THE NEW LARNED HISTORY FOR READY REFERENCE READING AND RESEARCH VOLUME I Original Edition — s '"olumes .... 18QJ-4 Seconti Edilion — original edition revised, with supplemental volume igol Third Edition — as second, with scroiid supplc- mcn'al volume igio Complete Revision — 12 volumes .... ig22 r H F NEW L .-L f V HISTORY OR READY R iES( READING AND R' A COMPLETE SYSTl TO ALL COUN'TRlEh TT-J ir t-;Fi •'WiffiTtc^io^h/^H/ i^A-oiiiwii a( dmcn iJKnisfTcKfr. iii '.nowuT lo tSdv/riJioa asiini oft WltH A LARGE WPMBrR OP TEXt tL S, llANV Or THFL. '.TS, DJ DUOTONK, AND PKONTISWK • iiili^Mil. .,Ki, -..■. lORICAL AND OTa:» MA 1 s n. sn ! ;pT?i::ryiKt-n, mas? THE CASA GR.\NDE, ARIZONA One or the Most Fauoos Rdins or a Prehistoric Race in America The principal structure of a ruined pueblo on the south bank ol the Gila River, 8c miles northwest of Tucson. Its aboriginal name is Sitatu-Ki ^House of Sivano) Painlfd by Olio Kiirlh Fr.tn phdrtfTipk Copyrishlai hy Pubiiikm' Pholt Sertice THE NEW LARNED HISTORY FOR READY REFERENCE READING AND RESEARCH THE ACTUAL WORDS OF THE WORLD'S BEST HISTORIANS BIOGRAPHERS AND SPECIALISTS A COMPLETE SYSTEM OF HISTORY FOR ALL USES, EXTENDING TO ALL COUNTRIES AND SUBJECTS AND REPRESENTING THE BETTER AND NEWER LITERATURE OF HISTORY THE WORK of J. N. LARNED COMPLETELY REVISED. ENLARGED AND BROUGHT UP TO DATE UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF THE PUBLISHERS BY DONALD E. SMITH, Ph.D. EDITOR-IN-CHIEF CHARLES SEYMOUR, M.A., Ph.D., Litt.D. AUGUSTUS H. SHEARER, M.A., Ph.D. DANIEL C. KNOWLTON, Ph.D. ASSOCIATE EDITORS AND A LARGE CORPS OF SPECIALLY TRAINED HESEAHCHERS, CRITICAL READERS, INDEXERS, ETC. IN 12 VOLUMES VOL. I. — A TO BALK WITH A LARGE NUMBER OF TEXT ILLUSTRATIONS, MAPS AND CHARTS, MANY OF THEM PULL-PAGE INSERTS, IN DUOTONE, AND FRONTISPIECES IN COLOR; ALSO NUMEROUS DOUBLE AND SINGLE-PAGE HIS- TORICAL AND OTHER MAPS IN COLOR, FROM ORIGINAL STUDIES AND DRAWINGS BY ALAN C. REILEY AND OTHERS SPRINGFIELD, MASSACHUSETTS C. A. NICHOLS PUBLISHING COMPANY BUSINESS FOUNDED l8SI 1922 Copyright, 1804. 1901, 1910, By J N. LARNED Copyright. igi3, By S. J. LARNED (Above copyrights have been assigned to the publishers.) Copyright, 1922, By C. a. NICHOLS PUBL1SHL\G COMPANY AU rights reserved J. J. Little & Ives Coir.pany, New York City, U. S. A. Composition. Piatci. & Presswork J. F. Tapley Company. Long Island City, U. S. A, binding StacR D EDITORIAL ORGANIZATION EDITOR OF ORIGINAL EDITION AND INVENTOR OF THE SYSTEM J. N. LARNED Librarian, BufTalo Public Library C1877- 1897) President, American Library Association (1892-1804) Author of "History of England for Schools," "A History of the United States for Secondary Schools," "Seventy Centuries," etc. REVISION STAFF EDITOR-IN-CHIEF DONALD E. SMITH, A.B. (Cornell), Ph.D. (C.^LIFORNIA) Professor of History, Geojiraphy and Economics Formerly at Uni\-ersity of California, Toledo Univer'^ity, etc. Author of "Viceroy of New Spain in iSth Century," "Diary of the Portola Expedition" (with F. J. Teggart), "The Geographic Factor in English History" (in "English Leadership", with J. N. Earned, W. H. Taft, et al.) ASSOCIATE EDITORS CHARLES SEYMOUR, B.A., M. A. (Camrridgk, Eng.), Ph.D. (Yale), Litt.D. (Western Reserve) Professor of History at Yale University Chief of Ausfro Hungarian division of American Commission to Negotiate Peace Author of "Electoral Reform in England and Wales," "Diplomatic Background of the War," "How the World Votes" (with D. P. Fraryl, "What Really Happened at Paris" (with Col. E. M. House), "Woodrow Wilson and the World War," etc. AUGUSTUS H. SHEARER, A.B., A.M., Ph.D. (Harvard) Librarian, Grosvenor Library, Buffalo Lecturer, University of Buffalo Formerly Bibliographer, Newberry Library, Chicago, and Chairman, American Library .Association Committee on Manual of Historical Literature DANIEL C. KNOWLTON. A.B., Ph.D. (Cornell) Head of History and Civics, The Lincoln School of Teachers College, New York Member of Editorial Board of "The Historical Outlook" Author of many books on teaching of history and (with S. B. Howe) of " Essentials in Modern European History," and (with Professors Hazen and Webster) of a series of wall-charts on ancient, niedieval and modern history ASSISTANT EDITORS ALLEN L. CHURCHILL, A.B. (Bowdoin) On editorial staff of New International Encyclopicdia and associate editor. New International Year Book HENRI F. KLEIN (London) Formerly librarian "London Times," on editorial staff "London Standard" and contributing editor, "Encyclopedia Americana," etc. HELENA (DOUGHTY) PETERSON, A.B. (Vassar), A.M. (Wisconsin) Formerly high school teacher of history JAMES R. ROBERTSON, A.B. (Beloit), A.M. (Michigan), Ph.D. (California) Professor of History and Political Science, Berea College, Kentucky Formerly assistant curator, Bancroft Library of University of California FRED C. WHITE, A.B., A.M. (Alfred) First assistant in History. Morris High School, New York City V 2227770 EDITORIAL O^^A^NIZATION CRITICAL EDITORIAL READERS AND COMPILERS MARGARET ALSTON BUCKLEY (Church of Irel.\nd Teachers' College) WINTHROP A. HAMLIN, A.B. (H.\rv.«d) ELIZABETH HENDEE, A.B. (Iowa) MARJORIE B. GREENBIE, A.B. (Cornell) Ph.D. (Yale) WILLIAM JAFFE, A.M. (Columbl^) JOHN ALDEN KROUT, A.B. (Miciugan), A.M., Ph.D. (Coldubm) CIL\RLES F. ZIMMELE, Ph.B. (Lehigh) RESEARCHERS AND COMPILERS RUTH L. BENJAMIN, A.B. (Barnard) EDITH LACY JULIA V. BOLGER, A.B. (Barnard), A.M. DAVID LINDENAUER, B.Sc. (Columbia) M. M. LOURENS JAY B. BOTSFORD, A.B., Ph.D. (Columbia) LEAH L. LOWENSOHN, A.B., A.M. (Cornell) LOIS C.\SSIDY, A.B. (VVelle.sley), A.M. ROSE LOWENSOHN (Columbia) MERCEDES I. MORITZ, A.B. (B.^RN.\Rn) E. MAUD COLVIN, M.Mus. JAMES F. MORTON, Jr., A.B., A.M. (Harvard) HANA (GEFFEN) JOSEPHSON RICHARD P. READ, A.B. (Cornell) MARION (WARREN) FRY, A.B. (Barnard) VICTOR RIGHKTTI (Neuch.atel and Florence) ANNA COOK, A.B. (Mt. Holyoke) JANET H. ROBB, A.B. (Barnard) ISADOR GINSBURG, A.B. (Coi.raBi.-i) CORNELIA SHAW, A.B. (Welt.esley) PHILIP A. GREENBERG (University of Kiev) LUELL.\ (G.AFFNEY) SMITH FELICE H. JARECKY, A.B. (Barnard) eRNA (GUNTHER) SPIER. A.B. (Barn.\rd) A.M. LINA KAHN, A.m., Ph.D. (Columbia) (Columbia) ETHEL A. KOSSMAN, A.B. (Barn.^rd) JEAN WICK, A.B. (Barnard) PRESS EDITORS GRACE F. CALDWELL, A.B. (Minnesota) A.M. (California) (Until January, 1921) CHRISTINE CATREVAS, A.B. (Mt. Holyoke) ART EDITOR OTTO KURTH INDEXERS AND REFERENCERS ' MARJORIE FISHER (N. Y. Public Libr.\ry School) GRACE K. HAVILAND (Chicago University) KATHERINE KELJ.OGG, A.B. (California), (California State Library School) DORIS LITTMAN, A.B. (Western Reserve) . ROSE LOWENSOHN FRANCES MORTON, A.B. (Nebrask.\), (Iowa University Library Training) Note: It will be understood that in buildinc a work with the quoted words of the be.st authorities, it was a prerequisite that, in addition to other special qualifications, each member of the editorial organization should have specialized in the field of history and historical literature — the broadest interpretation being given to the term history. We gi\'e the full list of names, with selections from available data as to some, though all have taught, written or lectured on, or devoted years of study to. history, civics, government, economics, etc. etc. Each of the inde.xers had extended experience in library work also. See Publishers' Foreword and Edi- tors' Preface. The Publishers. VI PUBLISHERS' FOREWORD With confident expectation of a well-nigh universal welcome and approval, we are pleased to introduce THE NEW EARNED HISTORY FOR READY REFERENCE, READING AND RESEARCH. THE NEW EARNED HISTORY, as it will be familiarly called, is the culmination of long-cherished hopes and plans. For several years there has been an increasing demand from thousands of owners and users of the older Earned work, and others, for the later historical material — later, ir respect to modern scholarship, as well as chronology — not found in our publication or any other. And, in consequence, soon after the outbreak of the World War, we determined to meet the need in the most adequate way. First of all, and as a proper service to former patrons, a painstaking expert examination of the existing work was made to determine the practicability of adding a third "recent-history," sup- plemental volume. As the War continued, however, it became apparent that "recent history" was rapidly attaining such proportions that it would not be possible to present it in a single volume. Moreover, we were convinced that a mere supplemental volume, or volumes, bringing the work up to dale chronologically, would only partially solve the problem. There would still be lacking the indispensable neu^ historical knowledge needed to correct, amend, and supplement certain portions of the old Earned text. And, furthermore, we realized that a set with three supplemental volumes would involve four indexes to be con- sulted and would therefore not be in accord with the Earned ideal of "ready reference." Our conclusion therefore was that only through a complete revision and large extension of the old work, could we provide, for the benefit of old and new patrons, the following substantial additions and improvements: 1. Elimination of material which, though previously accepted as authorita- tive, had, as a result of modern research and interpretation, become obsolete, valueless and, in some cases, even harmful. 2. Addition of an important array of newly available and indispensable ma- terial of distinct value in portraying certain events and movements of history treated in the old work. 3. Inclusion of the most reliable records and descriptions of events and move- ments since 1910 — a period that may hereafter be considered the most important in all time. 4. Organization of, and welding together into one harmonious whole, all this world-history, by application of Larned's unique and unexcelled alpha- betical-chronological system of arrangement, with interwoven index, references and cross-references, citations, bibliographies, etc. [For fuller explanation of system, see page xxi.) 5. Illumination of the text by authentic and artistic Olustrations, charts, maps, etc. THE NEW EARNED HISTORY was begun in August, 1916, and besides the above named important objects, it was decided to increase still further the usefulness and value of the work by (a) Broadening its scope, through an interpretation of History as embracing practically everything that has affected the life of mankind since time began. {b) Adding thousands of new entries, for the purpose of defining historical words and terms and of locating places and people, historicaUy (not to provide substitutes for dictionaries, gazeteers, biographies). (c) Largely increasing the number of historical and other maps. (d) Providing frontispieces in color and numerous inserts in duotone, to illus- trate scenes, things and persons of distinct historical importance and interest. Further explanation of the reasons for, and scope of, the revision will be found in the Editors' preface. vii PUBLISHERS' FOREWORD To accomplish all these objects required historical, bibliographical, editorial and other knowledge and skill of a high order, and we sought the advice of some of the leading historical scholars and librarians before choosing our Editor-in-chief and his associates. We were contident that those selected possessed the necessary special qualifications and felt that we were fortunate in securing the advantages of the varied points of view of trained students and teachers of history in university, college and school, the experienced librarian, and the publicist. And, with the purpose of achieving results as nearly perfect as humanlv possible, we devised an elaborate system of research, compilation, critical reading, and review by each editor of all manuscripts, with amplification, modification or change in accord with the final concensus of editorial opinion. These processes, and the indexing, cross-referencing, proof-reading and arranging of bibliographies were entrusted to individuals who were well qualified by education and experience and who also enjoyed our own special training. We are pleased to record on page v the names of these valued coadjutors. The entire undertaking necessarily rested upon the cooperation of authors and pub- lishers, for we could not quote from their copyrighted works without permisson and did not purpose, without acquiescence, even to make extracts from books not so protected. The "golden rule" of observing all the rights of those concerned has been consistently obeyecf; we have been allowed to draw from a "golden fountain" of historical literature and' we value among our most prized possessions the hundreds of letters most generously and cor- dially granting us the desired permissions. These permissions are quite exceptional and We are confident the owners and users of THE NEW LARNED HISTORY will be fully ap^- preciative and will join us in grateful acknowledgment of the great service thus rendered by our brother publishers and authors of the English-speaking world and elsewhere. More detailed acknowledgments will be found on page xiii. Perhaps it is needless to say that our procedure in this respect has been in strict accord with the Earned practice, as stated in the preface to the original edition, written by Earned himself, from which we quote as follows: — "But the extensive borrowing which the work represents has not been done in an unlicensed way. I have felt warranted, by common custom, in using moderate extracts without permit. But for everything beyond these, in my selections from books now in print and on sale, whether under copyright or deprived of copyright, I have sought the consent of those, authors or publishers, or both, to whom the right of consent or denial appears to belong. . . . The authors of books have other rights beyond their rights of property, to which respect has been paid. No liberties have been taken with the text of their writings. ... In the matter of difTerent spellings, it has been more difficult to preserve for each writer his own. As a rule this is done, in names, and in the divergencies between English and American orthography; but, since much of the matter quoted has been taken from American editions of English books, and since both copyists and printers have worked under the habit of American spellings, the rule may not have governed with strict consistency throughout." The dimensions of the new work considerably exceed those of its predecessor, which had 5600 pages. Roughly speaking, seventy percent of the old has been retained in the new work, which totals about 10,000 pages, approximating 12,000,000 words. Thus sixty percent of the new work comprises additional material supplied by the present editorial organization. The entire work is new mechanically. The plates are made from linotype composition. The format and type faces were'specially designed to insure readability, attractive appearance and, withal, economy. THE NEW LARNED HISTORY, to an even greater degree than the old work, offers to the casual reader the opportunity of discovering quickly and easily the established facts concerning an}' historical e\ent or movement: to the scholar it constitutes a technical guide, providing him at once with the conclusions of the most eminent historians, and an indication as to where further information ma)' be obtained. In addition to its encyclopedic and bibliographical uses the work serves as a compendium of the best historical literature, since the more important historical articles are not, as in the case of some historical dictionaries and encyclopedias, the work of so-called hack writers, but are composed of careful selections from the writings of the world's leading historians. They include some of the finest passages from Herodotus, Froissart, Machiavelli, Voltaire, Gibbon, JNIacaulay, Ranke, Treitschke, Stubbs, Renan, Lavisse, Aulard, Ferrero, Breasted, Parkman, Rhodes, and a host of other famous writers. The student will thus find in the revised Earned work, not merely the most authoritative statement of facts, but also unlimited examples of the best historical writing. Those of us who were privileged to plan the undertaking and to observe at close range the labors of the Editors and their assistants, can testify to the difficulties of the task. It demanded broad vision and the most delicate sense of proportion. The high degree of suc- viii PUBLISHERS' FOREWORD cess achieved by the earlier edition, while it supplied a stimulus, did not remove the necessity of gathering a vast collection of new material, some of it to describe the events of the past three decades, much to supplant material in the unrevised edition which might fairly be regarded as out of date. There was necessary the meticulous weighing of the merits of different accounts of the same subject; a close acquaintance with the sources and materials of history in all generations, and the scrupulous investigation of the most recent and most authoritative output of historical literature. Finally, it required a sense of imagination, unusually acute, which would enable the Editors to place themselves in the positions of people in various walks of life so as to visualize the sort of information these people were likely to seek. Only thus, indeed, could the work possibly justify itself and supply the incomparable Lamed service to all who would apply to it for aid. The extent to which those demands have been met and the success with which the accompanying difficulties have been overcome will be demonstrated in the actual experience of those who use the work, and theirs will be the final words of appreciation. As constant observers and critics, we confidently promise that THE NEW EARNED HISTORY will be for this generation what the "Old Earned" was for the past — than which there can be no higher praise.. The familiarity with history, histories and historians, resulting from use of these volumes, should prove a constant stimulus to the acquisition and reading of some of the older standard books and many of the worth)' new books as they are published. In this connection our carefully prepared bibliographies and lists of books, selections from which have been made, will prove a valuable guide, especially when supplemented by our established "Editorial Service" which may be freely called upon at all times. Finally, it is our earnest hope and expectation, as publishers for more than seventy years and as producers of the former editions and supplemental volumes of the Earned work, that the further knowledge and understanding of world-history made available in THE NEW EARNED HISTORY FOR READY REFERENCE, READING AND RESEARCH will constitute a genuine public service and contribute appreciably towards the raising of the standard of citizenship and government in our own country and elsewhere. For, as Burke said: "In History a great volume is unrolled for our instruction, drawing the materials of future wisdom from the past errors and infirmities of mankind." And, when mortals thus turn their errors into stepping stones leading to the Divine Way of Life, they will share what Cervantes evidently visioned when he wrote: "History is like sacred writing because Truth is essential to it, and where Truth is, there God himself is." C. A. NICHOLS PUBLISHING COMPANY F. C. H. Gibbons, Managing Director. IX EDITORS' PREFACE The problem of writing a history of the world which will be at once fully satisfactory to scholars and to the general reader has never been fully solved. Nevertheless, the initial publication of LARNED'S HISTORY FOR READY REFERENCE was undoubtedly the nearest approach to a solution. For nearly thirty years, that work has held a detinitely marked position in the field of historical studies and has been the standard work of historical reference for both casual student and professional scholar. It was the purpose of the author to present a coherent narrative of thehistory of mankind which would be not merely authentic, instructive and interesting, but would also permit the reader to have actually before him, the words of the great masters of historical writing. Perhaps we can do no better than to state the aims of Earned, in his own words, quoted from the preface to the original edition: 'This work has two aims: to represent and exhibit the better Literature of Historj' in the Enghsh language, and to give it an organized body — a system - — adapted to the greatest convenience in any use, whether for reference, or for reading, for teacher, student, or casual inquirer. The entire contents of the work, with slight exceptions readily distinguished, have been carefully culled from some thousands of books, — embracing the whole range (in the English language) of standard historical writing, both general and special: the bi- ography, the institutional and constitutional studies, the social investigations, the archaeo- logical researches, the ecclesiastical and religious discussions, and all other important tribu- taries to the great and swelling main stream of historical knowledge. It has been culled as one might pick choice fruits, careful to choose the perfect and the ripe, where such are found, and careful to keep their flavor unimpaired. The flavor of the Literature of History, in its best examples, and the ripe quality of its latest and best thought, are faith- fully preserved in what aims to be the garner of a fair selection from its fruits. History as written by those, on one hand, who have depicted its scenes most vividly,' and by those, on the other hand, who have searched its facts, weighed its evidences, and pondered its meanings most critically and deeply, is given in their own words. If com- moner narratives are sometimes quoted, their use enters but slightly into the construction of the work. The whole matter is presented under an arrangement which imparts distinctness to its topics, while showing them in their sequence and in aU their large relations, both national and international. For every subject, a history more complete, I think, in the broad meaning of 'History,' is supplied by this mode than could possibly be produced on the plan of dry synopsis which is common to encyclopedic works. It holds the charm and interest of many styles of excellence in writing, and it is read in a clear light which shines directly from the pens that have made History luminous by their interpretations." That Earned achieved his purpose has been abundantly attested by the most exacting critics of all shades of opinion, and of the most diverse points of view. However, as has been so truly said, "Each generation must write its own history," and the time came to acknowledge the need of thorough revision. During the past thirty years historical scholars have been active as never before, in both research and interpretation. Much that our fathers knew is now recognized to be not in accord with the historical record, or of doubtful value. New light has been thrown on the events of the past; conclusions which had to be couched in tentative form may now be stated definitely, while other conclusions must be revised. The whole horizon of historical knowledge has been widened, while the general progress of science has given new significance to what was formerly thought unimportant or irrelevant. History, whether it be a science or an art, or something of both, is never static; it must always be regarded in the light of the present, and the present is always changing. Moreover, as the point of view of the generation has changed, the term "History" has broadened in its connotation. It is no longer merely what Professor Freeman called "past politics," but now embraces an infinite variety of subjects — literary, economic, social and scientific in character. A general work of historical reference must now include fully elaborated articles on such topics as education, chemistry, money and banking, philology and archaeology, which formerly would not have appeared to be within its scope. Finally, and if for no other reason, the need for revision would have been occasioned by the speed with which actual history has been made since the appearance of the former editions of the EDITORS' PREFACE Lamed work. In a sense, every age is one of transition, but the one in which we have been living seems to have been fraught with events of the utmost importance as affecting the progress of human civilization. Historical scholarship cannot refuse to deal with this most difiScult recent period, merely because of the difficulties arising from the lack of a proper historical perspective. The rapid development of applied science, the changing character of industrial organization, the internationalization of trade, the crises in international politics which culminated in the World War, and its aftermath; all these historical facts are of such weight and complexity that the student may justly demand an adequate guide to their comprehension. Furthermore, it has been recognized that in the writing of history methods change. Even where sources of information were open to the older historians, they often, because obsessed by political and diplomatic history, disregarded what now appear to be facts of fundamental importance. This was already recognized by the generation to which Lamed belonged, yet even he, in practice, encountered well-nigh insuperable obstacles in setting forth in orderly narrative the proper blending of these subjects with the social and economic facts of human existence. Larned recognized the need of a more adequate treatment of non-political history and met the difficulty by the creation of separate articles dealing with commerce, tariff-legislation, railroads and the like. In the present edition an even greater emphasis has been placed upon the facts of our industrial life. Such articles in the original work have been much enlarged, while many new articles, such as the industrial revolution, have been added. Likewise the former editions have been enriched by many new or fuller articles on subjects vital to the history of civilization such as architecture, sculpture, paint- ing, costume, drama, science, literature and religion. Popular interest in the best sense has also been aroused concerning many countries and parts of the earth which were regarded, only a quarter a century ago, as of interest only to specialists. The history of Latin America now subtends a much larger angle of the world's intellectual interest than in the nineteenth century. Questions relating to Africa and the Far East have taken on in recent years a new importance, while all phases of international relationships have come to occupy the foreground of our thought. All this has been taken into consideration in the preparation of the new work and constitutes, if not a departure from, at least a further development of the original Larned idea. The same is true of the two principal auxiliaries of history, namely, geography and political science or government to which extended treatment has been given. The necessity of knowing the location of historic places has led to the introduction of what may be termed a gazetteer feature, by which cities and places mentioned in the regular narrative are entered in their proper alphabetical place and their location briefly indicated, with necessary cross-references. In order to afford a quick and easy way of visualizing these places, the changes in boundaries and many other facts, a large number of specially prepared historical maps has been provided. These maps, if bound together, would constitute a complete historical atlas, such as is now used in our principal universities and colleges. Also, the claims of geography are met by the use of actual geographical description where, as so often is the case, a knowledge of the terrain and of the physical environment is essential to the understanding of history. The amplification of the material dealing with government or civics, in contradistinction to politics and political history, is likewise in response to a pressing need. Problems of municipal government and suffrage are not matters of mere abstract political theory, and they, and many cognate subjects, are treated as most important parts of the life of mankind. In order to understand better the broad political structure of a nation, the constitution of that nation is placed immediately with the article, and usually accompanied by explanations which will render it intelligible to the general reader. More than a rearrangement or a simple expansion of material in the former editions, is the use of illustrations. Often a picture can convey to the mind more than pages of descrip- tion. The hundreds of illustrations which are introduced into the new edition are intended primarily to be a part of the exposition of human development rather than ornamentation, and constitute, together with the maps and plans, a powerful visual help to the compre- hension of the drama of human progress. The two concluding volumes of the work are taken up principally with the history of the World War. It will of course be many years before all the evidence is in and the verdict of history rendered on all the extremely complex issues raised by this struggle. But in the meantime, we can know a great deal, and the most intense human interest must attach to that knowledge. The editors and publishers have spared no effort to bring together, after a most careful sifting and winnowing, a complete, authoritative, and impartial treatment of xi EDITORS' PREFACE the war, in all its phases, and with due regard to every point of view. The diplomacy, national policies, strategy and tactics, economics, international law, devastation and relief, and various other aspects of the great conflict of nations and interests, are set forth with informing amplicity and fidelity to truth. It is a well-known fact that the orthodox historians do not like to deal with these most recent events, which thev are tempted to call "present politics' or "historv in the making." In the presence of this difficulty, the compilers of THE NEW LARNEI) HISTORY are forced to draw more heavily upon documents, or the primary material for history, than for the periods in the more remote past. So far as practicable the material used for the history of these later years is taken from ofiicial sources; that is from statements of fact that are made with official responsibility, in despatches, reports, diplomatic correspondence and other state papers published with governmental sanction. Important documents connected with greater events of the times, such as treaties, international agreements, new national constitutions and legislative acts are given generally in full from officially printed texts. The aim has thus been to prepare for students and inquirers a compilation of recent history as nearly authentic in its sources as can be gathered thus immediately after the events, and to organize it for "ready reference" in the form that has had approval in the older work. The editors would be sadly remiss if they did not acknowledge their deep and constant obligations to the publishers and to the editorial office staff for their unwearied cooperation in carrying through the work to successful completion. Thanks are also due to the authori- ties of the New York Public Library and its Hamilton Grange branch for their kind coopera- tion in meeting our somewhat unusual demands upon their facilities; to the Russell Sage Foundation for the generous placing of its library resources at our service, and to the City Library Association of Springfield, Massachusetts, for help on bibliographical questions. DONALD E. SMITH CIL\RLES SEYMOUR DANIEL C. KNOWLTON AUGUSTUS H. SHEARER Xll ACKNOWLEDGMENTS In the Publishers' Foreword we have acknowledged in general terms the courtesy and liberality of authors and publishers, by whose permission we have used much of the matter quoted in this work. Follow- ing the example of the original editor. J. N. Larned, we wish now to make the acknowledgment more specific, by naming those persons and publishing houses whose cooperation has been so large a factor in maintaining the authorit.\- of the work, as well as its timeliness. Since many of the names in the original list are those of persons and firms no longer existent, we have thought it proper to retain that list with its original classifica- tions, as a separate item, omitting only the few whose contributions have been deleted, because later discov- eries, or later and more authentic information, have provided better material in replacement. The old list will be followed by a list of those authors and publishers who have contributed to the revision, and though some dupUcate names will be found in both, the fact may be easily accounted for. The two lists suggest two significant points of comparison, namely, the greater number of authors' names in the older list, and the noticeable increase in the American publishers' names in the present list. With regard to the first, we may say that most of the writers quoted in the revised portions of the old work and the addi- tions thereto, have authorized their publishers to represent them. And we may add that, although in some cases conditions have been imposed, neither from authors nor pubUshers have we met with refusal. With regard to the second point, it may be said to be an indication of the growth in historical scholarship and in publishing enterprise in this country. And, finally, with our acknowledgment, it is a very great pleasure to mention the helpful goodwill of rep- resentatives in America of English houses, which in not a few instances has strengthened the understanding and cooperation of such firms. The evidences of an Anglo-American community of interest, high purpose, and fraternal spirit, are also extremely gratifying. THE ORIGINAL LIST Evelyn Abbott, M.A.; President Charles Kendall Adams; Trof. Herbert B. Adams; Prof. Joseph H. Allen; Sir William Anson, Bart.; Rev. Henry M. Baird; Mr. Hubert Howe Bancroft; Hon. S. G. W. Benjamin; Sir Walter Besant; Prof. Albert S. Belles; John G. Bourinot, F..S S.; Henry Bradley, M.A.; Rev. James Franck Bright, D.D.; Daniel G. Brinton, M.D.; Prof. William Hand Browne; Prof. George Bryce; Rt. Hon. James Bryce, M.P.; Prof. J. B. Bury; Mr. Lucien Carr; Gen. Henry B. Carrington; Mr. John D. Champlin, Jr.; Mr. Charles Carleton Coffin; Hon. Thomas M. Cooley; Prof. Henry Coppee; Rev. Sir George W. Cox, Bart.; Gen. Jacob Dolson Cox; Mrs. Cox (for "Three Dec- ades of Federal Legislation." by the late Hon. Samuel S. Cox); Prof. Thomas F. Crane; Rt. Rev. Mandell Creighton, Bishop of Peterborough; Hon. J. L. M. Curry; Hon. George Ticknor Curtis; Prof. Robert K. Douglas; J. A. Doyle, M.A.; Mr. Samuel Adams Drake; Sir Mountstuart E. Grant-Duff ; Hon. Sir Charles Gavan Duffy ; Mr. Charles Henry Eden; Mr. Henry Sutherland Edwards; Orrin LesUe Elliott, Ph.D.: Mr. Loyall Farragut ; The Ven. Frederic William Farrar, Archdeacon of Westminster; Prof. George Park Fisher; Prof. John Fiske; Mr. Wm. E. Foster; William Warde Fowler, M.A.; Prof. Edward A. Freeman; Prof. James Anthony Froude: Mr. James Gairdner; Arthur Gilman, M..'\.; Mr. Parke Godwin; Rev. .Sabine Baring-Gould; Mr. Ulysses S. Grant. Jr. (for the "Personal Memoirs" of the late Gen. Grant); Mrs. John Richard Green (for her own writings and for those of the late John Richard CJreen); William Gres- well, M.B.; Maj. Arthur Griffiths; Frederic Harrison, M..'\.; Prof. Albert Bushnell Hart; Mr. William Heaton; Col. Thomas Wentworth Higginson; Prof. B. A. Hinsdale; Miss Margaret L. Hooper (for the writings of the late Mr. George Hooper); Rev. Robert F. Horton; Prof. James K. Hosmer; Col. Henry M. Hozier; Rev. William Hunt; Sir William Wilson Hunter; Mr. Rossiter Johnson; Mr. John Foster Kirk; The Ver>- Rev. George William Kitchin, Dean of Win- chester; Col. Thos. W. Knox; Mr. J. S. Landon; Hon. Emily Lawless; William E. H. Lecky. LL.D., D.C.L.; Mrs. Margaret Levi (for the "History of British Commerce," by the late Dr. Leone Levi); Prof. Charlton T. Lewis'; The Very Rev. Henry George Liddell, Dean of Christ Church, Oxford; Hon. Henry Cabot Lodge; Prof. Richard Lodge; Rev. W. J. Loftie; Mrs. Mary S. Long (for the "Life of General Robert E. r,ee," by the late Gen. A. L. Long); Mrs! Helen Lossing (for the writings of the late Benson J. Lossing); Charles Lowe, M.A.; Charles P. Lucas, B.A"; Justin McCarthy, M.P.; Prof. John Bach McMaster; Hon. Edward Mcl'herson; Prof. John P. Mahaify; Capt. Alfred T. Mahan. U.S.N. ; Col. George B. Malleson; Sir Clements R. Markham, F.R.S.; The Very Rev. Charles Merivale, Dean of Ely; Prof. John Henry Middleton; Mr. J. G. Cotton Minchin; Willi ,m R. MorfiU, M.A.; Rt. Hon. John Morley, M.P.; Mr. John T. Morse, Jr.; Sir William Muir; Mr. Harold Murdock; Rev. Arthur Howard Noll; Miss Kate Norgate; C. W. C. Oman, M.A.; Mr. John C. Palfrey (for "History of New England," by the late John Gor- ham Palfrey); Francis Parkman, LL.D.; Edward James Payne. M.A.; Charles Henry Pearson, M.A.; Mr. James Breck Perkins; Mrs. Mary E. Phelan (for the "History of Tennessee," by the late James Phelan); Col. George E. Pond; Reginald L. Poole, Ph.D.; Mr. Stanley Lane-Poole; William F. Poole, LL.D.; Maj. John W. Powell; Mr. John w! Probyn; Prof. John Clark Ridpath; Hon. Ellis H. Roberts; Hon. Theodore Roosevelt; Mr. John Codman Ropes; J. H. Rose, M. A.; I^rof. Josiah Royce; Rev. PhiHp Schaff; Jiunes Schouler, LL.D.; Hon. Carl Schurz; Mr. Eben Green- ough Scott; Sir J. R. Seeley; Prof. Nathaniel Southgate Shaler; Mr. Edward Morse Shepard; Col. M. V. Sheridan (for the "Personal Memoirs" of the late Gen. Sheridan); Mr. P. T. Sherman (for the "Memoirs" of the late Gen. Sher- xiii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS man); Samuel Smiles, LL.D.; Prof. Goldwin Smith; Prof. James Russell Soley; Mr. Edward Stanwood; Leslie Stephen, M.A.; Prof. H. Morse Stephens: Mr. Simon Sterne; Charles J. Stills, LL.D.; Sir John Strachey; Rt. Rev. William Stubbs, Bishop of Oxford; Prof. William draham Sumner; Prof. Frank William Taussig; Mr. William Roscoe Thayer; Prof. Robert H. Thurston; Mr. Telemachus T. Timayenis; Henry D. Traill, D.C.L.; Gen. R. de Trobriand; Mr. Bayard Tuckerman; Samuel Epes Turner, Ph.D.; Prof. Herbert Tuttle; Prof. Arminius Vambery; Mr. Henri Van Laun; Gen. Francis A. Walker; Sir D. Mackenzie Wallace; Spencer Walpole, LL.D.; Mr. J. Talboys Wheeler; Mr. Arthur Silva White; Sir Monier Monier-Williams; Justin Winsor, LL.D.; Rev. Frederick C. Woodhouse; John Yeats, LL.D.; Miss Charlotte M. Yonge. PUBLISHERS London: Messrs. W. H. Allen & Co.; Asher&Co.; George Bell & Sons; Richard Bentley & Son; Bickers & Sons; A. &C. Black; Cassell & Co.; Chapman & Hall; Chatto & Windus; Thos. De La Rue & Co.; H. Grevel & Co.; Grif- fith, Farran & Co.; W. Heinemann; Hodder & Stoughton; Longmans, Green & Co.; Sampson I.,ow, Marston & Co.; Macmillan & Co.; Methuen & Co.; John Murray; John C. Nimmo; Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co.; George Philip & Son; The Religious Tract Society ; Routledge & Sons; Seeley & Co.; Smith, Elder & Co.; Society for the Pro- motion of Christian Knowledge; Edward Stanford; Stevens & Haynes; Henry Stevens & Son; Elliot Stock; Swan Sonnenschein & Co.; The Times; T. Fisher Unwin; Ward, Lock, Bowden & Co.; Frederick Warne & Co.; Williams & Norgate. New York: Messrs. D. Appleton & Co.; Armstrong & Co.; A. S. Barnes & Co.; The Century Co.; T. Y. Crowell & Co.; Derby & Miller; Dodd, Mead & Co.; Harper & Brothers; Henry Holt & Co.; Townsend MacCoun; G. P. Putnam's Sons; Anson D. F. Randolph & Co.; D. J. Sadler & Co.; Charles Scribner's Sons; Charles L. Webster & Co. Edinburgh: Messrs. William Blackwood & Sons; W. & R. Chambers; David Douglas; Thomas Nelson & Sons; W. P. Nimmo. Philadelphia: Messrs. L. H. Everts & Co.; J. B. Lippincott Company; Porter & Coates. Boston: Messrs. Est es & Lauriat; Houghton, Mifflin & Co.; Little, Brown & Co.; D. Lothrop Company; Roberts Brothers. Dublin: Messrs. James Dufly & Co.; Hodges, Figgis & Co. Chicago: Messrs. Callaghan & Co.; A. C. McClurg & Co. Ciruinnati: Messrs. Robert Clarke & Co. Hartford, Conn.: Messrs. O. D. Case & Co.; S. S. Scranton & Co. Albany: Messrs. Joel Munsell's Sons. Cambridge, Eng.: The University Press. Norwich, Conn.: The Henry Bill Publishing Co. Oxford: The Clarendon Press. Providence, R. I.: Messrs. J. A. & R. A. Reid. THE ADDITIONAL LIST AUTHORS C. L. G. Anderson, M.D.; William Archer; Rev. James Baikie, F.R.A.S.; William D. Boyce; Robert Bruce; Mary Agnes Burton; Philip Cabot; George Agnew Chamberlain: Robert S. Cotterill; Dr. Dunshee de Abranches; Edward R. Dyer, D.D.; Logan Esary; John A. Fairlie, A.M., Ph.D.; Arthur T. Hadley, LL.D., Ph.D.; Lynn Haines; W. Haydon; G. K. Kaye; Helen E. Keep; Hon. Samuel W. McCall; Major Haldane Macfall; Sir Malcolm Mcllwraith, K.C.M.G.; J. A. R. Marriott, M.A.; David Hunter Miller, LL.M.; Floyd W. Parsons; Elia W. Peattie; M. M. Quaife, A.M., Ph.D.; James Harvey Robinson, A.M., Ph.D.; John Horace Round, M.A.; Robert Scott; Frank M. Sparks; D. J. Sweeney; William Jewett Tucker, D.D., LL.D.; Wilfred Mark Webb, F.L.S., F.R.M.S. PUBLISHERS Foreign: Messrs. W. H. Allen & Co., Ltd.; George Allen & Unwin, Ltd.; Balliere. Tindall & Cox; B. T. Batsford, Ltd.; G. Bell & Sons, Ltd.; A. and C. Black, Ltd.; Blackie & Son, Ltd.; The British Museum; James Brown & Son (The Nautical Press); Burns, Oates & Washbourne, Ltd.; Cambridge Antiquarian Society; Cassell & Co., Ltd.; Honors Champion; Chapman & Hall, Ltd.; Chatto & Windus; Clarendon Press; Wm. Collins Sons & Co., Ltd.; Commercial Press, Ltd.; Constable & Co.; The Contemporary Review; Cornish Brothers, Ltd.; J. M. Dent & Sons, Ltd.; Duck- worth & Co.; The Fortnightly Review; Alexander Gardner; The Hakluyt Society; George C. Harrap & Co., Ltd.; Harrison & Sons, Ltd.; Wm. Heinemann; His Majesty's .Stationery Office; Hodder & Stoughton; The Institute of Ja- maica; T. C. & E. C. Jack; P. S. King. & Son, Ltd.; T. Werner Laurie, Ltd.; The London Times; Luzac & Co.; Mac- Lehose, Jackson & Co.; Maunsel & Roberts, Ltd.; The Medici Society; .Andrew Melrose, Ltd.; Methuen & Co., Ltd.; John Murray; Thomas Nelson & Sons; Oxford University Press; Leonard Parsons, Ltd.; Keegan Paul Trench; George Philip & Son, Ltd.; Isaac Pitman & Sons; Probsthain & Co.; The Round Table; George Routledge & Sons, Ltd.; Samp- son Low, Marston & Co., Ltd.; Sands & Co.; Seeley, Service & Co., Ltd.; Sidgwick & Jackson, Ltd.; Simpkin, Mar- shall Hamilton, Kent & Co., Ltd.; Skeffington & Son, Ltd.; The Specialty Press; Edward Stanford, Ltd.; W. Thacker & Co.; T. Fisher Unwin; Watts & Co.; Wells, Gardner, Darton & Co., Ltd.; Williams & Norgate. American: Messrs. Abingdon Press; Academy of Political Science in the City of New York; Aeronautical Chamber of Comme.rce; Ally n & Bacon; H. Altemus Co. ; American Academy of Political and Social Science; .'Vmerican AssociatioD for International Conciliation; American Book Co.; The American City; American Civil Liberties Union; American Geographical Society; American Historical Review; American Humane Association; American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology; American Issue Publishing Co.; American Museum of Natural History; American Peace So- ciety; American Philosophical Society; American Political Science Review; American Review of Reviews; American Social Hygiene Association; American Society of International Law; American Tract Society; The W. H. Anderson Co.; The Anti-Saloon League of .\merica; Benjamin S. Appelstein, City Librarian, Baltimore (for the Baltimore Book); D. Appleton & Co.; Arkansas Historical Association; Art and Archaeology; Asia Publishing Co.; The Atlantic Monthly; Richard G. Badger; Edwin Swift Balch; Bankers Trust Co.; Banks & Co.; Banks Law Publishing Co.; G. Banta Pub- lishing Co.; The A. S. Barnes Co.; George Barrie's Sons; Matthew Bender & Co.; Edward Lyman Bill, Inc.; Bobbs- Merrill Co.; Boni & Liveright; Boston City Planning Board; R. R. Bowker Co.; The Bradley -Garretson Co., Ltd.; xiv Acknowledgments Brentano's; Nicholas L. Brown; The Burrows Brothers Co.; Callaghan & Co.; Canadian Official Publications; The Canadian Annual Review of Public Affairs; Carnegie Endowment for International Peace; Central Law Journal Co.; The Century Co.; The Century History Co.; Chamber of Commerce of the State ol New York; Charity Organization Society of the City of New York; The Christian Herald; The Christian Science Monitor; Citizens' Union of the City of New York; The Arthur H. Clark Co.; Columbia University Press: The Co-operative League of America; Crane & Co.; Thomas Y. Crowell Co.; Detroit Board of Commerce; Detroit Bureau of Governmental Research; Philip R. Dillon Publishing Co.; Dodd, Mead & Co.; Dodge Publishing Co.; M. A. Donohue & Co.; George H. Doran Co.; Double- day, Page & Co.; Dutton & Co.; The Elm Tree Press; Foreign Missions Conference of North America; Ginn & Co.; Glasgow, Brook & Co.; The Goodhue Co.; The H. W. Gray Co.; E. P. Greer; Harper & Brothers; Harvard Univer- sity Press; D. C. Heath & Co.; Norman W. Henley Publishing Co.; B. Herder Book Co.; Hinds, Hayden & Eldredge, Inc.; Historical Department of Iowa; Henry Holt & Co.; The Home Market Club; Houghton Mifflin Co.; B. W. Huebsch, Inc.; Illinois State Historical Library; The Independent; Industrial Management; International Journal of Ethics; International Trade Press; George W. Jacobs & Co.; Johns Hopkins Press; Journal of Education; Journal of Geography: Journal of International Relations; Joseph A. Judd Publishing Co.; P. J. Kenedy & Sons; Mitchell Ken- nerley; Charles H. Kerr & Co.; Alfred A. Knopf, Inc.; Korean National Association of America; John Lane Co.; La Salle E.xtension University; Lawyers' Cooperative Publishing Co.; Lewis Historical Publishing Co.; A. A. Lindsay Pub- lishing Co.; J. B. Lippincott Co.; Little Brown & Co.; The Living Age Co.; Longmans, Green & Co.; John W. Luce & Co.; Robert M. McBride & Co.; A. C. McClurg Co.; Thomas F. McGrath; The Macmillan Co.; A. M. Marton; Charles E- Merrill Co.; Methodist Book Concern; Methodist Episcopal Church, South, Publishing House of; Missis- sippi Historical Society; Moffat, Yard & Co.; Barry Mohun; Munn & Co. (The Scientific American); Munson Press Co.; Mnseum of Fine Arts (Boston); The Nation Press; National Housing Association; National Industrial Confer- ence Board; National Municipal League: Neale Publishing Co.; Nebraska State Historical Society; Thomas Nelson & Sons; The New Republic; New York Times Co.; Open Court Publishing Co.; The Outlook Co. ; The Page Co.; Paine Publishing Co.; Pan American Union; Park Institute of America; Pennsylvania Prison Society; The Philadelphia Museums; Le Roy Phillips; The Pilgrim Press; The Prang Co.; Princeton University Press; Protestant Episcopal Church, Educational Division, Department of Missions; G. P. Putnam's Sons; Rand McNally & Co.; Fleming H. Revell Co.; J. D. Rockefeller, Jr.; Rudder Publishing Co.; Russell Sage Foundation; G. Schirmer. Inc.; The Schulte Press; Scott, Foresman'& Co.; The A. A. Scranton Co.; Charles Scribner's Sons; Silver Burdett & Co.; Simmons- Boardman Publishing Co.; Small Maynard & Co.; United States National Museum; The State Co.; State Historical Society of Iowa; State Historical Society of Wisconsin; F, C. Stechert Co. Inc.; Stewart & Kidd Co.; Frederick A. Stokes Co.; Student Volunteer Movement for Foreign Missions; George Sully & Co.; The Survey Associates Inc.; Mrs. Charles F. Taylor (lor The Equity Series); The Torch Press; The Truth Seeker Co.; The Tuttle Morehouse & Taylor Co.; United States Government; United States Publishers Association; United Typothetae of America; Uni- versity of California; University of Chicago; University of Missouri; University of Southern California; D. Van Nos- trand Co.; James T. White & Co.; Williams & Wilkins Co.; The H. W. Wilson Co.; The John C. Winston Co.; Women's International League for Peace and Freedom; World Book Co.; World Peace Foundation; Yale Law Journal; Yale University Press. A full list of books quoted from will be found in the final volume. The Ust will include authors' and publishers' names. XV LTST OF MAPS IN VOLUME I 1. AFRICA, iqi4, political See Africa 2. AFRICA, mocleni railroad lines See Africa 3. AFRICA, political (colored) See Africa [Editor's Note: This map of the Dark Continent now has more definite and accurately determined frontiers than that of Asia, and it is possible to show the actual political subdivisions as they now stand. It will be noted that Abyssinia and Liberia arc the only remaining indejjendent states, and that all the rest of the continent has passed under the sovereignty or political control of the various European powers. However, the World War brought about several interesting changes in the i^olitical map of the continent. Togoland and the Kamerun (Cameroon) were di\'ided between France and England, the former country securing the greater part of both the former German colonies, German Southwest Africa was given to the Union of South Africa and German East Africa, renamed Tangamdka Territor\', to Great Britain. Tanganyika Territor.v, however, is not exactly coterminous with the former German East Africa because a district in the northwestern part was entrusted to Belgium. All these transfers of territory were made under the new system of mandates under the League of Nations. The reader shoidd also notice that the new name Kenya Territon,- is now ofhcially applied to the former British East African protectorate. The recent railroad development in .Africa and particularly the Cape to Cairo railway will be found on a special black and white map (see number 2 above).] 4. ALASKA, political (colored) • See Alaska 5. AMERICA, voyages of discover}', 1492-1611 (colored) See America [Editor's Note: A map drawn on the Mercator projection listing the voyages of discovery and exploration from 1492 to i6ii. The voyage of Magellan is omitted because it was only of incidental im- portance to America proper. In most cases routes as laid down are, in the nature of the case, only of approximate accuracy. The historical importance of the map is twofold. In the first place it reveals the progress of geographical knowledge of the western hemisphere as successive voyages of e.xploration changed the preconceived notions of Europe regarding the New World. In the second place, since dis- covery and exploration were generally acknowledged to be a proper basis for a claim to possession of ter- ritory under international law, this map reveals in a general way how the early partition of America among the European powers was effected. Particular attention is called to the voyage of Cabral, the Portuguese na\igator, whose accidental encountering of the eastern coast of South .\merica on his voyage to India by way of the (^ape of Good Hope, reinforced the Portuguese claim to the lands which were later known as Brazil.] 6. AMERICA, colonial grants (colored) ... A See America 7. ANTARCTIC REGIONS (colored) .'.... \ See Antarctic Explor.\tion 8. ARABIA (colored) See Arabia- [Editor's Note: No part of the world had its political geography changed more completely by the World War than Arabia. The independent Kingdom of Uejdx and the Zionist state in Palestine, under British mandate, no longer appear on the map as Turkish territory; while to the northeast the new Kingdom of Irak, with its capital at Bagdad, was organized by the British, acting as mandatory for Mesopotamia. The boundaries of Palestine and of Syria (under French mandate) were not entirely set- tled by the early part of 1922.] 9. ARCTIC REGIONS (colored) . . . ' Sec Arc:tic Exploration 10. ASIA, political (colored) See Asia [Editor's Note: A map representing the political divisions of the continent in the beginning of the year 1922. Many of the frontiers which were disturbed by the World War were still purely conjectural. Those of Armenia, although decided by President Wilson when they were referred to him by the League of Nations, have ne\'er l)een put into effect because of unsettled conditions in .Asia Minor. The same is true of the froiUiers of Syria and Mesopotamia, where the new kingdom of Irak has just been cstab- xvi LIST OF MAPS IN VOLUME I lished. The latest information available regarding the boundaries of these regions will be found in the map of Arabia. Even less clear is the situation in the Far East where the status of Mongolia has yet to be decided, and the territorial extension of the new Far Eastern republic in eastern Siberia has fluc- tuated from month to month. The boundaries of the Chinese republic are, therefore, left as they were at the time of its establishment in 191 2. No attempt has been made to show the expansion of Japanese influence in Manchuria and Inner Mongolia, because it lacks a definite territorial basis. The indefinite- ness of our information regarding Persia also justifies the reproduction of the map of that country as it was in igi4. except that the Russian and British spheres of influence given on the older maps have now disappeared.] 11. EGYPTIAN, ASSYRIAN, BABYLONIAN AND MEDIAN POWERS (colored) . . . See Assyria 12. ANCIENT ATHENS (colored) See Athens 13. AUSTR.'^LIA AND NEW ZEALAND, political (colored) See Australia 14. AUSTRIA, four de\e!opment maps (colored) See Austria 15. DISTRIBUTION OF NATIONALITIES IN SOUTHEASTERN EUROPE (colored) See Balkan States [Editor's Note: This ethnographic map of Southeastern Europe reveals the tangle of races in the former Austro-Hungarian monarchy, and in the Balkan Peninsula, which goes far to explain the causes of the Balkan Wars of 1912-1Q13 and the beginning of the World War in 1914. The extraordinary com- plexit)' of the Macedonian problem, which more than anything else produced the Balkan Wars, is obvious from what the map reveals of the racial intermixture in that former Turkish pro\-ince. It is also appar- ent how strong was the argument, based upon race, which induced the Peace Conference at Paris to fix the limits of the new Kingdom of the Serbs, Cro-ts, and Slovenes, excluding Italy from the greater part of the eastern Adriatic littoral. The claim of Rumania upon Transylvania is shown by the common color.) 16. BALKAN STATES, political and physical (colored) See Balkan States [Editor's Note: The boundaries of the Balkan States and Hungarj' were laid down by the treaties of St. Germain, Neuilly, Trianon, and Sevres.' These treaties superseded the settlements made at London and Bukarest, at the end of the Balkan Wars of 1912-1913, and represent an attempt to make poHtical frontiers conform with racial and natural boundaries. The greatest difficulty was encountered in deter- mining the territorial limits of Albania and the Turkish frontier in Thrace, which are admittedly of a provisional character. The partition of jMacedonia among Bulgaria, Greece, and Serbia followed lines of nationality only approximately.] XVll ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME I COLORED FRONTISPIECE The Casa Grande, Arizona INSERTS IN DUOTONE Court of the Lions in the Alhambra, Spain See Alhambra American Explorers See America Landing of the Pilgrims See America Noted American Writers See American Literature Indian Architecture See Architecture Types of Italian Architecture See Arciiitecture Examples of Modern American Architecture See Architecture Types of Aeroplanes See Aviation Life in Ancient Athens See Athens TEXT CUTS Fountains Abbey, England See Abbey: Architectural features Plan of Fountains Abbey See Abbey; Architectural features Abyssinian Councillors in Ceremonial Robes See Abyssinia: 1907-1920 The Throne-room at Cnossus See Aegean Civilization: Cretan area Arch^ological Findings See Aegean Civilization: Minoan Age: Characteristics Jamrud Fort at Khyber Pass See Afghanistan: 1838-1842 Dr. David Livingstone See Africa: 1855 Sir Henry M. Stanley See Africa: 1873-1875 Africa in 1914, Political See Africa: 1914: European Sovereignty Modern Railroad Lines in Africa See Africa: 1914-1920 Types of Early Agricultural Implements See Agriculture: Medieval Levelling a Far Eastern Rice-field for Sowing See Agriculture: Modem Combined Reaper and Thresher, Drawn by a Tractor See Agriculture: Modern Wallis Tractor Pulling Case Disc Plow and Harrow See Agriculture; Modern Irrigation Trenches in Southern California See Agriculture: Modern Types of Totem Poles, Alaska See Alaska Group of Modern Albanians See Albania: Medieval Examples of Early Alphabets See Alphabet Road over the St. Gotthakd Pass See Alps Cliff Dwellings in Mesa Verde National Park See America: Prehistoric Landing of Columbus See America: 1492 First Map Showing American Continent See America; 1499-1500 Henry Hudson and Son Cast Adrift See America; 1609 Movement of American Expeditionary Forces to Europe . See American E.xpeditionary Forces Abandoning the Sinking "Endurance" See Antarctic Exploration: 1901-1909 Shackleton, Amundsen, and Scott See Antarctic Exploration: 1910-1913 Amundsen Taking Observations at the South Pole . . . See Antarctic Exploration; 1911-1912 Compamson of Skeletons of Vertebrates See Anthropology: Evolutionary Theories xviii ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME I Ancient Roman Aqueduct, Segovia, Spain See Aqueducts Catskill Aqueduct, New York See Aqueducts Tomb of Eve at Djeddah (Hejaz) See Arabia: Fusion of Races Emir Feisal, King of Irak See Arabia: 1918 Removing Specimens Excavated from Thebes See Archjeology Excavations at Thebes, 1918-1919 See Archaeology Excavations in Ancient Babylon . See Archseology Stonehenge See Architecture: Prehistoric Tejiple or Luxor at Thebes See Architecture: Oriental: Egypt Temple of Heaven, Forbidden City, Peking See Architecture: Oriental: China The Parthenon See Architecture: Classic: Greek The Acropolis of Athens See Architecture: Classic: Greek Excavated Street in Pompeii See Architecture: Classic: Rome Interior of St. Sophia See Architecture: Classic: Byzantine Michael Angelo's Style of Renaissance See Architecture: Renaissance: Italy Peary, The "Roosevelt" and Stefansson See Arctic Exploration: 1886-1909 Members of Peary's Polar Expedition See Arctic Exploration: 1886-1909 Assyrian Palace, Nineveh See Assyria: Early History King Tiglath-Pileser in His Chariot See Assyria: Later Empire Palace of Sennacherib, King of Assyria, 705 b.c See Assyria: Later Empire Assur-Nazir-Pal on his Throne See Assyria: Archjeological remains Copernicus See Astronomy: 130-1609 Mount Wilson Solar Observatory See Astronomy: Photographic Telescope Tower, Pasadena, California See Astronomy: Measuring stars Porch of the Maidens See Athens: B.C. 461-431 Temple of the Olympian Zeus See Athens: b.c. 461-431 Temple of Nike (Victory) See Athens: b.c. 461-431 William Morris Hughes See Australia: 1916-1917 Rudolf I See Austria: 1 246-1 282 Maximilian I See Austria: 1471-1491 Charles V See Austria: 1519-1555 Maria Theresa See .Austria: 1740 (Oct.) Dissolution of Austria-Hungary See Austria-Hungary: 1918 Types of Early Attempts at F'lying Machines See Aviation: Balloons and Dirigibles Spherical Balloons See Aviation: Balloons and Dirigibles: 1890-1913 Turtle Observation Balloon See Aviation; Balloons and Dirigibles: 1896-1914 A Zeppelin in Flight. Count Zeppelin . ... See Aviation: Balloons and Dirigibles: 1896-1914 Otto Lilienthal in his Glider See Aviation: Airplanes and Air Service: 1889-1900 Orville and Wilbur Wright and Machine in First Long Flight See Aviation: Airplanes and Air Service: 1896-1910 First Aerial Crossing of the Channel See Aviation: Important Flights: 1909 NC4 AT Lisbon after Flight from Newfoundland . . See Aviation: Important Flights: 1919 May ViCKERS-ViMY Plane as it Landed at Clifden, Ireland See Aviation: Important Flights: 1919 June British Dirigible R34 at Mineola after Transatlantic Flight See Aviation: Important Flights: 1919 July Temple of the Sun and Jupiter . . Sec Baalbek Excavations at Babylon See Babylon: Excavations Bagdad Railroad See Bagdad Railway Balkan States after Treaty of Berlin and after Balkan Wars . . See Balkan States: 1913-1914 xix EXPLANATORY NOTES ON THE ARRANGEMENT OF MATERIAL AND METHOD OF USING THE EARNED SYSTEM Before beginning to examine or use the volumes, be sure to read through carefully the following notes. A few moments' attention will show that the unique combination of alphabetical and chronological ar- rangement, with thorough cross-reference, makes possible: (a) Instant accessibility of any specific topic; (6) Continuous reading of any nation's history; (c) Easy tracing of the inter-relations of history. A. Alphabeticai, Arrangement of Subject. — Filing Rules. — The primary arrangement is alpha- betical, the index being embodied in the work encyclopedic fashion. (This is the only respect in which there is a resemblance to any encyclopedia.) The latest library filing methods have been followed. For example: (a) Hyphenated words are considered as one word, thus, "ANTI-FEDERALISTS" follows "ANTIETAM"; but separated words are arranged by the first word, so that "NEW ZEALAND" precedes "NEWFOUNDLAND." (6) The rule of person, place and thing is observed, as (i) LONDON, Jack; (2) LONDON, a city; (3) LONDON, passenger steamer, (c) M' Mc or Mac are all arranged as if spelled Mac. (d) Proper names in order of rank, as follows: CHARLES, St.; CHARLES, pope; CHARLES, emperor; CHARLES, king; CHARLES, duke; CHARLES, John; CHARLES ALBERT; CHARLES OF BURGUNDY. For subject headings the American Library Association and Library of Congress practice has been the guide, with few exceptions. The texts, in full or in part, or summaries of national constitutions, will be found immediately following the national histories. For example, following the history of the United States of America, is "UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, Constitution of" under which heading is the text in full. Historical documents are usually placed with the history of the country or movement to which they belong and in their chronological places, but some of the outstanding documents are to be found under their own headings, such as "Berlin, 'Treaty of"; "Versailles, Treaty of". All of them are, of course, properly indexed. B. Chronological and Other Arrangement under Subjects.— Under most of the subjects the topics are arranged in chronological order, so that one may read continuously the entire history of any nation or movement. Each topic has a suitable heading in bold-face type which catches the eye instantly. For example under AUSTRIA one of the topic-headings is as follows: 1848-1849. — Revolutionary risings. — Bombard- ment of Prague and Vienna. — Abdication of the Emperor Ferdinand. — Accession of Francis Joseph. — The Hungarian struggle for independ- ence. There are some necessary exceptions to the strict chronological arrangement of the topics, as some subjects require alphabetical, topical or logical arrangement and in certain cases a combination of some or even all of these. As examples: ADRIATIC QUESTION has a topical arrangement of topic-headings, such as: Friction between Italy and Jugo-Slavia. Treaty of Rapallo, Nov. 12, 1920. Problem of Italy's new frontiers. Jugo-Slav contention. Torre-Trumbitch agreement. — Congress at Rome (April 8-10, 1918).— Pact of Rome. .£GEAN CIVILIZATION has three logical main divisions indicated by center column heads: EXCAVATIONS AND ANTIQUITIES NEOLITHIC AGE MINOAN AGE Under each of these divisions are topic-headings chronologically arranged, such as B. C. 3000-2200.— Early Minoan Age. B. C. 2200-1600.— Middle Minoan age. B. C. 1200-750. — Assimilation of Minoan cul- ture by people of Hellaa. AFRICA also has logical main divisions: GEOGRAPHIC DESCRIPTION RACES OF AFRICA ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL CIVILIZATION MODERN EUROPEAN OCCUPATION xxi EXPLANATORY NOTES Topic-headings are in logical order under some of these division heads and in chronological sequence under others. For illustration, under the third division appear: Development of Egyptian civilization. Carthaginian empire. Roman occupation. Arab occupation. Some topics require even further division, as for example under the same subject, AFRICA: Division-heading: MODERN EUROPEAN OCCUPATION Topic-heading: Later 19th century. — Partitioning of Africa among European powers. Sub-topic-heading: Congo Basin. HISTORY has several main divisions and these, as well as the topics under them, are arranged for the most part in logical order, but, owing to the difficulty of adhering to strict chronological order, the topic- headings are given numerals, as an aid to reference. Thus index entries arising from this subject will be found referring to such topics as: 1. Definitions 2. Philosophy of history 11. Development of chronology 16. Greek historians 32. Modern scientific historians 34. New orientation of history WORLD WAR is a subject which comprises considerably over a thousand pages and requires special treatment. While it was possible to construct a chronological table of war events (q.v.), the descriptive matter could not be arranged in that order. This was due not only to the great length of the article but to its complexity. A scheme of numerals and letters was devised, full explanation of which will be found at the beginning of the article. ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION, Industrial, naturally falls into alphabetical main di- visions by countries, with chronological topic-headings thereunder. C. Page-headings. — To facilitate reference, the page-headings throughout the work indicate dates wherever possible and, in italics, the principal topics on the pages. For example, the page-heading: AUSTRIA, 1798-1806 AusterlUz AUSTRIA, 1806 D. Rule for Reference. — Each specific topic treated under a larger subject appears in the general alphabetical index, where it is followed by explicit directions leading to the place where the treatment will be found. Thus to find the battle of Austerlitz, one does not turn to Austria and search through its fifty pages; he should turn alphabetically to .