by the British government under 
 Sir Edward Belcher, with Captains McClintock, 
 Kellett, and Sherard Osborn' under his command. 
 Belcher and Oshnrn, going up Wellington channel 
 to Northumberland sound, were frozen fast; Mc- 
 Clintock and Kellett experienced the same mis- 
 fortune near Melville island, where they had re- 
 ceived Captain McClure and his crew, escaping 
 from their abandoned ship. Finally all the ships of 
 Belcher's fleet except one were abandoned. One, 
 the Resolute, drifted out into Davis strait in 185.1;, 
 was rescued, boueht by the United States govern- 
 ment and presented to Queen Victoria. 
 
 1853-1854. — Hudson's Bay Company expedition 
 by Dr. Rae, to Repulse bay and Pelly bay, on 
 the Gulf of Boothia, where Dr. Rae found 
 Eskimos in possession of articles which had be- 
 longed to Sir John Franklin, and his men, and 
 was told that in the winter of 1S50 they saw 
 white men near King William's Land, traveling 
 southward, dragging sledges and a boat, and 
 afterwards saw dead bodies and graves on the main- 
 land. 
 
 1853-1855. — Grinnell expedition, under Dr. Kane, 
 proceeding straight northward through Baffin 
 bay, Smith sound and Kennedy channel, 
 nearly to latitude 70°, where the vessel was locked 
 in ice and remained fast until abandoned in the 
 spring of 1855, the party escaping to Greenland 
 and being rescued by an expedition under Lieu- 
 tenant Hartstein which the American government 
 had sent to their relief. 
 
 476
 
 ARCTIC EXPLORATION 
 
 Chronology 
 1855-1881 
 
 ARCTIC EXPLORATION 
 
 1855.— Cruise of the U. S. ship Viiuennes, 
 Lieutenant John Rodgers commanding, in the Arc- 
 tic sea, via Bering strait to Wrangcll Land. 
 
 1855. — Expedition of Mr. Anderson, of the 
 Hudson's Bay Company, down the Great Fish river 
 to Point Ogle at its mouth, seeking traces of the 
 party of Sir John Franklin. 
 
 1857-1859. — Search expedition sent out by Lady 
 Franklin, under Captain McClintock, which 
 became ice-bound in Melville bay, August, 1857, 
 and drifted helplessly for eight months, over 1,200 
 miles; escaped from the ice in April, 1858; re- 
 fitted in Greenland and returned into Prince Regent 
 inlet, whence Captain McClintock searched the 
 neighboring regions by sledge journeys, discover- 
 ing, at last, in King William's Land, not only 
 remains but records of the lost explorers, learning 
 that they were caught in the ice somewhere in 
 or about Peel sound, September, 1846; that Sir 
 John Franklin died on the nth of the following 
 June; that the ships were deserted on the 22A 
 of April, 1848, on the northwest coast of King 
 William's Land, and that the survivors 105 in 
 number, set out for Back or Great Fish river. 
 They perished probably one by one on the way. 
 
 1860-1861. — Expedition of Dr. Hayes to Smith 
 sound; wintering on the Greenland side at lati- 
 tude 78° 17'; crossing the Sound with sledges and 
 tracing Grinnell Land to about 82° 45'. 
 
 1860-1862. — Expedition of Captain Hall on 
 the whaling ship George Henry, and discovery of 
 relics of Frobisher, 
 
 1864-1869. — Residence of Captain Hall among 
 Eskimos on the north side of Hudson strait and 
 search for further relics of the Franklin expedition. 
 
 1867. — Tracing of the southern coast of Wrangell 
 Land by Captains Long and Raynor, of the whal- 
 ing ships Nile and Reindeer. 
 
 1867. — Transfer of the territory, privileges and 
 rights of the Hudson's Bay Company to the Do- 
 minion of Canada. 
 
 1868. — Swedish Polar expedition, directed by 
 Professor Nordenskiold, attaining latitude Si" 42', 
 on the i8th meridian of east longitude. 
 
 1869. — Yacht voyage of Dr. Hayes to the Green- 
 land coasts. 
 
 1869-1870. — German Polar expedition, under 
 Captain Koldewey, one vessel of which was crushed, 
 the crew escaping to an ice floe and drifting i.ioo 
 miles, reaching finally a Danish settlement on the 
 Greenland coast, while the other explored the east 
 coast of Greenland to latitude 77°. 
 
 1871-1872. — Voyage of the steamer Polaris, fitted 
 out by the U. S. government, under Captain 
 Hall; passing from Baffin bay, through Smith 
 sound and Kennedy channel, into what Kane and 
 Hayes had supposed to be open sea, but which 
 proved to be the widening of a strait, called Robe- 
 son strait by Captain Hall, thus going beyond the 
 most northerly point that had previously been 
 reached in Arctic exploration. Wintering in lati- 
 tude 81° 38' (where Captain Hall died), the Polaris 
 was turned homeward the following August. Dur- 
 ing a storm, when the ship was threatened with 
 destruction by the ice. a number of her crew and 
 party were left helplessly on a floe, which drifted 
 with them for 1,500 miles, until they were res- 
 cued by a passing vessel. Those on the Polaris 
 fared little better. Forced to run their sinking 
 ship ashore, they wintered in huts and made their 
 way south in the spring, until they met whale- 
 ships which took them on board. 
 
 1872-1874. — Austro-Hungarian expedition, under 
 Captain Weyprecht and Lieutenant Payer, 
 seeking the northeast passage, with the result of 
 discovering and naming Franz Josef Land, Crown 
 
 Prince Rudolf Land and Peterraann Land, the 
 latter (seen, not visited) estimated to be beyond 
 latitude 83°. The explorers were obliged to aban- 
 don their ice-locked steamer, and make their way 
 by sledges and boats to Nova Zembla, where they 
 were picked up. 
 
 1875. — Voyage of Captain Young, attempting 
 to navigate the northwest passage through Lan- 
 caster sound, Barrow strait and Peel strait, but 
 being turned back by ice in the latter. 
 
 1875-1876. — English expedition under Captain 
 Nares, in the Alert, and the Discovery, at- 
 taining by ship the high latitude of 82' 27', in 
 Smith sound, and advancing by sledges to 83° 20' 
 26", while exploring the northern shore of Grinnell 
 Land and the northwest coast of Greenland. 
 
 1876-1878. — Norwegian North-Atlantic expedi- 
 tion, for a scientific exploration of the sea be- 
 tween Norway, the Faroe islands, Iceland, Jan 
 Mayen, and Spitsbergen. — See also Spitsbergen: 
 igo6-i02i. 
 
 1878. — Discovery of the island named "Ein- 
 samkeit," in latitude 77 40' N. and longitudt 
 86" E., by Captain Johannescn, of the Norwegian 
 schooner Nordland. 
 
 1878-1879. — Final achievement of the long- 
 sought, often attempted northeast passage, from 
 the Atlantic to the Pacific ocean, by the Swedish 
 geographer and explorer. Baron Nordenskiold, on 
 the steamer Vega, which made the voyage from 
 Gothenburg to Yokohama, Japan, through the 
 .'\rctic sea, coasting the Russian and Siberian shores. 
 
 1878-1883. — Six annual expeditions to the Arctic 
 seas of the ship Willem Barents, sent out 
 by the Dutch Arctic Committee. 
 
 1879. — Cruise of Sir Henry Gore-Booth and 
 Captain Markham, R. N., in the cutter Isbjorn 
 to Nova Zembla and in Barents sea and the Kara 
 .sea. 
 
 1879-1380.— Journey of Lieufenant Schwatka 
 from Hudson bay to King William island, and 
 exploration of the western and southern shores of 
 the latter, searching for the journals and logs of 
 the Franklin expedition. 
 
 1879-1882. — Polar voyage of the Jeannette, 
 fitted out by the proprietor of the New York 
 Herald and commanded by Commander De Long, 
 U. S. N. The course taken by the Jeannette was 
 through Bering strait towards Wrangell Land, and 
 then northerly, until she became icebound when 
 she drifted helplessly for nearly two years, only 
 to be crushed at last. The officers and crew es- 
 caped in three boats, one of which was lost in a 
 storm; the occupants of the other two boats 
 reached different mouths of the river Lena. One 
 of these, two boats, commanded by Engineer 
 Melville, was fortunate enough to find a settle- 
 ment and obtain speedy relief. The other, which 
 contained Commander De Long, landed in a region 
 of desolation, and all but two of its occupants 
 perished of starvation and cold. 
 
 1880-1882. — First and second cruises of the 
 United States revenue steamer Corwin in the Arc- 
 tic ocean, via Bering strait, to Wrangell Land seek- 
 ing information concerning the Jeannette and 
 searching for two missing whaling ships. 
 
 1880-1882. — Two voyages of Mr. Leigh Smith 
 to Franz Josef Land, in his yacht Eira. in the first 
 of which a considerable exploration of the south- 
 ern coast was made, while the second resulted in 
 the loss of the ship and a perilous escape of the 
 party in boats to Nova Zembla, where they were 
 rescued. 
 
 1881. — Expedition of the steamer Rodgers to 
 search for the missing explorers of the Jeannette; 
 entering the Arctic sea through Bering strait, but 
 
 477
 
 ARCTIC EXPLORATION 
 
 Chronology 
 1881-1896 
 
 ARCTIC EXPLORATION 
 
 abruptly stopped by the burning of the Rodgers, 
 on the 30th of November, in St. Lawrence bay. 
 
 1881.— Cruise of the U. S. Alliance, Com- 
 mander Wadleigh, via Spitsbergen, to 79" 3' 36" 
 north latitude, searching for the Jeannelte. 
 
 1881-1884. — International undertaking of ex- 
 peditions to establbh Arctic stations for simul- 
 taneous meteorological and magnetic observations: 
 by the United States at Smith sound and Point 
 Barrow; by Great Britain at Fort Rae; by Russia 
 at the mouth of the Lena and in Nova Zembla; by 
 Denmark at Godhaab, in Greenland; by Holland 
 at Dickson's Haven, near the mouth of the Yenisei; 
 by Germany in Cumberland sound, Davis strait; 
 by Austro-Hungary on Jan Mayen island; by 
 Sweden at Mussel bay in Spitsbergen. The United 
 States expedition to Smith sound, under Lieuten- 
 ant Greely, established its station on Discovery 
 bay. Exploring parties sent out attained the high- 
 est latitude ever reached, namely 83° 24'. After 
 remaining two winters and failing to receive ex- 
 pected supplies, which had been intercepted by the 
 ice, Greely and his men, twenty-five in number, 
 started southward, and all but seven perished on 
 the way. The survivors were rescued, in the last 
 stages of starvation, by a vessel sent to their re- 
 lief under Captain Schley, U. S. N. 
 
 1882-1883. — Danish Arctic expedition of the 
 Dijmpha, under Lieutenant Hovgaard; finding 
 the Varna of the Dutch Meteorological Expedition 
 beset in the ice ; both vessels becoming frozen in 
 together for nearly twelve months; the Dijmphna 
 escaping finally with both crews. 
 
 1883.— Expedition of Lieutenant Ray, U. S. N., 
 from Point Barrow to Meade river. 
 
 1883. — Expedition of Baron Nordenskibld to 
 Greenland, making explorations in the interior. 
 
 1883-1885. — East Greenland expedition of Cap- 
 tain Holm and Lieutenant Garde. 
 
 1884. — Second fruise of the U. S. revenue 
 marine steamer Corwin in the Arctic ocean. 
 
 1886. — Reconnoissance of the Greenland in- 
 land ice by Civil Engineer R. E. Peary, U. S. N. 
 
 1888. — Journey of Dr. Nansen across South 
 Greenland. 
 
 1890. — Swedish expedition to Spitsbergen, under 
 G. Nordenskibld and Baron Klinkowstrom. 
 
 1890. — Danish scientific explorations in North 
 and South Greenland. 
 
 1890. — Russian exploration of the Melo-Zemel- 
 skaya, or Timanskaya tundra, in the far north 
 of European Russia, on the Arctic ocean. 
 
 1891-1892. — Expedition of Lieutenant Peary, 
 U. S. N., with a party of seven, including Mrs. 
 Peary, establishing headquarters on McCormick 
 bay, northwest Greenland; thence making sledge 
 journeys. The surveys of Lieutenant Peary 
 have gone far toward proving Greenland to be an 
 island. 
 
 1891-1892. — Danish East Greenland expedi- 
 tion of Lieutenant Ryder. 
 
 1891-1893. — Expeditions of Dr. Drygalski to 
 Greenland for the study of the great glaciers. 
 
 1892. — Swedish expedition of Bjorling and 
 Kallstenius, the last records of which were found 
 on one of the Cary islands, in Baffin bay. 
 
 1892. — French expedition under M. Ribot to 
 the islands of Spitsbergen and Jan Mayen. 
 
 1893. — Expedition of Dr. Nansen, in the Fram 
 from Christiania, aiming to enter a current which 
 flows, in Dr. Nansen's belief, across the Arctic 
 region to Greenland. 
 
 1893. — Russian expedition, under Baron Toll, 
 to the New Siberian islands and the Siberian Arctic 
 coasts. 
 
 1893. — Danish expedition to Greenland, under 
 
 Lieutenant Garde, for a geographical survey of 
 the coast and study of the inland ice. 
 
 1893-1894. — Expedition of Lieutenant Peary and 
 party (Mrs. Peary again of the number) , 
 landing in Bowdoin bay, August, 1893 ; attempt- 
 ing in the following March a sledge journey to 
 Independence bay, but compelled to turn back. 
 An auxiliary expedition brought back most of the 
 party to Philadelphia in September, 1894; but 
 Lieutenant Peary with two men remained. 
 
 1893-1894.— -Scientific journey of Mr. Frank 
 Russell, under the auspices of the state univer- 
 sity of Iowa, from Lake Winnipeg to the mouth 
 of Mackenzie river and to Herschel island. 
 
 1893-1900. — Scientific exploration of Labrador 
 by A. P. Low. 
 
 1894. — Expedition of Mr. Walter Wellman, an 
 American journalist, purposing to reach Spitzber- 
 gen via Norway, and to advance thence towards 
 the Pole, with aluminum boats. The party left 
 Tromso May i, but were stopped before the end 
 of the month by the crushing of their vessel. 
 They were picked up and brought back to Nor- 
 way. 
 
 1894. — Departure of what is known as the 
 Jackson-Harmsworth North Polar Expedition, 
 planned to make Franz Josef Land a base of op- 
 erations from which to advance carefully and per- 
 sistently towards the Pole. 
 
 1895. — Preparations of Herr Julius von Payer, 
 for an artistic and scientific expedition to the east 
 coast of Greenland, in which he will be accom- 
 panied by landscape and animal painters, photog- 
 raphers and savants. 
 
 1895. — Return of Peary relief expedition with 
 Lieut. Robert E. Peary and his companions. In 
 spite of great difficulties Lieut. Peary had again 
 crossed the ice-sheet to Independence bay, deter- 
 mined the northern limits of Greenland, charted 
 1,000 miles of the west coast, discovered eleven 
 islands and the famous Iron Mountain (three great 
 meteorites), and obtained much knowledge of the 
 natives. The purely scientific results of the ex- 
 pedition are of great value. The relief expedi- 
 tion was organized by Mrs. Peary. 
 
 1895. — Cruise of Mr. Pearson and Lieut. 
 Feilden in Barents sea. 
 
 1895. — Return of Martin Ekroll from Spitz- 
 bergen after a winter's study of the ice conditions 
 there. Convinced that his plan of reaching the 
 pole by a sledge journey had little chance of suc- 
 cess. 
 
 1895. — Survey of the lower Yenisei river and 
 Ob bay by Siberian hydrographic expedition. 
 
 1895. — Commercial expedition of Capt. Wig- 
 gins from England to Golchika, at the mouth of 
 the Yenisei 
 
 1895. — Russian geological expedition to Nova 
 Zembla. 
 
 1895-. — Russian expedition under the geologist 
 Bogdanovich to the Sea of Okhotsk and Kam- 
 chatka. 
 
 1895-1896. — Two scientific voyages of the 
 Danish cruiser Ingolf in the seas west and east of 
 Greenland. 
 
 1896. — Summer expedition of naturalists and 
 college students to the northern coast of Labra- 
 dor. 
 
 1896. — Attempt of Lieut. Peary to remove the 
 great meteorite discovered by him at Cape York, 
 Greenland. After dislodging it he was compelled 
 by the ice to leave it. Small parties from Cornell 
 university and Massachusetts Institute of Technol- 
 ogy and one under Mr. George Bartlett, left by 
 Peary at different points to make scientific ob- 
 servations and collections, returned with him. 
 
 478
 
 ARCTIC EXPLORATION 
 
 Chronology 
 1896-1898 
 
 ARCTIC EXPLORATION 
 
 1896. — Hydrographical survey of the Danish 
 waters of Greenland and Iceland. 
 
 1896. — Hansen sent to Siberia to look for traces 
 of Nansen. 
 
 1896. — Return of Dr. Nansen from voyage 
 begun in i8g3. After skirting the coast of Siberia 
 almost to the Lena delta, the Fram was enclosed 
 by the ice and drifted with it north and north- 
 west. On March 14, iSqs, in 84° 4' N. lat., 102" 
 E. long., Nansen and Johansen left the Fram and 
 pushed northward with dogs and sledges across 
 an ice floe till they reached lat. 86" 13.6', at about 
 95° W. long., on April 8, within 261 statute miles 
 of the pole. With great difficulty they made their 
 way to Franz Josef Land, where they wintered, 
 and in June met explorer Jackson. Returning on 
 the Jackson supply steamer Windward, they 
 reached Vardo Aug. 13. The Fram drifted to lat. 
 85° 57' N., 66° E. long., then southwestward, 
 reaching Tromso Aug. 20, 1896. Nansen demon- 
 strated the existence of a polar sea of great depth, 
 comparatively warm below the surface, apparently 
 with few islands; though he did not find the trans- 
 polar current he sought. 
 
 1896. — Spitsbergen crossed for the first time, 
 by Sir W. Martin Conway and party. 
 
 1896. — Many parties visit the northern coast 
 of Norway and Nova Zembla to view the total 
 eclipse of the sun, Aug 8-g. 
 
 1896. — Expedition sent by Russian Hydro- 
 graphic Department to find site for a sealers' 
 refuge in Nova Zembla. Bielusha bay, on the 
 southwest coast, chosen. 
 
 1897. — Expedition sent by Canadian govern- 
 ment to investigate Hudson bay and strait as a 
 route to Central Canada. Passage found to be 
 navigable for at least sixteen weeks each summer. 
 
 1897. — Seventh Peary expedition to Green- 
 land. Accompanied by parties for scientific re- 
 search. Preliminary arrangements made with the 
 Eskimos for the expedition of i8q8, and food-sta- 
 tions established. Relics of Greely's expedition 
 found on cape Sabine, and the great meteorite at 
 cape York brought away at last. 
 I 1897. — Second expedition of Sir Martin Con- 
 
 way for the exploration of Spitsbergen. 
 
 1897. — A summer resort established on west 
 •oast of Spitsbergen, with regular steamer service 
 for tourists during July and August. 
 
 1897. — Cruise of Mr. Arnold Pike and Sir 
 Savile Crossley among the islands east of Spits- 
 bergen. 
 
 1897. — Cruise of Mr. Pearson and Lieut. Feil- 
 den in the Laura in the Kara sea and along the 
 east coast of Nova Zembla, for the purpose of 
 studying the natural history of the region. 
 
 1897.— Expedition of F. W. L. Popham with 
 a fleet of steamers through Yugor straits to the 
 Yenisei. 
 
 1897. — Hydrological and commercial expedi- 
 tion, comprising seven steamers, under Rear-Ad- 
 miral Makaroff, sent by the Russian government 
 to the north Siberian sea. 
 
 1897. — Balloon voyage of Salomon August 
 Andree and two companions, Mr. Strindberg and 
 Mr. Fraenkel, starting from Danes' island, north 
 of Spitsbergen, in the hope of being carried to the 
 Pole. Four buoys from the balloon have been 
 found. The first, found in Norway in June, i8qg, 
 and containing a note from Andree, was thrown 
 out eight hours after his departure. The "North 
 Pole buoy," to be dropped when the Pole was 
 passed, was found empty on the north side of King 
 Charles Island, north-east of Spitzbergen, Sept. 11, 
 1899. A third buoy, also empty, was found on 
 the west coast of Iceland July 17, 1900. Another, 
 
 reported from Norway, Aug. 31, igoo, contained 
 a note showing that the buoy was thrown out at 
 10 p. M., July II, 1897, at an altitude of 250 metres 
 {820 ft.), moving N. 45 E., with splendid weather. 
 Many search expeditions, some equipped at great 
 expense, have returned unsuccessful. In spite of 
 many rumors nothing definite is known of the fate 
 of any of the party. One message from Andree 
 was brought back by a carrier pigeon. It was 
 dated July 13, 12.30 p. m., in lat. 82" 2', long. 
 12° s' E., and stated that the balloon was moving 
 eastward. 
 
 1897. — New islands on the southern coast of 
 Franz Josef Land discovered by Capt. Robertson 
 of the Dundee whaler Balasna. 
 
 1897. — Return of Jackson-Harmsworthy expedi- 
 tion from three years' exploration of Franz Josef 
 Land and the region north of it. Franz Josef 
 Land was resolved into a group of islands and 
 almost entirely mapped. Small parties journey- 
 ing northward over the ice, establishing depots of 
 supplies, the most northern in latitude 81° 21', 
 discovered and named Victoria sea, the most north- 
 ern open sea in the world. 
 
 1897-1899. — Journey of Andrew J. Stone through 
 the Canadian Rockies, down Mackenzie river 
 and along the arctic coast, in search of rare mam- 
 mals and information concerning the native 
 tribes. Mr. Stone often had only one companion. 
 He traveled rapidly, in one period of five months 
 covering 3,000 miles of arctic coast and moun- 
 tains, between 70° and 72° N. lat. and between 
 ll^y>° and 140° W. long. 
 
 1898.— Expedition of Dr. K. J. V. Steenstrup 
 to Greenland to study the glaciers of Disco island. 
 
 1898. — Completion by Dr. Thoroddsen of his 
 systematic exploration of Iceland, begun in 1S81. 
 
 1898. — Spitsbergen circumnavigated and sur- 
 veyed by Dr. A. G. Nathorst. Coast mapped and 
 important scientific observations made. 
 
 1898. — Pendulum observations made in Spits- 
 bergen by Prof. J. H. Gore, with instruments of 
 the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, for 
 the determination of the force of gravity in that 
 latitude. 
 
 1898. — Cruise of Prince Albert of Monaco, on 
 coast of Spitsbergen, for the purpose of making 
 scientific observations. 
 
 1898. — Some claim to Spitsbergen made by 
 Russia. Never before claimed by any nation. 
 
 1898. — German arctic expedition under Theo- 
 dor Lerner to the islands east of Spitsbergen, for 
 scientific purposes and to obtain news of Andree 
 if possible. 
 
 1898. — Andree search expedition under J. 
 Stadling sent to the Lena delta, the mouth of the 
 Yenisei and the islands of New Siberia by the 
 Swedish Anthropological and Geographical Society. 
 
 1898-1899. — Reconnoitring expedition by Dan- 
 ish party under Lieut. G. C. Amdrup, to east coast 
 of Greenland. Coast explored and mapped from 
 Angmagssalik, 65-)4° N. lat., to 67° 22'. Remains 
 of a small extinct Eskimo settlement found. 
 
 1898-1899.— Second attempt by Walter Well- 
 man to reach the North Pole. Wintered in Franz 
 Josef Land, establishing an outpost, called Fort 
 McKinley, in lat. 81° N. In February Mr. Well- 
 man, with three companions, started northward 
 and seemed likely to succeed in their undertaking, 
 but a serious accident befalling Mr. Wellman, and 
 an icequake destroying many dogs and sledges, a 
 hurried return to headquarters was necessary. 
 Here important scientific observations were made. 
 The 82 d parallel was reached by the explorer. 
 
 1898. — Carefully planned expedition of Lieut. 
 Peary, purposing to advance toward the pole by 
 
 479
 
 ARCTIC EXPLORATION 
 
 Chronology 
 1898-1910 
 
 ARCTIC EXPLORATION 
 
 west coast of Greenland, establishing food stations 
 and depending upon picked Eskimos for coopera- 
 tion with his small party. In the last dash for the 
 pole, supply sledges to be sent back as emptied, 
 and the returning explorer, with two companions 
 only, to be met by a relief party of Eskimos. The 
 Windward was presented by Mr. Harmsworth for 
 this expedition. Lieut. Peary was disabled for 
 several weeks in i8p8-g by severe frost-bites, caus- 
 ing the loss of seven toes. The Greely records 
 were found at Fort Conger and sent back by the 
 annual supply vessel. Sextant and record of the 
 Nares expedition found and sent back; presented 
 by Lieut. Peary to the Lords of the Admiralty of 
 Great Britain and placed in the museum of the 
 Royal Naval College at Greenwich. Vessel sent to 
 Greenland each summer to carry supplies and bring 
 back letters, carrying also small parties of ex- 
 plorers, scientists, university students and hunters, 
 to be left at various points and picked up by the 
 vessel on its return. 
 
 1898-. — Expedition of Capt. Sverdrup to north- 
 ern Greenland — Lieut. Peary's especial field. Hav- 
 ing planned a polar expedition similar to Peary's he 
 sailed up the west coast, but the Fram was frozen 
 in near cape Sabine. Sverdrup therefore explored 
 the western part of Ellesmere Land, then sailed 
 again in an attempt to round the northern coast 
 of Greenland. 
 
 1899. — International conference held at Stock- 
 holm in June recommended a program for hydro- 
 graphical and biological work in the northern 
 parts of the Atlantic ocean, the North sea, the 
 Baltic, and adjoining seas. 
 
 1899-. — Scientific expedition of Edward Bay, a 
 Dane, to Melville bay, Greenland. 
 
 1899. — Swedish expedition under Dr. A. G. 
 Nathorst to search for .^ndree in eastern Green- 
 land. Valuable observations made and fjord sys- 
 tems of King Oscar fjord and Kaiser Franz Josei 
 fjord mapped. 
 
 1899. — Explorations in Iceland by F. W. W. 
 Howell and party. 
 
 1899. — Hydrographic sur\-eys on the coasts of 
 Iceland and the Faroe islands by MM. Holm and 
 Hammer in the Danish guard-ship Diana. 
 
 1899. — Joint Russian and Swedish expedition 
 to Spitsbergen, for the measurement of a degree 
 of the meridian. Owing to the condition of the 
 ice, the northern and southern surveying parties 
 unable to connect their work. 
 
 1899. — Explorations in Spitsbergen by the 
 Prince of Monaco, with a scientific staff. 
 
 1899. — Successful experimental voyage of the 
 Russian Vice-Admiral Makaroff in his ice-break- 
 ing steamer, the Yermak, north of Spitsbergen. 
 
 1899. — Russian government expedition, to cost 
 £5,400, to explore northern shores of Siberia to 
 mouths of the Ob and Yenisei. 
 
 1899-1900. — Arctic expedition of the Duke of 
 the .^bruzzi. His ship, the Stella Polare, was left 
 at Crown Prince Rudolf Land during the winter. 
 The Duke became incapacitated by a fall and by 
 the loss of two joints from the fingers of his left 
 hand, incurably frost-bitten ; but a small party 
 under Capt. Cagni pushed northward till provisions 
 were exhausted. Nansen's record was beaten, the 
 Italian party reaching lat. 86° 33', at about 56° 
 E. long. No land was found north or northwest of 
 Spitsbergen. Three men were lost from Cagni's 
 party. 
 
 1899-. — Exploration of Ellesmere Land, Green- 
 land, by Dr. Robert Stein, of the United States 
 Geological Survey. Dr. Leopold Kann of Cornell, 
 and Samuel Warmbath of Harvard, who took pas- 
 sage in the Peary supply ship Diana, trusting to 
 
 chance for conveyance home. Their totally in- 
 adequate outfit was generously augmented by 
 Peary's friends of the Diana. Dr. Kann returned 
 in iQoo, leaving Dr. Stein. 
 
 1900. — Seward peninsula, the most westward 
 extension of Alaska, explored and surveyed by five 
 government expeditions. 
 
 1900. — Exploration of the interior of northern 
 Labrador by a party from Harvard university. 
 Soundings along the coast by schooner Brave. 
 
 1900. — Second Danish expedition under Lieut. 
 Amdrup to east Greenland, completing the work of 
 i8g8-9 by mapping the coast between 67° 20' N. 
 and cape Gladstone, about 70" N., and making 
 valuable scientific collections. 
 
 1900. — Swedish expedition, under Gustav 
 Kolthoff, to eastern Greenland, for study of the 
 arctic fauna. 
 
 1900. — Swedish scientific expedition of Prof. G. 
 Kolthoff to Spitzbergen and Greenland. 
 
 1900. — Exploration of Spitsbergen by a Rus- 
 sian expedition under Knipovich. 
 
 1900. — Russian expedition to east coast of Nova 
 Zembla by Lieut. Borissoff to complete survey of 
 the islands. 
 
 1900- . — Dr. Nansen's expedition under the leader- 
 ship of Dr. J. Hjort, for the physical and biological 
 examination of the sea between Norway, Iceland, 
 Jan Mayen and Spitsbergen. — See also Spitsbergen: 
 1 006- 1 02 1. 
 
 1900-. — German expedition, under Capt. Bade, 
 to explore East Spitsbergen, King Charles' Land 
 and Franz Josef Land, and to look for traces of 
 Andree. 
 
 1900-.— -Attempt of a German, Capt. Bauen- 
 dahl, to reach the North Pole, leaving his vessel 
 in the ice north of Spitsbergen and traveling over 
 the ice with provisions for two years, -weighing ten 
 tons. 
 
 1900-. — Scientific expedition of Baron E. von 
 Toll to the unexplored Sannikoff Land, sighted in 
 1805 from the northern coast islands of New Si- 
 beria. Preceded by a party which established 
 food depots at various places months before. 
 
 1901. — Three exploring parties sent to Alaska 
 by the United States Geological Survey. 
 
 1901.— Expedition sent by the Duke of the 
 .•\bruzzi to Franz Josef Land to search for the 
 three men lost from his party in igoo. 
 
 1901. — Roald .Amundsen's investigation of the 
 oceanographic conditions around Spitsbergen. See 
 Sutsbekcen: iQ06-ig2i. 
 
 1901. — North polar expedition under Mr. Eve- 
 lyn B. Baldwin of the United States Weather Bu- 
 reau; splendidly equipped by Mr. Wm. Ziegler of 
 New York. 
 
 1903-1905. — Expedition under Anthony Fiala, 
 reaching a latitude 82° 13'. 
 
 1903. — .Amundsen's voyage through the north- 
 west passage. 
 
 1905.— Explorations of the Bdgica under Ger- 
 lache. 
 
 1906. — Prince of Monaco's sur\Tey of the western 
 part of Spitsbergen. See Spitsbergek: igo6-ig2i. 
 
 1906-1907.— Erichsen and Hagen-Hagen's survey 
 of Greenland which ended in a tragedy. 
 
 1907. — Expedition under Captain Isachsen and 
 the mapping of northwestern Spitsbergen. Sec 
 Spitsbergem: ioo6-ig2i. 
 
 1907-1909.— Dr. Cook's attempt to reach the 
 Pole. 
 
 1908.— Botanical survey of the fiord region in 
 West Spitsbergen under Mrs. Hanna Resvoll-Holm- 
 sen. See SprrsBERGKN: 1Q06-1Q21. 
 
 1910.— Expedition to Spitsbergen under Captain 
 Isachsen. See Spitsbergen: igo6-ig2i. 
 
 480
 
 ARDAHAN 
 
 AREOPAGUS 
 
 1910-1911.— Hantzsch, the first European to 
 cross Baffinland. 
 
 1911-1918. — Topographical and geographical sur- 
 veys of Spitsbergen made under Adolf Hoel and 
 Captains Arve Staxrud and Sverre Rovig. See 
 Spitsbergen: 1906-1921. 
 
 1912. — Nansen's investigation of the waters on 
 the northern and western coasts of Spitsbergen. 
 See Spitsbergen: 1Q06-1921. 
 
 1912. — Brussiloff's voyage north, outcome never 
 known. 
 
 1912. — Expedition under Lieutenant Schroder- 
 Stranz. 
 
 1913-1918. — Stefansson expedition, its great im- 
 portance in arctic explorations. 
 
 1917-1918.— Explorations along the arctic coast 
 of Alaska by Archdeacon Stuck. 
 
 1917. — Rasmussen's surveys in the Arctic. 
 
 ARDAHAN, a fortified town of Russian Ar- 
 menia, ceded to Russia by Turkey in 1S78. On 
 the outbreak of war between Turkey and Russia 
 in the fall of 1914 a Turkish army was organized 
 for the invasion of the Russian Caucasus with 
 Ardahan as an immediate objective. The city was 
 taken by Enver Pasha, January i, 191S, but was 
 quickly lost in the subsequent defeat of his troops. 
 It was successively in the hands of Turks, Arme- 
 nians and Bolsheviki in 1918 and 1919. 
 
 ARDASHIR, the modern form for Artaxerxes, 
 the name of several Persian rulers. 
 
 ARDEN, Forest of, the largest forest in early 
 Britain, which covered the greater part of modern 
 Warwickshire and "of which Shakespeare's Arden 
 became the dwindled representative" — J. R. 
 Green, Making of England, ch. 7. 
 
 ARDENNES, Forest of. — "In Caesar's time 
 there were in TGaul] very extensive forests, the 
 largest of which was the Arduenna (Ardennes), 
 which extended from the banks of the lower Rhine 
 probably as far as the shores of the North Sea." — 
 G. Long, Decline of the Roman republic, v. 3. ch. 
 22. — "Ardennes is the name of one of the north- 
 ern French departments which contains a part of 
 the forest Ardennes. Another part is in Luxem- 
 burg and Belgium. The old Celtic name exists 
 in England in the Arden of Warwickshire." — 
 [bid., V. 4, ch. 14. — This wild hilly region extend- 
 ing over parts of Belgium and France slopes grad- 
 ually towards the plains of Flanders. The aver- 
 age height of these hills is about 1600 feet al- 
 though Mt. Saint-Hubert rises to an altitude of 
 2100. Within this section are some of the finest 
 forests of Europe where gently undulating areas 
 are densely covered with oak and beech. The 
 most important river flowing through the Ardennes 
 is the Meuse which has cut a deep channel with 
 precipitous walls 600 feet high in some places. 
 Coal and iron mines' lie in the northwest, and 
 cattle and sheep are extensively raised. The dis- 
 trict, both in Belgium and in France, was the 
 scene of severe fighting (between the French and 
 the Germans) in the first weeks of the World War. 
 See World W.ar: 1Q14: I. Western front: j. 
 
 ARDESH, Caucasus region: Capture by Rus- 
 sians (1916). See World War: 1016: VI. Turkish 
 theater: d, 1. 
 
 ARDGLASS ("Green Height"), a small pic- 
 turesque-town on the Irish coast between Kingston 
 mole and Belfast bay in County Down. The popu- 
 lation in 1901 was 501. The harbor was one of 
 importance from earliest times. After the Norman 
 invasion it "was the outlet for the trade of the 
 rich agricultural and wool-producing lands of 
 Down, Tyrone, and Armagh, and traffic was car- 
 ried on in wines, cloth, kerseys, all kinds of fish, 
 wool, and tallow. . . . With the revival of Irish 
 
 life in the fourteenth century, and the gatherings 
 of English merchants to Irish fairs, commerce 
 increased and flourished [see Commerce: 14th 
 century]. ... It is said that a trading company 
 with a grant from Henry IV built the famous 'New 
 Works.' "—A. S. Green, Old Irish World, p. 137 — 
 Wars of the English and Irish raged around this 
 harbor and brought devastation to the town (see 
 Ireland: 1559-1603). . . . "In the course of the 
 gloomy years that followed the old house fell into 
 decay. [In June, 191 1] the whole derelict prop- 
 erty, long deserted by its landlords, both land and 
 village, was sold for the benefit of English mort- 
 gagees and bought by local people." — Ibid., p. 149 
 
 ARDRI, or Ardrigh, "over kings" of Ireland. 
 See Ireland, 1014; Tuath. 
 
 ARDSCUL, Battle near. See Ireland: 1314- 
 1318. 
 
 ARDSHIR. See Ardashir. 
 
 AREANS. See Media and the Medes. 
 
 ARECUNAS. See Caribs: Their kindred. 
 
 AREIOS. See Aria. 
 
 ARELATE. The ancient name of Aries. The 
 territory covered by the old kingdom of Aries 
 is sometimes called the Arelate. See BimcuNDY: 
 1127-1378, and SAiYES. 
 
 ARENA, "in an amphitheatre the flat, open 
 space enclosed by the seats for spectators and re- 
 served for gladiatorial combats or other spectacles; 
 so called because spread with sand. Hence, any 
 level space wholly or partly surrounded by seats for 
 athletic contests, combats, or sports." — R. Sturgis, 
 Dictionary of architecture and building. 
 
 ARENGO (Arringo), general assembly. See 
 San Marino, Republic of. 
 
 ARENSKY, Anton Stephanovich (1861-1906), 
 distinguished Russian composer. In 1883 he be- 
 came professor of composition at the Imperial Con- 
 servatory in Moscow and in 1895 succeeded Bala- 
 kirev as conductor of the Imperial Court Chorus 
 at St, Petersburg 
 
 AREOPAGITICA (1644), a pamphlet by Mil- 
 ton, protesting against government supervision and 
 control of literature; considered his greatest prose 
 work. See Censorship: England; Printing and 
 the press: 1644. 
 
 AREOPAGUS.— "Whoever [in ancient Athens] 
 was suspected of having blood upon his hands had 
 to abstain from approaching the common altars 
 of the land. Accordingly, for the purpose of judg- 
 ments concerning the guilt of blood, choice had 
 been made of the barren, rocky height which lies 
 opposite the ascent to the citadel. It was dedicated 
 to Ares, who was said to have been the first who 
 was ever judged here for the guilt of blood ; and to 
 the Erinyes, the dark powers of the guilt-stained 
 conscience. Here, instead of a single judge, a col- 
 lege of twelve men of proved integrity conducted 
 the trial. If the accused had an equal number of 
 votes for and against him, he was acquitted. The 
 court on the hill of Ares is one of the most ancient 
 institutions of Athens, and none achieved for the 
 city an earlier or more widely-spread recogni- 
 tion." — E. Curtius, History of Greece, bk. 2, ch. 
 2. — "The Areopagus, or, as it was interpreted by 
 an ancient legend. Mars' Hill, was an eminence 
 on the western side of the Acropolis, which from 
 time immemorial had been the seat of a highly 
 revered court of criminal justice. It took cog- 
 nizance of charges of wilful murder, maiming, 
 poisoning and arson. Its forms and modes of pro- 
 ceeding were peculiarly rigid and solemn. It was 
 held in the open air, perhaps that the judges might 
 not be polluted by sitting under the same roof with 
 the criminals. . . . The venerable character of the 
 court seems to have determined Solon to apply it 
 
 481
 
 AKEQUIPA 
 
 ARGENTINA 
 
 to another purpose; and, without making any 
 change in its original jurisdiction, to erect it into 
 a supreme council, invested with a superintending 
 and controlling authority, which extended over 
 every part of the social system. He constituted it 
 the guardian of the public morals and religion, to 
 keep watch over the education and conduct of the 
 citizens, and to protect the State from the dis- 
 grace or pollution of wantonness and profaneness. 
 He armed it with extraordinary powers of inter- 
 fering in pressing emergencies, to avert any sudden 
 and imminent danger which threatened the public 
 safety. The nature of its functions rendered it 
 scarcely possible precisely to define their limits; 
 and Solon probably thought it best to let them 
 remain in that obscurity which magnifies what- 
 ever is indistinct. ... It was filled with archons 
 who had discharged their office with approved 
 fidelity, and they held their seats for life." — C. 
 Thirlwall, History of Greece, v. i, ch. ii. — These 
 enlarged functions of the Areopagus were with- 
 drawn from it in the time of Pericles, through the 
 agency of Ephialtes, but were restored about B C. 
 400, after the overthrow of the Thirty. "Some 
 of the writers of antiquity ascribed the first es- 
 tablishment of the senate of Areopagus to Solon. 
 . . . But there can be little doubt that this is a 
 mistake, and that the senate of Areopagus is a 
 primordial institution of immemorial antiquity, 
 though its constitution as well as its functions un- 
 derwent many changes. It stood at first alone as 
 a permanent and collegiate authority, originally 
 by the side of the kings and afterwards by the 
 side of the archons: it would then of course be 
 known by the title of The Boule, — the senate, or 
 council; its distinctive title 'senate of Areopagus,' 
 borrowed from the place where its sittings were 
 held, would not be bestowed until the formation 
 by Solon of the second senate, or council, from 
 which there was need to discriminate it." — G 
 Grote, History of Greece, pt. 2, ch 10, v. 3. — See 
 also Athens: B.C. 472-462. — In Roman times it 
 still remained one of the governing bodies of 
 Athens, and it was on the hill of the Areopagus 
 that the Apostle Paul delivered his famous address 
 to the Athenians. 
 
 AREQUIPA, the capital of a department of 
 the same name in southern Peru, founded by 
 Francisco Pizarro, the Spanish explorer and con- 
 queror of the country, in the year 1540; captured 
 by the Chileans in 1883 toward the close of the 
 war between Peru and Chile 
 
 ARETAS (Arab, Haritha). the name (Greek 
 form) of a line of kings of the Nabataeans who 
 reigned at Petra, Arabia. 
 
 ARETHUSA, Fountain of. See Syracuse. 
 
 AREVACa;, one of the tribes of the Celti- 
 berians in ancient Spain. Their chief town, Nu- 
 mantia, was the stronghold of Celtiberian resist- 
 ance to the Roman conquest. 
 
 ARGADEIS. See Gentes; Phyi..«: Phratris. 
 
 ARGALL, Sir Samuel (c. 1580-1626), English 
 navigator and deputy I'overnor of Virginia. 
 
 Quarrel with the French. — Attack on Nova 
 Scotia. See Canada: 1610-1613. 
 
 Control of Virginia settlement. See Virginia: 
 1 6 1 7 - 1 6 1 
 
 ARGAND, Aim6 (1775-1803), Inventor of lamp 
 chimneys See Inventions: i8th century: Arti- 
 ficial light. 
 
 ARGAUM, Battle of (1803). See India: 1798- 
 1805 
 
 ARGENSON, the name of a French family 
 which produced a long line of celebrated states- 
 men, men of letters and soldiers. Among the states- 
 men who were members of this prominent family 
 
 were Rene de Voyer, seigneur d'Argenson (1596- 
 1651), entrusted by Cardinal Richelieu with many 
 important state missions and appointed ambassador 
 at Venice by Mazarin, and his son Marc Rene de 
 Voyer, comte d'Argenson (1623-1700), who suc- 
 ceeded to the embassy at Venice at his father's, 
 death. Others of this influential family who dis-. 
 tinguished themselves in public life were Marc 
 Rene de Voyer, marquis de Paulmy and maoquis, 
 d'.'\rgenson (1652-1721), greatly feared for bis in- 
 timate knowledge of state secrets and intrigues," 
 the latter's eldest son, Rene Louis de Voyei de 
 Paulmy, marquis d'.Argenson (1694-1757) who was 
 a prominent statesman, a writer of considerable 
 ability and associate of Voltaire and the other great 
 philosophers of his time; his younger brother. 
 Marc Pierre de Voyer de Paulmy, comte d'Argen- 
 son (1696-1764), and the latter's son, Marc Rene, 
 marquis de Voyer de Paulmy d'.\rgenson (1721- 
 1782), who served as governor of Vincennes (1754) 
 and was the father of Marc Rene Marie de Voyer 
 de Paulmy, marquis d'Argenson (1771-1842), the 
 most liberal-minded member of the historic family, 
 who embraced the revolutionary cause at the out- 
 break of the French revolution. 
 
 ARGENTARIA, Battle of (378). See Ale- 
 manni: 378. 
 
 ARGENTARIUS, money dealer. See Money 
 AND banking; Ancient: Rome, 
 
 ARGENTINA: Geographic description.-^. 
 The federal republic of .Argentina is next to Brazil 
 the largest state in South America "To outline 
 the physical basis of the Argentine nation we may 
 take a glance at the country itself The totak 
 area is [roughly] 1,500,000 square miles, or one- 
 half that of the continental United States. It is a 
 country long from north to south, wider in its 
 northern and warmer section, and tapering to the 
 point of Cape Horn. . . . Buenos .Aires [the capital] 
 lies in the latitude of Memphis, Tennessee, and has 
 a mean annual temperature equivalent to that of 
 South Carolina or Alabama. . . . Thus we may 
 say that the central region of .Argentina corre- 
 sponds closely with the southern Gulf states and 
 the southwest. . . . Thus .Argentina, which reaches 
 from within the tropics almost to the Antarctic 
 Circle, experiences a range of temperatures less 
 than those found in the United States, and must 
 be characterized as a region of mild temperature 
 or subtropical climate throughout the greater part 
 of its extent. . . . The agricultural products of 
 the country vary with the conditions of tempera- 
 ture and rainfall. . . . The orange grower of Flor- 
 ida and the cotton grower of the Gulf states 
 would be at home in the northeastern part. . . . 
 The corn planter might till his fields in the north- 
 ern part of "Buenos Aires province and the wheat 
 farmer in the central and southern parts. The 
 sugar grower from Louisiana would find cane and 
 the sugar monopoly at Tucuman, the orchardist of 
 California could grow grapes and fruits under ir- 
 rigation in the valleys at the foot of the Andes 
 about Mendoza. The cattlemen of northern Texas 
 and the sheep-herder from .Arizona and Wyoming 
 might duplicate their ranges from Cordoba south 
 to Santa Cruz, and in the far south, in Tierra del 
 Fuego, the webfooted Oregonian would find con- 
 genial gray skies, mists, and rain. .After this gen- 
 eral survey it is desirable to distinguish more 
 clearly the nucleal region of .Argentina. The river 
 provinces that range along both sides of the navi- 
 gable Parana and Paraguay on the north and east 
 are Entre Rios, Corrientes, and Missiones; on the 
 south and west Buenos Aires, Sante Fe. and the 
 territories of El Chaco and Formosa. These form 
 the nucleus of the Argentine domain about which 
 
 482
 
 ARGENTINA 
 
 Railroads 
 
 ARGENTINA 
 
 the other provinces and territories are grouped. 
 Here are the rich delta lands and the pampas fa- 
 vored by climate, soil and facile communication 
 with the world. Here will gather a dense popula- 
 tion and will always be the seat of Argentine wealth 
 and commerce — the heart of the Argentine nation. 
 . . . Here are immense plains now widely flooded 
 by the tropical rains, but a slight change of level 
 would convert them from swamps into rich ex- 
 tensive agricultural lands. ... A peculiarity of the 
 loess soils is their capacity to store up water and 
 to retain their fertility under cultivation. The 
 Chinese fields have been tilled for more than 
 4000 years without exhaustion, and there is every 
 reason to believe that the fields of the Pampas, 
 under intelligent culture, will also remain prac- 
 tically inexhaustible. . . . Eastward beyond the 
 reach of the Andean streams, in the territories of 
 central and southern Argentina is the great area 
 of land which must always be devoted to grazing, 
 and in large part to sheep raising. In the northern 
 and drier regions of Patagonia the tine wooled 
 Merino finds a congenial home, and there may 
 be grown the wool suited to the manufacture of 
 fine clothing and knitted goods. As we go south 
 into the colder and moister districts toward the 
 straits, the Merino give? place to the heavier and 
 coarser English breeds, which are bred rather for 
 mutton than for wool, and there already are lo- 
 cated the freezing establishments which prepare 
 mutton for the European markets. . . . Where it is 
 practical it is more profitable to grow wheat and 
 corn than to grow beef and mutton, and the eco- 
 nomic advantage will in time displace the less 
 profitable industry. , . . Argentina has no coal and 
 throughout nine-tenths of her territory no large 
 amount of water-power which can be utilized for 
 manufacturing. Here she is definitely and narrowly 
 Umited, and must always be dependent for manu- 
 factured products upon countries more fortunately 
 conditioned. . . . There are two districts in which 
 water-power may be applied to manufacturing on 
 a scale sufficient to affect the welfare of the na- 
 tion. One of them is in the far northeast where 
 the falls of Iguazu may yield twice the power of 
 Niagara, and the other in the southwest where 
 many streams in the valleys of the Cordillera will 
 afford power to attract a manufacturing popula- 
 tion. . . . The power of Iguazu is near the great 
 centers of commerce, being situated on the Parana 
 and capable of transmission down the val- 
 ley of the river to within reach of navi- 
 gable waters. . . . The Cordilleran district is 
 as far from Buenos .Aires as St. Louis 
 from New York, or Rome from London, and at 
 present is still isolated for lack of communication; 
 but railways are in process of extension toward it, 
 and it will soon be brought within reach of 
 freight and also of tourist traffic. Three raw ma- 
 terials of prime importance — wool, hides and wood 
 — are immediately available in the district itself 
 and the surrounding areas, and there will eventu- 
 ally be established important manufacturing in- 
 dustries to supply the great agricultural provinces." 
 — G. H. Blakeslee, Latin America, pp. 344-351. — 
 See also Latin America: Agriculture; and Map of 
 South America. 
 
 Railroads. — "There are 20,000 miles of railroads 
 in the Republic. The British showed the way in 
 the initial building, and their lines pass through 
 some of the fattest territory. The French have 
 been tardy followers, but have constructed useful 
 minor lines. The Argentine Government has built 
 State lines through country that was suitable for 
 colonisation, but which did not appeal to the out- 
 side investor. These State railways are financially 
 
 a failure. One reason is that the territory through 
 which they run is not of the best. The principal 
 reason is that they are the prey of the pohticians. 
 Constituencies have to be considered, and innum- 
 erable jobs found for the hangers-on of poUtical 
 parties. Business conditions are the last to be 
 thought of, and, though the Government has done 
 well in throwing these lines into distant regions 
 needing development, they are not likely to suc- 
 ceed until placed under different control. Not only 
 have the Argentines themselves not started railway 
 companies, but they have no money invested in 
 the foreign companies. One cause is that, though 
 the Government insists on a local board of direct- 
 ors, the real board of directors is abroad, chiefly in 
 London. Another cause is that dividends are lim- 
 ited by law to 7 per cent., and that is not a suf- 
 ficient return for the Argentine. He does not care 
 to touch investments that do not yield 12 per 
 cent., and when he gets 30 per cent, he thinks 
 that about fair — and the country is so prosper- 
 ous it can afford it. Although within the last 
 fifteen years millions of British money have poured 
 into Argentina for railway construction, the in- 
 vestor in the old days cast a hesitating eye on 
 South America as a place to sink his capital. In 
 the 'fifties a railway a few miles long was all that 
 Argentina could boast, and ten years later, when 
 7 per cent, was guaranteed, money was not forth- 
 coming. As an inducement to construct a line be- 
 tween Rosario and Cordoba the absolute ownership 
 of three miles on either side of the line was offered. 
 Even with such an attraction the British investor 
 was shy. Gradually, however, money was forth- 
 coming, and lines were laid. In the 'eighties there 
 came a spurt. It was not till the years following 
 iQoo that money could be had for the asking. 
 Lines cobwebbed the profitable country ; distant 
 points were linked up; land which previously had 
 little beyond prairie value bounced up in price. 
 Railway companies in England have had to fight 
 landowners to make headway. In Argentina land- 
 owners welcome the coming of a railway, for ob- 
 vious reasons. Most of the wealthy Argentines 
 owe their fortunes to their land being benefited by 
 the railways. As a rule, out in the far districts, 
 a railway company can get the necessary land for 
 nothing. Owners are willing to make financial 
 contributions. The general managers of the big 
 British railways in Argentina get large salaries — 
 £7,000 [.$35,000] a year. This is partly to remove 
 them from the range of temptation of being 
 bribed by owners, syndicates, or land companies 
 to authorise the making of railways where they 
 would not be economically advisable. Of course, 
 extensions near the big towns cost the railways as 
 much as they would in England. I know a man 
 who thirty years ago bought a piece of land for 
 £1,600 r$8,ooo]. He sold it to a railway com- 
 pany for over £200,000 [$i,ooo,oool. Though 
 foreign capital Is having so extensive a run in net- 
 working the country with railways, the Argentine 
 Government has a much closer grip on the work- 
 ing of the lines than the Board of Trade has on 
 English companies. It is therefore no misrepresen- 
 tation to say that, whilst private owners are glad 
 to have their prop>erty enhanced in value by the 
 juxtaposition of a railway, the Government puts 
 obstacles in the way for what are ostensibly public 
 reasons. Accordingly, expensive 'diplomacy' has 
 sometimes to be used. The Government is suffi- 
 ciently aware of the return the foreign investor 
 gets — and when fresh extensions are sought it in- 
 variably withholds its consent until some conces- 
 sion has been wrung out of the company, such 
 as an undertaking to construct a line through a 
 
 483
 
 ARGENTINA 
 
 Railroads 
 Racial Elements 
 
 ARGENTINA 
 
 district that cannot, for some time at any rate, 
 be a success. There is never any guarantee that 
 another company will not be tormed to work the 
 same district. The Government smiles at the tight 
 between the two lines for traffic — to the public 
 benefit. When companies propose to amalgamate 
 the Government either malies such demands in re- 
 gard to uneconomic lines that the thing falls 
 through or a veto is put upon the amalgamation 
 altogether. All railway material comes in duty 
 free, but one of the conditions is that 3 per cent, 
 of the profits shall be used for the making of roads 
 leading to railway stations. The companies do 
 not object, because the call is not large, and it is 
 to their interest that agriculturists should be able 
 to get their produce to the railway station to be 
 transported over the lines. The Direccion-General 
 de Ferrocarriles [railroads] is the authority over 
 the railways in Argentina. It decides the num- 
 ber of trains which shall be run, and it insists on 
 the number of coaches. There must be a certain 
 number of dormitory cars on all-night trains, and 
 restaurant cars are obligatory over certain dis- 
 tances. Every train carries a letter-box, and re- 
 cently the companies have been squeezed into car- 
 rying the mails for nothing. A medicine chest, a 
 stretcher, a bicycle — so that quick communication 
 can be made with the nearest station in case of 
 accident — and all sorts of necessities in case of a 
 breakdown are compulsor,' Every carriage is 
 thoroughly disinfected every month, and there is 
 always a card to be initialled by an inspector. All 
 bedding and mattresses are subject to scientific 
 disinfection such as I have seen nowhere in Europe. 
 No time-tables can be altered without the sanction 
 of the National Railway Board at least two months 
 before coming into operation. If trains stop at 
 stations for which they are not schedued a heavy 
 fine is imposed; and all late trains, and the reason, 
 have to be reported to the Government authority. 
 No alteration, however small, to a station building 
 or to the design of rolling stock is permissible 
 without the sanction of the Government representa- 
 tives. A complaint book is at every station, open 
 to anyone to complain on any subject. The Re- 
 public lives by its exports of meat and agricultural 
 product. Ninety-five per cent, of this trade is 
 carried to the ports by the railways. From the 
 railroad cars one beholds productiveness; yet fif- 
 teen or twenty miles away lies land just as pro- 
 ductive but as yet untouched by the plough, be- 
 cause there is neither sufficient population to cul- 
 tivate nor railways to carry. Within the next 
 dozen years there must inevitably be a further 
 spurt in the making of feeding or auxiliary lines. 
 Something like £20,000,000 a year is crossing the 
 ocean for fresh railway enterprises in Argentina. 
 Nearly 40,000,000 tons of goods are carried over 
 the lines each year, and the receipts are something 
 Hke £25,000,000 annually." — J. F. Eraser, Amazing 
 Argenline, pp. 45-40 — "Railways open, January 
 I, iqio, 22,578 miles, of which 3,816 miles (18 per 
 cent.) belong to the State. The capital invested 
 in Argentine railways amounts to 1,254,705,500 
 gold dollars." — Statesmuii's Year-Book, 1020. — See 
 also Railroads: iqi7-iQiq. 
 
 Political divisions. — In igai the republic was 
 composed of a group of one federal district: Buenos 
 Aires with Martin Garcia island; fourteen prov- 
 inces: Buenos Aires (La Plata), Cordoba. Mendoza, 
 Santa Fe, Santiago del Estero, Salta, Entre Rio.s 
 (Parana), Corrientes. San Luis, Tucuman, San 
 Juan, La Rioja, Catamarca and Jujui; ten terri- 
 tories: Santa Cruz (Gallegos), Chubut (Rawson), 
 Rio Negro (Viedma), Pampa Central (Santa Rosa 
 de Toay), Chaco (Resistencia), Formosa, Neu- 
 
 quen, Los Andes (San Antonio de los Cobres), 
 Misiones (Posadas), Tierra del Fuego (Ushuaia). 
 Population. — Racial elements. — .According to 
 the first census taken in twenty years (1914) the 
 population was 7,905,502. The number of foreign- 
 ers, principally of Spanish and Italian origin, was 
 2,357,952, including about 40,000 of British ex- 
 traction. Latest estimates of the total population 
 were— 1915: 7,979,259; 1919: 8,533,332.— "No other 
 Spanish- American state, except Uruguay, has a 
 people of a stock so predominantly European. The 
 aboriginal Indian element is too small to be worth 
 regarding. It is now practically confined to the 
 Gran Chaco in the extreme north, but elsewhere 
 the influence of Indian blood is undiscernible 
 among the people to-day. The aborigines of the 
 central Pampas have disappeared, — nearly all were 
 killed off, — and those of Patagonia have been dying 
 out. We have, therefore, a nation practically of 
 pure South European blood, whose differences 
 from the parent stock are due, not to the infusion 
 of native elements but to local and historical causes. 
 Till thirty or forty years ago this population was 
 almost entirely of Spanish stock. Then the rapid 
 development of the Pampas for tillage began to 
 create a demand for labour, which, while it in- 
 creased immigration from Spain, brought in a 
 new and larger flow from Italy. The Spaniards 
 who came were largely from the northern provinces 
 and among them there were many Basques, a race 
 as honest and energetic as any in Europe. . . . The 
 Italians have flocked in from all parts of their 
 peninsula, but the natives of the north take to 
 the land, and furnish a very large part of the ag- 
 ricultural labour, while the men from the south- 
 ern provinces, usually called Napolitanos, stay in 
 the towns and work as railway and wharf porters, 
 or as boatmen, and at various odd jobs. In igog, 
 out of 1,750,000 persons of foreign birth in the 
 republic, there were twice as many Italians as 
 Spaniards, besides one hundred thousand from 
 France, the latter including many French Basques, 
 who are no more French than Spanish. Between 
 1004 and 1900 the influx of immigrants had risen 
 from 125,000 annually to 255,000. The Spaniards, 
 of course, blend naturally and quickly with the 
 natives, who speak the same tongue. The Italians 
 have not yet blent . . . but there is so much simi- 
 larity . . . that they will eventually become ab- 
 sorbed into the general population. Children bom 
 in the country grow up to be .Argentines in senti- 
 ment, and are, perhaps, even more vehemently pa- 
 triotic than the youth of native stock. ... In con- 
 sidering the probable result of the commingling, 
 and as a fact explaining the readiness with which 
 Italian immigrants allow themselves to be Argen- 
 tinized, one must remember that. these come from 
 the humblest and least-educated strata of Italian 
 society. They are, like all Italians, naturally in- 
 telligent, but they have not reached that grade of 
 knowledge which attaches men to the literature 
 and the historical traditions of their own country. 
 . . . The other foreigners, French, English (busi- 
 ness men and landowning farmers), and German 
 (chiefly business men in the cities) are hardly nu- 
 merous enough to affect the .Argentine type, and the 
 two latter have hitherto remained as distinct ele- 
 ments, being mostly Protestants and marrying per- 
 sons of their own race. They occupy themselves 
 entirely with business and have not entered Argen- 
 tine public life: yet as many of them mean to 
 remain in the country, and their children born in 
 it become thereby Argentine citizens, it is likely 
 that they, also, will presently be absorbed, and 
 their Argentine descendants may figure in politics 
 here, as families of Irish and British origin do in 
 
 484
 
 ARGENTINA, 1515-1557 
 
 Buenos Aires ARGENTINA, 1580-1777 
 
 Chile." — Lord Bryce, Soulh America, pp. 338-341. 
 — Sec also Gr.an Chaco. 
 
 1515-1557. — Discovery, exploration and early 
 settlement on La Plata. See Paraguay: 1515- 
 
 1535-1542. — Mendoza's and Cabeza de Vaca's 
 explorations. — Founding of Buenos Aires. See 
 
 Buenos .Aires: 1535-1542. 
 
 1580-1777. — Final founding of the city of 
 Buenos Aires. — Conflicts of Spain and Portugal 
 over La Plata. — Creation of the viceroyalty of 
 Buenos Aires. — "In the year 1580 the founda- 
 tions of a lasting city were laid at Buenos Ayres 
 by De Garay on the same situation as had twice 
 previously been chosen — namely, by Mendoza, and 
 by Cabeza de Vaca, respectively. [See Buenos 
 Aires: 1580-1650.] The same leader [De Garay] 
 had before this founded the settlement of Sante 
 Fe on the Parana. The site selected for the future 
 capital of the Pampas is probably one of the worst 
 ever chosen for a city . . . has probably the worst 
 harbour in the world for a large commercial town. 
 . . . Notwithstanding the inconvenience of its har- 
 bour, Buenos Ayres soon became the chief com- 
 mercial entrepot of the Valley of the Plata. The 
 settlement was not effected without some severe 
 fighting between De Garay's force and the Que- 
 rar.dies. The latter, however, were effectually 
 quelled. . . . The Spaniards were now nominally 
 masters of the Rio de La Plata, but they had still 
 to apprehend hostilities on the part of the natives 
 between their few and far-distant settlements [con- 
 cerning which see Paraguay: 1515-1557). Of this 
 liability De Garay himself was to form a 
 lamentable example. On his passage back to Asun- 
 cion, having incautiously landed to sleep near 
 the ruins of the old fort of San Espiritu, he was 
 surprised by a party of natives and murdered, 
 with all his companions. The death of this brave 
 Biscayan was mourned as a great loss by the en- 
 tire colony. The importance of the (pities founded 
 by him was soon apparent; and in 1620 all the 
 settlements south of the confluence of the rivers 
 Parana and Paraguay were formed into a separate 
 independent government, under the name of Rio de 
 La Plata, of which Buenos -Ayres was declared the 
 capital. This city likewise became the seat of a 
 bishopric. . . . The merchants of Seville, who had 
 obtained a monopoly of the supply of Mexico and 
 Peru, regarded with much jealousy the prospect of 
 a new opening for the South American trade by 
 way of La Plata," and procured restrictions upon 
 it which were relaxed in 1618 so far as to permit 
 the sending of two vessels of 100 tons each every 
 year to Spain, but subject to a duty of 50 per cent. 
 "Under this miserable commercial legislation 
 Buenos Ayres continued to languish for the first 
 century of its existence. In 1715, after the treaty 
 of Utrecht, the English . . . obtained the 'asiento' 
 or contract for supplying Spanish colonies in 
 America with African slaves, in virtue of which 
 they had permission to form an establishment at 
 Buenos Ayres, and to send thither annually four 
 ships with 1,200 negroes, the value of which they 
 might export in produce of the country. They 
 were strictly forbidden to introduce other goods 
 than those necessary for their own establishments; 
 but under the temptation of gain on the one side 
 and of demand on the other, the asiento ships 
 naturally became the means of transacting a con- 
 siderable contraband trade. . . . The English were 
 not the only smugglers in the river Plate. By 
 the treaty of Utrecht, the Portuguese had obtained 
 the important settlement of Colonia [the first 
 settlement of the Banda Oriental — or 'Eastern 
 Border' — afterwards called Uruguay] directly 
 
 facing Buenos Ayres. . . . The Portuguese, . . 
 not contented with the possession of Colonia . . . 
 commenced a more important settlement near 
 Monte Video. From this place they were dis- 
 lodged by Zavala [governor of Buenos Ayres), 
 who, by order of his government, proceeded to 
 establish settlements at that place and at Maldo- 
 nado. Under the above-detailed circumstances of 
 contention . . . was founded the healthy and 
 agreeable city of Monte Video. . . . The inevitable 
 consequence of this state of things was fresh an- 
 tagonism between the two countries, which it 
 was sought to put an end to by a treaty between 
 the two nations concluded in 1750. One of the 
 articles stipulated that Portugal should cede to 
 Spain all of her establishments on the eastern bank 
 of the Plata; in return for which she was to re- 
 ceive the seven missionary towns [known as the 
 'Seven Reductions'] on the Uruguay. But . . . 
 the inhabitants of the Missions naturally rebelled 
 against the idea of being handed over to a people 
 known to them only by their slave-dealing atroci- 
 ties. . . . The result was that when 2,000 natives 
 had been slaughtered [in the war known as the 
 War of the Seven Reductions] and their settle- 
 ments reduced to ruins, the Portuguese repudiated 
 the compact, as they could no longer receive their 
 equivalent, and they still therefore retained Colo- 
 nia. When hostilities were renewed in 1762, the 
 governor of Buenos Ayres succeeded in possessing 
 himself of Colonia; but in the following year it 
 was restored to the Portuguese, who continued in 
 possession until 1777, when it was definitely ceded 
 to Spain. The continual encroachments of the 
 Portuguese in the Rio de La Plata, and the im- 
 punity with which the contraband trade was car- 
 ried on, together with the questions to which i? 
 constantly gave rise with foreign governments, had 
 long shown the necessity for a change in the gov- 
 ernment of that colony; for it was still under the 
 superintendence of the Viceroy of Peru, residing at 
 Lima, 3,000 miles distant. The Spanish authorities 
 accordingly resolved to give fresh force to their 
 representatives in the Rio de La Plata ; and in 
 1776 they took the important resolution to sever 
 the connection between the provinces of La Plata 
 and the Viceroyalty of Peru. The former were 
 now erected into a new Viceroyalty, the capital 
 of which was Buenos Ayres. ... To this Vice- 
 royalty was appointed Don Pedro Cevallos, a for- 
 mer governor of Buenos Ayres. . . . The first act 
 of Cevallos was to take possession of the island 
 of St. Katherine, the most important Portuguese 
 possession on the coast of Brazil. Proceeding 
 thence to the Plate, he razed the fortifications of 
 Colonia to the ground, and drove the Portuguese 
 from the neighbourhood. In October of the fol- 
 lowing year, 1777, a treaty of peace was signed 
 at St. Ildefonso, between Queen Maria of Portu- 
 gal and Charles III. of Spain, by virtue of which 
 St. Katherine's was restored to the latter country, 
 whilst Portugal withdrew from the Banda Orien- 
 tal or Uruguay, and relinquished all pretensions 
 to the right of navigating the Rio de La Plata 
 and its affluents beyond its own frontier line. . . . 
 The Viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres was sub-divided 
 into the provinces of — (i.) Buenos Ayres, the capi- 
 tal of which was the city of that name, and which 
 comprised the Spanish possessions that now form 
 the Republic of Uruguay, as well as the Argentine 
 provinces of Buenos Ayres, Santa Fe, Entre Rios, 
 and Corrientes; (2.) Paraguay, the capital of 
 which was Asuncion, and which comprised what 
 is now the Republic of Paraguay; (3.) Tucuman, 
 the capital of which was St. lago del Estero, and 
 which included what are to-day the Argentine 
 
 485
 
 ARGENTINA, 1806-1820 
 
 Conflict 
 with English 
 
 ARGENTINA, 1806-1820 
 
 provinces of Cordova, Tucuman, St. lago, Salta, 
 Catamarca, Rioja, and Jujuy; (4.) Las Charcas or 
 Potosi, the capital of which was La Plata, and 
 which now forms the Republic of Bolivia; and (5.) 
 Chiquito or Cuyo, the capital of which was Men- 
 doza, and in which were comprehended the pres- 
 ent Argentine provinces of St. Luiz, Mendoza, and 
 St. Juan." — R. G. Watson, Spanish and Portuguese 
 South America, v. 2, ch. 13-14. 
 
 Also in: E. J. Payne, History of European 
 colonies, ch. 17.— S. H. Wilcocke, History of the 
 viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres. 
 
 1806-1820. — English invasion. — Revolution. — 
 Independence achieved. — Confederation of the 
 provinces of the Plate river and its dissolution. 
 — "The trade of the Plate River had enormously 
 increased since the substitution of register ships 
 for the annual flotilla, and the erection of Buenos 
 Ayres into a viceroyalty in 177S; but it was not 
 until the war of 1797 that the English became 
 aware of its real extent. The British cruisers had 
 enough to do to maintain the blockade: and when 
 the English learned that millions of hides were 
 rotting in the warehouses of Monte Video and 
 Buenos Ayres, they concluded that the people 
 would soon see that their interests would be best 
 served by submission to the great naval power. 
 The peace put an end to these ideas ; but Pitt's 
 favourite project for destroying Spanish influence 
 in South America by the English arras was re- 
 vived and put in execution soon after the 
 opening of the second European war in 1803. In 
 1806 ... he sent a squadron to the Plate River, 
 which offered the best point of attack to the Brit- 
 ish fleet, and the road to the most promising of 
 the Spanish colonies. The English, under General 
 Beresford, though few in number, soon took 
 Buenos Ayres, for the Spaniards, terrified at the 
 sight of British troops, surrendered without know- 
 ing how insignificant the invading force really 
 was. When they found this out, they mustered 
 courage to attack Beresford in the citadel; and 
 the English commander was obliged to evacuate 
 the place. The English soon afterwards took pos- 
 session of Monte Video on the other side of the 
 river. Here they were joined by another squad- 
 ron, who were under orders, after reducing Buenos 
 Ayres, to sail round the Horn, to take Valparaiso, 
 and establish posts across the continent connecting 
 that city with Buenos Ayres, thus executing the 
 long-cherished plan of Lord Anson. Buenos Ayres 
 was therefore invested a second time. But the 
 English land forces were too few for their task. 
 The Spaniards spread all round the city strong 
 breastworks of oxhides, and collected all their 
 forces for its defence. Buenos Ayres was stormed 
 by the English at two points on the 5th of July, 
 1807; but they were unable to hold their ground 
 against the unceasing fire of the Spaniards, who 
 were greatly superior in numbers, and the next day 
 they capitulated, and agreed to evacuate the prov- 
 ince within two months. The English had imag- 
 ined that the colonists would readily flock to their 
 standard, and throw off the yoke of Spain. This 
 was a great mistake; and it needed the events of 
 1808 to lead the Spanish colonists to their inde- 
 pendence. ... In iSio, when it came to be known 
 that the French armies had crossed the Sierra 
 Morena, and that Spain was a conquered country, 
 the colonists would no longer submit to the shad- 
 owy authority of the colonial officers, and elected 
 a junta of their own to carry on the Government. 
 Most of the troops in the colony went over to the 
 cause of independence, and easily overcame the 
 feeble resistance that was made by those who re- 
 mained faithful to the regency in the engagement 
 
 of Las Piedras. The leaders of the revolution were 
 the advocate CastelU and General Belgrano; and 
 under their guidance scarcely any obstacle stopped 
 its progress. They even sent their armies at once 
 into Upper Peru and the Banda Oriental, and their 
 privateers carried the Independent flag to the 
 coasts of the Pacific ; but these successes were ac- 
 companied by a total anarchy in the Argentine 
 capital and provinces. The most intelligent and 
 capable men had gone off to fight for liberty else- 
 where ; and even if they had remained it would 
 have been no easy task to establish a new gov- 
 ernment over the scattered and half-civilized pop- 
 ulation of this vast country. . . . The first result 
 of independence was the formation of a not very 
 intelligent party of country proprietors, who knew 
 nothing of the mysteries of politics, and were not 
 ill-content with the existing order of things. The 
 business of the old viceroyal government was dele- 
 gated to a supreme Director; but this functionary 
 was little more than titular. How limited the 
 aspirations of the Argentines at first were may be 
 gathered from the instructions with which Belgrano 
 and Rivadavia were sent to Europe in 1814. They 
 were to go to England, and ask for an English 
 protectorate; if possible under an English prince. 
 They were next to try the same plan in France, 
 .Austria, and Russia, and lastly in Spain itself: 
 and if Spain still refused, were to offer to renew 
 the subjection of the colony, on condition of cer- 
 tain specified concessions being made. This was 
 indeed a strange contrast to the lofty aspirations 
 of the Colombians. On arriving at Rio, the Ar- 
 gentine delegates were assured by the English 
 minister. Lord Strangford, that, as things were, no 
 European power would do anything for them: nor 
 did they succeed better in Spain itself. Mean- 
 while the government of the Buenos Ayres junta 
 was powerless outside the town, and the country 
 was fast lapsing into the utmost disorder and con- 
 fusion. At Ijngth, when Government could hardly 
 be said to exist at all, a general congress of the 
 provinces of the Plate River assembled at Tucuman 
 in 1S16. It was resolved that all the states should 
 unite in a confederation to be called the United 
 Provinces of the Plate River: and a constitution 
 was elaborated, in imitation of the famous one of 
 the United States, providing for two legislative 
 chambers and a president. . . . The influence of 
 the capital, of which all the other provinces were 
 keenly jealous, predominated in the congress; and 
 Puyrredon, an active Buenos Ayres politician, was 
 made supreme Director of the Confederation. The 
 people of Buenos Ayres thought their city destined 
 to exercise over the rural provinces a similar in- 
 fluence to that which .Athens, under similar cir- 
 cumstances, had exercised in Greece ; and able 
 Buenos Ayreans like Puyrredon, San Martin, and 
 Rivadavia, now became the leaders of the unitary 
 party. The powerful provincials, represented by 
 such men as Lopez and Quiroga, soon found out 
 that the Federal scheme meant the supremacy of 
 Buenos .'\yres, and a political change which would 
 deprive them of most of their influence. The 
 Federal system, therefore, could not be expected 
 to last very long; and it did in fact collapse after 
 four years. Artigas led the revolt in the Banda 
 Oriental [now Uruguay], and the Riverene Prov- 
 inces soon followed the example. For a long time 
 the provinces were jiractically under the authority 
 of their local chiefs, the only semblance of political 
 life being confined to Buenos .Ayres itself." — E. J. 
 Payne, History of European colonies, ch. 17. — See 
 also Latin America: 177S-1824; Uruguay: 1806- 
 
 i8iS- 
 Also in: M. G, Mulhall, The English in South 
 
 486
 
 ARGENTINA, 1817-1818 
 
 Civil War 
 
 ARGENTINA, 1819-1874 
 
 America, ch. 10-13, and i6-i«. — J. Miller, Mem- 
 oirs of General Miller, v. i; ch. 3. — T. J. Page, 
 La 'Plata, the Argentine confederation and Para- 
 !gUay, ch. 31. 
 
 1817^1818.^ War with Spain. See Chile: 1810- 
 1818. 
 
 1819-1874. — Anarchy, civil war, despotism. — 
 Long struggle for order and confederation. — 
 "A new Congress met in 1819 and made a Con- 
 ■stitution for the country, which was never adopted 
 by all the Provinces. Pueyrredon resigned, and on 
 June loth, 1819, Jose Rondeau was elected, who, 
 however, was in no condition to pacify the civil 
 war which had broken out during the government 
 of his predecessors. At the commencement of 1830, 
 the last 'Director General' was overthrown ; the 
 municipality of the city of Buenos-Aires seized the 
 government ; the Confederation was declared dis- 
 solved, and each of its Provinces received liberty 
 to organize itself as it pleased. This was anarchy 
 officially proclaimed. After the fall in the same 
 year of some military chiefs who had seized the 
 power, Gen. Martin Rodriguez was named Gov- 
 ernor of Buenos-Aires, and he succeeded in estab- 
 lishing some little order in this chaos. He chose 
 M. J. Garcia and Bernardo Rivadavia — one of the 
 most enlightened Argentines of his times — as his 
 Ministers. This administration did a great deal of 
 good by exchanging conventions of friendship and 
 commerce, and entering into diplomatic relations 
 with foreign nations. At the end of his term Gen- 
 eral Las Heras — gth May, 1824 — took charge of the 
 government, and called a Constituent Assembly of 
 all the Provinces, which met at Buenos-Aires, De- 
 cember i6th, and elected Bernardo Rivadavia 
 President of the newly Confederated Republic on 
 the 7th February, 1825, This excellent Argentine, 
 however, found no assistance in the Congress. No 
 understanding could be come to on the form or the 
 test of the Constitution, nor yet upon the place of 
 residence for the national Government. Whilst 
 Rivadavia desired a centralized Constitution — 
 called here 'unitarian' — and that the city of Buenos- 
 Aires should be declared capital of the Republic, 
 the majority of Congress held a different opinion, 
 and this divergence caused the resignation of the 
 President on the sth July, 1827. After this event, 
 the attempt to establish a Confederation which 
 would include all the Provinces was considered as 
 defeated, and each Province went on its own way, 
 whilst Buenos-Aires elected Manuel Dorrego, the 
 chief of the federal party, for its Governor, He 
 was inaugurated on the 13th August, 1827, and 
 at once undertook to organize a new Confederation 
 of the Provinces, opening relations to this end with 
 the Government of Cordoba, the most important 
 Province of the interior. He succeeded in reestab- 
 lishing repose in the interior, and was instrumental 
 in preserving a general peace, even beyond the 
 limits of his young country. The Emperor of 
 Brazil did not wish to acknowledge the rights of 
 the United Provinces over the Cisplatine province, 
 or Banda Oriental [now Uruguay]. He wished 
 to annex it to his empire, and declared war to the 
 Argentine Republic on the loth of December, 1826. 
 An army was soon organized by the latter, under 
 the command of General Alvear, which on the 
 20th of February, 1827, gained a complete victory 
 over the Brazilian forces — twice their number — 
 at the plains of Ituzaingo, in the Brazilian province 
 of Rio Grande do Sul. The navy of the Argentines 
 also triumphed on several occasions, so that when 
 England offered her intervention, Brazil renounced 
 all claim to the territory of Uruguay by the con- 
 vention of the 27th August, 1828, and the two 
 parties agreed to recognize and to maintain the 
 
 neutrality and independence of that country. Dor- 
 rego, however, had but few sympathizers in the 
 army, and a short time after his return from Bra- 
 zil, the soldiers under Lavalle rebelled and forced 
 him to fly to the country on the ist December of 
 the same year. There he found aid from the Com- 
 mander General of the country districts, Juan 
 Manuel Rosas, and formed a small battalion with 
 the intention of marching on the city of Buenos- 
 Aires. But Lavalle triumphed, took him prisoner, 
 and shot him without trial on the 13th December. 
 . . . Not only did the whole interior of the prov- 
 ince of Buenos-Aires rise against Lavalle, under 
 the direction of Rosas, but also a large part of 
 other Provinces considered this event as a declara- 
 tion of war, and the National Congress, then as- 
 sembled at Santa-Fe, declared Lavalle's govern- 
 ment illegal. The two parties fought with real 
 fury, but in 1829, after an interview between Rosas 
 and Lavalle, a temporary reconciliation was ef- 
 fected. . . . The legislature of Buenos-Aires, which 
 had been convoked on account of the reconciliation 
 between Lavalle and Rosas, elected the latter as 
 Governor of the Province, on December 6th, 1829, 
 and accorded to him extraordinary powers. . . . 
 During this the first period of his government he 
 did not appear in his true nature, and at its con- 
 clusion he refused a re-election and retired to the 
 country. General Juan R. Balcarce was then — 17th 
 December, 1832 — named Governor, but could only 
 maintain [the office] some eleven months: Viamont 
 succeeded him, also for a short time only. Now 
 the moment had come for Rosas. He accepted the 
 almost unlimited Dictatorship which was offered to 
 hira on the 7th March, 1835, and reigned in a 
 horrible manner, like a madman, until his fall. 
 Several times the attempt was made to deliver 
 Buenos-Aires from his terrible yoke, and above all 
 the devoted and valiant efforts of General Lavalle 
 deserve to be mentioned; but all was in vain; 
 Rosas remained unshaken. Finally, General Justo 
 Jose De Urquiza, Governor of the province of 
 Entre-Rios, in alliance with the province of Cor- 
 rientes and the Empire of Brazil, rose against the 
 Dictator. He first delivered the Republic of Uru- 
 guay, and the city of Monte-Video — the asylum of 
 the adversaries of Rosas — from the army which be- 
 sieged it, and thereafter passing the great river 
 Parana, with a relatively large army, he completely 
 defeated Rosas at Monte-Caseros, near Buenos- 
 Aires, on the 3rd February, 1852. During the same 
 day, Rosas sought and received the protection Of 
 an English war-vessel which was in the road of 
 Buenos-Aires, in which he went to England, where 
 he [died in 1877]. • • ■ Meantime Urquiza took 
 charge of the Government of the United Provinces, 
 under the title of 'Provisional Director,' and called 
 a general meeting of the Governors at San Nicolas, 
 a frontier village on the north of the province of 
 Buenos-Aires. This assemblage confirmed him in 
 his temporary power, and called a National Con- 
 gress which met at Santa-Fe and made a National 
 Constitution under date of 25th May, 1853. [See 
 also Federal government: Modern federations.] 
 By virtue of this Constitution the Congress met 
 again the following year at Parana, a city of 
 Entre-Rios, which had been made the capital, and 
 on the sth May, elected General Urquiza the first 
 President of the Argentine Confederation. , . . The 
 important province of Buenos-Aires, however, had 
 taken no part in the deliberations of the Congress. 
 Previously, on the nth September, 1852, a revolu- 
 tion against Urquiza, or rather against the Pro- 
 vincial Government in alliance with him, had taken 
 place and caused a temporary separation of the 
 Province from the Republic. Several efforts to 
 
 487
 
 ARGENTINA, 1824 
 
 CensfUuiion 
 
 ARGENTINA, 1898 
 
 pacify the disputes utterly failed, and a battle took 
 place at Cepeda in Santa-Fe, wherein Urquiza, who 
 commanded the provincial troops, was victorious, 
 although his success led to no definite result. A 
 short time after, the two armies met again at 
 Pavon — near the site of the former battle — and 
 Buenos-Aires won the day. This secured the 
 unity of the Republic of which the victorious Gen- 
 eral Bartolome Mitre was elected President for six 
 years from October, 1862. At the same time the 
 National Government was transferred from Parana 
 to Buenos-Aires, and the latter was declared the 
 temporary capital of the Nation. The Republic 
 owes much to the Government of Mitre, and it is 
 probable that he would have done more good, if 
 war had not broken out with Paraguay, in 1865 
 [see Par.^guav; 1608-1873]. The Argentines took 
 part in it as one of the three allied States against ' 
 the Dictator of Paraguay. Francisco Solano Lopez. 
 On the T2th October, 1868, Domingo Faustino Sar- 
 miento succeeded Gen. Mitre in the Presidency. 
 . . . The 12th October, 1874. Dr. Nicolas Avel- 
 laneda succeeded him in the Government." — R. 
 Napp, Argentine republic, ch. 2. — See also Brazil: 
 1825-1865; Uruguay: 1821-1005. 
 
 Also in: D. F. Sarmiento, Life in the Argentine 
 republic in the days of the tyrants. — J. \. King, 
 Twenty-four years in the Argentine republic. 
 
 1824. — At first congress of South American 
 republics. See Latin .'\merica: 1822-1830. 
 
 1880-1891. — Constitution and its working.^ 
 Governmental corruption. — Revolution of 1890, 
 and the financial collapse. — "The Argentine con- 
 stitutional system in its outward form corresponds 
 closely to that of the United States. . . . But the 
 inward grace of enlightened public opinion is lack- 
 ing, and political practice falls below the level of 
 a self-governing democracy. Congress enacts laws, 
 but the President as commander-in-chief of the 
 army, and as the head of a civil service dependent 
 upon his will and caprice, possesses absolute au- 
 thority in administration. The country is gov- 
 erned by executive decrees rather than by consti- 
 tutional laws. Elections are carried by military 
 pressure and manipulation of the civil service. . . . 
 President Roca [who succeeded Avellaneda in 
 1880] virtually nominated, and elected his brother- 
 in-law, Juarez Celman, as his successor. President 
 Juarez set his heart upon controlling the succes- 
 sion in the interest of one of his relatives, a promi- 
 nent official ; but was forced to retire before he 
 could carry out his purpose. . . . Nothing in the 
 Argentine surprised me more than the boldness and 
 freedom with which the press attacked the gov- 
 ernment of the day and exposed its corruption. 
 . . . The government paid no heed to these at- 
 tacks. Ministers did not trouble themselves to 
 repel charr^es affecting their integrity. . . . This 
 wholesome criticism from an independent press had 
 one important effect. It gave direction to public 
 opinion in the capital, and involved the organiza- 
 tion of the Union Civica. If the country had not 
 been on the verge of a financial revulsion, there 
 might not have been the revolt against the Juarez 
 administration in July, 1890; but with ruin and 
 disaster confronting them, men turned against the 
 President whose incompetence and venality would 
 have been condoned if the times had been good. 
 The Union Civica was founded when the govern- 
 ment was charged with maladministration in sanc- 
 tioning an illegal issue of $40,000,000 of paper 
 money. . . . The government was suddenly con- 
 fronted with an armed coalition of the best battal- 
 ions of the army, the entire navy, and the Union 
 Civica. The manifesto issued by the Revolutionary 
 Junta was a terrible arraignment of the political 
 
 crimes of the Juarez Government. . . . The revolu- 
 tion opened with every prospect of success. It 
 failed from the incapacity of the leaders to co- 
 operate harmoniously. On July iq, i8go, the 
 defection of the army was discovered. On July 
 26 the revolt broke out. For four days there was 
 bloodshed without definite plan or purpose. No 
 determined attack was made upon the government 
 palace. The fleet opened a fantastic bombardment 
 upon the suburbs. There was inexplicable mis- 
 management of the insurgent forces, and on July 
 2q an ignominious surrender to the government 
 with a proclamation of general amnesty. General 
 Roca remained behind the scenes, apparently 
 master of the situation, while President Juarez had 
 fled to a place of refuge on the Rosario railway, 
 and two factions of the army were playing at cross 
 purposes, and the police and the volunteers of the 
 Union Civica were shooting women and children 
 in the streets. .Another week of hopeless confusion 
 passed, and General Roca announced the resigna- 
 tion of President Juarez and the succession of vice- 
 President Pellegrini. Then the city was illumi- 
 nated, and for three days there was a pandemo- 
 nium of popular rejoicing over a victory which 
 nobody except General Roca understood. ... In 
 June, 1801, the deplorable state of Argentine 
 finance was revealed in a luminous statement made 
 by President Pellegrini. . . . .\\\ business interests 
 were stagnant. Immigration had been diverted to 
 Brazil. . . . .Ml industries were prostrated except 
 politics, and the pernicious activity displayed by 
 factions was an evil augury for the return of 
 prosperity. . . . During thirty years (1862-1892) 
 the countp.- has trebled its population, its increase 
 being relatively much more rapid than that of the 
 United States during the same period." — I. N. 
 Ford. Tropical .America, ch. 6. 
 
 1887. — Trans-Andean railway building with 
 Chile. See Railroads: 1872-1012. 
 
 1890. — First International American Congress 
 at Washington. See American republics, Inter- 
 
 NATIOXAL VNIOX OF: 180O. 
 
 1892. — Presidential election. — Dr. Luis Saenz- 
 Peiia, former chief justice of the Supreme Court, 
 reputed a man of great integrity and ability, WaS 
 chosen president, and inaugurated October 12, 
 1892. 
 
 1895. — Resignation of President Peiia.— Presi- 
 dent Saenz Pena having refused to issue, at the re- 
 quest of Congress, a decree of amnesty, extended to 
 all persons implicated in the last revolution, his 
 cabinet resigned (January 16), and he found it im- 
 possible to form another. Thereupon the president 
 himself resigned his office, on January 22, and his 
 resignation was accepted by the Congress. Senor 
 Uriburu was elected president on the following 
 day, and promptly issued the desired decree, 
 
 1898. — Settlement of boundary dispute with 
 Chile. — Election of president. — ".\ long unset- 
 tled dispute as to the extended boundary between 
 the Argentine Republic and Chile, stretching along 
 the Andean crests from the southern border of the 
 Atacama Desert to Magellan Straits, nearly a third 
 of the length of the South .American continent, 
 assumed an acute stage in the early part of the 
 year, and afforded to this Government occasion to 
 express the hope that the resort to arbitration, al- 
 ready contemplated by existing conventions be- 
 tween the parties, might prevail despite the grave 
 difficulties arising in its application. I am happy 
 to say that arrangements to this end have been 
 perfected, the questions of fact upon which the re- 
 spective commissioners were unable to agree being 
 in course of reference to Her Britannic Majesty 
 for determination. A residual difference touching 
 
 488
 
 ARGENTINA, 1901 
 
 Arbitration 
 Treaties 
 
 ARGENTINA, 1902 
 
 the northern boundary line across the Atacama 
 Desert, for which existing treaties provided no ade- 
 quate adjustment, bids fair to be settled in like 
 manner by a joint commission, upon which the 
 United States Minister at Buenos Aires has been 
 invited to serve as umpire in the last resort." — • 
 Message o) the presidinl of the United States of 
 America, Dec, 1898. — The arbitration of the 
 United States minister, Hon. William I. Buchanan, 
 proved successful in the matter last referred to, 
 and the Atacama boundary was quickly deter- 
 mined. June, i8g8. General Julio Roca was elected 
 president and assumed the office in October. In 
 July a treaty of arbitration was concluded with 
 the government of Italy, which provides that 
 there shall be no appeal from the decision of the 
 arbitrators. 
 
 1901. — Second International American Con- 
 gress at Mexico City. See .-Xmerican republics. 
 International union* of: iqoi-1902. 
 
 1902. — Drago's note to United States asking 
 aid against foreign intervention. See Drago 
 
 DOCTRINE. 
 
 1902. — Treaties between Argentina and Chile 
 for obligatory arbitration of all disputes, and 
 for restriction of naval armaments. — Notwith- 
 standing the fortunate arrangement, in i8g8, for 
 arbitration of a serious boundary dispute between 
 Argentina and Chile (see ante, i8q8), there con- 
 tinued to be troublesome frictions between the two 
 Spanish-American neighbors, while awaiting the 
 decision of the arbitrator. King Edward VII, which 
 was not rendered until Nov. 27, 1902. These had 
 led to a ruinous rivalry in naval armament. Re- 
 porting on this state of affairs in May of that 
 year, Mr. William P. Lord, the American minister 
 to Argentina, wrote: "Both countries have incurred 
 heavy expense for the equipment and maintenance 
 of largely increased arm.y and naval forces. Chile 
 has recently contracted for two formidable war- 
 ships involving a heavy cost with the ot)ject of 
 putting her navy upon an equality with the Argen- 
 tine na>vy, whereupon Argentina, not to be out- 
 done, contracted for two warships larger in size 
 and perhaps more formidable at a like heavy cost 
 in order to continue and maintain her naval su- 
 periority. The costly expenditure incurred on ac- 
 count of war and naval preparations is paralyzing 
 industrial activity and commercial enterprise. Both 
 countries are largely in debt and confronted with 
 a deficit. Both have appropriated their conver- 
 sion funds which had been set apart for a specific 
 purpose, and which, it would seem, should have 
 been preserved inviolable. Neither is able to make 
 a foreign loan without payir.g a high rate of in- 
 terest and giving guarantees to meet the additional 
 expenses which their war policy is incurring, and 
 both Governments know and their people know 
 that the only remedy to which either can resort to 
 meet existing financial conditions is to levy fresh 
 taxes of some description, notwithstanding nearly 
 everything that can be taxed is now taxed to the 
 utmost limit. The weight of taxation already im- 
 posed bears heavily upon the energies and activities 
 of the people. The outlook is not promising, busi- 
 ness being dull, wage employment scarce, and fail- 
 ures frequent." On June 3, 1902, the same writer 
 forwarded to Washington the text of four re- 
 markable "peace agreements" which had been 
 sigred on May 28, at the Chilean capital, by the 
 Chilean minister of foreign relations and the Ar- 
 gentine minister plenipotentiary to Chile, who had 
 been brought to negotiations by the 'friendly medi- 
 ation of Great Britain. The four documents were: 
 a political convention declaring a common inter- 
 national policy on the part of the two republics; 
 
 a broad treaty of general arbitration ; an agree- 
 ment for reducing naval forces ; an agreement for 
 the conclusive marking of boundary lines by the 
 engineers of the arbitrator. King Edward. The 
 general arbitration treaty is no less unreserved and 
 comprehensive than that between Peru and Bolivia 
 and offers another Spanish-American model for 
 imitation in the interest of peace. Its articles are 
 as follows: 
 
 "Art. I. The high contracting parties bind 
 themselves to submit to arbitration every diffi- 
 culty or question of whatever nature that may 
 arise between them, provided such questions do 
 not affect the precepts of the respective constitu- 
 tions of the two countries, and that they can not 
 be solved through direct negotiation. 
 
 "Art. 2. This treaty does not/ embrace those 
 questions that have given rise to definite agree- 
 ments between the two parties. In such cases the 
 arbitration shall be limited exclusively to questions 
 of validity, interpretation, or fulfillment of these 
 agreements. 
 
 "Art. 3. The high contracting parties designate 
 as arbitrator the Government of His Britannic Ma- 
 jesty or, in the event of either of the powers hav- 
 ing broken off relations with the British Govern- 
 ment, the Swiss Government. Within sixty days 
 from the exchange of ratifications the British Gov- 
 ernment and the Swiss Government shall be asked 
 to accept the charge of arbitrators. 
 
 "Art. 4. The points of controversy, questions ' 
 or divergencies shall be specified by the high con- 
 tracting parties, who may determine the powers 
 of the arbitrator or any other circumstance con- 
 nected with the procedure. 
 
 "Art. $. In the case of divergence of opinion, 
 either party may solicit the intervention of 
 the arbitrator, who will determine the circum- 
 stances of procedure, the contracting parties plac- 
 ing every means of information at the service of 
 the arbitrator. 
 
 "Art. 6. Either party is at liberty to name one 
 or more commissioners near the arbitrator. 
 
 "Art. 7. The arbitrator is qualified to decide 
 upon the validity of the obligation and its inter- 
 pretation, as well as upon questions as to what 
 difficulties come within the sphere of the arbitra- 
 tion. 
 
 "Art. 8. The arbitrator shall decide in accord- 
 ance with international law, unless the obligation 
 involves the application of special rules or he have 
 been authorized to act as friendly mediator. 
 
 "Art. 9. The award shall definitely decide each 
 point of controversy. 
 
 "Art. 10. The award shall be drawn up in two 
 copies. 
 
 "Art. II. The award legally dehvered shall 
 decide within the limits of its scope the question 
 between the two parties. 
 
 "Art. 12. The arbitrator shall specify in his 
 award the term within which the award shall be 
 carried out, and he is competent to deal with any 
 question arising as to the fulfillment. 
 
 "Art. 13. There can be no appeal from the 
 award, and its fulfillment is intrusted to the honor 
 of the signatory powers. Nevertheless, the recourse 
 of revision is admitted under the following circum- 
 stances: I. If the award be given on the strength 
 of a false document; 2. If the award be the result, 
 either partially or totally, of an error of fact. 
 
 "Art. 14. The contracting parties shall pay their 
 own expenses and each a half of the expenses of 
 the arbitration. 
 
 "Art. 15. The present agreement shall last for 
 ten years from the date of the exchange of the 
 ratifications, and shall be renewed for another term 
 
 489
 
 ARGENTINA, 1902-1909 ^evo/u/iWy Movement ARGENTINA, 1909 
 ' Mitre Law ' 
 
 of ten years, unless either party shall give notice 
 to the contrarj' six months before expiry." — Papers 
 relating to the Foreign Relations of the United 
 States, 1902, pp. 13-20. 
 
 In their convention on naval armaments the two 
 governments "renounced the acquisition of the war 
 vessels they have in construction and the mak- 
 ing for the present of any new acquisitions, 
 agreeing to reduce their fleets to "a prudent 
 equilibrium." 
 
 1902-1909. — Controversy with Brazil over 
 equilibrium of armament. See War, PREPARAnoN 
 for: 1902-1909. 
 
 1903. — Population. — "Statistics of 1903 showed 
 1,000,000 foreigners in Argentina in a total of 
 5,000,000. Of these 500,000 were Italians, 200,000 
 Spaniards, 100,000 French, 25,000 English, 18,000 
 Germans, 15,000 Swiss, 13,000 Austrians, and the 
 remainder of many nationalities. The number of 
 Americans did not exceed 1,500, although many are 
 coming now, to go into cattle-raising and farming 
 in the country or into all kinds of business in 
 Buenos Ayres. English influence is very strong, 
 especially in financial circles, with the Germans al- 
 most equally active." — J. Barrett, Argentina 
 (American Review of Reviews, July, 1905). 
 
 1904. — Inauguration of President Quintana. 
 — Dr. Manuel Quintana, elected president of the 
 republic, was inaugurated on October 12. 
 
 1905. — Revolutionary movement promptly sup- 
 pressed. — A revolutionary undertaking, in Buenos 
 Aires and several provinces, had its outbreak on 
 February 4, but was suppressed so promptly that 
 the public disturbance by it was very brief. Par- 
 ticulars of the affair were reported by the Ameri- 
 can minister at Buenos Aires, Mr. Beaupre, as fol- 
 lows: "On the afternoon of the 3d instant rumors 
 of an intended movement subversive of the estab- 
 lished government of this country came to the 
 Federal authorities from various parts of the Re- 
 public. These rumors were at first discredited, but 
 finally proved so persistent that the President and 
 heads of the various departments of the govern- 
 ment proceeded to take measures of precaution. 
 In the early hours of the morning of the ne.xt day, 
 the 4th instant, the anticipated outbreak came 
 simultaneously in the capital, Rosario, Mendoza, 
 Cordoba, and Bahia Blanca, these being the larg- 
 est cities of the Republic and the principal political 
 and military centers. In the capital the plan of 
 the revolutionists seems to have been to attack the 
 police stations and military arsenal, with a view 
 perhaps of forcing the police of the capital into 
 their ranks and of supplying themselves with arms 
 and munitions. At the arsenal, by a simple strata- 
 gem of the minister of war, the malcontents were 
 lured into the building and arrested. About the 
 police stations there was some fighting, particularly 
 at Station No. 14; but the insurgents proved un- 
 prepared and insufficiently organized, so that by 
 dawn the movement had completely failed in this 
 city. Except that many of the shops remained 
 closed throughout the day of the 4th, and except 
 for the presence of armed police in the streets, 
 there were no evidences of any revolutionary ef- 
 fort. Some half dozen fatalities are reported. 
 The prompt and effective suppression of the revo- 
 lution in this city is due in large measure to the 
 energy and judgment displayed by the President 
 and his ministers, who spent the entire night in 
 the Government House in council. . . . The Presi- 
 dent proceeded at 8 A. M. of the 4th to declare 
 the Republic in a state of siege for a period of 
 thirty days, to call out the reserves and to estab- 
 lish a censorship of the press and of the telegraph 
 service. . . . The real center of the movement was 
 
 the city of Cordoba, while serious trouble seemed 
 in view in the city of Mendoza, where the revolu- 
 tionists were said to be in a strong position, and in 
 the province of Buenos Aires, where troops and 
 marines were already in movement from Bahia 
 Blanca upon the capital. Forces despatched to 
 those points made as quick an ending of the 
 revolt there as at the capital. . . . The revolu- 
 tionists, finding threats and resistance vain, fled 
 yesterday before the government troops arrived. 
 With the failure of the movement in Cordoba the 
 revolution is considered at an end and the country 
 has returned to its former condition of peace and 
 tranquillity." 
 
 1906. — Death of President Quintana. — Dr. 
 Manuel Quintana, president of Argentina, died in 
 March, 1906, and was succeeded by the vice-presi- 
 dent. Dr. Figuero Alcorta, whose term of office 
 ended in 1910. 
 
 1906. — Third International American Congress 
 at Rio de Janeiro. See American republics. In- 
 ternational UNION of: 1906. 
 
 1909. — Assassination of Colonel Falcon. — As 
 Colonel Falcon, prefect of police at Buenos Aires, 
 was returning from a funeral, with his secretary, 
 on November 14, a bomb was thrown into the 
 carriage and exploded, with fatal effects to both. 
 The assassin, a youth of nineteen years was cap- 
 tured. The murder had been preceded by a num- 
 ber of bomb explosions during a period of six 
 months, all attributed to anarchists from Europe, 
 of whom large numbers were said to have gathered 
 in Buenos Aires. 
 
 1909. — Chief food supply to Great Britain. — 
 "How many readers of The Times (said a special 
 correspondent of the London Times writing from 
 Buenos Aires, October 15, 1909), if asked to name 
 the country which supplied the United Kingdom 
 last year with the largest quantity of wheat, of 
 maize, and of refrigerated and frozen cattle, would 
 unhesitatingly award the first place to the Argen- 
 tine Republic ? How many English people realize 
 that this South American Republic is changing 
 places with the North American Republic in the 
 exporting of these and other food products to the 
 United Kingdom ? The change is partly due to 
 the shortage of meat in America, and partly to the 
 fact that with their increasing population the 
 United States will have less and less surplus pro- 
 visions with which to supply the world." 
 
 1909. — Arbitration of the Act& boundary dis- 
 pute between Bolivia and Peru. See Acre dis- 
 putes. 
 
 1909. — Mitre Law and the railroads. — "Until 
 1909 each of the Argentine railway companies was 
 (as the Uruguayan still are) controlled by the 
 terms of its particular concession or concessions. 
 In that year, however, a law was passed, usually 
 called the 'Mitre Law,' after its initiator, the late 
 Senor Epiilio Mitre (an eminent Argentine states- 
 man and son of the famous General Mitre, per- 
 haps Argentina's greatest president and historian, 
 by which all then existing companies agreeing to 
 be bound by its provisions should be exempt from 
 all National, Provincial and Municipal taxation and 
 Import Duties on material until the year 1947; 
 they, on their part, to pay to the National Gov- 
 ernment a single tax of 3% on their net earnings, 
 the amount of such earnings to be ascertained by 
 deducting lo'/'e (for working expenses) from their 
 gross receipts. Only one Company was then en- 
 joying even more favourable terms under its origi- 
 nal concession than those given by the Mitre Law; 
 but as that concession was approaching the time 
 of its expiration it would have been ill-judged on 
 the part of the Company to have shown itself 
 
 490
 
 ARGENTINA, 1909 
 
 Political Reform ARGENTINA, 1910-1914 
 
 recalcitrant to the evident wishes of the Argen- 
 tine Government. Therefore it exercised its op- 
 tion in favour of the Mitre Law, as did all tlie 
 other Companies. . . . Besides British, considerable 
 French and Belgian capital is invested in Argen- 
 tine railways. The 'Province of Santa Fe' and the 
 'Province of Buenos Aires' railways are controlled 
 by French Companies. Incidentally it may be 
 mentioned that in recent years most of the shares 
 of the '.Anglo-Argentine' Tramways Company 
 (which owns the principal tramway system of the 
 Capital) had found their way to Belgium. A 
 short while ago a United States Syndicate, deemed 
 powerful and feared as menacing a monopoly, 
 obtained control of some of the River Plate lines, 
 notably those of the Central Cordoba, Santa Fe 
 and Entre Rios Companies, under certain arrange- 
 ments. This Syndicate has since, however, been 
 unable to command the capital necessary to fulfil 
 its part of those arrangements, and, practically, 
 the control of the hnes has now reverted to the 
 original companies, the first and last named of 
 which are British." — G. Ross, Argentina and Uru- 
 guay, pp. 122-124. 
 
 1909. — Building of the Transandine railway 
 tunnel. See Railroads: 1872-1912. 
 
 1910. — Agreement with Uruguay concerning 
 the river Plate. — The following message came 
 from Buenos Aires on January 6, 1910; "A burn- 
 ing question between Argentina and Uruguay, 
 which for two years was seemingly insoluble and 
 possibly involved Brazil, has been settled by Seiior 
 Roque Saenz-Pefia. As Argentine Plenipotentiary 
 he signed a Protocol at Montevideo yesterday, of 
 which the following is a summary: Recognizing the 
 reciprocal desire for friendly relations, fortified by 
 the common origin of the two nations, the parties 
 agree to declare that past differences are not capa- 
 ble of being regarded as a cause of offence and 
 shall not be allowed to continue. The navigation 
 and use of the waters of the River Plate will con- 
 tinue as heretofore without alteration, and dif- 
 ferences which may arise in the future will be 
 removed and settled in the same spirit of cordial- 
 ity." 
 
 1910. — Fourth International American Confer- 
 ence at Buenos Aires. See American republics. 
 International union of: iqio. 
 
 1910-1914. — Political reform. — "Dr. Roque 
 Saenz Peiia, when he came into power in iqio, 
 was convinced that the country was ready for re- 
 form. He thoroughly realised that it would be 
 necessary, not merely to amend the existing laws 
 or to make new ones, but to encourage and foster 
 in every citizen an intelligent interest in all mat- 
 ters of national concern. In his presidential cam- 
 paign, he promised to observe absolute impar- 
 tiality in all political matters; and in order to 
 carry out this promise, from his first day of office, 
 he severed all ties with the party that had sup- 
 ported him in his candidature. But 'party' in 
 the Argentine signifies men and not opinions, so 
 that Saenz Peria did not in any way renounce his 
 former views, though taking the greatest pains to 
 show no special favour to those who had helped 
 him to his position. For the sake of a forcible 
 example, he permitted himself no outward display 
 of gratitude or friendship. This step was specially 
 significant in a country where, by tradition and a 
 false conception of loyalty, the Presirjent had al- 
 ways felt it his duty to raise members of his party 
 to the highest posts in the State. By a kind of 
 tacit agreement his will was thus completely bound 
 up with each individual will of his friends and 
 colleagues. By accepting outside assistance he 
 thereby pledged himself to repay it, and thus en- 
 
 tangled himself in a multiplicity of obligations, 
 which hampered his every action. . . . Saenz 
 Pena was desirous of putting a speedy end to this 
 condition of things, a condition that crippled the 
 power of the E.xecutive and upset the whole ma- 
 chinery of constitutional government. He fully 
 realised that, in separating himself from his friends 
 and thus depriving himself of their support — • 
 which was relied on as a matter of course by all 
 former Presidents — he was cutting himself com- 
 pletely adrift and was thus risking the failure of 
 his policy. But his care was for the State and not 
 for the security of his own office, and in acting 
 thus he hoped to increase the prestige of the 
 Executive and strengthen its hands for the future. 
 In order to keep the Executive free from all cor- 
 rupt influences, he chose his ministers for their 
 integrity rather than for their political leanings. 
 But he did not confine himself merely to showing 
 his intention of governing without the help of any 
 political group; he seized every opportunity of 
 letting the Provincial Governors know that he 
 could do without their costly friendship. But, 
 though he could dispense with their protection, he 
 still required their loyalty; and he therefore left 
 to each of the federal states full responsibility for 
 its actions and absolute autonomy. Thus Congress 
 gradually became composed of conscientious mem- 
 bers who eventually transformed the once submis- 
 sive ally of the Executive into a powerful inde- 
 pendent body. This step of Saenz Pena, which is 
 clearly the indication of a master mind, may be 
 regarded as the fundamental characteristic of his 
 government. The change brought a sense of re- 
 lief to the people, which had long awaited in vain 
 its introduction. It meant no mere correction of 
 past faults; it was the foundation stone of political 
 and administrative honesty. Its effect was to keep 
 each branch of the government within the bounds 
 assigned to it by the constitution, and to make 
 the people their own rulers. . . . The hearty recep- 
 tion accorded to this great change, both by the 
 people and by the Press, showed clearly the feeling 
 of grateful appreciation it had aroused among the 
 whole nation. It was evident that the success of 
 the legislation which was bound to follow was 
 already assured. It was in fact but the first step 
 towards the introduction of a bill for the reform 
 of the whole electoral system, which was destined 
 to effect a sweeping political change. . . . The ob- 
 vious inference to be drawn from his conduct was 
 that he felt, above all, anxious to prevent cor- 
 ruption in the elections, to guarantee the purity of 
 the ballot and the free exercise of the vote, in 
 order that the candidates elected should be the 
 true representatives of the people. In Januriry iqt2, 
 he laid before Parliament his Electoral Reform Bill, 
 which at once met with keen, though not unex- 
 pected opposition; many members, elected under 
 the old regime, perceived the risk of losing their 
 seats under the proposed new system. The moral 
 value of the Bill, however, was recognised, and 
 the majority of members, though not pinning 
 much faith to its working in actual practice, gave 
 it their support ; it seemed, on the face of it at 
 any rate, a step in the right direction. Saenz 
 Pena, strange as it may seem, found public opinion 
 inclined the same way, both before and after the 
 passing of the Bill. Though favourably disposed 
 towards it, people were somewhat sceptical. ' They 
 believed that it would be inoperative owing to the 
 attitude of the politicians of the old school, who 
 would probably find some means of evading the 
 new law ; they were afraid that corruption would 
 still triumph, that the masses would vote no more 
 freely than before; and they looked upon the 
 
 491
 
 ARGENTINA, 1910-1914 
 
 Political Reform 
 World War 
 
 ARGENTINA, 1916-1917 
 
 whole thing as an impracticable Utopia. After a 
 brilliant defence by the Minister of the Interior, 
 M. Indalecio Gomez, the measure, despite all op- 
 position, passed through the Lower House to the 
 Senate and shortly afterwards became law. The 
 new statute established compulsory voting and the 
 secret ballot, and provided for representation of 
 the minority. The elector now no longer holds a 
 civil certificate, as formerly, but a military one, 
 which contains his signature, his photograph and 
 his finger-prints; and the register used in the elec- 
 tions is compiled by the officials of the War Office. 
 This arrangement not only acts as a great check 
 upon impersonation, but has the advantage also 
 of doing away with the old method of the census; 
 the register, after being drawn up by the War 
 Office, is revised by the federal judges, to ensure 
 its accuracy. Any person on the list, who re- 
 fuses to vote, is liable to a penalty of ten piastres 
 or two days' imprisonment, while public servants 
 are prohibited from taking any active part in the 
 elections and from becoming candidates, without 
 having previously handed in their resignations. In 
 order to record his vote, the elector has to present 
 himself at one of the polling booths of his parish 
 and take his military certificate with him. The 
 officer in charge, after identifying him, nands him 
 a special envelope and allows him to pass into 
 the voting-room, where he finds the voting papers 
 of each candidate. There the voter exercises his 
 choice and places the paper in the envelope, which 
 he then seals and slips into the box as he goes 
 out, in the presence of the presiding official. The 
 counting takes place in public, and the validity of 
 the voting papers is secured by a committee com- 
 posed of the President of the Court of Appeal, 
 the President of the Municipal Council, and one 
 of the federal judges. As formerly. Congress is 
 the supreme tribunal for all questions concerning 
 the validity of elections. On April 7. 1Q12, the 
 election of sixty deputies — to take the place of 
 the half about to resign— gave the people their 
 first opportunity of testing the new law and veri- 
 fving the promises of strict impartiality that had 
 been so freely given. , . . Out of an electorate of 
 Q34,40i persons, 840.852 voted at the 4,650 polling 
 booths, whereas formerly scarcely 25 per cent, re- 
 corded their votes. The Radical Party, which for 
 the past twenty years had taken no active part 
 in any of the elections, the Civic Union, which in 
 the end came near following ^the example of the 
 Radicals; the Socialist Party, which had struggled 
 in vain for eight years; the National Union, which 
 under various different names had triumphed at 
 many successive elections, and several other parties 
 of minor importance, — all took part in the con- 
 test. Corruption was not entirely absent, but it 
 frequently rebounded against those who resorted 
 to it. The voter open to bribery accepted bribes, 
 but, owing to the secrecy of the ballot, was able 
 to cheat the giver and drop his voting p..per into 
 the box of the party of his choice. . . . The elec- 
 tions, which all took place on the same day, passed 
 off peaceably and without any exerci.se of official 
 pressure. The suffrage had been made free; the 
 President had kept his word. The results were all 
 declared together, some few weeks later. They 
 formed a complete vindication of the new system 
 and indicated the real views of the people, while 
 showing up in their true colours the fictitious tri- 
 umphs of past elections Thus in Buenos Ayrcs Ihe 
 Radicals, who had not been able to enter the 
 Chamber for twenty years, gained eight seats in 
 the Lower House and one in the Upper; the So- 
 cialists won two seats, and the Civic Union one ; 
 while the National Union, which had formerly 
 
 swamped every other party, kept only one, and 
 that solely on account of the personal qualifications 
 of the candidate. . . . The compulsory vote has 
 finally roused the people from the state of indif- 
 ference into which they had drifted. It is no 
 longer useless for them to record their votes, no 
 longer excusable to hold themselves aloof from 
 the affairs of the nation. . . . The new system, if 
 it has not completely done away with corruption, 
 has at any rate set a great check upon it. The 
 compulsory vote has made the electors so numer- 
 ous that it is impossible now for any candidate 
 to purchase a majority ; while no bribe, as the 
 election of April 7 clearly proved, affords sufficient 
 guarantee for any party to try again an experi- 
 ment at once so costly and so meagre in its re- 
 sults. But it must not be forgotten that the Ar- 
 gentine is a Federal Republic, which means that, 
 in order that this great reform shall become an 
 effective reality throughout the country, it is 
 necessary for each province to enforce it within 
 its own boundaries. Now the provinces are by no 
 means so advanced or civilised as the capital 
 They present, moreover, an obstacle that time 
 alone can surmount ; they are very sparsely popu- 
 lated, and the people are so scattered that com- 
 pulsory voting is very difficult to enforce." — Po- 
 litical evolution in Argentina {Quarterly Review, 
 Jan.. 1016, pp, 4,?-5i). 
 
 1910-1914. — Immigration of Italians. See 
 Latin' .America: 1010-1014. 
 
 1913-1914. — Relations with Mexico. See 
 Mexico: 1013-1014. 
 
 1914. — A B C Conference. — The ambassadors 
 at Washington, of the three leading South .Ameri- 
 can nations, .Argentina, Brazil and Chile, united in 
 tendering their "good offices" in an attempt to 
 settle the differences between the United States 
 and Mexico. Dr. Naon was the representative of 
 .Argentina. — See also ABC Conference; U. S. A.: 
 IQ14 (.April). 
 
 1914-1918.— Argentina and the World War.— 
 Count Luxburg incident. — In spite of the indig- 
 nation aroused in the country over the depreda- 
 tions of the German submarines, .Argentina never 
 came to an open declaration of war. Diplomatic 
 relations were strained to the utmost, however, 
 when the messages of Count Luxburg, the German 
 charge d'affaires at Buenos Aires were discovered, 
 advising his government that if Argentine vessels 
 were sunk they should be destroyed without a trace 
 being left ("spurlos versenkt"). See Latin Amer- 
 ica: 1014. 
 
 1915. — Formation of the A B C Alliance. — 
 Reasons. See L.\tin .America: 1012-1015. 
 
 1915. — Pan-American Conference. See U. S. A.: 
 1015 (.August-October). 
 
 1915. — Municipal government and population 
 of Buenos Aires. See Buenos .Aires: IQ15. 
 
 1916-1917.— Effects of the World War.— Elec- 
 tion of Hipolito Irigoyen as president. — Dispute 
 with Chile over the Straits of Magellan. — "The 
 year witnessed a further development of the politi- 
 cal and commercial life of this prosperous republic. 
 With Ihe exception of the United States, no coun- 
 try in the Western Hemisphere enjoyed such happy 
 conditions as did Argentina. During the year the 
 statistics of the census taken in 1014 were pub- 
 lished, and these showed that the republic con- 
 tained a population of 7,885,237 persons, as com- 
 pared with a population of under four millions 
 in 1805, the year of the previous census. The 
 proportion of foreigners dwelling in the country 
 was, however, extraordinarily high. No fewer than 
 2,358,000 foreign subjects were living in .Argentina 
 in 1014, but this total had since been reduced 
 
 492
 
 ARGENTINA, 1918-1920 
 
 Effects of 
 World War 
 
 ARGENTINA, 1920-1921 
 
 by the European War, because many of the foreign 
 men (amongst whom Italians were especially nu- 
 merous) had returned to Europe to fight for their 
 respective countries. The large majority of the 
 foreign residents were males, but the Argentine 
 population proper showed that slight excess of 
 females which is usual in nearly all countries. 
 During the earlier part of the year the attention 
 of the ceuntry was fixed upon the presidential 
 election and election of one moiety of the mem- 
 bers of the Chamber, that is, sixty members. 
 These elections were due in April. The Radical 
 party was first in the field with its candidate for 
 the Presidency, Dr. Hipolito Irigoyen being chosen. 
 The Radicals selected Dr. Pelagio Luna as their 
 candidate for the Vice-Presidency. The elections 
 tCHjk place on April 2, and the polUng was car- 
 ried out without disturbances or rioting. The con- 
 test for the Presidency really lay between Dr. 
 Irigoyen and Dr. de la Torre, the latter being the 
 representative of the Democratic Progressives; but 
 two other candidates were in the field, one of them 
 being a Socialist. The system of election for the 
 Argentine Presidency resembles that existing in 
 the United States, that is, it is indirect, a college 
 of 300 electors being chosen. The result is usually 
 known, however, immediately after the popular 
 election of the college, since the manner in which 
 each member of the college will exercise his func- 
 tion is in practice usually known beforehand. On 
 this occasion, however, the result remained uncer- 
 tain for weeks, because nineteen electors belonged 
 to the party of so-called Dissident Radicals, and 
 those nineteen electors held the balance between 
 the larger parties. It was not certain that they 
 would vote for the candidate of the Radicals 
 proper. Dr. Irigoyen. In the meantime, in the 
 elections for the Chamber of Deputies, or rather, 
 for one half of that Chamber, the Radicals had 
 great successes, and secured thirty-five of the sixty 
 vacant seats. The Socialists won only three seats, 
 but it is notable that all three of these were for 
 the city of Buenos Ayres. The voting in the Col- 
 lege of Electors took place on June 12, and in the 
 result a sufficient number of the Dissident Radicals 
 voted for Dr. Irigoyen and Dr. Luna to ensure 
 the election of those statesmen. These two candi- 
 dates secured 152 votes, an absolute majority of 
 the entire college, and were thus duly elected. The 
 majority was made up of 14s Radicals and seven 
 Dissident Radicals. The group of Dissident Radi- 
 cals belonged to the province of Santa Fe. Ac- 
 cording to the laws of the republic the new Presi- 
 dent and the new Vice-President would not be in- 
 stalled in their respective .offices until October 12. 
 The outgoing President, Dr. de la Plaza, opened 
 Congress on May 30, and delivered his last mes- 
 sage to" the legislature. He stated that although 
 the republic had been suffering many injuries from 
 the European War, it could face the unparalleled 
 state of affairs with equanimity. The internal situ- 
 ation in Argentina was highly satisfactory, and 
 resting on the foundation of a respect for law and 
 for individual liberty, the commonwealth continued 
 to develop. In foreign relations, both the Gov- 
 ernment and the nation had preserved strict neu- 
 trality in the war. The President then referred 
 to the recent elections, and said that he had pre- 
 served strict impartiality in these contests, and 
 had exercised no influence in the political battle. 
 He informed Congress that of the 1,180,282 vot- 
 ers whose names were on the register, only 745,825 
 had gone to the polls. Speaking of the recent 
 action of the Chilian Ministry in proclaiming ju- 
 risdiction over the Straits of Magellan and the 
 Islets Canal, he said that his Government had 
 
 made representations to Chile on this question, 
 and that it was gratifying to be able to record that 
 the Chilian Government had agreed to refer the 
 matter to the arbitration of the King of Great 
 Britain. The remainder of the message dealt at 
 great length with financial and commercial matters. 
 The republic, said the President, had been less 
 seriously affected by the war than had been .an- 
 ticipated, and the excellent harvest and the high 
 prices to be obtained for all agricultural produce 
 had done much to counteract the adverse influence 
 of the European conflict. On July q an anarchist 
 named Juan Mandrini made an attempt to assassi- 
 nate the President which was happily unsuccessful. 
 In October the new President and Vice-President 
 were duly installed in office. The Budget for 1017 
 showed an expenditure of £31,200,000 and a reve- 
 nue of £31,508,000." — Annual Register, 1916, pp. 
 
 351-353- 
 
 1918-1920.— Effect of World War.— Argentina 
 like every other civilized nation was deeply af- 
 fected by the widespread economic dislocation. As 
 a great producer of raw material, particularly food- 
 stuffs, the country found compensation for the in- 
 terruptions of the normal course of finance and 
 trade in the greatly increased prices for its prod- 
 ucts. Moreover, the closer knitting together of 
 the commercial relation of Argentina and the 
 United States made up in part for the disturbances 
 of her European trade This was reflected in the 
 rates of foreign exchange and the .\rgentina "peso" 
 has remained at a premium not only over the 
 pound'sterling but over the American dollar. The 
 prosperity of Argentina, however, did not prevent 
 industrial discontent and social unrest and the year 
 loio was marked by a number of serious strikes 
 and labor conflicts. During the early part of the 
 year the transportation facilities of the city of 
 Buenos Aires both for foreign and domestic trade 
 were tied up for two months. Matters became so 
 bad that a general strike was called May ist, and 
 although the government intervened the strikes 
 were not completely ended. The economic read- 
 justment after the World War was slow and painful 
 and the great industrial revival which the war 
 had brought about was seriously checked. In a 
 general way the foreign policy of the republic 
 continued to be favorable to Germany as it had 
 been during the war, but in her relations with the 
 United States Argentina preserved a correct if not 
 altogether sympathetic attitude. — See also Latin 
 .^MERic.^: ioi8-iq2i: Effect of natural resources. 
 
 1920. — Housing problem. See Housing: South 
 .America. 
 
 1920-1921. — Invited to join League of Na- 
 tions. — Withdrawal from the assembly at Ge- 
 neva. — "In the anne.xe to the Covenant of the 
 League of Nations thirteen countries, which had 
 remained neutral during the war, were formally 
 invited to accede to the Covenant. ... In ad- 
 dition to . . . European countries, six American 
 Republics were invited to join, these being, .Ar- 
 gentina, Chile, Colombia, Paraguay, Venezuela, and 
 Salvador. All these countries likewise joined; and 
 the adhesion of Argentina and Chile (which to- 
 gether with Brazil constituted the three leading 
 Republics of Latin America) may be regarded as 
 only second in importance to the accession of the 
 European neutrals." — Annual Register, 1920, pp. 
 151-152. — Consequently, on October 8, 1920, Seiior 
 Puyerredon, Argentine foreign minister, left 
 Buenos .Aires to attend the Geneva meeting of the 
 League of Nations. Among the first of important 
 matters before the delegates was the question of 
 amendments to the coven.int of the League. In 
 order to avoid serious clashes until more pressing 
 
 493
 
 ARGENTINA, 1920-1921 
 
 ARGENTINA, CONSTITUTION 
 
 needs had been dealt with, amendments were 
 waived after some discussion. This decision im- 
 mediately precipitated a violent dispute. "Most 
 prominent of all those to move for amendments 
 had been the Argentinians, headed by Seiior Puyer- 
 redon. Argentina stood especially for compulsory 
 arbitration by the International Court of Justice, 
 the election of members of the Council by the 
 Assembly, the admission of all States to the League, 
 including Germany, «nd the admission of small 
 States of undefined boundaries without a vote. It 
 was clear from the start that Puyerredon was 
 leading the campaign of the small nations to un- 
 dermine the power of the larger ones. The fight 
 culminated on Dec. 4 [1920], when the Argen- 
 tinian delegation had read a resolution advocating 
 the admission of all sovereign States unless they 
 voluntarily decided to stay outside. Serior Puyer- 
 redon frankly admitted that the object was to open 
 the way to the admission of Germany. This, with 
 all the other changes proposed, was rejected, where- 
 upon Seiior Puyerredon, with all the members of 
 his delegation, withdrew from the Assembly, de- 
 claring that he would not return until all four 
 proposals were accepted. The Assembly refused 
 to rescind its action and accepted the departure 
 of the Argentinians." — New York Times Current 
 History, Jan., 1921, pp. 7-8. — "Argentina on May 
 12 [1Q21] sent an official communication to the 
 Secretariat of the League of Nations on amend- 
 ments offered last November by Honorio Puyerre- 
 don, the Argentine Foreign Minister, showing that 
 Argentina continues to consider herself a member 
 of the League." — Ibid., June, 1921, p. 536. — For 
 discussion of the League, see also League of Na- 
 tions. 
 
 1921. — Colby's diplomatic mission. — Absence 
 of enthusiasm. — Cordial treatment by president. 
 See L'. S. A.: 1021. 
 
 ARGENTINA: Masonic societies. See M.*- 
 soNic societies: Central and South America. 
 
 ARGENTINA: Universities. See Universi- 
 ties AND colleges: 1551-1912. 
 
 ARGENTINA, Constitution of.— The constitu- 
 tion is dated May 15, 1S53, and amended in 
 i860, 1866 and 1898. At the head of the execu- 
 tive power is a president who is elected for six 
 years by an electoral college chosen by the several 
 provinces, aiid as in the case of the United States 
 the number of electors is double the total number 
 of senators and deputies. The legislative authority 
 is vested in a national congress consisting of a 
 senate and a chamber of deputies. The senate 
 consists of thirty members, two from the capital 
 and from each province, who are elected by a spe- 
 cial body of electors and by the legislatures in the 
 provinces. The chamber of deputies has one hun- 
 dred and twenty members elected, by the people in 
 congressional districts. A deputy must have been 
 a citizen for four years and must be twenty-five 
 years of age. The term of office for the deputies 
 is four years, but one-half of the chamber retires 
 for two years. The senators must be thirty years 
 of age and must have been a citizen for six years. 
 One-third of the senate retires every three years. 
 A vice-president, elected in the same manner and 
 at the same time as the president, acts as chairman 
 of the senate, and succeeds to the presidential of- 
 fice in case of the death, resignation or disability 
 of the president. The president is commander-in- 
 chief of the military and naval forces of the re- 
 public and has the appointing power to all federal 
 offices as well as the right of presentation to bish- 
 oprics. The president and vice-president must be 
 Roman Catholics, born in the country and cannot 
 be candidates for re-election. The cabinet is ap- 
 
 pointed by and acts under the order of the presi- 
 dent. It is made up of the heads of the depart- 
 ments of interior, foreign affairs, finance, war, 
 justice and public instruction, agriculture, marine, 
 and public w'orks. 
 
 The constitution of Argentina was modeled on 
 that of the LInited States. The Federal Govern- 
 ment is in charge of matters affecting the republic 
 as a whole. Like the United States the country 
 is divided into states, territories and a federal dis- 
 trict. The states, fourteen in number, are called 
 provinces, at the head of which are elected gov- 
 ernors, who have very^ extensive powers. The 
 provinces have their own legislatures with com- 
 plete control over local affairs. The governors of 
 the territories are appointed by the president. The 
 City of Buenos Aires is governed by a mayor, ap- 
 pointed by the president, subject to ratification by 
 the senate. 
 
 The constitution of Argentina is a document of 
 one hundred and ten articles arranged in the gen- 
 eral way like the constitution of the United States. 
 The first article is a simple enacting clause and 
 the following thirty-four articles cover the ground 
 of our Bill of Rights (q. v.) and the relative pow- 
 ers of the federal and state governments. The 
 greater part of the document, articles thirty-six to 
 one hundred and three inclusive, deals with the 
 federal government, w'hile the remainder of the 
 document, articles one hundred and four to one 
 hundred and ten, deals with the states or provin- 
 cial governments. The outline immediately fol- 
 lowing may be used as an index to thi principal 
 matters dealt with in the document: 
 
 Declarations, Rights, and Guaranties (.\rts. 1-3S) 
 The Federal Government 
 
 The Legislative Power (.^rt. 36) 
 
 The House of Deputies (Arts. 37-4S) 
 
 The Senate (Arts. 46-54) 
 
 Provisions Common to Both Houses (Arts. 
 
 55-66) 
 Powers of Congress (Art. 67) 
 Enactment and Approval of Laws (Arts. 68- 
 73) 
 The Executive Power 
 
 Its Nature and Duration (.\rts. 74-80) 
 Manner and Time of Electing the President 
 and Vice-President of the Nation (Arts. 81- 
 
 85) 
 Powers of the Executive (Art. 86) 
 The Ministers of the Executive Power (Arts. 
 87-03) 
 The Judicial Power 
 
 Its Nature and Duration (Arts. 94-99) 
 Functions of the Judicial Power (Arts. 100- 
 103) 
 Provincial Governments (.'Krts. 104-10) 
 
 Part I 
 
 .^rt. I. The -Argentine Nation adopts the fed- 
 eral-republican, and representative form of Gov- 
 ernment, as established by the present Constitu- 
 tion. 
 
 .■\rt. 2. The Federal Government shall main- 
 tain the Apostolic Roman Catholic Faith. 
 
 .\rt. 3. The authorities of the Federal Govern- 
 ment shall reside in the city which a special law 
 of Congress may declare the capital of the Re- 
 public, subsequently to the cession by one or 
 more of the Provincial Legislatures, of the terri- 
 tory about to be federalized. 
 
 Art. 4. The Federal Government shall admin- 
 ister the expenses of the Nation out of the revenue 
 in the National Treasury, derived from import and 
 
 494
 
 ARGENTINA, CONSTITUTION 
 
 ARGENTINA, CONSTITUTION 
 
 export duties; from the sale and lease of the public 
 lands; from postage; and from such other taxes 
 as the General Congress may equitably and pro- 
 portionably lay upon the people ; as also, from 
 such loans and credits as may be decreed by it in 
 times of national necessity, or for enterprises of 
 national utility. 
 
 Art. S. Each Province shall make a Constitu- 
 tion for itself, according to the republican repre- 
 sentative system, and the principles, declarations 
 and guarantees of this Constitution; and which 
 shall provide for (secure) Municipal Government, 
 primary education and the administration of jus- 
 tice. Under these conditions the Federal Govern- 
 ment shall guarantee to each Province the exercise 
 and enjoyment of its institutions. 
 
 Art. 6. The Federal Government shall inter- 
 vene in the Provinces to guarantee the republican 
 form of Government, or to repel foreign invasion, 
 and also, on application of their constituted au- 
 thorities, should they have been deposed by sedi- 
 tion or by invasion from another Province, for the 
 purpose of sustaining or re-establishing them. 
 
 Art. 7. Full faith shall be given in each Prov- 
 ince to the public acts, and judicial proceedings 
 of every other Province ; and Congress may by 
 general laws, prescribe the manner in which such 
 acts and proceedings shall be proved, and the 
 effect thereof. 
 
 Art. 8. The citizens of each Province shall be 
 entitled to all the rights, privileges and immuni- 
 ties, inherent to the citizens of all the several 
 Provinces. The reciprocal extradition of criminals 
 between all the Provinces, is obligatory. 
 
 Art. 9. Throughout the territory of the Nation, 
 no other than the National Custom-Houses shall 
 be allowed, and they shall be regulated by the 
 tariffs sanctioned by Congress. 
 
 Art. 10. The circulation of all goods produced 
 or manufactured in the Republic, is free within its 
 borders, as also, that of all species of merchandise 
 which may be dispatched by the Custom-Houses 
 of entry. 
 
 Art. II. Such articles of native or foreign pro- 
 duction, as well as cattle of every kind, which pass 
 from one Province to another, shall be free from 
 all transit-duties, and also the vehicles, vessels or 
 animals, which transport them ; and no tax, let it 
 be what it may, can be henceforward imposed upon 
 them on account of such transit. 
 
 Art. 12. Vessels bound from one Province to 
 another, shall not be compelled to enter, anchor, 
 or pay transit-duties; nor in any case can prefer- 
 ences be granted to one port over another, by any 
 commercial laws or regulations. 
 
 Art. 13. New Provinces may be admitted into 
 the Nation ; but no Province shall be erected within 
 the territory of any other Province, or Provinces, 
 nor any Province be formed by the junction of 
 various Provinces, without the consent of the leg- 
 islatures of the Provinces concerned, as well as of 
 Congress. 
 
 Art. 14. All the inhabitants of the Nation shall 
 enjoy the following rights, according to the laws 
 which regulate their exercise: viz., to labor and 
 to practice all lawful industry ; to trade and navi- 
 gate; to petition the authorities; to enter, remain 
 in, travel over and leave, Argentine territory; to 
 publish their ideas in the public-press without pre- 
 vious censure; to enjoy and dispose of their prop- 
 erty; to associate for useful purposes; to profess 
 freely their religion ; to teach and to learn. 
 
 Art. 15. In the Argentine Nation there are no 
 slaves ; the few which now exist shall be free from 
 the date of the adoption of this Constitution, and 
 a special law shall regulate the indemnity acknowl- 
 
 edged as due by this declaration. All contracts for 
 the purchase and sale of persons is a crime, for 
 which those who make them, as well as the notary 
 or functionary which authorizes them, shall be 
 responsible, and the slaves who in any manner 
 whatever may be introduced, shall be free from 
 the sole fact that they tread the territory of the 
 Republic. 
 
 Art. 16. The Argentine Nation does not admit- 
 the prerogatives of blood nor of birth ; in it, there 
 are no personal privileges or titles of nobility. All 
 its inhabitants are equal in presence of the law, 
 and admissible to office without other condition 
 than that of fitness. Equality is the basis of tax- 
 ation as well as of public-posts. 
 
 Art. 17. Property is inviolable, and no inhabi- 
 tant of the Nation can be deprived of it, save by 
 virtue of a sentence based on law. The expropri- 
 ation for public utiUty must be authorized by law 
 and previously indemnified. Congress alone shall 
 impose the contributions mentioned in Art. 4. No 
 personal service shall be exacted save by virtue of 
 law, or of a sentence founded on law. Every 
 author or inventor is the exclusive proprietor of 
 his work, invention or discovery, for the term 
 which the law accords to him. The confiscation 
 of property is henceforward and forever, stricken 
 from the Argentine penal-code. No armed body 
 can make requisitions, nor exact assistance of any 
 kind. 
 
 Art. 18. No inhabitant of the Nation shall suf- 
 fer punishment without a previous judgment 
 founded on a law passed previously to the cause 
 of judgment, nor be judged by special commis- 
 sions, or withdrawn from the Judges designated 
 by law before the opening of the cause. No one 
 shall be obliged to testify against himself; nor be 
 arrested, save by virtue of a written order from 
 a competent authority. The defense at law both 
 of the person and his rights, is inviolable. The 
 domicil, private papers and epistolary correspond- 
 ence, are inviolable; and a law shall determine in 
 what cases, and under what imputations, a search- 
 warrant can proceed against and occupy them. 
 Capital punishment for political causes, as well as 
 every species of torture and whippings, are abol- 
 ished for ever. The prisons of the Nation shall 
 be healthy and clean, for the security, and not for 
 the punishment, of the criminals detained in them, 
 and every measure which under pretext of precau- 
 tion may mortify them more than such security 
 requires, shall render responsible the Judge 
 who authorizes it. 
 
 Art. ip. Those private actions of men that in 
 nowise offend public order and morality, or in- 
 jure a third party, belong ajone to God, and are 
 beyond the authority of the magistrates. No in- 
 habitant of the Nation shall be compelled to do 
 what the law does not ordain, nor be deprived 
 of anything which it does not prohibit. 
 
 Art. 20. Within the territory of the Nation, 
 foreigners shall enjoy all the civil rights of citizens; 
 they can exercise their industries, commerce or pro- 
 fessions, in accordance with the laws; own, buy 
 and sell real-estate; navigate the rivers and coasts; 
 freely profess their religion, and testate and marry. 
 They shall not be obliged to become citizens, nor 
 to pay forced contributions. Two years previous 
 residence in the Nation shall be required for natu- 
 ralization, but the authorities can shorten this term 
 in favour of him who so desires it, under the al- 
 legation and proof of services rendered to the Re- 
 public. 
 
 Art. 21. Every Argentine citizen is obliged to 
 arm himself in defense of his country and of this 
 Constitution, according to the laws which Congress 
 
 495
 
 ARGENTINA, CONSTITUTION 
 
 ARGENTINA, CONSTITUTION 
 
 shall ordain for the purpose, and the decrees of the 
 National Executive. For the period of ten years 
 from the day on which they may have obtained 
 their citizenship, this service shall be voluntary on 
 the part of the naturalized. 
 
 Art. 22. The people shall not deliberate nor 
 govern save by means of their Representatives and 
 Authorities, created by this Constitution. Every 
 armed force or meeting of persons which shall 
 arrogate to itself the rights of the people, and pe- 
 tition in their name, is guilty of sedition. 
 
 Art. 23. In the event of internal commotion 
 or foreign attack which might place in jeopardy 
 the practice of this Constitution, and the free ac- 
 tion of the Authorities created by it, the Prov- 
 ince or territory where such disturbance exists 
 shall be declared in a state of siege, all constitu- 
 tional guarantees being meantime suspended there. 
 But during such suspension the President of the 
 Republic cannot condemn nor apply any punish- 
 ment per se. In respect to persons, his power shall 
 be limited to arresting and removing them from 
 one place to another in the Nation, should they 
 not prefer to leave Argentine territory. 
 
 Art. 24. Congress shall establish the reform of 
 existing laws in all branches, as also the trial by 
 Jury. 
 
 Art. 25. The Federal Government shall foment 
 European immigration; and it cannot restrict, limit, 
 nor lay any impost upon, the entry upon Argen- 
 tine territory, of such foreigners as come for the 
 purpose of cultivating the soil, improving manu- 
 factures, and introducing and teaching the arts and 
 sciences. 
 
 Art. 26. The navigation of the interior rivers 
 of the Nation is free to all flags, subject only to 
 such reglations as the National Authority may 
 dictate. 
 
 Art. 27. The Federal Government is obliged to 
 strengthen the bonds of peace and commerce with 
 foreign powers, by means of treaties which shall 
 be in conformity with the principles of public law 
 laid down in this Constitution. 
 
 Art. 28. The principles, rights and guarantees 
 laid down in the foregoing articles, cannot be al- 
 tered by any laws intended to regulate their prac- 
 tice. 
 
 Art. 2q. Congress cannot grant to the Execu- 
 tive, nor the provincial legislatures to the Governor 
 of Provinces, any "extraordinary faculties," nor 
 the "sum of the public power," nor "renunciations 
 or supremacies" by which the lives, honor or for- 
 tune of the Argentines shall be at the mercv of 
 any Government or person whatever. Acts of this 
 nature shall be irremediably null and void, and 
 shall subject those who frame, vote, or sign them, 
 to the pains and penalties incurred by those who 
 are infamous traitors to their country. 
 
 Art. 30. This Constitution can be reformed in 
 whole or in part. The necessity for the reform 
 shall be declared by Congress by at least a two- 
 thirds vote ; but it can only be accomphshed by 
 a convention called ad hoc. 
 
 Art. 31. This Constitution, and the laws of the 
 Nation which shall be made in pursuance there- 
 of, and all treaties made or which shall be made 
 with Foreign Powers, shall be the supreme law 
 of the land; and the authorities of every Prov- 
 ince shall be bound thereby, anything in the Con- 
 stitution or laws of any Province to the contrary 
 notwithstanding, excepting in the case of Buenos- 
 Aires, in the treaties ratified after the compact of 
 Nov. nth, 1850. 
 
 Art. 32. The Federal Congress shall not dic- 
 tate laws restrictmg the liberty of the press, nor 
 estabUsh any federal jurisdiction over it. 
 
 Art. 33. The enumeration in this Constitution 
 of certain rights and guarantees, shall not be 
 construed to deny or disparage other rights and 
 guarantees, not enumerated; but which spring 
 from the principle of popular sovereignty, and the 
 republican form of Government. 
 
 Art. 34. The Judges of the Federal courts shall 
 not be Judges of Provincial tribunals at the same 
 time; nor shall the federal service, civil as well 
 as military, constitute a domicil in the Province 
 where it may be exercised, if it be not habitually 
 that of the employe; it being understood by this, 
 that all Provincial public-service is optional in the 
 Province where such employe may casually reside. 
 
 Art. 3S. The names which have been succes- 
 sively adopted for the Nation, since the year 1810 
 up to the present time; viz., the United Provinces 
 of the Rio de la Plata, Argentine RepubUc and 
 Argentine Confederation, shall henceforward serve 
 without distinction, officially to designate the Gov- 
 ernment and territory of the Provinces, whilst the 
 words .'\rgentine Nation shall be employed in the 
 making and sanction of the laws. 
 
 Part II. — Section I 
 
 Art. 36. All legislative powers herein granted 
 shall be vested in a Congress composed of two 
 Chambers, one of National Deputies, and the other 
 of Senators of the Provinces and of the capital. 
 
 Chapter I 
 
 Art. 37. The Chamber of Deputies shall be 
 composed of representatives elected directly by 
 the people of the Provinces, for which purpose 
 each one shall be considered as a single elec- 
 toral district, and by a .simple plurality of votes 
 in the ratio of one for each 20,000 inhabitants, or 
 for a fraction not less than 10,000. 
 
 .Art. 38. The deputies for the first Legislature 
 shall be nominated in the following proportion: 
 for the Province of Buenos-.\ires, twelve; for that 
 of Cordoba, six; for Catamarca, three; Corrientes, 
 four; Entre-Rios, two; Jujui, two; Mendoza, 
 three; Rioja, two; Salta, three; Santiago, four; 
 San Juan, two; Santa-Fe, two; San Luis, two; 
 and for that of Tucuman, three. 
 
 -Art. 30. For the second Legislature a general 
 census shall be taken, and the number of Deputies 
 be regulated by it; thereafter, this census shall be 
 decennial. 
 
 Art. 40. No person shall be a Deputy who 
 shall not have attained the age of twenty-five 
 years, have been four years in the exercise of citi- 
 zenship, and be a native of the Province which 
 elects him, or a resident of it for the two years 
 immediately preceding. 
 
 .\rt. 41. For the first election, the provincial 
 Legislatures shall regulate the method for a direct 
 election of the National Deputies. Congress shall 
 pass a general law for the future. 
 
 Art. 42. The Deputies shall hold their place for 
 four years, and are re-eligible ; but the House shall 
 be renewed each biennial, by halves; for which 
 purpose those elected to the first Legislature, as 
 soon as the session opens, shall decide by lot who 
 shall leave at the end of the first period. 
 
 Art, 43. In case of vacancy, the Government of 
 the Province or of the capital, shall call an elec- 
 tion for a new member. 
 
 Art. 44. The origination of the tax-laws and 
 those for the recruiting of troops, belongs exclu- 
 sively to the House of Deputies. 
 
 Art. 4S. It has the sole right of impeaching 
 before the Senate, the President, Vice-President, 
 
 496
 
 ARGENTINA, CONSTITUTION 
 
 ARGENTINA, CONSTITUTION 
 
 their Ministers, and the members of the Supreme 
 Court and other inferior Tribunals of the Nation, 
 in suits which may be undertaken against them 
 for the improper discharge of, or deficiency in, the 
 exercise of their functions; or for common crimes, 
 after having heard them, and declared by a vote 
 of two-thirds of the members present, that there 
 is cause for proceeding against them. 
 
 Chapter II 
 
 Art. 46. The Senate shall be composed of two 
 Senators from each Province, chosen by the Legis- 
 latures thereof by plurality of vote, and two from 
 the capital elected in the form prescribed for the 
 election of the President of the Nation. Each 
 Senator shall have one vote. 
 
 Art. 47. No person shall be a Senator who 
 shall not have attained the age of thirty years, 
 been six years a citizen of the Nation, enjoy an 
 annual rent or income of two thousand hard- 
 dollars, and be a native of the Province which 
 elects him, or a resident of the same for the two 
 years immediately preceding. 
 
 Art. 48. The Senators shall enjoy their trust 
 for nine years, and are indefinitely re-eligible; but 
 the Senate shall be renewed by thirds each three 
 years, and shall decide by lot, as soon as they be 
 all re-united, who shall leave at the end of the 
 first and second triennial periods. , 
 
 Art. 4q. The Vice-President of the Nation shall 
 be President of the Senate ; but shall have no vote, 
 except in a case of a tie. 
 
 Art. 50. The Senate shall choose a President 
 pro-tempore who shall preside during the absence 
 of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise 
 the office of President of the Nation. 
 
 Art. si. The Senate shall have sole power to 
 try all impeachments presented by the House of 
 Deputies. When sitting for that purpose they 
 shall be under oath. When the President of the 
 Nation is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside. 
 No person shall be convicted without the concur- 
 rence of two-thirds of the members present. 
 
 Art. 52. Judgment in case of impeachment, shall 
 not extend farther than to removal from office, 
 and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office 
 of honor, trust, or profit under the Nation. But 
 the party convicted shall, nevertheless, be liable 
 to indictment, trial, judgment and punishment ac- 
 cording to law, before the ordinary tribunals. 
 
 Art. 53. It belongs, moreover, to the Senate, 
 to authorize the President to declare martial law 
 in one or more points of the Republic, in case of 
 foreign aggression. 
 
 Art. 54. When any seat of a Senator be va- 
 cant by death, resignation or other reason, the Gov- 
 ernment to which the vacancy belongs, shall im- 
 mediately proceed to the election of a new mem- 
 ber. 
 
 Chapter III 
 
 Art. 55. Both Chambers shall meet in ordinary 
 session, every year from the ist May until the 3ofh 
 September. They can be extraordinarily convoked, 
 or their session be prolonged by the President of 
 the Nation. 
 
 Art. 56. Each House shall be the judge of the 
 elections, returns, and qualifications of its own 
 members. Neither of them shall enter into session 
 without an absolute majority of its members; but 
 a smaller number may compel absent members to 
 attend the sessions, in such terms and under such 
 penalties as each House may establish. 
 
 Art. 57. Both Houses shall begin and close 
 
 their sessions simultaneously. Neither of them 
 whilst in sessions can suspend its meetings for more 
 than three days, without the consent of the other. 
 
 Art. 58. Each House may make its rules of 
 proceeding, and with the concurrence of two-thirds 
 punish its members for disorderly behavior in the 
 e.xercise of their functions, or remove, and even 
 expel them from the House, for physical or moral 
 incapacity occurring after their incorporation; but 
 a majority of one above one-half of the members 
 present, shall suffice to decide questions of volun- 
 tary resignation. 
 
 Art. 50. In the act of their incorporation the 
 Senators and Deputies shall take an oath to prop- 
 erly fulfil their charge, and to act in all things in 
 conformity to the prescriptions of this Constitu- 
 tion. 
 
 Art. 60. No member of Congress can be in- 
 dicted, judicially interrogated, or molested for any 
 opinion or discourse which he may have uttered in 
 fulfilment of his Legislative duties. 
 
 Art. 61. No Senator or Deputy, during the 
 term for which he may have been elected, shall 
 be arrested, except when taken "in flagrant" com- 
 mission of some crime which merits capital pun- 
 ishment or other degrading sentence; an account 
 thereof shall be rendered to the Chamber he be- 
 longs to, with a verbal process of the facts. 
 
 Art. 62. When a complaint in writing be made 
 before the ordinary courts against any Senator or 
 Deputy, each Chamber can by a two-thirds vote, 
 suspend the accused in his functions and place 
 him at the disposition of the competent judge for 
 trial. 
 
 Art. 63. Each of the Chambers can cause the 
 Ministers of the Executive to come to their Hall, 
 to give such explanations or information as may 
 be considered convenient. 
 
 Art. 64. No member of Congress can receive 
 any post or commission from the Executive, with- 
 out the previous consent of his respective Cham- 
 ber, excepting such as are in the line of promotion. 
 
 Art. 65. The regular ecclesiastics cannot be 
 members of Congress, nor can the Governors of 
 Provinces represent the Province which they 
 govern. 
 
 Art. 66. The Senators and Deputies shall be 
 remunerated for their services, by a compensation 
 to be ascertained by law. 
 
 Chapter IV 
 
 Art. 67. The Congress shall have power: — (i) 
 To legislate upon the Custom-Houses and establish 
 import duties; which, as well as all appraisements 
 for their collection, shall be uniform throughout 
 the Nation, it being clearly understood that these, 
 as well as all other national contributions, can be 
 paid in any money at the just value which may be 
 current in the respective Provinces. Also, to es- 
 tablish export duties. (2) To lay direct taxes for 
 determinate periods, whenever the common de- 
 fense and general welfare require it, which shall be 
 uniform throughout the territory of the Nation. 
 
 (3) To borrow money on the credit of the Nation. 
 
 (4) To determine the use and sale of the National 
 lands, (s) To establish and regulate a National 
 Bank in the capital, with branches in the Provinces, 
 and with power to emit bills. (6) To regulate the 
 payment of the home and foreign debts of the 
 Nation. (7) To annually determine the estimates 
 of the National Administration, and approve or 
 reject the accounts of expenses. (8) To grant sub- 
 sidies from the National Treasury to those Prov- 
 inces, whose revenues, according to their budgets, 
 do not suffice to cover the ordinary expenses. (9) 
 
 497
 
 ARGENTINA, CONSTITUTION 
 
 ARGENTINA, CONSTITUTION 
 
 To regulate the free navigation of the interior 
 rivers, open such ports as may be considered neces- 
 sary, create and suppress Custom-Houses, but 
 without suppressing those which existed in each 
 Province at the time of its incorporation. (lo) 
 To coin money, regulate the value thereof and 
 of foreign coin, and adopt a uniform system of 
 weights and measures for the whole Nation, (ii) 
 To decree civil, commercial, penal and mining 
 Codes, but such Codes shall have no power to 
 change local jurisdiction; their application shall 
 belong to the Federal or Provincial courts, in ac- 
 cordance with such things or persons as may come 
 under their respective jurisdiction; especially, gen- 
 eral laws embracing the whole Nation, shall be 
 passed upon naturalization and citizenship, subject 
 to the principle of native citizenship; also upon 
 bankruptcy, the counterfeiting of current-money 
 and public State documents; and such laws as may 
 be required for the establishment of trial by Jury. 
 (12) To regulate commerce by land and sea with 
 foreign nations, and between the Provinces. (13) 
 To establish and regulate the general post-offices 
 and post-roads of the Nation. (14) To finally 
 settle the National boundaries, fix those of the 
 Provinces, create new Provinces, and determine by 
 a special legislation, the organization and govern- 
 ments, which such National territories as are be- 
 yond the limits assigned to the Province, should 
 have. (15) To provide for the security of the 
 frontiers; preserve peaceful relations with the In- 
 dians, and promote their conversion to Catholi- 
 cism. (16) To provide all things conducive to the 
 prosperity of the country, to the advancement and 
 happiness of the Provinces, and to the increase of 
 enlightenment, decreeing plans for general and uni- 
 versity instruction, promoting industry, immigra- 
 tion, the construction of railways, and navigable 
 canals, the peopling of the National lands, the in- 
 troduction and establishment of new industries, the 
 importation of foreign capital and the exploration 
 of the interior rivers, by protection laws to these 
 ends, and by temporary concessions and stimulat- 
 ing recompenses. (17) To constitute tribunals in- 
 ferior to the Supreme Court, create and suppress 
 public offices, fix their attributes, grant pensions, 
 decree honors and general amnesties. (18) To 
 accept or reject the resignation of the President or 
 Vice-President of the Republic, and declare new 
 elections; to make the scrutiny and rectification 
 of the same. (19) To ratify or reject the treaties 
 made with other Nations and the Concordats with 
 the Apostolic See, and regulate the patronage of 
 advowsons throughout the Nation. (20) To admit 
 religious orders within the Nation, other than those 
 already existing. {21) To authorize the Executive 
 to declare war and make peace. (22) To grant let- 
 ters of marque and reprisal, and to make rules 
 concerning prizes. (23) To fix the land and sea 
 forces in time of peace and war: and to make 
 rules and regulations for the government of said 
 forces. (24) To provide for calling forth the 
 militia of all, or a part of, the Provinces, to exe- 
 cute the laws of the Nation, suppress insurrections 
 or repel invasions. To provide for organizing, 
 arming, and disciplining said militia, and for gov- 
 erning such part of them as may be employed in 
 the service of the Nation, reserving to the Prov- 
 inces respectively, the appointment of the corre- 
 sponding chiefs and officers, and the authority of 
 training the militia according to the discipUne 
 prescribed by Congress. (25) To permit the in- 
 troduction of foreign troops within the territory 
 of the Nation, and the going beyond it of the Na- 
 tional forces. (26) To declare martial law in any 
 or various points of the Nation in case of domes- 
 
 tic commotion, and ratify or suspend the declara- 
 tion of martial law made by the executive during 
 the recess. (27) To exercise exclusive legislation 
 over the territory of the National capital, and over 
 such other places acquired by purchase or cession 
 in any of the Provinces, for the purpose of estab- 
 lishing forts, arsenals, warehouses, or other needful 
 national buildings. {28) To make all laws and 
 regulations which shall be necessary for carrying 
 into execution the foregoing powers, and all others 
 vested by the present Constitution in the Gov- 
 ernment of the Argentine Nation. 
 
 Chapter V 
 
 Art. 68. Laws may originate in either of the 
 Houses of Congress, by bills presented by their 
 members or by the Executive, excepting those rela- 
 tive to the objects treated of in Art. 44. 
 
 Art. 69. A bill being approved by the House 
 wherein it originated, shall pass for discussion to 
 the other House. Being approved by both, it shall 
 pass to the Executive of the Nation for his ex- 
 amination ; and should it receive his approbation 
 he shall publish it as law. 
 
 Art. 70. Every bill not returned within ten 
 working-days by the Executive, shall be taken as 
 approved by him 
 
 Art. 71. No bill entirely rejected by one House, 
 can be presented again during that year. But 
 should it be only amplified or corrected by the 
 revising House, it shall return to that wherein it 
 originated; and if there the additions or corrections 
 be approved by an absolute majority, it shall pass 
 to the Executive. If the additions or corrections 
 be rejected, it shall return to the revising House, 
 and if here they be again sanctioned by a ma- 
 jority of two-thirds of its members, it shall pass 
 to the other House, and it shall not be understood 
 that the said additions and corrections are re- 
 jected, unless two-thirds of the members present 
 should so vote. 
 
 Art. 72. A bill being rejected in whole or in 
 part by the Executive, he shall return it with his 
 objections to the House in which it originated; 
 here it shall be debated again; and if it be con- 
 firmed by a majority of two-thirds, it shall pass 
 again to the revising House. If both Houses should 
 pass it by the same majority, it becomes a law, and 
 shall be sent to the Executive for promulgation. 
 In such case the votes of both Houses shall be by 
 yeas and nays, and the names of the persons so 
 voting shall be recorded, as well as the objections 
 of the Executive, and shall be immediately pub- 
 lished in the daily press. If the Houses differ upon 
 the objections, the bill cannot be renewed during 
 that year. 
 
 Art. 73. The following formula shall be used 
 in the passage of the laws: "The Senate and 
 Chamber of Deputies of the Argentine Nation in 
 Congress assembled, etc., decree, or sanction, with 
 the force of law." 
 
 Section II. — Chapter I 
 
 Art. 74. The Executive power of the Nation 
 shall be exercised by a citizen, with the title of 
 "President of the Argentine Nation." 
 
 Art. 75. In case of the sickness, absence from 
 the capital, death, resignation or dismissal of the 
 President, the Executive power shall be exercised 
 by the Vice-President of the Nation. In case of 
 the removal, death, resignation, or inability of the 
 President and Vice-President of the Nation, Con- 
 gress will determine which public functionary shall 
 
 498
 
 ARGENTINA, CONSTITUTION 
 
 ARGENTINA, CONSTITUTION 
 
 then fill the Presidency, until the disability be re- 
 moved or a new President be elected. 
 
 Art. 76. No person except a natural-born citi- 
 zen or a son of a natural-born citizen brought forth 
 abroad, shall be eligible as President or Vice-Presi- 
 dent of the Nation ; he is required to belong to the 
 Apostolic-Roman-Catholic communion, and possess 
 the other qualifications required to be elected Sen- 
 ator. 
 
 Art. 77. The President and Vice-President shall 
 hold office during the term of six years; and can- 
 not be re-elected except after an interval of an 
 equal period. 
 
 Art. 78. The President of the Nation shall 
 cease in his functions the very day on which his 
 period of six years expires, and no event whatever 
 which may have interrupted it, can be a motive for 
 completing it at a later time. 
 
 Art. 79. The President and Vice-President shall 
 receive a compensation from the National Treasury, 
 which cannot be altered during the period for 
 which they shall have been elected. During the 
 same period they cannot exercise any other office 
 nor receive any other emolument from the Nation, 
 or any of its Provinces. 
 
 Art. 80. The President and Vice-President be- 
 fore entering upon the execution of their offices, 
 shall take the following oath administered by the 
 President of the Senate (the first time by the 
 President of the Constituent Congress) in Con- 
 gress assembled: "I (such an one) swear by God 
 our Lord, and by these Holy Evangelists, that I 
 will faithfully and patriotically execute the office 
 of President (or Vice-President) of the Nation, and 
 observe and cause to be faithfully observed, the 
 Constitution of the Argentine Nation. If I should 
 not do so, let God and the Nation indict me." 
 
 Chapter II 
 
 Art. 8x. The election of the President and Vice- 
 President of the Nation, shall be made in the fol- 
 lowing manner: — The capital and each of the 
 Provinces shall by direct vote nominate a board of 
 electors, double the number of Deputies and Sen- 
 ators which they send to Congress, with the same 
 qualifications and under the same form as those 
 prescribed for the election of Deputies. Deputies 
 or Senators, or officers in the pay of the Federal 
 Government cannot be electors. The electors being 
 met in the national capital and in that of their 
 respective Provinces, four months prior to the con- 
 clusion of the term of the out-going President, they 
 shall proceed by signed ballots, to elect a Presi- 
 dent, and Vice-President, one of which shall state 
 the person as President, and the other the person 
 as Vice-President, for whom they vote. Two lists 
 shall be made of all the individuals elected as 
 President, and other two also, of those elected as 
 Vice-President, with the number of votes which 
 each may have received. These lists shall be 
 signed by the electors, and shall be remitted closed 
 and sealed, two of them (one of each kind) to the 
 President of the Provincial Legislature, and to the 
 President of the Municipality in the capital, among 
 whose records they shall remain deposited and 
 closed; the other two shall be sent to the Presi- 
 dent of the Senate (the first time to the President 
 of the Constituent Congress). 
 
 Art. 82. The President of the Senate (the first 
 time that of the Constituent Congress) all the 
 Usts being received, shall open them in the pres- 
 ence of both Houses. Four members of Congress 
 taken by lot and associated to the Secretaries, 
 shall immediately proceed to count the votes, and 
 to announce the number which may result in favor 
 
 of each candidate for the Presidency and Vice- 
 Presidency of the Nation. Those who have re- 
 ceived an absolute majority of all the votes in 
 both cases, shall be immediately proclaimed Presi- 
 dent and Vice-President. 
 
 Art. 83. In case there be no absolute major- 
 ity, on account of a division of the votes. Con- 
 gress shall elect one of the two persons who shall 
 have received the highest number of votes. If the 
 first majority should have fallen to a single per- 
 son, and the second to two or more. Congress shall 
 elect among all the persons who may have obtained 
 the first and second majorities. 
 
 Art. 84. This election shall be made by abso- 
 lute plurality of votes, and voting by name. If, 
 on counting the first vote, no absolute majority 
 shall have been obtained, a second trial shall be 
 made, limiting the voting to the two persons who 
 shall have obtained the greatest number of suf- 
 frages at the first trial. In case of an equal num- 
 ber of votes, the operation shall be repeated, and 
 should the result be the same, then the President 
 of the Senate (the first time that of the Constitu- 
 ent Congress) shall decide it. No scrutiny or rec- 
 tification of these elections can be made, unless 
 three-fourth parts of all the members of the 
 Congress be present. 
 
 Art. 85. The election of the President and 
 Vice-President of the Nation shal be concluded in 
 a single meeting of the Congress, and thereafter, 
 the result and the electoral lists shall be published 
 in the daily press. 
 
 Chapter III 
 
 Art. 86. The President of the Nation has the 
 following attributes: — (i) He is the supreme chief 
 of the Nation, and is charged with the general ad- 
 ministration of the country. (2) He issues such 
 instructions and regulations as may be necessary 
 for the execution of the laws of the Nation, tak- 
 ing care not to alter their spirit with regulative 
 exceptions. (3) He is the immediate and local 
 chief of the National capital. (4) He participates 
 in making the laws according to the Constitution; 
 and sanctions and promulgates them. (5) He 
 nominates the Judges of the Supreme Court and 
 of the Inferior Federal tribunals, and appoints 
 them by and with the consent and advice of the 
 Senate. (6) He has power to pardon or com- 
 mute penalties against officers subject to Federal 
 jurisdiction, preceded by a report of the proper 
 Tribunal, excepting in case of impeachment by the 
 House of Deputies. (7) He grants retiring-pen- 
 sions, leaves of absence and pawnbrokers' licences, 
 in conformity to the laws of the Nation. (8) He 
 exercises the rights of National Patronage in the 
 presentation of Bishops for the cathedrals, choos- 
 ing from a ternary nomination of the Senate, (g) 
 He grants letters-patent or retains the decrees of 
 the Councils, the bulls, briefs and rescripts of the 
 Holy Roman Pontiff, by and with the consent of 
 the Supreme Court, and must require a law for 
 the same when they contain general and perma- 
 nent dispositions. (10) He appoints and removes 
 Ministers Plenipotentiary and Charges dAffaires, 
 by and with the consent and advice of the Senate; 
 and himself alone appoints and removes the Min- 
 isters of his Cabinet, the officers of the Secretary- 
 ships, Consular Agents, and the rest of the em- 
 ployfe of the Administration whose nomination is 
 not otherwise ordained by this Constitution. (11) 
 He annually opens the Sessions of Congress, both 
 Houses being united for this purpose in the Sen- 
 ate Chamber, giving an account to Congress on 
 this occasion of the state of the Nation, of the 
 
 499
 
 ARGENTINA, CONSTITUTION 
 
 ARGENTINA, CONSTITUTION 
 
 reforms provided by the Constitution, and recom- 
 mending to its consideration such measures as may 
 be judged necessary and convenient. (12) He pro- 
 longs the ordinary meetings of Congress or con- 
 vokes it in extra session, when a question of prog- 
 ress or an important interest so requires. (13) He 
 collects the rents of the Nation and decrees their 
 expenditure in conformity to the law or estimates 
 of the Public expenses. (14) He negotiates and 
 signs those treaties of peace, of commerce, of navi- 
 gation, of alliance, of boundaries and of neutrality, 
 requisite to maintain good relations with foreign 
 powers; he receives their Ministers and admits 
 their Consuls. (15) He is commander in chief 
 of all the sea and land forces of the Nation. (16) 
 He confers, by and with the consent of the Sen- 
 ate, the high military grades in the army and navy 
 of the Nation ; and by himself on the field of 
 battle. (17) He disposes of the land and sea 
 forces, and takes charge of their organization and 
 distribution according to the requirements of the 
 Nation. (18) By the authority and approval of 
 Congress, he declares war and grants letters of 
 marque and reprisal, (iq) By and with the con- 
 sent of the Senate, in case of foreign aggression and 
 for a limited time, he declares martial law in one 
 or more points of the Nation. In case of internal 
 commotion he has this power only when Congress 
 is in recess, because it is an attribute which be- 
 longs to this body. The President exercises it 
 under the limitations mentioned in Art. 23. (20) 
 He may require from the chiefs of all the branches 
 and departments of the Administration, and 
 through them from all other employes, such re- 
 ports as he may believe necessary, and they are 
 compelled to give them. (21) He cannot absent 
 himself from the capital of the Nation without 
 permission of Congress. During the recess he can 
 only do so without permission on account of im- 
 portant objects of public service. (22) The Presi- 
 dent shall have power to fill all vacancies that may 
 happen during the recess of the Senate, by grant- 
 ing commissions, which shall expire at the end of 
 their next session. 
 
 Chapter IV 
 
 Art. 87. Five Minister-Secretaries; to wit, of 
 the Interior; of Foreign Affairs; of Finance; of 
 Justice, Worship and Public Instruction; and of 
 War and the Navy ; shall have under their charge 
 the dispatch of National affairs, and they shall 
 countersign and legalize the acts of the President 
 by means of their signatures, without which requis- 
 ite they shall not be efficacious. A law shall deter- 
 mine the respective duties of the Ministers. 
 
 Art. 88. Each Minister is responsible for the 
 acts which he legalizes, and collectively, for those 
 which he agrees to with his colleagues. 
 
 Art. 8q. The Ministers cannot determine any- 
 thing whatever, by themselves, except what con- 
 cerns the economical and administrative regimen 
 af their respective Departments. 
 
 Art. go. .'\s soon as Congress opens, the Min- 
 isters shall present to it a detailed report of the 
 State of the Nation, in all that relates to their 
 respective Departments. 
 
 Art. 91. They cannot be Senators or Deputies 
 without resigning their places as Ministers. 
 
 Art. 92. The Ministers can assist at the meet- 
 ings of Congress and take part in its debates, but 
 they cannot vote. 
 
 Art. 03. They shall receive for their services a 
 compensation established by law, which shall not 
 be increased or diminished, in favor or against, 
 the actual incumbents. 
 
 Section III. — Chapter I 
 
 Art. 94. The Judicial Power of the Nation 
 shall be exercised by a Supreme Court of Justice, 
 and by such other inferior Tribunals as Congress 
 may establish within the dominion of the Nation. 
 
 Art. 95. The President of the Nation cannot 
 in any case whatever, exercise Judicial powers, 
 arrogate to himself any knowledge of pending 
 causes, or reopen those which have terminated. 
 
 Art. 96. The Judges of the Supreme Court and 
 of the lower National Tribunals, shall keep their 
 places quamdiu se bene gesserit, and shall receive 
 for their services a compensation determined by 
 law, which shall not be diminished in any manner 
 whatever during their continuance in office. 
 
 .^RT. 07. No one can be a member of the Su- 
 preme Court of Justice, unless he shall have been 
 an attorney at lav.' of the Nation for eight years, 
 and shall possess the qualifications required for a 
 Senator. 
 
 Art. 98. At the first installation of the Supreme 
 Court, the individuals appointed shall take an 
 oath administered by the President of the Nation, 
 to discharge their functions, by the good and legal 
 administration of Justice according to the pre- 
 scriptions of this Constitution. Thereafter, the 
 oath shall be taken before the President of the 
 Court itself. 
 
 .'Xrt. 00 The Supreme Court shall establish its 
 own internal and economical regulations, and shall 
 appoint its subaltern employes. 
 
 Chapter II 
 
 .^RT. 100. The Judicial power of the Supreme 
 Court and the lower National Tribunals, shall ex- 
 tend to all cases arising under this Constitution, the 
 laws of the Nation with the reserve made in clause 
 II of Art. 67, and by treaties with foreign na- 
 tions; to all cases affecting ambassadors, public 
 Ministers and foreign Consuls; to all cases of ad- 
 miralty and maritime jurisdiction; to controver- 
 sies to which the Nation shall be party; to con- 
 troversies between two or more Provinces; between 
 a Province and the citizens of another; between 
 the citizens of different Provinces; and betv/een a 
 Province or its citizens, against a foreign State 
 or citizen. 
 
 .■\rt. ici. In these cases the Supreme Court 
 shall exercise an appellate jurisdiction according to 
 such rules and exceptions as Congress may pre- 
 scribe ; but in all cases affecting ambassadors, min- 
 isters and foreign consuls, or those in which a 
 Province shall be a party, it shall exercise original 
 and exclusive jurisdiction. 
 
 Art. 102. The trial of all ordinary crimes ex- 
 cept in cases of impeachment, shall terminate by 
 jury, so soon as this institution be established in 
 the Republic These trials shall be held in the 
 same Province where the crimes shall have been 
 committed, but when not committed within the 
 frontiers of the Nation, but against International 
 Law, Congress shall determine by a special law 
 the place where the trial shall take effect. 
 
 Art. 103. Treason against the Nation shall only 
 consist in levying war against it, or in adhering to 
 its enemies, giving them aid and comfort. Congress 
 shall fix by a special law the punishment of trea- 
 son ; but it cannot go beyond the person of the 
 criminal, and no attainder of treason shall work 
 corruption of blood to relatives of any grade 
 whatever. 
 
 Art. 104. The Provinces keep all the powers 
 not delegated by this Constitution to the Federal 
 Government, and those which were expressly re- 
 
 500
 
 ARGENTORATUM 
 
 ARGOS 
 
 served by special compacts at the time of their 
 incorporation. 
 
 Art. ios. They create their own local institu- 
 tion."; and are governed by these. They elect their 
 own Governors, their Legislators and other Pro- 
 vincial functionaries, without intervention from the 
 Federal Government. 
 
 Art. io6. Each Province shall make its own 
 Constitution in conformity with the dispositions of 
 Art. 5. 
 
 Art. 107. The Provinces with the consent of 
 Congress can celebrate contracts among themselves 
 for the purposes of administering justice and pro- 
 moting economical interests and works of common 
 utility, and also, can pass protective laws for tht- 
 purpose with their ov^n resources, of promoting 
 manufactures, immigration, the building of rail- 
 ways and canals, the peopling of their lands, the 
 introduction and establishment of new industries, 
 the import of foreign capital and the exploration 
 of their rivers. 
 
 Art. 108. The Provinces cannot exercise any 
 powers delegated to the Nation. They cannot cele- 
 brate compacts of a political character, nor make 
 laws on commerce or internal or external naviga- 
 tion; nor establish Provincial Custom Houses, nor 
 coin money, nor establish Banks of emission, with- 
 out authority of Congress; nor make civil, com- 
 mercial, penal or mining Codes after Congress shall 
 have sanctioned those provided for in this Consti- 
 tution; nor pass laws upon citizenship or naturali- 
 zation; bankruptcy, counterfeiting money or public 
 State documents; nor lay tonnage dues; nor arm 
 vessels of war or raise armies, save in the case of 
 foreign invasion, or of a danger so imminent that 
 it admits of no delay, and then an account there- 
 of must be immediately given to the Federal Gov- 
 ernment; or name or receive foreign agents; or 
 admit new religious orders. 
 
 Art. 109. No Province can declare or make war 
 against another Province. Its complaints must be 
 submitted to the Supreme Court of Justice and be 
 settled by it. Hostilities de facto are acts of civil- 
 war and qualified as seditious and tumultuous, 
 v,'hich the General Government must repress and 
 suffocate according to law. 
 
 Art. 1 10. The Provincial Governors are the 
 natural agents of the Federal Government to 
 cause the fulfilment of the laws of the Nation. 
 See Argentina: 1880-1891. 
 
 The above text of the Constitution of Argentina 
 is a translation "from the official edition of 1868," 
 taken from R. Napp's work on "The Argentine 
 Republic," prepared for the Central Argentine 
 Commission on the Centenary Exhibition at Phila- 
 delphia, 1876. 
 
 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. See Argentina. 
 
 ARGENTORATUM, ancient name of Stras- 
 bourg. See Alsace-Lorraine: Early history. 
 
 ARGINUSAE, Battle of. See Greece: 406 
 B.C. 
 
 ARGIVE LEAGUE. See Greece: B.C. 421- 
 418. 
 
 ARGO, ship which bore the Argonauts. See 
 Argonautic e.xpedition. 
 
 ARGOLIS. See Argos. 
 
 ARGONAUTIC EXPEDITION.— "The ship 
 .Argo was the theme of many songs during the 
 oldest periods of the Grecian Epic, even earlier 
 than the Odyssey. The king ^etes, from whom 
 f-he is departing, the hero Jason, who commands 
 her, and the goddess Here, who watches over him, 
 enabling the Argo to traverse distances and to es- 
 cape dangers wh'ch no ship had ever before en- 
 countered, are all circumstances briefly glanced at 
 by Odysseus in his narrative to Alkinous. . . . 
 
 Jason, commanded by Pelias to depart in quest 
 of the golden fleece belonging to the speaking ram 
 which had carried away Phryxus and Helle, was 
 encouraged by the oracle to invite the noblest 
 youth of Greece to his aid, and fifty of the most 
 distinguished amongst them obeyed the call. 
 Herakles, Theseus, Telamon and Peleus, Kastor 
 and Pollux, Idas and Lynkeus — Zetes and Kalais, 
 the winged sons of Boreas — Meleager, Amphiaraus, 
 Kepheus, Laertes, Autolykus, Mencctius, .Aktor, Er- 
 ginus, Eupheraus, Anksus, Pceas, Periklymenus, 
 Augeas, Eurytus, Admetus, Akastus, Ksneus, 
 Euryalus, Peneleos and Leitus, Askalaphus and 
 lalmenus, were among them. . . . Since so many 
 able men have treated it as an undisputed reality, 
 and even made it the pivot of systematic chrono- 
 logical calculations, I may here repeat the opinion 
 long ago expressed by Heyne, and even indicated by 
 Burmann, that the process of dissecting the story, 
 in search of a basis of fact, is one altogether fruit- 
 less." — G. Grote, History of Greece, v. i, pt. i, ck. 
 13. — "In the rich cluster of myths which surround 
 the captain of the Argo and his fellows are pre- 
 served to us the whole life and doings of the 
 Greek maritime tribes, which gradually united all 
 the coasts with one another, and attracted Hellenes 
 dwelling in the most different seats into the sphere 
 of their activity. . . . The Argo was said to have 
 weighed anchor from a variety of ports — from 
 lolcus in Thessaly, from Anthedon and Siphae in 
 Bceotia: the home of Jason himself was on Mount 
 Pelion by the sea, and again on Lemnos and in 
 Corinth ; a clear proof of how homogeneous were 
 the influences running on various coasts. However, 
 the myths of the Argo were developed in the great- 
 est completeness on the Pagasean gulf, in the seats 
 of the Minyi; and they are the first with whom 
 a perceptible movement of the Pelasgian tribes be- 
 yond the sea — in other words, a Greek history in 
 Europe — begins." — E. Curtius, History of Greece, 
 bk. I, ch. 2-3. 
 
 ARGONNE, a rough, heavily forested region in 
 northeastern France between the rivers Aisne and 
 Meuse and west of Verdun. Scene of Dumouriez's 
 defense against the Prussians in 1702 and the great 
 .American offensive in October-November, 1918. 
 
 1914. — Battle of the Marne. See World War: 
 1 91 4: I. Western front: p, 3; r. 
 
 1915. — Operations of the French. See World 
 War: 1915: 11. Western front: g; j, 2; j, 6. 
 
 1916-1918. — Region of fighting. See World 
 War: 1016: II. Western front: b, 1; igi8: II. 
 Western front: o, 1; u. 
 
 1918. — U. S. troops in action. See World War: 
 1Q18: II. Western front: v; v, 1. 
 
 ARGOS, the chief city of Argolis in the Pelo- 
 ponnesus and the foremost Dorian city up to the 
 middle of the eighth century B.C. was Argos. She 
 early dominated the cities of the district of Argolis 
 and in 670 B.C. formed them into a union to 
 withstand the rising power of Sparta. "No dis- 
 trict of Greece contains so dense a succession of 
 powerful citadels in a narrow space as Argolis [the 
 eastern peninsular projection of the Peloponnesus]. 
 Lofty Larissa, apparently designed by nature as 
 the centre of the district, is succeeded by Mycena, 
 deep in the recess of the land; at the foot of the 
 mountain lies Midea, at the brink of the sea-coast 
 Tiryns; and lastly, at a farther distance of half 
 an hour's march, Nauplia, with its harbour. This 
 succession of ancient fastnesses, whose indestruct- 
 ible structure of stone we admire to this day Icon- 
 sult Schliemann's "Ancient Mycena" and "Tiryns"] 
 is clear evidence of mighty conflicts which agitated 
 the earliest days of Argos; and proves that in this 
 one plain of Inachus several principalities must have 
 
 .SOI
 
 ARGOS 
 
 ARGOS 
 
 arisen by the side of one another, each putting its 
 confidence in the walls of its citadel ; some, accord- 
 ing to their position, maintaining an intercourse 
 with other lands by sea, others rather a connec- 
 tion with the inland country. The evidence pre- 
 served by these monuments is borne out by that 
 of the myths, according to which the dominion of 
 Danaus is divided among his successors. Exiled 
 PrcEtus is brought home to Argos by Lycian bands, 
 with whose help he builds the coast-fortress of 
 Tiryns, where he holds sway as the first and might- 
 iest in the land. . . . The other line of the Dan- 
 aidae is also intimately connected with Lycia; for 
 Perseus . . . [who] on his return from the East 
 founds Mycenae, as the new regal seat of the united 
 kingdom of Argos, is himself essentially a Lycian 
 hero of light, belonging to the religion of Apollo. 
 . . . Finally, Heracles himself is connected with 
 the family of the Perseidae, as a prince born on the 
 Tirynthian fastness. . . . During these divisions in 
 the house of Danaus, and the misfortunes befalling 
 that of Prcetus, foreign families acquire influence 
 and dominion in Argos: these are of the race of 
 /Eolus, and originally belong to the harbour-coun- 
 try of the western coast of Peloponnesus — the 
 Amythaonidas. . . . While the dominion of the Ar- 
 give land was thus subdivided, and the native war- 
 rior nobility subsequently exhausted itself in sav- 
 age internal feuds, a new royal house succeeded in 
 grasping the supreme power and giving an entirely 
 new importance to the country. This house was 
 that of the Tantalidae [or Pelopids, which see], 
 united with the forces of Achsean population. . . . 
 The residue of fact is, that the ancient dynasty, 
 connected by descent with Lycia, was overthrown 
 by the house which derived its origin from Lydia. 
 . . . The poetic myths, abhorring long rows of 
 names, mention three princes as ruling here in 
 succession, one leaving the sceptre of Pelops to 
 the other, viz., Atreus, Thyestes and Agamemnon. 
 Mycens is the chief seat of their rule, which is not 
 restricted to the district of Argos." — E. Curtius, 
 History oj Greece, bk. i, ch. 3. — After the Doric 
 invasion of the Peloponnesus (see Greece: Migra- 
 tions of Hellenic tribes; also, Dorlans and Ioni- 
 ANS) , Argos appears in Greek history as a Doric 
 state, originally the foremost one in power and 
 influence, but humiliated after long years of rivalry 
 by her Spartan neighbours. 
 
 "Argos never forgot that she had once been the 
 chief power in the peninsula, and her feeling 
 towards Sparta was that of a jealous but impo- 
 tent competitor. By what steps the decline of her 
 power had taken place, we are unable to make out, 
 nor can we trace the succession of her kings sub- 
 sequent to Pheidon [8th century B.C.]. . . . The 
 title [of king] existed (though probably with very 
 limited functions) at the time of the Persian War 
 [4QO-47Q B.C.]. . . . There is some ground for 
 presuming that the king of Argos was even at that 
 time a Herakleid — since the Spartans offered to 
 him a third part of the command of the Hellenic 
 force, conjointly with their own two kings. The 
 conquest of Thyreates by the Spartans [about 
 547 B. C] deprived the Argeians of a valuable por- 
 tion of their Pericekis, or dependent territory. But 
 Orneae and the remaining portion of Kynuria still 
 continued to belong to them: the plain round their 
 city was very productive; and, except Sparta, there 
 was no other power in Peloponnesus superior to 
 them. Mykense and Tiryns, nevertheless, seem 
 both to have been independent states at the time 
 of the Persian War, since both sent contingents 
 to the battle of Plataea, at a time when Argos 
 held aloof and rather favoured the Persians." — G. 
 Gioie, History of Greece, pt. 2,ch. S,v. 2. — "It was 
 
 . . . perhaps shortly after the victory over Tegea 
 [c. 550 B. C] that Sparta at length succeeded in 
 rounding off the frontier of Laconia on the north- 
 eastern side by wresting the disputed territory of 
 Thyreatis from Argos. The armies of the two 
 states met in the marchland, but the Spartan kings 
 and the Argive chiefs agreed to decide the dispute 
 by a combat between three hundred chosen cham- 
 pions on either side. The story is that all the six 
 hundred were slain except three, one Spartan and 
 two Argives; and that while the Argives hurried 
 home to announce their victory, the Spartan — 
 Othryades was his name — remained on the field 
 and erected a trophy. In any case, the trial was 
 futile, for both parties claimed the victory and a 
 battle was fought in which the Argives were ut- 
 terly defeated. Thyreatis was the last territorial 
 acquisition of Sparta. She changed her policy, and 
 instead of aiming at gaining new territory, she en- 
 deavoured to make the whole Peloponnesus a 
 sphere of Lacedaemonian influence. This change 
 of policy was exhibited in her dealing with Tegea. 
 The defeat of Argos placed Sparta at the head of 
 the peninsula. All the Peloponnesian states, ex- 
 cept Argos and Achaea, were enrolled in a loose 
 confederacy, engaging themselves to supply military 
 contingents in the common interest, Lacedaemon 
 being the leader. The meetings of the confederacy 
 were held at Sparta, and each member sent repre- 
 sentatives. [See also Sparta: B.C. 743-510] Corinth 
 readily joined; for Corinth was naturally ranged 
 against Argos, while her commercial rival, the 
 island state of Aegina, was a friend of Argos. Per- 
 iander [tyrant of Corinth, 625-585 B.C.] had al- 
 ready inflicted a blow upon the Argives by seizing 
 Epidaurus and thus cutting off their nearest com- 
 munications with Aegina. The other Isthmian 
 state, Megara, in which the rule of the nobles had 
 been restored, was also enrolled. Everywhere 
 Sparta exerted her influence to maintain oligarchy, 
 everywhere she discountenanced democracy ; so 
 that her supremacy had important consequences 
 for the constitutional development of the Pelo- 
 ponnesian states. [See also Sparta: 743-510 B.C.] 
 In northern Greece the power of the Thessalians 
 was declining ; and thus Sparta became the strong- 
 est state in Greece in the second half of the sixth 
 century. She was on the most friendly terms with 
 Athens throughout the reign of Pisistratus [See 
 also Athens: B. C. 560-510] ; but the tyrant was 
 careful to maintain good relations with Argos also. 
 With Argos herself indeed Athens had no cause for 
 collision ; but the rivalry which existed between 
 Athens and Aegina naturally ranged Athens and 
 Argos in opposite camps. It was, perhaps, not 
 long before the accession of Pisistratus that the 
 Athenians had landed forces in Aegina and had 
 been repulsed with Argive help. The policy of 
 Pisistratus avoided a conflict with his island neigh- 
 bour and courted the friendship of Argos; but the 
 deeper antagonism is shown by the embargo which 
 Argos and Aegina placed upon the importation of 
 Attic pottery. The excavations of the temple of 
 the Argive Hera have illustrated this hostile 
 measure ; hardly any fragments of Attic pottery, 
 dating from the period of Pisistratus or fifty years 
 after his death, have been found in the precinct." 
 — J. B. Bury, History of Greece, pp. 203-204. 
 
 B. C. 496-421. — Calamitous war with Sparta. 
 — Non-action in the Persian War. — Slow re- 
 covery of the crippled state. — "One of the heav- 
 iest blows which Argos ever sustained at the hand 
 of her traditional foe befell her about 4Q6 B. C , 
 six years before the first Persian invasion of Greece. 
 A war with Sparta having broken out, Cleomenes, 
 the Lacedaemonian king, succeeded in landing a 
 
 502
 
 ARGOS 
 
 ARIA 
 
 large army, in vessels he had extorted from the 
 /Eginetans, at Nauplia, and ravaged the Argive 
 territory. The Argeians mustered all their forces 
 to resist him, and the two armies encamped op- 
 posite each other near Tiryns. Cleomenes, how- 
 ever, contrived to attaclc the Argeians at a mo- 
 ment when they were unprepared, maliing use, if 
 Herodotus is to be credited, of a stratagem which 
 proves the extreme incapacity of the opposing 
 generals, and completely routed them. The Ar- 
 geians took refuge in a sacred grove, to which the 
 remorseless Spartans set lire, and so destroyed al- 
 most the whole of them. No fewer than 6,000 
 of the citizens of Argos perished on this disastrous 
 day. Cleomenes might have captured the city 
 itself; but he was, or affected to be, hindered by 
 unfavourable omens, and drew off his troops. The 
 loss sustained by Argos was so severe as to reduce 
 her for some years to a condition of great weak- 
 ness; but this was at the time a fortunate circum- 
 stance for the Hellenic cause, inasmuch as it en- 
 abled the Lacedaemonians to devote their whole 
 energies to the work of resistance to the Persian 
 invasion without fear of enemies at home. In 
 this great work Argos took no part, on the occa- 
 sion of either the first or second attempt of the 
 Persian kings to bring Hellas under their dominion. 
 Indeed, the city was strongly suspected of 'medis- 
 ing' tendencies. In the period following the final 
 overthrow of the Persians, while Athens was pur- 
 suing the splendid career of aggrandisement and 
 conquest that made her the foremost state in 
 Greece, and while the Lacedaemonians were para- 
 lyzed by the revolt of the Messenians, Argos re- 
 gained strength and influence, which she at once 
 employed and increased by the harsh policy . . . 
 of depopulating Mycena; and Tiryns, while she 
 compelled several other semi-independent places in 
 the Argolid to acknowledge her supremacy. [For 
 alliance with Athens see Athens: B.C. 462-458.] 
 During the first eleven years of the Peloponnesian 
 war, down to the peace of Nicias (421 B.C.), Ar- 
 gos held aloof from all participation in the 
 struggle, adding to her wealth and perfecting her 
 military organization. As to her domestic condi- 
 tions and political system, little is known ; but it 
 is certain that the government, unlike that of other 
 Dorian states, was democratic in its character, 
 though there was in the city a strong oligarchic 
 and philo-Laconian party, which was destined to 
 exercise a decisive influence at an important crisis." 
 — C. H. Hanson, Land oj Greece, ch. 10. 
 Also in: G. Grote, History of Greece, pt. 2, ch. 
 
 36. 1'. 4- 
 
 B. C. 421-418. — League formed against Sparta. 
 — Outbreak of war. — Defeat at Mantinea. — 
 Revolution in the oligarchical and Spartan 
 interest. See Greece; B. C. 421-418 
 
 B.C. 419-416.— Alliance with Athens. See 
 Atken's: B.C. 410-416. 
 
 B. C. 395-387. — Confederacy against Sparta. — 
 Corinthian War. — Peace of Antalcidas. See 
 Greece: 300-387 B.C. 
 
 B. C. 371. — Mob outbreak and massacre of 
 chief citizens. See Greece: B.C. 371-362. 
 
 B. C. 370. — Scytalism. See Scytalism at 
 Argos. 
 
 B. C. 338.— Territories restored by Philip of 
 Macedon. See Greece: B. C. 357-336. 
 
 B. C. 271.— Repulse and death of Pyrrhus, 
 king ef Epirus. See Macedonia: B. C. 277- 
 244. 
 
 B, C. 229. — Liberated from Macedonian con- 
 trol. See Greece: B C. 280-146. 
 
 A. D. 267.— Ravaged by the Goths. See Goths: 
 258-267- 
 
 395.— Plundered by the Goths. See Goths: 
 
 395- 
 
 1205-1308.— Control by Otto de la Roche. 
 See Athens: 1205-1308. 
 
 1463.— Taken by the Turks, retaken by the 
 Venetians. See Greece: 1454-1479. 
 
 1686. — Taken by the Venetians. See Turkey: 
 1684-1696. 
 
 ARGOS, Acropolis of, the site of the struc- 
 tures composing the Heraeum, so-called from its 
 dedication to the goddess Hera, whose jtatue fn 
 gold and ivory by Polyclitus was enthroned there. 
 It was always a place of worship for the Argive 
 people and seems to have been the first center of 
 civilized life. The Heraeum served as sanctuary 
 for both Mycenae and Argos. lis architecture 
 seems to show that it was founded many genera- 
 tions before Mycenae was built, and before the 
 Homeric age. Much has been learned from the 
 extensive excavations of the American archaeologi- 
 cal institute and school of Athens carried on from 
 1892 and 1805. 
 
 ARGYLL, Earls, marquesses and dukes of, 
 titles borne by a long line of Scottish peers. The 
 best known of them are the following: 
 
 Archibald Campbell, 5th earl of Argyll 
 (1530-1573). — He was an adherent of John Knox; 
 later supported Mary, queen of Scots, and was 
 partly responsible for her defeat at Langside in 
 1568. Became lord high chancellor of Scotland. 
 — See also Scotland: 1557. 
 
 Archibald Campbell, 1st marquess and 8th 
 earl of Argyll (1607-1661). — Supported the 
 Presbyterian struggle against Charles I and Laud; 
 leader of the .Assembly which procured control 
 over judicial and political appointments. Sup- 
 ported Charles II and later Cromwell; upon the 
 restoration of the former was beheaded. — See also 
 Scotland: 1644-1645. 
 
 Archibald Campbell, 1st duke of Argyll 
 (1651-1703), active partisan of William of Orange 
 in 1688. A lord of the treasury 1696. — See also 
 England: 1685 (May-July). 
 
 Archibald Campbell, 3rd duke of Argyll 
 (1682 -1 761), commanded the royal army in Scot- 
 land at the battle of Sheriff muir. See Scotland: 
 1715- 
 
 George John Douglas Campbell, 8th duke of 
 Argyll (1823-1900). — Succeeded to title 1847; 
 eloquent speaker, and a writer on scientific ques- 
 tions as related to religion ; well known as a pub- 
 licist. 
 
 John Douglas Sutherland Campbell, 9th duke 
 of Argyll (1845-1914), governor-general of Can- 
 ada 1878-1883. 
 
 ARGYRASPIDES, a corps of veteran soldiers 
 of the Macedonian army. "He [Alexander the 
 Great] then marched into India, that he might 
 have his empire bounded by the ocean, and the ex- 
 treme parts of the East. That the equipments of 
 his army might be suitable to the glory of the Ex- 
 pedition, he mounted the trappings of the horseS: 
 and the arms of the soldiers with silver, and called, 
 a body of his men, from having silver shields, 
 Argyraspides." — Justin, History, bk. 12, ch. 7. — 
 See also Macedonia: B.C. 323-316. 
 
 Also in: C. Thirlwall, History of Greece, ch. 58. 
 ARGYRE, mythical island. See Chryse. 
 ARIA, a song with orchestral accompaniment 
 often part of a larger composition such as an 
 opera or oratorio. 
 
 ARIA, AREIOS, AREIANS, the name by 
 which the Herirud and its valley, the district of 
 modern Herat, was known to the ancient Greeks. 
 Its inhabitants were known as the Areians. — M. 
 Duncker, History of antiquity, bk. 7, ch. i. 
 
 503
 
 ARIADNE 
 
 ARIANISM 
 
 ARIADNE, steamer sunk by the Mowe. See 
 World War: 1916: IX. Naval operations: c. 
 
 ARIANA.' — "Strabo uses the name Ariana for 
 the land of all the nations of Iran, except that of 
 the Medes and Persians, i. e., for the whole eastern 
 half of Iran" — Afghanistan and Beloochistan. — M. 
 Duncker, History of antiquity, v. 5, bk. 7, cti. i. 
 
 ARIAN-ATHANASIAN CONTROVERSY. 
 See Nic.4:a: 325. 
 
 ARIANISM, ARIANS— From the second 
 century gf its existence, the Christian church was 
 divided by bitter controversies touching the mys- 
 tery of the Trinity. "The word Trinity is found 
 neither in the Holy Scriptures nor in the writings 
 of the first Christians; but it had been employed 
 from the beginning of the second century, when 
 a more metaphysical turn had been given to the 
 minds of men, and theologians had begun to at- 
 tempt to explain the divine nature. . . . The 
 Founder of the new religion, the Being who had 
 brought upon earth a divine light, was he God, 
 was he man, was he of an intermediate nature, 
 and, though superior to all other created beings, 
 yet himself created? This latter opinion was held 
 by Arius, an .Alexandrian priest, who maintained it 
 in a series of learned controversial works between 
 the years 318 and 325. As soon as the discussion 
 had quitted the walls of the schools, and been 
 taken up by the people, mutual accusations of the 
 gravest kind took the place of metaphysical subtle- 
 ties. The orthodox party reproached the .Brians 
 with blaspheming the deity himself, by refusing to 
 acknowledge him in the person of Christ. The 
 .Arians accused the orthodox of violating the fun- 
 damental law of religion, by rendering to the 
 creature the worship due only to the Creator. . . . 
 It was difficult to decide which numbered the larg- 
 est body of followers; but the ardent enthusiastic 
 spirits, the populace in all the great cities (and 
 especially at Alexandria) the women, and the 
 newly-founded order of the monks of the desert 
 . . . were almost without exception partisans of 
 the faith which has since been declared orthodox. 
 . . . Constantine thought this question of dogma 
 might be decided by an assembly of the whole 
 church. In the year 325, he convoked the council 
 of Nice [see Nic.tA, Council of), at which 300 
 bishops pronounced in favour of the equality of 
 the Son with the Father, or the doctrine generally 
 regarded as orthodox, and condemned the Arians 
 to exile and their books to the fJames." — J. C. L. 
 de Sismondi, Fall oj the Roman empire, ch. 4. — 
 "The victorious faction (at the Council of Nice] 
 . . . anxiously sought for some irreconcilable mark 
 of distinction, the rejection of which might in- 
 volve the .\rians in the guilt and consequences of 
 heresy. A letter was publicly read and ignomin- 
 iously torn, in which their patron, Eusebius of 
 Nicomedia, ingeniously confessed that the admis- 
 sion of the homoousion, or consubstantial, a word 
 already familiar to the Platonists, was incompatible 
 with the principles of their theological system. 
 The fortunate opportunity was eagerly embraced. 
 . . . The consubstantiality of the Father and the 
 Son was established by the Council of Nice, and 
 has been unanimously received as a fundamental 
 article of the Christian faith by the consent of the 
 Greek, the Latin, the Oriental and the Protestant 
 churches." Notwithstanding the decision of the 
 Council of Nice against it, the heresy of Arius con- 
 tinued to gain ground in the East. Even the Em- 
 peror Constantine became friendly to it, and the 
 sons of Constantine, with some of the later em- 
 perors who followed them on the eastern throne. 
 were ardent .Brians in belief. The Homoousians, or 
 orthodox, were subjected to persecution, which 
 
 was directed with special bitterness against their 
 great leader, Athanasius, the famous bishop of 
 .Mexandria. But Arianism was weakened by hair- 
 splitting distinctions, which resulted in many di- 
 verging creeds. "The sect which asserted the doc- 
 trine of a 'similar substance' was the most numer- 
 ous, at least in the provinces of Asia. . . . The 
 Greek word which was chosen to express this mys- 
 terious resemblance bears so close an affinity to 
 the orthodox symbol, that the profane of every 
 age have derided the furious contests which the 
 difference of a single diphthong excited between the 
 Homoousians and the Homoiousians." — E. Gibbon, 
 History oj the decline and jail oj the Roman em- 
 pire, ch. 21 — The Latin churches of the West, with 
 Rome at their head, remained generally firm in the 
 orthodoxy of the Homoousian creed. But the 
 Goths, who had received their Christianity from 
 the East, tinctured with Arianism, carried that 
 heresy westward, and spread it among their bar- 
 barian neighbors — Vandals, Burgundians and 
 Sueves — through the influence of the Gothic Bible 
 of Ulfilas, which he and his missionary successors 
 bore to the Teutonic peoples. "Almost all the bar- 
 barians when they entered the empire were con- 
 verted, not to Catholicism, but to Arianism. The 
 Visigoths of Spain, the Ostrogoths of Italy, the 
 Burgundians of Gaul, the Vandals of Africa, and 
 the Lombards who came in the sixth century, were 
 all .Brians. ... It would seem that the Germans 
 had difficulty in adopting the creed of Nicaea ; per- 
 haps they hesitated to make the Son equal with the 
 Father. Their Roman subjects were orthodox. 
 This difference in religion caused for more than a 
 century much strife and many persecutions. Oft«n 
 the barbarian king would refuse to appoint ortho- 
 dox bishops; the see of Carthage thus remained 
 vacant for twenty-four years. The Vandal king 
 Genseric, not content with exiling the bishops, en- 
 deavored to apply to his subjects the edicts that 
 the emperors had proclaimed against the heretics." 
 — C. Seignobos, History oj mediaeval and oj mod- 
 ern civilization to end oj ijth century, pp. 18-19. 
 — "The Vandals and Ostrogoths persevered in the 
 profession of .Arianism till the final ruin (AD. 
 533 and 553] of the kingdoms which they had 
 founded in .Africa and Italy. The bargarians of 
 Gaul submitted (507] to the orthodox dominion 
 of the Franks; and Spain was restored to the 
 Catholic Church by the voluntary conversion of 
 the Visigoths (580]." — E. Gibbon, History oj the 
 decline and jail oj the Roman empire, ch. 37.— 
 Theodosius form.Tlly proclaimed his adhesion to 
 Trinitarian orthodoxy by his celebrated edict of 
 380, and commanded its acceptance in the Eastern 
 Empire. (See Rome: 379-305) "Whatever may 
 be one's personal belief upon the theological point, 
 the fact which condemns Western Arianism in the 
 sight of histon.', and makes its fate deserved, is 
 that, at a time when there was the utmost need 
 that the shattered fragments of the empire should 
 be held together in some way, and when disor- 
 ganization was most dangerous, it stood for separa- 
 tion and local independence, and furnished no 
 strong bond of unity on the religious side, as did 
 the Catholic faith, to replace that political unity 
 which was falling to pieces. Burgundian and Visi- 
 goth, Vandal and Ostrogoth and Lombard, had no 
 common religious organization and recognized no 
 primacy in the Bishop of Rome, and though they 
 tolerated the Catholicism of their Roman subjects, 
 and did not break off the connection of these with 
 the Roman church, that result would certainly 
 have followed had they grown into strong and per- 
 manent states, still .Arian in faith. The continued 
 life of these nations would have meant not merely 
 
 ^04
 
 ARIBA 
 
 ARISTOCRACY 
 
 the political, but also the religious disintegration 
 of Europe. The unity of the future, in a Chris- 
 tian commonwealth of nations, was at stake in 
 the triumph of the Roman church and the Prank- 
 ish empire." — G. B. Adams, Civilization during the 
 Middle Ages, p. 143. — See also Goths: 341-381; 
 Franks: 481-511; Goths (Visigoths): 507-sog; 
 and FmoQUE controversy. 
 
 Also in: A. Neander, General history of 
 Christian religion and church, v. 2, seel. 4. — ■ 
 J. Alzog, Manual of universal church history, sect. 
 110-114.— W. G. T. Shedd, History of Christian 
 doctrine, bk. 3. — J. H. Newman, Arians of the 
 fourth century. — A. P Stanley, Lectures on the 
 history of the eastern church, lectures 3-7. — 
 J. A. Dorner, History of the development of 
 the doctrine of the person of Christ, div. i, 
 V. 2. 
 
 ARIBA. — Most ancient inhabitants of Arabia. 
 See Arabia: Ancient succession and fusion of 
 races. 
 
 ARICA, a seaport of northern Chile. See Latin 
 America: Map of South America. 
 
 Battle of (1880). See Chile: 1833-1884. 
 
 Disputes over. See Chile: 1885-1891; 1804- 
 1900. 
 
 ARICA-LA PAZ RAILWAY. See Bolivia: 
 1Q13 (May); Chile: igoo-1012; Railroads: 1872- 
 1912. 
 
 ARICIA, Battle of.— A victory won by the Ro- 
 mans over the .Aurunci (407 B.C.), which sum- 
 marily ended a war that the latter had declared 
 against the former. — Livy, History of Rome, bk. 
 2, ch. 26. — See Alba. 
 
 ARICIAN GROVE.— The sacred grove at 
 Aricia (one of the towns of old Latium, near Alba 
 Longa) was the center and meeting-place of an 
 early league among the Latin peoples, about which 
 little is known. — W. Ihne, History of Rome, bk. 2, 
 ch. 3.— W. Gell, Topography of Rome, v. i.— "On 
 the northern shore of the lake [of Nemi] right 
 under the precipitous cliffs on which the modern 
 village of Nemi is perched, stood the sacred grove 
 and sanctuary of Diana Nemorensis, or Diana of 
 the Wood. . . . The site was excavated in 1885 by 
 Sir John Saville Lumley, English ambassador at 
 Rome. [For a general description of the site and 
 excavations, consult the Athenceum, loth October, 
 1885. For details of the finds consult 'Bulletino 
 deir Instituto di Corrispondenza Archeologica,' 
 1885]. . . . The lake and the grove were sometimes 
 known as the lake and grove of Aricia. But the 
 town of Aricia (the modern La Riccia) was situated 
 about three miles off, at the foot of the Alban 
 Mount. . . . According to one story, the worship of 
 Diana at Nemi was instituted by Orestes, who, after 
 killing Thoas, King of the Tauric Chersonese (the 
 Crimea), fled with his sister to Italy, bringing 
 with him the image of the Tauric Diana. . . . 
 Within the sanctuary at Nemi grew a certain tree, 
 of which no branch might be broken. Only a 
 runaway slave was allowed to break off, if he 
 could, one of its boughs. Success in the attempt 
 entitled him to fight the priest in single combat, 
 and if he slew him he reigned in his stead with 
 the title of King of the Wood (Rex Nemorensis). 
 Tradition averred that the fateful branch was that 
 Golden Bough which, at the Sibyl's bidding, ^neas 
 plucked before he essayed the perilous journey to 
 the world of the dead. . . . This rule of succession 
 by the sword was observed down to imperial 
 times; for amongst his other freaks Caligula, 
 thinking that the priest of Nemi had held of- 
 fice too long, hired a more stalwart ruffian to 
 slay him." — J. 0. Frazer, Golden bough, ch. i, 
 sect. 1. 
 
 ARICINI, the inhabitants of Aricia, an ancient 
 Latin city. 
 
 ARICONIUM, a town of Roman Britain 
 which appears to have been the principal mart of 
 the iron manufacturing industry in the Forest of 
 Dean. — T. Wright, The Cell, the Roman and the 
 Saxon, p. 161. 
 
 ARID LANDS, Reclamation of. See Con- 
 servation OF natural resources. 
 
 ARII (Harii), barbarian invaders of Gaul. See 
 
 LVGIANS. 
 
 ARIKARA INDIANS. See Indians, Ameri- 
 can: Cultural areas in North America: Plains Area; 
 Pawnee family. 
 
 ARIKAREE, or South Fork, Battle of. See 
 U. S. A.: 1866-1876. 
 
 ARIMASPI, an ancient and semi-mythical 
 tribe dwelling in northeastern Scythia. 
 
 ARIMINUM, the Roman colony, planted in 
 the third century B.C., which grew into the mod- 
 ern city of Rimini. (See Rome: B.C. 295-igi.) 
 When Csesar entered Italy as an invader, crossing 
 the frontier of Cisalpine Gaul — the Rubicon — his 
 first movement was to occupy Ariminum. He 
 halted there for two or three weeks, making his 
 preparations for the civil war which he had now 
 entered upon and waiting for the two legions that 
 he had ordered from Gaul. — C. Merivale, History 
 of the Romans, ch. 14. 
 
 ARIOBARZANES, the name of several kings 
 of Pontus, the most famous being the founder ot 
 the kingdom, who revolted against Artaxerxes in 
 362 B. C. (See also Mithradatic Wars). A second 
 was the son of Mithradates III, king 266-240 B. C, 
 who enlisted the aid of the invading Gauls in Asia. 
 Among the kings of Cappadocia by that name the 
 most important is the ruler from 51 to 41 B.C. 
 who aided Porapey against Cjesar. 
 
 ARIOSTO, Lodovico (1474-1533), Italian 
 poet. During his service with Cardinal d'Este he 
 wrote "Orlando Furioso," a great poem which uses 
 the material of the chivalric romances in classical 
 epic style. See Italian literature: 1450-1595. 
 
 ARIOVALDUS, king of the Lombards, 626- 
 638. 
 
 ARIOVISTUS (c. 60 B.C.), a German chief 
 who invaded Gaul; aided the Sequani in their war 
 with the Aedui; defeated by Caesar in 58 B.C. 
 —See also Gaul: B.C. 58-51. 
 
 ARISTA, Mariano (1802-1855), Mexican gen- 
 eral. See Mexico: 1846-1847; 1848-1861. 
 
 ARISTAGORAS ( P-497 B.C.), leader of an 
 unsuccessful revolt of Ionian cities against Persia. 
 See Greece: B.C. 500-493: Rising of lonians. 
 
 ARISTARCHUS (c. 220-143 B.C.), Greek 
 grammarian and critic. See Education: Ancient: 
 Alexandria. 
 
 ARISTIDES (c. 530-46S B.C.), Athenian 
 statesman and military leader, called "the Just"; 
 took part in the battle of Marathon (490 B. C.) ; 
 opposed Themistocles vigorously, which brought 
 about his ostracism in 483 B.C.; returned to his 
 native land in time to take part in the victory of 
 Salamis (480 B.C.) and the battle of Plataea the 
 following year; a strong advocate for civic reforms 
 and founder of the League of Delos. — See also 
 Athens: B.C. 472-462. 
 
 ARISTIPPUS, philosopher. See Ethics: An- 
 cient Greece: B.C. 4th Century. 
 
 ARISTOBULUS II (d. 49 B.C.), king of 
 Judaea. Usurped the throne of Hyrcanus II; de- 
 feated by Pompey and removed from power. Sup- 
 ported by Caesar against Pompey in 49. See 
 Jews: 166-40 B. C. 
 
 ARISTOCRACY.— "If the supreme governing 
 authority is intrusted to a small group or class of 
 
 505
 
 ARISTOCRACY 
 
 ARISTOTLE 
 
 the population, the government is said to be aristo- 
 cratic. . It is a government in which only a minor- 
 ity of the citizens have a share, the rest of the 
 population, as Montesquieu remarks, being in re- 
 spect to the former the same as the subjects of a 
 monarch in regard to the sovereign. . . . Aristoc- 
 racies, like monarchies, may likewise be of several 
 varieties. There may be aristocracies of wealth as 
 at Carthage and later at Venice, and these may 
 be based either on ownership of land or of all 
 property in general ; or they may be hereditary and 
 hence based upon birth or family connection; or 
 they may be official in character, that is, composed 
 mainly of those who hold or have held public 
 office such as the 'senatorial class' in both repub- 
 lican and imperial Rome ; or they may be military 
 •or a combination of some or all of the above ele- 
 ments. . . . Originally it was one of the most re- 
 spected, as it was one of the most widely dis- 
 tributed, of all forms of political organization; but 
 in recent years the name has come to have an 
 unsavory if not a disreputable ring about it. The 
 ancient writers like Aristotle, as has been said, 
 carefully distinguished between aristocracy, which 
 they defined as government by the 'best,' and 
 oligarchy, which they described as government by a 
 wealthy minority in their own interest. [For 
 establishment in .Athens, see .\thens: B.C. 753- 
 '650.1 But with modern notions concerning gov- 
 ernment by the few the distinction has largely dis- 
 appeared, so that aristocracy has come to possess 
 the same disagreeable meaning which the ancients 
 associated with oligarchy. In short, the two, as 
 forms of government, are now regarded as sub- 
 stantially the same. One of the distinguishing 
 characteristics of aristocracy, is that it emphasizes 
 quality rather than quantity, character rather than 
 mere numbers. It assumes that some are better 
 fitted to govern than others, attaches great weight 
 to experience and training as political virtues, and 
 seeks to reward special talent and attract it into 
 the public service. It is preeminently conservative 
 government; it honors authority, especially when 
 it has had the sanction of long acquiescence, and 
 has great reverence for long-established custom and 
 tradition. . . . But the weakness of aristocracy as 
 a practical system of government lies in the dif- 
 ficulty of finding any safe and just principle of 
 selection by which the fittest, politically speaking, 
 may be differentiated from the unfit and, when 
 this is done, of providing any adequate security 
 against the temptation of the former class to ex- 
 ercise their powers in their own interest. It is 
 now generally agreed that the most capable and 
 fit of the population cannot be selected by con- 
 ferring the power to govern upon certain families 
 and their descendants, for political capacity and 
 probity are qualities not always transmitted from 
 father to son. . . . The possession of property, 
 whether of land or personalty, is an equally un- 
 satisfactory test of political capacity, especially if 
 it be inherited wealth. ... In other words, prop- 
 erty, like birth, is not the only criterion, and there- 
 fore the governing power cannot wisely be re- 
 stricted to either class or to both combined. And 
 so with all other tests which do not rest upon in- 
 trinsic merit. Yet to prove that no just or adequate 
 tests can be found really proves nothing against 
 aristocracy itself. . . . Public opinion toward aris- 
 tocracies in recent times has been so unfavorable 
 that no example of a pure aristocracy has survived 
 the middle of the nineteenth century. The anciejit 
 aristocracy of Rome gave way to democracy. The 
 medieval aristocracies of Germany and Italy were 
 superseded by the growing power of the princes, 
 and the royal governments which they established 
 
 were in time overwhelmed by the rise of the 
 democracy. In modem tin»es they survive only in 
 part, being associated wherever they exist with 
 democracy and monarchy. . . . Aristocracy is a 
 very common form of government in the infancy 
 of states, when political consciousness manifests 
 itself only in the minds of a few. . . . Aristocracy 
 proper is a principle which all states have admitted 
 and to some extent followed in practice. In all 
 ancient states, democracies and aristocracies alike, 
 large classes of persons were excluded from par- 
 ticipation in public affairs. The laboring classes 
 everywhere have been enfranchised only in com- 
 paratively recent years. . . . Modem democracies 
 no longer exclude the laboring classes, yet prac- 
 tically all of them apply standards of fitness, even 
 if they sometimes apply them indirectly and in a 
 manner unconsciously. In this sense the govern- 
 ments of most states are aristocratic. Modern 
 government is such a difficult art and requires so 
 much skill and special knowledge that the whole 
 number of persons really qualified is very small. 
 In short, it must from the very nature of the case 
 be largely government by specialists." — J. W. Gar- 
 ner, Introduction to political sciencf, pp. 170-219. 
 — Whoever may carry on the machinery of gov- 
 ernment, the source of political power is likely 
 to be found in the dominant social class. "But 
 leadership and aristocracy are progressive factors 
 only in so far as they produce more than they 
 cost: just to pay their way is not enoush. Social 
 differentiation into class with more or less fixed 
 status has served in the past. But the social wastes 
 through inhibited talent and productivity, through 
 exploitation and fostering the mores of servility 
 and resignation, make it doubtful ^'hether aris- 
 tocracy is worth the price. The onjj' upper classes 
 a progressive civilization can tolerate are men and 
 women of superior mental ability xvho at the same 
 time have social vision, and a sense of social solid- 
 arity." — A. J. Todd, Theoriis vf social progress, 
 pp. 404-405. — Historically an aristocracy developed 
 from a primitive monarchy, the best known being 
 those of ancient Greece. Among the states which 
 were famous aristocracies, through part, at least, 
 of their history are the following: Athens, Sparta, 
 Rome, Carthage, Venice, Genoa, Dutch Netherlands, 
 and the Free Imperial Cities of Germany. Great 
 Britain was in practice an aristocracy from 1689- 
 1832, and France to 1789. — See also Democracy: 
 Progress following the industrial revolution; and 
 Genesis of modern democracy; Feudalism. 
 
 ARISTOGEITON, Athenian hero, who slew 
 the tvrant Hipparchus at the Panathenaic festival 
 (514 B.C.). 
 
 ARISTOMNEAN WAR. See Messenian 
 Wars. First and Second. 
 
 ARISTOPHANES (c. 448-385 B.C.), greatest 
 comic dramatist of Athens ; notable also for the 
 excellence of his poetry. His eleven extant plays 
 are a commentary and criticism on Athenian life 
 of his day. — See also Athens: B.C. 421; Drama; 
 Greek comedy. 
 
 Ideas on position of women. See Women's 
 rights: B.C. 600-300. 
 
 ARISTOPHANES OF BYZANTIUM, li- 
 brarian. See Alexandria: B. C. 282-246: Reign 
 of Ptolemy Philadelphus, etc. 
 
 ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.), the most cele- 
 brated of the Greek philosophers. "Aristotle, the 
 tutor of Alexander, had come to Athens upon his 
 pupil's accession to the throne, and from 334 B.C. 
 to 323 B. C. he taught philosophy in the Lyceum 
 in that city. He had been a pupil of Plato . . . 
 but in his temperament, his method, and his con- 
 clusions h? departed widely from his master. 
 
 506
 
 ARISTOTLE 
 
 ARIZONA 
 
 Plato was a poet, full of imagination, aiming after 
 lofty ideals which he saw by a kind of inspired 
 vision. Aristotle was a cool and cautious thinker, 
 seeking the meaning of the world by a study of 
 things about him, not satisfied until he brought 
 everything to the test of observation. Thus he 
 investigated the laws which governed the arts of 
 rhetoric and poetry; he collected the constitutions 
 of many Greek states and drew from them some 
 general principles of politics ; he studied animals 
 and plants to know their structure; he examined 
 into the acts and ways of men to determine the 
 essence of their right- and wrong-doing. He set 
 his students to this kind of study and used the 
 results of their work. Thus a new method of in- 
 vestigation was created and new light thrown on 
 all sides of life. A most learned man, he had a 
 passion for truth and reason ; one of his most fa- 
 mous sayings is 'Plato and truth are both dear to 
 me, but it is a sacred duty to prefer truth.' His 
 works, especially his Politics, Ethics, and Poetics, 
 have had vast power in guiding the thinking of 
 men since his day."— G. S. Goodspeed, History of 
 the ancient world, p. 224. — "The most striking 
 peculiarity of the instruction in the mediaeval uni- 
 versity was the supreme deference paid to Aristotle. 
 Most of the courses of lectures were devoted to 
 the explanation of some one of his numerous trea- 
 tises, — his Physics, his Metaphysics, his various 
 treatises on logic, his Ethics, his minor works upon 
 the soul, heaven and earth, etc. Only his Logic 
 had been known to Abelard, as all his other works 
 had been forgotten. But early in the thirteenth 
 century all his comprehensive contributions to 
 science reached the West, either from Constanti- 
 nople or through the Arabs who had brought them 
 to Spain. . . . Aristotle was, of course, a pagan. 
 He was uncertain whether the soul continued to 
 exist after death; he had never heard of the Bible 
 and knew nothing of the salvation of man through 
 Christ. One would have supposed that he would 
 have been promptly rejected with horror by those 
 who never questioned the doctrines of Christian- 
 ity. But the teachers of the thirteenth century 
 were fascinated by his logic and astonished at his 
 learning. The great theologians of the time, Al- 
 bertus Magnus (d. 1280) and Thomas Aquinas 
 (d. 1274), did not hesitate to prepare elaborate 
 commentaries upon all his works. He was called 
 'The Philosopher'; and so fully were scholars con- 
 vinced that it had pleased God to permit Aristotle 
 to say the last word upon each and every branch 
 of knowledge that they humbly accepted him, 
 along vidth the Bible, the church fathers, and the 
 canon and Roman law, as one of the unquestioned 
 authorities which together formed a complete guide 
 for humanity in conduct and in every branch of 
 science." — J. H. Robinson, Introduction to the 
 history of western Europe, pp. 271-272. — See also 
 Europe: Ancient: Greek civilization: Philosophy; 
 Middle Ages: Scholasticism; and Greek litera- 
 ture: Development of philosophical literature. 
 
 On aristocracy. See Aristocracy. 
 
 On astronomy. See Astronomy: B.C. 4th cen- 
 tury. 
 
 On biology. See Biology: History. 
 
 On economics. See Economics: Greek theory. 
 
 On education. See Education: Ancient: B.C. 
 7th-A. D. 3d centuries: Greece. 
 
 On ethics. See Democracy: During classical 
 period; Ethics: B.C. 4th century. 
 
 On evolution. See Evolution: Historical evo- 
 lution of the idea. 
 
 On philosophy. See Neoplatonism. 
 
 On science. See Science: Ancient: Greek. 
 
 Influence on Middle Ages. See Education: 
 Medieval: gth-isth centuries: Scholasticism; Mod- 
 
 ern: isth-i6th centuries: Humanist aims in edu- 
 cation. 
 
 Also in: J. B. Bury, History of Greece to the 
 death of Alexander the Great, pp. 833-836. 
 
 ARITHMETIC: Ancient Egyptian. See Edu- 
 cation: Ancient: B.C. 4oth-6th centuries: Egypt. 
 
 ARIUS, Alexandrian priest, founder of Arian- 
 ism (318-325). See Arianism. 
 
 ARIZONA, a state in the southwestern part of 
 the United States. It is bounded on the north by 
 Utah, on the east by New Mexico, on the south by 
 Mexico, and on the west by California and Ne- 
 vada. It contains 113,956 square miles, ranking 
 fifth in area among the states, and in 1920 had a 
 population of 333>2 73- 
 
 Agricultural and mineral resources. See 
 U. S. A.: Economic map. 
 
 Name. — "Arizona, probably Arizonac in its orig- 
 inal form, was the native and probably Pima 
 name of the place — of a hill, valley, stream, or 
 some other local feature — just south of the modern 
 boundary, in the mountains still so called, on the 
 headwaters of the stream flowing past Saric, where 
 the famous Planchas de Plata mine was discovered 
 in the middle of the i8th century, the name being 
 first known to Spaniards in that connection and 
 being applied to the mining camp or real de minas. 
 The aboriginal meaning of the term is not known, 
 though from the common occurrence in this region 
 of the prefix 'ari,' the root 'son,' and the termina- 
 tion 'ac,' the derivation ought not to escape the 
 research of a competent student. Such guesses as 
 are extant, founded on the native tongues, offer 
 only the barest possibility of a partial and acci- 
 dental accuracy; while similar derivations from the 
 Spanish are extremely absurd. . . . The name 
 should properly be written and pronounced Ari- 
 sona, as our EngUsh sound of the z does not oc- 
 cur in Spanish." — H. H. Bancroft, History of the 
 Pacific states of North America, v. 12, p. 520. 
 
 Aboriginal inhabitants. See Apache group; 
 Piman family; Pueblos. 
 
 1540. — Exploration by Coronado. See Amer- 
 ica: 1540-1541. 
 
 1600-1800. — Beyond the establishment of Span- 
 ish ranches, and the activities of Jesuits and Fran- 
 ciscans, there was very little growth in the ter- 
 ritory that is now Arizona until the nineteenth cen- 
 tury. In 1772 there were only two missions, and 
 two settlements: Tuscon and Tubac. 
 
 1800-1830. — The decay of the Spanish presidios 
 attendant upon the struggle of Mexico for inde- 
 pendence, the expulsion of the friars, and the hos- 
 tility of the Apaches and other Indians prevented 
 settlers from seeking homesteads in Arizona, but 
 American trappers and traders appeared along the 
 Gila river in the early nineteenth century. 
 
 1848. — Partial acquisition from Mexico. See 
 Mexico: 1848. 
 
 1853. — Purchase by the United States of the 
 southern part from Mexico. — Gadsden Treaty. — 
 "On December 30, 1853, James Gadsden, United 
 States minister to Mexico, concluded a treaty by 
 which the boundary line was moved southward 
 so as to give the United States, for a monetary 
 consideration of $10,000,000, all of modern Arizona 
 south of the Gila, an effort so to fix the line as 
 to include a port on the gulf being unsuccessful. 
 ... On the face of the matter this Gadsden treaty 
 was a tolerably satisfactory settlement of a bound- 
 ary dispute, and a purchase by the United States 
 of a route for a southern railroad to California." — 
 H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific states of 
 North America, v. 12, ch. 20. 
 
 1863-1884. — Mormon settlements. — "Among 
 the early settlers were the Mormons, who in 1863 
 had a settlement at St. Thomas, in Pah-Ute 
 
 507
 
 ARIZONA, 1864 
 
 Territorial Government 
 Railroads 
 
 ARIZONA, 1877 
 
 county, a region later attached to Nevada. In 1873 
 the authorities in Utah formed a plan of coloniza- 
 tion, and a pioneer party of 700 men was sent 
 south, intending to get a start by working on the 
 Texas Pacific Railroad, but became discontented 
 with the prospect and went home. The project 
 was revived in 1876-77, and a beginning was made 
 in two districts — on the Upper Colorado Chiquito 
 and on Salt River. At a meeting held at Salt Lake 
 City, in January, 1S76, missionaries were present 
 from different parts of Utah, and an organization 
 was effected under Lot Smith as president. The 
 first partv arrived in March at the Sunset crossing, 
 and sooii the camps of Sunset, Allen, Ballinger, 
 and Obed were established. Progress was slow, the 
 first season's crop not sufficing for the colony's 
 needs, and teams having to be sent to Utah for 
 supplies; but the pioneers were resolute men, and 
 though many, first and last, abandoned the enter- 
 prise, at the end of 1877 the mission numbered 
 564 souls, and a year later 587. In 1884 the popu- 
 lation is given by the newspapers as 2,507, the 
 chief settlements being Sunset, St. Joseph, and 
 Brigham City. . . . The Mormons have always 
 been regarded as among the best of Arizona set- 
 tlers, being quiet, industrious, and economical in 
 their habits, and not disposed to intrude their 
 religious peculiarities. As a rule polygamy has not 
 been practised, though there are many exceptions. 
 Their neat adobe houses, orchards, gardens, and 
 well-tilled fields form veritable oases in the desert. 
 Their lands are held by the community ; work and 
 trade are carried on for the most part on the co- 
 operative plan, and they even live in community 
 houses, eating at a common table, though each 
 family has its separate rooms. It has been their 
 aim to produce all that they eat and wear, sugar 
 cane and cotton being among their crops. Not- 
 withstanding their community system, much free- 
 dom is conceded to individuals, who may in most 
 respects live as they please and mingle freely with 
 the gentiles. Less despised and persecuted than 
 in Utah [see also Utah: i857-i859]> they are 
 naturally less clannish, peculiar,, and exclusive. In 
 politics they are nominally democratic, but often 
 divide their vote on local issues, or put their 
 united vote where it will do most good for their 
 own interests. As a rule, they are prosperous but 
 not yet wealthy farmers."— H. H. Bancroft, Ari- 
 zona and New Mexico, pp. 533-534- 
 
 1864 (November). — Organization of the ter- 
 ritory. — "The territorial act having been passed by 
 Congress in February, 1863, and officials appointed 
 by President Lincoln in March, the whole party 
 of emigrant statesmen, headed by Governor John 
 N. Goodwin, of Maine, started in .\ugust for the 
 Far West, leaving Leavenworth on September 25th, 
 Santa Fe November 26th, and Albuquerque De- 
 cember 8th, under the escort of troops from Mis- 
 souri and New Mexico. It was on the 27th that 
 the party crossed the meridian of loq degrees into 
 Arizona, and two days later in camp at Navajo 
 Spring, the government was formally organized in 
 the wilderness. The flag was raised and cheered ; 
 a prayer was said by H. W. Read; the oath of 
 office taken by the officials ; and a proclamation of 
 Governor Goodwin was read, in which the vicinity 
 of Port Whipple, established only a month earlier 
 by Major Willis of the California column, was 
 named as the temporary seat of government ; and 
 here all arrived on January 22, 1864. In May the 
 fort was moved some 200 miles to the southwest, 
 and near it by July a town had been founded on 
 Granite Creek to become the temporary capital. 
 It was named Prescotf, in honor of the historian. 
 Meanwhile the governor made a tour of inspection 
 in the south and other parts of the territory; by 
 
 proclamation of April gth three judicial districts 
 were created and the judges assigned; the marshal 
 was instructed to take a census; and an election 
 proclamation was issued on the 26th of May. Ac- 
 cordingly, at the election of July i8th, there were 
 chosen a council of nine members, and a house of 
 eighteen ; also a delegate to Congress in the person 
 of Charles D. Poston, The legislature was in ses- 
 son at Prescott from September 26th to the loth 
 of November. Besides attending to the various 
 routine duties, and passing special acts, this body 
 adopted a mining law, and a general code of laws, 
 prepared by Judge Howell, and called in his honor 
 the Howell Code, being based mainly on the codes 
 of New York and California. It also divided the 
 territory into four counties under the aboriginal 
 names of Pima, Yuma, Mojave, and Yavapai ; and 
 adopted a territorial seal, though for nearly 20 
 years a different seal appears to have been in use." 
 —Ibid., pp. 521-523- 
 
 1864-1883. — Development of the Southern 
 Pacific railroad. — .Arizona could not expect to 
 progress until her resources were opened up by 
 railroads. "From 1864 the subject was always 
 under discussion, and various projects took more 
 or less definite shape; but there was a broad region 
 to be crossed before the iron road should even 
 approach Arizona. In 1866 the Atlantic and Pa- 
 cific was chartered with a land grant on the 
 35th paiallel, but no western progress was made. 
 In 1870-1 this company was reorganized, making 
 some show of active work, and the Texas and 
 Pacific was organized to reach San Diego by the 
 Gila route, with a land grant like that of the At- 
 lantic and Pacific, including the alternate sections 
 for a width of So miles throughout the whole ex- 
 tent of Arizona from east to west. For a few 
 years from 1872 Arizonans believed their railroad 
 future assured from this source; but financial ob- 
 stacles proved insuperable, and Scott's line never 
 reached the eastern line of the territorj'. In 1877, 
 however, the Southern Pacific from California was 
 completed to the Arizona line at Yuma, and in the 
 following years, not without some serious compli- 
 cations with the rival company, was rapidly con- 
 tinued eastward, reaching Tucson in 1880, and in 
 1881 effecting a junction with the Atchison, To- 
 peka, and Santa ¥6 road at Deming, New Mexico. 
 Practically by the latter company the Sonora road, 
 connecting Guaymas with the Southern Pacific at 
 Benson, was completed in 1882. . . . Meanwhile 
 the completion of the Atchison line down the Rio 
 Grande valley enabled the .Atlantic and Pacific to 
 resume operations in the west, and in 1880-3 this 
 road was completed from Isleta to the Colorado 
 at the Needles, connecting there with the Cali- 
 fornia Southern. As all these roads were built, so 
 they have been operated without any special regard 
 to the interests of Arizona ; yet they have neces- 
 saril\ — even as masters instead of servants of the 
 people . . . been immensely beneficial to the ter- 
 ritory " — Ibid., pp. 603-604. 
 
 1877. — Subjugation of the Apaches. — "The 
 principal events in the histor\' of Arizona, since the 
 reesiiablishment of the national authority, in 1864, 
 have been those connected with the subjugation of 
 the .Apaches. This work was not fairly commenced 
 until the appointment to command of General 
 Crook, or rather, to be more just, to the appear- 
 ance of Gen. O. O. Howard, as Special Indian Com- 
 missioner. In Arizona itself, the only comment, 
 as a rule, is that of bitter hostility, not alone of 
 the aborigines, but of all who have adopted or 
 advocated any means other than those of destruc- 
 tion to bring about peace. Whatever else may be 
 said of Gen. Howard, it must also be acknowledged 
 that his policy was the first successful breach in 
 
 SO8
 
 ARIZONA, 1900 
 
 Statehood 
 
 ARIZONA, 1912 
 
 the long and unbroken line of savage warfare. It 
 brought Cochise (the most annoying Indian Chief- 
 tain) to terms, so far as the Americans were con- 
 cerned. The appointment of Gen. Crook to com- 
 mand, and the unrelenting warfare he waged, soon 
 made other bodies of Apaches surrender. Crook 
 adopted the policy of dividing his foes by employ- 
 ing them to fight one another. Under this policy 
 a considerable number of Apache and Hualapais 
 Indians have been used as scouts. . . . The Apaches 
 were, under Gen. Howard's policy, first congre- 
 gated on the Chiricahui Reservation, occupying the 
 southeastern portion of the territory. The unwise 
 nature of the location was soon exemplified by the 
 Indians making it a base of operations for attack 
 on the people of Sonora. Gen. Crook removed the 
 savages to the White Mountains Reservation, north 
 of Gila River, where they are now located. Since 
 the severe chastisement given by Crook to the 
 Tonto Apaches and others, there has been no gen- 
 eral Indian marauding, but for a long period, . . . 
 the New Mexican line and the Chiricahui were 
 rendered unsafe by small parties of renegades — 
 Indians who slipped off the Arizona or New Mexi- 
 can reservations and went on predatory raids, gen- 
 erally following the valley of the Rio de Sauz, in 
 the Chiricahui mountain region, or that of the San 
 Simeon, down to the Sonora line. They would 
 plunder and murder on either side of the New 
 Mexican line, carry their plunder into Chihuahua 
 or Sonora, trading it off with the Lipans or Mexi- 
 cans. . . . The Santa Rita and San Pedro regions 
 were concerned, in the spring of 1877, when a new 
 era slowly but surely began to dawn upon this 
 wonderfully rich but undeveloped irontier region ; 
 this territory, the oldest in civilization to all ap- 
 pearance of the vast continental area embraced by 
 the American Union, but almost the newest and 
 least advanced of any of our organized communi- 
 ties." — R. J. Hinton, Handbook to Arizona, p. 44. 
 —See also U. S. A.: 1866-1876. 
 
 1906. — Refusal of statehood in union with 
 New Mexico. See U. S. A.; iqo6 (June). 
 
 1907. — I. W. W. agitation in mines. See In- 
 dustrial Workers of the World; Recent ten- 
 dencies. 
 
 1908-1911. — Admission to the Union. — "After 
 the failure of several attempts to have Arizona and 
 New Mexico territories enler the Union as a single 
 state, a measure for the separate admission of 
 Arizona, introduced in Congress in 1908, failed of 
 passage in the Senate because of charges of cor- 
 ruption on the part of territorial officials. Finally, 
 on January 20, iqio, an act was passed enabling 
 the Governor of Arizona to call a Constitutional 
 Convention composed of elected delegates, to form 
 a constitution for the proposed state of Arizona. 
 This was done, and an extremely radical constitu- 
 tion was submitted to the people for ratification. 
 The approval of the people was signified by an 
 overwhelmingly favorable vote — 12,000 to 7,500. 
 The provision that aroused most discussion was 
 one providing for the recall of public officers by 
 twenty-five per cent of all the voters for the 
 office concerned, at the last general election. Presi- 
 dent Taft vetoed the joint resolution for the ad- 
 mission of Arizona as a state on account of the 
 clause providing for the recall of judges, and Con- 
 gress passed another resolution, permitting Arizona 
 to join the Union if the obnoxious provision were 
 omitted from the Constitution. Arizona complied, 
 and was formally admitted as a state on February 
 14, igi2. The first legislature that convened under 
 the new Constitution amended the Constitution 
 again so as to provide for the recall of judicial 
 officers. Following is a discussion of the question 
 by Theodore Roosevelt; 'But Arizona also should 
 
 clearly, and as a matter of right and duty, at once 
 be admitted to Statehood. The only objection of 
 consequence to admitting her is that her Constitu- 
 tion provides for the recall of judges. Outside of 
 this provision no serious objection has been made 
 to her Constitution, and ... as a whole, it is a 
 Constitution well above the average. . . . The 
 whole question, therefore,, narrows down to the 
 point as to whether it is legitimate to reject Ari- 
 zona's plea because she has done what Oregon has 
 done, what CaUfornia has announced she will do. 
 . . . Moreover, it must be remembered that, if the 
 people of Arizona desire to exercise the right of 
 recall of the judges their desire can be made ef- 
 fective immediately after their admission to State- 
 hood; even though, in order to get in, they con- 
 sent to alter the provision in their Constitution as 
 proposed. It seems to me that the mere statement 
 of these facts is sufficient to show that, on the 
 ground alleged, there is no excuse for failure, to 
 admit Arizona to Statehood. ... It is the nega- 
 tion of popular government to deny the people 
 the right to establish for themselves what their 
 judicial system shall be. Arizona has the absolute 
 right to try the recall just as any of the existing 
 States has the absolute right to try it or not to 
 try it, and to have an elective or appointive ju- 
 diciary as it pleases. To keep Arizona from State- 
 hood because she has adopted the recall as applied 
 to the judiciary is a grave injustice to Arizona, 
 and an assault upon the principles which under- 
 lie our whole system of free popular government.' " 
 — T. Roosevelt, Arizona and the recall of judiciary 
 (Outlook, June 24, 1911, pp. 378-379). 
 
 1911 (March 8). — Roosevelt dam opened. — 
 The construction of the Roosevelt dam was a part 
 of the United States plan for reclamation of arid 
 lands. It consisted of a dam 283 feet high and 
 168 feet thick at the base. The water was supplied 
 by the Salt river, which is high in winter but very 
 low in summer. The reservoir is considered one 
 of the largest artificial lakes in the world. By 
 means of this supply of water over 200,000 acres 
 of land are recovered for agricultural purposes. 
 
 1912. — First legislature. — Liberal measures 
 adopted. — Ratification of the 16th and 17th 
 amendments. — "The first legislature of the State 
 of Arizona, the newest and last of the continental 
 states to be admitted into the Union, has estab- 
 lished a record for social betterment measures 
 which will not be surpassed by any of her older 
 .sisters in many a long session. Arizona is youth- 
 ful and virile, full of pluck and ambition, con- 
 scious of the magnitude of the great problems 
 which confront her, and eager to work out their 
 solution. She possesses rich natural resources, but 
 is poor in point of numbers, in human resources. 
 For thirty years she has been struggling for state- 
 hood, and for the right to put into law, through 
 a legislature controlled only by her people, meas- 
 ures of social reform and betterment. Her capital- 
 ists have felt the need of developing her natural 
 resources, but her people have felt the greater need 
 of protecting and conserving her human resources. 
 In the first session of her first legislature, recently 
 concluded, constructive social measures were passed 
 of which any of the older states of the Union 
 might be justly proud. Many of the men who 
 drew up the constitution continued their work as 
 members of the legislature. There is, therefore, a 
 close harmony between the two bodies of legisla- 
 tion. The members of the constitutional conven- 
 tion, some of whom were greatly interested in 
 social reform, were unwilling to rest many reforms 
 with the new-legislature-to-be, the character of 
 which no man could foretell. Therefore there were 
 embodied in the constitution several strikingly pro- 
 
 509
 
 ARIZONA, 1912 
 
 16th and 17th 
 Amendments 
 
 ARIZONA, 1915 
 
 gressive measures, among the most important of 
 which are the following: 
 
 "(i) The common law doctrine of fellow ser- 
 vant, so far as it affects the liability of master for 
 injuries to his servant, is forever abrogated. (2) 
 The right of action to recover damages for in- 
 juries shall never be abrogated, and the amount to 
 be recovered shall not be subject to any statu- 
 tory limitation. (3) An employers' liability law 
 shall be passed, by the terms of which any em- 
 ployer . . . shall be liable for death or injury 
 ... in all cases in which death or injury shall not 
 have been caused by the negligence of the em- 
 ployee killed or injured. (4) The legislature shall 
 enact a workmen's compulsory compensation law 
 applicable in such employments as the legislature 
 may determine to be especially dangerous, by 
 which compulsory compensation shall be required 
 to be paid ... by the employer ... if accident 
 is caused in whole or in part, or is contributed to, 
 by a necessary risk or danger of such employment, 
 or a necessary risk or danger inherent in the na- 
 ture thereof or by failure of employer ... to ex- 
 ercise due care . . . , it being optional with em- 
 ployee to settle for such compensation, or to re- 
 tain the right to sue, etc. (5) The defence of 
 contributory negligence, or assumption of risk, shall 
 be a question of fact, and left to the jury. (6) 
 No child under the age of fourteen shall be em- 
 ployed in any gainful occupation during any 
 part of the school year. (7) It shall be unlaw- 
 ful for any corporation ... to require of its em- 
 ployees as a condition of their employment any 
 contract whereby such corporation . . . shall be 
 released from liability on account of personal in- 
 juries. 
 
 "Other clauses of social importance, including 
 the one of establishing the office of mine in- 
 spector, were embodied in the constitution. Per- 
 manence and dignity were added to the work of 
 the legislature by the unpartisan action of the 
 governor and legislators. Members of the same 
 political party, they were yet actuated by the 
 ambition to establish a record for nonpartisan and 
 enlightened legislation and administration. Re- 
 publicans as well as Democrats were put upon 
 the most important committees, and both houses, 
 as well as the governor, though differing upon 
 smaller details, were in harmony on the larger 
 questions and worked together with the one end 
 in view — strong, progressive legislation that would 
 stand the test of future political contests. Of 
 the three hundred bills introduced, over 100 were 
 passed, and of the hundred new laws, fully one- 
 third are of important social significance. The 
 most important bills dealt with the following 
 topics: child labor; woman labor; mining code, 
 with provisions for mine inspection and important 
 limitations upon conditions of underground work 
 in mines; miners' labor lien law; five laws regu- 
 lating hours of labor, including eight-hour day 
 for miners; several reformatory measures, includ- 
 ing indeterminate sentence for criminals and care 
 for unfortunate girls; anti-labor black list; work- 
 men's compulsory compensation. It was the earn- 
 est desire of the legislature to pass the best child- 
 labor law in the United States, and it must be 
 conceded that they did remarkably well. The act 
 was introduced by Mike Cunniff, president of the 
 Senate and former managing editor of World's 
 Work, a man who has been a miner and owner 
 of mines and who is deeply interested in all labor 
 questions. The most important provisions of this 
 act are: no child under fourteen is f)ermitted 
 to work in any industrial or mercantile pursuit ; 
 it is unlawful for any person, firm or corpora- 
 tion to employ any child under fourteen in any 
 
 business whatever during any part of the school 
 year; more than sixty dangerous and unhealthful 
 occupations, in which no child under sixteen may 
 be employed, are enumerated; the state board of 
 health is empowered to determine from time to 
 time what other occupations are dangerous and 
 unhealthful, and may prohibit employment in such 
 additional ones; females under sixteen are not per- 
 mitted to work in any occupation requiring them 
 to stand constantly ; the right of corporations and 
 others to employ any minors is conditioned upon 
 strict examination by school officials and the board 
 of health, and upon previously obtaining proper 
 certificates as well as upon keeping correct rec- 
 ords, the most important of which must be con- 
 spicuously posted; the state superintendent, tru- 
 ant officers, etc., are given right to enter any 
 and all estabhshments at all times; no child 
 under eighteen can be employed about blast fur- 
 naces, smelters and twenty other hazardous occu- 
 pations; no female is permitted to work about 
 any mine, quarry or coal breaker; no boy under 
 sixteen and no girl under eighteen is permitted 
 to work before seven in the morning or after 
 seven in the evening. The presence of any child 
 in an establishment is prima facie evidence of 
 his employment there. Physical fitness of any 
 child must be passed upon by the state board of 
 health before he can be employed. In strict com- 
 pliance with the constitutional mandate the leg- 
 islature passed the employers' liability act and 
 the workmen's compulsory compensation act. 
 These strengthened the force of the constitutional 
 provisions dealing with these important subjects, 
 the Utter by clearly laying down the principle 
 that 'compulsory compensation shall be paid by 
 his employer to any workman ... if injury is 
 caused in whole or in part ... by failure of em- 
 ployer or his agents to exercise due care, etc.,' and 
 further by declaring the common law doctrine of 
 'no liability without fault' to be abrogated. The 
 employers' liability act clearly states that 'any 
 employer shall be liable for death of or injury 
 ... in all cases in which such death or injury 
 . . . shall not have been caused by the negli- 
 gence of the employee killed or injured.' Two very 
 important bills were the one establishing the office 
 and defining the duties of mine inspector, and 
 the one containing the new mining code. A bill 
 was passed making the miner's lien for wages take 
 precedence of a tirst mortgage. The mining bill 
 has been well received by both miners and op- 
 erators. In addition to the foregoing, several 
 other important laws have been enacted to pro- 
 tect the laboring classes in .Arizona." — H. A. E. 
 Chandler, With Arizona's first legislature (Survey, 
 Aug. 17, igi2, pp. 647-648). — On .\pril g, the Ari- 
 zona legislature ratified the sixteenth federal 
 amendment, providing for a federal income tax, 
 and on June 3, it ratified the seventeenth federal 
 amendment, for the direct election of United States 
 senators. 
 
 1915. — Alien Labor Law. — Foreign objection 
 to. — Upheld by United States Supreme Court. 
 — "At a recent general election the people of 
 Arizon^, by a majority of 10,604 iu 3 popular 
 vote upon a measure submitted to them, en- 
 acted into law these provisions: 'Any company, 
 corporation, partnership, association, or individual 
 who is or may hereafter become an employer 
 of more than five workers at any one time, in the 
 State of Arizona, regardless of kind or class of 
 work, or sex of workers, shall employ not less 
 than eighty per cent qualified electors or native- 
 born citizens of the United States, or some sub- 
 division thereof,' and making any violation of the 
 provisions of the act a misdemeanor subject to 
 
 510
 
 ARIZONA, 1916 
 
 ARKANSAS, 1819-1836 
 
 fine and imprisonment. "The Ahib^ssadbfs of the 
 Britisli and Italian Goverrlmfcnts at once made rep- 
 resentations to the Department of State to the 
 effect that the Arizona law was in violation of the 
 priviliges accorded to the two countries under 
 treaties with our Government. The State De- 
 partment thereupon requested the Governor of 
 Arizona to defer issuing his proclamation of the 
 law. Under the Arizona Constitution and statutes 
 it is made the duty of the Governor to issue 
 that proclamation 'forthwith,' upon the certification 
 of the returns by the Secretary of State." — 
 Arizona alien labor law {Outlook, Jan. 20, 1915, 
 pp. log- 1 10). — When the constitutionaUty of the 
 Arizona law was tested in the Federal District 
 Court of Arizona in the case of Raich i;. Truax 
 (January 7, igis, ziq Federal 273), the court 
 rendered a decision unfavorable to the law on 
 the ground that it did not give equal protection 
 of the laws to all persons; aliens are entitled to 
 the same protection of the laws as citizens. The 
 United States Supreme Court reversed this de- 
 cision on appeal, November i,. 1915. 
 
 1916. — State suffrage granted women. See 
 Suffrage, Woman: United States: 1851-1920. 
 
 1917. — Rival claimants for the governorship. 
 — Deadlock in the capital. — "The Democratic 
 governor of Arizona, G. W. P. Hunt, created a 
 stir throughout the state when he refused to sur- 
 render his office to Thomas E. Campbell, the Re- 
 publican governor-elect. Governor Hunt believes 
 that when the ballots cast at the November elec- 
 tion [iqi6] are recounted his reelection will be 
 established beyond a doubt, and, acting upon that 
 belief, he refuses to recognize in any way his op- 
 ponent. Mr. Campbell is governor upon the face 
 of the returns, and his election has been con- 
 ceded by the Democratic State Central Commit- 
 tee. The question as to which of the two claim- 
 ants is the rightful governor will be fought out 
 in the courts. ... On the first of January both 
 governors were to be inaugurated, and the town of 
 Phoenix filled with partizans of each side ready to 
 take a hand if there should be a conflict. Gover- 
 nor Hunt, however, locked his rival out of the 
 capitol building and governor-elect Campbell did 
 not insist upon going through the formal cere- 
 mony. He had already satisfied the requirements 
 of the law by taking the oath of office before 
 a notary, and so he contented himself with an 
 informal address to the crowd on the capitol 
 grounds. Governor Hunt still refusing to accept 
 his credentials, governor-elect Campbell established 
 a temporary executive office in another part of 
 the city. Feeling on both sides ran high, but 
 trouble was averted by the large force of deputy 
 police, by the new prohibition law, which made 
 liquor inaccessible, and by the good sense and 
 self-restraint which often characterizes even a very 
 angry American crowd." — State with two gov- 
 ernors (Independent, Jan. 15, 1917, p. 96). — Ex- 
 Governor Hunt eventually relinquished his un- 
 tenable position. 
 
 1917. — Minimum wage law. See Labor re- 
 muneration: 1910-1920. 
 
 1918 (May 23-24). — Federal prohibition 
 amendment ratified. — Arizona was the twelfth 
 state to ratify the prohibition amendment. 
 
 1918.— Part played in the World War.— The 
 state furnished about 10,000 soldiers. 
 
 1919. — Decision of United States Supreme 
 Court. — This was the outgrowth of the em- 
 ployers' liability feature of the Workmen's Com- 
 pensation act which provided that in all employ- 
 ments inherently dangerous the employer should 
 be liable for accidents whether he or his agent 
 were directly responsible for it or not. The de- 
 
 cision held that such provision is allowable and 
 is not in violation of the fourteenth amendment, 
 as claimed. — See also Supreme court: 1888-1913; 
 1917-1921. 
 
 1920. — Woman suffrage amendment ratified. — 
 Arizona ratified the woman suffrage (19th federal) 
 amendment February 12. 
 
 ARKA: 1570 B. C— Destroyed by Egyptians. 
 See Phoenicians: Origin. 
 
 ARKANSAS, a south central state of the 
 United Spates. It is bounded on the north by 
 Missouri; on the east by the Mississippi River, 
 which separates it from Tennessee and Mississippi; 
 on the south by Louisiana, and on the west by 
 Oklahoma and Texas. It contains an area of 53,335 
 square miles, and in 1920 had a population of 
 i.7';o.99S- 
 
 Agricultural and mineral resources. See 
 U. S. .\.: Economic map. 
 
 Aboriginal inhabitants. See Siouan famxly: 
 Sioux. 
 
 1542. — Entered by Hernando de Soto. See 
 Florida: 1528-1542. 
 
 1803. — Embraced in the Louisiana Purchase. 
 See Louisiana: 1798-1803. 
 
 1815-1840.— Early settlement.— Origin of pop- 
 ulation. — "As is well known, the American pio- 
 neer has, as a rule, emigrated along lines of lati- 
 tude. The Mississippi River was the route by 
 which the earliest settlers came into .'\rkansas, 
 either from New Orleans or down the River from 
 St. Louis and the settlements farther north and 
 east. Many came by boat from southern Indiana 
 and Ohio and from river points in Kentucky 
 and Tennessee, but with the development of the 
 older states of the Middle West and the building 
 of the great National Road the methods of im- 
 migration changed. The horse became the motive 
 power and the covered wagon superseded the flat- 
 boat; so that a large majority of the immigrants 
 who entered Arkansas between 1815 and 1S30 came 
 overland on horseback or in wagons, entering 
 the territory from Missouri at Davidsonville in 
 old Lawrence County. In 1820 their line had 
 extended through Batesville to Cadron in Pulaski 
 County, and in 182 1 down to Red River through 
 Clark and Hempstead Counties. 'Far-away Hemp- 
 stead,' says Shinn, 'then had more than one sev- 
 enth of the population, and although for the 
 most part from Georgia, North Carolina, Virginia, 
 and Kentucky, they came in from Missouri in 
 wagons i-'uided by the National Road.' Prof. 
 Shinn is also authority for the further statement 
 that the English-speaking population who en- 
 tered Arkansas before 1820 was largely cosmo- 
 politan in character; that for the decades between 
 1820 and 1840 immigrants from Kentucky, Ohio, 
 and Indiana were dominant, with the Kentuckians 
 in the lead." — S. B. Weeks, History of public 
 school education in .Arkansas {United States Bu- 
 reau of Education, Bulletin No. 27, 1912). 
 
 1819-1836. — Detached from Missouri. — Or- 
 ganized as a territory. — Admitted as a state. — 
 "Preparatory to the assumption of state govern- 
 ment, the limits of the Missouri Territory were 
 restricted on the south by the parallel of 36° 30' 
 north. The restriction was made by an act of 
 Congress, approved March 3, 1819, entitled an 
 'Act establishing a separate territorial government 
 in the southern portion of the Missouri Terri- 
 tory.' The portion thus separated was subse- 
 quently organized into the second grade of terri- 
 torial government, and Colonel James Miller, a 
 meritorious and distinguished officer of the North- 
 western army, was appointed first governor. This 
 territory was known as the Arkansas Territory, 
 and, at the period of its first organization, con- 
 
 Sii
 
 ARKANSAS, 1850 
 
 Reconstruction 
 
 ARKANSAS, 1865-1866 
 
 tained an aggregate of nearly 14,000 inhabitants. 
 Its limits comprised all the territory on the west 
 side of the Mississippi between the parallels 33" 
 and 36° 30', or between the northern limit of 
 Louisiana and the southern boundary of the State 
 of Missouri. On the west it extended indefinitely 
 to the Mexican territories, at least 550 miles. 
 The Post of Arkansas was made the seat of the 
 new government. The population of this exten- 
 sive territory for several years was comprised 
 chiefly in the settlements upon the tributaries of 
 White River and the St. Francis ; upon the Mis- 
 sissippi, between New Madrid and Point Chicot; 
 and upon both sides of the .\rkansas River, 
 within 100 miles of its mouth, but especially in 
 the vicinity of the Post of Arkansas. ... So 
 feeble was the attraction in this remote region 
 for the active, industrious, and well-disposed 
 portion of the western pioneers, that the Arkan- 
 sas Territory, in 1830, ten years after its organi- 
 zation, had acquired an aggregate of only 30,388 
 souls, including 4,57b slaves. . . . The western half 
 of the territory had been erected, in 1S24, into 
 a separate district, to be reserved for the future 
 residence of the Indian tribes, and to be known 
 as the Indian Territory. From this time the tide 
 of emigration began to set more actively into 
 Arkansas, as well as into other portions of the 
 southwest. . . . The territory increased rapidly for 
 several years, and the census of 1835 gave the 
 whole number of inhabitants at 58,134 souls, in- 
 cluding 0,630 slaves. Thus the Arkansas Terri- 
 tory in the last live years had doubled its popu- 
 lation. . . . The people, through the General 
 Assembly, made application to Congress for au- 
 thority to establish a regular form of state gov- 
 ernment. The assent of Congress was not withheld, 
 and a Convention was authorized to meet at 
 Little Rock on the first day of January, 1836, for 
 the purpose of forming and adopting a State 
 Constitution. The same was approved by Con- 
 gress, and on the 13th of June following the State 
 of Arkansas was admitted into the Federal Union 
 as an independent state, and was, in point of 
 time and order, the twenty -fifth in the confed- 
 eracy. . . . Like the Missouri Territory, Arkansas 
 had been a slaveholding country from the earliest 
 French colonies. Of course, the institution of 
 negro slavery, with proper checks and limits, was 
 sustained by the new Constitution." — J. W. 
 Monette, Discovery and settlement of the valley 
 of the Mississippi, bk. s, v. 2, ch. 17. — See 
 also Oklahoma: 1824-1837; U. S. A.: 1818- 
 1821. 
 
 1850. — Slavery question. See U. S. A.: 1850 
 (June). 
 
 1861 (March). — Secession voted down. See 
 U. S. A.: i8bi (March-April). 
 
 1861 (April). — Governor Rector's reply to 
 President Lincoln's call for troops. See U.S.A.: 
 1861 (President Lincoln's call to arms). 
 
 1862 (January-March). — Advance of national 
 forces into the state. — Battle of Pea Ridge. 
 See U. S. .\.: 1862 (January-March: Missouri- 
 Arkansas). 
 
 1862 (July-Septem.ber). — Progress of the Civil 
 War. See U.S.A.: 1862 (July-September: Mis- 
 souri-.\rkansas) . 
 
 1862-1864. — Beginnings of Reconstruction. — 
 "There was not a time during the Civil War when 
 there were not many Federal sympathizers in the 
 State. Early in the struggle, the Confederate 
 State government arrested many Union sympa- 
 thizers in north .Arkansas. In 1862, General Curtis, 
 in his march at the head of a Union army from 
 Pea Ridge to Batesville, met with loyal senti- 
 ments everywhere. During the winter of 1862-63 
 
 loyal citizens began to hold primary assemblies 
 with a view to the re-establishment of a loyal 
 state government ; and after General Steele occu- 
 pied Little Rock, many original Union men who 
 had fled the State returned under protection of 
 the Federal army and set about the establishment 
 of a new stale government loyal to the Union. 
 The army at first did not encourage the move- 
 ment ; but October 30, fifty days after the fall 
 of Little Rock, the loyal men held a convention 
 at the capital, avowed Union sentiments and ap- 
 pointed a committee ... to draft resolutions, 
 assuring the President of their loyalty to the 
 United States and of their desire to have a loyal 
 state government established in Arkansas. Con- 
 temporary with this convention, similar gatherings 
 were held at Fort Smith and Van Buren. Octo- 
 ber 24, twelve citizens of these two places met 
 in Fort Smith and inaugurated a movement which 
 resulted in the constitutional convention of 1864. 
 After canvassing the situation, they called popu- 
 lar conventions to be tried for Sebastian County 
 at Fort Smith and fur Crawford County at Van 
 Buren. At these conventions, loyalty was avowed, 
 much enthusiasm was manifested and resolutions 
 were adopted, calling upon the people of the sev- 
 eral counties to hold conventions and elect dele- 
 gates to a constitutional convention to be held in 
 Little Rock January 4, 1864. The purpose of 
 the convention, they declared, was to re-establish 
 civil government, and to restore normal relations 
 with the central government. The committee on 
 Federal relations in the legislature of 1S64 says 
 that there was an enthusiastic response to this 
 call. But at that time bushwackers were nu- 
 merous and south Arkansas was under control of 
 the Confederates. If the Conventions were held, 
 many of them could not have been more than 
 quiet, informal, irregular gatherings of loyal men 
 in the several counties. Union sentiment, how- 
 ever, was developing rapidly. . . . The President 
 at an early date looked upon .'\rkansas as a favor- 
 able field for beginning the work of reconstruc- 
 tion. In 1862, a few days after appointing John- 
 son military governor of Tennessee, the President 
 appointed John S. Phelps to a similar position in 
 Arkansas. Secretary Stanton, in notifying him of 
 his appointment, said the main object of his ap- 
 pointment was to re-establish Federal authority 
 in the State and provide protection to loyal in- 
 habitants, until they could re-establish civil gov- 
 ernment. But the appointment was premature and 
 nothing came of it. The office was abolLshed the 
 following year." — E. Cypert (Arkansas Historical 
 Association, v. 4). — See also U. S. A.: 1863-1864 
 ( December- J uly ) ; and U. S. A.: 1865 (May- 
 July). 
 
 1863 (January). — Capture of Arkansas Post 
 from the Confederates. See U.S.A.: 1863 
 (January: .\rkansas). 
 
 1863 (July). — Defense of Helena. See U. S. A.: 
 1863 (July: On the Mississippi). 
 
 1863 (August-October). — Breaking of Con- 
 federate authority. — Occupation of Little Rock 
 by national forces. See U. S. A.: 1863 (August- 
 October: .Arkansas-Missouri). 
 
 1863-1864 (December-July). — Attempts to re- 
 enter Union. See U. S. A.: 1S03-1864 (December- 
 July). 
 
 1864 (March-October). — Last important oper- 
 ations of the war. — Price's raid. See U. S. A.: 
 r864 (March-October: .\rkansas-Missouri). 
 
 1865-1866. — Garland case. — Augustus Hill 
 Garland was admitted to the Arkansas bar in 
 1853, and in i860 was admitted to the Supreme 
 Court of the United States as attorney and coun- 
 selor, taking the oath then required. Although he 
 
 512
 
 ARKANSAS, 1868 
 
 Reconstruction 
 
 ARKANSAS, 1908-1916 
 
 opposed secession in 1861, he finally went with his 
 state and served as a member of the Confederate 
 House of Representatives and later as a Con- 
 federate Senator. In 1862, the Congress of the 
 United States passed an act requiring all candidates 
 for office to take oath that they had never in 
 any way engaged in hostility against the Union. 
 In 186s all persons admitted to the bar of the 
 United States Courts were required to take this 
 oath, known as the "Ironclad Oath." Garland, 
 who had been pardoned for his participation in 
 the rebellion, entered a plea before the Supreme 
 Court in 1866 against his taking the prescribed 
 oath in 1865. He contended that the act re- 
 quring this oath was unconstitutional and void, as 
 affecting his status in court and that his pardon 
 released him from complying with it, even if it 
 were unconstitutional. The Court granted his 
 plea on the ground that the act was ex post 
 facto. 
 
 1868. — Constitutional Convention. — Recon- 
 struction. — "The State of Arkansas had enjoyed 
 comparative peace and quiet for three years suc- 
 ceeding the Civil War. Under the presidential 
 method of reconstruction inaugurated by President 
 Lincoln, the loyal people of the State had met in 
 1864, and adopted a constitution which abolished 
 slavery, but did not enfranchise the negroes. The 
 constitutional convention of 1S6S was the result 
 of reconstruction acts of Congress which had been 
 vetoed by President Johnson, and passed by Con- 
 gress over his veto. For the purpose of recon- 
 struction in the Secession States under these vari- 
 ous acts, all negroes and all other persons who 
 had been in the State twelve months were en- 
 titled to vote and hold seats in the convention, 
 'Provided that no person who has been a mem- 
 ber of the legislature of any State, or who has 
 held any executive or judicial office in any State, 
 whether he has taken an oath to support the 
 constitution of the United States or not, and 
 whether he was holding such office at the com- 
 mencement of the rebellion or not, or had held 
 it before, and who afterwards engaged in insur- 
 rection or rebellion against the United States, 
 or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof, 
 should be entitled to vote.' The quaUfications 
 of all electors were to be passed on by reg- 
 istrars in the various counties who were ap- 
 pointed by the military authorities in the South. 
 At that time Arkansas was in the same military 
 ■district with Mississippi, and Gen. Edward O. C. 
 ■Ord of the United States army was the com- 
 mander. The apportionment in Arkansas was 
 unequal; large negro counties like Pulaski, Jeffer- 
 son and Phillips were allowed four delegates in 
 the convention, while large white counties like 
 Benton, Sebastian and Crawford were allowed 
 one each. Six counties were joined, two in a dis- 
 trict, each district being allowed only one dele- 
 gate. Some of these counties thus joined together 
 were not even adjoining each other. The whole 
 membership of the convention consisted of sev- 
 enty-five delegates, though several counties were, 
 for some reason, not represented at all. The 
 convention met at Little Rock on the 7th day 
 of January, 1868, and all the proceedings were 
 held in the old House of Representatives, where 
 the first legislature had convened, and where also 
 the Secession Convention had met in 1861. It 
 was composed of two parties then known as Radi- 
 cal and Conservative. The radicals were largely 
 in the majority. They elected Thomas M. Bowen, 
 of Crawford, president of the convention by a vote 
 of 43, the conservatives at that time being able 
 to rally only seven votes against him." — E. Cypert, 
 Constitutional convention of 1868 (Arkansas His- 
 
 torical Association, v. 4, pp. 7-8). — See also 
 U. S. A.: 1868-1870; Reconstruction complete. 
 
 1868. — Readmitted to the Union. — On June 22, 
 iSbS, Arkansas was readmitted to the Union un- 
 der the Reconstruction act of 1865. 
 
 1872-1874. — Brooks-Baxter war. — Democrats 
 regained power. — Constitutional Convention. — 
 Elisha Baxter, regular Republican candidate for 
 governor in 1872, was opposed by Joseph Brooks, 
 who was supported by disaffected Republicans and 
 by the Democrats. Baxter was irregularly elected 
 and Brooks contested the election. Baxter's elec- 
 tion was confirmed by the legislature, but in April, 
 1874, Brooks got possession of the public build- 
 ings by means of a judgment of ouster. Fed- 
 eral aid was invoked and Federal troops main- 
 tained order during investigation by a Con- 
 gressional committee, whose findings led President 
 Grant to decide in favor of Baxter. The demo- 
 crats, however, regained power, when in 1873 
 the article in the constitution disenfranchising the 
 whites was repealed. A constitutional convention 
 was held July to October, 1874, and the new 
 constitution, which in the main returned to ante- 
 bellum conditions, was ratified October 13, 1874. 
 
 1885-1908. — Amendments added to the consti- 
 tution of the state.— "Down to 1908 . . . eight 
 amendments to the constitution of 1874 had 
 been adopted. The first (1885) was an act of 
 repudiation, the second required a poll-tax re- 
 ceipt as a qualification for suffrage, the third and 
 sixth were administrative, the fourth empowered 
 the legislature to correct abuses and prevent un- 
 just discriminations by transportation companies, 
 the fifth provided for a road tax, the seventh 
 re-enacted section 16 of the constitution providing 
 pay of legislators, and the eighth increased the 
 amount of taxes which may be raised for school 
 purposes." — Political Science Quarterly, v. 2g, p. 
 84. 
 
 1908-1915. — Political issues. — "In recent years 
 [up to about igi6 at least] the chief issues in 
 state politics have been the railroads, the state 
 capitol, the deficit, state-wide prohibition, and 
 the legislature. These have not been issues as 
 between the Democratic and Republican parties; 
 indeed, little consideration is given to what the 
 Republicans want. The issues have hardly caused 
 factions within the Democratic party, but they 
 have been used as convenient tools in personal 
 fights for office. The railroads have been pretty 
 well excluded from the legislature since 1907, in 
 which year the passenger and freight-rate reduc- 
 tion laws were passed. Everybody wanted a 
 new capitol, but the politicians divided on the 
 manner of its building. For years the expendi- 
 tures of the state have exceeded its revenues. All 
 candidates for governor have agreed that more 
 revenue must be raised without increasing the 
 taxes of the people, but each has denounced the 
 specific proposals of the others. The liquor ques- 
 tion has come nearer being a real issue than any 
 of the foregoing, though most candidates have 
 declined to take a decided stand on the matter 
 of state-wide prohibition. Every two years each 
 county votes on the question of hccnse or no 
 license. For some time the total vote against 
 hcense has been considerably in excess of that 
 for it. [Important only as history since the pas- 
 sage of the federal prohibition amendment, in ef- 
 fect January 16, 1920.] Encouraged by this 
 the prohibitionists tried several times to get the 
 legislature either to pass a state-wide law or to 
 submit a prohibition amendment, but the liquor 
 interests were always able to defeat every such 
 measure. This led to a demand for the initiative." 
 — Political Science Quarterly, v. 29, pp. 84-85. 
 
 513
 
 ARKANSAS, 1910-1919 
 
 ARLES 
 
 1910. — 16th federal amendment ratified. — State 
 amendment added. — The state ratified the sixteenth 
 tederal amendment, allowing the federal income 
 tax, on April 22, igio. In September of the same 
 year the state constitution was amended to include 
 the initiative and referendum. 
 
 1913. — Comaussion government for cities. — 
 17th federal amendment ratified. — A law passed 
 in this year made the commission form of govern- 
 ment permissible for all cities having between 
 iS.ooo and 40,000 population. In this same year 
 the state ratified the seventeenth federal amend- 
 ment, providing for direct election of senators. 
 
 1917. — Educational and other legislation. — 
 "Many constructive measures for social reform 
 were passed by the .Arkansas legislature during its 
 sixty-day session ending March 8 [1917]. An 
 act that stimulated especial interest was that calling 
 for a constitutional convention to be held in 
 Little Rock, November 19. For the first time 
 Arkansas will have compulsory education, re- 
 quiring all children from seven to fifteen, in- 
 clusive, to attend school. A compulsory at- 
 tendance law was passed in the state several years 
 ago, but the counties having a large Negro popu- 
 lation were exempt, and this left over half of the 
 state without any such attendance law. Here- 
 tofore there had been no uniform textbooks, but 
 they were changed indiscriminately, making a hard- 
 ship, especially for those children who come from 
 poor families. Now a commission is created which 
 will make contracts for textbooks and arrange 
 for their uniformity. The act also provides that 
 school boards shall furnish books to children who 
 are unable to buy them. Moreover, a commis- 
 sion composed of nine members appointed by the 
 Governor is to investigate means of eliminating 
 illiteracy in this state. The University of Arkan- 
 sas and the normal schools have heretofore been 
 in politics, since those interested in the university 
 found it necessary to lobby at the state capital 
 in order that the legislature vote a sufficient ap- 
 propriation. The new law will remove these 
 educational institutions from politics by the levy- 
 ing of a tax of one-eighth mill to pay the inter- 
 est on the common school bonds held by the 
 state. ... .A mother's pension bill was passed 
 authorizing each county to allow pensions to in- 
 digent widowed mothers with children under 
 fourteen. Fifty-one counties were exempt from 
 its provisions, however, so the law applies to prac- 
 tically only one-third of the state. The wis- 
 dom of this law is questioned, since the county 
 judges under the present law can and do give 
 outdoor poor relief and the law itself does not 
 qualify this relief. Therefore, even without the 
 passage of this law, county judges can grant 
 pensions if they choose, and since the law is not 
 mandatory they are not obligated any more than 
 formerly." — Making over Arkansas in sixty days 
 (Survey, Apr. 14, 1017). — The legislature also 
 passed a road act, enabling the state to receive its 
 proportion of funds according to the federal 
 Shackleford .-Kct, and an act giving women the 
 right to vote in primary elections; as Democratic 
 candidates have generally been elected, the right 
 granted was practically that of voting for Presi- 
 dent. 
 
 1917-1918. — Constitutional Convention. — Rad- 
 ical nature. — Constitution defeated. — .\ constitu- 
 tional convention met in Little Rock in November, 
 1917, but soon adjourned to July, 1Q18, when rad- 
 ical changes were proposed, including giving full 
 vote to women, recasting the initiative and referen- 
 lum provision, providing for the budget system, and 
 establishing "bone-dry" prohibition instead of 
 statutory prohibition. The proposed new constitu- 
 
 tion was submitted to the people December 14, 
 1918, and defeated. 
 
 1918.— Part played in the World War.— The 
 state furnished 03,632 men to the military and 
 naval forces. An army cantonment. Camp Pike, 
 was located near Little Rock and an aviation field, 
 Ebert Field, was located near Lonoke. See U.S.A.: 
 1919: Contribution to World War. 
 
 1919. — Legislation and legal decisions. — The 
 year 1919 set a record in the state's legislative 
 history since there were three sessions of the leg- 
 islature and a fourth session was called before 
 the year was ended. The governor was authorized 
 by the legislature to appoint a commission to 
 draft a workmen's compensation law. The existing 
 limitations on working hours were extended to 
 women engaged by employers hiring three or less. 
 The regular session ratified the federal prohi- 
 bition amendment. .'\n extra session at the end 
 of July ratified the federal woman suffrage amend- 
 ment, .Arkansas being the twelfth state. The 
 regular and the second extra session enacted much 
 highway construction legislation. Much of this 
 legislation was declared invalid December 2, 1919, 
 by the Supreme Court on the ground that the 
 constitutional provision requiring publication of 
 intention to apply for special acts had not been 
 complied with. Consequently a third extra ses- 
 sion was called for January 26, 1920. 
 
 Also in: J. W. Burgess, Civil War and the con- 
 stitution, V. I, pp. 54, 102, 175. — J. B. McMaster, 
 History of the United Stales, v. 4, pp. 574-576; 
 V. 7, pp. 21, 22, 157, 184. — J. F. Rhodes, History 
 of the United States, v. 6, pp. 168-169, 174, 175, 
 183; v. 7, pp. &6-&8.— Poland Report House of 
 Representatives, 43rd Congress, 2nd Session, Mo. 
 127. 
 
 ARKANSAS RIVER: Wilkinson's expedi- 
 tion. See Okl.^hoiia: 1S06-1824. 
 
 Development of steam navigation. See Okla- 
 hom.^: 1824-1837. 
 
 ARKITES.— A Canaanite tribe who occupied 
 the plain north of Lebanon. 
 
 ARKWRIGHT, Sir Richard (1732-1792), 
 English inventor, originally a barber. Celebrated 
 for his invention of machinery which revolution- 
 ized the cotton-spinning industry, 1732-1792; from 
 the mills of .'\rkwright the modern factory sys- 
 tem originated. — See also Industrml revolution: 
 Inventions in textile industry; Inventions: i8th 
 century; and U. S. .\ : 1703: Whitney's cotton gin. 
 
 ARLES, a town of south-eastern France, and 
 the capital of the former kingdom of Aries. 
 
 Origin. See S.\lves. 
 
 A. D. 200-600. — Ancient commercial impor- 
 tance. See Commerce: .Ancient: 200-600. 
 
 407. — Seat of government of Constantine. See 
 Britain-: 407. 
 
 411. — Double siege. See Britain: 407. 
 
 425. — Besieged by the Goths. See Goths 
 (Visigoths): 419-451. 
 
 508-510.— Siege by the Franks.— After the 
 overthrow of the V'isigothic kingdom of Toulouse, 
 507, by the victory of Clovis, king of the Franks, 
 at Voclad, near Poitiers, "the great city of Aries, 
 once the Roman capital of Gaul, maintained a 
 gallant defence against the united Franks and 
 Burgundians, and saved for generations the Visi- 
 gothic rule in Provence and southern Languedoc. 
 Of the siege, which lasted apparently from 508 
 to 510, we have some graphic details in the life 
 of St. Casarius, Bishop of Aries, written by his 
 disciples." The city was relieved in 510 by an 
 Ostrogothic army, sent by King Theodoric of 
 Italy, after a great battle in which 30,000 Franks 
 were reported to be slain. "The result of the 
 battle of Aries was to put Theodoric in secure 
 
 514
 
 ARLEUX 
 
 ARMED NEUTRALITY 
 
 possession of all Provence and of so much of 
 Languedoc as was needful to ensure his access to 
 Spain" — where the Ostrogothic king, as guardian 
 of his infant grandson, Amalaric, was taking care 
 of the Visigothic kingdom. — T. Hodgkin, Italy and 
 her invaders, bk. 4, ch. g. 
 
 933. — Formation of the kingdom. See Bur- 
 gundy: 843-933; Orange, The principality. 
 
 1032-1378. — Breaking up of the kingdom and 
 its gradual absorption in France. See Bur- 
 gundy: 1032; 1127-1378. 
 
 1092-1207. — Gay court of Provence. See 
 Provence: 943-1092; 1179-1207. 
 
 ARLEUX, a town of France, northeast of 
 Arras and four miles due east of Vimy Ridge. 
 Captured by British in battle of Arras, April, 
 1917. See World War: 1917: II. Western front: 
 c, 14; c, 19. 
 
 ARLON, capital of the Belgian province of 
 Luxemburg, occupied by Americans after armis- 
 tice (November, 1^18). See World War: 1918: 
 XI. End of the war: c. 
 
 ARMADA, Spanish. See England: 1588: 
 Spanish armada. 
 
 ARMAGEDDON, a place mentioned in the 
 Bible (Rev. .xvi, 16) as the location of the last 
 great decisive battle of the nations before the 
 final Judgment. (See Megiddo.) Often used by 
 modern writers to signify any great conflict ac- 
 companied by much slaughter and perhaps in- 
 volving the downfall of civilization. Applied 
 specifically to a plain in Palestine famous as an 
 ancient battlefield, where General Allenby in 1918 
 finally overwhelmed the Turkish army. 
 
 ARMAGH. — "Hardly any town of importance 
 in Ireland is so little visited as Armagh, for it 
 hes on no main thoroughfare of railroad; yet 
 there is hardly any town or city, great or small, 
 of equal interest to the historically minded. Its 
 ecclesiastical primacy is contmuous from the time 
 when St. Patrick, after long wanderings, fixed 
 there his own monastic settlerhent, fifteen hun- 
 dred and sixty-four years ago. Yet through all 
 that long tract of generations Armagh is never 
 so salient in Ireland's history as it was in the day 
 of its still earlier glory ; for the Height of Macha 
 rivalled Tara's fame when Dublin was only the 
 Hurdle Ford across the Liffey ; or rather, if 
 the newest and most probable theory of Irish 
 history be true, Tara itself was only the seat of 
 a petty principality when the heroes of the Red 
 Branch mustered round Conchobar MacNessa. All 
 that is most glorious in Irish epic story springs 
 from this root; and, legendary though the stories 
 be, they have certainly a basis in. fact. We can 
 stand to-day in Conchobar's fortress where the 
 sons of Usnach were foully done to death ; and 
 we can fix, by a tradition which has in it noth- 
 ing improbable, the period of Cuchulain's feats. 
 Emain Macha, the great rath with double en- 
 closure of bank and mound, which lies rather 
 more than a mile to the westward of Armagh, 
 was none of Conchobar's building. According 
 to the tradition which dates its foundation about 
 330 years before Christ, Macha was daughter of 
 the High King, Aedh Ruad, who left his life and 
 his name in the dangerous ford of Erne at As- 
 saroe, Eas Aedh Ruaidh, Red Hugh's Waterfall. 
 After Aedh's drowning, Macha, like the Amazon 
 that she was, claimed his throne, but found her 
 succession disputed. One of the rival claimants, 
 Cimbaeth, she wedded, and, as for the other 
 princes, single-handed she captured them (by a 
 stratagem which, says Archbishop Healy, did more 
 credit to her cunning and valour than to her 
 modesty) ; and she set the captives digging earth- 
 works on a line, which she traced out with eo 
 
 muin, the broochpin of her neck; iinde, Emain 
 Macha." — S. Gwynn, Fair hills oj Ireland, pp. 98, 
 141. — See also Ireland: Historical map. 
 
 5th century.— School founded by St. Patrick. 
 See Education: Medieval; 5th-bth centuries: Ire- 
 land. 
 
 1795. — Riots. See Ireland: i 705-1 796. 
 
 ARMAGNAC, Counts of. See France: 1328. 
 
 Civil war between Armagnacs and Burgun- 
 dians. See France: 1380-1415. 
 
 Destruction of Soissons by Armagnacs. See 
 SoissoNs: 1414. 
 
 Massacre of Armagnacs. See France: 1415- 
 MIO. 
 
 ARMAMENTS: Armies. See War, Prepara- 
 tion FOR. 
 
 Equilibrium of. — Controversy of Argentina 
 and Brazil (1902-1909). See War, Preparation 
 
 FOR. 
 
 Limitation proposed. See Hague conferences: 
 1899; Peace movement: Attitude of governments; 
 U. S. A.: 1921 (July-.'\ugust) ; Washington Con- 
 ference. 
 
 ARMAS TRIBES, Colombia. See Colombia: 
 Inhabitants. 
 
 ARMATOLES, a body of irregular mihtary 
 police, reciuitfd by the Turkish government from 
 the Greek mountaineers who had turned brigands 
 after the capture of Greece by the Turk; in the 
 fifteenth century. They were given certain rights 
 and privileges during the sixteenth centun,- in ex- 
 change for policing their districts against the 
 ravages of the brigands. In the eighteenth cen- 
 tury, the Turks sought to weaken their power 
 by replacing them with Mohammedan Albanians. 
 For this the armatoles gave their services to Ali 
 Pasha against his government in 1S20-22. Dur- 
 ing the Greek revolution they fought in the cause 
 of Greece. 
 
 ARMED MERCHANTMEN, Legal status 
 of. — "The enemy merchant ship has the right ot 
 defense against belligerent attack, and this right 
 it can exercise against visit, for this indeed is 
 the first act of capture. The attacked merchant 
 ship can, indeed, itself seize the overpowered 
 warship as a prize." — Dr. Hans Wehberg, Ger- 
 man authority on international law, quoted in 
 American Journal oj International Law, Oct., 1916, 
 P- 871. — As a corollary of this right, an enemy 
 merchant ship may, of course, arm for purely de- 
 fensive purposes, without prejudice to its status 
 as a merchant vessel either in neutral harbors or 
 on the high seas. This is the position which our 
 government took at the outset of the war. Early 
 in 1916, however, it approached both belligerents 
 with the proposition that enemy merchantmen 
 should forego their defensive right on condition 
 that belligerent submarines should in all cases ex- 
 ercise visit and search preliminary to capture This 
 effort at compromise failing, our government re- 
 turned to its original stand on the established 
 principles of law. The test of defensive arma- 
 ment is the use to which it is put, not its size." 
 — War cyclopedia, p. 19. See McLemore resolu- 
 tion: Resistance, Right of. 
 
 "ARMED NEUTRALITY," a league of Euro- 
 pean states, headed by Russia, and including Prus- 
 sia, the Empire, Sweden, Holland, Denmark, .Aus- 
 tria, Portugal and the two Sicilies, formed in 
 1780 to protect neutral flags from the right of 
 search claimed by Great Britain during the latter's 
 struggle with France, Spain and the United States. 
 "England's position became still more precarious 
 on account of the Armed Neutrality, formed by 
 the Baltic Powers and the Dutch as a protest 
 against an unjust extension by the English of 
 the term 'contraband' and the right of search. 
 
 515
 
 ARMELLIN 
 
 ARMENIA 
 
 This brought about war between England and the 
 United Provinces." — H. E. Bourne, Revolutionary 
 period in Europe {1763-1815), p. 68. — In Decem- 
 ber, 1800, the Armed Neutrality was revived by 
 Bonaparte, but the league, consisting of Russia, 
 Sweden, Denmark and Prussia, was short-lived. 
 
 ARMELLIN, member of a Roman triumvirate. 
 See Rome: Modern city: 1849. 
 
 ARMENIA: Geographic description. — "Al- 
 most immediately to the west of the Caspian 
 there rises a high table-land diversified by moun- 
 tains, which stretches eastward for more than 
 eighteen degrees, between the 37th and 41st paral- 
 lels. This highland may properly be regarded as 
 a continuation of the great Iranean plateau, with 
 which it is connected at its southeastern corner. 
 It comprises a portion of the modern Persia, the 
 whole of Armenia, and most of .\sia Minor. Its 
 principal mountain ranges are latitudinal, or from 
 west to east, only the minor ones taking the op- 
 posite or longitudinal direction. . . . The heart of 
 the mountain-region, the tract extending from the 
 district of Erivan on the east to the upper course 
 of the Kizil-Irmak river and the vicinity of Sivas 
 upon the west, was, as it still is, Armenia. Amidst 
 these natural fastnesses, in a country of lofty 
 ridges, deep and narrow valleys, numerous and 
 copious streams, and occasional broad plains — a 
 country of rich pasture grounds, productive or- 
 chards, and abundant harvests — this interesting peo- 
 ple has maintained itself almost unchanged from 
 the time of the early Persian kings to the present 
 day. Armenia was one of the most valuable 
 portions of the Persian empire, furnishing, as it 
 did, besides stone and timber, and several most 
 important minerals, an annual supply of 20,000 
 excellent horses to the stud of the Persian king." 
 — G. Rawlinson, Five great monarchies: Persia, 
 cit. I. — See also B.^bylonw: Map of Egyptian, As- 
 syrian, Babylonian and Median powers; Turkey: 
 Map of Asia Minor. 
 
 Physical features. — ^"Lake Van is the most 
 important inland water, 5,100 feet above the sea 
 level, with an area of about 1,300 miles, or, says 
 Lynch: 'Six times as great as Lake Geneva.' It 
 possesses two considerable islands, on which have 
 stood for many centuries two Armenian convents. 
 Other lakes are: Lake Urmia (4,000 feet above 
 sea level), like Lake Van, a salt lake; and Lake 
 Sevan (5,870 feet above sea level), discharging into 
 the .\rax [Aras]. . . . The monotony of the 
 plateau is increased by the treelessness of vast 
 areas. 'There is no reason why this country should 
 not be strewn with woodlands and her plains ver- 
 dant, with a kinder rainfall and an extended ir- 
 rigation. Patches of forest, but thin and miser- 
 able, still struggle towards the interior from the 
 luscious zone in the North. They are seen on 
 the sides of the passes at a distance from the 
 villages. But with the exception of Kighi and 
 the Dersim and the slopes of the Soghanlu Moun- 
 tains, southwest of Kars, the land has been de- 
 nuded of any covering as a result of progressive 
 economical decline. Centuries of unchecked li- 
 cense on the part of tribal shepherds— Tartars, 
 Turkomans. Kurds — have brought about the de- 
 struction of a source of salubriousness and wealth, 
 which, under any circumstances, would require 
 careful husbanding. If the plateaus are mo- 
 notonous in their lack of adornment, on the other 
 hand the gorges of the Euphrates and Tigris pos- 
 sess a wild beauty of scenery which is unsurpassed. 
 The climate varies. On the higher reaches of the 
 plateau the winter is long and the cold severe; 
 summer is short, very dry and hot. The tempera- 
 ture at Erzeroum varies from 22° to 84°. Snow 
 sometimes falls in June, and in July the wells 
 
 near Erzeroum are occasionally thinly frozen over. 
 The mountain chains with their heavy snow ac- 
 cumulations are the sources of the many streams. 
 But the rainfall is not heavy, and in summer the 
 plains are scorched and demand irrigation. The 
 soil shows vulcanic products, especially in the 
 vicinity of Maku, in the narrow valley which 
 extends from the Araxene plain near .Ararat to- 
 wards Lake Van; and also in the country round 
 Lake Gokcha. In the interior the few towns 
 there are, lie high — from 4,000 to 6,000 feet above 
 sea level. The villages are on the gentle slopes, 
 and the peasantry, as their forefathers did 800 
 years ago, burrow in the hillsides, and find in 
 the excavations protection against the rigours of 
 the long and trying winter. Xenophon's descrip- 
 tion of the sufferings of the 10,000 Greeks in this 
 climate is well known. Both the Taurus and the 
 Anti-Taurus ranges are crossed at different points 
 by passes, generally at low elevations and fairly 
 easy of access. One of the most famous is the 
 pass of Erkenek, the only one by which an army 
 could descend from the interior of Asia Minor 
 towards Syria or Mesopotamia. An even more 
 famous pass, either from the military or com- 
 mercial point of view, is the Golek Boghaz or 
 'Cilician Gates' — a deep gorge, 3,300 feet above 
 sea level, running about 30 miles north of Tarsus, 
 over the Taurus and connecting .\natolia with 
 North Syria and the Euphrates Valley. The width 
 of the road through the Gates proper is only 25 
 feet. Through the gorge between walls of per- 
 pendicular rock, rushes a tributary of the Tarsus 
 River. This famous defile has been used in all 
 ages by migrating peoples, traders and conquering 
 hosts. Through it marched .Alexander to the con- 
 quest of Persia and the far-distant East. In 
 more modern times, Mehemet Ali, in his revolt 
 against the Ottoman Sultan, twice penetrated 
 through the 'Cilician Gates' into .Anatolia on his 
 march to Constantinople." — W. L. Williams, Ar- 
 menia, pp. 8-1 1. — See also Asia Minor: Greek col- 
 onies; Caucasus: Ethnology; Turkey: The Land. 
 
 B. C. 1SOO-14(X).— Relations with Egypt. See 
 Egypt: .About B.C. 1500-1400. 
 
 B. C. 585-55. — Persian conquest. — Reign of 
 King Tigranes. — "The strong compact Kingdom 
 of Urartu [Urardhu, .Ararat, included most of 
 Armenia] lies at the dawn of Armenian history 
 like a golden age. It had only existed two cen- 
 turies when it was shattered by the invaders 
 from the Russian steppes, and the anarchy into 
 which they plunged the country had to be cured 
 by the imposition of a foreign rule. In 585 B. C. 
 the nomads were cowed and the plateau annexed 
 by Cyaxares the Mede, and, after the Persians 
 had taken over the Medes' inheritance, the great 
 organizer Darius divided this portion of it into 
 two governments or satrapies. One of these 
 seems to have included the basins of Urmia and 
 Van, and part of the valley of the Aras; the 
 other corresponded approximately to the modern 
 Vilayets of Bitlis, Mamouret-ul-.Aziz and Diyar- 
 bekir, and covered the upper valleys of the Tigris 
 and Euphrates. They were called respectively 
 the satrapies of Eastern and Western Armenia, 
 and this is the origin of the name by which the 
 Haik and the Haiasdan are now almost uni- 
 versally known to their neighbours. The word 
 'Armenia' (Armina) first appears in Darius's in- 
 scriptions ; the Greeks adopted it from the Persian 
 official usage, and from the Greeks it has spread 
 to the rest of the world, including the Osmanli 
 Turks. [See Al.\rodians ; Iberiavs: Colchians.] 
 Under the Persian Dynasty of the -Achaemenlds and 
 their Macedonian successors, the two .Armenian 
 satrapies remained mere administrative divisions. 
 
 S16
 
 ARMENIA, B.C. 105 
 
 Arabian 
 Rule 
 
 ARMENIA, 908-1085 
 
 Subject to the payment of tribute, the satraps 
 were practically independent and probably heredi- 
 tary, but the rulers' autonomy did not enable their 
 subjects to develop any distinctive national life. 
 In religion and culture the country took on a 
 strong Persian veneer; and the situation was not 
 essentially changed when, early in the second cen- 
 tury B. C, the two reigning satraps revolted 
 simultaneously from their overlord, the Seleucid 
 King of Western Asia, and each founded a royal 
 dynasty of his own. The decisive change was 
 accomplished by Tigranes (Dikran) the Great (94 
 to 56 B.C.), a scion of the Eastern Dynasty, 
 who welded the two principalities into one 
 kingdom-, and so created the first strong native 
 sovereignty that the country had known since the 
 fall of Urartu five centuries before. 
 
 "If Gregory the Illuminator is the ecclesiastical 
 hero of .Armenia, King Tigranes is his pohtical 
 forerunner and counterpart. He was connected 
 by marriage with Mithradates, the still more fa- 
 mous King of Pontic Cappadocia, who may be 
 taken as the first exponent of the Near Eastern 
 idea. Mithradates attempted to build an empire 
 that should be at once cosmopolitan and national, 
 Hellenic and Iranian, of the West and of the East, 
 and Tigranes was profoundly influenced by his 
 brilliant neighbour and ally. He set himself the 
 parallel ambition of reconstructing round his own 
 person the kingdom of the Seleucids, which had 
 been shaken a century before by a rude encounter 
 with Rome, weakened still further by the defec- 
 tion of Tigranes' own predecessors, and was now 
 in the actual throes of dissolution. He laid him- 
 self out a new capital on the northern rim of 
 the Mesopotamian steppe, somewhere near the 
 site of Ibrahim Pasha's Viran Shehr, and peopled 
 it with masses of exiles, deported from the Greek 
 cities he devastated in Syria and Cilicia. It was 
 to be the Hellenistic world-centre for an Oriental 
 King of Kings; but all his dreams, like Mith- 
 radates', were shattered by the methodical progress 
 of the Roman empire. A Roman army igno- 
 minously turned Tigranes out of Tigranokerta, and 
 sent back his Greek exiles rejoicing to their homes. 
 The new Armenian kingdom failed to establish 
 its position as a great power, and had to accept 
 the position of a buffer state between Rome on 
 the west and the Parthian rulers of Iran. Never- 
 theless, Tigranes' work is of supreme pohtical 
 importance in Armenian history. He had con- 
 so'lidate'd the two satrapies of Darius into a united 
 kingdom, powerful enough to preserve its unity 
 and independence for nearly five hundred years. 
 It was within this chrysalis that the interaction of 
 religion and language pro-duced the new germ of 
 modern Armenian nationality; and when the 
 chrysalis was rent at last, the nation emerged so 
 strongly grown that it could brave the buffets of 
 the outer world. Before Tigranes, Armenia had 
 belonged wholly to the East. Tigranes loosened 
 these links and knit certain new links with the 
 West. The period that followed was marked 
 by a perpetual struggle between the Roman and 
 Parthian Governments for political influence over 
 the kingdom, which was really a battle over 
 Armenia's soul. Was Armenia to be wrested away 
 altogether from Oriental influences and rallied to 
 the European world, or was it to Cnk back into 
 being a spiritual and political appanage of Iran? 
 It seemed a clear issue, but it was not destined to 
 be decided in either .'iense. Armenia was to be 
 caught for two millenniums in the uncertain eddy 
 of the Nearer East." — J. Bryce, Treatment of the 
 Armenians, pp. 600-601. 
 
 B. C. 103. — Allied with kingdom of Pontus. 
 
 See MiTHRADAIIC WARS, 
 
 B. C. 69-68. — War with the Romans. — Great 
 defeat at Tigranokerta. — Submission to Rome. 
 See Rome: Republic: B.C. 78-68, and 69-63. 
 
 B. C. 67. — Conquest by Pompey. See Pom- 
 PEius, Gnaeus Magnus: In the East. 
 
 A. D. 115-117. — Annexed to the Roman em- 
 pire by Trajan and restored to independence 
 by Hadrian. See Rome: Empire: 96-138. 
 
 A. D. 387-900. — Swing from the Persian to 
 Arabian rule. — "In this opposition of forces, the 
 political balance inclined from the first in favour of 
 the Oriental Power. The Parthians succeeded in re- 
 placing the descendants of Tigranes by a junior 
 branch of their own Arsacid Dynasty ; and when, 
 in 387 A. D., the rivals agreed to settle the 
 j^rmenian question by the drastic expedient of 
 partition, the Sassanid kings of Persia (who had 
 superseded the Parthians in the Empire of Iran) 
 secured the hon's share of the spoils, while the 
 Romans only received a strip of country on the 
 western border which gave them Erzeroum and 
 Diyarbekir for their frontier fortresses. [See also 
 Persia: 226-627.] In the cultural sphere, on 
 the other hand, the West was constantly increas- 
 ing its ascendancy. King Tiridates was an Arsacid, 
 but he accepted Christianity as the religion of the 
 State he ruled; and when, less than a century 
 after his death, his kingdom fell and the greater 
 part of the country and the people came directly 
 under Persian rule, the Persian propaganda failed 
 to make any impression. No amount of preach- 
 ing or persecution could persuade the Armenians 
 to accept Zoroastrianism, which was the estab- 
 Ushed religion of the Sassanian State. They 
 clung to their national church in despite of their 
 political annihilation, and showed thereby that 
 their spiritual allegiance was given irrevocably to 
 the West. The partition of 387 A. D. produced 
 as long a political interregnum in Armenian his- 
 tory as the fall of Urartu in the seventh cenlurj' 
 B.C. In the second quarter of the seventh cen- 
 tury A. D., the mastery of Western Asia passed 
 from the Persians to the Arabs, and the Armenian 
 provinces changed masters with the rest. Persian 
 governors appointed by the Sassanid King of Kings 
 were superseded by Arab governors appointed by 
 the Omayyad and Abbasid Caliphs, and the in- 
 tolerance of Zoroastrianism was replaeed by the 
 far stronger and hardly less intolerant force of 
 Islam. Then, in the ninth century, the political 
 power of the Abbasid Caliphate at Baghdad be- 
 gan to decline, the outlying provinces were able 
 to detach themselves, and three independent 
 [Bagratid] dynasties emerged on .Armenian soil." 
 — J. Bryce, Treatment of the Armenians, pp. 601- 
 602. 
 
 908-1085. — Seljuk invasions. — The Ardzunian 
 Kagig became king of Van in 908, and his suc- 
 cessors ruled till 1080. For a century from 984 
 Arabs, Byzantines and Seljuks held the ruling 
 power. Arabs drove many Armenians into Turkey. 
 
 "In the eleventh century A. D., a new power ap- 
 peared in the East. The Arab Empire of the 
 Cahphs had long been receiving an influx of 
 Turks from Central Asia as slaves and professional 
 soldiers, and the Turkish bodyguard had assumed 
 control of politics at Baghdad. But this in- 
 dividual infiltration was now succeeded by the 
 migration of whole tribes, and the tribes were 
 organised into a political power by the clan of 
 Seijuk. The new Turkish dynasty constituted 
 itself the temporal representative of Je Ab- 
 basid Caliphate, and the dominion of Moham- 
 medan Asia was suddenly transferred from the 
 devitalised Arabs to a vigorous barbaric horde of 
 nomadic Turks. These Turkish reinforcements 
 brutalised and at the same time stimulated the 
 
 517
 
 ARMENIA, 12TH-14TH CENTURIES Seljuks 
 
 ARMENIA, 1453-1878 
 
 Islamic world, and the result was a new impetus 
 of conquest towards the borderlands. The brunt 
 of this movement fell upon the unprepared and dis- 
 united Armenian principalities. In the first quarter 
 of the eleventh century the Seljuks began their 
 incursions on to the Armenian plateau. The 
 Armenian princes turned for protection to the East 
 Roman Empire, accepted its suzerainty, or even 
 surrendered their territory directly into its hands. 
 But the Imperial Government brought little com- 
 fort to the .'\rmenian people. Centred at Con- 
 stantinople and cut off from the Latin West, it 
 had lost its Roman universality and become trans- 
 formed into a Greek national state, while the 
 established Orthodox Church had developed the 
 specifically Near Eastern character of a nationalist 
 ecclesiastical organization. The Armenians found 
 that incorporation in the Empire exposed them 
 to temporal and spiritual Hellenisation, without 
 protecting them against the common enemy on the 
 east. The Seljuk invasions increased in intensity, 
 and culminated, in 1071 A. D., in the decisive 
 battle of Melazkerd. in which the Imperial Army 
 was destroyed and the Emperor Romanos II. 
 taken prisoner on the field. Melazkerd placed the 
 whole of Armenia at the Seljuks mercy — and not 
 only Armenia, but the Anatolian provinces of 
 the Empire that lay between Armenia and Europe. 
 The Seljuks carried Islam into the heart of the 
 Near East. [See also Turkey: 1063-1073.] The 
 next four-and-a-half centuries were the most dis- 
 astrous period in the whole political history of 
 Armenia It is true that a vestige of inde- 
 pendence was preserved, for Roupen [Rupinl the 
 Bagratid conducted a portion of his people south- 
 westward into the mountains of Cilicia, where 
 they were out of the main current of Turkish 
 invasion, and founded a new principality which 
 survived nearly three hundred years (1080-1375). 
 There is a certain romance about this Kingdom 
 of Lesser Armenia. It threw in its lot with the 
 Crusaders, and gave the Armenian nation its first 
 direct contact with modern Western Europe. But 
 the mass of the race remained in Armenia proper, 
 and during these centuries the Armenian table- 
 land suffered almost ceaseless devastation. The 
 Seljuk migration was only the first wave in a 
 prolonged outbreak of Central Asiatic disturbance, 
 and the Seljuks were civilised in comparison with 
 the tribes that followed on their heels. Early in 
 the thirteenth century came Karluks and Khariz- 
 mians, fleeing across Western Asia before the ad- 
 vance of the Mongols; and in 1235 came the first 
 great raid of the Mongols themselves — savages 
 who destroyed civilisation wherever they found 
 it, and were impartial enemies of Christendom and 
 Islam. All these waves of invasion took the same 
 channels. They swept across the broad plateau 
 of Persia, poured up the valleys of the Aras and 
 the Tigris, burst in their full force upon the 
 Armenian highlands and broke over them into 
 Anatolia beyond. Armenia bore the brunt of 
 them all, and the country was ravaged and the 
 population reduced quite out of proportion to the 
 sufferings of the neighboring regions. The di- 
 vision of the Mongol conquests among the family 
 of Djengis Khan established a Mongol dynasty 
 in Western Asia which seated itself in Azerbaijan, 
 accepted Islam and took over the tradition of the 
 Seljuks, the Abbasids and the Sassanids. It was 
 the old Asiatic Empire under a new name, but 
 it had now incorporated Armenia and extended 
 north-westwards to the Kizil Irmak (Halys)." — 
 J. Bryce, Treatment of the Armenians, pp. 603- 
 604. 
 
 12th-14th centuries. — Medieval Christian 
 kingdom. — "The last decade of the 12th century 
 
 saw the establishment of two small Christian 
 kingdoms in the Levant, which long outlived all 
 other relics of the Crusades except the military 
 orders; and which, with very little help from 
 the West, sustained a hazardous existence in com- 
 plete contrast with almost everything around them. 
 The kingdoms of Cyprus and .\rmenia have a his- 
 tory very closely intertwined, but their origin 
 and most of their circumstances were very differ- 
 ent. By Armenia as a kingdom is meant little 
 more than the ancient Cilicia, the land between 
 Taurus and the sea, from the frontier of the 
 principality of Antioch, eastward, to Kelcnderis or 
 Palaeopolis, a Httle beyond Seleucia ; this terri- 
 tory, which was computed to contain 16 days' 
 journey in length, measured from four miles of 
 Antioch, by two in breadth, was separated from 
 the Greater Armenia, which before the period on 
 which we are now employed had fallen under the 
 sway of the Seljuks, by the ridges of Taurus. The 
 population was composed largely of the sweepings 
 of Asia Minor, Christian tribes which had taken 
 refuge in the mountains. Their religion was partly 
 Greek, partly Armenian. . . . Their rulers were 
 princes descended from the house of the Bag- 
 ratids, who had governed the Greater Armenia 
 as kings from the year 885 to the reign of Con- 
 stantine Monomachus, and had then merged 
 their hazardous independence in the mass of the 
 Greek Empire. After the seizure of Asia Minor 
 by the Seljuks, the few of the Bagratidae who had 
 retained possession of the mountain fastnesses of 
 Cilicia or the strongholds of Mesopotamia, acted 
 as independent lords, showing little respect for 
 Byzantium save where there was something to be 
 gained. . . . Rupin of the Mountain was prince 
 [of Cilicia] at the time of the capture of Jeru- 
 salem by Saladin ; he died in iiSg. and his suc- 
 cessor, Leo, or Livon, after having successfully 
 courted the favour of pope and emperor, was 
 recognised as king of Armenia by the emperor 
 Henry \'I., and was crowned by Conrad of Wit- 
 telsbach, Archbishop of Mainz, in 1198." The 
 dynasty ended with Leo IV, whose "whole reign 
 was a continued struggle against the Moslems," 
 and who was assassinated about 1342. "The five 
 remaining kings of .Armenia sprang from a branch 
 of the Cypriot house of Lusignan [see Cvpkus: 
 1 102-1480]." — W. Stubbs, Lectures on the study of 
 mediaeval and modern history, led. 8. — See also 
 Crus.^des: Map of Mediterranean lands after 1204. 
 1453-1878.— Under Turkish dominion.— "The 
 Osmanii State is the greatest and most character- 
 istic Near Eastern Empire there has ever been. 
 In its present decline it has become nothing but 
 a blight to all the countries and peoples that 
 remain under its sway ; but at the outset it 
 manifested a faculty for strong government which 
 satisfied the supreme need of the distracted Near 
 Eastern world. This was the secret of its amaz- 
 ing power of organisation, for it enabled the 
 Osmanlis to monopolise all the vestiges of political 
 genius that survived in the Near East. The 
 original Turkish germ was quickly absorbed in 
 the mass of Osmanlicised native Greeks. The 
 first expansion of the State was westward, across 
 the Dardanelles, and before the close of the four- 
 teenth century the whole of South-Eastern Europe 
 had become Osmanii territory, as far as the 
 Danube and the Hungarian frontier. The seal 
 was set on these European conquests when Sul- 
 tan Mohammed II entered Constantinople in 
 1453, and then the current of expansion veered to- 
 wards the east. Mohammed himself absorbed the 
 rival Turkish principalities in Anatolia, and an- 
 nexed the Greek 'Empire' of Trebizond. In the 
 second decade of the sixteenth century, Sultan 
 
 S18
 
 ARMENIA, 1623-1635 
 
 Turkish 
 Atrocities 
 
 ARMENIA, 1915 
 
 Selim I. followed this up with a sweeping series 
 of campaigns, which carried him with hardly a 
 pause from the Taurus barrier to the citadel of 
 Cairo. Armenia was overrun in 1514; the petty 
 Turkish chieftains were overthrown, the new Per- 
 sian Empire' was hurled back to the Caspian, and 
 a frontier established between the Osmanli Sultans 
 and the Shahs of Iran, which has endured, with 
 a few fluctuations, until the present day. In 
 the sixteenth century the whole Near Eastern 
 world, from the gates of Vienna to the gates of 
 Aleppo and Tabriz, found itself united under a 
 single masterful Government, and once more 
 Armenia was linked securely with the West. From 
 1514 onwards the great majority of the Armenian 
 nation was subject to the OsmanJi State. It is 
 true that the province of Erivan (on the mid- 
 dle course of the Aras) was recovered by the 
 Persians in the seventeenth century, and held by 
 them till its cession to Russia in 1834. But, with 
 this exception, the whole of Armenia remained 
 under Osmanli rule until the Russians took Kars, 
 in the war of 1878. These intervening centuries 
 of union and pacification were, on the whole, 
 beneficial to Armenia; but with the year 1878 
 there began a new and sinister epoch in the rela- 
 tions between the Osmanli State and the Armenian 
 nation." — J. Bryce, Treatment of the Armenians, 
 pp. 604-605. 
 
 1623-1635. — Subjugated by Persia and re- 
 gained by the Turks. See Turkey; 1623-1640. 
 
 Also in: K. Asian, Armenia and the Armenians. 
 — Lord Bryce, Trans-Caucasia and Ararat. — N. and 
 H. Buxton, Travel and politics in Armenia. — N. 
 Gregor, History of Armenia. — H. F. B. Lynch, 
 .Armenia: travels and studies. Murray's Hand- 
 book for Asia Minor. — John Catholicos, Patriarch 
 of Armenia, Histoire d'.irmenie. — VV. E. Glad- 
 stone, Armenian, question. — Ozhderian, Turk and 
 the land of Haig. or Turkey and Armenia. — W. L. 
 Williams, Armenia past and present. 
 
 1877. — Relations with Kurdistan. See Kur- 
 distan AND THE. Kurds. 
 
 1890-1893. — Trouble with Turkey. See Tur- 
 key: 1800-1803. 
 
 1894-1895. — Revolts and massacres. — Atroci- 
 ties of Armenians and Turks. See Turkey: 
 1804-1S05. 
 
 1896 (August). — Attack of revolutionists on 
 Ottoman bank at Galata. — Turkish massacre of 
 Armenians. See Turkey: i8q6 (August). 
 
 1899. — Concessions by Turks. See Turkey: 
 i8qq (October). 
 
 1903-1904. — Incursions of Armenian revolu- 
 tionists from Russia and Persia into Asiatic 
 Turkey. See Turkey: 1003-1004. 
 
 1903-1907. — Revolutionary plans of Young 
 Turks, and cooperation with Armenians. See 
 Turkey: 1003-1007. 
 
 1905. — Massacre by Tatars in the Caucasus. 
 See Russu: iqo; (April-November). 
 
 1909. — Massacre of Armenians in Adana. 
 See Turkey: iqop. 
 
 1915. — Turkish atrocities. — Causes of hostility 
 toward the Armenians. — This year of the World 
 War witnessed some of the most terrible atrocities. 
 The Turkish defeat at the hands of the Russians 
 in the Caucasus campaign during the winter 1914- 
 igi5 had roused the bitter resentment of Enver 
 Pasha and Talaat Bey againstrthe Armenians, many 
 of whom had joined the Russian forces and con- 
 tributed in no small measure to their military 
 successes. Hence, early in iqis "the following proc- 
 lamation was sent to all the officials in the interior 
 of Turkey: — 
 
 " 'Our fellow countrymen the Armenians, who 
 form one of the racial elements of the Ottoman 
 
 Empire, having, under foreign instigation, for 
 many years past, adopted false ideas of a na- 
 ture to disturb the public order and brought about 
 bloody happenings and attempted to destroy the 
 peace and security of the Ottoman State, the 
 safety and interest of their fellow countrymen 
 as well as their own; and, moreover, as they have 
 presumed to join themselves to their mortal en- 
 emy, Russia, and to the enemies now at war 
 with our State, Be it known that our Govern- 
 ment is compelled to adopt extraordinary meas- 
 ures both for the preservation of order and security 
 of the country and for the welfare and the con- 
 tinuation of the existence of the Armenian people 
 itself. Therefore, as a measure to be applied until 
 the conclusion of the war, the Armenians shall 
 be sent away to places which have been prepared 
 in the Vilayets of the interior; and a literal 
 obedience to the following orders is categorically 
 enjoined on all Ottomans: First. All Armenians, 
 with the exception of the sick, shall leave th»ir 
 villages or quarters, under the escort of the 
 gendarmerie, within five days from the date of this 
 proclamation. Second. Though they are free to 
 carry with them on their journey such articles 
 of movable property as they may desire, they are 
 forbidden to sell their lands or their extra effects, 
 or to leave the latter with other persons, as 
 their exile is only temporary, and their landed 
 property and the effects they are unable to take 
 with them will be taken care of under supervision 
 of the Government, and stored in protected build- 
 ings. Any one who sells or attempts to dispose 
 of his movable effects or landed property in a 
 manner contrary to this order, shall be tried by 
 court-martial. Persons are free to sell to the Gov- 
 ernment only such articles as may answer the 
 needs of the army.' The third clause contains a 
 promise of safe conduct. The fourth threatens 
 with severe punishment any one attempting to 
 molest the Armenians on their way to the in- 
 terior. The fifth clause reads: 'Since the Armeni- 
 ans are obliged to submit to the decision of the 
 Government, if any of them attempt to resist the 
 soldiers or gendarmes by force of arms, arms shall 
 be used against them, and they shall be taken 
 dead or alive. In like manner, those who, in 
 opposition to the Government's decision, refrain 
 from leaving or seek to hide themselves, shall be 
 sent before a court-martial ; and if they are shel- 
 tered or given food and assistance, the persons 
 who shelter or aid them shall be sent before 
 the court-martial for execution.' 
 
 "In these few sentences a responsible gov- 
 ernment sanctioned and set in motion one of the 
 most terrible of recorded tragedies — the .'\rmenian 
 deportation. To the average person, these two 
 words convey little but a vague sense of injustice 
 done, of suffering endured. Such, after all, are 
 the chief associations connected with the name 
 of the Ottoman Empire, which has enjoyed most 
 of its world-prominence through wholesale barbar- 
 ities. Massacres have been one of the common 
 occurrences of Turkish history. No wonder, then, 
 that at a time when all Europe is filled with 
 blood and tears, and desolation stalks abroad 
 among her nations, it is difficult to get people 
 to lend an ear to the supreme ordeal of the 
 Armenians, and to convince them that at this mo- 
 ment the Turks are writing unhindered what Pro- 
 fessor Gibbons justly calls the 'blackest page in 
 modern history.' It is difficult to convince them 
 that the cruelties of Abdul Hamid were merciful 
 by comparison with this final turn of the screw. 
 The suffering caused by massacres was scattering ; 
 it smote only a fraction of the people, a thousand 
 here, ten thousand there, while the bulk of the 
 
 519
 
 ARMENIA, 1915 
 
 Turkish 
 Atrocities 
 
 ARMENIA, 1915 
 
 race survived. Such was the policy or wisdom 
 of the Old Turk; he kept the cow aUve that he 
 might continually milk her. Not so with the 
 Young Turk. IntelUgent, cultured, irreligious, 
 and unscrupulous, the old-fashioned method of 
 dealing with the Armenians was too slow for him; 
 he 'Set about finding a way to settle the problem 
 once for all, and devised the scheme of deporta- 
 tion — which, bluntly, is another way of saying 
 the extermination of the Armenian race in the 
 Ottoman Empire. 
 
 "The full story of the deportation will never 
 be written, for the reason that it deals so largely 
 with suffering that is indescribable, heartlessness 
 that is incredible. The central fact is, however, 
 that under the pretext of war-measures the 
 Armenians have been driven eii masse from the 
 shores of the Black Sea and Marmora southward 
 as far as the Syrian desert. . . . For the com- 
 pleter evolution of the 'deportation' system, we 
 may again examine the case of Marsovan. This 
 town is an important missionary centre. Under 
 the American Board, an extensive medical, evan- 
 gelical, and educational work was carried on 
 here. There was .■\natolia College, with more than 
 four hundred students; a girls' boarding school 
 of almost three hundred pupils; a hospital, a 
 theological seminary, and an industrial institu- 
 tion. Forces for good were at work which spread 
 their influence throughout the Ottoman Empire, 
 and beyond — into Russia, Greece, and Egypt. 
 Ambassador Morgenthau had secured promises 
 from Enver Pasha and Talaad Bey that the col- 
 lege people should not be molested but the gov- 
 ernor of Marsovan declared that he had been 
 notified of no such promise, and had received no 
 orders save those to deport all Armenians. Once 
 more the Turks had pulled wool over the 
 diplomat's eyes. And so, on August lo, igis. 
 sixty-one ox-carts entered the college compound. 
 The gendarmes forced the great gates open, and 
 battered down every closed door. They entered 
 even the homes of Americans, and took away 
 every .■\rmenian on the premises. . . . According 
 to the testimony of the wives of the professors, 
 seen near Sivas, they were all kept together un- 
 til they passed Zilch . . . then they were sep- 
 arated. The men, bound with ropes, were driven 
 in one direction, the women and young children 
 in another. According to the testimony of the 
 gendarmes, all the men were killed. It should 
 be kept in mind that the tragedy of Marsovan 
 was being enacted, on a greater or lesser scale, 
 in hundreds of other villages and towns, in all 
 of which the eliminative processes had been work- 
 ing on the Armenians in the same general fashion. 
 . . . This 'selection' continued methodically all 
 along the caravan routes which the refugees were 
 following. Kurds, Turks, Arabs, attacked the de- 
 fenseless victims and took their pick of them 
 unhindered. The rest were forced to go on under 
 the whips of gendarmes and other officials worse 
 than slave-drivers. .\s fatigue and hunger made 
 their inroads on the Armenians, the conditions 
 became indescribable. . . . During my stay in An- 
 gora all the male .Armenians were deported, 
 chiefly toward the southern interior. Villagers and 
 gendarmes reported that great numbers of them 
 were killed a short distance outside the city. 
 Every day I saw them hurrying through the streets 
 in miserable droves, with the police brutally fol- 
 lowing them up. The .Armenian? of .^neora were 
 mostly Catholics. No massacres took place among 
 them under .\bdul Hamid. They were most loyal 
 to the Turks: they took no part in nationalistic 
 movements. They did not even call themselves 
 Armenians. The Young Turks, however, made no 
 
 discrimination of creed: Gregorians, Protestants, 
 and Catholics were all put on the same footing 
 and ruthlessly deported. Gregorian and Catholic 
 priests were often driven off in the same wagon 
 and decapitated with the same axe. It is worth 
 noting that while I was still in Angora the leaders 
 of the Turkish Union and Progress Committee 
 sent word to the Catholic bishop of the city that 
 if he and his people would embrace Islam, they 
 would all be spared. The refusal was unanimous. 
 "No one can hear the terrible tale of the Ar- 
 menian deportation without asking what the un- 
 derlying reasons for it all might be. Even beasts 
 of prey, it will be said, do not kill for the mere 
 lust of killing; what is the object to be attained? 
 What results do the Turks hope to get in return 
 for the energy they have expended in prosecuting 
 this extermination? (i) According to the Turk- 
 ish Government, the plan was necessitated by 
 the exigencies of war. 'Turkey,' they said, 'was 
 engaged in a tremendous struggle against over- 
 whelming odds, fighting for her very life. The 
 Armenians were plotting with the enemy and pre- 
 paring internal disturbances; therefore they had 
 to be removed to a place where they could be 
 rendered harmless.' This charge of plotting is 
 groundless. The only instance in which the Ar- 
 menians made armed resistance to the Turks was 
 at Van— and then only when they had been at- 
 tacked and saw that they were doomed to ex- 
 termination. It is true that, when the sale of 
 arms was generally permitted after the revolu- 
 tion of iqo8, many Armenians took advantage 
 of the occasion to secure weapons of defense. The 
 source of these arms was controlled by the gov- 
 ernment, however, coming as they did direct from 
 Germany; and when, after the declaration of 
 war, the Armenians were commanded to give them 
 up, they voluntarily obeyed, those persons who 
 were at first inclined to conceal their weapons 
 finally yielding to the persuasion of their priests 
 or pastors. Some slight excuse for the action of 
 the Turks might seem to be found in the ex- 
 istence of the organized .Armenian 'Hinchakist' and 
 'Tashuagist' societies which, under the reign of 
 Abdul Hamid, were perforce kept secret. But 
 after the revolution of iqo8, these societies openly 
 proclaimed themselves, and won the approval of 
 the Young Turks, who declared that 'the Ar- 
 menian revolutionists were among the pioneers of 
 Ottoman liberty.' Their programme was broadly 
 socialistic and educational, aiming at the instruc- 
 tion of the people and their elevation to those 
 ideals which the Young Turks themselves had 
 espoused with such high-sounding phrases. When 
 the test came, it was shown how empty these 
 phrases really were. (2) Race- jealousy is a fac- 
 tor to be reckoned with. The Turks are really 
 aliens in the country they rule: they came as 
 conquerors, and have maintained their supremacy 
 by force. The .Armenians, when they were sub- 
 jugated by the Turks, were an ancient and civilized 
 people, with an organized society which the Turks, 
 in long centuries, have never been able to ap- 
 proximate: an enterprising race, thrifty, energetic, 
 and capable of progress and culture along all lines. 
 In spite of savage repression, they became the 
 leading merchants, traders, lawyers, doctors of the 
 country, especially in the interior. Even in the 
 reign of Abdul Hamid the Minister of Finance was 
 usually an Armenian. They amassed great wealth 
 and property, and the Turkish peasant was usually 
 dependent on them. Now [1016] the real pro- 
 gramme of the Young Turk party is 'Turkey for 
 the Turks.' Under the name of 'Ottomanization,' 
 they were determined to assimilate or eliminate all 
 the non-Turkish elements in the Empire and 
 
 520
 
 ARMENIA, 1916 
 
 Peace 
 
 Conference 
 
 ARMENIA, 1919-1920 
 
 uplift their own race at the expense of the non- 
 Moslem peoples of the country. They were drunk 
 with the idea of nationalism. They condemned 
 the statesman-like policy of Mohammed II, con- 
 queror of Constantinople, in organizing and es- 
 tablishing the Greek Patriarchate, with its special 
 privileges and immunities, and bewailed the fact 
 that the Old Turks had allowed the Greek, Ar- 
 menian, Bulgarian, Serbian, and Jewish elements 
 of the Empire to keep intact their religious, 
 linguistic, and racial pecularities for so many cen- 
 turies. They were determined to be supreme in 
 the land they conquered, absolute masters over 
 the subject peoples. (3) All attempts to reform 
 Turkey have been shattered against Mohammedan- 
 ism. The very first article of the Turkish Con- 
 stitution declares: 'The religion of the Ottoman 
 Empire is Islam.' The Young Turks are mostly 
 indifferent to matters of faith, if not actually 
 irreligious, but they know the power of Islam 
 over the people, — its value has often been proved 
 in assimilating the non-Turkish elements. . . . Re- 
 ligious fanaticism was especially appealed to when 
 the Russians withdrew from Van and the Gallipoh 
 campaign collapsed, and the idea of the Jehad or 
 Sacred War gained in popularity. That the cause 
 of the Armenian atrocities was not wholly re- 
 ligious, however, is shown by the extremely Timited 
 categories of persons to whom the choice between 
 deportation or acceptance of Islam was offered. 
 (4) As a fourth factor one must mention the 
 conflicting interests and the intrigues of European 
 diplomacy. The Christians of Turkey have suf- 
 fered untold misery because Europe cannot agree. 
 Turkey owes her existence to-day to the backing 
 England gave her in the nineteenth century." — 
 Calvary of a nation: A personal narrative { At- 
 lantic Monthly, November, IQ16). — "And now 
 for nearly thirty years Turkey gave the world 
 an illustration of government by massacre. . . . 
 Through all these years the existence of the Ar- 
 menians was one continuous nightmare. Their 
 property was stolen, their men were murdered, their 
 women were ravished, their young girls kid- 
 napped and forced to live in Turkish harems. . . . 
 And now the Young Turks, who had adopted so 
 many of Abdul Hamid's ideas, also made his 
 Armenian policy their own. ... On April 15th 
 [1915], about 500 young Armenian men of Akantz 
 were mustered to hear an order of the Sultan; 
 at sunset they were marched outside the town 
 and every man shot in cold blood. This procedure 
 was repeated in about eighty Armenian villages 
 in the district north of Lake Van, and in three 
 days 24,000 Armenians were murdered in this 
 atrocious fashion. . . . Doctor Ussher, the Ameri- 
 can medical missionary whose hospital at Van 
 was destroyed by bombardment, is puthority for 
 the statement that, after driving off the Turks, 
 the Russians began to collect and to cremate the 
 bodies of Armenians who had been murdered in 
 the province, with the result that 55,000 bodies 
 were burned." — Ambassador Morgenthau's story, 
 pp. 289-290; 297, 299. — In a vivid description of 
 how the "deportation" of the Armenians was car- 
 ried out, and the barbaric proceduie of Turkish 
 gendarmes. Ambassador Morganthau estimates that 
 ''at least 600,000 people were destroyed and per- 
 haps as many as 1,000,000." — See also World War; 
 IQ15: VI. Turkey: d. 
 
 Also in: A. J. Toynbee, Armenian atrocities, the 
 murder oj a nation. — M. Niepage, The horrors of 
 Aleppo seen by a German eyewitness. — R. Pinon, 
 La suppression des Armeniens: methode allemande 
 — travail turc. 
 
 1916. — Conquest by Russians. See World War: 
 1916: VI. Turkish theater: d, 1; d, 3; d, 5. 
 
 1916 (May).— Southern section ceaed to 
 France. See Svria: 1908-1921. 
 
 1918.— Speech of Lloyd George on British war 
 aims. See World War: 1918: X. Statements of 
 war aims: a. 
 
 1918.— Military operations.- Turkish activ- 
 ities. — Massacres. See World War: 1918- VI 
 Turkish theater: b; b, 2; b, 3. 
 
 1918.— Troops aid British in Palestine. See 
 World War: 1918: VI. Turkish theater: c 14 
 
 1918-1920.— Republic formed. See Caucasus: 
 1918-1920. 
 
 1919-1920.— Peace Conference on Armenia's 
 destiny.— Problems of mandate.— "The libera- 
 tion of Armenia was the one outstanding re- 
 sult expected from the Near Eastern negotiations 
 at the Peace Conference. The failure to meet this 
 general expectation was indirectly a result of the 
 struggle among the Allied Powers for e-quality or 
 priority of opportunity in the commercial exploi- 
 tation of the old Turkish Empire in the case of a 
 successful termination of the war. In the pursuit 
 of these objects the independence and protection of 
 Armenia became a thing men talked about, but did 
 not work for. ... In May, 1916, it was secretly 
 agreed that Russia was tc acquire in sovereignty the 
 four Armenian vilayets of Trebizond, Erzerum, 
 Van, and Bitlis. British and French negotiations, 
 conducted at the same time, roughly defined the 
 respective areal acquisitions or spheres of these two 
 Powers by the ill-fated Sykes-Picot Treaty. 
 
 "When the Peace Conference assembled, the Saz- 
 onof-Paleologue Agreement lay buried in the ruins 
 of Russia. Constantinople and the four Armenian 
 vilayets had lost their secret tags. The President of 
 the United States sat in the chair which Sazonof 
 or Isvolsky had expected to occupy. It was a 
 natural thing for men to assume that the United 
 States would replace Russia in the political set- 
 tlement of the Turkish problems as she had in the 
 war, by accepting, under provisions entirely ad- 
 justable to our own ideals of international fair 
 play, the territorial assignments which the Russian 
 collapse had left vacant. The Armenians desired 
 this with all their hearts. Liberal British and 
 French opinion urged upon our delegation the ne- 
 cessity of American acceptance of a mandate over 
 Armenia. I was one who shared their opinion and 
 I still share it. However strongly President Wil- 
 son favored this plan I never heard any man say 
 that either he, or any one of his colleagues on the 
 American Peace Commission, made any promise 
 vvhich would tend to preempt the constitutional 
 right of the American people to answer this ques- 
 tion through their representatives in Congress. . . . 
 From behind it all came the sound of children's 
 and women's voices crying for bread. American 
 relief workers began to drift in and tell about the 
 conditions in Armenia. The younger men always 
 spoke passionately: 'Why do the American people 
 permit this? Why do you, who are sitting at 
 Paris, not do something?' The middle-aged men 
 spoke more quietly, as if their hearts were old and 
 their sympathies shrivelled. They were much the 
 more terrible to listen to. . . . For Armenia has 
 been betrayed by the civilized world and thrown 
 upon the tender mercies of Bolshevist Russia and 
 the Turkish Nationalist forces. . . . The efforts 
 of the two Armenian delegations at Paris were 
 directed toward the ultimate end of establishing 
 an independent state, including the Armenians of 
 Russian Transcaucasus and the four northeastern 
 vilayets of Turkey, stretching southwestward so 
 as to embrace a part of Cilicia, and debouching 
 upon the Mediterranean Sea at the Bay of Alex- 
 andretta. Their immediate desire was to obtain 
 
 521
 
 ARMENIA, 1920 
 
 ARMENIAN CHURCH 
 
 recognition of the Armenian Republic of the Trans- 
 caucasus as a de facto government, so that they 
 might be in a position to obtain credits, money 
 for food for tlie 400,000 refugees assembled in 
 Russian Armenia, and for arms and ammunition 
 with which they might defend themselves against 
 Moslem Tartar and Turkish attacks and move the 
 refugees back to their homes in Turkish Armenia. 
 But the Armenian mountains have little to offer 
 in exchange for help, except a brave, industrious, 
 and broken people. 
 
 "The Armenian desire for Cilicia conflicted with 
 the territorial assignment to France by the Sykes- 
 Picot Treaty. Cilicia and central Anatolia, there- 
 fore, remain to Turkey in the Treaty of Sevres, 
 and are designated as a sphere of French interest 
 in the Tripartite Agreement. Again, the secret 
 treaties had won in the diplomatic field. But the 
 attempt of the French to occupy Cilicia has been 
 frustrated by the Turkish Nationalist opposition. 
 Bitterly disillusioned, the French press is demanding 
 that the entire Cilician adventure be abandoned." 
 — E. M. House and C. Seymour, What really hap- 
 pened at Paris, pp. 178-180, 182, 187-188, igo, 195, 
 202-203. 
 
 1919-1920. — Relations with Georgian republic. 
 • — See Georgia, Republic of; 1Q19-1920. 
 
 1920. — Treaty of Sevres. — Independence es- 
 tablished. — Boundaries fixed. — According to the 
 terms of the treaty of peace imposed by the 
 Allied powers upon Turkey, and signed at Sevres, 
 France, on Aug. 10, 1920, Armenia was definitely 
 liberated from Turkish rule. Article 88 of the 
 treaty. Section vi, stipulates that — "Turkey, in 
 accordance with the action already taken by the 
 Allied Powers, hereby recognizes Armenia as a free 
 and independent .State. 
 
 "Article 89. — Turkey and Armenia, as well as 
 the other high contracting parties, agree to submit 
 to the arbitration of the President of the United 
 States of America the question of the frontier to 
 be fixed between Turkey and Armenia in the Vila- 
 yets of Erzerum, Trebizond, Van and Bitlis, and 
 to accept his decision thereupon, as well as any 
 stipulations he may prescribe as to access for Ar- 
 menia to the sea, and as to the demilitarization of 
 any portion of Turkish territory adjacent to the 
 said frontier. 
 
 "Article 90. — In the event of the determination 
 of the frontier under Article 89 involving the trans- 
 fer of the whole or any part of the territory of the 
 said Vilayets to Armenia, Turkey hereby renounces, 
 as from the date of such decision, all rights and 
 title over the territory so transferred The pro- 
 visions of the present treaty applicable to terri- 
 tory detached from Turkey shall thereupon become 
 applicable to the said territory. The proportion 
 and nature of the financial obligations of Turkey 
 which Armenia will have to assume, or of the 
 rights which will pass to her, on account of the 
 transfer of the said territory will be determined in 
 accordance with Articles 241 to 244, Part viii. 
 (Financial Clauses) of the present treaty. Subse- 
 quent agreements will, if necessary, decide all ques- 
 tions which are not decided by the present treaty 
 and which may arise in consequence of the trans- 
 fer of the said territory. 
 
 ".Article 91 — In the event of any portion of 
 the territory referred to in Article 89 being trans- 
 ferred to .Armenia, a boundary commission, whose 
 composition will be determined subsequently, will 
 be constituted within three months from the de- 
 livery of the decision referred to in the said article 
 to trace on the spot the frontier between .Armenia 
 and Turkey as established by such decision 
 
 ".Article 92. — The frontiers between .Armenia 
 and Azerbaijan and Georgia respectively will be 
 
 determined by direct agreement between the States 
 concerned. If in either case the States concerned 
 have failed to determine the frontier by agreement 
 at the date of the decision referred to in Article 89. 
 the frontier line in question will be determined by 
 the Principal .Allied Powers, who will also provide 
 for its being traced on the spot. 
 
 "Article 93. — Armenia accepts and agrees to 
 embody in a treaty with the principal allied powers 
 such provisions as may be deemed necessary by 
 these powers to protect the interests of inhabitants 
 of that State who differ from the majority of the 
 population in race, language or religion. Armenia 
 further accepts and agrees to embody in a treaty 
 with the principal allied powers such provisions as 
 these powers may deem necessary to protect free- 
 dom of transit and equitable treatment for the 
 commerce of other nations." — British treaty, series 
 No. II, 1920 (Cd. 964). — See also Sevres, Tre.my 
 of: 1920: Part III. Political clauses: Ar- 
 menia 
 
 "By the Treaty of Sevres President Wilson was 
 asked to fix by arbitration the boundaries between 
 Armenia and the Turkish state. His competence 
 was limited to drawing these boundaries within 
 the four vilayets of Erzerum, Trebizond, Bitlis, and 
 Van. In other words, the territory which he could 
 possibly assign to .Armenia approximates that for- 
 merly given to Russia by the Paleologue-Sazonof 
 Treaty. Here, too, the territorial dispositions of 
 the Treaty of Sevres are the offspring of the secret 
 treaties Though the Turkish treaty declares them 
 to be free, in actuality the Armenians have been 
 betrayed by the western world. Lenine and Mus- 
 tapha Kemal have cracked the whip and they have 
 sovietized. WTio of us dares look an Armenian in 
 the face and upbraid him for this." — E. M. House 
 and C. Seymour, What really happened at Paris, 
 p. 203. — See also Sevres, Tre.^ty of: 1920: Part 
 II. 
 
 1920. — Free passage to Black sea granted. 
 See Sevres, Treaty of: 1920: Part XI. Ports, wa- 
 terways and railways. 
 
 1920. — Party platforms in United States on 
 Armenia. See US .A.: 1920: Democratic plat- 
 form ; Republican platform. 
 
 1920. — Turk and Bolshevist attacks. — League 
 of Nations membership denied. — "In October, 
 1920, the Turkish Nationalists and the Bolsheviks 
 made a concerted attack upon .Armenia. The 
 Armenians resisted bravely for two months, not 
 without some success against the Turks, but 
 at the end of the year the Russians overran the 
 country and established a Bolshevik regime at 
 Erivan The original .A,rmenian Government 
 asked for admission [December 16] to the League 
 of Nations, but was refused. President Wil- 
 son suggested that Armenia's frontiers should be 
 extended so as to include Trebizond, Erzerum, 
 Kars, Mush, and Bitlis. This, of course, ap- 
 plied to the non-Bolshevik State, which existed 
 until December." — Annual Register, 1920, pp. 269- 
 270. — The refusal to admit Armenia, as well as 
 Lithuania. Esthonia and Latvia was based on the 
 ground that those countries were not sufficiently 
 established. — Ibid., p. 15b. 
 
 1921. — Conditions of self-government of 
 Sevres Treaty changed in Near East Conference. 
 See Sevres, Treaty of: 1921: Near East Confer- 
 ence: -Armenia. 
 
 ARMENIA, Lesser. Sec .Armenia: 908-1085. 
 
 ARMENIAN CHURCH.— "The origin of this 
 Church is clearly discernible. It was beyond doubt 
 .Apostolic. Primitive and unvarying traditions 
 agree in regarding St. Thaddeus and St. Bartholo- 
 mew as the first preachers of the Gospel in Ar- 
 menia, and as the founders of the Christian 
 
 522
 
 ARMENIAN CHURCH 
 
 ARMENIAN CHURCH 
 
 churches in the land. These two are spoken of as 
 First Illuminators of Armenia. St. Bartholomew's 
 labours and martyrdom in Armenia are as well 
 authenticated as any facts in the history of the 
 founding of the first churches during the great 
 forty years after our Lord's ascension. Concern- 
 ing Thaddeus there is less certainty. Some affirm 
 him to be Thaddeus Didymus, brother of the 
 Apostle St. Thomas, whilst a second tradition sees 
 in him the Apostle St. Judas Thaddeus, surnamed 
 Lebbeius. The details are lost, but the broad fact 
 remains that the earliest preaching was by these 
 two men, and that the first communities of 
 Christians in Armenia were gathered from the 
 mass of heathendom as the result of their la- 
 bours. Beyond these facts we know little or noth- 
 ing. The primitive era is shrouded in darkness. 
 But the work did not cease when the Apostolic 
 workers received the crown of martyrdom. The 
 best guarantee for the spread of the Gospel was 
 the missionary zeal of the first converts. The Ar- 
 menian Church grew in numbers, influence, en- 
 dured persecution, and had its martyrology. There 
 are records of religious persecutions by King Ar- 
 taxerxes (c. no A. D.), by Chosroes (c. 250), and 
 by Tiradates (c. 287). It is permissible to argue 
 that had the Christians been small in numbers, and 
 of small social importance, they would have es- 
 caped persecution. The fact points to the existence 
 of a large body of Christians. Indeed, only on the 
 supposition of a widespread acceptance of the 
 faith can the almost instantaneous conversion to 
 Christianity of the whole land in the first years 
 of the Fourth Century be explained. It had al- 
 ready taken deep root in the life of the nation 
 when the events occurred which issued in Armenia 
 becoming the first Christian State. [See also 
 Christianity: A.D. 33-100. j What are the Dis- 
 tinctive Claims of the Armenian Church? (i) It 
 claims to be Apostolic. That is, in origin it claims 
 . a place alongside the^proudest Churches in Chris- 
 tendom. Hence it is equal in point of antiquity 
 and authority with any Churches of the East or 
 West which make these the indispensable notes of 
 a true branch of the Catholic Church. 'The Apos- 
 tolic origin of the Armenian Church,' says Orman- 
 ian, 'is established as an incontrovertible fact in 
 ecclesiastical history. And if tradition and his- 
 toric sources which sanction this view should give 
 occ'tsion for criticism, these have no greater weight 
 than the difficulties created with regard to the 
 origin of other Apostolic Churches, which are uni- 
 versally admitted as such.' (The Church of Ar- 
 menia, p. S). (2) It claims to be Independent. 
 The dominant Churches of the East and West 
 repudiate this claim, and affirm that the Armenian 
 church owns allegiance to them. It is certain 
 that through long and troubled centuries both 
 Churches have made endless and forcible attempts 
 to assert their mastery over this small national 
 Church. These efforts to bring her into a state 
 of dependency and submission the Armenians have 
 resisted with all the strength, energy, and passion 
 of their nature. Deprived of political independence 
 they have clung all the more tenaciously to the in- 
 tegrity of their Church, whatever may have been 
 the grounds upon which these attacks have been 
 made. (3) It claims to be National. This claim 
 rests equally upon an unassailable basis of his- 
 torical fact. Through the ages whilst every other 
 bond has been broken save that of language, the 
 Church has knit the scattered units of the nation 
 into one indivisible whole. Its head has stood for 
 each succeeding generation as the symbol of the 
 national life Deprived of a political head and 
 even a political capital the people have, for at least 
 five hundred vars, looked to Etchmiadzin as the 
 
 home of their people, the centre to which they 
 looked for guidance, unfaiUng sympathy, and prac- 
 tical aid. It is 'National' in a more complete sense 
 than any other Church in Christendom which em- 
 ploys the term. Two facts emphasise its national 
 character. First, wherever are members of the 
 race, whatever may be their dogmatic creed or 
 ecclesiastical polity, Etchmiadzin and the Cathol- 
 icos are still the representative of their race, the 
 depository of their traditions, and the fountain and 
 centre of their hopes. Secondly, for perfectly ob- 
 vious and adequate reasons, the Armenian Church 
 commands no adherents outside the limits of the 
 nation. Moslem, Orthodox Greek, Roman Catho- 
 lic, and Evangelical Protestants have all in turn 
 proselytised, weakened her still further by drawing 
 away from the national fold members of the flock. 
 She herself has proselytised no Church or nation. 
 The missionary spirit which in the earliest days of 
 its history drove heroic men far and wide in the 
 Caucasus, and steeled them to win the crown of 
 martyrdom has vanished under the oppressive regi- 
 men of successive conquerors. Whether under the 
 happier conditions which will follow this world- 
 war, this spirit will not again lay hold of a race 
 eminently aggressive and enterprising, is a ques- 
 tion those who know Armenia best will have no 
 difficulty in answering in the affirmative. (4) It 
 claims to be Democratic. It is also episcopal. In 
 other Churches the hierarchical principle has to a 
 greater or lesser degree banished the democratic 
 principle and shown itself opposed to the demo- 
 cratic spirit. 'Among the Armenians,' says Or- 
 manian (p. 151), 'the clergy are not looked upon 
 as absolute masters and owners of the Church. 
 The Church since its institution has belonged as 
 much to the faithful as to the ministers of wor- 
 ship. In virtue of this principle, and apart from 
 sacramental acts, for the performance of which 
 ordination is indispensable, nothing is done in ec- 
 clesiastical administration without the co-opera- 
 tion of the lay element.' Logically it follows that 
 every ministering servant at its altars occupies 
 his place from the highest to the lowest by the free 
 choice of the people. Equally the pastor of a re- 
 mote village, and the Catholicos who addresses 
 Popes and Potentates as 'Dear Brother,' are where 
 they are by virtue of the power exercised by the 
 laity. The village priest is elected by the people, 
 often one of their own number, and his support 
 is from their free-will offerings. The head of the 
 Church is similarly elected by an assembly of dele- 
 gates who are first elected by their various dioceses. 
 The check upon the election of the Catholicos 
 does not invade this principle in any vital degree. 
 In a word, so far. as representation and adminis- 
 tration go, the Armenian Church is an ancient and 
 successful blend of two opposite principles of 
 church government, viz., the Congregational and 
 the Episcopal. Further, the democratic principle 
 has been applied from most ancient times not only 
 to government but also to the determination of 
 doctrine. 'The Armenian Church is the one 
 wherein the democratic spirit,' says Ormanian, 'ex- 
 cels in all vividness and truth. . . . The leading men 
 and the deputies, in a word, the representatives of 
 the people, have ever continued to take their 
 place, side by side, with bishops and doctors in 
 the Council. They are known to have taken an 
 active part in all discussions bearing on questions 
 of doctrine and discipline, and have set their sign 
 manual at the foot of deeds and canons as effec- 
 tive members of councils.' It is. therefore, not to 
 be marvelled at that 'clericalism' is unknown on 
 the one hand, and indifference on the other. (5) 
 It claims to be Liberal. Not for a moment must 
 that be confused with lax views or with vagueness 
 
 523
 
 ARMENIAN MASSACRES 
 
 ARMISTICE 
 
 of belief in Christian dogmas. Her liberalism arises 
 from her historical attitude towards that develop- 
 ment of Christian doctrine which it has been the 
 function of Church councils to mark, stereotype, 
 and make binding upon the consciences of the 
 faithiul. The Armenian Church has limited that 
 function to the lowest possible degree by strictly 
 Umiting the number of Councils she recognises. 
 Each successive Council has added to the number 
 of dogmas which must be received under penalty 
 of forfeiting eternal salvation. The Latin Church 
 recognises twenty ; the Greek Orthodox Church 
 admits seven; the Armenian Church only three, 
 viz., Nicea, Constantinople, in the Fourth Century, 
 and Ephesus in the Fifth Century." — L. Williams, 
 Armenia: past and present, pp. 100-102, 130-136. 
 "The religion of Armenia could not derive much 
 glory from the learning or the power of its inhabi- 
 tants. The royalty expired with the origin of their 
 schism; and their Christian kings, who arose and 
 fell in the 13th century on the confines of Cilicia, 
 were the clients of the Latins and the vassals of 
 the Turkish sultan of Iconium. The helpless na- 
 tion has seldom been permitted to enjoy the tran- 
 quility of servitude. From the earliest period to 
 the present hour, Armenia has been the theatre of 
 perpetual war; the lands between Tauris and 
 Erivan were dispeopled by the cruel policy of the 
 Sophis; and myriads of Christian families were 
 transplanted, to perish or to propagate in the dis- 
 tant provinces of Persia. Under the rod of op- 
 pression, the zeal of the Armenians is fervent and 
 mtrepid; they have often preferred the crown of 
 martvrdom to the white turban of Mahomet; 
 they devoutly hate the error and idolatry of the 
 Greeks." — E. Gibbon. History of the decline and 
 jail of the Roman empire., ch. 47.— Statistics show 
 thirty-four church organizations with 27,450 mem- 
 bers in the United States.— United States Census, 
 Religions bodies, 1916, pt. 2, p. 40. 
 
 ARMENIAN MASSACRES. See Armenia; 
 igiS; Russia: 1905 (April-November); Syria: 
 1908-1921; Turkey: 1894-1895; 1896 (August); 
 1909. 
 
 ARMENIAN RELIEF. See International 
 relief: Near East Relief. 
 
 ARMINIUS, Jacobus (1560-1609). See Ar- 
 MiNiANS; Netherlands, 1603- 161 9. 
 ARMENOIDS. See Pacific ocean: People. 
 ARMENTIERES, a manufacturing town of 
 France, department of Nord, on the river Lys, nine 
 miles northwest of Lille. The town was bom- 
 barded, sacked, and ruined by the German armies 
 in the World War. 
 
 1914. — Occupied by British. See World War: 
 1914: I. Western front: t, 1; u, 1; w. 
 
 1918. — Battle. — Capture by Germans and with- 
 drawal of British. See World War: 1918: II. 
 Western front: a, 2; d, 3; d, 7. 
 
 1918. — Taken by Allies and abandoned by 
 Germans. See World War: 1918: 11. Western 
 front: i; m; q, 1. 
 
 ARMIES, European and American. See Mn.- 
 IT.VRV organization; War, Preparation for. 
 ARMINA: See Armenia: B.C. 585-55. 
 ARMINIANS, a religious group of the seven- 
 teenth century among the Calvinists, followers of 
 Arminius (Jakob Hermansen, 1560-1609), profes- 
 sor at the university of Leyden ; declared their 
 opinions in the year 1610 opposing, among other 
 things, the former doctrine that Christ died for 
 the elect alone; were also designated by the name 
 of Remonstrants. — See also Netherlands: 1603- 
 1619. 
 
 ARMINIUS (17 B.C.-A. D. 21), early German 
 national hero of the tribe of Cherusci. He was an 
 officer in the Roman legions in his youth, but, re- 
 
 turning to his tribe, he led a rebellion against 
 Quintilius Varus, Roman governor, in A. D. 9. 
 Varus was disastrously defeated. (See Germany 
 B.C. S-A. D. II). In the year .•\. D. 15, German- 
 icus Ca;sar led the Romans against Arminius and 
 in the year after defeated him. (See Germany 
 A, D. 14-16), Arminius was murdered in .\.D. 21. 
 ARMISTICE.— A cessation of lighting, a short 
 truce, during which it is possible to make terms 
 for a longer truce, or for peace. A modern armis- 
 tice provides that a neutral zone shall be ii.xed be- 
 tween the fronts of the respective armies who are 
 parties to the agreement, forbids naval bombard- 
 ment, the taking of maritime prizes, and the send- 
 ing of reinforcements into the theater of war. — See 
 also Hague Conferences: 1899: Convention with 
 respect to the laws and customs on land. 
 
 1797.^Such an armistice was signed during the 
 Napoleonic wars at Leoben on April 7, 1797, after 
 the battle of Ball-Platz, and provided the prelim- 
 inaries for the treaty of Campo-Formio between 
 the Emperor Joseph and Napoleon. See France: 
 1 796-1 797 (Oct.-Apr). 
 
 1805. — In 1805 an armistice signed at Austerlitz 
 paved the way for peace (Pressburg) between Aus- 
 tria and France. See German"\': 1805-1806. 
 
 1859. — In 1859 the armistice signed at V'illefranca 
 between Napoleon III and the Emperor Francis 
 Joseph, resulted in the treaty of Zurich signed on 
 November 10, 1859. See Italy: 1S56-1859. 
 
 1801. — .\n unusually interesting instance of a 
 naval armistice is that which was arranged be- 
 tween the Danes and the British in April, 1801, 
 after which there were in fact no other negotia- 
 tions between the two belligerents. 
 
 1884. — On May 11, 1S84, an armistice between 
 France and China provided the preliminary base 
 of the definitive treaty which was concluded at 
 Tien Tsin on April 4, 1885, and which gave Ton- 
 quin to China. See France: 1875-1889. 
 
 1895. — .An armistice was signed between the Jap-, 
 anese and Chinese at the close of the Chino-Jap- 
 anese war in 1895, which preceded the treaty of 
 Shimonoseki. See China: 1894-1895. 
 
 1905. — The peace negotiations held at Ports- 
 mouth, New Hampshire, which ended the Russo- 
 Japanese war, were preceded by an armistice be- 
 tween the warring countries. (See Japan: 1905- 
 1914). The agreement for a general armistice is 
 made between the commanders-in-chief of the con- 
 tending armies; but, unless express authority has 
 been conferred upon them for this purpose, the 
 agreement must be ratified by their respective gov- 
 ernments. On the other hand, a partial armistice 
 may be entered into between commanders, under 
 the general powers which they possess. — See also 
 Treaties of peace. 
 
 1918. — Those ending hostilities in the World War 
 were chronologically as follows: 
 
 September 30, IQ18, armistice signed by Bulgaria, 
 yielding control of railways to the .Miles, and cut- 
 ting the connection between the Teuton powers and 
 Turkey. See World War: Miscellaneous auxiliary 
 services: I. Armistices: c. 
 
 October 31, 1018, armistice signed by Turkey, in- 
 volving opening the Dardenelles and substantially 
 an unconditional surrsnder. See World War: Mis- 
 cellaneous auxiliary services: I. Armistices: d. 
 
 November 3, 1918, armistice signed by Austria- 
 Hungary, yielding completely to the Allies and 
 opening her territory for an Allied attack upon 
 Germany. See World War: Miscellaneous auxil- 
 iary services: I. .Armistices: e. 
 
 November 11. loiS, armistice signed by Ger- 
 many, including such great concessions as to make 
 it physically impossible for Germany to renew the 
 struggle. The terms of this armistice assured to 
 
 524
 
 ARMOR 
 
 ARMY 
 
 the Allies the power absolutely to dictate the con- 
 ditions of the peace treaty. All of these armis- 
 tices were successively requested by the four de- 
 feated countries. See World War: Miscellaneous 
 auxiliary services: I. Armistices: i. 
 
 There was also an armistice between Germany 
 and the Bolsheviki, (December, 1917), preliminary 
 to the signing of the abortive treaty of Brest- 
 Litovsk on March 3, iqi8. That treaty was repu- 
 diated in the final settlement forced by the Allies. 
 — See also U. S. A.: iqi8 (September-November) ; 
 World W.^r: Miscellaneous auxiliary services: I. 
 Armistices: a. 
 
 ARMOR. See Costume: Military. 
 
 Ancient Greek. See /Egean civilization: 
 Minoan Age. 
 
 Of the Franks. See Franks: 500-768. 
 
 Viking. See Scandinavian states: Sth-gth 
 centuries. 
 
 Medieval. See Longbow. 
 
 Spanish: 14th century. See Spain: 1366-1369. 
 
 In trench warfare. See Trench warfare: De- 
 fensive weapons. 
 
 ARMOR PIERCING BULLET. See Rifles 
 AND revolvers: Shot-guns in World War. 
 
 ARMORIAL BEARINGS, Origin of.— "As to 
 armorial bearing^s, there is no doubt that emblems 
 somewhat similar have been immemorially used 
 both in, war and peace. The shields of ancient 
 warrfors, and devices upon coins or seals, bear no 
 distant resemblance to modern blazonry. But the 
 general introduction of such bearings, as hereditary 
 distinctions, has been sometimes attributed to tour- 
 naments, wherein the champions were distinguished 
 by fanciful devices; sometimes to the crusades, 
 wherR a multitude of all nations and languages 
 stood in need of some visible token to denote the 
 banners of their respective, chiefs. In fact, the 
 peculiar symbols of heraldry point to both these 
 sources and have been borrowed in'part from each. 
 Hereditary arms were perhaps scarcely used by 
 private families before the beginning of the thir- 
 teenth century From that time, however, they 
 became very general."^ — H. HaUam,, Europe during 
 the middle, ages, ch. 2, pt. 2. 
 
 ARMORICA, ARMORICANS.— The penin- 
 sular projection of the coast of Gaul between the 
 mouths of the Seine and the Loire, embracing 
 modern Brittany, and a great part of Normandy, 
 was known to the Romans as Armorica. The most 
 important of the Armorican tribes in Caesar's time 
 was that of the Veneti. "In the fourth and fifth 
 centuries, the northern coast from the Loire to 
 the frontier of the Netherlands was called 'Tractus 
 Aremoricus," or Aremorica, which in Celtic sig- 
 nifies 'martitime country.' The commotions of 
 the third century, which continued to increase dur- 
 ing the fourth and fifth, repeatedly drove the 
 Romans from that country. French antiquaries 
 imagine that it was a regularly constituted Gallic 
 republic, of which Chlovis had the protectorate, 
 but this is wrong." — B. G. Niebuhr, Lectures on 
 ancient ethnography and geography, v. 2, p. 
 318. — See also Brittany: 409; 818-912; Ve- 
 neti OF Western Gaul; and Iberians, West- 
 ern. 
 
 .^Lso in: E. H. Bunbury, History of ancient 
 geography, v. 2, p. 235. 
 
 ARMOUR, Philip Danforth (1832-1901), 
 American philanthropist: Founder of Armour In- 
 stitute of Technology. See Gifts and bequests. 
 
 ARMOUR AND CO., Case of U. S. against. 
 See Trusts: 1003-1906. 
 
 ARMS, Assizes of. See England: 1170-1189. 
 
 ARMS, Hereditary. See Armorial bearings. 
 
 ARMS EMBARGO.— Just before the World 
 War, the United States placed an embargo on ship- 
 
 ments of arms and munitions to Mexico in their 
 recent civil war. (See Me.xico: 1912, 1914.) Dur- 
 ing the first years of the World War, there 
 was much agitation in the United States against 
 shipping arms and munitions to the Allies, and an 
 embargo was advocated. The president, however, 
 maintained that such shipments were in accord 
 with international usage' and that an embargo would 
 set a precedent that might be dangerous in the fu- 
 ture to America. The Mexican government also 
 appealed to the United States to place an embargo 
 on shipping arms and munitions to Europe. See 
 Mexico: 1917-1918. 
 
 ARMSTRONG, Vice-Consul J. P.: Reports 
 on affairs in the Congo state. See Belgian 
 Congo: 1906-1909. 
 
 ARMSTRONG, John (1758-1843), American 
 soldier, diplomatist and political leader. Served in 
 the Revolutionary War. Wrote and issued anony- 
 mously the famous Newburgh addresses. (See 
 U. S. A. 1782-1783). United States senator, 1801- 
 i8o2 and 1803-1804; minister to France, 1804- 
 1810; brigadier-general, 1812-1813; secretary of 
 war, January, 1913-August, 1814 (see U. S. A.: 
 1813 (October-November)); forced to resign be- 
 cause of unpopularity. 
 
 ARMSTRONG, Samuel Chapman (1839-1893), 
 American soldier and educator. Founded Hampton 
 Normal and Agricultural Institute to educate the 
 Negro and Indian races, and became its principal. 
 
 ARMSTRONG, William George, first Baron 
 (1810-1900), English engineer, inventor and scien- 
 tist. He was celebrated for his invention of rifled 
 cannon and breech-loading ordnance. Founded 
 great armament works at Elswick, on the Tvne. 
 
 ARMSTRONG, GENERAL (privateer). See 
 General Armstrong, Case of. 
 
 ARMY, a body of soldiers systematically or- 
 ganized, trained and equipped. In its broadest 
 sense, the term applies to a nation's entire force 
 under arms; in a narrower sense to a portion of 
 that force in a particular locality, as Great Brit- 
 ain's Indian army or France's army in Indo-China. 
 There is also the definite technical meaning, of 
 army, viz., a force of three army corps with ad- 
 ditional auxiliary units classed as army troops. In 
 this sense the United States in the World War 
 formed in France a first, a second and a third 
 army, and the other principal combatants each 
 organized several armies. Such an army is prop- 
 erly commanded by a general, while a group of 
 several armies is properly commanded by a field 
 marshal, and the entire armed forces of a nation 
 or an alliance by a generalissimo or commander- 
 in-chief. In 1918, the United States had only one 
 general, Pershing, in the war zone, and the three 
 armies organized by him were commanded by of- 
 ficers of lower rank. The first and second armies 
 were commanded by lieutenant-generals, and the 
 third army, which was the army of occupation, by 
 a major-general. The proper command of a lieu- 
 tenant-general is an army crops and the proper 
 command of a. major-general is a division. (The 
 history of the armies of the principal military na- 
 tions, find accounts of important military institu- 
 tions, such as the general staff, conscription, etc., 
 are dealt with in the article Military Organiza- 
 tion). 
 
 Belgian. — 1909-1913. — Military service made 
 general. See War, Preparation for: 1009-1913. 
 
 English. — 1907-1909. — Reorganization. See 
 War, Preparation for: 1907- 1909: British army 
 reorganization. 
 
 Hungarian Red. See Hungary: 1919 (March). 
 
 Pragmatic. See Austria: 1743. 
 
 Prussian. — Reorganized under Frederick Wil- 
 liam. See Prussia: 1618-1700. 
 
 525
 
 ARMY AND NAVY BOARD 
 
 ARNOLD 
 
 Russian. See Russia: 1914 (August); Status of 
 array; IQ17 (July) ; iqiS-igig. 
 
 U. S. — Aviation department. See World War: 
 1017: \III. United States and the war: i, 9. 
 
 U. S. — Control. See War department. 
 
 U. S. — Court-martial law. See Military law: 
 igii. 
 
 U. S. — Engineer departirient. See World War: 
 IQ17: VIII, United States and the war: i, 10. 
 
 U. S. — National army. — Creation. — Training 
 camps. See World War: 1017; VIII. United 
 States and the war: i, 1; i, 6; i, 8. 
 
 U. S. — Power of Congress to support army. 
 See War powers of the United States: Con- 
 gressional power over state militia. 
 
 U.S. — Reorganization. See World War: 1917: 
 VIII. United States and the war: i, 4. 
 
 ARMY AND NAVY BOARD: United States. 
 See Milit.arv organization: 7. 
 
 ARMY CANTEEN. See U.S.A.: 1901 (Feb- 
 ruary). 
 
 ARMY CORPS, the largest complete tactical 
 and administrative unit in an array, which is com- 
 posed of two or more corps. The corps is the 
 appropriate command of a lieutenant-general. In 
 the United States service an army corps is formed 
 by corabining two or more divisions, under orders 
 given by the president when he deems such a for- 
 mation necessary. Such a corps may consist of 
 corps headquarters, six complete divisions, and 
 special corps troops, including one pioneer regi- 
 ment of infantry, two regiments of cavalary, one 
 anti-aircraft machine-gun battalion, one anti-air- 
 craft artillery battalion, one trench mortar bat- 
 talion, one field battalion, signal corps, one tele- 
 graph battalion, one aero wing, one regiment of 
 engineers, one pontoon train, one corps artillery 
 park, one remount depot, one veterinary hospital, 
 one bakery company, one supply train, one troop 
 transport train. In addition, one artillery brigade, 
 one sanitary train, and one corps engineer park 
 may be formed from detachments from the di- 
 visional organizations. Its approximate strength is 
 185,000 officers and men. — See also Division; Mili- 
 tary organization; Tank corps, U. S. .\rmy'. 
 
 ARMY EQUIPMENT: In World War. See 
 World War: Miscellaneous auxiliary services: VI. 
 Military and naval equipment. 
 
 ARMY LAW. See Military law. 
 
 ARMY MEDALS. See World War: Miscel- 
 laneous auxiliarv services: VIII War medals. 
 
 ARMY OF THE COMMONWEAL OF 
 CHRIST. See U. S. A.: 1804: Co.xev movement. 
 
 ARMY OF THE ORIENT. See World War: 
 igi6: V. Balkan theater: b. 
 
 ARMY OF THE WEST: In Mexican War. 
 See Missouri: 1846-1848. 
 
 ARMY PURCHASE, Abolition of, in Eng- 
 land. See England: 1871. 
 
 ARMY REGULATIONS OF WARFARE. 
 See H.\GL'E conterences: i8qo: Convention with 
 respect to the laws and customs of war on land. 
 
 ARMY TRAINING CORPS. See Education: 
 Modern developments: World War and education: 
 Students armv training corps. 
 
 ARMY WAR COLLEGE, a school in Washing- 
 ton to which selected officers (captains and above) 
 are sent to study the higher problems of war, and 
 to work upon detailed plans of national defense. It 
 was first organized in looi, after the Spanish War, 
 and our present military system is largely based 
 upon its leadership. 
 
 ARN.^EANS. See Greece: Migration of Hel- 
 lenic Tribes in the Peninsula 
 
 ARNAUD AMAURY, popes legate, 13th cen- 
 tury. See Albigenses or Albigeois: nog; 1210- 
 X313. 
 
 ARNAULD, Jacqueline Marie Ang^lique, 
 Abbess of Port Royal monastery. See Port Royal 
 AND the Jansenists: 1602-1700. 
 
 ARNAUTS. See .\lranians: Medieval period. 
 
 ARNAY-LE-DUC, Battle of (1570). See 
 France: 1563-1570. 
 
 ARNDT, Ernst Moritz (1769-1860), German 
 poet and patriot. By his writings stirred German 
 sentiment against Napoleon, .^fter the revolu- 
 tion of 1848, he took his seat in the National 
 .Assembly at Frankfort. He was one of the depu- 
 tation that offered the crown to Frederick W'il- 
 liam IV. 
 
 ARNE, Thomas Augustine (1710-1778), emi- 
 nent English composer. He wrote numerous op- 
 eras, masques and other dramatic works. The 
 melody to "Rule Britannia," which was or^inally 
 giyen in a popular performance, the "Masque of 
 ."Mfred." is his composition. The words are by 
 James Thomson (1700-1748). See Music: Modern: 
 1750-1870. 
 
 ARNIM, Sixt von, Prussian general in com- 
 mand of the army operating in the Flanders sector 
 (from the North sea to south of Vpres) during 
 1Q17 and 1Q18. He was beaten to death by 
 peasants on his estate in March, igig. — See also 
 World War: IQ14: I. Western front: c, 2; World 
 War: iqi8: II. Western front: t. 
 
 ARNO (c. 750-821), archbishop of Salzburg. 
 Acted in 7S7 as envoy from Tassilo III, duke of 
 the Bavarians, to Charlemagne ; drew up a cata- 
 logue of church lands and rights in Bavaria, called 
 the hidktilus or Cnngestum Arnonis. 
 
 ARNOLD, Benedict (1741-1801), American 
 general and traitor. Served under Ethan .\llen in 
 the capture of Ticonderoga (see U. S. A.: 1775: 
 May). Fought in campaign against Montreal and 
 Quebec, and was wounded at the attack of the lat- 
 ter (see Canada: 1775-1776; U. S. \.: 1775; Au- 
 gust-December). With a flotilla he had con- 
 structed on Lake Champlain, he engaged the Brit- 
 ish fleet off \alcour Island (Oct. 11, 1776) and 
 after inflicting severe damage on a superior enemy, 
 managed to escape at Crown Point (see U. S. .\.: 
 '776-1777: Washington's retreat through New Jer- 
 sey). Raised the siege of Fort Stanwix. or Schuy- 
 ler (see U. S. .\.: 1777: July-October). In com- 
 raand of Philadelphia after the British retired. 
 Was placed in command of West Point, 1780; was 
 frustrated in plot to surrender it to the British 
 (see U S. .■v.: 1780: .■\ugust-September). Fled to 
 the British array, where, as brigadier-general, he 
 served against the Colonial forces until December, 
 1781 (see U. S. .'\.: 17S1: January-May). He died 
 in London, June 14, 1801. 
 
 ARNOLD, Matthew (1822-1888), English poet, 
 essayist and literary critic, son of the famous Dr. 
 .Arnold of Rugby and uncle of Mrs. Humphrj- 
 Ward, the novelist. Educated at Rugby and Ox- 
 ford. His annual reports as inspector of schools, 
 1S51-1S86, greatly hastened educational reforms, 
 particularly in secondary schools; was sent abroad 
 by the government to study foreign educational 
 systems. Profes.sor of poetry at Oxford 1857-1867. 
 Among his poems, "Thyrsis, The Forsaken Mer- 
 man," "Dover Beach." and "The Grande Char- 
 treuse" reveal his Hellenic desire for pure beauty, 
 common to many poets of the Victorian period. His 
 essays emphasize the thouHhtful. poised attitude in 
 criticism, among the best being "Sweetness and 
 Light," "Culture and .Anarchy," and "Essays in 
 Criticism." Some of his finest pieces are "Sohrab 
 and Rustum," "Rugby Chapel" and "The Scholarly 
 Gypsy." He wrote several critical works on theol- 
 ogy, notably "Literature and Dogma." — See also 
 Bible, English: Modern estimates of the Bible; 
 English literature: 1832- 1880. 
 
 52O
 
 ARNOLD OF BRESCIA 
 
 AROOSTOOK WAR 
 
 ARNOLD, Thomas (1795-1842), English clergy- 
 man and head-master of Rugby School, August, 
 1828, to December, 1841, when he took the chair 
 of modern history at Oxford, See also Classics. 
 
 ARNOLD OF BRESCIA (c. 1100-1155), 
 Italian churchman. Opposed the property-owning 
 power of the Catholic church. Leader in the re- 
 volt in 1 143 against the temporal power of the 
 papacy, which ended in a papal interdict and the 
 execution of Arnold. See Rome: Medieval city: 
 
 1145-1155- 
 ARNOLD VON WINKELRIED. See Win- 
 
 KELRIED, Arnold. 
 
 ARNOLDSEN, K. P. See Nobel prizes; Peace: 
 igo8. 
 
 ARNULF I (d. 965), Count of Flanders, son of 
 Baldwin II of Flanders and .Aelfthrytha, daughter 
 of Alfred the Great. See Belgium: Ancient and 
 medieval history. 
 
 ARNULF OF CARINTHIA (c. 850-899), 
 duke of Bavaria, king of the East Franks (Ger- 
 many), 88S-899, king of Italy and emperor, 894- 
 899. See Italy: 843-951. 
 
 Capture of Louvain by. See Scandinavian 
 states: 8th-9th centuries. 
 
 War with Svatopulk. See Moravia: gth century. 
 
 AROGI, Battle of (1868). See Abyssinia: 1854- 
 1889. 
 
 ARONDE, northern France: 1918.— Captured 
 by Germans. See World War: 1918; II. Western 
 front: d, 19. 
 
 AROOSTOOK WAR.— This disturbance, which 
 occurred during, the presidency of Van Buren, 
 threatened to bring on war with Great Britain. — 
 "The blame for this condition of affairs was laid, 
 by the Whigs, on the new Democratic Governor 
 (Fairfield) of Maine. In that State, indeed, the 
 boundary dispute had never been a party issue, 
 and men of every shade of poUtical belief had 
 held but one view. In the country at large, how- 
 ever, the acts of Governor Fairfield found no sup- 
 port, and his Aroostook War was condemned as 
 a piece of political folly. The Aroostook country, 
 the section of Maine where trouble arose, must 
 not be confounded with the Madawaska region, 
 where Greeley had been arrested two years be- 
 fore. The River St. John, it should be remem- 
 bered, flows, from its source in the west, almost 
 due northeast into the northern part of the State, 
 then turns a right angle and flows almost due 
 southeast into New Brunswick. Just at the right 
 angle it is entered by the Madawaska River, com- 
 ing down from the northwest. Near where it 
 enters New Brunswick the St. John is joined by 
 the Aroostook River, coming up from the south- 
 west. Along the Madawaska the Crown had made 
 grants before the Revolution, and Great Britain 
 had thus some show of right to exclusive jurisdic- 
 tion till the boundary line was determined. Along 
 the Aroostoook she had no claim to jurisdiction, 
 for there were no settlements there prior to 1822, 
 when they were made by citizens of the United 
 States and by men who came from New Brunswick 
 that they might be beyond the reach of creditors. 
 Along the Aroostook again jurisdiction had been 
 exercised by Massachusetts, while Maine belonged 
 to her. After the monument was placed at the 
 source of the St. Croix, Massachusetts ran from 
 it a due north line and located two ranges of 
 townships, six miles square, contiguous to the line 
 and extending many miles north of the Aroostook. 
 In 1807 townships, including a part of the river, 
 were sold and conveyed by Massachusetts, and 
 still others in later years. In 1826 townships west 
 'of the two ranges and extending nearly to the St. 
 John were surveyed by Maine and Massachusetts 
 and divided between them. Later still a military 
 
 road was laid out from the Matawaukeog, a 
 tributary of the Penobscot, across the Aroostook 
 to the St. John. Land agents of both states had 
 long been accustomed each year to sell timber, 
 grant permits to cut down trees, and had driven 
 out trespassers in this region. In 1838, following 
 the usual custom, agents of Maine and Massachu- 
 setts entered the Aroostook country in April, and 
 in October, and served processes on certain men 
 cutting timber, broke up their camps, and drove 
 off their teams. Later still a third official visited 
 the region. At Grand River he found fifty tres- 
 passers; at Fish River, seventy-five with sixteen 
 yoke of oxen and ten teams. These men not only 
 refused to depart, but told the agent they defied 
 Maine to put them out. When Governor Fairfield 
 was informed of these things he sent a special and 
 confidential message to the Legislature and asked 
 for authority to provide the agent with a force 
 sufficient to disperse the trespassers. (Senate 
 Documents, 25th Congress, 3d Session, Vol. IV, 
 Document 270, pp. 8, 9.) The authority was at 
 once given and ten thousand dollars appropriated 
 to meet the expense, (Ibid., p. 12,) With one 
 hundred and fifty men the land agent, Mr. Rufus 
 Mclntire, set off from Bangor and, accompanied 
 by the sheriff of Penobscot County, repaired to 
 the mouth of the Aroostook River where three 
 hundred trespassers, well armed, were ready to re- 
 sist. Finding he had with him a six-pound cannon, 
 they retreated down the river toward New Bruns- 
 wick. The agent then dispatched a letter to the 
 British warden of the disputed territory asking for 
 a meeting at the house of a certain settler; but 
 one night, while asleep in the house, Mr. Mclntire 
 was seized by a party of trespassers, was carried 
 to Woodstock in New Brunswick, and then under 
 guard to the jail at Frederickton. When the land 
 agent reached Woodstock, and news of his capture 
 and the presence of Maine troops on the Aroostook 
 spread, a mob broke into the arsenal, took out 
 several hundred stand of arms and set off for the 
 disputed country. On the ariival of the prisoner 
 at Frederickton, Lieutenant-Governor Harvey, of 
 New Brunswick, issued a proclamation, summoned 
 all who had carried off arms and munition to return 
 them, denounced the presence of the Maine forces 
 on the Aroostook as an invasion and outrage, and 
 ordered the militia to be ready to march at a mo- 
 ment's notice. (Senate Document 270, p. 13.) A 
 copy of the proclamation was forwarded to the 
 Governor of Maine, with a letter in which General 
 Harvey demanded the recall of the Maine forces, 
 asserted exclusive jurisdiction of Great Britain over 
 the Aroostook region, said that his instructions did 
 not permit him to suffer any interference with 
 this exclusive jurisdiction, and that he had ordered 
 a strong force of Her Majesty's troops to be in 
 readiness to support her authority. The Governor 
 at once demanded that General Harvey release Mr. 
 Mclntire, and transmitted the copy of the procla- 
 mation to the Legislature, General Harvey re- 
 plied that the land agent was a State prisoner, 
 and that his fate rested with Her Majesty's Gov- 
 ernment; but that he had ordered the release, on 
 parole, of Mr. Mclntire; that if it was the desire 
 of the Governor of Maine that the friendly rela- 
 tions existing between Great Britain and the 
 United States should not be disturbed, the armed 
 force then within the disputed territory must be 
 immediately withdrawn ; and that Mr, James Mac- 
 lauchlan the British warden of the territory who, 
 while on a visit to the camp of the land agent, had 
 been seized by way of reprisal, should be released. 
 The Governor answered that Mr, Maclauchlan 
 should be released on parole of honor, but re- 
 fused to withdraw the troops. Reinforcements 
 
 527
 
 AROOSTOOK WAR 
 
 ARRAS 
 
 were meantime hurried to the Aroostook camp 
 which, since the arrest of Mclntire, was com- 
 manded by Charles Jar\'is, and a thousand miUtia 
 were ordered to assemble at Bangor. The Legis- 
 lature as soon as the Governor's message was re- 
 ceived unanimously resolved that a sufficient body 
 of men should be stationed on the Aroostook and 
 if practicable on the St, John near the boundary 
 line; appropriated eight hundred thousand dollars 
 for the purpose and instructed the Governor to 
 request the cooperation of Massachusetts, and to 
 write to the President and ask the aid of the 
 Federal Government. When the appeal for aid 
 reached Van Buren he sent it with a message to 
 Congress. The acts of the British Governor, he 
 said, were based on the assumption that the United 
 States had agreed to leave Great Britain in sole 
 possession of, and with exclusive jurisdiction over, 
 the disputed territory tUl the question of boundary 
 was settled. No such agreement existed. Maine 
 had a right to stop the depredations of the timber 
 cutters. But between an effort on the part of 
 Maine to preserve the timber and a military oc- 
 cupation by that State of the disputed territory- 
 there was an essential difference. In such an en- 
 terprise he did not think Maine should call on the 
 Government for aid. Amicable means alone should 
 be used. On the other hand, should the authorities 
 in New Brunswick seek to enforce their claim to 
 exclusive jurisdiction b>' a military force he should 
 feel bound to consider a call from Maine for aid 
 in repelling the invasion. The proper course in 
 the present case was for Maine to disband her 
 force of militia and for each party to release the 
 captured agent of the other. (Messages and Papers 
 of the Presidents; Richardson, Vol. Ill, pp. 512- 
 21.) The end of the session was near, but in the 
 Senate the message and documents were referred to 
 the Committee on Foreign Relations, and in the 
 House to the Committee on Foreign Affairs. The 
 House Committee recommended that a special min- 
 ister should be sent to Great Britain to aid the 
 resident minister in an attempt to settle the long- 
 pending controversy, and reported a bill, which 
 promptly passed. (Congressional Globe, 25th Con- 
 gress, 3d Session, pp. 217,218.) The Senate Com- 
 mittee could find no trace of any understanding, 
 expressed or implied, much less of any agreement, 
 that the disputed territory should be under the 
 exclusive jurisdiction of Great Britain. There was, 
 however, a clear understanding that neither party 
 should exercise jurisdiction over any portions of 
 it save such as had been in the actual possession 
 of the one or the other. In sending armed men 
 to drive out the intruders Maine had not vio- 
 lated the understanding, and should Her Majesty's 
 Government persist in the attempt to maintain ex- 
 clusive jurisdiction by force then the President 
 would be justified in using the military power of 
 the United States to repel invasion. When, there- 
 fore, the House bill to give the President author- 
 ity to resist any attempt of Great Britain to en- 
 force by arms her claim to exclusive jurisdiction 
 over the disputed territory in Maine, use the land 
 and naval forces if necessary, and in the event of 
 the actual invasion of our territory, call for fifty 
 thousand volunteers, borrow ten million dollars, 
 arm and equip the naval force, and put such a 
 fleet of vessels on the lakes as he thought proper, 
 reached the Senate it was passed unanimously. 
 One section made an appropriation for the outfit 
 and salary of a special minister to Great Britain 
 if the President saw fit to send one. Yet another 
 limited the duration of the act to sixty days after 
 the meeting of the first session of the next Con- 
 gress. 
 "While the two committees were considering the 
 
 question, Forsyth (J. Forsyth, Sec. of State, June 
 27, 1834 to March S, 1841), and the British Min- 
 ister drew up and signed a memorandum. This 
 stated the views of Great Britain and of the 
 United States as to jurisdiction, declared that the 
 issue could only be settled by friendly discussion, 
 and that meantime Her Majesty's officers would 
 not seek to drive out the armed party sent by 
 Maine; that the Governor of Maine would with- 
 draw it ; and that the agents of both parties who 
 had been taken into custody should be released. 
 [Congressional Globe, 25th Congress, 3d Session, 
 pp. 526, 527.] As soon as the memorandum was 
 signed copies were sent post-haste to the Governors 
 of Maine and New Brunswick, and General Scott 
 was ordered to Augusta. There he found a new 
 levy of a thousand men about to start for the 
 Aroostook. But the arrival of the memorandum 
 and the presence of Scott induced the Governor 
 to delay the march till the Legislature had con- 
 sidered the action of the Secretary of State. Scott 
 meantime dispatched a proposition to Governor 
 Harvey. If the Governor of New Brunswick 
 would agree not to attempt to take military pos- 
 session of the disputed territory, or seek by force 
 of arms to drive out the armed posse or troops of 
 Maine, Scott was sure the Governor of Maine 
 would agree not to disturb New Brunswick in the 
 possession of the Madawaska settlements, or seek 
 to dislodge the British by force of arms. Harvey 
 at once agreed to this (Harvey to Scott, March 
 23, 1839, National Intelligencer, April i, 1S39), the 
 Governor of Maine also assented (Governor Fair- 
 field to Scott, March 25, 1839, Jbid.) ; the troops at 
 Augusta were sent home, others were recalled from 
 the Aroostook country, and the prospect of war, 
 for the present, was averted." — J. B, McMaster, 
 History of the people of the United States, v. 6, pp. 
 513-518. — See also U. S. A.: 1842: Ashburton 
 ■Treaty with England; Maine: 1841-1842. 
 
 ARPAD, ancient city of Syria, near Aleppo. 
 Siege conducted by the Assyrian conqueror Tiglath- 
 Pileser, beginning 742 B. C, and lasting two years. 
 The fall of the city brought with it the submis- 
 sion of all northern Syria. — A. H. Sayce, Assyria, 
 ch. 2. 
 
 ARPAD, Dynasty of, Magyar line founded by 
 Arpad, who was elected chief by the tribes which 
 began the conquest of Hungary in 889. See Hun- 
 gary: 806; 972-1116; 1116-1301. 
 
 ARQUES, Battles at (1589). See France: 
 1589-1500- 
 
 ARRABBIATI, political party in Florence. See 
 Florence: 1498-1500. 
 
 ARRAN, a large island off the west coast of 
 Scotland at the mouth of the Firth of Clyde. Its 
 caves were the refuge of Robert Bruce. 
 
 ARRAN, Earls of, a line of Scottish nobles, 
 whose title, derived from the island of Arran, was 
 first given to Thomas Boyd and later transferred 
 to the Hamilton family. The latter was active in 
 border wars and in the support of Mary, queen 
 of Scots. See Scotland: 1544-1548: and 1546. 
 
 ARRAPACHITIS, Semitic country notheast 
 of Nineveh. See Jews: Early Hebrew History. 
 
 ARRAS, a town and fortress of France, on the 
 Scarpe one hundred miles northeast of Paris. It 
 was formerly the capital of Artois, .was fortified by 
 Vauban in the reign of Louis XIV and was the 
 birthplace of Robespierre. The city is partly situ- 
 ated on high ground and has always been a place 
 of considerable military importance. [For origin 
 of Arras, see Belg.e.] Arras lies in the indus- 
 trial region of northern France and near the Lens 
 coal mines. Here was held the first congress be- 
 tween European powei's, in 1435. In the spring of 
 191 7 the British prepared for an offensive north oi 
 
 528
 
 ARREBOE 
 
 ART 
 
 Arras instead of planning to continue the battle 
 of the Somnie as the Germans had expected. In 
 the great German offensive of the spring and early 
 summer of 1918 all attempts to wipe out the Brit- 
 ish bastion around Arras were shattered in some of 
 the bitterest fighting of the war. 
 
 1414-1435. — Treaties of Arras. See France: 
 1380-1415, and 1431-1453. 
 
 1482. — Treaty between Louis XI and Maxi- 
 milian I. 
 
 1583. — Submission to Spain. See Netherlands: 
 1584-1585. 
 
 1654. — Unsuccessful siege by the Spaniards 
 under Cond6. See Fra.n'ce: 1654. 
 
 1914. — Scene of attack by Germans. See 
 World War: 1914; I. Western front; u, 4. 
 
 1915. — Region of fighting. See World War: 
 1915: II. Western front: d. 
 
 1916. — Near Hindenburg line. See World War: 
 1916: II. Western front: e, 7. 
 
 1917. — Battle of Arras. See World War: 1917: 
 
 I. Summary: b, 2; II. Western front: c; c, 1; c, 19. 
 1918. — German attack. See World War: 1918: 
 
 II. Western front: b, 1; c, 2; c, 28; k. 
 ARREBOE, Anders Christensen (1587-1637), 
 
 Danish poet. See Scandinavian literature: 1479- 
 1750. 
 
 ARRELLANO, Don Cayetano, Chief Justice 
 of Philippine Islands. See Philippine Islands: 
 1900: Progress toward civil government. 
 
 ARRETIUM, Battle of (285 B.C.), See Rome: 
 B. C. 295-191- 
 
 ARRHENIUS, Svante August (1859- ), a 
 distinguished Swedish organic and electrical chem- 
 ist; since 1905 director of the physico-chemical de- 
 partment of the Nobel Institute; in 1887 promul- 
 gated the important modern theory of dissociation 
 in electrolytes, known as the ionization hypothesis ; 
 was awarded in 1902 the Davy medal of the Royal 
 Society; in 1903 received the Nobel Prize for 
 physics, and in 19 14 received the Faraday medal 
 from the Chemical Society. — See also Nobel prizes: 
 Chemistry: Modern: Lavoisier. 
 
 ARRIAGA, Dr. Manoel (1842-1917), Portu- 
 guese statesman, formerly a journalist ; member of 
 Chamber of Representatives, 1861-1889; helped es- 
 tabUsh the republic and became first president, 1911 ; 
 resigned 1915. See PoRruG.-u.: 1910-1912; 1911-1914. 
 
 ARRIAN (Latin, Flavius Arrianus), Greek 
 historian and philosopher of the second century 
 A. D. His most important work is the "Anabasis 
 of Alexander," the most reliable account now ex- 
 isting of the life of Alexander the Great. 
 
 ARRONDISSEMENT, an administrative di- 
 vision of a French department (q. v.), similar to 
 a "congressional district" in U. S. A. Since the 
 Revolution France has been divided into depart- 
 ments and arrondissements. The latter are di- 
 vided again into cantons and communes. There 
 are 362 arrondissements in France. — See also So- 
 cialism: 1904-1921. 
 
 ARROW, Canton river vessel, whose possession 
 was disputed by China and England. See China: 
 1856-1860. 
 
 ARROW HEAD COPSE, in the Somme region, 
 northern France; ' captured by the Allies in 1916. 
 See World W.xr: 1016: II. Western front: d, 7. 
 
 ARROW HEAD WRITING. See Cunei- 
 form Writing. 
 
 ARROWS, the name of a United States army 
 division active in the Meuse-Argonne region dur- 
 ing the World War. See World War: 1918: II. 
 Western front: v, 6. 
 
 ARSACID.S;.— The dynasty of Parthian kings 
 were so called, from the founder of the lines, 
 Arsaces, who led the revolt of Parthia from the 
 rule of the Syrian Seleucidse and raised himself to 
 
 the throne. According to some ancient writers 
 Arsaces was a Bactrian ; according to others a 
 Scythian. — G. Rawlinson, Sixth great oriental 
 monarchy, ch. 3. 
 
 ARSEN. — In one of the earlier raids of the 
 Seljukian Turks into Armenia, in the eleventh cen- 
 tury the city of Arsen was destroyed. "It had 
 long been the great city of Eastern Asia Minor, the 
 centra of Asiatic trade, the depot for merchandise 
 transmitted overland from Persia and India to the 
 Eastern Empire and Europe generally. It was full 
 of warehouses belonging to Armenians and Syrians 
 and is said to have contained 800 churches and 
 300,000 people. Having failed to capture the city, 
 Togrul's general succeeded in burning it. The de- 
 struction of so much wealth struck a fatal blow 
 at Armenian commerce." — E. Pears, Fail of Con- 
 stantinople, ch. 2. 
 
 ARSENALS AND NAVY YARDS WAGE 
 COMMISSION (U. S. A.).— During the World 
 War "the arsenals of the [United States] War De- 
 partment and the navy yards of the Navy De- 
 partment were direct competitors for many classes 
 of labor. It was manifestly both inequitable and 
 detrimental to efficiency that these two classes of 
 institutions should pay different rates of wages for 
 the same labor or in other respects provide for 
 divergent labor conditions. To secure unity of 
 action between the two Departments in respect to 
 such matters, the Secretaries of War and of the 
 Navy, acting in cooperation with the Secretary of 
 Labor, in August, 1917, created a body known as 
 the Arsenals and Navy Yards Wage Commission. 
 This Commission, composed of Franklin D. Roose- 
 velt. Assistant Secretary of the Navy, Stanley 
 King, Assistant to the Secretary of War, and Row- 
 land B. Mahaney, mediator of the Department of 
 Labor, had as its function to pass upon all wage 
 questions arising in arsenals and navy yards. On 
 September 17, 1917, announcement was made in 
 the Official BuUelin that the Commission had com- 
 pleted its work of revising the scale of wages paid 
 in arsenals and navy yards. In making this re- 
 vision the Commission, although paying attention 
 to wages paid in other local establishments, sought 
 to standardize wages as far as' possible." — W. F. 
 Willoughby, Government organization in war time 
 and after, pp. 217-218. 
 
 ARSEN E, Lake. — An ancient name of the 
 lake of Van, in Armenia, which is also called 
 Thopitis by Strabo.— -E. H. Bunbury, History of 
 ancient geography, ch. 22, sect. i. 
 
 ARSIERO, a town of northern Italy; during 
 the World War captured by the Austrians in 
 their invasion of May, 1916; recaptured in June 
 when the Russian offensive called Austrian troops 
 back f om the Italian front. This, ovith the 
 similar events at Asiago, marked the turning 
 point of the Austrian effort to break thiough 
 into the Venetian plain. See World war: 1916: 
 IV. Austro-Italian front: b, 2; also b, 4. 
 
 ARSUF, or Arsouf, a small town on the coast 
 of Palestine, scene of the victory of Richard I of 
 England over Saladin in the third Crusade (1191)- 
 See Crusades: Military aspect of the Crusades. 
 
 ART: Application of the term. — "The term 
 'art' covers a vast field. In its broader sense it 
 includes the mechanical arts and the fine arts. The 
 fine arts fall into three divisions: the arts of poetry 
 and literature; [also] the arts of music (q. v.); 
 and the arts of sculpture (q. v.), painting (q. v.) 
 and architecture (q. v.). To this last group, the 
 term is in its narrowest sense applied; that is, to 
 "the fine arts depending on the sense of vision or 
 sight; the glyptic [relating to carving], plastic and 
 graphic arts; the arts of form and color; the arts 
 of sculpture, carving, drawing, painting, etching, 
 
 529
 
 ART 
 
 Distribution 
 Definitions 
 
 ART 
 
 engraving, tattooing, decoration, costume (q. v.), 
 pottery, architecture . . . the arts of space, and 
 not to the arts of thought or sound." — E. S. and 
 E. M. Balch, Art and man, p. ii. 
 
 Distribution. — "Art is found in every part of the 
 world e.xcept Antarctica. Some of its branches, 
 such as modern European art, Roman art, Greek 
 art, Egyptian art and Assyrian art have been 
 studied carefully and voluminous treatises have 
 appeared upon them. But when we turn to such 
 arts as African art or Brazilian art, there have 
 been no special publications about them. In the 
 case of the wonderful art of China, it is only in 
 the twentieth century that the first serious attempt 
 was made to trace it back. From an artistic or 
 an ethnological standpoint, the art of the world 
 as a whole is so far almost untouched. . . . From 
 one point of view, namely from that of the same 
 kind of development, art might be divided into art 
 families as follows; Pleistokene, Bushman and 
 Arctic; Neolithic; /Egean, Greek and European; 
 Egyptian and West Asiatic ; South Asiatic ; East 
 Asiatic ; African, Australasian and Amerind. Pos- 
 sibly the best way of classifying the main arts of 
 the world is geographically, namely in accordance 
 with their distribution in the five great inhabited 
 divisions of the world. In Europe one might per- 
 haps specify Pleistokene art; NeoUthic-Bronze 
 Age art; JEgean art; Graeco-Roman art; Byzantine 
 art; modern European art. In .\frica: Bushman 
 art, Negro art, Zimbabwe art, Egyptian art. In 
 Asia: West Asiatic art; Early East-South Asiatic 
 art; South Asiatic art; East Asiatic art. In Asia 
 and Africa: Arab art. ... In Australasia: Poly- 
 nesian art; Melanesian art. In Asia and America: 
 .\rctic art. In America: Amerind art. Whilst 
 there are certainly many more arts than these, it 
 seems as if most of them were derived from one 
 or more of these primary arts, and that they may 
 be considered as secondary arts." — Ibid., pp. 13-14, 
 27-28. 
 
 Definitions. — Croce's .Esthetic. — ".\mong the 
 ancients the fundamental theory of the beautiful 
 was connected with the notions of rhythm, sym- 
 metry, harmony of parts: in short, with the general 
 formula of unity in variety. Among the moderns we 
 find that more emphasis is laid on the idea of 
 significance, expressiveness, the utterance of all that 
 life contains; in general, that is to say, on the 
 conception of the characteristic." — B. Bosanquet, 
 History of ctsthetic, pp. 4, 5.— "Not reckoning the 
 thoroughly inaccurate definitions of beauty which 
 fail to cover the conception of art, and which 
 suppose beauty to consist either in utility, or in 
 adjustment to a purpose, or in symmetry, or in 
 order, or in proportion, or in smoothness, or in 
 harmony of the parts, or in unity amid variety, or 
 in various combinations of these — not reckoning 
 these unsatisfactory attempts at objective defini- 
 tion, all the aesthetic definitions of beauty lead to 
 two fundamental conceptions. The first is that 
 beauty is something having an independent exist- 
 ence (existing in itself), that it is one of the mani- 
 festations of the absolutely Perfect, of the Idea, of 
 the Spirit, of Will, or of God; the other is that 
 beauty is a kind of pleasure received by us, not 
 having personal advantage for its object. The first 
 of these definitions was accepted by Fichte, Schel- 
 ling, Hegel, Schopenhauer, and the philosophizing 
 Frenchmen, Cousin, Jouffroy, Ravaisson, and 
 others, not to enumerate the second-rate aesthetic 
 philosophers. And this same objective-mystical 
 definition of beauty is held by a majority of the 
 educated people of our day. It is a conception 
 very widely spread, especially among the elder 
 generation. The second view, that beauty is a cer- 
 tain kind of pleasure received by us, not having 
 
 personal advantage for its aim, finds favor chiefly 
 among the English ssthetic writers, and is shared 
 by the other part of our society, principally by 
 the younger generation. . , . What is art, if we 
 put aside the conception of beauty, which confuses 
 the whole matter? The latest and most compre- 
 hensible definitions of art, apart from the concep- 
 tion of beauty, are the following: (i a) Art is an 
 activity arising even in the animal kingdom, and 
 springing from sexual desire and the propensity to 
 play (Schiller, Darwin, Spencer), and (i b) accom- 
 panied by a pleasurable excitement of the nervous 
 system (Grant Allen). This is the physiological- 
 evolutionary definition. (2) Art is the external 
 manifestation, by means of lines, colors, move- 
 ments, sounds, or words, of emotions felt by man 
 (Veron). This is the exf)erimental definition. Ac- 
 cording to the very latest definition (Sully), (3) 
 Art is 'the production of some permanent object or 
 passing action, which is fitted, not only to supply 
 an active enjoyment to the producer, but to con- 
 vey a pleasurable impression to a number of spec- 
 tators or listeners, quite apart from any personal 
 advantage to be derived from it.' Notwithstanding 
 the superiority of these definitions to the metaphy- 
 sical definitions which depended on the conception 
 of beauty, they are yet far from exact. . . . The 
 inaccuracy of all these definitions arises from the 
 fact that in them all (as also in the metaphysical 
 definitions) the object considered is the pleasure 
 art may give, and not the purpose it may serve 
 in the life of man and of humanity. In order cor- 
 rectly to define art, it is necessary, first of all, to 
 cease to consider it as a means to pleasure, and 
 to consider it as one of the conditions of human 
 life. Viewing it in this way, we cannot fail to 
 obser\'e that art is one of the means of intercourse 
 between man and man. Every work of art causes 
 the receiver to enter into a certain kind of rela- 
 tionship both with him who produced, or is pro- 
 ducing, the art, and with all those who, simultan- 
 eously, previously, or subsequently, receive the 
 same artistic impression. Speech, transmitting the 
 thoughts and experiences of men, serves as a means 
 of union among them, and art acts in a similar 
 manner. The peculiarity of this latter means of 
 intercourse, distinguishing it from intercourse by 
 means of words, consists in this, that whereas by 
 words a man transmits his thoughts to another, 
 by means of art he transmits his feelings. ... If 
 a man infects another or others, directly, imme- 
 diately, by his appearance, or by the sounds he 
 gives vent to at the very time he experiences the 
 feeling; if he causes another man to yawn when 
 he cannot help yawning, or to laugh or cry when 
 he himself is obliged to laugh or cry, or to suffer 
 when he himself is suffering — that does not amount 
 to art. .^rt begins when one person, with the ob- 
 ject of joining another or others to himself in one 
 and the same feeing, expresses that feeling by cer- 
 tain external indications To take the simplest 
 example: a boy, having experienced, let us say, fear 
 on encountering a wolf, relates that encounter; 
 and, in order to evoke in others the feeling he has 
 experienced describes himself, his condition before 
 the encounter, the surroundings, the wood, his own 
 light-heartedncss, and then the wolf's appearance, 
 its movements, the distance between himself and 
 the wolf. etc. .Ml this, if only the boy, when tell- 
 ing the story, again experiences the feelings he 
 lived through and infects the hearers and compels 
 them to feel what the narrator has experienced, is 
 art. . . . Art is not, as the metaphysicians say, the 
 manifestation of some mysterious Idea of beauty, 
 or God; it is not, a? the aesthetical physiologists 
 say, a game in which man lets off his excess of 
 stored-up energy; it is not the expression of man's 
 
 530
 
 ART 
 
 Croce's Aesthetic 
 Relation to History 
 
 ART 
 
 emotions by external signs; it is not the produc- 
 tion of pleasing objects; and, above all, it is not 
 pleasure; but it is a mean^ of union among men, 
 joining them together in the same feelings, and 
 indispensable for the life and progress toward well- 
 being of individuals and of humanity. — L. Tolstoi, 
 What is art, pp. 38-50. — "That art must have a 
 moral motive is another confusing proposition. . . . 
 It is at this point that Tolstoy in bearing with his 
 whole colossal weight upon the subject and pur- 
 pose of art gives us after all but a one-sided an- 
 swer to his question, 'What is Art?' insisting as 
 he does in the conclusion of his exhaustive treatise 
 that 'the destiny of art is to transmit from the 
 realm of reason to the realm of feeling the truth 
 that the well-being of men consists in being united 
 together.' . . . This is a true epitome of the priv- 
 ilege of art, but the enthusiasm of the moral 
 teacher blinds him to the simple fact that this 
 could not be done if it were not possible to inter- 
 est men in art by pleasing them therewith. The 
 emotion (or feeling) which will unite two men 
 over the painting of a landscape cannot be evoked 
 unless they enjoy the picture, nor can the design 
 of a Turkish rug unite men unless it first please 
 them. [Poore does not, however, define this plea- 
 sure in terms of a special esthetic faculty ; his ar- 
 gument, on the other hand] places the apprehen- 
 sion and appreciation of art upon the basis of the 
 intellectual process and denies that there is such 
 a thing as indefinable beauty in art." — H. R. 
 Poore, Conception of art, pp. 41, 63, gs-g6. — Clive 
 Bell explicitly dissociates beauty from art, and de- 
 fines the essential quality of art as "significant 
 form." The theory of Rodin, although less con- 
 sistently phrased, is similar in intention. "In fact, 
 in art, only that which has character is beautiful. 
 Character is the essential truth of any natural ob- 
 ject whether ugly or beautiful: ; it is even what 
 one might call a double truth, for it is the inner 
 truth translated by the outer truth ; it is the soul, 
 the feelings, the ideas, expressed by the features of 
 a face, by the gestures and actions of a human 
 being, by the tones of a sky, by the lines of a 
 horizon." — P. Gsell, Art, by Rodin, p. 44. 
 
 Reasoning from the point of view of the phi- 
 losopher as distinct from that of the artist, Bene- 
 detto Croce has formulated the Expressionist 
 Theory, which is at present widely accepted. 
 "Croce's theory of Beauty rests on the affirmation 
 of an jesthetic activity as a special sphere of mental 
 activity, distinct alike from the logical activity on 
 one hand and from the ethical activity on the other 
 hand. . . . Beauty is successful expression. We 
 may even leave out the qualification 'successful' 
 and say simply, Beauty is expression, for unsuc- 
 cessful expression is not expression. What then is 
 expression? It is the form the mind gives to its 
 intuitions, the form intuition takes as it expresses 
 itself. And as there is no matter without form and 
 no form without matte/, the intuition is expres- 
 sion. . . . 'When we have mastered the internal 
 word, when we have vividly and clearly conceived 
 a figure or a statue, when we have found a musical 
 theme, expression is born and is complete, nothing 
 more is needed. If then, we open our mouth and 
 speak or sing, the action is voluntary, and what 
 we then do is say aloud what we have already said 
 within, sing aloud what we have already sung 
 within. If our hands strike the keyboard of the 
 pianoforte, if we take up pencil or chisel, such ac- 
 tions are willed and what we are then doing is 
 executing in great movements what we have al- 
 ready executed briefly and rapidly within. By 
 these actions we stamp our intuitions on a material 
 which will hold the traces of them more or less 
 enduringly. . . . The work of art is always and 
 
 53 
 
 only internal, and what is called external is no 
 longer a work of art.' (Croce, Eslctica, p. 58). . . 
 The beautiful then is Eesthetic value and a;sthetic 
 value is successful aesthetic activity, that is, ex- 
 pression. The ugly is spoilt expression, a short- 
 coming or a failure to express. . . . We are ac- 
 customed to accept the truth of the saying poela 
 nascitiir non fit. Croce tells us the true doctrine 
 is homo nascitur poeta. Every man is born a poet, 
 little poets some, great poets others. . . . There is 
 no difference between the intuition of the artist of 
 genius and the intuition of the humblest individual 
 who finds enjoyment in contemplating the work of 
 genius so far as pure intuition is concerned, not- 
 withstanding the utter incompetence the one may 
 feel in himself to accomplish what the other has 
 performed. It is always our own intuition we 
 express when we are enjoying a work of genius. 
 The great artist enables me to express my intuition, 
 his work assists me. I cannot, that is to say, have 
 any intuition but my own, and it can only be my 
 own intuition when reading Shakespeare I form the 
 image of Hamlet or Othello, but the greatness of 
 Shakespeare is that he enables me to rise to higher 
 and more extensive ranges of intuition than I could 
 hope to reach without his assistance." — H. W. 
 Carr, Philosophy of Benedetto Croce, pp. 70, 72, 
 161-165. 
 
 Relation of art and history. — Spirit of an- 
 tiquity and Renaissance in architecture, sculp- 
 ture and painting. — "Art is a language. It gives 
 expression to the spirit of the age, the nation, and 
 the individual that produced it. These three creat- 
 ing forces of the age, the nation, and the individual 
 may be discerned in every work of art. They 
 make of art the most eloquent expression of life." 
 — E. M. Ku\me, Renaissance, Protestant Revolution, 
 and Catholic Reformation, in continental Europe, 
 p. 108. — "It is true that in recent centuries, those 
 namely of recent modern history, the arts of paint- 
 ing and sculpture, at least, have become mainly 
 matters of luxury, and that as arts of popular edu- 
 cation and instruction they have been displaced by 
 printed books. Hence the difficulty of making im- 
 mediately apparent, before the subject itself has 
 been opened up, that a history of art is not so 
 much a history of the arts of design as it is a his- 
 tory of civilization. But if this point is not ap- 
 parent in advance, it is notwithstanding the point 
 which in recent years has drawn more and more 
 attention to the subject, until it is beginning to 
 figure as an indispensable part of the philosophy 
 and knowledge of general history. As soon as 
 history ceases to be conceived as a series of dis- 
 connected national chronicles, as soon as it begins 
 to be conceived as a sequent evolution of races and 
 of epochs — which has been unbroken in continuity 
 since the time of the Chaldeans and Egyptians 
 down to the nineteenth century — the history of art 
 appears as a study of the first importance. This 
 is because it deals with the now visible relics of 
 the past; not only with buildings, statues, reliefs, 
 and paintings, but with fabrics, utensils, coins, 
 furniture, and all the accessories of daily life ; for 
 in historic periods all these things were given an 
 appropriate artistic treatment and setting forth. 
 As revelations of the life of a nation or an epoch 
 these relics appeal to the imagination because they 
 appeal to the eye and assist each student to picture 
 the past to himself. The student is no longer, then, 
 dependent on the descriptions and accounts of an- 
 other student; he becomes himself an independent 
 historian, for whoever evokes in imagination the 
 life of the past deserves this title. The history of 
 art has, moreover, especial value for a true philos- 
 ophy of history in that it forces the student to 
 subordinate the history of nations to the history 
 
 I
 
 ART 
 
 Relation to 
 History 
 
 ART 
 
 of epochs. The grand divisions between the suc- 
 cessive epochs of the ascendency of the ancient 
 oriental nations — of the Greeks [see also ^gean 
 cr\iLizATiox ; Athens; Sparta], of the Romans, 
 of the Germanic races (the Middle Ages), and of 
 the Italians (the Renaissance) — are only seen dis- 
 tinctly when the history of art is called in evi- 
 dence." — \V. H. Goodyear, Roman and medieval 
 art, pp. iii-iv. — "Each epoch of the world develops 
 its own proper form of expression. Greek archi- 
 tecture is the embodiment of supreme serenity, of 
 self-restraint, and the sense of inevitable fate. It 
 is the expression of an ideal of life that never 
 sought to leave the earth, the ideal of a sound 
 mind in a sound body. Its impulse is purely 
 pagan. Roman architecture, with its bridges and 
 acqueducts, its triumphal arches, its domes and its 
 auditoriums, speaks of the majesty of the Roman 
 government, of the imperial scope of its power and 
 its law. When paganism had fallen and Christian- 
 ity had built a new civilization upon the wreck of 
 the old, Gothic architecture gave expression to the 
 new spirit, to the new ideal of life, to the new vi- 
 sion that soared aloft until it was lost in the blue 
 sky. Pure beauty was the sole object of Hellenic 
 art, but Gothic architecture strove to voice the 
 aspirations of the human soul. The predominant 
 lines of classic architecture are horizontal lines, 
 which are restful and belong to the earth, while 
 those of Gothic architecture are vertical. In the 
 Gothic cathedral, slender window, towering pillar, 
 pointed arch, lofty vault, delicate pinnacle, and 
 soaring spire, irresistibly carry the eye upward. 
 Classic architecture was rooted in the rational fac- 
 ulty ; Gothic was born in the spiritual. . . . The 
 Renaissance was in part a harking back to the 
 classic ideals. The new classicism of the time de- 
 manded an architecture that could give it expres- 
 sion. Gothic architecture could not express the 
 lucidity and the sanity of Greek thought, nor the 
 grandiose nature of the Roman civilization. Nor 
 could it express the combination of classicism and 
 modernity that formed the spirit of the Renais- 
 sance. A new style of architecture was required. 
 The pure Gothic of northern and central France 
 had never found a congenial soil in Italy. Only 
 a modified form of Gothic, in which the horizontal 
 principle held an important part, had flourished 
 there. Beadth rather than height was its 
 characteristic attribute. The spire was al- 
 most unknown, its place being taken by 
 the dome. In retaining something of the char- 
 acter of classic architecture Italian Gothic ex- 
 pressed the genius of the Italian people, a genius 
 with a classic inheritance, ns contrasted with the 
 genius of the French people, a genius with a 
 marked Celtic strain. In the creation of an archi- 
 ture that should give expression to the semi-classic 
 spirit of the Renaissance a less radical change was 
 required of the Italians than of the northern na- 
 tions. The spirit of the Renaissance appealed to 
 the Italian mind promptly and decisively. A new 
 style of architecture, that rapidly reached matur- 
 ity, gave expression to that spirit. . . . The Greeks 
 serenely enjoyed the external world. They drew 
 the inspiration for their sculpture from the men 
 and women they saw about them. They were not 
 much disturbed by the moral struggles and the 
 ceaseless and often-times painful questionings re- 
 garding the destiny of the individual soul that 
 Christianity emphasized. ... As we have seen, this 
 change in the attitude towards life, coming by im- 
 perceptible degrees, brought with it a change in 
 the ideals of art. The Greek temple gave place 
 to the Gothic cathedral. And when men began to 
 recover something of the pagan attitude towards 
 life the architecture of the early Renaissance gave 
 
 expression to that spirit. A similar change took 
 place in all the arts, in sculpture and in painting. 
 In sculpture the Italian, sense of reality had never 
 been completely extinguished. The carving of 
 leaves and flowers and fruit in the medieval 
 churches of the peninsula give testimony to a cer- 
 tain power of observation. Vet the Italian sculp- 
 tors were in no small measure bound by the sub- 
 jection of their art to the exclusive service of the 
 Church. The men of the medieval centuries were 
 exceedingly skilful carvers of stone. Indeed, the 
 medieval sculptors made the thirteenth century one 
 of the great periods of their art. But the spell 
 of the Church under which sculpture worked is 
 seen in the almost exclusive devotion to eccles- 
 iastical subjects, in the thin and gaunt figures, the 
 emaciated faces, the angular gestures, and above 
 all in the spirit that informs it. It was Nicholas 
 of Piso (i207( ?)-8o), . . . who, disregarding the 
 limiting traditions of the past, first instilled some- 
 thing of the new life into the forms of medieval 
 sculpture. ... He went direct to nature. And 
 from him onwards not one of the Itahan sculptor^ 
 copied classical statuary in a slavish manner. So 
 into the sculpture of the Renaissance, as into its 
 Hterature, its architecture and its painting, there 
 flowed from the beginning two streams of inspira- 
 tion, that of classic art and that of nature it- 
 self. . . . 
 
 "In the Middle Ages painting was merely the 
 handmaid of the Church. Its function was not to 
 reveal to man the beauty of the present world, but 
 to help him to win the salvation of his soul in the 
 next. In the latter medieval centuries the only 
 school of painting was the Byzantine school. It is 
 true that the Greek church had been separated 
 from the Latin church for centuries, but the paint- 
 ing of the former dominated that of the latter. 
 Byzantine painting was completely under the spell 
 of the Church. The subjects of the pictures were 
 taken from the Scriptures, from the legends of the 
 Church, or from the lives of the saints. An arid 
 symbolism, void of all initiative, dominated art. 
 . . . The style of treatment, the attitudes, the com- 
 position, and the colors, were all determined by 
 traditional rules. . . . There was no direct refer- 
 ence to nature. .Ml that painting had to do was 
 to assist the Church in its teaching. . . . But 
 softly and unnoticed a new era dawned upon the 
 world. In the thirteenth century life began to 
 animate painting once more as it had done in the 
 days of Greece and Rome, and as it was already 
 doing in Italy in literature and sculpture. Men 
 once again became sensitive to the beauty of na- 
 ture and the significance of humanity. Among the 
 painters who first made their art more expressive 
 of life were Guido of Siena, Giunta of Pisa, and 
 more important, Cimabue (1240 ( ?)-i302) of 
 Florence. . . . The beginning of the revival 01 
 sculpture preceded that of painting by almost half 
 a century; but the genius of one great man, Giotto 
 (1276-1336), raised painting to so high a pitch 
 that it overtook and overshadowed the develop- 
 ment of sculpture. . . . Fra .\ngelico had abjured 
 antiquity and Mantagna had discarded the inheri- 
 tance of the Middle .Ages. But up to this time 
 most of the artists of the Renaissance had striven 
 to unite the pagan and the Christian elements. It 
 was only ver>' gradually that the classical and the 
 modern were amalgamated." — E. M. Hulme, Ren- 
 aissance, Protestant Revolution and Catholic Re- 
 formation in continental Europe, pp. 108, 111-112, 
 116-117, 121. 
 
 "Now I think it may well profit us to turn away 
 from the art of our own Western tradition and 
 consider an art which has grown up and flowered 
 among races of a quite different civilization, among 
 
 532
 
 ART 
 
 Periods of Art 
 
 ART 
 
 a different order of ideas and nourished by a dif- 
 ferent inspiration: the art of Asia. That is the 
 only other body of creative art which can be com- 
 pared with our art, the art of the Western world, 
 on equal terms. . . . We have always thought of 
 perfection as something completed, and therefore 
 finite. But, as Mr. Okakura tells us in his charm- 
 ing Book of Ted, Laoist thought rejects the finite, 
 because where there is an end, where there is 
 completion, there is death. Growth has stopped. 
 Therefore we find a dwelling on the idea of the 
 imperfect, the uncompleted, when the capacity for 
 growth still remains. . . . The Chinese seem never 
 to have felt the need to throw their imagination 
 of the life-force into a human image. They have 
 kept their thought strangely vague and impersonal. 
 ... It is characteristic of this art and poetry that 
 this spirit in it goes out exulting to the immensi- 
 ties and profundities, as to its natural home. . . . 
 We in the West have found that the vitality of 
 our art has been nourished chiefly by the influx of 
 new material. The spur to our artists has been 
 the zest of exploration. The painters of the East 
 have remained content to repeat the same motive 
 century after century. And not only this, but they 
 have remained content with the same means of 
 expression. . . , The art of the West has been 
 like a fire, choked with the fuel which we have 
 heaped on it so eagerly ; burning fiercely but tur- 
 bidly, with smoke and crackling. In the art of 
 the East the flame has burned far clearer and 
 purer; the danger for it is rather inanition from 
 want of fresh fuel. How much, what a plenitude 
 of material has our Western art to consume ! how 
 grand an inspiration remains!" — L. Binyon, Ideas 
 of design in east and laest {Atlantic Monthly, Nov., 
 
 iqi3)- 
 
 Also in: J. Ruskin, Seven lamps of architec- 
 ture; Stones of Venice. — W. Pater, Renaissance: 
 studies in art and poetry. — J. A. Symonds, Renais- 
 sance in Italy, v. 3. — E. M. and E. S. Balch, Com- 
 parative ari.—G. B. Brown, Fine arts. — Kenyon 
 Cox, Classic point of view. — C. Noyes, Gale of 
 appreciation. — L. M. Phillips, Form and colour. — 
 P. Gaultier, Meaning of art. — E. Rowland, Signifi- 
 cance of art. — W. H. Wright, Creative will. 
 
 The following is an index of the various arts, 
 arranged alphabetically under the distinctive 
 periods ; 
 
 Prehistoric Art 
 
 American aborigines. See Arch.^ology: Im- 
 portance of American field; Aztec and Maya pic- 
 TtjEE writing; Indians, American: Cultural areas 
 in North America: Southwest area, also Plateau 
 area; Mayas; Mexico: Aboriginal peoples; Mu- 
 sic: Primitive; Peru: 1200-1527; Pueblos. 
 
 Palaeolithic. See Architecture: Prehistoric; 
 Europe: Prehistoric period: Palaeolithic art; Paint- 
 ing: Pre-classical. 
 
 Ancient Art 
 
 Ancient writing. See Aztec and Maya picture 
 writing; ^gean civilization: Cretan writing, also 
 Minoan Age: B.C. 2200-1600; Cuneiform inscrip- 
 tions; Egypt: Language and writing; Japan: Lan- 
 guage. 
 
 Babylonian and Assyrian. See Architecture: 
 Oriental: Mesopotamia; Assyria: Art and archaeo- 
 logical remains; Babylon: Nebuchadrezzar and the 
 wall of Babylon; Babylonia: Earliest inhabitants; 
 Music: Ancient: B.C. 3000-7th century; Sculp- 
 ture: Western Asia. 
 
 Chinese. See Architecture: Oriental; China: 
 China: Origin of the people, also 1294-1736; Cos- 
 tume: China; Music:* Ancient: B.C. 2852-478; 
 Painting: Chinese; Sculpture: India, China and 
 Japan. 
 
 Egyptian. See Alexandria: B.C. 282-246; 
 Arch.eology: Development; Architecture: Ori- 
 ental; Egypt; Costume: Egypt; Egypt: Monu- 
 ments, also B. C. 1500-1400, and Language and 
 writing; Hellenism: Hellenism and Alexandria; 
 Music: Ancient: B.C. 4000-525; Mythology: 
 Egyptian; Sculpture: Egyptian. 
 
 Greek. See Acropolis or Athens; Archeol- 
 ogy: Development; Architecture: Greek, Doric 
 and Ionic styles; Athens: B.C. 461-431: Aspect 
 of Periclean Athens; CosTtiME: Greece; Music: 
 Ancient: B.C. 540-4th century; Painting: Greek; 
 Parthenon: B.C. 445-431; Sculpture: Greek. 
 
 Hebrew. See Architecture: Oriental: Pales- 
 tine; Jerusalem: B.C. 1400-700. 
 
 Indian. See Architecture: Oriental: India: 
 Hindu architecture; Costume: India; Music: An- 
 cient: B.C. 2000-A. D. 1200; Painting: Asiatic: In- 
 dia and Persia; Sculpture: India, China and 
 Japan. 
 
 Irish. See Dublin: I2th-i4th centuries; Music: 
 Folk music and nationalism: Ireland. 
 
 Japanese. See Architecture: Oriental: Japan; 
 Costume: Japan; Japan: Language; Painting: 
 Japan; Sculpture: India, China and Japan. 
 
 Persian. See Architecture: Oriental: Persia; 
 Music: Ancient: B.C. 2000-A. D. 1200; Painting: 
 Asiatic: India and Persia; Sculpture: Western 
 Asia. 
 
 Roman. See Amphitheatre; Aqueducts; Arch; 
 Architecture: Classic: Roman; Baths; Costume: 
 Rome; Music: B.C. 146-A. D. 524; Painting: 
 Roman; Sculpture: Roman. 
 
 Scotch and Welsh. See Music; Folk music and 
 nationalism: Scotland, Wales. 
 
 Early Christian Art 
 
 Early Christian. See Basilicas; Music: B.C. 
 4-A. D. 397; 314-590; 540-604; P.wnting: Early 
 Christian. 
 
 Medieval Art 
 
 Illuminated manuscript. See Books: Books in 
 medieval times. 
 
 Byzantine. See Byzantine empire: Part in 
 history; Sculpture; Romanesque sculpture. 
 
 Chinese. See Painting: Chinese; Sculpture: 
 India, China and Japan. 
 
 Coptic. See Architecture: Medieval; Coptic. 
 
 Dutch. See Music: Medieval: 1350-1500; 1450- 
 1600; Painting: Dutch. 
 
 English. See Music: Folk music and national- 
 ism: Medieval: England, also 1226-1622. 
 
 Flemish. See Painting: Flemish. 
 
 French. See Architecture: Medieval: Ro- 
 manesque: French and Norman; Costume: iooo- 
 1500; Music: Folk music and nationalism: France, 
 also 12th, I2th-i4th century, 12th century-1350; 
 Painting: French; Sculpture: Gothic. 
 
 German. See Abbey: Architectural features: 
 Architecture: Medieval: Romanesque: Lombard 
 and German; Music: Medieval: 12th, I2th-i4th 
 century, 12th century-1350; Painting: German; 
 Sculpture: Gothic. 
 
 Gothic. See Architecture: Medieval: Gothic. 
 
 Indian. See Painting: Asiatic; Sculpture: In- 
 dia, China and Japan. 
 
 Italian. See Florence: 1469-1492 ; Music: Folk 
 music and nationalism: Italy; Painting: Italian: 
 Early Renaissance; Rome: Modern city: 153 7-1 621. 
 
 Japanese. See Painting: Japanese; Sculpture: 
 India, China and Japan. 
 
 Lombard architecture. See Architecture: 
 Medieval: Romanesque: Lombard and German. 
 
 533
 
 /RT 
 
 ART GALLERIES AND MUSEUMS 
 
 Mohammedan architecture. See Architec- 
 ure: Medieval: Mohammedan; Alhambra; Amru, 
 Mosque of. 
 
 Norman. See .■\RCinTECTURE; Medieval: Ro- 
 manesque; French and Norman. 
 
 Romanesque. See Architecture: Medieval: 
 Romanesque. 
 
 Scandinavian. See Music: Folk music and na- 
 tionalism: Scandinavia. 
 
 Spain.— Moorish art. See Architecture: Med- 
 ieval: Mohammedan; Painting: Spanish; Sculp- 
 ture: Gothic. 
 
 Renaissance 
 
 English. See Architecture: Renaissance: Eng- 
 lish. 
 
 French. See Architeciure: Renaissance: 
 French. See also Renaissance. 
 
 Italian. See .\rchitecture: Renaissance: Ital- 
 ian; P.mnting: Italian: Early Renaissance, also 
 High Renaissance; Sculpture: Early Renaissance, 
 also High Renaissance; Venice: i6th century. 
 
 Modern Art 
 American. See Architecture: Modem: Amer- 
 ican; Music: Modern: 17 74- 1908; Painting: 
 .American; Sculpture: Modern sculpture. 
 
 Belgian. See .Architecture: Modern; Belgian; 
 Music: Folk music and nationalism: Netherlands. 
 Bohemian. See Bohemia: Art, Music, Educa- 
 tion; Music: Folk music and nationalism: Bo- 
 hemia. 
 
 Celtic. See Music: Folk music and national- 
 ism: Celtic: Hebrides. 
 
 English. See Architecture: Modern: English; 
 Costume: 17th century, also 1815-1880; Music: 
 Modern: 1660-1604; 1750-1870; 1842-1921; Pain-t- 
 ing: English, also Europe (19th century) ; Sculp- 
 ture: Modern sculpture. 
 
 Finnish. See Music: Folk music and national- 
 ism: Finland. 
 
 French. See Architecture: Modern: French; 
 Costume: 1795-1815; Music: Modern: 1645-1764; 
 1730-1816; 1774-1864; 1800-1908; 1830-1921; 
 Painting: French; P.unting: Europe (19th cen- 
 tury ) ; Sculpture: Modern Sculpture. 
 
 German. See .Architecture: Modern: German; 
 Music: Modern: 1540-1672; 1630-1800; 1700-1827; 
 Later i8th century; 1620-1722; 1740; 1818-1921; 
 1847-1921; Painting: Europe (19th century); 
 Sculpture: Modern sculpture. 
 
 Italian. See Music: Modern: 1527-1613; 153S- 
 674; 1575-1676; 1607-1737; 1675-1764; 1650-1739; 
 1730-1816; 1818-1868; 1842-1921. 
 
 Oriental. See Painting: Asiatic, also Japanese; 
 Sculpture: India, China and Japan. 
 
 Russian. See Music: Folk music and national- 
 ism: Russia. 
 
 Scandinavian. See Music: Folk music and na- 
 tionalism; Scandinavia. 
 
 Spanish. See Painting: Spanish, also Europe 
 (19th century). 
 
 Besides the subjects referred to, there are also 
 articles on Art galleries and museums; Art edu- 
 cation ; Arts and crafts movement ; and the Lit- 
 eratures, e. g., American literature, English lit- 
 erature, etc. Drama; also articles on the princi- 
 pal museums, Abbeys, Cathedr-U.s, etc., and names 
 of artists. 
 
 ART ALLIANCE OF AMERICA. See Edu- 
 cation, Art; United States: Museums used lor art 
 education. 
 
 ART COLLECTIONS. See Art galleries 
 
 AND museums. 
 
 ART EDUCATION. See Education, Art. 
 ART GALLERIES AND MUSEUMS.— The 
 term "museum," derived from the Museion or 
 
 "Temple of the muses" at Alexandria, covers a 
 collection of all sorts of art objects, while an 
 art gallerv is occasionally, though not as a rule, 
 restricted to a collection of pictures. Public 
 museums are those supported by public money, 
 to which the public has free access. "While the 
 Romans were industrious collectors of statues and 
 paintings they sought them merely as decorative 
 objects and not for the purpose of cultivating 
 taste, or as instruments for the study and teach- 
 ing of the arts of design. At first they were em- 
 ployed exclusively for the decoration of temples 
 and places of public resort; but private collec- 
 tions began to be formed and by the close of 
 the Republic it had become fashionable for wealthy 
 citizens to have a room in their houses for the 
 reception and display of works of art. . . . Natural 
 objects, such as we call curiosities, had long been 
 preserved in temples, both in Greek and Roman 
 times. ... By far the most important museum 
 of antiquity was the great institution at -Alex- 
 andria (Museion) founded by Ptolemy Philadel- 
 phus in the third century before Christ. ... In 
 the Middle .Ages many monasteries had collec- 
 tions of curiosities. . . . Every church had its 
 treasury, and most treasuries contained relics. . . . 
 The vast treasuries of art which had been re- 
 covered in Italy [during the Renaissance] were 
 gradually absorbed into special collections and 
 formed the foundation of the museums of the 
 Vatican and the Lateran at Rome, of the museum 
 of Florence and of those of Vienna, Dresden, 
 Munich, Paris, St. Petersburg, and London."— D. 
 Murray, Museums, pp. 1-18.— "It is only within 
 recent years that communities have taken or 
 shared the initiative in the foundation of museums 
 of art. The older museums abroad and at home 
 have originated in private collections either be- 
 queathed to the public or taken possession of in 
 the name of the nation. [See .Albright g.\l- 
 lerv.] The purchase of Sir Hans Sloane's col- 
 lection in 1753 was the nucleus of the British 
 Museum; the Pitti and the Uf&zi collections 
 gathered bv the Medici family have now been 
 acquired bv the Italian Government. Some great 
 museums, like the Vatican in Rome, still remain 
 private propertv, while open in a measure free 
 to the public. Some, like our American museums, 
 mostly established during the past half-century, 
 are the property of corporations created for the 
 purpose." — B. I. Gilman, Museum ideals of pur- 
 pose and method, p. 383.— "The character of the 
 buildings which, as time went on, were here and 
 there erected to house these collections of price- 
 less originals, was determined by several fac- 
 tors. .As most of the collections had found 
 their first homes in the palaces of rulers or mem- 
 bers of the nobility, it was quite naturally con- 
 cluded that their new homes should be also in 
 the stvle of the local palace or royal residence. 
 .As the things collected were objects of art, it 
 seemed obvious that they should be housed in 
 artistic buildings, and as for several centuries it 
 has been difficult for architects or those having 
 power over art collections to conceive of an artistic 
 building save in terms of Greek or Renaissance 
 architecture, nearly all special museum buildings 
 imitated either the Greek temple or the Italian 
 palace In Europe, therefore, we find museums 
 to be either old buildings of the loyal palace 
 type or later constructions copying the palace 
 or the Greek temple, containing priceless originals 
 in all lines of art, craftsmanship and archsology, 
 arranged as the characters of the several build- 
 ings compel. . . . The prevalence of th" Euro- 
 pean idea of a museum determined not only the 
 character of our museum buildings, but also their 
 
 534
 
 ART GALLERIES AND MUSEUMS 
 
 ART INSTITUTE 
 
 location. As they must be works of art, and as 
 only those buildings which took the form of 
 temples and palaces could be considered works of 
 art, and as temples and palaces need open space 
 about them to display their excellence, and as 
 space in the centers of towns is quite expensive, 
 donors, architects, trustees and city fathers all 
 agreed that the art museum building should be 
 set apart from the city proper, preferably in a 
 part with open space about it." — J. C. Dana, 
 Gloom of the museum, pp. 11-13. — "There is im- 
 posed upon museums of the fine arts by the nature 
 of their contents an obligation paramount to the 
 duty of public instruction incumbent on all mu- 
 seums, . . . namely, to promote public appre- 
 ciation of certain visible and tangible creations 
 through which the fancy of man has bidden his 
 sense follow its flight. ... An art museum is 
 a selection of objects adapted to impress; a sci- 
 entific or technical museum is a selection of objects 
 adapted to instruct. . . . Art is an end, educa- 
 tion a means to an end. The office of an art 
 museum is one which is warranted in itself ; that 
 of an educational museum is one whose fruits are 
 its warrant. . . . Thus neither in scope nor in 
 value is the purpose of an art museum a pedagogic 
 one. An institution devoted to the preservation 
 and exhibition of works of the line arts is not 
 an educational institution, either in essence or 
 in its claims to consideration. ... In their chief 
 function, it is theirs to gather up the art of the 
 past, whose public no longer exists, and offer 
 hospitality to the art of foreign lands, whose 
 public is another than ours. They are instru- 
 mentalities by which civilization provides that 
 neither shall antique art be lost, nor exotic art 
 be non-existent to us. The distinctive purpose 
 of an art museum may be precisely defineci as 
 the aim to bring about that perfect contempla- 
 tion of the works of art it preserves which is 
 implied in their production and forms their con- 
 summation. . . . While museums of other kinds 
 are at bottom educational institutions, a museum 
 of fine art is not didactic but aesthetic in primary 
 purpose, although formative in its influence, and 
 both admitting of and profiting by a secondary 
 pedagogical use. The true conception of an art 
 museum is not that of an educational institu- 
 tion having art for its teaching material, but 
 that of an artistic institution with educational uses 
 and demands." — B. I. Oilman, Museum ideals of 
 purpose and method, pp. 89-98. 
 
 "The educational value of museums is recog- 
 nised by all universities, inasmuch as every de- 
 partment, where possible, has its museum to en- 
 able the student to see the things and realise 
 sensually the qualities described in lessons or 
 lectures — in short, to learn what cannot be learned 
 by words. But the 'Teaching Museums' of a 
 university are very different in character from 
 Public Museums. In the first place the clientele 
 is altogether different. The university student 
 comes to his museum primed with the teaching 
 of the classroom, and inspired to acquire knowl- 
 edge from what may be seen there. There is not 
 the necessity for special preparation to attract the 
 interest, or even to preserve the life-like char- 
 acters of specimens." — Proceedings and transaf- 
 tions of the Liverpool Biological Society, v. 32, 
 1917-1918, pp. 3-4. — See also Education, Art: 
 United States: Museums used for art education. 
 
 The following is a selected list of art galleries 
 and museums in various parts of the world: 
 
 Argentina, Buenos Aires. — Museo Nacional de 
 Bellas Artes. 
 
 Australia. — National Gallery, Melbourne. 
 
 Austria. — Art-history Museum, Gallery of Paint- 
 
 ings, Lichtenstein Gallery and Imperial Museum, 
 Vienna (q.v.). 
 
 Belgium. — Galleries of old and modern pictures 
 in the Royal Museums, Brussels. 
 
 Brazil, Rio de Janeiro. — Eschola Nacional de 
 Bellas Artes. 
 
 China. — Peking Imperial Museum in Peking. 
 
 Denmark. — .^rt Museum at Copenhagen. 
 
 ^Sypl- — Musee Greco-Romain at Alexandria, and 
 Museum of Egyptian Antiquities and National 
 Museum of Arab Art at Carlo. 
 
 France. — Louvre (q.v.), Musee du Luxembourg, 
 Musee de Cluny and Musee Carnavalet (see Car- 
 NA VALET, Musee), Paris, and Musee Nationale at 
 Versailles. Musees des Departments that have 
 shown positive evidence of growth during the last 
 quarter of a century are those of Amiens, Abbe- 
 ville, Boulogne-sur-mer. Clermont, Douai, Lille, 
 Poitiers, Saint-Quentin, Senlis and Valenciennes. 
 
 Germany — Old and New Museums and National 
 Gallery at Berlin, the Royal Gallery of Paintings 
 at Dresden (see Dresden museum), and the 
 Glyptothek and the Old and New Pinakothek 
 at Munich (q.v.), Darmstadt Museum (q.v.). 
 
 Great Britain. — Museum and Art Gallery at Bir- 
 mingham, the National Gallery and the Muni- 
 cipal Gallery of Modern Art at DubUn (see Dub- 
 lin museum), the National Gallery of Scotland 
 at Edinburgh, the Art Gallery and Museum at 
 Glasgow (see Glasgow museum), the Walker Art 
 Gallery at Liverpool, the Ashmolean Museum, Ox- 
 ford (q.v.), the Ruskin Museum at Sheffield, and 
 the following in London: National Gallery, Na- 
 tional Portrait Gallery, National Gallery of British 
 Art (formerly the Tate), Victoria and Albert Mu- 
 seum (q.v.) (formerly South Kensington Museum), 
 British Museum (q.v), and Wallace Collection. 
 
 Greece. — National Museum at Athens. 
 
 Holland. — Koninklyk Kabinet van Schilderyen 
 and Municipal Museum at The Hague and Ryks 
 Museum at Amsterdam (q.v.). 
 
 India. — The Indian Museum at Calcutta. 
 
 7(a/.v.— The Accademia di Belle Arti, the Uffizi, 
 the Pitti Palace and the Bargello, at Florence, the 
 Brera at Milan, the Museo Nazionale at Naples 
 (q.v), Museo Nazionale at Florence (q.v.), the 
 Vatican (q.v.), the Capitoline, the Borghese and 
 the Doria at Rome, and the Accademia ed Instituto 
 di Belle Arti at Venice. 
 
 Japan. — The Imperial Museums In Tokio, in 
 Kioto, and in Nara. 
 
 Mexico, Mexico City.— Museo de Arte de 
 Academia de Ciencias. 
 
 Peru, Lima. — Gallery of Paintings in the Museo 
 de Historia Natural, Palacio de la Exposicion. 
 
 Porttigal. — Museu Nacional de Antiga and 
 Museu Nacional de Arte Contemporanea at Lis- 
 bon. 
 
 Russia. — The Hermitage (q. v.) and the Rus- 
 sian Museum of Alexander III at Petrograd. 
 
 Spain. — Museo del Prado (see Prado, Museo 
 del) and Academia de Bellas Artes at Madrid, the 
 Casa Greca at Toledo, and the Palacio de Bellas 
 .\rtes at Barcelona, Museo de Artilleria. 
 
 Siveden. — National Museum at Stockholm. 
 
 United States and Canada. — Art Institute ot 
 Chicago (q.v.) ; Brooklyn Institute of Arts and 
 Science; Hispanic Society of America, Metro- 
 politan Museum of Art (q.v.), and Public Li- 
 brary (paintings and prints department). New 
 York City [see also New York City: 1870-1921]; 
 Carnegie Institute, Pittsburgh; Museum of Fine 
 Arts, Boston ; The National Gallery of Canada 
 (Ottawa) ; Corcoran Gallerv of Art, Washing- 
 ton, D. C. 
 
 ART INSTITUTE, Chicago.— "From an art 
 school founded in 1866 rose the Chicago Academy 
 
 535
 
 ART INSTITUTE 
 
 ARTEVELDE 
 
 of Design, which until 1882 was the only notable 
 art center of Ihe city. In 1S79 it was organized 
 anew as the Chicago Academy of Fine Arts, and 
 incorporated by the State 'for the founding and 
 maintenance of schools of art and design, the 
 formation and exhibition of collections of objects 
 of art, and the cultivation and extension of the 
 arts of design, by appropriate means.' In 1883 it 
 was given its present name. First installed in 
 rented rooms, the society obtained in 1882 and 
 1885 (obliquely across from its present home) 
 a large piece of ground, upon a part of which 
 it built, but in 18S6 it erected there a fine museum, 
 100 feet long and 87 feet wide, of a Romanesque 
 style, after plans of J. W. Root. As this soon be- 
 came too small it was in 1892 sold for $400,000 
 to the Chicago Club in order that there might 
 be erected in 1893 the present spacious building, 
 near the edge of the lake, in the extensive Lake 
 Front Park. . . . The Chicago Exposition in 1893 
 needed a building for holding congresses, and by 
 mutual agreement with the art institute this one 
 was built upon a site belonging to the city, on 
 the lake front, near the busiest section. The 
 exposition paid $200,000, the art institute $500,000, 
 and the city gave the site, 425 feet long, on the 
 broad Michigan avenue under the condition that 
 the property rights in the building should belong 
 to it, but that the art institute should occupy 
 it rent free, so long as they use it for its present 
 purposes. The art institute therefore presented 
 it to the city. . . . The Art Institute is entirely 
 independent and obtains no support from the city, 
 to say nothing of the State, except that the city, 
 as already mentioned, gave the ground for a site, 
 in e.xchange for which it obtained the property 
 right of the building. The yearly expenditure for 
 189Q-1900 was about $90,000 the art school 
 costing $38,000, which was, however, wholly re- 
 paid by the pupils. ... At the head of the in- 
 stitute is a board of trustees of 23 persons, who 
 from their number select a president and a vice- 
 president, as well as an executive committee of 
 seven and an art committee of five members." — 
 A. B. Meyer, Studies of the museums and kindred 
 institutions of New York City, Albany, Buffalo 
 and Chicago, pp. 442-447. 
 
 "The museum has collections of paintings, es- 
 pecially Dutch, Flemish, French, and American; 
 Egyptian and classical antiquities; about 1,400 
 casts of sculpture of all periods, including archi- 
 tectural sculpture ; prints, inclnding very fine col- 
 lections of etchings by Meryon, Whistler, and 
 Zorn ; modern medals and plaquettes; ceramics, 
 notably old Wedgwood and other English wares; 
 textiles, furniture, and other examples of indus- 
 trial art. Two organizations exist for the pur- 
 pose of adding to the collections — the .\ntiquarian 
 Society and the Friends of American Art. Be- 
 sides the permanent exhibitions there are held an- 
 nually more than 40 diverse temporary exhibitions, 
 foreign as well as American. . . . 2,200 students 
 are included in the day, night, Saturday juvenile 
 classes in drawing, painting, sculpture, design, il- 
 lustration, architecture, and normal instruction, 
 and Summer School. Forty teachers including 
 visiting instructors compose the regular faculty. 
 [See Art EnvcATioN.l The Ryerson Library of 
 Art and the Burnhara Library of Architecture have 
 16,000 volumes, 46.000 photographs, and 20,000 
 lantern slides. The Extension Department, in ex- 
 istence since November ior6, has carried exhibi- 
 tions of modern American painting to forty or 
 fifty cities; has conducted art institutes of three 
 to five days' duration in these cities, and has 
 provided lectures and assisted in the organiza- 
 tion of local exhibitions in many cities of the 
 
 Middle Western states." — Year's art 1920, pp. 238- 
 239. — See also Painting: Modern: American. 
 ART MUSEUMS. See Art galleries and 
 
 MUSEUMS. 
 
 ART SCHOOLS. See Education, Art; Amer- 
 ican ACADEMY IN RoiiE ; .\rt INSTITUTE, Chicago. 
 
 ARTABA, ancient Persian dry measure. See 
 Ephah. 
 
 ARTAGUETTE (d. 1736), French military 
 leader under Bienville ; became colonial governor of 
 Louisiana during which period he engaged in wars 
 against the Chickasaw Indians. See Louislana: 
 1719-1750. 
 
 ARTAPHERNES.— Persian satrap of Sardis. 
 Took prominent part in suppressing the Ionian 
 revolt. (See Greece: B.C. 500-493: Rising of 
 lonians.) His son, of the same name, together 
 with Datis, commanded the expedition sent by 
 Darius against Athens and Eretria for their share 
 in this revolt. The expedition was defeated at 
 Marathon. See Greece: B. C. 490. 
 
 ARTAXATA, the ancient capital of Armenia, 
 said to have been built under the superintendence 
 of Hannibal, while a refugee' in Armenia. At i 
 later time it was called Neronia, in honor of the 
 Roman Emperor Nero. 
 
 Siege of. See Rome: Republic: B.C. 78-68. 
 
 ARTAXERXES, the name of three ancient 
 Persian kings of the .^chiemian dynasty. 
 
 Artaxerxes I (Longimanus), reigned 465-425 
 B.C. See Athens: B.C. 460-455; Persia: B.C. 
 486-405. 
 
 Artaxerxes II (Mnemon), ruled >i0m 404 to 
 359 B.C. (See Persia: B.C. 486-405 and 401- 
 400.) Persian supremacy in Greece was proclaimed 
 at the Peace of Antalcidas (see Greece: B. C. 399- 
 387) ; but the last years marked the weakening 
 and disintegration of his kingdom. 
 
 Artaxerxes III (Ochus), Kin^ of Persia, 359- 
 338 B.C. A cruel and despotic ruler; subjugated 
 Egypt about 343 B. C. and gave his support 
 to Perinthus and Byzantium (340 B. C.) against 
 Philip of Macedon. 
 
 The same name was also borne by (Be founder 
 and two other rulers of the Sassanid dynasty, 
 though they are generally known as Ardashir 
 or Ardshir. See Persia: B.C. 150-A. D. 226; and 
 Sassanun dynasty. 
 
 ARTEMIS, a Greek divinity known among the 
 Romans as Diana, the protectress of young men 
 and maidens, the goddest of chastity, of nature 
 and of the hunt, and later regarded as the moon- 
 goddess. She has many symbols in art, notably 
 the hind, the bear, the bow and arrow, the 
 torch, and the crescent. There are beautiful 
 representations of her on the coins of .Arca- 
 dia, Aetolia, Crete and Sicily; her most famous 
 statue, the Diana of \'ersailles, is now in the 
 Louvre. 
 
 Temple of. See Temples: Stage of culture rep- 
 resented bv temple architecture. 
 
 ARTEMISIA.— (i) Sister and wife of Mauso- 
 lus, king of Caria, whom she followed as ruler, 
 353-350 B. C. Built the famous Mausoleum in 
 Halicarnassus in honor of her husband. (See 
 Carians.) (2) A queen of Halicarnassus and 
 Cos (c. 480 B. C.) ; fought at the battle of 
 Salamis (see Greece: B. C. 480: Persian Wars) 
 on the side of Xerxes against the Greeks. She 
 became a mvthological heroine. 
 
 ARTEMl'SIUM, a promontory in the north- 
 west coast of Euboea. The Greeks, undijr Eury- 
 biades, won a naval battle against the Persians off 
 the point (480 B.C.). See Greece: B.C. 480: 
 Persian Wars: .^rtemisium; also Map of ancient 
 Greece. 
 ARTEMITA, city in Assyria. See Dastagerd. 
 
 536
 
 ARTEVELDE 
 
 ARTHURIAN LEGEND 
 
 ARTEVELDE, Jacqu»s van (12Q0-1345), a 
 Flemish leader of the fourteenth century who 
 was successful in repulsing the Count of Flanders, 
 a French vassel, and was instrumental in forming 
 a league between Ghent, Bruges and Ypres which 
 later made a treaty with Edward III of England. 
 He was killed in 1345 during an uprising of the 
 populace. — See also Flanders: 1335-1337; 134S. 
 
 ARTEVELDE, Philip van (about 1340-1382), 
 a son of Jacques van Artevelde. He lost his life 
 in the battle of Roosebeke in which he led the 
 Flemings against the French army under Charles 
 VI. — See also Flanders: 1382. 
 
 ARTHUR, King, and Knights of the Round 
 Table. See Arthurian Legend; and Cumbria. 
 
 ARTHUR, Chester Alan (1830-1886), the 
 twenty-first president (Republican) of the United 
 States; appointed collector of the port of New 
 York in 1S71 by President Grant; in 1880 was 
 Garfield's running mate for vice-presidency and 
 subsequently elected; succeeded Garfield (who 
 died on September iq) as president in 1881 and 
 remained in office until 18S5. — See also Civil serv- 
 ice reform: United States; Tariff: 1883; U. S. A.: 
 1880: Twenty-fourth presidential election; 1881; 
 1881-1885. 
 
 ARTHURIAN CYCLE. See Arthurian legend. 
 
 ARTHURIAN LEGEND.— An early medieval 
 romance of Britain, laid in the latter part of the 
 fifth, and first quarter of the sixth, centuries. 
 The story concerns a semi-mythical hero, King 
 Arthur. "On the difficult question, whether there 
 was a historical Arthur or not, ... a word or 
 two must now be devoted . . . ; and here one 
 has to notice in the first place that Welsh litera- 
 ture never calls Arthur a gwledig or prince but 
 emperor, and it may be inferred that his his- 
 torical position, in case he had such a position, 
 was that of one filling, after the departure of the 
 Romans, the office which under them was that of 
 the Comes Britanniae or Count of Britain. The 
 officer so called had a roving commission to de- 
 fend the Province wherever his presence might 
 be called for. The other military captains here 
 were the Dux Britanniarum, who had charge of 
 the forces in the north and especially on the 
 Wall, and the Comes Littoris Saxonici [Count 
 of the Saxon Shore], who was entrusted with the 
 defence of the south-eastern coa^t of the island. 
 The successors of both these captains seem to 
 have been called in Welsh gwledigs or princes. 
 So Arthur's suggested position as Comes Britan- 
 niae would be in a sense superior to theirs, which 
 harmonizes with his being called emperor and not 
 gwledig. The Welsh have borrowed the Latin 
 title of imperator, 'emperor,' and made it into 
 'amherawdyr,' later 'amherawdwr,' so it is not 
 impossible, that when the Roman imperator ceased 
 to have anything more to say to this country. 
 the title was given to the highest officer in the 
 island, namely the Comes Britanniae, and that in 
 the words 'Yr Amherawdyr Arthur,' 'the Emperor 
 Arthur,' we have a remnant of our insular history. 
 If this view be correct, it might be regarded as 
 something more than an accident that Arthur's 
 position relatively to that of the other Brythonic 
 princes of his time is exactly given by Nennius, 
 or whoever it was that wrote the Historia Brit- 
 tonum ascribed to him: there Arthur is represented 
 fighting in company with the kings of the Brythons 
 in defence of their common country, he being 
 their leader in war. If. as has sometimes been 
 argued, the uncle of Maglocunus or Maelgwn, 
 whom the latter is accused by Gilda of having 
 slain and superseded, was no other than Arthur, 
 it would supply one reason why that writer 
 called Maelgwn 'insularis draco,' 'the dragon or 
 
 war-captain of the island,' and why the latter 
 and his successors after him were called by the 
 Welsh not gwledigs but kings, though their great 
 ancestor Cuneda was only a gwledig. On the 
 other hand the way in which Gildas alludes to the 
 uncle of Maelgwn without even giving his name, 
 would seem to suggest that in his estimation at 
 least he was no more illustrious than his pred- 
 ecessors in the position whith he held, what- 
 ever that may have been. Hov,' then did Arthur 
 become famous above them, and how came he 
 to be the subject of so much story and romance? 
 The answer, in short, which one has to give to 
 this hard question must be to the effect, that 
 besides a historic Arthur there was a Brythonic 
 divinity named .Arthur, after whom the man may 
 have been called, or with whose name his, in case 
 it was of a different origin, may have become 
 identical in sound owing to an accident of speech; 
 for both explanations are possible, as we shall 
 attempt to show later. Leaving aside for a 
 while the man Arfhur, and assuming the ex- 
 istence of a god of that name, let us see what 
 could be made of him. Mythologically speaking 
 he would probably have to he regarded as a Cul- 
 ture Hero; for, a model king and the institutor 
 of the Knighthood of the Round Table, he is 
 represented as the leader of expeditions to the 
 isles of Hades, and as one who stood in some- 
 what the same kind of relation to Gwalchmei as 
 Gwydion did to Lieu. It is needless heie to dwell 
 on the character usually given to Arthur as a 
 ruler: he with his knights around him may be 
 compared to Conchobar, in the midst of the Cham- 
 pions of Emain Macha, or Woden among the 
 Anses at Valhalla, while Arthur's Knights are 
 called those of the Round Table, around which 
 they are described as sitting ; and it would be 
 interesting to understand the signification' of the 
 term Round Table. On the whole it is the table, 
 probably, and not its roundness that is the fact 
 to which to call attention, as it possibly means 
 that Arthur's court was the first early court 
 where those present sat at a table at all in Britain. 
 No such thing as a common table figures at Con- 
 chobar's court or any other described in the old 
 legends of Ireland, and the same applies, we be- 
 lieve, to those of the old Norsemen. The at- 
 tribution to Arthur of the first use of a common 
 table would fit in well with the character of a Cul- 
 ture Hero which we have ventured to ascribe to 
 him, and it derives countenance from the pretended 
 history of the Round Table; for the Arthurian 
 legend traces it back to Arthur's father, Uthr 
 Bendragon, in whom we have under one of his 
 many names the king of Hades, the realm whence 
 all culture was fabled to have been derived. In 
 a wider sense the Round Table possibly signified 
 plenty or abundance, and might be compared with 
 the table of the Ethiopians, at which Zeus and 
 the other gods of Greek mythology used to feast 
 from time to time." — J. Rhys, Studies in the 
 Arthurian legend, ch. i. — See also Cumbria. 
 
 Historical basis. — The simple ungarnished story 
 of Arthur's birth, as set forth in Welsh tradi- 
 tion, is as follows: "Uter Pendragon, son of 
 Cystennyn Vendigaid or 'Constantine the Blessed,' 
 King of Britain, falls in love with Eigyr, wife 
 of Gorlais, Duke of Cornwall, and by a subtlety 
 gains access to her and begets Arthur. Besides 
 Uter Pendragon, Constantine had two older sons. 
 The eldest Constans, a Monk, was of weak in- 
 tellect, but nevertheless upon his father's death 
 succeeded to the British throne, and was shortly 
 afterwards murdered at the instigation of Vorti- 
 gern, who thereupon became King of Britain. The 
 second son was one Emrys Wledig, or Ambrosiu? 
 
 537
 
 ARTHURIAN LEGEND 
 
 Sources 
 Growth 
 
 ARTHURIAN LEGEND 
 
 Aurelianus, who revenged his brother's death by 
 overthrowing Vortigern, and was elected King of 
 Britain in his stead. Upon the death of Am- 
 brosius Aurelianus, Uter Peiidragon, the third 
 son, succeeded to the British throne. So much 
 for the Welsh tradition. The first historian of any 
 repute to mention Arthur is Nennius, who wrote 
 his British History circa 706. He calls him Arlur 
 Mab liter, which Vneans 'Arthur, son of Uther,' 
 and he states that as 'Dux bellorum cum regibus 
 Britonum,' he led the British forces victoriously 
 twelve times against the Saxons. The twelfth 
 and last battle of this series was Radon Mount. 
 . . . The Anglo Saxon Chronicle gives the date 
 of the landing of the Saxons as circa 449, so the 
 battle of Badon Mount would take place circa 
 493. . . . Taking the two statements of Gildas 
 and Nennius it seems to me that we are justified 
 in saying that Arthur was a descendant of Am- 
 brosius Aurelianus. The statement in Gildas that 
 Ambrosius was the last of his race left alive [in 
 his own generation, must be understood, as he 
 left 'soboles' or 'issue'], altogether upsets the 
 Welsh tradition that his younger brother Uther 
 Pendragon succeeded him upon the throne. . . . 
 There can be little doubt but that Geoffrey of 
 Monmouth, king of imaginative historians, is 
 responsible for this splitting up of one man into 
 two, and this is somewhat indicated by the com- 
 plete failure of his imagination to deal with them; 
 he states that both .Ambrosius and Uther were 
 poisoned, and buries them both at Stonehenge, 
 which is a very tame effort on his part. So I 
 would sugger.t that King Arthur was the son of 
 the 'victorious commander-in-chief,' in British, 
 'Uther Pendragon,' whose name. Latinized, was, 
 'Am,brosius Aurelianus,' or, in British, 'Emrys 
 Wledig.' . . . Although a Briton by descent, with 
 such progenitors, he must have been in cultiva- 
 tion and at heart a Roman. His grandfather and 
 great grandfather Constantine the Blessed and 
 Maximus, held their courts in Gaul. His father 
 Ambrosius Aurelianus would have no time for 
 courtly functions, as he must have been fully em- 
 ployed fighting against the enemies of his coun- 
 try; not only had he to keep in check the Saxon 
 invasion and the inroads of the Picts and Scots, 
 but also to iight against and overthrow the de- 
 based British rule under Vortigern. To Arthur 
 alone of this line of Romano-British warriors and 
 kings did the opportunity arise of holding court 
 in Britain. After the battle of Badon Mount 
 A. D. 493, comparative peace reigned in the island 
 for a considerable period. [See also E.ngland: 
 449-473 to 547-633]. Then it would be that 
 Arthur settled down to social life, and we may 
 be sure that, with his Roman education and tastes, 
 his court must have been a surprise indeed to 
 the rough untutored British kings and chieftains, 
 his immediate followers. We gtt a glimpse of 
 the civilization of this period in the ruins, now 
 being excavated, of the Romano-British city of 
 Silchester. Arthur, no doubt, had accumulated 
 great we'alth in the only way in which wealth 
 could be amassed in those days, by the power of 
 the sword, and his court would therefore be sur- 
 rounded with all the luxuries of the then modern 
 Roman civilization." — A. S. Scott-Gatty, (Gene- 
 ologist, n. s. V. 18, pp. 209-216). 
 
 Sources and growth of the legend. — Com- 
 posite nationality. — "At present there are two 
 conflicting views on the question. Professor Zim- 
 mer, Professor Foerster, and others — mostly Ger- 
 man scholars — have thought that the chief source 
 of the Arthurian romances and p.-ieudo-chronicles 
 was continental. The kernel, at least, was Celtic; 
 and it began to germinate in Brittany, where it 
 
 had been carried from Britain in the great mi- 
 gration of southwestern Cymri in the second half 
 of the sixth century. From Brittany, after taking 
 on various legendary additions, the Arthur-story 
 spread to the Normans; and from them over all 
 northern France. On its native heath, however, 
 the Arthurian hero-story remained comparatively 
 undeveloped; there it got but little beyond the 
 stage at which it appears in Nennius. . . . While 
 the writers holding this view are inclined to min- 
 imise the Celtic element in the Arthurian romances, 
 they differ considerably as to its importance. 
 Professor Zimmcr, for instance, sees a great deal 
 that is Celtic. He seems to think that the ro- 
 mances of Chretien de Troies, the greatest of 
 the early French Arthurian writers, have sub- 
 stantially the same relation to the original Celtic 
 tales as Shakespeare's plays to those 'novels' 
 v/hich gave him so much dramatic material. Pro- 
 fessor Foerster, on the other hand, sees much less 
 that is Celtic ; and some scholars would see little 
 more of a Celtic element than a few names of 
 people and of places. The .Arthurian romances, 
 they hold, came almost wholly from general Euro- 
 pean folklore, and from the invention of French 
 writers, conscious literary artists, especially of 
 Chretien de Troies. [See also French literature: 
 1050-1350.] Professor Gaston Paris and other 
 scholars — French, English and American — have 
 held a different view. They think that the 
 French gave literary finish to the Arthurian stories, 
 but little else. Incidents, often plots, sometimes 
 even the spirit of a romance, they regard as Celtic. 
 The stories took shape, they think, not so much 
 among the northern French as among the Anglo- 
 Normans, that is, in England. Before the con- 
 quest, the Saxons had got the stories to some ex- 
 tent from the Welsh, among whom the stories 
 were fairly well developed; and the Saxons gave 
 them to the Normans. . . . The antecedent prob- 
 ability seems to be that there is truth in both 
 theories ; there is no reason why a story should 
 not flourish in the land in which it was born and 
 in that to which it has been transported. . . . 
 The forms of many proper names in Round Table 
 romances of the twelfth century point to a Breton 
 rather than a Welsh origin. The only way to 
 explain Arthurian proper names in the south 
 of Italy at the beginning of this century, is that 
 the Arthurian stories were carried there by the 
 Normans who conquered Sicily about the middle 
 of the preceding century. The conclusion seems 
 inevitable, therefore, that the Normans knew 
 Arthur and his knights before they went to 
 England, where the legend of the hero had had 
 independent growth. . . . Not all the Celtic ma- 
 terial in Arthurian legends came from the Britons; 
 some of it came from the Irish. The more 
 medieval literature is studied, the more it be- 
 comes evident that Ireland had considerable in- 
 fluence in shaping the Round Table stories. . . . 
 Irish influence on the Arthurian legends appears 
 in many proper names. Even .Arthur's sword, the 
 famous Excalibur, seems to have come from Ire- 
 land. . . . Stray incidents, too, of Arthurian ro- 
 mance are paralleled in Irish story. The hideous 
 damsels that Perceval meets in the Grail romances, 
 some of whom, apparently, can change at will into 
 creatures of radiant beauty, are the counter- 
 parts of Irish hags who are resplendent fairies in 
 disguise. And. finally, several whole stories con- 
 nected with Arthur appear to have come from 
 Irish sources. That excellent story of the Green 
 Knight; the tale, likewise, of the knight who was 
 changed into a were-wolf; and the story of the 
 Marriage of Sir Gawain ... all these are mani- 
 festly of Irish origin. So now we have some idea 
 
 53S
 
 ARTHURIAN LEGEND 
 
 Poetic 
 Expansion 
 
 ARTHURIAN LEGEND 
 
 of the popular beginnings of the Arthurian legends. 
 The historical hero, a semi-barbarous British war- 
 rior, became a romantic hero through the tendency 
 of human nature to fasten stories to noted char- 
 acters. Once he had attracted a few stories to 
 himself, he attracted tales more and more marvel- 
 lous. As the hero-story went on growing, it 
 attracted popular material of all kinds. . . . Thus 
 on both sides of the British Channel, but probably 
 more in the British Isles than on the Continent, 
 there grew up a conglomerate mass of romantic 
 material, which has given us the stories of Arthur 
 as we know them." — H. Maynadier, Arthur of the 
 En[,lish poets, pp. 43-4Q. 
 
 Reflex of Age of Chivalry. — Poetic expansion 
 of the legend. — "One of the strangest phenomena 
 in the history of literature is the outburst of 
 Arthurian romance in the second half of the 
 twelfth century. A few years suffice to lift the 
 hero of obscure and half-subjugated tribes into 
 unrivalled popularity and fame, and the exploits 
 of his followers, a little while before unknown to 
 the world at large, become all at once the en- 
 grossing topic for the imagination of Europe. 
 Whatever circumstances may have contributed to 
 this sudden success, it cannot be fully explained 
 save by supposing that the new matter was 
 exceptionally suitable to the spirit of the time. It 
 must have met a deep-felt want, and shown itself 
 capable of receiving the stamp of the medieval 
 spirit and expressing the medieval modes of life 
 and thought more perfectly, than any previous 
 theme. And in the history of the typical and 
 international fiction of the Middle Ages there 
 are indications that this was the case. The im- 
 aginative activity of these centuries seems to at- 
 tempt the satisfaction of certain spiritual de- 
 mands, but till the Arthurian stories become avail- 
 able, the attempt has only partial success. . . . 
 Now the ideals that swayed the higher classes 
 in those days were almost summed up in what is 
 styled Chivalry. It would be wrong to call the 
 romances chivalrous, for only one group of them 
 fully answers this description ; but, at least, they 
 are all of chivalrous tendency and aim at em- 
 bodying its conceptions. And these conceptions 
 were essentially ideals. It has once and again 
 been shown that there never was an actual age 
 of chivalry, and that when in later times people 
 tried, as they thought, to restore it, they were 
 attempting to import into practical life what was 
 in truth a minstrel's dream. Nevertheless, as it 
 was a dream that flitted before the eyes of many 
 generations, it was in its way a very substantial 
 reality. There never was a time when the feudal 
 knights were exactly knights errant, but there 
 was a time when the best of them wished that 
 they might be such, eagerly attaching themselves 
 to any hazardous enterprise that had been set 
 on foot for more politic objects; and that time was 
 practically over when the semblances and out- 
 ward trappings of knighthood were most in vogue 
 for spectacle and pageantry. The real meaning 
 of chivalry lay deeper. It had arisen as a kind 
 of compromise between the ascetic theology of 
 the medieval church and the unsanctified life of 
 the world which that church rejected as wholly 
 bad. . . . Faithful service, unselfish virtue, chaste 
 constancy in love, are celebrated in several popu- 
 lar poems especially of England and Germany, 
 which are all more modern, though more rude 
 in feeling, than the international romances. But 
 for that very reason they are less representatively 
 medieval. But the adaptation of lay ethics to 
 clerical ethics was the problem of the higher 
 classes, and its solution was found in chivalry. 
 The transition from the primitive to the medieval 
 
 state of things is marked by the picturesque trait, 
 that the hero becomes a knight. This short 
 statement implies a very important change, which 
 is symbolised in the complicated ceremonies of 
 knightly investiture, very different from the few 
 simple rites that used to accompany the Teutonic 
 youth's assumption of arms. . . . The principle 
 of honour is introduced, which appeals to the 
 individual's desire for pre-eminence and mastery, 
 but which gratifies it only if he submit to a cer- 
 tain code of conditions. His valour must be car- 
 ried to an extravagant pitch ; he must seek out 
 adventures, and face the greatest odds ; he must 
 refuse advantages and show mercy to the suppliant 
 and courtesy to all: his quarrel must be just, 
 and he must succour the poor and the distressed. 
 Far removed is the knight from the old heathen 
 who fought and fled, waylaid and slew, precisely 
 as it pleased himself. And in the third place, 
 while only some of the knightly orders were 
 pledged to celibacy, they were all bound to uphold 
 the honour of women; and gradually, without oath, 
 they submitted themselves to that strange kind 
 of gallantry known as the Service of Love, which 
 at this distance of time strikes one almost as 
 the most obvious feature of the chivalrous char- 
 acter. . . . Arthur's story, congenial in all es- 
 sential respects to the spirit of the day but with- 
 out the rigidity of a fixed historical tradition, 
 was still plastic in the hands of the medieval 
 poets and lent itself to all their desires. His 
 exploits and feats could be made to reflect the 
 adventurousness, the sense of honour, the courtoisie 
 in love which were the dream of knighthood in 
 the twelfth century. There were only two limita- 
 tions to the perfect adequacy of the material. In 
 the first place no single person could completely 
 exhaust the possibilities of chivalry (q. v.); the 
 biography of Arthur was insufficient to portray its 
 whole fulness and wealth, and though it might 
 fulfil the requirements in little, it could not bring 
 out the various developments of the one scheme. 
 Arthur's career invited supplements from the ca- 
 reers of his followers. . . . But in the second place, 
 these personages were in some ways ever more 
 suitable for chivalrous treatment than their chief. 
 For they were knights while he was king. His 
 exploits were necessarily on the large public scale, 
 while they had leisure for the private adventures 
 of errantry. They offered themselves for the il- 
 lumination of the knightly character in the in- 
 dividual, which was the more important side, in 
 all its various aspects. It was natural, there- 
 fore, that medieval poetry should occupy itself 
 with them rather than with the king. To make 
 room for them he is thrust aside, as Charlemagne 
 had been by the peers, and his historical signifi- 
 cance is altogether forgotten." — M. W. Maccalum, 
 Tennyson, Idylls of the King and Arthurian story 
 from the sixteenth century, pp. 36-52. — See also 
 Chiv.^lry. 
 
 "In order to form a true estimate of the sub- 
 ject, we must never lose sight of the fact that the 
 Anglo-Norman romancers set themselves the task 
 of drawing, not simply a series of separate tales, 
 but a connected epic cyclus. Consistency and 
 unity were to them, therefore, the very soul of 
 their labours. What Arthur was as a simple squire 
 in Sir Hector's Cornish castle, that must he be 
 as the dying hero of Camlan, modified only by 
 such changes of character as the circumstances 
 of his life would naturally bring about. He 
 must be drawn in accordance with twelfth century 
 notions, idealised, as matter of necessity, since he 
 was the hero of a romance, but, nevertheless, a 
 being with all the passions and failings of hu- 
 manity clinging to him. He must not, in word, 
 
 539
 
 ARTI 
 
 ARTS AND CRAFTS MOVEMENT 
 
 thought, or deed, contradict the majestic move- 
 ment of the story, whether with respect to the 
 Grail Quest or the worlcing out of the tragic curse. 
 He must be true King, true knight, true war- 
 rior, true husband, true man; and yet, withal, 
 true to the honest failings as well as to the 
 noblest aspirations of poor, frail humanity. If 
 Lancelot is the ideal of earthly knighthood, 
 Galahad of earthly purity. Merlin of worldly wis- 
 dom, Elaine and Vivienne of human love; so 
 Arthur must be the ideal King, surpassing neither 
 Lancelot in knighthood, Galahad in purity, Elaine 
 in love, nor Marlin in wisdom; but surpassing all 
 his knights in kingly character. And we hold that 
 this delicate balance has been maintained in the 
 narrative of the Norman trouveres. In the Anglo- 
 Norman version of the epic there is a curse that 
 dogs the whole life of King Arthur, and which 
 stands out as one of the grand projections of the 
 picture; an idea too vast to have had its birth 
 in the imagination of one man; a dark, over- 
 hanging shadow, doubtless cast by some national 
 tradition of a terrible disaster. This tragic ele- 
 ment was seized upon by the Norman romancer 
 and worked into the legend. Following oider 
 traditions, Map [or Mapes, medieval author, d. 
 1208] had to bring about the fall of the King, in 
 a final battle, the utter ruin and desolation of 
 which required the richest imagination to scheme 
 and the broadest genius to depict. It was to be 
 the finale of a knightly epoch; the closing scene 
 of a curse; the death of King and knights at the 
 hands of an abandoned and traitorous wretch. 
 How could the Norman romancer heighten the 
 colouring of the picture more effectively than by 
 adopting the story already in existence, and de- 
 picting the wretch whose hands were to be 
 stained with the blood of his sovereign, as the 
 natural offspring of the monarch? And if, m 
 addition, this miscreant should be painted not only 
 as a natural son, but as the result of a terrible 
 sin, an incest, on the part of the King himself, 
 what could possibly be wanting to render the 
 ending, in the highest degree, tragic? But the 
 deadly sin of incest must be unwittingly com- 
 mitted, else the King would be a villain. And 
 all this is duly carried out by the Norman ro- 
 mancer. To draw Arthur as Tennyson does, 
 'Blameless King and stainless man,' or 'selfless 
 man and stainless gentleman,' is to eliminate 
 the curse, the tragic element from the romance, 
 and destroy the most appalling, and at the same 
 time the most telling part of the narrative. A 
 'blameless' king, whether of the sixth, twelfth 
 or nineteenth century, is unthinkable. Even 
 Tennvson himself tells us: 'He is all fault who 
 is no fault at all.' To make Arthur 'blameless' 
 and 'stainless' is to confound two distinct per- 
 sonages, Galahad and Arthur, and by so doing, 
 to destroy the perfection of the epic." — S. H. Gur- 
 teen, Arthurian epic. pp. 32S-.^3i. 
 
 ARTI (Guilds) OF FLORENCE. See Flor- 
 ence: 1248-1278. 
 
 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION (Amer- 
 ican). See U. S. A.: 1777-1781, and 1783-1787. 
 ARTICLES OF FAITH. See Church of 
 Engwno: i534-i';63; Thirty-nine articles. 
 ARTICLES OF HENRY. See Poland: 1573. 
 ARTICLES OF UNION. See Scotland: 1707. 
 ARTILLERY. See Ordnance: igth century, 
 also 20th century; World War: Miscellaneous 
 auxiliary services: VI. Military and naval equip- 
 ment: a, 1. 
 
 ARTISANS: Law governing, in England 
 (1562), See .Apprentices, Statxite of. 
 
 Their importance in republic of Rome. See 
 Guilds: Roman. 
 
 ARTOIS, Comte d', later known as Charles X. 
 See Charles X. 
 
 ARTOIS (Latin, Atrebates, the name of a Gal- 
 lic tribe), ancient province of France, capital 
 Arras, almost corresponding to modern depart- 
 ment of Pas-de-Calais; under Flemish rule in 
 early Middle Ages, and annexed to France by 
 Philip Augustus (1180) ; ceded to Robert, brother 
 of Louis IX (1237), and later passed under con- 
 trol of Flanders and Burgundy (see also Bur- 
 gundy: 1364; 1477); ceded to France by treaties 
 of Nimeguen, 1678-1670. The region was the scene 
 of severe fighting during the World War. See 
 World War: 1915: II. Western front: a, 5; a, 7; 
 j, 2; j, 8; 1918: II. Western front: m. 
 
 ARTOIS, House of, the hereditary line of no- 
 bility attached to the ancient province of Artois 
 in the extreme north of France. — See also Bour- 
 bon, House of. 
 
 ARTS AND CRAFTS MOVEMENT.— "In 
 the preface to the Catalogue of the Arts and 
 Crafts Exhibition at Copley Hall, Boston, in 1907, 
 it is written: 'The Arts-and-Crafts movement is 
 founded on the belief that the objects of daily use 
 are just as capable in their lesser degree, of being 
 made the vehicles of artistic expression and thus 
 of being works of art, as are the works of paint- 
 ing or of sculpture. If they are to be so, it is 
 clear that they must be the work of men and 
 women who in their degree are artists, and that 
 they must thus be made by the hand of the artist 
 himself.' " — C. Peabody, Arts and crafts movement 
 (American Anthropologist, v. 9, p. 437, New Scries) . 
 — The arts and crafts movement, as a conscious 
 development of modern art, is to be attributed 
 largely to William Morris and the others of the 
 pre-Raphaelite group; although Ruskin's emphasis 
 on the same points was also influential. [See 
 English literature.] The first Arts and Crafts 
 Society in America was organized in Boston in 
 1897. About 1900 the German government, after 
 a systematic study of English organizations and 
 methods, founded the German "Werkbund." Al- 
 though more or less interrupted by the war, the 
 movement has increased steadily in influence and 
 popular interest throughout Europe and America 
 It is everywhere characterized by a return to 
 the comparatively spontaneous and unconscious art 
 of the medieval, oriental, or primitive crafts- 
 man, as a guide to technique and a source of 
 artistic inspiration. "The movement, indeed, rep- 
 resents in some sense a revolt against the hard 
 mechanical conventional life and its insensibility 
 to beauty (quite another thing to ornament). 
 [See .\rt.] It is a protest against that so-called 
 industrial progress which produces shoddy wares, 
 the cheapness of which is paid for by the lives of 
 their producers and the degradation of their users. 
 It is a protest against the turning of men into 
 machines, against artificial distinctions in art, and 
 against making the immediate market value, or 
 possibility of profit, the chief test of artistic merit. 
 ... It asserts, moreover, the value of the prac- 
 tice of handicraft as a good training for the 
 faculties, and as a most valuable counteraction 
 to that overstraining of the purely mental effort 
 under the fierce competitive conditions of the day ; 
 apart from the very wholesome and real pleasure 
 in the fashioning of a thing with claims to art 
 and beauty, the struggle with the trmmph over 
 the stubborn technical necessities which refuse to 
 be gainsaid." — W. Crane, Arts and crafts essays, 
 pp. 12-14. — "To give people pleasure in the things 
 they must perforce use, that is one great office 
 of decoration ; to give people pleasure in the things 
 they must perforce make, that is the other use 
 of it."— W. Morris, Hopes and fears for art, p. 4. 
 
 540
 
 ARTZYBASHEV 
 
 ARYANS 
 
 — See also Education, Art: England; Guilds: 
 Medieval. 
 
 Also in: W. Crane, William Morris to Whistler. 
 — W. Morris, Art, architecture and wealth. 
 
 ARTZYBASHEV, Mikhail Petrovitch, born 
 1878, Russian writer. See Russian literature: 
 1905-1921. 
 
 ARUMANI, Rumanians. See Vlakhs. 
 
 ARUNDEL, Earls of, the line of the premier 
 earldom of England. Origiuated in the grant 
 of a large portion of Sussex by Henry I to his sec- 
 ond wife; in 1580 passed from the Fitzalan line to 
 the Howards, dukes of Norfolk. 
 
 ARUNDEL, Thomas (1353-1414), archbishop 
 of Canterbury, 1303-1414; impeached and banished 
 through the enmity of Richard II (1397); re- 
 stored to his archbishopric by Henry IV' (1399); 
 was spokesman of the clergy and vigorous op- 
 ponent of the Lollards. — See also England: 1360- 
 1414. 
 
 Also in: W. F. Hook, Lives of the archbishops 
 of Canterbury, v. 4. 
 
 ARUNDEL MARBLES, a collection of in- 
 scribed marbles gathered by Thomas Howard, 
 earl of Arundel, and presented to Oxford uni- 
 versity in 1667 by the heirs of the estate. 
 
 ARUSCHA, town in former German East 
 Africa, southwest of Kilimanjaro. 
 
 Occupied by the British. See World War: 
 1916: VII. African theater: a, 6; a, 7. 
 
 ARVADITES, Canaanite inhabitants of the 
 island of Aradus, or Arvad. See Ruad. 
 
 ARVERNA. See Gergovia oe the Arverni. 
 
 ARVERNI, an ancient Gallic tribe, rivals of 
 the ^dui (q.v.). — See also ^dui; Allobroges; 
 and Gaul: People. 
 
 ARX, the citadel of Rome. See Capitoline 
 Hill; also Gens, Roman. 
 
 ARXAMUS, Battle of.— One of the defeats 
 sustained by the Romans in their wars with the 
 Persians. Battle fought 603 A. D.— G. Rawlinson, 
 Seventh great oriental monarchy, ch. 24. 
 
 ARYA SAMAJ (Society of the Noble), was 
 founded in India, 1875, by Mul Sankar, better 
 known as Swami Dayanand Sarasvati, who was 
 born as a member of the Shiva cult, broke away 
 from it for the Vedanta philosophy, and finally be- 
 came a religious reformer on the basis of the 
 Sankhya-Yoga philosophies. (See also India: Ab- 
 original Inhabitants). Dayanand Sarasvati had 
 come in contact with modern civilization through 
 many channels, and endeavored to reform Hindu- 
 ism to meet the conditions of modem life. He 
 taught belief in a personal God, who is all-truth, 
 all-knowledge, incorporeal, almighty, just, merciful, 
 unbegotten, unchangeable, all-pervading, and the 
 cause of the universe. "The Vedas are the books 
 of true knowledge; one should always be ready to 
 accept truth; all ought to be treated with love, 
 justice, and in disregard of their merits ; ignor- 
 ance should be dispelled ; and everyone should re- 
 gard his prosperity as included in that of others. 
 His great cry was 'back to the Vedas.' ISee also 
 I.ndia: Immigration and Conquest.] He pro- 
 fessed to derive all his teaching from them, but 
 the method of interpretation by which he ex- 
 tracted the true doctrine and put aside all that 
 contradicted it was peculiarly his own. It con- 
 formed neither to Hindu canons of interpretation 
 nor to those of scientific exegesis. According 
 to him salvation was to be accomplished by ef- 
 fort. No distinctions of caste are regarded valid. 
 It is estimated that the adherents of the Arya 
 Samaj now [1917] number about 100,000, The 
 Samaj is now divided into a 'cultured' and a con- 
 servative party. The former eats meat and fos- 
 ters modern education, maintaining a creditable 
 
 college at Lahore; the latter is vegetarian, and 
 adheres to the ancient ideas of education." — G. A. 
 Barton, Religious of the world, pp. igS-igg. — 
 "Originally it was a purely religious movement, 
 bused upon the teaching of the Vedas. It pro- 
 motes the abolition of caste and idoltary, con- 
 demns early marriages, and permits the remarriage 
 of widows. At the same time it is violently hos- 
 tile to Christianity. There can be no question 
 tbat laige numl.ers of members of the Arya Samaj 
 are only concerned with its spiritual side; but 
 there can be equally no question that the organiza- 
 tion, as a whole, has developed marked political 
 tendencies subversive of British rule. . . . The 
 members of I he Samaj strenuously deny that their 
 organization has a political side. The literature 
 of the sect, and particularly the writings of their 
 founder, who came from Kathiawar, show no 
 trace of any interest in mundane politics. 
 Dayanand was an enthusiast who denounced the 
 idolatrous tendenciss of modern Hinduism, and 
 advocated a return to the earlier, purer faith. 
 . . . Dayanand's clarion call of 'Back to the Vedas' 
 produced a complete revulsion of feeling, and 
 he made the Punjab a stronghold of the new 
 creed. For that reason, the Arya Samaj is to 
 this day the bitterest opponent of Christianity 
 in India; and Punjab Mahomedans declare that 
 it is also their most formidable foe." — India cor- 
 respondence of The London Times. 
 
 ARYABHATTA, (c. 476), Hindu astronomer. 
 See Algebra. 
 
 ARYANS, or Aryas. — Meaning of term. — 
 Theories of origin. — "This family (which is 
 sometimes called Japhetic, or descendants . of 
 Japhet) includes the Hindus and Persians among 
 Asiatic nations, and almost all the peoples of 
 Europe. It may seem • strange that we English 
 should be related not only to the Germans and 
 Dutch and Scandinavians, but to the Russians, 
 French, Spanish, Romans and Greeks as well; 
 stranger still that we can claim kinship with 
 such distant peoples as the Persians and Hindus. 
 . . . What seems actually to have been the case 
 is this: In distant ages, somewhere about the 
 rivers Oxus and Jaxartes, and on the north of 
 that mountainous range called the Hindoo-Koosh, 
 dwelt the ancestors of all the nations we have 
 enumerated, forming at this time a single and 
 united people, simple and primitive in their way 
 of life, but yet having enough of a common na- 
 tional life to preserve a common language. They 
 called themselves Aryas or Aryans, a word 
 which, in its very earliest sense, seems to have 
 meant those who move upwards, or straight; 
 and hence, probably, came to stand for the noble 
 race as compared with other races on whom, of 
 course, they would look down. ... As their num- 
 bers increased, the space wherein they dwelt be- 
 came too small for them who had out of one 
 formed many different peoples. Then began a 
 series of migrations, in which the collection of 
 tribes who spoke one language and formed one 
 people started off to seek their fortune in new 
 lands. . . . First among them, in all probability, 
 started the Kelts or Celts, who, travelling perhaps 
 to the South of the Caspian and the North 
 of the Black Sea, found their way to Europe 
 and spread far on to the extreme West. . . . An- 
 other of the great families who left the Aryan 
 home was the Pelasgic or the Grsco-Italic. These, 
 journeying along first Southwards and then to 
 the West, passed through Asia Minor, on to the 
 countries of Greece and Italy, and in time sep- 
 arated into those two great peoples, the Greeks 
 (or Hellenes, as they came to call themselves), 
 and the Romans. . . . Next we come to two other 
 
 541
 
 ARYANS 
 
 Distribution 
 Anthropology 
 
 ARYANS 
 
 great families of nations who seem to have taken 
 the same route at first, and perhaps began their 
 travels together as the Greeks and Romans did. 
 These ars the Teutons and the Slavs. . . . The 
 word Slav comes from Slowan, which in old 
 Slavonian meant to speak, and was given by the 
 Slavonians to themselves as the people who could 
 speak in opposition to other nations whom, as 
 they were not able to understand them, they 
 were pleased to consider as dumb. The Greek 
 word barbaroi (whence our barbarians) arose in 
 obedience to a like prejudice, only from an imita- 
 tion of babbling such as is made by saying, 'bar- 
 bar-bar.' " — C. F. Keary. Dawn of history (1878), 
 ch. 4. — The above passage sets forth the older 
 theory of an Aryan family of nations as well as 
 of languages in its unqualiiied form. Its later 
 modifications are indicated in the following: "The 
 discovery of Sanscrit and the further discovery to 
 which it led, that the languages now variously 
 known as Aryan, Aryanic, Indo-European, Indo- 
 Germanic, Indo-Celtic and Japhetic are closely 
 akin to one another, spread a spell over the world 
 of thought which cannot be said to have yet 
 wholly passed away. It was hastily argued from 
 the kinship of their languages to the kin:-hip of 
 the nations that spoke them. . . . The question 
 then arises as to the home of the 'holethnos,' or 
 parent tribe, before its dispersion and during the 
 proethnic period, at a time when as yet theie 
 was neither Greek nor Hindoo, neither Celt nor 
 Teuton, but only an undifferentiated Aryan. Of 
 course, the answer at first was — where could it 
 have been but in the East. And at length tho 
 gU)ttologist found it necessary to shift the cradle 
 of the Aryan race to the neighbourhood of tho 
 Oxus and the Jaxartes, so as to place it somewhere 
 between the Caspian Sea -and the Himalayas. I See 
 also India: B.C. 2000-600.] Then Doctor Latham 
 boldly raised his voice against the Asiatic theory 
 altogether, and stated that he regarded the at- 
 tempt to deduce the Aryans from Asia as resem- 
 bling an attempt to derive the reptiles of this 
 country from those of Ireland. Afterwards Ben- 
 fey argued, from the presence in the vocabulary 
 common to the Aryan languages of words for bear 
 and wolf, for birch and beach, and the absence 
 of certain others, such as those for lion, tiger 
 and palm, that the original home of the .iry-ins 
 must have been within the temperate zone in 
 Europe. ... As might be expected in tho case of 
 such a difficult question, those who are inclined 
 to believe in the European origin of the Aryans 
 are by no means agreed among themselves as to 
 the spot to be fixed upon. Latham placed it 
 east, or south-east of Lithuania, in Podolia, or 
 \olhynia ; Benfey had in view a district above 
 the Black Sea and not far from the Caspian; 
 Peschel fixed on the slopes of the Caucasus; Cuno 
 on the great plain of Central Europe; Fligier on 
 the southern part of Russia ; Posche on the tract 
 between the Niemen and the Dnieper; L. Geiger on 
 central and western Germany ; and Penka on 
 Scandinavia." — J. Rhys, Race theories (New 
 Princeton Review, Jan., 1888). 
 
 Distribution. — Anthropological characteristics. 
 — Race relations. — "For the last two thousand 
 years, at least, the southern half of Scan- 
 dinavia and the opposite or southern shores 
 of the Baltic have been occupied by a race 
 of mankind possessed of very definite charac- 
 ters. Typical specimens have tall and massive 
 frames, fair complexions, blue eyes, and yel- 
 low or reddish hair — that is to say, they are 
 pronounced blond? Their skulls are long, in the 
 sense that the breadth is usually less, often much 
 less, than four-fifths of the length, and they are 
 
 usually tolerably high. But in this last respect 
 they vary. Men of this blond, long-headed race 
 abound from eastern Prussia to northern Belgium ; 
 they are met with in northern France and are 
 common in some parts of our own islands. The 
 people of Teutonic speech, Goths, Saxons, Ale- 
 manni, and Franks, who poured forth out of the 
 regions bordering the North Sea and the Baltic, 
 to the destruction of the Roman Empire, were 
 men of this race; and the accounts of the ancient 
 historians of the incursions of the Gauls into 
 Italy and Greece, between the fifth and the sec- 
 ond centuries B.C., leave little doubt that their 
 hordes were largely, if not wholly, composed uf 
 similar men. The contents of numerous inter- 
 ments in southern Scandinavia prove that, as far 
 back as archaeology takes us into the so-called 
 neolithic age, the great majority of the inhabitants 
 had the same stature and cranial pecularities as 
 at present, though their bony fabric bears marks 
 of somewhat greater ruggedness and savagery. 
 There is no evidence that the country was oc- 
 cupied by men before the advent of these tall, 
 blond long-heads. But there is proof of the 
 presence, along with the latter, of a small per- 
 centage of people with broad skulls; that is, 
 the breadth of which is more, often very much 
 more, than four-fifths of the length. .•\t th': 
 present day, in whatever direction we travel in- 
 land from the continental area occupied by the 
 blond long-heads, whether south-west into cen- 
 tral France; south, through the Walloon provinces 
 of Belgium into eastern France; into Switzerland, 
 South Germany, and the Tyrol; or south-east into 
 Poland and Russia; or north, into Finland and 
 Lapland, broad-heads make their appearance, in 
 force, among the long-heads. And, eventually, we 
 find ourselves among people who are as regularly 
 broad-headed as the Swedes and North Germans 
 are long-headed. As a general rule, in France. 
 Belgium, Switzerland, and South Germany, the 
 increase in the proportion of broad skulls is ac- 
 companied by the appearance of a larger and 
 larger proportion of men of brunet complexion 
 and of a lower stature; until, in central France 
 and thence eastwards, through the Cevennes and 
 the .\lps of Dauphiny, Savoy, and Piedmont, to 
 the western plains of North Italy, the tall blond 
 long-heads practically disappear, and are replaced 
 by short brunet broad-heads. The ordinary Savoy- 
 ard may be described in terms the converse of 
 those which apply to the ordinary Swede. He is 
 short, swarthy, dark-eyed, dark-haired, and his 
 skull is very broad. Between the two extreme 
 types, the one seated on the shores of the North 
 Sea and the Baltic, and the other on those of 
 the Mediterranean, there are all sorts of inter- 
 mediate forms, in which breadth of skull may be 
 found in tall and in short blond men, and in 
 tall brunet men. There is much reason to be- 
 lieve that the brunet broad-heads, now met with 
 in central France and in the west central Euro- 
 pean highlands, have inhabited the same region, 
 not only throughout the historical period, but lone 
 before it commenced ; and it is probable that their 
 area of occupation was formerly more extensive. 
 For. if we leave aside the comparatively late in- 
 cursions of the Asiatic races the centre of erup- 
 tion of the invaders of the southern moiety of 
 Europe has been situated in the north and west. 
 In the case of the Teutonic inroads upon the 
 Empire of Rome, it undoubtedly lay in the area 
 now occupied by the blond long-heads; and, in 
 that of the antecedent Gaulish invasions, the 
 physical characters ascribed to the leading tribes 
 point to the same conclusion. Whatever the 
 causes which led to the breaking out of bounds of 
 
 542
 
 ARYANS 
 
 Anthropology 
 Types 
 
 ARYANS 
 
 the blond long-heads, in mass, at particular epochs, 
 the natural increase in numbers of a vigorous and 
 fertile race must always have impelled them to 
 press upon their neighbours, and thereby afford 
 abundant occasions for intermixture. If, at any 
 given pre-historic time, we suppose the lowlands 
 verging on the Baltic and the North Sea lo have 
 been inhabited by pure blond long-heads, while 
 the central highlands were occupied by pure brunet 
 short-heads, the two would certainly meet and 
 intermix in course of time, in spite of the vast 
 belt of dense forest which extended, almost un- 
 interruptedly, from the Carpathians to the Ar- 
 dennes; and the result would be such an irregular 
 gradation of the one type into the other as we 
 do, in fact, meet with. On the south-east, east, 
 and north-east, throughout what was once the 
 kingdom of Poland, and in Finland, the pre- 
 ponderance of broad-heads goes along with i wide 
 prevalence of blond complexion and of good 
 stature. In the extreme north, on the other hand, 
 marked broad-headedness is combined with low 
 stature, swarthiness, and more or less strongly 
 Mongolian features, in the Lapps. And it is to 
 be observed that this type prevails increasingly 
 to the eastward, among the central Asiatic popula- 
 tions. The population of the British Islands, 
 at the present time, offers the two extremes of 
 the tall blond and the short brunet types. The 
 tall blond long-heads resemble those of the con- 
 tinent ; but our short brunet race is long-headed. 
 Brunet broad-heads, such as those met with in 
 the central European highlands, do not exist 
 among us. . . . The short brunet long-heads are 
 not peculiar to our islands. On the contrary, they 
 abound in western France and in Spain, while they 
 predominate in Sardinia, Corsica, and South Italy, 
 and, it may be, occupied a much larger area in 
 ancient times. Thus, in the region which has been 
 under consideration, there are evidences of the 
 existence of four races of men — ( i ) blond long- 
 heads of tall stature, (2) brunet broad-heads of 
 short stature, (3) mongoloid brunet broad-heads 
 of short stature, (4) brunet long-heads of short 
 stature. The regions in which these races ap- 
 pear with least admixture are — (i) Scandinavia, 
 North Germany, and parts of the British Islands; 
 (2) central France, the central European high- 
 lands, and Piedmont; (3) Arctic and eastern Eu- 
 rope, central Asia; (4) the western parts of the 
 British Islands and of France, Spain, and South 
 Italy. And the inhabitants of the localities which 
 lie between these foci present the intermediate 
 gradations, such as short blond long-heads, and 
 tall brunet short-heads, and long-heads v.'hich 
 might be expected to result from their intermix- 
 ture. The evidence at present extant is consistent 
 with the supposition that- the blond long-head=, 
 the brunet broad-heads, and the brunet long-heads 
 have existed in Europe throughout historic times, 
 and very far back into pre-historic times. Thure 
 is no proof of any migration of Asiatics into 
 Europe, west of the basin of the Dnieper, down to 
 the time of Attila. On the contrary, the first 
 great movements of the European population of 
 which there is any conclusive evidence is that 
 series of Gaulish invasions of the east and south, 
 which ultimately extended from North Italy as far 
 as Galatia in Asia Minor." — T. H. Huxley, Man's 
 place in nature (1863), pp. 230-243. 
 
 "(a) It is held, on the one hand, that there 
 is but a single blond race, type or stock (Keane, 
 Lapouge, Sergi), and on the other hand that there 
 are several such races or types, more or less 
 distinct but presumably related (Deniker, Beddoe, 
 and other, especially British, ethnologists). (6) 
 There is no good body of evidence going to estab- 
 
 lish a great antiquity for the blond stock, and 
 there are indications, though perhaps inconclusive, 
 that the blond strain, including all the blond 
 types, is of relatively late date — unless a Berber 
 (Kabyle) blond race is to be accepted in a more 
 unequivocal manner than hitherto, (c) Neither 
 is there anything like convincing evidence that 
 this blond strain has come from outside of Europe 
 — except, again, for the equivocal Kabyle — or 
 that any blond race has ever been widely or 
 permanently distributed outside of its present Eu- 
 ropean habitat, (d) The blond race is not found 
 unmixed. In point of pedigree all individuals 
 showing the blond traits are hybrids, and the 
 greater number of them show their mixed blood 
 in their physical traits, (c) There is no com- 
 munity, large or small, made up exclusively of 
 blond:, or nearly so, and there is no good e^"!- 
 dence available that such an all-blond or virtually 
 all-blond community ever has existed, either in 
 historic or prehistoric times. The race appears 
 never to have lived in isolation. (/) It occurs 
 in several (perhaps hybrid) variants — unless these 
 variants are to be taken (with Deniker) as sev- 
 eral distinct races. (g) Counting the Dolicho- 
 blond as the original type of the race, its nearest 
 apparent relative among the races of mankind 
 is the Mediterranean (of Sergi), at least in point 
 of physical traits. At the same time the blond 
 race, or at least the Dolicho-blond type, has never 
 since neolithic times, so far as known, extensively 
 and permanently lived in contact with the Medi- 
 terranean, ill) The various (national) ramifica- 
 tions of the blond stock — or rather the various 
 racial mixtures into which an appreciable blond 
 element enters — are all, and to all appearance have 
 always been, of Aryan ('Indo-European,' 'Indo- 
 Germanic') speech — with the equivocal exception 
 of the Kabyle. (i) Yet far the greater number 
 and variety (national and linguistic) of men who 
 use the Aryan speech are not prevailingly blond, 
 or even appreciably mi.xed with blond. (;') The 
 blond race, or the peoples with an appreciable 
 blond admixture, and particularly the communities 
 in which the Dolicho-blond element prevails, show 
 little or none of the peculiarly Aryan institutions 
 — understanding by that phrase not the known 
 institutions of the ancient Germanic peoples, but 
 the range of institutions said by competent philolo- 
 gists to be reflected in the primitive Aryan speech. 
 (k) These considerations raise the presumption 
 that the blond race was not originally of Aryan 
 speech or of Aryan culture, and they also suggest 
 (/) that the Mediterranean, the nearest apparent 
 relative of the Dolicho-blond, was likewise not 
 originally Aryan." — T. B. Veblen, Place of science 
 in modern civilization and other essays, pp. 459- 
 460. — The theories which dispute the Asiatic origin 
 of the Aryans are strongly presented by Canon 
 Taylor in "Origin of the Aryans," by G. H. Kendall, 
 in "Cradle of the Aryans," and by Dr. O. Schrader 
 in "Prehistoric antiquities of the Aryan peoples." 
 
 Aryan types. — "And the man himself, this 
 older Aryan? What of him? Is it possible after 
 so many ages to form a race picture of that 
 Proto-Aryan, the manner of man he was physically, 
 mentally, spiritually? A composite portrait might 
 after a fashion be made by combinmg the salient 
 features of his various race descendants. He 
 certainly had within him the germs at least of 
 a masterful man, for each of his descendants has 
 been somewhere, at some time in the world's his- 
 tory, one of its masters, and the history of the 
 world is largely of their making. In fact, the 
 history of the world is largely only the his- 
 tory of the Aryan man. It must have been a 
 vigorous stock that could thus stamp its impress 
 
 543
 
 ARYO-DRAVIDIANS 
 
 ASCALON 
 
 so indelibly upon the ages. Reconstructing him 
 physically from the transmitted features which 
 mark his children in aU lands, as one produces 
 from a group of photographs a composite picture, 
 and especially reproducing the picture from the 
 race types of those of his children who are liv- 
 ing their race life amid climatic environments 
 similar to those of the original Proto-Aryan race 
 home, and making due allowance for the varia- 
 tions vvhich are incident to migration and civiliza- 
 tion, we may judge hii.i to have been in stature 
 of medium height, yet varying from this toward 
 tallncss rather than toward undersize; full-chested; 
 long-limbed, yet symmetrical of build; a free step- 
 per; a clear striker whether with the hand or 
 the sword; in build rather spare, of active habit; 
 a lover of outdoor life, of the field, of the chase; 
 a man already feeling that he was the superior 
 of the races about him, feeling already the stir of 
 the masterful spirit within him, features well- 
 marked and clean-cut; nose finely chiseled but 
 rather prominent; chin well developed; mouth 
 large yet not gross; teeth regular, showing ample 
 jaw space; eyes blue or gray, rather than dark, 
 and set well under brows that project in a strongly 
 developed supra-orbital ridge; a forehead high 
 rather than broad, yet swelling out above and 
 behind the temples; dome of the head well arched; 
 head long rather than thick through, the dolicho- 
 cephalous rathe'- than the brachicephalous type, 
 broad above rather than at the base; hair fine, 
 light in color, reddish or brown rather than 
 black, straight or slightly wavy; complexion 
 tanned by the winds of his life afield, yet back of 
 the tan tlie ruddy skin of the blonde: in all 
 things the opposite of the Mongol upon the east 
 or the Negroid upon the south; more akin in 
 form and feature to the Semite. This tall, fair, 
 dolichocephalous type we find everywhere among 
 the Aryan peoples; and where another type is 
 mixed with it, the first type as here given domi- 
 nates as leader. It is inferentially, and indeed may 
 be assumed to be logically, the true Aryan type, 
 as, while it remains constant in all the family 
 ramifications, the other types vary and change." — 
 J. P. Widney, Race life of the Aryan peoples, pp. 
 26-27. — See also Anthropology; Linguistics; Bal- 
 kan states: Races existing; Brehon laws: Gen- 
 eral character of ancient Irish laws; Europe: Intro- 
 duction to the historic period: Distribution of 
 races; Georgia, Republic of: Ethnology; India: 
 People; India: B.C. 2000-600; Macebonia: Early 
 inhabitants; Religion: B.C. 1000; Shutes. 
 
 Also in: S. Leslie. Celt and the world (1907). 
 — T. B. Veblen, Blond race and the Aryan cul- 
 ture (1013)- 
 
 ARYO-DRAVIDIANS. See India: People. 
 
 ARZ, Field Marshal von, Austrian commander- 
 in-chief, in an attack near Lembcrg, See World 
 War: 1915: III. Eastern front: f, 6. 
 
 AS, LIBRA, DENARIUS, SESTERTIUS. 
 — "The term As [among the Romans] and the 
 words which denote its divisions, were not con- 
 fined to weight alone, but were applied to meas- 
 ures of length and capacity also, and in gen- 
 eral to any object which could be regarded as 
 consisting of twelve equal parts. Thus they 
 were commonly used to denote shares into which 
 an inheritance was divided." As a unit of 
 weight the as, or libra, "occupied the same posi- 
 tion in the Roman system as the pound does in 
 our own. According to the most accurate re- 
 searches, the As was equal to about 11 4/5 oz. 
 avoirdupois, or .737S of an avoirdupois pound." 
 It "was divided into 12 equal parts called uncia, 
 and the uncia was divided into 24 equal parts 
 called scrupula." "The As, regarded as a coin 
 
 [of copper] originally weighed, as the name im- 
 plies, one pound, and the smaller copper coins 
 those fractioas of the pound denoted by their 
 names. By degrees, however, the weight of the 
 As, regarded as a coin, was greatly diminished. 
 We are told that, about the commencement of 
 the first Punic war, it had fallen fsum 12 ounces 
 to 2 ounces; in the early part of the second 
 Punic war (B.C. 217), it was reduced to one 
 ounce; and not long afterwards, by a Lex Papiria, 
 it was fixed at half-an-ounce, which remained 
 the standard ever after." The silver coins of 
 Rome were the denarius, equivalent (after 217 
 B.C.) to 16 asses; the quinarius and the sestertius, 
 which became, respectively, one half and one fourth 
 of the denarius in value. The sestertius, at the 
 close of the republic, is estimated to have been 
 equivalent in value to two pence sterling of 
 English money. The coinage was debased under 
 the Empire. The principal gold coin of the 
 Empire was the denarius Aureus, which passed 
 for 25 silver denarii. — W. Ramsay, Manual of 
 Roman antiquities, ch. 13. 
 
 ASAF-UD-DOWLAH, nawab wazir of Oudh, 
 India, 1775-1797- The spoliation of his mother 
 and grandmother, the begums of Oudh, was one 
 of the charges against Warren Hastings. See 
 India: 1773-1785. 
 
 ASKI, George (1788-1S71), Rumanian teacher. 
 See Rumania: 19th century. 
 
 ASBURY, Francis (1745-1S16), founder of 
 Methodist church in America. See Bristol: 1739; 
 Methodists. 
 
 ASCALON, Ashkelon or Askelon, one of 
 the five chief cities of ancient Philistia, situated 
 on the Mediterranean thirty-nine miles southwest 
 of Jerusalem; birthplace of Herod I; scene of 
 victory of Crusaders under Godfrey of Bouillon 
 (1099) ; captured by the Crusaders under Baldwin 
 III in 1 157, and by Saladin in 1187; destroyed in 
 1270. "The Philistine city where Samson slew 
 the 30 men and took their spoil, is now being ex^ 
 cavated by the Palestine Exploration Fund, under 
 the direction of Professor Garstang. The site of 
 Ascalon has been uninhabited practically since 
 the end of the thirteenth century. The prophecies 
 in Zephaniah (ii, 4), 'For Gaza shall be for- 
 saken and Ashkelon a desolation,' and Zechariah 
 (ix, 5), 'and the king shall perish from Gaza 
 and Ashkelon shall not be inhabited,' have been 
 fulfilled. When the British troops occupied Ascalon 
 in 1917, a few squalid huts were found among 
 the ruins of this once great city. Terraced gar- 
 dens and orchards cover the site, and a mound 
 runs round it composed of the fallen ramparts 
 partly covering the Byzantine and medieval 
 ramparts and the many towers. In the Crusades 
 Ascalon was the last place to hold out against 
 the Crusaders, being finally taken by them, re- 
 taken by Saladin, and again taken by Richard 
 C(£ur-de-Lion, who renovated the destroyed walls 
 and towers. By mutual consent and cooperation 
 the fortifications were again destroyed. In 1240 
 an attempt was made to refortify the town, but 
 in 1270 the complete destruction came under 
 the Sultan Bibars. So thorough was this destruc- 
 tion that not a single architectural fragment has 
 been found in its original position, and the stones 
 and sculptures were destroyed, many being sawn 
 through. During the Roman period Ascalon was 
 an important city, and in 104 B. C. was made a 
 free state under Roman protection. In the pre- 
 liminary excavations two statues already known 
 to exist were unearthed, one a statue of Fortune, 
 the other of Victory, half built into the walls. 
 These statues of large size are in half relief. 
 The statue of Victory stands with feet resting on 
 
 544
 
 ASCANIANS 
 
 ASHANTI 
 
 the earth, which is supported on the shoulders 
 of Atlas. There has been excavated a third statue 
 presumed to be of Peace. A sixth century writer, 
 Antonius the Martyr, speaks of a Pool of Peace, 
 with steps like the seats in a Greek or Roman 
 theater and a portico of steps leading to the water's 
 edge; this has now been revealed by the excava- 
 tions. Near by is the legendary well of Abraham, 
 presumably the legendary sacred lake of Ascalon. 
 Since the recommencement of the excavations this 
 spring, a gigantic sandaled foot, a yard long, 
 and an arm of a huge marble statue have been 
 found in a marble shrine. The history of Ascalon 
 can be taken back to about 1370 B. C. in the 
 Telel-Amarna tablets; at this time its inhabitants 
 were still Canaanites. The Philistines came about 
 1184 B.C. This Philistine period is one known 
 little about. Caphtor, the ISiblical home of the 
 Philistines, is the land of Kefti of the Egyptian 
 records, presumed to be Crete. The Philistines had 
 some connection with Crete, but they do not ap- 
 pear to have been Cretans; it is also more doubt- 
 ful that they came from Cyprus. They are rep- 
 resented on ancient reliefs, etc., as wearing 
 peculiar headdresses with a band under the chin, 
 and carrying round shields. There is a resemblance 
 in the Kefti dress on the Egyptian monuments to 
 the Hittite. Kefti may possibly be greater Cilicia ; 
 some of their vessels and gold even have a simi- 
 larity to those from the Taurus. From the pres- 
 ent excavations it is hoped to fill up the gap in 
 the Philistine period of the history of Ascalon, and 
 to clear up many doubts on the origin of the Philis- 
 tines, the circumstances of their invasion, their rela- 
 tions with the Jews and their position in the early 
 Mediterranean civilizations." — Christian Science 
 Monitor, July 21, iqai. — See also Jerusalem: loqq- 
 1131, HOC,' 1144-1187; Syria: B.C. 64-63. 
 
 ASCANIANS, descendants of Albert the Bear. 
 See Brandenburg: Q28-1142; 1168-1417; and Ger- 
 many: 1417. 
 
 ASCENSION ISLAND, South Atlantic; dis- 
 covered by Portuguese in 1501. Area, 34 square 
 miles; population about 250. See British empire: 
 Extent. 
 
 ASCETICISM. See Ethics: Christian ethics. 
 
 ASCHAM, Roger (1515-1568), English writer, 
 humanist, and classical scholar. Taught Greek and 
 read Greek lectures at Cambridge University ; 
 master of languages to Princess (afterward Queen) 
 Elizabeth ; held secretaryship in embassy to Charles 
 V; was Latin secretary to Queen Mary. His fa- 
 mous Toxiphilus, a treatise on archery, ranks for 
 its pure English style among English classics. His 
 great work The Scholemaster (begun 1563, pub- 
 lished 1570) was a treatise on the proper method 
 of teaching Latin. See Education: Modern: 1510- 
 1670: Ascham and The Scholemaster. 
 
 ASCHHOOP, Belgium, captured by the 
 French (1017). See World War: 1Q17: II. West- 
 ern front: d, 23. 
 
 ASCIDEANS, or Chasidim (Hebrew, "pious 
 ones"), a Jewish religious sect. See Assideans. 
 
 ASCLEPIADiE.— "Throughout all the his- 
 torical ages [of Greece] the descendants of As- 
 klepius '[or Asclepius] were numerous and widely 
 diffused. The many families or gentes called Ask- 
 lepiads, who devoted themselves to the study and 
 practice of medicine, and who principally dwelt 
 near the temples of Asklepius, whither sick and suf- 
 fering men came to obtain relief — all recognized 
 the god, not merely as the object of their com- 
 mon worship, but also as their actual progenitor." 
 — G. Grote, History of Greece, pi. i, ch. q. — ^See 
 also Medical science: Ancient: 2nd century. 
 
 ASCRIVIUM, supposed Roman site of modern 
 Cattaro, Dalmatia. See Cattaro. 
 
 ASCULUM, Battle of (279 B. C). See Rome: 
 Republic: B. C. 281-272. 
 
 Massacre at. See Rome; Republic: B. C. 90-88. 
 
 ASELLI (Asellius or Asellio), Gasparo (1581- 
 1626), Italian physician, the discoverer of the lac- 
 teal vessels. For his experiments with lymph tis- 
 sue and blood, see Medical science: Modern: 17th 
 century: Discovery of lymphatic circulation; 
 Science: Middle Ages and Renaissance: i6th cen- 
 tury. 
 
 ASHANTI, a British possession on the west 
 coast of Africa, made up of negro tribes, included 
 for practical purposes under the Gold Coast 
 Colony, in as much as the governor of the Gold 
 Coast is the governor of Ashanti. The area is 
 about 20,000 square miles and the population in 
 iqii was 287,814. See Africa: Map. 
 
 1700-1807.— Conquests of the Ashantis.— King 
 Osai Tiktu I made Kumasi his capital and con- 
 quered most of the important neighboring states. 
 About 1807 the Ashantis reached the coast where 
 they came into conflict with the British. 
 
 1807-1873. — Conflicts with British. — These 
 years were marked by a series of wars, truces 
 broken and renewed wars, the British frequently 
 suffering serious defeats. 
 
 1873-1874.— War with the British. See Eng- 
 land: 1873-1880. 
 
 1895-1900.— British occupation of the coun- 
 try.— Rising of the tribes.— Siege and relief of 
 Kumasi.— In 1895, King Prempeh, of Ashanti, 
 provoked a second expedition of British troops 
 against his capital, Kumasi, or Coomassie (for 
 some account of the former expedition see Eng- 
 land: 1873-1880), by persistence in slave-catching 
 raids and in human sacrifices, and by other viola- 
 tions of his treaty engagements. Late in the year 
 a strong force was organized in Gold Coast Colony, 
 mostly made up of native troops. It marched 
 without resistance to Kumasi, which it entered on 
 the 17th of January, i8q6. Prempeh made com- 
 plete submission, placing his crown at the feet of 
 the Governor of the Gold Coast; but he was taken 
 prisoner to Sierra Leone. A fort was built and 
 garrisoned in the center of the town, and the 
 country was then definitely placed under British 
 protection, politically attached to the Gold Coast 
 Colony. It submitted quietly to the practical con- 
 quest until the spring of 1900, when a fierce and 
 general rising of the tribes occurred. It was said 
 at the time that the outbreak was caused by ef- 
 forts of the British to secure possession of a 
 "golden stool" which King Prempeh had used for 
 his throne, and which had been effectually con- 
 cealed when Kumasi was taken in 1896; but this 
 has been denied by Sir Frederic Hodgson, the Gov- 
 ernor of the Gold Coast. "The 'golden stool,' " he 
 declared, "was only an incident in the affair and 
 had nothing to do with the cause of the rising, 
 which had been brewing for a long time. In his 
 opinion the Ashantis had been preparing ever since 
 the British occupation in 1896 to reassert their in- 
 dependence." The Governor was, himself, in Kum- 
 asi when the Ashanti first attacked it, on the 25th 
 of March, and he has given an account of the 
 desperate position in which the few British officials, 
 with their small native garrison and the refugees 
 whom they tried to protect, were placed. "Our 
 force," said Sir Frederic Hodgson, "consisted of 
 only some 200 Hausas, while there is reason to 
 believe that we had not less than 15,000 Ashantis 
 surrounding us. In addition to our own force we 
 had to protect some 3,500 refugees, chiefly Ma- 
 homedan traders, Fantis, and loyal Kumassis, none 
 of whom we were able to take into the fort, where 
 every available bit of space was required for mil- 
 itary purposes. It was heartrending to see the 
 
 545
 
 ASHBOURNE ACT 
 
 ASIA 
 
 efforts of these poor people to scale the walls or 
 break through the gate of the fort, and we had 
 to withdraw the Hausas from the cantonments and 
 draw a cordon round the refugees. It is impossible 
 to describe the horror of the situation with these 
 3,500 wretched people huddled together without 
 shelter under the walls of the fort. That same 
 night a tornado broke over Kumassi, and the scene 
 next morning with over 200 children was too ter- 
 rible for words. Afterwards they were able to ar- 
 range shelters for themselves." Near the end of 
 April, two small reinforcements from other posts 
 reached Kumasi; but while this strengthened the 
 numbers for defense, it weakened the food supply. 
 Taking stock of their food, the besieged decided 
 that they could hold out until June 23, and that 
 if the main body then marched out, to cut, if pos- 
 sible, their way through the enemy, leaving a 
 hundred men behind, the latter might keep the 
 fort until July 15. This, accordingly, was done. 
 On the 23d of June Governor Hodgson, with all 
 but 100 men, stole away from Kumasi, by a road 
 which the Ashantis had not guarded, and succeeded 
 in reaching the coast, undergoing great hardships 
 and dangers in the march. Meantime, an expedi- 
 tion from Cape Coast Castle was being energetic- 
 ally prepared by Colonel Sir J. Willcocks, who 
 overcame immense difficulties and fought his way 
 into Kumasi on July 15, the very day on which the 
 food-supply of the little garrison was e.tpected to 
 give out. The following account of his entry into 
 Kumasi is from Colonel Willcocks' official report: 
 "Forming up in the main road, we marched 
 towards Kumassi, a mile distant, the troops cheer- 
 ing wildly for the Queen and then followed silence. 
 No sound came from the direction of the fort, 
 which you cannot see till quite close. For a mo- 
 ment the hideous desolation and silence, the head- 
 less bodies lying everywhere, the sickening smell, 
 &c., almost made one shudder to think what no one 
 dared to utter — 'Has Kumassi fallen? Are we too 
 late?' Then a bugle sound caught the ear — 'the 
 general salute' — the tops of the towers appeared, 
 and again every man in the column, white and 
 black, broke into cheers long sustained. The brave 
 defenders had at last seen us; they knew for hours 
 past from the firing growing ever nearer, that we 
 were coming, yet they dared not open their only 
 gate; they perforce must wait, for even as we ap- 
 peared the enemy were making their last efforts to 
 destroy the outlying buildings, and were actually 
 setting them on fire until after dark, when a party 
 of 100 men went out and treated them to volleys 
 and cleared them out. If I have gone too fully 
 into details of the final scene, the occasion was one 
 that every white man felt for him comes perhaps 
 but once, and no one would have missed it for a 
 kingdom." 
 
 1901. — Annexed by British. — Sept. 26, iqoi, the 
 country was definitely annexed to Great Britain. 
 
 ASHBOURNE ACT, Ireland. See Ireland: 
 1885-1003. 
 
 ASHBURTON TREATY. See U. S. A.: 1842: 
 Treaty with England. 
 
 ASHDOD, one of the five cities of the Philistine 
 confederacy. See Philistines. 
 
 ASHDOWN, Battle of (871). See Scandi- 
 navian states: 8th-oth centuries. 
 
 ASHIKAGA FAMILY. See Japan: 600-1853. 
 
 ASHKALA, Armenia, occupied by the Rus- 
 sians (iqi6). See World War: 1916: VI. Turk- 
 ish theater: d, 3; also d, 5. 
 
 ASHLEY, William H. (1778-1838), one of the 
 explorers of Utah and Wyoming. See Utah: 1825- 
 1843; WvoimNG: 1650-1807. 
 
 ASHLEY, Sir William (James) (i860- ), 
 English economist and educator. Lecturer in his- 
 
 tory at Lincoln college, Oxford, 1885-1888; pro- 
 fessor of constitutional history and political econ- 
 omy at University of Toronto, 1888-1SQ2; profes- 
 sor of economic history at Harvard university, 
 1892-1901; dean of faculty of commerce, Univer- 
 sity of Birmingham, England. 
 
 ASHLEY COOPER, Anthony, 1st and 7th 
 Earls of Shaftesbury (1621-16S3); (1801-188S). 
 See Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, ist; 
 7th Earl of. 
 
 ASHMOLEAN MUSEUM (Oxford).— "The 
 nucleus of this museum, which is the oldest in 
 England, consists of the collection formed by the 
 travellers, John Tradescant, and his son, about 
 1600-1650. 'Tradescant's Ark,' as it was then pop- 
 ularly known, subsequently passed into the pos- 
 session of Elias Ashmole, and was transferred by 
 him to the University of Oxford in 1683. . . . 
 Thanks to the large contributions made by the 
 late Dr. Fortnum, a new Museum building was 
 erected behind the building formerly known as the 
 University Galleries in Beaumont Street. The 
 museum contains a collection of objects of ancient 
 art beginning from prehistoric times. The Anglo- 
 Saxon series includes King Alfred's jewel, one of 
 the mo.st important historical relics in England. 
 The Keltic and other West and North European 
 collections are of special interest, and include 
 those of the late Sir John Evans. The prehistoric 
 period in Egypt and that of the earliest dynasties 
 are better illustrated here than in any other 
 Museum, as is also the Meroitic culture of Nubia 
 and the Sudan. A unique section illustrates Sir 
 Arthur Evan's excavations in the Palace of Knos- 
 sos, in Crete, and the various periods of 'Minoan' 
 and Aegean culture. Among other collections are 
 the best exhibition of small Hittite objects in 
 Europe. . . . The gallery of Greek sculpture has 
 become of great importance largely through ac- 
 quisitions from the Hope and other collections. 
 The Department of Fine Art, in which is incor- 
 porated the contents of the former University Gal- 
 leries, contains a collection of pictures rich in 
 specimens of the Primitive Italian Schools, and 
 of the Dutch and Flemish Schools of the XVII and 
 British School of the XVIII century." — Year's 
 Art, 1021, pp. 170-180. 
 
 ASHOKAN RESERVOIR. See Aqueducts: 
 American; Catskill aqueduct; New York City: 
 iQOS-XQig. 
 
 ASHTI, Battle of (1818). See India: 1816- 
 1819. 
 
 ASHUR, or Assur. See Assyria: People, re- 
 ligion and early history; Babylonia: Creation 
 myths; Religion: B.C. 2000-200. 
 
 ASHUR-BANI-PAL, king of Assyria. See 
 Assur-bani-pal, king of Assyria. 
 
 ASHUR-NAZIR-PAL, king of Assyria. See 
 Assur-Nazir-Pal, king of Assyria. 
 
 ASIA: Name. — "There are grounds for believ- 
 ing Europe and Asia to have originally signified 
 'the west' and 'the east' respectively. Both are 
 Semitic terms, and probably passed to the Greeks 
 from the Phccnicians. . . . The Greeks first applied 
 the title [Asia] to that portion of the eastern con- 
 tinent which lay nearest to them, and with which 
 they became first acquainted — the coast of Asia 
 Minor opposite the Cyclades; whence they ex- 
 tended it as their knowledge grew. Still it had 
 always a special application to the country about 
 Ephesus." — G. Rawlinson, Notes to Herodotus, v. 
 
 3, P- a- 
 
 Influence of geography on the political prob- 
 lems of Asia. — Climate. — Topography. — Move- 
 ment of Asia from north to south. — Powerful 
 position of Russia. — Central position of Great 
 Britain in India. — "As we look at the continent 
 
 546
 
 ASIA 
 
 Influence 
 of Geography 
 
 ASIA 
 
 of Asia, in its length and breadth, we may note, 
 first, that it lies wholly north of the equator, and 
 in great part between the northern tropic and the 
 arctic circle — that is, in the so-called temperate 
 zone. The inferences as to climate which might 
 be drawn from this are deceptive, owing to modifi- 
 cations occasioned by physical conditions. The 
 great plains of the north and of the south — of Si- 
 beria and of India- — are subject, respectively, to 
 extremes of cold and of heat, due primarily to the 
 vast extent of land in the continent itself, which 
 precludes the moderating power of the sea from 
 e.xercising extensive influence. The effect of this 
 immense region upon temperature is most strikingly 
 shown in the monsoons, the periodical winds which 
 alternate with the seasons — as land and sea breezes 
 change with night and day — but which during 
 their continuance have the steadiness characteristic 
 oi the permanent trades. This phenomenon, which 
 prevails throughout the Indian Ocean, the Bay of 
 Bengal, and the China Sea, is attributable to the 
 alternate heating and cooling of the continent, as 
 the sun moves north or south of the equator, in 
 inducing a periodical set of the atmosphere — from 
 the northeast during the winter, and from the 
 southwest during the summer. Within its main 
 outlines, the greatest breadth of the continent from 
 east to west is about five thousand statute miles, 
 following the thirtieth degree of north latitude; 
 but along the fortieth this distance is increased by 
 some hundreds of miles, through the projection of 
 two peninsulas — Asia Minor on the west, and 
 Korea on the east. Between these two parallels 
 are to be found, speaking roughly, the most de- 
 cisive natural features, and also those pohtical di- 
 visions the unsettled character of which renders 
 the problem of Asia in the present day at once 
 perplexing and imminent. Within this belt are the 
 Isthmus of Suez, Palestine and Syria, Mesopotamia, 
 the greater part of Persia, and Afghanistan — with 
 the strong mountain ranges that mark these two 
 countries and Armenia — the Pamir, the huge ele- 
 vations of Tibet, and a large part of the valley 
 of the Yang-tse-kiang, with the lower and mo„t 
 important thousand miles of that river's course. 
 Within it also are the cities of Aleppo, Mosul, and 
 Bagdad, of Teheran and Ispahan, of Merv and 
 Herat, Kabul and Kandahar, and in the far east 
 of China, Peking, Shanghai, Nanking, and Han- 
 kow. No one of these is in the territory of a state 
 the stability of which can be said to repose securely 
 upon its own strength, or even upon the certainty 
 of non-interference by ambitious neighbors. The 
 chain of the Himalayas is exterior to, but only a 
 little south of, the zone indicated. Although Japan 
 is extra-continental, it may be interesting to note 
 that the greater part of her territory and the 
 centre of her power lie also within the belt, and 
 extend almost across it, from north to south. 
 Within these bounds, speaking broadly and not ex- 
 clusively, is the debatable and debated ground. 
 North and south of it, in similar wide generaliza- 
 tion, political conditions are relatively determined, 
 though by no means absolutely fixed. Along the 
 northern and southern borders, where exterior im- 
 pulses impinge, there are uncertainty and jealousy, 
 aggression and defence, not as yet military, but 
 political. Still, whatever its form, such action is 
 at bottom that of conflicting, if not contending, 
 impulses. The division of Asia is east and west, 
 movement is north and south. It is the character 
 of that movement, and its probable future, as in- 
 dicated by the relative forces, and by the lines 
 which in physics are called those of least resistance, 
 that we are called to study; for in the greatness of 
 the stake, and in the relative settledness of condi- 
 tions elsewhere, there is assurance that there will 
 
 continue to be motion until an adjustment is 
 reached, either in the satisfaction of everybody, 
 or by the definite supremacy of someone of the 
 contestants. . . . That the dividing line of un- 
 settled political status is along the belt defined may 
 be ascertained by a brief examination of a map. 
 That movement is from and to the north and the 
 south is a matter of history — not yet a generation 
 old — and of names familiar to all readers of news. 
 The mere sound of Turkestan, Khiva, Merv, 
 Herat, Kandahar, Kabul, attests the fact; as do 
 Manchuria and Port Arthur. Thus both in the 
 western half and in the extreme east is observed 
 the same tendency, which would be still more 
 amply demonstrated by an appeal to history but 
 little more remote. It is, in fact, no longer con- 
 sistent with accuracy of forecast to draw a north 
 and south line of severance; to contemplate eastern 
 Asia apart from western; to dissociate, practically, 
 the conditions and incidents in the one from those 
 in the other. Both form living parts of a large 
 problem, to which both contribute elements of 
 perplexity. The relations of each to the other, 
 and to the whole, must therefore be considered. 
 Accepting provisionally the east and west belt of 
 division as one stage in the process of analysis, we 
 may profitably consider next the character and 
 distribution of the forces whose northward and 
 southward impulses constitute the primary factors 
 in the process of change already initiated and still 
 continuing. Upon a glance at the map one enor- 
 mous fact immediately obtrudes itself upon the at- 
 tention — the vast, uninterrupted mass of the Rus- 
 sian Empire, stretching without a break in terri- 
 torial consecutiveness from the meridian of west- 
 ern Asia Minor, until, to the eastward, it over- 
 passes that of Japan. In this huge distance no 
 political obstacles intervene to impede the concen- 
 trated action of the disposable strength. Within 
 the dominion of Russia only the distances them- 
 selves, and the hindrances — unquestionably great 
 and manifold — imposed by natural conditions, place 
 checks upon her freedom and fulness of movement. 
 To this element of power — central position — is to 
 be added the wedge-shaped outhne of her terri- 
 torial projection into central Asia, strongly sup- 
 ported as this is, on the one flank, by the moun- 
 tains of the Caucasus and the inland Caspian Sea — 
 wholly under her control — and on the other by the 
 ranges which extend from Afghanistan northeast- 
 erly, along the western frontier of China. From 
 the latter, moreover, she as yet has no serious 
 danger to fear. The fact of her general advance 
 up to the present time, most of which has been 
 made within a generation, so that the point of the 
 wedge is now inserted between Afghanistan and 
 Persia, must be viewed in connection with the 
 tempting relative facility of farther progress 
 through Persia to the Persian Gulf, and with the 
 strictly analogous movement, on the other side of 
 the continent, where long strides have been made 
 through Manchuria to Port Arthur and the Gulf 
 of Pe-chi-li. Thus, alike in the far east and in 
 the far west, we find the same characteristic of 
 remorseless energy, rather remittent than intermit- 
 tent in its symptoms. Russia, in obedience to 
 natural law and race instinct, is working, geograph- 
 ically, to the southward in Asia by both flanks, 
 her centre covered by the mountains of Afghanis- 
 tan and the deserts of eastern Turkestan and Mon- 
 golia. ... As north and south are logically op- 
 posed, so it might be surmised that practically the 
 opposition to this movement of Russia from the 
 north would find its chief expression to the south 
 of the broad dividing belt, between the thirtieth 
 and fortieth parallels. In a measure this is so, but 
 with a very marked distinction, not only In degree 
 
 547
 
 ASIA 
 
 Unity of 
 Civilisation 
 
 ASIA 
 
 but in kind. In the progress of history, in which, 
 as it unrolls, more and more of plan and of pur- 
 pose seems to become evident, the great central 
 peninsula of southern Asia, also projecting wedge- 
 shaped far north into the middle debatable zone, 
 has come under the control of a people the heart 
 of whose power is far removed from it locally, 
 and who, to the concentration of territory char- 
 acteristic of Russia's geographical position, present 
 an extreme of racial and military dispersal. In- 
 dia, therefore, is to Great Britain not the primary 
 base of operations, political and military — for mili- 
 tary action is only a specialized form of political. 
 It is simply one of many contingent — secondary — 
 bases, in different parts of the world, the action of 
 which is susceptible of unification only by means 
 of a supreme sea power. Of these many bases, 
 India is the one best fitted, by nearness and by 
 conformation, both for effect upon Central .Asia 
 and for operations upon either extremity of the 
 long line over which the Russian front extends. 
 Protected on the land side and centre by the moun- 
 tains of -Afghanistan and the Himalayas, its flanks, 
 thrown to the rear, are unassailable, so long as the 
 navy remains predominant. They constitute also 
 frontiers, from which, in the future as in the past, 
 expeditions may make a refreshed and final start, 
 for Egypt on the one hand, for China on the other ; 
 and, it is needless to add, for any less distant des- 
 tination in either direction. 
 
 "It is not intrinsically only that India possesses 
 the value of a base to Great Britain. The central 
 position which she holds relatively to China and 
 to Egypt obtains also towards Australia and the 
 Cape of Good Hope, assisting thus the concentra- 
 tion upon her of such support as either colony 
 can extend to the general policy of an Imperial 
 Federation. Even in its immediate relations to 
 .Asiatic problems, however, India is not unsup- 
 ported. On land and in the centre, the acquisition 
 of Burmah gives a continuous extension of frontier 
 to the east, which turns the range of the Hima- 
 layas, opening access, political or peaceful, for in- 
 fluence or for commerce, to the upper valley of the 
 Vang-tse-kiang, and to the western provinces of 
 China proper. By sea, the Straits Settlements and 
 Hong-Kong on the one side, Aden and Egypt on 
 the other, facilitate, as far as land positions can, 
 maritime enterprises to the eastward or to the 
 westward, directed in a broad sense upon the flanks 
 of the dividing zone, or upon those of the opposing 
 fronts of operations that mark the deployment of 
 the northern and southern powers, which at the 
 present time are most strongly established upon 
 .Asian territory." — .A. T. Mahan, Problem of Asia, 
 pp. 20-20. — See also Baluchist.an; Pacific ocean: 
 B.C. 2S00-A. D. 1500. 
 
 Unity of Asiatic civilization. — Unifying force 
 of Buddhism. — Embodied in the spirit of Japan. 
 — Contrast to western currents of thought.— 
 "While the psychological unity of the Oriental na- 
 tions has nut been so clearly and definitely worked 
 out as it has been in the West, notwithstanding all 
 minor national idiosyncrasies, still the Orient has 
 also had its share of international unifying influ- 
 ences. The sacred places in India where the great 
 teacher lived have for two thousand years attracted 
 pilgrims from all jiarts of the Buddhist world; and 
 earnest students have sought deeper wisdom by 
 communing with the monks of famous monasteries 
 in Burmah and Ceylon. Ever since the embassy 
 of Emperor Ming-ti sought for the new gospel in 
 the year bi, and the sage Fa-hien undertook his 
 great journey, India has thus been visited by seek- 
 ers after new light. .Also the apostles of India's 
 missionary religion, in its first age of flourishing 
 enthusiasm, spread the teaching of Gotama to all 
 
 the lands of southern and eastern Asia, even from 
 Palestine, where they implanted the germs of the 
 Western monastic system, to the far islands of the 
 rising sun. Thus Buddhism became the greatest 
 unifying force in eastern .Asia, and no mind nor 
 personality commands a wider and more sincere 
 homage than he who found the light and pointed 
 the way, the great teacher 'who never spake but 
 good and wise words, he who was the light of the 
 world.' So it is that also in more recent epochs 
 down to our own day, his thought and life have 
 been and are the chief centre of the common feel- 
 ings and enthusiasms of Asia. [See also Budd- 
 hism: Buddha and his mission.] The great age 
 of illumination under the Sung dynasty in China 
 saw the beginning of the attempts to merge and 
 fuse Taoist, Buddhist, and Confucian thought, in 
 Neo-Confucianism, called by Okakura 'a brilliant 
 effort to mirror the whole of Asiatic consciousness.' 
 It was Buddhist monks and missionaries who acted 
 as messengers between China and Japan in that 
 great formative period of a thousand years, in 
 which all the currents of Indian and Chinese civi- 
 lization made their impress upon Japanese national 
 character. Then, under the Tokogawa regime the 
 independent spirits of Japan trained themselves for 
 the demands of an exacting epoch in the thought 
 of Wang-yang-ming. or Oyomei, which combined 
 with the noblest ideals and the deepest insight of 
 Buddhism, joins to these a zest in active life, an 
 ardent desire to participate in the surging develop- 
 ment in which the universe and human destiny are 
 unfolding themselves. In this school, which com- 
 bines a truly poetic sentiment for the pathos of 
 fading beauty and fleeting fragrance, for the ghost- 
 liness of an existence made up of countless vibra- 
 tions of past joy and suffering, with the courage- 
 ous desire to see clearly and act with energy, to 
 share to the full in this great battle we call Hfe, — 
 in this school were trained the statesmen and war- 
 riors of Satsuma and Choshu who have led Japan 
 to greatness in peace and glory in war. [See also 
 Buddhism: Later history; and Different forms of 
 Buddhism.] The unity of .Asiatic civilization has 
 found an actual embodiment in the spirit of Japan. 
 There it is not the product of political reasoning, 
 nor the discovery of philosophical abstraction. All 
 the phenomena of the overpowering natural world 
 of .Asia are epitomized in the islands of the morn- 
 ing sun, where nature is as luxuriant and as for- 
 bidding, as caressing and as severe, as fertile and 
 as destructive, as in all that cyclorama of storm, 
 earthquake, typhoon, flood, and mountain vastness 
 which we call .Asia. Even thus has Japan in the 
 course of her historic development received by 
 gradual accretion the spirit of all Asiatic thought 
 and endeavor. Nor have these waves from the 
 mainland washed her shores in vain; her national 
 life has not been the prey of capricious conquer- 
 ors — imposing for a brief time a sway that would 
 leave no permanent trace on the national life. Her 
 mind and character have received and accepted 
 these continental influences, as the needs of her 
 own developing life have called for them ; they 
 have not been adopted perforce or by caprice, but 
 have exerted a moulding influence and have been 
 assimilated into a consistent, deep, and powerful 
 national character. .A psychological unity has thus 
 been created — an actual expression of the flesh and 
 blood of life — in touch with the national ideals and 
 ambitions of a most truly patriotic race. This is 
 a far different matter from the mere intellectual 
 recognition of certain common beliefs, ideals, and 
 institutions throughout the Orient. On such a per- 
 ception of unity at most a certain intellectual sym- 
 pathy could be founded But in Japan the Oriental 
 spirit has become flesh — it has ceased to be a 
 
 548
 
 ASIA 
 
 Movement of Races 
 
 ASIA 
 
 bloodless generalization, and it now confronts the 
 world in the shape of a nation conscious of the 
 complicated and representative character of its 
 psychology, and ardently enthusiastic over the 
 loftiness of its mission. We know Japanese pa- 
 triotism as national, inspired by loyalty to the 
 Mikado and by love for the land of Fujiyama ; we 
 are also learning to know it as Asiatic — deeply 
 stirred by the exalting purpose of aiding that 
 Asiatic thought-life which has made Japan to come 
 to its own and preserve its dignity and independ- 
 ence through all the ages. ... It is said that Asia 
 is pessimistic. Yet her pessimism is not the sodden 
 gloom of despair, whose terrifying scowl we en- 
 counter in European realistic art, and which is 
 the bitter fruit of perverted modes of living. The 
 pessimism of Asia, which makes the charm of her 
 poetry from Firdusi to the writers of the delicate 
 Japanese Haikai, is rather a soothing, quieting, 
 ip.sthetic influence, like the feeling of sadness that 
 touches the heart at the sight of great beauty, and 
 which perhaps is due to the memory of all the 
 .\earnings and renunciations in the experience of a 
 long chain of lives. The pessimism of the Orient 
 is tragic, rather than cynical, and Japan at the 
 present time gives proof of the fact that the spirit 
 of tragedy belongs to strong nations. ... It is but 
 a short time since the broader and more represen- 
 tative minds among the Asiatic races have begun 
 to realize the unity of Asiatic civilization. The 
 endless variety in speech and custom, the differ- 
 ence in character and temper between the Chinese 
 and the Hindu, the opposite political destiny that 
 has made one nation subject to foreigners while 
 it has led another into an honored position among 
 the independent Powers — all these differences can 
 no longer obscure the deep unity of customs and of 
 ideals that pervades the entire Orient. This unified 
 character of Oriental life, in its essence so totally 
 different from Western civilization, frequently ex- 
 presses itself on the surface in customs and insti- 
 tutions which seem to us bizarre and even barbar- 
 ous, and which invite the active reformer from the 
 West to sweep them away and put in their place a 
 more enlightened system. But whoever considers 
 carefully the conditions of the Orient may arrive 
 at a very different conclusion, and may see even 
 in these apparently backward institutions the 
 marks of a broad and noble ideal of life. The 
 vastncss of Oriental populatioiis, the long dura- 
 tion of their institutions, create a feeling of per- 
 manence and peace. The frequency of natural 
 catastrophes, the overpowering aspect of moun- 
 tains, torrents, and typhoons, have given the Ori- 
 entals an entirely deferential attitude toward na- 
 ture, which they have not tried to conquer or 
 subdue. Busied rather with the causes of things 
 and with the general laws of existence, they turned 
 to religion and philosophy, and gave but little at- 
 tention to practical facts, to scientific control of the 
 forces of nature, and to the betterment of social 
 conditions. The pessimistic tinge of Oriental 
 thought is due to this feeling of helplessness, which 
 causes the world and existence to appear as a great 
 procession of shadows, full of suffering anc' evil. 
 But in all this impermanence. in the multitude of 
 fleeting and ephemeral individual existences, the 
 Oriental mind sees the manifestation of an omni- 
 present force." — P. S. Reinsch, Intellectual and po- 
 litical currents in the Far East, pp. 20-28. — See also 
 China: Origin of the people; Mythology: Eastern 
 Asia: Indian and Chinese influences. 
 
 Art of writing. See Alphabet: Theories of ori- 
 gin and development. 
 
 Earliest history. — Movements of Asiatic 
 races. — Invasions into Europe. — "When we 
 search into the remotest past of Asia, the geolo- 
 
 gist, not the historian, presents a very surprising 
 spectacle to our view: two lands stand opposite; 
 one, to the north, shaping a long arch round what 
 is to-day Irkutsk; the other, to the south, consti- 
 tutes a portion of the future peninsula of Hindu- 
 stan; a large mediterranean sea, to which M. Suess 
 has given the name of Tethys, separates the two 
 continents; this ocean, in gradually drying up, has 
 by its folds given rise to the Pamirs, the Himalayas, 
 the high Tibetan tableland — and its total disap- 
 pearance and the union of the two, northern and 
 southern, lands gave birth to Asia. If we seek 
 in this vast continent for the territory having an 
 authentic record of the oldest times, we find it 
 in the lands of biblical tradition, Chaldea and 
 Elam, where Asia tells again the story of its past 
 with the most irrefragable evidence in the in- 
 scriptions registered on stones which, lying buried 
 for centuries have withstood the wear and tear of 
 ages ; thus has been revealed to us the oldest code 
 of the world, the Law of Hammurabi, discovered 
 at Susa by M. J. de Morgan, and described by 
 the Dominican Father V. Scheil, both Frenchmen. 
 However, if Elam carries us back to a period fur- 
 ther than four thousand years before Christ, other 
 countries of Asia, including those which are sup- 
 posed to possess the most ancient civilization, are 
 far from giving the material proof of the high an- 
 tiquity to which their books and their legends lay 
 an unfounded claim. [See also BAB^LOMA: Ear- 
 liest inhabitants.] India cannot boast of a single 
 monument which for age is to be compared with 
 those of Nineveh and of Egypt, and before the 
 eighth century B.C., no solid basis to the history 
 of China is to be found. The perishable quality 
 of the materials used in rearing the edifices of this 
 last country cannot allow us to hope that the zeal 
 of modern archcBologists will unearth the secret 
 of monuments vanished long ago. ... At the pres- 
 ent time [1904] nothing definite gives us a right 
 to broach an opinion with regard to the primitive 
 inhabitants of Oriental Asia and their cradle. 
 
 "... During a long time Europe remained in 
 complete ignorance of the steady though irregular 
 movements of the populations of Asia, which was 
 really a volcano in eruption, the terrible effects of 
 which were felt afar. When the Roman Empire 
 crumbling to pieces was threatened westwards by 
 the barbarians of Germanic race, — Teutonic, 
 Gothic, or Scandinavian, — these, pressed in their 
 turn by the wild hordes from .4sia, like a rolling 
 wave invaded the Empire and, crushed in by the 
 newcomers, founded as far as Spain, more or less 
 flourishing kingdoms at the expense of the domain 
 of the Caesars. The march of the Huns from the 
 heart of Asia is in great part the cause of these 
 migrations of people; menacing the Chinese ter- 
 ritory, driving away the Yue-chi, a branch of the 
 Eastern Tartars, who, after several halts of which 
 we shall speak further on, carved for themselves 
 an empire on the banks of the Indus at the cost 
 of the occupiers of the valley of this river. The 
 invading Huns, like a huge wave, gained gradually 
 on from horde to horde, from tribe to tribe, from 
 people to people, till they reached Europe which, 
 when struck by the Scourge of God, could not dis- 
 cern whence the blow was first dealt. During the 
 course of the fifth century, the Huns under Attila 
 had not only subdued all the Tartar nations of 
 Central Asia, but had also brought under the yoke 
 the whole of the German tribes between the Volga 
 and the Rhine. The defeat of the great chief by 
 the allied armies of the Franks, the Visigoths, and 
 the Romans at the battle of the Catalaunic Fields 
 (451), his death two years later, stopped the tide 
 of the Eastern invaders; as the victory of Charles 
 Martel at Poitiers (732), three centuries later, set 
 
 549
 
 ASIA 
 
 European Invasions 
 
 ASIA 
 
 bounds to the throng of Arabs, who after having 
 torn the north of Africa from the Roman Empire, 
 had crossed the sea, destroying the power of the 
 Visigoths, who after a long migratory period 
 throughout Europe, had apparently found a per- 
 manent home in the Iberian Peninsula. [See also 
 Huns.] The invasion of the barbarians, who 
 flocked together to share the spoils of the agoniz- 
 ing Roman Empire in the fifth century, will con- 
 tinue later with the Mongol raids and till 1453 
 [See also Mongolia: 1206-1500], the year of the 
 capture of Constantinople by the Turltish Osman- 
 lis, which we may consider to mark the climax 
 of the Asiatic encroachments." — H. Cordier, Gen- 
 eral survey oj the history oj Asia {International 
 Congress of Arts and Science, v. 2, pp. 86-89, St. 
 Louis, igo4). 
 
 B. C. 334-A. D. 1498. — European invasions 
 into Asia. — Alexander. — Romans. — Crusaders. — 
 Modern movement. — "(i) Taking the European 
 advances into Asia first, and dealing with them 
 only, in order of date, there have been within 
 historic times four great European invasions of 
 Asia. The first was the wonderful campaign of 
 Alexander of Macedon and his Greek armies. His 
 forces marched unbeaten to the Indus and defeated 
 Porus on the borders of Hindustan. As a miU- 
 tary feat the whole expedition was a marvellous 
 success. But, great as were his victories in the 
 field and far-reaching his projects for foundins an 
 Eastern Empire, the fact remains that Ale.xander's 
 exploits and those of his lieutenants produced no 
 permanent effect whatever upon the important 
 countries over which they and their immediate 
 descendants ruled. There is nothing to show, either 
 in arms or in arts, in philosophy or in religion, 
 that the Asratics, who were compelled to submit 
 for the time being, adopted Greek methods or ab- 
 sorbed Greek ideas. It was conquest without 
 colonisation: victory without continuous influence. 
 The wave of invasion receded and matters went on 
 below the surface much as they did before. [See 
 also MACEDO^^A: B.C. 345-,?36, to B.C. 315-310.] 
 (2) Even the Roman mastery of a large portion of 
 Asia scarcely influenced Eastern thought or East- 
 ern customs at all. Yet this second great Euro- 
 pean invasion lasted for many centuries, and was 
 maintained, alike when Rome was at the height 
 of her power, and when her magnificent system of 
 civil and military organisation was slowly totter- 
 ing to its fall. Those long, long years of peaceful 
 and successful rule failed to impress European con- 
 ceptions, or European methods, upon the mass of 
 the subject population, or even upon the educated 
 classes as a whole. They remained essentially 
 Asiatic, in all important respects, below the sur- 
 face. The Pax Romana passed away and the 
 Asiatics of centuries before became Asiatics again 
 for centuries after. This was so, first and fore- 
 most and all through, from the days when the 
 Parthians on the frontier routed Crassus and his 
 army, to the period when the Byzantine emf)erors 
 were vainly struggling against the Arabs and Turks. 
 . . . [There was] the great legacy of administra- 
 tion, laws and jurisprudence in Asia. The splendid 
 roads, harbours, water-conduits and other public 
 works, of which the ruins still bear witness to the 
 genius and foresight of her Emperors and engi- 
 neers, conduced to great material prosperity, as the 
 wealth and luxury of the principal cities testified. 
 But the whole elaborate system left the psychology, 
 habits and beliefs of the people untouched. The 
 Asiatic mind remained impervious to European 
 thought. Asiatic customs, Asiatic tribal and fam- 
 ily relations, Asiatic religions long survived Greek 
 and Latin teaching and Greek and Latin cults. 
 Nay, in all these departments of human activity. 
 
 as in some others, Asia, even under Roman suprem- 
 acy, had a continuous and peaceful influence upon 
 her conquerors at a period when all hope of shak- 
 ing off the Roman yoke had been practically 
 abandoned. In Rome itself and in other great 
 cities of the Western Empire, Asiatic philosophy 
 and Asiatic superstitions made way long before the 
 Asiatic religion of Christianity spread its network 
 from Palestine over the European provinces. At 
 Constantinople imitations of Asiatic forms and 
 ceremonies pervaded the whole Imperial Court. 
 [See also Jews: B.C. 40-A. D. 44.] (3) Where 
 the powerful organisation and efficiency of the 
 Roman Empire had failed after hundreds of years 
 of successful domination to produce a permanent 
 effect, it was little likely that other disorderly and 
 spasmodic efforts from the West would prevail. 
 . . . The motley hosts who went forth under the 
 banners of the Crusaders formed the third impor- 
 tant invasion of Asia by Europe. Whatever may 
 have been the hopes and intentions of the more 
 capable statesmen and warriors of Europe we can 
 now see that they were doomed to disappointment, 
 even if the attacks ufon 'the infidel' had been far 
 better organised and disciplined than in fact they 
 were. At first, at any rate, the Crusades were 
 nothing more than spasmodic religious raids, bred 
 of hysteria and inspired by fanaticism. Later they 
 may have had some conscious, or unconscious, 
 economic motive; and unquestionably racial an- 
 tagonism developed as a result of the long series 
 of encounters with the Moslem armies. These 
 freebooters of Christianity and marauders of feu- 
 dalism, however, were as little animated by any 
 great scheme of polity as were their opponents. 
 Here and there the leaders carved out short-lived 
 kingdoms for themselves and their followers, 
 chiefly at the expense of the decadent Christian 
 Empire of the East, whose outposts in Asia Minor 
 and Palestine they went forth to defend. But the 
 Crusades . . . made no lasting impression what- 
 ever upon 'the East.' The Holy City of Chris- 
 tianity, Jerusalem, remained for centuries after- 
 wards and continued till yesterday in the custody 
 of those rival monotheists, the followers of Mo- 
 hammed. Thus the third assault of Europe upon 
 Asia produced even less effect than its two pre- 
 decessors. . . . [See also Crusades.] (4) The 
 fourth European invasion of Asia has taken place 
 in modern times. It is a much wider, more con- 
 tinuous and far more formidable assault than any 
 of its predecessors. This great movement is still 
 in progress, and we are by no means as yet in a 
 position to judge of its final effect. French, Eng- 
 lish and Russians, following upon the early re- 
 ligious and commercial efforts of the Portuguese 
 and Dutch, have carried on for three centuries a 
 steady pressure of, firstly religious propaganda, 
 then mercantile persuasion, and lastly armed con- 
 quest at the expense of the inhabitants. The re- 
 sult is that Europeans have now seized and domi- 
 nate more than half of the area and Httle less than 
 half of the population of the great Eastern Con- 
 tinent, with its adjacent islands." — H. M. Hynd- 
 man, .Awakening of Asia, pp. 3-7. 
 
 1500-1900. — Latest European invasion. — Ad- 
 vance upon China. — Portuguese in the East. — 
 Spaniards in the Philippines. — East opened by 
 the English after defeat of French. — Russian 
 movements across Asia. — Japan transformed by 
 western civilization. — "The decline of China co- 
 incides with the efforts of the Western Powers to 
 break her doors open. Until the middle of the 
 nineteenth centur>-, with the exception of a few 
 Catholic missionaries, retained as savants at the 
 court of Peking or hidden in the provinces, where 
 they led a precarious existence, foreigners were 
 
 550
 
 ASIA 
 
 European Invasions 
 
 ASIA 
 
 lodged in a quarter of the single port of Canton 
 without the right of moving freely about the city ; 
 moreover, they could only stay at the place the 
 time strictly necessary to the settlement of their 
 affairs, that is to say, during a pretty short portion 
 of the year; afterwards they had to return to the 
 Portuguese Colony of Macao, where lived their 
 families, who were not allowed to accompany the 
 cargoes to the Chinese port. Business was not 
 conducted freely with the natives, but through the 
 medium of privileged merchants, called hong mer- 
 chants, whose monopoly was finally abolished by 
 the fifth article of the treaty signed at Nanking by 
 England August 2q, 1842. [See also China: 1839- 
 1842.] Wanton vexations were inflicted upon 
 foreigners; it was forbidden to the natives to teach 
 their language to any "Western Devil" (Yang- 
 kwei-tse) ; the lex talioiiis, man for man, was ap- 
 plied with all its cruelty and injustice. This state 
 of things lasted till the Opium War, which gave 
 England the means of opening China more widely 
 to the foreign trade and of making way for the 
 introduction of Western ideas, without abating, 
 however, the arrogant pretension? of the man- 
 darins. In the course of the sixteenth century 
 began the double march toward China, by the 
 north and the south, by land and by sea, which 
 brought into contact nations of the Occident and 
 those of the Far East. Ermak's Cossacks were 
 the pioneers of the northern route, Vasco da 
 Gama's sailors and Albuquerque's soldiers were the 
 pilots and the conquerors of the southern route. 
 To the Portuguese we owe the discovery, or more 
 exactly the reopening, of the road of Asia in mod- 
 ern times. The cape discovered by Bartholomew 
 Diaz in 1485, doubled by Vasco da Gama in 1497, 
 was the great port of call from Europe to Asia, 
 until the ancient way of Egypt was resumed dur- 
 ing the nineteenth century. [See also Portugal: 
 1463-1498.] Masters of the Indian Ocean, the 
 capture of Malacca in 1511, their first voyage to 
 Canton in 1514, a wreck in 1542 at Tanegashima, 
 in the Japanese Archipelago, gave to the Portu- 
 guese the possession of an immense empire and the 
 control of an enormous trade which they were not 
 able to keep. The annexation of Portugal to Spain, 
 'The SLxty Years' Captivity,' under Philip the 
 Second, was as harmful to the first, drawn by its 
 conqueror into a struggle fatal for her prosperity, 
 as was to the Dutch colonies the absorption of 
 Holland by Napoleon I. 
 
 "The Spaniards settled in the Philippine Islands; 
 the Dutch, with the enterprising Cornelius Hout- 
 man, landed in 1596 at Bantam, created the short- 
 lived colony of Formosa, and a lasting empire in 
 the Sunda Islands, where in i6iq they laid the 
 foundations of the town of Batavia, on the ruins 
 of the old native port of Jacatra. However, one 
 may say that England really opened Eastern Asia 
 to foreign influence, at least by sea, from the day 
 in 1634 when the gun of Captain Weddell thun- 
 dered for the first time in the Canton River. It 
 was with the accompaniment of British powder 
 that during two centuries the countries of the Far 
 East carried on trade with the Western merchants. 
 It was on sea, and of course by the south, that 
 England fought for the supremacy in Asia. A 
 terrible struggle in India against the French, where 
 Clive and Hastings got the benefit of the labors 
 and exertions of Franqois Martin, Dumas, Dupleix, 
 and others, three wars against the Mahrattas, the 
 conquest of the Punjab, the crushing of the great 
 rebelUon of 1857, the suppression of the Empire 
 of the great Mogul, have secured to Great Britain 
 the possession of the Indies, threatened only as of 
 yore by the northwestern invaders. Three lucky 
 campaigns have given Burmah to England, al- 
 
 ready master of the greater part of the Malay 
 Peninsula. [See also India: 1823-1833, 1852: and 
 BRinsH empire: E.xpansion: 19th century: Asia.] 
 The treaty signed by Great Britain at Nanking in 
 August, 1842, broke up the Chinese barrier; the 
 various Powers followed in emulation the example 
 of England; the United States, France, Belgium, 
 Sweden and Norway, by turn signed treaties or 
 conventions with the Son of Heaven. At that 
 time England was truly without a rival in the Far 
 East, but was not far-sighted enough; the pledge 
 she took at Hong Kong, important as it was, was 
 but a small one with regard to the hopes of the 
 future. England gave back to the Chinese the 
 Chusan Islands, which had been in her hands, as 
 the French returned the Pescadores after the set- 
 tlement of the Tonquin question; of course, loyal 
 and honest acts, but also acts of improvident poli- 
 tics. ... 
 
 "However, the two facts dominating the political 
 history of the Far East during the last fifty years 
 are the spread of the Russian power through Asia 
 on the one hand, and the revolution and the trans- 
 formation of the Japanese Empire on the other. 
 During the reign of Ivan IV, in the middle of the 
 sixteenth century, to the east of the Ural Moun- 
 tains began this tremendous march of the Russians 
 which drove them beyond the sea, since the author- 
 ity of the Tsar was formerly extended to this side 
 of the Straits of Behring; indeed, it was but in 
 1867 that the Russian possessions in America, 
 Alaska, were acquired by the United States. The 
 unification of the states of Great Russia, the con- 
 quest of the Tartar Kingdoms of Kazan (1552) 
 and of Astrakhan (iSS3), removed the boundaries 
 of Russia to the east; the Russian advance to the 
 Baltic had been stopped by the victories of Stephen 
 Bathory ; the East only was left open to their en- 
 terprise. In 1558 a certain Gregori Strogonov ob- 
 tained from the Tsar the cession of the wild lands 
 on the Kama River. With some companions he 
 settled in that region, created colonies, and some 
 of the hardy fellows went as far as the Ural Moun- 
 tains. An adventurous Cossack of the Don, Ermak 
 Timofeevitch, whose services had been secured by 
 Strogonov, crossed the Ural Mountains at the head 
 of eight hundred and fifty plucky men, and ad- 
 vanced as far as the Irtysh and Ob rivers, on the 
 way subduing the Tartar princes. Ermak was the 
 real conqueror of Western Siberia, but if he had 
 the luck and the glory of adding a new kingdom 
 to the states of the prince who has been surnamed 
 the Terrible, to his immediate successors was due 
 the foundation of the first town in the territory 
 snatched from the Tartars, for Ermak was drowned 
 in the Irtysh in 1584, and Tobolsk dates only from 
 15S7. The effort of the Russians was then directed 
 to the north of Siberia ; they did not meet with 
 any resistance until fTiey reached the Lena River; 
 in 1632 they built the fort of Yakutsk on the 
 banks of this river, and pushed their explorations 
 on to the sea of Okhotsk. In 1636 tidings of the 
 Amoor River were for the first time heard from 
 Cossacks of Tomsk, who had made raids to the 
 south. Wasili Poyarkov (1643-46) is the first 
 Russian who navigated the Amoor from its junc- 
 tion with Zeia to its mouth. In 1643-51, Kha- 
 barov led an expedition in the course of which 
 he built on the banks of the river several forts, 
 Albasine among them. In 1654, Stepanov for the 
 first time ascended the Sungari, where he met the 
 Chinese, who compelled him to trace his way back 
 to the Amoor. In spite of all their exertions, after 
 two sieges of Albasine by the Chinese, the Rus- 
 sians were obliged on the 27th of August, 1689, 
 to sign at Nerchinsk a treaty by which they were 
 driven out of the basin of the Amoor. The Rus- 
 
 551
 
 ASIA 
 
 Russian Movements 
 
 ASIA 
 
 sians, bound to carry their efforts to the north, 
 subdued Kamchatka. What is perhaps most re- 
 marlcable in the history of the relations of the two 
 great Asiatic empires is the tenacity of the Mus- 
 covite grappling with the cunning of the Chinese, 
 and the comparison between the starting-point of 
 these relations, the Russia of Michael and Alexis 
 and the China of K'ang-hi, and their culminating- 
 point in iS6o, when these very nations shall have 
 passed, one through the iron hands of Peter the 
 Great and become the Russia of Alexander II, and 
 the other under the backward government of Kia- 
 K'ing and Tao-kwang and become the China of 
 their feeble successor Hien-Fung. Only on the i8th 
 of May, i8S4, did the Governor-General Muraviev 
 navigate again the waters of the Amoor River; on 
 the i6th of May, 1858, he signed at Aigun a treaty 
 which made the Amoor until its junction with the 
 Usuri the boundary between the Russian and Chi- 
 nese Empires, the territory between the Usuri and 
 the sea remaining in the joint possession of the two 
 Powers, but after the Pe-king Convention (2-14 
 November, i860) this land was abandoned to 
 Russia and the Usuri became the boundary. In 
 the meantime, the treaty signed at T'ien-tsin by 
 Admiral Euthymus Putiatin (1-13 June, 1858) se- 
 cured for Russia all the advantages gained by 
 France and England after the occupation of Can- 
 ton and the capture of the Taku forts. [See also 
 Sibema: 1578-1800.] The second Russian move 
 had Central Asia as its aim ; it was the result of 
 the foundation of the town of Orenburg, the ex- 
 ploration of the Syr-Daria by Batiakov the build- 
 ing of Kazalinsk (1848) near the mouth of this 
 river; the unsuccessful effort of General Perovsky 
 (1830) turned the enterprise of the Russians to 
 the Khanate of Khokand; the storming of Tash- 
 kend by Colonel Chernaiev on the 27th of June, 
 1865, was the crowning point of the conquest of 
 Turkestan by the Russians. The road to the T'ien- 
 Shan Nan Lu, had already been opened to the 
 Russians by the treaty signed at Kulja (July 25- 
 August 8, 1851) by Colonel Kovalcsky, which, 
 however, was known only ten years later (28 
 February-ii March, 1861). While Yakub Bey 
 had founded a Mohammedan Empire in the T'ien- 
 Shan Nan Lu, the Russians took possession of the 
 Hi Territory on the 4th of July, 1871. The re- 
 trocession of this territory to China after the death 
 of the Attalik Ghazi was the cause of long and 
 difficult negotiations between Russia and China, 
 which ended with the treaties of Livadia (October, 
 1870) and of St. Petersburg (February 12-23, 
 1881). Russia restored the lands which she de- 
 tained illegitimately, keeping, however, a small por- 
 tion, not the least valuable. . . . The third Russian 
 move was aimed at the countries beyond the Cas- 
 pian Sea, and was the result of the conquest of the 
 Crimea by Potemkin in the naijue of the great 
 Catherine, and of the treaty of Kutschuk Quain- 
 ardji (1774), which gave to the Russians the free 
 navigation of the Black Sea. Under the rei^n of 
 Nicholas I, Putiatin established a permanent iriari- 
 time station on the Island of Akurade in the 
 Gulf of Astrabad, and a line of ships on the Cas- 
 pian Sea, securing from the Persian Government 
 facilities for Russian fishermen and traders on the 
 southern coast of that sea. At last, in 1860, Rus- 
 sia took a definite position on the eastern coast of 
 the Caspian Sea in settling at Kranovodsk. Later, 
 on the break-up of the Turkish barrier of Geok- 
 tepe by Skobelev, the occupation of the Oasis of 
 Merv by Aliknanov, the capture of Samarkand, 
 made of the Transcaspian country a Russian pos- 
 session, rendered Russian influence paramount in 
 the north of Persia, and threatened Herat and the 
 route of India. TSee also Russia: :8s9-i876.1 
 
 The railway which the ingenuity and tenacity of 
 Annenkov threw across the burning desert, united 
 the Caspian Sea to Bokhara and Samarkand, cross- 
 ing the Oxus at Charjui. The continuation of this 
 railway from Samarkand to Tashkend and the Si- 
 berian line was to place the whole of Asia beyond 
 the Ural Mountains and the Caspian Sea in the 
 hands of the Russians. It seems as if nothing 
 could put a stop to this expansion ; on the con- 
 trary, the bold and rapid construction of a railway 
 across the frozen steppes of Siberia was to unite 
 Russia directly with the Far East by an unbroken 
 chain ; the ports of Manchuria and Korea, watered 
 by the seas of China and Japan, being considered 
 the termini of the long line. Work on the western 
 part of the Siberian Railway began on July 7, 
 1802. Its extension beyond the Baikal Lake was 
 to take it on the one hand to Vladivostock at the 
 eastern extremity of the Russian possessions in 
 Asia, and on the other to Port Arthur in the south 
 of the Liao-tung Peninsula. It was fair to think 
 that the point where the two lines met, in the very 
 heart of Manchuria, should become a most impor- 
 tant centre of industry and population; indeed, this 
 has been realized, and in a few years, in the place 
 of a barren spot, the considerable town of Kharbin 
 (Harbin) has been built in the twinkling of an eye 
 so to speak. . . . [See also Railroads: i8Q5-igio.] 
 While Russia was making this enormous extension 
 in the northwest of Asia, Japan was pursuing the 
 series of reforms which were to secure for her a 
 very special position in the concert of the nations 
 of the world. Previous to the revolution of 1868, 
 which altered entirely the state of things in Japan, 
 a real duality in the government existed in this 
 country; while the Tenno, or Mikado, the only 
 Emperor, reigned nominally at Kioto, the power 
 was held in fact by the Shogun, a sort of Mayor of 
 the Palace, residing at Yedo. From lyeyasu, at the 
 beginning of the seventeenth century, who gave to 
 feudality the definitive constitution which lasted 
 to our days, the power remained in his house, that 
 of Tokugawa. The foreigners, who landed in 
 Japan in the sixteenth and the beginning of the 
 seventeenth century — Portuguese and English — 
 were expelled in 1637, and by the end of 1630 the 
 Dutch and the Chinese were the only outsiders al- 
 lowed to live on the islet of Deshima, in the Bay 
 of Nagasaki, in order to supply the Japanese with 
 the goods they required. This state of things, not- 
 withstanding the attempts vainly made by Great 
 Britain and Russia during the first years of the 
 nineteenth century, was to last until the arrival of 
 the American Commodore Matthew Calbraith 
 Perry, who in July, 1853, anchored at Uraga at 
 the entrance of the Bay of Yedo, and who signed 
 on March 31, i8S4, at Kanagawa, the first treaty 
 concluded between Japan and a foreign power. 
 . . . [See also Japan: 1854-1863.! Europe used 
 to consider .^sia, except in her western part, as a 
 domain where events rolled on without any dis- 
 tant effect and having therefore but an interest of 
 mere curiosity. Chimi. Bossuet could pass over 
 in silence, that is to say the third of the total 
 population of the globe, in his Discours sur I'his- 
 toire universelle . . . admired only by those who 
 have not read it. However, during the course of 
 the fifth century the invasion of the barbarians, 
 and in the thirteenth the raids of the Mongols, 
 should have opened the eyes of the most blind of 
 observers. And these considerable events were not 
 the result of fortuitous causes, but the natural con- 
 sequence of important events which had happened 
 in the interior of Asia, while our ancestors had 
 not the faintest suspicion of them. Moreover, the 
 great navigators of the sixteenth century unraveled 
 the mystery which shrouded the remote countries 
 
 552
 
 • 
 
 Maps prepaid ^|.<■l■ially for the NEW LARNED 
 under direction of the editors and publishers. 
 
 /^ 
 
 r^ 
 
 n
 
 ASIA 
 
 Results of 
 European Exploitation 
 
 ASIA 
 
 and helped to make clear the interest Europe had 
 in knowing them better, and let us say, with frank 
 cynicism, in speculating upon them. The first at- 
 tempts to create factories, then the conquests at 
 the end of the seventeenth and during the eight- 
 eenth centuries, showed that Europe had aban- 
 doned her majestic indifference, and was feeling 
 the necessity of a policy which reached beyond 
 the horizon bounded by her small and greedy con- 
 tinent. 
 
 "At the close of the wars of the First Empire, as 
 soon as peace is signed, we see the Western na- 
 tions resume the routes to Asia, for a short pe- 
 riod neglected. England in India and China, the 
 Dutch in the Spice Islands, France in Indo-China, 
 later on the Russians in Central Asia, then in the 
 basin of the Amoor River, all rush to the con- 
 quest of new territories ; appetites are sharpened, 
 rivalries created ; means of more rapid locomotion 
 shorten distances; a new nation, Japan, is born to 
 civilization, or to what it pleases us to call civiliza- 
 tion; and Central and Eastern Asia, being no 
 more isolated, are dragged into the inharmonious 
 concert of universal politics." — H. Cordier, Gen- 
 eral survey of the history of Asia (International 
 Congress of Arts and Science, v. 2., pp. Q5-103, 
 St. Louis, IQ04). 
 
 Results of European exploitation. — The fol- 
 lowing is a comparison and recapitulation of rela- 
 tions between Asia and Europe by a very liberal 
 Englishman, Mr. H. M. Hyndman, who expresses 
 a rathe_r pessimistic attitude toward the aims and 
 methods of Europeans in Asia. 
 
 "It is well to recall that, within comparatively 
 recent times, wave alter wave of conquering Asi- 
 atic armies broke in upon Europe; and barbarian 
 as most of these warlike hordes were, great gen- 
 erals, great organisers, great administrators rose 
 up from among them, both in West and East, 
 whose equals could not be found in the Europe of 
 their day. The Arabs of Spain, the various Mos- 
 lem rulers of Baghdad, Egypt and Adrianople left, 
 directly or indirectly, their mark on the civilisa- 
 tion of the West. The Mongols of Delhi, the 
 Bahmany dynasty of the Deccan, Kublai Khan in 
 China, and the rulers of the Khanates of Central 
 Asia showed splendid capacity, in arts as in arms. 
 These men and others built up Empires which the 
 white races saw and heard of dimly from afar. 
 But whether as distant rulers or as terribly near 
 invaders these Asians were very formidable foes, 
 and in the changing course of time we may yet 
 have good cause to fear Asians again. We now 
 know to our cost what a war to the death between 
 nations and races, provided with equal means of 
 destruction, really is. In the long run, should no 
 exceptional military genius manifest himself, nor 
 any incalculable spirit animate one of the com- 
 batants, the number of the trained soldiers on 
 either side determines who shall be the victor. In 
 numbers the East has an enormous advantage over 
 the West. And there is no reason why a really 
 great admiral, or general, should not appear in 
 the countries which border upon the Pacific Ocean, 
 as well as in those whose outlet is the Atlantic. 
 While all the Powers of Europe were engaged in 
 a desperate war of resistance to Teutonic aggres- 
 sion, and we were looking on, practically help- 
 less, at the internecine butchery of the white race, 
 there has been a steady revival among the vast 
 populations which inhabit the territories extending 
 from the Persian Gulf to the Sooloo Sea, and from 
 the Amoor River to the Straits of Singapore. 
 Nevertheless, we still talk with confidence of cap- 
 turing more of Asiatic trade and influencing for 
 all time Asiatic development. 
 
 "Not long ago, European nations were calmly 
 
 discussing and deciding among themselves how 
 much more of sleepy Asia they should appropriate, 
 for the benefit, no doubt, of the peoples brought 
 under this foreign rule. But now our sense of 
 conscious superiority is being shaken, and when 
 we find the inscrutable Asiatic learning to meet us 
 successfully with our own weapons, we draw back 
 a little. We even begin to see that he may have 
 good grounds for regarding his white rivals as the 
 uncultured and discourteous barbarians that, in 
 many respects, we really are. Compared with 
 the madness of Europe, also, the comparative 
 quietude of Asia has been sanity itself. Yet this 
 may not endure. With all the facts before us, and 
 with prejudice thrown aside, we are still unable to 
 lay bare the causes of the gigantic Asian move- 
 ments of the past. They were certainly not all 
 economic in their origin, unless we stretch the 
 boundaries of theory so far as to include the mas- 
 sacre of whole populations and the destruction of 
 their wealth within the limits of the invader's de- 
 sire for material gain. And, whether these move- 
 ments arose from material or emotional causes, 
 they have been before, and they may occur again. 
 Forecast here is impossible. . . . Japan herself, 
 whose leadership of Asia, afield and afloat, may 
 yet, unless we are very careful, teach white men 
 a lesson all over the world, was driven into close 
 contact with Europe and America against her 
 will, first, by Commodore Perry's dexterous di- 
 plomacy, supported by the power of the United 
 States, and then by the much less justifiable 
 measures of other white nations. . . . Asia raided 
 and scouraged Europe for more than a thousand 
 years. Now for five hundred years the counter- 
 attack of Europe upon Asia has been going stead- 
 ily on, and it may be that the land of long mem- 
 ories will cherish some desire to avenge this period 
 of wrong and rapine in turn. The seed of hatred 
 has already been but too well sown. The conti- 
 nent which has long regarded itself as the home of 
 the progressive peoples and the hope of the entire 
 planet is beginning to forfeit its assumed suprem- 
 acy. The warlike and industrial potentialities of 
 the near future are passing slowly but surely to 
 the Far East. ... If all those portions of the 
 globe which are inhabited or dominated by the 
 white races are seriously taking account at the 
 present moment of their strength, their population, 
 and their possibilities for the increase of their 
 wealth on a larger scale than ever before, we may 
 be sure the ablest men in Asia are not blind to 
 what can be achieved in their own countries in 
 peace and in war. It is true that the differences 
 between the Asiatic peoples are as acute as any 
 which exist in Europe. But against the white man 
 they are practically all at one. Yet the white man 
 still holds control over nearly half of Asia and 
 its vast population! Asia comprises, including its 
 islands, little less than 1,000,000,000 of the human 
 race; England, France, Russia, Holland and the 
 United States are all deeply concerned in the fu- 
 ture of this mass of people, in view of the scope 
 of territory and population they control. All will 
 be greatly affected by the general political, eco- 
 nomic and social movement of Japan, China and 
 India. In a word, the position of Great Britain 
 foremost, and of the other Powers in their degree, 
 is now being steadily undermined. The determined, 
 effort to secure Asia for the Asiatics, once begun 
 as earnestly in action as it is now being seriously 
 considered in thought, might spread with a rapidity 
 which would paralyse all attempts of reconquest, if, 
 indeed, such attempts could ever be effectively 
 made. The West deprived of British India, the Asi- 
 atic Provinces of Russia, French Tonquin and 
 Cochin China, Dutch Java, Sumatra and the 
 
 553
 
 ASIA 
 
 Results of 
 European Exploitation 
 
 ASIA 
 
 Celebes, the Philippines under the United States, 
 would be a very different Europe from that to 
 which we have been accustomed. That is a possi- 
 bility of which the West, with forces now weakened 
 and depleted to a wholly unprecedented extent, 
 must soon take account. Unconsciously, but none 
 the less certainly, it is making way. Where fifty, or 
 even twenty years ago, the continuous expansion of 
 Western domination over the East was taken for 
 granted, now an uneasy but not yet openly ad- 
 mitted feeling is growing that the tide has turned, 
 and that ere long the area of European influence 
 in the East will be considerably reduced. The 
 partition of China among the 'Great Powers' is not 
 to-day within the sphere of practical politics, and 
 Japan pursues her policy in respect to that mag- 
 nificent Empire with little regard to the suscep- 
 tibilities of the white man and his burden. Wheth- 
 er the appeal of China herself to the White Pow- 
 ers, that they should aid her to resist the unwar- 
 ranted demands of Japan, will obtain a favourable 
 reception remains to be seen. But while The 
 League of Nations' is being generally discussed it 
 is certain that, in the opinion of the Chinese, the 
 national independence of China is seriously men- 
 aced if the much-cherished 'Open Door' is being 
 carefully, though silently, closed. All this is more 
 remarkable since the Ottoman Turks, for centuries 
 the advance guard of Asia in Europe, are at last 
 being driven from their hereditary camping- 
 ground. Even their mastery over Asia Minor, 
 (q. v.), irrespective of the baffled German pro- 
 gramme of appropriation, is obviously threatened 
 by Great Britain and France. What, under other 
 circumstances, would undoubtedly be considered 
 additional evidence of the growing predominance 
 of Europe, seems to-day scarcely a makeweight 
 against the probable insecurity of the white race 
 in the Far East. . . . Happily the same views as 
 to the madness of modern warfare which are now 
 being forced upon the rest of the world are also 
 making way with Asiatic statesmen. They ton see 
 that friendly cooperation for common advantage 
 might be far more advantageous to all than rivalry 
 for power or competition for gain. Freedom of 
 nationalities, equality of rights, respect for treaties 
 and conventions, international arrangements for 
 securing permanent peace are as important for 
 Asia as for any other continent. But the respon- 
 sibility for adopting them, should the Japanese 
 democratic party prevail, and India and China 
 press their demands without violence, rests entirely 
 with Europe. The Asiatic nations are so far 
 threatening no legitimate European interest: they 
 ask only that the principles for which the Allies 
 justly claim they fought Germany should be ap- 
 plied in the most populous regions of the world. 
 But it is useless to disguise from ourselves that 
 this concession would involve 'of itself a complete 
 revolution in the East. For such policy honestly 
 applied would mean: (i) The emancipation of 
 India from foreign rule by peaceful agreements 
 with its numerous peoples. (2) The cessation of 
 attempts to force foreign capitalism and foreign 
 trade upon Asiatic countries. (3) The recognition 
 that Japanese and Chinese are entitled, in coun- 
 tries and colonies inhabited or controlled by Euro- 
 peans, to rights equal with those of Europeans in 
 China and Japan. (4) The granting of similar 
 rights to Indians on the same basis. (5) The 
 general acceptance by Europeans of the princi- 
 ple of 'Asia for the Asiatics' as a rightful claim. 
 But no student and no statesman would con- 
 tend that such a wide policy of justice can be 
 suddenly realised. Yet, if, in the near future, 
 public opinion in Europe and America were to 
 endorse such a programme, and the nations in- 
 
 terested would take the first steps towards its 
 realisation, much of the antagonism which is al- 
 ready manifesting itself in Asia might be removed. 
 Past injuries cannot now be remedied. The most 
 to hope for is that, in the Asiatic mind, they may 
 be held to balance those Eastern attacks upon the 
 West which belong to a past more remote." — 
 H. M. Hyndman, Awakening of Asia, pp. 275-2S2. 
 European influences on education, industry, 
 medicine, political movements, social reform 
 and ethical reform. — (i) Education. — "The edu- 
 cation which the Orient used to give to the favored 
 few had little relation to modern life or thought, 
 and nothing which fitted for leadership in conape- 
 tition with the West. The missionary was the 
 pioneer in introducing western education into the 
 East. Started by the missionary, the work has 
 now been taken up by the people in each country. 
 Under the lead of the British officials, India has 
 been given an educational system heading up in 
 five universities, which prescribe courses of study, 
 set examinations, and confer degrees, which are the 
 gateway through which the young men of India 
 pass into public or commercial life. . . . India con- 
 tains schools of every grade, from the kinder- 
 garten to the university, including technical and 
 professional schools. India is headed in the di- 
 rection of universal compulsory education, which 
 Ceylon has already, in theory at least, attained. 
 Japan has created within a few years a system of 
 education from the elementary schools, attendance 
 upon which is compulsory, up to the universities. 
 China has discarded entirely its centuries-old sys- 
 tem of examinations in the Chinese Classics, and 
 has provided on paper a comprehensive system of 
 universal education, which is gradually being put 
 into effect. Siam, too, has its schools which teach 
 western science and other western subjects. The 
 effect of this education is to break down old super- 
 stitions, broaden the vision, and bring the stu- 
 dents into touch with the life, thought, and ideals 
 of the West. All this is good, but there is an- 
 other side. The system of education is too ex- 
 clusively literary, as, apart from technical schools, 
 it all looks to preparation for university courses, 
 which are taken by a very small fraction of the 
 student body. The remainder get the idea that 
 they are above a life of productive activity in the 
 industrial world and must be clerks, teachers, or 
 officials. The supply of such candidates far ex- 
 ceeds the demand. Again, the education is too 
 western in its character and tends to unfit the stu- 
 dent for life and work among his own people. This 
 is especially true in India and Ceylon, where the 
 history and literature of Greece and Rome are 
 over emphasized as compared with the literature 
 and history of India. .\n extreme instance of this 
 occurred in Ceylon, where there is no local uni- 
 versity and English examinations are used. It was 
 only after a struggle that pupils were permitted 
 to offer themselves for examination upon the 
 botany of Ceylon and not upon the botany of 
 Great Britain. Instances are by no means rare of 
 students who cannot communicate with their par- 
 ents because they have lost their command of the 
 vernacular. The university men of India believe 
 that the political theories of the West cannot be 
 put into immediate operation among people whose 
 whole history and life have been along different 
 lines. Japan has solved this problem of adaptation 
 with tolerable success, and China believes in both 
 western and Chinese education, but the two are 
 not sufficiently welded. Again, the education is 
 apt to be superficial. This is true in India. Jap- 
 anese education is more comprehensive than 
 thorough, and few schools in China have compe- 
 tent teachers. Still more serious is the moral ef- 
 
 554
 
 ASIA 
 
 European Influences 
 
 ASIA 
 
 feet of this education. It breaks down the old 
 religious beliefs, the old standards and sanctions, 
 and it puts almost nothing in their place. The 
 teaching is for the most part agnostic, if not posi- 
 tively anti-religious, and pupils, in the life of 
 whose nation religion and ethics have played a 
 prominent part, cannot so easily and safely ad- 
 just themselves to the agnostic position as pupils 
 who have back of them generations of believers in 
 Christian standards of conduct. The moral waste 
 of the new education of the Orient is discourag- 
 ing. Men are cast adrift and have no way of 
 getting their bearings. 
 
 "2. Industry. — There are two phases in the in- 
 dustrial development of the East, the development 
 of means of communication — railroads, steamer 
 lines, telegraphs, and postal faciUties — and the 
 growth of the factory system. Much of the pro- 
 vincialism of India and China has been due to 
 isolation. The marvel is that there has been so 
 much intercommunication by foot and hy cart. 
 These barriers are now breaking down. The rail- 
 road, the telegraph, and the post-office have ex- 
 tended themselves all over India and Japan. In 
 Chma, the telegraph and the mail carrier are pene- 
 trating the most inaccessible parts of the empire, 
 and the railroad will soon bring the remotest prov- 
 inces within a few days' journey of the capital. 
 The effect of this is to break down caste in India 
 and provincialism in China, to unify the political 
 life of these countries, and, by greater centraliza- 
 tion of administration, to stop the graft and in- 
 justice of local officials. On the other hand, the 
 railroads and steamers are throwing into the ranks 
 of the unemployed of China thousands of coolies, 
 boatmen, carters, and innkeepers, whose occupation 
 has vanished. It is no longer possible in India to 
 isolate the effects of such calamities as famine and 
 pestilence. All parts now bear their share of the 
 burden, through the prevalence of famine prices 
 and the spread of contagion. Industrially, too, 
 there have been great changes. The factory sys- 
 tem is invading India, and the Indian artisans are 
 feeling the competition, not only of imported 
 goods, but also of the local factory-made product. 
 China is moving in the same direction. In weav- 
 ing, it is using a more efficient hand loom, while 
 at Hanyang, across the river from the Chicago of 
 China, Hankow, is an up-to-date steel plant, which 
 has even exported its products to the United 
 States. Japan is in the full swing of industrial de- 
 velopment along western lines. Its great industrial 
 plants closely resemble those of the United States. 
 All this gives promise of increasing wealth, higher 
 standards of living, greater comforts, and a richer 
 hfe. At the same time, it means that China, India, 
 and Japan are either facing or are already strug- 
 gling with all these phases — industrial, social, sani- 
 tary, and moral — of industrial centers with which 
 the West is far too familiar. It is a suggestive 
 fact that the slum problem has entered Asia 
 through following the example of the West. What 
 is worse is that these people do not have the high 
 western sense of the value of the life of the in- 
 dividual, and are, comparatively speaking, without 
 any restraining influence similar to our enlightened 
 public opinion, which has been aroused by the 
 struggles of a century of industrial strife. Unless 
 these elements can be suppUed, there is danger of 
 suffering and of abuses worse than any the West 
 has known. 
 
 "3. Medicine. — Within a generation, Japan has 
 created for herself a corps of competent physicians 
 and surgeons. She is also as rapidly as possible 
 applying the principles of sanitation to the prob- 
 lems of public health. In India, the British gov- 
 ernment recognizes the importance of medicine and 
 
 sanitation and there is a regular body of scientifi- 
 cally trained physicians throughout the country. 
 However, their number and their training are often 
 inferior, and the ignorance of the people and their 
 social customs make it impossible fully to relieve 
 suffering or to do more than reduce the ravages of 
 cholera and plague. China is practically without 
 competent physicians. Medical missionaries and 
 those trained by them have the field almost to 
 themselves, although now the government is aid- 
 ing and supporting medical schools. Those in a 
 position to judge afhrm that there is a greater 
 amount of unnecessary physical suffering in China 
 today than in any other part of the world. West- 
 ern medicine is now entering China, both helpfully 
 and otherwise, for China is now getting, not only 
 fully trained European and Chinese physicians, but 
 also charlatans, who pretend to a knowledge and 
 skill utterly foreign to them, and dealers in patent 
 medicines as well. In nearly every bazaar drugs 
 are sold to those who have no knowledge what- 
 ever of their proper use. The poster nuisance is 
 found in China and the most widely advertised 
 medicines are nostrums for the diseases of vice. 
 [See also Medical science: China.] 
 
 "4. Political movements. — In the sphere of gov- 
 ernment the most significant change is the growth 
 of the nationalistic spirit. The day when the West 
 could dominate and control with arrogance the 
 great peoples of Asia has passed. Japan has al- 
 ways possessed a spirit of proud independence, and 
 ever since she emerged from her isolation she has 
 bent every effort to secure recognition as the peer 
 of any western power. The same purpose is back 
 of the political and social development of China. 
 China is proud of her ancient civilization and of 
 the fact that she has gone serenely on her way 
 during the rise and fall of the successive empires of 
 the West. She is firmly resolved to end forever 
 the day when the young western nations can bully 
 and despoil her. The provincial spirit is growing 
 into a national spirit and China is resolved, at the 
 earliest possible day, to make herself strong enough 
 to control China for the Chinese. Into the ques- 
 tion of the unrest of India, which has voiced 
 itself in protests and in bombs, we cannot enter. 
 Suffice to say that leaders who have been trained 
 and educated by Britain and have been taught the 
 poUtical philosophy of the western nations are de- 
 manding a greater control over their own affairs, 
 either as a member of the British Empire or as 
 an independent people. . . . 
 
 "S- Social reform. — The oriental social reformer 
 has been very active in recent years. In India, his 
 agitation has chiefly concerned the two great in- 
 stitutions of caste and the family. The minute 
 subdivision of the people of India into hundreds 
 or even thousands of endogamous subdivisions, 
 many of which have but a comparatively small 
 membership, has resulted in an interbreeding which 
 has reduced the virility of the race. Caste is an 
 almost insurmountable barrier to the creation of a 
 true public spirit or to hearty cooperation be- 
 tween the sections of society. The range of sym- 
 pathy is narrowed, as a member of one caste has 
 no feeling of obligation to assist a member of an- 
 other caste. Millions, who are below even the 
 lowest of castes, are condemned by the caste sys- 
 tem to an existence which is too often unworthy 
 of a human being and with no possibility of relief. 
 Closely connected with the caste system is the in- 
 stitution of child marriage, which has made pres- 
 ent-day India the offspring of children, which puts 
 on mere boys and girls the responsibilities of mar- 
 riage, saps the vitality and ambition of the boy 
 fathers, and prevents the education of the girl 
 mothers. Racial deterioration and physical suf- 
 
 555
 
 ASIA 
 
 European Influences 
 
 ASIA 
 
 fering are other results of the prevailing marriage 
 customs, while the position of widows and the 
 joint-family system bring in their turn evils all 
 their own. AH these evils are fully recognized 
 by the leaders of the social-reform movement and 
 one can read such condemnations by them of these 
 customs as no foreigner would dare to make. 
 Progress had been made, caste is in many respects 
 disintegrating, and the agitation for raising the 
 marriage age of girls, for the remarriage of wid- 
 ows, especially child widows, and for intercaste 
 marriages has not been without results, some of 
 which are seen on the statute book. At the same 
 time, the present nationalistic movement tends 
 strongly toward a reactionary clinging to those insti- 
 tutions which are peculiarly Indian, and the agita- 
 tors are stronger in talking than in acting. . . . One 
 of the social reforms most agitated in China is the 
 natural-foot movement. So rapidly is this spread- 
 ing, that the time may not be far distant when 
 no girl in China will undergo the physical suf- 
 fering, with its resulting disabilities, which come? 
 from binding the feet. These movements mean also 
 that woman is coming to her own. While, as has 
 already been said, she has never been without her 
 influence, yet she has too often been denied educa- 
 tion and freedom to develop her own individu- 
 ality. In India, the government, and the Chris- 
 tian, Moslem, and Hindu communities are now all 
 providing schools for girls, and educated young 
 men are demanding educated wives, who can be 
 real companions in their intellectual life and social 
 work, as well as the mothers of their children. 
 There is already a new woman in China, but, like 
 all other pioneers, she tends to go to the extreme, 
 and these new women are not always models 
 Many of them are too bold, openly and brazenly 
 defy all conventions of Chinese society, and do not 
 always know where liberty ends and license be- 
 gins. . . . 
 
 "6. Ethical reform. — The ethical standards of 
 the Orient have changed greatly under western in- 
 fluence. It must be confessed at the outset that 
 all western mfluence has not been ethically help- 
 ful. The moral conditions of the port cities are a 
 disgrace to that western civilization upon the rep- 
 resentatives of which the chief responsibility rests 
 There can be found in the bookstalls of Japan and 
 Korea pictures and postcards of a sort all too 
 familiar to us of the West, but which formerly 
 Japan would never have tolerated outside of a 
 brothel. Nearly every nation has its into.xicating 
 beverages, but these are usually less injurious 
 physically and morally than the strongest western 
 liquors, which have been introduced into the 
 Orient by westerners, and which those who imitate 
 the foreigners are beginning to use, often to excess. 
 Westerners are trying to drive out of China the 
 Chinese pipe, which is used almost universally, 
 and to substitute the cigarette. The effect is 
 physically harmful and at the same time impover- 
 ishing, a week's or at least a month's supply of 
 cigarettes costing nearly as much as a year's sup- 
 ply of tobacco for the Chinese pipe. On the other 
 hand, it is undeniable that there has been 
 a great ethical revival throughout the great 
 nations of Asia. India has been going through 
 a process of Louse-cleaning and the immorali- 
 ties connected with religious ceremonies are be- 
 ing reduced. Teachers devise sports to prevent 
 their pupils from sharing in the ribaldry, if not 
 shameless indecencies, connected with the great 
 festival of Holt. . . . Many temple cars, with iheir 
 obscene carvings, are now kept under cover when 
 not in actual use. The marriage of girls to the 
 gods an(f their condemnation to a life of prosti- 
 tution is now under the ban. China is in the midst 
 
 of its great anti-opium crusade, and it looks as 
 if, within a reasonable time, the world would wit- 
 ness, for the first time, the spectacle of a great 
 nation curing itself of a habit which was tending 
 to ruin it physically and ethically. Ethical stand- 
 ards in Japan have been raised, although there are 
 many discouraging features in the life of present- 
 day Japan. But note this, the whole tone of pres- 
 ent-day literature, including magazines and peri- 
 odicals, is no longer Buddhistic but Christian. Ja- 
 pan means so to readjust her customs and stand- 
 ards that no western people can point at her a 
 finger of scorn. In this whole matter of ethical 
 reform, the chief difficulty is in the character of 
 the leaders, some of whom are themselves faithless 
 to the new standards. In other words, the great- 
 est need of the Orient today is for a larger num- 
 ber of intelligent leaders, unselfish and ethically 
 sound, and for the spread of a spirit of enlightened 
 progress through the ranks of the common people." 
 — E. VJ. Capen. Sociological appraisal of western 
 influence in the Orient (.American Journal of 
 .Sociology, May. iQii. pp. 738-745). 
 
 Chronology of the chief events in Asiatic his- 
 tory. — It is among the Asiatics that we find the 
 earliest known stratum of population, such as some 
 of tribes of China and the Malay Archipelago, the 
 V'eddahs of Ceylon and the .Ainus of Japan; but. 
 outside of Babylonia and .As.syria. the authentic 
 history of .^sia does not date back of 1500 B. C 
 
 B. C. 4500-2000.— Babylonia, the ruling power 
 in .Xsia. See B.abyloxw. 
 
 B. C. 1500. — Chinese advance along the Hwang 
 Ho; entrance of Aryans into India from the north- 
 west. 
 
 B. C. 1450-1300.— Height of Hittite power in 
 Asia Minor ,ind Syria. See Hittites 
 
 B. C. 10th century. — Jewish kingdom at its 
 height, overcome by the .Assyrians. See .\ssvRi.*: 
 Assyrian empire. 
 
 B. C. 9th-8th centuries. — Assyria chief power 
 in western .Asia. See .'\ssvRW 
 
 B. C. 6th-5th centuries. — Rise of the Asiatic 
 empire of Cyrus and its conflicts with the earliest 
 European civilization (Greek) See Persi.'V: B C. 
 
 S4Q-52I- 
 
 B. C. 4th century. — .Alexander's conquest of 
 western asia to the Indus river; marked influence 
 of Greeco-Persian civilization on India and Asia 
 Minor. See IxriiA: B.C. 327-312; Macedonia; 
 B.C 334-330; B.C. 330-3^3- 
 
 B. C. 264-227. — Empire of Asoka in India from 
 Afghanistan to Madras. See India: B.C. 312. 
 
 B. C. 250-A. D. 227.— Rule of the Parthians 
 over Western .Asia. See Parthia, and the Par- 
 thian EMPIRE. 
 
 B. C. 200-A. D. 1127.— China a great Asiatic 
 power under the Han, T'ang and Sung dynasties. 
 See China: Origin, etc. 
 
 B. C. 2nd century-A. D. 5th century.— Con- 
 quest of the Romans over Hellenistic kingdoms of 
 .Alexander; conflicts with rebellious Asiatic Mon- 
 archs. See Rome; Republic; B.C. 211-202, to 
 Rome: Empire; 404-408; Seleiioid.*;: B.C. 224- 
 187. 
 
 A. D.- 3rd century-7th century. — Sassanids rule 
 
 Persia and western .Asia as the Roman power 
 
 declines See Persia: B.C. 150-A. D. 220; 220-627. 
 
 4th-6th centuries. — Invasion of Europe by Huns. 
 
 Bulgarians and .Avars. See .Avars; Huns. 
 
 7th century. — Conquest by Mohammedans of 
 many of the .Asiatic provinces under the Eastern 
 Roman empire (Byzantine). See Caliphate: 632- 
 630, to 680, 
 
 7th-15th centuries. — .Arabia a prominent Asiatic 
 state as the center of Mohammedan power; Arabs 
 
 556
 
 ASIA 
 
 ASIA MINOR 
 
 in contact with Europe in Spain. See Arabia; 
 Spain: 711-713, to 1031-1086. 
 
 8th century. — India invaded by the Moslems. 
 
 lOth-llth centuries. — Seljuk Turlcs in Persia, 
 Asia Minor and Palestine; Hindus in Indo China, 
 later in Malaysia. See Turkey: 999-1183, to 1092- 
 1160. 
 
 1096-1272. — Crusades last medieval struggle be- 
 tween Europe and Asia ; power of Mohammedan 
 state in southwest Asia cut off the western world 
 from Asia and deprived Europe of knowledge of 
 .\sia. See Crusades. 
 
 1162-1227. — Rise of Mongol power under Jenghis 
 Khan and its spread to the borders of Europe; 
 Tibet nominally under the suzerainty of Jenghis 
 Khan; spread of the Chinese to Siam. See Mon- 
 golia: 1153-1227. 
 
 13th century. — The thirteenth century was 
 marked by the power of the Mongol descendants 
 of Jenghis Khan, and the conquests of Timur. See 
 Mongolia: 1229-1294; 1238-1391. 
 
 1241. — Russia invaded by Batu and the Golden 
 Horde; Silesia entered. See Russia: 1237-1294. 
 
 1259. — Kublai Khan, grandson of Jenghis, came 
 into possession of China, Korea, Mongolia, Man- 
 churia and Tibet; attempted to invade Japan 
 (which has never been invaded) but was re- 
 pulsed. See Mongolia: 1229-1294. 
 
 1281. — Argun who came into possession of the 
 Mongolian dominions in Persia, Georgia, Armenia, 
 Khorosan, etc., opened up diplomatic relations with 
 Europe and proposed an alliance against the Mo- 
 hammedan powers. 
 
 1299-1326.— Growing power of the Ottoman 
 Turks within the confines of the Byzantine Empire. 
 See Turkey: 1240-1326. 
 
 14th century. — Ming dynasty in China gained 
 control and ruled 300 years; sent out far-reaching 
 expeditions into neighboring states and Pacific 
 islands; Ottoman Turks a menace to Europe. See 
 China: i 294-1 736. 
 
 1453. — Ottoman Turks enter Europe. See Con- 
 stantinople: 1453. 
 
 Early 16th century.— Portuguese established fac- 
 tories at Goa and Macao ; built up a littoral em- 
 pire on coasts of India and China; traded with 
 Japan. See Commerce: Era of geographic expan- 
 sion: I5th-i7th centuries. 
 
 16th century. — Rise of modern European pow- 
 ers and their commercial explorations brought Eu- 
 rope into contact with Asia. See Commerce; Era 
 of geographic expansion. 
 
 1526-1707. — Mogul domination in India; came 
 from Transoxiana and seized Delhi; lasted nomi- 
 nally to the mutiny of 1857. See India: 1399-1605, 
 to 1747-1761. 
 
 Later 16th century.— Dutch in the Indian Ocean 
 and Pacific (India, East Indies and China). See 
 Netherlands: 1594-1620. 
 
 1565. — Philippines taken by Spain. See Phil- 
 ippine Islands: 1564-1572. 
 
 1580. — Siberia invaded by Russians under the 
 Cossack Yermak. See Siberia: 1578-1890. 
 
 1592. — Korea taken by Japan. See Japan: boo- 
 1853- 
 
 1603-1868. — No foreign contact with Japan ex- 
 cept through Dutch under restrictions. See Japan: 
 1542-1,593; 1593-1625. 
 
 1627. — Manchus capture Korea. See Korea. 
 
 1644-1912. — Manchus overcame the Mings; ruled 
 China to the Revolution of 1912. See China: 1662- 
 1838, to 1912. 
 
 17th century.— Rivalry of the Dutch and Eng- 
 lish for possession of India; English successful. See 
 India: 1600-1702. 
 
 1745-1761.— Wars between French and English 
 
 for possession of India; English successful. See In- 
 dia: 1743-1752. 
 
 1840-1842.— English forced China to open her 
 ports to trade. See China: 1839-1844. 
 
 1854-1859. — Japan opened to European trade; 
 Japanese set themselves to assimilate Western civ- 
 ilization. See Japan: 1797-1854. 
 
 1895. — China defeated by Japan ; Korea taken. 
 See China: 1894-1895. 
 
 1905. — Russia defeated by Japan; first instance 
 in modern history where an Asiatic power has 
 competed on equal terms with a European power. 
 See Japan: 1902-1905; 1905-1914. 
 
 For a detailed treatment of the historical de- 
 velopment of the various countries in .\sia, see 
 under names of countries, e.g., China, India, etc. 
 
 Also in: N. Prjevalski, Explorations in Asia. — R. 
 Temple, Central plateau oj Asia.—]. T. Walker, 
 Asiatic explorers of the Indian survey.— S. Beal, 
 Buddhist records of the western world. — C. 
 Doughty, Travels in Arabia Deserta. — A. Carey, 
 Explorations in Turkestan. — C. Yate, Northern 
 Afghanistan. — F. Younghusband, Heart of a con- 
 tinent; Journey through Manchuria. — W. W. 
 Rockhill, Land of the Lamas. — N. Elias and Ross, 
 History of the Moguls of Central Asia.—S. Hedin, 
 Central Asia and Tibet. — P. M. Sykes, Ten thou- 
 sand miles in Persia. — W. Hunter, History of Brit- 
 ish India. — A. Little, Far East. — A. Durand, Making 
 a frontier. — C. McL. Andrews, Contemporary 
 Asia and Africa. — G. N. Curzon, Problems of the 
 Far East. — H. Norman, Peoples and politics of the 
 Far East. — h.. R. Colquhoun, Russia against India. 
 —A. T. Mahan, Problem of Asia.—U. G. Wells, 
 Outline of History. 
 
 ASIA, Eastern. — Common elements in myth- 
 ology. Sec Mythology: Eastern Asia: Indian and 
 Chinese influences. 
 
 ASIA, Masonic societies in. See Masonic so- 
 cieties: .^sia, Persia and India. 
 
 ASIA, Roman province (so called). — "As 
 originally constituted, it corresponded to the do- 
 minions of the kings of Pergamus . . . left by the 
 will of .'\ttalus III to the Roman people 133 B. C. 
 ... It included the whole of Mysia and Lydia, 
 with .^iolis, Ionia and Caria, except a small part 
 which was subject to Rhodes, and the greater 
 part, if not the whole, of Phrygian A portion 
 of the last region, however, was detached from 
 it." — E. H. Bunbury, History of ancient geography, 
 ch. 20, sect. I. — See also Cilicia. 
 
 ASIA MINOR: Name.— Geographical and 
 physical characteristics. — "The name of Asia 
 Minor, so famihar to the student of ancient geog- 
 raphy, was not in use either among Greek or Ro- 
 man writers until a very late period. Orosius, who 
 wrote in the fifth century after the Christian era, is 
 the first extant writer who employs the term in its 
 modern sense." — E. H. Bunbury, History of an- 
 cient geography, ch. 7, sect. 2. — The name Anatolia, 
 which is of Greek origin, synonymous with "The 
 Levant," signifying "The Sunrise," came into use 
 among the Byzantines, about the loth century, 
 and was adopted by their successors, the Turks. 
 — "The western portion of Asia Minor was known 
 in the lime of the Byzantine Empire, as Anatolia 
 (the land of 'the rising sun'), and the term was 
 used to distinguish the peninsular portion of Asia 
 from continental Asia. From East to West paral- 
 lel with the Black Sea and the Mediterranean 
 run two ranges of mountains at no great dis- 
 tance from the seas. Between them lies the 
 great elevated table-land plateau from 2,500 to 
 4,500 feet high, broken up by other mountains 
 which give a peculiar character to the whole 
 country, making it difficult of access, and tend- 
 ing to keep it what it has been from the very 
 
 557
 
 ASIA MINOR, B. C. 1500-1400 
 
 ASIA MINOR, B. C. 1100 
 
 dawn of history, a pastoral country, inhabited by 
 a people in the main nomad, lawless, and in- 
 tractable. The southernmost range of mountains 
 are known as the Taurus and the Anti-Taurus, 
 of which the highest point is the Akjah-Dagh 
 (11,000 feet). Till very recent times, these moun- 
 tains and the country generally were little known. 
 They form the south and south-west boundary 
 of the six Vilayets or provinces which are known 
 as Armenia, and it is in their most northerly 
 reaches that the great rivers Euphrates and Tigris 
 take their rise. 'Both branches of the Eu- 
 phrates,' says Lynch, 'wind their way by immense 
 stages at the foot of thesa mountains, in the lap 
 of these plains; the eastern branch, called Murad 
 Su, rising . . . near the base of the Ararat sys- 
 tem, and traversing Armenia almost from one 
 extremity to the other. The more westerly chan- 
 nel is composed in its infancy by two streams 
 . . . one . . . flowing sluggishly through the plain 
 of Erzeroura; the other springing in the neigh- 
 bourhood of the sources of the Chorokh. The 
 Kelkid and Chorokh are both in their upper 
 courses typical Armenian rivers. What a con- 
 trast,' he concludes, 'between this wealth of wa- 
 ter, many of which might be rendered navigable, 
 and the hopeless sterility of great parts of Persia, 
 from which no river finds its way to the ocean!' 
 
 "It is the mountain systems and the numerous 
 and fertilising rivers which give to Asia Minor 
 its striking beauty, its salubriousness, its wealth, 
 and its extraordinary economic promise. 'There 
 is nothing needed,' Lynch declares, 'but less per- 
 versity on the part of the human animal to 
 convert Armenia into an almost ideal nursery of 
 his race. The strong highland air, the rigorous 
 but bracing winters, and the summers when the 
 nights are always cool; a southern sun, great 
 rivers, immense tracts of agricultural soil, an 
 abundance of minerals — such blessings and subtle 
 properties are calculated to develop the fibre in 
 man, foster with material sufficiency the growth 
 of his winged mind and cause it to expand like 
 a flower in a generous light. One feels that for 
 various reasons outside inherent qualities, this 
 land has never enjoyed at any period of history 
 the fulness of opportunity. And one awaits her 
 future with expectant interest.' The country 
 which is known as Armenia lies in the extreme 
 east of the peninsula, south of the Black Sea 
 and of the Caucasus." — VV. L. Williams, Armenia, 
 past and present, pp. 4-6. — See also Asia: Influ- 
 ence of geography on the political problems ; Tur- 
 key: Map of Asia Minor. 
 
 Earlier kingdoms and people. See Phrygians 
 AND MvsiANs; Lydians; Carians; Lycians; 
 
 BiTHYNIANS; PaPHLAGONIANS ; MlTHRADATIC WARS; 
 
 Isaurians; Galatia, Galatians; Lucians; Troy; 
 Dorians and Ionians; etc. 
 
 B. C. 1500-1400. — Relations with Egypt. See 
 Egypt: About B.C. 1500-1400. 
 
 B.C. 1100. — Greek colonies. — "The tumult . . . 
 caused by the irruption of the Thesprotians into 
 Thessaly and the displacement of the population 
 of Greece [see Greece: Migrations to .^sia Minor 
 and islands of the ^^gean] did not subside within 
 the limits of the peninsula. From the north 
 and the south those inhabitants who were unable 
 to maintain their ground against the incursions 
 of the Thessalians, Arnaeans, or Dorians, and pre- 
 ferred exile to submission, sought new homes in 
 the islands of the /Egean and on the western 
 coast of Asia Minor. The migrations continued 
 for several generations. When at length they 
 came to an end, and the Anatolian coast from 
 Mount Ida to the Triopian headland, with the 
 adjacent islands, was in the possession of the 
 
 Greeks, three great divisions or tribes were dis- 
 tinguished in the new settlements: Dorians, Ioni- 
 ans, and Aeolians. In spite of the presence of 
 some alien elements, the Dorians and Ionians of 
 Asia Minor were the same tribes as the Dorians 
 and Ionians of Greece. The Aeolians, on the 
 other hand, were a composite tribe, as their name 
 implies. ... Of these three divisions the Aeolians 
 lay farthest to the north. The precise Umits 
 of their territory were differently fixed by differ- 
 ent authorities. . . . The Aeolic cities fell into 
 two groups: a northern, of which Lesbos was 
 the centre, and a southern, composed of the 
 cities in the immediate neighbourhood of the 
 Hermus, and founded from Cyme. . . . The north- 
 ern group included the islands of Tenedos and 
 Lesbos. In the latter there were originally six 
 cities: Methymna, Mytilene, Pyrrha, Eresus, 
 Arisba, and Antissa, but Arisba was subsequently 
 conquered and enslaved by Mytilene. . . . The 
 second great stream of migration proceeded from 
 Athens [after the death of Codrus — according to 
 Greek tradition, the younger sons of Codrus lead- 
 ing these Ionian colonists across the ^gean, first 
 to the Carian city of Miletus — [see Miletus] — 
 which they captured, and then to the conquest 
 of Ephesus and the island of Samos]. . . . The 
 colonies spread until a dodecapolis was estab- 
 lished, similar to the union which the Ionians 
 had founded in their old settlements on the north- 
 ern shore of Peloponnesus. In some cities the 
 Ionian population formed a minority. . . . The 
 colonisation of Ionia was undoubtedly, in the 
 main, an achievement of emigrants from Attica, 
 but it was not accomplished by a single family, 
 or in the space of one life-time. . . . The two 
 most famous of the Ionian cities were Miletus and 
 Ephesus. The first was a Carian city previously 
 known as Anactoria. . . . Ephesus was originally 
 in the hands of the Lelcges and the Lydians, who 
 were driven out by the Ionians under Androclus. 
 The ancient sanctuary of the tutelary goddess of 
 the place was transformed by the Greeks into 
 a temple of Artemis, who was here worshipped as 
 the goddess of birth and productivity in accordance 
 with Oriental rather than Hellenic ideas." The 
 remaining Ionic cities and islands were Myus 
 (named from the mosquitoes which infested it, 
 and which finally drove the colony to abandon 
 it), Priene, Erythrae, Clazomenae, Teos, Phocaea, 
 Colophon, Lebedus, Samos and Chios. "Chios was 
 first inhabited by Cretans . . . and subsequently 
 by Carians. ... Of the manner in which Chios 
 became connected with the Ionians the Chians 
 could give no clear account. . . . The southern 
 part of the Anatolian coast, and the southern- 
 most islands in the ^-Egean were colonised by the 
 Dorians, who wrested them from the Phoenician 
 or Carian occupants. Of the islands, Crete is the 
 most important. . . . Crete was one of the old- 
 est centres of civilisation in the i^gean [see 
 Crete; and ^gean civilization]. . . . The Dor- 
 ian colony in Rhodes, like that in Crete, was 
 ascribed to the band which left Argos under 
 the command of Althaemenes. . . . Other islands 
 colonised by the Dorians were Thera, . . . Melos, 
 . . . Carpathus, Calydnae, Nisyrus, and Cos. . . . 
 From the islands, the Dorians spread to the main- 
 land. The peninsula of Cnidus was perhaps the 
 first settlement. . . . Halicarnassus was founded 
 from Troezen, and the Ionian element must have 
 been considerable. ... Of the Dorian cities, six 
 united in the common worship of Apollo on 
 the headland of Triopium. These were Lindus, 
 lalysus, and Camirus in Rhodes, Cos, and, on the 
 mainland, Halicarnassus and Cnidus. . . . The ter- 
 ritory which the Aeolians acquired is described 
 
 558
 
 ASIA MINOR, B. C. 724-539 
 
 ASIA MINOR, B. C. 192-189 
 
 by Herodotus as more fertile than that occupied 
 by the lonians, but of a less excellent climate. 
 It was inhabited by a number of tribes, among 
 Which the Troes or Teucri were the chief. . . . 
 In Homer the inhabitants of the city of the Troad 
 are Dardani or Troes, and the name Teucri does 
 not occur. In historical times the Gergithes, 
 who dwelt in the town of the same name . . . 
 near Lampsacus, and also formed the subject 
 population of Miletus, were the only remnants of 
 this once famous nation. But their former great- 
 ness was attested by the Homeric poems, and the 
 occurrence of the name Gergithians at various 
 places in the Troad [see Troy]. To this tribe 
 belonged the Troy of the Grecian epic, the site 
 of which, so far as it represents any historical 
 city, is fixed at Hissarlik. In the Iliad the 
 Trojan empire extends from the Aesepus to the 
 Caicus; it was divided — or, at least, later his- 
 torians speak of it as divided — into principali- 
 ties which recognised Priam as their chief. But 
 the Homeric descriptions of the city and its emi- 
 nence are not to be taken as historically true. 
 Whatever the power and civilisation of the 
 ancient stronghold exhumed by Dr. Schliemann 
 may have been, it was necessary for the epic 
 poet to represent Priam and his nation as a dan- 
 gerous rival in wealth and arms to the great 
 kings of Mycenae and Sparta. . . . The tradi- 
 tional dates fix these colonies [of the Greeks in 
 Asia Minor] in the generations which followed 
 the Trojan war. . . . We may suppose that the 
 colonisation of the JE^can and of Asia Minor by 
 the Greeks was coincident with the expulsion of 
 the Phoenicians. The greatest extension of the 
 Phoenician power in the ^^Lgean seems to fall in 
 the 15th century B.C. From the 13th it was 
 gradually on the decline, and the Greeks were 
 enabled to secure the trade for themselves. . . . 
 By HOC B.C. Asia Minor may have been in the 
 hands of the Greeks, though the Phoenicians 
 still maintained themselves in Rhodes and Cyprus. 
 But all attempts at chronology are illusory." — 
 E. Abbott, History of Greece, v. i, ch. 4.— See also 
 Miletus; Phoc.ians. 
 
 Also in: E. Curtius, History of Greece, bk. 2, 
 V. I, ch. 3. — G. Grote, History of Greece, pt. 2, 
 ch. 13-15. — J. A. Cramer, Geographical and his- 
 torical description of Asia Minor, v. i, sect. 6. 
 
 B. C. 724-539. — Prosperity of the Greek col- 
 onies.— Their submission to Croesus, king of 
 Lydia, and their conquest and annexation to 
 
 reduce these states were unavailing. At length 
 (Ol. SS) [568 B.C.] the celebrated Croesus 
 mounted the throne of Lydia, and he made all 
 Asia this side of the River Halys (Lycia and 
 Cilicia excepted) acknowledge his dominion. The 
 Aeolian, Ionian and Dorian cities of the coast 
 all paid him tribute ; but, according to the usual 
 rule of eastern conquerors, he meddled not with 
 their political institutions, and they might deem 
 themselves fortunate in being insured against war 
 by the payment of an annual sura of money. 
 Croesus, moreover, cultivated the friendship of 
 the European Greeks." But Crcrsus was over- 
 thrown, 554 B.C., by the conquering Cyrus and 
 his kingdom of Lydia was swallowed up in 
 the great Persian empire then taking form [see 
 Persia: B.C. 549-531] Cyrus, during his war 
 with Croesus, had tried to entice the lonians 
 away from the latter and win them to an alliance 
 with himself. But they incurred his resentment 
 by refusing. "They and the /^iolians now sent 
 ambassadors, praying to be received to submis- 
 sion on the same terms as those on which they 
 had obeyed the Lydian monarch; but the Mile- 
 sians alone found favour: the rest had to prepare 
 for war. They repaired the walls of their towns, 
 and sent to Sparta for aid. Aid, however, was 
 refused; but Cyrus, being called away by the 
 war with Babylon, neglected them for the pres- 
 ent. Three years afterwards (01. SQ. 2). Harpa- 
 gus, who had saved Cyrus in his infancy from 
 his grandfather Astyages, came as governor of 
 Lydia. He instantly prepared to reduce the 
 cities of the coast. Town after town submitted. 
 The Teians abandoned theirs, and retired to Abdera 
 in Thrace; the Phocsans, getting on shipboard, 
 and vowing never to return, sailed for Corsica, 
 and being there harassed by the Carthagenians and 
 Tyrrhenians, they went to Rhegion in Italy, and 
 at length founded Massalia (Marseilles) on the 
 coast of Gaul. The Grecian colonies thus became 
 a part of the Persian empire."— -T. Keightley, His- 
 tory of Greece, pt. i, ch. 9. 
 
 Also in: Herodotus, History (tr. and ed. by G. 
 Rawlinson), bk. i, and app.—M. Duncker, His- 
 torv of antiquilv, bk. 8, v. 6, ch. 6-7. 
 
 B. C. 501-493. — The Ionian revolt and us 
 suppressions. See Persia: B. C. 521-493- 
 
 B. C. 477.— Formation of Confederacy or 
 Delos. See Greece: B. C. 478-477- 
 
 B. C. 413. — Tribute again demanded from the 
 Greeks by the Persian king.— Conspiracy 
 
 the Persian empire.— "The Grecian colonies on aeainst Athens. See Greece: B. C. 413 
 
 the coast of Asia early rose to wealth by means 
 of trade and manufactures. Though we have not 
 the means of tracing their commerce, we know 
 that it was considerable, with the mother coun- 
 try, with Italy, and at length Spain, with Phoenicia 
 and the interior of Asia, whence the productions 
 
 B. C. 413-412.— Revolt of the Greek cities 
 from Athens.— Intrigues of Alcibiades. See 
 Greece: B. C. 413-412. . 
 
 B. C. 412.— Re-submission to Persia. See Per- 
 sia: B. C. 486-405. 
 
 B. C. 401-400. — Expedition of Cyrus the 
 
 of India passed to Greece. The Milesians, who youneer and retreat of the Ten Thousand. See 
 
 had fine woolen manufactures, extended their com 
 merce to the Euxine, on all sides of which they 
 founded factories, and exchanged their manu- 
 factures and other goods with the Scythians and 
 the neighbouring peoples, for slaves, wool, raw 
 hides, bees-wax, flax, hemp, pitch, etc. There 
 is even reason to suppose that, by means of 
 caravans, their traders bartered their wares not 
 far from the confines of China [see Miletus]. . . . 
 But while they were advancing in wealth and pros- 
 perity, a powerful monarchy formed itself in 
 Lydia, of which the capital was Sardes, a city 
 at the foot of Mount Tmolus." Gygcs, the first 
 of the Mermnad dynasty of Lydian kings (see 
 Lydians), whose reign is supposed to have begun 
 about 724 B. C, "turned his arms against the 
 Ionian cities on the coast. During a century and 
 a half the efforts of the Lydian monarchs to 
 
 Persia: B. C. 401-400. 
 
 B. C. 399-387. — Spartan war with Persia on 
 behalf of the Greek cities.— Their abandonment 
 by the Peace of Antalcidas. See Greece: B. C. 
 399-387. 
 
 B. C. 363. — Mithradatic wars. — Kingdom of 
 Pontus. See Mithradatic wars. 
 
 B. C. 334. — Conquest by Alexander the Great. 
 See MACEnoNiA: B. C. 334-330. 
 
 B. C. 301. — Largely annexed to the Thracian 
 kingdom of Lysimachus. See Macedonia, &c.: 
 B. C. 310-301. 
 
 B. C. 281-224. — Battle-ground of the warring 
 monarchies of Syria and Egypt.— Changes of 
 masters. See Seleucid.«. 
 
 B. C. 192-189. — Conquest by Rome. See Rome: 
 Republic: B. C. 192-189- 
 
 559
 
 ASIA MINOR, B.C. 191 
 
 B C. 191.— First entrance of the Romans.— 
 Their defeat of Antiochus the Great.— Their ex- 
 pansion of the kingdom of Pergamum and the 
 republic of Rhodes. See Seleucid.e: B. C. 224- 
 18? 
 
 B. C. 133. — Further conquest by Rome. See 
 Rome: Republic: B. C 171-167. 
 
 B C 120-65.— Mithradates.— Complete Ro- 
 man conquests. See Mithrad.^tic Wars; and 
 Rome: Republic: B. C. 78-68. 60-63. 
 
 A D. 33-52.— Rise of Christian churches.— 
 Paul's teachings. See Christianity: .\.T>. 33-S2; 
 
 ^^29°!— Diocletian's seat of empire established 
 at Nicomedia. See Rome: Empire: 284-305. 
 
 602-628.— Persian invasions.— Deliverance by 
 Heraclius. See Rome: Medieval City: 565-628^ 
 
 1063- 1092.— Conquest and ruin by the 6el]UK 
 Turks See Turkey: 1063-1073; 1073-10Q2. 
 
 1097-1149— Wars of the Crusaders. See Cru- 
 sades: 10Q6-10Q9; 1147-1149; and Military aspect 
 of the crusades. _ 
 
 1204-1261.— Empire of Nicaa and the empire 
 of Trebizond. See Nic.?:a, Greek empire of. 
 
 1261-1453.— Abandoned to Turks. See Con- 
 stantinople: 1261-1453- 
 
 1453-1878. — Turkish control in Armenia. — 
 Capture of Trebizond. See .\rmenia: 1453- 
 
 1878 
 1481-1520.— Conquest of Mameluke sultans by 
 
 Turkey. See Turkey: 1481-1520- 
 
 1623-1640. — Persian war with Turkey. — Ar- 
 menia subjugated by Persia and regained by 
 Turkey. See Turkey: 1623-1640. 
 
 1831-1840.— Siege and capture of Acre by Me- 
 hemet Ali. See Turkey: 1831-1840. 
 
 1890-1893.— Armenian troubles with Turkey. 
 See Turkey: 1800-1893. 
 
 1894-1895.— Armenian massacres by Turkey. 
 See Turkey: 1804-1805. 
 
 1896 (August), and 1899 (October).— Ar- 
 menian and Turkish troubles. See Turkey: 
 i8q6 (.\uKUSt); and iSgq (October). 
 
 1899-1916. — German interests.— Berlin to Bag- 
 dad railway. See Bagdad Railway; Germany: 
 iqi2: Balkan and Asia Minor interests; Turkey: 
 1QIS-IQ16; World War: Diplomatic background: 
 
 71, xvi. . 
 
 1903-1904.— Incursions of Armenian revolu- 
 tionists into Asiatic Turkey. See Turkey: 1903- 
 1Q04. 
 
 1903-1907. — Revolutionary plan of Young 
 Turks and cooperation with Armenians. See 
 Turkey: 1Q03-1Q07. 
 
 1909. — Massacre of Armenians in Adana. See 
 Turkey: igoq. 
 
 1914-1918. — Dardanelles campaign in the 
 World War. See Bosporus: 1914-1918. 
 
 1915-1916. — Turkish interests. See Turkey: 
 
 I9I5-I9I6. . . o C 
 
 1919. — Greek occupation of Smyrna. aee 
 Greece: 1919. 
 
 1919.— Revolt stirred up by Kemal Pasha. See 
 Sevres, treaty or: 1920; Contents of treaty. 
 
 1919-1920. — Interests of Russia and Turkey in 
 Armenia.— President Wilson's attitude on 
 boundary dispute. See Armenia: igiq-iqio; 
 1920. 
 
 1920.— Treaty of England, France and Italy 
 regarding Anatolia. See Sevres, treaty of: 1920 
 (August 10). 
 
 1920.— Italy's interest. See Italy: 1920. 
 
 1920. — French mandate for Syria. See Syria: 
 1908-1921. 
 
 1920-1921. — War between Turkish National- 
 ists and Greece over provisions of Treaty of 
 
 ASPERN 
 
 Sevres. See Sevres, Treaty of: 1921: Near East 
 conference; Greece: 1020; 192 1. 
 
 1921.— Negotiations of Turkey and Italy re- 
 garding Anatolia. See Sevres, treaty of: 1921; 
 Italv's pact with Kemalist Turks. 
 
 ASIAGO, a town of Italy, province of Vicenza, 
 chief place of the district known as "The Seven 
 Communes" (sette communi) ; the population 
 is largelv of German descent. The town gives 
 its name to the high ground in the neighbor- 
 hood and the .^siago plateau was the theater of 
 some of the niost si:vere fighting on the .\u5tro- 
 Italian front in the World War. See World War: 
 1916: IV. .\u5tro-Italian front: b, 2; b, 4; 1917: 
 IV. ,\ustro-Italian front: b; d; e; e, 7; 1918: 
 IV .\ustro-Italian theater: b, 1; b, 6; c, 2; c, 8. 
 
 ASIATIC EXCLUSION LEAGUE (1005), 
 California. See California: 1900-1020. 
 
 ASIATIC IMMIGRATION: Resistance to it 
 in South Africa, Australia, America, and else- 
 where. See R.\CE problems; and Immigration 
 and Emigration: Australia: 1909-1921; Canada: 
 1020; and United States: 1862-1913; Labor legis- 
 lation: 1864-1020. 
 
 ASIENTO, or Assiento, a Spanish word 
 meaning contract; applied specifically to agree- 
 ments made by Spain giving subjects of other 
 powers the exclusive privilege of furnishing negro 
 slaves and a limited quantity of manufactured 
 goods to the Spanish colonies in America. The 
 Asiento treaty of 1713 was one of the conventions 
 of the Peace' of Utrecht and gave the monopoly 
 to the English for thirty years. See Aix-la- 
 Ciiapelle, " Congress of; Engl.and: i739- 
 1741; Georgia: 1738-1743; Slavery: 1698-1776; 
 Utrecht: 1712-1714. 
 
 ASIENTO TREATY: Relation to slave 
 trade. See America: i 720-1 744- 
 
 ASINELLO ISLAND, North Adriatic, prom- 
 ised to Italy by Treaty of London (1915)- See 
 London, Treaty- or Pact of. 
 
 ASIR. See Arabia: Political divisions; also 
 
 Map. , 
 
 ASKARIS V'asker". Turkish word for sol- 
 dier"), native East African troops in German service 
 during the World War. 
 
 ASKE, Robert, executed iS37; leader ot the 
 Yorkshire insurrection called the "Pilgrimage of 
 Grace." 
 ASKELON. SeeAscALON; Philistines. 
 ASKLEPIADS. See Asclepiad.e. 
 ASMONEANS. See Jews: B. C. 166-40. 
 ASOKA, emperor of India, 294-227 B.C. He 
 is famous as the great patron of Buddhism. He 
 convoked great councils for the establishment of 
 the unity of the faith, and made Buddhism the 
 state religion— See also Buddha; Buddhism: 
 Early spread of teaching; India: B.C. 312. 
 
 King of Magadha. — Introduction of Buddhism 
 to Ceylon. Sec Ceylon: Earliest history. 
 
 ASOKAN (Ashokan) RESERVOIR. See 
 .\queducts. 
 
 ASOLONE, Mount, the scene during the World 
 War of a protracted struggle on the .\ustro- 
 Italian front between the Piave and Brenta rivers. 
 See World W.\r: 1918: IV. .\ustro-Italian theater: 
 c, 3; c, 5. 
 ASOV. See Azov. 
 
 ASPASIA, born 440 B.C.; celebrated mistress 
 of Pericles; her house became the center of liter- 
 ary and philosophical society of Athens; the 
 Samian and Peloponnesian wars are ascribed in 
 part to her influence. 
 
 ASPERN, a village in Austria, on the left 
 bank of the Danube, five miles northeast of 
 Vienna; in the summer of 1809, the scene of the 
 defeat of the French army under Napoleon I by 
 
 560
 
 ASPHYXIATING GASES 
 
 ASSASSINATIONS 
 
 the Austrians under Archduke Charles in battle 
 of Aspern-Essling (or the Marchfeld). See Ger- 
 many: 1809 (Januarv-Tune). 
 
 ASPHYXIATING AND POISONOUS 
 GASES AND SHELLS IN WARFARE. See 
 Poison gas. 
 
 ASPROMONTE, Defeat of Garibaldi at 
 (1862). See Italy: 1862-1866. 
 
 ASPROPOTAMO, modern name for Achelous. 
 See Achelous. 
 
 ASQUITH, Herbert Henry (1852- ), British 
 statesman. Home secretary in Gladstone's last 
 ministry, 1892-1804, and Rosebery's ministry, 1894- 
 1895; chancellor of the exchequer, 1905-1908; 
 prime minister, 1008-1916; in 1915 he formed a 
 coalition cabinet, but was forced to resign in 
 favor of David Lloyd George in December, 1916. 
 — See also England: 1008 (April) ; 191 6 (Decem- 
 ber) ; Ireland: 1914-1916; and Liberal party: 
 1906-1918; War, Preparation for: 1909; British 
 navy war council. 
 
 Hia surroundings and life. See World War: 
 Diplomatic background,: 71, xxi. 
 
 On the importance of the Defense Committee. 
 See War, Preparation for: 1907-1909: British 
 army reorganization. 
 
 On the rejection of the licensing bill by the 
 House of Lords. See Liqltor Problem: England: 
 1908. 
 
 On the budget of 1909. See England: 1909 
 (April-Dec). 
 
 Dreadnaught debate for 1909. See War, Prep- 
 aration for: 1000-1913. 
 
 His speech at the Imperial press conference. 
 See British Empire: Colonial and Imperial con- 
 ference: igog (June). 
 
 Desires for reform in Suffrage. See Suffrage, 
 Manhood: British Empire: 1910-1918; Suffrage, 
 Woman: England: i9o6-ic>i4. 
 
 Speech on the Fryatt case. See World War: 
 1916: IX. Naval operations: d. 
 
 HisT resignation. See World War: 1916: XII. 
 Political conditions in the belligerent countries: f. 
 
 ASSAM, a province of British India near Ben- 
 gal, with which it was uni,ted. in 1905 under the 
 title Eastern Bengal and Assam. (See India: 
 190S-1910; also Map.) For the English acquisi- 
 tion of .^ssam, see India,: 1S2V1833. 
 
 ASSANDUN, Battle of.— The sixth and last 
 battle. 1016, between Edmund Ironsides, the 
 English King, and his Danish rival. Cnut, or 
 Canute, for the cro.wn of England. The English 
 were terribJy defeated and the flower of their 
 nobility perished on the field. The result was 
 a division of the kingdom ; but Edmund soon 
 died, or was killeid Ashington, in Essex, was 
 the battle-ground. 
 
 ASSASSINATIONS.— Of the poUticaL assassi- 
 nations, many of which had a great influence upon 
 the historj' of a country, the most important are 
 the following: 
 
 Abbas Pasha, of Egypt. See Egypt: 18,10-1869. 
 
 Abdul Aziz, Sultan. Sec Turkey: 1861-1876. 
 
 Albert I, German king. See .Austria: 1291-1349. 
 
 Alexander, King, and Queen Draga. See 
 Serbia: 1S85-1903. 
 
 Alexander II. Sec Russia: 1879-1S81. 
 
 AH, Caliph. See Caliphate: 66 i. 
 
 Ali Akbar ^han, the Atabek Azam, in Persia 
 (1907). 
 
 Ashutosh Biswas, in India (Feb. 10, 1909). 
 
 Barrios, President. See Guatemala: 1885-1898. 
 
 Beaton, Cardinal. See Scotland: 1546. 
 
 Becket, Thomas a.. See England: 1162-1170. 
 
 Beckman, General. See Denmark: 1909 
 (June). 
 
 Bobrikov, Governor-general. See Finland: 
 
 1904. 
 
 Bogoliepov, in Russia (Feb. 27, 1901). 
 
 Boniface, St See Christianity: 496-800. 
 
 Borda, President of Uruguay. See Uruguay: 
 1821-1905. 
 
 Boutros, Prime Minister of Egypt. See Egypt: 
 iqii-1014. 
 
 Buckingham, Duke of. See England: 1628. 
 
 Caceres, President. See Santo Domingo: 
 1911. 
 
 Cassar, Julius. See Rome: Republic: B.C. 44. 
 
 Canalejas, Premier. See Spain: 1910-1914. 
 
 Canovas del Castillo. See Spain: 1897 
 (August-October). 
 
 Capo d'Istria, Count, president of Greece. 
 See Greece: 1830-1862. 
 
 Carlos, King, and Crown Prince Luiz Felipe. 
 See Portugal: 1906-1909. 
 
 Carnot, President. See Anarchism: 1894 (June 
 24) ; France: 1804-1895, 
 
 Carranza, Venustiano, President. See Mexi- 
 co: 1920 (May). 
 
 Cavendish, Lord Frederick, and T. H. Burke. 
 See Ireland: 1882. 
 
 Charles III, Duke of Parma (1854). 
 
 Concini. See France: 1610-1619. 
 
 Curzon-Wyllie, Sir William H.,. in London 
 (July, 1909). 
 
 Danilo, Prince of Montenegro (i860). See 
 Montenegro: 1389-1869. 
 
 Dato, premier of Spain.. See Spain: 1921. 
 
 Darboy, Archbishop,_ in Commune (1S71), 
 
 Darnley, Lord. See Scotland: 1561-1568. 
 
 Delyannis, Premier. See Greece: 1905. 
 
 Droubi Pasha, Syrian Premier, near Haifa, 
 Syria, August 20, 1920. 
 
 Eichhorn, von. Field Marshal, of Germany 
 (191S). 
 
 Eisner, Kurt, Premier (Feb. 21, igig). See 
 Bavaria: 1918-iqio. 
 
 Elizabeth, Empress of Austria and Queen of 
 Hungary. See Austria-Hungary: i8qS (Septem- 
 ber). 
 
 Ellsworth, Captain. Sec U. S. A.: 1861 (May: 
 Virginia). 
 
 Essad Pasha. See Albania: 1920 (June 13), 
 
 Falcon, Colonel. See Argentina: 1909. 
 
 Fehim Pasha. See Tukkey: 1909 (May- 
 December). 
 
 Franz Ferdinand, Archduke, of Austria- 
 Hungary, and his wife. See Austria-Hungary: 
 1014 (June); Serajevo: 1914; Serbia: 1914; 
 World War: Causes: Indirect: a. 
 
 Francis of Guise. See France: 1560-1563, 
 
 Gallienus, Publius Licinius, Roman emperor. 
 See Milan: 268. 
 
 Gar&eld, President. See U. S, A,: 1881. 
 
 George I, King of Greece. See Greece: 1913. 
 
 Goebel, Governor. See Kentucky: 1895-1900. 
 
 Gustavus III,, of Sweden. See Sweden: 1720- 
 1792, 
 
 Haase, Hugo. See Haase. 
 
 Habibullah Khan, Amir. See Afghanistan: 
 1919. 
 
 Harrison, Mayor of Chicago (1893). 
 
 Henry of Guise. See France: 1584-1589. 
 
 Henry III of France. See France: 1584-1589. 
 
 Henry IV of France. See France: 1599-1610. 
 
 Heureaux, President. See Santo Domingo: 
 1899. 
 
 Hipparchus. See Athen: B.C. 560-510. 
 
 Humbert, King. See Italy; 1870-1901; and 
 1899-1900; Rome: Modern City. — 1871-1907. 
 
 Ignatiev, Alexei, Count, in Russia (1906). 
 
 Ito, Prince of Japan (October, 1909). 
 
 561
 
 ASSASSINATIONS 
 
 ASSASSINS 
 
 James I. See Scotland: 1437. 
 
 Jaures, Jean. See France: 1914 (August- 
 September). 
 
 John, Duke of Burgundy. See France: 1415- 
 1419. 
 
 Karpofi, Colonel, in Russia (December, looq). 
 
 Kleber, General. See France: 1800 (January- 
 June). 
 
 Kotzebue. See Germany: 1817-1820. 
 
 Liebknecht, Karl. See Germany: 1919 (Jan- 
 uary). 
 
 Lamberg. See Hungary: 1847-1849. 
 
 Latour, Hungarian Minister. See Hungary: 
 1847-1849. 
 
 Lincoln, President. See U. S. A.: i85i (Febru- 
 ary-March) ; and 1S6S (April 14). 
 
 Luxemburg, Rosa. See Germany: 1919 
 (January). 
 
 McKinley, President. See McKinley, Wil- 
 liam: iQOi; and U.S. A.: 1901 (September). 
 
 Madero, President. See Mexico: 1910-1913. 
 
 Marat. See France: 1793 (July). 
 
 Mayo, Lord. See India; 1864-1893. 
 
 Michael, prince of Serbia. See Seicia: 181 7- 
 
 1875- 
 
 Mihaileano, Professor. See Balkan States: 
 1899-1901. 
 
 Min, General, in Russia (August, 1906). 
 
 Mirbach, Count von, of Germany (1918). 
 
 Murray, Earl of, Regent of Scotland (1570). 
 See Scotland: 1561-1508. 
 
 Nasr-ed-din, shah of Persia. See Persia: 1896. 
 
 Nicholas II, ex-tsar of Russia. See Russia: 
 1918. 
 
 Omar, Caliph. See Caliphate: 661. 
 
 Omar II, Caliph. See Caliphate: 644. 
 
 Paes, President. See Portugal: 19x9. 
 
 Paul, Czar of Russia. See Russia: 1801. 
 
 Pavlov, General, in Russia (1907). 
 
 Perceval, Spencer. See England: 1806-1812. 
 
 Peter III. See Russia: 1761-1762. 
 
 Philip of Macedon. See Greece: B. C. 357-336. 
 
 Plehve, V. K. See Russla: 1902-1904. 
 
 Potocki, Polish Count. See Poland: 1867- 
 1910; Ukraine: 1S40-1914. 
 
 Prim, General (1870). See Sp.ain: 1868-1873. 
 
 Rasputin. See Russia: 1916-1917. 
 
 Rizzio. See Scotland: 1561-1568. 
 
 Rossi, Count. See Italy: 1848-1849. 
 
 Sakharov, General. See Russia: 1909-1911. 
 
 Shuvalov. See Russia: 1905 (.\pr.-Nov.). 
 
 Sergius, Grand Duke. See Russia: 1905 
 (January). 
 
 Shevket Pasha. See Turkey: 1914: Turkey at 
 the outbreak of the World War. 
 
 Sipiaguin (Sipiaghin). See Russia: 1900-1901. 
 
 Stambulov. See Bulgaria: 189S-1S96. 
 
 Steunenburg, ex-governor of Idaho. See Labor: 
 Organization: U. S. A.: 1899-1907. 
 
 Stevens, D. W., in Korea. 
 
 Stilicho, Flavins. See B.\rbarian invasions: 
 395-408. 
 
 Stolypin, Premier. See Russia: 1909-1911. 
 
 Stiirgkh, Count, Premier. See Austrh-Hun- 
 Gary: 191 6: Legislative standstill; World War: 
 1916: XII. PoUtical conditions in the belligerent 
 countries: g. 
 
 Sung Chias-jeu, Revolutionary leader. See 
 China: 1913. 
 
 Tisza, Count. See .Austria-Hungary: 1918, 
 and Hungary: 1918 (November). 
 
 Wallenstein (1634) See Germany: 1632-1634. 
 
 William the Silent. See Netherlands: 1581- 
 1584- 
 
 Witt, John, and Cornelius de. See Nether- 
 lands: 1672-1674. 
 
 ASSASSINS, a secret order developed from 
 one of the Islamic sects, but ultimately rejecting 
 the Koran and all Mohammedan teachings. It 
 was founded about 1090 by Hassan Sabbah, a 
 discontented politician, in the fortress of Alamut, 
 Persia, and lor more than 150 years terrorized 
 surrounding peoples by its system ot secret murder. 
 (See also CARiiATiiiANS.) It vifas practically de- 
 stroyed in 1255 by a Mongol army, led by Hulagu, 
 though some fragments are said to be in existence. 
 The name was derived from hashishin, or hemp- 
 eaters, referring to the practice of stupefying the 
 members of the order with a drug derived from 
 hemp, the intoxicating fumes of which created 
 fantastic dreams, which were explained as a fore- 
 taste of the paradisal joys awaiting those who 
 obeyed blindly the commands of the heads of the 
 order. "I must speak ... of that wonderful 
 brotherhood of the Assassins, which during the 
 12th and 13th centuries spread such terror through 
 all Asia, Mussulman and Christian. Their deeds 
 should be studied in \on Hammer's history of 
 their order, of which however there is an excel- 
 lent analysis in Taylor's History of Moham- 
 medanism. The word Assassin, it must be re- 
 membered, in its ordinary signification, is de- 
 rived from this order, and not the reverse. The 
 Assassins were not so called because they were 
 murderers, but murderers are called assassins be- 
 cause the Assassins were murderers. The origin 
 of the word .Assassin has been much disputed 
 by oriental scholars; but its application is suffi- 
 ciently written upon the Asiatic history of the 
 12th century. The Assassins were not, strictly 
 speaking, a dynasty, but rather an order, like 
 the Templars; only the office of Gr.ind-Mastcr, 
 like the Caliphate, became hereditary. They were 
 originally a branch of the Egyptian Ishmaelites 
 [see Caliphate: 908-1171] and at first professed 
 the principles of that sect. But there can be 
 no doubt that their inner doctrine became at 
 last a mere negation of all religion and all mor- 
 ality. 'To believe nothing and to dare every- 
 thing' was the summary of their teaching. Their 
 esoteric principle, addressed to the non-initiated 
 members of the order, was simple blind obedience 
 to the will of their superiors. If the -Assassin 
 was ordered to take off a Caliph or a Sultan by 
 the dagger or the bowl, the deed was done; 
 if he was ordered to throw himself from the 
 rampants, the deed was done likewise. . . . Their 
 founder was Hassan Sabah, who, in 1090, shortly 
 before the death of Malek Shah, seized the castle 
 of Alaraout — the Vulture's nest — in northern Per- 
 sia, whence they extended their possessions over 
 a whole chain of mountain fortresses in that coun- 
 try and in Syria. The Grand-Master was the 
 Sheikh-al-Jebal, the famous Old Man of the 
 Mountain, at whose name Europe and Asia 
 shuddered." — E, A. Freeman, History and con- 
 quests of the Saracens, lect. 4. — "In the Fatimide 
 Khalif of Egypt, they [the .Assassins, or Ismailiens 
 of Syria and Persia] beheld an incarnate deity. 
 To kill his enemies, in whatever way they best 
 could, was an action, the merit of which could 
 not be disputed, and the reward for which was 
 certain." Hassan Sabbah, the founder of the Order, 
 died at Alamut 11 24. "From the day he en- 
 tered Alamut until that of his death — a period of 
 thirty-five years — he never emerged, but upon 
 two occasions, from the seclusion of bis house. 
 Pitiless and inscrutable as Destiny, he watched 
 the troubled world of Oriental politics, himself 
 invisible, and whenever he perceived a formida- 
 ble foe, caused a dagger to be driven into his 
 heart." It was not until more than a century 
 after the death of its founder that the fearful 
 
 562
 
 ASSAYE 
 
 ASSIZES 
 
 organization of the Assassins was extinguished 
 (1257) by the same flood of IVIongol invasion 
 which swept Bagdad and the Caliphate out of 
 existence.— R. D. Osborn, Isham under the Khalifs 
 of Bagdad, pt. 3, ch. 3.— W. C. Taylor, History 
 of Mohammedanism and its sects, ch. 9. — The 
 Assassins were rooted out from all their strong- 
 holds in Kuhistan and the neighboring region, 
 and were practically exterminated, in 1257, by 
 the Mongols under Hulagu or Khulagu, or Houla- 
 gou, brother of Mongu. Khan, the great sovereign 
 of the Mongol empire, then reigning. Alamut, the 
 Vulture's Nest, was demolished.— H. H. Howorth, 
 History o'f the Mongols, part i, p. 193; and 
 part 3, pp. 31-108. See Bagdad: 1258. 
 
 ASSAYE, a small village in southern India, in 
 1803 the scene of the victory of Major-General 
 Wellesley (later the Duke of Wellington) over 
 a large Indian force. See India: 1798-1805. 
 
 ASSEMBLY: Athenian. See Athens: B.C. 
 461-431; Periclean democracy; Suffrage, Man- 
 hood: B.,C. 5th century. 
 
 Early English. See Suffrage, Manhood: 
 British Empire: 500-1295. 
 
 German tribal. — Voting. See Suffrage, Man- 
 hood: A, D. I St century. 
 
 Irish (Dail Eireann). See Ireland: 1919. 
 
 Northmen. See Thing-Thingvalla-Althing. 
 
 ASSEMBLY GOVERNMENT, China. See 
 China: 1909 (Oct. -Nov.). 
 
 ASSEMBLY OF NOTABLES, France. See 
 France: 1774-1788; and 1787-1789. 
 
 ASSEMBLY OF THE WISE. See Witenage- 
 
 MOT. 
 
 ASSENISIPIA, Proposed state. See North- 
 
 WESff TERRITORY OF UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: 
 1784. 
 
 ASSER, Tobias Michael Carel. (1838-1913), 
 Dutch statesman. See Nobel prizes: Peace: 1911. 
 
 ASSESSMENT (derived from the Latin 
 assessare, to judge), a term signifying a valua- 
 tion of property determined for the purpose of 
 taxation, or the amount of the tax so deter- 
 mined by means of the valuation. — See also Tax- 
 ation. 
 
 ASSESSORE. See Adelantado. 
 
 ASSHUR, ancient name of Kileh-Sherghat. 
 See Assyria; Land. 
 
 ASSHUR-BANI-PAL, king of Assyria. See 
 
 ASSUR-BANI-PAL. 
 
 ASSHUR-EMID-ILIN, king of Ninevah. 
 See EssARBADDON, king of Ninevah. 
 ASSHUR-NAZIR-PAL, king of Assyria. See 
 
 ASSUR-NAZIR-PAL. 
 
 ASSIDEANS. (from the Hebrew Hasidim or 
 Chasidim) meaning "the pious," the name of 
 a group among, the Jews of the second century 
 before Christ, who resisted the encroachments of 
 Greek customs-; believed to have been the descend- 
 ants of the Essenes. See Chasidim. 
 
 ASSIENTO. See Asiento. 
 
 ASSIGNATS. See France: 1789-1791: 1794. 
 I79S (July-April) ; also Money and banking: 
 1789-1796. 
 
 ASSINARUS, river in Sicily; scene of Athenian 
 defeat in B. C. 414. See Syracuse: 415-413 B. C. 
 
 ASSINIBOIA. See Northwest Territories 
 OP Canada. 
 
 Absorbed in the province of Saskatchewan. 
 See Canada: 1905. 
 
 ASSINIBOIN INDIANS. See Indians, Amer- 
 ican: Cultairal areas in North America: Plains area; 
 SiouAN Family. 
 
 ASSIOUT, or Assiut, Nile barrage at. See 
 Egypt: 1898-1901. 
 
 ASSISI, a town of central Italy, the birthplace 
 of St. Francis and the cradle of the Franciscan 
 
 order. The cathedral and several other churches, 
 notably the Portiuncula, possess great artistic 
 and historical interest. 
 
 ASSISTANCE, Writs of. See Massachusetts: 
 1761; and U. S. A.: 1761. 
 
 ASSIUT DAM. See Egypt: 1898-1901. 
 
 ASSIZES. — "The formal edicts known under 
 the name of Assizes, the Assizes of Clarendon 
 and Northampton, the Assize of Arms, the Assize 
 of the Forest, and the Assizes of Measures, are 
 the only relics of the legislative work of the 
 period [reign of Henry II in England]. These 
 edicts are chiefly composed of new regulations 
 for the enforcement of royal justice. ... In this 
 respect they strongly resemble the capitularies 
 of the Frank Kings, or, to go farther back, the 
 edicts of the Roman prjetors. . . . The term As- 
 size, which comes into use in this meaning about 
 the middle of the twelfth century, both on the 
 continent and in England, appears to be the proper 
 Norman name for such edicts. ... In the 'Assize 
 of Jerusalem' it simply means a law; and the 
 same in Henry's legislation. Secondarily, it means 
 a form of trial established by the particular law, 
 as the Great Assize, the Assize of Mort d'Ancester; 
 and thirdly the court held to hold such trials, 
 in which sense it is commonly used at the present 
 day." — W. Stubbs, Constitutional history of 
 England, ch. 13. — See also England: 1170-1189. 
 
 Development of assize courts. See Criminal 
 law: 1066-1272. 
 
 Trial by assize. See Common law: 1164-1176. 
 
 Assize of arms. See England: 1170-1189; 
 Longbow. 
 
 Bloody assize. See England: 1685 (Septem- 
 ber). 
 
 Assizes to the borough. See Birmingham, 
 England: 1884. 
 
 Assize of bread and ale. — The assize of bread 
 and ale was an English ordinance or enactment, 
 dating back to the time of Henry III in the 
 thirteenth century, which fixed the price of those 
 commodities by a scale regulated according to 
 the market prices of wheat, barley and oats, "The 
 Assize of bread was re-enacted zo lately as the 
 beginning of the last century and was only abol- 
 ished in London and its neighbourhood about 
 thirty years ago" — that is, early in the nineteenth 
 century. — G. L. Craik, History of British com- 
 merce, V. I, p. 137. 
 
 Assize of Clarendon. See England: 1162-1170. 
 
 Assize of Jerusalem. — "No'sooner had Godfrey 
 of Bouillon [who was elected king of Jerusalem, 
 after the taking of the Holy City by the Cru- 
 saders, 1099] accepted the office of supreme mag- 
 istrate than he solicited the public and private 
 advice of the Latin pilgrims who were the best 
 skilled in the statutes and customs of Europe. 
 From these materials, with the counsel and ap- 
 probation of the Patriarch and barons, of the 
 clergy and laity, Godfrey composed the Assize 
 of Jerusalem, a precious monument of feudal 
 j'urisprudence. The new code, attested by the 
 seals of the King, the Patriarch, and the Viscount 
 of Jerusalem, was deposited in the holy sepulchre, 
 enriched with the improvements of succeeding 
 times, and respectfully consulted as often as any 
 doubtful question arose in the tribunals of Pales- 
 tine. With the kingdom and city all was lost; 
 the fragments of the written law were preserved 
 by jealous tradition and variable practice till 
 the middle of the thirteenth century. The code 
 was restored by the pen of John d'Ibelin, Count 
 of Jaffa, one of the principal feudatories; and 
 the final revision was accomplished in the year 
 thirteen hundred and sixty-nine, for the use of 
 the Latin kingdom of Cyprus." — E. Gibbon, His- 
 
 563
 
 ASSOCIATED PRESS 
 
 ASSYRIA 
 
 tory of the decline and fall of the Roman empire, 
 ch. s8. — See also Jerusalem: iioo. 
 
 ASSOCIATED PRESS: Its origin.— Compe- 
 tition. — Legality established. See Printing and 
 THE press: 1805-1917. 
 
 ASSOCIATION INTERNATIONALE DU 
 CONGO. See Belgian Congo. 
 
 ASSOCIATION OF EASTERN MARCHES: 
 Its organization. See Poland: 1872-1910. 
 
 ASSOCIATIONS, French Law of.— .\ new era 
 in agricultural and industrial organization in 
 France was launched with "the repeal, by a law 
 of March 23, 1884, of the restrictions on pro- 
 fessional associations which had been imposed 
 by the Constituent Assembly and later had been 
 incorporated in the Napoleonic Penal Code. It 
 had been required that no association of any 
 sort comprising more than twenty members should 
 be formed except with the consent of the govern- 
 ment. Now, by the law of 1S84, it was stipulated 
 that associations having exclusively for their ob- 
 iect 'the study and defence of commercial and 
 agricultural economic interests,' might be formed 
 and maintained without special authorisation, and 
 that such organisations should be accorded full 
 legal rights, including those of owning property 
 and appearing in the courts." — F. A. Ogg, Economic 
 development of modern Europe, pp. 196-197. — 
 The growth of French syndicalism — in the theory 
 of political thinkers like Sorel and Lagardelle — 
 and in the concrete organization of syndicats in 
 France — dates from the repeal of this law. In 
 1901 Parliament again passed an Associations 
 Law mainly designed to limit reactionary Cath- 
 olic education by requiring authorization for all 
 orders of monks or nuns. This was one of the 
 first radical measures embodying state opposi- 
 tion to the Church, which was finally entirely 
 separated from the state in 1905. See France: 
 1900-1904. 
 
 ASSUAN, or Aswan, town and capital of a 
 province of the same name in upper Egypt; situ- 
 ated on the east bank of the Nile; popular health 
 resort and stopping-place for tourists. (For origin 
 of word, see Egypt: Position and nature of the 
 country.) The .Assuan Dam, which stretches across 
 the Nile three miles above the town proper, is a 
 great feat of engineering, completed at the close 
 of 1902. The capacity of the reservoir was 
 at first 1,065,000.000 cubic meters, but later the 
 level of the dam was raised and the present ca- 
 pacity is 2,423,000.000 cubic meters. .\ regrettable 
 fact, incident to this improvement, was the flood- 
 ing of the island of Philae. — See also Egypt: 1898- 
 1901 ; and 1002 (December). 
 