\usterlitz, where he will find AUSTERLITZ, Battle of. See .Austria: i7q8-i8o6. Turning then, as directed, to AUSTRIA, the dated page-headings guide him quickly to 1798-1806, as above, under which the required topic is instantly found. The simple rule for locating any desired topic will now be clear: Turn alphabetically to the specific topic. Either the required treatment, or specific directions leading to it will be found. E. Groxjping of subjects. — Many events are of such a character that the reader's interest is served by listing them in groups, in addition to the indexing of each separate item. In such cases they are brought together under the class title, as, for instance: .Abdications; Armistices; .Assassinations; Battles (famous); Cities (abandoned or destroyed) , Clubs; Coalitions and alliances; Codes; Congresses; Con- spiracies; Constitutions; Councils of the church; Documents; Executions (notable); Genealogical tables; Impeachments; Laws; Leagues; Massacres; Parties and factions; Religions; Treaties; Wars. F. Genealogical tables. — The lineage of each historic ruling family is to be found with the his- tory of the country with which it was most closely connected. For list and index of these tables, see Genealogical tables. G. Non-repetition. — Inter-relations of History. — Cross-references. — There is practically no rep- etition in the work. A topic that is part of the history of two or more countries is treated fully once only, where it most properly belongs and in the connection which shows its antecedents and consequences best. It is then cross-referenced to every other point where it is of interest and multiple index entries made. Economics of this character bring into the compass of twelve volumes a body of history that would need twice the number, at least, for equal fullness on the monographic plan of encyclopedic works. An illustra- ion will make clear the method and its unique exhibit of the Inter-relations of History. A very complete and interesting account of the dispute between Great Britain and the United States in Jefferson's administration, over the impressment of .American seamen, is given under the following sub- ject and topic headings: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 1804-1809.— Difficulties with Great Britain.— Neutral rights. — The right of search. — Impress- ment. — Blockade by orders in council and the Berlin and Milan decrees. Embargo and non- intercourse. 1808. — The efiect of the embargo. xxii EXPLANATORY NOTES It is cross-referenced from France and England and also from Admiralty law, International law, Neu- trality, etc., in the proper chronological places as follows: ENGLAND 1804-1809.— Difficulties with the United States. — Neutral rights. — Right of search and impress- ment. — The American embargo. See U. S. A.: 1804-1809; and 1808. FRANCE 1807-09. — The American embargo and non-in- tercourse laws. See U. S. A.: 1804-1809; and 1808. ADMIRALTY LAW 1804-1809.— United States and England differ over impressment. See U. S. A.: 1804-1809. INTERNATIONAL LAW 1804-09. — Right of blockade. — British impress- ment of United States seamen. See U. S. A.: 1804-1809. NEUTRALITY 1804-1809.— Relations of United States amd England. See U. S. A.: 1804-1809. It is separately indexed as follows: BERLIN DECREE. See France: 1806-1810 and U. S. A.: 1804-1809. BLOCKADE, Paper. See U. S. A.: 1804-1809. IMPRESSMENT OF AMERICAN SEA- MEN BY BRITISH NAVY. See V.S. A.: 1804- 1809; and 1812. MILAN DECREE. See France: 1806-18:0; also U. S. A.: 1804-1809. NON-INTERCOURSE BILL, United States. See U. S A.: 1804-1809; 1808-1810. ORDERS IN COUNCIL: Blockade by Brit- ish. See France: 1806-18:0; and U. S. A.: :8o4- i8og. RIGHT OF SEARCH. See U. S. A.: 1804- i8og; and :8:2. SEARCH, Right of. See U. S. A.: :8o4-:8o9; and :8:2. Cross-references are also inserted at the end of numberless subjects and topics, for the purpose of guiding the reader to further material related to the subject upon which he is reading. Thus, under AUSTRIA, at the end of the text on topic: 1291-1349. — Loss and recovery of imperialcrown appears: — See also Germany: :3:4-:347. Also, as an aid, wherever there is an allusion to a movement, or event, upon which information is available elsewhere in the work, a reference is inserted immediately after the allusion. Thus, under AUSTRIA: 1848-1849. — Revolutionary risings. — "News came of the flight of Louis Philippe from Paris [see France: :84:-:848; 1848]." In this way, through the index entries, cross-references and references, the entire text is tied together in one harmonious whole and nothing is buried. H. Spelung and Accents. — The style or system of accentuation adopted for the work is, in general, that in everyday use in English language books and periodicals. The essential French, Italian and Span- ish accents and the German umlaut are, of course, rigidly adhered to. In the transliteration of words and proper names taken from the Slavonic, Arabic, Turkish and other oriental languages, the style of the author quoted has been respected, though in editorial matter and headings a simpler and more representa- tive phonetic rendering for English language readers has occasionally been found desirable. Webster's New International Dictionary (Merriam series) has been the authority for ordinary orthography. In the non- use of capitals the modern library practice has been our guide. I. Citation of Sources. — Bibliographies. — All quoted matter is in quotation marks, and the source is invariably cited in full. Abridgment by omissions is indicated by the usual omission marks, and occa- sional editorial interpolations are inclosed in brackets. Abridgment by paraphrasing has been resorted to only when unavoidable and is shown by interruption of quotation marks. Bibliographies for topics, as xxiii EXPLANATORY NOTES well as for the larger subjects will be found in their proper connections. In addition, in the last volume of the work there is a carefully selected and classified bibliography, and a full list of books, from which selections have been made, giving names of publishers, full names of authors, and other useful informa- tion. J. What the Work Is Not. — The work is first and last, history, not science nor biography (except, as in the words of Carlyle, "History is the essence of innumerable biographies"). Yet the person who has been a maker of history, so to speak, has his record as such given and his name and brief facts and cross- references are entered in alphabetical place. K. Free Editorial Service. — Our established editorial service is always available to the subscribers to "THE NEW L.'VRN^D HISTORY FOR RE.\DY REFERENCE, RE.\DING .^ND RESEARCH,"— which we believe more than ever merits the description given in the earlier editions by many an owner, viz., "the greatest saver of time and money and labor in the whole realm of books." XXIV THE NEW LARNED HISTORY FOR READY REFERENCE, READING AND RESEARCH A A, the initial letter of the English and almost all other alphabets. In the Runic Futhark alpha- bet it occupies fourth place, while in the Ethiopic the arrangement differs again, "aleph" being thir- teenth. Since the English alphabet follows the Latin directly, which in turn is based on the Greek, the letter "a" agrees with the Greek letter "alpha." In the Semitic languages "aleph" is a consonant, although at times it loses completely its conso- nantal quality. This explains the adoption of the letter as a vowel by the Greeks, there being no corresponding sound in their language. The Phoe- nicians called the letter "aleph" seemingly because of the resemblance of the character to the head of an ox. Although nothing is known with any degree of certainty concerning the ultimate origin of this letter, in recent years, there has been strong advocacy of abandoning the assumption first pro- pounded in i8S9 by Vicomte Emanuel de Rouge, of immediate derivation of the Phojnician or North Semitic alphabet from Egyptian hieroglyphics, or from Babylonian cuneiform characters. On the other hand a marked tendency is in evidence to look for the solution of the problem to the later Cretan system of writing transferred to Syria as indicated by Sir Arthur Evans (Scripla Minoa, iqoq) or to linear pottery marks abundantly found in many Mediterranean countries, as has been sug- gested by Flinders Petrie (Formation of the alpha- bet, iQiz). Stucken (Das Alphabet und die Mond- stationen, 1913) traces the origin of the Semitic alphabet to the signs of the lunar zodiac. — See also Alphabet. A POSTERIORI LANGUAGES. See Inter- national language: Early history. A PRIORI LANGUAGES. See International language: Early history. AA, a common name for small rivers in Europe. Of the forty or more of this name, two of the best known are in Russia; two others, the Westphalian Aa and the Miinster Aa, are in Germany. AACHEN. See Ai.\-la-Chapelle. AAHMES. See Amasis. AALAND ISLANDS. See Aland Islands. AALI, Mehemet, Pasha (1815-1871), Turkish statesman. Five times grand vizier; in 1867 was appointed regent of Turkey, during the sultan's visit to Paris; strong advocate of a reform policy. AALST. See Alost. AARAU, an important military center and cap- ital of the Swiss canton of Aargau, situated on the right bank of the .^ar, at the foot of the Jura. The cantonal library contains many works relating to Swiss history, also manuscripts from the sup- pressed Argovian monasteries. The ancient for- tress of Aarau was taken by the Bernese in 141 5. In i7q8 it became for a short time the capital of the Helvetic Republic. Near by is the ruined castle of Hapsburg, the original home of the Hapsburg house. AARAU, Peace of (1712). See Switzerland: 1652-1789. AARGAU, one of the most northerly Swiss cantons. Up to 1415 this region was the center of Hapsburg power, and there is still to be seen, near Brugg, the ruined castle of the Hapsburgs as well as the old convent of Kbnigsfelden and remains of the ancient Roman settlement of Vin- donissa. The canton contains many old castles and former monasteries; the suppression of the latter in 1847 was one of the chief causes of the Sonderbund War. AARON, in biblical history, brother of Moses and his spokesman before Pharaoh. In company with Moses, leader of the Israelites during the Exodus. Founder of the Jewish priesthood, which became hereditary in his tribe. — See also Jews: Children of Israel in Egypt. AARSSENS, Francis Van (1572-1641), Dutch diplomat and statesman. Protege of Advocate Johan Van Oldenbarneveldt, who sent him as a diplomatic agent to the court of France, and later recalled him for giving offense to the French king; instrumental in condemning his aged bene- factor to death; ranked by Richelieu among the three greatest politicians of his time. AB, the fifth month of the Jewish ecclesiastical year, and the eleventh (in intercalary years the twelfth) of the Jewish civil year. It corresponds approximately to the period from July 15 to August 15. On the first day of Ab is kept a fast com- memorating the death of Aaron ; on the ninth, the Black Fast bewailing the destruction of the First Temple by Nebuchadnezzar (586 B.C.) and of the Second Temple by Titus (A.D. 70). The word was adopted by the Jews after the Babylonian captivity. ABABDA, a nomad African tribe of Hamitic stock, extending along the southern border of Egypt from the Nile to the Red sea. In Roman times they were known as Gebadei, in the Middle Ages, as Beja. They are noted as caravan guides and trade carriers. ABACAENUM, an ancient town of Sicily, lying west of Messana and north of Mt. Etna. It was one of the last Sicilian cities to give way to Greek influence. ABACUS, in the Greek Doric order a square stone slab that covers the capital of a column. In the Roman order, the abacus is crowned by a molding; in the Archaic-Greek Ionic it is rec- tangular in form in view of the greater width of the capital. Abacus is also the name of an instru- ment employed by ancient mathematicians for arithmetical calculations, and still used in China. ABAE, a city of Phocis, Greece, famous in ancient times for its oracle of Apollo. (See Ora- cles) It was exceedingly rich in treasures until pillaged by the Persians. Restoration of the city and the temple was attempted by the Emperor ABAFY ABBEY Hadrian. Traces of the polygonal walls of the acropolis have been preserved, including a gateway and part of the town walls, excavations of which were made in 1894 by the British School at Athens. ABAFY (Abaffi), Michael (1632-1690), ruler in Hungarv. See Hungary: 1660-1664. ABAILARDUS. See Abelard. ABANCOURT, Charles Xavier Joseph de Franqueville d' (1758-1702), French statesman; Louis XVI's last minister of war. Contrary to orders of the Legislative .Assembly, brought Swiss Guards to Paris for defense of Tuileries, .August 10; arrested for treason; murdered while awaiting trial. — See also France: 1702 (June-August). ABANTES, the most powerful tribe of ancient Eubcea, from whom in the Homeric age the island took its name .Abantis. ABATIS, a term in miUtary parlance for a field fortification formed of trees laid in a row with sharpened limbs pointing toward the enemy ; this obstacle is frequently used in connection with wire entanglements. ABATTOIR, a French word often used instead of the English "slaughter-house," a place where animals are killed for food. Public control of such places has in recent years become a matter of great concern. In the United States, abattoirs are recognized by the law as in their nature nui- sances and are regulated or prohibited by munici- pal ordinance. Though the meat industry is con- centrated in a few cities, there are very few municipal slaughter-houses, a fact in sharp con- trast with Continental Europe where they are very common, especially in Germany. In England leg- islation has, since 1388, been enacted for the regu- lation of abattoirs in cities. — See also Louisiana; I8q4-ig2i. Also in: J. A. and H. C. Joyce, Treatise on the law goveriihtg nuisances, pp. 167-171. — E. Freund, Police power, public policy and constitutional rights. ABBADIDES, a short-lived Mohammedan dy- nasty in Spain, c. 1023-1OQ1, succeeding the Western caliphate. It was characterized by extravagance and corruption, and was finally overthrown by the Almoravides, its last monarch dying in prison. See Spain: 1031-1086. ABBAS I (1813-1854), khedive of Egypt. Son of Tusun Pasha and grandson of Mehemet Ali, whom he succeeded in 1848. Was reactionary in policy. Murdered in 1854, and succeeded by his uncle, Sa'id Pasha. See Egypt: 1840-1869. Abbas II (.Abbas Hilmi Pasha, 1874- ). khedive of Egypt. Deposed by the British during the World War (December 17, IQ14), at which time a British protectorate was proclaimed and Hussein Kemal Pasha, an uncle of the khedive, installed as sultan; this action was taken in conse- quence of the defection of Abbas to Turkey, which was at the time at war with England. See Egypt: 1914; World War: 1014: IV'. Turkev: h. Abbas I (called the Great), shah of Persia, 1 586- 1 628; greatly extended the dominions of Persia. See Bagdad: 1393-1638; Persia: 1499- 1887; Turkey: 1623-1640. Abbas II, shah of Persia, 1641-1668. Suc- ceeded his father, Shah Safi I; regained Kandahar at the age of sixteen. Abbas III, shah of Persia, 1732-1736. A child ruler, son of Tahmasp II ; succeeded by the usurper Nadir Kuli. ABBAS EFFENDI (1844-1921), the late leader of the Bahais; better known by the name of Abdu'l Baha, which signifies "Servant of the (divine) Glory." Abdu'l Baha is styled "Center of the Covenant," and regarded by his followers as a divinely appointed teacher of spiritual truth — See also Bahaism: .Abdu'l Baha. ABBAS HILMI PASHA. See Abbas II, khedive of Egvpt. ABBAS MIRZA (C.17S3-1833), prince of Persia. He introduced reforms, especially in the army ; was leader in two unsuccessful wars with Russia, but held his own in a war with Turkey. ABBASIDS, the name usually given to the caliphs of Bagdad, constituting with the Omayyads, their predecessors, the two greatest dynasties of the Eastern caliphate. In opposition to the Omay- yads who traced their descent from Omayya, the Abbasids based their claim to the office of caliph, according to Mohammedan custom, upon their descent from Abbas (566-652), the eldest uncle of Mohammed. See Abul Abbas; Caliphate: 71S-750, 752-750, 756-1031, 763, 815-945, and 1262- 1543; B.\gdad: 762-763 and 1258; Jerusalem: 1144-1187. Conquest by Arabs. See Arabia: 1916. ABBAZIA, Agreement at (1921). See Italy: 1920-1921. ABBESS, a title given to the superior of a monastic establishment of twelve or more nuns. Her duties correspond very closely to those of an abbot (q.v.). See Monasticism: Women and monasticism; Women's rights: 300-1400, 1200- 1600 ABBEY, Edwin Austin (1852-1911), American mural painter. See Painting: .American; 19th century. ABBEY. — Organization and activities. — In its broader sense an abbey is a canonically erected monastery (or a religious organization under strictly prescribed rules of living), having not fewer than twelve religious monks or nuns, under the government of an abbot or abbess respectively ; in its narrower sense the word is synonymous with the church of a monastery. It is to be carefully distinguished from the priory, a term applied to smaller monastic establishments some of which were founded independently, others as cells or off- shoots from an abbey, remaining dependent on the parent house and having their priors chosen or removed by the abbot at will. Originally the term monastery designated, both in the East and in the West the dwelling of a solitary or hermit. In time, however, there grew up around the more famous of these solitaries settlements of enthusiastic disciples, necessitating an intricate and wide-spread system of organization. These establishments in turn developed into great centers of industry and culture assuming the characteristic features of the great abbeys of medieval times. "The abbeys, however . . . while containing great and wonderful buildings of cathedral-like proportion where wor- ship to which the public was admitted was con- ducted with solemn and beautiful ritual, were never intended to serve, and never did serve the purpose of parish churches. These abbeys were not made for the people, but for the monks who found therein a home. They were generally built in remote places, far from centers of population, and there maintained an entirely independent ex- istence. .As time went on and their wealth and membership steadily increased, this wealth and this membership constituted potential elements of power that forcibly appealed to ambitious men. tVnder this new impetus the abbeys became not only centers of wealth and art and luxury, but also of political power. During the period of their widest influence the greater abbeys were represented in the national councils, on a plane of political ABBEY Organization, Acfivifies Historical importance ABBEY equality with the great feudal lords. It was this combination of wealth and political influence which, arousing more and more the cupidity and the antagonism of secular rulers, ultimately re- sulted, during the sixteenth century, in the sup- pression of these great establishments and the confiscation of their estates.] In the very old days these abbeys were great and beautiful places that sheltered within their walls about all of culture and learning and peace that was to be found. . . . While the monks did not at first seek any part in controlling the life of the community, or indeed any share whatever therein, yet their position was of first importance to the people in that rude and early period. The very poor were in evidence in those days far more than they ever have been since, and on the long table of every monastic dining-room a basket always stood, receiving a large proportion of every kind of food as it was served, food that was afterwards dis- bursed as alms at the .^bbey gates. No physicians practised then, and the monks alone knew what there was to know of the healing art, and always were their services freely given to both rich and poor. There were no libraries outside the mon- astery's rolls, but here was collected as incentive to study and to thought the literature of the time. There were no schools save those the monks main- tained, and to them could come the children of the very poor, who, while they may not have learned much, yet were given an opportunity to find what learning meant, and some at least we know of who through these schools found opening a career of usefulness and distinction. There were no inns, but the traveler could always find a refuge at the monastery, where a great house was as much a part of the establishment as the chapel itself. Hundreds of monks found their homes in the great abbeys. ... It was a wonderful or- ganization that their necessities required and main- tained. Everything needed for daily life was produced here. Thousands of acres of adjoining land were under constant cultivation, and to such of the brethren as had a taste in that direction was committed the task of overseeing the laborers on this great farm. From their vineyards came the wines that filled the cellars. On their pastures were the sheep from whose wool were woven their garments. Beef and pork came from the cattle and swine that every monastery owned. And fruits and flowers grew in the gardens and orchards the older or infirm brothers had in charge. . . . First of all the day's real business was the meeting of the chapter, over which the abbot presided and heard reports of the progress of all the work in hand. Here too was received the news from other [abbeys], for the custom was to send forth on a parchment roll what might be termed a circular letter. It gave the information current in the abbey whence it started, and was entrusted to a monk who thence started on the rounds of other monasteries, a journey that sometimes occupied a year. After being read aloud in chapter there was added to it the news of that establishment, and so it went its way. At Durham there is yet preserved one of these rolls which is nearly forty feet in length. And here in this public gathering the monks confessed their faults, or had tales told on them if they didn't, and thereupon were soundly whipped precisely like naughty boys at school. Then they went to the day's task — some to teach, some to labor at the loom or in the field, and some in the cloisters to illumine those rare rolls or volumes, each according to the gift God had given him. And so they filled their days. At dinner one read while the others ate, and after- ward recreation, the telling of stories, perhaps the singing of songs, while some few walked along the sweet-smelUng garden paths in the lingering northern twilight, for very beautiful friendships sometimes grew up among these unworldly men." — A. B. Osborne, As it is in England, pp. 178-189. — See also Abbot; Monasticism ; Trappists. Medieval monastic libraries. See Libraries: Medieval: Monastic libraries. Abbeys in history. — .\n illustration of the importance of abbeys in the history of medieval Europe is to be found in the history of the Abbey of Saint-Denis, a few miles north of Paris. "St- Denis (Dionysius), the first Bishop of Paris, and his companions, martyred in 270, were buried here and the small chapel built over the spot be- came a famous place of pilgrimage during the fifth and sixth centuries. In 630 King Dagobert founded the abbey for Benedictine monks, replacing the original chapel by a large basilica, of which but little now remains. He and his successors enriched the new foundation with many gifts and privileges and, possessing as it did the shrine of St-Denis, it became one of the richest and most important abbeys in France. In 653 it was made exempt from episcopal jurisdiction. A new church was com- menced in 750 by Charlemagne, at the consecra- tion of which Christ, according to popular tradi- tion, was supposed to have assisted in person. . . . The present church of St-Denis was commenced about 1 140 and marks the beginning of the Gothic tendency in architecture and its transition from the Romanesque style. Further additions and al- terations under succeeding abbots resulted in pro- ducing one of the finest Gothic buildings in France. . . . The abbey figures prominently in the history of France and its abbots were for several cen- turies amongst the chief seigneurs of the kingdom. The 'Oriflamme,' originally the banner of the abbey, became the standard of the kings of France and was suspended above the high altar, whence it was only removed when the king took the field in person. Its last appearance was at the battle of Agincourt in 141 5. Joan of .\rc hung up her arms in the church of St-Denis in 1429. Many kings and princes and other noble persons were buried there and three of the Roman pontiffs stayed in the abbey at different times: . . . After the Council of Trent the Abbey of St-Denis became the head of a congregation of ten monasteries, and in 1633 it was united, with its dependent houses, to the new Congregation of St-Maur, when its conventual buildings were entirely reconstructed. In i6qi Louis XVI suppressed the abbacy and united the monastery with its revenues to the royal house of noble ladies at St-Cyr, founded by Madame de Maintenon. The abbey was finally dissolved at the revolution, when much damage was done to the church and tombs. It was subsequently re- stored, under Napoleon III, by Viollet-le-Duc. The relics of St-Denis, which had been trans- formed to the parish church of the town in 1795, were brought back again to the abbey in 1819. It is now a 'national monument' and one of the show-places of Paris. Many of the chartularies and other manuscripts relating to its history are now either in the Archives Nationales or the Bibliotheque Nationale." — Catholic encyclopedia, v. '.(, PP- 343-344- — See also Brittany: 992-1237. Architectural features. — "The arrangement of all these [abbeys] shows a thorough uniformity in their important features. On all sides of 3 rec- tangular court, which, as a rule, is square, sur- rounded by arcades (the cloisters, ambitus), are grouped the church, and the places appointed for the residence of the monks, which are comprised ABBEY Architectural Features ABBEY under the name of the clausures. It is the plan of the ancient villa urbana, which seems to have served as a pattern to the Benedictines. In the same way the out-houses exterior to the clausures, which are attached to them, follow the plan of the villa ruslica among the Romans. Of the plan of a Benedictine abbey of the ninth century, the Abbey of St. Gall (in Switzerland], designed about S20, is an excellent example. The whole plan in- cludes a space of from 300 to 430 feet square. The central point is the church, on the south side of which is the cloister, with the buildings be- longing to the dausure; and to the east of the cloister, contiguous to it, is the dwelling-house of the monks, with the general dormitory, the bath and wash-house; to the south the refeclorium (the dining-halU, with the church; and to the west the cellarage. The wing of Ihe cloister next to the church serves as the chapttr-housf. Near the round outhouses for the chickens and geese, the garden, and the burial-place. . . . Next to the Benedictines, the Cistercians, an order proceeding on the same discipline, have a great significance for the history of media;val ecclesiastical architecture. The strictness of this order immediately brought with it a simplifying of church building. While generally the apse was omitted, and the choir terminated as a rectangle, minor chapels, as a rule, were attached to both sides of the transept. . . . Besides, the Cistercian Order forbade the in- troduction of bell-towers, and instead of these, even in the largest churches, they contented them- selves with a small roof-turret in the middle of the transept. The towers of the church at Oliva, near Danzig, form an exception. Lastly, an ex- traordinary length of nave is common in Cistercian churches, the reason of which is so much more difficult to explain, as the cloister churches were FOUNTAhNS AliBEY, ENdLAND eastern choir of the church is, on the north side, the writing-room, with the Ubrary above, and on the south side the justice-chamber. On the east side of the church lie, separated by two chapels, the infirmary and the school for the novices, each with its small cloister in the centre To the north side of the infirmary stands the dwelling of the physician, with a special house for bleeding and purging. The dwelling of the abbot, the school- house, and the lodgings for illustrious strangers, with an out-house, are to be found on the north side of the church ; corresponding to this last on the south-western side are the lodgings for pil- grims and the poor. Attached to these important parts thus spread out are, on the western and southern sides, the house for servants, and the stalls for sheep, pigs, goats, cows, oxen, and horses, besides the workhouse, the malt-kiln, the brewery, and the bakehouse attached to the kitchen of the monastery, the stamping-mill and the corn-mill, the house of the various labourers, and the great barn. Lastly, at the south-eastern corner, are the little attended by laity, and their use completely forbidden to women The cloister arrangements of the Cistercians are in other things similar to those of the Benedictines. The cloister is here, as there, generally on the southern side, and seldom on the northern side of the church With the Cistercians there was generally, on the side of the cloister lying opposite the church, a polygonal or round well-house, in which the beard and the hair of the crown of the head (the tonsure) were shaven off. The chapter-hall for the meetings of the convent is generally on the east side of the cloister, and is sometimes provided with an altar apse. Important monasterial arrangements of the Cistercians arc still to be found at Ebrach, at .Altenberg near Cologne, at Riddagshausen and Maulbronn in Wiirtemberg. In the last place, even the fortified walls, with their towers, as well as the other details of mediasval arrangements, are all preserved. From the large entrance-hall, we enter the church, the nave of which is separated from the presbyterium by the screen On the north ABBEY ABBOT side of the church lie the cloisters with the well- house, the refectory and the chapter-hall with its altar apse. From this, a corridor leads us to the house of the abbot The space, at the north- eastern corner of the cloisters, seems to contain the discipline-chamber, to which adjoins the vault- ed cellar space. On the west side of the cloister is another vaulted cellar and an older refectory, which, used alternately with the above-mentioned space, may have served as the winter refectory; for we find in many monasteries, as for example at Bebenhausen, special refectories for winter and summer. The monasteries of the Premonstraten- sians have much resemblance in arrangement and c Ale of feel PLAN OF FOUNTAINS ABBEY I, Guest House. 14- Tower, 2. Infirmary. i.S. Chapels. ,?■ C'ellars. 1 6. Choir. 4- Refectory. 17. Chapel of Nine ,«;. Kitchen. Altars. 6. ( loister. 18. Passage. 7. Nave of Church. 19. Yard. «. Calefactory. 20. Store House. Q. Water Courts. 21. Great Hall. 10. Base Courts. 22. Abbot's House. 1 1. Chapter House 23. Kitchen. 12. Sacristy. 24- Chapel. 13. Transept. 25. Store House. execution to those of the Cistercians. The mon- asteries of the Madonna at Macdeburc and the Abbey Kappenberg in Westphalia, are examples of this kind, whose unassuming simplicity rivals the simplest arrangements of the Cistercians. If the Benedictines preferred to build in an open position at the back of a woody chain of moun- tains, and if the Cistercians sought separation from the world in the quiet woody glens, the Orders of Preachers and Mendicants, arising since the thirteenth century, of the Dominicans and Franciscans, or of the minor orders, established themselves in the populous towns. For if the generality of (he superior orders lived apart, with the view of devoting themselves to learned studies or artistic work, the popular orders undertook to work on the masses as curers of the soul by preaching and confession. They sought for a modest place in the towns, close to the walls or elsewhere, where they erected their monasterial arrangements, in fact, conformable to those of the older orders of monks. . . . Really differing from all these monasterial arran'zements are the great establishments of the Carthusians, who arose about the fourteenth century in Germany. Their mon- asteries are distinguished by this: that they possess, by the side of the church, and of the cloister in connexion with it, a second far larger cloister, generally on the east side of the church, which includes the burial ground, and is surrounded by the single dwellings of the monks, which are sep- arated from it by small gardens." — W. Liibke, Ecdesia^tical art in Germany, pp. 10.5-108 — In consequence of the fact that the various building.s of an establishment were erected at different periods, the greater abbeys were seldom archi- tecturally homogeneous; this multiplicity of styles affords, however, a pleasing variety which, added to the stately grandeur of nave and 'arch and tower, presents, even in their ruins, a picturesque- ness which appeals alike to artist and historian. There follows a list of the more important historic abbeys: Bangor, County Down, Ireland Bath, Somersetshire, England Battle, Sussex, Ent;land Beaulieu, Hampshire, England Bee, Normandy (q.v.) Bursfeld, near Gottingcn, Hanover, Prussia Bury St, Edmund's, Suffolk Co., England (q.v.) Canterbury, Kent, England Cluny, Burgundy, France Dryburgh, Scottish border Einsiedein, Canton of Schwyz, Switzerland Farfa, near Rome Fontenelle, Normandy Fountains, Yorskhire, England (q.v.) Furness, Lancashire, England (q.v.) Glastonbury, Somersetshire, England Hersfeld, Hesse-Nassau, Prussia Hirschau, near Stuttgart, Wiirlemberg Holy Cross, County Tipperary, Ireland (q.v.) Holyrood, Edinburgh, Scotland Jumieges, Normandy Mellifont, County Louth, Ireland Melrose, Roxburghshire, Scotland Monte Cassino, near Rome New, near Dumfries, Scotland Peterborou'j;h, Northamptonshire, England Premontre, Aisne, France Saint Albans, Hertfordshire, England Saint Denis, near Paris, France St. Gall, Canton of Gall, Switzerland Saint Mary, York, England Tavistock, Devonshire, England Tewkesbury, Gloucestershire, England Tintern, Monmouthshire, England Vendome, France Waltham, Essex, England VVearmoulh, Durham, England Westminster, London, England Whitby, Yorkshire, England. See Bible, Eng- lish: 7th-8th centuries. ABBOT, George (1562-1633), English divine, Took a leading part in preparing the authorized version of the New Testament; assisted in arrang- ABBOT ABBOT ing for the union of the churches of England and Scotland; for this he was rewarded by James I, who in 1610 made him Archbishop of Canterbury. ABBOT, a title given to the superior of a monastic establishment of twelve or more monks. The term is derived from the Hebrew word ab meaning father, originally used as a title of honor and respect. Carried over from the East to the West the word came to imply also the exercise of authority and hence was used to designate the head of an abbey or monastery. This usage was definitely fixed by the rule of St. Benedict at the beginning of the sixth century. "The ad- ministration of the monastery was vested pri- marily in the hands of the abbot or lather, in whose hands lay, theoretically, complete control over all the management of the house The vow of obedience was made to him, and without his consent the individual monk could not properly perform any act of life. It was his duty to see that the monks observed the rule in all its de- tails, and to punish infractions of it at his dis- cretion. He was the responsible manager of the temporal property of the community, must see that its accounts were properly kept and must be in readiness at specified times to render an account of his stewardship to the community as a whole. He occupies in the feudal hierarchy the same rank held by the bishop; he is the responsible person for the performance of the feudal dues to the overlord and stands for the monastery in all its efforts to keep the feudal hold upon its vassal tenants. It was as important to the monastery as it was to the bishopric that its head should be chosen freely, without the use of any of the lower motives which were almost certain to affect the choice. The electors are the monks, but, since the abbot is regularly to be confirmed both by the secular head of the territory and by the bishop of the diocese, it is clear that these larger interests would have to be considered, and in the case of the more important monasteries we find the same difficulties in getting 'pure' elections that we have spoken of in connection with episcopal elections The succession in a great monastery was often the occasion of violent conflicts between the complicated interests at stake." — E. Emerton, Median'ol Europe, pp. 572-573. The following list of famous abbots and ab- besses gives an idea of the variety of activity and influence possible to the office. The list is not, of course, exhaustive ; it is merely a citation of a few typical cases. Anselm of Canterbury (1033-noQ). — A scho- lastic philosopher and able churchman, who. as abbot of Canterbury, made the monastery a famous scat of medieval learning. His writings "Cur Deus Homo" and "De Concordia PrsscientiiE et Pripdestinationis" made an epoch in Christian philosophy, and inaugurated the work of the schoolmen. His conflicts with William Rufus and Henry I of England made him, in his time, a powerful political force. See Excland: 1087- 1I3S- Benedict of Nursia (c. 480-544), the founder of western monasticism. He first organized the scattered companies of the western monks into orders, and the humanity, moderation, and con- structive social character of the "Rule of St. Benedict" which he devised for these monasteries turned the ascetic impulses that were hitherto some- what sterile into a civilizing force of almost in- calculable value in the development of Europe. For the importance of this rule in the history of western monasticism, see Monasticism: 6th century. Bernard of Clairvaux (ioqo-1153), the first abbot of Clairvaux, and a leader in the reform of the monastic orders, and the chief center of the religious life of Europe, at the time when Christian fervor was reaching its height in the crusades and in the beginnings of Christian art It was his preaching which fired all Europe to undertake the lirst expedition to the Holy Land and his ardent, childlike, and inspiring personality interpenetrates all the life of the twelfth century. He was con- stantly called to act as peace-maker in the quarrels of emperor and pope, and pope and anti-pope, and to represent the purest conscience of the church in the highest councils of his time. See Crusades; 1147-1149- Bruno (1030-1 101), founder of the Carthusian order which was a union of the hermit and the communal types of monasticism. Unlike most of the great abbots, who were also commanding figures in the intellectual and political life of their time, he is notable chiefly for the personal and creative influence within the strict bounds of the monastic life which made him a saint of the church and the subject of several notable works of religious art. Hilda (614-680), foundress and abbess of Whitby, the famous double monastery which in- cluded among its members five future bishops as well as the poet Caedmon, and which was a powerful center of ecclesiastical and political in- fluence. Statesmen and churchmen from all over Christian England came to Hilda for advice, and she stands out in the scanty records of the seventh century, as one of the most vigorous personalities of the age. Hildegarde (ioo8-ii7q), a German abbess and mystic who from her convent near Bingen, carried on a voluminous and influential correspondence with the most notable figures of her time Among her correspondents were Pope Anastasius and Pope .■\drian IV, and the emperors Conrad III and Frederick I. Bernard of Clairvaux and the theo- logian Guibert of Gembloux were among those who sought her advice on theolo-'ical questions. While it was her supposed gift of prophecy which made her most famous in her own time, her writ- ings on natural science are now greatly respected by scholars as representing the highest point to which the scientific study of nature in medieval Europe had yet attained. Lanfranc (d. io8q), first abbot of St. Stephens at Caen and later archbishop of Canterbury. Trained in legal studies, and a pioneer in the revival of Roman law, and in education, he be- came the political counsellor of William, the Con- queror, and did much to consolidate the power of the Normans in England, and at the same time to procure honorable conditions for the native English As an abbot he elevated the clerical standards of discipline and education. Sugier, .^bbot of St. Denis (1081-1151), states- man and historian, and constant adviser of Louis VI and Louis VII of France During the absence of Louis VII on the Second Crusade, he was appointed regent of the kingdom, and was so successful in keeping the turbulent vassals in order and improving the administration, that the king, on his return, bestowed upon him the title of "Father of the Country." As a statesman he strerxgthened the royal power, improved agri- culture and commerce, and reformed the adminis- tration of justice. His chief literan,' works are historical accounts of his own stirring times. His work as an abbot had the same characteristics as his secular achievements, being a thorough- going and efficient administration and discipline of ABBREVIATION Roman System ABBREVIATION the convent. — See also Abbey: Organization and activities; Monast:cism: iith-i.^th centuries. ABBREVIATION.— The representation of a word or phrase by the initial letter or letters or by some other standard shorter form. This practice was employed extensively by both ancient and medieval manuscript writers, with whom abbre- viation was of considerable importance as a labor- saving and space-saving device. The saving of space was especially necessary as the material for writing (parchment, or, in Roman times, wax tab- lets) was extremely limited and very expensive. Greek and Latin manuscripts, especially those which have been on technical subjects, made very great use of abbreviations, so that a certain Roman is said to have made a collection of 5000 abbreviations used in his time. .\ form of abbrevi- ation was invented by Tiro, a slave of Cicero, who took down every word of his master's speech in specially devised shorthand symbols; these were known as Tironian notes, after the name of their inventor. In the earliest transcriptions of the Bible, no abbreviations were used, but from being employed in notes and maruinal glosses, they soon began to appear in the texts. The universality of Latin as a language for scholars during the Middle Ages made the application of abbreviations a very simple matter, as the usage could become stand- ardized without much difficulty or confusion. The reform in handwriting effected by the Caro- lingian schools in the Middle Ages did not dis- courage the use of abbreviations and contractions; on the contrary, it was under their influence that the fullest development was accomplished, letters from the middle as well as the end of words being omitted. ."Ml western Europe used common forms of contraction, with the exception of Spain, where slightly different meanings were attached to the various marks. In early English and Irish manuscripts certain arbitrary shorthand symbols were used to indicate common or special words. These were adaptations of the Tironian notes of Cicero's time. The use of abbreviations continued to increase until the thirteenth century, when the practice reached its height. From that time on three things caused its decline: first, the invention of the printing press, which obviated the necessity for the copying of manuscript by hand; second, the introduction of cheap paper for printing; and third, the widesyiread use of vernacular tongues, in which abbreviations were very much more difficult because of the peculiarities of grammar. In modern times some Latin abbreviations and contractions are still in use. Membership in cer- tain orders or academies, university degrees, titles of address, or of office, and the names of certain very well-known organizations are indicated by abbreviations, usually consisting of the first letter or letters of each word in the phrase denoted. In addition practically every science has its own sys- tem of abbreviations and symbols known to stu- dents and specialists in its field. Although ab- breviations are no longer generally employed in books or other printed matter, commercial letter writing has given rise to more or less complicated systems of shorthand which, with phonetics as a basis, are comprehensive of all languages, indi- cating sounds or groups of sounds by standard straight and curved .symbols. In the United States the best known systems are the Pitman and the Gregg. Abbreviations in Babylonian writing. See Education: Ancient: B.C. 35th-6th centuries: Babylonia and Assyria. Roman System. — Use in the Middle Ages. — "The first mention of an abbreviated system is in connection with the Roman poet Quintus En- nius, 200 B.C., who used a scheme of eleven hun- dred signs that he devised for the purpose of writing more swiftly than was possible by the ordinary alphabet. Doubtless some method of abbreviating words was used by the Hebrews, and also by the Persians, several hundred years before Christ, though there is no evidence that shorthand characters or other special symbols were employed. The first definite and indisputable evi- dence of the use of shorthand is recorded by Plutarch, who mentions that in the debate on the Catilinian conspiracy in the Roman Senate in 63 B.C. the famous oration of Cicero was reported in shorthand. The method of shorthand used was invented by Tiro, who was a freedman of Marcus Tullius Cicero. Like many of the slaves of that time, captives of other nations, he was highly educated, and on receiving his freedom from Cicero he adopted two thirds of his master's name and became Marcus Tullius Tiro. He then became Cicero's secretary and confidant. When one re- members that the shorthand-writers of those days were without paper, pen, pencil, or ink, and pos- sessed only a crude method of shorthand-writing, it is almost incredible that they could report anything. The writing was done on tablets that were covered with a layer of wax. The ed cs of the wax tablets were raised in order to allow their being closed without injury to the writing. These tablets were fastened together at the corners by wire, thus forming a kind of book. As many as twenty tablets could be so fastened. When the book consisted of two tablets only it was called a diploma, and the official appointments conferring public office were in that form ; hence our word 'diploma.' The instrument used for writing was a stylus, which was about the size of an ordinary pencil, the point being of ivory or steel, with the other end flattened for the purpose of smoothing the wax after a record had been made, in order that the tablet could be used again. It was with such instruments that Cssar was stabbed to death. Tiro must have possessed unusual skill as a short - hand-writer, for Cicero, in writing to a friend when Tiro was absent, complained that his work was delayed because, while he could dictate to Tiro in 'periods,' he had to dictate to others in 'syllables.' Cicero himself was a shorthand-writer, but evidently not a skilful one, as he writes to Atticus, 'You did not understand what I wrote you concerning the ten deputies, I suppose, because I wrote you in shorthand.' In reporting the Roman Senate, it is said that Tiro stationed about forty shorthand-writers in different parts of the Curia, who wrote down on their tablets what they could. The transcripts were afterward pieced together into connected discourse. Even to-day, in the reporting in our own Congress, a somewhat similar method is used, except that the writers take notes in relays. It is stated that some of the Roman stenographers were trained to take down the first parts of sentences and others the closi:ig words. The world is indebted to Tiro and his followers for the transmission to posterity of some of the finest bits of literature and some of the most effec- tive orations of Roman civilization. By the grace of shorthand, we possess the opinions on the im- mortality of the soul of two of the famous men who lived before the Christian era. When we remember that in the days of Cicero and Czesar the sayings of the famous intellectuals were passed on almost entirely by word of mouth, and were handed down in the same manner, the part that shorthand played in the preservation of thought was enormous. A knowledge of the Tironian ABBREVIATION Roman Sysfem Modern Development ABBREVIATION notes became a much-prized possession in Horace, Livy, Ovid, Martial, Pliny, Tacitus, and Suetonius. Julius Caesar was a writer of shorthand, and the poet Ovid, in speaking of this, records, 'By these marks secrets were borne over land and sea.' . . . With the rise of the early Christian Church and the demand for a record of the exact words of the religious leaders of the day, the teaching and practice of the shorthand of Tiro received a new impetus. Pope Clement, in A.D. 196, divided Rome into seven districts and appointed a shorthand- writer for each. Cyprian, the famous bishop of Carthage, devoted much of his time to the elabora- tion of several thousand abbreviations to supple- ment the Tironian notes. These abbreviations were devoted for the main part to scriptural and proper names and to current phrases peculiar to the early Christians, thereby rendering the work 'much more useful to the faithful,' as he expressed it, but at the same time making the learning of shorthand much more difficult. . . . The famous preacher Origen (A.D. 185-253) has left on record the state- ment that he prepared his addresses in shorthand. He did not, however, permit the addresses to be reported until after he was sixty years of age, when he had acquired such skill as an orator that he could be certain that his orations were given in the form he wished. St. Augustine employed ten stenographers. Basil the Great (.\.D. 32g-379) wrote: 'Words have wings, therefore we use signs so that we can attain in writing the swiftness of speech.' . . . Pope Gregory the Great (.\.D. sqo- 604). in the dedication to his famous 'Homilies,' mentions that he had revised them from the stenographic reports. St. Jerome had ten stenogra- phers, four of whom took down his dictation, while six were transcribers who wrote out what the others had taken from dictation. . . . Bearing in mind the fact that the Tironian notes consisted of thousands of arbitrary signs for words and phrases, that the famous orator Seneca developed the Tironian notes by five thousand additional signs of his own invention, and that Bishop Cyprian added many thousands of abbreviations for scrip- tural terms, one may have some idea of the diffi- culties with which the students of shorthand in ancient times had to contend. Perhaps these Ion:: lists of arbitraries were responsible for the sad fate of Cassianus when teaching shorthand. Cassi- anus had been a bishop of Brescia, and when he was expelled from his see, he established an acad- emy at Imola, in the Province of Bologna, in which he taught shorthand. It is recorded that his exasperated pupils suddenly surrounded him and stabbed him to death with their styli. . . . Then there is the sad case of the stenographer to a great ecclesiastic who, finding his stenographer dozing when he should have been transcribing his notes, dealt him such a vigorous 'blow on the ear that the stenographer died from the effects of it, and the churchman had to leave the city in order to avoid trial for manslaughter. With the crude form of shorthand that then prevailed, shorthand- writers had enough to worry about; but we find that the Emperor Severus, in the third century, decreed that a shorthand-writer who made a mis- take in reporting a case should be banished and have the nerves of his fingers cut so that he could never write again. In 1903 archa=olo.:ists discov- ered, one hundred miles south of Cairo, a great many ancient documents on papyri. Among them was a contract with a shorthand-writer, dated .\.D. 137, whereby a boy was to be taught shorthand for the sum of 120 drachms (about $24.00) ; 40 drachmae to be paid in advance, 40 drachmae on satisfactory evidence of the progress of the boy in the acquirement of the art, and a final 40 drachmae when he had become a proficient writer. Remem- ber that, this was 137 years after the birth of Christ. Shorthand was so much in demand in those days that there may have been some profiteer- ing among the teachers of it, because we find that in A.D. 301 the Emperor Diocletian issued an edict fixing tuition fees at seventy-five denares per month for each pupil, about a dollar and a half a month. Evidently the high cost of living did not vex teachers in those days. St. .Augustine records the fact that the stenographers of Rome went on strike on one occasion and succeeded in securing their demands. . . . Peocopius, who was a stenographer to the Emperor Constantine II, be- came a count. He attempted to seize Julius's crown, but, vacillating at the critical moment, was betrayed by his generals and put to death. A teacher of oratory, Fabius Quintilian (.AD. 35-95). in publishing his 'Guide to the Art of Oratory,' complained that his lectures, published by others under his name, had injured him because they had been reported by 'greedy shorthand-writers who had taken them down, and circulated them.' It is stated that the early Christians bribed the judicial shorthand-writers to take down the say- ings of the Christian on trial. These were pre- served in the archives and read at the martyrs' anniversaries in order to encourage the faithful With the decline and dissolution of the Roman Empire, shorthand, like all other arts, lost favor. It was no longer regarded as a great, fashionable art. The Emperor Justinian, in the sixth century, forbade his records being kept by the 'catches and short-cut riddles of signs' Later, Frederick II ordered the destruction of all shorthand-characters as being 'necromantic and diabolical.' As the Holy Roman Empire then covered almost the en- tire known world, the edict of Frederick II ren- dered sharthand one of the lost arts. Then came the Dark .Ages, and for nearly a thousand years the arts and sciences, among them shorthand, were banished from the world." — J. R. Gregg, Juliut CiFsar's stenographer {Century Magazine, May, 1921). Modern development. — "The first evidence of the revival of shorthand that we have in the Renaissance is in the fact that the orations of the reformer Savonarola (1452-1498) were reported in some form of abbreviated writing by Lorenzo di Jacopo ^'iola. There are many omissions or incomplete sentences in these reports, and in paren- thesis there is this quaint explanation by the re- porter. 'Here I was unable to proceed because of weeping.' Was the reporter merely camouflaging his own inability to keep pace with the fiery tongue of the orator? . . . The first system of short- hand published in modern times was that of Dr. Timothy Bright, whose system of 'characterie' was published in London in 1588. Dr. Bright, in the introduction to his book, said that he was inspired to devise his system through reading Plutarch's reference to the reporting of the Catili- nian conspiracy. The full title of Dr. Bright's book was, 'Characterie. .An .Arte of Shorte, Swifte and Secrete Writing by Character.' The system was dedicated to Queen Elizabeth, and letters patent were issued to the author by the crown, dated July 13. 1588, giving him the exclusive right to the publication and use of shorthand . . . 'Characterie' did not meet with favor, and it was superseded by branchy jraphy, tachygraphy, stenog- raphy, and many other names. It is a curious thing that the first mention of the word 'short- hand,' by which the art is now generally known, is in an epitaph which is still to be seen in the 8 ABBREVIATION ABC CONFERENCE cloisters of Westminster Abbey. It is to William Laurence, who died December 28, 1661, and reads: 'Shorthand he wrot, his flowre in prime did fade, And hasty death shorthand of him hath made.' Dr. Bright was a man of rare attainments. He was a distinguished physician and an author of several books of importance. In 1580 one of his books was called 'A Treatise on Melancholy,' and it is beUeved that it suggested to Shakspere many of the pranks of mad people as set forth in his plays, and especially, 'Hamlet.' Shakspere was twenty-four years of age when Bright's book was published, and no doubt he was familiar with it, as it created a stir at the time; indeed, the word 'characterie' is used in two of his plays. Bright's 'Treatise on Melancholy' was published in 1586, and therefore long preceded 'Hamlet.' Recent in- vestigators have found that several expressions in 'Hamlet,' which were heretofore believed to have been original with Shakspere, are to be found in Bright's book ; such as 'discourse of reason.' Bright's system was arbitrary and had not an alphabet that could be connected; it was simply a list of signs to be used for words. The first system with an alphabet was that of John Willis, pub- lished in 1602, and from that time on there was a steady stream of systems or modifications of sys- tems. In the next century and a half more than two hundred systems were published. There was great interest in shorthand at this time. The people were eagerly desirous of preserving in per- manent form the utterances of their beloved re- ligious leaders. All textbooks of that time reflect this, because they are full of abbreviations for biblical phrases. John and Charles Wesley, the founders of the Methodist Church, were short- hand-writers. The Wesleys used the celebrated system of Dr. John Byrom. Dr. Philip Doddridge, in his famous theological college, insisted that all students preparing for the ministry should learn shorthand first in order that they might easily take down his lectures. In 1628 Bishop Earle de- nounced certain 'graceless' persons who did not scruple to report sermons in stenography and then palm them off later as their own. But shorthand was used for other purposes. The most famous diary ever published was that of Samuel Pepys, which was written in the Shelton system. In this diary Pepys gives a vivid account of the Great Plague and the Great Fire of London, with many intimate accounts of the court of King Charles II. Pepys was an expert shorthand-writer, because he mentions in his diary that in April, 1680, he at- tended the king, by command, at Newmarket, and there 'took down in shorthand from his own mouth the narrative of his escape from the battle of Worcester.' It is interesting to recall that Thomas Jefferson, in a letter to his friend Page, dated January 23, 1764, proposed that they should master Shelton's system, the one used by Pepys, so that they might have something which was unintelligible to any one else. He said, 'I will send you some of these days Shelton's Tachygraph- ical Alphabet and directions. ' There is evidence that the art of shorthand was in use in this country within half a dozen years of the landing of the Pilgrims. In the library at Springfield, Massachusetts, there is preserved the shorthand note-books of Major John Pynchon, the son of the founder of Springlield, containing reports of the sermons of the first pastor of Springfield, the Rev. George Moxon. These sermons are dated from 1637 to 1639, seventeen years after the coming of the Mayflower. A majority of the writers of shorthand in New England in the early colonial days were men of distinction. Roger Williams, the founder of Rhode Island, was a very accomplished shorthand-writer. An Indian Bible belonging to him in which are annotations in shorthand is still preserved in one of the historical societies. It is not, however, generally known that many years before coming to this country Roger Williams, at nineteen years of age, was em- ployed by the famous lawyer Sir Edward Coke to report the proceedings of the Star Chamber in 1618. John Winthrop, Jr., the son of the first governor of Massachusetts, and who was himself afterward governor of Connecticut, was an ac- complished shorthand-writer. When he arrived in Boston in 1631 he proceeded to superintend the settlement of the town of Ipswich, Massachusetts, while his wife Martha remained in Boston. They corresponded in shorthand, and many of these shorthand letters, which were written in 1633, are preserved by the Winthrop families under the date of that year. I mention this particularly because Martha Winthrop is the first American shorthand- writer of the gentler sex of whom we have record. As early as 1650 Sir Ralph Verney spoke of the 'multitudes of women practicing shorthand in church.' A discourse published in 1700 was de- scribed as 'taken down in characters from the pulpit by a young maiden.' In his autobio.;raphy Benjamin Franklin says: 'My uncle Benjamin had formed a shorthand of his own, which he taught me. He was very pious and a very great attender of the best preachers which he took down in short- hand, and he had many volumes of them. My father intended to devote me to the service of the Church. My uncle offered to give me his collec- tion of sermons as a sort of stock in trade with which to start.' In 1837 Isaac Pitman published a system called 'Stenographic Sound-Hand,' which was revived in 1840 and published as 'Phonog- raphy.' So great was the interest displayed in the study of the art that enormous classes were or- ganized, and in order to avail themselves of the teaching of Pitman, many of these met at six o'clock in the morning, and others continued their work until ten in the evening. ... It was not until the invention of a simpler shorthand that there came the present growing interest in it as an art that should be mastered by everybody, whether they wish to make use of it professionally or otherwise." — Ibid. Ciphers of Roger Bacon. See Science: Middle Ages and the Renaissance. ABC ALLIANCE: Origin and nature of. See Latin America: 1012-1015; 1018. ABC CONFERENCE, a meeting held at Niagara, May-June, 1Q14, of representatives chosen by the ABC powers, Argentina, Brazil and Chile, which had as its object the peaceful settlement of the differences which had arisen between the United States and Mexico in 1Q14. "President Wilson had a very disagreeable situation to face when he assumed control of affairs at Washington. He refused to recognize Huerta whose authority was contested by insurrectionary chiefs in various parts of the country. It was claimed by the critics of the administration that the refusal to recognize Huerta was a direct violation of the well known American policy of recognizing de jacto govern- ments without undertaking to pass upon the rights involved. It is perfectly true that the United States has consistently followed the policy of recognizing de jacto governments as soon as it is evident in each case that the new government rests on popular approval and is likely to be permanent. This doctrine of recognition is distinctively an ABC CONFERENCE ABDICATION American doctrine. It was first laid down by Thomas Jefferson when he was Secretary of State as an offset to the European doctrine of divine right, and it was the natural outgrowth of that other Jeflersonian doctrine that all governments derive their just powers from the consent of the governed. Huerta could lay no claim to authority derived from a majority or anything like a majority of the Me.xican people. He was a self- constituted dictator, whose authority rested solely on military force. President Wilson and Secretary Bryan were fully justified in refusing to recognize his u.surpation of power, though they probably made a mistake in announcing that they would never recognize him and in demanding his elim- ination from the presidential contest. This an- nouncement made him deaf to advice from Wash- ington and utterly indifferent to the destruction of American life and property. The ne.xt step in the President's course with reference to Mexico was the occupation of Vera Cruz. On April 20, 1Q14, the President asked Congress for authority to employ the armed forces of the United States in demanding redress for the arbitrary arrest of .American marines at Vera Cruz, and the next day -Admiral Fletcher was ordered to seize the custom house at that port. This he did after a sharp fight with Huerta's troops in which nineteen Amer- icans were killed and seventy wounded. The Amer- ican charge d'affaires, Nelson O'Shaughnessy, was at once handed his passports, and all diplomatic relations between the United States and Mexico were severed. .