 ASSUAN, Treaty of. See Abyssinia: 190J. 
 
 ASSUMPSIT, Action of, in equity law. See 
 Equity law: 1567-1632. 
 
 In common law. See Common law: 1841-1505; 
 1623; 1750; 1778. 
 
 ASSUMPTIONIST FATHERS, Dissolution 
 of the Society of the. See France: 1899-1900 
 (August-January). 
 
 ASSUR. See .Assyria: People, religion and early 
 history; Babylonia: Creation myths; Religion: 
 B. C. 2000-200. 
 
 ASSUR-BANI-PAL, king of Assyria 668-626 
 B.C.; last of the great kings of the Sargonide 
 dynasty; suppressed coalition of Babylonia, Arabia, 
 Ethiopia, Phanicia, and Palestine which revolted 
 against him; captured and destroyed Susa (646- 
 640 B.C.); under his protection and promotion, 
 Assyrian art attained its highest development ; 
 [see also Education: Ancient: B.C. 35th-6th 
 centuries: Babylonia and .\ssyria] caused the re- 
 editing of the whole cuneiform literature then 
 in existence, from which we to-day get our knowl- 
 
 edge of Assyrian history and civilization; largely 
 responsible for the creation of the great Nineveh 
 library.— See also Assyria; People, religion and 
 early history ; Later Assyrian Empire, and 
 Libraries: .'\ncient: Babylonia and Assyria, 
 
 ASSUR-NAZIR-PAL, king of .\ssyria, 884- 
 860 B.C.; one of the greatest and most war- 
 hke of Assyrian kings; most important of his nu- 
 merous campaigns were those against Nairi and 
 Syria and those which culminated in a westward 
 extension of his boundaries, rebuilt Colah, his 
 capital, adorning it with a magnificent palace and 
 temple of Adar. — See also Assyria: Later Assyrian 
 Empire. 
 
 ASSYRIA: The Land.— "There is, on care- 
 fully drawn maps of Mesopotamia, a pale un- 
 dulating line (considerably to the north of the 
 city of .\ccad (q. v.) or Agad), which cuts across 
 the valley of the two rivers, from Is or Hit on 
 the Euphrates, — the place famous for its in- 
 exhaustible bitumen pits, — to Samarah on the 
 Tigris. This line marks the beginning of the 
 alluvium, i.e., of the rich, moist alluvial land 
 formed by the rivers, and at the same time the 
 natural boundary of Northern Babylonia Be- 
 yond it the land, though still a plain, is not only 
 higher, rising till it meets the transversal lime- 
 stone ridge of the Sinjar Hills, but of an entirely 
 different character and formation. It is distress- 
 ingly dry and bare, scarcely differing in this re- 
 spect from the contiguous Syrian Desert, and 
 nothing but the most laborious irrigation could 
 ever have made it productive, except in the im- 
 mediate vicinity of the rivers. What the country 
 has become through centuries of neglect and mis- 
 rule, we have seen. It must have been much in 
 the same condition before a highly developed 
 civilization reclaimed it from its natural barren- 
 ness and covered it with towns and farms. It 
 is probable that for many centuries a vast tract 
 of land south of the alluvium line, as well as 
 all that lay north of it, was virtually unoccupied; 
 the resort of nameless and unclassed nomadic 
 tribes, for .\gade is the most northern of im- 
 portant Accadian cities we hear of. Yet some 
 pioneers must have pushed northward at a pretty 
 early time, followed at intervals by a steadier 
 stream of emigrants, possibly driven from their 
 populous homes in Accad by the discomfort 
 and oppression consequent on the great Elamite 
 invasion and conquest. At least there are, near 
 the present hamlet of Kileh-Sherghat, on the 
 right bank o! the Tigris, the ruins of a city, 
 whose most ancient name is Accadian — Aushar — 
 and appears to mean, 'well-watered plain,' but 
 was afterwards changed into Asshur, and which 
 was governed by king-priests — palesis — after the 
 manner of the ancient Caldean cities. There are 
 temple-ruins there, of which the bricks bear the 
 names of Ishmi-Dagan and his son, Shamash- 
 Raman, who are mentioned by a later king in 
 a way to show that they lived very close on 
 1800 B. C. The colony which settled here and 
 quickly grew, spreading further north, appropriat- 
 ing and peopling the small but fertile region be- 
 tween the Tigris, its several tributary streams 
 and the tirst hills ot the Zagros highlands, wa; 
 Semitic ; their first city's name was extended to 
 all the land they occupied, and they also called 
 themselves by it. They were the 'people of As- 
 shur'; their land was 'the land of Asshur'; and 
 not many centuries elapsed before all their neigh- 
 bors, far and wide, had good reason to know 
 and dread the name. This sheltered nook, nar- 
 rowly circumscribed, but exceptionally well situ- 
 ated as regards both defence and natural ad- 
 vantages, may well be called the cradle of the 
 
 564
 
 ASSYRIA 
 
 Land, People 
 and Ri'li^ian 
 
 ASSYRIA 
 
 great Assyrian Empire, where the young nation 
 built its first cities, the stronghold in which, 
 during many years, it gathered strength and in- 
 dependence, gradually working out its peculiarly 
 vigorous and aggressive character, and finding its 
 military training in petty but constant conflicts 
 with the surrounding roving tribes of the hill and 
 the plain. Accordingly, it is this small district 
 of a few square miles, — with its three great cities, 
 Kalah, Nineveh, and Arbela, and a fourth, Dur- 
 Sharrukin. added much later, — which has been 
 known to the ancients as Asuria or Assyria proper, 
 and to which the passage in the tenth chapter 
 of Genesis (11-12) alludes. At the period of its 
 greatest expansion, however, the name of 'As- 
 syrian' — 'land of Asshur' — covered a far greater 
 territory, more than filling the space between the 
 two rivers, from the mountains of Armenia to 
 the alluvial line. This gives a length of 350 
 
 But the kinship goes deeper than that, and asserts 
 itself in certain spiritual tendencies, which find 
 their expression in the national religion, or, more 
 correctly, in the one essential modification in- 
 troduced by the Assyrians into the Babylonian 
 religion, which they otherwise adopted wholesale, 
 just as they brought it from their Southern home. 
 [For ancient mythology, see Babylonia: Creation 
 myths.] Like their Hebrew brethren, they arrived 
 at the perception of the Divine Unity; but 
 while the wise men of the Hebrews took their 
 stand uncompromisingly on monotheism and im- 
 posed it on their reluctant followers with a fervor 
 and energy that no resistance or backsliding 
 could abate, the Assyrian priests thought to recon- 
 cile the truth, wnich they but imperfectly grasped, 
 with the old traditions and the established re- 
 ligious system. They retained the entire Babylo- 
 nian pantheon, with all its theory of successive 
 
 ASSYRIAN PALACE, NINEVEH 
 Kecoiistrdcted by Layard 
 
 miles by a breadth, between the Euphrates and the 
 Zagros, varying from above 300 to 170 miles. 
 The area was probably not less than 75,000 
 square miles, which is beyond that of the German 
 provinces of Prussia or Austria, more than double 
 that of Portugal, and not much below that of 
 Great Britain. Assyria would thus, from her 
 mere size, be calculated to play an important 
 part in history ; and the more so, as, during the 
 period of her greatness, scarcely any nation with 
 which she came in contact possessed nearly so 
 extensive a territory." — Z. A. Ragozin, Story of 
 Assyria, pp. 1-4. — See also Adiabenne; Asia; His- 
 tory: 14; and Mesopotamia. 
 
 People, religion and early history. — "That the 
 nation of Asshur, which the biblical table of 
 nations places second among Shem's own children, 
 was of purely Semitic race, has never been 
 doubted. The striking likeness of the Assyrian 
 to the Hebrew type of face would almost alone 
 have sufficed to establish the relationship, even 
 were not the two languages so very nearly akin. 
 
 emanations, its two great triads, its five planetary 
 deities, and the host of inferior divinities, but, 
 at the head of them all, and above them all, they 
 placed the one God and Master whom they rec- 
 ognized as supreme. They did not leave him 
 wrapped in uncertainty and lost in misty re- 
 moteness, but gave him a very distinct individu- 
 ality and a personal name: they called him Asshur; 
 and whether the city was named after the god 
 or the god after the city, and then the land and 
 people after both, — a matter of dispute among 
 scholars, — one fact remains, and that the all-im- 
 portant one: that the Assyrians identified them- 
 selves with their own national god, called them- 
 selves 'his people,' believed themselves to be 
 under his especial protection and leadership in 
 peace and war. [See also Religion: B. C. 2000- 
 200.1 ■ • • Whether Assyria in its infancy was 
 a mere dependency of the mother country, 
 ruled, may be, by governors sent from Baby- 
 lon, or whether it was from the first an inde- 
 pendent colony (as the young bee-swarm when 
 
 .S65
 
 ASSYRIA 
 
 Early History 
 
 ASSYRIA 
 
 it has flown from the old hive), has never 
 yet been ascertained. There have been no means 
 of doing so ... as there is no narrative monu- 
 mental inscription earlier than iico B.C. Still, 
 all things considered, the latter supposition ap- 
 pears the more probable one. The Semitic emi- 
 grants who retired to the distant northern settle- 
 ment of Aushar, possibly before the Elamitic con- 
 querors, took their departure at a time when the 
 mother country was too distracted by wars and 
 the patriotic struggle against the hated foreigners 
 to exercise much control or supervision over its 
 borders; and they will have e.xperienced as little 
 of both as did their brethren of Ur, when they 
 wandered forth into the steppes of Canaan. The 
 bond must have been merely a moral one, that 
 of community in culture, language, and religion 
 — a bond that could not prevent rivalry as soon 
 as the young country's increasing strength allowed 
 it, and, as a consequence, a frequently hostile 
 attitude. At all events, border feuds must have 
 begun early and proved troublesome, from the 
 indefiniteness of the natural boundary, if the slight 
 elevation of the alluvial line may be so termed, 
 and the first positive record we have of Assyria 
 as a political power is one which shows us a 
 king of Assyria and a king of Kar-Dunyash 
 (Babylon) making a treaty in order to determine 
 the boundaries of the two countries, and giving 
 each other pledges for the observance thereof ; 
 this happened about 1450 B. C, and the succes- 
 sors of the two kings renewed the treaty about 
 1400 B. C." — Ibid., pp. 5, iQ-20. — "With the pos- 
 sible exception of the Huns, or the wild hordes 
 of Tamerlane, there has probably never existed 
 in the history of the world a power so purely 
 and solely destructive, so utterly devoid of the 
 slightest desire to make any real contribution to 
 the welfare of the human race, as Assyria. But 
 the Huns and the hordes of Tamerlane were un- 
 taught savages. In the case of Assyria you have 
 a highly organized and civilized people, skilled 
 to an astounding degree in the arts, with all the 
 power to do great things for humanity, but abso- 
 lutely deficient in the will. If you can imagine 
 a man with no small amount of learning, with all 
 the externals of civilLzatlon, with a fine taste in 
 certain aspects of art, and a tremendous aptitude 
 for organization and discipline, and then im- 
 agine such a man imbued with the ruthless spirit 
 of a Red Indian brave and an absolute delight 
 in witnessing the most ghastly forms of human 
 suffering, you will have a fairly accurate concep- 
 tion of the ordinary Assyrian, king or commoner; 
 the outside, a splendid specimen of highly de- 
 veloped humanity — the inside a mere ravening 
 tiger. There have been other great conquering 
 races which could be cruel enough on occasion, 
 but at least they contributed something to the 
 sum of human knowledge or achievement. The 
 Roman Empire, for instance, ruthless as were its 
 methods often, was actually a great boon to the 
 world. Assyria made no such contribution to 
 human Ufe. Totally lacking In originality, she 
 took her art, her language, her literature, and her 
 science from the elder Babylonian race upon which 
 she waged such constant war. She created noth- 
 ing; she existed simply to destroy; and when she 
 ceased to destroy, she was destroyed. In a 
 word, she was the scourge of God, or, as Isaiah 
 put it, with his vivid insight, her function in the 
 world was just to be God's ax and saw to do 
 the rough hewing that Providence needed for the 
 shaping of the race. Early in their history the 
 Babylonians seem to have sent a colony north- 
 westward up the rivers into the land of Mesopo- 
 tamia. There the colonists founded a city which 
 
 they called Assur, after their god Ashur. In the 
 time of Hammurabi, Assur was still merely a 
 colony of Babylonia and subject to the empire." 
 — J. Baikie. Lands and peoples of the Bible, pp. 
 97-98. 
 
 "When and why the Semites first occupied 
 Assyria is not clear; but the conquest certainly 
 preceded the time of Hammurabi, who held As- 
 syria as a garrisoned province ; and it may very 
 well have been part of either or both of the 
 first two Semitic movements. It is still less clear 
 what the conquerors found there. Probably it was 
 a simple upland culture like that of early Elam, 
 only little removed from the neolithic phase. 
 What the Semites brought with them was knowl- 
 edge and organization. With experience won in 
 Babylonia, they practised extensive irrigation; they 
 exploited metals and timber in the hills, rapidly 
 dominated the moister upper valley, civilized its 
 Kurdish occupants, and completely interbred 
 them." — J. L. Myres. Dawn of history, p. 126. — 
 See also Seiotes: Primitive Babylonia. — "During 
 the thousand years which go roughly from 1600 
 to 600 B.C. the centre of power is no longer 
 in Shinar (Babylonia), but with the kindred 
 Semitic people farther up the Tigris — the Assyrians. 
 Babylon sees itself outshone by its rivals Asshur 
 or Nineveh. The Assyrian kingdom presents the 
 aspect of a strongly organized monarchy with 
 a restless appetite for conquest. Its culture, its 
 writing, its art, its religion, are still those of 
 Shinar, but it is animated by a new aggressive 
 spirit. And yet for Assyria to maintain its posi- 
 tion required a continued effort, and it could 
 not but be that its periods of supremacy should 
 alternate with periods when its arm failed against 
 the pressure from outside. For on its eastern and 
 northern frontiers Assyria adjoined a mountain 
 country whose races were not easily held under, 
 and were always ready to attack the conqueror; 
 and if it strove to extend its power across Meso- 
 potamia to the west, it again came into con- 
 tact with the peoples of Northern Syria and of 
 the mountains which separate Northern Syria 
 from Asia Minor. It was part of the ambition of 
 the kings of Assyria to dominate the land of 
 Shinar. The old cities and temples of that land, 
 the cradle of their culture, had for their imagina- 
 tion a prestige, which, with all their military pre- 
 dominance, they must bow. And, besides, the 
 riches of the alluvial country continued to make 
 it in one way the centre of the world. In Shinar, 
 since the days of Hammurabi, the city of Babylon 
 held its place as the capital city, and the cities 
 lower down, which had been great before Babylon 
 was heard of, decayed or fell to a subordinate 
 grade. And the kings of Babylon did not readily 
 submit to the supremacy of the kings of Assyria. 
 The history of these thousand years arc, there- 
 fore, full of wars between the Assyrians and their 
 Babylonian cousins. Sometimes the king of .\s- 
 syria succeeded in combining with his title of 
 'King of .Assyria' the title of 'King of Sumer and 
 Akkad'; sometimes the kings of Babylon were able 
 to drive back the Assyrian armies and assert 
 their independence. The first expansion of the 
 Assyrian power took place in the twelfth century. 
 King Tiglath-pileser I . . . conquered on thi; west 
 the Moschians and the Commagenians in the hill- 
 country of the Upper Euphrates between Mesopo- 
 tamia and Asia Minor, marched victoriously cast- 
 wards into the mountains of Kurdistan, pene- 
 trated into what Is now .Armenia to the north. 
 subjugated the petty kingdoms of Northern Syria, 
 crossed over Lebanon to the Phoenician coast, and 
 looked upon the Mediterranean Sea. The king 01 
 Egypt, alarmed at his approach, sent him pres- 
 
 566
 
 ASSYRIA 
 
 Later Empire 
 
 ASSYRIA 
 
 ents, amongst them crocodiles and hippopotami 
 for the royal menagerie on the Tigris. Tiglath- 
 pileser on another campaign marched down the 
 Tigris and subjugated the land of Shinar, but here 
 the king of Babylon succeeded in inflicting bloody 
 reverses upon the Assyrian armies and driving 
 them back to their own land. The son of Tigiath- 
 pileser took revenge and we hear of Baghdad 
 (not yet of great importance among the towns 
 of Shinar) being captured by the Assyrians. But 
 within a few reigns the empire of Tiglath-pileser 
 had broken up, and the peoples of Syria and 
 Palestine did not know again the Assyrian ter- 
 ror for many generations to come." — E. Bevan, 
 Land of the two rivers, pp. 3S-42.— See also 
 Babylonia: Earliest inhabitants. 
 
 Xater Assyrian empire. — "According to all 
 appearance it was the Egyptian conquest about 
 sixteen centuries B. C, that led to the partition 
 
 tury her revolts were always suppressed, and the 
 Assyrian supremacy re-established after more or 
 less desperate conflicts. During nearly half a cen- 
 tury, from about 1060 to io;o B. C, Babylon 
 seems to have recovered the upper hand. The 
 victories of her princes put an end to what is 
 called the First Assyrian Empire. But after one 
 or two senerations a new family mounted the 
 northern throne, and toiling energetically for a 
 century or so to establish the grandeur of the 
 monarchy, founded the Second Assyrian Empire. 
 The upper country regained its ascendancy by the 
 help of military institutions whose details now 
 escape us, although their results may be traced 
 throughout the later history of Assyria. From 
 the tenth century onwards the effects of these m- 
 stitutions become visible in expeditions made by 
 the armies of Assyria, now to the shores of the 
 Persian Gulf or the Caspian, and now through 
 
 KING TIGLATH-PILESER IN HIS CHARIOT 
 From a wall-frieze found at Nineveh 
 
 of Mesopotamia [see Egypt: About B.C. 1500- 
 1400.] Vassals of Thothmes and Rameses, called 
 by Berosus the 'Arab kings,' sat upon the throne 
 of Babylon. The tribes of Upper Mesopotamia 
 were farther from Egypt, and their chiefs found 
 it easier to preserve their independence. At first 
 each city had its own prince, but in time cne 
 cf these petty kingdoms absorbed the rest, and 
 Nineveh became the capital of an united Assyria. 
 As the years passf-d away the frontiers of the 
 nation thus constituted were pushed gradually 
 southwards until all Mesopotamia was brought un- 
 der one sceptre. This consummation appears to 
 have been complete by the end of the fourteenth 
 century, at which period Egypt, enfeebled and 
 rolled back upon herself, ceased to make her in- 
 fluence felt upon the Euphrates. Even then 
 Babylon kept her own kings, but they had sunk 
 to be little more than hereditary satraps re- 
 ceiving investiture from Nineveh. Over and over 
 again Babylon attempted to shake off the yoke 
 of her neighbour; but down to the seventh cen- 
 
 the mountains of Armenia into the plains of Cap- 
 padocia, or across the Syrian desert to the Leba- 
 non and the coast cities of Phcenicia. [See also 
 Samaria: Samaritans: Repopulation of city and 
 district by Assyrian conqueror.] The first princes 
 whose figured monuments — in contradistinction to 
 mere inscriptions — have come down to us, belonged 
 to those days. The oldest of all was Assurnazirpal, 
 whose residence was at Calach (Nimroud) . The 
 bas-reliefs with which his palace was decorated are 
 now in the Louvre and the British Museum, 
 most of them in the latter. ... To Assumazlrpal's 
 son Shalmaneser III. belongs the obelisk of basalt 
 which also stands in the British Museum. . . . 
 Shalmaneser was an intrepid man of war. The 
 inscriptions on his obelisk recall the events of 
 thirty-one campaigns waged against the neigh- 
 bouring peoples under the leadership of the king 
 himself. . . . Under the immediate successors of 
 Shalmaneser the Assyrian prestige was maintained 
 at a high level by dint of the same lavish blood- 
 shed and truculent energy; but towards the eighth 
 
 567
 
 ASSYRIA 
 
 Later Empire 
 
 ASSYRIA 
 
 cpntury it began to decline. There was then a 
 period of languor and decadence, some echo of 
 which, and of its accompanying disasters, seems 
 to have been embodied by the Greeks in the ro- 
 mantic tale of Sardanapalus. No shadow of con- 
 firmation for the story of a first destruction of 
 Nineveh is to he found in the inscriptions, and, 
 in the middle of the same century, we again find 
 the Assyrian arms triumphant under the leader- 
 ship of Tiglath Pileser II., a king modelled after 
 the great warriors of the earlier days. This prince 
 seems to have carried his victorious arms as far 
 east as the Indus, and west as the frontiers of 
 Egypt. And yet it was only under his second 
 successor, Saryoukin, or, to give him his popular 
 name, Sargon. the founder of a new dynasty, that 
 Syria, with the exception of Tyre, was brought 
 into complete submission after a great victory 
 over the Egyptians (721-704). . . . His son Sen- 
 nacherib equalled him both as a soldier and as a 
 builder. [See also Jerusalem: B. C. 1400-700.] 
 
 rebel king, Assur-dain-pal, who reigned B.C. 827- 
 820, and whose name and history fit the talel, 
 pushed the adventures and conquests of the As- 
 syrian arms =till farther. They subdued the whole 
 north of Arabia, and invaded Egypt more than 
 once. [See also Egypt: B.C. 670-525.] . . . There 
 was a moment when the great Semitic Empire 
 founded by the Sargonides touched even the 
 /Egiean, for Cyges, king of Lydia, finding him- 
 self menaced by the Cimmerians, did homage to 
 Assurbanipal, and sued for help against those foes 
 to all civilization."— G. Perrot and C. Chipiez. 
 History of art in Chaldcca and Assyria, v. i, 
 ch. I, sect. 5. — See also Svrh: B. C. 700-500. — 
 "The power of Assurbanipal was equal to the 
 task of holding under control the subjects of 
 Assyria at all points. He boasts of having com- 
 pelled the king of Tyre to drink sea-water to 
 quench his thirst. The greatest opposition he 
 met with was in Elam, but this too he was able 
 to suppress. . . . Assurbanipal says that he in- 
 
 PALA'CE OF SENNACHERIB, KING OF ASSYRIA, 70s B. C. 
 Restoration 
 
 He began by crushing the rebels of El.im and 
 Chaldjea with unflinching severity; in his anger 
 he almost exterminated the inhabitants of Baby- 
 lon, the perennial seat of revolt; but, on the 
 other hand, he repaired and restored Nineveh: 
 Most of his predecessors had been absentees from 
 the capital, and had neglected its buildings. . . . 
 He chose a site well within the city for the mag- 
 nificent palace which Mr. Layard h'is been the 
 means of restoring to the world. This building 
 is now known a? Kouyoundjik, from the name 
 of the village perched upon the mound within 
 which the buildings of Sennacherib were hidden. 
 Sennacherib rebuilt the walls, the towers and 
 the quays of Nineveh at the same time, so that 
 the capital, which had never ceased to be the 
 strongest and most populous city of the empire, 
 again became the residence of the king — a dis- 
 tinction which it was to preserve until the fast 
 approaching date of its final destruction. The 
 son of Sennacherib. Esarhaddon, and his grand- 
 son, Assurbanipal [long identified with the Sar- 
 danapalus of the Greeks; but Prof. Sayce now 
 finds the Sardanapalus of Greek romance in a 
 
 creased the tributes, but that his action was op- 
 posed by his own brother, whom he had formerly 
 maintained by force of arms in Babylon. This 
 brother now seduced a great number of other 
 nations and princes from their allegiance. . . . 
 The king of Babylon placed himself, so to speak, 
 at their head. . . . The danger was immensely 
 increased when the king set up by Assurbanipal 
 in Elam joined the movement. It was necessary 
 to put an end to this revolt, and this was effected 
 for once without much difficulty. . . . There- 
 upon the rebellious brother in Babylon has to 
 give way. The gods who go before Assurbani- 
 pal have, as he says, thrust the king of Babylon 
 into a consuming fire and put an end to his life. 
 His adherents . . . are horribly punished. . . . The 
 provinces which joined them are subjected to 
 the laws of the Assyrian gods. Even the Arabs, 
 who have sided with the rebels, bow before the 
 king, whilst of his power in Egypt it is said that 
 it extended to the sources of the Nile. His 
 dominion reached even to Asia Minor. . . . As- 
 syria is the first conquering power which we en- 
 counter in the history of the world. The mcBt 
 
 568
 
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 C8 
 
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 3
 
 ASSYRIA 
 
 Fall of Die Empire 
 Art and Archaeology 
 
 ASSYRIA 
 
 effective means which she brought to bear in 
 consolidating her conquests consisted in the trans- 
 portation of the principal inhabitants from the 
 subjugated districts to Assyria, and the settle- 
 ment of Assyrians in the newly acquired provinces. 
 . . . The most important result of the action of 
 Assyria upon the world was perhaps that she 
 limited or broke up the petty sovereignties and 
 the local religions of Western Asia. ... It was 
 ... an event which convulsed the world when 
 this power, in the full current of its life and 
 progress, suddenly ceased to exist. Since the loth 
 century every event of importance had originated 
 in Assyria; in the middle of the 7th she sud- 
 denly collapsed. ... Of the manner in which the 
 ruin of Nineveh was brought about we have no- 
 where any authentic record. . . . Apart from their 
 miraculous accessories, the one circumstance in 
 which . . . [most of the accounts given] agree, 
 is that .Assyria was overthrown by the combination 
 of the Medes and Babylonians. Everything else 
 that is said on the subject verges on the fabulous; 
 and even the fact of the alliance is doubtful, since 
 Herodotus, who lived nearest to the period we 
 are treating of, knows nothing of it, and ascribes 
 the conquest simply to the Medes." — L. von 
 Ranke, Universal history: Oldest historical group 
 of nations, ch. 3. — See also Babylonia: Map; 
 Phcenicians: B. C. 850-538. 
 
 Fall of the empire. — The story, briefly told, 
 of the alliance by which the Assyrian monarchy is 
 said to have been overthrown, is as follows; 
 About bid or 625 B. C, a new revolt broke out 
 in Babylonia, and the Assyrian king sent a gen- 
 eral named Nabu-pal-usur or Nabopolassar to 
 quell it. Nabu-pal-usur succeeded in his under- 
 taking, and seems to have been rewarded by be- 
 ing made governor of Babylon. But his ambi- 
 tion aimed higher, and he mounted the ancient 
 Babylonian throne, casting off his allegiance to 
 Assyria and joining her enemies. "He was wise 
 enough to see that Assyria ' could not be com- 
 pletely crushed by one nation, and he therefore 
 made a league with Pharaoh Necho, of Egypt, 
 and asked the Median king, Cyaxares, to give his 
 daughter, .^mytes, to Nebuchadnezzar, his son, 
 to wife. Thus a league was made, and about 
 B. C. 6oq the kings marched against Assyria. 
 They suffered various defeats, but eventually the 
 Assyrian army was defeated, and Shalman, the 
 brother of the king of Assyria, slain. The united 
 kings then besieged Nineveh. During the siege 
 the river Tigris rose and carried away the greater 
 part of the city wall. The Assyrian king [Sar- 
 danapalus of legend] gathered together his wives 
 and property in the palace, and setting fire to it, 
 all perished in the flames. The enemies went into 
 the city and utterly destroyed all they could lay 
 their hands upon. With the fall of Nineveh, 
 Assyria as a power practically ceased to exist." — 
 E. A. W. Budge, Babylonian life and history, ch. 
 5. — See also .'\kkad; Babylonia; Chaldea; and 
 
 SUMER. 
 
 Art and archaeological remains. — "The archi- 
 tecture of the Assyrians is the brickwork of Baby- 
 lonia, faced heavily with sculptured stone, the 
 doorways guarded by monstrous human-headed 
 bulls; everywhere are scenes and long cuneifoim 
 inscriptions glorifying Asshur and the king. .Their 
 art, Babylonian at bottom, gains in technical skill, 
 but forfeits originality to the sombre realism of 
 the national temper. Only in its last days does 
 it borrow, perhaps from the far west, a new 
 grace, and joy in the natural beauty of land- 
 scape, horses, hounds, and hunted lions, which 
 strike us as almost modern." — J. L. Myres, Dawn 
 of history, p. 128. — See Architecture: Oriental: 
 
 Mesopotamian ; and Temples: Stage of culture rep- 
 resented by temple architecture. — "M. Botta, who 
 was appointed French consul at Mosul in 1842, 
 was the first to commence excavations on the 
 sites of the buried cities of Assyria, and to him 
 is due the honour of the first discovery of her 
 long lost palaces. M. Botta coijimenced his la- 
 bours at Kouyunjik, the large mound opposite 
 Mosul, but he found here very little to com- 
 pensate for his labours. New at the time to 
 excavations, he does not appear to have worked 
 in the best manner; M. Botta at Kouyunjik con- 
 tented himself with sinking pits in the mound, and 
 on these proving unproductive abandoning them. 
 While M. Botta was excavating at Kouyunjik, his 
 attention was called to the mounds of Khorsabad 
 by a native of the village on that site; and he 
 sent a party of workmen to the spot to com- 
 mence excavation. In a few days his perseverance 
 was rewarded by the discovery of some sculp- 
 tures, after which, abandoning the work at Kou- 
 yunjik, he transferred his establishment to Khorsa- 
 bad and thoroughly explored that site. . . . The 
 palace which M. Botta had discovered ... is one 
 of the most perfect Assyrian buildings yet ex- 
 plored, and forms an excellent example of Assyrian 
 architecture. Besides the palace on the mound 
 of Khorsabad, M. Botta also opened the re- 
 mains of a temple, and a grand porch decorated 
 by six winged bulls. . . . The operations of M. 
 Botta were brought to a close in 1S45, and a 
 splendid collection of sculptures and other an- 
 tiquities, the fruits of his labours, arrived in 
 Paris in 1846 and was deposited in the Louvre. 
 Afterwards the French Government appointed M. 
 Place consul at Mosul, and he continued some 
 of the excavations of his predecessor. . . . Mr. 
 Layard, whose attention was early turned in this 
 direction, visited the country in 1840, and after- 
 wards tooks a great interest in the excavations of 
 M. Botta. At length, in 1845, Layard was en- 
 abled through the assistance of Sir Stratford Can- 
 ning to commence excavations in Assyria himself. 
 On the 8th of November he started from Mosul, 
 and descended the Tigris to Nimroud. . . . Mr. 
 Layard has described in his works with great 
 minuteness his successive excavations, and the re- 
 markable and interesting discoveries he made. 
 . . . After making these discoveries in Assyria, 
 Mr. Layard visited Babylonia, and opened trenches 
 in several of the mounds there. On the return of 
 Mr. Layard to England, excavations were continued 
 ' in the Euphrates valley under the superintendence 
 of Colonel (now Sir Henry) Rawlinson. Under 
 his directions, Mr. Hormuzd Rassam, Mr. Loftus, 
 and Mr. Taylor excavated various sites and made 
 numerous discoveries, the British Museum re- 
 ceiving the best of the monuments. The materials 
 collected in the national museums of France and 
 England, and the numerous inscriptions published, 
 attracted the attention of the learned, and very 
 soon considerable light was thrown on the history, 
 language, manners, and customs of ancient As- 
 syria and Babylonia." — G. Smith, Assyrian dis- 
 coveries, ch. I. — "One of the most importint re- 
 sults of Sir A. H. Layard's explorations at Nineveh 
 was the discovery of the ruined library of the 
 ancient city, now buried under the mounds of 
 Kouyunjik. The broken clay tablets belonging 
 to this library not only furnished the student 
 with an immense mass of literary matter, but 
 also with direct aids towards a knowledge of 
 the Assyrian syllabary and language. Among 
 the literature represented in the library of Kou- 
 yunjik were lists of characters, with their various 
 phonetic and ideographic meanings, tables of 
 synonyms, and catalogues of the names of plants 
 
 569
 
 ASSYRIA 
 
 and animals. This, however, was not all. [See 
 aUo Libraries: Ancient: Babylonia and Assyria.] 
 The inventors of the cuneiform system of wntinp; 
 had been a people who preceded the Semites m 
 the occupation of Babvlonia, and who spoke an 
 asglutinative language utterly different from that 
 of their Semitic successors. These Accadians, as 
 thev are usually termed, left behind them a con- 
 siderable amount of literature, which was highly 
 prized by the Semitic Babylonians and Assyrians. 
 A large 'portion of the Ninevite tablets, accord- 
 
 ASSYRIA, EPONYM CANON OF 
 
 later ones by Mr. Hormuzd Rassam, have added 
 lar-'elv to the stock of tablets from Kouyunjik 
 orilinallv acquired for the British Museum by 
 Sir A H Layard, and have also brought to light 
 a few- other tablets from the libraries ot Baby- 
 lonia "—A H. Sayce, Fresli light from the an- 
 cient monuments, ch. i.— See also Education: 
 Ancient: B.C. .?sth-6th centuries: Babylonia and 
 
 Assyria. „ ,, « ■ . 
 
 Development of music. See Music: Ancient: 
 
 B.C. 3000- 7th century. 
 
 ASSURNAZIR-PAL ON HIS THRONE, WITH ATTENDANT CARRYING THE ROYAL ARMS 
 Bas-relief found at Nimroud, now in the BriJsh Museum 
 
 ingly, consists of interlinear or parallel transla- 
 tions from Accadian into Assyrian, as well as 
 of reading books, dictionaries, and grammars, in 
 which the .\ccadian original is placed by the 
 side of its Assyrian equivalent. . . . The bilingual 
 texts have not only enabled scholars to recover 
 the long-forgotten Accadian language; they have 
 also been of the greatest possible assistance to 
 them in their reconstruction of the Assyrian dic- 
 tionary itself. The three expeditions conducted 
 by Mr. George Smith [1873-1870], as well as (he 
 
 Ethics. See Ethics; Babylonia and Assyria. 
 
 Monetary system. See Money and banking: 
 Ancient Egypt and Babylonia. 
 
 ASSYRIA, Eponym canon of.— "Just as there 
 were archons at Athens and consuls at Rome who 
 were elected annually, so among the Assyrians 
 there was a custom of electing one man to be 
 over the year, whom they called 'limu,' or 
 'eponym.' . . . Babylonia and Assyrian documents 
 were more generally dated by the names of these 
 cponyms than by that of the reigning King. . . . 
 
 570
 
 ASSYRO-CHALDEANS 
 
 ASTOR 
 
 In 1862 Sir Henry Rawlinson discovered the frag- 
 ment of the cponym canon of Assyria. It was 
 one of the grandest and most important discoveries 
 ever made, for it has decided definitely a great 
 many points which otherwise could never have 
 been cleared up. Fragments of seven copies of 
 this canon were found, and from these the 
 chronology of Assyria has been definitely settled 
 from B. C. 1330 to about B. C. 620."— E. A. W. 
 Budge, Babylonian life and Iiistorv, ch. 3. 
 
 ASSYRO-CHALDEANS. —'This interesting 
 little people, the last surviving fragment of two 
 great empires, adopted Christianity at an early 
 date and have maintained it against every persecu- 
 tion, under the Nestorian Patriarchate. See Chris- 
 tianity: A. D. 33-52; 35-60. 
 
 In World War. — The following is a brief sum- 
 mary of the part which was played by the Assyro- 
 Chaldeans during the war — as put forward by 
 their two official delegates to the Peace Con- 
 ference. "On 18 September, 1914, at the in- 
 stigation of Mr. Vedeniski, Russian Consul at 
 Urmia, and of his military attache, Colonel 
 Andreviski, who had been officially instructed by 
 their Government and its Allies to treat with our 
 nation, the Assyro-Chaldeans, after a long discus- 
 sion decided to reject the overtures made by 
 representatives of the Central Powers and to join 
 the ranks of the Allies. This action was to 
 assure our autonomy at the end of the war. Our 
 declaration of war was followed by an enthusi- 
 astic demonstration. Thousands of our future 
 soldiers paraded the streets of Urmia, carrying 
 Allied flags, before the French, Russian and Ameri- 
 can agencies. There exist photographs taken on 
 this occasion by the heads of these agencies. 
 The Russian authorities provided our men with 
 3,000 rifles of the Burdenka model. On the same 
 day the German flag was pulled down and the 
 flagstaff smashed. During the. first three years 
 of war, till the collapse of Russia, these men 
 fought side by side with the Russians, under 
 Cernizohov, Andreviski and Simonov, in many 
 fierce combats. Meanwhile in Turkey the Assyro- 
 Chaldeans of the mountain district of Hakkiari 
 enjoyed a real autonomy. When war broke cut, 
 we realised that it was being waged by the great 
 western democracies for the cause of civilisation 
 and the liberty of oppressed peoples. Moreover, 
 our brothers of Persia had already ranged them- 
 selves on the side of the Entente, despite all the 
 pressure and promises of the Turks and Ger- 
 mans. Early in igi5, then, our nation in Turkey 
 also threw in its lot with the Allies. Kurdish 
 tribes, urged on by the Turkish Government, at- 
 tacked us, but were driven off during May, 1915. 
 . . . The Turks then sent regular troops to the 
 aid of the Kurds; but, aided by our kinsmen in 
 neighbouring districts, we were able to hold at 
 bay, first the Governor of Mosul, Haider Cey, 
 and then a second army of mixed regular and 
 Kurdish bands, commanded by Djevdet Bey, Gov- 
 ernor of Van (brother-in-law of the notorious 
 Enver Pasha), advancing from the north. Out- 
 numbered by ten to one, our forces withdrew 
 in good order towards the Persian frontier, and, 
 fusing with their kinsmen on the Russian front, 
 continued the struggle. At the beginning of the 
 Bolshevik revolution, a British General, and soon 
 after Colonel Chardigny of the French Army, 
 reached Urmia. They encouraged the Assyro-Chal- 
 deans to continue the war against the Turks, re- 
 placing the Russians on the Turco-Persian frontier. 
 The Russian troops were retiring homewards in 
 disorder, leaving the whole front (extending from 
 Serai through Bashkala, Deza, Oashnou to 
 Saoutchboulak) to our sole defence. At the end 
 
 of 191 7, Captain Gracey, as special envoy of 
 the British Government, took part at Urmia in 
 a meeting between the civil and religious chiefs 
 of the Assyro-Chaldeans and representatives of 
 the greater Allies. Among them were the Rus- 
 sian Consul, the American Vice-Consul, Colonel 
 Caujol of the French Army, the Apostolic Dele- 
 gate Monsignor Lentak, and several Russian gen- 
 erals and other French and Russian officers. Cap- 
 tain Gracey encouraged the Assyro-Chaldeans and 
 confirmed the engagements made to him by Mr. 
 Vedeniski regarding the autonomy which they 
 would receive from the Allies if they continued 
 the struggle. He further declared that the Allies 
 were ready to accord them moral and material sup- 
 port, and to supply arms, munitions, money and 
 officers. These guarantees were confirmed by the 
 representatives of France, America and Russia. 
 They were unanimously accepted by the Assembly, 
 which decided to reorganise the Assyro-Chaldean 
 army, with a view to replacing the Russian." — 
 Nedjib and Namik (New Europe, April 15, 1920, 
 pp. 21-22). — See also World War: 191S: VI. Turk- 
 ish theater: a, 9. 
 
 ASTELL, Mary (1668-1731), English author 
 and educator. Proposed plan for a college for 
 women. See Women's rights: 1673-1800. 
 
 ASTOLF, or Aistulf, king of the Lombards, 
 749-756. — Laid siege in 756 to Rome, which was 
 relieved by Pepin. See Italy: 568-800; Lombards: 
 754-774- 
 
 ASTON, Sir George (Grey) (1861- ), 
 British general; served as brigadier general on 
 the general staff in South Africa (1908-1912); 
 commandant Royal Marine Artillery (1914-1917) ; 
 led an expedition to Ostend (1914) ; in the sec- 
 retariat of the war cabinet (1018-1919). 
 
 ASTOR, John Jacob (1763-1848), American 
 merchant. In an attempt to establish the fur trade 
 from the Great Lakes to the Pacific and thence 
 to China and India, he founded Astoria on the 
 Columbia river in 1811, which was later seized 
 by the English. (See Oregon: 1808-1826; St. 
 Louis: 1819; Wisconsin: 1812-1825.) Erected 
 many buildings in New York City and founded 
 the Astor Library, since 1895 part of the New 
 York public library. — See also Libraries: Modern: 
 U. S. A.: New York Public Library; Gifts and 
 bequests. 
 
 Also in: J. Parton, Life of John Jacob Astor. 
 ASTOR, John Jacob (1864-1912), American 
 capitalist, inventor, and soldier, fourth of the 
 name. Devoted himself to the management of his 
 vast interests in New York; in 1898 commissioned 
 lieutenant-colonel of the United States. Volun- 
 teered and served as a staff officer in the Santiago 
 campaign; presented to the Government fully 
 equipped mountain battery which did useful work 
 before Manila. He invented some useful devices, 
 notably bicycle brake, a pneumatic road improver, 
 and a marine turbine. (See also Inventions: 19th 
 century: Piano.) He was drowned at sea at the 
 sinking of the Titanic. See Titanic. 
 
 ASTOR, Nancy Langhorne, Lady. Elected to 
 House of Commons, 1919, on the Unionist ticket, 
 being the first woman to serve in the British 
 Parliament. 
 
 ASTOR, William Backhouse (1792-1875), son 
 of John Jacob Astor. 
 
 Gift to Astor library. See Gifts and bequests. 
 ASTOR, William Waldorf, 1st Viscount of 
 Hever (1848-1919). Served in the legislature of 
 New York state 1877-1881; United States min- 
 ister to Italy, 1882-1885; moved to England, 1800, 
 and in 1899 was naturalized. Created a peer, 1916; 
 encountered much criticism in both his native and 
 his adopted country. 
 
 571
 
 ASTOR 
 
 ASTROLOGY 
 
 ASTOK, Lenox and Tilden foundation. See 
 
 Libraries: Modern; U. S.: New York Public 
 Library. 
 
 ASTOR OF HEVER, 1st viscount. See As- 
 
 TOR, William Waldorf. 
 
 ASTORIA, a city and county seat of Clatsop 
 County, Oregon, situated on the Columbia river, 
 100 miles northwest of Portland; was founded by 
 John Jacob Astor in iSii, although the Lewis 
 and Clark expedition established Fort Clatsop there 
 in iSos. See Oregon; 1808-1826; Washington 
 state: 1811-1846. 
 
 ASTRAKHAN, the khanate. See Mongolia: 
 1238-1391; Russia: Map of Russian and border 
 states. 
 
 1569. — Russian repulse of the Turks. See 
 Russia: 1560-1571. 
 
 1918. — In union with Soviet Russia. See 
 World War; 1018: \'I. Turkish theater: b, 1. 
 
 ASTROLABE, an instrument used for the pur- 
 pose of determining stellar, solar and lunar alti- 
 tudes and consequently the latitude of the ob- 
 server. The instrument was considerably improved 
 by the astronomer Tycho, whose astrolabes 
 ("armillae") resembled the modern equatorial. 
 The mariner's astrolabe, the same instrument used 
 by Columbus, which is modeled after those of 
 the astronomers', was first constructed by Martin 
 Behaim (1480), but later (1731) superseded by 
 John Hadley's quadrant. 
 
 ASTROLOGY: Origin and history. — "The 
 first inhabitants of the world were compelled to 
 accommodate their acts to the daily and annual 
 alternations of light and darkness and of heat 
 and cold, as much as to the irregular changes of 
 weather, attacks of disease, and the i'ortune of 
 war. They soon came to regard the influence of 
 the sun, in connection with light and heat, as a 
 cause. This led to a search for other signs in 
 the heavens. If the appearance of a comet was 
 sometimes noted simultaneously with the death of 
 a great ruler, or an eclipse with a scourge of 
 plague, these might well be looked upon as causes 
 in the same sense that the veering or backing of 
 the wind is regarded as a cause of fine or foul 
 weather. For these reasons we find that the 
 earnest men of all ages have recorded the oc- 
 currence of comets, eclipses, new stars, meteor 
 showers, and remarkable conjunctions of the plan- 
 ets, as well as plagues and famines, floods and 
 droughts, wars and the deaths of great rulers. 
 Sometimes they thought they could trace connec- 
 tions which might lead them to say that a comet 
 presaged famine, or an eclipse war." — G. Forbes, 
 History of astronomy, p. 2. — "The oldest work 
 which has come down to our day upon astrology 
 is the Telrabiblos, or Quadripartite of Claudius 
 Ptolemy, which was written about A. D. 133 ; in- 
 deed, this work, as an eminent writer remarks, 'is 
 the entire groundwork of those stupendous tomes 
 in folio and quarto on the same subject which were 
 produced in myriads during the sixteenth and sev- 
 enteenth centuries.' Ptolemy, however, does not 
 claim to have invented, or rather discovered, the 
 principles of astral influence, but to have com- 
 pleted, as he says, 'the rules of the ancients, whose 
 observations were founded in nature.' It is quite 
 probable, however, that the science took its rise in 
 Egypt. Sir Isaac Newton says that astrology was 
 studied in Babylon seven hundred and fifty years 
 before Christ. The science flourished in Persia in 
 the time of Zoroaster, who was himself a star-wor- 
 shipper; and to this day it is held in great repute 
 in that country, as high as six million livres being 
 paid to astrologers annually by the Persian kings. 
 According to Pliny, who himself believed in stellar 
 influences, Anaximander, the friend and disciple 
 
 of Thalcs. by the rules of astrology 'foretold the 
 earthquake which overthrew Lacedemon.' This 
 was in Greece, nearly six hundred years before 
 Christ. .\naxagoras, a famous philosopher of 
 Greece, and preceptor of Socrates, is said to have 
 devoted his whole life to astrology. Pythagoras, 
 Plato, Porphyry, .\ristotle, and the great Hippo- 
 crates, the Father of Medicine, were all supporters 
 of the doctrines of this ancient science. In Rome 
 the science was equally popular at an early day 
 among the most cultivated and enlightened. 
 .•\mong others who speak in its favor may be men- 
 tioned Virgil, Cicero, and especially Horace. Ma- 
 crobius wrote a poem on astrology. The name of 
 the most learned proctor of Rome, Nigidius Figu- 
 lus, should not be omitted, as he was a most gifted 
 philosopher and astrologer. In .'\rabia, China, In- 
 dia, and among the Buddhists, astrology was first 
 established centuries before the Christian era; and 
 even in Mexico traces of this ancient science are 
 found on the ruins of massive temples and crum- 
 bling pyramids built by a race long since extinct." 
 — E. H. Bennett, Astrology, pp. 2-3. — During the 
 14th, 15th and i6th centuries astrology had a 
 strong hold on many minds, both of scientific 
 thinkers such as Tycho Brahe and Kepler and of 
 the common people. Its mode of thought was 
 curiously interwoven with that of more recognized 
 sciences and its influence is still recorded in mod- 
 ern language. But the acceptance of the Copern; 
 can theory did much to discredit astrology and in 
 England Dean Swift's famous satire. Prediction for 
 the year lyoS, by Isaac Bickerstaff, Esq., was 
 largely effective in turning popular opinion away 
 from it. — See also Astronomy: Ptolemaic and 
 Copernican theories; Chaldea; Wise men of the 
 East; Medical science: Medieval: 12th century; 
 China: Origin of the people. 
 
 Theory and methods. — "It would be impossible 
 to give even a brjef history of astrology without 
 mentioning the basis of the entire science — the zo- 
 diac. The zodiac is composed of twelve constella- 
 tions, or star-groups, through which the sun ap- 
 parently pas-ses in his so-called path around the 
 earth. The fact that this ecliptic is formed by the 
 motion of the earth, rather than that of the sun, 
 was known to the Egyptians, to Pythagoras in 
 700 B.C. and to Plato in 400 B.C., though in 317 
 A. D. Lactantius, the preceptor of Crispus Cssar, 
 son of the Emperor Constantine, taught his pupil 
 that the earth was a plane surrounded by sky, and 
 warned the lad against accepting the 'wicked 
 heresy of a round world.' . . . Planets are worlds 
 revolving around the sun, they shine principally 
 by the solar light which they receive and reflect 
 into space. Their visible luminosity as compared 
 with that of either the sun or the moon is incon- 
 siderable and this fact has long been one of the 
 strongest scientific arguments against astrology. 
 The recently discovered knowledge that the most 
 powerful vibrations are invisible has to a great 
 extent rehabilitated the ancient science. The plan- 
 ets being comparatively near the earth mav be 
 brought within range of observation by the tele- 
 scope, but this instrument has no apparent effect 
 upon oui knowledge of the stars, which are suns 
 in infinitude and at such vast distances that draw- 
 ing them a few thousand times nearer our world 
 does not make them appreciably clearer to our 
 vision. Astrology teaches that each planet possess- 
 es its own specific vibration, and students learn 
 the effect of the positions, relations and distinctive 
 forces emanating from each body or group of bod- 
 ies in the solar system, and recognize their influ- 
 ence upon the moral, mental and physical nature 
 of mankind." — K. T. Craig, Stars of destiny, pp. 
 10, 65-66. — "The alphabet of astrology is simple. 
 
 572
 
 ASTRONOMIA NOVA 
 
 ASTRONOMY 
 
 It consists of the twelve signs of the zodiac and 
 the nine planets, Neptune, Herschel [Uranus], 
 Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the Sun, Venus, Mercury, 
 and the Moon. The rules to be observed are few. 
 Each sign contains 30 degrees, and thus there are 
 360 degrees in the zodiac. Mars is most powerful 
 in Aries and Scorpio, Venus in Taurus and Libra, 
 Mercury in Gemini and Virgo, the Moon in Can- 
 cer, the Sun in Leo, Jupiter in Sagittarius and Pis- 
 ces, Saturn in Capricorn, and Herschel in Aquarius. 
 Neptune seems to delight in Pisces, but no sign has 
 yet been accorded to him. When the planets are 
 in the signs opposite to those in which they are 
 powerful, they are very weak and unfortunate. 
 ... A horoscope, or map of the heavens, contains 
 twelve houses, of which the first, or ascendant, 
 rules the personal appearance and temperament ; 
 the second wealth ; the third brothers and sisters 
 and short journeys; the fourth the father, property 
 and condition at close of life; the fifth children, 
 speculation and pleasures; the sixth servants and 
 health, the seventh marriage, lawsuits and public 
 enemies; the eighth death legacies, the ninth re- 
 ligion and lofig journeys chiefly by water, the 
 tenth the mother and the trade or profession, the 
 eleventh friends, hopes and wishes, and the twelfth 
 private enemies, sorrow, and imprisonment. The 
 position of the signs and planets as regards these 
 houses at the time of any one's birth will show 
 conclusively the good and evil fortune and the 
 causes thereof that will befall him or her during 
 life. The strongest houses are the first, tenth, 
 eleventh, and seventh, and the weakest are the 
 fifth, sixth and eighth. ... A map or figure of 
 the heavens is erected as follows: First learn 
 where and when the person for whom the horo- 
 scope is desired was born, and then after you have 
 drawn the map with its twelve houses, find in an 
 almanac or ephemeris for the year required the 
 sidereal time for the exact moment of birth. Next 
 place the signs and planets in the proper places, 
 as shown by the ephemeris, always remembering 
 to observe the correct latitude. The aspects can 
 then be calculated and predictions made." — J. 
 Kingston, Gospe! of the stars, pp. 38-42. 
 
 ASTRONOMIA NOVA: Kepler's great work 
 on astronomy. See Astronomy: Ptolemaic and 
 Copernican theories. 
 
 ASTRONOMY: Early history of. — "The 
 astronomy of Egyptians, Babylonians, and Assyri- 
 ans is known to us mainly through the Greek his- 
 torians, and for information about the Chinese we 
 rely upon the researches of travellers and mission- 
 aries in comparatively recent times. The testimony 
 of the Greek writers has fortunately been con- 
 firmed, and we now have in addition a mass of 
 facts translated from the original sculptures, papyri, 
 and inscribed bricks, dating back thousands of 
 years. In attempting to appraise the efforts of the 
 beginners we must remember that it was natural 
 to look upon the earth (as all the first astrono- 
 mers did) as a circular plane, surrounded and 
 bounded by the heaven, which was a solid vault, 
 or hemisphere, with its concavity turned down- 
 wards. The stars seemed to be fixed on this vault ; 
 the moon, and later the planets, were seen to 
 crawl over it. . . . Probably the greatest step ever 
 made in astronomical theory was the placing of 
 the sun, moon, and planets at different distances 
 from the earth instead of having them stuck on 
 the vault of heaven. It was a transition from 
 'flatland' to a space of three dimensions. . . . The 
 Chaldaeans, being the most ancient Babylonians, 
 held the same station and dignity in the State as 
 did the priests in Egypt, and spent all their time 
 in the study of philosophy and astronomy, and 
 the arts of divination and astrology. They held 
 
 that the world of which we have a conception 
 is an eternal world without any beginning or end- 
 ing, in which all things are ordered by rules sup- 
 ported by a divine providence, and that the heav- 
 enly bodies do not move by chance, nor by their 
 own will, but by the determinate will and ap- 
 pointment of the gods. They recorded these 
 movements, but mainly in the hope of tracing the 
 will of the gods in mundane affairs. Ptolemy 
 (about 130 A. D.) made use of Babylonian eclipses 
 in the eighth century B. C. for improving his 
 solar and lunar tables. [See Astrolocy.] Frag- 
 ments of a library at Agade have been preserved 
 at Nineveh, from which we learn that the star- 
 charts were even then divided into constellations, 
 which were known by the names which they bear 
 to this day, and that the signs of the zodiac were 
 used for determining the courses of the sun, moon, 
 and the five planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupi- 
 ter, and Saturn. We have records of observations 
 carried on under Asshurbanapal, who sent as- 
 tronomers to different parts to study celestial 
 phenomena. . . . The Phoenicians are supposed to 
 have used the stars for navigation, but there are 
 no records. The Egyptian priests tried to keep 
 such astronomical knowledge as they possessed to 
 themselves. It is probable that they had arbi- 
 trary rules for predicting eclipses. "^G. Forbes, 
 History of astronomy, pp. 6-15. — "While their ori- 
 ental predecessors had confined themselves chiefly 
 to astronomical observations, the earlier Greek 
 philosophers appear to have made next to no ob- 
 servations of importance, and to have been far 
 more interested in inquiring into causes of phe- 
 nomena. Thales, the founder of the Ionian school, 
 was credited by later writers with the introduc- 
 tion of Egyptian astronomy into Greece, at about 
 the end of the 7th century' B. C; but both Thales 
 and the majority of his immediate successors ap- 
 pear to have added little or nothing to astronomy, 
 e.vcept some rather vague speculations as to the 
 form of the earth and its relation to the rest of 
 the world. On the other hand, some real prog- 
 ress seems to have been made by Pythagoras and 
 his followers. Pythagoras taught that the earth, 
 in common with the heavenly bodies, is a sphere, 
 and that it rests without requiring support in the 
 middle of the universe." — A. Berry, Short history 
 of astronomy, p. 24. — See also Chaldea: Wise men 
 of the East; Hellenism: Science and Invention; 
 and Science: Ancient: Egyptian and Babylonian, 
 also Greek, Arabian; Chronology: Solar chrono- 
 logical scheme of the Egyptians; Babylonian meth- 
 od; Basis of Hindu calendar; Use of astronomical 
 constants. 
 
 B.C. 4th century. — Aristotelian astronomy. 
 — "Only the second of the four books on the Heav- 
 ens is devoted to atronomy. He considers the 
 universe to be spherical, the sphere being the most 
 perfect among solid bodies, and the only body 
 which can revolve in its own space. ... He holds 
 that the stars are spherical in form, that they have 
 no individual motion, being merely carried all to- 
 gether by their one sphere. 
 
 " 'Furthermore, since the stars are spherical, as 
 others maintain and we also grant, because we 
 let the stars be produced from that body, and 
 since there are two motions of a spherical body, 
 rolling along and whirling, then the stars, if they 
 had a motion of their own, ought to move in 
 one of these ways. But it appears that they move 
 in neither of these ways. For if they whirled 
 (rotated), they would remain [in] the same spot 
 and not alter their position, and yet they mani- 
 festly do so. . . . It would also be reasonable that 
 all should [move! in the same motion, and yet 
 among the stars the sun only seems to do so at 
 
 573
 
 ASTRONOMY 
 
 Aristotelian, Piolmaic 
 and Copernican Theories 
 
 ASTRONOMY 
 
 its rising or setting. . . . The planets are so near 
 that the eyesight reaches them in its full power, 
 but when turned to the fixed stars it shakes on 
 account of the distance, . . . now its shaking 
 makes the motion seem to belong to the star, for 
 it makes no difference whether . . . the sight or 
 the seen object be in motion. But that the stars 
 have not a rolling motion is evident ; for what- 
 ever is rolling must of necessity be turning. — 
 Dreyer. 
 
 "Aristotle adopts the system of spheres of 
 Eudoxus and Calippus, but seems to suppose these 
 spheres to be concrete, and not a merely geometri- 
 cal device for interpreting the phenomena or de- 
 termining the positions. In order however to se- 
 cure what he conceives to be the necessary rela- 
 tion between the motions of the spheres, he is 
 obliged to increa.^e their total number from 33 
 to not less than 55. The earth is tixed at the 
 centre of the universe. That the earth is a sphere 
 is shown logically, and is also evident to the 
 senses. During eclipses of the moon, namely, the 
 boundary hne, which shows the shadow of the 
 earth, is always curved. ... If we travel even a 
 short distance south or north, the stars over our 
 heads show a great change, some being visible in 
 Egypt, but not in more northern lands, and stars 
 are seen to set in the south which never do so in 
 the north. It seems therefore not incredible that 
 the vicinity of the pillars of Hercules is connected 
 with that of India, and that there is thus but one 
 ocean. The bulk of the earth he considers to be 
 'not large in comparison with the size of the other 
 stars.' The estimated circumference of 400,000 
 stadia — about 30,000 miles — is the earliest known 
 estimate of the size of the earth, and is of unknown 
 origin, but may quite likely be due to Eudoxus. 
 While the heavens proper are characterized by 
 fixed order and circular motion, the space below 
 the moon's sphere is subject to continual change, 
 and motions within it are in general rectilinear — 
 a theory destined long to block progress in me- 
 chanics. Of the four elements, earth is nearest the 
 centre, water comes next, lire and air form the 
 atmosphere, fire predominating in the upper part, 
 air in the lower. In this region of fire are gen- 
 erated shooting stars, auroras, and comets, the lat- 
 ter consisting of ignited vapors, such as constitute 
 the Milky Way. Against any orbital motion of 
 the earth Aristotle urges the absence of any ap- 
 parent displacement of the stars. Reviewing his 
 astronomical theories, Dreyer says: — 
 
 " 'His careful and critical examination of the 
 opinions of previous philosophers makes us regret 
 all the more that his search for the causes of phe- 
 nomena was often a mere search among words, a 
 series of vague and loose attempts to find what 
 was according to nature and what was not; and 
 even though he professed to found his speculations 
 on facts, he failed to free his discussion of these 
 from purely metaphysical and preconceived no- 
 tions. It is, however, easy to understand the great 
 veneration in which his voluminous writings on 
 natural science were held for so many centuries, 
 for they were the first, and for many centuries the 
 only, attempt to systematize the whole amount of 
 knowledge of nature accessible to mankind ; while 
 the tendency to seek the principles of natural 
 philosophy by considering the meaning of the 
 words ordinarily used to describe the phenomena 
 of nature, which to us is his great defect, appealed 
 strongly to the mediaeval mind, and, unfortunately, 
 finally helped to retard the development of science 
 in the days of Copernicus and Galileo.' 
 
 "At times Aristotle shows consciousness that his 
 theones are based on inadequate knowledge of 
 facts. 'The phenomena are not yet sufficiently in- 
 
 vestigated. When they once shall be, then one 
 must trust more to observation than to specula- 
 tion, and to the latter no farther than it agrees 
 with the phenomena.' . . . 'An astronomer,' he 
 says, 'must be the wisest of men; his mind must be 
 duly disciplined in youth ; especially is mathemati- 
 cal study necessary; both an acquaintance with 
 the doctrine of number, and also with that other 
 branch of mathematics, which, closely connected 
 as it is with the science of the heavens, we very 
 absurdly call geometrv, the measurement of the 
 earth.' "— W. T. Sedgwick and H. W. Tyler, Short 
 history oj science, pp. &1-S2. 
 
 A. D. 130-1609. — Ptolemaic and Copernican 
 theories. — Popular ideas regarding astronomy 
 in the Middle Ages. — Great discoveries of 
 Johann Kepler. — "Ptolemy (130 .\. D.) wrote the 
 Suntaxis [Syntaxis] or Almagest, which includes a 
 cyclopaedia of astronomy, containing a summary 
 of knowledge at that date. We have no evidence 
 beyond his own statement that he was a practical 
 observer. He theorised on the planetary motions, 
 and held that the earth is fixecl in the centre of 
 the universe. He ado|ited the exceniric and equant 
 of Hipparchus to explain the unequal motions of 
 the sun and moon. He adopted the epicycles and 
 deferents which had been used by .\pollonius and 
 others to explain the retrograde motions of the 
 planets. We. who know that the earth revolves 
 round the sun once a year, can understand that 
 the apparent motion of a planet is only its mo- 
 tion relative to the earth. If, then, we suppose 
 the earth fixed and the sun to revolve round it 
 once a year, and the planets each in its own period, 
 it is only necessary to impose upon each of these 
 an additional annual motion to enable us to rep- 
 resent truly the apparent motions. . . . The cum- 
 brous system advocated by Ptolemy answered its 
 purpose, enabling him to predict astronomical 
 events approximately. He improved the lunar 
 theory considerably, and discovered minor inequal- 
 ities which could be allowed for by the addition 
 of new epicycles. We may look upon these epi- 
 cycles of .ApoUonius, and the excentric of Hip- 
 parchus, as the responses of these astronomers to 
 the demand of Plato for uniform circular motions. 
 Their use became more and more confirmed, until 
 the seventeenth century, when the accurate obser- 
 vations of Tycho Brahe enabled Kepler to abolish 
 these purely geometrical makeshifts, and to sub- 
 stitute a system in which the sun became physic- 
 ally its controller." — G. Forbes, History of astron- 
 omy, pp. 27-20. 
 
 "In the early Church, in view of the doctrine 
 so prominent in the New Testament, that the earth 
 was soon to be destroyed, and that there were to 
 be 'new heavens and a new earth,' astronomy, like 
 other branches of science, was generally looked 
 upon as futile. Why study the old heavens and 
 the old earth, when they were so soon to be re- 
 placed with somelhing infinitely better? This feel- 
 ing appears in St. .Augustine's famous utterance, 
 'What concern is it to me whether the heavens as 
 a sphere inclose the earth in the middle of the 
 world or overhang it on either side?' As to the 
 heavenly bodies, theologians looked on them as at 
 best only objects of pious speculation. Regarding 
 their nature the fathers of the Church were di- 
 vided. Origen, and others with him. thoucht them 
 living beings possessed of souls, and this belief was 
 mainly based upon the scriptural vision of the 
 morning stars singing together, and upon the beau- 
 tiful appeal to the 'stars and light' in the song of 
 the three children — the Benedicite- — which the An- 
 glican communion has so wisely retained in its 
 Liturgy. Other fathers thought the stars abiding- 
 places of the angels, and that stars were moved by 
 
 574
 
 ASTRONOMY 
 
 Middle Ages 
 Popular Ideas 
 
 ASTRONOMY 
 
 angels. The Gnostics thought the stars spiritual 
 beings governed by angels, and appointed not to 
 cause earthly events but to indicate them. 
 
 "As to the heavens in general, the prevailing view 
 in the Church was based upon the scriptural dec- 
 larations that a soUd vault — a 'firmament' — was 
 extended above the earth, and that the heavenly 
 bodies were simply lights hung within it. This 
 was for a time held very tenaciously. St. Philas- 
 trius, in his famous treatise on heresies, pronounced 
 it a heresy to deny that the stars are brought 
 out by God from his treasure-house and hung in 
 {he sky every evening ; any other view he declared 
 'false to the Catholic faith.' This view also sur- 
 vived in the sacred theory established so firmly 
 by Cosmas in the sixth century. Having estab- 
 lished his plan of the universe upon various texts 
 in the Old and New Testaments, and having made 
 it a vast oblong box, covered by the solid 'firma- 
 ment,' he brought in additional texts from Scrip- 
 ture to account for the planetary movements, and 
 developed at length the theory that the sun and 
 planets are moved and the 'windows of heaven' 
 opened and shut by angels appointed for that pur- 
 pose. How intensely real this way of looking at 
 the universe was, we find in the writings of St. 
 Isidore, the greatest leader of orthodox thought 
 in the seventh century. He affirms that since the 
 fall of man, and on account of it, the sun and 
 moon shine with a feebler light; but he proves 
 from a text in Isaiah that when the world shall 
 be fully redeemed these 'great lights' will shine 
 again in all their early splendour. But, despite 
 these authorities and their theological finalities, the 
 evolution of scientific thought continued, its main 
 germ being the geocentric doctrine — the doctrine 
 that the earth is the centre, and that the sun and 
 planets revolve about it. This doctrine was of the 
 highest respectability: it had been developed at a 
 very early period, and had been elaborated until 
 it accounted well for the apparent movements of 
 the heavenly bodies; its final name, 'Ptolemaic 
 theory,' carried weight; and, having thus come 
 from antiquity into the Christian world, St. Clem- 
 ent of Alexandria demonstrated that the altar in 
 the Jewish tabernacle was 'a symbol of the earth 
 placed in the middle of the universe': nothing 
 more was needed; the geocentric theory was fully 
 adopted by the Church and universally held to 
 agree with the letter and spirit of Scripture. 
 Wrought into this foundation, and based upon it, 
 there was developed in the Middle Ages, mainly 
 out of fragments of Chaldean and other early 
 theories preserved in the Hebrew Scriptures, a 
 new sacred system of astronomy, which became 
 one of the great treasures of the universal Church 
 — the last word of revelation. Three great men 
 mainly reared this structure. First was the un- 
 known who gave to the world the treatises ascribed 
 to Dionysius the Areopagite. 
 
 "It was unhesitatingly believed that these were 
 the work of St. Paul's Athenian convert, and there- 
 fore virtually of St. Paul himself. Though now 
 known to be spurious, they were then considered 
 a treasure of inspiration, and an emperor of the 
 East sent them to an emperor of the West as the 
 most worthy of gifts. In the ninth century they 
 were widely circulated in western Europe, and 
 became a fruitul source of thought, especially on 
 the whole celestial hierarchy. Thus thj old ideas 
 of astronomy were vastly developed, and the heav- 
 enly hosts were classed and named in accordance 
 with indications scattered through the sacred 
 Scriptures. 
 
 "The next of these three great theologians was 
 Peter Lombard, professor at the University of 
 Paris. About the middle of the twelfth century 
 
 he gave forth his collection of Sentences, or State- 
 ments by the Fathers, and this remained until the 
 end of the Middle Ages the universal manual of 
 theology. In it was especially developed the theo- 
 logical view of man's relation to the universe. 
 The author tells the world: 'Just as man is made 
 for the sake of God — that is, that he may serve 
 Him, — so the universe is made for the sake of man 
 — that is, that it may serve him; therefore is man 
 placed at the middle point of the universe, that 
 he may both serve and be served.' The vast sig- 
 niticance of this view, and its power in resisting 
 any real astronomical science, we shall see, es- 
 pecially in the time of Galileo. The great triad 
 of thinkers culminated in St. Thomas Aquinas — 
 the sainted theologian, the glory of the mediaeval 
 Church, the 'Angelic Doctor,' the most marvellous 
 intellect between Aristotle and Newton; he to 
 whom it was believed that an image of the Cruci- 
 fied had spoken words praising his writings.' . . . 
 With great power and clearness he brought the 
 whole vast system, material and spiritual, into its 
 relations to God and man. Thus was the vast sys- 
 tem developed by these three leaders of mediaeval 
 thought; and now came the man who wrought it 
 yet more deeply into European belief, the poet 
 divinely inspired who made the system part of the 
 world's life. Pictured by Dante, the empyrean 
 and the concentric heavens, paradise, purgatory, 
 and hell, were seen of all men; the God Triune, 
 seated on his throne upon the circle of the heavens, 
 as real as the Pope seated in the chair of St. Peter; 
 the seraphim, cherubim, and thrones, surrounding 
 the Almighty, as real as the cardinals surrounding 
 the Pope; the three great orders of angels in 
 heaven, as real as the three great orders, bishops, 
 priests, and deacons, on earth; and the whole 
 system of spheres, each revolving within the one 
 above it, and all moving about the earth, subject 
 to the primum mobile, as real as the feudal sys- 
 tem of western Europe, subject to the Emperor. 
 ... Its first feature shows a development out of 
 earlier theological ideas. The earth is no longer a 
 flat plain inclosed by four walls and solidly vaulted 
 above, as theologians of previous centuries had 
 believed it, under the inspiration of Cosmas; it 
 is no longer a mere flat disk, with sun, moon, and 
 stars hung up to give it light, as the earlier cathe- 
 dral sculptors had figured it; it has become a 
 globe at the centre of the universe. Encompassing 
 it are successive transparent spheres, rotated by 
 angels about the earth, and each carrying one or 
 more of the heavenly bodies with it: that nearest 
 the earth carrying the moon; the next. Mercury; 
 the next, Venus; the next, the sun; the next three. 
 Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn ; the eighth carrying the 
 fixed stars. The ninth was the primum mobile, 
 and inclosing all was the tenth heaven — the Empy- 
 rean. This was immovable — the boundary between 
 creation and the great outer void ; and here, in a 
 light which no one can enter, the Triune God sat 
 enthroned, the 'music of the spheres' rising to 
 Him as they moved. Thus was the old heathen 
 doctrine of the spheres made Christian. ... All 
 this vast scheme had been so riveted into the 
 Ptolemaic view by the use of biblical texts and 
 theological reasonings that the resultant system of 
 the universe was considered impregnable and final. 
 To attack it was blasphemy. It stood for centu- 
 ries. Great theological men of science, like Vin- 
 cent of Beauvais and Cardinal d'Ailly, devoted 
 themselves to showing not only that it was sup- 
 ported by Scripture, but that it supported Scrip- 
 ture. Thus was the geocentric theory embedded 
 in the beliefs and aspirations, in the hopes and 
 fears, of Christendom down to the middle of the 
 sixteenth century. . . . But, on the other hand, 
 
 575
 
 ASTRONOMY 
 
 Copernicus 
 Opposition of the Church 
 
 ASTRONOMY 
 
 there had been planted, long before, the gerins of a 
 heliocentric theory. In the sixth century before 
 our era, Pythagoras, and after him Philolaus, had 
 suggested the movement of the earth and planets 
 about a central fire; and, three centuries later, 
 Aristarchus had restated the main truth with strik- 
 ing precision. Here comes in a proof that the 
 antagonism between theological and scientific meth- 
 ods is not confined to Christianity; for this state- 
 ment brought upon Aristarchus the charge of 
 blasphemy, and drew after it a cloud of preju- 
 dice which hid the truth for six hundred years. 
 Not until the fifth century of our era did it tim- 
 idly appear in the thoughts of Martinus Capella; 
 then it was again lost to sight for a thousand 
 years, until in the fifteenth century, distorted and 
 imperfect, it appeared in the writings of Cardinal 
 Nicholas de Cusa. . . . Copernicus had been a pro- 
 fessor at Rome, and even as early as 1500 had an- 
 nounced his doctrine there, but more in the way 
 of a scientific curiosity or paradox, as it had been 
 
 COPERNICUS 
 
 previously held by Cardinal de Cusa, than as the 
 statement of a system representing a great fact in 
 Nature, .\bout thirty years later one of his dis- 
 ciples, Widmanstadt, had explained it to Clement 
 VII ; but it still remained a mere hypothesis, and 
 soon, like so many others, disappeared from the 
 public view. But to Copernicus, steadily study- 
 ing the subject, it became more and more a real- 
 ity and as this truth grew within him he seemed 
 to feel that at Rome he was no longer safe. To 
 announce his discovery there as a theory or a 
 paradox might amuse the papal court, but to an- 
 nounce it as a truth — as the truth — was a far dif- 
 ferent matter. He therefore returned to his little 
 town in Poland. To publish his thought as it had 
 now developed was evidently dangerous, even 
 there, and for more than thirty years it lay slum- 
 bering in the mind of Copernicus and of the friends 
 to whom he had privately intrusted it. At last 
 he prepared his great work on the Revolutions of 
 the Heavenly Bodies, and dedicated it to the Pope 
 himself. He next sought a place of publication. 
 He dared not send it to Rome, for there were the 
 rulers of the older Church ready to seize it ; he 
 dared not send it to Wittenberg, for there were 
 
 the leaders of Protestantism no less hostile ; he 
 therefore intrusted it to Osiander, at Nuremberg. 
 . . . But Osiander's courage failed him: he dared 
 not launch the new thought boldly. He wrote a 
 grovelling preface, endeavouring to excuse Coper- 
 nicus for his novel idea, and in this he inserted 
 the apologetic lie that Copernicus had propounded 
 the doctrine of the earth's movement not as a 
 fact, but as a hypothesis. He declared that it was 
 lawful for an astronomer to indulge his imagina- 
 tion, and that this was what Copernicus had done. 
 Thus was the greatest and most ennobling, perhaps, 
 of scientific truths — a truth not less ennobling to 
 religion than to science — forced, in coming before 
 the world, to sneak and crawl. On the 24th 
 of May, IS43, the newly printed book arrived 
 at the house of Copernicus. It was put into 
 his hands; but he was on his deathbed. A 
 few hours later he was beyond the reach of the 
 conscientious men who would have blotted his 
 reputation and perhaps have destroyed his life. 
 . . . The preface of Osiander, pretending that the 
 book of Copernicus suggested a hypothesis in- 
 stead of announcing a truth, served its purpose 
 well. During nearly seventy years the Church 
 authorities evidently thought it best not to stir the 
 matter, and in some cases professors like Calganini 
 were allowed to present the new view purely as a 
 hypothesis. There were, indeed, mutterings from 
 time to time on the theological side, but there was 
 no great demonstration against the system until 
 1616. Then, when the Copernican doctrine was 
 upheld by Galileo as a truth, and proved to be a 
 truth by his telescope, the book was taken in hand 
 by the Roman curia. The statements of Coper- 
 nicus were condemned, 'until they should be cor- 
 rected'; and the corrections required were simply 
 such as would substitute for his conclusions the 
 old Ptolemaic theory. . . . Doubtless many will 
 exclaim against the Roman Catholic Church for 
 thus; but the simple truth is that Protestantism 
 was no less zealous against the new scientific doc- 
 trine. All branches of the Protestant Church — 
 Lutheran, Calvinist, Anglican — vied with each 
 other in denouncing the Copernican doctrine as 
 contrary to Scripture ; and, at a later period, the 
 Puritans showed the same tendency. Said Martin 
 Luther: 'People gave ear to an upstart astrologer 
 who strove to show that the earth revolves, not 
 the heavens or the firmament, the sun and the 
 moon. Whoever wishes to appear clever must de- 
 vise some new system, which of all systems is of 
 course the very best. This fool wishes to reverse 
 the entire science of astronomy; but sacred Scrip- 
 ture tells us that Joshua commanded the sun to 
 stand still, and not the earth.' Melanchthon, mild 
 as he was, was not behind Luther in condemning 
 Copernicus. In his treatise on the Elements of 
 Physrrs, published six years after Copernicus's 
 death, he says: 'The eyes are witnesses that the 
 heavens revolve in the space of twenty-four hours. 
 But certain men, either from the love of novelty, 
 or to make a display of ingenuity, have concluded 
 that the earth moves; and they maintain that 
 neither the eighth sphere nor the sun revolves. . . . 
 Now, it is a want of honesty and decency to as- 
 sert such notions publicly, and the example is 
 pernicious. It is the part of a good mind to ac- 
 cept the truth as revealed by God and to acquiesce 
 in it.' Melanchthon then cites the passages in the 
 Psalms and Ecclesiastes, which he declared assert 
 positively and clearly that the earth stands fast 
 and that the sun moves around it, and adds eight 
 other proofs of his proposition that 'the earth 
 can be nowhere if not in the centre of the uni- 
 verse.' So earnest does this mildest of the Re- 
 formers become, that he suggests severe measures 
 
 576
 
 ASTRONOMY 
 
 Telescope of Galileo 
 Discoveries of Kepler 
 
 ASTRONOMY 
 
 to restrain such impious teachings as those of 
 Copernicus. 
 
 "While Lutheranism was thus condemning the 
 theory of the earth's movement, other branches of 
 the Protestant Church did not remain behind. 
 Calvin took the lead, in his Commentary on Gen- 
 esis, by condemning all who asserted that the earth 
 is not at (he centre of the universe. He clinched 
 the matter by the usual reference to the first 
 verse of the ninety-third Psalm, and asked, 'Who 
 will venture to place the authority of Copernicus 
 above that of the Holy Spirit?' Turretin, Calvin's 
 famous successor, even after Kepler and Newton 
 had virtually completed the theory of Copernicus 
 and Galileo, put forth his compendium of the- 
 ology, in which he proved, from a multitude of 
 scriptural texts, that the heavens, sun, and moon 
 move about the earth, which stands still in the 
 centre. . . . But the new truth could not be con- 
 cealed; it could neither be laughed down nor 
 frowned down. Many minds had received it, but 
 within the hearing of the papacy only one tongue 
 appears to have dared to utter ft clearly. This new 
 warrior was that strange mortal, Giordano Bruno. 
 He was hunted from land to land, until at last 
 he turned on his pursuers with fearful invectives. 
 For this he was entrapped at Venice, imprisoned 
 .during six years in the dungeons of the Inquisition 
 at Rome, then burned alive, and his ashes scat- 
 tered to the winds. Still, the new truth lived on. 
 Ten years after the martyrdom of Bruno the truth 
 ,.qf Copernicus's doctrine was established by the 
 -l^elescope of Galileo. Herein was fulfilled one of 
 •tbe most touching of prophecies. Years before, 
 '.the opponents of Copernicus had said to him, 'If 
 yovT doctrines were true, Venus would show phases 
 like the moon.' Copernicus answered; 'You are 
 right; I know not what to say; but God is good, 
 and will in time find an answer to this objection.' 
 The God-given answer came when, in 1611, the 
 rude telescope of Galileo showed the phases of 
 Venus. . . . The war on the Copernican theory, 
 which up to that time had been carried on quietly, 
 now flamed forth. It was declared that the doc- 
 trine was proved false by the standing still of the 
 sun for Joshua, by the declarations that 'the foun- 
 .dations of the earth are fixed so firm that they 
 can not be moved,' and that the sun 'runneth about 
 from one end of the heavens to the other.' But 
 the little telescope of Galileo still swept the heav- 
 ens, and another revelation was announced— the 
 mountains and valleys in the moon. This brought 
 on another attack. It was declared that this, and 
 the statement that the moon shines by light re- 
 flected from the sun, directly contradict the state- 
 ment in Genesis that the moon is 'a great light.' 
 . . . Still another struggle was aroused when the 
 hated telescope revealed spots upon the sun, and 
 their motion indicating the sun's rotation. Mon- 
 signor Elci, head of the University of Pisa, for- 
 bade the astronomer Castelli to mention these spots 
 to his students. Father Busaeus, at the Univer- 
 sity of Innspruck, forbade the astronomer Scheine"-, 
 who had also discovered the spots and proposed a 
 safe explanation of them, to allow the new dis- 
 covery to be known there. At the College of 
 Douay and the University of Louvain this dis- 
 covery was expressly placed under the ban, and 
 this became the general rule among the Catholic 
 universities and colleges of Europe. The Spanish 
 universities were especially intolerant of this and 
 similar ideas, and up to a recent period their pres- 
 entation was strictly forbidden in the most im- 
 portant university of all^that of Salamanca." — 
 A. D. White, History of the warfare of science 
 with theology, pp. 114-118, 120-124, 126-127, 129- 
 130, 132-133. 
 
 "New champions pressed on. Campanella, full 
 of vagaries as he was, wrote his Apology for 
 Galileo, though for that and other heresies, relig- 
 ious and political, he seven times underwent tor- 
 ture. And Kepler comes: he leads science on to 
 greater victories. Copernicus, great as he was, 
 could not disentangle scientific reasoning entirely 
 from the theological bias: the doctrines of Aristotle 
 and Thomas Aquinas as to the necessary superior- 
 ity of the circle had vitiated the minor features 
 of his system, and left breaches in it through which 
 the enemy was not slow to enter ; but Kepler sees 
 these errors, and by wonderful genius and vigour 
 he gives to the world the three laws which bear 
 his name, and this fortress of science is complete. 
 He thinks and speaks as one inspired. His battle 
 is severe. He is solemnly warned by the Protestant 
 Consistory of Stuttgart 'not to throw Christ's king- 
 dom into confusion with his silly fancies.' and as 
 solemnly ordered to 'bring his theory of the world 
 into harmony with Scripture': he is sometimes 
 abused, sometimes ridiculed, sometimes imprisoned. 
 Protestants in Styria and Wiirtemberg, Catholics 
 in Austria and Bohemia, press upon him; but New- 
 ton, Halley, Bradley, and other great astronomers 
 follow, and to science remains the victory. Yet 
 this did not end the war. During the seventeenth 
 century, in France, after all. the splendid proofs 
 added by Kepler, no one dared openly teach the 
 Copernican theory, and Cassini, the great astrono- 
 mer, never declared for it. In 1672 the Jesuit 
 Father Riccioli declared that there were precisely 
 forty-nine arguments for the Copernican theory 
 and seventy-seven against it. Even after the be- 
 ginning of the eighteenth century — long after the 
 demonstrations of Sir Isaac Newton — Bossuet, the 
 great Bishop of Meaux, the foremost theologian 
 that France has ever produced, declared it con- 
 trary to Scripture." — Ibid., pp. 153-154. 
 
 "It is still well under four hundred years since 
 the modern, or Copernican, theory of the universe 
 supplanted the Ptolemaic, which had held sway 
 during so many centuries. In this new theory, 
 propounded towards the middle of the sixteenth 
 century by Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543), a 
 Prussian [Polish] astronomer, the earth was de- 
 throned from its central position and considered 
 merely as one of a number of planetary bodies 
 which revolve around the sun. As it is not a 
 part of our purpose to follow in detail the history 
 of the science, it seems advisable to begin by 
 stating in a broad fashion the conception of the 
 universe as accepted and believed in to-day. The 
 Sun, the most important of the celestial bodies so 
 far as we are concerned, occupies the central posi- 
 tion ; not, however, in the whole universe, but only 
 in that limited portion which is known as the 
 Solar System. Around it, in the following order 
 outwards, circle the planets Mercury, Venus, the 
 Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Nep- 
 tune. At an immense distance beyond the solar 
 system, and scattered irregularly through the 
 depth of space, lie the stars. The two first-men- 
 tioned members of the solar system. Mercury and 
 Venus, are known as the Inferior Planets ; and in 
 their courses about the sun, they always keep well 
 inside the path along which our earth moves, f !)e 
 remaining members (exclusive of the earth) 3re 
 called Superior Planets, and their paths lie all 
 outside that of the earth." — C. G. Dolmage, As- 
 tronomy of to-day, pp. 20-22. 
 
 "Johann Kepler is the name of the man whose 
 place, as is generally agreed, would have been the 
 most difficult to fill among all those who have con- 
 tributed to the advance of astronomical knowl- 
 edge. . . . Kepler's first great discovery was that 
 the planes of all the orbits pass through the sun; 
 
 577
 
 ASTRONOMY 
 
 Heavenly Bodies 
 
 ASTRONOMY 
 
 his second was that the line of apses of each plan- 
 et passes through the sun; both were contradictory 
 to the Copernican theory. He proceeds cautiously 
 with his propositions until he arrives at his great 
 laws, and he concludes his book by comparing ob- 
 servations of Mars, of all dates, with his theory. 
 His first law states that the planets describe ellipses 
 with the sun at a focus of each ellipse. His 
 second law (a far more difficult one to prove) 
 states that a line drawn from a planet to the sun 
 sweeps over equal areas in equal times. These two 
 laws were published in his great work, Astronomia 
 Nova, seu Physica Coelestis Tradila Commentariis 
 de Motibus Stellce Martis, Prague, 1609. It took 
 him nine years more to discover his third law, 
 that the squares of the periodic times are propor- 
 tional to the cubes of the mean distances from 
 the sun. These three laws contain implicitly the 
 law of universal gravitation. They are simply an 
 alternative way of expressing that law in dealing 
 with planets, not particles. Only, the power of 
 the greatest human intellect is so utterly feeble 
 that the meaning of the words in Kepler's three 
 laws could not be understood until expounded by 
 the logic of Newton's dynamics." — G. Forbes, His- 
 tory of astronomy, pp. 48-53. — See also Scienxe: 
 Middle Ages and the Renaissance. 
 
 1781-1846. — Planets and Asteroids. — Constel- 
 lations, comets and meteors. — "The five planets, 
 Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, have 
 been known from all antiquity. Nothing then can 
 bring home to us more strongly the immense ad- 
 vance which has taken place in astronomy during 
 modern times than the fact that it is only 127 years 
 since observation of the skies first added a planet 
 to that time-honoured number. It was indeed on 
 the 13th of March, 1781, while engaged in observ- 
 ing the constellation of the Twins, that the justly 
 famous Sir William Herschel caught sight of an 
 object which he did not recognise as havine met 
 with before. He at first took it for a comet, but 
 observations of its movements during a few days 
 showed it to be a planet. This body, which the 
 power of the telescope alone had thus shown to 
 belong to the solar family, has since become known 
 to science under the name of Uranus. By its dis- 
 covery the hitherto accepted limits of the solar 
 system were at once pushed out to twice their 
 former extent, and the hope naturally arose that 
 other planets would quickly reveal themselves in 
 the immensities beyond. For a number of years 
 prior to Herschel's great discovery, it had been 
 noticed that the distances at which the then 
 known planets circulated appeared to be arranged 
 in a somewhat orderly progression outwards from 
 the sun. This seeming plan, known to astronomers 
 by the name of Bode's Law, was closely confirmed 
 by the distance of the new planet Uranus. There 
 still lay, however, a broad gap batween the planets 
 Mars and Jupiter. Had another planet indeed 
 circulated there, the solar system w'ould have pre- 
 sented an appearance of almost perfect order. But 
 the void between Mars and Jupiter was unfilled; 
 the space in which one would reasonably expect to 
 find another planet circling was unaccountably 
 empty. On the first day of the nineteenth century 
 the mystery was however explained, a body being 
 discovered which revolved in the space that had 
 hitherto been considered planetless. But it was a 
 tiny globe hardly worthy of the name of planet. 
 In the following vear a second body was dis- 
 covered revolving in the same space; but it was 
 even smaller in size than the first. During the 
 ensuing five years two more of these little planets 
 were discovered. Then came a pause, no more 
 such bodies being added to the system until half- 
 way through the century, when suddenly the dis- 
 
 covery of these so called 'minor planets' began 
 anew. Since then additions to this portion of our 
 system have rained thick and fast. The small 
 bodies have received the name of Asteroids or 
 Planetoids; and up to the present time some six 
 hundred of them are known to exist, all revolving 
 in the previously unfilled space between Mars and 
 Jupiter. 
 
 "In the year 1S46 the outer boundary of the 
 solar system was again extended by the discovery 
 that a great planet circulated beyond Uranus. 
 The new body, which received the name of Nep- 
 tune, was brought to light as the result of calcula- 
 tions made at the same time, though quite inde- 
 pendently, by the Cambridge mathematician 
 Adams, and the French astronomer Le Verrier. 
 The discovery of Neptune differed, however, from 
 that of Uranus in the following respect. Uranus 
 was found merely in the course of ordinary tele- 
 scopic survey of the heavens. The position of 
 Neptune, on the other hand, was predicted as the 
 result of rigorous mathematical investigations un- 
 dertaken with the object of fixing the position of 
 an unseen and still more distant body, the attrac- 
 tion of which, in passing by, was disturbing the 
 position of Uranus in its revolution around the 
 sun. Adams actually completed his investigation 
 first; but a delay at Cambridge in examining that 
 portion of the sky, where he announced that the 
 body ought just then to be, allowed France to 
 snatch the honour of discovery, and the new 
 planet was found by the observer Galle at Berlin, 
 very near the place in the heavens which Le Ver- 
 rier had mathematically predicted for it." — C. G. 
 Dolmage, Astronomy of to-day, pp. 22-24. — "The 
 most careless observer of the sky has noticed that 
 the stars are not uniformly spread over it. Al- 
 most everyone is familiar with the Big Dipper and 
 the Pleiades, otherwise known as the Little Dip- 
 per. These natural groups of stars were given 
 names in antiquity by early observers and are 
 called constellations. Their names often strike us 
 as being most fantastic and far-fetched. Many of 
 them are the names of wild animals. For example, 
 we have the Great Bear, the Lesser Bear, the Lion, 
 the Eagle, the Leopard, etc. . . . Comets are wan- 
 dering bodies which pass around the sun, usually 
 in sensibly parabolic orbits. If their orbits are 
 exactly parabolas it means they have come in 
 from the sun from an infinite distance, and will 
 go out again to an infinite distance, never to re- 
 turn. . . . While the statement is true that the 
 great majority of comets move in sensibly para- 
 bolic orbits, and that it is not certain that they 
 move in exactly parabolic orbits, there are cer- 
 tainly some which move in elliptical orbits. These 
 comets come in from finite, through in some cases 
 great distances and go out again to the same dis- 
 tances. They return to the sun time after time, 
 their periods of revolution depending upon the 
 lengths of their orbits. There are a very few cases 
 in which it seems that comets move in hyperbolic 
 orbits, though there is some room for doubt re- 
 garding the conclusion. ... If the comets, as a 
 whole, move in parabolic orbits they can not be 
 considered as permanent members of the solar 
 system. On the other hand, if their orbits, instead 
 of being parabolas, are very elongated ellipses they 
 are permanent members of the system. The opin- 
 ion seems to be growing among astronomers that 
 the comets are actually in this sense permanent 
 members of the solar system, though no rigorous 
 proof of the statement is at present at hand. It 
 has been seen that the orbits of the planets are all 
 nearly in the same plane and that the planets re- 
 volve around the sun in the same direction. In 
 the case of comets it is quite different. Their or- 
 
 578
 
 ASTRONOMY 
 
 Laplacian and 
 Planetesimal Theories 
 
 ASTRONOMY 
 
 bits lie in every plane and they revolve in all di- 
 rections. There is no uniformity in their distribu- 
 tion. The only thing that can be said is that there 
 is a tendency for the perihelia of comet orbits to 
 cluster on the side of the sun which is ahead in 
 its motion through space. . . . Comets consist of 
 a head containing in it, usually, a small bright 
 nucleus, and a long tail streaming out in the direc- 
 tion opposite to the sun. The head may vary 
 anywhere from 10,000 miles up to more than 
 1,000,000 miles. The nucleus is generally a few 
 hundred, and at the most a few thousand, miles 
 in diameter. The tails are in length from a few 
 millions up to more than 100,000,000 miles," — 
 F. R. Moulton, Descriptive astronomy, pp. 660, 
 185-186. 
 
 "Occasionally, on a clear night, a long trail of 
 light flashes for a moment across the sky. This 
 is the well-known phenomenon of the 'falling'- 
 or 'shooting-star.' Sometimes, in a tremendous 
 blaze and with a great rushing sound, often almost 
 explosive, a mass of stone or metal hurls from the 
 sky to the Earth, is found, and called a meteorite, 
 an aerolite, a bolide, or half a dozen other tech- 
 nical names. They are really all one and the same 
 thing — a meteor. The meteors are particles of 
 matter of various sizes and compositions, revolv- 
 ing through the Solar System in regular orbits, 
 usually very elliptical. Most of them travel in 
 swarms, and it is when the Earth meets such that 
 we have the 'shower of shooting stars.' The orbits 
 of most of these swarms are well-known. The 
 visibility of a meteor depends entirely upon its 
 collision with the atmosphere of the Earth at very 
 high speed — up to 40 miles a second. This, by 
 the great friction, generates a terrific heat, and the 
 meteor (i) is either dissipated in fine dust, (which 
 is often found on the Arctic ice) or, (2) if it be a 
 large one, reaches the surface of the Earth as a 
 much pitted and scarred mass of stone or metal, 
 or, (3) only grazing the atmosphere, passes out 
 before being entirely consumed. The Earth is 
 undergoing a constant meteoric bombardment, and 
 were it not for our protective atmospheric shield, 
 we undoubtedly should suffer greatly." — E. W. 
 Putnam, Essence of astronomy, pp. loo-ioi. 
 
 1796-1921. — Laplacian and planetesimal hy- 
 potheses of the origin of the solar system. — 
 Nebulse. — Sun. — Moon. — "In outline the theory 
 of Laplace [1749-1S27] is that originally the solar 
 atmosphere was a nebulous envelope in an in- 
 tensely heated condition, and that it extended out 
 beyond the orbit of the farthest planet. He sup- 
 posed the whole mass rotated as a solid, in the 
 direction in which the planets now revolve. It 
 was supposed in this theory that the dimensions 
 of the system were maintained by gaseous expan- 
 sions the same as the dimensions of the sun or the 
 earth's atmosphere are at present. This great 
 nebulous mass would lose heat by radiation into 
 space and consequently would contract. ... If a 
 mass rotates faster, the tendency for the material 
 at its equalor to fly off because of the centrifugal 
 acceleration continually increases. Laplace said 
 that it seemed reasonable that the contracting solar 
 mass would reach such a state that this tendency 
 of the particles at its equator to fly out would 
 exactly balance their tendency to go in because 
 of the attraction of the mass interior to it. When 
 this state was reached he supposed a ring would 
 be left off. . . . Unless the ring were perfectly 
 circular and uniform, and subject to no disturbing 
 influences, it would have a tendency to break, 
 Laplace thought, at some place and to concentrate 
 on the place in it where there was the greatest 
 mass. That is, if there were a nucleus unit at any 
 point, this excess of matter would gradually draw 
 
 to it all the rest of the whole ring, while it would 
 continue to revolve around the sun in the same 
 period as the ring did at the time it was aban- 
 doned. . . . Laplace then supposed the system of 
 planets grew up from a system of rings abandoned 
 successively by the sun, beginning with the outer- 
 most and ending with the innermost. The rings 
 concentrating would give rise to large, globular 
 masses revolving around the sun at their respective 
 distances from it. These globular masses might 
 in turn be rotating so rapidly that they would 
 abandon rings which in a similar manner would 
 give rise to satellites. He supposed that perhaps 
 Saturn's rings were examples of this process in 
 which the satellites were not yet formed. . . . The 
 solar system exists and is in the midst of an evo- 
 lution ; the problem is to trace out the mode of this 
 evolution. The Laplacian theory has been seen 
 to have fatal weaknesses and to be no longer ten- 
 able. We shall now outline a theory which has 
 been developed by Professor Chamberlin and the 
 author to take its place. 
 
 "Instead of supposing that the solar system 
 started from a vast gaseous mass in equilibrium 
 under the law of gravitation and the laws of gas- 
 eous expansion, the Planetesimal Hypothesis postu- 
 lates that the matter of which the sun and clanets 
 are composed was at a previous stage of its evolu- 
 tion in the form of a great spiral swarm of sep- 
 arate particles whose positions and motions were 
 dependent upon their mutual gravitation and their 
 velocities. Gaseous expansion preserved the di- 
 mensions of the Laplacian nebula but had no sen- 
 sible influence in the spiral. Because of the fact 
 that every particule according to this theory is 
 considered as being an essentially independent unit 
 it is called the planetesimal theory. Before con- 
 sidering in detail the planetesimal hypothesis . . . 
 attention should be called to the fact that there is 
 not in all the heavens a single example known of 
 a nebula of the Laplacian type. On the other 
 hand, recent discoveries, particularly those made 
 at the Lick Observatory, show that the spiral nebu- 
 la is not only a common form but is, indeed, the 
 dominant type. There are within range of our 
 instruments at least ten times as many of them as 
 of all other types combined, and they range in 
 extent and brightness from the great Andromeda 
 nebula down to small faint masses which are barely 
 distinguishable with long exposure photograph; 
 taken with the most powerful instruments." — 
 F. R. Moulton, Descriptive astronomy, pp. 23Q- 
 244. 
 
 "In the star-catalogs of the early writers [before 
 the eighteenth century] we find mentioned a class 
 of 'nebulous or cloudy stars.' The telescope proved 
 that the very great majority of these are merely 
 clusters of stars so apparently close together that 
 they shine, except under fairly high magnification, 
 as a blur of misty light. With the improvement 
 of the telescope, however, many other 'patches of 
 light' were found, some of which could be resolved 
 into separate stars, while others could not. The 
 former of these were called star-clusters, and the 
 latter nebulae. There are many thousands of these 
 nebula;; but only about ten thousand of them 
 have been cataloged, and only two are visible to 
 the naked eyes, the great nebula in Andromeda, 
 and the great Orion nebula. For many years 
 (until the end of the eighteenth century], the ne- 
 bula; were considered as anomalies in the cosmic 
 system. Now, however, they are believed to be a 
 regular and usual step in stellar evolution. It is 
 considered that they are stellar systems in embryo." 
 ■ — E, W, Putnam, Essence of astronomy, pp. 128- 
 
 129, 
 
 "The sun is the chief member of our system. It 
 
 579
 
 ASTRONOMY 
 
 Solar system 
 
 ASTRONOMY 
 
 controls the motions of the planets by its im- 
 mense gravitative power. Besides this it is the 
 most important body in the entire universe, so 
 far as we are concerned; for it pours out con- 
 tinually that flood of light and heat, without which 
 life, as we know it, would quickly become extinct 
 upon our globe. ... It is extremely difficult to 
 arrive at a precise notion of the temperature of 
 the body of the sun. However, it is far in e.xcess 
 of any temperature which we can obtain here, 
 even in the most powerful electric furnace. A 
 rough idea of the solar heat may be gathered from 
 the calculation that if the sun's surface were coated 
 all over with a layer of ice 4000 feet thick, it 
 would melt through this completely in one hour. 
 The sun cannot be a hot body merely cooling; for 
 the rate at which it is at present giving off heat 
 could not in such circumstances be kept up, ac- 
 cording to Professor Moullon (1914), for more 
 than jooo years. Further, it is not a mere burn- 
 ing mass, like a coal fire, for instance; as in that 
 case about a thousand years would show a certain 
 drop in temperature. Xo perceptible diminution 
 of solar heat having taken place within historic 
 experience, so far as can be ascertained, we are 
 driven to seek some more abstruse explanation. 
 The theory which seems to have received most ac- 
 ceptance is that put forward by Helmholtz in 1S54. 
 His idea was that gravitation produces continual 
 contraction, or falling in of the outer parts of the 
 sun; and that this falling in, in its turn, generates 
 enough heat to compensate for what is being given 
 off. The calculations of Helmholtz showed that 
 a contraction of about 100 feet a year from the 
 surface towards the centre would suffice for the 
 purpose. In recent years, however, this estimate 
 has been extended to about iSo feet. Nevertheless, 
 even with this increased figure, the shrinkage re- 
 quired is so slight in comparison with the im- 
 mense girth of the sun, that it would take a con- 
 tinual contraction at this rate for about 6000 
 years, to show even in our finest telescope that any 
 change in the size of that body was taking place 
 at all. Upon this assumption of continuous con- 
 traction, a time should, however, eventually be 
 reached when the sun will have shrunk to such a 
 degree of solidity, that it will not be able to shrink 
 any further. Then, the loss of heat not being 
 made up for any longer, the body of the sun should 
 begin to grow cold. But we need not be d'.stressed 
 on this account ; for it will take some 10.000,000 
 years, according to the above theory, before the 
 solar orb becomes too cold to support life upon 
 our earth." — C. G. Dolmage, Astronomy of to-day, 
 pp. I27-I2q. 
 
 "The Moon is the only visible satellite of the 
 Earth, and revolves about it. . . . The diameter of 
 the Moon is 2,162 miles; like Venus and Mercury 
 it shows no polar flattening. Its surface contains 
 about 15,000,000 square miles, about one thirteenth 
 that of the Earth. Its volume is about one fiftieth 
 that of the Earth. ... Its mean distance from 
 the Earth is nearly 230000 miles. Its orbit, like 
 all celestial orbits, is more or less elliptical and its 
 distance may van.' between slightly more than 
 221,000 miles and 253,000 miles. Its usual varia- 
 tion is such, however, that in one revolution it 
 amounts to a difference in distance from us of 
 about 25,000 miles. It revolves around the Earth 
 in 27 days 7 hours 43 minutes and 11.5 seconds. 
 It rotates upon its axis in the same time, and, in 
 consequence, always keeps the same side turned to 
 the Earth, as do Mercury and Venus to the Sun. 
 ... It has no atmosphere, or at least, if any, but 
 the veriest ghost of one. It is for this reason that 
 the details of the lunar surface are so clear-cut 
 when viewed through a telescope, and that the 
 
 shadows are so intensely black. . . . The surface 
 of the moon is broken into great mountain ranges, 
 enormous 'craters,' wide and deep cracks or 'clefts,' 
 and innumerable smaller cracks or rills. The 
 whole of its visible surface has been mapped and 
 measured more carefully and accurately than that 
 of the Earth, and over 30.000 craters have been 
 counted on the Earthw'ard hemisphere. . . . The 
 height of the mountains is enormous in proportion 
 to the size of the Moon, several being over 18,000 
 feet high. The craters vary in size from tiny pits 
 to vast cavities over 100 miles in diameter. Many 
 of the larger craters have great central mountain 
 peaks rising from their floors, and many others 
 show smaller craters within their boundaries." — 
 E. W. Putnam, Essence of astronomy, pp. 38-45. 
 
 Photographic astronomy. — "If we speak of the 
 progress of astronomy in the past fifty years, we 
 must constantly refer to photography, for without 
 it the progress would have been relatively small. 
 Photography as it was when the Dearborn Ob- 
 servatory was young could never have done much 
 for astronomy. It has passed through two periods, 
 the wet and dry processes. It was in the earlier 
 period at that time, where the plate must remain 
 wet throughout the process of making the nega- 
 tive, and was relatively very slow in its action. 
 .\s the plate must remain wet, long exposures could 
 not be given to overcome the want of sensitive- 
 ness. At that time, in the hands of Rutherford, 
 it had pictured the surface of the Moon and had 
 recorded the spots on the Sun. In both these 
 cases there was plenty of light. It had had a try 
 at the Stars but with little success. It had at- 
 tempted to show the great comet of 1858 but had 
 made a failure of it. \o one had even hoped that 
 it could register the forms of the fainter nebulae. 
 It had made no promise to the spectroscope, which 
 itself was just beginning to awaken to the marvels 
 of astronomy. In the application of photography 
 to almost every branch of astronomy the Harvard 
 College Observatory, under the administration of 
 Prof. E. C. Pickering, has attained to the very 
 highest importance. In the case of the discovery 
 of a nova, its early history and the actual time of 
 its appearance within close limits are always found 
 on the plates of this one observatory. The entire 
 history of a variable star can be traced back al- 
 most from day to day for many years and in 
 some cases for over a quarter of a century. 
 Though no new worlds, in the ordinar>' sense, 
 have been discovered there have been added to the 
 known worlds at least eight new moons, five to 
 the planet Jupiter, one to Saturn, and two to Mars. 
 Five of these are due to the sensitiveness of the 
 photographic plate. At least two of them have 
 not yet been seen with the human eye. The 
 known asteroids or small planets, which lie in a 
 zone between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, have 
 increased rapidly until not far from a thousand 
 are now known. The discovery of these small 
 bodies since i8g2, when Dr. Max Wolf first found 
 one by the new process, has been almost wholly 
 due to photography. New ones are constantly 
 being found. Sometimes as many as five or six 
 are shown on one plate. Our knowledge of the 
 Sun has increased tremendously in recent years. 
 This has been due almost entirely to the spectro- 
 scope and to its applications to the spectro helio- 
 graph. The spectroscope has introduced to us a 
 new class of double stars, whose periods in many 
 cases are only a few hours or a few days, and 
 which will never be seen separately with any tele- 
 scope — E. E. Barnard, A few astronomical events 
 of the past fifty years (Scientific American Supple- 
 ment, Dec. 16, iqi6). — See also .^stfol.^be. 
 
 "The discovery of double and multiple stars 
 
 580
 
 ASTRONOMY 
 
 Photography in 
 Modern Research 
 
 ASTRONOMY 
 
 from the effects of the gravitational attraction on 
 their luminous components is known as the 'As- 
 tronomy of the Invisible.' It was first suggested 
 by the illustrious Bessel about 1840. . . . The 
 greatest extension of the Astronomy of the Invisible 
 has been made by Professor Campbell, of the Lick 
 Observatory. In the course of the regular work 
 on the motion of stars in the line of sight, carried 
 out with a powerful spectroscopic apparatus pre- 
 sented to the Observatory by Hon. D. O. Mills, 
 of New York, he has investigated . . . the motion 
 of several hundred of the brighter stars of the 
 northern heavens. . . . With such unprecedented 
 telescopic power and a degree of precision in the 
 spectrograph which can be safely depended upon, 
 it is not unnatural that some new and striking 
 phenomena should be disclosed. These consisted 
 of a large number of spectra with double lines, 
 which undergo a periodic displacement, showing 
 
 "The development of planetary astronomy has 
 not been in keeping with the rapid progress of the 
 science in almost all other directions. This has 
 been due mainly to the fact that, as in the case 
 with the double stars, the magnifying power of the 
 telescopic eyepiece is a necessary factor in the 
 work. The direct image formed by the object 
 glass must be magnified before the components of 
 a close double star can be seen — and the close 
 double stars in general are the most interesting. 
 In the same way the unmagnified image of a 
 planet is so small even in the largest telescopes 
 that the surface features either cannot be seen or 
 are so crowded together that they become one on 
 the photograph. To overcome this difficulty the 
 direct image of a planet must be magnified before 
 it falls on the sensitive plate. Much progress has 
 been made in this direction by the use of a sec- 
 ondary enlarging lens which projects an enlarged 
 
 MOUNT WILSON SOLAR OBSERVATORY 
 
 that the stars in question were in reality double, 
 made up of two components, moving in opposite 
 directions, — one approaching, the other receding 
 from the Earth. There were thus disclosed spec- 
 troscopic binary stars, systems with components 
 so close together that they could not be separated 
 in any existing telescope, yet known to be real 
 binary stars by the periodic behaviour of the lines 
 of the spectra so faithfully registered on different 
 days. . . . 
 
 "Campbell's work at the Lick Observatory de- 
 rives increased importance from its systematic 
 character, which enables us to draw some general 
 conclusions of the greatest interest. He has thus 
 far made known the results of his study of the 
 spectra of two hundred and eighty of the brighter 
 stars of the northern heavens. Out of this num- 
 ber he finds thirty-one spectroscopic binaries, or 
 one ninth of th? whole number of objects studied." 
 — T. J. J. See, Recent progress in astronomy {At- 
 lantic Jltonthly, January, IQ02). 
 
 image of the planet directly on the plate. This 
 process was first used with considerable success 
 by Prof. W. H. Pickering at the temporary station 
 of Harvard University on Mount Wilson in 
 1889. He secured fairly good enlarged images 
 of Saturn and excellent ones of Jupiter at that 
 time with the thirteen inch Boyden telescope and 
 a positive eyepiece to enlarge the image. The real 
 advance in planetary photography, however, is due 
 to Lampland at the Lowell Observatory, who has 
 succeeded in making excellent photographs of the 
 planets — especially of Mars. Similar work has 
 also been carried out at Mount Wilson bv Prof. 
 Hale and at the Yerkes Observatory. Astrono- 
 mers with usual telescopes are greatly indebted 
 to color-filter photography, as adapted by Richey 
 at the Yerkes Observatory to ordinary refractors, 
 which from their nature were not intended for 
 photography. The splendid photographs of the 
 Moon and of the star clusters made by him with 
 the forty-inch telescope were a great advance over 
 
 581
 
 ASTRONOMY 
 
 Measuring 
 the Stars 
 
 ASTRONOMY 
 
 earlier work with regular photographic telescopes. 
 This simple application of the color-filter ami the 
 isochromatic plate has made the forty-inch tele- 
 scope one of the most important instruments for 
 the determination of the distances of the fixed 
 stars. Photographic parallax work was first done 
 with it by Dr. Frank Schlesinger, who showed the 
 remarkable accuracy that could be obtained by 
 this method. Van Moanen has shown that par- 
 allax determinations made with the five-foot re- 
 flector of the Solar Observatory at Mount Wilson 
 (a regular photographic telescope) are of the very 
 highest accuracy. Astronomers now know quite 
 accurately the distances of a large number of the 
 fixed stars. In this way we find that it is not 
 always the brightest stars that are nearest to us. 
 A considerable percentage of the nearest stars are 
 not visible to the naked eye. There are perhaps 
 (if we leave out the work of the spectroscope) no 
 astronomical subjects that have been so vastly 
 benefitted by photography as the nebulcE and the 
 comets — the comets and the nebulfc, which at 
 times look so much alike and at other times are so 
 wonderfully different, and which have no relation- 
 ship in reality. The ordinary photographic plate 
 is sensitive to a region of the spectrum to which 
 the eye is almost blind. Many of the nebula; shine 
 mostly with this light and thus the photograph 
 has a great advantage over the eye, for though 
 seen but dimly they are bright to the photographic 
 plate. Faint ncbulasities whose light could never 
 affect the eye, are finally shown as a clear and 
 accurate picture which can be preserved and stud- 
 ied afterwards for the detection of changes in 
 these bodies." In 1908 appeared Morehouse's 
 comet "which in the telescope was a rather in- 
 significant affair, and which was only feebly visible 
 to the naked eye for almost one day. This object 
 has given us a greater knowledge of the physical 
 conditions of these bodies than all other comets 
 that have appeared. The photographic plate was 
 especially sensitive to its light, while the eye was 
 not. A bewildering amount of structure was shown 
 in its tail, which was frequently twisted and dis- 
 torted in its rapid changes. Several times the tail 
 was discarded and new ones formed within a few 
 hours' time. All of these remarkable peculiarities 
 would have been wholly unknown were it not been 
 for the photographic plate. Through the informa- 
 tion thus gained from this comet and others that 
 preceded it we have learned that though comets 
 are dependent on the Sun for most of their ac- 
 tivity, they really take a larger part in the forma- 
 tion of the tail and the direction of the streamers 
 than we had previously given them credit for. 
 These photographs show that perhaps electrical 
 conditions have much to do with the phenomena 
 of a comet's tail. They also suggest that other 
 forces are at w-ork in the interplanetary spaces 
 than gravity alone. The investigations of Kapteyn 
 on the star streams of the sky gives us an insight 
 into the makeup of our stellar universe that is new, 
 impressive, and of the utmost importance." — E. E. 
 Barnard, A few nstronomical events of the past 
 fifty years (Scientific American Supplement, Dec. 
 16, 1916). — In 1Q14, the ninth satellite of Jup- 
 iter was discovered, in a photographic search con- 
 ducted by Nicholson at the Lick Observatory in 
 California. The satellite accomplishes its revolu- 
 tion in three years, and is the most distant of the 
 satellites. Like the eighth, it has a retrograde 
 motion. In iqis, from perturbations in the orbit 
 of Uranus, Professor Percival Lowell calculated 
 that a trans-Neptunian planet exists with an orbit 
 about 12,000,000,000 miles in diameter. 
 
 Measuring star distances. — Parallax method. 
 — The parallax of a star is its apparent dbplace- 
 
 ment in the sky due to the change in the earth's 
 position in its orbit. It is the angle that 93,- 
 000,000 miles, the distance from the earth to the 
 sun, subtends at the star. Viewed from the vast 
 majority of the stars this base-line shrinks to 
 an immeasurable point. The direct measurement 
 of the parallax of the stars by the triangulation 
 method, by which the star's displacement at dif- 
 ferent times of year is determined either pho- 
 tographically or visually with reference to faint 
 stars so distant as to have zero parallax, is pos- 
 sible only for a few stars near the solar system. 
 The distances of nearly a thousand stars have 
 been determined with more or less accuracy by 
 this method. Since to express the distance of the 
 stars in miles would be as cumbersome and mean- 
 ingless as to express the distance from the earth to 
 the moon or neighboring planets in inches, a 
 new unit for the measurement of stellar dis- 
 tances has been found in the velocity of light. 
 In one second light travels 186,000 miles, in one 
 year it travels nearly six trillion miles. The dis- 
 tance light travels in one year is spoken of as 
 the light year. The triangulation method is long 
 and tedious and care must be taken to avoid sys- 
 tematic as well as accidental errors. The finally 
 determined parallax is usually the result of a 
 large number of independent measurements. At 
 a meeting of the Royal Society on November 6, 
 igiOi its president. Sir J. J. Thompson, is reported 
 to have stated that the Einstein theory was the 
 greatest discovery in connection with gravitation 
 since Newton enunciated that principle. "The 
 Einstein theory may be said to have its origin 
 in an effort to explain the experiment on the 
 so-called ether-drift, made by Professors Michelson 
 and Morely somewhat more than thirty years ago 
 (1S99) at the Western Reserve University. Michel- 
 son suggested that the negative result of the 
 experiment could be accounted for by supposing 
 that the apparatus underwent a shortening in 
 the direction of the line of motion. Later Pro- 
 fessor Lorenz, the Dutch physicist, assumed that 
 everything gets shortened as it moves through 
 space; that the 8.000 miles of the earth diameter 
 is shortened up by three or four inches, an 
 amount sufficient io provide a scientific explanation 
 for the failure of the Michelson and Mofely 
 attempt to detect that the earth was moving 
 through the elher. Then Einstein proposed his 
 generalization that it is impossible to detect the 
 effects of motion, except when it is relative to 
 another material body, or that it is impossible to 
 detect the absolute velocity of any body moving 
 through space." — Principle of relativity and the 
 deflection of light by gravitation {Scientific 
 Monthly, December, 1919, pp. 586-587). — Since the 
 exposition of this theory, photographic plates, 
 taken during the solar eclipse of May 29, igig, 
 show a deflection of the rays of light from the 
 .stars in their passage past the sun that accords 
 with the theoretical degree, 1.7 second of arc, 
 predicted by the relativity theory of Einstein. 
 It has also been confirmed by observation of the 
 motion of the planet Mercury which is in accord 
 with the theory of relativity, but cannot be ac- 
 counted for on the exact assumptions of New- 
 ton's law of gravitation. 
 
 Measuring the size of stars. — Michelson's dis- 
 coveries. — Measuring of Betelgeuse. — "Pro- 
 fessor Albert A. Michelson of the University _ of 
 Chicago, speaking before the .American Association 
 for the Advancement of Science, on Dec. 29 [1920], 
 told of his achievement in measuring the sizes of 
 stars, and of the astounding results shown by 
 his measurement of Betelgeuse (Alpha Orionis), 
 the dull red star in the upper shoulder of Orion. 
 
 582
 
 ASTRONOMY 
 
 ASTURIAS 
 
 The distances of stars have long been measured 
 by means of the parallax, the angle between 
 lines made by viewing a star from two different 
 
 TELESCOPE TOWER, PASADENA, 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
 A tower built within a tower, to prevent wind 
 vibration 
 
 points; but until the perfection of Professor 
 Michelson's 'interferometer' [1887] there had been 
 no known means of direct measurement of a star's 
 
 size. He had been using this instrument for some 
 years in spectroscopic analysis, and even in de- 
 termining the diameter of Jupiter's satellites; but 
 its chief triumph came last Summer at the Mount 
 Wilson Observatory in Southern Cahfornia, when 
 he succeeded in measuring Betelgeuse, 
 
 "If the professor's instrument is correct — and he 
 believes it is — the diameter of Betelgeuse is 260,- 
 000,000 miles, «r 300 times the diameter of our 
 sun, making its volume 27,000,000 times that of 
 the sun. In other words, if Betelgeuse were placed 
 where our sun now is, its solid sphere would 
 extend far beyond the whole ■ orbit in which 
 the earth swings, out almost to the orbit of 
 Mars. 
 
 "Professor Michelson used the eight-foot reflect- 
 ing telescope of the observatory, with the mirror 
 of the telescope obscured by an opaque cap, in 
 which were two slits adjustable in width and dis- 
 tance apart. Thus, when the telescope was focused 
 on a star, it showed, instead of an image of the 
 star, a series of interference bands arranged at 
 equal distances apart and parallel to the two 
 slits. He separated the sUts to a distance at which 
 the fringes disappeared. Then, by a simple 
 formula, he obtained the angle subtended by the 
 star. The distance of the star had been obtained 
 long before by the parallax method, and, having 
 both the distance and the angle, he readily cal- 
 culated the star's diameter, approximately. In its 
 perfected form the interferometer attachment to 
 the telescope has two adjustable mirrors instead 
 of the slits. The great service of the inter- 
 ferometer is that it obviates the atmospheric 
 tremor which has been the chief obstacle in the 
 way of measurements. Heretofore star diameters 
 have been calculated, but have never been actu- 
 ally measured. 
 
 "This achievement by Professor Michelson is the 
 crowning one among many in his long years of 
 experimentation in the phenomena of light. It 
 was the Michelson-Morely light experiment which 
 raised the problem out of which grew the famous 
 Einstein theory of relativity." — New York Times 
 Current History, March, 1021. — For further dis- 
 cussion see Astrology; and Science: Modern: 20th 
 century: Astronomy. 
 
 International societies for I'esearch. See In- 
 ternational ORGANIZATION OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH. 
 
 ASTROWNO, Battle of. See Austria: 1809- 
 1814. 
 
 ASTRUC, Jean (1684-1766), distinguishes Elo- 
 hist and Jahwish records in Genesis. See History: 
 14. 
 
 ASTURIAS, Princes of.— In 1388 the heir of 
 Juan I, Prince Henry, was married to the English 
 duke of Lancaster's daughter. "Thus was the 
 conflict of Pedro I and Henry II [rivals for the 
 crown of Castile, 1363-1369] resolved. Their 
 descendants, though tainted with illegitimacy in 
 both cases, had joined to form the royal family 
 Df Spain. The young prince and his consort took 
 the titles of Prince and Princess of Asturias, 
 which have been used ever since by the heirs 
 to the Spanish throne." — C. E. Chapman, History 
 of Spain, p. 121. 
 
 ASTURIAS, ASTURIANS.— "It has usually 
 been held, although the matter is in dispute, that the 
 Visigoths resisted the invaders continuously at only 
 one point in Spain, — in Asturias. In the moun- 
 tains of Asturias there gathered various nobles , 
 of the centre and south of Spain, a number of 
 bishops, and the remains of the defeated Chris- 
 tian armies, and, aided perhaps by the natives 
 of that land, they prepared to make a stand 
 against the Moslems. . . . Since the invaders re- 
 spected the religion and customs of the conquered, 
 
 583
 
 ASTURIAS 
 
 ASYLUM 
 
 the war of the Christian kingdom of Asturias 
 against them did not at first have a religious or 
 even a racial character. It was a war of the 
 nobles and clergy for the reconquest of their 
 landed estates and of the king for the restora- 
 tion of his royal authority over the peninsula. 
 The little Asturian kingdom was like the old 
 Visigothic state in miniature; for example, there 
 were the struggles between the nohility and the 
 crown for precisely the same objects as formerly. 
 For a century the history of Asturias reduced 
 itself primarily to these quarrels. Nevertheless, 
 the Moslem frontier tended to withdraw from 
 the far northwest, not that the Moslems were 
 forced out by the Christians, but possibly be- 
 cause their own civil wars drew them together 
 in the centre and south, or because their num- 
 bers were not great enough to make them seek 
 the less desirable lands in the northwest. The 
 frontier became fixed south of the Douro along 
 a line running through Coimbra, Coria, Talavera, 
 Toledo, Guadalajara, and Pamplona, although the 
 last-named place was not long retained. It can- 
 not be said that the Christians took a conscious 
 offensive until the eleventh century. In this 
 period, despite the internal dissension of the 
 Moslem state, the Christian frontier did not pass 
 the Guadarrama Mountains e%'en at the most 
 favorable moments, leaving Aragon and central 
 and southern Spain in the enemy's hands. The 
 line of the Douro was far from being held con- 
 sistently, — as witness the conquests of Abd-er- 
 Rahman III and Almansor. The only notable 
 kings of Asturias in the century following the 
 death of Pelayo (737) were Alfonso I 'the Cath- 
 olic' (73g-7S7) and Alfonso II 'the Chaste' (701- 
 842). Both made successful campaigns against 
 the Moslems, although their principal importance 
 was that they brought back many Mozarabes 
 [as the Christians living under Moslem rule were 
 called] from the temporarily conquered regions, 
 and these helped to populate the north. [See also 
 Spain: 713-QSo.] To assure his power Alfonso II 
 sought an alliance with the Holy Roman Em- 
 peror, Charlemagne, and with his son, Louis 
 the Pious. It is this which gave rise to the 
 legend of Bernardo del Carpio, who is said to 
 have compelled the king to forbear making treaties 
 with foreign rulers which lowered the dignity of 
 the Spanish people. Some writers have found in 
 this supposed incident (for the figure of Bernardo 
 Is a later invention) an awakening sense of na- 
 tionalism, but it seems rather to reflect the tradi- 
 tional attitude of the nobility lest the king be- 
 come too strong for them, for real patriotism 
 did not exist. The two Alfonsos did much to 
 reorganize their kingdom internally, and .Mfonso 
 the Chaste moved the capital to Oviedo. In 
 his reign, too, there occurred a religious event 
 of great importance, — the finding of what was 
 believed to be the tomb and body of the apostle 
 Santiago (Saint James) in northwestern Galicia. 
 The site was made the seat of a bishopric, and a 
 village grew up there, named Santiago de Com- 
 postela. Compostela became a leading political 
 and industrial factor in the Christian northwest, 
 but was far more important as a holy place of 
 the first grade, ranking with Jerusalem, Rome 
 and Loreto. Thenceforth, bands of pilgrims not 
 only from Spain but also from all parts of the 
 Christian world came to visit the site, and, 
 .through them, important outside influences began 
 *o filter into Spain. More noteworthy still was 
 the use of the story of the miraculous discovery 
 to fire the Christian warriors with enthusiasm 
 in their battles against the Moslems, especially 
 at a later period, when the war entered upon 
 
 more of a crusading phase." — C. E. Chapman, 
 History of Spain, pp. 54-55- — See also Canta- 
 
 BRIANS AND AsTURIANS. 
 
 1833. — The Province of Asturias received the 
 name of Oviedo, the capital; total area, 4,205 
 square miles; population (1018), 715,476. 
 
 ASTURIAS, a British hospital ship attacked 
 on February i; 1915, by a German submarine. 
 This act was declared by the German ambassador 
 at Washington to have resulted from an error.— 
 See also World War: Miscellaneous auxiliary serv- 
 ices; X. Alleged atrocities and violations of inter- 
 national law: e. 
 
 ASTY, or Astu. — The ancient city of Athens 
 proper, as distinguished from its connected har- 
 bors, was called the Asty, or Astu. — J. A. St. 
 John, Hellenes, bk. i, ch. 4. 
 
 Also in: W. M. Leake, Topography of Athens, 
 sect. 10. 
 
 ASTYAGES, king of the Median empire, 584- 
 549 B.C.; defeated and dethroned the following 
 year by Cyrus the Great, who, according to 
 Herodotus was his (Astyages") grandson. With 
 Media annexed to Persia Cyrus restored Astyages 
 to favor and appointed him satrap of Hyrcania. 
 — See also Persia: B.C. 54Q-521. 
 
 ASTYNOMI, certain police officials in ancient 
 Athens, ten in number. "They were charged 
 with all that belongs to street supervision, e. g., 
 the cleansing of the streets, for which purpose 
 the coprologi, or street-sweepers, were under their 
 orders ; the securing of morality and decent be- 
 haviour in the streets," — G. F. Schomann, An- 
 tiquities of Greece: The State, pt. 3, ch. 3. 
 
 ASUNCION, Nuestra Seiiora de la, the 
 capital of Paraguay, situated on the Paraguay 
 river; founded in 1536 and served as center of 
 Spanish dominion for the following one hundred 
 years. The city is an important commercial cen- 
 ter being connected with Buenos Aires and Monte- 
 video by a number of river steamship lines. See 
 Latin America: Map; Par.^guay: 1515-1557; and 
 1Q02-IQ15. 
 
 ASUNDEN, Battle of (1520). See Scandi- 
 na\ian States; 1307-1522. 
 
 ASURIA. See Assyria: The Land. 
 
 ASYLUM, Right of.— The ancient Greeks held 
 that all temples and altars were inviolable, and 
 that the curse of the gods would rest upon him 
 who took a suppliant from an altar or temple 
 by force. This curse would be transmitted to 
 the descendants of the one who did violence 
 to a suppliant. The curse rested upon the descend- 
 ants of Megacles, archon of Athens, for fully 
 two centuries. .'Vbuses of this right of sanctuary 
 led to the limiting of the number of temples that 
 gave perfect security to the refugee. When Greece 
 came under Roman rule the number of such 
 temples was further reduced. Under the Roman 
 Empire the eagles of the legions and the statues 
 of the emperors gave similar protection. The 
 right of asylum or sanctuary was attached to 
 Christian churches and churchyards. 
 
 Immunity from arrest when asylum is sought 
 on board vessels of war. — "Under the general 
 rule of international law and courtesy it is con- 
 sidered wrong to offer or afford an asylum to 
 a criminal or to a person charged solely with a 
 crime against the state in whose friendly waters 
 a vessel of war happens to be for the time. If, 
 however, a criminal of any kind succeeds in get- 
 ting on board a foreign vessel of war, he can- 
 not be apprehended or followed on board by 
 the police or local authorities. The commanding 
 officer has a right to judge for himself whether 
 the crime charged as non-political is so or is 
 only used as a pretext to prevent asylum being 
 
 584
 
 ASYLUM 
 
 Vessels of War 
 Legations and Embassies 
 
 ASYLUM 
 
 granted lO' a person in flight for his life on ac- 
 count of his political acts. The regulations of 
 the United States navy read as follows upon this 
 subject: 'The right of asylum for political or 
 other refugees has no foundation in international 
 law. In countries, however, where frequent in- 
 surrections occur and constant instability of gov- 
 ernment exists, usage sanctions the granting of 
 asylum; but even in the waters of such coun- 
 tries, officers should refuse all applications for 
 asylum except when required by the interests of 
 humanity in extreme or exceptional cases, such 
 as the pursuit of a refugee by a mob. Officers 
 must not, directly or indirectly, invite refugees 
 to accept asylum.' It is hardly necessary to 
 add that a rigid impartiality should prevail in 
 all such cases between political parties, and that 
 refugees granted asylum should not be allowed 
 to open nor maintain communication with the 
 shore for political or any other purpose. In for- 
 mer times, when slavery existed in countries that 
 were classed as enlightened, it was customary to 
 surrender fugitive slaves who had sought refuge 
 on board vessels of war. This was urged as a 
 policy of the United States in the earlier days 
 of the republic. Since slavery is now practically 
 abolished by all members of the family of nations, 
 the right of such slaves to refuge and freedom 
 has become the usage. By Article 28 of the 
 general act of the Brussels conference relative 
 to the African slave trade, signed July 2, i8qo, 
 and ratified by the United States and most of the 
 civilized states, it is agreed that any slave who 
 may have taken refuge on board a ship of war 
 flying the flag of one of the signatory powers 
 shall be immediately and definitely freed. Such 
 freedom, however, shall not withdraw him from 
 the competent jurisdiction if he has committed a 
 crime or offence at common law. Before clos- 
 ing this portion of the subject which deals with 
 the conduct and privileges and obligations of the 
 officers and men of a man-of-war in foreign ports, 
 it is well to give an article of the United States 
 Navy Regulations upon the subject of their deal- 
 ings with foreigners when in foreign ports. The 
 <:ommander-in-chief of a fleet, or in his absence 
 Ihe commanding officer, is directed to 'impress 
 upon all officers and men that when in foreign 
 ports it is their duty to avoid all possible causes 
 .of offence to the authorities or inhabitants; that 
 due deference must be shown by them to the 
 local laws, customs, ceremonies, and regulations; 
 Ihat in all dealings with foreigners moderation and 
 courtesy should be displayed, and that a feeling 
 of good-will and mutual respect should be cul- 
 tivated.' No officer or man can be allowed 
 to violate the jurisdiction on shore by arresting 
 or attempting to arrest a deserter or straggler 
 from his vessel. If any officer or member of 
 the crew while on shore commits an offence 
 against the laws of the country, the local author- 
 ities have jurisdiction over such persons while 
 they are on shore and may cause them to be 
 arrested while there and to be tried and punished 
 in accordance with the laws of the foreign state. 
 The commanding officer of the vessel, or the ad- 
 miral if he should be present, should be at once 
 informed of the arrest and the causes which led 
 to it, so that either he or the diplomatic or 
 consular agents of his government may procure 
 the return of the person accused to his vessel 
 or be enabled to observe the manner of treat- 
 ment and trial. If the offender, however, escapes 
 to his vessel he cannot be apprehended by the 
 local authorities; but the commanding officer can, 
 if he sees fit, without loss of dignity or prestige, 
 surrender the offender for trial and punishment by 
 
 the local courts, or the matter can be left to 
 the usual diplomatic channels, as mentioned 
 above." — C, H. Stockton, Outlines of international 
 law, pp. 163-164. 
 
 Right of asylum in legations and embaSsiei. 
 — "The privileges of immunity from local juris- 
 diction do not embrace the right of asylums 
 for persons outside of a representative's diplo- 
 matic or personal household. In regard to the 
 right of asylum Bynkershoek states very strongly 
 'that, whether common sense, the reason of the 
 thing, or the end and object of embassies be 
 considered, there is not even that faint color of 
 reason which the most absurd pretensions can 
 generally put forth to be alleged in favor of 
 such a custom.' Spain seems to be the only na- 
 tion in Europe in which the right of asylum 
 for political refugees is sanctioned or tolerated in 
 later years. In the revolutionary period of 1865- 
 75, which in respect of disorder and violence re- 
 produced the decade of 1840-50, the practice was 
 resumed. In 1873, after the abdication of Amadeus, 
 Marshal Serrano, who had taken an active part 
 in placing that prince on the throne, was hunted 
 by a mob. He fled from house to house, but 
 at last repaired to the abode of the British min- 
 ister, Mr. Layard, who subsequently disguised 
 him and accompanied him by rail to Santander, 
 where he embarked for St. Jean de Luz. Secre- 
 tary Fish in a letter to Mr. Caleb Gushing, our 
 minister to Spain in 1875, says: 'The frequency 
 of resort in Spain to the legations for refuge 
 and the fact mentioned by you that nobody there 
 disputes the claim of asylum but that it has 
 become, as it were, the common law of the land 
 may be accounted for by the prevalence of 'con- 
 spiracy as a means of changing a cabinet or a 
 government,' and the continued tolerance of the 
 usage is an encouragement of this tendency to 
 conspiracy. It is an annoyance and embarrass- 
 ment probably to the ministers whose legations are 
 thus used but certainly to the governments of 
 those ministers, and, as facilitating and encourag- 
 ing chronic conspiracy and rebellion, it is wrong 
 to the government and to the people where it 
 is practised — a wrong to the people, even though 
 the ministry of the time may not remonstrate, 
 looking to the possibility of finding a convenient 
 shelter when their own day of reckoning and 
 of flight may come.' To a limited extent the 
 practice of asylum still exists in certain Spanish- 
 American countries. In these countries, where fre- 
 quent insurrections occur and consequent instability 
 of government exists, the practice of seeking 
 asylum has become so firmly established that it 
 is often invoked by unsuccessful insurgents and 
 is practically recognized by the local government. 
 'The government of the United States does not 
 sanction the usage and enjoins upon its repre- 
 sentatives in such countries the avoidance of all 
 pretexts for its e.xercfse. While mdisposed to 
 direct its representatives to deny temporary shel- 
 ter to any person whose life may be threatened by 
 mob violence, it deems it proper to mstruct them 
 that it will not countenance them in any attempt 
 knowingly to harbor offenders against the laws 
 from the pursuit of the legitimate agents of jus- 
 tice.' " — C. H. Stockton, Outlines of international 
 law, pp. 210-211. — See also Exterritoriality: Ap- 
 plication to diplomatic agents. 
 
 Arrest of Mason and Slldell. See U. S. A.: 
 1861 (November). 
 
 Right of asylum on merchant ships. — "Apart 
 from acts affecting their internal order and disci- 
 pline and not disturbing the peace of the port, 
 merchant vessels, as a rule, enjoy no exemption 
 from local jurisdiction. It is, therefore, generally 
 
 585
 
 ASYLUM 
 
 On Merchant Ships 
 
 ASYLUM 
 
 laid down that they cannot grant asylum. Cer- 
 tain cases in which opposite ground was taken, 
 especially as to passengers in transit, are here- 
 with mentioned as matters of interest and in- 
 formation. The case of Sotelo is one of interest 
 and is given by Moore as follows: 'In 1840 the 
 French packet-boat L'Ocean, which made regular 
 voyages between Marseilles and the coast of Spain 
 and Gibraltar, received on board, at her anchor- 
 age at Valencia, M. Sotelo, a Spanish ex-min- 
 ister who was under prosecution for political 
 offences. The vessel, having put to sea without 
 knowledge of the number and personality of the 
 passengers who had embarked, entered the port of 
 Alicante, where, during the customs and police 
 inspection, M. Sotelo was recognized, seized, taken 
 ashore, and imprisoned. The captain of L'Ocean 
 protested against what he described as a viola- 
 tion of his flag and in vain demanded that his 
 passenger be set at liberty, invoking at the same 
 time the right of asylum and the principle of 
 extraterritoriality. Diplomatic communications on 
 the subject which were exchanged between the 
 governments of France and Spain established it 
 in the clearest manner that the conduct of the 
 authorities at Alicante was above reproach; that 
 no injury was done to the flag, since the acts 
 in question pertained to an ordinary merchant 
 ship and to a high measure of police power ex- 
 ecuted inside the port; that M. Sotelo, sur- 
 reptitiously embarked at Valencia, a Spanish port, 
 could have been regularly seized and arrested on 
 L'Ocean at another port of the same country; 
 and, finally, that the fact that she had been 
 on the high seas a certain time before entering 
 Alicante could not alter the nature of the act 
 done at the place of departure and proved at 
 the place of arrival, under the dominion of the 
 same laws and of the same territorial legisla- 
 tion.' 
 
 "The case of Gamez [1885] was that of a 
 political fugitive from Nicaragua who voluntarily 
 took passage at San Jose de Guatemala for 
 Punta Arenas, Costa Rica, on board the Pacific 
 mail steamship Honduras, knowing that the vessel 
 would enter en route the port of San Juan 
 del Sur, Nicaragua. Upon learning the fact of 
 his being on board this steamer, the government 
 of Nicaragua ordered the commandant of the port 
 of San Juan del Sur, Nicaragua, to arrest Gamez 
 upon the' arrival of the Honduras. When the 
 Honduras reached San Juan the authorities of 
 that port requested the captain of the steamer 
 to deliver up Mr. Gamez, which he declined to 
 do, and set sail without proper clearance papers. 
 Of this case Mr. Bayard, the secretary of state, 
 says: 'It is clear that Mr. Gamez voluntarily 
 entered the jurisdiction of a country whose laws 
 he had violated.' Under the. circumstances, it 
 was plainly the duty of the captain of the Hon- 
 duras to deliver him up to the local authorities 
 upon their request. It may be safely affirmed 
 that when a merchant vessel of any country 
 visits the ports of another for the purposes of 
 trade it owes temporary allegiance and is amen- 
 able to the jurisdiction of that country and is 
 subject to the laws which govern the port it 
 visits so long as it remains, unless it is otherwise 
 provided by treaty. Any exemption or immunity 
 from local jurisdiction must be derived from the 
 consent of that country. No such exemption is 
 made in the treaty of commerce and navigation 
 concluded between this country and Nicaragua, 
 on the 2ist day of June, 1867.' In the Bar- 
 rundia case [1800] the facts were as follows: 
 General Barrundia, an ex-minister of war of 
 Guatemala, had been attempting for some time 
 
 to incite an insurrection in Guatemala from his 
 temporary residence within the Mexican border, 
 Guatemala being at war with Salvador at the 
 time. When, upon complaint of Guatemala, the 
 government of Mexico required Barrundia to 
 leave the borders of Guatemala, he proceeded with 
 two of his followers to Acapulco, a Mexican 
 port, and embarked on board an American mail- 
 steamer ostensibly for Panama, but with reasonable 
 certainty for Salvador, to join the Salvadoran 
 forces against Guatemala. Upon reaching a 
 Guatemalan port, Champerico, his arrest was de- 
 termined upon by the Guatemalan authorities, but 
 the master of the mail-steamer declined to give 
 him up without the written authority of the 
 American minister resident in Guatemala City. 
 Upon arrival at San Jose, the second Guatemalan 
 port of call, the letter of the minister was 
 brought on board by the arresting force, which 
 advised the master to give Barrundia up to the 
 Guatemalan officials, stating that the government 
 had promised that his life would be spared. The 
 arrest was then permitted, but Barrundia, resist- 
 ing arrest with firearms, was killed on board the 
 steamer by the officials attempting arrest. The 
 American minister was removed by the govern- 
 ment of the United States for authorizing the 
 arrest, and the senior naval officer of the United 
 States in port, commanding the U.S.S. Ranger, 
 was relieved from his command for not offering 
 an unsolicited asylum to Barrundia on board of his 
 vessel. The Guatemalan Government desired the 
 arrest of Barrundia both for common crimes and as 
 an enemy of the country within its borders. The 
 arrest was desired as a matter of self-preserva- 
 tion, as Barrundia was on his way to wage war 
 from the southern border, as he already had 
 attempted to do upon the northern border. It 
 can hardly be claimed that Barrundia possessed 
 immunity from arrest because he was on board 
 of a merchant vessel carrying the American flag, 
 as there is no foundation in international law for 
 this position. As to offering an unsolicited asylum 
 on board the Ranger, it is needless to say that the 
 position of both the State and Navy Departments 
 is in opposition to such voluntary action. The 
 reason given for claiming immunity from arrest 
 under the circumstances is that an exceptional rule 
 should be adopted or usage acknowledged to 
 exist in Spanish-American states which is in viola- 
 tion of their rights as sovereign states. Secre- 
 tary Grcsham's letter of December 30, 1803, must 
 be conceded to give the final and authoritative 
 statement of our policy in the matter. In the 
 paragraph that is applicable to the Barrundia 
 case he states as follows: 'The so-called doc- 
 trine of asylum having no recognized application 
 to merchant vessels in port, it follows that a 
 ship-master can found no exercise of his discre- 
 tion on the character of the offence charged. 
 There can be no analogy to proceedings in ex- 
 tradition when he permits a passenger to be ar- 
 rested by the arm of the law. He is not com- 
 petent to determine whether the offence is one 
 justifying surrender or whether the evidence in 
 the case is sufficient to warrant arrest and commit- 
 ment for trial or to impose conditions upon the 
 arrest. His function is passive merely, being 
 confined to permitting the regular agents of the 
 law, on exhibition of lawful warrant, to make 
 the arrest. The diplomatic and consular repre- 
 sentatives of the United States in the country 
 making the demand are as incompetent to order 
 surrender by way of 9«a.«'-extradition as the ship- 
 master is to actively deliver the accused. This 
 was established in the celebrated Barrundia case 
 by the disavowal and rebuke of Minister Mizner's 
 
 586
 
 ASYUT DAM 
 
 ATHAPASCAN FAMILY 
 
 action in giving lo tlie Guatemalan autliorities 
 an order for the surrender of the accused. If 
 it were generally understood that the masters of 
 American merchantmen are to permit the orderly 
 operations of the law in ports of call, as re- 
 gards persons on board accused of crime com- 
 mitted in the country to which the port per- 
 tains it is probable, on the one hand, that oc- 
 casions of arrest would be less often invited by 
 the act of the accused in taking passage with a 
 view to securing supposed asylum and, on the 
 other hand, that the regular resort to justice 
 would replace the reckless and offensive resort to 
 arbitrary force against an unarmed ship which, 
 when'threatened or committed, has in more than 
 one instance constrained urgent remonstrance on 
 the part of this government.' " — C. H. Stockton, 
 Outlines of international law, pp. 169-173. — See also 
 Hague conference: 1007. 
 
 ASYUT (Assiut) DAM. See Egypt: i8g8- 
 1901. 
 
 ATABEGS, Attabegs, or Attabecks.— "From 
 the decline of the dynasty of Seljook to the con- 
 quest of Persia by Hulakoo Khan, the son of 
 Chenghis, a period of more than a century, that 
 country was distracted by the contests of petty 
 princes, or governors, called Attabegs, who, tak- 
 ing advantage of the v/eakness of the last Sel- 
 jookian monarchs, and of the distractions which 
 followed their final extinction, established their 
 authority over some of the finest provinces of 
 the Empire. Many of these petty dynasties 
 acquired such a local fame as, to this day, gives 
 an importance to their memory with the inhabi- 
 tants of the countries over which they ruled 
 
 The word Attabeg is Turkish: it is a compound 
 word of 'atta,' master, or tutor, and 'beg,' lord; 
 and signifies a governor, or tutor, of a lord or 
 prince." — J. Malcolm, History of Persia, v. i, cli. 9. 
 — "It is true that the Atabeks appear but a short 
 space as actors on the stage of Eastern history; 
 but these 'tutors of princes' occupy a position 
 neither insignificant nor unimportant in the course 
 of events which occurred in Syria and Persia 
 at the time they flourished." — W. H. Morley, 
 Preface to Mirkhond's history of the Atabeks. — 
 See also Saladin", Empire of. 
 
 ATACAMA: Taken from Bolivia by Peru, 
 Dispute over. See Chile: 1804-1900. 
 
 ATAHUALPA, son of the Peruvian sovereign, 
 Huayna Capac, at whose death (1527) he be- 
 came ruler of Quito while his brother, Huascar, 
 succeeded his father. War broke out between 
 the two brothers and Atahualpa, 'the last of the 
 Incas,' succeeded in capturing his brother and 
 threw him into prison Pizarro tri. J to force the 
 Inca to accept the Roman Catholic faith, give 
 up his kingdom to Spanish rule and pay tribute 
 to Charles V. Atahualpa refused Pizarro's con- 
 ditions, was seized and was condemned to death 
 for plotting against the Spaniards. He. however, 
 accepted the Christian faith and received bap- 
 tism. For this his sentence was commuted from 
 death at the stake to strangulation. — See also 
 Peru: 15.^1-1533. 
 
 ATAKPAME, a town in southern Togoland 
 on the coast of Guinea, Africa, captured by the 
 British in 1914. See World War: 1914: VI. Af- 
 rica: a. 
 ATAMAN, or Hetman (title). See Cossacks, 
 ATAULF, AtawuU, or Ataulphus (d. 415), 
 king of the West Goths. Evacuated Italy 412; 
 conquered Aquitaine; went to Spain to subdue the 
 Vandals and Suevi. See Barbarian invasions: 408- 
 423- 
 
 ATAULPHUS. See Ataulf, or Atawulf or 
 Ataulphus (d. 415). 
 
 ATBARA, a river in the Sudan. See StniAN: 
 1014. 
 
 Battle of (1808). See Egypt: 1897-1898. 
 
 ATCHIN. See Achin. 
 
 ATCHINSON, David Rice (1807-1886), Amer- 
 ican politician. Strong agitator for the passage of 
 the Kansas-Nebraska act, which would involve the 
 repeal of the Missouri Compromise. See U. S. A.: 
 1853-1854. 
 
 ATELIERS NATIONAUX, Paris (1848). 
 See France: 184S; and 1848 (April-December). 
 
 ATH, a town southwest of Brussels in the prov- 
 ince of Hainaut, Belgium. 
 
 1597. — Captured by French. See France: 169s- 
 1696. 
 
 1706. — Taken by Marlborough. See Nether- 
 lands: 1706-1707. 
 
 ATHABASCA, a region of the Canadian 
 Northwest (covering 251,300 square miles), for- 
 nierly a distinct political division, but in 1905 
 divided between Alberta and the new province of 
 Saskatchewan; in 1912 the east part was included 
 in Manitoba. The western territory, now in 
 Alberta, is highly fertile; wheat, potatoes, and 
 the hardier cereals are raised in abundance. 
 Athabasca also gives name to a river and a lake. 
 — See also Canada: 1905. 
 
 ATHALARIC (516-534), king of the Ostro- 
 goths. 
 
 ATHALAYAS. See Sardinia, The Island: 
 Name and early historv. 
 
 ATHALIAH: Worship of Baal. See Jerusa- 
 lem: B.C. 1400-700. 
 
 ATHANAGILD (d. 547), king of the Visi- 
 goths in Spain. 
 
 ATHANARIC (d. 381), ruler of the Visigoths, 
 with the title of jud e. 
 ATHANASIAN CREED. See Ahianism; 
 
 NiC.EA. 
 
 AT,HANASIUS, Saint (293-373), bishop of 
 Alexandria. Chief opponent of Arianism at the 
 Council of Nicsa (Nice) in 325. See Arianism; 
 Monasticism: Primitive forms; Nic.ea. 
 
 ATHAPASCAN FAMILY: Chippewyans.— 
 Tinneh. — Sarcees. — "This name [Athapascans or 
 Athabascans] has been applied to a class of tribes 
 who are situated north of the great Churchill 
 river, and north of the source of the fork of the 
 Saskatchawine, extending westward till within 
 about 150 miles of the Pacific Ocean. . . . The 
 name is derived, arbitrarily, from Lake Athabasca, 
 which is now more generally called the Lake of the 
 Hills. Surrounding this lake extends the tribe of 
 the Chippewyans, a people so-called by the Kenis- 
 tenos and Chippewas, because they were found to 
 be clothed, in some primary encounter, in the 
 scanty garb of the fisher's skin. ... We are in- 
 formed by Mackenzie that the territory occupied 
 by the Chippewyans extends between the parallels 
 of 60° and 65° north and longitudes from 100° to 
 no west." — H. R. Schoolcraft, Information re- 
 specting the Indian tribes, pt. $, p. 172. — "The 
 Tinneh may be divided into four great families of 
 nations; namely, the Chippewyans, or Athabascas, 
 living between Hudson Bay and the Rocky Moun- 
 tains; the Tacullies, or Carriers, of New (Taledonia 
 or North-western British America; the Kutchins, 
 occupying both banks of the Upper Yukon and its 
 tributaries, from near its mouth to the Mackenzie 
 River, and the Kenai, inhabiting the interior from 
 the lower Yukon to Copper River." — H. H. Ban- 
 croft, Native races of the Pacific states, ch. 2. — 
 "The Indian tribes of Alaska and the adjacent re- 
 gion may be divided into two groups . . . : i. Tin- 
 neh — Chippewyans of authors. . . . Father Petitot 
 discusses the terms Athabaskans, Chippewayans, 
 
 587
 
 ATHARVAVEDA 
 
 ATHEISM 
 
 Montagnais, and Tinneh as applied to this group 
 of Indians. . . . This great family includes a large 
 number of American tribes extending from near 
 the mouth of the Mackenzie south to the borders 
 of Mexico. The Apaches and Navajos belong to it, 
 and the family seems to intersect the continent of 
 North America in a northerly and southerly direc- 
 tion, principally along the flanks of the Rocky 
 Mountains. . . . The designation [Tinneh] pro- 
 posed by Messrs. Ross and Gibbs has been accepted 
 by most modern ethnologists. ... 2. T'Unkets," 
 which family includes the Yakutats and other 
 groups.— W. H. Dall, Tribes of the extreme North- 
 west (Contributions to A'. .4m. Ethnology, v. i). — 
 "Wherever found, the members of this group pre- 
 sent a certain family resemblance. In appearance 
 they are tall and strong, the forehead low with 
 prominent superciliary ridges, the eyes slightly ob- 
 lique, the nose prominent but wide toward the 
 base, the mouth large, the hands and feet small. 
 Their strength and endurance are often phenome- 
 nal, but in the North, at least, their longevity is 
 slight, few living beyond fifty. Intellectually they 
 rank below most of their neighbors, and nowhere 
 do they appear as fosterers of the germs of civiliza- 
 tion. Where, as among the Navajos, we find them 
 having some repute for the mechanical arts, it 
 turns out that this is owing to havini; captured and 
 adopted the members of m.ore gifted tribes. . . . 
 Agriculture was not practised either in the north or 
 south, the only exception being the Navajos, and 
 with them the inspiration came from other stocks. 
 . . . The most cultured of their bands were the 
 Navajos, whose name is said to signify 'large corn- 
 fields,' from their extensive agriculture. When the 
 Spaniards first met them in 1541 they were tillers 
 of the soil, erected large granaries for their crops, 
 irrigated their fields by artificial water courses or 
 acequias, and Hved in substantial dwellings, partly 
 underground; but they had not then learned the art 
 of weaving the celebrated 'Navajo blankets,' that 
 being a later acquisition of their artisans." — D. G. 
 Brinton, American race, pp. 60-72. — See also 
 Apache croup; Blackfeet; Indians, American: 
 Cultural areas in North America: North Pacific 
 coast area; also Southwest area; and Linguistic 
 characteristics. 
 
 ATHARVAVEDA. See Mythology: India: 
 Unparalleled length of life. 
 
 ATHEISM, a mode of thought resting on total 
 disbelief in the existence of a God. It should 
 not be confounded with agnosticism (q. v.), which 
 is a profession of ignorance on the subject of a 
 possible deity, nor with deism, which admits a 
 God of nature, unrevealed except in his works. 
 Unlike the different systems of pantheism, poly- 
 theism and non-Christian theism, as well as the 
 several distinct religions based on a belief in 
 some form of immediate revelation, atheism con- 
 tains no body of doctrine, and is consistent with 
 many widely differing views of the universe. In 
 the case of many modern scientists and philoso- 
 phers, it consists simply in the tacit omission 
 of God from their conception of the universe 
 and in the formation of hypotheses to account for 
 the existence and development of the cosmos with- 
 out any interposition cA deity. Atheism has 
 been improperly used as a term of reproach 
 against dissenters from prevailing religious doc- 
 trine. Thus, Socrates was condemned to death 
 as an atheist, although the exponent of a pure 
 belief in God. A like reproach was brought by 
 the polytheistic world against the early Chris- 
 tians. Spinoza, whose philosophy posited God as 
 the one reality, was nevertheless branded as an 
 atheist, as in modem times have been Thomas 
 Paine, the deist, and Colonel Robert G. Inger- 
 
 soll, the eloquent champion of agnosticism. The 
 most notable atheists of antiquity were Deraocritus 
 and Leucippus in Greece and Lucretius in Rome. 
 Among its strongest partisans in later times may 
 be cited d'Holbach and Feuerbach in the 
 eighteenth and Charles Bradlaugh in the nine- 
 teenth century. At the present time, the more 
 radical wing of the Freethought and various anti- 
 clerical movements which are organized and active 
 in various countries denominates itself as atheistic. 
 "In 1674 Hume, at a dinner in Paris, hap- 
 pened to say that he had never chanced to meet 
 an atheist. 'You have been somewhat unfor- 
 tunate,' said his host; 'but at the present moment 
 you are sitting at table with seventeen of them.' 
 Indeed, it is altogether probable that in no 
 other age has the great mass of intelligent per- 
 sons so uniformly endeavored to fulfill the law 
 of atheistic philosophy and rid themselves of 
 'the fear of invisible powers.' Horace Walpole, 
 who would scarcely be classed among radical 
 Christians, writes with fine sarcasm from France 
 in 1765, 'They think me quite profane for hav- 
 ing any belief left.' Yet it is possible that as 
 in so many aspects of French life a reaction had 
 set in by 1780, for the more atheistic philosophy 
 of Diderot had quite given way to the teachings 
 of Rousseau, in which the idea of God played 
 no small logical part. The philosophical opin- 
 ions contained in the Encyclopedia itself are by 
 no means conservative, as its history may very 
 well suggest, but it gave its name to the group 
 of scholars and philosophers most intimately con- 
 cerned in its production, and the philosophical 
 and political opinions expressed in other works 
 of these Encyclopedists were radical in the extreme. 
 In religion they did not stop with the deism of 
 \'o;taire, plead with them though he might, but 
 they attacked not only Christianity, but immor- 
 tality and God as well. If, according to Voltaire, 
 God wound up the universe like a clock, and 
 then from unknown space watched it go, accord- 
 ing to Diderot, D'Alembert, Helvetius, Holbach, 
 and their confreres there never was any God, 
 and the universe wound up itself. In politics 
 they were quite as extreme .^s for morality, 
 Diderot will have none of such conventions as 
 marriage, and champions the most extreme of 
 free-love doctrines. He finds in the 'natural,' 
 the uncivilized man the ideal being, and believes 
 thit he continues to live in every person. To 
 give this 'natural man' free scope was the ideal 
 of the Encyclopedist school. Government was 
 'a mere handful of knaves' who impose their yoke 
 upon men. 'We see.' they said, 'on the face of 
 the globe only incapable, unjust sovereigns, en- 
 ervated by luxury, corrupted by flattery, de- 
 praved through unpunished license, and without 
 talent, morals, or good qualities.' And all this 
 philosophical madness was set forth with such a 
 wealth of learning and such a delightful self- 
 assurance that the philosophers of France and 
 the brilliant talkers of the salons were soon 
 atheists and anarchists of the most fashionable 
 sort. When these enthusiasts went further and 
 preached doctrines of natural rights to the masses, 
 results could not fail to be revolutionary. In 
 truth the theorists of the eighteenth century were 
 summoning a dangerous genius when they under- 
 took to inspire restless, ignorant^ ill-regulated 
 minds with dreams of liberty. Voltaire put the 
 matter to the Encyclopedists distinctly: 'Phi- 
 losophize between yourselves as much as you please. 
 I fancy I hear dilettanti giving for their own 
 pleasure a refined music ; but take good care 
 not to perform this concert before the ignorant, 
 the brutal, the vulgar; they might break youi 
 
 588
 
 ATHEISM 
 
 ATHENS 
 
 instruments over your heads. ' It was this same 
 sense of the danger attending the destructive philos- 
 ophy of the day that led to Voltaire's other re- 
 mark: 'Atheism and fanaticism are two mon- 
 sters which may tear society to pieces. ' But 
 neither the Encyclopedists nor these philanthropic 
 enemies of the privileges upon which they de- 
 pended for their incomes saw the wisdom of the 
 observation, and the ferment was ever the 
 greater." — S. Mathews, French revolution, pp. 48, 
 62-63, 85-86. — "Men who cherished the opin- 
 ions of Voltaire and the Encyclopedists confused 
 their contempt of Catholicism with love of coun- 
 try. The [French Revolutionary] Convention 
 [elected 1792] gave countenance to this feeling 
 by adopting a new calendar and by substituting 
 for the Christian era a new republican era. In 
 the same anti-Christian spirit they welcomed 
 deputations which offered at the bar of the Con- 
 vention the spoils of parish churches. . . . The 
 radicals of the Commune concluded that they were 
 in the presence of a great popular movement which 
 would lift to supreme influence those who man- 
 aged to appear as its leaders. They forced 
 Gobel, metropolitan bishop of Paris, and his vicars, 
 to proceed to the Convention and renounce their 
 offices. Three days later, on November 10, they 
 organized a festival of liberty in the cathedral 
 of Notre Dame, transformed for the occasion into 
 a 'Temple of Reason.' In the municipal council 
 they ventured still further, voting to close all 
 churches in Paris and to place the priests under 
 surveillance. The Convention was at first in- 
 timidated by the Parisian phase of the movement, 
 and many of the ecclesiastics among its members 
 renounced their functions or abjured their faith. 
 A few, led by Bishop Gregoire, stood firm. The 
 most influential men in the Convention and in 
 the Committee of Public Safety realized that such 
 a movement would compromise the cause of the 
 Republic abroad, foment civil strife at home, and 
 jeopardize the national defense. Robespierre be- 
 came the spokesman of this feeling and denounced 
 the leaders of the movement as ill-disguised emis- 
 saries of the invader. The Convention solemnly 
 reaffirmed the liberty of worship, but threw so 
 many qualifications about the act that in most 
 cases the decree remained a dead letter Notre 
 Dame was still called the Temple of Reason, and 
 the movement spread from Paris to other large 
 towns, sometimes supported by the 'deputies on 
 mission,' occasionally restrained by them. . . . Be- 
 fore the anti-Christian movement ran its course it 
 led to violent factional struggles within the 
 
 Jacobin party and was responsible for a long 
 list of proscriptions. The faction which had or- 
 ganized the festival of liberty and the Worship 
 of Reason was called Ilebertist because its lead- 
 ing member was Hebert, assistant city solicitor and 
 editor of the Pere Duchesne." — H. E. Bourne, Rev- 
 olutionary period in Europe, pp. 210-212. — See 
 also Deism ; TimsM. 
 ATHEL, ATHELING, ATHELBONDE. See 
 
 ATHELBY. See Adel, Adeling; ^ihel. 
 
 ATHELNEY, a small district in the county of 
 Somerset, England, at one time an island, famous 
 as the retreat of Alfred the Great in 878-879, 
 where he planned the overthrow of the Danes. 
 
 ATHELSTANE, or Aethelstan (895-940), 
 king of the West Saxons. Defeated the Danes and 
 Celts at Brunanburgh 937. By marriages, brought 
 England into close touch with the continent. See 
 England: 03S. 
 
 ATHENA, also called by the Greeks Pallas 
 Athene, and by the Romans Minerva, the god- 
 dess of knowledge, arts, sciences and righteous 
 wars. She, together with Zeus and Apollo con- 
 stituted a triad, regarded as the embodiment of 
 all divine power. To her as the patron deity 
 of Athens, the Acropolis was dedicated and the 
 Parthenon erected. (See also Athens: B.C. 461- 
 431: General aspect of Periclean Athens.) Many 
 other temples were built in her honor, notably 
 at /Egine, Assus, and Syracuse. (See also 
 Temples: Stage of culture represented by temple 
 architecture.) Among the most famous of the 
 ancient representations of her were the colossal 
 bronze statue on the Acropolis, known as Athena 
 the Defender, and the ivory and gold statue In 
 the Parthenon. 
 
 ATHENIAN CONSTITUTION. See Athens: 
 B.C. 650-594- 
 
 ATHENIAN CONTINENTAL LEAGUE, 
 Fall of. See Athens: B. C. 447. 
 
 ATHENIAN EMPIRE: Formed after revolts 
 of Allies. See Athens: B.C. 466-461; and Eu- 
 rope: .Ancient: Greek civilization: Political develop- 
 ment. 
 
 ATHENIAN FAMILY FESTIVAL. See 
 Apaturia. 
 
 ATHENRY, Battle of.— The most desperate 
 battle fought by the Irish in resisting the Eng- 
 lish conquest of Ireland. They were terribly 
 slaughtered and the chivalry of Connaught was 
 crushed. The battle occurred Aug. 10, 13 16. — 
 M. Haverty, History of Ireland, p. 282.— See also 
 Ireland: 1314-1318. 
 
 ATHENS 
 
 B. C. 1000-700. — Attica in the Mycenaean Age. 
 — Unification of Attica with Athens the metrop- 
 olis. — "When recorded history begins, the story 
 of Athens is the story of Attica, the inhabitants 
 of Attica are Athenians. But Attica, like its 
 neighbour Boeotia and other countries of Greece, 
 was once occupied by a number of independent 
 states" (J. B. Bury, History of Greece, p. 163), 
 "each having its own court-house . . . and mag- 
 istrates . . . and uniting only under a central gov- 
 ernment in times of some pressing national danger. 
 At times there was even war between these com- 
 munes, as between the Eleusinians under Eumolpus 
 and the Athenians under Erectheus; and, since 
 some of the small independent states of early 
 Greece subdued one another, a part of the unity 
 of Attica may have been the result of conquest. 
 But the main bond of union seems to have been 
 
 religion." — A. H. J. Greenidge, Handbook of Greek 
 constitutional history, p. 125. — See also Attica. 
 — "Of all the lordships between Mount Cithaeron 
 and Cape Sunium the two most important were 
 those of Eleusis and Athens, severed from one 
 another by the hill-chain of Aegaleos. It was 
 upon Athens, the stronghold in the midst of the 
 Cephisian plain, five miles from the sea, that 
 ' destiny devolved the task of working out the 
 unity of Attica. . . . The first Greeks who won 
 the Pelasgic acropolis were probably the Cecropes, 
 and, though their name was forgotten as the name 
 of an independent people, it survived in another 
 form. For the later Athenians were always ready 
 to describe themselves as the sons of Cecrops. 
 This Cecrops was numbered among the imaginary 
 pre-historic kings of Athens; he was nothing 
 more than the fabulous ancestor of the Cecropes. 
 
 589
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 753-650 
 
 Aristocracy 
 Timocracy 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 650-594 
 
 But the time came when other Greek dwellers 
 in Attica won the upper hand over the Cecropes, 
 and brought with them the worship of Athena, 
 It was a momentous day in the history of the 
 land when the goddess, whose cult was already 
 established in many other Attic places, took pos- 
 session of the hill which was to be pre-eminently, 
 and for all time, associated with her name. . . . 
 In the course of time the feeling of unity in 
 Attica became so strong that all the smaller 
 lordships, which formed parts of the large state, 
 but still retained their separate political organisa- 
 tions, could be induced to surrender their home 
 governments and merge themselves in a single 
 community with a government centralised in the 
 city of the Cephisian plain. . . . From this time 
 forward she is no longer merely the supreme 
 city of Attica. She is neither the head of a league 
 of partly independent states, nor is she a despotic 
 mistress of subject-communities. . . . She is the 
 central city of an united state; and to the people 
 of every village in Attica belong the same political 
 rights as to the people of Athens herself. The 
 man of Marathon or the man of Thoricus is no 
 longer an Attic, he is an Athenian. It is gen- 
 erally supposed that the synoecism was the work 
 of one of the kings [legend attributed it to 
 Theseus]. It was undoubtedly the work of one 
 man; but it is possible that it belongs to the 
 period immediately succeeding the abolition of 
 the royal power." — J. B. Bury, History of Greece, 
 163-166. — See also Dorians .^nd Ionians; Greece: 
 Migrations of Hellenic tribes. 
 
 B. C. 753-650. — Transition from monarchy to 
 aristocracy. — Magistrates and assembly. — "The 
 transition from monarchy to aristocracy was grad- 
 ual; and though no ancient writer informs us 
 we may be sure that it was brought about by 
 the council of nobles, who alone benefited by 
 the change. [See also Aristocracy.] It must 
 therefore have been this body which, about the 
 middle of the eighth century, reduced the tenure 
 of the royal office to a single decade. Although 
 the incumbent was still termed king, the monarchy 
 in fact ceased, the supreme power passing to the 
 council. At this point accordingly dates the be- 
 ginning of the aristocracy (753). As the decen- 
 nial kings proved incapable of efficient military 
 leadership, the office of 'polemarch' — war archon 
 — was instituted, probably to lead the army in 
 the conflict with Eleusis. No long time after- 
 ward the Medontidae fa royal family] were 
 deposed, and the royal office thrown open to all 
 the nobles. Then, about 700, the office of archon 
 was instituted with the function of caring for 
 widows and orphans and their estates. As the 
 decennial magistrates proved too strong and in- 
 dependent to serve the interests of the ruling 
 power, all offices were made annual in 683-2 ; and 
 at the same time the archon supelseded the king 
 as head of the state. In this way the govern- 
 ment became in form as well as in fact a re- 
 public. In this year or shortly afterward were 
 instituted the six Ihesmothetac, 'that they might 
 record the customary laws and keep them for 
 the trial of offenders.' (.Arist. Const. Ath. .?.) In 
 the time of Solon the archon, king, polemarch and 
 fhesmothetae were brought together under the* 
 name of archons. [See Archon.] The aris- 
 tocracy was now at the summit of its power. 
 The assembly of citizens, which had never been 
 really important, fell into practical desuetude. The 
 elective power resided in the Council, who 'called 
 up men and on its own judgment assigned them 
 according to their qualifications to the several 
 offices for the year.' (Arist. Const. .\th. 8.) It 
 supervised their administration, and watched rig- 
 
 orously over the lives of the citiEens, with power 
 to punish for immoral as well as for lawless con- 
 duct. The members of this body were pow- 
 erful lords, recruited annually from those who 
 had worthily filled the nine magistracies des- 
 cribed above." — G. W. Botsford, Hellenic history, 
 ch. 6. 
 
 B. C. 700-565. — Beginnings of Athenian ex- 
 pansion. — Anne.xation of Eleusis (700) and the 
 conquest of Salamis (570-565). — One important 
 achievement of the aristocracy was the conquest 
 of the little Eleusinian kingdom, bound in by 
 Athens on one side and Megara on the other 
 (700 B.C.) Before the middle of the sixth cen- 
 tury Megara hjd developed into a formidable 
 rival to Athens. .'Mmost equidistant between these 
 two states lay an island, Salamis, whose pos- 
 session must decide the future history of both 
 states. Therefore, "The Athenians sought to 
 occupy Salamis, but all their efforts to gain a 
 permanent footing failed, and they abandoned the 
 attempt in despair. Years passed away. At length 
 Solon saw that the favourable hour had come. 
 . . . An intimate friend of Solon took part in 
 the enterprise, — Pisistratus, son of Hippocrates, 
 whose home and estates were near Brauron. . . . 
 He helped the expedition to a successful issue. 
 Not only was the disputed island wrested from 
 Megara, but he captured the port of Nisaea over 
 against the island. . . . But Salamis now became 
 permanently annexed to Attica. The island was 
 afterwards divided in lots among Athenian citi- 
 zens, who were called cleriichs or 'lot-holders.' 
 Salamis, unlike Eleusis, was not incorporated in 
 .■\ttica, though it was nearer Athens. . . . The 
 conquest of Salamis was a decisive event for 
 Athens. Her territory was now rounded off ; she 
 had complete command of the landlocked Eleu- 
 .inian bay ; it was she who now threatened Meg- 
 ara." — J. B. Bury, History of Greece, 100-102. 
 — See also Megara. 
 
 B. C. 650-594. — Timocracy of the heavy infan- 
 try. — Constitution. — Threatened by foreign con- 
 quest the ."Mhenian nobles found it necessary to 
 adopt the Spartan phalanx. Since their number 
 was small they were compelled to take into the 
 ranks of the phalanx all the commoners who were 
 •vealthy enough to provide a complete military 
 equipment. With a view to determine who could 
 afford to supply the necessary equipment, a general 
 census was taken. The result was that these newly 
 recruited men of wealth immediately began to take 
 part in the government, and since political privi- 
 leges were based on property, the government be- 
 came a timocracy ("rule of the wealthy"). This 
 occurred about 650 B. C, and after this date it 
 became customary to divide the citizens into four 
 census classes according to the productive value of 
 their land. [See also Liturgies.] It was not, how- 
 aver, until a later period of the history of Athens 
 that the census classes became important. The 
 chief features of the .'\thenian Constitution were 
 as follows: 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 "III. 
 
 Territorial Divisions of Attica 
 
 The four tribes and forty-eight townships 
 
 (naucraries) for the local administration. 
 
 The Four Census Classes 
 
 For determining the public burdens and 
 
 privileges of the citizens; not known in 
 
 detail for this period. 
 
 The Principal Magistrates 
 
 I. The Archon 
 
 (a) Chief executive. 
 
 (b) Judge in cases affecting family 
 rights. 
 
 (c) Head of the board of 'nine archons.' 
 
 590
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 624-621 
 
 2. The King 
 
 (a) A priest. 
 
 (b) Judge in murder cases. 
 
 3. The Polemarch 
 
 (a) Commander of the army. 
 
 (b) Judge in cases affecting alien resi- 
 dents. 
 
 4. The six Tresmothetae, 'legislators' 
 
 (a) Keepers of the laws and public docu- 
 ments. 
 
 (b) Judges in certain civil cases. 
 "These nine magistrates sometimes acted as a 
 
 board under the presidency of the Archon. 
 "IV. The Councils 
 
 1. The Council (Boule) of the Areopagus 
 
 (a) Composed of retired archons; mem- 
 bership lifelong. 
 
 (b) As highest authority in the state it 
 supervised the magistrates and the 
 conduct of the citizens. 
 
 (c) As a court it tried wilful murder. 
 
 2. The Council (Boule) of Four Hundred 
 and One 
 
 Representing the tribes and townships 
 
 (a) Assisted the magistrates in the gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 (b) Prepared decrees for presentation to 
 the assembly. 
 
 " V. The Assembly — Ecclesia 
 
 1. Composed of all those who could fur- 
 nish a complete military equipment. 
 
 2. It elected magistrates and voted on ques- 
 tions brought before it by the Four 
 Hundred and One. 
 
 " VI. Form of Governnient 
 
 As political rights were graded according 
 to property assessments, the government 
 was a timocracy. 
 
 "The above is an outline of the Athenian Con- 
 stitution. Occasionally parts of it were changed 
 and new features added, but It was never dis- 
 placed by a new constitution. In brief Athens 
 had but one constitution." — G. W. Botsford, His- 
 tory of the ancient world, p. 127. 
 
 B. C. 624-621. — Draco, the law-giver, and his 
 reforms. — Among the common people "one chief 
 cause of complaint was that they alone (the 
 nobles) knew the law and administered it ac- 
 cording to their own will. Hence, the demand 
 arose for the publication of the law. It was se- 
 cured in a truly Greek fashion. One man was 
 chosen, the best man in the state, to whom all 
 power was given that he might prepare, publish, 
 and administer a code of law which should be 
 binding upon the people. Thus, almost every 
 Greek state of the time had its law-giver, or 
 in later times traced its law-code back to some 
 great man who was thought to be its author." 
 — G. S. Goodspeed, History of the ancient world, 
 p. 104-105. — "The Athenians accordingly appointed 
 Draco as their law-giver (about 624). "His leg- 
 islation gave Athens written provisions for set- 
 tHng business and other disputes, thus limiting 
 the power of magistrates in recognizing cases, con- 
 ducting trials and imposing penalties. The most 
 durable of these drew a noteworthy distinction 
 between the penalty for different sorts of mur- 
 der. Heretofore, all killing had been murder and 
 its penalty death at the hands of the relatives 
 of the dead man. Now, accidental or justifiable 
 homicide was distinguished in its punishment from 
 wilful murder. As Draco's laws were chiefly 
 a collection of the old customs of the land, 
 they seemed to the later Athenians exceedingly 
 severe and were said to have been 'written in 
 blood.'" — Ibid., p. 117. — "Draco's laws were very 
 
 Draco 
 Solon 
 
 ATHENS, B.C. 594 
 
 harsh, death being the punishment for many 
 minor offences such as stealing, and enslavement 
 being the punishment of a person who got in 
 debt and could not pay the debt when due. 
 Although the people had made some progress in 
 obtaining a written law, they found that they 
 were not much better off, because the laws were 
 so severe." — R. L. Ashley, Anci-ent civilization, p. 
 116. 
 
 B. C. 612-595. — Conspiracy of Cylon. — Banish- 
 ment of the Alcmzeonidce. — The first attempt at 
 Athens to overturn the oligarchical government 
 and establish a personal tyranny was made, 6i2 
 B.C., by Cylon (Kylon), a patrician, son-in-law 
 of the tyrant of Megara, who was encouraged and 
 helped in his undertaking by the latter. The 
 conspiracy failed miserably. The partisans of 
 Cylon, blockaded in the acropolis, were forced to 
 surrender; but they placed themselves under the 
 protection of the goddess Minerva and were 
 promised their lives. More effectually to retain the 
 protection of the goddess until their escape was 
 effected, they attached a cord to her altar and 
 held it in their hands as they passed olit through 
 the midst of their enemies. Unhappily the cord 
 broke, and the archon Megacles at once declared 
 that the safeguard of Minerva was withdrawn 
 from them, whereupon they were massacred with- 
 out mercy, even though they fled to the neighbor- 
 ing altars and clung to them. The treachery and 
 bad faith of this cruel deed does not seem to have 
 disturbed the Athenian people, but the sacrilege 
 involved in it caused horror and fear when they 
 had had time to reflect upon it. Megacles and 
 his whole family — the Alcmaionidae as they were 
 called, from the name of one of their ancestors 
 — were held accountable for the affront to the 
 gods and were considered polluted and accursed. 
 Every public calamity was ascribed to their sin, 
 and at length, after a solemn trial, they were 
 banished from the city (about 596 or 5g5 B.C.), 
 while the dead of the family were disinterred and 
 cast out. The agitations of this affair exercised 
 an important influence on the course of events, 
 which opened the way for Solon and his con- 
 stitutional reforms. — C. Thirlwall, History of 
 Greece, ch. 11. — See also Delphi. 
 
 Also in; G. Grote, History of Greece, pt. 2, 
 ch. 10. 
 
 B. C. 600-300. — Seclusion of women. See 
 Women's rights: B. C. 600-300. 
 
 B. 0. 6th century. — Relations with Argos. See 
 Argos, Argolis, Argives. 
 
 B. C. 594. — Constitution and reforms of Solon. 
 — "The necessity for drastic reform was as great as 
 before and in 504 or 593 B.C., Solon was ap- 
 pointed law-maker, with full power to relieve the 
 social distress and revise the constitution. His 
 social reforms cancelled debts and thus cleared the 
 land from mortgages and set free debtors from 
 selfdom ; others, who had been sold as slaves, he 
 ransomed from abroad, and he enacted that for the 
 future no one should be allowed to pledge his 
 liberty." — L, Whibley, ed.. Companion to Greek 
 studies, p. 355. — See also Debt, Laws concerning: 
 Ancient Greek. — "He fixed a limit for the measure 
 of land which could be owned by a single person, so 
 as to prevent the growth of dangerously large es- 
 tates. And he forbade the exportations of Attic 
 products, except oil. For it had been found 
 that so much corn was carried to foreign mar- 
 kets, where the prices were higher, that an in- 
 sufficient supply remained for the population of 
 Attica. It is to be observed that at this time 
 the Athenians had not yet begun to import Pontic 
 corn." — J. B. Bury, History of Greece, p. 182. — 
 "Solon then repealed the laws of Draco and pro-. 
 
 591
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 560-510 
 
 Pisisiraius 
 Quarrel with Sparta 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 509-506 
 
 ceeded to reconstruct the constitution. He di- 
 vided the citizens into four property classes, 
 based on the produce of corn, oil, or wine from 
 their land. . . . Only members of the first three 
 classes were eligible for offices of state, only mem- 
 bers of the first class for the highest offices." — 
 L. Whibley, ed., Compatiion to Greek studies, p. 
 3SS- — "He laid the foundation of the future 
 Athenian democracy by extending the franchise to 
 the Thetes (literally, 'hirelings') the lowest of 
 the four classes, by instituting the Heliaea (q. v.), 
 or popular courts of justice, in which every citi- 
 zen in turn could take his place among the 
 dicasts (judges or jurymen), and by introducing 
 election by lot. Moreover, he formed a new 
 council (Boule) of 400 members chosen from 
 the whole people except the Thetes, and trans- 
 ferred to this council from the Areopagus the 
 work of preparing measures to be submitted to 
 the Ecclesia." — H. B. Cotterill, Ancient Greece, 
 pp. 139-140. — "The Assembly had the decision of 
 war and peace, and perhaps of some other im- 
 portant questions. Solon introduced the right of 
 appeal from the sentence of the judicial magis- 
 trates to the law court, and this was regarded as 
 his most important democratic institution. . . . 
 The Council of the Areopagus (q. v.) was left 
 in possession of its extensive power to watch over 
 the laws and the constitution, to supervise the 
 administration and to exercise a censorship over 
 the citizens." — L. Whibley, ed.. Companion to 
 Greek studies, p. 355. — "Solon's laws were writ- 
 ten or inscribed on tablets or pillars, which re- 
 volved on a pivot, and were first kept in the 
 Acropolis, but later, by the advice of Ephialtes, 
 were placed in the Agora." '[Compare Constitu- 
 tion of the Timocracy: Athens, 650-594 B.C.]. — 
 H. B. Cotterill, History of Greece, p. 140.— -See 
 also Prytanes. 
 
 B.C. 560-510.— The tyranny.— Reforms and 
 public works under Pisistratus and his sons. 
 — "When Solon had made his laws he went abroad 
 for ten years, so as to give his constitution a fair 
 run. When he returned he found that everything 
 was once more in confusion. As usual the trouble 
 was economic. . . . The village population was 
 unhappy and restless. The peasants had been 
 put back on their holdings and plied with good 
 advice as to how to manage their vines and olive 
 trees; but they had no capital to go on with and 
 of course they could not borrow. The craftsmen 
 and small traders, whose interests were bound 
 up with theirs, were equally clamorous. Dis- 
 content grew more and more fierce, till finally 
 the state was openly divided into three hostile 
 parties, each prepared to fight for its own eco- 
 nomic and territorial interests. There were the 
 men of the plain, with their city interests. There 
 were the men of the shore, that' is, the popula- 
 tion Hving in the country villages and small 
 ports of South-Eastern Attica, from the settle- 
 ments behind Hymettus down to Sunium. Thirdly, 
 there were the men of the mountains, the poorer 
 peasants and shepherds and woodcutters and char- 
 coal-burners from the rough region of northern 
 Attica. It seemed for a moment as if Theseus 
 had attempted too much in trying to make a 
 united nation out of a territory larger than that 
 of any other Greek City State. But fortunately 
 for Athens 'a man arose in Israel.' The Moun- 
 taineers had at their head a leader, Pisistratus, 
 who was not only a friend of the poor but also 
 a noted soldier and a man of large private means 
 and influential connections He succeeded, after 
 some vicissitudes, in making his party supreme 
 in the State, as he had already made himself su- 
 preme in his party. . . . But Pisistratus's most 
 
 durable achievement was his settlement of the 
 economic difficulties. He solved them once and for 
 all by advancing capital out of his private fortune 
 to the poorer landowners, largely of course his 
 own political supporters. Once they had margin 
 enough to keep them through lean years, or 
 while their trees were growing to maturity, their 
 troubles were at an end. There is no more land 
 question in Attica till the Spartans came and 
 ruined the cultivation one hundred and fifty 
 years later." — A. E. Zimmern, Greek common- 
 wealth, pp. 183-184. — "It is difficult to estimate 
 his services to Athens, for later generations did 
 their utmost to deny and conceal them, giving some 
 of his achievements to Solon and some to Theseus, 
 and some even to Erechtheus. He [Pisistratus] 
 founded an early Athenian empire. He won the 
 island of Salamis from Megara, and until she 
 possessed Salamis, Athens had no open road to 
 the sea. [See also Megara.] Later Athenians 
 ascribed this feat to Solon. He regained Sigeum, 
 on the Troad, after a war with Mytilene. He 
 established the elder Miltiades as tyrant of the 
 Thracian Chersonese. In these movements his 
 policy was obviously to open up trade with the 
 Black Sea, the granary of Greece. He extended 
 olive-culture in Attica. He probably began to 
 work the silver mines at Laurium, which were 
 thenceforth the principal source of Athenian rev- 
 enue. He made the unfree tillers of the soil 
 into peasant proprietors by confiscating the es- 
 tates of his noble opponents. He was allied with 
 Sparta and Argos, Thebes and Thessaly and 
 Naxos. He introduced a police armed with bows 
 into the city of Athens. He probably did much 
 of what Theseus is supposed to have done in 
 synoecising Athens — that is, transforming Attica 
 from a number of villages with a capital into a 
 city-state with surrounding territory. We know 
 that he sent judges on circuit round the country 
 demes. The other indications are that Pisistratus 
 pulled down the city wall in order that she might 
 be able to expand, that he constructed a proper 
 water-supply, and that he fostered the worship 
 of the Olympian or city deities. At the same time 
 he fostered agriculture, and tried to get the poor 
 of Athens back to the land." — J. C. Stobart, Glory 
 that was Greece, pp. iio-iii. — See also Ceram- 
 icus. — "Tyranny lasted, with two interruptions, 
 until 510. After his second restoration Pisistratus 
 established his power and ruled with a wise mod- 
 eration. The constitution was not changed, but 
 the tyrant took care that the chief offices should 
 be held by his friends. He relied on the support 
 of poets for his dynasty, and extended the power 
 of .Athens in the Aegean. Hippias succeeded his 
 father in 527, and after the assassination of Hip- 
 parchus became a harsh and suspicious despot, 
 until the Alcmaeonids, who had been exiled by 
 Pisistratus, gained the support of Sparta and 
 overthrew the tyranny." — L. Whibley, ed., Com- 
 panion to Creek studies, p. 356. 
 
 B. C. 509-506. — ^^Hostile undertakings of Cleo- 
 menes and Sparta. — Help solicited from the 
 Persian king. — Subjection refused. — Failure of 
 Spartan schemes to restore tyranny. — Protest 
 of the Corinthians. — Successful war with 
 Thebes and Chalcis. — "With Sparta it was obvi- 
 ous that the Athenians now had a deadly quarrel, 
 and on the other side they knew that Hippias 
 was seeking to precipitate on them the power of 
 the Persian king. It seemed therefore to be a 
 matter of stern necessity to anticipate the in- 
 trigues of their banished tyrant; and the Athenians 
 accordingly sent ambassadors to Sardeis to make 
 an independent alliance with the Persian despot. 
 The envoys, on being brought into the presence of 
 
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 03 

 
 ATHENS, B. C.508 
 
 Cleisfhenes 
 Ostracism 
 
 ATHENS, B. C.SOe 
 
 Artaphernes, the Satrap of Lydia, *ere told that 
 Dareios would admit them to an alliance if they 
 would give him earth and water, — in other words, 
 if they would acknowledge themselves his slaves. 
 To this demand of absolute subjection the en- 
 voys gave an assent which was indignantly re- 
 pudiated by the whole body of Athenian citizens. 
 . . . Foiled for the time in his efforts, Kleo- 
 menes was not cast down. Regarding the Kleis- 
 thenian constitution as a personal insult to him- 
 self, he was resolved that Isagoras should be 
 despot of Athens. Summoning the allies of Sparta 
 [including the Boeotian League headed by Thebes, 
 and the people of Chalcis in Eubcea], he led 
 them as far as Eleusis, 12 miles only from Athens, 
 without informing them of the purpose of the 
 campaign. He had no sooner confessed it than 
 the Corinthians, declaring that they had been 
 brought away from home on an unrighteous er- 
 rand, went back, followed by the other Spartan 
 King, Demaratos, the son of Ariston ; and this 
 conflict of opinion broke up the rest of the array. 
 This discomfiture of their enemy seemed to in- 
 spire fresh strength into the Athenians, who won a 
 series of victories over the Boeotians and Euboeans" 
 — completely overthrowing the latter — the Chalci- 
 dians — taking possession of their city, and making 
 it a peculiar colony and dependency of Athens. 
 [See Cleruchs.] The anger of Cleomenes "on 
 being discomfited at Eleusis by the defection of 
 his own allies was heightened by indignation at 
 the discovery that in driving out his friend Hip- 
 pias he had been simply the tool of Kleisthenes 
 and of the Delphian priestess whom Kleisthenes 
 had bribed. It was now clear to him and to his 
 countrymen that the Athenians would not ac- 
 quiesce in the predominance of Sparta, and that 
 if they retained their freedom, the power of 
 Athens would soon be equal to their ovn. Their 
 only safety lay, therefore, in providing the Athenians 
 with a tyrant. An invitation was, therefore, sent 
 to Hippias at Sigeion, to attend a congress of 
 the allies at Sparta, who were summoned to meet 
 on the arrival of the exiled despot." The ap- 
 pointed congress was held, and the Spartans be- 
 sought their allies to aid them in humbling the 
 Athenian Democracy, with the object of restoring 
 Hippias to power. But again the Corinthians 
 protested, bluntly suggesting that if the Spartans 
 thought tyranny a good thing they might first 
 try it for themselves. Hippias, speaking in his 
 own behalf, attempted to convince them that the 
 time was coming "in which they would find the 
 Athenians a thorn in their side. For the present 
 his exhortations were thrown away. The allies 
 protested unanimously against all attempts to 
 interfere with the internal administration of any 
 Hellenic city ; and the banished tyrant went back 
 disappointed to Sigeion." — G. W. Cox. Greeks and 
 the Persians, ch. 4. 
 
 Also in: G. Grote, History 0; Greece, pt. 2, 
 ch. 31 {v. 4). 
 
 B. C. 508. — Reforms of Cleisthenes. — Ostra- 
 cism. — Beginnings of democracy. — "In the con- 
 fusion which ensued Cleisthenes, the Alcmaeonid, 
 adopted the cause of democracy, triumphed over 
 hb rivals, and in 508 or 507 B.C. was given 
 authority to revise the constitution. The tyranny 
 had broken the power of the nobles and thus 
 prepared the way for democracy, but the laws of 
 Solon had in great part fallen into disuse. The 
 aim of Cleisthenes was to give free play to the 
 democratic elements in the constitution of Solon, 
 to prevent the domination of the nobles or the 
 usurpation of tyrants. To effect this end, he 
 took measures to abolish the political importance 
 of the old divisions . . . based upon birth, and 
 
 to substitute new artificial divisions, so arranged 
 as to obviate the possibility of local factions. He 
 enrolled the citizens in ten new tribes, which 
 superseded the four Ionic tribes for political and 
 administrative purposes. Further the whole of 
 Attica was divided into thirty [demes or districts) 
 ... , ten of which included the city and its 
 neighbourhood, ten the coast and ten the interior. 
 Each tribe was composed of three [demes] . . , 
 chosen one from each of these sections. Each 
 [deme] . . . contained a number of townships. 
 . . . Both tribes and demes had their own officers 
 and administered their own affairs. The tribes 
 served for military purposes, each furnishing 
 contingents of infantry and cavalry ; and in the 
 administration of the State, magistrates, appointed 
 in general to form boards of ten, were appointed 
 one from each tribe or one for each tribe. Solon's 
 Council of Four Hundred was increased to Five 
 Hundred, and fifty members were chosen from 
 each tribe. The election of archons, Cleisthenes 
 seems to have given to the assembly." — L. Whibley, 
 ed., Companion to Greek studies, pp. 356-357. — 
 "Not content with fostering the tendencies that 
 might make for democracy in the existing members 
 of the state, Cleistenes infused into Athens a fresh 
 strain of plebeian blood and sentiment by con- 
 ferring civil rights on a large number of in- 
 dividuals of foreign birth, or of the lowest origin. 
 These were metoeci [metics] — either stranger resi- 
 dents or enfranchised slaves, doubtless engaged in 
 mercantile callings and therefore of advanced and 
 liberal views — whom he enrolled in his new tribes." 
 — A. H. J. Greenidge, Greek constitutional his- 
 tory, p. 158. — "Ostracism (see Ostracism) was 
 introduced to guard against tyranny (though 
 within a few years it was employed to remove 
 politicians who had no designs against the con- 
 stitution)." — L. Whibley, ed.. Companion to Greek 
 studifs, p. 357. — See also Democracy: During 
 classical period. — "Cleisthenes introduced into the 
 constitution no new principle, but brought into far 
 greater prominence the democratic elements al- 
 ready existing in it. This he did chiefly by equaliz- 
 ing the ranks, as above described, and by slighting 
 the power of the Areopagus. The government 
 was democratic, strictly speaking, only in po- 
 tentiality. In its practical working it was a 
 timocracy of the milder class, while the state was 
 still a clan-state, and remained such through the 
 whole period of its freedom. Yet the adoption 
 of the Cleisthenean constitution, exhibiting greatly 
 strengthened democratic tendencies, may be justly 
 regarded as the beginning of a new petiod, — the 
 fifth in the history of the government. The yoke 
 of the tyranny was broken, and the Solonian con- 
 stitiition, as lately modified and improved, became, 
 for the first time, a living, political organism. 
 This constitution, by conferring large benefits upon 
 the people, and by opening to them new and 
 attractive spheres of activity, inspired them with 
 a patriotism hitherto unknown. A great tide of 
 public enthusiasm and public energy, arising at 
 this point, surged onward through the Persian 
 wars, carrying the Athenians victoriously through 
 those crises in the history of their country and 
 the world, liberating the Ionic Greeks, founding 
 a great maritime empire, gaining in height and 
 strength, with each political advance, till it 
 reached its climax in the marvelous activity of the 
 Peridean age." — G. W. Botsford, Development of 
 the Athenian constitution, pp. 207-208. 
 
 Bibliography: Athens from monarchy to 
 democracy: G. W. Botsford, Athenian constitu- 
 tion, ch. vii-xi.— J. B. Bury, History of Greece, ch. 
 iv, V. — G. Busolt, Griechische geschiohte, v. II, pp. 
 1-449. — E. Curtius, History of Greece, v. II, ch. 
 
 593
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 500-493 
 
 Persian Wars 
 Aristides and Themistocles 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 479-476 
 
 ii. — A. L. D'Ooge, Acropolis of Athens. — Fowler 
 and Wheeler, Handbook oj Greek archceology .■ — • 
 E. A. Gardner, Handbook oj Greek scidpture and 
 ancient Alliens. — G. Gilbert, Constitutional antiqui- 
 ties oj Sparta and .ithens. — A. H. J. Greenidge, 
 Greek constitutional history, pp. 124-162, 342, 389. 
 — G. Grote. History oj Greece. — A. Haussoullier, La 
 vie municipaie en .iltique.- — A. Holm, History oj 
 Greece, v. I, ch. xxvi-xxviii. — H. B. Walters, His- 
 tory oj Greek pottery. — C. H. Weller, Athens and 
 iUs monuments. — A. E. Zimmern, Greek com- 
 monwealth. 
 
 B. C. 500-493. — Aid to lonians against Persia. 
 See Greece: B.C. 500-493: Rising of lonians of 
 .'\sia Minor against Persians; Persia; B.C. 521-493. 
 
 B. C. 492-479. — War between the Greeks and 
 Persia. — Athens' share in the victory. — Sum- 
 mary of the war. — (1) 'After the conquest of 
 Ionia, the Persians attempted to subdue Greece. 
 (2) The first expedition was led by Mardonius 
 through Thrace into Macedon. Its failure was 
 owing to the wreck of the fleet and attacks upon 
 his army by the natives. (3) The second ex- 
 pedition crossed the Aegean Sea, captured Eretria, 
 and landed at Marathon. There the Persian army 
 met defeat at the hands of the Athenians (490). 
 [See also Persm; B.C. 521-493.] The event en- 
 couraged the Greeks to hope for success in the 
 war. While the Persians were preparing for 
 another invasion, (4) the .Athenians built a navy 
 and (s) the Peloponnesian League was expanded 
 into a union of all the loyal Creek states. (6) 
 Xerxes in person led his great army in the third 
 expedition. (7) It annihilated a Spartan force 
 at Thermopylae (4S0), and destroyed .■\then5. 
 
 (8) But the Persian fleet suffered an overwhelming 
 defeat at Salamis; and in the following year 
 
 (9) the Greeks defeated the Persians decisively at 
 Plataea and at Mycale. (10) Meanwhile a Car- 
 thaginian army which invaded Sicily was over- 
 thrown at Himera (480)." — G. W. Botsford, His- 
 tory 0} the ancient world, p. 180. — "When the 
 great attack from the East was visibly impend- 
 ing over that collection of small states that we 
 call Greece, all was confusion and disorder. The 
 jealousies of Argos and Sparta, of Thebes and 
 Athens, and other similar jealousies elsewhere, 
 made resistance by united Greece impossible. If 
 the oracle at Delphi had boldly championed the 
 national defence, the effect upon the wars and 
 upon its own future influence could not have 
 failed to be great. But the oracle gave answers 
 sometimes ambiguous, sometimes directly counsel- 
 Hng submission and despair. In this crisis, put- 
 ting aside for the present the vices and follies 
 of the Persians, Greece was saved by two influ- 
 ences. In the first place, at this crisis .Athens 
 displayed an absence of petty vanity, and a Pan- 
 hellenic patriotism, rarely met with in any Greek 
 state, along with an activity and clearsighted- 
 ness of the most remarkable kind. It was the 
 supremacy of Sparta which gave to Greece the 
 very moderate amount of unity that she .-howed 
 during the contest ; but in every instance it was 
 from Athens that the ablest leaders and the best 
 ideas came. And thus Greece weathered the 
 storm, .■\thens had borne the brunt of the first 
 attack in 400, and alone, save for the not very 
 important help rendered by Plataea, had fought 
 the battle of Marathon. [See also Greece: B.C. 
 490.] In 480 and 479, through .Argos, Thebes, 
 Thessaly, and others stood sullenly aloof, most 
 of the Greek states followed the leadership of 
 Sparta, and were represented in the glorious 
 struggles of Thermopylje, Salamis (480) [See 
 Greece: B.C. 480: Persian wars: Salamis], 
 Plataea, and Mycale (479). With these last bat- 
 
 tles Greece emerged victoriously from the con- 
 test." — .\. J. Grant, Greece in the .Age oj Pericles, 
 PP- 93-94- — See also Greece: B. C. 481-479. 
 For separate battles see Greece: B. C. 480: Persian 
 wars; Persw: B. C. 486-405. 
 
 B.C. 490-485. — Athenian politics. — Struggle 
 between Aristides and Themistocles. — "Aristides 
 insisted upon laying the foundation of Athenian 
 military power in the heavy-armed as most con- 
 ductive to the stability of private and public 
 character, while he 'regarded the navy as the 
 seed-bed of novelty and change.' .Athens, engaged 
 at this time in a war with .\egina, was meeting 
 with ill-success owing to her weakness by sea. 
 But Themistocles must have looked beyond the 
 present, to the defense of his country against a 
 more formidable enemy, already far advanced in 
 its preparations for overwhelming Europe with 
 a flood of barbarians. Nor was his view most 
 probably confined to this horizon, but included 
 all the future greatness of .Athens, her walls and 
 Peiraeus, her hegemony and empire. For these 
 were the results of his decree. Aristeides was 
 ostracised and an obstacle to the furtherance of 
 the Themistoclean naval policy thus removed. It 
 was probably in the following year that Themis- 
 tocles held the office of archon, and began his 
 great work of fortifying the Peiiaeus. . . . Thus 
 the fortifications of the Peiraeus was but a nat- 
 ural continuation of his naval policy. The build- 
 ing of triremes went on. . . . The fear of the 
 Persian invaders brought about a reconciliation 
 of political opponents, the ostracised were re- 
 called, and all united in loyal service to their 
 country in its supreme peril." — G. W. Botsfoid, 
 Development of the .Athenian constitution, p. 200. 
 
 B. C. 479. — Significance of the Greek victory 
 over Persia. — "Persian domination, had it been 
 possible, would certainly have checked the growth 
 of Greek civilization in Europe, just as it did 
 in .Asia Minor. Europe might have become for 
 centuries a part of Asia. It would be idle to 
 speculate at length on what might have been; 
 but certainly the victory saved Europe from even 
 the possibility of such a misfortune. It left the 
 continent free to advance along the lines marked 
 out for it by Greek genius. From these considera- 
 tions it is clear that the Greco-Persian war was 
 one of the most important events in the world's 
 history." — G. W. Botsford, History oj the ancient 
 world, p. 180. — "The former terror of the Per- 
 sian arms passed into contempt, and though be- 
 tween East and West there was constant friction 
 until the time when, a hundred and fifty years 
 later, .Alexander the Great broke up the Persian 
 Empire, never again did Persia seem at all likely 
 to overwhelm Greek civilization. The Persian 
 wars, by their result, allowed the Greek world 
 freely to bequeath its inheritance of art, science, 
 and thought to later centuries. That is the great 
 significance of the struggle." — A. J. Grant, Greece 
 in the .Ige of Pericles, p. 94. 
 
 B. C. 479-476. — Fortification of Athens and of 
 Peiraeus. — Athens the first state of Hellas. — 
 "Immediately after the danger of Persian in- 
 vasion was removed, .Athens set about to rebuild 
 her city and its defences. To this latter project 
 several Greek states, including; Sparta, objected 
 By skilfully delaying discussion on this subject 
 with Sparta, Themistocles afforded .Athenian build- 
 ers sufficient time in which to complete this 
 work. Of even greater importance perhaps was 
 the fortification of Peiraeus. This town, the sea- 
 port of Athens, Themistocles proceeded to sur- 
 round with a massive wall seven miles in circuit. 
 It was due in large measure to the farsighted- 
 ness and energy of Themistocles that Peiraeus 
 
 594
 
 ATHENS, B.C. 478 
 
 Naval Leadership 
 Delian Confederacy 
 
 ATHENS, B.C. 477 
 
 became a famous mart of industry and trade, and 
 for centuries remained one of the most flourish- 
 ing commercial cities of the ancient world. [See 
 also Commerce: .-Vncient: B.C. 1000-200.] Athens 
 lay now right in the centre of the Greek world, and 
 before long city and harbour were linked by strong 
 walls and made into a twin fortress impregnable 
 by land. And if she did not own the wheat- 
 growing regions, she controlled the trade in grain. 
 The cornfields of Southern Russia had only one 
 outlet — by the Hellespont, and Athens held it — 
 held it in virtue of her fleet of warships. Mean- 
 while, from the days of Solon and Pisistratus 
 foreigners with trades had been settling in the 
 city. Solon was one of the greatest economists 
 of antiquity and Pisistratus one of the shrewdest 
 of rulers; and they meant to have an Athens eco- 
 nomically strong and prosperous. Industries grew, 
 free labour moved in from the country, and slave 
 labour was imported from abroad. And then the 
 slave began to encroach on the freeman's labour 
 market, and the freeman took to another and a 
 greater trade — the greatest of all. Empire-ruling; 
 and that too brought wealth to Athens. Mines 
 were opened up, and Laurium (q. v.) still con- 
 tinued to yield silver, while on Thasos and in 
 Thrace Athenian valour and enterprise made 
 Athenians masters of gold production. The hor- 
 rible condition of the slaves in the silver mines of 
 Attica is sometimes noticed by .incient writers, 
 but there is no indication that it troubled the 
 capitalists or the public conscience. Mining and 
 manufacture, grain and the carrying trade of the 
 world, brought wealth and brought with it new 
 standards — a new scale for the measurement of 
 riches and of poverty — new tastes in food, and 
 perhaps a new sense of hunger." — T. R. Glover, 
 From Pericles to Philip, pp. 44-55. 
 
 Also in: [Period of the war heroes, 479- 
 461 B. C] — (o) Political and economic bibliogra- 
 phy: J. B. Bury, History oj Greece, ch. viii. — A 
 Holm, History oj Greece, II, chs. vii-ix. — E. Cur- 
 tius. History of Greece, III, ch. ii. — G. Grote, 
 History of Greece, V, chs. xliv-xlv. — E. Meyer, 
 Forschmigen zitr alten Geschithte, HI, pp. 45Q- 
 570. — J. Beloch, Griechische Geschichte, II, i, chs. 
 iii, iv. — G. Busolt, Griechische Geschichte, III, pp. 
 1-295. — E. A. Freeman, History of Sicily, II, chs. 
 vi. vii. Cavaignac, Histoire de Vantiquite, II, 
 1-54. — Grant, Greece in the Age of Pericles. — 
 L. W. Hopkinson, Greek leaders. — (b) Society and 
 culture: J. Beloch, loc-cil., II, i, pp. 74-122. — E. 
 Meyer, loc. cit.. Ill, pp. 418-459. — A. Holm, loc. 
 cil. 11, ch. xii. — H. N. Fowler and Wheeler, Hand- 
 book of Greek archaeology, pp. 96-144, 317-229. — 
 E. A. Gardner, Handbook of Greek sculpture and 
 ancient .-llhens, pp. 241-279. — C. H. Weller, Athens 
 and its monuments. — M. L. D'Ooge, Acropolis of 
 Athens. — E. Abbott, Hellenica, pp. 1-32.— L. Whib- 
 ley, ed., Companion to Greek studies, 105-111, 479- 
 561. — W. C. Wright, Greek literature, pp. 119-125, 
 185-215. — E. Capps, Homer to Theocritus, pp. 168- 
 '214. — A. and M. Croiset, Histoire de la litterature 
 Grecque, II, ch. vii. III, chs. ii-v. — 6. G. Sihler, 
 Testimonium Animce, viii. 
 
 B. C. 478.— Transfer of naval leadership from 
 Sparta to Athens. — "The first task which awaited 
 the victors was to drive the Persians from the 
 coasts of the /Egean Sea and deliver the Asiatic 
 Greeks from Persian domination. The Greek fleet 
 under the Spartan king Pausanias undertook this 
 task. That, as things were, it must prove; too 
 great an undertaking for a state like Sparta with 
 not more than four thousand citizens, who, more- 
 over, lacked money, ships and maritime experience, 
 and had, besides, to stand on guard at home against 
 a serf population of sixty thousand males, was 
 
 foreseen by both Pausanias and the authorities at 
 home ; but whereas the latter were loath to con- 
 duct naval operations in far distant Asia, the 
 over-ambitious victor of Plataea was set on keep- 
 ing his own country at the head of all Greek en- 
 terprises, even though to do so he must secure 
 the assistance of Persia. He accordingly offered 
 his services to the Great King as satrap of Greece 
 and conducted himself as the master and not as 
 the leader of the forces serving under his com- 
 mand. His arrogance together with the indiffer- 
 ence of the ruling powers at Sparta, however, 
 provoked a prompt reaction which resulted in the 
 transference of the leadership to the Athenians 
 under Aristides. They had by far the largest num- 
 ber of ships and hence an irresistible claim to 
 naval command. The work was brilliantly ac- 
 complished. With the exception of a few isolated 
 cities, the Greek settlements on the entire ^li^gean 
 coast and in the eastern Mediterranean as far as 
 Cyprus were made free." — G. S. Goodsped, History 
 of the ancient world, pp. 144-145. 
 
 B. C. 478-477. — Reduction of Byzantium. — 
 Asiatic Greeks. See Greece; B.C. 478-477. 
 
 B. C. 477. — Organization of the Delian Con- 
 federacy and its aims. — This league was the 
 outgrowth of the Panhellenic union brought about 
 by the Persian war, with Athens, by right of her 
 character and past achievements, as its logical 
 head. "The arrangement of the Delian League had 
 been largely the work of Aristides. His reputa- 
 tion for fairness had given the allies full confidence 
 in the justice of his assessments. ... It had been 
 formed to carry on the war against Persia, and to 
 give to its members security in their lately won 
 Hberties. To this end an army and a navy, a fund 
 of money and a recognised leader, were necessary, 
 (i) Athens was of course the leader. No other 
 state in the alliance could possibly command the 
 same amount of obedience. She was at first by 
 no means a despot city. Representatives from the 
 various states met year by year in the island of 
 Delos, there to deliberate on matters concerning 
 the whole confederacy, and especially on the mili- 
 tary and naval operations of the year. That every 
 state had a vote is certain. But of the procedure 
 of the synod we know almost nothing. Yet both 
 the future history of the league and analogous 
 cases in Greek history go to show that Athens 
 would not be merely the executive officer of the 
 decrees of the league. Her power and prestige 
 would give her from th first a commanding posi- 
 tion. (2) The contributions to the common fund 
 were arranged by Aristides. That we know ; and 
 we know also that these contributions amounted 
 at first to 460 talents. ... (3) .'Vt the head of 
 every expedition, naval or military, stood an 
 Athenian commander. ... (4) The centre of the 
 whole league during its early and independent 
 period was Delos. That small and barren island 
 had been once the great religious centre of the 
 Ionian race. Its glory had declined, but still there 
 was the great temple of Apollo. The place was 
 full of venerable legends and memories of the 
 past. This then was naturally chosen as the 
 centre of the revival of the Ionian race, for as 
 such the Delian league must have been regarded. 
 Here the yearly meetings of the synod were held ; 
 here was the treasury of the contributions of the 
 allies. The general aims of the league must com- 
 mend themselves to every modem observer. That 
 some check should be given to the state-inde- 
 pendence of Greece; that some union should be 
 created in which each separate state should rec- 
 ognize something higher than her own personal 
 interests; that some broad political basis should 
 be formed capable of insuring stability,— some- 
 
 595
 
 ATHENS, B.C. 477-461 
 
 Fall of 
 Themistocles 
 
 ATHENS, B.C. 465-454 
 
 thing of this sort was quite essential if Greece 
 was to remain independent. But it may be 
 doubted wiiether it was possible to make the Dclian 
 League strong enough for the task that it would 
 have to face. The league was the same sort of 
 organisation that the supporters of Imperial [Brit- 
 ish] Federation propose to create: a confederacy 
 of independent states with a common origin, and 
 supposed common interests for common purposes. 
 But in Greece the instinct for state-independence 
 was so deeply rooted that even the slack bonds 
 of the league proved too tight. No single state 
 in its internal government showed cohesion or a 
 sufficient discipline; and it was little likely, there- 
 fore, that their union should display these quali- 
 ties. There was no power except that of physical 
 force that would in the long run be able to hold 
 the various states together. Panhellenic patriot- 
 ism was hardly felt; the god Apollo was losing 
 his power; Athens was unable to inspire the states 
 with sufficient personal veneration for herself, nor 
 did she try to keep the league together by con- 
 ciliation and kindness." — A. J. Grant, Greece in 
 the Age of Pericles, pp. 132-135. — See also Greece: 
 B.C. 478-477- 
 
 Also in: J. B. Bury, History of Greece, pp. 
 346-367, 382-385. — A. Holm, History of Greece, II, 
 chs. xiv, xvii-xix.^G. Grote, History of Greece, 
 chs. xlv (latter part), xlvi. — J. Beloch, History of 
 Greece, II, chs. v, vi. — G. Busolt, History of 
 Greece, III, pp. 296-438, 518-540. — Meyer, For- 
 schungen zur altenen Geschichte, III, pp. 574-624, 
 IV, 3-84. — E. A. Freeman, History of Sicily III, 
 ch. viii. — Abbott, Pericles and the Golden Age of 
 Athens. — A. J. Grant, Greece in the Age of Per- 
 icles. — Greenidge, Handbook of Greek constitu- 
 tional history. — Gilbert, Greek constitutional an- 
 tiquities, pp. 416-435. — Ferguson, Greek imperial- 
 ism, pp. 65-78. — P. Gardner, Earliest coins of Greece 
 proper. 
 
 B. C. 477-461. — Rise of Athenian empire. See 
 Greece: B.C. 477-461. 
 
 B. C. 472. — Ostracism of Themistocles. — Esti- 
 mate of his genius. — "The boldness of Themis- 
 tocles in opposing Spartan interests at every turn, 
 added to envy of a greatness which eclipsed all 
 his contemporary politicians, stirred against him 
 a formidable combination headed by Cimon, which 
 forced his ostracism (472 B.C.)." — G. W. Bots- 
 ford, Hellenic history, ch. xii. — He finally died an 
 exile in Asia Minor, but not until he had been 
 accused by his enemies of the ridiculous charge 
 of seeking to regain his former power through the 
 help of the Persian king. "Of the genius of The- 
 mistocles it is needless to speak. It is attested by 
 the victory which he won, and the career of the 
 great city, to which he gave, as it were, a second 
 foundation. In defence of his honesty, we may 
 say that there is no reason to suppose that he 
 cherished treasonable designs against his country 
 before the moment when it was no longer possible 
 for him to remain safely in it; and when the com- 
 bination of his enemies in Sparta and Athens drove 
 him out of Hellas, there was no place but Persia 
 to which he could retire. It is extremely doubt- 
 ful whether there was any real ground for the 
 charge of medism upon which he was hunted out 
 of Greece. The evidence comes to us from a very 
 suspicious source — from the Spartans, who knew 
 that Themistocles was their enemy, and who had 
 at the time very urgent reasons for securing his 
 expulsion from the Peloponnesus. Unhappily, the 
 enemies of Themistocles at .\thens were only too 
 ready to join in the work. They had succeeded 
 in banishing him from the city, but they knew 
 that while he was in Greece he might return and 
 find some means of revenging himself upon them. 
 
 It did not occur to their minds that the honour of 
 
 their city was bound up with that of her greatest 
 citizen. In the malice of party spirit they forgot 
 what they owed to the world and posterity." — E. 
 Abbott, Pericles, p. 63. 
 
 B. C. 472-462. — Aristides and the growth of 
 democracy. — Political parties at Athens and 
 their attitude toward Sparta. — "While Athens 
 was thus entering upon an imperial policy, she 
 was encaged in making her own government more 
 democratic. The patriotic and efficient conduct of 
 the .\reopagites in supervising the exodus of the 
 inhabitants in the face of Xerxes' invasion had 
 given them an ascendancy in public life which 
 they had scarcely known since the time of Solon; 
 but their authority was rapidly undermined by 
 the admission of the nine ex-archons appointed 
 by lot, and hence of mediocre talent, and even 
 more by the genuine advance of democracy. [See 
 , also Areopagus. 1 In the opinion of .Aristotle, 
 Aristeides was chiefly responsible for this develop- 
 ment. . . . (He) introduced pay for military ser- 
 vice and to some extent for official duty, thus 
 making it possible for any Athenian, however 
 poor, to take part in public affairs. He more than 
 any other, therefore, was the founder of the radi- 
 cal democracy. The double object was to furnish 
 subsistence to the populace and to gain a more 
 thorough control of the alliance. . . . While there 
 was among the leading statesmen of Athens no 
 difference of opinion as to the treatment of the 
 confederacy, a sharp line of cleavage was drawn 
 through the group in relation to home politics. 
 Those who favored the popularization of the con- 
 stitution were led by .'\risteides ; the conservatives, 
 by Cimon. Inevitably the latter party clung close 
 to the Peloponnesian league, and looked to Sparta 
 as an example and a moral support; whereas the 
 democrats, understanding the incompatibility of 
 the two states, were ready to break with the 
 Peloponnesian league. Their hands were strength- 
 ened by the fact that Sparta gave secret encour- 
 agement to rebellion within the Confederacy, and 
 stood forth as the champion of particularism — of 
 the complete independence and isolation of the city 
 states — in opposition to the Athenian efforts at 
 political aggregation." — G. W. Botsford, Hellenic 
 history, ch. xii. 
 
 B. C. 466-454.— Revolt of Allies and begin- 
 ning of the Athenian empire. — Completion of 
 the change from confederacy to empire. — Indi- 
 vidual treaties. — Duties of the allies to Athens. 
 — Imperial funds. — In the confederacy "only the 
 Chians, Lesbians, and Samians were allowed to 
 retain their constitutions, that they might, in re- 
 turn for assured freedom, aid in maintaining the 
 empire. Undoubtedly .Athens was forced to this 
 policy by the character of the lonians, their indis- 
 position to long-continued personal military ser- 
 vice, and their desire to shake off the burden of 
 taxation, when once the danger from the Persians 
 had been removed from their doors. To most of 
 the other allies Athens permitted the substitution 
 of money payments for military or naval service. 
 With the danger of Persian aggression removed 
 [see Greece: B.C. 480; Persia: B.C. 486-405], 
 however, even the payment of this tribute soon 
 became irksome. In 466 Naxos revolted, but was 
 reduced by siege and deprived of its autonomy by 
 the Athenians. Soon after, the example set by 
 Naxos was followed by Thasos. The Thasians 
 were encouraged in their revolt by the Spartans, 
 who, however, failed to give the promised aid be- 
 cause of troubles at home. Thasos fell, apparently 
 in 463, after a siege of two years. .Mhens now 
 deprived the seceding states of their autonomy, and 
 although still legally allies, in actual fact the de- 
 
 596
 
 ATHENS, B.C. 466-554 
 
 Empire 
 Spread of Culture 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 466-431 
 
 pendent states formed an Athenian empire. One 
 by one the remaining states were brought into 
 subjection until, in the Age of Pericles, the entire 
 confederacy became an empire. The majority of 
 its citizens were well pleased with this change, 
 for they retained complete freedom of local gov- 
 ernment. In another sense, however, the coercion 
 of a free state was in direct opposition to the 
 ideals of the Greeks, many of whom came to look 
 upon Athens more and more as a tyrant city." — 
 G. W. Botsford, Hellenic history, cli. xii. — "But 
 no efforts could be made to stay the development 
 of the confederacy into an empire, which was 
 finally attained in the year 454, when the com- 
 mon treasury was transferred from Delos to 
 Athens, and the first-fruits of the tribute (one- 
 sixtieth of each state's assessment), which had 
 formerly been paid to Apollo of Delos, were now 
 presented to Athene of the Athenians. At this 
 time the only states whose autonomy was guar- 
 anteed by the supply of ships in place of tribute 
 were apparently Samos, Lesbos, Chios, and the 
 Eubcean towns; and it is probable that tributary 
 states had now been excluded from all direct in- 
 fluence in the league — that, in fact, the votes of 
 the great congress had dwindled down to the votes 
 of these four islands and the city of Athens. After 
 the defection of the greater part of Lesbos and its 
 reduction in 427, one of its towns, Methymna, still 
 shared with Chios the honour of remaining a tree 
 city; while Samos for good service to the democ- 
 racy regained its autonomy in 412. These autono- 
 mous allies were strictly speaking not under the 
 dominion of Athens at all, and their independence 
 was defined as consisting in control of their own 
 courts and of their own finances. They brought 
 neither suits nor tribute to Athens, and were per- 
 haps bound only by the prescriptions of the old 
 Delian league, but they were by no means free 
 from the practical interference of the leading state, 
 which stopped any procedure likely to lead to their 
 revolt. The charter of Erythrae gives that state 
 a constitution, and is a remarkable and no doubt 
 exceptional instance of the detailed reorganisation 
 of a city which, when it passed into the power 
 of Athens, possessed no regular form of polity. 
 The constitution is closely modelled on that of 
 Athens. The general duties of the allies to Athens 
 maj' be easily gathered from these two charters. 
 They consist in a promise of fealty, a promise to 
 pay the required tribute and to furnish active as- 
 sistance in case Athens required it, and, further, 
 in an agreement to give up some of their autono- 
 mous rights, the chief of these rights surrendered 
 being that of jurisdiction in exceptional cases, 
 such as those of treason to the central state and 
 to the empire. The return that Athens made for 
 all this was her protection. She is irresponsible, 
 a 'tyrant city,' and in the position of one who 
 commands. If she makes concessions, they are in 
 the nature of privileges. She might impose limits 
 to her own irresponsible power, and she sometimes 
 grants special favours — such as immunity to in- 
 dividuals or practical exemption from tribute to 
 whole states, which she allows to pay only the 
 sixtieth, as first-fruits to the goddess. But these 
 are acts of grace, and the exemption granted to 
 states was perhaps as much intended to promote 
 differences of interests as to cultivate the loyalty 
 of important outposts. The chief burden was the 
 tribute, but its variations show it to have been 
 always on a moderate scale. The amount imposed 
 at the formation of the league in 478 is said by 
 Thucydides to have amounted to four hundred and 
 sixty talents. By the beginning of the Peloponne- 
 sian War in 431 it had risen to only six hundred 
 talents. . . . The moderation of the tribute is 
 
 shown by the fact that this commutation could 
 be made with the hope of increasing the total; 
 but the tribute list, when the assessment is at its 
 highest, tells the same tale." — A. H. J. Greenidge, 
 Handbook of Greek constitutional history, pp. 
 192-194. 
 
 B. C. 466-445. — Colonization. — Material bene- 
 fits of empire. — Thurii, a model town. — "But the 
 surplus was employed by Athens for public build- 
 ings and for the theoric fund, and land was an- 
 ne.xed in the conquered districts for the establish- 
 ment of cleruchies. The primary object of these 
 settlements was to provide land for the poorer 
 citizens of Athens; they seem usually to have been 
 settled on territory that had become the prize of 
 war, and their advent came to be dreaded rather 
 as a sign of military coercion than because they in- 
 terfered with the rights of peaceful members of 
 the league. For their strategic came to outweigh 
 their social importance, and one of their main 
 functions was to inspire fear into the allies and to 
 serve as a guard against intended revolt. They 
 assumed the form of organized communities, and 
 as such mark the last stage in the history of state- 
 directed colonisation. The settlement was de- 
 creed by the people and the settlers chosen from 
 the poorer citizens by lot. The cleruchs remained 
 Athenian citizens; collectively they were but a 
 fragment of the demos settled in a distant outpost, 
 individually they still bore the designations which 
 marked them as members of the Attic tribes. 
 These settlements present rather the theory of an 
 extended local government than that of the pos- 
 session of a twofold citizenship by the same in- 
 dividuals. In some respects they resembled the 
 states of the empire, and their jurisdiction was 
 limited by the provision that all important cases 
 had to be brought to Athens. Their structure was 
 that of the typical democracy, and decrees were 
 voted by their council and assembly. But they 
 paid no tribute, and, unlike the allied cities, re- 
 ceived magistrates from Athens." — A. H. J. Green- 
 idge, Handbook of Greek constitutional history, 
 p. 199. — "It was not a mere collection of houses, 
 like the Grecian cities, where old and new jostled 
 each other in gay confusion, but a town con- 
 structed with a view to convnience, health, and 
 protection. It is from these points of view that 
 Thurii becomes the ideal colony of the Periclean 
 era; other cities were of far more use to Athens 
 by supporting her citizens, or holding places of 
 strategical value; but none reflects so much of the 
 mind of Pericles as the Hellenic town by the 
 waters of the Crathis [river Crati] — where Herod- 
 otus, the most Hellenic of Greek historians, was 
 wont to talk and meditate." — E. Abbott, Pericles, 
 pp. 148-149. 
 
 B. C. 466-431. — Spread of Athenian culture and 
 influence. — "Athens has thus become recognized 
 as a model state ; and Greece was in the mood to 
 adopt or imitate her ways in small things as in 
 great. We can see this in the rapid spread of 
 Athenian weights and measures and the Athenian 
 coinage, or of systems arranged so as to work in 
 with them. Athens was standardizing Greek coin- 
 age as she was unifying Greek law. She did not, 
 of course, compel her allies to use only Attic 
 money, or money coined on the Attic standard. 
 But she naturally preferred that contributions 
 should be paid in it ; and there were indirect ways 
 by which she could encourage it. It was only 
 decent to pay Apollo and later Athena, in the 
 coinage they preferred to see. And as Athenian 
 coins could always be relied upon for good weight, 
 and as the device upon them, the famous owl, was 
 so conveniently uncouth that you could tell it at 
 a glance, there was really no need for a compul- 
 
 597
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 462-461 
 
 Periclean 
 Democracy 
 
 ATHENS, B.C. 461-431 
 
 sion which would have been against the principle 
 of free exchange. Example was better than pre- 
 cept. Attic silver began to be known and used 
 not only in the Confederacy but all over^ Greece 
 and among distant barbarians. When Gylippus 
 after Aegospotami kept back some of the Spartan 
 State booty, and hid it under his roof tiles, the 
 man who denounced him merely said that there 
 were 'owls in the potters' quarter.' In fact, much 
 as the Spartans hated strangers, and Athenians 
 above all, there were a great many such owls' nests 
 all over their city. Athenian influence was thus 
 spreading, as Pericles realized, far beyond the 
 /Egean and the confines of the Empire. Her trad- 
 ers were moving East and West, finding their way 
 into every land and every sea, fetching goods and 
 paying for them in owls and pottery, from the 
 iron mines of Elba or the caravans at Gaza and 
 Cyrene. For this also was part of the imperial 
 inission — to mix freely with all mankind and to 
 give of their best to men and nations. Friend- 
 ships were knit and alliances made with Greek, 
 and even with barbarian, powers without a thought 
 of the Persians or the original object of the league. 
 
 . . We must imagine houses without drains, beds 
 without sheets or springs, rooms as cold, or as 
 hot as the open air, only draughtier, meah that 
 began and ended with pudding, and cities that 
 could boast neither gentry nor millionaires. We 
 must learn to tell the time without watches, to 
 cross rivers without bridges, and seas without a 
 compass; to fasten our clothes (or rather our two 
 pieces of cloth) with two pins instead of rows 
 of buttons, to wear our shoes or sandals without 
 stockings, to warm ourselves over a pot of ashes. 
 to judge open-air plays or law suits on a cold 
 winter's morning, to study poetn,' without books, 
 geography without maps, and politics without 
 newspapers. In a word we must learn how to be 
 civilized without being comfortable . . . for it was 
 the doom of Athens that Poverty and Impossibility 
 dwelt in her midst from first to last. It is to the 
 immortal glory of her citizens that, though they 
 were too clear-eyed not to behold them, they 
 bravely refused to submit, either in mind or in 
 body, to the squalid tyranny which they have im- 
 posed upon the great mass of humankind." — \. E. 
 Zimmern, Greek commonwealth, pp. iqo-iqi. — See 
 also Edttcation: Ancient: B.C. 7th-.\.D. 3rd cen- 
 turies: Greece; and Libraries: Ancient: Greece. 
 
 B. C. 462-461. — Withdrawal of Athens from 
 the Peloponnesian League following her break 
 with Sparta. — Ostracism of Cimon. — "During 
 the absence of Cimon the popular party, led by 
 Ephialtes, held complete control of the govern- 
 ment, and proceeded to make it more democratic 
 than it had ever been before. Meanwhile the 
 Athenian troops at Ithome were unsuccessful (see 
 Greece: B.C. 477-461); and the Lacedaemonian 
 authorities, suspecting them of treachery, inso- 
 lently dismissed them. Cimon returned to .\thens 
 an unpopular man. In trying to check the rising 
 tide of democracy, he was met with taunts of 
 over-fondness for Sparta. Athens abandoned his 
 policy, broke loose from Sparta, and began to 
 form an alliance of her own, wholly independent 
 of the Peloponnesian League. Cimon's resistance 
 to these new movements caused his ostracism in 
 461 B.C. For fifteen years (476-461 B.C.) he had 
 been leading the Athenian fleets to victory or up- 
 holding the principles of old .Mhens against what 
 he believed to be the dangerous tendencies of 
 demagogues, such as Themistocles and Ephi.altes; 
 during this time his influence maintained friend- 
 ship between his city and Sparta and harmony 
 among the states of Greece. Under his patron- 
 age Athens advanced beyond all other Hellenic 
 
 cities in civilization. But with his ostracism the 
 political leadership of his state passed into other 
 hands." — G. W. Botsford, History of the ancient 
 world, p. iSg. 
 
 B. C. 461-431. — Periclean democracy. — Ideal 
 of equality at its zenith. — Law courts. — Assem- 
 bly. — Magistrates. — "Seldom, indeed, has 
 'equality' been pushed to so extreme a point as it 
 was, politically at least, in ancient Athens. The 
 class of slaves, it is true, existed there as in every 
 other state ; but among the free citizens, who in- 
 cluded persons of every rank, no political distinc- 
 tion at all was drawn. All of them, from the 
 lowest to the highest, had the right to speak and 
 vote in the great assembly of the people which 
 was the ultimate authority ; all were eligible to 
 every administrative post; all sat in turn as jurors 
 in the law-courts. The disabilities of poverty 
 were minimized by payment for attendance in the 
 assembly and the courts. And, what is more ex- 
 traordinary, even distinctions of ability were 
 levelled by the practice of filling all offices, ex- 
 cept the highest, by lot. [See also Lot, Use of, in 
 election: .\thens.] Had the citizens been a class 
 apart, as was the case in Sparta, had they been 
 subjected from the cradle to a similar discipline 
 and training, forbidden to engage in any trade or 
 business, and consecrated to the service of the 
 state, there would have been nothing surprising 
 in this uncompromising assertion of equality. But 
 in .\thens the citizenship was extended to every 
 rank and calling; the poor man jostled the rich, 
 the shopman the aristocrat, in the Assembly; cob- 
 blers, carpenters, smiths, farmers, merchants, and 
 retail traders met together with the ancient landed 
 gentry, to debate and conclude on national affairs; 
 and it was from such varied elements as these that 
 the lot impartially chose the officials ol the law, 
 the revenue, the police, the highways, the markets, 
 the ports, as well as the jurors at whose mercy 
 stood reputation, fortune, and life. The conse- 
 quence was that in .Athens, at least in the later 
 period of her history, the middle and lower classes 
 tended to monopolize political power. Of the 
 popular leaders, Cleon, the most notorious, was a 
 tanner; another was a baker, another a cattle- 
 dealer. Influence belonged to those who had the 
 gift of leading the mass; and in that competition 
 the man of tongue, of energy, and of resource, 
 was more than a match for the aristocrat of birth 
 and intellect. In Athens, as in every Greek state, 
 the greater part of the population was unfree; 
 and the government which was a democracy from 
 the point of view of the freeman, was an oligarchy 
 from the point of view of the slave. For the 
 slaves, by the nature of their position, had no 
 political rights; and they were more than half of 
 the population. It is noticeable, however, that the 
 freedom and individuality which were character- 
 istic of the Athenian citizen, appear to have reacted 
 favourably on the position of the slaves. Not only 
 had they, to a certain extent, the protection of the 
 law against the worst excesses of their masters, 
 but they were allowed a license of bearing and 
 costume which would not have been tolerated in 
 any other state." — .-X. E. Zimmern, Greek cotn- 
 monweailh. — See also Diobalv. — "Several thou- 
 sands of the citizens— men over thirty years of 
 age— spent their time in deciding the differences 
 which arose between .Athenians or between Athe- 
 nians and foreigners. All offences except murder, 
 arson, and one or two more, which were left to 
 the cognisance of the Areopagus, were decideci in 
 these courts, which without any direct participa- 
 tion in politics exercised by this means a great 
 influence on the policy of the Athenians. . . . K 
 was through the law-courts that Athens, in the 
 
 598
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 461-431 
 
 Periclean 
 Democracy 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 461-431 
 
 days of Pericles, maintained her authority over 
 the executive of the government, an authority en- 
 forced by the severest penalties and extending to 
 the most minute details. It was through them 
 that she controlled the trade of her great empire. 
 And from the decision of these courts there was no 
 appeal. The public Assembly often referred mat- 
 ters to the decision of the court, but the converse 
 process was unknown. Nor was any decision of a 
 law-court ever cancelled or revised. The jurors 
 were exempt from all responsibility — a privilege 
 which they shared with the public Assembly and 
 with that only. They were also the only power 
 capable of enacting laws. . . . The Assembly was 
 competent to change the whole constitution of 
 Athens; it could decide whether the laws of Solon 
 should be maintained or superseded by a new 
 code; it could close the law-courts; it could give 
 permission for new laws to be passed, or withhold 
 it, but it had not the power, by a mere resolution, 
 to add to the statute-book." — E. Abbott, Pericles, 
 pp. 259-261. — "The administrative offices held by 
 individuals were particularly large in number, and 
 were at least doubled when Athens became an im- 
 perial state and a new Athens grew up in the 
 cleruchies and colonies beyond the sea. ... It is 
 sufficient to observe that the Constitution of 
 Athens, in an attempt to estimate the numbers of 
 the bureaucracy for the middle of the fifth cen- 
 tury, makes the total reach the alarming propor- 
 tions of fourteen hundred, of which half were 
 'home' and half 'foreign' offices. As appointment 
 to most of these was made by lot, the Athenian 
 citizen was unfortunate who did not once in his 
 lifetime get his share of individual rule. . . . Few 
 states have ever been more completely under the 
 sway of great personalities. ... It is a phase of 
 national life which, on general grounds, should not 
 create the least surprise ; for it is one of the old- 
 est lessons in history that, while oligarchy is the 
 true leveller of merit, a democracy brings with it 
 a hero-worship generally of an extravagant kind, 
 and that the masses attain sufficient union for the 
 exercise of power only through the worship of a 
 supposed intellectual king. The first (and most 
 important) office which attracts attention is that 
 of the generals, who formed, as we saw, a college 
 of ten based on the ten Cleisthenean tribes. Their 
 most distinctive right was that of procuring special 
 meetings of the ecclesia, debate in which seems to 
 have been strictly limited to proposals put before 
 them by the general. . . . The stralegoi were thus 
 ministers of finance for foreign affairs, and con- 
 trolled the details of expenditure in their own 
 departments, all the funds voted from the treas- 
 uries for military purposes passing through their 
 hands. Amongst their special military duties we 
 may reckon, besides their actual leadership in war, 
 the general command of the home forces and con- 
 trol of the home defences. They possessed juris- 
 diction in military matters, for the appeal against 
 the levy was m.ade to them, and they had the di- 
 rection of the court in all offences against martial 
 law, which they either undertook in person or 
 remitted to the taxiarchs; while in the field they 
 had the right of punishing summarily with death 
 the most serious offences; such as treasonable 
 negotiations with the enemy. One of their chief 
 responsibilities at home was the care of the corn 
 supply of Athens. In the details of foreign ad- 
 ministration their influence must also have been 
 very great. It was they who introduced most of 
 such business to the assembly and brought for- 
 ward questions arising from treaties or from ne- 
 gotiations with foreign states. They officiated in 
 treaties and were responsible for their formal 
 execution, seeing that the oath was taken and 
 
 that the proper sacrifices were then offered on the 
 occasion. The existence of the Athenian Empire 
 added to the sphere of their powers. They were 
 the commanders-in-chief of the garrisons and of 
 the captains of the guard whom we find in the 
 subject states. They saw to the exaction of the 
 tribute when it was in arrears by commanding the 
 'tribute-collecting ships,' and probably had the 
 levying of the contingents from the allies both in 
 ships and men. It will be seen from this enumer- 
 ation of their functions that the Athenian gener- 
 als were at once leaders in war, ministers of war, 
 foreign ministers, and to a great extent ministers 
 of finance." — A. H. J. Greenidge, Handbook of 
 Greek constitutional history, pp. 178-181. 
 
 Also in: A. Holm, History of Greece, II, ch. 
 xvi. — G. Grote. History of Greece, clis. xlvi, xlvii. 
 — E. Meyer, Forscliurigen ziir aiten Geschichte, III, 
 PP- 570-583.— A, H. J. Greenidge, Greek constitu- 
 
 © Publishers* Photo Co. 
 PORCH OF THE MAIDENS 
 Portico on the- Erechtheum, Acropolis 
 
 tional history, pp. 166-189. — Gilbert, Constitutional 
 antiquities, pp. 170-416. — A. E. Zimmern, Greek 
 comnionweaith. — G. W. Botsford, Development of 
 Athenian constitution. — W. S. Ferguson, Greek im- 
 perialism, pp. 38-65.— M. H. E. Meier and G. F. 
 Schbmann, Der attiscbe Process. — Whibley, Com- 
 panion to Greek Studies, pp. 383-402. — Francotte, 
 Les finances des cites grecques. 
 
 B. C. 5th century. — Voting. — Primitive theory 
 of suffrage. See Suffrage, Manhood: B.C. sth 
 century. 
 
 B. C. 461-431. — General aspect of Periclean 
 Athens. — Public works and art under Pericles. 
 — The Pnyx, Theseum and the Acropolis. — 
 "Some years after the Persian Wars, Peiraeus was 
 laid out by the Milesian architect Hippodamus in 
 rectangular blocks, but Athens itself, like most an- 
 cient and, indeed, most modern cit'es until recent 
 times, grew up after no comprehensive plan. A 
 few wide avenues led from the principal gates in 
 
 599
 
 ATHENS, B.C. 461-431 
 
 Periclean Age 
 Plan of the City 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 461-431 
 
 the city wall. The broadest was the street leading 
 from the Dipylurn to the Agora, which was lined 
 with colonnades on both sides. At the eastern end 
 of the Acropolis was the impressive street of the 
 Tripods, a favorite promenade. South of the 
 Areopagus a considerable stretch of the famous 
 road along which the Panathenaic procession 
 passed, has been uncovered, but this is found to 
 be only thirteen to eighteen feet wide, and shut 
 in closely on either side by blank walls of pre- 
 cincts and dwellings. The streets debouching on 
 these main arteries were narrow, in great part like 
 alleys. Few of the streets were paved, and side- 
 walks were unknown. We have little information 
 about the private houses of the city and must de- 
 pend chiefly for our knowledge upon those ex- 
 cavated at such places as Priene and Deles. The 
 
 Along the more frequented streets the lower front 
 rooms seem often to have been used as shops, 
 either by owners or tenants, as at Pompeii. The 
 erection, in a niche or a vestibule before the house, 
 of a pillar altar of .\pollo of the Streets, or a 
 herm, or a hecateum, or all three, was a general 
 custom. Herms were also set up at street cross- 
 ings. The location of a house was rarely or never 
 designated by streets, the names of which, in fact, 
 were usually without marked significance, but by 
 some well-known building or site near which it 
 stood. The traces of dwellings in Coele [Coela], 
 between the extremities of the Long Walls on the 
 western slopes of the Pnyx hills, deserve mention. 
 The exposed rock of this dictrict is scarred by 
 hundreds of cuttings where once stood the simple 
 habitations of a considerable population. At one 
 
 (C^ Publithcrt' I'LoXo Co. 
 
 TEMPLE OF THE OLYMPIAN ZEUS, ATHENS 
 The .Acropolis is seen in the distance 
 
 houses were built about central courts, which af- 
 forded light and air, and most of them were but 
 one story in height. The front wall, built on the 
 edge of the street, was pierced only by an- occa- 
 sional window and by the door, the latter some- 
 times set back in a vestibule. .\ traveler of the 
 Hellenistic period remarks (P.-Dicaarchus i, i): 
 'The majority of the houses are cheap, but there 
 are a few good ones; strangers who come upon 
 them unexpectedly could hardly be made to be- 
 lieve that this is the celebrated city of the Atheni- 
 ans.' This statem^t. however, has a bearing 
 only upon the general appearance of the exterior, 
 for the interiors of many houses must have been 
 fairly ornate. Alcibiades is said to have had his 
 walls decorated by a painter, and after his time 
 some houses must have been still more sumptuous. 
 In the fourth century B.C. .we find Demosthenes 
 complaining that 'some have built private houses 
 more magnificent than the public buildings.' 
 
 point, possibly an open meeting place, seven rude 
 seats are hewn in the native rock. Another deep 
 cutting, with three adjacent rock-hewn chambers 
 (now closed by iron gratings), has long been called 
 the Prison of Socrates, with whom it has nothing 
 to do; it was doubtless the site of an unusually 
 pretentious dwelling. The patriotic Athenian spent 
 most of his time in the open, and the glory of 
 his city was the public buildings. The center of 
 .Athenian life was the -Agora, situated on the lower 
 ground north of the Areopagus. It was entered 
 from the northwest by the brilliant avenue leading 
 from the Dipylum gate, and was flanked on all 
 sides by works of architecture, sculpture, and 
 painting. [See Painting: Greek] To mention 
 only the objects of chiefest note, the entering 
 visitor, if he turned to the right, saw the Royal 
 Stoa, or Colonnade, the Stoa of Zeus Savior, 
 and the temple of Paternal .Apollo. The ridge 
 behind these bore the temple of Hephaestus and 
 
 600
 
 ,"ii:??7K!l'/«5r:.-;'« 
 
 LIFE IN ANCIENT ATHENS 
 An incident in the life of a lady of ancient Greece
 
 ATHENS, B.C. 461-431 
 
 Public 
 Buildings 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 461-431 
 
 the shrine of the hero Eurysaces. Against the slope 
 of the Areopagus stood the sanctuary of the 
 Mother of the Gods, where were the public ar- 
 chives; in her precinct, too, were the senate house 
 and the circular Tholus. Not far away were the 
 Orchestra, with the revered images of the Tyran- 
 nicides, the temple of Ares, and the statues of the 
 Namesake Heroes of the tribes. On the left stood 
 the Painted Porch and the Trcseum. Back of 
 these rose the imposing Stoa of Attains, and near 
 it the Ptolemaeum, Still farther on stood the 
 spacious Stoa of Hadrian and the great Market of 
 Cjesar and Augustus; in the rear of these the 
 octagonal Tower of the Winds. Then, among and 
 within all the buildings and precincts we must im- 
 agine almost countless images of gods and heroes 
 and distinguished men ; while everywhere graceful 
 and brightly appareled men and women, not a few 
 of whom are known and dear to us, round out the 
 brilliant picture with warmth and life. Following 
 the road from the Prytaneum about the east end 
 of the Acropolis, our traveler came upon another 
 famous quarter in southeast Athens. Here the 
 huge temple of Olympian Zeus and, across the 
 river, the Stadium, stood out conspicuously ; while 
 not far away were the famous Gardens and the 
 shaded parks of the Lyceum [see Education: An- 
 cient; B.C. 7th-A. D. 3rd centuries: University 
 of Athens] and Cynosarges. Or, following the 
 street of Tripods at the east foot of the Acropolis, 
 he passed the Music Hall of Pericles to the great 
 theater of Dionysus and the two temples hard by ; 
 then continuing westward he came to the shrine 
 of Asclepius and Health, or walked through the 
 long colonnade of Eumenes to the lofty Music 
 Hall of Herodes, with its spreading roof of cedar. 
 To crown all, the visitor ascended the Acropolis, 
 past the delicate temple of Wingless Victory, be- 
 tween the exquisite columns and through the open 
 doors of the Propylaea, into the middle of the 
 sacred area. All about him were scores of statues, 
 masterpieces in marble and bronze [see Sculp- 
 ture: Greek sculpture: 5lh century] ; on every 
 side great works of architecture; the whole a 
 marvelous harmony of brightness and color. Fore- 
 most among the buildings, the graceful Erechtheum 
 and the stately Parthenon ; and in the Parthenon, 
 towering on its pedestal the awe-compelling statue, 
 in gold and ivory, of Athena, the city's guardian." 
 — C. H. Weller, Athens and its monuments, pp. 21- 
 26. — See also Acropolis at Athens. 
 
 "Athens reached the zenith of her majesty under 
 the administration of Pericles, during approximate- 
 ly the third quarter of the fifth century B. C. The 
 administrative center of the Delian Confederacy, 
 which was formed after the war, in order to resist 
 Persia, was, in 454 B.C., transferred from Delos 
 to Athens, and Pericles found a way to make its 
 funds available for beautifying the new capital. 
 The defensive poHcy of Themistocles and Cimon 
 was approved and continued. The harbor of 
 Peiraeus was supplied with an elaborate and costly 
 system of shipsheds, and the seaport town itself 
 was laid out regularly by Hippodamus of Miletus. 
 The long Walls connecting Peiraeus with Athens 
 were finally completed, a new South Wall, par- 
 allel with the North Wall being erected in place 
 of the less direct Phaleric Wall. The earliest of 
 the splendid buildings of this period seems to have 
 been the Odeum, or Music Hall, of Pericles, on 
 the southeast slope of the Acropolis. Its conical 
 roof is said to have been made of masts from the 
 ruined ships of Xerxes. The gymnasium of the 
 Lyceum was also constructed, and numerous other 
 buildings in the lower city, to say nothing of scores 
 of statues and paintings, of which we have only 
 scanty knowledge, or have even lost the names. 
 But the buildings of the Acropolis are the glory 
 
 of the age. Whether or not at the outset Pericles 
 had conceived a systematic plan for adorning the 
 sacred hill, is still a moot question. At about the 
 middle oL the century, perhaps after the battle of 
 Oenophyta, in 457 B. C., when Athens first tri- 
 umphed over her old rival, Sparta, a decree waa 
 passed providing for the construction of the little 
 temple of Athena Victory on the high bastion be- 
 side the entrance to the sacred inclosure. Some- 
 doubt has been entertained as to its immediate 
 erection, but this seems most likely. The Parthe- 
 non, as a worthy home of the city's protectress^ 
 Athena, was probably begun in 447 B. C. on the 
 site of the building destroyed by the Persians. Iw 
 438 B. C. the temple was ready for the great gold 
 and ivory statue of Athena, by Pheidias, and five 
 or six years later it was completed. Built en- 
 tirely of white Pentelic marble, like the majority 
 of the buildings of this age, it was executed 
 throughout with extraordinary painstaking, and 
 was richly decorated with sculptures, as it would 
 seem by several of the leading artists of the day. 
 On the south the wall of the Acropolis was in- 
 creased in height to support the terrace, which, was 
 thus brought to a level with the rock on the iiortt 
 
 © Underwood & Underwood, N. Y. 
 
 TEMPLE OF NIKE (VICTORY) 
 ACROrOLIS 
 
 side and afforded a wide promenade about the 
 temple." — Ibid., pp. 36-37. 
 
 "The Pnyx, as we now have it, consists of an 
 irregularly semi-circular space nearly 400 feet in 
 its longitudinal diameter and about 230 feet wide. 
 The ground here by nature slopes toward the 
 north, and the area was raised on its curved side 
 by a supporting wall of carefully joined stones, 
 some of them of enormous size, ... In the ob- 
 tuse angle at the middle of the south side lies the 
 bema, or orators' platform. The rock has been 
 hewn down vertically along this side of the area, 
 a portion at the east corner never having been 
 removed, and the bema with its steps is cut from 
 a projection of the solid rock. Niches for votive 
 offerings are cut in the scarped rock at one side 
 of the bema, and inscriptions referring to Most 
 High Zeus indicate that a sanctuary of Zeus was 
 at some time located here. Above and behind the 
 bema are seats, probably seats of honor, cut from 
 the rock and facing the assembly, while back of 
 these are remains of an altar and various bases 
 belonging to some shrine." — Ibid., pp. 111-113. — 
 See also Pnyx. 
 
 "The name 'Theseum' was first applied to this 
 building in the Middle Ages, probably hecause on 
 
 601
 
 ATHENS, B.C. 461-431 
 
 Parthenon 
 Sophists 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 461-431 
 
 some of its metopes and a part of its frieze deeds tion given by professional teachers — the Sophists, 
 
 of Theseus are depicted. But inference from the The last half of the fifth century is often called 
 
 sculptural decoration of a temple has been shown with good reason the '.^ge of the Sophists.' . . . 
 
 to be hazardous. . . . The claim of Heahasstus The Sophists of the fifth century neither formed 
 
 seems most conclusive, though complete agreement a philosophic school nor were they charlatans. 
 
 of scholars has not been reached. The temple The most prominent among them was Protagoras 
 
 measures 104 by 45 feet. ... It is built of Pen- 
 telic and Parian marble, save the lowest of the 
 three steps, which is of poros. . . . The temple was 
 richly decorated with sculptures. Of the pedi- 
 mental groups only the traces remain, unfortun- 
 ately not enough to indicate clearly their motive. 
 A plausible argument has been offered to show 
 that the east pediment represented the birth of 
 Erichthonius, the west, Hephaestus with Thetis 
 and Eurynorae." — Ibid., pp. 117-11Q. 
 
 The Parthenon — "It is a noble building by mere 
 size; 228 feet measure its side, loi feet at its front. 
 Forty-six majestic Doric columns surround it; 
 they average thirty-four feet in height, and six 
 feet three inches at the base. All these facts, 
 however, do not give the soul of the Parthenon. 
 Walk around it slowly, tenderly, lovingly. Study 
 the elaborate stories told by the pediments, — on 
 the east front the birth of Athena, on the west 
 the strife of Athena and Poseidon for the posses- 
 sion of Athens. Trace down the innumerable 
 lesser sculptures on the 'metopes' under the cor- 
 nice, — showing the battles of the Giants, Centaurs, 
 Amazons, and of the Greeks before Troy ; finally 
 follow around, on the whole inner circuit of the 
 body of the temple, the frieze, showing in bas- 
 relief the Panathenaic procession, with the beauty, 
 nobility, and youth of .\thens marching in glad fes- 
 tival; comprehend that these sculptures will never 
 be surpassed in the twenty-four succeeding cen- 
 turies; that here are supreme examples for the 
 artists of all time, — and then, in the face of this 
 final creation, we can realize that the Parthenon 
 will justify its claim to immortality. One thing 
 more. There are hardly any straight lines in the 
 Parthenon. To the eye, the members and the steps 
 of the substructure may seem perfectly level; but 
 the measuring rod betrays marvelously subtle 
 curves. As nature abhors right angles in her crea- 
 tions of beauty, so did these Greeks, Rigidity, un- 
 naturalness, have been banished. The Parthenon 
 stands, not merely embellished with inimitable 
 sculptures, but perfectly adjusted to the natural 
 world surrounding." — VV. S. Davis, Day in old 
 Athens, pp. 2i8-2ig. — See also Parthenon; and 
 Arcuitecture: Classic: Greek Doric and Ionic. 
 
 Also in: Bury, History of Greece, pp. 367-378. 
 —Holm, History of Greece, II, ch. xx. — Beloch, 
 History of Greece, II, i, pp. 155-164, 203-218. — 
 Busolt, History of Greece, III, pp. 451-490, 560- 
 582. — .A.bbott, Pericles and the Golden Age of 
 Greece, chs. xvii, xviii. — Zimmern, Greek common- 
 wealth. — Guiraud, Etudes economiques sur V an- 
 tiquite. — Francotte, L'industrie dins la Grece an- 
 cienne. — Glover, From Pericles to Philip, ch. ii. — 
 Judeich, Topographic von Athen. — Fowler and 
 Wheeler, Handbook of Greek archceology, pp. 144- 
 158, 229-251. — Gardner, Handbook of Greek sculp- 
 ture, pp. 279-326. — Whibley, Companion to Greek 
 studies, pp. 213-224, 237-245, 416-421, 518-534.— 
 Stobart, Glory that ivas Greece, ch. iv.— Meyer, 
 Die vjirtschafiliche entwickelung der aniiken Welt; 
 also, Sklaverei in Altertum, in Kleine Schriften. 
 
 B. C. 461-431. — Age of rationalism and scep- 
 ticism. — Sophists and Protagoras. — "The intel- 
 lectual spirit of the age was stimulated to inquiry 
 and to scepticism. Herodotus is wholly sceptical, 
 and the agnostic tendency of the time is shown by 
 the entire lack of mythology and superstition dis- 
 played by Thucydides. .•X further stimulus was 
 furnished' by the development of a higher educa- 
 
 602 
 
 of Abdera whose ability and character is shown 
 by the fact that Pericles selected him to draw up 
 the laws for Thurii in 444-43 B.C.... These 
 Sophists were simply men devoted to the pursuit 
 of wisdom, frequently professional teachers who 
 undertook to give a general culture, to train their 
 pupils to take part in society and the state For 
 the old training which had been gained by ob- 
 servation they substituted a formal discipline ; they 
 offered instruction in rhetoric, politics, music, in 
 short in all the higher branches, as we should call 
 them. But they had no unity of doctrine. By the 
 close of the fifth century they had fallen some- 
 what into disrepute and were under suspicion, 
 since in the ."Mhenian state all the youths who 
 could afford to pay the fees which these profes- 
 sional teachers charged belonged to the aristocratic 
 class, which frequently voted against the democ- 
 racy. The Sophists ow'ed their great influence to 
 the fact that they met an actual need in the small 
 society of .-Vthens which included an unusual num- 
 ber of men with eager alert minds and great in- 
 tellectual curiosity. . . . Furthermore the Sophists 
 were sceptical as to the possibility of acquiring 
 absolute knowledge about anything. . . . Prota- 
 goras maintained that all knowledge was relative, 
 since the only way in which a man can know 
 anything is through his senses; through them he 
 perceives that an object is hot or cold, round or 
 square, sweet or bitter. He pointed out, also, 
 that the same object will not always appear thi 
 same even to the same individual ; hence he de- 
 clared that there is no such thing as absolute truth, 
 but that whatever seems true to you or to me at 
 the moment is the truth for you or for me, and 
 that it is not at all necessary that you and I should 
 hold the sam.e thing to be true at one and the same 
 time. Whatever seems to the individual true is 
 true, according to him. From this came his fa- 
 mous dictum that man, that is the individual, is the 
 measure of all things. It is clear that this doctrine 
 when applied to politics, morals, or religion was 
 upsetting. So long as men studied nature, they 
 were concerned with discovering the inflexible 
 laws which govern the world. But when they 
 turned their attention from nature to society or 
 government, they realized that human institutions 
 seemed to be the result on the whole of conven- 
 tions agreed upon and adopted by mankind The 
 Sophists held in general that the form of the state, 
 the current moral and religious beliefs and social 
 customs had no absolute validity ; that they were 
 the results of convention; and that their only 
 warrant was that they worked well in practice, 
 that they were profitable to the individual and to 
 society. This pragmatic view of institutions fell 
 in welt with the temper of the last half of the 
 fifth century, both in the period of .Athens' im- 
 perial supremacy and in the time of her trial dur- 
 ing the Peloponnesian War, when in passion or 
 despair the people disregarded law and, as in the 
 case of the Melians, all that humanity had counted 
 sacred. It was an age when many held that might 
 and right were identical, and for this view the 
 Sophists, even though unwittingly, furnished argu- 
 ments; for if the test of an institution or act is 
 that it works well when put into practice, suc- 
 cess proves validity. The Sophists, too, taught 
 that virtue was nothing else than what we call 
 today efficiency. It is not strange that the con- 
 servative .Athenians came to look on them with
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 461-431 
 
 Sophocles 
 Pericles 
 
 ATHENS, B.C. 461-431 
 
 suspicion. With regard to the gods Protagoras 
 was naturally agnostic. He began his 'Treatise on 
 the Gods' with the words: 'So far as the gods 
 are concerned, I cannot know whether they exist or 
 do not exist ; or what their nature is. Many things 
 prevent our knowing. The matter is obscure and 
 life is short.' One may be curious to know what 
 large matter Protagoras found for his discussion 
 when he began with this frank' confession of ig- 
 norance; but it should be observed that in this 
 ^ confession there is nothing necessarily antagonistic 
 to the popular theology of his day. It only shows 
 what the words plainly declare, that a belief in 
 the gods cannot depend upon knowledge. Another 
 Sophist, Prodicus, maintained that the divinities 
 were nothmg but the kindly powers of nature 
 which man had deified; and the 'Gentle Critias,' 
 one of the worst of the Thirty Tyrants, and a 
 ready pupil of the earlier Sophists, is said to 
 have set forth in a satyric drama the theory 
 that the gods were the clever invention of some- 
 one who wished to scare men out of their desire 
 to do evil. The effect of such scepticism and 
 agnosticism we can easily imagine. [See also 
 AcNosnciSM.] Many things had been wrongly 
 laid at the door of the Sophists, but it is small 
 wonder that the conservative Athenian citizens 
 came to look with distrust and alarm on these 
 new-fangled subversive notions; tha;: they ban- 
 ished Protagoras and burned his books in the 
 market place; or finally that they should have put 
 Socrates to death." — C. H. Moore, Religious 
 thought of the Creeks, from Homer to the trinmph 
 of Christianity, pp. 124-129. 
 
 B. C. 461-431. — Development of Greek drama. 
 — Sophocles. — "Sophocles was born at Colonus, a 
 village about a mile northwest of Athens, in 497 
 B. C, twenty-eight years after the birth of ^-Eschy- 
 lus. His father, Sophilus, was wealthy, though not 
 of noble descent. The boy Sophocles was care- 
 fully educated, receiving instruction in music from 
 Lamprus, a well-known teacher of the time. He 
 excelled in personal beauty, in dancing, and in 
 music, so that when a chorus of boys was to chant 
 the pjean of victory after the battle of Salamis 
 he was chosen to be the leader. The first appear- 
 ance of Sophocles as a tragic poet was in 46S B. C, 
 wlicn he was twenty-eight years old. . . . More 
 than one hundred plays are ascribed to him, and 
 with these he won eighteen victories at the city 
 Dionysia, besides others at the Lenaca. . . . For 
 over sixty years he composed a tetralogy every 
 second year, showing no falling off in invention, 
 imagination, dramatic skill, or poetic diction. He 
 died in 405 B. C, more than ninety years of age, 
 and his latest tragedy, the Qi^dipus at Colonus, 
 was brought out after his death by his grandson. 
 Several innovations in the dramatic art are as- 
 cribed to Sophocles. The most important of 
 these is the introduction 01 the third actor, which 
 made the dialogue henceforth more important than 
 the choral songs, though the latter continued to 
 occupy nearly half the time of the performance. 
 The second innovation consisted in enlarging the 
 chorus from twelve to fifteen members, which 
 doubtless occasioned some changes in its arrange- 
 ment and movements. Sophocles also ceased to 
 compose tetralogies of four plays on connected 
 subjects, but competed at the festivals with sep- 
 arate plays — three tragedies and a satyr drama, to 
 be sure, but not dealing with one myth. This, 
 with the reduction of the length of the lyric por- 
 tions of his plays, made it possible for him to make 
 his plots less simple than those of ^schylus and 
 to introduce more dramatic situations. It is also 
 said that Sophocles was the first to use painted 
 scenery to any great extenf, and several minor 
 
 changes in the costume of the chorus as well as in 
 the music employed are attributed to him. [See 
 also Drama: Origin] All these things show that 
 he was interested in the practical side of his pro- 
 fession as well as in the writing of tragedies. He 
 even wrote a book in prose. On the Chorus, de- 
 fending his innovations. In his early days he was 
 himself an actor in his plays, but his weak voice 
 compelled him to give up acting. Sophocles is 
 justly regarded as the greatest of the great Greek 
 tragic poets. He found the drama already de- 
 veloped by the genius of ^schylus to a high de- 
 gree of beauty and power, and he carried it fur- 
 ther ... by refining the language employed, by 
 giving more variety to the plot, which he enriched 
 with many fine details, and by perfecting the por- 
 trayal of character." — H. N. Fowler, History of 
 ancient Greek literature, pp. 205, 218. 
 
 B. C. 461-431. — Pericles: Estimate of his char- 
 acter. — -"But though Greece hated him, and 
 Athens spoke of him with mingled feelings, the 
 debt which the world owes to Pericles is immense. 
 Without him and his personal government ; with- 
 out the money which he lavished on shows 
 and spectacles, on temples and statutes; with- 
 out the sophists and philosophers whom he shel- 
 tered, we should have been the poorer by the loss 
 of half our intellectual life. And in his political 
 aims, however unfortunate the results, we can 
 trace the outlines of a purpose which must always 
 be the guiding light of the greatest statesmen: the 
 wish to give to every citizen in and through the 
 state, not only the blessings of peace and pros- 
 perity, but the still greater blessing of unimpeded 
 action in all noble aspirations; to awaken in him 
 such a devotion to his state as shall prove an 
 unerring guide in conduct; to train his intellectual 
 and moral powers, not with the lessons of a school, 
 but by the experience of life; to develop an equal 
 balance between the individual and the citizen; to 
 make duty a delight, and service an honour; to 
 remove the sting from poverty and the charm 
 from wealth ; and to recognise benefits to the com- 
 munity as the only ground of civic distinction. 
 Such a purpose was perhaps a distant ideal, even 
 at .Athens, and it is far more distant now; but 
 near or far away, it is from such ideals that the 
 spark is sent which kindles the flame of our 
 highest efforts. A few details have come down to 
 us of the personal appearance and manners of 
 Pericles. . . . His head, which was of unusual size 
 and shape, was a common theme of merriment 
 with the comedians: they compared it to a kind 
 of bean, called Schinus, and exercised their wits 
 in all kinds of allusions to the heavy head of the 
 new Olympian. To conceal the defect, Pericles 
 was accustomed, when in public, to wear a helmet, 
 a practice which, as we have said, provoked Cra- 
 tinus into declaring that he went 'about with the 
 Odeum on his head.' The suspicions which his 
 appearance excited were not diminished by his 
 education and manners. His tutor in 'music,' 
 which at Athens included most of the intellectual 
 part of education, as opposed to the physical, was 
 Damon, the 'friend of tyrants' and a 'consummate 
 sophist,' who, under cover of his art, was thought 
 to cherish designs against the democracy. Whether 
 this view was correct or not, Damon was ostra- 
 cised from Athens. Another teacher was Zeno, 
 from whom Pericles learned the art of disputation 
 as it was practised in the Eleatic School. More 
 important still was his connexion with Anaxa- 
 goras. In the society of this eminent man he not 
 only acquired a knowledge and an elevation of 
 thought which raised him above the superstitions 
 of his time, but the influence extended to his 
 language and demeanor. As an orator, Pericles 
 
 603
 
 ATHENS, B.C. 461-431 
 
 Estimate of 
 the Periclean Age 
 
 ATHENS, B.C. 461-431 
 
 was stately and dignified, carefully avoiding any- 
 thing familiar or common in his language; calm 
 and quiet in his delivery, and by these very 
 qualities producing a deep impression on his audi- 
 ence. His movements were at all times sedate; 
 his dress was careful and becoming ; he was 
 rarely seen to smile, and nothing could provoke 
 him to anger. . . . His power was far greater than 
 that of any other man of his time. Yet he never 
 abused it for mean or malicious purposes. In his 
 last utterance ... he declared that no Athenian 
 had ever put on mourning owing to any act of 
 his. ... In graciousness and clemency, in the for- 
 bearance and patience with which they endured 
 the attacks of foolish and ignorant enemies, the 
 Roman and the Grecian were fairly matched. But 
 not less admirable than his clemency was the 
 loftiness of spirit which prompted Pericles to 
 utter that last noble speech, giving the foremost 
 place among his triumphs to the self-restraint 
 which had governed his exercise of suorcme au- 
 thority." — E. Abbott, Pericles, pp. 363-366. 
 
 B.C. 461-431. — Appreciation of the age of 
 Pericles and summary of its achievements. — 
 "Thus far we have been considering Periclean 
 Athens chiefly as the most perfect example of 
 Greek civic life; as an imperial city, in which the 
 fullest individual freedom was enjoyed without 
 prejudice to the strength of the State; as a great 
 seat of industry and a focus of commerce. The 
 memorials of all these things have well-nigh van- 
 ished; but the modern world still possesses monu- 
 ments of the literature, and at least fragments of 
 the art, which proclaim Athens to have been, above 
 all, the great intellectual centre of that age. The 
 influence of Periclean Athens is deeply impressed 
 on the History of Herodotus, and moulded the 
 still greater work of Thucydides; Athens was the 
 home of the philosopher Anaxagoras, and the as- 
 tronomer Meton [inventor of the Metonyc Cycle] ; 
 it was at Athens that prose composition, which had 
 hitherto been either colloquial or poetical, was 
 first matured; at Athens, too, oratory first became 
 the effective ally of statesmanship; both tragedy 
 and comedy were perfected ; the frescoes of Polyg- 
 notus, the architecture of Ictinus, the sculpture 
 of Phidias, combined to adorn the city ; and when 
 we think of these great writers and artists, we 
 must remember that they are only some of the 
 more eminent out of a larger number who were 
 all living at Athens within the same period of 
 thirty years. How far can this wonderful fact be 
 directly connected with the influence of the politi- 
 cal work done by Pericles, or with the personal 
 influence of the man? We must beware of ex- 
 aggerating such influences. Statesmanship may 
 encourage men of genius, but it cannot make them. 
 When we look back on that age, we seem to rec- 
 ognize in its abounding and versatile brilliancy 
 rather the golden time of a marvelously gifted 
 race, than merely the attraction which a city of 
 unique opportunities exercised over the rest of the 
 world. The great national victory over Persia 
 had raised the vital energy of the Greek spirit to 
 the highest. But we must also recollect that, 
 owing to the very nature of Greek literature and 
 art, such a city as the Athens of Pericles could 
 do more for it than any modern city could do 
 for modern art or literature. Greek literature was 
 essentially spontaneous, the free voice of life, re- 
 strained in its freedom only by a sense of mea- 
 sure which was part of the Greek nature; the 
 Greek poet, or historian, or philosopher, was not 
 merely a man of letters in the narrower modern 
 meaning of the term; he was first, and before all 
 things, a citizen, in close sympathy, usually in 
 active contact, with the public life of the city. 
 
 For a Greek, therefore, as a poet or historian or 
 philosopher, nothing could be more directly im- 
 portant than that this public life should be a: 
 noble as possible; since, the nobler it was, the 
 higher and the more invigorating was the source 
 from which he drew his inspiration. Among the 
 great literary men who belonged to the age ol 
 Pericles, there are especially two who may be 
 regarded as representative of it — its chief historian 
 and its most characteristic poet — Thucydides and 
 Sophocles. The mind of Thucydides had been 
 moulded by the ideas of Pericles, and probably " 
 in large measure by personal intercourse with 
 him. We recognize that Periclean stamp in the 
 clearness with which Thucydides perceives that 
 the vital thing for a state is the spirit in which 
 it is governed; and that, apart from this spirit, 
 there is no certain efficacy in the form of a con- 
 stitution, no sovereign spell in the name. In Soph- 
 ocles, again, we feel the Periclean influence work- 
 ing with the same general tendency as in the 
 plastic arts; he holds with the ancient traditions 
 of piety, but invests them with a more spiritual 
 and more intellectual meaning. With regard to 
 the fine arts, it was the resolve of Pericles that they 
 should find their supreme and concentrated mani- 
 festation in the embellishment of Athens. Thucy- 
 dides, with all his reticence as to art, is doubtless 
 a faithful interpreter of the spirit in which that 
 work was done, when he makes Pericles speak of 
 the abiding monuments w-hich will attest to all 
 posterity the achievements of that age. This feel- 
 ing was not prompted merely by Athenian patriot- 
 ism; Athens was the city which the Persian in- 
 vader, bent on avenging Cardis, had twice laid 
 in ruins. The fact that .Athens should have risen 
 from its ashes in unrivaled strength and grace 
 was, as Pericles might well feel, the most impres- 
 sive of all testimonies to the victory of Hellene 
 over barbarian. It is well to remember that the 
 story of Greece was not closed when the Greek 
 genius reached the brief term of its creative ac- 
 tivity. It is well to follow the work of the Greek 
 mind through later periods also; but those quali- 
 ties which were distinctive of its greatness can 
 best be studied when the Greek mind was at its 
 best. That period was unquestionably the Fifth 
 Century before Christ — the Age of Pericles." — S. R, 
 Jebb, Age oj Pericles (L. Cooper, Greek genius and 
 its influence, pp. 73-75). — ".Accepting this (the will 
 to be good) as a concise description of the Hellenic 
 ideal, we find that the period during which it was 
 most fully realized was that which we are accus- 
 tomed to call the age of Pericles. The period so 
 named may be roughly defined as extending from 
 460 to 430 B. C. Within those thirty years the 
 political power of .'\thens culminated; the Atheni- 
 ans developed that civic life which, as sketched in 
 the great oration attributed to Pericles by Thucy- 
 dides, made .Athens, as the orator says, the school 
 of Greece, and, as we moderns might add, the 
 teacher of posterity; within those thirty years 
 were created works of art, in literature, in archi- 
 tecture, and in sculpture, which the world has 
 ever since regarded as unapproachable master- 
 pieces. This period, so relatively short and yet so 
 prolific in varied excellence, followed closely on 
 the war in which united Greece repelled the Per- 
 sian invasion. It immediately preceded the war 
 of the two leading Greek cities against each other, 
 in which Sparta ultimately humbled Athens. 
 Athens, as it appears in the national struggle 
 against Persia, is not yet the acknowledged head 
 of Hellas. The formal leadership belongs, by com- 
 mon consent, to Sparta; and though Athens is al- 
 ready pre-eminent in moral qualities — in unselfish 
 devotion to the national cause, and in a spirit 
 
 604
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 460-455 
 
 Defeat in Egypt 
 Long Walls 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 457-456 
 
 which no reverses can break, — these qualities ap- 
 pear as they are embodied in a few chosen men, 
 in a Themistocles and an Aristides ; the mass of 
 Athenians whom they lead is still a comparatively 
 rude multitude, not yet quickened into the full 
 energy of conscious citizenship. If, on the other 
 hand, we look to the close of the age of Pericles — 
 if we pass to the opening years of the Peloponne- 
 sian war — we find that the Athenian democracy 
 already bears within it the seeds of decay. The 
 process of degeneration has already begun, though 
 a century is still to elapse before Philip of Mace- 
 don shall overthrow the liberties of Greece at 
 Chseronea." — Ibid, pp. 63-64. 
 
 B. C. 460-455. — The disastrous expedition to 
 Egypt. — Attacks on the Peloponneaian coast. 
 ■ — Defeat at Tanagra. — "Inarus, king of some of 
 the Libyan tribes on the western border of Egypt, 
 had excited an insurrection there against the Per- 
 sians [about 460 B.C.], and his authority was 
 acknowledged throughout the greater part of the 
 country. Artaxerxes sent his brother Achjemenes 
 with a great army to quell this rebellion. An 
 Athenian armament of 200 galleys was lying at 
 the time off Cyprus, and Inarus sent to obtain 
 its assistance. The Athenian commanders, whether 
 following their own discretion, or alter orders re- 
 ceived from home, quitted Cyprus, and having 
 joined with the insurgents, enabled them to defeat 
 Achaemenes, who fell in the battle by the band 
 of Inarus. They then sailed up the Nile to Mem- 
 phis, where a body of Persians, and some Egyp- 
 tians, who still adhered to their cause, were in 
 possession of one quarter of the city, called White 
 Castle. The rest was subject to Inarus, and there 
 the Athenians stationed themselves, and besieged 
 the Persians. . . . Artaxerxes sent a Persian, named 
 Megabazus, to Sparta, with a sum of money, to 
 be employed in bribing the principal Spartans to 
 use their influence, so as to engage their country- 
 men in an expedition against Attica. Megabazus 
 did not find the leading Spartans unwilUng to re- 
 ceive his money ; but they seem to have been un- 
 able to render him the service for which it was 
 offered. Ithome still held out: and Sparta had 
 probably not yet sufficiently either recovered her 
 strength or restored internal tranquility, to ven- 
 ture on the proposed invasion. Some rumours of 
 this negotiation may have reached Athens, and 
 have quickened the energy with which Pericles now 
 urged the completion of the long walls. . . . But 
 among his opponents there was a faction who 
 viewed the progress of this great work in a dif- 
 ferent light from Cimon, and saw in it, not the 
 means of securing the independence of Athens, but 
 a bulwark of the hated commonalty. They too 
 would have gladly seen an invading army in 
 Attica, which might assist them in destroying the 
 work and its authors." — C. Thirlwall, History of 
 Greece, v. 3, ch. 17. — This party was accused of 
 sympathy with the Spartan expedition which came 
 to the help of Doris against the Phocians in 457 
 B. C, and which defeated the Athenians at Tan- 
 agra (See also Greece: B.C. 458-456). In 455, 
 "the Spartans were reminded that they were also 
 liable to be attacked at home. An Athenian arma- 
 ment of so galleys, and, if we may trust Diodorus, 
 with 4,000 heavy armed troops on board, sailed 
 round Peloponnesus under Tolmides, burnt the 
 Spartan arsenal at Gythium, took a town named 
 Chalcis belonging to the Corinthians, and defeated 
 the Sicyonians, who attempted to oppose the land- 
 ing of the troops. But the most important ad- 
 vantage gained in the expedition was the capture 
 of Naupactus, which belonged to the Ozolian Locri- 
 ans, and now fell into the hands of the Athe- 
 nians at very seasonable juncture. The third Mes- 
 
 senian war had just come to a close. The brave 
 defender., of Ithome had obtained honourable 
 terms. . . . The besieged were permitted to quit 
 Peloponnesus with their families, on condition of 
 being detained in slavery if they ever returned. 
 Tolmides now settled the homeless wanderers in 
 Naupactus. . . . But these successes were counter- 
 balanced by a reverse which befell the arms of 
 Athens this same year in another quarter. After 
 the defeat of Achsmens, Artaxerxes, disappointed 
 in his hopes of assistance from Sparta, . . . raised 
 a great army, which he placed under the com- 
 mand of an abler general, Megabyzus, son of 
 Zopyrus. Megabyzus defeated the insurgents and 
 their allies, and forced the Greeks to evacuate 
 Memphis, and to take refuge in an island of the 
 Nile, named Prosopitis, which contained a town 
 called Byblus, where he besieged them for 18 
 months. At length he resorted to the contrivance 
 of turning the stream. . . . The Greek galleys were 
 all left aground, and were fired by the Athenians 
 themselves, that they might not fall into the 
 enemy's hands. The Persians then marched into 
 the island over the dry bed of the river: the 
 Egyptians in dismay abandoned their allies, whO' 
 were overpowered by numbers and almost all de- 
 stroyed. . . . Inarus himself was betrayed into the 
 hands of the Persians and put to death. . . . Egypt 
 . . . was again reduced under the Persian yoke, 
 except a part of the Delta, where another pre- 
 tender, named Amyrtaeus, who assumed the title 
 of king . . . maintained himself for several 
 years against the power of the Persian monarchy. 
 But the misfortune of the Athenians did not end 
 with the destruction of the great fleet and army 
 which had been first employed in the war. They 
 had sent a squadron of 50 galleys to the relief of 
 their countrymen, which, arriving before the news 
 of the recent disaster had reached them, entered 
 the Mendesian branch of the Nile. They were here 
 surprised by a combined attack of the Persian land 
 force and a Phoenician fleet, and but few escaped 
 to bear the mournful tidings to Athens. Yet even 
 after this calamity we find the Athenians, not 
 suing for peace, but bent on extending their 
 power, and annoying their enemies." — G. Grote,, 
 History of Greece, v. $, pt. 2, ch. 45. 
 
 B. C. 458. — Athens' triumph over Corinth. — 
 Long walls. — Now that her break with Sparta 
 was complete, Athens proceeded to conclude an 
 alliance with Megara, and that meant war with 
 Corinth, the ally of Sparta (462-461 B.C.). Simi- 
 lar alliances were concluded with Argos and Thes- 
 saly, while Corinth won the aid of ^^gina. In 458 
 B.C., the Athenians administered a crushing de- 
 feat to the allied fleets of the enemy at Cecry- 
 phalea. At the same time they drove back in 
 disorder the Corinthian army, which they finally 
 annihilated. Meanwhile the Athenians were tak- 
 ing steps to render their own position impregnable. 
 Themistocles had been the first to insist that the 
 real strength of Athens lay in the wooden walls 
 of her ships. Carrying out this policy, the 
 Athenians proceeded to join Athens to the Peiraeus 
 and the sea by lines of fortified walls. To un- 
 derstand the magnitude of the task, we h^ve only 
 to remember that it meant the construction of 
 nine miles of wall impregnable to the siege ap- 
 paratus of the time. Upon the advice of Pericles 
 this work was begun.— See also Long walls. 
 
 B. C. 457-456.— Battle of Oenophyta.— New 
 Athenian alliances. — Fall of .Sgina. — "Sixty-two 
 days after the battle of Tanagra an Athenian 
 force, under Myronides, entered Bceotia, and in 
 a great battle at Oenophyta (4'6), of which we 
 know nothing but the fact and the result, en- 
 tirely overthrew the Theban army. The smaller 
 
 60s
 
 ATHENS, B.C. 456 
 
 Cimon 
 Thirty Years' War 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 446-445 
 
 cities were freed from the supremacy of Thebes, 
 and the oligarchies overthrown. Even in Thebes 
 the defeat brought about a political change and 
 the establishment of a democracy. The cities 
 of BcEOtia became members of the Athenian Al- 
 liance and furnished troops. And soon afterwards 
 Phocis, already hostile to Sparta for her recent 
 raid into their territory, joined Athens also. Soon 
 afterward the long blockade of .ligina came to a 
 successful conclusion; the fortifications were de- 
 stroyed, the ships of war surrendered, the obliga- 
 tion to pay tribute for the future recognized. And 
 meanwhile the long walls that connected Athens 
 with the sea were completed." — A. J. Grant, 
 Greece in the Age of Perides, p. 123. 
 
 B. C. 456. — Height of Athenian power on 
 land. — "The year 456 gave new evidence of the 
 unapproachable power of .\thens at sea. Her ad- 
 miral Tolmides sailed round the Peloponnese. 
 He burnt the Spartan dock-yard at Gythium, and 
 nowhere met with any resistance at sea. Corinth 
 found herself hemmed in on all sides by the 
 dependencies of Athens. On the west, Megara, 
 .(Egina, and Troezen closed her round. On the 
 east, at the very narrowest part of the Corinthian 
 Gulf, the Athenians had captured the important 
 station of Naupactus, and when, in 45=;. the 
 Helots on Mount Ithome surrendered on condi- 
 tion that they should be allowed to depart freely, 
 they were planted in Naupactus by Athens. The 
 bitter enemies of Sparta, and therefore of Corinth, 
 they held the gate of the western waters against 
 her. It was by her commerce that Corinth lived 
 and now she could only carry on her commercial 
 enterprises with the permission of .Athens. For 
 the jealousy which she then created she was to 
 pay dearly at the time of the Peloponnesian 
 war. .Athens had reached the highest point of 
 her material power. The .^igean Sea w-as hers, 
 and hers was the centre of Greece. No power 
 on earth could cope with her on the waters ; 
 on land Sparta could boast no assured superiority. 
 The extent of territory that she controlled was 
 greater than any that in historical times had 
 belonged to any state of Greece. Her revenues 
 were for the age, immense. .\nd her intellectual 
 supremacy, though doubtless to contemporaries not 
 so important as her material greatness, helped to 
 increase her splendour in the eyes of Greece. But 
 this increase in dominion was too sudden a growth 
 to last. Such extraordinary energy was feverish, 
 and could not be permanent. She could not hope 
 to win many victories with those who were too 
 old or young for regular service. Side by side 
 with her conquests went the development of the 
 democracy, and we shall see shortly how quite 
 unsuitable were the institutions of the democracy 
 for the management of an empire. -And so the 
 might of .Athens from this point changes only 
 to decrease." — K. J. Grant, Greece in the Age of 
 Pericles, pp. 124-125 — See also B.^lance of power: 
 .Ancient Greece and Rome. 
 
 B. C. 454 or 453. — Return of Cimon. 
 
 B. C. 449-446. — Cimon's expedition. — Peace 
 with Persia. — ".And during these years the contest 
 with Persia was renewed by Cimon with con- 
 spicuous success. The war is of importance, and 
 it would be interesting to watch in detail the last 
 struggle between the great combatants. But our 
 authorities here are meagre, and, except for the 
 main features, contradictory ; nor does the war 
 in the East bear directly upon the development 
 of .Athenian power in Central Greece. It is 
 enough then to say that in 440 Cimon at the 
 head of the .Athenian armament was engaged in 
 the attempt to reduce Cyprus, when he was at- 
 tacked by the Persian fleet. He died before the 
 
 engagement, but his spirit animated his troops. 
 .And off Salamis, in Cyprus, the Persians were 
 entirely defeated on the same day, both by sea 
 and land. The defeat was an exceedingly severe 
 one. and now the Persian king acquiesced in an 
 arrangement whereby the status quo was accepted 
 and all hostilities terminated. It is forty years 
 before there is any further collision between 
 Greeks and Persians. Meanwhile the fleet returned 
 with Cimon's body. .Athens never again produced 
 a commander of such distinction." — A. J. Grant, 
 Greece in the Age of Pericles, pp. 126-127. — For 
 second Lacred war, see S.acred war. Seco.nd. 
 
 B. C. 447.— Battle of Coronea.— Fall of 
 Athenian Continental League. — "The first blow 
 came from Boeotia. There by a sudden revolu- 
 tion the democracies were overthrown, and sev- 
 eral of the cities of Ba-otia declared against the 
 .Athenian supremacy. It was clear that the move- 
 ment must be suppressed at once. . . . The Athe- 
 nian forces were surprised at Coronea (447) and 
 entirely defeated. Tolmides and many were slain; 
 the rest were taken prisoners. The Egyptian 
 catastrophe had already depleted .Athens; she 
 could ill afford to spare any more citizens. To 
 get back those who had been taken prisoners, she 
 consented to abandon Bccotia. The oligarchs at 
 once came back ; again Boeotia was organized under 
 the supremacy of Thebes ; and .Athens had upon 
 the north a jealous and victorious rival, embittered 
 by the memory of a recent humiliation. The loss 
 of Boeotia was followed by blows still more danger- 
 ous. First, in the summer of 445 the cities of 
 the great and most important island of Eubcea 
 revolted from .Athens. Eubcea had been from 
 the first a member of the Delian League; her 
 position and her wealth made her friendship or 
 her hostility of the first importance to Athens. 
 Pericles with all the available forces marched 
 to repress the revolt. But no sooner was his back 
 turned than the storm broke from the west. . . . 
 Bceotia, Eub(Ea, Megara, Sparta — attacked by 
 these formidable foes and taken by surprise, it 
 seemed impossible for .Athens to survive. Pericles 
 turned hastily back from Eubcea. But Pleistoanax 
 made no attack on .Athens herself. The Spartan 
 army got as far as the plain of Eleusis, within 
 fifteen miles of .Athens, and then turned back 
 and retired over the Isthmus to Sparta. ... So 
 the greatest danger of all had rolled away. Megara 
 could not be retaken: it was doubtless held by 
 a Spartan garrison. But from this day forth 
 .Athens hated Megara as she hated no state in 
 Greece, though she hated many. But the Spartans 
 could not get at Eubcea. and thither Pericles 
 marched. We hear of no resistance, and quickly 
 the island became a portion of the .Athenian 
 power once more. But not on the old terms; 
 Euboea was no longer a free member of the con- 
 federacy. She was now strictly subject to .Athens. 
 Everywhere the oligarchical constitutions were de- 
 stroyed and democracies were set up. All ad- 
 herents of the old system were expjelled and 
 not allowed to return. .And the new democracies 
 were not free to govern themselves as they liked. 
 They were free only as long as they freely chose 
 to be subjects of .Athens." — .A. J. Grant, Greece 
 in the Age of Pericles, pp. 127-129.— See also 
 Greece: B. C. 478-477. 440-445. 
 
 B. C. 446-445. — Thirty years' peace. — "Pericles 
 and his colleagues saw- clearly the exhaustion of 
 their state. The disaster in Egypt, the substantial 
 failure of the great expedition to Cyprus, the 
 heavy loss in men from the domestic wars, and 
 the vast expense of all these undertakings had 
 overstrained the ability of .Athens and had neces- 
 sitated a breathing time. In 445, accordingly, after 
 
 606
 
 ATHENS, B.C. 440-437 
 
 Peloponnesian 
 War 
 
 ATHENS, B.C. 431-429 
 
 the Euboic campaign, the Athenians agreed with 
 the Peloponnesians to a Thirty Years' Peace on 
 the basis of the status quo. Athens gave up 
 all her recently acquired continental allies, re- 
 taining only Plataea and Naupactus. On the 
 other hand, she received an acknowledgment of 
 her maritime empire. Neither party was to in- 
 terfere with the allies of the other but each re- 
 mained free to make treaties with neutral states. 
 The principle of the 'open door' was established 
 for their commercial relations; and it was agreed 
 that disputes should be settled by arbitration. 
 The lack of a clear understanding as to the means 
 and method of arbitration, however, rendered the 
 last-mentioned article inoperative. However faulty 
 the terms, both parties to the treaty, freed from 
 the heavy burden of the conflict, rejoiced in the 
 advantages of neutral commerce, of internal re- 
 cuperation, and improvement promised them by 
 the truce." — G. W. Botsford, Hellenic history, cit. 
 xiv. — See also Greece: B.C. 449-445. 
 
 B. C. 440-437. — New settlements of Cleruchies. 
 See Cleruciis. 
 
 B. C. 438-284. — Relations with kingdom of 
 Bosporus. See Bosporus; City and kingdom. 
 
 B.C. 431. — Peloponnesian War (431-404 
 B.C.): Causes of the war. — Conflict of eco- 
 nomic interests. — Athenian designs upon Me- 
 gara. — Athenian interests in Corcyra. — Trouble 
 with Corinth. — Athenian menace to Pelopon- 
 nese. — Political parties as a cause. — Spartan 
 fear and Corinthian jealousy of Athens. — "The 
 Thirty Years' Peace put an end to open hostilities 
 between .Athens and Sparta, but it failed to settle 
 the fundamental and vexing questions of rivalry 
 and to remove the mutual bad feeling and distrust. 
 The balance was too delicate. To avoid giving 
 Sparta any occasion for opposition, Pericles de- 
 parted from his earlier aggressive policy to one 
 of conservation and consolidation. The first step 
 in the direction of aggrandizement was certain to 
 be challenged. Events and exigencies of Athenian 
 trade and industry forced the leaders of Athens 
 into such a step and trouble followed. The 
 Megarian decrees formed the first piece of re- 
 newed aggression on the part of Athens. A small, 
 over-populated state, once of great commercial 
 importance, Megara had sunk to the position of 
 a second-rate industrial city. However, her 
 farmers furnished vegetables and meat to the 
 Athenian markets, and her wares, which were 
 good, made her merchants strong competitors of 
 the Athenian merchants and manufacturers. In 
 response to local demands for protection the 
 Athenian assembly passed a decree excluding the 
 Megarians from the markets of the empire. The 
 Athenians had resented the withdrawal of Megara 
 from their federation and probably hoped to force 
 the Megarians into subjection that they might 
 regain the favorable position on the Gulf of 
 Corinth. This decree meant financial ruin and 
 starvation to the Megarians and served as a 
 warning to any other state of the Spartan al- 
 liance which might block the Athenians. It 
 aroused much apprehension on the part of other 
 commercial states, particularly in Corinth. The 
 Corcyreean episode added another element to 
 Corinthian unrest at the increasing power of 
 Athens. Corcyra, a colony of Corinth, but one 
 of the few remaining independent naval powers, 
 finding herself at war with Corinth, appealed to 
 Athens for aid. They had cogent arguments — 
 their navy, which would be a valuable addition 
 to the Athenian fleet, and the control which they 
 were able to exercise over the trade route to 
 Sicily. In vain did the Corinthians argue that 
 the true path of expediency is the path of right. 
 
 Athenian refusal of the Corcyrsean offer meant the 
 strengthening of the only important naval rival of 
 Athens and a loss of prestige to Athens itself 
 if it yielded to the desires of Corinth. To avoid 
 any infraction of the peace the Athenians con- 
 cluded a defensive alliance with Corcyra. In 
 the resulting war the Corinthians were worsted. 
 The enmity thus aroused between Athens and 
 Corinth was increased by a minor difficulty at 
 Potidaea. The crisis in Hellenic affairs and the 
 test of the Thirty Years' Peace came when the 
 Corinthians, fully aroused, invited the envoys of 
 the Peloponnesian League to meet at Sparta to 
 consider the situation. The grievances were sub- 
 mitted to the Spartan assembly. Thucydides made 
 use of the situation to draw a comparison be- 
 tween the Spartans, conservative, reluctant to as- 
 sume the aggressive and willing to take defensive 
 action only when absolutely necessary, and the 
 Athenians, revolutionary, always on the alert to 
 seize the advantage, ready to risk all to gain their 
 ends. They were born, said the Corinthian am- 
 bassadors, neither to have peace themselves nor to 
 allow it to other men. The Corinthians made the 
 veiled threat that if their plea met with no 
 success they would turn elsewhere for aid. Sparta 
 was in this way forced into action. Athenians 
 present endeavored to prevent such a result. They 
 recounted the glorious deeds of Athens in the 
 past. They explained the establishment of their 
 empire and justified it on the ground of necessity. 
 They pointed out the risks involved in war and 
 called upon the Spartans to submit the disputes 
 to arbitration according to the treaty. Archidamus, 
 the conservative king of Sparta, counseled delay. 
 He supported the Athenian demand for arbitration, 
 pointing out the absence of a real cause, the su- 
 periority of the Athenians in the materials of 
 war and in money, and the uncertainty of the 
 issue. The war party, however, was the stronger. 
 They realized that the basic issue was not the 
 immediate charges against Athens but the ex- 
 istence of the Athenian empire itself, which was 
 not a debatable question. ... It was voted then 
 that the Athenians were guilty of an infraction 
 of the treaty. At the assembly of the league which 
 followed at Sparta the keynote of the war was 
 sounded. Athens was a menace to all. Some 
 states she already ruled. If from a love of peace 
 and ease the Peloponnesians failed to make war 
 upon her, she would soon dominate the rest. . . . 
 The league voted for war. A series of minor de- 
 mands were made upon Athens, followed by a 
 peremptory order for the dissolution of the em- 
 pire. The Athenians refused to yield. The least 
 concession would be a confession of wrong-doing 
 or of weakness. Pericles regarded the war as 
 inevitable and felt that Athens was ready. Act- 
 ing on his advice they made counter-propositions 
 to Sparta, put the onus of blame for the begin- 
 ning of the war upon that city by offering arbitra- 
 tion 'upon fair terms according to the treaty, well 
 aware that war was at hand, anxious for peace, 
 but ready and willing to defend themselves.' 
 (Thucydides, i, 140). . . . When the issue came it 
 was found to be unarbitrable. The existence of 
 the Athenian empire was not a debatable ques- 
 tion. Spartan fear and Corinthian jealousy of 
 Athenian expansion could not be submitted to 
 a tribunal. Considerations of individual expediency 
 founded on fear or ambition were more powerful 
 than the most binding of sacred oaths." — W. E. 
 Caldwell, Hellenic conceptions of peace, pp. 87-Qi. 
 — See also Greece; B.C. 435-432; B.C. 432 and 
 B.C. 432-4,V. 
 
 B. C. 431-429.— Attitude of Hellas toward 
 war. — Spartan preparations (431). — Gathering 
 
 607
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 429-427 
 
 Peloponnesian 
 War 
 
 ATHENS, B.C. 421 
 
 of Athenian population into the city. — Plague 
 (43D).— Death of Pericles (429).— "•-■Ml Hellas was 
 excited by the corning conflict. Prodigies and 
 prophecies abounded. Enthusiasm was manifest on 
 both sides. Outside of the .Athenian empire the 
 war was extremelv popular and the Spartans were 
 hailed as the liberators of Hellas. The Spartan 
 youth were eager for the e.xcitement of war. Nor 
 was this feeling confined to Sparta. The Athenian 
 young men gladly exchanged soft cloaks and snow- 
 white slippers, flowing ringlets, baths and oil, for 
 the breastplate and the greaves, and dropped the 
 games of the banquet for the greater game of 
 war, to fight for gods and country as their 
 fathers had fought before them. In the defence 
 tof the city all parties were united. In the 
 spring of 431 the Spartan king Archidamus pre- 
 pared his forces for an invasion of .Attica. Pericles 
 countered by bringing all the Athenians within the 
 jLong Walls (q. v.) and thus avoided a decisive 
 tattle on land, while the fleet was ravaging the 
 Peloponnesian coasts. The suffering among the 
 Athenians, most of whom were small farmers un- 
 used to city life, was great, and their enmity to- 
 ward Sparta was increased by the destruction of 
 their crops and their olive orchards. The plague 
 •which ravaged .Athens added to the general dis- 
 comfort and brought the peace party tem- 
 porarily into power. Pericles triumphed over 
 their attacks, but the following year himself died 
 of the disease. His place as leader of the people 
 was taken by a new type of men, products of 
 the people, like Cleon, the tanner, and Hyperbolus, 
 the lamp-maker."— \V. E. Caldwell, Hellenic con- 
 ceptions of peace, p. 02. 
 
 B. C. 429-427.— Siege and destruction of Pla- 
 tjea.' See Greece: B.C. 4^9-427: Peloponnesian 
 war. 
 
 B. C. 428-427. — Revolt of Lesbos. — Invasion 
 of Attica. — Longing for peace.— "In the year 
 .after Cleon had come to the front, the oligarchs 
 oT Lesbos induced Mytilene and nearly all the 
 other cities of the island to revolt. There was 
 danger that all the maritime cities would fol- 
 low this example. But the Peloponnesians were 
 too slow in sending the promised aid, and the 
 Athenians made desperate efforts to conquer the 
 island. As a last resort (427 B.C.) the oligarchs 
 of Mytilene armed the commons; but the latter 
 promptly surrendered the city to the Athenian 
 commander. Thereupon he sent the oligarchs, who 
 alone were guilty of revolt, to Athens for trial. 
 The Athenians were angry because the Lesbians 
 had revolted without cause; they feared, too, for 
 the safety of their empire, and indeed for their 
 own lives. With no great difficulty, therefore, 
 Cleon persuaded them to condemn and put to 
 death all the captive oligarchs. Cleon's idea was 
 to make an example of them that other com- 
 munities might fear to revolt. The punishment, 
 decreed under excitement, was too severe, and out 
 of keeping with the humane character of the 
 Athenians. In putting down this revolt, they 
 passed the dangerous crisis, and were again un- 
 disputed masters of the .^gean Sea." — G. W. Bots- 
 ford. History of the ancient world, p. 222. — The 
 invasion of Attica in the year J27 B.C. Thucydides 
 regarded as unusually severe. As a result the 
 peace party gained new courage. The wealthier 
 noble class had suffered particularly. They hail 
 lost their fair estates in the country, with all their 
 houses and rich furniture; their pleasures were 
 restricted in the city ; the exigencies of war hud 
 led to the imposition of a property tax, which 
 fell upon them with heavy weiaht; and they 
 were bitterly opposed to the new developments 
 of the democracy. The center of their op|)Osition 
 
 was in the oligarchic clubs. The small farmer, 
 through his hatred of Sparta was so strong that 
 he refused to support any movement for peace 
 and demanded revenge for the destruction of his 
 vineyards and orchards, had grown weary of the 
 cramped and confused life in the city and was 
 longing for the end of the war. 
 
 B. C. 426-422. — War-weariness. — Barbarous 
 war practices. — Battle of Pylos (425). — Peace 
 proposals. — Athenian defeats. — Battle of Am- 
 phipolis. — "All of Hellas was in confusion as a 
 result of the war. In most of the cities factions 
 had arisen. The democratic leaders were endeavor- 
 ing to establish or to assure their power by ap- 
 pealing to the Athenians, and the leaders of the 
 oligarchs to the Lacedemonians. Party strife 
 brought many terrible calamities; anarchy and 
 violence, crime and perfidy were rife ; religion and 
 oaths were forgotten. The practices of war were 
 hardened by the intensity of feeling. Sailors who 
 fell into Spartan hands were killed forthwith and 
 the -Athenians retaliated in kind. W'hen Plataea 
 fell the Spartans put to death all the men who 
 remained and sold the women and children into 
 slavery with no softening of the ancient custom. 
 After the defeat of the oligarchic revolt in 
 Mytilene the .Athenians on the motion of Cleon, 
 voted to put all male citizens to death. They re- 
 considered this action, and on the ground of bet- 
 ter policy killed only the most guilty. Against 
 the general policy of Cleon towards the allies 
 as exemplified in this affair, and in a later in- 
 crease of the tribute, the comic poets protested. 
 . . . The capture of the Spartans at Pylos in 425 
 furnished an opportunity for peace. The Spartans 
 offered peace, alliance and friendly relations. 'Let 
 us be reconciled and, choosing peace instead cf 
 war ourselves, let us give relief and rest to all 
 the Hellenes.' The credit for the peace would go 
 to Athens. The peace party were hopeful, but the 
 imperialistic element among the democracy, led by 
 Cleon, had gained new hopes and the Spartan 
 offer was rejected. .Athenian forces were defeated 
 in the following years at Delium and by Brasidas, 
 the ablest of the Spartan generals, in the Chal- 
 cidice. The .Athenians then attempted to secure 
 peace, but without success. In the final battle of 
 Amphipoiis both Cleon and Brasidas were killed. 
 The two chief obstacles to the making of terms 
 were thus removed. The conservatives on both 
 sides came into control and peace was .igreed 
 upon. The Spartan allies were dissatisfied, but 
 they were overruled. The treaty, which is known 
 as the Peace of Xjcias, after the .Athenian com- 
 mander, provided for mutual restoration and peace 
 for fifty years." — W. E. Caldwell, Hellenic concep- 
 tions of peace, pp. 05-96. — See also Greece: B.C. 
 
 425. 
 
 B. C. 421. — Peace of Nicias. — Joys of peace. 
 — Return to the farms. — "The Peace, of which 
 Nicias and Pleistoanax were the chief authors, was 
 fixed for a term of fifty years. .Athens under- 
 took to restore all the posts which she had oc- 
 cupied during the war against the Peloponnesians. 
 ... All captives on both sides were to be lib- 
 erated. [See also Greece: B. C. 424-421.] It ap- 
 peared immediately that the situation was not fa- 
 vorable to a durable peace; for, when the terms 
 were considered at Sparta by a meeting of deputies 
 of the Peloponnesian allies, they were emphatically 
 denounced as unjust by three important states, Cor- 
 inth, Boeotia, and Megara. . . . But since the deep- 
 est cause of the war lay in the commercial com- 
 petition between .Athens and Corinth, and since 
 the interests of Sparta were not at stake, the 
 treaty might seem at least to have the merit of 
 simplifying the situation." — J. B. Bury, History of 
 
 608
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 419-416 
 
 Petoponnesian 
 War 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 413-411 
 
 Greece, pp. 455-456. — "Aristophanes burst forth 
 into jubilations in a play called The Peace. He 
 represented the farmers as rejoicing in the advent 
 of peace. One Trygsus has scaled Olympus to 
 find the goddess Peace, only to be told by Hermes 
 that the gods, disgusted with Hc'.las because of 
 its failure to end the war, had buried Peace 
 and determined to grind the cities to pieces in 
 a huge mortar. With the death of Cleon and of 
 Brasidas their pestles had been lost, however. 
 Trygius hails, this as a glorious opportunity 
 and calls upon all Hellenes, farmers, merchants, 
 artisans, craftsmen, aliens, islanders and all, to 
 unite with him in the task of digging up Peace. 
 The whole Hellenic nation throws away its ranks 
 and squadrons to engage in the task, midst 
 laughter and dancing. Only the Megarians, the 
 dissatisfied ones, the Argives who have been 
 gaining from both sides, the professional soldier 
 who desires a commission, and the merchant who 
 sells spears and shields, stand aside. Hermes must 
 be bribed to keep quiet. After an effort Peace 
 is brought into view. The cities are reconciled. 
 The crest-maker and the sword-cutter and the 
 spear-burnisher may despair, but the pitchfork- 
 maker and the manufacturer of sickles rejoice. 
 The farmers lay aside their arms and return to 
 their fig trees and their farms. Peace smells of 
 'harvests, banquets, festivals, flutes, thrushes, plays, 
 the odes of Sophocles, Euripidean wordlets . . . 
 the bleating lambs, the ivy-leaf, the vat, full- 
 bosomed matrons . . . the tipsy maid, the drained 
 and empty flask, and many another blessing.' 
 (Aristophanes, Peace, 204^)." — W. E. Caldwell, 
 Hellenic conceptions of peace, pp. Qfi-gy. 
 
 B. C. 419-416. — Rise of Alcibiades. — Renewal 
 of hostilities. — Slaughter of the Melians. — "Edu- 
 cated by his kinsman Pericles in democratic tradi- 
 tions, he was endowed by nature with extraordi- 
 nary beauty and talents, by fortune with the in- 
 heritance of wealth which enabled him to in- 
 dulge an inordinate taste of ostentation. He had 
 shocked his kinsfolk and outraged the city, not 
 by his dissoluteness, but by the incredible in- 
 solence which accompanied it. . . . Alcibiades in- 
 deed had not in him the stuff of which true 
 statesmen are made; he had not the purpose, 
 the perseverance, or the self-control. An extremely 
 able and dexterous politician he certainly was; 
 but he wanted that balance which a politician, 
 whether scrupulous or unscrupulous, must have in 
 order to be a great statesman. Nor had Alcibiades 
 any sincere belief in the democratic institutions 
 of his country, still less any genuine sympathy 
 with the advanced democratic party whose cause 
 he espoused. . . . The accession of Alcibiades was 
 particularly welcome to the radical party, not so 
 much on account of his family connexions, his 
 diplomatic and rhetorical talents, but because he 
 had a military training and could perform the func- 
 tions of strategos. Unfitness for the post of 
 strategos was, as we have seen, the weak point in 
 the position of men like Hyperbolus and Cleon. 
 When Alcibiades was elected a strategos and Nicias 
 was not re-elected, the prospects of the radical 
 party looked brighter. The change was immedi- 
 ately felt. Athens entered into an alliance with 
 Argos, and her allies Elis and Mantinea, for a 
 hundred years; and the treaty was sealed by a 
 joint expedition against Epidaurus. Sparta as- 
 sisted Epidaurus, and then the Athenians de- 
 clared that the Lacedaemonians had broken the 
 Peace." — J. B. Bury, History of Greece, pp. 459- 
 460. — "The armies of these two unions met in 
 battle at Mantinea in 418 B.C. The Lacedaemoni- 
 ans, who still had the best organization and disci- 
 pline in Greece, were victorious. This success 
 
 wiped out the disgrace which had lately come 
 upon them, and enabled them to regain much of 
 their former influence in Peloponnese. Argos and 
 Mantinea now made peace with Lacedaemon apart 
 from Athens." — G. W. Botsford, History of the 
 ancient world, p. 224. — See also Greece: B.C. 
 421-418. — "The island of Melos had hitherto re- 
 mained outside the sea-lordship of the Athenians, 
 and Athens, under the influence of Alcibiades, 
 now attacked her. The town of Melos was in- 
 vested in the summer by land and sea, and sur- 
 rendered at discretion in the following winter. 
 All the men of military age were put to death, 
 the other inhabitants were enslaved, and the 
 island was colonised by Athenians." — J. B. Bury, 
 History of Greece, p. 462. — See also Greece: B.C. 
 416. 
 
 B. C. 415-413. — Disastrous Athenian expedi- 
 tion against Syracuse. — Alcibiades a fugitive in 
 Sparta. — His enmity for Athens. See Syracuse: 
 B.C. 415-413- 
 
 B. C. 413-412. — Consequence of Sicilian expe- 
 dition. — Spartan alliance with Persians. — Plot- 
 ting of Alcibiades. — Decelian War. — Revolt of 
 Chios, Miletus, Lesbos and Rhodes from 
 Athens. — Revolution of Samos. See Greece: 
 B.C. 413-412, and B.C. 413. 
 
 B.C. 413-411. — Democracy curbed. — New sys- 
 tem of taxation. — Probuli. — Intrigues of Alci- 
 biades. — Conspiracy against the constitution. — 
 The Four Hundred and the Five Thousand. — 
 "The Sicilian expedition was part of the general 
 aggressive policy of Athens which made her un- 
 popular in Greece. ... If there were ever an en- 
 terprise of which the wisdom cannot be judged 
 by the result, it is the enterprise against Syra- 
 cuse. All the chances were in its favour. . . . The 
 necessity of a counterweight to Corinthian in- 
 fluence in Sicily and Italy had long ago been 
 recognised; some attempts had been made to 
 meet it; and when peace with Sparta set Athenian 
 forces free from service outside Greece and the 
 ^gean, it was natural that the opportunity should 
 be taken to act effectively in the west. . . . And 
 after the disaster . . . there was a feeling that 
 some change must be made in the administra- 
 tion. . . . The treasury was at a low ebb, and 
 there were no men to replace those who were 
 lost in Sicily. It was felt that the committees 
 of the Council of Five Hundred were hardly 
 competent to conduct the city through such a 
 crisis; a smaller and more permanent body was 
 required; and the chief direction of affairs was 
 entrusted to a board of Ten, named Probuli 
 [q.v.], which practically superseded the Council 
 for the time being. A very important change 
 in the system of taxation was made at the same 
 time. The tribute, already as high as it could 
 be put with impunity, was abolished; and was 
 replaced by a tax of 5 per cent on all imports and 
 exports carried by sea to or from the harbours of 
 the Confederacy. It was calculated that this 
 duty would produce a larger income than the 
 tribute, and it would save the friction which gen- 
 erally occurred in the business of collecting the 
 tribute and caused more than anything else the 
 unpopularity of Athens. But further, the change 
 had a great political significance. The duty was 
 collected in the Peirxus as well as elsewhere, and 
 thus fell on Athens herself. This might prove a 
 step towards equalising Athens with her allies, 
 and converting the Confederacy or dominion into 
 a national state." — J. B. Bury, History of Greece, 
 pp. 4S5-486.— See also Apodect.e. — Immediately 
 after the dreadful calamity at Syracuse became 
 known, "extraordinary measures were adopted by 
 the people; a number of citizens of advanced 
 
 609
 
 ATHENS. B.C. 413-411 
 
 Peloponnesian 
 War 
 
 ATHENS, B.C. 404 
 
 age were formed into a deliberative and executive 
 body under the name of Probuli, and empowered 
 to iit out a fleet. Whether this laid the founda- 
 tion for oligarchical machinations or not, those 
 aged men were unable to bring back men's minds 
 to their former course ; the prosecution of the 
 Hermocopidae had been most mischievous in its 
 results; various secret associations had sprung up 
 and conspired to reap advantage to themselves 
 from the distress and embarrassment of the state ; 
 the indignation caused by the infuriated excesses 
 of the people during that trial, possibly here, as 
 frequently happened in other Grecian states, de- 
 termined the more respectable members of the 
 community to guard against the recurrence of 
 similar scenes in future, by the establishment of 
 an aristocracy. Lastly, the watchful malice of 
 Alcibiades, who was the implacable enemy of that 
 populace, to whose blind fury he had been sac- 
 rificed, baffled all attempts to restore confidence 
 and tranquillity, and there is no doubt that, whilst 
 he kept up a correspondence with his partisans 
 at home, he did everything in his power to in- 
 crease the perplexity and distress of his native city 
 from without, in order that he might be re- 
 called to provide for its safety and defence. A 
 favourable opportunity for the execution of his 
 plans presented itself in the fifth year of his exile, 
 01. 82, i; 411 B.C.; as he had incurred the 
 suspicion of the Spartans, and stood high in the 
 favour of Tissaphernes, the .\thenians thought that 
 his intercession might enable them to obtain as- 
 sistance from the Persian king. The people in 
 .Athens were headed by one of his most In- 
 veterate enemies, Androcles ; and he well knew 
 that all attempts to effect his return would be 
 fruitless, until this man and the other dema- 
 gogues were removed. Hence .Alcibiades entered into 
 negotiations with the commanders of the Atheniaii 
 fleet at Samos, respecting the establishment of 
 an oligarchical constitution, not from any attach- 
 ment to that form of government in itself, but 
 solely with the view of promoting his own ends. 
 Phrynichus and Pisander were equally insincere 
 in their co-operation with .-Mcibiades. . . . Their 
 plan was that the latter should reconcile the peo- 
 ple to the change in the constitution which he 
 wished to effect, by promising to obtain them the 
 assistance of the great king; but they alone re- 
 solved to reap the benefit of his exertions. 
 Pisander took upon himself to manage the Athe- 
 nian populace. It was in truth no slight under- 
 taking to attempt to overthrow a democracy of 
 a hundred and twenty years' standing, and of 
 intense development; but most of the able bodied 
 citizens were absent with the fleet, whilst such 
 as were still in the city were confounded by 
 the imminence of the danger from without; on 
 the other hand, the prospect of succour from the 
 Persian king doubtless had some weight with them, 
 and they possibly felt some symptoms of return- 
 ing affection for their former favourite Alcibiades. 
 Nevertheless, Pisander and his accomplices em- 
 ployed craft and perfidy to accomplish their de- 
 signs; the people were not persuaded or con- 
 vinced, but entrapped into compliance with their 
 measures. Pisander gained over to his purpose 
 the above named clubs, and induced the people 
 to send him with ten plenipotentiaries to the 
 navy at Samos. In the mean time the rest of 
 the conspirators prosecuted the work of remodel- 
 ing the constitution." — W. Wachsmuth, Historical 
 antiquities of the Greeks, v. 2, pp. 252-255. — The 
 people, or an assembly cleverly made up and 
 manipulated to represent the people, were induced 
 to vote all the powers of government into the 
 hands of a council of Four Hundred, of which 
 
 council the citizens appointed only five members. 
 Those five chose ninety-five more, to make one 
 hundred, and each of that hundred then chose 
 three colleagues. The conspirators thus easily 
 made up the Four Hundred to their liking, from 
 their own ranks. This council was to convene 
 an assembly of Five Thousand citizens, whenever 
 it saw fit to do so. But when news of this con- 
 stitutional change reached the army at Samos, 
 where the Athenian headquarters for the Ionian 
 war were fixed, the citizen soldiers refused to sub- 
 mit to it — repudiated it altogether — and organized 
 themselves as an independent state. The ruling 
 spirit among them was Thrasybulus, and his in- 
 fluence brought about a reconcihation with Alci- 
 biades, then an exile sheltered at the Persian 
 court. Alcibiades was recalled by the army and 
 placed at its head. Presently a reaction at Athens 
 ensued, after the oligarchical party had given 
 signs of treasonable communication with Sparta, 
 and in June the people assembled in the Pnyx 
 and reasserted their sovereignty. "The Council 
 was def)osed, and the supreme sovereignty of 
 the state restored to the people — not, however, to 
 the entire multitude; for the principle was re- 
 tained of reserving full civic rights to a commit- 
 tee of men of a certain amount of property ; and, 
 as the lists of the Five Thousand had never 
 been drawn up, it was decreed, in order that the 
 desired end might be speedily reached, to follow 
 the precedent of similar institutions in other ' 
 states and to constitute all ."Mhenians able to 
 furnish themselves with a complete military equip- 
 ment from their own resources, full citizens with 
 the rights of voting and participating in the 
 government. Thus the name of the Five Thou- 
 sand had now become a very inaccurate designa- 
 tion; but it was retained, because men had in 
 the last few months become habituated to it. At 
 the same time, the abolition of pay for civic 
 offices and functions was decreed, not merely as 
 a temporary measure, but as a fundamental princi- 
 ple of the new commonwealth, which the citi- 
 zens were bound by a solemn oath to maintain. 
 This reform was, upon the whole, a wise com- 
 bination of aristocracy and democracy; and, ac- 
 cording to the opinion of Thucydides, the best 
 constitution which the Athenians had hitherto 
 possessed. On the motion of Critias, the recall 
 of .Alcibiades was decreed about the same time; 
 and a deputation was despatched to Samos, to 
 accomplish the union between army and city." — 
 E. Curtius, History of Greece, bk. 4, cli. 5. — Most 
 of the leaders of the Four Hundred fled to the 
 Spartan camp at Decelea. Two were taken, tried 
 and executed. — Thucydides, History of the Pelo- 
 ponnesian War, bk. 8, sect. 48-49. — See also 
 Greece: B.C. 41.3-412. 
 Also ix; V. Duruy, Historw oi Greece, ch. 26 
 
 (v. ?.)■ 
 
 B.C. 411-407. — Victories at Cynossema and 
 Abydos. — Exploits of Alcibiades. — His trium- 
 phal return. — His appointment to command. — 
 His second deposition and e.xile. See Greece: 
 411-407 B.C. 
 
 B.C. 406. — Peloponnesian War: Battle and 
 victory of Arginusse. — Condemnation and execu- 
 tion of the generals. See Greece: 406 B.C. 
 
 B. C. 405. — Peloponnesian War. — Decisive'de- 
 feat at .Sgospotami. See Greece: 405 B.C 
 
 B. C. 404 — Surrender to Lysander. — After the 
 battle of j^igospotami (.August, 405 B.C.), which 
 destroyed their navy, and cut off nearly all 
 supplies to the city by sea, as the Spartans at 
 Decelea had long cut off supplies upon the land 
 side, the Athenians had no hope. They waited 
 in terror and despair for their enemies to close 
 
 610
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 404-403 
 
 Rule of 
 
 the Thirty 
 
 ATHENS, B.C. 378-357 
 
 in upon them. The latter were in no haste, lor 
 they were sure of their prey. Lysander, the vic- 
 tor at yEgospotami, came leisurely from the 
 Hellespont, receiving on his way the surrender 
 of the cities subject or allied to Athens, and plac- 
 ing Spartan harmosts and garrisons in them, with 
 the local oligarchs established uniformly in power. 
 About November he reached the Saronic gulf 
 and blockaded the Athenian harbor of Peiraeus, 
 while an overwhelming Peloponnesian land force, 
 under the Lacedsmonian king Pausanias, arrived 
 simultaneously in Attica and encamped at the 
 gates of the city. The Athenians had no longer 
 any power except the power to endure, and that 
 they e.xercised for more than three months, mainly 
 resisting the demand that their Long Walls — the 
 walls which protected the connection of the city 
 with its harbors — should be thrown down. But 
 when famine had thinned the ranks of the citi- 
 zens and broken the spirit of the survivors, they 
 gave up. "There was still a high-spirited minority 
 who entered their protest and preferred death by 
 famine to such insupportable disgrace. The large 
 majority, however, accepted them [the terms] 
 and the acceptance was made known to Lysander. 
 It was on the i6th day of the Attic month 
 Munychion, — about the middle or end of March, 
 — that this victorious commander sailed into the 
 Peiraeus, twenty-seven years, almost exactly, after 
 the surprise of Plataea by the Thebans, which 
 opened the Peloponnesian War. Along with him 
 came the Athenian exiles, several of whom ap- 
 pear to have been serving with his army and 
 assisting him with their counsel." — G. Grote, His- 
 tory of Greece, pt. 2, ch. 65 (v, 8). — The 
 Long Walls and the fortifications of Peiraeus 
 were demolished, and then followed the organiza- 
 tion of an oligarchical government at Athens, re- 
 sulting in the reign of terror under "The Thirty." 
 — E. Curtius, History of Greece, bk. 4, cli. $■ 
 
 Also in; Xenophon, Hellenica, bk. 2, ch. 2. — 
 Plutarch, Lysander. 
 
 B. C. 404-403.— Tyranny of the Thirty.— Year 
 of anarchy. — In the summer of 404 B. C, follow- 
 ing the siege and surrender of Athens, and the 
 humiliating close of the long Peloponnesian War, 
 the returned leaders of the oligarchical party, who 
 had been in exile, succeeded with the help of 
 their Spartan friends, in overthrowing the demo- 
 cratic constitution of the city and establishing 
 themselves in power. The revolution was accom- 
 plished at a public assembly of citizens, in the 
 presence of Lysander, the victorious Lacedaemonian 
 adiTiiral, whose fleet in the Peiraeus lay ready 
 to support his demands. "In this assembly, 
 Dracontides, a scoundrel upon whom repeated sen- 
 tences had been passed, brought forward a mo- 
 tion, proposing the transfer of the government 
 into the hands of Thirty persons; and Theramenes 
 supported this proposal which he declared to 
 express the wishes of Sparta. Even now, these 
 speeches produced a storm of indignation ; after 
 all the acts of violence which Athens had under- 
 gone, she yet contained men outspoken enough 
 to venture to defend the constitution, and to 
 appeal to the fact that the capitulation sanctioned 
 by both parties contained no provision as to the 
 internal affairs of Athens. But, hereupon, Ly- 
 sander himself came forward and spoke to the 
 citizens without reserve, like one who was their 
 absolute master. ... By such means the motion 
 of Dracontides was passed; but only a small num- 
 ber of unpatriotic and cowardly citizens raised 
 their hands in token of assent. All better patriots 
 contrived to avoid participation in this vote. 
 Next, ten members of the government were chosen 
 by Critias and his colleagues [the Critias of 
 Plato's Dialogues, pupil of Socrates, and now the 
 
 violent and blood-thirsty leader of the anti-demo- 
 cratic revolution], ten by Theramenes, the con- 
 fidential friend of Lysander, and finally ten out of 
 the assembled multitude, probably by a free vote; 
 and this board of Thirty was hereupon established 
 as the supreme government authority by a resolu- 
 tion of the assembly present. Most of the mem- 
 bers of the new government had formerly been 
 among the Four Hundred, and had therefore long 
 pursued a common course of action." The Thirty 
 Tyrants so placed in power were masters of 
 Athens for eight months, and executed their will 
 without conscience or mercy, having a garrison 
 of Spartan soldiers in the Acropolis to support 
 them. They were also sustained by a picked 
 body of citizens, "the Three Thousand," who bore 
 arms while other citizens were stripped of every 
 weapon. Large numbers of the more patriotic 
 and high-spirited Athenians had escaped from 
 their unfortunate city and had taken refuge, chiefly 
 at Thebes, the old enemy of Athens, but now 
 sympathetic in her distress. At Thebes these 
 exiles organized themselves under Thrasybulus and 
 Anytus, and determined to expel the tyrants and 
 to recover their homes. They first seized a 
 strong post at Phyle, in Attica, where they 
 gained in numbers rapidly, and from which point 
 they were able in a few weeks to advance and 
 occupy the Peiraeus. When the troops of The 
 Thirty came out to attack them, they drew back 
 to the adjacent height of Munychia and there 
 fought a battle which delivered their city from 
 the Tyrants. Critias, the master-spirit of the 
 usurpation, was slain ; the more violent of his col- 
 leagues took refuge at Eleusis, and Athens, for 
 a time, remained under the government of a new 
 oligarchical Board of Ten ; while Thrasybulus and 
 the democratic liberators maintained their head- 
 quarters at Munychia. All parties waited the 
 action of Sparta. Lysander, the Spartan general, 
 marched an army into Attica to restore the 
 tyranny which was of his own creating; but 
 one of the two Spartan kings, Pausanias, inter- 
 vened, assumed the command in his own person, 
 and applied his efforts to the arranging of peace 
 between the Athenian parties. The result was a 
 restoration of the democratic constitution of the 
 Attic state, with some important reforms. Sev- 
 eral of The Thirty were put to death, — treacher- 
 ously, it was said, — but an amnesty was extended 
 to all their partisans. The year in which they 
 and The Ten controlled affairs was termed in the 
 official annals of the city the Year of Anarchy, 
 and its magistrates were not recognized. — E, 
 Curtius, History of Greece, bk. 4, ch. 5, and bk. 
 5, ch. I. — See also Greece: B.C. 404-350. 
 
 .^Lso in: Xenophon, Hellenica, bk. 2, ch. 3-4. 
 — C. Sankey, Spartan and Theban supremacies, ch. 
 
 2-3. 
 
 B. C. 395-387. — Confederacy against Sparta. 
 — Alliance with Persia. — Corinthian War. — 
 Conon's rebuilding of the Long Walls. — 
 Athenian independence restored. — Peace of 
 Antalcidas, See Greece: B. C. 3Qg-387. 
 
 B. C. 378-371.— Brief alliance with Thebes 
 against Sparta. See Greece: B C. 370-371 
 
 B. C. 378-357. — New confederacy and the 
 Social War. — Upon the liberation of Thebes and 
 the signs that began to appear of the decline of 
 Spartan power — during the year of the archon- 
 ship of Nausinicus, 378-377 B. C, which was made 
 memorable at Athens by various movements of 
 political rcgeneration.^the organization of a new 
 confederacy was undertaken, analagous to the 
 confederacy of Delos, formed a century before 
 Athens was to be, "not the ruling capital, but 
 only the directing city in possession of the pri- 
 
 611
 
 ATHENS, B.C. 370-362 
 
 Philip of 
 
 Macedon 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 359-338 
 
 macy, the seat of the federal council. . . . Calli- 
 stratus was in a sense the Aristides of the new 
 confederation and doubtless did much to bring 
 about an agreement ; it was likewise his work 
 that, in place of the 'tributes' of odious memory, 
 the payments necessary to the existence of the 
 confederation were introduced under the gentler 
 name of 'contributions.' . . . Amicable relations 
 were resumed with the Cyclades, Rhodes and 
 Perinthus; in other words, the ancient union of 
 navies was at once renewed upon a large scale 
 and in a wide extent. Even such states joined 
 it as had hitherto never stood in confederate re- 
 lations with Athens, above all Thebes." — E. Cur- 
 tius. History of Greece, bk. 6, ch. i. — See also 
 Greece: B. C. 4th century. — This second con- 
 federacy renewed much of the prosperity and 
 influence of Athens for a brief period of about 
 twenty years. But in 357 B.C., four important 
 members of the confederacy, namely, Chios, Cos, 
 Rhodes, and Byzantium leagued themselves in 
 revolt, with the aid of Mausolus, prince of Caria, 
 and an inglorious war ensued, known as the 
 Social War, which lasted three years, .■\thens 
 was forced at last to assent to the secession of 
 the four revolted cities and to recognize their 
 independence, which greatly impaired her prestige 
 and power, just at the time when she was called 
 upon to resist the encroachments of Philip of 
 Macedonia. — C. Thirlwall, History oj Greece, ch. 
 42. 
 