\ few days later the representatives of the so-called ABC powers, Argentina, Brazil, and Chile, tendered their good offices for a peaceful settlement of the conflict and President Wilson promptly accepted their mediation." — J. H. Latane, United Stales and Latin America, pp. 308-310. Mediation agreement: Protocol. — The first for- mal session of the mediation conference was held at Niagara Falls on May 20, 1014. The United States was represented by .Associate Justice Joseph R. Lamar and Frederick W. Lehmann, former So- licitor-General, -Argentina, Brazil and Chile by their Plenipotentiaries, and Gen. Huerta by .Augustin Rodriguez, Emilio Rabasa, and Luis Elguero. After five weeks of difficult labor during which the conference was several times on the brink of failure, the delegates issued a protocol which was signed on June 24 by all the mediators. It read as follows: "Article I. — The provisional government referred to in protocol No. 3 shall be constituted by agreement of the delegates representing the parties between which the internal struggle in Mexico is taking place. Article 11. — (a) Upon the constitution of the provisional government in the City of Mexico, the Government of the United States of America will recognize it immediately, and thereupon diplomatic relations between the two countries will be restored, (ft) The Government of the United States also will not in any form whatsoever claim a war indemnity or other in- ternational satisfaction, (c) The provisional gov- ernment will proclaim an absolute amnesty to all foreigners for any and all political offenses com- mitted during the period of Civil War in Mexico, (rf) The provisional government will negotiate for the constitution of international commissions for the settlement of the claims of foreigners on ac- count of damages sustained during the period of Civil War as a consequence of military acts or the acts of the national authorities. -Article III. — The Three mediating Governments agree on their part to recognize the provisional government or- ganized as provided in section 1 of this protocol." — American year book, iqi4, p. 76.— .Although this protocol was not made operative in any par- ticular, Huerta voluntarily resigned July 15th "On August :o, General Venustiano Carranza, head of one of the revolutionary factions, assumed con- trol of affairs at the capital, but his authority was disputed by General Francisco Villa, another in- surrectionary chief. On Carranza's promise to re- spect the lives and property of American citizens the United States forces were withdrawn from Vera Cruz in November, 1914. In .August, 1Q15, at the request ef President Wilson the six ranking representatives of Latin -America at Washington made an unsuccessful effort to reconcile the con- tending factions of Mexico. On their advice, how- ever. President Wilson decided in October to recognize the government of Carranza, who now controlled three-fourths of the territory of Mexico." — Ibid., p. 310. — See also U.S..A.: 1014 (.April). ABD-AL-BAHA IBN BAHA ALLAH. See Abbas Effendi. ABDALLAH, Mohammedan missionary in Af- rica, nth centurv. See .Almoravides. ABDALLAH IBN ZOBAIR (022-692), caliph of -Mecca. See Caliphate: 715-750. ABDALLEE, Ahmed (Ahmad Shah Durani), shah of .Afghanistan, 1747-1773. See Ixdta: 1747- 1761. ABD-AR-RAHMAN (I-V), a succession of members of the Ommayyad family, whose founder. -Abd-ar-rahman I, escaped from the destruction of his house by the -Abbasids, and ultimately founded in Spain the Ommayyad caliphate of Cordova. His reign began in 756, and his family continued to rule until 1031. See Caliphate: 756-1031. ABD-EL-AZIZ IV (1880- ), sultan of Mo- rocco, iQoo-igo8. Proposed the conference at Al- geciras in igo6; regarded by his people as a weak ruler and in 1907-1908 was supplanted by his brother Mulai el Hafid. See Morocco: 1903, and 1907-1909. ABD-EL-KADER (c.1807-1883), amir of Mas- cara. The i-'reat leader of the .Algerian tribes against France, 1830-1847; yielded in 1847 and spent his last years in Damascus; celebrated throughout the Barbary States and highly es- teemed by the French. See Barb.ary States: 1830- 1846. ABD-EL-MUMIN EL KUMI (1130-1163), caliph and Commander of the Faithful. See Al- MOHADEs; .Africa: -Ancient and medieval civiliza- tion: .Arab occupation: Relations with Europe: Effects of Arab influence. ABDERA, an ancient maritime town on the southern coast of Spain, bordering on the Mediter- ranean sea. The Carthaginians founded the town to be used as a trading station. It was subse- quently taken over by the Romans. Abdera is the birthplace of the philosopher Democritus, of the historian Hecataus and other distinguished men. ABDERHALDEN'S ENZYME REACTION. See Medical science: Modern: 20th century: Ex- perimental method. ABDICATION, the renunciation, formally or otherwise, of an office, power or right. The term is used chiefly with reference to rulers. An ab- solute monarch may abdicate at will ; in some constitutional monarchies the consent of the par- liament is required. In England, action of both Houses of Parliament is necessary to validate an abdication. In the case of King James II it was decided by Parliament that the king's desertion of his official duties, followed by his flight from the realm, constituted an abdication of his royal po- sition. History records a number of voluntary ab- dications, as well as numerous occasions on which 10 ABDICATION ABELARD the ruler was compelled by insurrection to renounce his throne. The following list of abdications, forced and voluntary, is by no means exhaustive, but includes those which have special interest or importance. Wholesale abdications, such as occurred in the minor German states immediately after the World War, may be found under the names of the sep- arate states. Ptolemy I of E^ypt (B.C. 285). See Mace- donia: B.C. 2g7-28o. Diocletian, Roman Emperor (A.D. May, 305). See Rome: 284-305. Edward II of England (1327) See England: 1327- Richard II of England (ijqq). See England: I3qg-i47i. Charles V, Emperor (Sept., 1558). See Ger- many: 1552-1561; Netherlands: i5.';s. Christina of Sweden (July, 1(154). See Sweden: 1644-1607. Charles IV of Spain (May, 1808). See Spain: 1807-1808. Ferdinand VII of Spain (May, 1808). See Spain: 1807-1808. Louis Bonaparte of Holland (July, 1810). See Netherlands: 1806-1810. Napoleon I (April, 1814; June, 1815). See France: 1814 (March-April) ; 1815, ( June-.Aug.). Victor Emmanuel I (March, 1821). See Italy: 1820-1821. Charles X of France (July, 1830). See France: 1815-1830. Pedro I of Brazil (1831). See Brazil: 1825-1865. Pedro IV of Portugal (.^pril, 1831). See Portugal: 1824-1800; Brazil: 1825- 1865. Christina of Spain (Oct., 1840). See Sp.«n: 1833-1846. William I of Holland (Oct., 1840). See Nether- lands: 1840-1840. Ferdinand of Austria (Dec, 1848). See Aus- tria: 1848-1840; Hungary: 1847-1840. Louis Philippe of France (Feb., 1848). See France: 1841-1848. Charles Albert of Sardinia (March, 1840). See Italy: 1848-1840. Isabella II of Spain (June, 1870). See Spain: 1868-1873. Amadeus I of Spain (Feb. 11, 1873). See Spain: 1868-1873. Alexander I of Bulgaria (Sept., 1886). See Bul- garia: 1885-1886. Milan of Serbia (March, i88q). See Serbia: 1885-1003. Pedro II of Brazil (t88o). See Brazil: i 880-1 8qi. Yl Hiong, Emperor of Korea (July, 1Q07). See Korea: 1005-1000. Abd-ul-Hamid II of Turkey (April 27, igog). See Turkey: igoq. Mohammed Ali of Persia (July, igog). See Persia: iqo8-igog. Hsuan Tung (Pu Yi) of China (Feb., 1012). See China: 1012 (Jan.). Nicholas II of Russia (March, igi7). See Europe: Modern period; Russia in the igth cen- tury; Russia: March, igi7 (March 8-15); World War: igi7: HI. Russia and the Eastern front: h. Michael, grand duke of Russia (March, igi7). See Russia: 1017 (March, 16-20). Constantine I of Greece (June, 1Q17). See Greece: igi6; World War: igi?: V. Balkan the- atre: a, 1. Charles I of Austria (Nov., igi8). See Austria- Hungary: igi8. Grand duke of Baden (igi8). See Baden: igi8. Ferdinand I of Bulgaria (Oct., igi8). See Bul- garia: 1018; World War; 1918: V. Balkan the- atre: c, 11. William II of Germany (Nov., 1918). See Europe: Nov., igi8; Germany: Nov., 1918. Marie Adelaide, grand duchess of Luxemburg (iq2o). See Lu.vemburg: igig-ig2i. ABDUL AZIZ, sultan of Turkey, 1861-1876. By imperial lirman of 1866 he conceded to Ismail Pasha and his descendants, the hereditary right to the office of khedive of Egypt. Largely re.sponsible for the Bulgarian massacres of 1875. Popular dis- content at his misgovernment led to his deposition, May 30, 1876. He was found dead in his apart- ments four days later. See Turkey: 1861-1870. Islamic teachings of. See Wahhabis. ABDU'L BAHA. See Abbas Effendi. ABDUL HAMID I, sultan of Turkey, 1773- 17S0. Involved in a series of unsuccessful wars with Catherine II of Russia, as a result of which Turkey lost the Crimea and adjacent territories. See Turkey: 1774 and 1776-1792. Abdul Hamid II (1842- 1018), sultan of Tur- key, 1876-igog. Came to power in trying times, suppressed the attempted Parliamentary reforms of the Young Turks and inaugurated an ab- solutist regime; responsible for the Armenian outrages of 1805 and i8g6. Political conflicts caused by the SHCcess of the Young Turks enabled Austria-Hungary formally to annex the occupied provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina (igo8). De- posed (igog) by the Youiv4 Turks. — See also Tur- key: 1861-1876; 1877 io igog. Supporter of Fan-Islamic movement. See Pan-Islanhsm. ABDUL MEJID, sultan of Turkey, 1830-1861. In spite of sincere attempts at reform, his reign was a failure because of the practical loss of Egypt through his defeat by Mehcmet Ali, and the ex- haustion of Turkey in consequence of the Crimean war. — See also Turkey: 1830. ABDULLAH, Mohammed, Somali mullah, leader of the rebellion in igo2. See Somaliland. ABDULLAH IBN SEYYID MOHAMMED (c. 1846-1800), the khalifa, ruler of Egyptian Su- dan. See Egypt: 1885-1806. ABDUR RAHMAN (d. 666), Saracen generaL See Caliphate: 715-7^2. ABDUR RAHMAN KHAN, amir of Afghanis- tan, 1880-iqoi. See Afghanistan: i86g-i88i and I001-iqo6. ABEKEN, Heinrich (i8oq-i872), chaplain to the Prussian embassy at Rome in 1834. Was in high favor with Bismarck, whose official dispatches he was employed to write, and with King William, whom he accompanied on several campaigns and diplomatic missions during the Franco-German War. Composed the famous Ems dispatch, which, as edited by Bismarck, precipitated the Franco- German War. — See also France: 1870 (June-July). ABEL, Sir Frederick Augustus (1827-1002), English chemist. Expert in the science of ex- plosives; consulting chemist to the British war department, 1854-1 888; prepared guncotton in a form which increased its usefulness ; with James Dewar invented cordite, the standard explosive of the British army — See also Che\ustry: Practical application: Explosives: Gunpowder. ABELARD, Peter (1070-1142), scholastic philosopher, teacher and theologian. He was a bold and original thinker with an irrepressible thirst for knowledge, and his overthrow of reahsm was the precursor of the Aristotelian ascendancy in the Middle Ages. He created enemies among the teachers who were lecturing in France by de- feating them in debate, and by his remarkable II ABENAQUES ABNAKIS work "Yea and Nay" he introduced the fashion of discussing the tenets of Christianity. Cruelly persecuted both for his doctrines, and for his love for Heloise, he lied from monastery to monastery. While on his way to Rome to suffer imprisonment by the church, he died at Cluny. The founding of the University of Paris was in great part due to his influence. — See also Eoucation': Medieval: Qth-i5th centuries: Scholasticism, Schoolmen; and iith-i2th centuries: Universities, Their rise; also U^^VEKSITlKs .and colleges: 1201-167Q. Also in: C. de Remusat, Abelard (1845). — J. McCabe, Peler Abelard. — H. Morton, Love letters of Abilard and Heloise. ABENAQUES. See .'Vbnakis, Abenaques or Taranteens. ABENCERRAGES, a powerful family in the Moorish kingdom of Granada. The name became famous in Spanish romance through feuds between the Abencerrages and their rivals, the Zegris. Toward the close of Moorish rule the family is said to have been massacred in the .Mhambra by King Abu Hassan. See Spain: 12,^8-1273 and 1470- 1402. ABENCERRAGES, Hall of. See Alhambra. ABENSBERG, a small town in lower Bavaria, Germany, on the Abens, eighteen miles southwest of Ratisbon. It gained prominence in the .•\ustrian offensive of iSoq. Here, on the 20th of April, i8oq. Napoleon pained a signal victory over the Austrian army under the .'\rchduke Charles and General Hiller. This opened the way to the vic- tory of Eckmiihl, and the retirement of the .Aus- trians. See Germany: i8oq ( Januarv-June) . ABERCROMBIE, James (1706-1781), com- mander-in-chief of British and Colonial forces in .'\merica, 1757; his defeat following his attack on Ticonderoga led to his removal ir 1759. See Can- aua: 1758. ABERCROMBIE, Lascellea (1881- ), Eng- lish poet. See English literature: 1880-1920. ABERCROMBY, Sir Ralph (1734-1S01), dis- tinguished soldier of Great Britain. Served in the Seven Years' War; fell in battle with the French near Ale.xandria. — See also France: 1S01-1S02. ABERDARE, Henry Austin Bruce, 1st Baron of (1815-1805), English statesman; entered parlia- ment, 1862; home secretary under Gladstone, i8oq; responsible for Licensing Act of 1872 ; made lord president of the council and raised to the peerage 1873; political life closed with the defeat of the Liberal government in 1874. His last years were devoted to social and educational activities. ABERDEEN, George Hamilton Gordon, 4th Earl of (1784-iSbo), English statesman and schol- ar. Signed the treaty of Teplitz at \'ienna (1813) for Great Britain; represented his country at the Congress of Chatillon-sur-Seine (1814). Secretary of state for foreign affairs under'Peel, 1841-1846; prime minister, 1852-1855. See England: 1851- 1852, and 1855. ABERDEEN, a seaport and fourth largest city in Scotland, situated on a bay of the .North Sea between the rivers Don and Dee; scat of the Uni- versity of .Aberdeen, which was formed b.v the incorporation (i860) of King's College (founded in 1404) and Marischal College (1500 ABERDEEN AND TEMAIR, Ishbel Maria (Marjoribanks), Marchioness of (1857- ), Brit- ish social worker and writer. Founded the On- ward and LIpward .Assoc!;' Uon to promote coop- eration among women of different stations of life; the Irish Industries Association; the Canadi:in Na- tional Council of Women ; and the Victorian Order of Nurses. President of the International Council of Women, 1893 1800; reelected in 1904 ABERDEEN AND TEMAIR, John Campbell Gordon, 1st Marquess of (1847- ), English Liberal. Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, 1886; Gov- ernor-General of Canada, 1893 -1898; upon the formation of the Liberal ministry under Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, again Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, 1905-1915. ABGEORDNETEN HAUS (Chamber of Deputies), Austria. See Austria: 1907. ABHORRERS, the name given to those who were opposed to the signers of a petition in 1079 urging King Charles II to assemble parliament. During this controversy, it is said, the terms Whig and Tory were first applied to the two English factions. See also Petitioners and Abiiorrers. ABILITY TESTS FOR CHILDREN. See Education: Modern developments: Experiments: Intelligence tests. ABIPONES. See Pamp.« tribes. A6IR, or A. B. I. R. Company. See Belgian Congo: 1903-1905. ABJURATION, Act of. See Netherlands: 1577-1581. ABLAINCOURT, France, stormed by the French. See World War: 1910: II. Western front: c, 3. ABLAIN-ST. NAZAIRE, France, taken by the French. See World War: 1915: II. Western front: a, 5. ABLAINZEVELLE, France, taken by the Germans. See World War: 1918: II. Western Iront: c, 26. ABNAKIS, or Abenaques, or Taranteens.— "The Abnakis I Indians] were called Taranteens by the English, and Owenagungas by the New Yorkers. . . . We must admit that a large portion of the North .American Indians were called .Vbnakis, if not by themselves, at least by others. This wont .Abnaki is found spelt .Abenaques, .Abenaki, Wapa- nachki, and Wabenakics by different writers of var- ious nations, each adopting the manner of spelling according to the rules of pronunciation of their respective native languages. . .,. The word gen- erally received is spelled thus, .Abnaki, but it should be 'Wanbanaghi,' from the Indian word 'wanbanban,' designating the people of Ihe .Aurora Borealis, or in general, of the place where the sky commences to appear white at the breaking of the day. ... It has been difficult for different writers to determine the number of nations or tribes com- prehended under this word .Abnaki. It being a general word, by itself designates the people of the east or northeast. . . . We find that the word Ab- naki was applied in general, more or less, to all the Indians of the East, by persons who were not much acquainted with the aborigines of the coun- try. On the contrary, the early writers and other- well acquainted with the natives of New France and Acadia, and the Indians themselves, by Ab- nakis always pointed out a particular nation ex- isting north-west and south of the Keimebec river, and they never designated any other people of. the .Atlantic shore, from Cape Hatteras to Newfound- land. . . . The .Abnakis had five great villages, tw.i amongst the French colonies, which must be the village of St. Joseph or Sillery, and that of St. Francis de Sales, both in Canada, three on the head waters, or along three rivers, between .Acadia and New England. These three rivers are Ihe Kenne- bec, the Androscoggin, and the Saco. . . . The na- tion of the .Abnakis bear evident marks of having been an original people in their name, manners, and language. They show a kind of civilization which must be the effect of antiquity, and of a past flourishing age."— E Vetromile, Abnaki In- dians (Maine Historical Soc. Coll., v. 6) — See also 12 ABNORMAL CHILDREN ABSENTEEISM Algonquian Fahuly; Indians, American: Cul- tural areas in North America: Eastern Woodlands Area.- — For some account of the wars of the Ab- nakis, with the New England colonics, see Canada (New France): 1689-1690, 1692-1697; New Eng- land: 1675 (July-September); 1702-1710, 1711- i7n; Nova Scotia: I7i,vi7.50- ABNORMAL CHILDREN. See Child Wel- fare. ABNORMAL CLASSES, Education for. See Education: Modern developments: Education for the_ deaf, the blind and the feeble-minded. ABO, Peace of (1743). See Russia: 1740-1762. ABOLITION, ABOLITIONISTS. See Illi- nois: 1831-1837; Slavery: 1828-1832 and 1840- 1847; U. S. A.: 1807, 1S29-1S32, 1831-1836, 1835, 1837-1840, 18.S0 (March), (April-September); ViR- GiNnA: 1776-1S15. Abolitionism In literature. See American lit- erature: 1830-1890. ABOMINATIONS, Bill of. See Tariff: 1828. ABORIGINES, American. See Indians, Amer- ican. ABORIGINES, Exchange among. See Com- merce: Prehistoric and primitive. ABOUKIR, a village in northern Egypt on the bay of Aboukir, thirteen miles northeast of Alex- andria. In the bay was fought the battle of the Nile (1798) [see France: 1798-1799: Au^ust-.^u- gust] in which the English under Lord Nelson defeated the French fleet under Brueys. Near the village a year later, Napoleon defeated the Turks. ■In 1801 the town was captured by the English under Sir Ralph Abercromby. See France: 1801- 1802; World War: 1914: IX. Naval operations: b. ABOUKIR, British cruiser, sunk on September 22, 1914, together with the Hague and the Cressy, by Otto von Weddigen, commander of a German submarine. See World War: 1914: IX. Naval operations. ABRAHAM, biblical and traditional patriarch, founder of the Hebrew nation. His name has be- come synonymous with absolute faith in God and implicit obedience to the divine will. In the Ko- ran, he is represented as being from early child- hood the solitary exponent of monotheism and vio- lently persecuted by the polytheistic idolators on account of his fearless proclamation of the oneness of God. It is on the strength of the divine promise to Abraham that the Bible represents the jews as a chosen people. — See also Jews: Early Hebrew history; Jews: Children of Israel in Egypt. ABRAHAM, Plains of, that part of the high plateau of Quebec on which the memorable victory of Wolfe was won, September 13, 1759. The plain was so called "from Abraham Martin, a pilot known as Maitrc .Abraham, who had owned a piece of land here in the early times of the colony." — F. Parkman, Montcalm and iVolfe, v. 2, p. 289. — For an account of the battle which gave distinction to the Plains of .Abraham, see Canada: 1759 (July- September). ABRAMS VERSUS UNITED STATES.— Supreme Court decisions. Sec Supreme Court: 1917-1921. ABRANTES, Duke of. See Tunot, Andoche. ABRANTES, a town of Portugal in Estrema- dura, on the Tagus. Captured on the 24th of No- vember, 1807, by the French General Junot (Due d' Abrantes), who made it the starting-point of his march on Lisbon and the conquest of Portugal. ABRUZZI, Prince Luigi Amedeo, Duke of the (1873- ), Arctic explorer. See Arctic explora- tion: 1917-1918; Chronological record: 1899-1900, 1901 ; and Map of Arctic Regions. ABSALON (II28-I20I), Danish archbishop, statesman and soldier. In 1168 succeeded in forc- ing the Wends to accept the Christian religion and Danish sovereignty. ABSAROKAS. See Siouan Family. ABSENCE, Ascertaining legality of death. Sec Common Law: 1604. ABSENTEE OWNERSHIP. See Absentee- ism. ABSENTEE VOTING. See Suffrage: Elec- tions. ABSENTEEISM.— "An absentee may be vari- ously defined (i) as a landed proprietor who re- sides away from his estate, or (2) from his country; or more generally (3) any unproductive consumer who lives out of the country from which he derives his income. Examples of these species are (i) a seigneur under the ancien regime living in Paris at a distance from his estates; (2) an Irish landlord resident abroad; an Anglo-Indian ex-official resident in England and drawing a pen- .sion from India. ' — R. H. I. Palgrave, Dictionary of political economy. — "Those who live in another country contribute nothing, by their consumption, towards the support of the government of that country in which is situated the source of their revenue. If in this latter country there should be no land tax, nor any considerable duty upon the transference either of moveable or immoveable property, as is the case in Ireland, such absentees may derive a great revenue from the protection of a government to the support of which they do not contribute a single shilling. This inequality is likely to be greatest in a country of which the government is in some respects subordinate and dependent upon that of some other. The people who possess the most extensive property in the dependent, will in this case generally choose to live in the governing country. Ireland is pre- cisely in this situation, and we cannot therefor wonder that the proposal of a tax upon absentees should be so very popular in that country." — A. Smith, Wealth of nations (1776). — "Absen- teeism is an old evil, and in very early times re- ceived attention from the government. . . . . Some of the disadvantages to the community aris- ing from the absence of the more wealthy and in- telligent classes are apparent to every one. Unless the landlord is utterly poverty-stricken or very unenterprising, 'there is a great deal more going on' when he is in the country. ... I am con- vinced that absenteeism is a great disadvantage to the country and the people. . . . It is too much to attribute to it all the evils that have been set down to its charge. It is, however, an important consideration that the people regard it as a grievance; and think the twenty-five or thirty millions of dollars paid every year to these land- lords, who are rarely or never in Ireland, is a tax grievous to be borne." — D. B. King, Irish question (1882), pp. S-ii. "The Irish system of landholding was exceed- ingly bad, for it contained many vicious features with scarcely any redeeming ones. . . . The ownership of the soil was vested, not in those who tilled it. but in those whose ancestors had profited from the confiscations in former years. These Irish landlords, mainly of English origin, regarded their estates merely as sources of revenue and cared little about the condition of the tenants, whom they greatly despised. Many of them were 'absentee landlords' living in England ; their prop- erties were managed by agents, who, in order to 13 ABSENTEEISM ABSENTEEISM please their employers, would raise the rents of the tenants on every possible pretext. Improve- ments on the farm had to be made by the peasant. If he drained a marsh, built a fence, or improved his cottage, his rent was immediately raised by the landlord; if he refused to pay it, he was promptly evicted and the improvements, as well as the farm, became the landlord's prop- erty without compensation to the tenant. From 1849 to 1882 no fewer than 363,000 peasant fam- ilies were evicted from their homes. Often the fear of losing the money invested in the improve- ments compelled the peasant to suffer the greatest privations in order to satisfy the greed of the landlord. In this way the latter used as a means of coercion the very value created by the peasant. Owners refused to improve their properties, and the tenants were naturally slow to invest labor and money for the benefit of the former ; hence the land was wretchedly cultivated. This system of 'rack-renting,' as it was called, became notorious the world over and excited the greatest sympathy for the Irish peasants." — J. S. Schapiro, Modern and contemporary European history, pp. 388-389. — See also Agriculture; Ireland: 1O07-1611. France was in somewhat the same position be- fore the Revolution, which effected a great reform in land ownership. A French authority thus de- scribes the situation; "Set aside in public mat- ters, freed from taxation, the seignior remains isolated and a stranger among his vassals; his extinct authority with his unimpaired privileges form for him an existence apart. When he emerges from it, it is to forcibly add to the pub- lic misery. On this soil, ruined by the fisc [the crown rights to an estate], he takes a portion of its product, so much in sheaves of wheat and so many measures of wine. His pigeons and his game eat up the crops. People are obliged to grind in his mill, and to leave with him a six- teenth of the flour. . . . The spectacle be- comes still more gloomy, on passing from the estates on which the seigniors reside to those on which they are non-residents. Noble or en- nobled, lay and ecclesiastic, the latter are priv- ileged among the privileged and form an aris- tocracy inside of an aristocracy. Almost all the powerful and accredited families belong to it whatever may be their origin and their date. Through their habitual or frequent residence near the court, through their alliances or mutual visits, through their habits and their luxuries, through the influence which they exercise and the enmities which they provoke, they form a group apart, and are those who possess the most extensive estates, the leading suzerainties, and the com- pletest and most comprehensive jurisdictions. Of the court nobility and of the higher clergy, they number, perhaps, a thousand in each order, while their small number only brings out in higher re- lief the enormity of their advantages. ... It is evident, that, with such revenues, coupled with the feudal rights, police, justiciary and adminis- trative, which accompany them, an ecclesiastic or lay grand seignior is, in fact, a sort of prince in his district; that he bears too close a resem- blance to the ancient sovereign to be entitled to live as an ordinary individual ; that his private advantages impose on him a public character; that his rank, and his enormons profits, make it in- cumbent on him to perform proportionate services, and that, even under the sway of the intendant, he owes to his vassals, to his tenants, to his feudatories the support of his mediation, of his patronage and of his gains. This requires a home residence, but, generally, he is an absentee. For a hundred and fifty years a kind of all-powerful attraction diverts the grandees from the provinces and impels them towards the capital; and the movement is irresistible for it is the effect of two forces, the greatest and most universal that in- fluence mankind, one, a social position, and the other the national character. A tree is not to be severed from its roots with impunity. .'Xn aris- tocracy organized to rule becomes detached from the soil when it no longer rules; and it ceases to rule the moment when, through increasing and constant encroachments, almost the entire justi- ciary, the entire administration, the entire police, each detail of the local or general government, the power of initiating, of collaboration, of con- trol regarding taxation, elections, roads, public works and charities, passes over into the hands of the intendant or of the sub-delegate, under the supreme direction of the comptroller-general or of the king's council. Clerks, gentry 'of the robe and the quill,' plebeians enjoying no considera- tion, perform the work; there is no way to pre- vent it. . . . 'The great proprietors,' says another contemporary, ['De I'etat religieux,' by the abbes de Bonnefoi et Bernard, 1784] 'attracted to and kept in our cities by luxurious enjoyments know nothing of their estates,' save 'of their agents whom they harass for the support of a ruinous ostentation. How can ameliorations be looked for from those who even refuse to keep things up and make indispensable repairs?' A sure proof that their absence is the cause of the evil is found in the visible difference between the domain worked under an absent abbe-commenda- tory and a domain superintended by monks living on the spot. 'The intelligent traveller recognizes it' at first sight by the state of cultivation. 'If he finds fields well enclosed by ditches, carefully planted, and covered with rich crops, these fields, he says to himself, belong to the monks. Almost always, alongside of these fertile plains, is an area of ground badly tilled and almost barren, presenting a painful contrast; and yet the soil is the same, being two portions of the same domain ; he sees that the latter is the portion of the abbe- commendatop.'.' 'The abbatial manse,' said Le- franc de Pompignan, 'frequently looks like the patrimony of a dissipator; the monastic manse is like a patrimony whereon nothing is neglected for its amelioration,' to such an extent that 'the two- thirds' which the abbe enjoys bring him less than the third reserved by his monks. The ruin or impoverishment of agriculture is, again, one of the effects of absenteeism ; there was, perhaps, one- third of the soil in France, which, deserted as in Ireland, was as badly tilled, as little productive as in Ireland in the hands of the rich absentees, the English bishops, deans and nobles. Doing nothing for the soil how could they do anything for men? Now and then, undoubtedly, especially with farms that pay no rent, the steward writes a letter, alleging the misery of the farmer. There is no doubt, also, and especially for thirty years back, they desire to be humane; they descant among themselves about the rights of man ; the sight of the pale face of a hungry peasant would give them pain. But they never see him; does it ever occur to them to fancy what it is like under the awkward and complimentary phrases of their agent? Moreover, do they know what hunger is? Who amongst them has had any rural expe- riences? And how could they picture to them- selves the misery of this forlorn being ? They are too remote from him to do that, too ignorant 14 ABSOLUTE MUSIC ABSOLUTISM of his mode of life. The portrait they conceive of him is imaginary ; never was there a falser representation of the peasant; accordingly the awakening is to be terrible. They view him as the amiable swain, gentle, humble and grateful, simple- hearted and right-minded, easily led, being con- ceived according to Rousseau and the idyls per- formed at this very epoch in all private drawing- rooms Lacking a knowledge of him they over- look him ; they read the steward's letter and im- mediately the whirl of high life again seizes them and, after a sigh bestowed on the distress of the poor, they make up their minds that their in- come for the year will be short. A disposition of this kind is not favorable to charity. Ac- cordingly, complaints arise, not against the resi- dents but against the absentees. ... 'I have in my parish," says a curate of Berry, 'six .simple benefices of which the titularies are always ab- sent, and they enjoy together an income of nine thousand livres; I sent them in writing the most urgent entreaties during the calamity of the past year; I received from one of them two louis only, and most of them did not even answer me.' Stronger is the reason for a conviction that in ordinary times they will make no remission of their dues Moreover, these dues, the censives [quit- rent], the lods el ventes [lord's dues], tithes, and the like, are in the hands of a steward, and he is a good steward who returns a large amount of money He has no right to be generous at his master's expense, and he is tempted to turn the subjects of his master to his own profit. In vain might the soft seignorial hand be disposed to be easy or paternal ; the hard hand of the proxy bears down on the peasants with all its weight, and the cautiousness of a chief gives place to the exactions of a clerk How is it then when, instead of a clerk on the domain, a fermier [farmer] is found, an adjudicator who, for an annual sum purchases of the seignior the man- agement and product of his dues? In the election of Mayenne, and certainly also in many others, the principal domains are rented in this way. Moreover there are a number of dues, like the tolls, the market-place tax, that on the flock apart, the monopoly of the oven and of the mill which can scarcely be managed otherwise; the seignior must necessarily employ an adjudicator who spares him the disputes and the trouble of collecting In this case, so frequent, the pressure and the rapacity of the contractor, who is de- termined to gain or, at least, not to lose, falls on the peasantry: 'He is a ravenous wolf,' says Renauldon, 'let loose on the estate, who draws upon it to the last sou, who crushes the subjects, reduces them to beggary, forces the cultivators to desert, and renders odious the master who finds himself obliged to tolerate his exactions as to be able to profit by them"— H. A Taine, Ancient regime (tr by J. Durand), pp. 40-52. Also in: J. S. Mill, Political economy.^]. R. McCulloch, article Absenteeism, in Treatises and essays on mnnev.—A. de Tocquevillc, Old regime. ABSOLUTE MUSIC, a term used to express the type of music that derives none of its in- terest from external things, therefore being in the greatest contrast to program music. It appeals directly to the emotions without reference to the intellect. The term arose about the middle of the nineteenth century when the new school of pro- gram music came into being. See Music: Later iqth century: Brahms. ABSOLUTISM, in the stricter sense, a form of government in which the sovereign wields supreme power based directly upon force and unchecked by laws or political tradition; in the more usual sense, a term applied to the political system of any state which has not achieved representative government. With the exception of two brief periods, those of the Athenian democracy and the Roman republic. It was almost the only form known to the ancient world, and in Oriental countries has prevailed even down to recent years. In Western Europe, in consequence of the barbarian invasions, absolute monarchy gave way to feudalism, a system in which, though the king was recognized as the nominal sovereign, supreme power was in reality in the hands of the greater nobles. During the middle ages the greater part of Central and Western Europe was divided into a number of states, the most important rulers of which were called kings. Most of these kings possessed very little power and were constantly thwarted in what they regarded as the perform- ance of their regal functions by a turbulent and intractable nobility. To be sure under the feudal system all their nobles owed and sometimes ren- dered various services to their over-lord or suzerain, but upon their own estates the nobles were practically supreme. During the fifteenth century a variety of forces combined to exalt the power of the kings and the bourgeoisie of the cities, at the expense of the nobility. By the end of the century powerful centralized monarchies had emerged in France, Spain and Portugal, while the Wars of the Roses in England paved the way for the domineering house of Tudor. (See Eng- land: 1471-1485, 1485-1603.) In France and Spain this process of centralizing all poHtical authority in the crown made those countries absolute monarchies in reality. (See Spain: Machinery of absolutism.) Louis XIV of France converted the great nobles into courtiers and the lesser ones into officers of his military and diplomatic service. The rise to power and prosperity of the middle class was at the expense of the nobility, and despotic rulers like Philip II of Spain and John the Perfect of Portugal employed men not of the noble caste in important positions in the government. "The period which preceded the French Revolu- tion and the era of war, from the troubles of which modern Europe was to be born, may be characterised as that of the benevolent despots. The State was everything; the nation nothing. The ruler was supreme, but his supremacy rested on the assumption that he ruled his subjects for their good. This conception of the Aufgeklarte Despotismus [enlightened despotism] was devel- oped to its highest degree by Frederick the Great of Prussia. 'I am but the first servant of the nation,' he wrote, a phrase which irresistibly re- calls the definition of the position of Louis XVI. by the first leaders of the French Revolution. This attitude was defended by great thinkers like Diderot, and is the keynote to the internal policy of the monarchs of the latter half of the eighteenth century towards their people. The Em- press Catherine of Russia, Gustavus III. of Swe- den, Charles III. of Spain, the Archduke Leopold of Tuscany, and, above all, the Emperor Joseph II. defended their absolutism on the ground that they exercised their power for the good of their subjects. Never was more earnest zeal displayed in promoting the material well-being of all classes, never did monarchs labour so hard to justify their existence, or effect such important civil reforms, as on the eve of the French Revolution, which was to herald the overthrow of the doctrine of 15 ABSOLUTISM ABUD absolute monarchy. The intrinsic weakness of the position of the benevolent despots was that they could not ensure the permanence of their reforms, or vivify the rotten fabric of the administrative edifices, which had grown up in the feudal mon- archies. Great ministers, such as Tanucci and Aranda, could do much to help their masters to carry out their benevolent ideas, but they could not form or nominate their successors, or create a perfect body of unselfish administrators. When Frederick the Great's master hand was withdrawn, Prussia speedily exhibited a condition of adminis- trative decay, and since this was the case in Prussia, which had been for more than forty years under the rule of the greatest and wisest of the benevolent despots, the falling-off was likely to be even more marked in other countries. The conception of benevolent despots ruling for their people's good was eventually superseded, as was certain to be the case, owing to the impos- sibility of their ensuring its permanence, by the modern idea of the people ruhng themselves." — H. M. Stephens. Revolutionary Europe, pp. 4-5. "The government of nearly every European country at the end of the eighteenth century was monarchical, and everywhere the monarch was absolute, except in England, which had established a parliamentary system. Feudalism on its politi- cal side had disappeared, and the once haughty noble was transformed into the fawning courtier. Only in Germany did political feudalism still main- tain itself; there, the lord continued to govern and to judge as he had done in medieval times. The explanation given for absolute monarchy was known as 'divine right,' which asserted that the King's right to govern came from God, to whom alone he was responsible for his acts. Was a king good, just, and wise? Then the people were fortunate. Was he wicked, cruel, and stupid? Then they were unfortunate. In no case were they to revolt, for disobedience was not only a crime to be punished on earth, but likewise a sin to be punished in the hereafter. In case a bad king reigned, the people were to bear his rule patiently and meekly, and to pray to God to soften his heart. This doctrine of 'divine right' was insistently preached by the loyal followers of the monarch. Lutheran Prussia subscribed to it as heartily as Catholic Spain. In medieval times, the largest part of the taxes came from land. But the commercial expansion of the seven- teenth and eighteenth centuries increased the scope of government, and taxes had to be in- creased correspondingly in order to pay the ex- penses of a rapidly developing bureaucracy. While the kings of the ancien regime still gathered around them the territorial lords who, in former days, had been their bitter opponents, they now looked more and more to the middle classes for the maintenance of the State. But their traditions and sympathies, however, remained with the landed aristocracy; and the latter were conse- quently exempt in large measure from the ever in- creasing burden of taxation, as is revealed by the legislation of the eighteenth century. . . . Many of the changes inaugurated by the French Revolu- tion and by Napoleon could not be abolished with- out a violent wrench of the entire social system, and so were allowed to remain. The Holy Roman Empire was gone, feudalism was gone, and gone was the old authority of the Church. If absolute monarchy did return, it should do so without pop- ular endorsement, for the doctrine of 'divine right' was now being prearhed to unwilling ears. The generation that had seen so many kings hurled from their thrones during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic periods found it difficult to believe in a divine sanction of governments that could be so easily overturned. Absolute monarchy, feared for ages as all-powerful, had but to show its weakness to become ridiculous. Although Napo- leon had preached 'divine right,' he did more to discredit the doctrine than even the French Revo- lution. For the first time, mankind saw in the bright light of the nineteenth century how kings were made and unmade by force of arms. And now that its moral authority was gone, abso- lutism could maintain itself only by resorting to brute force. Sullen obedience had succeeded loyal devotion among the masses of Europe." — J. S. Schapiro, Modern and contemporary European history, pp. 2-3, 24. — The nineteenth century- marks the desperate efforts of the monarchs of Europe to reestablish the absolutism that had been shaken to its foundations by the French revolution. The inspiring genius of this reaction- ary policy was Metternick, the crafty Austrian chancellor, who dominated Europe from 1815 to 1S48, and whose cynical doctrines continued in force despite the democratic outbreaks of 1848. (See Austrla: 1815-1846; 1849-1850.) From the apotheosis of absolutism expressed in Louis XIV's "L'etat c'est moi" ("I am the state") less than three centuries have sufficed to bring about its downfall in every civilized country of the Old World and the New. The overthrow of the shogunate and the establishment of parliamentary government in Japan in 1880 {See JAP.^^■: 1868-1894), the revo- lution of the Young Turks in IQ08, the downfall of Nicholas II of Russia, and the overthrow of the militaristic power in Germany mark the final victory of popular government over the theory of absolutism and divine right of kings. — See also MoN.^RCHY. In Russia. See Russu: 1916. ABT, Franz (1819-1885), German composer of popular songs and conductor of the court orchestra at Brunswick, 1852-1882. Wrote over 3,000 songs, among them "When the swallows homeward fly." ABU BAKR (fl. nth century), Almoravide chief. See .■\lmor.h\ides. ABU BEKR (573-634), first of the Mohamme- dan caliphs and successor of the prophet, 632-634. The name. .\bu Bekr (meaning "Father of the Virgin"), was adopted in place of his original name. .^bd-el-Ka'ba, after the marriage of his daughter to Mohammed. On his accession, he successfully put down the formidable opposition led by the imposter Mosailima ; had the record of the sayings of the prophet preserved in written form and this furnished most of the material out of which the Koran was prepared. His zeal in the propagation of Mohammedan doctrines was largely responsible for the success and spread of the faith of Islam. See C.'vliphate, also 632-639; MOHAXrMEn.^MSM. ABU GHARAIB.— 1918.— Region of British attack. See World War: 1018: \'I. Turkish the- ABU HAMED, Sudan, captured by the British in 1807. See Egypt: 1807-1808. ABU IRGEIG.— Occupied by the British (1917). See World War: 1917: VI. Turkish thea- ter: c, 2, iii. ABU KLEA, Battle of (1885). See Egypt: 1884-188';. ABU TELLUL: Held by British (1918). See World War: 1918: VI. Turkish theater: c, 3. ABUD.— 1918.— Held by British. See World War; 1918: VI. Turkish theater: c, 2. 16 ABUKIR ABYSSINIA ABUKIR. See Aboukir. ABU'L ABBAS (also called Abdullah), caliph, 7S°-754- His father was great-grandson of the uncle of the prophet; upon this relation the Ab- basids based their claim to the caliphate. ABUMIR. See Pyramid. ABUNA. See Abyssinian church. ABUNA (Salama) OF ABYSSINIA.— "Since the days of Frumentius [who introduced Chris- tianity into Abyssinia in the fourth century] every orthodox Primate of Abyssinia has been con- secrated by the Coptic patriarch of the Church of Alexandria, and has borne the title of 'Abuna' — or 'Abuna Salama' — 'Father of Peace.' " — H. M. Hozier, Britisk expedition to Abyssinia, p. 4. ABURY. See Avebury. ABYDENOS. See History; 14. ABYDOS, an ancient city of Asia Minor, near the Hellespont, mentioned in the Iliad as one of the towns that were in alliance with the Trojans. Originally Thracian, as is supposed, it became a colony of Miletus, and passed at different times under Persian, Athenian, Lacedecmonian and Mace- donian rule. Its site was at the narrowest point of the Hellespont — the scene of the ancient ro- mantic story of Hero and Leander — nearly oppo- site to the town of Sestos. It was in the near neighborhood of Abydos that Xerxes built his bridge of boats (480 B.C.). The town is also famed for its stubborn resistance to Philip V of Macedon {200 B. C). See Greece; B. C. 411-407; and Map of Ancient Greece. ABYDOS, Egypt.— "There was a city in Egypt called by the Greeks Abydos. This is an example of popular etymology or rather popular trans- cription. Its Egyptian name was 'About,' which through resemblance of sound recalled the distant well-known Grecian city of Abydos on the Helles- pont, made famous by the passage of the army of Xerxes, and led to caUing the Egyptian city by that name. It played no part in the political world, but became famous chiefly as a place for the worship of Osiris; one could almost call it a Mecca of pilgrims. Osiris, the most human god of the Egyptian pantheon, had been cut into pieces by his rival. Set, or Typhon; but his son Horus had brought him back to life by reconstructing his body. His tomb, however, was at Abydos, though we do not know whether it contained the body of the god, or as Greek writers say, only his head. On account of the sanctity of the place, the Egyp- tians liked to be buried there, and very few locali- ties contained cemeteries so rich, belonging to all epochs from the neolithic age down to the Roman Empire. Kings had there built temples most of which, excepting two, have been destroyed, though one in particular, built by Seti I, of the nineteenth dynasty, the father of Rameses II, has remained almost in its entirety. It was unearthed by Mari- ette. It is a large temple which was completed by Rameses. In the part built by Seti there are some of the most beautiful sculptures in Egypt, but from father to son the style changed com- pletely, the work of Rameses being hastily done with the carelessness characterizing so many of his monuments. The temple of Seti is what is called a memnonium, that is, an edifice in connec- tion with a tomb and in which they rendered services to the dead. Since it is dedicated to Osiris, it seemed probable that the tomb of this god might be in this vicinity. For several years [W. Flinders] Petrie had attracted attention to what he called the Osireion. He had discovered a pas- sageway leading to a room ornamented with funeral paintings showing a scene of worship ren- dered to Osiris. In this passageway was a side door before which Petrie was stopped and which he shows upon his map to be a passage leading to the temple of Seti, situated about eighty meters from this door. . . . Between the doorway with enormous lintels and the temple of Seti is a large edifice evidently built at the time of the pyra- mids, that is, belonging to the first dynasties. It is very much ruined, but it was constructed of massive materials, the largest that have been found in Egypt in like quantity. It is an edifice unique among those numerous temples and tombs that one finds in the valley of the Nile. . . . There is no longer any doubt, then, that we have discov- ered what Strabo calls the well or the fountain of Abydos. He spoke of it as being near the temple, at a great depth, and remarkable for some corri- dors whose ceilings were formed of enormous monolithic blocks. That is exactly what we have found." — E Naville, Excavations at Abydos {Smithsonian report, 1014, pp. S7q-58i). ABYDOS, Tablet of, one of the most valuable records of Egyptian history, found in the ruins ot Abydos and now preserved in the British Museum "It gives a list of kings whom Rameses II selected from among his ancestors to pay homage to. The tablet was much mutilated when found, but an- other copy more perfect has been unearthed by M. Mariette, which supplies nearly all the names lacking on the first." — F. Lenormant, Manual of ancient historv oj the East, v. i, bk. 3. ABYSSINIA (officially Ethiopia), an inland empire in northeast Africa, surrounded by the possessions of Britain, Italy and France. The area is about 350,000 square miles and the population in ig2o about 8,000,000. Both the character of the land itself and that of the people are reflected in the history of Abyssinia. The country consists of elevated plateaus and rugged mountain ranges, which as in the case of Switzerland are favorable to the development of a hardy race capable of maintaining its independence. As Miss Semple has pointed out, the stronger the natural location the more strongly marked is likely to De the national character The Abyssinians, who furnish a rather unusual example of a civilized people wholly cen- tral in location, "have used the fortress character of their land to resist conquest, and have preferred independence to the commercial advantages to be gained only by affiliation with their peripheral neighbors. . . . [But] even the most pronounced land barriers have their passways and favored spots for short summer habitation, where the people from the opposite slopes meet and mingle for a season. Sandy wastes are hospitable at times. When the spring rains on the mountains of Abyssinia start a wave of moisture lapping over the edges of the Nubian desert, it is imme- diately followed by a tide of .^rabs with their camels and herds, who make a wide zone of tem- porary occupation spread over the newly created grassland, but who retire in a few weeks before the desiccating heat of summer." — E. C. Sempic, Influences of geographic environment, pp. 141, 215. — In consequence of such intermingling the people are of mixed Hamitic and Semitic origin with a negroid element. Though the people still call themselves Ethiopians, the name Abyssinians (de- rived from the Portuguese form of the Arabic Habesh, meaning mi.xture or composite race) is the one by which they are known outside their own country. A race of warriors and traders, they have long felt a marked national consciousness which in recent years has resulted in vigorous efforts to establish and maintain political inde- 17 BYSSINIA, ANCIENT ABYSSINIA, 15TH-19TH CENTURIES pendence. See also Africa: Races of Africa: Mod- ern people; and Map Embraced in ancient Ethiopia. — In ancient times Abyssinia, or at least the northern part of it was known as Ethiopia, of which the northern- most limit at one tirrte reached nearly to Syene, Between Ethiopia and Egypt interchange of cul- ture was facilitated by the fact that both countries were occasionally under the same ruler. Inter- course with the Jews, at first merely commercial, was extended after the visit of the Queen of Sheba to the court of Solomon. Their son Mene- lek is claimed as the ancestor of the kings of Abyssinia; and more intimate relations of language and traditions were secured by the settling of many Jews in .Abyssinia during the captivity. Greek colonization, begun after the invasion of Ptolemy Eucrgctes (247-221 B.C.), succeeded in estabUshing the kingdom of Axum. This included nearly all of modern .Abyssinia and was most vigorous between the first and the seventh centu- ries A. D. B.C. 2nd century. In Axum. See Arabia; The Sabaeans. A. D. 4th century. — Converted to Christianity. — "Whatever may have been the effect produced in his native country by the convecsion of Queen Candace's treasurer, recorded in the .\cts of the Apostles it would appear to have been transitory ; and the Ethiopian or Abyssinian church owes its origin to an expedition made early in the fourth century by Meropius, a philosopher of Tyre, for the purpose of scientific inquiry. On his voyage homewards, he and his companions were attacked at a place where they had landed in search of water, and all were massacred e.xcept two youths, -IJdesius and Frumentius, the relatives and pupils of Meropius. These were carried to the king of the country, who advanced ^desius to be his cup- bearer, and Frumentius to be his secretary and treasurer. On the death of the king, who left a boy as his heir, the two strangers, at the request of the widowed queen, acted as regents of the kingdom until the prince came of age. ^^desius then returned to Tyre, where he became a pres- byter. Frumentius, who, with the help of such Christian traders as visited the country, had al- ready introduced the Christian doctrine and wor- ship into Abyssinia, repaired to Alexandria, re- lated his story to .\thanasius, and . . . .Athanasius . . . consecrated him to the bishoprick of Axum [the capital of the Abyssinian kingdom!. The church thus founded continues to this day subject to the see of Alexandria." — J. C. Robertson, His- tory of the Christian church, hk. 2, ch. 6. 6th to 16th centuries. — Wars in Arabia. — Struggle with the Mohammedans. — Isolation from the Christian world. — "The fate of the Christian church among the Homeritcs in Arabia Felix afforded an opportunity for the .Abyssin- ians, under the reigns of the Emperors Justin and Justinian, to show their zeal in behalf of the cause of the Christians. The prince of that .Ara- bian population, Dunaan, or Dsunovas, was a zealous adherent of Judaism; and. under pretext of avenging the oppressions which his fellow-be- lievers were obliged to suffer in the Roman em- pire, he caused the Christian merchants who came from that quarter and visited Arabia for the pur- poses of trade, or passed through the country to Abyssinia, to be murdered. Elesbaan for Caleb], the Christian king of Abyssinia, made this a cause for declaring war on the .\rabian prince. He conquered Dsunovas. deprived him of the gov- ernment, and set up a Christian, by the name of .\braham, as king in his stead. But at the death of the latter, which happened soon after, Dsunovas again made himself master of the throne; and it was a natural consequence of what he had suf- fered, that he now became a fiercer and more cruel persecutor than he was before. . . . Upon this, Elesbaan interfered once more, under the reign of the Emperor Justinian, who stimulated him to the undertaking. He made a second expedition to Arabia Felix, and was again victorious. Dsunovas lost his life in the war ; the ."Vbyssinian prince put an end to the ancient, independent empire of the Homerites, and established a new government fav- ourable to the Christians." — J. A. W. Neander, General history of the Christian religion and church, second period, sect. i. — "In the year 592, as nearly as can be calculated from the dates given by the native writers, the Persians, whose power seems to have kept pace with the decline of the Roman empire, sent a great force against the Abyssinians, possessed themselves once more of Arabia, acquired a naval superiority in the gulf, and secured the principal ports on either side of it. It is uncertain how long these conquerors re- tained their acquisition ; but, in all probability their ascendancy gave way to the rising greatness of the Mahometan power; which soon afterwards overwhelmed all the nations contiguous to .Arabia, spread to the remotest parts of the East, and even penetrated the African deserts from Egypt to the Congo. Meanwhile Abyssinia, though within two hundred miles of the walls of Mecca, remained unconquered and true to the Christian faith; pre- senting a mortifying and galling object to the more zealous followers of the Prophet. On this account, implacable and incessant wars ravaged her territories. . . . She lost her commerce, saw her consequence annihilated, her capital threat- ened, and the richest of her provinces laid waste. . There is reason to apprehend that she must shortly have sunk under the pressure of repeated invasions, had not the Portuguese arrived [in the 16th century] at a seasonable moment to aid her endeavours against the Moslem chiefs." — M. Rus- sell, Nubia and Abyssinia, ch. 3. — "When Nubia, which intervenes between Egypt and Abyssinia, ceased to be a Christian country, owing to the de- struction of its church by the Mahometans, the .Abyssinian church was cut off from communica- tion with the rest of Christendom. . . . They [the .\byssinians] remain an almost unique specimen of a semi-barbarous Christian people. Their wor- ship is strangely mixed with Jewish customs." — H. F. Tozer. Church and the eastern empire, ch. 5. — See also .\bvssimax Church. 15th to 19th centuries. — European attempts at intercourse. — Intrusion of the Gallas. — Intestine conflicts. — "About the middle of the 15th century, .Abyssinia came in contact with Western Europe. .\n .Abyssinian convent was endowed at Rome, and legates were sent from the .Abyssinian convent at Jerusalem to the council of Florence. These ad- hered to the Greek schism. But from that time the Church of Rome made an impress upon Ethiopia. . . . Prince Henry of Portugal . . . next opened up communication with Europe. He hoped to open up a route from the West to the East coast of Africa [see Portugal: 1415-1460], by which the East Indies might be reached without touching Mahometan territory. During his efforts to discover such a passage to India, and to destroy the revenues derived by the Moors from the spice trade, he sent an ambassador named Covillan to the Court of Shoa. Covillan was not suffered to return bv .Alexander, the then Ncgoos [or Negus, 18 ABYSSINIA, 15TH-19TH CENTURIES ABYSSINIA, 1854-1889 or Nagash — the title of the Abyssinian sovereign]. He married nobly, and acquired rich possessions in the country. He kept up correspondence with Portugal, and urged Prince Henry to diligently continue his efforts to discover the Southern pas- sage to the East. In 1498 the Portuguese effected the circuit of Africa. The Turks shortly after- wards extended their conquests towards India, where they were baulked by the Portuguese, but they established a post and a toll at Zeyla, on the African coast. From here they hampered and threatened to destroy the trade of Abyssinia," and soon, in alliance with the Mahometan tribes of the coast, invaded the country. "They were de- feated by the Ncgoos David, and at the same time the Turkish town of Zeyla was stormed and burned by a Portuguese fleet." Considerable inti- macy of friendly relations was maintained for some time between the Abyssinians and the Portu- guese, who assisted in defending them against the Turks. "In the middle of the i6th century . . . a migration of Gallas came from the South and swept up to and over the confines of Abyssinia. Men of lighter complexion and fairer skin than most Africans, they were Pagan in religion and savages in customs. Notwithstapding frequent efforts to dislodge them, they have firmly estab- lished themselves. A large colony has planted itself on the banks of the Upper Takkazie, the Jidda and the Bashilo. Since their establishment here they have for the most part embraced the creed of Mahomet. The province of Shoa is but an outlier of Christian Abyssinia, separated com- pletely from co-religionist districts by these Galla bands. About the same time the Turks took a firm hold of Massowah and of the lowland by the coast, which had hitherto been ruled by the Abyssinian Bahar Nagash. Islamism and hea- thenism surrounded Abyssinia, where the lamp of Christianity faintly glimmered amidst dark su- perstition in the deep recesses of rugged valleys." In 1558 a Jesuit mission arrived in the country and established itself at Fremona. "For nearly a century Fremona existed, and its superiors were the trusted advisors of the Ethiopian throne. . . . But the same fate which fell upon the company of Jesus in more civilized lands, pursued it in the wilds of Africa. The Jesuit missionaries were uni- versally popular with the Negoos, but the preju- dice of the people refused to recognize the benefits which flowed from Fremona." Persecution befell the fathers, and two of them won the crown of martyrdom. The Negoos, Facilidas, "sent for a Coptic Abuna [ecclesiastical primate] from Alex- andria, and concluded a treaty with the Turkish governors of Massowah and Souakin to prevent the passage of Europeans into his dominions. Some Capuchin preachers, who attempted to evade this treaty and enter Abyssinia, met with cruel deaths. Facilidas thus completed the work of the Turks and the Gallas, and shut Abyssinia out from European influence and civilization. . . . After the expulsion of the Jesuits, Abyssinia was torn by internal feuds and constantly harassed by the en- croachments of and wars with the Gallas. An- archy and confusion ruled supreme. Towns and villages were burnt down, and the inhabitants sold into slavery. . . . Towards the middle of the i8th century the Gallas appear to have increased con- siderably in power. In the intestine quarrels of Abyssinia their alliance was courted by each side, and in their country political refugees obtained a secure asylum." During the early years of the nineteenth century, campaigns in Egypt attracted English attention to the Red sea. "In 1804 Lord Valentia, the Viceroy of India, sent his Secretary, Mr. Salt, into Abyssinia;" but Mr. Salt was un- able to penetrate beyond Tigre. In 18 10 he at- tempted a second mission and again failed. It was not until 1848 that English attempts to open diplo- matic and commercial relations with Abyssinia be- came successful. "Mr. Plowden was appointed consular agent, and negotiated a treaty of com- merce with Ras Ali, the ruling Galla chief." — J. J. Holland and H. M. Hozier, Expedition to Abyssinia, Introduction. 1854-1889.— Advent of King Theodore.— His English captives and the expedition which re- leased them. — "Consul Plowden had been residing six years at Massowah when he heard that . the Prince to whom he had been accredited, Ras AU, had been defeated and dethroned by an adven- turer, whose name, a few years before, had been unknown outside the boundaries of his native province. This was Lij Kasa, better known by his adopted name of Theodore. He was born of an old family, in the mountainous region of Kwara, where the land begins to slope downwards towards the Blue Nile, and educated in a convent, where he learned to read, and acquired a considerable knowledge of the Scriptures. Kasa's convent life was suddenly put an end to, when one of those marauding Galla bands, whose ravages are the curse of Abyssinia, attacked and plundered the monastery. From that time he himself took to the life of a freebooter. . . . Adventurers flocked to his standard ; his power continually increased ; and in 1854 he defeated Ras Ali in a pitched battle, and made himself master of central Abys- sinia." In 1855 he overthrew the ruler of Tigre. "He now resolved to assume a title commensurate with the wide extent of his dominion. In the church of Derezgye he had himself crowned by the Abuna as King of the Kings of Ethiopia, tak- ing the name of Theodore, because an ancient tra- dition declared that a great monarch would some day arise in Abyssinia." Mr. Plowden now visited the new monarch, was impressed with admiration of his talents and character, and became his coun- sellor and friend. But in i860 the English consul lost his life, while on a journey, and Theodore, embittered by several misfortunes, began to give rein to a savage temper. "The British Govern- ment, on hearing of the death of Plowden, im- mediately replaced him at Massowah by the ap- pointment of Captain Cameron." The new Con- sul was well received, and was entrusted by the Abyssinian King with a letter addressed to the Queen of England, soliciting her friendship. The letter, duly despatched to its destination, was pigeon-holed in the Foreign Office at London, and no reply to it was ever made. Insulted and en- raged by this treatment, and by other evidences of the indifference of the British Government to his overtures. King Theodore, in January, 1864, seized and imprisoned Consul Cameron with all his suite. About the same time he was still further offended by certain passages in a book on .Abyssinia that had been published by a mission- ary named Stern. Stern and a fellow missionary, Rosenthal with the laftcr's wife, were lodged in prison, and subjected to flogging and torture. The first step taken by the British Government, when news of Consul Cameron's imprisonment reached England, was to send out a regular mission to Abyssinia, bearing a letter signed by the Queen, demanding the release of the captives. The mis- sion, headed by a Syrian named Rassam, made its way to the King's presence in January, 1866. Theodore seemed to be placated by the Queen's 19 ABYSSINIA, 1854-1889 ABYSSINIA, 1906 epistle and promised freedom to his prisoners. But soon his moody mind became tilled with sus- picions as to the genuineness of Rassam's cre- dentials from the Queen, and as to the designs and intentions of all the foreigners who were in his power. He was drinking heavily at the time, .ind the result of his "drunken cogitations was a determination to detain the mission — at any rate until by their means he should have obtained a supply of skilled artisans and machinery from England." Mr. Rassam and his companions were accordingly put into confmement, as Captain Cameron had been. But they were allowed to send a messenger to England, making their situa- tion known, and conveying the demand of King Theodore that a man be sent to him "who can make cannons and muskets." The demand was actually complied with. Six skilled artisans and a civil engineer were sent out. together with a quantity of machinery and other presents, in the hope that they would procure the release of the unfortunate captives at Magdala. .Mmost a j'car was wasted in these futile proceedings, and it was not until September, 1S67, that an expedition con- sisting of 4,000 British and S,ooo native troops, under General Sir Robert Napier, was sent from India to bring the insensate barbarian to terms. It landed in .\nnesley Bay, and, overcoming enor- mous difficulties with regard to water, food-sup- plies and transportation, was ready, about the middle of January, 1S68, to start upon its march to the fortress of Magdala, where Theodore's pris- oners were confined. The distance was 400 miles, and several high ranges of mountains had to be passed to reach the interior table-land. The in- vading army met with no resistance until it reached the Valley of the Beshilo, when it was attacked (.^pril 10) on the plain of Aroge or .^rogi, by the whole force which Theodore was able to muster, numbering a few thousands, only, of poorly armed men. The battle was simply a rapid slaughtering of the barbaric assailants, and when they tied, leaving 700 or See dead and 1,500 wounded on the field, the .\byssinian King had no power of resis- tance left. He offered at once to make peace, surrendering all the captives in his hands; but Sir Robert Napier required an unconditional submis- sion, with a view to displacing him from the throne, in accordance with the wish and expecta- tion which he had found to be general in the coun- try. Theodore refu.sed these terms, and when (April 13) Magdala was bombarded and stormed by the British troops — slight resistance being made — he shot himself at the moment of their entrance to the place. The sovereignty he had successfully concentrated in himself for a time was again divided. Between .April and June the Eng- lish army was entirely withdrawn, and "Abyssinia was sealed up again from intercourse with the outer world." — Cassell's illmtrnled liislory of Eng- land, v. q, cli. 28. — "The task of permanently unit- ing .\by.ssinia, in which Theodore failed, proved equally impracticable to John, who came to the front, in the first instance, as an ally of the British, and afterwards succeeded to the sov- ereignty. By his fall (loth March, 18S0) in the unhappy war against the Dervishes Tsce Egypt: 1885-1806! or Moslem zealots of the Soudan, the path was cleared for Menilek of Shoa, who en- joyed the support of Italy. The establishment of the Italians on the Red Sea littoral . . . promises a new era for .Abyssinia." — T. Noldeke, Sketches from eastern liistory, ch. 0. — See also .Africa: Mod- ern European occupation: 1884-1889; and Eritrea. 1895-1896.— War with Italy. See Italy: 1870- iqoi, i8o5-iSot>. 1896-1897. — Convention between Italy and Abyssinia. — Treaty with Great Britain. — By the convention of Adis Ababa of October ;6, t8oO, between Italy and King Mcnelek, the independence of Abyssinia was recognized. This was followed, in May, 1807, by another treaty between Meneiek and the British government, giving to British sub- jects the privileges of the most favored nations in trade, and opening the port of Zaila to Abyssinian importations. The treaty also defined the bound- ary of the British Somali Protectorate, and pledged .Abyssiania's hostility to the Mahdists. 1902. — The French in favor. — Their railway building and plans. — Treaty with Great Britain. — "Through .Abyssinia the French hope to estab- lish a line of trade acro.ss Africa from east to west in opposition to our Cape to Cairo railway from north to south. In this they have already achieved some success. They have settled themselves along the Gulf of Tadjoura, on the south of which they hold the ma,gnificent Bay of Djibouti, while on the north their flag waves over the small port of Obok. But their real triumph in these regions has been the establishment of a lasting friendship with .Abyssinia by judicious consignments of arms and ammunition — which were used against Italy in the war of i8q6. Finally, they are now in the act of building a French railway from Djibouti to Addis Abeba, the capital of .Abyssinia. This rail- way will completely cut out the British port of Zeila, for in the concession granted by Menclik it is stipulated that no company is to be permitted to construct a railroad on Abyssinian territory that shall enter into competition with that of M. Ilg and M. Chefneux."— G. F. H. Berkeley, Abys- sinian question and its history (Nineteenth Cen- tury, Jan., iqo3). — A treaty between Great Britain and the Emperor Meneiek, of the kingdom of Ethi- opia (Abyssinia), signed on the isth of May, IQ02, defines the boundaries between the Soudan and Ethiopia, and contains the following important provisions: "Article HI. His Majesty the Emperor Mene- iek II., King of Kings of Ethiopia, engages him- self towards the Government of his Britannic Ma- jesty not to construct, or allow to be constructed, any work across the Blue Nile, I.ake Tsana, or the Sobat, which would arrest the flow of their waters into the Nile, except in acrecnient with his Britannic Majesty's Government and the Govern- ment of the Soudan. Article IV. The Emperor Meneiek engages himself to allow his Britannic Majesty's Government ;nid the Government of the Soudan to select in the neighborhood of Itang, on the Baro River, a block of territory having a river frontace of not more than 2000 metres, in area not exceeding 400 hectares, which shall be leased to the Government of the Soudan, to be administered and occupied as a commercial station, so long as the Soudan is under the Anglo-Egyptian Government. It is agreed between the two high contracting parties that the territory so leased shall not be used for any political or military purpose. Article V. The Emperor Meneiek grants his Britannic M.ajesty's Government and the Government of the Soudan the right to construct a railway through Abyssinian territory to connect the Soudan with Uganda. A route for the railway will be selected by mutual agreement between the two high con- tracting parties." 1906. — Agreement guaranteeing Abyssinia's integrity. — In December, 1006, Great Britain, France and Italy agreed by treaty to respect and 20 ABYSSINIA, 1907-1920 ABYSSINIA, 1913-1920 preserve the independence and territorial integrity of Abyssinia. The tiiree Powers specifically under- took to secure no industrial concessions which would injure the other Powers and not to inter- fere in the internal affairs of the country. It was further agreed that no one of these Powers was to attempt independently to strengthen its position in the territories bordering Abyssinia, but they were to act together in promoting the construc- tion of railways and telegraph lines, and the de- velopment of trade for their common benefit. 1907-1920. — Menelek's reforms. — Political in- stitutions and government. — Internal develop- ment.^In 1Q07, Menelek issued a decree consti- tuting a cabinet on the European model, and ap- pointed ministers for the various departments. Politically Abyssinia has been and still is, a back- ward state with what may be called feudal insti- tutions. The negus [king or emperor] has a sort of a Council of State to advise the crown and keep a watch over the governors and other ad- ministrative officials of the provinces and their but small quantities. A wild coffee plant thrives in the forests and is the chief export. Cattle, sheep, goats and particularly mules are numerous. Manufacturing industry is, however, in a back- ward state, for Abyssinia has not yet made the most of her abundant resources in trees, rubber, iron and coal as well as numerous other mineral products. Means of transportation are also poor. Roads are mere tracks across sandy wastes and transportation is mainly by mules, pack-horses, donkeys and in some places, camels. There is, however, a railway from the port of Jibuti in French Somaliland to Dire Dawa in the south- eastern part of Abyssinia. Some time ago a com- pany undertook to extend the line to Adis Ababa. This undertaking was completed in igiy when the line reached the capital. In consequence of the rapid development of transportation, business methods are being modernized to some extent. At Adis Ababa is located the bank of Abyssinia with an authorized capital of .$2,500,000 and a paid up capital ij[ .S(jJ5,ooo. The bank i> contrnlled, how- ?: 1 IN m l:».%^a^.& -.:%ll 41 }:''^if^^^^''^' ' - :'^ II-: *- Wml 1 * %J L % '•M ^B«Hi V' ' W .^^L^t Y;,_ WS;'T— v^ ^^■Wfesp VBI^^K-tn 1 \\ '' ^I^^^^^^B^^^mI L ^^i^^l .ABVSSINIAN I mi.\< U.l.dKN li\ e I.KK .\llj.\ l.A 1. KCJiihS subdivisions. It was not till July, iqoS, that a cabinet or Council of Ministers was actually or- ganized, the various state departments being simi- lar to those of civilized nations. The legal system of the country has its basis in the Code of Jus- tinian but the relationship is scarcely recognizable. The Emperor is the fountain of justice and is the final court of appeal. In the same year (1Q07) Menelek also enjoined free compulsory education for all boys up to twelve; but the decree could not be very widely and effectively enforced ; for in spite of the edict, education in the modern sense is still unpopular. In Adis Ababa there is a school under the direction of Coptic teachers; this, the only Abyssinian school in the country has over one hundred pupils, but attendance is still irregular. The lack of modern educational methods is due not so much to native hostility, as to the rivalry existing between various prosely- ting religions. Although most of the land of Abyssinia would probably permit of an extensive agriculture, this industry is, nevertheless, backward, due perhaps to the absence of the idea of landed property. Cot- ton, sugar-cane, and date-palm are produced in ever, from Cairo; there its governing body sits, and the governor of the National Bank of Egypt is its president. A new coinage has recently been put in circulation with the Menelek dollar as the standard coin. Outside the immediate radius of foreign influence, exchange is si ill very primitive, various articles, such as bars of salt, cartridges, etc., being used as barter. This in turn is but one indication of the primitive customs which prevail in many backward regions, 1913-1920.— Anarchy following the death of Menelek. — Revolution of 1916. — Reign of Em- press Zauditu. — "Just at the time of his ambi- tious projects, Menelik had a stroke, and he grad- ually became paralyzed. Frequent to the point of becoming a joke were the newspaper reports, gen- erally from Italy, during the period of 1907 to IQ13, announcing the death of Menelik. Each time they were contradicted, and when he finally passed away in December, 1Q13, many newspapers refused to publish once more the familiar biog- raphy. Menelik's long illness was a great misfor- tune to -Abyssinia, and it is still too soon to esti- mate the injury done, by the anarchy of the regency, to the Kingdom surrounded by land- 21 ABYSSINIA, 1913-1920 ABYSSINIA, 1913-1920 hungry neighbors. In 1909, Lidj Yeassu, Mene- lik's grandson, who was thirteen, and the hus- band of the seven-year-old Princess Romanie, granddaughter of the old Emperor Johannes, was chosen as the successor. He, by his own blood and that of his wife, would reconcile the rival factions of the Imperial family. Notwithstanding the heralded harmony, civil war broke out, and dragged on, with varying fortunes, lor several years. Italy feared the breaking away from au- thority of the tribes on her Eritrean frontier, es- pecially after the Tripolitan War began [iqii], and there was some apprehension of raiding in the Sudan. The anarchy caused no particular difference in the Sonialiland situation, because Great Britain already had her hands full there, and the responsibility for the Mullah could in no way be chargeable to Abyssinian unrest. The troubles in Abyssinia seem to have been confined to the rival court factions: for the country as a whole remained quiet throughout the years of Menelik's illness. However, there was apprehension in Adis .Abeba just before the outbreak of the European War over the sudden and inexplicable strengthen- ing of Italian forces in Eritrea." — H. A. Gibbons, New map of Africa, pp. 102-104. "The recent [1916] coup d'etat in Ethiopia, as Abyssinia is properly called, when the Powers act- ing on their Treaty of 1Q06 helped the .Abyssinian nobles and the people to dethrone their young king and his Turko-Teuton clique, once more calls at- tention to the remarkable signs of vitality that Mohammedanism is showing in that historically Christian kingdom. It is not the lirst time that the great aggressive Asiatic religion has precipi- tated a revolution in Abyssinia ; but the persist- ence with which it has survived oppression, as one strong Ethiopian ruler after another rose at the psychological hour to stamp it out, is merely in- dicative of the remarkable progress it has made throughout the Darkest Continent as far south as the Zambesi. . . . The late Emperor Menelek of Abyssinia died without an heir to the throne, but before his death he appointed as his successor Prince Lidj Jeassu, the son of one of his daugh- ters. The young king had reigned three years when it became apparent that his father, a power- ful chief, Negus Mikael, was a fanatical Moslem, and was cooperating with the Turko-Teuton emis- saries in a Pan-Islamic movement. Not only was this conspiracy planning to deliver Abyssinia to Islam and secure its entrance into the war on the side of the Central Powers, but Abyssinia was being made a center for plots against the Islamic colonies of the French, Italians and British in the adjacent territories of Somaliland, Eritrea, Brit- ish East Africa and the Sudan. The young ruler had become a Moslem, and was a pliant tool in the hands of the Central Powers and Turkey. The .AlUes accordingly took the part of the Christian .Abysslnians. In the revolution that followed, iqi6, Lidj Jeassu was deposed [Sept. 27], his Moslem father, Negus Mikael, was defeated by the Abys- sinian army after a temporary success, and on Feb- ruary II, the n^w 0"Mn [Empress Waizeru Zau- ditu, another daughter of Menelek], was crowned at the capital Adis Abeba, a not unprecedented event — .Abyssinia already having known one able oueen in her history, while her rulers trace the roval lineage back to the Queen of Sheba and Solomon. "But missionaries and travelers have unani- mously testified to the great inroads that Moham- medanism has made in this historically Christian country Whole tribes professing Islam may be found today still retaining their Christian Ethi- opian names. All northern Abyssinia will soon be unitedly Moslem, and the encroachments are con- tinuing in various parts of the kingdom. The reasons for this growth are to be found in the lax and superstitious brand of Christianity of mod- ern Ethiopia. .A strong Christian ruler, in the spirit and mould of the late Menelek, may yei appear to save the countp.- and its faith, which dates back to the fourth century when Athanasius of .Alexandria was installed the first Bishop of Ethiopia. In .Abyssinia the Powers have a senti- mental interest, as an ancient outpost of Chris- tianity in the Dark Continent, and its political in- tegrity was guaranteed in the Treaty of iQOb with Menelek, by Great Britain, Italy and France, whose colonies are adjacent. Despite the fact that Menelek frequently thrashed the Italians when they encroached on his territory, yet he and the previous rulers of Ethiopia ha> e cherished their bond of Christianity with Eu'ope, and have favored western civilization. When the British stormed Magdala, the fortress of King Theodore, in 1S08, to release British prisoners, and found the king a suicide, according to his wishes they took his eighteen-year-old heir to be educated in Eng- land. The boy was sent to Rugby school, but died shortly after. .At Queen Victoria's request the body of the Ethiopian prince was buried in St. George's, the Chapel-Royal at Windsor. The Moslem evangelist has always been attracted to thb historically Christian country of Abyssinia, not only because of its proximity to Mecca and the land that cradled the Founder and his Faith, but because of the early intimate associations between the Christian kingdom and Mohammed. In the sixth century the .Abyssinians invaded Arabia, cap- tured the rich province of Yemen, which alone gives to desert .Arabia the paradoxical title of .Arabia Felix, and for fifty years controlled the important land and sea routes East and West. It was the rise of Mohammed and his new faith in the seventh century that put an end to the power of .Abyssinia, and which, from that time down to the sixteenth centur>% when the King asked aid of the Portuguese, effectually isolated this lone Christian country in the Dark Conti- nent from the rest of the world. When Mo- hammed began his career, northern Arabia held Christian colonies due to the influence of Byzan- tium, and at the same time in the south, neigh- boring to Mecca, there were Syrian and Ethiopian Christians. . . . The Prophet, during the persecu- tion of his new faith at the hands of the pagan Meccans, at the suggestion of an .Abyssinian dis- ciple found a haven for his followers in Abys- sinia. Mohammed sent a delegation under his famous general. '.Amr ibn al-.Ass, later conqueror of Egypt, to the Christian kingdom asking refuge and support, which the Ethiopian king readily gave. Unfortunately there are no .Abyssinian records surviving to show how intimate this rela- tionship was; but when Mohammed, at the height of his power, sent letters to the kings ol the earth calling on them to accept his new creed, one was sent to Byzantium and another to Ethio- pia. By the end of the twelfth century an Arab dynasty had won the coast lands, and with the fifteenth century began that long contest between Islam and Christianity which lasted to the recent revolution and dethronement of Menelek's grand- son, and which has swept inwards to include the pagan tribes of the great Dark Continent. . . . While Moslems are now alarmed at the obvious signs of disintegration elsewhere, they must view 22 ABYSSINIA, 1913-1920 ACADEMIC FREEDOM with satisfaction the comparatively robust condi- tion of the Faith in Africa, where it is progress- ing with something of the old traditions that once prevailed when it swept into the fold in early times the pagan tribes of Arabia. The failure of the proclamation of the famous jihad, or holy war, in the Mohammedan world, and the Secession of important Arab states like the Hejaz and Koweit whose chiefs and imams are renouncing allegiance to the Sultan of Turkey as Caliph, thus precipi- tating the all-important question of the Caliphate, have brought this historic Asiatic religion to a critical point in its great career. . . . Will Islam so change its fundamental traditionalism to suit the needs of its twentieth century adherents, and save itself from the disintegration with which political and economic conditions now threaten it? Since the Turkish Caliph has deliberately used the Faith as a catspav/ for Germany, a kafir, or un- believer nation, and since the purity of the Young Turk brand of Mohammedanism has long been suspect in the fanatical world of Islam, it is evi- dent that the loyal supporters of Islam have at last realised that the future of the Faith is in jeopardy. But while there is a crying need for reorganization in enlightened communities like the Moslem worlds of India and Egypt, yet, true to its medieval energy, it has made enormous gains in Africa during these last few decades of apparent stagnation, extending from pseudo-Chris- tian Abyssinia to the pagan tribes north of Zambesi. ... It is not strange, therefore, that the Turko-Teuton regime seized upon the Moslem idea of jihad as a vehicle for galvanizing the warHke spirit of Islam. It failed for two reasons: psycho- logically, because they forgot to what degree eco- nomic conditions throughout the East have modi- fied the old fanatical cohesions of Islam. In India and China, in the Dutch East and in French Africa, Moslems have come to recognize the ad- vantages accruing under a stable and just rule of centralized European government. The annual pilgrimage to Mecca cannot have failed "to im- press the multitudes with the system of petty graft and tyranny, of over-taxation and economic stagnation, that has always characterized the greatest Islamic state, and the rule of their nomi- nal Caliph, the Sultan of Turkey. Moslems were averse to losing these advantages for a shadowy substitute promised by a Pan-Islamic empire. The Turko-Teuton regime failed dogmatically, because every intelligent Moslem knows that the express purpose of a jihad, or holy war, in Islamic polity, is to free their co-religionists in duress. While Moslems had long been oppressed by the Turkish Caliph, their co-religionists under British, Dutch, French and Russian rule had made no appeal against the tyranny of their respective suzerains. Moreover, a jiliad must be led by the Caliph; many .schismatics in Arabia and Africa (the Senussei were antagonistic until bribed by Enver Pasha), and the sultans of Morocco, have vari- ously disputed the claim of the Turkish Sultan to the Caliphate. As a result the spectacle was fur- nished Islam of British, French, Belgian, and Russian Moslem troops fighting loyally under their respective flags. Finally, Islamic law ex- pressly forbids the waging of a jihad against co- members of the Faith. It is this pragmatic and economic aspect of modern Islam that is now con- cerning its leaders and thinkers. The war with its racial confusion has merely accentuated the need for a widespread reform, at least so far as Asia is involved." — W. G. Tinckom-Fernandez, Asia in Africa (Asia, Nov., 1Q17). — See also Africa: Mod- ern European occupation; 1914; Moslem occupa- tion. Also in; A. B. Wylde, Modern Abyssinia {Geographical Journal, v. XV, igoo). — E. Hertslet, Map oj Africa by treaty, 2nd ed. — H. H. Johnston, History of the colonization of Africa by alien races, id ed.—T. L. Gilmour, Abyssinia: the Ethio- pian railway and the powers. — H. Vivian, .Abys- sinia. — H. A. Stern, Captive missionary. — H. M. Stanley, Coomassie and Magdata, pt. 2. ABYSSINIAN CHURCH.— Christianity, ac- cording to the chronicle of Axum, was first in- troduced into Abyssinia by Frumentius in the fourth century. [See Abyssinia: 4th century.] The Abyssinians, refusing the decrees of the Council of Chalcedon (451), remained monophysites. Their close bond with the Coptic church of Egypt, which had been maintained from the beginning, was not affected by the Arab conquest. Further than this, little is known of their ecclesiastical history until that eastern bond was broken by the period of the Jesuit rule (about 1500 to 1633). In the six- teenth century, the Roman Catholic church at- tempted to establish sway over the Abyssinian church through the missionary work of Portugal, whose interest lay, not in religion, but in trade routes through the Red Sea to India. The rule of the western church was formally recognized by the king in 1604, but in 1633 the king was mur- dered, the Jesuits expelled, and allegiance once more given to Alexandria [see also Abyssinia; 6tb- i6th centuries]. The Abyssinian church agrees, in general, with the Coptic in matters of dogma. Though graven images are forbidden, saints and angels are held in great reverence. The clergy must marry once, but only once ; and their power is greatly increased by the strict enforcement of confession and absolution. Pilgrimage to Jeru- salem constitutes atonement for many sins "This ancient, strange and barbaric church has the true Semitic instinct of regarding God as Majesty rather than as Love This explains its monophy- site tendency which almost completely swallows up Christ's humanity. . . The church has now but one bishop, the Abuna, always sent from Alexan- dria or (Tairo. [He is always a Copt, but his influence is controlled by the Echegheh, a native ecclesiastical dignitary, who presides over the spirituality, numbering about 100,000 ecclesiastics.] The abbots also, as in the Roman church, have great authority. The cloisters are the principal seats of education which is chiefly scholastic and cultivates wonderful dialectical keenness. The parochial clergy often know little except how to repeat the liturgy [in Geez] now obsolete in lan- guage. The worship is a rude copy of that of the Greek church. Saints and above all the Virgin are plentifully invoked Transubstantiation, how- ever, is unknown Ordination is so carelessly per- formed that Rome has some hesitation in acknowl- edging it. Popular morals are very corrupt and barbarous and the priesthood is not a mirror of virtue although it enjoys very profound respect among the people." — B E. Pastor, Christianity in .Abyssinia (Missionary Review of the World, April, iqo2 ) . ABYSSINIAN EAST AFRICA. See Somali- I.AND. A. C. (Ante Christum), used sometimes instead of the more familiar abbreviation, B.C. (Before Christ.) ACADAMUS. See Academy. ACADEMIC FREEDOM.— "The question of freedom of instruction — Lehrfreiheit — is at bottom a question as to the relation of institutions of 23 ACADEMIC FREEDOM Relation to the Church ACADEMIC FREEDOM education to other institutions with which they have to do. It is to be noted that educational cstabhshments have for the most part been set up at first to serve other than purely educational purposes. The training which they have offered has been regarded as a means to some end beyond itself ; and this ultimate end has been found em- bodied in some other institution, to which the school has been made tributary. Each of the great capital institutions oF human society may be re- garded as having an educational aspect. This is true of the family, of the Church, of civil govern- ment, of industrial societies. And it is a fact of no small significance that an appreciation of the need and value of education has commonly arisen in connection with one or another of these insti- tutions. The ideas which they severally embody are the ideas which have been uppermost in the educational systems which they have severally fostered. ... It has been commonly noted that public education in Europe during the Middle Age was carried on almost exclusively by the Church. Leaving out of account the system of apprentice- ship fostered by the trade guilds and the training for the profession of arms which arose with chiv- alry, this is a fair statement of the case. The higher s[>iritual interests of the medieval peoples were represented in the Church. She embraced, as Geffcken has remarked, 'many spheres of life which as yet were incapable of independent development: she united in her bosom those elements of spiritual culture which were destined to occupy in the future each a distinct and prominent position. Her schools were the sole avenues to knowledge.' It should be added that the schools found their place, as a matter of course, in the general admin- istrative system of the Church, and were accord- ingly in the main under episcopal control. By the twelfth century, education I.ad come into sufficient prominence to receive special recognition in the episcopal system. Under the bishop, the super- vision of the schools was exercised sometimes by the chancellor, sometimes by the precentor, and sometimes by a dignitary designated for that par- ticular service, and variously known as magister scholarum, scholasticns, or sclwlaster. It became the prerogative of this official to license teachers who sought to open schools within his jurisdic- tion. This may have been at first a mere means of preserving his monopoly of education. But in 1170 the Third Council of Lateran decreed that the license should issue to every qualified applicant, and that without the exaction of a fee. . . . While there appear occasional signs of real academic in- dependence, the medieval universities were in the main faithful subjects of the Church of Rome. And when they sided with the civil as against the ecclesiastical authorities, their course was so often marked with extreme servility that it can call forth but little whole souled commendation. The first freshness of intellectual life which marked their beginnings soon gave way to a dreary and spirit- less following of their own traditions. A deeper and more pervasive interest in education appeared with the Revival of Learning ... It is charged by Catholic writers that the main educational out- come of the Protestant movement was the control of education by the state There is a large meas- ure of truth in this charee. Yet it is not to be supposed that modern school systems came at once into being upon the change of the states of north- ern Europe from the Catholic to the Protestant faith The new organization grew out of the old. . . . The relations of church and state in Prussia during the nineteenth century have been full of interest ; and they have reacted powerfully upon the educational system. It was, in fact, a ques- tion relating to the schools which precipitated the Kulturkampj in the early seventies; and one of the most notable results of that struggle was the as- sumption by the state of the local supervision of the schools, which up to that time had been a recognized prerogative of the church authorities. ... By the code of 17Q4, the teachers in the gymnasiums and higher schools were declared to be officers of the state. In the higher institutions, and particularly in the universities, the eighteenth century had seen the upgrowth of a demand that instructors should be free to teach what they conceived to be the truth, without interference from the authorities. Under Frederick William I., this freedom was ruthlessly invaded, on grounds that were fully as much ecclesiastical as poUtical. Frederick the Great would hear nothing of such interference, at least so far as questions of reli- gious controversy were concerned. Under succeed- ing reigns the universities were by no means secure from interference on political grounds. The ardent participation in political movements on the part of university professors and students during the first half of the present century brought the ques- tion of academic freedom sharply to the front. If the universities were to be freed from ecclesiastical supervision only to be brought under a kind of bondage to the government the real extent of their gain was problematical. When at last, in 1850, the long-sought-for written constitution was se- cured, it contained the liberal provision that 'Science and the teaching of science are free.' This was not the end of controversy ; but it marked one of the great educational gains of the nineteenth century. ... As Lutheran Prussia led the nations of Europe In the matter of state provision for public education, so Calvinistic Massachusetts was the leader of our American commonwealths. Un- der the quasi-theocracy of early colonial times, the people proceeded zealously in the establishment of educational institutions under public patronage and control. The General Court of the Colony appropriated moneys for the founding of a col- lege. A little later, each town in the Colony having sufficient population was required by law to establish an elementary school ; and with a somewhat larger population, a Latin school capa- ble of preparing students for the university, The purpose of these provisions was to circumvent the devices of Satan and to prevent learning from be- ing 'buried in the graves of our forefathers.' Dur- ing the .seventeenth century these provisions were rigorously enforced. The eighteenth saw consider- able relaxation of this strenuousness. . . . But New England democracy survived the decay of its ecclesiastical sponsors. And the doctrine that public education of secondary as well as of ele- mentary grade should be carried on under public control and with public support passed over to the modern state, when the theocracy which had nourished it was dead and gone." — E. E. Brown, Academic freedom {Educational Review, Mar., looo) , pp. 200-218. "The ecclesiastical and educational history of England has been far different. . . . The episcopal control of English education was continued after the Tudor Reformation, and was expressly con- firmed by the Canons of 1604. For a century and a half the Church of England claimed a mo- nopoly of public education on the basis of these canons, and of the immemorial us.age which they confirmed. The Act of Uniformity, of 1662, dis- allowed all orders save those conferred by bishops. ACADEMIC FREEDOM Relation to the State ACADEMIC FREEDOM The same act required schoolmasters as well as clergymen to subscribe not only to a declaration of their assent to the prayer-book, but also to a pledge that they would seek to make no change in church or state. Under this act, some of the most learned men at both universities were driven from their posts; and instruction thruout Eng- land was made absolutely subservient to the Es- tablished Church. . . . The e.xample of the Roman Empire had shown that education was a possible field for state agency. The long history of ecclesiastical control down to the time of the Reformation greatly obscured this fact. Many sincerely believed that schools could be managed and maintained only by the church. If men had not come to serious theological differences, the me- dijeval system would probably have continued to the present time. . . . Some of the most significant contributions to modern thought on the institu- tional relations of education were made by French writers of the latter half of the eighteenth cen- tury. When we remember the influence which France exercised over German thought at that period, we are ready to look for French elements even in the remarkable development of academic freedom in the Prussian universities under the leadership of Halle. The trend of French thought at the time takes two noteworthy directions. On the one hand, a vigorous group of writers called for education by the state for the purposes of the state. One of the most influential of these was La Chalotais. Protesting against a too exclusively ecclesiastical training, he declared, 'I dare claim for the nation an education which depends only on the state, because it belongs essentially to the state ; because every state has an inalienable and indefeasible right to instruct its members; because, finally, the children of the state ought to be edu- cated by the members of the state.' Voltaire called education a 'government undertaking.' . . . The contention of these writers seems to be, in substance, that education shall change its ecclesias- tical master for a governmental master. The other direction is represented by Rousseau and his fol- lowers. Here appears the demand that early edu- cation shall be cut off from all connection with in- stitutional life. It is to be universal, in that the ends which it seeks are to be such as will be of equal value to Christian, Jew, and pagan, and to those of any nation and any occupation in life. Here we have a universalism more abstract than any that the Renaissance produced. Children are to be brought up not even for participation in the ideal life of ancient Greece and Rome, nor for citizenship in a supramundane Kingdom of Heaven ; but rather for ideal perfection as indi- viduals. Education, according to this scheme, is not to change masters, but rather to free itself from masters altogether. It is to become free by cutting itself loose, in some quixotic manner, from all connection with any other institution what- soever. . . Freedom of instruction, in the proper sense of the words, implies instruction which puts the learner in possession of universal standards of excellence, or at least of standards as nearly uni- versal as he can at any given stage of his develop- ment really make his own ; but which also puts him in the way of employing these standards in the discharge of the duties of real life. Something like this seems to be implied in the demand that educational questions shall be determined solely on educational grounds; and in that demand is briefly summed up the whole question of academic free- dom. It will be observed that in this discussion the case of the lower schools has been considered along with that of the higher, as if the question of freedom of instruction affected them all alike. This has been done advisedly, in the belief that educa- tion is one concern from the lowest grades to the highest. A state which undertakes to determine the questions of higher education on purely edu- cational grounds, while it determines questions re- lating to primary schools on narrowly govern- mental grounds, is preparing the different classes of its people to misunderstand one another. Such a condition can only promote a 'severance for the time between the thinking classes and the general bulk of the nation' — to u.se a happy expression of Mr. John Richard Green's. It can hardly continue permanently in any modern society. . . . The first half-century of our own Republic saw the begin- nings of a remarkable movement toward public control of education in all of its grades. Particu- larly in secondary and higher instruction the change of sentiment within that period was highly significant. At the outset, institutions of learning were very generally controlled by self-perpetuatmg boards of trustees, acting under charters granted or confirmed by the several States. Not infre- quently state aid was granted in considerable amounts to these institutions and no condition of state control was added to such grants. For a time such institutions increased rapidly in numbers. Finally there arose an insistent demand that instil tutions of learning be under public direction and control ; a demand which found expression in the Dartmouth College case, in the establishment of the University of Virginia, and in the beginnings of the high-school movement. For the past three- quarters of a century, we have seen schools of secondary and higher education growing up under systems of public administration, alongside of other schools which, however public in other respects, are under one form or another of private con- trol. . . . The demand for public control, as it appeared in the early part of this century, was in part a protest against ecclesiastical influence; but it was perhaps quite as much an expression of the purpose to make public schools directly responsible to the public to which they ministered. But, as we have seen, an increase of responsibility is an ap- proach toward real freedom; it being impossible that an irresponsible institution, if such a thing exists, should be really free. ... On the whole it seems fair to say that the movement toward public control in this country as in others is a step in the direction of academic freedom — of academic free- dom which is one with academic responsibility. The importance of this movement to our national life can hardly be overestimated. But schools and universities under private control cannot be dis- pensed with. If such did not exist, the public wel- fare would demand their establishment; for times will inevit,ably appear in our national life when the immediate pressure of governmental control will unduly restrain our State institutions. Nor can we suppose that the schools of the churches, where these exist, will not have their call, now and again, to take up the theme and speak some free word of instruction which other institutions at the time fail to utter. John Stuart Mill was clearly justified in the contention that there .should be no monopoly in education, whether of the govern- ment, of the clergy, or of philosophers. This ques- tion of academic freedom is intimately bound up with the question of freedom of the press, of the .sciences, of the arts. In our university organiza- tion of the future, these several interests may be found more and more incorporated in the system of educational administration. Here we find some 25 ACADEMIC FREEDOM Relation to Educational insfilulions ACADEMIC FREEDOM of (he highest concerns of the state which cannot be compressed into mere governments in a kind of independence which makes possible the best sort of co-operation. . . . After all is said and done, academic freedom cannot be expressed in formulas nor secured by mere systems of administration. It belongs to men who deserve it for pre-eminent worth and command it by the courage of well- reasoned conviction. No sort of freedom is worth having which can be marked out by fixed lines or maintained by inferior men without a struggle. It is a part of the mission of educational institu- tions to take their place and play their part in the conflicts which are necessary to the life of the peo- ples; and when their part assumes the form of a struggle for the right to teach the truth as they find it, the conflict itself may prove their best means of persuading men that truth is worth fight- ing for." — E. E. Brown, Academic freedom (Edu- cational Review, Mar., iqoo, pp. 219-231). "The term 'academic freedom' has traditionally had two applications — to the freedom of the teacher and to that of the student. It need scarcely be pointed out that the freedom which is the subject of this report is that of the teacher. Academic freedom in this sense comprises three elements: freedom of inquiry and research; free- dom of teaching within the university or college; and freedom of extra-mural utterance and action. The first of these is almost everywhere so safe- guarded that the dangers of its infringement are slight. It may therefore be disregarded in this report. The second and third phases of academic freedom are closely related, and are often not dis- tinguished. The third, however, has an importance of its own, since of late it has perhaps more fre- quently been the occasion of difficulties and con- troversies than has the question of freedom of intra-academic teaching. All five of the cases which have recently been investigated by commit- tees of this Association have involved, at least as one factor, the right of university teachers to ex- press their opinions freely outside the university or to engage in political activities in their capacity as citizens. . . . The simplest case is that of a pro- prietary school or college designed for the propaga- tion of specific doctrines prescribed by those who have furnished its endowment. It is evident that in such cases the trustees are bound by the deed of gift, and, whatever be their own views, are obligated to carry out the terms of the trust. . . . Their purpose is not to advance knowledge by the unrestricted research and unfettered discussion of impartial investigators, but rather to subsidize the promotion of the opinions held by the persons, usually not of the scholar's calling, who provide the funds for their maintenance. Leaving aside, then, the small number of institutions of the pro- prietary type, what is the nature of the trust re- posed in the governing boards of the ordinary institutions of learning? . . . They cannot be per- mitted to assume the proprietary attitude and pri\-ilege. if they are appealing to the general pub- lic for support. Trustees of such universities or colleges have no moral right to bind the reason or the conscience of any professor. .All claim to such right is waived by the appeal to the general public for contributions and for moral support in the maintenance, not of a propaganda, but of a non- partisan institution of learning. . . . The function [of professors] is to deal at first hand, after pro- longed and specialized technical training, with the sources of knowledge; and to impart the results of their own and of their fellow-specialists' investiga- tions and reflection, both to students and to the general public, without fear or favor. The proper discharge of this function requires (among other things) that the university teacher shall be exempt from any pecuniary motive or inducement to hold, or to express, any conclusion which is not the genuine and uncolored product of his own study or that of fellow-specialists. . . . "The importance of academic freedom is most clearly perceived in the light of the purposes for which universities exist. These are three in num- ber; {.\) To promote inquiry and advance the sum of human knowledge. (B) To provide gen- eral instruction to the students. (C) To develop experts for various branches of the public service. Let us consider each of these. In the earlier stages of a nation's intellectual development, the chief concern of educational institutions is to train the growing generation and to diffuse the already accepted knowledge. It is only slowly that there comes to be provided in the highest institutions of learning the opportunity for the gradual wresting from nature of her intimate secrets. The modern university is becoming more and more the home of scientific research. There are three fields of human inquiry in which the race is only at the be- ginning: natural science, social science, and philos- ophy and religion, dealing with the relations of man to outer nature, to his fellow men, and to the ultimate realities and values. The second function — which for a long time was the only function — of the American college or university is to provide in- struction for students. It is scarcely open to ques- tion that freedom of utterance is as important to the teacher as it ts to the investigator. No man can be a successful teacher unless he enjoys the respect of his students, and their confidence in his intellectual integrity. It is clear, however, that this confidence will be impaired if there is suspi- cion on the part of the student that the teacher is not expressing himself fully or frankly, or that college and university teachers in general are a repressed and intimidated class who dare not speak with that candor and courage which youth always demands in those whom it is to esteem. . . . The third function of the modern university is to de- velop experts for the use of the community. If there is one thing that distinguishes the more recent developments of democracy, it is the recog- nition by legislators of the inherent complexities of economic, social, and political life, and the diffi- culty of solving problems of technical adjustment without technical knowledge. ... It is obvious that here again the scholar must be absolutely free not only to pursue his investigations but to declare the results of his researches, no matter where they may lead him or to what extent they may come into conflict with accepted opinion. To be of use to the legislator or the administrator, he must enjoy their complete confidence in the disinterest- edness of his conclusions It is clear, then, that the university cannot perform its threefold func- tion without accepting and enforcing to the fullest extent the principle of academic freedom. The re- sponsibility of the university as a whole is to the community at large, and any restriction upon the freedom of the instructor is bound to react inju- riously upon the efficiency and the morale of the institution, and therefore ultimately upon the in- tere.sts of the community. "The special dangers to freedom of teaching in the domain of the social sciences are evidently two. The one which is the more likely to affect the privately endowed colleges and universities is the danger of restrictions upon the expression of opinions which point towards extensive social in- 26 ACADEMIC FREEDOM Various opinions ACADEMIC FREEDOM novations, or call in question the moral legitimacy or social expediency of economic conditions or commercial practices in which large vested inter- ests are involved. In the political, social, and eco- nomic field almost every question, no matter how large and general it at first appears, is more or less affected with private or class interests ; and, as the governing body of a university is naturally made up of men who through their standing and ability are personally interested in great private enterprises, the points of possible conflict are num- berless. When to this is added the consideration that benefactors, as well as most of the parents who send their children to privately endowed in- stitutions, themselves belong to the more prosper- ous and therefore usually to the more conservative classes, it is apparent that, so long as effectual safe- guards for academic freedom are not established, there is a real danger that piessure from vested in- terests may, sometimes deliberately and sometimes unconsciously, sometimes openly and sometimes subtly and in obscure ways, be brought to bear upon academic authorities. On the other hand, in our state universities the danger may be the re- verse. Where the university is dependent for funds upon legislative favor, it has sometimes happened that the conduct of the institution has been af- fected by political considerations; and where there is a definite governmental policy or a strong public feeling on economic, social, or political questions, the menace to academic freedom may consist in the repression of opinions that in the particular po- litical situation are deemed ultra-conservative rather than ultra-radical. The essential point, however, is not so much that the opinion is of one or another shade, as that it differs from the views entertained by the authorities. The question resolves itself into one of departure from accepted standards; whether the departure is in the one direction or the other is immaterial. This brings us to the mo3t serious difficulty of this problem; namely, the dangers connected with the existence in a democracy of an overwhelming and concen- trated public opinion. The tendency of modern democracy is for men to think alike, feel alike, and to speak alike. ... In a democracy there is politi- cal freedom, but there is likely to be a tyranny of political opinion. An inviolable refuge from such tyranny should be found in the university. ... It is, in short, not the absolute freedom of utterance of the individual scholar, but the absolute freedom of thought, of inquiry, of discussion and of teach- ing, of the academic profession, that is asserted by this declaration of principles." — American Associa- tion of University Professors, Generai report of the committee on academic freedom and academic tenure (American Political Science Review, May, 1916). Opinion of President Barrows of the Univer- sity of California. — "Finally, we come to that special freedom to which the term 'academic free- dom' is sometimes confined — freedom of teaching and of thought and utterance associated with it. This is undoubtedly the most crucial point of our inquiry. Is a professor in a university, and above all in a state university, to be permitted to express himself without restraint? I am not sure that I represent the unanimous academic view, but as a practical answer I would say, 'yes, once a man is called to be a professor.' The earlier grades of academic advancement are necessarily probation- ary, but once the professorial status is conferred the scholar can not thereafter successfully be laid under restraint. ... I appreciate that there are times which are exceptional; when men neither in a university nor in civil society generally may use their privilege of speech and criticism. War is such a season. . . . War is a highly abnormal ex- perience in which thousands and millions of men, at utmost danger to their lives, forego all freedom, surrender all liberty to the necessary requirements of militaPi' discipline. And this being the situation of the men who fight, some measure of restraint is justifiable over the entire nation, that the army may suffer no increased hazard. And there may also be other crises in a state so acute, so disturb- ing, so painful to large numbers, as to necessitate a temporary suppression of free utterance, but normally the rule of academic freedom holds. The university is not an open forum. Its platforms are not free to the uninstructed or to those without repute. It is not a place where any sort of doc- trine may be expounded by any sort of person. There is a public attitude that sometimes questions the right, particularly of a state university, to ex- clude any from public utterance in university halls. But just as the permanent members of a univer- sity are selected with great care and for reasons of confidence in their knowledge, so those who arc invited to speak incidentally or occasionally must be judged with comparable considerations." — D. P. Barrows, Academic freedom (School and Society, Apr. 17, iQ2o). Opinion of President Lowell of Harvard Uni- versity. — "The teaching by the professor in his class-room on the subjects within the scope of his chair ought to be absolutely free. He must teach the truth as he has found it and sees it. This is the primary condition of academic freedom, and any violation of it endangers intellectual progress. In order to make it secure it is essential that the teaching in the class-room should be confidential. This does not mean that it is secret, but that what is said there should not be published. If the re- marks of the instructor were repeated by the pupils in the public press, he would be subjected to con- stant criticism by people, not familiar with the subject, who misunderstood his teaching ; and, what is more important, he would certainly be misquoted, because his remarks would be reported by the student without their context or the quali- fications that give them their accuracy. Moreover, if the rule that remarks in the class-room shall not be reported for publication elsewhere is to be maintained, the professor himself must not report them. . . . That does not mean a denial of the right to publish them in a book, or their substance in a learned periodical. On the contrary the object of institutions of learning is not only the acquisi- tion but also the diffusion of knowledge. ... In troublous times much more serious difficulty, and much more confusion of thought, arises from the other half of our subject, the right of a professor to express his views without restraint on matters lying outside the sphere of his professorship. . . . The fact that a man fills a chair of astronomy, for example, confers on him no special knowledge of, and no peculiar right to speak upon, the protective tariff. His right to speak about a subject on which he is not an authority is simply the right of any other man, and the question is simply whether the university or college by employing him as a pro- fessor acquires a right to restrict his freedom as a citizen. ... On their [the students'] side they have a right not to be compelled to listen to re- marks offensive or injurious to them on subjects of which the instructor is not a master, — a right which the teacher is bound to respect. . . . The gravest questions, and the strongest feelings, arise from action by a professor beyond his chosen field 27 ACADEMIC FREEDOM ACADEMY, FRENCH and outside his class-room. Here he speaks only as a citizen. By appointment to a professorship he acquires no rights that he did not possess before; but there is a real difference of opinion to-day on the question whether he loses any rights that he would otherwise enjoy. ... In the first place, to impose upon the teacher in a university restrictions to which the members of other professions, law- yers, physicians, engineers, and so forth, are not subjected, would produce a sense of irritation and humiliation. In accepting a chair under such con- ditions a man woulcl surrender a part of his lib- erty; what he might say would be submitted to the censorship of a board of trustees, and he would cease to be a free citiien. . . . Such a policy would tend seriously to discourage some of the best men from taking up the scholar's Ufe. ... If a univer- sity or college censors what its professors may say, if it restrains them from uttering something that it does not approve, it thereby assumes responsibil- ity for that which it permits them to say. This is logical and inevitable, but it is a responsibility which an institution of learning would be very un- wise in assuming. . . . Surely abuse of speech, abuse of authority and arbitrary restraint and friction would be reduced if men kept in mind the distinction between the privilege of academic free- dom and the common right of personal liberty as a citizen, between what may properly be said in (he class-room and what in pubUc. But it must not be forgotten that all liberty and every privilege implies responsibilities. Professors should speak in public soberly and seriously, not for notoriety or self advertisement, under a deep sense of responsi- bility for the good name of the institution and the dignity of their profession. They should take care that they are understood to speak personally, not officially. When they so speak, and governing boards respect their freedom to express their sin- cere opinions as other citizens may do, there will be little danger that liberty of speech will be either misused or curtailed." — A. L. Lowell, Annual report to the board oj overseers, 1916-1917 (£1- cerpts as quoted in Harvard Graduates' Magazine, Mar., 1018). Opiiuon of President Hadley of Yale Univer- sity. — "The problem of the liberty of teaching con- nects itself with other problems of civil liberty; and all these problems together reach back into past history, and can be properly analyzed only by historical study. Only by placing them all in their proper relations to one another can we under- stand either the reasons or the limitations of our system' of academic freedom as it e.xists at the present day. To the modern observer liberty in its various manifestations is neither an abstract right to be assumed, as Rousseau would have assumed it, nor a pernicious phantom to Jse condemned and exorcised, as Carlyle or Ruskin would have con- demned it, but an essential element in orderly progress; not without its dangers and not without its limitations, yet justified on the whole because the necessar>' combination of progress and order can be better secured by a high degree of indi- vidual liberty than in any other fashion. . . ." — A. T. Hadley, Academic freedom in theory and in practice (.Atlantic Monthh, Feb., IQ03, pp. 152- 153)- Opinion of President Butler of Columbia Uni- versity. — "You will enter here into an atmosphere of complete intellectual freedom. Each member of this university, teacher and taught alike, is under two limitations, and only two, in matters of speech and of conduct. The first of these is the limitation put upon us all by the laws of the land, which are enforced by the properly constituted authorities The second is the limitation in speech and in conduct which an American gentleman puts upon himself. . . . The gravest, and indeed the only, university offence that one can commit is to be guilty of conduct unbecoming a gentleman."— N. M. Butler, from address quoted in New York Sun, Oct. 22, IQ17. ACADEMIE DES SCIENCES. See Acad- ElvrV OF SCTENXES. ACADEMIE FRANCAISE. See Academy, French. ACADEMIES, International Union of. See International Union of .'\cadeiiies. ACADEMY, takes its name from the "Aca- demia" on the Cephissus, a sacred precinct of Athens, which spot probably belonged to Acada- mus, a hero of Atticus. In time it became a pub- lic park; later, a gymnasium was built here where Plato held his first lectures in philosophy. The masters of the great schools of philosophy at Athens "chose for their lectures and discussions the public buildings which were called gymnasia, of which there were several in different quarters of the city. They could only use them by the suffer- ance of the State, which had built them chiefly for bodily exercises and athletic feats. . . . Before long several of the schools drew themselves apart in special buildings, and even took their most fa- miliar names, such as the Lyceum and the .Acad- emy, from the gymnasia in which they made them- selves at home. Gradually we find the traces of some material provisions, which helped to define and to perpetuate the different sects. Plato had a little garden, close by the sacred Eleusinian Way, in the shady groves of the Academy. . . . Aris- totle, as we know, in later life had taught in the Lyceum, in the rich grounds near the llissus. ' — W. W. Capes. University life in ancient Athens, pp. 31-33. — Academy in its modern sense, is a corpora- tion or society organized to encourage the disin- terested pursuit of art or science, or both. It is now used to refer to learned organizations of all kinds. It is usually endowed by the state or other- wise publicly recognized. A list of the more im- portant academies, with the date of founding is appended: .\cademie francaise (1620-1635); Acad- emic des inscriptions et belles-lettres or "Petite academic" (1663); Academic des sciences (1666); Academic des beaux arts (Berne. 1677); Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin (formerly Societas Regia Scientiarum, 1700) ; Academic Imperiale des sciences de Saint-Petersbourg (Imperatorskaya Akademiya naiik, 1725); Royal Academy of Arts (London, 1768); American ,\cademy of Arts and Sciences (1780); National .Academy of Design (New York, 1826) ; National Academy of Sciences (U. S. A.. 1S63) ; American Academy in Rome (1865); British Academy (iqo2). Separate arti- cles on the more important academies will be found under their own headings. — See also Educa- tion: .Ancient: B.C. 7th-.\. D. 3rd centuries: Greece, Socrates and the philosophical schools; Gymnasia: Greek. ACADEMY, American. See American Acad- emy in Ro.vie. ACADEMY, French.— Founded by Cardinal Richelieu, in 1635, for the refining of the language and the literary taste of France. [See also French literature: 1608-1715.] Its forty members are styled "les Quarante Immortels" (the Forty Im- mortals). Election to a seat among them is a high object of ambition among French writers. The seals are numbered from one to forty, and the records of members are kept under the numbers of their respective chairs. — "The literary movement of the Renaissance ended in Europe about the mid- 28 ACADEMY, FRENCH ACADEMY, FRENCH die of the seventeenth century. There appeared no more great writers in Spain, nor in Italy, nor in Germany. France, only, was for a century the country of learning. The writers of that period had a totally different conception of the art of writing from those of the time of the Renaissance. They neither wrote for the learned nor for the common people; they wrote for society; for those whom they called well-bred people, and it was the well-bred company gathered in the salons which decided upon the value of the works. The salons were set up in France during the reign of Louis XIII.; manners and language had been rude at first; the nobles brought with them the customs of the soldier; little by little the ladies brought about a change in the general tone, and introduced the custom of speaking politely, and in choice terms. The Marquise de Rambouillet (q. v.) set the example, by holding in her own mansion regu- lar reunions where questions of literature and morals were discussed. The employment of trivial expressions was forbidden ; the ladies called them- selves 'Precieuses.' They sought to purify the lan- guage, and were aided in their work by the gram- marians, and by the Academy. The French lan- guage at that time was composed of many words and turns of phrase, which had their origin in the French of the Middle Ages; others had been drawn from the Greek or Latm by the men of the Renaissance. The grammarians and the 'Pre- cieuses' proscribed a great many expressions on account of their coarseness, or their provincialism and many new words taken from the Latin, be- cause they were too pedantic. They endeavored to 'follow good usage,' that is, to employ only such words as were used in the best circles in Paris. 'It is far better,' said Vaugelas, 'to consult the women, and those who have not studied, than to counsel with those who are learned in Greek and Latin.' The French language thus purilied, be- came the language of the court, and of the salon, which every one must speak if one wished to be considered educated, and well-bred. 'One word amiss is sufficient to make one scorned in society.' 'To speak well is one of the forms required by good breeding.' In order to fix rules for the lan- guage, Richelieu founded the French Academy; to edit a dictionary of the French language is its especial charge. 'This small band called good so- ciety is the flower of the human race,' said Vol- taire. 'It is for them that the greatest men have labored.' 