 B. C. 370-362.— Alliance with Sparta against 
 Thebes. — Battle of Mantineia. See Greece: B.C. 
 371-362. 
 
 B. C. 359-338. — Collision with Philip of Mace- 
 don. — Policy of Demosthenes and policy of 
 Phocion. — "A new period opens with the growth 
 of the Macedonian power under Philip (35g- 
 336 B.C.). We are here chiefly concerned to 
 notice the effect on the City-State [of Athens], 
 not only of the strength and policy of this new 
 power, but also of the efforts of the Greeks 
 themselves to counteract it. At the time of 
 Philip's accession the so-called Theban supremacy 
 had just practically ended with the death of 
 Epaminondas. There was now a kind of balance 
 of power between the three leading States, Sparta, 
 Athens, and Thebes, no one of which was greatly 
 stronger than the others; and such a balance 
 could easily be worked upon by any great power 
 from without. Thus when Macedon came into 
 the range of Greek politics, under a man of 
 great diplomatic as well as military capacity, 
 who, like a Czar of to-day [i8q3], wished to 
 secure a firm footing on the sea-board of the 
 /Egean [see Greece: B.C. 359-358], she found 
 her work comparatively easy. The strong im- 
 perial policy of Philip found no real antagonist 
 except at Athens. Weak as she was, and 
 straitened by the break-up of her new con- 
 federacy, Athens could still produce men of great 
 talent and energy ; but she was hampered by 
 divided counsels. Two Athenians of this period 
 seem to represent the currents of Greek political 
 thought, now running in two different direc- 
 tions. Demosthenes represents the cause of the 
 City-State in this age, of a union, that is, of 
 perfectly free Hellenic cities against the common 
 enemy. Phocion represents the feeling, which 
 seems to have been long growing up among 
 thinking men at Athens, that the City-State was 
 no longer what it had been, and could no longer 
 stand by itself; that what was needed was a 
 general Hellenic peace, and possibly even an 
 arbiter from without, an arbiter who not wholly 
 un-Hellenic like the Persian, yet one who might 
 succeed in stilling the fatal jealousies of the lead- 
 
 61: 
 
 ing States. . . . The efforts of Demosthenes to 
 check Philip fall into two periods divided by 
 the peace of Philocrates in 346 B. C. In the 
 first of these he is acting chiefly with Athens 
 alone; Philip is to him not so much the common 
 enemy of Greece as the dangerous rival of 
 Athens in the north. His whole mind was given 
 to the internal reform of Athens so as to 
 strengthen her against Philip. In her relation 
 to other Greek States he perhaps hardly saw 
 beyond a balance of power. . . . After 346 his 
 Athenian feeling seems to become more dis- 
 tinctly Hellenic. But what could even such a 
 man as Demosthenes do with the Hellas of that 
 day ? He could not force on the Greeks a real 
 and permanent union ; he could but urge new al- 
 liances. His strength was spent in embassies with 
 this object, embassies too often futile. No alli- 
 ance could save Greece from the Macedonian 
 power, as subsequent events plainly showed. What 
 was needed was a real federal union between the 
 leading States, with a strong central controlling 
 force ; and Demosthenes' policy was hopeless just 
 because Athens could never be the centre of such 
 a union, nor could any other city. Demosthenes 
 is thus the last, and in some respects the most 
 heroic champion of the old Greek instinct for 
 autonomy. He is the true child of the City- 
 State, but the child of its old age and decrepitude. 
 He still believes in Athens, and it is on Athens 
 that all his hopes are based. He looks on 
 Philip as one who must inevitably be the foe alike 
 of Athens and of Greece. He seems to think 
 that he can be beaten off as Xerxes was, and 
 to forget that even Xer.xes almost triumphed 
 over the divisions of the Greek States, and that 
 Philip is a nearer, a more prominent, and a far 
 less barbarian foe. / . . Phocion was the some- 
 what odd exponent of the practical side of a 
 school of thought which had been gaining strength 
 in Greece for some time past. This school was 
 now brought into prominence by the rise of 
 Macedon, and came to have a marked influence 
 on the history of the City-State. It began with 
 the philosophers, and with the idea that the 
 philosopher may belong to the world as well as 
 to a particular city. . . . Athens was far more 
 open to criticism now than in the days of Pericles; 
 and a cynical dislike betrays itself in the Re- 
 public for the politicians of the day and their 
 tricks, and a longing for a strong government 
 of reason. . . . Aristotle took the facts of city life 
 as they were and showed how they might be 
 made the most of. . . . To him Macedon was 
 assuredly not wholly barbarian; and war to the 
 death with her kings could not have been to 
 him as natural or desirable as it seemed to Demos- 
 thenes. And though he has nothing to tell us 
 of Macedon, we can hardly avoid the conclusion 
 that his desire was for peace and internal re- 
 form, even if it were under the guarantee of 
 the northern power. ... Of this philosophical 
 view of Greek politics Phocion was in a manner 
 the political exponent. But his poHcy was too 
 much a negative one ; it might almost be called 
 one of indifferentism, like the feeling of Lessing 
 and Goethe in Germany's most momentous period. 
 So far as we know, Phocion never proposed an 
 alliance of a durable kind, either Athenian or 
 Hellenic, with Macedon ; he was content to be 
 a purely restraining influence. Athens had been 
 constantly at war since 432 ; her own resources 
 were of the weakest ; there was little military skill 
 to be found in her, no reserve force, much talk, 
 but little solid courage. Athens was vulnerable 
 at various points, and could not possibly defend 
 more than one at a time, therefore Phocion de-
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 351-348 
 
 Death of 
 Demosthenes 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 336-322 
 
 spaired of war, and the event proved him right. 
 The faithfulness of the Athenians towards him is 
 a proof that they also instinctively felt thrt he 
 was right. But he was wanting on the practical 
 and creative side, and never really dominated 
 either Athens, Greece, or Philip. ... A policy 
 of resistance found the City-State too weak to 
 defend itself; a policy of inaction would land it 
 in a Macedonian empire which would still further 
 weaken its remaining vitality. The first policy, 
 that of Demosthenes, did actually result in dis- 
 aster and the presence of Macedonian garrisons 
 in Greek cities. The second policy then took 
 its place, and initiated a new era for Greece. 
 After the fatal battle of Cha;ronea (338 B.C.) 
 Philip assumed the position of leader of the 
 Greek cities."— W. W. Fowler, City Stale of the 
 Greeks and Romans, ch. 10. — See also Greece: 
 B.C. 357-336. 
 
 B. C. 351-348.— In league with Olynthus. See 
 Greece: B. C. 351-34S. 
 
 B. C. 340. — Alliance with Byzantium against 
 Philip of Macedon. See Greece: B. C. 340. 
 
 B. C. 336-322.— End of the struggle with the 
 Macedonians. — Fall of democracy. — Death of 
 Demosthenes. — Athenian decline. — "An unex- 
 pected incident changes the whole aspect of things. 
 Philip falls the victim of assassination ; and a 
 youth, who as yet is but little known, is his suc- 
 cessor. Immediately Demosthenes institutes a sec- 
 ond alliance of the Greeks; but Alexander sud- 
 denly appears before Thebes; the terrible vengeance 
 which he here takes, instantly destroys the league; 
 Demosthenes, Lycurgus, and several of their sup- 
 porters, are required to be delivered up; but 
 Demades is at that time able to settle the diffi- 
 culty and to appease the king. His strength 
 was therefore enfeebled as Alexander departed for 
 Asia ; he begins to raise his head once more 
 when Sparta attempts to throw off the yoke; but 
 under Antipater he is overpowered. Yet it was 
 about this very time that by the most celebrated 
 of his discourses he gained the victory over the 
 most eloquent of his adversaries; and ^schines 
 was forced to depart from Athens. But this 
 seems only to have the more embittered his 
 enemies, the leaders of the Macedonian party ; 
 and they soon found an opportunity of prepar- 
 ing his downfall. When Harpalus, a fugitive from 
 the army of Alexander, came with his treasures 
 to Athens, and the question arose, whether he 
 could be permitted to remain there, Demosthenes 
 was accused of having been corrupted by his 
 money, at least to be silent. This was sufficient 
 to procure the imposition of a fine; and as this 
 was not paid, he was thrown into prison. From 
 thence he succeeded in escaping; but to the man 
 who lived only for his country, exile was no less 
 an evil than imprisonment. He resided for the 
 most part in /F.gina and at Troezen, from whence 
 he looked with moist eyes toward the neigh- 
 bouring Attica. Suddenly and unexpectedly a 
 new ray of light broke through the clouds. Tid- 
 ings were brought, that Alexander was dead. The 
 moment of deliverance seemed at hand; the ex- 
 citement pervaded every Grecian state; the am- 
 bassadors of the Athenians passed through the 
 cities; Demosthenes joined himself to the nurnber 
 and exerted all his eloquence and power to unite 
 them against Macedonia. In requital for such 
 services, the people decreed his return; and years 
 of sufferings were at last followed by a day of 
 exalted compensation. A galley was sent to /Egina 
 to bring back the advocate of liberty. ... It was 
 a momentary glimpse of the sun, which still 
 darker clouds were soon to conceal. Antipater 
 and Craterus were victorious; and with them the 
 
 Macedonian party in Athens; Demosthenes and 
 his friends were numbered among the accused, 
 and at the instigation of Demades were con- 
 demned to die. . . . Demosthenes had escaped to 
 the island of Calauria in the vicinity of Troezen ; 
 and took refuge in the temple of Neptune. It 
 was to no purpose that Archias, the satellite 
 of Antipater, urged him to surrender himself un- 
 der promise of pardon. He pretended he wished 
 to write something; bit the quill, and swallowed 
 the poison contained in it." — A. H. L. Heeren, 
 Reflections on the politics of ancient Greece, 
 trans, by G. Bancroft, pp. 278-280. — See also 
 Macedonia: B. C. 345-336 and also, on the 
 "Lamian War," the suppression of democracy at 
 Athens, and the expulsion of poor citizens, Greece: 
 B.C. 323-322. — "With the decline of political in- 
 dependence, . . . the mental powers of the nation 
 received a fatal blow. No longer knit together 
 by a powerful esprit de corps, the Greeks lost the 
 habit of working for the common weal; and, for 
 the most part, gave themselves up to the petty 
 interests of home life and their own personal 
 troubles. Even the better disposed were too 
 much occupied in opposing the low tone and 
 corruption of the times, to be able to devote 
 themselves, in their moments of relaxation, to a 
 free and speculative consideration of things. What 
 could be expected in such an age, but that 
 philosophy would take a decidedly practical turn, 
 if indeed it were studied at all? And yet such 
 were the political antecedents of the Stoic and 
 Epicurean systems of philosophy. . . . Stoic 
 apathy. Epicurean self-satisfaction, and Sceptic im- 
 perturbability, were the doctrines which re- 
 sponded to the political helplessness of the age. 
 They were the doctrines, too, which met with 
 the most general acceptance. The same political 
 helplessness produced the sinking of national dis- 
 tinctions in the feeling of a common humanity, 
 and the separation of morals from politics which 
 characterise the philosophy of the Alexandrian 
 and Roman period. The barriers between nations, 
 together with national independence, had been 
 swept away. East and West, Greeks and bar- 
 barians, were united in large empires, being thus 
 thrown together, and brought into close contact 
 on every possible point. Philosophy might teach 
 that all men were of one blood, that all were 
 equally citizens of one empire, that morality rested 
 on the relation of man to his fellow men, inde- 
 pendently of nationalities and of social ranks; but 
 in so doing she was only explicitly stating truths 
 which had been already realised in part, and 
 which were in part corollaries from the existing 
 state of society." — E. Zeller, Stoics, Epicureans, and 
 Sceptics, pp. 16-18, — "What we have said con- 
 cerning the evidence of comedy about the age of 
 the first Diadochi amounts to this: Menander 
 and his successors — they lasted barely two gen- 
 erations — printed in a few stereotypes a small and 
 very worthless society at Athens. There was no 
 doubt a similar set of people at Corinth, at Thebes, 
 possibly even in the city of Lycurgus. These 
 people, idle, for the most part rich, and in good 
 society, spent their earlier years in debauchery, 
 and their later in sentimental reflections and re- 
 grets. They had no serious object in life, and 
 regarded the complications of a love affair as 
 more interesting than the rise and fall of king- 
 doms or the gain and loss of a nation's liberty. 
 They were like the people of our day who spend 
 all their time reading novels from the libraries, 
 and who can tolerate these eternal variations in 
 twaddle not only without disgust but with in- 
 terest. They were surrounded with slaves, on 
 the whole more intelligent and interesting, for 
 
 613
 
 ATHENS, B.C. 336-322 
 
 Decline 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 336-322 
 
 in the first place slaves were bound to exercise 
 their brains, and in the second they had a great 
 object — liberty — to give them a keen pursuit in 
 life. The relations of the sexes in this set or 
 portion of society were bad, owing to the want 
 of education in the women, and the want of 
 earnestness in the men. As a natural conse- 
 quence a class was found, apart from household 
 slaves, who took advantage of these defects, and. 
 bringing culture to fascinate unprincipled men, 
 established those relations which brought estrange- 
 ments, if not ruin, into the home life of the day." 
 — J. P. Mahaffy, Greek life and thought from 
 death of Alexander to Rome. pp. 123-124. — "The 
 amount of Persian wealth poured into Greece by 
 the accidents of the conquest, not by its own 
 industries, must have produced a revolution in 
 prices not since equalled except by the influx of 
 the gold of the .•Vztecs and Incas into Spain. I 
 have already pointed out how this change must 
 have pressed upon poor people in Greece who 
 did not share in the plunder. The price of even 
 necessary and simple things must have often risen 
 beyond their means. For the adventurers brought 
 home large fortunes, and the traders and pur- 
 veyors of the armies made them ; and with these 
 Eastern fortunes must have come in the taste 
 for all the superior comforts and luxuries which 
 they found among the Persian grandees. Not only 
 the appointments of the table, in the way of 
 plate and pottery, but the very tastes and flavours 
 of Greek cookery must have profited by com- 
 parison with the knowledge of the East. So 
 also the furniture, especially in carpets and hang- 
 ings, must have copied Persian fashion, just as 
 we still affect oriental stuffs and designs. It 
 was not to be expected that the example of so 
 many regal courts and so much royal ceremony 
 should not affect those in contact with them. 
 These intluences were not only shown in the 
 vulgar 'braggart captain,' who came to show off 
 his sudden wealth in impudent extravagance 
 among his old townspeople, but in the ordinary 
 life of rich young men. So I imagine the personal 
 appointments of .\lcibiades, which were the talk 
 of Greece in his day, would have appeared poor 
 and mean beside those of Aratus, or of the gen- 
 eration which preceded him. Pictures and statues 
 began to adorn private houses, and not temples 
 and public buildings only — a change beginning 
 to show itself in Demosthencs's day, but coming 
 in like a torrent with the opening of Greece 
 to the Eastern world. It was noticed that 
 Phocion's house at .'\thens was modest in size 
 and furniture, but even this was relieved from 
 shabbiness by the quaint wall decoration of shin- 
 ing plates of bronze — a fashion dating from pre- 
 historic times, but still admired for its very 
 antiquity." — J. P Mahaffy. Greek life and llwiight. 
 pp. 105-106. — "The modern historians of Greece 
 are much divided on the question where a his- 
 tory of Hellas ought to end. Curtius stops with 
 the battle of Chseroneia and the prostration of 
 .\thens before the advancing power of Maccdon 
 Grote narrates the campaigns of Alexander, but 
 stops short at the conclusion of the Lamian 
 War, when Greece had in vain tried to shake off 
 the supremacy of his generals. Thirlwall brings 
 his narrative down to the time of Mummius. 
 the melancholy sack of Corinth and the con- 
 stitution of .^chaia as a Roman province. Of 
 these divergent views we regard that of the Ger- 
 man historian as the most correct. . . . The his- 
 toric sense of Grote did not exclude prejudices, 
 and in this case he was probably led astray by 
 political bias. .\t the close of his ninety-sixth 
 chapter, after mentioning the embassies sent by 
 
 6 
 
 the degenerate .Athenians to King Ptolemy, King 
 Lysimachus, and .\ntipater, he throws down his 
 pen in disgust, 'and with sadness and humiliation 
 brings his narrative to a close.' Athens was no 
 longer free and no longer dignified, and so Mr. 
 Grote will have done with Greece at the very 
 moment when the new Comedy was at its height, 
 when the Museum was founded at .Alexandria, 
 when the plays of Euripides were acted at Baby- 
 lon and Cabul, and every Greek soldier of for- 
 tune carried a diadem in his baggage. Surely 
 the historian of Greece ought either to have 
 stopped when the iron hand of Philip of Macedon 
 put an end to the liberties and the political 
 wranglings of Hellas, or else persevered to the 
 time when Rome and Parthia crushed Greek 
 power between them, like a ship between two 
 icebergs. No doubt his reply would be, that he 
 declined to regard the triumph abroad of Mace- 
 donian arms as a continuation of the history of 
 Hellas. . . . The truth is, that the history of 
 Greece consists of two parts, in every respect 
 contrasted one with the other. The first recounts 
 the stories of the Persian and Peloponnesian wars, 
 and ends with the destruction of Thebes and the 
 subjugation of .\thens and Sparta. The Hellas of 
 which it speaks is a cluster of autonomous cities 
 in the Peloponnesus, the Islands, and Northern 
 Greece, together with their colonies scattered over 
 the coasts of Italy, Sicily, Thrace, the Black Sea, 
 Asia Minor, and -Africa. These cities care only 
 to be independent, or at most to lord it over one 
 another. Their political institutions, their religious 
 ceremonies, their customs, are civic and local. 
 Language, commerce, a common Pantheon, and a 
 common art and poetry- are the ties that bind 
 them together. In its second phase, Greek his- 
 tory begins with the expedition of .Alexander. It 
 reveals to us the Greek as everywhere lord of 
 the barbarian, as founding kingdoms and federal 
 systems, as the instructor of all mankind in art 
 and science, and the spreader of civil and civilized 
 life over the known world. In the first period 
 of her history Greece is forming herself, in her 
 second she is educating the world. We will 
 venture to borrow from the Germans a convenient 
 expression, and call the history of independent 
 Greece the history of Hellas, that of imperial 
 Greece the history of Hellenism. , . . The .Athens 
 of Pericles was dictator among the cities which 
 joined her alliance. Corinth, Sparta, Thebes, were 
 each the political head of a group of towns, 
 but none of the three admitted these latter to 
 an equal share in their councils, or adopted their 
 political views. Even in the Olynthian League, the 
 city of Olynthus occupied a position quite su- 
 perior to that of the other cities. But the Greek 
 cities had not tried the experiment of an al- 
 liance on equal terms. This was now attempted 
 by some of the leading cities of the Peloponnese, 
 and the result was the .Achaean League, whose 
 history sheds a lustre on the last days of in- 
 dependent Greece, and whose generals will bear 
 comparison with the statesmen of any Greek 
 Republic [see Greece: B.C. 280-146]. . . . On 
 the field of Sellasia the glorious hopes of Cleomenes 
 were wrecked, and the recently reformed Sparta 
 was handed over to a succession of bloodthirsty 
 tyrants, never again to emerge from obscurity. 
 But to the .Achjeans themselves the interference 
 of Macedon was little less fatal. Henceforth a 
 Macedonian garrison occupied Corinth, which had 
 been one of the chief cities of the League; and 
 King .Antigonus Doson was the recognized arbiter 
 in all disputes of the Peloponnesian Greeks. . . . 
 In Northern Greece a strange contrast presented it- 
 self. The historic races of the .Athenians and 
 
 14
 
 ATHENS, B.C. 336-322 
 
 Decline 
 
 ATHENS, B.C. 200 
 
 Boeotians languished in peace, obscurity, and lux- 
 ury. With them every day saw something added 
 to enjoyments and elegancies of life, and every 
 day politics drifted more and more into the 
 background. On the other hand, the rude semi- 
 Greeks of the West, .45tolians, Acarnanians, and 
 Epirotes, to whose manhood the repulse of the 
 Gauls was mainly due, came to the front and 
 showed the bold spirit of Greeks divorced from 
 the liner faculties of the race. The Acarnanians 
 formed a league somewhat on the plan of the 
 Acha5an. But they were overshadowed by their 
 neighbors the .-Etolians, whose union was of a 
 different character. It was the first time that 
 there had been formed in Hellas a state framed 
 in order to prey upon its neighbours. ... In the 
 course of the Peloponnesian War Greek religion 
 began to lose its hold on the Greeks. This was 
 partly the work of the sophists and philosophers, 
 who sought more lofty and moral views of 
 Deity than were furnished by the tales of popular 
 mythology. Still more it resulted from growing 
 materialism among the people, who saw more 
 and more of their immediate and physical needs, 
 and less and less of the underlying spiritual 
 elements in life. But though philosophy and 
 materialism had made the religion of Hellas paler 
 and feebler, they had not altered its nature or 
 expanded it. It still remained essentially na- 
 fior?l, almost tribal. When, therefore, Greeks 
 and Macedonians suddenly found themselves mas- 
 ters of the nations of the East, and in close con- 
 tact with a hundred forms of religion, an ex- 
 traordinary and rapid change took place in their 
 religious ideas. In religion, as in othc matters, 
 Egypt set to the world the example of prompt 
 fusion of the ideas of Greeks and natives. . . . 
 Into Greece proper, in return (or her population 
 which flowed out, there flowed in a crowd of 
 foreign deities. Isis was especially welcomed at 
 Athens, where she found many votaries. In every 
 cult the more mysterious elements were made 
 more of, and the brighter and more materialistic 
 side passed by. Old statues which had fallen 
 somewhat into contempt in the days of Pheidias 
 and Praxiteles were restored to their places and 
 received extreme veneration, not as beautiful, but 
 as old and strange. On the coins of the previous 
 period the representations of deities had been 
 always the best that the die-cutter could frame, 
 taking as his models the finest contemporary sculp- 
 ture; but henceforth we often find them strange, 
 uncouth figures, remnants of a period of strug- 
 gling early art, like the Apollo at .'Kmyclse, or the 
 Hera of Samos. ... In the intellectual life of 
 Athens there was still left vitality enough to 
 formulate the two most complete expressions of the 
 ethical ideas of the times, the doctrines of the 
 Stoics and the Epicureans, towards one or the 
 other of which all educated minds from that 
 day to this have been drawn. No doubt our 
 knowledge of these doctrines, being largely drawn 
 from the Latin writers and their Greek con- 
 temporaries, is somewhat coloured and unjust. 
 With the Romans a system of philosophy was 
 considered mainly in its bearing upon conduct, 
 whence the ethical elements in Stoicism and Epi- 
 cureanism have been by their Roman adherents 
 so thrust into the foreground, that we have 
 almost lost sight of the intellectual elements, 
 which can have had little less importance in the 
 eyes of the Greeks. Notwithstanding, the rise of 
 the two philosophies must be held to mark a new 
 era in the history of thought, an era when the 
 importance of conduct was for the first time rec- 
 ognized by the Greeks. It is often observed that 
 the ancient Greeks were more modern than our 
 
 own ancestors of the Middle Ages. But it is less 
 generally recognized how far more modern than 
 the Greeks of Pericles were the Greeks of Aratus. 
 In very many respects the age of Hellenism and 
 our own age present remarkable similarity. In 
 both there appears a sudden increase in the 
 power over material nature, arising alike from 
 the greater accessibility of all parts of the world 
 and from the rapid developments of the sciences 
 which act upon the physical forces of the world. 
 In both this spread of science and power acts 
 upon religion with a dissolving and, if we may 
 so speak, centrifugal force, driving some men to 
 take refuge in the most conservative forms of 
 faith, some to fly to new creeds and superstitions, 
 some to drift into unmeasured scepticism. In 
 both the facility of moving from place to place, 
 and finding a distant home, tends to dissolve the 
 closeness of civic and family life, and to make 
 the individual rather than the family or the city 
 the unit of social life. And in the family re- 
 lations, in the character of individuals, in the 
 state of morality, in the condition of art, we 
 find at both periods similar results from the 
 similar causes we have mentioned." — P. Gardner, 
 New chapters in Greek history, eh. 15. 
 
 B. C. 317-316.— Siege by Polyperchon.— De- 
 mocracy restored. — Execution of Phocion. — De- 
 metrius of Phaleron at the head of the govern- 
 ment. See Greece; B. C. 321-312. 
 
 B. C. 307-197. — Under Demetrius Poliorcetes 
 and the Antigonids. See Greece; B. C. 307-197. 
 
 B. C. 288-263. — Twenty years of independence. 
 — Siege and subjugation by Antigonus Gonatas. 
 — When Demetrius Poliorcetes lost the Macedonian 
 throne, 288 B. C, his fickle Athenian subjects 
 and late worshippers rose against his authority, 
 drove his garrisons from the Museum and the 
 Peirsus and abolished the priesthood they had 
 consecrated to him. Demetrius gathered an army 
 from some quarter and laid siege to the city, but 
 without success. The Athenians went so far as 
 to invite Pyrrhus, the warrior king of Epirus, 
 to assist them against him. Pyrrhus came and 
 Demetrius retired. The dangerous ally contented 
 himself with a visit to the Acropolis as a wor- 
 shipper, and left Athens in possession, undisturbed, 
 of her freshly gained freedom. It was enjoyed 
 after a fashion for twenty years, at the end of 
 which period, 268 B. C, Antigonus Gonatas, the 
 son of Demetrius, having regained the Macedonian 
 crown, reasserted his claim on Athens, and the 
 city was once more besieged. The Lacedaemonians 
 and Ptolemy of Egypt both gave some ineffectual 
 aid to the Athenians, and the siege, interrupted 
 on several occasions, was prolonged until 263 
 B. C, when Antigonus took possession of the 
 Acropolis, the fortified Museum and the Peiraeus 
 as a master (see Macedonw: B.C. 277-244). This 
 was sometimes called the Chremonidean War, from 
 the name of a patriotic Athenian who took the 
 most prominent part in the long defence of his 
 city. — C. Thirlwall, History of Greece, ch. 61. 
 
 B. C. 229. — Liberation by the Achaean league. 
 See Greece; B.C. 280-146. 
 
 B. C. 200. — Vandalism of the second Mace- 
 donian Philip. — In the year 200 B. C. the Mace- 
 donian king, Philip, made an attempt to surprise 
 Athens and failed. "He then encamped in the 
 outskirts, and proceeded to wreak his vengeance 
 on the .■\thenians, as he had indulged it at 
 Thermus and Pergamus. He destroyed or de- 
 faced all the monuments of religion and of art, 
 all the sacred and pleasant places which adorned 
 the suburbs. The Academy, the Lyceum, and 
 Cynosarges, with their temples, schools, groves 
 and gardens, were all wasted with fire. Not even 
 
 615
 
 ATHENS, B.C. 197- A. D. 138 
 
 Roman 
 Rule 
 
 ATHENS, A. D. 54 
 
 the sepulchres were spared." — C. Thirlwall, History 
 of Greece, ch. 64. 
 
 B. C. 197-A. D. 138.— Under Roman rule.— 
 "Athens . . . affords the disheartening picture of 
 a commonwealth pampered by the supreme power, 
 and financially as well as morally ruined. By 
 rights it ought to have found itself in a flourish- 
 ing condition. ... No city of antiquity elsewhere 
 possessed a domain of its own, such as was Attica, 
 of about 700 square miles. . . . But even beyond 
 Attica they retained what they possessed, as well 
 after the Mithridatic War, by favour of Sulla, 
 as after the Pharsalian battle, in which they had 
 taken the side of Pompeius, by the favour of 
 Caesar ; — he asked them only how often they 
 would still ruin themselves and trust to be saved 
 by the renown of their ancestors. To the city 
 there still belonged not merely the territory, for- 
 merly possessed by Haliartus, in Boeotia, but also 
 on their own coait Salamis, the old starting-point 
 of their dominion of the sea, and in the Thracian 
 Sea the lucrative islands Scyros, Demnos, and 
 Imbros, as w-ell as Delos in the .^igean. ... Of 
 the further grants, which they had the skill to 
 draw by flattery from .Antoninus, Augustus, 
 against whom they had taken part, took from 
 them certainly .^igina and Eretria in Euboea, but 
 they were allowed to retain the smaller islands of 
 the Thracian Sea. . . . Hadrian, moreover, gave to 
 them the best part of the great island of Cephal- 
 lenia in the Ionian Sea. It was only by the 
 Emperor Severus, who bore them no good will, 
 that a portion of these extraneous possessions was 
 withdrawn from them. Hadrian further granted 
 to the Athenians the delivery of a certain quan- 
 tity' of grain at the e.-^pense of the empire, and 
 by the extension of this privilege, hitherto re- 
 served for the capital, acknowledged .•\thens, as 
 it were, as another metropolis. Not less was the 
 blissful institute of alimentary endowments, which 
 Italy had enjoyed since Trajan's time, extended 
 by Hadrian to .Athens, and the capital requisite 
 for this purpose certainly presented to the .Mhe- 
 nians from his purse. . . . Yet the community was 
 in constant distress."— T. Mommsen, History of 
 Rome, bk. 8, ch. 7. — See also Greece: B. C. 146- 
 A. D. 180. 
 
 Also in: J. P. Mahaffy, Greek world under 
 Roman s'd'ay. 
 
 B. C. 87-86. — Siege and capture by Sulla. — 
 Massacre of citizens. — Pillage and depopulation. 
 — Lasting injuries. — The early successes of Mith- 
 radates of Pontus, in his savage war with the 
 Romans, included a general rising in his favor 
 among the Greeks [see MiTHRADAnc Wars], sup- 
 ported by the fleets of the Pontic king and by a 
 strong invading army. .Mhens and the Peiraeus 
 were the strongholds of the Greek revolt, and 
 at Athens an adventurer named Aristion, bringing 
 from Mithradates a body-guard of 2,000 soldiers, 
 made himself tyrant of the city. A year passed 
 before Rome, distracted by the beginnings of 
 civil war, could effectively interfere. Then Sulla 
 came (B.C. 87) and laid siege to the Peirseus, 
 where the principal Pontic force was lodged, while 
 he shut up Athens by blockade. In the following 
 March, Athens was starved to such weakness that 
 the Romans entered almost unopposed and killed 
 and plundered with no mercy ; but the buildings 
 of the city suffered little harm at their hands. 
 The siege of the Peinus was carried on for some 
 weeks longer, until Sulla had driven the Pontic 
 forces from every part except Munychia. and that 
 they evacuated in no long time. — W'. Ihne, His- 
 tory of Rome, bk. 7, ch. 17.— ".Mhens was . . . 
 taken by assault. . . . The majority of the citi- 
 zens was slain; the carnage was so fearfully great 
 
 61 
 
 as to become memorable even in that age of 
 bloodshed ; ihe private movable property was 
 seized by the soldier>', and Sylla assumed some 
 merit to himself for not committing the rifled 
 houses to the flames. . . . The fate of the Peiraeus, 
 which he utterly destroyed, was more severe than 
 that of .\thens. From Sylla's campaign in Greece 
 the commencement of the ruin and depopulation 
 of the country is to be dated. The destruction 
 of property caused by his ravages in .\ttica was 
 so great that Athens from that time lost its 
 commercial as well as its political importance. 
 The race of .Athenian citizens was almost extirpated, 
 and a new population, composed of a heterogene- 
 ous mass of settlers, received the right of citizen- 
 ship." — G. Finlay, Greece under the Romans, ch. i. 
 A. D. 54 (?).-TVisit of St. Paul.— Planting 
 of Christianity. — "When the Jews of Thessalonica 
 had knowledge that the word of God was pro- 
 claimed of Paul at Berea also, they came thither 
 likewise, stirring up and troubling the multitude. 
 And then immediately the brethren sent forth 
 Paul to go as far as to the sea: and Silas and 
 Timotheus abode there still. But they that con- 
 ducted Paul brought him as far as .Athens; and 
 receiving a commandment unto Silas and Timotheus 
 that they should come to him w-ith all speed, 
 they departed. Now while Paul waited for them 
 at Athens, his spirit was provoked within him, 
 as he beheld the city full of idols. So he reasoned 
 in the synagogue with the Jews, and the devout 
 persons, and in the market place every day with 
 them that met with him. And certain also of 
 the Epicureans and Stoic philosophers encountered 
 him. And some said, what would this Ijabbler 
 say ? other some, He seemeth to be a setter forth 
 of strange gods: because he preached Jesus and 
 the resurrection. And they took hold of him, and 
 brought him unto the .Areopagus, saying. May we 
 know what this new teaching is which is spoken 
 by thee ? For thou bringest certain strange things 
 to our ears: w'e would know therefore what these 
 things mean. (Now all the .Athenians and the 
 strangers sojourning there spent their time in noth- 
 ing else, but either to tell or to hear some new 
 thing.) And Paul stood in the midst of the .Areo- 
 pagus, and said. Ye men of .Athens, in all things 
 I perceive that ye are somewhat superstitious. 
 For as I passed along and observed the objects of 
 your worship, I found also an altar with this in- 
 scription. 'To an Unknown God.' What there- 
 fore ye worship in ignorance, this set I forth unto 
 you. . . . Now when they heard of the resurrec- 
 tion of the dead, some mocked ; but others said, 
 We will hear thee concerning this yet again. 
 Thus Paul went out from among them. Howbeit 
 certain men clave unto him, and believed: among 
 whom also was Dionysius the Areopagite, and 
 a woman named Damaris, and others with them." 
 — Acts of the Apostles, Revised Version, ch. 17. — 
 "Consider the difficulties which must have beset 
 the planting of the Church in Athens. If the 
 burning zeal of the great Apostle ever permitted 
 him to feel diffidence in addressing an assembly, 
 he may well have felt it when he addressed on 
 Mars' Hill for the first time an .Athenian crowd. 
 No doubt the Athens of his time was in her 
 decay, inferior in opulence and grandeur to many 
 younger cities. Yet even to a Jew, provided he 
 had received some educational impressions beyond 
 the fanatical shibboleths of Pharisaism, there was 
 much in that wonderful centre of intelligence to 
 shake his most inveterate prejudices and inspire 
 him with unwilling respect. Shorn indeed of 
 her political greatness, deprived even of her philo- 
 sophical supremacy, she still shone with a bril- 
 liant afterglow of esthetic and intellectual pres-
 
 ATHENS, A. D. 54 
 
 Planting of 
 Christianity 
 
 ATHENS, 1205-1308 
 
 tige. Her monument flashed on the visitor mem- 
 ories recent enough to dazzle his imagination. Her 
 schools claimed and obtained even from Emperors 
 the homage due to her unique past. Recognis- 
 ing her as the true nurse of Hellenism and the 
 chief missionary of human reftnement, the best 
 spirits of the age held her worthy of admiring 
 love not unmixed with awe. As the seat of the 
 most brilliant and popular university, young men 
 of talent and position flocked to her from every 
 quarter, studied for a time within her colonnades, 
 and carried thence the recollection of a culture 
 which was not always deep, not always erudite, 
 but was always and genuinely Attic. To sub- 
 ject to the criticism of this people of doctrine 
 professing to come direct from God, a religion 
 and not a philosophy, depending not on argu- 
 ment but on revelation, was a task of which the 
 difficulties might seem insuperable. When we 
 consider what the Athenian character was, this 
 language will not seem exaggerated. Keen, subtle, 
 capricious, satirical, sated with ideas, eager for 
 novelty, yet with the eagerness of amused frivolity, 
 not of the truth-seeker: critical by instinct, ex- 
 quisitely sensitive to the ridiculous or the absurd, 
 disputatious, ready to listen, yet impatient of all 
 that was not wit, satisfied with everything in 
 life except its shortness, and therefore hiding all 
 references to this unwelcome fact under a veil of 
 complacent euphemism — where could a more un- 
 congenial soil be found for the seed of the Gospel? 
 ... To an Athenian the Jew was not so much 
 an object of hatred (as to the Roman), nor even 
 of contempt (as to the rest of mankind), as of 
 absolute indifference. He was simply ignored. To 
 the eclectic philosophy which now dominated the 
 schools of Athens, Judaism alone among all hu- 
 man opinions was as if non-existent. That Athe- 
 nians should be convinced by the philosophy of a 
 Jew would be a proposition expressible in words 
 but wholly destitute of meaning. On the other 
 hand, the Jew was not altogether uninfluenced by 
 Greek thought. Wide apart as the two minds 
 were, the Hebraic proved not insensible to the 
 charm of the Hellenic ; witness the Epistle to the 
 Hebrews, witness Philo, witness the intrusion of 
 Greek methods of interpretation even into the 
 text-books of Rabbinism. And it was Athens, 
 as the quintessence of Hellas, Athens as repre- 
 sented by Socrates, and still more by Plato, which 
 had gained this subtle power. And just as Judaea 
 alone among all the Jewish communities retained 
 its e.xclusiveness wholly unimpaired by Hellen- 
 ism, so Athens, more than any Pagan capital, 
 was likely to ignore or repel a faith coming in 
 the garb of Judaism. And yet within less- than 
 a century we find this faith so well established 
 there as to yield to the Church the good fruits of 
 martyrdom in the person of its bishop, and of 
 able defences in the person of three of its teachers. 
 The early and the later fortunes of the Athenian 
 Church are buried in oblivion ; it comes but for 
 a brief period before the scene of history. But 
 the undying interest of that one dramatic moment 
 when Paul proclaimed a bodily resurrection to 
 the authors of the conception of a spiritual im- 
 mortality, will always cause us to linger with a 
 strange sympathy over every relic of the Chris- 
 tianity of Athens." — C. T. Cruttwell, Literary his- 
 tory of early Christianity, v. i, bk. 3, ch. 4. — See 
 Jso Christianity: A. D. 35-60. 
 
 Also in: W. J. Conybeare and J. S Howson, 
 Life and letters of St. Paul, v. i, ck. to. — F. C. 
 Baur, Paul, v. i, pt. i, ch. 7. — On the inscrip- 
 tion, see E. de Pressense, Early years of Cliris- 
 tianity: Apostolic era, bk. 2, ch. i. 
 
 125-134.— Works of Hadrian.— The Emperor 
 
 61 
 
 Hadrian interested himself greatly in the vener- 
 able decaying capital of the Greeks, which he 
 visited, or resided in, for considerable periods, sev- 
 eral times, between 125 and 134. These visits 
 were made important to the city by the great 
 works of rebuilding which he undertook and 
 supervised. Large parts of the city are thought to 
 have been reconstructed by him, "in the open and 
 luxurious style of Antioch and Ephesus." One 
 quarter came to be called "Hadrianapolis," as 
 though he had created it. Several new temples 
 were erected at his command; but the greatest of 
 the works of Hadrian at Athens was the complet- 
 ing of the vast national temple, the Olympieum, 
 the beginning of which dated back to the age of 
 Pisistratus, and which Augustus had put his hand 
 to without finishing. — C. Merivale, History of the 
 Romans under the Empire, ch. 66. 
 
 267. — Captured by the Goths. See Goths: 258- 
 267. 
 
 395. — Surrender to Alaric and the Goths. — 
 When the Goths under Alaric invaded and ravaged 
 Greece, 395, Athens was surrendered to them, on 
 terms which saved the city from being plundered. 
 "The fact that the depredations of Alaric hardly 
 exceeded the ordinary license of a rebellious gen- 
 eral, is . . . perfectly established. The public 
 buildings and monuments of ancient splendour suf- 
 fered no wanton destruction from his visit; but 
 there can be no doubt that Alaric and his troops 
 levied heavy contributions on the city and its in- 
 habitants." — G. Finlay, Greece under the Romans, 
 ch. 2, sect. 8. — See also Goths: A. D. 3qs: Alaric's 
 invasion of Greece. 
 
 Also in: E. Gibbon, Decline and fall of the 
 Roman Empire, ch. 30. 
 
 A. D. 529. — Suppression of the schools by 
 Justinian. — -"The Attic schools of rhetoric and 
 philosophy maintained their superior reputation 
 from the Peloponnesian War to the reign of Jus- 
 tinian. Athens, though situate in a barren soil, 
 possessed a pure air, a free navigation, and the 
 monuments of ancient art. That sacred retire- 
 ment was seldom disturbed by the business of 
 trade or government ; and the last of the Athenians 
 were distinguished by their lively wit, the purity 
 of their taste and language, their social manners, 
 and some traces, at least in discourse, of the mag- 
 nanimity of their fathers. In the suburbs of the 
 city, the Academy of the Platonists, the Lycaeum of 
 the Peripatetics, the Portico of the Stoics and the 
 Garden of the Epicureans were planted with trees 
 and decorated with statues; and the philosophers, 
 instead of being immured in a cloister, delivered 
 their instructions in spacious and pleasant walks, 
 which, at different hours, were consecrated to the 
 exercises of the mind and body. The genius of the 
 founders still lived in those venerable seats. . . . 
 The schools of Athens were protected by the wisest 
 and most virtuous of the Roman princes. . . . 
 Some vestige of royal bounty may be found under 
 the successors of Constantine. . . . The golden 
 chain, as it was fondly styled, of the Platonic suc- 
 cession, continued ... to the edict of Justinian 
 [520] which imposed a perpetual silence on the 
 schools of Athens, and excited the grief and indig- 
 nation of the few remaining votaries of Greek 
 science and superstition." — E. Gibbon, Decline and 
 fall of the Roman Empire, ch. 40. 
 
 6th-llth centuries. — Between the sixth and 
 eleventh centuries Athens practically disappeared 
 from history. Here in 1018 Basil H celebrated his 
 victory over the Bulgarians. Michael Akominatus 
 became metropolitan of Athens in 1260 and from 
 his writings we get a desolate picture of the state 
 into which the city had fallen. 
 
 1205-1308. — Founding of the Latin dukedom. 
 
 7
 
 ATHENS, 1205-1308 
 
 Founding of 
 Latin Dukedom 
 
 ATHENS, 1205-1308 
 
 — Otto de la Roche takes title of "Lord of 
 Athens." — Guy de la Roche created "Duke of 
 Athens." — Prosperity of Athens under Guy II. — 
 
 "The portion of Greece lying to the south of the 
 kingdom of Saloniki was divided by the Crusaders 
 [after their conquest of Constantinople, 1204 — see 
 Byzantine Empire: 1203-1204] among several 
 great feudatories of the Empire of Romania. . . . 
 The lords of Boudonitza, Salona, Negropont, and 
 Athens are alone mentioned as existing to the north 
 of the isthmus of Corinth, and the history of the 
 petty sovereigns of .-Kthens can alone be traced in 
 any detail. . . . Though the Byzantine aristoc- 
 racy and dignified clergy were severe sufferers by 
 the transference of the government into the hands 
 of the Franks, the middle classes long enjoyed 
 peace and security. . . . The social civilization of 
 the inhabitants, and their ample command of the 
 necessaries and many of the luxuries of life, were 
 in those days as much superior to the condition 
 of the citizens of Paris and London as they are 
 now inferior. . . . The city was large and wealthy, 
 the country thickly covered with villages, of which 
 the ruins may still be traced in spots affording no 
 indications of Hellenic sites. . . . The trade of 
 .Athens was considerable, and the luxury of the 
 Athenian ducal court was celebrated in all the 
 regions of the West where chivalry flourished." — 
 G. Finlay, History of Greece from its conquest by 
 the Crusaders, cli. 7. — "Boniface [king-marquis of 
 Montferrat] having settled a dispute with the Em- 
 peror Baldwin I. which threatened to undermine 
 the Latin dominion in the Levant at the outset, 
 marched into Greece at the head of an army of 
 Crusaders in order to assert his claim to that 
 country, which had been included, although it was 
 still unconquered, in his share. M the moment of 
 the Latin expedition against Constantinople the 
 two themes of Hellas and the Peloponnesos had 
 been a prey to anarchy. Instead of combining in 
 the presence of the common danger which menaced 
 the existence of the Byzantine Empire, the wealthy 
 families thought only of advancing their own in- 
 terests even at the expense of the Government. 
 Of these archontes, by far the ablest and most am- 
 bitious was Leon Sgouros of Nauplia, who was 
 Bent upon carving out for himself an independent 
 principality in the Peloponnesos and Central 
 Greece. His first step was to obtain possession of 
 Argos; Corinth was his next acquisition. ... He 
 then traversed the Isthmus, and invested Athens by 
 land and sea. The city, whose walls had fallen 
 into decay, succumbed without a struggle; but the 
 Akropolis was defended by a second Dexippos, the 
 noble Archbishop Akominatos, who appealed to 
 the patriotism of the .Athenians, with such success 
 that Sgouros had to content himself with burning 
 the unprotected houses before the eyes of the gar- 
 rison. ... .At Larissa Sgouros met the fugitive 
 Emperor .Alexios III., and received from him the 
 hand of his daughter in marriage. But the ad- 
 vance of Boniface's army cut short the further 
 success of the bold adventurer. . . . Boniface's 
 march now became a royal progress. He 
 first secured the Pass of Thermopylae by bestow- 
 ing the ueighbouring position of Boudonitza as a 
 fief on Guido Pallavicini, and then proceeded 
 southward. The inhabitants of the towns, which 
 had so lately felt the tyranny of Sgouros, welcomed 
 the foreigner as a deliverer. Without disturbing 
 those municipal institutions which the Greeks have 
 always specially prized, the King of Salonica lost 
 no time in distributing the classic lands of Greece 
 as feudal fiefs among his trusty followers. . . . 
 Attica and Bceotia were bestowed upon Otto de la 
 Roche, a Burgundian noble, who had distinguished 
 himself at the siege of Constantinople and had 
 
 6 
 
 successfully mediated in the dispute between Bald- 
 win I. and Boniface. Athens made no opposition 
 to the Franks, for this time even the heroic Arch- 
 bishop saw that resistance would be in vain. It 
 was with a bitter pang that he beheld his cathe- 
 dral, the venerable Parthenon, robbed of its relics 
 by men who were hostile to the orthodox religion 
 and ignorant of classic learning. For the first 
 time since the days of Sulla a Latin army was in 
 possession of .Athens; yet the Roman conqueror 
 had been kinder to the ancient seat of culture than 
 the Christian Franks. Leaving his beloved church 
 in the occupation of Latin monks, Akominatos 
 left with a heavy heart the city where he had 
 lived so long. .After wandering from one plaCe to 
 another in search of rest, he finally settled in the 
 island of Kea, from which he could still .-ee the 
 .Attic coast. .Akominatos had once been disap- 
 pointed with .Athens; but he had learned to love 
 it as his second home, and now, in his island cell, 
 he lamented the loss of his books and wrote of 
 .Attica as 'a second garden of Eden.' Once, in 
 secret, he ventured over to .Athens; but he could 
 not endure the galling spectacle of a Roman Catho- 
 lic archbishop officiating in what had once been 
 his own cathedral. .At length he died in exile, the 
 last of a long line of heroes whose names are as- 
 sociated with the story of the violet-crowned city. 
 Central Greece was now in the possession of the 
 Franks. . . . Otto de la Roche . . . had time to 
 instal himself in his dominions, which included, 
 besides Attica and Boeotia, the ancient Megarid, 
 with its coasts on the Saronic and Corinthian 
 Gulfs, and the former land of the Opuntian Loc- 
 rians to the north. His first care was to select a 
 title, and he chose that of Sire d'Athenes, or 'Lord 
 of Athens,' which was magnified by the Greeks 
 into that of Megas Kyr .... or 'Great Lord.' He 
 then proceeded to organize his State on the feu- 
 dal system, just as Guy of Lusignan had done in 
 Cyprus, reserving Athens and Thebes as his private 
 domains, and assigning the lands cf the former 
 Greek proprietors to his own followers. No op- 
 position was offered to these confiscatory meas- 
 ures, which scarcely affected the peasants at all. 
 . . . The Church question was far more difficult, 
 for the difference between the two religions formed 
 an insuperable barrier between the two races. .A 
 Frenchman named Berard was appointed first 
 Latin .Archbishop of .Athens, and was duly con- 
 firmed by Pope Innocent III. as successor of Ako- 
 minatos in the cathedral on the Akropolis. An 
 army of monks followed in the steps of the sol- 
 diers. The Franciscans founded numerous mon- 
 asteries, and the famous Convent of Daphne, be- 
 tween Athens and Eleusis, was bestowed on a body 
 of Cistercians from the Burgundian home of the 
 Lord of .Athens. But Otto soon incurred the cen- 
 sure of the Latin clergy by his refusal to allow 
 donations of land to the Church, and by his ap- 
 propriation of Greek ecclesiastical property. He 
 felt that it was essential to his position as a con- 
 queror in a foreign country that only those who 
 could render him military service should be en- 
 titled to receive estates. Events in the Kingdom 
 of Salonica caused Otto de la Roche to transfer 
 his allegiance from the King to the Emperor of 
 Romania. . . . Otto extended his dominions by 
 the acquisition of Sgouros's old possessions, Argos 
 and Nauplia, which X'illehardouin gave him as 
 fiefs in return for his valuable assistance in the 
 conquest of those cities. . . . Otto thus owed feu- 
 dal service to Villehardouin for fiefs; and this re- 
 lationship was extended by another Prince of 
 .Achaia to a claim of overlordship over .Athens .ind 
 Thebes. . . . Otto was a firm ally of Villehardouin, 
 and numbers of his relatives flocked from distant 
 
 18
 
 ATHENS, 1205-1308 
 
 Guv de la Roche 
 
 ATHENS, 1203-1308 
 
 Burgundy to settle in the El Dorado which he 
 ruled. Yet twenty years of state in Athens and 
 Thebes were enough for the 'Great Lord.' In 
 1225 he departed for Burgundy with his wife and 
 sonf, leaving his Greek dominions to his nephew, 
 Guy de la Roche. Guy I. resided during the 
 greater part of his reign of nearly forty years at 
 Thebes, then the most flourishing town which 
 owned his sway; . . . while the continuance of the 
 silk manufacture there had attracted colonies of 
 Jews and Genoese, to the latter of whom Guy I. 
 gave special privileges both in Thebes and in 
 Athens. . . . Villehardouin now aimed at an ex- 
 tension of his sway beyond the Isthmus, and this 
 led to the first civil war between the Franks in 
 Greece. The occasion of the war was the State 
 of Euboea, or Negroponte as the Franks called it. 
 That island, after its conquest by Jacques d'Aves- 
 nfs, had been divided by Boniface of Salonica into 
 three fiefs, which were bestowed upon the Vero- 
 nese family of Dalle Carceri, and gave them the 
 title of Terzieri, or 'the three lords.' But the Vene- 
 tians, to whom the north and south of the island 
 had been assigned by the partition treaty, soon 
 established a factory there and acquired authority 
 over the three barons. Villehardouin, who had 
 married into the Dalle Carceri family, demanded 
 his wife's third of the island and claimed the over- 
 lordship of the whole. The claim was resisted, 
 and Villehardouin summoned all his vassals to as- 
 sist him in the conflict. Among others he called 
 upon Guy of Athens, as holder of the liefs of 
 Nauplia and Argos, and that energetic ruler 
 promptly repudiated the idea that he was bound to 
 render military service to the Prince of Achaia, 
 whose manifest aim was to establish his supreme 
 authority over all the Frank States in the East. 
 In fact, it was pretended that Boniface of Salonica 
 had placed Athens under the suzerainty of the 
 first Prince of Achaia. War at once began be- 
 tween the allied forces of Venice, the lords of 
 Euboea, and Guy on the one hand, and Villehar- 
 douin on the other. Defeated in Euboea, the Prince 
 of Achaia marshalled his forces at Nikli, near the 
 site of Tegea, and then marched against Guy. A 
 battle between them was fought at the pass of 
 Karidi, on the road from Megara to Thebes; the 
 Athenian troops were routed, and Villehardouin 
 was only induced by the prayers of the Archbishop 
 to spare the Theban residence of his enemy. The 
 nobles in Villehardouin's army pleaded for peace 
 between old comrades in arms; Guy submitted, and 
 promised to perform any penance which should 
 be imposed upon him by the high court of the 
 barons of Achaia. The court met at Nikli, and the 
 penitent Guy was arraigned before it. But its 
 members, when the moment for pronouncmg sen- 
 tence arrived, decided to refer the question to 
 Louis IX. of France, the most chivalrous and 
 saintly monarch of that age. Guy set out {or 
 Paris, where Louis received him graciously and 
 the matter was satisfactorily settled. Louis con- 
 sidered that his journey was more than sufficient 
 punishment for any breach of the feudal law 
 which Guy might have committed, and asked him 
 what favour he could grant him. Guy replied that 
 he would prize above all else the title of 'Duke of 
 Athens,' which was accordingly conferred upon 
 him in 1260. The title has become famous in 
 literature, as well as in history, from its bestowal, 
 by a pardonable anachronism, upon Theseus by 
 Dante, Boccaccio, Chaucer, and Shakespeare, who 
 transferred to the legendary founder of .Athens the 
 style of its mediaeval Dukes. When the Duke of 
 Athens returned to Greece, he found his late con- 
 queror a captive himself. Villehardouin had re- 
 cently married a daughter of Michael II , despot 
 
 6 
 
 of Epiros, the rival of Michael VIII., Emperor of 
 Nice, for the succession to the tottering throne of 
 Constantinople. The Prince of Achaia had be- 
 come involved in the dispute through this matri- 
 monial alliance, and had assisted his father-in-law 
 with Peloponnesian and Athenian troops in the 
 war which had broken out between the two 
 Michaels. On the Plain of Pelagonia, in Mace- 
 donia, Villehardouin and his ally were defeated, 
 and the Prince of Achaia was subsequi>nllv taken 
 prisoner. At this juncture Guy landed in the 
 Morea, and was invited by the barons of Achaia 
 to assume the regency of the principality during 
 the captivity of their sovereign. Guy at once ac- 
 cepted the honourable task, and was negotiating 
 for the release of his former enemy, when sud- 
 denly another and yet more startling message ar- 
 rived, that the Latin Empire of Romania had 
 fallen, and that the last Latin Emperor, Baldwin 
 II., was a fugitive. For the second time, but as a 
 suppliant, not as a ruler, a Latin emperor visited 
 Thebes and Athens, where his former vassals 
 gathered round him on the old Akropolis. Few 
 scenes in the long history of that venerable rock are 
 so pathetic as this, the last in the brief drama of 
 the Latin Empire of Constantinople. Then Bald- 
 win left Athens for the West, there to play' the 
 sorry part of an emperor in exile. The capture 
 of Constantinople by the Greeks of Nice in 1261 
 had naturally strengthened the hold of Michael 
 VIII. upon his captive. After a long struggle, 
 Villehardouin realised that he had no option but 
 to accept the Greek Emperor's terms — to cede to 
 him the important fortresses of Maina, Misithra, 
 Geraki, and Monemvasia, and to pay him homage 
 for the rest of the Morea which he was allowed to 
 keep. These terms had, however, to be submitted 
 to the high court of the barons of Achaia at Nikli 
 — the same spot where, a few years before, Guy, 
 who now convened the court, had been summoned 
 to appear before it. The composition of the Par- 
 liament had changed no less than the circumstances 
 of its meeting. Many of the Achaian barons were 
 dead or in captivity, and, as the Salic law did not 
 obtain in the Morea, their widows or wives ap- 
 peared in their place. The Duke of Athens ad- 
 dressed the Court in a dignified and generous tone; 
 but while he offered to pledge his person and 
 Duchy for the release of the Prince, he strongly 
 opposed the cession of the fortresses to the Greek 
 Emperor. 'It were better,' he said in Scriptural 
 language, 'that one man should die for the people 
 — better that the Prince should perish than that 
 we should admit the Greeks into the Morea.' Guy 
 spoke as a statesman, but he had to yield to the 
 feelings of the feminine assembly, moved by senti- 
 ment rather than by policy. Two noble dames 
 were sent to Constantinople as hostages, Villehar- 
 douin was released after doing homage to the 
 Greek Emperor, and the Byzantine troops occupied 
 in 1262 the ceded fortresses. From that moment 
 Misithra became the centre of Greek intrigues in 
 the Morea, and the decline of the Frank Principal- 
 ity of Achaia began. Guy laid down the regency, 
 which he had so loyally conducted, and soon after- 
 wards died, in 1264, leaving his son John to reign 
 over his .Athenian Duchy. We have little informa- 
 tion about the internal state of Athens, or Setines, 
 as it now began to be vulgarly called, at this peri- 
 od, beyond the fact that the neighbouring mon- 
 astery of Daphne was then a flourishing Catholic 
 institution. But we hear much about the vigorous 
 foreign policy of the new Duke, who did not 
 scruple to practise piracy in the classic waters of 
 the ^T.gean. . . . Not long afterwards John died. 
 His brother William, who succeeded him, began 
 his reign by formally admitting the claim to the 
 
 19
 
 ATHENS, 1205-1308 
 
 Guy II 
 Turks in Possession 
 
 ATHENS, 1687-1688 
 
 overlordship of the Athenian Duchy which Charles 
 of Anjou had advanced in virtue of the Treaty of 
 Viterbo. He onlv begged to be excused from going 
 in person to Naples to render homage, and he was 
 always ready to assist in fightmg agamst the 
 Greeks in the Morea, although this policy ex- 
 posed his own territory to the reprisals of the 
 Byzantine forces under the traitor Licario bo 
 friendly were his relations with the house of An- 
 jou that, on the death of Villehardouin, he was 
 appointed bv the suzerain Regent of Achaia dur- 
 ing the min'oritv of ViUehardouin's daughter Isa- 
 bella Both there, as well as at Athens, his gov- 
 ernment was successful, and his premature death 
 was deeply regretted, especially as his son, Ouy 11., 
 was a minor at the time. During Guy s infancy 
 Athens was at first governed by his mother, Helena 
 Angela, the daughter of the Thessalian Prmce so 
 that the ancient Greek city was once more under 
 the influence of a Greek. But the fair widow soon 
 married her brother-in-law, Hugh de Brienne, a 
 member of a famous family from Champagne, 
 which had already produced a King of Jerusalem 
 and Emperor of Romania. Hugh, who was Count 
 of Lecce, in Southern Italy, thus became regent 
 for his stepson until the latter came of age. . . . 
 From Thebes Guv hastened to seek the hand ot 
 Isabella ViUehardouin's five-year-old daughter, Ma- 
 tilda and thus bv a matrimonial alliance to end 
 the vexed question of the feudal dependence of 
 Athens upon Achaia, which had lately been revived 
 by Charles II. of Aniou. Before he had been long 
 on the throne Guv was able to extend his influence 
 in another direction. Ever since the days of Duke 
 John there had been a close friendship between 
 the Courts of Athens and Neopatras, the seat ol 
 the Thessalian princes. Accordingly, when the 
 Prince died, he left Guy guardian of, and regent 
 for, his infant son; so that Thessaly, already 
 Latinised through the marriage connection between 
 its reigning dvnastv and that of Athens, came yet 
 more under Prankish control. But this connec- 
 tion involved Guy in war with the ambitious 
 widow of the despot of Epiros, who seized the 
 opportunitv to attack the Thessalian Principality. 
 The Duke 'of Athens at once levied a considerable 
 army— which shows how strong he was at that 
 period— and led it from Domoko, . . . into Epiros. 
 The warlike zeal of his opponent at once sub- 
 sided, and Guy accepted a favourable peace A 
 few years later he was appointed Regent oi Achaia, 
 where he already possessed the Villehardoums 1am- 
 ily fief of Kalamata bv virtue of his marriage. 
 But his career suddenlv closed; he died m 1308, 
 and was buried in the Cistercian monastery of 
 Daphne . . . Under his rule the Duchy had 
 reached a high degree of culture and prosperity 
 Muntaner remarked that at the Ducal Court, which 
 was usuallv held at Thebes, 'just as good French 
 was spoken as in Paris itself; even in Thessa y 
 we hear of French-speaking nobles, and, owing to 
 the difference of religion, which usually interposed 
 a barrier to marriage between the Franks and the 
 Greeks, the barons of Athens imported their wives 
 from France. Guy II., as the son of a Greek 
 princess spoke Greek as well, and doubtless looked 
 on Greece as his native land. But everywhere the 
 Franks had introduced their own mode of life. 
 Thus the Duke took part in a magnificent tourna- 
 ment on the classic soil of the Isthmus at which 
 all the Prankish aristocracy of Greece was pres- 
 ent Under the house of la Roche the Duchy 
 had acquired a renown and a prosperity such as 
 the kingdom of Greece under its first sovereign 
 
 might have envied The Duke of Athens, apart 
 
 from the vexed question of suzeramty, to which 
 we have alluded, was far more of an absolute 
 
 monarch than his neighbour in the Morea. At the 
 time of the conquest there had been no promi- 
 nent local families in Attica, nor did any great 
 French houses grow up to dispute the supremacy 
 of the Duke. . . . The last Duke of the house of 
 la Roche died. His first-cousin and successor, 
 Walter of Brienne, Count of Lecce, was not in 
 Greece at the time of Guy's death; but he met 
 with no opposition from rival competitors to the 
 throne. The dangers which beset him, and which 
 were destined to cut short his career and that of 
 many another Frankish noble, arose from a very 
 different quarter— that of the dreaded Catalans, 
 who now assumed a decisive part in the history of 
 the Duchy."— W. Miller, Athens under the Franks 
 (.Gentleman's Magazine, v. 2q6, Jan., 1904, pp. 23- 
 
 Also in: C. C. Felton, Greece, ancient and 
 modern; ^th course, led. g. 
 
 1311-1456.— Under the Catalans and the Flor- 
 entines. See C\^M■.\s Gr.axd Comp.^xy. 
 
 1456. — Turks in possession. — Athens was not 
 occupied bv the Turks until three years after the 
 conquest of Constantinople (see CoNST.«nNOPLE: 
 1453). In the meantime the reign of the Floren- 
 tine dukes of the house of Acciajuoli came to a 
 tragical close. The last of the dukes, Maurice 
 .■\cciajuoli died, leaving a young son and a young 
 widow, the latter renowned for her beauty and her 
 talents. The duchess, whom the will of her hus- 
 band had made regent, married a comely Venetian 
 named Palmerio, who was said to have poisoned 
 his wife in order to be free to accept her hand. 
 Thereupon a nephew of the late duke, named 
 Franco, stirred up insurrections at .Athens and 
 fled to Constantinople to complain to the sultan, 
 Mohammed II. "The sultan, glad of all pretexts 
 that coloured his armed intervention in the affairs 
 of these principalities, ordered Omar, son of Tour- 
 akhan, chief of the permanent army of the Pelo- 
 ponnesus, to take possession of .Athens, to de- 
 throne the duchess and to confine her son in his 
 prison of the citadel of Megara." This was done; 
 but Palmerio, the duchess's husband, made his way 
 to the sultan and interceded in her behalf. "Ma- 
 homet, bv the advice of his viziers, feigned to 
 listen equallv to the complaints of Palmerio, and 
 to march to' reestablish the legitimate sovereignty. 
 But already Franco, entering Megara under the 
 auspices of the Ottomans, had strangled both ibe 
 duchess and her son. Mahomet, advancing in turn 
 to punish him for his vengeance, expelled Franco 
 from .Athens on entering it. and gave him, in com- 
 pensation, the inferior and dependent principahty 
 of Thebes, in Bceotia. The sultan, as lettered a; 
 he was warlike, evinced no less pride and admira- 
 tion than SvUa at the sight of the monurnents of 
 Athens 'What gratitude,' exclaimed he before the 
 'Parthenon and the temple of Theseus, 'do not re- 
 ligion and the Empire owe to the son of Toura- 
 khan who has made them a present of these spoils 
 of the genius of the Greeks.'"— .A. Lamartine, 
 History oj Turkey, bk. 13, sect. io-:2. 
 
 1466.— Capture and plundering by the Vene- 
 tians. See Greece: 1454-1470- 
 
 1687-1688.— Siege, bombardment and capture 
 by the Venetians.— Destructive explosion in the 
 Parthenon.— "The campaign of 1687 [ol the Vene- 
 tians against the Turks! is memorable in the his- 
 tory of Europe for the destruction of the Parthe- 
 non of Athens, the most wonderful combination of 
 architecture and sculpture, and perhaps the most 
 perfect work of art, which has yet been executed. 
 Morosini [Venetian commander-in-chiet] now 
 "[iii' August] proposed to attack Negrepont, as it 
 was the key of continental Greece, and its cap- 
 
 620
 
 ATtfENS, 1687-1688 
 
 Venetian Campaign 
 against Turks 
 
 ATHENS, 1687-1688 
 
 ture would have rendered the republic master of 
 the whole country south of Thermopylae. His 
 plan was opposed by the generals of the land 
 forces, who all agreed in thinkins; that the season 
 was too far advanced for an operation of such 
 magnitude; and after much deliberation, it was 
 determined to attack Athens, where it was thought 
 that the army would find good winter-quarters. 
 ... On the 2ist of September the Venetians en- 
 tered the Piraeus, and Koenigsmark [in command 
 of the land forces] encamped the same evening in 
 the olive-grove near the sacred way to Eleusis. 
 The army consisted of nearly ten thousand men, 
 including eight hundred and seventy cavalry. The 
 town of Athens was immediately occupied, and 
 the siege of the Acropolis commenced. The at- 
 tack was directed against the Propylaca, before 
 which the Turks had constructed strong batteries. 
 The Parthenon, and the temple of Minerva Polias, 
 with its beautiful porticoes, were then nearly per- 
 fect, as far as regarded their external architecture. 
 Even the sculpture was so little injured by time, 
 that it displayed much of its inimitable excellence. 
 Two batteries were erected, one at the foot of the 
 Museum, and the other near the Pnyx. Mortars 
 were planted under cover of the Areopagus, but 
 their fire proving uncertain, two more were placed 
 under cover of the buildings of the town, near the 
 north-east corner of (he rock, which threw their 
 shells at a high angle, with a low charge, into the 
 Acropolis. In the mean time the Othoman troops 
 descended into the plain from Thebes and Negre- 
 pont ; and Koenigsmark as had been the case at 
 the siege of Coron, Navarin, and Nauplia, was 
 compelled to divide his army to meet them. On 
 the 25th of September a Venetian bomb blew up a 
 small powder-magazine in the Propylaea, and on 
 the following evening another fell in the Parthe- 
 non, where the Turks had deposited all their 
 most valuable effects, with a considerable quantity 
 of powder and inflammable materials. A ter- 
 rific explosion took place; the centre columns of 
 the peristyle, the walls of the cella, and the im- 
 mense architraves and cornices they supported, 
 were scattered around the remains of the temple. 
 Much of the unrivalled sculpture was defaced, and 
 a part utterly destroyed. The materials heaped 
 up in the building also took fire, and the flames, 
 mounting high over the Acropolis, announced the 
 calamity to the besiegers, and scathed many of 
 the statues which still remained in their original 
 positions. Though two hundred persons perished 
 by this explosion, the Turks persisted in defend- 
 ing the place until they saw the seraskier defeated 
 in his attempt to relieve them on the 2Sth of Sep- 
 tember. They then capitulated on being allowed 
 to embark with their families for Smyrna in ves- 
 sels hired at their own expense. On the 4th of 
 October, two thousand five hundred persons of 
 all ages, including five hundred men of the gar- 
 rison, moved down to embark at the Piraeus. . . . 
 Count Tomeo Pompei was the first Venetian com- 
 mandant of the Acropolis. Athens was now a 
 Venetian possession. The German troops remained 
 in the town. One of the mosques near the ba- 
 zaar was converted into a Lutheran church, and 
 this first Protestant place of worship in Greece 
 was opened on the iqth of October, 1687, by the 
 regimental chaplain Bcithman. Another mosque 
 in the lower part of the town, towards the temple 
 of Theseus, was given to the Catholics, who pos- 
 sessed also a monastery at the eastern end of the 
 town, containing the choragic m.onument of Lysic- 
 rates. ... A short time convinced the Venetian 
 leaders that it would be impossible to retain pos- 
 session of Athens. The plague, which was making 
 great ravages in the Morea, showed itself in the 
 
 62 
 
 array. The seraskier kept two thousand cavalry 
 at Thebes, and, by a judicious employment of his 
 force, retained all Attica, with the exception of the 
 plain of Athens, under his orders. The Venetians 
 found it necessary to fortify the road to the 
 Piraeus with three redoubts, in order to secure the 
 communications of the garrison in Athens with the 
 ships in the port. The departure of the Hanove- 
 rians weakened the army, and in a council of war 
 held on the 31st of December, it was resolved to 
 evacuate Athens at the end of the winter, in order 
 to concentrate all the troops for an attack on 
 Negrepont. Lines were thrown across the isthmus 
 of Munychia, to cover the evacuation and protect 
 the naval camp, which could be distinctly traced 
 until they were effaced by the construction of the 
 new town of the Piraeus. It was also debated 
 whether the walls of the Acropolis were to be 
 destroyed; and perhaps their preservation, and 
 that of the antiquities they enclose, is to be as- 
 cribed to the circumstance that the whole atten- 
 tion of the army was occupied by the increased 
 duties imposed upon it by the sanitary measures 
 requisite to prevent the ravages of the plague, and 
 the difficulties created by the emigration of the 
 Greek population of Athens. Between four and 
 five thousand Athenians were compelled to abandon 
 their native city and seek new homes in the 
 Morea. Some were established at Vivares and 
 Port Tolon, on the coast of Argolis, as colonists; 
 the poorest were settled at Corinth, and others 
 were dispersed in Aegina, Tinos, and Naupha. 
 About five hundred Albanians, chiefiy collected 
 among the peasantry of Corinth and Attica, were 
 formed into a corps by the Venetians, but no 
 Greeks could be induced to enter the army. The 
 last act of Morosini at Athens was to carry away 
 some monuments of ancient sculpture as trophies 
 of his victory. An attempt was made to remove 
 the statue of Neptune and the Chariot of Victory, 
 which adorned the western pediment of the Parthe- 
 non, but, in consequence of an oversight of the 
 workmen employed, and perhaps partly in conse- 
 quence of a flaw or crack in the marble, caused 
 by the recent explosion, which destroyed a con- 
 siderable part of the building, the whole mass of 
 marble was precipitated to the ground, and so 
 shivered to pieces by the fall that the fragments 
 were not deemed worthy of transport. This mis- 
 fortune to art occurred on the iqth of March, 
 1688. Instead of these magnificent figures from 
 the hand of Phidias, Morosini was obliged to con- 
 tent himself with four lions, which still adorn the 
 entrance of the arsenal at Venice. One of these, 
 taken from the Piraeus, is remarkable for its co- 
 lossal size, its severe style, and two long in- 
 scriptions, in runic characters, winding over its 
 shoulders. The complete evacuation of Attica was 
 at length effected. Six hundred and sixty-two 
 families quitted their native city, and on the gth 
 of .^pril the Venetians sailed to Poros. These 
 records of the ruin of so much that interests the 
 whole civilized world, awaken our curiosity to 
 know something of the character and feelings of 
 the modern Athenians, Greeks and Albanians, who 
 then dwelt under the shadow of the Acropolis. 
 Neither Morosini nor his German auxiliaries, 
 though they joined in lamenting the destruction of 
 the ancient marbles, seemed to think the modern 
 Greeks deserving of much attention, merely be- 
 cause they pretended to represent the countrymen 
 of Pericles and still spoke Greek. Venetian states- 
 men perceived the same degeneracy in their national 
 character as German philologians discovered in 
 their language. The Greek population, from its 
 unwarlike disposition, was only an object of hu- 
 manity; the Albanian peasantry, though a hardier
 
 ATHENS, 1896 
 
 ATLANTA 
 
 and more courageous race, was not sufficiently 
 numerous in the immediate vicinity of the city to 
 be of much military importance. Yet, to a Hes- 
 sian officer, Athens appeared a large and populous 
 town, with its ten thousand inhabitants, and the 
 Athenians were found to be a respectable and 
 well-disposed people. But they were so com- 
 pletely destitute of moral energy, that they were 
 unable to take any part in the public events of 
 which their city was the theatre. They had no 
 voice to give utterance to their feelings, though 
 Europe would have listened with attention to 
 their words. Perhaps they had no feelings de- 
 serving of utterance. Greece was thus the scene 
 of important events, in which every nation in 
 Europe acted a more prominent part than the 
 Greeks." — G. Finlay, History of Greece, v. 5, pp. 
 182-189. — See also Turkey: 1684-1696. 
 
 1821-1829. — Greek revolution and war of in- 
 dependence. — Capture by the Turks. See Greece: 
 1821-1829. 
 
 1835. — Modern capital. — Athens was made the 
 capital of the new kingdom and from that date 
 begins the history of the modern city. 
 
 1896. — Revival of Olympic games. — As the re- 
 sult of a movement instituted in France by the 
 Baron de Coubertin, an interesting attempt to 
 give athletic sports the spirit and semblance of 
 the ancient Olympic games was made at Athens 
 in the spring of 1S96. A number of wealthy 
 Greeks in different parts of the world joined gen- 
 erously in the undertaking, one gentleman es- 
 pecially, M. Averoff, of Alexandria, bearing the 
 cost of a restoration in marble of the stadium at 
 Athens, for the occasion. The games were held 
 in April, from the 6th to the isth, ,ind were wit- 
 nessed by a great number of people. Besides 
 Greek competitors, there were forty-two from 
 Germany, twenty-three from England, twenty-one 
 from America, fifteen from France. The great 
 event of the occasion was the long foot-race from 
 Marathon to Athens, which was won by a young 
 Greek. The United States consul at Athens, writing 
 of the reconstruction of the ancient stadium for the 
 games, described the work as follows: 
 
 "The stadium may be described as an immense 
 open air amphitheater constructed in a natural 
 ravine, artificially filled in at the end. It is in the 
 shape of an elongated horseshoe. The spectators, 
 seated upon the sloping sides of the ravine, look 
 down into the arena below, which is a little over 
 600 feet in length and about 100 feet wide at the 
 widest part. . . . The stadium, as rebuilt for the 
 games, will consist of (i) the arena, bounded by 
 a marble curbing, surmounted by an iron railing 
 adorned with Athenian owls; (2) a walk between 
 this curbing and the first row of seats; (3) a low 
 retaining wall of marble on which rests the first 
 row of seals, the entire row bemg of marble; {4) 
 the seats; (5) the underground tunnel. In addi- 
 tion to these features there will be an imposing 
 entrance, a surrounding wall at the top of the 
 hill, and two supporting walls at the entrance. 
 As far as possible, in the reconstruction of the 
 stadium, the old portions will be used, where these 
 are in a sufficient state of preservation, and an 
 effort will be made to reproduce, as nearly as 
 practicable, the ancient structure. The seats at 
 present will not all be made of pentelic marble, 
 as there is neither time nor money for such an 
 undertaking. At the closed end of the arena, sev- 
 enteen rows will be made of pentelic marble, as 
 well as the first row all the way around. The 
 remaining rows up to the first aisle are being con- 
 structed of Piraeus stone. These will accommo- 
 date 25,000 seated spectators. From this aisle to 
 the top will be placed wooden benches for 30,000 
 
 seated spectators. Add to these standing room 
 for 5,000, and we have the holding capacity of the 
 stadium 60,000 without crowding." — United States 
 consular reports, March, i8q6, pp. 353-354. 
 
 Later history of Athens. See Greece: 1897 to 
 1920; also City planning: Greece. 
 
 ATHERTON COMPANY. See Rhode Island: 
 1 660- 1 663. 
 
 ATHERTON GAG. See U. S. A.: 1836: Ather- 
 ton gag. 
 
 ATHIES, a village northeast of Arras, France, 
 captured by the British in 1917. See World War: 
 1917: II. Western front: c, 5. 
 
 ATHIR. See Arabia: 1919: King of Hejaz. 
 
 ATHLETICS: Ancient Greek teaching. See 
 Education: Ancient: B.C. 7th-A. D. 3rd centuries: 
 Greece. 
 
 Ancient Persian training. See Education: An- 
 cient: B. C. 7th-6th centuries: Persia. — See also 
 Recreation. 
 
 ATHLONE, Lord (Godart van Ginkel) (1630- 
 1703), Dutch soldier in the service of Marlborough. 
 See Netherlands: i 702-1 704. 
 
 ATHLONE, Siege of (1691). See Ireland: 
 1680 and Historical map. 
 
 ATHOLL, earls and dukes of, a Scotch title 
 which passed to the Murray line in 1O29. 
 
 Atholl, John Stewart, 4t'h earl of (d. 1579). \ 
 staunch Catholic, he opposed the Reformation in 
 1560, and was a supporter of Queen Mary in 
 her attempts to reinstate Catholicism; com- 
 bined with Argyll to gain influence at King James' 
 court. 
 
 Atholl, John Murray, 2nd earl and 1st mar- 
 quess of (1631-1703). Supported Charles II, under 
 whom he held office in Scotland; led the invasion 
 of Scotland in 1684. 
 
 Atholl, John Murray, 2nd marquess and 1st 
 duke of (1660-1724). Supported the Revolution of 
 1688; opposed the Union 1705-1707. 
 
 ATHOS, steamship torpedoed on February 17, 
 191 7, while carrying Chinese coolies and Senegalese 
 troops, many of whom met death with exceptional 
 bravery. 
 
 ATHOS, Mount. See Chalcidice; Greece: 
 B. C. 492-491. 
 
 ATHRAVAS. See Macians. 
 
 ATIMIA. — The penalty of Atimia, under ancient 
 Athenian law, was the loss of civic rights. — G. F. 
 Schomann, .Antiquities of Greece: The State, pt. 3, 
 ch. 3. 
 
 ATIMUCA INDIANS. See Timiquanan fam- 
 ily: Tequestas. 
 
 ATJEH. See Achin. 
 
 ATKINSON, Sir Harry Albert (1831-1892), 
 Premier of New Zealand. See New Zealand: 1876- 
 1890. 
 
 ATLANTA, largest city and capital of the state 
 of Georgia. A center of munition manufacture 
 and supply depot during the Civil War. 
 
 1864 (May-September). — Sherman's advance 
 to the city. — Its siege and capture. See U. S. A.: 
 1S64: (May-September; Georgia); (September-Oc- 
 tober: Georgia). 
 
 1864 (September-November). — Removal of 
 inhabitants. — Destruction of the city. See 
 U. S. A.: 1864 {September-October: Georgia) ; 
 (November-December: Georgia) . 
 
 1895. — Cotton states and International Expo- 
 sition. — An important exposition, named as above, 
 was held with great success at .Atlanta, Georgia, 
 from the i8th of September until the end of the 
 year 1895. The exhibits from Mexico and many of 
 the Central and South .\merican states were exten- 
 sive and interesting ; but the main interest and 
 value of the exposition were in its showing of the 
 industrial resources of the Southern states of the 
 
 622
 
 ATLANTIC 
 
 ATLANTIC OCEAN 
 
 American Union, and of the recent progress made 
 in developing them. 
 1921. — Organization of the Ku KIux Klan. 
 
 See Ku Klux Klan: 192 i. 
 ATLANTIC AND PACIFIC RAILROAD. 
 
 See Arizona: 1864-1883. 
 
 ATLANTIC CABLE: Laying of. See Elec- 
 trical discovery: Telegraphy and telephony: Mod- 
 ern telegraphy. 
 
 ATLANTIC COAST LINE RAILWAY. 
 Plan for consolidation. See R^vilroads: 1921: 
 Twenty rail systems proposed. 
 
 ATLANTIC FLEET, U. S. N., in World War. 
 See World War: 1918: IX. Naval opera- 
 tions: c. 
 
 ATLANTIC OCEAN.— "Much as the Old 
 World corresponds to the Pacific, so the two Ameri- 
 cas correspond to the two basins of the Atlantic, 
 and the Antarctic Sea to the Antarctic land. In 
 the coast lines of the continents other points of 
 correspondence reveal themselves. . . . The At- 
 lantic shores . . . are low and shelving, except 
 where they pass round the margins of high pla- 
 teaux, or cut across mountain chains, of which the 
 directions are rarely parallel to the shores. The 
 islands are few and irregularly scattered instead 
 of being hung in festoons. Moreover, both At- 
 lantic shore lines follow the same course, as if 
 moulded by the same influences; thus the Gulf of 
 Guinea occurs opposite the projection of Brazil; 
 the Mediterranean offset on the east corresponds 
 to the Caribbean on the west ; the eastward reces- 
 sion of Europe is followed by the eastward ad- 
 vance of America." — H. R. Mill, International 
 geography. — The Challenger expedition determined 
 the area of the Atlantic Ocean to .be 24,536,000 
 square miles, and the greatest depthiti7,366 feet, at 
 a point north of Porto Rico. The gt'eatest breadth 
 is 4,500 miles; the mean depth of the North At- 
 lantic is 2,047 fathoms, and that of the South 
 Atlantic 2,067 fathoms. 
 
 Ancient geography of the Atlantic. — "The 
 Greeks as a whole before the Hellenistic age knew 
 little of the Atlantic. For a long time their 
 knowledge ceased absolutely at Gibraltar or, as the 
 Greeks named it, the Pillars of Heracles. The 
 name itself suggests that the early Greeks had only 
 seen Gibraltar from the East: for the long ridge 
 of the Rock, throwing out a tongue, or, as the 
 Greeks called it elsewhere, a Dog's Tail, into the 
 strait, looks anything but a pillar to seamen ap- 
 proaching from the West. Then stray traders were 
 blown by the Levanter through the funnel of the 
 straits, past Trafalgar, into the bay of Cadiz, and 
 discovered the 'virgin market' of Tarshish on the 
 Guadalquivir. But beyond Cape St. Vincent they 
 knew nothing at all; even Heracles got no further 
 than Geryon's island in Cadiz Bay ; 'man cannot 
 sail into the darkness West of Cadiz; turn back 
 the ship to the land of Europe,' says Pindar, as 
 one of his many ways of breaking off a long tale. 
 Herodotus had heard stories of tin being brought 
 from the Tin Islands, but he could find out noth- 
 ing definite. Moreover it is signilicant that he tells 
 us of two different pioneering companies who found 
 their way to Tartessus — the Phocaeans and the 
 Samian Coleaus. This is probably not because, 
 as with the North Pole, there was a competition 
 for the honour of discovery, but because the route 
 was so hazardous that communications had not 
 been properly kept up. It was, however, not only 
 the difficulty 01* the Gibraltar passage but the 
 competition of Carthage which kept Greeks out of 
 the Atlantic. The Carthaginians traded all along 
 the nearer coasts of the Atlantic, both in Spain 
 and Africa. They had rounded the Cape of Good 
 Hope and sailed far into the Northern sea for the 
 
 tin of Cornwall and the Scillies. A Carthaginian 
 account of the West African route is extant fn 
 Greek — the so-called Itinerary of Hanno. It was 
 of course to the interest of the Carthaginians, as 
 of all pioneer sea powers, to keep their voyages 
 secret and to exaggerate their danger. It was a 
 long time before their next rivals, the Romans, 
 found their way to the British tin mines. The 
 geographer Strabo has an interesting passage about 
 this British trade and how its monopoly was safe- 
 guarded: — "The Tin Islands," he says, 'are ten in 
 number. . . . One of them is desert, but the others 
 are inhabited by men in black cloaks, clad in 
 tunics reaching to the feet, girt about the breast 
 and walking with sticks, like Furies in a tragedy. 
 They subsist by their cattle, leading for the most 
 part a wandering life. Of the metals they have 
 tin and lead, which with skins they barter with 
 the merchants for earthenware, salt, and brazen 
 vessels. Formerly the Phoenicians alone carried 
 on this traffic from Gades, concealing the passage 
 from every one; and when the Romans followed a 
 certain skipper in order to discover the market 
 for themselves, the skipper purposely ran his ves- 
 sel on to a shoal, luring the Romans to the same 
 fate. He himself escaped on a piece of wreckage 
 and received from the State the value of the cargo 
 he had lost. Nevertheless the Romans persevered 
 until they discovered the passage.' " — Zimmern, 
 Greek commonwealth, pp. 21-22. — "Nor is it likely 
 that the Atlantic Ocean is divided into two seas 
 of narrow isthmuses so placed as to prevent cir- 
 cumnavigation ; how much more probable that it 
 is confluent and uninterrupted ! Those who have 
 returned from an attempt to circumnavigate the 
 earth, do not say they have been prevented from 
 continuing their voyage by an opposing continent, 
 for the sea remained perfectly open, but through 
 want of resolution, and the scarcity of provision." 
 — Strabo. — "In one of his digressions Herodotus 
 has communicated to us his conception of the gen- 
 eral features of the world. ... He considered that 
 the ocean extended continuously from the coast of 
 India to that of Spain ; this he regarded as suf- 
 ficiently proved by two expeditions, which had 
 accomplished between them the entire circum- 
 navigation of the intervening continent. One of 
 these was the voyage of Seylax of Caryanda. . . . 
 The other was the expedition which was des- 
 patched by Necho from Egypt to explore the 
 coast of Africa, and had succeeded in reaching the 
 Pillars of Hercules by the southern route. The 
 first part of this sea to the eastward of Africa, 
 which we now call the Indian Ocean, was known 
 to him as the Erythraean Sea, while that to the 
 west he names the Atlantic — an appellation which 
 here occurs for the first time, though he implies 
 that it was already in familiar use." — H. F. Tozer, 
 History of ancient geography, p. 80. — See also 
 Commerce: Era of geographic expansion. 
 
 Transatlantic steamers, cables, airplanes. — 
 The first steamer to cross the Atlantic was the 
 Savannah, which made the trip in May and June 
 of i8iq. The first successful transatlantic cable 
 was laid in August, 1857. The second was laid 
 in June, 1858. but proved a failure. The first mes- 
 sages passed on August 5, 1858, between President 
 Buchanan and Queen Victoria. "On May 17 [igig] 
 the United States flying-boats N. C. i, 3, and 4 
 . . . started from Trepassey, Newfoundland, for 
 the Azores. . . . Only one, the N. C. 4, reached the 
 Azores, at Horta. . . . The R. 34 (a British rigid 
 airship of the Zeppelin type) . . . left East For- 
 tune (Scotland) on July 2 [iqiq]. . . . She crossed 
 the Atlantic . . . and landed at Mineola. . . . On 
 July 10 she started for home, and . . . returned to 
 Pulham, Norfolk." — New Hazell's Annual and Al- 
 
 623
 
 ATLANTIS 
 
 ATTELBURG 
 
 manack, ig2o, p. 766. — See also AviAnoN: Impor- 
 tant flights since igoo: ipio; 1919. 
 
 ATLANTIS, a fabled island in the Atlantic 
 Ocean, mentioned in the "Timaeus" of Plato. He 
 describes it as having been a large and powerful 
 kingdom some nine thousand years before the birth 
 of Solon ; the entire land was supposed to have 
 since been overwhelmed by the sea. Plato in the 
 Critias gives a history of this reputed ideal com- 
 monwealth. From ancient until modern times 
 many similar legends have been current in West- 
 ern Europe, and some writers have believed them 
 to have a basis of fact. 
 
 ATLAS MOUNTAINS. See Africa; Geo- 
 graphic description. 
 
 ATOKA AGREEMENT. See Indians, Amer- 
 ican: 1893-1809. 
 
 ATOMIC THEORY. See Chejustrv: Mod- 
 ern: Lavoisier; Science: 20th century: Physics. 
 
 Disintegration theory. See Chemistry: Radio- 
 activity: Thorium. 
 
 ATRANI. See Amalfi. 
 
 ATREBATES.— This name was borne by a 
 tribe in ancient Belgic Gaul, which occupied mod- 
 ern Artois and part of French Flanders, and, also. 
 by a tribe or group of tribes in Britain, which 
 dwelt in a region between the Thames and the 
 Severn. The latter was probably a colony from 
 the former. See Belg.e; also Britain: Celtic 
 tribes. 
 
 ATRIA. See Adria. 
 
 ATRIUM, in Roman houses an entrance court 
 open to the sky, but surrounded by a covered 
 ambulatory or walk. In early Christian architec- 
 ture, a similar entrance court in front of churches. 
 Noted examples may be found in the churches of 
 St. Ambrogio of Milan, St. Peter's and St. Sophia. 
 — C. H. Caf&n, How to study architecture, p. 
 480. 
 
 ATROCITIES: In World War. See Belgium: 
 1914-igiS; World War: 1916: X. German rule 
 in northern France and Belgium: a; miscellaneous 
 auxiliary services: X. Alleged atrocities and viola- 
 tions of international law; also e; XI. Devasta- 
 tion: c. 
 
 ATROPATENE, MEDIA ATROPATENE. 
 — "Atropatene, as a name for the .Alpine land in 
 the northwest of Iran (now .-^derbeijan), came 
 into use in the time of the Greek Empire [.•\lex- 
 ander's] ; at any rate we cannot trace it earlier. 
 'Athrapaiti' means 'lord of fire;' 'Athrapata,' 'one 
 protected by fire;' in the remote mountains of 
 this district the old fire-worship was preserved with 
 peculiar zeal under the Seleucids." — M. Duncker, 
 History of antiquity, bk. 7, ch. 4. — .\tropatene 
 "comprises the entire basin of Lake Urumiyeh, 
 together with the country intervening between that 
 basin and the high mountain chain which curves 
 round the southwestern corner of the Caspian." — 
 G. Rawlinson, Five great monarchies : Media, ch. 
 I. — Atropatene was "named in honour of the 
 satrap Atropates, who had declared himself king 
 after Alexander's death." — J. P. Mahaffy, Story of 
 Alexander's empire, ch. 13. 
 
 ATSINA INDIANS. See Blackfeet or Sik- 
 
 SIEAS. 
 
 AT-TABARI, Arabic historian. See History: 
 21. 
 
 ATTABEGS. See Atabegs. 
 
 ATTACAPAN FAMILY.— "DerivaUon: From 
 a Choctaw word meaning 'man cater.' Little is 
 known of the tribe, the language of which forms 
 the basis of the present family. The sole knowl- 
 edge possessed by Gallatin was derived from a 
 vocabulary and some scanty information furnished 
 by Dr. John Sibley, who collected his material in 
 the year 1805. Gallatin states that the tribe was 
 
 reduced to 50 men Mr. Gatschet collected 
 
 some 2,000 words and a considerable body of text. 
 His vocabulary differs considerably from the one 
 furnished by Dr. Sibley and published by Galla- 
 tin. . . . The above material seems to show that 
 the .Attacapa language is distinct from all others, 
 except possibly the Chitimachan." — J. W. Powell, 
 Seventh annual report, Bureau of ethnology, p. 57. 
 — See also Indians, .American: Cultural areas in 
 North America: Southeastern area. 
 
 ATTACOTTI. See Britain; Celtic tribes. 
 
 ATTAINDER, BILL OF ATTAINDER.— 
 "An attainder ('attinctura') is a degradation or pub- 
 lic dishonouring, which draws after it corruption of 
 blood. It is the consequence of any condemna- 
 tion to death, and induces the disherison of the 
 heirs of the condemned person, which can only 
 be removed by means of parliament. A bill of at- 
 tainder, or of pains and penalties, inflicts the con- 
 sequences of a penal sentence on any state criminal. 
 ... By the instrumentality of such bill the 
 penalties of high treason are generally imposed. 
 Penalties may, however, be imposed at pleasure, 
 either in accordance with, or in contravention of, 
 the common law. No other court of law can 
 protect a person condemned in such manner. The 
 first bill of the kind occurred under Edward IV., 
 when the commons had to confirm the statute con- 
 demning Clarence to death. This convenient meth- 
 od of getting rid of disagreeable opponents was in 
 high favour during the reign of Henry VIII. 
 . . . What had been an instrument of kingly des- 
 potism, under Tudor sway, was converted, under 
 the Stuarts, into a parliamentary engine against the 
 crown. The points of indictment against Straf- 
 ford were so. weak that the lords were for ac- 
 quitting hinj ■ Thereupon, Sir Arthur Haselrig 
 introduced a bill of attainder in the commons. The 
 staunch friends of freedom, such as Pym and 
 Hampden, did not support this measure. A bill 
 of attainder may refer simply to a concrete case, 
 and contrive penalties for acts which are not spe- 
 cially punishable by statute, whereas an impeach- 
 ment applies to some violation of recognized legal 
 principles, and is a solemn indictment preferred by 
 the commons to the house of lords." — E. Fischel, 
 English constitution, bk. 7, ch. g. — "By the 33 &. 
 34 Vict. c. 23, forfeiture and attainder for treason 
 or felony have been abolished." — T. P. Taswell- 
 Langmead. English constitutional history, from the 
 Teutonic conquest to the present time, ch. 10, id 
 ed., p. 393, foot-note. — By the constitution of the 
 United States both Congress and the states are 
 prohibited from passing a bill of attainder. Con- 
 gress is given power to punish treason, but it is 
 provided that "no attainder of treason shall work 
 corruption of blood." The bill of attainder is ob- 
 jectionable in that legislative bodies are likely to 
 be moved by popular clamor, whereas in regular 
 court procedure a decision is reached on the basis 
 of evidence submitted. 
 
 ATTALUS, the name of several kings of Per- 
 gamum. See Pergamum. 
 
 Attalus I (269-197 B.C.). Made himself mas- 
 ter of Asia Minor west of Mt. Taurus, ally of 
 Philip V of Macedon against Rome. 
 
 Attalus II (220-138 B.C.). Sent as ambassa- 
 dor to Rome before becoming king ; founded Phila- 
 delphia and Attalia. 
 
 Attalus III (171-133 B.C.), a patron of art 
 and literature; his will made the Roman people 
 his heirs. 
 
 ATTAMAN, or Hetman. See Cossacks. 
 
 ATTECOTTI. See Ottadint; also, Britain: 
 Celtic tribes. 
 
 ATTELBURG, early Hungarian city. See 
 Hungary- : 896. 
 
 624
 
 ATTHIS 
 
 ATTORNEY-GENERAL 
 
 ATTHIS, an historical work by Hellanicus of 
 Mytilene. See History: 16. 
 
 ATTIAD.^, the first dynasty of the Icings of 
 Lydia, claimed to be sprung from Attis, son of 
 the god Manes. — M. Dunclcer, History oj antiquity, 
 bk. 4, ch. 17. 
 
 ATTIC SALT.— Thyme was a favorite con- 
 diment among the ancient Greeks, "which throve 
 nowhere else so well as in Attica. Even salt was 
 seasoned with thyme. Attic salt, however, is 
 famed rather in the figurative than in the literal 
 sense, and did not form an article of trade." — 
 G. F. Schomann, Antiquities oj Greece: The State, 
 pt. 3, ch. 3. 
 
 ATTIC TALENT. See Talent. 
 
 ATTIC TRIBES. See Phylae; Phratriae; 
 Gentes. 
 
 ATTIC WAR. See Ten Years' War; also 
 Athens: B. C. 421. 
 
 ATTICA. — "It forms a rocky peninsula, sepa- 
 rated from the mainland by trackless mountains, 
 and jutting so far out into the Eastern Sea that 
 it lay out of the path of the tribes moving from 
 north to south. Hence the migratory passages 
 which agitated the whole of Hellas left Attica un- 
 touched, and for this reason Attic history is not 
 divided into such marked epochs as that of Pelo- 
 ponnesus; it possesses a superior unity, and pre- 
 sents an uninterrupted development of conditions 
 of life native in their origin to the land. . . . On 
 the other hand Attica was perfectly adapted by 
 nature for receiving immigrants from the sea. For 
 the whole country, as its name indicates, consists 
 of coast-land; and the coast abounds in harbours, 
 and on account of the depth of water in the roads 
 is everywhere accessible; while the best of its 
 plains open towards the coast. . . . Into the centre 
 of the entire p'lin advances from the direction of 
 Hymettus a group of rocky heights, among them 
 an entirely separate and mighty block which, with 
 the exception of a narrow access from the west, 
 offers on all sides vertically precipitous walls, sur- 
 mounted by a broad level sufficiently roomy to 
 afford space for the sanctuaries of the national 
 gods and the habitations of the national rulers. It 
 seems as if nature had designedly placed this rock 
 in this position as the ruling castle and the centre 
 of the national history. This is the Acropolis of 
 Athens. ... So far from being sufficiently luxuri- 
 ant to allow even the idle to find easy means of 
 sustenance, the Attic soil was stony, devoid of a 
 sufficient supply of water, and for the most part 
 only adapted to the cultivation of barley ; every- 
 where . . . labour and a regulated industry were 
 needed. But this labour was not unremunerative. 
 Whatever orchard and garden fruits prospered were 
 peculiarly delicate and agreeable to the taste ; the 
 mountain-herbs were nowhere more odorous than 
 on Hymettus; and the sea abounded with fish. 
 The mountains not only by the beauty of their 
 form invest the whole scenery with a certain no- 
 bility, but in their depths lay an abundance of 
 the most excellent building-stone and silver ore; 
 in the lowlands was to be found the best kind of 
 clay for purposes of manufacture. The materials 
 existed for all arts and handicrafts; and finally 
 Attica rejoiced in what the ancients were wise 
 enough to recognize as a special favour of Heaven, 
 a dry and transparent atmosphere. . . . The im- 
 migrants who domesticated themselves in Attica 
 were . . . chiefly families of superior eminence, so 
 that Attica gained not only in numbers of popula- 
 tion, but also in materials of culture of every de- 
 scription." — E. Curtius, History oj Greece, bk. 2, 
 ch. 2. — See also Athens: B.C. 1000-700; Greece: 
 Map of ancient Greece. 
 
 Also in: J. I. Lockhart, Attica and Athens. 
 
 B.C. 429-427. — Peloponnesian War. See 
 Greece: B.C. 431-429; 429-427; 413. 
 
 B.C. 427. — Invasion by Athens. See Athens: 
 B.C. 428-427. 
 
 1205-1308,— Rule by Otto de la Roche. See 
 Athens: 1205-1308. 
 
 1688. — Evacuated by Venetians. See Athens: 
 1687-1688. 
 
 ATTICO-ARGIVE ALLIANCE. See Greece: 
 B.C. 458-456. 
 
 ATTILA (d. 4S3), king of the Huns, called "the 
 scourge of God." Invaded Gaul in 451, was 
 stopped by the Visigoths under Theodoric at the 
 battle of Chalons; in the next year invaded Italy, 
 driving many people into the lagoons of the Adri- 
 atic, where they founded Venice; was persuaded to 
 turn back by Pope Leo I.— See also Balkan 
 States: Races existing r Barbarian invasions: 423- 
 455; Europe: Ethnology: Migrations: Map show- 
 ing Barbaric migrations ; Huns: 433-453 to 453 ; 
 Venice: 452. 
 
 ATTIWANDARONKS. See Iroquois con- 
 federacy. 
 
 ATTORNEY-GENERAL, chief law officer of 
 the state. — "Of all the great offices established in 
 17S9 [United States], that of the Attorney-Gen- 
 eral was in some respects the least satisfactory 
 in its organization. . . . The office was an innova- 
 tion in connection with that government. But 
 the incumbent, recognized as legal adviser to the 
 President and the heads of departments, was in- 
 evitably brought within the range of executive 
 control, and became, like the Secretaries, a min- 
 isterial officer. When, in 1790, Edmund Randolph, 
 first of the Attorneys-General, wrote of himself 
 as 'a sort of mongrel between the State and U. S.; 
 called an officer of some rank under the latter, 
 and yet thrust out to get a hvelihood in the for- 
 mer,' he cast no doubtful reflection on the status 
 and relation of his position. He knew that he 
 was head of no department. Moreover, his salary 
 of fifteen hundred dollars was so small that prob- 
 ably he could not have been expected to support 
 himself by it. He was obliged to trust to legal 
 practice to eke out a living. There is no evidence 
 to indicate that he was even expected to remain at 
 the seat of government, although he was obliged 
 to keep in touch with the President, at least by 
 occasional correspondence. And, should the fed- 
 eral business warrant it, the President might sum- 
 mon him to a conference with the Secretaries. He 
 was certainly reckoned an adviser in legal mat- 
 ters by Washington from the start. The place and 
 functions of the Attorney-General remained for 
 many years after 1789 subjects of reflection on 
 the part of thoughtful men. Several Presidents, 
 beginning with James Madison, urged reform In 
 the office, although apparently having no clear no- 
 tions at first as to what measures of reform were 
 needed. The Attorneys-General themselves were 
 helpful in the solution of the problem, none more 
 so than William Wirt and Caleb Gushing. The 
 problem became clearer under the stress of num- 
 erous circumstances in the growth and require- 
 ments of federal administration. By the close of 
 the Civil War it was forced into the foreground ; 
 and Congress, acting in 1870 after long delibera- 
 tion, established the office on a new footing, giving 
 the Attorney-General a place as head of the de- 
 partment of justice. The act of 1870, it should 
 be added, made no change in law as to the duty 
 of the Attorney-General in giving official opinions 
 and advice. 'The Attorney-General,' said Monroe, 
 'has been always, since the adoption of our Gov- 
 ernment, a member of the executive council, or 
 cabinet. For that reason as well as for a better 
 discharge of his other official duties, it is proper 
 
 625
 
 ATTORNEY-GENERAL 
 
 AUBAINE 
 
 that he should reside at the seat of Government. 
 . . . His duties in attending the cabinet delibera- 
 tions are equal to those of any other member. . . . 
 Being at the Seat of Government throughout the 
 year,' Monroe continued, 'his labors are increased 
 by giving opinions to the different Departments 
 and public officers. . . . Being on the spot, it may 
 be supposed that he will often be resorted to ver- 
 bally in the progress of current business. Such is 
 the fact.' Then turning to another aspect of the 
 theme. Monroe declared: 'The present Attorney- 
 General (Richard Rush) has not embarked in the 
 practice of the local courts of the city of Wash- 
 ington. The practice is, in itself, of little moment ; 
 to engage in it upon a scale to make it, in any 
 degree, worth his attention, would be incompatible 
 with the calls to which he is liable from the Ex- 
 ecutive, and the investigations due to other official 
 engagements.' Monroe knew that the office had 
 been shabbily treated at the hands of Congress, 
 for after calling attention to the facts that it had 
 no apartment for business, no clerk, and not 
 even a messenger, he added that it had had neither 
 stationery nor fuel. 'These have been supplied,' 
 he concluded, 'by the officer himself, at his own 
 e.xpense.' Monroe's letter is an extraordinarily in- 
 teresting and authoritative commentary on the 
 primitive conditions that surrounded an officer of 
 some rank in the national government of 1817. 
 It came from the most experienced and tried ad- 
 ministrative official serving Madison, for Monroe 
 had held both the office of Secretary of State and 
 that of Secretary of War, sometimes sustaining 
 them together for brief periods during the six 
 years preceding. It revealed a man thoroughly 
 prepared to appreciate the need of a capable oc- 
 cupant of the office. Although it took Monroe 
 some time to select his Attorney-General, he had 
 good reason, as we shall presently see, to feel by 
 the close of his administration as President great 
 satisfaction over his choice. William Wirt of Vir- 
 ginia accepted the post of Attorney-General of- 
 fered him by President Monroe late in October, 
 1817, with a clear understanding that there was 
 nothing in the duties of his office to prevent him 
 from carrying on general practice in Washington, 
 where he took up his residence, or from attending 
 occasional calls to Baltimore, Philadelphia or else- 
 where, if time allowed. He knew, however, that 
 his first obligation was to Monroe and to the 
 regular duties of his new position. Wirt began 
 with an examination of the Judiciary Act of Sep- 
 tember 24, 178Q. There tbe duties of the At- 
 torney-General were briefly set forth. They had 
 not been more clearly elaborated in any later 
 enactment. Wirt next sought for the records of 
 opinions as given by his predecessors in the office 
 — for letter-books, official correspondence and 
 documentary evidence, but could not find a trace 
 of these. .■Vccordingly he concluded that there 
 could have been neither consistency in the opinions 
 nor uniformity in the practices of the Attorneys- 
 General. He indicated that in various ways he 
 had discovered that his forerunners had been called 
 on for opinions from many sources — committees 
 of Congress, district attorneys, collectors of cus- 
 toms and of public taxes, marshals, and even 
 courts-martial. Clearly these practices went far 
 beyond the provisions of law. Resting on cour- 
 tesy merely, they impress Wirt as dangerous. It 
 was his opinion that 'from the connection of the 
 Attorney-General with the executive branch of the 
 government ... his advice and opinions, given 
 as Attorney-General, will have an official influence, 
 beyond, and independent of, whatever intrinsic 
 merit they may possess; and whether it be sound 
 policy to permit thb officer or any other under the 
 
 government, even on the application of others, to 
 extend the influence of his office beyond the pale 
 of law, and to cause it to be felt, where the laws 
 have not contemplated that it should be felt, is 
 the point which I beg leave to submit.' The con- 
 clusions which Wirt drew may be summarized. 
 First, and above all things, provision should be 
 made in law for keeping the records and preserv- 
 ing the documents of the office. This would make 
 for consistency of opinions and uniformity of prac- 
 tices. Second, there should be a depository in the 
 office of the Attorney-General for the statutes of 
 the various States, statutes which might be needed 
 at short notice for aid in solving legal problems. 
 In this matter Wirt was asking simply for a special 
 library to facilitate his work. Finally, he sug- 
 gested that legal restrictions be placed on the 
 duties of the officer for the obvious reason that one 
 man could not find time to perform the work if 
 he were obliged to attend to such miscellaneous 
 calls as had been made upon the time and energy 
 of his predecessors. There is good reason to be- 
 lieve that Caleb Gushing was the first Attorney- 
 General of the United States who held himself 
 strictly to the residence obligation — an ideal, as we 
 have seen, that had been gaining ground since 
 1814 — and refrained from the general practice of 
 the law during his term as a federal officer. At 
 any rate, many of Cushing's suggestions for a bet- 
 ter organization of the work of the Attorney- 
 General were enacted into the laws between March, 
 1854 — 'he date of his 'Opinion' — and June, 1870. 
 when the Attorney-General was named in the law 
 as head of the Department of Justice. The act of 
 1870 brought the solicitors in the various depart- 
 ments under the ultimate control of the Attorney- 
 General. Whatever official opinions these solicitors 
 might be called upon to give, must henceforth be 
 recorded in the office of the Attorney-General 
 There, before they could become the executive law 
 for the guidance of inferior officials, these opinions 
 were stamped with the .Attorney-General's final 
 approval. 'It is,' asserted Representative Jenckes, 
 'for the purpose of having a unity of decision, a 
 unity of jurisprudence, if I may use that ex- 
 pression, in the executive law of the United States, 
 that this bill proposes that all the law officers 
 therein provided for shall be subordinate to one 
 head.' The act made provision for the creation 
 of one new law officer of large importance — the So- 
 licitor-General of the United States. It was pro- 
 posed to have in this new position 'a man of suf- 
 ficient learning, ability and experience that he can 
 be sent to New Orleans or to New York, or into 
 any court wherever the Government has any in- 
 terest in litigation, and there present the case of 
 the United States as it should be presented.' The 
 express language of the law required him to be 
 'learned in the law' — a requirement that had or- 
 iginally, in the law of 1789, been exacted of the 
 Attorney-General, but for some unknown reason 
 was omitted in the law of 1870, so far as the latter 
 officer was concerned. By an act approved on 
 January iq, 1886, the Attorney-General was defi- 
 nitely reckoned as fourth in the line of possible 
 succession to the Presidency in case of the re- 
 moval, death, resignation or disability of Presi- 
 dent and \'ice-Prcsident." — H. B. Learned, PreH- 
 drnt's cabinet, pp. 150-100. — The salaries of the 
 attorney-general and of the solicitor-general are 
 $12,000 and $10,000 respectively. — See also Jus- 
 tice, Department of. — The salary of the attor- 
 ney-general in England is £7,000 ($35,000). His 
 office is one of great authority and dignity, and as 
 chief law officer of the Crown he is nominal head 
 of the bar. 
 AUBAINE, Right of.— ".A prerogative by 
 
 626
 
 AUBE 
 
 AUDIENCIAS 
 
 which the Kings of France claimed the property of 
 foreigners who died in their kingdom without being 
 naturahzed." It was suppressed by Colbert, in 
 the reign of Louis XIV. — J. A. Blanqui, History of 
 political economy in Europe, p. 285. 
 
 AUBE, Hyacinthe Laurent Th6ophile (1826- 
 1890), French admiral, an advocate of a torpedo 
 system. See Submarines: 1914-1918. 
 
 AUBER, Daniel Franjois Esprit (1783-1871), 
 French operatic composer. In 1842 he succeeded 
 Cherubini as head of the Conservatoire and in 
 1857 was imperial choir master to Napoleon III. 
 He is often spoken of as the last of the masters of 
 the old opera comique. See Music; Modern: 1730- 
 i8i6. 
 
 AUBERIVE, a village on the Suippe river, 
 southeast of Rheims. It was captured by the 
 French during World War. See World War: 1915: 
 II. Western front: i, 8; also 1917: II. Western 
 front: b, 1. 
 
 AUBERS, a village in northern France, south- 
 west of Lille. It was captured by the Allies 1914. 
 See World War: 1914: I. Western front: w, 2. 
 
 AUBIGNE, Theodore Agrippa d' (1550-1630), 
 French Huguenot poet. See French literature: 
 1552-1610. 
 
 AUBIGNY, Robert Stuart (d. 1544), French 
 general under Louis XII. See Italy: 1499-1500; 
 1501-1504. 
 
 AUBIGNY, a village of northern France, north- 
 west of .\rras. It was taken by the Germans in 
 1918. See World War: 1918: II. Western front: 
 c, 11. 
 
 AUBRIOT, Hughes (d. 1382), Provost of Pans. 
 See Bastille. 
 
 AUBURN PRISON, New York. See Prison 
 reform: Results of prison reform movement. 
 
 A. U. C, or U. C. (Ab urbe condita), from the 
 founding of the city ; or "Anno urbis conditje," the 
 year from the founding of the city of Rome, 753 
 B. C. — See also Chronolocy: Era of the foundation 
 of Rome. 
 
 AUCH: Origin of the name. Sse Aquitaine: 
 Ancient tribes. 
 
 AUCHMUTY, Sir Samuel (1756-1822), Brit- 
 ish general ; served as loyalist in the War of the 
 American Revolution ; served in India, Egypt and 
 in the disastrous Buenos Aires expedition in 1806- 
 1807; in command at Madras, 1810, and of the 
 Java expedition in 1811, when he practically con- 
 quered the island. 
 
 AUCKLAND, George Eden, earl of (1784- 
 1849), an English statesman; took his seat in 
 House of Lords, 1814; appointed governor-gen- 
 eral of India, 1835, and in 1846 first lord of the 
 admiralty. Auckland, New Zealand, was named 
 after him. — See also Afghanistan; India: 1836- 
 
 1845- 
 
 Auckland, city and former capital of New 
 Zealand (until 1865) ; on Waitemate Inlet, a beau- 
 tiful and commodious harbor; settled in 1840, now 
 chief port of the Dominion. It has a college, form- 
 ing part of the University of New Zealand, and 
 there is a large freight and passenger traffic with 
 England, Australia and the United States. See 
 .Australia: Map; Labor strikes and boycotts: 
 1906-1913; New Zealand: Land; and 1850- 
 
 i85S- 
 
 AUDENARDE. See Oudenarde. 
 
 AUDIENCIAS.— "For more than two cen- 
 turies and a half the whole of South America, ex- 
 cept Brazil, settled down under the colonial gov- 
 ernment of Spain, and during the greater part of 
 that time this vast territory was under the rule of 
 the Viceroys of Peru residing at Lima. The im- 
 possibility of conducting an efficient administra- 
 tion from such a centre ... at once became ap- 
 
 parent. Courts of justice called Audiencias were, 
 therefore, established in the distant provinces, and 
 their presidents, sometimes with the title of cap- 
 tains-general, had charge of the executive under 
 the orders of the Viceroys. The Audiencia of 
 Charcas (the modern Bolivia) was established in 
 ISS9- [See Bolivia: 1533-1809.] Chile was ruled 
 by captains-general, and an Audiencia was estab- 
 lished at Santiago in 1568. [See Chile: 1568.] 
 In New Grenada the president of the Audiencia, 
 created in 1564, was also captain-general. The 
 Audiencia of Quito, also with its president as cap- 
 tain-general, dated from 1542; and Venezuela was 
 under a captain-general."— C. R. Markham, Co- 
 lonial history of South America (Narrative and 
 Critical History of America, v. 8, p. 295). — "It was 
 during the great Christian conquests of the twelfth 
 and thirteenth centuries, that a definite judiciary 
 culminating in a royal audiencia was perfected. 
 This was a period of royal consolidation and 
 centralization. The nobles conceded the majority 
 of their governmental prerogatives to the increas- 
 ing royal authority, and the ecclesiastical jurisdic- 
 tion was confined, in theory at least, to spiritual 
 matters. The municipalities developed a system 
 by which they regularly elected their regidores 
 (councillors) and their alcaldes, (q.v.), with ju- 
 dicial, legislative, and executive attributes, sub- 
 mitting at the same time to the inspection of 
 the King's visitor. It is clear, therefore, that 
 the royal jurisdiction was recognized during this 
 period, with the king at the head of the judicial 
 and administrative system. This tribunal was 
 called an audiencia because the king gave audi- 
 ence therein, and from it and around it developed 
 the centralized system which was later to ad- 
 minister justice in Spain and in the colonies. It 
 first exercised jurisdiction in Castile and Leon, 
 and later in Andalusia. The king gave three days 
 a week of his personal attention to this tribunal 
 at first. It was the royal audiencia. The time 
 soon arrived, however, when he could not devote 
 so much of his time to matters of individual jus- 
 tice, and in proportion as this was the case 
 did the powers and importance of the judges 
 who composed this court increase. Ferdinand VI. 
 and Alfonso XI. were able to give one day a 
 week to the audiencia, in 1307 and 1329 re- 
 spectively. The creation and growth of judicial 
 and administrative institutions in Catalonia were 
 parallel with those of Castile. The eleventh cen- 
 tury saw audiencias, municipalities, and above all, 
 a powerful nobility, but this province was inde- 
 pendent of Castile during a period of four cen- 
 turies. The audiencias of Catalonia were com- 
 posed of ecclesiastical and secular judges appointed 
 by the counts of Barcelona, and authorized by 
 them to render sentence. Without going into 
 further detail with regard to matters of provincial 
 administration, in Spain, it is sufficient to say that 
 certain institutions of justice and administration 
 developed in common throughout the Peninsula, 
 and that by the end of the thirteenth century po- 
 litical and judicial administration had come to be 
 controlled by a central authority whether in 
 Castile or in Catalonia. In the Ordinance of Toro, 
 in 1369, we find mention of four grades or in- 
 stances for the administration of justice in Spain. 
 The lowest category was occupied by the alcaldes 
 ordinarios of the municipalities. W'e have noted 
 already that these were local judges, with origi- 
 nal jurisdiction, and dependent on the municipal 
 councils. The merinos exercised royal and origi- 
 nal jurisdiction in certain feudal districts and 
 provinces where there were no municipalities. The 
 adelantados (q.v.) heard appeals from the marines 
 and alcaldes mayores.. These officials, it must be 
 
 627
 
 AUDIENCIAS 
 
 AUGURS 
 
 remembered, exercised administrative functions as 
 well as judicial authority, and for the latter work 
 they were accompanied by asesores, or legal assis- 
 tants. The next step in the hierarchy of justice 
 and administration was occupied by the adelan- 
 lados mayores who stood between the adelantados, 
 on the one hand, and the king's tribunal on the 
 other. The king and royal audieiicia constituted 
 the final court of appeal."— C. H. Cunningham, In- 
 stitutional background of Spanish-American his- 
 tory, pp. 28-31. 
 
 "The perfectly normal and obvious thing to do, 
 when it is desired to tie the hands of a gov- 
 ernor or viceroy, is to impose upon that official 
 a body of responsible colleagues, which English- 
 speaking people call a council. Such a body 
 was imposed upon the viceroy of New Spain 
 (Mexico) early in the sixteenth century, under 
 the name of an audiencia, and in order to guar- 
 antee the independence of this body it was al- 
 lowed to correspond directly with the home gov- 
 ernment without the viceroy as an intermediary. 
 As a further means of holding the viceroy to his 
 duty, the well-known method of taking official 
 account of his administration was accomplished 
 through the institution known as a residencia. 
 This was in substance a trial conducted by the 
 crown with the intent of bringing to light any 
 malpractices of which the retiring viceroy might 
 have been guilty during his official term. It was 
 not only a means of setting right any wrongdoing 
 or injustice which could be remedied after such 
 a lapse of time, but it was also regarded as giv- 
 ing a significant warning to possible future 
 violators of the law. This combination of the 
 audiencia and the residencia constituted the ap- 
 proved method of keeping the viceroy well in 
 hand; but it had broken down utterly by the 
 middle of the eighteenth century, when the re- 
 forms inaugurated by Galvez brought about a com- 
 plete readjustment of the relations of the viceroy 
 to his superiors in Madrid and to his colleagues 
 and subordinates in Mexico." — D. E. Smith, 
 Viceroy of New Spain, v. I, pp. 108-109. — For 
 re-establishment in Philippines, see Philippine 
 Islands: 1581. — See aiso Adelantados; Alcales; 
 Peru: 1550-1816. 
 
 AUDIFFRET-PASOUIER, Edm6 Armand 
 Gaston, due d' (1823-1005), French statesman. 
 In 1873 became president of the right centei in 
 the National Assembly; directed negotiations 
 among the royalists to re-establish the kingdom, 
 but failed; president of the Senate 1876-1879; 
 tried to dissuade MacMahon from following ad- 
 vice of the extreme royalists. 
 
 AUDION, in wireless telegraphy. See Elec- 
 trical discovery: Telephony and telegraphy: Dr. 
 Pupin's revolutionarv improvement. 
 
 AUDRAN, Gerard, or Girard (1640-1703), the 
 most celebrated French engraver. "Constantine's 
 battle with Maxentius," the "Triumph" and the 
 "Stoning of Stephen" are among his most noted 
 works. 
 
 AUDUBON, John James (1785-1851;, Ameri- 
 can naturalist. Studied drawing under the French 
 painter, David; settled in Philadelphia and later 
 in Kentucky and Louisiana, devoting himself to 
 collecting and sketching birds; in London, in 1827, 
 he published Birds of America, a very beautiful 
 set of colored plates in eighty-seven parts. 
 
 AUERSTADT, Battle of. See Germany: 1806 
 (October). 
 
 AUFFENBERG, Moritz von (1852- ), Aus- 
 trian commander of the armies in central and east- 
 ern Galicia at the beginning of the World War. 
 After his defeat at Lemberg (September 1-3, 1914) 
 and at Rawa Ruska (September 10) the whole Aus- 
 
 tro-Hungarian offensive collapsed. See World War: 
 1914: II. Eastern front: b; d, 1. 
 
 AUGEREAU, Pierre Frangois Charles (1757- 
 1S16), duke of Castiglione, marshal of the Empire. 
 One of Napoleon's most skillful generals, especially 
 during the years 1797-1807. See France: 1797 
 (September); Germany: 1806 (October); Spain: 
 1809 (February-June); and Russia: 1812 
 (June -September) . 
 
 AUGHRIM, or Aghrim, Battle of (1691). See 
 Ireland: 1689-1691. 
 
 AUGIER, Emile (1820-1889), French dramatist 
 See French literature: 1850-1921. 
 
 AUGSBURG, Bavarian town situated on the 
 junction of Wertach and Lech riveis, and capital 
 of the districts of Swabia and Neuberg. It was 
 founded in 14 B. C. and reached the height of 
 its power at the close of the 14th century. Al 
 the time of the Reformation it was the com- 
 mercial center between north and south Europe, 
 but the change in the trade routes, resulting from 
 the discoveries of the 15th and i6th centuries, and 
 the devastations of the Thirty Years war, de- 
 stroyed its prosperity. — See also Augusta Vindeli- 
 corum; Hansa towns. 
 
 955. — Great defeat of the Hungarians. Sec 
 Hungarians: 934-955- 
 
 16th century. — Art center. See Painting: Ger- 
 man. 
 
 1530. — Sitting of the Diet. — Signing and read- 
 ing of the Protestant Confession of Faith. — 
 See Lutheran Church; Lutherans in America; 
 and Papacy, 1530-1531. 
 
 1530. — Imperial decree condemning the Prot- 
 estants. See Papacy: 1530-1532. 
 
 1555. — Religious peace concluded. See Ger- 
 many: 1552-1561. 
 
 1646. — Unsuccessful siege by Swedes and 
 French. See Germany: 1646-1648. 
 
 1686-1697. — League and the War of the 
 League. See Germany: 1686; and France: 1689- 
 1690 to 1695-1606. 
 1703. — Taken by the French. See Germany: 1703. 
 1801-1803. — One of six free cities which sur- 
 vived the Peace of Luneville. See Cities, Im- 
 perial and free, of Germany; Germany: 1801- 
 1803. 
 
 1806. — Loss of municipal freedom. — Absorp- 
 tion in the kingdom of Bavaria. See Germany. 
 1805-1806. 
 
 AUGSBURG INTERIM. See Germany: 1546- 
 1552. 
 
 AUGURS, PONTIFICES, FETIALES.— 
 "There was . . . enough of priesthood and of 
 priests in Rome. Those, however, who had busi- 
 ness with a god resorted to the god, and not to 
 the priest. Every suppliant and inquirer ad- 
 dressed himself directly to the divinity . . . ; no 
 intervention of a priest was allowed to conceal 
 or to obscure this original and simple relation. 
 But it was no easy matter to hold converse with 
 a god. The god had his own way of speaking, 
 which was intelligible only to those acquainted 
 with it; but one who did rightly understand it 
 knew not only how to ascertain, but also how 
 to manage, the will of the god, and even in case 
 of need to overreach or to constrain him. It 
 was natural, therefore, that the worshipper of 
 the god should regularly consult such men of 
 skill and listen to their advice; and thence arose 
 the corporations or colleges of men specially 
 skilled in religious lore, a thoroughly national 
 Italian institution, which had a far more, im- 
 portant influence on political development than 
 the individual priests or priesthoods. These col- 
 leges have been often, but erroneously, confounded 
 with the priesthoods. The priesthoods were charged 
 
 628
 
 AUGUSTA 
 
 AUGUSTUS 
 
 with the worship of a specific divinity. . . . Un- 
 der the Roman constitution and that of the Latin 
 communities in general there were originally but 
 two such colleges: that of the augurs and that 
 of the pontifices. The six augurs were skilled 
 in interpreting the language of the gods from 
 the flight of birds; an art which was prosecuted 
 with great earnestness and reduced to a quasi- 
 scientific system. The five 'bridge builders' 
 (pontifices) derived their name from their social 
 function, as sacred as it was politically impor- 
 tant, of conducting the building and demolition 
 of the bridge over the Tiber. They were the 
 Roman engineers, who understood the mystery of 
 measures and numbers; whence there developed 
 upon them also the duties of managing the cal- 
 endar of the state, of proclaiming to the people 
 the time of new and full moon and the days of 
 festivals, and of seeing that every religious and 
 every judicial act took place on the right day. 
 . . . Thus they acquired (although not probably 
 to the full extent till after the abolition of the 
 monarchy) the general oversight of Roman wor- 
 ship and of whatever was connected with it. [The 
 president of their college was called the Pontifex 
 Maximus.] . . . They themselves described the 
 sum of their knowledge as 'the science of things 
 divine and human.' ... By the side of these two 
 oldest and most eminent corporations of men 
 versed in spiritual lore may be to some extent 
 ranked the college of the twenty state-heralds 
 (fetiales, of uncertain derivation) destined as a 
 living repository to preserve traditionally the re- 
 membrance of the treaties concluded with neigh- 
 boring communities, to pronounce as authoritative 
 opinion on alleged infractions of treaty rights, and 
 in case of need to demand satisfaction and de- 
 clare war." — T. Mommsen, History of Rome, bk. 
 I, ch. 12. — See also Annals: Roman annals; Aus- 
 pices; Fetiales; and Haruspices. 
 
 Also in: E. Guhl and W. Koner, Life of the 
 Greeks and Romans, sect. 103. 
 
 AUGUSTA, Roman. See London: 4th century: 
 Roman Augusta and its walls. 
 
 AUGUSTA SUESSIONUM. See Soissons. 
 
 AUGUSTA TREVIRORUM. See Treves, 
 Origin of. 
 
 AUGUSTA VEROMANDUORUM: Modern 
 St. Quentin. See Belct,. 
 
 AUGUSTA VICTORIA FREDERICA FEO- 
 DORA JENNY (i8s8-ig2i), empress of Ger- 
 many. — See also Germany: 1921: Death of Em- 
 press. 
 
 AUGUSTA VINDELICORUM. — "Augusta 
 Vindelicorum is the modern Augsburg, founded, it 
 may be supposed, about the year 740 [B.C. 14] 
 after the conquest of Rhaetia by Drusus. . . . The 
 Itineraries represent it as the centre of the roads 
 from Verona, Sirmium, and Treviri." — C. Merivale, 
 Historv of the Romans, ch, 36, note, 
 
 AUGUSTAL: Origin of the word. See Monev 
 AND banking: Medieval: Coinage and banking in 
 Middle Ages. 
 
 AUGUSTIN I, Title of Iturbide as Em- 
 peror of Mexico. See Mexico: 1820-1826. 
 
 AUGUSTINE, Saint (354-430), the greatest 
 of the four Church fathers; became a Christian 
 in 387; ordained 391; in 395 became bishop of 
 Hippo in Africa. "Trained in the best culture 
 of the day, he devoted his powerful mind to 
 the defence and upbuilding of orthodox Chris- 
 tianity. He wrote innumerable books, the great- 
 est of which was 'The City of God.' This book 
 was inspired by the capture of Rome by Alaric 
 (410), and compared the splendid city of the 
 Empire, now fallen, with the true spiritual capital 
 of mankind, the Christian Church. Its eloquence 
 
 and its logic, its splendid survey of the past, and 
 
 its prophetic insight into the future have given 
 this work a place among the classics of all time." 
 — G. S. Goodspeed, History of the ancient world, 
 p. 439. — "The City of God" is the first contribu- 
 tion to the philosophy of history. See Chris- 
 tianity: 337-476; also Austin canons; History: 
 18. 
 
 AUGUSTINE (d.c. 613), first Archbishop of 
 Canterbury. Sent to England from Rome by 
 Pope Gregory I, where he converted the king and 
 established the Christian religion. See Chris- 
 tianity: SS3-800; 507-Soo; and England: 597-685. 
 
 AUGUSTODUNUM.— The emperor Augustus 
 changed the name of Bibracte in Gaul to Augus- 
 todunum, which time has corrupted, since to 
 Autun. 
 
 AUGUSTONEMETUM. See Gergovia of 
 the Arverni. 
 
 AUGUSTOWO, a town and forest northwest 
 of Grodno, on the borders of East Prussia, where, 
 after the battle of Tannenberg, General Rennen- 
 kampf claimed to have inflicted losses upon Hin- 
 denberg's forces amounting to over 60,000 men. 
 See World War: 1914: II. Eastern front: d, 1; 
 1915: III. Eastern front: h. 
 
 AUGUSTUS, the name by which the Romans 
 used to distinguish the most venerated in the 
 state, was conferred upon Gaius Julius Cssar 
 Octavianus (63 B.C.-A.D. 14) by the Roman 
 Senate, 27 B.C. Upon the death of Julius Caesar 
 he found that his uncle had made him his heir. 
 He adroitly contrived to gain popular support, 
 particularly among the troops. In the year 42 
 B.C. Octavianus and Antoninus (Mark Antony), 
 with whom the future Augustus aligned himself 
 to overcome his enemies, defeated the forces of 
 Brutus and Cassius at Philippi. Antony's re- 
 lations with Cleopatra of whom he had become 
 enamored, and his repudiation of his wife, Octav- 
 ianus' sister, brought about a declaration of war, 
 seemingly against Cleopatra who was reputed to 
 have an ambition to form a Greco-Oriental em- 
 pire. Antony's fleet was completely 'destroyed 
 at Actium (31 B.C.) and the following year saw 
 the capture of Alexander by Octavianus. See 
 Rome: Republic: B.C. 31. — "In estimating the 
 position finally held by Augustus, let us notice 
 that his military authority was the same as that 
 of the President of the United States; his civil 
 authority was far less. All the old republican 
 magistrates still existed, and continued to exer- 
 cise the same functions as before. Constitutionally, 
 Augustus was on a level with the Consuls. In 
 honor and in personal influence, however, he over- 
 shadowed all the other officials. He was always 
 consulted on the suitability of candidates for the 
 various offices and on every other matter; and 
 his policy was usually carried out. It is clear 
 that most of his power was exercised, not as a 
 Magistrate but as a political 'boss'." — G. W. Bots- 
 ford. History of ancient world, p. 452. — Augustus 
 spent many years in war against the Germans, 
 tribes of Pannonia and in the conquest of the 
 Parthian empire. — "Octavius [See Rome: Republic: 
 B.C. 31-14] had warily declined any of the recog- 
 nized designations of sovereign rule. Antonius had 
 abolished the dictatorship ; his successor respected 
 the acclamations with which the people had 
 greeted this decree. The voices which had saluted 
 Caesar with the title of king were peremptorily 
 commanded to be dumb. Yet Octavius was fully 
 aware of the influence which attached to distinc- 
 tive titles of honour. While he scrupulously re- 
 nounced the names upon which the breath of hu- 
 man jealousy had blown, he conceived the subtler 
 policy of creating another for himself, which bor- 
 
 629
 
 AUGUSTUS 
 
 AURUM TOLOSANUM 
 
 rowing its original splendour from his own char- 
 acter, should reflect upon him an untarnished lustre. 
 . . . The epithet Augustus , . . had never been 
 borne by any man before. . . . But the adjunct, 
 though never given to a man, had been applied 
 to things most noble, most venerable and most 
 divine The rites of the gods were called august, 
 the temples were august; the word itself was 
 derived from the holy auguries by which the 
 divine will was revealed ; it was connected with 
 the favour and authority of Jove himself. . . . 
 The illustrious title was bestowed upon the heir 
 ol the Caesarian Empire in the middle of the 
 month of January, 727 [B.C. 27], and thence- 
 forth it is by the name of Augustus that he is 
 recognized in Roman history." — C. Merivale, His- 
 tory of the Romans, ch. 30. — "When Octavianus 
 had firmly established his power and was now 
 left without a rival, the Senate, being desirous 
 of distinguishing him by some peculiar and em- 
 phatic title, decreed, in B.C. 27, that he should 
 be styled .Augustus, an epithet properly applicable 
 to some object demanding respect and venera- 
 tion beyond what is bestowed upon human things. 
 . . . This being an honorary appellation ... it 
 would, as a matter of course, have been trans- 
 mitted by inheritance to his immediate descend- 
 ants. . . . Claudius, although he could not be re- 
 garded as a descendant of Octavianus, assumed 
 on his accession the title of Augustus, and his 
 example was followed by all succeeding rulers 
 
 . . who communicated the title of Augusta to 
 their consorts." — W. Ramsay, Manual of Roman 
 antiquities, ch. 5. — See also Religion: B.C. 750- 
 A. D. 30; Rome: Empire: B.C. 31-A. D. 14; and 
 Sevastos. 
 
 Augustus I (1526-1586), became elector of Sax- 
 ony at the death of his brother Maurice (1553); 
 encouraged the Flemish people to immigrate and 
 settle the country ; was an enlightened although 
 sometimes cruel ruler. 
 
 Augustus II (1670-1733), king of Poland, and, 
 under the .name Frederick .\ugu5tus I, elector of 
 Saxony. See Sweden: 1707-1718; 1710-1721. 
 
 Augustus III (1696-1763), king of Poland, and, 
 as Frederick August II, elector of Saxony. See 
 Pol.^nd: 1732-1733. 
 
 AULA, (i) an open yard, or court; (2) Trinity 
 Hall, Cambridge University, founded by Bishop 
 Bateman in 1330, referred to as "aula," de- 
 noting the building inhabited by the scholars. 
 
 AULA REGIA, ancient court of England. See 
 CuRi.\ Regis of the Norman kings; Eovity law: 
 1330. 
 
 AULARD, Franjois Victor Alphonse 
 (1840- ), French historian. He is regarded as 
 one of the greatest authorities on the history 
 of the French Revolution, of which subject he 
 was appointed professor at the Sorbonne. His 
 long and fruitful researches are embodied in his 
 "Political history of the French Revolution." See 
 History: 32. 
 
 AULDEARN, Battle of (1645). See Scot- 
 land: 1644-1645. 
 
 AULERCI. — The .\ulerci were an extensive na- 
 tion in ancient Gaul which occupied the country 
 from the lower course of the Seine to the Ma- 
 yenne. It was subdivided into three great tribes 
 — the Aulerci Cenomanni, Aulerci Diablintes and 
 Aulerci Eburovices. — Napoleon III, History of 
 C(esar, bk. 3, ch. 2. — See also Veneti of western 
 Gaul. 
 
 AULETES, or Ptolemy XIII of Egypt. See 
 EcvPt: B. C. 80-48 
 
 AULIATA, Turkestan, Fall of (1864). See 
 Russia: 1859-1876. 
 
 AULIC COUNCIL, a judicial and to a slight 
 
 extent executive body of the Holy Roman empire 
 from 1407 to 1806. It consisted of about twenty 
 members, held its meetings at Vienna and was 
 under the influence of the emperor. See France: 
 1700 (August-December) ; and Germany: 1493- 
 iSig. 
 
 AULICE, Commodore, Hungarian officer who 
 carried on negotiations with Japan. See Japan: 
 1797-1854. 
 
 AUMALE, Henri Eugene Philippe Louis 
 d'Orleans, duo d' (1822-1807), French prince and 
 statesman. Distinguished himself in the campaign 
 in Algeria 1843; governor of that colony 1S47. 
 After the Franco-Prussian War was elected dep- 
 uty ; presided over the military council that con- 
 demned Marshal Bazaine for the surrender of 
 Metz. — See also Barbarv States: 1830-1846. 
 
 AUMALE, Battle of (1S91). See France: 
 
 i50i-i,S93- 
 
 AUMETZ, town in the northwestern part of 
 Lorraine; occupied by Americans after armistice 
 See World War: 1918: XI. End of the war: c. 
 
 AUMONT, the name of an important French 
 family. One Jean, sire d' .^umonl, accompanied 
 Louis IX on a crusade. Fought for the dukes of 
 Burgundy, later returning to the support of the 
 crown. Jean d'Aumont (d. 1505), marshal of 
 France, fought against the Huguenots, but rec- 
 ognized Henry IV and was made governor of 
 Champagne and Brittany. Louis Marie Celeste 
 d' Aumont, due de Piennes, emigrated during the 
 Revolution. During the Hundred Days captured 
 Baveux and Caen. 
 
 AUNEAU, Battle of (1387). See Fr.^nce: 1584- 
 1589. 
 
 AURANGZEB (1618-1707), one of the greatest 
 and most unscrupulous of the Mogul emperors; im- 
 prisoned his father. Shah Jahan, and disposed 
 of his brothers by means of assassination in order 
 to gain the throne, which he ascended in 1658. 
 See India: 1605-1658; 1662-1748. 
 
 AURAY, Battle of (1365). See Brittany: 
 1341-1365. 
 
 AURELIAN (Lucius Domitius Aurelianus) 
 (c. 212-275), a soldier emperor of Rome. Made 
 vigorous war on the invading barbarians (see 
 Alemanni: 270; Chalons. Battle at (271)) ; began 
 the construction of the fortified walls around 
 Rome; overcame Zenobia, queen of Palmyra (see 
 Palmyra: Rise and fall) ; instituted strict disci- 
 pline and reforms in Rome. See Rome: Empire: 
 IQ2-284. 
 
 AURELIAN ROAD, one of the great Roman 
 roads of antiquity, which ran from Rome to 
 Pisa and Luna. — T. Mommsen, History of Rome, 
 bk. 4. ch. II. 
 
 AURELIANUS. See Aurelian. 
 
 AUREOLUS (d. 268), leader of the Roman 
 army of the Upper Danube and rival claimant for 
 the Imperial throne; sought refuge in Milan after 
 revolt against Gallienus. See Milan: 268. 
 
 AURELIUS, Marcus. See Antonius, Marcus 
 Aureltus. 
 
 AURELLE de Paladines, Louis Jean Bap- 
 tiste d' (1804-1877), French general. Served in 
 .Algeria and in the Crimean War; commanded 
 the army of the Loire in the Franco-Prussian 
 War ; member of the National .Assembly, assisted 
 in the peace negotiations. As life senator, sup- 
 ported the monarchial majority of 1876. See 
 France: 1870-1871 ; 1871 (March-Mav). 
 
 AURICULAR CONFESSION. See Confes- 
 sion. 
 
 AURIGNACIANS: Ancient tribe.— Industry 
 and art. See Europe: Prehistoric period: Stone 
 age; and Painting: Pre-classical. 
 
 AURUM TOLOSANUM. See Toulouse. 
 
 630
 
 AURUNCI 
 
 AUSTRALASIA 
 
 AURUNCI, Auruncans or Ausones, a tribe of 
 the ancient Volscians, who dwelt in the lower 
 valley of the Liris, and who are said to have 
 been exterminated by the Romans, B. C. 314. — 
 W. Ihne, History of Rome, bk. 3, ch. 10. — See 
 also OscANS. 
 
 AUS, Southwest Africa, taken by British. See 
 World War: 1915: VIII. Africa: a, 1. 
 
 AUSCI. See Aquitaine: Ancient tribes. 
 
 AUSGLEICH (agreement), the written state- 
 ment by which Austria and Hungary united 
 their governments and formed the dual monarchy 
 in 1867. (See Austria: 1866-1867.) The Em- 
 peror Francis Joseph assumed the title of Em- 
 peror of Austria and King of Hungaria, although 
 the two autonomous divisions were to manage 
 all their local affairs. Questions of common in- 
 terest were to be managed by a joint ministry, 
 and a joint parliament made up of an Austrian 
 legislature and an Hungarian legislature, termed 
 "Delegations" which were to meet alternately in 
 Vienna and Budapest. See Austria-Hungary: 
 1866; Hungary: 1856-1868; also Austria-Hun- 
 gary: iQoo-igo3; and 1907. 
 
 AUSHAR, ancient name of Kileh-Sherghat. 
 See Assyria: The land. 
 
 AUSPICES, Taking the.— "The Romans, in the 
 earlier ages of their history, never entered upon 
 any important business whatsoever, whether pub- 
 lic or private, without endeavouring, by means 
 of divination, to ascertain the will of the gods 
 in reference to the undertaking. . . . This opera- 
 tion was termed 'sumere auspicia;' and if the 
 omens proved unfavourable the business was 
 abandoned or deferred. . . . No meeting of the 
 Comitia Curiata nor of the Comitia Centuriata 
 could be held unless the auspices had been pre- 
 viously taken ... As far as public proceed- 
 ings were concerned, no private individual, even 
 among the patricians, had the right of taking 
 auspices. This duty devolved upon the supreme 
 magistrate alone. ... In an army this power be- 
 longed exclusively to the commander-in-chief ; and 
 hence all achievements were said to be performed 
 under his auspices, even although he were not 
 present. . . . The objects observed in taking these 
 auspices were birds, the class of animals from 
 which the word is derived ('Auspicium ab ave 
 spicienda') . Of these, some were believed to 
 give indications by their flight . . . others by their 
 notes or cries . . . while a third class consisted 
 of chickens Cpulli') kept in cages. When it was 
 desired to obtain an omen from these last, food 
 was placed before them, and the manner in 
 which they comported themselves was closely 
 watched. . . . The manner of taking the auspices 
 previous to the Comitia was as follows: — The mag- 
 istrate who was to preside at the assembly arose 
 immediately after midnight on the day for which 
 it had been summoned, and called upon an augur 
 to assist him. . . . With his aid a region of the 
 sky and a space of ground, within which the 
 auspices were observed, were marked out by the 
 divining staff Clituus') of the augur. . . . This 
 operation was performed with the greatest care. 
 ... In making the necessary observations, the 
 president was guided entirely by the augur, who 
 reported to him the result." — W. Ramsay, Manual 
 of Roman antiquities, ch. 4. — See also Augur. 
 
 Atso in: W. Ihne, History of Rome, bk. 6, 
 ch. 13. 
 
 AUSTEN, Jane (1775-1817), English novelist. 
 Her pictures, in an ironic vein, of provincial so- 
 ciety in the upper middle class went far to 
 establish the realistic novel. Her best-known 
 
 works are "Pride and Prejudice" (1796, pub- 
 lished 1813), "Sense and Sensibility" (1797-1798), 
 "Emma" (i8i6), and "Northanger Abbey" (1818). 
 — See also English literature: 1660-1780. 
 
 AUSTERLITZ, a town in Moravia in what 
 was formerly Austrian territory but now forms 
 part of Czecho-Slovakia; situated some fifteen 
 miles east of Briinn; the scene of the great bat- 
 tle of Austerlitz (Dec. 2, 1805), where Napoleon 
 decisively defeated the Austrian and Russian forces. 
 — See also Austria: 1798-1806; and France: 1805. 
 
 AUSTIN, Stephen Fuller (1703-1836), Ameri- 
 can pioneer. Upon a grant obtained by his 
 father, Moses Austin, he colonized Texas, and as- 
 sisted in establishing the republic in 1835 ; was 
 defeated in its lirst presidential election. See 
 Texas: 1819-1835; 1824-1835. 
 
 AUSTIN CANONS, or Canons of St. Au- 
 gustine. — ".\bout the middle of the nth cen- 
 tury an attempt had been made to redress the 
 balance between the regular and secular clergy, 
 and restore to the latter the influence and con- 
 sideration in spiritual matters which they had, 
 partly by their own fault, already to a great 
 extent lost. Some earnest and thoughtful spirits, 
 distressed at once by the abuse of monastic priv- 
 ileges and by the general decay of ecclesiastical 
 order, sought to effect a reform by the establish- 
 ment of a stricter and better organized discipline 
 in those cathedral and other churches which were 
 served by colleges of secular priests. . . . To- 
 wards the beginning of the twelfth century the 
 attempts at canonical reform issued in the form 
 of what was virtually a new religious order, that 
 of the Augustinians, or Canons Regular of the 
 order of S. Augustine. Like the monks and un- 
 like the secular canons, from whom they were 
 carefully distinguished, they had not only their 
 table and dwelling but all things in common, 
 and were bound by vow to the observance of 
 their rule, grounded upon a passage in one of the 
 letters of that great father of the Latin Church 
 from whom they took their name. Their scheme 
 was a compromise between the old-fashioned sys- 
 tem of canons and that of the monastic confra- 
 ternities; but a compromise leaning strongly to- 
 wards the monastic side. . . . The Austin canons, 
 as they were commonly called, made their way 
 across the channel in Henry's reign." — K. Nor- 
 gate, England under the Angevin kings, v. i, ch. 1. 
 — See also Monasticism: iith-i3th centuries. 
 
 Also in: E. L. Cutts, Scenes and characters of 
 the middle ages, ch. 3. 
 
 AUSTIN FRIARS. See Austin canons. 
 
 AUSTRAL ISLANDS: Annexation to 
 France. — The Austral or Tubuai islands were for- 
 mally annexed to France by the governor of 
 Tahiti, on August 21, igoo. 
 
 AUSTRALASIA, a term applied by English 
 geographers to all Oceanic, but usually taken to 
 include only .Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea, 
 Tasmania and nearby islands. Some restrict the 
 name to Australia, Tasmania and New Zealand. 
 
 Baptists. — Growth in nineteenth century. See 
 Baptists: Development in Europe, Canada and 
 Australasia. 
 
 Charities, History of. See Charities: Aus- 
 tralasia. 
 
 Exploration of. See Antarctic e.xploration. 
 
 French colonies. See France: Colonial em- 
 pire. 
 
 Masonic societies. See Masonic societies: 
 Australasia. 
 
 Missionary work. See Missions, Christian: 
 Islands of the Pacific. 
 
 631
 
 AUSTRALIA 
 
 AUSTRALIA 
 
 AUSTRALIA 
 
 Location and physical features. — Population 
 and area. — .-Vustralia is the island continent lying 
 southeast of .\sia and the East Indies and is the only 
 continent entirely south of the equator. Its area 
 is approximately 2,946,691 square miles; its coast 
 line is about 8,850 miles, giving it a smaller pro- 
 portion of coast line than that of any other con- 
 tinent. The estimated population in 1919 was 
 5,247,019. The commonwealth of .Australia includes 
 the original states of New South Wales, Victoria, 
 Queensland, South Australia, Western Australia 
 and Tasmania (island) (see also British empire: 
 Extent; New Ze.^l,\xd; T.asm.^nia). 
 
 "From a physical point of view, the appear- 
 ance of Australia is disappointing to any one 
 familiar with the variety of scenery to be found 
 in Great Britain and Ireland. Here and there, 
 in the settled parts of the countrjs are moun- 
 tainous districts, covered with luxurious vegeta- 
 tion, and watered by beautiful streams. But the 
 general aspect of the temperate parts of the con- 
 tinent is one of mild undulation or absolute 
 flatness, covered with somewhat monotonous vege- 
 tation, or (in the summer months) bare and 
 parched; while there is neither the artificial beauty 
 of high cultivation nor the natural beauty of 
 primitive wildness. Except in the tropical north, 
 there are practically no navigable rivers on the 
 mainland ; even the Murray and the Darling are apt 
 to become impassable in the summer. The scarcity 
 of water is, indeed, one of the most disastrous 
 natural features of .•\us'tralia ; and. unless artificial 
 means can be used to correct it, vast tracts of 
 country must for ever remain unsettled. Tas- 
 mania, however, is a country of noble rivers 
 and striking scener>', though the painful monotony 
 of Australian forest or 'bush' is to be met with 
 there also. On the other hand the climate, in 
 the temperate regions, is, perhaps, one of the 
 finest in the world. Except in the mountainous 
 districts there is no severe cold, frost and snow 
 being unknown; and. though in the summer the 
 temperature rises very high, the air is, as a rule, 
 so dry, that neither lassitude nor other ill ef- 
 fects follow, and cases of sunstroke are extremely 
 rare. A man may be prostrated by a temperature 
 of 80° Fahr. in London, and yet feel quite brisk 
 in experiencing 100° in Melbourne. The soil, too, 
 in spite of the scarcity of water, is in many 
 parts exceedingly fertile, both for pasture and 
 agriculture; and these conditions of climate and 
 soil must be regarded as important factors in the 
 history of the colonies. It is, however, in its 
 productive aspect, that Australia occupies such an 
 unique position. Though possessing native fauna 
 and flora of great extent and variety, it is almost 
 barren of native products in any way useful for 
 the prime necessities of life. The native animals 
 and birds are curious rather than valuable. With 
 few exceptions, they can be used neither for food 
 nor service. The same remark applies to the 
 native vegetable life. The universal gum tree is 
 now becoming famous for its sanitary qualities; 
 but early colonists cannot live on medicine, and 
 the gum forests of .\ustralia furnished but little 
 timber for building houses and making furniture, 
 nor did her uncultivated plains yield edible roots 
 or grain. On the other hand, the soil of .Aus- 
 tralia has shown a remarkable capacity for fos- 
 tering and developing imported animal and plant 
 life. The consequence has been that the eco- 
 nomic side of Australian life has been almost 
 purely European, It is simply a reproduction of 
 British economy, slightly modified to suit new con- 
 
 ditions. This feature has been intensified by 
 the absence of competition. The aborigines of 
 .Australia (the word 'native' is now always re- 
 served for those of European descent) have had 
 no influence on .Australian history. Absolutely 
 barbarous and unskilled in the arts of life, 
 dragging out, according to the accounts of all 
 travellers, a wretched and precarious existence even 
 before the arrival of European settlers, they could 
 offer no resistance to the invaders, and they 
 have, in fact, been entirely ignored (e.xcept as 
 objects of charity or aversion) in the settlement 
 of the countrj'. Probably always few in num- 
 bers, they are now, at the highest estimate, 
 considerably less than one hundred thousand. 
 In Tasmania they have entirely disappeared; 
 and though in the barren interior of the main- 
 land they may prolong their existence for genera- 
 tions, there seems to be no hope that they will 
 improve their lot. Most of the colonies have 
 passed laws intended to protect them from per- 
 sonal cruelty and fraud ; but these laws serve 
 only still more to separate thtm from civilized 
 life. The one pursuit in which they have hitherto 
 been regarded as useful is that of tracking criminals 
 or missing travellers; but white settlers in the 
 'bush' are rapidly becoming more expert than 
 the aborigines in such matters, and the 'black 
 trackers' are falling into discredit." — E. M. A. 
 Jenks, History of the Australasian colonies, pp. 15- 
 17- 
 
 Agriculture. — Efiect of drought. — Main crops. 
 — Cultivated area. — Artesian water supply. — 
 Pastoral industry. — "Though much has been said 
 and written about the recurrence and the evil ef- 
 fects of droughts in .Australia in past years, when 
 the agriculturists suffered loss chiefly in consequence 
 of their having been too speculative and not suf- 
 ficiently provident, the beneficial influences of the 
 droughts have been to a large extent overlooked. 
 In nearly all countries in the Northern Hemisphere 
 the har\'esting of crops for fodder has to be under- 
 taken every year, so that the stock may be fed 
 during the winter months, when the soil is resting 
 and regaining its fertility and chemical constituents. 
 In .Australia the droughts will probably recur, but, 
 with reasonable care and the proper conservation 
 of water and fodder by the experienced agricultur- 
 ist in the years when there is a superabundance of 
 rain and herbage, they will be looked upon in future 
 as by no means an unmixed evil, but rather as one 
 of the provisions by which nature enables the soil 
 to regain those properties which have been ex- 
 hausted during a succession of bountiful seasons. 
 The beneficial effect of resting the soil in times of 
 drought is shewn by the very rapid recovery, by 
 the increased fertility, and by the abundance of the 
 harvests, in the seasons immediately following the 
 droughts. . . . Wheat is the main crop in the Com- 
 monwealth, the cereal occupying over 63 per cent, 
 of the total cultivated area in 1913-14. . . . [In 1875 
 the acreage under wheat was 1,422,614 with a pro- 
 duction of 18,712,051 bushels, while in 1913-14 the 
 acreage had increased to 9,295,256 and a production 
 of 103,517,725 bushels.] Despite the checks to 
 progress due to the vagaries of the season, . . . 
 [there is] evidence of solid advancement. . . . Ac- 
 cording to the returns for 1913-14, the yield was 
 equivalent to over 21 bushels per head of popula- 
 tion. The estimated value of the Commonwealth 
 wheat crop in that year was over $92,464,716. For 
 some years [prior to 1913-1914] Australia [was] 
 in a position to export a fair quantity of 
 wheat and flour to other countries. . . . Other ce- 
 
 632
 
 AUSTRALIA 
 
 Agriculture 
 Early Exploration 
 
 AUSTRALIA 
 
 real crops grown to fair extent in Australia are oats, 
 barley, and maize. . . . Oats and barley are grown 
 througiiout [tiie Commonwealtii] although Queens- 
 land grows very little oats, and only 8826 and 7723 
 acres were under barley in the States of Queens- 
 land and Tasmania and respectively during the 
 latest season under review." — Australian Common- 
 wealth, its resources and production {Common- 
 wealth bureau of census and statistics, Melbourne, 
 191S, pp. 23, 27-2S, 36).— In iqiS-igig, the total 
 area under cultivation was 13,332,393 acres, which 
 produced crops of a total value of £58,080,000. 
 Wheat, the most important grain crop yielded in 
 1919-1920 45,753,298 bushels from a total acreage 
 of 6,379,560. Production from pastoral activities, 
 in 1918-1919 included a total of 657,911,710 lbs. of 
 wool, valued at £42,490,000. 181,802,675 lbs. of 
 butter, of which 41,114,800 lbs., valued at £3,193,086 
 were exported. In addition exports of tallow and 
 sheepskins brought a return of £4,117,699, and 
 frozen meat, a growing industry, was exported to 
 the value of £4,471,942. '-'Praiseworthy efforts to 
 overcome [the] handicap of unsuitable natural con- 
 ditions mark the economic development of Aus- 
 tralia. The scanty rainfall has been supplemented 
 by a certain amount of water conservation, mainly 
 tapping the vast reservoir of artesian water which 
 underlies 576,000 square miles of the arid regions of 
 New South Wales, Queensland and South Australia, 
 where the pastoral industry is supreme. . . . Ad- 
 verse conditions have called for improvement in 
 the breed of sheep so as to fit them to their en- 
 vironment. . . . This has been achieved. Merino 
 sheep do best in New South Wales where they form 
 83 per cent of the whole. In order to suit other cli- 
 mates, to obtain a hardier sheep which would be 
 more useful for mixed farming, the merino has 
 been crossed wi.h other sheep, without loss to its 
 wool-bearing powers. The fleece cut from each 
 sheep has risen [191S-1920] to an average of eight 
 pounds at the present day. In addition, the quality 
 of the wool has improved, and the weight of the 
 original sheep nearly doubled. (3) The State has 
 pursued a railway and land policy which has led 
 to an increase of productivity. The large areas, as 
 a result, are being replaced by small holdings. Vet 
 all these efforts have not fully succeeded in putting 
 the pastoral industry in a condition of continuous 
 increase. The number of sheep in Australia has 
 declined in recent years. The pastoral industry is 
 limited, through climatic conditions, to about 28 
 per cent of the country, though an area embracing 
 another 19J2 per cent would be available, if pro- 
 vision could be made for the transport of stock to 
 wetter areas in dry seasons. ... As in the case of 
 the pastoral industry, the progress of agriculture 
 has involved the overcoming of great difficulties. 
 The land laws favored large estates, and thus re- 
 stricted settlement. A scanty rainfall led men to 
 consider large areas of land in New South Wales, 
 Victoria and South Australia unsuitable for wheat 
 growing. Scarcity of labour threatened to make 
 the cost of production too high for the average 
 yield of wheat to repay the farmer. Most of these 
 obstacles are being overcome. Legislation has di- 
 minished the number of large holdings, at the same 
 time increasing the number of settlers. The use of 
 scientific methods of cultivation has tended to over- 
 come the other difficulties. . . . Ploughing is done 
 by multiple ploughs, which throw six to eight fur- 
 rows at one time. . . . Harvesting is done by the 
 combined stripper and harvester, an Australian in- 
 vention. As a result of this economy so low an 
 average production as ten bushels of wheat per acre 
 is profitable. Again, the [farmer] has had to guard 
 against insufficient rainfall, and, as dry farming 
 in its real sense has not yet been attempted, the 
 
 precautions taken have been those of fallowing 
 and a rotation of crops. The fallowing is so con- 
 ducted as to conserve in the soil two winters' rain- 
 fall and thus to obviate the evils of a dry harvest 
 season." — C. H. Northcott, Australian social de- 
 velopment (Studies in history, economics and pub- 
 lic law, Columbia University, v. 81, No. 2, 1918, 
 pp. 210-214). 
 
 Mythology. See Mythology: Oceania: Austra- 
 lian myths. 
 
 1601-1800. — Discovery and early exploration. 
 — "Australia has had no Columbus. It is even 
 doubtful if the first navigators who reached her 
 shores set out with any idea of discovering a 
 great south land. At all events, it would seem, 
 their achievements were so little esteemed by 
 themselves and their countrymen that no means 
 were taken to preserve their names in connexion 
 with their discoveries. Holland long had the credit 
 of bringing to light the existence of that island 
 continent, which until recent years was best known 
 by her name. In 1861, however, Mr. Major, to 
 whom we are indebted for more recent research 
 upon the subject, produced evidence which ap- 
 peared to demonstrate that the Portuguese had 
 reached the shores of Australia in 1601, five years 
 before the Dutch yacht Duyphen, or Dove, — the 
 earliest vessel whose name has been handed 
 down, — sighted, about March, 1606, what is be- 
 lieved to have been the coast near Cape York. 
 Mr. Major, in a learned paper read before the 
 Society of Antiquaries in 1872, indicated the prob- 
 ability that the first discovery was made 'in 
 or before the year 1531.' The dates of two of the 
 six maps from which Mr. Major derives his in- 
 formation are 1531 and 1542. The latter clearly 
 indicates Australia, which is called Jave la Grande. 
 New Zealand is also marked." — F. P. Labilliere, 
 Early history of the colony of Victoria, ch. i. — 
 In 1606, De Quiros, a Spanisii navigator, sailing 
 from Peru, across the Pacific, reached a shore 
 which stretched so far that he took it to be a 
 continent. "He called the place 'Tierra Australis 
 de Espiritu Santo,' fhat is 'Southern Land of the 
 Holy Spirit.' It is now known that this was 
 not really a continent, but merely one of the New 
 Hebrides Islands, and more than a thousand miles 
 away from the mainland ... In after years, the 
 name he had invented was divided into two 
 parts; the island he had really discovered being 
 called Espiritu Santo, while t'he continent he 
 thought he had discovered was called Tierra Aus- 
 tralis. This last name was shortened by another 
 discoverer- — Flinders — to the present term Aus- 
 tralia." — A. and G. Sutherland, History of Aus- 
 tralia and New Zealand, ch. i. — "In 1611 Hendrik 
 Brouwer, a commander of marked ability who sub- 
 sequently became Governor-General of the Dutch 
 East Indies, made a discovery. He found that 
 if, after leaving the Cape, he steered due east 
 for about three thousand miles, and fhen set 
 a course north for J^va, he had the benefit 
 of favourable winds, which enabled him to finish 
 the voyage in much less time than the old route 
 required. Brouwer wrote to the directors of the 
 Dutch East India Company [see Netherlands: 
 1594-1620] pointing out that he had sailed from 
 Holland to Java in seven months, and recom- 
 mending that ships' captains should be instructed 
 to take the same course in future. The di- 
 rectors followed his advice ; and from the year 
 1613 all Dutch commanders were under instruc- 
 tions to follow Brouwer's route. The bearing 
 of this change on the discovery of the west coast 
 of Australia will be immediately apparent to 
 any one who glances at the map of the southern 
 Indian Ocean. The distance from the Cape of 
 
 633
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1601-1800 
 
 Early 
 Exploration 
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1601-1800 
 
 Good Hope to Cape Leeuwin is about 4,300 miles. 
 A vessel running eastward with a free wind, and 
 anxious to make the most of it before changing 
 her course northward, would be very likely to 
 sight the Australian coast. That is precisely what 
 occurred to the ship Eendragt (i.e., Concord). Her 
 captain. Dirk Hartog, ran farther eastward than 
 Brouwcr had advised, reaching Shark's Bay and 
 landing on the island which to this day bears 
 his name. He erected there a post, and nailed 
 to it a tin plate upon which was engraved the 
 record that on October 25, 1616, the ship Een- 
 dragt from .\msterdam had arrived there, and had 
 sailed for Bantam on the 27th. Dirk Hartpg's 
 plate was found by Captain Vlaming, of the 
 Dutch ship Geelvin'k, eighty years later. The 
 post had decayed, but the plate itself was 'un- 
 affected by rain, air, or sun.' Vlaming sent 
 it to .Amsterdam as an interesting memorial of 
 discovery, and erected another post and plate in 
 place of it; and Vlaming's plate in turn remained 
 until 181 7. when Captain Louis de Freycinet, the 
 commander of a French exploring expedition, 
 took it away with him to Paris. Dirk Hartog's 
 discovery was recognized by the seamen of his 
 nation as one which conduced to safer naviga- 
 tion. Brouwer's sailing direction had left it in- 
 definite at what point the turn northward should 
 be commenced. But now there was a landmark, 
 and amended instructions were issued to Dutch 
 mariners that they should sail from the Cape 
 between the latitudes of thirty and forty degrees 
 for about four thousand miles until the 'New 
 Southland of the Eendragt' was sighted. 'The 
 land of the Eendragt' — 'T'Llandt van de 'Een- 
 dragt' — that was the first name given by the 
 Dutch to this country ; and it so appears upon 
 several early maps of the world published at 
 Amsterdam. In this way the western coasts of 
 Australia were brought within sight of the regular 
 sailing track of vessels from Europe ; and as 
 soon as that occurred the finding of other por- 
 tions of the coast was only a matter of time. 
 Of course all the captains did not reach the 
 coast at the same spot. Violent winds would 
 sometimes blow a vessel hundreds of miles out of 
 her planned course. Both going to and coming 
 from the East Indies ships would discover fresh 
 pieces of coastline in quite a chance manner. 
 Thus, De Wit sailing homeward from Batavia in 
 1628 in the Vyanen was by headwinds driven 
 aground upon the north-west coast, and had to 
 throw overboard a quantity of pepper and cop- 
 per, 'upon which through God's mercy she got off 
 again without further damage.' That bit of coast 
 was named 'De Wit's Land.' " — E. Scott, Short 
 history of Australia, pp. 18-10. — .\fter the visit 
 to the .Australian coast of the small Dutch ship, 
 the Dove, it was touched, during the next twenty 
 years, by a number of vessels of the same na- 
 tionality. "In 16:2 a Dutch ship, the Leeuwin, 
 or Lioness, sailed along the southern coast, and its 
 name was given to the south-west cape of .Aus- 
 tralia. ... In 1628 General Carpenter sailed com- 
 pletely round the large Gulf to the north, which 
 has taken its name from this circumstance. Thus, 
 by degrees, all the northern and western, together 
 with part of the southern shores, came to be 
 roughly explored, and the Dutch even had some 
 idea of colonizing this continent. . . . During the 
 next fourteen years we hear no more of voyages 
 to Australia; but in 1642 Antony Van Diemen, 
 the Governor of the Dutch possessions in the 
 East Indies, sent out his friend .\bel Jansen Tas- 
 man, with two ships, to make discoveries in the 
 South Seas." Tasman discovered the island which 
 he called Van Diemen's Land, but which has since 
 
 been named in his own honor — Tasmania. "This 
 he did not know to be an island ; he drew it on 
 his maps as if it were a peninsula belonging to 
 the mainland of Australia." In 1609, the famous 
 buccaneer, William Dampier, was given the com- 
 mand of a vessel sent out to the southern seas, 
 and he explored about Qoo miles of the north- 
 western coast of Australia ; but the description 
 which he gave of the country did not encourage 
 the adventurous to seek fortune in it. "We hear 
 of no further explorations in this part of the world 
 until nearly a century after; and, even then, no 
 one thought of sending out ships specially for the 
 purpose. But in the year 1770 a series of im- 
 portant discoveries were indirectly brought about. 
 The Royal Society of London, calculating that 
 the planet Venus would cross the disc of the sun 
 in 1769, persuaded the English Government to 
 send out an expedition to the Pacific Ocean for 
 the purpose of making observations on this event 
 which would enable astronomers to calculate the 
 distance of the earth from the sun. A small ves- 
 sel, the Endeavour, was chosen ; astronomers with 
 their instruments embarked, and the whole placed 
 under the charge of" the renowned sailor, Captain 
 James Cook. The astronomical purposes of the 
 expedition were satisfactorily accomplished at 
 Otaheite, and Captain Cook then proceeded to an 
 exploration of the shores of New Zealand and 
 .Australia. Having entered a fine bay on the 
 south-eastern coast of -Australia, "he examined 
 the country for a few miles inland, and two of 
 his scientific friends — Sir Joseph Banks and Dr. 
 Solander — made splendid collections of botanic.il 
 specimens. From this circumstance the place was 
 called Botany Bay, and its two head-lands re- 
 ceived the names of Cape Banks and Cape Solander. 
 It was here that Captain Cook . . . took pos- 
 session of the country on behalf of His Britannic 
 Majesty, giving it the name 'New South Wales,' 
 on account of the resemblance of its coasts to 
 the southern shores of Wales. [See also Australia: 
 1773; British empire: Expansion: i8th cen- 
 tury! Shortly after they had set sail from 
 Botany Bay they observed a small opening in 
 the land, but Cook did not stay to examine it, 
 merely marking it on his charts as Port Jackson, 
 in honour of his friend Sir George Jackson. . . . 
 The reports brought home by Captain Cook com- 
 pletely changed the beliefs current in those days 
 with regard to .Australia." In 1792 Captain Phillip, 
 governor of the Botany bay settlement, broken 
 in health, had resigned, and in 1795 he had been 
 succeeded by Governor Hunter. "When Governor 
 Hunter arrived, in 1795. he brought with him, 
 on board his ship, the Reliance, a young surgeon, 
 George Bass, and a midshipman called Matthew 
 Flinders. They were young men of the most 
 admirable character. . . . Within a month after 
 their arrival they purchased a small boat about 
 eight feet in length, which they christened the 
 Tom Thumb. Its crew consisted of themselves and 
 a boy to assist." In this small craft they began 
 a survey of the coast, usefully charting many 
 miles of it. Soon afterwards, George Bass, in an 
 open whale-boat, pursued his explorations south- 
 wards, to the region now called Victoria, and 
 through the straits which bear his name, thus 
 discovering the fact that Van Diemen's Land, or 
 Tasmania, is an island, not a peninsula. In 1798, 
 Bass and Flinders, again associated and furnished 
 with a small sloop, sailed round and surveyed the 
 entire coast of Van Diemen's Land. Bass now 
 went to South .America and there disappeared. 
 Flinders was commissioned by the British govern- 
 ment in 1800 to make an extensive survey of the 
 Australian coasts, and did so. Returning to 
 
 634
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1787-1840 
 
 Penal 
 Settlements 
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1787-1840 
 
 England with his maps, he was taken prisoner on 
 the way by the French and held in captivity for 
 six years, while the fruits of his labor were 
 stolen. He died a few years after being re- 
 leased. — A. and G. Sutherland, History of Aus- 
 tralia, ch. 1-3. — See also Antarctic exploration: 
 15x9-1819; Pacific Ocean: 1764-1850. 
 
 Also in: G. W. Rusden, History of Australia, 
 V. I, ch. 1-3. 
 
 1787-1840. — Penal settlements. — Beginning of 
 the prosperity of New South Wales. — Introduc- 
 tion of sheep-farming. — Founding of Victoria 
 and South Australia. — "It so happened that, 
 shortly after Cook's return, the English nation 
 had to deal with a great difficulty in regard to 
 its criminal population. In 1776 the United States 
 declared their independence, and the English then 
 found they could no longer send their convicts 
 over to Virginia, as they had formerly done. In 
 a short time the gaols of England were crowded 
 with felons. It became necessary to select a 
 new place of transportation; and, just as this 
 difficulty arose, Captain Cook's voyages called at- 
 tention to a land in every way suited for such 
 a purpose, both by reason of its fertility and of 
 its great distance. Viscount Sydney, therefore, de- 
 termined to send out a party to Botany Bay, in 
 order to found a convict settlement there ; and 
 in May, 1787, a fleet was ready to sail." After 
 a voyage of eight months the fleet arrived at 
 Botany Bay, in January, 1788. The waters of the 
 bay were found to be too shallow for a proper 
 harbor, and Captain Phillip, the appointed gov- 
 ernor of the settlement, set out, with three boats, 
 to search for something better. "As he passed 
 along the coast he turned to examine the open- 
 ing which Captain Cook had called Port Jack- 
 son, and soon found himself in a winding chan- 
 nel of water, with great cliffs frowning overhead. 
 All at once a magnificent prospect opened on 
 his eyes. A harbour, which is, perhaps, the most 
 beautiful and perfect in the world, stretched be- 
 fore him far to the west, till it was lost on the 
 distant horizon. It seemed a vast maze of wind- 
 ing waters, dotted here and there with lovely 
 islets. . . . Captain Phillip selected, as the place 
 most suitable to the settlement, a small inlet, 
 which, in honour of the Minister of State, he called 
 Sydney Cove. It was so deep as to allow ves- 
 sels to approach within a yard or two of the 
 shore." — A. and G. Sutherland, History of Aus- 
 tralia and New Zealand, ch. 1-3. — Great diffi- 
 culties and sufferings attended the founding of 
 the penal settlement, and many died of actual 
 starvation as well as of disease; but in twelve 
 years the population had risen to between 6,000 
 and 7,000 persons. Meantime a branch colony 
 had been established on Norfolk island. "For 
 twenty years and more no one at home gave a 
 thought to New South Wales, or 'Botany Bay,' 
 as it was still erroneously called, unless in vague 
 horror and compassion for the poor creatures 
 who lived there in exile and starvation. The only 
 civilizing element in the place was the presence 
 of a devoted clergyman named Johnson, who had 
 voluntarily accompanied the first batch of con- 
 victs. . . . Colonel Lachlan Macquarie entered on 
 the office of governor in 1810, and ruled the 
 settlement for twelve years. His administration 
 was the first turning point in its history. . . . 
 Macquarie saw that the best and cheapest way 
 of ruling the convicts was to make them free- 
 men as soon as possible. Before his time, the 
 governors had looked on the convicts as slaves, 
 to be worked for the profit of the government 
 and of the free settlers. Macquarie did all he 
 could to elevate the class of emancipists, and to 
 
 635 
 
 encourage the convicts to persevere in sober in- 
 dustry in the hope of one day acquiring a re- 
 spectable position. He began to discontinue the 
 government farms, and to employ the convicts 
 in road-making, so as to extend the colony m all 
 directions. When he came to Sydney, the country 
 more than a day's ride from the town was quite 
 unknown. The growth of the settlement was 
 stopped on the west by a range called the Blue 
 Mountains, which before his time no one had 
 succeeded in crossing. But in 1813, there came a 
 drought upon the colony: the cattle, on which 
 everything depended, were unable to find food. 
 Macquarie surmised that there must be plenty 
 of pasture on the plains above the Bhie Moun- 
 tains: he sent an exploring party, telling them that 
 a pass must be discovered. In a few months, not 
 only was this task accomplished, and the vast and 
 fertile pastures of Bathurst reached, but a road 
 130 miles long was made, connecting them with 
 Sydney. The Lachlan and Macquarie rivers were 
 traced out to the west of the Blue Mountains. 
 Besides this, coal was found at the mouth of the 
 Hunter river, and the settlement at Newcastle 
 formed. . . . When it became known that the 
 penal settlement was gradually becoming a free 
 colony, and that Sydney and its population were 
 rapidly changing their character, English and 
 Scotch people soon bethought them of emigrating 
 to the new country. Macquarie returned home in 
 1822, leaving New South Wales four times as 
 populous, and twenty times as large as when he 
 went out, and many years in advance of what it 
 might have been under a less able and energetic 
 governor. The discovery of the fine pastures 
 beyond the Blue Mountains settled the destiny of 
 the colony. The settlers came up thither with 
 their flocks long before Macquarie's road was 
 finished ; and it turned out that the downs of 
 Australia were the best sheep-walks in the world. 
 The sheep thrives better there, and produces 
 finer and more abundant wool, than anywhere 
 else. John Macarthur, a lieutenant in the New 
 South Wales corps, had spent several years in 
 studying the effect of the Australian climate upon 
 the sheep; and he rightly surmised that the staple 
 of the colony would be its fine wool. In 1803, 
 he went to England and procured some pure 
 Spanish merino sheep from the flock of George 
 III. . . The Privy Council listened to his wool 
 projects, and he received a large grant of land. 
 Macarthur had found out the true way to Aus- 
 tralian prosperity. When the great upland pas- 
 tures were discovered, the merino breed was 
 well established in the colony ; and the sheep- 
 owners, without waiting for grants, spread with 
 th^ir flocks over immense tracts of country. This 
 was the beginning of what is called squatting. 
 The squatters afterwards paid a quit-rent to the 
 government and thus got their runs, as they call 
 the great districts where they pastured their flocks, 
 to a certain extent secured to them. . . . Hun- 
 dreds upon hundreds of square miles of the great 
 Australian downs were now explored and stocked 
 with sheep for the English wool-market. ... It 
 was in the time of Macquarie's successor. Sir 
 Thomas Brisbane, that the prospects of New South 
 Wales became generally known in England. Free 
 emigrants, each bringing more or less capital with 
 him, now poured in; and the demand for labour 
 became enormous. At first the penal settlements 
 were renewed as depots for the supply of labour, 
 and it was even proposed that the convicts should 
 be sold by auction on their arrival ; but in the 
 end the influx of free labourers entirely altered 
 the question. In Brisbane's time, and that of his 
 successor, Sir Ralph Darling, wages fell and work.
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1787-1840 
 
 Scientific 
 Colonization 
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1810-1837 
 
 became scarce in England; and English working 
 men now turned their attention to Australia. 
 Hitherto the people had been either convicts or 
 free settlers of more or less wealth, and between 
 these classes there was great bitterness of feel- 
 ing, each, naturally enough, thinking that the 
 colony existed for their own exclusive benefit. 
 The free labourers who now poured in greatly 
 contributed in course of time to fusing the popula- 
 tion into one. In Brisbane's time, trial by jury 
 and a free press w^ere introduced. The finest pas- 
 tures in Australia, the Darling Downs near More- 
 ton Bay, were discovered and settled [1825]. 
 The rivers which pour into Moreton Bay were 
 explored: one of them was named the Brisbane, 
 and a few miles from its mouth the town of the 
 same name was founded. Brisbane is now the 
 capital of the colony of Queensland: and other 
 explorations in his time led to the foundation of 
 a second independent colony. The Macquarie was 
 traced beyond the marshes, in which it was sup- 
 posed to lose itself, and named the Darling: and 
 the Murray river was discovered [1820]. The 
 tracing out of the Murray river by the adventur- 
 ous traveller Sturt, led to a colony on the site 
 which he named South Australia. In Darling's 
 time, the Swan River Colony, now called West- 
 ern Australia, was commenced. Darling . . . was 
 the first to sell the land at a small fixed price, 
 on the system adopted in America. . . . Darling re- 
 turned to England in 1831; and the six-years' ad- 
 ministration of his successor. Sir Richard Bourke, 
 marks a fresh turning-point in Australian history. 
 In his time the colony threw off two great off- 
 shoots. Port Phillip, on which now stands the 
 great city of Melbourne, had been discovered in 
 1802, and in the next year the government sent 
 hither a convict colony. This did not prosper, 
 and this fine site was neglected for thirty years. 
 When the sudden rise of New South Wales began, 
 the squatters began to settle to the west and 
 north of Port Phillip; and the government at once 
 sent an exploring party, who reported most favour- 
 ably of the country around. In 1836, Governor 
 Bourke founded a settlement in this new land, 
 which had been called, from its rich promise, 
 Australia Felix: and under his directions the site 
 of a capital was laid out, to be called Melbourne, 
 in honour of the English Prime Minister. This 
 was in 1S37, so that the beginning of the colony 
 corresponds nearly with that of Queen Victoria's 
 reign ; a circumstance which afterwards led to 
 its being named Victoria. Further west still, a 
 second new colony arose about this time on the 
 site discovered by Sturt in 1S29. This was called 
 South Australia, and the first governor arrived 
 there at the end of the year 1836. The intended 
 capital was named Adelaide, in honour of the 
 Queen of William IV." Owing to the institution 
 of a system of scientific colonization into the two 
 colonies, a sudden boom and an equally swift 
 business and real estate depression visited South 
 Australia. "The depression of South Australia, 
 however, was but temporary. It contains the best 
 corn land in the whole island: and hence it of 
 course soon became the chief source of the food 
 supply of the neighbouring colonies, besides ex- 
 porting large quantities of corn to England. It 
 contains rich mines of copper, and produces large 
 quantities of wool." — E. J. Payne, History of Eu- 
 ropean colonies, cit. 12. See New South Wales, 
 Victoria, and South Australia. 
 
 Also in: G. W. Rusden, History of Australia. 
 
 1802. — Settlement of Tasmania. See Tasmanxx. 
 
 1810-1837. — Attempts at scientific colonization. 
 
 — "In pursuance of their obiects the Colonization 
 
 Society had in 1830 approached the Government, 
 
 but they met with no success while the Duke of 
 Wellington was in office. Sir George Murray, 
 then Secretary of State for the Colonies, told 
 them that the Government rather wished to dis- 
 courage emigration. With a change of Ministry 
 and the advent of Lord Goderich and Lord 
 Howick to the Colonial Office at the end of 1830, 
 their renewed representations had a more favour- 
 able reception. They achieved their first public 
 success when, in January, 1831, the Government 
 determined to adopt some measure of the Wake- 
 field theory by making a great change in the dis- 
 posal of waste lands in New South Wales, Van 
 Diemen's Land and Western Australia. In New 
 South Wales land had been given away without 
 regard to its existing or future value. . . . Up to 
 1810. the usual method had been to grant land 
 to emancipated convicts or to free settlers, sub- 
 ject to conditions as to quit-rents. These grants 
 were made at the absolute discretion of the Gov- 
 ernor, and during this period were large in [ex- 
 tent] though not in number. . . . During this 
 period, up to 1810, there had been granted in 
 New South Wales 117,269 acres. During the 
 next stage, 1810-1S22, while Governor Macquarie 
 held office, the Home Government seems to have 
 determined to' encourage capitalists to come to Aus- 
 tralia. Anyone arriving there received, on condi- 
 tions as to quit-rents and cultivation, a free grant 
 of land in proportion to the capital which he 
 could persuade the Governor that he possessed and 
 was prepared to invest in the colony. Sometimes 
 the capital was fictitious or was obligingly lent 
 to the applicant by any accommodating friend. 
 This system, though not the sole method of grant- 
 ing land, lasted until 1830. . . . By 1828 the land 
 alienated in New South Wales amounted to 
 2.006,346 acres. This very large increase was due, 
 not only to the necessity of meeting the claims 
 of an increasing population, but also to the fact 
 that, in 1824, a large grant of about 1,000,000 
 acres in New South Wales had been made to the 
 Australian Agricultural Company, on the usual con- 
 ditions as to quit-rents. In Van Diemen's Land, 
 in 1825, a similar grant of about 350,000 acres 
 was made to the Van Diemen's Land Company. 
 By the end of 1S30, no fewer than 3,344,030 acres 
 had been alienated in New South Wales. . . . The 
 first intimation nf a change in 183 1 was a despatch 
 from Lord Goderich to Governor Darling on the 
 gth January, announcing his intention to in- 
 troduce, in the near future, a uniform system 
 of sale in New South Wales, and instructing 
 Darling, in the meantime, to discontinue all fur- 
 ther grants except by way of sale. His inten- 
 tion was realized in a despatch of the 14th Feb- 
 ruary, 1831, containing Royal Instructions to 
 Darling as to the disposal of waste lands, and 
 enclosing the printed terms of the new regulations 
 for intending settlers — afterwards well known as 
 the Ripon Regulations. The Governor was in- 
 structed that all lands not hitherto granted, and 
 not appropriated for public purposes, were to 
 be disposed of in no other way than by sale 
 at auction at a minimum price of not less than 
 five shillings per acre. A deposit of 10 per cent 
 was required from the purchaser, and the remainder 
 was to be paid within a month, or possession 
 was not granted and the sale was void. Grants 
 thus obtained were to be subject to no conditions 
 whatever except a nominal quit -rent of a pepper- 
 corn. The land was to be put up for sale in 
 lots of not less than 640 acres, except in special 
 circumstances when, on application to the Gov- 
 ernor, the quantity might be reduced. With the 
 Governor, however, rested the sole power of de- 
 ciding what lands should be exposed for sale 
 
 636
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1821-1845 
 
 Wakefield 
 System 
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1821-1845 
 
 and what lands withheld. Lands which were re- 
 quired for grazing purposes were to be let on lease 
 from year to year, but, if applied for by intend- 
 ing purchasers, were to be sold at auction in the 
 same way as other land. At the same time an- 
 other reform was instituted by this despatch. 
 Crown reserves for Church or School establish- 
 ments were, in accordance with a recommendation 
 of the Commissioners of Inquiry into Colonial 
 Expenditure in 1830, abolished as a tax upon 
 the industry and capital of the colonists. These 
 changes applied both to New South Wales and 
 Van Diemen's Land, and similar instructions and 
 regulations were sent out a little later to the 
 Governor of Western Australia. . . . The Ripon 
 Regulations, then, were an attempt to put into 
 practice the chief principle of the Wakefield 
 theory. It was the first attempt in the nine- 
 teenth century to proceed systematically in dis- 
 posing of the waste lands of the Crown in the 
 colonies." — R. C. Mills, Colonization of Australia, 
 pp. 155-194. — See also New South Wales: 1821- 
 1831. 
 
 1821-1845.— Need for free labor.— WakeEeld 
 system in South Australia. — "Not less important 
 to a young colony than a good system of dis- 
 posing of land, is immigration, which brings to 
 the land the necessary complement of labour and 
 capital. During the years 1821 to 1S30 inclusive, 
 emigration from Great Britain to Australia was not 
 a steady stream, but a mere trickle. On an average 
 only 880 free settlers arrived each year, and this 
 included those who went to form the new settle- 
 ment at Swan River. Not until 1828 did the 
 numbers amount to over one thousand in any 
 one year. During the corresponding period the 
 average annual number of convict emigrants to 
 the penal colonies of New South Wales and 
 Van Diemen's Land was 2,447. But by 1830 these 
 colonies had come to be something more than 
 mere overseas prisons. In 1828, when a census 
 was taken in New South Wales, the free set- 
 tlers (including emancipated convicts) numbered 
 about 21,000, while the convicts numbered about 
 16,000. The time had gone by when Governor 
 Macquarie could preach and practise the doctrine 
 that a penal colony existed primarily for con- 
 victs and ex-convicts. But, at the rate at which 
 convicts were pouring in, something more than the 
 trivial stream of free emigrants was required 
 if the free population was definitely to predomi- 
 nate in these colonies. The Home Government 
 showed no sign of checking the supply of con- 
 victs, much less of abandoning the system of 
 transportation. Indeed from 1826 to 1830 the 
 number of convict emigrants gradually increased. 
 . . . Throughout the decade beginning with 1S30 
 complaints were common in all the Australian 
 colonies of the scarcity of labour. Indeed, so 
 great was the demand for labour that, in 1837, 
 the Legislative Council of New South Wales en- 
 tertained the proposal to introduce into the colony 
 natives of India bound by indenture to work 
 for a given period. In all the Australian colonies 
 the system of indentured labour had failed. . . . 
 Convict labour was still more unsatisfactory. . . . 
 One particular drawback under which these colonies 
 suffered, and which concerned both immigration 
 and the scarcity of labour, was the extreme dis- 
 proportion between the sexes. ... A supply of 
 immigrants, then, selected on a system adapted 
 to their needs, was the most urgent need of the 
 penal colonies of Australia in 1830. Bad, in- 
 deed, as was convict labour, the colonists clung 
 to it as their only support. Labour of some 
 description they needed, and free labour did not 
 exist in any quantity. The reputation of the penal 
 
 colonies was so unattractive to the ordinary emi- 
 grant that, as the returns showed, there was at 
 that time no voluntary emigration of labouring 
 people to Australia. . . . Canada, and particularly 
 the United States, made an equal demand for la- 
 bour and were much easier to reach. What the Aus- 
 tralian colonies needed was some means of over- 
 coming the handicap of distance, and this they 
 found in Wakefield's 'golden bridge' of an emi- 
 gration fund produced as the result of land sales. 
 The Home Government was not at first disposed 
 to pay the whole of the passages of emigrants. 
 . . . But circumstances compelled the Government 
 to abandon this position. The attempt to base a 
 system of emigration upon the repayment of ad- 
 vances by the emigrant failed conclusively. . . . 
 Step by step then the Home Government was 
 forced, first to increase the amount of that por- 
 tion of the passage money which was a gift to the 
 emigrant, and finally to pay the whole of the fare. 
 Soon after a commencement had been made with 
 female emigration, of a fare of £17 the share paid 
 by the Government was increased to ii2, £6 of 
 which was paid on departure of the emigrant and 
 £6 on her arrival in the colony. In 1834, a change 
 was made whereby the Government paid the whole 
 of the £17 and required the emigrant to repay 
 £6. Finally, in 1835, the whole of the passage 
 became a free gift to the emigrant. Similarly in 
 regard to emigrant mechanics and agricultural la- 
 bourers the amount advanced to them was con- 
 siderably increased in 1836, and, in 1837, the sys- 
 tem became one of free passages for all emi- 
 grants selected by the Government. In both 
 cases, too, the Home Government, despairing of 
 the repayment of the advances, instructed the 
 Governors of New South Wales and Van Diemen's 
 Land in 1835 to remit these debts and to treat 
 the loans as free gifts. In the selection of emi- 
 grants to New South Wales and Van Diemen's 
 Land the Home Government was conspicuously 
 unsuccessful. ... In the Australian colonies there 
 was inevitably a good deal of dissatisfaction with 
 this kind of emigration. The reputation of the 
 better class of emigrants was likely to be gauged 
 by the character of the worst, and this adversely 
 affected the popularity of emigration. ... In New 
 South Wales in 1S35, they suggested that emigra- 
 tion should in Britain be managed by those who 
 had a personal interest in the colony. This sug- 
 gestion was . . . approved by the Home Gov- 
 ernment. Accordingly naval surgeons, who had 
 been superintendents of convict ships and there- 
 fore were famiUar both with the needs of the 
 colonies and the management of emigrants during 
 a long voyage, were appointed by the colonial 
 government to proceed to Great Britain to manage 
 emigration. There each surgeon was to select and 
 bring out under his personal supervision a ship- 
 load of emigrants. ... At the end of 1836, . . . 
 the London Emigration Committee expressed a 
 desire to relinquish their functions, . . . and had 
 recommended that emigration should be managed 
 by a central Board responsible to the Government 
 or directly to Parliament. The resignation of the 
 London Emigration Committee was accepted and 
 Lord Glenelg, early in 1837, took the opportunity 
 of . . . appointing as Agent-General for Emigra- 
 tion Mr. T. F. Elliot, who had been secretary to 
 the Emigration Commission of 1831-2. His duty 
 was to exercise a general superintendence over 
 emigration to aU colonies, and, in regard to Aus- 
 tralia, to help in carrying on the system of Gov- 
 ernment emigration which he found in force. Emi- 
 gration . . . became at length a department of 
 government administered by an officer responsible 
 to the Colonial Office and therefore indirectly to 
 
 ^37
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1839-1855 
 
 Progress 
 Discovery of Gold 
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1839-1855 
 
 Parliament." — R. C. Mills, Colonization of Aus- 
 tralia, pp. 155-104. 
 
 The Wakefield system was employed to secure 
 immigrants for both South Australia and Vic- 
 toria. In the former of the two colonies the 
 experiment had a fairer opportunity to show its 
 value because of the greater independence and 
 lack of prejudice of the Melbourne government. 
 Wakefield's "notion was that the new colonies 
 ought to be made 'fairly to represent English so- 
 ciety.' His plan was to arrest the strong demo- 
 cratic tendencies of the new community, and to 
 reproduce in Australia the strong distinction of 
 classes which was found in England. He wanted 
 the land sold as dear as possible, so that labourers 
 might not become land-owners; and the produce 
 of the land was to be applied in tempting labourers 
 to emigrate with the prospect of better wages than 
 they got at home. A Company was easily formed 
 to carry out these ideas in South Australia. . . . 
 Like the settlement of Carolina as framed by 
 Locke and Somers, it was really a plan for getting 
 the advantages of the colony into the hands of 
 the non-labouring classes: and by the natural laws 
 of political economy, it failed everywhere. Ade- 
 laide became the scene of an Australian 'bubble.' 
 The land-jobbers and money-lenders made for- 
 tunes: but the people who emigrated, mostly be- 
 longing to the middle and upper classes, found the 
 scheme to be a delusion. Land rapidly rose in 
 value, and as rapidly sank ; and lots for which 
 the emigrants had paid high prices became almost 
 worthless. The labourers emigrated elsewhere, 
 and so did those of the capitalists who had any- 
 thing left." — E. J. Payne, History of European 
 colonies, ch. 12. — See also South Australia: 1834- 
 1836. 
 
 1839-1855.— Progress of the Port Phillip dis- 
 trict. — Its separation from New South Wales 
 and erection into the colony of Victoria. — Dis- 
 covery of gold. — Constitutional organization of 
 the colony. — "In 1839 the population of Port 
 Phillip amounted to nearly 6,000, and was being 
 rapidly augmented from without. The sheep in 
 the district exceeded half a million, and of cattle 
 and horses the numbers were in proportion equally 
 large. The place was daily growing in importance. 
 The Home Government therefore decided to send 
 an officer, with the title of Superintendent, to take 
 charge of the district, but to act under the Gov- 
 ernor of New South Wales. Charles Joseph La 
 Trobe, Esq., was appointed to this office. ... He 
 arrived at Melbourne on the 30th September, 
 1830. Soon after this all classes of the new com- 
 munity appear to have become affected by a 
 mania for speculation. ... As is always the case 
 when speculation takes the place of steady indus- 
 try, the necessaries of life became fabulously dear. 
 Of money there was but little, in consideration of 
 the amount of business done, and large transac- 
 tions were effected by means of paper and credit. 
 From highest to lowest, all lived extravagantly. 
 . . . Such a state of things could not last for- 
 ever. In 1842, by which time the population 
 had increased to 24,000, the crash came. . . . From 
 this depression the colony slowly recovered, and 
 a sounder business system took the place of the 
 speculative one. ... All this time, however, the 
 colony was a dependency of New South Wales, and 
 a strong feeling had gained ground that it suf- 
 fered in consequence. ... A cry was raised for 
 separation. The demand was, as a matter of 
 course, resisted by New South Wales, but as 
 the agitation was carried on with increased ac- 
 tivity, it was at last yielded to by the Home 
 authorities. The vessel bearing the intelligence 
 arrived on the nth November, 1850. The news 
 
 soon spread, and great was the satisfaction of 
 the colonists. Raioicings were kept up in Mel- 
 bourne for five consecutive days. . . . Before, 
 however, the separation could be legally accom- 
 plished, it was necessary that an Act should be 
 passed in New South Wales to settle details. . . . 
 The requisite forms were at length given effect to, 
 and, on the ist July, 1851, a day which has ever 
 since been scrupulously obser\'ed as a public holi- 
 day, it was proclaimed that the Port Phillip dis- 
 trict of New South Wales had been erected into 
 a separate colony to be called Victoria, after 
 the name of Her Most Gracious Majesty. At 
 the same time the Superintendent, Mr. C. J. 
 La Trobe, was raised to the rank of Lieutenant- 
 Governor. At the commencement of the year of 
 separation the population of Port Phillip num- 
 bered 76,000, the sheep 6,000,000, the cattle 380,- 
 000. ... In a little more than a month after the 
 establishment of Victoria as an independent colony, 
 it became generally known that rich deposits of 
 gold existed within its borders. . . . The discovery 
 of gold ... in New South Wales, by Hargreaves, 
 in February, 1851, caused numbers to emigrate 
 to that colony. This being considered detrimental 
 to the interests of Victoria, a public meeting was 
 held in Melbourne on the qth of June, at which 
 a 'gold-discovery committee' was appointed, which 
 was authorized to offer rewards to any that should 
 discover gold in remunerative quantities within 
 the colony. The colonists were already on the 
 alert. At the time this meeting was held, several 
 parties were out searching for, and some had 
 already found gold. The precious metal was first 
 discovered at Clunes, then in the Yarra ranges at 
 Anderson's Creek, soon after at Buninyong and 
 Ballarat, shortly afterwards at Mount Alexander, 
 and eventually at Bendigo. The deposits were 
 found to be richer and to extend over a wider 
 area than any which had been discovered in New 
 South Wales Their fame soon spread to the 
 adjacent colonies, and thousands hastened to the 
 spot . . . When the news reached home, crowds 
 of emigrants from the United Kingdom hurried 
 to our shores. Inhabitants of other European 
 countries quickly joined in the rush. Americans 
 from the .Atlantic States were not long in follow- 
 ing. Stalwart Californians left their own gold- 
 yielding rocks and placers to try their fortunes 
 at the Southern Eldorado. Last of all, swarms 
 of Chinese arrived, eager to unite in the general 
 scramble for wealth. . . . The important position 
 which the Australian colonies had obtained in 
 consequence of the discovery of gold, and the influx 
 of population consequent thereon, was the occa- 
 sion of the Imperial Government determining in 
 the latter end of 1852 that each colony should 
 be invited to frame such a Constitution for its 
 government as its representatives might deem best 
 suited to its own peculiar circumstances. The 
 Constitution framed in Victoria, and afterwards 
 approved by the British Parliament, was avowedly 
 based upon that of the United Kingdom. It 
 provided for the establishment of two Houses of 
 Legislature, with power to make laws, subject to 
 the assent of the Crown as represented generally 
 by the Governor of the colony ; the Legislative 
 Council, or Upper House, to consist of 30, and 
 the Legislative Assembly, or Lower House, to 
 consist of 60 members. Members of both Houses 
 to be elective and to possess property qualifica- 
 tions. Electors of both Houses to possess either 
 property or professional qualifications [the prop- 
 erty qualification of members and electors of the 
 Lower House has since been abolished]. . . . The 
 Upper House not to be dissolved, but five mem- 
 bers to retire every two years, and to be eligible 
 
 638
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1858 
 
 Proposed 
 Federation 
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1890 
 
 for re-election. The Lower House to be dis- 
 solved every five years [since reduced to three], 
 or oftener, at the discretion of the Governor. Cer- 
 tain officers of the Government, four at least of 
 whom should have seats in Parliament, to be 
 deemed 'Responsible Ministers.' . . . This Constitu- 
 tion was proclaimed in Victoria on the 23d Novem- 
 ber, 1855." — H. H. Hayter, Notes on the colony 
 oj Victoria, cb. 1. — See also New South Wales: 
 1831-1855. 
 
 Also in: F. p. Labilliere, Early history of the 
 colony oj Victoria, v. 2. — W. VVestgarlh, First 
 twenty years of the colony of Victoria. 
 
 1858. — Torrens system of land registration. 
 See Land titles: 1858-1022; South Australu: 
 1840-1862. 
 
 1859. — Separation of the Moreton bay district 
 from New South Wales. — Its erection into the 
 colony of Queensland. — "Until December, 1850, 
 the north-west portion of the Fifth Continent 
 was known as the Moreton Bay district, and be- 
 longed to the colony of New South Wales; but 
 at that date it had grown so large that it was 
 erected into a separate and independent colony, 
 under the name of Queensland. It lies between 
 lat. 10° 43' S. and 20° S., and long. 138° and 
 153° E., bounded on the north by Torres Straits; 
 on the north-east by the Coral Sea; on the east 
 by the South Pacific; on the south by New South 
 Wales and South Australia; on the west by South 
 Australia and the Northern Territory ; and on the 
 north-west by the Gulf of Carpentaria. It covers 
 an area . . . twenty times as large as Ireland, 
 twenty-three times as large as Scotland, and 
 eleven times the extent of England. . . . Numer- 
 ous good harb jurs are found, many of which forn? 
 the outlets of navigable rivers. The principal of 
 these [is] Moreton Bay, at the head of which 
 stands Brisbane, the capital of the colony. . . . 
 The mineral wealth of Queensland is very great, 
 and every year sees it more fully developed. . . . 
 Until the year 1867, when the Gympie field was 
 discovered, gold mining as an industry was hardly 
 known." — C. H. Eden, Fifth continent, ch. 10. 
 
 1866. — Tariff legislation of Victoria and New 
 South Wales. See Tariff: 1862-1802. 
 
 1885-1892. — Proposed federation of the colo- 
 nies. — "It has been a common saying in Australia 
 that our fellow countrymen in that part of the 
 world did not recognise the term 'Australian;' 
 each recognised only his own colony and the 
 empire. But the advocates of combination for 
 certain common purposes achieved a great step, 
 forward in the formation of a 'Federal Council' 
 in 1885. It was to be only a 'Council,' its de- 
 cisions having no force over any colony unless 
 accepted afterwards by the colonial Legislature. 
 Victoria, Queensland, Tasmania and West Aus- 
 tralia joined. New South Wales, South Aus- 
 tralia, and New Zealand standing out, and, so 
 constituted, it met twice. The results of the de- 
 liberations were not unsatisfactory, and the opin- 
 ion that the move was in the right direction rapidly 
 grew. In February of i8qo a Federation Con- 
 ference, not private but representative of the 
 different Governments, was called at Melbourne. 
 It adopted an address to the Queen declaring the 
 opinion of the conference to be that the best 
 interests of the Australian colonies require the 
 early formation of a union under the Crown into 
 one Government, both legislative and executive. 
 Events proceed quickly in Colonial History. In 
 the course of i8qo the hesitation of New South 
 Wales was finally overcome: powerful factors 
 being the weakening of the Free Trade position 
 at the election of i8qo, the report of General 
 Edwards on the Defences, and the difficulties about 
 
 Chinese immigration. A Convention accordingly 
 assembled at Sydney in March, i8gi, which agreed 
 upon a Constitution to be recommended to the 
 several Colonies." — A. Caldecott, English coloniza- 
 tion and empire, ch. 7, sect. 2. — "On Monday, 
 March 2nd, i8gi, the National Australasian Con- 
 vention met at the Parliament House, Sydney, 
 New South Wales, and was attended by seven 
 representatives from each Colony, except New 
 Zealand, which only sent three. Sir Henry Parkes 
 (New South Wales) was elected President of the 
 Convention, and Sir Samuel Griffith (Queensland), 
 \'ice-President. A series of resolutions, moved 
 by Sir Henry Parkes, occupied the attention of 
 the Convention for several days. These resolu- 
 tions set forth the principles upon which the 
 Federal Government should be established, which 
 were to the effect that the powers and privileges 
 of existing Colonies should be kept intact, ex- 
 cept in cases where surrender would be necessary 
 in order to form a Federal Government; that 
 intercolonial trade and intercourse should be free; 
 that power to impose Customs duties should rest 
 with the Federal Government and Parliament ; 
 and that the naval and military defence of Aus- 
 tralia should be entrusted to the Federal Forces 
 under one command. The resolutions then went 
 on to approve of a Federal Constitutioh which 
 should establish a Federal Parliament to consist 
 of a Senate and a House of Representatives; that a 
 Judiciary, to consist of a Federal Supreme Court, 
 to be a High Court of Appeal for Australia, 
 should be established; and that a Federal Ex- 
 ecutive, consisting of a Governor-General, with 
 responsible advisers, should be constituted. These 
 resolutions were discussed at great length, and 
 eventually were adopted. The resolutions were 
 then referred to three Committees chosen from 
 the delegates, one to consider Constitutional Ma- 
 chinery and the distribution of powers and func- 
 tions; one to deal with matters relating to Finance, 
 Taxation, and Trade Regulations; and the other 
 to consider the question of the establishment of 
 a Federal Judiciary. A draft Bill, to constitute 
 the 'Commonwealth of Australia,' was brought up 
 by the first mentioned of these Committees, and 
 after full consideration was adopted by the Con- 
 vention, and it was agreed that the Bill should 
 be presented to each of the Australian Parlia- 
 ments for approval and adoption. On Thursday, 
 .April qth, the Convention closed its proceedings. 
 The Bill to provide for the Federation of the 
 Australasian colonies entitled W Bill to constitute 
 a Commonwealth of Australia,' which was drafted 
 by the National Australasian Convention, has been 
 introduced into the' Parliaments of most of the 
 colonies of the group, and is still (October, 1802), 
 under consideration. In Victoria it has passed the 
 Lower House with some amendments." — States- 
 man's year-book, 1803, p. 308. 
 
 1890.— New South Wales and Victoria. — Prog- 
 ress in these separated colonies. — New South 
 Wales most important of the Australian col- 
 onies. — "New South Wales bears to Victoria a cer- 
 tain statistical resemblance. The two colonies have 
 [1800] about the same population, and, roughly 
 speaking, about the same revenues, expenditure, debt 
 and trade. In each, a great capital collects in one 
 neighbourhood more than a third of the total popu- 
 lation. . . . But . . . considerable differences lie be- 
 hind and are likely to develop in the future. New 
 South Wales, in the opinion of her enemies, is 
 less enterprising than Victoria, and has less of 
 the go-ahead spirit which distinguishes the Mel- 
 bourne people. On the other hand she possesses 
 a larger territory, abundant supplies of coal, and 
 will have probably, in consequence, a greater fu- 
 
 639
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1890 
 
 New South Wales 
 and Victoria 
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1894-1895 
 
 ture. Although New South Wales is three and 
 a half times as large as Victoria, and has the 
 area of the German Empire and Italy combined, 
 she is of course much smaller than the three other 
 but as yet less important colonies of the Aus- 
 tralian continent [see Queensland, South Aus- 
 tralia and Western Australia.] As the country 
 was in a large degree settled by assisted emigrants, 
 of whom something like half altogether have been 
 Irish, while the English section was largely com- 
 posed of Chartists, ... the legislation of New 
 South Wales h.as naturally shown signs of its 
 origin. Manhood suffrage was carried in 1858; 
 the abolition of primogeniture in 1S62; safe and 
 easy transfer of land through the machinery of the 
 Torrens Act in the same year; and also the aboli- 
 tion of state aid to religion. A public system 
 of education was introduced, with other measures 
 of democratic legislation. . . . Public education, 
 which in Victoria is free, is stUl paid for by fees 
 in New South Wales, though children going to 
 or returning from school are allowed to travel 
 free by railway. In general it may be said that 
 New South Wales legislation in recent times has 
 not been so bold as the legislation of Victoria. . . . 
 The land of New South Wales has to a large 
 extent come into the hands of wealthy per- 
 sons who' are becoming a territorial aristocracy. 
 This has been the effect firstly of grants and of 
 squatting legislation, then of the perversion of 
 the Act of 1861 [for 'Free Selection before Sur- 
 vey'] to the use of those against whom it had 
 been aimed, and finally of natural causes — soil, 
 climate and the lack, of water. . . . The traces of 
 the convict element in New South Wales have 
 become very slight in the national character. 
 The prevailing cheerfulness, running into fickle- 
 ness and frivolity, with a great deal mote vivacity 
 than exists in England, does not suggest in the 
 least the intermixture of convict blood. It is a 
 natural creation of the climate, and of the full 
 and varied life led by colonists in a young coun- 
 try. ... A population of an excellent type has 
 swallowed up not only the convict element, but 
 also the unstable and thriftless element shipped 
 by friends in Britain to Sydney or to Melbourne. 
 The ne'-er-do-weeb were either somewhat above 
 the average in brains, as was often the case with 
 those who recovered themselves and started life 
 afresh, or people who drank themselves to death 
 and left no descendants. The convicts were also 
 of various classes; some of them were men in 
 whom crime was the outcome of restless energy, 
 as, for instance, in many of those transported for 
 treason and for manslaughter; while some were 
 people of average morality ruined through com- 
 panions, wives, or sudden temptation, and some 
 persons of an essentially depraved and criminal 
 life. The better classes of convicts, in a new coun- 
 try, away from their old companions and old 
 temptations, turned over a new leaf, and their 
 abilities and their strong vitality, which in some 
 cases had wrought their ruin in the old world, 
 found healthful scope in subduing to man a 
 new one. Crime m their cases was an accident, 
 and would not be transmitted to the children they 
 left behind them. On the other hand, the genuine 
 criminals, and also the drunken ne'er-do-weels, 
 left no children. Drink and vice among the 
 'assigned servants' class of convicts, and an ab- 
 sence of all facilities for marriage, worked them 
 off the face of the earth, and those who had not 
 been killed before the gold discovery generally 
 drank themselves to death upon the diggings." — 
 Sir C. W. Dilke, Problems of greater Britain, pi. 
 2, ch. 2. 
 1890-1891. — Great strike. — Its failure and aid 
 
 to the Labor party. — As the result of a down- 
 ward movement in prices, numerous employers 
 attempted to reduce wages. This intensified a 
 growing labor unrest and what is known as the 
 great strike followed, with its center in Sydney. 
 Shearers, miners and other trades stopped work 
 in September and October, 1S90, at the height 
 of the wool season, to such an extent that the 
 maritime and pastoral industries of practically all 
 of Australia were injuriously affected. The strike 
 ended, however, in November, 1800, in favor of 
 the employers. The failure of the great strike 
 gave effective impetus to the growth of the Labor 
 party in New South Wales, where in the election 
 of iSqi the party won thirty-five seats out of 
 one hundred and twenty-five. — See also Labor 
 parties: i8S6-iqo6; New South W.ales: i8gi. 
 
 1891-1913. — Industrial arbitration in Australia 
 and New Zealand. See Arbitration and con- 
 ciliation, In'dustri.\l: Australia: 1891-1912; and 
 New Zealand: 1802-1Q13. 
 
 1893. — Woman suffrage in New Zealand. See 
 Suffrage, Woman: New Zealand. 
 
 1893-1895. — Labor settlements in South Aus- 
 tralia. See South .\ustr.\lia: 1893-1895. 
 
 1894-1895.— New South Wales.— Defeat of the 
 protectionist policy. — Adoption of a liberal 
 tariff. — .\t the general elections of July, 1S94, in 
 New South Wales, the tariff issue was sharply de- 
 fined. " 'Protection' was inscribed on the banners 
 of the ministerial party, led by the then Premier, 
 Sir George Dibbs, while the aggressive opposition, 
 led by Mr. Reid, . . . fought under the banner of 
 'free trade.' The Free Traders won the battle in 
 that election, as there were 63 Free Traders, 40 
 Protectionists, and 22 labor members, mostly with 
 free-trade leanings, returned. On the reassembling 
 of Parliament, Sir George Dibbs was confronted 
 with a large majority, and Mr, George H. Reid was 
 called to form a government on the lines suggested 
 by the issues of the campaign. The Council or 
 'upper house,' consisting of Crown nominees for 
 life, rejected the measures suggested by Mr. Reid 
 and passed by the .Assembly by an overwhelming 
 majority, and Mr. Reid dissolved Parliament on 
 July 6, 1895, and appealed to the country. The 
 election was held on July 24, and again the issues, 
 as set forth in the measures, were fought out vig- 
 orously. The great leader of protection. Sir George 
 Dibbs, with several of his ablest followers, w'as 
 defeated, and the so-called Free Trade party came 
 back, much stronger than before. Thus, it was 
 claimed that the mandate of the people, declaring 
 for free trade and direct taxation, had been re- 
 affirmed, and on the reassembling of Parliament, on 
 August 13, the same measure, as passed by the 
 .\ssembly and rejected by the Council, was again 
 presented and passed by the .Assembly by a ma- 
 jority of so to 26, and again went to the upper 
 house. Again it was met with great hostility, but 
 the Government party in that chamber, having 
 been augmented by ten new appointments, the 
 temper of the house was softened and the bill was 
 passed with some two hundred and fifty amend- 
 ments. As the .Assembly could only accept some 
 eighty of these without yielding material points 
 ... a conference was suggested, which, after sev- 
 eral days of discussion, agreed to a modified mea- 
 sure, embracing the principle of free trade, as in- 
 terpreted in this colony, and direct taxation, and 
 the new law goes into effect as above stated, on 
 January i, 1896. — It may be well here to remark 
 that there are a few articles, notably raw sugar, 
 glucose, molasses, and treacle, upon which the 
 duty will be removed gradually, so as not to 
 wantonly disturb vested interests, but, with these 
 exceptions, the change is a very sweeping one." — 
 
 640
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1895 
 
 Federation 
 Accomplished 
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1900 
 
 United States considar reports, June, 1896, p. 
 299. 
 
 1895. — Judicial Committee Amendment Act 
 amends Privy Council. See Briiish empire: Co- 
 lonial federation: Privy council as supreme court. 
 1897. — Conference of colonial premiers with 
 the British colonial secretary. See British em- 
 pire: Colonial and imperial conferences: 1897. 
 
 1900. — Federation of the Australian colonies. 
 — Steps by which the union was accomplished. 
 — Passage of the "Commonwealth of Australia 
 Constitution Act" by the imperial Parliament. 
 — "The first indication of a plan for united action 
 among the colonies is to be found in a proposal 
 of Earl Grey in 1850. The main object of the 
 proposal was to bring about uniformity in colonial 
 tariffs; but, though partially adopted, it came to 
 nothing. From 1850 to i860 the project of federa- 
 tion was discussed from time to time in several 
 of the colonial legislatures, and committees on the 
 subject were appointed. But there seems to have 
 been little general interest in the question, and up 
 to i860 all efforts in the direction of federation 
 met with complete failure. Shortly after, how- 
 ever, a new form of united action, less ambitious 
 but more likely of success, was suggested and 
 adopted. From 1863 to 1S83 conferences of colo- 
 nial ministers were held at various times to discuss 
 certain specified topics, with a view to introducing 
 identical proposals in the separate colonial legis- 
 latures. Si.x of these conferences were held at Mel- 
 bourne and three at Sydney ; and one also was 
 held at Hobart in 1895, though the period of the 
 real activity of the conference scheme practically 
 closed in 1883. The scheme proved a failure, be- 
 cause it was found impossible to carry out the 
 measures concerted in the conferences. But ma- 
 terial events were doing more than could any 
 public agitation to draw attention to the advan- 
 tages of closer union. The colonies were growing 
 in population and wealth, railroads were building 
 and commerce was extending. The inconveniences 
 of border customs duties suggested attempts at 
 something like commercial reciprocity between 
 two or more colonies. New political problems also 
 helped to arouse public interest. Heretofore there 
 had been little fear of foreign aggression and, hence, 
 no feeling of the need of united action for com- 
 mon defense ; nor had there been any thought of 
 the extension of Australian power and interests be- 
 yond the immediate boundaries of the different 
 colonies. But the period from 1880 to 1890 wit- 
 nessed a change in this respect. It was during 
 this period that much feeling was aroused against 
 the influx of French criminals, escaped from the 
 penal settlements in New Caledonia. The diffi- 
 culties in regard to New Guinea belong also to 
 this decade. Suspicion of the designs of Germany 
 upon that part of the island of New Guinea near- 
 est the Dutch boundary led to the annexation of 
 its eastern portion by the Queensland government. 
 This action was disavowed by the British govern- 
 ment under Gladstone, and the fears of the colo- 
 nists were ridiculed; but almost immediately after 
 the northern half of New Guinea was forcibly 
 taken possession of by Germany. The indignation 
 of Australians was extreme, and the opinion was 
 freely expressed that the colonies would have to 
 unite to protect their own interests. Finally, this 
 was the time of the French designs on the New 
 Hebrides Islands and of German movements with 
 reference to Samoa. These conditions, economic 
 and political, affected all the colonies more or less 
 intimately and resulted in the first real, though 
 loose, form of federal union. At the instigation 
 of the Honorable James Service, premier of Vic- 
 toria, a convention met at Sydney, November, 
 
 1883, composed of delegates from all the colonial 
 governments. This convention adopted a bUI pro- 
 viding for the establishment of a Federal Council, 
 with power to deal with certain specified subjects 
 and with such other matters as might be referred 
 to it by two or more colonies. . . . New South 
 Wales and New Zealand refused to agree to the 
 bill, but it was adopted by the other colonies; and 
 the Imperial Parliament, in 1885, passed an act 
 permitting such a Council to be called into ex- 
 istence at the request of any three colonies, to be 
 joined by other colonies as they saw fit. Meet- 
 ings of the Council took place in 1886, 1888, 1889 
 and 1891, but very little was accomplished. That 
 the Federal Council was a very weak affair is 
 obvious. . . . Meanwhile, interest in a more ade- 
 quate form of federation was growing. In 1890 
 Sir Henry Parkes proposed a plan for federal union 
 of a real and vigorous sort. At his suggestion, a 
 conference met at Melbourne, February 6, 1890, to 
 decide on the best method of getting the question 
 into definite shape for consideration. . . . Provision 
 was made ... for the calling of a convention to 
 draw up a constitution. ... In accordance with 
 the decision of the conference, delegates from the 
 several colonies convened at Sydney, March 2, 
 1891 ; and with the work of this convention began 
 the third and final stage in the federation move- 
 ment. The Sydney convention formulated a bill, 
 embodying a draft of a federal constitution, and 
 then resolved that provision should be made by the 
 several parliaments to submit it to the people in 
 much manner as each colony should see fit. . . . 
 But there was not sufficient external pressure to 
 bring about an immediate discussion and an early 
 settlement. . . . The result was that nothing was 
 done. . . . Meanwhile, federation leagues had been 
 organized in different colonies, and in 1893 dele- 
 gates from a number of these leagues met at Ben- 
 digo, Victoria. . . . After adopting the bill of 1891 
 as a basis of discussion, the Bendigo conference 
 resolved to urge the colonial governments to pass 
 uniform enabling acts for a new convention — its 
 members to be elected by popular vote — to frame 
 a constitution which should be submitted to the 
 people for approval. This proposal met with gen- 
 eral favor and resulted in the calling of a meeting 
 of the premiers of all the colonies at Hobart in 
 January, 1895. There an enabling bill was drafted 
 which five premiers agreed to lay before their re- 
 spective parliaments. ... It took two years to get 
 this machinery into working order. At length, 
 however, the requisite authority was granted by 
 five colonies: New South Wales, Victoria, South 
 Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania, 
 Queensland and New Zealand declining to partici- 
 pate. On March 22, 1897, the second constitutional 
 convention assembled at Adelaide. This convention 
 drew up a new federal constitution, based upon the 
 draft of 1801. Between May 5 and September 2 
 the constitution was discussed in each of the par- 
 liaments. When the convention reassembled at 
 Sydney on March 2, as many as 75 amendments 
 were reported as suggested by the different colo- 
 nies. Many were of an insignificant character 
 and many were practically identical. The consti- 
 tution and proposed amendments were discussed in 
 two sessions of the convention, which finally ad- 
 journed March 16, 1898, its work then being ready 
 to submit to the people. In June a popular vote 
 resulted in the acceptance of the constitution by 
 Victoria, Tasmania, and South Australia; but the 
 failure of the parent colony. New South Wales, to 
 adopt it blocked all hope of federal union for the 
 moment. [Later] at a conference of colonial pre- 
 miers certain amendments demanded by New South 
 Wales were agreed to in part, and upon a second 
 
 641
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1900 ConstUation AUSTRALIA, 1900 
 ' Act 
 
 vote the constitution, as amended, was accepted by constitute the Commonwealth of Australia," as 
 
 that colony." — W. G. Beach, Australian federal may be seen by reference to the text. See Aus- 
 
 constUution (Political Science Quarterly, Dec, tralia; Constitution of; also British empire: 
 
 iSgq). — in August, iSqg, the draft of a constitu- Colonial federation: Authority of imperial Parlia- 
 
 tion thus agreed upon was transmitted to England, ment. 
 
 with addresses from the provincial legislatures, 1900. — Question of the federal capital. — By 
 praying that it be passed into law by the Imperial the constitution of the commonwealth, it is re- 
 Parliament. Early in the following year delegates quired that the seat of government "shall be de- 
 from the several colonies were sent to England to termined by the Parliament, and shall be within 
 discuss with the colonial office certain questions territory which shall have been granted to or ac- 
 that had arisen, and to assist in procuring the pas- quired by the Commonwealth, and shall be vested 
 sage by Parliament of the necessary act. Looked in and belong to the Commonwealth, and shall be 
 at from the ijnperial standpoint, a number of ob- in the State of New South Wales, and be distant 
 jections to the draft constitution were found, but not less than one hundred miles from Sydney;" 
 all of them were finally waived excepting one. and "such territory shall contain an area of not 
 That one related to a provision touching appeals less than one hundred square miles." "New South 
 from the high court of the .Australian common- Wales," says a correspondent, writing from Sydney, 
 wealth to the queen in council. As framed arid "is naturally anxious to get the question decided as 
 adopted in Australia, the provision in question was quickly as possible ; but Victoria will equally be 
 as follows: "74. No appeal shall be permitted to inclined to procrastinate, and the new Parliament 
 the Queen in Council in any matter involving the — which cannot be more comfortable than it will 
 interpretation of this Constitution or of the Con- be at Melbourne — will not be in a hurry to shift, 
 stitution of a State, unless the public interests of The necessity for a new and artificial capital arises 
 some part of Her Majesty's Dominions, other than entirely out of our provincial jealousies, and it 
 the Commonwealth or a State, are involved. Ex- would have been a great saving of initial expense 
 cept as provided in this section, this Constitution and a great diminution of inconvenience if we 
 shall not impair any right which the Queen may could have used one of the old capitals for a 
 be pleased to exercise, by virtue of Her Royal quarter of a century." To remove preliminary 
 Prerogative, to grant special leave of appeal from difficulties and ayoid delay, the government of 
 the High Court to Her Majesty in Council. But New South Wales appointed a commissioner to 
 The Parliament may make laws limiting the mat- visit and report on the most likely places. The 
 ters in which such leave may be asked." This was report of this commissioner, made early in Octo- 
 objected to on several grounds, but mainly for ber, "reduces the possible positions to three — one 
 the reasons thus stated by Mr. Chamberlain: near Bombala in the south-east corner of the 
 "Proposals are under consideration for securing a colony at the foot of the .Australian Alps, one 
 permanent and effective representation of the great near Yass on the line of the railway between 
 Colonies on the Judicial Committee, and for amal- Sydney and Melbourne, and one near Orange on 
 gamating the Judicial Committee with the House our western line. On the whole he gives the pref- 
 of Lords, so as to constitute a Court of Appeal erence to the first named." 
 
 from the whoje British Empire. It would be very 1900 (August). — Vote of West Australia to 
 
 unfortunate if Australia should choose this mo- join the commonwealth. — The question of union 
 
 ment to take from the Imperial Tribunal the cog- with the other colonies in the commonwealth, from 
 
 nizance of the class of cases of greatest importance, which the West .Australians had previously held 
 
 and often of greatest difficulty. Article 74 pro- aloof, was submitted to them in August (women 
 
 poses to withdraw from the Queen in Council mat- voting for the first time), and decided affirmatively 
 
 ters involving the interpretation of the Constitu- by 44,704 against iq,6gi (see also Western Aus- 
 
 tion. It is precisely on questions of this kind that tralia: 1900). .Adding the West Australian totals 
 
 the Queen in Council has been able to render most to the aggregate vote at the decisive referendum in 
 
 valuable service to the administration of law in the each of the other federating colonies, the following 
 
 Colonies, and questions of this kind, which may is the reported result: 
 sometimes involve a good deal of local feeling, are 
 
 the last that should be withdrawn from a Tribunal For federation 422,647 
 
 of appeal with regard to which there could not be Against federation 161,024 
 
 even a suspicion of prepossession. Questions as 
 
 to the constitution of the Commonwealth or of a Majority 261 ,623 
 
 State may be such as to raise a great deal of public 
 
 excitement as to the definition of the boundaries 1900 (September — December). — Queen's proc- 
 between the powers of the Commonwealth Parlia- lamation of the Australian commonwealth.^ 
 ment and the powers of the State Parliaments. It Contemplated visit of the duke and duchess of 
 can hardly be satisfactory to the people of Aus- York to open the first session of the federal 
 tralia that in such cases, however important and parliament. — Appointment of Lord Hopetoun to 
 far-reaching in their consequences, the decision of be governor-general. — First federal cabinet. — 
 the High Court should be absolutely final. Before On September 17, the following proclamation of 
 long the necessity for altering the Constitution in the .Australian commonwealth was issued by the 
 this respect would be felt, and it is better that queen: "Whereas by an .Act of Parliament passed 
 the Constitution should be enacted in such a form in the sixty-third and sixty-fourth years of Our 
 as to render unnecessary the somewhat elaborate reign, intituled '.An Act to constitute the Common- 
 proceedings which would be required to amend it." wealth of Australia,' it is enacted that it shall be 
 — Great Britain, Parliamentary publications (Pa- lawful for the Queen, with the advice of the Privy 
 pers by Command, April and May, 1900, Austra- Council, to declare by Proclamation that, on and 
 lia — Cd. 124 and 158). — In reply, the Australian after a day therein appointed, not being later than 
 delegates maintained that they had no authority one year after the passing of this Act, the people 
 to amend, in any particular, the instrument which of New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, 
 the people of the several colonies had ratified by Queensland, and Tasmania, and also, if Her Ma- 
 their votes; but the imperial authorities were in- jesty is satisfied that the people of W^estern Aus- 
 flexible, and the article 74 was modified in the tralia have agreed thereto, of Western .Australia, 
 act which passed Parliament, on July 7, 1900, "to shall be united in a Federal Commonwealth, under 
 
 642
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1900 
 
 Proclamation of 
 Commonwealth 
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1901 
 
 the name of the Commonwealth of Australia. 
 And whereas We are satisfied that the people of 
 Western Australia have agreed thereto accordingly. 
 We therefore, by and with the advice of Our 
 Privy Council, have thought fit to issue this Our 
 Royal Proclamation, and We do hereby declare 
 that on and after the first day of January, one 
 thousand nine hundred and one, the people of 
 New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, 
 Queensland, Tasmania, and Western Australia shall 
 be united in a Federal Commonwealth under the 
 name of the Commonwealth of Australia. 
 Given at Our Court at Balmoral, this seventeenth 
 day of September, in the year of our Lord one 
 thousand nine hundred, and in the sixty-fourth 
 year of Our Reign. God save the Queen." At the 
 same time, the following announcement, which 
 caused extreme delight in Australia, was published 
 officially from the colonial office: "Her Majesty the 
 Queen has been graciously pleased to assent, on 
 the recommendation of the Marquis of Salisbury, 
 to the visit of their Royal Highnesses the Duke and 
 Duchess of York to the colonies of Australasia in 
 the spring of next year. His Royal Highness the 
 Duke of York will be commissioned by her Maj- 
 esty to open the first Session of the Parliament of 
 the .Australian Commonwealth in her name. Al- 
 though the Queen naturally shrinks from parting 
 with her grandson for so long a period, her Maj- 
 esty fully recognizes the greatness of the occasion 
 which will bring her colonies of Australia into 
 federal union, and desires to give this special 
 proof of her interest in all that concerns the wel- 
 fare of her Australian subjects. Her Majesty at 
 the same time wishes to signify her sense of the 
 loyalty and devotion which have prompted the 
 spontaneous aid so liberally offered by all the 
 colonies in the South African war, and of the 
 splendid gallantry of her colonial troops. Her 
 Majesty's assent to this visit is, of course, given 
 on the assumption that at the time fixed for the 
 Duke of York's departure the circumstances are 
 as generally favourable as at present and that no 
 national interests call for his Royal Highness's 
 presence in this country." To manifest still further 
 the interest taken by the British government in 
 the event, it was made known in October that 
 "when the Duke of York opens the new Common- 
 wealth Parliament, the guard of honour, it is di- 
 rected, shall be so made up as to be representative 
 of every arm of the British Army, including the 
 Volunteers. To the Victoria and St. George's 
 Rifles has fallen the honour of being selected to 
 represent the entire Volunteer force of the country. 
 A detachment of the regiment, between 50 and 60 
 strong, will accordingly leave for Australia in 
 about a month and will be absent three or four 
 months." The honor of the appointment to be 
 the first governor-general of the new common- 
 wealth fell to a Scottish nobleman, John Adrian 
 Louis Hope, seventh early of Hopetoun, vvfho had 
 been governor of Victoria from iSSq to 1805, and 
 had held high offices at home, including that of 
 lord chamberlain in the household of the queen. 
 Lord Hopetoun landed at Sydney on December 
 15 and received a great welcome. On the 30th, his 
 cabinet was formed, and announced, as follows: 
 Mr. Barton, prime minister and minister for ex- 
 ternal affairs; Mr. Deakin, attorney-general; Sir 
 William Lyne, minister for home affairs; Sir 
 George Turner, treasurer; Mr. Kingston, minister 
 of trade and commerce; Mr. Dickson, minister of 
 defence; Sir John Forrest, postmaster-general. 
 
 1901. — Control of New Guinea. See New 
 Guinea or PiPU.4: igoi ; and Pacific ocean: 1800- 
 1914. 
 1901 (January). — Inauguration of the federal 
 
 643 
 
 government. — The government of the common- 
 wealth was inaugurated with splendid ceremonies 
 on the first day of the new year and the new cen- 
 tury, when the governor-general and the members 
 of the federal cabinet were sworn and assumed 
 office. Two messages from the British secretary of 
 state for the colonies were read, as follows: 
 
 "The Queen commands me to express through 
 you to the people of Australia her Majesty's heart- 
 felt interest in the inauguration of the Common- 
 wealth, and her earnest wish that, under divine 
 Providence, it may ensure the increased pros- 
 perity and well-being of her loyal and beloved 
 subjects in Australia." 
 
 "Her Majesty's Government send cordial greet- 
 ings to the Commonwealth of Australia. They 
 welcome her to her place among the nations united 
 under her Majesty's sovereignty, and confidently 
 anticipate for the new Federation a future of 
 ever-increasing prosperity and influence. They 
 recognize in the long-desired consummation of the 
 hopes of patriotic Australians a further step in 
 the direction of the permanent unity of the Brit- 
 ish Empire, and they are satisfied that the wider 
 powers and responsibilities henceforth secured by 
 Australia will give fresh opportunity for the display 
 of that generous loyalty and devotion to the 
 Throne and Empire which has always characterized 
 the action in the past of its several States." — See 
 also Federal government: Australia. 
 
 1901 (May). — Opening of the first parliament 
 of the commonwealth by the heir to the British 
 crown. — Program of the federal government. — 
 The duke of Cornwall and York, heir to the Brit- 
 ish crown (but not yet created Prince of Wales), 
 sailed, with his wife, from England in March, to 
 be present at the opening of the first Parliament 
 of the federated commonwealth of Australia, which 
 was arranged to take place early in May. He 
 made the voyage in royal state, on a steamer 
 specially fitted and converted for the occasion into 
 a royal yacht, with an escort of two cruisers. Pre- 
 liminary to the election and meeting of Parlia- 
 ment, the new federal government had much or- 
 ganizing work to do, and much preparation of 
 measures for Parliament to discuss. The premier, 
 Mr. Barton, in a speech made on January 17, an- 
 nounced that the customs were taken over from 
 the several states on January i, and the defences 
 and post-offices would be transferred as soon as 
 possible. "Probably the railways would be ac- 
 quired by the Commonwealth at an early date. 
 Whether the debts of the several States would be 
 taken over before the railways was a matter which 
 had to be decided, and was now engaging the at- 
 tention of the Treasurer. The Ministry would not 
 consider the appointment of a Chief Justice of the 
 High Court until Parliament had established that 
 tribunal." In the same speech, the main features 
 of the programme and policy of the federal gov- 
 ernment were indicated. "The Commonwealth," 
 said the premier, "would have the exclusive power 
 of imposing Customs and excise duties, and it 
 would, therefore, be necessary to preserve the 
 States' power of direct taxation. There must be no 
 direct taxation by the Commonwealth except un- 
 der very great pressure. Free trade under the 
 Constitution was practically impossible; there must 
 be a very large Customs revenue. . . . The policy 
 of the Government would be protective, not pro- 
 hibitive, because it must be revenue-producing. 
 No one colony could lay claim to the adoption 
 of its tariff, whether high or low. The first tariff 
 of Australia ought to be considerate of existing in- 
 dustries. The policy of the Government could be 
 summed up in a dozen words. It would give Aus- 
 tralia a tariff that would be Australian. Regard-
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1901-1902 
 
 Tariff 
 "State Rights" 
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1902 
 
 ing a preferential duty on British goods, he would 
 be glad to reciprocate where possible, but the ques- 
 tion would have to receive very serious consider- 
 ation before final action could be taken. Among 
 the legislation to be introduced at an early date, 
 Mr. Barton continued, were a Conciliation and 
 Arbitration Bill in labour disputes, and a Bill for 
 a transcontinental railway, which would be of 
 great value from the defence point of view. He 
 was in favour of womanhood suffrage. Legisla- 
 tion to exclude Asiatics would be taken in hand 
 as a matter of course." 
 
 1901-1902. — Tariff question in the first parlia- 
 ment of the commonwealth. — Issue between the 
 senate and the representative chamber. — ■The 
 tariff originally proposed by the government was 
 framed on lines of extreme protection, with special 
 reference to the languishing industries of Victoria; 
 it was inevitable that the opposition, mainly rep- 
 resenting New South Wales, should fight tooth and 
 nail to prevent its becoming law. The result of 
 the struggle, which lasted almost without a serious 
 interruption for nine months, has been a com- 
 promise which leaves the tariff of the common- 
 wealth neither one thing nor the other. There can 
 be little doubt that in debating power and political 
 generalship the victory lay generally with the op- 
 position ; but after all the result, so far as it was 
 a victory for the party of free trade, was due to 
 the action of the Senate. To many, and appar- 
 ently not least to the cabinet, the prompt and ef- 
 fective interference of the Senate in a question of 
 taxation, which was generally supposed to be prac- 
 tically placed by the constitution almost as much 
 beyond their control as custom has placed it be- 
 yond that of the House of Lords in England, was 
 a great surprise, and as the first test of the re- 
 spective powers of the two chambers of the legis- 
 lature it can hardly fail to be of great political 
 importance. It was provided by the constitution 
 not only that all bills involving the taxation of the 
 people, directly or indirectly, should, as in this 
 country, originate in the representative chamber of 
 the legislature, but further that such bills should 
 not be altered or amended in their passage through 
 the Senate. As a concession to the less populous 
 states, it was agreed when the constitution was 
 framed that while only the chamber, elected on 
 a strict basis of population, should impose or 
 control taxation, the Senate, in which all the 
 states enjoy, as in America, equal representation, 
 should have the right to suggest, for the considera- 
 tion of the other chamber, any amendments it 
 thought desirable in any money bill sent on for 
 its assent. This provision, mild and inoffensive 
 as it was supposed to be, has now been used in 
 a way to upset the policy of the government, and 
 practically to compel the assent of the representa- 
 tive chamber to the views of a Senate majority. 
 The tariff bill as passed by the government ma- 
 jority was subjected to an exhaustive criticism by 
 the Senate, and finally fully fifty items of the 
 schedule imposing duties were referred back to the 
 representative chamber, with a request for their 
 reconsideration and reduction or excision. The 
 government attempted to meet the difficulty by 
 agreeing to a few trifling amendments on the lines 
 suggested, and got the chamber peremptorily to 
 reject all the others, sending the bill back in effect 
 as it was. To this the Senate replied by calmly 
 adhering to the views it had already expressed, 
 and sending the bill back again for further con- 
 sideration, allowing it to be pretty plainly under- 
 stood that, in the event of their views being ig- 
 nored, they would place their reasons on record 
 and reject the bill altogether, thus preventing any 
 uniform tariff being established during the session. 
 
 Face to face with so grave a difficulty the cabinet 
 gave way, and agreed to a compromise which they 
 would not have dreamed of doing but for the ac- 
 tion of the Senate, with its free-trade majority of 
 two votes. The immediate result of the long strug- 
 gle has been the passing of a tariff act which 
 pleases neither party, but will apparently raise the 
 required revenue of $40,000,000, needed to meet 
 the wants of the federal and state governments." — 
 H. H. Lusk, First parliament of Australia (Ameri- 
 can Review of Reviews, March 1903). 
 1901-1911.— Child labor legislation. See Child 
 
 WELF.ARE LECISL.4TI0N; lOOI-IQIl. 
 
 1902. — "States rights" temper. — Question of 
 constitutional relations between commonwealth 
 and states in external affairs, as raised by South 
 Australia. — Decision of the imperial govern- 
 ment. — "State-rights" questions and the provin- 
 cialistic spirit behind them made a prompt ap- 
 pearance in the Australian commonwealth after its 
 federation was accomplished. One of the first 
 wrangles to occur between the general govern- 
 ment and that of a state was appealed necessarily 
 to the imperial government at London, because it 
 arose out of a call from the latter, in September, 
 1902, for information about an incident which 
 concerned a Dutch ship. The request for informa- 
 tion went from London to the commonwealth gov- 
 ernment, and from the latter to the government 
 of South Australia, where the incident in ques- 
 tion occurred, involving some act of its officials. 
 The South .Australian ministry declined to pass the 
 desired information through the channel of the 
 commonwealth ministry, but would give it to the 
 British colonial office, direct. A long triangular 
 argumentative correspondence ensued, in the eourse 
 of which much that seems like a repetition of the 
 early history of the United States of America ap- 
 pears. Such as this, for example, in one of the 
 letters of the acting premier of South Australia 
 to the lieutenant-governor of that state: "The 
 importance to the States, especially to the smaller 
 States, of strictly maintaining the lines of demar- 
 cation between Commonwealth and State power is 
 manifest. Already a movement has begun to de- 
 stroy the Federal element in the Constitution, A 
 remarkable indication of this may be gathered from 
 a speech made by Sir William Lyne, the Com- 
 monwealth Minister for Home .\ffairs, at Kal- 
 goorlie, in Western .Australia, on the 2nd day of 
 the present month. Speaking of the Constitution, 
 Sir William Lyne said; 'If the population increased 
 in the States as he expected, he did not think three 
 of the larger States would still consent to be gov- 
 erned by four of the smaller ones. He hoped that 
 when the time came there would not be bloodshed, 
 but that tilings would settle themselves in a man- 
 ner worthy of the records of the first Parliament.' 
 Believing, as Ministers do, that the peaceful and 
 successful working of the Constitution depends 
 upon the strict maintenance of the lines of de- 
 marcation between the powers of the Common- 
 wealth and those of the States, and that that line 
 is drawn clearly in the Constitution, they cannot 
 agree to the opinions of the Right Honourable the 
 Secretary of State for the Colonies, which in- 
 crease, by implication, the power of the Common- 
 wealth, and which seem to Ministers to tend to 
 Unification, and to a sacrifice of the Federal to 
 the National principle." This communication, 
 transmitted to London, drew from the then colo- 
 nial secretary, Mr. Chamberlain, a reply addressed 
 to the lieutenant-governor and dated April 15, 1903, 
 in part as follows: "Your Ministers contend 'that 
 the grant of power to the Commonwealth, notwith- 
 standing the general terms of Section 3 of the Acl, 
 is strictly limited to the Departments transferred, 
 
 644
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1902 
 
 Naval Act 
 Federal elections 
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1903-1904 
 
 and to matters upon which the Commonwealth 
 Parliament has power to make laws and has made 
 laws,' and that 'in the distribution of legislative 
 and consequently of executive power, made by 
 the Constitution, all powers not specifically ceded 
 to the Commonwealth remain in the_5tates.' They 
 are unable to agree 'with the contention that there 
 does not appear to be anything in the Constitu- 
 tion to justify this limitation,' and argue that the 
 validity of any claim of the Commonwealth to 
 any particular power, should be tested by enquir- 
 ing: — Does the Constitution specifically confer the 
 power? The view of the Act which I take is that 
 it is a Constitution Act, and creates a new political 
 community. It expressly declares that 'the people 
 of New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, 
 Queensland, and Tasmania, and also, if Her Majesty 
 is satisfied that the people of Western Australia 
 have agreed thereto, of Western Australia, shall 
 be united in a Federal Commonwealth under the 
 name of the Coinmonwealth of Australia.' The 
 object and scope of the Act is defined and declared 
 by the preamble to be to give effect to the agree- 
 ment of the people of New South Wales, Victoria, 
 South Australia, Queensland, and Tasmania 'to 
 unite in one indissoluble Federal Commonwealth 
 under the Crown of the United Kingdom of Great 
 Britain and Ireland, and under the Constitution 
 hereby established." The whole Act must be read 
 in the light of this declaration and the provisions 
 of Section 3. So far as other communities in the 
 Empire or foreign nations are concerned, the people 
 of Australia form one political community for 
 which the Government of the Commonwealth 
 alone can speak, and for everything affecting ex- 
 ternal states or communities, which takes place 
 within its boundaries, that Government is respon- 
 sible. The distribution of powers between the 
 Federal and State Authorities is a matter of purely 
 internal concern of which no external country or 
 community can take any cognizance. It is to the 
 Commonwealth and the Commonwealth alone that, 
 through the Imperial Government, they must look, 
 for remedy or relief for any action affecting them 
 done witfiin the bounds of the Commonwealth, 
 whether it is the act of a private individual, of a 
 State official, or of a State government. The Com- 
 monwealth is, through His Majesty's Government, 
 just as responsible for any action of South Aus- 
 tralia affecting an external community as the 
 United States of America are for the action of 
 Louisiana or any other State of the Union. The 
 Crown undoubtedly remains part of the constitu- 
 tion of the State of South Australia and, in mat- 
 ters affecting it in that capacity, the proper channel 
 of communication is between the Secretary of State 
 and the State Governor. But in matters affecting 
 the Crown in its capacity as the central authority 
 of the Empire, the Secretary of State can, since 
 the people of Australia have become one political 
 community, look only to the Governor-General, 
 as the representative of the Crown in that com- 
 munity." The published correspondence ends with 
 this, and it is to be assumed that South Australia 
 had no more to say. — Correspondriice rcspertiiig 
 the constitutional relations of the Australian com- 
 monwealth and states in regard to external affairs 
 (Parliamentary papers, Cd. i.=;87). 
 
 1902. — British colonial conference at London. 
 See British empire: Colonial and imperial confer- 
 ences: 1902. 
 
 1902. — Governor-generalship. — Lord Hopetoun 
 resigned as governor-general in the summer, and 
 was succeeded by Lord Tennyson. 
 
 1902-1909. — Undertakings of irrigation and 
 forestry. See Conservation of natural re- 
 sources: Australia. 
 
 1903. — Governor-generalship. — In August, Lord 
 Northcote, previously governor of the presidency 
 of Bombay, was appointed governor-general of 
 .\uslralia, succeeding Lord Tennyson. 
 
 1903-1913. — The Naval Agreement Act. — The 
 Naval Agreement Act of 1903 provided that the 
 naval force at the Australian naval headquarters at 
 Sydney was to consist of not less than one first 
 class armoured cruiser, two second class and four 
 third class cruisers, four sloops and a Royal Naval 
 Reserve of 700 seamen and stokers and twenty 
 five officers. It was also stipulated that the base 
 of the force should be the ports of Australia and 
 New Zealand and the field of operation be in the 
 waters of Australia, China and the East Indian 
 stations. Another provision stated that one ship 
 be held in reserve and that three others, partly 
 manned, be used for the training of the Royal 
 Naval Reserve. Special rates were paid to Aus- 
 tralians and new Zealandcrs who manned the 
 training ships, which were under the command of 
 officers of the Royal Navy and Royal Naval Re- 
 serve. The act expired in 1013. 
 
 1903-1904. — Resignation of Premier Barton. — 
 Deakin ministry. — Four months of power for 
 the Labor party. — Its influence in the common- 
 wealth. — Sir Edmund Barton, who had been the 
 prime minister of the Australian commonwealth 
 since its union in 1000, resigned in 1003 to accept 
 a place on the bench of the high federal court, and 
 was succeeded by Mr. Alfred Deakin, previously 
 attorney-general in the federal cabinet. The most 
 important occurrence of the year in the common- 
 wealth was the election of a new house of repre- 
 sentatives in the federal Parliament and of one 
 third of its senate. These were the first federal 
 elections occurring since those of 1000 which con- 
 stituted the original Parliament, opened in May, 
 iqoi, and the first in which women went to the 
 polls. The main issue in the elections was between 
 the Labor party and its opponents, and the rising 
 power of the former was shown by its gain of six 
 seats in each house, four from the ministry and 
 two from the opposition in the senate, and all six 
 from the ministry in the lower house. This threw 
 the balance of power into its hands in both 
 branches of Parliament. Naturally, in these cir- 
 cumstances, labor questions became dominant in 
 Australian politics, with Socialistic tendencies very 
 strong. The Deakin ministry was defeated in 
 April 1QO4, on an industrial arbitration bill which 
 excluded state railway employes and other civil 
 servants from its provisions, contrary to the de- 
 mands of the Labor party. The adverse ma- 
 jority was made up of twenty-three Labor repre- 
 sentatives, thirteen opponents of the protectionist 
 policy of the government, and four from the ranks 
 of its own ordinary supporters. The ministry re- 
 signed, and the leader of the Labor party, Mr. J. C. 
 Watson, a young compositor by trade, was called 
 to form a government, which he did, drawing all 
 but its law officer from the Labor party. It is 
 creditable to the capability of this Labor ministry 
 that, with so precarious a backing in the house, it 
 should have held the management of government, 
 with apparently good satisfaction to the public, 
 for about four months. It was defeated in Au- 
 gust on another labor question, and gave way to a 
 coalition ministry of Free Traders and Moderate 
 Protectionists, formed under Mr. George Houston 
 Reid. An account of the Labor ministry and its 
 leader, from which the following facts are taken, 
 was given by Review of Reviews for Australasia 
 at the time of its ascendancy: The average age of 
 the members was only forty-three years, while in 
 England sixty is the average age at which cor- 
 responding rank is attained. The nationalities of 
 
 645
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1903-1904 
 
 Labor Party 
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1905-1906 
 
 the members were as follows: One, the prime 
 minister, was a New Zealander, two were Aus- 
 tralian-born, two were Irish, two were Scotch, and 
 one was Welsh. There was not one who had 
 been born in England. Mr. John Christian Wat- 
 son, the premier, was but thirty-seven years of 
 age. He was born in Valparaiso, where his par- 
 ents were on a visit, but was only a few months 
 old when they returned to New Zealand. At an 
 early age he began his apprenticeship as a com- 
 positor, joining the typographical union. When 
 nineteen, he came to Sydney and joined the com- 
 posing staff of the Star. Then he became presi- 
 dent of the Sydney Trades and Labor Council, and 
 president of the Political Labor League of New 
 South Wales. In 1894, he was returned to a New 
 South Wales Parliament, and took the leading place 
 among the Labor members. In 1901,- he was re- 
 turned to the first federal Parliament. He was 
 selected to lead the Labor party in the federal 
 house. The situation developed in this period is 
 described by an Artierican writer, whose sympa- 
 thies were with the Labor party, as follows; "Pro- 
 tectionists and Free Traders (so called) were so 
 divided in the Australian Parliament that neither 
 could gain a majority without the Labor Party. 
 A succession of governments bowled over by labor 
 votes drove this hard fact into the political intel- 
 ligence. The Labor Party was then invited to 
 take the government. For five months men that 
 had been carpenters, bricklayers, and painters ad- 
 ministered the nation's affairs. No convulsion of 
 nature followed, no upheavals and no disasters. 
 It is even admitted that the government of these 
 men was conspicuously wise, able, and successful. 
 But having a minority party, their way was neces- 
 sarily precarious, and on the chance blow of an 
 adverse vote they resigned. Some scene shifting 
 followed, but in the end the present arrangement 
 was reached, by which the government is in the 
 hands of the Protectionists that follow Mr, Deakin, 
 and the ministry is supported by the Labor Party 
 on condition that the Government adopt certain 
 legislation. .\nd that is the extent of the 'absolute 
 rule of the Labor gang.' The Deakin Government 
 does not greatly care for the Labor Party, nor for 
 the Labor Party's ideas, but it rules by reason of 
 the Labor Party's support, and in return therefor 
 has passed certain moderate and well-intentioned 
 measures of reform. Indeed the sura-total of the 
 'revolutionary, radical, and socialistic laws' passed 
 by the Labor Party, directly or by bargaining with 
 the Deakin or other ministries, indicates an ex- 
 ceedingly gentle order of revolution. It has done 
 much in New South Wales and elsewhere to miti- 
 gate the great estate evil by enacting graduated 
 land taxes; it has passed humane and reasonable 
 laws regulating employers' liability for accidents 
 to workmen and laws greatly bettering the hard 
 conditions of labor in mines and factories. It has 
 passed a law to exclude trusts from Australian 
 soil. It has stood for equal rights for men and 
 women. In New South Wales it has enormously 
 bettered conditions for toilers by regulating hours 
 of employment even in department and other 
 stores and by instituting a weekly half-holiday the 
 year around for everybody. It has tried with a 
 defective Arbitration and Conciliation Act to abol- 
 ish strikes. To guard .Australia against the sober- 
 ing terrors of the race problem that confronts 
 America, it has succeeded in keeping out colored 
 aliens. It has agitated for a Henry George land 
 tax and for the national ownership of public ser- 
 vices and obvious monopolies. And with one ex- 
 ception this is the full catalogue of its misdeeds." 
 The "one exception" was the abolition of coolie 
 labor. — C. E, Russell, Uprising of the many, ch. 24. 
 
 1903-1908. — Anti-Indian agitations. See R.ace 
 
 problems: igoj-iqoS. 
 
 1905-1906, — Mr. Deakin's precarious ministry, 
 — Power of the Labor party without responsi- 
 bility, — Its principles and its "Fighting plat- 
 form," — Important legislation of 1905, — Federal 
 capital question, — General election of 1906, — 
 Mr. Reid, the Free Trade premier, had taken office 
 on an agreement with Mr. Deakin, the Protection- 
 ist leader, that the tariff question should not be 
 opened during the terra of the existing Parliament. 
 But the truce became broken early in 1905, each 
 party attributing the breach to the other, and the 
 Reid ministry, beaten on an amendment to the 
 address replying to the governor-general's speech, 
 resigned. The Protectionists, in provisional al- 
 liance with the Labor party, then came back to 
 power, with Mr. Deakin at their head. Of the 
 political situation in 1905 it was said by a writer 
 in one of the English reviews; "The Labour Party 
 can dictate terms to the Ministry, and ensure that 
 its own policy is carried out by others. It is 
 strongest whilst it sits on the cross benches. Dur- 
 ing the few months it was in office it was at the 
 mercy of Parliament; it left most of the planks 
 of its platform severely alone, and it had, during 
 that time, less real pow'er than it has had either 
 before or since. It is not likely again to take 
 office, unless it can command an absolute majority 
 of its own members to give effect to its own ideas, 
 and, indeed, it perhaps would be better for Aus- 
 tralia that it had responsibility as well as power, 
 rather than as at present power without responsi- 
 bility. However, if not at the next general elec- 
 tion, the party is bound ere long to get the clear 
 Parliamentary majority it seeks. Under these cir- 
 cumstances, great importance attaches to its aims 
 and organisation. ... To quote from the official 
 report of the decisions of the last Triennial Con- 
 ference of the Political Labour organisations of 
 the Commonwealth, which sat in Melbourne last 
 July, the objective of the Federal Labour party is 
 as follows: (a) The cultivation of an .Australian 
 sentiment, based upon the maintenance of racial 
 purity, and the development in .Australia of an 
 enlightened and self-reliant community, (b) The 
 security of the full results of their industry to all 
 producers by the collective ownership of monop- 
 olies, and the extension of the industrial and eco- 
 nomic functions of the State and Municipality, 
 The Labour party seek to achieve this objective by 
 means of a policy that they invariably refer to 
 as their platform. The planks of what is called 
 the 'Fighting Platform' are as follows: (i) The 
 maintenance of a white .Australia. (2) The na- 
 tionahsation of monopolies. (3) Old age pensions. 
 {4) A tariff referendum. (5) .\ progressive tax 
 on unimproved land values. (6) The restriction 
 of public borrowing. (7) Navigation laws. (8) 
 A citizen defence force. (9) .Arbitration amend- 
 ment." — J. U. Kirwan, Australian labour party 
 (Xineteenth Century, Nov.. 1Q05.) 
 
 .A strike in one of the coal mines of New South 
 Wales during 1005 brought the arbitration act 
 of that province to an unsatisfactory test. The 
 dispute, concerning wages, went to the arbitra- 
 tion court and was decided against the miners. 
 They refused to accept the decision, abandoning 
 work, and the court, when appealed to by the 
 employers, found itself powerless to enforce the 
 decision it had made. The judge resigned in con- 
 sequence, and there was difficulty in finding another 
 to take his seat. The Labor party secured the 
 passage of an act which gives the trades-union 
 label the force of a trade mark. Another impor- 
 tant act of 1905 modified the immigration re- 
 striction act, so far as to admit Asiatic and other 
 
 646
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1906 
 
 Trans- Australian 
 Railway 
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1907-1920 
 
 alien students and merchants, whose stay in the 
 countiy was not likely to be permanent, and, 
 furthermore, permitted the introduction of white 
 labor under the contract, subject to conditions that 
 were expected to prevent any . lowering of stand- 
 ard wages. The location of a federal capital 
 became a subject of positive quarrel between the 
 government of the commonwealth and that of 
 New South Wales. By agreements which pre- 
 ceded the federation, the commonwealth capital 
 was to be in New South Wales, but not less than 
 a hundred miles from Sydney. This hundred-mile 
 avoidance of Sydney was considerably exceeded 
 by the federal government when it chose a site, 
 to be called Dalgety, about equidistant from 
 Sydney and Melbourne. New South Wales ob- 
 jected to the site and objected to the extent of 
 territory demanded for it. Mr. Deakin proposed 
 a survey of go square miles for the Federal Dis- 
 trict. New South Wales saw no reason for fed- 
 eral jurisdiction over more than loo square miles. 
 Ultimately Dalgety was rejected and a site named 
 Yass-Canberra, or Canberra, was agreed upon 
 and the choice confirmed by legislation. It is 
 in the Murray district, about 200 miles south- 
 west of Sydney. A general election in the com- 
 monwealth, near the close of 1906, gave the pro- 
 tectionists a small increase of strength in Parlia- 
 ment, and the Labor party gained one seat, raising 
 its representation from twenty-five to twenty-six. 
 The losers were the so-called Free Traders, or 
 opponents of protective tariff-making. Their 
 leader, Mr. Reid, in the canvass, dropped the 
 tariff and made war on the state socialism of 
 the Labor party. He held in the new Parliament 
 a considerably larger following than the Protec- 
 tionist premier, Mr. Deakin, could muster, but it 
 contained more Protectionists than Free Traders. 
 
 1906. — Developing the v/^ater supply. See Con- 
 servation OF Natural Resot-trces: .iVustralia. 
 
 1907. — "New protection," under the Tariff Ex- 
 cise Act. See Labor Remuneration: "New Pro- 
 tection." 
 
 1907. — Colonial conference at London. See 
 British empire: Colonial and imperial confer- 
 ences: 1907. 
 
 1907-1920. — Trans- Australian railway. — Trans- 
 fer of Northern territory to the commonwealth. 
 — "A question of vital interest to Western Australia 
 was that of the construction of a railway con- 
 necting Perth with the eastern States. Forrest was 
 wont to say that the principal reason which led 
 the western State to join the Commonwealth was 
 that assurances were given to him that the railway 
 would be built. The railway, he maintained, was 
 the inducement offered to \Vestern .Australia, just 
 as the possession of the federal capital within her 
 territory was the inducement to New South Wales. 
 But the Constitution imposed no obligation to 
 construct the line, and nobody had any authority 
 to pledge the Commonwealth in advance to do 
 anything which the Constitution did not require to 
 be done. The alleged compact may not have 
 weighed with the Federal Parliament, but the un- 
 desirableness of having a whole State cut off by 
 a great distance from the rest of the Common- 
 wealth, without railway connexion, certainly did. 
 If only for military reasons, it was felt that the 
 chain of steel should be forged. The project was 
 promised in the programme of the Barton Govern- 
 ment in iQoi, and had been part of the policy 
 of every successive Ministry. The whole of the 
 Western Australian members were continually in- 
 sistent about it. At length, in 1007, an Act was 
 passed providing money for the survey of the 1,063 
 miles of route between Port Augusta, at the head 
 of Spencer's Gulf, and Kalgoorlie, in the western 
 
 State, whence a railway already ran to Perth. The 
 surveyors found, as was expected, that the coun- 
 try to be traversed by the line is largely unfit for 
 human habitation ; but they also found plenty of 
 good grass land which in favourable seasons will be 
 valuable. Acting on the surveyor's report, the 
 Fisher Government, in igii, secured the passage of 
 a measure to authorize the construction of the line, 
 which was estimated to cost about four million 
 pounds." — E. Scott, Short history of Australia, p. 
 323. — How to attract population to the Northern 
 Territory has been a problem which invited many 
 experiments since 1S63, when it was annexed by 
 royal letters patent to South Australia. The pros- 
 pects for the development of that region were 
 brighter than ever at the end of 1920, chiefly owing 
 to the approaching completion of the Trans- 
 Australian railway which would permit of exten- 
 sive migration, settlements and exploitation of the 
 country's natural resources. The Northern Terri- 
 tory entered the commonwealth as a part of the 
 state of South Australia in 1901 upon the forma- 
 tion of the federation. In accordance with a 
 provision in the commonwealth constitution act of 
 1900 and a contract agreement entered into in 1907, 
 the Northern Territory was transferred to' the 
 commonwealth. This was formally approved in 
 1911 when the necessary legislation was passed by 
 the two parliaments concerned. At the same time 
 the commonwealth assumed all responsibility for 
 the state loans contracted by South Australia in 
 the interest of the territory. It also purchased the 
 railway from Port Augusta to Oodnadatta, and 
 began the arduous undertaking of constructing the 
 Trans-.^ustralian railway system. A great deal of 
 the development of the Northern Territory, which 
 opened up large areas of unoccupied land to 
 graziers and settlers from the southern parts of 
 Australia, is chiefly due to the expert management 
 of Dr. Gilruth, the administrator of the territory. 
 As a result of his energetic work profitable settle- 
 ments are springing up along the nearly completed 
 lines. The whole situation is an improvement over 
 the condition of the territory when controlled from 
 Adelaide. When completed, the Trans-Australian 
 railway will be linked with the Western Australian 
 system 387 miles from the sea and with the South 
 Australian railway system at about 260 miles from 
 Adelaide. Considerable work still remains undone 
 although the railway was officially opened in No- 
 vember, 1917. Throughout the course of the con- 
 struction work many difficult situations presented 
 themselves. Frequent failures by contractors to 
 meet the terms of the contracts delayed the im- 
 mense undertaking. A lack of suitable water for 
 locomotives, causing numerous delays and heavy 
 unforeseen expenses, was another handicap of no 
 slight importance. The sub-normal industrial con- 
 ditions brought on by the Great War held up the 
 construction of large sections of the road for fully 
 a year and often longer. Lack of water ior loco- 
 motives is still a very serious problem which must 
 be solved, since there is no running stream through- 
 out the length of the railway. In order to deter- 
 mine whether possibilities for pastoral and mineral 
 development existed in the section, and whether 
 conditions were favorable to the construction of 
 reservoirs, explorations were made in 1917-1918 ex- 
 tending to seventy miles north of the line. The 
 road runs almost entirely through unexplored ter- 
 ritory. It opens up vast spaces in western and 
 southern .Australia. It is expected that the mining 
 fields along this line will be developed to the great 
 advantage of this region. All along the route of 
 the railway valuable clays, salt and barytes have 
 been discovered. Gold, opal, copper, tin and gyp- 
 sum mines are also in evidence. According to the 
 
 647
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1908 
 
 Return of Deakin 
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1909 
 
 South Australian government geologist, "there is 
 ample justification for any opal miner going to 
 Stuart Range to look forward to the discovery of 
 valuable opal." — See also Railroads: iqo8-iQi8. 
 
 1908. — Population of the commonwealth. — 
 Change of ministry. — Governor-generalship. — 
 According to a letter to the London Times, from 
 Sydney, "the population of .Australia on December 
 31, 1Q08, was estimated at 4,275,304 (exclusive of 
 full-blooded blacks), showing an increase of 
 509,965, or of 13.5 per cent, in the eight years of 
 federation. That," said the writer, "is not a sat- 
 isfactory e.-spansion, and we should have fared 
 better. New South Wales gained 231,367, or 17 
 per cent, and Western .\ustralia 87,143. or 48.4 
 per cent, but all the other States fared indiffer- 
 ently. There is reason to hope that in the change 
 of fashion, Australia will again grow into some 
 favour with the emigrant from home." Late in 
 the vear, the ministry of Mr. Deakin lost the pro- 
 visional support of the Labor party, which had 
 kept it in control of the government for nearly 
 four years, and suffered a defeat in Parliament 
 which threw it out. For the second time a short- 
 lived Labor ministry was formed, under Mr. 
 Andrew Fisher. After five years of service as 
 governor-general. Lord Northcote returned to 
 England in the fall of 1908 and was succeeded by 
 Lord Dudlev. 
 
 1909.— Attitude of the people toward immi- 
 gration.— Land-locking against settlement. 
 See Immigration axd emigration: Australia: 
 1909-1921. 
 
 1909. — A Summary of sixty years of growth 
 and progress.— Sir John Forrest, treasurer of the 
 commonwealth of Australia, in his budget speech 
 to the federal house of representatives, in .\ugust, 
 1909, surveyed the position of Australia as part of 
 the British nation, — a continent, he observed, con- 
 taining two billion acres, with a coast line of 12,000 
 miles, no other nation having right or title to 
 any part of this splendid heritage of the southern 
 hemisphere, which was another home for the 
 British race. Sixty years ago, said Sir John, the 
 population of Australia was 400.000 and there 
 were no railways. Now the inhabitants numbered 
 nearly four-and-a-half millions, of whom 96 per 
 cent, were British. They had £112,000,000 de- 
 posited in banks and deposits in savings banks 
 to the amount of over £46.000.000, the depositors 
 in these being one-third of the entire population. 
 They had produced minerals to the value of 
 £713,000,000. Ten million acres were under crop. 
 During 1908 .Australia had produced 62,000.000 
 bushels of wheat. It had exported butter of the 
 value of £2,387,000 and wool of the value of 
 £23,000,000. .Australia had 90,000,000 sheep, 
 10,000,000 cattle, and 2,000,000 horses. The over- 
 sea trade in 1908 represented £114,000,000. — See 
 also Democracy: Progress in the early part of the 
 20th century. 
 
 1909 (May-June). — Opening of the session of 
 Parliament. — Program of business proposed. — 
 Political situation.— Coalition under Mr. Deakin 
 against the ministry.— Its success. — Resignation 
 of Premier Fisher and cabinet. — Return of Mr. 
 Deakin to power. — His program. — The federal 
 Parliament was opened at Melbourne on May 26. 
 In the speech of the governor-general. Lord Dud- 
 ley, as reported to the Enelish press, he stated that 
 "notwithstanding a decrease in the Customs and 
 postal revenue, arrangements had been made to 
 pay old-age pensions from July i. Large financial 
 obligations would be incurred in the near future 
 and would demand careful attention. Parliarnent 
 would be invited to consider the financial relations 
 between the Commonwealth and the States, with 
 
 a view to an equitable adjustment of them. Pro- 
 posals would be submitted for the establishment 
 of a Commonwealth silver and paper currency. 
 The governor-general went on to refer to the 
 coming Imperial Defence Conference and the 
 establishment of a General Staff for the Empire. 
 Engagements had, he said, been entered into for the 
 building of three destroyers, and Parliament would 
 be asked to approve a policy of naval construction 
 including the building of similar vessels in .Australia 
 and the training of the necessary crews. A meas- 
 ure providing for an effective citizens' defence 
 force would be introduced at an early stage. It 
 being recognized that the effective defence of .Aus- 
 tralia required a vast increase in the population, 
 it was proposed to introduce a measure of pro- 
 gressive taxation on unimproved land values, lead- 
 ing to a subdivision of large estates, so as to offer 
 immigrants the inducement necessary to attract 
 them in large numbers. Proposals would be 
 submitted for the amendment of the Constitution, 
 so as to enable Parliament to protect the interests 
 of the consumer while ensuring a fair and reason- 
 able wage to every worker, to extend the jurisdic- 
 tion of Parliament in regard to trusts and combina- 
 tions, and to provide for the nationalization of 
 monopolies." 
 
 In an editorial article on the situation at this 
 juncture in .Australia, which was, it remarked, "as 
 interesting as it is obscure," the London Times 
 rehearsed the main facts of it as follows: "It will 
 be remembered that towards the close of last year 
 the withdrawal of its support by the Labour party 
 led somewhat unexpectedly to the defeat and resig- 
 nation of Mr. Deakin's Cabinet. \ Labour Min- 
 istry was subsequently formed, and was enabled 
 by Mr. Deakin's refusal to combine with the Oppo- 
 sition against it to prorogue Parliament and get 
 into recess. It has since elaborated a programme, 
 announced by Mr. Fisher, the Prime Minister, to 
 his constituents at Gympie, a few weeks ago, and 
 recapitulated yesterday in the Governor-General's 
 speech, which strongly resembles in most particu- 
 lars the national policy advocated by Mr. Deakin 
 when in power, and includes besides one or two 
 additional proposals, such as 'the nationalization 
 of monopolies,' more exclusively the property of 
 the Labour party itself. These latter aspirations 
 are probably more pious than practical, and are 
 certainly not the issues on which the Labour Min- 
 istry is now to stand or fall. It will stand or fall 
 by its proposals for the readjustment of the 
 financial relations between the Commonwealth and 
 the States, the establishment of a local flotilla 
 designed for coastal defence, the creation of a 
 citizen army based on universal training, and the 
 imposition of a progressive land tax calculated to 
 bring about the subdivision of large estates. This 
 latter proposal is the only one in which the 
 Labour party cannot claim to be carrying out the 
 spirit, if not the letter, of Mr. Deakin's own pro- 
 gramme; but, curiously enough, it does not seem to 
 be the question on which Mr. Deakin has taken 
 immediate issue with them. He is taking issue, 
 we gather, first and foremost on the question of 
 defence. The Labour Ministry is to be censured 
 for refusing to make the offer of the .Australian 
 Dreadnought in the name of the Commonwealth. 
 In taking this line Mr. Deakin has already made 
 it clear that he has not in any way modified his 
 previous views on the necessity of providing imme- 
 diately for the creation of an .Australian flotilla, 
 but he considers that this necessity should in no 
 way prevent .Australia from adding in emergency 
 to the strength of the British fleet. Speaking at 
 Sydney last month, he said: 'Our defence need? 
 not only our own flotilla but a fleet on the high 
 
 648
 
 AUSTRALIA, 190g 
 
 Braddon Section 
 of Constitution 
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1910 
 
 seas as well. It is for us to recognize that by 
 joinirg New Zealand and making our offer of a 
 Dreadnought for the Imperial Navy ... the Com- 
 monwealth must do its share to prove the reality 
 of Australia's federal unity, to prove the unity of 
 the Empire, to stand beside the stock from which 
 we came.' On this point there is no obscurity. 
 It presents a clear difference of view dividing Mr. 
 Deakin and the two sections of the Opposition 
 with which he has now coalesced from the policy 
 of the Ministry in power. But while it provides 
 a rallying ground from which the coalition may 
 defeat the Ministry, it provides no subsequent line 
 of united advance. The terms on which the coali- 
 tion has been formed seem indeed to contemplate 
 no definite policy at all." 
 
 The coalition against- the ministry of Mr. Fisher, 
 referred to above, accomplished its purpose on 
 the day after the opening of Parliament, by carry- 
 ing a vote of adjournment which the ministry 
 accepted as a vote of want of confidence, and re- 
 signed. The former premier, Mr. Deakin, then 
 resumed the reins of government, with a following 
 that does not seem to have been expected to hold 
 together very long. On the reassembling of Parlia- 
 ment, June 23, the prime minister made a state- 
 ment of the business to be submitted to the 
 house, including along with other measures the 
 following: "A Bill would be introduced establish- 
 ing an inter-State commission which, in addition 
 to the powers conferred by the Constitution, 
 would undertake many of the functions of the 
 British Board of Trade. It would also undertake 
 the duties of a Federal Labour Bureau, which 
 would comprise the study of the question of un- 
 employment and a scheme for insurance against 
 unemployment. The commission would also assist 
 in the supervision of the working of the existing 
 Customs tariff An active policy of immigra- 
 tion would be undertaken, it was hoped with the 
 co-operation of all the States. . . . The appoint- 
 ment of a High Commissioner in London with a 
 well-equipped office was necessary to take charge 
 of the financial interests of the Commonwealth, to 
 supervise immigration, and to foster trade and 
 commerce. . . . The Old Age Pensions Act was to 
 be amended in the direction of simplifying the 
 conditions for obtaining the pensions. . . . The 
 policy of the Government in the matter of land 
 defence would be founded on universal training, 
 commencing in youth and continuing towards 
 manhood. A military college, a school of mus- 
 ketry, and probably a primary naval college would 
 be established to train officers. The counsel of 
 one of the most experienced commanders of the 
 British Army would be sought for with regard 
 to the general development and disposition of Aus- 
 tralia's adult citizen soldiers. In view of the 
 approaching termination of the ten-year period of 
 the distribution of the Customs revenue provided 
 for in the Constitution, a temporary arrangement 
 was being prepared, pending a satisfactory per- 
 manent settlement. of the financial relation between 
 the State and the Commonwealth." 
 
 1909 (June). — Imperial Press Conference at 
 London. See British empire: Colonial and im- 
 perial conferences: iQoq (June). 
 
 1909 (June). — Federal high court decision on 
 anti-trust law. See Trusts: Australia: Tqo6-ioio. 
 
 1909 (July-September). — Imperial Defense 
 Conference. — Defense bill in Parliament. — Pro- 
 posed compulsory military training. See War, 
 Preparations for: iqoq: British Imperial defense 
 conference. 
 
 1909 (September). — Coal miners strike in New 
 South Wales. See Labor organization: Aus- 
 tralia, iQos-iqog; Strikes and lockouts. 
 
 1909 (September). — Meeting at Sydney of em- 
 pire congress of chambers of commerce. See 
 
 British empire: iqog (September). 
 
 1910. — Statistics of trade unions. See Labor 
 organization: iqio-iqig. 
 
 1910. — Last year of a troublesome constitu- 
 tional requirement. — .Article 87 of the constitution 
 of the commonwealth of AustraUa, reads as fol- 
 lows: "During a period of ten years after the 
 establishment of the Commonwealth, and there- 
 after until the ParUament otherwise provides, of 
 the net revenue of the Commonwealth from duties 
 of custom and of excise not more than one fourth 
 shall be applied annually by the Commenwealth 
 towards its expenditure. The balance shall, in ac- 
 cordance with this Constitution, be paid to the 
 several States, or applied toward the payment of 
 interest on debts of the several States taken over 
 by the Commonwealth." This, which has been 
 known as the Braddon section, has imposed a seri- 
 ous handicap on the federal government. As its 
 working was described recently by an English press 
 correspondent, "it made the Commonwealth raise 
 four pounds whenever it wanted to spend one. It 
 made the States begrudge the Commonwealth 
 every penny it spent, even out of its own quarter — 
 for every penny saved out of that quarter was an 
 extra penny for the States. And it prevented 
 every State Treasurer from knowing, until the 
 Federal Treasurer had delivered his Budget speech, 
 how much money he was likely to get from Federal 
 sources for his own spending." At the end of 
 the year iqio the requirement of the article ceased 
 to be obligatory, and the federal Parliament was 
 free to make a different appropriation of the reve- 
 nue from customs and excise. Meantime the 
 subject was under discussion, and in August, igoq, 
 it was announced that a conference of the state 
 governments had come to an agreement — subject 
 to ratification by the federal government — which 
 provided for the annual per capita payment of 
 25s. in lieu of the three-fourths of the customs 
 revenue which had hitherto been returned to them. 
 Western Australia was to receive a special extra 
 contribution of £250,000, decreasing by iio,ooo 
 annually until it ceased. Until the arrangement 
 became operative, the commonwealth rftght deduct 
 from the statutory payments to the states i6oo,ooo 
 annually towards the cost of old-age pensions. The 
 readjustment of state shares in the customs reve- 
 nue was said to involve an annual loss to New 
 South Wales of £1,000,000. According to a Lon- 
 don newspaper correspondent, "the main effects 
 to the Commonwealth are the abolition of the 
 book-keeping system between the States, the power 
 to issue Australian stamps, telegrams, &c., and the 
 securing of about £2,300,000 a year, or more, addi- 
 tional revenue. The States lose revenue to a 
 similar amount, but there is a transfer of old-age 
 pensions to the amount of nearly £1,000,000, of 
 which they are relieved. In three of the States, 
 all of which suffer little by the change, the pen- 
 sions are new, and a considerable boon to the 
 people. But more than half the money sacrifice 
 falls upon New South Wales, and it goes to relieve 
 her less prosperous neighbours. Well, that is true 
 Federation ! Naturally the Southern States would 
 have nothing but a per capita distribution from 
 the Commonwealth and in New South Wales Min- 
 isters agreed to it with their eyes open. At present 
 the Commonwealth Government secures the further 
 revenue needed. But whether this agreement will 
 so distinctly suit that Government as the State 
 populations grow is another matter." A bill for 
 the required amendment of the federal constitu- 
 tion was introduced in the house of representatives 
 by the prime minister, Mr. Deakin, on September 
 
 .649
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1910-1915 
 
 t'isher Labor 
 Government 
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1911-1913 
 
 8. On November 4, in opposition to the govern- 
 ment, an amendment to the bill, limiting the dura- 
 tion of the agreement, instead of giving it force in 
 perpetuity, was carried in committee of the whole 
 by the casting vote of the chairman. On Decem- 
 ber I the bill had its third reading in the senate. 
 
 1910-1915. — Labor government under Fisher. 
 — "At the general election held in April, 1910, the 
 electors of the Commonwealth . . . showed them- 
 selves adverse to the Ministry. The tide ran high 
 and full for the Labour Party, and swept it back 
 to Parliament with a majority in both the Senate 
 and the House of Representatives. In the former 
 House it captured every seat — that is, eighteen, for 
 only half the members of the Senate retire at a 
 general election — and counted 23 votes in a House 
 of 36. In the House of Representatives it secured 
 42 seats for its own members, and had in addition 
 the benevolent neutrality of two independents. 
 Fisher was thus for the second time Prime Min- 
 ister. His Government was chosen on this occasion 
 by a method that was quite new in the history of 
 constitutional government. The usual mode in 
 Australia, as in England, was for the Governor- 
 General — in England the Sovereign — to send for 
 the political leader who was indicated by the de- 
 bates and divisions to possess the confidence of 
 the majority, to commission him to form a Min- 
 istry, and for the Prime Minister so chosen to 
 select his ministers. But the Federal Labour Party 
 was differently organized from other political par- 
 ties. Its members were pledged to a political 
 programme drawn up by an annual Labour Con- 
 ference. This Conference in 1905 had registered 
 the decree that henceforth Labour Governments 
 should not be chosen by the Prime Minister, but 
 should be selected by the full body of the federal 
 Labour members. Fisher, recognizing that his 
 strength depended upon the widespread and very 
 powerful organizations of the party in the country, 
 initiated the observance of this rule. The mem- 
 bers of the Government which held office from 
 April, iQio, till the next general election in May, 
 1913, were therefore chosen by ballot by the party 
 which supported them in Parliament. The election 
 of 1913 witnessed the retirement from active poli- 
 tics of DealSn, whose health had been shaken by 
 the strain of so many years of official work and 
 bitter conflict. Cook was chosen to head the 
 Fusion party, and fortune turned a rather wry 
 smile upon him at the polls. So wry was it that it 
 was hardly a smile. The Labour Party lost some 
 seats, and Cook was able to reenter the House of 
 Representatives with a majority of one. That 
 meant that when his supporters had elected a 
 Speaker they had no majority at all. Moreover, 
 the Labour Party still had an overwhelming pre- 
 ponderance in the Senate. So that the new Cook 
 Government could not carry a scrap of legislation 
 without the grace of its opponents, who very soon 
 showed their determination to exert their power to 
 the full. The parliamentary machine was clearly 
 unworkable under these conditions. Cook met the 
 situation by a bold, deliberate challenge. He was 
 pledged to two items of policy in regard to which 
 the issue between his party and Fisher's was 
 clearly drawn. These were, a measure to restore 
 voting by post, which the Labour Party had 
 abolished because of allegations of improper prac- 
 tices in the use of it; and a measure to destroy the 
 preferential treatment of trade unionists by the 
 Arbitration Court. The two bills were forced 
 through the House of Representatives after very 
 tough fighting, and were promptly rejected by the 
 Senate. Planning then to bring into use the 
 machinery of the Constitution for the removal of 
 deadlocks, the Government forced their bills 
 
 thrcugh the House of Representatives again, ex- 
 pressly to provoke the Senate to reject them a 
 second time. This having been done, the Prime 
 Minister advised the Governor-General to dissolve 
 both Houses. A new Governor-General, Sir 
 Ronald Munro-Ferguson, had only just assumed 
 oftice, and the situation was a very perplexing one 
 for him to handle. The Labour Party denied that 
 there was justification for dissolving a Parliament 
 not yet one year old. and in which only one politi- 
 cal leader had been tried. There was no precedent 
 for such a stroke in the history of constitutional 
 Government. But there was no precedent for the 
 situation which existed. Munro-Ferguson was 
 himself a very experienced parliamentarian. He 
 was no amateur amid the whirl and clang of party, 
 for he had been a 'whip' in the House of Com- 
 mons ; and he was endowed with a capacity for 
 cool judgment and firm decision. Moreover, he 
 knew what his own powers were under the Con- 
 stitution. His reading of the position was that 
 no satisfactory results could be expected from a 
 Parliament such as the last election had provided. 
 He therefore dissolved both Houses. Events jus- 
 tified the discretion which he exercised. The 
 Labour Party at the election of 1914 was returned 
 with an ample majority in both Houses, and the 
 third Fisher Government took office less than three 
 months before the outbreak of the great European 
 War. The difficulties they had to face then were 
 not parliamentary, but imperial and international. 
 Fisher resigned at the end of 1015 in order to take 
 up the duties of High Commissioner in succession 
 to Reid. The Prime Ministership then fell to his 
 brilliant and energetic Attorney-General, William 
 Morris Hughes." — E. Scott, Short history of Aus- 
 tralia, pp. 317-310- 
 
 1911. — Explorations. See Antarctic Explora- 
 tion-: 1Q11-1Q13. 
 
 1911. — Imperial conference at London. — Dis- 
 cussion of naturalization laws, inter-communica- 
 tion and social insurance. See British empire: 
 Colonial and imperial conferences: 1911. 
 
 1911-1913. — Attempts to amend the constitu- 
 tion. — "Very much of the energy, and a large ex- 
 penditure of the passion, of political parties has 
 been devoted to efforts to amend the Constitution. 
 That instrument itself provides the machinery for 
 its own alteration. A proposed law having amend- 
 ment in view must first be passed by an absolute 
 majority of each house of Parliament ; it must 
 then he voted upon by the people; and if a ma- 
 jority of the electors voting, in a majority of the 
 States, signify their approval, the Constitution is 
 altered accordingly. The Labour Party, after ex- 
 periencing some failure to carry out its designs in 
 reference to the scope of the Conciliation and 
 Arbitration Act and the control of commercial 
 trusts and monopolies, decided to ask the people 
 to amend the Constitution in two aspects mainly. 
 First, they desired to remove the limitation which 
 confined the jurisdiction of the Federal Arbitration 
 Court to industrial disputes extending beyond the 
 limits of any one State. They wished to give 
 power to the Court to act as to wages and con- 
 ditions of labour and employment in any trade, 
 industry, or calling, including disputes which 
 might arise among the employees of state railways. 
 Secondly, they wished to have power to make laws 
 for the control of commercial corporations, for 
 regulating trade and commerce within any State 
 as well as Inter-State, and for 'nationalizing' any 
 industry which Parliament might declare to be 
 'the subject of any monopoly.' These propositions 
 were first submitted to the electors in 191 1, but 
 were rejected by five States out of the six — 
 W'estern Australia being the only State favourable 
 
 6.50
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1912 
 
 Legislation 
 World War 
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1914-1915 
 
 to the enlargement of federal power. Regardless 
 of this defeat, the Labour Party, considering that 
 it could make little headway with its policy with- 
 out the propored amendments of the Constitution, 
 submitted them to a second referendum in 1013. 
 They were then carried by three States, Western 
 Australia, South Australia, and Queensland — but 
 were rejected by the other three. Failing a 
 majority in a majority of States, the attempt failed 
 again. But the affirmative votes in 1913 showed a 
 marked advance on those recorded in iqii. Then 
 the Labour policy was rejected by majorities of 
 over a quarter of a million. In IQ13, however, the 
 difference between success and failure was very 
 narrow — less than 50,000. Encouraged by the ad- 
 vance, the party nailed its flag to the mast and 
 announced that it would try again ; and there 
 would have been a third referendum on the same 
 questions at the end of 1915 but that the outbreak 
 of the European War induced the dropping of 
 schemes of constitutional alteration." — E. Scott, 
 Short history of Australia, p. 324. 
 
 1912. — Maternity Allowances Act. — Other leg- 
 islation for mothers and children. — "First among 
 the methods of helping the mothers stands what 
 is known as the Commonwealth Maternity Bonus, 
 provided for by the Maternity Allowances Act, 
 passed in October, igi2. An allowance of £5 is 
 paid to the mother of a viable child •immediately 
 on satisfactory proof of its birth. More than 95 
 per cent, of the mothers who have borne children 
 since the passing of the act have applied for and 
 received the allowance. These applications are in- 
 variably made promptly within a fortnight after 
 the birth of the child, and the bonus is used in 
 payment for better medical and nursing attendance 
 than could have been obtained otherwise. The 
 mothers of the future are being helped towards 
 the fulfilment of their function by lectures given 
 ttf the senior girls in the public schools. As 
 yet, the subject of sex instruction has not been 
 introduced, but it is probable that lectures on sex 
 hygiene will soon be added to those on allied 
 topics already given. These cover the questions 
 of the care of babies in health and disease, their 
 feeding and clothing, sick nursing, home and per- 
 sonal hygiene. The course is most highly ap- 
 preciated both by the girls and the parents. 
 There is a distinct demand for the most com- 
 plete nursing facilities in the interests of mother- 
 hood. Provision for a maternity annex to every 
 hospital, for the free services of a thoroughly 
 qualified and registered midwife where desired, 
 with medical attendance under government con- 
 tract, and for the full instructions of expectant 
 mothers by clearly-written pamphlet literature, has 
 been made in New South Wales and is in line 
 with the Australian purpose of 'assisting mother- 
 hood in her hour of trial.' . . . Care for the de- 
 pendent child commences in New South Wales 
 before its birth and is continued thenceforth in 
 stages proportionate to the needs and develop- 
 ment of the child. A Children's Protection Act 
 (1002) compels the registration and supervision 
 of all nursing homes and the registration of the 
 custodianship of infants under three years of age. 
 Every effort is made to rear every child born 
 in these homes, and to do so by educating the 
 mother, who is very often young and unmarried, 
 in the responsibilities and possibilities of her po- 
 sition. In infants' homes, provision is made for 
 the girl-mothers to stay with their children for 
 some months, while foster-mothers, who under- 
 take guardianship, are required within the metro- 
 politan area to take their infant wards to a chil- 
 dren's hospital for consultation and advice every 
 fortnight. By the Infants' Protection Act (1904) 
 
 provision is made for the supervision of the 
 maintenance, education and care of children, up 
 to seven years of age, who have been placed in 
 private homes or religious establishments apart 
 from their parents. No private house may take 
 more than five foster children, and these children 
 are often those taken as babies under the Chil- 
 dren's Protection Act. The children must be fed, 
 clothed and educated to the satisfaction of com- 
 petent inspectors who show themselves the friends 
 and advisers of the dependent child. The prin- 
 ciple of the intervention of the State as the over- 
 parent is carried farther in the State Children's 
 Relief Act of iqoi. This act provides for the 
 boarding out of the dependent children with ap- 
 proved guardians or with their own mothers, when 
 the latter are deserving widows or deserted wives 
 with children under twelve years for whom they 
 cannot provide. By a later regulation the pay- 
 ments made to mothers and foster-mothers are 
 continued till the child is fourteen. In the year 
 1915 there were 12,391 of these wards boarded 
 out amid the civilizing influences of home life. 
 On their behalf the State spent a total sum of 
 £156,631-65., equivalent to an actual cost to the 
 State, after deducting parents' contributions, of 
 £i7-os.-iid. per head for children boarded at 
 home with the mother. Inspectors and honorary 
 lady visitors keep in touch with the home and see 
 that the children attend school regularly, and 
 
 that their moral interests are being cared for." 
 
 C. H. Northcott, Australian social development, pp. 
 171-172, 195-196. 
 
 1913.— Navigation Act. See Race Problems: 
 1904-1913. 
 
 1913. — Australia assumes the responsibility of 
 building her own ships. — In 1013 the Naval Agree- 
 ment Act of 1903 expired, and Australia began to 
 build up a navy of her own. In 1911 the Aus- 
 tralian Government had agreed to furnish its own 
 navy as an .Australian unit of the Eastern fleet with 
 the understanding that it would provide one 
 cruiser of the Indefatigable class, three unarmoured 
 cruisers of the Bristol class, six destroyers of the 
 improved "River" class, and two submarines of the 
 "E" class. This unit received the title "Royal 
 Australian Navy" from King George. By 1921 
 the ships of this navy were the following: the bat- 
 tle cruiser Australia, and the light cruisers, Adelaide, 
 Melbourne, Sidney, Brisbane, and Encounter. Be- 
 sides these Australia possessed a flotilla of destroy- 
 ers and two submarines. In time of peace this 
 navy (working in close cooperation with the China 
 and East Indies Squadrons of the Royal Navy) is 
 controlled by the Commonwealth government, but 
 in time of war it is under imperial control. 
 
 1914. — Taking over of Norfolk island. — ^Nor- 
 folk island, which has been a New South Wales 
 dependency since 1788, was taken over by the 
 commonwealth in 1014. 
 
 1914-1915.— Participation in the World War. 
 — Destruction of German cruiser, Emden. — 
 "Anzacs" at Gallipoli.— Although geographically 
 far removed from the battlefields of the World 
 War, .Australia, and the Dominion of New 
 Zealand as well, played a notable part in the ulti- 
 mate defeat of the Teuton nations. Both coun- 
 tries, or, to be more inclusive, Australasia, gave 
 freely, throughout the conflict, of their men, 
 munitions, ships, etc. The valiant conduct of 
 .Australian and New Zealand regiments on the 
 European fronts was exemplary. At the outset of 
 the war a New Zealand military force under 
 Colonel Robert Logan descended upon German 
 Samoa and captured it without any resistance. 
 German New Guinea fell into the hands of an Aus- 
 tralian naval and military force under Colonel 
 
 651
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1914 
 
 Labor Party 
 Conscription 
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1916-1917 
 
 William Holmes shortly after. Acting under the 
 British admiralty, the AustraHan navy, within the 
 short period of two months, completely destroyed 
 Germany's wireless chain in the Pacific ocean and 
 seized its Pacific colonies. [See also New Guine.4, 
 or Papua: IQ14.] By November 1014, Australia 
 and New Zealand successfully dispatched 30,000 
 soldiers, including infantry, artillery and cavalry, 
 to the Suez Canal without a mishap, a military 
 feat which was unequaled throughout the war 
 when it is considered that the transportation was 
 over a distance of 6,750 sea miles. It was 
 on this voyage that the .Australian cruiser Syd- 
 ney, which was convoying the troopships, defeated 
 and forced the German raiding cruiser Emden, un- 
 der Captain Miiller, to surrender. The Emden, 
 up to the time of its defeat, had sunk or captured 
 twenty-one British merchantmen and caused other 
 serious damage to the Allies, amounting to a 
 loss of $125,000,000. The Sydney, which was 
 manned chiefly by Australians, was commanded by 
 British Captain Glossop. The courage and morale 
 displayed by the Australian and New Zealand 
 soldiers at Gallipoli was, however, the achieve- 
 ment which has given to the -Australasian troops 
 a high position in the history of the World War. 
 Under General Sir Ian Hamilton and later under 
 General Sir William Birdwood, the .Australian and 
 New Zealand .Army Corps fought courageously at 
 "Anzac Cove" and throughout the Gallipoli cam- 
 paign. All through the unfortunate campaign 
 Ihe .Anzacs characterized themselves by their dash- 
 ing courage, tenacity and exceptional confidence 
 under fire. Following the ill-fated campaign at 
 Gallipoli, the greater part of .Australasia's fighting 
 men were merged with the Allied armies on the 
 western front. Their conduct was particularly con- 
 spicuous at Monguet Farm, Bullecourt, Messines 
 and Pozieres. They also took part in the opera- 
 tions on the Sinai Peninsula and in Southern Pal- 
 estine. — See also Axzacs; World War: 1914: VII. 
 German Pacific Islands; and IQ15: VI. Turkey: a; 
 a, 4, xx; a, 4, xxii. 
 
 1914. — Percentage of railways controlled by 
 government. See Railroads: 1Q17-101Q. 
 
 1914-1918. — Coal strikes. — Incendiary fires in 
 Sydney. — Unlawful Associations Act. See In- 
 DirsTRiAL Workers of the World: Recent ten- 
 dencies. 
 
 1914-1921. — Question of New Zealand federat- 
 ing with Australia. See New Zealand: 1Q16-1021. 
 
 1915. — Program of the Labor party. — "The 
 present Labour Government of the Common- 
 wealth is pledged (i.e. in 1015), to the introduction 
 of the 'initiative referendum' on the lines of the 
 Swiss experiment. It might be thought that Lib- 
 eralism is to support such reform in view of its 
 dependence on the maxim, 'Trust the People.' A 
 closer examination of the aims of Liberals will 
 reveal that Parliament is considered something 
 more than a machine for registering the commands 
 of that vague and occasionally ambiguous abstrac- 
 tion 'the voice of the people.' Apart from the 
 absurdity of 'asking the electors to send along 
 a picture postcard and tell us what they think 
 about the Budget,' it must be remembered that 
 Parliament is to be considered a responsible in- 
 stitution and not a mere delegation. The move- 
 ment for the 'initiative referendum' is not a very 
 significant or powerful agitation, and only shows 
 that a section of the people is dissatisfied with 
 a particular party, or with the inadequacy of the 
 party system; and for those two evils there are 
 other remedies. By far the most important ques- 
 tion Liberalism in Australia has now to solve is 
 that of readjusting the powers of States and 
 Commonwealth. In the absence of e.xternal or 
 
 strong internal pressure, the Constitution naturally 
 reserved a very important series of functions to 
 the States, and we find that the Commonwealth 
 Parliament of iqo6-:o, practically unanimous in 
 its efforts to introduce the New Protection with 
 Government regulation of the conditions in pro- 
 tected industries, was thwarted at every step by 
 the limitations which had been placed upon Fed- 
 eral powers. The rejection of the Referendum 
 of iQii proposing the granting of far larger 
 powders was not tinal, and similar proposals were 
 submitted by the Federal Labour party in 1913, 
 and failed by the narrowest of majorities to pass. 
 The significance of the latter fact has altered the 
 attitude of many Conservatives, and, as has been 
 pointed out, both Federal parties are now (i.e 
 in 1915), pledged to extend the powers of the 
 National Parliament. The Labour party claims 
 to be the champion of the sentiment of 'Aus- 
 tralia for the Australians,' and opposed to this 
 is the intense local patriotism of the State Parlia- 
 ments, supported enthusiastically by the great por- 
 tion of the press. The opposition is not between 
 Liberty and Nationalism, but between two forms 
 of nationalism ; and the success of the defence 
 scheme, with its appeals to a patriotism that 
 transcends the State boundaries, combined with 
 other factors, has immensely strengthened the ideal 
 of .Australia as 'one and indivisible.' It might be 
 thought that such a sentiment is opposed to that 
 of British Imperialism, and to a certain extent 
 it is, and has been encouraged by the English 
 Liberals and discouraged by the English Unionists. 
 But there is no real antagonism between the con- 
 ceptions of Australian unity and Empire unity, 
 and recent events have clearly shown this to be 
 the case. It seems quite certain that the cry of 
 'State rights' will not be sufficient to prevent 
 the Commonwealth Parliament receiving additional 
 powers by the will of the people." — H. V. Evatt, 
 Liberalism in Australia, pp. 70-71. 
 
 1916-1917. — Conscription twice defeated. — ".At 
 the very outset of the war . . . there was con- 
 siderable agitation throughout Australia for the 
 enactment of a conscription law, although in but a 
 short time more than 320,000 men had volun- 
 teered for active service. But the Australian Gov- 
 ernment was in the hands of the Labor Party, 
 which found itself in an almost impossible situa- 
 tion. The Labor Party was quite aware that its 
 supporters were opposed to conscription, but the 
 seriousness of the situation, which demanded that 
 16,000 fresh troops be sent monthly to the western 
 front, forced them to hold a national referendum 
 on the question. Every man and woman in 
 Australia and every Australian soldier serving 
 abroad were asked to vote for or against con- 
 scription" on October 28, 1016. — Nation, Nov. q. 
 IQ16, p. 438. — "Returns upon the referendum elec- 
 tion in .Australia to determine the question of con- 
 scription for European service leave [1917] no 
 doubt of Premier Hughes's defeat. The result 
 was close and mixed. While the latest figures 
 show in the populous industrial State of New 
 South Wales 264,000 for and 378,000 against, in 
 \'ictoria they show 287,000 for and 275,000 against; 
 while in the comparatively rural South Australia 
 they show 65,000 for and qcooo against, in West 
 .Australia they show 50,000 for and 25,000 against. 
 But it is indicated that out of a vote of two 
 millions the anti-conscriptionists will have a major- 
 ity of 100,000 . . . The opposition undoubtedly 
 found its chief strength in labor men whom the 
 Premier could not drag with him, and in the 
 women — though the latter's vote was thought 
 doubtful lo the end. With the extreme radicals 
 Hughes had already clashed over the refusal of the 
 
 652
 
 AUSTRALIA, l-Jtb 1917 
 
 Pari in 
 World War 
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1919 
 
 Broken Hill miners last summer to accept arbitra- 
 tion. But it was the disaffected moderates in 
 labor ranks who proved his chief opponents. F. G. 
 Tudor, Minister of Customs, early resigned to 
 come out against him. There was wide fear that 
 the country was bowing to militarism, and the 
 men who have won in Australasia the most favor- 
 able working conditions known responded to the 
 sentiment that human life should not be at the 
 disposal of arbitrary state mandate. Others were 
 fearful that military conscription might pave the 
 way to industrial conscription, and that future 
 Governments might use this power to coerce 
 labor when it was at odds with capital. ... It 
 was argued that conscription would defame the 
 patriotic reputation Australia had made at Gallip- 
 nli and in France; that Australia, considering the 
 demands for men at home in a new country, was 
 
 WILLIAM MORRIS HUGHES 
 Prime Minister of Australia since 1915 
 
 doing her share; and that the difference in the 
 numbers brought out by the conscriptive and 
 voluntary systems would be far too small to jus- 
 tify such a departure from democratic principles. 
 The defeat of conscription is the more eloquent 
 in that Australia had already gone far on the 
 road to it. It was Mr. Hughes, Senator Pearcc, 
 and the e.\-Premier, Watson, who several years ago, 
 aided by Roberts, converted a pacifist Labor party 
 to the present system of universal training for 
 home defence. Conscription for home defence was 
 instituted a month before the election by Gov- 
 erment action without a referendum. The cam- 
 paign just waged was one of the hottest in Aus- 
 trahan history. . . . With sentiment in Canada and 
 South Africa what it is the Australian election 
 adds to the general assurance that the great self- 
 governed Dominions will not act as Prussianism 
 would have them do. Australia's gravest political 
 crisis in many years happily spent itself in the 
 
 general election and referendum, which, if bitterly 
 fought by both sides, and notwithstanding the 
 number of accompanying riots, was. after all, a 
 most hopeful indicator of the feasibility of the 
 democratic principle of government by the peo- 
 ple. To be sure. Englishmen in Australia as well 
 as abroad were bitterly disappointed to see the 
 Dominion refuse to conscript its citizens, taking 
 such a refusal as indicating a want of the proper 
 degree of patriotism." — Spectator, May 17, 1Q17, 
 p. ,?.?6. — See also World War: 1017: XII, Political 
 conditions in the belligerent countries: a. 
 
 1917. — Imperial war conference. See British 
 Empire: Colonial and imperial conferences: 1917: 
 Imperial war conference. 
 
 1917. — Coalition ministry. — Formation of the 
 "nationalist party." — "This Ministry [Hughes's 
 ministry] had been formed originally in February, 
 1Q17, by a coalition of that minority of the La- 
 bour Party which supported Mr. Hughes' war- 
 policy on the one hand and the Liberal Party on 
 the other hand. After their union these two groups 
 had taken the name of the 'Nationalist Party,' and 
 the Coalition Government thus formed included 
 such well-known politicians as Senator G. F. 
 Pearce, Sir J. Forrest, and Mr. Cook. . . . And 
 although at a General Election held in 1017 the 
 Nationalists had been confirmed in office, they 
 had obtained their majority partly owing to a 
 pledge that they would not introduce conscription 
 for Foreign Service without taking a direct poll 
 of the people upon that question." — Annual Reg- 
 ister, iqiq, p. 202. 
 
 Troops in World War. — Actions near Gaza. 
 See WoRi.ii War: 1Q17: VI. Turkish theater: c, 1, 
 ii; c, 1, iii; c, 1, iv. 
 
 1917.— Battle of Arras.— Battle of Ypres.— At- 
 tack along Menin road. See World War: igi?: 
 II Western front: c, 7; d, )5; d, 20. 
 
 1918. — Troops in Mesopotamian campaign, — 
 Battle of Bapaume. — Total casualities of World 
 War. Sec World War: iqi8: VI. Turkish theater: 
 c, 1; II. Western front: k, 1; and Miscellaneous 
 auxiliary srr\iips: XIV. Cost of war: b, 3. 
 
 1913. — Contributions for war relief. Sec 
 World War: Miscellaneous auxiliary services: XIV. 
 Cost of war: b, 8, ii. 
 
 1918. — ^Imperia! war conference. — Decisions 
 on question of industry and raw materials. See 
 British kmi'irk: Colonial and imperial conferences: 
 IQ18: Imperial war conference. 
 
 1918. — Discharged Soldiers' Settlement Act. 
 See South .Xustralia: 1018. 
 
 1918.— Railway development. — Transconti- 
 nental road constructed. See Railroads: igo8- 
 1918. 
 
 1918-1921. — Demands in Pacific. — Control of 
 islands. See Pacific ocean: 1014-1918; iqi8-iQ2i. 
 
 1919 (July). — Seamen's strike. — The harbors of 
 Melbourne and Sydney were virtually tied-up on 
 July 1.5, iQio, when the seamen's strike, which 
 originated a few months earlier in Queensland, 
 extended to Victoria and New South Wales. The 
 Queensland government applied for permission to 
 charter cargo vessels in order to relieve the serious 
 situation, but this was refused by Acting Prime 
 Minister Watt. No other attempt was ventured 
 to break the strike because it was evident that 
 the central government of Australia was sympa- 
 thetic to the seamen. 
 
 1919. — Premier Hughes at the Paris Peace 
 Conference. — Question of the Pacific colonies. 
 — Policy of a "White Australia." — Ratification 
 of ihe treaty by the Australian parliament. — 
 "At the beginning of the year [iqiq], Mr. W. M. 
 Hughes was still at the head of the Common- 
 wealth Government. . . , Throughout the earlier 
 
 <J53
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1919 
 
 Hughes and the 
 Peace Conference 
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1919-1920 
 
 part of the year, the Prime Minister was absent 
 from Australia and was representing his country 
 at the Paris Peace Conference. At the Con- 
 ference Mr. Hughes playeci a preminent part; and 
 the terms of the League of Nations covenant 
 itself were not uninfluenced by the arguments 
 brought forward by the AustraUan statesman. Mr. 
 Hughes found himself on more than one occasion 
 in conflict with the Japanese delegates. The ques- 
 tion of the Pacific colonies of Germany was, of 
 course, an important one for Australia; and the 
 ultimate decision of the Conference was to give the 
 mandate for the islands north of the Equator to 
 Japan, and the mandates for the much more im- 
 portant colonies south of the Equator to the two 
 Australasian dominions. New Zealand was to 
 have the mandate for German Samoa, whilst 
 Australia herself was authorised to take over 
 German New Guinea and the neighbouring islands. 
 Even this arrangement did not wholly satisfy 
 public opinion in Australia, as the southward ad- 
 vance of the Japanese was viewed with some 
 anxiety. The debates on the German colonies were 
 not, however, the only occasion on which a differ- 
 ence of opinion arose between the Japanese and 
 Australian statesmen. Another question of even 
 greater importance was that of the Japanese 
 amendment to the League of Nations covenant 
 asserting the so-called principle of racial equality. 
 On this question opinion, both in Australia and in 
 New Zealand, was very strong. The policy of a 
 White Australia was the very foundation of the 
 political creed of nearly all Australians, without 
 distinction of party, and therefore any principle 
 of so-called racial equality which might restrict 
 the power of the Commonwealth Government to 
 exclude coloured immigrants roused the deter- 
 mined opposition of all .'\ustralians. Mr. Hughes 
 urged this point with great force during the de- 
 bates in Paris, and it was partly owing to his 
 advocacy that the Japanese amendment, even in 
 the milder form in which it was subsequently 
 brought forward, was excluded entirely from the 
 covenant. The stand which Mr. Hughes made on 
 this point increased his reputation in Australia, 
 and, as already stated, on this question he had the 
 support of his political opponents. . . . Immedi- 
 ately after the signing of the Treaty of Peace with 
 Germany [iqiq], Mr. Hughes and Sir Joseph 
 Cook (who had also been at the Peace Con- 
 ference) left England for their return journey to 
 Australia. Early in September the Commonwealth 
 Parliament met to consider the ratification of the 
 Treaty of Peace, and the House of Representatives 
 was crowded on September lo when Mr. Hughes 
 moved a resolution approving of the Treaty of 
 Peace. The Prime Minister, who had landed at 
 Perth three weeks earlier, and had made a pub- 
 lic progress through Western 'Australia, South 
 Australia, and Victoria, made a long and mem- 
 orable speech in describing the Treaty. Mr. 
 Hughes described at length the course of the ne- 
 gotiations at Versailles, and in regard to the new 
 project of a League of Nations. . . , He dealt at 
 length with the general question of the Pacific 
 Ocean, and the natural rights therein of the two 
 Australasian States. He said that the Monroe 
 doctrine, to which America still held, forbade the 
 interference of European countries in the affairs of 
 the two American continents. The question of 
 the Pacific was, said Mr. Hughes, a parallel case; 
 and the people of the United States should under- 
 stand that they ought not to interfere there. 
 Mr. Hughes went on to describe how he, with 
 the support of Sir Joseph Cook, had foucHt in 
 Paris for the principle of a White Australia ; 
 but he declared that it was his hope that the 
 
 Japanese would remain on friendly terms both 
 with Great Britain and with .Australia. The Treaty 
 of Peace was duly ratified by the Australian Parlia- 
 ment." — Annual Register, igig, pp. 292-294. — See 
 also Versailles, Conference or; 1919: Outline of 
 work; Vers.ailles, Tre.^tv of: Conditions of peace. 
 
 1919. — Statistics of trade unions. See Labor 
 organization: iqio-iqio. 
 
 1919-1920. — Conflict between the Nationalists 
 and the Labor party. — Confusion of political is- 
 sues.— General election (December, 1919). — 
 New Tariff. — Lord Forster becomes governor- 
 general. — ^'The Federal Parliament was dissolved 
 before its full three years had expired, because, 
 in the opinion of the Prime Minister, it had ex- 
 hausted its mandate and had no authority to 
 deal with post-war problems. The Nationalist 
 coalition had been formed to enable Australia ef- 
 fectively to cooperate with the Allies during the 
 war, and there was no necessary agreement among 
 its members on any other point. Mr. Watt, 
 who, during Mr. Hughes's absence at the Peace 
 Conference, had carried out the thankless duties 
 of an acting Prime Minister with full respKjnsi- 
 bility, but without liberty of action, had ex- 
 pressed a somewhat different opinion. In view 
 of the seamen's strike, the leaders of which had 
 uttered threats of revolutionary action, and of 
 many other expressions of contempt for the au- 
 thority of Parliament and for the decree of the 
 .Arbitration Court, he had urged that the Coalition 
 should remain in existence for the defence of 
 constitutional government. Mr. Hughes, however, 
 on his return declared that he did not know which 
 partly he belonged to, and was himself still a 
 Labour man and a Socialist. He had left Eu- 
 rope at a time of great industrial disturbance, 
 much of which was attributable to the high cost 
 of living and to the resentment aroused by dis- 
 closures of extortionate profits. He realised that 
 the same conditions of class hatred, uncertainty, 
 and general apprehension existed in .Australia, and, 
 before leaving, announced his policy as death to 
 profiteers and Bolsheviks. Mr. Hughes appears 
 to have sincerely believed that, with a policy 
 stated in these general terms and on the strength 
 of his achievements in Europe, he would be given 
 the position of a National leader with full au- 
 thority to cure the ills of the Commonwealth; 
 but conferences with friends and colleagues appear 
 to have convinced him that except as a member 
 of the National Party there was no place for him 
 in Australian politics, and he found the Nationalist 
 Party by no means united. Some of its mem- 
 bers, including members of the Government, were 
 apprehensive of the effect on trade and industry 
 of an indiscriminate campaign against the profi- 
 teer; others resented his dictatorship and his 
 tendency to ignore Parliament, and even his war 
 Cabinet, in important transactions. There was 
 no attempt to supersede Mr. Hughes in the leader- 
 ship, but his followers, while admitting his strength 
 of personality, were by no means confident that 
 they would be able to accept all he might say or 
 do. The Labour Party in Parliament was weak, 
 both in numbers and in ability. ... In his speeches 
 delivered before the opening of the campaign Mr. 
 Hughes appealed for support on three main 
 grounds. He claimed to have represented the true 
 spirit of Australia during the war, and to have 
 defended her interests successfully at the Peace 
 Conference. He appealed to the returned sol- 
 diers as the protector of their special interests. 
 He prescribed a gospel of work and increased 
 production, and he promised in equally vague 
 terms to remove the legitimate causes of in- 
 dustrial discontent. In order to fulfil this last 
 
 654
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1919-1920 
 
 Nationalists vs. 
 Labor Party 
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1919-1920 
 
 promise he claimed that new powers should be 
 conferred on the Commonwealth Parliament, so 
 that it would be able to deal with trade and 
 commerce within as well as between the States, 
 and in particular that it should have power to 
 regulate prices and control monopolies. Price- 
 fixing during the war had been sustained by a 
 decision of the High Court, which, somewhat un- 
 pectedly, had treated it as an exercise of the power 
 of defence. But it was claimed that unless the 
 Constitution were amended the control of intra- 
 state trade and commerce, including the right of 
 price-fixing, would revert to the States. Here, 
 however, Mr. Hughes had an experience of the 
 difficulties of his position as a Nationalist leader. 
 The party was agreed that the time had come 
 for a general revision of the Constitution, and 
 on the whole, that if prices or wages were to be 
 regulated by law, the task should be carried out 
 by an authority having jurisdiction over the whole 
 of Australia. But it was as a whole opposed to 
 so extensive and indefinite an increase of Com- 
 monwealth power as had formerly been cham- 
 pioned by Mr. Hughes; and in all the States but 
 Queensland it had a majority in the State Parlia- 
 ment. Mr. Hughes was compelled, therefore, to 
 propose a bargain with the State Premiers in 
 order to prevent a schism within the party. After 
 negotiations with them which were not wholly 
 successful, he proposed that the Commonwealth 
 should be entrusted with authority to deal with 
 what he described as the aftermath of the war, 
 that a referendum should be held at the General 
 Election by which the necessary additional powers 
 should be secured for the Commonwealth, that 
 these powers should be exercisable for a limited 
 period only, and that before the end of 1920 a 
 Convention should be held to prepare a general 
 scheme of constitutional revision. This compromise 
 was supported by the Nationalist members in the 
 Federal Parliament, and was accepted by some 
 Labour members as a step towards unification 
 which could not be retraced without considerable 
 difficulty. But it was never accepted by the Na- 
 tionalists in the country, and it was opposed by 
 the farmers, not on constitutional grounds, but 
 because it foreshadowed the increase of govern- 
 ment interference with trade and commerce. The 
 Labour manifesto furnishes documentary evidence 
 of the decline in political vision and in sense of 
 responsibility which began in the party at the 
 time of the first conscription referendum, and has 
 not since been arrested. It contains a series of 
 promises without suggestion of the means neces- 
 sary for their redemption. Offers are made to 
 invalids, old age pensioners and others involving 
 new expenditure to the amount of some seventeen 
 millions per annum. The Government is to take 
 control of banking and insurance businesses to an 
 unspecified amount. The compulsory system of 
 naval and military training is to be abandoned in 
 favour of a voluntary army on a more demo- 
 cratic basis. This proposal is followed by a de- 
 mand for the more complete self-determination of 
 Australia, and for a change in her position as a 
 member of the British family of nations. The 
 campaign began with an incident which, unfor- 
 tunately, can be regarded as to some extent char- 
 acteristic of both leaders. Mr. Hughes, on his 
 return, declared himself to be the friend of the 
 soldiers, and promised to do for them whatever 
 they asked. He was no doubt sincere, but the 
 promise was stated in the same vague terms as 
 his other proposals. Shortly afterwards the New 
 Zealand Government made a promise to pay the 
 members of the Expeditionary Force a gratuity 
 of IS. 6d. per day. Thereupon the soldiers de- 
 
 manded that Mr. Hughes should translate his 
 promise into action and make a gift to them at 
 the same rate. . . . Mr. Hughes . . . announced 
 that the payment must be made, and stated that 
 it would take the form of non-negotiable bonds, 
 which would be taken at their face value for 
 repatriation purposes. . . . Mr. Ryan, however, 
 saw his chance, and announced that the Labour 
 Party would pay the same amount in cash. . . . 
 Thereupon began a competition between the two 
 leaders in which the last thing considered was the 
 interest of the community as a whole. Ulti- 
 mately the Government made an arrangement by 
 which bonds were to be taken at their face value 
 by certain large employers, and the greater part 
 were to be redeemed out of the first instalment of 
 the German indemnity. ... It is due to the sol- 
 diers to say that the greater number refused to 
 take any part in what looked like an auction sale 
 of their interest in the country to the highest 
 bidder. This incident is also in one respect typical 
 of the spirit in which the campaign was con- 
 ducted between the two leaders. It became very 
 largely a personal contest between Mr. Hughes 
 and Mr. Ryan. Mr. Hughes insisted on his services 
 as the defender of the White Australian poUcy 
 at the Peace Conference and on Mr. Ryan's lack 
 of loyalty or patriotism. Mr, Ryan's general 
 answer was to say that Mr. Hughes had imposed 
 unnecessary sacrifices on Australia, and that the 
 Nationalist Government was incapable of dealing 
 with profiteering through its association with large 
 commercial businesses. The attention of the elec- 
 tors was never seriously directed to the crying 
 needs of the country, to its growing taxation, to 
 its heavy burden of debt, to disclosures of extrava- 
 gant expenditure, which have been made during 
 the war by one commission after another, or to 
 the steady decrease in production which has been 
 caused mainly by the drought but partly by the 
 attraction of loan expenditure in the big cities." 
 — Round Table, March, 1920, pp. 432-436. — 
 "The General Election [1919] was fought very 
 largely on the Labour proposal for the unifica- 
 tion of Australia. In the spring the Labour 
 Organisations published a highly interesting pro- 
 gramme on this important problem. It was ap- 
 parently the intention of the Labour Party to 
 advocate an entire change of the Australian Con- 
 stitution, with the setting up of a Constitution 
 more comparable to that of the Union of South 
 Africa." — Annual Register, 1920, p. 301. — "As a 
 result of elections held in Australia in December 
 [igig] the Nationalists in the lower House con- 
 trolled 39 seats, the Labor party, 26, and the 
 Country party (anti-labor), 10. In the Senate 
 the Nationalists had 35 seats and Labor i. In 
 the new parliament, which met on February 26, 
 Premier Hughes was severely criticised for his 
 attempt to rid the country of strikes by use of 
 the war power vested in him; his order prohibit- 
 ing banks 'or any one else' from giving money 
 or goods to strikers proved abortive. By its 
 new tariff Australia provides three sets of rates: 
 the British preferential, to be applied to imports 
 from the United Kingdom; intermediate, to be 
 granted upon the conclusion of reciprocity treaties; 
 and general rates, to be applied to all countries 
 not entitled to either of the other tariffs. While 
 the new tariff will undoubtedly bind Australia more 
 closely to the empire, its object as stated by 
 the Premier is 'to protect industries born during 
 the war and to encourage others that are desirable 
 and will diversify and extend existing ones.' " — 
 E. D. Grapcr and H. J. Carman, Record of politi- 
 cal events (Political Science Quarterly, Supplement, 
 Sept., 1920, p. 105), — See also Tarut: 1919-1920; 
 
 655
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1920 
 
 AUSTRALIA, CONSTITUTION 
 
 World wide tariff tendency. — In 1920 the term 
 of the governor-general, Sir R. Munro-Ferguson ex- 
 pired and he was succeeded by the Rt. Hon. Lord 
 Forster. A list of the governors-general since the 
 proclamation of the Commonwealth is as follows: 
 Marquess Linlithgow, 1001-1903; Lord Tennyson, 
 1903-1904; Lord Northcote, 1004-1008; Earl of 
 Dudley, 1908-1911; Lord Denman, igii-1914; Sir 
 R. Munro-Ferguson, 1914-1920. 
 
 1920.— New Guinea (German) given as man- 
 datory under League of Nations. See British 
 empire: Treaties promoting expansion: 1920; New 
 Guinea or P.^pu.\: 1920. 
 
 1920. — Press Conference at Ottawa. See Brit- 
 ish ejipire: Colonial and imperial conferences: 
 1920 (August). 
 
 1921. — Australia's mandate published. — Pre- 
 mier Hughes endorsed as representative to the 
 coming Imperial Conference.— ".Australia's man- 
 date for the former German islands in the Pacific 
 south of the equator was published on Feb. 9 [1921] 
 by the League of Nations Council. It also pub- 
 lished Japan's waiver of the clause respecting equal 
 trading opportunities, which, however, the declara- 
 tion said, should not be considered acquiescence by 
 Japan." — N. Y. Times Current History, March, 
 1921, p. 502. — "Premier Hughes was defeated in 
 the Australian Parliament on April 14 by an ad- 
 verse majority of two, which, however, was purely 
 accidental. In a plea to the members, he [Premier 
 Hughes] stated that the vote made his position 
 impossible, and that he could not attend the com- 
 ing British imperial conference unless there was 
 a clear indication that the vote did not mean 
 censure or an attempt to take the control of 
 business out of the hands of the Government. 
 He received an emphatic endorsement on April 
 20, when resolutions reiterating confidence in the 
 Government and declaring in favor of Premier 
 Hughes as .Australia's representative at the im- 
 perial conference were passed by a vcic of 4b to 
 23. [Since then] debate on the Empire's foreign 
 policy has occupied the attention of Parliament." 
 — jV. Y. Times Current History, June. 1021, p. 510. 
 1921. — Imperial conference. — Question of Ang- 
 lo-Japanese alliance. — Declaration of domin- 
 ion rights. — Reparation receipts apportioned. 
 See British empire: Colonial and imperial confer- 
 ences: 1921 ; and 1021: Treaty of Versailles. 
 
 1921. — Electoral system. See Suffrage, Man- 
 hood: British Empire: 192 1. 
 
 1921. — Unrest over Japanese in Pacific. See 
 Japan: 1918-1921: As third of great World 
 Powers. 
 Charities. See Charities:. Australasia. 
 Child welfare. See Child welfare legisla- 
 tion: Australia. 
 
 Conservation, irrigation and forestry. See 
 Conservation of natural resour'ces: Australia. 
 French colonies. See France: Colonial empire. 
 Masonic societies. See Masonic societies: 
 Australasia. 
 
 Missions. See Missions, Christian: Islands of 
 the Pacific. 
 
 Mythology. See Mythology: Indonesian myth- 
 ology: .Australian mythology. 
 
 Race problems. — Reasons for dread of Asi- 
 atic immigration. — Demand for white Australia. 
 See Race problems: 1904-1913. 
 
 Railroads, Trans-Australian. See Railroads: 
 1908-1918. 
 
 Social legislation. See Socul insurance: New 
 Zealand. 
 
 Sufirage. See Australian ballot; and Suf- 
 frage, Manhood: British Empire: 1921. 
 
 Also in: A. W. Jose, History of Australasia. — 
 E. Lewin, Commonweailh of Australia. — Gordon 
 
 and Gotch, .Australian handbook (annual). — W. P. 
 Reeves, State experiments in .Australia and New 
 Zealand. — T. A. Coghlan, Labour and industry in 
 Australia. — A. T. Clark, Labour movement in Aus- 
 tralasia. — F. Johns, Australasia's prominent peo- 
 ple. 
 
 AUSTRALIA, Constitution of.— The following 
 is the "Act to constitute the Commonwealth of 
 Australia," as passed by the Imperial Parliament, 
 July 9, 1900 (63 & 64 Vict. ch. 12) (see .Australia: 
 iqoo). The text is from the official publication of 
 the act: 
 
 Whereas the people of New South Wales, Vic- 
 toria, South Australia, Queensland, and Tasmania, 
 humbly relying on the blessing of Almighty 
 God, have agreed to unite in one indissoluble 
 Federal Commonwealth under the Crown of the 
 United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, 
 and under the Constitution hereby established: 
 And whereas it is expedient to provide for the ad- 
 mission into the Commonwealth of other Australa- 
 sian Colonies and possessions of the Queen: Be it 
 therefore enacted by the Queen's most Excellent 
 Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of 
 the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, 
 in this present Parliament assembled, and by the 
 authority of the same, as follows: — 
 
 1. This .Act may be cited as the Commonwealth 
 of .Australia Constitution Act. 
 
 2. The provisions of this .Act referring to the 
 Queen shall extend to Her Majesty's heirs and suc- 
 cessors in the sovereignty of the LInited King- 
 dom. 
 
 3. It shall be lawful for the Queen, with the 
 advice of the Privy Council, to declare by proc- 
 lamation that, on and after a day therein ap- 
 pointed, not being later than one year after the 
 passing of this .Act. the people of New South 
 Wales, Victoria, South .Australia. Queensland, and 
 Tasmania, and also, if Her Majesty is satisfied 
 that the people of Western .Australia have agreed 
 thereto, of Western .Australia, shall be united in 
 a Federal Commonwealth under the name of the 
 Commonwealth of .Australia. But the Queen may, 
 at any time after the proclamation, appoint a 
 Governor-General for the Commonwealth. 
 
 4. The Commonwealth shall be established, and 
 the Constitution of the Commonwealth shall take 
 effect, on and after the day so appointed. But 
 the Parliaments of the several colonies may at 
 any time after the passing of this .Act make any 
 such laws, to come into operation on the day so 
 appointed, as they might have made if the Con- 
 stitution had taken effect at the passing of thb 
 Act. 
 
 5. This .Act, and all laws made by the ParHa- 
 ment of the Commonwealth under the Constitution, 
 shall be binding on the courts, judges, and people 
 of every State and of every part of the Com- 
 monwealth, notwith-standing anything in the laws 
 of any State; and the laws of the Commonwealth 
 shall be in force on all British ships, the Queen'i 
 ships of war excepted, whose first port of clear- 
 ance and whose port of destination are in the 
 Commonwealth. 
 