'It is the taste of the court that should be studied,' said Moliere. 'There is no place where decisions can be more just.' This taste which was imposed on all writers, is called the classic taste It consists in expressing only ideas that can be easily understood, and expressing them in terms clear, precise, and elegant, setting them forth in perfect order, taking care to employ no popular expression, neither a term of science, trade, or of the household ; in one word, sparing the reader everything which may demand an effort of the mind, or which may shock the proprieties. Litera- ture became the art of making fine discourses; it was oratorical rather than poetic. Its dominant quality was perfection." — C. Seignobos, History oj mediaeval and oj modern civilization, pp. 424-426. — ■ During the revolutionary period the Academy was suspected of monarchical sentiments and accused of constituting an intellectual aristocracy. It was accordingly suppressed August 8, 1703, by a de- cree of the Convention and incorporated, in I7gs, into the Institut National, under the name of "La classe de la langue et litterature frangaises" The Restoration replaced the .Academy to its origi- nal status The first edition of its dictionnaire was issued in 1694; the sixth edition appeared in 183S, since augmented by supplements and revised. The selection of members for the Academy has long been a matter of bitter controversy. While a goodly number of great names in French history and literature appear on its roll, it is true that many others, equally great, are conspicuous by their absence. Among the more prominent of the latter category may be mentioned Diderot, RoUin, Rousseau, Beaumarchais, Helvetius, Condillac, Benjamin Constant, J. de Maistre, Prudhon, Beranger, Conte, Balzac, Gautier, Stendhal, Flau- bert, Uaudet, Zola, Flaubert, de Maupassant, etc. None of these became an "imaiurtal." The fol- lowing are some of the celebrated Frenchmen who held seats in the Academy: Racine (1672); Seguier (1635) ; Boileau-Despreaux (1084) ; Vol- taire (1746) ; Corneille (1647) ; Bougainville (17S4); D'Alembert (1754); Cardinal Dubois (1722) ; Cardinal de Rohan (1704) ; Bossuet (1071); Montesquieu (172S); Nicolas Bourdon, first occupant of seat No. i (1637) ; Scribe {1834) , O. Feuillet (i85i); Buffon (1753); Guizot (183O) ; Hugo (1841); Sainte Beuve (1844); Ampere (1S47) ; De Tocqueville (1841) ; Lacordaire (pere, 1859); Ph. de Segur (1830); A. Thiers (1833); Merimee (1844); Chateaubriand (1811); Lamar- tine (1829) ; Condorcet (17S2) ; Jules Favrc C1867) ; Tissot (1833) ; A. de Vigny (1845) ; A. de Musset (1852); Montalembert (1851); Laplace (i8ib); Cuvier (1818) and Royer-Collard (1S27), 1919. — Calling of International conference for union. See under International union of acau- EMIES. The membership of the Academy in 1920 in the order of election with the name of the predece.^sor in each case, was as follows: Comte d'Haussonville, Gabriel Paul Othenin de Cleron (Caro) de Freycinet, Claude Louis de Saulces (Augier, Emile) Loti-Viaud, Pierre Louis Marie Julien (Feuillet, Octave) Lavisse, Ernest (de la Graviere, Jurien) Bourget, Paul (du Camp, Max) France, Anatole Jacques Thibault (de Lesseps) Hanotaux, Gabriel (Challerael-Lacour) Lavedan, Henri (Meilhac, Henry) Deschanel, Paul Eugene Louis (Herve, Flori- mond Ronge) Masson, Louis Claude Frederic (Paris) Bazin, Rene Fran<;ois Nicolas (Legouve) Ribot, Alexandre (due d'.^udiffret-Pasquier) Barres, Maurice (de Heredia, J. M) Donnay, Maurice (Sorel, Albert) Richepin, Jean (Theuriet, Andre) Poincare, Raymond (Gebhart) Brieux, Eugene (Halevy) Aicard, Jean (Coppee, Francois) Prevost, Marcel (Sardou, Victorien) Doumic, Rene (Boissier) Mgr. Duchesne, Louis Marie Olivier (Card. Mathieu) Vte. de Regnier, Henri (Comte de Vogiie) Baron Cochin, Henrv Denys Benoit Marie (Vandal) General Lyautey, Herbert (Houssaye, Henri) Boutroux, Etienne Emile Maiie (General Lang- lois) Capus, Alfred Vincent Marie (Poincare, H.) de la Gorce, Pierre (Thureau-Dangin) Bergson, Henri Louis (Olivier, Emile) Marechal Joffre, Joseph Jacques Cesaire (Clare- tie, Jules) Barthou, Louis (Roujon, Henri) 29 ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ACCIDENT INSURANCE Mgr. Baudrillart, Henri Marie Alfred (Comte de Mun, Albert) Boylesve, Rene (Mezieres) de Curel, Fran<;ois (Hervieu, Paul) Cambon, Jules (Charmes, Francis) Clemenceau, Georges (Faguet, Emile) Marechal Foch, Ferdinand (Marquis de Vogiie) Bordeaux, Henry (Lemaitre, Jules) de Flers, Robert (Marquis de Segur) Bedier, Joseph (Rostand, Edmond) Chevrillon, Andre (Lamy, Ktienne) The above list was furnished by courtesy of the French government, in December, lyio. ACADEMY OF SCIENCES (lAcademie des sciences), an institution founded at Paris in ibbd by Colbert and approved by Louis XIV in 1699; suppressed by the National Convention during the French Revolution and in 1816 reconstituted as a branch of the Institut de France (founded 1795)- At first it served as an experimental laboratory and observatory ; its purpose is to promote scientific research. It numbers sixty-eight members, ten honorary academicians, eight foreign associates, and one hundred corresponding members. ACADIA. See Canada: iboj-ioos, 1O10-1013, 1692-1097. Origin of the name. See Nova Scotia: 1604. Capture of. See U. S. A.: 1690. Given to Great Britain at Treaty of Utrecht. See NtwFouNDLAND, Dominion of: 1713. In Nova Scotia. See Nova Scoiia; 1713-1730. Boundary dispute with England. See Nova Scoiia: 1749-1755. Exile of inhabitants. See Nova Scotia: 1755. ACANTHUS, a plant found in great abundance in ancient Greece. Because of its attractive form it was reproduced on metals and sub.sequently carved in stone, particularly by the Greeks. The succeeding styles of architecture employed the de- sign especially in the Corinthian capital. ACAPULCO, a seaport of Mexico, on the Pa- cific, in the state of Guerrero, with a very fine landlocked harbor, the chief port of call for steam- ships plying between San Francisco and South American ports. In the eighteenth century it was the port used for the Philippine trade.^See also Mexico: 1810-1819. ACARNANIA, a land in the western part of Greece, south of Epirus (see Greece: Map of ancient Greece), whose people first emerged from obscurity at the beginning of the Pelo- ponnesian War (431-404 B.C.). The Acarna- nians formed "a hnk of transition" between the ancient Greeks and their barbarous or non- Hellenic neighbours in the Epirus and beyond. "They occupied the territory between the river Achelous, the Ionian sea and the Ambrakian gulf ; they were Greeks and admitted as such to contend at the Pan-Hellenic games, yet they were also closely connected with the Amphilochi and Agrcei, who were not Greeks. In manners, sentiments and intelligence, they were half-Hellenic and half- Epirotic, — like the ^tolians and the Ozolian Lokrians. Even down to the time of Thucydides, these nations were subdivided into numerous petty communities, lived in unfortified villages, were frequently in the habit of plundering each other, and never permitted themselves to be unarmed. . . . Notwithstanding this state of disunion and insecurity, however, the Akarnanians maintained a loose political league among themselves. . . . The Akarnanians appear to have produced many prophets. They traced up their mythical ancestry, as well as that of their neighbours the Amphilo- chians, to the most renowned prophetic family among the Grecian heroes, — Amphiaraus, with his sons Alkmson and Ampilocbus: Akarnan, the eponymous hero of the nation, and other epony- mous heroes of the separate towns, were supposed to be the sons of Alkmseon. They are spoken of, together with the .-Etolians, as mere rude shep- herds, by the lyric poet Alkman, and so they seem to have continued with little alteration until the beginning of the Peloponnesian war, when we hear of them, for the first time, as allies of Athens and as bitter enemies of the Corinthian colonies on their coast. The contact of those colonies, how- ever, and the large spread of Akarnanian accessible coast, could not fail to produce some effect in so- cializing and improving the people. And it is probable that this effect would have been more sensibly felt, had not the Akarnanians been kept back by the fatal neighbourhood, of the .■Etolians, with whom they were in perpetual feud,— a people the most unprincipled and unimprovable of all who bore the Hellenic name, and whose habitual faithlessness stood in marked contrast with the rectitude and steadfastness of the Akarnanian rectitude and steadfastness of the Akarnanian char- acter." — G. Grote, History of Greece, pt. 2, cli. 24. ACARNANIAN LEAGUE.— "Of the .Akar- nanian League, formed by one of the least im- portant, but at the same time one of the most estimable peoples in Greece . . . our knowledge is only fragmentary. The boundaries of .'\karnania fluctuated, but we always find the people spoken of as a political whole. . . . Thucydides speaks, by impHcation at least, of the Akarnanian League as an institution of old standing in his time. The Akarnanians had, in early times, occupied the hill of Olpai as a place for judicial proceedings com- mon to the whole nation. Thus the supreme court of the Akarnanian Union held its sittings, not in a town, but in a mountain fortress. But in Thucydides' own time Stratos had attained its position as the greatest city of -Akarnania, and probably the federal assemblies were already held there. ... Of the constitution of the League we know but little. Ambassadors were sent by the federal body, and probably, just as in the Achaian League, it would have been held to be a breach of the federal tie if any single city had entered on diplomatic intercourse v/ith other powers. As in Achaia, too, there stood at the head of the League a General with high authority. . . . The existence of coins bearing the name of the whole Akarnanian nation shows that there was unity enough to admit of a federal coinage, though coins of particular cities also occur." — E. A. Free- man, History oj federal government, ch. 4, sect. i. — See also Athens: B.C. 336-332. ACAWOIOS. See Cakibs: Their kindred. ACCA LARENTIA, the wife of Faustulus, who reared the Roman twins, Romulus and Remus. ACCAD: Ancient civilization. See Baby- lonia: Earliest inhabitants; Semites: Primitive Babylonia. Language and literature. See Assyria: Art and archa;ological remains; Education: Ancient: B.C. 35th-6th centuries: Babylonia and Assyria. ACCEPTANTS. See Convulsionists. ACCIDENT INSURANCE, Industrial See Insurance: Industrial insurance; Social insur- ance: Accident and sickness insurance. France. See Social insurance: Details for vari- ous countries: France: 1919- Germany. See Social Insurance: Origin and early development. Great Britain. See Social insurance: Details for various countries: Great Britain: 1833-1911. Holland. See Social insukance: Details for various countries: Holland: 1894-1901. 30 ACCOLADE New Zealand. See Social insurance: Details for various countries: New Zealand: igoo-igi2. Norway. See Social insurance: Details for various countries. 1885-1910. Portugal. See Social insurance: Details for various countries: 1919. United States. See Social insurance: Details for various countries: 1893-1018. ACCOLADE.— "The concluding sign of being dubbt<l or adopted into the order of knighthood was a slight blow given by the lord to the cavalier, and called the accolade, from the part of the body, the neck, whereon it was struck. . . . Many writ- ers have imagined that the accolade was the last blow which the soldier might receive with impu- nity: but this interpretation is not correct, for the squire was as jealous of his honour as the knight. The origin of the accolade it is impossible to trace, but it was clearly considered symbolical of the religious and moral duties of knighthood, and was the only ceremony used when knights were made in places (the field of battle, for instance), where time and circumstances did not allow of many ceremonies." — C. Mills, History of chivalry, V. I, p. S3, and foot-note. ACCOUNTING OFFICE, created in Budget Bureau Bill. See U.S.A.: 1921 (June). ACCRETION, Title of. See Riparian rights. ACE OF DIAMONDS, U. S. A. Division.— In Meuse-Argonne. See World War: igi8: II. Western front, v, 7. ACES, a term applied in the World War to aviators who had brought down in combat, five or more enemy aircraft under conditions enabling official recognition and sanction of the accomplish- ment to be made. The following list contains only the leading aces of the belligerent nations. Germnn No. of Aircraft Nation Pilot Destroyed French Lieutenant Rene Fonck 59 " Captain Georges Guynemer 53 ii Lieutenant Charles Nungesser 38 (( Lieutenant Georges Madon 38 British Major Raymond Colleshau 77 *' Captain William A. Bishop 72 " Major E. Mannock 71 " Captain J. McCudden 58 " Captain Donald E. McLaren 48 (( Captain Philip F. Fullard 48 (( Captain R. A. Little 47 II Captain G. E. H. McElroy 46 " Captain Albert Ball 43 *' Captain H. W. Wallet 43 (1 Captain L. Jones 40 II Captain A. W. B. Proctor 30 (1 Major Roderic S. Dallas 39 " Captain W. G. Claxton 37 (( Captain F. R. McCall 34 " Captain Frank G. Quigley 34 " Major Albert D. Carter 31 " Captain Cedric E. Howell 30 i( Captain A. E. McKeever 30 Italian Major Baracca 36 " Lieutenant Florio Barachini 31 Belgian Lieutenant Coppeus 30 German Captain von Richthofen 80 »' Lieutenant Udet 69 " Lieutenant Lowenhardt 53 " Lieutenant von Crefeld 49 " Captain Boelke 40 *' Lieutenant Gontermann 39 " Captain Berthold 39 " Lieutenant Max MUller 38 (( Lieutenant Bongartz 36 ACH.SA Lieutenant Max Buckler 34 Lieutenant Menckhoff 34 Lieutenant Loerzer 33 Lieutenant Carl Wolff 33 Lieutenant Klein 33 Lieutenant Roenneke 32 Lieutenant Bolle 31 Lieutenant KroU 31 Corporal Rumey 30 Lieutenant Schleich 30 Lieutenant Schaeffer 30 Lieutenant Almenroeder 30 The American aces who brought down at least ten enemy aircraft are: Captain E. V. Rickenbacker Lieutenant Frank Luke Major Raoul Lufberry Lieutenant G. Vaughn Lieutenant F. Kindley Lieutenant D. Putnam Lieutenant E. Springs Lieutenant Reed Landis Lieutenant J. M. Schwaab 2S 18 17 13 12 12 II 10 10 ACH.SA. — "Crossing the river Larissus, and pursuing the northern coast of Peloponnesus south of the Corinthian Gulf, the traveller would pass into Achaia — a name which designated the narrow strip of level land, and the projecting spurs and declivities between that gulf and the northernmost mountains of the peninsula. . . . Achaean cities — twelve in number at least, if not more — divided this long strip of land amongst them, from the mouth of the Larissus and the northwestern Cape Araxus on one side, to the western boundary of the Sikyon territory on the other. According to the accounts of the ancient legends and the belief of Herodotus, this territory had been once occu- pied by Ionian inhabitants, whom the Achaeans had expelled." — G. Grote, History of Greece, v. 2, pt. 2, ch. 4. — After the Roman conquest (see Rome: B.C. 197-146) and the suppression of the Achsan League, the name Achsa was given to the Roman province then organized, which embraced all Greece south of Macedonia and Epirus. — See Greece: B. C. 280-146. — "In the Homeric poems, where . . . the 'Hellenes' only appear in one dis- trict of Southern Thessaly, the name Achaeans is employed by preference as a general appellation * for the whole race. But the Achaeans we may term, without hesitation, a Pelasgian people, in so far, that is, as we use this name merely as the opposite of the term 'Hellenes,' which prevailed at a later time, although it is true that the Hellenes themselves were nothing more than a particular branch of the Pelasgian stock. . . . [The name of the] Acheeans, after it had dropped its earlier and more universal application, was preserved as the special name of a population dwelling in the north of the Peloponnese and the south of Thessaly-" — G. F. Schomann, .4ntiquities of Greece: The State, Introd. — Legend has it that the Achaens were de- scended from Achaeus, son of [uthus, who was the son of Hellen. According to Homer and later traditions they came to Greece about 1300 B. C. and soon acquired control of all Greece. "The ancients regarded them [the Achaeans! as a branch of the .^i^olians, with whom they afterwards re- united into one national body, i. e., not as an originally distinct nationality or independent branch of the Greek people. Accordingly, we hear neither of an Achaean language nor of Achcean art A manifest and decided influence of the maritime Greeks, wherever the .Achseans ap- 31 ACM^AN CITIES, LEAGUE OF ACH^ANS pear, is common to the latter with the yEoIians. Achseans are everywhere settled on the coast, and are always regarded as particularly near relations of the lonians. The Achaeans appear scattered about in localities on the coast of the ^gean so remote from one another, that it is impossible to consider all bearing this name as fragments of a people originally united in one social community ; nor do they in fact anywhere appear, properly speaking, as a popular body, as the main stock of the population, but rather as eminent families, from which spring heroes; hence the use of the expression 'Sons of the Achceans' to indicate noble descent." — E. Curtius, History of Greece, bk. i, ch. 3. — See also Greece; Indo-European migrations. Also in; M. Duncker, History of Greece, bk. I, ch. 2 and bk. 2, ch. 2. 1205-1387. — Medieval principality. — Among the conquests of the French and Lombard Crusaders in Greece, after the taking of Constantinople, was that of a major part of the Peloponnesus— then beginning to be called the Morea — by William de Champlitte, a French knight, assisted by Geoffrey de Villehardouin, the younger — nephew and name- sake of the Marshal of Champagne, who was chronicler of the conquest of the Empire of the East. William de Champlitte was invested with this Principality of Achaea (or Morea). Geof- frey Villehardouin represented him in the govern- ment, as his "bailly," for a time, and finally suc- ceeded in supplanting him. (See also Athens; 1205-1308). Half a century later the Greeks, who had recovered Constantinople, reduced the territory of the Principality of Achsa to about half the peninsula, and a destructive war was waged be- tween the two races. Subsequently the Principality became a fief of the crown of Naples and Sicily, and underwent many changes of possession until the title was in confusion and dispute between the houses of Anjou, Aragon and Savoy. Before it was engulfed finally in the Empire of the Turks, it was ruined by their piracies and ravages. — G. Finlay, History of Greece from its conquest by the Cru- saders, ch. 8. ACHAEAN CITIES, League of— This, which should not be confused with the Achaean League of the Peloponnesus, was a league of early Greek colonists in Italy. They arrived in the eighth century B. C. and built their fortified towns , or "cities" of which the most powerful were Sybaris, Croton and Tarentum. The former in- habitants, living side by side with the colonists, adopted the superior culture of the Greeks and the whole of central Italy became known as Magna Graecia. "Of the Greek settlements, that which retained most thoroughly its distinctive character and was least affected by influences from without, was the settlement which gave birth to the League of the Achaean cities, composed of the towns of Siris, Pandosia, Metabus or Metapontum, Sybaris with its offsets Posidonia and Laus, Crotona, Cau- lonia, Temesa, Terina and Pyxus. . . . The lan- guage of Polybius regarding the Achaean sym- machy [alliance] in the Peloponnesus may be ap- plied also to these Italian Achaeans; 'not only did they live in federal and friendly communion, but they made use of the same laws, and the same weights, measures and coins, as well as of the same magistrates, councillors and judges.' " — T. Mommscn, Historv of Rome, bk. i, ch. 10. ACHAEAN FEDERATION. See Federal government: Greek federations. ACH.ffiAN LEAGUE, in early times a con- federation of twelve .Achaean cities formed as a protection against the raids of pirates to which, because of their isolated position on the narrow strips of plain, they were constantly exposed. Of the functions of this early league we have no definite record other than the worship of Zeus Araarios and an occasional arbitration between Greek belligerents. "Under the Macedonian su- premacy the league was dissolved; but about the year 280 [B.C.], four cities, Dyme, Patrae, Pharae, and Tritaea, shook off the foreign yoke, and united in a new league. Other city-states were gradually added till 240 [B. C], when the accession of Sicyon under the leadership of Aratus made the union a power to be reckoned with in international affairs. From that time Aratus was the inspiring genius of the federation. Under his direction it adopted a vigorous policy of freeing all Peloponnesus from the despots and from Mace- donian control, and of annexing the individual states by negotiation or force." — (Polybius ii. 37 sg.) G. W. Botsford and E. G. Sihler, Hellenic civilization, pp. 613-614. — "The object of the union was the maintenance of peace within its borders and protection from foreign enemies. The federal power was limited strictly to this object. It alone made war, peace, and alliances, and managed all diplomatic mat- ters. The army and navy though furnished by the states according to their means, were solely at the command of the federal power. It coined all money, excepting small change, and enforced a uniform system of weights and measures. Aside from these necessary restrictions, the states were sovereign and self-governing. The only require- ment was that they should be republics and should remain (jermanently in the union. They enjoyed full rights of trade and intermarriage with one another; and any state was free to admit to its citizenship the inhabitants of any other. All stood on an absolute political equality. To prevent any one of them from gaining the leadership, it was decided that the cities should serve in turn as the place for holding the federal assembly." — G. W. Bolsford, History of the ancient world, p. 301. — The central government of the Achaean League, as of the affiliated cities, was based on democratic principles. An assembly of all the members over thirty years of age constituted the chief legisla- tive assembly, which met twice a year to decide the league's future policies and to elect its magis- trates. "Nowhere could be found a more unal- loyed and deliberately established system of equal- ity and absolute freedom, — in a word, of democ- racy,- — than among the Achaeans. This constitu- tion found many of the Peloponnesians ready enough to adopt it of their own accord: many were brought to share it by persuasion and argu- ment: some though acting upon compulsion at first, were quickly brought to acquiesce in its benefits; for none of the original members hadj,any special privilege reserved for them, but equal rights were given to all comers: the object aimed at was therefore quickly attained by the two most unfail- ing expedients of equality and fraternity. This then must be looked upon as the source and original cause of Peloponnesian unity and conse- quent prosperity." — G. W. Botsford and E. G. Sihler, Hellenic cii'iti:ation, p. 615. — -During the life of the league, however, federal wars were di- rected against Macedonia (2 So B. C), /Etolia (230-220 B. C), Spiarta (207 B. C, 201 B. C), and Antiochus (100 B. C). In r^o B. C. a con- troversy arose between the Achaean League and Rome. An attack on Sparta by the federal troops provoked war with Rome which soon ended the influence of the league. See Megalopolis; B. C. :.'-'. 10418^ — See also Gheece: B. C. 280-146. ACH^ANS. See Ach.sa. 32 ACH^MENES ACOMA ACH^MENES. See Ach-^menids. ACH^MENIDS, the dynastic name (in Greek form) of the kings of the Persian Empire founded by Cyrus, derived from an ancestor, Achimenes (see Athens: B.C. 460-455) probably a chief of the Persian tribe of Pasargaai. "In the. in- scription of Behistun, King Darius says: 'From old time we were kings; eight of my family have been kings, I am the ninth; from very ancient times we have been kings.' He enumerates his ancestors: 'My father was Vista(;pa, the father of Vistai;pa was Arsama; the father of Arsama was Ariyaramna, the father of Ariyaramna was Khais- pis, the father of Khaispis was Hakharaanis; hence we are called Hakhamanisiya (Achaemenids) .' In these words Darius gives the tree of his own fam- ily up to Khaispis; this was the younger branch of the Achaemenids. Teispes, the son of Achae- menes, had two sons; the elder was Cambyses (Kambujiya), the younger Ariamnes; the son of Cambyses was Cyrus (Kurus), the son of Cyrus was Cambyses II. Hence Darius could indeed maintain that eight princes of his family had pre- ceded him; but it was not correct to maintain that they had been kings before him and that he was the ninth king." — M. Duncker, History oj an- tiquity, V. 5, bk. 8, ch. 3. Also in: G. Rawlinson, Family oj the Achce- menidce, app. to bk. 7 of Herodotus. A-CnJEMS (484-448 B.C.), a Greek tragic dramatist and poet of Eretria; contemporary of Sophocles and Euripides; author of forty-four dramas, of which onlv fragments remain. ACHAIA. See Ach.t.a. ACHARN.S, the principal deme of Attica, di- rectly north of Athens at the foot of Mount Parnes. ACHELOUS, (mod. Aspropotamo), the larg- est river in Greece, rises in Epirus and empties into the Ionian sea. This river, which formed the boundary between ancient Acarnania and ^to- lia in western Hellas, "by overflowing its delta region, constantly obliterated the boundaries agreed upon by the two neighbors, and thereby gave rise to disputes that were only settled by force of arms." — E. C. Semple, Influences of geographic environment, p. 363. — It was doubt- less as a personification of this river that the name Achelous appears in mythology as the river-god over whom Hercules won a great victory. ACHESON, Edward Goodrich (1856- ), American inventor; became Edison's assistant in 1880; invented widely used carborundum; dis- covered artificial graphite which far surpasses the natural; found a process for finely subdividing graphite; responsible for the development of the modern electric furnace, perfecting, a more dur- able graphitized anode to replace the carbon electrodes; invented siloxicon, a compound of car- bon, silicon, and oxygen, to meet the requirement for a highly refractory material ; was awarded in 1 9 10 the Perkin Medal of the Society of Chem- ical Industry, for the most valuable work in ap- plied chemist rv ACHEULIAN INDUSTRY AND IMPLE- MENTS. See Europe: Stone Age, Divisions. ACHEULIAN MAN. See Europe: Prehis- toric period. ACHI BABA, a hill 700 feet high, near the southwestern end of the Gallipoli peninsula ; the main position of the Turkish defense in the fight- ing of iQii;. ACHIET-LE-PETIT, France.— Taken by the British (1918). See World War: iqi8: II. West- ern front, k, 1. ACHILL ISLAND, a large island off the west coast of Ireland. Its jagged cUffs and bogs, in- capable of cultivation, leave only fishing and an exceedingly scant and difficult farming of oats as a means of livelihood. Its people have remained distinctly Gaelic in language and custom. There are antiquarian remains near Slievemore. ACHILLES, one of the most famous lege«dary heroes of ancient Greece, and one of the most prominent leaders in the Trojan War. "The Black sea and the Propontis were the special domain of the sea-god AchiHes, whose fame grew greater by his association as a hero with the legend of Troy. He was worshipped along the coasts as 'lord of the Pontus'; and in Leuce, the 'shining island' near the Danube's mouth, the lonely island where no man dwelled, he had a temple, and the birds of the sea were said to be its warders." — J. B. Bury, History oj Greece, p. 92. ACHILLINI, Alessandro (1463-1512). See Science: Middle Ages and the Renaissance: l6th century. ACHIN (Dutch Atjeh), a region formerly an independent sultanate, now a Dutch administra- tive district in the northwestern extremity of Su- matra. The city of Kotaraja, the old Achinese capital, was once the center of considerable wealth and power and had diplomatic relations with European powers. It was visited by Marco Polo at the end of the thirteenth century and by the Portuguese in 1506. In the first half of the sev- enteenth century, the sultan of Achin had an ex- tensive empire, including portions of the Malay peninsula. A century later it was but a petty state protected by the British until 1S71. Since that time it has been a party to bitter and inter- mittent wars with the Dutch, and even now (1920) there are portions of the interior not en- tirely subdued. Hostilities with the Dutch. See Netherlands: 1904. ACHMET. See Ahmed. ACHRADINA, a part of the ancient city of Syracuse, Sicily, known as the "outer city," occu- pying the peninsula north of Ortygia, the island, which was the "inner city." ACHRIDA, Kingdom of.— After the death of John Zimisces who had reunited Bulgaria to the Byzantine Empire, the Bulgarians were roused to a struggle for the recovery of their independence, under the lead of four brothers of a noble family, all of whom soon perished save one, named Sam- uel. Samuel proved to be so vigorous and able a soldier and had so much success that he as- sumed presently the title of king. His authority was established over the greater part of Bulgaria, and extended into Macedonia, Epirus and Illyria. He established his capital at .Achrida (modern Ochrida, in Albania), which gave its name to his kingdom. The suppression of this new Bulgarian monarchy occupied the Byzantine Emperor, Basil II., in wars from 981 until loiS, when its last strongholds, including the city of Achrida, were sur- rendered to him. — G. Finlay, //(sfory oj the Byzan- tine Empire jrom 716 to 1057, bk. 2. sh. 2, sect. 2. ACILIUS GLABRIO. See Glabrio. ACKERMAN, Francis (1335-1387), Flemish diplomat and soldier. Took a prominent part in the struggle between the burghers of Ghent and Louis II, count of Flanders; helped to sign the peace treaty between the city of Ghent and Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy. ACKERMAN, or Akkerman, Convention of (1826). See Turkey: 1826-1829. ACOLHUAS. See Mexico: Aboriginal peoples. ACOLYTH. See Varangians or Warings. ACOMA, an Indian pueblo in New Mexico, not zz ACKA ACRE DISPUTES far from Albuquerque. It was visited by Coro- nado's expedition (1540), by Espejo (1583) and Juan de Oiiate (1508). Because of the fidelity with which it has preserved its ancient customs, it has become in recent years one of the chief centers of interest to students of Indian antiquities. ACRA, Mount of. See Jerusalem: .\. D. 33; see also Chrisiianitv: Map of Jerusalem. ACRABA, Battle of (633). See Yemama, Bat- tle OF. ACRABATENE, Battle of (B.C. 164). A sanguinary defeat of the Idumeans or Edomites by the Jews under Judas Maccabaeus. — Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, bk. 12, ch. 8. ACRAGAS. See Acrigentum. ACRE, a city and seaport of Syria, known in antiquity as Ptolemais and in the days of the Crusades as St. Jean d'.Acre. Though once re- garded as the key to Palestine, it has been sup- planted by Haifa to the south. In consequence of its strategic position it has been the scene of many famous sieges. See Crtsades: Map (after 1204). 1104-1110. — Conquest, pillage and massacre by the Crusaders and Genoese. See Crusades: I 104-1 III. 1187. — Taken from the Christians by Saladin. See Jerusalem: ii 44-1 187, 1189-1191. — Great siege and reconquest by the Crusaders. See Crusades: 1188-1192, also Mili- tary aspect. 1256-1258. — Quarrels and battles between the Genoese and Venetians. See Venice: 1256-1258. 1291. — Final triumph of the Moslems. See Crusades: Military aspect; Jerusalem: i2gi. 1517. — Taken by Selim I. Captured in his Syrian campaign, it fell rapidly into decay 18th century. — Restored to importance by Sheik Daher. — ".^cre . . . had, by the middle of the iSth century, been almost entirely forsaken, when Sheik Daher, the .Arab rebel, restored its commerce and navigation. This able prince, whose sway comprehended the whole of ancient Galilee, was succeeded by the infamous tyrant, Djezzar- Pasha, who fortified .Acre, and adorned it with a mosque, enriched with columns of antique marble, collected from all the neighbouring cities." — M. Malte-Brun, System of universal geograplty, t'. i, bk. 28. 1799. — Unsuccessful siege by Napoleon. See France: I7q8-i700 (.\ugust-.-\ugust). 1832. — Siege and capture by Mehemet AH. — Recovery for the sultan by the western powers. See Turkey: 1831-1840. 1918. — Capture by British. See World W.ar: IQ18: \I Turkish theater: c, 13 and c, 19. ACRE DISPUTES.— Claims on the region by Brazil, Peru, and Bolivia. — A considerable terri- tury of much richness in the southwestern part of the Amazon valley, around the upper waters of the Madeira, the .Aquiry, and the Purus tributaries, was long in dispute between Brazil, Bolivia, and Peru, and became a cause of serious quarrel be- tween the two first named in IQ03. (See Latin- .■\merica: Map of South .America.) The then Brazilian president, Rodriguez .Alves, in his first annual message, May, 1003, stated the situation from the Brazilian standpoint as follows: "Our former relations of such cordial friendship with Bolivia have suffered a not insignificant strain since the time when the Government of that *ister Republic, unable to maintain its authority in the .Acre region, inhabited exclusively, as you know, by Brazilians who, many years previously, had established themselves there in good faith, saw fit to deliver it over to 3 foreign syndicate upon whom it conferred powers almost sovereign. That concession, as dangerous for the neighboring nations as for Bolivia itself, encountered general disapproval in South .America. As the most im- mediately interested, Brazil, already in the time of my illustrious predecessor, protested against the contract to which I refer, and entered upon the policy of reprisals, prohibiting the free transit by the .Amazon of merchandise between Bolivia and abroad. Neither that protest nor the coun- sels of friendship produced at that time the de- sired effect in La Paz, and, far from rescinding the contract or making the hoped-for modifications therein, the Bolivian Government concluded an especial arrangement for the purpose of hurrying . . . the syndicate into the . . . territory. "When I assumed the government that was the situation, and in addition the inhabitants of the Acre, who had again proclaimed their indepen- dence, were masters of the whole country, except- ing Puerto .Acre, of which they did not get pos- session until the end of January. .Although since January negotiations have been initiated by us for the purpose of removing amicably the cause of the disorders and complications which have had their seat of action in the .Acre ever since the time when for the first time the Bolivian authorities penetrated thither, in iSqo. yet the Government of La Paz has nevertheless thought proper that its President and his minister of war should march against that territory at the head of armed forces with the end in view of crushing its inhabitants and then establishing the agents of the syndicate." The Brazilian president proceeded then to re- late that he had notified the Bolivian government of the intention of Brazil to "defend as its bound- ary the parallel of 10^ 20' south," which it held to be the line indicated by the letter and the spirit of a treaty concluded in 1867 ; and that Bolivia had then agreed to a settlement of the dispute through diplomatic channels. "Upon the Bolivian Government agreeing to this," he continued, "we promptly reestablished freedom of transit for its foreign commerce by Brazilian waters. Shortly after this the syndicate, by reason of the indem- nity which we paid it, renounced the concession which had been made it, eliminating thus this dis- turbing element." In conclusion of the subject. President Alves re- ported: "To the Peruvian Government we have announced, very willingly, since January, that we will examine, with attention, the claims which in due time they may be pleased to make upon the subject of the territories now in dispute between Brazil and Bolivia." The result of the ensuing negotiations between Brazil and Bolivia was a treaty signed in the following November and duly ratified, the terms of which were summarized as follows in a despatch from the .American Legation at La Paz, December 26: "Three months after exchange of ratifications Brazil is to pay an indemnity of £1,000,000 and in March, IQ05, £i,ooc,ooo. A small strip of ter- ritory, north Marso, Brazilero, embracing Bahia N'egra and a port opposite Coimbra, on Paraguay River, are conceded, and all responsibilities re- specting Peruvian contentions are assumed. The disputed Acre territon,' is conceded by Bolivia. A railroad for the common use of both countries is to be built from San .Antonio, on Madeira River, to Cuajar .Ameren, on Mamore River, within four years after ratification. Free navigation on the .Amazon and its Bolis-ian affluents is conceded A mixed commission, with umpire chosen from the diplomatic representation to Brazil, will treat all individual .Acre claims." Subsequently it was determined in Bolivia that 34 ACRE DISPUTES ACROPOLIS OF ATHENS the entire indemnity received from Brazil should be expended on railroads, with an additional sum of £3,500,000, to be raised by loan. For the settlement of the remaining question of rights in the Acre territory, between Bolivia and Peru, a treaty of arbitration, negotiated in De- cember, i()02, but ratified with modifications by the Bolivian Congress in October, moj, provided that "the high contracting parties submit to the judgment and decision of the Government of the Argentine Republic, as arbitrator and judge of rights, the question uf limits now pending between both republics, so as to obtain a definite and un- appealable sentence, in virtue of which all the territory which in 1810 belonged to the jurisdic- tion or district of the Ancient Audience of Char- cas, within the limits of the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres, by acts of the ancient sovereign, may belong to the Republic of Bolivia; and all the territory which at the same date and by acts of equal origin belonged to the viceroyalty of Peru may belong to the Republic of Peru." 1909. — Final partition. — The case was pending until July, 1900, when judgment favorable to the ilaims ol Peru was pronounced by the President of Ihe Argentine Republic, Serior Figueroa Alcorta. .According to the award, as announced ofiicially from Peru, the line was drawn to "follow the riv- ers Heath and Madre de Dios up to the mouth of the Toromonas and from there a straight line as far as the intersection of the river Tehuamanu with meridian 6q. It will then run northwards along this meridian until it meets the territorial sov- ereignty of another nation " The Bolivians were ehraged by the decision against them, and riotous attacks were made on the Argentine Legation at La Paz, the Bolivian capital, and on .Argentine consulates elsewhere Worse than this in offensiveness was a published declaration by President Montes of Bolivia that the arbitration award respecting the frontiers of Bolivia and Peru had been given by Argentina without regard to Bolivia's petition that an actual itispection of the territory should be made in case (he documents and titles submitted were unsatis- factory. "Had this been done," said the president of Bolivia, "the arbitrator would have been con- vinced of the respective possessions of the two countries. It is inexplicable how the arbitrator, after examining the titles and documents, could give such a decision. He passed over the elemen- tary principles of international rights in awarding to Peru territory which had never been questioned as belonging to Bolivia. As a consequence Bolivia rejects the award." The insulted government of Argentina demanded explanations; diplomatic relations between the two countries were broken off, and war seemed immi- nent. Fortunately the term of President Montes was near its close, and a man of evidently cooler temper, Elidoro Villazon, succeeded him in the presidency on August 12. The new President, in his message to Congress next day, while char- acterizing the award as unjust, said: "We must proceed circumspectly, and be guided by interna- tional rights and the customs of civilized nations in similar cases. I consider it right to avail our- selves of the means offered bv diplomacy to obtain a rectification of the new frontier line given by arbitration, thus saving the compromised posses- sions of Bolivia." With this better spirit entering into the contro- versy, Bolivia was soon able to arrange with Peru for a concession from the latter which made her people willing to recognize the award. This agreement was effected on the nth of September, and its terms, as made known in a despatch from Rio de Janeiro, were as follows: "Peru surrenders to Bolivia a very small extent of territory lying between the Madre de Dios River and the Acre, traversed by the rivers Tahuamano and Buyamaro, which together form the river Orton, an affluent of the Beni River. This territory, with an area of about 6,500 square kilometres, was discovered and colonized by Bolivians, who to-day are in posses- sion of numerous prosperous industries there. Peru gets possession of all the upper course of the Madre de Dios, from its head waters to its con- fluence with the river Heath. Such a slight modi- lication as the foregoing from the decision reached by the arbitrator in no way disturbs the Argentine Republic." As between Peru and Brazil the boundary ques- tion was settled by a treaty signed at Rio de Janeiro on the Sth of September, three days be- fore the Bolivian pacification. This probably closes a territorial dispute which has troubled four countries in South America for many years, and brought quarrelling couple-s to the verge of war a number of times. ACROCERAUNIAN PROMONTORY. See CORCVRA. ACROPOLIS, literally "the upper city" (or the highest part of the city), a term applied to the citadel or fortified part of an ancient Greek city. For purposes of defence the earliest settlements were usually made upon some lofty hill or other natural stronghold, further protected by fortifi- cation. As the town increased in size and more extensive walls were built, the acropolis, gradually losing its military character, was given over to temples, theatres and other public buildings dedi- cated to the protecting deity of the city. Among the more noteworthy of such acropolises were those at .Athens and Corinth, Troy, Mycenae and Tirviis, Thebes, .^rgos, Messene (q. v.). ACROPOLIS OF ATHENS, a precipitous and lofty tlat-topped hill near the center of the city of Athens, forming a natural stronghold which be- came the seat of the earliest settlement. It meas- ures about 1,000 feet long by 500 feet wide and reaches its maximum elevation of 512 feet on the northeast side. "In the early days, when the Acropolis was essentially a fortified castle, the bastion on which the temple of Athena Victory was afterwards built was an effective outwork against approaching enemies, who, as at Tiryns and other primitive citadels, could be attacked from above on their unshielded right side. The wall of the bastion has been repeatedly rebuilt, but the evidence is too scanty to permit as yet a final interpretation of its history, and opinions are still diverse." — C. H. Weller, Athens and its monu- ments, pp. 240-241. — Long before the Per.sian wars, the city having outgrown these narrow con- fines, the acropolis had been consecrated to the patron goddess .Athena, for whose worship mag- nificent shrines were erected. "The private dwell- ings of the Athenians and even their state offices were small and inexpensive. Religion alone in- s|ilrfd them to buiki beautifully and grandly. When the Persians entered Athens, they burned the temples and other buildings, leaving the Acrop- olis strewn with heaps of ruins. For a time after their return the citizens had neither the leisure nor the means of restoring these shrines. Cimon, how- ever, completing a work begun by Themistocles, levelled the surface of the Acropolis to fit it better for buildincs. This end was accomplished bv erecting a h'gh wall along the southern edee, a lower one along the northern, and filling up the space thus made with earth and rubbish The 35 ACROPOLIS OF ATHENS ACTON— BURNELL present steep appearance of the hill is due chiefly to this work. But it was left to Pericles to build the temple on the ground thus prepared. For this purpose Pericles used some of the funds from the imperial treasury. Revenues from other sources were likewise used; and as the state owned the marble quarries on Mount Pentelicus, the chief cost was for the labor.'' — G. W. Botsford, History of the ancient world, p. 207. — In accordance with this plan there were erected, during the adminis- tration of Pericles and under the able direction of Phidias, Mnesicles, Ictinus, Callicrates and other artists, those magnificent buildings, the ruins of which are still the marvel of the world. "Nothing in ancient Greece or Italy could be compared with the Acropolis of Athens, in its combination of beauty and grandeur, surrounded as it was by temples and theatres among its rocks, and encircled by a city abounding with monu- ments, some of which rivalled those of the .Acrop- olis. Its platform formed one great sanctuary, partitioned only by the boundaries of the . . . sacred portions. We cannot, therefore, admit the suggestion of Chandler, that, in addition to the temples and other monuments on the summit, there were houses divided into regular streets. This would not have been consonant either with the customs or the good taste of the Athenians. When the people of Attica crowded into Athens at the beginning of the Peloponnesian war, and religious prejudices gave way, in every possible case, to the necessities of the occasion, even then the Acropolis remained uninhabited." Since the only access from the lower city to the summit of the Acropolis was by way of a chariot road running zig-zag up the slope at the western end, and since the total breadth of the hill at this point was only 168 feet, it seemed advisable "to till up the space with a single building which should serve the purpose of a gateway to the cita- del, as well as of a suitable entrance to that glo- rious display of architecture and sculpture which was within the inclosure. This work [the Propy- lia], the greatest production of civil architecture in Athens, which rivalled the Parthenon in felicity of execution, surpassed it in boldness and origi- nality of design. ... It may be defined as a wall pierced with five doors, before which on both sides were Doric hexastyle porticoes." — W. M. Leake, Topography of Athens, sect. 8. — "On entering through the gates of the Propylaea a scene of un- paralleled grandeur and beauty burst upon the eye. No trace of human dwellings anywhere ap- peared, but on all sides temples of more or less elevation, of Pentelic marble, beautiful in design and exquisitely delicate in execution, sparkled like piles of alabaster in the sun. On the left stood the Erectheion, or fane of Athena. Polias; to the right, that matchless edifice known as the Heca- tompedon of old, but to later ages as the Parthe- non. Other buildings, all holy to the eye of an Athenian, lay grouped around these master struc- tures, and, in the open spaces between, in what- ever direction the spectator might look, appeared statues, some remarkable for their dimensions, others for their beauty, and all for the legendary sanctity which surrounded them. No city of the ancient or modern world ever rivalled .Athens in the riches of art. Our best filled museums, though teeming with her spoils, are poor collections of fragments compared with that assemblage of gods and heroes which peopled the Acropolis, the genu- ine Olympos of ihe arts" — J .\ St John. The Hellenes, bk i, ch. 4 — "Unlike the famous struc- tures of the .Ancient East, it was not the immense size of the Parthenon, but its beautiful propor- tions, exquisite adornment and ideal sculptures that make it memorable. It was 100 feet wide, 226 feet lon4, and 65 feet high, built of marble and painted in harmonious colors. A row of 46 Doric columns surrounded it, and every available space above the columns within and without was carved in relief with scenes representing glorious events in the religious history of Athens. A won- derfully sculptured frieze, extending for more than 500 feet around the inner temple, depicted with a variety and energy never surpassed scenes in the Panathenaea, the festival in honor of the patron goddess Athena. In the temple stood a statue of the deity, the masterpiece of Phidias, made of ivory and gold, 38 feet in height, including the pedestal. Though this statue has long since dis- appeared and the temple itself is but a rum, the remains of it illustrate supremely the chief features of Greek architecture, 'simplicity, harmony, refine- ment, the union of strength and beauty.' " — G. S. Goodspeed, History of the ancient uiorld, pp. 148- 14Q. — See also Athe.ns: 461-431, and Map of an- cient Athens; Parthenon. ACS, Battle of (1849). See Austria; 1848- 1840. ACT OF ABJURATION, MEDIATION, SE- CURITY, etc. See .Abjuration', Act of, etc. ACT OF GOD, a legal term denoting the opera- tion of uncontrollable natural forces, really con- fined to unforseeable disasters. Prof. James H. Robinson derives the phrase from the usage of the Middle Ages, when the general abysmal ignorance attributed any unusual or startling occurrence to the intervention of either God or the devil, lead- ing at that time to the worship of what Harnack has called "a God of .Arbitrariness." ACT OF UNION (1535). See Wales: 1535- IQ2I. ACT RESCISSORY. See Scotland: 1660-1666. ACTA DIURNA, a Roman daily chronicle, said to have been originated by Julius Cssar (50 B. C.) who designed it to disclose the acts of the various public officers. It served the purpose, in a limited sense, of the modern newspaper. The acta were published on white boards so that anybody might read them. ACTA SENATUS (Commentarii senatus), the record of the proceedings and decisions of the Roman Senate. Cssar was the first consul to issue officially and publicly the proceedings of the Senate ACTION OF EJECTMENT: Its use. See Common law: 1400. ACTIUM: B. C. 434.— Naval battle of the Greeks. — A defeat inflicted upon the Corinthians by the Corcyrians, in the contest over Epidamnus which was the prelude to the Peloponnesian War. — E. Curtlus, History of Greece, bk. 4, ch. i. B. C. 31. — Victory of Octavius. See Egypt: B. C. 30; Ro.mf: B C. 31. ACTON, John Emerich Edward Dalberg Acton, 1st Baron (1834-1Q02), English historian, and ardent Liberal in politics; was Gladstone's advisor and intimate friend; represented Great Britain at the coronation of Alexander II in 1S56. A devoted read?r, scholar and master of the more important foreign languages; gave evi- dence of historical learning at an early age, yet never applied himself to any appreciable extent to original work : had a great fund of knowledge and was considered one of the most learned men of his time; in 180.'; accepted the appointment to the Regius professorship of Modern History at Cambridge. ACTON-BURNELL, a village in Shropshire, England ; here are the remains of an ancient castle 36 ACTS OF SETTLEMENT ADAMS where Edward I in 12S3 issued the famous "Stat- ute merchant" protecting the credit of merchants. The Statute of Acton-BurncU was repealed by act of Parliament in iSb%. ACTS OF SETTLEMENT: Attempt to re- store rights of loyal Irish. See iRELANn: lobo- ibb^. ACTS OF SUBSCRIPTION. See Ireland; 1653- ACULCO, Battle of (1810). See Mexico: 1810-1819. ACUSILAUS. See History; 16. A. D. (Anno Domini), in the Year of our Lord. AD DECIMUS, Battle of (533). See Van- dals: 533-534- AD HOC CORPORATIONS. Sec Municipal governmen't: Early development of public works. AD SALICES, Battle of (378). Sec Rome: ibi-MO- AD SEPTEM FRATRES, ancient name of Ceuta. AD VALOREM DUTIES. See Tariff: 1894. Underwood tariff. See Tariff: 1913. ADAIM 1917: Occupied by British. See World War: 1917: VI: Turkish theater: a, 2, i. ADAIS — These Indians were a "tribe who, according to Dr. Sibley, lived about the year i8oo near the old Spanish fort or mission of Adaize, 'about 40 miles from Natchitoches, below the Yat- tassees, on a lake called Lac Macdon, which com- municates with the division of Red River that passes by Bayou Pierre' [Lewis and Clarke). A vocabulary of about 250 words is all that remains to us of their language, which according to the collector, Dr. Sibley, 'differs from all others, and is so difficult to speak or understand that no na- tion can speak ten words of it. ... A recent com- parison of this vocabulary by Mr. Gatschet, with several Caddoan dialects, has led to the discovery that a considerable percentage of the Adai words have a more or less remote affinity with Caddoan, ind he regards it as a Caddoan dialect." — J. W. Powell, Seventh annual report, Bureau of ethnol- ogy, PP- 45-46- ADAIZE. See Texas: Aboriginal inhabitants. ADALBERO, or Adalberon, archbishop of Reims (d. 088) . Made Reims a center of in- tellectual culture; was an important influence in substituting the Capetian line for the Carolingian; chancellor of France under Lothair and Louis V ; lord high chancellor under Hugh Capet. ADALBERON, or Ascelin, bishop of Laon in 977, not to be confounded with his namesake, Adalbero of Rheims. Was imprisoned in qSS by Charles, duke of Lorraine, who captured the city of Laon ; soon escaped and received the protection of Hugh Capet, king of France; succeeded in winning the confidence of Charles of Lorraine, and was restored to his see ; betrayed Charles and the city of Laon into the hands of his former bene- factor; died 1030 or 1031. ADALBERT, or Adelbert (c. 1000-1072), archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen, his province in- cluding Scandinavia and most of Northern Ger- many. As a friend of the German king, Henry III, and of the emperor of the Holy Roman Em- pire, took a leading part in religious and civil government; is said to have refused the papal throne in 1046; was one of the most powerful and famous ecclesiastics of his day. ADALBERT (originally 'Voytech), (955-997), known as the "Apostle to the Prussians"; in 983 chosen bishop of Prague. Devoted himself to mis- sionary work, chiefly in North Germany and Poland. ADALIA, a seaport of Asia Minor on the Gulf of Adalia, is built on a hill around the harbor so that the .streets appear to rise behind each other like an amphitheater ; population about 30,000, mostly Mohammedans and Greeks; now heard of most often in connection with recent Italian im- migration and the claims of Italy to the country around Adalia Bay as her portion of the Ottoman inheritance ADALIA RAILWAY. See Italy: 1920. ADALING. See Adel. ADALOALDUS, King of the Lombards, 616- 026. ADAM, Adolphe Charles (1803-1856), French operatic composer, follower of Auber in the opera comi-que. See Music: 19th century: Opera before Wagner. ADAMAWA. See Cameroons. ADAMNAN, or Adomnan (c. 624-704), Irish saint and historian. Elected abbot of lona, 679; tried unsuccessfully to enforce the adoption of the tonsure and a change in the date of the celebration of Easter. ADAMS, Charles Francis (1807-1886), Amer- ican diplomat and statesman. *Son of John Quincy Adams; edited the "Letters of Abigail and John Adams" and the "Works of John Adams"; mem- ber of Congress, 1859-1861; minister to England, 1861-1868; prominent leader in the Liberal Re- publican party in 1872 ; arbitrator for the United States on the Geneva Tribunal, 1871-1872. — See also U. S. A.: 1848: Free soil convention at Buffalo. ADAMS, Ephraim Douglass (1865- ), American educator and professor of history. See History: 33. ADAMS, George Burton (1851- ), Amer- ican historian. Professor of history at Yale; presi- dent of American Historical Association, IQ07- 1908; member of board of editors, American His- torical Review 1895-1913; author of many works on medieval and modern history. ADAMS, Henry (1838-1918), American his- torian. Third son of C. F. Adams (q. v.) ; chief work, "History of the United States from 1801 to 181 7," a standard authority on the administra- tions of Jefferson and Madison See History: 32. ADAMS, Henry Carter (1851-1921), American economist. Statistician to the Interstate Commerce Commission, 1887-1911; professor of political econ omy and finance at University of Michigan, 1887; in 1913 became advisor to Chinese commission to standardize railway records. ADAMS, John (1735-1826), second president of the United States. Pungent writer against the Stamp Act; active delegate in the First Continental Congress and the Provincial Congress of Massa chusetts; member of the Committee of Five which drew up the Declaration of Independence (sec U. S. A.: 1776, January-June: King George's measures; June: Resolutions for independence; July) ; served on missions to France and at the Hague (see U. S. A.: 1776-1778) ; first minister of the United States to Great Britain ; prominent Federalist ; first vice-president of the United States, 1789-1797 (see U. S. A.: 1789) ; president, 1797- 1801. Views on independence. See U. S. A.: 1775 (January-,'\pril) . At First Continental Congress. See U. S. A.: 1774 (September, and September-October). At Second Continental Congress. See U.S.A.: 1775 (May-August). Signed Declaration of Independence. See U. S. A.: 1776 (July): Text of the Declaration. Minister to Holland. See U. S. A.: 1782 (April). 37 ADAMS ADAMSON LAW Peace with England. See U. S. A.: 178J (September). Distrust of French aims in America. See U. S. A.: 1782 (September-November). Opinion on peace treaty. See U. S. .\.: 1783- 1787- Treaty of peace with England disputed. See U. S. A.: 17S4-1788. Negotiations with Barbary States, 1795. — War against them. See Barb.\ry St.mes: 1783- 1801. Defense of Bicameral system. See Biwme- RAL SVSTtM. Second presidential election. See U. S. A.: I7Q2- Third presidential election. See U. S. A.: 1706. Attitude towards alien and sedition laws. See U. S. A.: iSoo-iSot. Death. Soc U, S. A.: 1826. ADAMS, John Couch (iSio-iSq2), English astronomer and mathematician. By pure calcula- tion he was able to demonstrate in 1S45 the exist- ence and the exact position of Neptune (facts determined at the same time by an independent investigation of the French astronomer, Leverrier) . This mathematical discovery of an unknown planet is accounted one of the greatest triumphs of science. ADAMS, John Quincy (1767-1848), sixth presi- dent of the United States. Lawyer, statesman, and diplomat; minister to England, 1812-1817; secre- tary of state in the cabinet of President Monroe (see U. S. A.: 1816) ; celebrated as "the old man eloquent" in the House of Representatives, 1831- 1848. Denies Russian claims along the western coast. See Orf,con: 1741-1S36. Negotiations at Treaty of Ghent. See U.S. A.: 1814 (December): Treaty of peace concluded. Monroe Doctrine. See U. S. A.: 1823. Election. — Administration. See U. S. A.: :824; 1825-182S, Ideas on Opium War of England and China. See Opium problem: 1S40. Defense of the Right of Petition.— Opposition. See U. S. A.: 1S42: Victory of John Quincy .'Vdams. ADAMS, John Quincy ( i8.v?-i8q4), American politician: member of Massachusetts legislature; Democratic nominee for vice-president. See U.S.A.: 1872. , ADAMS, Samuel (1722-1803), American revo- lutionary leader. Author of many important state papers; sent to the Continental Concress, 1774- 1781 (see U. S. A.: 1774. September): three times elected governor of Massachusetts, 1704-1707; though he opposed the Federal constitution in 1788, his final adherence secured its ratification by Massachusetts. Importance in town-meeting. See Township AND TOWN-MKETIXG. Opposition to English taxation in Massa- chusetts. — Committee of correspondence. See U. S. A . 1772-1773 On use of the caucus. See Caucus: Origin. Aid rendered in American revolution. — Ac- tions in Canada. See U. S. A: i77S (May). Signed Declaration of Independence. See U. S A.: 1776 (Julv): Text of Declaration. ADAMS, WUliam (d. 1620), English pilot in Japan. See Japan: 1593-1625. ADAMS ACT (1006). See Education, Agri- cultural: United States: Experiment stations acts. ADAMSON LAW.— "The outbreak of the World War and the consequent increase in the volume of the foreign trade of the United States led to very great confusion and congestion in the railway system. When, in February of 1916, 400,- coo railroad trainmen demanded an eight-hour day for the freight service, without reduction of the existing ten-hour day wage, and time and a half pay for overtime, the whole industrial and commercial situation became threatening. In June the managers met the officers of the Four Broth- erhoods of trainmen (Locomotive Engineers, Loco- motive Firemen, Railway Conductors and Railway Trainmen) in a conference. The managers re- fused the mens demand, but offered to submit it to arbitration along with certain grievances ot the railroads. ... In June no agreement could be reached. The meeting broke up and the brother- hood chieftains took a strike vote. They found themselves authorized by over 05 per cent, of theii constituents to call a strike unless the railroads gave in. With this power the brotherhood leaders met the railroad managers in a second series 01 conferences in .August. Now for the first time the country realized the seriousness of the situation. .Ml eyes were on the conferees in N«w York. .Xgain they found themselves in deadlock. Then, as provided in the Newlands .■\ct, one of the par- tics to the controversy, the railroads, invoked the F'ederal Board of Mediation and Conciliation, which found it impossible to mediate and sug- gested arbitration The men refused, even if the roads were to agree to limit the arbitration pro- ceedings to a consideration of the men's de- mands alone ; that is, even if the roads agreed to withdraw their complaints. ... .At this point President Wilson stepped in. On .August fifteenth, after seeing both men and managers, he made his proposition that the railroads grant the request of the men for ten hours" pay for the first eight hours of work and that the men agree to arbitrate the question of getting more than pro rata for over- time. That is, he asked that the men be given their main demand, and that their minor demand alone be investigated. The committee of railroad managers could not see their way clear to the as- sumption of this extra wage roll, without investi- gation. Nothing was more certain than that the burden would eventually have to be shifted to the public, in the form of higher rates, if the financial standing of the railroads was to be maintained ... It is fair to present the President's viewpoint. In describing these negotiations, he said to Con- gress on .August twenty-ninth: 'The railway man- agers based their decision to reject my counsel in this matter on their conviction that they must at any cost to themselves or to the country stand firm for the principle of arbitration which the men had rejected. I based my counsel upon the in- disputable fact that there was no means of ob- taining arbitration. The law supplied none. Ear- nest efforts at mediation had failed to influence the men in the least. To stand firm for the prin- ciple of arbitration and yet not get arbitration seemed to me' futile.' While negotiations were still proceeding, on Monday, .August twenty-eighth, the six hundred and forty brotherhood chairmen left Washington. The President called on the .steering committee of the Senate to plan legislation that would satisfy the men and avert the pending calamity. It transpired that when the brotherhood chairmen left Washington, they carried sealed or- ders in their hands for a strike, to become effective at 7 a. m., September fourth. ... .At 2 p. m. on Tuesday the President addressed Congress in joint session. He told of the tragical consequences which the strike would entail for the whole country. He told of his proposed settlement: the temporary granting of an eight-hour pay-day; a commission to investigate the cost to the railroads; the .per- 38 ADAMSON LAW ADAMSON LAW manent adjustment of all matters in dispute in ac- cord with the commission's report. 'It seemed to me,' he said, 'in considering the subject matter of the controversy, that the whole spirit of the time and the preponderant evidence of recent economic experience spoke for the eight-hour day.' He fore- casted the success of the strike, should it start. He said that the railroad representatives had re- jected his counsel: 'In the face of what I cannot but regard as the practical certainty that they will be ultimately obliged to accept the eight-hour day by the concerted action of organized labor, backed by the favorable judgment of society, the repre- sentatives of the railway management have felt justified in declining a peaceful settlement.' "Finally, in order to prevent the strike and, above all to prevent such a situation from ever arising again, the President recommended these measures: (i) An enlargement of the Interstate Commerce Commission to deal with the burden of their duties. (This recommendation had nothing to do with the strike.) (2) Legislation making the eight-hour day the basis for work and wages on trains. (3) Authorization for the President to appoint a commission to investigate the effect of the wage increases. (4) Explicit approval given by Congress to the Interstate Commerce Commis- sion with regard to granting a rate increase, if necessary, to offset the higher wages. (5) Amend- ment to the Newlands .Act providing that the par- ties to such a controversy as this in the future shall be compelled to submit their causes to in- vestigation, and, pending the completion of the investigation, they shall be forbidden to strike or lockout. (6) That the President be given author- ity, in case of military necessity, to take control of trains and operate them. (This was to meet the peril to our expeditionary force on the Mexi- can border, in case a strike occurred ) . . . These Senate hearings had been held with regard to the drafts of three separate bills, prepared by the Attorney-General, acting for the President. They carried all the President's recommendations for legislation. This was on Wednesday. On Thurs- day both Senate and House committees were busy perfecting bills which they believed would satisfy the views of the labor leaders, as expressed in the Senate hearings and in frequent conferences at the Capitol, and would induce them to call off the strike, . . . The House leaders, having framed a bill to suit their labor constituents on Friday night, thoughtfully let the Congressmen disperse so that on Saturday the Senate could not possibly do any- thing but pass the House bill if the Monday morn- ing strike was to be averted. Republican Senators did protest, but at six o'clock the. Senate passed the House bill by a partisan vote, forty-three to twenty-eight. La Follette of the Republicans voted for the bill, Hardwick of Georgia and Clarke of Arkansas voted against it. Twenty-four Sen- ators did not vote. In the House one hundred and sixty-eight Democrats had been for the bill, two against it; seventy Republicans had been for it, fifty-four against ; one hundred and forty-one Representatives did not vote on the measure." — E. J. Clapp, Adamson law (Yale Review, Jan., igiy, pp. 261-267), Events preceding the law. See Arbitration AND CONCILIATION, Ini)USTRIAl: United States: i888-iq2i. Analysis. — "In the first place, although 'eight hours shall in contracts for labor and service, be deemed a dav's work and the measure or stand- ard of a day's work for the purpose of reckoning the compensation for services of all employees . . . actually engaged in any capacity in the operation of trains,' this statute assuredly sets no limits to the length of the working day. It bears not the slightest resemblance to the Federal Hours of Ser- vice Law, which positively fixes a maximum of sixteen hours as a trainman's daily stint. Every member of the Brotherhoods understands this per- fectly. President Garretson, of the Order of Rail- way Conductors, outlined the reason at the Sen- ate Committee hearings; 'The charge . . . that it was impossible to put in a true eight-hour day on a railway is correct. It cannot be done. The trainman cannot stop, because eight hours may find him in a semi-desert country, or find him fifty miles from his home ; therefore he is com- pelled to go on and work; but he demands a higher rate of speed.' The so-called Eight-Hour Law, then, is a statute fixing wages, with only an incidental bearing upon hours, as will soon appear. The new statute is in effect a minimum wage law for men engaged in a quasi-public employment. . . . But this new statute of ours not only fixes wages, it positively increases them by a substan- tial amount. In effect the new law orders ten hours' pay — that being roughly the former stand- ard day — for eight hours' work, with the remain- ing two hours at the same rate." — W. Z. Ripley, Railroad eight -hour law (American Review of Re- views, Oct. 1016, pp. 389-390). Question of constitutionality. — "The railroads immediately instituted proceedings in the courts to test the constitutionality of this Act. As a result of this action the Brotherhoods again threatened to strike without awaiting the decision of the courts if a settlement were not at once effected. The President thereupon appointed a committee repre- senting the Council of National Defense to attempt the settlement of the controversy. On March 19, 1917, the committee made an award which was in harmony with the eight-hour law but defined somewhat more specifically the application of the eight-hour basis to existing schedules and prac- tices. This award provided for a Commission of Eight, the railroads and Brotherhoods each being represented by four commissioners, to decide dis- putes arising under the award. The award was accepted by both parties. On the same day, March 19, 1917, the Supreme Court of the United States rendered its decision sustaining the constitution- ality of the Adamson Act [by a vote of five to four] (Wilson vs. New et al, 243 U. S. 332)." — W. F. Willoughby, Government organization in war time and after, pp. 183-184. — See also Su- preme Court: 1917. Economic considerations. — "With the estab- lishment of federal control and the operation of the railways as a consolidated system, numerous economies became possible through the elimination of expense due to competition of the different com- panies with each other. Great publicity was given to these savings, effected by the Administration. Notwithstanding these economies, the large increase in rates and the record breaking volume of traffic, the net earnings of the railways have fallen far below the amount necessary to pay the standard return to the companies. The deficit for the two years will probably exceed half a billion dollars, and in addition, the physical condition of the rail- ways has deteriorated materially. . . The chief reason why railway net earnings have fallen off is the great increase in railway wajes. The pub- lic believes that the railway employe is a profiteer, who is receiving higher wages than are warranted and has been unduly favored by the federal Ad- ministration in its grant of increased wages and better working conditions. ... In 1016 and 1917 the railway employes were hard hit by the in- 39 ADANA ADELAIDE crease in the cost of living and . . . the increase of wages which the federal Administration granted them in 1918 and igig was not sufficient to offset the increase in the cost of goods Had the rail- ways continued under private control, instead of being taken over by the government, wages would have had to be increased just the same. In fact, the increases in wages to railway employes have been less than the increases to factory workers. But those who indict the federal Railway Admin- istration declare that its yielding to the railway employes on the eight hour day and on other matters where conditions of working are con- cerned, has also been responsible for a great in- crease in railway expenses. There is a certain measure of truth in this charge. The eight hour day, it is fair to recall, however, was established in train service by the Adamson law fifteen months before the government took over the railways. Its general extension to all classes of railway employes was sooner or later inevitable. A number of other concessions were made to the railway employes, for some of which, very Hkely, the Administration may properly be criticised. In dealing with the general question before us, however, we must look at the broad, general results in order to reach sound conclusions, and not at minor details. It is possible to determine from unimpeachable statistics whether there has been actually a great falling off in the amount of work done by the average rail- way employe. If the eight hour law and the other concessions in working conditions have really greatly reduced the amount of work done per employe, then there would have to be a large increase in the number of employes. Indeed a large increase would be looked for anyway, for there has been a great increase in the volume of traffic handled. The ton miles of freight traffic were 25 per cent, greater in igi8 than in IQ13 (409 billion in igi8, and 301 bilUon in igi3). But actually the number of employes in igi8, the first year of federal control, was only 3 per cent greater than in 1013, nothing like as large an increase as the growth in traffic would call for. Of course, in igi8 there was a great scarcity of labor. The railways got along with as few employes as pos- sible, and did as little as possible in the way of maintenance, repairs and improvements In the first six months of igig, however, when plenty of men were obtainable, the number of employes was not much increased. Surely the above figures are a complete answer to the common belief that the federal Administration has granted higher wages or better working conditions to employes than justice demands." — C. W. Baker, Government con- trol and operation of industry in Great Britain and the United States during the World War, pp. 4g-54. — See also U. S. A.: igi6 (.\ug.-Scpt.) . ADANA, a city of Asiatic Turkey. Population, 60,000, mainly Armenian. Here the "Adana mas- sacres" took place in loog. SeeTtiRKEv: loog; also Arabia: Map; and Turkey: Map of Asia Minor. ADDA, Battle of (490). See Rome: 488-526 ADDAMS, Jane (i860- ), American social settlement leader; lecturer and writer on social problems; in 1880 with Miss Ellen Gates Starr established Hull House, a social settlement in Chi- cago ; prominent in organizing the Progressive Party in IQ12; member of the Henry Ford Peace Mission, 1015-1016. ADDICKS, John Edward (1814-igig), Amer- ican capitalist in Delaware. See Delaware: igoi- 1903 ADDINGTON, Henry, Viscount Sidmouth (1757-1844), English Tory statesman; speaker of the House of Commons, 1780-1801; premier, 1801- 1804; concluded the Peace of Amiens (1802); he upheld the Manchester massacre (i8ig) as Home Secretary, and was author of four of the "six acts." — See also England: 1801-1806. ADDISON, Joseph (1672-1719), English poet and essayist. Entered politics as a Whig in 1706; secretary of state in 171 7. In 1704 wrote "The Campaign," a poem on the victory of Blenheim. Chief contributor to the Spectator from 1711 to 1 7 12, creating the character of Sir Roger de Cover- ley. Author of the political tragedy, "Cato" (1713). — See English literature: 1660-1780; Printing and the press: 1700-1752. "ADDLED" PARLIAMENT. See England: 1625: Gains of Parliament in the reign of James I; Parliament, English: 1614. ADDYSTON PIPE CASE (Addyston Pipe and Steel Co, vs. United States, 175 U. S. 211) decided in i8g9, is an important case construing the extent of the regulative powers given to the Federal Government under the commerce clause of the Constitution, and defining the scope of the Sherman Anti-Trust Law of i8go. In earlier cases it had been held that the manufacture of com- modities intended for export and, in fact, thus exported, is to be distinguished from the interstate transportation of those goods, that "commerce succeeds to manufacture and is not a part of it," and that the federal jurisdiction begins only when transportation has begun. In the Sugar Trust Case (United States vs. E. C. Knight Co., 156 U. S. i), decided in i8g5, the Supreme Court had, for this reason, held that the act of i8go did not, and constitutionally could not, relate to the ac- quisition by one company of the stock of a num- ber of other companies with a view to. and the result of, establishing a substantial monopoly of the business of refining sugar in the United States. The fact that the product was, for the most part, a subject of commerce among the states, was de- clared immaterial. The importance of the Addy- ston Pipe Case was that the court showed a wil- lingness to give a more liberal interpretation to the federal commercial power and to the act of 1800. and to bring within the constitutional scope of the latter a combination or agreement between manufacturers or dealers if it should appear that in any way the agreement, in purpose or effect, controlled the normal course of interstate com- merce. In this case an agreement was held illegal under which six companies, engaged in the manu- facture or sale of iron pipe throughout the United States, had allotted among themselves the terri- tory within which each should have the exclusive right to sell ADEBEMAR OF PUY. See Adhemar de MnNTEJL. ADEE, Alvey Augustus (1842- ), 2d assist- ant secretary of state (United States). Reply to Colombian government concerning action in Venezuela. See Colombia: igo5-igog. ADEL, ancient name by which the northern and central districts of Somaliland were known. ADEL (Athel or iEthel), ADALING.— "The homestead of the original settler, his house, farm- buildings and enclosure, 'the toft and croft,' with the share of arable and appurtenant common rights, bore among the northern nations [early Teutonic] the name of Odal. or Edhel ; the primitive mother village was an .^thelby, or .■\thelham; the owner was an .'Vthelbonde ; the same word \de\ or Athel signified also nobility of descent, and an Adaling was a nobleman." — W. Stubbs, Constitutional his- tory of England, ch. 3, sect. 24. — See also ^^^thel, .■Ethelixgs; Folcland. ADELAIDE, Marie (i8g4- ), former grand 40 ADELAIDE ADIRONDACKS duchess of Luxemburg, abdicated (see Luxem- burg: iqi9-i92i) in favor of fier sister, Char- lotte, January o, 1919. In 1914, the grand duchess protested in vain against the German occupation of Luxemburg. ADELAIDE, or Adelheid (931-999), empress, daughter of Rudolph II of Burgundy; wife of Lothair of Italy. "Upon Lothair's death in 950, she was imprisoned by Berengar who wanted her to marry his son. She escaped and sent a piteous appeal to Otto of Germany, who had already de- fended her father's house in Burgundy. The pope Agapitus alarmed for the safety of the papal lands on the .Adriatic . . . joined in the appeal." — E. Emerton, Medinval Europe, pp. 126-128. — Otto marched into Italy and camped at Pavia. Here he summoned Adelaide, who had found refuge with the bishop Reggio, and offered his hand in mar- riage. Adelaide accepted. It is believed to be due to this marriage that the son of Otto I revolted against him in 963, the crushing of which revolt established Adelaide's power. She ruled Germany from the death of Otto I in 973 until 906, when Otto III was declared of age. For her devotion to the church and the establishment of the Bene- dictine cloister at Selz in Alsace, she v^as pro- claimed a saint. — See also Germany: 936-976. ADELAIDE, Australia, Founding and nam- ing of. See Australia: 1800-1840; 1787-1840: Penal settlements. ADELANTADO, a medieval Spanish offi- cial. "The king of Castile, in addition to being recognized by most of the nobles as their overlord, had his own domains in which he exercised the same kind of proprietary sovereignty as the nobles on their estates. The outlying royal territories, as they increased in size and number, and as the sovereigns became more sure of their heritage, were divided for administrative purposes into royal dis- tricts with a count, appointed by the king, as administrative head of each. These counts were the first officials with administrative, judicial and military functions to represent the king at the head of frontier districts and provinces. Their duties were chiefly military, and these counts were frequently obliged to go beyond their own frontiers in the interest of the extension of the royal power. The great drawback, however, from the viewpoint of the king, consisted of the fact that the only class from which these officials could be enlisted was the noble class. In fact, they showed them- selves to be more faithful to the aristocratic ele- ment than to the royal interests, and for this reason the counts were replaced by royal officials called adelanlados, who were more completely de- pendent on the royal power than their predecessors had been. Antequera fails to give the date for the inauguration of this reform, but since the Council of Leon of 1020 defined the jurisdiction of the frontier counts, we know that the adelanlados were substituted for these officials at some subse- quent date. "The earliest regulations which apply to these officials were the 'Laws of the Adelanlados May- ores' of 125s and 1274. The frontier adelantado has been noticed already. The provincial adelan- tado was mentioned in the law referred to as hav- ing been in charge of the larger and nearer prov- inces of Castile, JLeon, Navarre, and Galicia. He was at the same time provincial governor, judge, and captain-general. Possibly the most far-reach- ing and characteristic feature of this office was the requirement that the adelanlado should be accom- panied on his tours of inspection by letrados or asesores— men of legal training, who should ad- vise him in all questions of law, and assume re- sponsibility for all his official acts of an adminis- trative or judicial character. The adelanlados were not trained lawyers or administrators, but soldiers — the predecessors of the colonial captains- general. They were empowered, however, to ren- der legal opinions and dispense justice on the ad- vice of, and by the assistance of the letrados. The asesor or teniente lelrado played an important role subsequently in the administration of justice in the colonies. . . . The third type of adelantado specified in the ordinance of 1274 was the ade- lantado mayor. This magistrate, in contradistinc- tion to the provincial adelantado, was a lawyer, and his activities were confined exclusively to the exercise of judicial functions. He was not accom- panied, therefore, by an asesor. He was a peregri- nating magistrate, holding court in difl'erent parts of the kingdom. Finally, he was frequently desig- nated for special service as adelantado mayor from a higher tribunal of which he was a magistrate, and this tribunal was called the curia, or corte del rey, which was the forerunner of the royal andiencia. . . . This magistrate was in reality a judge of the first royal audiencia of Castile, and his designation to try cases in the provinces was identical in character with the subsequent designa- tion of magistrates of colonial audiencias to try cases and conduct special investigations." — C. H. Cunningham, Institutional background of Spanish- .'Unerican history {Hispanic American Historical Review, Feb., 1918, pp. 26-30). — See also Audien- cias. ADELHEID, empress. See Adelaide or Adel- HEtD. ADEN is a rocky barren peninsula in south- western Arabia on the Indian ocean about 100 miles east of the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. It is one of the important fortified coaling stations on the great highway from western Europe to India and the East. A brief Portuguese occupation at the beginning of the sixteenth century was fol- lowed by Turkish seizure in 1535. In the seven- teenth century Aden came under the rule of the Sultan of Sana and native chiefs, which lasted until 1830, when it was captured by the British in punishment for native maltreatment of a ship- wrecked British crew. The island of Sokotra off the coast of Africa is under British protection, and the Kuria Muria islands off the coast of Arabia are attached to Aden. — See also Arabia: Political di- visions; British empire: Extent. ADERBEISAN, or Azerbaijan, north-western province of Persia, anciently called atropatene. See Atropatene. ADHEMAR, Ademar, Aimar, Aelarz de Monteil (d. 1098), bishop of Puy en Velay; one of the leaders of the first crusade, which he accom- panied as papal legate ; caused the Siege of An- tioch to be raised. See Crusades: 1096-1090. ADHERBAL (f\. 112 B.C.), king of Numidia. See Numioia: B. C. 118-104. ADIABENE, a name which came to be applied anciently to the tract of country east of the middle Tigris, embracing what was originally the proper territory of Assyria, together with Arbelitis. Under the Parthian monarchy formed a tributary king- dom, much disputed between Parthia and Armenia. It was seized several times by the Romans, but never permanently held — G. Rawlinson, Sixth great oriental monarchy, p. 140. ADIGE, Counts of. See Tyrol: Origin. ADIGE RIVER: Northern Italy.— Scene of fighting (1916). See World War: 1916: IV: Aus- tro-Italian front: b, 2. ADIRONDACKS.— "This is a term bestowed by the Iroquois, in derision, on the tribes who 41 ADIS ABABA ADMINISTRATIVE LAW appear, at an early day, to have descended the Utawas river, and occupied the left banks of the St. Lawrence, above the present site of Quebec, about the close of the isth century. It is said to signify men who eat trees, in allusion to their using the bark of certain trees for food, when re- duced to straits, in their war excursions. The French, who entered the St. Lawrence from the gulf, called the same people Algonquins — a generic appellation, which has been long employed and come into universal use, among historians and philologists. According to early accounts, the .\dirondacks had preceded the Iroquois in arts and attainments." — H. R. Schoolcraft, Notes on the Iroquois, ch. 5. — See also below: Iroquois Cox- FEDERACv: Their Conquests, &c. ADIS ABABA, Convention of (1896). See Abvssinw: 1806-1897. ADITES.— "The Cushites, the first inhabitants of Arabia, are known in the national traditions by the name of Adites, from their progenitor, who is called Ad, the grandson of Ham."— F. Lenormant, Manual of ancient history, bk. 7, ch. 2.— See Ara- bia. .•\ncient succession and fusion of races. ADJUTATORS, or Agitators. See England: i(j.j7 (April-August). ADLERCREUTZ, Karl Johan, Count (i757- 1815), Swedish general; defeated in Finland in iSoS by the Russians; assisted in the overthrow of C.ustavus IV. ADMINISTRATIVE LAW. — Definition.— General survey.— Origin.— Character of tribu- nals.— Administrative law is the portion of the law dealing with the enforcement of the social will as expressed by its authorized representatives in the established legislative bodies. Administrative law- includes the organization of the executive powers of the State and of its general and local subdivisions, together with the respective functions of the admin- istrative officers, the limitations of their powers and the remedies afforded in case of abuse of power or dereliction of duty. In the United States this branch of law would embrace all provisions relat- ing to both elective and appointive officers, federal, state, county, municipal or other. It would also cover such matters as the law of municipal cor- porations, the abatement of nuisances, taxation and other revenue matters, such extraordinary legal remedies as the writ of prohibition, mandamus, injunction, habeas corpus, quo warranto and cer- tiorari, and such equitable remedies as may be applied to executive officials. "On the continent of Europe, particularly in France and Prussia, a special class of tribunals, separate and distinct from the ordinary courts of justice and constituted on different principles, has been provided, for the determination of adminis- trative controversies, that is, disputes between private individuals and the public authorities as well as disputes among administrative officials themselves In general, where such a system pre- vails, so-called administrative controversies are not allowed to be determined by the regular judicial courts. The idea originated in France at the time of the Revolution, and may be said to have re- sulted from the extreme conception of the doctrine of the separation of powers, then held by the French. Montesquieu's famous theory concerning the necessity of intrusting the legislative, executive, and judicial powers to separate and distinct organs was embodied in extreme form in the 'declaration of rights of man and the citizen' of 170T by the Constituent Assembly, which asserted that if the judiciary were permitted to meddle with adminis- trative officials in the discharge of their duties the constitution would be violated and the operations of the government hindered. The administrative authorities were therefore made completely inde- pendent of judicial control, and the judges were interdicted under pain of forfeiting their offices from interfering in any manner with the acts of the administration. This principle was in turn introduced into other continental states, particu- larly into Prussia and Italy, and has been retained by them to the present day. "The chief advantage claimed for the system is that the subjection of the public authorities to the continual control and interference of the judicial courts is detrimental to prompt and efficient ad- ministration. .Administrative controversies are somewhat peculiar in their nature and involve questions which for proper consideration require a special and technical knowledge not ordinarily pos- sessed by judges whose training and experience have been confined to the field of private law, and whose education has been academic rather than practical. Such judges are likely to have exagger- ated notions of the rights of private individuals, as against those of the public; they are inclined to a natural timidity in deciding issues between indi- viduals and the government adversely to the claims of the individual; and with their disposition to adhere strictly to legal rules and traditions they sometimes unnecessarily hamper and obstruct the legitimate operations of the government. "The history of administration in the United States and England abounds in illustrations of the truth of these observations. Only men who have been trained in the study of administrative law and who have had practical experience in the actual work of public administration, it is said, are capable of deciding wisely controversies involving a technical knowledge of an administrative ques- tion. Judges without such special knowledge or experience are apt to apply to the interpretation of controversies between private individuals and the public authorities the pure principles of private law, rather than those of the public law. This sometimes leads to results that are wholly incon- sistent with sound public policy and efficient ad- ministration, for the rules of law governing the organization and functions of the administration are quite different from those governing the rela- tions of private individuals, since the purpose of the former is the public welfare rather than pri- vate interests. When the government is a party to a dispute it cannot be treated like a private litigant without seriously injuring at times its effi- ciency and impeding its operations. The law of contract and tort, for example, which plays so important a part in the regulation of the conduct of private individuals, occupies a very unimportant place in the law governing the relations of the public authorities. The administration of two such widely different bodies of rules requires, therefore, different habits of mind, traditions, and training. It is also to be remarked that the individual under the continental system can often obtain redress where he could not do so in .America or England. as for example, in a case of neglect or abuse of power by an official, who would not in .America or England be liable in dam.ages. . . . "Where there are two sets of tribunals and two separate bodies of law, disputes must sometimes arise as to which domain a particular controversy belongs and which tribunal shfluld have jurisdic- tion of it. For the determination of such disputes of jurisdiction the French law provides for a tri- bunal of conflicts, while in Germany there is usu- allv a similar tribunal known as a competence- conflict court. In both countries these courts arc composed of a certain number of regular judges 42 ADMINISTRATIVE LAW Courts ADMINISTRATIVE LAW and of persons in the administrative service. In the German imperial system, however, all conflicts of jurisdiction between the imperial administrative courts and the judicial courts are settled by the latter, there being no special conflict courts. In both countries the power of raising the question of a conflict of jurisdiction belongs to the admin- istration only, the theory being that it alone can be interested. When the administration notifies the judicial court that in taking jurisdiction over a particular controversy, it is encroaching upon the sphere of the administration, the court suspends further proceedings, and the question of compe- tence is referred to the tribunal of conflicts for de- termination. If the decision is in favor of the claim set up by the administration, the case is re- moved to the administrative courts for final de- cision, otherwise it is decided by the judicial court. "In England and America, and in countries gen- erally where English legal institutions have been introduced, the doctrine of administrative jurisdic- tion, as it is known and practiced on the continent of Europe, is little known. There administrative law is not a separate branch of jurisprudence, and specially constituted administrative courts with jurisdiction over controversies between private in- dividuals and public officials do not exist, at least not in the form in which they are found on the continent. Disputes between the public authorities and private citizens, like differences between pri- vate individuals themselves, are decided by the regular judicial courts and according to the ordi- nary law of the land. Nevertheless, both in Eng- land and America, there are numerous boards, commissions, and authorities which possess what may not improperly be described as administrative jurisdiction. They are, in fact, often referred to as administrative tribunals; they possess the power of adjudication and determination in many cases, and not infrequently their decisions are conclusive, and hence not subject to review by the courts. Although they are not a part of the judicial sys- tem, their procedure when hearing and determining controversies is often characterized by the for- malism of the courts of justice. A regular system of appeal is often allowed from one to another, and in some cases their decisions are published and cited as precedents. In England examples of au- thorities which exercise a limited administrative jurisdiction are the Railway Commission, the Local Government Board, the Board of Trade, the Board of Education, and the Board of Agriculture. In the United States similar bodies are the Interstate Commerce Commission, whose powers have been described as 'quasi administrative, quasi judicial'; the Pension Office, the Patent Office, the Land Office, the Bureau of Immigration, the office of Comptroller of the Treasury, the General Board of Customs Appraisers, the United States Customs Court, and the Court of Claims. In the state governments there are almost countless boards and commissions which possess similar powers, .\mong these may be mentioned railroad commissions, boards of health, departments of education, pure food commissions, etc. There is, in fact, scarcely any department of the administrative service in which controversies involving both public and pri- vate rights do not frequently arise, which can be more wisely determined by the administration it- self than by a court of justice. This fact has been recently recognized by the Congress of the LTnited States in the act creating a customs court vested with power to determine controversies between the government and importers, regarding the value and classification of imported articles upon which a customs tariff is imposed. Whatever, therefore, may be said against the European system of ad- ministrative justice and of administrative law, with its somewhat exaggerated emphasis upon the rights of the government in contradistinction to those of private individuals, the fact remains that it exists in England and America, though in less developed form; and the role which it is destined to play in the future is bound to increase with the multipli- cation of governmental functions and the increas- ing complexity of the governmental organization." — J. W. Garner, Introduction to political science, PP- S85-SQ4. — See also Cabinet; Commission gov- ernment; Congress; Municipal government; Representative government; Supreme court. Administrative law in France. — "The terri- torial unity of the French state was attained many years ago. The great vassals who under a weak monarchy might have developed into independent princes, and whose domains might then have formed separate commonwealths, were suppressed by the kings and their lands became provinces of the kingdom of France. Most matters of admin- istration, which during the feudal regime had been attended to by vassals, became a part of the royal administration and were attended to by the royal officers who were subject to a strong central con- trol. These were the intendants, who date from the time of Richelieu and Louis XIII, and whose work was performed in the provinces or generali- ties as they were sometimes called, and the council of the king at the centre which directed all their actions and heard appeals, taken by individuals aggrieved, from their decisions. The great cen- tralization of government under the absolute mon- archy left little room for any important local au- thorities; though we do find even in the times of the most extreme centralization that there were in certain of the provinces, called pays d'elats and occupying a privileged position, local assemblies having more or less control over the actions of the intendants; and also that in some of the largest of the cities the people had more or less well- defined rights to elect their municipal officers, rights, however, of which the king was endeavor- ing in the interest of centralized government to deprive them. The attempt made by the govern- ment of Louis X\T just before the revolution to introduce into all parts of the kingdom provincial assemblies modelled on the assemblies of the pays d'etats failed; and when the revolution came in i/Sq it found a most highly centralized system of administration — a system which hardly recognized the local districts as anything more than adminis- trative circumscriptions, possessing few if any cor- porate powers. In these districts most matters of administration were attended to by officers either appointed and removed by the king in his pleasure, or else subject to a strict central control. The system which the revolution received as a legacy from the absolute monarchy it made few radical changes in. . . . The aim of the revolution was social and political rather than administrative re- form. The revolution destroyed the social system on which the absolute monarchy rested and intro- duced the political principle that the people should have a larger influence in the management of the government, but it did little more in the way of permanent administrative reform than to make the system more symmetrical than it had been be- fore. The reason why no greater change was made in the general character of the administrative sys- tem was that the revolution really aimed at the same end that had been before the eyes of the absolute monarchy. This end was the crushing out of feudalism, the taking away from the privileged classes those semi-poUtical and social privileges and 43 ADMINISTRATIVE LAW France ADMINISTRATIVE LAW exemptions which had been the cause of so many of the miseries of the absolute monarchy, but for which the absolute monarchy was responsible only in so far as it had allowed them to continue to exist, after the duties which had been originally associated with them had been assumed by the Crown, and after the expenses which their per- formance necessitated had been imposed upon the tax-payers. The cause of the dissatisfaction of the people with the absolute monarchy is to be found not so much in the character of the government which it gave the people as in the fact that its progress in the desired direction of abolition of feudal privileges seemed almost to have ceased. Therefore we find that the chief reforms of the revolution were social and, to a degree, political but not administrative. The celebrated night of the fourth of August, 1789, saw the abolition at one time of about all that was left of the feudal regime, while the exemption of the privileged classes from taxation was done away with by the new and proportional system of taxation formu- lated and enacted by the revolutionary leaders in the constituent assembly. After the constituent assembly had thus cleared away the debris of the feudal system it would have been suicidal for it to establish any system of administration in which large rights of local government were given to the people of the localities. For the people, as a whole, were so utterly incapacitated for political work, through long administrative and governmental tutelage, that it is improbable that they could have succeeded in governing themselves well. At first it is true there was a slight attempt in the direction of decentralization, but this, as might have been expected, was unsuccessful and led to disorganiza- tion and inefficient government, as indeed, did all attempts at reorganization until the government of the directory when Napoleon came into power. . . . Napoleon is to France what the Norman kings are to England. He moulded the form of her local institutions. The laws and decrees which were passed during the period of his control of the government have, it is true, received during this century most important modifications, but the main principles of the present system of local ad- ministration are even now to be found in them. Napoleon was satisfied that the social principles of the revolution could be adhered to only through the establishment of a most centralized system of administration and government, by means of which the impulse to action should come from the centre and which should be controlled by those who were in sympathy with the new order of things. Since Napoleon's time, however, there has been great progress in the direction of decentralization. This began with the government of the restoration and reached its climax in the communes act of 1884; and has consisted in the recognition of the posses- sion by the localities, or at least the most impor- tant of the localities, of juristic personality and that there belongs to them a sphere of action of their own in which the central administration is to interfere but little. "But notwithstanding the decentralization which has been going on, the French system of adminis- tration retains even at the present time quite enough of the old Napoleonic principles to make it, as compared with our own, a system which from the administrative point of view is quite centralized. . . . "Below the department district and canton we find the commune as the lowest administrative unit. The commune is either rural or urban, but the French law makes no formal distinction in or- ganization between the two, both being governed by the same law, 1^12., the law of April Si 1884. While the department is an artificial creation of the revolutionary period, the commune is a natural growth. Before the revolution we find that there were, as a result of social and political concUtions, two kinds of local communities in France, viz., the urban communes and the rural communes. In the former were an officer, called by different names but performing for the most part executive func- tions, and a deliberative council. In the rural communes, and even in some of the cities, a gen- eral meeting of the inhabitants was often found together with a series of executive officers. A de- cree of 1702 established in each of these rural com- munes an officer called a syndic, who was to act to a large extent under the supervision of the In- tendant of the generality or province in which the commune was situated. The acts of all these au- thorities were subject, just before the revolution, to very strict central control, which was one of the results of the administrative centralization of the absolute monarchy. In 1789 the constituent assembly decided to efface all distinction in admin- istrative organization between the rural and the urban districts, and provided for the formation of about 44,000 communes. Different experiments at organization were made in the period between 1790 and the year VIII or iSoo when the Napoleonic legislation was adopted. By this legislation there were placed in each commune a mayor and a mu- nicipal council, the former attending to executive business, both that relating to the commune, which was a municipal corporation, and that affecting the state as a whole, and the latter attending simply to local business. By this Napoleonic legislation, both the mayor and the members of the municipal council were appointed and could be removed by the central administration, while the decisions of the municipal council, even though they affected simply the local affairs of the commune, were in all cases subject to the approval of the central administration. Since the overthrow of the empire there has been an almost continuous tendency to decentralize this extremely centralized system. In 183 1 the municipal council became elective, and by a gradual process the mayor has become elected by the municipal council in all the communes of France. But up to about 1884 no actual power of decision was given to the municipal council, whose resolutions were in most cases subject to central administrative approval. The law of April 5, 18S4, has made a most radical change in this respect by providing that the decisions of the municipal council are absolutely final except in those cases in which. the law has specially provided for central administrative approval. ... In each commune at the present time are to be found a mayor and several deputies who are to assist him in the performance of his duties, all elected by the municipal council. In both cases the choice of the council is limited to its members. They ser\'e for the term of the council, but may be suspended by the prefect of the department for one month, by the minister of the interior for three months, and may be removed by the President of the republic. Removal makes the person removed ineligible for the period of one year. Further, the prefect has quite a large control over the mayor in that the law provides that if the mayor refuses to do an act which he is obliged by law to do, the prefect may step in and, after demand made by the mayor, proceed to do the act himself or may have the act done by a special appointee. Tne mayor and his deputies are unsalaried and are not professional officers like the prefect. Their official expenses are to be paid, however Like the prefect, the mayor 44 ADMINISTRATIVE LAW France Prussia ADMINISTRATIVE LAW is at the same time the agent of the central admm- istration in the commune and is the representative and the executive of the communal municipal cor- poration. As an officer of the central administra- tion he is in most cases under the supervision of the prefect. Among his duties as such central offi- cer may be mentioned his duty to keep a register of vital statistics. As the French law expresses it, he is an officer of the etat civil. As such he also solemnizes all marriages. He is also an officer of what is known as the judicial police and, as such, has the power to file informations in purely petty offences and may act as piublic prosecutor in the smaller places. He has to publish and execute all the laws and decrees within the commune, makes up the election lists, the census tables for the re- cruiting of the army, publishes the assessment rolls, etc., etc. Finally the mayor has a large power of local police. He has quite a large power of ordi- nance, a power which, like the similar power of the prefect, is always based upon some express provision of law. The power of ordinance granted by the statutes is, however, quite a general one. fie has the right to issue such ordinances as may be necessary to maintain good order, public secu- rity and health. He has also a large power of issu- ing orders of individual and not general applica- tion, as, e. g., to fix the building line for particular edifices, to grant building permits, to remove nuisances, and so on. .\\\ such ordinances and orders are sanctioned by the penal code, which punishes the violation of all legal ordinances and orders by a fine. An instance of the control which the prefect has over the acts of the mayor when the latter is acting as an officer of the general state administration, is to be found in the case of these ordinances and orders which may be repealed by the prefect within a month after their issue. "As the executive officer of the communal mu- nicipal corporation the mayor has the appointment of most of the communal officers, the only impor- tant exceptions being found in the case of the local constabulary who are, to a large extent, central officers and under central control, the teachers, the forest guards, and the communal treasurer. Fur- ther the mayor is to attend to the detailed admin- istration of all local property and is to supervise the different administrative services which are at- tended to by the commune. Thus in the financial administration of the commune the mayor draws up the budget of receipts and expenses of the com- mune, orders all expenses to be paid, has the de- tailed management of the revenue and property of the commune, executes its contracts and super- vises its accounts and its public institutions. But in all these matters it must be remembered that the mayor is simply to execute the decisions of the municipal council, which has the final determina- tion of all matters of communal interest. "The municipal council is elected by universal manhood suffrage Electors must have resided for six months within the commune or have paid direct taxes there. Electors must be registered in order to be able to vote. The rules in regard to eligibility are similar to those in force for the general council of the department. The term of office is four years. The council has four ordinary sessions each year, but extraordinary sessions may be called at any time. The meetings of the council are generally public. The mayor presides at all meetings of the council except when his accounts are being examined. As a rule a majority of the members constitutes a quorum. Finally the council may be suspended for a month by the prefect ; and may be dissolved by the President of the republic. "The duties of the municipal council relate al- most exclusively to the local affairs of the com- mune, their general duties being so few in number and so unimportant in character as not to deserve special notice. In the legal provisions governing the powers of the municipal council we find a good example of the continental method of regulating the participation of the localities in the work of administration. The law of 1884 (the municipal code of the present time) simply says that the municipal council shall govern by its decisions the affairs of the commune. In order, however, to prevent the municipal council from being extrava- gant or acting unwisely, article 68 of the law pro- vides that in certain eumerated cases the approval of some central authority, as a general rule the prefect, shall be necessary, before the resolutions of the council are of force. In general this ap- proval of the central administration is necessary for the sale or long lease of communal property, for the undertaking of expensive public works, for the change of use of buildings used for general administrative purposes, for the regulation, laying out or closing of streets, for the levy of taxes above certain limits, and for the borrowing of money beyond a certain amount, and the imposi- tion of octroi taxes, i. c., indirect taxes on objects consumed within the cities. Finally, the budget of the commune must be submitted to the central ad- ministration, which must approve it before it can be executed. The purpose of submitting the bud- get to the central administration, is to afford it an opportunity to see if the municipal council has made appropriation for the obligatory expenses made necessary by law, and to prevent the council from being extravagant. If the budget does not provide for obligatory expenses, levies taxes or borrows money beyond certain limits, or provides for the payment of the current expenses of the commune from loans or extraordinary revenue, the central administration may make changes in the budget so as to make it conform to the provisions of law or to what the central administration re- gards as proper. Otherwise the central administra- tion may make no alterations in the budget as voted by the council. Finally, in order to prevent the municipal council from overstepping the bounds of its competence as an authority for the purposes of purely local administration and from assuming functions of a central character, it is provided that the central administration may de- clare any act of the municipal council outside of its jurisdiction to be void. In such case the muni- cipal council or any one interested has the ri.:ht to appeal from the decision, declaring the act of the municipal council void, to the administrative courts, which thus have the power of determining finally the question of local jurisdiction." — F. J. Goodnow, Comparative administrative law, v. 1. pp. 268-272, 285-202. Prussian administrative law. — "The present form of local government in Prussia was fixed in 1807. The Prussia of the time previous to 1807 was feudal rather than modern. The collapse of feudal Prussia at the time of the French invasion In 1806 was so sudden and so complete as to prove beyond pcradventure that the magnificent fabric reared with so much pains by the great Prussian kings of the eighteenth century rested on most in- secure foundations. The administrative system which had come down from the time of Frederick William I was bureaucratic to the last degree. The result of such a system was that the people partici- pated hardly at all in the administration or even in the government, and naturally not only had lost all political capacity, but also had come to regard the government either with indifference or with 45 ADMINISTRATIVE LAW Prussia ADMINISTRATIVE LAW absolute hatred. The social conditions of the Prussian people also had been such as to favor one class at the expense of the others and at the same time to impoverish the country as a whole. The distinctions of class had been so fixed as al- most to divide the people into castes, and artificial barriers placed about the freedom of trade and labor in the interest of the richer classes had pre- vented all classes alike from making the best use of their opportunities. . . . After the fall of Prus- sia, Baron Stein was made head of the adminis- tration and during the one year of service, from which he was fmally driven by the influence of Napoleon, was the director of the policy of Prussia and may well be regarded as the founder of the Prussia of to-day. Recognizing the defects of the Prussian system, he formulated and published his plan of government; and although unable during his short term of service to secure the adoption of this plan, he left to his successors a model of ad- ministrative reform in his great municipal corpora- tions act of 1808. Besides this. Stein was able to abolish serfdom, to make it possible for those not of noble blood to acquire and hold land, and to introduce important reforms in the general admin- istrative system. Stein's concrete model of an ad- ministrative system was to be found in the English system as then existing. But his idea of granting to the nobility large local powers, to be exercised under central control so as to prevent the abuse of the powers granted, was not adopted. The failure of Stein's plans brought Hardenberg to the front in 1810. Hardenberg 's ideas were quite different from those of Stein. Hardenberg felt that before many privileges of local self-government could be granted to the people, the poorer classes in the community must he released from their economic dependence upon the richer classses. He had the experience of the French before him and believed that the first thing to do was to establish a strongly cen- tralized administration like the French, which should be directed by men of liberal ideas. Har- denberg was not. however, able to overthrow what Stein had already establi.'^hed. .As a part of his reform Stein had divided the country into govern- ment districts ... at the head of each of which was placed a board called the 'government' . . . which attended to almost all central administrative matters that in the nature of things could be at- tended to in the localities. Purely local matters, ;. f., matters recognized as belonging to the sphere of local autonomy, which were quite unimportant, were left in the charge of the cities and the rural communities, which were to act under the super\'i- sion of these 'governments.' Hardenberg suffered this organization to remain, but. in order to in- crease his influence over it. he put every two or three districts under a provincial- governor who was to repre.^ent the central government in the province Below the district Stein had retained a historic Prussian division, to wit the 'circle.' at the head of which was the landrath, who was now made the subordinate of the 'government ' All of these authorities — the governor, the 'covernment,' and the landrath — were placed under the direction of the chancellor, which last position Hardenberg had created for himself. Most of the officers in this organization were salaried and professional in character The system was therefore, as before, a centralized bureaucracy. But it was better organ- ized than before, and it was directed by a man of advanced liberal ideas, and who made use of the vast power he possessed to further the inter- ests of the state as a whole. With this wonderfully efficient instrument great progress was made in carr>ing out the social and economic reforms begun 46 by Stein. . . . But before the reform could be completed Hardenberg died (in 1S22) and a reac- tion immediately set in. The great landholders, whose privileges had been seriously diminished by what had been accomplished, came forward and managed to persuade the king to grant them cer- tain powers in the domain of purely local govern- ment. Local legislatures were formed in which the landholders had almost complete control; and the attempt was made later to form out of delegates from these local legislatures a national parliament. This attempt was frustrated by the revolution of 1848, which was largely a protest by the commer- cial and industrial classes against the monopoly of governing which the landholders were beginning to claim. The result of the revolution was t-he for- mation of a constitution in which the suffrage was made to depend not upon the ownership of land but upon the ownership of any kind of property. M first the legislature which was formed on this basis contained a liberal majority which set to work to curtail the powers of the landowners. This led to another reaction, viz.. the conservative reaction of 1850-60, during which the entire power of the administration was prostituted in the inter- est of the Conservative party and the landholders. This preying of one class upon another, which is so characteristic of the internal history of Prussia from 1S22 and 1S60, was largely the result of the weakness of the monarchy during that period and of the introduction of the principle of the parlia- mentary responsibility of the ministry into a coun- try in which the people had not as yet learned how to govern themselves. It was only natural therefore that, when the monarchy became stronger by the accession of the late King William I. who repudiated the principle of the parliamentary re- sponsibility of his ministers, this class tyranny should cease. The great constitutional conflict in Prussia which followed his accession to the throne (1860-4) showed the Prussian people that they had found their master, and that the Crown in a mon- archical country is the natural arbiter between conflicting social classes and should protect the weak against the aggressions of the strong. ... It was seen that important changes must be made in the system of local government in order to accus- tom the people to exercise their powers with mod- eration and with a regard for the interests of the minority. The necessary concrete measures were sketched by Dr. Gnei.<;t of the University of Berlin, and one of the greatest of modern public lawyers, in his little book entitled Dif Kreisordnnng. In this work Dr. Gncist referred, as had Stein before him, to the English system of local administration which they both knew so well and admired so much. .After a long discussion the plans advocated by Gneist were for the most part incorporated into the law of Dec. 13. 1872, commonly known as the Kreisordnnng. The adoption of these plans was largely due to Prince Bismarck, who believed .strongly in local autonomy and self-administration, and who supported the ideas advocated by Gnei.st in the face of the opposition of the general public and of that of his colleagues in the ministry and the greater part of the government officials who were loth to give up any of the powers which they possessed in the organization founded by Harden- berg. In addition to the Krrisprdnung several other laws were passed in the course of the next ten years, all either carrying the reform further, or modifying details which experience had shown to be faulty. The definite ends which this reform has had in view are: First. The extension of the sphere of local autonomv Second The introduc- tion of a judicial control over the actions of ad- ADMINISTRATIVE LAW Prussia England ADMINISTRATIVE LAW ministrative officers in the hope of preventing a recurrence of the prostitution of the powers of the administration in the interest of party or social faction. Third. The introduction of a non-pro- fessional or lay element into the administration of central as well as of local matters in the hope of Micreasing the political capacity of the people. . . . "In accordance with continental ideas as to the territorial distribution of administrative functions two spheres of administrative action are recognized by the law: the one, central; the other, local. For the purposes of the central administration which needs attention in the localities, the country is divided into administrative circumscriptions called provinces, government districts, circles, etc., in which are officers under the control of the heads of the various executive departments at Berlin. For the purposes of local government certain mu- nicipal or public corporations have grown up which have their own officers and their own property separate and apart from that of the central gov- ernment. At the time of the reform in many in- stances the boundaries of the administrative cir- cumscriptions for the purposes of central admin- istration were not identical with those of the vari- ous public corporations, e. g., the boundaries of the administrative provinces were not the same as those of the public corporations bearing the same name. In most cases, further, the authorities for the purposes of central administration were not the same as those of the public corporations. The re- form of 1872 has endeavored to simplify matters. It has in the first place adopted the old divisions, vis., the provinces, districts, and circles, but it has added a new division, viz., the justice of the peace division (..imlsbezirk) ; in the second place it has in almost all instances insisted upon the coincidence of the boundaries of the corresponding areas. Thus at the present time in almost all cases the area of the administrative province is the same as that of the provincial corporation. In the third place the central and local authorities within the same area have in most cases been consolidated. In the province, however, the attempts at such consoli- dation were unsuccessful. ... As in the French, so in the Prussian system of local government, the interference of the central legislature in local af- fairs is infinitesimal if it exists at all. Enough of the old feudal ideas of local autonomy have re- mained to permit of the development of the prin- ciple that there is a sphere of administrative action which must be left almost entirely to the localities; that within this sphere the legislature should not interfere at all; that any central interference or control that may be required over this local ad- ministration should come from the administration and in the main from the lay authorities of the administration, and should be confined simply to preventing the localities from incurring too great financial burdens. Therefore the law does not, as in the United States and as it does to a certain extent in England, enumerate the powers and duties of the localities, but says simply that the local affairs of particular districts shall be governed ^v the decisions of local authorities in the nature of local legislatures, and that in those cases only in which the law has expressly given it the power, may the central administration step in to protect the localities from their own unwise action. This system is one of general grants of local power with the necessity in certain cases of central ad- ministrative—not legislative — approval or control. The benefits of such a" system cannot be over- estimated Through its adoption all the evils of local anrl special legislation are avoided. In place of an irresponsible legislative control, which in the United States has shown itself so incapable of pre- venting the exPravagance of localities that in many cases the power of the legislature to permit local action has been curtailed by the constitutions, is to be found a control exercised by responsible au- thorities — authorities which have a certain perma- nence and are well able to judge whether a given action will be really hurtful to a locality or not. .\t the same time the greater freedom from central interference guaranteed to the localities by this sys- tem is well calculated to encourage the growth of local pride and responsibiUty." — F. J. Goodnow, Comparative administrative law, v. i, pp. 295-302, 33<'-337. Administrative law in England. — "The Eng- lish administrative jurisdiction, whose main prin- ciples have been adopted in the United States, is simply an outgrowth of the original system of ad- ministrative control. The Norman political system made no distinction between governmental authori- ties. .'