 6. "The Commonwealth" shall mean the Com- 
 monwealth of .Australia as established under this 
 Act. "The States" shall mean such of the col- 
 onies of New South Wales, New Zealand, Queens- 
 land, Tasmania, Victoria, Western Australia, and 
 South Australia, including the northern territory 
 of South Australia, as for the time being are parts 
 of the Commonwealth, and such colonies or terri- 
 tories as may be admitted into or established by 
 the Commonwealth as States; and each of such 
 parts of the Commonwealth shall be called "a 
 
 656
 
 Maps prepared specially for the NEW LARNED 
 under direction of ihe editors and publishers. 
 
 c
 
 AUSTRALIA, CONSTITUTION 
 
 AUSTRALIA, CONSTITUTION 
 
 Chapter 
 
 I. 
 
 Part 
 
 I. 
 
 Part 
 
 II. 
 
 Part 
 
 III. 
 
 Part 
 
 IV. 
 
 Part 
 
 v.- 
 
 Chapter 
 
 II.- 
 
 Chapter 
 
 III- 
 
 Chapter 
 
 IV. 
 
 Chapter 
 
 V.- 
 
 Chapter 
 
 VI.- 
 
 Chapter 
 
 VII.- 
 
 Chapter VIII.- 
 
 The Schedule. 
 
 state." "Original States" shall mean such States 
 as are parts of the Commonwealth at its establish- 
 ment. 
 
 7. The Federal Council of Australasia Act, 1885, 
 is hereby repealed, but so as not to affect any 
 laws passed by the Federal Council of Australasia 
 and in force at the establishment of the Com- 
 monwealth. Any such law may be repealed as to 
 any State by the Parliament of the Commonwealth, 
 or as to any colony not being a State by the 
 Parliament thereof. 
 
 8. After the passing of this Act the Colonial 
 Boundaries Act, i8g5, shall not apply to any colony 
 which becomes a State of the Commonwealth; 
 but the Commonwealth shall be taken to be a 
 self-governing colony for the purposes of that 
 Act. 
 
 0. The Constitution of the Commonwealth shall 
 be as follows: — 
 
 CONSTIIUTION 
 
 Th;s Constitution is divided as follows: — 
 
 — The Parliament: 
 — General: 
 — The Senate: 
 
 — The House of Representatives: 
 — Both Houses of the Parlia- 
 ment: 
 — Powers of the Parliament: 
 —The Executive Government: 
 —The Judicature: 
 — Finance and Trade: 
 —The States: 
 —New States: 
 —Miscellaneous: 
 —Alteration of the Constitution. 
 
 Chapter I. The Parliament: Part I. — Gen- 
 eral 
 
 1. The legislative power of the Commonwealth 
 shall be vested in a Federal Parliament, which 
 shall consist of the Queen, a Senate, and a House 
 of Representatives, and which is herein-after called 
 "The Parliament," or "The Parliament of the 
 Commonwealth." 
 
 2. A Governor-General appointed by the Queen 
 shall be Her Majesty's representative in the Com- 
 monwealth, and shall have and may exercise in 
 the Commonwealth during the Queen's pleasure, 
 but subject to this Constitution, such powers and 
 functions of the Queen as Her Majesty may be 
 pleased to assign to him. 
 
 3. There shall be payable to the Queen out of 
 the Consolidated Revenue fund of the Common- 
 wealth, for the salary of the Governor-General 
 an annual sum which, until the Parliament other- 
 wise provides, shall be ten thousand pounds. The 
 salary of a Governor-General shall not be altered 
 
 . during his continuance in office. 
 
 4. The provisions of this Constitution relating 
 to the Governor-General extend and apply to the 
 Governor-General for the time being, or such per- 
 son as the Queen may appoint to administer the 
 Government of the Commonwealth ; but no such 
 person shall be entitled to receive any salary from 
 the Commonwealth in respect of any other office 
 during his administration of the Government of 
 the Commonwealth. 
 
 5. The Governor-General may appoint such 
 times for holding the sessions of the Parliament 
 as he thinks fit, and may also from time to time, 
 by Proclamation or otherwise, prorogue the Par- 
 hament, and may in like manner dissolve the 
 House of Representatives. After any general elec- 
 
 tion, the ParHament shall be summoned to meet 
 not later than thirty days after the day appointed 
 for the return of the writs. The Parliament 
 shall be summoned to meet not later than six 
 months after the establishment of the Common- 
 wealth. 
 
 6. There shall be a session of the Parliament once 
 at least in every year, so that twelve months shall 
 not intervene between the last sitting of the Parlia- 
 ment in one session and its first sitting in the next 
 session. 
 
 Part II. — The Senate 
 
 7. The Senate shall be composed of senators for 
 each State, directly chosen by the people of the 
 State, voting, until the Parliament otherwise pro- 
 vides, as one electorate. But until the Parliament 
 of the Commonwealth otherwise provides, the 
 Parliament of the State of Queensland, if that State 
 be an Original State, may make laws dividing 
 the State into divisions and determining the num- 
 ber of senators to be chosen for each division, and 
 in the absence of such provision the State shall 
 be one electorate. Until the Parliament other- 
 wise provides there shall be six senators for each 
 Original State. The Parliament may make laws 
 increasing or diminishing the number of senators 
 for each State, but so that equal representation 
 of the several Original States shall be maintained 
 and that no Original State shall have less than 
 six senators. The senators shall be chosen for a 
 term of six years, and the names of the senators 
 chosen for each State shall be certified by the 
 Governor to the Governor-General. 
 
 8. The quahfication of electors of senators shall 
 be in each State that which is prescribed by this 
 Constitution, or by the Parliament, as the .quali- 
 fication for electors of members of the House of 
 Representatives; but in the choosing of senators 
 each elector shall vote only once. 
 
 Q. The Parliament of the Commonwealth may 
 make laws prescribing the method of choosing sen- 
 ators, but so that the method shall be uniform 
 for all the States. Subject to any such law, the 
 Parliament of each State may make laws prescrib- 
 ing the method of choosing the senators for that 
 State. The Parliament of a State may make laws 
 for determining the times and places of elections 
 of senators for the State. 
 
 10. Until the Parliament otherwise provides, 
 but subject to this Constitution, the laws in force 
 in each State, for the time being, relating to elec- 
 tions for the more numerous House of the Parlia- 
 ment of the State shall, as nearly as practicable, 
 apply to elections of senators for the State. 
 
 11. The Senate may proceed to the despatch of 
 business, notwithstanding the failure of any State 
 to provide for its representation in the Senate. 
 
 12. The Governor of any State may cause writs 
 to be issued for elections of senators for the State. 
 In case of the dissolution of the Senate the writs 
 shall be issued within ten days from the proclama- 
 tion of such dissolution. 
 
 13. As soon as may be after the Senate first 
 meets, and after each first meeting of the Senate 
 following a dissolution thereof, the Senate shall 
 divide the senators chosen for each State into two 
 classes, as nearly equal in number as practicable; 
 and the places of the senators of the first class 
 shall become vacant at the expiration of the third 
 year, and the places of those of the second class 
 at the expiration of the sixth year, from the be- 
 ginning of their term of service; and afterwards 
 the places of senators shall become vacant at the 
 expiration of six years from the beginning of 
 their term of service. The election to fill vacant 
 
 657
 
 AUSTRALIA, CONSTITUTION 
 
 AUSTRALIA, CONSTITUTION 
 
 places shall be made in the year at the expiration 
 of which the places are to become vacant. For 
 the purposes of this section the term of service 
 of a senator shall be taken to begin on the first 
 day of January following the day of his election, 
 except in the cases of the first election ;ind of the 
 election next after any dissolution of llie Senate, 
 when it shall be taken to begin on the first day 
 of January preceding the day of his election. 
 
 14. Whenever the number of senators for a 
 State is increased or diminished, the Parliament 
 of the Commonwealth may make such provision 
 for the vacating of the places of senators for the 
 State as it deems necessary to maintain regular- 
 ity in the rotation. 
 
 15. If the place of a senator becomes vacant 
 before the expiration of his term of service, the 
 Houses of Parliament of the State for which he 
 was chosen shall, sitting and voting together, 
 choose a person to hold the place until the ex- 
 piration of the term, or until the election of a 
 successor as hereinafter provided, whichever first 
 happens. But if the Houses of Parliament of 
 the State are not in session at the time when the 
 vacancy is notified, the Governor of the State, 
 with the advice of the Executive Council thereof, 
 may appoint a person to hold the place until the 
 expiration of fourteen days after the beginning 
 of the next se.ssion of the Parliament of the 
 State, or until the election of a successor, which- 
 ever first happens. At the next general election 
 of members of the House of Representatives, or 
 at the next election of senators for the State, 
 whichever first happens, a successor shall, if the 
 term has not then expired, be chosen to hold the 
 place from the date of his election until the ex- 
 piration of the term. The name of any senator 
 so chosen or appointed shall be certified by the 
 Governor of the State to the Governor-General. 
 
 16. The qualifications of a senator shall be the 
 same as those of a member of the House of Rep- 
 resentatives. 
 
 17. The Senate shall, before proceeding to the 
 despatch of any other business, choose a senator 
 to be the President of the Senate; and as often as 
 the office of President becomes vacant the Senate 
 shall again choose a senator to be the President. 
 The President shall cease to hold his office if he 
 ceases to be a senator. He may be removed from 
 office by a vote of the Senate, or he may resign 
 his office or his seat by writing addressed to the 
 Governor-General. 
 
 18. Before or during any absence of the Presi- 
 dent, the Senate may choose- a senator to perform 
 his duties in his absence. 
 
 ig. A Senator may, by writing addressed to 
 the President, or to the Governor-General if there 
 is no President or if the President is absent from 
 the Commonwealth, resign his place, which there- 
 upon shall become vacant. 
 
 20. The place of a senator shall become vacant 
 if for two consecutive months of any session of 
 the Parliament he, without the permission of the 
 Senate, fails to attend the Senate. 
 
 21. VV'henever a vacancy happens in the Sen- 
 ate, the President, or if there is no President or 
 if the President is absent from the Commonwealth, 
 the Governor-General shall notify the same to 
 the Governor of the State in the representation of 
 which the vacancy has happened. 
 
 22. Until the Parliament otherwise provides, the 
 presence of at least one-third of the whole num- 
 ber of the senators shall be necessary to constitute 
 a meeting of the Senate for the exercise of its 
 powers. 
 
 23. Questions arising in the Senate shall be de- 
 termined by a majority of votes, and each senator 
 
 shall have one vote. The President shall in all 
 cases be entitled to a vote; and when the votes 
 are equal the question shall pass in the negative. 
 
 Part III. — The House of REPRESENTAnvES 
 
 24. The House of Representatives shall be com- 
 posed of members directly chosen by the people 
 of the Commonwealth, and the number of such 
 members shall be, as nearly as practicable, twice 
 the number of the senators. The number of 
 members chosen in the several States shall be in 
 proportion to the respective numbers of their peo- 
 ple, and shall, until the Parliament otherwise 
 provides, be determined, whenever necessary, in 
 the following manner: — (i.) A quota shall be as- 
 certained by dividing the number of the people of 
 the Commonwealth, as shown by the latest sta- 
 tistics of the Commonwealth, by twice the num- 
 ber of the senators, (ii.) The number of members 
 to be chosen in each State shall be determined by 
 dividing the number of the people of the State, 
 as shown by the latest statistics of the Common- 
 wealth, by the quota; and if on such division 
 there is a remainder greater than one-half of the 
 quota, one more member shall be chosen in the 
 State. But notwithstanding anything in this sec- 
 tion, five members at least shall be chosen in each 
 Original State. 
 
 25. For the purposes of the last section, if by 
 the law of any State all persons of any race are 
 disqualified from voting at elections for the more 
 numerous House of the Parliament of the State, 
 then, in reckoning the number of the people of 
 the State or of the Commonwealth, persons of that 
 race resident in that State shall not be counted.' 
 
 26. Notwithstanding anything in section twenty- 
 four, the number of members to be chosen in each 
 State at the first election shall be as follows: — 
 New South Wales, twenty-three; Victoria, twenty; 
 Queensland, eight; South Australia, six; Tasmania, 
 five; provided that if Western .\ustralia is an 
 Original State, the numbers shall be as follows: — 
 New South Wales, twenty-six; Victoria, twenty- 
 three; Queensland, nine; South .Australia, seven; 
 Western .Australia, five; Tasmania, five. 
 
 27. Subject to this Constitution, the Parliament 
 may make laws for increasing or diminishing the 
 number of the members of the House of Repre- 
 sentatives. 
 
 28. Every House of Representatives shall con- 
 tinue for three years from the first meeting of the 
 House, and no longer, but may be sooner dissolved 
 by the Governor-General. 
 
 2q. Until the Parliament of the Commonwealth 
 otherwise provides, the Parliament of any State 
 may make laws for determining the divisions in 
 each State for which members of the House of 
 Representatives may be chosen, and the number 
 of members to be chosen for each division. A 
 division shall not be formed out of parts of dif- 
 ferent States. In the absence of other provision, 
 each State shall be one electorate. 
 
 30. Until the Parliament otherwise provides, the 
 qualification of electors of members of the House 
 of Representatives shall be in each State that 
 which is prescribed by the law of the State as 
 the qualification of electors of the more numerous 
 House of Parliament of the State; but in the choos- 
 ing of members each elector shall vote only once. 
 
 31. Until the Parliament otherwise provides, but 
 subject to this Constitution, the laws in force 
 in each State for the time being relating to elec- 
 tions for the more numerous House of the Par- 
 liament of the State shall, as nearly as practi- 
 cable, apply to elections in the State of members 
 of the House of Representatives. 
 
 658
 
 AUSTRALIA, CONSTITUTION 
 
 AUSTRALIA, CONSTITUTION 
 
 32. The Governor-General in Council may cause 
 writs to be issued for general elections of mem- 
 bers of the House of Representatives. After the 
 first general election, the writs shall be issued 
 within ten days from the expiry of a House of 
 Representatives or from the proclamation of a 
 dissolution thereof. 
 
 33. Whenever a vacancy happens in the House 
 of Representatives, the Speaker shall issue his 
 writ for the election of a new member, or if there 
 is no Speaker or if he is absent from the Common- 
 wealth the Governor-General in Council may issue 
 the writ. 
 
 34. Until the Parliament otherwise provides, the 
 qualifications of a member of the House of Rep- 
 resentatives shall be as follows: — (i.) He must be 
 of the full age of twenty-one years, and must be 
 an elector entitled to vote at the election of mem- 
 bers of the House of Representatives, or a person 
 qualified to become such 'elector, and must have 
 been for three years at least a resident within 
 the limits of the Commonwealth as existing at 
 the time when he is chosen: (ii.) He must be a 
 subject of the Queen, either natural-born or for 
 at least five years naturahzed under a law of the 
 United Kingdom, or of a Colony which has be- 
 come or becomes a State, or of the Commonwealth, 
 or of a State. 
 
 35. The House of Representatives shall, before 
 proceeding to the despatch of any other business, 
 choose a member to be the Speaker of the House, 
 and as often as the office of Speaker becomes 
 vacant the House shall again choose a member to 
 be the Speaker. The Speaker shall cease to hold 
 his office if he ceases to be a member. He may 
 be removed from office by a vote of the House, 
 or he may resign his office or his seat by writing 
 addressed to the Governor-Generai. 
 
 36. Before or during any absence of the Speaker, 
 the House of Representatives may choose a mem- 
 ber to perform his duties in his absence, 
 
 37. A member may by writing addressed to the 
 Speaker, or to the Governor-General if there is 
 no Speaker or if the Speaker is absent from the 
 Commonwealth, resign his place, which thereupon 
 shall become vacant. 
 
 38. The place of a member shall become vacant 
 if for two consecutive months of any session of 
 the Parliament he, without the permission of the 
 House, fails to attend the House. 
 
 39. Until the Parliament otherwise provides, the 
 presence of at least one-third of the whole num- 
 ber of the members of the House of Representa- 
 tives shall be necessary to constitute a meeting 
 of the House for the exercise of its powers. 
 
 40. Questions arising in the House of Representa- 
 tives shall be determined by a majority of votes 
 other than that of the Speaker. The Speaker 
 shall not vote unless the numbers are equal, and 
 then he shall have a casting vote. 
 
 Part IV. — Both Houses of the Parliament 
 
 41. No adult person who has or acquires a 
 right to vote at elections for the more numerous 
 House of the Parliament of a State shall, while 
 the right continues, be prevented by any law of 
 the Commonwealth from voting at elections for 
 either House of the Parliament of the Common- 
 wealth. 
 
 42. Every senator and every member of the 
 House of Representatives shall before taking his 
 seat make and subscribe before the Governor- 
 General, or some person authorised by him, an 
 oath or affirmation of allegiance in the form set 
 forth in the schedule to this Constitution. 
 
 43. A member of either House of the Parliament 
 
 shall be incapable of being chosen or of sitting 
 as a member of the other House. 
 
 44. Any person who — (i.) Is under any acknowl- 
 edgment of allegiance, obedience, or adherence to 
 a foreign power, or is a subject or a citizen or 
 entitled to the rights or privileges of a subject or 
 a citizen of a foreign power: or (ii.) Is attainted 
 of treason, or has been convicted and is under 
 sentence, or subject to be sentenced, for any of- 
 fence punishable under the law of the Common- 
 wealth or of a State by imprisonment for one 
 year or longer: or (iii.) Is an undischarged bank- 
 rupt or insolvent: or (iv.) Holds any office of 
 profit under the Crown, or any pension payable 
 during the pleasure of the Crown out of any of 
 the revenues of the Commonwealth: or (v.) Has 
 any direct or indirect pecuniary interest in any 
 agreement with the Public Service of the Com- 
 monwealth otherwise than as a member and in 
 common with the other members of an incorpo- 
 rated company consisting of more than twenty- 
 five persons: shall be incapable of being chosen 
 or of sitting as a senator or a mdrnber of the House 
 of Representatives. But sub-section iv. does not 
 apply to the office of any of the Queen's Minis- 
 ters of State for the Commonwealth, or of any of 
 the Queen's Ministers for a State, or to the re- 
 ceipt of pay, half pay, or a pension by any per- 
 son as an officer or member of the Queen's navy 
 or army, or to the receipt of pay as an officer or 
 member of the naval or military forces of the 
 Commonwealth by any person whose services are 
 not wholly employed by the Commonwealth. 
 
 45. If a senator or member of the House of 
 Representatives— -(i.) Becomes subject to any of 
 the disabilities mentioned in the last preceding 
 section: or (ii.) Takes the benefit, whether by 
 assignment, composition, or otherwise, of any law 
 relating to bankrupt or insolvent debtors: or 
 (iii.) Directly or indirectly takes or agrees to take 
 any fee or honorarium for services rendered to the 
 Commonwealth, or for services rendered in the 
 Parliament to any person or State: his place shall 
 thereupon become vacant. 
 
 46. Until the Parliament otherwise provides, any 
 person declared by this Constitution to be in- 
 capable of sitting as a senator or as a member of 
 the House of Representatives shall, for every day 
 on which he so sits, be liable to pay the sum of 
 one hundred pounds to any person who sues for 
 it in any court of competent jurisdiction. 
 
 47. Until the Parliament otherwise provides, any 
 question respecting the qualification of a senator 
 or of a member of the House of Representatives, 
 or respecting a vacancy in either House of the 
 Parliament, and any question of a disputed elec- 
 tion to either House, shall be determined by the 
 House in which the question arises. 
 
 48. Until the Parliament otherwise provides, each 
 senator and each member of the House of Rep- 
 resentatives shall receive an allowance of four 
 hundred pounds a year, to be reckoned from the 
 day on which he takes his seat. 
 
 4g. The powers, privileges, and immunities of 
 the Senate and of the House of Representatives, 
 and of the members and the committees of each 
 House, shall be such as are declared by the Par- 
 liament, and until declared shall be those of the 
 Commons House of Parliament of the United 
 Kingdom, and of its members and committees, 
 at the establishment of the Commonwealth. 
 
 50. Each House of the Parliament may make 
 rules and orders with respect to — (i.) The mode 
 in which its powers, privileges, and imm.unities 
 may be e.xercised and upheld: (ii.) The order 
 and conduct of its business and proceedings either 
 separately or jointly with the other House, 
 
 659
 
 AUSTRALIA, CONSTITUTION 
 
 AUSTRALIA, CONSTITUTION 
 
 Part V. — Powers of the Parliament 
 
 51. The Parliament shall, subject to this Con- 
 stitution, have power to make laws for the peace, 
 order, and good government of the Common- 
 wealth with respect to: — (i.) Trade and com- 
 merce with other countries, and among the Stales; 
 (ii.) Taxation; but so as not to discriminate be- 
 tween States or parts of States; (iii.) Bounties 
 on the production or export of goods, but so that 
 such bounties shall be uniform throughout the 
 Commonwealth* (iv.) Borrowing money on the 
 public credit of the Commonwealth; (v.) Postal, 
 telegraphic, telephonic, and other like services: 
 (vi.) The naval and militarj- defence of the Com- 
 monwealth and of the several States, and the con- 
 trol of the forces to execute and maintain the 
 laws of the Commonwealth; (vii.) Lighthouses, 
 lightships, beacons and buoys; (viii.) Astro- 
 nomical and meteorological observations; (ix.) 
 Quarantine: (x.) Fisheries in Australian waters 
 beyond territorial limits; (xi.) Census and statis- 
 tics: (xii.) Currency, coinage, and legal tender; 
 (xiii.) Banking, other than -State banking; also 
 State banking extending beyond the limits of 
 the State concerned, the incorporation of banks, 
 and the issue of paper money; (xiv.) Insurance, 
 other than State insurance; also State insurance 
 extending beyond the limits of the State con- 
 cerned; (xv') Weights and measures; (xyi.) 
 Bills of exchange and promissory notes: (xvii.) 
 Bankruptcy and insolvency; (xviii.) Copyrights, 
 patents of inventions and designs, and trade marks: 
 (xix.) Naturalization and aliens; (xx.) Foreign 
 corporations, and trading or financial corpora- 
 tions formed within the limits of the Common- 
 wealth: (xxi.) Marriage: (xxii.) Divorce and matri- 
 monial causes; and in relation thereto, parental 
 rights, and the custody and guardianship of in- 
 fants: <xxiii.) Invalid and old-age pensions; (xxiv.) 
 The service and execution throughout the Com- 
 monwealth of the civil and criminal process and 
 the judgments of the courts of the States; (xxv.) 
 The recognition throughout the Commonwealth of 
 the laws, the public Acts and records, and the 
 judicial proceeding of the States: (xxvi.) The peo- 
 ple of any race, other than the aboriginal race in 
 any State, for whom it is deemed necessary to 
 make special laws: (xxvii.) Immigration and emi- 
 gration: (xxviii.) The influx of criminals; (xxix.) 
 External affairs; (xxx.) The relations of the Com- 
 monwealth with the islands of the Pacific: (xxxi.) 
 The acquisition of property on just terms from any 
 State or person for any purpose in respect of 
 which the Parliament has power to make laws; 
 (xxxii.) The control of railways with respect to 
 transport for the naval and military purposes of 
 the Commonwealth: (xxxiii.) The acquisition, with 
 the consent of a State, of any railways of the State 
 on terms arranged between the Commonwealth 
 and the State: (xxxiv.) Railway construction and 
 extension in any State with the consent of that 
 State: (xxxv.) Conciliation and arbitration for 
 the prevention and settlement of industrial dis- 
 putes extending beyond the limits of any one State: 
 (xxxvi.) Matters in respect of which this Con- 
 stitution makes provision until the Parliament 
 otherwise provides: (xxxvii.) Matters referred to 
 the Parliament of the Commonwealth by the Par- 
 liament or Parliaments of any State or States, but 
 so that the law shall extend only to States by 
 whose Parliaments the matter is referred, or which 
 afterwards adopt the law: fxxxviii.) The exercise 
 within the Commonwealth, at the request or with 
 the concurrence of the Parliaments of all the 
 States directly concerned, of any power which can 
 at the estabiishment of this Constitution be ex- 
 
 ercised only by the Parliament of the United 
 Kingdom or by the Federal Council of Australasia; 
 (xxxix.) Matters incidental to the execution of any 
 power vested by this Constitution in the Parlia- 
 ment or in either House thereof, or in the Gov- 
 ernment of the Commonwealth, or in the Federal 
 Judicature, or in any department or officer of 
 the Commonwealth. 
 
 52. The Parliament shall, subject to this Con- 
 stitution, have exclusive power to make laws for 
 the peace, order, and good government of the 
 Commonwealth with respect to — (i.) The seat of 
 government of the Commonwealth, and all places 
 acquired by the Commonwealth for public pur- 
 poses: (ii.) Matters relating to any department 
 of the public service the control of which is by 
 this Constitution transferred to the Executive 
 Government of the Commonwealth: (iii.) Other 
 matters declared by this Constitution to be within 
 the exclusive power of the Parliament. 
 
 5.V Proposed laws appropriating revenue or 
 moneys, or imposing taxation, shall not originate 
 in the Senate. But a proposed law shall not be 
 taken to appropriate revenue or moneys, or to 
 impose taxation, by reason only of its containing 
 provisions for the imposition or appropriation of 
 fines or other pecuniary penalties, or for the de- 
 mand or payment or appropriation of fees for 
 licences, or fees for services under the proposed 
 law. The Senate may not amend proposed laws 
 imposing taxation, or proposed laws appropri- 
 ating revenue or moneys for the ordinary annual 
 services of the Government. The Senate may 
 not amend any proposed law so as to increase 
 any proposed charge or burden on the people. 
 The Senate may at any stage return to the House 
 of Representatives any proposed law which the 
 Senate may not amend, requesting, by message, 
 the omission or amendment of any items or 
 provisions therein. And the House of Representa- 
 tives may, if it thinks fit, make any of such 
 omissions or amendments, with or without modi- 
 fications. Except as provided in this section, the 
 Senate shall have equal power with the House 
 of Representatives in respect of all proposed laws. 
 
 54. The proposed law which appropriates rev- 
 enue or moneys for the ordinary annual services 
 of the Government shall deal only with such ap- 
 propriation. 
 
 55. Laws imposing taxation shall deal only with 
 the imposition of taxation, and any provision 
 therein dealing with any other matter shall be of 
 no effect. Laws imposing taxation, except laws 
 imposing duties of customs or of excise, shall deal 
 with one subject of taxation only; but laws im- 
 posing duties of customs shall deal with duties of 
 customs only, and laws imposing duties of excise 
 shall deal with duties of excise only. 
 
 56. A vote, resolution, or proposed law for the 
 appropriation of revenue or moneys shall not be 
 passed unless the purpose of the appropriation 
 has in the same session been recommended by mes- 
 sage of the Governor-General to the House in 
 which the proposal originated. 
 
 57. If the House of Representatives passes any 
 proposed law, and the Senate rejects or fails to 
 pass it, or passes it with amendments to which 
 the House of Representatives will not agree, and 
 if after an interval of three months the House of 
 Representatives, in the same or the next session, 
 again passes the proposed law with or without 
 any amendments which have been made, suggested, 
 or agreed to by the Senate, and the Senate re- 
 jects or fails to pass it, or passes it with amend- 
 ments to which the House of Representatives will 
 not agree, the Governor-General may dissolve the 
 Senate and the House of Representatives simultane- 
 
 660
 
 AUSTRALIA, CONSTITUTION 
 
 AUSTRALIA, CONSTITUTION 
 
 ously. But such dissolution shall not take place 
 within six months before the date of the expiry 
 of the House of Representatives by effluxion of 
 time. If after such dissolution the House of Rep- 
 resentatives again passes the proposed law, with 
 or without any amendments which have been 
 made, suggested, or agreed to by the Senate, and 
 the Senate rejects or fails to pass it, or passes it 
 with amendments to which the House of Represen- 
 tatives will not agree, the Governor-General may 
 convene a joint sitting of the members of the 
 Senate and of the House of Representatives. The 
 members present at the joint sitting may deliberate 
 and shall vote together upon the propo.sed law as 
 last proposed by the House of Representatives, and 
 upon amendments, if any, which have been made 
 therein by one House and not agreed to by the 
 other, and any such amendments which are af- 
 firmed by an absolute majority of the total number 
 of the members of the Senate and House of Rep- 
 resentatives shall be taken to have been carried, and 
 if the proposed law, with the amendments, if any, 
 so carried is affirmed by an absolute majority of 
 the total number of the members of the Senate 
 and House of Representatives, it shall be taken 
 to have been duly passed by both Houses of the 
 Parliament, and shall be presented to the Gov- 
 ernor-General for the Queen's assent. 
 
 58. When a proposed law passed by both Houses 
 of the Parliament is presented to the Governor- 
 General for the Queen's assent, he shall declare, 
 according to his discretion, but subject to this 
 Constitution, that he assents in the Queen's name, 
 or that he withholds assent, or that he reserves 
 the law for the Queen's, pleasure. The Governor- 
 General may return to the house in which it 
 originated any proposed law so presented to him, 
 and may transmit therewith any amendments 
 which he may recommend, and the Houses may 
 deal with the recommendation. 
 
 SQ. The Queen may disallow any law within one 
 year from the Governor-General's assent, and such 
 disallowance on being made known by the Gov- 
 ernor-General by speech or message to each of 
 the Houses of the Parliament, or by Proclamation, 
 shall annul the law from the day when the dis- 
 allowance is so made known. 
 
 60. A proposed law reserved for the Queen's 
 pleasure shall not have any force unless and until 
 within two years from the day on which it was 
 presented to the Governor-General for the Queen's 
 assent the Governor-General makes known, by 
 speech or message to each of the Houses of Par- 
 liament, or by Proclamation, that it has received 
 the Queen's assent. 
 
 Chapter II. The Executive Government 
 
 61. The executive power of the Commonwealth 
 is vested in the Queen and is e.xercisable by the 
 Governor-General as the Queen's representative, 
 and extends to the execution and maintenance of 
 this Constitution, and of the laws of the Common- 
 wealth. 
 
 62. There shall be a Federal Executive Council 
 to advise the Governor-General in the govern- 
 ment of the Commonwealth, and the members of 
 the Council shall be chosen and summoned by 
 the Governor-General and sworn as Executive 
 Councillors, and shall hold office during his plea- 
 sure. 
 
 63. The provisions of this Constitution referring 
 to the Governor-General in Council shall be con- 
 strued as referring to the Governor-General acting 
 with the advice of the Federal Executive Council. 
 
 64. The Governor-General may appoint officers 
 to administer such departments of State of the 
 
 66 
 
 Commonwealth as the Governor-General in Coun- 
 cil may estabHsh. Such officers shall hold office 
 during the pleasure of the Governor-General. They 
 shall be members of the Federal Executive Council, 
 and shall be the Queen's Ministers of State for 
 the Commonwealth. After the first general election 
 no Minister of State shall hold office for a longer 
 period than three months unless he is or becomes 
 a senator or a member of the House of Repre- 
 sentatives. 
 
 65. Until the Parliament otherwise provides, the 
 Ministers of State shall not exceed seven in num- 
 ber, and shall hold such oflices as the Parliament 
 prescribes, or, in the absence of provision, as the 
 Governor-General directs. 
 
 66. There shall be payable to the Queen, out 
 of the Consolidated Revenue Fund of the Com- 
 monwealth, for the salaries of the Ministers of 
 State, an annual sum which, until the Parliament 
 otherwise provides, shall not exceed twelve thou- 
 sand pounds a year. 
 
 67. Until the Parliament otherwise provides, the 
 appointment and removal of all other officers of 
 the Executive Government of the Commonwealth 
 shall be vested in the Governor-General in Coun- 
 cil, unless the appointment is delegated by the 
 Governor-General in Council or by a law of the 
 Commonwealth to some other authority. 
 
 68. The command in chief of the naval and mili- 
 tary forces of the Commonwealth is vested in the 
 Governor-General as the Queen's representative. 
 
 6q. On a date or dates to be proclaimed by 
 the Governor-General after the establishment of 
 the Commonwealth the following departments 
 of the public service in each State shall become 
 transferred to the Commonwealth: Posts, tele- 
 graphs, and telephones: Naval and military de- 
 fence: Lighthouses, lightships, beacons, and buoys: 
 Quarantine. But the departments of customs and 
 of excise in each State shall become transferred 
 to the Commonwealth on its establishment. 
 
 70. In respect of matters which, under this Con- 
 stitution, pass to the Executive Government of 
 the Commonwealth, all powers and functions which 
 at the establishment of the Commonwealth are 
 vested in the Governor of a Colony, or in the 
 Governor of a Colony with the advice of his 
 Executive Council, or in any authority of a Colony, 
 shall vest in the Governor-General, or in the Gov- 
 ernor-General in Council, or in the authority ex- 
 ercising similar powers under the Commonwealth, 
 as the case requires. 
 
 Chapter III. Judicature 
 
 71. The judicial power of the Commonwealth 
 shall be vested in a Federal Supreme Court, to 
 be called the High Court of Australia, and in such 
 other federal courts as the Parliament creates, 
 and in such other courts as it invests with fed- 
 eral jurisdiction. The High Court shall consist 
 of a Chief Justice, and so many other Jus- 
 tices, not less than two, as the Parliament pre- 
 scribes. 
 
 72. The Justices of the High Court and of the 
 other courts created by the Parliament — (i.) Shall 
 be appointed by the Governor-General in Council: 
 (ii.) Shall not be removed except by the Governor- 
 General in Council, on an address from both 
 Houses of the Parliament in the same session, pray- 
 ing for such removal on the ground of proved 
 misbehaviour or incapacity: (iii.) Shall receive 
 such remuneration as the Parliament may fix; 
 but the remuneration shall not be diminished dur- 
 ing their continuance in office. 
 
 73. The High Court shall have jurisdiction, with 
 such exceptions and subject to such regulations 
 
 I
 
 AUSTRALIA, CONSTITUTION 
 
 AUSTRALIA, CONSTITUTION 
 
 as the Parliament prescribes, to hear and deter- 
 mine appeals from all judgments, decrees, orders, 
 and sentences — (i.) Of any Justice or Justices ex- 
 ercising the original jurisdiction of the High Court: 
 (ii.) Of any other federal court, or court exercis- 
 ing federal jurisdiction; or of the Supreme Court 
 of any State, or of any other court of any State 
 from which at the establishment of the Common- 
 wealth an appeal lies to the Queen in Council: 
 (iii.) Of the Inter-State Commission, but as to 
 questions of law only: and the judgment of the 
 High Court in all such cases shall be final and 
 conclusive. But no exception or regulation pre- 
 scribed by the Parliament shall prevent the High 
 Court from hearing and determining any appeal 
 from the Supreme Court of a State in any mat- 
 ter in which at the establishment of the Common- 
 wealth an appeal lies from such Supreme Court 
 to the Queen in Council. Until the Parliament 
 otherwise provides, the conditions of and re- 
 strictions on appeals to the Queen in Council from 
 the Supreme Courts of the several States shall 
 be applicable to appeals from them to the High 
 Court. 
 
 74. No appeal shall be permitted to the Queen 
 in Council from a decision of the High Court 
 upon any question, howsoever arising, as to the 
 limits inter se of the Constitutional powers of 
 the Commonwealth and those of any State or 
 States, or as to the limits inter se of the Consti- 
 tutional powers of any two or more States, 
 unless the High Court shall certify that the ques- 
 tion is one which ought to be determined by 
 Her Majesty in Council. The High Court may 
 so certify if satisfied that for any special reason 
 the certificate should be granted, and thereupon 
 an appeal shall lie to Her Majesty in Council on 
 the question without further leave. Except as pro- 
 vided in this section, this Constitution shall not 
 impair any right which the Queen may be pleased 
 to exercise by virtue of Her Royal prerogative 
 to grant special leave of appeal from the High 
 Court to Her Majesty in Council. The Parlia- 
 ment may make laws limiting the matters in which 
 such leave may be asked, but proposed laws con- 
 taining any such limitation shall be reserved by 
 the Governor-General for Her Majesty's pleasure. 
 
 75. In all matters — (i.) Arising under any treaty: 
 (ii.) Affecting consuls or other representatives of 
 other countries: (iii.) In which the Common- 
 wealth, or a person suing or being sued on be- 
 half of the Commonwealth, is a party: (iv.) Be- 
 tween States, or between residents of different 
 States, or between a State and a resident of an- 
 other State: (v.) In wh:ch a writ of Mandamus 
 or prohibition or an injunction is sought against 
 an officer of the Commonwealth: the High Court 
 shall have original jurisdiction. 
 
 76. The Parliament may make laws conferring 
 original jurisdiction on the High Court in any 
 matter — (i.) Arising under this Constitution, or 
 involving its interpretation: (ii.) Arising under any 
 laws made by the Parliament: (iii.) Of .Admiralty 
 and maritime jurisdiction: (iv.) Relating to the 
 same subject-matter claimed under the laws of 
 different States. 
 
 77. With respect to any of the matters men- 
 tioned in the last two sections the Parliament 
 may make laws — (i.) Defining the jurisdiction of 
 any federal court other than the High Court: 
 (ii.) Defining the extent to which the jurisdic- 
 tion of any federal court shall be exclusive of 
 that which belongs to or is invested in the courts 
 of the States: (iii.) Investing any court of a 
 State with federal jurisdiction. 
 
 78. The Parliament may make laws conferring 
 rights to proceed against the Commonwealth or 
 
 a State in respect of matters within the limits of 
 the judicial power. 
 
 79. The federal jurisdiction of any court may be 
 exercised by such number of judges as the Parlia- 
 ment prescribes. 
 
 80. The trial on indictment of any offence 
 against any law of the Commonwealth shall be 
 by jury, and every such trial shall be held in the 
 State where the offence was committed, and if 
 the offence was not committed within any State 
 the trial shall be held at such place or places as 
 the Parliament prescribes. 
 
 Chaptek IV. Finance and Trade 
 
 81. All revenues or moneys raised or received 
 by the Executive Government of the Common- 
 wealth shall form one Consolidated Revenue Fund, 
 to be appropriated lor the purposes of the Com- 
 monwealth in the manner and subject to the 
 charges and liabilities imposed by this Constitution. 
 
 82. The costs, charges, and expenses incident to 
 the collection? management, and receipt of the 
 Consolidated Revenue Fund shall form the first 
 charge thereon; and the revenue of the Common- 
 wealth shall in the first instance be applied to the 
 payment of the expenditure of the Commonwealth. 
 
 83. No money shall be drawn from the Treas- 
 ury of the Commonwealth except under appro- 
 priation made by law. But until the expiration 
 of one month after the first meeting of the Par- 
 liament the Governor-General in Council may draw 
 from the Treasury and expend such moneys as 
 may be necessary for the maintenance of any 
 department transferred to the Commonwealth and 
 for the holding of the first elections lor the Par- 
 liament. 
 
 84. When any department of the public service 
 of a State becomes transferred to the Common- 
 wealth, all officers of the department shall be- 
 come subject to the control of the Executive Gov- 
 ernment of the Commonwealth. Any such officer 
 who is not detained in the service of the Com- 
 monwealth shall, unless he is appointed to some 
 other office of equal emolument in the public 
 service of the State, be entitled to receive irom 
 the State any pension, gratuity, or other com- 
 pensation, payable under the law of the State on 
 the abolition of his office. Any such ofiicer who 
 is retained in the service of the Commonwealth 
 shall preserve all his existing and accruing rights, 
 and shall be entitled to retire from office at the 
 time, and on the pension or retiring allowance, 
 which would be permitted by the law of the State 
 if his service with the Commonwealth were a 
 continuation of his service with the State. Such 
 pension or retiring allowance shall be paid to 
 him by the Commonwealth; but the State shall 
 pay to the Commonwealth a part thereof, to be 
 calculated on the proportion which his term of 
 service with the State bears to his whole term 
 of service, and for the purpose of the calculation 
 his salary shall be taken to be that paid to him 
 by the State at the time of the transfer. Any 
 officer who is, at the establishment of the Com- 
 monwealth, in the public service of a State, and 
 who is, by consent of the Governor of the State 
 with the advice of the Executive Council thereof, 
 transferred to the public service of the Com- 
 monwealth, shall have the same rights as if he 
 had been an officer of a department transferred to 
 the Commonwealth and were retained in the ser- 
 vice of the Commonwealth. 
 
 85. When any department of the public service 
 of a State is transferred to the Commonwealth^ 
 (i.) All property of the State of any kind, used 
 exclusively in connexion with the department, shall 
 
 662
 
 AUSTRALIA, CONSTITUTION 
 
 AUSTRALIA, CONSTITUTION 
 
 become vested in the Commonwealth; but, in 
 the case of the departments controlling customs 
 and excise and bounties, for such time only as 
 the Governor-General in Council may declare to 
 be necessary: (ii.) The Commonwealth may ac- 
 quire any property of the State, of any kind 
 used, but not exclusively used in connexion with 
 the department: the value thereof shall, if no 
 agreement can be inade, be ascertained in, as 
 nearly as may be, the manner in which the value 
 of land, or of an interest in land, taken by the 
 State for public purposes is ascertained under the 
 law of the State in force at the establishment of 
 the Commonwealth: (ill.) The Commonwealth 
 shall compensate the State for the value of any 
 property passing to the Commonwealth under this 
 section ; if no agreement can be made as to the 
 mode of compensation, it shall be determined under 
 laws to be made by the Parliament: (iv.) The 
 Commonwealth shall, at the date of the transfer, 
 assume the current obligations of the State in 
 respect of the department transferred. 
 
 86. On the establishment of the Commonwealth, 
 the collection and control of duties of customs 
 and of excise, and the control of the payment of 
 bounties, shall pass to the Executive Government 
 of the Commonwealth. 
 
 87. During a period of ten years after the estab- 
 lishment of the Commonwealth and thereafter 
 until the Parliament otherwise provides, of the net 
 revenue of the Commonwealth from duties of cus- 
 toms and of excise not more than one-fourth 
 shall be applied annually by the Commonwealth 
 towards its expenditure. The balance shall, in 
 accordance with this Constitution, be paid to the 
 several States, or applied towards the payment of 
 interest on debts of the several States taken over 
 by the Commonwealth. 
 
 88. Uniform duties of customs shall be imposed 
 within two years after the establishment of the 
 Commonwealth. 
 
 8g. Until the imposition of uniform duties of 
 customs — (i.) The Commonwealth shall credit to 
 each State the revenues collected therein by the 
 Commonwealth, (ii.) The Commonwealth shall 
 debit to each State — (a) The expenditure therein 
 of the Commonwealth incurred solely for the main- 
 tenance or continuance, as at the time of trans- 
 fer, of any department transferred from the State 
 to the Commonwealth; (6) The proportion of the 
 State, according to the number of its people, in 
 the other expenditure of the Commonwealth, (iii.) 
 The Commonwealth shall pay to each State month 
 by month the balance (if any) in favour of the 
 State. 
 
 po. On the imposition of uniform duties of cus- 
 toms the power of the ParHament to impose duties 
 of customs and of excise, and to grant bounties 
 on the production or export of goods, shall be- 
 come exclusive. On the imposition of uniform 
 duties of customs all laws of the several States 
 imposing duties of customs or of excise, or offer- 
 ing bounties on the production or export of goods, 
 shall cease to have effect, but any grant of or 
 agreement for any such bounty lawfully made by 
 or under the authority of the Government 
 of any State shall be taken to be good if 
 made before the thirtieth day of June, one thou- 
 sand eight hundred and ninety-eight, and not other- 
 wise. 
 
 91. Nothing in this Constitution prohibits a 
 State from granting any aid to or bounty on 
 mining for gold, silver, or other metals, nor from 
 granting, with the consent of both Houses of 
 the Parliament of the Commonwealth expressed 
 by resolution, any aid to or bounty on the pro- 
 duction or export of goods. 
 
 g2. On the imposition of uniform duties of cus- 
 toms, trade, commerce, and intercourse among 
 the States, whether by means of internal car- 
 riage or ocean navigation, shall be absolutely 
 free. But notwithstanding anything in this Con- 
 stitution, goods imported before the imposition of 
 uniform duties of customs into any State, or intp 
 any Colony which, whilst the goods remain therein, 
 becomes a State, shall, on thence passing into 
 another State within two years after the im- 
 position of such duties, be liable to any duty 
 chargeable on the importation of such goods into 
 the Commonwealth, less any duty paid in respect 
 of the goods on their importation. 
 
 Q3. During the first five years after the imposi- 
 tion of uniform duties of customs, and thereafter 
 until the Parliament otherwise provides — (i.) The 
 duties of customs chargeable on goods imported 
 into a State and afterwards passing into another 
 State for consumption, and the duties of excise 
 paid on goods produced or manufactured in a 
 State and afterwards passing into another State for 
 consumption, shall be taken to have been col- 
 lected not in the former but in the latter State: 
 (ii.) Subject to the last subsection, the Com- 
 monwealth shall credit revenue, debit expenditure, 
 and pay balances to the several States as pre- 
 scribed for the period preceding the imposition 
 of uniform duties of customs. 
 
 94. After five years from the imposition of uni- 
 form duties of customs, the Parliament may pro- 
 vide, on such basis as it deems fair, for the monthly 
 payment to the several States of all surplus rev- 
 enue of the Commonwealth. 
 
 05. Notwithstanding anything in this Constitu- 
 tion, the Parliament of the State of Western 
 Australia, if that State be an Original State, may, 
 during the first five years after the imposition 
 of uniform duties of customs, impose duties of 
 customs on goods passing into that State and 
 not originally imported from beyond the limits 
 of the Commonwealth; and such duties shall be 
 collected by the Commonwealth. But any duty 
 so imposed on any goods shall not exceed during 
 the first of such years the duty chargeable on 
 the goods under the law of Western Australia in 
 force at the imposition of uniform duties, and 
 shall not e-xcecd during the second, third, fourth, 
 and fifth of such years respectively, four-fifths, 
 three-fifths, two-fifths, and one-fifth of such latter 
 duty, and all duties imposed under this section 
 shall cease at the expiration of the fifth year 
 after the imposition of uniform duties. If at any 
 time during the five years the duty on any goods 
 under this section is higher than the duty im- 
 posed by the Commonwealth on the importation 
 of the like goods, then such higher duty shall be 
 collected on the goods when imported into West- 
 ern Australia from beyond the limits of the Com- 
 monwealth. 
 
 q6. During a period of ten years after the estab- 
 lishment of the Commonwealth and thereafter 
 until the Parliament otherwise provides, the Par- 
 liament may grant financial assistance to any State 
 on such terms and conditions as the Parliament 
 thinks fit. 
 
 97. Until the Parliament otherwise provides, the 
 laws in force in any Colony which has become 
 or becomes a State with respect to the receipt of 
 revenue and the expenditure of money on ac- 
 count of the Government of the Colony, and the 
 review and audit of such receipt and expenditure, 
 shall apply to the receipt of revenue and the ex- 
 penditure of money on account of the Common- 
 wealth in the State in the same manner as if the 
 Commonwealth, or the Government or an officer 
 of the Commonwealth, were mentioned whenever 
 
 663
 
 AUSTRALIA, CONSTITUTION 
 
 AUSTRALIA, CONSTITUTION 
 
 the Colony, or the Government or an officer of 
 the Colony, is mentioned, 
 
 qS. The power of the Parliament to make laws 
 with respect to trade and commerce extends to 
 navigation and shipping, and to railways the 
 property of any State. 
 
 QQ. The Commonwealth shall not, by any law 
 or regulation of trade, commerce, or revenue, 
 give preference to one State or any part thereof 
 over another State or any part thereof. 
 
 loo. The Commonwealth shall not, by any law 
 or regulation of trade or commerce, abridge the 
 right of a State or of the residents therein to the 
 reasonable use of the waters of rivers for conser- 
 vation or irrigation. 
 
 loi. There shall be an Inter-State Commission, 
 with such powers of adjudication and adminis- 
 tration as the Parliament deems necessary for the 
 execution and maintenance, within the Common- 
 wealth, of the provisions of this Constitution re- 
 lating to trade and commerce, and of all laws made 
 thereunder. 
 
 102. The Parliament may by any law with re- 
 spect to trade or commerce forbid, as to railways, 
 any preference or discrimination by any State, 
 or by any authority constituted under a State, if 
 such preference or discrimination is undue and 
 unreasonable, or unjust to any State ; due regard 
 being had to the financial responsibilities incurred 
 by any State in connexion with the construc- 
 tion and maintenance of its railways. But no 
 preference or discrimination shall, within the 
 meaning of this section, be taken to be undue and 
 unreasonable, or unjust to any State, unless so 
 adjudged by the Inter-State Commission. 
 
 103. The members of the Inter-State Commis- 
 sion — (i.) Shall be appointed by the Governor- 
 General in Council: (ii.) Shall hold office for 
 seven years, but may be removed within that 
 time by the Governor-General in Council, on an 
 address from both Houses of the Parliament in 
 the same session praying for such removal on the 
 ground of proved misbehaviour or incapacity: 
 (iii.) Shall receive such remuneration as the Par- 
 liament may fix ; but such remuneration shall 
 not be diminished during their continuance in 
 office. 
 
 104. Nothing in this Constitution shall render 
 unlawful any rate for the carriage of goods upon 
 a railway, the property of a State, if the rate is 
 deemed by the Inter-State Commission to be nec- 
 essary for the development of the territory of 
 the State, and if the rate applies equally to goods 
 within the State and to goods passing into the 
 State from other States. 
 
 105. The Parliament may take over from the 
 States their public debts as existing at the estab- 
 lishment of the Commonwealth, or a proportion 
 thereof according to the respective numbers of 
 their peoples as shown by the latest statistics of 
 the Commonwealth, and may convert, renew, or 
 consolidate such debts, or any part thereof; and 
 the States shall indemnify the Commonwealth in 
 respect of the debts taken over, and thereafter 
 the interest payable in respect of the debts sh:dl 
 be deducted and retained from the portions of the 
 surplus revenue of the Commonwealth payable 
 to the several States, or if such surplus is insuf- 
 ficient, or if there is no surplus, then the de- 
 ficiency or the whole amount shall be paid by the 
 several States. 
 
 Chapter V. The States 
 
 106. The Constitution of each State of the Com- 
 monwealth shall, subject to this Constitution, con- 
 tinue as at the establishment of the Common- 
 
 wealth, or as at the admission or establishment of 
 the State, as the case may be, until altered in 
 accordance with the Constitution of the State. 
 
 107. Every power of the Parliament of a Col- 
 ony which has become or becomes a State, shall, 
 unless it is by this Constitution exclusively vested 
 in the Parliament of the Commonwealth or with- 
 drawn from the Parliament of the State, continue 
 as at the establishment of the Commonwealth, or 
 as at the admission or establishment of the State, 
 as the case may be. 
 
 108. Every law in force in a Colony which has 
 become or becomes a State, and relating to any 
 matter within the powers of the Parliament of 
 the Commonwealth, shall, subject to this Consti 
 tution, continue in force in the State; and, until 
 provision is made in that behalf by the Parliament 
 of the Commonwealth, the Parliament of the State 
 shall have such powers of alteration and of re- 
 peal in respect of any such law as the Parliament 
 of the Colony had until the Colony became a 
 State. 
 
 100. When a law of a State is inconsistent with 
 a law of the Commonwealth, the latter shall pre- 
 vail, and the former shall, to the extent of the 
 inconsistency, be invalid. 
 
 no. The provisions of this Constitution relat- 
 ing to the Governor of a State extend and apply 
 to the Governor for the time being of the State, 
 or other chief executive officer or administrator 
 of the government of the State. 
 
 111. The Parliament of a State may surrender 
 any part of the State to the Commonwealth; and 
 upon such surrender, and the acceptance thereof 
 by the Commonwealth, such part of the State shall 
 become subject to the exclusive jurisdiction of the 
 Commonwealth. 
 
 112. After uniform duties of customs have been 
 imposed, a State may levy on imports or exports, 
 or on goods passing into or out of the State, such 
 charges as may be necessary for executing the in- 
 spection laws of the State; but the net produce of 
 all charges so levied shall be for the use of the 
 Commonwealth ; and any such inspection laws may 
 be annulled by the Parliament of the Common- 
 wealth 
 
 113. All fermented, distilled, or other intoxicat- 
 ing liquids passing into any State or remaining 
 therein for use, consumption, sale, or storage, shall 
 be subject to the laws of the State as if such liquids 
 had been produced in the State. 
 
 114. A State shall not, without the consent of 
 the Parliament of the Commonwealth, raise or 
 maintain any naval or military force, or impose 
 any tax on property of any kind belonging to 
 the Commonwealth, nor shall the Commonwealth 
 impose any tax on property of any kind belong- 
 ing to a State. 
 
 115. A State shall not coin money, nor make 
 anything but gold and silver coin a legal tender in 
 payment of debts. 
 
 116. The Commonwealth shall not make any 
 law for establishing any religion, or for imposing 
 any religious observance, or for prohibiting the 
 free exercise of any religion, and no religious test 
 shall be required as a qualification for any office 
 or public trust under the Commonwealth. 
 
 117. A subject of the Queen, resident in any 
 State, shall not be subject in any other State to 
 any disability or discrimination which would not 
 be equally applicable to him if he were a subject of 
 the Queen resident in such other State. 
 
 118. Full faith and credit shall be given, through- 
 out the Commonwealth to the laws, the public Acts 
 and records, and the judicial proceedings of every 
 State. 
 
 iiQ. The Commonwealth shall protect every 
 
 664
 
 AUSTRALIA, CONSTITUTION 
 
 AUSTRALIAN BALLOT 
 
 State against invasion and, on the application of 
 the Executive Government of the State, against 
 domestic violence. 
 
 120. Every State shall make provision for the 
 detention in its prisons of persons accused or con- 
 victed of offences against the laws of the Com- 
 monwealth, and for the punishment of persons 
 convicted of such offences, and the Parliament of 
 the Commonwealth may make laws to give effect 
 to this provision. 
 
 Chapter VI. New States 
 
 121. The Parliament may admit to the Com- 
 monwealth or establish new States, and may upon 
 such admission or e.'^tablishment make or impose 
 such terms and conditions, including the extent of 
 representation in either House of the Parliament, 
 as it thinks fit. 
 
 122. The Parliament may make laws for the 
 government of any territory surrendered by any 
 State to and accepted by the Commonwealth, or 
 of any territory placed by the Queen under the 
 authority of and accepted by the Commonwealth, 
 or otherwise acquired by the Commonwealth, and 
 may allow the representation of such territory in 
 either House of the Parliament to the extent and 
 on the terms which it thinks fit. 
 
 123. The Parliament of the Commonwealth may, 
 with the consent of the Parliament of a State, and 
 the approval of the majority of the electors of 
 the State voting upon the question, increase, 
 diminish, or otherwise alter the limits of the 
 State, upon such terms and conditions as may 
 be agreed on, and may, with the like consent, 
 make provision respecting the effect and operation 
 of any increase or diminution or alteration of 
 territory in relation to any State affected. 
 
 124. A new State may be formed by separa- 
 tion of territory from a State, but only with the 
 consent of the Parliament thereof, and a new 
 State may be formed by the union of two or more 
 States or parts of States, but only with the con- 
 sent of the Parliaments of the States affected. 
 
 Chapter VII. Miscellaneous 
 
 125. The seat of Government of the Common- 
 wealth shall be determined by the Parliament, and 
 shall be within territory which shall have been 
 granted to or acquired by the Commonwealth, 
 and shall be vested in and belong to the Com- 
 monwealth, and sTiall be in the State of New South 
 Wales, and be distant not less than one hundred 
 miles from Sydney. Such territory shall contain 
 an area of not less than one hundred square miles, 
 and such portion thereof as shall consist of Crown 
 lands shall be granted to the Commonwealth with- 
 out any payment therefor. The Parliament shall 
 sit at Melbourne until it meet at the seat of 
 Government. 
 
 126. The Queen may authorise the Governor- 
 General to appoint any person, or any persons 
 jointly or severally, to be his deputy or deputies 
 within any part of the Commonwealth, and in that 
 capacity to exercise during the pleasure of the 
 Governor-General such powers and functions of 
 the Governor-General as he thinks fit to assign 
 to such deputy or deputies, subject to any limita- 
 tions expressed or directions given by the Queen ; 
 but the appointment of such deputy or deputies 
 shall not affect the exercise by the Governor- 
 General himself of any power or function. 
 
 127. In reckoning the numbers of the people of 
 the Commonwealth, or of a Slate or other part of 
 the Commonwealth, aboriginal natives shall not 
 be counted. 
 
 Chapter VIII. Alteration of the Constitution 
 
 128. This Constitution shall not be altered ex- 
 cept in the following manner: — The proposed 
 law for the alteration thereof must be passed by 
 an absolute majority of each House of the Par- 
 liament, and not less than two nor more than six 
 months after its passage through both Houses the 
 proposed law shall be submitted in each State 
 to the electors qualified to vote for the election 
 of members of the House of Representatives. But 
 if either House passes any such proposed law by 
 an absolute majority, and the other House rejects 
 or fails to pass it or passes it with any amend- 
 ment to which the first-mentioned House will 
 not agree, and if after an interval of three months 
 the first-mentioned House in the same or the next 
 session again passes the proposed law by an abso- 
 lute majority with or without any amendment 
 which has been made or agreed to by the other 
 House, and such other House rejects or fails to 
 pass it or passes it with any amendment to which 
 the first-mentioned House will not agree, the 
 Governor-General may submit the proposed law 
 as last proposed by the first-mentioned House, 
 and either with or without any amendments sub- 
 sequently agreed to by both Houses, to the elect- 
 ors in each State qualified to vote for the election 
 of the House of Representatives. When a pro- 
 posed law is submitted to the electors the vote 
 shall be taken in such manner as the Parliament 
 prescribes. But until the qualification of electors 
 of members of the House of Representatives be- 
 comes uniform throughout the Commonwealth, 
 only one-half the electors voting for and against 
 the proposed law shall be counted in any State in 
 which adult suffrage prevails. And if in a majority 
 of the States a majority of the electors voting ap- 
 prove the proposed law, and if a majority of all the 
 electors voting also approve the proposed law, it 
 shall be presented to the Governor-General for the 
 Queen's assent. No alteration diminishing the pro- 
 portionate representation of any State in either 
 House of the Parliament, or the minimum number 
 of representatives of a State in the House of Rep- 
 resentatives, or increasing, diminishing, or other- 
 wise altering the limits of the State, or in any 
 manner affecting the provisions of the Constitu- 
 tion in relation thereto, shall become law unless 
 the majority of the electors voting in that State 
 approve the proposed law. — See also British em- 
 pire: Character of the British empire: Character- 
 istics of self-governing colonies. 
 
 Also in: Sir J. Quick and R. R. Garran, Anno- 
 tated constitution of the AiistraJian Common- 
 wealth. — A. T. Clark, Australian constitutional 
 law. 
 
 AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND 
 ARMY CORPS. See Anzacs; and Australia: 
 igi4-iqiS. 
 
 AUSTRALIA FELIX. See Australia: 1787- 
 1840: Penal settlements. 
 
 AUSTRALIAN BALLOT: Origin.— Adop- 
 tion in England. — Under the Australian system 
 the ballots are printed under government super- 
 vision, at public expense, and contain the names of 
 all candidates duly nominated. The ballots can be 
 obtained by the voters only within the polling 
 places, on election day, and are marked by them in 
 entire secrecy. "As its name implies, this system 
 originated in Australia. The population of this 
 land in the first half of the nineteenth century in- 
 cluded many gold-seekers, bent upon gain, and a 
 large class of criminals. In this environment the 
 vices of the viva voce method flourished even 
 more than in England. Mr. Francis S. Dutton in 
 his testimony before the Marquis of Hartington 
 
 665
 
 AUSTRALIAN BALLOT 
 
 England 
 
 AUSTRALIAN BALLOT 
 
 committee in 1869 said: 'Before the ballot was in 
 operation our elections were exceedinply riotous. 
 Of course our community had the rowdy elements 
 as well as other countries, and on election days 
 these troublesome elements came to the surface; 
 and I have been in the balcony of an hotel during 
 one of the city elections, when the raging mobs 
 down in the street were so violent that I certainly 
 would not have risked my life to have crossed the 
 street.' Many men in Australia saw the dangers 
 of open voting, and began to work to secure a rem- 
 edy. The secret ballot was first proposed by 
 Francis S. Dutton in the Legislative Council of 
 South Australia in 1851. For several years no 
 action was taken, but in 1857 Mr. Dutton became 
 a member of the government, and made excellent 
 use of his opportunity to advance his measure. A 
 bill embodying this plan was introduced, and. after 
 some modification in the House, became a law in 
 1857-58. In Victoria the- secret ballot was cham- 
 pioned by Mr. William Nicholson, who, at the 
 head of the government, secured the enactment of 
 the law in 1856. The system spread very rapidly. 
 It was adopted by Tasmania and New South Wales 
 in 1858; New Zealand in 1870; Queensland in 
 1874; and West Australia in 1877. [See also Suf- 
 frage, Manhood: British Empire: 1921.] In Eng- 
 land, where the viva voce method was in use with 
 all its attending vices, the secret ballot had been 
 agitated continually since 1830. In that year it 
 was proposed by O'Connell and received the sup- 
 port of twenty-one members. The ballot formed 
 a part of the reform bill as reported to the Cabinet 
 by Lord John Russell, Sir James Graham, and 
 others, but it was not included in the act as pre- 
 sented to Parliament. During the next three years 
 many petitions for the measures were presented 
 to Parliament and debated. On April 23, 1833, 
 George Grote brought forward a resolution af- 
 firming the expediency of its adoption and until 
 1840 this was yearly presented and affirmed by 
 Mr. Grote. After the retirement of Grote, Mr. 
 Ward and later Mr. H. Berkley became the cham- 
 pions of the measure. It was supported by such 
 statesmen as Macaulay, Bright, Cobbett, Hume, 
 and O'Connell, and was opposed by Lord Derby, 
 the Duke of Wellington, and Lord Palmerston. 
 Although this movement was retarded by the revo- 
 lution of 1848 and the opposition of John Stuart 
 Mill, the long period of agitation finally bore fruit. 
 In the Queen's speech from the throne in 1868-60, 
 a recommendation was made that the present mode 
 of conducting elections be inquired into and fur- 
 ther guarantees adopted for promoting their tran- 
 quility, purity, and freedom. A committee of 
 tv,'enty-three, with the Marquis of Hartington as 
 chairman, was appointed. This committee not 
 only examined the English situation, but ques- 
 tioned witnesses from France, Italy, Greece, the 
 United States, and Australia; and in 1870 it recom- 
 mended that the secret ballot be adopted. The re- 
 sult was the ballot act which became a law in 
 1872. With the prestige gained by its success in 
 England, the principles of the Australian ballot 
 were soon adopted in Canada, Belgium, Luxem- 
 burg, and Italy." — E. C. Evans, History of the 
 Australian ballot system in the United States, pp. 
 17-20. 
 
 1882-1916. — Australian ballot supersedes early 
 methods of voting in the United States. — Evils 
 of early methods. — Types of Australian ballots. 
 — History of its spread in the United States. — 
 "Although the departure from the English viva 
 voce system of voting was begun in colonial times, 
 it was not completed until late in the nineteenth 
 century. Nine of the ten state constitutions 
 framed between 1776 and 1780 required the secret 
 
 ballot for the election of certain officials, but the 
 majority were still chosen by oral vote. 'As the 
 voter appeared, his name was called out in a loud 
 voice. The judges inquired, "John Smith, for 
 whom do you vote?" He replied by proclaiming 
 the name of his favorite. Then the clerks en- 
 rolled the vote, and the judges announced it as 
 enrolled. The representative of the candidate for 
 whom he voted arose, and bowed, and thanked 
 him aloud; and his partisans often applauded.' In 
 Kentucky, the last state to give up the system, the 
 election for iheriff consisted in ranging the friends 
 of one candidate on one side of the road, the 
 backers of the other on the opposite side. As in 
 an old-fashioned spelling bee, the longest line won. 
 The classe which strongly advocated the open vote 
 were in America, as elsewhere, the propertied 
 classes. The system naturally continued longest 
 in the South. The conservatives dreaded the effect 
 of secrecy upon the honesty of elections. John 
 Randolph of Virginia said in 1839: 'I scarcely 
 believe that we have such a fool in all Virginia as 
 even to mention the vote by ballot, and I do not 
 hesitate to say that the adoption of the ballot 
 would make any nation a nation of scoundrels, if 
 it did not find them so.' The ballot had been in- 
 troduced in all the seaboard states but one by 
 iSoo. In that year it was adopted for the gov- 
 ernment of the Northwest Territory, and has 
 since been the rule in states organized jn the West. 
 But Arkansas preserved the ancient viva voce sys- 
 tem until 1S46, Missouri and Virginia until the 
 sixties, and Kentucky abandoned it only in 1890. 
 By the middle of the nineteenth century, however, 
 some form of ballot was employed in most of the 
 United States. The .Generic term was applied to a 
 motley variety of voting papers, both written and 
 printed. As there was no rule for the size and 
 color of the ballot, each party sought to make its 
 ticket recognizable by the ignorant voter by pe- 
 culiar marks. One Republican ballot had a flam- 
 ing pink border, with rays projecting towards the 
 center, and letters half an inch high. Ballots of 
 colored tissue paper were common in the South. 
 Such pronounced differences made it easy to dis- 
 tinguish a Republican from a Democratic paper, 
 as far as it could be seen. The use of the ballot 
 conformed to no rules. If he chose, the voter 
 could make his own and bring it with him, usually 
 in his vest-pocket, whence the name of 'vest-pocket 
 tickets.' The labor involved in this led candidates 
 generally before 1S25 to print their tickets to al- 
 lure the indolent. When the party took over the 
 ballot, usage varied widely as to how many names 
 should be put on one paper; some states required 
 a man to cast nine, ten, or more papers before he 
 had voted for all the candidates. The ballot was 
 entirely a party affair, gotten up, printed, and 
 peddled on election day, by party workers, who 
 hawked their wares so diligently as to be an un- 
 mitigated nuisance. LInregulatcd political heelers 
 were given virtually complete control of an essen- 
 tial part of the electoral system. An unsystematic 
 institution such as the above was prey to a multi- 
 tude of abuses. Besides involving an enormous 
 expense throush the duplication of effort, the 
 money spent did not insure the public ... a cor- 
 rect ballot. The voter relied upon his party organi- 
 zation, and that often betrayed him. An irrespon- 
 sible ring could 'unbunch' the party slate, remove 
 a good candidate, and substitute one of its own, 
 with little fear of penalty. The machines of two 
 parties sometimes agreed to compromise by trad- 
 ing certain -places on each other's ballots, unknown 
 to the party members, who took what the peddlers 
 gave them without inspection. If the politicians 
 did not agree, a party got out counterfeit ballots 
 
 666
 
 AUSTRALIAN BALLOT 
 
 United Staies 
 
 AUSTRALIAN BALLOT 
 
 of the opposition with its own candidates on them, 
 so skilfully contrived that detection was difficult 
 even on close examination. Grosser frauds were 
 practiced as well, because of the fact that the bal- 
 lot was really hardly secret at all. This had two 
 important results: bribery and intimidation. When 
 a candidate had paid for a vote, he was naturally 
 anxious to see that what he had bought was de- 
 livered. A better system than the old-style ballot 
 for stabilizing this traffic in votes could hardly be 
 conceived. Watchers stationed at the polls could 
 tell, even at a distance, what ticket a man voted. 
 The tissue-paper ballot even made it possible to 
 deliver double or triple the value of the bribe, by 
 folding smaller ballots inside a blanket one, and 
 shaking them out as the ballot was dropped into 
 the urn. Intimidation was probably not so com- 
 mon as in England, but it was carried on to far 
 too large an extent. Men were transported to the 
 polls in their employers' carriages. They were 
 then given ballots and told to keep them in sight 
 until the moment when they dropped them into 
 the urn. If the voters stayed away from the polls 
 or did not obey orders, they were thrown out of 
 work, and, in mill-towns, out of the company's 
 tenements as well. . . . [See also Corrupt and 
 ILLEGAL PRACTICES AT ELECTIONS; United States.] 
 The essential parts of the Australian system as 
 employed in the United States are the printing and 
 distribution of the ballot, the choosing of the 
 names which shall appear upon it, and the regula- 
 tion of the method in which it is cast. After its 
 introduction the Australian ballot became the only 
 one which the voter might cast. It is prepared by 
 the state at public expense, so that in a sense the 
 state guarantees the authenticity of the nomina- 
 tions on it. As it is necessary to restrict the size, 
 the law provides that only names proposed by 
 parties of a certain numerical strength, or by peti- 
 tion of a large number of electors, shall appear. 
 In effect this is state recognition of parties, or of 
 the party machine. The ballots are marked in 
 a secret booth, from the neighborhood of which 
 all but the voter are excluded. The system at- 
 tempts to shield him from all outside influence 
 from the moment he receives the ticket until he 
 drops it into the ballot-box, and to keep his vote 
 entirely from the knowledge ot any one but him- 
 self. The Massachusetts ballot ... is the nearest 
 approach to the [Australian ballot] system in its 
 entirety. Upon this the names of the candidates 
 are grouped in alphabetical order under the offices 
 for which they stand, with the name of the party 
 following that of the nominee. Such is the general 
 style of the ballot in fourteen states. It has been 
 urged against the Massachusetts ballot that the 
 amount of marking required discourages the voter 
 and leads to neglect of all but the leading offices 
 on the ticket. On the other hand, it diminishes 
 laxness in the shape of straight ticket voting by 
 demanding separate consideration for each nominee. 
 That the system does actually favor independent 
 voting was shown in the election of 1004. ... It 
 is claimed, however, that the arrangement of names 
 on the ballot constitutes a literacy test, and some 
 twenty-five states use the party-column type, the 
 other main style of the Australian ballot. The 
 entire ticket of each party is printed in a single 
 column with the party emblem at its head to en- 
 lighten ignorant voters. The artistic taste of the 
 political parties is most diverse and catholic. The 
 Socialists come nearest to uniformity, two hands 
 clasped before a globe being their insignia in seven 
 states. The Prohibitionists employ a hatchet in 
 Alabama, a house and yard in Delaware, a phcenix 
 in Kentucky, an armorial device in Michigan, an 
 anchor in New Hampshire, a fountain in New 
 
 York, a rose in Ohio, while the only picture on 
 which two states agree is the sun rising over the 
 water, used in Indiana and Kansas. These super- 
 ficial differences merely reflect deeper variations 
 on more important points. The size of the baUot 
 varies from a huge blanket, four or five feet 
 square, to a narrow strip three inches wide and 
 thirty-one inches long, in Florida, or the note-paper 
 size used in Oregon. Of more importance is the 
 relative ease with which a man can vote a straight 
 ticket or can exercise intelligence in picking the 
 best candidate of several parties. A simple cross 
 in the circle beneath the party emblem casts a 
 straight ballot. In many states the independent 
 voter is put to twenty times as much trouble even 
 though he would vote for but one officer outside 
 of his own party. Here is a serious matter for 
 there is no doubting the American voter's procliv- 
 ity to choose the easiest way in marking his ballot. 
 The party column system often places a direct 
 penalty on an effort to smash the weak spots in a 
 party slate. To be sure the illiterate voter would 
 be at sea without the party emblem; but it is a 
 question whether haphazard or hidebound voting 
 is the lesser evil. It would seem practicable to 
 add the party symbol to the party name on the 
 Massachusetts ballot and thus to avoid both Scylla 
 and Charybdis. At any rate the problem deserves 
 at least as diligent attention as our great corpora- 
 tions give to the efficiency of their advertising. 
 ... A partial remedy for the evils of the present 
 ballot has been secured by the use of the voting 
 machines, which combine relative simplicity with 
 ease in splitting a party ticket. Absolute accuracy 
 in counting the returns is assured. Their cost is 
 perhaps the main obstacle in the way of their uni- 
 versal adoption." — C. Seymour and D. P. Frary, 
 How the world votes, v. i, pp. 246-254, — The 
 New York state ballot in recent years has com- 
 bined the party emblem and the Massachusetts ar- 
 rangement by officers. This makes it as easy to 
 vote a split ticket as a straight one and at the 
 same time aids the illiterate voter. — "At first this 
 new reform in Australia and England does not 
 appear to have created much of an impression in 
 this country. According to Mr. John S. Wig- 
 more, it was first advocated by a member of the 
 Philadelphia Civil Reform Association in 1882 in 
 a pamphlet called English Elections. The follow- 
 ing year Henry George in the North American- 
 Review advocated the adoption of the English 
 system as a cure for the vices arising from use of 
 money in elections. The first attempt that the 
 writer could discover to secure the passage of the 
 reform was made in Michigan in 1885. A bill 
 modeled on the Australian act was introduced into 
 the lower house of the legislature by Mr. George 
 W. Walthew, but it failed to pass. A bill similar 
 to that of Mr. Walthew's, advocated by Mr. Jud- 
 son Grenell, passed the House in 1887, but was 
 lost in the Senate. In Wisconsin a compromise 
 measure applying to cities of fifty thousand or 
 over was adopted in 1887. Under this law the 
 party organizations printed the ballots and the 
 state distributed them. But the honor of enacting 
 the first .Australian-ballot law belongs to Kentucky. 
 This measure was introduced by Mr. A. M. Wal- 
 lace, of Louisville, and was enacted February 24, 
 18S8. The act applied only to the city of Louis- 
 ville, because the state constitution required viva 
 voce voting at state elections. The ballots were 
 printed by the mayor at the expense of the city. 
 Candidates had to be nominated by fifty or more 
 voters in order to have their names placed upon the 
 ballot. The blanket form of the ballot was pro- 
 vided, with the names of the candidates arranged 
 in alphabetical order according to surnames, but 
 
 667
 
 AUSTRALIAN BALLOT 
 
 AUSTRASIA AND NEUSTRIA 
 
 without party designations of any kind. The man- 
 ner of obtaining and marliing the ballots was the 
 same as the Massachusetts act. . . . The original 
 centers of organized agitation for the reform were 
 New York and Boston, and the two movements, 
 while simultaneous, were independent. In Boston 
 the earliest discussion and demand for ballot reform 
 grew out of the discussions of public questions by 
 the members of a club called the 'Dutch Treat.' 
 Later the Boston City Council and the labor or- 
 ganizations began to demand leforni. One of the 
 members of the 'Dutch Treat,' Mr. H. H. Sprague, 
 was elected to the state Senate and was made chair- 
 man of a committee on election law. Encouraged 
 by these favorable signs, the club drafted a bill 
 which was presented by Mr. Sprague. Another 
 bill was presented in the House by Mr. E. B 
 Hayes, of Lynn, [Mass.] Mr. Hayes lent his 
 support to the bill introduced by Mr. Sprague, a 
 large number of petitions for the bill were re- 
 ceived, and on May 20, 1888, the law was enacted. 
 In New York a systematic discussion began in 
 1887 in the Commonwealth Club. After a thorough 
 discussion of this reform, a committee was ap- 
 pointed composed of some of the leading lawyers 
 and men of legislative and administrative experi- 
 ence, taken equally from the Republican and 
 Democratic parties. This committee was subse- 
 quently joined by a like committee from the City 
 Reform Club; and after some months of study, 
 it drafted an act which, after having been ap- 
 proved by the Commonwealth Club, the City Re- 
 form Club, and the Single Tax party, was presented 
 in the .^ssembly of 1888 and was known as the 
 'Yates bill.' The bill was referred to the Com- 
 mittee on Judiciary and was amended by certain 
 provisions taken from similar bills introduced by 
 Mr. Saxton and Mr. Hamilton. The measure was 
 supported by the Republicans and passed both 
 houses of the legislature, but was vetoed by Gov- 
 ernor Hill. Agitation was started anew by its 
 friends and a ballot league was formed. In the. 
 session of the legislature of i88g the Saxton bill 
 was amended and again introduced, the bill as 
 amended having received the indorsement of a 
 committee of the Young Men's Democratic Club 
 of New York. The legislature again passed the 
 Saxton bill and it was vetoed a second time by 
 Governor Hill. In i8qo the Yates-Saxton bill with 
 some modifications was again introduced, and a 
 monster petition from New York City containing 
 over one hundred thousand signatures was pre- 
 sented to the legislature. Governor Hill saw that 
 something had to be done, so he expressed a will- 
 ingness to sign a bill looking to the improvement 
 of the election laws, but declared that under no 
 circumstance would he approve any bill following 
 the Massachusetts or the Australian system. Cer- 
 tain of the leaders, despairing of the adoption of 
 their reform, decided to accept the governor's over- 
 tures. The result was the unsatisfactor\- com- 
 promise law of i8qo which provided for the so- 
 called 'party and paster ballot." The rapidity of 
 the spread of the .\ustralian ballot in the United 
 States during the next few years was most gratify- 
 ing to its friends, but its triumph was not secured 
 without a hard struggle. The opposition came 
 from two sources: the ultra-conservative members 
 of the community, and the machine politicians who 
 profited by the vices of the old system. The New 
 York Herald, in an editorial, said: 'The only per- 
 sons who can have an interest in elections as they 
 are, are the leaders and managers, whose power 
 depends upon their successes in manipulating the 
 ballot so that the suffrage will express, not the 
 will of the people, but the success of their schemes.' 
 As Mr. Wigmore shows in his summary of party 
 
 votes, the success of the measure in the country 
 as a whole cannot be claimed by either of the two 
 great political parties, and its enemies were also 
 bipartisan. The movement for reform, which 
 reaped its first fruits of victory in Louisville and 
 Massachusetts, received great impetus by the un- 
 precedented use of money in the election of 1888. 
 The effect is easily seen in the record of legisla- 
 tion of the next four years. In i88q seven states 
 enacted reform laws based on the Australian bal- 
 lot. In the legislative sessions of the following 
 year five states and one territory placed this law 
 on their statute books. Before the presidential 
 election in i8q2 thirty-two states and two ter- 
 ritories had provided for the .\ustralian ballot ; 
 and by i8q6 seven other states were added to 
 this list. In i8q7 Missouri abandoned in part 
 the .Australian ballot, and adopted separate party 
 ballots. This is the only state which has given 
 up the blanket form of the ballot after once 
 adopting it. By IQ16 Georgia and South Caro- 
 lina remain the only states entirely unreformed 
 North Carolina has [1Q16] only a local act 
 applying to New Hanover County. New Mex- 
 ico has a very unsatisfactory compromise law 
 under which separate ballots are printed by the 
 county recorders under the supervision of the 
 chairmen of the county committees of each party; 
 and the ballots are distributed by the parties in 
 advance of the election. Tennessee has applied the 
 Australian-ballot law only to counties having fifty 
 thousand population or over, and to towns having 
 a population of twenty-five hundred or ■ more. 
 Missouri has all the features of the Australian 
 ballot except that it has separate party ballots. 
 Delaware has taken a very reactionary step by 
 permitting an elector to obtain a ballot in ad- 
 vance of the election from the chairmen of the 
 various political organizations, and she has also 
 introduced an element of danger by the use of 
 envelopes." — E. C. Evans, History of the Aus- 
 tralian ballot system in the United States, pp. 
 17-20. — See also Suffrage, Manhood: United 
 States. 
 
 Also in: C. A. Beard, American government and 
 polities, pp. 675-685.— W. H. Glasson, Australian 
 voting system (South Atlantic Quarterly, Apr., 
 iqoo). 
 
 1902. — Secret ballot in Porto Rico. See Porto 
 Rico: 1001-1005. 
 
 1913. — Secret ballot in France. — "The con- 
 tinued efforts of the Chamber of Deputies to get 
 the Senate to agree to a completely secret ballot 
 resulted in 1Q13 in a law providing for voting under 
 envelope, as in the elections to the German Reich- 
 stag, and for secret voting booths. All ballots 
 must be cast in a uniform, opaque envelope, pro- 
 vided by the prefect, and bearing an official stamp. 
 The voter goes into the isoloir. or booth, and in 
 secrecy folds his ballot and puts it into the en- 
 velope. He then deposits it in the urn himself, 
 so that the president may have no chance to mark 
 it surreptitiously. This reform will do away with 
 intimidation, ballot stuffine, marking of ballots, 
 and their identification by outsiders. It came 
 slowly, and in the face of great opposition in the 
 Senate during a whole decade." — C. Seymour and 
 D. P Frarv. Ho;c the world votes, v. i, pp. 379- 
 380. 
 
 AUSTRALIAN MAN. See Europe: Prehis- 
 toric period: Earliest remains. 
 
 AUSTRASIA and NEUSTRIA, or Neus- 
 trasia. — "It is conjectured by Luden, with great 
 probability, that the Ripuarians were originally 
 called the 'Eastern' people to distinguish them 
 from the Salian Franks who lived to the West. 
 But when the old home of the conquerors on the 
 
 668
 
 AUSTRASIA AND NEUSTRIA 
 
 AUSTRIA 
 
 right bank of the Rhine was united with their new 
 settlements in Gaul, the latter, as it would seem, 
 were called Neustria or Neustrasia (New Lands) ; 
 while the term Austrasia came to denote the origi- 
 nal seats of the Franks, on what we now call the 
 German bank of the Rhine. The most important 
 difference between them (a difference so great as 
 to lead to their permanent separation into the 
 kingdoms of France and Germany by the treaty of 
 Verdun) was this: that in Neustria the Prankish 
 element was quickly absorbed by the mass of Gallo- 
 Romanism by which it was surrounded; while in 
 Austrasia, which included the ancient seats of the 
 Frankish conquerors, the German element was 
 wholly predominant. The import of the word Aus- 
 trasia (Austria, Austrifrancia) is very fluctuating. 
 In its widest sense it was used to denote all the 
 countries incorporated into the Frankish Empire, 
 or even held in subjection to it, in which the Ger- 
 man language and population prevailed; in this 
 acceptation it included therefore the territory of 
 the Alemanni, Bavarians. Thuringians, and even 
 that of the Saxons and Frises. In its more com- 
 mon and proper sense it meant that part of the 
 territory of the Franks themselves which was not 
 included in Neustria. It was subdivided into Upper 
 Austrasia on the Moselle, and Lower Austrasia on 
 the Rhine and Meuse. Neustria (or, in the fulness 
 of the monkish Latinity, Neustrasia) was bounded 
 on the north by the ocean, on the south by the 
 Loire, and on the southwest [southeast?] towards 
 Burgundy by a line which, beginning below Gien 
 on the Loire, ran through the rivers Loing and 
 
 Yonne, not far from their sources, and passing 
 north of Auxerre and south of Troyes, joined the 
 river Aube above Arcis." — W. C. Perry, The 
 Franks, ch. 3. — "The northeastern part of Gaul, 
 along the Rhine, together with a slice of ancient 
 Germany, was already distinguished, as we have 
 seen, by the name of the Eastern Kingdom, or 
 Oster-rike, Latinized into Austrasia. It embraced 
 the region lirst occupied by the Ripuarian Franks, 
 and where they still lived the most compactly and 
 in the greatest number. . . . This was, in the esti- 
 mation of the Franks, the kingdom by eminence, 
 while the rest of the north ul (Jaul was simply 
 not it — 'ne-osterrike,' or Neustria. A line drawn 
 from the mouth of the Scheldt to Cambrai, and 
 thence across the Marne at Chateau-Thierry to the 
 Aube of Bar-sur-Aube, would have separated the 
 one from the other, Neustria comprising all the 
 northwest of Gaul, between the Loire and the 
 ocean, with the exception of Brittany. This had 
 been the first possession of the Salian Franks in 
 Gaul. ... To such an extent had they been ab- 
 sorbed and influenced by the Roman elements of 
 the population, that the Austrasians scarcely con- 
 sidered them Franks, while they, in their turn, 
 regarded the Austrasians as the merest untutored 
 barbarians." — P. Godwin, Hiitory of France: An- 
 cient Gaul, bk. 3, ck. 13, with note. — See also 
 Franks (Merovingian empire): 511-752; Ger- 
 many: 687-800; Scandinavian states: 8th-Qth cen- 
 turies. 
 
 Also in: E. A. Freeman, Historical geography uj 
 Europe, ch. 5, sect. 5. 
 
 AUSTRIA 
 
 Introduction. — Singularity of Austrian his- 
 tory. — A Power which was not a national 
 power. — The peculiarities of Austrian and .Lus- 
 tre-Hungarian history down to the outbreak of 
 the World War are set forth in the following 
 quotations: "The very first fact with which 
 any student of .Austria-Hungary is confronted is 
 that he is dealing with a slate and not with a na- 
 tion. Nationalities are plentiful within the limits 
 of the empire — more nationalities and more lan- 
 guages than in any other European state except 
 Russia — but there is no .Austro-Hungarian nation. 
 When the emperor wishes to address a manifesto 
 to his subjects it is not 'to my people' that he 
 speaks, but 'to my peoples.' Nor have these 
 nationalities anything in common except their 
 government. Race, religion, all that tends to make 
 nationalities different from one another are pres- 
 ent. And so whether we apply to it the terms of 
 one of its severe critics, 'a ramshackle empire,' or 
 describe it, as its friends do, as an exceedingly 
 hopeful experiment in racial federalization, we are 
 necessarily brought back to the conclusion that 
 the Austria of to-day is not a nation but a gov- 
 ernment functioning over a group of struggling 
 nationalities each differing from the other in race, 
 religion and methods of life. Nor does the Aus- 
 trian difficulty end there. In their struggle with 
 each other the nationalities look not merely to 
 their own strength for aid but also to their brothers 
 outside the borders of Austria-Hungan,'. The Ger- 
 man looks to Germany, the Slav to Serbia and 
 Russia for assistance in their hopes of strengthen- 
 ing their- position within the Dual Empire. The 
 result is that this question has been too often re- 
 garded by the Austrian statesmen as a question 
 of foreign policy to be settled with these outside 
 powers rather than an internal question to be 
 settled within the empire. Moreover, the Austro- 
 
 Hungarian Empire has been constantly endeavor- 
 ing to expand either its territory or its influence, 
 at first in Italy and Germany, and more lately in 
 the Balkan peninsula. And these attempts at ex- 
 pansion have brought it into acute conflict: in 
 the first case with Italy, France and Prussia: in 
 the second case with Russia. So the Dual Empire, 
 whether on the defensive or offensive, has always 
 made foreign policy its chief aim, and has given 
 far too little attention to the pressing questions at 
 home. There are some nations which suffer from 
 too little attention to foreign policy ; Austria seems 
 to have suffered from giving it too much. Finally 
 the Austro-Hungarian Empire shares the fate of 
 all empires on the borderland between two civiliza- 
 tions. 'Asia,' says a Viennese proverb, 'begins on 
 the Ringstrasse,' and there seems to be an element 
 of truth in the saying. The traveller who goes 
 from the Tyrol to Bosnia or to northwestern 
 Hungary passes into a different world. One is 
 European, the other is Oriental, and all the ef- 
 forts of the rulers to Europeanize their subjects 
 and to mitigate this difference have only partially 
 succeeded. And this difference has increased still 
 further the dissension within the Dual Empire 
 and prevented the formation of a united nation. 
 "This is Austria, a state, a foreign policy, an 
 army, a ruler, but never a nation. How did such 
 a state come to be formed? To answer this ques- 
 tion we must go back into the late Middle Ages, 
 to the period when the old Holy Roman Empire 
 of the Germans was struggling with the non-C^er- 
 man races on its borders, Slavs and Magyars. To 
 provide for defence against these races was formed 
 the so-called East March — the kernel of modern 
 Austria. Originally purely German, it extended 
 to the south to take in the Slavs along the northern 
 Adriatic. But the genesis of modern Austria be- 
 gins with a certain Ferdinand, brother of Charles 
 
 669
 
 AUSTRIA 
 
 Introduction 
 
 AUSTRIA 
 
 V, whom Luther faced at Worms in 152 1. By a 
 fortunate marriage and by equally fortunate deaths 
 he acquired Hungary and Bohemia. But he ac- 
 quired something in addition to these territories, he 
 acquired a Turkish war among his possessions in 
 Hungary. And for the next two centuries Aus- 
 tria waged almost unceasing war against the Turks. 
 At first the struggle went rather against them; in 
 i52g and again in 1683, the Turks nearly captured 
 Vienna and settled the problem of Austria in a 
 Turkish sense. But after 1683 the war went sicaci- 
 ily in Austria's favor. She gradually e.xtended 
 down the Danube and into the Balkans, taking 
 under her dominion large numbers of Slavs who 
 welcomed her armies as deliverers from the hatca 
 oppression of the Turk. In IQ14 they were sing- 
 ing in the streets of X'ienna a song commemorating 
 the exploits of the great .Austrian general, Prince 
 Eugene of Savoy, who had led the .Austrian armies 
 during ope of the most successful periods of these 
 wars. Formerly many a Slav has joined in this 
 song because he realized that it was this Prince 
 Eugene who had delivered his race from the Turk. 
 But these voices have long been still. Because 
 they have discovered that they have merely ex- 
 changed one set of bonds for another, the cramp- 
 ing rule of the Ottoman for the equally cramping 
 rule of the German and the Magyar, they have 
 ceased to celebrate these .Austrian victories over 
 the Turk. All the opportunity that .Austria has 
 enjoyed, all the tragedy of her failure to realize it, 
 lies in this situation. And thus was formed a state 
 which never was the expression of a nation, a 
 mere machine, a thmg in which the breadth of 
 national life has never really stirred. It was given 
 the great opportunity to reconcile Slav and Mag- 
 yar and German, East and West, and, on the 
 whole, it has failed. Opportunities countless it 
 has had; some it has utilized — enough to tantalize 
 yet not to satisfy; but the great majority it has 
 left unutilized. It has, at best, but partially ful- 
 filled its destiny and now it comes for its ac- 
 counting before the judgm.ent-bar of the nations." 
 — W. S. Davis, Roots of the war, pp. 280-291. 
 
 It is not easy "to tell the story of the various 
 lands which have at different times come under the 
 dominion of .Austrian princes, the story of each 
 land by itself, and the story of them all in rela- 
 tion to the common power. A continuous narra- 
 tive is impossible. . . . Much mischief has been 
 done by one small fashion of modern speech. It 
 has within my memory become usual to personify 
 nations and powers on the smallest occasions in a 
 way which was formerly done only in language 
 more or less solemn, rhetorical or poetical. We 
 now talk every moment of England, France, Ger- 
 many, Russia, Italy, as if they were persons. And 
 as long as it is only England, France, Germany, 
 Russia, or Italy of which we talk in this way, no 
 practical harm is done; the thing is a mere ques- 
 tion of style. For those are all national powers. 
 . . . But when we go on to talk in this way of 
 'Austria,' or 'Turkey,' direct harm is done; thought 
 is confused, and facts are misrepresented. ... I 
 have seen the words '.Austrian national honour;' 
 I have come across people who believed that 'Aus- 
 tria' was one land inhabited by 'Austrians,' and 
 that 'Austrians' spoke the '.Austrian' language. All 
 such phrases are misapplied. It is to be presumed 
 that in all of them '.Austria' means something more 
 than the true .Austria, the archduchy ; what is com- 
 monly meant by them is the whole dominions of 
 the sovereign of Austria. People fancy that the 
 inhabitants of those dominions have a common 
 being, a common interest, like that of the people 
 of England, France, or Italy. . . . There is no 
 Austrian language, no Austrian nation; therefore 
 
 there can be no such thing as 'Austrian national 
 honour.' Nor can there be an 'Austrian policy' in 
 the same sense in which there is an English or a 
 French policy, that is, a policy in which the 
 English or French government carries out the will 
 of the English or French nation. . . . Such phrasei 
 as 'Austrian interests,' '.Austrian policy,' and the 
 like, do not mean the interests or the policy of any 
 land or nation at all. They s mply mean the in- 
 terests and policy of a particular ruling family, 
 which may often be the same as the interests and 
 wishes of particular parts of their dominions, but 
 which can never represent any common interest 
 or common w-sh on ihe part of the whole. . . . 
 We muL=t ever remember that the dominions of 
 the House of .Austria are simply a collection of 
 kingdoms, duchies, etc., brought together by va- 
 rious accidental causes, but which have nothing 
 really in common, no common speech, no common 
 feeling, no comm.on interest. In one case only, 
 that of the Magyars in Hungary, does the 
 House of Austria rule over a whole nation ; 
 the other kingdoms, duchies, etc.. are only 
 parts of nations, having no tic to one 
 another, but having the closest ties to other parts 
 of their several nations which lie close to them 
 but which are under other governments. The only 
 bond among them all is that a series of marriages, 
 wars, treaties, and so forth, have given them a 
 common sovereign. The same person is king of 
 Hungary, .Archduke of .Austria, Count of Tyrol. 
 Lord of Trieste, and a hundred other things. That 
 is all. . . . The growth and the abiding dominion 
 of the House of Austria is one of the most re- 
 markable phenomena in European history. Pow- 
 ers of the same kind have arisen twice before; 
 but in both cases they were very short-lived, while 
 the power of the House of Austria has lasted for 
 several centuries. The power of the House of 
 .Anjou in the twelfth century, the power of the 
 House of Burgundy in the fifteenth century, were 
 powers of exactly the same kind. They too were 
 collections of scraps, with no natural connexion, 
 brought together by the accidents of warfare, mar- 
 riage, or diplomacy. Now why is it that both 
 these powers broke in pieces almost at once, after 
 the reigns of two princes in each case, while the 
 power of the House of .Austria has lasted so long? 
 Two causes suggest themselves. One is the long 
 connexion between the House of .Austria and the 
 Roman Empire and kingdom of Germany. So 
 many Austrian princes were elected Emperors as 
 to make the .Austrian House seem something great 
 and imperial in itself. I believe that this cause 
 has done a good deal towards the result; but I 
 believe that another cause has done yet more. This 
 is that, though the Austrian power is not a national 
 power, there is, as has been already noticed, a 
 nation within it. While it contains only scraps 
 of other nations, it contains the whole of the 
 Magyar nation. It thus gets something of the 
 strength of a national power. . . . The kingdom 
 of Hungary is an ancient kingdom, with known 
 boundaries which have changed singularly little 
 for several centuries; and its connexion with the 
 archduchy of Austria and the kingdom of Bohemia 
 is now of long standing. Anything beyond this is 
 modern and shifting. The so-called 'empire of 
 .Austria' dates only from the year 1804. This is 
 one of the simplest matters in the world, but one 
 which is constantly forgotten. ... A smaller point 
 on which confusion also prevails is this. All the 
 members of the House of Austria are commonly 
 spoken of as archdukes and archduchesses. I feel 
 sure that many people, if asked the meaning of 
 the word archduke, would say that it was the 
 title of the children of the 'Emperor of Austria,' 
 
 670
 
 AUSTRIA 
 
 Geography 
 
 AUSTRIA 
 
 as grandduke is used in Russia, and prince in most 
 countries. In trutli, arclidulce is ths title of tiie 
 sovereign of Austria. He lias not given it up; for 
 he calls himself Archduke of Austria still, though 
 he calls himself 'Emperor of Austria' as well. But 
 by German custom, the children of a duke or 
 count are all called dukes and counts for ever and 
 ever. In this way the Prince of Wales is called 
 'Duke of Saxony,' and in the same way all the 
 children of an Archduke of Austria are archdukes 
 and archduchesses. Formally and historically then, 
 the taking of an hereditary imperial title by the 
 Archduke of Austria in 1804, and the keeping of it 
 after the prince who took it had ceased in 1806 
 to be King of Germany and Roman Emperor-elect, 
 was a sheer and shameless imposture. But it is an 
 imposture which has thoroughly well served its 
 ends." — E. A. Freeman, Preface to Leger's History 
 of Aiistro-Hnugary. — "Medieval History is a his- 
 tory of rights and wrongs; modern History as 
 contrasted with medieval divides itself into two 
 portions; the first a history of powers, forces, and 
 dynasties ; the second, a history in which ideas 
 take the place of both rights and forces. . . . Aus- 
 tria may be regarded as representing the more 
 ancient form of right. . . . The middle ages proper, 
 the centuries from the year 1000 to the year 1500, 
 from the Emperor Henry II. to the Emperor Maxi- 
 milian, were ages of legal growth, ages in which 
 the idea of right, as embodied in law, was the 
 leading idea of statesmen, and the idea of rights 
 justified or justifiable by the letter of law, was a 
 profound influence with politicians. . . . The house 
 of Austria . . . lays thus the foundation of that 
 empire which is to be one of the great forces of 
 the next age; not by fraud, not by violence, but 
 here by a politic marriage, here by a well advocated 
 inheritance, here by a claim on an imperial fief 
 forfeited or escheated: honestly where the letter 
 of the law is in her favour, by chicanery it may be 
 here and there, but that a chicanery tliat wears a 
 specious garb of right. The imperial idea was but 
 a small influence compared with the superstructure 
 of right, inheritance, and suzerainty, that legal 
 instincts and a general acquiescence in legal forms 
 had raised upon it."- — W. Stubbs, Seventeen lec- 
 tures on the study of medieval and modern history, 
 pp. 209-215. 
 
 Geography. — Danube valley. — "The Danube 
 plaj's a most important part in European history, 
 greater even than the Rhine. . . . Heterogeneous 
 as it is in the races and languages it includes [in 
 1907], and still more in constitutional machinery, 
 the Austro-Hungarian monarchy is by no means 
 an anomaly on the map. It comprises all the 
 Danube region except the immediate upper basin 
 of the great river itself, which after all is more 
 clearly divided from the Inn than from the Main, 
 down to where the Danube turns eastwards parallel 
 to the Balkans. It includes Bohemia, which is 
 as it were the converse of Bavaria, historically 
 but not technically belonging to the Danube re- 
 gion. In two places only, if we ignore details, 
 does it pass beyond its natural boundaries: it pos- 
 sesses the strip of Adriatic coast beyond the moun- 
 tains — an acquisition vital to Austria and not ten- 
 able by any other power — and Galicia beyond the 
 Carpathians, which is a real anomaly and source 
 of weakness. That there are various and mutually 
 jealous races within the monarchy is a misfor- 
 tune: that some of them have kindred outside the 
 frontiers may prove a worse evil eventually. 
 Meanwhile, Austria affords one more illustration of - 
 the readiness with which peoples may overpass ra- 
 tional dividing features that are not barriers. 
 
 "The military history of the Danube region cor- 
 responds, as is natural, with the geographical con- 
 
 ditions. The great river flows through it from 
 west and east,. and most of the aggressive move- 
 ments, both migrations of peoples and organized 
 invasions, are from the eastwards, or are driven 
 back in the opposite direction. Moreover, the 
 Danube down to Presburg runs near to the north- 
 ern boundary, leaving a comparatively wide space 
 on the south, traversed by a series of tributaries, 
 being in this respect the exact converse of the Po. 
 Accordingly, the great battle which checked the 
 onward progress of the Hungarians was fought on 
 the Lech: the less conspicuous but equally signifi- 
 cant encounter which terminated the Mongol in- 
 road of the thirteenth century took place near the 
 eastern frontier of Austria proper. After the Hun- 
 garians have become Christian, they are inevitably 
 the foremost defence of Christendom against the 
 Ottoman Turks. On the Hungarian plain, usually 
 within no great distance of the Danube, were 
 fought the battles which brought Ottoman con- 
 quests up to the gates of Vienna, and drove them 
 ultimately back to the Balkan peninsula. When 
 the conditions have changed entirely, and aggres- 
 sion in central Europe comes habitually from 
 France, the first conflict is naturally for access to 
 the head of the Danube valley. . . . Accordingly, 
 campaigns which concerned the Danube region 
 began by the French forcing their way through the 
 Black Forest hills." — H. B. George, Relations of 
 geography and' history, pp. 251, 257-259. 
 
 Name. — "The name of Austria, Oesterreich — Os- 
 trich as our forefathers wrote it — is, naturally 
 enough, a common name for the eastern part of 
 any kingdom. The Frankish kingdom of the Mer- 
 wings had its Austria ; the Italian kingdom of the 
 Lombards had its Austria also. We are half in- 
 clined to wonder that the name was never given 
 in our own island either to Essex or to East-Anglia. 
 But, while the other Austrias have passed away, 
 the Oesterreich, the Austria, the Eastern mark, of 
 the German kingdom, its defence against the Mag- 
 yar invader, has lived on to our own times. It 
 has not only lived on, but it has become one of 
 the chief European powers. And it has become 
 so by a process to which it would be hard to find 
 a parallel." — E. A. Freeman, Historical geography 
 of Europe, v. i, ch. 8, p. 305. 
 
 Birthplace. — "On the disputed frontier, in the 
 zone of perpetual conflict, were formed and de- 
 veloped the two states which, in turn, were to 
 dominate over Germany, namely, Austria and 
 Prussia. Both were born in the midst of the 
 enemy. The cradle of Austria was the Eastern 
 marcfi, established by Charlemagne on the Danube, 
 beyond Bavaria, at the very gate through which 
 have passed so many invaders from the Orient. 
 . . . The cradle of Prussia was the march of 
 Brandenburg, between the Elbe and the Oder, in 
 the region of the exterminated Slavs." — E. Lavisse, 
 General view of the political history of Europe, 
 ch. 3, sect. 13. 
 
 Races of Austria. — "The Austrian problem, then, 
 is, at bottom, a problem of nationalities. . . . 
 Roughly speaking, they are comprised in five grand 
 divisions, the German, the Magyar, the Slav, the 
 Roumanian and the Italian. Of Slavs there are 
 numerous subdivisions, Czechs, Poles, Ruthenians, ' 
 Slovaks, Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. But the fun- 
 damental characteristics of them all are the same, 
 and for introductory purposes we may group them 
 together. . . . They settled mainly in the upper 
 basin of the Danube along the north and west 
 borders of Bohemia. There is also a little island 
 of Teutondom in western Hungary formed from 
 the descendants of sturdy German settlers sent 
 during the Middle Ages to hold this region against 
 the Slav, but today lost in the surrounding sea of 
 
 671
 
 AUSTRIA, 805-1246 
 
 Babenberg 
 Dynasty 
 
 AUSTRIA, 805-1246 
 
 Hungarians and Roumanians. ... If you travel 
 by the Danube steamer from Vienna to Budapest 
 you pass, about half way, the citadel of Press- 
 burg. This old frontier fortress of the Hungarian 
 kingdom may be taken as the boundary where one 
 passes from the land of the Germans into that of 
 the Magyars. From that point on this race in- 
 habits the great Hungarian plain, until, in its west- 
 ern part, it gives way to the Roumanian. . . . 
 From the two ruling nationalities, German and 
 Magyar, we pass to the ruled nationalities, the 
 Slav, the Roumanian and the Italian. To link 
 together the Slavs as one nationality involves a 
 certain stretching of the term, for, even yet, it is 
 doubtful if the Czechs of Bohemia feel their kin- 
 ship with the Croats or Serbs in Hungary, and in 
 at least one case, that of the Poles and Ruthenians, 
 the feeling is still decidedly antagonistic. . . . His- 
 tory tells us but little, for they pushed into Europe 
 unheralded and unsung in the centuries immediately 
 following the fall of Rome. They were evidently 
 of a low grade of civilization, hunters and fisher- 
 men, wanderers on the face of the earth, with few 
 if any political bonds to confine them, individualists 
 by choice. They always seem to have lacked, to 
 some extent, the ability to organize, although it 
 may be said that this defect has been somewhat 
 exaggerated by those who write concerning this 
 race. . . . Geographically the Slavs form a fringe 
 along the northern and southern borders of the 
 empire, although they have pushed many outposts 
 into the central position as well. Numerically they 
 are the leading race in the empire, having a larger 
 population than the two ruling races, German and 
 Magyar, taken together. The majority are Roman 
 Catholics. The eastern part of Hungary is oc- 
 cupied, in the main, by Roumanians. They seeped 
 in across the Carpathians some time during the 
 later Middle .^ges, and ever since the thirteenth 
 century seem to have made up the peasant class 
 in this district, 'first as serfs, later as political 
 helots' — to quote the characterization of Mr. Seton 
 Watson. They claim to be the descendants of the 
 Latin colonists left by Trajan in the Roman prov- 
 ince of Dacia; actually they are probably a mixed 
 race from many origins and their Roman antece- 
 dents are much more certain as to their language 
 than their blood. . . . Last among the nationali- 
 ties come the Italians, who are almost entirely 
 found in the coast cities along the northern and 
 eastern shores of the Adriatic. Originally they 
 came as colonists, sometimes under the control of 
 Venice, sometimes independent, in order to trade 
 with the people of the back country, and they 
 brought with them an Italian culture that has 
 never died out, even though the Italians today 
 are a minority among the population. Traders 
 and culture-bearers they are still, these lost chil- 
 dren of Italy, living, for the most part, in the 
 cities which are little Italian fortresses in the sur- 
 rounding hosts of Slavdom." — W. S. Davis, Roots 
 of the war, pp. 201-295. 
 
 805-1246. — Rise of the margraviate, and the 
 creation of the duchy, under the Babenbergs. — 
 Changing relations to Bavaria. — End of the 
 Babenberg dynasty. — ".\ustria, as is well known, 
 is but the Latin form of the German Oesterreich, 
 the kingdom of the east [see .\ustrasia1. This 
 celebrated historical name appears for the first time 
 in qq6, in a document signed by the emperor Otto 
 111. ('in regione vulgari nomine Osterrichi') . The 
 land to which it is there applied was created a 
 march after the destruction of the Avar empire 
 1 805]. and was governed like all the other Ger- 
 man marches. Politically it was divided into two 
 margraviates; that of Friuli, including Friuli prop- 
 erly so called, Lower Pannonia to the south of the 
 
 Drave, Carinthia, Istria, and the interior of Dal- 
 matia — the sea-coast having been ceded to the East- 
 ern emperor ; — the eastern margraviate comprising 
 Lower Pannonia to the north of the Drave, Upper 
 Pannonia, and the Ostmark properly so called. 
 The Ostmark included the Traungau to the east 
 of the Enns, which was completely German, and 
 the Grunzvittigau. . . . The early history of these 
 countries lacks the unity of interest which the 
 fate of a dynasty or a nation gives to those of the 
 Magyar and the Chekh [Czech-Bohemian]. They 
 form but a portion of the German kingdom, and 
 have no strongly marked life of their own. The 
 march, with its varying frontier, had not even a 
 geographical unity. In S76, it was enlarged by the 
 addition of Bavaria; in Sqo, it lost Pannonia. which 
 was given to Bracislav, the Croat prince, in re- 
 turn for his help against the Magyars, and in 
 937, it was destroyed and absorbed by the Mag- 
 yars, who extended their frontier to the river Enns. 
 After the battle of Lechfeld or .Augsburg (955), 
 Germany and Italy being no longer exposed to 
 Hungarian invasions, the march was re-constituted 
 and granted to the margrave Burkhard, the brother- 
 in-law of Henry of Bavaria. Leopold of Baben- 
 berg succeeded him (073), and with him begins 
 the dynasty of Babenberg, which ruled the country 
 during the time of the Premyslides [in Bohemia] 
 and the house of .\rpad [in Hungary]. The Ba- 
 benbergs derived their name from the castle of 
 Babenberg. built by Henry, margrave of Nordgau, 
 in honor of his wife. Baba. sister of Henry the 
 Fowler. It reappears in the name of the town of 
 Bamberg, which now [1879] forms part of the 
 kingdom of Bavaria. . . . Though not of right an 
 hereditary office, the margraviate soon became so, 
 and remained in the family of the Babenbergs; 
 the march was so important a part of the empire 
 that no doubt the emperor was glad to make the 
 defence of this exposed district the especial inter- 
 est of one family. . . . The marriages of the Ba- 
 benbergs were fortunate; in 1138 the brother of 
 Leopold [Fourth of that name in the Margraviate] 
 Conrad of Hohenstaufen, Duke of Franconia, was 
 made emperor. It was now that the struggle be- 
 gan between the house of Hohenstaufen and the 
 great house of Welf [or Guelf: See Guelfs and 
 Ghibellixes] whose representative was Henry the 
 Proud, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria. Henry was 
 defeated in the unequal strife, and was placed 
 under the ban of the Empire, while the duchy of 
 Saxony was awarded to .Albert the Bear of Bran- 
 denburg, and the duchy of Bavaria fell to the share 
 of Leopold IV. (1 138). Henry the Proud died in 
 the following year, leaving behind him a son under 
 age, who was known later on as Henry the Lion. 
 His uncle Welf would not submit to the forfeiture 
 by his house of their old dominions, and marched 
 against Leopold to reconquer Bavaria, but he was 
 defeated by Conrad at the battle of VVeinsberg 
 (1140). Leopold died shortly after this victory, 
 and was succeeded both in the duchy of Bavaria 
 and in the margraviate of .Austria by his brother, 
 Henry II." Henry II endeavored to strengthen 
 himself in Bavaria by marrying the widow of 
 Henry the Proud, and by extorting from her son, 
 Henry the Lion, a renunciation of the latter's 
 rights. But Henry the Lion afterwards repudiated 
 his renunciation, and in 1150 the German diet de- 
 cided that Bavaria should be restored to him. 
 Henry of .Austria was wisely persuaded to yield 
 to the decision, and Bavaria was given up. "He 
 . lost nothing by this unwilling act of disinterested- 
 ness, for he secured from the emperor considerable 
 compensation. From this time forward, .Austria, 
 which had been largely increased by the addition 
 of the greater part of the lands lying between the 
 
 672
 
 Copyright. C. A. NiCHOLa Publishins Company 
 
 • 
 
 Maps prepared specially for the NEW LARNED 
 under direction of the editors and publishers. 
 
 c
 
 AUSTRIA, 805-1246 
 
 Rudolf 
 of Hapsburg 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1246-1282 
 
 Enns and the Inn, was removed from its almost 
 nominal subjection to Bavaria and became a sep- 
 arate duchy [Henry II being the first hereditary 
 duke of Austria], [See also Germany: 1125- 
 1272] An imperial edict, dated the 21st of Sep- 
 tember, 1156, declares the new duchy hereditary 
 even in the female line, and authorizes the dukes 
 to absent themselves from all diets except those 
 which were held in Bavarian territory. It also 
 permits them, in case of a threatened extinction 
 of their dynasty, to propose a successor. . . . 
 Henry II. was one of the founders of Vienna. He 
 constructed a fortress there, and, in order to civi- 
 lize the surrounding country, sent for some Scotch 
 monks, of whom there were many at this time in 
 Germany." In 11 77 Henry 11 w,as succeeded by 
 Leopold V, called the Virtuous. "In his reign the 
 duchy of Austria gained Styria [Steiermark], an 
 important addition to its territory. This province 
 was inhabited by Slovenes and Germans, and took 
 its name from the castle of Steyer, built in q8o by 
 Otokar III., count of the Trungau. In 1056, it 
 was created a margraviate, and in 11 50 it was en- 
 larged by the addition of the counties of Maribor 
 (Marburg) and Cilly. In 1180, Otokar VI. of 
 Styria (1164-1102) obtained the hereditary title 
 of duke from the Emperor in return for his help 
 against Henry the Lion." Dying without children, 
 Otokar made Leopold of Austria his heir. "Styria 
 was annexed to Austria in iiq2, and has remained 
 so ever since. . . . Leopold V. is the first of the 
 Austrian princes whose name is known in Western 
 Europe. He joined the third crusade," and quar- 
 relled with Richard Cceur de Lion at the siege of 
 St. Jean d'.'Kcre. Afterwards, when Richard, re- 
 turning home by the Adriatic, attempted to pass 
 through Austrian territory incognito, Leopold re- 
 venged himself by seizing and imprisoning the Eng- 
 lish king, finally selling his royal captive to a still 
 meaner emperor for 20,000 marks. Leopold VI, 
 who succeeded to the .Austrian duchy in iiq8, did 
 much for the commerce of his country. "He made 
 Vienna the staple town, and lent a sum of 30,000 
 marks of silver to the city to enable it to increase 
 its trade. He adorned it with many new buildings, 
 among them the Neue Burg." His son, called 
 Frederick the Fighter (1230-1246) was the last of 
 the Babenberg dynasty. His hand was against all 
 his neighbors, including the Emperor Frederick II, 
 and their hands were against him. He perished in 
 June, 1246, on the banks of the Leitha, while at 
 war with the Hungarians. — L. Leger, History of 
 Austro -Hungary, ck. q. 
 
 Also in: E. F. Henderson, Select historical docu- 
 ments of the Middle Ages, bk. 2, no. 7. 
 
 1246-1282.— Rudolf, or Rodolph, of Hapsburg 
 and the acquisition of the duchy for his family. 
 — "The House of Austria owes its origin and power 
 to Rhodolph of Hapsburgh, son of Albert IV. 
 count of Hapsburgh The Austrian genealogists, 
 who have taken indefatigable but ineffectual pains 
 to trace his illustrious descent from the Romans, 
 carry it with great probability to Ethico, duke of 
 Alsace, in the seventh century, and unquestionably 
 to Guntram the Rich, count of Alsace and Bris- 
 gau, who flourished in the tenth." A grandson of 
 Guntram, Werner by name, "became bishop of 
 Strasburgh, and on an eminence above Windisch, 
 built the castle of Hapsburgh ['Habichtsburg' 'the 
 castle of hawks'], which became the residence of 
 the future counts, and gave a new title to the de- 
 scendants of Guntram . . . The successors of Wer- 
 ner increased their family inheritance by mar- 
 riages, donations from the Emperors, and by be- 
 coming prefects, advocates, or administrators of 
 the neighbouring abbeys, towns, or districts, and 
 his great grandson, Albert III., was possessor of 
 
 no inconsiderable territories in Suabia, Alsace, and 
 that part of Switzerland which is now called the 
 Argau, and held the landgraviate of Upper Alsace. 
 His son, Rhodolph, received from the Emperor, in 
 addition to his paternal inheritance, the town and 
 district of Lauffenburgh, an imperial city on the 
 Rhine. He acquired also a considerable accession 
 of territory by obtaining the advocacy of Uri, 
 Schweitz, and Underwalden, whose natives laid 
 the foundation of the Helvetic Confederacy, by 
 their union against the oppressions of feudal tyr- 
 anny." — W, Coxe, History of the house of Aus- 
 tria, ch. I. — "On the death of Rodolph in 1232 his 
 estates were divided between his sons Albert IV. 
 and Rodolph II.; the former receiving the land- 
 graviate of Upper Alsace, and the county of Haps- 
 burg, together with the patrimonial castle; the 
 latter, the counties Rheinfelden and Lauffenburg, 
 and some other territories. Albert espoused Hed- 
 wige, daughter of Ulric, count of Kyburg; and 
 from this union sprang the great Rodolph who was 
 
 RUDOLF I (12:8-1291) 
 Founder of the House of Hapsburg 
 
 born on the ist of May 1218, and was presented 
 at the baptismal font by the Emperor Frederic II. 
 On the death of his father Albert in 1240, Rodolph 
 succeeded to his estates; but the greater portion of 
 these were in the hands of his paternal uncle, 
 Rodolph of Lauffenburg; and all he could call his 
 own lay within sight of the great hall of his castle, 
 . . . His disposition was wayward and restless, and 
 drew him into repeated contests with his neigh- 
 bours and relations . . In a quarrel with the 
 Bishop of Basle. Rodolph led his troops against 
 that city, and burnt a convent in the suburbs, for 
 which he was excommunicated by Pope Innocent 
 IV. He then entered the service of Ottocar II. 
 King of Bohemia, under whom he served, in 
 company with the Teutonic Knights, in his wars 
 against the Prussian pagans; and afterwards against 
 Bela IV King of Hungary." The surprising elec- 
 tion, in 1272, of this little known count of Haps- 
 burg, to be king of the Romans, with the substance 
 if not the title of the imperial dignity which that 
 election carried with it, was due to a singular 
 friendship which he had acquired some fourteen 
 
 ^7?,
 
 AUSTRIA, 1246-1282 
 
 Rudolf 
 of Hapsburg 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1291-1349 
 
 years before. When Archbishop Werner, elector of 
 Mentz, was on his way to Rome in 1259, to receive 
 the pallium, he "was escorted across the Alps by 
 Rodolph of Hapsburg, and under his protection 
 secured from the robbers who beset the passes. 
 Charmed with the affability and frankness of his 
 protector, the Archbishop conceived a strong regard 
 for Rodolph;" and when, in 1272, after the great 
 interregnum [see Germ.\xy: 1250-1272], the Ger- 
 manic electors found difficulty in choosing an em- 
 peror, the elector of Mentz recommended nis friend 
 of Hapsburg as a candidate. "The Electors are 
 described by a contemporary as desiring an Em- 
 peror but detesting his power. The comparative 
 lowliness of the Count of Hapsburg recommended 
 him as one from whom their authority stood in 
 little jeopardy; but the claims of the King of Bo- 
 hemia were vigorously urged; and it was at length 
 agreed to decide the election by the voice of the 
 Duke of Bavaria. Lewis without hesitation nomi- 
 nated Rodolph. . . . The early days of Rodolph's 
 reign were disturbed by the contumacy of Ottocar, 
 King of Bohemia. That Prince . . . persisted in 
 refusing to acknowledge the Count of Hapsburg 
 as his sovereign. Possessed of the duchies of 
 Austria, Styria, Carniola and Carinthia, he might 
 rely upon his own resources; and he was fortified 
 in his resistance by the alliance of Henry, Duke 
 of Lower Bavaria. But the very possession of 
 these four great fiefs was sufficient to draw down 
 the envy and distrust of the other German Princes. 
 To all these territories, indeed, the title of Ottocar 
 was sufficiently disputable. On the death of Fred- 
 eric II. fifth duke of Austria [and last of the Ba- 
 benberg dynasty] in 1246, that duchy, together 
 with Styria and Carniola, was claimed by his niece 
 Gertrude and his sister Margaret. By a marriage 
 with the latter, and a victory over Bela IV. King 
 of Hungar>', whose uncle married Gertrude, Ottocar 
 obtained possession of Austria and Styria; and in 
 virtue of a purchase from Ulric, Duke of Carinthia 
 and Carniola, he possessed himself of those dutchies 
 on Ulric's death in 126Q, in defiance of the claims 
 of Philip, brother of the late Duke. Against so 
 powerful a rival the Princes assembled at Augs- 
 burg readily voted succour io Rodolph; and Otto- 
 car having refused to surrender the .Austrian do- 
 minions, and even hanged the heralds who were 
 sent to pronounce the consequent sentence of pro- 
 scription, Rodolph with his accustomed prompti- 
 tude took the field [1276], and confounded his 
 enemy by a rapid march upon Austria. On his 
 way he surprised and vanquished the rebel Duke 
 of Bavaria, whom he compelled to join his forces; 
 he besieged and reduced to the last extremity the 
 city of Vienna ; and had already prepared a bridge 
 of boats to cross the Danube and invade Bohemia, 
 when Ottocar arrested his progress by a message 
 of submission. The terms agreed' upon were se- 
 verely humiliating to the proud soul of Ottocar," 
 and he was soon in revolt again, with the support 
 of the duke of Bavaria Rodolph marched against 
 him, and a desperate battle was fought at Marsch- 
 feld, August 26, 1278, in which Ottocar, deserted 
 at a critical moment by the Moravian troops, was 
 defeated and slain. "The total loss of the Bo- 
 hemians on that fatal day amounted to more than 
 14,000 men In the first moments of his triumph, 
 Rodolph designed to appropriate the dominions 
 of his deceased enemy. But his avidity was re- 
 strained by the Princes of the Empire, who inter- 
 posed on behalf of the son of Ottocar; and Wen- 
 ceslaus was permitted to retain Bohemia and 
 Moravia. The projected union of the two families 
 was now renewed: Judith of Hapsburg was affi- 
 anced to the young King of Bohemia ; whose sister 
 Agnes was married to Rodolph, youngest son of 
 
 the King of the Romans." In 1282, Rudolf, 
 "after satisfying the several claimants to those ter- 
 ritories by various cessions of lands . . . obtained 
 the consent of a Diet held at Augsburg to the 
 settlement of Austria, Styria, and Carniola, upon 
 his two surviving sons; who were accordingly 
 jointly invested with those dutchies with great 
 pomp and solemnity; and they are at this hour en- 
 joyed by the descendants of Rodolph of Hapsburg." 
 — Sir R. Comyn, History of the western empire, 
 ch. 14. 
 
 Also in: J. Him and J. E. Wackernagel, eds., 
 Quellen ui:d Forschungen zur Geschichte, Literatur 
 und Sprache Oesterreichs und seiner Kroiildnder. 
 — W. Coxe, History of the house of Austria. — J. 
 Planta, History 'of the Helvetic confederacy, v. 1, 
 bk. I, ch. 5. 
 
 1282-1315. — Relations of the house of Haps- 
 burg to the Swiss forest cantons. — Wilhelm Tell 
 legend. — Battle of Morgarten. See Switzer- 
 land: Three forest cantons. 
 
 1290. — Beginning of Hapsburg designs upon 
 the crown of Hungary. See Huxg.\rv: 1116-1301; 
 1301-1442. 
 
 1291-1349.— Loss and recovery of the imperial 
 crown. — Liberation of Switzerland. — Conflict be- 
 tween Frederick and Lewis of Bavaria. — Impe- 
 rial crown lost once more. — Rudolf of Hapsburg 
 desired the title of King of the Romans for his son. 
 "But the electors already found that the new house 
 of Austria was becoming too powerful, and they 
 refused. On his death, in fact, in 1291, a prince 
 from another family, poor and obscure, Adolf of 
 Nassau, was elected after an interregnum of ten 
 months. His reign of six years is marked by two 
 events; he sold himself to Edward I. in 1294, 
 against Philip the Fair, for loo.coo pounds sterl- 
 ing, and used the money in an attempt to obtain 
 in Thuringia a principality for his family as Ru- 
 dolf had done in .\ustria. The electors were dis- 
 pleased and chose .Albert of .Austria to succeed him, 
 who conquered and killed his adversar>' at Gbll- 
 heim, near Worms (1298). The ten years' reign of 
 the new king of the Romans showed that he was 
 very ambitious for his family, which he wished 
 to establish on the throne of Bohemia, where the 
 Slavonic dynasty had lately died out, and also in 
 Thuringia and Meissen, where he lost a battle. 
 He was also bent upon extending his rights, even 
 unjustly — in Alsace and Switzerland — and it proved 
 an unfortunate venture for him. For, on the one 
 hand, he roused the three Swiss cantons of Uri, 
 Schweitz, and Unterwalden to revolt; on the other 
 hand, he roused the wrath of his nephew John of 
 Swabia, whom he defrauded of his inheritance 
 (domains in Switzerland, Swabia, and Alsace). As 
 he was crossing the Reuss, John thrust him through 
 with his sword (130S). The assassin escaped. One 
 of Albert's daughters, Agnes, dowager queen of 
 Hungary, had more than a thousand innocent 
 people killed to avenge the death of her father. 
 The greater part of the present Switzerland had 
 been originally included in the Kingdom of Bur- 
 gundy, and was ceded to the empire, together 
 with that kingdom, in 1033. A feudal nobility, lay 
 and ecclesiastic, had gained a firm footing there. 
 Nevertheless, by the 12 th century the cities had 
 risen to some importance. Zurich, Basel, Bern, and 
 Freiburg had an extensive commerce and obtained 
 municipal privileges. Three little cantons, far in 
 the heart of the Swiss mountains, preserved more 
 than all the others their indomitable spirit of in- 
 dependence. When Albert of Austria became Em- 
 peror [King?] he arrogantly tried to encroach 
 upon their independence. Three heroic mountain- 
 eers, Werner Stauffacher, Arnold of Melchthal, and 
 Walter Furst, each with ten chosen friends, con- 
 
 674
 
 AUSTRIA, 1291-1349 
 
 Conflict between 
 Frederick and Lewis 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1330-1364 
 
 spired together at Riitli, to throw off the yoke. 
 The tyranny of the Austrian bailiff Gessler, and 
 William Tell's well-aimed arrow, if tradition is to 
 be believed, gave the signal for the insurrection 
 [see Switzerland: three forest cantons]. Al- 
 bert's violent death left to Leopold, his successor 
 in the duchy of Austria, the care of repressing the 
 rebellion. He failed and was completely defeated 
 at Morgarten (1315)- That was Switzerland's field 
 of IMarathon. . . . When Rudolf of Hapsburg was 
 chosen by the electors, it was because of his poverty 
 and weakness. At his death accordingly they did 
 not give their votes for his son Albert. . . . Albert, 
 however, succeeded in overthrowing his rival But 
 on his death they were firm in their decision not to- 
 give the crown for a third time to the new and 
 ambitious house of Hapsburg. They likewise re- 
 fused, for similar reasons, to accept Charles of 
 Valois, brother of Philip the Fair, whom the latter 
 tried to place on the imperial throne, in order that 
 he might indirectly rule over Germajiy. They 
 supported the Count of Luxemburg, who became 
 Henry VII, By choosing emperors [kings?] who 
 were poor, the electors placed them under the 
 t' .iiptation of enriching themselves at the expense 
 of the empire. Adolf failed, it is true, in Thuringia, 
 but Rudolf gained Austria by victory; Henry suc- 
 ceeded in Bohemia by means of marriage, and 
 Bohemia was worth more than Austria at that time 
 because, besides Moravia, it was made to cover 
 Silesia and a part of Lusatia (Oberlausitz). Henry's 
 son, John of Luxemburg, married the heiress to 
 that royal crown. As for Henry himself he re- 
 mained as poor as before. He had a vigorous, 
 restless spirit, and went to try his fortunes on his 
 own account beyond the Alps. ... He was seri- 
 ously threatening Naples, when he died either from 
 some sickness or from being poisoned by a Domin- 
 ican in partaking of the host (1313). A year's 
 interregnum followed; then two emperors [kings?] 
 at once: Lewis of Bavaria and Frederick the Fair, 
 son of the Emperor Albert. After eight years of 
 war, Lewis gained his point by the victory of 
 Miihldorf (1322), which delivered Frederick into 
 his hands. He kept him in captivity for three 
 years, and at the end of that time became recon- 
 ciled with him, and they were on such good terms 
 that both bore the title of King and governed in 
 common. The fear inspired in Lewis by France 
 and the Holy See dictated this singular agreement. 
 Henry VII. had revived the policy of interference 
 by the German emperors in the affairs of Italy, and 
 had kindled again the quarrel with the Papacy 
 which had long appeared extinguished. Lewis IV. 
 did the same. . . . While Boniface VIII. was mak- 
 ing war on Philip the Fair, .Mbert allied himself 
 with him; when, on the other hand, the Papacy 
 was reduced to the state of a servile auxiliary to 
 France, the Emperor returned to his former hos- 
 tility. When ex-communicated by Pope John 
 XXII, , who wished to give the empire to the king 
 of France, Charles IV., Lewis IV. made use of the 
 same weapons. . . . Tired of a crown loaded with 
 anxieties, Lewis of Bavaria was finally about to 
 submit to the Pope and abdicate, when the electors 
 perceived the necessity of supporting their Em- 
 peror and of formally releasing the supreme power 
 from foreign dependency which brought the whole 
 nation to shame. That was the object of the Prag- 
 matic Sanction of Frankfort, pronounced in 1338 
 by the Diet, on the report of the electors. . . . The 
 king of France and Pope Clement VI., whose claims 
 were directly affected by this declaration, set up 
 against Lewis IV., Charles of Luxemburg, son of 
 John the Blind, who became king of Bohemia in 
 1346, when his father had been killed fighting on 
 the French side at the battle of Cr&y. Lewis died 
 
 the following year. He had gained possession of 
 Brandenburg and the Tyrol for his house, but it 
 was unable to retain possession of them. The lat- 
 ter county reverted to the house of Austria in 
 1363. The electors most hostile to the French 
 party tried to put up, as a rival candidate to 
 Charles of Luxemburg, Edward III., king of Eng- 
 land, who refused the empire; then they offered 
 it to a brave knight, Gunther of Schwarzburg, who 
 died, perhaps poisoned, after a few months (1349). 
 The king of Bohemia then became Emperor as 
 Charles IV. by a second election." — V. Duruy, 
 History oj the Middle Ages, bk. g, ch. 30.— See 
 also Germany: 1314-1347. 
 
 1330-1364. — Forged charters of Duke Rudolf. 
 — Privilegium majus. — His assumption of the 
 archducal title. — Acquisition of Tyrol. — Treaties 
 of inheritance with Bohemia and Hungary. — 
 King John, of Bohemia, had married his second 
 son, John Henry, at the age of eight, to the after- 
 wards notable Margaret Maultasche (Pouch- 
 mouth), daughter of the duke of Tyrol and Car- 
 inthia, who was then twelve years old. He hoped 
 by this means to reunite those provinces to Bo- 
 hemia. To thwart this scheme, the emperor, Louis 
 of Bavaria, and the two Austrian princes, Albert 
 the Wise and Otto the Gay, came to an under- 
 standing. "By the treaty of Hagenau (1330), it 
 was arranged that on the death of duke Henry, 
 who had no male heirs, Carinthia should become 
 the property of Austria, Tyrol that of the em- 
 peror. Henry died in 1335, whereupon the em- 
 peror, Louis of Bavaria, declared that Margaret 
 Maultasche had forfeited all rights of inheritance, 
 and proceeded to assign the two provinces to the 
 Austrian princes, with the exception of some por- 
 tion of the Tyrol which devolved on the house of 
 Wittelsbach. Carinthia alone, however, obeyed the 
 Emperor ; the Tyrolese nobles declared for Mar- 
 garet, and, with the help of John of Bohemia, 
 this princess was able to keep possession of this 
 part of her inheritance. . . . Carinthia also did 
 not long remain in the undisputed possession of 
 Austria. Margaret was soon divorced from her 
 very youthful husband (1342), and shortly after 
 married the son of the emperor, Louis of Bavaria, 
 who hoped to be able to invest his son, not only 
 with Tyrol, but also with Carinthia, and once 
 more we find the houses of Hapsburg and Lux- 
 emburg united by a common interest. . . . When 
 . . . Charles IV. of Bohemia was chosen em- 
 peror, he consented to leave Carinthia in the 
 possession of Austria. Albert did homage for it. 
 . . . According to the wish of their father, the 
 four sons of Albert reigned after him; but the 
 eldest, Rudolf IV., exercised executive authority 
 in the name of the others [1358-1365]. ... He 
 was only ip when he came to the throne, but he 
 had already married one of the daughters of the 
 Emperor Charles IV. Notwithstanding this fam- 
 ily alliance, Charles had not given Austria such 
 a place in the Golden Bull [see Germany: 1347- 
 1403] as seemed likely to secure either her ter- 
 ritorial importance or a proper position for her 
 princes. They had not been admitted into the 
 electoral college of the Empire, and yet their 
 scattered possessions stretched from the banks of 
 the Leitha to the Rhine. . . . These grievances were 
 enhanced by their feeling of envy towards Bo- 
 hemia, which had attained great prosperity under 
 Charles IV. It was at this time that, in order 
 to increase the importance of his house, Rudolf, 
 or his officers of state, had recourse to a measure 
 which was often employed in that age by princes, 
 religious bodies, and even by the Holy See. It was 
 pretended that there were in existence s whole se- 
 ries of charters which had been granted to the 
 
 675
 
 AUSTRIA, 1330-1364 
 
 Hungarian 
 
 Crown 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1438-1493 
 
 bouse of Austria by various kings and emperors, and 
 which secured to their princes a position entirely 
 independent of both empire and Emperor. Ac- 
 cording to these documents, and more especially 
 the one called the 'privilegium majus,' the duke 
 of Austria owed no kind of service to the empire, 
 which was, however, bound to protect him; . . 
 he wa^ to appear at the diets with the title of 
 archdirtie, and was to have the first place among 
 the electors. . . . Rudolf pretended that these docu- 
 ments had just come to light, and demanded their 
 confirmation from Charles IV., who refused it. 
 Nevertheless on the strength of these lying char- 
 ters, he took the title of palatine archduke, with- 
 out waiting to ask the leave of Charles, and used 
 th: roval insignia. Charles IV., who could not 
 fail to be irritated by these pretensions, in his turn 
 revived the claims which he had inherited from 
 Premysl Otokar II. to the lands of Austria, Styria, 
 Carinthia, and Carniola. These claims, however, 
 were simply theoretical, and no attempt was made 
 to enforce them, and the mediation of Louis the 
 Great, King of Hungary, finally led to a treaty 
 between the two princes, which satisfied the am- 
 bition of the Habsburgs (1364). By this treaty, 
 the houses of Habsburg in Austria and of Lux- 
 emburg in Bohemia each guaranteed the inheri- 
 tance of their lands to the other, in case of the 
 extinction of either of the two families, and the 
 estates of Bohemia and Austria ratified this agree- 
 ment. A similar compact was concluded between 
 Austria and Hungary, and thus the boundaries 
 of the future Austrian state were for the first 
 time marked out. Rudolf himself gained little 
 by these long and intricate negotiations, Tyrol 
 being all he added to his territory. Margaret 
 Maultasche had married her son Meinhard to the 
 daughter of Albert the Wise, at the same time de- 
 claring that, in default of heirs male to her son, 
 Tyrol should once more become the possession of 
 Austria, and it did so in 1363. Rudolf immedi- 
 ately set out for Botzen, and there received the 
 homage of the Tyrolese nobles. . . . The acquisi- 
 tion of Tyrol was most important to Austria. It 
 united Austria Proper with the old possessions 
 of the Habsburgs in Western Germany, and opened 
 the way to Italy. Margaret Maultasche died at 
 Vienna in 1360. The memory of this restless and 
 dissolute princess still survives among the Tyrolese." 
 — L. Leger, History of Austro-Huiigury, pp. 143- 
 148. — See also Hungary: 1301-1442. 
 
 1386-1388. — Defeats by the Swiss at Sempach 
 and Naefels. See Switzerl.\nd: 1386-13S8. 
 
 15th century. — Sale of Alsace. See Alsace- 
 Lorraine: 842-1477. 
 
 1419-1434. — Battles with Hussites. See Bohe- 
 mia: 1410-1434. 
 
 1437-1516. — Contests for Hungary and Bohe- 
 mia. — Right of succession to the Hungarian 
 crown secured. — "Europe would have had nothing 
 to fear from the Barbarians, if Hungary had been 
 permanently united to Bohemia, and had held them 
 in check. But Hungary interfered both with 
 the independence an 1 the religion of Bohemia. 
 In th's way they weakened each other, and in 
 the isth centurv' wavered between the two Slavonic 
 and German powers on their borders (Poland and 
 Austria) [see Hungary: 1301-1442, and 144-- 
 1458]. United under a German prince from 
 1455 to 1458, separated for a time under national 
 sovereigns (Bohemia until 1471, Hungary until 
 14Q0), they were once more united under Polish 
 princes until 1526, at which period they passed 
 definitely into the hands of .Austria. After the 
 reign of Ladislas of Austria, who won so much 
 glory by the exploits of John Hunniades, George 
 Podiebrad obtained the crown of Bohemia, and 
 
 Matthias Corvinus, the son of Hunniades, was 
 elected King of Hungary (1458). These two 
 princes opposed successfully the chimerical pre- 
 tensions of the Emperor Frederick III. Podiebrad 
 protected the Hussites and incurred the enmity of 
 the Popes. Matthias victoriously encountered the 
 Turks and obtained the favour of Paul II , who 
 offered him the crown of Podiebrad, his father-in- 
 law. The latter opposed to the hostility of Mat- 
 thias the alliance of the King of Poland, whose 
 eldest son, Ladislas, he designated as his successor. 
 At the same time, Casimir, the brother of Ladislas, 
 endeavoured to take from Matthias the crown of 
 Hungary. Matthias, thus pressed on all sides, 
 was obliged to renounce the conquest of Bohemia, 
 and content himself with the provinces of Mora- 
 via, Silesia, and Lusatia, which were to return 
 to Ladislas if Matthias died first (1475-1478). 
 The King of Hungary compensated himself at the 
 expense of Austria. On the pretext that Frederick 
 III. had refused to give him his daughter, he 
 twice invaded his states and retained them in his 
 possession [see Hungary: 1471-T4S7]. With this 
 great prince Christendom lost its chief defender, 
 Hungary her conquests and her political pre- 
 ponderance (1400), The civilization which he had 
 tried to introduce into his kingdom was deferred 
 for many centuries. . . . Ladislas (of Poland), 
 King of Bohemia, having been elected King of 
 Hungary, was attacked by his brother John Albert, 
 and by Maximilian of .Austria, who both pre- 
 tended to that crown. He appeased his brother 
 by the cession of Silesia (1401), and Maximilian 
 by vesting in the House of .Austria the right of 
 succession to the throne of Hungary, in case he 
 himself should die without male issue. Under 
 Ladislas, and under his son Louis II., who suc- 
 ceeded him while still a child, in 1516 Hungary 
 was ravaged with impunity by the Turks." — J. 
 Michelet, Summary of modern history, ch. 4. — See 
 also Bohemia: 1458-1471. 
 
 1438-1493. — Imperial crown lastingly regained. 
 — Short reign of Albert II and the long reign 
 of Frederick III. — ".After the death of Sigismund, 
 the princes, in 1438, elected an emperor [king?] 
 from the house of .Austria, which, with scarcely 
 any intermission, has ever since occupied the an- 
 cient throne of Germany. .Albert II. of Austria, 
 who, as son-in-law of the late Emi^eror Sigismund, 
 had become at the same time King of Hungary and 
 Bohemia, was a well-meaning, distinguished prince, 
 and would, without doubt, have proved of great 
 benefit to the empire; but he died ... in the 
 second year of his reign, after his return from 
 an expedition against the Turks. ... In the year 
 1431, during the reign of Sigismund, a new coun- 
 cil was assembled at Bfsle, in order to carry on 
 the work of reforming the church as already com- 
 menced at Constance. But this council soon be- 
 came engaged in many perplexing controversies 
 with Pope Eugene IV. . . . The Germans, for a 
 time, took no part in the dispute; at length, how- 
 ever, under the Emperor [King?! .Albert II., they 
 formally adopted the chief decrees of the council 
 of Basie, at a diet held at Mentz in the year 
 143Q. . . . .Amongst the resolutions then adopted 
 were such as materially circumscribed the exist- 
 ing privileges of the pope. , . . These and other 
 decisions, calculated to give important privileges 
 and considerable independence to the German 
 church, were, in a great measure, annulled by 
 Albert's cousin and successor, Duke Frederick of 
 .Austria, who was elected by the princes after him 
 in the year 1440, as Frederick HI. . . . Frederick, 
 the emperor, was a prince who meant well but, 
 at the same time, was of too quiet and easy a 
 nature; his long reign presents but Uttle that was 
 
 676
 
 AUSTRIA, 1438-1493 
 
 Frederick III 
 Hungarian Invasion 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1471-1491 
 
 calculated to distinguish Germany or add to its 
 renown. From the east the empire was endangered 
 by the approach of an enemy — the Turks, against 
 whom no precautionary measures were adopted. 
 They, on the 3oth of May, 1453, conquered Con- 
 stantinople. . . . They then made their way to- 
 wards the Danube, and very nearly succeeded 
 also in taking Hungary [see Hungary: 1442-1458]. 
 . . . The Hungarians, on the death of the son 
 of the Emperor Albert II., Wladislas Posthumus, 
 in the year 1457, without leaving an heir to 
 the throne, chose Matthias, the son of John Cor- 
 vinus, as king, being resolved not to elect one from 
 amongst the Austrian princes. The Bohemians 
 likewise selected a private nobleman for their 
 king, George Padriabrad [or Podiebrad], and thus 
 the Austrian house found itself for a time rejected 
 from holding possession of either of these coun- 
 tries. ... In Germany, meantime, there existed 
 numberless contests and feuds; each party con- 
 sidered only his own personal quarrels. . . . The 
 emperor could not give any weight to public 
 measures; scarcely could he maintain his dignity 
 amongst his own subjects. The Austrian nobility 
 were even bold enough to send challenges to their 
 sovereign ; whilst the city of Vienna revolted, and 
 his brother Albert, taking pleasure in this dis- 
 order, was not backward in adding to it. Things 
 even went to such an extremity, that, in 1462, the 
 Emperor Frederick, together with his consort and 
 son, Maximilian, then four years of age, was be- 
 sieged by his subjects in his own castle of Vienna. 
 A plebeian burgher, named Holzer, had placed 
 himself at the head of the insurgents, and was 
 made burgomaster, whilst Duke Albert came to 
 Vienna personally to superintend the siege of the 
 castle, which was intrenched and bombarded. . . . 
 The German princes, however, could not wit- 
 ness with indifference such disgraceful treatment of 
 their emperor, and they assembled to liberate 
 him. George Padriabrad, King of Bohemia, was 
 the first who hastened to the spot with assistance, 
 set the emperor at liberty, and effected a recon- 
 ciliation between him and his brother. The em- 
 peror, however, was obliged to resign to him, for 
 eight years. Lower Austria and Vienna. Albert 
 died in the following year. ... In the Germanic 
 empire, the voice of the emperor was as little 
 heeded as in his hereditary lands. . . . The feudal 
 system raged under Frederick's reign to such an 
 extent, that it was pursued even by the lower 
 classes. Thus, in 1471, the shoeblacks in Leipsic 
 sent a challenge to the university of that place; 
 and the bakers of the Count Palatine Lewis, and 
 those of the Margrave of Baden defied several 
 imperial cities in Swabia. The most important 
 transaction in the reign of Frederick, was the union 
 which he formed with the house of Burgundy, 
 and which laid the foundation for the greatness 
 of Austria. ... In the year 1486, the whole of 
 the assembled princes, influenced especially by the 
 representations of the faithful and now venerable 
 Albert, called the Achilles of Brandenburg, elected 
 Maximilian, the emperor's son, King of Rome. 
 Indeed, about this period a changed and im- 
 proved spirit began to show itself in a remarkable 
 degree in the minds of many throughout the 
 empire, so that the profound contemplator of com- 
 ing events might easily see the dawn of a new 
 era. . . . These last years 'vere the best in the 
 1 hole life of the emperor, and yielded to hira in 
 return for his many sufferings that tranquillity 
 which was so well merited by his faithful, gener- 
 ous disposition. He died on the 19th of August, 
 1403, after a reign of S4 years. The emperor 
 lived long enough to obtain, in the year 14QO, 
 the restoration of his hereditary estates by the 
 
 death of King Matthias, by means of a compact 
 made with Wladislas, his successor." — F. Kohl- 
 rausch, History of Germany, ch. 14.— See also 
 Germany: 1347-1493. 
 
 1468. — Invasion by George Podiebrad of Bo- 
 hemia. — Crusade against him. See Bohemia: 
 1458-1471. 
 
 1471-1491. — Hungarian invasion and capture 
 of Vienna. — Treaty of Pressburg. — Succession to 
 the throne of Hungary secured. — "George, King 
 of Bohemia, expired in 1471 ; and the claims of 
 the Emperor and King of Hungary being equally 
 disregarded, the crown was conferred on Wladislaus, 
 son of Casimir IV. King of Poland, and grand- 
 son of Albert II. To this election Frederic long 
 persisted in withholding his assent; but at length 
 he determined to crush the claim of Matthias 
 by formally investing Wladislaus with the king- 
 dom and electorate of Bohemia, and the office 
 of imperial cup-bearer. In revenge for this af- 
 front, Matthias marched into Austria: took pos- 
 session of the fortresses of the Danube; and 
 
 MAXIMILIAN I (I4S9-15I9) 
 Ruler of the Austrian dominioDs and Holy Roman 
 
 Empire 
 
 compelled the Emperor to purchase a cessation 
 of hostilities by undertaking to pay an hundred 
 thousand golden florins, one-half of which was 
 disbursed by the Austrian states at the appointed 
 time. But as the King of Hungary still delayed 
 to yield up the captured fortresses, Frederic re- 
 fused all further payment; and the war was again 
 renewed. Matthias invaded and ravaged Aus- 
 tria ; and though he experienced formidable re- 
 sistance from several towns, his arms were crowned 
 with success, and he became master of Vienna 
 and Neustadt. Driven from his capital the ter- 
 rified Emperor was reduced to the utmost dis- 
 tress, and wandered from town to town and from 
 convent to convent, endeavouring to arouse the 
 German States against the Hungarians. Yet even 
 in this exigency his good fortune did not wholly 
 forsake him ; and he availed himself of a Diet 
 at Frankfort to procure the election of his son 
 Maximilian as King of the Romans. To this 
 Diet, however, the King of Bohemia received no 
 summons, and therefore protested against the 
 validity of the election. A full apology and ad- 
 mission of his right easily satisfied Wladislaus, 
 
 677
 
 AUSTRIA, 1477-1495 
 
 Burgundian 
 Marriage 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1477-1493 
 
 and he consented to remit the fine which the 
 Golden Bull had fixed as the penalty of the omis- 
 sion. The death of Matthias Corvinus in 1490, 
 left the throne of Hungary vacant, and the Hun- 
 garians, influenced by their widowed queen, con- 
 ferred the crown upon the King of Bohemia, with- 
 out Ustening to the pretensions of Maximilian. 
 That valorous prince, however, sword in hand, re- 
 covered his Austrian dominions; and the rival 
 kings concluded a severe contest by the treaty of 
 Pressburg, by which Hungary was for the present 
 secured to Wladislaus; but on his death without 
 heirs was to vest in the descendants of the Em- 
 peror." — Sir R. Comyn, History of the -western 
 empire, v. 2, ch. 28.^ee also Hungary: 1471- 
 1487, and 1487-1526. 
 
 1477-1495. — Marriage of Maximilian with 
 Mary of Burgundy. — His splendid dominion. — 
 His joyous character. — His vigorous powers. — 
 His ambitions and aims. — "Maximilian, who was 
 as active and enterprising as his father was indolent 
 and timid, married at eighteen years of age, the 
 only daughter of Charles the Bold, duke of Bur- 
 gundy [see Netherl.^nds: 1477]. She brought 
 him Flanders, Franche-Comte, and all the Low 
 Countries. Louis XL, who disputed some of these 
 territories, and who. on the death of the duke, 
 had seized Burgundy, Picardy, Ponthieu, and 
 Artois, as fiefs of France, which could not be 
 possessed by a woman, was defeated by Maxi- 
 milian at Guinegatte; and Charles VHL, who re- 
 newed the same claims, was obliged to conclude 
 a disadvantageous peace," Maximilian succeeded 
 to the imperial throne on the death of his father in 
 1403, — W. Russell, History oj modern Europe, v. i, 
 letter 49. — "Between the Alps and the Bohemian 
 frontier, the mark Austria was first founded round 
 and about the castles of Krems and Melk. Since 
 then, beginning first in the valley towards Ba- 
 varia and Hungary, and coming to the House of 
 Habsburg, it had extended across the whole of 
 the northern slope of the Alps until where the 
 Slavish, ItaUan, and German tongues part, and 
 over to Alsace ; thus becoming an archduchy 
 from a mark. On all sides the Archdukes had 
 claims; on the German side to Switzerland, on 
 the Italian to the Venetian possessions, and on 
 the Slavish to Bohemia and Hungary. To such 
 a pitch of greatness had Maximilian by his mar- 
 riage with Maria of Burgundy brought the herit- 
 age received from Charles the Bold. True to 
 the Netherlanders' greeting, in the inscription over 
 their gates, 'Thou art our Duke, fight our battle 
 for us,' war was from the first his handicraft. 
 He adopted Charles the Hold's hostile attitude 
 towards France; he saved the greater part of his 
 inheritance from the schemes of Louis XI. Day 
 and night it was his whole thought, to conquer 
 it entirely. But after Maria of .Burgundy's pre- 
 mature death, revolution followed revolution, and 
 his father Frederick being too old to protect him- 
 self, it came about that in the year 148S he was 
 ousted from Austria by the Hungarians, whilst 
 his son was kept a prisoner in Bruges by the 
 citizens, and they had even to fear the estrange- 
 ment of the Tyrol. Yet they did not lose courage. 
 At this very time the father denoted with the 
 vowels, A. E. I. O. U. ('AUes Erdreich ist Oester- 
 reich unterthan' — All the earth is subject to Aus- 
 tria), the extent of his hopes. In the same year, 
 his son negotiated for a Spanish alliance. Their 
 real strength lay in the imperial dignity of 
 Maximilian, which they had from the German 
 Empire. As soon as it began to bestir itself, 
 Maximilian was set at liberty ; as soon as it sup- 
 ported him in the persons of only a few princes 
 of the Empire, he became lord in his Netherlands. 
 
 . . . Since then his plans were directed against 
 Hungary and Burgundy. In Hungary he could 
 gain nothing except securing the succession to his 
 house. But never, frequently as he concluded 
 peace, did he give up his intentions upon Bur- 
 gundy. . . . Now that he had allied himself with 
 a Sforza, and had joined the Liga, noW that 
 his father was dead, and the Empire was pledged 
 to follow him across the mountains, and now, too, 
 that the Italian complications were threatening 
 Charles, he took fresh hope, and in this hope he 
 summoned a Diet at Worms. Ma.ximilian was a 
 prince of whom, although many portraits have 
 been drawn, yet there is scarcely one that re- 
 sembles another, so easily and entirely did he 
 suit himself to circumstances. . . . His soul is full 
 of motion, of joy in things, and of plans. There 
 is scarcely anything that he is not capable of 
 doing. In his mines he is a good screener, in his 
 armoury the best plater, capable of instructing 
 others in new inventions. With musket in hand, 
 he defeats his best marksman, George Purkhard; 
 with heavy cannon, which he has shown how to 
 cast, and has placed on wheels, he comes as a rule 
 nearest the mark. He commands seven captains in 
 their seven several tongues; he himself chooses 
 and mixes his food and medicines. In the open 
 country, he feels himself happiest. . . . What really 
 distinguishes his public life is that presentiment 
 of the future greatness of his dynasty which 
 he has inherited of his father, and the restless 
 striving to attain all that devolved upon him from 
 the House of Burgundy. All his policy and all 
 his schemes were concentrated, not upon his Em- 
 pire, for the real needs of w'hich he evinced little 
 real care, and not immediately upon the wel- 
 fare of his hereditary lands, but upon the realiza- 
 tion of that sole idea. Of it all his letters and 
 speeches are full. ... In March, 149S, Maximilian 
 came to the Diet at Worms. ... At this Reichstag 
 the King gained two momentous prospects. In 
 Wurtemberg there had sprung of two lines two 
 counts of quite opposite characters. . . . With 
 the elder, Maximilian now entered into a compact. 
 Wurtemberg was to be raised to a dukedom — an 
 elevation which excluded the female line from the 
 succession — and, in the event of the stock failing, 
 was to be a 'widow's portion' of the realm to 
 the use of the Imperial Chamber. Now as the 
 sole hopes of this family centred in a weakling 
 of a boy, this arrangement held out to Maximilian 
 and his successors the prospect of acquiring a 
 splendid country. Yet this was the smaller of 
 his two successes. The greater was the espousal 
 of his children, Philip and Margaret, with the 
 two children of Ferdinand the Catholic, Juana 
 and Juan, which was here settled. This opened 
 to his house still greater expectations, — it brought 
 him at once into the most intimate alliance with 
 the Kings of Spain. These matters might pos- 
 sibly, however, have been arranged elsewhere. 
 What Maximilian really wanted in the Reichstag 
 at Worms was the assistance of the Empire 
 against the French with its world-renowned and 
 much-envied soldiery. For at this time in all 
 the wars of Europe, German auxiliaries were de- 
 cisive. ... If Ma.ximilian had united the whole 
 of this power in his hand, neither Europe nor 
 Asia would have been able to withstand him. 
 But God disposed that it should rather be em- 
 ployed in the cause of freedom than oppression. 
 What an Empire was that which in spite of its 
 vast strength allowed its Emperor to be expelled 
 from his heritage, and did not for a long time 
 take steps to bring him back again? If we ex- 
 amine the constitution of the Empire, not as we 
 should picture it to ourselves in Henry III.'s time, 
 
 678
 
 AUSTRIA, 1477-1495 
 
 Maximilian 
 Charles V 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1519-1555 
 
 but as it had at length become — the legal inde- 
 pendence of the several estates, the emptiness of 
 the imperial dignity, the electiveness of a head, that 
 afterwards exercised certain rights over the electors, 
 — we are led to inquire not so much into the 
 causes of its disintegration, for this concerns 
 us little, as into the way in which it was held to- 
 gether. What welded it together, and preserved it, 
 would (leaving tradition and the Pope out of the 
 question) appear, before all else, to have been the 
 rights of individuals, the unions of neighbours, and 
 the social regulations which universally obtained. 
 Such were those rights and privileges that not 
 only protected the citizen, his guild, and his quarter 
 of the town against his neighbours and more 
 powerful men than himself, but which also en- 
 dowed him with an inner independence. . . . Next, 
 the unions of neighbours. These were not only 
 leagues of cities and peasantries, expanded from 
 ancient fraternities — for who can tell the origin 
 of the Hansa, or the earliest treaty between Uri 
 and Schwyz? — into large associations, or of knights, 
 who strengthened a really insignificant power by 
 confederations of neighbours, but also of the 
 princes, who were bound together by joint in- 
 heritances, mutual expectancies, and the ties of 
 blood, which in some cases were very close. 
 This ramification, dependent upon a supreme power 
 and confirmed by it, bound neighbour to neigh- 
 bour; and, whilst securing to each his privilege 
 and his liberty, blended together all countries 
 of Germany in legal bonds of union. But it is only 
 in the social regulations that the unity was really 
 perceivable. Only as long as the Empire was an 
 actual reality, could the supreme power of the 
 Electors, each with his own special rights, be 
 maintained; only so long could dukes and princes, 
 bishops and abbots hold their neighbours in due 
 respect, and through court offices or hereditary 
 services, through fiefs and the dignity of their 
 independent position give their vassals a peculiar 
 position to the whole. Only so long could the 
 cities enjoying immediateness under the Empire, 
 carefully divided into free and imperial cities, be 
 not merely protected, but also assured of a partici- 
 pation in the government of the whole. Under 
 this sanctified and traditional system of suzerainty 
 and vassalage all were happy and contented, and 
 bore a love to it such as is cherished towards a 
 native town or a father's house. For some time 
 past, the House of Austria had enjoyed the fore- 
 most position. It also had a union, and, more- 
 over, a great faction on its side. The union was 
 the Suabian League. Old Suabia was divided into 
 three leagues — the league of the peasantry (the 
 origin of Switzerland) ; the league of the knights 
 in the Black Forest, on the Kocher, the Neckar, 
 and the Danube; and the league of the cities. 
 The peasantry were from the first hostile to Aus- 
 tria. The Emperor Frederick brought it to pass 
 that the cities and knights, that had from time out 
 of mind lived in feud, bound themselves together 
 with several princes, and formed, under his pro- 
 tection, the league of the land of Suabia. But 
 the party was scattered throughout the whole Em- 
 pire." — L. von Ranke, History of the Latin and 
 Teutonic nations, bk. i, ch. 3. 
 
 1493-1519. — Imperial reign of Maximilian. — 
 Formation of the circle of Austria. — Aulic coun- 
 cil. See Germany: i4Q3-r5ig. 
 
 1496-1499. — Swabian War with the Swiss Con- 
 federacy and the Graubunden, or Grey Leagues 
 (Grisons). — Practical independence of both ac- 
 quired. See Switzerland: I396-I4gg. 
 
 1496-1526. — Extraordinary aggrandizement of 
 the house of Austria by its marriages. — Herit- 
 age of Charles V. — His cession of the German 
 
 679 
 
 inheritance to Ferdinand. — Division of the house 
 into Spanish and German branches. — Acquisi- 
 tion of Hungary and Bohemia. — In 1496, Philip 
 the Fair, son of Maximilian, archduke and emperor, 
 by his marriage with Mary of Burgundy, 
 "espoused the Infanta of Spain, daughter of 
 Ferdinand [of Aragon] and Isabella of Castile. 
 They had two sons, Charles and Ferdinand, the 
 former of whom, known in history by the name 
 of Charles V., inherited the Low Countries in 
 right of his father, Philip (1506). On the death 
 of Ferdinand, his maternal grandfather (1516), he 
 became heir to the whole Spanish succession, which 
 comprehended the kingdoms of Spain, Naples, 
 Sicily, and Sardinia, together with Spanish Amer- 
 ica. To these vast possessions were added his 
 patrimonial dominions in Austria, which were 
 transmitted to him by his paternal grandfather, 
 the Emperor Maximilian I. [See also Nether- 
 lands: I494-I5r9.] About the same time (1519), 
 the Imperial dignity was conferred on this prince 
 by the electors [see GERiiANy; 1519] ; so that Eu- 
 rope had not seen, since the time of Charlemagne, 
 a monarchy so powerful as that of Charles V. 
 This Emperor concluded a treaty with his brother 
 Ferdinand; by which he ceded to him all his 
 hereditary possessions in Germany. The two 
 brothers thus became the founders of the two 
 principal branches of the House of Austria, viz., 
 that of Spain, which began with Charles V. (called 
 Charles I. of Spain), and ended with Charles II. 
 (1700) ; and that of Germany, of which Ferdinand 
 I. was the ancestor, and which became extinct 
 in the male line in the Emperor Charles VI. (1740), 
 These two branches, closely allied to each other, 
 acted in concert for the advancement of their 
 reciprocal interests; moreover they gained each 
 their own separate advantages by the marriage 
 connexions which they formed. Ferdinand I. of the 
 German line married Anne (1521), sister of Louis, 
 King of Hungary and Bohemia, who having been 
 slain by the Turks at the battle of Mohacs (1526), 
 these two kingdoms devolved to Ferdinand of the 
 House of Austria. Finally, the marriage which 
 Charles V. contracted with the Infanta Isabella, 
 daughter of Emmanuel, King of Portugal, pro- 
 cured PhiHp 11. of Spain, the son of that mar- 
 riage, the whole Portuguese monarchy, to which 
 he succeeded on the death of Henry, called the 
 Cardinal (1580). So vast an aggrandisement of 
 power alarmed the Sovereigns of Europe." — C. W. 
 Koch, Revolutions of Europe, period 6. 
 
 Also in: W. Coxe, History of the House of 
 Austria, ch. 25 and 27. — W. Robertson, History of 
 the reign of Charles V., bk. 1. — See also Spain: 
 1496-1517. 
 
 1497. — Founding of Imperial library at Vi- 
 enna. See Libraries: Modern: Austria: Imperial 
 library. 
 
 1501-1506. — Treaties with France over Italian 
 possessions. See Italy: 1501-1504; 1504-1506. 
 
 1519. — Death of Maximilian. — Election of 
 Charles V, "Emperor of the Romans." See 
 Germany: iSiq. 
 
 1519-1555. — Imperial reign of Charles V. — 
 Objects of his policy. — His conflict with the 
 Reformation and with France. — "Charles V. did 
 not receive from nature all the gifts nor all the 
 charms she can bestow, nor did experience give 
 him every talent ; but he was equal to the part 
 he had to play in the world. He was sufficiently 
 great to keep his many-jewelled diadem. . . . His 
 ambition was cold and wise. The scope of his 
 ideas, which are not quite easy to divine, was 
 vast enough to control a state composed of divers 
 and distant portions, so as to make it always very 
 difiicult to amalgamate his armies, and to supply
 
 AUSTRIA, 1519-1555 
 
 Charles V 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1525-1527 
 
 them with food, or to procure money. Indeed its 
 very existence would have been exposed to perma- 
 nent danger from powerful coalitions, had Francis 
 I. known how to place its most vulnerable points 
 under a united pressure from the armies of France, 
 of England, of Venice, and of the Ottoman Em- 
 pire. Charles V. attained his first object when 
 he prevented the French monarch from taking 
 possession of the inheritance of the house of 
 Anjou, at Naples, and of that of the Viscontis at 
 Milan. He was more successful in stopping the 
 march of Solyman into Austria than in checking 
 the spread of the Reformation in Germany. . . . 
 Charles V. had four objects very much at heart: 
 he wished to be the master in Italy, to check 
 the progress of the Ottoman power in the west 
 of Europe, to conquer the King of France, and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CHARLES V ( 1 500-1 558) 
 
 Ruler of the Austrian dominions and Holy Roman 
 
 Empire, King of Spain and the Netherlands 
 
 to govern the Germanic body by dividing it, and 
 by making the Reformation a religious pretext 
 for oppressing the political defenders of that be- 
 lief. In three out of four of these objects he suc- 
 ceeded. Germany alone was not conquered; if 
 she was beaten in battle, neither any political 
 triumph nor any religious results ensued. In Ger- 
 many, Charles V. began his work too late, and 
 acted too slowly ; he undertook to subdue it at a 
 time when the abettors of the Reformation had 
 grown strong, when he himself was growing 
 weaker. . . . Like many other brilliant careers, 
 the career of Charles V. was more successful and 
 more striking at the commencement and the mid- 
 dle than at the end, of its course. At Madrid, 
 at Cambrai. at Nice, he made his rival bow 
 down his head. At Crepy he again forced him 
 to obey his will, but as he had completely made 
 up his mind to have peace, Charles dictated it, 
 in some manner, to his own detriment. At Passau 
 he had to yield to the terms of his enemy — of 
 an enemy whom Charles V encountered in his 
 old age, and when his powers had decayed. .Al- 
 
 though it may be said that the extent and the 
 power of the sovereignty which Charles V. left 
 to his successor at his death were not diminished, 
 still his armies were weakened, his finances were 
 exhausted, and the country was weary of the 
 tyranny of the imperial lieutenants. The su- 
 premacy of the empire in Germany, for which he 
 had struggled so much, was as little established 
 at the end as at the beginning of his reign; re- 
 ligious unity was solemnly destroyed by the 'Recess' 
 of Augsburg. But that which marks the position 
 of Charles V. as the representative man of his 
 epoch, and as the founder of the policy of mod- 
 em times, is that, wherever he was victorious, 
 the effect of his success was to crush the last 
 efforts of the spirit of the middle ages, and of 
 the independence of nations. In Italy, in Spain, 
 in Germany, and in the Low Countries, his tri- 
 umphs were so much gain to the cause of abso- 
 lute monarchy and so much loss to the liberty 
 derived from the old state of society. Whatever 
 was the character of liberty in the middle ages 
 — whether it were contested or incomplete, or a 
 mockery — it played a greater part than in the 
 four succeeding centuries. Charles V. was assuredly 
 one of those who contributed the most to found 
 and consolidate the political system of modern 
 governments. His history has an aspect of 
 grandeur. Had Francis I. been as sagacious In 
 the closet as he was bold in the field, by a vigor- 
 ous alliance with England, with Protestant Ger- 
 many, and with some of the republics of Italy, 
 he might perhaps have balanced and controlled th" 
 power of Charles V. But the French monarch 
 did not possess the foresight and the solid under- 
 standing necessary to pursue such a policy with 
 success. His rival, therefore, occupies the first 
 place in the historical picture of the epoch. 
 Charles V. had the sentiment of his position and of 
 the part he had to play." — J. Van Praet, Essays on 
 the political liistory of the 15//;. ibth and I'ith 
 centuries, pp. 100-104. — See also Germany: 1510 
 to 1552-1561, and Fra.\ce: 1520-1523, to 1547- 
 
 issg. 
 
 1525-1527. — Successful contest for the Hun- 
 garian and Bohemian crowns. — In Hungary, "un- 
 der King Matthias the house of Zapolya, so called 
 from a Slavonic village near Poschega, whence it 
 originated, rose to peculiar eminence. To this 
 house, in particular, King VVladislas had owed 
 his accession to the throne; whence, however, 
 it thought itself entitled to claim a share in 
 the sovereign power, and even a sort of prospec- 
 tive right to the throne. Its members were the 
 wealthiest of all the magnates; they possessed 
 seventy-two castles. ... It is said that a prophecy 
 early promised the crown to the young John 
 Zapolya. Possessed of all the power conferred 
 by his rich inheritance. Count of Zips, and 
 Voivode of Transylvania, he soon collected a 
 strong party around him. It was he who mainly 
 persuaded the Hungarians, in the year 1505, to 
 exclude all foreigners from the throne by a formal 
 decree; which, though they were not always able 
 to maintain in force, they could never be induced 
 absolutely to revoke In the year 1514 the Voivode 
 succeeded in putting down an exceedingly formid- 
 able insurrection of the peasants with his 
 own forces; a service which the lesser nobility 
 prized the more highly, because it enabled them 
 to reduce the peasantry to a still harder state of 
 servitude. His wish was. on the death of Wladislas, 
 to become Gubernator of the kingdom, to marry 
 the deceased king's daughter .Anne, and then to 
 await the course of events But he was here en- 
 countered by the policy of Maximilian. .Anne 
 was married to the Archduke Ferdinand ; Zapolya 
 
 680
 
 AUSTRIA, 1525-1527 
 
 Hungary and 
 Bohemia 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1525-1527 
 
 was excluded from the administration of the king- 
 dom; even the vacant Palatinate was refused him 
 and given to his old rival Stephen Bathory. He 
 was highly incensed. . . . But it was not till the 
 year 1525 that Zapolya got the upper hand at 
 the Rakos. . . , No one entertained a doubt that 
 he aimed at the throne. . . . But before anything 
 was accomplished — on the contrary, just as these 
 party conflicts had thrown the country into tht 
 utmost confusion, the mighty enemy, Soliman, 
 appeared on the frontiers of Hungary, determined 
 to put an end to the anarchy. ... In his prison 
 at Madrid, Francis I. had found means to en- 
 treat the assistance of Soliman ; urging that it well 
 beseemed a great emperor to succour the op- 
 pressed. Plans were laid at Constantinople, ac- 
 cording to which the two sovereigns were to attack 
 Spain with a combined fleet, and to send armies 
 to invade Hungary and the north of Italy. Soli- 
 man, without any formal treaty, was by his posi- 
 tion an ally of the Ligue, as the king of Hungary 
 was, of the emperor. On the 23d of April, 1520, 
 Soliman, after visiting the graves of his fore- 
 fathers and of the old Moslem martyrs, marched 
 out of Constantinople with a mighty host, con- 
 sisting of about a hundred thousand men, and 
 incessantly strengthened by fresh recruits on its 
 road. . . . What power had Hungary, in the con- 
 dition we have just described, of resisting such 
 an attack? . . . The young king took the field 
 with a following of not more than three thou- 
 sand men. . . . He proceeded to the fatal plain 
 of Mohacs, fully resolved with his small band 
 to await in the open field the overwhelming force 
 of the enemy. . . . Personal valour could avail 
 nothing. The Hungarians were immediately 
 thrown into disorder, their best men fell, the 
 others took to flight. The young king was com- 
 pelled to flee. It was not even granted him to 
 die in the field of battle; a far more miserable 
 end awaited him. Mounted behind a Silesian 
 soldier, who served him as a guide, he had al- 
 ready been carried across the dark waters that 
 divide the plain ; his horse was already climbing 
 the bank, when he slipped, fell back, and buried 
 himself and his rider in the morass. This ren- 
 dered the defeat decisive. . . . Soliman had gained 
 one of those victories which decide the fate of 
 nations during long epochs. . . . That two thrones, 
 the succession to which was not entirely free 
 from doubt, had thus been left vacant, was an 
 event that necessarily caused a great agitation 
 throughout Christendom. It was still a question 
 whether such an European power as Austria would 
 continue to exist ; — a question which it is only 
 necessary to state, in order to be aware of its 
 vast importance to the fate of mankind at large, 
 and of Germany in particular. . . . The claims of 
 Ferdinand to both crowns, unquestionable as they 
 might be in reference to the treaties with the 
 reigning houses, were opposed in the nations them- 
 selves, by the right of election and the authority 
 of considerable rivals. In Hungary, as soon as 
 the Turks had retired, John Zapolya appeared with 
 the fine army which he had kept back from the 
 conflict ; the fall of the king was at the same time 
 the fall of his adversaries. . . . Even in Tokay, 
 however, John Zapolya was saluted as king. 
 Meanwhile, the dukes of Bavaria conceived the 
 design of getting possession of the throne of 
 Bohemia. . . . Nor was it in the two kingdoms 
 alone that these pretenders had a considerable 
 party. The state of politics in Europe was such 
 as to insure them powerful supporters abroad. 
 In the first place, Francis I. was intimately con- 
 nected with Zapolya; in a short time a delegate 
 from the pope was at his side, and the Germans 
 
 68 
 
 in Rome maintained that Clement assisted the 
 faction of the Voivode with money. Zapolya 
 sent an agent to Venice with a direct request to 
 be admitted a member of the Ligue of Cognac. 
 In Bohemia, too, the French had long had de- 
 voted partisans. . . . The consequences that must 
 have resulted, had this scheme succeeded, are so 
 incalculable, that it is not too much to say they 
 would have completely changed the poHtical his- 
 tory of Europe. The power of Bavaria would have 
 outweighed that of Austria in both German and 
 Slavonian countries, and Zapolya, thus supported, 
 would have been able to maintain his station; 
 the Ligue, and with it high ultra-montane opin- 
 ions would have held the ascendency in eastern 
 Europe. Never was there a project more pregnant 
 with danger to the growing power of the house 
 of Austria. Ferdinand behaved with all the pru- 
 dence and energy which that house has so often 
 displayed in difficult emergencies. For the pres- 
 ent, the all-important object was the crown of 
 Bohemia. ... All his measures were taken with 
 such skill and prudence, that on the day of elec- 
 tion, though the Bavarian agent had, up to the 
 last moment, not the slightest doubt of the suc- 
 cess of his negotiations, an overwhelming ma- 
 jority in the three estates elected Ferdinand to the 
 throne of Bohemia. This took place on the 23d 
 October, 1526. ... On his brother's birth-day, 
 the 24th of February, 1527, Ferdinand was crowned 
 at Prague. . . . The affairs of Hungary were not 
 so easily or so peacefully settled. ... At first, 
 when Zapolya came forward, full armed and 
 powerful out of the general desolation, he had the 
 uncontested superiority. The capital of the king- 
 dom sought his protection, after which he marched 
 to Stuhlweissenburg, where his partisans bore 
 down all attempts at opposition: he was elected 
 and crowned (nth of November, 1526) ; in Croatia, 
 too, he was acknowledged king at a diet; he 
 filled all the numerous places, temporal and 
 spiritual, left vacant by the disaster of Mohacs. 
 with his friends. . . . [But] the Germans ad- 
 vanced without interruption ; and as soon as it 
 appeared possible that Ferdinand might be suc- 
 cessful, Zapolya's followers began to desert him. 
 . . , Never did the German troops display more 
 bravery and constancy. They had often neither 
 meat nor bread, and were obliged to live on 
 such fruits as they found in the gardens: the 
 inhabitants were wavering and uncertain — they 
 submitted, and then revolted again to the enemy; 
 Zapolya's troops, aided by their knowledge of 
 the ground, made several very formidable attacks 
 by night; but the Germans evinced, in the mo- 
 ment of danger, the skill and determination of a 
 Roman legion ; they showed, too, a noble con- 
 stancy under difficulties and privations. At Tokay 
 they defeated Zapolya and compelled him to quit 
 Hungary. ... On the 3d November, 1527, 
 Ferdinand was crowned in Stuhlweissenburg: only 
 five of the magnates of the kingdom adhered to 
 Zapolya. The victory appeared complete. Ferdi- 
 nand, however, distinctly felt that this appearance 
 was delusive. ... In Bohemia, too, his power 
 was far from secure. His Bavarian neighbours 
 had not relinquished the hope of driving him from 
 the throne at file first general turn of affairs. 
 The Ottomans, meanwhile, acting upon the persua- 
 sion that every land In which the head of their 
 chief had rested belonged of right to them, were 
 preparing to return to Hungary ; either to take 
 possession of it themselves, or at first, as was 
 their custom, to bestow it on a native ruler — 
 Zapolya, who now eagerly sought an alliance with 
 them — as their vassal." — L. von Ranke, History 
 of the reformation in Germany, v. 2, bk. 4, ck. 
 
 I
 
 AUSTRIA, 1564-1618 
 
 Maximilian II 
 Thirty Years' War 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1618-1648 
 
 4. — See also Bohemia: 1516-1576; Hungary: 1526- 
 
 1567- 
 
 1564-1618. — Tolerance of Maximilian II. — 
 Bigotry and tyranny of Rodolph and Ferdinand 
 II.— Prelude to the Thirty Years' War.— "There 
 is no period connected with these religious wars 
 that deserves more to be studied than these reigns 
 of Ferdinand I., Maximilian [the Second], and 
 those of his successors who preceded the thirty 
 years' war. We have no sovereign who exhibited 
 that exercise of moderation and good sense which 
 a philosopher would require, but Maximilian ; 
 and he was immediately followed by princes of 
 a different complexion. . . . Nothing could be 
 more complete than the difficulty of toleration 
 at the time when Maximilian reigned ; and if a 
 mild policy could be attended with favourable 
 effects in his age and nation, there can be little 
 fear of the experiment at any other period. No 
 party or person in the state was then disposed 
 to tolerate his neighbour from any sense of the 
 justice of such forbearance, but from motives of 
 temporal poHcy alone. The Lutherans, it will be 
 seen, could not bear that the Calvinists should 
 have the same religious privileges with them- 
 selves. The Calvinists were equally opinionated 
 and unjust; and Maximilian himself was probably 
 tolerant and wise, chiefly because he was in his 
 real opinions a Lutheran, and in outward pro- 
 fession, as the head of the empire, a Roman 
 Catholic. For twelve years, the whole of his 
 reign, he preserved the religious peace of the com- 
 munity, without destroying the religious freedom 
 of the human mind. He supported the Roman 
 Catholics, as the predominant party, in all their 
 rights, possessions, and privileges; but he pro- 
 tected the Protestants in every exercise of their 
 religion which was then practicable. In other 
 words, he was as tolerant and just as the temper 
 of society then admitted, and more so than the 
 state of things would have suggested. . . . The 
 merit of Maximilian was but too apparent the 
 moment that his son Rodolph was called upon 
 to supply his place. ... He had always left the 
 education of his son and successor too much to the 
 diseretion of his bigoted consort. Rodolph, his 
 son, was therefore as ignorant and furious on 
 his part as were the Protestants on theirs; he 
 had immediate recourse to the usual expedients 
 — force, and the execution of the laws to the 
 very letter. . . . After Rodolph comes Matthias, 
 and, unhappily for all Europe, Bohemia and the 
 empire fell afterwards under the management of 
 Ferdinand II. Of the different .Austrian princes, 
 it is the reign of Ferdinand II. that is more 
 particularly to be considered. Such was the arbi- 
 trarv' nature of his government over his subjects 
 in Bohemia, that they revolted. They elected for 
 their king the young Elector Palatine, hoping 
 thus to extricate themselves from the bigotry and 
 tyranny of Ferdinand. This crown so offered 
 was accepted; and, in the event, the cause of 
 the Bohemians became the cause of the Ref- 
 ormation in Germany, and the Elector Palatine 
 the hero of that cause. It is this which gives 
 the great interest to this reign of Ferdinand II., 
 to these concerns of his subjects in Bohemia, 
 and to the character of this Elector Palatine. For 
 all these events and circumstances led to the thirty 
 years' war." — W. Smyth, Lectures on modern his- 
 tory, V. I, lect. 13. See Bohemia: 1611-1618; and 
 Germany: 1618-1620. 
 
 1567-1660 — Struggles of the Hapsburg house 
 in Hungary and Transylvania to establish rights 
 of sovereignty. — Wars with the Turks. See 
 Hungary: 1595-1606; 1606-1660; and Turkey: 
 1572-1573- 
 
 1586. — Desire for crown of Poland. See Po- 
 land: 1574-1590. 
 
 1618-1648.— Thirty Years' War.— Peace of 
 Westphalia. — "The thirty years' war made Ger- 
 many the centre-point of European poUtics. . . . 
 No one at its commencement could have foreseen 
 the duration and extent. But the train of war 
 was everywhere laid, and required only the match 
 to set it going; more than one war was joined to 
 it, and swallowed up in it ; and the melancholy 
 truth, that war feeds itself, was never more 
 clearly displayed. . . . Though the war, which first 
 broke out in Bohemia, concerned only the house 
 of Austria, yet by its originating in religious 
 disputes, by its peculiar character as a religious 
 war, and by the measures adopted both by the 
 insurgents and the emperor, it acquired such an 
 extent, that even the quelling of the insurrection 
 was insufficient to put a stop to it. . . . Though 
 the Bohemian war was apparently terminated, yet 
 the flame had communicated to Germany and 
 Hungary, and new fuel was added by the act 
 of proscription promulgated against the elector 
 Frederic and his adherents. From this the war 
 derived that revolutionary character, which was 
 henceforward peculiar to it; it was a step that 
 could not but lead to further results, for the 
 question of the relations between the emperor 
 and his states, was in a fair way of being prac- 
 tically considered. New and bolder projects were 
 also formed in Vienna and Madrid, where it 
 was resolved to renew the war with the Nether- 
 lands. Under the present circumstances, the sup- 
 pression of the Protestant religion and the over- 
 throw of German and Dutch liberty appeared 
 inseparable; while the success of the imperial arms, 
 supported as they were by the league and the 
 co-operation of the Spaniards, gave just grounds 
 for hope. . . . By the carrying of the war into 
 Lower Saxony, the principal seat of the Protes- 
 tant religion in Germany (the states of which 
 had appointed Christian iV. of Denmark, as duke 
 of Holstein, head of their confederacy), the north- 
 ern states had already, though without any bene- 
 ficial result, been involved in the strife, and the 
 Danish war had broken out. But the elevation of 
 Albert of VVallenstein to the dignity of duke of 
 Friedland and imperial general over the army 
 raised by himself, was of considerably more im- 
 portance, as it affected the whole course and char- 
 acter of the war. From this time the war was 
 completely and truly revolutionary. The peculiar 
 situation of the general, the manner of the forma- 
 tion as well as the maintenance of his army, could 
 not fail to make it such. . . . The distinguished 
 success of the imperial arms in the north of Ger- 
 many unveiled the daring schemes of VVallenstein. 
 He did not come forward as conqueror alone, 
 but, by the investiture of Mecklenburg as a state 
 of the empire, as a ruling prince. . . . But the 
 elevation and conduct of this novus homo, e:!as- 
 perated and annoyed the Catholic no less than the 
 Protestant states, especially the league and its chief; 
 all implored peace, and VVallenstcin's discharge. 
 Thus, at the diet of the electors at .Augsburg, the 
 emperor was reduced to the alternative of resigning 
 him or his allies. He chose the former. Wallen- 
 stein was dismissed, the majority of his army dis- 
 banded, and Tilly nominated commander-in-chief 
 of the forces of the emperor and the league. . . . 
 On the side of the emperor sufficient care was taken 
 to prolong the war. The refusal to restore the 
 unfortunate Frederic, and even the sale of his 
 upper Palatine to Bavaria, must with justice have 
 excited the apprehensions of the other princes. 
 But when the Jesuits finally succeeded, not only 
 in extorting the edict of restitution, but also in 
 
 682
 
 AUSTRIA, 1618-1648 Thirty Years' War 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1568-1683 
 
 causing it to be enforced in the most odious man- 
 ner, the Catholic states themselves saw with re- 
 gret that peace could no longer exist. . . . The 
 greater the success that attended the house of Aus- 
 tria, the more actively foreign policy laboured to 
 counteract it. England had taken an interest in 
 the fate of Frederic V. from the first, though this 
 interest was evinced by little beyond fruitless ne- 
 gotiations. Denmark became engaged in the quar- 
 rel mostly through the influence of this power 
 and Holland. Richelieu, from the time he be- 
 came prime minister of France, had exerted himself 
 in opposing Austria and Spain. He found employ- 
 ment for Spain in the contests respecting Velte- 
 lin, and for Austria soon after, by the war of 
 Mantua. Willingly would he have detached the 
 German league from the interest of the emperor; 
 and though he failed in this, he procured the fall 
 of Wallenstein. . . . Much more important, how- 
 ever, was Richelieu's influence on the war, by the 
 essential share he had in gaining Gustavus Adol- 
 phus' active participation in it. . . . The nine- 
 teen years of his (Gustavus Adolphus'] reign 
 which had already elapsed, together with the Polish 
 war, which lasted nearly that time, had taught 
 the world but little of the real worth of this 
 great and talented hero. The decisive superi- 
 ority of Protestantism in Germany, under his 
 gufdance, soon created a more just knowledge, and 
 at the same time showed the advantages which 
 must result to a victorious supporter of that 
 cause. . . The battle at Leipzig was decisive for 
 Gustavus Adolphus and his party, almost be- 
 yond expectation. The league fell asunder; and 
 in a short time he was master of the countries 
 from the Baltic to Bavaria, and from the Rhine 
 to Bohemia. . . . But the misfortunes and death 
 of Tilly brought Wallenstein again on the stage 
 as absolute commander-in-chief, bent on plans not 
 a whit less extensive than those he had before 
 formed. No period of the war gave promise of 
 Such great and rapid successes or reverses as the 
 present, for both leaders were determined to effect 
 them; but the victory of Liitzen, while it cost 
 Gustavus his life, prepared the fall of Wallen- 
 stein. . . . Though the fall of Gustavus Adolphus 
 frustrated his own private views, it did not those 
 of his party. . . . The school of Gustavus pro- 
 duced a number of men, great in the cabinet and 
 in the field; yet it was hard, even for an Oxen- 
 stiern, to preserve the importance of Sweden un- 
 impaired; and it was but partially done by the 
 alliance of Heilbronn. ... If the forces of Sweden 
 overrun almost every part of Germany in the 
 following months, under the guidance of the pupils 
 of the king, Bernard of Weimar and Gustavus 
 Horn, we must apparently attribute it to Wallen- 
 stein's intentional inactivity in Bohemia. The dis- 
 trust of him increased in Vienna the more, as he 
 took but little trouble to diminish it; and though 
 his fall was not sufficient to atone for treachery, 
 if proved, it was for his equivocal character and 
 imprudence His death probably saved Germany 
 from a catastrophe. ... A great change took place 
 upon the death of Wallenstein; as a prince of the 
 blood, Ferdinand, king of Hungary and Bohemia, 
 obtained the command. Thus an end was put to 
 plans of revolutions from this quarter. But in 
 the same year the battle of Nbrdlingen gave to 
 the imperial arms a sudden preponderance, such as 
 it had never before acquired. The separate peace 
 of Saxony with the emperor at Prague, and soon 
 after an alliance, were its consequences; Sweden 
 driven back to Pomerania, seemed unable of her- 
 self, during the two following years, to maintain 
 her ground in Germany: the victory of Wittstock 
 turned the scale in her favour. . . . The war was 
 
 683 
 
 prolonged and greatly extended by the active 
 share taken in it by France: first against Spain, 
 and soon against Austria. . . . The German war, 
 after the treaty with Bernhard of Weimar, was 
 mainly carried on by France, by the arming of 
 Germans against Germans. But the pupil of 
 Gustavus Adolphus preferred to fight for him- 
 self rather than others, and his early death was 
 almost as much coveted by France as by Austria. 
 The success of the Swedish arms revived under 
 Baner. ... At the general diet, which was at 
 last convened, the emperor yielded to a general 
 amnesty, or at least what was so designated. 
 But when at the meeting of the ambassadors of 
 the leading powers at Hamburg, the preliminaries 
 were signed, and the time and place of the con- 
 gress of peace fixed, it was deferred after Riche- 
 lieu's death (who was succeeded by Mazarin), by 
 the war, which both parties contmued, in the hope 
 of securing better conditions by victory. A new 
 war broke out in the north between Sweden and 
 Denmark, and when at last the congress of peace 
 was opened at Munster and Osnabriick, the ne- 
 gotiations dragged on for three years. . . . The 
 German peace was negotiated at Miinster be- 
 tween the emperor and France, and at Osnabriick 
 between the emperor and Sweden; but both 
 treaties, according to express agreement, Oct. 24, 
 1648, were to be considered as one, under the title 
 of the Westphalian." — A. H. L. Heeren, Manual of 
 the history of the political system of Europe and 
 its colonies, pp. gi-gg. — "The Peace of Westphalia 
 has met manifold hostile comments, not only in 
 earlier, but also in later, times. German patriots 
 complained that by it the unity of the Empire 
 was rent; and indeed the connection of the 
 States, which even before was loose, was relaxed 
 to the extreme. This was, however, an evil which 
 could not be avoided, and it had to be accepted 
 in order to prevent the French and Swedes from 
 using their opportunity for the further enslave- 
 ment of the land. . . . The religious parties also 
 made objections to the peace. The strict Catholics 
 condemned it as a work of inexcusable and arbi- 
 trary injustice. . . . The dissatisfaction of the 
 Protestants was chiefly with the recognition of the 
 Ecclesiastical Reservation. They complained also 
 that their brethren in the faith were not allowed 
 the free exercise of their religion in Austria. Their 
 hostility was limited to theoretical discussions, 
 which soon ceased when Louis XIV. took advan- 
 tage of the preponderance which he had won to 
 make outrageous assaults upon Germany, and even 
 the Protestants were compelled to acknowledge 
 the Emperor as the real defender of German in- 
 dependence."— A. Gindely, History of the Thirty 
 Years' War, v. 2, ch. 10, sect. 4. — See also Ger- 
 many: 1618-1620, to 1648; France: 1624-1626; 
 Germany: Map: At peace of Westphalia; Italy: 
 1627-1631; Poland: 1500-1648. 
 
 1621. — Formal establishment of the right of 
 primogeniture in the archducal family. See 
 Germany: 1636-1637. 
 
 1624-1626. — Hostile comhinations of Richelieu. 
 — The Valtelline war in northern Italy. See 
 France: 1624-1626. 
 
 1627-1631. — War with France over the succes- 
 sion to the duchy of Mantua. See Italy: 1637- 
 1631. 
 
 1648-1715. — Relations with Germany and 
 France. See Germany: 1648-1715. 
 
 1660-1664.— Renewed war with the Turks. See 
 Hungary: 1660-1664. 
 
 1668-1683.— Increased oppression and religious 
 persecution in Hungary.— Revolt of Prince Te- 
 keli.— Turks again called in.— Mustapha's great 
 invasion and siege of Vienna.— Deliverance of
 
 AUSTRIA, 1672-1714 
 
 Wars with 
 Louis XIV 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1672-1714 
 
 the city by John Sobieski. See Hungary: 1668- 
 1083. 
 
 1672-1714.— Wars with Louis XIV of France: 
 War of the Grand Alliance.— Peace of Ryswick. 
 —"The leading principle of the reign [in France] 
 of Louis XrV. ... is the principle of war with 
 the dynasty of Charles V— the elder branch of 
 which reigned in Spain, while the descendants of 
 the younger branch occupied the imperial throne 
 of Germany. . . . .^t the death of Mazarin, or to 
 speak more correctly, immediately after the death 
 of Philip I\'., . . the early ambition of Louis 
 XIV. sought to prevent the junior branch of the 
 .-Austrian dynasty from succeeding to the inheri- 
 tance of the elder branch. He had no desire to see 
 reconstituted under the imperial sceptre of Ger- 
 many the monarchy which Charles V. had at one 
 time wished to transmit entire to his son, but 
 which, worn out and weakened, he subsequently 
 allowed without regret to be divided between his 
 son and his brother. Before making war upon 
 Austria, Louis XIV. cast his eyes upon a por- 
 tion of the territory belonging to Spain, and 
 the expedition against Holland, begun in 1672 
 Isee Netherl.^nds (Holland): 1672-1674, and 
 1674-1678], for the purpose of absorbing the 
 Spanish provinces by overwhelming them, opened 
 the series of his vast enterprises. His first great 
 war was, historically speaking, his first great fault. 
 He failed in his object: for at the end of six 
 campaigns, during which the French armies ob- 
 tained great and deserved success, Holland re- 
 mained unconquered. Thus was Europe warned 
 that the lust of conquest of a young monarch, 
 who did not himself possess military genius, but 
 who found in his generals the resources and ability 
 in which he was himself deficient, would soon 
 threaten her independence. Conde and Turenne. 
 after having been rebellious subjects under the 
 Regency, were about to become the first and the 
 most illustrious lieutenants of Louis XIV. Europe, 
 however, though warned, was not immediately 
 ready to defend herself. It was from Austria, 
 more directly exposed to the dangers of the great 
 war now commencing, that the first systematic 
 resistance ought to have come. But .\ustria 
 was not prepared to play such a part ; and the 
 Emperor Leopold possessed neither the genius nor 
 the wish for it. He was, in fact, nothing more 
 than the nominal head of Germany. . . . Such was 
 the state of affairs in Europe when William of 
 Orange first made his appearance on the stage. 
 . . . The old question of supremacy, which Louis 
 XrV. wished to fight out as a duel with the House 
 of Austria, was now about to change its aspect, 
 and, owing to the presence of an unexpected 
 genius, to bring into the quarrel other powers 
 besides the two original competitors. The foe of 
 Louis XIV ought by rights to have been born 
 on the banks of the Danube, and not on the 
 shores of the North Sea. In fact, it was Austria 
 that at that moment most needed a man of genius, 
 either on the throne or at the head of affairs. The 
 events of the century would, in this case, doubt- 
 less have followed a different course: the war 
 would have been less general, and the maritime 
 nations would not have been involved in it to 
 the same degree. . . . The treaties of peace would 
 have been signed in some small place in France 
 or Germany, and not in two towns and a village 
 in Holland, such as Nimeguen, Ryswick, and 
 Utrecht. . , . William of Orange found himself in 
 a position soon to form the Triple Alliance which 
 the very policy of Louis XIV. suggested For 
 France to attack Holland, when her object was 
 eventually to reach Austria, and keep her out of 
 the Spanish succession, was to make enemies at 
 
 one and the same time of Spain, of Austria, and 
 of Holland But if it afterwards required con- 
 siderable efforts on the part of William of Orange 
 to maintain this alliance, it demanded still more 
 energy to extend it. It formed part of the Stadt- 
 holder's ulterior plans to combine the union be- 
 tween himself and the two branches of the .\ustrian 
 family, with the old .Anglo-Swedish Triple .Al- 
 liance, which had just been dissolved under the 
 strong pressure brought to bear on it by Louis 
 XrV. . . . Louis XIV., whose finances were ex- 
 hausted, was very soon anxious to make peace, 
 even on the morrow of his most brilliant vic- 
 tories; whilst William of Orange, beaten and re- 
 treating, ardently desired the continuance of the 
 war. . . . The Peace of Nimeguen was at last 
 signed, and by it were secured to Louis XIV. 
 Franche-Comtc, and some important places in the 
 Spanish Low Countries on his northern frontier 
 [see NiMEGUEX, Peace of]. This was the cul- 
 minating point of the reign of Louis XIV. Al- 
 though the coalition had prevented him from at- 
 taining the full object of his designs against 
 the House of Austria, which had been to absorb 
 by conquest so much of the territory belonging 
 to Spain as would secure him against the effect of 
 a will preserving the whole inheritance intact in 
 the family, yet fiis armies had been constantly suc- 
 cessful, and many of his opponents were evidently 
 tired of the struggle. . . . Some years passed thus, 
 with the appearance of calm. Europe was con- 
 quered; and when peace was broken, because, as 
 was said, the Treaty of Nimeguen was not duly 
 executed, the events of the war were for some time 
 neither brilliant nor important, for several cam- 
 paigns began and ended without any considerable 
 result. ... At length Louis XIV. entered on the 
 second half of his reign, which differed widely 
 from the first. . . During this second period of 
 more than thirty years, which begins after the 
 Treaty of Nimeguen and lasts till the Peace of 
 LTtrecht, events succeed each other in complete 
 logical sequence, so that the reign presents itself 
 as one continuous whole, with a regular move- 
 ment of ascension and decline. . . . The leading 
 principle of the reign remained the same; it was 
 always the desire to weaken the House of Aus- 
 tria, or to secure an advantageous partition of 
 the Spanish succession. But the Emperor of Ger- 
 many was protected by the coalition, and the King 
 of Spain, whose death was considered imminent, 
 would not make up his mind to die. . . . Dur- 
 ing the first League, when the Prince of Orange 
 was contending against Louis XIV. with the co- 
 operation of the Emperor of Germany, of the 
 King of Spain, and of the Electors on the Rhine, 
 the religious element played only a secondary 
 part in the war. But we shall see this element 
 make its presence more manifest. . . . Thus the 
 influence of Protestant England made itself more 
 and more felt in the affairs of Europe, in pro- 
 portion as the government of the Stuarts, from 
 its volence, its unpopularity, and from the op- 
 position offered to it, was approaching its end. . . . 
 The second coalition was neither more united 
 nor more firm than the first had been: but, after 
 the expulsion of the Stuarts, the germs of dissolu- 
 tion no longer threatened the same dangers. . . . 
 The British nation now made itself felt in the 
 balance of Europe, and William of Orange was 
 for the first time in his life successful in war at 
 the head of his English troops. . This was the 
 most brilliant epoch of the life of William III. . , . 
 He was now at the height of his glory, after a 
 period of twenty years from his start in life, 
 and his destiny was accomplished ; so that until 
 the Treaty of Ryswick, which in i6q8 put an 
 
 684
 
 AUSTRIA, 1672-1714 
 
 Peace of Ryswick 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1718-1738 
 
 end to his hostilities with France, and brought 
 about his recognition as King of England by Louis 
 XIV., not much more was left for him to gain ; 
 and he had the skill to lose nothing. . . . The 
 negotiations for the Treaty of Ryswick were con- 
 ducted with less ability and boldness, and concluded 
 on less advantageous terms, than the Truce of 
 Ratisbon or the Peace of Nimeguen. Nevertheless, 
 this treaty, which secured to Louis the possession 
 of Strasbourg, might, particularly as age was now 
 creeping on him, have closed his military career 
 without disgrace, if the eternal question, for the 
 solution of which he had made so many sacri- 
 fices, and which had always held the foremost 
 place in his thoughts, had not remained as un- 
 settled and as full of difficulty as on the day 
 when he had mounted the throne. Charles II. 
 of Spain was not dead, and the question of the 
 Spanish succession, which had so actively em- 
 ployed the armies of Louis XIV., and ta.xed his 
 diplomacy, was as undecided as at the beginning 
 of his reign. Louis XIV. saw two alternatives 
 before him: a partition of the succession between 
 the Emperor and himself (a solution proposed 
 Ihirty years before as a means to avoid war), 
 or else a will in favour of France, followed of 
 course by a recommencement of general hostilities. 
 . . . Louis XIV. proposed in succession two 
 schemes, not, as thirty years before, to the Em- 
 peror, but to the King of England, whose power 
 and whose genius rendered him the arbiter of all 
 the great affairs of Europe. ... In the first of 
 the treaties of partition, Spain and the Low Coun- 
 tries were to be given to the Prince of Bavaria ; 
 in the second, to the Archduke Charles. In both, 
 France obtained Naples and Sicily for the Dauphin. 
 . . . Both these arrangements . . . suited both 
 France and England as a pacific solution of the 
 question. . . . But events, as we know, deranged 
 all these calculations, and Charles II., who, by 
 continuing to live, had disappointed so much im- 
 patient expectation, by his last will provoked 
 a general war, to be carried on against France by 
 the union of England with the Empire and with 
 Holland — a union which was much strengthened 
 under the new dynasty, and which afterwards 
 embraced the northern states of Germany. . . . 
 William III. died at the age of fifty-two, on the 
 oth of March, 1702, at the beginning of the 
 War of Succession. After him, the part he was 
 to have played was divided. Prince Eugene, 
 Marlborough, and Heinsius (the Grand Pension- 
 ary) had the conduct of political and especially 
 of military affairs, and acted in concert. The dis- 
 astrous consequences to France of that war, in 
 which William had no part, are notorious. The 
 battles of Blenheim, of Ramifies, and of Oude- 
 narde brought the allied armies on the soil of 
 France, and placed Louis XIV. on the verge of 
 ruin." — J. Van Praet, Essays on the poHlical his- 
 tory of the 15th, ibth, and lyth centuries, pp. 
 390-414 ai7d 441-455. See also Germany: r686; 
 and France: i68q-iboo to 1607. 
 
 Also in: H. Martin, History of France: Age 
 of Louis XIV., V. 2. ch. 2 and 4-6. — T. H. Dyer, 
 History of modern Europe, bk. 5, v. 3, ch. 5-6. — 
 
 1683-1687. — Merciless suppression of the Hun- 
 garian revolt. — Crown of Hungary made hered- 
 itary in the house of Hapsburg. See Hungary; 
 1683-1687. 
 
 1683-1699. — Expulsion of the Turks from Hun- 
 gary. — Peace of Carlowitz. See Hungary: 1683- 
 1699. 
 
 1699-1711. — Suppression of the revolt under 
 Rakoczy in Hungary. See Hungary: 1699- 
 1718. 
 
 1700. — Interest of the imperial house in the 
 
 question of the Spanish succession. See Spain: 
 
 1&98-1700. 
 
 1701-1713. — War of the Spanish Succession. 
 See German\~ 1702, to 1700-1711; Italy: 1701- 
 17 13; Spain: 1702, to 1707- 17 10, and Nether- 
 lands: 1702-1704, to 1713-1715. 
 
 1709. — Barrier Treaty with England and Neth- 
 erlands against France. See Barrier fortresses. 
 
 1703. — First bank established. See Money and 
 banking: Modern: 1703-1915. 
 
 1711. — War of the Spanish Succession. — Its 
 circumstances changed. — "The death of the Em- 
 peror Joseph I., who expired April 17, 1711, at 
 the age of thirty-two, changed the whole char- 
 acter of the War of the Spanish Succession. As 
 Joseph left no male heirs, the hereditary dominion., 
 of the House of Austria devolved to his brother, 
 the Archduke Charles; and though that prince 
 had not been elected King of the Romans, and 
 had therefore to become a candidate for the im- 
 perial crown, yet there could be little doubt that 
 he would attain that dignity. Hence, if Charles 
 should also become sovereign of Spain and the 
 Indies, the vast empire of Charles V. would be 
 again united in one person ; and that very evil 
 of an almost universal monarchy would be estab- ■ 
 lished, the prevention of which had been the chief 
 cause for taking up arms against Philip V. . . . 
 After an interregnum of half a year, during which 
 the affairs of the Empire had been conducted by 
 the Elector Palatine and the Elector of Saxony, 
 as imperial vicars for South and North Germany, 
 the Archduke Charles w?s unanimously named 
 Emperor by the Electoral College (Oct. 12th). 
 . . . Charles . . . received the imperial crown at 
 Frankfort, Dec. 22d, with the title of Charles VI." 
 — T. H. Dver, History of modern Europe, bk. 5, v. 
 3. ch. 6. 
 
 1713-1714.— Ending of the War of the Spanish 
 Succession. — Peace of Utrecht and the Treaty of 
 Rastadt. — Acquisition of the Spanish Nether- 
 lands, Naples and Milan. See Utrecht: 1712- 
 1714. 
 
 1713-1719. — Continued differences with Spain. 
 — Triple Alliance. — Quadruple Alliance. See 
 Spain: 1713-1725. 
 
 1714. — Desertion of the Catalans. See Spain: 
 1713-1714. 
 
 1714-1718. — Recovery of Belgrade and final ex- 
 pulsion of the Turks from Hungary. See Hun- 
 gary: 1699-1718; and Turkey: 1714-1718. 
 
 1718. — Control of Croatia. See Croatia: 1526- 
 1718. 
 
 1718-1738. — Question of the succession. — 
 Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VI, and its 
 guarantee by the powers.— "On the death [1711] 
 of Joseph, the hopes of the house of Austria and 
 the future destiny of Germany rested on Charles 
 [then, as titular king of Spain, Charles III., in- 
 effectually contesting the Spanish throne with the 
 Bourbon heir, Philip V.; afterwards, as Emperor, 
 Charles VI.] who was the only surviving male of 
 his illustrious family. By that event the houses 
 of Austria, Germany and Europe were placed in 
 a new and critical situation. From a principle 
 of mistaken policy the succession to the hereditary 
 dominions had never been established according 
 to an invariable rule; for it was not clearly ascer- 
 tained whether males of the collateral branches 
 should be preferred to females in lineal descent, an 
 uncertainty which had frequently occasioned many 
 vehement disputes. To obviate this evil, as well 
 as to prevent future disputes, Leopold [father 
 of Joseph and Charles] had arranged the order 
 of succession: to Joseph he assigned Hungary and 
 Bohemia, and the other hereditary dominions; and 
 to Charles the crown of Spain, and all the terri- 
 
 685
 
 AUSTRIA, 1718-1738 
 
 Pragmatic 
 Sanction 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1740 
 
 tories which belonged to the Spanish inheritance. 
 Should Joseph die without issue male, the whole 
 succession was to descend to Charles, and in case 
 of his death, under similar circumstances, the Aus- 
 trian dominions were to devolve on the daughters 
 of Joseph in preference to those of Charles. This 
 family compact was signed by the two brothers in 
 the presence of Leopold. Joseph died without 
 male issue; but left two daughters." He was 
 succeeded by Charles in accordance with the com- 
 pact. "On the 2nd of August, 1718, soon after 
 the signature of the Quadruple AUiance, Charles 
 promulgated a new law of succession for the in- 
 heritance of the house of Austria, under the name 
 of the Pragmatic Sanction. According to the fam- 
 ily compact formed by Leopold, and confirmed by 
 Joseph and Charles, the succession was entailed 
 on the daughters of Joseph in preference to the 
 daughters of Charles, should theyjjoth die with- 
 out issue male. Charles, however, had scarcely 
 ascended the throne, though at that time without 
 children, than he reversed this compact, and settled 
 the right of succession, in default of his male issue, 
 first on his daughters, then on the daughters of 
 Joseph, and afterwards on the queen of Portugal 
 and the other daughters of Leopold. Since the 
 promulgation of that decree, the Empress had 
 borne a son who died in his infancy, and three 
 daughters, Maria Theresa, Maria Anne and Maria 
 Amelia. With a view to insure the succession of 
 these daughters, and to obviate the dangers which 
 might arise from the claims of the Josephine 
 archduchesses, he published the Pragmatic Sanc- 
 tion, and compelled his nieces to renounce their 
 pretensions on their marriages with the electors of 
 Saxony and Bavaria. Aware, however, that the 
 strongest renunciations are disregarded, he ob- 
 tained from the different states of his extensive 
 dominions the acknowledgment of the Pragmatic 
 Sanction, and made it the great object of his 
 reign, to which he sacrificed every other considera- 
 tion, to procure the guaranty of the European 
 powers." This guaranty was obtained in treaties 
 with the several powers, as follows: Spain in 
 1725; Russia, 1726, renewed in 1733; Prussia, 1728; 
 England and Holland, 1731; France, 1738; the 
 Empire, 1732. The inheritance which Charles 
 thus endeavored to secure to his daughter was 
 vast and imposing. "He was by election Em- 
 peror of Germany, by hereditary right sovereign 
 of Hungary, Transylvania, Bohemia, Austria, 
 Styria, Carinthia and Carniola, the Tyrol, and the 
 Brisgau [Breisgau] and he had recently obtained 
 Naples and Sicily, the Milanese and the Nether- 
 lands." — W. Coxe, History of the House of Austria, 
 V. 3, ch. 80, pp. 84-85. — "The Pragmatic Sanction, 
 though framed to legalize the accession of Maria 
 Theresa, excludes the present Emperor's daughters 
 and his grandchild by postponing the succession of 
 females to that of males in the family of Charles 
 VI." — J. D. Bourchier, Heritage of tlie Hapsburgs 
 (Fortnightly Revitw, Mar., 1889). 
 
 Also i.n: H. Tuttle, History of Prussia, 1740- 
 174S, ch. 2. — S. A. Dunham, History of the Ger- 
 manic empire, v. 3, bk. 3, ch. 3. 
 
 1719. — Sardinia ceded to the duke of Savoy in 
 exchange for Sicily. See Spain: 1713-1725; and 
 Italy: 1715-1735- 
 
 1731. — Second Treaty of Vienna with England 
 and Holland. See Spain: 1726-1731. 
 
 1732-1733. — Interference in the election of the 
 king of Poland. See Poland: 1732-1733. 
 
 1733-1735. — War of the Polish Succession. — 
 Cession of Naples and Sicily to Spain, and Lor- 
 raine and bar to France. See France: 1733-173S1 
 and Italy: 1715-173,';. 
 
 1737-1739.— Unfortunate war with the Turks, 
 
 686 
 
 in alliance with Russia. — Humiliating peace of 
 Belgrade. — Surrender of Belgrade, with Servia, 
 and part of Bosnia. See Russia: 1734-1740. 
 
 1740-1756.— Relations with Germany during 
 War of the Succession. See Germany: 1740- 
 1756. 
 
 1740 (October). — Treachery among the guar- 
 antors of the Pragmatic Sanction. — Inheritance 
 of Maria Theresa disputed. — "The Emperor 
 Charles V. . . . died on the 20th of October, 1740. 
 His daughter Maria Theresa, the heiress of his 
 dominions with the title of Queen of Hungary, 
 was but twenty-three years of age, without ex- 
 perience or knowledge of business; and her hus- 
 band Francis, the titular Duke of Lorraine and 
 reigning Grand Duke of Tuscany, deserved the 
 praise of amiable qualities rather than of com- 
 manding talents. Her Ministers were timorous, 
 irresolute, and useless: 'I saw them in despair,' 
 writes Mr. Robinson, the British envoy, 'but that 
 very despair was not capable of rendering them 
 
 MARIA THERESA (1717-1780) 
 
 Empress of Austria 
 
 bravely desperate.' The treasury was exhausted, 
 the army dispersed, and no general risen to re- 
 place Eugene. The succession of Maria Theresa 
 was, indeed, cheerfully acknowledged by her sub- 
 jects, and seemed to be secured amongst foreign 
 powers by their guarantee of the Pragmatic Sanc- 
 tion ; but it soon appeared that such guarantees 
 are mere worthless parchments where there is strong 
 temptation to break and only a feeble army to 
 support them. The principal claimant to the suc- 
 cession was the Elector of Bavaria, who maintained 
 that the will of the Emperor Ferdinand the First 
 devised the .Austrian states to his daughter, from 
 whom the Elector descended, on failure of male 
 lineage. It appeared that the original will in the 
 archives at Vienna referred to the failure, not of 
 the male but of the legitimate issue of his sons; 
 but this document, though ostentatiously dis- 
 played to all the Ministers of state and foreign 
 ambassadors, was very far from inducing the 
 Elector to desist from his pretensions. As to the 
 Great Powers — the Court of France, the old ally
 
 AUSTRIA, 1740 
 
 War of the 
 Succession 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1740-1741 
 
 of the Bavarian family, and mindful of its injuries 
 from the House of Austria, was eager to exalt 
 the first by the depression of the latter. The 
 Bourbons in Spain followed the direction of the 
 Bourbons in France. The King of Poland and 
 the Empress of Russia were more friendly in their 
 expressions than in their designs. An opposite 
 spirit pervaded England and Holland, where mo- 
 tives of honour and of policy combined to sup- 
 port the rights of Maria Theresa. In Germany 
 itself the Elector of Cologne, the Bavarian's 
 brother, warmly espoused his cause; and 'the re- 
 maining Electors,' says Chesterfield, 'like electors 
 with us, thought it a proper opportunity of mak- 
 ing the most of their votes, — and all at the ex- 
 pense of the helpless and abandoned House of 
 Austria!' The first blow, however, came from 
 Prussia, where the King Frederick William had 
 died a few months before, and been succeeded by 
 his son Frederick the Second, a Prince surnamed 
 the Great by poets." — Lord Mahon (Earl Stan- 
 hope), History of England, 1713-1783, v. 3, ch. 
 23. — "The elector of Bavaria acted in a prompt, 
 honest, and consistent manner. He at once lodged 
 a protest against any disposition of the hereditary 
 estates to the prejudice of his own rights; insisted 
 on the will of Ferdinand I.; and demanded the 
 production of the original text. It was promptly 
 produced. But it was found to convey the suc- 
 cession to the heirs of his daughter, the ancestress 
 of the elector, not, as he contended, on the failure 
 of male heirs, but in the absence of mor; direct 
 heirs born in wedlock. Maria Theresa could, how- 
 ever, trace her descent through nearer male heirs, 
 and had, therefore, a superior title. Charles Albert 
 was in any event only one of several claimants. 
 The King of Spain, a Bourbon, presented him- 
 self as the heir of the Hapsburg emperor Charles 
 V. The King of Sardinia alleged an ancient mar- 
 riage contract, from which he derived a right to 
 the duchy of Milan. Even August of Saxony 
 claimed territory by virtue of an antiquated title, 
 which, it was pretended, the renunciation of his 
 wife could not affect. AH these were, however, 
 mere vultures compared to the eagle [Frederick 
 of Prussia] which was soon to descend upon its 
 prey." — H. Tuttle, History of Prussia, 1740-1745, 
 ch. 2. 
 
 1740 (October-November). — War of the suc- 
 cession — Conduct of Frederick the Great as ex- 
 plained by himself. — -"This Pragmatic Sanction 
 had been guaranteed by France, England, Holland, 
 Sardinia, Saxony, and the Roman empire; nay 
 by the late King Frederic William [of Prussia] 
 also, on condition that the court of Vienna would 
 secure to him the succession of Julich and Berg. 
 The emperor promised him the eventual succession, 
 and did not fulfil his engagements; by which the 
 King of Prussia, his successor, was freed from this 
 guarantee, to which his father, the late king, had 
 pledged himself, conditionally. . . . Frederic I., 
 when he erected Prussia into a kingdom, had, by 
 that vain grandeur, planted the seed of- ambition 
 in the bosom of his posterity; which, soon or late, 
 must fructify. The monarchy he had left to his 
 descendants was, if I may be permitted the ex- 
 pression, a kind of hermaphrodite, which was 
 rather more an electorate than a kingdom. Fame 
 was to be acquired by determining the nature of 
 this being: and this sensation certainly was one 
 of those which strengthened so many motives, 
 conspiring to engage the king in grand enterprises. 
 If the acquisition of the duchy of Berg had not 
 even met with almost insurmountable impedi- 
 ments, it was in itself so small that the possession 
 would add little grandeur to the house of Bran- 
 denburg. These reflections occasioned the king 
 
 to turn his views toward the house of Austria, 
 the succession of which would become matter of 
 litigation, at the death of the emperor, when the 
 throne of the Ceesars should be vacant. That 
 event must be favourable to the distinguished 
 part which the king had to act in Germany, by 
 the various claims of the houses of Saxony and 
 Bavaria to these states; by the number of candi- 
 dates which might canvass for the Imperial crown; 
 and by the projects of the court of Versailles, 
 which, on such an occasion must naturally profit 
 by the troubles that the death of Charles VI 
 could not fail to excite. This accident did not 
 long keep the world in expectation. The em- 
 peror ended his days at the palace La Favorite, 
 on the 26th [20th] day of October, 1740. The 
 news arrived at Rheinsberg when the king was ill 
 of a fever. ... He immediately resolved to reclaim 
 the principalities of Silesia ; the rights of his house 
 to which [long dormant, the claim dating back 
 to a certain covenant of heritage-brotherhood 
 with the duke of Liegnitz, in 1537, which the 
 emperor of that day caused to be annulled by the 
 states of Bohemia] were incontestable: and he 
 prepared, at the same time, to support these pre- 
 tensions, if necessary, by arms. This project ac- 
 complished all his political views; it afforded the 
 means of acquiring reputation, of augmenting the 
 power of the state, and of terminating what re- 
 lated to the litigious succession of the duchy of 
 Berg. . . . The state of the court of Vienna, after 
 the death of the emperor, was deplorable. The 
 finances were in disorder; the army was ruined 
 and discouraged by ill success in its wars with the 
 Turks ; the ministry disunited, and a youthful un- 
 experienced princess at the head of the govern- 
 ment, who was to defend the succession from all 
 claimants. The result was that the government 
 could not appear formidable. It was besides im- 
 possible that the king [Frederick of Prussia] 
 should be destitute of allies. . . . The war which 
 he might undertake in Silesia was the only of- 
 fensive war that could be favoured by the situa- 
 tion of his states, for it would be carried on upon 
 his frontiers, and the Oder would always furnish 
 him with a sure communication. . . . Add to these 
 reasons, an army fit to march, a treasury ready 
 prepared, and, perhaps, the ambition of acquir- 
 ing renown. Such were the causes of the war 
 which the king declared against Maria Theresa 
 of Austria, queen of Hungary and Bohemia." — 
 Frederick II. (Frederick the Great), History of 
 my oivn times: posthumous works (translated by 
 Holcroft), V. I, ch. 1-2. 
 
 1740-1741. — War of the Succession. — Fathless- 
 ness of the king of Prussia. — Macaulay verdict. 
 — "From no quarter did the young queen of Hun- 
 gary receive stronger assurances of friendship and 
 support than from the King of Prussia. Yet the 
 King of Prussia, the 'Anti-Machiavel,' had al- 
 ready fully determined to commit the great crime 
 of violating his plighted faith, of robbing the ally 
 whom he was bound to defend, and of plunging all 
 Europe into a long, bloody, and desolating war, 
 and all this for no end whatever except that he 
 might extend his dominions and see his name in 
 the gazettes. He determined to assemble a great 
 array with speed and secrecy, to invade Silesia 
 before Maria Theresa should be apprized of his 
 design, and to add that rich province to his king- 
 dom. . . . Without any declaration of war, with- 
 out any demand for reparation, in the very act of 
 pouring forth compliments and assurances of good 
 will, Frederic commenced hostilities. Many thou- 
 sands of his troops were actually in Silesia before 
 the Queen of Hungary knew that he had set up 
 any claim to any part of her territories. At 
 
 687
 
 AUSTRIA, 1740-1741 
 
 War of the 
 Succession 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1741 
 
 length he sent her a message which could be re- 
 garded only as an insult. If she would but let 
 him have Silesia, he would, be said, stand by her 
 against any power which should try to deprive 
 her of her other dominions: as if he was not al- 
 ready bound to stand by her, or as if his new 
 promise could be of more value than the old one. 
 It was the depth of winter. The cold was severe, 
 and the roads deep in mire. But the Prussians 
 pressed on. Resistance was impossible. The Aus- 
 trian army was then neither numerous nor efficient. 
 The small portion of that army which lay in Si- 
 lesia was unprepared for hostilities. Glogau was 
 blockaded; Breslau opened its gates; Ohlau was 
 evacuated. A few scattered garrisons still held 
 out; but the whole open country was subjugated: 
 no enemy ventured to encounter the king in the 
 field; and, before the end of January, 1741, he re- 
 turned to receive the congratulations of his sub- 
 jects at Berlin. Had the Silesian question been 
 merely a question between Frederic and Maria 
 Theresa it w^ould be impossible to acquit the Prus- 
 sian king of gross perfidy. But when we consider 
 the effects which his policy produced, and could 
 not fail to produce, on the whole community of 
 civilized nations, we are compelled to pronounce a 
 condemnation still more severe. . . . The selfish 
 rapacity of the king of Prussia gave the signal to 
 his neighbours. . . . The evils produced by this 
 wickedness were felt in lands where the name of 
 Prussia was unknown ; and, in order that he might 
 rob a neighbour whom he had promised to defend, 
 black men fought on the coast of Coromandel, and 
 red men scalped each other by the great lakes of 
 North America. Silesia had been occupied with- 
 out a battle ; but the Austrian troops were ad- 
 vancing to the relief of the fortresses which still 
 held out. In the spring Frederic rejoined his array. 
 He had seen little of w-ar, and had never com- 
 manded any great body of men in the field. . . . 
 Frederic's first battle was fought at Mollwitz [April 
 10, 1741], and never did the career of a great com- 
 mander open in a more inauspicious manner. His 
 army was victorious. Not only, however, did he 
 not establish his title to the character of an able 
 general, but he was so unfortunate as to make It 
 doubtful whether he possessed the vulgar courage 
 of a soldier. The cavalry, which he commanded 
 in person, was put to flight. Unaccustomed to the 
 tumult and carnage of a field of battle, he lost his 
 self-possession, and listened too readily to those 
 who urged hira to save himself. His English gray 
 carried him many miles from the field, while 
 Schwerin, though wounded in two places, manfully 
 upheld the day. The skill of the old Field-Marshal 
 and the steadiness of the Prussian battalions pre- 
 vailed, and the Austrian army was driven from the 
 field with the loss of 8,000 men. The news was 
 carried late at night to a mill in' which the king 
 had taken shelter. It gave him a bitter pang. He 
 was successful; but he owed his success to dis- 
 positions which others had made, and to the valour 
 of men who had fought while he was flying. So 
 unpromising was the first appearance of the great- 
 est warrior of that age." — Lord Macaulay, Frederic 
 the Great (Essays, i'. 4), 
 
 1741 (April-May). — War of the succession. — 
 French responsibility. — Carlyle verdict. — "The 
 battle of Mollwitz went off like a signal shot 
 among the Nations; intimating that they were 
 one and all, to go battling. Which they did, with 
 a vengeance ; making a terrible thing of it, over all 
 the world, for above seven years to come. . . . Not 
 that Mollwitz kindled Europe ; Europe was already 
 kindled for some two years past; — especially since 
 the late Kaiser died, and his PrScmatic Sanction 
 was superadded to the other troubles afoot. But 
 
 ever since that image of Jenkins's Ear had at last 
 blazed-up in the slow English brain, like a fiery 
 constellation or Sign in the Heavens, symbolic of 
 such injustices and unendurabilities, and had lighted 
 the Spanish-English War [see England: 1739- 
 1741], Europe was slowly but pretty surely taking 
 fire. France 'could not see Spain humbled,' she 
 said: England (in its own dim feeling, and also 
 in the fact of things), could not do at all without 
 considerably humbling Spain. France, endlessly in- 
 terested in that Spanish-English matter, was al- 
 ready sending out fleets, firing shots, — almost, or 
 altogether, putting her hand in it. 'In which case, 
 will not, must not, Austria help us?' thought Eng- 
 land, — and was asking, daily, at Vienna . . . when 
 the late Kaiser died. . . . But if not as cause, then 
 as signal, or as signal and cause together (which 
 it properly was), the Battle of Mollwitz gave the 
 finishing stroke and set all in motion. . . . For 
 directly on the back of Mollwitz, there ensued, 
 first, an explosion of Diplomatic activity, such as 
 was never seen before ; Excellencies from the four 
 winds taking wing towards Friedrich ; and talking 
 and insinuating, and fencing and fugling, after their 
 sort, in that Silesian camp of his. the centre being 
 there. A universal rookery of Diplomatists, whose 
 loud cackle is now as if gone mad to us; their 
 work wholly fallen putrescent and avoidable, dead 
 to all creatures. And secondly, in the train of 
 that, there ensued a universal European War, the 
 French and the English being chief parties in it; 
 which abounds in battles and feats of arms, spirited 
 but delirious, and cannot be got stilled for seven 
 or eight years to come ; and in which Friedrich 
 and his War swim only as an intermittent Episode 
 henceforth. . . . The first point to be noted is. 
 Where did it originate ? To which the answer 
 mainly is . . . with Monseigneur. the Marechal de 
 Belle-Isle principally; with the ambitious cupidi- 
 ties and baseless vanities of the French Court and 
 Nation, as represented by Belle-Isle. . . . The 
 English-Spanish War had a basis to stand on in 
 this Universe. The Uke had the Prussian-. \us- 
 trian one; so all men now admit. If Friedrich 
 had not business there, what man ever had in an 
 enterprise he ventured on? Friedrich, after such 
 trial and proof as has seldom been, got his claims 
 on Schlesien [Silesia] allowed by the Destinies. 
 . . Friedrich had business in this War; and Maria 
 Theresa versus Friedrich had likewise cause to ap- 
 pear in Court, and do her utmost pleading against 
 him. But if we ask, What Belle-Isle or France and 
 Louis XV. had to do there? the answer is rigor- 
 ously Nothing. Their own windy vanities, am- 
 bitions, sanctioned not by fact and the .Mmighty 
 Powers, but by Phantasm and the babble of Ver- 
 sailles; transcendent self-conceit, intrinsically in- 
 sane ; pretensions over their fellow-creatures which 
 were without basis anywhere in Nature, except in 
 the French brain ; it was this that brought Belle- 
 Isle and France into a German War. And Belle- 
 Isle and France having gone into an Anti-Prag- 
 matic W.ar, the unlucky George and his England 
 were dragged into a Pragmatic one, — quitting their 
 own business, on the Spanish Main, and hurrying 
 to Germany. — in terror as at Doomsday, and zeal 
 to save the Keystone of Nature there. That is 
 the notable point in regard to this War: That 
 France is to be called the author of it, who. alone 
 of all the parties, had no business there whatever." 
 — T. Carlyle, History of Friedrich II., bk. 12, ch. 11 
 (v. 4). — See also France: 1733. 
 
 1741 (May-June). — Mission of Belle-Isle. — 
 Thickening of the plot.— "The defeat of Maria 
 Theresa's only army [at Mollwitz! swept away 
 all the doubts and scruples of France. The fiery 
 Belle-Isle had alreadv set out upon his mission to 
 
 688
 
 AUSTRIA, 1741 
 
 Maria Theresa 
 in Hungary 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1741 
 
 the various German courts, armed with powers 
 which were reluctantly granted by the cardinal 
 [Fleury, the French minister], and were promptly 
 enlarged by the ambassador to suit his own more 
 ambitious views of the situation. He travelled in 
 oriental state. . . . The almost royal pomp with 
 which he strode into the presence of princes of the 
 blood, the copious eloquence with which he pleaded 
 his cause, . . . were only the outward decorations 
 of one of the most iniquitous schemes ever devised 
 by an unscrupulous diplomacy. The scheme, when 
 stripped of all its details, did not indeed at first 
 appear absolutely revolting. It proposed simply 
 to secure the election of Charles Albert of Bavaria 
 as emperor, an honor to which he had a perfect 
 right to aspire. But it was difficult to obtain the 
 votes of certain electors without offering them the 
 prospect of territorial gains, and impossible for 
 Charles Albert to support the imperial dignity 
 without greater revenues than those of Bavaria. 
 It was proposed, therefore, that provinces should 
 be taken from Maria Theresa herself, first to pur- 
 chase votes against her own husband, and then to 
 swell the income of the successful rival candidate. 
 The three episcopal electors were first visited, and 
 subjected to various forms of persuasion, — bribes, 
 flattery, threats, — until the effects of the treatment 
 began to appear; the count palatine was devoted 
 to France; and these four with Bavaria made a 
 majority of one. But that was too small a mar- 
 gin for Belle-Isle's aspirations, or even for the 
 safety of his project. The four remaining votes 
 belonged to the most powerful of the German 
 states, Prussia, Hanover, .Saxony and Bohemia. . . . 
 Bohemia, if it voted at all, would of course vote 
 for the grand-duke Francis [husband of Maria 
 Theresa]. Saxony and Hanover were already ne- 
 gotiating with Maria Theresa ; and it was well un- 
 derstood that Austria could have Frederick's sup- 
 port by paying his price." Austria refused to pay 
 the price, and Frederick signed a treaty with the 
 king of France at Brcslau on June 4, 1741. "The 
 essence of it was contained in four secret articles. 
 In these the king of Prussia renounced his claim 
 to Jiilich-Berg in behalf of the house of Sulzbach, 
 and agreed to give his vote to the elector of 
 Bavaria for emperor. The king of France engaged 
 to guarantee Prussia in the possession of Lower 
 Silesia, to send within two months an army to 
 the support of Bavaria, and to provoke an imme- 
 diate rupture between Sweden and Russia." — H. 
 Tuttle, History of Prussia, 1740-1745, ch. 4. 
 
 Also in: W. Coxe, History of the house of Aus- 
 tria, V. 3, ch. qg. 
 
 1741 (June-September). — Maria Theresa and 
 the Hungarians. — "During these anxious summer 
 months Maria Theresa and the Austrian court had 
 resided mainly at Pressburg, in Hungary. Here she 
 had been occupied in the solution of domestic as 
 well as international problems. The Magyars, as 
 a manly and chivalrous race, had been touched by 
 the perilous situation of the young queen; but, 
 while ardently protesting their loyalty, insisted 
 not the less on the recognition of their own in- 
 alienable rights. The.i^e had been inadequately ob- 
 served in recent years, and in consequence no little 
 disaffection prevailed in Hungary. The magnates 
 resolved, therefore, as they had resolved at the 
 beginning of previous reigns, to demand the res- 
 toration of all their rights and privileges. But it 
 does not appear that they wished to take any 
 ungenerous advantage of the sex or the necessities 
 of Maria Theresa. They were argumentative and 
 stubborn, yet not in a bargaining, mercenary spirit. 
 They accepted in June a qualified compliance with 
 their demands; and when on the 25th of that 
 month the queen appeared before the diet to receive 
 
 the crown of St. Stephen, and, according to cus- 
 tom, waved the great sword of the kingdom toward 
 the four points of the compass, toward the north 
 and the south, the east antl the west, challenging 
 all enemies to dispute her right, the assembly was 
 carried away by enthusiasm, and it seemed as if 
 an end had forever been put to constitutional 
 technicalities. Such was, however, not the case. 
 After the excitement caused by the dramatic coro- 
 nation had in a measure subsided, the old conten- 
 tions revived, as bitter and vexatious as before. 
 These concerned especially the manner in which 
 the administration of Hungary should be adjusted 
 to meet the new state of things. Should the chief 
 political offices be filled by native Hungarians, as 
 the diet demanded? Could the co-regency of the 
 grand-duke, which was ardently desired by the 
 queen, be accepted by the Magyars? For two 
 months the dispute over these problems raged at 
 Pressburg, until finally Maria Theresa herself found 
 a bold, ingenious, and patriotic solution. The news 
 of the Franco-Bavarian alliance and the fall of 
 Passau determined her to throw herself completely 
 upon the gallantry and devotion of the Magyars. 
 It had long been the policy of the court of Vienna 
 not to entrust the Hungarians with arms. . . . But 
 Maria Theresa had not been robbed, in spite of 
 her experience with France and Prussia, of all her 
 faith in human nature. She took the responsibility 
 of her decision, and the result proved that her 
 insight was correct. On the nth of September she 
 summoned tiie members of fhe diet before her, 
 and, seated on the throne, explained to them the 
 perilous situation of her dominions. The danger, 
 she said, threatened herself, and all that was dear 
 to her. Abandoned by all her allies, she took 
 refuge in fhe fidelity and the ancient valor of the 
 Hungarians, to whom she entrusted herself, her 
 children, and her empire. Here she broke into 
 tears, and covered her face with her handkerchief. 
 The diet responded to this appeal by proclaim- 
 ing the 'insurrection' or the equipment of a large 
 popular force for the defence of the queen. So 
 great was the cnthusiasnf that it nearly swept away 
 even the original aversion of the Hungarians to 
 the grand-duke Francis, who, to the queen's de- 
 light, was finally, though not without some mur- 
 murs, accepted as co-regent. . . . This uprising 
 was organized not an hour too early, for dan- 
 gers were pressing upon the queen from every 
 side." — H. "Tuttle, History of Prussia, 1 740-1 74S, 
 ch. 4. 
 
 Also in; Due de Broglie, Frederick the Great 
 and Maria TIteresa, v. 2, ch. 4. 
 
 1741 (August-November). — French-Bavarian 
 onset. — "France now began to act with energy. 
 In the month of August [1741] two French armies 
 crossed the Rhine, each about 40,000 strong. The 
 first marched into Westphalia, and frightened 
 George II. into concluding a treaty of neutrality 
 for Hanover, and promising his vote to the Elector 
 of Bavaria. The second advanced through South 
 Germany on Passau, the frontier city of Bavaria 
 and .Austria. As soon as it arrived on German 
 soil, the French officers assumed the blue and white 
 cockade of Bavaria, for it was the cue of France 
 to appear only as an auxiliary, and the nominal 
 command of her army was vested in the Elector. 
 From Passau the French and Bavarians passed into 
 Upper Austria, and on Sept. 11 entered its capital, 
 Linz, where the Elector assumed the title of Arch- 
 duke. Five days later Saxony joined the allies. 
 Sweden had already declared war on Russia. Spain 
 trumped up an old claim and attacked the Aus- 
 trian dominions in Italy. It seemed as if Belle- 
 Isle's schemes were about to be crowned with com- 
 plete success. Had the allies pushed forward, 
 
 689
 
 AUSTRIA, 1741 
 
 Frederick 
 Battle of Chotusitz 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1742 
 
 Vienna must have fallen into their hands. But 
 the French did not wish to be too victorious, lest 
 they should make the Elector too powerful, and 
 so independent of them. Therefore, after six 
 weeks' delay, they turned aside to the conquest of 
 Bohemia." — F. VV. Longman, Frederick the Great 
 and the Seven Years' War, ch. 4, sect. 4. — "While 
 ... a portion of the French troops, under the 
 command of the Count de Scgiir, was left in Upper 
 Austria, the remainder of the allied army turned 
 towards Bohemia; where they were joined by a 
 body of Saxons, under the command of Count 
 Rutowsky. They took Prague by assault, on the 
 night of the 25th of November, while the Grand 
 Duke of Tuscany, the husband of JVIaria Theresa, 
 was marching to its relief. In Prague, 3,000 pris- 
 oners were taken. The elector of Bavaria hastened 
 there, upon hearing of the success of his arms, 
 was crowned King of Bohemia, during the month 
 of December, and received the oath of fidelity from 
 the constituted authorities. But while he was 
 thus employed, the Austrian general, Khevenhiiller, 
 had driven the Count de Secur out of Austria, and 
 had himself entered Bavaria; which obliged the 
 Bavarian army to abandon Bohemia and hasten to 
 the defence of their own country." — ^Lord Dover, 
 Life of Frederick II., hk. 2, v. i, ch. 2. 
 
 Also ix: Frederick II., History of my own times 
 (.Posthumous works, i'. i, ch. 5). 
 
 1741 (October). — Secret treaty with Frederick. 
 — Lower Silesia conceded to him. — Austrian 
 success. — "By October, 1741. the fortunes of Ma- 
 ria Theresa had sunk to the lowest ebb, but a great 
 revulsion speedily set in. The martial enthusiasm 
 of the Hungarians, the subsidy from England, and 
 the brilliant militarj' talents of General Kheven- 
 hiiller, restored her armies. Vienna was put in a 
 state of defence, and at the same time jealousies 
 and suspicions made their w'ay among the con- 
 federates. The Electors of Bavaria and Saxony 
 were already in some degree divided ; and the Ger- 
 mans, and especially Frederick, were alarmed by 
 the growing ascendency, and irritated by the 
 haughty demeanour of the French. In the moment 
 of her extreme depression, the Queen consented to a 
 concession which England had vainly urged upon 
 her before, and which laid the foundation of her fu- 
 ture success. In October, 1741, she entered into a 
 secret convention with Frederick [called the con- 
 vention of Ober-Schnellendorf], by w'hich that as- 
 tute sovereign agreed to desert his allies, and de- 
 sist from hostilities, on condition of ultimately 
 obtaining Lower Silesia, with Breslau and Neisse. 
 Every precaution was taken to ensure secrecy. It 
 was arranged that Frederick should continue to 
 besiege Neisse, that the town should ultimately 
 be surrendered to him, and that his troops should 
 then retire into winter quarters, and take no 
 further part in the war. .\s the sacrifice of a few 
 more lives was perfectly indifferent to the con- 
 tracting parties, and in order that no one should 
 suspect the treachery that was contemplated, 
 Neisse, after the arrangement had been made for 
 its surrender, was subjected for four days and 
 four nights to the horrors of bombardment. Fred- 
 erick, at the same time, talked, with his usual 
 cynical frankness, to the English ambassador about 
 the best way of attacking his allies the French ; 
 and observed, that if the Queen of Hungar\' pros- 
 pered, he would perhaps support her, if not — 
 everyone must look out for himself. He only as- 
 sented verbally to this convention, and, no doubt, 
 resolved to await the course of events, in order to 
 decide which Power it was his interest finally to 
 betray; but in the meantime the .^ustrians obtained 
 a respite, which enabled them to throw their whole 
 forces upon their other enemies. Two brilliant 
 
 campaigns followed. The greater part of Bohemia 
 was recovered by an army under the Duke of 
 Lorraine, and the French were hemmed in at 
 Prague; while another army, under General Khev- 
 enhiiller. invaded Upper .Austria, drove 10,000 
 French soldiers within the walls of Linz, block- 
 aded them, defeated a body of Bohemians who 
 were sent to the rescue, compelled the whole 
 French army to surrender, and then, crossing the 
 frontier, poured in a resistless torrent over Bavaria. 
 The fairest plains of that beautiful land were deso- 
 lated by hosts of irregular troops from Hungary, 
 Croatia, and the Tyrol; and on the 12th of Feb- 
 ruary the Austrians marched in triumph into 
 Munich. On that very day the Elector of Ba- 
 varia was crowned Emperor of Germany, at 
 Frankfort, under the title of Charles VII., and the 
 imperial crown was thus, for the first time, for 
 many generations, separated from the House of 
 Austria." — W. E. H. Lecky, History of England, 
 i&tit century, v. i, ch. 3. 
 
 Also i.v: F. von Raumer, Contributions to 
 modern history: Fred'k II. and his times, ch. 13- 
 14. 
 
 1741-1743. — Successes in Italy. See Italy; 
 
 1741-1743- 
 
 1742 (January-May). — Frederick breaks faith 
 again. — Battle of Chotusitz. — "The Queen of 
 Hungary had assembled in the beginning of the 
 year two considerable armies in Moravia and Bo- 
 hemia, the one under Prince Lobkowitz, to defend 
 the former province, and the other commanded 
 by Prince Charles of Lorraine, her brother-in-law. 
 This young Prince possessed as much bravery and 
 activity as Frederick, and had equally with him 
 the talent of inspiring attachment and confidence. 
 . . . Frederick, alarmed at these preparations and 
 the progress of the Austrians in Bavaria, abruptly 
 broke off the convention of Ober-Schnellendorf, 
 and recommenced hostilities. . . . The King of 
 Prussia became apprehensive that the Queen of 
 Hungary would again turn her arms to recover 
 Silesia. He therefore dispatched Marshal Schwerin 
 to seize Oimiitz and lay siege to Glatz, which sur- 
 rendered after a desperate resistance on the 9th 
 of January. Soon after this event, the King re- 
 joined his army, and endeavoured to drive the 
 Austrians from their advantageous position in the 
 southern parts of Bohemia, which would have de- 
 livered the French troops in the neighbourhood and 
 checked the progress of Khevenhiiller in Bavaria. 
 The king advanced to Iglau, on the frontiers of 
 Bohemia, and, occupying the banks of the Thaya, 
 made irruptions into L'pper Austria, his hussars 
 spreading terror even to the gates of Vienna. The 
 .\ustrians drew from Bavaria a corps of 10,000 
 men to cover the capital, while Prince Charles of 
 Lorraine, at the head of 50.000 men. threatened the 
 Prussian magazines in L'pper Silesia, and by this 
 movement compelled Frederick to detach a con- 
 siderable force for their protection, and to evacu- 
 ate Moravia, which he had invaded. Broglie, who 
 commanded the French forces in that country, 
 must now have fallen a sacrifice, had not the 
 ever-active King of Prussia brought up 30,000 
 men, which, under the Prince of Anhalt-Dessau. 
 entering Bohemia, came up with Prince Charles at 
 Czaslau, about thirty-five miles from Prague, be- 
 fore he could form a junction with Prince Lob- 
 kowitz. Upon this ensued fMay 17, 1742] what 
 is known in history as the battle of Czaslau [also, 
 and more commonly, called the battle of Chotu- 
 sitz]. . . . The numbers in the two armies were 
 nearly equal, and the action was warmly contested 
 on both sides. . . . The Prussians remained mas- 
 ters of the field, with 18 cannon, two pairs of col- 
 ours and 1,200 prisoners; but they indeed paid 
 
 690
 
 AUSTRIA, 1742 
 
 Expulsion of French 
 from Bohemia 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1743 
 
 dearly for the honour, for it was computed that 
 their loss was equal to that of their enemy, which 
 amounted to 7,000 men on either side; while the 
 Prussian cavalry . . . was nearly ruined. . . . Al- 
 though in this battle the victory was, without 
 doubt, on the side of the Prussians, yet the im- 
 mediate consequences were highly favourable to 
 the Queen of Hungary. The King was disappointed 
 of his expected advantages, and conceived a dis- 
 gust to the war. He now lowered his demands 
 and made overtures of accommodation, which, on 
 the nth of June, resulted in a treaty of peace 
 between the two crowns, which was signed at 
 Breslau under the mediation of the British Am- 
 bassador." — Sir E. Cust, Annals of the wars of the 
 i8th century, v. 2, p. 19. 
 
 Also in: T. Carlyle, History of Friedrich II. of 
 Prussia, bk. 13, v. 5, ch. 13. 
 
 1742 (June). — Treaty of Breslau with the king 
 of Prussia. — "The following arc the preliminary 
 articles which were signed at Breslau: i. The 
 queen of Hungary ceded to the king of Prussia, 
 Upper and Lower Silesia, with the principality of 
 Glatz; except the towns of Troppau, Jaegerndorf 
 and the high mountains situated beyond the Oppa. 
 2. The Prussians undertook to repay the English 
 1,700,000 crowns; which sum was a mortgage loan 
 on Silesia. The remaining articles related to a 
 suspension of arms, an exchange of prisoners, and 
 the freedom of religion and trade. Thus was Si- 
 lesia united to the Prussian States. Two years 
 were sufficient for the conquest of that important 
 province. The treasures which the late king had 
 left were almost expended; but provinces that do 
 not cost more than seven or eight millions are 
 cheaply purchased." — Frederick II., History of my 
 own limes (Posthumous works, v. i, ch. 6). 
 
 1742 (June-December). — Expulsion of the 
 French from Bohemia. — Belle-Isle's retreat 
 from Prague. — "The Austrian arms began now to 
 be successful in all quarters. Just before the sig- 
 nature of the preliminaries. Prince Lobkowitz, who 
 was stationed at Budweiss with 10,000 men, made 
 an attack on Frauenberg ; Broglie and Belle-Isle 
 advanced from Piseck to relieve the town, and a 
 combat took place at Sahay, in which the Aus- 
 trians were repulsed with the loss of 500 men. 
 This trifling affair was magnified into a decisive 
 victory. . . . Marshal Broglie, elated with this 
 advantage, and relying on the immediate junction 
 of the King of Prussia, remained at Frauenberg in 
 perfect security. But his expectations were dis- 
 appointed; Frederic had already commenced his 
 secret negotiations, and Prince Charles was en- 
 abled to turn his forces against the French. Being 
 joined by Prince Lobkowitz, they attacked Broglie, 
 and compelled him to quit Frauenberg with such 
 precipitation that his baggage fell into the hands 
 of the light troops, and the French retreated 
 towards Braunau, harassed by the Croats and other 
 irregulars. . . . The Austrians, pursuing their suc- 
 cess against the French, drove Broglie from Brau- 
 nau, and followed him to the walls of Prague, 
 where he found Belle-Isle. . . . After several con- 
 sultations, the two generals called in their posts, 
 and secured their army partly within the walls 
 and partly within a peninsula of the Moldau. . . . 
 Soon afterwards the duke of Lorraine joined the 
 army [of Prince Charles], which now amounted 
 to 70,000 men, and the arrival of the heavy ar- 
 tillery enabled the Austrians to commence the 
 siege." — W. Coxe, History of the house of Austria, 
 V. 3, ch. 102. — "To relieve the French at Prague, 
 Marshal Maillebois was directed to advance with 
 his army from Westphalia. At these tidings Prince 
 Charles changed the siege of Prague to a block- 
 ade, and marching against his new opponents, 
 
 checked their progress on the Bohemian frontier; 
 the French, however, still occupying the town of 
 Eger. It was under these circumstances that Belle- 
 Isle made his masterly and renowned retreat from 
 Prague. In the night of the i6th of December, 
 he secretly left the city at the head of 11,000 
 foot and 3,000 horse, having deceived the Austrians' 
 vigilance by the feint of a general forage in the 
 opposite quarter; and pushed for Eger through a 
 hostile country, destitute of resources and sur- 
 rounded by superior enemies. His soldiers, with 
 no other food than frozen bread, and compelled 
 to sleep without covering on the snow and ice, 
 perished in great numbers; but the gallant spirit of 
 Belle-Isle triumphed over every obstacle; he struck 
 through morasses almost untrodden before, offered 
 battle to Prince Lobkowitz, who, however, de- 
 clined engaging, and at length succeeded in reaching 
 the other French army with the flower of his own. 
 The remnant left at Prague, and amounting only 
 to 6,000 men, seemed an easy prey; yet their threat 
 of firing the city, and perishing beneath its ruins, 
 and the recent proof of what despair can do, ob- 
 tained for them honourable terms, and the permis- 
 sion of rejoining their comrades at Eger. But in 
 spite of all this skill and courage in the French 
 invaders, the final result to them was failure; nor 
 had they attained a single permanent advantage 
 beyond their own safety in retreat. Maillebois and 
 De Broglie took up winter quarters in Bavaria, 
 while Belle-Isle led back his division across the 
 Rhine; and it was computed that, of the 35,000 
 men whom he had first conducted into Germany, 
 not more than 8,000 returned beneath his banner." 
 — Lord Mahon (Earl Stanhope), History of Eng- 
 land, 1713-1783, V. 3, ch. 24. — "Thus, at the termi- 
 nation of the campaign, all Bohemia was regained, 
 except Eger; and on the 12th of May, 1743, Maria 
 Theresa was soon afterwards crowned at Prague, 
 to the recovery of which, says her great rival, her 
 firmness had' more contributed than the force of 
 her arms. The only reverse which the Austrians 
 experienced in the midst of their successes was the 
 temporary loss of Bavaria, which, on the retreat 
 of Kevenhiiller, was occupied by Marshal Secken- 
 dorf; and the [German] Emperor [Charles VII.] 
 made his entry into Munich on the 2d of October." 
 — W. Coxe, History of the House of Austria, v. 3, 
 ch. 103. 
 
 1743. — England drawn into the conflict. — 
 Pragmatic army. — Battle of Dettingen. — "The 
 cause of Maria Theresa had begun to excite a re- 
 markable enthusiasm in England. . . . The con- 
 vention of neutrality entered into by George II. 
 in September 1741, and the extortion of his vote 
 for the Elector of Bavaria, properly concerned 
 that prince only as Elector of Hanover; yet, as 
 he was also King of England, they were felt as a 
 disgrace by the English people. The elections of 
 that year went against Walpole, and in February 
 1742 he found himself compelled to resign. He 
 was succeeded in the administration by Pulteney, 
 Earl of Bath, though Lord Carteret was virtually 
 prime minister. Carteret was an ardent supporter 
 of the cause of Maria Theresa. His accession to 
 office was immediately followed by a large increase 
 of the army and navy; five millions were voted for 
 carrying on the war, and a subsidy of £500,000 
 for the Queen of Hungary. The Earl of Stair, with 
 an army of 16,000 men, afterwards reinforced by 
 a large body of Hanoverians and Hessians in 
 British pay, was despatched into the Netherlands 
 to cooperate with the Dutch. But though the 
 States-General, at the instance of the British Cabi- 
 net, voted Maria Theresa a subsidy, they were 
 not yet prepared to take an active part in a war 
 which might ultimately involve them in hostilities 
 
 691
 
 AUSTRIA, 1743 
 
 Deitingen 
 Prague 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1743-17'14 
 
 with France. The exertions of the English min- 
 istry in favour of the Queen of Hungary had 
 therefore been confined during the year 1742 to 
 diplomacy, and they had helped to bring about 
 the Peace of Breslau. In 1743 they were able 
 to do more." In April, 1743. 'be Emperor, Charles 
 VII , regained possession of Bavaria and returned 
 to Munich, but onlv to be driven out again by the 
 Aunrians in June. The Bavarians were badly 
 beaten at Simbach (May o), and Munich was 
 taken (June 12) after a short bombardment^ 
 "Charles VII. was now again obliged to fly, and 
 look refuge at Augsburg. At his command, Seck- 
 cndorf [his general] made a convention with the 
 Austrians at the village of Niederschonfeld, by 
 which he agreed to abandon to them Bavaria, on 
 condition that Charles's troops should be allowed 
 to occupy unmolested quarters between Franconia 
 and Suabia. Maria Theresa seemed at first indis- 
 posed to ratify even terms so humiliating to the 
 Emperor. She had become perhaps a little too 
 much exalted bv the rapid turn of fortune. She 
 had caused herself to be crowned in Prague. She 
 had received the homage of the Austrians, and 
 entered Vienna in a sort of triumph She now 
 dreamt of nothing less than conquering Lorraine 
 for herself, .\l5ace for the Empire; of hurling 
 Charles VII. from the Imperial throne, and placing 
 on it her own consort." She was persuaded, how- 
 ever, to consent at length to the terms of the 
 Niederschonfeld convention. "Meanwhile the al- 
 lied army of English and Germans, under the Earl 
 of Stair, nearly 40,000 strong, which, from its 
 destined object', had assumed the name of the 
 'Pragmatic Army.' had crossed the Meuse and the 
 Rhine in March and .\pril, with a view to cut off 
 the army of Bavaria from France. George II. had 
 not concealed his intention of breaking the Treaty 
 of Hanover of 1741. alleging as a ground that the 
 duration of the neutrality stipulated in it had not 
 been determined; and on June lothhe had joined 
 the army in person. He found it in a most critical 
 position' Lord Stair, who had never distinguished 
 himself as a general, and was now falling into 
 dntage, had led it into a narrow valley near 
 .\schaffenburg. bet\veen Mount Spessart and the 
 river Main; while Marshal Xoailles [commanding 
 the French], who had crossed the Rhine towards 
 the end of .April, by seizing the principal fords of 
 the Main, both above and below the British posi- 
 tion, had cut him off both from his magazines at 
 Hanau. and from the supplies which he had ex- 
 pected to procure in Franconia. Nothing remained 
 but for him to fight his way back to Hanau." In 
 the battle of Dettingen which followed (June 27). 
 all the advantaees of the French in position were 
 thrown away by the ignorant impetuosity of the 
 king's nephew, the duke of Grammont, who com- 
 manded one division, and they ■ suffered a severe 
 defeat. "The French are said to have lost 6,000 
 men and the British half that number. It is the 
 last action in which a king of England had fought 
 in person. But George II.. or rather Lord Stair, 
 did nnt know hinv to profit by his victory. M 
 thouch thr Pracmatic .Army was joined after the 
 battle of Dettincen by 15,000 Dutch troops, under 
 Prince Maurice of Nassau, nothing of importance 
 was done during the remainder of the campaign." 
 
 T. H. Dyer, History of modern Europe, bk. 6, 
 
 V. 3. ch. 4. 
 
 Also in: W. Coxe, History of the house of Aus- 
 tria, V. 3, ch. 104. — Sir E. Cust. Annals of the 
 wars of the i8(/i century, v. 2, pp. 30-36.— Lord 
 Mahon (Earl Stanhope), History of England, 1713- 
 1783, V. 3. eh. 25. 
 
 1743. — Treaty of Worms with Sardinia and 
 England. See Italy: 1743. 
 
 1743 (October). — Second Bourbon family com- 
 pact. See France: 1743 (October). 
 
 1743-1744. — Prussian king strikes in again. — 
 Union of Frankfort. — Siege and capture of 
 Prague. — "Everywhere .Austria was successful, and 
 Frederick had reason to fear for himself unless the 
 tide of conquest could be stayed. He explains in 
 the 'Histoire de Mon Temps' that he feared lest 
 France should abandon the cause of the Emperor, 
 which would mean that the Austrians, who now 
 boldly spoke of compensation for the war, would 
 turn their arms against himself. . . . France was 
 trembling, not for her conquests, but for her own 
 territory^ After the battle of Dettingen, the vic- 
 torious Anglo-Hanoverian force was to cross the 
 Rhine above Maycnce and march into .Alsace, while 
 Prince Charles of Lorraine, with a strong .Austrian 
 army, was to pass near Basle and occupy Lorraine, 
 taking up his winter quarters in Burgundy and 
 Champagne. The English crossed without any 
 check and moved on to Worms, but the .Austrians 
 failed in their attempt Worms became a centre 
 of intrigue, which Frederick afterwards called 
 •Cette abyme [abime] de mauvaise foi.' The Dutch 
 were persuaded by Lord Carteret to join the Eng- 
 lish, and they did at last send 14,000 men, who 
 were never of the least use. Lord Carteret also 
 detached Charles Emanuel, King of Sardinia, from 
 his French leanings, and persuaded him to enter 
 into the .Austro-English alliance [by the treaty of 
 Worms, September 13, 1743, which conceded to 
 the king of Sardinia Finale, the city of Placentia, 
 with some other small districts and gave him com- 
 mand of the allied forces in Italy]. It was clear 
 that action could not be long postponed, and Fred- 
 erick began to recognize the necessity of a new ■ 
 war. His first anxiety was to guard himself against 
 interference from his northern and eastern neigh- 
 bours. He secured, as he hoped, the neutrality of 
 Russia by marrying the young princess of .Anhalt- 
 Zerbst, afterwards the notorious Empress Cather- 
 ine, with the Grand-Duke Peter of Russia, nephew 
 and heir to the reigniiig Empress Elizabeth. . . . 
 Thus strengthened, as he hoped, in his rear and 
 flank, and having made the commencement of a 
 German league called the Union of Frankfurt, by 
 which Hesse and the Palatinate agreed to join 
 Frederick and the Kaiser, he concluded on the 
 5th of June, 1744, a treaty which brought France 
 also into this alliance It was secretly agreed that 
 Frederick was to invade Bohemia, conquer it for 
 the Kaiser, and have the districts of Koniggratz, 
 Bunzlau, and Leitmeritz to repay him for his 
 trouble and costs; while France, which was all this 
 time at war with .Aust'ria and England, should 
 send an army against Prince Charles and the Eng- 
 lish. . . . The first stroke of the coming war was 
 delivered by France. Louis XV. sent a large army 
 into the Netherlands under two good leaders, 
 Noailles and Maurice de Saxe, Urged by his mis- 
 tress, the Duchesse de Chateau-roux, he joined it 
 himself early, and took the nominal command early 
 in June. . . . The towns [Menin, Vpres, Fort 
 Knoque, Fumes] rapidly fell before him, and Mar- 
 shal Wade, with the .Anglo-Dutch-Hanoverian 
 army, sat still and looked at the success of the 
 French. But on the night of the 30th June — ist 
 July, Prince Charles crossed the Rhine by an op- 
 eration which is worth the study of military stu- 
 dents, and invaded .Alsace, the French army of ob- 
 servation falling back before him. Louis XV. 
 hurried back to interpose between the Austrians 
 and Paris. . . . Maurice de Saxe was left in the 
 Netherlands with 45.000 men. Thus the French 
 army was paralysed, and the Austrian army in its 
 turn was actually invading France. At this time 
 Frederick struck in. He sent word to the King 
 
 692
 
 AUSTRIA, 1744-1745 
 
 House of 
 Hapsburg- Lorraine 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1744-1745 
 
 that, though all the terms of their arrangement had 
 not yet been fulfilled, he would at once invade 
 Bohemia, and deliver a stroke against Prague 
 which would certainly cause the retreat of Prince 
 Charles with his 70,000 men. If the French army 
 would follow Prince Charles in his retreat, Fred- 
 erick would attack him, and between France and 
 Prussia the Austrian army would certainly be 
 crushed, ^nd Vienna be at their mercy. This was 
 no doubt an excellent plan of campaign, but, like 
 the previous operations concerted with Broglie, it 
 depended for success upon the good faith of the 
 French, and this turned out to be a broken reed. 
 On the 7th of August the Prussian ambassador at 
 Vienna gave notice of the Union of Frankfurt and 
 withdrew from the court of Austria; and on the 
 15th the Prussian army was put in march upon 
 Prague [opening what is called the Second Silesian 
 War]. Frederick's forces moved in three columns, 
 the total strength being over 8o,ooo.' . . . Maria 
 Theresa was now again in great danger, but as 
 usual retained her high courage, and once more 
 called forth the enthusiasm of her Hungarian sub- 
 jects, who sent swarms of wild troops, horse and 
 foot, to the seat of war. ... On the ist of Sep- 
 tember the three columns met before Prague, which 
 had better defences than in the last campaign, and 
 a garrison of some 16,000 men. . . . During the 
 night of the gth the bombardment commenced . . . 
 and en the i6th the garrison surrendered. Thus, 
 one month after the commencement of the march 
 Prague was captured, and the campaign opened 
 with a brilliant feat of arms." — Col. C. B. Brack- 
 enbury, Frederick the Great, ch. 7. 
 
 Also iU: W. Russell, History 0] modern Europe, 
 pt. 2, letter 28. — F. von Raumer, Contributions to 
 modern history: Fredk. II. and his times, ch. 
 17-19. 
 
 1744-1745. — Frederick's retreat and fresh 
 triumph. — Austria recovers the imperial crown. 
 — Saxony subdued. — Peace of Dresden. — After 
 the reduction of Prague, Frederick, "in deference 
 to the opinion of Marshal Belle-Isle, but against 
 his own judgment, advanced into the south of Bo- 
 hemia with the view of threatening Vienna. He 
 thus exposed himself to the risk of being cut off 
 from Prague. Yet even so he would probably 
 have been able to maintain himself if the French 
 had fulfilled their engagements. But while he was 
 conquering the districts of the Upper Moldau, the 
 Austrian army returned unimpaired from Alsace. 
 The French had allowed it to cross the Rhine un- 
 mohsted, and had not made the slightest attempt 
 to harass its retreat [but applied themselves to the 
 siege and capture of Freiburg]. They were only 
 too glad to get rid of it themselves. In the en- 
 suing operations Frederick was completely out- 
 manoeuvred. Traun [the Austrian general], with- 
 out risking a battle, forced him back towards the 
 Silesian frontier. He had to choose between aban- 
 doning Prague and abandoning his communications 
 with Silesia, and as the Saxons had cut off his 
 retreat through the Electorate, there was really no 
 choice in the matter. So he fell back on Silesia, 
 abandoning Prague and his heavy artillery. The 
 retreat was attended with considerable loss. Fred- 
 erick was much struck with the skill displayed by 
 Traun, and says, in his 'Histoire de mon Temps,' 
 that he regarded this campaign as his school in the 
 art of war and M. de Traun as his teacher. The 
 campaign may have been an excellent lesson in 
 the art of war, but in other respects it was very 
 disastrous to Frederick. He had drawn upon him- 
 self the whole power of Austria, and had learnt 
 how little the French were to be depended upon. 
 His prestige was dimmed by failure, and even in 
 his own army doubts were entertained of his 
 
 capacity. But, bad as his position already was, it 
 became far worse when the unhappy Emperor died 
 [Jan. 20, 1745], worn out with disease and calam- 
 ity. This event put an end to the Union of Frank- 
 fort. Frederick could no longer claim to be acting 
 in defence of his oppressed sovereign ; the ground 
 was cut from under his feet. Nor was there any 
 longer much hope of preventing the Imperial 
 Crown from reverting to Austria. The new Elector 
 of Bavaria was a mere boy. In this altered state 
 of affairs he sought to make peace. But Maria 
 Theresa would not let him off so easily. In order 
 that she might use all her forces against him, she 
 granted peace to Bavaria, and gave back to the 
 young elector his hereditary dominions, 011 condi- 
 tion of his resigning all claim to hers and prom- 
 ising to vote for her husband as Emperor. While 
 Frederick thus lost a friend in Bavaria, Saxony 
 threw herself completely into the arms of his 
 enemy, and united with Austria in a treaty [May 
 18] which had for its object, not the reconquest 
 of Silesia merely, but the partition of Prussia and 
 the reduction of the king to his ancient limits as 
 Margrave of Brandenburg. Saxony was then much 
 larger than it is now, but it was not only the 
 number of troops it could send into the field that 
 made its hostility dangerous. It was partly the 
 geographical position of the country, which made 
 it an excellent base for operations against Prussia, 
 but still more the alliance that was known to 
 subsist between the Elector (King Augustus III. 
 of Poland) and the Russian Court. It was prob- 
 able that a Prussian invasion of Saxony would be 
 followed by a Russian invasion of Prussia. 
 Towards the end of May, the Austrian and Saxon 
 army, 75,000 strong, crossed the Giant Moun- 
 tains and descended upon Silesia. The Austrians 
 were again commanded by Prince Charles, but the 
 wise head of Traun was no longer there to guide 
 him. . . . The encounter took place at Hohenfried- 
 berg [June 5], and resulted in a complete victory 
 for Prussia. The Austrians and Saxons lost 9,000 
 killed and wounded, and 7,000 prisoners, besides 
 66 cannons and 73 flags and standards. Four days 
 after the battle they were back again in Bohemia. 
 Frederick followed, not with the intention of at- 
 tacking them again, but in order to eat the country 
 bare, so that it might afford no sustenance to the 
 enemy during the winter. For his own part he 
 was really anxious for peace. His resources were 
 all but exhausted, while Austria was fed by a 
 constant stream of English subsidies. As in the 
 former war, England interposed with her good 
 offices, but without effect ; Maria Theresa was by 
 no means disheartened by her defeat, and refused 
 to hear of peace till she had tried the chances of 
 battle once more. On Sept. 13 her husband was 
 elected Emperor by seven votes out of nine, the 
 dissentients being the King of Prussia and the 
 Elector Palatine. This event raised the spirits of 
 the Empress-Queen, as Maria Theresa was hence- 
 forward called, and opened a wider field for her 
 ambition. She sent peremptory orders to Prince 
 Charles to attack Frederick before he retired from 
 Bohemili. A battle was accordingly fought at 
 Sohr [Sept. 30], and again victory rested with the 
 Prussians. The season was now far advanced, and 
 Frederick returned home expecting that there 
 would be no more fighting till after the winter. 
 Such, however, was far from being the intention 
 of his enemies." A plan for the invasion of Bran- 
 denburg by three Austrian and Saxon armies, si- 
 multaneously, was secretly concerted ; but Fred- 
 erick had timely warning of it and it was frustrated 
 by his activity and energy. On the 23d of Novem- 
 ber he surprised and defeated Prince Charles at 
 Hennersdorf. "Some three weeks afterwards [Dec. 
 
 693
 
 AUSTRIA, 1744 
 
 foseph II 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1777-1779 
 
 is] the Prince of Dessau defeated a second Saxon 
 and Austrian army at Kesselsdorf , a few miles from 
 Dresden, This victory completed the subjugation 
 of Saxony and put an end to the war. Three days 
 after Kesselsdorf, Frederick entered Dresden, and 
 astonished every one by the graciousness of his 
 behaviour and by the moderation of his terras. 
 From Saxony he exacted no cession of territory, 
 but merely a contribution of 1,000,000 thalers 
 (£150,000) towards the expenses of the war. From 
 Austria he demanded a guarantee of the treaty of 
 Breslau, in return for which he agreed to recognize 
 Francis as Emperor. Peace was signed [at Dres- 
 den] on Christmas Day." — F. \V. Longman, 
 Frederick the Great and the Seven Years War, 
 ch. s. 
 
 Also in: T. Carlyle, History of Frederick 11., bk. 
 15, V. 4, ck. 3-15. — Lord Dover, Lije of Frederick 
 II., bk. 2, V. I, ch. 3-S. 
 
 1744. — War with Sardinia in Italy. See Italy: 
 
 1744- 
 
 1745. — Overwhelming disasters in Italy. See 
 Italy: 1745. 
 
 1745 (May). — Reverses in the Netherlands. — 
 Battle of Fontenoy. See Belgium: 1745. 
 
 1745 (September-October). — Consort of Maria 
 Theresa elected and crowned emperor. — Rise of 
 the new House of Hapsburg-Lorraine. — Francis 
 of Lorraine, grand duke of Tuscany and husband 
 of Maria Theresa, was elected emperor, at Frank- 
 fort, Sept. 13, 174s, and crowned Oct. i, with the 
 title of Francis I. "Thus the Empire returned to 
 the New House of Austria, that of Hapsburg- 
 Lorraine, and France had missed the principal ob- 
 ject for which she had gone to w'ar." By the 
 treaties signed at Dresden, Dec. 25, between Prus- 
 sia, ."Xustria and Saxony, Frederick, as elector of 
 Brandenburg, assented to and recognized the elec- 
 tion of Francis, against which he and the elector 
 palatine had previously protested. — T. H. Dyer, 
 History of modern Europe, bk. 6, v. 3, ch. 4. 
 
 1746-1747. — Further French conquests in the 
 Netherlands. — Lombardy recovered. — Genoa 
 won and lost. See Belgium: 1746-1747; and 
 Italy: 1746-1747. 
 
 1748 (October). — Termination and results of 
 the War of the Succession. See Aix-la-Cha- 
 PELLE, The Congress of. 
 
 1755-1763.— Seven Years' War. See Germany: 
 1755-1756. to 1763; also Seven Years' War. 
 
 1765-1790. — Joseph II, the enlightened despot. 
 — "The prince who best sums up the spirit of the 
 centur>' is not Frederic [the Great, of Prussia], it 
 is Joseph II. [the emperor]. Frederic was born a 
 master, Joseph II. a disciple, and it is by disciples 
 that we judge schools. The king of Prussia 
 dammed up the waters, directed their flow, made 
 use of the current; the emperor cast himself upon 
 them and permitted himself to be carried. With 
 Frederic the statesman always dominates, it is he 
 who proposes and finally decides; the philosopher 
 is subordinate. . . . With Joseph II. rational con- 
 ception precedes political calculation and governs 
 it. He had breadth of mind, but his mind was 
 superficial; ideas slipped from it. He had a taste 
 for generosity, a passion for grandeur; but there 
 was nothing profound in him but ambition, and 
 it was all counter-stroke and reflection. He wished 
 to surpass Frederic ; his entire conduct was but an 
 awkward, imprudent and ill-advised imitation of 
 this prince whom he had made his hero, whom his- 
 tory made his rival and whom he copied while 
 detesting him. The political genius of Frederic 
 was born of pood sense and moderation: there was 
 nothing in Joseph II. but the immoderate. He 
 was a man of systems: he had only great velleities. 
 His education w'as mediocre, and, as to methods, 
 
 entirely Jesuitical. Into this contracted mould he 
 cast confusedly notions hastily borrowed from the 
 philosophers of France, from the economists es- 
 pecially. He thus formed a very vague ideal of 
 political aspirations and an exaggerated sense of 
 the power at his disposition to realize them. 'Since 
 I ascended the throne and have worn the first 
 crown of the world,' wrote he in 1781, 'I have 
 made Philosophy the lawmaker of my empite. Her 
 logical applications are going to transform Austria.' 
 He undertakes reforms in ever>' direction at once. 
 History is null for him, traditions do not count, 
 nor do facts acquired. There is no race, nor 
 period, nor surrounding circumstances: there is 
 the State which is everything and can do every- 
 thing. He writes in 17S3, to the bishop of Stras- 
 bourg: 'In a kingdom governed conformably to 
 ray principles, prejudice, fanaticism, bondage of 
 mind must disappear, and each of my subjects must 
 be reinstated in the possession of his natural 
 rights.' He must have unity, and, as a first con- 
 dition, the rejection of all previous ideas. Chance 
 makes him operate on a soil the most heteroge- 
 neous, the most incoherent, the most cut up, par- 
 celed out and traversed by barriers, that there b 
 in Europe. Nothing in common among his sub- 
 jects, neither language, nor traditions, nor interests. 
 It is from this, according to him, that the defect 
 of monarchy arises. 'The German language is the 
 universal language of my empire. I am the em- 
 peror of Germany, the states which I possess are 
 provinces which form but one body with the 
 State of which I am the head. If the kingdom of 
 Hungary were the most important of my posses- 
 sions, I should not hesitate to impose its tongue on 
 the other countries.' So he imposes the German 
 language on the Hungarians, the Croats, the 
 Tcheques tCzechs], the Poles, on all the Slavs. 
 He suppresses the ancient territorial divisions; 
 they recall the successive agglomerations, the ir- 
 regular alluvions which had formed the monarchy ; 
 he establishes thirteen governments and divides 
 them into circles. The diets disappear ; the gov- 
 ernment passes into the hands of intendants ac- 
 cording to the French formula. In the cities the 
 burgomaster appointed by the government becomes 
 a functionary. The nobles lose the part, already 
 much curtailed, that they still had, here and there, 
 in the government He taxes them, he taxes the 
 ecclesiastics; he meditates establishing a tax pro- 
 portional to incomes and reaching all classes. He 
 protects the peasants, alleviates serfdom, dimin- 
 ishes the corvees, builds hospitals, schools above 
 all, in which the state will form pupils to obey 
 her. His ideal would be the equality of his sub- 
 jects under the uniform sway of his government. 
 He unifies the laws; he institutes courts of appeal 
 with a supreme court for the entire empire. He 
 makes regulations for manufactures, binds com- 
 merce to the most rigorous protective system. Fi- 
 nally he puts a high hand on the church and de- 
 crees tolerance. . . . This immense revolution was 
 accomplished by means of decrees, in less than five 
 years. If we compare the state of cohesion which 
 the Bourbon government had brought about in 
 France in 1780, with the incoherence of the Aus- 
 trian monarchy on the death of Maria Theresa in 
 1780, it will be seen that the revolution which 
 caused the Constituent Assembly was a small mat- 
 ter compared with that which Joseph II. intended 
 to effect."- — A. Sorel, L'Europe et la revolution 
 franfaise (trans, from the French), pt. 1, pp. iig- 
 122. 
 
 1772-1773.— First partition of Poland. See Po- 
 land: 1763-1700. 
 
 1777-1779. — Question of the Bavarian succes- 
 sion. See Bav.\rla: i 777-1 779. 
 
 694
 
 AUSTRIA, 1780 
 
 Wars 
 with France 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1798-1806 
 
 1780. — Armed Neutrality League. See Armed 
 Neutrality. • 
 
 1780-1794. — Contention for control of Luxem- 
 burg. See Luxemburg: 17S0-1914.. 
 
 1782-1790.— Conflict with Pope. See Rome: 
 Modern City: 1782-1790. 
 
 1782-1811.— Abolition of serfdom. See Slav- 
 ery: 1000-1862. 
 
 1783. — Removal of barriers with Netherlands. 
 See Netherlands: 1747-1795. 
 
 1787-1791.— War with the Turks.— Treaty of 
 Sistova. — Slight acquisitions of territory. See 
 Turkey: 17 76- 1792. 
 
 1790-1797.— Death of Joseph II and Leopold 
 II. — Accession of Francis II. — Coalition against 
 and war with revolutionary France, to the 
 peace of Campo Formio. — "It is a mistake to 
 imagine that the European Powers attacked the 
 Revolution in France. It was the Revolution 
 which attacked them. The diplomatists of the 
 i8th century viewed at first with cynical indiffer- 
 ence the meeting of the States-General at Ver- 
 sailles. . . . The two points which occupied the 
 attention of Europe in 1789 were the condition of 
 Poland and the troubles in the East, The ambi- 
 tious designs of Catherine and the assistance lent 
 to them by Joseph threatened the existence of the 
 Turkish Empire, irritated the Prussian Court, and 
 awakened English apprehensions, always sensitive 
 about the safety of Stamboul. Poland, the battle- 
 field of cynical diplomacy, torn by long dissensions 
 and ruined by a miserable constitution, was vainly 
 endeavouring, under the jealous eyes of her great 
 neighbours, to avert the doom impending, and to 
 reassert her ancient claim to a place among the 
 nations of the world. But Russia had long since 
 determined that Poland must be a vassal State to 
 her or cease to be a State at all, while Prussia, 
 driven to face a hard necessity, realised that a 
 strong Poland and a strong Prussia could not exist 
 together, and that if Poland ever rose again to 
 power, Prussia must bid good-bye to unity and 
 greatness. These two questions to the States in- 
 volved seemed to be of far more moment than 
 any political reform in France, and engrossed the 
 diplomatists of Europe until the summer of 1791. 
 In February, 1790, a new influence was introduced 
 into European politics by the death of the Em- 
 peror Joseph and the accession of his brother, 
 Leopold II, Leopold was a man of remarkable 
 ability, no enthusiast and no dreamer, thoroughly 
 versed in the selfish traditions of Austrian policy 
 and in some of the subtleties of Italian statecraft, 
 discerning, temperate, resolute and clear-headed, 
 quietly determined to have his own way, and gen- 
 erally skilful enough to secure it. Leopold found 
 his new dominions in a state of the utmost con- 
 fusion, with war and rebellion threatening him on 
 every side. He speedily set about restoring order. 
 He repealed the unpopular decrees of Joseph. He 
 conciliated or repressed his discontented subjects. 
 He gradually re-established the authority of the 
 Crown. . . . Accordingly, the first eighteen months 
 of Leopold's reign were occupied with his own im- 
 mediate interests, and at the end of that time his 
 success was marked. Catherine's vast schemes in 
 Turkey had been checked. War had been averted. 
 Poland had been strengthened by internal changes. 
 Prussia had been conciliated and outmanoeuvred, 
 and her influence had been impaired. At last, at 
 the end of August, 1791, the Emperor was free to 
 face the French problem, and he set out for the 
 Castle of Pillnitz to meet the King of Prussia and 
 the Emigrant leaders at the Saxon Elector's Court. 
 For some time past the restlessness of the French 
 Emigrants had been causing great perplexity in 
 Europe. Received with open arms by the ecclesi- 
 
 695 
 
 astical princes of the Rhine, by the Electors of 
 
 Mayence and Treves, they proceeded to agitate 
 busily for their own restoration. . . . The object 
 of the Emigrants was to bring pressure to bear at 
 the European Courts, with the view of inducing 
 the Powers to intervene actively in their behalf. 
 . . . After his escape from France in June, 1790, 
 the Comte de Provence established his Court at 
 Coblentz, where he was joined by his brother the 
 Comte d'Artois, and where, on the plea that Louis 
 was a prisoner, he claimed the title of Regent, and 
 assumed the authority of King. The Court of the 
 two French princes at Coblentz represented faith- 
 fully the faults and follies of the Emigrant party. 
 But a more satisfactory spectacle was offered by 
 the camp at Worms, where Conde was bravely 
 trying to organise an army to fight against the 
 Revolution in France. To Conde's standard flocked 
 the more patriotic Emigrants. . . , But the German 
 Princes in the neighbourhood looked with dis- 
 favour on the Emigrant army. [See also Germany: 
 1791-1792.] It caused confusion in their dominions, 
 and it drew down on them the hostility of the 
 French Government. The Emperor joined them 
 in protesting against it. In February, 1792, 
 Conde's army was compelled to abandon its camp 
 at Worms, and to retire further into Germany. 
 The Emperor was well aware of the reckless self- 
 ishness of the Emigrant princes. He had as little 
 sympathy with them as his sister. He did not 
 intend to listen to their demands. If he interfered 
 in France at all, it would only be in a cautious 
 and tentative manner, and in order to save Marie 
 Antoinette and her husband. Certainly he would 
 not undertake a war for the restoration of the 
 Ancien Regime. . . . AccordinElv. the interviews 
 at Pillnitz came to nothing. [See also Pillnitz, 
 Declaration of.] ... Early in March, 1792, Leo- 
 pold suddenly died. His heir Francis, unrestrained 
 by his father's tact and moderation, assumed a 
 different tone and showed less patience. The 
 chances of any efl'cctive pressure from the Powers 
 declined, as the prospect of war rose on the hori- 
 zon. Francis' language was sufficiently sharp to 
 give the Assembly the pretext which it longed for, 
 and on the 20th April, Louis, amid general en- 
 thusiasm, came down to the Assembly and de- 
 clared war against Austria.^ J'he effects of that 
 momentous step no comment can exaggerate. It 
 ruined the best hopes of the Revolution, and pre- 
 pared the way for a military despotism in the 
 future." — C. E. Mallet, French Revolution, ch. 7. 
 See France: 1790-1791; 1791 (July-December); 
 1791-1792; 1792 (April-July), and (September- 
 December); 1792-1793 (December-February); 
 1793 (February-.A.pril), (March-September), and 
 (July-December); 1794 (March-July); 1794-1795 
 (October-May); 1795 (June-December); 1796 
 (April-October); and 1796-1797 (October-April); 
 1797 (.^pril-May). 
 
 1791. — Emperor Leopold's manifesto of Pad- 
 ua. See Padua, Declaration of. 
 
 1794-1796.— Third partition of Poland.— 
 Austrian share of the spoils. See Poland: 1793- 
 1796. 
 
 1795. — Galicia becomes a crown land of Aus- 
 tria. See Galicia. 
 
 1797 (October).— Treaty of Campo-Formio 
 with France.— Cession of the Netherlands and 
 Lombard provinces. — Acquisition of Venice and 
 Venetian territories. See France: 1797 (May- 
 October). 
 
 1798-1806.— Congress of Rastadt.— Second co- 
 alition against France.— Peace of Lun^ville.— 
 Third coalition.— Ulm and Austerlitz.— Peace of 
 Pressburg.- Extinction of the Holy Roman em- 
 pire.— Birth of the empire of Austria.— "When
 
 AUSTRIA, 1798-1806 
 
 Wars 
 with Napoleon 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1798-1806 
 
 Bonaparte sailed for Egypt he had left a congress 
 at Rastadt discussing means for the execution of 
 certain articles in the treaty of Campo Formio 
 which were to establish peace between France and 
 the Empire. . . . Though openiy undertaking to 
 invite the Germans to a congress in order to settle 
 a general peace on the basis oi the integrity '^f 
 the Empire, the Emperor agreed in secret articles 
 to use his influence to procure for the Republic 
 the left bank of the Rhine with the exception of 
 the Prussian provinces, to join with France in ob- 
 taining compensation in Germany for those in- 
 jured by this change, and to contribute no more 
 than his' necessary contingent if the war were pro- 
 longed. The ratification of these secret provisions 
 had been extorted from the Congress by threats 
 before Bonaparte had left; but the question of 
 indemnification had progressed no farther than a 
 decisioi) to secularise the ecclesiastical states for 
 the purpose, when extravagant demands from the 
 French deputies brought negotiation to a dead- 
 lock. Meanwhile, another coalition war had been 
 brewing. Paul I. of Russia had regarded with 
 little pleasure the doings of the Revolution, ancl 
 when his proteges, the knights of St. John of 
 Jerusalem, had been deprived of Malta by Bona- 
 parte on his way to Egypt, when the Directory es- 
 tablished by force of arms a Helvetic republic in 
 Switzerland', when it found occasion to carry off 
 the Pope into exile and erect a Roman republic, 
 he abandoned the cautious and self-seeking policy 
 of Catherine, and cordially responded to Pitt's 
 advances for an alliance. At the same time Tur- 
 key was compelled by the invitation of Egypt to 
 ally itself for once with Russia. Austria, convinced 
 that the French did not intend to pay a fair price 
 for the treaty of Campo Formio, also determined 
 to renew hostilities; and Naples, exasperated by 
 the sacrilege of a republic at Rome, and alarmed 
 by French aggressiveness, enrolled itself in the 
 league. The Neapolitan king, indeed, opened the 
 war with some success, before he could receive 
 support from his allies; but he was soon van- 
 quished by the French, and his dominions were 
 converted into a Parthenopean republic. Austria, 
 on the contrary, awaited the arrival of the Rus- 
 sian forces ; and the general campaign began early 
 in 1709. The French, fighting against such gener- 
 als as the Archduke Charles and the Russian Su- 
 varoff, without the supervision of Carnot or the 
 strategy and enterprise of Bonaparte, suffered se- 
 vere reverses and great privations. Towards the 
 end the Russian army endured much hardship on 
 account of the selfishness of the Austrian cabinet ; 
 and this caused the Tsar, who thought he had 
 other reasons for discontent, to withdraw his troops 
 from the field. When Bonaparte was made First 
 Consul the military position of France was, never- 
 theless, very precarious. . . . The Roman and 
 Cisalpine republics had fallen. The very congress 
 at Rastadt had been dispersed by the approach of 
 the Austrians; and the French emissaries had been 
 sabred by Austrian troopers, though how their 
 insolence came to be thus foully punished has 
 never been clearly explained, .^t this crisis France 
 was rescued from foreign foes and domestic dis- 
 orders by its most successful general. ... In the 
 campaign which followed, France obtained signal 
 satisfaction for its chagrin. Leaving Moreau to 
 carry the war into Germany, Bonapaite suddenly 
 crossed the Alps, and defeated the Austrians on the 
 plain of Marengo. The Austrians, though com- 
 pletely cowed, refrained from concluding a definite 
 peace out of respect for their engagements with 
 England; and armistices, expiring into desultory 
 warfare, prolonged the contest till Moreau laid 
 the way open to Vienna, by winning a splendid 
 
 triumph at Hohenlinden.. A treaty of peace was 
 finally concluded at Luneville, when Francis II. 
 pledged the Empire to its provisions on the ground 
 of the consents already given at Rastadt. In con- 
 formity with the treaty of Campo Formio, Austria 
 retained the boundary of the Adige in Italy ; France 
 kept Belgium and the left bank of the Rhine; and 
 the princes, dispossessed by the cessions, were 
 promised compensation in Germany ; while Tus- 
 cany was given to France to sell to Spain at the 
 price of Parma, Louisiana, six ships of the Hne, 
 and a sum of money. Shortly afterwards peace 
 was extended to Naples on easy terms. . . . The 
 time was now come for the Revolution to complete 
 the ruin of the Holy Roman Empire. Pursuant 
 to the treaty of Luneville, the German Diet met 
 at Ragensburg to discuss a scheme of compensation 
 for the dispossessed rulers. Virtually the meeting 
 was a renewal of the congress of Rastadt. ... At 
 Rastadt the incoherence and disintegration of the 
 vensrable Empire had become painfully apparent. 
 . . . When it was known that the head of the na- 
 tion, who had guaranteed the integrity of the Em- 
 pire jn the preliminaries of Leoben, and had re- 
 newed the assurance when he convoked the as- 
 sembly, had in truth betrayed to the stranger 
 nearly all the left bank of the Rhine — the German 
 rulers greedily hastened to secure every possible 
 trifle in the scramble of redistribution. The slow 
 and wearisome debates were supplemented by in- 
 trigues of the most degraded nature. Conscious 
 that the French Consul could give a casting vote 
 on any disputed question, the princes found no 
 indignity too shameful, no trick too base, to ob- 
 tain his favour. . . . The First Consul, on his side, 
 prosecuted with a duplicity and address, heretofore 
 unequalled, the traditional policy of France in Ger- 
 man affairs. . . . Feigning to take into his coun- 
 sels the young Tsar, whose convenient friendship 
 was thus easily obtained on account of his family 
 connections with the German courts, he drew up 
 a scheme of indemnification and presented it to 
 the Diet for endorsement. In due time a servile 
 assent was given to even,' point which concerned 
 the two autocrats. By this settlement, .Austria and 
 Prussia were more equally balanced against one 
 another, the former being deprived of influence In 
 Western Germany, and the latter finding in more 
 convenient situations a rich recompense for its ces- 
 sions on the Rhine ; while the middle states, Ba- 
 varia, Baden, and Wiirtemberg, received very con- 
 siderable accessions of territory. But if Bonaparte 
 dislocated yet further the political structure of 
 Germany, lie was at least instrumental in remov- 
 ing the worst of the anachronisms which stifled the 
 development of improved institutions among a 
 large division of its people. The same measure 
 which brought German separatism to a climax, 
 also extinguished the ecclesiastical sovereignties and 
 nearly all the free cities. That these strongholds 
 of priestly obscurantism and bourgeois apathy 
 would some day be invaded by their more ambi- 
 tious and active neighbours, had long been appar- 
 ent. . . .\nd war was declared when thousands of 
 British subjects visiting France had already been 
 ensnared and imprisoned . . . Pitt had taken the 
 conduct of the war out of the hands of .^dding- 
 ton's feeble ministry. Possessing the confidence of 
 the powers, he rapidly concluded offensive alliances 
 with Russia, Sweden, and .Austria, though Prus- 
 sia obstinately remained neutral. Thus, by 1805, 
 Napoleon had put to hazard all his lately won 
 power in a conflict with the greater part of Europe. 
 The battle of Cape Trafalgar [1805] crushed for 
 good his maritime power, and rendered England 
 safe from direct attack. The campaign on land, 
 however, made him master of central Europe. 
 
 696
 
 AUSTRIA, 1800-1819 
 
 Wars 
 with Napoleon 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1809-1814 
 
 Bringing the Austrian army in Germany to an 
 inglorious capitulation at Ulm, he marched through 
 Vienna, and, with inferior forces won in his best 
 style the battle of Austerlitz against the troops of 
 Francis and Alexander. The action was decisive. 
 The allies thought not of renewing the war with 
 the relays of troops which were hurrying up from 
 North and South. Russian and Austrian alike 
 wished to be rid of their ill-fated connection. The 
 Emperior Alexander silently returned home, pur- 
 sued only by Napoleon's flattering tokens of es- 
 teem; the Emperor Francis accepted the peace of 
 Pressburg, which deprived his house of the ill- 
 gotten Venetian States, Tyrol, and its more dis- 
 tant possessions in Western Germany ; the King of 
 Prussia, who had been on the point of joining the 
 coalition with a large army if his mediation were 
 unsuccessful, was committed to an alliance with 
 the conqueror by his terrified negotiator. And 
 well did Napoleon appear to make the fruits of 
 victory compensate France for its exertions. The 
 empire was not made more unwieldy in bulk, but 
 its dependents. Bavaria, VVUrtemberg. and Baden, 
 received considerable accessions of territory, and 
 the two first were raised to the rank of kingdoms; 
 while the Emperor's Italian principality, which he 
 had already turned into a kingdom of Italy to the 
 great disgust of Austria, was increased by the ad- 
 ditioi. of the ceded Venetian lands. But the full 
 depth of Europe's humiliation was not experienced 
 till the two following years. In i8o6 an Act of 
 Federation was signed by the kings of Bavaria and 
 Wiirtemberg, the Elector of Baden, and thirteen 
 minor princes, which united them into a league 
 under the protection of the French Emperor. The 
 objects of this confederacy, known as the Rhein- 
 bund were defence against foreign aggression and 
 the exercise of complete autonomy at home. . . . 
 Already the consequences of the Peace of Luneville 
 had induced the ruling Hapsburg to assure his 
 equality with the sovereigns of France and Russia 
 by taking the imperial title in his own right ; and 
 before the Confederation of the Rhine was made 
 public he formally renounced his office of elective 
 Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire and released 
 from allegiance to him all the states and princes of 
 the Reich. The triumph of the German policy of 
 the Consulate was complete." — A. Weir, Historical 
 basis of modern Europe, ch. 4. — See also France: 
 i798-i7qQ, to 1805; and Germany: 1801-1803, to 
 1805-1806. 
 
 1800-1819. — Development of suffrage. — Badeni 
 law. See Suffrage, Manhood: Austria. 
 
 1809-1814. — Second struggle with Napoleon 
 and the second defeat. — Marriage alliance. — 
 Germanic War of Liberation. — Final alliance 
 and the overthrow of Napoleon. — "On the i2tb 
 of July, 1806, fourteen princes of the south and 
 west of Germany united themselves into the con- 
 federation of the Rhine, and recognised Napoleon 
 as their protector. On the ist of August, they 
 signified to the diet of Ratisbon their separation 
 from the Germanic body. The Empire of Germany 
 ceased to exist, and Francis 11. abdicated the title 
 by proclamation. By a convention signed at 
 Vienna, on the isth of December, Prussia ex- 
 changed the territories of Anspach, Cleves and 
 Neufchatel for the electorate of Hanover. Napo- 
 leon had all the west under his power. Absolute 
 master of France and Italy, as emperor and king, 
 he was also master of Spain, by the dependence 
 of that court; of Naples and Holland, by his two 
 brothers; of Switzerland, by the act of mediation; 
 and in Germany he had at his disposal the kings 
 of Bavaria and Wiirtemberg, and the confedera- 
 tion of the Rhine against Austria and Prussia. . . . 
 This encroaching progress gave rise to the fourth 
 
 coalition. Prussia, neutral since the peace of Bale, 
 had, in the last campaign, been on the point of 
 joining the Austro-Russian coalition. The rapid- 
 ity of the emperor's victories had alone restrained 
 her; but now, alarmed at the aggrandizement of 
 the empire, and encouraged by the line condi- 
 tion of her troops, she leagued with Russia to 
 drive the French from Germany. . . . The cam- 
 paign opened early in October. Napoleon, as 
 usual, overwhelmed the coalition by the prompti- 
 tude of his marches and the vigour of his meas- 
 ures. On the 14th of October, he destroyed at 
 Jena the military monarchy of Prussia by a de- 
 cisive victory. . . . The campaign in Poland was 
 less rapid, but as briUiant as that of Prussia. 
 Russia, for the third time, measured its strength 
 with France. Conquered at Zurich and Auster- 
 litz, it was also defeated at Eylau and Friedland. 
 After these memorable battles, the emperor Alex- 
 ander entered into a negotiation, and concluded 
 at Tilsit, on the 21st of June, 1807, an armistice 
 which was followed by a definitive treaty on the 
 7th of July. The peace of Tilsit extended the 
 French domination on the continent. Prussia was 
 reduced to half its extent. In the south of Ger- 
 many, Napoleon had instituted the two kingdoms 
 of Bavaria and Wiirtemberg against Austria; fur- 
 ther to the north, he created the two feudatory 
 kingdoms of Saxony and Westphalia against Prus- 
 sia. ... In order to obtain universal and uncon- 
 tested supremacy, he made use of arms against 
 the continent, and the cessation of commerce 
 against England. But in forbidding to the con- 
 tinental states all communication with England, 
 he was preparing new difficulties for himself, and 
 soon added to the animosity of opinion excited 
 by his despotism, and the hatred of states pro- 
 duced by his conquering domination, the ex- 
 asperation of private interests and commercial suf- 
 fering occasioned by the blockade. . . . The ex- 
 pedition of Portugal in 1807, and the invasion 
 of Spain in 1808, began for him and for Europe 
 a new order of events. . . . The reaction mani- 
 fested itself in three countries, hitherto allies 
 of France, and it brought on the fifth coalition. 
 The court of Rome was dissatisfied; the peninsula 
 was wounded in its national pride by having 
 imposed upon it a foreign king; in its usages, by 
 the suppression of convents, of the Inquisition, 
 and of the grandees; Holland suffered in its com- 
 merce from the blockade, and Austria supported 
 impatiently its losses and subordinate condition. 
 England, watching for an opportunity to revive 
 the struggle on the continent, excited the re- 
 sistance of Rome, the peninsula, and the cabinet 
 of Vienna. . . . Austria . . . made a powerful ef- 
 fort, and raised 550,000 men, comprising the Land- 
 wehr, and took the field in the spring of i8og. 
 The Tyrol rose, and King Jerome was driven 
 from his capital by the Westphalians; Italy 
 wavered ; and Prussia only waited till Napoleon 
 met with a reverse, to take arms; but the em- 
 peror was still at the height of his power and 
 prosperity. He hastened from Madrid in the 
 beginning of February, and directed the members 
 of the confederation to keep their contingents in 
 readiness. On the 12 th of April he left Paris, 
 passed the Rhine, plunged into Germany, gained 
 the victories of Eckmiihl and Essling, occupied 
 Vienna a second time on the 15th of May, and 
 overthrew this new coalition by the battle of Wag- 
 ram, after a campaign of four months. . . . The 
 peace of Vienna, of the nth of October, 1809, de- 
 prived the house of Austria of several more 
 provinces, and compelled it again to adopt the 
 continental system. . . . Napoleon, who seemed to 
 follow a rash but inflexible policy, deviated from 
 
 697
 
 AUSTRIA, 1809-1814 
 
 Overthrow 
 of Napoleon 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1815-1835 
 
 his course about this time by a second marriage. 
 He divorced Josephine that he might give an 
 heir to the empire, and married, on the ist of 
 April, iSio, Marie-Louise, arch-duchess of Aus- 
 tria. This was a decided error. He quitted his 
 position and his post as a parvenu and revolution- 
 ary monarch, opposing in France the ancient courts 
 as the republic had opposed the ancient govern- 
 ments. He placed himself in a false situation 
 with respect to Austria, which he ought either 
 to have crushed after the victory of Wagram, or 
 to have reinstated in its possessions after his mar- 
 riage with the arch-duchess. . . . The birth, on 
 the 2oth of March, 1811, of a son, who re- 
 ceived the title of king of Rome, seemed to con- 
 solidate the power of Napoleon, by securing to 
 him a successor. The war in Spain was prose- 
 cuted with vigour during the years 1810 and 
 181 1. . . . While the war was proceeding in the 
 peninsula with advantage, but without any de- 
 cided success, a new campaign was preparing in 
 the north. Russia perceived the empire of Na- 
 poleon approaching its territories. . . . About the 
 close of 1810, it increased its armies, renewed its 
 commercial relations with Great Britain, and did 
 not seem indisposed to a rupture. The year 1811 
 was spent in negotiations which led to nothing, 
 and preparations for war were made on both 
 sides. ... On the gth of March, Napoleon left 
 Paris. . . . During several months he fixed his 
 court' at Dresden, where the emperor of Austria, 
 the king of Prussia, and all the sovereigns of 
 Germany, came to bow before his high fortune. 
 On the 22nd of June, war was declared against 
 Russia. . . . Napoleon, who, according to his cus- 
 tom, wished to finish all in one campaign, ad- 
 vanced at once into the heart of Russia, instead 
 of prudently organizing the Polish barrier against 
 it. His army amounted to about 500,000 men. 
 He passed the Niemen on the 24th of June; took 
 Wilna, and VVitepsk, defeated the Russians at 
 Astrowno, Polotsk, Mohilow Smolensko, at the 
 Moskowa, and on the 14th of September, made 
 his entry into Moscow. . . . Moscow was burned 
 by its governor. . . . The emperor ought to have 
 seen that this war would not terminate as the 
 others had done; yet, conqueror of the foe, and 
 master of his capital, he conceived hopes of peace 
 which the Russians skilfully encouraged. Winter 
 was approaching, and Napoleon prolonged his stay 
 at Moscow for six weeks. He delayed his move- 
 ments on account of the deceptive negotiations 
 of the Russians; and did not decide on a re- 
 treat till the I gth of October. This retreat was 
 disastrous, and began the downfall of the empire. 
 . . . The cabinet of Berlin began the defections. 
 On the ist of March, 1S13, it joined Russia and 
 England, W'hich were forming the si.xth coalition. 
 Sweden acceded to it soon after ; .yet the emperor, 
 whom the confederate power thought prostrated by 
 the last disaster, opened the campaign with new 
 victories. The battle of Lutzen, won by con- 
 scripts, on the 2nd of May, the occupation of 
 Dresden ; the victory of Bautzen, and the war 
 carried to the Elbe, astonished the coalition. Aus- 
 tria, which, since 1810, had been on a footing of 
 peace, was resuming arms, and already meditating 
 a change of alliance. She now propored herself 
 as a mediatri.x between the emperor and the con- 
 federates. Her mediation was accepted; an armis- 
 tice was concluded at Pleswitz, on the 4th of 
 June, and a congress assembled at Prague to 
 negotiate peace. It was impossible to come to 
 terms. . . . Austria joined the coalition, and war, 
 the only means of settling this great contest, was 
 resumed. The emperor had only 280,000 men 
 agamst 520,000. . . . Victory seemed, at first, to 
 
 second him. At Dresden he defeated the com- 
 bined forces; but the defeats of his lieutenants 
 deranged his plans. . . . The princes of the con- 
 federation of the Rhine chose this moment to 
 desert the cause of the empire. .^ vast engagement 
 having taken place at Leipsic between the two 
 armies, the Saxons and Wiirterabergers passed over 
 to the enemy on the field of battle. This de- 
 fection to the strength of the coalesced povjers, 
 who had learned a more compact and skilful mode 
 of warfare, obliged Napoleon to retreat, after a 
 struggle of three days. . . . The empire was in- 
 vaded in all directions. The Austrians entered 
 Italy; the English, having made themselves mas- 
 ters of the peninsula during the last two years, 
 had passed the Bidassoa, under General Welling- 
 ton, and appeared on the Pyrenees. Three armies 
 pressed on France to the east and north. . . . 
 Napoleon was . . . obliged to submit to the con- 
 ditions of the allied powers; their pretensions in- 
 creased w'th their power. ... On the nth of 
 April, 1S14, he renounced for himself and children 
 the thrones of France and Italy, and received in 
 exchange for his vast sovereignty, the limits of 
 which had extended from Cadiz to the Baltic 
 Sea, the little island of Elba." — F. .A.. Mignet, His- 
 tory of the French revolution, ch. 15. See Ger- 
 many: i8oq (January-June), to 1813; Russia: 
 1812; and Fr.^nxe; 1810-1812 to 1S14. 
 
 1812. — Extent of empire in Europe. — Region of 
 Napoleon's campaign. See Europe: Modern: 
 Map of Central Europe in 1812. 
 
 1814. — Restored rule in northern Italy. See 
 Italy: 1814; 1814-1815. 
 
 1814-1815. — Occupation of Lyons. See Lyons: 
 19th century. 
 
 1814-1815. — Treaties of Paris and Congress of 
 Vienna. — Readjustment of French boundaries. — 
 Recovery of the Tyrol from Bavaria and Lom- 
 bardy in Italy. — Acquisition of the Venetian 
 states. See Fr.\nce; 1S14 (April-June), and 1815 
 (June-August) ; also Viex.va, Tue Congress of. 
 
 1814-1820. — Formation of the Germanic con- 
 federation. See Germany: 1814-1820; Vienna, 
 Congress of. 
 
 1815. — Holy Alliance. See Holy Allunce. 
 
 1815. — Return of Napoleon from Elba. — Quad- 
 ruple Alliance. — Waterloo campaign and its re- 
 sults.— War against Murat in Naples. See Aix- 
 la-Chapelle: Conference of Aix-la-Chapelle ; and 
 France: 1804-1815; 1815 (June); It.\ly: (South- 
 ern): 1815. 
 
 1815 (January 3).— Secret treaty with France 
 and England in defense of Paris. See Vienna, 
 
 Co.VGRESS OF. 
 
 1815-1835. — Emperor Francis, Prince Metter- 
 nich, and "the system." — "After the treaty of 
 Vienna in 1809, and still more conspicuously after 
 the pacification of Europe, the political wisdom 
 of the rulers of Austria inclined them ever more 
 and more to the maintenance of that state of 
 things which was known to friends and foes as 
 the Systern. But what was the System? It was 
 the organisation of do-nothing. It cannot even 
 be said to have been reactionary: it was simply 
 inactionary. . . . 'Mark time in place' was the 
 word of command in ever>' government office. The 
 bureaucracy was engaged from morning to night 
 in making work, but nothing ever came of it. 
 Not even were the liberal innovations which had 
 lasted through the reign of Leopold got rid of. 
 Everything went on in the confused, unfinished, 
 and ineffective state in which the great war had 
 found it. Such was the famous System which 
 was venerated by the ultra-Tories of every land, 
 and most venerated where it was least understood. 
 Two men dominate the history of Austria during 
 
 698
 
 AUSTRIA, 1815-1835 
 
 "System" 
 of Metternich 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1815-1846 
 
 this unhappy time — men who, though utterly un- 
 like in character and intellect, were nevertheless 
 admirably fitted to work together, and whose 
 names will be long united in an unenviable 
 notoriety. These were the Emperor Francis and 
 Prince Metternich. The first was the evil genius 
 of internal politics; the second exercised a hardly 
 less baneful influence over foreign affairs. . . . For 
 the external policy of Prince Metternich, the first 
 and most necessary condition was, that Austria 
 should give to Europe the impression of fixed 
 adherence to the most extreme Conservative views. 
 So for many years they worked together, Prince 
 Metternich always declaring that he was a mere 
 tool in the hands of his master, but in reality 
 far more absolute in the direction of his own 
 department than the emperor was in his. . . . 
 Prince Metternich had the power of making the 
 meet of all he knew, and 'constantly left upon 
 persons of real merit the impression that he was 
 a man of lofty aspirations and liberal views, who 
 forced himself to repress such tendencies in others 
 because he thought that their repression was a 
 sine qua non for Austria. The men of ability, who 
 knew him intimately, thought less well of him. 
 To them he appeared vain and superficial, with 
 much that recalled the French noblesse of the 
 old regime in his way of looking at things, and 
 emphatically wanting in every element of great- 
 ness. With the outbreak of the Greek insurrec- 
 tion in 1S21, began a period of difficulty and com- 
 plications for the statesmen of Austria. There 
 were two things of which they were mortally 
 afraid — Russia and the revolution. Now, if they 
 assisted the Greeks, they would be playing into 
 the hands of the second; and if they opposed 
 the Greeks, they would be likely to embroil them- 
 selves with the first. The whole art of Prince 
 Metternich was therefore exerted to keep things 
 quiet in the Eastern Peninsula, and to postpone 
 the intolerable 'question d' Orient.' Many were 
 the shifts he tried, and sometimes, as just after 
 the accession of Nicholas, his hopes rose very 
 high. All was, however, in vain. England and 
 Russia settled matters behind his back ; and al- 
 though the tone which the publicists in his pay 
 adopted towards the Greeks became more favour- 
 able in 1826-7, the battle of Navarino was a sad 
 surprise and mortification to the wily chancellor. 
 Not less annoying was the commencement of hos- 
 tilities on the Danube between Russia and the 
 Porte. The reverses with which the great neigh- 
 bour met in his first campaign cannot have been 
 otherwise than pleasing at Vienna. But the unfor- 
 tunate success which attended his arms in the 
 second campaign soon turned ill-dissembled joy 
 into ill-concealed sorrow, and the treaty of Adrian- 
 ople at once lowered Austria's prestige in the 
 East, and deposed Metternich from the command- 
 ing position which he had occupied in the coun- 
 cils of the Holy Allies. It became, indeed, ever 
 more and more evident in the next few years that 
 the age of Congress politics, during which he 
 had been the observed of all observers, was past 
 and gone, that the diplomatic period had van- 
 ished away, and that the miUtary period had be- 
 gun. The very form in which the highest inter- 
 national questions were debated was utterly 
 changed. At Vienna, in 1814, the diplomatists 
 had been really the primary, the sovereigns only 
 secondary personages; while at the interview of 
 Mijnchengriitz, between Nicholas and the Em- 
 peror Francis, in 1833, the great autocrat ap- 
 peared to look upon Prince Metternich as hardly 
 more than a confidential clerk. The dull monotony 
 of servitude which oppressed nearly the whole of 
 the empire was varied by the agitations of one 
 
 of its component parts. When the Hungarian 
 Diet was dissolved in 1812, the emperor had 
 solemnly promised that it should be called together 
 again within three years. Up to 1815, accordingly, 
 the nation went on giving extraordinary levies and 
 supplies without much opposition. When, how- 
 ever, the appointed time was fulfilled, it began 
 to murmur. . . . Year by year the agitation went 
 on increasing, till at last the breaking out of the 
 Greek revolution, and the threatening appearance 
 of Eastern politics, induced Prince Metternich to 
 join his entreaties to those of many other coun- 
 sellors, who could not be suspected of the slightest 
 leaning to constitutional views. At length the 
 emperor yielded, and in 1825 Pressburg was once 
 more filled with the best blood and most active 
 spirits of the land, assembled in parliament. Long 
 and stormy were the debates which ensued. Bitter 
 was, from time to time, the vexation of the em- 
 peror, and great was the excitement throughout 
 Hungary. In the end, however, the court of 
 Vienna triumphed. Hardly any grievances were 
 redressed, while its demands were fully conceded. 
 The Diet of 1825 was, however, not without 
 fruit. The discussion which took place advanced 
 the political education of the people, who were 
 brought back to the point where they stood at 
 the death of Joseph II. — that is, before the long 
 wars with France had come to distract their at- 
 tention from their own affairs. . . . The slumbers 
 of Austria were not yet over. The System ■ 
 dragged its slow length along. Little or nothing 
 was done for the improvement of the country. 
 Klebelsberg administered the finances in an easy and 
 careless manner. Conspiracies and risings in Italy 
 were easily checked, and batches of prisoners sent 
 off from time to time to Mantua or Spielberg. 
 Austrian influence rose ever higher and higher 
 in all the petty courts of the Peninsula. ... In 
 other regions Russia or England might be will- 
 ing to thwart him, but in Italy Prince Metter- 
 nich might proudly reflect that Austria was in- 
 deed a 'great power.' The French Revolution of 
 1S30 was at first alarming; but when it resulted 
 in the enthronement of a dynasty which called 
 to its aid a 'cabinet of repression,' all fears were 
 stilled. The Emperor Francis continued to say, 
 when any change was proposed, 'We must sleep 
 upon it,' and died in 1835 in 'the abundance of 
 peace.'"- — M. E. Grant Duff, Studies in European 
 politics, pp. 140-149. — See also Germany: 1819- 
 1847. 
 
 1815-1846. — Gains of the Hapsburg monarchy. 
 — Its aggressive absolutism. — Death of Fran- 
 cis I. — Accession of Ferdinand I. — Suppression 
 of revolt in Galicia. — Extinction and annexation 
 of the republic of Cracow. — -"In the new partition 
 of Europe, arranged in the Congress of Vienna 
 [see Vienna, The Congress of], Austria received 
 Lombardy and Venice under the title of a Lom- 
 bardo-Venetian kingdom, the lUyrian provinces 
 also as a kingdom, Venetian Dalmatia, the Tirol, 
 Vorarlberg, Salzburg, the Innviertel and Hausrucks- 
 viertel, and the part of Galicia ceded by her at 
 an earlier period. Thus, after three and twenty 
 years of war, the monarchy had gained a 
 considerable accession of strength, having ob- 
 tained, in lieu of its remote and unprofitable pos- 
 sessions in the Netherlands, territories which con- 
 solidated its power in Italy, and made it as great 
 in extent as it had been in the days of Charles 
 VI., and far more compact and defensible. The 
 grand duchies of Modena, Parma, and Placentia, 
 were moreover restored to the collateral branches 
 of the house of Hapsburg. . . . After the last 
 fall of Napoleon . . . the great powers of the con- 
 tinent . . . constituted themselves the champions 
 
 699
 
 AUSTRIA, 1815-1846 
 
 Absolutism 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1815-1849 
 
 of the principle of absolute monarchy. The 
 maintenance of that principle ultimately became 
 the chief object of the so-called Holy Alliance 
 established in 1816 between Russia. Austria and 
 Prussia, and was pursued with remarkable stead- 
 fastness by the Emperor Francis and his min- 
 ister. Prince Metternich [see Holv Alliance]. . . . 
 Thenceforth it became the avowed policy of the 
 chief sovereigns of Germany to maintain the 
 rights of dynasties in an adverse sense to those 
 of their subjects. The people, on the other hand, 
 deeply resented the breach of those promises which 
 had been so lavishly made to them on the gen- 
 eral summons to the war of liberation. Disaffec- 
 tion took the place of that enthusiastic loyalty 
 with which they had bled and suffered for their 
 native princes; the secret societies, formed with 
 the concurrence of their rulers, for the purpose 
 of throwing off the yoke of the foreigner, be- 
 came ready instruments of sedition. ... In the 
 winter of iSiq, a German federative congress as- 
 sembled at Vienna. In May of the following year 
 it published an act containing closer definitions 
 of the Federative Act. having for their essential 
 objects the exclusion of the various provincial 
 Diets from all positive interference in the general 
 affairs of Germany, and an increase of the power 
 of the princes over their respective Diets, by a 
 guarantee of aid on the part of the confederates" 
 (see Germany: 1814-1820). During the next three 
 ' years, the powers of the Holy .Mliance, under 
 the lead of Austria, and acting under a concert 
 established at the successive congresses of Trop- 
 pau, Laibach and X'erona (see Verona, Congress 
 of), interfered to put down popular risings against 
 the tyranny of government in Italy and Spain, 
 while they discouraged the revolt of the Greeks 
 (see Italy: 1820-1821; and Spain: 1814-1827). 
 "The commotions that pervaded Europe after the 
 French Revolution of 1830 affected ,\ustria only 
 in her Italian dominions, and there but indirectly, 
 for the imperial authority remained undisputed in 
 the Lombardo-\'enetian kingdom. But the duke 
 of Modena and the archduke of Parma were 
 obliged to quit those states, and a formidable in- 
 surrection broke out in the territory of the Church 
 An .Austrian army of 18.000 men quickly put down 
 the insurgents, who rose again, however, as soon 
 as it was withdrawn. The pope again invoked 
 the aid of .Austria, whose troops entered Bologna 
 in January, 1832. and established themselves there 
 in garrison. Upon this, the French immediately 
 sent a force to occupy Ancona, and for a while a 
 renewal of the oft-repeated conflict between .Aus- 
 tria and France on Italian ground seemed in- 
 evitable; but it soon appeared that France was 
 not prepared to support the revolutionary party 
 in the pope's dominions, and that danger passed 
 away. The French remained for some years in 
 Ancona, and the .Austrians in Bologna and other 
 towns of Romagna. This was the last important 
 incident in the foreign affairs of .Austria previous 
 to the death of the Emperor Francis I. on the 2nd 
 of March. 183S, after a reign of 43 years. . . The 
 Emperor Francis was succeeded by his son. 
 Ferdinand I., whose accession occasioned no change 
 in the political or administrative system of the 
 empire. Incapacitated, by physical and mental 
 infirmity, from labouring as his father had done 
 in the business of the state, the new monarch left 
 to Prince Metternich a much more unrestricted 
 power than that minister had wielded in the pre- 
 ceding reign. . . . The province of Galicia began 
 early in the new reign to occasion uneasiness to 
 the government. The Congress of Vienna had con- 
 stituted the city of Cracow an independent re- 
 public — a futile representative of that Polish na- 
 
 tionality which had once extended from the Baltic 
 to the Black Sea. After the failure of the Polish 
 insurrection of 1831 against Russia, Cracow be- 
 came the focus of fresh conspiracies, to put an end 
 to which the city was occupied by a mixed force 
 of Russians, Prussians, and .Austrians ; the two 
 former were soon withdrawn, but the latter re- 
 mained until 1840. When they also had retired, 
 the Polish propaganda was renewed with consid- 
 erable effect. .An insurrection broke out in Galicia 
 in 1846. when the scantiness of the .Austrian mill 
 tary JForce in the province seemed to promise it 
 success. It failed, however, as all previous el- 
 forts of the Polish patriots had failed, because it 
 rested on no basis of popular sympathy. The 
 nationality for which they contended had ever 
 been of an oligarchical pattern, hostile to the free 
 dom of the middle and lower classes. The Ga 
 lician peasants had no mind to exchange the yoke 
 of .Austria, which pressed lightly upon them, for 
 the feudal oppression of the Polish nobles. They 
 turned upon the insurgents and slew or took 
 them prisoners, the police inciting them to the 
 work by publicly offering a reward of five florins 
 for every suspected person delivered up by them, 
 alive or dead. Thus the agents of a civilized gov- 
 ernment became the avowed instigators of an 
 inhuman 'jacquerie ' The houses of the landed 
 proprietors were sacked by the peasants, their in- 
 mates were tortured and murdered, and bloody an. 
 archy raged throughout the land in the prostituted 
 name of loyalty. The .Austrian troops at last re- 
 stored order; but Szela. the leader of the sanguinar\' 
 marauders, was thanked and highly rewarded 
 in the name of his sovereign. In the same year 
 the three protecting powers, .Austria. Russia, and 
 Prussia, took possession of Cracow, and, ignoring 
 the right of the other parties to the treaty of 
 X'ienna to concern themselves about the fate of 
 the republic, they announced that its independence 
 was annulled, and that the city and territory of 
 Cracow were annexed to. and forever incorporated 
 with, the .Austrian monarchy. From this time 
 forth the political atmosphere of Europe became 
 more and more loaded with the presages of the 
 storm that burst in 1848." — W K. Kelly. Continua- 
 lion of Core's history of the House of Austria, cli 
 5-6. See Germany: Map; .After the Congress of 
 Vienna. 
 
 1815-1849. — Arrangements in Italy of the Con- 
 gress of Vienna. — Heaviness of the Austrian 
 yoke. — Italian risings. — "By the treaty of Xienna 
 (1815). the . . . entire kingdom of \'enetian-Lom- 
 bardy was handed over to the .Austrians; the 
 duchies of Modena, Reggio. with Massa and Car- 
 rara, given to .Austrian princes; Parma. Piacenza. 
 and Guastalla to Napoleon's queen. Marie Luisa. 
 because she was an .Austrian princess; the grand- 
 duchy of Tuscany to Ferdinand III of Austria; 
 the duchy of Lucca to a Bourbon. Rome and the 
 Roman states were restored to the new Pope. 
 Pius \'II.; Sicily was united to Naples under the 
 Bourbons, and later deprived of her constitution, 
 despite the promised protection of England; the 
 Canton Ticino. though strictly Italian, anne.ited 
 to the Swiss Confederation; the little republic of 
 San Marino left intact, even as the principality 
 of Monaco. England retained Malta ; (Corsica was 
 left to France. Italy, so Metternich and Europe 
 fondly hoped, was reduced to a geographical ex- 
 pression. Unjust, brutal, and treacherous as was 
 that partition, at least it taught the Italians 
 that 'who would be free himself must strike the 
 blow.' It united them into one common hatred 
 of Austria and .Austrian satellites. By .substitut- 
 ing papal. .Austrian, and Bourbon despotism for 
 the free institutions, codes, and constitutions of 
 
 / 
 
 00
 
 AUSTRIA, 1816 
 
 Revolt of 
 Frankfort Assembly 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1848-1849 
 
 the Napoleonic era, it taught them the difference 
 between rule and misrule. Hence the demand 
 of the Neapolitans during their first revolution 
 (1820) was for a constitution; that of the Pied- 
 montese and Lombards (1821) for a constitution 
 and war against Austria. The Bourbon swore 
 and foreswore, and the Austrians 'restored order' 
 in Naples, The Piedmontese, who had not con- 
 certed their movement until Naples was crushed 
 — after the abdication of Victor Emmanuel I., the 
 granting of the constitution by the regent Charles 
 .Albert, and its abrogation by the new king Charles 
 Fcli.x — saw the .Austrians enter Piedmont, while 
 I he leaders of the revolution went out into exile 
 I see Italy: 1820-1821]. But those revolutions and 
 those failures were the beginning of the end. The 
 will to be independent of all foreigners, the thirst 
 for freedom, was universal; the very name of 
 empire or of emperor, was rendered ridiculous, re- 
 duced to a parody — in the person of Ferdinand of 
 Austria. But one illusion remained — in the liberat- 
 ing virtues of France and the French ; this had to 
 be dispelled by bitter experience, and for it sub- 
 stituted the new idea of one Italy for the Italians, 
 a nation united, independent, free, governed by 
 a president or by a king chosen by the sovereign 
 people. The apostle of this idea, to which for 
 fifty years victims and martyrs were sacrificed 
 by thousands, was Joseph Mazzini; its champion, 
 Joseph Garibaldi. By the genius of the former, 
 the prowess of the latter, the abnegation, the con- 
 stancy, the tenacity, the iron will of both, all the 
 populations of Italy were subjugated by that idea: 
 philosophers demonstrated it, poets sung it, pious 
 Christian priests proclaimed it, statesmen found it 
 confronting their negotiations, baffling their half- 
 measures." — J. W. V. Mario, Introduction to auto- 
 biography of Garibaldi. See Italy: 1830-1832, 
 and 1848-1849; World War: Causes; Indirect: 
 b, 1. 
 
 1816. — National bank established. See Money 
 AND Banking: i7th-ioth centuries. 
 
 1821. — Troops moved into Naples and Sicily. 
 — Restoration of Ferdinand. See Verona, Con- 
 gress OE. 
 
 1835. — Accession of the Emperor Ferdinand I. 
 
 1839-1840. — Turko-Egyptian question and its 
 settlement. — Quadruple Alliance. See Turkey: 
 183 1 -1840. 
 
 1848. — Germanic revolutionary rising. — Na- 
 tional Assembly at Frankfort. — Archduke John 
 elected administrator of Germany. — "When the 
 third French Revolution broke out, its influence 
 was immediately felt in Germany. The popular 
 movement this time was very different from any 
 the Governments had hitherto had to contend 
 with. The people were evidently in earnest, and 
 resolved to obtain, at whatever cost, their chief 
 demands. , . . The Revolution was most serious in 
 the two great German States, Prussia and Aus- 
 tria. ... It was generally hoped that union as 
 well as freedom was now to be achieved by Ger- 
 many; but, as Prussia and Austria were in too 
 much disorder to do anything, about 500 Germans 
 from the various States met at Frankfurt, and on 
 March 21 constituted themselves a provisional Par- 
 liament. An extreme party wished the assembly 
 to declare itself permanent ; but to this the ma- 
 jority would not agree. It was decided that a 
 National Assembly should be elected forthwith 
 by the German people. The Confederate Diet, 
 knowing that the provisional Parliament was ap- 
 proved by the nation, recognized its authority. 
 Through the Diet the various Governments were 
 communicated with, and all of them agreed to 
 make arrangements for the elections. . . . The Na- 
 tional Assembly was opened in Frankfurt on May 
 
 18, 1848. It elected the Archduke John of Austria 
 as the head of a new provisional central Gov- 
 ernment, The choice was a happy one. The 
 Archduke was at once acknowledged by the dif- 
 ferent governments, and on July 12 the President 
 of the Confederate Diet formally made over to 
 him the authority which had hitherto belonged to 
 the Diet. The Diet then ceased to exist. The 
 .Archduke chose from the Assembly seven mem- 
 bers, who formed a responsible ministry. The 
 .Assembly was divided into two parties, the Right 
 and the Left. These again were broken up into 
 various sections. Much time was lost in useless 
 discussions, and it was soon suspected that the 
 Assembly would not in the end prove equal to 
 the great task it had undertaken." — J. Sime, His- 
 tory of Germany, cit. 10, sects. 8-11. See Ger- 
 many: 1848 (March-September). 
 
 1848 (December). — Accession of the emperor 
 Francis Joseph I. 
 