\ll powers of government were consolidated in the hands of the Crown. First to be differen- tiated was the legislative authority, the Parliament. But for a long time after the differentiation of Parliament there was almost no legal distinction between the position of the officers for the admin- istration of justice and that of the officers for the administration of government. Indeed most im- portant officers ciischarged functions in both branches and all alike were regarded as merely the servants of the Crown. Some, it is true, were en- gaged mainly in the application of the private law, others were engaged mainly in the application of the public and administrative law. But all were officers of the Crown, which directly or indirectly could remove them all from office and could dic- tate to them what should be the decision of the cases which were brought before them. To the officers of one of the courts, viz., the court of king's bench, which was regarded as occupying a superior position because the Crown by a fiction of the law was supposed always to be present in it, was given a supervisory power over all other authorities. If anyone was aggrieved by an act of a subordinate officer of the Crown he had the right to appeal to the Crown, who was the foun- tain of justice, and such an appeal went to the court of king's bench. At first it seems to have gone to the Curia Regis or King's Council before the development of the court of king's bench. In- deed, after the development of the king's bench, when with the usual habits of judges the members of this court became very technical in their appli- cation of the law, appeals went in many cases directly to the Crown and were attended to gener- ally by the chancellor or the council. For the King at the time of the formation of the court of king's bench especially reserved to himself the de- cision of particularly difficult cases. From these reserved judicial powers grew up the court of chancery as well as other courts. In answer to such appeals the court of king's bench issued in the name of the Crown certain writs directed to the officer whose decision was complained of, and so formed as to afford the desired relief. Though these writs were originally issued from the office of the chancellor, the court soon obtained the right to issue them directly. These writs were named from the most prominent words in them — words which largely expressed the purpose of the writ. Thus, if anyone appealed to the Crown to force a recalcitrant officer to do something which the law of the land commanded the officer to do. the writ which was issued in an.swer to the appeal was called the writ of mandamus. But at the .same time that the court of king's bench was developing 47 ADMINISTRATIVE LAW England ADMINISTRATIVE LAW these special remedies, which became known as extraordinar>' legal remedies or prerogative writs, the chancellor, the keeper of the King's conscience, was, through the exercise of the reserved judicial powers of the King, also developing a series of special remedies called equitable remedies, the most important of which, from the point of view of administrative law, was the bill of injunction. Originally, however, the injunction does not seem to have been made use of commonly against offi- cers. While most of the writs issued by the royal courts were issued to litigants upon proper demand de ctirsu, and were known as writs ex dehito jtis- litiae, the writs by means of which the court of King's bench exercised its supervisory powers over the other authorities do not seem to have become, in early times at any rate, writs of right, writs ex debilo jtistitiw, but were issued only in extraor- dinary cases when some gross injustice was done. They were known, therefore, as 'prerogative writs. ' The same was practically true of the equitable remedies, and particularly of the bill of injunction. Further on the return to these writs, generally only questions of law were considered. They were made use of simply to keep the lower authorities within the bounds of the law, and could not be used, after the practice in regard to them became crys- tallized, to review any question of fact or expe- diency. It therefore became necessary to develop some further remedy, unless the lower authorities were to be permitted to decide such questions free from all control. Such a method was found in the power which was granted to the individual to ap- peal to the Privy Council. Such appeals the coun- cil might hear as a result of the fact that the King granted to a division of it, 37:., the star chamber, a portion of his reserved judicial powers. This body acted as the administrative superior of the royal authorities in the localities, and on appeal to it questions of fact and expediency, as well as of law, could be considered. Formed in the time of Henry VII to control the nobility, who had grown turbulent during the wars of the Roses, it served at first to protect the weaker classes of the commu- nity against the arbitrariness of the administrative authorities, which were largely chosen from the nobility; but it was later, viz., under the Stuarts, used in such a way that it was abolished on the occasion of the revolution in 1640. In order to offer an appeal similar to the one which disap- peared on the occasion of its abolition, it was provided in a series of statutes that the court of quarter sessions of the justices of the peace, which had been theretofore mainly an administrative au- thority for the purpose of county administration, could hear and decide appeals from those decisions of the justices of the peace, acting singly or in petty and special sessions, which affected property and the richt of personal liberty. There was thus formed for the deci.sion of questions of fact and expediency, as well as of law, an administrative court in each county, which came finally to have a very wide power of control over the acts of sub- ordinate administrative officers. Its members fur- ther would certainly have special knowledge of the law they had to apply and of the conditions of administrative action, since they were engaged in other capacities as administrative officers. Fur- ther the commission of the justices of the peace enjoined upon them in difficult cases to take the advice of the royal courts. This came finally to be done by 'stating a case' which was agreed upon by the justices and the parties before them, and which was then submitted to the royal courts, and finally decided by them. In consequence of these facts, one of the writs which were originally issued by the court of king's bench, viz., the certiorari, lost much of its earlier importance in England; and we find that statute after statute was passed which prohibited its use as a means of appealing from the acts of administrative officers. But up to the coming to the throne of the Orange-Stuarts in i68g, all officers, whether judges or administrative officers, held their office at the will of the Crown. There was no judicial tenure as there was at the time in both France and Germany. In this fact, and in the existence in the Crown of reserved judicial powers, are probably to be found the rea- sons why the Crown permitted such a control over the administration to be given to the courts. For the Crown could exercise at any time a strong personal influence over the judges of the courts; and if it was found that the administration of the law was becoming so technical as to hamper the action of the administration, the Crown could at any time exercise its reserved powers and transfer any matter to a newly created and more pliable authority. In 1701, however, all this was changed. The act of settlement made the judges independent of the royal power, and the whole tendency of English development was to make the justices of the peace actually, though not legally independent of the Crown, .^n attempt by Lord Somers during the reign of William III to coerce, through the power of dismissal from office, numerous justices of the peace raised such a storm of opposition that no later ministry has dared to make use of such a power. At the same time that the tenure of the judges and the justices became independent of the Crown their administrative jurisdiction remained essentially the same, with the result that the con- trol which might before have been regarded as merely a part of the administrative control became absolutely judicial in character, ;'. p., was exercised by authorities independent of the administration which was to be controlled. "Such was the condition of the English adminis- trative jurisdiction at the time the American colonies were founded. At first, indeed, the Ameri- can judges, like the English judges of the same period, were both in tenure and action under the control of the executive which they were to con- trol, but soon their tenure was assured both against the executive and the legislature, so that from a very early time the higher courts exercised a really judicial control over the actions of the administra- tion. The justices of the peace did not, however, at first become independent of the administration in tenure. .And this was probably the reason why our courts of quarter sessions were not able to develop any very large administrative jurisdiction. The appointment early in our history of other officers for purely administrative purposes relegated the justices to the position of inferior judicial offi- cers who have a police jurisdiction and a minor civil private law jurisdiction. They were left very few administrative duties to perform. Notwith- standing the fact that the justices of the peace in the United States later on obtained a tenure inde- pendent of the administration, in that they became generally elected by the people for a fixed term of office, they never got anything like the same ad- ministrative jurisdiction that was given to their English brothers. It is true that in special in- stances we find appeals from the decisions of ad- ministrative officers allowed to the courts of the justices or their successors, the county courts Especially is this true in^ some of the southern commonwealths and in Pennsylvania. But it may safely be said that there has never been, and is not now in the United States any at all important administrative jurisdiction except such as is to be 48 ADMIRAL ADMIRALTY found in the writs which the higher courts, as a result of their being the heirs of the Enghsh court of king's bench, have the right to issue. We have lost an important part of the English administra- tive jurisdiction — particularly important because by its means a host of questions of fact and of expe- diency could be reviewed on appeal. With us such questions are decided finally by the administration, with the result that a most precious means of pro- tecting individual rights has been lost." — F. J. Goodnow, Comparative administrative law, v. 2, pp. 192-1Q9. ADMIRAL. — Origin of name. — Duties. See Naval law: Origin. ADMIRALTY.— Constitution of the British Admiralty. — "The Navy, as every one knows, is ruled by the .'\dmiralty, and the Admiralty is one of the oldest organs of administration in this coun- try [England]. It is also quite unique in its con- stitution and characteristics. . . . The Admiralty, indeed, has no iixcd constitution. There are cer- tain documents which seem to define its duties, functions, and responsibilities, but the inner spirit of its working is not to be found in them. That is embodied in a whole mass of usages, precedents, prescriptions, and informal understandings, many of which have come down from time immemorial, none of which possesses the fixity of a constitu- tional text, while all are endowed with a flexibility which enables them to conform without stress or friction to circumstances as they arise in any emergency. Sir James Graham, a former First Lord of the Admiralty who had closely studied its constitution and who himself took a leading part in one of its most memorable reorganizations, de- clared in 1861 to a Committee of the House of Commons, 'The more I have investigated the mat- ter the more I am satisfied that, like the common law in aid of the Statute Law, the power exercised by the Board of .Admiralty and the different mem- bers of it rests more upon usage than upon the Patents, uninterrupted usage from a very early period.' Mention is here made of 'the Patents.' Each successive Board of Admiralty derives its formal authority from a Patent issued by the Crown, a new Patent being required whenever any change is made in the personnel of the Board. But these successive Patents are, and have been for more than two centuries, issued in substantially the same form. The Patent issued by Queen Anne vesting in Commissioners — now officially known as 'My Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty' — all the powers previously exercised by her husband. Prince George of Denmark, as Lord High Admiral, is, save for certain small alterations, omissions, and additions, textually identical with that issued to the present Board of Admiralty by King George V. From it is nominally derived all the authority ex- ercised by the Board of Admiralty over the whole naval service and over the civil departments sub- ject to its control, though in reality much of that authority is of much earlier origin and date. The Patent of Queen Anne is only one of a long series, though it derives its special importance, on the one hand, from the fact that it marks a break in that series, and on the other from the fact that it has survived to our own days. The essential thing to bear in mind is that the Board of .'\dmiralty as we know it is a body of Commissioners appointed by the Crown to execute the office of Lord High Admiral. Now the office of Lord High Admiral goes back to the beginning of the fifteenth century, its incumbent receiving a Patent of office just as the Board of Admiraltv receives a similar Patent to-day The powers conferred on successive Lords High Admiral varied from time to time and were gradually enlarged. As early as the reign of Henry VI. the Patent had received a form and scope not greatly differing from those of the Patent issued by Queen Anne and her successors. We need not, however, trace the office of Lord High Admiral through its expansion in the time of Henry VIII into an Office of Admiralty on the one hand and a Navy Board on the other, or through its vicissi- tudes in Stuart and Commonwealth times down to its final abeyance on the death of Prince George of Denmark. It was, it is true, revived for a short period early in the last century in favour of the Duke of Clarence, afterwards King William IV, but the revival proved so disastrous to the welfare and good government of the Navy that it soon came to an end, and for all practical purposes it may be said that the office of Lord High Admiral has been in commission since Prince George of Denmark died in 1709. But its spirit survives not merely in the Patent of Queen Anne but in an earlier declaratory Act passed in i6qo under Wil- liam and Mary to define the powers of a Board of Admiralty appointed at a time when the office of Lord High Admiral was in temporary abeyance. That Statute recited that 'all and singular authori- ties, jurisdictions and powers which, by Act of Parliament or otherwise," had been lawfully vested in the Lord High ."Kdmiral of England, haci always appertained and should appertain to the Commis- sioners for executing the office for the time being 'to all intents and purposes as if the said Com- missioners were Lord High Admiral of England.' Whatever, therefore, the Lord High Admiral, in the height and plenitude of his power, might law- fully do, that the Board of Admiralty may also lawfully do. Its power and authority extend far beyond the Patent and the Statute of William and Mary because both those instruments confirm the powers of the Lord High Admiral without at- tempting to define them." — C. Beresford, Book of the Navy, pp. 120-132. "We have dwelt upon this peculiar history be- cause it affords an instructive insight into those inestimable qualities of flexibility of administration and ready adaptability to circumstances which have made the Admiralty what it is. We have seen that both an Office of Admiralty — constitut- ing as it were the Staff of the Lord High Admiral — and a Navy Board existed as early as the reign of Henry VIII. The latter administered the civil departments connected with the Navy in greater or less subordination to the former, which in its turn performed many of the directive and execu- tive duties pertaining to the Lord High .\dmiral himself. This was no very logical distribution of the administrative work to be done, and those who are familiar with the history of naval administra- tion in the eighteenth century are well aware that there was constant friction between the Navy Board and the Admiralty and that the former became in the course of time a very hotbed of inefficiency and even corruption — vices, however, from which the Admiralty itself was not entirely free. Still, the system survived through the great wars of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centu- ries and provided a Navy which, thanks mainly to the zeal and devotion of the officers who served in it, was generally equal to the work it had to do. It was abolished in 1832, when Sir James Graham in a series of far-reaching reforms put an end to what was regarded as a mischievous dual control. The Navy Board, alwavs subordinate to the Ad- miralty, was then finally incorporated with the latter. . . . We must pass over the various forms which the Board of Admiralty has assumed since the Patent of Queen Anne finally settled such writ- 49 ADMIRALTY Functions ADMIRALTY ten constitution as it has, and come at once to its structure and organization at the present day The pivot and centre of the whole is the First Lord of the Admiralty. In the eighteenth century it was not uncommon for a naval officer of high rank and repute, such as Anson, Hawke, St. Vincent, Barham, and others, to hold the office of First Lord. But in more modern times the First Lord of the Admiralty has always been a civilian, and a politician with a seat in the Cabinet. The professional element so necessary to the govern- ment and control of a great fighting service is to be found in the naval members of the Board — Sea Lords as they are officially designated — and not in the statesman who presides over them. The pow- ers, functions, and responsibilities of the First Lord have never been very precisely determined. He is not a Lord High Admiral, since he is only the chief of a body of Commissioners for executing the office of that functionary, and the powers con- ferred by the Patent are conferred not on any indi- vidual but on 'any two or more of you.' Nor can he as a Minister representing his Department in the Cabinet and in Parliament act wholly inde- pendently of his colleagues on the Board. Theo- retically he could, perhaps, and there may in past times have been a few exceptional cases in which a First Lord has so acted. But in these days a First Lord who took important decisions in oppo- sition to the judgment of his professional colleagues would very soon find his position untenable. As a rule, then, the First Lord is the intermediary between the Cabinet and the Board, and the repre- sentative of his Department in Parliament, deriving immense authority and influence from the fact that — under the Cabinet which can always overrule him — he is directly responsible to Parliament and the country for the efficiency and sufficiency of the Fleet, the other members of the Board being in like manner directly responsible to him. . . . The Board of Admiralty as now constituted consists of the First Lord, who presides over it, of the First, Second, Third, and Fourth Sea Lords, of the Civil Lord, of the additional Civil Lord — who holds an office which formerly existed for a short time and was revived for special purposes by Mr. Churchill in January, 1Q12 — of the Parliamentary Secretary, and of the Permanent Secretary. The whole of the business of the Admiralty is distributed among these several members of the Board according to a standing scheme known as the 'Distribution of Business.' This scheme is modified from time to time and revised according to circumstances, but as it stands for the time being it clearly defines the sphere of administration for which each member of the Board is responsible. Thus, according to the scheme at present in force, the First Lord is responsible for the 'general direction of all busi- ness' — a comprehensive range of responsibility which of itself invests the First Lord with a large measure of authority over each and all of his col- leagues. The First Sea Lord is responsible for 'organization for war and distribution of the Fleet' and for all executive and administrative questions relating thereto. In particular he is charged with the supervision of the War Staff, about which we shall have more to say hereafter. The Second Sea Lord is responsible for all ques- tions relating to 'Personnel' and the Third Sea Lord for all questions relating to 'Materiel ' The Fourth Sea Lord is responsible for all questions relating to 'Stores and Transport,' The Civil Lord is respon- sible for all questions relating to 'Works, Build- ings, and Oreenwich Hospital.' and the .Additional Civil Lord for all questions relating to 'Contracts and Dockyard Business.' The Parliamentary Sec- retary is at the head of the department of 'Finance' and the Permanent Secretary superin- tends all '.Admiralty Business.' He controls the internal administration of the Department, and all communications from 'My Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty' pass through his office and are signed by him. . . . Thus all the master threads of a vast network of administration, affecting every branch of naval policy, naval preparation, naval construction, and naval finance, pass in due order into the Board Room, thence, after due delibera- tion and decision, to issue in the form of execu- tive orders and directions. This is the paramount function of the Board, a function which immemo- rial usage and that flexibility of adaptation which is native to the sea service enable it to discharge with rare efficiency and, on occasion, with unex- ampled celerity and dispatch, all Statutes, Patents, and Orders in Council notwithstanding. As Lord George Hamilton, a former First Lord of great experience, told a Royal Commission in 1887, 'It has this advantage, that you have all departments represented round a table, and that if it is neces- sary to take quick action, you can do in a few minutes that which it would take hours under any other system to do.' Lastly, there is one vital organ of naval administration which has already been mentioned above, but which will well repay some further consideration. This is the War Staff. In its present form the War Staff is a newly-con- stituted department — the country owes it to the initiative of the present First Lord — though its constituent elements, imperfectly articulated and co-ordinated, have existed at the Admiralty for many years past. .\ Foreign Intelligence Branch was first established in 1883. This developed in a few years into the Naval Intelligence Department, its development in that direction having been greatly advanced by that gallant and zealous offi- cer Admiral Lord Charles Beresford, who as Fourth Sea Lord of the Admiralty from 1886 to 1888 strenuously insisted on its vital importance, and is believed to have resigned in the latter year be- cause he could not overcome the apathy of his colleagues on the subject. The Naval Intelligence Department has now in its turn been absorb.cd into a fully constituted War Staff, of which the best description is to be found in the following extracts from a Memorandum drawn up by the present First Lord [Winston S. Churchill] and issued by the Admiralty on January i, 1Q12: — "'. . . Naval war is at once more simple and more intense than war on land. The executive ac- tion and control of fleet and squadron commanders is direct and personal in a far stronger degree than that of generals in the field, especially under mod- ern conditions. The art of handling a great fleet on important occasions with deft and sure judg- ment is the supreme gift of the admiral, and prac- tical seamanship must never be displaced from its position as the first qualification of every sailor. The formation of a War Staff does not mean the setting up of new standards of professional merit of the opening of a road of advancement to a dif- ferent class of officers. The War Staff is to be the means of preparing and training those officers who arrive, or are likely to arrive by the excellence of Iheir sea service, at stations of high responsibility for dealing with the more extended problems which await them there. It is to be the means of sifting, developing, and applying the results of history and experience, and of preserving them as a general stork of reasoned opinion available as an aid and as a guide for all who are called upon to determine, in peace or war, the naval policy of the country. . . . 50 ADMIRALTY ADMIRALTY ISLANDS " 'It should not be supposed that these functions find no place in Admiralty organization at the present time. On the contrary, during the course of years, all or nearly all the elements of a War Staff at the Admiralty have been successively evolved in the practical working of every-day af- fairs, and have been developing since the organiza- tion of the Foreign Intelligence Branch in 18S3. The time has now come to combine these elements into an harmonious and effective organization, to invest that new body with a significance and influ- ence it has not hitherto possessed, and to place it in its proper relation to existing power. " 'Since, however, under the distribution of Ad- miralty business on the Board, the First Sea Lord occupies for certain purposes, especially the daily distribution of the Fleet, on which the safety of the country depends, the position of a Com- mander-in-Chief of the Navy, with the First Lord immediately over him, as the delegate of the Crown in exercising supreme executive power, it follows that the War Staff must work at all times directly under the First Sea Lord. His position is different in important respects from that of the senior member of the .'\rmy Council as constituted. The First Sea Lord is an executive officer in active control of daily Fleet movements, who requires, like a General in the field, to have at his disposal a Chief of the Staff, but who is not the Chief of the Staff himself. " 'A proper staff, whether naval or military, should comprise three main branches — namely, a branch to acquire the information on which action may be taken; a branch to deliberate on the facts so obtained in relation to the policy of the State, and to report thereupon; and, thirdly, a branch to enable the final decision of superior authority to be put into actual effect. The War Staff at the Admiralty will, in pursuance of this principle, be organized from the existing elements in three divi- sions — the Intelligence Division, the Operations Di- vision, and the Mobilization Division. These may be shortly described as dealing with war informa- tion, war plans, and war arrangements respectively. The divisions will be equal in status, and each will be under a director, who will usually be a Captain of standin.'. The three divisions will be combined together under a Chief of the Staff. " 'The Chief of the Staff will be a Flag Officer. He will be primarily responsible to the First Sea Lord, and will work under him as his principal as- sistant and agent. He will not, however, be the sole channel of communication between the First Sea Lord and the Staff; and the First Lord and the First Sea Lord will, whenever convenient, con- sult the Directors of the various Divisions or other officers if necessary. . . . The Chief of the War Staff will guide and co-ordinate the work of the Staff in all its branches. He will, when de- sired, accompany the First Lord and the First Sea Lord to the Committee of Imperial Defence. . . . " 'The functions of the W'ar Staff will be advi- sory. The Chief of the Staff, when decision has been taken upon any proposal, will be jointly re- sponsible with the Secretary for the precise form in which the necessary orders to the Fleet are is- sued, but the Staff will possess no executive au- thority. It will discharge no administrative duties. Its responsibilities will end with the tendering of advice and with the accuracy of the facts on which that advice is based. " 'Decision as to accepting or rejecting the ad- vice of the Staff wholly or in part rests with the First Sea lord, who, in the name of the Board of Admiralty, discharges the duties assigned to him by the Minister. In the absence of the First Sea Lord for any cause the Second Sea Lord would act for him. . . . " 'The selection and training of the officers to compose a Staff of the nature described as impor- tant Hitherto no special qualifications have been regarded as essential for the officers employed in the Intelligence and Mobilization Departments, because the ordinary sea training of naval officers was supposed to supply all that was required. This training, however, although admirable on its practical side, affords no instruction in the broader questions of strategy and policy, which be- come increasingly important year by year, A change in this respect is therefore considered ad- visable, and a special course of training at the War College will form an essential part of the new arrangements. The President of the College will be entrusted with this important duty, and in order that it may be carried out to the best effect, he will at all times be in close touch and associa- tion with the Chief of the Staff. In course of time the appointment will be held by a Flag Offi- cer who has been a Staff Officer himself. Candi- dates for the Staff will be selected from volunteers among lieutenants of suitable seniority as well as officers of other branches throughout the Service irrespective .of their previous qualifications as specialist officers or otherwise, and those who pass the necessary examinations at the end of or during the War College course will be eligible to receive appointments either at the Admiralty or on the Staff of Flag Officers afloat as they fall vacant. In all cases, however, regular periods of sea-going executive duty will alternate with the other duties of Staff Officers of all ranks, in order that they may be kept up to the necessary standard as prac- tical sea officers. .'\ll appointments on sea-going staffs will in the course of time be filled by these officers, and form the proper avenue to eventual employment in the highest Staff positions at the ■Admiralty. . . ." — Ibid., 1,^3-137, 130-144. 1912-1920. — Reorganizations. — There have been two important reorganizations of the Admiralty in recent years, the first being part of Winston Churchill's naval schemes, the second made neces- sary by the increased responsibilities of the World War, In igi2, the various members of the board of Admiralty were made responsible for special functions: — the First Lord, general direction of business; First Sea Lord, organization for war and distribution of the fleet; Second Sea Lord, per- sonnel; Third Sea Lord, stores and transport; Civil Lord, works, buildings, and hospital; Additional Civil Lord, contracts and dockyard business; Par- liamentary Secretary, finance; Permanent Secre- tary, admiralty business. The reorganization of iqi7 took place on May 14, the principal feature being that a Naval Staff was embodied in the Board. At present fio::] the duties of the Ad- miralty are divided into the two departments of operations and maintenance. The first division has as its functions naval policy and the general direc- tion of operations, war operations in home waters and elsewhere, trade protection and anti-submarine operations. The officers in charge are the First Sea Lord and Chief of the Naval Staff, and the Deputy and .Assistant Chiefs of the Naval Staff. The maintenance division is in charge of the Sec- ond. Third, and Fourth Sea Lords, and the Civil Lord, and is concerned with personnel, finance, supplies and transport. ADMIRALTY ISLANDS, a small group of tropical islands, off the northeastern coast of New Guinea, forming a part of the Bismarck Archipel- ago. Became a German protectorate in 1884. The 51 ADMIRALTY LAW ADMIRALTY LAW principal island is Taui, or Manus. On September 12, igi4, they were occupied by an Australian force and were awarded to Australia as mandatory in igig. — See also Bismarck archipelago; Melane- sia. ADMIRALTY LAW, the system of law and procedure referring to maritime transactions. The term originated in England from the fact that this branch of law was originally administered by the Lord High Admiral. At present, the Court of Admiralty in that country forms a separate part of the High Court of Justice, being grouped with the Probate and Divorce Courts in a special division. Its jurisdiction includes actions to recover posses- sion of a ship, to recover damages for injuries to shipping, to recover seamen's wages, for necessaries furnished to a ship, for bottomry [a loan on the ship], respondentia |a loan on the goods in the ship] and mortgage, for pilotage and towage, for salvage, for restoration of goods taken by pirates, for assaults and batteries on the high seas and all actions of similar scope. In the United States, the federal judiciary possesses exclusive jurisdiction in all maritime cases. This includes all cases arising on the high seas or Great Lakes, and most of those on navigable rivers and canals within the territory of the United States. In this country there is no special Admiralty Court. .^dmiralty cases are heard in the first instance in the United States District Courts, from which they may be appealed to the Circuit Court of Appeals and finally to the United States Supreme Court. — See also Naval law: Court of Admiralty. 1183. — Law as to shipwrecks. — "The Emperor Constantine, or Antonine (for there is some doubt as to which it was), had the honour of being the first to renounce the claim to shipwrecked property in favor of the rightful owner. But the inhuman customs on this subject were too deeply rooted to be eradicated by the wisdom and vigilance of the Roman law givers. The legislation in favor of the unfortunate was disregarded by succeeding em- perors, and when the empire itself was overturned by the northern barbarians, the laws of humanity were swept away in the tempest, and the continual depredations of the Saxons and Normans induced the inhabitants of the western coasts of Europe to treat all navigators who were thrown by the perils of the sea upon their shores as pirates, and to punish them as such, without inquiry or discrim- ination. The Emperor Andronicus Comncnus, who reigned at Constantinople in 1183, made great efforts to repress this inhuman practice. His edict was worthy of the highest praise, but it cea.sed to be put in execution after his death. . . . VaUn says, it was reserved to the ordinances of Lewis XIV. to put the finishing stroke towards the ex- tinction of this species of piracy,- by declaring that shipwrecked persons and property were placed un- der the special protection and safe guard of the crown, and the punishment of death without hope of pardon, was pronounced against the guilty." — J. Kent, hilrrnntiPiHi! Ia-d\ p. 31. 1537. — Jurisdiction.— The act of 28 Henry VIII, c. T?, granted jurisdiction to the lord high admiral of England. 1575. — Jurisdiction.— "The request of the Judge of the Admiralty, to the Lord Chief Justice of her Majesty's bench and his colleagues, and the Judges' .Agreement 7th May 157,=;, "^by which the long controversy between these courts as to their rela- tive jurisdiction was terminated, will be found in full in E. C. Benedict, American Admiralty, 4lh ed., p 7,0. 1664. — Tide-mark. — The space between high and low water mark is to be taken as part of the sea, when the tide is in.— E. C. Benedict, American Admiralty, 4th ed., p. a. 1789. — United States Judiciary Act. — The Act of I78g declared admiralty jurisdiction to extend to all cases "where the seizures are made on waters which are navigable from the sea by vessels of ten or more tons burthen." — Judiciary Act, U. S. stat- utes at large, v. 1, p. 76. — See also Supreme Court: I78g-i835. 1798. — Lord Stowell and admiralty law. — "Lord Mansfield, at a very early period of his judicial life, introduced to the notice of the Eng- lish bar the Rhodian laws, the Consolato del Mare, the laws of Oleron, the treatises of Roccus, the laws of Wisbuy, and, above all, the marine ordi- nances of Louis XIV, and the commentary 'f Valin. These authorities were cited by him in Luke V. Lyde (2 Burr. 882), and from that time a new direction was given to English studies, and new vigor, and more liberal and enlarged views, communicated to forensic investigations." — J. Kent, Commentaries, pi. 5, lecture 42. — The old maritime codes brought before the English bar at this time were among the most important in the develop- ment of maritime law. The Rhodian laws dating back possibly to the third century stated that "if cargo is thrown overboard to lighten a ship all must contribute to make good the loss incurred for the benefit of all." The laws of Oleron, compiled in the twelfth century by order of Eleanor of Aquitaine were made up of the judgments of the court of Oleron, an important shipping center, and of the usages of the sea having force among the mariners of that island. The Consolato del Mare, compiled in the fourteenth century by the Catalans of Barcelona, was made up of the settled uses of trade and navigation of the maritime provinces of the Mediterranean. The laws of Wisby were the mercantile customs and regulations from Wisby, Sweden, compiled in the last years of the thirteenth century, and in force throughout the Baltic sea. They were the basis of the maritime regulations of the Hanseatic League. In 1681, Louis XIV had collected and systematised the whole law of ship- ping, navigation, marine insurance, bottomry, etc. — "Since the year 1708, the decisions of Sir William Scott (now Lord Stowell) on the admiralty side of Westminster Hall, have been read and admired in every region of the republic of letters, as models of the most cultivated and the most enlightened human reason. . . . The doctrines are there rea- soned out at large, and practically applied. The arguments at the bar, and the opinions from the bench, are intermingled with the greatest reflec- tions, . . the soundest policy, and a thorough acquaintance with all the various topics which concern the great social interests of mankind." — Ibid. 1803-1809 — Impressment of American seamen by British navy. See U S ,\ : 1803: Report on British impressment; 1804-1800. 1841-1842. — Jurisdiction. — The act 3 and 4 Vic, c b^, restored to the English .Xdmiralty some juris- diction of which it had been deprived by the Com- mon Law Courts. — E. C. Benedict, American Ad- miralty, p. .s6 1845. — Extension of admiralty jurisdiction. — "It took the Supreme Court of the United States more than fifty years to reject the antiquated doc- trine of the English courts, that admiralty juris- diction was confined to salt water, or water where the tide ebbed and flowed. Congress in 184S passed an act extending the admiralty jurisdiction of the Federal courts to certain cases upon the great lakes, and the navigable waters connecting the same. The constitutionality of this act was 52 ADMIRALTY LAW ADRIA seriously questioned, and it was not till. 1851 that the Supreme Court, by a divided court, in the case of the Genesee Chief, which collided with another vessel on Lake Ontario, sustained the constitu- tionality of the act, and repudiated the absurd doctrine that tides had anything to do with the admiralty jurisdiction conferred by the constitution upon Federal courts." — L. Trumbull, Precedent ver- sus justice {American Law Review, v. 27, p. 324). Also in: Act of 1845,5 U.S. Statutes at large, 726. 1873. — Division of loss in case of collision settled by Judicature Act. — "The rule that where both ships are at fault for a collision each shall recover half his loss from the other, contradicts the old rule of the common law that a plaintiff who is guilty of contributory negligence can re- cover nothing. This conflict between the common law and the law of the Admiralty was put an end to in 1873 by the Judicature Act of that year, which (s. 25, subs, g) provides that 'if both ships shall be found to have been in fault' the Ad- miralty rule shall prevail. . . . There can be no doubt that in some instances it works positive in- justice; as where it prevents the innocent cargo- owner from recovering more than half his loss from one of the two wrong-doing shipowners. And recent cases show that it works in an arbi- trary and uncertain manner when combined with the enactments limiting the shipowner's liability for damage done by his ship. The fact, however, remains, that it has been in operation with the approval of the shipping community for at least two centuries, and probably for a much longer period; and an attempt to abolish it at the time of the passing of the Judicature Acts met with no success. The true reason of its very general acceptance is probably this — that it gives effect to the principle of distributing losses at sea, which is widely prevalent in maritime affairs. Insurance, limitation of shipowner's liability, and general average contribution are all connected, more or less directly, with this principle." — R. G. Marsden, Two points of admiralty law (Law Quarterly Review, v. 2, pp. 357-362). An enumeration of the various maritime codes with their dates may be found in E. C. Benedict, American admiralty, pp. 88-Qq, 4tli ed. — G. B, Davis, Outlines of international law, pp. 5-6. 1917-1921.— Effect of Supreme Court de- cisions. See Supreme Court: 1017-1021. 1920. — American principle in admiralty pro- cedure. — Federal jurisdiction. — Federal and state regulations. — "The wisdom of our ancestors, in laying the foundations of the Republic, is in nothing more evident than in our organic regula- tions in relation to commerce. For all commercial purposes we must be one people; no different rules must be applied in our maritime commerce in the ports of different states; perfect freedom and equal- ity of trade and navigation amon,' ourselves is con- stitutionally secure. If it had not been so, long be- fore this time we should have been divided, weak and antagonistic sections, the fragments of our orig- inal Union. How easy it is to perceive that our har- mony might be interrupted, and our strength im- paired, if each state might adopt and enforce, on its half of a river, its section of a lake, its short stretch of coast, in its own ports and harbors and local waters, to which all states have a common right of use, a system of commercial and maritime law, repealing, or conflicting with that great sys- tem of commercial law which is known as the Admiralty and Maritime Law, and which alone can secure those equal state rights which it was one great object of the Constitution to protect." — E. C. Benedict, American admiralty, 4tli ed., p. 112 The Constitution of the United States pro- vides (Art. 3, Sect. 2) that the judicial power of the United States should extend to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction. Art. i, Sec- tion 8 gives Congress power to make all laws neces- sary to carry into execution the powers vested in the Federal government. The Federal Constitution adopted and established, as part of the laws of the United States, approved rules of the general maritime law, and empowered Congress to legislate in respect of them and other matters within the admiralty and maritime juris- diction. Moreover, it took from the states all power, by legislation or judicial decision, to con- travene the essential purposes of, or to work ma- terial injury to, characteristic features of such law, or to interfere with its proper harmony and uni- formity in its international and interstate relations. (Knickerbocker Ice Co. vs. Stewart, 1920), 253 U. S. 149). See also Armed merch.^ntmen ; Asylum, right of; Continuous voyage; Freedom of the seas: 1650-1815; Hague conference: IQ07; London, Declaration of; Navigation laws; Paris, Dec- laration of. ADOLPH of NASSAU (1255-1298), German king, son of Walram, count of Nassau, chosen king to succeed Rudolph I, on May 5, 1292, being crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle on July i. To strengthen his position in 1204 he allied himself with Edward I of England, against France, but failed to aid him. Was deposed in 1298 as a re- sult of the conspiracy against him by Albert I of Austria and VVenceslaus II of Bohemia, Albert suc- ceeding him. See Austria: 1291-1349. ADOLPHUS FREDERICK (1710-1771), king of Sweden. After being bishop of Liibeck, was in 1743 chosen as heir to the Swedish throne; became king in 1751 and reigned until 1771. Due to the wrangling in the Riksdag which was composed of the two political cliques, the Caps and the Hats, his position was without real power. See Sweden: 1720-1792. ADONIJAH, son of David; attempted to gain throne from Solomon. See Jews: Kingdoms of Israel and Judah. ADOPTION, Roman. See Roman FAinLv. ADOPTIONISM, a doctrine, condemned as heretical in the eighth century, which taught that "Christ, as to his human nature, was not truly the Son of God, but only His son by adoption." The dogma is also known as the Felician heresy, from a Spanish bishop, Felix, who was prominent among its supporters. Charlemagne took active measures to suppress the heresy. — J. I. Mombert, History of Charles the Great, bk. 2, ch. 12. ADOR, Gustave, (1845- ), president of Switzerland during igiq and during the World War was president of International Committee of the Red Cross. See Switzerland: Swiss Red Cross and the World War. ADORNI FACTION: Genoa. See Genoa: 1458-1464. ADOWA, Battle of. See Italy: 1895-1896. ADRAR, an oasis in the western part of the Sahara, on the caravan route of Morocco; by the agreement of 1892 a part of French Sahara. ADRENALINE, Isolation and development of. See Chemistry: Practical application: Drugs. ADRIA, a town and episcopal see in the prov- ince of Rovigo, Italy, the ancient Atria (the form Hadria is less correct) . About 30 miles southwest of Venice; was originally an island, and in the time of the Romans, a naval station and flourish- ing port but is now far inland; has numerous antiquities, having been successively an Illyrian, a 53 ADRIAN ADRIATIC QUESTION Greek, and a Roman town; population {1Q20) about 17,000. ADRIAN, or Hadrian (Lat. Hadrianus), the name of six popes. Adrian I, pope from 772 to 795; found it neces- sary to call upon Charlemangne to drive out Desi- derius, King of the Lombards, from the territory bestowed on the popes by King Pepin. .Adrian was faithful to the Prankish alliance throughout his reign. Charlemagne wrote the epitaph upon Adrian's death which may be seen to this day on the door of the Vatican basilica. Adrian 11, pope from 867-872, assuming his duties at an advanced age. He spent his last years in a vain effort to mediate between the quarrels of the Prankish princes. Adrian II was forced to sub- mit to Emperor Louis II in numerous temporal disputes. Adrian III, pope, succeeding Marinus I in 884. Died the following year while journeying to Worms. Adrian IV (Nicholas Breakspeare), pope from 1 1 54 to 1150, the only Englishman who has oc- cupied the papal chair; born at Langjey in Hert- fordshire before 1100; served as legate in Scan- dinavia from 1 1 52 to 1 1 54; placed Rome under the interdict because of the murder of one of the cardinals. Adrian I\' bestowed the soverei nty of Ireland on Henry H of England. In 11 55 he used drastic measures in putting down the democratic aspirations of the Roman people under Arnold of Brescia whom he succeeded in having executed. He virtually began the bitter struggle between the papal power and the House of Hohenstaufen and died just as he was about to march at the head of the Italian forces against Emperor Frederick I. Adrian V (Ottobuono de Fieschi), became pope July II, 127b, succeeding pope Innocent I\'; lived but five weeks following his election to the papal chair, dying at \iterbo on .August 18. Adrian VI (Adrian Dedel, 1450-1523), pope, 1522-1523; appointed tutor by the Emperor Max- imilian to his seven-year-old grandson, Charles, who later became Charles V. Adrian's former pupil made him regent of Spain in 1520, under which regency a serious revolt broke out. As pope, Adrian sought to correct many ecclesiastical abuses. Because of his brief occujiancy of the papal throne, however, his efforts as reformer were hardly effective. — See also Pap.^cy: 1522-1525; Sfain: 1518-1522. ADRIANOPLE (Hadrianople), a city in Thrace founded by the Emperor Hadrian and designated by hi? name. It was the scene of Con- stantine's victory over Licinius in 323 (see Rome: 305-323), and of the defeat and death of Valens in battle with the Goths (see Goths: Visigoths: 37Q-382; Rome: 363-370). In-1361 it became for some years the capital of the 'Turks in Europe. It was occu[)ied by the Russians in 1820, and again in 1878, and gave its name to (he treaty negotiated in 1820 between Russia and the Porte. In the first Balk:in War it was captured and annexed by Bulgaria; in the second, Bulgaria being at war with Greece. Serbia, Montenegro and Rumania, the Turks were able to recapture their ancient capital (1013). fSee Balkan States: 1878; 1Q12-1Q13; Turkey: 1012-1013.) .As a result of the World War, it is now included in the posses- sions of Greece — See also Balkan States: Map ADRIANOPLE, Treaty of, the treaty estab- lishing Greek in<lependence 'The uprising of the Greeks [1821] awakened general en(hii?ia=m throughout Europe, and m:my ardent lovers of ancient Hellas, among them the English poet Byron, volunteered to help in the Greek struggle for independence. In spite of many valorous deeds, the Greeks would have succumbed to the superior forces of Turkey had not Russia, England, and Prance intervened in their behalf. The Powers were induced to champion the cause of Greece chiefly through the influence of thousands cf their citizens in whom the memory of the ancient land of philosophy, literature, and art had roused an intense desire to see it freed from Turkish misrule. In 1827 the representatives of the Powers met in London and demanded an armistice of the Sultan; but before final arrangements for this were made, a Turkish squadron was destroyed by the fleets of the Allies at the Battle of Navarino. The Sultan was furious, and he determined to resist the de- mands of the Powers at all costs. England now withdrew from the alliance because she feared that a war might lead to the destruction of Turkey, a consummation which she by no means desired. Tsar Nicholas I decided to wage war on his own account. Russian armies defeated the Turks in several battles and began marching toward Con- stantinople. .'Vt the same time Prench armies drove the Turks out of Morea, or southern Greece. These reverses compelled the Sultan to sue for peace, and he signed the Treaty of Adrianople (1820) granting complete independence to Greece. In 1S33 the latter was organized as a constitutional monarchy with a Bavarian prince, Otto, as her first king." — J. S. Schapiro, Modern and contem- porary European history, p. 62S. — "By the settle- ment, Turkey virtually acknowledged the inde- pendence of Greece ; granted practical autonomy to Serbia and to the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia (modern Rumania) ; surrendered claims on Georgia and other provinces of the Cau- casus to Russia ; and recognized the exclusive juris- diction of Russian consuls over Russian traders in Turkey." — C. J. Hayes, Politkal and social history of modern Europe, v. 2, pp. 4Q-50. — See also Serbia: 1S04-1S17; Turkey: 1826-18213. ADRIATIC, Wedding of. See Vemce: 1177; 14th centiirv. ADRIA'TIC QUESTION.— FricUon between Italy and Jugo-Slavia. — Treaty of Rapallo, Nov. 12, 1920. — "We do not think we are wrong,' wrote the Weser Zeilung, in December, IQ16, 'in regarding the Adriatic question as the surest source of future discord within the ranks of the present Allies.' The grave events of which Piume and Ljubljana (Laibach) have lately been the scene, and which are the direct and natural result of the unsound principles underlying the Austro-Hungarian armistice, are giving point to the enemy's comment, and convince us of the need for plain speech, before the growing breach be- tween the Italians and Jugoslavs becomes irrepara- ble . . . The relations between Italy and the Jugoslavs are one of the pivotal problems of the war and its settlement, both as regards the fulfil- ment of the public pledges towards 'the small nations,' and also as regards territories once known as the Habsburg Monarchy." — R. W. Seton-Wat- son, Europe in the melting pot, p. 297. — "The areas involved in the dispute are not large com- pared with other regions which have been re- assigned fby the treaty of Versailles] nor are they particularly fertile or wealthy. They are, however, so situated as to be of considerable importance strategically and economically and the question of their control and of the allegiance of their inhabi- tants has become a matter of national honor and prestige. Questions of this type are especially deli- cate Concretely the clash is over the political future of the eastern part of the Tstrian Peninsula, the town and district of Fiume, northern Dalmatia, 54 ADRIATIC QUESTION yVew Italian Frontiers ADRIATIC QUESTION and a number of the islands of the eastern Adri- atic. Closely linked with these is the future of part of Albania. With the e.xception of the city of Fiume, which enjoyed a degree of local self-gov- ernment under the Hungarian crown, the disputed areas formed part of the former Austrian Empire. The population is predominantly South Slav, but in the towns, and notably in Fiume and Zara, there is an important ItaUan element. By the terms of the treaty signed by Austria, and that presented to Hungary, the principal Allied and Associated Powers are to dispose of these terri- tories. Italy has therefore the advantage of being both a judge and claimant." — A. P. Scott, Intro- duction to the peace treaties, p. 270. — By the treaty of Rapallo, November 12, 1920, between Jugo-Slavia and Italy, the city of Zara was as- signed to Italy, the remainder of Dalmatia being given to Jugo-Slavia. To the north Italy re- ceived a favorable frontier. Fiume was to be inde- pendent. All concerned seemed fairly satisfied with this compromise, with the exception of DAnnunzio, the master of Fiume, who at the end of 1920 still maintained his defiant attitude there, but he finally relinquished control and left the city. The civil authorities then adhered to the treaty, made peace with Italy and prepared to govern Fiume as an independent state. Problem of Italy's new frontiers. — "The story of Fiume is closely linked with the whole problem of Italy's new frontiers. Both in the Trentino on the north and in the region of the Isonzo on the east Italy suffered before the war from frontiers which were geographically unsound, and which invited invasion by a dangerous neighbor. The boundary ran either close to the southern margin of the Alps, or actually down on the piedmont plain south of them, leaving almost the whole of the formidable mountain mass in Austria as a well- nigh impregnable defense against Italy, while Italy remained virtually defenseless against possi()!e Aus- trian aggression. ... If we are to appreciate the Italian point of view, we must try to put our- selves in the position of a people who find the gateways into their country held by an hereditary enemy, who have often suffered from invasions through those gateways in the past, and who know that they are held by the enemy for the deliberate purpose of making any possible future invasion easy. Add to this the further fact that Austria's .strategic designs against Italy involved the enslave- ment of hundreds of thousands of Italians, both in the north and in the east, and it is not difficult to understand that the battle-cry of 'Trent and Trieste !' should awaken the fighting spirit of every patriotic Italian. Whatever the objectives of the then-existing government of Italy, it would seem clear that the great mass of the people, who knew nothing of the terms of the secret Treaty of Lon- don, entered the war not to subject large areas of Germanic and Slavonic territory to their rule, nor even to gain the port of Fiume, with its remote islet of Italian population ; rather, they entered the war in a fervor of exalted patriotism, to complete the great work of unification of Italy by freeing truly Italian territory from a foreign yoke, and to drive the enemy from the very threshold of their homes back into his own domain. Since certain aspects of the Trentino or Tyrol problem are in- separable from the story of Fiume, let us pass in brief review the salient features of that problem. The Italian Government demanded the whole Tren- tino, to the line of the Brenner Pass, and in the secret Treaty of London the Allies promised it as part of the compensation to be given Italy for her aid against the Central Powers. At the Peace Conference Italy increased her demands, claiming in addition to what the treaty allowed her several important areas on the northern slopes of the watershed having considerable strategic impor- tance. As the Italian claims would certainly be supported by racial, historical, geographic, and strategic arguments, it was necessary for the Amer- ican speciaUsts to examine fully into every aspect of the problem. It is true that in the drainage basin of the Adige River, forming most of the Trentino, the majority of the population is Italian. But it is equally true that even the Italian authori- ties on the distribution of races in the Trentino admit that the Italian majority is largely confined to the south, while the northern parts of the basin are overwhelmingly German and have been so for centuries. It was found possible to draw in the Trentino one of the cleanest-cut ethnographic frontiers in the world, leaving few Germans to the south and few Italians to the north of it. A care- ful study of the theory that the watershed cross- ing the Brenner Pass was the only natural north- ern frontier for Italy, and that the drainage basin of the Adige River constituted an indivisible geo- graphic unit, did not substantiate that view. In the Alps, as is so often the case in glaciated moun- tains, the drainage divide is in places determined by some insignificant topographic detail, such as a small moraine or a tiny alluvial fan in the bottom of a great valley. The Adige watershed, instead of following along Alpine ridges, actually descends into and cuts squarely across the floor of the Pusterthal, thus dividing in an accidental and ab- normal manner one of the most striking geographic units in the Alps. The true boundary between geographic units, the real topographic barrier sep- arating German and Italian lands in that part of the Alps east of the Brenner Pass, lies not on the watershed, but some distance south of it. Italy's historical claim to a frontier on the Brenner Pass seemed equally weak. The former extent of the Roman Empire over the coveted area could not seriously be regarded as a basis of territorial awards in the twentieth century. The argument that Napoleon's annexation of the upper Adige to the kingdom of Italy showed the military and po- litical necessity of granting Italy a frontier on the Brenner, fell to the ground in view of the fact that the 'Upper Adige' of Napoleon's time stopped far short of the Brenner and included little beyond the lands which to-day are unquestionably Italian. If Napoleon's action proved anything, it proved that that military genius did not regard a frontier on the Brenner as vital to Italy. Yet the strategic arguments in favor of Italy's claim to the whole of the Trentino were the strongest which rould be advanced. The long, narrow form of the Italian peninsula, by rendering peculiarly difficult the mobilization of Italy's man-power, makes the need of a strong frontier on the north especially urgent. Fifty per cent of the defenders of the frontier must come from south of the constriction of the peninsula near the latitude of Bologna, and must journey to and through that constriction on four main railway lines, of which three traverse the .'\pennines mountain barrier and two can be de- stroyed from the sea. Hence, Italy might with some show of reason demand a strategic frontier so strong that in case of attack a fraction of her man-power could defend it successfully against superior enemy forces until the whole could be mobilized. "The geographic character of Italy's northern frontier compels her to maintain two campaigns against a Teutonic or a combined Teutonic- Slavonic aggression. Italy's northern plain is vul- 55 ADRIATIC QUESTION Jugo-Slavia ADRIATIC QUESTION nerable from the north and from the east. The armies defending the eastern frontier depend upon supply lines which traverse the Venetian plain for ISO miles in sight of an enemy advancing over the northern mountains. Hence the eastern armies must always fight under the menace of a disaster which is inevitable if the enemy on the north suc- ceeds in reaching the plain and cutting their com- munications. In the present war Cadorna's eastern operations came to an abrupt halt in May, 1916, when he was compelled to transfer large forces westward to check the dangerous Austrian advance across the Asiago plateau almost to the edge of the plains. Irretrievable disaster to the eastern armies was narrowly averted. The magnitude of the Caporetto disaster, consequent upon the Teu- tonic armies' breaking through to the plains near the extreme eastern end of the northern frontier, enables one to picture the far more serious conse- quences which must ensue if ever the northern mountain barrier is breached farther west, and the communications of the eastern armies destroyed 150 miles in their rear. Since Italy's military forces will not admit of two offensive campaigns against so powerful an enemy, at least one of these cam- paigns must be defensive. Topographic conditions dictate that the defensive campaign should be the northern one, for a successful offensive across the main Alpine barrier, supported by but one through railway line, has less chance of success than an offensive in the east, where the terrain is less diffi- cult, railways are more numerous, and support by sea is possible. Hence we conclude that Italy's northern frontier should be strategically so strong as to render a defensive campaign In the north comparatively simple and assured of success, leav- ing the bulk of her forces free to defend the east- ern gateways. It so happens that the Central Alps provide a series of natural trenches and mountain barriers together constituting one of the strongest defensive terrains in the world. But the Austrian province of the Trentino drove a wedge clear through the system, rendering the defense of Italian territory extremely difficult, and assuring tremen- dous advantage to a possible Teutonic Invasion. In the opinion of the .'\merican specialists, to push the frontier nortliward only so far as the ethno- graphic frontier would still leave Austria, or Ger- many and Austria combined in case of their fu- ture union, in possession of very great strategic advantages over their Latin neighbor, advantages which might invite aggression. To push the bound- ary farther north, to the natural topographic barrier referred to above, would give reasonable protection to Italy by making invasion from the north so difficult as to be highly improbable, and would add the minimum German population to Italy compatible with securing a good geographic and defensive frontier for the southern Kingdom. To push the frontier clear to the Brenner and eastward into the Pusterthal, as Italy asked, would be to carry it far into purely Germanic territory, to enlarge the German irredenta to dangerous pro- portions, and to split the geographic and economic unit of the Pusterthal. In favor of the latter pro- posal it could, however, be urged that the terri- tory to the Brenner had secretly been promised to Italy by England and France in order to secure Italy's entry into the war on the .