 1848-1849. — Revolutionary risings. — Bombard- 
 ment of Prague and Vienna. — Abdication of the 
 Emperor Ferdinand. — Accession of Francis Jo- 
 seph. — The Hungarian struggle for indepen- 
 dence. — "The rise of national feeling among the 
 Hungarian, Slavonic, and Italian subjects of the 
 House of Hapsburg was not the only difficulty of 
 the Emperor Ferdinand I. Vienna was then the 
 gayest and the dearest centre of fashion and luxury 
 in Europe, but side by side with wealth there 
 seethed a mass of wretched poverty ; and the pro- 
 tective trade system of Austria so increased the 
 price of the necessaries of life that bread-riots 
 were frequent. . . . The university students were 
 foremost in the demand for a constitution and for 
 the removal of the rigid censorship of the press 
 and of all books. So, when the news came of the 
 flight of Louis Philippe from Paris [see France: 
 1841-1848, and 1848] the students as well as the 
 artisans of Vienna rose in revolt (March 13, 1848), 
 the latter breaking machinery and attacking the 
 houses of unpopular employers. A deputation 
 of citizens clamoured for the resignation of the 
 hated Metternich; his house was burnt down, and 
 he fled to England. .A second outbreak of the 
 excited populace (May 15, 1848), sent the Emperor 
 Ferdinand in helpless flight to Innsbruck in Tyrol; 
 but he returned when they avowed their loyalty 
 to his person, though they detested the old bureau- 
 cratic system. Far more complicated, however, 
 were the race jealousies of the Empire. The Slavj 
 of Bohemia . . . had demanded of Ferdinand the 
 union of Bohemia, Moravia, and Austrian Silesia 
 in Estates for those provinces, and that the Slavs 
 should enjoy equal privileges with the Germans. 
 After an unsatisfactory answer had been received, 
 they convoked a Slavonic Congress at Prague. . . . 
 But while this Babel of tongues was seeking for 
 a means of fusion. Prince Windischgratz was as- 
 sembling Austrian troops around the Bohemian 
 capital. Fights in the streets led to a bombard- 
 ment of the city, which Windischgratz soon en- 
 tered in triumph. This has left a bitterness be- 
 tween the Tsechs or Bohemians and the Germans 
 which still divides Bohemia socially and politically. 
 . . . The exciting news of the spring of 1848 had 
 made the hot Asiatic blood of the Magyars boil; 
 yet even Kossuth and the democrats at first only 
 demanded the abolition of Metternich's system in 
 favour of a representative government. . . . Un- 
 fortunately Kossuth claimed that the Magyar laws 
 and language must now be supreme, not only in 
 Hungary proper, but also in the Hungarian 'crown 
 lands' of Dalmatia, Croatia, and Slavonia, and the 
 enthusiastic Magyars wished also to absorb the 
 ancient principality of Transylvania ; but this again 
 was stoutly resisted by the Roumanians, Slavs, and 
 
 701
 
 AUSTRIA, 1848-1849 
 
 Hungarian Struggle 
 for Independence 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1848-1850 
 
 Saxons of that little known corner of Europe, 
 and their discontent was fanned by the court of 
 \'ienna. Jellachich, the Ban or Governor of 
 Croatia, headed this movement, which aimed at 
 making Agram the capital of the southern Slavs. 
 Their revolt against the Hungarian ministry of 
 Batthyany was at first disavowed in June, 1848, 
 but in October was encouraged, by the perfidious 
 government of Vienna. A conference between 
 Batthyany and Jellachich ended with words of 
 defiance: 'Then we must meet on the Drave,' 
 said the Hungarian. 'No, on the Danube,' re- 
 torted the champion of the Slavs. The vacil- 
 lating Ferdinand annulled his acceptance of the 
 new Hungarian constitution and declared Jellachich 
 dictator of Hungary. His tool was unfortunate. 
 After crossing the Drave, the Slavs were defeated 
 by the brave Hungarian 'honveds' (defenders) ; 
 and as many as q.ooo were made prisoners. Un- 
 able to subdue Hungary, Jellachich turned aside 
 towards V'ienna to crush the popular party there. 
 For the democrats, exasperated by the perfidious 
 policy of the government, had, on October 6, 184S, 
 risen a third time: the war-minister, Latour, had 
 been hanged on a lamp-post, and the emperor 
 again fled from his turbulent capital to the ever- 
 faithful Tyrolese. But now Jellachich and 
 Windischgratz bombarded the rebellious capital. 
 It was on the point of surrendering when the 
 Hungarians appeared to aid the city ; but the levies 
 raised by the exertions of Kossuth were this 
 time outmanoeuvred [and defeated] by the im- 
 perialists at Schwechat (October 30, 1848), and 
 on the next day Vienna surrendered. Blum, a 
 delegate from Saxony [to the German Parliament 
 of Frankfort, who had come on a mission of 
 mediation to Vienna, but who had taken a part 
 in the fighting], and some other democrats, were 
 shot. By this clever but unscrupulous use of race 
 jealousy the Viennese Government seemed to have 
 overcome Bohemians, Italians, Hungarians, and the 
 citizens of its own capital in turn ; while it had 
 diverted the southern Slavonians from hostility 
 to actual service on its side. . . . The weak health 
 and vacillating spirit of Ferdinand did not satisfy 
 the knot of courtiers of Vienna, who now, flushed 
 by success, sought to concentrate all power in the 
 Viennese Cabinet. Worn out by the excitements 
 of the year and by the demands of these men, 
 Ferdinand, on December 2, 1848, yielded up the 
 crown, not to hi.s rightful successor, his brother, 
 but to his nephew, Francis Joseph. He, a youth 
 of eighteen, ascended the throne so rudely shaken, 
 and ... in spite of almost uniform disaster in 
 war, [ruled till 1916] over an empire larger and 
 more powerful than he found it in 1848. The 
 Hungarians refused to recognise the young sovereign 
 thus forced upon them; and the fact that he was 
 not crowned at Pressburg with' the sacred iron 
 crown of St. Stephen showed that he did not 
 intend to recognise the Hungarian constitution. 
 Austrian troops under Windischgratz entered Buda- 
 Pesth, but the Hungarian patriots withdrew from 
 their capital to organise a national resistance; 
 and when the Austrian Government proclaimed the 
 Hungarian constitution abolished and the complete 
 absorption of Hungary in the Austrian Empire, 
 Kossuth and his colleagues retorted by a Declara- 
 tion of Independence (.\pril 24, 1840). The House 
 of Hapsburg was declared banished from Hungary, 
 which was to be a republic. Kossuth, the first 
 governor of the new republic, and Gorgei, its 
 general, raised armies which soon showed their 
 prowess." The first important battle of the war 
 had been fou.ght at Kapolna, on the .right bank 
 of the Theiss, on February 26, 1840, Gorgei and 
 Dembinski commanding the Hungarians and 
 
 Windischgratz leading the Austrians. The latter 
 won the victory, and the Hungarians retreated to- 
 ward the Theiss. About the middle of March, 
 Gorgei resumed the offensive, advancing toward 
 Pesth, and encountered the Austrians at Isaszeg, 
 where he defeated them in a hard-fought battle, 
 — or rather in two battles which are sometimes 
 called by dift'erent names: viz., that of . . . Bieske 
 . . . and that of Godbllo [in April]. It was 
 now the turn of the .Austrians to fall back, and 
 they concentrated behind the Rakos, to cover 
 Pesth. The Hungarian general passed round their 
 left, carried Waitzen by storm, forced them to 
 evacute Pesth and to retreat- to Pressburg, abandon- 
 ing the whole of Hungary with the exception of 
 a few fortresses, which they held. The most 
 important of these fortresses, that of Buda, the 
 "twin-city," opposite Pesth on the Danube, was 
 besieged by the Hungarians and carried by storm 
 on May 21. "In Transylvania, too, the Hun- 
 garians, under the talented Polish general Bern, 
 overcame the Austrians, Slavonians, and Roumani- 
 ans in many brilliant encounters. But the proc- 
 lamation of a republic had alienated those Hun- 
 garians who had only striven for their old 
 constitutional rights, so quarrels arose between 
 Gorgei and the ardent democrat, Kossuth. Worse 
 still, the Czar Nicholas, dreading the formation 
 of a republic near his Polish provinces sent the 
 military aid which Francis Joseph in May 1849 
 implored. Soon 80,000 Russians under Paskie- 
 witch poured over the northern Carpathians to 
 help the beaten Austrians, while others overpowered 
 the gallant Bem in Transylvania. Jellachich with 
 his Croats again invaded South Hungary, and 
 Haynau, the scourge of Lombardy, marched on 
 the strongest Hungarian fortress, Komorn, on the 
 Danube." The Hungarians, overpowered by the 
 combination of Austrians and Russians against 
 them, were defeated at Pered, June 21; at Acs, 
 July 3; at Komorn, July 11; at Waitzen, July 
 16; at Samobor, July 20; at Segesvar, July 31; 
 at Debreczin, August 2; at Szegedin, August 4; at 
 Temesvar, August 10. "In despair Kossuth handed 
 over his dictatorship to his rival Gorgei, who 
 soon surrendered at Vilagos with all his forces 
 to the Russians (.August 13, 1S40). About 5,000 
 men with Kossuth, Bem, and other leaders, escaped 
 to Turkey. Even there Russia and Austria sought 
 to drive them forth ; but the Porte, upheld by 
 the Western Powers, maintained its right to give 
 sanctuary according to the Koran. Kossuth and 
 many of his fellow-exiles finally sailed to Eng- 
 land [and afterw'ards to America], where his 
 majestic eloquence aroused deep sympathy for 
 the afflicted country. Many Hungarian patriots 
 suffered death. .All rebels had their property con- 
 fiscated, and the country was for years ruled 
 by armed force, and its old rights were abolished." 
 — J. H. Rose, Century of continental history, ch. 
 31. — See also Hung.«y: 1847-1840. 
 
 Also in: Sir A. Alison, History of Europe, 
 181S-1852, ck. SS-— A. Gorgei, My life and acts in 
 Hungary. — General Klapka, Memoirs of the War 
 of Independence in Hungary. — Count Hartig, 
 Genesis of the revolution in Austria. — W. H. Stiles, 
 Austria in 1S4S-40. 
 
 1848-1849. — Revolt in Lombardy and Venetia. 
 — War with Sardinia. — Victories of Radetzky. — 
 Italy vanquished again. See It.alv: 1848-1849; 
 World W.\r: Causes: Indirect: b; b, 3. 
 
 1848-1850.— Failure of the movement for Ger- 
 manic national unity. — End of the Frankfort 
 assembly. — "Frankfort had become the centre of 
 the movement. The helpless Diet had acknowl- 
 edged the necessity of a German parliament, and 
 had summoned twelve men of confidence charged 
 
 702
 
 AUSTRIA, 1849-1859 
 
 Bureaucracy 
 Triumphant 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1856-1859 
 
 with drawing up a new imperial constitution. But 
 it was unable to supply what was most wanted — 
 a strong executive. . . . Instead of establishing 
 before all a strong executive able to control and 
 to realise its resolutions, the Assembly lost months 
 in discussing the fundamental rights of the Ger- 
 man people, and thus was overhauled by the 
 events. In June, Prince Windischgratz crushed 
 the insurrection at Prague; and in November the 
 anarchy which had prevailed during the whole 
 summer at Berlin was put down, when Count 
 Brandenburg became first minister. . . . Schwar- 
 zenberg [at Vienna] declared as soon as he had 
 taken the reins, that his programme was to main- 
 tain the unity of the Austrian empire, and de- 
 manded that the whole of it should enter into 
 the Germanic confederation. This was incompati- 
 ble with the federal state as contemplated by the 
 National Assembly, and therefore Gagern, who had 
 become president of the imperial ministry [at 
 Frankfort], answered Schwarzenberg's programme 
 by declaring that the entering of the Austrian 
 monarchy with a majority of non-German na- 
 tionalities into the German federal state was an 
 impossibility. Thus nothing was left but to place 
 the king of Prussia at the head of the German 
 state. But in order to win a majority for this 
 plan Gagern found it necessary to make large 
 concessions to the democratic party, amongst others 
 universal suffrage. This was not calculated to 
 make the offer of the imperial crown acceptable 
 to Frederic William IV., but his principal reason 
 for declining it was, that he would not exercise 
 any pressure on the other German sovereigns, and 
 that, notwithstanding Schwarzenberg's haughty 
 demeanour, he could not make up his mind to 
 exclude Austria from Germany. After the re- 
 fusal of the crown by the king, the National 
 Assembly was doomed; it had certainly committed 
 great faults, but the decisive reason of its failure 
 was the lack of a clear and resolute will in Prus- 
 sia. History, however, teaches that great enter- 
 prises, such as it was to unify an empire dis- 
 membered for centuries, rarely succeed at the first 
 attempt. The capital importance of the events of 
 1848 was that they had made the German unionist 
 movement an historical fact; it could never be 
 effaced from the annals, that all the German 
 governments had publicly acknowledged that 
 tendency as legitimate, the direction for the future 
 was given, and even at the time of failure it was 
 certain, as Stockmar said, that the necessity of 
 circumstances would bring forward the man who, 
 profiting by the experiences of 1S48, would fulfd 
 the national aspirations." — F. H. Geffcken, Unity 
 of Germany (English Historical Review, Apr., 
 iSqi). See Germ.^ny: 1848-1S50. 
 
 1849-1859. — Return to pure absolutism. — 
 Bureaucracy triumphant. — "The two great gains 
 which the moral earthquake of 1848 iDrought to 
 Austria were, that through wide provinces of the 
 Empire, and more especially in Hungary, it swept 
 away the sort of semi-vassalage in which the 
 peasantry had been left by the Urbarium of Maria 
 Theresa [an edict which gave to the peasants 
 the right of moving from place to place, and the 
 right of bringing up their children as they wished, 
 while it established in certain courts the trial of 
 all suits to which they were parties], and other 
 reforms akin to or founded upon it, and intro- 
 duced modern in the place of middle-age relations 
 between the two extremes of society. Secondly, 
 it overthrew the policy of do-nothing — a surer 
 guarantee for the continuance of abuses than even 
 the determination, which soon manifested itself 
 at headquarters, to make the head of the state 
 more absolute than ever. After the taking of 
 
 Vienna by Windischgratz, the National Assembly 
 had, on the 15th of November 1848, been removed 
 from the capital to the small town of Kremsier, 
 in Moravia. Here it prolonged an ineffective ex- 
 istence till March 1849, when the court camarilla 
 felt itself strong enough to put an end to an 
 inconvenient censor, and in March 1849 it ceased 
 to exist. A constitution was at the same time 
 promulgated which contained many good pro- 
 visions, but which was never heartily approved 
 by the ruling powers, or vigorously carried into 
 effect — the proclamation of a state of siege in 
 many cities, and other expedients of authority in 
 a revolutionary period, easily enabling it to be 
 set at naught. The successes of the reaction in 
 other parts of Europe, and, above all, the coup 
 d'etat in Paris, emboldened Schwartzenberg to 
 throw off the mask; and on the last day of 1851 
 Austria became once more a pure despotism. The 
 young emperor had taken 'Viribus unitis' for his 
 motto ; and his advisers interpreted those words 
 to moan that Austria was henceforth to be a 
 state as highly centralised as France — a state in 
 which the minister at Vienna was absolutely to 
 govern everything from Salzburg to the Iron Gate. 
 The hand of authority had been severely felt 
 in the prerevolutionary period, but now advantage 
 was to be taken of the revolution to make it felt 
 far more than ever. In Hungary, for example, . . . 
 it was fondly imagined that there would be no 
 more trouble. The old political division into 
 counties was swept away; the whole land was 
 divided into five provinces; and the courtiers might 
 imagine that from henceforth the Magyars would 
 be as easily led as the inhabitants of Upper Aus- 
 tria. These delusions soon became general, but 
 they owed their origin partly to the enthusiastic 
 ignorance of those who were at the head of the 
 army, and partly to two men" — Prince Schwart- 
 zenberg and Alexander Bach. Of the latter, the 
 "two leading ideas were to cover the whole em- 
 pire with a German bureaucracy, and to draw 
 closer the ties which connected the court of Vienna 
 with that of Rome. ... If absolutism in Austria 
 had a fair trial from the 31st of December 1851 
 to the Italian war, it is to Bach that it was 
 owing; and if it utterly and ludicrously failed, 
 it is he more than any other man who must bear 
 the blame. Already, in 1840, the bureaucracy had 
 been reorganised, but in 1852 new and stricter 
 regulations were introduced. Everything was de- 
 termined by precise rules — even the exact amount 
 of hair which the employe was permitted to wear 
 upon his face. Hardly any question was thought 
 sufficiently insignificant to be decided upon the 
 spot. The smallest matters had to be referred to 
 Vienna. . . . We can hardly be surprised that the 
 great ruin of the Italian war brought down with a 
 crash the whole edifice of the reaction." — M. E. G. 
 Duff, Studies in European politics, ch. 3. 
 
 Also in: L. Leger, History of Austria-Hungary, 
 ch. ii. 
 
 1850-1860. — Transfer of Galicia to Polish no- 
 bles. — Sufferings of Ukrainians. See Ukraine: 
 1795-1860. 
 
 1853. — Commercial Treaty with the German 
 ZoUverein. See Tariff: 1853-1870. 
 
 1853-1856.— Attitude in the Crimean War. See 
 Russia: 1853-1854, to 1854-1856. 
 
 1856. — Relations to European Commission for 
 navigation of Danube. See Danube: 1850-1916. 
 
 1856-1859. — War in Italy with Sardinia and 
 France. — Reverses at Magenta and Solferino. — 
 Peace of Villafranca. — Surrender of Lombardy. 
 — "From the wars of 1848-9 the King of Sardinia 
 was looked upon by the moderate party as the 
 champion of Italian freedom. Charles Albert had 
 
 703
 
 AUSTRIA, 1856-1859 
 
 War with Italy 
 Seven Weeks' War 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1862-1866 
 
 failed: yet his son would not, and indeed could 
 not, go back, though, when he began his reign, 
 there were many things against him. Great ef- 
 forts were made to win him over to the Austrian 
 party, but the King was neither cast down by 
 defeat and distrust nor won over by soft words. 
 He soon showed that, though he had been forced 
 to make a treaty with Austria, yet he would not 
 cast in his lot with the oppression of Italy. He 
 made Massimo d'Azeglio his chief Minister, and 
 Camillo Benso di Cavour his Minister of Com- 
 merce. With the help of these two men he hon- 
 estly carried out the reforms which had been 
 granted bv his father, and set new ones on foot. 
 . The ' quick progress of reform frightened 
 Count Massimo d'Azeglio. He retired from office 
 in 185^, and his place was taken by Count Cavour, 
 who made a coalition with the democratic party 
 in Piedmont headed by Urbano Rattazzi. The 
 new chief Minister began to work not only for the 
 good of Piedmont but for Italy at large. The 
 Milanese still listened to the hopes which Mazzini 
 held out, and could not quietly bear their sub- 
 jection. Count Cavour indignantly remonstrated 
 with Radetzky for his harsh government. . . . The 
 division and slavery of Italy had shut her oiit 
 from European politics. Cavour held that, if 
 .she was once looked upon as an useful ally, then 
 her deliverance might be hastened by foreign in- 
 terference. The Sardinian army had been brought 
 into good order by Alfonso della Marmora; and 
 was ready for action. In 1855, Sardinia made al- 
 liance with England and France, who were at 
 war with Russia: for Cavour looked on that power 
 as the great support of the system of despotism 
 on the Continent, and held that it was necessary 
 for Italian freedom that Russia should be humbled. 
 The Sardinian army was therefore sent to the 
 Crimea, under La Marmora, where it did good 
 service in the battle of Tchernaya. . . . The next 
 year the Congress of Paris was held to arrange 
 terms of peace between the allies and Russia, and 
 Cavour took the opportunity of laying before the 
 representatives of the European powers thu un- 
 happy state of his countrymen. ... In Decern- 
 ber, 185 1, Louis Napoleon Buonaparte, the Presi- 
 dent of the French Republic, seized the govern- 
 ment, and the next year took the title of Emperor 
 of the French. He was anxious to weaken the 
 power of ."Xustria, and at the beginning of 1850 
 it became evident that war would soon break out. 
 .As a sign of the friendly feeling of the French 
 Emperor towards the Italian cause, his cousin. 
 Napoleon Joseph, married Clotilda, the daughter 
 of \'ictor Emmanuel. Count Cavour now declared 
 that Sardinia would make war on Austria, unless 
 a separate and national government was granted 
 to Lombardy and V'enetia, and unless Austria 
 promised to meddle no more with the rest of 
 Italy. On the other hand, Austria demanded the 
 disarmament of Sardinia. The King would not 
 listen to this demand, and France and Sardinia 
 declared war against Austria. The Emperor Na- 
 poleon declared that he would free Italy from 
 the .Alps to the .Adriatic. . . . The .Austrian army 
 crossed the Ticino, but was defeated by the King 
 and General Cialdini. The French victory of 
 Magenta, on June 4lh forced the .Austrians to re- 
 treat from Lombardy. ... On June 24th the Aus- 
 trians, who had crossed the Mincio, were de- 
 feated at Solferino by the allied armies of France 
 and Sardinia. It seemed as though the French 
 Emperor would keep his word. But he found 
 that if he went further, Prussia would take up 
 the cause of .Austria, and that he would have 
 to fight on the Rhine as well as on the .Adige. 
 When, therefore, the French army came before 
 
 Verona, a meeting was arranged between the two 
 Emperors. This took place at Villafranca, and 
 there Buonaparte, without consulting his ally, 
 agreed with Francis Joseph to favour the estab- 
 lishment of an Italian Confederation. . . . Austria 
 gave up to the King of Sardinia Lombardy to 
 the west of Mincio. But the Grand Duke of Tus- 
 cany and the Duke of Modena were to return 10 
 their States. The proposed Confederation was 
 never made, for the people of Tuscany, Modena, 
 Parma, and Romagna sent to the King to pray that 
 they might be made part of his Kingdom, and 
 Victor Emmanuel refused to enter on the scheme 
 of the French Emperor. In return for allowing 
 the Italians of Central Italy to shake off the 
 yoke. Buonaparte asked for Savoy and Nizza, . . . 
 The King . . . consented to give up the 'glorious 
 cradle of his Monarchy' in exchange for Central 
 Italy."— W. .A. Hunt, History of Italy, ch. 11. 
 
 Also in: J. W. Probyn, Italy from 1815 to 
 1800, ck. Q-io. — C. de Mazade, Life of Count 
 Cai'oiir, ch. 2-7. — See also Italy: 1856-185Q, and 
 1850-1S61. 
 
 1860. — Constitutional development, — "The di- 
 ploma of October 20, i860, the price paid by 
 the government for the disasters of the Ital'an 
 war, was a turning point in .Austrian constitu- 
 tional history. By it the number of provincial 
 representatives in the Reichsrat was increased to 
 one hundred, and that body was given a share 
 in imperial legislation. The Patent of February 
 26, 1 86 1, completed the development of the Reichs- 
 rat into a full-fledged, national Parliament, with 
 an appointive House of Lords, and a Chamber of 
 Deputies of 343 members, elected by the provincial 
 Landtags. The government of .Austria-Hungary 
 was no longer a feudal despotism, but a constitu- 
 tional monarchy, at least in the Tory sense." — C. 
 Sevmour and D. P. Frary, How the world votes, 
 P- 56. 
 
 1862-1866. — Schleswig-Holstein question. — 
 Quarrel with Prussia. — Humiliating Seven 
 Weeks' War. — Conflict with Prussia grew out of 
 the complicated Schleswig-Holstein question, re- 
 opened in 1802 and provisionally settled by a 
 delusive arrangement between Prussia and .Austria, 
 into which the latter was artfully drawn by Prince 
 Bismarck. (See Denmark: 1S4S-1862; and Ger- 
 many: 1S61-1866). No sooner was the war with 
 Denmark over, than "Prussia showed that it was 
 her intention to annex the newly acquired duchies 
 to herself. This .Austria could not endure, and 
 accordingly, in 1866, war broke out between Aus- 
 tria and Prussia. Prussia sought alliance with 
 Italy, which she stirred up to attack .Austria in 
 her Italian possessions. The .Austrian army de- 
 feated the Italian at . . . [Custozza (see Italy: 
 1862-1866)]; but the fortunes of war were against 
 them in Germany. .Allied with the .Austrians were 
 the Saxons, the Bavarians, the WUrtembergers, 
 Baden and Hesse, and Hanover The Prussians ad- 
 vanced with their chief army into Bohemia with 
 the utmost rapidity, dreading lest the Southern 
 allies should march north to Hanover, and cut 
 the kingdom in half, and push on to Berlin. The 
 Prus-sians had three armies, which were to enter 
 Bohemia and effect a junction. The Elbe army 
 under the King, the first army under Prince Fred- 
 erick Charles, and the second army under the 
 Crown Prince. The Elbe army advanced across 
 Saxony by Dresden. The first army was in Lusatia, 
 at Reichenberg, and the second army in Silesia 
 at Heisse. They were all to meet at Gitschin. 
 The .Austrian army under General Benedek was at 
 Kbniggriitz. in Eastern Bohemia. ... .As in the 
 wars with Napoleon, so was it now; the .Austrian 
 generals . . . never did the right thing at the right 
 
 704
 
 AUSTRIA, 1866 
 
 Ausiro-Hungarian 
 Empire 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1866-1867 
 
 moment. Benedek did indeed march against the 
 first army, but too late, and when he found it 
 was already through the mountain door, he re- 
 treated, and so gave time for the three armies to 
 concentrate upon him.- The Elbe army and the 
 first met at Miinchengratz, and defeated an Aus- 
 trian army there, pushed on, and drove them back 
 out of Gitschin on Koniggratz. . . . The Prussians 
 pushed on, and now the Elbe army went to Smidar, 
 and the first army to Horzitz, whilst the second 
 army, under the Crown Prince, was pushing on, 
 and had got to Gradlitz. The little river Bistritz 
 is crossed by the righ road bo Koniggratz. It 
 runs through swamp ground, and forms little 
 marshy pools or lakes. To the north of Konig- 
 gratz a little stream of much the same character 
 dribbles through bogs into the Elbe. . . . But 
 about Chlum, Nedelist and Lippa is terraced high 
 ground, and there Benedek planted his cannon. 
 The Prussians advanced from Smidar against the 
 left wing of the Austrians, from Horzitz against 
 the centre, and the Crown Prince was to attack 
 the right wing. The battle began on the 3d of 
 July, at 7 o'clock in the morning, by the simul- 
 taneous advance of the Elbe and the first army 
 upon the Bisitritz. At Sadowa is a wood, and 
 there the batble raged most fiercely. . . . Two 
 things were against the Austrians; first, the in- 
 competence of their general, and, secondly, the in- 
 feriority of their guns. The Prussians had what 
 are called needle-guns, breach-loaders, which are 
 fired by the prick of a needle, and for the rapidity 
 with which they can be fired far surpassed the 
 old-fashioned muzzle-loaders used by the Austrians. 
 After this great battle, which is called by the 
 French and English the battle of Sadowa (Sadowa, 
 not Sadowa, as it is erroneously pronounced), but 
 which the Germans call the battle of Koniggratz, 
 the Prussians marched on Vienna, and reached the 
 Marchfeld before the Emperor Francis Joseph 
 would come to terms. At last, on the 23d of 
 August, a peace which gave a crushing preponder- 
 ance in Germany to Prussia, was concluded at 
 Prague." — S. Baring-Gould, Sto-ry of Germany, 
 pp. 390-304. See Germany: 1866. 
 
 1866. — War in Italy. — Loss of Venetia. See 
 Italy: 1862-1S66. 
 
 1866-1867. — Concession of nationality to Hun- 
 gary. — Formation of the dual Austro-Hungarian 
 empire. — "For twelve years the name of Hungary, 
 as a State, was erased from the map of 
 Europe. Bureaucratic Absolutism ruled supreme in 
 Austria, and did its best to obliterate all Hungar- 
 ian institutions. Germanisation was the order of 
 the day, the German tongue being declared the 
 exclusive language of official hfe as well as of the 
 higher schools. Government was carried on by 
 means of foreign, German, and Czech officials. No 
 vestige was left, not only of the national inde- 
 pendence, but either of Home Rule or of self- 
 government of any sort ; the country was divided 
 into provinces without regard for historical tra- 
 ditions; in short, an attempt was made to wipe 
 out every trace denoting the existence of a sepa- 
 rate Hungary. All ranks and classes opposed a 
 sullen passive resistance to these attacks against 
 the existence of the nation; even the sections of 
 the nationalities which had rebelled against the 
 enactments of 1848, at the instigation of the re- 
 actionary Camarilla, were equally disaffected in 
 consequence of the short-sighted policy of des- 
 potical centralisation. . . . Finally, after the col- 
 lapse of the system of Absolutism in consequence 
 of financial disasters and of the misfortunes of the 
 Italian War of 1859, the Hungarian Parliament 
 was again convoked; and after protracted nego- 
 tiations, broken off and resumed again, the im- 
 
 practicability of a system of provincial Federal- 
 ism having been proved in the meantime, and the 
 defeat incurred in the Prussian War of 1866 hav- 
 ing demonstrated the futility of any reconstruc- 
 tion of the Empire of Austria in which the na- 
 tional aspirations of Hungary were not taken into 
 due consideration — an arrangement was concluded 
 under the auspices of Francis Deak, Count An- 
 drassy, and Count Beust, on the basis of the full 
 acknowledgment of the separate national existence 
 of Hungary, and of the continuity of its legal 
 rights. The idea of a centralised Austrian Em- 
 pire had to give way to the dual Austro-Hunga- 
 rian monarchy. . . , [a] federation of two equal 
 States, under the common rule of a single sov- 
 ereign, the Emperor of Austria and King of Hun- 
 gary, each of the States having a constitution, gov- 
 ernment, and parliament of its own, Hungary es- 
 pecially retaining, with slight modifications, its 
 ancient institutions remodelled in 1848. The ad- 
 ministration of the foreign policy, the management 
 of the army, and the disbursement of the expendi- 
 ture necessary for these purposes, were settled upon 
 as common affairs of the entire monarchy, for the 
 management of which common ministers were in- 
 stituted, responsible to the two delegations, co- 
 equal committees of the parliaments of Hungary 
 and of the Cisleithanian (Austrian) provinces. 
 Elaborate provisions were framed for the smooth 
 working of these common institutions, for giving 
 weight to the constitutional influence, even in mat- 
 ters of common policy, of the separate Cisleithan- 
 ian and Hungarian ministries, and for rendering 
 their responsibility to the respective Parliaments 
 an earnest and solid reality. The financial ques- 
 tions pending in the two independent and equal 
 States were settled by a compromise ; measures were 
 taken for the equitable arrangement of all mat- 
 ters which might arise in relation to interests 
 touching both States, such as duties, commerce, 
 and indirect taxation, all legislation on these sub- 
 jects taking place by means of identical laws sep- 
 arately enacted by the Parliament of each State. 
 . . . Simultaneously with these arrangements the 
 political differences between Hungary and Croatia 
 were compromised by granting provincial Home 
 Rule to the latter. . . . Thus the organisation of 
 the Austro-Hungarian monarchy on the basis of 
 dualism, and the compromise entered into be- 
 tween the two halves composing it, whilst uniting 
 for the purposes of defence the forces of two 
 States of a moderate size and extent into those of 
 a great empire, able to cope with the exigencies of 
 an adequate position amongst the first-class Powers 
 of Europe, restored also to Hungary its indepen- 
 dence and its unfettered sovereignty in all internal 
 matters." — A. Pulszky, Hungary (National Life 
 and Thought, lecture 3). — "The Ausgleich (q.v.) 
 or agreement with Hungary, was arranged by a 
 committee of 67 members of the Hungarian diet, 
 at the head of whom was the Franklin of Hungary, 
 Francis Deak, the true patriot and inexorable le- 
 gist, who had taken no part in the revolutions but 
 who had never given up one of the smallest of 
 the rights of his country. ... On the 8th of June 
 [1867], the emperor Francis Joseph was crowned 
 with great pomp at Pesth. On the 28th of the 
 following June, he approved the decisions of the 
 diet, which settled the position of Hungary with 
 regard to the other countries belonging to his 
 majesty, and modified some portions of the laws 
 of 1848. . . . Since the Ausgleich the empire has 
 consisted of two parts. . . . For the sake of clear- 
 ness, political language has been increased by the 
 invention of two new terms, Cisleithania and 
 Transleithania, to describe the two groups, sep- 
 arated a little below Vienna by a small affluent of 
 
 705
 
 AUSTRIA, 1866-1877 
 
 Badeni's 
 Language Decrees 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1897 
 
 the Danube, called the Leitha— a stream which 
 never expected to become so celebrated."— L. Leger, 
 History of Aitstro-Hungary, ch. 35 —See also Hun- 
 gary: '1856-1868. 
 
 Also in: Francis Deak, A Memon, ch 26-31 — 
 Count von Beust, Memoirs, v. 2. ch: 38— L. Felber- 
 mann, Hungarv and its people, ch. 5. _ 
 
 1866-1877.— interest in Rumanian indepen- 
 dence. See RuM.^Nn: 1866-IQ14. 
 
 1868.— Rule of Galicia.— Autonomy and lan- 
 guage question. See Poland; 1867-1910. 
 
 1869-1883.— Parochial poor relief abolished. 
 See Charities: .\ustria and Hungary: i783-i9oq_ 
 
 1873. — Government control of telegraphs. See 
 Telegraphs and telephones: 1873: Austria-Hun- 
 gary. 
 
 1878.— Occupation of Bosnia-Herzegovina.— 
 Treaty of Berlin. See Bosnia-Herzegovina: 1878; 
 and Turkey: 1878, 
 
 1881 —Attitude at international conference on 
 bimetallism standard. See Money and banking: 
 Modern: 1867-18Q3. . 
 
 1883.— Establishment of Postal Savings Bank. 
 See Postal savings banks. 
 
 1884-1907.— Social legislation. See Social 
 betterment: Austria; Charities; Austria. 
 
 1889 (January 30).— Tragedy of Myerling.— 
 Death of the Archduke Rudolph, only son of 
 the Emperor Francis Joseph.— Various conflicting 
 reports have appeared during the past thirty years 
 as to the manner in which the heir-apparent to 
 the Austro-Hungarian thrones met his death m 
 the hunting lodge at Meyerling, near Vienna. The 
 official and generally accepted theory points to 
 suicide; other accounts declare that the archduke 
 and the young Baroness Vecsera (or Vetsera) were 
 slain. Perhaps the most recent version is that 
 published by H. Vivian, "Francis Joseph and his 
 court" (iQi7)- 
 
 1893-1900. — Race jealousies and conflicts.— 
 Curtailment of the power of the Germans in 
 Austria.— Ministry of Badeni.— Enlarged fran- 
 chise.— Count Badeni's language decrees for 
 Bohemia.— Its effect on Austrian constitutional 
 history.— "While the Monarch thus showed him- 
 self alive to the importance of maintaining dy- 
 nastic rights in Hungary, he succeeded in .\ustria 
 in reducing the Germans to a position compara- 
 tively commensurate with their numerical strength. 
 The process of reduction naturally caused race 
 friction, since almost every advantage obtained 
 by the non-Germans implied some loss to vested 
 German interests and to German predominance in 
 the Bureaucracy. Taaffe, the Emperor's chief 
 agent in the execution of this policy, fell in 1893 
 in an attempt to fulfil the Imperial wish that, as 
 3 means of curtailing the power of German cliques 
 and corporations, a certain section of the Aus- 
 trian Chamber should be elected by universal suf- 
 frage. Three years later Badeni, a Pole, who suc- 
 ceeded Taaffe,' actually introduced a universal suf- 
 frage section, or Curia, of seventy-two deputies 
 into the Austrian system of franchise— a proceed- 
 ing which shows how tenaciously the Emperor, as 
 head of the dynasty, clung to the idea of enfran- 
 chising and using the masses for dynastic pur- 
 poses. But Badeni, in his eagerness to strengthen 
 the Slav position, imprudently issued ministerial 
 ordinances to establish the administrative equality 
 of the Czech language with German throughout Bo- 
 hemia. [See also Bohemia: 1848-1897.] There- 
 upon the Germans revolted and obstructed all par- 
 liamentary business until the language ordinances 
 were withdrawn. The Emperor, yielding to the 
 pressure of a popular agitation in Vienna, hur- 
 riedly dismissed Badeni, and, after German in- 
 
 dignation had found vent in a pseudo-Protestant, 
 anti-Hapsburg movement, known by its catch- 
 word, 'Los von Rom!' ultimately sanctioned the 
 withdrawal of the ordinances. The rapidity with 
 which the Los von Rom!- movement subsided as 
 soon as its Pan-German, anti-Hapsburg character 
 became apparent, and the growth of a loyal Ger- 
 man 'Christian Social' party under Lueger, speed- 
 ily demonstrated the power of the dynasty even 
 over iLs German subjects; but a not less important 
 feature of the crisis was the gradual establishment 
 of 'constitutional absolutism' by the abuse or elas- 
 tic use of the Clause 14, the 'Emergency Para- 
 graph' of the 1867 Constitution. Unspeakably 
 tiresome as were the vicissitudes of the conflict 
 arising out of Badeni's Language Ordinances, they 
 marked a turning-point in Austrian Constitutional 
 historv. Under the influence of parliamentary ob- 
 struction, carried on by the Germans until the or- 
 dinances were withdrawn and, after their with- 
 drawal, bv the Slavs of Bohemia, the Government 
 emploved with increasing frequency the 'Emer- 
 gency Paragraph' for the despatch of public busi- 
 ness. Austrian Parliamentarism was gradually 
 turned into a svstcm under which, on the one 
 hand, the divergent interests of races, groups and 
 parties were exploited by the Government, and 
 the necessities of the Government were, on the 
 other hand, exploited by races, groups and parties 
 at the expense of taxpayers; and the fact was 
 clearly revealed that no Austrian race or party 
 would hesitate to sell the Constitution at a price. 
 Each partv in turn obstructed parliamentary busi- 
 ness in order to extort concessions from a govern- 
 ment composed mainly of officials. Had the .Aus- 
 trian Constitution been imposed upon the Crown 
 by popular will, the position of parliament might 
 have been stronger, and the respect of political 
 parties for the integrity of the Constitution might 
 have been greater. Watchfulness would have been 
 the more necessary in that the .Austrian Constitu- 
 tion of 1867 is so framed as to facilitate an oc- 
 casional return to absolutism. The 'Emergency 
 Paragraph,' the widest of the doors through which 
 the return could be made, runs:— 'Should, at a 
 time when the Rcichsrath is not sitting, urgent 
 necessity arise for enactments to which the assent 
 of the' Reichsrath is constitutionally requisite, 
 these enactments can be promulgated by Imperial 
 ordinance on the responsibility of the whole Cabi- 
 net provided such ordinances aim at effecting no 
 change of the Constitutional Statute itself, at 
 placing no permanent burden upon the Treasury, 
 and concern no sale of State property. Such or- 
 dinances possess provisionallv the force of law 
 when thev are signed by all the Ministers and 
 are prom'ulgated with express reference to this 
 Clause of the Constitution. Their legal validity 
 lapses if the government fails to submit them for 
 approval to the next Reichsrath, and, in the first 
 place, to the Chamber of Deputies within three 
 weeks of its meeting; or if the ordinances fail to 
 receive the assent of either of the two Houses of 
 the Reichsrath. The Cabinet as a whole is re- 
 sponsible for the immediate abrogation of such 
 ordinances when thev have lost their provisional 
 validity.' "— H. W. Steed, Hapsburg monarchy, pp. 
 
 1897 (October-December). — Scenes in the 
 Austrian Reichsrath described by Mark Twain. 
 
 "Here in Vienna in these closing days of 1897 
 
 one's blood gets no chance to stagnate. The at- 
 mosphere is brimful of political electricity. All 
 conversation is political ; every man is a battery, 
 with brushes overworn, and gives out blue sparks 
 when you set him going on the common topic. 
 Things have happened here recently which 
 
 706
 
 AUSTRIA, 1897 
 
 Scene in 
 the Reichsrath 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1897 
 
 would set any country but Austria on fire from 
 end to end, and upset the government to a cer- 
 tainty; but no one feels confident that such re- 
 sults will follow here. Here, apparently, one 
 must wait and see what will happen, then he will 
 kno-.v, and not before; guessing is idle; guessing 
 cannot help the matter. This is what the wise 
 tell you ; they all say it ; they say it every day, 
 and it is the sole detail upon which they all agree. 
 There is some approach to agreement upon an- 
 other point: that there will be no revolution, . . . 
 Nearly every day some one explains to me that a 
 revolution would not succeed here. 'It couldn't, 
 you know. Broadly speaking, all the nations in 
 the empire hate the government — but they all hate 
 each other too, and with devoted and enthusiastic 
 bitterness; no two of them can combine; the na- 
 tion that rises must rise alone ; then the others 
 would joyfully join the government against her, 
 and she would have just a fly's chance against a 
 combination of spiders. This government is en- 
 tirely independent. It can go its own road, and 
 do as it pleases; it has nothing to fear. In coun- 
 tries like England and America, where there is one 
 tongue and the public interests are common, the 
 government must take account of public opinion; 
 but in Austria-Hungary there are nineteen public 
 opinions — one for each state. No — two or three 
 for each state, since there are two or three nation- 
 alities in each. \ government cannot satisfy all 
 these public opinion? ; it can only go through the 
 motions of trying. This government does that. 
 It goes through the motions, and they do not suc- 
 ceed; but that does not worry the government 
 much.' . . . 
 
 "The recent troubles have grown out of Count 
 Badeni's necessities. He could not carry on his 
 government without a majority vote in the House 
 at his back, and in order to secure it he had to 
 make a trade of some sort. He made it with the 
 Czechs — the Bohemians. The terms were not easy 
 for him: he must pass a bill making the Czech 
 tongue the official language in Bohemia in place 
 of the German. This created a storm. All the 
 Germans in Austria were incensed. In numbers 
 they form but a fourth part of the empire's popu- 
 lation, but they urge that the country's public 
 business should be conducted in one common 
 tongue, and that tongue a world language — which 
 German is. However, Badeni secured his ma- 
 jority. The German element was apparently be- 
 come helpless. The Czech deputies were exultant. 
 Then the music began. Badeni's voyage, instead 
 of being smooth, was disappointingly rough from 
 the start. The government must get the Ausgleich 
 through. It must not fail. Badeni's majority 
 was ready to carry it through; but the minority 
 was determined to obstruct it and delay it until 
 the obnoxious Czech-language measure should be 
 shelved. 
 
 "The Ausgleich is an Adjustment, Arrangement, 
 Settlement, which holds Austria and Hungary to- 
 gether [see Austria: X866-1867I. It dates from 
 1867, and has to be renewed every ten years. It 
 establishes the share which Hungary must pay 
 toward the expenses of the imperial government. 
 Hungary is a kingdom (the Emperor of Austria is 
 its King), and has its own parliament and gov- 
 ernmental machinery. But it has no foreign of- 
 fice, and it has no army — at least its army is a 
 part of the imperial army, is paid out of the im- 
 perial treasury, and is under the control of the 
 imperial war office. The ten-year rearrangement 
 was due a year ago, but failed to connect. At 
 least completely, A year's compromise was ar- 
 ranged. A new arrangement must be effected be- 
 fore the last day of this year Otherwise the two 
 
 countries become separate entities. The Emperor 
 would still be King of Hungary — that is. King of 
 an independent foreign country. There would be 
 Hungarian custom-houses on the Austrian frontier 
 and there would be a Hungarian army and a Hun- 
 garian foreign office. Both countries would be 
 weakened by this, both would suffer damage. The 
 Opposition in the House, although in the minority, 
 had a good weapon to fight with in the pending 
 Ausgleich. If it could delay the Ausgleich a few 
 weeks, the government would doubtless have to 
 withdraw the hated language bill or lo.^e Hungary. 
 
 "The Opposition began its fight. Its arms were 
 the Rules of the House, It was soon manifest 
 that by applying these Rules ingeniously, it could 
 make the majority helpless, and keep it so as long 
 as it pleased. It could shut off business every 
 now and then with a motion to adjourn. It could 
 require the ayes and noes on the motion, and use 
 up thirty minutes on that detail. It could call 
 for the reading and verification of the minutes of 
 the pieceding meeting, and use up half a day in 
 that way. It could require that several of its 
 members be entered upon the list of permitted 
 sfjeakers previously to the opening of a sitting; 
 and as there is no time limit, further delays could 
 thus be accomplished. These were all lawful 
 weapons, and the men of the Opposition (tech- 
 nically called the Left) were within their rights 
 in using them. They used them to such dire pur- 
 pose that all parliamentary business was para- . 
 lyzed. The Right (the government side) could 
 accomplish nothing. Then it had a saving idea. 
 This idea was a curious one. It was to have the 
 President and the Vice-Presidents of the parlia- 
 ment trample the Rules under foot upon occa- 
 sion ! , , , 
 
 "And now took place that memorable sitting of 
 the House which broke two records. It lasted the 
 best part of two days and a night, surpassing by 
 half an hour the longest sitting known to the 
 world's previous parliamentary history, and break- 
 ing the long-speech record with Dr. Lecher's 
 twelve-hour effort, the longest flow of unbroken 
 talk that ever came out of one mouth since the 
 world began. At 8.45, on the evening of the 
 28th of October, when the House had been sitting 
 a few minutes short of ten hours. Dr. Lecher was 
 granted the floor. . . . Then burst out such an- 
 other wild and frantic and deafening clamor as 
 has not been heard on this planet since the last 
 time the Comanches surprised a white settlement 
 at midnight. Yells from the Left, counter-yells 
 from the Right, explosions of yells from all sides 
 at once, and all the air sawed and pawed and 
 clawed and cloven by a writhing confusion of 
 gesturing arms and hands. Out of the midst of 
 the thunder and turmoil and tempest rose Dr. 
 Lecher, serene and collected, and the providential 
 lengtl of him enabled his head to show out above 
 it. He began his twelve-hour speech. At any 
 rate, his lips could be seen to move, and that was 
 evidence. O.i high sat the President imploring 
 order, with his long hands put together as in 
 prayer, and his lips visibly but not bearably 
 speaking. At intervals he grasped his bell and 
 swung it up and down with vigor, adding its keen 
 clamor to the storm weltering there below. Dr, 
 Lecher went on with his pantomime speech, con- 
 tented, untroubled. , , , One of the interrupters 
 who made himself heard was a young fellow of 
 slight build and neat dress, who stood a little 
 apart from the solid crowd and leaned negligently, 
 with folded arms and feet crossed, against a desk. 
 Trim and handsome; strong face and thin features; 
 black hair roughed up; parsimonious mustache; 
 resonant great voice, of good tone and pitch It 
 
 707
 
 AUSTRIA, 1897 
 
 Scene in 
 the Reichsraih 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1897 
 
 is Wolf, capable and hospitable with sword and 
 pistol. . . . Out of him came early this thunder- 
 ing peal, audible above the storm: 
 
 " 'I demand the floor. I wish to offer a mo- 
 tion.' 
 
 "In the sudden lull which followed, the President 
 answered, 'Dr. Lecher has the floor.' 
 
 "Wolf. 'I move the close of the sitting !' 
 
 "P. "Representative Lecher has the floor.' 
 [Stormy outburst from the Left — that is, the Op- 
 position.] 
 
 "Wolj. 'I demand the floor for the introduc- 
 tion of a formal motion. [Pause. 1 Mr. President, 
 are you going to grant it, or not? [Crash of ap- 
 proval from the Left.] I will keep on demanding 
 the floor till I get it.' 
 
 "P. 'I call Representative Wolf to order. Dr. 
 Lecher has the floor.' . . . 
 
 "Which was true; and he was speaking, too, 
 calmly, earnestly, and argumentatively ; and the 
 official stenographers had left their places and 
 were at his elbows taking down his words, he 
 leaning and orating into their ears — a most curi- 
 ous and interesting scene. ... At this point a new 
 and most effective noisemaker was pressed into 
 service. Each desk has an extension, consisting of 
 a removable board eighteen inches long, six wide, 
 and a half-inch thick, A member pulled one of 
 these out and began to belabor the top of his 
 desk with it. Instantly other members followed 
 suit, and perhaps you can imagine the result. Of 
 all conceivable rackets it is the most ear-splitting, 
 intolerable, and altogether fiendish. . , . Wolf 
 went on with his noise and with his demands that 
 he be granted the floor, resting his board at in- 
 tervals to discharge criticisms and epithets at the 
 Chair. . . . By-and-by he struck the idea of beat- 
 ing out a tune v\ith his board. Later he decided 
 to stop asking for the floor, and to confer it upon 
 himself. And so he and Dr. Lecher now spoke at 
 the same time, and mingled their speeches with 
 the other noises, and nobody heard either of them. 
 Wolf rested himself now and then from speech- 
 making by reading, in his clarion voice, from a 
 pamphlet. 
 
 "I will explain that Dr. Lecher was not making 
 a twelve-hour speech for pastime, but for an im- 
 portant purpose. It was the government's inten- 
 tion to push the Ausgleich through its preliminary 
 stages in this one sitting (for which it was the 
 Order of the Day), and then by vote refer it to 
 a select committee. It was the Majority's scheme 
 — as charged by the Opposition — to drown debate 
 upon the bill by pure noise — drown it out and 
 stop it. The debate being thus ended, the vote 
 upon the reference would follow — with victory for 
 the government. But into the government's cal- 
 culations had not entered the possibility of a 
 single-barrelled speech which shoyld occupy the 
 entire time-limit of the sitting, and also get itself 
 delivered in spite of all the noise. ... In the 
 English House an obstructionist has held the floor 
 with Bible-readings and other outside matters; but 
 Dr. Lecher could not have that restful and re- 
 cuperative privilege — he must confine himself 
 strictly to the subject before the House. More 
 than once, when the President could not hear him 
 because of the general tumult, he sent persons to 
 listen and report as to whether the orator was 
 speaking to the subject or not. 
 
 "The subject was a peculiarly difficult one, and 
 it would have troubled any other deputy to stick 
 to it three hours without exhausting his ammuni- 
 tion, because it required a vast and intimate 
 knowledge — detailed and particularized knowledge 
 — of the commercial, railroading, financial, and in- 
 ternational banking relations existing between two 
 
 great sovereignties, Hungary and the Empire. But 
 Dr. Lecher is President of the Board of Trade of 
 Jiis city of Briinn, and was master of the situation. 
 ... He went steadily on with his speech ; and 
 always it was strong, virile, felicitous, and to the 
 point. He was earning applause, and this enabled 
 his party to turn that fact to account. Now and 
 then they applauded him a couple of minutes on 
 a stretch, and during that time he could stop 
 speaking and rest his voice without having the 
 floor taken from him. . . . 
 
 "The Minority staid loyally by their champion. 
 Some distinguished deputies of the Majority staid 
 by him too, compelled thereto by admiration of 
 his great performance. When a man has been 
 speaking eight hours, is it conceivable that he can 
 still be interesting, still fascinating? When Dr. 
 Lecher had been speaking eight hours he was still 
 compactly surrounded by friends who would not 
 leave him and by foes (of all parties) who could 
 not ; and all hung enchanted and wondering upon 
 his words, and all testified their admiration with 
 constant and cordial outbursts of applause. Surely 
 this was a triumph without precedent in his- 
 tory. . . . 
 
 "In consequence of Dr. Lecher's twe've-hour 
 speech and the other obstructions furnished by 
 the Minority, the famous thirty-three-hour sitting 
 of the House accomphshed nothing. . . . Parlia- 
 ment was adjourned for a week — to let the mem- 
 bers cool off, perhaps — a sacrifice of precious time, 
 for but two months remained in which to carry 
 the all-important Ausgleich to a consumma- 
 tion. . . . 
 
 "During the whole of November things went 
 from bad to worse. The all-important Ausgleich 
 remained hard aground, and could not be sparred 
 off. Badeni's government could not withdraw the 
 Language Ordinance and keep its majority, and 
 the Opposition could not be placated on easier 
 terms. One night, while the customary pande- 
 monium was crashing and thundering along at 
 its best, a fight broke out. ... On Thanksgiving 
 day the sitting was a history-making one. On 
 that day the harried, bedeviled and despairing gov- 
 ernment went insane. In order to free itself from 
 the thraldom of the Opposition it committed this 
 curiously juvenile crime: it moved an important 
 change of the Rules of the House, forbade debate 
 upon the motion, put it to a stand-up vote instead 
 of ayes and noes, and then gravely claimed that 
 it had been adopted. . . . The House was already 
 standing up; had been standing for an hour; and 
 before a third of it had found out what the Presi- 
 dent had been saying, he had proclaimed the 
 adoption of the motion ! And only a few heard 
 that. In fact, when that House is legislating you 
 can't tell it from artillery-practice. You will 
 realize what a happy idea it was to sidetrack the 
 lawful ayes and noes and substitute a stand-up 
 vote by this fact: that a little later, when a depu- 
 tation of deputies waited upon the President and 
 asked him if he w\is actually willing to claim 
 that that meacure had been passed, he answered. 
 'Yes — and unanimously.' . . . 
 
 "The Lex Falkeithayn, thus strangely born, gave 
 the President power to suspend for three days any 
 deputy who should continue to be disorderly after 
 being called to order twice, and it also placed at 
 his disposal such force as might be necessary to 
 make the suspension effective. So the House had 
 a sergeant-at-arms at last, and a more formidable 
 one, as to power," than any other legislature in 
 Christendom had ever possessed. The Lex Fal- 
 kenhayn also gave the House itself authority to 
 suspend members for thirty days. On these terms 
 the Ausgleich could be put through in an hour— 
 
 708
 
 AUSTRIA, 1897 
 
 Constitutional Government 
 Paralyzed 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1898 
 
 apparently. The Opposition would have to sit 
 meek and quiet, and stop obstructing, or be turned 
 into the street, deputy after deputy, leaving the 
 Majority an unvexed field for its work. 
 
 "Certainly the thing looked well. . . . [But next 
 day, when the President attempted to open the 
 session, a band of the Socialist members made a 
 sudden charge upon him, drove him and the Vice 
 President from the House, took possession of the 
 tribune, and brought even the semblance of legis- 
 lative proceedings to an end. Then a body of sixty 
 policemen was brought in to clear the House.] 
 Some of the results of this wild freak followed in- 
 stantly. The Badeni government came down with 
 a crash; there was a popular outbreak or two in 
 Vienna; there were three or four days of furious 
 rioting in Prague, followed by the establishing 
 there of martial law; the Jews and Germans were 
 harried and plundered, and their houses destroyed; 
 in other Bohemian towns there was rioting — in 
 some cases the Germans being the rioters, in others 
 the Czechs — and in all cases the Jew had to roast, 
 no matter which side he was on. We are well 
 along in December now ; the new Minister-Presi- 
 dent has not been able to patch up a peace among 
 the warring factions of the parliament, therefore 
 there is no use in calling it together again for the 
 present ; public opinion believes that parliamentary 
 government and the Constitution are actually 
 threatened with extinction, and that the perma- 
 nency of the monarchy itself is a not absolutely 
 certain thing ! 
 
 "Yes, the Lex Falkenhayn was a great inven- 
 tion, and did what was claimed for it — it got the 
 government out of the frying-pan." — S. L. Clem- 
 ens (Mark Twain), Stirring times in Austria 
 (Harper's Magazine, Mar., 1898). 
 
 1397 (December). — Imperial action. — On the 
 last day of the year the emperor closed the sit- 
 tings of the Austrian Reichsrath by proclamation 
 anci issued a rescript continuing the Ausgleich pro- 
 visionally for six months. 
 
 1898. — Prolongation of factious disorders. — 
 Paralysis of constitutional government. — Though 
 scenes in the Austrian Chamber were not quite so 
 violent, perhaps, as they had become near the 
 close of iSq7, the state of factious disorder con- 
 tinued much the same throughout the year, and 
 legislation was completely stopped. The work of 
 government could be carried on only by imperial 
 decrees. The ministry of Baron von Gautsch, 
 which had succeeded that of Count Badeni, at- 
 tempted a compromise on the language question in 
 Bohemia by dividing the country into three dis- 
 tricts, according to the distrbution of the several 
 races, in one of which German was to be the 
 official tongue, in another Czech, while both lan- 
 guages were to be used in the third. [See also 
 Bohemia: 1848-1897.] But the Germans of the 
 empire would accept no such compromise. In 
 March, Baron von Gautsch retired, and Count 
 Thun Hohenstein formed a ministry made up to 
 represent the principal factions in the Reichsrath ; 
 but the scheme brought no peace. Nor did ap- 
 peals by Count Thun, "in the name of Austria," 
 to the patriotism and the reason of all parties, to 
 suspend their warfare long enough for a little of 
 the necessary work of the state to be done, have 
 any effect. The turbulence in the legislature in- 
 fected the whole community, and especially, it 
 would seem, the students in the schools, whose 
 disorder caused many lectures to be stopped. In 
 Hungary, too, there was an increase of violence in 
 political agitation. A party, led by the son of 
 Louis Kossuth, struggled to improve what seemed 
 to be an opportunity for breaking the political 
 union of Hungary with Austria, and realizing the 
 
 old ambition for an independent Hungarian state. 
 The ministry of Baron Banffy had this party 
 against him, as well as that of the clericals, who 
 resented the civil marriage laws, and legislation 
 came to a deadlock nearly as complete in the Hun- 
 garian as in the Austrian Parliament. There, as 
 well as in Austria, the extension of the Ausgleich, 
 provisionally for another year, had to be im- 
 posed by imperial decree. 
 
 "At the same time, the party regarded it as their 
 obvious duty to emancipate themselves from Rome 
 in a political but not religious sense — that is to 
 say, to free themselves from the influence of the 
 Roman Curia in affairs of state. This boycotted 
 party and program now threatened to win the 
 voluntary or enforced adherence of the advanced 
 section of the other German groups which had 
 hitherto declined to commit themselves to such an 
 extreme policy. The most moderate of all the 
 German parties, that of the constitutional landed 
 proprietors, felt called upon to enter an energetic 
 and indignant protest against the foregoing Pan- 
 Germanic program. While they were convinced 
 supporters of the Austro-German alliance, they 
 unconditionally rejected aspirations which they 
 held to be totally inconsistent with the tried and 
 reliable basis of that agreement, and which would 
 constitute an undignified sacrifice of the indepen- 
 dence of the monarchy. They further declined to 
 make their manifestations of loyalty to the sov- 
 ereign dependent upon any condition ; and they 
 strongly condemned the emancipation from Rome 
 movement as a culpable confusion of the spheres 
 of religion and politics, and an infringement of 
 the liberty of conscience which was calculated to 
 sow dissension among the German element in Aus- 
 tria. The opening session of the newly elected 
 Reichsrath was held January 31, and. the disor- 
 derly temper in it was manifested upon a refer- 
 ence by the president to the death of Queen Vic- 
 toria, which called out cries of hostility to Eng- 
 land from both Germans and Czechs. ... In the 
 course of the proceedings some of the members of 
 the extreme Czech faction warned the prime min- 
 ister in threatening terms against introducing a 
 single word hostile to the Czech nation in the 
 coming speech from the throne. They also an- 
 nounced their intention of squaring accounts with 
 him as soon as the speech from the throne should 
 be delivered. The whole sitting did not last an 
 hour, but what happened sufficed tO' show that 
 not only the Pan-CJermanic Union, but also the 
 extreme section of the German People's party and 
 a couple of radical Czechs, were ready at a mo- 
 ment's notice to transform the Reichsrath into a 
 bear garden. On February 4 the two houses of 
 the Reichsrath were assembled at the palace and 
 addressed by the emperor, in a speech from the 
 throne of which the following is a partial report: 
 "His Majesty referred to various features of leg- 
 islation, including the budget, the revision of the 
 customs tariff, the promotion of trade, industry, 
 and navigation, the protection of the working 
 classes and the regulation of the hours of labour, 
 the government railway projects and the Bosnian 
 lines, and bills for the regulation of emigration, 
 the construction of dwellmgs for the lower classes, 
 the repression of drunkenness, the development of 
 the university system and other educational re- 
 forms, and a revision of the press laws — in fact a 
 whole inventory of the important legislative ar- 
 rears consequent upon the breakdown of Parlia- 
 ment. The following passage occurs in the further 
 course of the speech: 'The constitution which I 
 bestowed upon my dominions in the exercise of 
 my free will ought to be an adequate guarantee 
 for the development of my people. The finances 
 
 709
 
 AUSTRIA, 1898 
 
 Clerical Conflicts 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1100 
 
 of the state have been put in order in exemplary 
 fashion and its credit has been raised to a high 
 level The freedom of the subject reposes upon 
 a firm foundation, and thanks to the scholastic 
 organization and the extraordinary increase of 
 educational establishments general culture has 
 reached a gratifying standard, which has more es- 
 pecially contributed to the efficiency and intelli- 
 gence of my army. The provincial diets have 
 been able to do much within the limits of their 
 jurisdiction. The beneficial influence of the con- 
 stitutional system has penetrated as far as the 
 communal administrations. I am thus justified in 
 saying that the fundamental laws of the state are 
 a precious possession of my loyal people. Not- 
 withstanding the autonomy enjoyed by certain 
 kingdoms and provinces, they constitute for for- 
 eigners the symbol of the strength and unity of 
 the state. I was, therefore, all the more grieved 
 that the last sessions of the legislature should 
 have had no result, even if I am prepared to ac- 
 knowledge that such business as affected the posi- 
 tion of the monarchy was satisfactorily transacted 
 by all parties.' 
 
 "The emperor then expressed his regret that 
 other matters of equal importance affecting the 
 interests of Austria had not been disposed of. 
 His majesty made an appeal to the representatives 
 of the Reichsrath to devote their efforts to the 
 necessary and urgent work awaiting them, and 
 assured them that they might count upon the gov- 
 ernment. All attempts at the moral and material 
 development of the empire were, he said, stultified 
 by the nationality strife. Experience had shown 
 that the efforts of the government to bring about 
 a settlement of the principal C|uestions involved 
 therein had led to no result and that it was pref- 
 erable to deal with the matter in the legislature. 
 The government regarded a generally satisfactory 
 solution of the pending language question as being 
 both an act of justice and a necessity of state. 
 Trusting in the good will manifested by all parties, 
 the ministr>' would do its utmost to promote a 
 settlement which would relieve the countp,- of its 
 greatest evil. At the same time, the cabinet was 
 under the obligation of maintaining intact the 
 unity of language in certain departments of the ad- 
 ministration, in which it constituted an old and 
 well-tested institution. Success must never again 
 be sought through paralysing the popular represen- 
 tation. The hindrance of parliamentary work 
 could only postpone or render quite impossible 
 the realization of such aspirations as most deeply 
 affected the public mind. The sovereign then re- 
 ferred to the damage done to the interests of the 
 empire by the obstacles placed in the way of the 
 regular working of the constitution, and pointed 
 to the indispensable necessity of the vigorous co- 
 operation of Parliament in the a[)proaching settle- 
 ment of the commercial relations between the two 
 halves of the monarchy. The speech concluded 
 with a warmly-worded appeal to the representa- 
 tives to establish a peace which would correspond 
 to the requirements of the time and to defend as 
 their fathers had defended 'this venerable state 
 which accords equal protection to all its peoples.' " 
 For troubles with Hungary over budget, sec Hun- 
 gary: 1807-1007. 
 
 1898. — Assassination of the Empress Elizabeth. 
 See Austria-Hungary: i.Sq.S (September). 
 
 1899-1901. — Change in ministries. — Continued 
 obstruction by German parties in Austria. — Se- 
 cession of German Roman Catholics from their 
 church. — Clerical parties. — Decline in the 
 Reichsrath. — In September. tSqo, the .Austrian 
 ministry of Count Thun ro-igned. and was suc- 
 ceeded by one formed under Count Clary-Aldrin- 
 
 gen. The new premier withdrew the language de- 
 crees, which quieted the German obstructionists, 
 but provoked the Czechs to take up the same 
 role. Count Clary-Aldringen resigned in Decem- 
 ber, and a provisional ministry was formed under 
 Dr. Wittek, which lasted only until January 19, 
 1 000, when a new cabinet was formed by Dr. von 
 Korber. In Hungary, Baron Banffy was driven 
 from power in Februar,-, iSog, by a state of things 
 m the Hungarian Parliament much like that in 
 the Austrian. M. Koloman Szell, who succeeded 
 him, effected a compromise with the opposition 
 which enabled him to carry a measure extending 
 the Ausgleich to 1007. This brought one serious 
 difficulty of the situation to an end. During most 
 of the year i8oq the German parties in the Aus- 
 trian Reichsrath continued to make legislation 
 impossible by disorderly obstruction, with the 
 avowed purpose of compelling the government to 
 withdraw the language decrees in Bohemia. A 
 still more significant demonstration of German 
 feeling and policy appeared, in a wide-spread and 
 organized movement to detach German Roman 
 Catholics from their church, partly, it would seem, 
 as a proceeding of hostility to the Clerical party, 
 and partly as a means of recommending the Ger- 
 mans of the Austrian states to the sympathy of 
 the German empire, and smoothing the approach 
 to an ultimate union of some of those states with 
 the Germanic federation. The agitation against 
 the Catholic church is called "Los von Rom." — 
 "The Church in Austria is less a State Church 
 than an ecclesiastical department of the State, 
 working lika the army, the bureaucracy, and the 
 police in the interests of 'government.' The 'Los 
 von Rom,' or rather 'Los von Habsburg' move- 
 ment ... led to the formation of clerical so- 
 cieties, notably the Societies of St. Boniface and 
 St. Raphael, to combat anti-Catholic and anti- 
 Hapsburg tendencies and to support a German 
 race-movement on Catholic lines. The Heir-Ap- 
 parent, Archduke Francis Ferdinand, accepted the 
 protectorship of a Catholic Schulverein or Schools 
 Association; Dr. Lueger and his Christian Social 
 followers attacked the preponderance of anti- 
 Clerical and Jewish influence in the Universities; 
 and subsequently the Piusverein was founded to 
 support the Catholic anti-Jewish press, several of 
 whose organs gradually acquired considerable cir- 
 culation and influence. . . . The 'Los von Rom' 
 peril having been warded off, the Clerical organiza- 
 tions engaged in a violent and sometimes thor- 
 oughly unscrupulous campaign against Social De- 
 mocracy, whose progress had inspired uneasiness 
 in the highest quarters." — H. W. Steed, Hapsbiwg 
 monarrliy. pp. 106-107, 116-117. — From the par- 
 liamentary elections held in January the Clerical 
 and anti-Semitic parties came back to the Reichs- 
 rath shorn of about one-third of their strength. 
 while the various radical factions, especially those 
 among the Germans, appear to have made con- 
 siderable gains. Even in the Tyrol, one of the 
 strongest of the Clerical leaders, Baron Di Pauli, 
 was defeated, and in Vienna the anti-Semitic ma- 
 jority was cut to less than one-fourth of what it 
 had been three years before. 
 
 1900 (February). — Attempted pacification of 
 German and Czech parties by a conciliation 
 board. — "On Monday last [February 5] the Ger- 
 man and Czech Conciliation Board met for the 
 first time in Vienna, under the presidency of the 
 Austrian Premier, Dr. von Korber, and conferred 
 for two hours. . . . Dr. von Korber is at the head 
 of what may be called a 'business' Ministry, com- 
 posed largely of those who had filled subordinate 
 offices in previous Ministries. It was hoped, per- 
 haps, that, since the leading politicians with a 
 
 710
 
 AUSTRIA, 1900 
 
 Struggle 
 for Suffrage 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1906-1909 
 
 political 'past' could apparently do nothing to 
 bring about a settlement, men with no past, but 
 with a capacity for business, and in no way com- 
 mitted on the racial question, might do better in 
 effecting a working arrangement. The appoint- 
 ment of this Conciliation Board seemed a prom- 
 ising way of attempting such a settlement. Dr. 
 von Korber opened Monday's proceedings with a 
 strong appeal to both sides, saying; 'Gentlemen, 
 the Empire looks to you to restore its happiness 
 and tranquillity.' It cannot be said that the Em- 
 pire is likely to find its wishes fulfilled, for when 
 the Board came down to hard business, the old 
 troubles instantly revealed themselves. The Pre- 
 mier recommended a committee for Bohemia of 
 twenty-two members, and one for Moravia of 
 fifteen members, the two sitting in joint session 
 in certain cases. Dr. Engel then set forth the 
 historical claims of the Czechs, which immedi- 
 ately called forth a demand from Dr. Funke, of 
 the German party, that German should be de- 
 clared the official language throughout Austria. 
 Each speaker seems to have been supported by 
 his own party, and so no progress was made, 
 and matters remain in 'statu quo ante.' The sin- 
 gularly deticicnt constitution of this Board makes 
 against success, for it seems that the German 
 Nationalists and Anti-Semites have only one dele- 
 gate apiece, the Social Democrats were not invited 
 at all, while the extreme Germans and extreme 
 Czechs, apparently regarding the Board as a farce, 
 declined to nominate delegates to its sittings. . . . 
 There is unhappily Kttle reason for believing that 
 the Board of Conciliation will effect what the 
 Emperor himself has failed tn accomplish." — 
 Spectator (London), Feb. lo, iqoo. 
 
 1900 (July 1). — Marriage of Archduke Francis 
 Ferdinand. — Morganatic marriage of the Archduke 
 Francis Ferdinand (heir to the throne) and the 
 Countess Sophie Chotek took place in 1900. — See 
 also Austria-Hungary: igoo. 
 
 1900 (September-December). — Economic de- 
 cline. See Austria-Hungary: igoo (September- 
 December) . 
 
 1900-1904. — Cessation of obstruction during 
 the Koerber ministry. — Administration of public 
 finance. — "The -Austrian Chamber has never re- 
 vised or rejected an Imperial ordinance is- 
 sued under the Emergency Paragraph It has 
 never seriously called a blameworthy ministry to 
 account for abuse of its powers; and when, under 
 the Koerber Ministry of 1900-1004, obstruction 
 ceased for a time and supply was normally voted, 
 this result was obtained not by a revival of Con- 
 stitutional feeling on the part of the Chamber of 
 Deputies, but by the announcement of an enor- 
 mous programme of railway and canal construc- 
 tion, estimated to cost some £40,000,000 and cost- 
 ing in reality as much again. All the chief parties 
 then sank their differences for a time in order to 
 feed at the Government manger. Not even the 
 provision that the Emergency Paragraph may not 
 be used 'to place any permanent burden on the 
 Treasury' has been respected in practice. . . . Tez- 
 ner rightly deplores the dangers to which the ad- 
 ministration of public finance in .Austria is thus 
 exposed, and points out that it would be difficult 
 to find, even in the absolutist epochs of Austrian 
 history, a parallel for the Imperial Ordinance of 
 July 16, igo4, by which suits pending before the 
 Imperial Tribunal against the Treasury, were 
 simply quashed because previous decisions of the 
 Tribunal in si:nilar cases had rendered a condem- 
 nation of the Treasury probable. Though this 
 denial of justice was committed by Imperial Or- 
 dinance, the absolutist spirit from which it pro- 
 ceeded was rather that of the bureaucracy than 
 
 that of the Monarch. Between these two abso- 
 lutisms the difference is considerable, and, of the 
 two. Imperial absolutism is the less insidious." — 
 H. W. Steed, Hapsburg monarchy, pp. 38, 39. 
 
 1901. — Dissatisfaction with the commercial 
 Ausgleich. See .Austria-Hungary: 1QOO-1903. 
 
 1902-1908. — Strikes of Ukrainians in Galicia. — 
 Assassination of Count Potocki by Ukrainian 
 student. See Ukraine; 1840-1914. 
 
 1905-1906. — Attitude toward assimilation with 
 Hungary. See .\ustria-Hungary: igos-igoo. 
 
 1905-1911. — Suppression of Socialist agitations 
 for universal suffrage. — Press muzzled. — "In the 
 autumn of 1905 a Socialist manifestation in fa- 
 vour of universal suffrage was violently sup- 
 pressed; blood was shed and arrests were made. 
 But within a week the wind in the higher regions 
 had changed, and the Government had veered 
 round in favour of universal suffrage. A huge 
 Socalist demonstration was organized in agreement 
 with the police which was instructed by the Gov- 
 ernment to evacuate the main thoroughfare of 
 Vienna, the Ringsrasse, and to leave it for sev- 
 eral hours entirely to the Socialists. The police 
 guarded only the Hofburg or Imperial Palace. In 
 the autumn of igii, a Socialist agitation of which 
 the Government did not approve was directed 
 against the Agrarians and the rise in the prices of 
 food for which the Agrarians were held respon- 
 sible. The police and the military suppressed it 
 with vigour, a number of lives being lost. On 
 this occasion the Courts inflicted severe sentences 
 upon boys not out of their teens, and punished 
 with long terms of imprisonment any culprit who 
 confessed that he had thrown a stone. . . . The 
 Austro-Hungarian press is almost entirely under 
 official control when dealing with questions of 
 foreign policy and that the public rarely gets an 
 inkling of the merits of a situation that may in- 
 volve the country in war. During the Morocco 
 crisis of 1005-1906, .Austro-Hungarian ignorance of 
 the position of affairs in Europe was complete. 
 Not until after the Conference of Algeciras in 
 .April 1906, did any Austrian journal lay before 
 its readers an intelligible account of the origin and 
 course of the crisis. The German Press Bureau 
 conducted its campaign against France and Eng- 
 land even more in Austro-Hungarian than in Ger- 
 man journals. Even when, after the diplomatic 
 defeat of Germany at Algeciras, the Xeue Freie. 
 Presse allowed M. Georges Clemenceau to state 
 in its columns the bare facts concerning the re- 
 cent past — facts that gave the lie to the inventions 
 which the Neue Freie Presse and its contempora- 
 ries had previously foisted upon the public — it 
 continued tranquilly its campaign of conscious 
 untruthfulness and left its readers bewildered. 
 Similarly, before and during the annexation crisis 
 of igo8-igoo, Austrian journals, under the in- 
 fluence of Count Aehrenthal's Press Bureau, rig- 
 orously excluded from their columns all informa- 
 tion contrary to the official thesis, and waged war, 
 not only against Russia and Servia, but against 
 the best interests of the Monarchy itself. Nemesis 
 overtook the Press Bureau and its organs during 
 the recent Balkan war. Events belied official and 
 semi-official doctrine so rapidly and unmistakably 
 that the public actually awoke to the situation 
 and understood for a moment the deleterious ef- 
 fects, moral and material, of Government control 
 of the press and of the constant inoculation of the 
 public mind with mendacious statement and mis- 
 leading suggestion" — H. W. Steed, Hapsburg mon- 
 arcliv, pp. 06, 110-200. 
 
 1906-1909. — Reformed electoral law of Austria. 
 — "December 1006 saw the passing of the law 
 which granted the franchise to every male Aus- 
 
 711
 
 AUSTRIA, 1906-1909 
 
 Reformed 
 Electoral Law 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1906-1909 
 
 trian citizen over twenty-four years of age and 
 resident for at least a year in tlie place of the 
 election ; each elector had only one vote. The 
 number of deputies was now increased from 425 
 to 516. It was a vast unprepared revolution, a 
 new and unlooked-for freedom, described by some 
 one as a leap in the dark. Conjectures as to its 
 results seemed impossible, because with the aban- 
 donment of the old electoral system of the curia 
 a new army of millions of electors entered the 
 field, and because, too, by the new arrangement 
 established in the constituencies new conditions 
 were created for the elections. The constituencies, 
 which under the new system are divided into town 
 and fountry districts, have not all — as in Ger- 
 many — the same number of voters, but a varying 
 quantity, ranging from 12,000 to 80,000; thus 
 relatively the towns elect more deputies than the 
 rural districts. The new Parliament had two 
 great tasks before it: the final suppression of the 
 nationalist wars and the introduction of an ac- 
 tive and productiv,e popular social policy — in 
 short, the complete cure of the two maladies 
 which had destroyed and killed the old Chamber 
 of Privileges. Every one hoped that it would ac- 
 complish them. The General Election was an- 
 nounced for May 1907. An obscure, interminable 
 crowd rose up from the depths. In the last elec- 
 tions of i8g7, under the old system 1,217,993 elect- 
 ors recorded their votes; in 1907, 4,615,020 voters 
 went to the poll. The people were animated by a 
 new and lively spirit. Under the former regime 
 the political life of the country and its Parliament 
 had left the masses cold and indifferent; the av- 
 erage percentage of voters in the fifth curia, which, 
 as we have said, practically gave the franchise to 
 every Austrian citizen, did not exceed 34 per cent. 
 In 1907 the number of those voting was 82 per 
 cent. ; in certain provinces it increased enormously 
 — in Dalmatia from 4 to 48 per cent. ; in Galicia 
 from 33 to 8s per cent.; in the Bukowina from 
 13 to 69 per cent. Under this formidable popular 
 pressure the old political world broke up com- 
 pletely. In the former system of the privileged 
 classes there were only individuals — there was no 
 definite party idea: a small group supported each 
 individual who then represented its interests. 
 With universal suffrage the modern principle of 
 party politics became a necessity. The general 
 party idea, expressed in a programme intelligible 
 to every one, was the only thing which appealed 
 to the bulk of the electors, who had no personal 
 knowledge of the candidate for whom they voted. 
 Again: in the open competition of universal suf- 
 frage the real organizations would naturally tri- 
 umph over the fluctuating electoral circles of the 
 former parties. This explains the marvellous and 
 unexpected triumph of the two new elements, 
 really the only ones which formed a solid party: 
 the Christian Socialists and the Socialists. Both 
 of them commanded vast economic organizations, 
 which now became powerful political forces. The 
 representatives of the former in the Chamber rose 
 from 27 to 66, those of the latter from 11 to 86. 
 In 1907 no Parliament in Europe had a Socialist 
 party so strong as the Austrian one. ... On the 
 other hand, the old political ranks were decimated. 
 Notwithstanding the addition of nearly a hundred 
 seats in Parliament, only a third of the former 
 members were returned. The three dominant 
 groups of the old Chamber fell to pieces: of the 
 45 Young Czechs of former days only 4 were re- 
 elected at the first count, of the 100 and more 
 German Liberals only 60 survived, while the 
 proud Polish nobility disappeared altogether. 
 Even the very Ministers of the old Parliament, 
 who had prepared the suffrage reform, fell before 
 
 the rising tide of the new people. The Parliament 
 of Universal Suffrage was divided into two great 
 parties: the 'Red' or Socialist and the 'Black' or 
 Christian Socialist (or Clerical). The 'Blue' rep- 
 resented by the Agrarian nobility had disappeared. 
 It was called the 'Small Man's Parliament,' and, 
 in truth, rested entirely on the lower strata. The 
 great majority of its electors belonged to the low- 
 est categories as regards incomes, those ranging 
 from a mere daily wage to an annual return of 
 3,000 crowns (£125). Politically, this was cer- 
 tainly its weak point, but at the same time it 
 might have become its strength socially. In all 
 important European Parliaments, even those elected 
 by a democratic suffrage, there is always a select 
 minority, representing the rich and cultured classes, 
 which directs the general policy and legislation. 
 In the German Reichstag, side by side with the 
 Socialists and the Clericals, there is still [1915] 
 a Conservative party of Protestant Agrarians and 
 a National Liberal party representing the interests 
 of industry, trade, and circulating capital. In the 
 new Austrian Parliament, on the other hand, the 
 'Blacks' and the 'Reds' were not longer opposed 
 by another real cohesive group, but by little ghosts 
 of parties. Above all, that intermediate element 
 known as Liberal was lacking. Capital, industry, 
 trade, and culture, represented principally by the 
 old German Liberal middle classes, had been turned 
 out. The host of small people, risen at one bound, 
 was entirely new to politics and below the average 
 level of education. Twenty-five of the deputies 
 were professors in a university or in higher-grade 
 schools, 106 were professional men, more than 40 
 were priests; the remainder were recruited from 
 school-masters, artisans, and workingmen, many 
 of whom, being editors of small technical news- 
 papers, posed as journalists. Any valuable ele- 
 ments that still remained were almost all a legacy 
 from the old regime. Socially, the Austrian Par- 
 liament of 1907 should have possessed a formi- 
 dable new power; it was united and homogeneous 
 on the economic and social side as it had! never 
 been before. The two victorious parties, the 
 Christian Socialists and the Socialists, at the op- 
 posite poles in their political opinions, in their 
 social spirit, on the other hand, seemed to meet 
 and be at one. Both of them, springing from the 
 working classes, the peasants, and the small trades- 
 people, represented the poor. They stood for an 
 economic Radicalism, surmounting racial antag- 
 onisms, and they professed a political Radicalism 
 in their programme. Had the policy of the new 
 Parliament been directed on the basis of statis- 
 tical data, on the relative strength of the differ- 
 ent parties, it would have meant a complete change 
 and renewal. In its composition the Chamber of 
 Universal Suffrage seemed to possess all the con- 
 ditions necessary for the great popular social re- 
 forms that were expected from it. The speech 
 from the Throne solemnly announced them; the 
 people's hopes were raised. It was the dawn of 
 freedom and progress, a thrilling historic moment 
 for the new Austria. Time went by, however, and 
 disillusionment commenced. The stuff the new 
 Chamber was made of was quickly seen. The 
 appointment of the first President, Weisskirchner 
 — a man without individuality, drawn from that 
 Christian Socialist party which has its stronghold 
 in the Municipal Council of Vienna, and nomi- 
 nated for the position by the Burgomaster Lueger, 
 whose creature he was — denoted the complete sub- 
 jection of the .Austrian Empire to the Municipal 
 Council of the capital. The years passed, still the 
 Parliament lived and discussed, the newspapers 
 dedicated long reports to it, but the hoped-for 
 reforms still tarried. At the end of four years 
 
 712
 
 AUSTRIA, 1907 
 
 Renewed 
 Language Quarrel 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1909 
 
 the net result of its labours could be summed up 
 in one word: Nothing. Beyond the compromise 
 with Hungary, the Austrian Chamber had preved 
 itself absolutely incapable of accomplishing any- 
 thing new. A general and radical reform of the 
 State and provincial finances was promised; they 
 did not even attempt to discuss it; there was not 
 even, one may say, a real general debate on the 
 Budget. When money was needed recourse was 
 had to small makeshift remedies to safeguard ftie 
 fiscal interests alone, while new taxes and new 
 debts were sanctioned. A promise had been given 
 of a revision of administration and Justice, a re- 
 modelling of the bureaucracy, of the civil and 
 penal laws, survivals from other times, and of 
 outworn laws relating to the Press and to Friendly 
 Societies; but nothing got beyond commissions 
 and subcommissions, if even so far as that. A 
 new active social policy had been promised, a 
 magnificent scheme of insurance for the working 
 classes, for old age, and for sickness was proposed, 
 and it was not passed nor even pushed forward 
 for decision. The task of the Parliament of Uni- 
 versal Suffrage reduced itself merely to dispatching 
 day by day the immediately necessary business, 
 with provisional legislation renewable at short 
 notice. Meanwhile the old national struggles had 
 begun afresh; the policy of obstruction was regu- 
 larly practised by the Czechs, who once (Decem- 
 ber iS-iQ, iQog) by their continuous lengthy 
 speeches contrived that a session should last un- 
 interruptedly for eighty-six hours. The old spirit 
 remained unchanged. The Socialist party was un- 
 able to defend the liberty of education, to break 
 the all-powerful Clerical monopoly of the schools, 
 or to save the mass of the town-dwellers from 
 the tragic rise in the cost of living caused by the 
 unbridled egoism of the Agrarian party. No Lib- 
 eral party knew how to profit by the critical and 
 decisive moments — when there was urgent need 
 of money or of a reform of the army at enormous 
 cost — to strengthen its constitutional rights against 
 the superior powers. Even the popular impetus 
 which should have flooded and inspired the whole 
 of the new policy was lacking. Thirty years ago 
 the Parliament of the Curias fiercely opposed the 
 occupation of Bosnia, several times even provok- 
 ing the intervention of the Crown; the new 
 Peoples' Parliament meekly ratified the annexa- 
 tion, costing some 500,000,000 crowns (about £20,- 
 800,000)." — V. Gayda, Modern Austria: Its racial 
 and social problems, pp. 52-57. — See also Austria- 
 Huncivry: igo5-igo6. 
 
 1907. — Effects of universal and equalized suf- 
 frage in Austria. — Elections were held in Austria 
 a few months after the passage of the law which 
 introduced equal and universal male suffrage, and 
 the character and disposition of the elected Reichs- 
 rath, which met in June, 1907, afforded indications 
 of some remarkable effects from the extension and 
 equalizing of the franchise. It was expected, of 
 course, to popularize the Reichsrath, and break 
 the domination of the upper classes in that body; 
 but, according to reports, it has done much more. 
 Prior to iSq6, the members of the ahgeordneten 
 or lower house of the Reichsrath, then number- 
 ing 353, were all divided into four sections, elected 
 by four classes of people. The new law swept 
 away the whole system of a classified representa- 
 tion, and the representative house was leveled to 
 one footing, as a body of deputies from the people 
 at large. The most conspicuous effect of this in 
 the elections appears to have been a sudden break 
 of the power which the German element in the 
 much-mixed population of the Austrian dominion 
 had been able to exercise hitherto. Hence, it must 
 be the fact that the Germans held far more than 
 
 their proportion of the property which the old 
 system represented, and derived from that, for- 
 merly, a weight in the Reichsrath which their 
 numbers cannot give them on the equalized vote. 
 Altogether, in the various Cisleithan states — the 
 two Austrias proper, Bohemia, Moravia, Galicia, 
 Silesia, Salzburg, Tyrol, Styria, Carinthia, Car- 
 niola, Istria, Dalmatia — they formed a little more 
 than one third of the total population, the other 
 two thirds being mainly Slavonic, in many di- 
 visions, principally Czech, Polish, and Slovene. — 
 See also Suffrage, Manhood: Austria. 
 
 1907. — Final negotiations of a new financial 
 Ausgleich. See Austria-Hungary: 1907. 
 
 1908-1909. — "Greater Serbia conspiracy." — 
 Agram trials. — Friedjung trial. See Austria- 
 Hungary: igoS-igog. 
 
 1909. — Language quarrel in Austria. — "Amid 
 deafening uproar from the Czech Radicals, the 
 Austrian premier has submitted to the Chamber 
 [February 3, 1909] two bills for the regulation of 
 the Bohemian language question. The bills, which 
 in present circumstances appear to have little 
 chance of becoming law, divicie Bohemia into 239 
 judicial and 20 administrative districts. Of the 
 former, 95 are German, 138 Czech, and the re- 
 mainder mixed, while of the administrative dis- 
 tricts five are German, 10 Czech, and five mixed. 
 In the German districts German is to be the pre- 
 dominant language, and in the Czech districts 
 Czech, while in the mixed districts, which include 
 Prague, the two languages are placed on an equal 
 footing. Provision is, however, made for the use 
 of either language if necessary throughout the 
 whole province." — A^. Y. Evening Post. 
 
 A telegram to the same journal from Vienna, 
 March 10, reported: "The Lower House of the 
 Austrian Parliament, which closed on February 
 5, after a scene of extraordinary turbulence aris- 
 ing from old racial ill-feeling between the Ger- 
 mans and the Czechs, reopened to-day with every 
 promise of a continuance of the disorders. The 
 galleries of the House were crowded with partisans 
 of the two factions, and as soon as the ministers 
 appeared hostile shouts came from the Czech and 
 radical benches, drowning the cheers of the mem- 
 bers of the Left party and the Poles. 
 
 "Premier von Bienerth, amid an incessant tu- 
 mult, declared the nineteenth session opened, say- 
 ing he hoped the work would be crowned with 
 success and the proceedings not disturbed. His 
 statement sounded ironical in face of the un- 
 broken uproar." 
 
 The following is a later press despatch, No- 
 vember 2, from Vienna: "The Emperor has ac- 
 cepted the resignations of the two Czech Min- 
 isters in the Austrian Cabinet, and has sanctioned 
 the laws adopted by the Diets of Upper and 
 Lower Austria, Salzburg and Vorarlberg, to es- 
 tablish the unilingual German character of those 
 provinces. In the name of the Czech people the 
 Czech National Council addressed yesterday a 
 telegram to the Emperor begging that the laws 
 might not be sanctioned, since, runs the telegram, 
 they affect the honour of the Czech people and 
 must cause constant racial strife both in the prov- 
 inces and in Vienna, 'which is not only the capital 
 of Lower Austria, but is also the capital of the 
 whole empire and of all its races. These laws are 
 a dangerous beginning of constitutional changes 
 in your Majesty's glorious empire.' A copy of the 
 telegram was sent to the Polish leader, Dr. Glom- 
 binski, with an 'expression of the deepest regret 
 that members of the Polish party should have 
 supported as Ministers these anti-Slav laws.' " 
 
 A revival of turbulent obstruction to legislative 
 proceedings in the lower house of the Austrian 
 
 713
 
 AUSTRIA, 1910 
 
 World War 
 Republic Created 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1919 
 
 Reichsrath led, at last, in December, to the enact- 
 ment of rules which so enlarged the powers of 
 the speaker as to enable him to suppress factious 
 obstruction ?nd to suspend deputies whc cutiage 
 the decencies of behavior in the Chamber. The 
 measure was limited in its operation to a year, 
 but was expected to be prolonged. 
 
 1910. — Statistics of trade unions. See Labor 
 
 ORO.^N'IZ.'iTION: IQIO-IQig. 
 
 1913-1918. — Strife for territory in Galicia. 
 See Galici.a: iqi3-iQiS. 
 
 1914. — Attitude of peoples in the Dual Mon- 
 archy towards the World War. See .\ustria- 
 Hu.N'GARv: 1014-1915. 
 
 1914. — Economic and political situation. See 
 World War: Diplomatic background: 12. 
 
 1914-1915.— Pan-German plan. See Pan-Ger- 
 hu.nism: Pan-German League and its branches. 
 
 1914-1917. — Attitude of Poland in war against 
 Russia. See Poland: 1914-1017. 
 
 1914-1918. — Shipping, effect of World War. 
 See Commerce: Commercial age: 1914-1921. 
 
 1915. — Adriatic question. See .\driatic ques- 
 tion: Treaty of London. 
 
 1916 (November 21). — Death of the Emperor 
 Francis Joseph. See .\ustria-Hungarv: 1916 
 (November 21). 
 
 1916-1917. — Accession of Charles I. — Great in- 
 terest was centered on the appearance of Charles I 
 (emperor of .Austria and king of Hungary), before 
 the Reichsrath in the spring of 191 7. The youth- 
 ful monarch (twenty-nine years old at the corona- 
 tion) succeeded his great-uncle, Francis Joseph I 
 (whose reign up to his death lasted for sixty-eight 
 years), on November 21, 1916. With war raging 
 for over two years on all the fronts of the em- 
 pire, Emperor Charles' address vaguely held forth 
 promises of giving recognition to the aspirations 
 of the people in Galicia and the kingdom of Bo- 
 hemia. He alluded to the new phase the Russian 
 situation had taken and declared that .Austria- 
 Hungary was always ready to extend a helping 
 hand to its neighbor on the East, at the same 
 time inferring that with another such loss to the 
 .•\llies the "good end of the war will be achieved." 
 — He also declared, "I shall always be a just, af- 
 fectionate, and conscientious ruler of my dear 
 peoples in the sense of the constitutional idea 
 which we have taken over as a heritage from our 
 forefathers, and in the spirit of that true democ- 
 racy which during the storms of the world war 
 has wonderfully stood the ordeal of fire in the 
 achievements of the entire people at home and at 
 the front." — See also .\ustria-Hungarv: 1916- 
 1917. 
 
 1917-1918. — Economic dependence on Hun- 
 gary. See Hvng.^rv: 1917-1918. 
 
 1917-1918. — Disintegration of subject nation- 
 alities. See .\ustrl\-Hvngarv: r9i7-i9i8. 
 
 1918. — Armistice with the Allies, November 3. 
 See .■\rsTRn-HuNGARv; 1918: Military debacle; and 
 Italy: iqiS. 
 
 1918-1919.— New political factions.— Abdica- 
 tion of Charles I. — Karl Seitz elected president. 
 — The signing of the armistice on November 
 II, 1918, brought out four political groups striv- 
 ing for ascendancy in German .\ustria. One of 
 these was the German National Committee, of 
 which a number of Socialists like Herr Seitz were 
 members. .Another was the Viennese Democrats 
 who were opposed to any union with Germany. 
 The third group was chiefly made up of workmen 
 who held extreme views, and lastly, a party headed 
 by Cardinal Piffl, which was aiming, through un- 
 derground methods, at the restoration nl the 
 monarchy. This plot was soon discovered and 
 Cardinal Piffl was placed under guard. .At the 
 
 very outset German Austria voiced its desire to 
 be annexed by Germany. Under Secretary of 
 State Bauer at V'ienna, in a telegram to Commis- 
 sioner Haase of Berlin, declared on November 15, 
 1918, "German .Austria has given expression to 
 its will to be united again with the other parts of 
 the German Nation from which it was forcibly 
 separated fifty-two years ago." The telegram 
 also urged that negotiations for such a union be 
 entered into without delay. ".Austrian general 
 elections were held on February 15, 1919, with 
 four million men and women participating. The 
 National Constituent .Assembly, thus chosen, con- 
 vened on March 4, its membership comprising 70 
 Social Democrats, 04 Christian Socialists (Cleric- 
 als), and 91 adherents of minor groups. Karl 
 Seitz, leader of the Social Democrats, was elected 
 president ; a coalition ministry of Social Democrat.^ 
 and Christian Socialists was formed under Karl 
 Renner as chancellor; and a republican constitu- 
 tion for German .Austria was drafted and subse- 
 quently adopted. [See below 1920 (October-De- 
 cember)]. Ex-Emperor Charles [who had abdi- 
 cated November 12] sought refuge in Switzerland 
 in March, 1919 ' — C. J. H. Hayes, Brief history of 
 the great -war, p. 35b. — See also .Austria-Hungary: 
 iQiS: German Austria becomes a republic. 
 
 1919 (June). — Boundaries with Germany fixed 
 at Peace Conference. — Independence recognized 
 by Germany. See Versailles, Treaty of: Part 
 II; Part III: Section VI. 
 
 1919. — Austrian settlement. — Treaty of St. 
 Germain (Sept. 10, 1919). — "The preliminary 
 draft of the .Austrian Treaty had been presented 
 to the enemy delegates on June 2. The terms were 
 regarded in Vienna as a 'death sentence,' and the 
 government strove desperately to secure some ame- 
 lioration. The remnant of the .Austrian Empire, 
 however, which constituted the republic with 
 which the .Allies were dealing was bankrupt. 
 starving, and threatened w'ith revolution, and it 
 was in no position to resist. [For reduced domin- 
 ions, see Europe: Modern Period: New map ol 
 Europe.] The attitude of the .Austrian negotiators 
 was more conciliatory than that of the Germans 
 had been, and as a result of the exchange of 
 notes during July and August some concessions 
 were made by the Allies. France, however, re- 
 mained firm in refusing to permit a union with 
 Germany. The .Allies pointed out to the .Aus- 
 trian Germans their responsibility in forcing the 
 war, and insisted that the plight in which they 
 now found themselves was the natural and in- 
 evitable outcome of their prolonged 'policy of 
 ascendancy' within the old empire. With bitter- 
 ness of spirit the .Austrian Assembly bowed to the 
 inevitable, and voted to accept the Treaty, though 
 they protested particularly at the detachment of 
 the Germans of Bohemia and the Tyrol, and at 
 the prohibition of union with Germany, which 
 they asserted violated the terms of the armistice. 
 They also declared that the reparation clauses 
 were impossible of fulfilment. On September 10 
 the Treaty was signed at St. Germain. By join- 
 ing in this act, China became a member of the 
 League of Nations. Rumania refused at the time 
 to sign the Treaty, because of its references to fu- 
 ture agreements guaranteeing the rights of minori- 
 ties. On December q, after considerable discus- 
 sion, Rumania agreed to the wishes of the .Allies 
 and the next day signed the Treaties with Austria 
 and Bulgaria, and the special treaty dealing with 
 minorities within Rumania. [See Rumania: 1919: 
 Rumania's treatment at Paris. 1 The Jugo-Slavs 
 also withheld their signature from the Treaty with 
 .Austria" — .A. P. Scott, Introduction to the peace 
 treaties, pp. 211, 223. — See al'^ci Si Gkrmain, 
 
 714
 
 AUSTRIA, 1919 
 
 Economic Dixlress 
 Party Conflicts 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1920 
 
 Treaty of. — The treaty was signed on Sept. lo, 
 1919; it delimited the boundaries of German- 
 speaking Austria to comprise the states of Upper 
 and Lower Austria, Styria, Carinthia, Salzburg, 
 Northern Tyrol and Vorarlberg. 
 
 1919. — Attitude on question of Fiume. — Dis- 
 putes with Italy. See Fiume: 1919: Orlando's 
 withdrawal from the Peace Conference. 
 
 1919 (September). — Protest against the treaty. 
 — Economic distress. — "Confined within the nar- 
 row boundaries of a few provinces, with a starv- 
 ing, unemployed population dependent for food 
 and coal upon none too friendly neighboring 
 countries and subject to the ravages of disease, 
 with trade completely paralyzed and a govern- 
 ment drifting helplessly toward bankruptcy, the 
 remnant of the former Austrian Empire has had 
 a desperate struggle for e.xistence during the year 
 under review. On September 6 the National As- 
 sembly by a vote of 97 to 23 accepted under pro- 
 test the Treaty of St. Germain . . . which was 
 later ratified, the German party being a unit in op- 
 position. Following the disposition of the treaty 
 the cabinet was reorganized; Dr. Karl Renner, the 
 Chancellor, became Minister of Foreign Affairs; 
 Herr Jodok ^ink, Vice-Chancellor; Herr Eldersch, 
 Interior; Dr. Rudolph Ramek, Justice; Dr. Julius 
 Deutsch, Military Affairs; Dr. Richard Reisch, 
 Finance; Herr Stockier, Agriculture; Herr Zerdik, 
 Commerce; Herr Paul, Transportation; Herr 
 Hanusch, Social Administration ; Dr. Johann 
 Lowenfeld, Food Supplies; Professor Michael 
 Mayr, Constitutional and Administrative Reforms. 
 Despite this reorganization, conditions did not 
 improve. During November it was reported that 
 in Vienna alone 100,000 men were unemployed, 
 6,000 families homeless, 2,500,000 persons on the 
 verge of starvation, and 80 per cent of the chil- 
 dren suffering from rickets. ... A long-anticipated 
 political upheaval came on June n, when the 
 cabinet tendered its resignation. For some weeks 
 before, the Left had felt that the Christian Social- 
 ist or government party has steadily blocked legis- 
 lation to which the former were pledged, but the 
 crisis was hastened when at Epatz gendarmes fired 
 into a crowd which was demonstrating against 
 profiteering in food and many were killed. The 
 government was accused of blocking an investi- 
 gation and punishment of the soldiers. Reports 
 of a strong movement in Tyrol, Salzburg and por- 
 tions of Upper Austria to join Bavaria and create 
 a Catholic kingdom under Prince Rupprecht con- 
 tributed to the fall of the government. Anti- 
 Semitic demonstrations as well as threatened mon- 
 archist uprisings frequently occurred during the 
 last months of the year." — E. D. Graper and H. J. 
 Carman, Record of political events (Political 
 Science Quarterly, Sept., 1020). 
 
 1919 (October). — Relief by Quakers. See In- 
 ternational Relief: American friends. 
 
 1919. — Statistics of trade unions. See Labor 
 organization: loio-iqip. 
 
 1919-1920. — Post-war tariff changes. See 
 Tariff: 1919-1920: Germany. 
 
 1919-1921. — Unemployment insurance. See 
 Social Insurance: Recent developments: 1Q19- 
 iQ2i: Later unemployment insurance legislation. 
 
 1920. — Resignation of Chancellor Renner. — 
 Mediation of President Seitz. — The long drawn 
 out struggle within the coalition between the So- 
 cial Democrats and the Christian Socialists came 
 to a climax when Chancellor Renner and his So- 
 cial Democratic colleagues resigned from the cabi- 
 net on June 11. The resignation was a direct re- 
 sult of the attack made on the minister of war, 
 Herr Deutsch, in the National Assembly, because 
 of the latter's new Armv decree, which was ve- 
 
 hemently denounced, both by the Christian So- 
 cialists and the Pan-Germans, who were bitterly 
 opposed to the provision making the soldiers' coun- 
 cils of the new army immune from all super- 
 vision of officers. The Pan-Germans and the 
 Christian Socialists charged that the purpose of 
 the provision was evidently to destroy discipline 
 and to bolshevize the army. Rather than give in 
 to the Social Democrats the Christian Socialists 
 threatened to resign from the cabinet. This step 
 was, however, anticipated by the Social Democrats 
 who themselves withdrew from the cabinet. In 
 order to understand the underlying causes of the 
 break in the coalition government, the fundamental 
 differences in the program of the two important 
 groups of the coalition must be remembered. The 
 Social Democrats are primarily advocates of a con- 
 stitutional settlement of the federalization of the 
 important industries along centralistic lines. The 
 Christian Socialists also avowed a policy for fed- 
 eralization, but demanded on the other hand, that 
 provinces be given autonomy in the matter. Then, 
 too, while the Social Democrats looked toward a 
 union with Germany the Christian Socialists strict- 
 ly opposed that scheme. A faction of the latter 
 group openly demanded that a new Austro-Ba- 
 varian monarchy be formed, with a Hapsburg 
 on the throne. Dr. Heim, leader of the Bavarian 
 Catholic Peasant party and acting as dictator of 
 Bavaria, supported this plan, it being favored 
 particularly by the agricultural people of Tyrol 
 and Salzburg. The Social Democrats, charged that 
 the Christian Socialists were deliberately obstruct- 
 ing the work of the National Assembly and that 
 they are also scheming jointly with the reaction- 
 aries of Hungary and Bavaria. The split which 
 brought about Chancellor Renner's withdrawal 
 from the cabinet was hastened also by the boycott 
 declared against Hungary by international labor. 
 While the Social Democrats supported the block- 
 ade in every possible way, the Christian Socialists 
 bitterly opposed it. In order to solve the crisis 
 a proposal was made to the effect that a bourgeois 
 block be formed in which the Christian Socialists, 
 the Pan-Germans and other less important anti- 
 Socialist factions should form their own cabinet. 
 Another suggestion called for the dissolution of 
 the assembly and a new general election. Both 
 proposals were welcomed by the Social Demo- 
 crats, particularly the first one, since they argued 
 that the bourgeois coalition would soon find itself 
 helpless and thus leave the field open for a clear 
 working class government. In the interim, how- 
 ever, the president of the republic, Herr Seitz, 
 took matters in hand by acting as mediator in 
 negotiations between the two opposing factions. 
 The negotiations, which closed on July 4 with a 
 compromise, provided for a so-called "concen- 
 trated cabinet." This new cabinet was to be made 
 up of representatives of all parties and propor- 
 tionally to each party's strength in the assembly. 
 Thereupon Chancellor Renner was urged to 're- 
 tain his former post, and, in addition, the port- 
 folio of foreign affairs. Renner consented to re- 
 sume his work and the crisis was averted. 
 
 1920. — Intentions in Albania. — Admitted to 
 League of Nations. See Italy: iq20 (June) ; and 
 League of Nations: First meeting of the as- 
 sembly. 
 
 1926. — New ministry. — Census statistics. — 
 Treaty with Rumania. — The second cabinet of 
 the Austrian republic was formed under the lead- 
 ership of the Christian Socialist. Dr. Mayr. An 
 innovation was introduced in the process of se- 
 lecting the candidates, who were elected by their 
 respective parties on the basis of proportional 
 representation in the Assembly, instead of, as 
 
 7I.S
 
 AUSTRIA 
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 
 
 heretofore, being appointed by the president. This 
 departure was the outcome of the compromise ef- 
 fected by President Seitz between the Christian So- 
 cialists and the Social Democrats. The head of 
 the cabinet holds the portfolio of constitutional 
 reform and does not bear the title of chancellor. 
 A census of the republic taken on Jan. 31, iq.;o, 
 revealed a population of 6,067430 — a decrease in 
 the same territorial limits of 227,209 since the 
 previous (igio) census. The population of Vien- 
 na, the capital, was 1,842,000, against 2,149,800 
 just before the outbreak of the war in 1914. 
 
 A commercial treaty with Rumania, to hold for 
 one year, was concluded. Among the provisions 
 for commercial exchange Rumania agreed to fur- 
 nish Austria with oil, cereals, and raw material, 
 receiving railroad supplies, manufactured products 
 and agricultural machinen,- in return. 
 
 1920 (October-December). — Constitution 
 adopted. — President Hainisch elected. — On Oct. 
 I, 1920, a constitution was adopted for the Aus- 
 trian republic which provided for a president chosen 
 by the two houses (Natioiialrat and Bundesrat) 
 for a term of four years. In accordance with this 
 provision President Michael Hainisch was elected 
 to office on Dec. 9, 1920. Dr. Michael Mayr was 
 appointed State Chancellor and Minister of Foreign 
 Affairs. 
 
 1921 (August 23). — Treaty of Peace with 
 United States. See U. S. A.: 1921 (July-August): 
 Peace with Germany and Austria. 
 
 1921. — Incorporation of provinces in Jugo- 
 slavia. See B.ALK.Ax states: 1921: Jugo-Slavia. 
 
 AUSTRIA, Constitution of.— Principal pro- 
 visions. — The new constitution of the Austrian re- 
 public was framed in a series of legal enactments 
 during 1919 and 1920. Austria was declared a fedr 
 eral democratic republic comprising eight states, 
 
 namely, seven provinces and the city of Vienna. 
 The basic law established the federal legislature to 
 consist of two chambers, the National Council or 
 Diet (Nationalrat), to be elected by universal suf- 
 frage on the basis of proportional representation, 
 and the Federal Council (liundesrat), to be chosen 
 by the Landtags of the states. The National Coun- 
 cil serves four years and its enactments are sub- 
 ject to a strictly hmited veto power of the Federal 
 Council, which consists of forty-six delegates, ap- 
 portioned as follows: Lower Austria (Niederoester- 
 reich), twenty-two — city of Vienna twelve and the 
 province ten; Upper Austria and Styria (Oberoes- 
 terreich und Steiermark), six each; Carinthia 
 (Karnthen), Salzburg, Tyrol and Vorarlberg, three 
 each. The German portion of Western Hungary, 
 named Burgenland, awarded to .'Vustria by the 
 Treaty of Saint-Germain (q. v.) was still unrepre- 
 senteci in the National Council at the close of 192 1. 
 The two councils in joint assembly constitute the 
 Federal Assembly, whose sole functions are to elect 
 the president and to declare war. The president's 
 term is four years, and he may be re-elected only 
 once. The cabinet is chosen by the National Coun- 
 cil, to which it is responsible. Each province has 
 a Provincial Assembly (Landesversammlung) con- 
 sisting of a single chamber also elected by universal 
 suffrage. Local government — education, agriculture, 
 charities, ecclesiastical affairs, pubUc works, etc., fall 
 within the scope of the Provincial .Assemblies, each 
 of which is headed by a committee or Landesaus- 
 schuss. Each commune is represented by a council 
 to manage its affairs and to select the BUrgermeister 
 (mayor) from its members. 
 
 Also in: H. Kelsen, Verfassungsgesetze der Re- 
 public Oesterrekh. — A. Merkl, Verjassung der Re- 
 public Oeslerreich. 
 
 AUSTRIA, House of. See Hapsburg dynasty. 
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 
 
 Introduction. — The defeat of Austria by Prussia 
 in 1866 awoke the Empire to the necessity of recon- 
 structing its political organization so as to grant 
 Hungary national existence, which had been denied 
 that country for twelve years. Consequently an 
 arrangement was concluded by Francis Deak, Count 
 Andrassy and Count Beust which transformed the 
 centralized Austrian Empire into the dual Austro- 
 Hungarian Monarchy. 
 
 1866. — Austro-Hungarian monarchy. — Its new 
 national life. — Its difficulties and promises. — 
 Its ambitions and aims in southeastern Europe. 
 — "Peace politicians may say that a vjar always 
 does more harm than good to the nations which 
 engage in it. Perhaps it always does, at any rate, 
 morally speaking, to the victors: but that it does 
 not to the vanquished, Austria stands as a living 
 evidence. Finally excluded from Italy and Ger- 
 many by the campaign of 1S66, she has cast aside 
 her dreams of foreign domination, and has set 
 herself manfully to the task of making a nation 
 out of the various conflicting nationalities over 
 which she presides. It does not require much in- 
 sight to perceive that as long as she held her 
 position in Germany this fusion was hopeless. 
 The overwhelming preponderance of the German 
 element made any approach to a reciprocity of 
 interests impossible. The Germans always were 
 regarded as sovereigns, the remaining nationalities 
 as subjects; it was for these to command, for those 
 to obey. In like manner, it was impossible for 
 the Austrian Government to establish a mutual 
 understanding with a population which felt it- 
 self attracted — alike by the ties of race, language, 
 
 and geographical position — to another poUtical 
 union. Nay more, as long as the occupation of the 
 Italian provinces remained as a blot on the Im- 
 perial escutcheon, it was impossible for the Gov- 
 ernment to command any genuine sympathy from 
 any of its subjects. But with the close of the war 
 with Prussia these two difficulties — the relations 
 with Germany and the relations with Italy — were 
 swept away. From this time forward Austria 
 could appear before the world as a Power binding 
 together for the interests of all, a number of 
 petty nationalities, each of which was too feeble 
 to maintain a separate existence. In short, from 
 the year 1866 Austria had a raison d'etre, whereas 
 before she had none. . . . Baron Beust, on the 
 7th of February, 1867, took office under Franz 
 Joseph. His programme may be stated as follows. 
 He saw that the day of centralism and imperial 
 unity was gone past recall, and that the most lib- 
 eral Constitution in the world would never recon- 
 cile the nationalities to their present position, as 
 provinces under the always detested and now de- 
 spised Empire. But then came the question — 
 Granted that a certain disintegration is inevitable, 
 how far is this disintegration to go? Beust pro- 
 posed to disarm the opposition of the leading na- 
 tionality by the gift of an almost complete inde- 
 pendence, and, resting on the support thus ob- 
 tained, to gain time for conciliating the remaining 
 provinces by building up a new system of free 
 government. It would be out of place to give a 
 detailed account of the well-known measure which 
 converted the 'Austrian empire' into the 'Austro- 
 Hungarian monarchy.' It will be necessary, how- 
 
 16
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1866 
 
 Political 
 System 
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1867 
 
 ever, to describe the additions made to it by the 
 political machinery. The Hungarian Reichstag was 
 constructed on the same principle as ttie Austrian 
 Reichsrath. It was to meet in Pesth, as the Reichs- 
 rath at Vienna, and was to have its own respon- 
 sible ministers. From the members of the Reichs- 
 rath and Reichstag respectively were to be chosen 
 annually sixty delegates to represent Cisleithanian 
 and sixty to represent Hungarian interests — twenty 
 being taken in each case from the Upper, forty 
 from the Lower House. These two 'Delegations,' 
 whose votes were to be taken, when necessary, col- 
 lectively, though each Delegation sat in a distinct 
 chamber, owing to the difference of language, 
 formed the Supreme Imperial Assembly, and met 
 alternate years at Vienna and Pesth. They were 
 competent in matters of foreign policy, in mili- 
 tary administration, and in Imperial finance. At 
 their head stood three Imperial ministers — the 
 Reichskanzler, who presided at the Foreign Of- 
 fice, and was ex officio Prime Minister, the Min- 
 ister of War, and the Minister of Finance. These 
 three ministers were independent of the Reichsrath 
 and Reichstag, and couM only be dismissed by a 
 vote of want of confidence on the part of the Dele- 
 gations. The 'Ausgleich' or scheme of federation 
 with Hungary is, no doubt, much open to criti- 
 cism, both as a whole and in its several parts. It 
 must always be borne in mind that administra- 
 tively and politically it was a retrogression. At a 
 time in which all other European nations — notably 
 North Germany — were simplifying and unifying 
 their political systems, Austria was found doing 
 the very reverse. . . . The true answer to these 
 objections is, that the measure of 1867 was con- 
 structed to meet a practical difficulty. Its end 
 was not the formation of a symmetrical system of 
 government, but the pacification of Hungary. . . . 
 The internal history of the two halves of the em- 
 pire flows in two different channels. Graf An- 
 drassy, the Hungarian Premier, had a compara- 
 tively easy task before him. There were several 
 reasons for this. In the first place, the predomi- 
 nance of the Magyars in Hungary was more as- 
 sured than that of the Germans in Cisleithania. 
 It is true that they numbered only 5,000,000 out 
 of the i6,ooc,ooo inhabitants; but in these 5,000,000 
 were included almost all the rank, wealth, and 
 intelUgence of the country. Hence they formed 
 in the Reichstag a compact and homogeneous ma- 
 jority, under which the remaining Slovaks and 
 Croatians soon learnt to range themselves. In the 
 second place, Hungary had the great advantage of 
 starting in a certain degree afresh. Her govern- 
 ment was not bound by the traditional policy of 
 former Vienna ministries, and ... it had man- 
 aged to keep its financial credit unimpaired. In 
 the third place, as those who are acquainted with 
 Hungarian history well know. Parliamentary in- 
 stitutions had for a long time flourished in Hun- 
 gary. Indeed the Magyars, who among their many 
 virtues can hardly be credited with the virtue of 
 humility, assert that the world is mistaken in 
 ascribing to England the glory of having invented 
 representative government, and claim this glory 
 for themselves. Hence one of the main difficulties 
 with which the Cisleithanian Government had to 
 deal was already solved for Graf Andrassy and his 
 colleagues." — Austria since Sadowa (Quarterly Re- 
 view, V. 131, pp. 90-os). — See also Turkey: 1878: 
 Excitement in England. 
 
 1867. — Description of the constitution. — Polit- 
 ical system in the dual empire. — The Austro- 
 Hungarian constitution is not a uniform state con- 
 stitution in the same sense as the German imperial 
 constitution. Its older stages are, in respect to 
 the German Austrian crown lands, the same as 
 
 those of the German empire. But the homogeneity 
 of Austria-Hungary is expressed in principle in 
 the Pragmatic Sanction of the emperor Charles V. 
 in 1 7 13, wherein all the sectional possessions of the 
 whole monarchy bound themselves to the same 
 order of succession and thus to permanent asso- 
 ciation. [See Austria: 171S-1738; 1740.] The 
 unity of the state is from the outset monarchical. 
 The title of emperor of Austria dates from 1804. 
 "The constitution of the centralised State was 
 legally formed by the Imperial Diploma of i860 
 and the Patent of 1861, depending on it. This 
 constitution comprises a Landtag and Reichsrat 
 with almost the same principle of division as in 
 the German Imperial draft constitution of 184S, 
 except that there is only the one sovereign in 
 question throughout. A distinction is also made 
 in this Act of the Constitution between the coun- 
 tries belonging to the Hungarian Crown and those 
 of the Austrian section, but the preponderating 
 intention is centralization. . . . The legal inde- 
 pendence and territorial integrity of Hungary and 
 its neighbouring countries is solemnly declared by 
 the oath of the sovereign. In this the older Hun- 
 garian constitutions are recurred to, and especially 
 the revolutionary legislation of 184S. By this act 
 of separation two States, themselves divided sev- 
 eral times, arose with foundation and superstruc- 
 ture, each of which already has an imperial con- 
 stitution superior to its provincial constitutions, 
 but which have the same monarch, and hence 
 carry on certain joint institutions either naturally 
 or by means of a treaty. The principal concerns 
 of the united State are: the joint Ministry for 
 Foreign Affairs, the Imperial Ministry for War 
 for all matters relating to the joint army and the 
 navy (the Landwehr on both sides being still 
 maintained), the joint Ministry for Finance for 
 joint expenses, whilst the financial systems are 
 separate, a joint ddministration for Bosnia and 
 Herzegovina. The preliminary estimate for joint 
 expenses is presented to a meeting of the Dele- 
 gations for deliberation (and to be passed), which 
 meeting consists of deputations from the parlia- 
 ments of both sides. . . . The agreements at pres- 
 ent [1917] valid between Austria and Hungary 
 date from December, 1907, and last till December 
 31, IQ17. They include the determination of the 
 contribution obligatory on both sides (Beitrags- 
 p fitch t) and the customs and commercial treaty. 
 There is a Court of Arbitration for disputed ques- 
 tions. Bosnia and Herzegovina were taken into 
 the joint customs union in 1879. In this respect 
 nothing was altered by the declaration of the he- 
 reditary sovereignty of the Imperial house in 1008. 
 The administration there is inspected by Austria 
 and by Hungary. Central European treaties are 
 prepared by the joint Foreign Office, but must be 
 passed by the separate national representative 
 bodies. Hence it is true to say: we do not know 
 exactly whether we have to deal with one or with 
 two States." — F. Naumann, Central Europe, pp. 
 325-327. — "The study of politics in Austria-Hun- 
 gary is complicated for the British or American 
 reader by the fact that although he may be ac- 
 quainted with the theory of parliamentary gov- 
 ernment upon which the systems of the two coun- 
 tries rest, he will not necessarily be able to under- 
 stand the way in which it is worked. One of the 
 Hungarian leaders recently took advantage of 
 this circumstance to enlist the sympathies of Eng- 
 lish people by postulating a case in which the 
 scene was moved from Hungary to Great Britain. 
 The defeat on vital questions of a great political 
 party was described as being followed by the call- 
 ing of the Opposition by the King, who, instead 
 of instructing the putative Prime Minister to form 
 
 717
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1867 
 
 Foreign 
 Policy 
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1882 
 
 a government to carry out the mandate given to 
 his party by the electors, asked him, certainly, to 
 form a cabinet, but at the same time required him 
 to carry out the desires of the sovereign, and not 
 of the nation as expressed at the election. Natu- 
 rally this presentation of the case is likely to win 
 sympathy from the British public, and, moreover, 
 it is in its broad features a true account of what 
 happened after the final destruction of the Liberal 
 party in Hungary in 1004. It is, however, at the 
 same time utterly misleading, because the parlia- 
 mentary systems of Austria and Hungary are 
 quite different in their workings from that of 
 Great Britain. It is, indeed, impossible to ap- 
 preciate the political situation without a knowl- 
 edge of history. ... Lit is therefore necessary to 
 recapitulate the main points involved.! Every 
 thing in Austro-Hungarian political life dates from 
 1867. At that time the King ratified the Hungari- 
 an Constitution and bestowed a similar one on his 
 Austrian lands. In doing so he entered, as Em- 
 peror of Austria, into an arrangement with the 
 independent allied kingdom of Hungary. His own 
 constitutional position was defined in so doing. 
 Hungarians accepted the arrangement, though a 
 certain number of irrcconcilables refused to ac- 
 knowledge it, and Louis Kossuth died abroad 
 rather than do so. Like all constitutions, the 
 Hungarian one is not in the form of a treaty or 
 .single document but is the growth of centuries, 
 partly founded on fundamental principles recog- 
 nised by the rulers and partly on long-established 
 custom. The position of a king in such a consti- 
 tutional monarchy is affected more by precedent 
 than by actual law. . . . The King of Hungary 
 both reigns and governs, though he is bound to 
 govern with the will of the people ; but conversely 
 the people cannot govern without him. The King 
 and Parliament are indivisible for this purpose. 
 King Francis Joseph has successfully asserted hi? 
 prerogatives, in that he has actually refused to 
 sanction bills passed by both houses of parliament. 
 Without his sanction they are of course invalid, 
 as they would be in any constitutional mon- 
 archy. . . . The relations of the Crown and the 
 ministers, and of the ministers and the political 
 parties, are quite foreign to anything within the ex- 
 perience of parliamentary life in Britain. The 
 ministers are the servants of the Crown rather 
 than of parliament, and the political parties have 
 to shape a programme which the Crown will sanc- 
 tion before they arc likely to be asked to take 
 office. In the event of a deadlock the Crown, 
 which is bound to summon parliament at stated 
 intervals, can exercise its prerogative and dismiss 
 it on the same day. . . . Besides the Austrian par- 
 liament and the Hungarian parliament, and the 
 Austrian government and the Hungarian govern- 
 ment, there is that debated land of Common .Af- 
 fairs over which the Delegations hold sway. The 
 Hungarian dislike of creating anything like a dual 
 parliament led to the extraordinary device of these 
 two bodies, debating separately and not allowed 
 even to speak to each other, like two children 
 whose mothers will not 'make friends.' They com- 
 municate in writing and. if it is necessary to take 
 a joint vote, they vote without debating! The 
 position of the Emperor and King towards this 
 amorphous creation was naturally defined by the 
 compact of 1867 which gave rise to it. [See also 
 Jugo-Slavia: 1848-1S67.] The ministers of com- 
 mon affairs {Kaiserlicli and Koiiiglich) are also re- 
 sponsFBle to the Emperor and King, a mutual 
 responsibility complicated by the obligation to 
 obtain a third ratification, from the Delegations, 
 ■who in their turn are answerable to the parlia- 
 ments of the two countries. The King on his 
 
 7 
 
 side is responsible also to the ministers and par- 
 Uaments, with one extremely important reserva- 
 tion. In the department of defence he is, as Com- 
 mander-in-Chief, not responsible to anyone in the 
 appointment of officers or the organisation of the 
 army. The minister of war is not required to 
 countersign acts dealing with these, though re- 
 sponsible for such matters as commissariat, equip- 
 ment, and the technical side, while the parlia- 
 ments of the two countries, by the standing laws, 
 retain the control of recruiting. The contingent 
 of recruits is voted annually by each parliament, 
 and in case either refuses to contribute their quota 
 there is no possible means of coercion." — .\. R. and 
 E. Colquhoun, Whirlpool of Europe, pp. 280-203. 
 
 1867. — Foreign policy before 1867. — Subse- 
 quent change. — "In past times, when Austria had 
 held France tight bound between Spain, Germany, 
 and the Netherlands, she had aspired to a domi- 
 nant position in Western Europe; and, so long as 
 her eyes were turned in that direction, she natu- 
 rally had every interest in preserving the Ottoman 
 Empire intact, for she was thus guaranteed against 
 all attacks from the south. But, after the loss of 
 her Italian possessions in 1S05, and of part of 
 Croatia in iSoo. after the disasters of 1840, i8sq 
 and 1866. she thought more and more seriously of 
 indemnifying herself at the expense of Turkey. It 
 was moreover evident that, in order to paralyze 
 the damaging power of Hungary, it was essentia! 
 for her to assimilate the primitive and scattered 
 peoples of Turkey, accustomed to centuries of 
 complete submission and obedience, and form thus 
 a kind of iron band which should encircle Hun- 
 gary and effectually prevent her from rising. If, 
 in fact, we glance back at the position of Austria 
 in i860, and take the trouble carefully to study 
 the change of ideas and interests which had then 
 taken place in the policy of France and of Russia, 
 the tendencies of the strongly constituted nations 
 who were repugnant to the authority and influ- 
 ence of .Austria, the basis of the power of that 
 empire, and, finally, the internal ruin with which 
 she was then threatened, we cannot but arrive at 
 the conclusion that Austria, by the very instinct 
 of self-preservation, was forced to turn eastwards 
 and to consider how best she might devour some, 
 at least, of the European provinces of Turkey. 
 Austrian statesmen have been thoroughly con- 
 vinced of this fact, and, impelled by the instinct 
 above-mentioned, have not ceased carefully and 
 consistently to prepare and follow out the policy 
 here indicated." — V, Caillard, Bulgarian imbroglio 
 (Fortnightly Revirw. Dec, 1885). — For policy in 
 Balkans, see also Jugo-Slavia: 1867- 1014. 
 
 1868 (March). — Commercial treaty with Ger- 
 many. See Tariff: 1S53-1870. 
 
 1868-1917. — Relations and conditions among 
 Jugo-Slav peoples. See Jugo-Slavia: 1868-1017. 
 
 1869-1883. — Parochial poor relief abolished. 
 See Cn.\RiTiEs: .Austria and Hungary: 1783-1Q00 
 
 1873. — Government control of telegraphs. See 
 Telegraphs and telephones: 1873: .Austria-Hun- 
 gary. 
 
 1878. — Treaty of Berlin. — Secret treaty with 
 English. — Acquisition of Bosnia and Herzego- 
 vina. See Berlin, Congress of; Bosnia-Herze- 
 govina: 1878; TvRKEv: 1878; and World War: 
 Causes: Indirect: d, 2. 
 
 1878-1914.— Friendship for Turkey.— Desire for 
 influence in Bosporus. See Bosporus: 1878-1014. 
 
 1879. — Austro-German Alliance. See Dual 
 Alliance; Triple .Alliance: Austro-German al- 
 liance of 1870; World Wak: Causes: Indirect: c. 
 
 1880-1914. — Red Cross and relief work. See 
 Red Cross: 1864-1014. 
 
 1882. — Triple Alliance. See Italy: 1870-1901 ; 
 
 18
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1887 
 
 Attitude of AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1900-1903 
 Hungary ' 
 
 Triple Alliance: Predicament of Italy: 1870-1882; 
 Content of the treaties; Success of. 
 
 1887 (February 20). — Triple Alliance renewed. 
 — Hostility to France. See Triple Alliance: 
 Content of the treaties. 
 
 1891. — Special commercial treaty with Ger- 
 many. — Triple Alliance renewed. See Tariff: 
 1870-1900; Triple Alliance: Content of the 
 treaties. 
 
 1897. — Rescript continuing the Ausgleich. See 
 Austria: 1897 (December). 
 
 1898 (April). — Withdrawal from the blockade 
 of Crete and the "Concert of Europe." See Tur- 
 key: 1897-1899. 
 
 1898 (June). — Sugar conference at Brussels. 
 See Sugar Bounties. 
 
 1898 (Sept.). — Assassination of the empress. — 
 On Sept. 10, Elizabeth, empress of Austria and 
 queen of Hungary, was assassinated at Geneva 
 by an Italian anarchist, Luigi Luccheni, who 
 stabbed her with a small stiletto, exceedingly thin 
 and narrow in the blade. The murderer rushed 
 upon her and struck her, as she was walking, with 
 a single attendant, on the quay, towards a lake 
 steamer on which she intended to travel to Mon- 
 treux. She fell, but arose, with some assistance, 
 and walked forward to the steamer, evidently un- 
 aware that she had suffered worse than a blow. 
 On the steamer, however, she lost consciousness, 
 and then, for the first time, 'the wound was dis- 
 covered. It had been made by so fine a weapon 
 that it showed httle external sign, and it is prob- 
 able that the empress felt little pain. She lived 
 nearly half an hour after the blow was struck. 
 The assassin attempted to escape, but was caught. 
 .\s Swiss law forbids capital punishment, he could 
 be only condemned to solitary confinement for 
 life. This terrible tragedy came soon after the 
 festivities in .Austria which had celebrated the 
 jubilee year of the emperor Francis Joseph's reign. 
 
 1899 (May-July). — Representation in the 
 Peace Conference at The Hague. See Hague 
 
 CONFERENCES. 
 
 1899-1901. — Attitude towards impending re- 
 volt in Macedonia. — Anarchism in Balkan 
 States. See Turkey: 1899-1901; and Balkan 
 States: 1899-1901. 
 
 1900 (June-December). — Cooperation with the 
 powers in China. See Ciuna: 1899-1900 (Sep- 
 tember-February). 
 
 1900. — Archduke Francis Ferdinand renounces 
 the right of his children to succeed to the 
 thrones. — Since the tragically mysterious death 
 in 1889 of the emperor's only son, Rudolph, the 
 heir presumptive to the several Hapsburg crowns 
 had been the Archduke Francis Ferdinand, son of 
 the emperor Francis Joseph's brother, the late 
 .'\rchduke Karl Ludwig. In order to contract a 
 morganatic marriage in 1900 he renounced the 
 right of his children to the imp>erial and regal 
 succession. — See also Austria: iqoo. 
 
 1900-1903. — Attitude of Hungary toward the 
 Dual Monarchy. — Clerical interference in poli- 
 tics. — Elections of 1901. — Austrian-German dis- 
 satisfaction with the' commercial Ausgleich. — 
 Promises of electoral reform. — Its effect on the 
 various nationalities of the Austro-Hungarian 
 empire. — On Sept. 25, iqoo, the Times correspond- 
 ent summarized an important speech by the Hunga- 
 rian statesman. Count Apponyi, to his constituents, 
 in which the same forecast of a political catas- 
 trophe in Austria was intimated. Count Apponyi, 
 — "after dwelling upon the importance of main- 
 taining the Ausgleich, remarked that affairs in 
 Austria might take a turn which would render its 
 revision indispensable owing either to a complete 
 suspension of the constitutional system in Austria, 
 
 the maintenance of which was one of the condi- 
 tions of the arrangement of 1867, or such modifi- 
 cations thereof as would make the existing form 
 of union between the two countries technically 
 untenable or politically questionable. In either 
 case the revision could only confirm the inde- 
 pendence of Hungary. But even then Count Ap- 
 ponyi believed that by following the traditions 
 of Francis Deak it would be possible to harmo- 
 nize the necessary revision with the fundamental 
 principles of the Dual Monarchy. It would, how- 
 ever, be a great mistake to raise that question un- 
 less forced to do so by circumstances. Count 
 Apponyi went on to say that the importance ot 
 Hungary, not only in the Monarchy but through- 
 out the civilized world, was enormously increased 
 by the fact that it secured the maintenance of 
 Austria-Hungary, threatened by the destructive 
 influence of the Austrian chaos, and thus consti- 
 tuted one of the principal guarantees of European 
 tranquillity. The peace-abiding nations recognized 
 that this .service to the dynasty, the Monarchy, 
 and the European State system was only possible 
 while the constitutional independence and national 
 unity of Hungary was maintained. It was clear 
 to every unprejudiced mind that Hungarian na- 
 tional independence and unity was the backbone 
 of the Dual Monarchy and one of the most im- 
 portant guarantees of European peace. But the 
 imposing position attained by Hungary through 
 the European sanction of her national ideal would 
 be imperilled -if they were of their own initiative 
 to raise the question of the union of the two 
 countries and thus convert the Austrian crisis into 
 one affecting the whole Monarchy." In Novem- 
 ber a significant speech in the Reichsrath at Buda- 
 Pesth, by the very able Hungarian prime minister, 
 M. Szcll, was reported. "He foreshadowed the 
 possibility of a situation in which Austria would 
 not be able to fulfil the conditions prescribed in 
 the Ausgleich Act of 1867 with regard to the 
 manner of deaUng with the affairs common to 
 both halves of the Monarchy. He himself had, 
 however, made up his mind on the subject, and 
 was convinced that even in those circumstances 
 the Hungarians would by means of provisional 
 measures regulate the common affairs and interests 
 of the two States, 'while specially asserting the 
 rights of Hungary and its independence.' An- 
 other version of this somewhat o acular statement 
 runs as follows: — 'Hungary, without infringing the 
 Ausgleich law, will find ways and means of regu- 
 lating those affairs which, in virtue of the Prag- 
 matic sanction, are common to both States, while 
 at the same time protecting her own interests and 
 giving greater emphasis to her independence.' M. 
 Szell added: — 'When the right time comes I shall 
 explain my views, and eventually submit pro- 
 posals to the House. Meanwhile, let us husband 
 our strength and keep our powder dry.' The self- 
 confident and almost defiant tone of this forecast, 
 coming from a responsible statesman accustomed 
 to display such prudence and moderation of lan- 
 guage as M. Szell, has made a profound impres- 
 sion in Austria. It assumes the breakdown of the 
 Austrian Parliamentary system to be a certainty, 
 and anticipates the adoption by Hungary of one- 
 sided measures which, according to M. Szell, will 
 afford more effective protection to its interests and 
 confirm its independence. This seems to be in- 
 terpreted in Vienna as an indication that the Hun- 
 garian Premier has a cut and dried scheme ready 
 for the revision of the Ausgleich in a direction 
 which bodes ill for Austria. An article in the 
 A^etie Frrie Presse. of Vienna, on the hostility of 
 the Vatican to .\ustria and Hungary was partially 
 communicated in a despatch of October ii. The 
 
 719
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1900-1903 
 
 Tis2a's 
 Ministry 
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1903-1905 
 
 Vienna journal ascribes this iiostility in part to 
 resentment engendered by the alliance of Catholic 
 Austria with Italy, and in part to the Hungarian 
 ecclesiastical laws. It remarked: "Never has 
 clericalism been so influential in the legislation and 
 administration of this Empire. The most power- 
 ful party is the one that takes its 'mot d'ordre' 
 from the Papal Nunciature. It guides the feudal 
 nobiUty, it is the thorn in the flesh of the Ger- 
 man population, it has provoked a 20 years' re- 
 action in Austria, and, unhindered and protected, 
 it scatters in Hungary that seed which has thriven 
 so well in this half of the Monarchy that nothing 
 is done in Austria without first considering what 
 will be said about it in Rome." A day or two 
 later some evidence of a growing resentment in 
 Austria at the interference of the clergy in politics 
 was adduced: "Thus the Czech organ, inspired 
 by the well-known leader of the party. Dr. 
 Stransky, states that a deputation of tradespeople 
 called on the editor and expressed great indigna- 
 tion at the unprecedented manner in which the 
 priests were joining in electoral agitation. They 
 added that they 'could no longer remain mem- 
 bers of a Church whose clergy took advantage of 
 religious sentiment for political purposes.' The 
 Peasants' Electoral Association for Upper .Austria 
 has just issued a manifesto in which the following 
 occurs: — 'V\'e have for more than 20 years in- 
 variably elected the candidates proposed by the 
 Clerical party. What has been done during that 
 long period for us peasants and small tradespeople? 
 What have the Clerical party and the Clerical 
 members of Parliament done for us? How have 
 they rewarded our long fidelity? By treason. 
 . . . We have been imposed upon long enough. 
 It is due to our self-respect and honour to eman- 
 cipate ourselves thoroughly from the mamelukes 
 put forward by the Clerical wire pullers. We must 
 show that we can get on without Clerical lead- 
 ingstrings.' 
 
 "In the year iqoo the Emperor called a fresh 
 ministry, with Korber at its head, which at first 
 seemed likely to get along peacefully. In a short 
 time, however, the Czechs began to reiterate their 
 demands, and after more stormy scenes the Reichs- 
 rath was again dissolved. At the elections of 1901 
 the Clericals lost heavily and the Extreme Left 
 increased its numbers, the Schoenerer group of Pan- 
 German Radicals now numbering twenty-one. A 
 feature of this period was the increasing enmity 
 between these parties and the Church. In 1902 
 the German Popular Party separated from the 
 more moderate sections. The relationship with 
 Hungary came up for debate on the question of 
 the renewal of the commercial compromise. A 
 number of .Austrian-Germans were entirely dis- 
 satisfied with the basis of the arrangement, and 
 still more with the way in which' it was always 
 worked by Hungary, which is able, by political 
 solidarity in the Delegations, to get the whip 
 hand. Korber went so far as to declare that 
 without more favourable terms for Austria he 
 would not sanction a fresh commercial Ausgleich, 
 and the difficulties reached such an acute stage 
 that he \vanted to resign, but was persuaded to 
 remain in office to avoid the chaos which other- 
 wise must ensue. The new army bills were a 
 great bone of contention, and the action of Hun- 
 gary in refusing to ratify them led to a similar 
 policy of obstruction on the part of the Czechs 
 and Croats. In 1905 Gautsch took office again, an 
 appointment which was made by the Crown in 
 much the same spirit as that which, shortly after, 
 dictated the calling of Fejervar>- to form a Hun- 
 garian cabinet. The Emperor and King, faced 
 with irreconcilable opposition in each countiy. 
 
 720 
 
 was making a desperate attempt to obtain a ma- 
 jority for the policy he favoured by means of com- 
 promises, but the unsuccess of these tactics ulti- 
 mately led to a fresh phase (described more fully 
 later on) in which the question of electoral reform 
 was used to disarm the opposition in both coun- 
 tries. The expedient of giving his sanction to 
 universal suffrage was not dictated by any demand 
 for that reform in the Austrian Parhament, though 
 a measure of electoral reform had )ong been 
 pressed for. On the whole, all the Slav nationalist 
 parties are favourable to the scheme, except the 
 Poles, who naturally oppose bitterly any measure 
 which would put power in the hands of the Ruthe- 
 nian peasants. 'The German Liberals are some- 
 what divided in their opinions, but the Clerical 
 Party are not opposed to it, except that portion 
 closely allied with the old Conservatives. The 
 Socialists are naturally delighted, and the Gov- 
 ernment is now devoting itself to a considera- 
 tion of the best basis for' the reform. In this 
 rapid survey of the course of Austrian parliamen- 
 tary history since the .\usgleich too little has, per- 
 haps, been said of the Hungarian question in 
 Austria — that is the ever-recurring problem of 
 the relations of the two halves of the monarchy. 
 If all internal questions between Germans, Czechs, 
 Poles, Slovenes, Clericals and Anti-Clericals, Na- 
 tionalists and Federalists could by some miracle 
 have disappeared there would still have remained 
 this perennial source of discontent. The German 
 party particularly, although in its old form re- 
 sponsible for the Ausgleich, is now far from united 
 in approving the basis on which the two countries 
 are joined together, and is practically unanimous 
 in declaring that, whatever the changes made, 
 they must not be in favour of Hungary, which al- 
 ready has much the best of the bargain." — A. R. 
 and E. Colquhoun, iVIiirlpool of Europe, pp. 302- 
 30s. 
 
 1900-1913. — Desire for expansion in Near East. 
 See NovT Bazar. 
 
 1902. — New commercial treaty with Germany. 
 See T.-vriff: 1902-1Q06. 
 
 1902. — Triple Alliance renewed. See Triple 
 Allianxe: Content of the treaties. 
 
 1902 (June). — Sugar Bounty Conference. See 
 SuG.AR Bounty Coxferenxe. 
 
 1903-1904. — Concert with Russia in submitting 
 the Miirzsteg program of reform in Macedonia 
 to Turkey. See Macedonia: 20th century; and 
 Turkey: 1903-1908. 
 
 1903-1905. — Language struggle.— Count Tisza's 
 ministry. — Rise of new parties. — "In 1903 began 
 the agitation over the new army bills, and the 
 'language of command' question became a promi- 
 nent feature in the Nationalist propaganda. A 
 campaign of obstruction ensued, which led to the 
 most violent scenes both in and out of the cham- 
 ber. Count Stephen Tisza, son of the old Liberal 
 Premier and heir to the Liberal traditions, tried in 
 vain to form a Cabinet. He and his party are 
 upholders of the .iXusgleich, and although identified 
 with the name Liberal in Hungary are rather the 
 Tory Moderate Party. Baron Hedervary, the suc- 
 cessful autocratic Ban of Croatia, was asked to 
 form a Cabinet, and did so by dropping the army 
 bills for the time, but King Francis Joseph was 
 by no means in favour of these concessions, and 
 announced his intention of maintaining all his pre- 
 rogatives as regards 'my army.' He flung down 
 the gauntlet to the Independents, and summoned 
 Hedervary again, but in 1903 this minister was 
 succeeded by one who was expected to be more 
 successful in obtaining a genuine support from 
 parliament, and Count Stephen Tisza took office. 
 For two years he held things together with a
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1903-1905 -,A°'w,!n'Lr„ AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1905-1906 
 
 with Hungary 
 
 strong hand, but despite his high character, his 
 autocratic temper made him enemies, and private 
 jealousies, aided by his lack of tact and organis- 
 ing power, eventually caused his downfall. When 
 he saw the opposition gathering force he tried to 
 put through a coup d'etat to smash the obstruc- 
 tion. An alteration in the standing orders was 
 carried, but the most violent scenes followed, and 
 after a struggle Tisza was forced to resign. The 
 break up of the once great Liberal Party and the 
 final defeat of Count Stephen Tisza took place in 
 1905, and by this time the second great reorganisa- 
 tion of parties in Hungary was accomplished. 
 With Tisza's fall the old Liberal Party melted as 
 if by magic, nor are there any signs at present 
 of its revival. The defeat of the Liberals was 
 effected by a coalition of four groups which have 
 been formed out of the Extreme Right and Ex- 
 treme Left of earlier days. These were the Clerical 
 Independents, the Independence party under Kos- 
 suth and Apponyi, the Clerical People's party, and 
 the Liberal Dissentients or Andrassy group. The 
 Clerical Independents have been fused with the 
 Independence Party, which for various reasons is 
 now [1907] the most prominent in the state and 
 the one whose leaders make most noise in the 
 world. In 1905 this party represented the old 
 Irreconcilables or Extreme Nationalists, who 
 seemed at one time to have almost disappeared, 
 merged in the Liberals. They desired the aboli- 
 tion of the compromise of 1867 so that Hungary 
 might return to the status of 184S, when for a 
 short time she was an entirely separate kingdom. 
 The connection of the son of Louis Kossuth with 
 this group gives it a fictitious resemblance to the 
 Patriotic Party of 1848, and with him is associated 
 the picturesque figure of Albert Apponyi, the 
 Magyar orator, whose fine periods and impressive 
 appearance have made him the effective representa- 
 tive of his country in England and America. The 
 two Clerical parties are united in their desire to 
 increase the influence of the church, to check the 
 growing power of the Jews, and to repeal the 
 civil marriage and divorce lav/s, but, while the 
 Clerical Independents join with Kossuth's party, 
 the Clerical Populists desire the maintenance of 
 the Ausgleich with a progressively separatist in- 
 terpretation. The Andrassy group, whose leader 
 belonged to the Liberals by tradition and was 
 originally the close friend of Tisza, has consid- 
 erable influence through his great historic name 
 and family. He was left somewhat stranded by 
 the events of rooj and maintained a sort of bal- 
 ance between Tisza and the Opposition, but finally 
 threw his weight against the former, influenced, 
 it is said, by personal feelings, which had much to 
 do with the fall of the Liberal premier. Like his 
 father, Count Tisza, a man of high attainments 
 and sterling character, was lacking in the tact 
 and suppleness essential for the difficult task be- 
 fore him. Besides the four main groups there was 
 one other, composed of the personal supporters of 
 ex-Premier Banffy, and these five bodies, all tak- 
 ing such different points of view, were in 1903 
 bound together by a solemn pact for the over- 
 throw of the Liberal party and government." — 
 A, R. and E. Colquhoun, Whirlpool of Europe, 
 pp. 309-311. 
 
 1904-1909. — Effects of the Russo-Japanese War 
 in Europe and on the Triple Alliance. See 
 Triple Alliance. 
 
 1905. — Action with other powers in forcing 
 financial reforms in Macedonia on Turkey. See 
 Turkey: 1903-1908. 
 
 1905-1906. — Count Tisza's resignation. — Fejer- 
 v4ry ministry. — Hungarian demands. — Deadlock 
 between the king and parliament. — Forceable 
 
 dissolution of parliament. — Final agreement be- 
 tween the king and the coalition party. — 
 Wekerle cabinet. — Universal male suffrage 
 adopted. — "One of the last acts of Count Tisza 
 was to put through the commercial treaties with 
 Germany, to which reference has been made, his 
 desire being to checkmate the Independence party 
 by presenting them with the accomplished fact, so 
 that the commercial compromise must be renewed. 
 The King wished Tisza to continue to hold office, 
 but that minister was neither able nor willing to 
 continue to govern without parliamentary support. 
 The King therefore called on Baron Fejervary, an 
 old soldier, whose personal devotion to his sov- 
 ereign did not permit him to refuse, and who had 
 been Minister of National Defence for a quarter 
 of a century. With some difficulty Fejervary got 
 a cabinet together, but, despite his high character 
 and personal popularity, it was impossible not to 
 realise that he was appointed against the sense of 
 the parliamentary majority and represented the 
 sovereign but not the people. He was, in fact, 
 defeated at once in the House, but was instructed 
 by his sovereign to remain in office and try to 
 come to terms with the Coalition." — A. R. and E. 
 Colquhoun, Whirpool oj Europe, pp. 312-313, — In 
 the August number (1905) of The American Re- 
 view oj Reviews, Count Albert Apponyi, leader 
 of one of the parties united more or less in the 
 Hungarian apposition, gave the Hungarian side 
 of the political issues with Austria. In part, he 
 wrote: "The writer had the honor of delivering 
 at St. Louis, at the Arts and Science Congress of 
 last year, a short historical account of our re- 
 lation with the Austrian dynasty. There are to 
 be found the chief facts, which show: (i) That 
 our forefathers called that dynasty to the Hun- 
 garian throne' not in order to get Hungary ab- 
 sorbed into an Austrian or any other sort of em- 
 pire, but, on the contrary, under the express con- 
 dition of keeping the independence and the con- 
 stitution of the Hungarian kingdom unimpaired; 
 (2) that this condition has been accepted and 
 sworn to by all those members of the dynasty 
 (Joseph II. alone excepted) who ascended the 
 Hungarian throne; (3) that, nevertheless, practical 
 encroachments on our independence, followed by 
 conflicts and reconciliations, have been at all 
 epochs frequent; (4) but that a judicial fact never 
 occurred which could be construed into a modifi- 
 cation of that fundamental condition of the dy- 
 nasty's title to Hungary. . . . The physical per- 
 son of the ruler is, in truth, the same in both 
 countries, but the juridical personality of the King 
 of Hungary is distinct and, as to the contents of its 
 prerogative, widely different from the judicial 
 personality of the Emperor of Austria. Hungary 
 is the oldest constitutional country on the European 
 Continent. The royal prefogative in her case is 
 an emanation of the constitution, — not prior to 
 it, — and consists in such rights as the nation has 
 thought fit to vest in her king. In Austria, on the 
 other hand, the existing constitution is a free gift 
 of the Emperor, and has conferred on the people 
 of Austria such rights as the Emperor has thought 
 fit to grant to them. The title of 'Emperor of 
 Austria-Hungary' . . . [sometimes used] is sim- 
 ply nonsense. The time-hallowed old Hungarian 
 crown has not been melted into the brand-new 
 Austrian imperial diadem. That imperial title 
 docs not contain, to any extent, the Hungarian 
 royal title. The Emperor of Austria, as such, has 
 just as much legal power in Hungary as the 
 President of the United States has. He is, jurid- 
 ically speaking, a foreign potentate to us. On 
 these fundamental truths, no Hungarian — to what- 
 ever party he may belong — admits discussion. . . . 
 
 721
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1905-1906 fi°"J^"^*t AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1905-1906 
 
 The Liberal party, vanquished at the last elec- 
 tions, does not in the least differ from the victo- 
 rious opposition as to the principles laid down in 
 these pages; it only advocated a greater amount 
 of forbearance against the petty encroachments 
 which practically obscured them. That policy of 
 forbearance became gradually distasteful to the 
 country ; seeing it shaken in the public mind, the 
 recent prime minister, Count Tisza, formed the 
 unhappy idea of gaining a new lease of power on 
 its behalf by a parliamentary coup d'etat. The 
 rules of the House were broken, in order to pre- 
 vent future obstruction, chiefly against miUtary 
 bills. This brought matters to an acute crisis. 
 The parliament in which that breach of the rules 
 had taken place became unfit for work of any sort, 
 the country had to be consulted, and down went 
 the Liberal party and the half-hearted policy it 
 represented with no hope for revival. 
 
 "The army question, with its ever-recurring dif- 
 ficulties, is a highly characteristic feature of the 
 chronic latent conflict between the Austrian and 
 the Hungarian mentality. It amounts to this, that, 
 as we are a nation, we mean to have an armed 
 force corresponding to our national individuality, 
 commanded in our language, and serving under 
 our flags and emblems. It would be unnatural 
 for any nation, and would be, in fact, an ab- 
 dication of the title of 'nation,' to renounce such 
 a national claim. The Austrians, on the other 
 hand, — and, unhappily, their influence is still prev- 
 alent in this question, — not yet having abandoned 
 the idea of a pan-.^ustrian empire, uncompro- 
 misingly adhere to the present military organiza- 
 tion, which makes the German language and the 
 imperial emblems prevalent throughout the whole 
 army, its Hungarian portion included. The lat- 
 ter [the coalition] had now crystalHsed their joint 
 ambitions into a demand for the use of Hun- 
 garian as the language of command, a plank in 
 the nationalist platform which is discussed on its 
 own merits in Chapter X. The suggestion of 
 minor concessions, as we have seen, was rejected 
 by the Coalition, and with frank cynicism some 
 of the party allowed that the language question 
 was not the end but the beginning of their de- 
 mands. The new Minister of the Interior, a young 
 t-iberal, Mr. Kristoffy, now had the idea that the 
 only way to break up the Coalition was to raise 
 some question on which they were fundamentally 
 divided, and accordingly he proposed a scheme of 
 universal suffrage. The opposition of the Crown 
 to such a revolutionary proposal delayed its sanc- 
 tion for some time, and gave the Coalition time to 
 consider its position and to organise resistance on 
 new lines. The quondam leader of the Liberal 
 government. Count Tisza, came forward as a bitter 
 opponent of the proposal, which is indeed far 
 from palatable to a .large majority of the con- 
 servative and liberal landowners, who have the 
 old aristocratic prejudices against popular govern- 
 ment and who are also afraid that the vote given 
 to the Slav and Roumanian population will shake 
 the dominant position of the Magyars. This suf- 
 frage question must be touched on again, as it 
 is undoubtedly one of the most crucial in the his- 
 tory of modern Hungary. Meanwhile, because 
 of the condition of deadlock caused by the dis- 
 agreement between the Kinc and Parliament, af- 
 fairs throughout the country were in a state of 
 ex lex. Taxes could not be collected, officials re- 
 signed rather than be identified with an un- 
 popular government, and it was with the greatest 
 difficulty that a cabinet could be kept together. 
 Fejervary. a hich-souled and high-principled Mag- 
 yar, was placed in a most painful position, but 
 the debt of gratitude he owed to his sovereign 
 
 (who had saved his life during a severe illness by 
 sending to Berlin for the necessary surgical help 
 and paying all expenses himself) did not allow 
 the old soldier to waver in his fidelity. The Coali- 
 tion were offered office on terms, but these they 
 would not entertain, and Fejervary had to remain 
 at the post of duty as the target of the Opposi- 
 tion. The Pariiametit had, by law, to be sum- 
 moned at intervals every year, but the Crown has 
 the power to dissolve it at once, and this was 
 done by the King in June, September, October, and 
 December, 1905, and again in February, 1906. In 
 view of the opposition shown to the commissary 
 who, in February, was charged to enter the House 
 and read the Royal rescript, Francis Joseph 
 promptly backed his prerogatives with force and 
 sent a colonel and soldiers with drawn swords to 
 carry out his orders. The Coalition leaders, being 
 advised that their legal position did not allow them 
 to resist this order, submitted for the time, but 
 signed a declaration that, on March ist, 1906, when 
 by law the Parliament must again be summoned, 
 they would refuse to be dissolved and would re- 
 main sitting. Such procedure would be flat re- 
 bellion. The most dramatic situation which, in 
 modern times, has occurred in any State or Par- 
 liament was thus created. . . . The Coalition, it 
 must be mentioned, had at first tried to make 
 terms with the Crown, but their tactics had se- 
 verely angered Francis Joseph, because, while their 
 representatives avowed t'iiat all they wanted was 
 the dismissal of the Fejervary-Kristoffy Cabinet, 
 the leaders openly declared that they would only 
 make peace on terms of substantial concession. 
 After this the old monarch refused to negotiate, 
 and, summoning the Coalition to his presence, 
 read them his list of conditions and curtly dis- 
 missed them. Up to the end of the first week in 
 April nothing was done and chaos reigned. Fe- 
 jervary, it is said, urged his master to avoid the 
 crisis by not summoning the parliament at all, 
 but Francis Joseph was firm in his determination 
 that he would fulfil the letter of the constitution 
 and let the first breach (if made) come from the 
 other side. On Monday, .April gth. the summons 
 for the new Parliament had to go out. On Sat- 
 urday the miracle happened. .At the eleventh 
 hour the Coalition and the Crown came to terms, 
 which were actually arranged on the last day of 
 grace, and by these terms the Coalition took 
 office. . . . The vital questions of the language of 
 command, economic independence, and, practi- 
 cally, of the continuance of the Dual Monarchy, 
 are thus postponed. . . . .And the transition gov- 
 ernment contains practically all the leaders of any 
 note except, of course. Count Tisza, who has re- 
 tired into private life on his estate. There Is 
 Francis Kossuth, leader of the Independence party 
 and heir to the prestige and popularity, as well 
 as the rather inflated eloquence of his father, but 
 not to the mental and physical stamina of that 
 remarkable man. That the son of Louis Kossuth, 
 who died in exile rather than recognise the hated 
 Habsburg as King of Hungary, should now be a 
 minister of that same Habsburg is one of time's 
 revenges. The younger Kossuth is more pliable 
 than his father, but he and his party still stand 
 [1007! for the idea of complete separation and 
 the repudiation of the Ausgleich. With him is 
 Count Andrassy, one of the party who wrought 
 the work of '67, the inheritor of the Deak tra- 
 dition, if there is such a thing as political con- 
 sistencv. Dr. Wekerle, who introduced the anti- 
 clerical laws, and Count Zichy, a Catholic, arc 
 colleagues, and towering over all is that handsome, 
 specious, frothy politician who. beginning life as 
 a Don Quixote, now gives one the impression of 
 
 722
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1906 
 
 Agram 
 Trials 
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1908-1909 
 
 an American demagogue — the great Hungarian 
 nobleman, Count Albert Apponyi. [The king re- 
 quested Wekerle to foim a cabinet including in it 
 Kossuth, Apponyi, Andrassy and Zichy. At the 
 election held shortly afterward the Independence 
 party won about 250 out of 400 seats. The new 
 parliament was opened on May 22, igo6.] . . . 
 By Autumn, 1906, a new crisis arose, with refer- 
 ence to the levy of recruits for the common army, 
 which the King desired and the Hungarian gov- 
 ernment refused. A secret pact with the Coalition 
 gave the King the right to demand recruits in case 
 of 'unavoidable necessity,' and the European situa- 
 tion seemed to him to fulfil those conditions. The 
 Hungarians, however, saw only an opportunity 
 for wringing from him fresh concessions." — A. R. 
 and E. Colquhoun, The whirlpool of Europe, pp. 
 313-316, 316, 316-317, 317-— In Austria, the grand 
 event of iqo6 was the franchise reform, which ex- 
 tinguished the whole system of class representation 
 and established a representative Parliament on the 
 broad basis of a manhood vote. "Every male 
 citizen who had completed his twenty-fourth year 
 and was not under any legal disability was en- 
 titled to be registered as a voter after one year's 
 residence. Every male, including members of the 
 Upper House, who had possessecl Austrian citizen- 
 ship for at least three years and had completed his 
 thirtieth year, was eligible for election as a deputy ; 
 but members of the Upper House elected to the 
 Lower could not sit in both at once. Voting was 
 to be direct in all provinces. In Galicia, how- 
 ever, every constituency would return two depu- 
 ties, each voter having one vote, so as to permit 
 of the representation of racial minorities, the popu- 
 lation being composed of Poles and Ruthenians. 
 Voting was to be obligatory under penalty of a 
 fine wherever a provincial Diet should so decide. 
 This Bill was passed, in the face of the opposi- 
 tion of the Conservative and aristocratic members 
 of both Houses and of the extreme representatives 
 of the various nationalities, mainly through the 
 influence of the Emperor. He regarded it as the 
 only way to get rid of Parliamentary obstruction, 
 and the best means of stimulating loyalty to the 
 dynasty." 
 
 Two changes of ministry occurred in Austria 
 during iqo6. Baron Gautsch. as premier, giving 
 way to Prince Hohenlohe in April, and the latter 
 resigning in June, to be succeeded by Baron Beck. 
 Count Goluchowski, who had been Austro-Hun- 
 garian minister of foreign affairs since 1895, re- 
 signed in October, because of ill-feeling against 
 him in Hungary, and was succeeded by Baron 
 Aehrenthal, 
 
 1906 (January-April). — At the Algeciras Con- 
 ference on the Morocco question. See Al- 
 geciras; France: 1904-1906; and Germany: 1905- 
 1906. 
 
 1906. — Triple Alliance renewed. See Triple 
 Alliance: Content of the treaties. 
 
 1907. — Final negotiation of a new financial 
 Ausgleich. — Adjustment of the vexed questions 
 of tariff, joint debt, and revenue quotas. — The 
 long struggle toward a readjustment of the Aus- 
 gleich or agreement of 1867 between Austria and 
 Hungary, on its financial side, was brought to a 
 close on October 8, 1907, by the signing of a new 
 agreement that day. Tt continued the common 
 customs arrangement until 1917. and provided that 
 commercial treaties concluded with foreign powers 
 must be signed by the representatives of both 
 Austria and Hungary — a concession by Austria to 
 Hungary. Hitherto the Austrian minister of 
 foreign affairs had conducted such negotiations. 
 On its part, Hungary made the minor concession 
 of conforming its stock exchange laws to those of 
 
 Austria. Previously, excise duties had been com- 
 mon to both states; henceforth they were to be 
 left to each state to be determined and levied. In 
 the joint fiscal burden, Hungary's contribution was 
 increased from 34.4 per cent to 36,4 per cent. 
 Provision was made for a court of arbitration, com- 
 posed of four Austrian and four Hungarian mem- 
 bers, who must chose a ninth member as chair- 
 man. 
 
 1908. — Acquisition of submarines in navy. See 
 Submarines: 1900-1918. 
 
 1908-1909. — "Greater Serbia Conspiracy." — 
 Agram trials. — Friedjung trial. — Among the state- 
 ments made to defend the annexation of Bosnia- 
 Herzegovina [see Turkey: 1008J was one by Dr. 
 Friedjung, the Austrian historian, who asserted 
 that the Southern Slavs were planning a conspiracy 
 against Austria-Hungary. As a result a long prose- 
 cution was conducted at Agram which excited 
 wide attention throughout Europe. After a trial 
 lasting seven months (from April to October) 
 sentences were handed down in the cases of fifty- 
 two school teachers, priests, and other' persons 
 charged with connection with what was known 
 as the "Greater Serbia conspiracy." The prisoners 
 were accused of h^h treason in participating in a 
 movement for the union of Croatia, Slavonia, and 
 Bosnia to Serbia, even carrying the propaganda 
 among the troops of the .Austro-Hungarian army. 
 Thirty of the accused were condemned to terms 
 of rigorous imprisonment varying from four to 
 twelve years, and twenty-two were acquitted. The 
 persons condemned gave notification of appeal. In 
 the meantime attacks were being made on the 
 authenticity of Dr. Friedjung's statement. "Dr. 
 Friedjung, then an intimate friend and adviser ol 
 Baron von Aehrenthal, stated in the Neue Frcie 
 Presse of March 25, 1900 — the famous article that 
 led to the Friedjung trial of December 1909 . . . 
 Early in 1909 when war, or, as the Austrian ex- 
 pression ran, a 'punitive expedition' against Ser- 
 via was believed to be imminent, a selection of 
 these 'proofs' [of a conspiracy] was placed at the 
 disposal of Dr. Friedjung, who based upon them 
 a series of articles intended to be a war blast. . 
 Dr. Friedjung accused M. Supilo, the Serbo-Croa- 
 tian leader, and several other prominent Serbs and 
 Croatians of the Monarchy, of corrupt and trea- 
 sonable intercourse with the Servian government. 
 The publication led to the trial, in which the 
 'proofs' were demonstra'ted to be clumsy forgeries; 
 and to the disclosure made by Professor Masaryk 
 in the Delegations of 19 10 that the forgeries had 
 been largely the work of a man named Vasitch 
 who had been employed for the purpose of forging 
 them by Captain von Svientochowski of the Aus- 
 tro-Hungarian Legation at Belgrade. During the 
 Friedjung trial. Count Aehrenthal informed a 
 foreign visitor that he had never believed in the 
 authenticity of the 'proofs' of the conspiracy; and 
 he hastened, as soon as their veritable character 
 was revealed, to disavow them in his official or- 
 gan, the Fremdenblalt. He appeared insensible 
 to the discredit which the exposure of his methods 
 had cast upon the Monarchy. His principles that 
 all is fair in diplomacy and that 'accomplished 
 facts are the most conclusive proofs,' doubtless 
 explain his conduct ; and but for the withdrawal 
 of Russian support from Scrvia after the inter- 
 vention of the German .Embassador at St. Peters- 
 burg on March 24. 1900 — the day before the pub- 
 lication of the Friedjung article — .Aehrenthal's 
 methods might have been placed beyond possibil- 
 ity of detection by an Austro-Hungarian invasion 
 of Servia and by the execution, under martial law, 
 of the Serbo-Croatians whom the forgeries charged 
 with high treason. But, according to a homely 
 
 723
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1908-1909 
 
 Balkan 
 Wars 
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 19H 
 
 Italian proverb, 'II diavo'.o fa le pcntole ma non i 
 copcrchi.' " — H. W. Steed, Hapsburg monarchy, 
 pp. 24s, 259-260. — On December 31 it was an- 
 nounced from Vienna that all but two of the 
 condemned had been set at liberty pending their 
 appeal, this being consequent on the revelations of 
 forgery in the documents on which they were con- 
 victed. 
 
 1908-1909. — Arbitrary annexation of Bosnia 
 and Herzegovina. — Violence to the Treaty of 
 Berlin. — European disturbance and its settle- 
 ment. See Bosni.\-Herzegown"a: rgoS; Bulgaria: 
 1Q08-1909; D.^lj.l\tia: 1861-1914; and Turkey: 
 1 90S; World War: Causes: Indirect: e. 
 
 1908-1914. — Need of German friendship. See 
 World War: Diplomatic background: 71, vi. 
 
 1909. — Program for naval construction. See 
 War, Prep.^ratiox for: 1909: Italian and Austrian 
 program. 
 
 1909 (December). — Alleged plan of a feder- 
 ated triple monarchy. — "There has been circulated 
 in Paris a curious document, full of figures, sup- 
 posed to be based on authentic information. This 
 document relates to the plan attributed to Prince 
 Lentur and Count d'Aehrenthal to change the dual 
 monarchy of .\u5tria-Hungary into a triple mon- 
 archy. Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Dalma- 
 tia, according to the scheme, would be united into 
 an independent and constitutional kingdom, cor- 
 responding to the old Illyria. The double state, 
 Austria-Hungary, would be changed into a three- 
 fold Austria-Hungary-Illyria. A Slav nation 
 would thus stand side by side with the Teutonic 
 nation of Austria and the Magyar nation of Hun- 
 gary. Its extent would be a good deal smaller, a 
 little more than one-third, of the other two, and 
 its population about a quarter of the Hungarian 
 and one-sixth of the .Austrian. According to this 
 document, which is declared to have strong claims 
 to be considered authentic, this change would no 
 doubt be followed by a further one. Bohemia and 
 Moravia would also want home rule. The mon- 
 archy would thus become a kind of Federal state. 
 Hungary alone would remain standing strong and 
 united as the centre and leader of this federation." 
 — N. Y. Evening Post, Dec. 29, 1909. 
 
 1911. — Support of Germany in Morocco crisis. 
 — In this crisis Austria-Hungary played an unim- 
 portant part, supporting Germany in her diplo- 
 matic contest with France.^See also Morocco: 
 I9ir-i9i4. 
 
 1911-1912.— Attitude toward Italy in the 
 Turko-Italian War. — The Italian government 
 was warned by .Austria-Hungary that military op- 
 erations were not to be directed against Eurof>ean 
 Turkey, as .Austria-Hungary did not want to have 
 the Balkan question opened at that time. — See also 
 Balkan states: 1912: First Balkan War. 
 
 1911-1913. — Increase in army.' See Was, Prep- 
 aration* FOR: 1911-1913. 
 
 1912. — Berchtold proposition. See Balkan 
 States: 1912: Balkan league. 
 
 1912 (December). — Triple Alliance renewed. — 
 Balkan situation. See Italy: 1912-1914; Triple 
 .Alliance: Content of the treaties. 
 
 1913. — Austria-Hungary and the Albanian 
 question. — It was mainly at the insistence of 
 Austria that the powers intervened to prevent the 
 partition of Albania among the Balkan allies. The 
 question was settled temporarily by the London 
 conference under the presidency of Sir Edward 
 Grey by the creation of Albania as an independent 
 state. — ^See also Albania: 1913 ; Balkan States: 
 
 1912-1913- 
 
 1913. — Interest in Second Balkan War. — Re- 
 lations with Rumania. See B.\lkan St.\tes: 1913 ; 
 and Rumania: 1912-1913. 
 
 1914. — Control of railways. See Railroads: 
 1917-1919. 
 
 1914. — Austro-Hungarian foreign policy. — 
 Rivalry between Russia and Austria-Hungary. 
 — Growth of hostility between Serbia and Aus- 
 tria-Hungary. — "The foreign policy of Austria- 
 Hungary . . . had to do mostly with ambitions 
 in the Balkans and attempts to extend to the south. 
 With the new German Empire cordial relations 
 were established. With respect to Italy the old 
 ambitions were completely given over. In the 
 latter part of the nineteenth century, while other 
 European powers were making themselves greater 
 by colonial expansion the Dual Monarchy hoped 
 to reach southward along the eastern shore of the 
 Adriatic and down through the Balkans to an out- 
 let, perhaps at Salonica. As early as the War for 
 Greek Independence it was evident that Austria 
 and Russia were suspicious of each other in ri- 
 valry about the Balkans. This was more apparent 
 in 1877, when the Russo-Turkish War began. In 
 the ne.xt year, at the Congress of Berlin, when 
 Russia was forced to let a great part of what 
 she had accomplished be undone, .Austria-Hungary 
 was given the administration of the two Turkish 
 provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, peopled 
 with South Slavs, and conveniently adjoining her 
 own Slavic provinces of Dalmatia and Croatia- 
 Slavonia. In the following year she joined the 
 German Empire in alliance, from which she got 
 added protection against Russia, though Germany 
 was not yet disposed to forfeit the friendship of 
 Russia. Year by year the rivalry of Austria-Hun- 
 gary and Russia for greater power and influence 
 in the Balkans increased." — E. R. Turner, Europe, 
 p. 444. — ".Austria came more and more to be 
 Russia's principal opponent in the Balkans, dread- 
 ing the extension of Russian power southward. 
 During much of this time either Russia or Austria 
 would gladly have got the Ottoman provinces, 
 but failing that, each was resolved that no other 
 power should get them." — Ibid., p. 449. — "Not 
 only did Austria-Hungary desire to expand south- 
 ward through the Balkans, but her great river, 
 the Danube, emptied into the Black Sea, and much 
 of her commerce went out past Constantinople. 
 That is to say, if Russia succeeded in her ambi- 
 tion, then Austria-Hungary could be largely closed 
 in and at Russia's mercy, while if .Austria got 
 what she desired, then Russia would be largely at 
 her mercy in like manner." — Ibid., p. 516. — In this 
 matter Hungary was quite as hostile as Austria 
 to the aggrandizement of Russia and the ambi- 
 tions of Rumania and Serbia. In their foreign 
 policy, therefore, the two members of the dual 
 monarchy presented a united front to the world 
 and were both equally anxious to \)uild up a 
 powerful army and navy. "In 1908 Austria-Hun- 
 gary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina, in spite of 
 a general European treaty, and in direct defiance 
 of Russia. By the Treaty of BcrHn the two Turk- 
 ish provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina had been 
 put under the control of Austria-Hungary, though 
 sovereignty continued to be vested in Turkey. 
 Actual connection with Turkey ceased, however, 
 and the government of the Dual Monarchy set to 
 work to bring order to the districts and make 
 them thoroughly subservient to its rule. The 
 people were largely debarred from professional and 
 government positions and treated as inferior to 
 Hunaarians or Germans, but considerable material 
 prosperity was brought about, and in many re- 
 spects the condition of the South Slavs in these 
 provinces was better than that of those who ruled 
 themselves in Servia and Montenegro. As time 
 went on therefore, .Austria-Hungary came to regard 
 them as part of her dominion, and Turkish own- 
 
 724
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1914 
 
 World 
 War 
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1914-1915 
 
 ership as a fiction. Thus things continued until 
 IQOS. In that year occurred the so-called Young 
 Turk revolution in the Ottoman Empire. Ignor- 
 ing the Austrian possession of Bosnia and Herze- 
 govina, the Young Turks invited the population 
 of the provinces to send representatives to an 
 assembly in Constantinople. This seemed an at- 
 tempt to prepare for Turkish possession of the 
 country again later on. But complete mastery of 
 the district was now necessary for the Teutonic 
 scheme of controlling the way down to Turkey 
 and the greater domain across the straits. Under 
 no circumstances would either Germany or Austria 
 see the loss of Bosnia and Herzegovina threatened, 
 and so Austria acted at once. October 3d, the 
 Dual Monarchy cast aside the Treaty of Berlin, 
 without consulting the other parties to the treaty, 
 and announced that the provinces were annexed. 
 A dangerous crisis ensued. Turkey, most directly 
 aggrieved, strongly protested, but could do nothing, 
 and after a while accepted pecuniary compensation. 
 Great Britain and France, who had signed the 
 Treaty of Berlin, protested. To Russia — also a 
 signatory, and much more greatly interested be- 
 cause of her position and ambition in the Bal- 
 kans — the affront was far greater and she insisted 
 that the matter be laid before a European con- 
 gress. Most furious of all was Servia, the neigh- 
 boring South Slavic state, who had long hoped 
 that, on the breaking up of European Turkey, 
 Bosnia and Herzegovina would be hers. If now 
 the provinces were finally incorporated into Aus- 
 tria-Hungary, then the dream of future Servian 
 greatness would never be realized. Accordingly, 
 while Russia was prepared to oppose the action 
 as strongly as she could, Servia was resolved to 
 fight to the death, and could with difficulty be 
 restrained from attacking her powerful neighbor." 
 — Ibid., pp. 500-501. — See also Bosnia-Herzego- 
 vina: 1908 — and Turkey: 1908. — "But in igi3> 
 after the Second Balkan War, not only was the 
 strength of Turkey as a European power so weak- 
 ened that she counted for little more than pos- 
 sessor of the incomparable site of Constantinople 
 and territories in Asia, but Servia, the bitter 
 enemy of Austria, had come out of both wars 
 with increased power and territory -and greatly 
 increased prestige. . . . Altogether, the position of 
 Germany and Austria-Hungary was much less 
 good with respect to the Balkans than before. 
 Austria greatly desired to settle at once her ac- 
 count with Servia, and reduce her permanently to 
 a position in which she could never again be a 
 source of apprehension. It was learned afterward 
 that in August 1913 Austria-Hungary tried to get 
 her partners in the Triple Alliance to join her in 
 proceeding against Servia. But the Italian gov- 
 ernment refused to give sanction, and the matter 
 was dropped until the next year." — Ibid, pp. 510- 
 511. — See also Balkan States: 1914; and Italy: 
 1913: Austrian plan to attack Serbia. — The aspira- 
 tion of Austro-Hungarian capitalists to finance rail- 
 ways and exploit in general the whole of the Bal- 
 kan peninsula to Greece — an aspiration which had 
 largely influenced the annexation of Bosnia-Herze- 
 govina — was seriously checked by the wars of 1912- 
 1913, and was the direct cause of the World War. 
 — See also World War: Diplomatic background: 
 5; 8; 69. 
 
 1914 (June). — Assassination of the archduke 
 Francis Ferdinand. — On Sunday morning, June 
 28, the archduke Francis Ferdinand, nephew of the 
 emperor Francis Joseph and heir to the Hapsburg 
 throne, was assassinated by a Pan-Serbian agitator 
 named Gavrilo Princip, who fired several shots 
 from a Browning pistol. Both the archduke and 
 his morganatic wife, the duchess of Hohenberg, 
 
 who accompanied him, were fatally wounded. 
 "He was just the man, in a word, that the 
 decrepit monarchy needed to be set up once 
 more. All that, however, the Servian plotters 
 cared little about. The circumstance that 
 signed his death warrant in Belgrade was that 
 Francis Ferdinand stood committed to the Trias 
 idea. The Trias in lieu of the Dual Monarchy. 
 The Ausghich had reached, according to him, the 
 end of its usefulness, and in place of it was to 
 come a Triple Monarchy, a confederation of three 
 distinct political entities; each part was to tie in- 
 dependent of the others, save in a few reserved 
 points. These reserved points were to be con- 
 fined to absolute essentials — the field of foreign re- 
 lations, political and economic treaties, army and 
 navy — in the main, then, those provided for in 
 the Austrian compromise with Hungary of 1867. 
 . . . Francis Ferdinand, though of purely Teuton 
 stock himself, was known as a Slavophil. He not 
 only had mastered Czech completely, but had writ- 
 ten much in that difficult tongue. He had like- 
 wise possessed himself of a familiar knowledge of 
 the other Slav tongues in Austria-Hungary, and 
 the Serbo-Croatian language he spoke perfectly." 
 — W. von Schierbrand, Austria-Hungary: The 
 Polyglot empire, pp. loi, 102, 103. — See Serbia: 
 1914; Serajevo: 1914; World War: Causes: Direct. 
 
 1914 (July). — Decision for war. — Ministerial 
 councils. — Ultimatum presented to Serbia (July 
 23). — Mobilization of troops. — Aircraft strength. 
 — Bethmann-Hollweg's review of events preced- 
 ing war. See World War: Diplomatic background: 
 13; 14; 15; 16; 25; 26; 31; 33; 73, ii; 77; Prep- 
 aration for war: a; 1914: X. War in the 
 air: a. 
 
 1914 (July 28). — Declaration of war on Serbia. 
 — Version of Austro-Serbian quarrel by Francis 
 Joseph. See World War: Diplomatic background: 
 28; 29; 31; Causes: Indirect: k. 
 
 1914 (July 30-Septemher 10). — Invasion of 
 Serbia. — Siege of Belgrade. See World War: 
 1914: III. Balkans: a, 1. 
 
 1914 (August). — Violations of Triple Alliance. 
 — Relations with Italy over war. See Italy: 
 1914: Position of Italy; World War: 1915: IV. 
 Italy: a. 
 
 1914 (August 6). — War declared on Russia. 
 See World War: Diplomatic background: 67. 
 
 1914 (August 27-September 3). — Invasion of 
 Galicia by Russians. — Capture of Lemberg. See 
 World War: 1914: II. Eastern front: d, 1. 
 
 1914 (October). — Investment of Przemysl by 
 Russians. — Summary. See World War: 1914: 
 II. Eastern front: d, 4; d, 5. 
 
 1914. — Desire to control policy in Rumania. — 
 Italy's attitude. See World War: Diplomatic 
 background: 9; 11; 1916: V. Balkan Theater: c; 
 c, 4; Italy: 1914; Austro-Serbian crisis; Baron 
 Sonnino's diplomatic duel. 
 
 1914 (November-December). — Second attack 
 and defeat in Serbia. See World War; 1914: HI. 
 Balkans: a, 2; a, 3. 
 
 1914-1915. — Attitude of the peoples in the 
 Dual Monarchy towards the war. — Hungarian 
 enthusiasm. — "From the very beginning of the 
 Austro-Serbian crisis, those natural pillars of the 
 empire, the nobility, the army, the bureaucracy, 
 and the Church, together with the German and 
 Magyar populations, rallied enthusiastically round 
 the Government and the Hapsburg throne. The 
 almost passionate phraseology of the Austrian ul- 
 timatum to Serbia, so unusual in a diplomatic 
 document of this nature, was an accurate reflection 
 of the popular mood. The Viennese press unani- 
 mously demanded decisive measures. 'The situa- 
 tion between our Government and that of King 
 
 725
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1914-1915 
 
 World 
 War 
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1914-1915 
 
 Peter has become intolerable,' asserted the Neue 
 Freie Presse. 'Our ultimatum has been the natural 
 result.' The Reichspost urged the Government to 
 take decisive measures against the Serbian foe, 
 'who is as implacable and relentless as he is das- 
 tardly.' The formal outbreak of hostilities was 
 hailed with jubilation 'When we consider the 
 provocations of which Serbia has been guilty for 
 so many years,' exclaimed the Tageblatt, 'the sol- 
 emn pledges made and broken, the defiance which 
 we have put up with from an unscrupulous neigh- 
 bor whom no kindness can appease, we experience 
 a sense of relief on this outburst of war.' Hun- 
 garian sentiment was even more enthusiastic. 'The 
 whole nation joyfully hastens to follow the call of 
 his Majesty to the flag,' cried Premier Tisza amid 
 the frantic cheers of the Hungarian deputies. 'If 
 we had stood these conditions any longer,' ex- 
 claimed Count .Albert Apponyi, head of the Opposi- 
 tion, 'we would have reached the point where 
 Europe would have called us her second "Sick 
 Man." ' 'It is peace and not war that we want ; 
 but a peace which leads to life, not to death,' 
 asserted the .\rchbishop of Esztergom, Roman 
 Catholic primate of Hungary. 'There are sit- 
 uations in political life,' said Count Julius 
 -Andrassy, 'that can be likened only to the en- 
 circling of Sedan, which demoralizes and van- 
 quishes the surrounded foe before the first shot 
 is fired. Such would have been our fate if, after 
 the continued vexations of years, after the expendi- 
 ture of many millions, caused by Serbia, we should 
 have continued to submit to the invidious attacks 
 of Russian-protected Serbia. . . . Had we waited 
 longer, our self-esteem, our self-trust, would have 
 been torn to shreds, and so would our power of 
 resistance, our inner unity, our integrity.' The 
 Magyar press displayed a decidedly bitter tone 
 against the enemy. That leading Budapest paper, 
 the Pester Lloyd, wrote. 'The Serbian Government 
 will be shown up as a nest of pestilential rats 
 which come from their territory over our border 
 to spread death and destruction.' The broadening 
 of the conflict into a war with Russia caused no 
 surprise, since Serbia had from the first been con- 
 sidered merely the catspaw of Russian imperial- 
 ism. 'The true cause of the war,' asserted Count 
 Julius Andrassy, 'is the Eastern ambition [of 
 hegemony in the Balkans] of Russia, which is as 
 old as her position as a great Power, and which 
 has long been hanging over us like a sword of 
 Damocles.' Dr. Dumba, Austro-Hungarian am- 
 bassador to the United States, undoubtedly voiced 
 the prevailing Austrian opinion when he wrote 
 in the North American Review for September, 
 igi4: 'The war between Austria-Hungary and 
 Russia may well be said to be the outcome of 
 conflicting civilizations and conflicting aims. The 
 controversy between the Dual Monarchy and the 
 Serbian Kingdom is only an incident in the greater 
 struggle between German civilization as repre- 
 sented by Austria-Hungary, and the Russian out- 
 post on the southern frontier of the Dual Monarchy 
 . . . The Serbian Kingdom is the torpedo which 
 Russia has launched at the body of Austria.' 
 Hungarian opinion tended to give the war an 
 even broader interpretation. 'Pan-Russianism, that 
 is the word!' exclaimed the Revue de Uangrie 
 (Budapest). 'No! The present war is not, as 
 certain persons assert, a war of Slavism against 
 Germanism. It is a war of a great part of civil- 
 ized Europe against Russian autocracy and Serb 
 terrorism. ... If the Triple Entente (in which 
 the empire of the Tsars holds a preponderant 
 place), should win in this war, it would mean the 
 European sluice-gates open to Muscovite autoc- 
 racy, to Cossack militarism, to all sorts of politi- 
 
 cal and religious heresies. The dyke once broken, 
 it would be the end of European civilization.' 
 
 "Such was the temper of the governing classes 
 and of the German and Magyar populations. . . . 
 Unquestionably there was much disloyalty among 
 certain racial groups. The Serb element of the 
 Yugo-Slavs, in particular, appears to have been 
 honeycombed with secessionism, and even among 
 the Croats many malcontents were discovered. 
 Some of these escaped abroad, notably the Croat 
 deputy, Hinkovitch, and these exiles presently 
 founded the 'South Slav Committee' in London, 
 to influence Entente public opinion . . . The 
 Croats, though desirous of Yugo-Slav unity, gen- 
 erally wished it in the '.\ustrian' sense; i. e., the 
 supremacy of the Croat over the Serb element in 
 any future Yugo-Slav state. . . . Croat mobs 
 marched through the streets crying, 'Death to the 
 Serbs!' Serb shops were sacked and Serb lead- 
 ers roughly handled. The Croat deputy. Dr. Sus- 
 tersics, voiced the feelings of the great majority 
 of his people when he declared; '. . . Francis Fer- 
 dinand was bound to come to this end, especially 
 as he was the friend of the southern Slavs. Im- 
 perialistic Serbia saw with alarm the rise of this 
 potent personality, this knight "without fear and 
 without reproach," who showed both the will and 
 the power to promote peaceful relations between 
 the southern Slavs and the Hapsburg dynasty.' 
 The Croats thus entered the war against their Ser- 
 bian kindred in a far more loyal frame of mind 
 than would have been possible under any other 
 circumstances. . . . The Czechs displayed neither 
 the indignant loyalty nor the bitter secessionism 
 of the Yugo-Slav populations. . . . The fierce 
 struggles which had long raged in Bohemia be- 
 tween the Czechs and the large German minority 
 constantly protected by Vienna had engendered 
 widespread Czech resentment against the Austrian 
 Government. Russian propaganda had of course 
 made the most of this golden opportunity, and 
 for some years previous to the war a genuine 
 secessionist party had existed among the Czechs, 
 with the erection of a Czech-Slovak national state 
 under Russian protection as its goal. But these 
 extremists were comparatively few in number, and 
 drastic government measures at the outbreak of 
 war quickly broke up their party organization. 
 Some of their leaders, like Professor Masaryk, es- 
 caped abroad; others, such as Dr. Kramar, were 
 imprisoned. A few were shot for high treason. 
 The most serious result of Czech discontent was 
 the poor spirit shown by Czech troops, whole 
 regiments surrendering to the enemy with prac- 
 tically no resistance. On the other hand, there 
 existed a fairly strong loyalist minority which dis- 
 liked the thought of ."Austrian disruption and 
 feared the results of Russian victory. Typical of 
 Czech loyalist press comment are the words of the 
 HIas Naroda (Prague): 'The crime of Serajevo 
 revealed, as by a lightning flash, the monarchy's 
 deplorable situation. . . . But, at one stroke, all 
 dis-sension disappeared. In vain did the enemy 
 make advances to the non-German nationalities' 
 'We are all glad to assert the close union of nation- 
 alities. ... All the nationalities are defending the 
 throne and the empire,' declared the HIasyz Hane 
 of Prossnitz. 'We belong voluntarily to the .Aus- 
 tro-Hungarian Monarchy,' said the Cesky Dennin 
 of Pilsen, 'that monarchy beneath whose protec- 
 tion the Czech people has arrived at its present 
 maturity.' [See also Czecho-Slovakia; and JtiGo- 
 Slavia.) The attitude of . . . the Poles was not 
 left for a moment in doubt. .Almost without ex- 
 ception, the .Austrian Poles proved loyalist to the 
 core For many years the Poles of Galicia had 
 enjoyed complete local self-government and full 
 
 726
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1914-1915 
 
 World 
 War 
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1914-1915 
 
 cultural liberty — a situation doubly appreciated 
 by contrast to the depressed condition of their 
 kinsmen under Russian and Prussian rule, Galicia 
 was full of Polish refugees from Russian persecu- 
 tion. The Austrian Poles, therefore, hailed the 
 war as a crusade for the liberation of their race 
 from Russian domination. The exiles at once 
 raised several Polish legions, 20,000 strong, which, 
 under their gifted leader, Josef Pilsudski, fought 
 with fanatical bravery against the Russian troops. 
 The attitude of the Austrian Poles comes out 
 strongly in the manifesto of the National Polish 
 Committee issued at the beginning of the war: 
 Should Russia keep Russian Poland, and add 
 Galicia and Posen thereto, Europe would be ex- 
 posed to the infiltration of Russian despotism and 
 Byzantinism. If, on the other hand, Poland is 
 torn from Russia, it will mean a guarantee for 
 the progressive expansion of Western civilization 
 toward eastern Europe, as well as protection against 
 the introduction of Cossack principles into modern 
 life. . . . Let no one accuse the Poles now fight- 
 ing in the legions side by side with the Austrian 
 armies of being unfaithful to their historic tradi- 
 tions. Russian was Poland's arch-enemy in the 
 past, and will be in the future. It is precisely their 
 part in Western civilization and the national in- 
 dividuality of their country that the Poles are 
 now defendmg against the Russians, contemners 
 of the one and persecutors of the other.' In an 
 appeal addressed to Poles throughout the world, 
 the noted Polish poet, George Zulawski, wrote: 
 We stand to-day by Austria, and do not doubt 
 (or a moment her goodwill. Let the Grand Duke 
 Nicholas juggle with promises never meant to be 
 kept ; we know how we are treated here. After 
 having lost our liberty we have found in this 
 monarchy, the most liberal in Europe, shelter and 
 protection. We are full-fledged citizens; we en- 
 joy here the liberty of autonomy and of our na- 
 tional advance. . . . To-day, God had entrusted 
 the honor of the Polish nation to us Polish vol- 
 unteers, and we will return it into the hands of 
 God alone.' 'The historic mission of the Poles 
 throughout the whole course of Polish history,' 
 wrote Professor Josef Buzek in the Oesterreicbische 
 Rundschau of September, 1914, 'consists in the 
 protection they have afforded as foreposts of the 
 Occident to the Western civilization founded upon 
 the principles of the Catholic Church, against at- 
 tack by the Byzantine Orient. ... In the pres- 
 ent world-war the Poles will take up once more 
 their historic mission in closest union with Austria- 
 Hungary. Their struggle will concern the driv- 
 ing of the hereditary Russian foe from Polish 
 ground.' So strong was Polish fear and hatred of 
 Russia that the outbreak of war and the example 
 of their Galician kinsmen swept even the Prussian 
 Poles into the stream, notwithstanding the bad 
 relations which had existed between Poles and 
 Germans for many years. Accordingly, most of 
 the Prussian Polish leaders endorsed the pastoral 
 letter of Monsignor Likowski. archbishop of 
 (inesen and primate of Poland, issued August q, 
 iqi4, which accused Russia of being the provoker 
 nf the war and the persecutor of the Catholic 
 Church, and exhorted the Poles to fight valiantly 
 for the king of Prussia — 'for it is he who will 
 free from the yoke our oppressed brethren be- 
 yond the frontier.' [See Poland: 1014-1917.] 
 .Almost identical was the attitude of . . . the 
 Ruthenians. For many years the Ruthenians of 
 Eastern Galicia had regarded their province as 
 a 'Piedmont'— the nucleus of a future Ukrainian 
 national state carved out of South Russia ; much 
 as the Serbs had regarded Serbia as the nucleus 
 for a future Yugo-Slav state carved out of South- 
 
 west Austria-Hungary. To the Ruthenians, there- 
 fore, the war appeared as a golden opportunity, 
 the words of the proclamation issued by the 
 Ukrainian National Committee, composed both of 
 Ruthenians and exiles from the Russian Ukraine. 
 'Unless the Ukrainian provinces are separated from 
 Russia,' runs this manifesto, 'even the most crush- 
 ing defeat for that country will be but a feeble 
 blow, from which Czarism would recover in a 
 few years, to take up again its ancient role of 
 a disturber of the peace of Europe. Only a free 
 Ukraine, which would be supported by the Triple 
 Alliance (i. e., the Central Powers), could form, 
 with its extensive domain, reaching from the Car- 
 pathians to the Don and to the Black Sea, the 
 necessary protective wall between Europe and 
 Russia, a bulwark that would defeat forever the 
 greed for expansion on the part of Czarism, and 
 free the Slavic world from the baneful influence 
 of Pan-Muscovitism.' 
 
 "Such optimistic notes were, however, quickly 
 stilled by the crushing series of disasters that now 
 overtook the Hapsburg Monarchy. The failures 
 in Serbia, the Russian conquest of Ekistern Ga- 
 licia, and the destructive Cossack raids into North- 
 ern Hungary, spread consternation and alarm 
 throughout the empire. The disloyal rejoiced, and 
 only the severest military repression prevented 
 seditious disturbances among the Serbo-Croats of 
 the south and in Bohemia. The Entente press 
 was full of rumors that Austria-Hungary meditated 
 a separate peace, but such rumors seem to have 
 been without serious foundation. Undoubtedly 
 the empire was pessimistic, but it was a pessimism 
 of desperate resolution, not of abject despair. 
 The Magyars, to whom rumor had assigned the 
 leading peace role, breathed, as a matter of fact, 
 only defiant fury. At the end of 1914, the Pester 
 Lloyd exclaimed hotly, 'Let our opponents under- 
 stand once and for all: We are going to hold out 
 to the end, and we have not for a single moment 
 meditated a separate peace with any one.' . . . 
 At first sight, one might have thought that Italy's 
 declaration of war upon the empire in May, 1915, 
 would have greatly accentuated the prevailing 
 gloom. As a matter of fact, it did more than 
 anything else to solidify patriotic feeling and 
 rouse Austria to fresh exertions. The whole em- 
 pire quivered with furious wrath and scornful 
 contempt for Italy, the 'traitor' nation. Emperor 
 Franz-Joseph's proclamation to his people, with 
 its stinging words — 'Perfidy whose like history does 
 not know' — was an accurate reflection of the popu- 
 lar emotion. 'If war be indeed only a con- 
 tinuation of political policy with different means,' 
 wrote that leading Austrian publicist, Freiherr von 
 Chlumecky, in the Oesterreicliische Rundschau, 
 'then Italy can point to the fact that, free from 
 all scruples of political faith and morality, she 
 has consistently pursued a course in the world 
 war which she followed in peace for many years. 
 To be at once .Austria's ally and her most ma- 
 lignant foe — that has for decades been Italy's 
 policy. . . . Italy dares the war, not so much for 
 territorial aggrandizement as for the realization of 
 the aim she pursued in peace as well with all 
 the means at her command — to hurl Austria from 
 her position of a great power. . . . Against this 
 design, however, the whole Empire will rise to 
 defend itself as one man. Austrian blood is not 
 easily stirred, but now when we are threatened 
 by cowardly brigands with a dagger thrust in 
 the back, now will our wrath rise to a mighty 
 flame, and all Austria echo the cry, "Down with 
 the traitors!" . . . Revenge for a breach of faith 
 unexampled in history — that will continue to be 
 the watchword; and we shall not rest, nor our 
 
 727
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1914-1915 
 
 World 
 War 
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1915 
 
 children, or children's children, if that be neces- 
 sary, until a people devoid of all political and 
 moral loyalty shall have paid a heavy penalty for 
 the crime committed against our sovereign and 
 our country!' Hungarian opinion equaled Aus- 
 trian in its fury. 'We are persuaded,' exclaimed 
 the Revue de Hongrie of June, iqi5, 'that the 
 Italian Government's breach of plighted faith will 
 be stigmatized by posterity, and that without 
 distinction of nations. But, in awaiting this, we 
 Hungarians, who formerly fought for Italian in- 
 dependence under Garibaldi, will take care that 
 the infamy of Salandra and his ilk, who seek to 
 revive the epoch of the Borgias, shall not pass 
 unavenged. We shall not wait for history to 
 punish them ; we shall charge ourselves with that 
 duty.' Much more significant, however, was the 
 attitude of the Slavs. Italy's avowed intention 
 to seize, not only Italian-speaking Trentino and 
 Trieste, but also large tracts of territory in- 
 habited by a Serbo-Croat population, roused all 
 the Austrian Slavs to wrathful indignation. Even 
 the Czech press warmed to unwonted interest and 
 loyalty. 'The peoples of .Austria-Hungary,' as- 
 serted the Hlas Naroda of Prague, 'prefer war 
 with Italy to a boughten peace, precarious and 
 uncertain,' 'Because of the perfidy of Italian 
 policy,' wrote the Cecil (Prague), bitterly, 'a 
 war to-day breaks out which is just another raid 
 of the brigands of the Abruzzi.' .And the Proudy 
 of Olmiitz exclaimed defiantly, 'One more or less; 
 what does it matter!' 
 
 "It was, however, the Serbo-Croats of the South 
 who manifested the hottest indignation. 'Not an 
 inch of Austro-Hungarian territory to these perfidi- 
 ous "Allies" !' exclaimed the Hrvalska of Agram. 
 'The solid fists of the Croats and Slovenes will be 
 plenty strong enough to smash any Italian attempt 
 to grab our littoral.' . . . 'We pray with all our 
 heart for the crushing of Italy and the complete 
 failure of its vile speculations,' wrote the Hrvaiski 
 Pokret (.Agram), 'and we are convinced that our 
 Croatian and Slovene soldiers will have a good 
 big share in bringing this about.' 
 
 "Very interesting was the attitude of the -Aus- 
 trian Italians. These people, numbering about 
 800,000, are divided into three geographically 
 separate groups: the Trentino district of South 
 Tyrol: the Istrian region at the head of the 
 Adriatic, centering about the city of Trieste; and 
 the isolated colonies of the islands and port towns 
 of the Dalmatian coast. The longing of Italian 
 'Irredentists' to 'redeem' these race brethren by 
 incorporating them into the kingdom of Italy was 
 undoubtedly shared by a majority of the Austrian 
 Italians, and the Austrian militarj' authorities 
 had to take sharp measures to check disloyalty. 
 Nevertheless, the loyalist minority was larger than 
 is generally supposed, and on this occasion did 
 not fail to express their sentimenls. In Trentino, 
 loyalist addresses were signed by leading notables, 
 including five Italian members of the Tyrolese 
 Provincial Diet, while the Risveglio of Trent as- 
 serted: 'No one has ever solicited Italy's in- 
 tervention. This war serves particular interests 
 which are absolutely opposed to the interests of 
 Italian Tyrol.' . . .'in Dalmatia, // Dalmata of 
 Zara wrote: 'The Dalmatians of Italian speech 
 declare in this solemn hour that they will make 
 every sacrifice asked of them. . . . Dalmatian 
 fidelitv is traditional. We have inherited it from 
 our fathers, and we will give a new proof of 
 it by attesting our loyalty both to Emperor Francis 
 Joseph and to the institutions of the Austro-Hun- 
 garian state.' [See also .AnRiATic ouestion: Re- 
 lations between Italy and Jugo-Slavia.] . . . After 
 the fall of Warsaw, the A'oxca Rejorma. of Cracow 
 
 wrote: 'That which to-day fills Polish hearts is 
 something far beyond the bounds of ordinary hu- 
 man delight. Entire generations of Poles have 
 not been permitted to experience this sentiment, 
 which only a Pole can understand. The solid walls 
 of our prison have crumbled into dust. They 
 have been cast down by the mighty breath of 
 civilization.' The C::ar said: 'Russia to-day suf- 
 fers a hard and merited chastisement. The loss 
 of Warsaw is the first step in her downfall.' The 
 Ruthenian press joined in this chorus of jubila- 
 tion, which was further swelled by the voices of 
 the loyalist Czechs. The Hlas Naroda of Brunn 
 wrote: 'All the peoples of our monarchy are to- 
 day filled wuth enthusiasm. The Czech nation 
 turns grateful eyes upon its valorous sons who, 
 with the other .Austro-Hungarian nations, bring 
 liberty to the Polish nation. Not, be it noted, 
 the liberty promised by the false friends of Slavism 
 at Petersburg, nor the liberty of the Chinovniks 
 of Moscow, but a liberty based upon civilization, 
 moraUty, and conscience. The Russian despotism 
 reaps the first-fruits of the seeds which it has 
 sown.' The Lidone Noviny remarked: 'Under 
 Russian rule, the Poles knew only servitude. 
 Equally lamentable is the fate of the Ukrainians. 
 Under the pretext of liberating the Balkan states, 
 the empire of the Tsars wished only to engulf 
 them in its tyranny. It even allies itself with the 
 Italians — those declared adversaries of Slavism — 
 in order jointly to enslave the Slovenes and 
 Croats.' " — T. L. Stoddard, Present-day Europe, 
 pp. 123-137. — See also World War: Diplomatic 
 background: 12; 75. 
 
 1914-1916. — Serbian deportations. — Treatment 
 of the Serbs. See World War: Miscellaneous 
 auxiliary services: X. .Alleged atrocities and viola- 
 tions of international law: b, 1. 
 
 1915. — Political changes. — Rupture with Italy. 
 — Count Berchtold. the foreign minister, "the 
 man who started the war," resigned in January 
 and was succeeded by Baron Burian, a Hungarian 
 of Slovak descent. The dominating influence of 
 Count Tisza, Hungarian premier, gradually eclipsed 
 that of the Austrian premier. Count Stiirgkh, so 
 that the war policy of the Dual Monarchy was 
 directed with increasing energy from Budapest 
 rather than Vienna. The outstanding events of 
 the year were the critical negotiations with Italy 
 — a diplomatic duel between Baron Burian and 
 the Italian foreign minister, Baron Sonnino, as- 
 sisted by the persuasive intervention of Prince 
 BUlow as German representative in Rome. The 
 negotiations fell through and on May 23 Italy 
 broke away from the Triple .Alliance and declared 
 war on Austria-Hungary. The German emperor 
 visited \'ienna in November, and shortly afterwards 
 the .Austrian cabinet underwent several changes in 
 ministerial posts. — See also Italy: iqoi-igiS; 1915: 
 Italy declares war; Triple alll\xce: Break up of 
 Triple .Alliance. 
 
 1915. — Conquest and rule of Lithuania, Vol- 
 hynia, Poland and Podolia by Central Powers. 
 See PoLANT): 191S-191S. 
 
 1915. — Summary of successes on Eastern 
 front. See World W.ar: 1915: II. Eastern front: b. 
 
 1915. — Fight to control Carpathian mountain 
 passes. — Surrender of Przemysl (March 22). See 
 World War: 1915: II. Eastern front: d; e; f. 
 
 1915 (May-June). — Attacks on Italy. See 
 World W.ar: 1915: IV. Italy: d. 
 
 1915 (Jime). — Protest against United States 
 trade with Allies. — United States reply. See 
 U. S. .A.: 1915 (June) : Protests by Central Powers. 
 
 1915 (September). — Recall of Ambassador 
 Dumba from United States. See U. S. -A.: 1915 
 (September). 
 
 728
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1915 
 
 World 
 War 
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1916-1917 
 
 1915 (November 7). — Sinking of the Ancona. 
 — Apology. See U. S. A.: igis (December). 
 
 1916. — Language and alphabet forced on Serbs. 
 See World War: Miscellaneous auxiliar>' services: 
 X. Alleged atrocities and violations of international 
 law: b, 2. 
 
 1916 (January-February). — Attacks in Albania 
 and Montenegro. See World War: igib; V. Bal- 
 kan theater: a. 
 
 1916 (May-June). — Offensive against Italy. — 
 Failure. See World War: 1916: I. Military situ- 
 ation: d, 2. 
 
 1916 (August 27). — Rumania's declaration of 
 war.^Reasons. See World War: 1916: V. Bal- 
 kan theater: c, 5. 
 
 1916. — Legislative standstill. — Racial dissen- 
 sions. — Assassination of the premier. — Except in 
 Hungary, all parliamentary and legislative activity 
 had ceased since the outbreak of war. The 
 Reichsrath and nearly a score of provincial legis- 
 latures had ceased to function. Racial riots and 
 antagonisms were sternly suppressed. On Octo- 
 ber 21 the Austrian premier, Count Stiirgkh, was 
 shot dead in a restaurant by Dr. Friedrich Adler, 
 a journahst, who was subsequently acquitted of 
 the charge of murder. Dr. Enist von Koerber suc- 
 ceeded as premier and formed a new cabinet. 
 
 1916 (November 21). — Death of Francis Jo- 
 seph. — A tragic figure was removed from world his- 
 tory by the death, on November 21, of the Emperor 
 Francis Joseph. Born on August 18, 1S30, he as- 
 cended the throne in his nineteenth year. The nu- 
 merous political crises that harrassed his long reign 
 were overshadowed by a remarkable series of do- 
 mestic tragedies. His brother, Maximilian of Mex- 
 ico, was executed; the latter's widow, living in 1921, 
 lost her reason over fifty years ago ; his wife, 
 the Empress Elizabeth, fell under the dagger of 
 an assassin ; his only son and heir committed sui- 
 cide or was murdered ; his nephew and heir-pre- 
 sumptive was murdered with his consort in the 
 streets of Serajevo — an event that formed the pre- 
 lude to the World War. The venerable monarch 
 himself lived to see his realm gradually being 
 shattered in the greatest crisis of its checkered 
 history, and died in the shadow of defeat. Within 
 two years later, the unwieldy empire which he 
 had so laboriously held together lay crushed, 
 bleeding and bankrupt, while his successor on the 
 throne was a refugee in a foreign land. "He was 
 in his eighty-sixth year — the oldest sovereign in 
 the world. He had reigned for sixty-eight years, 
 having begun his active political life just after 
 the fall of Mettcrnich. He had fought many 
 wars, and had always been beaten ; he had had 
 to yield time and again his most cherished con- 
 victions; he had suffered the deepest public and 
 private sorrows; and in the end he had come 
 to be regarded as one of the permanent things 
 in Europe from his sheer length of life and te- 
 nacity in suffering. He was the last believer in 
 the old theory of the divine right of monarchs 
 . . . and this passionate faith gave him strength 
 and constancy. To this creed everything was sac- 
 rificed — ease, family affection, private honour, the 
 well-being of individuals and of nations — until he 
 became an inhuman monarchical machine, grinding 
 out decisions like an automaton. His age and 
 his afflictions persuaded the world to judge him 
 kindly, and indeed the tragic loneliness of his 
 life made the predominant feeling one of pity." 
 — J. Buchan, Nelson's history of the war, v. 18, 
 p. 124. 
 
 1916 (December 12). — Peace note of Central 
 Powers to the neutral powers and Vatican for 
 Entente Allies. See World War: 1916: XI. Peace 
 proposals: a; a, 3. 
 
 1916. — Ships sunk by Italy in the Adriatic. 
 
 See World War: 191 7: IX. Naval operations: b, 2. 
 1916-1917.— Accession of Charles (Karl) I.— 
 Ministerial changes. — Domestic disorder. — Mo- 
 rale. — Francis Joseph's "successor on the throne was 
 his great-nephew, the Archduke Charles Francis 
 Joseph, the son of that Archduke Otto who was 
 the younger brother of the murdered Francis 
 Ferdinand. He was in his thirtieth year, and 
 had for some months been commander in chief on 
 the southern section of the Eastern front. ... He 
 was known as a good sportsman and a young 
 man of frank and engaging manners; but he 
 had scarcely the education to fit him to sit on 
 the most difficult throne in Europe. . . . He 
 wished to safeguard the remains of his sovereignty, 
 and it was believed that he might show a certain 
 independence in policy." — J. Buchan, Nelson's his- 
 tory of the war, v. 18, p. 125. — Immediately an 
 attempt was made to clean house, which led to 
 the inference that the young ruler was opposed 
 to the war policy of Germany and was working 
 for peace. — "Koerber [the premier] was an hon- 
 est and fairly liberal bureaucrat," wrote J. 
 Buchan; "strongly pro-Austrian, and he was not 
 disposed to listen readily to Pan-German extrem- 
 ism. His task was threefold — to agree with Ger- 
 many on the future of Poland, to carry a new 
 Ausgleith with Hungary, and to strength the non- 
 Slav elements in the Austrian Parliament by the 
 grant of a larger autonomy to Galicia. All three 
 tasks raised the question of relations with Ger- 
 many. ... It was clear that Koerber was in- 
 clined to prove refractory to German guidance 
 on all points, and the pro-German faction in 
 Austria took alarm. ... On 13th December he 
 found himself compelled to resign." — Ibid., p. 
 123. — Koerber's administration had lasted only 
 two months when Dr. Spitzmiiller was called to 
 the helm. He "was entrusted with the forma- 
 tion of a fresh Ministry, whose immediate busi- 
 ness was to carry the new Ausgleich. But Spitz- 
 miiller found it impossible to proceed without 
 summoning Parliament, and such a step would 
 raise other controversial matters which he wished 
 to keep slumbering. By 20th December [1916] he 
 had failed to make any headway, and a Bohemian 
 noble, Count Clam-Martinitz, was called to the 
 task. At first sight this appeared to mark the 
 dawn of a new policy. . . . Baron Burian, the 
 faithful disciple of Tisza . . . was replaced by a 
 Czech, Count Ottokar Czernin, who had been noted 
 in the past for his anti^Magyar leanings. ... On 
 the whole the new Ministry had a federalist com- 
 plexion. The more reactionary of the Court of- 
 ficials and the permanent civil servants disap- 
 peared. ... It looked as if the Emperor Charles 
 intended to make a stand against the tyranny alike 
 of Berlin and Budapest. But the appearance was 
 illusory. . . . The Dual Monarchy depended for 
 its very existence upon Germany, and so long as 
 it remained so long would Germany dominate 
 its attitude. The Austrian Germans would re- 
 fuse, as in 1870, to permit any anti-German 
 tendency in Austria's foreign policy, and they 
 would insist upon their own domination in the 
 Austrian Government. The Magyar minority in 
 Hungary would never admit any interference with 
 their political supremacy or allow an acre of soil 
 within the boundaries of Hungary to be removed 
 from their authority. Their attitude had remained 
 the same since 1848, and the ideas of Andrassy 
 the Elder and Koloman Tisza were the ideas 
 of their sons. As long as the Dual Monarchy 
 continued, there must be German domination in 
 Austria and Magyar domination in Hungary, in- 
 tense dissatisfaction among the subject races, and 
 
 729
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1917 
 
 World 
 War 
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1917-1918 
 
 irredentist claims by the border states. While 
 this lasted the Hapsburg power must be in a 
 condition of unstable equilibrium, and be com- 
 pelled to look outside for support. That support 
 could come only from Germany." — Ibid., pp. 120- 
 127, 132. — Clam-Martinitz failed in his domestic 
 policy as well as in an attempt to make terms 
 with Russia. He reconvoked the Reichsrath, which 
 assembled on May 30, IQ17. Racial antagonism 
 broke out afresh ; the Poles opposed the budget, 
 and the premier resigned. He was succeeded by 
 a stop-gap ministry under Dr. Seidler on June 
 24. The all-powerful Tisza fell in Hungary dur- 
 ing May, though he still retained much of his 
 pro-German influence. His successor. Count 
 Esterhazy, was a former O.xford student. The col- 
 lapse of Russia gave Austria-Hungary a breathing- 
 space and enabled the ministry to concentrate its 
 efforts on the Italian front. — Austria "had long 
 ago lost heart in the war, and was faced with the 
 unpleasing alternatives of defeat — which meant 
 disruption — and victory, which involved a phan- 
 tom existence under German tutelage. In either 
 case her bankruptcy was assured. Count Czernin 
 . . . courted popularity, and showed an amiable 
 weakness for the rhetoric as opposed to the sub- 
 stance of democracy. At a public dinner at Buda- 
 pest early in October he gave his own views of 
 peace, forecasting a general disarmament and a 
 League of Nations, now that Central Europe had 
 shown that it could not be subdued by force of 
 arms." — J. Buchan, v. 21, p. 206. — See also World 
 War: 1017: XII. Political conditions in the bellig- 
 erent countries: g. 
 
 1917. — Relations with China in war. See 
 Chin.a: 1Q17. 
 
 1917. — Conquest of Rumania by Central Pow- 
 ers. See World W.ar: 191 7: V. Balkan theater: 
 d, 1. 
 
 1917. — Attacks in Trentino. — Battles in Piave 
 Region. — Battle of the Isonzo. See World War: 
 1Q17: IV'. .•\ustro-Italian front: a; a, 3; b; d; d, 4; 
 d, 5; e. 
 
 1917. — Political conditions. — Report of Count 
 Czernin. — Attitude on U-boat warfare. See 
 World War: 1017: XII. Political conditions in the 
 belligerent countries: b. 
 
 1917 (April 6). — Relations severed with United 
 States. See U. S. A.: iqi? (.^pril): War declared 
 against Germany. 
 
 1917 (August-September). — Note of the Pope 
 to all belligerents asking for the termination of 
 war. — Their reply. See World W.^r: 191 7: XI. 
 Efforts toward peace: c; g; j. 
 
 1917 (December 4). — United States Congress 
 passes war resolution. See U. S. A.: 1917 (De- 
 cember). 
 
 1917 (December 15). — Armistice with Russia. 
 — Text. See World War: 1917: III. Russia and 
 the Eastern front: q, 6; also Miscellaneous and 
 auxiliary services: I. .Armistices: a. 
 
 1917-1918.— Breakdown of the Dual Mon- 
 archy. — Opposition of subject-nationalities. — 
 "Lone before the surrender of Bulgaria and 
 Turkey, long before the German defeat on the 
 Western Front, the Dual Monarchy faced dis- 
 aster. Unlike her confederates, .\ustria-Hungary 
 suffered less from foreign prowess than from in- 
 ternal weakness. Ever since the Russian Revolu- 
 tion, in March, lor?, the task of dominating a 
 majority of Slavs by a minority of Magyars and 
 German-.Austrians, under any theory of democracy 
 or national self-determination, had become utterly 
 hopeless. .At first each of the subject nationalities, 
 — Czechoslovaks, Jugoslavs. Poles. Ruthenians 
 (Ukrainians), and Rumans. — clamored for auton- 
 omy within the Dual Monarchy, but as time went 
 
 on they all demanded complete separation from 
 German .Austria and from Hungary. Each of the 
 subject nationalities developed remarkable solidar- 
 ity, the clergy and the university professors vying 
 as a rule with the business-men, the peasants, and 
 the artisans, in the furtherance of national inter- 
 ests. Separatist propaganda was carried on in 
 the open and by stealth. Loyalty to the Haps- 
 burgs was undermined. In such cities as Prague, 
 .\gram, Laibach, Cracow, and Lemberg there were 
 increasingly frequent riots and demonstrations. Mu- 
 tinies in the Austro-Hungarian army were everyday 
 occurrences; and many Czechoslovak. Jugoslav, and 
 Polish troops deserted to the Allies and served the 
 .Allied cause in Russia or on the Western Front 
 or in Italy. 'National Councils' of the 'several 
 subject nationalities were organized in Paris, or 
 London, or Rome, or Washington; and these 
 'provisional governments' not only fanned the 
 flame of sedition within Austria-Hungary but 
 strove to secure active Allied assistance in their 
 efforts to disintegrate the Dual Monarchy." — 
 C. J. H. Hayes, Brief history of the great war, pp. 
 348-349. — See also Brest-Litovsk treaties: 1918. 
 
 "In iqi7 'disloyal' agitation had been less 
 prevalent among Poles than among Czechoslovaks 
 and Jugoslavs. The Poles of Galicia had always 
 been treated rather liberally by the Habsburgs, 
 and the erection of a kingdom of Poland by Aus- 
 tro-German decree of November 5, 1910, had 
 temporarily appeased the .Austrian Poles and en- 
 abled Premier von Seidler to control a majority 
 of votes in the .Austrian Reichsrat. But in the 
 winter of 1917-191S Austria lost the support of 
 her Poles, for she was obliged to agree to Ger- 
 many's policy respecting Poland, and Germany's 
 policy was to strengthen Ukrainia at Poland's ex- 
 pense. Thus the Polish province of Cholm was 
 incorporated into the new Ukrainian state, despite 
 the vehement protests of the German-appointed 
 Polish Regency at Warsaw (February 14, 1918) 
 and the bitter imprecations of the .Austrian Poles 
 In Galicia. Thenceforth the Poles, as well as the 
 Jugoslavs and the Czechoslovaks, were openly hos- 
 tile to the Dual Monarchy. General Joseph Pil- 
 sudskl. a great national hero and formerly quite 
 pro-.Austrian, directed such an agitation in Poland 
 against the Teutons that for the safety of Mittel- 
 Europa he was arrested and deported to Ger- 
 many. Joseph Haller, a colonel in the Austrian 
 army, deserted after the treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 
 with his Polish regiment, and, after joining the 
 Czecho5lo%'aks in Russia, made his way to Paris, 
 where he assumed supreme command of a Polish 
 army fighting for the Allies in France. And when 
 the Polish deputies in the Austrian Reichsrat united 
 with the already numerous opposition of Czech 
 and Jugoslav deputies, parliamentary government 
 in Austria became impossible. The only session 
 of the Reichsrat during the Great War was closed 
 abruptly by Emperor Charles and Premier von 
 Seidler on May 4, 1918. 
 
 "The majority of the population of the Dual 
 Monarchy were at last becoming articulate, and, 
 what was far more significant, they were uniting 
 in common opposition to the continuance of the 
 Habsburg Empire. This was the burden of the 
 Pan-Slavic Congress held at Prague on January 
 6, 1918, of a second Congress held at .Agram on 
 March 2, and of a third held at Laibach in July. 
 But greater freedom of speech naturally prevailed 
 outside of .Austria-Hungary than within; and con- 
 sequently the clearest statement of the aims of 
 the subject peoples of the Dual Monarchy was 
 made at the famous Congress of Oppressed .Aus- 
 trian Nationalities convened at Rome under the 
 auspices of the Italian Government on April 10, 
 
 730
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1917-1918 
 
 Military 
 Debacle 
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1918 
 
 1918. This Congress, which included leading repre- 
 sentatives of the Czechoslovaks, Jugoslavs, Rumans, 
 and Poles, unanimously adopted the following reso- 
 lutions: (i) Every people proclaims it to be 
 its right to determine its own nationality and to 
 secure national unity and complete independence; 
 (2) Every people knows that the Austro-Hun- 
 garian Monarchy is an instrument of German 
 domination and a fundamental obstacle to the 
 realization of its free development and self-govern- 
 ment ; (3) The Congress recognizes the necessity of 
 lighting against the common oppressors. 
 
 "That the Congress at Rome faithfully re- 
 flected the sentiments of the subject nationalities 
 in Austria-Hungary was amply demonstrated three 
 days later by a noteworthy assembly at Prague. 
 On this occasion the Reichsrat deputies of the 
 Czech nation and those of the Jugoslav nation, 
 the latter speaking in the name of the Croats, 
 Slovenes, and Serbs, met and made a joint agree- 
 ment, through an oath worthy of everlasting re- 
 membrance, lo suffer and struggle relentlessly to 
 free their peoples from the foreign yoke and bring 
 down into the dust the old imperialistic Empire, 
 covered, as they said, with the maledictions of 
 mankind. To the appeals of the oppressed Aus- 
 trian nationalities the Allies did not turn deaf ears 
 .Already, in 1Q17, France had authorized the or- 
 ganization of Polish and Czechoslovak armies on 
 the Western Front and had recognized them as 
 belligerent units; and now, on April 21, igi8, 
 llal.\' recognized the Czechoslovak National Coun- 
 cil as a de facto government and placed a Czecho- 
 slovak legion beside her own troops on the Piave 
 Front. On May 2q Secretary Lansing, in be- 
 half of the United States, declared 'that the na- 
 tionalistic aspirations of the Czechoslovaks and the 
 Jugoslavs for freedom have the earnest sympathy 
 of this Government'; and a week later the sixth 
 session of the Supreme War Council, meeting 
 at Versailles and attended by the prime ministers 
 of France, Great Britain, and Italy, adopted reso- 
 lutions that 'the creation of a united, independent 
 Polish state, with free access to the sea, con- 
 stitutes one of the conditions of a solid and just 
 peace and the rule of right in Europe,' and that 
 'the Allies have noted with satisfaction the declara- 
 tion of the American Secretary of State, to which 
 they adhere, expressing the greatest sympathy with 
 the national aspirations of the Czechs and Jugo- 
 slavs for freedom.' [Sec also Jugo-Slavia; rqi8 
 (April-October) .1 Of the complete independence 
 of Czechoslovakia, formal recognition was ac- 
 corded by France on June 30, by Great Britain 
 on August 13, by the United States on Septem- 
 ber 2, and by Japan on September g. No other 
 course could honorably be taken by the Allies 
 toward a country whose soldiers at the time were 
 waging war against the Central Empires in France, 
 in Italy, and most thrillingly in Russia. Under 
 the circumstances the Habsburg officials at Vienna 
 and Budapest bent all their energies to the task 
 of preserving some semblance of order in their 
 dominions until such time as the Germans should 
 have won the war and come to their assistance. 
 They proclaimed martial law in Bohemia and in 
 Croatia. They imprisoned 'seditious' persons and 
 endeavored to suppress 'revolutionary' publica- 
 tions. They kept a fairly large army on the 
 Italian Front, though they discovered to their 
 chagrin that it was no longer fit for any offensive 
 operations. They sent some artillery and a few 
 regiments of infantry to aid Ludendorff in his su- 
 preme effort on the Western Front. Most of all, 
 for the success of the great German offensive in 
 France they prayed ceaselessly and imploringly. 
 There was little else that they could do. There 
 
 was no other hope for them. German defeat 
 would mean for Germany simply defeat ; for the 
 Dual Monarchy, it would signify dissolution." — 
 C. J. H. Hayes, Brief history of the great war, pp. 
 349-352. — See also Adriatic question: Torre- 
 Trumbic agreement. 
 
 1918. — Treaty of Bucharest signed, March 26. 
 See Bucharest, Treaty of. 
 
 1918. — Operations on Austro-Italian front. — 
 Offensive against Italians. — Battle of Vittorio 
 Veneti. See World War: iqi8: IV. Austro-Italian 
 theater; a; b; c; c, 2. 
 
 1918. — British propaganda. See World War: 
 Miscellaneous auxiliary services: III. Reports and 
 censorship: d, 2. 
 
 1918 (January). — Count Czernin's reply to 
 Wilson's fourteen points. Sec World War: iqi8: 
 X. Statement of war aims: c. 
 
 1918 (February). — Correspondence in reply to 
 Wilson's four additional bases of peace. See 
 U. S. A.: 1918 (February). 
 
 1918 (July). — Count Burian's answer to Wil- 
 son's speech on war aims. See World War: 1918: 
 X. Statement of war aims: i. 
 
 1918 (September-October). — Peace proposal 
 to belligerent states.— Reply of Wilson.— -Note 
 to him regarding peace terms. See World War: 
 igi8: X. Statement .of war aims: k; 1; n; a; 
 U. S. A.: 1918 (September-November). 
 
 1918. — Military debacle. — Dissolution of the 
 monarchy. — In the late summer of iqiS it had 
 become evident to the Hungarians and German- 
 Austrians that the great German offensive in 
 France was a failure, and that the continued suc- 
 cess of the allied armies in the Balkans under Gen- 
 eral Franchet d'Esperey, who by October ha<l 
 actually reached Hungarian territory in the valley 
 of the Danube, made it manifest that utter de- 
 feat menaced the Central Powers. The actual 
 ruin of the Austro-Hungarian military machine, 
 however, did not come till the last week of Octo- 
 ber. [See also Hung.\ky: 1918: End of world 
 war.l It was on the 24th of this month that 
 the Italian commander General Diaz began his 
 great offensive from the mouth of the Piave river 
 on the south to the Trentino on the north. The 
 Italian army was keyed up to the highest point 
 of efficiency and had been reinforced by French 
 and British troops as well as considerable artil- 
 lery to replace what they had lost the year before 
 at Carporctto. Throughout these last days of 
 October the battle raged over the same ground 
 that had seen the mighty struggle of the preced- 
 ing months. The Italians themselves captured 
 Monte Grappa with over 30,000 prisoners, while 
 the French stormed Monte Seiscmol on the Asiago 
 plateau. The advance of the Allied forces cut the 
 Austro-Hungarian army in two, thrusting the 
 northern half back into the mountains in utter 
 confusion while the southern half was driven 
 eastward across the Venetian plains with the 
 heaviest losses in men and material. Already by 
 November 3 the cities of Trent and Trieste had 
 been recovered for Italy and all semblance of even 
 defensive power had gone from the beaten enemy. 
 The political repercussions of this series of de- 
 feats were even more interesting. By October 
 20, the foreign ministry of Austria-Hungary, Count 
 Julius Andrassy, had communicated to President 
 Wilson his willingness to make peace independent 
 of Germany. On November 3 the fateful armistice 
 involving as it did the unconditional surrender of 
 the Hapsburg State was signed. This military col- 
 lapse on the Italian front involved a similar 
 collapse of the Hapsburg political system and Pro- 
 fessor Lammasch, who represented the anti-mili- 
 taristic elements of the monarchy, became the head 
 
 73^
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1918 Dissolution AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1918 
 
 of the transition government. — See also World 
 War: 1918: IV. Austro-Italian theater: c, 9; c, 15; 
 d; XI. End of the war: a, 5; Miscellaneous auxil- 
 iary services: I. Armistices: e. 
 
 1918. — Total casualties and property loss due 
 to the World War. See World War: Miscella- 
 neous auxiliar\' services: XIV. Cost of war: a; b, 
 3 ; b, 4. 
 
 1918. — Independence of C2echo-Slovakia. — 
 The first of the submerged peoples of Austria-Hun- 
 gary to emerge into their new independence was that 
 of the Czechs and Slovaks. Already at Paris on the 
 i8th of October, the independence of Czecho- 
 slovakia had been proclaimed, and on October 29, 
 Dr. Kramarcz announced the existence of the new 
 republic. During the next few days representatives 
 of the Czechs and Slovaks drafted a constitution 
 
 Charles relinquishes power. — Count Tisza as- 
 sassinated. — There now remained, out of all 
 the heterogeneous elements which had formerly 
 constituted the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, 
 only the German-speaking territories of Austria 
 proper and the Tyrol, and the purely Magyar 
 districts of central Hungary. In Vienna a popu- 
 lar revolution broke out on October 30 and 
 eventually an Austrian Republic composed of the 
 old Archduchy of .\ustria and Tyrol was created, 
 with the Hapsburgs left out. The formal proclama- 
 tion of this fact was made at Vienna by the 
 National Assembly on November 13. In Hungary 
 the slumbering fires of national independence burst 
 out into flame. The people had never forgotten 
 the events of 1848-1849, nor renounced entirely 
 a certain fierce spirit of nationalism. On Octo- 
 
 A fN D 
 
 8UKHA(?ESI_ 
 
 BOUNDARY OFfiUSTRIA- 
 
 \ ^ »••* 0ouNOMRy oF/iuiTnmi^ii 
 
 TCRR/TORV LOST TO 
 /^UST/f/ft 
 
 DISSOLUTION OF AUSTRI.VHUXGARY 
 
 for their state along the lines of the constitu- 
 tion of the United States. Professor Masaryk 
 was chosen president a few days later. 
 
 1918. — Independence of Jugo-Slavia, Transyl- 
 vania, Temesvar and Galicia. — Cession of Dal- 
 matia and Carniola. — What took place in Bohe- 
 mia, Moravia, and Slovakia was duplicated among 
 the south Slavs of Croatia, Slavonia and Bosnia- 
 Herzegovina. The independence of these provinces 
 and a desire to be united with Serbia and Monte- 
 negro was proclaimed October 29. At Agram. on 
 November 24, "the Unitary Kingdom of Serbs, 
 Croats, and Slovenes" was established by a con- 
 vention made up of representatives of all these 
 different peoples. By the Peace Treaty this king- 
 dom was increased by the cession of Dalmatia 
 and Carniola. 
 
 1918. — Freedom of Poland. See Poland: 1018. 
 
 1918. — German Austria becomes a republic 
 (November 13). — Hungary a republic. — Emperor 
 
 ber 28, a popular tumult in Budapest began the 
 new revolution. By November 16, Hungary was 
 a republic and the .Austrian connection was at an 
 end. Count Michael Karolyi, long known for 
 his advocacy of independence for Hungary and his 
 antipathy to the house of Hapsburg, became the 
 head of the new government. Emperor Charles, 
 the last of the Hapsburgs, on November 11, 1918, 
 the date of the German armistice, addressed his 
 people as follows, "Since my accession, I have 
 incessantly tried to rescue my peoples from this 
 tremendous war. I have not delayed the re- 
 establishment of constitutional rights or the open- 
 ing of a way for the people to substantial national 
 betterment. Filled with an unalterable love for 
 my people, I will not, with my person, be a 
 hindrance to their free development. I acknowl- 
 edge the decision taken by German Austria to 
 form a separate state. The people have by 
 their deputies taken charge of the government. I 
 
 732
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, CONSTITUTION 
 
 AUSTRO-GERMAN ALLIANCE 
 
 relinquish all participation in the administration 
 of the state. Likewise I have released the mem- 
 bers of the Austrian government from their of- 
 fices. May the German Austrian people realize 
 harmony from the new adjustment. The happi- 
 ness of my people was my aim from the be- 
 ginning. My warmest wishes are that an in- 
 terval of peace will avail to heal the wounds of 
 this war." "The Great War began in July, igi4, 
 with the attack of the Dual Monarchy of Austria- 
 Hungary upon the little Slav state of Serbia. 
 By the autumn of 1918, however, Serbia {q. v.) 
 was free and amply avenged. Within the former 
 confines of the Dual Monarchy were now the 
 three independent republics of Czecho-Slovakia, 
 German Austria, and Hungary, while large por- 
 tions of its erstwhile territories were added to 
 Poland, to Italy, to Rumania, and to Serbia. The 
 Habsburg Empire was destroyed; it had taken the 
 sword, and by the sword it had perished." — C. J. 
 H. Hayes, Briej history oj the great war, p. 356. — 
 On November i Count Stephen Tisza, "the strong 
 man of Hungary," was assassinated. 
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, Constitution of, Prin- 
 cipal provisions. — For a general account of the 
 Ausgleich, or agreement, under which the duality 
 of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire was ar- 
 ranged in 1867, see Austria: 1866-1867, and Aus- 
 tria-Hungary: 1867. The following describes the 
 principal features of the constitutional organization 
 under which the empire existed from 1S67 to igi8: 
 "The emperor has an absolute veto on all measures 
 in all of the three parliaments after named. He 
 can also dissolve any of them. The legislative and 
 administrative assemblies of the empire are four 
 in number, viz.: (i). The Delegationen, which is 
 the imperial parliament. (2). The Reichsrath and 
 the Reichstag, which are the parliaments for Aus- 
 tria proper and Hungary respectively. (3). The 
 Landtag, which is the parliament for the provinces 
 of the empire of Austria. (4). The Gemeinderath 
 or the Gemeindeausschuss, which are the councils 
 of the communes, but they have no legislative func- 
 tions proper." The Delegationen, or imperial parha- 
 ment of the dual empire, "acts as one House, but 
 meets in two chambers or bodies, one for Austria 
 and one for Hungary. Each chamber has 60 mem- 
 bers, composed of 20 members elected from the 
 upper house of each part of the united empire, and 
 40 from the lower. It is elected for one year only. 
 The chambers of the imperial parliament meet at 
 the same time and in the same place, alternately in 
 Austria and Hungary, and, as a rule, in the cities 
 of Vienna and Buda-Pesth. They legislate for the 
 united empire on (i) its foreign policy, (2) its 
 finances, (3) its army and navy, and (4) for the 
 affairs of Bosnia and Herzegovina, as they have no 
 Landtag of their own. A minister of state for each 
 of the first three of these matters controls its de- 
 partments, while the fourth is under the manage- 
 ment of the common finance minister. The minis- 
 ters are appointed by the emperor after consulta- 
 tion with leaders of parties. The presidents of the 
 Delegationen, as also the vice-presidents, must be 
 members of the chambers, but they receive no spe- 
 cial salary. They are elected by the members. Each 
 chamber meets separately, and discusses the meas- 
 ures and bills submitted to it by the ministers of 
 state, or by any six of its members. If both cham- 
 bers agree upon the matter submitted to them, the 
 emperor's sanction is obtained to it, and it becomes 
 law. If the chambers cannot agree, after each of 
 them has discussed the matter three times, upon 
 written communication from the other, a session of 
 both chambers is convened, and the question is 
 decided by a majority of those present. Two thirds 
 of the members of the house must, however, in this 
 
 case be in attendance. In the ordinary case the 
 quorum of each chamber is 30 members. The sit- 
 tings of the chambers are public, but they may be 
 private on the proposition of the president or of 
 five members, and voted upon. The chambers are 
 convened by the writ of the emperor. . . . Each 
 chamber appoints 24 judges to hear and determine 
 any cases which may be brought against the min- 
 isters of the crown for breach of power. . . . Two 
 per cent, being first paid by Hungary, the balance 
 of the imperial expenditure is borne in the propor- 
 tion of 70 per cent, by Austria and 30 per cent, by 
 Hungary, the former being the wealthier coun- 
 try. . . . The Reichsrath [the Austrian parliament] 
 . . . consists of two houses — one called the Herren 
 House, or Upper House; the other called the Ab- 
 geordneten House, i. e. the House of Deputies, or 
 the Lower House. It is elected for six years. The 
 Herren House is composed of (i) Princes of the 
 imperial house, who are majors. (2) Chiefs of 
 noble houses, owning large estates, nominated by 
 the emperor, who, being once nominated, are mem- 
 bers for life, and their successors after them, and 
 so this class, to some extent, is one of hereditary 
 legislators. (3) Archbishops and bishops with the 
 dignity of prince. (4) Men who have distinguished 
 themselves in science, art, commerce, law, or med- 
 icine, who are nominated by the emperor for hfe, 
 on the advice of the ministers of state. The num- 
 ber of members of the Upper House is not fixed, 
 but it is about 200. . . . The Lower or Abge- 
 ordneten House is that of the deputies, elected by 
 the people, and consists of 353 members. It is 
 elected for six years. The people vote for its mem- 
 bers in four classes in their various provinces. The 
 first class are the owners of large estates, who elect 
 8S members. . . . The second class are those who 
 pay five florins of direct taxation in towns, and 
 includes all doctors of the universities, whether they 
 pay taxes or not. The towns are grouped so as to 
 give one member for each group. The groups need 
 not be of equal size. This class elects 115 mem- 
 bers. The third class is the chambers of commerce 
 and industry, which elect 22 members. . . . The 
 fourth class are the members of the country com- 
 munes who pay five florins of direct taxation. They 
 elect 131 members. The communes for this pur- 
 pose are divided into groups of 500 voters, and a 
 certain number of communes make an electoral dis- 
 trict. . . . The elections are not all held on one 
 day, and each class votes by itself in each province 
 on a particular day. The communes vote first, then 
 the citizens, then the chambers, and then the land- 
 owners, all on different days. The election takes 
 place in a public hall, where the voters gather; and 
 their names being called over, if present, they go 
 up to the presiding officer, and vote orally, or by a 
 card placed by them in a box. If not present when 
 called upon, they can attend and vote later on." — 
 J. P. Coldstream, Institutions of Austria, ch. 2. 
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: Masonic societies. 
 See Masonic societies: Austria-Hungarv. 
 
 AUSTRIAN LANGUAGE DECREES. See 
 Austria: 1803-1000; iqoq. 
 
 AUSTRIAN REICHSRATH. See Austria: 
 1803-1000; i8q7 (October-December); 1898; and 
 1 800- 1 00 1. 
 
 AUSTRIAN SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS. 
 See EcoNOivncs: Forerunners of the historical 
 school. 
 
 AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION, War of the. 
 See Austria: 1740 (October-November) to 1743- 
 1744; Belgium: 174s; 1746-1747; Enciand: 1739- 
 1741; I74!;-I747; Italy: 1741-1743 to 1746-1747. 
 
 AUSTRO-ENGLISH ALLIANCE: Treaty 
 of Worms (1743). See Austria: 1743-1744. 
 
 AUSTRO-GERMAN ALLIANCE (1870). See 
 
 733
 
 AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN BANK 
 
 AUTOMOBIbES 
 
 Dual alliance; Tmple alliance: Austro-Ger- 
 man alliance of 1870. 
 
 AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN BANK. See Money 
 AND banking: Modern; 1703-iqis. 
 
 AUSTRO-ITALIAN WAR. See Italy: 1S62- 
 1806. 
 
 AUSTRO-RUSSIAN ALLIANCE (1848). 
 See Hungary: 1847-1849. 
 
 AUSTRO-SARDINIAN WAR. See Austria: 
 1856-1S59. 
 
 AUSTRO-SERBIAN QUARREL. See World 
 War: Diplomatic background: 8. 
 
 AUSTRO - SPANISH CONFLICT. See 
 Italy: i7i.^-i735- 
 
 AUTERI. See Irel.\nd: Tribes of early Celtic 
 inhabitants. 
 
 AUTHARIS ("the Longhaired") (d. 591), 
 Lombard king. Resists barbarian invasions of 
 Italy. See Lombards, or Lanoobardi: 573-754. 
 
 AUTHOR, steamer sunk by Mowe. See World 
 War: 1016: IX. Naval operation: c. 
 
 AUTHORS: Laws protecting. See Copyright. 
 
 AUTOCRACY. See .Absolutism. 
 
 In Russia. See Russia: 1894; 1909-1911. 
 
 AUTO-DA-FE, the ceremony during which the 
 sentences of the Spanish Inquisition (q. v.) were 
 read. It was often regarded as an interesting 
 spectacle, and became one of the formative elements 
 in the development of the Spanish drama. "The auto 
 da je represented, as the words implr, merely 
 the decision in the given case, and not the 
 imposition of the penalty as has often been stated. 
 The general rule was for the executions to- take 
 place on holidays, which in Spain are indeed 'holy 
 days,' or days in celebration of events in. church 
 history. .A procession was held, in which the 
 functionaries of the Inquisition took part. .A 
 public announcement of the decisions was made, 
 and those who were condemned to death were 
 turned over to the civil authorities, who carried 
 out the execution in the customary place." — C. E. 
 Chapman, History of Spain, p. 234. — See also 
 Mexico: 1535-1822. 
 
 AUTOMATIC GUNS. See Riples and re- 
 volvers: World War; Ordnance: 20th centurv. 
 
 AUTOMOBILE RACES, Early. See .Auto- 
 mobiles: 1804-1806. 
 
 AUTOMOBILES: 1678-1803.— Early experi- 
 ments in France and England. — ".Although in- 
 ternal combustion to drive a piston in a cylinder 
 was produced with gunpowder in 1678 by .Abbe 
 D'Hautefeuille, and a carriage to be driven without 
 the horse was a chaise propelled by human foot 
 work, first conceived by John Vevers of England 
 in 1760, there is no record that the two ideas were 
 combined until it was done in France somewhere 
 between 1760 and 1770. The first automobile ever 
 made was that produced by Nicholas Joseph Cug- 
 not, a Frenchman, and it is today on exhibition in 
 the Conservatory of Arts and Trades in Paris. 
 There is no record of how Cugnot came to conceive 
 the idea of his invention, but it is surmised that 
 he had read about James Watt, in England, having 
 discovered the principle of steam as motive power. 
 This was about 1755. . . . The visible expression 
 of this idea which we can see in the Paris Con- 
 servatory is in the form of a tractor for a field gun, 
 Cugnot having been a captain in the engineering 
 corps of the French army. 
 
 "The tractor has a single drive wheel actuated by 
 two single acting brass cylinders, connected by an 
 iron steam pipe with a round boiler of copper con- 
 taining fire pot and chimneys. .Attached to this 
 first motor-driven road vehicle is a wagon, on which 
 it was Cugnot's idea to have a field gun mounted. 
 On either side of the single drive wheel of this 
 cUimsv contrivance are located ratchet wheels Pis- 
 
 tons acting alternately on these ratchet wheels re- 
 volved the drive wheel in quarter revolutions. For 
 the copper boiler of this first motor car, additional 
 water was needed after the machine had travelled 
 a few feet, the exhaust of steam quickly leaving the 
 boiler dry. The speed attained was very slow, by 
 reason of the mechanical complications in trans- 
 mitting power to the drive wheel. .As for running 
 smoothly, the machine wobbled, and bumped, and 
 strained, and groaned, and finally ran into a wall. 
 This was because it was overbalanced by its boiler 
 and engine and had no steering gear." — H. L, Bar- 
 ber, Story of the automobile, pp. 50-52. — ".About 
 the time that Cugnot ran his machine into a wall, 
 William Murdock, a mechanic, was w-orking for 
 Watt, the English inventor of steam. Whether he 
 knew of Cugnat's automobile attempt or not, there 
 is no evidence extant. . . . Despite Watt and his 
 mournful views of the impossibility of building 
 an engine-run road carriage that would advance 
 over English roads, Murdock went ahead and built 
 a model of an engine-run road carriage; but. when 
 he had it finished, Watt's discouraging views pre- 
 vailed, and Murdock did not attempt to enlarge his 
 model to a full sited form. He stopped with the 
 model, which is at the present day in the British 
 Museum. Murdock's invention was tested, and the 
 tests showed that an advance in efficiency over the 
 creation of Cugnot had been made. The model was 
 driven by a single cylinder of three-inch bore. It 
 had a one-and-a-half-inch stroke> .A crank con- 
 verted the reciprocating motion of the steam en- 
 gine into rotary motion, the service performed in 
 the Cugnot invention by the quarter revolution 
 ratchet drive. Murdock's idea was patented by a 
 man named Pickard, in 1780. The first automo- 
 bile known to have been constructed and put on 
 the road was built by Richard Trevithick at Cam- 
 borne, England, in 1801. It was in the form of a 
 stagecoach, accommodating six or seven persons. 
 The engine, boiler and firebox were at the rear. 
 The engine was one of the first high pressure en- 
 gines. A single cylinder motor was employed, and 
 spur gear and crank axle were used to transmit the 
 motion of the piston rod to the drive wheels. With 
 this coach Trevithick carried six or seven men 
 over hills for a mile the first day of the trial. The 
 second day it made six miles. Even with these 
 performances, the invention'.^ impracticability must 
 have been decreed, because it was not continued in 
 operation. Trevithick himself felt, no doubt, that 
 it must be improved upon, for, in 1S03, he built 
 another contrivance driven by a horizontal single 
 cylinder with s'/l-inch bore and a 30-inch stroke. 
 But the driving wheels were ten feet in diameter. 
 Fatal were these great clumsy wheels to popular 
 approval of the invention, and no further advance 
 was made. Trevithick had made one further step, 
 and there the matter rested. He had developed the 
 high pressure steam engine, and he had really made 
 the first automobile, if such it could be called." — 
 Ibid., pp. 54-57- 
 
 1780-1824. — America's early efforts in automo- 
 bile making. — English water tube boiler. — "Ju.st 
 as the English, represented by Murdock and Trev- 
 ithick, were laboring on the steam propulsion 
 idea, and France, in the person of Cugnot, was ex- 
 perimenting with it, so .America was groping to fiml 
 the solution. Cugnot's activities began about 1760 
 and ended with his death in 1804. Trevithick's 
 period was from 1780 to 1803. The .American 
 experiments started about 1784. The man whom 
 records show to have been the pioneer in practical 
 excursions into the realm of carriages driven by 
 steam, was Oliver Evans, born in Delaware but liv- 
 ing in Philadelphia. He developed the high pres- 
 sure, non-condensing engine although his only 
 
 734
 
 AUTOMOBILES 
 
 First Motor Coaches 
 Development of Trucks 
 
 AUTOMOBILES 
 
 knowledge of steam was derived from reading wiiat 
 little was then printed about it, and his own dis- 
 coveries. ... In 1787, four years before Trevithick 
 built his steam coach at Camborne, England, Evans 
 secured a patent from the State of Maryland, giv- 
 ing him the exclusive right to make and use, within 
 its borders, carriages propelled by steam. That he 
 immediately built a steam carriage in pursuance ol 
 this authority is doubtful. The only authentic 
 record of an attempt is of one that he constructed 
 in Philadelphia seven years later." — H. L. Barber, 
 Story of the automobile, pp. 57-58, — "In 1824, 
 W. H. James [in England) who had patented 
 a water tube boiler for locomotives, built a pas- 
 senger coach, of which each drive wheel was re- 
 volved by two cylinders receiving steam by means 
 of a pipe from a boiler. A pressure of 200 pounds 
 of steam to the inch was maintained. The equiva- 
 lent of differential action was supplied by indepen- 
 dent application of power to the two drive wheels. 
 The coach accommodated twenty persons. The 
 contrivance ran satisfactorily on trials, and James 
 secured financial backing and built another coach 
 weighing 6,000 pounds which ran 12 to 15 miles 
 an hour. But the higher the rate of speed, the 
 worse off the early automobile builder was. Al- 
 though James equipped his coach with laminated 
 steel springs, the road shocks and vibration stopped 
 it every few miles. Steam joints and connections 
 were broken as fast as they could be put together. 
 The great need was a method of shock absorption, 
 and either no one knew that this was the key to 
 the problem, or, if it was realized, no one knew 
 the remedy. . . ." — Ibid., pp. 61-62. 
 
 1826-1895. — Later American, French and Eng- 
 lish attempts. — Principle of the "differential." — 
 First application for motor patent. — "A year after 
 James built his first motor-coach in England — in 
 1825 — Thomas Blanchard of Springfield, Mass., re- 
 vived the horseless carriage subject which, in 
 .\merica, had been last experimented with by Oli- 
 ver Evans in 1804. Blanchard built a road vehicle 
 that was one of the best produced up to that time 
 It was easy of manipulation and climbed hills suc- 
 cessfully. Blanchard took out a patent on it, but 
 when he started to find people who would buy a 
 completed carriage he could discover none. ... At 
 the time James was building his two coaches, and 
 after Blanchard had given up trying to interest 
 Americans in his invention, a Frenchman named 
 Pecqueur was experimenting on phases of the auto- 
 carriage. He discovered the principle of the 'dif- 
 ferential,' the balance mechanism which enables 
 one wheel to revolve faster than the other in turn- 
 ing corners. He invented a planet gearing in this 
 connection, which was the origin of the idea of the 
 differential, and apphed it to a steam wagon which 
 he built in 1828. The differential of today is based 
 on the principle discovered by Pecqueur. While 
 Pacqueur was evolving this invention, Goldsworthy 
 Gurney in England made a car which was a prac- 
 tical failure in about everything except that it dem- 
 onstrated that sufficient friction between the drive 
 wheels and the roadbed could be created to pro- 
 duce propulsion. A trip of almost 200 miles from 
 London and return was made in 1823 by Gurney 
 in the second vehicle he built, in which the engine 
 was concealed in the rear. His car made 12 miles 
 an hour for part of the trip. From this time — 
 1828 to 1840 — the automobile really had a vogue 
 in England. A number of them were made and run 
 as passenger carriers. For four months a motor 
 carriage made the nine mile trip from Gloucester to 
 Cheltenham four times a day. The 'Infant' built 
 tv Walter Hancock made trips between London and 
 Stratford. The 'Era,' also made by Hancock, ran 
 from London to Greenwich. To such an extent 
 
 did the auto-bus business develop, that speed of 30 
 miles an hour was claimed, and one conveyance in 
 1834 ran over 1,700 miles without repairs or read- 
 justment. At least, that was the claim made, and 
 as a claim it has a familiar sound. . . . But there 
 was one feature about these early English motor 
 busses that was their undoing. They weighed three 
 tons and over, and the wheel rims were metal. The 
 diameter of the wheels was six feet. The rubber 
 tire was unthought of. The effect on roads of run- 
 ning a 3-ton, metal rimmed vehicle, carrying eleven 
 to twenty passengers, was disastrous, and parlia- 
 ment, incited by horse owners and others, legis- 
 Tated them out of existence by making the toll 
 charges prohibitive. ... In 1878 Bollee built a 
 steam omnibus which ran between Paris and Vienna, 
 making 22 miles an hour. In this car was reached 
 the highest efficiency the art had attained up to 
 that time. Practically an identical car was built in 
 1880 by Bollee, which was entered by him 15 years 
 later and won honors in the Paris-Bordeaux race. 
 ... In i87q an American did a thing which has 
 had much to do with giving the United States its 
 long delayed start in the automobile industry. This 
 man was George B. Selden of Rochester, N. Y. He 
 applied for the first patent for the gasoline motor, 
 as the driving force of a road vehicle. This was 
 before any automobile had been equipped with an 
 internal combustion hydro-carbon motor. This 
 motor had, however, been in use for some time 
 in running stationary engines. . . . Selden built a 
 gasoline motor under the specifications contained 
 in his application for a patent, and it performed 
 satisfactorily in experiments. But he did not build 
 an automobile containing the gasoline motor. He 
 did not secure his patent until 1895, 16 years after 
 he had made apphcation for it. . . . In iqoo Sel- 
 den disposed of it to the Electric Vehicle Company 
 of New Jersey." — H. L. Barber, Story of the auto- 
 mobile, pp. 65-68. 
 
 1858-1919. — Origin and development of motor 
 transport. — Steam wagons. — Electric trucks. — 
 Traction enterprise in America. — Caterpillar 
 tractor in war uses. — "Although in a commercial 
 sense the truck industry is still in its infancy, it is 
 not so young in its engineering development. In- 
 quirers are often surprised to learn that it really 
 antedates the pleasure automobile. The earliest in- 
 ventors of the self-propelled road vehicle had their 
 thoughts influenced in that respect by the commer- 
 cial possibilities of the steam stage coach and trac- 
 tion engine. For illustration, the Cugnot steam 
 wagon built in France in 1760-70 was designed to 
 haul heavy artillery ; the Hancock, the Gurney 
 and the Russell steam vehicles built in England in 
 the period from 1820 to 1840 were stage coaches 
 that were actually operated in service as paying 
 passenger conveyances. The earliest recorded road 
 vehicle in the United States was a combined boat 
 and road wagon built in 1804 by or for Oliver 
 Evans, who obtained privileges to operate road 
 wagons in Pennsylvania and Maryland. The first 
 power road vehicle that is known to have operated 
 on its own power of which there is authentic knowl- 
 edge was a huge steam traction engine built in New 
 York City in 1858 to be used for hauling merchan- 
 dise from the Mississippi River to Colorado. The 
 idea originated with Major General Joseph R. 
 Brown, an Indian agent in Minnesota. The engine 
 was designed and built by J. A. Reed, of New York, 
 and after being driven under its own power through 
 the streets of the city up to Twenty-third Street 
 and back to the Christopher Street Ferry, was 
 shipped by rail and river steamer to Nebraska City. 
 The populace gave it a great reception there, and 
 a string of about a dozen wagons filled with people 
 was hauled through the city, preparatory to driv- 
 
 735
 
 AUTOMOBILES Development of Trucks AUTOMOBILES 
 
 ing the engine to Denver under its own power. 
 About 7 miles out of Nebraska City, a crank was 
 broken and the machine was stored in Arbor Lodge, 
 owned by J. Sterling Morton. The Civil War and 
 the beginnmg of construction of the Union Pacific 
 Railroad prevented the making of repairs and ended 
 the venture, which had cost thousands of dollars. 
 Eventually the machine was sold for $200 and the 
 boiler and engine removed for use in a mill. . . . 
 The earliest experiments with steam road engines 
 had very little if any influence, however, on the 
 development of the commercial vehicle either in 
 Europe or America. Besides the Reed steam trac- 
 tion engine referred to already, other early Amer- 
 ican self-propelled vehicles belonged to the class of 
 commercial or utility vehicles. A steam fire engine 
 driven by its own power was built in 1840 by Cap- 
 tain Ericsson. How successful it was is not known, 
 but in 1867-70 the Amoskeag Corporation, in Man- 
 chester, N. H., built several self-propelled steamers, 
 one of which, after being hurriedly sent to Boston 
 during the great Boston fire in 1872, and perform- 
 ing efficient service, was purchased by the city of 
 Boston. In 1876 the city of Hartford bought a 
 self-driven steamer, which was named Jumbo, and 
 was kept in ser\'ice for many years. Development 
 of the modern commercial vehicle was practically 
 contemporaneous with that of the pleasure car. As 
 early as 1895, in the pioneering days of Duryea, 
 Winton, Haynes & Apperson, Woods, Riker, Olds, 
 Morris & Salom and others, when the Horseless Age 
 was started and the Times-Herald road race in Chi- 
 cago on Thanksgiving Day inaugurated the auto- 
 mobile contest era in this countn.', the possibilities 
 of the motor vehicle for industrial and commercial 
 purposes were foreseen by many constructors, A 
 gasoline delivery wagon, built by the Langert Com- 
 pany of Philadelphia, was entered in the Cosmopol- 
 itan race. Charles E. Woods, a Chicago carriage 
 builder, had constructed one or more electric de- 
 livery wagons and C. S, Fairfield, of Portland, Ore- 
 gon, had built a sightseeing stage seating eighteen 
 to twenty passengers which was driven by a kero- 
 sene engine. To Woods seems to belong the credit 
 for being the first .American manufacturer to pro- 
 duce business vehicles commercially. The delivery 
 wagons built by the Woods Motor Vehicle Co. in 
 the early go's were driven by two 1200-watt elec- 
 tric motors giving 3^ horsepower output for five 
 hours with a 32 cell battery. The running gear had 
 carriage wheels and the front wheels were steered 
 by a vertical rod on the left side fitted with a 
 streetcar brake handle. Charles E. Woods, of the 
 C. E. Woods Co., well known electrical engineer of 
 Chicago and New York, made a long and very 
 careful study of the motor vehicle from an engi- 
 neering and practical standpoint in the early ex- 
 perimental days in .America and reached the con- 
 clusion that the first demand of the public would 
 be for light delivery wagons, then for public con- 
 veyances, next for liveries and finally for heavy 
 private trucks. ... In i8q6 a horse van was con- 
 verted into a steam wagon to haul furniture for 
 the Shepard & Co. department store of Providence, 
 R. I., by the Cruickshank Engineering Works of 
 the same city. The design was by L. F. N. Bald- 
 win and showed a boiler and 6-horsepower engine 
 mounted under the wagon bed, with side chain 
 drive. That the truck industr>' as well as the 
 passenger car industry abroad was considerably fur- 
 ther advanced than in America at this period is 
 shown by the fact that the first heavy vehicle 
 trials were held in France from August 5 to 11, 
 i8q7, by the .Automobile Club of France. Ten 
 vehicles competed, including four omnibuses, two 
 tractors, one waconette, one freight or merchandise 
 truck and one brake. It will be seen how the pas- 
 
 senger-carrying vehicle predominated. The steam 
 vehicles showed superiority in hill-climbing and 
 hauling loads exceeding one ton, but the Panhard 
 gasoline omnibus was highly commended for clean- 
 liness, fuel economy and management. The Winton 
 delivery wagon, brought out in iSqS, was the first 
 gasoline commercial vehicle to be produced on a 
 commercial scale in the United States. Eight of 
 these vehicles were under construction in October 
 of that year. The panel body was mounted on 
 the regular Winton pleasure chassis, which was 
 driven by a 6-horsepower s by 6 inch single-cylin- 
 der horizontal engine suspended under the body 
 with a planetary change-speed gear mounted on an 
 extension of the crank-shaft. The running gear had 
 tubular axles and reaches and final drive was by a 
 single chain to the differential gear on the rear axle. 
 The machine was steered by a tiller and the wheels 
 were of the wire spoke suspension type. In the 
 same year the Dursea Motor Wagon Co., of 
 Springfield, Mass., brought out a Ught deliver>' 
 model having a panel body mounted on the three- 
 wheel passenger car chassis designed by Charles E. 
 Duryea; and S. Messinger, of Newark, N. J., pro- 
 duced a gasoline delivery wagon weighing 1000 
 pounds and driven by a 6-horsepower 4 by 6-inch 
 engine. A. L. Riker, pioneer American experi- 
 menter with electricity as a motive power for tri- 
 cycles and pleasure cars, had produced an electric 
 delivery wagon model, and one of these machines, 
 built for B. Altman & Co., dr>- goods merchants in 
 New York, was placed on exhibition in the elec- 
 trical show held in Madison Square Garden in May, 
 1898. It had a rated capacity of 500 pounds and 
 weighed 2000 pounds. The battery alone weighed 
 icoo pounds. The vehicle was mounted on wire 
 wheels fitted with 3-inch pneumatic tires and had 
 a radius of action of 30 miles at a speed of 10 miles 
 an hour. Mr. Riker, who was born in New York 
 City in 1868 and graduated from the Columbia 
 College Law School, began experimenting with elec- 
 trically driven vehicles and in 1895 built a self- 
 propelled quadricycle made of two bicycles placed 
 side by side for experimental purposes. In the go's 
 he produced designs for large electric 4-wheeled 
 passenser and delivery vehicles. He had already 
 formed the Riker Electric Motor Co. of Brooklyn, 
 of which he was president. This was succeeded in 
 1 901 by the Electric Vehicle Co. of Hartford, which 
 continued the manufacture of electric vehicles un- 
 der the name Columbia, acquired from the Pope 
 Manufacturing Co. ... A crude oil tractor built 
 in 1898 by the Best Manufacturing Co., of San 
 Leandro, Cal., was probably the first .American in- 
 ternal combustion tractor for hauling merchandise. 
 It is interesting to note that it was driven by a 75- 
 horsepower 4-cylinder motor and was designed to 
 haul a gross weight of 120,000 pounds on two 
 trailer wagons at a speed of 4 to 8 miles an hour. 
 The first Waverley electric wagon announced made 
 its appearance the same year in Indianapolis as the 
 product of the American Electric Vehicle Co. Its 
 chief characteristics were a tubular frame, ball- 
 bearing wood wheels fitted with cushion tires, sin- 
 gle 3 '/<> -horsepower motor supported longitudinally 
 on the frame with enclosed direct drive from the 
 armature shaft to the rear axle differential; a 44- 
 cell battery concealed in the body bed and tiller 
 steer. . . . Now came a brief period, in 1898-Q, 
 when the struggling young industr>' was burdened 
 by the flotation of many heavily capitalized stock 
 companies to exploit public service electric cab and 
 compressed air trucking services. Anticipating big 
 profits in such undertakings or believing the public 
 anticipated them and was ready to invest heavily, 
 the Whitney-Widcner-Elkins syndicate, of Philadel- 
 phia and New York, secured control of the patents 
 
 736
 
 AUTOMOBILES 
 
 War Uses 
 of the Tractor 
 
 AUTOMOBILES 
 
 owned by the Pope Manufacturing Co. for the 
 construction of motor vehicles and those owned by 
 the Electric Storage Battery Co. for the manufac- 
 ture of vehicle batteries and formed the Columbia 
 Automobile Co. This company then united these 
 patents with those owned by the Electric Vehicle 
 Co. under the ownership of a third company or- 
 ganized as the Columbia & Electric Vehicle Co., 
 whose stock was taken equally by the Columbia 
 Automobile Co. and the Electric Vehicle Co. The 
 new company purchased the entire plant of the 
 Columbia Automobile Co. in Hartford and soon 
 afterward acquired the stock and plant of the 
 New Haven Carriage Co. at New Haven. About 
 the same time the Electric Vehicle Co. bought up 
 the Seamans & Halske Electric Co. of America for 
 the production of motors and other electric equip- 
 ment. With this combination of manufacturing 
 plants, having facilities for the production of about 
 Scoo vehicles a year, the Electric Vehicle Co. began 
 organizing transportation companies in leading 
 cities as an outlet for the product. The first four 
 formed were the New York, the New England and 
 the Illinois Electric Vehicle Transportation com- 
 panies, each capitalized at $25,000,000, and the 
 Pennsylvania Electric Vehicle Co., capitahzed at 
 $6,000,000." — J. R. Doolittle, ed., Romance of the 
 automobile industry, pp. 351-356. — See also below 
 ig20. 
 
 "An innovation in this war [World War], devel- 
 opment of which in the future promises to be even 
 more important, was the increased use of motor 
 transportation. As applied to the artillery, this 
 meant the use of caterpillar tractors to haul the 
 big guns, especially over rough ground. When we 
 entered the war no suitable designs existed for 
 caterpillar tractors of size appropriate for the 
 medium heavy artillery. But new S-ton and lo-ton 
 types were perfected in this country, put into pro- 
 duction, and 1,100 shipped overseas before Novem- 
 ber I [1Q18]. About 300 larger tractors were also 
 shipped and 350 more secured from the French and 
 British. The tank was an even more important 
 application of the caterpillar tractor to war uses. 
 In the case of the small 6-ton tanks, the efforts of 
 this country were largely concentrated on improve- 
 ment of design and on development of large scale 
 production for the igip campaign. Up to the time 
 of the armistice 64 had been produced in this coun- 
 try, and the rate at which production was getting 
 under way is shown by the fact that in spite of the 
 armistice the total completed to March 31, igio, 
 was 778. The burden of active service in France 
 was borne by 227 of these tanks received from the 
 French. The efforts of this country in the case 
 of heavy 30-ton tanks were concentrated on a 
 cooperative plan, by which this country was to 
 furnish Liberty motors and the rest of the driving 
 mechanism, and the British the armor plate for 
 1,500 tanks for the iqiq campaign. It has been 
 estimated that about one-half the work on the 
 American components for this project had been 
 completed before November 11 [igiS], and the 
 work of assembly of the initial units was well un- 
 der way. For immediate use in France, this coun- 
 try received 64 heavy tanks from the British." — 
 The War with Germany: United Slates official sta- 
 tistical summary, p. 80. — During the war, "motor 
 trucks to the number of 47,018 went forward, and 
 when fighting ceased were being shipped at the rate 
 of 10,000 a month. . . . Beyond the range of the 
 narrow-gauge railway [in the war zones] came the 
 motor truck. The truck could go over roads that 
 were under shell fire. It could retire with the Army 
 or push forward with advancing troops. Trucks 
 were used on a larger scale in this war than was 
 ever before thought possible. The American Infan- 
 
 try division on the march with the trucks, wagons, 
 and ambulances of its supply, ammunition, and 
 sanitary trains stretches for a distance of 30 miles 
 along the road. The 650 trucks which the tables 
 of organization of the division provide are a large 
 factor in this train. The need for trucks increased 
 moreover during the latter months of the war as 
 trench warfare gave place to a war of movement. 
 As the forces moved forward on the offensive away 
 from their railway bases, more and more trucks were 
 demanded. The Army overseas never had all the 
 trucks it needed during the period of hostilities. . . . 
 The supply was least adequate during the last four 
 months of the war, when the shipment of trucks 
 fell behind the accelerated troop movement. The 
 difficulty was almost entirely a shortage of ships. 
 At practically all times there were quantities of 
 trucks at the ports of embarkation, but trucks take 
 enormous amounts of cargo space on ships. It is 
 slow and difficult work to load them, and time after 
 time embarkation officials were forced to leave the 
 trucks standing at the ports and load their ships 
 rapidly with supplies needed still more urgently 
 overseas. In October and November [igi?] more 
 ships were pulled out of the trades and the trucks 
 were shipped even at the expense of other essential 
 supplies. The shipment kept pace with the troop 
 movement, but the initial shortage could not be 
 overcome until February. The number of trucks 
 sent overseas prior to the armistice was 40,000 
 and of these 33,000 had been received in France. 
 The trucks ranged in size from three-quarters of a 
 ton to 5 tons." — Ibid., pp. 46, 54-55. 
 
 1885-1894. — Benz and Daimler gasoline mo- 
 tors. — "In 1885, Benz, a German, built the first road 
 vehicle to be run by the internal-combustion, hydro- 
 carbon motor. It was a tricycle, and its motor was 
 single-cylindered, four-cycled, after the type of an 
 engine developed in 1876, in Germany, by Otto, 
 and water cooled. It had electric ignition and a 
 mechanical carburetor. Benz secured a patent in 
 1886 on his invention and it ran successfully, mak- 
 ing ten miles an hour. Benz was limited to the use 
 of certain streets in Mannheim, Germany, for run- 
 ning his machine, out of deference to the tendency 
 to nerves of horses and their drivers or riders. This 
 tricycle by Benz was the forerunner of the Benz 
 automobile. This is one of the most successful and 
 popular cars in Germany — and before the war, in 
 all Europe. The first automobile imported to the 
 United States was a Benz car brought to the Chi- 
 cago World's Fair in i8g3. Up to igi? the Benz 
 car was an entrant in most automobile speed con- 
 tests. While Benz was perfecting the gasohne motor 
 in its attachment to the tricycle, Gottlieb Daimler, 
 another German, was producing, in 1885, the motor- 
 cycle. Daimler had devoted himself sedulously to 
 the problem of reducing the weight and increasing 
 the power of the gas engine, in order to adapt it 
 to high efficiency road vehicles. He invented the 
 hot tube ignition to take the place of ignition by 
 flame. By regulation of the heat of the tube, the 
 compressed charge of hydro-carbon vapor could be 
 fired automatically at a specific point in the cycle. 
 Through the increased speed thus produced the size 
 and weight of the motor could be reduced." — H. L. 
 Barber, Story of the automobile, pp. 6g-7o, — 
 "Daimler got into touch with M. Levassor, who was 
 so impressed with the patrol boat and a quadricycle 
 shown at the Paris Exhibition in i88q that he set 
 to work to build a complete motor-car. After 
 many failures he succeeded, and one of the most 
 extraordinary things in connection with his success 
 is the fact that the form of construction adopted 
 by him — in fact, one may say invented by him — 
 is the form adopted even to this present day. His 
 first car had the engine in front, a sliding change- 
 
 737
 
 AUTOMOBILES 
 
 American Progress 
 Electric and Gasoline Cars 
 
 AUTOMOBILES 
 
 speed gear arranged for various speeds, a counter- 
 shaft carrying a differential gear, and sprockets for 
 a chain-drive on to the back wheels, and was sim- 
 ilar in a number of other points." — C. Jarrott, Ten 
 years of motoring and motor racing, p. i6. — 
 "The Daimler motor was a big step in advance, as 
 was proved by the supremacy which the German 
 and French automobile makers at once attained. 
 The French secured rights to the Daimler motor 
 and operated under them with such success that 
 from i88g to i8g4, before the United States had 
 really waked up to motor car making, they were 
 beginning to put out gasoline automobiles success- 
 fully." — H. L. Barber, Story of the automobile, p. 
 70. 
 
 1889-1905. — America builds steam and electric 
 cars. — First American gasoline car. — French im- 
 provements. — "At this time, we, in this country, 
 were following the steam and storage battery 
 fetishes. The first steam car in the United States 
 that might be called modern was built by S. H. 
 Roper of Massachusetts, in 1889. In iqoo, steam 
 car building in America gave promise of disputing 
 the gasoline car records then being made in France, 
 but by 1905 the gasoline car manufacturers had 
 taken the cue from the European gasoline suc- 
 cesses, and this form of motor came to the front. 
 Contemporaneously with the activities in steam 
 car building in the United States, was the pioneer 
 electric car construction era. The first electric auto- 
 mobile was built in i8qi, and made its first ex- 
 hibit on appearance in the streets of Chicago in 
 September, 1892. The builder of this, the first 
 electric driven vehicle, was William Morrison of 
 Des Moines, Iowa. It was brought by J. B. 
 McDonald, president of the American Battery Com- 
 pany, Chicago. . . . The date of the building of 
 the first American gasoline automobile that ran 
 was 1892. The man who performed the feat was 
 Charles E. Duryea. He had the assistance of his 
 brother, Frank Duryea, but what was more, he 
 had the benefit of knowledge of what had been 
 accomplished in Europe in the gasoline motor field. 
 Panhard, Levassor, Peugeot, De Dion, Bouton, and 
 SerpoUet were Frenchmen who had done things with 
 gasoHne cars, all (except SerpoUet and Levassor) 
 principally through the manufacture of finished 
 cars. Levassor conceived the idea of a central 
 frame to carry the power plant, and thus solved 
 the problem of road shock. SerpoUet had done 
 more. He had invented the flash boiler, reviving 
 an art the English had previously discovered, which 
 made the use of dry or superheated steam possible. 
 Higher pressure could be used, water economies 
 effected and weight reduced. When Duryea and 
 others, about 1892, gave concentrated thought to 
 gasoline propulsion, all the problems of automobile 
 making had found solution, except two: . . . 
 a method of cushioning wheel , rims, and some 
 method by which the motor could be so placed 
 that it would be immune from shocks and vibra- 
 tions. So, when Duryea, in 1892, built the first 
 -American gasoline car that would run successfully, 
 he merely 'assembled' the ideas that had then ac- 
 cumulated. Duryea built his first car in 1802. 
 Henry Ford built his in 1893. Elwood Haynes built 
 his in 1804. There were but four gasoline cars in 
 the United States in i8g6 — Duryea, Ford, Haynes, 
 and Benz, the last being the German car which 
 was imported. With the accomplishments of the 
 builders of steam, electric and gasoline motored 
 vehicles at this time — 1895 — the practical success of 
 horseless carriages had been definitely settled. Prac- 
 tically all fundamental problems had been solved. 
 To make them finally an accepted addition to the 
 world's methods of transportation in general use, 
 two things only were needed. One was the devel- 
 
 opment of perfecting devices, such as rubber tires, 
 the production of which began about 1889; and the 
 other was the general acceptance of automobiles 
 by the people — a cordial, popular approval, mani- 
 fested by their purchase and use. . . . The first 
 American made gasoline automobile sold in the 
 United States was disposed of March 24, i8q8. The 
 sale of steamers and electrics had been going on for 
 several years before, but not very extensively." — 
 Ibid., pp. 70-75. 
 
 1892-1916.— Rise of Henry Ford. — Standard- 
 ization. — "The real 'fathers' of the automobile are 
 Gottlieb Daimler, the German who made the first 
 successful gasoline engine, and Charles Goodyear, 
 the American who discovered the secret of vul- 
 canized rubber. Without this engine to form the 
 motive power and the pneumatic tire to give it 
 four air cushions to run on, the automobile would 
 never have progressed beyond the steam carriage 
 stage. It is true that Charles Baldwin Selden, of 
 Rochester, has been pictured as the 'inventor of the 
 modern automobile' because, as long ago as 1879, 
 he applied for a patent on the idea of using a gaso- 
 line engine as motive power, securing this basic 
 patent in 1895, but this, it must be admitted, forms 
 a flimsy basis for such a pretentious claim. The 
 French apparently led all nations in the manufac- 
 ture of motor vehicles, and in the early nineties 
 their products began to make occasional appear- 
 ances on American roads. The type of American 
 who owned this imported machine was the same 
 that owned steam yachts and a box at the opera. 
 Hardly any new development has aroused greater 
 hostility. It not only frightened horses, and so 
 disturbed the popular traffic of the time, but its 
 speed, its glamour, its arrogance, and the haughty 
 behavior of its proprietor, had apparently trans- 
 formed it into a new badge of social cleavage. It 
 thus immediately took its place as a new gewgaw 
 of the rich ; that it had any purpose to serve had 
 occurred to few people. Yet the French and Eng- 
 lish machines created an entirely different reaction 
 in the mind of an imaginative mechanic in Detroit. 
 Probably American annals contain no finer story 
 than that of this simple American workman. Vet 
 from the beginning it seemed inevitable that Henry 
 Ford should play this appointed part in the world 
 Born in Michigan in 1S63, the son of an English 
 farmer who had emigrated to Michigan and a 
 Dutch mother. Ford had always demonstrated an 
 interest in things far removed from his farm. Only 
 mechanical devices interested him. . . . Henry Ford 
 at the age of sixteen ran away to get a job in a 
 machine shop. Here one anomaly immediately 
 impressed him. No two machines were made ex- 
 actly alike; each was regarded as a separate job. 
 With his savings from his weekly wage of $2.50, 
 young Ford purchased a three dollar watch, and 
 immediately dissected it. If several thousand of 
 these watches could be made, each one exactly , 
 alike, they would cost only thirty-seven cents a- 
 piece. 'Then,' said Ford to himself, 'everybody 
 could have one.' He had fairly elaborated his 
 plans to start a factory on this basis when his 
 father's illness called him back to the farm. This 
 was about 1880; Ford's next conspicuous appear- 
 ance in Detroit was about 1892. This appearance 
 was not only conspicuous; it was exceedingly noisy. 
 Detroit now knew him as the pilot of a queer 
 affair that whirled and lurched through her thor- 
 oughfares, making as much disturbance as a freight 
 train. In reading his technical journals Ford had 
 met many descriptions of horseless carriages, the 
 consequence was that he had again broken away 
 from the farm, taken a job at $45 a month in a 
 Detroit machine shop, and devoted his evenings 
 to the production of a gasoline engine. His young 
 
 738
 
 AUTOMOBILES 
 
 American Progress 
 Paris-Rouen Race 
 
 AUTOMOBILES 
 
 wife was exceedingly concerned about his health; 
 the neighbors' snap judgment was that he was 
 insane. Only two other Americans, Charles B. 
 Duryea and Elwood Haynes, were attempting to 
 construct an automobile at that time. Long before 
 Ford was ready with his machine . . . foreign 
 makes began to appear in considerable numbers. 
 But the Detroit mechanic had a more comprehen- 
 sive inspiration. He was not working to make one 
 of the finely upholstered and beautifully painted 
 vehicles that came from overseas, '.\nything that 
 isn't good for everybody is no good at all,' he said. 
 Precisely as it was V'ail's ambition to make every 
 American a user of the telephone and McCormick's 
 to make every farmer a user of his harvester, so it 
 was Ford's determination that every family should 
 have an automobile. He was apparently the only 
 man in those times who saw that this new machine 
 was not primarily a luxury but a convenience. Yet 
 all manufacturers, here and in Europe, laughed at 
 his idea. Why not give every poor man a Fifth 
 Avenue house ? Frenchmen and Englishmen 
 scouted the idea that any one could make a cheap 
 automobile. Its machinery was particularly refined 
 and called for the highest grade of steel ; the clever 
 Americans might use their labor-saving devices on 
 many products, but only skillful handwork could 
 turn out a motor car. European manufacturers 
 regarded each car as a .separate problem; they indi- 
 vidualized its manufacture almost as scrupulously 
 as a painter paints his portrait or a poet writes his 
 poem. The result was that only a man with sev- 
 eral thousand dollars could purchase one. But 
 Henry Ford — and afterward other American makers 
 — had quite a different conception. . . . [About 
 IQ02] Ford had built a machine which he entered 
 in the Grosse Point races that year. It was a 
 hideous-looking affair, but it ran like the wind and 
 outdistanced all competitors. From that day Ford's 
 career has been an uninterrupted triumph. But he 
 rejected the earliest offers of capital because the 
 millionaires would not agree to his terms. They 
 were looking for high prices and quick profits, while 
 Ford's plans were for low prices, large sales, and 
 u.se of profits to extend the business and reduce 
 the cost of his machine. Henry Ford's greatness 
 as a manufacturer consists in the tenacity with 
 which he has clung to this conception. Contrary 
 to general belief in the automobile industry he 
 maintained that a high sale price was not necessan,- 
 tor large profits ; indeed he declared that the lower 
 the price, the larger the net earnings would be. 
 Nor did he believe that low wages meant pros- 
 perity. The most efficient labor, no matter what 
 the nominal cost might be, was the most econom-' 
 ical. The secret of success was the rapid produc- 
 tion of a serviceable article in large quantities." — 
 — B. J. Hendrick, Age of big business, pp. 174-180. 
 — See also Detroit: 1812-1Q16. — "Thus Henry Ford 
 did not invent standardization ; he merely applied 
 this great American idea to a product to which, 
 because of the delicate labor required, it seemed at 
 first unadapted. He soon found that it was cheaper 
 to ship the parts of ten cars to a central point than 
 to ship ten completed cars. There would therefore 
 be large savings in making his parts in particular 
 factories and shipping them to assembling estab- 
 lishments. In this way the completed cars would 
 always be near their markets. Large production 
 would mean that he could purchase his raw ma- 
 terials at very low prices; high wages meant that 
 he could get the efficient labor which was demanded 
 by his rapid fire method of campaign. It was 
 necessary to plan the making of every part to the 
 minutest detail, to have each part machined to 
 its exact size, and to have every screw, bolt, and 
 bar precisely interchangeable. About the year 1007 
 
 the Ford factory was systematized on this basis. In 
 that twelvemonth it produced 10,000 machines, 
 each one the absolute counterpart of the other 
 qggg. American manufacturers until then had been 
 content with a few hundred a year! From that 
 date the Ford production has rapidly increased ; 
 until, in iqib, there were nearly 4,000,000 auto- 
 mobiles in the United States — more than in all the 
 rest of the world put together — of which one-sixth 
 were the output of the Ford factories. Many other 
 .'\merican manufacturers followed the Ford plan, 
 with the result that .American automobiles are du- 
 plicating the story of American bicycles; because 
 of their cheapness and serviceability, they are rap- 
 idly dominating the markets of the world. In the 
 Great War American machines have surpassed all 
 in the work done under particularly exacting cir- 
 cumstances." — Ibid,, pp. 182-183. — "A few years 
 ago an English manufacturer, seeking the explana- 
 tion of America's ability to produce an excellent 
 car so cheaply, made an interesting experiment. He 
 obtained three American automobiles, all of the 
 same 'standardized' make, and gave them a long 
 and racking tour over English highways. Work- 
 men then took apart the three cars and threw the 
 disjointed remains into a promiscuous heap. Every 
 bolt, bar, gas tank, motor, wheel, and tire was 
 taken from its accustomed place and piled up, a 
 hideous mass of rubbish. Workmen then pains- 
 takingly put together three cars from these dis- 
 ordered elements. Three chauffeurs jumped on 
 these cars, and they immediately started down the 
 road and made a long journey just as acceptably 
 as before. The Englishman had learned the secret 
 of American success with automobiles. The one 
 word 'standardization' explained the mystery." — 
 Ibid., p. 173. 
 
 1894-1896. — Prevailing conditions in early 
 automobile races. — Paris-Rouen race. — First 
 races in America and England. — Variety of cars. 
 — "What were the conditions prevailing at the time 
 of those good old days — the days of Paris-Berlin, 
 Paris-Bordeaux, and Paris-Vienna races? Obvi- 
 ously the competitive element existed between the 
 various manufacturers of cars taking part; the\ 
 entered for a race in the hope that they could 
 successfully beat their rivals; but the general idea 
 underlying the whole event was the desire to prove 
 to the world that motor-cars would go, and that 
 they were capable of travelling long distances in a 
 reliable and speedy manner. The events were 
 looked upon as educational both to the public and 
 to the manufacturer, in the evolution of vehicles, 
 which were something more than mere pieces of 
 machinery made for sale and barter. And lessons 
 were learned, experience and knowledge gained, 
 and that side of the sport which was influenced 
 by the financial aspect of the event was satisfied 
 in these rewards, and the extermination of all op- 
 position to each individual interest was not thought 
 of The men who drove were also dominated by 
 this idea. Dozens of them were independent, racing 
 their own cars; others were racing, if not on their 
 own cars, at any rate at their own expense; and 
 none but were so enamoured of the sport as a 
 sport, as to make the mere question of money 
 subservient to the keen desire to drive a racing-car 
 and to race. To race against one's friends, against 
 one's compatriots, and against one's foreign rivals; 
 to drive one's car faster and reach the distant goal 
 sooner than somebody else in the event. And good 
 fellowship and good sportsmanship prevailed 
 amongst all, to add pleasure and enjoyment to the 
 actual racing itself. And then the conditions of 
 actual racing were so different. In the rapid march 
 of progress new cars were built for each event. 
 Months saw extraordinary progress, and working 
 
 739
 
 AUTOMOBILES 
 
 Races 
 Companies Founded 
 
 AUTOMOBILES 
 
 as the makers were in order to get their machines 
 out for the event, they invariably failed to do so 
 until the very last minute. They were not partic- 
 ularly handicapped in consequence because every 
 maker was in the same plight, and consequently in 
 each event a long line of practically untried new 
 motor-cars formed up, their capabilities to be tested 
 and their merits discovered over hundreds of miles 
 of unknown road. And much of the charm of the 
 sport lay in its glorious uncertainty. Where a re- 
 sult is bound to happen there is no real sport, and 
 never were results more obscure than the results 
 of those races. The fact of travelling successfully 
 three-parts of the distance proved nothing, because 
 probably some part would break and trouble ensue 
 which placed one hopelessly liors de combat, and 
 we all struggled on, making the best of our trou- 
 bles, sympathizing with each other's misfortunes, 
 and doing our best to arrive at the finish. In addi- 
 tion to the excitement of driving a new and prac- 
 tically untried machine, you had also the fact that 
 you were driving a much faster machine than you 
 had ever driven before, because the power of the 
 motors was increased for each event, and with all 
 these glorious elements of uncertainty, a feeling that 
 you were perhaps driving faster than any one had 
 ever driven before, and there was a lack of that 
 grimness and ferocity which marks latter-day 
 motor-racing. To secure real and exciting sport 
 obviously the spice of danger was an added inter- 
 est, because since we were not then accustomed to 
 the speeds, this sense of danger always existed." — • 
 C. Jarrott, Ten years of motors and motor racing, 
 pp. qt-qS. — "Levassor's experiments [see above 
 18S5-18Q4] and successes were copied, and eventu- 
 ally sufficient vehicles were in existence to warrant 
 the holding of a race — or rather a trial — in [July] 
 1804, from Paris to Rouen. [Forty-six cars were en- 
 tered of which twelve only were steam cars.] The 
 first to arrive was a steam vehicle, built by De Dion 
 et Bouton, but the success of the petrol vehicles was 
 sufficiently pronounced to establish it as a fact be- 
 yond all question that they were practical and suc- 
 cessful. The excitement in France in connection 
 with this race was very great, the new road vehicles 
 being welcomed by the French populace with open 
 arms. Although the first arrival was the De Dion 
 Bouton steamer, nevertheless the Panhard and 
 Peugeot cars were given the first prize, a De Dion 
 steamer gaining the second, and a Serpollet steam 
 car being awarded the third. A movement was soon 
 after started for the holding of another race for the 
 following year, in which the Count De Dion and 
 the Baron de Zuylen took an active part. It was 
 eventually decided that a race should be run from 
 Paris to Bordeaux and back, without stoppages of 
 any kind. M. Levassor built a special car for the 
 event, having a small ^Yj h. p. motor, and a number 
 of other cars were also turned out' by the various 
 firms interested to take part. The race was held 
 on II June, 1895, the start being from Versailles, 
 and twenty-three vehicles presented themselves at 
 the starting-point. Of these, nine completed the 
 journey, eight of them being petrol-driven carriages 
 and one steam. M. Levassor won the event, by 
 accomplishing the journey in forty-eight hours on 
 his little car — a magnificent performance, consider- 
 ing the stage of development to w-hich the motor 
 vehicles had attained at that time." — It'id., pp. 6-7. 
 — On "Thanksgiving Day, 1805, the first American 
 automobile race was run from Chicago to VVauke- 
 gan. The organizer and patron was a newspaper — 
 the Chicago Times-Herald. Of two entrants, the 
 'Buggyaut' of Charles E. Duryea was one." — H. L. 
 Barber, .S(ory of the aniomobile, p. 73. — "Novem- 
 ber 14, i8q6. A foggy, dull, wet. typical November 
 morning found me making my way along Holborn 
 
 to the Central Hall. This had been engaged for 
 the purposes of a garage for the use of the intrepid 
 people who were on that morning to make a run, 
 involving much danger and personal risk, from 
 London to Brighton [32 miles]. For the first time 
 in English history legal restrictions in regard to the 
 use of motor-cars on the public highways, except 
 when preceded by a man with a red flag, had been 
 removed, and we were to be allowed to drive a car 
 on the road at a speed not exceeding twelve miles 
 an hour. The run from London to Brighton had 
 been arranged to celebrate this important event. 
 . . . Leon Bollee was there, with a small fleet of 
 those extraordinary little machines invented by him 
 which always, to my mind, resembled land torpedoes 
 more than anything else. The Panhard and Levas- 
 sor machines, which had previously taken part in 
 the great Paris-Marseilles race, were also there ; and 
 a dozen other notabilities in what was then the 
 somewhat limited automobile world. . . . Most of 
 the cars were historical, in view of the fact that 
 they had, even then, accomplished great deeds. In 
 the first, driven by M. Meyer, was seated Mr. H. J. 
 Lawson, President of the Motor-Car Club, the car 
 itself being the identical Panhard-Levassor on 
 which M. Levassor had achieved his great victory 
 of the previous year in the Paris-Bordeaux race. 
 Xo. 2 was a German Daimler landaulette, which 
 had the previous week occupied a prominent posi- 
 tion in the Lord Mayor's Show, and contained, 
 amongst other distinguished personages, Herr Gott- 
 lieb Daimler himself. No. 3 was a Panhard-Levas- 
 sor car, which had won the Paris-Marseilles race. 
 No. 4 belonged to the Hon. Evelyn Ellis. McRobie 
 Turrell . . . was also driving a Panhard-Levassor 
 car, whilst Leon and .\medee Bollee and H. O. 
 Duncan were all handling Bollee tandem machines. 
 -Another machine of great interest was driven by 
 Mr. E. J. Pennington, who, at that time, was claim- 
 ing great things for the motor invented by him. 
 .And an .American-made machine, in the shape of 
 the Duryea, also figured prominently. Another 
 bold person, in the shape of Mr. Gorton, junior, 
 rode a fearful and wonderful tricycle, which started 
 off with many kicks and jumps, much to the alarm 
 of the crowd." — C. Jarrott, Ten years of molars 
 and motor racing, pp. 1-3. 
 
 1898-1916. — Foundation of automobile com- 
 panies. — Diversity of types. — "The year of the 
 Spanish-.American war — iSqS — saw the beginning of 
 a veritable rain of automobile manufacturers in the 
 United States. In that year the Stanley, Stearns, 
 Thomas, Matheson, Winton, and the Waverley 
 Company entered the field. In iSqo, there ap- 
 peared the Locomobile Company, Olds, Baker-Elec- 
 tric and Pierce-Racine (later absorbed by J. I. Case 
 and now the Case car). In looo, Packard, Peer- 
 less, Glide, National Electric, Lambert, Elmore, 
 Babcock, Jackson, Knox and Lane were entrants 
 in the lists. In looi, Acme, Gaeth, Pierce-.Arrow, 
 White, Royal Tourist, Stevens-Duryea, Waltham- 
 Orient, Pope-Toledo, Welrh, Pullman and Rambler. 
 In IQ02, Cadillac, Franklin, Pope, Studebaker, Sul- 
 tan, Okey, Walter and Schacht. In 1903, Ford, 
 Auburn, Overland, Molinc, Premier, Corbin, Berg- 
 dall, Holsman, Columbus and Chadwick. In 1Q04, 
 Buick, Cleveland, .American Napier, Stoddard-Day- 
 ton, Marmon, Mitchell, Jewel, Mclntyre, Pitts- 
 burgh Electric, Ranch & Lang and Simplex. In 
 iqo5, .Alco, .American, Dorris, Johnson, Jonz, Kis- 
 selcar, Maxwell, Monarch, Reo, Studebaker, Gar- 
 ford and .American Mors. In iqo6, .Anderson, 
 A. B.C., Cartercar, Brunn, Thomas-Detroit, Kearns, 
 Sterling, Mora, Moon. Pennsylvania, Palmer & 
 Singer and Stavcr. In 1007, .Albany, .Atlas, Brush, 
 Bertolet, Byridcr, Carter, Chalmers, Coppock, De 
 Luxe, Oakland, Regal, Selden, Speedwell, Interstate, 
 
 740
 
 AUTOMOBILES 
 
 Mechanical Progress 
 Growth of Industry 
 
 AUTOMOBILES 
 
 Lozier and Great Western. In igoS, Sharp-Arrow, 
 Pittsburgh 6, Crown Midland, Rider-Lewis, Paige- 
 Detroit, Velie, Cole, E.M.F. and Hupmobile. In 
 igoQ, Hudson, Advance, Cunningham, Coates- 
 Goshen, Ohio and Abbott. Since igog to date new 
 cars put on the market include: Stutz (1911), 
 Chevrolet (igi2). Grand, Chandler, Saxon and 
 Scripps-Booth (1913), Dodge and Dort (1914), 
 Owen Magnetic (1915), Drexel and Elgin (iqi6). 
 Other automobiles in the field are the Maibohm, 
 Allen, Ben-Hur, Crow-Elkhart, Harroun, Lexington 
 and Madison. . . . The earlier manufacturers of 
 motor cars included many who had been engaged 
 in manufacturing bicycles, and following them was 
 a group that had successfully manufactured wagons 
 and carriages. Still another set of manufacturers 
 were machinery men. In the list of names of auto- 
 mobile companies which have been organized dur- 
 ing the period of the industry's development, there 
 are some which have gone out of business; but not 
 many. The industry, generally speaking, has had 
 comparatively few complete failures. Mortality has 
 been lower with it than with many other business 
 enterprises. This is chiefly due to the intelligence 
 which the manufacturers brought to the busine.ss, 
 plus the demand which sprang up for the automo- 
 bile as soon as the people, instructed with great 
 and liberal space by the press, reahzed it was the 
 vehicle that could give what they wanted. Never 
 was the value of a concerted campaign of education 
 better demonstrated. That unusually intelligent 
 study of the subject of suiting the popular desire 
 was given by manufacturers is evidenced in many 
 ways, but in none that is so typical as was the 
 standardization of motor cars. At one stage of the 
 industry its very life was threatened by a lack of 
 uniformity in the mechanical construction of the 
 various types of the automobile. The big idea that 
 has made Henry Ford's millions was a combination 
 one. It was the building of a motor and car com- 
 bined which could be constructed at a cost that 
 would command large quantity production. This 
 conception by Ford, alone, simple though it was, 
 proclaims him the genius he undoubtedly is. The 
 purchase of cars between i8g8, when sales first be- 
 gan to be made, and 1903, when Ford put out his 
 car, was practically confined to people of wealth 
 and leisure. It required both to own and operate 
 an automobile. Men bought them at a cost of 
 $3,000 to .$12,000 each. Purchasers were exhilarated 
 by auto-intoxication — with little thought of the 
 practical uses the invention could be put to. Snob- 
 bishness, social impression and display of superior 
 wealth were back of many purchases." — H. L. Bar- 
 ber, Story of the automobile, pp. QS-g8. 
 
 1900-1920. — Fuel problem. — Starting devices. — 
 "It seems amusing to us, today, to turn back to 
 igio-i2 and read that the vast increase in the use 
 of the automobile had caused such a demand for 
 gasoline that the quality had gone down to a point 
 that constituted a problem. We will understand 
 this better if we realize that the cars of igoo and 
 igos, burning the high-grade gasoline then on the 
 market, were expected to start, under all conditions 
 and without priming, on a half or even a quarter 
 turn of the crank. When the fuel became of such 
 sort that this was not feasible, there was a universal 
 consensus that some sort of starting motor would 
 have to be devised. A great many sorts were put 
 forward, but those that worked pneumatically or 
 through springs or by introducing a preliminary 
 charge of acetylene or some other violent explosive 
 and touching it off with the spark went overboard 
 when it was shown clearly that a wet battery could 
 be built that would not be damaged by such rough- 
 ing as it would get from riding in a car, and that a 
 generator could be installed that would keep it 
 
 charged to the necessary voltage for starting. The 
 development of the electric starter began in 1910, 
 and by 1013 was complete, all the better cars being 
 by that time so equipped. But if a battery must 
 be carried for this purpose, economy demands that 
 it be used also for lighting and ignition, relieving 
 the car of weight and installation expense repre- 
 sented by oil lamps and magneto. So we find at 
 this time the very general reversion to battery igni- 
 tion, referred to above. The magneto, however, has 
 not submitted tamely to this. Admitting that at 
 the slow engine-speeds of cranking whether man- 
 ually or by motor, the battery gives a better spark 
 than the magneto, the advocates of the latter point 
 out that its spark increases in intensity with engine 
 speed and that it ought therefore to be better after 
 the car gets under way. Opinion here is still in a 
 point of flux; and it is difficult to say whether the 
 present vogue of dual ignition represents really an 
 effort to get the best of both systems, or merely a 
 desire to sidestop the question of choosing between 
 them." — Rise of the automobile (Scientific Amer- 
 ican, Oct. 2, 1920, p. 358). 
 
 1902-1915. — Development of engines. — Cooling 
 devices. — Steering gear. — "In 1907 the first six- 
 cylinder model appeared in England, the work of 
 Napier, and the precedent was quickly followed, 
 until by, say, igio, it might have been said that the 
 two-cylinder car of igo2 had become a four, and 
 the four a six. At the same time Hewitt produced 
 an eight, but this precedent was ignored for nearly 
 a decade; the earliest of the existing eights appears 
 to be the Cadillac, of 1914. The tendency toward 
 sixes, and later eights, continued; and finally, in 
 1915, the Packard, almost the last car to give up 
 the single cylinder, was the first to set the mark at 
 twelve. A change of importance that ought to be 
 mentioned is that from chain drive, universal in 
 the early models, to the propeller shaft with bevel 
 gears. If a date were to be set at which this be- 
 came first effective, it would be somewhere in the 
 vicinity of 1905. The early designers surrounded 
 the single cylinder with a water jacket, but made 
 no definite provision for water economy. Perhaps 
 they did not expect their cars to run far enough, 
 on one stretch, to require fresh water. But by 
 1900 the cruising radius had gone up, and radiators 
 recognizable as such made their appearance, though 
 as late as 1902 they were universally low with 
 sloping fronts. The higher, vertically up-standing 
 type appeared in 1904-05, and swept the field clean 
 within two years at the most. Circulation was by 
 pump, until the Renault designers incorporated the 
 thcrmo-syphon, which spread to a few other models 
 after igo?. But it must be emphasized that air- 
 cooling is not a recent development ; the Franklin, 
 which would be the Wilkinson if named after its 
 creator, dates back continuously to 1902-03, and 
 the Knox and Marmon, among others, were air- 
 cooled for a time. The dividing line between horse- 
 less carriage and automobile may perhaps be drawn 
 from the point where the motor was transferred to 
 the front and the conservative upright steering post 
 with horizontal rod replaced by the more sporty 
 wheel. Among the names that lived, the Knox, 
 Duryea, Haynes, Oldsmobile, Stearns and Pierce 
 were all handled through rods in 1902; the vogue 
 of the wheel appears to have become definitely 
 established not earlier than 1904. And Levassor's 
 example in putting the engine where it belongs was 
 still defied in 1902 by the Stearns, Pierce, Packard, 
 Oldsmobile and others, but had become universal 
 two years later. So perhaps we might say that the 
 period before 1900 was that of the horseless car- 
 riage, and that after four years of transition we 
 come to the automobile." — Ibid., p. 358. 
 
 1909-1916. — Growth of production. — Reduced 
 
 741
 
 AUTOMOBILES 
 
 AVA 
 
 prices. — "The average price of all motor vehicles, 
 combining pleasure cars and trucks, was, in 1916, 
 $636. The preponderance of passenger cars at the 
 lower prices brought the average down, since the 
 average price of motor trucks alone was about 
 !!!i,8oo. For every motor truck sold, eighteen pas- 
 senger cars were disposed of in 1016. With stand- 
 ardization and the consequent lowering of cost, the 
 automobile industry acquired a momentum that has 
 carried production forward on a constantly ascend- 
 ing scale, as witness these figures of passenger cars 
 alone: 
 
 No. of 
 Year cars made 
 
 iqog So.ooo 
 
 igio 185,000 
 
 iQii 200,000 
 
 Year 
 
 No. of 
 cars made 
 
 1912 250,000 
 
 iqis 842,249 
 
 1916 1,617,708 
 
 The manufacture of motor trucks almost doubled 
 in one year. The number produced in 1015 was 
 50^500. In 1910 the number made was 92,130. 
 The above table, showing the rate of increase in 
 passenger cars made in seven years, makes it clear 
 that the greatest growth in the passenger car busi- 
 ness has been since and including the year 1911. 
 That was the year in which the largest number of 
 medium and low priced standardiEed cars with re- 
 finement of detail and added equipments, selling 
 from ?i,500 down to $500, was first put on the 
 market." Ford almost doubled his output in that 
 year. The next years, 1912 and 1913, also he more 
 than doubled each year his output of the previous 
 year. .And in loib he made nearly one-thi-d of all 
 the passenger cars produced in the entire United 
 States in that year. Could anything demonstrate 
 more conclusively than these facts, that if you have 
 an article within the price of the mass of the peo- 
 ple, it will sell, if the people want it ? The one 
 idea of Henry Ford — quantity sales — saved to the 
 United States the premiership in automobile mak- 
 ing. For other manufacturers adopted it, some 
 radically, others in a modified form. Its influence 
 was unquestioned in putting the price of motor cars 
 at a figure at which a person happening to have 
 less than the income of a millionaire could afford 
 to buy one, so that when every one of the many 
 values and benefits of the existence of the modern 
 automobile is scheduled, let us, in giving credit for 
 them, place the name of Ford at the head of the 
 list. When we have arrived at our destination, or 
 have attained an object much desired, our satis- 
 faction is such that we are in a forgiving mind and 
 prone to forget the sacrifices we had to make, the 
 difficulties we had to overcome, the strenuous work 
 we had to do. The end justified the means, and 
 we don't think long about the hardships in the 
 means. Preeminence of the United States in the 
 motor field has not been gained without hardships, 
 sacrifices and disappointments by those engaged in 
 it, nor was it reached by the immediate and unin- 
 terrupted success of all companies organized to com- 
 mercialize the invention." — H. L. Barber, Slory of 
 the automobUr, pp. 100-102. 
 
 1920. — Immense spread of automotive industry 
 and traffic. — "The present survey may well be con- 
 cluded with a word about the position held today 
 in the world's economy by the automotive indus- 
 tries. It is in a way hardly necessary to dilate 
 upon this, yet one or two concrete statements may 
 help to a true realization of the vital importance 
 of the automobile to our way of doing things. For 
 one thing, we are told that while all the railroads 
 of the United States in the course of a year yield 
 about 45 billion passenger-miles, the automobiles 
 of the entire nation are responsible for 70 billion 
 of these units of transportation, .\gain, with the 
 
 3,700 passenger cars manufactured in 1809, the first 
 year for which records exist, and with the 411 
 trucks of 1904, we may compare the present normal 
 production of some two million passenger cars and 
 three hundred thousand, plus, trucks. Finally, we 
 have the fact that there are something like seven 
 million automotive vehicles of all sorts in opera- 
 tion in this country today. Figures are given for the 
 United States for the very simple reason that, alike 
 in manufacture and use, this is the land of the 
 automobile. Under the head of general remarks 
 about the role of the automobile in twentieth cen- 
 tury economy the difficulty is wholly that of find- 
 ing a brief statement that shall do the subject jus- 
 tice. In every single thing that we do today the 
 automobile or the truck or the tractor occupies a 
 position of importance. Perhaps the most illumi- 
 nating statement that could be made would have 
 to do with the manner in which all distances up 
 to fifty, seventy-five, or even a hundred miles are 
 made to vanish into nothing by the magic influence 
 of the motor. The isolation of farm life is a thing 
 of the past, for the farmer cannot possibly be more 
 than an hour from a town that gives him access to 
 high-class schools and stores and amusements. City 
 congestion, serious as it is, would be vastly worse 
 were it not for the manner in which the automobile 
 extends the suburbs and the area of food supply far 
 beyond the remotest possibilities of twenty years 
 ago. Trucks carry freight from New York to Phil- 
 adelphia in less time than it would take to get it 
 to the freight yards and loaded on a train. In a 
 word, the automobile — taking this term to include 
 all gasoline-driven vehicles — is with little question 
 the greatest ameliorating influence in modern life." 
 — Rise oj the automobile (Scientific American, Oct. 
 2, 1920, p. 360). 
 
 AUTONOMY, self-government; administrative 
 independence of a city or state. The term was 
 applied to the states of ancient Greece where 
 every city or small community claimed sovereign 
 power. In modern hiztory it is used to describe 
 the condition of a country which has complete 
 control of its own affairs while nominally under 
 the power of another state. 
 
 AUTUN, Origin of. See Gaul: The people. 
 
 287 A. D. — Sacked by the Bagauds. See Ba- 
 
 GAUDS. 
 
 AUVERGNE, an ancient government of France 
 which came under the French crown in 1S32; 
 inhabited by the .Arverni in Cjesar's time, Vcr- 
 cingetorix at one time leading them against the 
 Romans. See .-Edui; Burgundy: 1364; Gaul: The 
 people; France: 1665; also Maps of medieval peri- 
 od: 1154-1360. 
 
 AUVERGNE, School of.— "The school of Au- 
 vergne arose in a region where the worship of 
 Mercur}' had been popular in the days of the 
 Roman Empire, where many Gallo-Roraan statues 
 and reliefs existed. From such remains of an- 
 tiquity the early medieval sculptors seem to have 
 derived their inspiration. They produced works 
 in high relief, often with a good deal of under- 
 cutting. ... In choice of subjects this school 
 shows a preference for allegorical figures, especially 
 for the conflict of the Virtues with the Vices: 
 among these the punishment of .Avarice is most 
 popular. . . . The capitals of the church of Notre 
 Dame du Pont, at Clermont, of the early part 
 of the twelfth century, are good examples of the 
 work of this school." — H. N. Fowler, History of 
 sculpture, p. 107-108. 
 
 AUXILIUM, old English tax. See Tallage. 
 
 AVA, a town and former capital of the em- 
 pire of Burma; situated on the Irrawaddy river, 
 six miles south of Mandalay, the present capital. 
 See Burma: Early history; India: 1823-1833. 
 
 742
 
 AVALAKITESVARA 
 
 AVARS 
 
 AVALAKITESVARA, Buddhism. See Myth- 
 OLOCv: Eastern Asia: Indian and Chinese influ- 
 ences. 
 
 AVALON, Lord Baltimore's name for his prov- 
 ince of Newfoundland. Sec Newfoundland: i6io- 
 
 1655- 
 
 AVARICUM. See Bourges, Origin of. 
 
 AVARS. — The true Avars are represented to 
 have been a powerful Turanian people who ex- 
 ercised in the sixth century a wide dominion in 
 Central Asia. Among the tribes subject to them 
 was one called the Ogors, or Ouigours, or Ouiars, 
 or Ouar Khouni, or Varchonitcs (these diverse 
 names have been given to the nation) which is 
 supposed to have belonged to the national family 
 of the Huns. Some time in the early half of the 
 sixth century, the Turks, then a people who dwelt 
 in the very center of Asia, at the foot of the Altai 
 mountains, making their first appearance in his- 
 tory as conquerors, crushed and almost annihilated 
 the Avars, thereby becoming the lords of the Oui- 
 gours, or Ouar Khouni. But the latter found 
 an opportunity to escape from the Turkish yoke. 
 "Gathering together their wives and their chil- 
 dren, their flocks and their herds, they turned their 
 waggons towards the Setting Sun. This immense 
 exodus comprised upwards of 200,000 persons. 
 The terror which inspired their flight rendered 
 them resistless in the onset ; for the avenging Turk 
 was behind their track. They overturned every- 
 thing before them, even the Hunnic tribes of 
 kindred origin, who had long hovered on the 
 north-east frontiers of the Empire, and, driving 
 out or enslaving the inhabitants, established them- 
 selves in the wide plains which stretch between 
 the Volga and the Don. In that age of imperfect 
 information they were naturally enough con- 
 founded with the greatest and most formidable 
 tribe of the Turanian stock known to the nations 
 of the West. The report that the Avars had 
 broken loose from Asia, and were coming in ir- 
 resistible force to overrun Europe, spread itself 
 all along both banks of the Danube and penetrated 
 to the Byzantine court. [See Byzantine empire: 
 Part in history.] With true barbaric cunning, the 
 Ouar Khouni availed themselves of the mistake, 
 and by calling themselves Avars largely increased 
 the terrors of their name and their chances of 
 conquest." The pretended Avars were taken into 
 the pay of the empire by Justinian and employed 
 against the Hun tribes north and cast of the 
 Black sea. They presently acquired a firm foot- 
 ing on both banks of the Danube, and turned 
 their arms against the empire. The important 
 city of Sirmium was taken by them after an 
 obstinate siege and its inhabitants put to the sword. 
 Their ravages extended over central Europe to 
 the Elbe, where they were beaten back by the 
 warlike Franks, and, southwards, through Moesia, 
 Illyria, Thrace, Macedonia and Greece, even to 
 the Peloponnesus. Constantinople itself was 
 threatened more than once, and in the summer 
 of 626, it was desperately attacked by Avars and 
 Persians in conjunction (see Rome: 565-628), with 
 disastrous results to the assailants. But the seat 
 of their empire was the Dacian country — modern 
 Rumania, Transylvania and part of Hungary — in 
 which the .'\vars had helped the Lombards to crush 
 and extinguish the Gepids. [See Rumania: B.C. 
 Sth century to A. D. 1241.] The Slavic tribes 
 which, by this time, had moved in great num- 
 bers into central and south-eastern Europe, were 
 largely in subjection to the Avars and did their 
 bidding in war and peace. "These unfortunate 
 creatures, of apparently an imperfect, or, at any 
 rate, imperfectly cultivated intelligence, endured 
 such frightful tyranny from their Avar conquerors, 
 
 that their very name has passed into a synonyme 
 for the most degraded servitude." — J. G. Shep- 
 pard. Fall of Rome, led. 4. — See also Albania: 
 Name and people; Balkan States: Races exist- 
 ing; and Europe: Introduction to historic period: 
 Migrations. 
 
 Also in: E. Gibbon, History oj the decline and 
 fall of the Roman empire, ch. 42. 
 
 7th century. — Slavic revolt. — The empire of 
 the Avars was shaken and much diminished in 
 the seventh century by an extensive rising of their 
 oppressed Slavic subjects, roused and led, it is 
 said, by a Frank merchant, or adventurer, named 
 Samo, who became their king. [See Bulgaria: 
 /th century] The first to throw off the yoke 
 were a tribe called the Vcndes, or Wendes, or 
 Venedi, in Bohemia, who were reputed to be half- 
 castes, resulting from intercourse between the 
 Avar warriors and the women of their Slavic 
 vassals. Under the lead of Samo, the Wendes 
 and Slovenes or Slavonians drove the Avars to 
 the east and north ; and it seems to have been 
 in connection with this revolution that the em- 
 peror Heraclius induced the Serbs or Servians and 
 Croats — Slavic tribes of the same race and religion 
 — to settle in depopulated Dalmatia. " 'From the 
 year 630 A. D.,' writes M. Thierry, 'the Avar peo- 
 ple are no longer mentioned in the annals of 
 the East ; the successors of Attila no longer figure 
 beside the successors of Constantine. It required 
 new wars in the West to bring upon the stage of 
 history the khan and his people.' In these wars 
 [of Pepin and Charlemagne] they were finally 
 swept off from the roll of European nations." — 
 J. G. Sheppard, Fall of Rome, lecture 4. 
 
 626. — Attack on Constantinople with Persians. 
 See Rome: Medieval City: 565-628. 
 
 640. — Devastation of Albania. Sec Albania: 
 Early history. 
 
 791-805. — Conquest by Charlemagne. — "Hun- 
 gary, now so called, was possessed by the Avars, 
 who, joining with themselves a multitude of Hun- 
 rish tribes, accumulated the immense spoils which 
 both they themselves and their equally barbarous 
 predecessors had torn from the other nations of 
 Europe. . . . They extended their limits towards 
 Lombardy, and touched upon the ' very verge of 
 Bavaria. . . . Much of their eastern frontier was 
 now lost, almost without a struggle on their part, 
 by the rise of other barbarous nations, especially 
 the various tribes of Bulgarians." This was the 
 position of the Avars at the time of Charlemagne, 
 whom they provoked by forming an alliance with 
 the ambitious duke of Bavaria, Tassilo, — most 
 obstinate of all who resisted the Frank king's 
 imperious and imperial rule. In a series of vigor- 
 ous campaigns, between 701 and 707 Charlemagne 
 crushed the power of the Avars and took pos- 
 session of their country. The royal "ring" or 
 stronghold — believed to have been situated in 
 the neighborhood of Tatar, between the Danube 
 and the Theiss — was penetrated, and the vast 
 treasure stored there was seized. Charlemagne 
 distributed it with a generous hand to churches, 
 to monasteries and to the poor, as well as to 
 his own nobles, servants and soldiers, who arc 
 said to have been made rich. There were sub- 
 sequent risings of the Avars and wars, until 805, 
 when the remnant of that almost annihilated peo- 
 ple obtained permission to .settle on a tract of 
 land between Sarwar and Haimburg, on the right 
 bank of the Danube, where they would be pro- 
 tected from their Slavonian enemies. This was the 
 end of the Avar nation. — G. P. R. James, History 
 of Charlemagne, bks. q and 1 1 . 
 
 Also in: J. I. Mombert, History of Charles the 
 Great, bk. 2, ch. 7. 
 
 743
 
 AVARS, RINGS OF 
 
 AVEZZANO 
 
 AVARS, Rings of the.— The fortifications of 
 the Avars were of a peculiar and effective construc- 
 tion and were called Hrings, or Rings. "They 
 seem to have been a series of eight or nine 
 gigantic ramparts, constructed in concentric circles, 
 the inner one of all being called the royal circle 
 or camp, where was deposited all the valuable 
 plunder which the warriors had collected in their 
 expeditions. The method of constructing these 
 ramparts was somewhat singular. Two parallel 
 rows of gigantic piles were driven into the ground 
 some twenty feet apart. The intervening space 
 was filled with stones, or a species of chalk, so 
 compacted as to become a solid mass. The sides 
 and summit were covered with soil, upon which 
 were planted trees and shrubs, whose interlacing 
 branches formed an impenetrable hedge." — J. G. 
 Sheppard, Fall of Rome, lecture 9. 
 
 AVEBURY, a village of Wiltshire, England. 
 It is the site of the ruins of an ancient monu- 
 ment, similar to Stonehenge but more primitive. 
 "The numerous circles of stone or of earth in 
 Britain and Ireland, varying in diameter from 30 
 or 40 feet up to 1,200, are to be viewed as temples 
 standing in the closest possible relations to the 
 burial-places of the dead. The most imposing group 
 of remains of this kind in this country [England] 
 is that of Avebury [.\bury], near Devizes, in Wilt- 
 shire, referred by Sir John Lubbock to a late stage 
 in the Neolithic or to the beginning of the bronze 
 period. It consists of a large circle of unworked 
 upright stones 1,200 feet in diameter, surrounded 
 by a fosse, which in turn is also surrounded by a 
 rampart of earth. Inside are the remains of two 
 concentric circles of stone, and from the two en- 
 trances in the rampart proceeded long avenues 
 flanked by stones, one leading to Beckhampton, 
 and the other to West Kennett, where it formerly 
 ended in another double circle. Between them rises 
 Silbun.' Hill, the largest artificial mound in Great 
 Britain, no less than 130 feet in height. This group 
 of remains was at one time second to none, 'but 
 unfortunately for us [says Sir John Lubbock] the 
 pretty little village of Avebury [Abury], like some 
 beautiful parasite, has grown up at the expense 
 and in the midst of the ancient temple, and out of 
 650 great stones, not above twenty are still stand- 
 ing. In spite of this it is still to be classed among 
 the finest ruins in Europe.' " — W. B. Dawkins, 
 Early man in Britain, ch. 10. — See also Stone- 
 henge. 
 
 AVEIN, Battle of (1635). See Netherlands: 
 1635-1638. 
 
 AVENGERS, or Vendicatori, a secret clan 
 formed in Sicily toward the close of the twelfth 
 century for the purpose of avenging so called 
 "popular wrongs." The organization came to an 
 end with the persecution of its leaders by William 
 II, the Norman king. 
 
 AVENTINE. See Seven Hills of Rome. 
 
 AVENTINUS, Johann Turmair (1477-1534), 
 historian in Renaissance. See History: 22. 
 
 AVERNUS, LaV-e and cavern.— A gloomy lake 
 called Avernus. which filled the crater of an ex- 
 tinct volcano, situated a little to the north of the 
 Bay of Naples, was the object of many super- 
 stitious imaginations among the ancients. "There 
 was a place near Lake Avernus called the prophetic 
 cavern. Persons were in attendance there who 
 called up ghosts. Anv one desiring it came 
 thither, and. having killed a victim and poured 
 out libations, summoned whatever ghost he wanted. 
 The ghost came, very faint and doubtful to the 
 sight." — Maximus Tyrius, quoted by C. C. Fel- 
 ton, Greece, ancient and modern, c. 2, lecture 9. — 
 See also Cumx and Bal.«. 
 
 AVERROES (Abul-Walid Muhammad ibn- 
 Ahmad Ibn-Muhammad ibn-Rushd) (1126-1198), 
 Arabian philosopher. See Averroism. 
 
 AVERROISM.— "The works of the Arab free- 
 thinker Averroes (twelfth century) which were 
 based on .Aristotle's philosophy, propagated a small 
 wave of rationalism in Christian countries. Aver- 
 roes held the eternity of matter and denied the 
 immortality of the soul ; his general- view may 
 be described as pantheism. But he sought to 
 avoid difficulties with the orthodox authorities of 
 Islam by laying down the doctrine of double 
 truth, that is the coexistence of two independent 
 and contradictory truths, the one philosophical, 
 and the other religious. This did not save him 
 from being banished from the court of the Spanish 
 caliph. In the University of Paris his teaching 
 produced a school of freethinkers who held that 
 the Creation, the resurrection of the body, and 
 other essential dogmas, might be true from the 
 standpoint of religion but are false from the stand- 
 point of reason. . . . This dangerous movement 
 was crushed, and the saving principle of double 
 truth condemned, by Pope John XXI. The 
 spread of Averroistic and similar speculations 
 called forth the Theology of Thomas, of Aquino 
 in South Italy (died 1274), a most subtle thinker, 
 whose mind had a natural turn for scepticism. 
 He enlisted -Aristotle, hitherto the guide of in- 
 fidelity, on the side of orthodoxy, and construct- 
 ed an ingenious Christian philosophy which is 
 still authoritative in the Roman Church." — J. B. 
 Bury, Historv of freedom of thought, pp. 68- 
 69. 
 
 AVERY, Samuel P. (1822-1904), American 
 connoisseur and art dealer. .\ founder and long a 
 trustee of Metropolitan Museum of Art, New 
 York City. Gift of architectural library for Colum- 
 bia Universitv. See Gifts and Bequests. 
 
 AVERYSBORO, Battle of. See U. S. A. 1865 
 (February-March): The Carolinas. 
 
 AVESNES, a railroad town of France, thirty 
 miles east of Cambrai, overrun by the Germans 
 in August, 1914, and recovered by the British, 
 November 8, 1918. See World War: 1918: II. 
 Western front: w, 2; x, 3. 
 
 AVESTA, or Zend-Avesta, sacred writings of 
 the Parsees ascribed by them to Zoroaster and his 
 immediate disciples. The present collection which 
 exists in Pahlavi is only a fragment of the original 
 Zoroastrian scriptures. The name "Zend-.Avesta" 
 came into use in Europe about 1771 W'hen .Anquetil 
 Duperron translated the remnants of the .Avesta. 
 Although Hyde, an Oxford scholar, had written on 
 the subject at an earlier date, he failed to create 
 the interest that Duperron aroused. A century 
 later Spiegel made a noteworthy translation, inter- 
 preting the Parsee documents from a viewpoint 
 entirely different from that of Duperron. In fact 
 the interpretation of the .A vesta is a matter of such 
 philological difficulty that no agreement has been 
 reached even on the most important points. It 
 was from these translations of the Pahlavi books 
 where the text and translation are spoken of as 
 "Avesta and Zend" that the misnomer Zend-.\vesta 
 arose. The book is not contained in a single manu- 
 script, but in a collection of writings as the Old 
 Testament is. Although these do not measure up 
 to the Old Testament, nevertheless, as the basis of 
 the Zoroastrian faith, and as the only literary leg- 
 acy of the ancient Iran, they hold a place of 
 unique importance in the world's literature. — See 
 also Magmns; P.arsees; Persian literatxtre; 
 
 ZOROASTRHNS. 
 
 AVEZZANO, Italy. Earthquake of 1915. See 
 Italy: 1915: Severe earthquakes. 
 
 744
 
 AVIATION 
 
 AVIATION 
 
 AVIATION 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF BALLOONS 
 AND DIRIGIBLES 
 
 Early history. — Inception of the balloon. — It is 
 
 not improbable that when primitive man iirst 
 began to think he instinctively felt a desire to 
 emulate the flight of birds as his eyes followed 
 their inexplicable progress through the air. Dur- 
 ing later ages, as records show, he has philoso- 
 phized, schemed and experimented to conquer the 
 
 about the time of the founding of Rome, caused 
 to be built an apparatus with which he sailed 
 in the air above the chief city of Trinovantes, 
 but that losing his balance he fell upon a temple 
 and was killed. ... A better authenticated legend 
 seems to be that of Simon the Magician, who in 
 the thirteenth year of the reign of the Emperor 
 Nero (about 67 A. D.) undertook to rise toward 
 heaven like a bird in the presence of everybody. 
 The legend relates that 'the people assembled to 
 
 S>ketcK 0/ F/yina Ma.chine 
 S^ Leonardo da. Yinci 
 
 Ed.-r7^ f 6^ Century 
 Design foy a.n /Airship 
 
 Pi ir ship Mode/ 
 6ui/i in 1785 
 
 jBa.lloon hui/t 
 
 by Cha^rles 7n/80'9- 
 
 TYPES OF EARLY ATTEMPTS AT FLYING-MACHINES 
 
 air, only to be thrown back upon the conclusion 
 — apparently definite and final — that he had not, 
 and could not hope to attain the necessary power 
 to operate a pair of wings of sufficient spread 
 to carry him through the air. A famous pioneer 
 of aviation. Octave Chanute, has traced the prob- 
 able inception of these ambitious projects to 
 the beginning of the Roman era. In i8g4 he 
 published a book "Progress in flying machines," 
 in which he fixes "the earliest legend of an ex- 
 periment which we may fairly suppose to have 
 been tried with an aeroplane ... in the some- 
 what fabulous chronicles of Britain, wherein it 
 is related that King Bladud, the father of King 
 Lear, who is supposed to have reigned in Britain 
 
 view so extraordinary a phenomenon, and Simon 
 rose into the air through the assistance of the 
 demons in the presence of an enormous crowd, 
 but that St. Peter having offered up a prayer, 
 the action of the demons ceased and the magician 
 was crushed in the fall and perished instantly.' 
 It seems, therefore, certain from this tale, which 
 has come down to us without any material altera- 
 tion, that even in that barbarous age a man suc- 
 ceeded in rising into the air from the earth by 
 some means which have unfortunately remained 
 unknown. . . . There is a tradition of the eleventh 
 century concerning Oliver of Malmesbury who, 
 in some of the accounts, is styled 'Elmerus de 
 Malemeria,' and who was an English Benedictine 
 
 745
 
 AVIATION 
 
 Balloons 
 
 AVIATION 
 
 monk, said to have been a deep student ol mathe- 
 matics and of astrology, thereby earning the repu- 
 tation ol a wizard. The legend relates that hav- 
 ing manufactured some wings, modeled after the 
 description that Ovid has given of those of 
 Daedalus, and having fastened them to his hands, 
 he sprang from the top of a tower against the 
 wind. He succeeded in sailing a distance of 125 
 paces, but either through the impetuosity or whirl- 
 ing of the wind, or through nervousness resulting 
 from his audacious enterprise, he fell to the earth 
 and broke his legs. . . . .\ more explicit tradition 01 
 the same kind comes from Constantinople where, 
 under the reign of the Emperor Manuel Com- 
 menus, probably about the year 11 78, a Saracen 
 (reported to be a magician, of course), whose 
 name is not given, undertook to sail into the 
 air from the top of the tower of the Hippodrome 
 in the presence of the Emperor. . . . 'The Saracen 
 kept extending his arms to fetch the wind. At 
 
 SPHERICAL BALLOONS 
 
 Start of a balloon race 
 
 last when he deemed it favorable, he rose into 
 the air like a bird, but his flight was as unfor- 
 tunate as that of Icarus, for the weight nf his 
 body having more power to draw him down than 
 his artificial wings had to sustain' him, he fell and 
 broke his bones.' . . . One of the most celebrated 
 traditions of partial success with a flying ma- 
 chine refers to J. B. Dante, an Italian mathe- 
 matician of Perugia, who, toward the end of the 
 fourteenth century, seems to have succeeded in 
 constructing a set of artificial wings with which 
 he sailed over the neighboring lake of Trasimene. 
 We have no description of the apparatus, but this 
 was presumably an aeroplane, soaring upon the 
 wind, for we have seen abundantly that all experi- 
 ments have failed with flapping wings, man not 
 having the strength required to vibrate with suf- 
 ficient rapidity a surface sufficient to carry his 
 weight in the air." — O. Chanutc. Progress in flying 
 machines, pp. 76-78, 80, 8t. 
 
 13th century. — Roger Bacon (1214-1202) sug- 
 gested a plan of flotation of a large hollow sphere 
 of ver\' thin copper, to be filled with "etherial 
 
 air or liquid fire," which he conceived would 
 navigate the air as a ship does the water. There 
 is no definite record that he submitted his theories 
 to a practical test. 
 
 14th century. — Bishop .\lbert of Halberstadt be- 
 lieved it would be possible to enclose hot air 
 in a sphere and raise the same into the air. 
 
 17th century. — .-V Portuguese Jesuit, Francis 
 Mendoza, and Caspar Schott, a German Jesuit, 
 respectively evolved different theories to make 
 hollow spheres float in the air by lire and "etherial 
 fluid." A more impractical suggestion was that of 
 an Italian Jesuit, Francesco Lana (1631-1687), 
 who proposed four thin copper balls each of 
 twenty or twenty-five feet diameter, entirely ex- 
 hausted of air. One of these balls or balloons 
 was to be attached to the corners of a square 
 basket or car, which latter was to carry a mast 
 and sail. The fallacy underlying his theory 
 consisted in the physical condition that the 
 envelopes would be too thin to withstand at- 
 mospheric pressure. Vet it was upon this princi- 
 pal that the modern balloon was subsequently 
 evolved. 
 
 1783-1784. — The earliest practical experiments in 
 ballooning were made in this year, during which, 
 it may be said, a new science was born. Until 
 the eighteenth century, aeronautics still appeared 
 to be an impracticable idea. In 17S3. however, 
 the brothers Joseph and Etienne Montgolfier at 
 .■\nnonay, France, invented the free balloon which 
 proved the simplest method of overcoming gravity. 
 The heated air used in the Montgolfier balloon 
 was soon replaced with hydrogen, an important 
 advance, since this gas lifts about sixty-eight 
 pounds per 1,000 cubic feet as against some ten 
 pounds for the highest temperature that is prac- 
 tical for a hot-air balloon. The largest of this 
 type ever built was Le Flesselles, which was 
 launched at Lyons, France, in 1784 and measured 
 100 feet in diameter and 130 feet in height. Its 
 \olume is given as 5qo,qqq cubic feet. The im- 
 portant events of these two years are summarized 
 as follows: 
 
 Sept. 10. 17S3. — Joseph Montgolfier sent up a 
 balloon charged with hot air, carrying a cage con- 
 taining a sheep, a cock and a duck, these being, 
 so far as we know with any degree of certainty, 
 the first living creatures to ascend into the air 
 by means of a human invention; height, about 
 1,500 feet. 
 
 Oct. 15. — Jean Franqois Pilatre de Rozier (1756- 
 1785) ascended in a Montgolfier captive balloon — 
 the first human air passenger. 
 
 Nov. 21. — Pilatre de Rozier and the marquis 
 d'Arlandes ascended in a free fire balloon from 
 the Bois de Boulogne to about 500 feet. They 
 traveled about five miles within twenty-five min- 
 utes and descended in safety. 
 
 November. — The first balloon ascended from 
 British soil, without any passenger. It was made 
 by an Italian, the Conte Zambeccari. and inflated 
 with hydrogen gas. The balloon, which rose in 
 London, traveled forty-eight miles in two hours 
 and a half. 
 
 Dec. I. — Jacques Alexandre Cesar Charles (1746- 
 1823), a French mathematician and physicist, was 
 the first to inflate a balloon with hydrogen gas. 
 He made an ascent from Paris in company with 
 one of the brothers Robert, who had manufactured 
 the balloon They rose to about 2,000 feet and 
 sailed twenty-seven miles, when they came to 
 earth and Robert left the car. Charles con- 
 tinued the trip alone. The lightened balloon 
 shot up to a height of two miles The device of 
 suspending the car from a hoop attached to the 
 netting and also the valve on top of the balloon. 
 
 746 
 
 /
 
 AVIATION 
 
 Balloons 
 Parac/iittes 
 
 AVIATION 
 
 both of which are still in use to-day, were in- 
 troduced by Charles. 
 
 Feb. 22, 1784. — First balloon across the chan- 
 nel. — A balloon, without a passenger, flew from 
 Kent to Warneton, French Flanders, seventy-five 
 miles. 
 
 Aug. 27. — The first human being to ascend 
 from British soil is believed to have been J. 
 Tytler, He went up in a balloon of his own 
 make at Edinburgh and traveled hall a mile. 
 
 Sept. 15. — Vincente Lunardi, attached to the 
 Neapolitan embassy in London, ascended in a bal- 
 loon, accompanied by a pigeon, a dog and a cat. 
 
 1821. — Coal gas for inflation of balloons first 
 used by George Green, an English aeronaut. 
 
 1844. — John Wise, America's pioneer balloonist, 
 invented the rip panel, a ribbon covering a vertical 
 seam on the upper half of the balloon, which 
 on landing, can promptly be pulled off to allow 
 instant deflation and thus prevent dragging by 
 the wind. 
 
 1862 (May 24).— In .iVmerican Civil War, Gen- 
 eral Stoneman ascended in a captive balloon and 
 directed his artillery fire. 
 
 1870-1913. — Balloon developments. — Kite-bal- 
 loons. — Parachutes. — Remarkable flights. — The 
 modtrn free ballodii varies in size to contain from 
 g.ooo to 80,000 cubic feet. Larger balloons have been 
 constructed and successfully operated. During the 
 siege of Paris in the Franco-Prussian War (1870- 
 1871), some 164 passengers were carried out of 
 Paris, together with valuable documents and 
 3,000,000 despatches. Out of sixty-six balloons, 
 only five were captured by the Germans be- 
 sieging the city, and two were lost in the At- 
 lantic. One balloon, carrying two passengers, was 
 driven by wind storms from Paris to Norway, 
 where it fell into a snow drift. So great was 
 the moral and material success of this enterprise 
 that Bismarck threatened to shoot every aeronaut 
 as a spy, while Krupp produced the first anti- 
 aircraft gun. In i8qj, the defects of the cap- 
 tive balloon were overcome by two German offi- 
 cers. Captains Parseval and Siegsfeld, who de- 
 vised the so-called kite balloon. This consists of 
 an elongated gas-bag divided into two unequal 
 portions, the larger of which (comprising about 
 four-fifths of the total volume) is filled with 
 hydrogen, the remaining one-fifth constituting the 
 ballonet or air-cell, which is automatically in- 
 flated by the wind through a convenient aperture. 
 In the World War the kite balloon was used by 
 practically all the belligerents; on the Western 
 front alone hundreds of them were to be seen 
 behind both Allied and German lines. Since the 
 occupants of these kite balloons have no means 
 of defending themselves against airplane attacks, 
 they are provided with parachutes which enable 
 them to jump from the fired balloon and descend 
 in safety. In balloons men have risen higher than 
 any airplane has mounted yet. Coxwell and 
 Glaisher were once credited, upon their own re- 
 port, of having reached an altitude of .^7,000 feet, 
 about seven miles, in a balloon which ascended 
 at Wolverhampton, England, on Sept. 5, 1862. 
 One of the aeronauts lost consciousness at five 
 and a half miles; the other, though dazed and 
 frozen numb, retained his wits and managed to 
 bring the balloon safely to earth. It is doubted 
 now if they even reached a height of six miles. 
 On July II, 1807, Salomon A. .\ndree, Swedish 
 engineer and aeronaut, started from Danes island, 
 Spitsbergen, in a balloon with two companions, 
 Strindberg and Fankel, in an attempt to reach 
 the North Pole They were never heard of again, 
 and nothing is known of their fate, though sev- 
 eral relief expeditions were sent to search for 
 
 them between 1897 and i8qg. Two days after 
 their departure they had released a carrier pigeon 
 bearing a message indicating that the balloon was 
 at the time about 145 miles northeast of the start- 
 ing point. In a very large balloon, the Preussen 
 (.Prussia), Professor Berson and Dr. Suring as- 
 cended near Berlin on July 31, iqoi, to a height 
 of 34,430 feet, which has been accepted as a 
 record. On May 28, 1013, three Frenchmen, MM. 
 Bienaime. Schneider and Lenorique, in the Icare, 
 provided with oxygen respiration apparatus, rose 
 to 33,074 feet and were almost frozen. Two com- 
 panions of (Jaston Tissandier succumbed to the 
 cold at 28,160 feet in the balloon Zenith on April 
 15, 1875, but apparently these aeronauts carried 
 no oxygen outfit. In relation to aviation, bal- 
 loon records are pertinent only as indicating the 
 peril to vitality at very high altitudes. Piloting 
 an airplane is different from sitting in the car . 
 of a balloon. Once the pilot's limbs are benumbed 
 
 "TURTLE" OBSERVATION BALLOON 
 
 there is danger that he will lose control of his 
 machine, and this danger naturally increases the 
 higher he goes. 
 
 1884-1897. — Transition from balloon to diri- 
 gible. — Flight of La France. — By a process of 
 natural sequence, the free balloon led to the dirigi- 
 ble. The former cannot be guided, and is at all 
 times at the mercy of the winds: the balloon must 
 travel in whatever direction the wind blows. 
 Combine a power plant with a suitable free balloon 
 and the result is an airship. Whereas the spherical 
 shape is the only one for free balloons, quite a 
 variety of forms have been constructed and pro- 
 posed for airships, or, as they may be called, 
 motor-balloons. Roze, a Frenchman, placed two 
 separate balloons side by side ; another attempt 
 was made with an elliptical cross-section form, to 
 resist the influence of the wind in landing But 
 the great majority of constructors adopt the more 
 or less oblong and rounded shapes. One of the 
 earlier theories in vogue some twenty years ago 
 with regard to the shape best adapted for air- 
 
 747
 
 AVIATION 
 
 Dirigibles 
 Zeppelin's Achievements 
 
 AVIATION 
 
 ships was that cone-shaped bodies fly better than 
 cylindrical ones. The swiftest fliers, swallows and 
 seagulls, have a tapered form, rounded in front 
 the same as a drop of water, which, in a sense, 
 has the property of assuming the most favorable 
 form for cleaving the air during its fall. E.xperi- 
 ments with models, such as are made before a 
 marine vessel is built, yield no useful results in 
 the case of large airships, on account of the 
 elasticity of the air and its capacity to accept in- 
 stantly a high rate of speed. Little success at- 
 tended experiments with a lish-like form of bal- 
 loon, severely tapered, because this shape de- 
 mands a larger resisting cross-section, from which 
 no advantage accrues. Fishes, therefore, cannot be 
 taken as models for aerial craft, seeing that the 
 rigidity of the airship body excludes the possibility 
 of propulsion with or from its rear end, as in 
 the case of fishes. All this applies only to air- 
 ships whose lengths do not exceed from six to 
 eight times their diameter. The longer types are 
 better oblong, with pointed ends, as adopted by 
 Count Zeppelin. The tapered form is the best for 
 shorter airships, but of no value for long 
 vessels. 
 
 There are three main classes of dirigibles, the 
 rigid, semi-rigid, and non-rigid. The rigid system 
 is that in which the carrying body is firmly built. 
 This type can only be constructed on a very large 
 scale, as the skeleton alone requires from 25 to 33 
 per cent, of the total lifting power. Such a 
 vessel, however, is much safer in the air than one 
 of the limp or semi-rigid type, but dangerous 
 when standing on the ground; although there is 
 less necessity for frequent descents in order to re- 
 plenish the gas, it runs considerable risk in descend- 
 ing during rough weather, and is liable to de- 
 struction if it does not land near a garage. Still 
 more dangerous would be a descent upon the 
 sea, as the waves and wind would speedily destroy 
 the whole vessel. The rigid framework is covered 
 with fabric, which encloses a number of druni- 
 shaped gas bags. In the semi-rigid type the carry- 
 ing body is made of limp material like an ordi- 
 nary balloon, but fixed upon a metal or wooden 
 frame, which supports the balloon underneath, re- 
 taining at least its longitudinal form, though not 
 the shape of the gas bag. The third system re- 
 nounces the solidity of the first as well as the 
 supporting frame of the second, and is therefore 
 styled the non-rigid limp system. The forms of 
 all these bodies vary: some are more or less 
 tapered at the ends, others are cylindrical in 
 shape. The covers are made of waterproof cotton, 
 silk, gold-beaters' skin or sheet metal. In most 
 cases the propellers are attached to the front or 
 at both sides, as near the center of resistance as 
 possible. The cars are attached to the balloon 
 bodies either rigidly or non-rigidly; that is to say, 
 loosely suspended. In the rigid Zeppelm type, 
 the gas is regulated after the manner of free 
 balloons; in the semi-rigid and non-rigid systems, 
 this is done by inflating ballonets or airbags, which 
 may aptly be described as "lung ballonets." The 
 elevating and descending appliances are either mov- 
 able planes or sliding weights, by which the cen- 
 ter of gravity is shifted. The dirigible repre- 
 sents the collaboration of almost countless in- 
 ventors. No one man can be accorded credit for 
 the dirigible as we know it to-day. Three men 
 were the founders of the science of airship con- 
 struction, namely, General Meusnier of the French 
 army, who in 17S4 laid down the fundamental 
 principles of the non-rigid airship; Renard and 
 Krebs, also French officers, who designed and 
 built in 1884 the first airship. La France, which 
 conclusively demonstrated its ability — and conse- 
 
 quently the possibility — to navigate the air in 
 any desired direction; and finally, the late Count 
 Zepplin, a Germ:m cavalry general, who began 
 the construction of a rigid airship in 1897, which 
 in its trial flight in June, 1900, made eighteen 
 miles an hour. Renard and Krebs had been 
 drawn to the "conquest of the air" from the re- 
 sults previously achieved by Henri Giffard in 
 1S55, who sought to propel a gas-inflated vessel 
 through the air by means of a steam engme ; the 
 experiments of Dupuy de Lome in 1870-1782; 
 and the results achieved by Albert and Gas- 
 ton Tissandier in 1SS3. "Dupuy de Lome at- 
 tempted to solve this vexatious problem, which 
 had been occupying the minds of men — brilliant 
 and otherwise — for centuries, and the knowledge 
 which he accumulated from his experiments pro- 
 vided the foundation upon which Captains Renard 
 and Krebs pursued their studies. Dupuy de 
 Lome conceived his idea from the German in- 
 vestiture of the city of Paris. On February 2nd, 
 1872, a vessel was built according to his designs, 
 and despite the indifferent propelling resources 
 available, he succeeded in imparting a speed of 
 about five miles an hour to his craft in calm air. 
 In 1SS3 the brothers Tissandier attacked the issue 
 because by this time an alternative means of pro- 
 pelling an airship had been devised. Gramme had 
 given the world the electric dynamo, and it was 
 thought that thereby aerial navigation might be 
 solved. . . . Several experiments . . . were car- 
 ried out, but the first decisive flight was not made 
 until September, 1884, — after the maiden trip of 
 La France — when the vessel made a two hours' 
 sojourn in the air during which it attained a 
 speed of thirteen and a half feet per second 
 and performed various evolutions But it was 
 La France and the work of Renard and Krebs 
 which really constituted the starting-point of 
 aerial navigation." — F A. Talbot, All about in- 
 ventions and discoveries, pp. 239-240. 
 
 1896-1914. — Count von Zeppelin's achieve- 
 ments. — Forlanini's dirigible. — Progress in con- 
 struction. — The blimp. — "The Zeppelin has al- 
 ways aroused the world's attention, although this 
 interest has fluctuated. Regarded at first as a 
 wonderful achievement of genius, afterwards as a 
 freak, then as the ready butt for universal ridi- 
 cule, and finally with awe, if not with absolute 
 terror — such in brief is the history of this craft 
 of the air. Count von Zeppelin [1838-1917] de- 
 veloped his line of study and thought for one rea- 
 son only. As an old campaigner and a student of 
 military affairs he realised the shortcomings of 
 the existing methods of scouting and reconnoiter- 
 ing. He appreciated more than any other man of 
 the day perhaps, that if the commander-in-chief 
 of an army were provided with facilities for gaz- 
 ing down upon the scene of operations, and were 
 able to take advantage of all the information 
 accruing to the man above who sees all, he would 
 hold a superior position, and be able to dispose his 
 forces and to arrange his plan of campaign to the 
 most decisive advantage In other words, Zeppelin 
 conceived and developed his airship for one field 
 of application and that alone — military operations. 
 ... As is well known, Zeppelin evolved what may 
 be termed an individual line of thought in connec- 
 tion with his airship activities. ... He clung te- 
 naciously to his pet scheme [of a rigid airship] 
 and to such effect that in 1896 a German Engineer- 
 ing Society advanced him some funds to con- 
 tinue his researches This support sufficed to 
 keep things going for another two years, during 
 which time a full-sized vessel "was built. The 
 grand idea began to cn,'stallise rapidly, with the 
 result that when a public company was formed 
 
 748
 
 AVIATION 
 
 Dirigibles 
 Zeppelin's Achievements 
 
 AVIATION 
 
 in i8gS, sufficient funds were rendered available to 
 enable the first craft to be constructed. It aroused 
 considerable attention, as well it might, seeing 
 that it eclipsed anything which had previously 
 been attempted in connection with dirigibles. . . . 
 The vessel was of great scientific interest, owing 
 to the ingenuity of its design and construction. 
 . . . The construction of the vessel subsequently 
 proved to be the easiest and most straightforward 
 part of the whole undertaking. There were other 
 and more serious problems to be solved. How 
 would such a monster craft come to earth? How 
 could she be manipulated upon the ground? How 
 could she be docked? Upon these three points 
 previous experience was silent. One German in- 
 ventor [Dr. 'VVdlfert] who likewise had dreamed 
 big things, and had carried them into execution, 
 paid for his temerity and ambitions with his life 
 [1897], while his craft was reduced to a mass 
 of twisted and torn metal. [Dr. Wblfert was 
 experimenting with a dirigible balloon driven by 
 
 certain influential Teuton aeronautical experts who 
 had previously ridiculed Zeppelin's idea had made 
 a perfect volte-jace. They became staunch ad- 
 mirers of the system, while other meteorological 
 savants participated in the trials for the express 
 purpose of ascertaining just what the ship could 
 do. As a result of elaborate trigonometrical cal- 
 culations it was ascertained that the airship at- 
 tained an independent speed of 30 feet per second, 
 which exceeded anything previously achieved. The 
 craft proved to be perfectly manageable in the 
 air, and answered her helm, thus complying with 
 the terms of dirigibility. The creator was flushed 
 with his triumph, but at the same time was 
 doomed to experience misfbrtune. In its descent 
 the airship came to "earth" with such a shock 
 that it was extensively damaged. The cost of re- 
 pairing the vessel was so heavy that the company 
 declined to shoulder the liability, and as the Count 
 was unable to defray the expense the wreck was 
 abandoned. Although a certain meed of success 
 
 lli|ll)lj;iJ|MI II 
 
 A ZEPl'ELIN IN FLIGHT 
 
 COUNT ZEPPELIN 
 
 a gasoline motor which exploded during flight. In 
 the same year an aluminum dirigible operated by a 
 Daimler motor was wrecked.] Under these cir- 
 cumstances Count Zeppelin decided to carry out 
 his flights over the waters of the Bodensee [Lake 
 Constance] and to house his craft within a floating 
 dock. In this manner two uncertain factors might 
 be effectively subjugated. . . . The first ascent was 
 made on July 2nd, iqoo, but was disappointing, 
 several breakdowns of the mechanism occurring 
 while the vessel was in mid-air, which rendered 
 it unmanageable, although a short flight was made 
 which sufficed to show that an independent speed 
 of thirteen feet per second could be attained. The 
 vessel descended and was made fast in her dock, 
 the descent being effected safely, while manoeuvring 
 into dock was successful. At least three points 
 about which the inventor had been in doubt ap- 
 peared to be solved — his airship could be driven 
 through the air and could be steered; it could 
 be brought to earth safely ; and it could be 
 docked. ... On October 17th and 21st of the 
 same year further flights were made. By this time 
 
 had been achieved the outlook seemed very llack 
 for the inventor. No one had any faith in his 
 idea. He made imploring appeals for further 
 money, embarked upon lecturing campaigns, wrote 
 aviation articles for the Press, and canvassed pos- 
 sible supporters in the effort to raise funds for 
 his next enterprise. Two years passed, but the 
 fruits of the propaganda were meagre. It was 
 at this juncture, when everything appeared to be 
 impossible, that Count Zeppelin discovered his 
 greatest friend. The German Emperor, with an 
 eye ever fi.xed upon new developments, had fol- 
 lowed Zeppelin's uphill struggle, and at last, in 
 iqo2, came to his aid by writing a letter which 
 ran: — 
 
 " 'Since your varied flights have been reported 
 to me it is a great pleasure to me to express my 
 acknowledgment of your patience and your labours, 
 and the endurance with which you have pressed 
 on through manifold hindrances till success was 
 near. The advantages of your system have given 
 your ship the greatest attainable speed and dirigi- 
 bility, and the important results you have obtained 
 
 749
 
 AVIATION 
 
 Dirigibles 
 Zeppelin's Achievements 
 
 AVIATION 
 
 have produced an epoch-making step forward in 
 the construction of airships and have laid down 
 a valuable basis for future experiments. ' 
 
 "This Imperial appreciation of what had been 
 accomplished proved to be the turning point in 
 the inventor's fortunes. It stimulated financial 
 support, and the second airship was taken in 
 hand. But misfortune still pursued him. Acci- 
 dents were of almost daily occurrence. Defects 
 were revealed here and weaknesses somewhere else. 
 So soon as one trouble was overcome another 
 made itself manifest. The result was that the 
 whole of the money collected by his hard work 
 was expended before, the ship could take to the 
 air. A further crash and blasting of cherished 
 hopes appeared imminent, but at this moment an- 
 other Royal personage came to the inventor's aid. 
 The King ot W'iirtcmberg took a personal in- 
 terest in his subject's uphill struggle, and the 
 Wiirtemberg Government granted him the proceeds 
 of a lottery. With this money, and with what 
 he succeeded in raising by hook and by crook, 
 and by mortgaging his remaining property, a 
 round £20,000 [."Siocoool was obtained. With this 
 capital a third ship was taken in hand, and in 
 1Q05 it was launched. It was a distinct improve- 
 ment upon its predecessors. . . . The trials with 
 this vessel commenced on November 30th [1905], 
 but ill-luck had not been eluded. The airship was 
 moored upon a raft which was to be towed out 
 into the lake to enable the dirigible to ascend. 
 But something went wrong with the arrangements. 
 A strong wind caught the ungainly airship, she 
 dipped her nose into the water, and as the motor 
 was set going she was driven deeper into the 
 lake, the vessel only being saved by hurried defla- 
 tion. Six weeks were occupied in repairs, but an- 
 other ascent was made on January 17th, 1906. 
 The trials were fairly satisfactory, but inconclu- 
 sive. . . . The vessel was brought down, and was 
 to be anchored, but the Fates ruled otherwise. .\ 
 strong wind caught her during the night and she 
 was speedily reduced to indistinguishable scrap. 
 Despite catastrophe the inventor wrestled gamely 
 with his project. The lessons taught by one dis- 
 aster were taken to heart, and arrangements to 
 prevent the recurrence thereof incorporated in the 
 succeeding craft. Unfortunately, however, as soon 
 as one defect was remedied another asserted itself. 
 It was this persistent revelation of the unexpected 
 which caused another period of indifference to- 
 wards his invention. Probably nothing more 
 would have been heard of the Zeppelin after this 
 last accident had it not been for the intervention 
 of the Prussian Government at the direct instiga- 
 tion of the Kaiser, who had now taken Count 
 Zeppelin under his wing. A State Lottery was in- 
 augurated, the proceeds of which were handed 
 over to the indefatigable inventor, together with 
 an assurance that if he could keep aloft 24 hours 
 without coming to earth in the meantime, and 
 could cover 450 miles within this period, the 
 Government would repay the whole of the money 
 he had lavished upon his idea, and liquidate all 
 the debts he had incurred in connection therewith. 
 
 ".Another craft was built, larger than its pre- 
 decessors, and equipped with two motors develop- 
 ing 170 horse-power . . . The crucial test was 
 essayed on August 5th. 1908. . . . Victory ap- 
 peared within measurable distance: the arduous toil 
 of many patient years was about to be rewarded. 
 The airship was within sight of home when it 
 had to descend owing to the development of an- 
 other motor fault But as it approached the 
 ground, Nature, as if infuriated at the conquest, 
 rose up in rebellion. .A sudden squall struck the 
 unwieldy monster. Within a few moments it be- 
 
 came unmanageable, and through some inscrutable 
 cause, it caught fire, with the result that withm a 
 few moments it was reduced to a tangled mass of 
 metallic framework. It was a catastrophe that 
 would have completely vanquished many an in- 
 ventor, but the Count was saved the gall of de- 
 feat. His flight, which was remarkable, inasmuch 
 as he had covered 380 miles within 24 hours, in- 
 cluding two unavoidable descents, struck the Teu- 
 ton imagination. . . . The German nation sympa- 
 thised with the indomitable inventor, appreciated 
 his genius, and promptly poured forth a stream of 
 subscriptions to enable him to build another ves- 
 sel. The intimation that other Powers had ap- 
 proached the Count for the acquisition of his idea 
 became known far and wide, together with the cir- 
 cumstance that he had unequivocally refused all 
 offers. He was striving for the Fatherland, and 
 his unselfish patriotism appealed to one and all. 
 Such an attitude deserved hearty national appre- 
 ciation, and the members of the great German 
 public emptied their pockets to such a degree that 
 within a few weeks a sum of £300,000 or $1,500,000 
 was voluntarily subscribed. .Ml financial embar- 
 rassments and distresses were now completely re- 
 moved from the Count's mind. He could forge 
 ahead untrammelled by anxiety and worry. An- 
 other Zeppelin was built and it created a world's 
 record. It remained aloft for 38 hours, during 
 which time, it covered 6qo miles, and, although it 
 came to grief upon alighting, by colliding with 
 a tree, the final incident passed unnoticed. Ger- 
 many was in advance of the world. It had an 
 airship which could go anywhere, irrespective of 
 climatic conditions, and in true Teuton perspective 
 the craft was viewed from the military standpoint. 
 Here was a means of obtaining the mastery of the 
 air: a formidable engine of invasion and aerial 
 attack had been perfected. Consequently the 
 Grand Idea must be supported with unbounded 
 enthusiasm. The Count was hailed by his august 
 master as 'The greatest German of the twentieth 
 century.' and in this appreciation the populace 
 whole-heartedly concurred." — F. A Talbot, Aero- 
 planes and dirigibles of war, pp. 25, 29-30, 32-33, 
 35i 37- — "The disasters experienced by all early 
 airships and most particularly by the Zeppelins 
 were always seized upon by those who desired to 
 convince the country what unstable craft they 
 were, and however safe in the air they might be 
 were always liable to be wrecked when landing in 
 anything but fine weather. Tho.'^c who might have 
 sunk their money in airship building thereupon 
 patted themselves upon the back and rejoiced that 
 they had been so far-seeing as to .avoid being en- 
 gaged upon such a profitless industry." — G. Whale, 
 British airships, pp. 191-192. — Besides turning out 
 a large number of skillful and daring pilots, Italy 
 has produced some remarkable innovations both 
 in dirigibles, airplanes, machinery and appliances. 
 Senator Enrico Forlanini holds as high a reputa- 
 tion in airship construction as the late Count 
 Zeppelin. The Italian inventor began his airship 
 experimenting and dreaming many years before 
 his German competitor. Forlanini's first airship, 
 the Leonardo da Vinci, was begun in 1901 and 
 completed in 1009. He had constructed a second 
 and improved dirigible by 1912. called Cittn di 
 Milano. The reliability of his construction be- 
 came recognized by the Italian government, which 
 ordered one for the navy, the F-i. From that time 
 he turned out an airship almost every year, each 
 one an improvement on its predecessors. These 
 dirigibles are of the semi-rigid type, and thus 
 differ considerably from the Zeppelin rigid form; 
 they are lighter and can rise to great heights in 
 less time. Another impwrtant point of difference 
 
 /.SO
 
 AVIATION 
 
 Dirigibles 
 Zeppelins and Blimps 
 
 AVIATION 
 
 is that Forlanini builds his cars close to and into 
 the rigid keel instead of suspending them under- 
 neath. Like Zeppelin, he also has experienced 
 disasters and aerial shipwrecks. "Count von Zep- 
 pelin, despite anything which may be said 
 to the contrary, may be regarded as the in- 
 ventor, pioneer, and only successful exponent of 
 the rigid type of airship. Imitators have striven to 
 eclipse his achievements, but have only met with 
 exasperating failure and disappointment." — F. A. 
 Talbot, All about inventions and discoveries, Lon- 
 don, IQ16, p. 246. — "As regards the future develop- 
 ment of aircraft," said an expert addressing the 
 Institution of Naval Architects in London on 
 March 13, iqi3, "there is no visible Umit to the 
 growth of the rigid airship. It is on the same 
 footing in this respect as an ordinary [marine] 
 ship. If we double their size they will lift eight 
 times more and will have eight times the buoy- 
 ancy, but they will require only four times the 
 propelling power to move at the same speed." — By 
 the time Zeppelin appeared among the air con- 
 querors, "the high-speed internal combustion mo- 
 tor, owing to its success in the world of mechani- 
 cal propulsion over the highways, had become 
 recognized as a suitable engine for aeronautical 
 duty, while a great deal of knowledge concerning 
 the comparatively new metal aluminum had been 
 acquired. Zeppelin admittedly knew nothing 
 about aeronautics, but he set out to build an air- 
 ship which differed from all its prototypes in 
 every sense, and particularly in one connection — 
 its colossal dimensions. His first craft measured 
 420 feet in length by thirty-eight feet in diameter. 
 Two cars were provided — near the bow and 
 towards the stern respectively — in each of which 
 was placed a sixteen horse-power motor, driving 
 independent propellers. But it was the design of 
 this monster craft which aroused the greatest in- 
 terest, inasmuch as it differed entirely from any 
 which had gone before. The outer shell was polyg- 
 onal in section, and was built up of a metallic 
 girder skeleton over which was stretched the fabric 
 or skin. Instead of the envelope, as it may be 
 called, being charged with gas in the usual manner 
 — such as a balloon — the interior was subdivided 
 into a number of compartments insulated from 
 one another by a thin wall or diaphragm of fabric. 
 Consequently, the interior of the skin became re- 
 solved into a number of cells, and in each of these 
 was placed a balloon inflated with hydrogen. The 
 balloons themselves favoured the conventional 
 spherical form, so that the whole of the cell was 
 not occupied by the gas-bag. This arrangement 
 was adopted because it left a space around the gas- 
 bag through which the air was free to circulate. 
 It was maintained that this arrangement would 
 render the gas-bag less susceptible to the fluctua- 
 tions of temperature, which cause the hydrogen 
 to expand and to contract respectively, according 
 to heat and cold." — Ibid . pp. 243-244. — It was the 
 progressive efforts of Zeppelin that gave the great- 
 est impetus to modern airship construction, while 
 the various setbacks he encountered owing to the 
 disasters which befell several of his creations, 
 .served as useful object lessons not only for his own 
 guidance, but for that of all airship builders and 
 navigators. Zeppelin I taught that a movable 
 weight, suspended from wires, was insufBcient to 
 effect the necessary stability in straight sailing. 
 Zeppelin II was wrecked in storm near Kiss- 
 legg; Zeppelin III, completed in igoy, worked bet- 
 ter than its predecessors and attained a speed of 
 over thirty-three miles an hour. Zeppelin IV 
 was burnt in August, iqo8, near Echterdingen. 
 The Count had once driven this 440-foot balloon 
 from Friedrichshafen, on Lake Constance, to Lu- 
 
 cerne, 248 miles, within twelve hours. Starting once 
 again from Friedrichshafen, intending a soo-mile 
 trip, he made a landing at Oppenheim, 200 miles 
 distant, returned thence to Stuttgart, and finally 
 to Echterdingen, where a hurricane wrecked the 
 airship. The cause of the disaster was said to be 
 due to the ignition of detonating gas by atmospheric 
 electricity. From the advent of Zeppelin the skill, 
 ingenuity and efforts of many engineers of various 
 nationalities have contributed to bring the airship 
 to its present efficient stage of development. "In 
 the early days of the {world] war an airship was 
 constructed by Mr. Marshall Fox which is worthy 
 of mention, although it never flew. It was claimed 
 that this ship was a rigid airship, although from 
 its construction it could only be looked upon as 
 a non-rigid ship, having a wooden net-work around 
 its envelope. The hull was composed of wooden 
 transverse frames forbing a polygon of sixteen 
 sides, with radial wiring iitted to each transverse 
 frame. The longitudinal members were spiral in 
 form and were built up of three-ply lathes. A 
 keel of similar construction ran along the under 
 side of the hull which carried the control position 
 and compartments for two Green engines, one of 
 40 horse-power, the other of 80 horse-power, to- 
 gether with the petrol, bombs, etc. In the hull 
 were fitted fourteen gasbags giving a total ca- 
 pacity of 100,000 cubic feet. The propeller drive 
 was obtained by means of a wire rope. The gross 
 lift of the ship was 4,276 lb., and the weight of 
 the structure, complete with engines, exceeded this 
 It became apparent that the ship could never fly, 
 and work was suspended. She was afterwards used 
 for carrying out certain experiments and at a 
 later date was broken up." — G. Whale, British 
 airships, pp. 68-60. 
 
 "The diminutive airship . . . has the distinction 
 of being the first commercial airship to be sold in 
 the United States. It is known as Goodyear's 
 Pony Blimp. The builders had in view the need 
 for small, efficient, inexpensive airships, which 
 might be used for commercial service or for pur- 
 poses of sport. In the tests which have already 
 been made, it has demonstrated its air-worthiness, 
 showing a quick response to the propeller and the 
 controls, and decided economy in operation. It 
 is believed that aero clubs will take advantage of 
 this opportunity to train their members in air- 
 ship navigation so that they may become compe- 
 tent pilots for larger dirigibles, particularly as the 
 costs of operation are relatively low. This par- 
 ticular ship has been sold to a western syndicate 
 which announces that it will use it for the develop- 
 ment of commercial service. The Blimp is 05 feet 
 long, has a maximum diameter of 28 feet and a 
 height of 40 feet. Its volume is 35,000 cubic 
 feet. The car, which is 12 feet in length, can ac- 
 commodate a crew of two people. Driven by its 
 40 horse-power engine, it has a maximum speed of 
 40 miles per hour and a range, at full speed, of 
 400 miles, with a ceiling at 6,000 feet This means 
 that with two men aboard, and at an elevation of 
 6,000 feet, it can travel some 400 miles at a speed 
 in still air of 40 miles per hour. Of course, by 
 taking advantage of favorable winds, with the 
 motor idle, the fuel may be conserved and the 
 total range under such conditions may be increased 
 considerably over 400 miles. For landing, the 
 Blimp is equipped with mooring harness and an- 
 chors which permit ground stops to be made 
 when desired for the replenishment of gas and 
 supplies." — Scientific American, Apr. 24, iq20, p. 
 
 459- 
 
 1897. — Attempt of balloon to reach North Pole. 
 See Arctic exploration: 1917-1918: Chronological 
 record: 1897. 
 
 751
 
 AVIATION 
 
 Airplanes 
 Langley and Maxim 
 
 AVIATION 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF AIRPLANES 
 AND AIR SERVICE 
 
 1809-1874. — The airplane. — Beginnings. — The 
 fundamental theor>' of the airplane was set forth 
 by an Englishman, Sir George Cayley, as early 
 as 1809, and actually furnished the basis upon 
 which the modern "heavier-than-air" flying ma- 
 chine was subsequently built. It was he who in- 
 vented that well-known toy made of two screws 
 of four feathers each, fixed horizontally one above 
 the other, with a flexible attachment like a bow 
 and cord between them. By winding the string 
 of the bow around the axle of the two screws the 
 bow is bent taut. On being thrown into the air, 
 the bow relaxes, unwinds the cord and thus speed- 
 ily revolves the screws, though in opposite direc- 
 tions, which causes the apparatus to mount in 
 the air. The date of this invention is 1796, and 
 Cayley published an account of it in iSog. He 
 calculated that if the area of the screws was en- 
 larged to 200 feet, they would lift a man pro- 
 vided the power to revolve them could be ap- 
 plied. Other models were produced on the vertical 
 screw or helicopter principle by J. Degen in i8i6 
 
 OTTO LILIENTHAL IN HIS GLIDER 
 Stollen, Germany, 1896 
 
 and O. Sarti in 1823, while a steam model by W. 
 Phillips appeared in 1842, which is said to have 
 risen to a great height and traveled a considerable 
 distance. The earliest attempt at aviation on a 
 considerable scale was that of Henson, an Eng- 
 lishman, who in 1S43 began to work on the plans 
 of what became famous in aeronautical history as 
 Henson's aerostat, a combination of aerial screws 
 with supporting structures occupying a nearly hori- 
 zontal position. According to records in the patent 
 office. Henson's apparatus consisted of an airplane 
 of canvas or oiled silk stretched upon a frame 
 made rigid by trussing, both above and below. 
 Under this was to have been attached a car in- 
 tended to house the steam engine that was to gen- 
 erate the motive power. Two rotating wheels were 
 to propel the machine, acting upon the air after 
 the manner of windmills. Stretched upon a tri- 
 angular frame was a long tail, likewise covered 
 with canvas or oiled silk, and which could be ex- 
 panded or contracted, moved up or down, as de- 
 sired for ascending or descending. Unfortunately, 
 this ancestor of the airplane never reached the 
 stage of actual construction — it remained a dream 
 on paper. .Another Englishman, named Stringfel- 
 low, who cooperated with Henson, built a success- 
 ful flying model in 1847. With these two ex- 
 
 amples before him, F. H. Wenham in 1866 invented 
 
 an apparatus which he called "Wenham's aero- 
 plane," and two years later Stringfellow came along 
 with another model combining Wenham's ma- 
 chine with Henson's aerial screws. Exhibited at 
 the Crystal palace in London, this model won a 
 $500 prize. In 1874 Thomas Moy devised an 
 "aerial steamer," a light powerful skeleton frame 
 resting on three wheels, a new type of light en- 
 gine, two long, narrow, horizontal planes and 
 large aerial screws. Moy's idea was to obtain 
 initial velocity by a run on the ground, a theory 
 that was justified many years later by the experi- 
 ments of the Wright Brothers. 
 
 1889-1900. — Langley and Maxim experiments. 
 — German and English gliding machines. — Oc- 
 tave Chanute. — The old, yet still youthful,' science 
 of aviation made long steps forward owing to the 
 experiments and research of Professor Langley, 
 secretary of the Smithsonian Institution in Wash- 
 ington, and of Sir Hiram Maxim in England. 
 Their investigations began in iSSq-iSgo. The 
 former devised numerous small models and one 
 large flying plane, to which he gave the name of 
 "aerodromes." All were constructed on a common 
 principle and were provided with extensive flying 
 surfaces in the shape of rigid planes inclined at an 
 upward angle applied somewhat after the pattern 
 of Henson's idea. Langley flew his smaller models 
 in the lecture room of the Smithsonian Institu- 
 tion and the large one on the Potomac river below 
 Washington. In 1803 he experimented with tteam- 
 driven machines made of steel and aluminum. In 
 1896 one of his machines flew half a mile, the 
 greatest achievement for a heavier-than-air ma- 
 chine up to that time. Congress provided $50,000 
 for the construction of a Langley "aerodrome" of 
 sufficient dimensions to carry passengers and to 
 be used for military purposes. The machine was 
 built, but failed to meet the stipulated require- 
 ments. The valuable aerotcchnic work of Dr. S. 
 P. Langley (1834-1906) may be briefly summa- 
 rized as follows: — (i) His aerodynamic experiments 
 were sufficiently complete to form a substantial 
 basis for practical pioneer aviation. (2) He built 
 and launched the first steam model airplane capa- 
 ble of prolonged free flight and possessing good 
 inherent stability. (3) He built the first internal- 
 combustion motor suitable for a practical man- 
 carrying airplane. {4) He developed and success- 
 fully launched the first gasoline model airplane 
 capable of sustained free flight. (5) He developed 
 and built the first man-carrying airplane capable 
 of free flight. A "Langley Day" was celebrated by 
 the .Aero Club of Washington on May s, 1913, in 
 the Smithsonian Institution for the unveiling of a 
 tablet to commemorate the services performed by 
 Langley in demonstrating the practicability of 
 mechanical flight. In iqio a Handley-Page air- 
 plane was named "Langley" in his memory, and 
 an airway in the United States (Virginia) was 
 named after him. Meanwhile, Maxim designed a 
 machine consisting of a platform bearing a large 
 water tube boiler and a number of concave-con- 
 vex planes arranged in tiers. Two large vertical 
 screws placed aft were propelled by steam engines. 
 Like that of Langley, the apparatus of Maxim 
 proved a failure in its trial during 1894. Yet 
 these failures were not devoid of value; the errors 
 and mistaken theories of all these pioneers became 
 landmarks for their successors in the same field, 
 who gathered the useful lesson of what to avoid — 
 of what was practical or impossible. Simultane- 
 ously, there were other earnest workers striving 
 to solve the problems, namely, Chanute in America, 
 Percy Pilcher in England and Lilienthal in Ger- 
 many, each contributing valuable data to the stock 
 
 752
 
 AVIATION 
 
 Airplanes 
 Chanute's Achievements 
 
 AVIATION 
 
 of common experience in aviation. Otto Lilienthal 
 "built a machine comprising wings and rudder, 
 wliicli might be described as a huge kite, with 
 which he indulged in sailing flights. He ap- 
 proached the problem from the severely scientific 
 point of view, discovering new facts and data 
 for himself. With this contrivance by starting 
 from an artificial hill nearly one hundred feet in 
 height he was able to sail over distances up to 
 1,000 feet. Flushed with the success thus achieved, 
 he endeavored to propel himself through the air, 
 for which purpose he installed a two-and-a-half 
 horse-power motor, the idea being to move 
 through the air in any direction. Unfortunately, 
 his researches were brought to an abrupt conclu- 
 sion. While testing a new steering contrivance 
 which he had designed, he fell from a height of 
 forty-five feet and broke his spine, from which 
 accident he died on August loth, 1896." — F. A. 
 Talbot, All about inventions and discoveries, p. 
 247. — In his early experiments Lilienthal "con- 
 structed wings (14-ft. span), striving to mount the 
 air as the bird does, by pushing against it the in- 
 clined plans of his wings. ... It is pretty gen- 
 erally admitted that the first airplane to have 
 actually left the ground, carrying a man, was the 
 bat-shaped machine, fitted with a twenty horse- 
 power steam engine, with which M. C. Ader of 
 France made several short flights from i8go- 
 1896." — Scientific American, Oct. 2, 1920. — "Con- 
 temporaneously with these experiments in Ger- 
 many, an English marine engineer, Mr. Percy 
 S. Pilcher, was attacking the self-same problem 
 and along almost identical lines. He contrived a 
 gliding apparatus, the knowledge gained from the 
 use of which was quite as, if not more, valuable 
 than that advanced by Lilienthal. Pilcher selected 
 the biplane form of gliding apparatus for his in- 
 vestigations. Flushed with the measure of success 
 which he achieved, he was also tempted to install 
 a motor in his machine. Indeed, he contrived an 
 aeroplane which may be said to be the father of 
 those in use to-day. He built an oil motor de- 
 veloping four horse-power, but although this ma- 
 chine was constructed he never tested it. He 
 resolved to carry out further experiments with his 
 gliding apparatus before trusting himself to a 
 motor-driven machine, and in October, 1899, while 
 giving a demonstration in a park near Rugby, 
 while he was sailing at a height of about thirty- 
 two feet, a weak part of the machine broke. The 
 accident threw Pilcher to the ground, and he died 
 thirty-four hours later, at the early age of thirty- 
 two years." — F. A. Talbot, All about inventions 
 and discoveries, pp. 247-248.— "The dangerous 
 character of the Lilienthal flying apparatus was 
 brought home very convincingly by Mr. A. M. 
 Herring while acting as assistant to Mr. Octave 
 Chanute, of Chicago, Illinois, U. S. A. He built 
 an exact copy of the German investigator's ap- 
 paratus with which experiments were carried out 
 a month after Lilienthal's untimely end. These 
 trials served to prove how the German worker's 
 fatal accident occurred, and although about one 
 hundred successful glides therewith were made, it 
 was discarded as being far too dangerous and 
 fickle. Mr. Octave Chanute was deeply interested 
 in the problem of human flight, and expended con- 
 siderable time and money in a series of beautiful 
 experiments, the information gleaned from which 
 has played an important part in the contemporary 
 flying era. He built several machines with which 
 to test his theories. The first practical appliance 
 had twelve wings, and the outstanding feature, 
 which served to differentiate it from any which 
 had gone before, was the incorporation of facili- 
 ties whereby the wings might be moved in accord- 
 
 ance with the desires of the operator, who stood 
 upright within the machine. Hitherto the equilib- 
 rium of gliding apparatuses depended upon the 
 movement of the man in relation to the machine. 
 That is to say, the man moved his body. Chanute 
 reversed this practice. He caused the man to be 
 rigid, and the wings to be movable. As events 
 subsequently proved, this was the correct line of 
 experiment. The multiple-winged machine com- 
 pleted three hundred highly successful flights. 
 Then Chanute decided to reduce the number of 
 wings and built a double-decker, or, as we should 
 term it to-day, a biplane, thereby virtually re- 
 verting to Pilcher's apparatus. This machine made 
 some seven hundred flights, or rather glides, and 
 without a single accident. This machine was re- 
 markable for the introduction of a rudder at the 
 rear, which was the idea of Mr. Herring, and this 
 rudder was of such design and operation that the 
 relative wind, catching either its horizontal or 
 vertical planes, altered the angle of incidence of 
 the supporting planes to meet the conditions which 
 arose. Consequently, stability and safety became 
 accentuated. In view of the success which Cha- 
 nute had achieved with his double-decker, the ques- 
 tion arose as to whether the stage had not been 
 reached at last when a motor might be intro- 
 duced. . . . Chanute, however, maintained that 
 the introduction of the motor was premature. . . . 
 Forthwith he built another machine — a three- 
 decker, or triplane, this time — which was subjected 
 to many searching tests. In this machine the glider 
 gripped the lower front upright members support- 
 ing the planes, his legs dangling beneath. When 
 flying and when approaching the ground the man 
 doubled up his legs. This arrangement was 
 adopted for the purpose of facilitating alighting. 
 Chanute has been described as the father of the 
 hcavier-than-air machine, or dynamic flight, and 
 the distinction is well merited. . . . Certainly his 
 work contributed such valuable results as to 
 prompt other industrious and persevering experi- 
 menters to embrace the problem, not only in the 
 United States, but throughout Europe as well. 
 There were, in particular, two men who, fasci- 
 nated by Chanute's achievements, took up the sub- 
 ject. They had a small cycle store in the eastern 
 American city of Dayton, Ohio. They were also 
 first-class mechanics, .and, in fact, built their own 
 machines. In igoo these two bicycle makers, Wil- 
 bur and Orville Wright, built a' gliding machine 
 upon the broad lines favoured by Chanute, but 
 with planes having quite twice the superfices of 
 any which had been tested previously. They also 
 abandoned the upright position for the flier 
 in favor of one prone upon the bottom plane." 
 —Ibid., pp. 247-251. — Not long after the ex- 
 periments of Langley and Chanute the scientific 
 students of the problem were pointed by the vet- 
 eran inventor of the telephone. Dr. Alexander Gra- 
 ham Bell. 
 
 1896-1910.— Wright brothers.— Bl^riot's cross- 
 Channel flight. — French pioneers. — Prophecies 
 of Newcomb and Edison. — In 1896 there came 
 the two workers who advanced from empiricism to 
 science in their undertaking, and who won the first 
 great successes by a happy combination of the 
 two. The brothers Orville and Wilbur Wright 
 have told, in an article contributed to The Cen- 
 tury Magazine, how they were stirred to serious 
 interest in the aviation problem in 1896 and be- 
 gan to read what Langley, Chanute, Mouillard and 
 others had written on it. Entering, purely as a 
 sport, on experiments in gliding flight, on Lilien- 
 thal's lines, they became fascinated by the pur- 
 suit. From the first they appear to have chosen 
 what is known as the biplane structure for their 
 
 753
 
 AVIATION 
 
 Airplanes 
 Wright Brothers 
 
 AVIATION 
 
 machines, the invention of which they credit to a 
 previous inventor, VVenham. whose design of it 
 had been improved by Stringfellow and Chanute. 
 To this construction they steadfastly adhered. At 
 the outlet of their experimenting the Wrights 
 found a difficulty in the balancing of "flyers" which 
 previous workers did not seem to have treated 
 seriously enough, and they settled themselves to 
 the conquest of it at once. This and other prob- 
 lems soon carried them from empirical testing into 
 scientific studies, which occupied several years. 
 They found that the accepted measurements ot 
 wind pressure, on given plane surfaces exposed at 
 different angles, were unreliable, and they applied 
 themselves to the making and tabulating of meas- 
 urements of their own. It was not until this work 
 had given them "accurate data for making cal- 
 culations, and a system of balance effective in 
 winds as well as in calms," as well as the neces- 
 sary data for designing an effective screw pro- 
 peller, that they felt themselves prepared "to build 
 a successful power-flyer." 
 
 So far, these thorough-going workers at the 
 problems of aviation had been experimenting with 
 a machine designed, as they said, "to be flown as 
 a kite, with a man on board," or without the 
 man, "operating the levers through cords from the 
 
 chine in circles of flight ; and then, at the end of 
 September, igos, they suspended experiments for 
 more than two years, which they spent in busi- 
 ness negotiations and in the construction of new 
 machines. Their experimenting was not resumed 
 until May. igoS (again at Kitty Hawk). .\t this 
 time it was directed to the testing of the ability 
 of their machine to meet the requirements of a 
 contract with the United States government to 
 furnish a flyer capable of carrying two men and 
 sufficient fuel supplies for a flight of twenty-five 
 miles, with a speed of forty miles an hour. 
 
 Meantime, during the two years of suspended 
 experimenting by the Wrights, other workers in 
 Europe and .\merica had been approaching their 
 successes, so far as to be competitors for the im- 
 portant prizes now being offered for winning in 
 the aviation field. M. Santos-Dumont, turning 
 his attention from dirigible balloons to aeroplanes, 
 had made, at Paris, the first public flight on that 
 side of the ocean ; and though he covered no more 
 than 2 20 yards, it was a long stride in practical 
 success. Henri Farman, Louis Bleriot, M. -^cla- 
 grange. in France, Glenn H. Curtiss and \. M. 
 Herring, in the United States, were making ready 
 to dispute honors with the Dayton aviators, of 
 whose actual achievements the public knew little. 
 
 ORVILLE WRIGHT 
 
 WRIGHT MACHINE IN FIRST LONG 
 FLIGHT 
 
 WILBUR WRIGHT 
 
 ground." Their active experimenting began in 
 October, iqoo, at Kitty Hawk. North Carolina. 
 In iQoi they made the acquaintance of Mr. Cha- 
 nute. and he spent some weeks with them, observ- 
 ing and encouraging their work. In September and 
 October, they say, "nearly one thousand gliding 
 flights were made, several of which covered dis- 
 tances of over 600 feet. Some, made against a 
 wind of thirty-six miles an hour, gave proof of 
 the effectiveness of the devices for control." Late 
 in iqo3 they had reached the point of testing a 
 power-machine, and sailed into the air with it for 
 the first time on December 17 in the presence of 
 five lookers-on. "The first flight," they tell us, 
 "lasted onh' twelve seconds ; a flight very modest 
 compared with that of birds; but it was, never- 
 theless, the first in the history of the world in 
 which a machine carrying a man had raised itself 
 by its own power into the air in free flight, had 
 sailed forward on a level course, without reduc- 
 tion of speed, and had finally landed without 
 being wrecked. The second and third flights were 
 a little longer, and the fourth lasted fifty-nine 
 seconds, covering a distance of 852 feet over the 
 ground against a twenty-mile wind." In the 
 spring of rqo4 the experimenting of the Wright 
 Brothers was transferred from Kitty Hawk. \. C . 
 to a pr.iirie not far from their home, at Dayton. 
 Ohio There they overcame final difficulties in the 
 maintaining of equilibrium when turning their ma- 
 
 as yet. On all sides there was readiness for sur- 
 prising and astonishing the public in igoS. Far- 
 man, at Paris, in March, exceeded a flight of two 
 miles: Delagrange, at Milan, in June, covered 
 ten miles. and more; Farman, in July, 
 raised his record to eleven miles, and Dela- 
 grange carried his to fifteen and a half in 
 September. The Wrights had made flights that 
 ranged from eleven to twenty-four miles in the fall 
 of 1005 ; and now, in their renewed trials of 
 ioo8. these distances were more than doubled. 
 Wilbur Wright went abroad, to exhibit their ma- 
 chine in France and elsewhere, while Orville. in 
 September, submitted it to official tests at Fort 
 Myer. near Washington There, on different days 
 in that month, rounding circuits of the parade 
 ground, he made time records of continuous flight 
 that ran from fifty-six to seventy-four minutes, 
 travelling estimated distances that stretched in 
 one instance over fifty-one and a third miles. 
 These trials at Fort Myer were interrupted sadly 
 by an accident, from the breaking of a propeller- 
 blade, which caused the machine to drop to the 
 ground while in flight. Lieutenant T. E. Selfridge, 
 U. S. A . who rode with Mr. Wright at the time, 
 was killed, and Mr. Wright suffered a broken 
 leg. W'ilbur Wright, meantime, was entering on 
 great triumphs in France. M Le Mans, on Septem- 
 ber :i. he traversed sixty-eight miles in a continu- 
 ous flight of a little more than an hour and a half. 
 
 754
 
 AVIATION 
 
 Airplanes 
 Wright Brothers 
 
 AVIATION 
 
 This achievement, which won him the Michelin 
 prize, was far surpassed by him on December 
 i8, when ninety-five miles were travelled in 
 an hour and fifty-four minutes, and again, on 
 December 31, when the stay in the air was pro- 
 longed to two hours, nine minutes and some 
 seconds, and the distance covered was Tb'/z miles 
 These records of the Wrights for time of continu- 
 ous flight were subsequently beaten by a number 
 of European competitors. Otherwise, the records 
 of I pop show no very marked advance beyond 
 those of igo8; but the year had excitements in 
 aviation, connected especially with attempted flights 
 over the English channel. Hubert Latham, a re- 
 cent French practitioner in aviation, was the first 
 to venture this leap through the air from France 
 to England. His machine was ark Antoinette 
 monoplane, designed by M. Levasseur. He 
 launched it from Calais in. the early morning of 
 July ig, and traversed about six miles of the 
 passage when his motor failed and he fell to the 
 water, unhurt, and was rescued by an attendant 
 steamer. Six days after Latham's failure, on July 
 25, Louis Bleriot, using another monoplane ma- 
 chine, made the crossing with brilliant success, 
 flying from Calais to- Dover, twenty-one miles, in 
 twenty-three minutes, and winning the prize of 
 £1000 which the London Daily Mail had offered 
 for the performance of the feat. Latham then 
 repeated his attempt and was unfortunate again, 
 his motor giving out after it had carried him 
 within two miles of the Dover shore. Orville 
 Wright, at this time, July 27, was demonstrating 
 at Fort Myer the ability of his aeroplane to carry 
 two persons in a well-sustained flight. With 
 Lieutenant Frank P. Lahm, of the Signal Corps, as 
 a passenger, and having President Taft among his 
 spectators, he made a flight of one hour, twelve 
 minutes and forty seconds, accomplishing upwards 
 oi fifty miles at an average speed of forty miles 
 an hour A day or two afterwards he carried Lieu- 
 tenant Benjamin D. Foulois over the ten-mile 
 course from Fort Myer to- Alexandria at a speed 
 of more than forty-two miles an hour. 
 
 In the last week of August, iqoq, the first race 
 meeting for heavier-than-air flying machines oc- 
 curred at Rheims, France, and a dozen aviators 
 from France, England and America competed for 
 large prizes in long distance and duration flights. 
 A number of new records was made, and new 
 names acquired note. Louis Paulhan kept the 
 air for two hours and forty-three minute? with a 
 V'oisin biplane, covering 83 miles. Latham sur- 
 passed this in distance and speed, making g6 
 miles in two hours and eighteen minutes; and this 
 again was beaten by Henri Farman, who travelled 
 118 miles, remaining in the air over three hours. 
 Mr. Glenn H. Curtiss won the prize for speed, 
 doing 18 miles in twenty-five minutes and forty- 
 five seconds. 
 
 In IQOQ the Wright brothers delivered an air- 
 plane to the United States government- which met 
 the specifications dictated by the War department. 
 The salient features demanded were: Parts to be 
 assembled in one hour; capable of being trans- 
 ported in army wagons, dis-assembled ; carry two 
 persons weighing 350 pounds; speed, forty miles 
 per hour; perfect control and equilibrium; steer- 
 able in all directions; safety devices, etc. 
 
 Orville Wright had now gone abroad and his 
 brother had returned to America. The latter had 
 established a flying school at Pau, in France, and 
 trained a number of pupils. During iqoq he had 
 also visited England and Italy. He had sold the 
 French patent rights on his machine for .$100,000. 
 Tn August and September Orville Wright gave 
 exhibitions in Berlin, breaking some of his own 
 
 records, carrying a passenger in his machine for 
 an hour and thirty-five minutes, on September 18, 
 and rising, on October i, to an unexampled height, 
 believed to have exceeded 1000 feet. This, how- 
 ever, was greatly exceeded in January, 1910, by 
 Hubert Latham, at Mourmelon, France, who rose 
 to 3,280 feet, and by Louis Paulhan, at Los Angeles, 
 California, 4,165 feet. On October 3 the crown 
 prince of Germany was Wright's companion in a 
 short flight. Meantime Wilbur Wright, in America, 
 had endeavored to supply one of the spectacles 
 arranged for the Hudson-Fulton celebration at 
 New York; but the intended program of aviation 
 was spoiled by forbidding winds. He did, how- 
 ever, make one astonishing flight, on October 4, 
 from Governor's island, up the Hudson to Grant's 
 tomb, and, on his return, passing over the British 
 battle-ships then lying in the river. The distance 
 travelled was about twenty miles and the time of 
 the journey thirty-three minutes and a half. Un- 
 fortunately it was unexpected, and was seen by a 
 small part only of the millions who had been 
 watching several days for a flight. On the next 
 day Mr. Wright made the statement that no more 
 public exhibitions would be given by his brother 
 or himself. "Hereafter," he said, "we shall devote 
 all our efforts to the commercial exploitation of 
 our machines, and fly only as a matter of ex- 
 periment, to test the value of whatever changes 
 we decide to make in the construction." 
 
 The following is by Dr. Simon Newcomb 
 (d. iQoq), the distinguished astronomer: "It 
 would seem that, at the present time, the 
 public is more hopeful of the flying-machine than 
 of the dirigible balloon. The idea that because 
 such a machine has at last been constructed which 
 will carry a man through the air, there is no limit 
 to progress, is a natural one. But to judge of 
 possibilities, we must advert to the distinction 
 already pointed out between obstacles interposed 
 by nature, which cannot be surmounted by any in- 
 vention, and those which we may hope to over- 
 come by possible mechanical appliances. The 
 mathematical relations between speed, sustaining 
 power, strength of material, efficiency of engine, 
 and other elements of success are fixed and deter- 
 minate, and cannot be changed except by new 
 scientific discoveries, quite outside the power of 
 the inventor to make. That the gravitation of 
 matter can in any way be annulled seems out of 
 the question. Should any combination of metals 
 or other substances be discovered of many times 
 the stiffness and tensile strength of the fabrics 
 and alloys with which we are now acquainted, 
 then might one element of success be at our com- 
 mand. But, with the metals that we actually 
 have, there is a limit to the weight of an engine 
 with a given driving power, and it may be fairly 
 assumed that this limit is nearly reached in the 
 motors now in use. . . . Owing to the levity of 
 the air, the supporting surface must have a wide 
 area. We cannot set any exact limit to the neces- 
 sary spread of sail, because the higher the speed 
 the less the spread required. But, as we increase 
 the speed, we also increase the resistance, and there- 
 fore we must have a more powerful and necessarily 
 heavier motor. . . . Bearing in mind that no limit 
 is to be set to the possible discovery of new laws 
 of nature or new combinations of the chemical ele- 
 ments, it must be understood that I disclaim any 
 positive prediction that men will never fly from 
 place to place at will. The claim I make is that 
 they will not do this until some epoch-making 
 discovery is made of which we have now no con- 
 ception, and that mere invention has nearly reached 
 its limit. It is very natural to reason that men 
 have done hundreds of things which formerly 
 
 755
 
 AVIATION 
 
 Airplanes 
 Altitude Records, Safety Devices 
 
 AVIATION 
 
 seemed impossible, and therefore they may fly. 
 But for ever>- one thing seemingly impossible that 
 they have succeeded in doing there are ten which 
 they would like to do but which no one believes 
 that they can do. No one thinks of controlling 
 wind or weather, of making the sun shine when 
 we please, of building a railroad across the At- 
 lantic, of changing the ocean level to suit the pur- 
 poses of commerce, of building bridges of greater 
 extent than engineers tell us is possible with the 
 strength of the material that we have at com- 
 mand, or of erecting buildings so high that they 
 would be crushed by their own weight. Why are 
 we hopeless as to all these achievements, and yet 
 hopeful that the flying-machine may be the ve- 
 hicle of the future, which shall transport us more 
 rapidly than a railroad train now does? It is 
 simply because we all have so clear a mental view 
 of the obstacles in the way of reaching such ends 
 as those just enumerated that we do not waste time 
 in attempting to surmount them, and we are 
 hopeful of the flying-machine only because we do 
 not clearly see that the difficulties are of the same 
 nature as those we should encounter in erecting 
 a structure which would not be subject to the laws 
 of mechanics. 
 
 "I have said nothing of the possible success of 
 the flying-machine for the purposes of military 
 reconnaissance or any other operations requiring 
 the observer to command a wide view of all that 
 is on the landscape. This is a technical subject 
 which, how great soever may be its national im- 
 portance, does not affect our daily life." — S. Xew- 
 comb. Prospect of aerial navigation {North Amer- 
 ican Review, March, iqoS). 
 
 More optimistic and prophetically accurate in 
 parts was the following prognostication by 
 Thomas A. Edison, the inventor: "In ten years 
 flying machines will be used to carry mails. They 
 will carry passengers, too, and they will go at a 
 speed of loo miles an hour. There is no doubt 
 of this." These were the words of Mr. Edison in 
 an interview published in the New York Times, 
 August I, IQOQ. But while sure that the "flying 
 machine has got to come," he was not at all sure 
 that it would come along the lines pursued in the 
 experiments of that time. "The f3>'ing problem 
 now consists of 75 per cent, machine and 25 per 
 cent, man," he said, "while to be commercially 
 successful the flying machine must leave little to 
 the peculiar skill of the operator and must be able 
 to go out in all weathers." He continued: "If I 
 were to build a flying machine I would plan to 
 sustain it by means of a number of rapidly re- 
 volving inclined planes, the effect of which would 
 be to raise the machine by compressing the air 
 between the planes and the earth. Such a ma- 
 chine would rise from the ground as a bird does. 
 Then I would drive the machine ahead with a 
 propeller." 
 
 Mr. Edison believed it to be a question of 
 power. "Is it not thinkable that a method will 
 be discovered of wirelessly transmitting electrical 
 energy from the earth to the motor of the ma- 
 chine in mid-air?" He asked and answered his 
 own question, saying: — "There is no reason to 
 disbelieve that it can and will be done." He 
 added, however, that there was great room for 
 improvement in explosive engines. "Any day we 
 are hkely to read that somebody has made picric 
 acid or something else work— done some little thing 
 that will transform the flying machine from a toy 
 into a commercial success." And when it is per- 
 fected, he said, the flying machine may end war 
 by becoming a means of attack that cannot be 
 resisted. 
 
 1908-1920. — Altitude records. — Aeronautic 
 
 maps. — Number of pilots in different countries. 
 — Safety record in airplane flight. — Qualiflca- 
 tions for aviators. — Parachutes. — The remark- 
 able progress made since 1908 in the construction 
 and manipulation of flying craft may best be il- 
 lustrated by the ever-rising barometer of altitude 
 records achieved by daring aviators. Yet all the 
 skill and physical courage required to perform 
 these thrilling feats would be unavailing without 
 the efficient machinery and reUable construction 
 of the craft to which these men entrust their lives. 
 In 1908 the record was 400 feet, which was more 
 than quadrupled in the following year, when it 
 rose to 1,640 feet. In 1910 it was 10,745 i^et; in 
 1911 it grew to 13,050; in 1912,. — 17,882; in 1913, 
 — 19,600; in 1914, — 25,756. The next four years 
 were devoted to the war, during which period com- 
 petitive flying rested in abeyance, so far as ex- 
 hibition "aerobatics" were concerned. More 
 wonderful records were piled up in the grim busi- 
 ness of war of which the outside world heard but 
 little at the time. On Sept. 18, igi8. Major R. W. 
 Schroeder, an .American army aviator, ascended 
 28,000 feet at Dayton, Ohio, which was beaten by 
 Captain Lang, an .American, in England on Jan. 
 2, 1919, who rose to 30,500 feet. Roland Rohlfs 
 broke the .American record on July 30, 1919, by 
 making 30,700 feet in a 400 h.p. Curtiss triplane. 
 Adjutant Casale and Lieutenant Romanet. French 
 aviators, raised the record to 33,136 and 34,200 
 feet respectively, which was almost equalled by 
 Rohlfs on Sept. 18, 1919, w'hen he attained 32,450 
 feet. Major Schroeder was reported to have 
 broken all previous records on Feb. 27, 1920. He 
 climbed 36,020 feet above the earth, over six 
 miles. He lost consciousness due to the e.xhaustion 
 of his oxygen supply, and fell more than five 
 miles in two minutes, according to the instru- 
 ments on his machine. When 2,000 feet from the 
 ground he recovered sufficiently to right his plane 
 and make a safe landing at McCook field. He 
 was picked up temporarily bhnded and paralyzed 
 by cold. He recovered a few days later and gave 
 the following details of his experience: 
 
 "The temperature at the peak of the climb was 
 sixty-seven degrees below, Fahrenheit. The center 
 section of my machine was coated an inch thick 
 with ice. The exhaust from the motor sprayed 
 fumes of carbon monoxide over me, and I was 
 breathing this continually along with the oxygen. 
 I had set out with three hours' supply of oxygen, 
 and four hours' fuel supply. I was getting along 
 rapidly. I knew by reading my instruments that 
 I had broken the record; that I was flying higher 
 than any man had ever flown before. I had an 
 hour and one-half supply of fuel left and was quite 
 elated. I was wondering just how far I could 
 climb in that time when I found my reserve tank 
 of oxygen emptied. I had discarded the original 
 tank some minutes before, because it did not func- 
 tion properly, and when I exhausted my reserve 
 I turned back to it. It would not work. I had 
 torn off my heavy goggles, because the motor ex- 
 haust was crystallizing on them and interfered with 
 my vision. I turned toward the instruments — 
 then everything went blank and I fell into a flat 
 nose dive. As far as I can remember, part of the 
 fall was in a straight dive. The rest was a spin- 
 ning nose dive. I believe I was really 34,000 feet 
 high when I fell against the switchboard. My 
 motor was on at the time I was trjing to turn 
 off the switch as I nosed the plane head down. I 
 must have turned the switch off. lost conscious- 
 ness completely, but revived long enough to make 
 a landing." — In certifying the record, however, the 
 Aero Club of .America fixed the height at 33,113 
 feet. At the tenth International Geographical 
 
 756
 
 AVIATION 
 
 Airplanes 
 Development of Types 
 
 AVIATION 
 
 Congress held in Rome durinK iqt^, an Italian 
 naval officer, G. Roncagli, proposed the prepara- 
 tion of an aeronautic map of the world, while an 
 Austrian, T. Scheinpflug, suggested that photo- 
 graphs of the earth taken from aeroplanes should 
 be converted into topographical maps. Statistics 
 collected in the summer of 1913 showed that France 
 led the way with a supply of 600 trained pilots, 
 Germany coming second with 300, Italy third with 
 17s, Great Britain fourth with 13S, Russia fifth 
 with eighty, Japan sixth with twenty, United 
 States seventh with nineteen, and Mexico eighth 
 with five. The war made aviators by the tens 
 of thousands. Until 1914, an aviator was a rare 
 person ; it was a great distinction to hold a 
 pilot's license ; few persons had gone aloft in air- 
 planes. But with the call for fighting aviators, 
 the various countries soon trained thousands of 
 young men for flying duty. 
 
 The Information Branch of the United States 
 Au- Service in igiq prepared for the Manufac- 
 turers' Aircraft Association a tabulation showing 
 the comparative safety of fiying when reasonable 
 precautions are observed. The conclusions were 
 based on records kept at the various army train- 
 ing fields, and tend to show that the «afety of the 
 airplane is such as to warrant the mterest of the 
 business world. Summed up, the army records 
 show that there was only one fatality for every 
 2,919 hours of flight, or the equivalent of almost 
 235,000 miles of travel in the air. Even then, al- 
 lowance must be made for the intensiveness with 
 which the wartime training was carried on. An 
 analysis of the accident report showed that the 
 greater majority of the mishaps at the flying 
 fields were the result of bad judgment or physical 
 difficulty experienced by the student, and not 
 through structural weakness in the plane or en- 
 gine. A recapitulation of the reports apparently 
 substantiates this view, as there were only 298 
 fatalities among 20,142 aviators. The increasing 
 safety of the airplane received further corrobora- 
 tion by experience gained in Great Britain during 
 the first year after the war. During that year 
 (1919) a total of 70,000 passengers were carried 
 in 38,954 flights with but one fatal accident. The 
 number of miles flown was 734,200 and the goods 
 carried totaled 116,498 pounds. No fewer than 
 114 aerodromes were licensed and 519 machines 
 registered during the year. Commenting on these 
 figures, Major Gen. Sir F. H. Sykes, controller 
 general of civil aviation, was quoted as saying: 
 
 "We have conquered the air and our immediate 
 task is to exploit our victory in the interest of 
 commercial development." Of paramount impor- 
 tance is the personal equation or temperamental 
 composition of a successful aviator. A perfect 
 knowledge of all the rules of the game of flying 
 will not save a man who lacks confidence in him- 
 self and is inclined to hesitate. A half-second of 
 indecision may be fatal. Initiative, the sporting 
 instinct and a certain irresponsibility, qualities in- 
 herent in American youth, have been found of far 
 greater value in the air than the logical, scientific, 
 severely disciplined character of the Germans, and 
 account for the superiority of the Allied aviators 
 in general. The most eminent of British scien- 
 tists have devoted special study to the psychologi- 
 cal and physiological aspects of flying. One au- 
 thority says that good eyesight, normal hearing, 
 good "muscle sense," and equilibration are indis- 
 pensable qualifications. But most important of all 
 is the right temperament — not an easy thing for a 
 medical board to examine. Of the types — the im- 
 aginative and the unimaginative — the imaginative 
 youth is said to make the better pilot if he can 
 keep his imagination under control. He who has 
 
 led an outdoor life and has played many games 
 is most likely to pass the test, although, of course, 
 there are exceptions. Splendid, powerfully built 
 sportsmen have been known to fail altogether, and 
 anaemic, frail-looking youths of the student type 
 have blossomed into brilliant pilots. "It is excep- 
 tionally interesting . . . that the natural desire of 
 the flying man to diminish the boredom of aero- 
 drome flying by the practice of 'stunting' was met 
 by the French military authorities with precisely 
 the same discouragement as was accorded to the 
 corresponding enthusiasts by the British authori- 
 ties in pre-war and early war days. The 'stunts' 
 which in 1918 are dignified by the name of 'aero- 
 batics,' and which eventually formed the basis of 
 the tactics of military flying were . . . rigorously 
 forbidden by the French, and military flyers were 
 punished for having dived too steeply or turned 
 too quickly. . . . We may also note that the noble 
 art of looking with a blind eye upon a military 
 order has saved British aeronautics from the ex- 
 tinction which would have been its fate had our 
 fliers suppressed with self-denying acquiescence 
 their instinctive desire to acquire the art of rapid 
 manoeuvring, looping, diving, spinning, fluttering, 
 rolling and the like. In France the same seems to 
 have taken place. Those who disobeyed the or- 
 der acquired the art of manoeuvring, and those 
 who acquired the art of manoeuvring survived. 
 Thus even in so tightly organized an institution 
 as the army can we detect the advantage of in- 
 dividualist effort." — Future of aeronautics {Lon- 
 don Times Literary Supplement, Jan. 9, 1919). — • 
 "A considerable controversy raged in the press 
 and elsewhere a few months before the cessation 
 of hostilities [1918] on the subject of equipping 
 the aeroplane with parachutes as a life-saving de- 
 vice. In the airship service this had been done for 
 two years. The best type of parachute available 
 was selected, and these were fitted according to 
 circumstances in each type of ship. The usual 
 method is to insert the parachute, properly folded 
 for use, in a containing case which is fastened 
 either in the car or on the side of the envelope as 
 is most convenient. In a small ship the crew are 
 all the time attached to their parachutes and in 
 the event of the ship catching fire have only to 
 jump overboard and possess an excellent chance 
 of being saved. In rigid airships where members 
 of the crew have to move from one end of the 
 ship to the other, the harness is worn and para- 
 chutes are disposed in the keel and cars as are 
 lifebuoys in seagoing vessels. Should an emer- 
 gency arise, the nearest parachute can be attached 
 to the harness by means of a spring hook, which 
 is the work of a second, and a descent can be 
 made. It is worthy of note that there has never 
 been a fatal accident or any case of a parachute 
 failing to open properly with a man attached." — 
 G. Whale, British airships, past, present and fu- 
 ture, pp. 31-32- 
 
 1910-1920. — Development of the seaplane. — 
 All metal planes. — Liberty motor. — Airplane 
 types. — Hangars and floating airdromes. — The 
 first float seaplane that left the water under its 
 own power and returned thereto was built by 
 Henri Fabre, of France, the trials taking place on 
 March 28, 1910, near Marseilles. Thence the de- 
 velopment of the seaplane was chiefly due to the 
 persistent efforts of Glenn H. Curtiss, of Ham- 
 mondsport, N. Y., who produced the first prac- 
 tical float-seaplane in 191 1 and developed the 
 following year, simultaneously with M. Denhaut 
 of France, the boat seaplane, or flying boat. The 
 seaplane differs from the land machine, in having 
 the car shaped like a boat, so that it can alight 
 on the water, upon which it floats, and hydro- 
 
 757
 
 AVIATION 
 
 Airplanes 
 Development of Types 
 
 AVIATION 
 
 planes permit it to arise without difficulty. In the 
 United States and other navies, most large ships 
 carry at least one seaplane, while special vessels 
 carrying ten to twenty-five planes accompany 
 large naval forces. "At first glance, the giant sea- 
 plane of our Navy appears formidable while rest- 
 ing on the water, and still more so when hauled 
 up on the shore where its boat-like body lies fully 
 uncovered to view. In flight it does not seem so 
 large; indeed, it might well be mistaken for the 
 smaller flying boats by the layman, since all air- 
 craft are deceptive while in flight. But viewed 
 close up there can be no mistake about size of 
 this craft, with its iio-foot span, two Liberty 
 motors developing from 400 to 500 horse-power 
 each and driving propellers lo^j feet in diameter, 
 and a body over 50 feet in length. The fact is 
 that the body, or hull, is nothing short of a 50- 
 foot yacht, but instead of velvet cushioned berths 
 and other comforts its interior is given over to a 
 tangle of braces, wires, steering and controlling 
 devices, instruments, a wireless station, a six-sta- 
 tion intercommunicating telephone system, fuel 
 tanks and guns, all of which are the means of 
 combating the U-boat and of carrying out long- 
 distance patrols at sea. On the water the seaplane 
 develops a speed up to 50 miles an hour, and the 
 moment it slips off the surface and soars upwards 
 the speed increases to lOO miles an hour. As in 
 every other heavier-than-air machine, the naval 
 aircraft engineers have had to secure strength in 
 iheir structure while keeping a strict eye on the 
 weight. Thus the required strength of every piece 
 of material entering into the construction is de- 
 termined by exhaustive tests; and in a hundred 
 ways both wood and metal parts are thinned and 
 lightened until this maximum of strength is pre- 
 served and the minimum weight reached. A com- 
 pleted wing, painted in battleship gray, looks like 
 a solid steel armor plate ; but strip off the fabric 
 which carries the paint and inside is seen a skele- 
 ton frame of spruce webs and piano wire braces. 
 The webs, or ribs, which form this frame are set 
 between full length beams, these beams being re- 
 duced to the smallest possible size consistent with 
 the great strain to which they are subjected. . . . 
 Every part is carefully varnished as if for dis- 
 play and the whole covered by fabric stretched 
 until it rings like a drum. The strength is there, 
 to be sure, but the weight is not; so that a 40- 
 foot wing, eight feet in width, which appears to 
 weigh at least a ton, is readily lifted by one man. 
 This same construction is followed in the entire 
 seaplane. The keel is but little more than a strip 
 of wood, but a perfect system of bracing makes 
 it strong as a steel girder. . . . There is no hap- 
 hazard work about the building of one of these 
 boats. Every piece of wood or metal is given 
 an individual part number. Each one is designed 
 for a particular place and the use of jigs and dies 
 makes possible a degree of standardization of wood 
 and metal parts which is as near perfect as can 
 be reached in aircraft production." — A. C. Les- 
 raraboura (Scientific American, Dec. 14, iqi8, pp. 
 481, 486). 
 
 "Canvas, wood and a maze of bracing wires 
 have been the materials of the airplane builder 
 ever since the Wrights flew their first machine over 
 the sand dunes of Kitty Hawk. From time to time 
 some one has come forth with the suggestion that 
 metal be used instead of wood, but the sugges- 
 tion has received little serious thought. The 
 bracing wire? have been slowly reduced in number 
 by improved designs; but the wood and canvas 
 might have remained to the present day if German 
 aircraft constructors had not departed from the 
 time-honored idea and experimented with metal 
 
 planes. During the closing months of the war 
 German airmen appeared over the Allied lines 
 flying marvelous all-metal machines. At the time 
 these were considered freaks of little if any real 
 value. Aeronautical men outside of Germany were 
 only too hasty in their condemnation of the all- 
 metal German machines. How, they asked, could 
 one make a practical all-metal machine? Was not 
 the weight of even the lightest aluminum alloy 
 considerably heavier than wood, matching strength 
 with strength? And so the German aircraft con- 
 structors stole a long march on the aircraft con- 
 structors of all other nations. With the ending 
 of hostilities certain all-metal German machines 
 came into the possession of the Allied experts, and 
 then the advantage of this new form of construc- 
 tion became known. Still, it was a much mooted 
 question whether such construction was practical 
 in any machine other than one intended for 
 aerial combat, \Mherein engine power was almost 
 unlimited since the main consideration was per- 
 formance irrespective of expense. 
 
 "Several weeks ago [June-July, 1020] an all- 
 metal monoplane made a new .American record. 
 This machine, the JL-6, is nothing more than a 
 German Junkers' limousine six-seater — one of sev- 
 eral machines of this type brought to these United 
 States by an enterprizing business man who has 
 the future of aviation at heart. The speed of the 
 all-metal monoplane was surprizing. But most 
 surprizing was the low fuel consumption. This 
 seemingly heavy machine excelled by a good deal 
 the efficiency of the relatively flimsy wood and 
 canvas planes. Germany has scored a very de- 
 cisive success in airplane construction. To deny 
 that fact would be foolhardy It appears that Dr. 
 Junkers of Germany has gone ahead along new 
 lines, ignoring the old misconceptions about the 
 heaviness of metals and the necessity of canvas 
 for the wing surfaces. He has produced machines 
 with thick, unbraced cantilever planes, corrugated 
 aluminum alloy for the wing surfaces, and all- 
 metal struts. At one stroke he has wiped out 
 canvas, wood and the maze of wires, and in their 
 stead he has introduced tremendous strength, un- 
 approached wearing qualities, fireproof character- 
 istics, and unrivalled efficiency. — The wood and 
 canvas airplane — the airplane which we know so 
 well — is a frail structure compared with this all- 
 metal machine. The wood and canvas machine 
 has a life of about a year or two with steady use; 
 the all-metal airplane, with little to deteriorate 
 from exposure to the elements, has a life of sev- 
 eral years. The all-metal machine can withstand 
 hard landings, which would cost the usual airplane 
 smashed members. Germany is not confining the 
 all-metal construction to small airplanes. .Already 
 she has constructed several giant airplanes, one 
 of the largest being the Zeppehn-Staaken mono- 
 plane. This machine proved one of the greatest 
 surprizes in store for the Allied officials who 
 visited Germany right after the armistice. It is 
 powered with four 260 horse power motors, 
 mounted as tractors on the leading edge of the 
 wings. The mechanics can actually get about 
 inside the monoplane wings and repair and ad- 
 just the engines while in the air. This giant ac- 
 commodates eighteen passengers, or it can carry 
 a one-ton load of useful cargo. All comforts are 
 included for the passengers— easy chairs, large 
 windows, pantry, lavatory, a luggage compartment, 
 and a sleeping cabin which also serves as a col- 
 lision buffer m a bad landing." — Independent, Sept. 
 4, 1020, p. 282. 
 
 "When the war first broke out. airplanes were 
 fitted with 100 horse-power engines. Very soon 
 they were found to be insufficient and engines of 
 
 758
 
 AVIATION 
 
 Airplanes 
 ■Development of Types 
 
 AVIATION 
 
 12S horse-power were made. The engine power 
 then gradually increased to 150, 175, 200, 250; and 
 it was about in that neighborhood when Major 
 Hall and Mr. [J. G.] Vincent were called upon 
 to furnish the United States standard motor. It 
 was felt that a motor should be designed so far 
 ahead in power of anything else that had been 
 produced that, by the time it could be turned out 
 in quantity, it would still be well in the lead. .Ac- 
 cordingly, a horse-power of between 350 and 400 
 was sought and the size of the cylinders was 
 changed from 4 \ to 5 x 7. Because of the 
 larger cylinders required in the new motor, the 
 angle of the V was changed from 40 to 45 de- 
 grees. The larger pistons and cylinders required 
 slightly greater clearances. . . . These and other 
 slight modifications were thoroughly discussed and 
 decided upon by the two motor experts who 
 worked unceasingly and arrived at the finished 
 design in a conference lasting five days. They had 
 a herculean task before them and deserve the 
 highest praise for the successful outcome of their 
 efforts. As soon as the conference was over, tele- 
 graphic instructions were sent on to the Packard 
 plant and work was started immediately upon the 
 new motor. Even before blue prints arrived the 
 wood model was prepared in the general form 
 and essential features of the new motor. Work 
 un the new engine was pushed at the highest speed 
 possible, and on the third day of July, it was com- 
 pleted and shipped to Washington. The next day 
 it arrived there, on the Nation's birthday, and 
 was christened the 'Liberty Motor.' 
 
 "After the first experimental motor had been 
 completed it was subjected to a great many try- 
 ing tests, and was found to be exceedingly ef- 
 ficient and very light. It developed a horse-power 
 of considerably over 400 and its weight was but 
 little over 800 pounds. Its weight per horse-power 
 was therefore about two pounds, which is much 
 lighter than the majority of airplane motors. On 
 endurance tests it stood up wonderfully. It was 
 tested at the summit of Pike's Peak in order to 
 determine its action under conditions of rarified 
 atmosphere — and proved very satisfactory. At the 
 Bureau of Standards in Washington, a special room 
 was set aside in which a partial vacuum was cre- 
 ated equivalent to that which exists at the maxi- 
 mum height to which an airplane engine has been 
 carried. In this room the engine was found to 
 operate perfectly. At one of its first altitude tests 
 in a plane the American record for altitude was 
 smashed. Not until September was the order to 
 proceed with the manufacture of the Liberty 
 Motor definitely given, and immediately work was 
 started in the Packard plant. It is interesting to 
 note that the first experimental motor was de- 
 livered to the Government on the 4th day of July, 
 and the first production motor was sent to Wash- 
 ington on Thanksgiving Day. This, however, did 
 not mean that the production problems had all 
 been solved. . . . The motor which was delivered 
 to the Government on Thanksgiving Day de- 
 veloped a number of small troubles. One of these 
 was the difficulty of lubrication, and eventually it 
 was found necessary to change the scupper system 
 to the original forced lubrication system. But the 
 most important change was made in the produc- 
 tion of the cylinders. In the first Liberty Motor, 
 the cylinders had to be bored from the solid — an 
 operation that was very costly in time and money. 
 This, however, was a copy of the best foreign en- 
 gineering practice, and was followed as a nec- 
 essary detail by our engineers. It was at this 
 juncture that the engineers of the Ford Motor Car 
 Company made a notable contribution. They de- 
 veloped a cylinder forged out of steel tubing, which 
 
 enabled the manufacturers to turn out the cylinders 
 at very low cost and in exceedingly large quan- 
 tities. Seamless steel tubing is used, and this in 
 but four operations under the forge press and 
 bulldozer, is converted into a headed and flanged 
 cylinder blank on which a minimum of machining 
 need be done. The manufacture of these cylinders 
 was not undertaken until the end of January and 
 . . . [later were] turned out in very large quan- 
 tity. One of the difficulties encountered in the 
 Liberty Motor had to do with the form of igni- 
 tion. In the original Packard motor, the 'Deico' 
 system of ignition was used. This consists in 
 generating current with a small electric generator 
 geared to the engine shaft and then transmitting 
 the current oy means of a pair of distributors to 
 the spark plugs. Magneto ignition was tried, but 
 it proved impossible to design a single magneto 
 which would operate with the irregular timing re- 
 quired in an engine in which the cylinders were 
 set at the unusual angle of 45 degrees. A single 
 magneto could not be used and so a battery of 
 four magnetos had to be employed This added 
 somewhat to the weight of the engine. Then fur- 
 ther difficulties were encountered. Owing possibly 
 to the vibration of the engine at high speed, the 
 magnets of the magneto showed fatigue and grad- 
 ually lost their muKnetic property. So thtt even- 
 tually it was decided to return again to the original 
 system of ignition. It is rather remarkable that in 
 a number of very important features, it has been 
 necessary to revert to the original design. . . . The 
 efficiency of the Liberty Motor is not to be ques- 
 tioned by anyone who has examined it thoroughly. 
 It is far more powerful than any other airplane 
 engine ever produced on a quantity production 
 basis. It exceeds in power all but a few experi- 
 mental machines. Although rated at 400 horse- 
 power it has shown on test as high as 4S5 horse- 
 power; and its weight is 820 pounds." — Scientific 
 American, June i, 1918. pp. 500, 515. — "England, 
 France, and Italy had reached the point where 
 they could build airplanes much faster than they 
 could build engines, when hostilities ceased. Both 
 countries had accepted the Liberty motor as the 
 best airplane engine, and both were building their 
 planes to fit this American engine, when the order 
 came to cease firing. How much faster we were 
 building engines than were our European asso- 
 ciates is indicated by the fact that the largest 
 day's production of the engine most closely ap- 
 proximating the Liberty in quality, the Rolls- 
 Royce, was fifty-nine, while the Liberties were 
 being turned out at the rate of 150 a day! In 
 October, America's production of airplane engines 
 was 5,603. This is more than the total produc- 
 tion of France and England together for the ivhote 
 four years of the war!" — World's Work, Feb., 
 iqiq, p. 473. 
 
 King and Leslie give the following classifica- 
 tion of types of airplanes: 
 
 Monoplane. Having one main lifting surface. 
 
 Biplane. Having two main lifting surfaces 
 mounted one above the other. 
 
 Triplane. Having three main lifting surfaces 
 mounted one above the other. 
 
 Tractor. A tractor airplane is drawn forward 
 by means of a propeller placed in front of the 
 main lifting surfaces. 
 
 Pusher, h pusher airplane is thrust forward by 
 means of a propeller at the rear of the main 
 lifting surfaces. 
 
 .Aeroplane. .A land machine equipped with a 
 landing gear with free running wheels, which en- 
 able it to take off and land on the earth 
 
 Hydro-aeroplane (or seaplane). A water ma- 
 chine equipped with either single or double floats 
 
 759
 
 AVIATION 
 
 Airplanes 
 Progress in World War 
 
 AVIATION 
 
 which enable it to take off and alight on water^ 
 Flying boat. Equipped with a boat-shaped hull 
 which takes the place of fuselage and pontoons of 
 a hydro-aeroplane. 
 
 The term hangar is applied to the structures in 
 which flying machines are stored. There are many 
 and varied types constructed to meet the needs of 
 the various aircraft, those built to house airplanes 
 necessarily being of different construction from 
 those built to enclose the huge modern airships. 
 During the World War, to meet the needs of 
 the navy, floating carriers were constructed. 
 These might practically be called floating air- 
 dromes, since, besides carrying the airplanes, they 
 also served as the field for their starting off and 
 alighting. "The first one of these was merely a 
 large commercial steamer equipped with a deck on 
 which the airplanes could take off and land, with 
 a hangar deck immediately below this in which 
 the airplanes could be kept ready for flight, and 
 with machine-shop facilities, spare parts for the 
 airplanes, and all other accessories for keeping 
 them in condition on the ship. The first carrier 
 was the Argus, which had a deck 535 feet long 
 and 68 feet broad. Her hangar held twenty air- 
 planes, or practically a squadron. Her speed was 
 only twenty knots. It was evident at once that 
 any vessel having such a slow speed w-ould not 
 only be a prey to other warships, but also to sub- 
 marines — not to mention destruction by hostile 
 air attack — and there were many other things 
 about this carrier which were not satisfactory, as it 
 was the first attempt in this direction. The next 
 carrier to be built was a warship being constructed 
 for a South American country, which was trans- 
 formed into a carrier and renamed the Eagle. 
 This ship is capable of carrying about forty air- 
 planes in her hangars, or two squadrons. Still 
 another carrier is the Hermes, with a speed of 
 twenty-five knots; while more are being built. 
 The British, however, recognized that these vessels 
 could not operate far enough in advance of their 
 fleets so as to go out and fight for control of the 
 air, but would have to stay near the fleet and be 
 protected, because their speed was not great 
 enough to protect themselves. Consequently, they 
 took the vessels that were most readily available, 
 that had the required speed and at the same time 
 fighting power to ward off other vessels — that is, 
 their battle cruisers — and transformed them into a 
 combination carrier and battle cruiser. They are 
 now reported to have a division of battle cruis- 
 ers, or four of these hieh-speed vessels, equipped 
 with airplanes. They all have a speed of about 
 thirty-five knots, or forty miles an hour; and have 
 very heavy gun power — equal to that of any bat- 
 tleship — and with the airplane carriers attached 
 to them they have the power of concentrating the 
 equivalent of one or more groups of pursuit avia- 
 tion wherever they desire. ... It should be noted 
 that the whole development for the use of air- 
 craft over the water is not in air tactics, in types 
 of airplanes particularly, or in the securing and 
 training of air personnel; but is essentially a de- 
 velopment of floating airdromes. It is, therefore, 
 evident that floating airdromes must be made to 
 suit the requirements of the airplanes first — that 
 is, if we are going to fight and drive out of the 
 air an opposing aviation, we must brine to bear 
 against it airplanes that can do the work. \cxt. 
 the airplane carriers must be able to defend them- 
 selves against attack on the water. .\s to the first 
 requirement, the airplane carriers should be capa- 
 ble of accommodating a complete tactical unit, 
 or one group of 100 pursuit airplanes; and in the 
 second case, in order to be able to defend itself, 
 and be capable of taking the offensive quickly, it 
 
 should have a speed of at least forty knots, or 
 around fifty miles an hour, which is entirely 
 possible at this time. To answer these require- 
 ments, the airplane carrier should be about 1000 
 feet in length, with a landing deck of this.size. Its 
 width would be over 100 feet and it could be 
 equipped with all the facilities for handling the 
 airplanes quickly either by day or by night. Even 
 one airplane carrier of this kind would give the 
 side possessing it complete control over the water 
 at the present time, and render an opposing fleet 
 incapable of acting with' its observation aviation." 
 — W. Mitchell, Avialion over the water {Ameri- 
 can Review of Reviews, Oct., 1920, pp. 393-395). 
 — For the aviator, the problem of the landing 
 field is of vital importance, as, next to the actual 
 trials of flight itself, the greatest dange' is in 
 making the landing. To alight safely, a landing 
 field must be properly constructed, and in recog- 
 nition of this situation, municipal and private cor- 
 porations are beginning to construct fields to meet 
 the requirements of aviation. The word "hangar," 
 which is French, signifies a shed, barn or outhouse. 
 1914-1918. — Great European progress during 
 World War. — Growth of American air service. — 
 Great progress was made in aviation during the 
 World War. So thoroughly did the airplane prove 
 its military worth on the battlefields of Europe, 
 that all possible efforts and facilities were con- 
 centrated on the development of the airplanes of 
 the belligerents. The airplane was improved by 
 leaps and bounds. Airplanes became "the eyes of 
 the army and navy." "In the years before the 
 war it had become the fashion to announce that 
 the next European conflict would witness a phe- 
 nomenal use of aircraft. Ingenious romancers had 
 pictured an .Armageddon in the clouds, and lovers 
 of peace had clung to the notion that the novelty 
 and frightfulness of such a warfare would make 
 the Powers of the world hesitate to draw the 
 sword. The results have been both below and in 
 excess of expectation. The air was a realm of 
 pure guesswork, for in the Tripoli and Balkan 
 wars there was no serious aerial service, though 
 various adventurers experimented in the new arm. 
 . . . France led the way in aerial experiment, and 
 her government between 1909 and 1914 acquired 
 the largest air fleet in the w'orld. Her aviators 
 were brilliant performers, especially in long-dis- 
 tance flights, but they were not thoroughly ab- 
 sorbed into the military machine. They had less 
 knowledge of the tactical use of aircraft than of 
 their mechanical capabilities, and the organization 
 of the French Air Corps was severely criticized by 
 the Committee of the Senate just before the war. 
 . . . There was no government standardized pat- 
 tern, and hence supply of spare parts and acces- 
 sories became a difficulty. The French airmen had 
 brilliant technical skill and endless courage — men 
 like Garros and Pegoud [the latter was the first 
 to 'loop the loop'] had no rivals — but as a corps 
 they were not so fully organized for war as their 
 neighbours. [See also L.vf.^vette Eswdrille.] 
 The Germans had preferred at first to interest 
 themselves rather in airships than in aeroplanes, 
 but their military advisers were well aware of the 
 value of the latter, and had prepared a strong 
 corps. The German aviator could not fly as well 
 as the French; on the whole he had not as useful 
 a machine; but he understood perfectly his place 
 in the military plan. He was thoroughly trained 
 to reconnaissance work, and especially to the task 
 of range-finding for the field guns. The .Aus- 
 trian air service was much inferior, though it con- 
 tained some dashing pilots. The Russian had 
 enormously improved, under the Grand Duke 
 Alexander, but it sufferec from a shortage of ma- 
 
 760
 
 TYPES OF AEROPLANES 
 
 I, German Aviatik A-C; capacity, 25 passengers. 2, British Handley-Page passenger machine. 3, American 
 Martin bomber. 4, French Farman plane; capacity, 27 passengers. 5, Caproni triplane, Italian. 6, All-metal 
 Larsen monoplane. 7, United States "Owl" plane used by air mail service; 3 motors, 420 h.p. each. 8, German 
 seaplane fitted with pontoons; type of plane carried on warships, 9. De HaviIand-4 plane used in London-Paris 
 service.
 
 AVIATION 
 
 Air Service 
 Growth 
 
 AVIATION 
 
 chines and a chronic difficulty in rapid manufac- 
 ture. It possessed, however, several giant bi- 
 planes, useful for destructive purposes, for each 
 could carry over a ton's weight of explosives. The 
 British air service, the last to be started . . . had 
 a good type of machine and enough of them, a 
 number of highly qualified pilots and observers 
 accustomed to go out in all weathers and under 
 every condition of difficulty, and, above all, 
 trained in tactical co-operation with other arms. 
 . . . The British Royal Flying Corps contained a 
 military and a naval wing. Each wing was di- 
 vided into squadrons, consisting of twenty-tour 
 aeroplanes and twenty-four pilots, under a ma- 
 jor or commander." — J. Buchan, Nelson's History 
 of the war, v. S, pp. 54-S6. — The World War broke 
 out at a moment of unprecedented activity in 
 aeronautical development. "It was a time of par- 
 ticular interest to the student, the evolution of 
 the larger sea-planes and of aeroplanes driven by 
 two or more engines having begun under promis- 
 ing conditions. Improvements in design and con- 
 struction, that in various combinations were re- 
 sponsible for these developments, also accounted 
 for the making of new and important records in 
 duration of flight and load-carrying during the 
 first six months of 1Q13. . . . Perhaps the most 
 important line of development in the aeroplane 
 has been towards multiple-engine craft — i. e., ma- 
 chines driven by two or more motors employable 
 either together or independently — for this promises 
 to solve the problem of reliability, and to obviate 
 unpremeditated landings due to failure of driving 
 power, hitherto the principal drawbacks to flying. 
 . . . The principal multiple-engine aeroplane is of 
 Russian design — the Sikorsky, a machine with a 
 span of 120 feet and of great lifting capacity; it 
 has carried seyenteen passengers into the air in a 
 flight of eighteen minutes. The Curtiss flying 
 boat, designed to fly across the .fMlantic, is driven 
 by two motors. . . . The development of the 
 high-speed biplane has continued, and the former 
 association of the monoplane type with the highest 
 speeds has been broken down. ... A great ad- 
 vance in the armouring of aeroplanes has been 
 made in France, and in many military machines 
 the engine and the pilot are protected by thin 
 nickel-steel plates capable of stopping a rifle bullet 
 at 600 yards. ... In comparison with the over- 
 land flying machine the seaplane is in an unde- 
 veloped stage, and although Great Britain has 
 made more progress than any other country, the 
 machines hitherto built are not really seaworthy. 
 . . . There is little to record under this head [of 
 airships]. As regards military aircraft, the need 
 for armament on top of the gas-container is now 
 acknowledged, its object being to repel aeroplane 
 attacks. Some of the German airships are so 
 armed. ... As to arming semi-rigid and non- 
 rigid airships on top, it appears to be almost im- 
 possible."— C. C. Turner, Aviation in 1^14 
 iHazell's Annual, 1915, pp. 426-427). — See also 
 Aces. 
 
 The American Air Ser\'ice may be said to have 
 started on March 3, iqn, which "deserves to be 
 rnarked as a red-letter day in .\merican aviation 
 history;" for on that day, "when aviators were 
 in the air all over the world, and when France 
 was asking for $x,ooo,ooo for aviation, the new 
 science was formally recognized in the United 
 States with an appropriation of $125,000." Offi- 
 cers,_ however, did not come forward to the new 
 service in any numbers, and up to December, 1913, 
 only nineteen had qualified. The result was the 
 introduction of a bill in Congress on August 23, 
 IQ13, providing for an establishment within the 
 Signal Corps of an aviation section with an in- 
 
 761 
 
 crease to sixty officers and 260 men, who were to 
 receive prestige and extra rewards in this "extra- 
 hazardous" service. This bill did not become law 
 until July 18, 1914; so that on the outbreak of 
 war America, although decidedly behind the great 
 powers in Europe, had at last a definite line along 
 which aviation might develop. During the period 
 of American neutrality up to April, 191 7, aviation 
 in Europe was being forced to remarkable devel- 
 opments, which were to a great extent hidden 
 from America. "This complete exclusion from 
 scientific developments abroad, unavoidable though 
 it was, was destined to have a most serious effect 
 on America's later preparation." It appears that 
 it was not so much the achievement of aircraft 
 in Europe which spurred the American aviation 
 program, but the lessons learned from the Persh- 
 mg expedition into Mexico, which followed the 
 raids across the Mexican border in March, 1916. 
 This punitive expedition, with its "long tenuous 
 line across the sands of Northern Mexic* afforded 
 the first practical demonstration of the value of 
 aircraft for reconnaissance in the history of tbe 
 American Service, and showed as nothing else 
 could the vital necessity of airplanes." On April 
 6, 1917, war was declared on Germany, and plans 
 were made to "meet the aerial programme ap- 
 proved by the General Staff as a balanced branch 
 of a many sided military establishment." On 
 May 26 a cablegram was received in Washington 
 from the French premier, M. Ribot, at a time 
 when the American air service possessed fewer 
 than 300 airplanes. The message read as fol- 
 lows: 
 
 "It is desired that, in order to cooperate with the 
 French aeronautics, the American Government 
 should adopt the following programme: the for- 
 mation of a flying corps of four thousand five 
 hundred aeroplanes — personnel and material in- 
 cluded—to be sent to the French front during the 
 campaign in 1918. The total number of pilots, 
 including reserve, should be five thousand, and 
 fifty thousand mechanicians. Two thousand planes 
 should be constructed each month, as well as four 
 thousand engines, by the American factories. That 
 is to say that during the first six months of 19 18 
 sixteen thousand five hundred planes {of the last 
 type) and thirty thousand engines will have to be 
 built. The French Government is anxious to know 
 if the American Government accepts this proposi- 
 tion, which will allow the Allies to win the su- 
 premacy of the air." 
 
 This cablegram was translated into a bill which 
 was rushed through Committee and on June 13 
 reported unanimously with an amendment to the 
 effect that .$640,000000 be appropriated. This 
 enormous sum could not be asked for without a 
 "very special preparation of the public mind." 
 How that preparation was carried out forms a 
 story of absorbing interest. Then on July "the 
 great programme was launched with President Wil- 
 son's signature of the Aviation Act." — Adapted 
 from A. Sweetser, American air service. — See also 
 Ordn.ince: 20th century; U. S. A.: 1918 (Febru- 
 ary-October) ; World War: 1915: X. War in the 
 air; 1917: It. Western front: c, 4; VIII. United 
 States and the war: i, 9; X. War in the air: a; 
 1918: VI. Turkish theater: c; VIII. Aviation; 
 IX. Naval operations: c, 5; also Miscellaneous aux- 
 iliary services: IV. Aviation: a, 1; a, 2; a, 3; a, 6; 
 b; VI. Military and naval equipment: c, 1; 
 Sevres, Treaty of: 1920: Contents of treaty: Part 
 V. Military clauses; Air clauses; and Part X. 
 
 1918-1921. — Air service after the World War. 
 — British air routes. — Mail service opened in 
 Great Britain and United States. — Forest patrol 
 work. — Lawson air-liner. — Air routes in Italy. —
 
 AVIATION 
 
 Air Service 
 Routes 
 
 AVIATION 
 
 London-Paris air route. — Royal Dutch air serv- 
 ice. — Commercial aeronautics. — Although passen- 
 ger and mail service did not make great strides 
 in most countries until after the World War, in 
 Germany passenger air lines were in operation 
 several years before. "The German airship pas- 
 senger services continue their popularity, and again 
 there was a complete freedom from mishaps. In 
 1013 the three vessels employed made 310 trips, 
 covering an aggregate of 16,000 miles, and carry- 
 ing 1,471 passengers, besides their crews." — C. C. 
 Turner, Avialion in 1914 (Hazell's Annual, 191S, 
 />. 427).— Between 1918 and 1921 air routes were 
 opened up in rapid succession and air lines were 
 established. "The -Mr Ministry has issued details 
 of some of the aerial routes which will be de- 
 clared open. The routes are to be regarded as 
 provisional, since experience aloac can decide upon 
 the arrangement of aerodromes which is most suit- 
 able for carrying out the aerial business of the 
 country. ... At the date of the armistice 
 there were 337 aerodromes and landing 
 grou.ids in the British Isles. About 100 
 will be required for the Royal Air Force, 
 while 116 have already been relinquished for 
 cultivation and other purposes. This leaves 
 about 120 aerodromes, some with extensive ac- 
 commodation, which will ultimately be available 
 for civilian purposes. . . . The main routes at 
 present outlined are summarised below, the Lon- 
 don terminus being situated at Hounslow: — (i) 
 London-Scotland; (2) London-Dublin; (3) Lon- 
 don-Manchcster-Belfast ; (4) Continental route via 
 Lympne; (5) Dutch route via Hadleigh; (6) 
 Scandinavian route via New Holland; (7) Lon- 
 don-Plymouth; and (8) London-Bristol. The 
 various aerodromes along these routes arc clearly 
 shown . . . and when any route has been de- 
 clared open pilots using it will find petrol, accom- 
 modation, and, where possible, mechanics to 
 handle their machines at each of these aerodromes. 
 Such pilots must, of course, comply with the regu- 
 lations as regards licensing and inspection of ma- 
 chines. The Government makes no promise of 
 help to aviators who descend, whether by choice 
 or by force of circumstances, at places other than 
 the official 'a'r stations.' It has been decided to 
 limit the overseas traffic for the present to four 
 'appointed' aerodromes. Three of these will be 
 those named under routes (4), (5), and (6) of 
 the above list, while the fourth will be at Houn- 
 slow in order to facilitate direct communication 
 between London and the Continent. . . . Rigid 
 supcr\ision with regard to the construction and 
 air-worthiness of machines intended for passenger 
 services will be insisted upon, but progress will 
 not be hampered by any inspection of inventions 
 or of purely experimental machines." — Nature, 
 May I, 1919, p. 171. — During May and June, 1918, 
 aerial mail ser\'ice was established in .\merica and 
 Europe. .\rmy aviators carried mail from N'ew 
 York to Washington in three hours — twenty-two 
 minutes, and on June 3 a mail service was estab- 
 lished between New York, Boston and Montreal. 
 .\erial mail service between London and Paris 
 began on May 28. First mail airplane flew be- 
 tween New York and Chicago on September 10. 
 On July 31, loiQ, Senator Harry S. New of the 
 Senate Committee on Military .Affairs, advocated 
 the uniting of the army, navy, and postal air serv- 
 ice under one administrative head. "The last re- 
 port of the British Wx Ministry difclo.'^es to the 
 world the fact that Great Britain has had the 
 vision to comprehend not only the possibilities 
 but the certainties of aeronautics and is determined 
 to derive for England all the benefits that they 
 afford. Of course it is known to those in the air 
 
 7 
 
 service of the Government and the comparatively 
 small public which has kept informed that Eng- 
 land, for instance, has appropriated $330,000,000 
 for aeronautical equipment and e.\perimentation 
 for the next fiscal year. The people of our country 
 as a class know nothing of it and I fear have no 
 conception of the real meaning of this fact. I 
 am more concerned with the commercial future of 
 aeronautics than I am concerned with it as a 
 purely military arm ; for it is in the commercial 
 field that its greatest development is next to oc- 
 cur. I believe that the next war will be brought 
 to a very quick decision by that power which 
 is best equipped with aeronautical devices. 
 
 "The United States appropriated $25,000,000 for 
 her navy and $25,000,000 for her army for the 
 purpose of aviation, which includes expenditures 
 of every kind and will really provide for very 
 little in the way of equipment. As I have said, 
 the great progress to be expected is in the near 
 future along commercial lines. Great Britain is 
 projecting mail and express routes all over the 
 world, from London to the Continent, London to 
 South .Africa, London to India, London to Brazil. 
 Similar programs are planned for .Australia, New 
 Zealand, and Canada. Many lines are being put 
 into operation in Europe. France, England, Spain, 
 and Germany. There is no longer any question 
 that airships of various types will be employed to 
 a very considerable extent in the transportation 
 of mails, express, and passengers — to what an ex- 
 tent, nobody can foresee, and only the future can 
 determine. The only question now is: How far 
 behind the other nations will the United States 
 start ? Having created these agencies, shall she 
 permit herself to be completely outclassed in their 
 development and utilization." — American and Eu- 
 ropean aerial activity contrasted (New York 
 Times. Aug. 3, 1919.) — "Now that the war is 
 over and the War Department finds itself with 
 more airplanes than are likely to be needed for 
 departmental purposes, it has been decided to try 
 out the plan of patroling the national forests 
 from the sky, and on June i the work will begin 
 On the same day, under an arrangement between 
 the forest service of the Department of Agriculture 
 and the War Department, observations covering a 
 large part of the .Angeles National Forest will be 
 begun from a captive balloon stationed over the 
 Army Balloon School near .Arcadia, Cal. Two 
 routes of airplane patrol work will be operated 
 from March Field, twelve miles southeast of Riv- 
 erside. Cal. Two planes will be used on each 
 route, each route will be approximately 100 miles 
 long and will be covered twice a day. This will 
 be the beginning of experimental work in which 
 the adaptability of aircraft to forest patrol work 
 is to be thoroughly tried out. If the tests prove 
 successful it is expected that the airplane patrols 
 will be extended before the end of the 1919 season, 
 and that airplanes will become a permanent fea- 
 ture of the ceaseless battle against fires in the na- 
 tional forests. The airplane routes from March 
 Field will afford an opportunity to 5ur\-ey about 
 2,000 square miles in the .Angeles and Cleveland 
 National Forests The airplanes are not equipped 
 with wireless telephone apparatus of such a na- 
 ture that they can communicate with the ground 
 without the installation of expensive ground m- 
 strumcnts, .so warnings of fires will be transmitted 
 by means of parachute messages dropped over a 
 town, the finder to telephone them to the Forest 
 Service ; by special landings made to report by 
 telephone; and by returning to the base and re- 
 porting from March Field direct to the forest 
 supervisor. Fires will be located and reported by 
 squares drawn on duplicate maps, one to be in 
 
 62
 
 AVIATION 
 
 Air Service 
 Commercial Uses, Aerial Law 
 
 AVIATION 
 
 the possession of each airplane observer and an- 
 other to be in the office of the forest supervisor." 
 — iWew York Times, May 14, 1919. — During the 
 same year (1919) the Lawson air-liner began op- 
 erations. This airplane, operated as a passenger- 
 carrying machine, made trips during the autumn, 
 traveling between Milwaukee, Wis., New York and 
 Washington. It carried twenty-six passengers in a 
 comfortable cabin, and was specially designed for 
 high speed and fuel economy. On December 26, 
 1919, the Cape-to-Cairo air route was declared 
 open. During 1920 there was a strong upward 
 movement in aerial activity in Italy, .\erial mail 
 .■■ervices were established between the principal 
 cities ; plans were in preparation for a regular 
 .service to Athens and communications with the 
 Italian colonies in Africa. In March, 1921, the 
 Information Bureau of the Post Office Department 
 announced that airplanes in the air mail service 
 of the United States government, totaling twenty- 
 one in all, had flown more than 1,500,000 miles 
 and carried in the neighborhood of 49,000,000 
 letters. 
 
 British aircraft reappeared on the London-Paris 
 air route on March 19, 1921. "A working ar- 
 rangement was come to between the Air Ministry 
 and Messrs. Handley Page and Messrs. Instone, 
 by which it has been possible to resume the daily 
 air services to and from Paris. The single fare 
 from London to Paris is six guineas [$31] and the 
 return fare fi2 |$6ol. It was the adoption of this 
 fare by the French air transport companies that 
 drove the British machines off the service. . . . 
 In addition to passengers, mails and goods will 
 again be carried. The charge for goods will be 
 one shilling [25 cents] per lb. for 100 lb. weight, 
 and lod. [20 cents] for each lb. over that quan- 
 tity. The contract with the French firms for the 
 carriage of mails was a temporary one and no 
 technical difficulties were met in handing the mails 
 back to the British firms. . . . The Handley Page 
 and Instone firms to maintain two services daily. 
 ... All machines are fitted with Rolls-Royce en- 
 gines." — London Times, March 21, 102 1. — In April, 
 1921, the Royal Dutch air service inaugurated a 
 regular passenger service between London and 
 Rotterdam-Amsterdam. From the last-named city 
 airplane connections can be made for Paris, Brus- 
 sels and Hamburg. — "There is being formed in the 
 United States an organization of recognized me- 
 chanical and financial strength to manufacture and 
 operate a fleet of . . . gigantic airships for trans- 
 continental air lines, to be employed in passenger, 
 freight, express and mail traffic. Minor organiza- 
 tions are now under way for operating with air- 
 ships of the non-rigid or blimp type in this 
 country, and from this country to neighboring 
 ports in the Caribbean. One concern intends to 
 operate between Key West and Havana, and along 
 the coast from Key West to New York; also from 
 New York to Chicago, with intermediate stops at 
 Washington or Pittsburg, or the Lake Ports. An- 
 other corporation is embarking on a lighter-than- 
 air enterprise between Detroit and Cleveland. 
 Other corporations arc either operating, or plan- 
 ning to operate in the near future, heavier-than- 
 air traffic lines between Key West and Havana, 
 and along the .Atlantic Coast ; also across the con- 
 tinent from New York to San Francisco, on the 
 Great Lakes, and on the Atlantic Coast from New 
 York to Boston, and one giant seaplane has re- 
 cently flown from Key West to New York in less 
 than fifteen hours. These are a few of the indi- 
 cations that we are entering the era of commer- 
 cial aeronautics." — C. A. Tinker, Commercial aero- 
 nautics (North American Review, Apr., 1921, p. 
 452-453.)— The R-j6, the first British-built air- 
 
 ship adapted for commercial purposes was com- 
 pleted in March. It was built by Messrs. William 
 Beardmore and Co., Ltd., and was designed three 
 years before by the admiralty. Changes of policy 
 placed it under the control of the civil side of the 
 air ministry, along with other big dirigibles. The 
 two principal characteristics of the R-j6 are its 
 passenger accommodation and mooring gear. Her 
 constructional features may be tabulated as fol- 
 lows: 
 
 Length: 672 ft., 30 ft. longer than R-34. 
 
 Maximum diameter: 78 ft in. 
 
 Cubic capacity: 2,100,000 ft. of hydrogen gas. 
 
 Nominal lift: 63.8 tons. 
 
 Maximum speed: 65 miles an hour. 
 
 Normal cruising speed: 50 miles an hour. 
 
 Range: Over 4,000 miles. 
 
 The normal complement of the R-3ti is four of- 
 ficers and twenty-four men. A full wireless equip- 
 ment is carried, and all the engine-carrying cars 
 arc in telephonic communication with the control- 
 car. It is possible, also, to walk from any one 
 part of the ship to any other. "It is not too much 
 to say that at the present time there has been de- 
 signed only one plane primarily for commercial 
 use: that is, the Giant Caproni, of one hundred 
 passenger capacity, now in a hangar in Italy. It 
 has never been tested. The reason is that the mili- 
 tary authorities controlling Italian aviation have 
 never given permission for it to leave the ground 
 because Caproni did not include certain features 
 which would permit his plane to be converted to 
 military use." — C. A. Tinker, Commercial aero- 
 nautics (North American Review, Apr., 1921, p. 
 451). — See also Cape-to-Cairo railway: Air route 
 established; City planning: Aeroplane in city plan- 
 ning. 
 
 1918-1921. — Aerial law.— Control of naviga- 
 tion. — Peace conference commission. — Aerial 
 League of the World. — Air diplomats. — Aero- 
 nautic schools. — Aeronautic nomenclature. — "A 
 new branch of the law is being developed — the law 
 of the air. The development is going on right 
 before your eyes. -The present generation [1921] 
 has seen the origin of this new branch of law and 
 will see much of its development. . . . Nobody 
 thinks of the airplane as a trespasser or as a 
 nuisance, yet this is precisely what the craft of the 
 air is; the law always follows the facts. The facts 
 determine the fundamental conditions out of which 
 the law springs, and the customs and habits which 
 aircraft make necessary are already shaping the 
 legal principles that will guide us in the future. 
 When we watch an aviator soaring over the earth, 
 we do not think of him as a violator of the law, 
 yet, technically, that is what he is; for, through- 
 out his journey, unless he be over the seas, he is 
 flying over the land of others, and this flight is a 
 trespass over the land. When we look into the 
 old common law, we find that the theory of own- 
 ership has always been this: A man who owns a 
 piece of land owns not only the surface of the land 
 and the immediate subsoil, but he owns straight 
 downward as far as he may wish to go and he 
 owns .straight upward into the sky. Unquestion- 
 ably, in the view of the common law, every air- 
 plane flying over the land of others is, no matter 
 at what height, a trespasser. If we wish to be 
 more technical and pursue this matter as a lawyer 
 might follow it, we can turn to an ancient case 
 that has a most interesting bearing upon the de- 
 velopment of airplane law. The balloon offered 
 the first situation out of which the development 
 of air law may be said to have begun. In 181 5 
 mention is made for the first time of the rights of 
 
 763
 
 AVIATION 
 
 Air Service 
 Regulation 
 
 AVIATION 
 
 a man m a balloon, in Pickering vs. Rudd, i 
 Starkie, page 56, 4 Campb. 2ig, 16 Revised Rep. 
 777, and then as dictum. The plaintiff was ob- 
 jecting because the defendant had climbed on a 
 temporary platform above his ground and lopped 
 off a troublesome Virginia creeper that overhung 
 the defendant's close. Lord Ellenborough ob- 
 served: 'I recollect a case where I held that firing 
 a gun loaded with shot into a field was a breaking 
 of the close. ... I never yet heard that firing in 
 vacuo could be considered as a trespass. . . . 
 Would trespass lie for passing through the air in 
 a balloon over the land of another?' And here is 
 an even more authoritative pronouncement. Pol- 
 lock, the great English law writer on torts and 
 other subjects, discusses the whole question in a 
 brilliant manner. On page 433 of his work on 
 'Torts' he says: 'It has been doubted whether 
 it is a trespass to pass over the land without touch- 
 ing the soil, as one may in a balloon, or to cause 
 a material object, as shot fired from a gun, to pass 
 over it. . . . It docs not seem possible, on the 
 principles of the common law, to assign any rea- 
 son why an entrj* at any height above the surface 
 should not also be a trespass. The improbability 
 of actual damage may be an excellent practical 
 reason for not suing a man who sails over one's 
 land in a balloon ; but this appears irrelevant to 
 the pure legal theory. . . . Then one can hardly 
 doubt that it might be a nuisance, apart from any 
 definite damage, to keep a balloon hovering over 
 another man's land.' Before we leave the purely 
 legal side of this subject there is another interesting 
 principle which the aviator must keep in mind, 
 especially if he be flying anywhere over the State 
 of New York, and that principle, expressed in 
 plain human terms, is this: If his plane makes an 
 unexpected descent, and thereby attracts a crowd 
 which swarms on to some person's property and 
 destroys something, the aviator may be liable. It 
 will be enough to quote the language of the Court 
 in this case. The layman will enjoy it as much as 
 the lawyer: 'I will not say that ascending in a 
 balloon is an unlawful act, for it is not so ; but 
 it is certain that the aeronaut has no control over 
 its motion horizontally; he is at the sport of the 
 winds and is to descend when and how he can; 
 his reaching the earth is a matter of hazard. . . . 
 Now-, if his descent under such circumstances would 
 ordinarily and naturally draw a crowd of people 
 about him, either from curiosity or for the pur- 
 pose of rescuing him from a perilous situation, all 
 this he ought to have foreseen and must be re- 
 sponsible for.' This was the famous case of Guille 
 vs. Swan, New York case, found at ig Johns, 
 page 381. The balloonist in this case had to pay 
 Sgo for potatoes, turnips, and flowers that were 
 ruined by the onru=h of his admirers who tried 
 to rescue him ; and the aviator who goes up must 
 bear in mind that he may have to pay something 
 for damages also." — W. C. Williams {OulTook, 
 Sept. 22, ig20, pp. 144-145). 
 
 "The year following the armistice witnessed 
 many remarkable achievements in air navigation, 
 demonstrating its future commercial value as a 
 new means of intercommunication and transporta- 
 tion. The crossing of the .Atlantic Ocean from the 
 mainland of the United States to England, via the 
 Azores and the European Continent, was closely 
 followed by a continuous flight from Newfound- 
 land to Ireland in about fifteen hours. The dis- 
 tance between New York and San Francisco and 
 return was traversed in slightly more than forty- 
 eight hours. The use of aircraft for the regular 
 transportation of mails and passengers increases 
 day by day both here and abroad. An art thus 
 expanding by leaps and bounds requires a wise 
 
 system of legal regulation and control, both in its 
 own interest and for the safety of the commu- 
 nity. Aerial navigation, like the navigation of the 
 seas, is international in scope, and its adequate 
 regulation by law presupposes the cooperation of 
 nations through international conventions. This 
 has long been recognized both by scientific ex- 
 perts and by jurists. It was also accepted as a 
 basic principle by the official International Confer- 
 ence upon Aerial Navigation held in Paris upon 
 the call of the French Government in May, June 
 and November, igio. and also by the unofficial 
 conference for the Regulation of Aerial Locomo- 
 tion held at Verona in June, igio. The Com- 
 mission on Air Na\ngation \vas one of a number 
 of commissions created under the authority of the 
 Peace Conference [igi8] having nothing whatever 
 to do with the adjustments of the war itself. Its 
 labors, so far as they were connected with the 
 work of the Peace Conference, consisted of the 
 regulation of the new means of intercourse be- 
 tween nations in such a manner as to promote 
 friendly relations and to avoid friction. The Con- 
 vention relating to International Air Navigation 
 is reported to have been signed on October 13, 
 igig, by all the Allied and Associated Powers, 
 excepting Japan and the United States. The con- 
 vention is restricted wholly to peace times and 
 does not affect the freedom of action of the con- 
 tracting states in time of war, either as belligerents 
 or as neutrals. The convention recognizes that 
 every state has complete and exclusive sovereignty 
 in the air space above its territory' and territorial 
 waters. But each state undertakes in time of 
 peace to accord freedom of innocent passage to 
 foreign aircraft without distinction as to national- 
 ity, provided the conditions of the conventions are 
 observed. . . . .^ny nation has the right to map 
 out areas prohibited for military reasons or for 
 public safety, but notice of such areas must be 
 given to the central bureau and published. The 
 fact that prohibited areas must apply alike to 
 domestic as well as to foreign aircraft will serve 
 as a counterbalance to any extreme view of mili- 
 tary needs. The right of innocent passage is there- 
 fore practically assured. The convention de- 
 termines the nationality of aircraft according to 
 rules similar to those established for seagoing 
 vessels. . . . .\ircraft cannot be validly registered 
 in more than one country at the same time. No 
 nation may permit the flight above its territory of 
 aircraft not possessing the nationality of one of 
 the contracting states. This marks an important 
 variance from the rule of maritime shipping be- 
 cause vessels of all duly recognized countries are 
 permitted to enter the territorial waters of other 
 nations. . . . The issuance of certificates of air- 
 worthiness and the competence of officers and crew 
 are matters within the jurisdiction of the con- 
 tracting states so long as they obser\'e the tech- 
 nical minimum standards set forth in the an- 
 nexes. A permanent International Commission for 
 Air Navigation is established which may vary 
 these standards from time to time. Certificates 
 which are issued or rendered valid by the state of 
 the aircraft's flag must be recognized in all other 
 states. . . . The annexes also provide in detail for 
 the marks and numbers w-hich aircraft must carry, 
 also the lights and signals, rules of air\vay and 
 markings of aerodromes. . . . The annexes pro- 
 vide the details to be embodied in documents 
 which aircraft must carry, which include the fol- 
 lowing: (a) certificates of registration; (6) cer- 
 tificate of air-worthiness; (c) certificate of mini- 
 mum technical skill for commanding officer and 
 pilot ; (d) licenses for pilots, navigators and en- 
 gineers; (c) list of passengers; (/) bill of lading 
 
 764
 
 AVIATION 
 
 Air Service 
 Aeronautic Schools 
 
 AVIATION 
 
 and manifest; (g) log book; (h) special license 
 for wireless equipment. These requirements pre- 
 suppose some coordination between the local and 
 the national authorities, which federal regulation 
 can alone provide. The convention provides for 
 the organization of an international union for the 
 administration of international air navigation and 
 for the elaboration of legislation to be applicable 
 to it from time to time. The organ of the union 
 will be the International Ccmimission for Air Navi- 
 gation. Its organization is to be under the con- 
 trol of the League of Nations. Representation is 
 measured somewhat after the principle adopted for 
 the Assembly of the League. The five great Allies 
 have each two representatives. All other con- 
 tracting states have each one representative, the 
 self-governing British Dominions and India count- 
 ing for this purpose as states. The vote is taken 
 according to states, but the five great Powers re- 
 serve to themselves the majority of the votes by 
 the provision that each shall have 'the least whole 
 number of votes which, when multiplied by five, 
 will give a product exceeding by at least one vote 
 the total number of votes of all the other contract- 
 ing states.' The greatly extended use of aircraft 
 for commercial transportation which now seems 
 impending will require entirely new methods of 
 customs administration. The convention essays to 
 lay down certain rules by which the states are to 
 cooperate in administering customs and in the 
 prevention of customs fraud. Aircraft must de- 
 part from and alight only upon especially de- 
 signated 'customs aerodromes.' Places for cross- 
 ing a frontier are to be indicated on aeronautical 
 maps. The inspection of documents is regulated 
 ir a manner analogous to marine vessels; but the 
 convention wisely allows a certain latitude for 
 aircraft over which strict control at or near the 
 frontier is not required. Any disagreement re- 
 lating to the interpretation of the convention is 
 to be referred to the Permanent Court of Inter- 
 national Justice to be established by the League of 
 Nations and, until its establishment, to arbitra- 
 tion. But the International Commission for Air 
 Navigation is competent to determine, by a ma- 
 jority of votes, a dispute upon any of the tech- 
 nical regulations." — A. K. Kuhn, International 
 aerial navigation and the Peace Conference, igig 
 {American Journal of International Law, Jtily, 
 1020, pp. 370-375, 378-370). — See also Interna- 
 tional law; Versailles, Treaty of: Part XI. 
 
 Plans for the foundation of an international 
 aeronautic association, to be known as the Aerial 
 League of the World, have been completed. It is 
 planned to have affiliations in nearly every country 
 of the world. Its purposes, as set forth in Flying 
 (New York), are: "(i) To encourage the use of 
 aircraft for all purposes throughout the world. (2) 
 To promote safety in aerial navigation and in the 
 construction of aircraft, aerodromes, accessories, 
 etc. (3) To encourage and urge the establishing 
 of suitable landing-places for aircraft all over the 
 world and standardize said landing-places and 
 equip them with standardized lighting and sig- 
 naling devices and guiding lights to facilitate aerial 
 navigation. (4) To cause and urge the establish- 
 ing of recognized airways throughout the world to 
 interconnect aerially all the world's commercial 
 centers, and wherever aircraft can solve problems 
 of transportation. (5) To provide a scientific and 
 practical solution to the difficult problem of op- 
 erating permanent aerial transportation lines at 
 night and in fogs, over fixt routes, without danger 
 of collision to aircraft flying in opposite direc- 
 tions, by bringing about the adoption of airways 
 eighty miles wide, which will permit aircraft, by 
 keeping to the right, to avoid collision even if they 
 
 should deviate from their course, owing to wind 
 drift. (6) To establish a protective organization 
 which will undertake to protect airmen legally in 
 securing national and international legislation and 
 the adoption of proper rules of the air and regula- 
 tions to govern aerial navigation and to protect the 
 interests of owners and users of aircraft against 
 unjust and unreasonable legislation, and to main- 
 tain the lawful right and privileges of owners and 
 users of all forms of aircraft whenever and 
 wherever such rights and privileges are menaced, 
 as, for instance, in preventing the adoption of 
 restrictive aerial laws, discouraging over-charging 
 when airmen damage property, prosecuting per- 
 sons for wilfully placing obstructions on aviation 
 fields, or crowding aircraft landing-fields, ex- 
 tinguishing guide lights, destroying landmarks, 
 selling watered gasoline to aviators, selling in- 
 ferior hydrogen and gas to balloonists, etc. (7) 
 To standardize aircraft insurance rates and insur- 
 ance adjusting. (8) To establish aeronautic in- 
 formation bureaus throughout the world, (q) To 
 study the possibility of air travel in different 
 countries and prepare maps of airways. (10) To 
 establish a clearing-house of aeronautic activities 
 where people interested in aerial touring, commer- 
 cial aerial transportation, and air travel can get 
 practical information and assistance. (11) To or- 
 ganize aerial exploration and surveying expeditions. 
 (12) To cooperate with aerial leagues, aero clubs, 
 and other organizations, aerial transportation com- 
 panies, travel agencies, chambers of commerce, 
 manufacturers, and other established organizations 
 to carry out the above-mentioned purposes and 
 advance the science and art of aerial navigation. 
 . . . The president of the League is Maj. Charles 
 J. Glidden, the founder of the Glidden Automobile 
 Tours, a pioneer in aeronautics since 1905 and 
 acting chairman of the contest committee of the 
 Aero Club of America." — World-wide league to 
 promote flying (Literary Digest, Oct. g, 1920, 
 p. 82). — On Feb. iq, iqiq, the appointment of an 
 air attache to the British embassy at Washington 
 was announced. In the following year Italy also 
 appointed air attaches to several of their em- 
 bassies. 
 
 "The University of Detroit has gone ahead with 
 plans to establish a five-year course in aeronautics. 
 The university is confident that Detroit will even- 
 tually become an aircraft and aircraft-equipment 
 center, and that the demand for men trained in 
 aerial science will be greater than the visible supply 
 here below. 
 
 "The uninitiated may wonder what there is in 
 aeronautics to require five years' training. The 
 average man who has flown an airplane in war 
 or peace is more likely to wonder if it is possible 
 to cram all there is to know about aerial naviga- 
 tion and aerial equipment into five years. Whether 
 or not it is possible to do the subject justice in 
 that length of time remains to be seen, but judged 
 by present standards the University of Detroit can 
 produce aeronautical engineers of a caliber su- 
 perior to anything now known. Like medicine, 
 law, chemistry, and a multitude of other sciences, 
 theory in aeronautics is one thing; practise is 
 quite another. 
 
 "Lieut. Thomas F. Dunn, dean of the new de- 
 partment of aeronautics at the University of De- 
 troit, puts it this way: 'There are lots of engi- 
 neers who can tell you all about aeronautics on 
 the ground, but when they get up into the thin 
 air their theory is like a ship without a rudder 
 and no compass — very active, but with indefinite 
 plans as to the future.' The impression that takes 
 hold of us is that there are two ways of getting 
 an aeronautical education. One is to go up In 
 
 7^5
 
 AVIATION 
 
 Nvw Vocuhulary 
 Important flights 
 
 AVIATION 
 
 the air first and gather some experience, and if 
 spared for future investigation, return to solid 
 earth and tackle the theory. The other way is to 
 tackle the theory first and then try it out on the 
 air. 
 
 "Some idea of the latitude of this subject is con- 
 veyed by the following subjects to be taught: 
 Higher mathematics, communication, mapping, as- 
 tronomy, physics, meteorology, weather calcula- 
 tions, theory of flight, balloons, aerodynamics, 
 aerostatics, aircraft mechanics, testing drawing, ad- 
 ministration, chemistry, electricity, engineering 
 principles, metal-working, working design and con- 
 struction, topography, wireless telephony and te- 
 legraphy, safety devices, uses of instruments, some 
 commercial law, and all there is or will be on 
 aerial navigation laws, principles of law as it is 
 or will be applied to the air, and aerial photog- 
 raphy." — F. W. Hersey, in Michigan Manufacturer 
 and Financial Record, quoted by Literary Digest, 
 July i6, 1021. 
 
 It is estimated that aviation has introduced 
 over 200 new words into the English language, 
 either original or taken over from other languages. 
 Those words or phrases in common use on the 
 flying fields or in aircraft plants are strangers to 
 the average reader. For the benefit of those who 
 are unacquainted with the meanings of such words 
 as "fuselage," "nacelle," "drift," "aileron," and 
 such phrases as "air pockets," "parasite resistance," 
 "traihng edge," etc., the Manufacturers' .Aircraft 
 .\ssociation issued in iqiq a "Flying dictionary" 
 with the aid of a report compiled by the national 
 advisory committee for aeronautics at Washington. 
 Quite a number of books on aviation contain glos- 
 saries with technical details, yet one of the handi- 
 caps is the proper description of equipment so 
 as to give the public — generally uninstructed — an 
 accurate idea of the magnitude of current hap- 
 penings. This difficulty has also been encountered 
 in government aircraft activities and appears more 
 ihan ever now that commercial aviation, with 
 proper encouragement, promises to develop in the 
 pear future. 
 
 1921. — New aircraft for U. S. Navy. — Early in 
 the year the United States Navy Department was 
 building, at its yard at League island, a giant 
 flying boat intended to be the largest of its kind in 
 the world, to tower above a three-story building in 
 height and have a wing spread of nearly a Slew 
 York city block. .As given in official figures, the 
 dimensions were: height, 48 feet; wing spread, 
 150 feet; length. 67 feet; designation to be the 
 G-B type On .'\pril 14 it was anounced that the 
 great rigid airship ZR-2. then in its final stages 
 of trial flights and equipment in England and 
 purchased by the United States government, would 
 make the trip to America late in July, iq2i, under 
 command of Commander Maxfield, U. S. N. 
 .American officers and enlisted men had been train- 
 ing in England for nearly a year in anticipation of 
 the transatlantic flight to bring the airship over. 
 The cost of the airship — -the largest in the world — 
 was stated to be about $2,500,000. Its original 
 British name was the R-:}8; its length 600 feet; 
 height, 03 feet ; diameter, 86 feet ; gas capacity, 
 2,724,000 cubic feet, and a useful weight-carrying 
 capacity of forty-five tons. On .August 24, how- 
 ever, just as it was completing satisfactorily its 
 final trial cruise, the ZR-2 met with a tragic fate. 
 .At 5 45 p.m , while traveling over the city of 
 Hull, the monster aircraft "buckled"; flames in- 
 stantly broke out and several explosions followed. 
 It seemed to the horrified spectators on the ground 
 that the vessel would fall upon the city, but the 
 commander. Captain .A. A. Wann, steered it over 
 the river Humber, into which it fell. Three mem- 
 
 bers of the crew made successful parachute de- 
 scents; two others, including Wann, were subse- 
 quently taken off the wreck. These were the only 
 survivors out of forty-nine — thirty-two British and 
 seventeen .Americans. The disaster was attributed 
 to structural weakness. 
 
 IMPORTANT FLIGHTS SINCE 1900 
 
 1900.— First Zeppelin's trial flight. 
 
 1901 (Oct. ig). — .Alberto Santos-Dumont navi- 
 gated a dirigible from St. Cloud to Paris, around 
 the Eiffel tower and back to starting-point; time, 
 thirty minutes. 
 
 1903 (Dec. 17). — "Wright Bros, fitted a biplane 
 glider with a 16 H.P. motor, driving double screws 
 behind the planes. Total weight of machine, 750 
 pounds. Flew at speed of 30-25 miles per hour for 
 a period of twelve seconds. Tests made on the 
 Kill-Devil dunes, N. C, ultimately sustained flight 
 for a period of 59 seconds, covering 852 feet. First 
 successful sustained flight in the world." — Aircraft 
 year book, iqig, p. 311, Aeronautical Chamber of 
 Commerce of America. 
 
 1904. — Pierre and Paul Lebaudy navigated a 
 dirigible of their own construction, fitted with a 
 40 h.p. motor, a distance of twenty-five miles near 
 Paris. 
 
 1907 (October). — .A British war dirigible Nulli 
 Secundus sailed from Farnborough to London, 
 circled St. Paul's cathedral and flew to the Crystal 
 palace, about fifty miles; time, three hours thirty 
 five minutes. 
 
 1909 (July 25). — French aviator Louis Bleriot 
 made first flight across English channel, from 
 Calais to Dover, in thirty-one minutes. 
 
 1910 (.April 20). — Roger Sommer, at Mourme- 
 lon, France, went up with four passengers. 
 
 May 21 — Count Jacques de Lesseps flew from 
 Calais to Dover; the second cross-Channel flight. 
 
 May 20. — Glenn Curtiss flew from .Albany to 
 New York city, making two stops on the way ; 
 distance — 145 miles. 
 
 June 2.— (Tharles Stewart Rolls (of Rolls-Royce), 
 an Englishman, made the first round-trip flight 
 over the English channel, in a Wright biplane. 
 
 June 13. — Charles K.. Hamilton, flying for the 
 Sew York Times, made the first round-trip flight 
 between New York and Philadelphia. 
 
 July Q. — Rene Labouchere, at Reims, France, 
 made a continuous non-stop flight of 211.27 miles, 
 the world record at that time. 
 
 July 10. — Jan Oliaslaegers, at Reims, broke La- 
 bouchere's record, with a continuous flight of 244 
 miles in five hours, three minutes and fifty-one 
 seconds. 
 
 Aug. 7-17. — Alfred Leblanc flew over a circular 
 course, Paris. Troyes, Nancy, Mezieres, Douai, 
 .Amiens, and back. Total distance 485 miles. 
 
 Aug. 7. — John B. Moisant made the first flight 
 over the English channel with a passenger. 
 
 Sept. 23. — Peruvian aviator Jorge Chavez-Dart- 
 nell flew over the .Alps ; crossed Simplon pass at 
 Dondo, flying towards Italy. He was killed a few 
 days later by fall of his machine in Switzer- 
 land. 
 
 October. ^ — First dirigible attempt to cross At- 
 lantic. In October, Walter Wellman, an .American 
 explorer, and Melvin Vaniman made a courageous 
 attempt to cross the .Atlantic ocean. The under- 
 taking was all the greater when it is remembered 
 that aviation was still an undeveloped science. 
 These two pioneers set out from .Atlantic city in 
 the rigid dirigible .America with a crew of four 
 men, including two .Americans, one Englishman 
 and an .Australian. Not possessing the machinery 
 and other appliances of the necessary strength and 
 
 766
 
 AVIATION 
 
 Important ['lights 
 
 AVIATION 
 
 efficiency to dictate their route, the utmost they 
 could hope for was to reach some point on the 
 coast of Great Britain or France wherever the 
 wind might carry them. The elements were 
 against them; bad weather made it impossible to 
 reach any European shore. The balloon was blown 
 out of its course and soon came to grief ; it was 
 finally picked up by a steamer midway between 
 New York and Bermuda, 1,000 miles off Cape 
 Hatteras. The crew were rescued but the dirigible 
 had to be abandoned. 
 
 Oct. 28. — Maurice Tabuteau, at Buc, France, 
 broke the world record with a continuous flight of 
 six hours and covered a distance of 28Q miles. 
 
 Oct. II. — Archie Hoxsey, at St. Louis, took 
 Colonel Theodore Roosevelt up as a passenger. 
 
 1911. — (Feb. i). — Captain C. Bellenger flew from 
 Paris to Bordeaux, 330 miles, in eight hours and 
 twenty-two minutes. 
 
 Feb. 2. — Bellenger flew from Bordeaux to Pau, 
 France, 140 miles. 
 
 Bologna, Italy, over the Apennines, at an altitude 
 of 4,500 feet. 
 
 1912. — (March 7). — Salmet, in a Bleriot machine, 
 flew from London to Paris in three hours and six- 
 teen minutes. 
 
 April 16. — First cross-Channel flight by a 
 woman. — Miss Harriet Quimby, a British aviatrix, 
 piloted an airplane across the channel. 
 
 April 28. — Hewitt flew from Holyhead to Dub- 
 lin in one hour and fifteen minutes. 
 
 May 25. — Fish flew from Chicago to Milwaukee 
 in two hours and twenty minutes, 
 
 June IS to July 10. — Andreadi flew from Se- 
 bastopol to Petrograd, 1,670 miles. 
 
 Ju[y 2. — During a test flight of a second dirigible 
 (after the America) named the Akron, Melvin 
 Vaniman and four of the crew were killed by an 
 explosion of the hydrogen gas with which the 
 balloon was inflated. 
 
 Aug. 18-19. — Andemars made first Paris to Ber- 
 lin flight, S41 miles, in two days. 
 
 FIRST AERIAL CROSSING OF THE CHANNEL, 1909 
 Bleriot monoplane just before landing at Dover 
 
 April 22. — P. Vedrines flew from Paris to Pau, 
 a distance of 310 miles, in six hours and fifty-five 
 minutes. 
 
 June 28. — L. Beachey flew over Niagara Falls. 
 
 June 30 to July 11.— Harry N. Atwood flew 
 from Boston to Washington via New London, New 
 York, Atlantic city, and Baltimore. 
 
 July 24.— M. Vasselieff flew from St. Petersburg 
 to Moscow. 
 
 Aug. 14 to 25. — Atwood flew from St. Louis to 
 New York via Chicago, Cleveland, and Buffalo. 
 Air distance, 1,266 miles. Flying time, twenty- 
 eight hours and fifty-three minutes: average daily 
 flight, 105 miles. Average speed, fifty-one miles an 
 hour 
 
 Sept. Q — First aerial mail in United Kingdom 
 inaugurated between Hendon (London) and Wind- 
 sor. 
 
 Sept. 17 to Dec. 10— G. P. Rodgers flew from 
 New York to Long Beach, Cal., a distance of 
 4,231 miles. Time in air was three days ten hours 
 and four minutes. 
 
 Oct. 21. — De Hansey flew from Florence to 
 
 Sept. 28. — Daucourt circled Paris seven times, 
 497 miles, in twelve hours and twenty-two min- 
 utes. 
 
 1913. — (Jan. 25). — Brelovuccic flew over the Alps, 
 fifty miles, in twenty-five minutes. 
 
 March 28.— Lieutenant T. De W. Milling, U. 
 S. A., with passenger, flew from Texas city to San 
 .\ntonio, 240 miles, in three hours and twenty 
 minutes. 
 
 April 15.— Daucourt flew from Paris to Berlin 
 in thirteen hours and thirty-nine minutes. 
 
 April 17. — Hamel flew from Dover, England, to 
 Cologne, Germany, 24'i miles, in four hours and 
 eighteen minutes. 
 
 May 17. — Rosillio flew from Florida to Cuba, 
 100 miles, in two hours and eight minutes. 
 
 June I to July 2. — Brindejouc des Moulinais 
 made the round trip from Paris to Warsaw via 
 Stockholm, Petrograd, and the Hague, 3,002 miles. 
 
 Aug. 25-27. — Hawker flew around the Brit- 
 ish Isles, 1,043 miles, in two and one-half 
 days. 
 
 Sept. I— .\lphonse Pegoud, French aviator, made 
 
 767
 
 AVIATION 
 
 Important Flights 
 
 AVIATION 
 
 the first loop-the-loop maneuver in a Bleriot mono- 
 plane. 
 
 1914. — One of the most noteworthy flights dur- 
 ing the year occurred on Feb. ii, when the French 
 pilot Agenor Parmelin flew from Geneva, Swit- 
 zerland, over Mont Blanc in France, to Aosta in 
 Italy, attaining an altitude of over 16,000 feet. 
 This feat was rivalled in America by Silas Christ- 
 offerson, who flew on June 25 over the peak, of 
 Mount Whitney in California. This mountain is 
 14,898 ft. high and Christofferson attained an al- 
 titude of 15,728 feet, about a thousand feet above 
 the peak. In London, the American aviator W. L. 
 Brock won the British Aerial Derby flight around 
 London and the round flight London-Manchester, 
 winning the Daily Mail gold cup and $2,000 of- 
 fered by the Anglo-American Oil company. 
 Against seven competitors on July 11, Brock also 
 won the London to Paris and back race. The 
 French aviator Gilbert, starting on June 6, flew 
 2,000 miles round France in two days; Lieut. 
 Geyer flew 80s miles in a day in Germany ; Verrier 
 won the Pommery cup with a flight from Buc to 
 Genthin, Germany, a distance of 52° miles, in 
 May; Adjutant Quennehen made a 625 miles' 
 flight across country on June 12, without stopping, 
 in thirteen hrs. forty min.; the German aviator 
 Basser in four days, spending eighteen hrs. 12 
 min. in the air, flew with a passenger from Berlin 
 to Constantinople, via Buda-Pesth and Bucharest; 
 flights over the Alps were made by Parmelin, on 
 Feb. II, from Geneva to Aosta over Mont Blanc; 
 by Bider, from Berne to Brigues, by the Jung- 
 frau, on April 23 ; and by Landini, over the Alps 
 Apennines, on July 27; a number of flights 
 through Asia Minor by French and Turkish avi- 
 ators bound for Jerusalem and Cairo were made, 
 the Turkish aviators suffering two double fatal 
 accidents besides minor mishaps. — Hazell's Annual, 
 IQ15, p. 431. — Sikorsky, with his "giant" airplane 
 at Petrograd, remained in the air with ten pas- 
 sengers for one hour and forty-si.x minutes, on 
 June 18. — On July 4, H. Kantner circled New 
 York city, forty-six miles, in forty-three minutes 
 and twenty-six seconds. 
 
 "A number of accidents to airships have oc- 
 curred [during 1914]. Of these may be mentioned: 
 April i8th, the City of Milan (Italian). During 
 deflation after landing the gas was ignited by a 
 smoker's match and about forty persons were 
 injured in the resulting explosion, one fatally. June 
 20th, the Korting-Wimpassing (Austrian). This 
 airship was run into by a Farman biplane and its 
 gas exploded by a flame from the motors. The 
 seven occupants of the airship and the two occu- 
 pants of the biplane were all killed. June 14th, 
 the Ersatz Zi (German Zeppelin), wrecked while 
 landing in a storm at Diedenhofen ; no loss of 
 life. June 24th, a Russian military airship, 
 wrecked in a storm, the crew escaping with slight 
 injuries." — C. C. Turner, Aviation in 1Q14 (Ha- 
 zell's Annual, 1915, p. 427). 
 
 1915. — In this year the war in Europe completely 
 put an end to aviation so far as competitive long- 
 distance and cross-country flights were concerned. 
 In Europe all airplanes were commandeered for 
 military purposes and practically all aviators en- 
 tered the service of their respective countries. 
 
 1916. — (April i). — S. McGordon flew from New- 
 port News, V'a., to Washington and return, 300 
 miles; in four hours and twenty-nine minutes. 
 
 April 30.— E. T. McCauley, at Newport News, 
 flew eighty-eight miles with six passengers in one 
 hour, ten minutes and live seconds. 
 
 May 20. — Victor Carlstrom flew from Newport 
 News, Virginia, to New York without a stop in 
 four hours and one minute, covering between 350 
 
 and 400 miles, thereby making the longest and fast- 
 est cross-country record in the United States. On 
 Nov. 19 Miss Ruth Law broke that record by 
 flying from Chicago to Hornell, N. Y., 668 miles, 
 without a stop. 
 
 May 24. — Victor Carlstrom flew from New York 
 to Washington, 237 miles, in three hours and seven 
 minutes. 
 
 June 2o.^Lieut. A. Marchal, French Army, flew 
 from west front in France to Poland, a continuous 
 flight of 812 miles. Time not stated. 
 
 Nov. 2-3. — Victor Carlstrom, flying for the New 
 York Times, flew from Chicago to New York, 
 with one stop, due to engine trouble. Distance 
 967 miles. Time in air, eight hours, twenty-eight 
 minutes and thirty seconds. 
 
 Nov. 19-20. — Miss Ruth Law flew from Chicago 
 to New York, with one stop. Time in air, eight 
 hours, fifty-five minutes and thirty-five seconds. 
 
 1917. — (.\ug. 29). — Captain G. Lauriati flew from 
 Turin to Naples and return, 920 miles, in ten hours 
 and thirty-three minutes. 
 
 Sept. 24. — Captain Lauriati flew from Turin to 
 London, 700 miles, in twelve hours and two 
 minutes. 
 
 Oct. 22. — Captain A. Silvio flew from Norfolk, 
 Va., to Mineola, L. I., 330 miles, in four hours and 
 twenty-five minutes. 
 
 Oct. 22. — Lieutenant Baldioli flew from Norfolk 
 to Mineola in two hours and fifty-five minutes. 
 
 1918 — German Zeppelin L-yg flew from Bulgaria 
 to south of Khartum and back without landing 
 en route, a distance of over 4,000 miles. 
 
 First non-stop airplane flight from Chicago to 
 New York city was made April 19 of this year 
 by Captain E. F. While, an American Army 
 aviator. He traveled 727 miles in a De Haviland-4 
 army reconnoissance plane at an average speed 
 of about 106 miles an hour. 
 
 April 26, the naval seaplane f-5, with Lieuten- 
 ant Commander Grow and Ensign Thomas as 
 pilots, broke all records for an endurance flight 
 by remaining in the air a little over twenty hours 
 for a flight of 1,250 miles. 
 
 December. — For the first time, an aerial con- 
 cert was performed over London. A big bomb- 
 ing plane carried a band aloft, shut off the en- 
 gines and had a concert while it glided to earth. 
 Another powerful machine, a Handley-Page which 
 was to have been used for dropping 600 pound 
 bombs on Berlin had the war continued, was reg- 
 ularly carrying forty persons at a time over Lon- 
 don. 
 
 1919. — Captain E. F. White made the first non- 
 stop flight from Chicago to New York, between 
 breakfast and dinner, in six hours and fifty min- 
 utes, a trifle more than one-third of the time 
 required by the fastest express train. 
 
 May. — Attempts to cross Atlantic. — Before the 
 World War broke out the London Daily Mail 
 offered a prize of £10,000 ($50,000) for the first 
 crossing of the Atlantic. Directly after the war 
 the capabilities of airplanes and airships, strenu- 
 ously developed during that conflict, justified the 
 belief that the crossing could be accomplished un- 
 der favorable circumstances. Early in the year 
 several entries were made for the prize. Inde- 
 pendently of the competition, the United States 
 naval air service prepared a flying-boat to cross 
 via the Azores islands, and the British air min- 
 istry announced that the rigid airship R-34 would 
 attempt the double crossing of the ocean. — "One 
 of the greatest adventures ever undertaken by 
 men — the crossing of the Atlantic Ocean by aerial 
 flight — was attempted both by .\merican and Brit- 
 ish aviators in M.ay, 1910. Some of the Ameri- 
 cans who dared the dangers of thisfcrossing knew 
 
 768 
 
 /
 
 AVIATION 
 
 Important Flights 
 Transatlantic 
 
 AVIATION 
 
 the joy of Columbus when he first spied the hazy 
 outUne of the New World coast. . . . Two Brit- 
 ish aviators [Hawker and Grieve], staking all on 
 the desperate resolve to reach the other hemisphere 
 by direct flight, disappeared from the world's 
 knowledge for six days and were considered lost 
 in midocean until news came that they had been 
 rescued. Two others later achieved success and 
 fame. Curiously enough, the project of trans- 
 atlantic flight developed in America as a national, 
 not a private, enterprise, and the pioneer airmen 
 who reached Portugal from Newfoundland were 
 enlisted men in the service of the United States 
 Navy; the British attempt, on the other hand, 
 was purely a private venture. Harry Hawker 
 and Lieutenant Commander Grieve flew to fulfill 
 the conditions of a $50,000 prize. . . . Captain 
 Raynham, another British competitor for the same 
 prize, met with disaster in 'hopping off' and had 
 to give up the project for a time." — Nen' York 
 Times Current History, July, 1919, p. qq. — 
 See also Atlantic ocean: Trans-Atlantic steamers, 
 cables, airplanes. 
 
 May. — American seaplane first across Atlantic. 
 — On Nov. 30, 1Q18, it was announced from Wash- 
 ington that the navy's newest seaplane, the Giant 
 NC-i, the largest seaplane in the world, had 
 broken all records for the number of passengers 
 carried in any airplane when it made a flight with 
 fifty men on board on Wednesday, Nov. 27, at 
 the naval air station at Rockaway, Long Island. 
 This was the first American tri-motor seaplane and 
 was propelled by three Liberty motors that de- 
 veloped a maximum of 1,200 h.p., giving it a 
 cruising speed of eighty miles an hour. — "The 
 'NC iiying boats — the 'N' for Navy and the 'C 
 for Curtiss, these two combined letters indicat- 
 ing the joint production of the United States 
 Navy and the Curtiss Engineering Corporation 
 — have an interesting history. This airplane type 
 is not only of extraordinary size, but of unusual 
 construction, and represents an original American 
 development. According to a statement issued by 
 Acting Secretary of the Navy Roosevelt, the de- 
 sign was initiated in the Fall of 1917 by Rear 
 Admiral D. W. Taylor, chief instructor in the 
 navy, who had in mind the development of a 
 seapiane of the maximum size, radius of action, 
 and weight-carrying ability for use in putting down 
 the submarine menace. ... It was the intention 
 of the Navy Department to fly a fleet of these 
 planes overseas, and if the war had continued 
 this intention would have been fulfilled. . . . 
 Plans for the flight were in process of making 
 as early as March 22, iqig, when six officers of 
 the navy and one of the Marine Corps were as- 
 signed to the transatlantic section of the office 
 of the Director of Naval Aviation for the prepara- 
 tion of such plans. . . . Test trials at Rockaway 
 Beach toward the end of March gave auspicious 
 results, one of the NC boats leaving the water 
 with 26,000 pounds gross load, as against the 
 22,000 believed at one time to be the limit of 
 carrying capacity. This test demonstrated that 
 these craft could carry sufficient gasoUne to cross 
 from Newfoundland to the Azores Islands with- 
 out alighting for fuel. These trial flights went on 
 continuously from April 22. . . . Meanwhile it was 
 announced by Commander John H. Towers . . . 
 that the details of the destroyer and dreadnought 
 patrols to be stationed along the entire course of 
 the contemplated flight had been completed; the 
 advance guard had already sailed, and others 
 were scheduled to leave daily. Ultimately half a 
 hundred destroyers, cruisers, and dreadnoughts 
 took part in the work of patrolling the route. 
 Each of tie crews of the three NC ships to at- 
 
 769 
 
 tempt the flight, as officially announced, included 
 six members. . . . The seaplanes began the historic 
 effort to cross the Atlantic through the air at 
 q:Sq o'clock in the morning of May 8. . . . Two 
 of the planes reached Halifax the same day at 8 
 o'clock (7 o'clock New York time). This first 
 flight, S40 nautical miles, took exactly nine hours. 
 The NC-4, however, was missing. ... (It had) 
 dropped out of wireless touch and was not heard 
 from until the following day. May g, when it was 
 learned that this plane had been forced by en- 
 gine trouble to come down at sea, and had pro- 
 ceeded under its own power to Chatham Bar, 
 on the Massachusetts coast. . . . Meantime the 
 NC-i and NC-3, not waiting for the NC-4, took 
 flight from Halifax in the morning of May 10, 
 and reached Trepassey Harbor, N. F., at 4:14 
 and 7:50 A. M., respectively. . . . They had just 
 completed an unsuccessful attempt to get away 
 on Many 15, when the NC-4 arrived at Trepassey. 
 . . . The three planes, thus reunited, went to 
 their moorings, and began preparations for a 
 common departure at the first favorable moment." 
 — New York Times Current History, July, 1919, 
 pp. 99-102. — "The AT I, 3, and 4 . . . left 'Trepas- 
 sey Bay at 6:05 P.M. (Friday, May 16). It 
 was a clear moonlight night, and as twenty-one 
 United States destroyers were stationed along the 
 route from North latitude 46-17 to 39-40, the 
 airships were in communication with the fleet all 
 the way over. Because of a thick fog which ob- 
 tained near the Azores the NC-4 landed at Horta 
 of the eastern group at q.20 A.M., just 15 hours 
 and 18 minutes after starting. The NC-i landed 
 at sea and sank, and the NC-3, which flew out 
 of its course, landed at Ponta Delgada. The 
 NC-4 in its flight from Trepassey to Lisbon cov- 
 ered a distance of 2,150 nautical miles in 26.47 
 hours' actual flying, or at an average speed of 
 80.3 nautical miles." — E. J. David, .-Urcraft, its 
 development in war and peace and its commercial 
 future, pp. 250-260. — According to the report of 
 Lieutenant-Commander Read, of the NC-4 as pub- 
 lished in the World (New York), "The Three and 
 Four together left Mistaken Point at 10. i6, and 
 ten minutes later sighted the One, several miles 
 to the rear, and flying higher. We were flying 
 over icebergs, with the wind astern and the sea 
 smooth Our average altitude was 800 feet. The 
 NC-4 drew ahead at 10.50 (P.M.), but when 
 over the first destroyer made a circle to allow 
 the NC-3 to catch up. We then flew on together 
 until 11.5s, when we lost sight of the NC-3, her 
 running lights being too ciim to be discerned. 
 From then on we proceeded as if alone. ... As 
 it grew lighter the air became bumpy, and we 
 climbed to 1,800 feet, but the air remained bumpy 
 most of the night. ... At 5.45 we saw the first 
 of dawn. As it grew lighter all our worries ap- 
 peared to have passed. The power-plant and 
 everything else was running perfectly. The radio 
 was working marvellously well. ... At 8 o'clock 
 we saw our first indications of trouble, running 
 through light lumps of fog. It cleared at 8.12, 
 but at q.27 we ran into more fog for a few min- 
 utes. At 9.4s the fog became thicker and then 
 dense. The sun disappeared and we lost all 
 sense of direction. The compass spinning indicated 
 a steep bank, and I had visions of a possible 
 nose dive. Then the sun appeared and the blue 
 sky once more, and we regained an even keel 
 and put the plane on a course above the fog, 
 flying between the fog and an upper layer of 
 clouds. We caught occasional glimpses of the wa- 
 ter, so we climbed to 3,200 feet, occasionally chang- 
 ing the course and the altitude to dodge the clouds 
 and fog. ... At 11.13 we sent a radio to the
 
 AVIATION 
 
 Iiiiportaiil Flights 
 Transatlantic 
 
 AVIATION 
 
 destroyer and could hear Corvo reply that the 
 visibility was ten miles. Encouraged by this 
 promise of better conditions farther on, we kept 
 going. Suddenly, at 11.27, we saw through a rift 
 what appeared to be a tide-rip on the water. 
 Two minutes later we saw the outline of rocks. 
 The tide-rip was a line of surf along the southern 
 end of Flores Island. It was the most wel- 
 come sight we had ever seen . . . The visibility 
 then was about 12 miles. We had plenty of 
 gasoline and oil, and decided to keep on to Ponta 
 Delgada. Then it got thick and we missed the 
 next destroyer, Xo. 2.5. The fog closed down. 
 . . . .^t 1.04 we sighted the northern end of Fayal, 
 and once more felt safe. We headed for the shore, 
 the air clearing when we reached the beach We 
 rounded the island and landed in a bicht we had 
 mistaken for Horta." 
 
 Meanwhile, A'C-,? was thrown out of her course 
 by the high velocity of the upper winds. Com- 
 
 (May iq]. Off the port we declined proffered 
 aid by the destroyer Harding, which had been 
 sent out to meet u:-, and "taxied' into port under 
 our own power. During the two days' vigil of 
 seeking land or rescue ships we tired all our 
 distress signals, none of which apparently were 
 seen Without informing the crew of the fear 
 that I had that we would be lost, I packed our 
 log in a waterproof cover, tied it to a life-belt, 
 and was prepared to cast it adrift when the A'C-.? 
 sank. The nervous s*rain was terrible while we 
 were drifting, and the men smoked incessantly. 
 This was the only thing that kept them awake." 
 — E. J. David, Aircraft, pp. 270-272— The NC-i 
 was less fortunate, as described in the following 
 statement by Lieutenant Commander P. N. L. 
 Bellinger: "... We proceeded on the course, be- 
 ing guided by the smoke and searchlights from 
 the destroyers, and the star shells they sent up 
 ■After passing most of the station ships we did 
 
 OBirial Phntoemph. I' ,■? Navy 
 
 NC-4 AT LISBON AFTER FLIGHT FROM XEWFOUNDLAND 
 
 mander Towers reported that "having run short of 
 fuel and encountered a heavy fog, the .VC- ? came 
 down at i o'clock Saturday afternoon in order that 
 we might obtain our bearings. The. plane was dam- 
 aged as it reached the water, and was unable to 
 again rise. While we were drifting the 205 miles in 
 the heavy storm the high seas washed over or 
 pounded the plane, and the boat began to leak. So 
 fast did the water enter the boat that the members 
 of the crew took turns in bailing the hull with a 
 small hand-pump, while others stood on the wings 
 in order to keep the plane in balance. Meanwhile 
 we were steering landward. . . . The clearing of 
 the weather proved only temporar\;, for later a 
 storm came up and continued for 4S hours With 
 both lower wings wrecked, and pontoons lost, and 
 the hull leaking, and the tail of the machine dam- 
 aged, the plane was tossed about like a cork 
 In order to conserve the remaining 470 gallons 
 of fuel we decided to 'sail' landward, hoping 
 to sight a destroyer on the way. But we dici not 
 pass a single ship until we reached Ponta Delgada 
 
 not meet with any trouble until we got into 
 fog at 11:10 .\.M. Saturday, when we were near 
 Station 18. .After being in the fog for some time 
 we alighted on the water at 1:10 P. M Satur 
 day. We kept to our course until we struck the 
 fog, when we lost our bearings. We deemed 
 it advisable to head into the winci, toward 
 land, to get our bearings before proceeding. We 
 were then flying about 3,000 fret up. We dropped 
 to fifty feet in order to sight water, and found 
 that the wind was in a different direction on 
 the surface of the water than it v.'as above, and 
 also that the fog was more dense at the lower 
 altitude We made a good landing oi. the sea, 
 which was rough and choppy with heavy swells. 
 The strong wind continued until we were picked 
 up. At 6 P M. (Greenwich tim'^')., we sighted 
 the masts of the Ionia on its way to Fayal and 
 Gibraltar above the horizon. We were unable 
 to see the hull of the Ionia, and, as she did not 
 have wireless, we w'"'e unable to communicate 
 with her. We therelore started taxying toward 
 
 770
 
 AVIATION 
 
 Imporlant Flightx 
 Transatlantic 
 
 AVIATION 
 
 her. About this time the loiiia sighted us, and 
 lowered a boat which picked us up at 6:20 P.M. 
 Our position when we were picked up was lati- 
 tude 3g degrees 58 minutes north, longitude 30 
 degrees 15 minutes west. We tried to sal- 
 vage the plane, but the towlings of the Ionia 
 broke and we were forced to give up the at- 
 tempt. We were rescued with difficulty because 
 the small boat of the Ionia was tossed about 
 like a cork. All of us were seasick, otherwise 
 we did not suffer. We sent out SOS calls after 
 landing, but the radio sending radius was only 
 fifty miles on the surface of the water. While 
 awaiting rescue we intercepted messages between 
 destroyers. ... If the fog had not been so thick 
 we could have continued to Ponta Delgada. Our 
 
 days that the aviators were lost. From the 
 destroyer to which Hawker and Grieve were 
 transferred off the Scottish coast, the former sent 
 this brief report to the Daily Mail: "My ma- 
 chine stopped owing to the water filter in the 
 feed pipe from the radiator to the water pump 
 being blocked with refuse, such as solder and the 
 like, shaking loose in the radiator. It was no 
 fault of the Rolls-Royce motor, which ran abso- 
 lutely perfect from start to finish, even when 
 all the water had boiled away. We had no trouble 
 in landing on the sea, where we were picked up 
 by the tramp ship Mary, after being in the water 
 for ninety minutes." It was officially announced 
 by the admiralty that the aviators were picked 
 up in latitude 50° 20', longitude 29° 30'. The 
 
 VICKERSVIMY PLANE AS IT LANDED AT CLIFDEN, IRELAND. AFTER CROSSING FROM 
 
 NEWFOUNDLAND 
 Aviators, Alcock and Brown 
 
 engines worked splendidy throughout. The average 
 altitude of the flight was between 500 and 3,500 
 feet." — New York Times Current History, July, 
 iqiq, pp. 103-104. 
 
 May. — Hawker's attempted Atlantic flight. — On 
 May 19, Harry Hawker and Lieut. -Commander 
 Mackenzie Grieve, two British aviators, started 
 from St. John's, Newfoundland, to make a direct 
 flight to Ireland. They flew fourteen and a half 
 hours, and although swept off their course they 
 were able to lake their bearings when radiator 
 trouble compelled them to make a descent. 
 Shortly before this became imperative, they steered 
 for the shipping route, over which they zigzagged 
 and finally descended upon the water about two 
 miles in front of the Danish ship Mary, which 
 picked them up. ,'\s the Mary was not fitted 
 with wireless apparatus na news of the rescue 
 could be transmitted, and it was feared for some 
 
 airplane, badly battered, was brought in a few 
 days later by a vessel that had picked it up. 
 On July 12, IQ2I, Hawker was killed at Hendon, 
 when his machine crashed to earth and burst into 
 flames. 
 
 June. — First continous transatlantic flight. — 
 "The great achievement of flying across the 
 .Atlantic Ocean without a single stop was ac- 
 complished for the first time June 14-15, iQio. 
 by Captain John .Alcock and Lieutenant .Arthur 
 W. Brown, one an Englishman, the other an 
 American, when they covered the i,q8o miles be- 
 tween Newfoundland and Ireland in 16 hours and ' 
 12 minutes at a speed of 120 miles an hour. The 
 night of June 14-15 thus became a permanent 
 landmark in the history of the conquest of the 
 air." — New York Times Current History, .luly, 
 iqio. — Describing the experiences of himself and 
 Lieutenant Brown, Captain .Mcock, in a message 
 
 771
 
 AVIATION 
 
 importani Flights! 
 Transatlantic 
 
 AVIATION 
 
 from Galway to the London Daily Mail, which 
 awarded them the $50,000 prize fur making the 
 first non-stop tlight across the Atlantic between 
 Europe and America, said: "We had a terrible 
 journey. The wonder is that we are here at all. 
 We scarcely saw the sun or moon or stars. For 
 hours we saw none of Ihem. The fog was dense, 
 and at times we had to descend within 300 feet 
 of the sea. For four hours our machine was 
 covered with a sheet of ice carried by frozen 
 sleet. At another time the fog was so dense 
 that my speed indicator did not work, and for 
 a few minutes it was alarming. We looped the 
 loop, I do believe, and did a steep spiral. We did 
 some comic stunt?, for I have had no sense of 
 horizon. The winds were favorable all the way, 
 northwest, and at times southwest. We said in 
 Newfoundland that we could do the trip in six- 
 teen hours, but we never thought we should. An 
 hour and a half before we saw land we had 
 no certain idea where we were, but we believed 
 we were at Galway or thereabouts. Our delight 
 
 17, igig, when the airplane which he was driving 
 crashed to earth at Cote d'Evrard, about twenty- 
 live miles north of Rouen, France. He was twenty- 
 seven years old. 
 
 Julv.— f!>5( dirigible flight across Atlantic. — 
 The British dirigible R-34, «'i'h thirty (plus a 
 stowaway) on board, commanded by Major G. H. 
 Scott, left East Fortune, near Edinburgh, Scot- 
 land, at 2 A. M. on July 2, crossed the .Atlantic 
 making deviations over Newfoundland and Nova 
 Scotia, and landed at Mitieola, N. Y. at g A. M. on 
 Sunday, July 6. The voyage took loS hours, twelve 
 minutes; the distance covered was 3,521 miles. On 
 July 10 the airship started on the return voyage, 
 and after circling New York city recrossed the 
 Atlantic and arrived safely at Pulham, Norfolk, in 
 seventy-five hours, having maintained constant 
 wireless communication with land en route, thus 
 rounding out one of the greatest achievements 
 in the history of transatlantic travel. Among those 
 who made the first voyage was a representative 
 of the United Stales naval air service and two 
 
 IlRITISll DIRIGIBLE, R-.u 
 At Mineola, Long Islaiul. N. Y., after its transatlantic flight 
 
 In seeing Eastal Island and Tarbot Island, live 
 miles west of Clifden, was great. The people 
 did not know who we were, and thought we were 
 scouts looking for .Alcock. We encountered no 
 unforeseen conditions. We did not suffer from 
 cold or exhaustion, except when looking over the 
 side ; then the sleet chewed bits out of our 
 faces. We drank coffee and ale, and ate sand- 
 wiches and chocolate. Our flight has shown that 
 ihe .Mlantic flight is practicable, but I think it 
 -hould be done, not with an aeroplane or sea- 
 plane, but with flyiii^'-boats. We had plenty of 
 reserve fuel left, using only two-thirds of our 
 supply. The only thing that upset me w.is to 
 see the machine at the end get damaged. From 
 above the bog looked like a lovely field, but the 
 machine sank into it to the axle, and fell over 
 un her side." — E. J. David, Aircraft, pp. 201-202. 
 — The machine u.sed in this flight was a \ickers- 
 Vimy biplane and the total time occupied for the 
 voyage was sixteen hours and twelve minutes. 
 The aviators received the $50,000 prize offered 
 by the Daily Mail and both were knighted by the 
 king. Sir John Mcork lived to enjoy his triumph 
 for only six months, for he was killed on Dec 
 
 officers representing the British air ministry.— 
 "The R-34 and her sister dirigible, the R-33, were 
 constructed by the British Government both for 
 naval scouting and for bombing German cities. 
 The R-34 is 672 feet long, and 79 feet in diameter 
 at her greatest girth. From the top of the cigar- 
 shaped bag to the lower point of her five gondolas 
 she measures about go feel. But it is well to 
 bear in mind at this point that the R-34 is by 
 no means the largest dirigible in the world ; the 
 Germans, at this moment, have larger Zeppelins 
 in the air, and the British still larger rigid dirigibles 
 pretty well under way. Under the cigar-shaped 
 bag of the R-34 are suspended the four gondolas 
 that carry the crew while on active duty, as 
 well as the five engines. The forward gondola 
 contains the navigating quarters, wireless station, 
 and an engine The other engines are disposed 
 in the following manner: One engine in each of 
 Ihe gondolas amidship, and two in the gondola aft, 
 a propeller being provided for each engine with 
 the exception of the rear gondola, which has but 
 one propeller for Ihe two engines. The engines 
 are of the Sunbeam Maori type, each develop- 
 ing 250-275 horse-power, and with a speed of 
 
 772
 
 AVIATION 
 
 Important Flights 
 
 AVIATION 
 
 2,500 revolutions per minute, enabling the airship 
 to make some 70 miles an hour under favorable 
 conditions. However, under ordinary circumstances 
 the engines are not operated at full speed, and 
 the airship cruises along at about 50 miles an 
 hour in fairly still air. . . . The lifting power of 
 the R-J4 is obtained from 19 gas bags contained 
 within the dur-alumin skeleton, which is covered 
 with a taut fabric skin. Each gas bag is placed 
 in a compartment and separated from its neighbors 
 by netting, in order to prevent rubbing ; and a 
 valve fastened to each gas bag and controlled by 
 hand wheels or wires from the navigating quar- 
 ters up forward permits gas to be released from 
 any bag at will, in order to regulate the buoyancy 
 and trim." — ■Scientific American, July iq, iqig, 
 pp. 58-66. — "The story of the actual flight across 
 the Atlantic, as told by the informal log kept 
 by General Maitland and other officers, was not 
 particularly eventful. The most difficult moment 
 after departure was in crossing the hills of Scot- 
 land; owing to the large quantity of petrol carried 
 (almost 5,000 gallons, weighing 15.8 tons) the 
 dirigible had to fly low, and at the same time 
 pass over Northern Scotland, where the hills in 
 places rise to a height of 3.000 feet. The wind 
 here was broken up into violent currents and air 
 pockets. The most disturbed conditions were met 
 in the mouth of the Clyde, sxjuth of Loch Lomond, 
 which, surrounded by high mountains, looked 
 particularly beautiful in the gray dawn light. The 
 islands at the mouth of the Firth of Clyde were 
 quickly passed. The north coast of Ireland ap- 
 peared for a time, and soon faded from view as 
 the R-34 headed out into the Atlantic. Most 
 of the day-by-day log following the description 
 of this first stage of the journey was taken up by 
 cloud observations, color effects, accounts of wire- 
 less exchanges, and of sleeping and eating ar- 
 rangements. Icebergs were sighted toward New- 
 foundland. A message of congratulation from 
 the Governor of Newfoundland was received. 
 .\nxieties consequent on the serious depletion of 
 the fuel supply marked the last stages of the 
 journey. Immediately after the news [of arrival 
 in America] had been officially received, Secretary 
 Daniels sent this message of congratulation: 
 'Major G. H. Scott, Commanding the R-34: The 
 .American Navy extends its greetings to you and 
 the heroic crew of the R-34, and congratulates 
 you on the success of your great flight across 
 the ocean. The arrival in .America of the first 
 lighter-than-air craft to cross the .Atlantic marks 
 another decided advance in the navigation of the 
 air. Coming so soon after the flights of Read, 
 Alcock, and Hawker, it completes a remarkable 
 series of achievements in aviation in which Brit- 
 ish and Americans may take a just pride, and 
 which have served to increase the cordial rela- 
 tions and comradeship of the two navies which 
 have prevailed throughout the war. .America joins 
 with the British in honoring you and the service 
 you represent. Josephus Daniels.' " — New York 
 Times Current History, Atig. iqiq, p. 257. — "For 
 more than 300 years after the crossinr' of the 
 .Atlantic by Columbus, wind power remained the 
 sole means for propelling ships across the ocean 
 until in i8iq the Savannah, an .American steam- 
 ship of 350 tons, with a length of 100 feet, crossed 
 from Savannah, Georgia, to Liverpool in twenty- 
 five days. The Savannah, however, was also pro- 
 vided with sails. The first real steam transit was 
 effected by the Sirius and the Great Western, both 
 in April, 1838, in eighteen and fifteen days re- 
 spectively. Just 100 years after the sailing of the 
 Savannah three successful flights were made across 
 the Atlantic, one by the American hydroplane 
 
 NC-4, another by the British biplane of Alcock 
 and Brown, the third by the giant British dirigible 
 R-34. — New York Times Current History, Aug., 
 igiq, p. 254. — In its seventy-fifth anniversary 
 number, October 2, iq20, the Scientific American, 
 p. 338, states: "The Burton family, encircling the 
 fireside, read with unconcealed wonder the ac- 
 count of a hollow globe of oiled-silk filled with 
 hydrogen gas, thus giving it a sufficient buoyancy 
 to travel through the air. And they marveled 
 still more at the spindle-shaped saloon, suspended 
 beneath the balloon, carrying 5,000 pounds of 
 passengers and luggage. Twenty-five passengers in 
 a balloon traveling at 100 miles per hour! What 
 of it ? Nothing alarming or startling, in view 
 of our present-day achievements. But the fore- 
 going facts were being read in the Scientific Ameri- 
 can of September i8th, 1845. . . . For (in igig) 
 the R-34 in 108 hours traveled 6,300 air miles 
 from East Fortune, Scotland to Mineola, Long 
 Island, due to adverse winds. And on the pas- 
 senger list were thirty officers and men, and a 
 stowaway !" 
 
 August. — A Caproni airplane was wrecked on 
 Aug. 2, when all its fourteen occupants — princi- 
 pally newspaper editors — were killed. The giant 
 Caproni airplane is an Italian production. It 
 was reported in igiq that Signor Caproni would 
 be a competitor for the "blue ribbon" of trans- 
 atlantic flight, and not a few American news- 
 papers hailed with enthusiasm the prospect of 
 an Italian making the first voyage by air to the 
 new world which his compatriot Columbus had 
 laboriously reached by water 427 years before. 
 
 October. — American trans-continental race. — 
 The War Department organized a reliability race 
 across the continent, which opened on Oct. 8. 
 Sixty-two army aviators started from New York 
 or San Francisco on a round flight. The con- 
 test was won by Lieut. B. W. Maynard, who 
 covered 5,400 miles in net flying time of sixty- 
 seven hours, three minutes, forty seconds. 
 
 1919-1920.— Capt. Ross Smith and Lieut. K. M. 
 Smith, with three mechanics, flew a Vickers-Rolls- 
 Royce two-engine airplane from London to Aus- 
 tralia, starting on Nov. 12 and arriving at Mel- 
 bourne on Feb. 25, rg2o. This feat won the $50,- 
 000 prize offered by the .Australian government 
 for the first airplane flight from Great Britain 
 to Australia. British airplane flight from London 
 to Karachi, 5,200 miles. 
 
 1920 (January). — Lieutenants H. Parer and J. 
 Mcintosh started from London on Jan. 8, 1920, and 
 reached Port Darwin (Northern territory, Aus- 
 tralia), after remarkable adventures on August 2. 
 
 February. — Lieut.Col. P. Van Ryneveld and 
 Flight-Lieut. C. J. Q. Brand, with two mechanics, 
 started from Brooklands (near London) on Febru- 
 ary 4 to fly to the Cape. Their machine was 
 wrecked at Korosko, Egypt; they returned to Cairo, 
 secured another machine, in which they reached 
 Buluwayo, Rhodesia, where they were again 
 smashed up. A third machine was secured, with 
 which they reached the Cape on March 20. 
 
 Captains Cockerell and Broome, pilots, accom- 
 panied by Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell, the zoologist, 
 and two mechanics, flew from England February 6 
 in an attempt to reach the Cape. The machine 
 crashed at Tabora, in the Kenya Protectorate 
 (former German East Africa). 
 
 Two Italian airplanes, piloted by Lieutenants 
 Masiero and Ferrari, ascended from Rome on Feb- 
 ruary 12 and arrived at Tokyo on May 30. 
 
 December 12. — Sadi Lecointe breaks world's 
 speed record in France (Dec. 12, 1920), flying two- 
 and-a-half miles in 46 seconds, or 198 miles an hour 
 
 1921 (March).— A United States naval balloon 
 
 77i
 
 AVICENNA 
 
 AXELBORG BANK 
 
 piloted by G. K. Wilkinson ot Houston, Tcxa?, 
 accompanied by four student pilots, ascended from 
 the Pensacola naval station on March 22. Two 
 days later carrier pigeons released from the bal- 
 loon brought messages saying that the balloon was 
 sinking and drifting out into the Gulf of Mexico. 
 Nothing further was learnt about the missing men, 
 and on April 8 the balloon was picked up drifting 
 in the gulf by a fishing boat, which brought the 
 wreck to Panama city, Florida. No trace of the 
 crew was found. 
 
 Also in: H. Tumour, Astra Casira, experiments 
 and adventures in the atmosphere (London. 1865). 
 
 T. Forster, Annals of some remarkahle aerial 
 
 and Alpine voyages (London. 1832).— J. Wise, 
 System of aeronautics, comprehending its earliest 
 htvesligaiians (Philadelphia. 1850). — W. de Fon- 
 vielle, Histoire de la navigation aerienne (Paris, 
 1007). ^F. Walker. Aerial navigation (London, 
 1902). — O. Lilienthal, Der Vogelfliig als Grundlage 
 der Fliege Ktinst (Berlin, 1880; Eng., 1911). — 
 Santos Dumont, My airships (New York, 1Q04). 
 —.\. Hildebrandt, iirships past and present (New 
 York, IQ08). — C. C. Turner, Aerial navigation of 
 to-day (London. lOop). — F. T. Bedell, Aeroplane 
 characteristics (Ithaca. N. Y., 1Q18). — Capt. V. W. 
 Page. A. B. C. of aviation (New York, iqig). — 
 .\. Berget, Conquest of the air (igoq). — ".\vion," 
 Aeroplanes and aero engines (1018). — H. D. Hazel- 
 tine, Law of the air (iqii). — E. N. Pales, Learn- 
 ing to fly in the U. S. army (igi?). — C. B. Hay- 
 ward, Practical aviation ((Thicago, loio). — G. C. 
 Loening, Military aeroplanes (Boston. iot6). — H. 
 Woodhouse. Text book of military aeron-autics 
 (igi8) ; Idem., Text book of naval aeronautics 
 (1917). — Col. J. G. Vincent. Xext sirps in com- 
 mercial aviation (Xew York Times Book Review, 
 March 13, ig2i). 
 
 .AxxuALS. — F. T. Jane. All the world's aircraft. 
 — Flying Book (London). — Brassey's Saval An- 
 nual.— .iircra ft Year Book.—Jl. B. Mathews, Avi- 
 ation Pocket Book. — .innuario dcll'.ieronautica 
 (Milan). 
 
 AVICENNA (080-1037). .\rabian philosopher. 
 See B.^cd.\d: 763-833. 
 
 AVIGNON, French town, on the left bank of 
 the Rhone, in the department of Vaucluse. During 
 the Middle Ages it was part of the Burgundian 
 kingdom. See Bt'RGUNnv: S43-g33. 
 
 1226. — Siege by Louis VIII. Sec .\lbigenses: 
 1217-1229. 
 
 1309-1348. — Made the scat of the papacy. — 
 Purchase of the city by Clement V. See 
 Christi.axity: Decline of papacy; and Pap.\cy: 
 1204-1348. 
 
 1367-1369. — Temporary return of Urban V to 
 Rome. Sec Papacy: 1352-137S 
 
 1377-1417.— Return of Pope Gregory XI to 
 Rome. — Residence of the anti-popes of the 
 great schism. See Papacy: M77-1417. 
 
 1687-1689. — Taken and surrendered by French. 
 See Pap.^cy: 1682-1603. 
 
 1790-1791. — Revolution and anarchy. — Atroci- 
 ties committed. — Reunion with France decreed. 
 See Franxe: 1700-1791. 
 
 1797. — Surrendered to France by the pope. 
 See Ffanxe: 1706-1707 (October April) 
 
 1815. — Possession by France confirmed. See 
 Vienna. Congress or. 
 
 AVILA, Pedratias d' (Davila, Pedrarias) (c 
 1440-1530), Spanish agent in America. Sec 
 Colombia: 1449-1536. 
 
 AVILES, Pedro Men^ndez de (i5io-iS74)- 
 Founding of St. .Augustine for Spain. See 
 Florioa: 1564-156,5;; 1565. 
 
 AVION, the French word for a military 
 aeroplane. 
 
 AVION ES. — "The .\vi0ne5 were a Suevic clan. 
 They are mentioned by Tacitus in connexion with 
 the Reudigni. .^ngli, Varini. Eudoses, Suardones 
 and Nuithones. all Suevic clans. These tribes must 
 have occupied Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Mecklen- 
 burg-Strelitz and Sleswick-Holstein the Elbe 
 being their Eastern boundary. It is, however, 
 impossible to define their precise localities." 
 —A. J. Church and W. J. Brodi'bb, Minor 
 works of Tacitus, geographical notes to the 
 Germany. 
 
 AVIS, House of. See Portugal: 1383-1385- 
 
 AVIS, Knights of.— This is a Portuguese mili- 
 tary-religious order which originated about 1147 
 during the wars with the Moors, and which for- 
 merly observed the monastic rule of St. Benedict. 
 It became connected with the order of Calatrava 
 in Spain and received from the latter its prop- 
 erty in Portugal. Pope Paul III united the grand 
 mastership to the crown of Portugal. — F. C. Wood- 
 house, Military religious orders, pt. 4. — See also 
 Portugal: 1095-1325. 
 
 AVITUS, Marcus Mjecilius, Roman emperor 
 (Western), 455-456; waged wars against the Huns 
 and Vandals ; fourteen months after accession was 
 deposed bv Ricimer. See Rome: Empire: 455- 
 476. 
 
 AVKSENTIEV, Nicolai, Russian anti-Bol- 
 shevik leader, head of a new .\1I-Russian g.;vern- 
 mcnt set up at Ufa in 1017. See Russia: 1918- 
 1020. 
 
 AVLONA, or Valona, a town and seaport 
 in what was formerly the Turkish vilayet of 
 Janina, .Albania ; played a prominent part in the 
 struggle between the Normans and the Byzantines 
 and also during the World War. when at the 
 very outset, an Italian expedition crossed the Strait 
 of Otranto and seized the town. ".\ more cer- 
 tain territorial loss to .Mbania is that of the port 
 of .Aviona, which Italy occupied in 1914, and 
 which she assuredly will be allowed to keep. .After 
 all, her posse sion of it is no more unnatural than 
 England's position at Gibraltar or our own at 
 Panama." — C. H. Haskins and R. H. Lord, Some 
 problems of the Peace Conference, p. 281. — The 
 town has since been definitely assigned to Italy, the 
 remainder of .Mbania being independent. — See also 
 World War: 1914: III. Balkans: e; also Balkan 
 States: Map. 
 
 AVOCOURT, a town in the department of 
 Ihc Meusc. France, ten miles northwest of \'erdun ; 
 was attacked durinc the World War by the Ger- 
 mans in a drive against \'crdun (1916). The at- 
 tack upon the town proved unavailing and this 
 part of the French line before Verdun remained 
 intact. — Sec also World War: 1917: II. Western 
 front: f , 1 ; f. 2. 
 
 AVOGADRO, Amedeo, Conte Di Quaregna 
 (1776-1856). Italian physicist. Publbhed many 
 important physical memoirs on electricity, specific 
 heats, capillary attraction, atomic volumes, etc. He 
 is known chiefly, however, through the hypothesis 
 bearing his name (.Avogadro's hypothesis), that 
 under like conditions of temperature and pressure, 
 equal volumes of all gases contain the same num- 
 ber of molecules. — See also Chemistry: Modem: 
 Lavoisier. 
 
 AVOLD, Battle of (1870). See France: 1870 
 (July-.August). 
 
 AVRE, tributary of the Somme, southeast of 
 Amiens, the region of fighting in iqi8. See World 
 War: 1918: II. Western front: c, 29; d, 3. 
 
 AVVIM, the original inhabitants of the south- 
 west corner of Canaan, from which they were 
 driven by the Philistines. — H. Ewald, History of 
 Israel, hk. 1. sect. 4. 
 AXELBORG BANK. See Housing: Denmark. 
 
 774
 
 AXUM 
 
 AZORES 
 
 AXUM, kinKci(im of. Sec Abyssinia: Embraced 
 ill ancient Ethiopia; and Arabia: Sabacans. 
 
 AYACUCHO, a small plain in the valley of 
 the Vcnda-Mayu streamlet, Peru, midway be- 
 tween Lima and Cuzco, where on December g, 
 1824, a victory corresponding to the American 
 victory at Yorktown, was won by the revolution- 
 ary army of South America under General Sucre, 
 thereby securing the independence of the Spanish- 
 American colonies. — See also Bolivia: 1809-1825; 
 Peru: 1820-1826. 
 
 AYETTE, a village in France, south of Arras. 
 It was seized by the Germans and recaptured by the 
 British in 1918. See World War: iqi8: II. West- 
 ern front: c, 26; c, 28. 
 
 AYLESBURY ELECTION CASE. See Eng- 
 land: 170^. 
 
 AYLESFORD, Battle of (455).— The first bat- 
 tle fought and won by the invading Jutes after 
 their landing in Britain under Hengest and Horsa. 
 It was fought at the lowest ford of the river 
 Medwav. Sec England: 440-473. 
 
 AYLJESWORTH, Allen Bristol {1854- ), Chief 
 Justice of England. On Alaskan Boundary ques- 
 tion, see Alaskan Boundary question: 1869-1908: 
 Basis of dispute. 
 
 AYLLON, Lucas Vasquez de (1475-1526), 
 exploration bv. See .America: I5iq-i52i;. 
 
 AYLMER, Sir Arthur Percy Fitzgerald 
 (1858- ), British general. He was in immedi- 
 ate command of the forces trying to relieve Gen- 
 eral Townshend, who was besieged in Kut-el- 
 Amara. See World War: iqi6: VI. Turkish the- 
 ater: 9; a, 1; a, 1, iii. 
 
 AYMARAS. See Peru: Paternal despotism of 
 the Incas. 
 
 AYMERICH, General, French commander in 
 Cameroons. See World War: 1915: Vlll. Africa: 
 c, 1; c, 3. 
 
 AYOUBITE, or Ayyubite, dynasty. See 
 Saladin, Empire of. 
 
 1192. — Its description. See Crusades: Mili- 
 tary aspect of the crusades. 
 
 AYUB KHAN (1855- ), Afghan prince, 
 youngest son of Shcre All and brother of Yakub 
 Khan. Besieged Kandahar in 1880; defeated by 
 General Roberts; finally surrendered to the Brit- 
 ish in 1887. 
 
 AYUN KARA, a town of Palestine, south of 
 Jaffa, occupied by the British (1917). See World 
 War: 1917: VI. Turkish theater: c, 2, iv. 
 
 AYUNTAMIENTO, a Spanish political in- 
 stitution originating in the Middle Ages, resembling 
 the board of aldermen or common council of 
 an American city. The ayuntamientos were munic- 
 ipal legislatures possessing somewhat different au- 
 thority at different times and places. [See Cuba: 
 TQOi (January).] In modern Spain, every com- 
 mune has its elected ayuntamiento, which since 
 January, iqi8, is charged with the entire munic- 
 ipal government, including taxation. 
 
 AYUR VEDA. See Medical science: Ancient: 
 Hindu. 
 
 AYUTHIA. See Siam: 1351-1782. 
 
 AZEF, Evno (c. 1871- ), Russian political- 
 police agent. See Russiq: 1905 (January) ; 1909- 
 1911. 
 
 AZERBAIJAN, or Aderbaijan, a province of 
 northwestern Persia (anciently called Atropatene), 
 separated from Russia on the north by the Aras 
 river (see Map of Russia and the new border 
 states). The name is also applied to the adjoining 
 part of Transcaucasia which in 1918 was proclaimed 
 an independent republic with the great oil port of 
 Baku on the Caspian as its capital. [See Baku.] 
 Azerbaijan was recognized by some but not all of 
 the Powers. Part of Persia was also claimed by this 
 
 Mohammedan republic. In 1920 the Russian Soviet 
 government gained control. 
 
 1050-1063. — Overrun by Turkish army. See 
 Turkey: 1004-1063. 
 
 1604. — Under control of Abbas the Great of 
 Persia. See Bagdad: 1393-1638. 
 
 1915. — Operations of Russia against Turks 
 and Persians. See World War: 1915: VII. Persia 
 and Germany. 
 
 1918-1920. — Republic formed. See C.mjcasus: 
 1918-1920. 
 
 1919-1920. — Relations with Georgian republic. 
 See Georgia, Republic of: 1919-1920. 
 
 1920. — Free passage to Black sea granted. See 
 Sevres, Treaty of: 1920: Part XI: Ports, water- 
 ways and railways. 
 
 1921. — Extent of territory. See Europe: Mod- 
 ern: Political map of Europe. 
 
 AZEV. Sec Azov. 
 
 AZINCOURT. See .\gincourt. 
 
 AZIZIEH, or Aziziyeh, a village in Mesopo- 
 tamia in the Tigris valley fifty miles above Kut-al- 
 Amara. See World War: ioiS: VI. Turkey: c; 
 191 7: VI. Turkish theater: a, 1, iii. 
 
 AZO DYES. See Chemistry: Practical ap- 
 plication: Dves: Theoretical investigation. 
 
 AZOF. See Azov. 
 
 AZORES, an archipelago in the Atlantic ocean, 
 an integral part of the republic of Portugal. The 
 name (Portuguese Agores, hawks) comes from the 
 numerous hawks or buzzards once common there. 
 These islands are situated between the 37th and 
 40th degrees of north latitude. They comprise 
 three groups rather widely separated. At the 
 northwest are Corvo and Flores about 1000 miles 
 southeast of Newfoundland. At the southeast are 
 St. Michaels and St. Mary and the very small 
 island of Formigas. Cape da Roca, Portugal, 
 the nearest point on the continent, is over 800 
 miles distant, while the nearest part of the Afri- 
 can mainland is over 000 miles away. The cen- 
 tral group of islands consists of Fayal, Pico, St. 
 George, Terceira and Graciosa. "There is no 
 evidence that the Azores were known to the 
 Greeks and Romans, but many Carthaginian coins 
 have been found in Corvo. Arabian geographers 
 of the 1 2th and 14th centuries describe islands 
 in the Western Ocean beyond the Canaries. These 
 seem to have been the Azores, for they are the 
 same in number, have a similar climate and pos- 
 sess many hawks. In a map of 1351 these islands 
 fare shown], the western group bearing the name 
 Brazil Island the southern group Goat Islands and 
 the middle group Wind or Dove Islands. In that 
 day the word Brazil meant any red dye stuff. 
 [The Portuguese captain] Gonzalo Velho Cabral 
 reached Santa Maria in 1432 and St. Michaels in 
 1434 land laid claim to the islands]. By 1457 
 the other islands had been found. {Between 1432- 
 1461 Portuguese] colonization was rather rapid. 
 So many Flemish settlers came in the latter part 
 of the 15th century that the islands became known 
 as the Flemish Islands. The inhabitants of Santa 
 Maria were the first Europeans to receive the 
 news of the discovery of America by Columbus, 
 for he stopped there on his return in 1493. After 
 the discovery of Brazil trading vessels from .Amer- 
 ica and from India frequently stopped in the 
 Azores and many sea-fights for valuable cargoes 
 took place there. During the Elizabethan period 
 many such encounters occurred. One of these 
 was the notable fight off Flores in 1591 between 
 the English ship 'Revenge' commanded by Sir 
 Richard Grenville and a Spanish fleet of over 
 fifty vessels. In the i8th cenliirv the British 
 government secured from the Barbary pirates an 
 immunity which enabled her American colonies 
 
 775
 
 AZOTUS 
 
 AZTEC INDIANS 
 
 to carry on a large trade in fish, lumber and pro- 
 visions to the Azores, Madeira and the Mediter- 
 ranean." — Annual report of the American his- 
 torical association, 1908, v. i, p. 120. — These 
 islands are in the earthquake belt and have had 
 many severe shocks. The emigration from the 
 Azores has been heavy. There are about 100,000 
 Azoreans in the United States. Many emigrants 
 return to the Azores. Ponta Delgada on St. 
 Michael's, the largest city, had 17,600 inhabitants 
 in 1919. It was from this harbor that the NC-4 
 began the final leg of its epochal transatlantic 
 flight [see Avi,\tion; Important flights since iqoo: 
 iQig (May).] At one time Easter lilies were 
 raised for the export trade. An agronomer's sta- 
 tion is maintained by the government to examine 
 all plants brought into St. Michael's. This is be- 
 cause the lilies, orange trees and vineyards were 
 once destroyed. Many pineapples are shipped to 
 England and much wine is exported. Lobsters are 
 exported, and dairy products are important. On 
 Fayal there is considerable pottery and lace-mak- 
 ing. The inhabitants of St. Michael's are ambitious 
 to make their island a famous summer and winter 
 resort. The Azores were a naval base in the 
 World War. — See also America: Map showing voy- 
 ages of discovery. 
 
 Also in: C. W. Furlong, Two mid-Atlantic 
 islands (Harper's Magazine, Nov., 1Q16). — A. T. 
 Halberle, Azores (National Geographic Magazine, 
 June, iqiq).— W. F. Brown, Azores (1886).-— A. S. 
 Brown, Madeira and the Canary Islands 'trith the 
 Azores (looi). 
 
 AZOTUS. See Syria: B. C. 64-63. 
 
 AZOV, a fortified town on the left bank of 
 the river Don, si.x miles from the sea of .-Xzov. 
 It is an important Russian sea port serving as the 
 principal outlet for southeastern Russia. The 
 population in 1013 was about 27,000. The Greek 
 colony of Tanais located near the present site of 
 Azov was a flourishing mart of trade. 
 
 B. C. 115. — .Azov was conquered by Mithra- 
 dates. 
 
 A. D. 10th century. — It fell under the rule of 
 successive Asiatic tribes until captured by Vladimir 
 I of Russia in the tenth century. 
 
 13th century. — Captured by the Genoese. — 
 During this period it was strongly fortified by 
 the Genoese, and became a place of great im- 
 portance as the commercial center of Indo-Chinese 
 trade. 
 
 1395. — Timur captured and sacked it. 
 
 1471. — Turks took the town and by closing the 
 trade routes to the East ruined its prosperitv. 
 
 1696.— Taken by the Russians. See Turkey: 
 1684-1606. 
 
 1699.— Controlled by Russia through Peace of 
 Carlowitz. See Hungary: 1683-160Q. 
 
 1711.— Restoration of the Turks.' See Sweden: 
 1707-1718. 
 
 1736-1739.— Captured by the Russians.— Se- 
 cured to them by the Treaty of Belgrade. See 
 Russn: 1 734- 1 740. 
 
 AZTEC, American vessel sunk April i, 1917, by 
 German submarine. See U. S. A.: 1017 (Februarv- 
 .Aprin. 
 
 AZTEC AND MAYA PICTURE-WRITING. 
 — "No nation ever reduced it ( pictography 1 more 
 to a system. It was in constant use in the daily 
 transactions of life. They [the Aztecsl manu- 
 factured for writing purposes a thick coarse paper 
 from the leaves of the agave plant by a process 
 of maceration and pres,sure. An .\ztec book 
 closely resembles one of our quarto volumes. It 
 is made of a single sheet. 12 to i^ inches wide, and 
 often 60 or 70 feet long, and is not rolled, but 
 folded either in squares or zigzags in such a man- 
 
 / 
 
 ner that on opening there are two pages bk- 
 posed to view. Thin wooden boards are fastened 
 to each of the outer leaves, so that the whole 
 presents as neat an appearance, remarks Peter 
 Martyr, as if it had come from the shop of a skil- 
 ful book-binder. They also covered buildings, 
 ta[)estries and scrolls of parchment with these 
 devices. . . . What is still more astonishing, there 
 is reason to believe, in some instances, their figures 
 were not painted, but actually printed with mov- 
 able blocks of wood on which the symbols were 
 carved in relief, though this was probably con- 
 fined to those intended for ornament only. In 
 these records we discern something higher than 
 a mere symbolic notation. They contain the germ 
 of a phonetic alphabet, and represent sounds of 
 spoken language. The symbol is often not con- 
 nected with the idea, but with the word. The 
 mode in which this is done corresponds pre- 
 cisely to that of the rebus. It is a simple method, 
 readily suggesting itself. In the middle ages it 
 was much in vogue in Europe for the same pur- 
 pose for which it was chiefly employed in Mexico 
 at the same time — the writing of proper names. 
 For example, the English family Bolton was 
 known in heraldry by a 'tun' transfixed by a 'bolt.' 
 Precisely so the Mexican Emperor Ixcoatl is men- 
 tioned in the Aztec manuscripts under the figure 
 of a serpent, 'coati,' pierced by obsidian knives, 
 'ixtli.' ... As a syllable could be expressed by any 
 object whose name commenced with it, as few 
 words can be given the form of a rebus without 
 some change, as the figures sometimes represent 
 their full phonetic value, sometimes only that of 
 their initial sound, and as universally the atten- 
 tion of the artist was directed less to the sound 
 than to the idea, the didactic painting of the 
 Mexicans, whatever it might have been to them, 
 is a sealed book to us, and must remain so in 
 great part. . . . Immense masses of such docu- 
 rnents were stored in the imperial archives of an- 
 cient Mexico. Torquemada asserts that five cities 
 alone yielded to the Spanish governor on one 
 requisition no less than 16,000 volumes or scrolls! 
 Every leaf was destroyed. Indeed, so thorough 
 and wholesale was the destruction of these 
 memorials, now so precious in our eyes, that hardly 
 enough remain to whet the wits of antiquaries. 
 In the libraries of Paris, Dresden, Pesth, and the 
 Vatican are, however, a sufficient number to make 
 us despair of deciphering them, had we for com- 
 parison all which the Spaniards destroyed. Beyond 
 all others the Mayas, resident on the peninsula 
 of Yucatan, would seem to have approached near- 
 est a true phonetic system. They had a regular 
 and well understood alphabet of 27 elementary 
 sounds, the letters of which arc totally different 
 from those of any other nation, and evidently 
 originated with themselves. But besides these 
 they used a large number of purely conventional 
 symbols, and moreover were accustomed constantly 
 to employ the ancient pictographic method in ad- 
 dition as a sort of commentary on the sound rep- 
 resented. . . . With the aid of this alphabet, which 
 has fortunately been preserved, we are enabled 
 to spell out a few words on the Yucatan manu- 
 scripts and faqades. but thus far with no posi- 
 tive results. The loss of the ancient pronuncia- 
 tion i.s especially in the way of such studies. In 
 South America, also, there is said to have been 
 a nation who cultivated the art of picture-writing, 
 the Panos, on the river Ucayale." — D. G. Brinton, 
 Myths of the new world, ch. i. — See also Alpha- 
 bet: Early stages; Indians, .Amxrican: Cultural 
 area in Mexico and Central .America: Mava area. 
 
 AZTEC INDIANS, a group of semi-civilized 
 tribes of central and southern Mexico. The prin- 
 
 76
 
 AZTEC INDIANS 
 
 BAALBEK 
 
 dpal trible fixed their capital at Tenochtillan 
 (Mexico City) and gradually conquered all of the 
 south, founding the Mexican Empire. This 
 flourished for about two centuries, until it was 
 overthrown by Cortez in the i6th century. — See 
 also America, Prehistoric; Indians, American: 
 Cultural areas in Mexico and Central America; 
 Aztec area ; and Mavas. 
 
 Development of civilization. — Its similarity 
 to Egyptian. See America: Theory of a land 
 bridge. 
 
 Religion. See Mythology: Latin-American 
 mythology: Aztec gods. 
 
 Writing. See Aztec and Maya picture writ- 
 ing. 
 
 Empire. — Wars against Cortez and final 
 conquest. See Mexico: 1325-1502; 1519 (Feb- 
 ruary-April); iSiQ (October); 1519-1520; 1520 
 (June-July); 1520-1521; 1521 (May-July); 1521 
 (-"Vugust) ; 1521-1524. 
 
 AZUL, Party of the. See Paraguay: 1902- 
 1915- 
 
 B 
 
 BAAL, the supreme deity of the Canaanites. 
 Was known by various names to other peoples; 
 worshiped by some of the Jews in the time of 
 ."Vhab. [See also Jerusalem: B.C. noo-700.] 
 The name was originally a title, signifying lord. 
 — See also Baalbek. 
 
 BAALBAC— See Baalbek. 
 
 BAALBEK, or Baalbac, "city of Baal," the 
 sun-god; an ancient city in Syria, northwest 
 of Damascus, famous for its ruins which date 
 back to Roman times. During the period of the 
 Seleucids the name was changed to the Greek 
 Heliopolis. In its early history it was one of the 
 most splendid of Syrian cities, while the little 
 
 village now on its site had a population in 1914 
 of only 2000. "The disappointment experienced 
 by some visitors on first approaching Ba'albek is 
 partly owing to the vast proportions of the sur- 
 rounding region. The valley of Ccelesyria, now 
 called el Buka'a, extends to a great distance north- 
 ward and southward, and is shut in by the long 
 and lofty range of Lebanon on the north-west, 
 and that of Anti-Lebanon on the south-east. Dur- 
 ing the many hours of approach along its undulat- 
 ing surface towards Ba'albek the eye grows familiar 
 with such magnitudes as the extreme length of 
 the plain, the great height of the mountains, and 
 the profound depths of the valleys, and in com- 
 
 © PubltsLera' I'hi.lo .-^ervioe. 
 
 TEMPLE OF THE SUN AND JUPITER. BAALBECK 
 
 777
 
 BAALBEK 
 
 BABISM 
 
 parison with them any structure of man's design- 
 ing, no matter how imposing, is as nothing. . . . 
 The modern traveller, however, does not linger 
 amongst the remains of the old city, nor loiter 
 about the narrow streets and crooked lanes of 
 the present town. The main attractions of Ba'albek 
 are the wonderful ruins of these temples, which 
 surpass even those of Greece and Rome in the 
 vastness and boldness of their design, their sym- 
 metrical proportions, and the delicate execution 
 of their elaborate decorations. It has been well 
 said of them that 'these temples have been the 
 wonder of past centuries, and they will con- 
 tinue to be the wonder of future generations.' . . . 
 .As Heliopolis, Ba'albek is mentioned by several 
 writers during the first centuries of the Chris- 
 tian era; but the principal notices of it are 
 derived from the coins of the second and third 
 centuries, which represent it as a Roman colony, 
 styled Julia Augusta Felix. The coins of Sep- 
 timius Severus show two temples, one a larger 
 and another a smaller, and a coin of Valerian has 
 two temples upon it. The oracle at Ba'albek, or 
 Heliopolis, was consulted by the Emperor Trajan, 
 in the second century, before he undertook his 
 second expedition against the Parthians: but the 
 earliest authentic record of these temples is found 
 in the writings of John of Antioch, surnamed 
 Malalas, about the seventh century. He men- 
 tions that '.4?;iius Antoninus Pius erected at Heli- 
 opolis, in Phoenicia of Lebanon, a great temple 
 of Jupiter, one of the wonders of the world.' It 
 is possible that the original design here at Ba'albek 
 was to construct a platform surrounded by 
 Cyclopean stones, and to erect upon it an altar 
 consecrated to the worship of Baal. That design 
 appeal:, never to have been fully accomplished, 
 and the Phoenicians probably adopted this site 
 for one of their temples. The Greeks and Romans, 
 in their turn, may have adopted both the site 
 and the ruins of the Phoenician temple for their 
 own purposes; and .Antoninus Pius perhaps be- 
 gan to build his temple out of the remains of one 
 more ancient, and it was probably finished by 
 Septimius Severus fifty years later. That may 
 have been the smaller temple, and it was probably 
 consecrated to Jupiter; the great, temple of Baal 
 or the sun was apparently never finished. . . . 
 The Canaanife and the Hebrew, the Assvrian and 
 Egyptian, the Greek and the Roman, Saracen and 
 Christian, Tartar and Turk— all have been here; 
 and for centuries to come travellers from every 
 nation will visit these ruins with wonder and 
 admiration." — W. M. Thomson, Land and the 
 book, pp. 318-321, ,340. .341. 
 
 632-639. — Capture by Arabs. See Cai.iph.ate: 
 632-63g. 
 
 890. — Pillaged by Carmathians. See Carma- 
 
 THIANS. 
 
 1918.— Reached by British. See World W.-^r: 
 iqrS: VI. Turkish theater: c, 23. 
 
 BAASTARDS. See Griqua, Griqualand. 
 
 "BAB." See Babism. 
 
 6ABAR (i483-r53o), founder of the Mogul 
 dynasty in India. He became king of Ferghana 
 in I4Q4 and king of Kabul in 1504. In 1526 
 and 1527 he conquered the Empire of Delhi and 
 was Mogul Emperor or Padishah of India 1526- 
 15.30. — See also Ixdia: 1300-1605. 
 
 BAB-EL-MANDEB (Gate' of Tears), the 
 strait connecting the Red sea and Indian ocean. 
 On the water route to India, this strategic chan- 
 nel is dominated by the British fortified islands of 
 Perim and more substantially by the Briti.^h out- 
 post of .Aden 
 
 BABENBERG dynasty. See Austria: 
 805-1246 
 
 BABEUF, Frangois Noel, pseudonym Caius 
 Giacchus (1760-17Q7), a French revolutionary con- 
 spirator and journalist, propounder of the first 
 practical socialist policy (named from him, Bab- 
 ouvisme), and father of the socialist movements of 
 1848 and 1871. He edited several papers, notably 
 Le Tribiin du peuple, and, advancing his com- 
 munist doctrines, organized a conspiracy against 
 the Directory. In .April, 1707, he was arrested 
 and guillotined. — See also Socialism: 1753-1707. 
 
 BABINGTON'S plot. See Fngland: 1585- 
 
 1587- 
 
 BABIS: Relations with Persia (i8g6). See 
 Persia: i8q0. 
 
 BABISM, from "Bab," the "gate" or "door," 
 a title given to a young religious reformer, named 
 Mirza Ali Mohammed, who appeared in Persia 
 about 1844, claiming to bring a divine message 
 later and higher than those for which Jesus and 
 Mohammed were sent. — M. F. Wilson, Story of the 
 Bab (Contemporary Review, Dec, 1885). — "Mirza 
 -Ali Mohammed, known as The Bab, was born 
 in October. iSiq. in the city of Shiraz, in southern 
 Persia. ... On May 23d. 1S44, moved by the 
 Spirit of God, Mirza Ali Mohammed gave His 
 teachings to the w'orld. ... .At that time from 
 various parts of Persia were gathered totiether in 
 Shiraz eighteen prepared souls, men of wisdom 
 to whom it had been given to understand spiritual 
 realities, and to these chosen disciples Mirza Ali 
 Mohammed revealed His mission. He was the 
 door ('Bab') or forerunner of a great prophet 
 and teacher soon to appear. He, The Bab, had 
 been divinely sent as a herald to warn the peo- 
 ple of the coming of The Promised One and to 
 exhort them to purify themselves and prepare 
 for His advent. One — whom He entitled 'He 
 whom God shall manifest,' the Latter-Day Mes- 
 siah, promised in all the revealed writings of 
 the past — was soon to come and establish The 
 Kingdom of God upon earth. . . . .Among the most 
 prominent of The Bab's followers was Kurrat 
 ul'Ayn, poet, orator and heroine of the cause, who, 
 after an eventful career in which she stood forth 
 as a powerful exponent of the new faith, suffered 
 a martyr's death. As a woman many decades 
 ahead of her time, her life and example are an 
 inspiration to all, and especially to her sisters of 
 the Orient who, through the cause for which she 
 died, are now being lifted from their former con- 
 dition of ignorance and oppression into one of 
 knowledge and freedom. ... At length. His fol- 
 lowing having attained to sreat proportions, the 
 clergy became thoroughly alarmed and instigated 
 a here.sy trial or public examination of His doc- 
 trines. This investigation was held in Tabriz 
 by the authority of the governor of the province, 
 and before the tribunal The Bab was brought 
 a prisoner. .All manner of insults and indignities 
 were heaped upon Him, and finally He was flogged, 
 one of the chief mullahs applying the rods with 
 his own hands. .After this 'The Bab was returned 
 to his former prison in the fortress of Chih-rik 
 About this time becan the early persecutions and 
 massacres of the Babis in Persia. .Aroused by their 
 priests, the fanatical Moslems fell upon the be- 
 lievers in many parts of the land, pillaging and 
 burning their homes, and torturing and murder- 
 ing men, women and children. . . . Islam is the 
 state religion of Persia, therefore that which shakes 
 its power produces a like effect in the workings 
 of the government. .At length, seeing the cause to 
 be steadily on the increase, the prime minister of 
 the state ordered that The Bab be killed, hoping 
 thus to put an end to the matter and to place 
 himself in security with the clergy and the peo- 
 ple. .Accordingly, The Bab was again removed 
 
 778
 
 BABLl TALMUD 
 
 BABYLON 
 
 from the prison of Chih-rik and taken to Tabriz, 
 the seat of the local government of the province. 
 Here, on the gth of July, 1850, He suffered 
 martyrdom. ... By night the body of The Bab 
 was removed by some of the faithful, and after 
 being swathed in silk it was disguised as a bale 
 of merchandise and deposited in a place of safety. 
 As conditions and wisdom demanded, from time 
 to time this hiding place was changed, and linally, 
 on the 2ist of March, iqoq, in the presence of a 
 notable gathering of pilgrims from various parts 
 of both the Orient and the Occident, the body 
 of The Bab was laid to rest by Abdul-Bahak, in 
 a sarcophagus, in the crypt of the shrine of The 
 Bab in the Holy Land. . . . During the four years 
 of The Bab's imprisonment His numerous letters 
 and epistles were, with the greatest difficulty, 
 smuggled out of the prison and sent to the fol- 
 lowers in various parts of the country. These 
 writings contain His injunctions to the believers 
 for their guidance and protection until the coming 
 of 'Him whom God shall manifest.' The Bab's 
 ordinances were given for the people of His time 
 only, and were commensurable with the needs and 
 conditions of the believers during the interim be- 
 tween His manifestation and the manifestation of 
 the greater One to come. The Bab was the 'First 
 Point' of this revelation, the precursor of the 
 greater One. In His teachings He reiterated again 
 and again that, when 'He whom God shall mani- 
 fest' appeared, all should turn unto Him, and that 
 He would reveal teachings and ordinances which 
 would replace the Babi sacred literature." — C. M. 
 Remey, Bahai movement, ch. 2. — See also Baiiaism. 
 
 Relation of Babis with Persia (i8g6). See 
 Persia: i8q6. 
 
 BABLI (Babylonian) TALMUD. See Talmud. 
 
 BABOEUF, a village of France, northeast of 
 Paris near Noyon. It was taken by the British 
 in IQ18. See World War: igi8: II. Western front: 
 c, 20. 
 
 BABOUVISM, the socialistic doctrines pro- 
 pounded by Babeuf during the French Revolution, 
 — namely, state communism or state ownership of 
 property ; social equality in rank as well as prop- 
 erty; criticism of the solution of the agrarian ques- 
 tion. — See also Babeitf, Franqois NoiiL. 
 
 BABU, a Hindu title of respect, but com- 
 monly applied to a native clerk able to write 
 English, with a disparaging implication of super- 
 ficial education. 
 
 BA-BUMANTSU. See Bushmen. 
 
 BABUNA PASS, a locality near Prilep, Mace- 
 donia, where the French army during the World 
 War attempted (191 6) to give aid to the retreat- 
 ing Serbian army which was forced to abandon 
 its h'ne along the Vardar river. See World War: 
 1015: V. Balkans: b, 5. 
 
 BABYLON: The city.— "The city stands on 
 a broad plain, and is an exact square, a hundred 
 and twenty furlongs flifteen miles] in length each 
 way, so that the entire circuit is four hundred and 
 eighty furlongs. While such is its size, in mag- 
 nificence there is no other city that approaches it. 
 [See also Babylonia: Position and importance of 
 Babylon.] It is surrounded, in the first place, 
 by a broad and deep moat, full of water, be- 
 hind which rises a wall fifty royal cubits [a cubit 
 was about 18 inches] in width and two hundred in 
 height- ... On the top, along the edges of the 
 wall, they constructed buildings of a single cham- 
 ber facing one another, leaving between them room 
 for a four-horse chariot to turn. In the circuit 
 of the wall are a hundred gates, all of brass, with 
 brazen lintels and side posts. The bitumen used 
 in the work was brought to Babylon from the Is, 
 a small stream which flows into the Euphrates 
 
 at the point where the city of the same name 
 stands, eight days' journey from Babylon. Lumps 
 of bitumen are found in great abundance in this 
 river. The city is divided into two portions by 
 the river which runs through the midst of it. 
 This river is the Euphrates. . . . The city wall is 
 brought down on both sides to the edge of the 
 stream; thence, from the corners of the wall, 
 there is carried along each bank of the river a 
 fence of burnt bricks. The houses are mostly 
 three and four stories high; the streets all run in 
 straight Hues; not only those parallel to the 
 river, but also the cross streets which lead down 
 to the water side. At the river end of these 
 cross streets are low gates in the fence that 
 skirts the stream, which are, like the great gates 
 in the outer wall, of brass, and open on the 
 water. The outer wall is the main defence of the 
 city. There is, however, a second inner wall, of 
 less thickness than the first, but very little in- 
 ferior to it in strength. The centre of each di- 
 vision of the town was occupied by a fortress. 
 In the one stood the palace of the kings, sur- 
 rounded by a wall of great strength and size: 
 in the other was the sacred precinct of Jupiter 
 Belus, a square enclosure, two furlongs each way, 
 with gates of solid brass; which was also re- 
 maining in my time. In the middle of the precinct 
 there was a tower of solid masonry, a furlong 
 in length and breadth, upon which was raised a 
 second tower, and on that a third, and so on up 
 to eight. The ascent to the top is on the outside, 
 by a path which winds round all the towers. . . . 
 On the topmost tower there is a spacious temple." 
 — Herodotus, History (translated by G, Rawlinson), 
 bk. I, ch. 17S-1S1. 
 
 Origin and influence. — Added historical knowl- 
 edge through excavations. — "The origin of the 
 city of Babylon is veiled in impenetrable obscur- 
 ity. The lirpt city built upon the site must have 
 been founded fully four thousand years before 
 Christ, and it may have been much earlier. The 
 city is named in the Omen tablet of Sargon, and, 
 though this is no procf that the city was actually 
 in existence more than three thousand years be- 
 fore Christ, it does prove that a later tradition 
 assigned to it this great antiquity. At this early 
 date, however, it seems not to have been a city 
 of importance. During the long period of the 
 rise of the kingdom of Sumer (q. v.) and Accad 
 few kings in the south find Babylon worthy of 
 mention, though Babylon must have been develop- 
 ing into a city of influence during the later cen- 
 turies of the dominion of Isin and Larsa. From 
 about 2200 B. C. the influence of this city ex- 
 tends almost without a break to the period of the 
 Seleucides. [See also Seleucidae.] No capital 
 in the world has ever been the center of so much 
 power, wealth, and culture for a period so vast. 
 It is indeed a brilliant cycle of centuries upon 
 which we enter. The rife of Babylon to supremacy 
 over the more ancient cities both of northern and 
 of southern Babylonia, is associated with the 
 development of a new strain of blood and life 
 among the Semites. The Semites, who had poured 
 in successive streams of migration from Arabia, 
 had found homes in many and diverse places, and 
 in each of these the originally homogeneous race 
 had developed civilizations differing in some points 
 from each other." — R. W. Rogers, History of Baby- 
 lonia and Assyria, p. 75. — See also Semites: Primi- 
 tive Babylonia. — During the past three years, name- 
 ly from i8q8 to iQoi "a party of German ex- 
 plorers has been busy excavating from two to 
 five miles north of the village of Hillah, — about 
 forty miles to the south of Bagdad. These mounds 
 cover the remains of the famous city of Babylon, 
 
 779
 
 BABYLON 
 
 Excavations 
 
 BABYLON 
 
 so familiar to us all from its associations with 
 Nebuchadnezzar, the destroyer of Jerusalem. 
 While the work of the explorers is far from com- 
 plete, they have already been fortunate enough 
 to discover the exact site of the great palace 
 begun by Nabopolassar, the father ol Nebuchad- 
 nezzar, and completed by the latter. This edifice 
 was famous throughout the ancient world. It 
 is this palace to which the author of the Hook of 
 Daniel refers in his story of the mystical handwrit- 
 ing on the wall that foretold the downfall of the 
 great city. In it Cyrus, on his conque.'t of Baby- 
 lon, in the year 538 B.C. [see Persia: B.C. 549- 
 521], took up his official residence, and the same 
 
 balustrade running round the tower to the top. 
 It is probably this tower that the biblical writer 
 in Genesis had in mind in narrating the curious 
 tale of the dispersion of mankind. (See also 
 Temples: Stage of culture represented by temple 
 architecture.! The city that is thus being brought 
 to light through the pick and spade is essentially 
 the creation of Nebuchadnezzar, so that the words 
 which the author of Daniel puts into the mouth 
 of the King, 'Is not this great Babylon, which I 
 have built for the royal dwelling place, by the 
 might of my power and for the glory of my 
 majesty ?', receive a significance through the ex- 
 cavations of the twentieth century far greater and 
 
 
 J^Xr.\VATIONS AT BAHYI.ON 
 
 building two centuries kiter witnes.so(l ihr patlulic 
 death scene of .Mcxaniler the (Ireat. Besides the 
 palace the explorers have also discovered the ex- 
 act site of one of the most important edifices in 
 the entire history of Babylonia, the great temple 
 of Marduk, or Bel. the head of the Babylonian 
 pantheon. Although the beginning of this struc- 
 ture goes back to a very ancient period, it was 
 Nebuchadnezzar who restored and enlarged it be- 
 yond its former proportions, and within the sacred 
 precinct in which the temple stood he erected 
 numerous shrines to various gods and godde.sses, 
 who constituted, as it were, the court of the 
 chief god. A feature of the precinct was a huge 
 tower of eight stories in height, formed by a 
 series of stages, one above the other, with a 
 
 / 
 
 more rialistic than was ever dreamed of." — M. 
 Jaslrow, Piihue and temple of Sebtuhiidnezziur 
 {Harper's Monthly Magazine, v. 104, pp. S0Q-810). 
 Nebuchadrezzar and the wall of Babylon. — 
 "In all Nebuchadrezzar's |or Nebuihadnezzar's] in- 
 scriptions that have been found — and we have a 
 great many — he especially glories in his construc- 
 tions. He seems to have repaired almost every 
 great temple in the land and built not a few 
 new ones. . . . But what he did at Babylon not 
 only surpasses all his other works, but eclipses those 
 of all former kings, even those of Sargon at Dur 
 Sharrukin, not so much in sjilendor as in the 
 vastncss and originality of his conceptions, — an 
 originality due probably to that besetting idea of 
 coupling ;idornment with military requirements, 
 
 cSo
 
 BABYLON 
 
 Excavations 
 Celebrated Wall 
 
 BABYLON 
 
 which consistently underlies most of the public 
 works he undertook. In this, however, he ap- 
 pears to have followed a line traced out first by 
 his father. Of some of his greatest constructions, 
 — such as the new palace, the great city walls, 
 and the embankments of the Euphrates, — he es- 
 pecially mentions that they were begun by Nab- 
 opolassar, but left unfinished at his death. Baby- 
 lon, sacked once by Sennacherib, then rebuilt by 
 Esarhaddon, had gone through a conflagration 
 when besieged and taken by Asshurbanipal, and 
 must have been in a sad condition when the 
 Chaldean usurper made it once more the scat of 
 empire. Hence, perhaps, the thought of recon- 
 structing it in such a manner as would make it 
 a capital not only in size and magnificence, but 
 in strength: it was to be at once the queen of 
 cities and the most impregnable of fortresses. 
 The last time that Babylon had been taken it 
 had been reduced by famine. This was the first 
 contingency to be guarded against. For this pur- 
 pose the city was to be protected by a double 
 enclosure of mighty walls, the inner one skirting 
 its outlines narrowly, while the outer was moved 
 to such a distance as to enfold a large portion of 
 the land, which was to be cultivated so that the 
 capital could raise enough grain and fodder for 
 its own consumption. This vast space also would 
 serve to shelter the population of the surrounding 
 villages in case of an invasion. It has not been 
 possible to trace the line of this outer wall, which 
 received the name of Niraitti-Bel, nor consequently 
 to determine how many square miles it protected, 
 and the reports of ancient writers are somewhat 
 conflicting, as none of them, of course, took exact 
 scientific measurements after the manner of our 
 modern surveyors. Herodotus gives the circum- 
 ference as somewhat over fifty English miles. A 
 large figure certainly. But it has been observed 
 that it scarcely surpasses that yielded by the cir- 
 cumvallation of Paris;. and besides the arable and 
 pasture land, it must have embraced suburbs, not 
 impossibly Borsip itself, which was also well 
 fortified at the same time. This is the highest 
 estimate. The lowest (and later) gives forty miles. 
 The Nimitti-Bel rampart was protected on the out- 
 side by a wide and deep moat, which at the 
 same time had supplied the material for the wall. 
 . . . The reports about the height and thickness of 
 this celebrated wall vary still more considerably. 
 Herodotus says it was 350 feet high (apparently 
 including the height of the towers, which were 
 built at regular intervals on the top of it), with 
 a thickness of 75 feet. Now no effort of imagina- 
 tion, even with the knowledge that the walls of 
 Babylon were numbered among the 'Seven Won- 
 ders of the World,' (q. v.) can well make us 
 realize a city wall, nigh on fifty miles long, sur- 
 passing in height the extreme height of St. Paul's 
 of London. The estimates of various later 
 writers range all the way between that exorbitant 
 figure and that of 75 feet,^very possibly too 
 moderate. For the fact remains undisputed that 
 the Nimitti-Bel rampart was stupendous both in 
 height and in thickness; that towers were built 
 on the top of it, on the edges, two facing each 
 other, and that there remained room between for 
 a four-horse chariot to turn. .\nd the contem- 
 porary Hebrew prophet, Jeremiah, speaks of Baby- 
 lon as 'mounting up to heaven,' of 'the broad 
 walls of Babylon' and her 'high gates.' Of these 
 there were a hundred in the circuit of the wall, 
 according to Herodotus, 'and they were all of brass, 
 with brazen lintels and side-posts.' This outer 
 wall Herodotus calls 'the main defence of the city,' 
 The second or inner wall, named Imgur-Bel, he 
 described as being 'of less thickness than the first, 
 
 78 
 
 but very little inferior to it in strength.' Then 
 there were the walls which enclosed the two royal 
 palaces, the old one on the right bank of the 
 Euphrates, and the new one on the left, — and 
 made of each a respectable fortress; for it was 
 part of the plan of reconstruction that the city 
 should be extended across the river, to gain a 
 firmer seat and full control of this all-important 
 thoroughfare; and an entire new quarter was 
 built on the left bank around the new and mag- 
 nificent palace. And as it was desirable, both for 
 convenience and defence, that the two sides should 
 be united by permanent means of communication, 
 Nebuchadrezzar built [a I great bridge [across the 
 river], but so that it could be kept open or shut 
 off at will, as a further safeguard against surprises. 
 This was effected by means of platforms made of 
 beams and planks, which were laid from pier to 
 pier in the daytime, and removed for the night. Of 
 course one solitary bridge could not suffice for 
 the traffic of a population which cannot have been 
 under half a million, and the river was gay with 
 hundreds of boats and barges darting with their 
 load of passengers from bank to bank, or gliding 
 down the current, or working against it. There 
 were many landing-places, but no quays or broad 
 paved walls bordered with handsome buildings, 
 such as in our ideas appear as the necessary ac- 
 companiment of a beautiful river in a great city. 
 The Euphrates flowed along imprisoned between a 
 double wall, of burnt brick like the others, which 
 followed its course on either bank and close to 
 the edge from end to end of the city. Only where 
 the streets abutted on the river — and these were 
 disposed at regular intervals, in straight lines and 
 at right angles — there were low gates to allow 
 pedestrians to descend to the landing-places. The 
 general effect must have been peculiar and rather 
 gloomy." — Z. A. Ragozin, Media, Babylon and 
 Persia, pp. 227-232. — "The Babylon of Nebuchad- 
 nezzar occupied a square of which each side was 
 nearly fifteen miles in length, and was bisected 
 by the Euphrates diagonally from northwest to 
 southeast. . . . The great squares of the city were 
 not all occupied by buildings. Many of them 
 were used as gardens and even farms, and the 
 great fertility of the soil, caused by irrigation, pro- 
 ducing two and even three crops a year, supplied 
 food sufficient for the inhabitants in case of siege. 
 Babylon was a vast fortified province rather than 
 a city. . . . There is a curious fact which I do 
 not remember to have seen noticed, and of which 
 I will not here venture to suggest the explana- 
 tion. Babylon stands in the Book of Revelation 
 as the emblem of all the abominations which are 
 to be destroyed by the power of Christ. But 
 Babylon is the one city known to history which 
 could have served as a model for John's descrip- 
 tion of the New Jerusalem: 'the city lying four 
 square,' 'the walls great and high,' the river which 
 flowed through the city, 'and in the midst of the 
 street of it, and on cither side of the river the 
 tree of life, bearing twelve manner of fruits;' 
 'the foundations of the wall of the city garnished 
 with all manner of precious stones,' as the base 
 of the walls inclosing the great palace were faced 
 with glazed and enameled bricks of brilliant colors, 
 and a broad space left that they might be seen, 
 — these characteristics, and they are all unique, 
 have been combined in no other city." — W. B. 
 Wright, Ancient cities from the dawn to the day- 
 light, pp. 41-44- 
 
 Decline. — Use of ancient wall and buildings as 
 a quarry. — "The policy he [Cyrus] inaugurated in 
 the provinces of his empire was a complete reversal 
 of Assyrian methods. For the nationality of each 
 conquered race was respected, and it was en- 
 
 I
 
 BABYLON 
 
 Decline 
 
 BABYLON 
 
 couraged to retain its own religion and its laws 
 and customs. Hence Babylon's commercial life 
 and prosperity suffered no interruption in conse- 
 quence of the change in her political status. Taxa- 
 tion was not materially increased, and little was 
 altered beyond the name and title of the reign- 
 ing king in the dates upon commercial and legal 
 documents. The sieges of Babylon by Darius 
 mark the beginning of the city's decay. [See also 
 Babylonia: Hammurabi: His character and 
 achievements.] Her defences had not been seri- 
 ously impaired by Cyrus, but they now suffered 
 considerably. The city was again restless during 
 Darius's closing years, and further damage was 
 done to it in the reign of Xerxes, when the 
 Babylonians made their last bids for independence. 
 For Xer.xes is said not only to have dismantled 
 the walls, but to have plundered and destroyed 
 the great temple of Marduk itself [See Persia: 
 B. C. 486-405.] Large areas in the city, which had 
 been a wonder of the nations, now began to lie 
 permanently in ruins. Babylon entered on a new 
 phase in 331 B.C., when the long struggle be- 
 tween Greece and Persia was ended by the de- 
 feat of Darius HI. at Gaugamela. For Susa 
 and Babylon submitted to Alexander, who on 
 proclaiming himself King of Asia, took Baby- 
 lon as his capital. We may picture him gazing on 
 the city's great buildings, many of which now 
 lay ruined and deserted. Like Cyrus before him, 
 he sacrificed to Babylon's gods; and he is said 
 to have wished to restore E-sagila, Marduk's great 
 temple, but to have given up the idea, as it would 
 have taken ten thousand men more than two 
 months to remove the rubbish from the ruins. 
 But he seems to have made some attempt in that 
 direction, since a tablet has been found, dated 
 in his sixth year, which records a payment of ten 
 manehs of silver for 'clearing away the dust of 
 E-sagila.' [For Alexander's conquest, see Mace- 
 donia: B.C. 330-323] While the old buildings 
 decayed, some new ones arose in their place, in- 
 cluding a Greek theatre for the use of the large 
 Greek colony. Many of the Babylonians them- 
 selves adopted Greek names and fashions, but the 
 more conservative elements, particularly among the 
 priesthood, continued to retain their own separate 
 life and customs. In the year 270 B.C. we have 
 a record that .^ntiochus Soter restored the temples 
 of Nabfl and Marduk at Babylon and Borsippa, 
 and the recent diggings at Erech have shown that 
 the old temple in that city retained its ancient 
 cult under a new name. In the second century 
 we know that in a corner of the great temple 
 at Babylon, Marduk and the God of Heaven were 
 worshiped as a two-fold deity under the name of 
 Anna-Bel; and we hear of priests attached to one 
 of Babylon's old shrines as late as the year 2q 
 B. C. Services in honour of the later forms of 
 the Babylonian gods were probably continued into 
 the Christian era. [See Jews: 604-536 B.C. to 
 166-40 B. C] The life of the ancient city naturally 
 flickered longest around the ruined temples and 
 seats of worship. Or. the secular side, as a com- 
 mercial centre, she was then but a ghost of her 
 former self. Her real decay had set in when 
 Seleucus, after securing the satrapy of Babylon 
 on Alexander's death, had recognized the greater 
 advantages offered by the Tigris«for maritime com- 
 munication. On the foundation of Sclcucia, Baby- 
 lon as a city began rapidly to decay. Deserted 
 at first by the official classes, followed later by 
 the merchants, she decreased in importance as her 
 rival grew. Thus it was by a gradual and purely 
 economic process, and through no sudden blow, 
 that Babylon slowly bled to death."— L. W. King, 
 History of Balyylon, from lite foundation of the 
 
 monarchy to the Persian conquest, pp. 285-28S. 
 —"From this time onward the burnt brick of the 
 ancient royal buildings was re-used for all manner 
 of secular buildings. The Greek theatre at Homera 
 is built of such material. Thus the pillared build- 
 ings of .\mran and houses at Merkes, that arc 
 built of brick rubble, belong either to the Greek 
 (331-130 B.C.) or the Parthian (13Q B.C. -226 
 A. D.) periods, but to which of them cannot be 
 determined. At that time began the process of 
 demolishing the city area, which perhaps was now 
 only occupied by isolated dwellings, a process that 
 certainly continued throughout the Sassanide pe- 
 riod (226-636 A. D.). Amran alone was inhabited, 
 and that only scantily, as is shown by the upper- 
 most levels there, which reach down as late as 
 the Arab middle age Uirca 1200 A.D.). When 
 we gaze to-day over the wide area of ruins we 
 are involuntarily reminded of the words of the 
 prophet Jeremiah (L. 30): 'Therefore, the wild 
 beasts of the desert, with the wild beases of the 
 islands, shall dwell there, and the owls shall dwell 
 therein: and it shall be no more inhabited for 
 ever; neither shall it be dwelt in from generation 
 to generation.' " — R. Koldewcy, Excavations at 
 Babylon, pp. 313-314. — "The walls of Babylon 
 were destined to serve still another purpose. The 
 spread of Mohammedanism caused new cities to 
 be built, and Babylon was the quarry for their 
 building material. The walls of Babylon were 
 transformed into the sacred cities of Kerbela and 
 Nejef. In the eleventh century, on the site of 
 the southern part of Babylon, the city of Hillah 
 was built. Hillah might be called a child of 
 Babylon, for it is almost entirely constructed with 
 Nebuchadnezzar's bricks. The walls of the houses 
 are built of them. The court-yards and streets 
 are paved with them, and as you walk about the 
 city the name of Nebuchadnezzar everywhere 
 meets your eye. Many of the ten thousand f>eople 
 living in Hillah still gain their livelihood by dig- 
 ging the bricks from the ruins to sell to the mod- 
 ern builders. The great irrigating dams across the 
 Euphrates are constructed entirely of them. The 
 people of Hillah, too, are a survival of Babylonian 
 times. Some are Arabs of the same tribes which 
 used to roam the desert in Nebuchadnezzar's days. 
 Some are the children of the Hebrew exiles of old. 
 Some, calling themselves Christians, are the de- 
 scendants of Babylonians, perhaps of Nebuchad- 
 nezzar himself. There among the ruins they still 
 live in the same kind of houses, dressing the same, 
 eating the same food as did their ancestors when 
 Nebuchadnezzar built the walls of Babylon." — 
 E. J. Banks, Seven wonders of the ancient world, 
 p. 67. — See also B.\bvloni,\. 
 
 Hanging Gardens of Babylon,—- The Hanging 
 gardens of Babylon were considered by the Greeks 
 to be one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. 
 They consisted of trees and flowers apparently 
 planted upon the roof of some building. The 
 structure was one square terrace built upon an- 
 other to about 150 feet in height and resting upon 
 hollow pillars of burnt brick which were filled with 
 earth. It was necessary to keep a force of men 
 employed pumping up water from the Euphrates 
 for irrigation. It is said that Nebuchadrezzar, aim- 
 ing to please his Median Queen, had these gardens 
 constructed so that they may recall to her mind 
 the mountain scenery of her native land. — See also 
 .\RCHiTEcrtiRE: Oriental: Mesopotamia. 
 
 Also in: A. H. Layard, Nineveh and Babylon. 
 — C. J. Fall, Records of the past.—C. J. Rich, 
 Memoir on the ruins of Babylon. — F. H. Weiss- 
 bach, Das Stadtbild von Babvlon 
 
 BABYLON OF THE CRUSADERS. See 
 Crusades: i24£-i254. 
 
 782
 
 BABYLONIA 
 
 BABYLONIA 
 
 BABYLONIA 
 
 Land and its characteristics.— "Babylonia is 
 the joint delta of the Tigris and Euphrates, and 
 owes its prosperity and ruin alike to man's use or 
 abuse of the gifts of these two rivers. The 
 Euphrates, like the Nile, passes through three dis- 
 tinct phases in its course to the sea. Its two main 
 sources lie deep in the Armenian highland, and 
 carve out parallel courses of over 400 miles before 
 their joint streams leave the mountains through a 
 tremendous gorge. [See also Armenia: Physical 
 features.] Then for 720 miles from Samsat to 
 Hit the river crosses open treeless country, more 
 level and barren as it recedes from the hills. From 
 the west it receives only one important tributary, 
 the Sajur, which comes in quite high up near 
 Carchemish, and from the east only two, the Belikh 
 and the Khabur, both in the middle third of this 
 section. As far as the Sajur, both banks are 
 habitable; and the east bank was formerly so as 
 far as the Khabur, forming the district of Harran, 
 and the ancient Kingdom of Mitanni. Beyond this 
 the country is desert, both on the Arabian side 
 and in the greater part of Mesopotamia, the region 
 between the Two Rivers. The river itself flows 
 with swift stream and intermittent rapids within 
 a deep rock-walled bed. usually a few miles wide 
 and capable of cultivation, but naturally a jungle 
 of tamarisk and reeds, infested by wild pig. The 
 few sedentary Arabs, who practise a primitive ir- 
 rigation with water-wheels, pay blackmail to pow- 
 erful nomad tribes of the desert. The palm re- 
 places the olive about half way down. Above Hit 
 the river has narrows and is full of islands; but 
 at Hit itself solid ground ends in a reef of harder 
 rocks with springs of sulphur, brine, and bitumen. 
 The river here is about 250 yards in width, and 
 still flows briskly through this last obstruction. 
 The third section consists wholly of alluvial soil, 
 and extends for 550 miles from Hit to the Persian 
 Gulf. The river soon divides into two principal 
 channels, and these into minor backwaters, the 
 wreck of ancient canals. It first deposits copious 
 silt, and then fine mud like that of the Nile. The 
 thore line has therefore been advancing rapidly 
 within historic time: Eridu, for example, which 
 was a chief port of early Babylonia, lies now 125 
 miles from the sea. If the present rate of ad- 
 vance, about a mile in thirty years, may be taken 
 as an average — which is, however, not demon- 
 strable yet — Eridu may have begun to be mud- 
 bound about 1800 B.C. The course of the Tigris 
 is geographically similar. Two chief sources, ris- 
 ing near those of the Euphrates, drain the south- 
 eastern ranges of Armenia. From their junction 
 to Samarra. where the Tigris fairly enters the 
 delta, is about 250 miles, first through rolling 
 foothills, in an open valley which is the home- 
 country of the Assyrians; then through steppe and 
 desert. On the west bank there are now no tribu- 
 taries, though there was formerly a flood-channel 
 from the south-east of the Khabur basin. On the 
 east bank, however, the copious drainage of the 
 Median highlands, which lie nearly parallel with 
 its course, is brought in by a number of streams, 
 of which the most notable are the Greater and 
 Lesser Zab. Consequently, the Tigris brings down 
 eventually rather more water than the Euphrates: 
 and also on its swifter current a good deal more 
 silt. In the latitude of Bagdad, about 100 miles 
 below Samarra, and consequently well within the 
 alluvial area, Euphrates and Tigris approach within 
 3S miles of each other but soon diverge again to 
 a distance of ico miles. It was a little above this 
 point that the Euphrates was first divided in an- 
 
 tiquity into two main branches, of which the 
 eastern Saklawic canal is in part, at least, ar- 
 tificial, designed to water a large district west of 
 Bagdad, and also as an overflow, for in Upper 
 Babylonia the Euphrates lies higher than the 
 Tigris. Lower down, the levels are reversed, and 
 the great Shatt-el-Hai canal, past the site of Lag- 
 ash, relieves the Tigris, and at times overloads the 
 Euphrates at Ur and below. In addition, the 
 whole of the joint delta has been from very early 
 times a network of canals designed both to dis- 
 tribute irrigation water, and also to defend the 
 cultivated lands against the desert. The most im- 
 portant are the Shatt-Hindie, which diverges at 
 Babylon, and follows the western edge of the 
 delta, rejoining near ancient Erech; and the trans- 
 verse Shatt-el-Hai already mentioned. The man- 
 agement of these great canals needs some skill; 
 the rivers rise rather irregularly, as the mountain 
 snow melts, from March to May, and often carry 
 away the soft earthen dams and embankments. 
 They also carry down so much silt, that centuries 
 of deposition and dredging have raised the main 
 channels, and the country near them, above the 
 general level. The two main streams, whose 
 mouths were still a day's journey apart in Alex- 
 ander's time, now unite [near] Basra, 300 miles 
 below Bagdad. Their joint channel, the Shatt- 
 el-Arab, is 1,000 yards wide, and navigable. A 
 little further down again, it receives on the east 
 side the main stream of the Karun River, from 
 the highlands of ancient Elam. Under careful 
 management, the whole alluvial region is of amaz- 
 ing fertility. The date palm is indigenous, and 
 wheat was anciently believed to be so. In an- 
 cient times it raised two, or even three, crops of 
 wheat a year, with a yield of 200 or 300 grains 
 from one seed. The rice, which is now the prin- 
 cipal grain crop, came in under the Arab regime. 
 The present desolation is due, first to the Turkish 
 nomads in the eleventh century; then to the reck- 
 less behaviour of Mesopotamian Arabs. All 
 through the summer, the principal streams arc 
 navigable, or can easily be made so, and sailing 
 boats ascend as far as Hit and Samarra; but by 
 September the flood is over, and in November the 
 rivers are at their lowest ; and natural shoals and 
 the remains of old dams are grievous obstacles. 
 
 "Such is Babylonia. But before we enquire 
 what human enterprize was to make of it, we 
 must note equally briefly the regions which en- 
 close it. West of the Euphrates lies the great plain 
 of Arabia (q. v.), rising gently towards the Jordan 
 and the Red Sea. It is nearly- featureless, grass- 
 land at best, and in great part utter desert now. 
 Its nomad pastoral inhabitants, however, have ex- 
 ercised, as we shall see, an influence on the fortunes 
 both of Babylonia and all other regions which 
 fringe it, which is one of the great facts of history. 
 Eastward, beyond the Tigris, towers the highland 
 zone, range upon range of massive limestone 
 mountains, till the passes to the plateau be- 
 hind them rise to 5,000 and 6,000 feet, and the 
 peaks to over 11,000 feet. The nearer parts of 
 the plateau vary in altitude fiom 3,000 to 1,500 
 feet. The width of the mountain belt averages 
 about 300 miles, and its parallel ranges from five 
 to ten in number. Between them lie valleys of 
 varying size and elevation, all more or less habit- 
 able, but secluded from each other and from the 
 outer world on either side. A few have no outfall, 
 but enclose considerable lakes, like Van and Urmia 
 in the north, and Shiraz in the south; but the 
 majority discharge the copious water which pours 
 
 783
 
 BABYLONIA 
 
 Geographical 
 Features 
 
 BABYLONIA 
 
 from the snow-clad ridges, through great gorges 
 into more westerly troughs, and so eventually into 
 a few large rivers. Some of these, as we have 
 seen, are tributary to the Tigris; others further 
 south issue independently into the Persian Gulf, 
 and form their own hot sodden deltas; while in 
 a middle section three of the largest, Karun, 
 Jarahi, and Tab, now join their mudflats with 
 those of the Shatt-el-Arab, and have created an 
 alluvial area nearly half as large as Babylonia 'be- 
 tween the rivers'; more encumbered indeed by 
 silt, but with lowlands almost as fertile under 
 cultivation. Above these foreshores the hills be- 
 tween Karun and Tigris, lying nearest to the 
 ancient head of the gulf, rise gently at first, in a 
 wide expanse of rolling country. Then, where the 
 first mountains stand up, and catch the moisture 
 from the winds, comes a long narrow belt of for- 
 est, dense oak below, passing to cedar and pine; 
 and extending from the Diyala River as far south 
 as Shiraz. Access to this, in a region so timber- 
 less otherwise, seems to have been one of the 
 great objects of contention in ancient times. On 
 the greater heights come more alpine conditions, 
 with some moisture and hardy vegetation in deep 
 valleys; but on the eastern slopes, prevalent 
 drought, with aromatic scrubland locally, and 
 some output of medicinal resins and gums. 
 Then, interpersed with marginal oases, wherever 
 a mountain stream runs out into the plain, begins 
 a desolate and often salt-strewn plateau, the dead 
 heart of Persia, ancient as well as modern. With 
 this dead heart, however, and even with the fringe 
 of oases — mediaeval and modem Persia — we are 
 not now concerned; only with the sequence of 
 alluvium, foothills, and forest belt, which make 
 up the ancient region of Elam (q.v.), and with the 
 intermont plains and upland valleys which sus- 
 tained the old Medes and Persians, the first high- 
 landers to play a part in universal history. 
 
 "Pausing now for a moment to compare the 
 situation in Mesopotamia with that on the Nile, 
 we note first that through the difference in direc- 
 tion of the two valleys the Nile has its sub-tropical 
 region upstream, and its almost temperate delta in 
 the north; the Euphrates has its delta in one of 
 the hottest summer climates of the world. The 
 Nile has its cataracts all far upstream, so that the 
 fall of the valley is concentrated at a few points, 
 and a sluggish navigable fairway is reserved from 
 Assuan to the coast: far away beyond these rap- 
 ids, moreover, the Nile has already deposited its 
 obstructive silt, and bears down to Egypt only 
 beneficial mud, which is invisibly fine, and causes 
 little trouble in irrigation. The Euphrates, on the 
 contrary, descends rapidly, for so large a river, 
 all through its upper course; its last barrier is at 
 Hit, which in the anatomy of this valley corre- 
 sponds rather to Cairo than to Assuan ; it conse- 
 quently enters the fcnland still laden with silt, and 
 in all ages has industriously blocked one bed after 
 another, and spread the disastrous floods of which 
 memory was preserved by Babylonian legends of 
 a deluge which flooded even the desert ; as we 
 read in the best known version 'all the high hills 
 that were under the whole heaven were covered: 
 fifteen cubits upwards did the waters prevail'; 
 and there are very few 'mountains' in alluvial 
 Babylonia which would not be devastated by a 
 flood of this moderate depth. Like the ordinary 
 summer flood of the Euphrates which begins in 
 April and May, and is highest in August, that del- 
 uge lasted about twenty-one weeks; and in Sep- 
 tember, 'the seventh month', it abated. Frob anxi- 
 eties the Nile is free. In Egyptian religion it is 
 the sun which is all-beneficent, or all-destroying, 
 and therefore (in due course) chief god, and the 
 
 'power behind the throne.' His enemies are pow- 
 ers of dark and cold, not of wet. In Babylonia, 
 and still more in Assyria, which lies closer under 
 the hills, men and the high gods were alike power- 
 less when the storm-demons were out. The first 
 victory of good was the binding of the dragon 
 which broods in dark water; a fit emblem of the 
 creeping silt-shoal which grows till it throttles 
 the canal. For many reasons, therefore, it is in the 
 delta, and not in the valley, that Babylonian civi- 
 lization grows ; as it might indeed have grown in 
 Egypt too, had not the valley culture ripened 
 sooner. Consequently, again, the Babylonian 
 centres — some dozen in all — lie in a cluster, not 
 strung on one green thread for hundreds of miles. 
 And as the Tigris and the Euphrates interweave 
 their currents, first one receiving, and then the 
 other, internal communication is abnormally com- 
 plete; a striking contrast with the perils of cross- 
 delta travel in Egypt. No one went up to Baby- 
 Ion to go from Lagash to Ur, as train and boat 
 alike go almost up to Cairo from Alexandria to 
 Port Said; almost everywhere there was direct 
 canal. The Euphrates, however, is barred to large 
 navigation at Hit, and though the Tigris is navi- 
 gable by steamers to Mosul, ancient traffic on it, 
 and on the Euphrates, too, was exclusively down- 
 stream; the rivers being over-rapid and unfit for 
 towing; the upstream wind which overcomes the 
 Nile quite absent; and the boats (or more often 
 rafts) far more valuable for timber in so wood- 
 less a country than for laborious haulage upstream. 
 The best were, and are, made like coracles, of skins 
 on a wooden frame, and returned, folded up, on 
 donkey-back. 
 
 "The basis of Babylonian culture was the intense 
 fertility of the alluvial soil, wherever water could 
 be applied to it in due amount. With excess of 
 water it became noisome fen: in defect, it parched 
 to a desert: and there are now large tracts of 
 utter desert within the limits of irrigation. But 
 the two valleys were there, nevertheless, and could 
 bring goods in, if they could not convey them out. 
 They flowed, moreover, as we have just seen, from 
 regions of produce which Babylonia lacked; wine 
 in particular, and olive oil; timber, too, and 
 bitumen from Hit, for building and for water- 
 proofing; and stone, above all. It is difficult for 
 us now to conceive the limitations under which an 
 architect worked, when a stone door-socket was 
 a rich gift of a king to his god, and was rescued 
 from one ruin after another, to be re-used and 
 proudly redcdicated. Then again eastward, be- 
 yond Tigris, there was trade through the foothills 
 to a nearer timber-country, and beyond it to sun- 
 burned lands of spices and drugs. Across the 
 desert, too, you could reach another spice-country 
 in the south ; and westward lay the Red Sea coast, 
 for coral, copper, and other hard stones. In re- 
 turn, what Babylonia had to offer was, first its 
 inexhaustible surplus of foodstuff, corn, and dates; 
 much wool, of finer quality, because better nour- 
 ished, than that of the desert breeds; still richer 
 cargoes of woven woollens, 'Babylonitish gar- 
 ments,' and in due time other kinds of manufac- 
 tures too. It became, also, needless to say, a 
 supreme centre of exchange; a kind of ancient 
 London, whither the world's produce converged 
 into wholesale hands, and was retailed over vast 
 distances by regular correspondents and branch 
 houses. The beasts of burden were the ass and 
 man; camel and horse alike belong to a far later 
 age, the former introduced from Arabia, where 
 it is native, the latter from the east beyond the 
 hills." — J. L. Myres, Dawn of history, pp. 84-96. 
 — See also Commerce: Ancient: B.C. 1500-1000. 
 Historical sources. — "The sources for the his- 
 
 784
 
 BABYLONIA 
 
 Historical Sources 
 Monumental Records 
 
 BABYLONIA 
 
 tory of the Babylonians and Assyrians may be 
 grouped under four main heads: I. The monu- 
 mental remains of the Assyrians and Babylonians 
 themselves; II. The Egyptian hieroglyphic texts; 
 III. The Old Testament; IV. The Greek and Latin 
 writers. Of these four by far the most important 
 in every particular arc the monumental remains 
 of the Babylonians and Assyrians. . . . From the 
 mounds that cover the ancient cities of Babylonia 
 and Assyria there has come a vast store of tab- 
 lets, which now number certainly not less than 
 five hundred thousand in the various museums of 
 the world. These tablets contain the literature of 
 the two pieoples, a literature as varied in form 
 and content as it is vast in extent. In the end all 
 of this literature may be considered as sources lor 
 history. Many business tablets are dated, and 
 from these dates much may be learned for chro- 
 nology, while even in the tablets themselves there 
 is matter relating to the daily life of the people, 
 all of which must ultimately be valuable in the 
 reconstruction of the social history. So also are 
 all religious texts, all omens and incantations, 
 sources for the study of the history of religious 
 development. But the primary sources are the so- 
 called royal inscriptions, those, namely, that were 
 written for kings, for their libraries and collec- 
 tions or for their glorification. These divide, 
 roughly, into two main classes; A. Legendary, and 
 D. Historical and Chronological. The legends 
 begin in mythological explanations of the mysteries 
 of the physical universe and pass on slowly into 
 stories of heroes with whom were mingled various 
 threads of real history. A number of similar 
 legends have been preserved for us in their original 
 cuneiform, of which the myth of Adapa, the king 
 of Kutha, and the legend of the birth of Sargon 
 are excellent examples. From these and similar 
 legends there may, in some instances, be extracted 
 kernels of historic truth not to be overlooked by 
 the serious investigator. The Babylonian historical 
 inscriptions may be divided into two great per- 
 iods: (a) Those belonging to the period before 
 Hammurapi {circa 2000 B.C.), and (b) those 
 from Hamraurapi to Nabonidus (555-539 B.C.). 
 In the first period by far the larger portion of 
 the texts are votive inscriptions, inscribed upon 
 objects of beauty or of value dedicated to the 
 deities, or describing such, or they are building 
 inscriptions primarily given to the description of 
 temples erected by kings or princes to the gods. 
 . . . The only historical material of importance 
 upon such documents as these consists in the 
 names, titles, and more or less extended genealogi- 
 cal connections of the kings. Some, however, of 
 the earlier kings . . . give various details of polit- 
 ical affairs useful in the reconstruction of events. 
 By far the most important, as also the most ex- 
 tended, inscriptions of this early period belong to 
 Gudea, patesi of Lagash (circa 2450 B.C.), whose 
 two great cylinders, the one containing about eight 
 hundred lines of writing and the other about five 
 hundred, give a marvellous picture of the com- 
 mon life and thought and feeling, as well as some 
 details of political life in that far distant age. . . . 
 All these kings wrote in Sumerian. although signs 
 of Semitic influence are not altogether wanting 
 in them. . . . With Hammurapi begins the new 
 period of historical writing, as there also began 
 new political conditions after northern and south- 
 ern Babylonia had been united under his skilful 
 and beneficent sway. From this time onward the 
 language is prevailingly Semitic, but the style and 
 form of the Sumerian records is carefully followed 
 as the norm. . . . From Hammurapi to Nabonidus, 
 a period of about fifteen millenniums, the Baby- 
 Ionian kings wrote always with a deep religious 
 
 tone, and paying almost no heed to miltary glory, 
 wrote ever of the building of temples and palaces, 
 the digging of canals, or other great works of 
 peace. The tone of all these texts is epic rather 
 than historical, and their rhvthm and cadence 
 poetical rather than prosaic. The texts of Ham- 
 murapi are both numerous and lengthy, and from 
 him come also a large number of letters and des- 
 patches, valuable for social and institutional his- 
 tory. No other king of the first Babylonian dy- 
 nasty has left considerable documents except Sam- 
 suiluna. From that time onward there are periods 
 of bloom in historiography in the periods Kassites, 
 the Tellel-Amarna letters (q.v.), and Nebuchad- 
 rezzar I, after whom comes a great dearth of the 
 longer texts. There is a renaissance of such liter- 
 ature again in the days of Shamasshumikin (668- 
 648 B.C.), reaching its height in Nebuchadrezzar 
 II (604-561 B.C.) and Nabonidus (556-540 B.C.). 
 In addition to these historical sources the Babylon- 
 ians and Assyrians have left a great mass of chron- 
 ological material. ... In respect of their value 
 as sources of knowledge these monumental re- 
 mains can only be said to be as valuable r.s the 
 records of other ancient peoples. They bear for 
 the most part the stamp of reasonableness. Often, 
 indeed, do they contain palpable exaggerations of 
 kingly prowess, of victories, and of conquests. 
 They therefore require sifting and rigid criticism. 
 But in most cases it is possible to learn from the 
 issue of the events the relative importance of 
 them, and so be able to check the measure of ex- 
 travagance in the narrative. . . . [See also His- 
 tory: 14.] 
 
 "Egyptian hieroglyphic texts are of very 
 slight importance as direct sources of knowledge 
 concerning the political history of Babylonia and 
 Assyria, but they contain many places and per- 
 sonal names useful in the elucidation of corre- 
 sponding names in Assyrian texts. The gain of the 
 Old Testament has been greater from Assyrian 
 studies than the reverse, though the apologetic 
 value of monumental testimony has often been 
 greatly exaggerated. Nevertheless, it must not be 
 forgotten that it was interest in the Old Testa- 
 ment which inspired most of the early explorers 
 and excavators and some of the earlier decipherers 
 and interpreters, and that from the historical 
 notices in the Old Testament came not a few 
 points for the outworking of details in the newly 
 discovered inscriptions. The historical portions 
 of the Old Testament which are still of importance 
 as sources for Assyrian and Babylonian history are 
 especially 2 Kings, while of even greater impor- 
 tance, in many instances, are the prophets Isaiah, 
 Nahum, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel. It is to be noted 
 that the Old Testament makes direct and valuable 
 contributions as a historical source only from 745 
 B. C, the beginning of the reign of Tiglathpileser 
 IV. The notices of the earlier periods are too 
 vague, or too doubtful, as to the neriod of their 
 origin to be more valuable than as confirmatory 
 or supplementary to the original Babylonian or 
 Assyrian texts. 
 
 "As sources the Greek and Latin writers once 
 held first place, but are now reduced to a very 
 insignificant position by the native monumental 
 records. Nevertheless, they still retain some im- 
 portance, and need constantly to be used to check 
 and control the native writers as well as to assist 
 in the ordering of their more detailed materials. 
 First in importance among all the classical writers 
 stands Berossos, or Berosos, for so the name is 
 also transliterated into Greek. He was a Babylon- 
 ian by origin, and a priest of the great god Bel. 
 The dates of his birth and of his death are equally 
 unknown, but it is clear that he was living in the 
 
 785
 
 BABYLONIA 
 
 Historical Sources 
 Greek Authorities 
 
 BABYLONIA 
 
 days of Alexander the Great (356-323 B.C.), and 
 continued to live at least as late as Antiochus I 
 Soter (280-261 B.C.). [See Seleucidae: B.C. 
 281-224 and B C. 224-187.] He wrote a great 
 work on Babylonian history, the title of which 
 was probably Babyloniaca. ■ ■ ■ Urthappily. the 
 original work has perished, and all that remains 
 is e.xcerpts which have come to us after much 
 copying and many transfers from hand to hand 
 . . . From Berossos but little is to be learned of 
 direct value, but the support which we gain from 
 these fragmentary remains for the general course 
 of the history is very great. . . . The next Greek 
 writer who comes before us as a possible source is 
 Ktesias, a contemporary of Xenophon. He came 
 ... as a prisoner of war to Persia, where he spent 
 seventeen years at the court. ... In 3Qq be re- 
 turned to his native city, and in the ease thus 
 achieved proceeded to work up into historical form 
 the materials he had collected. He wrote In 
 twenty-three books a history of Persia in the Ionic 
 dialect. The first six books treated the history of 
 Assyria and Media. . . . His work was extensively 
 used in the ancient world, and wherever quoted 
 became at once the object of sharp controversy. 
 He was accused of being untrustworthy and in- 
 different to truth, and the charges and the con- 
 troversy continue until today. . . . The first six 
 books, relating to the early history of Assyria, are 
 valueless. . . . The books themselves have per- 
 ished. Only fragments of them survive in the 
 quotations by Diodorus and Eusebius and others, 
 and in an epitome by Pbotius. For our purpose 
 they scarcely come into the question at all. Last 
 of all among the classical writers we come to 
 Herodotus, the father of history. Of the value of 
 his works as a source very diverse opinions have 
 been and are still held. From him surely much 
 was expected. Born in Halicarnassus, in Caria, 
 B. C. 484, he had associations with the greatest 
 men of his time, and apparently planned his history 
 with skill and care. He desired to tell of the 
 famous events in the struggle between the Greek 
 and the barbarian, and this led him to treat of the 
 causes which led to the Persian war. In the very 
 first book (chapters 1-5) he begins with the as- 
 saults of the East upon the West by telling the 
 story of the rape of Helen on the one side and 
 the story of Europa and Media on the other. 
 From this mythological foundation he is carried 
 first to the Lydians, whose king, Croesus, made 
 the first attack upon the Greeks of the .-Egean 
 coast of Asia Minor. From these he passes to the 
 Egyptians, the Babylonians, and the Scythians, 
 who prepare the way for the Persians. . . . The 
 work of Herodotus, as it has come down to ns, 
 divides naturally into three main parts. The first 
 is mainly concerned with Asia, including Egypt, 
 and covers the reigns of Cyrus and Gambyses, with 
 the accession of Darius ; the second deals with 
 Europe, and the third with Hellas. . . . His posi- 
 tion was very different from the modern historian, 
 for he could learn very little from books. He 
 seems, indeed, to have used the Logographi to a 
 certain extent, and among them quite certainly 
 Hecatsus, and probably Xaiillius. and Hcllanicuf. 
 and possibly also Dionysius. From them he had to 
 turn to see what might be learned from visits to 
 the countries which he was to de.*cribe, and whose 
 story he was to tell. His first long journey was 
 probably to Pontus, and the interior of .^sia Minor, 
 and this was probably undertaken before 44S, 
 while he was still a subject of the Persian king. 
 His next great journey was to Phoenicia and south- 
 ern Syria From there he went southward, 
 
 along the coast or always near it to Gaza and the 
 very confines of Egypt at Pclusium, and from 
 
 there he entered Egypt. Before this journey along 
 the coast he had made the great voyage into the 
 heart of ancient kingdoms, starting from Tyre, or 
 from Poseidon on the coast farther north. From 
 this he probably reached the Euphrates and went 
 southward to Babylon upon its waters. So much 
 seems reasonably certain. . . . Professor Sayce has 
 attempted to prove, with much learning and great 
 acuteness, that 'he never visited Assyria and Baby- 
 lonia.' . . . That Professor Sayce has proved upon 
 Herodotus a host of inaccuracies, some travelers' 
 tales, and has effectually disposed of his claims 
 to rank as an independent source of ancient history 
 there can be no doubt. Yet that in this case, as m 
 other similar modern judgments, there is an excess 
 of skepticism is perhaps no less true. There is good 
 reason for believing that Herodotus had really 
 visited Babylon, for the topographical details which 
 he gives bear frequently the stamp of an eyewit- 
 ness. . . . He still remains, what Cicero called 
 him, the father of history, though he also was able 
 to recognize that his books contained material that 
 could hardly be called historical. When this is 
 granted quite freely, and the mistakes, inaccura- 
 cies, and love of marvels have all been mentioned, 
 we have gone far enough. It were better not to 
 have doubted his essential vcracit\', nor to have 
 despised his worth. After these there remain 
 among classical writers few who deserve to be 
 mentioned as sources." — R. W. Rogers, History of 
 Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 377-396. 
 
 Earliest inhabitants. — "If we call up before us 
 the land of Babylonia, and transport ourselves 
 backward until we reach the period of more than 
 four thousand years before Christ, we shall be able 
 to discern here and there signs of life, society, and 
 government in certain cities. Civilization has al- 
 ready reached a high point, the arts of life are 
 well advanced, nnd men are ab'e to write dov.n 
 their thoughts and deeds in intelligible language 
 and in permanent form. .Ml these presuppose a 
 long period of development running back through 
 millenniums of unrecorded time. At this period 
 there are no great kingdoms, comprising many 
 cities, with their laws and customs, with subject ter- 
 ritory and tribute-paying 5tat?3. Over the entire 
 land there are visible, as we look back upon it, 
 only cities dissevered in government, and perhaps 
 in intercourse, but yet the promise of kingdoms 
 still unborn. In Babylonia we know of the ex- 
 istence of the cities .■\gade. Babylon, Kutha, Kish, 
 Umma, Shirpuria (afterward called Lagash), Guti, 
 and yet others less famous. . . . Impelled by re- 
 ligion, by hunger, and by ambition, the peoples of 
 Babylonia, who have dwelt apart in separate 
 cities, begin to add city to city, concentrating 
 power in the hands of kings. Herein lies the origin 
 of the great empire which must later dominate 
 the whole earth, for these little kingdoms thus 
 formed later united under the headship of one 
 kingdom and the empire is founded. At the very 
 earliest period whose written records have come 
 down to us the land which we now call Babylonia 
 was divided into two great parts, of which the 
 southern was later called Sumcr (q.v.) and the 
 northern .Accad (see .^kk.hd), the dividing line 
 between them being approximately drawn from 
 Samarra on the Tigris to Hit on the Euphrates. 
 North of this line Accad is somewhat undulating 
 in surface, and rises gradually to unite with the 
 steppe-like lands of Mesopotamia on the north- 
 western and Assyria on the northeastern slopes. 
 South of this imaginary line lies the monotonously 
 level and alluvial land of Sumer. The earliest 
 Sumerian inhabitants known to us called the 
 northern part of the country, later known as .Accad, 
 by the strange and still unexplained name of Ki-uri 
 
 786
 
 BABYLONIA 
 
 Earliest 
 Inhabitants 
 
 BABYLONIA 
 
 or Ki-urra. In later times the name of the city 
 of Agade was extended by the Semites to cover 
 the whole of the northern land, and was Semitized 
 in the form Akkadu or Accad. The southern part 
 of the country, in which the Sumerians were first 
 settled, they called simply Kartag. ... At the 
 earliest period of which we have knowledge the 
 land of Sumer was inhabited by the rounded- 
 headed, clean-shaven Sumerians, and the land of 
 Accad by the long-headed and bearded Semites. 
 Both of these races were dwelling in cities, with 
 settled agricultural communities about them. The 
 Sumerians were writing upon carefully prepared 
 clay their own language, agglutinative in character, 
 and in a script which they had either devised or 
 at least perfected from an original picture writing. 
 With their language there was early evident some 
 intermixture with or borrowing of Semitic words, 
 and there was presumably also a Semitic element 
 in the population, and racial intermixture already 
 in progress. At this same period Accad was in- 
 habited by Semites who had taken over from 
 their Sumerian neighbors the cumbrous and awk- 
 ward cuneiform script, and were using it to write 
 their own tongue — [see Cuneiform Inscriptions] 
 a language inflected and not agglutinative, and 
 quite unrelated in form and vocabulary to the 
 Sumerian. They also borrowed Sumerian words 
 and adapted them to their own modes of speech. 
 . . . The early history of both Semites and Sumeri- 
 ans is lost in a dim past from which no ray of 
 light has penetrated to our time. The Semites . . . 
 probably came originally from Arabia, but the 
 course they followed is quite unknown. "^ — R. W. 
 Rogers, History of Babylonia and Assyria, 1-4. — 
 See Semites: Primitive Babylonia .^ — "We are now 
 able to trace the history of the Euphrates Valley 
 back to a period considerably beyond 3000 B.C. 
 At that early date there were two distinct ethnic 
 groups forming the main body of the population. 
 As depicted on the monuments and works of art 
 the one group is clean shaven, the other bearded, 
 though not infrequently with the upper lip shaved. 
 The former group is marked by obliquely set eyes 
 and a long but not thick nose, and by thin lips 
 and rather high cheek bones, the other has the 
 fleshy nose and thick lips as well as other features 
 characteristic of the Semitic race. The variation 
 extends to the dress, a flounced garment hanging 
 from the waist in the one case, a plaid thrown 
 across the shoulder and draping the entire body 
 in the other. The group with the racial character- 
 istics of the Semites was known as the Akkadians; 
 the other, a non-Semitic group, but whose pos- 
 sible affinities with other races has not yet been 
 determined, bore the name Sumerian. The centre 
 of the Semitic settlements, at the time when the 
 monumental material comes into view, was in the 
 northern section of the Euphrates Valley, while 
 the strongholds of the Sumerians were in the 
 south. The Semites appear to have entered the 
 valley from the northwest, coming down from the 
 mountain regions of Syria, while the Sumerians — 
 also a people of mountainous origin — probably 
 came from the northwest, though this is still a 
 mooted point. Which of the two groups came 
 first is likewise a question to which as yet no defi- 
 nite answer can be given, though there is much 
 in favor of Eduard Meyer's view that the Semites 
 or Akkadians were the first on the ground and 
 that the Sumerians entered the land as conquerors, 
 holding the Akkadians in subjection for many 
 centuries, until, about 2500 B. C., the tide began 
 to turn. At aliout 2100 B.C. we find the Akka- 
 dians definitely in control in the entire Euphrates 
 Valley and maintaining the suppremacy < ver the 
 Sumerians, though not without some periods of 
 
 temporary reaction especially in the extreme 
 southern section where the Sumerians managed to 
 retain a semblance of political independence. 
 
 "More important than the question of the origi- 
 nal settlement of the Valley is the rivalry between 
 Sumerians and Akkadians which directly stimulated 
 the intellectual qualities of both groups and led 
 to the high order of culture for which the Euphra- 
 tes Valley became distinguished. It will be found 
 to be a general rule that civilizations of the first 
 rank develop through the commingling of the two 
 distinct races, entering into rivalry with each 
 other. Such a commingling develops the best 
 qualities in both. To distinguish in detail the 
 elements contributed bv each as a task that lies 
 beyond the scope of a survey of the religious views 
 and practices unfolded in the Euphrates Valley. 
 Obviously, the share of the Sumerians in the ear- 
 lier periods was far greater. The cuneiform script 
 developing from picture writing is of Sumerian 
 origin. The oldest documents of all kinds are 
 written in Sumerian. Later, when the Akkadians 
 began to obtain control, the script was adapted 
 to conveying thoughts, facts and data in Akkadian, 
 while the Sumerian, though for a long time sur- 
 viving in the cult, became archaic, and even be- 
 fore this stage was reached, was modified by the 
 introduction of Akkadian elements. In return 
 many distinctly Sumerian features passed over 
 into Akkadian, and externally in the use of hun- 
 dreds of characters used ideographically, the 
 ."Akkadian continued to show a Sumerian aspect. 
 In the domain of architecture, one may see the 
 result of the commingling of the two races in the 
 two types of religious edifices that arose in the 
 important centres of the Euphrates Valley, (i) the 
 house as the dwelling of the deity modelled after 
 the human habitation, and (2) the stage tower, 
 a huge brick construction of considerable height 
 with a winding ascent, clearly in imitation of a 
 mountain with a road leading to the top, as the 
 seat of the deity. The house-mot;/ for the temple 
 is of Semitic origin, while the stage tower is the 
 contribution of the Sumerians who, accustomed 
 in their mountain homes to worship their deitie.i 
 on mountain tops, endeavored to symbolize this 
 belief by the imitation of & mountain when they 
 came to a perfectly flat country like the Euphrates 
 Valley." — M. Jastrow, Jr., Religion of Babylonia 
 and Assyria, pp. 50-52. See Architecture: Ori- 
 ental: Mesopotamia. — "Since Sumir, the Shinar of 
 the Bible, was the first part of the country occu- 
 pied by the invading Semites, while Accad long 
 continued to be regarded as the seat of an alien 
 race, the language' and population of primitive 
 Chaldea have been named Accadian by the ma- 
 jority of Assyrian scholars. The part played by 
 these Accadians in the intellectual history of man- 
 kind is highly important. They were the earliest 
 civilizers of Western Asia, and it i.= to them that 
 we have to trace the arts and sciences, the re- 
 ligious traditions and the philosophy not only of 
 the Assyrians, but also of the Phoenicians, the Ara- 
 maeans, and even the Hebrews themselves. It was, 
 too, from Chaldea that the germs of Greek art and 
 of much of the Greek pantheon and mythology 
 originally came. Columnar architecture reached 
 its first and highest development in Babylonia; the 
 lions that still guard the main entrance of My- 
 kerne are distinctly Assyrian in character; and the 
 Greek Heraklcs with his twelve labours finds his 
 prototype in the hero of the great Chaldean eoic. 
 It is difficult to say how much of our present cul- 
 ture is not owed to the stunted, oblique-eyed 
 people of ancient Babylonia ; Jerusalem and Athens 
 are the sacred cities of our modern life; and both 
 Jerusalem and Athens were profoundly influenced 
 
 787
 
 BABYLONIA 
 
 Inhabitants 
 Religion 
 
 BABYLONIA 
 
 by the ideas which had their first starting-point in 
 primival Accad. The Semite has ever been a 
 trader and an intermediary, and his earhest work 
 was the precious trade in spiritual and mental 
 wares. Babylonia was the home and mother of 
 Semitic culture and Semitic inspiration; the 
 Phcenicians never forgot that they were a colony 
 from the Persian Gulf, while the Israelite recounted 
 that his father Abraham had been born in Ur of 
 the Chaldees, Almost the whole of the .Assyrian 
 literature was derived from Accad, and translated 
 from the dead language of primitive Chaldea."— 
 A. H. Sayce, Babylonian literature, pp. 6-7, and in 
 his Ancient empires of the East, app. 2. — ''The 
 place of China in the past and future is not that 
 which it was long supposed to be. Recent re- 
 searches have disclosed that its civilization, like 
 ours, was variously derived from the same old 
 focus of culture of south-western .Asia. ... It was 
 my good fortune to be able to show, in an un- 
 interrupted series of a score or so of papers in 
 periodicals, of communications to the Royal Asi- 
 atic Society and elsewhere, published and unpub- 
 lished, and of contributions to several works since 
 .April 1880, downwards, that the writing and some 
 knowledge of arts, science and government of the 
 early Chinese, more or less enumerated below, 
 were derived from the old civilization of Babylonia, 
 through the secondary focus of Susiana, and that 
 this derivation was a social fact, resulting not from 
 scientific teaching but from practical intercourse of 
 some length between the Susian confederation and 
 the future civilizers of the Chinese, the Bak tribes, 
 w'ho, from their neighbouring settlements in the N., 
 moved eastwards at the time of the great rising 
 of the XXIII. century B.C. Coming again in the 
 field. Dr. J. Edkins has joined me on the same line." 
 — T. de Lacouperie, Babylonia and China (Academy, 
 Aug. 7, 1880.) — "We could enumerate a long series 
 of affinities between Chaldean culture and Chinese 
 civilization, although the last was not borrowed 
 directly. From what evidence we have, it seems 
 highly probable that a certain number of families 
 or of tribes, without any apparent generic namj, 
 but among which the Kutta filled an important 
 position, came to China about the year 2500 B.C. 
 These tribes, which came from the West, 'vere 
 obliged to quit the neighbourhood, probably noith 
 of the Susiana, and were comprised in the feudal 
 agglomeration of that region, where they must 
 have been influenced by the .Akkado-Chaldean cul- 
 ture." — T. de Lacouperie, Early history of Chinese 
 civilization, p. 32. — See also China: Origin of the 
 People. 
 
 Religion. — From animism " to polytheism.— 
 "The Babylonian-.Assyrian religion in its oldest 
 form as revealed by the votive inscriptions of 
 Sumcrian rulers and by specimens of literature that 
 may with great probability be carried back to the 
 earliest period, is long past the stage of primitive 
 beliefs, though it shows traces that in its concep- 
 tion of divine government of the universe it started 
 from what is commonly termed animism. By this 
 term is meant a view of nature ascribing life to 
 all phenomena and ot the same order as th? vital 
 force that manifest?, itself in human and animal 
 activity. Under this view the gods worshipped 
 by man are personifications cillicr of phenomena 
 of nature or of objects in nature, primarilv the 
 sun, the moon, the storm 'with its accompanim3nt 
 of rain, thunder and lightning), the earth, water 
 (including streams and wells), trees and rocks 
 Religion being the partly emotional, partly intel- 
 lectual response to an instinct, confirmed bv ex- 
 perience, that man is not the .irbiter of his fate, 
 it is natural for him to make the effort to sup- 
 plement his inherent and self-evident weakness In 
 
 the presence of nature by securing the aid of 
 powers upon whose favor he is dependent. The 
 storm destroys his handiwork, and therefore to 
 avoid the catastrophe he seeks the favor of the 
 power manifesting itself in the storm. The stream 
 may sink his primitive craft and therefore, before 
 trusting himself to the treacherous element, he 
 endeavors to assure himself of the favor of the 
 spirit or power residing in the water. When he 
 advances to the agricultural stage, the earth and 
 the sun are the two forces that in the main condi- 
 tion his welfare; and as a consequence he personi- 
 fies the earth as a mother in whose womb the seed 
 has been placed, which with the cooperation of 
 the sun is brought to fruition. Starting from this 
 animistic conception of nature, the Sumerians and 
 .Akkadians developed a pantheon, all the members 
 of which take their rise as personified powers of 
 nature. In thus grouping the gods into a more or 
 less definite relationship — and that is involved in 
 the creation of a pantheon — the religion passes be- 
 yond the animistic stage. The gods in the larger 
 centres become, primarily, the protectors of the 
 place, and as the group enlarges its geographical 
 boundaries, the jurisdiction and the attributes of 
 a local god are correspondingly increased. He be- 
 comes, irrespective of his original character, the 
 protector of the fields, the guardian of the army; 
 it is he who gives victory over the enemy and 
 when misfortunes come, it is the god who sends 
 the punishment because of anger that has been 
 aroused in him. The combination of little groups 
 into a powerful state brings about further changes, 
 and as one state comes to exercise a sovereignty 
 over other combinations of groups, the gods of 
 the various localities are organized after the pat- 
 tern of human society into a royal court with 
 gradations in rank, corresponding to the class dis- 
 tinctions that grow in complication as combina- 
 tions of groups result in the formation of a po- 
 litical unit. 
 
 "Of the chief local gods which thus take on a 
 larger character we may single out Enki, whom 
 the Akkadians designated as Ea, and who from 
 being the patron deity of Eridu, lying at the head 
 of 'he Persian Gulf, becomes the god of waters 
 in general. Another deity, Enlil, originally a storm- 
 god and associated with the old Sumerian centre. 
 Nippur, becomes the head of the Sumerian pan- 
 theon because of the importance which Nippur ac- 
 quired, in part political, in part due to the posi- 
 tion of Nippur as a religious centre. .As such, 
 Enlil acquires attributes originally foreign to his 
 nature. He becomes an agricultural deity and is 
 addressed in terms which show that he has ab- 
 sorbed the power ascribed to the sun and water 
 as well. .At Shirpuria, another Sumerian centre, 
 the chief deity is Ningirsu [Ninib], a personifica- 
 tion of the sun, who becomes a powerful warrior, 
 with a mighty net in which he catches the soldiers 
 of the enemy. In the later period Marduk, again 
 a solar deit\', as the patron of the city of Baby- 
 lon, becomes supreme over all the gods when 
 Babylon rises to the position of the capital of the 
 Babylonian empire. With this step, finally 
 achieved by the great Hammurapi (2125-2081 
 B. C), the attributes of all the other great gods are 
 bestowed on Marduk, and such tendencies toward 
 a monotheistic conception of the universe as are 
 to be noted in the course of the development of 
 the Babylonian religion gather about his cult. The 
 proximity of Borsippa to Babylon (lying almost 
 opposite the latter) brought about a close asso- 
 ciation between Marduk and the local deity of 
 Borsippa, known as Nabu INebo], who may have 
 been originally a personification of the watery 
 element — perhaps the god of the Euphrates more 
 
 788
 
 BABYLONIA 
 
 Polytheism 
 Creation Myths 
 
 BABYLONIA 
 
 particularly. The relationship between Marduk 
 and Nabu i5 pictured as that of father to son, and 
 to such an extent are the original traits of Nabu 
 obscured that he becomes merely a somewhat 
 pale reflection of Marduk — a junior Marduk by 
 the side of a senior. In the same way we have in 
 the many other iocahties of southern and northern 
 Babylonia deities closely associated with a place 
 as patron and guardian who are originally per- 
 sonifications of the sun, moon, water, earth or the 
 storm, but whose original character tends to be- 
 come obscured through one circumstance or an- 
 other, concomitant with changes in the political 
 kaleidoscope and with advancing social conditions. 
 
 "It thus happens that a widely diffused poly- 
 theism continues to be the striking feature of the 
 Babylonian-Assyrian religion, despite the counter 
 endeavors to devise theological systems that aimed 
 to reduce the many gods to a limited number of 
 superior powers in actual control of the universe. 
 Between these two tendencies, the one towards pro- 
 viding a place for literally hundreds of deities, the 
 other towards concentrating actual divine power in 
 a limited number, the Babylonian-Assyrian reli- 
 gion runs its course The former tendency leads 
 further towards recognizing, besides hundreds of 
 deities, a large number of minor divine beings, 
 demons pictured in human or animal form to whom 
 diseases and all kinds of mishaps are assigned. 
 The latter tendency has its outcome in the division 
 of divine government among three powers. There 
 are several groups of such triads. Foremost stands 
 a triad composed of Anu, to whom the control of 
 the heavens is assigned; Enlil, who rules the earth 
 and the atmosphere above it, and Ea, who rep- 
 resents the watery element surrounding the earth, 
 and on which the earth is supposed to float like a 
 rubber ball. In the case of all three gods all local 
 limitations have entirely disappeared, as have all 
 traces of the specific power of nature originally 
 personified by each of them. Less artificial in 
 character and of more practical import is another 
 triad frequently occurring in inscriptions and in- 
 variably depicted by symbols on the boundary 
 stones, consisting of Sin, the moon-god, Shamash, 
 the sun-god, and Ishtar, the planet Venus, symbol- 
 izing the great mother goddess, the source of life 
 and fertility. These three gods represent the 
 chief powers upon which man is dependent, sum- 
 ming up, as it were, the chief protectors of human 
 life and the chief guides of his being. In place of 
 Ishtar, Adad, a general god of storm? who never 
 appears to have had any specific local cult, is in- 
 troduced, and not infrequently we have, instead 
 of a triad, a group of four, — Sin, Shamash, Adad 
 and Ishtar, in which combination the latter rep- 
 resents the female element in general, essential as 
 a complement to the male to produce the mani- 
 festation of life in the universe. 
 
 "The gods exist according to the Babylonian- 
 Assyrian point of view in order to be worshiped. 
 They feel lonely without temples, and in one of 
 the accounts of creation the gods are represented 
 as creating mankind in order to have temples and 
 worshipers. In return, the gods act as protectors 
 of humanity, although in the early period of pre- 
 dominating local cults each god is interested only 
 in those who dwell within his jurisdiction. Suc- 
 cess in undertakings, good crops, business ventures, 
 health, possessions, victory in arms — all come 
 through the favor of the gods. The aim of the 
 cult, therefore, is to secure and happily to retain 
 the good-will of the gods. The gods must be 
 kept in good humor. They crave homage, and 
 woe to the ruler or people who neglect to pay the 
 proper respect to the gods. By a natural corol- 
 lary, all misfortunes are ascribed to the anger of 
 
 the gods. Bad crops, defeat in battle, pestilence, 
 destructive storms, mishaps of all kinds, including 
 failure in business, are the punishments sent by 
 offended gods. The theory was a convenient one, 
 for it shifted the responsibility from one's own 
 shoulders for ill-fortune and placed it on the gods, 
 but on the other hand there was also some reason 
 for the anger of the superior powers, albeit one 
 was not always able to fathom it. This theory of 
 the alternate favor and anger of the gods formed 
 the basis of religious ethics as well ; it dominates 
 the view taken of sin, for sin meant the commis- 
 sion of an act or an omission of one, resulting 
 in arousing the anger of some deity. Such an 
 omission might consist in not bringing tribute of 
 in not asking for his assistance in any undertaking, 
 while the commission might be an error in pro- 
 nouncing certain formulje or a mistake in the 
 performance of some religious rite. By the side of 
 such acts or misdeeds, not involving a breach of 
 ethics from our point of view, there were also 
 actual transgressions, such as lying, cheating, steal- 
 ing, adultery, treachery, cruelty, failure to show 
 proper consideration for one's parents or for one's 
 fellows or neglect of other duties that would arouse 
 the displeasure of a god. The genuine ethical 
 element thus enters into the religion, but it is 
 characteristic of the status of the religion that 
 down to the latest period no distinction is made 
 between an ethical misdeed and a purely ritualistic 
 transgression or omission. The appeal to the gods 
 was made by certain acts and rites, more or less 
 symbolical, accompanied by the recital of certain 
 formula supposed to have the power of making a 
 direct appeal either for the manifestation of di- 
 vine power or for the removal of a god's dis- 
 pleasure. The aspects of the cult thus resulting 
 may be grouped under two categories, (i) incan- 
 tations, shading off into prayers and hymns, ac- 
 companied by rites to symbolize the release of a 
 sufferer from disease or from some other evil, and 
 (2) divination methods to ascertain the disposi- 
 tion and by implication the intention of a deity, 
 and thus to forestall impending evil, or at all 
 events to be prepared for the blow, if it was in- 
 evitable." — M. Jastrow, Jr., Religion of Assyria 
 and Babylonia, pp. 53-63. — See also Assyria: 
 People, religion and early history; Religion: B.C. 
 2000-200. 
 
 Creation myths. — "In Babylonia and Assyria 
 various creation myths were developed. One of 
 the oldest assumes the existence of the earth and 
 narrates the building of cities and the develop- 
 ment of agriculture. Another, which is known 
 only through the broken tablet written about 2100 
 B. C, attributes the creation of the world to the 
 triad Anu, Bel, and Ea, together with the goddess 
 Ninkharsag, while Nintu or Ishtar created man- 
 kind. The best known of these myths was in late 
 Assyrian and Babylonian times developed into an 
 epic in seven tablets or cantos. The essence of 
 this story is that Tiamat, the great mother-dragon 
 of the sea, determined to destroy the gods whom 
 she had borne. They then chose one of their 
 number, Marduk, to fight her; he overcame her, 
 split her in two, and formed of one part of her 
 the heavens and of the other the earth. This is 
 evidence that in substance this myth is very old 
 and that, in earlier forms of it, Enlil of Nippur 
 and Ea of Eridu had stood in place of Marduk. 
 In still another creation-myth the god Ashur is 
 the chief actor. Such a myth was the natural 
 product of lower Babylonia, where, on account of 
 the annual overflow of the rivers, the sea seems 
 to come and try to overwhelm the land. Other 
 myths relate to various matters. Two are con- 
 cerned with the acquisition of knowledge on the 
 
 789
 
 BABYLONIA 
 
 Civic Life 
 Early Monarchy 
 
 BABYLONIA 
 
 part of man. According to one of these, pre- 
 served to us by Berosos, Oannes (a late name for 
 Ea) was a fish-god who lived in the water at 
 night, but came up by day and taught men ag- 
 riculture, horticulture, the art of building houses, 
 and how to make laws. According to another, 
 called the Adapa-myth, Ea feared lest man, who 
 had become intelligent, should partake of the food 
 of the gods and become immortal. At a time 
 when Ea knew that other gods would offer Adapa 
 such food he warned Adapa not to partake of it, 
 lest it destroy him. Adapa obeyed Ea and thus 
 missed immortality. These myths reflect the feel- 
 ing that, whije the gods are willing to help man 
 up to a certain point, they are jealous of his too 
 great advancement." — G. A. Barton, Religions of 
 the world, pp. 26-28. 
 
 Social structure. — Temple as civic center. — 
 "With manufactures and commerce standing so 
 high in the economy of Babylonia, it is not to be 
 wondered at if the social structure of the country 
 developed some of the same features as begin to 
 perplex our modern world. In particular, the 
 right was fully recognized, to practise industry 
 and skill and enjoy the fruits of them, irrespective 
 of sex. Not only was the status of married women 
 high (for their partnership was valued) and their 
 freedom great, but a distinct industrial status had 
 been found for unmarried women, in large co- 
 operative societies under religious sanction, with 
 vows of celibacy and strict attention to business. 
 Unlike mediaeval nuns, however, members of these 
 orders were free mistresses of their time and la- 
 bour: they lived where they would and worked 
 at what they liked, insured by their membership, 
 so long as they kept their vows, and paid their 
 dues. The only social distinctions were those be- 
 tween slaves and freemen, and between landless 
 (which practically meant industrial) persons, and 
 land owners. The latter class included all public 
 servants, because public services, as in medieval 
 Europe, were rewarded, not by salaries, but by a 
 grant of land sufficient to maintain the official and 
 meet the expenses of his duty. Privilege entailed 
 responsibility ; and offenders were punished more 
 heavily if they belonged to the 'upper classes'; 
 doctors' fees were graduated, too, according to 
 the status of the patient. .\t the other end of the 
 scale, slaves could save, hold property, and buy 
 their freedom ; their state, as throughout the an- 
 cient world, was at bottom a compulsory initiation 
 into culture higher than their own. 
 
 "Each Babylonian city centred round the temple 
 of its patron god; and the antiquity of this whole 
 system of society is nowhere better illustrated than 
 in the overwhelming power of the temple authori- 
 ties. It recalls more nearly the despotism of the 
 priest-kings of the Twenty-first Dynasty than any 
 earlier phase in the growth of society in Egypt. 
 The chief priest of the temple was ruler of the 
 city. When conquests took place, and Babylonian 
 empires were built up, the conqueror provided all 
 the viceroys he required, by appointing a man 
 whom he could trust, to be chief priest in each 
 place. This personal rule was well suited to the 
 needs of such cities. In a close-knit industrial so- 
 ciety, preeminent ability discovers itself, incompe- 
 tence is found out: and as the patron god was at 
 the same time largest landlord, chief employer, and 
 master merchant, he had the largest interest of any 
 one in the selection of an efficient minister. In 
 this way a city got approximately the government 
 it de.served. It is to the centralized personal re- 
 sponsibility, which is the mainspring of these 
 simple constitutions, that we owe a large part of 
 our knowledge of their working, through the co- 
 pious official correspondence which passed between 
 
 over-lords like Hammurabi and his viceroys, or 
 the natural pride of an administrator like Gudea 
 of Tello, in recording his own efficiency. The 
 temple formed a distinct quarter of the city, and 
 had usually a distinctive name. It consisted of an 
 artificial mound, high enough, like the 'Tower of 
 Babel' itself, to out-top the severest inundation, 
 with a platform large enough to contain the house 
 of the god, which was exactly modelled on the 
 palace of a king, just as his daily service was, on 
 the routine of a royal household. The deity takes 
 his meals, hears music, sleeps, walks in his garden 
 or tends his pet animals, just like a human sov- 
 ereign. If he is not there when you call upon 
 him, it is because he is a-hunting, like Baal on 
 Carmel. Below clustered the stores, workshops, 
 and dwellings of the temple servants, who included 
 masons, smiths, and other industrials: as well as 
 the quarters of the lay population. Other im- 
 portant buildings occupied similar platforms. Orig- 
 inally perhaps these mounds were the normal ac- 
 cumulation of ages of debris, more copious than 
 ever when architecture was almost wholly in mud; 
 but in later times they seem to have been faced 
 with decorative brickwork and adapted as flood- 
 platforms, like those of the temples. .\ny building 
 in fact which was intended to last, had perforce 
 to be defended so. in this home-country of the del- 
 uge. But the ordinary houses were not worth 
 preserving long. They were the merest hovels of 
 mud-brick, little more than sleeping-rooms and 
 shelters from the sun, with verandahs of shittim- 
 wood from the fen poplar. Baked brick was in- 
 deed in use, even in the earliest layers, but mainly 
 for palaces and temples. In the absence of na- 
 tive stone, sculpture was a rarity; and the Euphra- 
 tes mud bakes to a dull brown, which defies 
 decoration. Of all the great civilizations, Baby- 
 lonia alone contributes nothing essential to the 
 potter's art." — J. L. Myres, Damn of history, pp. 
 q8-ioo. — See also Temples; Stage of culture rep- 
 resented by temple architecture. 
 
 Early (Chaldean) monarchy. — "Our earliest 
 glimpse of the political condition of Chaldea shows 
 us the country divided into numerous small states, 
 each headed by a great city, made famous and 
 powerful by the sanctuary or temple of some par- 
 ticular deity, and ruled by a patesi. a title which 
 is now thought to mean priest-king, i.e., priest and 
 king in one. There can be little doubt that the 
 beginning of the city was ever>vvhere the temple, 
 with its college of ministering priests, and that the 
 surrounding settlement was gradually formed by 
 pilgrims and worshippers. That royalty developed 
 out of the priesthood is also more than probable. 
 . . . There comes a time when for the title of 
 patesi ,s substituted that of king. ... It is notice- 
 able that the distinction between the Semitic new- 
 comers and the indigenous Shumiro-.Accadians con- 
 tinues long to be traceable in the names of the 
 royal temple-builders, even after the new Semitic 
 idiom, which we call the .'\ssyrian, had entirely 
 ousted the old language. . . . Furthermore, even 
 superfical observation shows that the old language 
 and the old names survive longest in Shumir, — the 
 South. From this fact it is to be inferred with 
 little chance of mistake that the North, — the land 
 of Accad, — was earlier Semitized, that the Semitic 
 immigrants established their first headquarters in 
 that part of the country, that their power and 
 influence thence spread to the South . Fully in ac- 
 cordance with these indications, the first grand his- 
 torical figure that meets us at the threshold of 
 Chaldean history, dim with the mists of ages and 
 fabulous traditions, yet unmistakably real, is that 
 of the Semite Sharrukin, king of Accad, or Agade, 
 as the great Northern city came to be called — more 
 
 790
 
 BABYLONIA 
 
 Position of Babylon 
 First Empire 
 
 BABYLONIA 
 
 generally known in history under the corrupt mod- 
 ern reading of Sargon, and called Sargon I., 'the 
 First,' to distinguish him from a very famous 
 Assyrian monarch of the same name who reigned 
 many centuries later. As to the city of Agade, it 
 is no other than the city of Accad mentioned in 
 Genesis x, lo. It was situated close to the Euphra- 
 tes on a wide canal just opposite Sippar, so that 
 in time the two cities came to be considered as 
 one double city, and the Hebrews always called 
 it 'the two Sippars' — Sepharvaim, which is often 
 spoken of in the Bible. . . . The tremendously an- 
 cient date of 3800 B. C. is now generally accepted 
 for Sargon of Agade — perhaps the remotest au- 
 thentic date yet arrived at in history." — Z. A. 
 Ragozin, Story oj Chaldea, cli. 4. — See also Akkad; 
 Assyria; Chaldaea; Elam; Khassites; Sumer. 
 
 Also in: G. Rawlinson, Five great monarchies: 
 Chaldea, ch. 8. 
 
 Position and importance of Babylon (q.v.).— 
 "This continued preeminence of a single city is in 
 striking contrast to the ephemeral authority of ear- 
 lier capitals, and it can only be explained by some 
 radical change in the general conditions of the 
 country. One fact stands out clearly: Babylon's 
 geographical position must have endowed her dur- 
 ing this period with a strategical and commercial 
 importance which enabled her to survive the rudest 
 shocks to her material prosperity. A glance at the 
 map will show that the city lay in the north of 
 Babylonia, just below the confluence of the two 
 great rivers in their lower course. Built originally 
 on the left bank of the Euphrates, she was pro- 
 tected by its stream from any sudden incursion 
 of the desert tribes. At the same time she was in 
 immediate contact with the broad expanse of al- 
 luvial plain to the south-east, intersected by its 
 network of canals. But the real strength of her 
 position lay in her near neighbourhood to the 
 trans-continental routes of traffic. When approach- 
 ing Baghdad from the north the Mesopotamian 
 plain contracts to a width of some thirty-live 
 miles, and, although it has already begun to ex- 
 pand again in the latitude of Babylon, that 
 city was well within touch of both rivers. She 
 consequently lay at the meeting-point of two great 
 avenues of commerce. The Euphrates route linked 
 Babylonia with Northern Syria and the Mediter- 
 ranean, and was her natural line of contact with 
 Egypt ; it also connected her with Cappadocia, by 
 way to the Cilician Gates through the Taurus, 
 along the track of the later Royal Road. Farther 
 north the trunk-route through Anatolia from the 
 west, reinforced by tributary routes from the 
 Black Sea, turns at Sivas on the Upper Halys, and 
 after crossing the Euphrates in the mountains, 
 first strikes the Tigris at Diarbekr; then leaving 
 that river for the easier plain, it rejoins the 
 stream in the neighbourhood of Nineveh and so 
 advances southward to Susa or to Babylon. A 
 third great route thSt Babylon controlled was that 
 to the east through the Gates of Zatros, the 
 easiest point of penetration to the Iranian plateau 
 and the natural outlet of commerce from Northern 
 Elam. Babylon thus lay across the stream of the 
 nations' traffic, and in the direct path of any 
 invader advancing upon the southern plains. That 
 she owed her importance to her strategic position, 
 and not to any particular virtue on the part of 
 her inhabitants, will be apparent from the later 
 history of the country. It has indeed been pointed 
 out that the geographical conditions render neces- 
 sary the existence of a great urban centre near the 
 confluence of the Mesopotamian rivers. And this 
 fact is amply attested by the relative positions of 
 the capital cities, which succeeded one another in 
 that region after the supremacy had passed from 
 
 Babylon. Seleucia, Ctesiphon and Baghdad are 
 all clustered in the narrow neck of the Mesopo- 
 tamian plain, and for only one short period, when 
 normal conditions were suspended, has the centre 
 of government been transferred to any southern 
 city. The sole change has consisted in the per- 
 manent selection of the Tigris for the site of each 
 new capital, with a decided tendency to remove 
 it to the left or eastern bank. That the Euphrates 
 should have given place in this way to her sister 
 river was natural enough in view of the latter's 
 deeper channel and better water way, which gained 
 in significance as soon as the possibility of mari- 
 time communication was contemplated." — L. W. 
 King, History of Babylon, pp. 4-5. — See also 
 Mesopotamia. 
 
 First Babylonian empire. — "The rise of Baby- 
 lon to a position of preeminence among the war- 
 ring dynasties of Sumer and Akkad may be re- 
 garded as sealing the final triumph of the Semite 
 over the Sumerian. His survival in the long ra- 
 cial contest was due to the reinforcements he re- 
 ceived from men of his own stock, whereas the 
 Sumerian population, when once settled in the 
 country, was never afterwards renewed. The great 
 Semitic wave, under which the Sumerian sank and 
 finally disappeared, reached the Euphrates from 
 the coast-lands of the Eastern Mediterranean. 
 But the Amurru, or Western Semites, like their 
 predecessors in Northern Babylonia, had come orig- 
 inally from Arabia. For it is now generally rec- 
 ognized that the Arabian peninsula was the first 
 home and cradle of the Semitic peoples. [See 
 Semites: Primitive.] 
 
 ' "There is no doubt that Sumu-la-ilum was the 
 real founder of Babylon's greatness as a military 
 power. We have the testimony of his later de- 
 scendant Samsuiluna to the strategic importance 
 of the fortresses he built to protect his country's 
 extended frontier; and, though DQr-Zakar of Nip- 
 pur is the only one the position of which can be 
 approximately iSentified, we may assume that the 
 majority of these lay along the east and south sides 
 of Akkad, where the greatest danger of invasion 
 was to be anticipated. It does not seem that 
 Nippur itself passed at this time under more than 
 a temporary control by Babylon, and we may as- 
 sume that, after his successful raid, Sumu-la-ilum 
 was content to remain within the limits of Akkad, 
 which he strengthened with' his line of forts. In 
 his late years he occupied the city of Barzi, anfl 
 conducted some further military operations, de- 
 tails of which we have not recovered; but those 
 were the last efforts on Babylon's part for more 
 than a generation. The pause in expansion gave 
 Babylon the opportunity of husbanding her re- 
 sources, after the first effort of conquest had been 
 rendered permanent in its effect by Sumu-la-ilum. 
 His two immediate successors, Zabum and Apil- 
 Sin, occupied themselves with the internal admin- 
 istration of their kingdom and confined their miU- 
 tary activities to keeping the frontier intact. Za- 
 bum indeed records a successful attack on Kazallu, 
 no doubt necessitated by renewed aggression on 
 that city's part ; but his other most notable 
 achievements were the fortification of Kar-Sha- 
 mash, and the construction of a canal or reservoir. 
 Equally uneventful was the reign of Apil-Sin, for 
 though Dur-muti, the wall of which he rebuilt, 
 may have been acquired as the result of conquest, 
 he too was mainly occupied with the consolidation 
 and improvement of the territory already won. 
 He strengthened the walls of Barzi and Babylon, 
 cut two canals, and rebuilt some of the great 
 temples. As a result of her peaceful development 
 during this period the country was rendered capa- 
 ble of a still greater struggle, which was to free 
 
 791
 
 BABYLONIA 
 
 Great Rulers 
 Hammurabi 
 
 BABYLONIA 
 
 Sumer and Akkad from a foreign domination, and, 
 by overcoming the invader, was to place Babylon 
 for a time at the head of a more powerful and 
 united empire than had yet been seen on the banks 
 of the Euphrates. The country's new foe was her 
 old rival, Elam, who more than once before had 
 by successful invasion affected the course of Baby- 
 lonian affairs. But on this occasion she did more 
 than raid, harry, and return: she annexed the city 
 of Larsa, and by using it as a centre of control, 
 attempted to extend her influence over the whole 
 of Sumer and Akkad. It was at the close of Apil- 
 Sin's reign at Babylon that Kudur-Mabuk, the 
 ruler of Western Elam, known at this period as 
 the land of Emutbal, invaded Southern Babylonia 
 and, after deposing Sili-Adad of Larsa, installed 
 his own son Warad-Sin upon the throne. It is a 
 testimony to the greatness of this achievement, 
 that Larsa had for some time enjoyed over Nisin 
 the position of leading city in Sumer. Nur-Adad, 
 the successor of Sumu-la-ilum, had retained control 
 of the neighbouring city of Ur, and, though Enlil- 
 bani of Nisin had continued to lay claim to be 
 King of Sumer and Akkad, this proud title was 
 wrested from Zambia or his successor by Sin-idin- 
 nam, Nur-Adad's son. Sin-idinnam, indeed, on 
 bricks from Mukayyar in the British Museum 
 makgs a reference to the military achievements by 
 which he had won the position for his city. In 
 the text his object is to record the rebuilding of the 
 Moon-god's temple in Ur, but he relates that he 
 carried out this work after he had made the 
 foundation of the throne of Larsa secure and had 
 smitten the whole of his enemies with the sword. 
 It is probable that his three successors on tie 
 throne, who reigned for less than ten years be- 
 tween them, failed to maintain his level of achieve- 
 ment, and that Sin-magir recovered the hegemony 
 for Nisin. But Ur, no doubt, remained under 
 Larsajs administration, and it was no mean nor 
 inferior city that Kudur-Mabuk seized and oc- 
 cupied. ... At first Kudur-Mabuk's footing in 
 Sumer was confined to the city of Larsa, though 
 even then he laid claim to the title Adda of 
 Amurru, a reference to be explained perhaps by 
 the suggested Amorite origin of the Larsa and 
 Nisin dynasties, and reflecting a claim to the suze- 
 rainty of the land from which his northern foes 
 at any rate boasted their origin. Warad-Sin, on 
 ascending the throne, assumed merely the title 
 King of Larsa, but we soon find him becoming 
 the patron of Ur, and building a great fortifica- 
 tion-wall in that city. He then extended his au- 
 thority to the south and east, Eridu, Lagash, and 
 Girsu all falling before his arms or submitting to 
 his suzerainty. During this period Babylon re- 
 mained aloof in tjie north, and Sin-muballit is oc- 
 cupied with cutting canals and fortifying cities, 
 some of which he perhaps occupied for the first 
 time. It was cnSy in his fourteenth year, after 
 Warad-Sin had been succeeded at Larsa by his 
 brother Rim-Sin, that we have evidence of Baby- 
 lon taking an active part in opposing Elamite pre- 
 tensions. In that year Sin-muballit records that 
 he slew the army of Ur with a sword, and, since 
 we know that Ur was at this time a vassal-city of 
 Larsa, it is clear that the army referred to was 
 one of those under Rim-Sin's command. Three 
 years later he transferred his attention from Larsa 
 to Nisin, then under the control of Damik-ilishu, 
 the son and successor of Sin-magir. On that oc- 
 casion Sin-muballit commemorates his conquest of 
 Nisin, but it must have been little more than a 
 victory in the field, for Damik-ilishu lost neither 
 his city nor his independence. In the last year 
 of his reign we find Sin-muballit fighting on the 
 other front, and claiming to have slain the army 
 
 of Larsa with the sword. It is clear that in these 
 last seven years of his reign Babylon proved her- 
 self capable of checking any encroachments to the 
 north on the part of Larsa and the Elamites, and, 
 by a continuance of the policy of fortifying her 
 vassal-cities, she paved the way for a more vigor- 
 ous offensive on the part of Hammurabi, Sin- 
 muballit's son and successor. Meanwhile the un- 
 fortunate city of Nisin was between two fires, 
 though for a few years longer Damik-ilishu suc- 
 ceeded in beating off both his opponents." — 
 L. W. King, History of Babylon, pp. 119, 148- 
 160. 
 
 Hammurabi. — His character and achievements. 
 — "The military successes of Hammurabi fall 
 within two clearly defined periods, the first during 
 the five years which followed his sixth year of 
 rule at Babylon, and a second period, of ten 
 years' duration, beginning with the thirteenth of 
 his reign. On his accession he appears to have in- 
 augurated the reforms in the internal administra- 
 tion of the country, which culminated towards 
 the close of his life in the promulgation of his 
 famous Code of Laws ; for he commemorated his 
 second year as that in which he established right- 
 eousness in the land. The following years were 
 uneventful, the most important royal acts being 
 the installatioii of the chief-priest in Kashbaran. 
 the building of a wall for the Gagum, or great 
 Cloister of Sippar, and of a temple to Nannar in 
 Babylon. But with his seventh year we find his 
 first reference to a tnilitary campaign in a claim 
 to the capture of Erech and Nisin. This tem- 
 porary success against Damik-ilishu of Nisin was 
 doubtless a menace to the plans of Rim-Sin at 
 Larsa, and it would appear that Kudur-Mabuk 
 came to the assistance of his son by threatening 
 Babylon's eastern border. At any rate Hammur- 
 abi records a conflict with the land of Emutbal in 
 his eighth year, and, though the attack appears 
 to have been successfully repulsed with a gain 
 of territory to Babylon, the diversion was suc- 
 cessful. Rim-Sin took advantage of the respite 
 thus secured to renew his attack with increased 
 vigour upon Nisin, and in the following year, 
 the seventeenth of his own reign, the famous 
 city fell, and Larsa under her Elamite ruler se- 
 cured the hegemony in the whole of Central and 
 Southern Babylonia. Rim-Sin's victory must have 
 been a severe blow to Babylon, and it would seem 
 that she made no attempt at first to recover her 
 position in the south, since Hammurabi occupied 
 himself with a raid on MalgCim in the west and 
 with the capture of the cities of Rabikum and 
 Shalibi. But these were the last successes during 
 his first military period, and for nineteen years 
 afterwards Babylon achieved nothing of a similar 
 nature to commemorate in her date-iormuLt For 
 the most part the yeaKS are named after the dedi- 
 cation of statues and the building and enrichment 
 of temples. One canal was cut, and the process 
 of fortification went on, Sippar especially beina 
 put in a thorough state of defence. But the nega- 
 tive evidence supplied by the formulae iot this 
 period suggests that it was one in which Babylon 
 completely failed in any attempt she may have 
 made to hinder the growth of Larsa's power in 
 the south. [See also Elam.1 It was not until 
 nearly a generation had passed, after Rim-Sin's 
 capture of Nisin, that Hammurabi made any head- 
 way against the Elamit'C domination, which for 
 so long had arrested afly increase in the power of 
 Babylon. But his success, when it came, was com- 
 plete and enduring. In his thirtieth year he re- 
 cords that he defeated the army of Elam, and 
 in the next campaign he followed up this vic- 
 tory by invading the land of Emut'bal, inflicting 
 
 792
 
 BABYLONIA 
 
 Code of 
 Hammurabi 
 
 BABYLONIA 
 
 a final defeat on the Elamites, and capturing and 
 annexing Larsa. 
 
 "An estimate of the extent of Hammurabi's em- 
 pire may be formed from the very exhaustive 
 record of his activities which he himself drew up 
 as the Prologue to his Code. He there enu- 
 merates the great cities of his kingdom and the 
 benefits he has conferred upon each one of them. 
 The list of cities is not drawn up with any ad- 
 ministrative object, but from a purely religious 
 standpoint, a recital of his treatment of each city 
 being followed by a reference to what he has 
 done for its temple and its city-god. . . . While 
 Sumu-la-ilum may have laid the foundations of 
 Babylon's military power, Hammurabi was the 
 real founder of her greatness. To his military 
 achievements he ad Jed a genius for administrative 
 detail, and his letters and despatches, which have 
 been recovered, reveal him as in active control 
 of even subordinate officials stationed in distant 
 cities of his empire That he should have super- 
 intended matters of public importance is what 
 might be naturally expected; but we also see 
 him investigating quite trivial complaints and dis- 
 putes among the humbler classes of his subjects, 
 and often sending back a case for retrial or for 
 further report. In fact, Hammurabi's fame will 
 always rest on his achievements as a law-giver, 
 and on the great legal code which he drew up for 
 use throughout his empire. It is true that this 
 elaborate system of laws, which deal in detail 
 with every class of the population from the noble 
 to the slave, was not the creative work of Ham- 
 murabi himself. Like all other ancient legal 
 codes it was governed strictly by precedent, and 
 where it did not incorporate earlier collections of 
 laws, it was based on careful consideration of 
 established custom. Hammurabi's great achieve- 
 ment was the codification of this mass of legal 
 enactments and the rigid enforcement of the pro- 
 visions of the resulting code throughout the whole 
 territory of Babylonia. Its provisions reflect the 
 king's own enthusiasm, of which his letters give in- 
 dependent proof, in the cause of the humbler and the 
 more oppressed classes of his subjects. Numerous 
 legal and commercial documents also attest the 
 manner in which its provisions were carried out, 
 and we have evidence that the legislative system 
 so established remained in practical force during 
 subsequent periods." — L. W. King, History of 
 Babylon, pp. 148-160. — "The great code closes with 
 a long passage in which the king, who is 'a father 
 to his subjects,' enjoins obedience to these upon 
 all people and upon the kings who should rule 
 after him 'forever and ever.' No king is to for- 
 get them: 'The law of the land, which I have 
 given, the decisions which I have pronounced he 
 shall not alter, nor efface my image. If that man 
 have wisdom, if he wish to keep his land in 
 order, he shall take heed to the words which I 
 have written upon my monument. The procedure, 
 the administration, and the law of the land, which 
 I have given, the decisions which I have pro- 
 nounced, this monument will show unto him. He 
 shall so rule his subjects, pronounce judgment, 
 give decisions, drive the wicked and evildoers from 
 the land, and promote his people's prosperity.' 
 Hammurapi also displayed extraordinary care in 
 the development of the resources of the land, and 
 in thus increasing the wealth and comfort of the 
 inhabitants. The chiefest of his great works is 
 best described in his own ringing words — the 
 words of a conqueror, a statesman, and a patriot: 
 'Hammurapi, the powerful king, king of Babylon, 
 . . . when Anu and Bel gave unto me to rule the 
 land of Sumer and Accad, and with their scepter 
 filled my hands, I dug the canal Hammurapi, the 
 
 abundance of the people, which bringeth abundance 
 of water unto the land of Sumer and Accad. Its 
 banks upon both sides I made arable land; much 
 grain I garnered upon it. Lasting water I pro- 
 vided for the land of Sumer and Accad. The 
 land of Sumer and Accad, its separated peoples 
 I united, with blessings and abundance I endowed 
 them, in peaceful dwellings I made them to live.' 
 This was no idle promise made to the people be- 
 fore the union of Sumer and Accad under the 
 hegemony of Babylon, but the actual accomplish- 
 ment of a man who knew how to knit to himself 
 and his royal house the hearts of the people 
 of a conquered land. There is a world of wis- 
 dom in the deeds of this old king. No work 
 could possibly have been performed by him which 
 would bring greater blessing than the building 
 of a canal by which a nearly rainless land could 
 be supplied with abundant water. After making 
 the canal, Hammurapi followed the example of 
 his predecessors in Babylonia and carried out ex- 
 tensive building operations in various parts of 
 the land. On all sides we find evidences of his 
 efforts in this work. In Babylon itself he erected 
 a great granary for the storing of wheat against 
 times of famine — a work of mercy as well as 
 of necessity, which would find prompt recognition 
 among Oriental peoples then as now. The temples 
 to the sun god in Larsa and in Sippar were re- 
 built by him; the walls of the latter city were 
 reconstructed 'like a great mountain' — to use his 
 own phrase — and the city was enriched by the 
 construction of a new canal. The great temples 
 of E-sagila in Babylon and E-zida in the neigh- 
 boring Borsippa showed in increased size and in 
 beauty the influence of his labors. There is evi- 
 dence, also, that he built for himself a palace 
 at the site now marked by the ruin of Kalwadha, 
 near Baghdad. But these buildings are only ex- 
 ternal evidences of the great work wrought in 
 this long reign for civilization. The best of the 
 culture of the ancient Sumerians was brought into 
 Babylon, and there carefully conserved. What 
 this meant to the centuries that came after is 
 shown clearly in the later inscriptions. To Babylon 
 the later kings of Assyria look constantly as to 
 the real center of culture and civilization. No 
 Assyrian king is content with Nineveh and its 
 glories, great though these were in later days; his 
 greatest glory came when he could call himself 
 king of Babylon, and perform the symbolic act of 
 taking hold of the hands of Bel-Marduk. Nineveh 
 was the center of a kingdom of warriors, Babylon 
 the abode of scholars; and the wellspring of all 
 this is to be found in the work of Hammurapi. 
 But if the kings of Assyria looked to Babylon 
 with longing eyes, yet more did later kings in 
 the city of Babylon itself look back to the days 
 of Hammurapi as the golden age of their his- 
 tory. Nabopolassar and Nebuchadrezzar acknowl- 
 edged his position in the most flattering way, for 
 they imitated in their inscriptions the very words 
 and phrases in which he had described his build- 
 ing, and, not satisfied with this, even copied the 
 exact form of his tablets and the style of their 
 writing. In building his plans were followed, and 
 in rule and administration his methods were imi- 
 tated. His works and his words entitle him to 
 rank as the real founder of Babylon." — R. W. 
 Rogers, History of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 
 86-qo. — "The canal to which this king boasts of 
 having given his name, the 'Nahar-Hammourabi,' 
 was called in later days the royal canal, Nahar 
 Malcha [Radhwaniya]. Herodotus saw and ad- 
 mired it, its good condition was an object of 
 care to the king himself, and we know that it 
 was considerably repaired by Nebuchadnezzar. 
 
 793
 
 BABYLONIA 
 
 Later Empire 
 Nahopolassar 
 
 BABYLONIA 
 
 When civilization makes up its mind to reenter 
 upon that country, nothing more will be needed 
 for the reawakening in it of life and reproductive 
 enerRV, than the restoration of the great works 
 undertaken by the contemporaries of Abraham and 
 Jacob"— G. Perrot and C. Chipiez, HiUory oj art 
 in Chaldxa and Assyria, v. i, P- 40--' After a 
 reign of fifty-tivc years, Chammurabi lor Ham- 
 murabi] bequeathed the crown of Babylon and 
 the united kingdoms of Babylonia to his son 
 Samsu-iluna (2200-2180 B.C.) This ^"1" J<=lg"- 
 ing in the spirit of his father, developed still fur- 
 ther the national system of canalization. . . . five 
 kings after Chammurabi, till 2098 B C, complete 
 the list of the eleven kings of this first dynasty, 
 who reigned in all 304 years. The epoch made 
 memorable bv the deeds and enterprise of Cham- 
 murabi is followed by a period of 368 years, of 
 the occurrences of which absolutely nothing is 
 known, except the names and regnal years of an- 
 other list of eleven kings reigning in the "ty ot 
 Babylon. ... The foreign non-Scmitic race, which 
 for nearly six centuries (c. 1730-1153). from this 
 time onward, held a controlling place in the affairs 
 of Babvlcnia, are referred to in the mscriptions 
 by the 'name Kasse. These Kasshites came from 
 the border country between Northern Elam and 
 Media, and were in all probability of the same 
 race as the Elamites. The references to them make 
 them out to be both mountaineers and tent- 
 dwellers. ... The political sway of the foreign 
 masters was undisputed, but the genius of the 
 government and the national type of culture and 
 forms of activity were essentially unchanged. . . . 
 Through centurv after century, ... the dominant 
 genius of Babylonia remained the same. It con- 
 quered all its 'conquerors, and moulded them to 
 its own likeness bv the force of its manifold 
 culture, by the appliances as well as the prestige 
 of the arts of peace. ... The Babylonians were 
 not able to maintain perpetually their political 
 autonomv or integrity, not because they were not 
 brave or patriotic," but because "they were not, 
 first and foremost, a military people Their en- 
 ergies were mainly spent in trade and manufacture, 
 in science and art. ... The time which the native 
 historiographers allow to the new [Kasshite] 
 dynasty is 577 years. . . . This Kasshite conquest 
 of Babylonia . . . prevented the consolidation of 
 the eastern branch of the Semites, by alienating 
 from Babylonia the Assyrian colonists. . . _ 
 Henceforth there was almost perpetual rivalry and 
 strife between Assvria and the parent country. 
 Henceforth, also, it is Assyria that becomes the 
 leading power in the West."— J F. McCurdy, His- 
 tory, prophecy and the monuments, hk. 2. ch. 3, 
 and bk. 4, c/i.'i. (v. t1., .4ssyr;a.— See also Akkad; 
 Assyria; Codes: Hammurabi; Egypt: About B.C. 
 1500-1400; HiTTiTEs; Kassites; Women's rights: 
 
 B.C. 2250-S3S- . u • . ri- ( 
 
 Later empire.— "When Ashurbanipal [king ot 
 Assyria, 668-626 B. CI died the time had come 
 to make a fresh attempt for Chaldean independence 
 of Assyria and Chaldean dominance over Baby- 
 Ionia, 'immediately after the death of .\.5hurbani- 
 pal we find Nahopolassar (Nabuapul-usur) king 
 of Babylon. We do not know what his origin 
 was. It has been supposed that he might be a 
 son of Kandalanu; and this supposition would ex- 
 plain the readiness and quickness with which he 
 secured the throne. There is. however, not a 
 shadow of evidence for the view. If it were the 
 case, it would certainly seem natural for him 
 to have spoken of his royal origin in one or the 
 other of the few inscriptions which have come 
 down to us. On the other hand, it is not possible 
 
 to prove that he was cither of pure Babylonian or 
 of Chaldean origin. The kingdom which he 
 founded was, however, plainly Chaldean. Ihe 
 king's supporters were Chaldeans, and as the years 
 went on the Babylonian influence quite gave way 
 to Chaldean, so that the Babylonians may be con- 
 sidered as also losing their historic identity when 
 Nineveh fell. The change of rulers from Ashur- 
 banipal to Nabopolassar was momentous in con- 
 sequences. With that change the headship ot 
 Assyria over the Semitic peoples of Asia came 
 to an end forever, and leadership among them 
 passed to the Chaldeans, whose Semitic blood was 
 probably almost, if not quite, as pure as that ot 
 the Assyrians. They had apparently not suffered 
 so great an intermixture with other peoples as 
 had the Babylonians. With this change of rulers 
 there was founded not merely a new dynasty, but 
 also a new kingdom. It is indeed possible to 
 consider this new monarchy as a reestablishment 
 of the old Babylonian empire, but it is more 
 in accordance with the facts to look on it as a 
 new Chaldean empire succeeding to the wealtti 
 and position of the ancient Babylonian empire. 
 As the monarchy which he founded was so plainly 
 Chaldean, it lies near to the other facts to con- 
 sider Nabopolassar himself a Chaldean. — R. W. 
 Rogers, Hhtorv oj Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 
 402-403.— "Having seated himself firmly upon the 
 throne of the dual monarchy of Babylonia and 
 Assyria, Nabopolassar proceeded to assure to him- 
 self the western domains over which the Assyrian 
 kings had held swav. To this end he set out to 
 reestablish Babylonian power in Syria, where Sai- 
 gon of Agade'had made his influence felt 2200 
 years earlier, and Hammurabi had warred as over- 
 lord Unfortunately the Bible narrative does not 
 help us here, and we are indebted to Berosus, 
 as quoted by Josephus. for the history of this 
 period After the division of the territory ot 
 Assyria, of which Egypt formed a part, the east- 
 ern allies began to quarrel among themselves, 
 and the King of Babylon decided to act on his 
 own account. Syria at that time was in reality 
 a vassal of Egypt, Egypt having taken posses- 
 sion of it on the fall of Assyria. Having re- 
 ceived news that the governor whom he had set 
 over Egypt, and over parts of Ccelc-Syria 
 and Phcenicia, had revolted from him, he was 
 not able to bear it any longer, and, conimitting 
 certain parts of his armv to his son Nabuchod- 
 onosor (Nabu-kudurri-usur or Nebuchadrezzar), 
 who was then but young, he sent him against the 
 rebel This is regarded as having taken place 
 in 60s B.C. The governor attacked by the young 
 Nebuchadrezzar was apparently Necho. who was 
 completely defeated at Carchemish, and expelled 
 from Syria."— T. G. Pinches, From world-domtmon 
 to subjection {Journal oj the Victoria Institute, v. 
 4Q, pp. 113-114).— See also Egypt: B.C. 670-525; 
 Chaldea: Chaldeans; Phceniciaks: B.C. 850-538. 
 Nebuchadreizar.— "When Nebuchadrezzar stood 
 at the borders of Egypt and a messenger advised 
 him of his father's death in far-away Babylonia, 
 a crisis had come in the history of a new empire. 
 But for that death Nebuchadrezzar would almost 
 certainly have added Egypt to his laurels, and 
 that were a thrilling possibility. But a danger 
 fully as stirring lav also before him. If he had 
 failed to reach Babylonia before the discordant 
 elements in the new world empire were able to 
 gather unity and force, all that his father had 
 built might' readily be destroyed. The day cried 
 for a man of decision and of quick movement. 
 Nebuchadrezzar reached Babylon from the borders 
 of Egypt in season to prevent any outbreak in favor 
 of a usurper, if any such were intended. He 
 
 794
 
 BABYLONIA 
 
 Later Empire 
 Nebuchadrezzar 
 
 BABYLONIA 
 
 was received as king of Babylon without a sign 
 of any trouble. So began one of the longest 
 and most brilliant reigns (604-562 B.C.) of hu- 
 man history. Nebuchadrezzar has not left the 
 world without written witnesses of his great deeds. 
 In his inscriptions, however, he follows the com- 
 mon Babylonian custom of omitting all reference 
 to wars, sieges, campaigns, and battles. Only in 
 a very few instances is there a single reference 
 to any of these. The great burden of all the 
 inscriptions is building. In Babylon was cen- 
 tered his chief pride, and of temples and palaces, 
 and not of battles and sieges, were his boasts." — 
 R. W. Rogers, History of Babylonia, and Assyria, p. 
 504. — "When Nebuchadrezzar came to the throne, 
 he found himself king of a mighty nation, con- 
 solidated by his father's talent, and he could boast 
 of having had a hand himself in its enlargement 
 and in measures for its greater security. Every- 
 thing was, to all appearance, at peace, and the 
 new king had no reason to fear either a pretender 
 to the throne or attack from without. This sat- 
 isfactory state of things, however, was not to 'last, 
 for Jelioiakim, King of Judah, as related in 2 
 Kings xxiv, i ff., after paying tribute for three 
 years, rebelled, but was again reduced to sub- 
 jection (604-602 B.C.). Later, apparently owing to 
 the promises of the King of Egypt, Jehoiachin, son 
 of Jehoiakim, in his turn incurred the hostility 
 of the King of Babylon, who sent an army to be- 
 siege Jerusalem, and afterwards journeyed thither 
 himself. The capture of the city followed, and the 
 Jewish king, with his Court, were carried away 
 to Babylon (sq8 B.C.). The number of cap- 
 tives on this occasion exceeded 10,000, and the 
 treasures of the palace and the Temple formed 
 part of the spoil. The country was annexed, 
 however, for Nebuchadrezzar made Mattaniah, 
 King of Judah instead of Jehoiachin, changing his 
 name to Zedekiah (Bab. form Sidqd. Sidqaa, or 
 Sidqaya) . Passing years seemingly weakened any 
 gratitude Zedekiah may have felt to the power 
 which had raised him, and, encouraged by Pharaoh 
 Hophra, he rebelled in the ninth year of his 
 reign, the result being that Jerusalem was once 
 more besieged. Pharaoh Hophra thereupon 
 inarched with an army to the help of his ally; 
 but this move gave the Jewish capital but little 
 relief, for Nebuchadrezzar's army merely raised the 
 siege of Jerusalem long enough to defeat the 
 Egyptians. The city was taken at the end of a 
 year and a half, notwithstanding a very courageous 
 resistance (July, 586 B.C.) [see also Jerusalem: 
 B.C. Q76-168]. Zedekiah, with his army, fled, but 
 was pursued by the Chaldeans and captured near 
 Jericho. Nebuchadrezzar was then at Riblah with 
 his officers (2 Kings xxv, 6), and there judgment 
 was at once pronounced against the faithless vas- 
 sal, whose sons were slain before his eyes, his 
 own sight destroyed, and he himself carried captive 
 to Babylon. It was a barbarous sentence, but quite 
 in accordance with the customs of the age, just 
 as the legal formalities apparently conformed to 
 Babylonian usage. The destruction of the Temple 
 and all the principal houses in the city, by Neb- 
 uzaradan (NabQ-zer-iddina), the captain of 
 Nebuchadrezzar's guard, followed, and those re- 
 maining in the city were carried captive. The 
 lowest class of the people only remained, in order 
 to carry on the cultivation of the land. Naturally 
 a new governor was appointed — not. as might 
 reasonably have been expected, a Babylonian, but 
 a Jew — Gedaliah, son of Ahikam. His death at 
 the hands of his own countrymen took place shortly 
 afterwards, and with him disappeared the last 
 vestige of Jewish rule in Palestine. 
 "The turn of Tyre came next, and it is said 
 
 that Nebuchadrezzar blockaded this maritime port 
 no less than thirteen years (585-573 B.C.). From 
 a fragment of a tablet in the British Museum, re- 
 ferring to Nebuchadrezzar's thirty-seventh year 
 (567 B.C.), we learn that he made an expedition 
 against an Egyptian king, who seems, from the 
 remains of his name, to have been Amasis. In 
 this record a city — or, perhaps, a province — called 
 Putu-yaman is referred to, and described, appar- 
 ently, as being a distant district 'within the sea.' 
 This idiom is used by Assur-bani-apli when speak- 
 ing of Cyprus. [See also Persia: B.C. 549-521.] 
 Notwithstanding the doubt which exists with re- 
 gard to Tyre, it is certain that the Babylonian 
 king ultimately became master of the city, for 
 a contract exists dated there on the 20th of Tam- 
 muz, in Nebuchadrezzar's fortieth year. ... In 
 addition to these two rulers [Sennacherib and 
 Esarhaddon], however, both his sons — Samas-sum- 
 ukin or Saosduchinos and Assur-bani-apli, 'the 
 great and noble Asnapper' — worked at restoring 
 the temples. Nebuchadrezzar, in spite of this, 
 doubtless found much to do there, and numerous 
 records bearing his name deal at length with his 
 architectural work. The great temple of Belus 
 (Merodach), in Babylonia £-sagila, together with 
 £-temen-ana-ki, 'the temple of the foundation of 
 heaven and earth,' also called 'the tower of Baby- 
 lon,' connected with it, were restored by him, 
 as were likewise many, if not all, of the other 
 fanes of the great city. His inscriptions also 
 confirm what the classical authors say in record- 
 ing that he made Babylon practically impregnable 
 by means of high and massive walls and a well- 
 constructed moat. To the above must be added 
 the quays which he built along the banks of 
 the Euphrates, which flowed through the city, 
 and the augmentation of the great palace which 
 Nabopolassar, his father, had built, by another 
 just as extensive, which, he states (and this is 
 confirmed by Herodotus), was erected in fifteen 
 days! It is to be noted, however, that all the 
 provisions for the defence of Babylon which he 
 places to his own credit are attributed by 
 Herodotus to Nitocris, who was probably one of 
 Nebuchadrezzar's queens. The hanging gardens, 
 [for description of, see Architecture: Oriental: 
 Babylonia] said by Herodotus to have been built 
 by Nebuchadrezzar for his 'Median' queen, Amuhia, 
 were probably already in existence, as is impHed 
 by one of the bas-reliefs in the Assyrian Salon 
 of the British Museum; it was carved for Assur- 
 bani-apli, the 'great and noble Asnapper.' It shows 
 a slope, the highest portion of which is sup- 
 ported on arches, and the whole is richly planted 
 with trees and irrigated by streams of water — 
 a real oasis in a land which, during the hot season, 
 is simply a desert. The celebrated 'Istar-Gate,' 
 discovered by the German explorers, is specially 
 referred to by Nebuchadrezzar in the India House 
 of Inscription. [See also Babylon: Nebuchad- 
 rezzar and the walls of Babylon] Wise, war- 
 like, energetic, and religious, the second Nebuchad- 
 rezzar will always live in history as the type 
 of an Eastern ruler of old who knew how to raise 
 the nation which he governed to the highest 
 pitch of its ancient glory and power. He was 
 succeeded by his son, Awil-Maruduk (Evil-Mero- 
 dach) in 561 B. C."— T. G. Pinches, From world- 
 dominion to subjection (Journal of the Victoria 
 Institute, v. 49, pp. 114-117). — See also Jews: 
 B.C. 724-604 to B.C. S36-A.D. 50. 
 
 Decline of the empire. — "Nebuchadnezzar's son, 
 Amel-Marduk, was an unworthy successor to his 
 father. During his short reign he was restrained 
 neither by law nor decency, and it is not surpris- 
 ing that in less than three years the priestly party 
 
 795
 
 BABYLONIA 
 
 Decline 
 Invasion of Cyrus 
 
 BABYLONIA 
 
 should have secured his Assassination and have set 
 Neriglissar, his brother-in-law, in his place, a man 
 of far stronger character and a soldier. The son 
 of a private Babylonian, Bel-shura-ishkun, Nerig- 
 lissar had married a daughter of Nebuchadnezzar, 
 and we may certainly identify him with Nergal- 
 Sharezer, the Rab-mag or Babylonian general who 
 was present at the siege of Jerusalem. Neriglissar's 
 death, less than four years after his accession, 
 must certainly have been the death-blow to any 
 hopes his generals may have entertained of placing 
 the country's military organization and defence 
 upon a sound footing. For his son was little 
 more than a child, and after nine months' reign 
 the priestly party at the capital succeeded in de- 
 posing him in favour of one of their own num- 
 ber, Nabonidus, a man of priestly descent and 
 thoroughly inbued with the traditions of the 
 hierarchy. The new king carried on Nebuchad- 
 nezzar's tradition of temple-reconstruction with 
 enthusiasm, but he had none of his great predeces- 
 sor's military aptitude. To his ow-n priestly de- 
 tachment he added the unpractical character of the 
 archsologist. loving to occupy himself in investi- 
 gating the past history of the temples he rebuilt, in 
 place of controlling his country's administration. 
 The bent of his mind is well reflected in the 
 account he has left us of the dedication of his 
 daughter, Bel-shalti-Nannar, as head of the col- 
 lege of votaries attached to the Moon-temple at 
 Ur. It is clear that this act and the accompany- 
 ing ceremonial interested him far more than the 
 education of his son ; and any military aptitude 
 Belshazzar may have des-eloped was certainly 
 not fostered by his father or his father's friends. 
 It was only when the enemy was at the frontier 
 that the king must have realized his own fatuity. 
 Thus with the accession of Nabonidus the close 
 of Babylon's last period of greatness is in sight. But 
 the empire did not crumble of its own accord, for 
 in one of his foundation-records the king boasts 
 that the whole of Mesopotamia and the West, as 
 far as Gaza on the Egyptian border, continued 
 to acknowledge his authority. It required pres- 
 sure from without to shatter the decaying empire, 
 which from the first must have owed its success 
 in no small measure to the friendly and pro- 
 tective attitude of Media. When that essential 
 support was no longer forthcoming, it lay at 
 the mercy of the new power before which Media 
 herself had already gone down." — L. W. King, 
 History of Babylon, pp. 280-282. 
 
 Invasion by Cyrus the Persian. — "We next 
 hear that in the seventeenth year of Nabonidus, 
 Cyrus, who had already conquered the rest of 
 Asia, marched upon Babylon [538 B.C. — see Per- 
 sia: 549-521 B.C.I. The native forces met the Per- 
 sians in battle, but were put to flight, with their 
 king at their head, and took refuge behind the 
 ramparts of Borsippa. Cyrus thereupon entered 
 Babylon, we are told, and threw down her walls. 
 . . . Herodotus states that the last king of Baby- 
 lon was the son of the great Nebuchadnezzar — 
 to give that monarch his true name — -for in so 
 doing he bears out, so far as his testimony is 
 of any value, the words of the Book of Daniel, 
 which not only calls Belshazzar son of Nebuchad- 
 nezzar, but also introduces the wife of the latter 
 monarch as being the mother of the ill-fated 
 prince who closed the long line of native rulers. 
 Such being the only testimony of secular writers, 
 there was no alternative but to identify Belshazzar 
 with Nabonidus. . . . Yet the name Nabonidus 
 stood in no sort of relation to that of Bel- 
 shazzar; and the identification of the two per- 
 sonages was. undoubtedly, both arbitrary and dif- 
 ficult. The cuneiform inscriptions brought to 
 
 Europe from the site of Babylon and other an- 
 cient cities of Chaldaea soon changed the aspect 
 of the problem. . . . Nabonidus, or, in the native 
 form, Nabu naid, that is to say, "Nebo exalts,' is 
 the name given to the last native king of Babylon 
 in the contemporary records inscribed on clay. 
 This monarch, however, was found to speak of 
 his eldest son as bearing the very name 
 preserved in the Book of Daniel, and hitherto 
 known to us from that source alone. . . . 'Set the 
 fear of thy great godhead in the heart of Bel- 
 shazzar, my firstborn son, ray own offspring; and 
 let him not commit sin, in order that he may en- 
 joy the fulness of life.' . . . 'Belshazzar, my first- 
 born son, . . . lengthen his days; let him not 
 commit sin. . . .' These passages provide us, in 
 an unexpected manner, with the name which had 
 hitherto been known from the Book of Daniel, 
 and from that document alone ; but we were 
 still in the dark as to the reason which could 
 have induced the author to represent Belshazzar 
 as king of Babylon. ... In 1882 a cuneiform in- 
 scription was for the first time interpreted and 
 published by Mr. Pinches; it had been disinterred 
 among the ruins of Babylon by Mr. Hormuzd 
 Rassam. This document proved to contain the 
 annals of the king whose fate we have just been 
 discussing — namely, Nabonidus. Though mutilated 
 in parts, it allowed us to learn some portions of 
 his history, both before and during the invasion 
 of Babylonia by Cyrus; and one of the most 
 remarkable facts that it added to our knowledge 
 was that of the regency — if that term may be 
 used — of the king's son during the absence of the 
 sovereign from the Court and army. Here, surely, 
 the explanation of the Book of Daniel was found: 
 Belshazzar was, at the time of the irruption of 
 the Persians, acting as his father's representative; 
 he was commanding the Babylonian army and pre- 
 siding over the Babylonian Court. When Cyrus 
 entered Babylon, doubtless the only resistance 
 he met with was in the royal palace, and there 
 it was probably slight. In the same night Bel- 
 shazzar was taken and slain. "^B. T. A. Evetts, 
 New tight OK the Bible and the Holy Land, ch. 11, 
 pt. 2. — "In Xenophon's account of the taking of 
 Babylon, the well-known story of the entering 
 of the city through the river-bed whilst a festival 
 was in progress is given. It was apprehended 
 that the Babylonians might try to drive back the 
 invaders by attacking them from the house-tops, 
 but Cyrus pointed out that this could easily 
 be stopped by setting fire to the porches, as the 
 doors were of palm-wood, painted over with 
 bitumen. The entry into the city was duly ef- 
 fected, and by a ruse they got the people within 
 the palace to open the gates. The King (Bel- 
 shazzar) was found with his sword in his hand, 
 surrounded by his friends, eager to defend him. 
 Overpowered by numbers, he died fighting for his 
 life and his throne; as for saving his country, that 
 was past hoping for. The castles — that is, the 
 palaces of Nahiopolassar and Nebuchadrezzar — 
 having .been given up by their now demoralized 
 defenders, the people were commanded to deliver 
 up their arms, which they did. The Magi (evi- 
 dently the Babylonian priesthood) were then or- 
 dered to choose for the gods the first-fruits of 
 certain lands owned by them, in accordance with 
 the usage in conquered countries; and houses, 
 palaces, and property were delivered to Cyrus's 
 followers as rewards for their services. The Baby- 
 lonians were then directed to cultivate their lands, 
 pay their taxes, and serve those to whom they 
 were severally given. Cyrus having let it be 
 known that people might seek his presence, either 
 to pay homage or to consult with him, they came 
 
 796
 
 BABYLONIA 
 
 BACCHUS 
 
 in such disorderly multitudes that precautions 
 against a renewal of this state of things had to 
 be taken. The crowds who sought him seem 
 to be referred to in the Babylonian Chronicle, but 
 this record contains no mention of disturbances 
 of any kind. The statements of the Chronicle, an 
 official document, are probably to be preferred. 
 When Cyrus entered the palace, he sacrificed to 
 Vesta (doubtless one of the forms of Zerpanitu) 
 and 'Regal Jove' (Bel-Merodach), with other 
 deities whom the Magi (Babylonian priesthood) 
 thought proper. Cyrus seems to have been of 
 opinion that the common people of Babylonia 
 entertained considerable enmity toward him, and 
 he therefore surrounded himself with guards, those 
 most closely attached to him being eunuchs. For 
 the keeping of the city a Persian garrison was 
 installed, for which the Babylonians had to pro- 
 vide. A long speech is attributed to him, in which 
 he tells his followers that according to the laws 
 of war all the property of the conquered belonged 
 to them, and they were entitled to take it if they 
 so chose. Whether this was in any case actually 
 done does not appear, but it may be regarded as 
 hardly probable, as the Babylonians seem to have 
 lived fairly contentedly under his rule — or, rather, 
 under that of Cambyses and Gobryas the Mede, 
 both of whom acted as governors-general in turn. 
 Notwithstanding all possible defects that may have 
 belonged to his nature, Cyrus showed considera- 
 tion for the country, friendliness toward the peo- 
 ple, but severity in matters which concerned his 
 own safety and authority after having assumed 
 the title 'King of Babylon.' In an age far more 
 barbarous than our own he exhibited a modera- 
 tion and a breadth of view which but few, in 
 more civilized times, have shown ; and it may truly 
 be said that if his dynasty did not last the fault 
 was not his." — T. G. Pinches, From world-dominion 
 to subjection (Journal of Victoria Institute, v. 
 49, pp. 123-124). 
 
 Significance of the fall of Babylon. — "Baby- 
 lon was now in the possession of an entirely 
 new race of men. The Indo-Europeans, silent for 
 centuries, had come at last to dominion. Nineveh, 
 the greatest center for the pure Semitic stock, had 
 fallen first; it was now Babylon's hour, and 
 Babylon likewise was fallen. The fall of a city 
 which had long wielded a power almost world-wide 
 would at any period be a matter of great mo- 
 ment. But this fall of Babylon was even more 
 than this. Babylon was now the representative 
 city not merely of a world-wide power, it was 
 the representative of Semitic power. The Semites 
 had built the first empire of commanding rank 
 in the world when Hammurapi conquered Sumer 
 and Accad and made Babylon capital of several 
 kingdoms at once. Out of this center had gone 
 the colonists who had built another and, after a 
 time, a great empire at Nineveh. For centuries 
 two Semitic centers of power bad vied with each 
 other for the dominion of the world. Both had 
 held it, each in his turn. For nearly a century 
 Nineveh had been in the hands of another race, 
 and the Semitic civilization had been supplanted 
 there. Babylon had been made the center of a 
 new world power by the Chaldean people, but they 
 also were Semites. This branch of the Semitic 
 people had had a short lease of power indeed. 
 The power was now taken from them as the rep- 
 resentatives of the Semitic race. Never from that 
 hour until the age of Islam was a Semitic power 
 to command a world-wide empire. The power 
 of the Semite seemed hopelessly broken in that 
 day, and that alone makes the peaceful fall of 
 Babylon a momentous event. But Babylon stood 
 for more than mere Semitic power. It stood 
 
 in a large sense for Semitic civilization. . . . As- 
 syria represented far more than Babylonia the 
 prowess of the Semite upon fields of battle. 
 Babylon had stood for Semitic civilization, largely 
 intermixed with many elements, yet Semitic after 
 all. Here were the great libraries of the Semitic 
 race. Here were the scholars who copied so pains- 
 takingly every little omen or legend that had 
 come down to them out of the hoary past. Here 
 were the men who calculated eclipses, watched 
 the moon's changes, and looked nightly from ob- 
 servatories upon the stately march of constella- 
 tions over the sky. Here were the priests who 
 preserved the knowledge of the ancient Sumerian 
 language, that its sad plaints and solemn prayers 
 might be kept for use in temple worship. Much 
 of all this was worthy of preservation — if not for 
 any large usefulness, certainly for its record of hu- 
 man progress upward. All this was now fallen into 
 alien hands. Would it be preserved? Would it 
 be ruthlessly or carelessly destroyed? The great- 
 est thoughts of the Semitic mind and the greatest 
 emotions of its heart were not, indeed, Babylonian, 
 and even if they were, they could not die. Not 
 for many centuries would the Semite be able 
 to found another such center. It was indeed a 
 solemn hour of human history. The glory of 
 Babylon is ended. The long procession of princes, 
 priests, and kings has passed by. No city so vast had 
 stood on the world before it. No city with a 
 history so long has even yet appeared. From the 
 beginnings of human history it had stood. It was 
 in other hands now, and ii v/ould soon be a shape- 
 less mass of ruins, standing alone in a sad, untilled 
 desert."— R. W. Rogers, History of Babylonia and 
 Assyria, pp. 574-576.— See also Chronology: Baby- 
 lonian method; Education: Ancient: B.C. 3Sth- 
 6th centuries: Babylonia and Assyria; Ethics: 
 Babylonia and Assyria; Libraries: Ancient: Baby- 
 lonia and Assyria; Medical science: Ancient 
 Babylonia; Money and banking: Ancient Egypt 
 and Babylonia; Music: Ancient: B.C. 3Cioo-7th 
 century; Science: Ancient: Egyptian and Baby- 
 lonian; Sculpture: Western Asia. 
 
 Also in: M. Duncker, History of antiquity, bk. 
 4, ch. 15. — G. Maspero, Dawn of civilizalion. — H. 
 Radau, Early Babylonian liistary. — A. H. Layard, 
 Nineveh and Babylon. — H. V. Hilprecht, Babylon- 
 ian expedition of the University of Pennsrvlitnia. 
 BABYLONIAN TALENT.' See Talent. 
 BABYLONIAN TALMUD. See Talmxid. 
 "BABYLONISH CAPTIVITY" OF THE 
 POPES. See Papacy: 1294-1348. 
 
 BAC ST. MAUR, village of northern France 
 on the river Lys. The region of fighting in iqi8. 
 See World War: iqiS: II. Western front: d, 5. 
 
 BACCALAOS, Bacalhas, or Bacalhao coun- 
 try. See Newfoundland, Dominion of: 1501- 
 1578- 
 BACCANALIA. See Bacchus. 
 BACCHIAD.ff;. See Corinth. 
 BACCHIC FESTIVALS. See Dionysia at 
 Athens. 
 
 BACCHUS (Roman), or Dionysus (Greek), 
 god of the vine and of life. His worship was 
 widespread and appeared in numerous forms but 
 was always connected with vegetation and fruit- 
 fulness generally. His chief attributes were the 
 thyrsus, a rod ending in a pine cone and decorated 
 with ivy, and the cantharus, a two-handled drink- 
 ing cup. One form of his worship was the Attic 
 Dionysia, a joyous and rather boistrous celebra- 
 ton (see Dionysia at Athens), but another called 
 the Triateric Dionysia took the form of a wild 
 orgy. It was introduced into Rome in the 2nd 
 century B C. and called the Bacchanalia. Bac- 
 chus was the offspring of Zeus and Semele, the 
 
 797
 
 BACCHYLIDES 
 
 BACTRIA 
 
 daughter of Cadmus. Through the jealousy of 
 Hera, Semele was destroyed by a thunderbolt but 
 her unborn child was saved by Zeus, and intrusted 
 to Hemes who delivered it to the nymphs of 
 Nysa to be reared. At Nysa (which has never 
 been localized) Bacchus discovered the powers of 
 the grape and became the leader of a band of 
 nymphs and satvrs. 
 
 BACCHYLIDES. See Greece: B. C. 8th-$th 
 centuries. 
 
 BACENIS. See Hercvnian forest. 
 
 BACH, Alexander, Baron (1813-1893).— 
 Bureaucratic ideas. See Austria: 1849-1859. 
 
 BACH, John Sebastian (1685-1750), German 
 composer, greatest master of the contrapuntal 
 school of musical composition, whose works mark 
 the culmination of the polyphonic style and at 
 the same time reflect the new homophonic style ; 
 equally great as composer, organist and harpsi- 
 chord player. His enormous output includes organ 
 sonatas, preludes and fugues, compositions for 
 harpsichord and orchestra, passion-music, sacred 
 cantatas, etc. They constitute the source of mod- 
 ern music. — See also Music: Modern: 1650-1827. 
 
 BACH, Karl Philipp Emanuel C1714-1788), 
 German composer, third son of John Sebastian 
 Bach; founder of the forms of instrumental com- 
 position which mark the transition from his 
 father's style to that of Haydn and Mozart. He 
 wrote church music including many cantatas, pas- 
 sions and oratorios. See Music: Modern: 1650- 
 1827. 
 
 BACHI, or Bashee Islands (Philippines), 
 American acquisition of. See U. S. A.: 1898 
 (July-December). 
 
 BACHMAC, a village and railroad junction in 
 the Ukraine in southwestern Russia, east of Kiev. 
 The scene of a battle fought in 1918. See World 
 W.^r: 1918: III. Russia: a, 1. 
 
 BACILLI, Soil. See Fertilizers: Chemistry 
 applied to soil cultivation. 
 
 BACON, Augustus Octavius (1830-1Q14), 
 American legislator. — Resolutions introduced 
 January 11, 1899. — Address of January 18, 1899. 
 See U. S..-\.: iSog (January-February). 
 
 BACON, Francis (Baron Verulam, Viscount 
 St. Albans) (1561-1620), English philosopher, 
 statesman and essayist. "Made Lord Chancellor, 
 in 1618, and created Viscount St. Albans, in 1621, 
 he had, in spite of his unusual abilities, risen 
 very slowly. At once a man of affairs and a 
 man of letters, he wrote on many subjects, philos- 
 ophy, scientific theory, literature, history, and 
 law. ... He favored a strong monarchy resting 
 on the support of the people and acting for the 
 popular good, informed and advised by a loyal 
 Parliament. . . . Always prone, however, to over- 
 look practical difficulties, he failed to recognize 
 that Parliament would no longer tolerate even 
 a benevolent despot, and that, in any event. James 
 was not the man to exercise such power." — .\. L. 
 Cross, History of England and greater Britain, p. 
 296.- — Bacon was impeached by Parliament in 1621 
 on a charge of bribery. [See Enclaxd: 1625: 
 Gains of Parliament.] The years following his 
 impeachment he devoted to literature and sci- 
 ence. "The significance o^ Lord Bacon's work 
 lies not in the application of his method of reason- 
 ing [see Europe: Middle Ages: Scholasticism fol- 
 lowed by humanism], but rather in his insistence 
 upon experimentation and observation of nature, 
 instead of blind reliance upon a perverted logic and 
 an unsubstantiated authority. . . . Bacon shows 
 up the obstacles that lie in the path of human 
 progress, — the ignorance and prejudice, traditional 
 views and blind worship of authority which hold 
 man slave to nature. . . . The great object of 
 
 all science is to recover man's sovereignty over 
 nature. ... He is the first to formulate the idea 
 of modem progress through man's conscious ad- 
 justment to and scientific control over the natural 
 forces of the universe. . . . [See also Education: 
 Modern: 1561-1626.] It is true that Bacon did 
 not himself make any real contribution to sci- 
 entific knowledge and that his fear of accepting 
 improved hypotheses led him to reject the 
 Copernican theory of the solar system, — led him 
 also to underestimate and even disregard the work 
 which was being done by some of his con- 
 temporaries. . . But perhaps the most significant 
 effect of Bacon's influence upon the progress of 
 natural science . . . was the impetus given by his 
 'Xew Atlantis' to the organization of the Royal 
 Society of London for the Advancement of Science, 
 which took place in 1662." — G. F. Caldwell. Eng- 
 lish contributions to scientific thought (English 
 leadership, pp. 240-244). — .•\s for Bacon's literary 
 career, he was undoubtedly the greatest man of 
 his time. The so-called Baconian theory, which 
 originated in the nineteenth century, holds that 
 Bacon was the author of Shakespeare's plays. 
 Among his greatest works are: "Novum organum," 
 "New .■\tlantis," "The advancement of learning," 
 and the celebrated series of "Essays." — See also 
 English literature: 1530-1660. — For his part in 
 the intellectual revolution of the time, see Europe: 
 Modern Period: Revolutionary Period. 
 
 BACON, Nathaniel (1647-1676), English col- 
 onist. — E.xpedition against Indians. — Quarrel 
 with Berkeley. — Death. See V'irci.via: 1660-1677. 
 
 BACON, Robert, Secretary of State, United 
 States. See I". S. .\.: 1905-1909. 
 
 BACON, Roger (1214-1294), English scientist 
 and philosopher. See Europe: Renaissance and 
 reformation: Spirit of adventure; Science: Middle 
 Ages and the Renaissance; Universities and col- 
 leges: 012-127=;: England: Early Oxford. 
 
 BACON'S REBELLION, an uprising directed 
 originally against the murderous and predatory as- 
 saults of the Indian population of Virginia upon 
 the frontier people in the middle of the seventeenth 
 century. It was headed by Nathaniel Bacon, who 
 was impeded at every step in his defense of the 
 white border population by the unwillingness of 
 Governor Berkeley to assist his cause, and finally 
 culminated in successive attacks by Bacon and his 
 followers on the capital of Virginia. At the height 
 of his success, Bacon died and the movement col- 
 lapsed. — See also Virginia: 1660-1677. 
 
 BACTERIOLOGY, Development of: Experi- 
 ments with antitoxines. — Study of Malaria para- 
 sites. See Medical science: Modern: 19th cen- 
 tury; and I9th-20th centuries. 
 
 BACTRIA, or Bactriana, the ancient name of 
 a country in Asia situated north of the Hindu 
 Kush range. "Where the edge [of the table- 
 land of Iran] rises to the lofty Hindu Kush, 
 there lies on its northern slope a favored district 
 in the region of the Upper Oxus. ... On the 
 banks of the river, which flows in a north-westerly 
 direction, extend broad mountain pastures, where 
 support is found in the fresh mountain air for 
 numerous herds of horses and sheep, and beneath 
 the wooded hills are blooming valleys. On these 
 slopes of the Hindu Kush, the middle stage betw'een 
 the table-land and the deep plain of the Cas- 
 pian Sea, lay the Bactrians — the Bakhtri of the 
 Achaemenids, the Bakhdhi of the Avesta. ... In 
 ancient times the Bactrians were hardly dis- 
 tinguished from nomads; but their land was ex- 
 tensive and produced fruits of all kinds, with 
 the exception of the vine. The fertility of the 
 land enabled the Hellenic princes to make great 
 conquests." — M. Duncker, History of antiquity, bk. 
 
 798
 
 BADAJOS 
 
 BADEN 
 
 6, ck. 2. — ^The Bactrians were among the people 
 subjugated by Cyrus the Great and their coun- 
 try formed part of the Persian empire until the 
 latter was overthrown by Alexander (see Mace- 
 donia, &c.: B.C. 330-323). In the division of the 
 Macedonian conquests, after Alexander's death, 
 Bactria, with all the farther east, fell to the share 
 of Seleucus Nicator and formed part of what 
 came to be called the kingdom of Syria. About 
 256 B. C. the Bactrian province, being then gov- 
 erned by an ambitious Greek satrap named Diodo- 
 tus, was led by him into revolt against the Syrian 
 monarchy, and easily gained its independence, with 
 Diodotus for its king (see Seleucid.^: 281-224 
 B.C.). "The authority of Diodotus was con- 
 firmed and riveted on his subjects by an undis- 
 turbed reign of eighteen years before a Syrian 
 army even showed itself in his neighbourhood. 
 . . . The Bactrian Kingdom was, at any rate at 
 its commencement, as thoroughly Greek as that of 
 the Seleucids." "From B.C. 206 to about B.C. 
 i8s was the most flourishing period of the Bac- 
 trian monarchy, which expanded during that space 
 from a small kingdom to a considerable empire" 
 — extending over the greater part of modern Af- 
 ghanistan and across the Indus into the Punjab. 
 But meantime the neighboring Parthians, who 
 threw off the Seleucid yoke soon after the Bac- 
 trians had done so, were growing in power and 
 they soon passed from rivalry to mastery. The 
 Bactrian kingdom was practically extinguished 
 about 150 B. C. by the conquests of the Parthian 
 Mithridates I., "although Greek monarchs of the 
 Bactrian series continued masters of Cabul and 
 Western India till about B. C. 126."— G. Rawlin- 
 son, Sixth great oriental monarcliy, ch. 3-5. — 
 Bactria now forms part of Afghanistan, border- 
 ing on Bokhara. Since the World War the Rus- 
 sian soviet govsrnment has acquired considerable 
 influence in this whole region and conditions are 
 unsettled. 
 
 BADAJOS, Geographical congress (1524). 
 See America; 151Q-1524: Voyage of Magellan. 
 
 BADAKSHAN. See Turkestan. 
 
 BADEN. — A German republic, formerly a grand 
 duchy under the empire. 
 
 Early Suevic population.^The original in- 
 habitants of the territory which now constitutes 
 Baden, were the Suevi, a wandering tribe which 
 had spread throughout Germany, probably during 
 the reign of Alexander Severus, about A. D. 235. 
 See Suevi. 
 
 1112-1813.— Early history.— Charles Fred- 
 erick. — Aggrandizement in Napoleonic wars. — 
 Made an Electorate. — A Grand Duchy. — Member 
 of the Confederation of the Rhine and later of 
 the French alliance. — The history of Baden prac- 
 tically begins with Hermann, the son of the mar- 
 grave of Verona, who took the title of margrave of 
 Baden in 1112. With his sons and grandsons 
 originated the lines of Baden-Baden and Baden- 
 Hochberg, and about a century later, Baden-Hoch- 
 berg was divided into Baden-Hochberg and Baden- 
 Sausenberg. After subsequent aggrandizement and 
 subdivisions the territories of Baden-Baden and 
 Baden-Hochberg were united under margrave Ber- 
 nard I in 1307, and with the extinction of the 
 Baden-Sausenberg line in 1503, the whole of Baden 
 was united under Christopher. He divided it, 
 however, again among his sons, who in 1535 
 founded the lines of Baden-Baden and Baden- 
 Pforzheim, the latter called Baden-Durlach since 
 1565. After further strife and subdivision Baden 
 became definitely united in 1771 under a single 
 ruler. "The ruler at this time was the Margrave 
 Charles Frederick, one of the noblest and most 
 enlightened princes of his time; a man of learn- 
 
 ing, and the patron of science and art; a true 
 father to his people, who through hb exemplary 
 administration rescued his land from imminent 
 financial ruin ; and, favored by the fertility of its 
 soil as well as by the natural intelligence and 
 industry of the inhabitants, raised it again to 
 prosperity; in 1767 he abolished torture, and in 
 1783 serfdom, thereby sacrificing 40,000 florins of 
 yearly income." — M. Philippson, Age of Frederick 
 the Great, v. 15 of History of all nations, p. 280. 
 — Though greatly devastated in 1706 owing to its 
 participation in the wars of the French Revolution, 
 on the side of* Austria, its territories became en- 
 larged during the Napoleonic wars. (See also 
 Austria: 1708-1806.) After the treaty of Lune- 
 ville, by which it acquired considerable territory 
 (see Germany: 1801-1803), Charles Frederick took 
 the title of elector, in 1803, and upon further 
 aggrandizement by the Treaty of Pressburg, he 
 took the title of grand-duke, in 1806. (See Ger- 
 many: 1805-1806, and 1806: January-August.) 
 The same year Baden joined the Confederation 
 of the Rhine, but abandoned it in 1813 to join 
 the Allies against Napoleon. (See France: 1814: 
 January-March.) 
 
 1812. — Extent of territory. See Europe: Mod- 
 ern: Map of Central Europe in 1812. 
 
 1815. — Embraced in Germanic confederation. 
 See Vienna, Congress of. 
 
 1818-1831. — Constitution granted. — Leader of 
 German states in constitutional movement. 
 See Suffrage, Manhood: Germany: J800-1840; 
 and 1840-1850. 
 
 1833. — Member of Zollverein. See Tariff: 
 1833- 
 
 1848. — During the German uprisings of 1848, 
 Baden became the center of revolutionary ac- 
 tivities, its fortress Rastadt serving as an en- 
 trenched camp for the revolutionists. After sev- 
 eral unsuccessful attempts the revolution was 
 suppressed by Prussian troops and the leaders ex- 
 ecuted. See Germany: 1848-1850. 
 
 1862-1866. — Allied with Austria in war 
 against Prussia. See Austria: 1862-1866. 
 
 1866. — Seven weeks' war. — Indemnity and ter- 
 ritorial cession to Prussia. See Germany: 1866. 
 
 1870-1871.— Member of North German confed- 
 eration. — State of the German empire. — By a 
 treaty of November 15, 1870, Baden became a mem- 
 ber of the North German confederation, and with 
 the transformation of the latter into the Ger- 
 man empire in 1871, it became one of its states. 
 — See also Germany: 1870 (September-Decem- 
 ber), and 1871 (January). 
 
 1918. — Declared a republic. — Its constitution. 
 — "November, 1918, the Grand Duke abdicated 
 and a republic was declared. The Constitution 
 calls for a cabinet of six members elected by the 
 legislature, equal male and female suffrage for 
 all over 20 years. The Initiative and Referendum 
 are also part of the Constitution." — J. Moody, 
 Moody's Analyses of investments (iqiq), p. 
 1172. 
 
 1919. — Economic reconstruction after the 
 World War. — Trade provisions. — "The Baden 
 Ministry of Home Affairs has created a Foreign 
 Trade Office for the promotion of imports and 
 exports, with business premises at Carlsruhe. An 
 Advisory Council, on which the import and ex- 
 port organization concerned will be represented, 
 will be formed in conjunction with the Office 
 There will be a representative also in Berlin. It 
 is further intended to appoint a Baden representa- 
 tive of Commerce in Switzerland." — Weltwirt- 
 schaftszeilung. May 23, quoted by the Daily Re- 
 view of the Foreign Press, Economic Supplement, 
 June 25, iqiQ. 
 
 799
 
 BADEN, TREATY 
 
 BAGAUDS 
 
 1920. — General survey. — Physical conditions. — 
 Resources and industries. — Area. — Population. — 
 Cities. — Education. — Baden occupies a territory 
 which belongs to the basin of the Rhine and is 
 surrounded by Bavaria, Hesse-Darmstadt, Alsace- 
 Lorraine, Switzerland, Wiirttemberg, and the 
 Bavarian Palatinate, from which it is separated 
 by the Rhine, extending along its whole length 
 on the west. Eighty per cent of the area is cov- 
 ered by the Schwarzwald and the less elevated 
 ranges of the Odenwald, which slope down to- 
 wards the Rhine valley, the only great plain in 
 Baden. Besides the Rhine, its greatest rivers are 
 the Main and the Neckar. The Danube also takes 
 its rise here. Of its numerous lakes, the Bodensee 
 is best known. It has also famous mineral springs. 
 "The leading manufactures are tiles, machinery, 
 chemicals, jewelry, and clocks. The chief agri- 
 cultural products are cereals, potatoes, hay, to- 
 bacco, hops, grapes, and vegetables. Salt and 
 building stone are the only mineral products." — 
 J. Moody, Moody's analyses of investments (igiq), 
 p. 1172. — According to the latest census of iqig, its 
 area is 5,817 square miles with a population of 
 2,208,503. The majority (1,271,015 in igio) are 
 Catholics; the remainder are Protestants and Jews. 
 The principal cities are Mannheim (an important 
 river port), Karlsruhe (the capital), Freiburg, 
 Pforzheim and Heidelberg. — See also Germany: 
 Map. 
 
 Also in: E. Rebmann, Das Grossherzogtum 
 Baden in allgemeiner, wirtschaftlicher und staat- 
 licher Hinsicht. Karlsruhe, iqi2. 
 
 BADEN, or Rastadt, Treaty of (1714)- See 
 Utrecht: 1712-1714. 
 
 BADENFIELD, Battle of. See Saxons: 772- 
 S04. 
 
 BADENI, Casimir Felix, Count (1846-1009). 
 
 Ministry in Austria. ■ See .Austria: 1803-1900. 
 
 Connection with language decrees. See .Aus- 
 tria: 1897 (October-December). 
 
 Work on the franchise. See Suffrage, Man- 
 hood: Austria. 
 
 BADEN-POWELL, Agnes, Organizer of Girl 
 guides. See Girl guides. 
 
 BADEN-POWELL, Sir Robert Stephenson 
 Smythe (1S57- ), British general and author, 
 joined 13th Hussars, 1876, served with that regi- 
 ment in India, Afghanistan and South .\frica (see 
 South Africa, Union of: 1899; 1900 (March- 
 May)); organized the African Constabulary. 
 Founded the Boy Scouts in 1908. (See Boy 
 Scouts.) Writer on miUtary and recreational 
 topics. 
 
 "BADGER STATE." See Wisconsin, 
 
 BADR, or Bedr, Battle of. See Mohamme- 
 danism. 
 
 B.ffiCULA, Battles of (209, 206 B.C.). See 
 Punic Wars, Second. 
 
 B.SDA. See Bede. 
 
 B.ffi;RS/ERK. See Berserker. 
 
 BAESRODE, commune of Belgium in East 
 Flanders, scene of German atrocities in 1914, See 
 World War: Miscellaneous auxiliary services: X, 
 .Alleged atrocities, etc.: a, 10. 
 
 B.ffiTICA, ancient name of the province in 
 Spain which afterwards took from the Vandals the 
 name of Andalusia. See Sp.ain: B.C. 218-25; 
 also Turdetani; and Vandals: 428. 
 
 BiETIS, ancient name of the Guadalquivir river 
 in Spain. 
 
 BAEYER, Adolf von (1835-1917), German 
 chemist awarded Nobel prize in 1905. See Nobel 
 prizes: Chemistry: 1905. 
 
 BAEZ, Buenaventura (1820-1884), President 
 of Dominican republic. See Santo Domingo: 
 1868-1873. 
 
 BAFFIN, William (?-i622), English navigator 
 and explorer. His voyage in 1616, in search of 
 a northwest passage to India, resulted in the dis- 
 covery of the bay betv,'ee)i Greenland and Canada 
 which he named Baffin's bay. His account of 
 the trip was published by the Hakluyt Society, 1849. 
 
 BAFFIN BAY, a great gulf in northeastern 
 Canada, part of the strait separating Baffin Land 
 from Greenland. It was named by William Baffin 
 who discovered and explored it in 1615-1616. The 
 bay is sheeted with ice in the winter, but is navi- 
 gable through channels in the ice during the sum- 
 mer. It communicates with the Atlantic ocean by 
 Davis strait, and with the .Arctic ocean through 
 Lancaster, Jones and Smith straits, also named 
 by Baffin, It was explored in the early twentieth 
 century. See Arctic E.xploration: 1910-1916, 
 
 BAFFIN LAND, large island opposite Green- 
 land. See .Arctic exploration: Map of Arctic 
 regions. 
 
 Extent of territory. See Canada: Map. 
 
 BAGAMOYO, a seaport in Tanganyika terri- 
 tory, formerly German East Africa, about fifty 
 miles north of Dar-es-Salaam. In 1916, during 
 the World War was taken from the Germans by the 
 British. [See World War: 1916: VII. African the- 
 ater: a, 11.] "North of Dar-es-Salaam the principal 
 ports are Pagani and Bagamoyo. The latter is 
 immediately opposite the island of Zanzibar and 
 was at one time the most important port of the 
 country, because, prior to the construction of the 
 railroads, the development of towns, and the es- 
 tablishment of regular and direct communication 
 with Europe, the bulk of the trade of German East 
 Africa was carried on through Zanzibar. Caravan 
 routes from the interior centered at Bagamoyo and 
 the products of the country were transported in 
 sailing vessels to Zanzibar only 30 miles away. 
 Similarly the imports were first brought into Zan- 
 zibar and then distributed, largely by Indian mer- 
 chants, to German East .Africa via Bagamoyo. 
 The building of the Uganda Railway, which di- 
 verted a large part of the trade of the north and 
 northwestern sections to the route via Lake Vic- 
 toria and Mombasa, the decline of the dhow traf- 
 fic through the absorption of the trade by the 
 German line of steamers, the building of the rail- 
 roads to the interior from Dar-es-Salaam and 
 Tanga, and the lack of a good harbor are the main 
 factors that have contributed to the decline of 
 Bagamoyo. A certain amount of trade still fol- 
 lows the old route, but it is rapidly decreasing." — 
 {'. .S. Consular report. 1014 
 
 BAGATELLE, a small village in the Argonne, 
 northwest of Verdun. It was taken by the Ger- 
 mans in 1915. See World War: 1915: II. Western 
 front: g. 
 
 BAGAUDS, Insurrection of the (AD. 287). 
 — The peasants of Gaul, whose condition had be- 
 come very wretched during the distractions and 
 misgovernment of the third century, were pro- 
 voked to an insurrection, .A. D. 287, which was 
 general and alarming. It was a rising which seems 
 to have been much like those that occurred in 
 France and England eleven centuries later. The 
 rebel peasants were called Bagauds, — a name which 
 some writers derive from the Celtic word "bagad" 
 or "bagat," signifying "tumultuous assemblage." 
 They sacked and ruined several cities, — taking 
 Autun after a siege of seven months, — and com- 
 mitted many terrible atrocities. The Emperor 
 Maximian — colleague of Diocletian, — succeeded, at 
 last, in suppressing the general outbreak, but not 
 in extinguishing it ever>where. There were traces 
 of it surviving long afterwards. — P. Godwin, His- 
 tory of France, v. i: Ancient Gaul, bk. 2, ch. 6. 
 — See also Serfdom. 
 
 800
 
 BAGDAD, 762-763 
 
 Abbasid Caliphs 
 
 BAGDAD, 763-833 
 
 Also in: W. T. Arnold, Roman system of pro- 
 vincial administration, ch. 4. 
 
 BAGDAD, the principal city of Irak (Mesopo- 
 tamia) ; capital and only important city of the 
 vilayet of the same name, which was the largest 
 province of the former Turkish Empire, including 
 the greater part of ancient Babylonia. 
 
 Captured by the Assyrians. See Assyria: 
 People, religion and early history. 
 
 Early commercial importance. See Commerce: 
 Medieval: 5th-Sth centuries A. D. 
 
 762-763. — Founding of the new capital of the 
 Caliphs. — "The history of Baghdad, as a metropo- 
 lis, coincides with the history of the rise and fall 
 of the Abbasid Caliphs [see also Caliphate: 715- 
 750; 763; and 815-945]; for in the East it would 
 appear to be almost a necessity of the case that 
 every new dynasty should found a new capital . . . 
 The last Omayyad Caliph, Marwan II, was routed 
 and slain in the year 132 (A. D. 750), and the first 
 Abbasid Caliph well merited his name of Saffah 
 — the 'Shedder of blood' — he having been con- 
 stantly occupied, during the four years of his reign, 
 in hunting down and putting to death every male 
 descendant of the house of Omayyah, save one 
 youth only who, escaping to Spain, ultimately ob- 
 tained rule there, and founded the dynasty which 
 afterwartls came to be known as the Caliphate of 
 Cordova. [See also Caliphate: 756-1031.] In 
 136 (A. D. 754) Mansur succeeded his brother 
 Saffah on the throne, and during the twenty-two 
 years of his reign built Baghdad, and there or- 
 ganized the government of the Abbasids, which 
 first established in power, and then suffering a 
 long decay, was destined to last for five centuries 
 seated on the banks of the Tigris. . . During the 
 last period of the Sassanian dynasty, Persian Bagh- 
 dad, on the western side of the Tigris, had been a 
 thriving place, and at the period of the Moslem 
 Conquest a monthly market was held here. It 
 became very famous in the early annals of Islam 
 for the very successful raid of which it was the 
 scene. During the Caliphate of Abu Bakr, Khalid, 
 the general of the Arab army, after advancing 
 some way into Mesopotamia, suddenly dispatched 
 a body of troops against this Suk Baghdad, as the 
 'Market' held at the Sarat Point was then called; 
 the raiders surprised the town 'and the Moslems 
 filled their hands with gold and silver, obtaining 
 also the wherewithal to carry away their booty,' 
 for they promptly returned again to Anbar on the 
 Euphrates, where Khalid lay encamped After 
 this incident of the ycE'r 13 (A.D 634) Baghdad 
 appears no more in history until Mansur, seeking 
 out a site for the new capital, encamped here in 
 the year 145 (A.D. 762). We are told that the 
 spot was then occupied by several monasteries 
 (Dayr), chiefly of Nestorian monks, and from 
 them Mansur learned that among all the Tigris 
 lands this district especially was celebrated for its 
 freedom from the plague of mosquitoes, the nights 
 here being cool and pleasant even in the height of 
 summer. These lesser advantages, doubtless, had 
 no inconsiderable influence with Mansur in the 
 final choice of this as the place for the new capital 
 of the Abbasids in Mesopotamia ; but the practical 
 foresight shown by the Caliph has been amply 
 confirmed by the subsequent history of Baghdad. 
 This city, called into existence as by an enchanter's 
 wand, was second only to Constantinople in size 
 during the Middle Ages, and was unrivalled for 
 splendour throughout Western Asia, becoming at 
 once, and remaining for all subsequent centuries, 
 the capital of Mesopotamia. Wars, sieges, the 
 removal for a time by the Caliphs of the seat of 
 government to Samarra (higher up the Tigris), 
 even the almost entire destruction of the city by 
 
 the Mongols in A. D. 1258, none of these have per- 
 manently aftected the supremacy of Baghdad as 
 capital of the Tigris and Euphrates country, and 
 now after the lapse of over eleven centuries, the 
 Turkish governor of Mesopotamia still resides in 
 the city founded by the Caliph Mansiir." — G. Le 
 Strange, Bagdad during the Abbasid Caliphate, 
 pp. I -13. —See also Afghanistan. 
 
 Also in: M. Sykes, Caliphs' last heritage, pp. 
 216-218. 
 
 763-833.— Seat of the Abbasid Caliphs.— 
 Wealth and intellectual leadership. — "The rea- 
 sons which had made the plain of Mesopotamia 
 the site where, one after another, all the great 
 empires of Western Asia had set up the centre of 
 their power dictated the choice of the same region 
 to the Caliphs. In the eighth century it was still 
 one of the richest agricultural countries in the 
 world, as it had been from immemorial time, and 
 then, as for ages before, the chief commercial land 
 routes between the East and the West passed 
 through it. Basra and Kufa were too turbulent 
 for the home of the Caliph, and El Mansur's first 
 aim was to make the imperial residence secure. 
 ... It was enclosed by three walls and a ditch. 
 The outer wall was about four miles round, and 
 between it and the second, or main, wall there 
 was an open ring which could be patrolled. This 
 prevented enemies or traitors outside from com- 
 municating with their friends within. Between 
 the second and the third wall lay the houses of 
 the city. Inside the third wall was another open 
 space, more than a mile across, and therefore 
 large enough for troops to manoeuvre in. In the 
 centre was the Caliph's palace, the 'Golden Gate.' 
 Roads from the four city gates to the central space 
 divided the four quarters of the city. These loads 
 were flanked by barracks and lateral walls with 
 side gates, so that in case of disturbance each 
 quarter could be shut off from the others. It grew 
 rapidly, and towards the close of the ninth cen- 
 tury it is said to have covered 25 square miles. 
 
 "It is impossible even to sketch the history of 
 which it now became the centre. All the wealth, 
 the learning, and the art of the East found their 
 chief home in the city which claimed both the 
 civil and religious allegiance of Islam from the 
 Great Wall of China and the Indus to the shores 
 of the .(Ktlantic, and from the Caucasus to the Sa- 
 hara. Its wonderful system of irrigation canals, 
 its mosques and palaces, its vast and luxuriant gar- 
 dens, its flourishing colleges, famous wherever the 
 Koran was read, its baths and its bazaars thronged 
 by merchants from all the East, its looms, its 
 cunning artificers, and its immense population 
 made it the greatest and the most renowned city 
 in the world. The revenue of the Caliphs has 
 been estimated at from £72,000,000 to £96,000,000 
 of money at its present value, and they lavished 
 it upon every form of Oriental luxury at their 
 Court. The fellow-countrymen of Sindbad, whose 
 home was Baghdad and his port Basra, and of 
 Hasan, who sailed to the Islands of Wak, were 
 daring seamen and observant travellers. They 
 were mathematicians, geographers, astronomers, 
 alchemists, physicians, and surgeons. Algebra and 
 Arabic numerals, the names of many constellations, 
 the gilding and silvering of pills, with its mystic 
 relation to the influence of the planets, are faint 
 memorials of their almost forgotten labours. 
 Avicenna himself was the most famous of Arab 
 physicians, and his works were still commented 
 upon in the University of Montpellier — itself of 
 Arab origin — well on into the nineteenth century. 
 It was under Mamun (813-833) that an event in 
 letters took place which still continues to influence 
 the thought of the world. The Caliph, a noble 
 
 801
 
 BAGDAD, 815-945 
 
 Under 
 Mongol Rale 
 
 BAGDAD, 1393-1638 
 
 patron of learning, directed that a number of 
 Greek authors should be translated into Arabic. 
 Amongst them was Aristotle, and it was from 
 Latin renderings of this version and of the Arabic 
 commentaries upon it that the medieval schoolmen 
 derived their first acquaintance with fundamental 
 portions of the Aristotelian system." — The Times 
 (London), weekly edition, Mar. i6, 1917. — See also 
 Barmecides; Caliphate: 763. 
 
 Also in: Syed Ameer Ali, Short history of the 
 Saracens, pp. 444-44Q. 
 
 815-945. — Decline of the Caliphate. See Cali- 
 phate: 815-945. 
 
 1050.— In the hands of the Seljuk Turks. 
 See Turkey: 1004-1063. 
 
 1132-1238. — Extent of territory. See Crusades: 
 Map of Mediterranean lands after 1204. 
 
 1258. — The Fall of the Caliphate.— Destruc- 
 tion of the city by the Mongols. — In 1252, on 
 the accession of Mangu Khan, grandson of Jingis 
 Khan, to the sovereignty of the Mongol Empire 
 [see Mongols], a great Kuriltai or council was 
 held, at which it was decided to send an expedi- 
 tion into the West, for two purposes: (i), to ex- 
 terminate the Ismaileans or Assassins, who still 
 maintained their power in northern Persia; (2), 
 to reduce the Caliph of Bagdad to submission to 
 the Mongol supremacy. The command of the 
 expedition was given to Mangu's brother Khulagu, 
 or Houlagou, who performed his appointed tasks 
 with thoroughness and unmerciful resolution. In 
 1257 he made an end of the Assassins, to the great 
 relief of the whole eastern world, Mahometan and 
 Christian. In 1258 he passed on to Bagdad, pre- 
 ceded by an embassy which summoned the caliph 
 to submit, to raze the walls of Bagdad, to give 
 up his vain pretensions to the sovereignty of the 
 Moslem world, and to acknowledge the Great 
 Khan for his lord. The feeble caliph and his 
 treacherous and incapable ministers neither sub- 
 mitted nor made vigorous preparations for de- 
 fence. As a consequence, Bagdad was taken after 
 a siege which only excited the ferocity of the 
 Mongols. They fired the city and slaughtered its 
 people, excepting some Christains, who are said 
 to have been spared through the influence of one 
 of. Khulagu's wives, who was a Nestorian. The 
 sack of Bagdad lasted seven days. The number 
 of the dead, we are told by Raschid, was 800,000. 
 The caliph, Mostasim, with all his family, was 
 put to death.— H. H. Howorth, History of the 
 Mongols, V. I, pp. 193-201. 
 
 For a considerable period before this final ca- 
 tastrophe, in the decline of the Seljuk Empire, the 
 Caliphate at Bagdad had become once more "an 
 independent temporal state, though, instead of rul- 
 ing in the three quarters of the globe, the caliphs 
 ruled only over the province of Irak .\rabi. Their 
 position was not unlike that of the Popes in 
 recent times, whom they also resembled in as- 
 suming a new name, of a pious character, at their 
 inauguration. Both the Christian and the Mos- 
 lem pontiff was the real temporal sovereign of a 
 small state; each claimed to be spiritual sovereign 
 over the whole of the Faithful; each was recog- 
 nized as such by a large body, but rejected by 
 others. But in truth the spiritual recognition of 
 the Abbaside caliphs was more nearly universal 
 in their last age than it had ever been before." 
 With the fall of Bagdad fell the caliphate as a 
 temporal sovereignty; but it survived, or was 
 resurrected, in its spiritual functions, to become 
 merged, a little later, in the supremacy of the 
 sultan of the Ottoman Turks. "A certain .Ahmed, 
 a real or pretended \bbasside, fled [from Bagdad] 
 to Egypt, where he was proclaimed cahph by the 
 title of Al Mostanser Billah, under the protection 
 
 of the then Sultan Bibars. He and his successors 
 were deemed, in spiritual things, Commanders of 
 the Faithful, and they were found to be a con- 
 venient instrument both by the Mameluke sultans 
 and by other Mahometan princes. From one of 
 them, Bajazet the Thunderbolt received the title 
 of Sultan; from another, Selim the Inflexible pro- 
 cured the cession of his claims, and obtained the 
 right to deem himself the shadow of God upon 
 earth. Since then, the Ottoman Padishah has been 
 held to inherit the rights of Omar and of Haroun, 
 rights which if strictly pressed, might be terrible 
 alike to enemies, neutrals, and allies." — E. A. Free- 
 man, History and conquest of the Saracens, lec- 
 ture, 4. 
 
 Also in: Syed Ameer Ali, Short history of the 
 Saracens, pp. 397-399. — M. Sykes, The Caliphs' last 
 heritage, pp. 270, 271. 
 
 1393-1638. — Under Mongol rule. — Timur. — 
 Persian and Turkish domination. — "Baghdad 
 had ceased to be the spiritual centre of Islam. . . . 
 Baghdad and Mesopotamia have been blasted for 
 six centuries by the Mongol devastation. By ruin- 
 ing the whole system of irrigation, Hulagu in a 
 single year "destroyed the work of three hundred 
 generations." The pagan empire of the II Khans 
 which he founded presently became a feeble Shiah 
 monarchy, and when the terrible Timur the Lame 
 (Tamerlane) arose to imitate and to surpass the 
 career of Chingiz, Baghdad opened its gates on his 
 approach. Nine years later in 1401 it defied the 
 conqueror and was taken by assault. [See Timur.] 
 . . . Timur died in his splendid palace at Samar- 
 cand in 1405, and Baghdad fell into the hands of 
 the 'Black Sheep' and then of the 'White Sheep' 
 Mongol dynasties. In the last year of the 15th 
 century Shah Ismail founded the dynasty of the 
 Safavis — the 'Sophys' of Shakespeare and Milton — 
 who at once gained the loyalty of the Shiah Per- 
 sians because the blood of Ali ran in their veins. 
 Against Shah Ismail the Turks, led by Selim 'the 
 Grim,' won the great battle of Chaldiran in 1514 
 and occupied Tabriz, but the Sultan was prevented 
 from prosecuting his conquests by the mutinous 
 temper of his troops. 
 
 "In 1534 the greatest of the Ottoman Sultans, 
 Suleiman 'the Law-giver,' 'the Magnificent,' the 
 conqueror of Belgrade and of Rhodes, the victor 
 of Mohacs, the besieger of Vienna, turned his 
 arms against Persia. After he had recaptured 
 Tabriz, Baghdad surrendered without a blow. . . . 
 Suleiman's eastern conquests were not long re- 
 tained. In 1604 Shah Abbas the Great, with 
 whose troops Sir Robert Sherley charged, ut- 
 terly defeated the Turks near Lake Urumiah. 
 Baghdad and Mosul, the holy places Nejf and 
 Kerbela, and the provinces of Azerbaijan and Kur- 
 distan were the fruits of the victory. Baghdad 
 seems to have again passed into the possession of 
 the Turks soon after, for in November, 1623, it 
 was betrayed to the Shah by the son of the Turkish 
 commandant. . . . 
 
 "Baghdad, however, was not long to remain in 
 Persian hands. Two attempts to recapture it 
 failed, apd ruined the Grand Vizers who made 
 them. Hafiz Pasha vainly besieged it for nine 
 months in 1625-6, and Khosru Pasha retired de- 
 feated from its walls in 1630. But eight years 
 later the bloodthirsty Murad IV., the last of the 
 fighting Sultans, led a great army against it. The 
 Persians made a valiant defence for 40 days and 
 the Grand Vizier was killed in an assault. Then, 
 as no relief came, the city surrendered on Christ- 
 mas Day, 163S. Pretexts were found first for 
 slaughtering the garrison and then for a wholesale 
 butchery." — The Times (London), weekly edition. 
 Mar. 16, 1917. — See also Turkey: 1623-1640. 
 
 802
 
 BAGDAD 
 
 BAGDAD RAILWAY 
 
 1638-1919. — Turkish rule. — From its recapture 
 by the Turks, Bagdad remained a Turkish pos- 
 session with a brief interval during the first half of 
 the nineteenth century, when it became an inde- 
 pendent pashalic. 
 
 1919-1921. — Strategic, economic and political 
 center. — Objective in the World War.— Bag- 
 dad controls much of the trade of Mesopotamia 
 and Arabia, and is the strategic center for the re- 
 gion between Constantinople and the Persian gulf. 
 It is the terminus of a railroad from Constanti- 
 nople projected before the war and hurried to 
 completion since 1914. (See also Mesopotamia.) 
 It was the objective of the Russian and British 
 campaign of iQis-16 which was temporarily aban- 
 doned after the fall of Kut-el-Amara in April, 
 1916. (See World War: 1916: VI, Turkish theater: 
 d, 3.) In January, 1917, the British began a new 
 advance up the Tigris and occupied Bagdad on 
 March 11, 1917. The continuation of the ad- 
 vance from the city caused a Turkish retreat into 
 Mesopotamia, whither they were pursued by the 
 Russians from Persia. A junction of the British 
 and Russian forces on April 4 was followed by a 
 British drive up the Bagdad railway to Samara, 
 and the British occupation of the Euphrates val- 
 ley. Operations in this theater were retarded by 
 the Russian revolution. — See also Bagdad railway; 
 Mesopotamia; World War: 1917: VI. Turkish 
 theater: a, 1; a, 1, iv; a, 1, v; and I. Summary: b. 
 
 By the peace treaty with Turkey, Mesopotamia 
 was created an independent state and allotted un- 
 der a mandate to Great Britain by the Supreme 
 Council. See Sevres, Treaty of: 1920: Part III. 
 Political clauses: Syria and Mesopotamia. 
 
 BAGDAD, Babi community in. See Bahaism. 
 
 BAGDAD RAILWAY: The Plan.— German 
 designs. — "In 1888, a group of German financiers, 
 backed by the Deutsche Bank, which was to have 
 so powerful a future in Turkey, asked for the 
 concession of a railway line from Ismidt to An- 
 gora. The construction of this line was followed 
 by concessions for extension from Angora to 
 Caesarea and for a branch from the Ismldt-Angora 
 line going south-west from Eski Sheir to Konia. 
 The extension to Caesarea was never made. That 
 was not the direction in which the Germans 
 \vanted to go. The Eski-Sheir-Konia spur be- 
 came the main line. The Berlin-Bagdad-Bassorah 
 "all rail route" was born. The Germans began to 
 dream of connecting the Baltic with the Persian 
 Gulf. The Balkan Peninsula was to revert to 
 Austria-Hungary, and Asia Minor and Mesopo- 
 tamia to Germany. The south Slavs and the pop- 
 ulations of the Ottoman Empire would be dis- 
 possesed (the philosopher Haeckel actually prophe- 
 sied this in a speech in 1905 before the Geographi- 
 cal Society of Jena). Russia would be cut off 
 from the Mediterranean, This was the Pan-Ger- 
 manist conception of the Bagdadbahn. From the 
 moment the first railway concession was granted 
 to Germans in Asia Minor, which coincided with 
 the year of his accession, Wilhelm II has been 
 heart and soul with tiie development of German 
 interests in the Ottoman Empire. His first move 
 in foreign politics was to visit Sultan Abdul 
 Hamid in 1889, when he was throwing off the 
 yoke of Bismarck. In 1898, the Kaiser made his 
 second voyage to Constantinople. This voyage 
 was followed by the concession extending the 
 railway from Konia to the Persian Gulf. It was 
 the beginning of the Bagdadbahn in the official 
 and narrower sense. After this visit of the Kaiser 
 to Abdul Hamid, the pilgrimage was continued 
 to the Holy Land. The great Protestant German 
 Church, whose corner-stone was laid by his father 
 in 1869, was solemnly inaugurated by the Kaiser. 
 
 As solemnly, he handed over to Catholic Ger- 
 mans the title to land for a hospital and religious 
 establishment on the road to Bethlehem. Still 
 solemnly, at a banquet in his honour in Damas- 
 cus, he turned to the Turkish Vali, and declared: 
 'Say to the three hundred million Moslems of 
 the world that I am their friend,' To prove his 
 sincerity he went out to put a wreath upon the 
 tomb of Saladin. Wilhelm II at Damascus is 
 reminiscent of Napoleon at Ca'ro. Egypt and 
 Syria and Mesopotamia have always cast a spell 
 over men who have dreamed of world empires; 
 and Islam, as a unifying force for conquest, has 
 appealed to the imagination of others before the 
 . . . [former] German Kaiser. The revelation of 
 Germany's ambition by the granting of the conces- 
 sion from Konia to the Persian Gulf, and the ap- 
 plication of the German financiers for a firman 
 constituting the Bagdad Railway Company, led to 
 international intrigues and negotiations for a share 
 in the construction of the line through Mesopo- 
 tamia. It would be wearisome and ptofitleis to 
 follow the various phases of the Bagdad question. 
 Germany did not oppose international participation 
 in the concession. The expense of crossing the 
 Taurus and the dubious financial returns from 
 the desert sections influenced the Germans to wel- 
 come the financial support of others in an under- 
 taking that they would have found great difficulty 
 in financing entirely by their own capital. The 
 Bagdadbahn concession was granted in 1899. The 
 firman constituting the company followed in 1903. 
 Russia did not realize the danger of German 
 influence at Constantinople, and of the eventuali- 
 ties of the German 'pacific penertations' in Asia 
 Minor. She adjusted the Macedonian question 
 with Emperor Franz Josef in order to have a free 
 hand in Manchuria, and she made no opposition 
 to the German ambitions. She needed the friendly 
 neutrality of Germany in her approaching struggle 
 with Japan, Once the struggle was begun, Rus- 
 sia found herself actually dependent upon the 
 goodwill of Germany. It was not the time for 
 Petrograd to fish in the troubled waters of the 
 Golden Horn, The situation was different with 
 Great Britain, The menace of the German ap- 
 proach to the Persian Gulf was brought to the 
 British Foreign Office just long enough before the 
 Boer crisis became acute for a decision to b? 
 made, Germany had sent engineers along the pro- 
 posed route of her railway. She had neglected 
 to send diplomatic agents! The proposed — in fact 
 the only feasible — terminus on the Persian Gulf 
 was at Koweit. Like the Sultan of Muscat, the 
 Sheik of Koweit was practically independent of 
 Turkey. While showing deference to the Sultan 
 as Khalif, Sheik Mobarek resisted every effort of 
 the Vali of Bassorah to exercise even the semblance 
 of authority over his small domain. In 1899, 
 Colonel Meade, the British resident of the Per- 
 sian Gulf, signed with Mobarek a secret conven- 
 tion which assured to him 'special protection,' if 
 he would make no cession of territory without 
 the knowledge and consent of the British Govern- 
 ment, The following year, a German mission, 
 headed by the Kaiser's Consul General at Con- 
 stantinople, arrived in Koweit to arrange the 
 concession for the terminus of the Bagdadbahn. 
 They were too late. The door to the Persian Gulf 
 was shut in the face of Germany. Wilhelm II 
 set into motion the Sultan, The Sublime Porte 
 suddenly remembered that Koweit was Ottoman 
 territory, and began to display great interest in 
 forcing the Sheik to recognize the fact. A Turkish 
 vessel appeared at Koweit in 1901, But British 
 warships and British bluejackets upheld the inde- 
 pendence of Koweit! Since the Constitution of 
 
 803 
 
 ¥»
 
 BAGDAD RAILWAY 
 
 BAGDAD RAILWAY 
 
 iqo8, all the efforts of the Young Turks at Koweit 
 have been fruitless. Germany [=tood] blocked. 
 British opposition to the German schemes was not 
 limited to the prevention of an outlet of the Bag- 
 dadbahn at Koweit. Since 1708, when the East 
 India Company established a resident at Bagdad 
 to spy upon and endeavour to frustrate the in- 
 fluence of the French, just beginning to penetrate 
 towards India through the ambition of Napoleon 
 to inherit the empire of Alexander, British inter- 
 ests have not failed to be well looked after in 
 Lower Mesopotamia. After the Lynch Brothers 
 in i860 obtained the right of navigating on the 
 Euphrates, the development of their steamship lines 
 gradually gave Great Britain the bulk of the com- 
 merce of the whole region, in the Persian as well 
 as the Ottoman hinterland of the Gulf. In 1805, 
 German commerce in the port of Bushir was non- 
 
 increased, if it passed by the Mediterranean lit- 
 toral around the head of the Gulf of Alexandretta. 
 Then the control of the railway would have been 
 at the mercy of the British fleet. When the 're- 
 vised' plans went from the Ministry of Public 
 Works to the Ministry of War, it was not hard 
 for the German agents to persuade the General 
 Staff to restore the original route inland across 
 the Amanus, following the old plan agreed upon in 
 the time of Abdul Hamid. More than that, the 
 Germans secured concessions for a branch line 
 from .Aleppo to the Mediterranean at Alexandretta, 
 and for the construction of a port of Alexan- 
 dretta. The Bagdadbahn was to have a Mediter- 
 ranean terminus at a fortified port, and Germany 
 was to have her naval base in the north-east cor- 
 ner of the Mediterranean, eight hours from Cy- 
 prus and thirty-six hours from the Suez Canal! 
 
 BAGDAD RAILROAD 
 
 existent, while British commerce surpassed twelve 
 million francs yearly. In igoj, the Hamburg- 
 American line established a service to Bassorah. 
 British merchants began to raise the cry that if 
 the Bagdadbahn appeared the Germans would soon 
 have not only the market of Mesopotamia but 
 also that of Kermanshah ! The Lynch Company 
 declared that the Bagdadbahn would ruin their 
 river service, and their representations were listened 
 to at London, despite the absurdity of their 
 contention. The Lynches were negotiating with 
 Berlin also. The mixture of politics and com- 
 merce in Mesopotamia is a sordid story, which 
 does not improve in the telling. Germany strength- 
 ened her railway scheme, and her hold on the 
 territories through which it was to pass, by 
 the accord with Russia at Potsdam in igio. 
 The last clever attack of British diplomacy 
 on the Bagdadbahn was successfully met. In 
 tracing the extension of the railway beyond 
 .•\dana, it was suggested to the Department of 
 Public Works that the cost of construction would 
 be greatly reduced and the usefulness of the line 
 
 [See also Mediterranean Sea.] This was the re- 
 venge for Koweit. 
 
 "In seeking for the causes of the present conflict 
 [the World War], it is impossible to neglect Ger- 
 many in the Ottoman Empire. .As one looks up 
 at Pera from the Bosphoruf, the most imposing 
 building on the hill is the German Embassy. It 
 dominates Constantinople. There has been woven 
 the web that has resulted in putting Germany In 
 the place of Great Britain to prevent the Rus- 
 sian advance to the Dardanelles, in putting Ger- 
 many in the place of Russia to threaten the Brit- 
 ish occupation of India and the trade route to 
 India, and in putting Germany in the place of 
 Great Britain as the stubborn opponent of the 
 completion of the African Empire of France. The 
 most conspicuous thread of the web Ls the Bag- 
 dadbahn. In the intrigues of Constantinople, we 
 see develop the political evolution of the past 
 generation, and the series of events that made in- 
 evitable the European war of 1914." — H. A. Gib- 
 bons, New map of Europe, pp. 62-70. — See also 
 Turkey: 1914. 
 
 804
 
 BAGDAD RAILWAY 
 
 BAGDAD RAILWAY 
 
 "But the Germans were attracted not so much by 
 the commercial and industrial opportunities which 
 the Bagdad Railway was to open to them, as by the 
 political advantage which control of the Ottoman 
 Empire would offer. If in the future there should 
 arise a struggle with Great Britain for the control 
 of the seas and colonial empire, German domina- 
 tion in Mesopotamia would threaten the British 
 Empire in two vital points: India and Egypt. 
 This was the point of view adopted by Rohrbach, 
 whose views on German policy were accepted as 
 sound and who by no means belonged to the bel- 
 ligerent party in Germany. 'One factor,' said he 
 in igii, 'and one alone will determine the possi- 
 bility of a successful issue for Germany in such 
 a conflict: whether or not we succeed in placing 
 England in a perilous position. A direct attack 
 upon England across the North Sea is out of the 
 question; the prospect of a German invasion of 
 England is a fantastic dream. It is necessary to 
 discover another combination in order to hit Eng- 
 land in a vulnerable spot — and here we come to 
 the point where the relationship of Germany and 
 Turkey and the conditions prevailing in Turkey 
 become of decisive importance for German foreign 
 policy, based as it now is upon watchfulness in the 
 direction of England. . . . England can be at- 
 tacked and mortally wounded by land from Europe 
 only in one place — Egypt.' The loss of Egypt 
 would mean for England not only the end of her 
 dominion over the Suez Canal, and of her con- 
 nections with India and the Far East, but would 
 probably entail the loss also of her possessions in 
 Central and East Africa. The conquest of Egypt 
 by a Mohammedan Power like Turkey would also 
 imperil England's hold over her sixty million Mo- 
 hammedan subjects in India, besides prejudicing 
 her relations with Afghanistan and Persia. Turkey, 
 however, can never dream of recovering Egypt 
 until she is mistress of a developed railway sys- 
 tem in Asia Minor and Syria, and until, through 
 the progress of the Anatolian Railway to Bagdad, 
 she is in a position to withstand an attack by 
 England upon Mesopotamia. The Turkish army 
 must he increased and improved, and progress 
 must be made in her economic and financial posi- 
 tion. . . . The stronger Turkey grows, the more 
 dangerous does she become for England. . . . 
 Egypt is a prize which for Turkey would be well 
 worth the risk of taking sides with Germany in a 
 war with England. The policy of protecting 
 Turkey, which is now pursued by Germany, has 
 no other object but the desire to effect an insur- 
 mce against the danger of a war with England." 
 — C. Seymour, Diplomatic background of the war, 
 p. 205. 
 
 Route. See Turkey: Map of Asia Minor. 
 
 Importance to western world. — "The region 
 of Asia Minor along the great highway leading 
 from Constantinople to Bagdad has from the most 
 ancient times determined the fate of the Near East. 
 Its role in the distant past has ever been to 
 threaten the existence of civilizations and powers 
 that arose in the valley of the Euphrates, as in 
 the intervening lands of Palestine and Arabia. . . . 
 In our own days we are witnessing what promised 
 to be the reopening of the old historic highway — 
 the bridge uniting Europe to Asia — to Western 
 control, through the project of a great railway 
 stretching along a distance of nearly 2000 miles 
 from a point opposite Constantinople to Bagdad, 
 and thence to Basra and to the Persian Gulf. 
 That project, which was well under way at the 
 time of the outbreak of the war, is thus marked 
 through its historical backgrouncl as one of the 
 most momentous enterprises of our age — more 
 momentous because of the issue involved than the 
 
 opening up of the two other world highways, the 
 Suez and Panama canals. The creation of a rail- 
 way from Constantinople to Bagdad under Euro- 
 pean control is at once a symptom of the dis- 
 solution of the Turkish Empire which has become 
 a mere shadow of its former wide extension, and a 
 significant token of the new invasion of the East 
 by the spirit of Western enterprise. Passing along 
 a highway over which armies have marched for- 
 ward and backward ever since the days of an- 
 tiquity, the railway is also a link connecting the 
 present with the remote past. . . . The modem 
 world fights for this region as the ancient world 
 did, with the railroad as the new symbol of a 
 possession stronger and firmer than the garrisons 
 and outposts of antiquity and the fortresses of 
 the Roman and mediaeval periods. The importance 
 of Constantinople lies in its position as the starting 
 point of the great highway that has as its natural 
 outlets the Bay of Alexandretta on the one hand, 
 and the Persian Gulf on the other. The historical 
 role of this highway gives to the Bagdad Railway 
 a political import far transcending its aspect as 
 one of the great commercial enterprises of our 
 days. Backed as the project was by the German 
 government, steadily growing in power and ag- 
 gressiveness since the establishment of the united 
 German Empire, it added to the already compli- 
 cated Eastern Question an aggravating factor that 
 contributed largely to the outbreak of the great 
 war. The present struggle for supremacy among 
 European powers resolves itself in its ultimate 
 analysis into a rivalry for the control of the East 
 as an adjunct to commercial expansion. The 'trend 
 towards the East' did not originate with modern 
 Germany. It began with Greece, was taken up by 
 ancient Rome and has actuated every Western 
 power with ambitions to extend its commerce and 
 its sphere of influence — Spain, Holland, England 
 and France, and in days nearer to us Russia and 
 Germany, Austria and Italy. Through a curious 
 combination of circumstances, superinduced by 
 the gradual weakening of the once dominant Turk- 
 ish Empire, the struggle has shaped itself into its 
 present aspect for a control of the great highway 
 that is the key to the East — the nearer and the 
 farther East. . . . From the historical point of 
 view there are thus two aspects to the Bagdad Rail- 
 way. It represents, on the one hand, the last act 
 in the process of reopening the direct way to the 
 East which became closed to the West by the fall 
 of Constantinople in 1453, and which began to be 
 reopened with the loosening of Turkey's hold on 
 one end of the historic highway stretching across 
 Asia Minor. On the other hand, the conflict to 
 which the railway gave rise illustrates' once more 
 the crucial role that this "highway has always 
 played in determining the fate of the Near East 
 from the most ancient days down to our times. 
 The opposition of the European powers to the 
 Bagdad Railway, used as a political scheme for the 
 aggrandizement of a particular country, registers 
 the instinctive protest of the West against the 
 domination of the East by any one power — no 
 matter which. . . . The Bagdad Railway in the 
 hands of Germany, stretching from Constantinople 
 via Bagdad to the Persian Gulf, would have meant 
 the practical closing of the highway to all other 
 nations — as effectively as the taking of Constan- 
 tinople accomplished this in 1453. The his- 
 tory of Asia Minor gives the verdict that 
 the highway must be kept open — if the world is 
 to progress peaceably and if the nations of the 
 West are to live in amicable rivalry, while once 
 more passing through the period of an exchange 
 between Orient and Occident — such as first took 
 place in the days of Alexander the Great. This 
 
 805
 
 BAGDAD RAILWAY 
 
 BAGLIONI 
 
 verdict suggests 'internationalization' of the high- 
 way as the solution, and it also voices a warning to 
 the West that the reopening of the highway must 
 not be used for domination over the East but for 
 co-operation with it, not for exploiting the East, 
 but for a union with it."— M. Jastrow, War and 
 the Bagdad raUway, pp. 26-30, 121.— "When the 
 fertility of Irak has been restored, it must be put m 
 communication by railway with Arabia's chief ports. 
 (I) Bagdad has heretofore communicated with the 
 Mediterranean by circuitous routes to the North- 
 west, which cling to the tiny ribbon of moisture 
 and vecetation deposited across the Northern sec- 
 tion of the steppe by the Tigris and Euphrates, m 
 their descent from the Armenian mountains 
 towards the Gulf. The harvests of Irak, when 
 they are reaped once more, will fully repay the 
 construction of a railway from Bagdad to Damas- 
 cus, which will cross Euphrates and run due West 
 over the steppe. The distance is under five hun- 
 dred miles, less by one-third than the course the 
 German company" has surveyed from Bagdad to 
 Iskanderun, and Damascus, lying on the inner 
 rim of the Syrian retaining wall near the middle 
 point of its extent, is the natural raiJway-centre 
 of Arabia. Besides being the starting-point of the 
 pilgrim-line to ISIedina. it is already connected by 
 a full-gauge railway with Haifa, the harbour un- 
 der Carmel's shadow, and by a narrow-gauge 
 line over Lebanon with Beirut, the greatest port 
 of the Syrian coast. (II) Immediately after it has 
 put Euphrates behind it, this new Bagdad-Damas- 
 cus railway will detach a branch to the South, 
 which will pass through Kerbela, skirt the East- 
 ern foot of the plateau parallel with the Euphrates' 
 course, touch the Shatt-al-Arab at Basra, and 
 find its terminus on the Persian Gulf at Koweit. 
 (Ill) Direct connection between Bagdad and 
 Europe will be established by a line followmg up 
 the Right bank of the Tigris as far as Mosul. 
 There it will change direction from North-West to 
 West, and run across the head-waters of the Kha- 
 bour, between the Sinjar and Tor-.\bdin hills. 
 After passing through Harran, it will strike the 
 Euphrates, cross it by a bridge at Jerabis, and 
 continue in the same w'esterly direction through 
 the hilly country between Aleppo and Aintab, up 
 to the wall of Amanus, which it will have to 
 penetrate by a tunnel before it can make a junc- 
 tion with the Adana-Iskanderun line in Anatolian 
 territory. A branch line between Jerabis and .\lep- 
 po is already completed, and the last link in the 
 chain, the direct connection between Aleppo and 
 Damascus along the plateau East of Lebannon, has 
 been in working order several years. (IV) Owing 
 to the lack of any accessible port on the North 
 Syrian coast, the cutting of the Amanus tunnel 
 will probably bring a large area in >iorthern Ara- 
 bia, as far as Mosul, within the commercial hin- 
 terland of the favourably situated Anatolian ports, 
 Mersina and Iskanderun. If this happens. Aleppo 
 will forfeit to Adana much of its impoitance as 
 an urban centre, unless it can find a new harbour 
 of its own. At present its nearest outlet towards 
 the South is Tarabolus, reached through a con- 
 venient gap in Lebanon by a branch line that 
 leaves the Aleppo-Damascus railway at Horns: un- 
 less Aleppo can open up more direct communica- 
 tion with the sea, and establish a port for itself 
 either at the mouth of the Orontes or slightly 
 further South at Latikia, its future will seriously 
 be compromised." — A Toynbee, Nationality and 
 the war, pp. 442-445. — See also Bosporus: 1878- 
 igi4; and R.mlro.ws: iSoq-iQi6. 
 
 BAGDAD RAILWAY TREATY. See Ger- 
 iANv: 1913: Bagdad Railway Treaty; World War: 
 Diplomatic background: 71, xvL 
 
 BAGDADBAHN. See B.wd.ad railway: Plan. 
 
 BAGENAL, Sir Henry (d. 1578), marshal of 
 army in Ireland. Defeated at Yellow Ford by 
 Hugh O'Neill. See Ulster: 1585-1608. 
 
 BAGIMONT'S roll.— "Popes taxed the 
 Church in Scotland to the extent of about three 
 per cent., and in the end of the 13th century the 
 Pope reestimated Scottish ecclesiastical property, 
 which had immensely increased in value. The task 
 was performed by Benemund ('Bagimund') [Boia- 
 raund or sometimes Bajimont] de \'icci in 1275; 
 the object was to collect a tenth of benefices for 
 relief of the Holy Land. The clergy resisted and 
 protested in favour of the old rating. The Pope 
 was firm and 'Bagimond's Roll' was long the basis 
 of taxation ecclesiastical." — .\. Lang, History of 
 Scotland, z'. I, p. 154. 
 
 BAGISTANA. See Behistun, Rock of. 
 
 BAGLEY, David W., .American lieutenant-com- 
 mander, author of a report on sinking of U. S. S. 
 Jacob Jones. See World War: 1917: IX. Naval 
 operations: c, 5. 
 
 BAGLIONI.— "The Baglioni first came into 
 notice during the wars they carried on with the 
 Oddi of Perugia in the 14th and 15th centuries. 
 This was one of those duels to the death, like that 
 of the V'isconti w-ith the Torrensi of Milan, on 
 which the fate of so many Italian cities of the 
 middle ages hung. The nobles fought ; the towns- 
 folk assisted like a Greek chorus, sharing the pas- 
 sions of the actors, but contributing little to the 
 catastrophe. The piazza was the theatre on which 
 the tragedy was played. In this contest the Bag- 
 lioni proved the stronger, and began to sway the 
 state of Perugia after the irregular fashion of 
 Italian despots. They had no legal right over the 
 city, no hereditary magistracy, no title of princely 
 authority. The Church was reckoned the supreme 
 administrator of the Perugian commonwealth. But 
 in reality no man could set foot on the Umbrian 
 plain without permission from the Baglioni. They 
 elected the officers of state. The lives and goods of 
 the citizens were at their discretion. When a Papal 
 legate showed his face, they made the town too 
 hot to hold him. ... It was in vain that from 
 time to time the people rose against them, mas- 
 sacring Pandolfo Baglioni on the public square In 
 1393. and joining with Ridolfo and Braccio of the 
 dominant house to assassinate another Pandolfo 
 w-ith his son Niccolo in 1460. The more they were 
 cut down, the more they flourished. The wealth 
 they derived from their lordship in the duchy of 
 Spoleto and the LTmbrian hill-cities, and the 
 treasures they accumulated in the service of the 
 Itahan repubUcs, made them omnipotent in their 
 native town. . . . From father to son they were 
 warriors, and we have records of few Italian 
 houses, except perhaps the Malatesti of Rimini, 
 who equalled them in hardihood and fierceness. 
 Especially were they noted for the remorseless 
 vendette which they carried on among themselves, 
 cousin tracking cousin to death with the ferocity 
 and craft of sleuth-hounds. Had they restrained 
 these fratricidal passions, they might, perhaps, by 
 following some common policy, like that of the 
 Medici in Florence or the Bentivogli in Bologna, 
 have successfully resisted the Papal authority, and 
 secured dynastic sovereignty. It is not until 1495 
 that the history of the Baglioni becomes dramatic, 
 possibly because till then they lacked the pen of 
 Matarazzo. But from this year forward to their 
 final extinction, every detail of their doings Bas a 
 picturesque and awful interest. Domestic furies, 
 like the revel descried by Cassandra above the 
 palace of Mycenae, seem to take possession of the 
 fated house; and the doom which has fallen on 
 them is worked out with pitiless exactitude to the 
 
 806
 
 BA60T 
 
 BAHAISM 
 
 last generation." — J. A. Symonds, Sketches in Italy 
 and Greece, pp. 70-72. 
 
 BAGOT, Sir Charles (1781-1843), governor- 
 general of Canada. See Canada: 1838-1S43. 
 
 BAGRATID.ffi, the name of an Armenian dy- 
 nasty. See Armenia: I2th-i4th centuries. 
 
 BAGRATION, Prince Peter (1765-1812), 
 Russian general. Served with distinction in many 
 parts of Europe during the Napoleonic wars, fight- 
 ing with skill and bravery and receiving a mortal 
 wound at Borodino, 1812. See Russia: 1812 
 (June-September) . 
 
 BAGUIO, the summer capital of the Philip- 
 pine islands. "About 132 miles in a straight line 
 north of Manila, in the mountain region of Ben- 
 guet, lies Baguio, the summer capital of the Philip- 
 pine Islands. Before the American occupation, the 
 country around Baguio was an inaccessible wilder- 
 ness, inhabited almost exclusively by the heathen 
 Igorot, but already its splendid, invigorating cli- 
 mate had attracted the attention of the authorities. 
 ■ The Spanish government, anxious to secure a place 
 where its soldiers could recuperate from disease 
 in a climate more favorable than that of the low- 
 lands, appointed, shortly before the Spanish-Ameri- 
 can war, a commission to investigate the climatic 
 conditions of the Benguet region, looking towards 
 the establishment of a military sanitarium. This 
 commission, after an exhaustive investigation, 
 recommended that the proposed sanitarium be es- 
 tablished at Baguio, in the province of Benguet. 
 Thus matters stood when the change of sovereignty 
 took place. Upon the establishment of civil gov- 
 ernment under the United States, the Philippine 
 Commission took up the question of a health re- 
 sort for government employees and others, and the 
 committee appointed by that body . . . came prac- 
 tically to the same conclusions as the Spanish 
 commission. ... To make this region accessible, 
 it was proposed to connect Baguio with Dagupan, 
 the terminus of the Manila and Dagupan Railroad, 
 by means of highways, the portion to be con- 
 structed by the Insular Government beginning at 
 Pozorrubio, in the Province of Pangasinan. As 
 the construction of this road proceeded, numer- 
 ous difficulties arose, and when it was finally com- 
 pleted, it had cost the Government two million 
 dollars. Another, much less expensive road was 
 constructed to connect Baguio with San Fernando, 
 a seaport in the Province of La Union. In igo2 
 the Insular Government began the construction of 
 a civil sanitarium and of several cottages, and in 
 May and June, 1903, the Commission held for the 
 first time its sessions at Baguio. During the fol- 
 lowing years the same course was adopted, and as 
 transportation facilities continued to improve, a 
 little town sprang up. The several religious de- 
 nominations purchased land and built churches, 
 mission schools and cottages; private parties and 
 Manila firms bought lots and constructed cottages 
 on them; two hotels opened their doors; a mili- 
 tary post was established in the vicinity of Baguio; 
 the Jesuits built a large observatory on Mount 
 Mirador, and the Insular Government established 
 several schools for the Igorot, a training school for 
 officers of the Philippine Constabulary, and an 
 agricultural experimental station and stock farm. 
 A water system was established and roads and 
 drives were" built, and before long the surrounding 
 country was dotted with private residences. The 
 gold mines in the vicinity of Baguio, which had 
 been worked in a crude fashion by the native 
 Igorot, also came in for a great deal of attention, 
 and a number of them are now being worked by 
 American syndicates. Several of the latter have 
 imported modern plants, and all seem to be doing 
 well. . . . Governor-General W. Cameron Forbes 
 
 took a special interest in Baguio. At the very be- 
 ginning of his administration, in the fall of 1909, 
 he began to make active preparations to carry 
 out his plan to transfer the entire Insular Gov- 
 ernment to Baguio during the hot season. Sev- 
 eral large buildings were erected for the accommo- 
 dation of the offices of the Government, also a 
 Mess Hall for the employees and some twenty cot- 
 tages. A franchise was granted for the construc- 
 tion and operation of an electric light plant; an 
 automobile service was established between Baguio 
 and Camp One, the terminus of the branch line 
 of the Manila and Dagupan Railroad; the exist- 
 ing roads were improved, and everything was done 
 to convert Baguio into a modern city. At the end 
 of February [19 10] . . . the general exodus of the 
 government offices to Baguio began. Soon the 
 place presented a lively aspect. A special session 
 of the Philippine Legislature had been called by 
 the Governor-General and was held from March 
 2Sth to April 19th, and the teachers held their 
 annual vacation assembly in a huge camp in the 
 woods near Baguio. Since the close of the special 
 session of the Legislature and of the teachers' as- 
 sembly, Baguio has ceased to be overcrowded, and 
 its floating population will continue to diminish 
 until, in July, Baguio will be once more a quiet 
 mountain village, with the torrential tropical rain 
 beating down on the deserted office buildings and 
 cottages, and the few permanent residents con- 
 fined to their homes." — L. Fischer (New Age, v. 
 13, pp. 407-413). 
 
 BAHADUR SHAH II (d. 1862), Last Mogul 
 'of India, 1837-1857. See India: 1857 (June-Sep- 
 tember). 
 
 BAHAISM: Baha'u'llah.— Development from 
 Babism to Bahaism. — "Among the most influ- 
 ential Babis was Mirza Husain Ali Nuri, born at 
 Nur, in Mazandaran, on November 12, 1817. His 
 family was eminently noble, and had contributed 
 viziers and councillors to the royal court. In the 
 natural course of events, therefore, this child would 
 have become a courtier and official, but from his 
 early youth he turned toward his own spiritual 
 development, and refused to enter upon a public 
 career. He was imprisoned for four months dur- 
 ing these persecutions, confined in a dungeon, 
 heavily chained to five other Babis. When no po- 
 litical conspiracy could be proved in his conduct 
 or impelled in his religious convictions, his property 
 was confiscated and he himself, with his family, 
 banished to Baghdad, beyond the Persian border 
 and under the jurisdiction of the Sultan of Turkey. 
 A great number of Babis, feeling in him the in- 
 telligence, sympathy, and courage necessary to 
 guide them through such trying times, followed 
 with their families in voluntary banishment. This 
 took place in 1852. The condition of the Babi 
 community on its arrival at Baghdad represented 
 economic chaos, complicated by the various opin- 
 ions, social positions, and temperaments of the 
 individual members. Mirza Ali, however, arranged 
 their lives and activities, constructing from these 
 helpless but willing emigrants an efficient, happy 
 settlement. As soon as the foundations had been 
 laid for their order and prosperity, he withdrew 
 to the mountains north of Sulaimanziah, where for 
 two years he lived in solitude, continually medi- 
 tating and drawing freely from the source of all 
 human inspiration and power. His presence even 
 there became known, and holy men from near and 
 far visited the hermit to discuss spiritual problems 
 and experience. After two years, the Babi com- 
 munity at Baghdad urgently begged his return, 
 as their circumstances had become difficult during 
 his absence. Returning to Baghdad, Mirza Ali 
 gradually created so prosperous a settlement that 
 
 807
 
 BAHAISM 
 
 BAHAISM 
 
 Babis and others from all parts of Asia began to 
 join themselves to the community. Their increas- 
 ing numbers and influence frightened the clergy, 
 and the Persian Government treated with the Sul- 
 tan for the surrender of the religious leader. Pre- 
 ferring to retain him on Turkish territor>', the 
 Sultan summoned Mirza Mi to Constantinople. 
 Outside Baghdad, on his way to Constantinople, 
 he stopped his first day's journey at an estate 
 called the 'Garden of Rizwan,' where he was joined 
 by his followers, nearly all having preferred to 
 attend him in his new exile. Twelve days were 
 spent in the Garden of Rizwan, during which time 
 Mirza Ali Nuri, by the authority of his own per- 
 sonality, gave an eternal, world-wide significance 
 to this religious movement, and transferred its 
 scope from Persia and Mohammedanism to hu- 
 manity and religion. In this garden he announced 
 to his followers that he was the supreme mani- 
 festation of God foretold by the Bab, and publicly 
 assumed the name of 'Baha'o'Uah,' the Glory of 
 God. He commanded t'le Babis to look no more 
 to the Bab for their prophet, but to himself, whose 
 revelation would fulfil the Bab's prophecy and 
 dissolve their Mohammedan sect in the larger syn- 
 thesis of Bahaism." — H. Holley, Modern social re- 
 ligion, pt. 5, pp. 161-162. — See also B.\bism. — "At 
 that time he and his followers, now known as 
 Bahais, were removed to Constantinople and soon 
 after to Adrianople, where they remained until 
 1868 A. D. when, under pressure from enemies, 
 they were transported to the political prison of 
 Acca in Syria. Acca is about twenty miles from 
 Nazareth, the home of Jesus, and nine miles from 
 Mt. Carmel, the scene of many scriptural events." 
 — T. Chase, Bahai revelation, p. 55. — "During the 
 latter years of His ministry, Baha'o'Uah was al- 
 lowed to spend much time in the country in the 
 vicinity of Akka [the modern Acre, on the coast 
 of Syria], even visiting Haifa and Mt. Car- 
 mel. ... He departed this life in the month 
 of May, i8q2, after forty years of hardship, 
 imprisonment, and exile, that the soul of the 
 world might be quickened with the life of the 
 spirit. The tomb of Baha'o'Uah, at Behje, is 
 greatly venerated by the many pilgrims who yearly 
 visit it from all parts of the world."— C. M. Re- 
 mev, Bahai movement, ch. 3. 
 
 Teachings of Baha'u'llah.— "Manifold 'tablets' 
 and treatises of instruction fell from Baha'u'llah's 
 pen. One Treatise, entitled The Book of Laws, 
 contains text upon text of commandments invalu- 
 able not to Bahais alone but to 'all the men of all 
 the world.' In it he orders the sword to be set 
 aside for ever, to be replaced by the Word. He 
 inculcates the settlement of national differences by 
 arbitration. He enjoins the acquirement of One 
 Universal Language to be taught to all children in 
 all schools so that 'the whole world may become 
 one homeland.' Boys and girls are to be educated 
 alike, and the education must be the best possible, 
 participated in by the children of the poor as well 
 as those of the wealthy. Progress is impossible 
 while ignorance spreads its roots. So eager was 
 he in this connection that he wrote: 'He who 
 educates his own son or the son of another, it is 
 as though he educated the Son of God.' That 
 'work is prayer' he taught decisively. The high- 
 est act of prayer and worship consists in the ac- 
 quirement of some profession or handicraft and 
 using it thoroughly and conscientiously. By the 
 advancement of art and science he set great store. 
 Disapproving of celibacy, he advocated marriage. 
 Objecting to asceticism, he advised his followers to 
 mix freely with all people, and on all occasions 
 to exhibit signs of a glad and joyous but prac- 
 tically righteous life. Naturally, therefore, in- 
 
 808 
 
 temperance and gambling are forbidden, together 
 with the use of opium. . . . 
 
 "Practical charity, practical goodwill and kind- 
 ness to all and sundry, including the lower ani- 
 mal world, Baha'u'llah insisted upon. . . . 
 
 "Baha'u'llah declared himself utterly opposed to 
 priesthood. He built no church 'made with hands.' 
 Teachers of his Gospel of The Light may not take 
 fees or stipends for their teaching. The necessities 
 of living must be earned by them, even as St. 
 Paul wrought at sail-making for food. . . . 
 
 "Distrust of fellow-men ; intemperance of speech 
 or action; love of wealth; above all, disunion: 
 these are strenuously disapproved of by Bahaism." 
 — Splendour of God (Wisdom of the East series, 
 pp. 34-38)- 
 
 Abdul Baha. — "Before his departure in May, 
 1892, Baha'o'Uah appointed his son Abbas Effendi, 
 Abdul-Baha, to be 'Center of the Covenant' of 
 Light, Love and Peace which he founded in the 
 Name of God. He commanded all to turn their 
 faces to Abdul-Baha for understanding, thus mak-' 
 ing him the authorized Interpreter of writings. 
 The only claim that Abdul-Baha makes for him- 
 self is this authority of interpretation and that 
 he is Abdul-Baha — the Servant of God in this Rev- 
 elation. Abdul-Baha .^bbas was born in Teheran, 
 Persia, on the evening of May 23rd, 1844 A.D. 
 At nine years of age he accompanied his father in 
 the journey of exile to Baghdad, and from that 
 time he shared every hardship, suffering and im- 
 prisonment." — T. Chase. Bahai' revelation p. 5g. 
 — "The name Abdul-Baha signifies the title of its 
 bearer, "The Servant of God.' Abdul-Baha is an 
 exile from his country and until the reestablish- 
 ment of the Turkish Constitution in the summer 
 of 1008, he was a religious prisoner, held in the 
 fortress of Akka. With this political change, he — 
 with many other prisoners and exiles — was freed 
 and is no longer under military surveillance. Since 
 his release Abdul-Baha has made but few changes 
 in his daily Hfe. Now it is possible for many 
 more of his followers to visit him than formerly, 
 consequently his duties and labors are increased. 
 . . . While imprisoned Abdul-Baha received a 
 stipend from the Turidsh government. Now that 
 he is freed, this no longer continues. He holds 
 cultivated lands in the vicinity of Akka which 
 render him an income. His personal needs and 
 those of his family are few. In reality, that which 
 he possesses is for the benefit of all, while he is 
 but the guardian of it." — C. M. Remey, Bahai 
 movement, ch. 4, pp. 27, 31. — For detailed account 
 of .\bdul Baha's journey through Europe and the 
 United States in 1911-1013, consult H. Holley, 
 Modern social religion, pt. 5, pp. 173-178. 
 
 Progress of the Bahai cause. — "Bahaism is 
 now by no means confined to one personality or 
 one region. . . . Persia itself . . . contains more 
 than a million believers. Adherence to the cause 
 nowhere else implies so much courage and stead- 
 fastness. Though tolerating neither priesthood 
 nor ecclcsiasticism, the Bahai revelation makes 
 ample provision for social control of its teaching. 
 For every city it defines a special organization to 
 unite the followers, instruct them in practical social 
 work, concentrate their activity, and renew their 
 vision. . . . No order or precedence between per- 
 sons or the sexes is observed, and the Bahai ser- 
 vices resemble those of the Quakers more than any 
 other religious gathering known to our environ- 
 ment. The cause is propagated in the natural 
 manner, by those who are moved to serve by their 
 own impulse. . . . Such assemblies or centres, de- 
 viating from type according to local circumstances, 
 e.xist in great numbers throughout Persia, South- 
 ern Russia, India, Burma, and Egypt, where their
 
 BAHAISM 
 
 BAHAISM 
 
 membership includes every class, people, and sect. 
 In the West, Bahai centres have been established 
 in Germany, France and England, with unor- 
 ganized but increasing sentiment in Italy and 
 Russia; while in America, as Ihe history of the 
 development of religious freedom would have fore- 
 told, Bahaism is especially strong. No other race 
 has evolved so far from the deadening influence of 
 dogma and orthodoxy, thanks to the westward im- 
 pulse of popular liberty; yet, on the other hand, 
 no people have so completely lost the clue to 
 mysticism and personal religious vision. Oppor- 
 tunity and need, therefore, meet in particularly 
 close contact throughout the United States and 
 Canada — the rapid spread of the .Bahai teaching 
 proves its capacity to satisfy the Western hunger 
 for the spiritual life. In the United States more 
 than thirty cities possess assemblies, and a con- 
 stant stream of liberalizing and invigorating 
 thought circulates from city to city and from 
 State to State. To summarize, we find that Ba- 
 haism has taken active root from California east- 
 ward to Japan, and from Edinburgh south to Cape 
 Town." — H. Holley, Modern social religion, pi. %, 
 pp. 181-182. 
 
 "The Baha'i doctrines of universal brotherhood, 
 mutual tolerance among rival creeds, patience un- 
 der persecution, and the cultivation of the quietist 
 virtues are accessible in a large number of publica- 
 tions and cheap manuals published by the faithful 
 or by sympathizers with the movement. But for 
 a scientific account of their theology and their 
 metaphysics, for the various modifications of doc- 
 trinal teaching set forth by the different ex- 
 ponents of it, and for a sober recital of the genesis 
 of the movement and the historical development 
 of its various sects, the wise student will turn to 
 the works of Professor Edward G. Browne with 
 a feeling of assurance that in them he will find a 
 lucid and well-documented exposition. For the 
 last thirty years Professor Browne has been making 
 a profound and patient study of this religious 
 movement; he has been in personal contact with 
 its most authoritative teachers, such as Subh-i-Azal 
 and Baha'u'llah, the heads of the two rival sec- 
 tions into which the original community split, and 
 with 'Abdul-Baha, the son and successor of the 
 latter, and with many other prominent Babis and 
 Baha'is. His own writings and h'S edition of Eabi 
 texts have gained for him the reputation of being 
 the greatest living authority on tbis subject in Eu- 
 rope; his works are distinguished by sound and 
 painstaking scholarship, and are free from the parti- 
 sanship which detracts from the merit of several 
 other American and European writings. . . . They 
 range over a period of seventy years, from contem- 
 porary documents relating to the judicial examina- 
 tion of the Bab in 1S4S and an account of him. by a 
 Dr. Cormick — who is the only European who is 
 known to have ever seen and conversed with the 
 Bab — to an account of the latest lucubration by Dr. 
 Khayru'llah, published in 1917. Nearly a fourth 
 of the volume is taken up with the mission of 
 this Dr. Khayru'llah in America and the notable 
 success he has achieved there. The extraordinary 
 receptivity for Oriental theologies and theosophies 
 of various kinds, and the unquestioning acceptance 
 of hard doctrines propounded with insistent au- 
 thority by such teachers as Swami Vivekananda, 
 Swami Ram Tirath, and the Baha'i mission, are 
 among the most remarkable features of the religious 
 Hfe of America in the present generation, and have 
 excited considerable disquietude among the 
 Churches in that country. It might have been 
 expected that after conducting a mission in America 
 for twenty-five years Dr. Khayru'llah would have 
 imbibed something of the ethical spirit of the 
 
 American people. But his latest work, 'O Chris- 
 tians! Why do ye not believe in Christ?' con- 
 tains an outspoken defence of polygamy, and 
 apologizes for the assassination of Azalis by 
 Baha'is as 'proving the veracity of Baha'ism and 
 Christianity.' Such teaching is hardly calculated 
 to confirm the hopes centred on the Baha'i move- 
 ment by the late Professor Cheyne in 'The Recon- 
 ciliation of Races and Religions,' 1914 and others. 
 . . . Such persons have failed to recognize how 
 much the Baha'i teachings have retained of the 
 source from which they sprang. The 'manifesta- 
 tion' of the Bab came in response to the millennial 
 expectations of those Shiahs who believed in the 
 possibility of there being a follower of the Hidden 
 Imam — a so-called Bab, or 'Gate,' in direct spirit- 
 ual communication with the Imam; and Mirza 
 'All Muhammad' in 1844 announced himself 
 as such exactly a thousand years after 
 the last Imam had succeeded to that exalted 
 office. Though cruelly persecuted by the ortho- 
 dox Shiahs, the Babis retained many characteris- 
 tically Shiah doctrines; but the breach with Islam 
 became irremediable, when Baha'u'llah made his 
 appeal to the whole world. The fact that his 
 followers henceforth called themselves Baha'is 
 rather than Babis was no mere change of no- 
 menclature, but marked the transition from Persian 
 sectarianism to the claim to a world-wide mis- 
 sion. But, as Professor Browne with scholarly 
 insight has pointed out, 'almost every single doc- 
 trine held by the Babis and Baha'is was pre- 
 viously held and elaborated by one or another of 
 the earlier cognate sects grouped together under 
 the general title of Ghuliit, whereof the Isma'ilis 
 are the most notable representative. For these 
 Ghulat, or extreme Shiahs of the Left, our sources 
 of information are not abundant, and we are 
 chieily dependent for our knowledge of their tenets 
 on writers who were hostile to them. But we 
 know the enthusiasm with which their doctrines 
 were often received and the persecutions which 
 the faithful heroically endured; along with a care- 
 fully graduated series of initiation, suited to the 
 capacity of the neophyte, went such an economy 
 of truth as, it appears from the documents Pro- 
 fessor Browne publishes, some of the Baha'i teach- 
 ers still practice; and these modern representatives 
 of the earlier sects make a similar demand for un- 
 hesitating acceptance of the dogmatic utterances 
 of their respective theophanies. 'These parallelisms 
 are not worked out in detail by Professor Browne 
 in his new volume; but he provides the student 
 with the details for such an investigation, while, 
 on the other hand, he gives a synopsis, from the 
 work of a Persian Shiah, of the Baha'i doctrines 
 which are considered to be deviations from the 
 orthodox creed of Islam. Across the historical 
 record set out in immense detail in f'his volume 
 is drawn a trail of blood. Relentlessly persecuted 
 by the Mahomedan Governments under which they 
 have lived, neither Babis nor Baha'is have ex- 
 emplified that dictum of Cardinal Manning's that 
 the children of the martyrs cannot be persecutors. 
 The early history of the Babis was marked by a 
 succession of armed risings against the Persian 
 Government. They took no pains to conceal their 
 hatred of the Shah and were ready to condemn to 
 death those who rejected the mission of the Bab. 
 Since the death of the Bab, two great schisms have 
 divided the faithful. On each occasion bloodshed 
 has marked the struggle between the rival fac- 
 tions. In this respect the Baha'is are strangely 
 reminiscent of the earliest of the Ghulat who be- 
 came known to Christian Europe — the Assassins 
 who obeyed the Old Man of the Mountains." — 
 Times Literary Supplement, June 14, 1918. 
 
 809
 
 BAHAMA ISLANDS 
 
 BAHIA 
 
 BAHAMA ISLANDS, most northerly group 
 of the British West Indies. 
 
 The government is representative, with a gov- 
 ernor and an executive council, a legislative coun- 
 cil and an assembly composed of 29 members. 
 Education is free, compulsory, and non-sectarian. 
 The total area is 4,403 square miles, embracing 
 twenty inhabited islands and some 3,000 islets and 
 rocks; the population (1919) was 61,000, the ma- 
 jority negroes; Nassau, on the island of New 
 Providence, is the capital. 
 
 1492-1783.— "The landfall of Columbus on his 
 first voyage to America was one of the Bahama 
 Islands. [See America: 1492.] The question as 
 to whether it was the present San Salvador or 
 Watlings Island on which he first set foot is still 
 a matter of controversy, and from evidence that 
 has been brought to light it would seem that the 
 dispute can never be definitely settled. But this 
 coincidence, interesting though it is, iniluenced 
 little the later history of the Bahamas. M the 
 time of the discovery the Islands were inhabited 
 by Indians who received the name of 'Lucayans.' 
 [See also Caribs: their kindred.] Subsequently 
 the Spaniards came and enticed them away, or 
 forcibly deported them, to end their miserable lives 
 in slavery in Spanish mines at Hispaniola and 
 elsewhere. It is said that the Spaniards returned 
 again and again to the Bahamas to kidnap the 
 Indians until the Islands were completely de- 
 populated of their native inhabitants, and left 
 desolate. This may be too strong a statement of 
 the case, but it is certain that there are no 
 Lucayan Indians living in the Bahamas to-day, nor 
 are there any traces of Lucayan blood to be seen 
 in the present inhabitants. . . . The title to the 
 Lucayan Islands, as the Bahamas were first called, 
 which was given to the Spaniards by the Pope, 
 was not left undisputed. English sea-rovers 
 haunted the West Indies in order to prey on Span- 
 ish commerce, and pirates who early resorted to 
 these waters and rapidly increased in numbers, 
 found among the keys of the Bahamas, havens 
 of retreat where they could easily elude the clumsy 
 Spanish galleons. ... On October 30, 1629, an- 
 other grant including the Bahama Islands was 
 made by the sovereign of Great Britain, this time 
 to Sir Robert Heath, the Attorney-General. A 
 few colonists were sent out under this patent and 
 a settlement was formed on New Providence. 
 This settlement was ill-fated, for the island was 
 visited in 1641 by a force of Spanish seamen and 
 the small band of Englishmen was captured and 
 carried away. The place was then taken posses- 
 sion of by the Spaniards and held for about twenty 
 years. . . . The colony at New Providence did not 
 attract a large number of settlers. It had a small 
 force of defenders, generally less than fifty in 
 number, and was consequently a prey for the 
 spoiler [see also British Empire: Expansion: 17th 
 century: West Indies: 1647.] . . . But the Span- 
 ish were not long to enjoy the possession of 
 New Providence. . . . Buccaneering was indulged 
 in freely by the inhabitants of the place. For 
 brief periods, to be sure, during the next thirty 
 years attempts were made to preserve law and 
 order, but without avail, as so large a number of 
 the population was engaged in piracy or at least 
 in sympathy with it, that it was not possible for 
 the government with the force at its command to 
 stamp it out [see Buccaneers]. . . . Piracy with 
 this settlement as a base became such a menace 
 to the commerce passing through these water? that 
 merchants in Great Britain pressed upon George I 
 to put a stop to it. The Lords Proprietors, who 
 had so poorly succeeded in their enterprise, sur- 
 rendered their control of the civil government to 
 
 8 
 
 the Crown, and in 1718 Captain Woodes Rogers, 
 a hardy and fearless sea-man, became Governor 
 of Nassau. He restored order, punished or drove 
 out the buccaneers and made the place a respect- 
 able one in which to live. He was supported with 
 forces sufficient to establish his control, and with 
 funds to make fortifications for security against 
 invaders. The Colony prospered from this time, 
 attracting numerous settlers, among whom was a 
 company of German Protestants from the Palati- 
 nate. More extensive fortifications were under- 
 taken in 173S under the direction of Peter Henry 
 Bruce, of the engineer corps of the Royal Navy. 
 He has left an interesting account of his work 
 here in his memoirs. . . . Upon the separation of 
 the Thirteen Colonies on the continent from 
 Great Britain many of their inhabitants preferred 
 to remain British subjects rather than become 
 citizens of the States. . . . For these and other 
 reasons many emigrated from the States to ter- 
 ritory that still remained British. This exodus 
 was encouraged by the favorable conditions offered 
 to those who wished to settle in the Bahamas. . . . 
 The white population of the Bahamas was doubled 
 by these immigrants, and the negro population was 
 nearly trebled. Many of the new-comers were 
 cotton planters. These set to work at once with 
 their slaves clearing lands and planting crops, and 
 soon brought the Colony to some importance as a 
 producer of cotton." — J. M. Wright, Bahama 
 Islands, pp. 420-425. — In 1781 the islands were 
 surrendered to the Spaniards, but at the conclusion 
 of the war they were restored by the Peace of 
 Versailles in 17S3. The Turks and Caicos Islands, 
 which geographically form part of the Bahamas 
 chain, were separated in 1848 and formed into a 
 distinct presidency. — See also Bermi'd.as: 1719- 
 1783- 
 
 1834-1900. — Economic decline. — Disestablish- 
 ment of the church. — Period of quiet. — "Among 
 the factors contributing to the economic weaken- 
 ing of the Bahamas, perhaps the most important 
 was the abolition of the slave-trade in 1834. In 
 1848 the separation of the Turks and Caicos 
 Islands, which had never been contented under 
 the Bahama Government, withdrew the most pro- 
 ductive of the salt-producing islands from the 
 group. From 1869 to 1875 legislation was passed 
 for the disestablishment of the Anglican church. 
 Opposition to the measures was at no time very 
 strong, and the legislature was able to deal with 
 the question in a Hberal and impartial spirit. 
 During the latter half of the nineteenth century 
 the people of the Bahamas have remained con- 
 tented under British rule. The slavery question 
 passed out of men's minds and the control of 
 local affairs was taken into other hands than those 
 of the radical, former slaveholders. The Colony 
 now entered upon a period of internal quiet, which 
 with a few temporar\' interruptions has continued 
 to the present time."- — Ibid., p. 569. 
 
 BAHAMED, or Ahmed bin Musa (d. 1900), 
 Grand Vizier of Morocco. See Morocco: 1903. 
 
 BAHARIA, an oasis in the Libyan desert, 
 Egypt. It was the scene of fighting during the 
 World War. See World War: 1916: VI. Turkish 
 theater: b, 1; 1017: VI. Turkish theater: b, 2. 
 
 BAHA'U'LLAH (1817-1892), the founder of 
 the Bahai movement. — See also Bahaism: Teach- 
 ings. 
 
 BAHIA, a state of Brazil, on the Atlantic sea- 
 board (see Latin America: Map of South .Amer- 
 ica) ; has an area of 164,650 square miles and a 
 population of about 3,372,900, including the largest 
 negro population in the republic. Agriculture is the 
 principal industry, while gold and diamonds are 
 found in some parts. Bahia, the capital, also known 
 
 10
 
 BAHIA HONDA 
 
 BAJA CALIFORNIA 
 
 as Sao Salvador, is a flourishing seaport, possesses 
 a great harbor and is the metropolis of the Bra- 
 zilian church. The bay (Portuguese bahia) on 
 which the city is situated was discovered by Amer- 
 igo Vespucci in 1503. Until 1763 the city was 
 the capital of Brazil. — See also Brazil. 
 
 1831.— Revolts. See Brazll: 1825-1865. 
 
 BAHIA HONDA.— Coaling and naval station 
 leased to the United States. See Cuba: iqo3. 
 
 BAHIMA, an African tribe of Hamitic type 
 found in the region of Victoria Nyanza. 
 
 BAHREIN ISLANDS, a group of islands in 
 the Persian gulf, and the center of its pearl in- 
 dustry; now under British protection. See Arabia: 
 Map. 
 
 BAHRITE SULTANS. See Egypt: 1250- 
 
 BAI.£. — Baiae, in Campania, opposite Puteon 
 on a small bay near Naples, was the favorite water- 
 ing place of the ancient Romans. "As soon as 
 the reviving heats of April gave token of advanc- 
 ing summer, the noble and the rich hurried from 
 Rome to this choice retreat; and here, till the rag- 
 ing dogstar forbade the toils even of amusement, 
 they disported themselves on shore or on sea, in 
 the thick groves or on the placid lakes, in litters 
 and chariots, in gilded boats with painted sails, 
 lulled by day and night with the sweetest sym- 
 phonies of song and music, or gazing indolently 
 on the wanton measures of male and female danc- 
 ers. The bath, elsewhere their relaxation, was 
 here the business of the day ; . . . they turned the 
 pools of Avernus and Lucrinus into tanks for 
 swimming ; and in these pleasant waters both sexes 
 met familiarly together, and conversed amidst the 
 roses sprinkled lavishly on their surface." — C. 
 Merivale, History of the Romans, ch. 40. 
 
 B-AIBURT, an Armenian town in north- 
 eastern Asia Minor, south of Trebizond (q.v.l on 
 tke main hishway to Erzerum. Occupied by Gen- 
 eVial Paskevich during the Russian invasion of 1829 
 and again captured by the Russians under General 
 Vudenich during the World War, July 15, 1916. 
 See WoFLD War: iqi6: VI. Turkish theater: d, 6. 
 
 BAIF, Jean Antoine (1523-1589), French poet. 
 See French literatur5 1549-1580. 
 
 BAIKAL, the sixth largest lake in the world, 
 situated in the western part of eastern Siberia. 
 For some years it formed a break in the trans- 
 Siberian railway, trains being ferried across or, 
 in winter, temporary tracks being laid on the ice; 
 eventually the road was carried through the rugged 
 region around the southern end of the lake. — See 
 also Trans-Siberian railway. 
 
 BAILEE, one to whom goods are committed in 
 trust. See Common Law: 1623. 
 
 BAILEN, or Baylen, a town in the prov- 
 ince of Jaen in southern Spain; the scene of the 
 Roman victories against the Carthaginians (209 
 and 206 B.C.) and of the surrender of the French 
 general Dupont's corps of 17,000 to the Span- 
 iards under Castafios. This was the first serious 
 Napoleonic reverse in Spain. 
 
 Capitulation of. See Spain: 180S (May-Sep- 
 tember) . 
 
 BAILEY, Daniel Julian, English private who, 
 together with Sir Roger Casement, stood trial (June 
 27-29, iqi6) on a charge of high treason. Unlike 
 Casement he was found not guilty and acquitted. 
 — See also Ireland: 1916 (June-August). 
 
 BAILEY, Liberty Hyde (1858- ), author 
 and educator; writer on botanical and horticul- 
 tural subjects and on rural problems, chairman of 
 the Roosevelt commission on country life 1008. 
 Director of the college of agriculture, Cornell Uni- 
 versity, 1903-1913. — See also U. S. A.: 1908-1909 
 (August-February) . 
 
 BAILLEUL, a town northwest of Lille, 
 France. Was the scene of hard fighting in the 
 World War, changing hands in 1914 and again in 
 1018. See World War: 1914: I. Western front: 
 t; w, 3; 1915: II. Western front: i, 3; 1918: II. 
 Western front: d, 10; d, 12; k, 5. 
 
 BAILLEUL, a village captured by the Allies 
 at Vimy Ridge in 1917. See World War: 1917: II. 
 Western front: c, 9. 
 
 BAILLIE (Scotch for bailif{>, a superior officer 
 or magistrate of a municipal corporation in Scot- 
 land with judicial authority within the city or 
 burgh. 
 
 BAILLOUD, Maurice Camille, French general. 
 See World War: 1915: V. Balkans: c, 3 (i); 1917: 
 VI. Turkish theater: c, i (vi). 
 
 BAILLY, Blanchard A.: At second Peace 
 Conference. See Hague conferences: 1907. 
 
 BAILLY, Jean Sylvain (i 736-1 793), French 
 statesman. Conduct in demonstration in Champs 
 de Mars. See France: 1791 (July-September). 
 
 BAILMENTS, Law of. See Common law: 
 1689-1710. 
 
 BAINBRIDGE, Sir Edmond Guy Tulloch 
 (1867- ), Major-General in the British army. 
 See World War: 191S: II. Western front: c, 8. 
 
 BAINBRIDGE, Commodore William (1774- 
 1S33), American officer. 
 
 In Tripolitan War. See Barbary States: 1803- 
 1S05. 
 
 In War of 1812. See U. S. A.: 1812-1813: In- 
 difference to the navy. 
 
 BAINSIZZA PLATEAU, an elevated region 
 north of Trieste. In 1917 during the World War 
 the Italian general Cadorna captured these heights 
 in his operation against Trieste, losing them later 
 in the same year at the time of the Caporetto dis- 
 aster. — See also World War: 1917: IV. Austro- 
 Italian front: d, 1. 
 
 BAIRD, David, Sir (1757-1829), British gen- 
 eral who was in command at Corunna. See Spain: 
 1808-1809 (August-January). 
 
 BAIREUTH. See Bavreuth. 
 
 BAJA (or Vieja) CALIFORNIA, or Lower 
 California, is a long narrow peninsula forming a 
 territory of the republic of Mexico. (See also 
 Mexico: Land.) "The great Californian penin- 
 sula, or Lower California, as it is called, ... in 
 area is a little larger than England and Wales, 
 measuring 61,562 square miles. The frontier line 
 with the United States begins on the Pacific sea- 
 board, in a dreary and solitary desert in a place 
 called Initial Point, a little south of the 33rd 
 parallel and running eastwards towards the Gulf of 
 California as far as Fort Yuma, at the junction 
 of the Rio Gila with the Rio Colorado. The 
 peninsula terminates southwards at Cape Palms 
 . . . and Cape S. Lucas . . . whose sandy shoals, 
 strewn with fragments of rock, serve as an excel- 
 lent natural bed for shell fish of a choice quality. 
 . . . Watered by two seas, one of which, reaching 
 to the Pole, brings with it warm and cold breezes 
 alternately, according as they blow from the north 
 or from the equator, while the other, being almost 
 completely land-locked, is retained at a high tem- 
 perature. Lower California apparently combines 
 all the conditions of a damp climate. Hence we 
 may well wonder at its remarkable dryness and 
 sterility." — H. W. Bates, Stanford compendium of 
 geography and travel. Central and South America, 
 pp. 41-42. — "Lower California, except the Cape 
 region, is virtually a desert, though in places, es- 
 pecially in favourable years, there is enough grass 
 for a little stock-raising." — Handbook of Mexico 
 (Prepared by the geographical section of the 
 naval intelligence division, naval staff, admiralty). 
 — "If Baja California is poor in species of organic 
 
 811
 
 BAJAUR 
 
 BALANCE OF POWER 
 
 life, nature has compensated it in the mineral 
 world, and that peninsula is considered one of the 
 most hichly mineralized parts of the North Ameri- 
 can continent. Copper, silver, and gold are among 
 its most important products and quick-silver, 
 opal, sulphur, and rock-salt exist. The famous 
 Boleo copper mine is situated in this territory." — 
 C. R. Knock, Mexico, pp. 207-208. 
 
 Also in: P. F. Martin, Mexico, pp. S6-57- — 
 J. Barret, Director General, Pan-American Union, 
 Mexico. 
 
 BAJAUR. See India: 189S (March-Septem- 
 ber). 
 
 BAJAZET I. See Bayezid I and II of Turkey. 
 
 BAJER, M. F. Dane, awarded Nobel peace 
 prize in looS. See Nobel prizes: Peace, 1908. 
 
 BAJI RAO, Mahratta peshwa (prime minister), 
 who led an insurrection against British rule. See 
 India: 1816-1819. 
 
 BAJURA, the standard of Mohammed. 
 
 BAKAIRI. See Caries: their kindred. 
 
 BAKER, Colonel Edward Dickinson (1811- 
 1861), killed at Ball's Bluff. See U. S. A.: 1S61 
 (October: Virginia). 
 
 BAKER, Newton Diehl (1871- ), American 
 lawyer, graduate of Johns Hopkins University; 
 city' solicitor of Cleveland, 1902-1912; mayor of 
 Cleveland, 1912-1914 and 1914-1916; secretary of 
 war from March, 1016, to March, 1921. See 
 U. S. A.: 1916-1917; and 1917 (February-May); 
 World War: 1917: VIII. United States and the 
 war: h. 
 
 BAKER, Sir Samuel White (1821-1893).— 
 Conquest of Central Africa. See Egypt: 1870- 
 1883. 
 
 BAKER, Valentine (1827-1887), British sol- 
 dier. Known as Baker Pasha. Served in Kaffir 
 War 1852-1853; in 1S77 entered service of the sul- 
 tan and was major-general unattached in Mehemet 
 All's army in the Russo-Turkish War; in 1882 
 commander of Egyptian police. In 1885 was ap- 
 pointed to General Wolseley's staff, but appoint- 
 ment not ratified; returned to Egypt and in 1887 
 was killed in battle of El-Teb. 
 
 BAKER'S ISLAND, a small uninhabited 
 island, less than a square mile in area, situated in 
 the Pacific southwest of Hawaii, It was discov- 
 ered by Baker sailing under the United States flag 
 in 1832, but the United States government did not 
 take possession of it until 1859. It is useless as a 
 coaling station, as it lacks facilities for anchorage 
 and drinking water. It has valuable deposits of 
 guano. 
 
 BAKHCHI-SARAI, a town of the Crimea 
 between Simferopol and Sevastopol. As the Tatar 
 capital it was captured by the invading Russians 
 in 1735. 
 
 BAKHDHI. See B.-vctria. 
 
 BAKHMETIEV, or Bakhmeteff, Boris Alex- 
 androvich (1880- ), Russian Embassador to 
 the United States for the Kerensky government. 
 In Russia: professor of mechanics, hydraulics and 
 hydraulic engineering at the Institute of Ways and 
 Communication and at the Polytechnical Institute 
 in Petrograd. Came to the United States in 1915 
 as representative of the Central War Industrial 
 Committee of Russia, a war sup[)Iy committee for 
 the Russian army, and in the summer of 1917 
 as ambassador and head of the Russian Extraor- 
 dinary Mission, representing the Kerensky gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 BAKHMETIEV, Madame. — Her humane 
 work in Macedonia. See Turkey: 1902-1903. 
 
 BAKHMUT, town of Russia in Ekaterinoslav, 
 captured by Bolsheviki in 1919. See Russia: 1918- 
 
 1919. 
 
 BAKHTASHIYAH. See Dervishes. 
 
 teAKHTIARI, political party in Persia. See 
 Persia: 1008-1009. 
 
 BAKHTIYAR KHILTI, conquered Bengal c. 
 1200. See Bengal. 
 
 BAKHTRI. See Bactria. 
 
 BAKSAR, or Baxar, or Buxar, Battle of 
 (1764). See Ikdia: 1757-1772. 
 
 BAKU, the capital of Azerbaijan, the center of 
 the petroleum industry on the Caspian sea, and 
 one of the great oil centers of the world ; was an 
 integral part of Russia until October, 1917, when 
 the people of Transcaucasia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, 
 and Armenia joined to form a federation of re- 
 publics. After the breakup of the federation in 
 1918, the Bolsheviki obtained control, March 17, 
 but were driven out after a two months' siege. 
 The British forces entered the port of Baku on 
 November 17, 1918, by request of the Azerbaijan 
 government and remained until the end of 1919. 
 (See World War: 1918: VI. Turkish theater: a, 8; 
 b, 2; b, 4; b, 9.) In April, 1920, the Bolshevist 
 party overthrew the government and in May, Baku 
 was recaptured. — See also Caucusus: 1902-1917. 
 
 Destruction of oil industry, strikes. See 
 Russia: 1904-1905: Outline of leading events in 
 Revolution; 1905 (April-November). 
 
 BAKUFU, Japan. See Japan: 1641-1779. 
 
 BAKUNIN, Mikhail (1814-1876), Russian an- 
 archist. In 1840 he joined younger Hegelians in 
 Berlin; in 1844-1S47 met Proudhon in Paris. 
 Stirred up popular insurrections in Bohemia and 
 Saxony, 1848; arrested in 1849, condemned to 
 death, spared by Russian intervention; 1857, sen- 
 tenced to life exile in Siberia ; escaped to United 
 States and went to France and Switzerland; es- 
 tablished headquarters in Italy. In 1872 disagreed 
 with Karl Marx and the Socialists and was ex- 
 pelled from the International Workingmen's As- 
 sociation, which he had joined in 1S69. See An- 
 archism: 1861-1876; Socialism: 1860-1920. 
 
 BALAKHOVITCH, General: His defeat. See 
 Russia: 1020 (October-November). 
 
 BALAKIREV, Mily Alexeivich (1836-igio), 
 Russian composer; a pioneer member of the neo- 
 Russian school which was consolidated by the idea 
 of nationality in music in the middle of the nine- 
 teenth century. Director of the Imperial chapel 
 and conductor of the Imperial Russian Musical 
 Society. Among his disciples were Cesar Cui, 
 Borodin, Moussorgsky and Rimsky-Korsakov. — 
 See Music: Folk music and nationalism: Russia. 
 
 BALAKLAVA, Battle of. See Russu: 18S4- 
 18S6. 
 
 BALANCE OF POWER: Definition.— "The 
 joint resistance of several nations to Cssarism, 
 or the domination of a single nation, is designated 
 as the maintenance of the balance of power. This 
 principle implies that no state shall be permitted 
 to become so powerful as to menace the safety 
 of other states; that no one nation shall be 
 permitted to exalt itself above all other nations. 
 This is the end and aim of the balance of power. 
 It impels nations to protect the integrity, free- 
 dom, and separate nationality of each other. . . . 
 The balance of power is a negative check upon 
 overgrown dominion. It -was known to antiquity 
 as to modern times but is commonly supposed 
 to have emanated from England. . . . 'You know 
 as well as we do,' said the Athenians to the 
 people of Melos, 'that, as the world goes, the 
 question of right is only discussed between equals; 
 while, among those who differ in power, the 
 strong do what they can, the weak suffer what 
 they must.' This is a fair statement of the 
 struggle for existence between the nations of the 
 ancient world. . . . When rightly understood, the 
 balance of power docs not mean an exact equi- 
 
 812
 
 BALANCE OF POWER 
 
 Ancient Greece 
 and Rome 
 
 BALANCE OF POWER 
 
 poise but rather an overwhelming weight against 
 the aggKssor. the evil-doer. . . . An equipoise leads 
 to exhfiisting wars; a preponderance of power 
 gives assured peace. The Concert of Europe is a 
 perfect example of the preponderance of power; 
 the division of Europe into the Triple Alliance 
 (q. V.) and the Triple Entente (q.v.) is a good 
 example of an equipoise of power. The world 
 will adopt peaceful habits only when the ag- 
 gressor among nations is as certain to encounter 
 overwhelming force as would an aggressor among 
 the states of the American Union. The balance 
 of power, if carried to its logical conclusion, would 
 bind the states of the world into a league for 
 mutual defence against all aggressors."^S. C. 
 Vestal, Maintenance of peace, pp. 101-105. — See 
 also Concert of Europe. 
 
 Ancient Greece and Rome. — "It is a question, 
 whether the idea of the balance of power be 
 owing entirely to modern policy, or whether the 
 phrase only has been invented in the later ages? 
 It is certain that Xenophon, in his Institution of 
 Cyrus, represents the combination 01 the Asiatic 
 powers to have arisen from a jealousy of the 
 increasing force of the Medes and Persians; and 
 though that elegant composition should be sup- 
 posed altogether a romance, this sentiment, 
 ascribed by the author to the Eastern princes, is 
 at least a proof of the prevailing notion of an- 
 cient times. In all the politics of Greece, the 
 anxiety with regard to the balance of power is 
 apparent, and is expressly pointed out to us, even 
 by the ancient historians. Thucydides represents 
 the league which was formed against .Athens, and 
 which produced the Peloponnesian war, as entirely 
 owing to this principle. .And after the decline 
 of Athens, when the Thebans and Lacedemonians 
 disputed for sovereignty, we find that the Athe- 
 nians (as well as many other republics) always 
 threw themselves into the lighter scale, and en- 
 deavoured to preserve the balance. They sup- 
 ported Thebes against Sparta, till the great vic- 
 tory gained by Epaminondas at Leuctra; after 
 which they immediately went over to the con- 
 quered, from generosity, as they pretended, but 
 in reality from their jealousy of the conquerors. 
 Whoever will read Demosthenes's oration for the 
 Megalopolitans, may see the utmost refinements 
 on this principle that ever entered into the head 
 of a Venetian or English speculatist. And upon 
 the first rise of the Macedonian power, this orator 
 immediately discovered the danger, sounded the 
 alarm throughout all Greece, and at last as- 
 sembled that confederacy under the banners of 
 Athens which fought the great and decisive bat- 
 tle of Cha;ronea. It is true, the Grecian wars are 
 regarded by historians as wars of emulation rather 
 than of politics ; and each state seems to have 
 had more in view the honour of leading the rest, 
 than any well-grounded hopes of authority and 
 dominion. If we consider, indeed, the small num- 
 ber of inhabitants in any one republic, compared 
 to the whole, the great difficulty of forming sieges 
 in those times, ancl the extraordinary bravery and 
 discipline of every freeman among that noble peo- 
 ple; we shall conclude, that the balance of power 
 was, of itself, sufficiently secured in Greece, and 
 need not to have been guarded with that caution 
 which may be requisite in other ages. But whether 
 we ascribe the shifting of sides in all the Grecian 
 republics to jealous emulation or cautious politics, 
 the effects were alike, and every prevailing power 
 was sure to meet with a confederacy against it, 
 and that often composed of its former friends 
 and allies. . . . The successors of Alexander showed 
 great jealousy of the balance of power; a 
 jealousy founded on true politics and prudence, 
 
 8 
 
 and which preserved distinct for several ages 
 the partition made after the death of that famous 
 conqueror. The fortune and ambition of An- 
 tigonus threatened them anew with a universal 
 monarchy; but their combination, and their vic- 
 tory at Ipsus, saved them. And in subsequent 
 times, we find, that, as the Eastern princes con- 
 sidered the Greeks and Macedonians as the only 
 real military force with whom they had any in- 
 tercourse, they kept always a watchful eye over 
 that part of the world. The Ptolemies, in par- 
 ticular, supported first Aratus and the Achaeans, 
 and then Cleomenes, king of Sparta, from no 
 other view than as a counterbalance to the Mace- 
 donian monarchs. For this is the account which 
 Polybius gives of the Egyptian poHtics. The 
 reason why it is supposed that the ancients were 
 entirely ignorant of the balance of power, seems 
 to be drawn from the Roman history more than 
 the Grecian; and as the transactions of the former 
 are generally more familiar to us, we have thence 
 formed all our conclusions. It must be owned, 
 that the Romans never met with any such gen- 
 eral combination or confederacy against them, as 
 might naturally have been e.xpected for their rapid 
 conquests and declared ambition, but were al- 
 lowed peaceably to subdue their neighbours, one 
 after another, till they extended their dominion 
 over the whole known world. Not to mention 
 the fabulous history of the Italic wars, there 
 was, upon Hannibal's invasion of the Roman 
 state, a remarkable crisis, which ought to have 
 called up the attention of all civilized nations. 
 It appeared afterwards (nor was it difficult to 
 be observed at the time) that this was a con- 
 test for universal empire ; yet no prince or state 
 seems to have been in the least alarmed about 
 the event or issue of the quarrel. Philip of 
 Macedon remained neuter, till he saw the victories 
 of Hannibal: and then most imprudently formed 
 an alliance with the conqueror, upon terms still 
 more imprudent. He stipulated, that he was to 
 assist the Carthaginian state in their conquest 
 of Italy ; after which they engaged to send over 
 forces into Greece, to assist him in subduing the 
 Grecian commonwealth. The Rhodian and Achaean 
 republics are much celebrated by ancient his- 
 torians for their wisdom and sound policy ; yet 
 both of them assisted the Romans in their wars 
 against Philip and Antiochus. And what may be 
 esteemed still a stronger proof, that this maxim 
 was not generally known in those ages, no an- 
 cient author has remarked the imprudence of these 
 measures, nor has even blamed that absurd treaty 
 above mentioned, made by Philip with the 
 Carthaginians. Princes and statesmen, in all ages, 
 may, beforehand, be blinded in their reasonings 
 with regard to events, but it is somewhat ex- 
 traordinary, that historians, afterwards, should not 
 form a sounder judgment of them. . . . The only 
 prince we meet with in the Roman history, who 
 seems to have understood the balance of power, 
 is Hiero, king of Syracuse. Though the ally of 
 Rome, he sent assistance to the Carthaginians 
 during the war of the auxiliaries; 'Esteeming it 
 requisite,' says Polybius, 'both in order to re- 
 tain his dominions in Sicily, and to preserve the 
 Roman friendship, that Carthage should be safe; 
 lest by its fall the remaining power should be 
 able, without control or opposition, to execute 
 every purpose and undertaking. And here he 
 acted with great wisdom and prudence: For that 
 is never, on any account, to be overlooked; nor 
 ought such a force ever to be thrown into one 
 hand, as to incapacitate the neighbouring states 
 from defending their rights against it.' Here is 
 the aim of modern politics pointed out in ex- 
 
 13
 
 BALANCE OF POWER 
 
 Modern 
 Application 
 
 BALANCE OF POWER 
 
 press terms. In short the maxim of preserving 
 the balance of power is founded so much on 
 common sense and obvious reasoning, that it is 
 impossible it could altogether have escaped an- 
 tiquity, where we find, in other particulars, so 
 many marks of deep penetration and discern- 
 ment. If it was not so generally known and 
 acknowledged as at present, it had at least an 
 influence on all the wiser and more experienced 
 princes and politicians. And indeed, even at pres- 
 ent, however generally known and acknowledged 
 among speculative reasoners, it has not, in prac- 
 tice, an authority much more extensive among 
 those who govern the world." — D. Hume, Essays 
 and treaties, v. i (1S2S), pp. 331-336. 
 
 Modern application. — Policy of Wolsey and 
 Temple. — English position. — Division of Poland. 
 — -"The idea of the balance of power and equi- 
 librium of forces found its first modem applica- 
 tion in the interstate relations of the leading 
 Italian cities in the fifteenth century. ... In the 
 seventeenth and eighteenth centuries they [the 
 leading powers of Europe] frequently combined 
 to preserve the Balance of Power. . . . Endangered 
 by Louis XIV, this system was revived by the 
 Peace of Utrecht in 1713. [See Utrecht: 1712- 
 1714.] Temporarily destroyed by Napoleon it was 
 restored at the Congress of Vienna in 1815. [See 
 Vienna, Conoress of. 1815.] In the name of the 
 so-called 'Holy Alliance', (q. v.) the Quadruple 
 Alliance formed at Paris, November 20, 1814, 
 undertook to prevent and to crush revolution in 
 Italy and Spain and even threatened to extend 
 its activities to the Western Hemisphere. It was 
 mainly against the extension of this system of in- 
 tervention to Latin America that the Monroe 
 Doctrine was proclaimed in 1S23." — A. S. Hershey, 
 Internaliotuil law and diplomacy of the Russo- 
 Japanese war, p. 151. — Tv«'o names which are 
 connected with the growth of the idea are 
 Cardinal Wolsey and Sir William Temple. Henry 
 VIII, influenced by Wolsey, shaped his foreign 
 policy accordingly and gave either moral or real 
 support to the weaker participant in any Euro- 
 pean quarrel. Sir William Temple, in the reign 
 of Charles II, upheld the doctrine in the case 
 of England's relations with Spain, France, and 
 the Netherlands. 
 
 "A Nation which had the mastery of the Con- 
 tinent could hardly allow Great Britain to main- 
 tain an independent existence. . . . Our [the Eng- 
 lish] position in Europe is secure and will remain 
 secure only as long as the various powers or 
 groups of powers in Europe are so nearly equal 
 in strength that no power or group of powers is 
 able to obtain that supremacy which earlier or 
 later would cause it to attack Great Britain. . . . 
 When Spain, France and Russia in turn tried to 
 obtain the supremacy ip Europe by land and 
 when Holland tried to obtain the supremacy in 
 Europe on the sea each came into collision with 
 . . . and was prevented by Great Britain from 
 attaining that supremacy which would undoubtedly 
 have endangered our [English] national ex- 
 istence." — J. E. Barker, Great and Greater Brit- 
 ain, p. 281. 
 
 "If the division of Poland was the first event 
 which an abuse of farm deranged the political 
 balance of Europe, it was likewise one of the 
 first which begot an apathy of spirit, and stupid 
 insensibility to the general interest. The silence 
 of France and England, the silence of all Europe, 
 when a measure of so much importance was 
 planned and executed, is almost as astonishing 
 as the event itself. The weakness of the French 
 cabinet toward the conclusion of the reign of 
 Louis XV, throws some light upon the circum- 
 
 stance, but does not sufficiently explain it. No 
 effectual resistance could have been expected from 
 England alone, and still less from the other 
 powers after France decHned to interfere. But 
 it will not escape the observation of the future 
 historian, that the omission on that occasion 
 of any public measure, of any energetic remon- 
 strance, of any serious protest, nay, even of any 
 expression of disapprobation, was an indubitable 
 symptom of general debUity and relaxation. . . . 
 It is impossible that the history of our time 
 [written in 1806] should pass without producing 
 some beneficial fruits for us and our posterity. 
 Whether Buonaparte, in the recesses of his haughty 
 and gloomy mind, has really conceived the idea 
 of a universal monarchy ; under what form he 
 has conceived it ; what progress he has made in 
 forming the project, and when, and how he thinks 
 of realizing it, all this futurity will cUsclose. 
 But so much is clear and certain, that in the 
 course of six frightful years he has been doing, 
 without intermission, all that he must do on the 
 very worst supposition, and that he has succeeded 
 in things which seem very unequivocally to prog- 
 nosticate the most pernicious and desperate issue. 
 Were every thing here to close, were his career 
 to be terminated, were our undertakings to be 
 crowned with complete success, and his star to 
 set for ever, is it possible that we could forget 
 what sorrows, what bitterness, what disgrace, 
 what troubles, what convulsions, what a grievous 
 load of present evils, and what anguish for every 
 coming day, was felt throughout the greatest 
 and best part of Europe, from a bare attempt and 
 beginning to effect such a project? And shall 
 we not therefore adopt every expedient which 
 wisdom can devise to prevent the return of these 
 hard trials?" — F. Gentz, Fragments upon the bal- 
 ance of power [1806], pp. 90, 108-109. 
 
 Views of a publicist in the Napoleonic era. 
 — "The balance of power among states has always 
 been a chimera; in all times the weak have re- 
 ceived laws from the strong; whether the law 
 is pronounced by one individual, or twenty, is the 
 same to him whose fortune it is to obey." . . . 
 What is usually termed a balance of power, is 
 that constitution subsisting among neighbouring 
 states more or less connected with one another; 
 by virtue of which no one among them can 
 injure the independence or the essential rights of 
 another, without meeting with effectual resistance 
 on some side, and consequently exposing itself 
 to danger. . . . The allusion in the term to cor- 
 poreal objects has given occasion to various mis- 
 conceptions. It has been represented that those 
 who recognized the principles of a combination 
 among states founded on an equal balance of 
 power, had in view the most perfect possible 
 equality or equalization of powers, and required 
 that the different states composing a great pop\h- 
 lation, riches, resources, and so forth, be exac^Y 
 measured, squared and rounded by a cominon 
 standard. Out of this false hypothesis, according 
 as it has been applied by credulity or scepticism 
 to the relations between states, have sprung liwo 
 opposite errors, the one almost as hurtful' as the 
 other. Those who adopted that imaginary prin- 
 ciple in its full extent, were thereby led to be- 
 lieve that in every case in which a state gains 
 an accession of strength, either by external ac- 
 quisitions, or by the development of its internal 
 resources, the rest must oppose, and contend with 
 it till they have either obtained an equivalent 
 or reduced it to its former situation. ... A dif- 
 ferent set justly persuaded of the impossibility of 
 such a system have, on the other hand, declared 
 the whole idea of a political balance to be a 
 
 814
 
 BALANCE OF POWER 
 
 Napoleonic 
 Era 
 
 BALANCE OF POWER 
 
 chimera invented by dreamers, and artfully made 
 use of by designing men as a pretext for dis- 
 putes, injustice and violence. The former of 
 these errors would banish peace from the earth; 
 the latter would open the most desirable pros- 
 pects to every state which, under the influence of 
 ambition, aspired to universal dominion. . . . 
 There was formed among the states of this quar- 
 ter of the globe [Europe] an extensive social 
 commonwealth, of which the characteristic object 
 was the preservation and reciprocal guarantee of 
 the rights of all its members. From the time 
 that this respectable object came to be dis- 
 tinctly and clearly recognized, the necessary eternal 
 conditions, on which it was attainable, unfolded 
 themselves by degrees. Men were soon aware 
 that there were certain fundamental principles, 
 arising out of the proportional power of each 
 of the component parts to the whole, without 
 the constant influence of which order could not be 
 secured ; and the following maxims were gradually 
 set down as a practical basis, which was not 
 to be deviated from: 
 
 "That if the states system of Europe is to 
 exist and be maintained by common exertions, no 
 one of its members must ever become so power- 
 ful as to be able to coerce all the rest put to- 
 gether; — 
 
 "That if that system is not merely to exist, 
 but to be maintained without constant perils and 
 violent concussions; each member which infringes 
 it must be in a condition to be coerced, not only 
 by the collective strength of the other members, 
 but by any majority of them, if not by one 
 individual; — 
 
 "But that to escape the alternate danger of an 
 uninterrupted series of wars, or of an arbitrary op- 
 pression of the weaker members in every short 
 interval of peace; tlie fear of awakening common 
 opposition, or of drawing down common vengeance, 
 must of itself be sufficient to keep every one within 
 the bounds of moderation ; — and 
 
 "That if ever a European state attempted by 
 unlawful enterprizes to attain to a degree of power, 
 (or had in fact attained it.) which enabled it 
 to defy the danger of a union of several of its 
 neighbours, or even an alliance of the whole, 
 such a state should be treated as a common 
 enemy ; and that if, on the other hand, it had 
 acquired that degree of force by an accidental 
 concurrence of circumstances, and without any 
 acts of violence, whenever it appeared upon the 
 public theatre, no means which political wisdom 
 could devise for the purpose of diminishing its 
 power, should be neglected or untried. These 
 maxims contain the only intelligible theory of a 
 balance of power in the political world. (Note. — 
 It perhaps would have been with more propriety 
 called a system of counterpoise. For perhaps the 
 highest of its results is not so much a perfect 
 equipoise as a constant alternate vacillation in the 
 scales of the balance, which, from the applica- 
 tion of counterweights, is prevented from ever pass- 
 ing certain limits.) 
 
 "It is only when a state with open wantonness, 
 or under fictitious pretences and titles artificially 
 invented, proceeds to such enterprizes as immedi- 
 ately, or in their unavoidable consequences, pre- 
 pare the way for the subjugation of its weaker 
 neighbours, and for perpetual danger to the 
 stronger, that conformably to sound conceptions 
 of the general interest of the commonwealth, a 
 rupture of the balance is to be apprehended; it 
 is only then that several should unite together 
 to prevent the decided preponderance of one in- 
 dividual power. By this system, which has been 
 acted upon since the beginning of the sixteenth 
 
 century, with more or less good fortune, but with 
 great constancy, and often with uncommon pru- 
 dence ; at lirst more in a practical way, and, 
 as it were from political instinct, afterwards with 
 clear, reflecting, and methodical constancy, two 
 great results were obtained, in the midst of a 
 tumultuous assemblage of the most decisive events. 
 The one was, that no person succeeded in pre- 
 scribing laws to Europe, and that, (till our times,) 
 all apprehension, even of the return of a uni- 
 versal dominion, was gradually banished from 
 every mind. The other, that the political consti- 
 tution, as it was framed in the sixteenth cen- 
 tury, remained so entire in all its members till 
 the end of the eighteenth (when all ancient 
 ordinances were abolished), that none of the in- 
 dependent powers, which originally belonged to 
 the confederacy, had lost their political ex- 
 istence. . . . 
 
 "A system of political counterpoise has both 
 in its structure and operations, a remarkable 
 analogy with what, in the internal economy of 
 states, is called a mixed constitution, or con- 
 stitutional balance. When this, as in England for 
 example, has attained to the highest pitch of 
 perfection of which it is susceptible; when every 
 thing is arranged and constituted in the wisest 
 manner, when none of the different powers of 
 which it is composed can surpass the bounds 
 of their respective spheres, or in any way trans- 
 gress their limits without encountering a repel- 
 ling force, there is yet another danger which baf- 
 fles all human skill to avoid. As the divided 
 powers must necessarily act in concert for good 
 and salutary purposes, they can also, in extraordi- 
 nary cases, voluntarily combine for bad ones; and 
 thus, what would have been impossible for any 
 one singly to operate had the principle of mutual 
 counteraction continued, may be effected by a 
 fatal understanding between them, to the prejudice 
 of the state, and the ruin of its constitution." — 
 F. Gentz, Fragments upon the balance of power, 
 xxii, 55, 60, 57, 60-65, 71-72- 
 
 British foreign policy. — Its contribution to the 
 fall of Napoleon. — " 'The Emperor [Alexander I 
 of Russia] has the greatest merit, and must be 
 held high,' [Lord Castlereagh] wrote on April 20 
 [1814] to Lord Liverpool, 'but he ought to be 
 grouped, and not made the sole feature for 
 admiration.' Here we have the key to the conti- 
 nental policy of the British Government, as repre- 
 sented by Castlereagh, during the following years. 
 Its consistent aim was the traditional one of estab- 
 Ushing and maintaining the balance of power. After 
 the downfall of Napoleon this balance was seri- 
 ously threatened by Russia alone, and to pre- 
 serve it Great Britain — -as the secret treaty of 
 Jan. 3, 1815, showed — would have used against 
 Alexander the same weapons that had prevailed 
 against Napoleon. Between Napoleon and Alex- 
 ander, however, there was from the first this 
 essential difference, namely, that Napoleon could 
 never have been grouped, whereas Alexander 
 could — was, indeed, an enthusiast for grouping, so 
 long as he was allowed to pose in the centre 
 of the picture."— W. A. Phillips, Confederation 
 of Europe, p. 83. — "The constitution of the Con- 
 gress [of Vienna] well illustrates the essential 
 conditions of any international organization. . . . 
 In theory all sovereign States are equal and 
 should have an equal voice in the councils 
 of the nations. But in practice their influence 
 always has been, and always must be, in pro- 
 portion to the force behind them; which 
 means that, in the last resort, all important de- 
 cisions will depend on an agreement between the 
 Great Powers, with or without the consent of 
 
 815
 
 BALANCE OF POWER 
 
 Relation to 
 International Law 
 
 BALANCE OP POWER 
 
 the lesser. The proceedings of the Congress of 
 Vienna have also a permanent interest, from the 
 same point of view, as showing the difftculty of 
 arriving at such an agreement, when there is a 
 fundamental conflict of views and interests be- 
 tween the Powers, and the methods by which this 
 difficulty is overcome. The method at Vienna was, 
 as it always must be if one Power or group of 
 Powers is not to dominate the rest, the applica- 
 tion of the principle of the balance of power. 
 This truth Castlereagh had from the first realized, 
 and when in January 1S14 he entered the coun- 
 cils of the Allies he announced the policy of 
 Great Britain to be the restoration of a 'just 
 equilibrium' in Europe. Napoleon was now over- 
 thrown, but the equilibrium had not been thereby 
 restored; for his overthrow had left the immense 
 power of Russia without an effective counterpoise 
 on the Continent. 'The drawback to Russia as 
 an ally,' said Moltke, 'is that she arrives on the 
 field very late and is then too strong.' In the 
 struggle against Napoleon Russia had arrived late, 
 and she was now present in Northern and Cen- 
 tral Europe in alarming force." — Ibid., pp. loi- 
 102. — "Those federations which have survived have 
 done so because, as in the case of the United 
 States, they have developed a common sentiment 
 far stronger than any which may divide their con- 
 stituent States, a sentiment based on the con- 
 sciousness of interests, traditions and ideals dis- 
 tinguishing them from other political groups. 
 They have survived, in short, because they have 
 become nations. Seeing the world as it is, it is 
 difficult to believe that any such powerful cement 
 of sentiment could be found to bind together 
 even the civilized peoples, not to mention the 
 semi-civilized and the uncivilized. In the ab- 
 sence of such a sentiment the stability of the 
 League of Nations must depend on a system of 
 checl^ and balances, and this in the long run is 
 unlikely to prove any more effective in keeping 
 the peace than were the expedients of the old 
 diplomacy."— /fc;(/., pp. 300-301. See Concert of 
 Europe; Europe: Modern period: New balance of 
 power. 
 
 Neutralization of states. — Dual and Triple 
 Alliances. — "The reason why a state may de- 
 sire to become neutraHzed is that it is weak, 
 that its independence is guaranteed, that it 
 has no desire or ability to participate in in- 
 ternational affairs, in the usual struggles or com- 
 petitions of states. The reason why the great 
 powers have consented to the neutralization of 
 such states have differed in different cases. But 
 the chief reason has been connected with the ' 
 theory of the balance of power, the desire to keep 
 them as buffers between two or more neighbor- 
 ing large state." — C. D. Hazen. Fifty years of 
 Europe, 1S70-1Q10, p. 203. — See also Neutrality. 
 — The "Dual Alliance (q. v.) [France and Russia] 
 was the inevitable outcome of the existence and 
 power of the Triple .Alliance, concluded between 
 Germany, .'\ustria, and Italy in 1882. The Dual 
 AlHance grew out of the need which both Rus- 
 sia and France felt of outside support in the 
 presence of so powerful a combination. If there 
 was to be anything like a balance of power in 
 Europe, Russia and France must combine. Both 
 alliances were defensive. The action of Aus- 
 tria against Serbia brought Russia upon the scene. 
 Russia's action brought Germany forward. Ger- 
 many's action necessitated action on the part of 
 France. One state was free to act as it saw fit, 
 its conduct not controlled by entangling alliance, 
 England." — Ibid., p. 326. 
 
 Aftermath of World War.— "The truth is that, 
 though the Americans and British alike fought 
 
 8 
 
 [against Germany] for a principle, it was not be- 
 cause of a principle that they entered the war, but 
 because their honour and their vital interests left 
 them no alternative. . . . After all, a nation is in 
 its essence a group consciously separated from 
 other groups by a vivid sense of its common and 
 separate interests. The problem of preserving 
 peace then remains, after I the World War] as 
 before, the old one of holding the balance be- 
 tween these groups ; and the problem of interna- 
 tional organization is that of creating and keeping 
 in order a mechanism by which this balance shall 
 be kept steady. The task of the allied and as- 
 sociated nations at the present time, that is to 
 say, is the same as that which confronted the 
 Congress of Vienna [1S14] and during the suc- 
 ceeding years; and, though in many respects the 
 conditions have changed, the problem remains es- 
 sentially the same." — W. A. Phillips, Confederation 
 of Europe, p. 16. 
 
 Relation to principles of International Law. 
 — "It is the task of history, not only to show 
 how things have grown in the past, but also 
 to extract a moral for the future out of the 
 events of the past. Five morals can be said to 
 be deduced from the history of the develop- 
 ment of the Law of Nations: 
 
 "(i) The first and principal moral is that a 
 Law of Nations can exist only if there is an 
 equilibrium, a balance of power, between the 
 members of the Family of Nations. If the Powers 
 cannot keep one another in check, no rules of 
 law will have any force, since an over-power- 
 ful State will naturally try to act according to dis- 
 cretion and disobey the law. As there is not 
 and never can be a central political authority 
 above the Sovereign States that could enforce 
 the rules of the Law of Nations, a balance of 
 power must prevent any member of the Family 
 of Nations from becoming omnipotent. The his- 
 tory of the times of Louis XIV. and Napoleon 
 I. shows clearly the soundness of this principle. 
 ... As regards interventions for the purpose of 
 self-preservation, it is obvious that, if any neces- 
 sary violation committed in self-preservation of 
 the International Personality of other States is, 
 as shown above, excused, such violation must 
 also be excused as is contained in an intervention. 
 /\nd it matters not whether such an intervention 
 exercised in self-preservation is provoked by an 
 actual or imminent intervention on the part of 
 a third State, or by some other incident. As re- 
 gards intervention in the interest of the balance 
 of power, it is likewise obvious that it must be 
 excused. An equilibrium between the members 
 of the Family of Nations is an indispensable con- 
 dition of the very existence of International Law. 
 If the States could not keep one another in 
 check, all Law of Nations would soon disappear, 
 as, naturally, an over-powerful State would tend 
 to act according to discretion instead of accord- 
 ing to law. Since the Westphalian Peace of 1648 
 the principle of balance of power has played a 
 preponderant part in the history of Europe. It 
 found express recognition in 1713 in the Treaty 
 of Peace of LTtrecht [see Utrecht: 1712-1714], 
 it was the guiding star at the Vienna Congress 
 (q. V.) in 1S15 when the map of Europe was 
 re-arranged, at the Congress of Paris in 1856, 
 the Conference of London in 1867, and the Con- 
 gress of Berlin (see Berlin, Coxgkess and Treaty 
 oi') 1878. The States themselves and the ma- 
 jority of writers agree upon the admissibility of 
 intervention in the interest of balance of power. 
 Most of the interventions exercised in the inter- 
 est of the preservation of the Turkish Empire 
 must, in so far as they are not based on treaty 
 
 16
 
 BALANCE OF TRADE 
 
 BALFOUR 
 
 rights, be classified as interventions in the in- 
 terest of balance oi power. Examples of this 
 are supplied by collective interventions exercised 
 by the Powers in i8S6 for the purpose of pre- 
 venting the outbreak of war between Greece 
 and Turkey, and in 1S97 during the war between 
 Greece and Turkey with regard to the island of 
 Crete. . . . Although subjugation is an original 
 mode of acquiring territory and no third Power 
 has as a rule a right of intervention, the con- 
 queror ha? not in fact an unlimited possibility of 
 annexation of the territory of the vanquished 
 State. When the balance of power is endangered 
 or when other vital interests are at stake, third 
 Powers can and will intervene, and history records 
 many instances of such interventions. But it 
 must be emphasised that the validity of the title 
 of the subjugator does not depend upon recogni- 
 tion on the part of other Powers. And a mere 
 protest of a third Power is of no legal weight 
 either." — L. Oppenheim, International Law, v. i, 
 Peace, pp. 73~74, 185-186, 292. — See also Con- 
 cert OF Europe: History and meaning of 
 term. 
 
 BALANCE OF TRADE. See Commerce: 
 Commercial age: 1914-1921; Tariff: 1689-1721; 
 17th and iSth centuries; iSth century; 1776. 
 
 BALBOA, Vasco Nuiiez de (1475-1517), dis- 
 coverer of the Pacific ocean. Sailed for America 
 1500; went to Darien, where he was elected alcalde 
 1510; caused the imprisonment of Governor En- 
 cisco; received a commission to act as governor 
 1512; explored the country; discovered and took 
 formal possession (1513) of the Southern sea (the 
 name Pacific ocean was not applied until seven 
 years later) in the name of the Spanish monarch; 
 continued his explorations; retu,rned to Darien 
 1514. Upon complaints of former governor Encisco 
 to the king of Spain, Pedro Arias de Avila was sent 
 to replace Balboa. The new governor had him 
 arrested on a charge of contemplated revolt and 
 beheaded. See America: 1513-1517; and Map 
 showing voyages of discovery; Colombia: 1499- 
 1536; Pacific ocean: 1513-1764. 
 
 BALBRIGGAN, a town on the east-coast of 
 Ireland north of Dublin; textile manufacturing 
 center; the scene of reprisals by the Royal Irish 
 Constabulary, September 21, 1920, which origi- 
 nated in a quarrel between District Inspector 
 Burke, his brother. Sergeant Burke, together with 
 five or six other police and local Republican 
 Volunteers, during which Inspector Burke was 
 killed and his brother wounded. Later, the "Black 
 and Tans" began a campaign of incendiarism, the 
 outcome of which was the burning of many homes 
 and the sho'oting' oi two civilians. Included 
 among the razed buildings was the factory of 
 Deeds, Templar and Company, which was com- 
 pletely destroyed. 
 
 BALCARCE, Antonio Gonzalez (1774-1819), 
 South American soldier who served in the defence 
 of Buenos Aires (1S07). Joined the revolution- 
 ary movement ; went with an army into upper 
 Peru; was defeated at Huaqui, iSii. 
 
 BALCARCE, Juan Ramon (1773-1S33), 
 Argentine general. Governor of Buenos Aires, iSiS 
 and 1820; member of the constituent assembly, 
 1825; minister of war and marine, 1827; chosen 
 governor of Buenos Aires, 1S32 ; driven out by 
 Rosas, X833. 
 
 BALCHITAS INDIANS. See Pamp.^s tribes. 
 
 BALDER, sun-god of Norse mythology. He 
 was loved by gods and men, and treacherously 
 slain by the device of Loki, the fire-spirit and 
 subtle enemy of the gods. 
 
 BALDWIN I, Latin emperor of Constantinople 
 (Romania), 1204-1205, previous to which, as Count 
 
 81 
 
 of Flanders and Hainut, participated in the cru- 
 sades. See Byzantine empire: 1204- 1205; Cru- 
 sades: 1201-1203. 
 
 Baldwin II, last Latin emperor of Constan- 
 tinople, 1237-1261. 
 
 Baldwin I, Prince of Edessa (1098-1100), 
 king of Jerusalem (iioo-iiiS). See Jerusalem: 
 1099-H31. 
 
 Baldwin II (Baldwin du Bourg), Count of 
 Edessa (1100-1118I. king of Jerusalem (1118- 
 1131). See Jerusalem: 1099-1131. 
 
 Baldwin III, king of Jerusalem, 1143-1162. 
 See Jerusalem: 1144-1187. 
 
 Baldwin IV, king of Jerusalem, 1173-1183. 
 See Jerusalem: 1144-1187. 
 
 Baldwin I (d. 879), Count of Flanders. See 
 Belgium: Ancient and medieval history; and 
 Flanders: 863. 
 
 Baldwin II (d. 918), Count of Flanders. 
 
 Baldwin V (d. 1067), Count of Flanders. See 
 Belgium: Ancient and medieval history. 
 
 BALEARIC ISLANDS, a group of four large 
 and eleven small islands in the Mediterranean sea, 
 off the east coast of Spain. They form a province 
 of Spain, with Palma as capital. The most im- 
 portant islands are Minorca, Majorca and Iviza. — 
 See also Minorca. 
 
 1235. — Controlled by Aragon. See Aragon. 
 
 BALFE, Michael (1S08-1870), popular Irish 
 composer of opera in English, Italian and French. 
 In 1S35 he produced at Drury Lane his first 
 English opera, "The Siege of Rochelle." His most 
 famous opera "The Bohemian Girl" is still a 
 popular favorite. The popular air "Killarney" 
 is by Balfe. — See also Music: Modern: 1750- 
 1S70. 
 
 BALFOUR, Arthur Jamea (1848- ), Brit- 
 ish statesman and essayist. Memljer of Parlia- 
 ment since 1874; member of Berlin Congress, 1S78, 
 as private secretary to Lord Salisbury; chief sec- 
 retaiy for Ireland, i887-'8oi (see Ireland: 1885- 
 1903) ; president of loca- '» -vernment board, 1885- 
 1886; created Congested Districts Board for Ire- 
 land, i8go; leader of the house and first lord of 
 the treasury, 1891-1892, 1895-1905 (see England: 
 1894-1895; and 1900); premier, 1902-1905 (see 
 England: 1902 [July] ; 1903 [May-Sept.] ; and 
 1905-1Q06) ; first lord of admiralty in Asquith's co- 
 alition cabinet ; secretary of state for foreign af- 
 fairs in Lloyd George's cabinet, 1916-1919; Brit- 
 ish representative at the peace conference, Paris, 
 ioiq; chancellor of Cambridge University, 1919; 
 lord president of the council, 1919. Chosen to act 
 ns British official representative on the League of 
 Nations, 1920. Chairman of league's committee 
 on organization, 1020. Leader of British delegation 
 to Washington Disarmament Conferenre, 1921. 
 Has written several books on philosophical and 
 other subjects. 
 
 Negotiations for British control in China. See 
 China: 1898 (.'^pril-.^ugust). 
 
 "Dreadnaught" debate of 1909. See War, 
 Preparation for: 1909-1 913. 
 
 Attitude toward Land acts. See Ireland: 
 1900-IQ11. 
 
 On American interests in British shipping 
 line. See Trusts: International. 
 
 Interest in Zionist movement. See Jews: 
 Zionism: 1008-1021; and Palestine: 1920. 
 
 Head of English mission to United States. — 
 Address to House of Representaives. See 
 U. S. A.: 1917 (.^pril-May). 
 
 British representative at Paris formulating 
 armistice terras. See World War: 191S: XI. End 
 of the war: a 1. 
 
 Representative at the peace conference. See 
 Vers.4illes, Treaty of: Conditions of peace. 
 
 7
 
 BALI 
 
 BALKAN STATES 
 
 Summary of report defining British commer- 
 cial policy (Feb. 2, 1917). See Commerce: Com- 
 mercial age: i 91 4-1 921. 
 
 Speech for Imperial Federation (Dec. 15, 
 1919). See British EirPiRE: Colonial federation: 
 Imperial federation proposals: 20th century. 
 
 BALI, an island of the Dutch East Indies, the 
 scene of a native uprising in 1894. See Dutch 
 E.^ST Indies: 1804. 
 
 BALIA OF FLORENCE.— The chief instru- 
 ment employed by the Medici to establish their 
 power in Florence was "the pernicious system 
 of the Parlamento and Balia, by means of which 
 the people, assembled from (ime to time in the 
 public square, and intimidated by the reigning 
 faction, entrusted full powers to a select com- 
 mittee nominated in private by the chiefs cf the 
 great house. . . . Segni says: 'The Parlamento 
 is a meeting of the Florentine people on the Piazza 
 of the Signory. When the Signory has taken 
 its place to address the meeting, the piazza is 
 guarded by armed men, and then the people are 
 asked whether they wish to give absolute power 
 (Balia) and authority to the citizens named, for 
 
 their good. When the answer, yes, prompted 
 partly by inclination and partly by compulsion, 
 is returned, the Signory immediately retires into 
 the palace. This is all that is meant by this par- 
 lamento, which thus gives away the full power 
 of effecting a change in the state." — J. A. Symonds, 
 Renaissance in Italy: Age of the Despots, p. 180, 
 and foot-note. — See also Florence: 1378-1427; 
 1433-1464; and 1458-1469. 
 
 BALIKESRI, Fall of (1920). See Greece: 
 1920. 
 
 BALIOL (or Balliol), Sir John de (d. about 
 1269), regent of Scotland during minority of .■\lex- 
 ander III ; deprived of post on charge of treason 
 1255; about 1263 established several scholarships 
 at Oxford and gave first lands for college which 
 bears his name ; endowment increased by his will 
 and gifts of his widow. 
 
 BALIZE, or Belize, British Honduras. See 
 HoxDUR.AS, British. 
 
 BALKAN ALLIANCE, BALKAN LEAGUE. 
 See B.\LK.AN St.ates: 1912: Balkan league; and 
 Serbia: 1909-1913. 
 
 Breakup of league. See Balkan States: 1913. 
 
 BALKAN STATES 
 
 Geographical position. — Physical aspects of 
 the country. — The Balkan peninsula is the eastern- 
 most of the three great southern peninsulas of 
 Europe. The peninsula embraces the following ter- 
 ritories and states: — .\lbania (q.v.), Bosnia (q.v.) 
 and Herzegovina (q.v.), Bulgaria (q.v.), Croatia- 
 Slavonia (see Czecho-Slovakl\), Dalmatia (q.v.), 
 the Dobrudja (Rumania, (q.v.)), Greece (q.v.), 
 Serbia (q.v.), Montenegro (q.v.), the former Sanjak 
 of Novibazar (see No\tbAz.\r), or Novi Pazar, now 
 a department of Serbia, Macedonia and Thrace. 
 Rumania, though generally included in the list, 
 is not, strictly speaking, a Ballian state. They 
 occupy mainly the regions known in Roman times 
 as Moesia, Dacia and Illyricum, to which names 
 the reader is referred for some account of scanty 
 incidents of their early history, (See Avars.) 
 For full details of the Balkan states, see articles 
 under the respective political divisions, under 
 Eastern question and under World War. 
 
 "We should begin our detailed study of the 
 Balkan Peninsula with a realization of the broad 
 outlines of its structure. A complex mass of up- 
 land, roughly triangular in shape, composed of 
 hard, resistant rocks, rests with its apex on the 
 Danube at Belgrade, its base stretching from the 
 Black Sea to the Aegean. Its southern end, once 
 continuous with the central mass of Asia Minor, 
 lies sunk beneath the Aegean, which is fringed with 
 the inlets and peninsulas which mark its shattered 
 margin. The two sides of the triangle are 
 bordered by young folded mountains, in which 
 limestones largely predominate. But, necessarily, 
 there is no sudden transition between central mass 
 and folded margin. Balkans and western moun- 
 tains alike are separated from the Central Up- 
 land by areas whose special feature is the pres- 
 ence of fertile basins, which alternate with low 
 ridges, rffering no great obstacle to through transit, 
 and with mountain-tracts. Within these two belts 
 lie the best lands of the peninsula, but they them- 
 selves are the natural highways of traffic from 
 north to south and from south to north, from 
 north-west to south-east, from .^sia to Europe, 
 from the .Aegean to the European plains. It 
 has been remarked by an acute observer that in 
 the Balkan Peninsula the villages, contrary' to 
 the usual rule, tend to avoid the main road. 
 
 8 
 
 .^long that main road one may find a few large 
 towns, but the smaller settlements, too well aware 
 that the highway's main function throughout his- 
 torical time has been to allow of the passage 
 of armies, seek safety in the byways. But it 
 has been the curse of the Balkan States that they 
 could not, like small groups of individuals, thus 
 avoid the main. lines of communication. To fly 
 to the hills to starve there; to remain along the 
 main route and be crushed by trampling feet; 
 it is scarcely too much to say that these have 
 been the main alternatives before the nations of 
 that troubled land. We have said that the cen- 
 tral mass of upland is roughly triangular in shape. 
 In a quite general fashion we may say that the 
 town of Belgrade is placed near the apex of the 
 triangle, while Salonika and Constantinople oc- 
 cupy approximately the ends of the base line 
 and most of the more important towns of the 
 peninsula are strung along the sides of the tri- 
 angle, which are themselves the main lines of 
 communication. To grasp these facts is to realize 
 some of the essential difficulties which have re- 
 tarded the political development of the peninsula. 
 It results necessarily from what has been said 
 that, not only is there no natural centre within 
 the peninsula about which, as nucleus, a great 
 state might form, but that rivalries are almost 
 certain to develop between small states. The fact 
 that the peninsula is so easy of access from 
 without — a point to which we shall return in 
 a moment — means that weak peoples within will 
 surge upwards from the plains on the main routes 
 to mountains and uplands for safety. The danger 
 past, they tend to descend, and are then con- 
 fronted with the problem of how to divide among 
 themselves the fertile plains which fringe the 
 temporarily deserted highway. As fresh incur- 
 sions from without are always liable to occur be- 
 fore internal adjustment has become possible, the 
 problem is not one easily settled. We have already 
 seen that incursion from the north is easy, be- 
 cause, beyond the Save and the Danube, the 
 peninsula lies open to the wide Hungarian plain ; 
 but it may be well to emphasize the contrast here 
 with the Italian and Iberian Peninsulas. Both 
 of these are separated from continental Europe 
 bv mountain-chains, not absolutely continuous 
 
 18'
 
 BALKAN STATES 
 
 Geography 
 Ethnography 
 
 BALKAN STATES 
 
 from sea to sea, not, as history has shown, giving 
 perfect and easily drawn frontier lines, but still 
 of great value as constituting in each case a north- 
 ern belt of relatively scantily-peopled land, per- 
 mitting of the development of more or less de- 
 marcated nationalities respectively within and with- 
 out the peninsular areas. In contrast with the 
 Balkan region, it is worth note, the Iberian 
 Peninsula is further remarkable in that it narrows 
 where it is attached to the Continent — a fact 
 which has helped to promote a distinction be- 
 tween intra-peninsular and extra-peninsular na- 
 tionalities. On the other hand, the Balkan Pen- 
 insula is widest where it joins the Continent, no 
 notable barrier to human progress separates the 
 one region from the other, and, in association 
 with this, many of the peoples of the peninsula 
 have representatives, sometimes numerous repre- 
 sentatives, beyond its largely artificial boundary 
 lines. In other words, their interests are never 
 wholly within the peninsula — are sometimes largely 
 outside it. What are its boundary lines? As 
 usually defined, the Balkan Peninsula is the land 
 area to the south of a line drawn along the line 
 of the Lower Danube, then of the Save and of 
 its insignificant tributary, the Kulpa, and from 
 the headwaters of this stream to the shore near 
 Fiume. How artificial this 'geographical' frontier 
 is may be realized from the fact that only along 
 part of its course does it correspond to political 
 boundaries, and from the other fact that few maps 
 of the region go so far to the north-west. In 
 reality, while the southern part of the Balkan 
 region is a true peninsula, the northern quadri- 
 lateral, separated from Asia Minor only by the 
 narrow submerged river valleys which we call 
 the Bosphorous and the Dardanelles respectively, 
 is really continental, in climate as well as in 
 many of its characters. Europe stops, not at 
 Constantinople, but in the steppe region behind 
 it, for the city itself has but little relation to 
 the northern part of the peninsula on which it 
 stands. If we bear in mind that the factors we 
 have stressed — the absence of a natural centre, 
 of isolation from surrounding regions, the ex- 
 istence of broad, diverging highways leading 
 through the heart of the land — have been in ac- 
 tion for long centuries, then the welter of races 
 and of creeds within the peninsula, the jealousies 
 and quarrels, the short-lived triumphs of one race 
 or another, will be readily understood. Here 
 within a total area of some ioi,coo square miles 
 — that is, considerably less than Spain — no less 
 than six native races dwell, in addition to repre- 
 sentatives of not a few others." — M. I. New- 
 bigin. Geographical aspects of Balkan problems, 
 pp. II, 14-15- 
 
 Races existing. — Evolution from the past. — 
 Migrations and activities from the year A. D. 
 117 to 1453. — "In no part of Western Europe do 
 we find districts inhabited by men differing in 
 speech and national feeling, lying in distinct 
 patches here and there over a large country. A 
 district like one of our larger counties in which 
 one parish, perhaps one hundred, spoke Welsh, 
 another Latin, another English, another Danish, 
 another Old French, another the tongue of more 
 modern settlers, Flemings, Huguenots or Pal- 
 atines, is something which we find hard to 
 conceive, and which, as applied to our own 
 land or to any other Western land, sounds 
 absurd on the face of it. When we pass into 
 South-eastern Europe, this state of things, the 
 very idea of which seems absurd in the West, is 
 found to be perfectly real. All the races which 
 we find dwelling there at the beginning of re- 
 corded history, together with several races which 
 
 have come in since, all remain, not as mere frag- 
 ments or survivals, but as nations, each with its 
 national language and national feelings, and each 
 having its greater or less share of practical im- 
 portance in the politics of the present moment, 
 petting aside races which have simply passed 
 through the country without occupying it, we 
 may say that all the races which have ever set- 
 tled in the country are there still as distinct 
 races. And, though each race has its own par- 
 ticular region where it forms the whole people 
 or the great majority of the people, still there 
 are large districts where different races really live 
 side by side in the very way which seems so 
 absurd when we try to conceive it in any West- 
 ern country. We cannot conceive a Welsh, an 
 English, and a Korman village side by side; but 
 a Greek, a Bulgarian, and a Turkish village side 
 by side is a thing which may be seen in many 
 parts of Thrace. The oldest races in those lands, 
 those which answer to Basques and Bretons in 
 Western Europe, hold quite another position from 
 that of Basques and Bretons in Western Europe. 
 They form three living and vigorous nations, 
 Greek, Albanian, and Rouman. They stand as 
 nations alongside of the Slavs who came in later, 
 and who answer roughly to the Teutons in the 
 West, while all alike are [1S77] under the rule 
 of the Turk, who has nothing answering to him 
 in the West. . . . When the Romans conquered 
 the South-eastern lands, they found there three 
 great races, the Greek, the lUyrian, and the 
 Thracian. Those three races are all there still. 
 The Greeks speak for themselves. The Illyrians 
 are represented by the modern Albanians. The 
 Thracians are represented, there seems every rea- 
 son to believe, by the modern Roumans. Now 
 had the whole of the South-eastern lands been 
 inhabited by Illyrians and' Thracians, those lands 
 would doubtless have become as thoroughly 
 Roman as the Western lands became. . . . But the 
 position of the Greek nation, its long history and 
 its high civilization, hindered this. The Greeks 
 could not become Romans in any but the most 
 purely political sense. Like other subjects of the 
 Roman Empire, they gradually took the Roman 
 name; but they kept their own language, litera- 
 ture, and civilization. In short v/e may say 
 that the Roman Empire in the East became 
 Greek, and that the Greek nation became Roman. 
 The Eastern Empire and the Greek-speaking lands 
 became nearly coextensive. Greek became the 
 one language of the Eastern Roman Empire, while 
 those that spoke it still called themselves Romans. 
 Till quite lately, that is till the modern ideas 
 of nationality began to spread, the Greek-speak- 
 ing subjects of the Turk called themselves by 
 no name but that of Romans. . . . While the 
 Greeks thus took the Roman name without adopt- 
 ing the Latin language, another people in the 
 Eastern peninsula adopted both name and lan- 
 guage, exactly as the nations of the West did. 
 If, as there is good reason to believe, the mod- 
 ern Roumans represent the old Thracians, that na- 
 tion came under the genera! law, exactly like 
 the Western nations. The Thracians became 
 thoroughly Roman in speech, as they haye ever 
 since kept the Roman name. They form in fact 
 one of the Romance nations, just as much as 
 the people of Gaul or Spain. ... In short, the 
 existence of a highly civilized people like the 
 Greeks hindered in every way the influence of 
 Rome from being so thorough in the East as it 
 was in the West. The Greek nation lived on, 
 and alongside of itself, it preserved the other 
 two ancient nations of the peninsula. Thus all 
 three have lived on to the present as distinct 
 
 819
 
 BALKAN STATES 
 
 Ethnography 
 Early History 
 
 BALKAN STATES 
 
 nations. Two of them, the Greeks and the II- 
 lyrians, still Iceep their own languages, while the 
 third, the old Thracians, speak a Romance lan- 
 guage and call themselves Roumans. . . . The 
 Slavonic nations hold in the East a place answer- 
 ing to that which is held by the Teutonic nations 
 in the West. . . . But though the Slaves in the 
 East thus answer in many ways to the Teutons 
 in the West, their position with regard to the 
 Eastern Empire was not quite the same as that 
 of the Teutons towards the Western Empire. . . . 
 They learned much from the half Roman, half 
 Greek power with which they had to do; but 
 they did not themselves become either Greek or 
 Roman, in the way in which the Teutonic con- 
 querors in the Western Empire became Roman. 
 . . . Thus, while in the West everything except 
 a few survivals of earlier nations, is either Roman 
 or Teutonic, in the East, Greeks, Illyrians, Thra- 
 cians or Roumans, and Slavs, all stood side by 
 side as distinct nations when the next set of in- 
 vaders came, and they remain as distinct nations 
 still. . . . There came among them, in the form of 
 the Ottoman Turk, a people with whom union 
 was not only hard but impossible, a people who 
 were kept distinct, not by special circumstances, 
 but by the inherent nature of the case. Had 
 the Turk been other than what he really was, 
 he might simply have become a new nation 
 alongside of the South-eastern nations. Being 
 what he was the Turk could not do this. . . . 
 The original Turks did not belong to the Aryan 
 branch of mankind, and their original speech is 
 not an Aryan speech. The Turks and their speech 
 belong to altogether another class of nations and 
 languages. . . . Long before the Turks came into 
 Europe, the Magyars or Hungarians had come; 
 and, before the Magyars came, the Bulgarians had 
 come. Both the Magyars and the Bulgarians 
 were in their origin Turanian nations, nations as 
 foreign to the Aryan people of Europe as the 
 Ottoman Turks themselves. But their history 
 shows that a Turanian nation settling in Europe 
 may either be assimilated with an existing Euro- 
 pean nation or may sit down as an European na- 
 tion alongside of others. The Bulgarians have 
 done one of these things; the Magyars have done 
 the other; the Ottoman Turks have done neither. 
 So much has been heard lately of the Bulgarians 
 as being in our times the special victims of the 
 Turk that some people may find it strange to 
 hear who the original Bulgarians were. They were 
 a people more or less nearly akin to the Turks, 
 and they came into Europe as barbarian con- 
 querors who were as much dreaded by the nations 
 of South-eastern Europe as the Turks themselves 
 were afterwards. The old Bulgarians were a 
 Turanian people, who settled in a large part of 
 the South-eastern peninsula, in lancte which had 
 been already occupied by Slaves. They came 
 in as barbarian conquerors; but, exactly as hap- 
 pened to so many conquerors in Western Europe, 
 they were presently assimilated by their Slavonic 
 subjects and neighbours. They learned the 
 Slavonic speech; they gradually lost all traces 
 of their foreign origin. Those whom we now call 
 Bulgarians are a Slavonic people speaking a 
 Slavonic tongue, and they have nothing Turanian 
 about them except the name which they borrowed 
 from their Turanian masters. . . . The Bulgarians 
 entered the Empire in the seventh century [see 
 Bulgaria: 7th century], and embraced Christianity 
 in the ninth. They rose to great power in the 
 South-eastern lands, and played a great part in 
 their history. But all their later history, from a 
 comparatively short time after the first Bul- 
 garian conquest, has been that of a Slavonic and 
 
 not that of a Turanian people. The history of the 
 Bulgarians therefore shows that it is quite pos- 
 sible, if circumstances are favourable, for a Tura- 
 nian people to settle among the Aryans of 
 Europe and to be thoroughly assimiliated by the 
 Aryan nation among whom they settled." — E. A. 
 Freeman, Ottoman power in Europe, ch. 2. — See 
 also Vlakhs. 
 
 Also in: R. G. Latham, Nationalities of Eu- 
 rope. 
 
 "After Trajan's death [117] these semi- 
 Romanized Thracians could not longer be held 
 in subjection; during his short reign of three 
 years, Maximin, himself a Thraclan who had 
 risen from the ranks to the purple, maintained a 
 semblance of order among his kinsfolk, but to the 
 natural restlessness of the people was now added 
 a new cause of disturbance. The Goths had set- 
 tled on the northern shore of the Euxine [Black 
 Sea], the Vandals had boldly entered the province, 
 and from the great plains further beyond was 
 pouring out a flood of humanity which pressed 
 hard upon both from behind, breaking through 
 in places and emptying itself into the valley of 
 the Danube. Hadrian was forced (270-275) to 
 withdraw his troops to the right bank of that 
 great river and rename the province Ripuarian 
 Dacia. The left shore to the north was thus 
 lost to the empire, but some of the Romans and 
 much of the Romanized population continue to 
 dwell there. These and the traders kept the preva- 
 lent low Latin a living tongue. About the year 
 450 the Huns, and a century later the Avars, 
 permeated the land, until finally there was a me- 
 chanical mixture of races, peoples, and tongues 
 in which the old order was utterly disintegrated 
 and the way prepared for the latest inundation, 
 that of the Slavs, whose very name. Slave, in- 
 dicated the contempt in which they were long 
 held. . . . Slowly the great horde of Goths on the 
 north shore of the Euxine had differentiated it- 
 self into two stocks, somewhat different in char- 
 acter and widely different in their historical ca- 
 reer; the west, or Visigoths, and the east, or 
 Ostrogoths. The next important migration under 
 Alaric, who actually settled in the central por- 
 tion of it in 382, in 395 threatened Constanti- 
 nople and pressed on into Epirus and Hellas. It is 
 to the ruthless occupation of the mainland by 
 barbarians that the islands of Hellas owe to 
 this day their almost homogeneous Greek popu- 
 lation, descendants of the Greeks who nearly 
 fourteen centuries ago fled before this Germanic 
 invasion. In time the Invaders were more or 
 less Hellenized and established themselves in Epirus 
 as vassals of the emperors at Constantinople. Rest- 
 less and uncertain as was their temperament, 
 they soon began to fear lest they should be fur- 
 ther absorbed Into Byzantium, and at last with- 
 drew across the Adriatic to their kindred in Italy. 
 During the period of their settlement in that 
 peninsula they destroyed the art treasures of the 
 country most ruthlessly, and the process which 
 they began was continued by the Huns, who 
 poured their Mongolian flood along the same 
 highway of nations. These in turn were followed 
 by the Ostrogoths under Theodoric, who laid 
 waste the Peloponnesus, and by the Vandals who 
 perpetrated every form of theft and destruction 
 along the Greek coast line; whatever was left 
 after this devastating process substantially dis- 
 appeared under the rule of the Bulgars, who In 
 S17 ravaged Epirus and Thcssaly as far as 
 Thermopyls. The Byzantine emperor Anastasius 
 sought to protect his capital behind the wall 
 stretching from Propontls to the Euxine, a line 
 of defense so often mentioned in this latest period, 
 
 820
 
 Maps prepared specially for the NEW LARNED 
 under direction of the editors and publishers. 
 
 JU 
 
 C)
 
 BALKAN STATES 
 
 Advent of Turks 
 Nationalism 
 
 BALKAN STATES 
 
 and abandoned all his unhappy provinces to their 
 fate. He and his successor, Justin, were utterly 
 paralyzed when the Slavs, abiding their time 
 on the south shore of the Danube, began a 
 further advance and established many permanent 
 colonies in the districts deserted by their former 
 inhabitants. Justinian, however {527-565), was a 
 man of different temper, and while he left the 
 Slavic colonists already established in their new 
 seats, yet he inaugurated a system of fortifica- 
 tions on the Danube and in the interior of his 
 empire which checked any further inroads. The 
 last quarter of the sixth century is marked by 
 the further invasion of the peninsula by the Avars, 
 a people of extremely warlike nature. Coming 
 from their previous home between the Caspian 
 and the Sea of Azov, they had occupied the valley 
 of the Theiss [Tisza], whence for two and a 
 half centuries they terrorized all their neighbors. 
 They now pushed forward into the east Roman 
 empire and found their advantage sometimes in 
 supporting the emperor, sometimes in strengthen- 
 ing the Slavic invasion. They, too, succeeded in 
 establishing settlements at various places in Greece, 
 but, in the main, the result of all this confusion 
 was the greater and greater preponderance of the 
 Slav element. At the beginning of the sixth cen- 
 tury there were more Avars to the north of the 
 Danube than beyond it, and more Slavs to the 
 south than on the other side. Pliny, in the first 
 century of our era, makes mention of tlie Slavs, 
 and in their legendary lore the emperor Trajan oc- 
 cupies so important a position that many have 
 thought there must have been some contact of a 
 peaceful nature between him and the Slavic tribes. 
 Inasmuch as Slavic folklore expresses nothing but 
 kindness and admiration for the Roman powers, 
 which were afterwards their bitterest enemies, their 
 kindly relations may have continued to the end 
 of the fourth century. Traces of prehistorical 
 Slav migrations and settlements have been found 
 clear across Europe as far as Hanover, but the 
 Germans forced them back over the Elbe. Their 
 primitive seat appears to have been the banks 
 of the Dnieper River in what is known to-day 
 as southern Russia. A prevailing hypothesis makes 
 them descendants of, or close kin to, the Scythians, 
 but so commingled with the race slocks just men- 
 tioned that they appear to be a composite race. 
 The Bulgars, whose seats had been on the lower 
 Volga, were nearest in kin to the Turks. From 
 the time of their earliest appearance they, too, 
 assimilated themselves, and very closely, with the 
 nomads about them, and it was Bulgarized Slavs 
 who founded the empire which included the lands 
 of the Danube, Wallachia, with a part of Hun- 
 gary, as well as their own territory — a mighty em- 
 pire which lasted for over three centuries (702- 
 1014). During their ascendancy three peoples of 
 unknown descent — the Hungarians, a Ugrian-Tur- 
 coman folk from Asia, and two Turkish stocks, 
 the Patzinakians [Petchenegs] and Cumanians 
 [Kumans] — entered the districts north of the 
 Danube. It was into the very heart of the vast 
 Slavic territory that the Hungarians drove them- 
 selves like a wedge; and for generations the north- 
 ern and southern groups lived in different en- 
 vironments and under different conditions — a fact 
 which created and perpetuated substantial varia- 
 tions. In type, language, and even in basic institu- 
 tions they are perhaps as much differentiated as 
 the Spanish from the Portuguese, much less than 
 the Italians and Spanish or any other two of the 
 Romance peoples. It was the south Slavs who 
 were first discernible in the Balkans during the 
 sixth century. In the seventh they began to settle 
 westward of the Bulgarians, occupying the Roman 
 
 82 
 
 province of Moesia, and it was there that they 
 first received the contemptuous name which they 
 still bear, that of Servians, Slaves. In the eighth 
 century they accepted Christianity, and thence 
 down to the eleventh century they were at best 
 a protectorate, and more often a dependency of 
 Byzantium. [See Christianity: Qth century; Bul- 
 garian church]. Thereupon, separate stocks began 
 successively and successfully to assert independence, 
 and in 1165 they were united under a dynasty 
 which in 1222 was recognized by both the Pope 
 and by the emperor of Constantinople. They de- 
 veloped a civilization which was quite remarkable; 
 and under the Czar Stephen Dushan (1.530-1335) 
 the empire embraced, in addition to its original 
 domains, Macedonia, Albania, Thessaly, Bulgaria, 
 and northern Greece. This great Servian con- 
 queror reached the very gates of Constantinople 
 with a summons to surrender, but there he died; 
 and his lands, united only by his imperious will, 
 fell apart, a prey to warring ambitions. It was in 
 1453 that Mahomet II, the great Osman Turk, 
 mentioned in another connection, after capturing 
 Constantinople, marched onward with his invin- 
 cible horde and soon brought all the Balkans under 
 Turkish sway, a grinding tyranny that lasted 
 nearly four centuries. [See Turkey: 1360-13S9; 
 1402-1451; 1451-14S1.] With the appearance in 
 the Balkan peninsula of the Turks, an outline of 
 whose career has already been given, the long 
 roll-call .of national and race elements in that dis- 
 tracted portion of Europe is completed. Not one 
 of these elements has remained entirely pure. Of 
 those considered, four have admitted alien strains, 
 and the same is true of their languages and insti- 
 tutions; yet all survive, and all hold fast to their 
 traditions, and all look forward to the restoration 
 of their ancient dominion and glory. The situation 
 is complicated by the strife of confession ; Islam 
 with Christianity — alas I a divided Christianity — ■ 
 the adherents of the Greek Church, at least among 
 the masses, regarding those of the Roman con- 
 fession as utter outcasts, and vice versa." — W. 
 Sloane, Balkans — a laboratory of history, pp. 63- 
 68. 
 
 lOth-llth centuries (Bulgaria). — Overthrow 
 of kingdom by Basil II. See Achrida, Kingdom 
 of; Bulgaria: loth-iith centuries; Constanti- 
 nople: 007-1047. 
 
 12th century (Rumania). — Second Bulgarian 
 or Wallachian kingdom. See Bulgaria: 12th 
 century; Dacia: Trojan's conquest. 
 
 14th century (Bulgaria). — Subjection to 
 Hungary. See Hungary: 1301-1442. 
 
 14th-19th centuries (Serbia and Bulgaria). 
 See Bulgaria: 1258-1872; Russia: 1734-1740; Tur- 
 key: 1360-1389; 1402-1451 ; 1451-14S1. 
 
 1389 (Bulgaria). — Conquest by Turks. See 
 Bulgaria: 1258-1872; Turkey: 1360-1380. 
 
 1718 (Bosnia). — Part ceded to Austria. See 
 Hungary: 1600-1718. 
 
 1739. — Restoration of Bosnia, Serbia, and 
 Austrian Vallachia to Turkey. See Russia: 
 
 1734-1740. 
 
 19th century. — Nationalism. — Growth of de- 
 mocracy. — Characteristics of the peoples. — "The 
 
 nationality movement, which is the main historic 
 tendency of the nineteenth century, is a phase of the 
 acquisition of political power by the people, even 
 as is the related movement for democratic popular 
 government. Near Eastern nationalism is a re- 
 sult of the same renascence that took among west- 
 ern peoples the form of a movement for demo- 
 cratic institutions. They are both movements for 
 government of the people by the people to the 
 exclusion of absolutism and autocracy. This move- 
 ment caused wars among the Anglo-American and
 
 BALKAN STATES 
 
 19th Century 
 Racial Characteristics 
 
 BALKAN STATES 
 
 Latin communities towards the end of the eight- 
 eenth century in the regions bordering the At- 
 lantic, and ever since has been steadily making its 
 way through the people of Europe and Asia. After 
 revitalizing the mid-European races, it has passed 
 into Asia with the beginning of this twentieth 
 century; its successive invasions of the Iberian, 
 ItaHan, and Balkan peninsulas being specially in- 
 structive. ... Its effect on the Balkan Peninsula 
 was exceptionally erratic, for whereas the Greeks 
 were reached by it even before many of the Latin 
 races, the Turks were affected a full centur\' later. 
 Thus it comes about that the arrival of the na- 
 tionality movement among the Greeks and the 
 War of Emancipation of the beginning of the 
 nineteenth century is the first historical cause of 
 the Balkan war; while its arrival among the Turks 
 and the Ottoman revolution of a century later is 
 the very last. It would be easy, though it would 
 be too long, to explain this by the particular cir- 
 cumstances and character of each place and people. 
 It would be of the greatest interest to examine in 
 detail the political or social conditions under 
 which, for instance, Greece, which had so long a 
 start of Bulgaria, has been overtaken within our 
 generation; or why Servia as a national democ- 
 racy is a higher political organism than auto- 
 cratic Russia. But the geographical method of 
 studying the movement makes such detailed in- 
 quiries unnecessan.- ; for these irregularities, if 
 traced to their source, are to be explained either 
 by direct geographical circumstances such as the 
 checks opposed by mountains and deserts or the 
 channels offered by seas and rivers, or else by 
 indirect geographical influences working on na- 
 tional character. This brings us back again to 
 the geographical origins of history. Balkan pol- 
 itics can only be understood through a knowledge 
 of the stage of development of the Balkan peoples. 
 The Balkan peoples can only be understood by a 
 knowledge of the configurations and characteris- 
 tics of the peninsula. When, moreover, the main 
 configurations and characteristics of the peninsula 
 are observed it will be found that the character of 
 the populations has a regional rather than a racial 
 basis, and is indigenous to the locality rather than 
 inherent in the stock. This can be illustrated in 
 the case of even.' community in question. Greece is 
 inhabited, and, so far.as investigation shows, always 
 has been inhabited, by people of the Greek type of 
 character in spite of renewals or even removals of 
 its inhabitants by Cretans, Dorians, Slavs, Alba- 
 nians, and such alien types. The assertion can be 
 advanced beyond this, and it might even be said 
 that records sucgest that the population of Boeo- 
 tia, or of Sparta, or even of Athens, have main- 
 tained through all vicissitudes each their distinct 
 sub-species. Again, Montenegrins and certain Al- 
 banian tribes are of very similar physical type; 
 but their mental and moral character is distinct, 
 and while one represents an essentially Slav cul- 
 ture, Albanian civilization is peculiar to itself and 
 long antedated the advent of the Slavs. Bulgars 
 are of Finnish stock, have a Slav tongue, and a 
 Moneol name ; but their national character is also 
 peculiar to themselves, though it strongly resembles 
 that of the Finland Finns. The Bulgar national 
 type is evidently one which has had time to adapt 
 itself perfectly to its surroundings, or, as suggested 
 above, to have been perfectly assimilated by its 
 surroundings, physical and political. Back through 
 Byzantine history we find Bulgars playing the same 
 political role and exhibiting the same peculiarities. 
 Roumanians are also a composite race of Latins 
 and Vlachs with some borrowings from Jews and 
 Gypsies; but the dominant characteristics of their 
 culture cannot be accounted for from any of these 
 
 82 
 
 sources. It will help to explain much that is as- 
 tonishing in the development of the Balkan na- 
 tionality movements if we can account for the 
 very marked and matured national characteristics 
 of these very youthful nations by peculiarities in 
 the natural conditions and configuration of the 
 countries they inhabit. For instance, the most 
 marked characteristic of the peninsula of Greece 
 is that it has a deeply indented coastline and that 
 the mainland is cut up into valleys by difficult 
 ranges. These valleys are even more independent 
 of and isolated from each other than the islands 
 of which a large portion of the Greek national 
 territory consists. Greek civilization centres in 
 and surrounds the Aegean just as Anglo-Saxon 
 civilization surrounds the North Atlantic. The 
 Hellenes, like the Anglo-Saxons, have in conse- 
 quence always consisted of independent communi- 
 ties of valley or island folk in a sea-faring, that 
 is a foreign, relation to each other, united only 
 by a common culture and civilization. The course 
 of the early development of the small Greek democ- 
 racies was by competition rather than by combi- 
 nation. Consequently the natural characteristics 
 of the Greeks in political and social relations are 
 rather intellicence and independence than grega- 
 riousness and generosity. This Greek 'separatism' 
 was due also in part to disadvantages attending 
 the development of maritime communities in those 
 days from which our later maritime civilizations 
 have been free. In primitive times the sea was 
 more of a barrier than now; for while it was al- 
 ready the high road for culture it was also the 
 open road for piracy, and the pirate of that age 
 was as important a factor in regulating and re- 
 stricting the free growth of a community as the 
 wolf which kept prehistoric man to the hilltops. 
 But Greek national culture and character were 
 due to more peculiar geographical advantages than 
 an indented coastline and intersecting ranges. 
 From its situation at the juncture of the three 
 continents Greece became the first country in 
 Europe to enjoy the stimulus of Egyptian culture 
 and Phoenician commerce, and owing to its con- 
 figuration it was especially well adapted for as- 
 similating these advantages. Greece thus became 
 a group of politically compact but socially com- 
 plex urban communities. Compact because their 
 political relationship to each other and to the out- 
 side world was a foreign and frequently hostile 
 one; complex socially because their situation de- 
 manded independent municipal life and commercial 
 pursuits tend to subdivide a community into so- 
 cial strata. Such a collection of communities and 
 such a category of classes Greece has remained to 
 this day; for while the leading political feature of 
 Greece nowadays is the all-dominating idea of 
 national fraternity, yet this great motive principle 
 of Greek public life has not levelled out the local 
 feeling and local characteristics that differentiate 
 the component Hellenic communities. So also, 
 while the dominant social note is democratic 
 equality, this again has not affected the essential 
 classifications of Greek society. Again, the prin- 
 cipal pride of the individual Greek is his liberty 
 of thought, his independence of mind, but no man 
 is more dependent on the opinions of others or 
 on obtaining from abroad the raw material of 
 culture for the industp,' of his intellect. In a 
 word, the typical Greek is an islander, a towns- 
 man, and a brainworker. The Greek is a cultivator 
 of necessity, the Bulgar by choice; as appears in 
 the fact that the Bulgars of Constantinople are 
 market gardeners and market their produce 
 through Greeks. The Greek village is a country 
 town; the Bulgar village is a collection of farms. 
 Greek nationalism may be described f>crhaps rather
 
 BALKAN STATES 
 
 19th Century 
 Racial Characteristics 
 
 BALKAN STATES 
 
 as an imperial than a national consciousness. The 
 Greeks of Crete and Corfu are one as the British 
 of Montreal and Liverpool are one, hut not as the 
 Serbs of Belgrade and Cettinje are one. As we 
 go north frnm the islands of the Morea the val- 
 leys widen into plains. First the Boeotian valley: 
 then the broad vales or narrow plains of Thessaly 
 and of Epirus; north of them the wider Macedo- 
 nian valley, until, across the Balkans, Greek in- 
 fluence dies away in the vast Danubian plains. 
 The Greeks of these plain lands have throughout 
 been the least Greek in character. This Boeotian 
 temperament we all know from the Classics, and 
 it is still the butt of the Kafeneion. The Thessa- 
 lian temperament was the basis of Alexander's 
 empire, which was as non-Greek in its constitution, 
 its phalanx, and its inspiration as the empire of 
 Napoleon was non-Latin. This national character 
 explains why the Greek has had so much difficulty 
 in retaining the interior of the Peninsula, although 
 holding the coastline — contrary to th£ usual rule 
 that who holds the coast holds the country. He 
 has exploited the coasts of the Aegean and of the 
 Black Sea, while the Bulgars, Slavs, Turks, and 
 other plainsmen have exploited the plains. The 
 Greek has found the process of recovering Thessaly 
 and Epirus a long and laborious task; and Thes- 
 saly is the northernmost plain country the ac- 
 quisition of which can be justified as ethnological. 
 If the Greek national character had allowed of 
 the Greeks being plainsmen, there would have been 
 no 'Eastern Question.' (q. v.) Their northern 
 neighbours, the Bulgars and Serbs, offer very il- 
 lustrative contrasts. The Serbs in their broken 
 forest country have retained in their character 
 many more of the mystic qualities of an earlier 
 civilization. In their social structure may still be 
 found relics of early social institutions, such as 
 the 'zadruga' [family community ],.^ng lost else- 
 where. Their main national occupations are that 
 pastoral pursuit which reformed the prodigal son 
 and the idyllic industry of making plum jam. 
 Their national character is best explained by the 
 fact that they are nearly all poets and pig deal- 
 ers; and if their national policy seems sometimes 
 to be more inspired by their trade than by their 
 temperament, it is perhaps chiefly the fault of 
 modern civilization, which has given them cause 
 to seek a political rather than a poetical expres- 
 sion of their woodland nature. Bulgar national- 
 ism is as different in character from that of Greek 
 or Serbs as the Buigar fertile plains and grassy 
 downs differ from the wooded hills of Servia or 
 the stony ranges of Greece ; and the Buigar plough- 
 man and shepherd both have the true plainsman's 
 character. Rural life on open plains and pastures 
 develops character in its moral rather than in its 
 mental or mystical capacities. It is a common 
 mistake to assume that highlanders are more de- 
 voted to liberty and more diligent in moral dis- 
 cipline than lowlanders. Mountains have offered a 
 refuge and a stronghold for temporary resistance 
 against oppression, but it is in the plain that 
 liberty, equality, and fraternity can best find the 
 air, the soil, and the springs necessary for their 
 growth. To their plains the Bulgarians owe the 
 fraternity and equality — the ethical solidarity, and 
 the economic socialism — which have made their 
 moral and material renascence so surprising in its 
 swiftness and smoothness. The moral qualities of 
 the Buigar character are in a different sphere from 
 that of the Greek mental qualities or from that 
 of the mysticism of the Slav. If the political 
 position of the British Isles in the sixteenth cen- 
 tury were to be compared to that of the Balkan 
 peninsula of to-day, we should call the Bulgars 
 Lowland Scotch, the Serbs Irish, the Albanians 
 
 Welsh, the Greeks English, and the Roumanians 
 French. The analogy is of course very imperfect, 
 but may be a help in placing these peoples po- 
 litically. While the Balkans offer an especially 
 favourable field for studying the effects of 
 nature on nationality and of geographical con- 
 ditions on the character of nations, the phenome- 
 non is of course not peculiar to the Balkans. The 
 same thing can be observed in any country of 
 marked configuration and character. . . . Although 
 attention has only lately^been directed to national 
 consciousness as a moulding moral force, and to 
 the possibility, of its possessing subliminal quali- 
 ties, the effects of this force have long been ob- 
 served by the democratic diplomatist ; and nowhere 
 are they more remarkable than in the Balkans. In 
 Balkan politics, such a subliminal national con- 
 sciousness can alone explain events which other- 
 wise would be extraordinary but not enlightening. 
 Events such as the sudden emergence of nations 
 like Bulgaria, fully equipped for, and expert in, 
 the difficult functions of national democracy, from 
 an inchoate mass of corruption and degradation 
 such as was Roumelia in the nineteenth century. 
 Events such as the course taken and the centre 
 chosen by the Greek renascence, which developed 
 through the Moreote peasants instead of through 
 the national culture centre in the Phanar. Events 
 such as the postponement of the renascence of 
 Turkish democracy until it was too late to save 
 the Turkish predominance. These and many other 
 phenomena require something more than an ex- 
 planation drawn from current politics. The strik- 
 ing persistence in the Balkan peninsula of national 
 character and national culture, both through long 
 periods of submergence and through operations 
 such as the substitution of a new race for the old, 
 suggests that this power of endurance may stand 
 in some relation to the period of duration of cul- 
 ture before the submergence or the shock. We 
 find encouragement in this theory when we note 
 that the Balkan peninsula, with its two broken 
 bridges thrust out towards Africa and Asia — one be- 
 ing the Morea with Crete, the other Thrace with 
 the Troad — must always have been the European 
 port of entry and centre of production for supply- 
 ing to Europe the culture products of Egypt, Phce- 
 nicia, Mesopotamia, and Asia Minor. The Balkan 
 valleys and plains were the channels and reser- 
 voirs through which eastern culture flowed into 
 and fertilized the desert of European raw human- 
 ity. The prototypes of those national cultures 
 which we call nowadays Greek or Latin can be 
 dug out of the Aegean islands or Balkan plains 
 even as we dig out the prototypes of our do- 
 mestic animals. Still they are prototypes only; 
 for Minoan 'nationality' is not Greek, any more 
 than the tree-climbing hipparion is a race-horse. 
 To these primitive prototypes of national char- 
 acter may be assigned an intermediate place be- 
 tween, on the one hand, unconscious habits and 
 modes of expression common to all mankind, 
 formed during whole geological epochs of pri- 
 mcBval darkness, and, on the other, the conscious 
 civic functions of the short noonday of civiliza- 
 tion. It is the differences in subconscious habits 
 of religious and political thought, and of artistic 
 and literary expression, formed during the long 
 dim dawn of our modern social civilization, that 
 constitute the ineradicable and immutable atmos- 
 phere of nationality and connect it indissolubly 
 with the area in which it was born. Those who 
 oppose a nationality movement from arbitrary 
 policy, as do reactionaries, or from artificialities 
 of reasoning, as do some revolutionaries, are only 
 one degree less foolish than those who pervert the 
 habits of man's body. Civilization has rendered 
 
 823
 
 BALKAN STATES 
 
 19th Century 
 Racial Characteristics 
 
 BALKAN STATES 
 
 our body Independent of the natural changes of 
 sun, moon, and stars under which its habits de- 
 veloped; but that does not permit us to ignore 
 these habits. We can live now as conveniently 
 by night as by day, but we must still have sleep 
 and sunlight. Even so, political progress can 
 civilize Russian or Bulgar serfdom into self-govern- 
 ment and Russian or Turkish autocracy into a 
 democracy, but did not and cannot civilize a Bul- 
 gar into either a South Russian or a North Hel- 
 lene, a 'Young Turk' or — shall we add — an 'Old 
 Servian.' The Balkan peninsula contains those 
 regions where early European culture existed long- 
 est, where early European national civilizations 
 were most completely extinguished, and where 
 modern European national democracies have been 
 most perfectly and speedily evolved. It is argued 
 that there must be a relation between these facts; 
 a gospel of national resurrection full of hope to 
 the worn and weak among the nations. If this 
 conjecture be permitted us, a corollary to it sug- 
 gests itself which will carry us still further into an 
 understanding of Balkan events. These early 
 Balkan civilizations, some of which were more 
 completely extinguished than others, seem to have 
 revived with a completeness and quickness pro- 
 portionate to the severity of their suppression. 
 Bulgaria is by far the most perfect national de- 
 mocracy in the Balkans, and in its case all tra- 
 ditions of nationality and self-government were 
 so completely wiped out that intelligent travellers, 
 such as Kinglake in mid-nineteenth century, ig- 
 nored even the existence of the Bulgar as a dis- 
 tinct race stock. The Serb, the Rouman, the 
 Greek, the Turk, take rank for perfection of 
 national democracy in the order named, and that 
 order also represents the degree of suppression 
 suffered by their cultures and civilizations. On 
 the reflux of the Turkish inundation the Bulgar 
 reappeared a Bulgar, and all the more Bulgarian 
 for having so long been a Greek rayah and an 
 Ottoman subject ; the Serb reappeared as the most 
 Slav of Slavs, and all the more Slavonic for hav- 
 ing been a Turk, an Austrian, or a Hungarian, ac- 
 cording to the vicissitudes of the time. It would 
 seem as though the deeper the submergence and 
 the more sweeping the inundation the more does 
 anything atrophied or alien get purged out of the 
 national character, leaving only the efficient and 
 essential elements. The virtues of Balkan na- 
 tionalities suggest the good qualities peculiar to 
 the original national temperament, but deepened 
 and broadened ; whereas their vices seem to be 
 the general evil effects of their temporary subjec- 
 tion. For this reason perhaps the vices of the 
 Balkan nationalities are all the same sort of ser- 
 vile vices, dissimilar only in the same respects that 
 the national characters are different. Thus the 
 Balkan races, like all subject races, are cruel to 
 their inferiors with a cruelty somewhat different in 
 each case. The cruelty of the Slav is the emo- 
 tional cruelty of a certain class of poet or of pork 
 butcher. That of the Greek is the logical cruelty 
 of the student and the sweater. That of the Bul- 
 gar is the moral cruelty of the diplomatist and 
 the drover. The cruelty of the Turk, on the other 
 hand, is that of a ruling class. The lovable Turk- 
 ish kindness to inferiors — domestic animals or 
 Christian rayahs — changes in a moment to the 
 cruelty of a class fighting for its privileges. Even 
 in an English landed estate or in an American fac- 
 tory it is but a short step from this sort of kind- 
 ness to that sort of cruelty. Thus also the Bal- 
 kan races have all the servile vices of crookedness 
 in dealing with superiors. But the Greeks will be 
 tortuous from mere mental exuberance and the 
 joy of running rings round a slow-witted adversary. 
 
 The Serb will be crooked from natural incapacity, 
 because he loses his way in the arbitrary moral 
 conventions of a complicated and uncongenial 
 civilization. The Bulgar will give the effect of 
 crookedness from a love of working out for him- 
 self the line of least moral resistance towards a 
 goal he has chosen for and keeps to himself. 
 Since we Anglo-Saxons are apt to adopt a moral 
 standpoint in dealing with younger nations — as 
 we do with our so-called social inferiors — the re- 
 sult is that we find the Bulgars most worthy of our 
 approbation. Indeed, whether the standards of 
 modern morality by which they are tried are those 
 of Nietzsche or of Kipling, under either the Bul- 
 ■ gars will be almost in a class by themselves, as 
 'supermen' of energy and efficiency or as 'legion- 
 aries of the law.' This, it is argued, is partly due 
 to their original national character, but principally 
 to the purgatory of oppression through which the 
 the nation has passed. If. as must be admitted, a 
 war may be a phase of progress towards the emer- 
 gence of a nationality or the emancipation of a 
 democracy, then, to go a step further back, a war 
 which submerges a nationality and suppresses pop- 
 ular rights may serve a social purpose under cer- 
 tain conditions. This is a hard saying, but if 
 nations that have sinned are to be saved, they 
 perhaps can only be saved by fire. It does not 
 follow that oppression is not an offence or that 
 arbitrary alien rule is not an anomaly for which 
 the penalty will be paid by the party responsible. 
 The partition of Poland was a crime for which 
 the penalty has been paid and is being paid both 
 by the accomplices, at the price of a century of 
 antagonisms and armaments, and by the civilization 
 which permitted it, in the loss of the Polish na- 
 tional contribution to the arts. But the Poland 
 that succumbed as an aristocracy has been helped 
 by its submergence to become, as it is now be- 
 coming, a democracy. A people must be a de- 
 mocracy before it can be a nation; though it can, 
 as Bulgaria has done, combine in one effort the 
 achievement of both grades. If the Bulgar, as he 
 has evolved, is to the Anglo-Saxon the least an- 
 tipathetic of the Balkan nations, the Serb, includ- 
 ing the Montenegrin, has emerged so intensely a 
 Slav that probably the Russian people alone are 
 capable of properly appreciating his national quali- 
 ties. This, quite as much as present-day political 
 considerations, accounts for the Russo-Scrb rela- 
 tionship which has been a ruling factor in the 
 late Balkan war [of 1912-1013]. The Greek is 
 most sympathetic to the Latin races. But the 
 general mistake which western peoples are apt 
 to make in judging the Balkan peoples is that of 
 expecting from the latter the principles and point 
 of view peculiar to the more advanced civilization 
 of the West; and the further west the point of 
 observation is placed, the more likely is this mis- 
 take to be made. American or English public 
 opinion is harder in its judgments of the Balkan 
 peoples, even as it is warmer in its sympathies, 
 than the public opinion of central Europe." — Lord 
 G. Young, Nationalism and ztar in the Near East, 
 pp. S-20. See Sebria: 1S04-1817. 
 
 1804. — Serbian insurrection. — Turks ex- 
 pelled. 
 
 1807. — Serbs offered self-government by Tur- 
 key. — Offer refused. — Serbia joined Russia in 
 war on Turks. See Serbi.\: 1S04-1817. 
 
 1812. — Russia, attacked by Napoleon, made 
 peace with Turkey. — Serbia left to face Turks 
 alone. See Russia: 1812 (June-September). 
 
 1813. — Serbia reconquered by Turkey. See 
 Serbia: 1804-1817. 
 
 1817. — Serbs win partial independence. See 
 Serbia: 1804-1817. 
 
 824
 
 BALKAN STATES, 1821 
 
 San Stefano 
 Berlin Treaty 
 
 BALKAN STATES, 1878-1891 
 
 1821. — Greek revolt. See Greece: 1821-1829. 
 1829. — Treaty of Adrianople. — Greece made 
 independent monarchy. — Rumania won subst?.n- 
 tial independence from Turkey. — Russia gained 
 from Turkey sole rights over the Danube delta. 
 See Adriatic question; Turkey: 1826-1820. 
 
 1856. — Treaty of Paris. — Rumanian privileges 
 guaranteed. — Moldavia and Wallachia granted 
 autonomy under Turkish suzerainty. See 
 Rumania: 1856-1875; Russia: 1854-1856. 
 
 1858-1866. — Union of Wallachia and Moldavia. 
 — Legislative union formed (1861). See Ru- 
 mania: 1856-1875. 
 
 Prince Charles of Hohenzollern succeeds 
 Prince Couza. See Turkey: 1861-1877. 
 
 1864-1914. — Red Cross and relief work. See 
 Red Cross: 1864-1914. 
 
 1867. — Compromise of 1867. See Jugo-Slavia: 
 1848-1S67. 
 
 1875-1878. — Bosnians revolt against Austrian 
 rule. — Russo-Turkish war. — Bosnia and Herze- 
 govina control by Austria. — Independence of 
 Serbia. — War of Serbia and Bulgaria. See 
 Bulgaria: 1875-1878; Jugo-Slavia: 1867-1917; 
 Serbia: 1875-1878. 
 
 1876-1878. — Revolt in Bosnia-Herzegovina. — 
 Bulgarian atrocities. — Powers demand reforms. 
 — Serbian war with Turkey. — Constantinople 
 conference. — Russian preparations for war. See 
 Turkey: 1861-1877. 
 
 1877-1878. — Russo-Turkish war. — Siege of 
 Plevna. — Serbian full independence. See Tur- 
 key: 1877-1878. 
 
 1877-1914. — Austrian policy with Serbs. See 
 Jugo-Slavia: 1867-1914. 
 
 1878.— Treaty of San Stefano. — Berlin Con- 
 gress. — Turkish territorial losses. — "On March 
 3, 1878, the Treaty of San Stefano was concluded 
 between Russia and Turkey, and its provisions 
 revolutionised the whole situation in the Near 
 East. The independence of Roumania and Serbia 
 was definitely secured ; but while certain terri- 
 torial concessions were made to Serbia and Mon- 
 tenegro, Bessarabia was to be taken from Rou- 
 mania, who only received the Dobrudja as a 
 sorry exchange; and Bosnia-Herzegovina, instead 
 of being united to their kinsmen on the East, were 
 to receive an autonomy of their own. But the 
 outstanding feature of the treaty was the creation 
 of a Big Bulgaria, under the suzerainty of the 
 Sultan, comprising the whole of Bulgaria proper, 
 Eastern Roumelia with the town of Philippopolis 
 and the whole cf Macedonia, to the very gates of 
 Salonica, and extending westwards as far as the 
 Sar Mountains, Dibra and Koritza, and even eat- 
 ing right into the heart of Albania to the west 
 of the Lake of Ohrida. The Treaty of San Stefano 
 was an obsolutcly impossible arrangemenl tor 
 two reasons. In the first place it was an essentially 
 Slavonic settlement, which neglected or did grave 
 injustice to the non-Slav races of the Peninsula, 
 the Greeks, the Albanians and the Roumanians. 
 In the second place it left Turkey with frontiers 
 such as defied every law of geography, politics or 
 common sense. Autonomous Bosnia was to retain 
 its nominal connection with Turkey; but a nar- 
 row, wholly indefensible, and absurdly unnatural 
 corridor through the Sandjak of Novibazar was 
 still to connect Bosnia with the plain of Kosovo 
 and to separate Serbia from Montenegro — a cor- 
 ridor infinitely less satisfactory and narrower by 
 two-thirds than that which was actually created 
 by the Treaty of Berlin. Salonica remained Turk- 
 ish, but was entirely separated from its hinterland. 
 Novibazar, Kosovo, Albania, Epirus and Thessaly 
 were left in Turkish hands, as mere fragments, 
 unworkable and disconnected. Adrianople and the 
 
 valley of the Arta were retained by the Turks; but 
 the whole connection between Adrianople and Con- 
 stantinople was directly threatened by the as- 
 signment to Bulgaria of an enclave of territory in- 
 cluding Kirk Kilisse and extending south to within 
 a few miles of the river Ergene, near Luleburgas. 
 But if the settlement was unjust and fatal on gen- 
 eral grounds, it is just upon Slavonic grounds that 
 it had its most fatal effect. For it would have 
 aggrandised Bulgaria at the expense of all her 
 neighbours; and though it never became effective, 
 its memory provided that tenacious race with a 
 programme which struck deep root in the minds 
 of its leaders, and has ever since been regarded 
 by them as their excuse and justification for aim- 
 ing at the hegemony of the Balkan Peninsula. 
 Meanwhile this settlement displeased and alarmed 
 the Great Powers on purely selfish grounds. Brit- 
 ain still looked upon Russian control of Constan- 
 tinople as a real danger, and with more reason 
 regarded with disfavour the clauses which seemed 
 to secure to Russia complete control of the new- 
 Bulgarian administration and of the Prince's elec- 
 tion. Public opinion in England was infiuenced 
 by the sentimental appeals of Indian Moslems in 
 favour of their Turkish co-religionists. Moreover, 
 Austria-Hungary was determined to have Bosnia 
 for herself and was highly displeased at an ar- 
 rangement which would have placed Bulgaria 
 across her own path to Salonica. The British 
 Government took a strong line in demanding a 
 revision of the Treaty, and was backed up by the 
 mobilisation of Austria, and by protests from the 
 Greeks and other rivals of Bulgaria. Russia was 
 not prepared to risk an extension of the war and 
 consented to the convocation of an European Con- 
 gress, which in due course met in Berlin under 
 the presidency of Bismarck as the 'honest broker' 
 (June 13-July 13, 1878). The attitude and out- 
 look of the Congress were at once revealed in its 
 decision not to admit the Greek and Roumanian 
 delegates to direct representation or to the vote, 
 but merely to allow them to state their views. 
 Thus the fate of the Balkan Peninsula for the next 
 thirty years was decided by the Great Powers 
 over the heads, and generally in defiance of the 
 wishes, of the states and races concerned. If the 
 settlement of San Stefano was unjust to all but 
 the Slavs and did not draw a just line even be- 
 tween those Slavs themselves, the settlement oi 
 Berlin succeeded in being equally unjust to all. 
 It was frankly based upon force, upon the inter- 
 ests of the Great Powers, and upon the negation 
 of the rights of small nations." — R. W. Seton- 
 Wat.=on, Rise of nationality in the Balkans, pp. 
 107-ioq.— See also Turkey: 1878. — The actual re- 
 sult of the war was by no means so disastrous to 
 Turkey as might have been expected. The loss of 
 the Balkan principalities had long been inevitable, 
 but the Sultan was still permitted to retain his 
 suzerainty over Eastern Rumelia. — See also World 
 War: Causes: Indirect: d, 2. 
 
 1878. — Acquisition of Bosnia by Austria. — In- 
 dependence of Serbia, Montenegro and Ru- 
 mania. — Division and semi-independence of 
 Bulgaria. See Turkey: 1878; World War: 
 Causes: Indirect: d, 1. 
 
 1878-1891. — Proposed Balkan confederation 
 and its aims. — "During the reaction against Russia 
 which followed the great war of 1878, negotia- 
 tions were actually set on foot with a view to 
 forming a combination of the Balkan States for 
 the purpose of resisting Russian aggression. . . . 
 Prince Alexander always favoured the idea of a 
 Balkan Confederation which was to include Tur- 
 key; and even listened to' proposals on the part of 
 Greece, defining the Bulgarian and Greek spheres 
 
 82s
 
 BALKAN STATES, 1878-1891 J'u''°J'°^^nu"rZ.., BALKAN STATES, 1899-1901 
 
 ' Chronic Disorders 
 
 of influence in Macedonia. But the revolt of 
 Eastern Roumelia, foUowed by the Servo-Bulgarian 
 war and the chastisement of Greece by the Pow- 
 ers, provoked so much bitterness of feelint; among 
 the rival races that for many years nothing more 
 was heard of a Balkan Confederation. The idea 
 has lately been revived under different auspices 
 and with somewhat different aims. During the 
 past sU years the Triple AUiance, with England, 
 has, despite the indifference of Prince Bismarck, 
 protected the Balkan States in general, and Bul- 
 garia in particular from the armed intervention of 
 Russia. It has also acted the part of policeman 
 in preserving the peace throughout the Peninsula, 
 and in deterring the young nations from any dan- 
 gerous indulgence in their angry passions. The 
 most remarkable feature in the history of this 
 period has been the extraordinary progress made 
 by Bulgaria. Since the revolt of Eastern Rou- 
 nielia, Bulgaria has been treated by Dame Europa 
 as a naughty child. But the Bulgarians have been 
 shrewd enough to see that the Centra! Powers and 
 England have an interest in their national inde- 
 pendence and consolidation; they have recognised 
 the truth that fortune favours those who help 
 themselves, and they have boldly taken their own 
 course, while carefully avoiding any breach of the 
 proprieties such as might again bring thera under 
 the censure of the European Areopagus. They 
 ventured, indeed, to elect a Prince of their own 
 choosing without the sanction of that august con- 
 clave; the wiseacres shook their heads, and prophe- 
 sied that Prince Ferdinand's days in Bulgaria 
 might, perhaps, be as many as Prince Alexander's 
 years. Yet Prince Ferdinand remains on the 
 throne, and is now engaged in celebrating the 
 fourth anniversary of his accession; the internal 
 development of the country proceeds apace, and 
 the progress of the Bulgarian sentiment outside the 
 country — in other words, the Macedonian propa- 
 ganda — is not a whit behind. The Bulgarians have 
 made their greatest strides in Macedonia since the 
 fall of Prince Bismarck, who was always ready to 
 humour Russia at the expense of Bulgaria. . . . 
 What happened after the great war of 187S? A 
 portion of the Bulgarian race was given a nomi- 
 nal freedom which was never expected to be a 
 reality; Russia pounced on Bessarabia. England 
 on Cyprus, Austria on Bosnia and Herzegovina. 
 France got something elsewhere, but that is an- 
 other matter. The Bulgarians have never forgiven 
 Lord Beaconsfield for the division of their race, 
 and I have seen some bitter poems upon the great 
 Israelite in the Bulgarian tongue which many Eng- 
 lishmen would not care to hear translated. The 
 Greeks have hated us since our occupation of 
 Cyprus, and firmly believe that we mean to take 
 Crete as well. The Servians have not forgotten 
 how Russia, after instigating them to two disas- 
 trous wars, dealt with their claims at 'San Stefano; 
 they cannot forgive Austria for her occupation of 
 Bosnia and Herzegovina, and every Servian peas- 
 ant, as he pays his heavy taxes, or reluctantly gives 
 a big price for some worthless imported article, 
 feels the galling yoke of her fiscal and commer- 
 cial tyranny. Need it be said how outraged Bul- 
 garia scowls at Russia, or how Roumania, who 
 won Plevna for her heartless ally, weeps for her 
 Bessarabian children, and will not be comforted? 
 It is evident that the Balkan peoples have no 
 reason to expect much benefit from the next great 
 war, from the European Conference which will 
 follow it, or from the sympathy of the Christian 
 Powers. . . . What, t'hen, do the authors of the 
 proposed Confederation suggest as its ultimate aim 
 and object ? The Balkan States are to act in- 
 dependently of the foreign Powers, and in concert 
 
 with one another. The Sick Man's [Turkey's] in- 
 heritance lies before them, and they are to take 
 it when an opportunity presents itself. They must 
 not wait for the great Armageddon, for then all 
 may be lost. If the Central Powers come victo- 
 rious out of the conflict, Austria, it is believed, will 
 go to Salonika; if Russia conquers, she will plant 
 her standard at Stamboul, and practically annex 
 the Peninsula. In cither case the hopes of the 
 young nations will be destroyed forever. It is, 
 therefore, sought to extricate a portion at least 
 of the Eastern Question from the tangled web of 
 European politics, to isolate it, to deal with it 
 as a matter which solely concerns the Sick Man 
 and his immediate successors. It is hoped that 
 the Sick Man may be induced by the determined 
 attitude of his expectant heirs to make over to 
 them their several portions in his lifetime; should 
 he refuse, they must act in concert, and provide 
 euthanasia for the moribund owner of Macedonia, 
 Crete, and Thrace. In other words, it is beUeved 
 that the Balkan States, if once they could come 
 to an understanding as regards their claims to 
 what is left of the Ottoman Empire in Europe, 
 might conjointly, and without the aid of any 
 foreign Power, bring such pressure to bear upon 
 Turkey as to induce her to surrender peaceably 
 her European possessions, and to content herself 
 henceforth with the position of an Asiatic Power." 
 — J. D. Bourchier, A Balkan Confederation {Fort- 
 nightly Revieiv, Sept., 1891).— See also Bulgaria: 
 1885-1886. 
 
 1885. — In September Eastern Rumelia rose in 
 revolt. Here the Sultan was anxious to intervene, 
 but owing mainly to British diplomatic support 
 of Prince Alexander of Bulgaria, Turkish action 
 was stayed. Serbia declared war on Bulgaria in 
 November, and by the Peace of Bucharest the 
 real independence of the two Bulgarias was con- 
 firmed. See Serbia; 1S75-187S. 
 
 1899-1901.— Condition of Balkan States.— 
 "The States of the Balkan Peninsula, ever since 
 the practical disruption of European Turkey after 
 the war of 1877-78, have been in a condition of 
 chronic restlessness. Those who desire the re- 
 pose of Europe have hoped against hope that the 
 new communities which were founded or extended 
 on the ruins of the Ottoman dominion in Europe 
 would be able and willing to keep the peace 
 among themselves and to combine in resisting the 
 intrusion of foreign influences. These expectations 
 have been too frequently disappointed. The law- 
 lessness of Bulgaria and the unsettled state of 
 Servia. more especially, continue to constitute a 
 periodical cause of anxiety to the diplomacy of 
 Europe. The recent murder at Bukharest of Pro- 
 fessor Mihaileano, a Macedonian by birth and a 
 Rumanian by extraction, appears to be a shocking 
 example of the teaching of a school of political 
 conspirators who have their centre of operations 
 at Sofia. These persons had already combined to 
 blackmail and terrorise the leading Rumanian resi- 
 dents in the capital of Bulgaria, where the most 
 abominable outrages are stated to have been com- 
 mitted with impunity. Apparently, they have 
 now carried the war, with surprising audacity, into 
 the Rumanian capital itself. Two persons marked 
 out for vengeance by the terrorists of Sofia had 
 previously been murdered in Bukharest, according 
 to our Vienna Correspondent, but these were Bul- 
 garians by birth. It is a further step in this mis- 
 chievous propaganda that a Rumanian subject, the 
 occupant of an official position at the seat of the 
 Rumanian government, should be done to death 
 by emissaries from the secret society at Sofia. 
 His crime was that, born of Rumanian parents in 
 Macedonia, be had the boldness to controvert in 
 
 826
 
 BALKAN STATES, 1S99-1901 Balkan League BALKAN STATES, 1912 
 
 the Press the claims of the Bulgarians to obtain 
 the upper hand in a Turkish province, where 
 Greeks, Turks, Bulsarians, Albanians, and Serbs 
 are inextricably mixed up. Professor Mihailcano 
 had probably very Rood reasons for coming to the 
 conclusion that, whatever may be the evils of Ot- 
 toman rule, they are less than those which would 
 follow a free fight in the Balkans, ending, it may 
 be, in the ascendency of Bulgarian ruffianism. 
 
 "It is for this offence that M. Mihaileano suf- 
 fered the penalty of death by the decree of a secret 
 tribunal, and at the hands of assassins sent out 
 to do their deadly work by political intriguers 
 who sit in safety at Sofia. The most serious as- 
 pect of the matter, however, is the careless and 
 almost contemptuous attitude of the Bulgarian 
 Government. The reign of terror at Sofia and 
 the too successful attempts to extend it to Ru- 
 mania have provoked remonstrances not only from 
 the government at Bukharest, but from some of 
 the Great Powers, including Austria-Hungary, Ger- 
 many, and Italy. . . . There is only too much rea- 
 son to fear, even now, that both the Bulgarian 
 Government and the ruler of the Principality are 
 afraid to break with the terrorists of Sofia. Po- 
 Utical assassination is unfortunately among the 
 traditions of the Bulgarian State, but it has never 
 been practised with such frequency and impunity 
 as under the rule of Prince Ferdinand. . . . His 
 own conduct as a ruler, coupled with the lamen- 
 table decline of the spirit of Bulgarian indepen- 
 dence, which seemed to be vigorous and unflinch- 
 ing before the kidnapping of Prince Alexander, 
 has steadily lowered his position. The Bulgarian 
 agitation — to a large extent a sham one — for the 
 'redemption,' as it is called, of Macedonia is a 
 safety-valve that relieves Prince Ferdinand and 
 those who surround him from much unpleasant 
 criticism. . . . 
 
 "The situation in the Balkans is in many re- 
 spects disquieting. The Bulgarian agitation for 
 the absorption of Macedonia is not discouraged in 
 high quarters. The hostility of the Sofia con- 
 spirators to the Koutzo-Wallachs, the Rumanians 
 of Macedonia, is due to the fact that the latter, 
 being a small minority of the population, are 
 ready to take their chance of equal treatment 
 under Turkish rule, subject to the supervision of 
 Europe, rather than to be swallowed up in an 
 enlarged Bulgaria, dominated by the passions that 
 now prevail in the Principality and that have been 
 cultivated for obvious reasons. Russia, it is be- 
 lieved, has no wish to see Bulgarian aspirations 
 realized, and would miich rather keep the Prin- 
 cipality in a state of expectant dependence. Ser- 
 via and Greece would be as much embarrassed as 
 Rumania by the success of the Bulgarian propa- 
 ganda, and Austria-Hungary would regard it as a 
 grave menace. Of course the Turkish govern- 
 ment could not be expected to acquiesce in what 
 would, in fact, be its knell of doom. ... In 
 Greece, the insubordination in certain sections of 
 the army is a symptom not very alarming in itself, 
 but unpleasantly significant of latent discontent. 
 In Turkey, of course, the recrudescence of the 
 fanaticism which periodically breaks out in the 
 massacres of the Armenians cannot be overlooked. 
 A more unfortunate time could not be chosen for 
 endeavouring to reopen the Eastern question by 
 pressing forward the Bulgarian claim to Mace- 
 donia. Nor could a more unfortunate method 
 be adopted of presenting that claim than that of 
 the terrorists who appear to be sheltered or 
 screened at Sofia." — J. D. Bourchier {London 
 Times, August bc, iqoo). — See also Bulgaria: 1875- 
 1878 to i8qs-i896; Montenegro: 1389-1868 to 
 1898; Rumania: 1856-1875; 1866-1914. 
 
 1903. — Turkish rule in Macedonia. — Murz- 
 steg reform program. — Young Turk movement. 
 
 See Macedonia: 20th century. 
 
 1903. — Alleged promotion of revolt in Mace- 
 donia. See Turkey: 1Q02-1903. 
 
 1903. — Murder of King Alexander and Queen 
 Draga of Serbia. See Serbia: 1885-1903. 
 
 1905. — Serbia-Croat coalition. — Serbo-Bulga- 
 rian commercial treaty. See Jugo-Slavia: 1867- 
 1917. 
 
 19O8. — Serbian and Austro-Hungarian rela- 
 tions. — Annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina by 
 Austria-Hungary. — Pan-Serbism. — Relations 
 with Macedonians. — Turkish treatment. — Race 
 struggle in Macedonia. See Austria-Hungary: 
 igoS-1909; Jugo-Slavia: 1867-1917 and Serbia: 
 1903-1908; Turkey: 1908. 
 
 1908-1909. — Bulgarian independence recog- 
 nized. See Bulgaria: 1908-1009. 
 
 1910. — Montenegro proclaimed a kingdom. 
 
 1910-1911. — Insurrection against Turks. See 
 Turkey: 1910-1911. 
 
 1912. — Balkan League. — The idea of a Balkan 
 confederation aimed at Turkish rule in the penin- 
 sula, dates back to the later 'seventies of last cen- 
 tury. Mutual distrust and jealousies had prevented 
 the fruition of the idea, and it fell through from the 
 sheer impossibility of securing the essential har- 
 mony among the Balkan peoples themselves. 
 Turkish rule was safe so long as the discord of 
 centuries continued. How those differences were 
 temporarily overcome and the league finally came 
 into being; how it speedily and almost completely 
 achieved its object only to fall apart again, forms 
 one of the political romances of modern times. 
 The prominent part played by James David 
 Bourchier (died January, 1921), for many years 
 Balkan correspondent of the London Times. Is 
 thift told by Colonel Rankin of the British army: 
 "Bourchier, with a knowledge of the conditions 
 prevailing in Turkey and in the Balkans, on the 
 one hand, and at the councils of the Great Powers 
 on the other, superior to that of any other man 
 living, saw that things must go from bad to 
 worse. The end would be the extinction of the 
 subject nationalities. All hope of the interven- 
 tion of the Powers had gone shipwreck. Bourchier 
 realised that the only remedy was a combination 
 of the free nations, kinsmen of the oppressed 
 peoples, either to bring such pressure, to bear on 
 the Young Turks as to induce them to mitigate 
 their rule, or, if they resisted, to put them out by 
 force. He came to this conclusion at the end, I 
 believe, of 1910. He did not want an immediate 
 war; the first thing to be done was to apply pres- 
 sure. But there was little probability that this 
 would succeed. The Young Turks were elated by 
 success and by the praise which their admirers in 
 Western Europe had lavished on them. They had 
 spent all the money which they could obtain from 
 their financial friends or by taxation in creating 
 a powerful army, and could snap their fingers at 
 the little States; so the programme of pacific 
 remonstrance seemed to end in a cul-de-sac. So 
 Bourchier turned his attention to the other pos- 
 sible solution of the problem. What forces could 
 the four States of the Balkans — Bulgaria, Servia, 
 Greece, and Montenegro — command for the pur- 
 poses of bringing pressure, of one kind or an- 
 other, to bear upon the oppressors of their co- 
 religionists and kinsmen? The Bulgars were ready; 
 their army was excellent, reorganised by Savoff, 
 who had seen the evil effects on other armies of 
 politics in cafes, and had inspired in his junior 
 officers an enthusiasm for hard work which has 
 borne its due fruit. The Bulgars could put 250,000 
 men in the field on the day of mobilisation. The 
 
 827
 
 BALKAN STATES, 1912 '''Bal^aTuaZe'^ BALKAN STATES, 1912 
 
 Servian army had improved since the Bulgars 
 hammered it; it could provide at least another 
 150,000. The Greek army had had latterly the 
 advantage of the instruction of French officers, 
 English officers had been reorganising the fleet, 
 and their Averof was a bigger and better man-of- 
 war than any the Turks possessed. Little Mon- 
 tenegro could certainly put up a gallant fight. 
 . . . Here was the germ of the Balkan League — 
 the first cause of the war which drove the Turks 
 out of Europe after nearly five hundred years of 
 misrule — a calculation si;nmering in the brain of 
 an unofficial Irishman who. for love of them, had 
 given half his life to the service of the Balkan 
 peoples. So it came about that during the winter 
 of 1910-11 Bourchier had long talks with M. 
 Venezelos, the Greek Prime Minister [who was 
 the moving spirit of the plan], and the two men 
 discussed the scheme of a defensive and eventually 
 offensive alliance between the Balkan States 
 against the Turk. ... At last, one day in May, 
 igii, the decisive step was taken. . . . Venezelos 
 told Bourchier that he had finally approved the 
 draft treaty of an alliance with Bulgaria against 
 Turkey. ... As before narrated, the Greek pro- 
 posals were sent to Bulgaria in May, 1911. Some 
 months later, Bourchier went to Sofia and put 
 his arguments in favour of the alliance before 
 King Ferdinand and M. Gueshoff. Just so, nearly 
 a year before, he had persuaded Venezelos and 
 King George [of Greece] to take the first step 
 towards the formation of the Balkan League, so 
 again in Sofia he persuaded the Bulgarian Gov- 
 ernment to fall into line with Greece. In Febru- 
 ary, 1912, he himself brought back to Athens from 
 Sofia a reply favourable to Venezelos' proposal of 
 a defensive alliance. Up to that moment only five 
 people had an inkling of what was going on, 
 namely, King George of Greece and M. Venezelos, 
 King Ferdinand of Bulgaria and M. Gueshoff, and 
 Bourchier. After Bourchier's return to Athens ne- 
 gotations were put on a diplomatic basis, and the 
 Greek Minister at Sofia was informed of the al- 
 liance and instructed to conduct the negotiations 
 at the Bulgarian capital. That made six people m 
 the plot. February and March passed; the ne- 
 gotiations went on in absolute secrecy ; in April 
 a definitive treaty was signed between Greece and 
 Bulgaria. Bourchier had not left Servia out of 
 the hunt. At the end of December, iqii, he went 
 to Belgrade, and broached his plan to M. Milo- 
 vanovitch, the Foreign Minister. He urged on 
 him the idea of a combination between the Bal- 
 kan States — a defensive combination to protect 
 and maintain the rights of the Christian nation- 
 alities in Turkey. Milovanovitch was favourable 
 in principle, but he pointed out the great risks 
 that Servia would run — in the first place from 
 Austria, if that Power got wind of the project, 
 and in the second from Turkey herself, who could 
 kill Servian commerce by closing the Salonika 
 route. But M. Milovanovitch, who had already 
 had a secret interview with M. Gueshoff, was 
 sound on the question, and Bourchier left him, 
 not doubting the ultimate issue, and went back 
 to Bulgaria to inform his friends there how matters 
 stood in Belgrade. In due course the Serbo-Bul- 
 gar Treaty was signed a week or two before the 
 Bulgar-Greek Treaty. Montenegro had no treaty 
 with cither Bulgaria or Greece, but there was a 
 definitive treaty between her and Servia. Bour- 
 chier went back to England in July, 1912, and at 
 that time the Balkan League was practically 
 formed, although further details and military con- 
 ventions were agreed on a little later. ... In the 
 early autumn things got rapidly worse between 
 the Turks and Bulgarians on the one hand, and 
 
 8 
 
 the Turks and the Servians and Montenegrins on 
 the other. There was a frontier dispute, followed 
 by a series of massacres which did nothing to al- 
 leviate the situation. But matters did not come 
 to a head till September, when the assembling of 
 a large Turkish force at Adrianople caused the 
 fear of invasion to spread throughout Bulgaria. 
 At last, on September 30, the four States mobil- 
 ised." — R. Rankin, Inner history of the Balkan 
 war, pp. 11-15. — See also E.astefln question. — 
 "What is known as the 'Berchtold Proposition' was 
 an ambiguous appeal made to Europe in August 
 1912 (by the Power [.\ustria] that in igoS took 
 from Turkey, Bosnia-Herzegovina) to assist the 
 Ottoman Government in applying a policy of 
 progressive decentralization in favour of the Mace- 
 donian nationalities, and to urge upon the Balkan 
 States a peace-policy. This proposal, made while 
 the French Prime Minister, M. Poincare, was in 
 Russia conferring with the Tsar's Government, 
 aroused suspicion in Europe. It was generally 
 regarded as an attempt to steal a march on Rus- 
 sia and to checkmate the policy of the Triple En- 
 tente. Yet the good faith of the Austro-Hunga- 
 rian Government would seem to have been demon- 
 strated by the subsequent course of events. Count 
 Berchtold's initiative was perhaps one of the ef- 
 ficient causes, it was not necessarily the final cause, 
 of the Balkan Crusade. The Balkan States, 
 crushed between the Young Turks and Austria- 
 Hungary, fearing both the growth of Ottoman im- 
 perialism and the descent of .'\ustria to Salonica, 
 had — by 191 1 — achieved their miraculous union 
 under the hegemony of the Bulgarian tsar. Mean- 
 while the prolongation of the Turco-Italian war 
 aroused their dormant ambition. . . . Count 
 Berchtold formulated his famous proposal calcu- 
 lated to forestall and avert just such irreparable 
 action on the part of the Balkan League as took 
 place in October 1912, when the four Balkan 
 States declared war." — W. M. Fullerton, Problems 
 of power, p. 327. — See also Bulgarw. 1912: Serbo- 
 BuLCARUx p.icr; Concert of Europe: History and 
 meaning of term; Italy: 1912-1914. 
 
 1912. — German interest in Balkans. — Opposi- 
 tion of Balkan States to war. See Germany: 
 1912: Balkan and Asia Minor interests; and Inter- 
 national: 1912; World War: Diplomatic back- 
 ground: 71 (iv). 
 
 1912. — First Balkan war. — Bulgaria allied 
 with Serbia, Greece and Montenegro declared 
 war on Turkey. — "What was the occasion of the 
 war between Turkey and the Balkan states in 
 1912? The most general answer that can oe 
 given to that question is contained in the one 
 word Macedonia. Geographically Macedonia lies 
 between Greece, Servia, and Bulgaria. Ethno- 
 graphically it is an extension of their races. And 
 if, as Matthew Arnold declared, the primary im- 
 pul.se both of individuals and of nations is the 
 tendency to expansion, Macedonia both in virtue 
 of its location and its population was fore-ordained 
 to be a magnet to the emancipated Christian na- 
 tions of the Balkans. Of course the expansion of 
 Greeks and Slavs meant the expulsion of Turks. 
 Hence the Macedonian question was the quintes- 
 sence of the \ear Eastern Question. But apart 
 altogether from the expansionist ambitions and the 
 racial sympathies of their kindred in Bulgaria, 
 Servia. and Greece, the population of Macedonia 
 had the same right to emancipation from Turkish 
 domination and oppression as their brethren in 
 these neighboring states. The Moslems had for- 
 feited their sovereign rights in Europe by their 
 unutterable incapacity to govern their Christian 
 subjects. Had the Treaty of Berlin sanctioned, 
 in.stead of undoing the Treaty of San Stefano, 
 
 28
 
 BALKAN STATES, 1912 First Balkan War BALKAN STATES, 1912-1913 
 
 the whole of Macedonia would have come under 
 Bulgarian sovereignty ; and although Servia and 
 especially Greece would have protested against the 
 Bulgarian absorption of their Macedonian breth- 
 ren (whom they had always hoped to bring under 
 their own jurisdiction when the Turk was ex- 
 pelled), the result would certainly have been bet- 
 ter for all the Christian inhabitants of Macedonia 
 as well as for the Mohammedans (who number 
 800,000 persons or nearly one third of the en- 
 tire population of Macedonia). As it was these 
 people were all doomed to a continuation of Turk- 
 ish misgovernment, oppression, and slaughter. 
 The Treaty of Berlin indeed provided for reforms, 
 but the Porte through diplomacy and delay frus- 
 trated all the efforts of Europe to have them put 
 into effect. For fifteen years the people waited 
 for the fulfillment of the European promise of an 
 amelioration of their condition, enduring mean- 
 while the scandalous misgovernment of Abdul 
 Hamid II. But after 1893 revolutionary societies 
 became active. The Internal Organization was a 
 local body whose programme was 'Macedonia for 
 the Macedonians.' But both in Bulgaria and 
 Greece there, were organized societies which sent 
 insurgent bands into Macedonia to maintain and 
 assert their respective national interests. This was 
 one of the causes of the war between Turkey and 
 Greece in 1807, and the reverses of the Greeks in 
 that war inured to the advantage of the Bulga- 
 rian propaganda in Macedonia. Servian bands 
 soon after began to appear on the scene. These 
 hostile activities in Macedonia naturally produced 
 reprisals at the hands of the Turkish authorities. 
 In one district alone 100 villages were burned, 
 over 8.000 houses destroyed, and 60,000 peasants 
 left without homes at the beginning of winter. 
 Meanwhile the Austrian and Russian governments 
 intervened and drew up elaborate schemes of re- 
 form, but their plans could not be adequately en- 
 forced and the result was failure. The Austro- 
 Russian entente came to an end in laoS, and in 
 the same year England joined Russia in a project 
 aiming at a better administration of justice and 
 involving more effective European supervision. 
 Scarcely had this programme been announced 
 when the revolution under the Young Turk party 
 broke out which promised to the world a regenera- 
 tion of the Ottoman Empire. [See Turkey: 
 IQ03-1907.] Hopeful of these constitutional re- 
 formers of Turkey, Europe withdrew from Mace- 
 donia and entrusted its destinies to its new 
 master. Never was there a more bitter disappoint- 
 ment. If autocratic Sultans had punished the 
 poor Macedonians with whips, the Young Turks 
 flayed them with scorpions. Sympathy, indigna- 
 tion, and horror conspired with nationalistic as- 
 pirations and territorial interests to arouse the 
 kindred populations of the surrounding states. 
 And in October, iqi2, war was declared against 
 Turkey by Bulgaria, Servia, Montenegro, and 
 Greece." — J. G. Schurman. Balkan wars (igi2- 
 iQi,3), pp. 30-32. — See also TtrRKEv: 1012-1913. 
 
 1912.— War opened by Montenegro.— The 
 smallest member of the Balkan Lcauue started the 
 conflict on its own account, before the others were 
 ready. — "On Wednesday, October o, the astound- 
 ing news of Montenegro's declaration of war took 
 every one aback, especially as the earlier press 
 telegrams had announced Turkey's decision to in- 
 troduce into Macedonia the reforms sanctioned by 
 the law of 1880, which would at least afford a con- 
 venient basis for negotiation. The diplomatic 
 corps was furious and did not hesitate to term it 
 an insult to the Great Powers. Relatively, how- 
 ever, it created little excitement in the capital 
 [Belgrade], although a few unscrupulous news- 
 
 papers did a thriving business by selling extra 
 editions which did not contain any additional 
 news. . . . On the next day it became more and 
 more apparent that the Montenegrin coup de force 
 had created a serious flutter in diplomatic dove- 
 cots, and no secret was made of the fact that 
 every one suspected Russia of having egged on 
 King Nicholas. The chief argument given as proof 
 of Russian support was that Nicholas declared 
 war with such indecent haste in order to prevent 
 the Russian and Austrian ministers presenting the 
 pacific advice of their governments in Cettigne, as 
 they did on the same day in Sofia, Belgrade and 
 Athens. . . . From October 11 events moved apace, 
 and it became more and more apparent, even to 
 the dullest, that any intervention of the Powers 
 would now come too late. . . . The next step was 
 the presentation to the Turkish Ministers in the 
 four capitals of the allied States of a Note dic- 
 tating the reforms which must be applied by the 
 Sublime Porte to improve the conditions of the 
 Christian population in the vilayets of Mace- 
 donia and Adrianople." — Special correspondent, 
 Balkan war drama, London, 1913, pp. 66-68. — 
 "Nor was it, perhaps, unfitting that the Balkan 
 country, over whose rude crags the Crescent had 
 never flown, should be the champion to throw 
 down the glove of defiance in that death-struggle 
 which was to free the Balkans from the Turk. 
 Pretexts for war were not wanting, for the nor- 
 mal state of life upon the frontier between Mon- 
 tenegro and Albania is one of disguised warfare. 
 A Montenegrin post had been besieged by the 
 Turks, and the apologies of the Turkish Minister 
 at Cettigne were not accepted. Nothing further 
 was needed to set alight the conflagration. War 
 against Turkey was declared, and at once every 
 Montenegrin sprang to arms." — R, Rankin, Inner 
 history of the Balkan war, p. 160. — See also Mon- 
 tenegro: 1912-1913. 
 
 1912-1913. — Entrance of Bulgaria, Serbia and 
 Greece. — "Turkey was attacked on four sides at 
 the same time, as the movements of the Allies 
 were well coordinated. The Montenegrins in- 
 vaded .'\lbania ; the Serbians, Northern Macedonia ; 
 the Bulgarians, Thrace; and the Greeks, Southern 
 Macedonia. General Savoff, with an army of three 
 hundred thousand Bulgarians, captured Kirk-Kil- 
 issch. He then engaged the enemy at the great 
 Battle of Lule Burgas (October 27 to November 
 2), where a Turkish army of one hundred and 
 fifty thousand was completely routed by the Bul- 
 garians, who displayed great skill and courage. 
 The Turks were driven to seek refuge behind the 
 fortress of Tchatalja, which barred the way to 
 Constantinople. [Behind the Tchatalja lines the 
 Turks were strongly intrenched and in uninter- 
 rupted communication with Constantinople.] The 
 Serbians, too, won notable successes in the western 
 field. They occupied Prishtina, Novi Bazaar, and 
 Monastir; and on November 28 they captured the 
 important seaport of Durazzo. The Greeks in- 
 vaded Macedonia from the south; and, after a 
 series of victories, they laid siege to Saloniki, 
 which surrendered on November 8. The Greek 
 navy did notable service by blockading Turkish 
 ports and by capturing many islands in the 
 JEgean." On November 14, 1912, simultaneous 
 proposals with a view to mediation were made to 
 the Balkan States by representatives of the Great 
 Powers. At Sofia, Belgrade, and Athens the gov- 
 ernments agreed to take the matter into considera- 
 tion. At Cettigne the King's representative de- 
 clared that Montenegro could not now consent to 
 an armistice except subject to the unconditional 
 surrender of Skutari. "At the instance of Sir Ed- 
 ward Grey, the English Foreign Minister, an ar- 
 
 829
 
 BALKAN STATES, 1912-1913 
 
 Second 
 Balkan War 
 
 BALKAN STATES, 1913 
 
 mistice preliminary to peace was signed in Lon- 
 don on December 3, 1012. The armistice, how- 
 ever, accomplished nothing, for Turkey refused to 
 surrender Adrianople to Bulgaria and the .^i^gean 
 Islands to Greece. HostiUties were resumed early 
 in February of the following year. The Greeks 
 captured Janina, and a combined army of Serbs 
 and Bulgarians forced their way into Adrianople. 
 Scutari, an important town in Albania, was in- 
 vested by an army of Montenegrins, who con- 
 tinued to besiege it even after a second armistice 
 was made to negotiate a peace. It fell on April 
 23, igi3. Representatives of the belligerent na- 
 tions met in London, where, on May 30, IQ13 they 
 concluded peace. Turkey was practically ousted 
 from Europe, as she was compelled to cede to the 
 Allies all her European territory except Constan- 
 tinople and the adjacent region, which lay be- 
 tween the Sea of Marmora and the line connecting 
 Midia on the Black Sea with Enos on the .^^^gean. 
 Crete was given to Greece. The status of the 
 islands in the ^gean and that of Albania were 
 left for a later decision " — J. S Schapiro, Modern 
 and contemporary European history, pp. 646-647. 
 — "Kirk-Kilisse marks the end of an epoch, the 
 Bismarckian, and the beginning of a new era, not 
 merely of European, but of world history. Thirty- 
 nine years before the discovery of America the 
 Turks took Constantinople. Four hundred and 
 fifty-nine years later Turkey virtually ceased to 
 be a European power. Although, in consequence 
 of Bulgarian treason to the cause of Balkan Unity, 
 Turkey ultimately recovered Adrianople from 
 which she had been driven, she has, in reality, 
 been thrust back info Asia by a military coalition 
 of the small Slav, States This is the first result 
 of the Balkan War of tot 2. . . The VV'ar has put 
 an end to the dream of Catherine II: the road to 
 Byzantium is closed to Russia. At the same time 
 the enforced concentration of the Turks in Asia 
 will oblige Russia to exercise special vigilance in 
 the region between the Black Sea and the Caspian, 
 and particularly in her sphere of influence in Ar- 
 menia. But while Russia has been arrested in 
 her overland march to the Middle Sea. Austria 
 has been arrested as well, and Germany also: a 
 new Slav empire, a potential United States of 
 Balkany. is taking the place left vacant by the 
 Ottomans, closing the road to Salonica, and the 
 Pan-German hopes of eventually making Trieste 
 an integral part of the national patrimony of 
 Greater Germany have thus been dissipated." — 
 W M. Fullerton, Problems of power, pp. 333-334 
 (London, 1014). — See also Bulcarm: igi2: First 
 Balkan War; Greece: IQ12 ; Serbu: 1909-1913; 
 World W.^r: Causes: Indirect: d, 3. 
 
 1912-1913.— Effect of wars on England, Ger- 
 many and Austria. — London conference. See 
 World W.ar: Diplomatic background: 71 (viii); 
 and (ix.) 
 
 1913. — Second Balkan war. — Serbo-Bulgarian 
 quarrel. — Break-up of League. — Bulgarian de- 
 feat and losses. — "By the Treaty of London, Bul- 
 garia had gained not only the much-coveted terri- 
 tories in Macedonia, but nearly the whole of 
 Thrace, and it was to be left to the Powers to lay 
 down the frontier between the extreme points of 
 Enos and of Midia, which was to determine how 
 near she was to be brought to Gallipoli, to the Sea 
 of Marmora, and to Constantinople Servia, on 
 the othi>r hand, had profited but little by the 
 war. The jealousy of Austria and of Italy had 
 excluded her from the .Adriatic, which she could 
 only reach under conditions which made her in 
 fact if not in name the humble servant of Mon- 
 tenegro and of .Mbania; her gains in the Sanjak 
 with its bleak pasture lands would have to be 
 
 shared with Montenegro; whilst those in Kossovo 
 and in old Servia neither gave her a direct access 
 to the seaboard of the /Egean nor provided her 
 with any compensation for the blood and treasure 
 which she had expended for Bulgaria m Thrace. 
 .... In short, by the Treaty of London the sole 
 Power which had gained far more than could 
 have been anticipated even by the wildest dreamers 
 at the outbreak of the war. was Bulgaria, and 
 those gains she had to a great e.xtent made with 
 the help of her .Allies. Yet, of all the Allied 
 Powers, Bulgaria was the only one which showed 
 herself unreasonable. The Bulgarians ignored the 
 sacrifices of their .'\llies, and held only to their 
 ethnographical claims, real or pretended. . . . But 
 Servia held, and probably rightly, that as she had 
 been cut off from the .Adriatic, and as the war had 
 been prolonged for four months so as to enable 
 Bulgaria to acquire .Adrianople at the cost of 
 Servian blood, she was entitled to a revision of 
 these arrangements [as made in the Treaty of 
 March 13. iqi;]. especially as much of the dis- 
 puted territory, for instance, Prilip and Monastir, 
 was already held by Ser\'ian troops. This revision 
 Bulgaria refused to grant mainly upon the grounds 
 that Servia had not been called upon to give her 
 the military support in Western Thrace which had 
 been provided for by the militarv" convention. . . . 
 In both Servia and in Bulgaria the war fever was 
 rising. . . . Greece, Montenegro, and Servia ac- 
 cepted, moreover, without reserve, the invitation 
 to the Conference of Prime Ministers at St. Peters- 
 burg [Petrograd] ; Bulgaria alone held back on the 
 pretext that she wished to submit the questions 
 at issue to the arbitration of the six Great Pow- 
 ers, and not to that of those of the Triple En- 
 tente alone. . . . Servia, on June 22, rejected the 
 Bulgarian proposals, and suggested that the origi- 
 nal Treaty should be torn up and a newer and 
 wider basis created for Russian arbitration. . . . 
 In vain the Great Powers made representations 
 both at Belgrade and Sofia to induce the disputants 
 to submit to arbitration: the military element was 
 too strong to be disregarded." — R. Rankin. Inner 
 history of the Balkan war. pp. 524-526, 529. 
 — "A second Balkan war broke out in July, igiSv 
 this time between Bulgaria and her erstwhile al- 
 lies. Hostile armies began to converge on Bul- 
 garia from three directions, Serbians and 
 Montenegrins from the west [see Monte- 
 negro: 1912-1913], Greeks from the south [see 
 Greece: 1913: Second Balkan War], and Ruma- 
 nians from the south. Several battes were fought 
 in which the Bulgarians were defeated Frightful 
 atrocities were committed on both sides, who now 
 hated each other more than they hated the Turks. 
 The latter, taking advantage of the dissensions 
 among their foe?, reopened hostilities and recap- 
 tured .Adrianople from the Bulgarians. At the 
 instance of .Austria the Second Balkan War was 
 brought to a close by the Treaty of Bucharest. 
 which was concluded on .August lo, 1913. Bul- 
 garia was shorn of nearly all her conquests. . . . 
 By the Treaty of Constantinople (Sept. 29, 1913) 
 between Turkey and Bulgaria, the former doubled 
 the European territorj- left to her by the Treaty 
 of London, as Adrianople and Eastern Thrace were 
 given back to the Sultan." — J. S Schapiro. Modern 
 and contemporary European history, p. 648. — 
 Rumania had remained neutral during the first 
 Balkan war. When the Serbo-Bulcarian dispute 
 became acute, a significant communication from 
 Bucharest appeared in a Vienna journal stating 
 that Rumania would not remain neutral in the 
 event of another war: "Any government which 
 should remain inactive during a new Balkan war 
 would be swept away by the force of public opin- 
 
 830
 
 BALKAN STATES, 1913 
 
 Aftermath of 
 Balkan Wars 
 
 BALKAN STATES, 1913-1914 
 
 ion." After the defeat of Bulgaria, Rumania took 
 from that country a large strip of territory on the 
 Black sea. — See also Bulgaria: 1913: Second Bal- 
 kan war; Pan-Turanism. 
 
 That the Balkan situation was fraught with 
 danger for the peace of Europe was vividly re- 
 vealed after the assassination of the King of the 
 Hellenes on March iji. loij, who was struck 
 down at Salonika, which he had won for Greece. — 
 "But whilst the heirs to the Bulgarian and Servian 
 thrones were kneeling in homage to a monarch, of 
 whom even the Turkish press spoke with the 
 courtesy due to a chivalrous foe, and whilst the 
 funeral chants were sounding through the flower- 
 decked Cathedral at Athens, the wranglings of the 
 Great Powers continued till, suddenly, Europe 
 started back appalled when an article in The Times 
 and a speech by Sir Edward Grey raised the cur- 
 
 . Balkan wars of 1912-1913 as the progenitors of 
 the vastly greater struggle which followed a year 
 later. The Eastern question, which involved the 
 Balkan peninsula, was merely a peculiar and ag- 
 gravated form of the European question — the 
 tradition whereby nations regulated their affairs 
 by dominance within and competition without. 
 This was especially apparent in Central and East- 
 ern Europe, where the three empires — Russia, Ger- 
 many and Austria-Hungary — formed, as it were, a 
 triangle of reaction. With the German-Austrian 
 alliance of 1879 — "the policy of the Drang nofh 
 Osten reached its full stature, and the breach with 
 Russia steadily widened. Germany, working 
 through Austria-Hungary, wished to drive a cor- 
 ridor through the Balkans, hold Constantinople, 
 and control Turkey. Russia, in the name of Pan- 
 Slavism, and moved by mystic and idealistic rea- 
 
 H U ISI G A R. V 
 
 5 ef> 
 
 ( \ 
 
 ■. V Russia 
 
 H U M O A R. Y *"% 4- ] 
 
 BALKAN STATES AFTER TREATY OF BERLIN AND AFTER 
 BALKAN WARS 
 
 tain which had concealed from her the fact that 
 she had, all unconsciously, been standing on the 
 very brink of war. The obstinacy of Montenegro 
 and of Servia with regard to the delimitations of 
 the northern and north-eastern frontiers of Al- 
 bania . . . had all but brought the difficulties be- 
 tween Russia and Austria to a head. . . . The dis- 
 pute about these delectable possessions, with their 
 joint population of 61,000 inhabitants, scarcely 
 exceeding that of Bath, might well have brought 
 into collision six great Empires, with a population 
 amounting in all to at least a third of the total 
 population of the globe. It may well be asked if 
 diplomatic folly and atno7ir-ptopre could go fur- 
 ther." — R. Rankin, Inner history of the Balkan 
 war, pp. 206-207. — See also World War: Causes: 
 Indirect: d, 3. 
 
 1913-1914. — Causes and results of Balkan 
 wars. — According to a competent British observer,' 
 the historic chain of events clearly marks the 
 
 sons, wished to control the Balkans, possess Con- 
 stantinople and the Straits, and turn the Black 
 Sea into a Russian Lake. France and England 
 appeared on the scene, first as the enemies of Rus- 
 sia and the upholders of Turkey in the name of 
 the balance of power, and then, by the same token, 
 as the friends of Russia and the opponents of Ger- 
 many. The net result of the play of intrigue and 
 counter-intrigue was that the Balkan States were 
 set by the ears, national hatreds inflamed, do- 
 mestic reforms checked all over Europe, and the 
 Turk allowed to harry his subjects at his own 
 sweet will. [See also Concert of Europe: History 
 and meaning of term.] In 1907 it looked as if 
 Austria-Hungary would make a bold and wise re- 
 form, raising herself from a dualistic to a triform 
 state by giving the Slavs self-government. In- 
 stead, came Count Aehrenthal's annexation of Bos- 
 nia and Herzegovina, throwing Serbia into the arms 
 of Russia. In 1912, under Russian auspices and 
 
 83^
 
 BALKAN STATES, 1913-1914 
 
 Outbreak of 
 World War 
 
 BALKAN STATES, 1914 
 
 through the statesmanship of M. Venizelos, cam? 
 the Balkan League and the war against Turkey. 
 But by checking Serbia's access to the Adriatic and 
 setting up an independent Albania, Austria suc- 
 ceeded in causing strife among the Balkan Allies, 
 and the League broke up in the Second Balkan 
 War. A weakened and exasperated Serbia was at 
 once an easy victim and a dangerous neighbor to 
 Ihe Dual Monarchy, and so arose the machinations 
 of the nationalist societies, the murder at Serajevo, 
 and the great European war. Austria threatened 
 Serbia. Russia backed her up; Germany supported 
 Austria, France supported Russia, England sup- 
 ported France; Austria attacked Serbia, and 
 Europe entered upon the fiercest and most barbar- 
 ous war that the world has ever seen.'' — N. Buxton, 
 Austria-Hungary and the Balkans (Atlantic 
 Monthly, March, 1918, p. 371).— The collapse of 
 the Balkan League and the disastrous consequences 
 to Bulgaria in. 1913 were directly responsible for 
 Bulgaria's fatal resolve to cast in her lot with Ger- 
 inany and Austria in the World War. — "The Allies 
 could offer her freedom and cooperation, but could 
 not satisfy Bulgaria's national aspirations, owing 
 to the reluctance of Serbia, Roumania, and Greece 
 to yield the necessary territory, in spite of the 
 compensations offered elsewhere." Hence, "Bul- 
 garia entered the camp of the Central Powers re- 
 luctantly, deliberately accepting the bird in the 
 hand after patient and vain waiting for the two 
 in the bush. Her aims were perfectly definite. She 
 wished to unite under her flag the territories in- 
 habited by her nationals and allotted to her in 
 Februr'v, 1912, by the treaty with Serbia, namely, 
 the so-called uncontested zone in Northeast Mace- 
 donia, which was taken by Serbia in the Second 
 Balkan War; the great trade-route down the 
 Struma Valley debouching at Kavala, taken by 
 the Greeks, and the Southern Dobrudja, taken by 
 the Roumanians, in the same war. In addition, the 
 imponderabilia weighing tor her decision were her 
 dislike of Russian imperalism and her dread of 
 Russia at Constantinople." — Ibid., p. 373. — "In the 
 secret treaty with Bulgaria just before the first 
 Balkan War, Serbia agreed to the definition of a 
 neutral strip running cast-northeast to Lake Ok- 
 hrida, one hundred miles northwest of Saloniki, 
 which was to be the subject of later negotiation 
 between her and Bulgaria. The later negotiation 
 never took place, for Bulgaria made unexpected 
 gains in eastern Thrace, and the powers decided 
 to form an independent Albania in the regions 
 where Serbia had hoped to increase her territory. 
 Serbia and Greece denounced the territorial terms 
 of the alliance, Bulgaria insisted on them in spite 
 of changed conditions, and the second Balkan 
 War resulted. With the complete success of Ser- 
 bia and Greece, as opposed to Bulgaria, they di- 
 vided Macedonia between them, leaving only the 
 Strumnitsa salient and the country immediately 
 northeast and cast of it to Bulgaria ; and the Treaty 
 of Neuilly [Nov. 27, iqiq], by taking awav the 
 Strumnitsa salient, has shut the door on Bulgaria's 
 expansion in this direction." — E. M. House and C. 
 Seymour, What really happened at Paris, pp. 
 160-170. — "\i a result of the Balkan Wars, the 
 German drans, nacb O.sten was summarily checked, 
 and Austria called back westward. It has already 
 been shown that the Balkan ambitions of Austria 
 were the result of her disasters. Napoleon drove 
 her out of Italy and Germany, and offered her 
 Istria and Dalmatia. Bismarck, continuing the 
 work of Napoleon, took from her Venice, prom- 
 ised her Bosnia and Herzegovina, and. construct- 
 ing a solid German bulwark at her back, launched 
 her on her perilous voyage down the Danube. He 
 gave her a free pass across Macedonia, and thereby 
 
 lured her forth on her ambiguous destiny. Al- 
 though .Austria is a Power essentially German, Bis- 
 marck sought to make her Slav ; and she went on 
 assimilating the territories of the Slavs until she 
 became positively 'saturated' with them. 'Satur- 
 ated' is, indeed, the very word employed by Comte 
 d'.\chrenthal, the first of her public men to re- 
 coil before the consequences of pursuing a German, 
 rather than a purely Austrian policy. When 
 Uskub and Ipek were captured by the Servians six 
 million men of their blood in Austria-Hungary ap- 
 plauded." — W. M. Fullerton, Problems of power, 
 P- 335- — See also World War: Causes: Indirect: 
 d, 3; Diplomatic background: 71 (iv); (viii); 
 (ix). 
 
 1914. — Relations of Austria-Hungary with the 
 Balkan States before the outbreak of the World 
 War. — Hostility to Serbia. — Aehrenthal's for- 
 eign policy in Austria. See World War: Diplo- 
 matic background: 8. 
 
 1914. — Austrian plan for a new Balkan 
 League. See World War: Diplomatic back- 
 ground: 9. 
 
 1914. — Pan-German plan. See Pan-German- 
 ism: Pan-German league and its branches. 
 
 1914. — Assassination of Austrian archduke in 
 Bosnia. — Austrian attitude toward Serbia. See 
 World War: Diplomatic backi;round: 5. 
 
 1914. — Approaching crisis between Serbia and 
 Austria discussed at Vienna war council. See 
 World War: Diplomatic background: 13. 
 
 1914. — Austro-Serbian question as stated by 
 German foreign office. — Russia's interest in Ser- 
 bia. See World War: Diplomatic background: 69. 
 
 1914-1916.— Balkans and the World War.— 
 "In the autumn of 1914 .A.ustria-Hungary launched 
 a terrific attack upon Serbia, and after four 
 months of sanguinary fighting succeeded (Decem- 
 ber 2) in capturing Belgrade. [See World 
 War: 1914: Balkans.] But their triumph was 
 short-lived. By an heroic effort the Serbians, 
 three days later, recaptured their capital ; the 
 Habsburg assault was repelled, and for the first 
 half of igiS Serbia enjoyed a respite, from the 
 attacks of external enemies. .\n epidemic of ty- 
 phus fever in its most virulent form wrought ter- 
 rible havoc, however, upon an exhausted, ill-fed. 
 and, in certain parts, congested population. From 
 this danger Serbia was rescued by the heroism of 
 English doctors and English nurses, warmly sec- 
 onded by .American and other volunteers. Had the 
 methods of English diplomacy been as energetic and 
 effective as those of the English Medical Service, 
 Serbia might still have escaped the terrible fate in 
 store for her. Judged by results, and as yet we 
 have no other materials for judgment, nothing 
 could have been more inept than the efforts of 
 allied English diplomacy in the Balkans through- 
 out the year IQ15. . . . [See also .fVusTRO-HLTN- 
 cary: 1914-1015.] The Triple Entente needed all 
 the friends they could muster in southeastern 
 Europe. In February the world learnt that an 
 English fleet, assisted by a French squadron, was 
 bombarding the forts of the Dardenelles. and hieh 
 hopes were entertained in the allied countries that 
 the passage of the Straits would be quickly forced. 
 Nothing would have done so much to frustrate 
 German diplomacy in south-eastern Europe as a 
 successful blow at Constantinople. But the hopes 
 aroused by the initiation of the enterprise were not 
 destined to fulfilment. It soon became evident 
 that the navy alone could not achieve the task 
 entrusted to it. Towards the end of April a large 
 force of troops was landed on the Gallipoli Penin- 
 sula; but the end of May came, and there was 
 nothing to show for the loss of nearly 40,000 
 men. On August 6th a second army, consisting 
 
 832
 
 BALKAN STATES, 1914-1916 cfrftZl^piwers BALKAN STATES, 1914-1916 
 
 largely of Australians, New Zealanders, and Eng- 
 lish Territorials, was thrown onto the peninsula. 
 The troops displayed superb courage, but the con- 
 ditions were impossible; Sir Ian Hamilton, who 
 had commanded, was succeeded by Sir C. C. 
 Munro, to whom was assigned the difficult and 
 ungrateful task of evacuating an untenable posi- 
 tion. To the amazement and admiration of the 
 world a feat, deemed almost impossible, was ac- 
 complished before the end of December, without 
 the loss of a single man. How far the expedition 
 to the Dardanelles may have averted dangers in 
 other directions it is impossible, as yet, tc> say ; 
 but, as regards the accomplishment of its imme- 
 diate aims, the enterprise was a ghastly though a 
 gallant failure. [See Dardanelles.] The failure 
 was apparent long before it was proclaimed by 
 the abandonment of the attempt. Nor was that 
 failure slow to react upon the situation in the 
 Balkans. "On the outbreak of the European War 
 Greece had proclaimed its neutrality, though the 
 Premier, M. Venizelos, at the same time declared 
 that Greece had treaty obligations in regard to 
 Serbia, and that she intended to fulfil them. But 
 in Greece, as elsewhere in the Near East, opinions 
 if not sympathies were sharply divided. The Greek 
 kingdom owed its existence to the Powers com- 
 prising the Triple Entente; the dynasty owed its 
 crown to their nomination; to them the people 
 were tied by every bond of historical gratitude. 
 No one realized this more clearly than M. Veni- 
 zelos, and no one could have shown himself more 
 determined to repay the debt with compound in- 
 terest. Moreover, M. Venizelos believed that the 
 dictates of policy were identical with those of 
 gratitude. The creator of the Balkan League had 
 not abandoned, despite the perfidious conduct of 
 one of his partners, the hope of realizing the 
 dream which had inspired his policy in IQ12. The 
 one solution of a secular problem at once feasible 
 in itself and compatible with the claims of nation- 
 ality was and is a Balkan Federation. A German 
 hegemony in the Balkans, an Ottoman Ehnpire de- 
 pendent upon Berlin, would dissipate that dream 
 for ever. To Greece, as to the other Balkan States, 
 it was essential that Germany should not be per- 
 mitted to establish herself permanently on the 
 Besphorus. If that disaster was to be averted 
 mutual concessions would have to be made, and 
 Venizelos was statesman enough to make them. 
 Early in IQ15 he tried to persuade his sovereign to 
 offer Kavalla and a slice of 'Greek' Macedonia to 
 Bulgaria. He was anxious also to co-operate in 
 the attack upon the Dardanelles with allies who 
 had offered to Greece a large territorial concession 
 in the Smyrna district. To neither suggestion 
 would King Constantine and his Hohenzollern con- 
 sort listen. Venizelos consequently resigned. If 
 Venizelos desired harmony among the Balkan 
 States, so also, and not less ardently, did the al- 
 lies. Macedonia still remained the crux of the 
 situation. Hohenzollern-Habsburg diplomacy had, 
 as we have seen, thrown oil upon the flames of 
 inter-Balkan rivalries in that region. Bulgaria, the 
 willing cat's-paw of the Central Empires, had in 
 1Q13 drawn down upon herself deserved disaster, 
 but that she would permanently acquiesce in the 
 terms imposed upori her by the Treaty of Bucharest 
 was not to be expected. Venizelos was quick to 
 recognize this truth. Had his advice been fol- 
 lowed Bulgaria would have gained a better outlet 
 to the Aegean than that afforded by Dedeagatch. 
 Serbia possessed no statesman of the calibre of 
 Venizelos. But the situation of Serbia was in the 
 last degree hazardous, and under the pressure of 
 grim necessity Serbia might have been expected 
 to listen to the voice of prudence. How far that 
 
 voice reached her ears in the early summer of igi.? 
 we cannot yet know for certain. . . . "Not until 
 August, igiS, was Serbia induced to offer such con- 
 cessions in Macedonia to Bulgaria as might possibly 
 have sufficed, in May, to keep Bulgaria out of the 
 clutches of the Central Empires. In Bulgaria, as 
 elsewhere, opinion was sharply divided. Both 
 groups of Great Powers had their adherents at 
 Sofia. Had the Russian advance been maintained 
 in 1915; had the Dardenelles been forced; had 
 pressure been put by the Entente upon Serbia and 
 Greece to make reasonable concessions in Mace- 
 donia, Bulgaria might not have yielded to the se- 
 ductions of German gold and to the wiles of Ger- 
 man diplomacy. But why should a German king 
 of Bulgaria have thrown in his lot with Powers who 
 were apparently heading for military disaster; 
 whose diplomacy was as inept as their arms were 
 feeble ? What more natural than that when the Ger- 
 man avalanche descended upon Serbia in the au- 
 tumn of iqis Bulgaria should have co-operated in 
 the discomfiture of a detested rival? Yet the En- 
 tente built their plans upon the hope, if not the ex- 
 pectation, that Bulgaria might possibly be induced 
 to enter the war on the side of the allies against 
 Turkey. Serbia was anxious to attack Bulgaria 
 in September, while her mobilization was still 
 incomplete. It is generally believed that the allies 
 intervened to restrain the Serbian attack; hoping 
 against hope that a concordat between the Balkan 
 States might still be arrived at. To that hope 
 Serbia was sacrificed. A great Austro-German 
 army, under the command of Field-Marshal von 
 Mackensen, concentrated upon the Serbian fron- 
 tier in September, and on the 7th of October it 
 crossed the Danube. Two days later Belgrade sur- 
 rendered, and for the next few weeks von Macken- 
 sen, descending upon the devoted country in over- 
 whelming strength, drove the Serbians before him, 
 until the whole country was in the occupation of 
 the Austro-German forces. The Bulgarians cap- 
 tured Nish on November 5 and effected a junction 
 with the army under von Mackensen ; Serbia was 
 annihilated; a remnant of the Serbian army took 
 refuge in the mountains of Montenegro and Al- 
 bania, while numbers of deported civilians sought 
 the hospitality of the allies. On November 28 
 Germany officially declared the Balkan campaign 
 to be at an end. For the time being Serbia had 
 ceased to exist as a Balkan State. [See World 
 War: 1015: V. Balkans.] What had the Al- 
 lies done to succour her? On September 28 
 Sir Edward Grey, from his place in the House 
 of Commons, uttered a grave, though not un- 
 friendly, warning to Bulgaria, and declared that 
 Great Britain was determined, in concert with 
 her aUies, to give to her friends in the Balkans all 
 the support in her power in a manner that would 
 be most welcome to them 'without reserve and 
 without qualification.' How was this solemn prom- 
 ise fulfilled? Russia was not, at the moment, in 
 a position to afford any effective assistance, but on 
 October 4 she dispatched an ultimatum to Bul- 
 garia, and a few days later declared war upon her. 
 On October s the advance guard of an Anglo- 
 French force, under General Sarrail and Sir Bryan 
 Mahon, began to disembark at Salonica. The force 
 was miserably inadequate in numbers and equip- 
 ment, and it came too late. Its arrival precipitated 
 a crisis in Greece. As a result of an appeal to the 
 country in June, King Constantine had been re- 
 luctantly compelled to recall Venizelos to power in 
 September. Venizelos was as determined as ever 
 to respect the obligations of Greece towards Serbia, 
 and to throw the weight of Greece into the scale 
 of the allies. But despite his parliamentary ma- 
 jority he was no longer master of the situation. 
 
 833
 
 BALKAN STATES, 1914-1916 
 
 Balkan 
 Campaigns 
 
 BALKAN STATES, 1914-1918 
 
 The failure of the Dardanelles expedition, the re- 
 treat of Russia, the impending intervention of 
 Bulgaria on the Austro-German side, the ex- 
 hortations and warnings which followed in rapid 
 succession from Berlin, above all, the knowledge 
 that von Mackensen was preparing to annihilate 
 Serbia, had stiffened the back of King Constan- 
 tine. Venizelos had asked England and France 
 whether, in the event of a Bulgarian attack upon 
 Serbia, the Western Powers would be prepared 
 to send a force to Salonica to take the place 
 of the Serbian contingent contemplated by the 
 Greco-Serbian treaty. The landing of the Anglo- 
 French force in October was the practical re- 
 sponse of the allies to the 'invitation' of 
 Venizelos. Technically, however, the landing 
 looked like a violation of Greek neutrality, and 
 Venizelos was compelled by his master to en- 
 ter a formal protest against it. But the protest 
 was followed by an announcement that Greece 
 would respect her treaty with Serbia, and would 
 march to her assistance, if she were attacked by 
 Bulgaria. That announcement cost Venizelos his 
 place. He was promptly dismissed by King Con- 
 stantine, who, flouting the terms of the Con- 
 stitution, effected what was virtually a monarchical 
 coup d'etat. The king's violation of the Hellenic 
 Constitution was the opportunity of the protecting 
 Powers. They failed to seize it, and King Con- 
 stantine remained master of the situation. From 
 an attitude of neutrality professedly 'benevolent,' 
 he passed rapidly to one of hostility almost openly 
 avowed. That hostiUty deepened as the year igi6 
 advanced. On May 25, in accordance with the 
 terms of an agreement secretly concluded be- 
 tween Greece, Germany, and Bulgaria, King Con- 
 stantine handed over to the Bulgarians Fort Rupel, 
 an important position which commanded the flank 
 of the French army in Salonica. A few weeks 
 later a whole division of the Greek army was 
 instructed to surrender to the Germans and Bul- 
 garians at Kavalla. Kavalla itself was occupied 
 by King Constantine's friends, who carried off the 
 Greek division, with all its equipment, to Ger- 
 many. Nearly the whole of Greek Macedonia 
 was now in the hands of Germany and her allies, 
 and the Greek patriots, led by Venizelos, were 
 reduced to despair. In September a Greek Com- 
 mittee of National Defence was set up at Sa- 
 lonica, and in October Venizelos himself arrived 
 there. 
 
 "By this time, however, the Balkan sit- 
 uation had been further compUcated by the mili- 
 tary inter\'ention of Roumania on the side of 
 the allies. In Roumania, as elsewhere, opinion 
 was, on the outbreak of the war, sharply divided. 
 The sympathies of King Carol were, not un- 
 naturally, with his Hohenzollern kinsmen, and, had 
 he not been, in the strict sense of the term, a 
 constitutional sovereign, his country would have 
 been committed to an Austro-German alliance. 
 Nor was the choice of Roumania quite obviously 
 di,.tated by her interests. If the coveted districts 
 of Transylvania and the Bukovina were in the 
 hands of the Habsburgs, Russia still kept her 
 hold on Bessarabia. A 'Greater Roumania," cor- 
 responding in area to the ethnographical distribu- 
 tion of population, would involve the acquisition 
 of all three provinces. Could Roumania hope, 
 either by diplomacy or by war, to achieve the com- 
 plete reunion of the Roumanian people? In Octo- 
 ber, 1Q14, the two strongest pro-German forces 
 in Roumania were removed almost simultaneously, 
 by death: King Carol himself, and his old friend 
 and confidant Demetrius Sturdza. Roumania had 
 already declared her neutrality, and that neutrality 
 was, for some time, scrupulously observed. The 
 
 natural affinities of the Roumanians attract them 
 . . . towards France and Italy, and it was antici- 
 pated that Italy's entrance into the war would 
 be speedily followed by that of Roumania. But 
 not until .August, 1Q16, was the anticipation ful- 
 filled. On August 27 Roumania declared war and 
 flung a large force into Transylvania. The Aus- 
 trian garrisons were overwhelmed, and in a few 
 weeks a considerable part of Transylvania had 
 passed into Roumanian hands. But the success, 
 achieved in defiance of sound strategy, and also, 
 it is said, in complete disregard of warnings ad- 
 dressed to Roumania by her allies, was of brief 
 duration. In September Mackensen invaded the 
 Dobrudja from the south, entered Silistria on 
 September 10, and. though checked for awhile on 
 the Rasova-Tuzia line, renewed his advance in 
 October and captured Constanza on the twenty- 
 second. Meanwhile, a Germany army, under Gen- 
 eral von Falkenhayn, advanced from the west, 
 and on September 26 inflicted a severe defeat upon 
 the Roumanians at the Rothen Thurm pass. The 
 Roumanians, though they fought desperately, were 
 steadily pressed back ; at the end of November 
 Mackensen joined hands with Falkenhayn, and 
 on December 6 the German armies occupied 
 Bucharest. Thus another Balkan State was tem- 
 porarily crushed. From Belgrade to Constanti- 
 nople, from Bucharest to the valley of the V'ardar, 
 the Centra! Empires are [.April, 191 7] in un- 
 disputed command of the Balkan Peninsula. A 
 corner of Greek Macedonia is still held by the 
 Anglo-French force under General Sarrail, and to- 
 w-ards the end of November a Serbian army, re- 
 formed and re-equipped, had the gratification of 
 reoccupying Monastir. But the German suc- 
 cesses in the north-east of the peninsula naturally 
 emboldened their friends in the south-west, and 
 the increasing hostility of the Athenian Govern- 
 ment rendered the position of the allies in Sa- 
 lonica exceedingly precarious." — J. A. R. Marriott, 
 Eastern question, pp. 432-44r. — See World War: 
 1916: V. Balkan theater; 1917: V. Balkan theater. 
 
 "The fundamental reasons which have forced the 
 Near East into prominence before and since the 
 outbreak of the w-ar are in many ways identical. 
 The real point is that the Balkan Peninsula and 
 the waterways which it controls constitute the 
 natural highw'ay, the natural means of communi- 
 cation between the West and East on the one hand 
 and the North and South on the other. While 
 it is the former condition which makes the domi- 
 nation of this area one of Germany's primary 
 objects it is the latter which constitutes its real 
 importance for Russia. Consequently, whereas by 
 military penetration across the Balkans into south- 
 ern Russia and Asiatic Turkey the Central Powers 
 have temporarily greatly increased the strength of 
 their military position, still more by the driving 
 of a permanent wedge through the same areas 
 would they have triumphed by endangering the 
 safety of the Allies throughout the world. On 
 the other hand, were good relations to be estab- 
 lished between the Balkan states and were an 
 anti-German barrier therefore to be established, 
 what would amount to an Allied wedge would pre- 
 vent the expansion of the Central Powers toward 
 the East and at the same time assure to Russia 
 her legitimate access to warm water. For years, 
 therefore, the question of these wedges has con- 
 stituted the real raison d'etre of the Near East 
 in the world's politics — a raison d'ltre the im- 
 portance and meaning of which has become more 
 apparent to the everyday man since the outbreak 
 of the war." — Geographical Review, July, 1918, 
 p. 19- 
 
 1914-1918. — ^Jugo-Slav agitations in Austria- 
 
 834
 
 BALKAN STATES, 1915 
 
 Reconstruction 
 Albania 
 
 BALKAN STATES, 1921 
 
 Hungary. — Union with other Slavs. — Declara- 
 tion of Corfu. See Jugo-Slavia: 1867-1917. 
 
 1915. — Italy's desire to control South Slavs. 
 See Italy: 1915: Treaty of London. 
 
 1918. — Summary of campaigns. See World 
 War: iqiS: V. Balkan theater: a. 
 
 1918. — Von Hertling's answer to Lloyd George 
 and President Wilson regarding settlement of 
 claims. See World War: 1918: X. Statement of 
 war aims: d. 
 
 1918. — Italian claims in Dalmatia and Fiume. 
 See Italy: ipiS-igig. 
 
 1918. — Union of Serbia with states of 
 Croatia, Slovakia and Dalmatia. See Jugo- 
 slavia: 1918: Formation of the Serb Croat Slovene 
 kingdom. 
 
 1919. — Loss of life from famine and starvation 
 during the World War. See World War: Mis- 
 cellaneous au.xiliary services: X\'I. Cost of war: 
 b, 3. 
 
 1920. — Formation of the Little Entente. See 
 Jugo-Sl.avla: 1920. 
 
 1921. — Results of World War. — Division of 
 spoils. — Losses and gains. — Geographical griev- 
 ances. — Settlement problems and complications. 
 — Reconstruction. — The end of the World War 
 and the resultant peace treaties had not the effect 
 of spreading perfect peace and general satisfac- 
 tion among the various Balkan states. In allocat- 
 ing the spoils of a great war, losses and gains are 
 inevitable. Territories are wrested from one na- 
 tion and incorporated by another, giving rise to 
 complaints of injustice and prognostications of fu- 
 ture troubles. The following excerpts illustrate 
 the situation as it stood in the peninsula during 
 the first quarter of 192 1: 
 
 Albania, an autonomous Adriatic state under the 
 Mpret William of Wied as the result of the Peace 
 of London (1913), was abandoned by its rulers in 
 1914 and became a prey to internal dissensions. 
 The faction of Essad Pasha notably failed to 
 establish a stable government and the Austrians 
 invaded the country in 1916. Already in 1914 
 Italy had taken possession of the seaport of 
 Valona and its fortress, and later proclaimed a pro- 
 tectorate. At the Peace Conference, the Albanians 
 claimed independence, but Italy maintained her 
 position ; Greece demanded the southern part of 
 Albania as a portion of Epirus, while the north- 
 ern provinces were desired as an addition and 
 compensation to Serbia. Moreover, France, hav- 
 ing military occupation, was ready to turn Scutari 
 and Koritza over to Serbia and Greece respectively. 
 The partition of the country with the assent of 
 the Peace Conference seemed thus almost a fait 
 accompli. Appeals to the Great Powers to stop 
 Serbian aggressions were made. — "How was . . . 
 [a] complete change of policy toward Albania 
 brought about? The answer is clear: It was 
 effected through the instrumentality of the United 
 States government. The American government in- 
 tervened on behalf of Albania, and actually saved 
 her from destruction and dismemberment. The 
 first intervention took place after the Supreme 
 Council had agreed on applying to Albania the 
 provisions of the secret Treaty of London, which 
 partitioned her territories among the Italians, 
 Greeks and Serbians. President Wilson caused 
 this decision to be reconsidered ; but immediately 
 upon the departure of the American representatives 
 from the Supreme Council the great European 
 powers, left alone, reverted again to the policy of 
 the dismemberment of .Albania. In the session 
 of Jan. 14, 1920, Great Britain, France and Italy 
 decreed anew the complete partition of Albania 
 among the Italians, Serbs and Greeks. When all 
 again seemed lost President Wilson came out in 
 
 his Adriatic notes, and vigorously opposed the 
 plan of partition. Thanks to the moral influence 
 of .America alone, the plan of partition was 
 definitely discarded. . . . What a strange contrast 
 to this outlook is now presented by Albania I And 
 what spectacular changes have taken place within 
 a few months, altering the situation entirely! 
 Somehow the Peace Conference — or its successor, 
 the Supreme Council — has practically held its 
 hands off from Albanian affairs, to the benefit of 
 the little nation. More strange is the revulsion 
 of feeling that must have taken place in high 
 French circles, as evidenced by the action of the 
 French military authorities in turning over to the 
 Albanian government the vital Provinces of 
 Scutari and Koritza, in May, 1920. . . . But the 
 most spectacular event was the struggle with Italy, 
 which began early in June last [1919], and con- 
 tmued until about the end of July, with a com- 
 plete triumph for Albania. Several weeks of 
 fierce fighting between the Albanians and the 
 Italians ended in the e.xpulsion of the latter from 
 Albania to such an extent that even the powerful 
 and modern fortress of Valona, which was held 
 as a last resort by the Italians, was eventually 
 turned over to the Albanian government. That 
 government is now in possession of the terri- 
 tories assgined to the Albanian state by the Lon- 
 don Conference of 1912-1913. Italy, the very 
 power that was fatally in the way of Albania's 
 independence and national unity, not only has 
 been compelled to give up all its claims, which 
 the Peace Conference had recognized, such as the 
 protectorate and the perpetual possession of 
 Valona, but has now become, by the clauses of 
 the Italian-Albanian agreement, signed at Tirana 
 on Aug. 2, 1920, the guarantor of those two es- 
 sential attributes of sovereignty over the young 
 State, with the result that there exist now the 
 most cordial relations between the two countries. 
 Thus has Albania won recognition of her state- 
 hood from the power that was most bitterly op- 
 posed to it only a few months ago. The success- 
 ful termination of the conflict with Italy had also 
 the salutary effect of sobering the claims of the 
 Serbs and the Greeks, to the extent that they were 
 induced to find a modus vivendi with /.Ibania. 
 In consequence, the conflicting claims between 
 these two countries and Albania are no longer a 
 cause for direct strife. . . . Not less striking is 
 the internal transformation that has taken place 
 in Albania within the last few months. The peo- 
 ple, who had been distracted and disunited as H 
 result of continuous foreign interference, have 
 found an opportunity to unite and mold them- 
 selves into a single national entity, with the 
 transcendent aspiration to preserve the national in- 
 dependence and territorial integrity of their coun- 
 try at all costs. Regional and religious differ- 
 ences, which were formerly played upon by for- 
 eign powers, have disappeared to the extent that 
 there is now but one authority over the whole 
 people, the authority of the central government 
 established by the representatives of the Albanian 
 people assembled in parliament — a parliament to 
 which the government is strictly responsible. This 
 government, with its seat at Tirana, has been 
 in undisturbed power for more than a year. It 
 has not only won the confidence of the people, 
 but has also established law and order through- 
 out the Albanian territories, one might candidly 
 say, for the first time since the impotent Turkish 
 occupation made Albania a synonym for anarchy 
 and lawlessness. . . . The Tirana Government has 
 already set out to organize the nation. Schools 
 are being opened in a country where teaching 
 was deliberately prohibited by former conquering 
 
 835
 
 BALKAN STATES, 1921 
 
 Bulgaria 
 Greece 
 
 BALKAN STATES, 1921 
 
 powers, such as the Turks, and negotiations are 
 now being carried on for the establishment of an 
 American university modeled on Robert College 
 at Constantinople. But the chief attention of the 
 Albanian governmer ■ is turned toward the develop- 
 ment of the large resources of the countr.-, es- 
 pecially its mineral resources, including iron, cop- 
 per, oil, asphalt, coal, together with the splendid 
 water power the country is provided with. How- 
 ever, in order to make possible this development, 
 the first essential is the construction of roads, rail- 
 roads, tramways, and the government is already 
 out in quest of capital, which the Albanian peo- 
 ple want to have come from .\merica. Unfor- 
 tunately, the fact that Albania has not been 
 recognized by the United States acts as a bar 
 to the employment of American capital in that 
 country.'' — C. A. Chekrezi, Hoiv Albania ivon in- 
 dependence (A'. Y. Times Current History, Dec, 
 1920, pp. 534-536). 
 
 Bulgaria. — "It is a well-established fact tliat 
 Bulgaria concluded an armistice with the Allies 
 on September 30, 1918, because the people and 
 army refused to go on with the war. As early as 
 July of that year the soldiers, who in the absence 
 of any military caste in Bulgaria really form a 
 part of the people, declared in writing and orally 
 to their officers that they would not fight be- 
 yond the middle of September. This decision 
 w-as reached, as the soldiers themselves declared, 
 after the famous Fourteen Points of President 
 Wilson became known to them. 'Why,' they said, 
 'should we go on fighting, if these points are 
 to be the basis of the future settlement of ques- 
 tions affecting Europe in general and the Bal- 
 kan Peninsula in particular?' . . . The forced ab- 
 dication of King Ferdinand was accomplished with- 
 out any trouble, and the accession of his eldest 
 son, Boris, to the throne was hailed with uni- 
 versal approval. In the general political and 
 social perturbation of Europe, Bulgaria also was 
 threatened with a revolution by the extreme radi- 
 cal elements; but the firmness and courage dis- 
 played by the present Premier of Bulgaria, Mr. 
 Stambolisky, the leader of the Farmers' party, in 
 coping with the Bolshevist agitation, saved the 
 country from Bolshevism and assured the reign 
 of law and order. ... He has refused to be 
 drawn into any wild political schemes, has frankly 
 accepted the situation created by the Treaty of 
 Neuilly, and, while protesting against its injustice, 
 has promised to carry out loyally its terms." — 
 T. Vladimiroff, Bulgaria's novel methods of 
 reconstruction (N. Y. Times Current History, 
 Nov., 1920, pp. 217-218). — Bulgaria, by the 
 treaty of Xeuilly, November 27, 1919, lost to 
 Serbia on the western frontier three small pieces 
 of territory, besides the Strumnitza projection 
 on the southwest about fifty miles north of Sa- 
 lonika More important still, Bulgaria was not to 
 possess any portion of the .Egean littoral which 
 she had naturally coveted with its Greek and 
 Turk population, though she was allowed com- 
 mercial access to Dedeagatch, a small roadstead 
 where goods may be transferred by lighters. — 
 "That the Treaty of Neuilly has not settled the 
 Balkan question justly and satisfactorily is in- 
 disputable. On the contrary, it has aggravated 
 the mistakes made forty-two years ago by the 
 Berlin Congress, and if these mistakes are not cor- 
 rected in the near future by the League of Na- 
 tions or by an international court the Balkan 
 peninsula will enjoy a temporary truce and not a 
 lasting peace. ... It is too early yet to pre- 
 dict what the relations of Bulgaria to her neigh- 
 bors will be. She has been despoiled by them 
 of territory that rightly belongs to her; she has 
 
 been practically debarred from free and unre- 
 stricted access to the /Egean sea. .\ progressive 
 and enterprising people, as the Bulgarians have 
 proved themselves to be during the forty years 
 of their political existence, cannot allow their fu- 
 ture commercial and economic development to be 
 hampered by making it dependent upon the mercy 
 or good-will of those who have invariably been 
 their enemies. ... So long as Serbia and Rumania 
 maintain their possession of Macedonia and 
 Dobrudja [respectively] as a matter of conquest, 
 so long as they treat the large Bulgarian ma- 
 jority in these provinces as aliens whom by 
 violent means and oppressive measures they seek 
 to terrorize and denationalize, no real friendship 
 can exist between them and Bulgaria." — Ibid., 
 pp. 220-221.— "With Bulgaria a treaty was made 
 which imposed upon her an indemnity, and 
 took from her the territories which she had 
 seized from Servia, Rumania, and Greece, during 
 the war, while the disposition of the territory 
 giving her access to the /Egean was to be decided 
 by plebiscite of the local population. Bulgaria 
 was left, therefore, the least important of the 
 Balkan states, in the midst of rivals who haU 
 grown great by the war." — E. R. Turner, Europe, 
 p. 590. — "The financial burdens laid upon Bul- 
 garia by the Treaty of Neuilly are undoubtedly 
 very heavy. She is required to pay an in- 
 demnity of 2,250,000,000 francs in gold or $450,- 
 000.000 at the normal rate of exchange. Her 
 external pre-war debt [and debt] incurred during 
 the war, the current state expenses, and the pay- 
 ment of interest on the debts make it ver.- doubt- 
 ful whether a small country containing about 
 35,000 square miles and 4,500,000 people can 
 successfully meet its financial obligations. The 
 low rate of exchange of the Bulgarian currency 
 aggravates the situation. Probably this will not 
 be remedied easily or soon, owing to the fact 
 that Bulgaria is not an industrial country, and 
 that her imports have always been in excess of 
 her exports."— /6id, pp. 222-223. 
 
 Greece. — By the treaty of Sevres, 1920, the 
 great Western powers severed from Turkey the 
 larger part of its European territor\' west of 
 the famous Chataija defense lines in favor 01 
 Greece, and further gave to the latter the ..tgean 
 littoral south of Bulgaria, at least Western Thrace 
 which had been transferred to the Allies by the 
 treaty of Neuilly, — thus extending peninsular 
 Greece continuously to the Black sea; also Italy 
 yielded to Greece the Dodecanese Islands in the 
 .^Egean; and in Asia Minor the Greek govern- 
 ment received Smyrna and adjacent territory (un- 
 der Turkish suzerainty) for administration as 
 mandatory of the League of Nations, and for 
 decision by the League at the end of five years 
 of the question of definitive incorporation in the 
 kingdom of Greece. Mr. Venizelos, the Greek rep- 
 resentative, engaged that Greek forces would un- 
 dertake in cooperation with the Allies in Con- 
 stantinople to drive back and suppress the Kemal- 
 ists or Turkish Nationalists in Anatolia. This 
 left the question of the disposal of Eastern Thrace 
 undecided and when King Alexandros died Octo- 
 ber, 1920, and the Greeks recalled Constantine to 
 the throne, the Allies being opposed to the latter, 
 it even jeopardized apparently some of the settle- 
 ments of the Sevres treaty, which was already 
 in process of revision. The new Greek admin- 
 istration and both Turkish factions were sum- 
 moned to send representatives- to the London 
 conference to arrange their differences among them- 
 selves and suppress hostilities in Asia Minor. The 
 delegates convened in St. James's Palace on Feb- 
 ruary 21, 1921, and sat until March 13. 
 
 836
 
 M 
 
 |5l;"ti--'-. 
 
 /^
 
 BALKAN STATES, 1921 
 
 Jugoslavia 
 Macedonia 
 
 BALKAN STATES, 1921 
 
 Jugo-Slavia. — "Jugo-Slavia is summed up in the 
 reply of a deputation of Serbs to the question, 
 'What do you understand by a nation?' The 
 question was put in 1848, when the Serbs were 
 petitioning for recognition of their national lan- 
 guage in the Magyar state, and they replied: 'A 
 nation is a race which possesses its own language, 
 customs, culture, and enough self-consciousness 
 to preserve them.' According to this view, a 
 single nation could exist divided among several 
 political rulers. . . . Political organization came 
 in those dark days of 1917, when the present 
 kingdom's territory was altogether in the hands 
 of the enemy, and the government had fled, with 
 the remnants of the army, to the Greek island of 
 Corfu. There on July 20, 1917, the so-called 
 'Declaration of Corfu' was signed by 'the Presi- 
 dent of the Council, Minister of Foreign Af- 
 fairs of the Kingdom of Serbia, Nikola Pashitch, 
 and the President of the Jugo-Slav Committee, 
 Dr. Anton Trumbic' This declaration, practically 
 all of whose terms have since been put into 
 effect, runs, in its most essential parts, as fol- 
 lows: 
 
 "(i) The state of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, 
 who are also known by the name of Southern 
 Slavs or Jugo-Slavs, will be a free and inde- 
 pendent kingdom, with an indivisible territory and 
 unity of power. This state will be a constitu- 
 tional, democratic, and parliamentary monarchy, 
 with the Karageorgewitch dynasty, which has al- 
 ways shared the ideals and feelings of the nation 
 in placing above everything else the national lib- 
 erty and will, at its head. (2) The name of 
 this state will be the Kingdom of the Serbs, 
 Croats and Slovenes, and the title of the sovereign 
 will be King of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. . . . 
 (9) The territory of the Serbs, Croats and Slo- 
 venes will comprise all the territory where our 
 nation lives in compact masses and without dis- 
 continuity. . . ." — New kingdom of Jugo-Slavia 
 (Literary Digest, Jan. 8, 1921, pp. 10, 25-26). 
 — "The official name of the country is the BLing- 
 dom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, which 
 is generally abbreviated in Europe to the King- 
 dom of the S.H.S., these letters being the initials 
 of the name in the native tongue — Srba, Hrvata i 
 Slovenica. . . . This kingdom is made up of the 
 old kingdoms of Serbia and Montenegro and the 
 Austro-Hungarian provinces of Slovenia, Croatia, 
 Slavonia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Dalmatia, and what 
 is now known as the Voivodine, which includes the 
 several small provinces north of the Danube be- 
 tween Slavonia and the new Rumanian boundary. 
 The population of the kingdom is practically all 
 Slav, with a small admixture of Turks in south- 
 ern Serbia, a few Italians in some of the cities 
 along the Adriatic, and groups of Hungarians, 
 Austrians and Germans in some of the other 
 provinces. Aside from the Turks in southern 
 Serbia and the Hungarians and Germans in the 
 Voivodine, the non-Slav population is confined al- 
 most entirely to the cities and towns. This is 
 especially true along the Adriatic, where even 
 the hinterland of Trieste, which has been given 
 to the Italians, is almost entirely Slav, while the 
 city itself has a large Italian majority." — W. G. 
 Atwood, Jugoslavia's resotirces and beauty (N . Y. 
 Times Current History, Feb., 1921, p. 278). — As the 
 result of a plebiscite in its southern part, the en- 
 tire district of Klagenfurt on the Austrian frontier 
 remained Austrian, the Serb troops therein being 
 withdrawn. "The question of the South Slavs pre- ' 
 sented no fundamental difficulty. It was gen- 
 erally agreed that the people of the provinces 
 of Carniola, Croatia, Slavonia, Dalmatia, Bosnia, 
 and Herzegovina should be given their freedom; 
 
 and there was already a movement on foot to 
 have them all unite with their kinsmen of Monte- 
 negro and Servia in a large Jugo-Slavic state. 
 It would undoubtedly be difficult to hold in one 
 union these people, of the same race, indeed, but 
 differing much in culture and religion. The im- 
 mediate difficulty, however, was to reconcile con- 
 flicting ambitions of Italians and South Slavs on 
 the \driatic coast, and assure the new federation 
 an outlet to the sea. . . . All down the Dalmatian 
 coast, on the eastern side of the Adriatic, were 
 old Italian towns and a fringe of Italian popu- 
 lation, while the great mass of the people, in 
 the country behind, were South Slavs. The islands 
 and the seaport towns were, indeed, largely un- 
 redeemed Italian land, but if they were all given 
 to Italy then an outlying fringe of Italians would 
 shut off from the sea a far greater number of 
 Jugo-Slavs. As a matter of fact, because of 
 the broad untracked Dinaric Alps, just back from 
 the coast, the South Slavic people would be ef- 
 fectually shut off from the sea if they were not 
 given Fiume. . . ." — E. R. Turner, Europe, 1789- 
 1920, pp. 582-584. — By the Treaty of Rapallo, the 
 independence of Fiume was recognized by both 
 Italy and Jugoslavia; Zara and adjacent com- 
 munes and the islands of Cherso, Lussin, Lagosta 
 and Pelagosa were recognized as forming parts of 
 the Kingdom of Italy. 
 
 Macedonia, the apple or discord. — "In the 
 Balkans, may be transformed into a fruit of con- 
 tent and happiness if the vision of a greater 
 Jugo-Slavia now looming should become realized. 
 Thus it seems to a political correspondent of 
 the Paris Temps at Sofia, who believes in the com- 
 ing of this greater Jugo Slavia, which will unite 
 all the southern Slavs, including the Macedonians 
 and the Bulgarians. The first evidence of the 
 solidification of the southern Slavs, he reminds 
 us, was the formation of the kingdom of Serbs, 
 Croats, and Slovenes. ... In the new kingdoAi of 
 Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes . . . the spirit of fed- 
 eralism will triumph, and in this frame of greater 
 Jugo-Slavia, Macedonia might find sufficient in- 
 dependence so that she would cease to be a bone 
 of contention between the Serbians and the Bul- 
 garians. . . . Macedonia is 'no longer an object 
 of conquest by force of arms among the Bul- 
 garians.' 'Two cruel experiences have cured them 
 of this policy of expansion,' . . . and have made 
 them understand that they must not mix up 
 selfishly in Macedonian affairs. It is noted as a 
 significant fact that the present Bulgarian Gov- 
 ernment includes no Macedonians, altho all for- 
 mer cabinets had one or even several Mace- 
 donians. . . . 'Nevertheless, even if the principle of 
 federation remain in abeyance, Jugo-Slavia is sol- 
 emnly bound by the terms of the convention on 
 the protection of minorities to confer the free- 
 dom of cultural liberty under the protection of 
 the League of Nations. If to this obligation be 
 added the effect of parliamentary government and 
 universal suffrage — for there is no doubt that young 
 Jugo-Slavia is inspired with a spirit of broad 
 liberalism— Belgrade and Sofia will gradually find 
 in Macedonia, which formerly held them apart, the 
 instrument of reconciliation. ... At present there 
 are in Bulgaria more than 200,000 Macedonians 
 who took refuge there during recent decades and 
 are organized strongly in an association of Mace- 
 donian fraternities. These are sixty-eight in num- 
 ber and correspond to the different districts and 
 cities of Macedonia from which their members 
 have come. Once a month these societies send 
 their delegates to Sofia, where they meet in a kind 
 of Macedonian parliament, presided over by an 
 executive committee. The parliament of 1920 con- 
 
 837
 
 BALKAN STATES, 1921 
 
 Montenegro 
 Rumania 
 
 BALKAN STATES, 1921 
 
 vened in Sofia.' " — Vision of a happy Balkans 
 (Literary Digest, Jan. 8, 1921, p. 26). 
 
 Montenegro. — "Montenegro, included in the 
 new state of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, in 
 spite of some objections on the part of its former 
 rulers, has lately inspired a resolution of pro- 
 test signed by some fifty prominent members of 
 the British parliament, including Viscounts Bryce 
 and Gladstone and Earl Curzon. This protest, as 
 reported by Current History (New York), reads: 
 'Having regard to the most gallant services ren- 
 dered by Montenegro, the smallest of our Allies, 
 and to the heavy cost she has sustained, her peo- 
 ple have the clear right to determine their future 
 form of government ; it is, therefore, necessary 
 that a Parliament should be elected under the 
 Montenegrin Constitution to decide this question, 
 free voting being secured by the withdrawal of 
 all the Serbian troops and officials at present oc- 
 cupying the country.' " — New kingdom of Jugo- 
 slavia (Literary Digest, Jan. 8, 1921, p. 26). 
 "Two events occurred which have gone far to 
 remove the Montenegrin question from being a 
 thorn in the side of the Belgrade government, 
 . . . — the death of the dethroned King Nicholas 
 and the reports of the British commissioners, 
 Roland Bryce and Major L. E. Otterley, in re- 
 gard to the elections in Montenegro. As long as 
 King Nicholas lived he could not help but have 
 a following, particularly among the older 
 Montenegrins, who had regarded him as the natural 
 head of the Serbo-Montenegrin people. . . . Al- 
 though he declared war on Austria-Hungary 
 shortly after Vienna had declared war on Serbia, 
 his negotiations for a separate peace with the 
 enemy show that he believed the cause of the 
 Allies to be lost. There are documents in ex- 
 istence even betraying his lack of sincerity to- 
 ward the Entente. Since the armistice he had 
 been a pensioner of the French Government at 
 Antibes, where he conducted a propaganda for the 
 recovery of his throne until his death there, on 
 March i. It is now expected that the Nationalist 
 party in Montenegro, which has been campaign- 
 ing for independence, but without a restoration, 
 will gradually cease hostilities toward the estab- 
 lished government, and that the Supreme Coun- 
 cil will finally define the actual status of 
 Montenegro as a part of the monarchy of the 
 Croats, Serbs and Slovenes — Jugoslavia." — Jugo- 
 slavia complains about Bulgaria (New York 
 
 Times Current History, Apr., 1921, pp. 173-174). 
 
 Rumania. — Rumania, "crushed almost as com- 
 pletely as Serbia" in the war, triumphed in the 
 peace arrangements, being more than "doubled 
 in size by having taken Transylvania (Romania 
 Irredenta) from the Magyars, and a portion of 
 Bukovina, regaining Bessarabia from Russia, as 
 well as retaining the Dobrudja on the south. . . . 
 She became greater and more important than her 
 neighbors, Austria, Bulgaria or any of the Bal- 
 kan states. . . . The domestic history of the coun- 
 try reveals steady development and increase in 
 material prosperity. . , . Large estates were di- 
 vided among the peasants and universal suffrage 
 granted. . . . The people claim descent from Ro- 
 man colonists of the time of Trajan, and their 
 language is an offspring of the Latin, but most 
 of the people are Slavic and ... of the Greek 
 Orthodox church." — E. R. Turner, Europe, 
 17S9-1920, pp. 465-466. — Their treatment of the 
 Jews has been harsh in spite of the guarantees 
 for the protection of religious and racial minor- 
 ities contained in the treaty which the Rumanians 
 finally signed at Paris, December q, igiq. With- 
 drawing at the same time their forces in Buda- 
 pest and other parts of Hungary on the one 
 hand and from Russia beyond the Bessarabian 
 frontier on the other, Rumania is nevertheless 
 compelled to maintain huge defensive forces against 
 white and red foreign enemies, while struggling 
 to repair the tremendous devastation of the war 
 and to heal internal dissensions. — See also Albania; 
 Bulgaria; Greece; Montenegro; Rumania; Ser- 
 bia; Turkey, etc. 
 
 Also in: E. Driault. La question d'Orient. — 
 D. G. Hogarth, Nearer East.—H. C. Woods, Dan- 
 ger zone of Europe. — N. Buxton and C. L. Leese, 
 Balkan problems and European peace. — Agnes E. 
 Conway, Ride through the Balkans. — Sir C. Eliot, 
 Turkey in Europe. — N. Forbes and others. The 
 Balkans. — F. Fox, Balkan peninsula. — G. Hano- 
 taux. La Guerre des Balkans et VEurope. — A. von 
 Huhn. Struggle of the Balkans for national in- 
 dependence under Prince Alexander. — J. E. 
 Gueshoff (Guechoff), Politics of the Balkan 
 League. — W. Miller, Balkans. — W. S. Murray, 
 Making of the Balkan State. — .'\. Muzet, Aux 
 pays Balkaniques. — J. G Schurman, Balkan Wars, 
 1012-1013. — M. I. Newbigin, Geographical aspects 
 of Balkan problems. — R. W. Seton-Watson, Rise 
 of nationality in the Balkans. 
 
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