\llied side, that a frontier well advanced Into Germanic territory would still more effectively protect Italian terri- tory, and that generous treatment of Italy's de- mands on the northern frontier, where the moun- tainous terrain was not in any sense vital to the development of neighboring lands, might make Italy more willing to reduce her demands on the east where she claimed areas the annexation of which would render impossible the free economic development of her neighbors. "The Conference decided in favor of the most generous fulfilment of Italian ambitions on the north, and gave her not only all the territory to the watershed frontier promised by the Treaty of London, but in addition the Sexten valley district lying beyond the watershed and conferring impor- tant strategic advantages on its possessor. With Italy's frontier established In an impregnable posi- tion on the north, and all danger of invasion from that direction eliminated, we may now consider the eastern frontier in its proper relation to Italy's frontier problem as a whole. On the east the Italian Government had demanded as one of the conditions of Italy's entrance into the war, and in the Treaty of London England and France had promised to give, not only the ItaUan-lnhabited areas around Goritzla and Trieste, but vast areas of almost pure Slavonic country about the head of the Adriatic and on the eastern shores of that sea, as well as a large proportion of the Slav- populated Islands fringing the eastern coast. The American Government not only consistently re- fused to recognize the Treaty of London, a docu- ment held to be, both in the manner of its execu- tion and in Its precise terms, fundamentally in opposition to the very principles for which America was fighting, but early recognized the right of the Jugo-Slavs to rule themselves. President Wilson took certain other steps more or less incompatible with the fulfilment of the terms of the treaty, such as securing the consent of the Allied Powers to make peace on terms which provided for the determination of Italy's new frontiers 'along clearly recognizable lines of nationality.' Throughout the negotiations the American Government held to the view that the Treaty of London was obsolete in view of the disappearance of Austria-Hungary as a great Power (at whose expense the treaty was to have been executed), the agreement of the Allies to erect a new Jugo-Slav nation associated with them and Italy, the entry into the war of new nations not parties to the treaty, and the agree- ment of the Allies, Italy included, to make peace on a new basis of right and justice. . . , Such was the background of the thorny problem of Flume and the Adriatic when it came before the Peace Conference. Instead of reducing their territorial demands to accord with the provisions of the Pact of Rome and the Fourteen Points, the Italian representatives believed themselves justified in in- creasing them even beyond the limits of the Treaty of London. While insisting upon the execution of the Treaty of London in respect to the territories which it assigned to Italy, the Italian representa- tives asked that it be revised where favorable to the Jugo-Slavs, in order that Flume, definitely assigned to Croatia by the treaty, should be given to Italy. Other territories of much strategic or economic value, lying beyond the Treaty of Lon- don line, were also included in the Italian de- mands." — E. M. House and C. Seymour, What really happened at Paris, pp. 112-121. — See also LoNmiN', Tkkatv or pact of. Jugo-Slav contention. — "It is generally admitted that no frontier question before the Conference is so complex as that provided by the Adriatic, and yet, shorn of a multitude of secondary considera- tions which have been deliberately introduced, there is none in which it is easier to establish the facts. To take, for instance, the question of the nationality of the inhabitants of Flume, Dalmatia, etc. The facts in this matter are by no means difficult to ascertain. It has been suggested that 56 ADRIATIC QUESTION Treaty of London ADRIATIC QUESTION the Yougo Slav majority on the Adriatic coast was deliberately created for political purposes by the Habsburg authorities. The fallacy of this argu- ment is shown by the existence of no less than 60,000 Slavs who inhabited the district of the Udine, and who were there before there was a political, or even a national, Italy. Nor can it be allowed that Austria invented the Slav names of the cities, villages, rivers, and mountains of the Eastern Adriatic. Trieste, for instance, is built on purely Slovene territory. . . . Even the sons of Italian immigrants adopted Slav nicknames. We find the Magyar historian Fcst stating that 'they (the Italian immigrants) arc being Slavizcd by the local Slav influence.' In the fifteenth century the tradesmen of Fiume labelled their occupations with Slav words; thus, for instance, a bootmaker would be called postolar. The judges and priests of the same era were exclusively Slav. ... As a matter of fact, the history of the period 1392-1600 indi- cates the name of one hundred and seven local judges, all of whom, with the exception of twelve, were Slavs. We are further indebted to Kobler {Memorie, pp. 149-252) for a list of the judges of Fiume from 1651-1776, and among them the Ital- ian and German names are merely sporadic. When we examine the lists of the Church digni- taries, we find that from 1371-1780 twenty-one Archdeacons out of twenty-five were Slavs. From 1371-1626 there appear the names of forty Slav and only four Italian canons. So far as the dialect of the city is concerned, Professor N. G. Bartoli, of the University of Torino, has confirmed that this is of very recent origin. From Monfalcone to Albania, the Slav element has been autochtho- nous since the seventh century. It is true that in the coast towns it came under the influence of the stronger Latin culture, and began to use the Italian tongue in commercial intercourse with its neighbours. Yet ever since the decay of the Roman Empire, Dalmatia has maintained its de- votion to the Slavonic idea, concerning which Maz- zini and Tommaseo have written epic pages. This idea manifested itself in the national folk-lore and in the great works of the Slav poets, scholars, and artists of Dalmatia. And it is a significant fact that whilst at the courts of Italian princes and at the university of Florence the Serbo-Croatian lan- guage was placed next to Greek and Latin, Venice, the mistress of Dalmatia, did not benueath to the country a single national school or printing press. ... It is fundamentally wrong to judge the na- tional character of the Eastern Adriatic by marble monuments and a study of history which does not take into consideration the national spirit. The Italian, defeated in argument, will urge that in this dispute numbers alone cannot -decide. Yet,- for the sake of argument, even that theory may be ad- mitted, for the Yougo Slavs arc ready at any mo- ment to discuss the relative cultural progress of their peasantry in the occupied territory with any Italian groups save the Calahreze, Sicilians, etc. Yougo Slavs have urged since the beginning of this war that their problem should be discussed by the great Western democracies; but it is to be feared that the discussion has degenerated into propaganda of a more or less sensational order. The real point has been lost sight of. It -is not merely the question of Fiume, nor a certain area of Dalmatia, nor the Slovenian territory on the Isonzo which are at issue. These are all parts of the same problem — the accomplished fact of Yougo Slav unification and the attitude which should be adopted towards it by the Italian nation. The Yougo Slavs, as the children of the twentieth cen- tury and as collaborators in the Great War, ask that their problem should be solved on the basis of nationality, and not by jorce majeure. They, as a cultured people, do not relish being compared with the negroes of Middle Africa." — J. Yedlowski, Thoiighls on the Adriatic dispute (Balkan Review, June, rgig, pp. 375-378)- Treaty of London, April 26, 1915. — "The root of the whole evil lies in the secret treaty con- cluded on April 26, 1915, by Great Britain, France, and Russia with Italy. The main lines of this in- iquitous arrangement had already leaked out soon after its conclusion, but it was not until the Bolsheviks obtained control in Petrograd that the actual text of the treaty became known. . . . The territorial concessions thus secured by Italy in- clude, not merely Southern Tirol to the Brenner, Gorizia, Trieste, the line oi the Julian Alps to near Fiume, and the whole of Istria (with the islands of Lussin and Cherso), but also the whole of Northern Dalmatia, including Zara, Sebenico and their hinterland, and even the southern islands of Lissa, Lesina, Curzola, and Meleda. This involves the annexation of nearly three-quarters of a million Slovenes and Croats, living in compact masses and with a keenly developed national consciousness. . . . The Italian Government insisted, as a pre- liminary to negotiations, that the whole trans- action should be concealed from the knowledge of the Serbian Government. . . . Meanwhile, quite apart from all moral considerations, the terms of the treaty are entirely meaningless, save on the assumption that Austria-Hungary is to survive as a Great Power. . . . The effect of the treaty, when hints as to its contents trickled through to Austria, was exactly that which all competent observers had prophesied at the time. Italy, who by unre- servedly entering the war upon the basis of the Mazzinian principle of liberation, could have ral- lied all the subject-races of Austria-Hungary to her standard, saw herself regarded by them with alarm and suspicion, which Viennese and Magyar intrigue did everything to inflame. The false pol- icy of Sonnino and his group galvanized Austria- Hungary into fresh life, and has cost the lives of many thousands on both sides of the black-and- yellow frontier. Nothing can better illustrate the unnatural situation thus produced than the fact that while Austria-Hungary was employing every measure of repression and persecution against the Jugoslavs at home, and while thousands of their volunteers were 'fighting heroically in the ranks of the Serbian .Army in Macedonia and the Dobrudja, other Slav regiments stubbornly defended the Carso against Italy in the belief that they were saving their national territory 'from foreign im- perialistic designs. The absurdity of denouncing as Austrophile this action of a race of Austro- phobes is at last becoming clear even to the most wilfully blind: for the Serbs of the kingdom are absolutely solid with their kinsmen of Croatia and Slovenia in resisting Italian aggression. . . . From 1915-1017 Italy reaped the fruit of her'shortsighted policy, but nothing occurred to shake the attach- ment of the leading Entente statesmen to the old diplomatic methods. But the situation was com- pletely transformed by the Russian Revolution and the entry of America into the war. For, on the one hand, the young Russian Democracy, as yet free from Bol.shevist infection, repudiated the secret methods of Tsardom and inscribed the watchword of Self-Determination upon its banners; while, on the other hand, .America was entirely free from any European engagements and had not the slight- est intention of entangling herself in diplomatic commitments savoring of the Congresses of Vienna and Berlin." — R. W Seton-Watson, Europe in the 57 ADRIATIC QUESTION Congress at Rome ADRIATIC QUESTION melting pot, p. 299. — Sec abo Africa; Modern European occupation: igiS-io^o. Torre-Trumbitch agreement. — Congress at Rome (April 8-10, 1918).— Pact of Rome.— "In such circumstances it became more and more obvious that, unless professions and practice could be squared, eventual disaster was inevitable. As official circles in the three Western countries showed a complete inability to grasp this situation or to find a new and sounder basis of policy, a number of private individuals in Italy, France, and Britain set themselves to create a favourable at- mosphere in the press and public opinion for the new ideas. In particular an attempt was made to bring together the more progressive political lead- ers of Italy and the e.xiled Jugoslav representa- tives — it being recognised that an understanding between Italians and Jueoslavs was an essential condition to a sound collective Entente policy towards Austria, and therefore towards the whole problem of racial and political reconstruction in Southern Europe. .After a number of preliminary meetings and discussions, an agreement was reached last March, between Signor Torre, representmg a large proportion of Italian senators and deputies, and Dr. Trumbic, the President of the Jugoslav Committee and co-signatory with Mr. Pasic of the Declaration of Corfu of July, 1917. The Torre- Trumbic agreement formed the basis of the Con- gress of Oppressed .Austrian Nationalities which met in .April [loiSl in the Roman capital, and inaugurated a political campaign which contributed so materially towards sapping the final resistance of the Dual Monarchy. The public endorsement of the agreement by the Italian Premier, Signor Orlando, was generally regarded as an acceptance of the principle of revision of the London Conven- tion. . . . The inclusion in the .Austro-Hungarian armistice of the territorial line conceded to Italy , by the London Convention — a step which has ab- solutely no military sisnificance in view of the break-up of .Austria-Huncary into distinct national units — has not unnaturally been regarded in all Slav circles as the affirmation of Italy's extreme territorial claim. The fact that the Italians have not even rested content with the line assigned to them by the .Armistice, but have pushed forward into territory to which they have no conceivable claim, has greatly increased the danger of the situation and has led the Zagreb Government to lodge a formal appeal with the Entente, demanding that Italian troops shall be replaced by British, French, and .American troops on Jugoslav terri- tory, lest Italy should attempt by occupation to create some kind of title of possession. . . . Mean- while, the Pact of Rome remains the charter of all who still uphold the cause of Italo-Jugoslav friendship: and it is safe to assert that it will also remain one of the historic documents of the war. Its text runs as follows: The representatives of the nationalities subjected, in whole or in part, to the rule of .Austria-Hunear\- — the Italians, Poles, Roumanians. Czechs, and Jugoslavs — join in af- firming their principles of common action as fol- lows: (i) Each of these peoples proclaims its right to constitute its own nationality and State unity or to complete it and to attain full political and economic independence: f:) Each of these peoples recoenises in the Auslro-Hungarian Mon- archy the instrument of German domination and the fundamental obstacle to the realization of its aspirations and rights; (3) The assembly recog- nises the necessity of a common struggle against the common oppressors, in order that each people may attain complete liberation and national unity within a free State unit. The representatives of the Italian people and of the Jugoslav people in particular agree as follows: (i) In the relations between the Italian nation and the nation of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes — known also under the name of the Jugoslav nation — the representatives of the two peoples recognise that the unity and independence of the Jugoslav nation is a vital in- terest of Italy, just as the completion of Italian national unity is a vital interest of the Jugoslav nation. .And therefore the representatives of the two peoples pledge themselves to employ every effort in order that, during the war and at the moment of the peace, these decisions of the two nations may be completely attained; (2) They declare that the liberation of the .Adriatic Sea and its defense against every present and future enemy is a vital interest of the two peoples; (3) They pledge themselves also, in the interest of good and sincere relations between the two peoples in the future, to solve amicably the various territorial controversies on the basis of the principles of na- tionality and of the right of peoples to decide their own fate, and in such a way as not to injure the vital interests of the two nations, such as shall be defined at the moment of peace; (4) To such racial groups of one people as it may be found necessary to include within the frontiers of the other, there shall be recognised and guaranteed the right to their language, culture, and moral and economic interests." — R. W. Seton-Watson, Europe in the melting pot. p. 303. Summary of arguments of both sides. — "The great mass of arguments, maps, statistics, and rhetoric emanating from the rival camps may be roughly grouped as geographic, including strategic considerations and economic outlet to the sea; his torical, cultural, and nationalistic; and political, diplomatic, and practical. Perhaps the best way to secure some idea of the opposing points of view is through a summary of the claims and counter- claims, arguments and refutations, under these gen- eral headings. The Italians assert that the 'nat- ural' frontier of Italy follows the watershed of the .Alps around the north-east curve of the .Adriatic and down the mountain crests into Dalmatia and Albania. They are invincibly persuaded that Na- ture intended the .Adriatic to be an Italian lake. Their military and naval experts point out that the eastern coast of Italy possesses very few good harbors or naval bases, while the opposite coast of the .Adriatic contains maay. In order to end for- ever the possibility of a hostile navy in the .Adri- atic, Italy must control alt points of strategic value on the farther shore. Otherwise one of the principal objects of the war would be lost. From the military point of view the defensible mountain barrier of Dalmatia is a necessary precaution against a possible Balkan Confederation or a re- vived Pan-Slavism. The South Slavs and their sympathizers reply that they have no navy, that they could not possibly afford to build one, that they are willing to agree to disarmament under the League of Nations, to demilitarization of the eastern coast, and to the possession by Italy of a number of islands They point out that from the military point of view the defense of a narrow strip of difficult country, with poor communica- tions and across a body of water, would call for a large army, and would in an emergency prove a weakness rather than a source of strength, par- ticularly if it were purchased at the cost of the friendship of the South Slavs. The Italians have had some hopes of using the Dalmatian base for commercial penetration of tlie Balkans. .Again the South Slavs warn of the bad psychology of making enemies of potential customers. But vigorously 58 ADRIATIC QtUESTION ADVENTISTS and affirmatively the South Slavs claim the entire coast north of Albania as necessary to that 'free and secure access to the sea' which is guaranteed them by the eleventh of the Fourteen Points. To the Italian assertion that ample seacoast is left to them without northern Dalmatia and Fiume they retort that the closeness of the mountains to the sea makes it impossible to make extensive use of any port but Fiume except at prohibitive cost for construction and hauling. Only at Fiume is there a standard-pauRc railroad to the interior, and no- where else is it practicable to build one The Italians keep insisting that something 'just as good' might be improvised elsewhere, but neutral geog- raphers seem to agree with the Jugo-Slavs. It is admitted that Fiume is the natural outlet for the great hinterland of Hungary, for much of the South Slav territory, and in part for Czecho- slovakia and Rumania. The Italians insist that under their control it would continue to be avail- able for this purpose. Some critics, however, ex- press the suspicion that in practice Trieste would be favored. When the Itahans point out that only a relatively small part of South Slav com- merce used to go through Fiume the obvious an- swer is that, the new situation would be entirely different from that of the Magyar regime. "Historically neither state has claims of any par- ticular force. The Italians go back to the days of the Roman Empire, and the time when the Re- public of Venice held a part of Dalmiitia. They point to the Roman ruins; they speak feelingly of the impress of Italian culture on the whole eastern shore of the Adriatic. More stress is laid upon nationalistic arguments, and much emotion has been roused in favor of redeeming the Italian- speaking communities at Fiume, Zara, and other scattered centers. The South Slavs are equally vigorous in their nationalistic claims. They deny that the culture of the region is predominantly Italian. The language statistics show that about 07 per cent, of Dalmatia is Slavic. Even granting the most extreme Italian corrections of the .'\us- trian census, not over lo per cent, of the popula- tion is Italian. To the argument that this minority is the educated, progressive, civilized, capable, and hence politically dominant element, the South Slavs indignantly reply that the principle of self-deter- mination precludes the surrender of overwhelming majorities to any alien rule. They offer the most solemn guarantees that the ItaHan minority will be protected in its linguistic, religious, educational, and cultural rights; but an arrangement which would sacrifice nine or ten Slavs for the sake of 'redeeming' one Italian they denounce as a travesty, not a vindication, of the principle of nationalism. "From the practical point of view, both sides speak of the sacrifices made during the war, and the right to demand compensation. Officially they pomt out the advantages of concessions for the sake of future friendship; unofficially they accuse each other of imperialism. The Italians keep re- ferring to the Treaty of London ; the Slavs retort that they have never been officially informed that such a treaty exists; that they never agreed to it; and that in any case it has been rendered inopera- tive by the acceptance of the Fourteen Points. As a matter of fact the terms of the Treaty by which Italy was promised Istria and Dalmatia soon became known to the South Slavs both in Serbia and .Austria-Hungary. The Serbians regarded themselves as rather badly treated, and the Austro- Hungarian authorities used the news to stimulate their Croatian and Slovene recruits to hatred of Italy. On December q, iqig, an agreement was reached between the English, French, and Ameri- can representatives in Paris on the general prin- ciples which should determine the .Adriatic settle- ment. President Wilson had long before indicated the boundary line in Istria which seemed to him satisfactory. In general the South Slavs were will- ing to accept it, but the Italians did not regard it as strategically adequate. The creation of a sep- arate buffer state of Fiume was now proposed. Dalmatia was to go to the South Slavs. In their conferences at London early in iq2o the Italian, French, and British premiers drew up a somewhat different settlement, and attempted to force the South Slav Kingdom to accept it on penalty of having the Treaty of London put in force. Presi- dent Wilson with unexpected vigor denounced this proposal, and insisted that the principles of De- cember should not be modified. The compensa- tion of the South Slavs at the expense of Albania, which was part of the suggested settlement, he refused to countenance for a moment. All con- cerned then urged Italians and South Slavs to attempt to reach a settlement [which they did) by direct negotiation" — A. P. Scott, Introduction lo the peace treaties, pp. 271-275. — See also Aus- tria: 1Q17: Division into separate nationalities; B.\LKAN states: Map showing distribution of na- tionalities; Itai-y: igiS-igio; Fiume: Attitude of President Wilson, also 1919-1921 ADRIATIC SEA. — 1378-1379. — Battles be- tween Genoese and Venetians. See Venice: 1378-1379- 1915. — Naval operations of Italians and Aus- trians. — Closed by Italians. See World War; 1915: IX. Naval operations: b, 4. 1917. — Military operations of Austrians and lalians. See World War: 1917. IX. Naval operations: b. 1918. — Italian expedition to Pola. See World War: 1918: IX. Naval operations: b. ADRUMENTUM. See Carthage, Dominion of. ADUATUCI. See Belg.e. ADULLAM, a Canaanite city of Judea, the exact location of which is uncertain .Although David was said to have twice taken refuge in the "Cave" of Adullam, this is a scribal error, and his retreat was really the stronghold of the city. When he had been cast out by the Philistines, among whom he sought refuge from the enmity of Saul, "his first retreat was the Cave of .Adullam, probably the large cavern not far from Bethlehem, now called Khureitun. From its vicinity to Beth- lehem, he was joined there by his whole family, now feeling themselves insecure from Saul's fury. . . . Besides these were outlaws from every part, including doubtless some of the original Canaan- ites — of whom the name of one at least has been preserved, Ahimelech the Hittite. In the vast columnar halls and arched chambers of this sub- terranean palace, all who had any grudge against the existing system gathered round the hero of the coming age." — Dean Stanley, Lectures on the his- tory of the Jewish church, lect. 22. — In modern American and British politics the expression "Cave of Adullam" has been frequently used to denote any body of seceders or political irreconcilables. .Abraham Lincoln in 1864 and John Bright in 1866 used the term. ADULLAMITES. See Engund: 1865-1868; Liberal p.^^rtv: 1866-1900. ADVENTISTS.— "This is the general name of a family of denominations whose leading tenet is a belief in the proximate and personal second com- ing of Christ. The movement began in Massachu- setts in 1 83 1, under the leadership of William Miller, who previously had been a member of the Baptist Church. As a result of much study of the 59 ADVOCATUS iEGEAN prophecies, Miller became convinced that the sec- ond coming of Christ was near at hand, and began to lecture on the subject. In 1833 he published a pamphlet entitled 'Evidences from Scripture and History of the Second Coming of Christ about the year 1843 and of His Personal Reign of One Thou- sand V'ears.' Miller made many converts to his views, and the doctrine announced in his pamphlet was widely proclaimed. Upon the failure of his prophecy for the year 1843, he fixed 1844 — to be exact, October 22 of that year — as the date of the second advent. When this prophecy failed, his fol- lowers became divided. It is estimated that at the time of Miller's death (1840) they numbered 50,000. As a result of various divisions, there are now six bodies of Adventists, who, as a rule, sim- ply await the second coming of Christ without attempting to fix a date for it All hold, however, that it is near at hand, and they generally look for the personal reign nf Christ on earth. All agree also in practicing immersion as the mode of baptism" — M. Phelan, Handbook of all denomina- tions, p. q. ADVOCATUS (Vogt), a layman of high stand- ing who "represented the abbey in its dealing with the outside world. . . . The advocate of a large monastery, especially if, as was often the case, he held the advocacy of several houses at once, tried naturally to make his office hereditary. . . . The advocacy of the Frauenmiinster at Ziirich by the Hapsburg family was the entering w'edge for their claims over the Forest Cantons which finally re- sulted in the formation of the Swiss Confedera- tion," — E. Emerton, Medieval Europe, p. 574. ADWALTON MOOR, the scene of a battle fought near Bradford in Yorkshire, England, June 2Q, 1643, in which the Parliamentary forces, under Lord Fairfax, were routed by the Royalists, under Newcastle. — C. R. Markham, Life of the great Lord Fairfax, ch. 11. ADYE, Sir John (1857- ), British major- general who captured Ukerewe Island in igi6. See World War: iqi6: VII African theater: a, 12. Defense of southern Egypt. See World War: 1016: V'l. Turkish theater: b, 1. ADYNATI, those who, because of physical in- firmity, received pensions from the Athenian state. JEACl^M (.ffiakids), the supposed descendants of the dcmi-god .^acus, whose grandson was Achilles. Miltiades, the hero of Marathon, and Pyrrhus, the warrior King of Epirus, were among those claiming to belong to the royal race of .r^acida;. JEACVS. See ^acid.i! (.-Eakids) ; Myrmi- dons. /EDESIUS (d. A.D. 355), Neoplatinist philos- opher. See Abyssinia: 4th centurv. ,ffiDHILING. See .^thel; ^^'thelino. .£DILE, the name of a certain class of magis- trates in ancient Rome. According to Cicero the aediles were supposed to take care of the city's various departments, to have jurisdiction over pro- visions and correctness of weights and measures and to superintend and organize the public games. The office was created in the year 404 B. C The name is probably derived from (rdis. meaning tem- ple, since one of the chief duties of the jediles was to take care of the temple of Ceres. Their persons >vere inviolable. See Civil law: B.C. 471 ; Rome: B. C. 404-402; 133. /EDILES PLEBIS. See Suffrage, Manhood: B C. 3d century. .^DUI. — "The two most powerful nations in Gallia were the .-I'^dui lor Hsdui] and the Arverni. The /Edui occupied that part which lies between the upper valley of the Loire and the Saone, which river was part of the boundary between ihem and the Sequani. The Loire separated the /Edui from the Bituriges, whose chief town was Avaricum on the site of Bourges. At this time [121 B. C] the Arverni, the rivals of the .-Edui, were seeking the supremacy in Gallia. The Arverni occupied the mountainous country of Auvergne in the centre of France and the fertile valley of the Elaver (Allier) nearly as far as the junction of the Allier and the Loire, . . . They were on friendly terms with the Allobroges, a powerful nation east of the Rhone, who occupied the country between the Rhone and the Isara (Isere). ... In order to break the for- midable combination of the Arverni and the Allo- broges, the Romans made use of the ^dui, who were the enemies both of the Allobroges and the Arverni. ... A treaty was made eit,her at this time or somewhat earlier between the ,4idui and the Roman senate, who conferred on their new Gallic friends the honourable title of brothers and kinsmen. This fraternizing was a piece of political cant which »he Romans practiced when it was use- ful." — G. Long, Decline of the Roman republic, v. I, ch. 21. — Later the Sequani, neighbors with whom the .'Edui were continually at odds, invaded them. The .'Edui appealed to the Roman senate for help; but it was not forthcoming until Caesar's arrival in Gaul (58 B. C), when he restored their inde- pendence. — See also Gaul; Csesar's description. A. E. F. Popular abbreviation for the American Expeditionary Forces in the World War. See Amer- ican Expeditionary Forces. .SGATIAN ISLES, Naval battle of (241 B C) See Punic War, First. .ffiGEALEA, .SGEALEANS. — The original name of the northern coast of Peloponnesus, and its inhabitants. See Greece: Migrations. .SGEAN, that part of the Mediterranean sea lying between Greece and Asia Minor, connected by the Dardanelles with the Sea of Marmora and the Black sea. It washes the shores of a large number of islands known as the Grecian archi- fielago. Before the World War groups of these islands, including the Cyclades, the Northern Sporades, Euboea and a few others belonged to Greece, the Dodecanese to Italy, and most of the others to Turkey. After the war all of the islands belonging to Turkey, except Imbros, Tenedos, and Castelorizo, and all the Dodecanese except Rhodes, were ceded to Greece. The rocky elevations 01 these islands, many of which are of volcanic forma- tion, though they lend a most picturesque appear- ance to the .^-^^gean, nevertheless render navigation by large modern vessels especially hazardous. Some of the larger islands contain well watered and fertile valleys in which are raised the usual liroducts of Mediterranean lands. The inhabitants arc of the vigorous Greek type. 60 -ffiGEAN CIVILIZATION ^GEAN CIVILIZATION -ffiXJEAN CIVILIZATION The ancient culture of the eastern Mediterranean basin, covering the period up to 1200 B. C, and including Greece, the islands of the .^i^gean sea, Crete and parts of North Africa, has been vari- ously designated Mycenx'an, Minoan, and ^gean. The terra Mycensan, however, has in recent years been to a great extent displaced by the other two. "Whether the word Minoan was the best one to substitute is of course another matter. It is argued by some German archaeologists, such as Dr. Dorpfeld and Professor Reisch, that it is absurd to describe periods that stretch over thousands of years by a name that was presumably given to one particular historical personage. For the plea which they put in for the time-honoured word Mycenaean, consecrated by Schliemann's epoch- making discoveries, we have much sympathy, and there is no doubt that the ambiguity that now involves the term Mycena;an, used sometimes in its old generic and sometimes in its new specific sense, will, for a long time to come, lead to confusion. On the other hand the argument that the term is inapplicable to the early periods that are almost unrepresented at or near Mycens is unanswer- able. . . . 'yEgean,' on the other hand, which Pro- fessor Reisch supports, will possibly prove ulti- mately the best generic word for the civilization as a whole, while Mycenaean and Minoan will fit into it, as representing certain stages of its devel- opment in different localities. . . ." — R. M. Bur- rows, Discoveries in Crete, pp. 41-42. "Till recently historians have begun their account of Greek affairs with the eighth century B. C, some of them precisely with the year 776; and for the first century and a half they have given hardly more than a few bare dates. But all this has been changed by explorations in the .-Egean area. The pioneer in the work was Heinrich Schliemann. In his boyhood he learned the stories told by the Hellenic poet Homer of the deeds of mighty heroes during the Trojan war; and thinking them real history, he believed the ancient city of Troy might be found buried beneath the earth. To achieve this task became the inspiration of his life. After amassing a fortune in business, in 1870 he began digging on the hilltop where, from Homer's description, he concluded Troy must have stood. This hill is in northwestern Asia Minor, not far from the sea. The result more than justified his hopes. On this spot he and his successor in the work unearthed the ruins of nine settlements, built above one another and belonging to different ages. It is calculated that the lowest settlement, a rude village, was inhabited about 3500 B. C, and that the sixth, which shows a highly developed civiliza- tion, flourished isooriooo. Afterward Schliemann excavated Tiryns and Mycenae in Argolis, Greece. They were contemporary with the sixth city at Troy. Mycenae showed such signs of wealth and culture that he believed it to have been the centre of the civilization which flourished at that time on the shores of Greece and in Troy. Hence he called the civilization Mycenican." — G. W. Botsford, His- tory of ancient world, p. 68. EXCAVATIONS AND ANTIQUITIES Mycenaean area: Researches at Troy, My- cenae, Tiryns and Vaphio. — "In 1882 Schliemann went to Troy again, and resumed his excavations in company with a German architect, Dr Dorp- feld, whose help was of the greatest value. Schlie- 61 mann himself was no architect, and was not even a scientifically-trained observer ... he was often too downright in his methods, and might at times be accused of vandalism in the pursuit of his end —the discovery of the Heroic civilization of Greece. He cut through everything ruthlessly. . . . Dorpfeld was a guarantee of more scientific methods, necessary in a site like Troy, with its su- perimposed strata of different ages of settlement, very different from the simple grave-clearing at Mycenae. The result of the renewed work was eventually the discovery of the 'Mycenaean' city of Troy."— H. R. Hall, /Egean archaotogy, p. 8.— "Dr. Dorpfeld finished in 1804 the exploration which he had begun in i8q3 on the site of the excavations of Schliemann at Hissarlik (Troia). It appears to be established that Schliemann, carried away by his zeal, had overlooked the very end which he wished to attain, and that the burnt city, which he thought to be the real Troia, is a more ancient foundation going back beyond the year 2000 B. C. M. Dorpfeld discerned, in one of the layers of ruins (discovered but disregarded by Schliemann), a city which must be the Ilios of Priam contem- poraneous with the Mykenai of Agamemnon: he removed the surrounding walls, the towers, and some of the houses that filled it. It is to be under- stood that this little acropolis, analoous to that of Tiryns, is not the whole of the city but simply its citadel, which Homer called 'Pergamos.' It was surrounded, lower down, by a city reserved for the habitation of the common people, some traces of which also have been found." — American Joiir- iiai of Archceology, iSoo. — "There was no doubt as to the position of Mycens, as there had been about that of Troy. The Lion Gate was there, marking the ancient site which since 456 B.C. had been desolate. Schliemann passed through and struck spade into the earth beyond it in the year 1878 A. D. Immediately beyond the gate was a circular space enclosed by weather-worn and lichen-covered stone slabs. Within this stone circle Schliemann dug and discovered what he hoped to find: the graves of the heroes of Mycenae men- tioned by Pausanias. . . . Pausanias says there were six graves. Schliemann found five, and then stopped. After he left, a sixth was found. . . . Outside the grave-precinct was found amid house- ruins a stone chamber possibly a cellar, into which had been placed a remarkable treasure of gold, consisting of solid drinking-cups, and some fine signet-rings which are famous on account of the curious religious scenes engraved upon them. . . . Looking out over the ravine are the two great 'beehive tombs' or tholoi, known as the 'Treasuries of .'\treus and Klytaimnestra.' . . . Atreus's Treas- ur>- has indeed lost the two great pilasters of grey-green stone that seemed to support the heavy architrave of its entrance-door. . . . The interior, though but 50 feet in height, is more impressive than anything Egypt has to show. . . . The great explorer interrupted his Trojan work in 1884 to go to Tiryns. "The result of the excavations of 1884 and 1885 was the discovery of the ground plan of a palace within the walls, placed on the top of the long rock, sixty feet above the plain. Its entrance gate, with doorposts and threshold of breccia is as huge as are the casemates. The plan of the palace itself shews that it was a building of later date than the wall-framework, and quite lately renewed excava- tions have brought to light the remains of a much JEGEAN CIVILIZATION Cretan Area iEGEAN CIVILIZATION earlier palace. At Tiryns Schliemann found the famous kyanos-frieze, the remains of a carved ala- baster slab-decoration inlaid with hard blue glass, which at once was identified as the Homeric kyanos. Here, too, were found fragments of wall- painting which gave a foretaste of what was to come at Knossos. ... In i8Sq our knowledge of prehistoric Greek art took a great step in advance when the 'beehive tomb' at Vaphio in Laconia was e.xcavated b.\ Mr. Tsountas for the Greek Ar- chslogical Society, and the famous 'Vaphio Cups' were found. . . . Later finds in Crete have shown us that they could make better things than the Vaphio Cups; but in iSSq these two little golden vases with their repousse designs of men captur- ing bulls were regarded as extraordinary. It is not too much to say that the X'aphio Cups re- called the flagging attention of the world of artists and archsologists to the work of excava- tion in Greece. Big discoveries were now looked 1300 B. C.) is certain from the distinctive Myce- nasan pottery that was found in it : Schliemann, however, with his rough-and-ready methods, had not identified it. This distinction was reserved for Dbrpfeld, and was the result of his more sci- entific operations. The discovery was announced in 1803. • • ■ Schliemann intended to follow up his work, but difficulties ensued with the Turkish authorities in the island with regard to the ac- c|uisition of the site, and death carried him off before he could get to work. We may — with all respect to Schliemann's memory be it said — be not altogether sorry that his somewhat summary methods were not allowed by fate to be exercised on Knossos, and that it was written that not he, but the Englishman Evans, was to excavate the palace of Minos and the Italian Halbherr to dis- inter the companion palace at Phaistos. Both were, when they began their work trained scholars and archaeologists, and the excavation of these two THE THRONE ROOM AT CNOSSUS Showing tbrniie and fresco of hemldic gnardiaii Hon for. They did not come at once, but when they did the promise of the V'aphio Cups was more than fulfilled. In iSqo and. i8qi the 'beehive tombs' at Thorikos in Attica and at Kampos in Messenia were excavated by Tsountas, and in the last-named was found the well-known leaden statuette of a man making an offering which has figured in so many books as a good illustration of Mycensan male costume "The next important event after the discovery of the \'aphio Cups was the identification of the Sixth Trojan City as Mycensan, or affected by Mycensan influence. ... It is the Sixth City, however, which succeeded the second after its total destruction by burning (after an interval filled by three small village settlements in suc- cession) that is undoubtedly the Troy of legend, round which gathered the traditions of the great siege. It was the only important settlement after the Second City, the succeeding settlements being unimportant and unjustified. Its date (circa 1400- splendid monuments of the older civilization of Greece could not have fallen into more capable hands than theirs." — H. R. Hall, Aigean arcltce- ology. pp. Q-27. Cretan area.— Results c»f extraordinary im- portance have been already obtained from explo- rations in Crete, carried on during i8qo and 1900 by the British School at .Athens, under the direc- tion of Mr. D. G. Hogarth, and by Mr. .\rthur J. Evans, of the .Ashmolean Museum, working with the aid of a small Cretan Exploration Fund, raised in England. The excavations of both par- ties were carried on at Knossos. but the latter was the most fortunate, having opened the site of a prehistoric palace which is yielding remarkable revelations of the legendary age in Crete. In a communication to the London Timfs of October 31, iQoo, Mr. Evans gave the following account of the results so far as then obtained: "The discoveries made at Knossos throw into the shade all the other exploratory campaigns of 62 ^GEAN CIVILIZATION Cnossus ^GEAN CIVILIZATION last season in the Eastern Mediterranean, by whatever nationality conducted. It is not too much to say that the materials already gathered have revolutionized our knowledge of prehistoric tireece, and that to find even an approach to the results obtained we must go back to Schliemann's great discovery of the Royal tombs at Mycenae. The prehistoric site, of which some two acres have now been uncovered at Knossos, proves to con- tain a palace beside which those of Tiryns and Mycenae sink into insignificance. By an un- hoped-for piece of good fortune the site, though in the immediate neighbourhood of the greatest civic centres of the island in ancient, medieval, and modern times, had remained practically un- touched for over 3,000 years. At but a very slight depth below the surface of the ground the spade has uncovered great courts and corridors, propy- laea, a long succession of magazines containing gigantic store jars that might have hidden the I'orty Thieves, and a multiplicity of chambers, [ire-eminent among which is the actual throne- nium and council-chamber of Homeric kings. The throne itself, on which (if so much faith be jiermitted to us) Minos may have declared the law, is carved out of alabaster, once brilliant with coloured designs and relieved with curious tracery and crocketed arcading which is wholly unique in ancient art and exhibits a strange anticipation of i.^th century Gothic. In the throne-room, the western entrance gallery, and elsewhere, partly still adhering to the walls, partly in detached |)ieces on the floors, was a series of fresco paint- ings, excelling any known examples of the art in Mycenaean (!reece. A beautiful life-size paint- ing of a youth, with a European and almost clas- ■-ically Greek profile, gives us the first real knowl- edge of the race who produced this mysterious early civilization. Other frescoes introduce us to .t lively and hitherto unknown miniature style, representing, among other subjects, groups of women engaged in animated conversation in the courts and on the balconies of the Palace. The monuments of the sculptor's art are eciually strik- ing. It may be sufficient to mention here a mar- ble fountain in the shape of a lioness's head with enamelled eyes, fragments of a frieze with beauti- fully cut rosettes, superior in its kind to anything known from Mycenae ; an alabaster vase natu- ralistically copied from a Triton shell ; a porphyry lamp with graceful foliation supported on an Egyptianising lotus column. The head and parts of the body of a magnificent painted relief of a bull in gesso duro are unsurpassed for vitality and strength. "It is impossible here to refer more than inci- dentally to the new evidence of intercourse be- tween Crete and Egypt at a very remote period supplied by the Palace finds of Knossos. It may be mentioned, however, as showing the extreme antiquity of the earlier elements of the building that in the great Eastern Court was found an Egyptian seated figure of diorite, breken above, which can be approximately dated about 2000 B. C. Below this again extends a vast Stone Age settlement which forms a deposit in some places 24 ft. in thickness. "Neither is it possible here to dwell on the new indications supplied by some of the discoveries in the 'House of Minos' as to the cult and religious beliefs of its occupants. It must be sufficient to observe that one of the miniature frescoes found represents the facade of a Mycenaean shrine and that the Palace itself seems to have been a sanc- tuary of the Cretan God of the Double Axe, as well as a dwelling place of prehistoric kings. 63 There can be little remaining doubt that this huge building with its maze of corridors and tortuous passages, its medley of small chambers, its long succession of magazines with their blind endings, was in fact the Labyrinth of later tradition which supplied a local habitation for the Minotaur of grisly fame. The great figures of bulls in fresco and relief that adorned the walls, the harem scenes of some of the frescoes, the corner stones and pillars marked with the labrys or double axe — the emblem of the Cretan Zeus, explaining the derivation of the name 'Labyrinth' itself — are so many details which all conspire to bear out this identification. In the Palace-shrine of Knossos there stands at last revealed to us the spacious structure which the skill of Daedalus is said to have imitated from the great Egyptian building on the shore of Lake Moeris, and with it some part at least of his fabled masterpieces still cling- ing to the walls." — Up to iqo6 Sir Arthur Evans attracted the attention of archseologists to his excavations at Cnossus, where he recovered nu- merous valuable specimens of ancient art, which were deposited in the museum at Candia. Par- ticular interest attaches to the architecture of the palace, disclosing among its wonders a remarkable grand staircase with decorated walls, and a series of sunken rooms which presumably were baths. Much, no doubt, still remains to be brought to light in this region ; various circumstances have combined since 1Q06 to arrest the progress of the work. In the early 'sixties of last century the site of Phaestus, or Phaistos, was discovered by a British naval officer. A famous city in the legen- dary history of ancient Crete, Phaestus boasted a palace outranking even that of Cnossus. This building, together with a similar one on a lesser scale of magnificence and situated to the east of it, was uncovered by Italians. Among the treasures recovered were some fine specimens of gilt stone cups, imitations of the Vaphio, of c. 1600 B.C. A pottery sarcophagus, representing scenes from funeral ceremonials, was discovered in iqoS. At Phaestus the British school discovered several in- scriptions dating from the sixth century B.C. The characters seem to be (Jreek but the language it is impossible to read. Scholars believe that it is related to the non-Aryan tongues which were spoken in its near neighborhood. Its chief inter- est to us lies in the fact that it is undoubtedly the speech of the Bronze Age Cretans with their pictographs and hieroglyphics. To the east at Palaikastro the work of the British school was crowned with complete success. Here they dis- covered a complete town with shaft graves and cups corresponding in style and age to those at Mycenae. Nearby Professor Myres discovered some interesting pottery showing the dress and costumes of the Minoan of the Middle Ages. A little further south Mr. Hogarth excavated a site of the best period with many fine vases and clay impressions of seals, which emphasized the bizarre side of Cretan art. — See also Greece: ,1£gean or Minoan civilization. Upon the advice of Dr. Evans, two Americans, Miss Harriet Boyd and Mr. R. B. Seager, discov- ered in iqo3 a complete little town of the Bronze age called Gournia. This town like Pompeii now stands with its streets and houses opened to the sky. Its surprisingly narrow streets, the rough- walled chambers of its houses and its more pros- perous market places give us a good idea of how the ordinary people of the Bronze age lived. Nearby at Pseira Mr. Seager found some objects of art which compared favorably in workman- ship and beauty with the best products of the JEGEAN CIVILIZATION Significance of Cretan Discoveries ^CEAN CIVILIZATION Japanese. On the small island nearby, Mochlos, Mr. Seager discovered several tombs in which were found furniture of thin gold and beautiful little vases of stone. These objects are contemporary with the second city of Troy. — Brilliant as are the illustrations thus recovered of the high civili- zation of Crete and of the substantial truth of early tradition, they are almost thrown into the shade by a discovery which carries back the ex- istence of written documents in the Hellenic lands some seven centuries beyond the first known monuments of the historic Greek writing. In the chambers and magazines of the Palace [of Cnos- sus] there came to light a series of deposits of clay tablets, in form somewhat analogous to the Baby- lonian, but inscribed with characters in two dis- tinct types of indigenous prehistoric script — one hieroglyphic or quasi-pictorial, the other linear. The existence of a hieroglyphic script in the island had been already the theme of some earlier re- searches by the explorer of the Palace, based on the more limited material supplied by groups of signs on a class of Cretan seal-stones, and the ample corroboration of the conclusions arrived at was, therefore, the more satisfactory. These Cretan hieroglyphics will be found to have a spe- cial importance in their bearing on the origin of the Phoenician alphabet. "But the great bulk of the tablets belonged to the linear class, exhibiting an elegant and much more highly-developed form of script, with let- ters of an upright and singularly European aspect. The inscriptions, over i,ooo of which were col- lected, were originally contained in coffers of clay, wood, and gypsum, which had been in turn se- cured by clay seals impressed with finely-engraved signets and counter-marked and counter-signed by controlling officials in the same script while the clay was still wet. The clay documents them- selves are, beyond doubt, the Palace archives. Many relate to accounts concerning the Royal Arsenal, stores, and treasures. Others, perhaps, like the contemporary cuneiform tablets, refer to contracts or correspondence. The problems at- taching to the decipherment of these clay records are of enthralling interest, and we have here locked up for us materials which may some day enlarge the bounds of history." — London Times, Oct. 31, 1000. In an earlier communication to The Times (Sep- tember 15), Mr. Evans had explained more dis- tinctly the importance of the clay tablets found at Cnossus, as throwing light on the origin of the alphabet: "In my excavation of the prehistoric Palace at Knossos," he wrote, "I came upon a series of deposits of clay tablets, representing the Royal archives, the inscriptions on which belong to two distinct systems of writing — one hiero- glyphic and quasi-pictorial ; the other for the most part linear and much more highly developed. Of these the hieroglyphic class especially presents a series of forms answering to what, according to the names of the Phoenician letters, we must suppose to have been the original pictorial designs from which these, too, were derived. A series of con- jectural reconstructions of the originals of the Phoenician letters on this line were in fact drawn out by my father. Sir John Evans, for a lecture on the origin of the alphabet given at the Royal Institution in 1872, and it may be said that two- thirds of these resemble almost line for line actual forms of Cretan hieroglyphics. The oxhead (Aleph), the house (Bethi, the window (He), the peg (Van), the fence (Cheth), the hand (Yod) seen sideways, and the open palm (Kaph), the fish (Nun), the post or trunk (Samekh), the eye (Ain), the month (Pe), the teeth (Shin), the cross- sign (Tau), not to speak of several other prob- able examples, are all literally reproduced. The analogy thus supplied is indeed overwhelming. It is impossible to believe that, while on one side of the East Mediterranean basin these alphabetic prototypes were naturally evolving themselves, the people of the opposite shore were arriving at the same result by a complicated process of selec- tion and transformation of a series of hieratic Egyptian signs derived from quite different ob- jects. The analogy with the Cretan hieroglyphic forms certainly weighs strongly in favour of the simple and natural explanation of the origin of the Phoenician letters which was held from the time of Gesenius onwards, and was only disturbed by the extremely ingenious, though over-elaborate, theory of De Rouge." At the annual meeting of the subscribers to the British School at Athens, held in London, Octo- ber 30, 1000, Mr Hogarth, the Director, spoke with great enthusiasm of the significance of the Cretan discoveries already made, and of the prom- ise of enlarged knowledge which they gave. He said: "The discovery made 25 years ago [by Schliemann] that no barbarians, but possessors of a very high and individual culture, preceded the Hellenic period in Greece — a culture which could not but have affected the Hellenic — had been de- veloped in various ways since. It had been es- tablished that this culture had had a very long existence and development; it covered completely a large geographical area; it developed various local characteristics in art production which seemed to be gathered again into one by the typi- cal art of Mycenae. But the most important his- torical points remained obscure. Where was the original home of this new civilization; what fam- ily did the race or races belong to ; of what speech were they and what religions; what was the his- tory of their societies and art during their domi- nance, and what became of them after? Neither mainland Greece nor the Aegean islands answered these. But there were two unknown quantities, Crete and .^ste Minor, with Rhodes. One of these we have now attacked. Crete by its great size and natural wealth, its position, and its mythologic fame was bound to inform us of much. It is too early to say that the questions will all be answered by Crete, but already we have much light. The , discovery of written documents and of shrines has told us more than any other evidence of the origin and family. The Knossos frescoes show us the racial type ; the Dictaean Cave, and Knossos houses illuminate the religion. New arts have been discovered, and the relation to Egypt and Asia are already far better understood. It remains now to find the early tombs, and clear the lower stratum of the Palace ruins at Knossos, to know more of the earliest Cretan race, to explore the east or 'Eteocretan' end of the island, to obtain light on the language and relations to Egypt and Asia, and »to investigate the 'Geometric' period, which is the transition to the Hellenic." Commenting in another place on the discoveries in Crete, Mr. Hogarth has pointed out their effect in modifying the ideas heretofore entertained of the importance of Phoenician influence in the rise of European civilization. "For many years now," he writes, "we have had before our eyes two standing protests against the traditional claim of Phoenicia to originate European civilization, and those protests come from two regions which Phoe- nician influence, travelling west, ought first to have affected, namely, Cyprus and Asia Minor. In both these regions exist remains of early systems 64 ^GEAN CIVILIZATION Northern Greece and Islands ^GEAN CIVILIZATION of writing which are clearly not of Phoenician descent. Both the Cypriote syllabic script and the 'Hittite' symbols must have been firmly rooted in their homes before ever the convenient alphabet of Sidon and Tyre was known there. And now, since Mr. Evans has demonstrated the existence of two non-Phoenician systems of writing in Crete also, the use of one of which has been proved to extend to the Cyclades and the mainland of Greece, it has become evident that we have to deal in south-eastern Europe, as well as in Cyprus or Asia Minor, with a non-Phoenician influence of civilization which, since it could originate that greatest of achievements, a local script, was quite powerful enough to account by itself also for the local art. Those who continue to advocate the Phoenician claim do not seem sufficiently to real- ize that nowadays they have to take account neither only of the Homeric age nor only of even half a millennium before Homer, but of an almost geologic antiquity. Far into the third millennium B. C. at the very least, and more probably much eailier still, there was a civilization in the Aegean and on the Greek mainland which, while it con- tracted many debts to the East and to Egypt, was able to assimilate all that it borrowed, and to re- issue it in an individual form, expressed in prod- ucts which are not of the same character with those of any Eastern civilization that we know." — D. G. Hogarth, Authority and archaeology sacred and profane, pt. 2, pp. 237-238. — "During the past season, Evans, discoverer of the now famous early Cretan systems of writing, Halbherr and other Italians, as well as the French, have been proving what was already foreshadowed, that in Crete we find in its purest form and in all its historic and racial phases that Mediterranean civilization, — Pelasgic and Achaean. — that culminated in Tiryns and Mykenae. We now see that Homer sings of the closing years of a Culture that dates back of the 'Trojan War' at least for fifteen hundred years. Crete is found to be covered with ruined Pelasgic cities, surrounded by gigantic polygonal walls, crowned by acropoli, adorned with royal palaces, defended by forts, connected by artificial highways, and with necropoli of vaulted tombs like those discovered by Schliemann at Mykenae. Already the royal palaces and libraries are being unearthed at Cnossos and 'Goulas' with sculptures and decoration of the most novel description and early date. A literature in an unknown tongue and in undeciphered scripts is being found, to puzzle scholars as much perhaps as the Hittite and Etruscan languages. Some day these 'Pelasgic' documents will disclose the secrets of a neglected civilization and fill up the gap between early Eastern and Hellenic cultures." — A. L. Frothing- ham, Jr., Archaeological progress {International Monthly, Dec, iqoo). — See also Crete: Effect of position and physical features upon Cretan civili- zation. Northern Greece and the islands. — It seems strange that the Germans did not follow out the work of Schliemann at Troy and Mycenje ; on the other hand they have made brilliant finds at Olympia. Semi-elliptical stone houses of primitive type and shaft graves of the Mycensan type to- gether with fine vases in imitation of the Cretan originals were discovered. It is possible that these vases were actually imported from Crete The wall paintings found here present an interesting modification of Cretan art. "Finally, we come to the latest and in some ways the most startling of all the discoveries. This is the fact, established by excavations in Boeotia, Phokis, and Thessaly, that down to the latest period of the ^gean Bronze Age, North Greece still remained in the Chalcohthic period. Excava- tions by M. Tsountas at Sesklo and Dimini in Thessaly, and by M. Sotiriadis at Chaironeia in Bceotia, had revealed a Stone Age culture with re- markable painted handmade pottery, resembling that from the neolithic sites of Southern Russia. The date of this was naturally assumed to be alto- gether earlier than the Bronze Age in Greece, and was equated with that of the neolithic strata of Troy and Crete. But it is always unsafe to as- sume absolute contemporaneity of Stone Age with Stone Age and Bronze Age with Bronze Age, even in the same quarter of the world, especially when, as in this case, the neolithic products of the one country in no way resemble those of the other. Cyprus never seems to have had a Stone Age at all, properly speaking, but we cannot suppose that the island was uninhabited when Crete was using stone weapons and tools. In fact it is a mistake to suppose an universal Age of Stone all over one portion of the earth's surface coming to an end everywhere at the same time, and succeeded by a Copper and then a Bronze Age which equally came to their conclusions everywhere at the same time. Troy seems never to have had a Copper Age at all, but passed straight from the Stone period to that of Bronze; Cyprus and the Cyclades had a Copper Age ; Egypt only reached the true Bronze Age — after long centuries of simple copper- using (though she knew both bronze and iron and occasionally used them) — not very long before she began commonly to use iron, and that was not long before iron began to be used even in Greece. The works of man's hands do not develop evenly everywhere, and an invention of the highest mo- ment may be disregarded by one people for hun- dreds of years after it has been adopted by a neighbour. So it seems to have been in Greece. The adoption of metal in the /Egean lands and in Southern Greece, which brought about the whole magnificent development of /Egean civili- zation, was not imitated in the north, and the men of Thessaly continued to use their stone weapons and their peculiar native pottery until the Bronze Age culture of the South had reached its deca- dence, and the time for the introduction of iron from the North had almost arrived." — H. R. Hall, Aigean archceology, pp. 40-41. To the imagination and energy of Schliemann who was a pioneer in this field the world owes a real debt of gratitude. It is only fair to state, however, that his work paled into insignificance before the discoveries of Sir Arthur Evans. His patience, his energy and self-sacrifice, shown in particular at Cnossus, have resulted in discov- eries which revolutionized our knowledge of early Greece. Moreover, his explorations opened to archteologists a vast new field for future endeavor. The cost of this work and the extent of the field have made it impossible for individuals to under- take this work at their own expense. Fortunately private munificence has made it possible for na- tional societies to follow up this work. Scientists of each country have decided upon their own territory, and while there has been a keen sense of rivalry there have also been encouraging in- stances of cooperation. Also in: H. Boyd, Transactions of the depart- ment of arckwology. — R. B. Seager, Exploration in the Island of Mochlos; Excavations on the Island of Pseira. — T. D. Atkinson, Excavations at Philakopi in Melos.-rA. J. B. Wace and M. S. Thompson, Prehistoric Thessaly.— E. H. Hall, Excavations in eastern Crete. — A. Evans, Atlas of Cnossian antiquities. 65 iEGEAN CIVILIZATION Neolithic Age -AEGEAN CIVILIZATION NEOLITHIC AGE B. C. 12000-3000.— Evolution of pottery.— Pol- ished stone implements. — Dress. — "The first nine epochs designated as Minoan immediately suc- ceed the Neolithic Age. Its deposit reaches to a depth of 17 feet below the surface of the soil, while below it the Neolithic remains are found, at one testing-point to a farther depth of nearly 2 1 feet, at another to one of 26 feet. Mr. Evans seeks to fix its date by certain connections that its remains show with those of early Egypt. If we thus allow about 3 feet of deposit for every millennium, we get a great age for the NeoUthic strata that are below. Progress moves slowly in the dim early periods, and we need not shrink from the dates of 10,000 or 12,000 B.C. which are thus given to the first settlement of man upon the hill at Knossos. The black hand-burnished ware, or 'Bucchero' that it had inherited from Neo- lithic times is not what is most characteristic of Early Minoan. ... It was the achievement of the Early Minoan Age to produce, by painting on the flat, the geometric effects that hitherto had been produced by the white filling, and it is possible that the very pigment used was the same white gypsum treated differently. The invention once made, there were rapid developments. A lustrous black glaze was spread as a slip over the surface, so that the lustreless white patterns over it gave the effect of the best old incrusted ware; and the black glaze, once discovered, was seen itself to have possibilities as decoration, and was in other vases laid on in black bands on the natural light buff of the clay." — R. M, Burrows, Discoveries in Crete, pp. 44-48- "Except in the case of Egypt pottery is our only guide in the study of neolith'c civilisation. The objects of wood and leather and the clothing have all disappeared in the destruction caused by damp and weather and the lapse of time. Only the im- plements of bone and stone and the terra cotta vases have remained. The walls are very rare and without mortar, and even bricks are late in ap- pearing. Modeling and design had their first expression in pottery, and by means of this we can follow the progress of the people in their first steps towards civilisation. X plastic material like clay is not alone sufficient for pottery, for it loses moisture in drying and contracts. It is necessary to add something to the clay to prevent the vase from breaking after it is made. The firing ol pottery presents another difficulty, for if the clay is very greasy and tenacious, it does not keep its shape, but cracks in the furnace. Some substance had to be mixed with the earth to render it porous, so that the vapour from the water could escape easily. The potters of the neolithic age had discovered that by adding powdered carbon to the clay this effect was obtained. Hencefor- ward black pottery was not a caprice of fashion but a technical necessity. . . . Mitr having learnt to polish the surface of the vases by burnishing with the bone or smooth stone spatula, the potters observed that when these black vases were placed in the flame or upon hot coals they became red in the parts where the fire was hottest ; to avoid producing these red. yellow, or drab marks, which were the effect of firing by an open fire, they dis- covered how to bake fine pottery so that it was bright and black as ebony. "In the neolithic soil of Phaestos were found the three stone axes. They are oval-shaped flints, sharpened on one side to giVe a cutting edge, and with the other end left rough where it would be fixed on the handle. . . . Among the ruins of the primitive palace of Phaestos we had proof of the skill of the Cretans of the neolithic age in working stone, and in piercing the axes in order to fasten them to the handle, besides making double axes. In a niche we found some pieces of polished stone, fragments of broken a.xes; and amongst these a round piece of very hard green stone, about the size of a common cork. To make a hole in an axe they used a cane and some sand and water. The cane was spun round quickly and the stone was pierced by it with the help of the sand, and a circular hole was made. When half through, the stone was turned and the drilling recommenced on the opposite side. . . . When the first palace of Phaestos was built, the age of bronze was reached, the age of copper was past, and prob- ably no flint weapons had been made for centuries. The sight of these useless fragments collected in a niche of the early palace convinced me that the tradition of the neolithic age was not spent and that the cult of the ancestor was still alive. One of the most important things (in my opinion) which came to light in my excavations beneath the foundations of the palaces of Phaestos was the discovery that even in the' neolithic age the Cre- tans had learnt the art of giving colour to their pottery by a decoration of red and brown lines. From the pile dw'ellings beyond the .Alps, in Sicily and the Balkan Peninsula, from Greece to Troy, from France to Spain, female figures, decorated in the same manner, represent the rst traces of female costume in the stone age. The linen in which the neolithic bodies in Egypt are wrapped is so fine as to allow us to believe that semi-trans- parent robes may have been made at that period, as was the case under the early dynasties. The neolithic linen of Egypt is like canvas, so far apart are the threads of the web, and it was woven in so thin a texture that with the embroideries it might have a similar effect to this figure. Th,- woman who is pouring out the liquid has a soit of white skirt made from the ,*kin of an animal, as have also the men who bear offerings. The torso is not bare but covered by a bodice with sleeves which end above the elbow. Broad blue bands pass round the neck and down the sleeve; the girdle, too, is formed by a strip of blue, and a band of the same colour probably crosses on the breast, for another priestess, turned to the right, has the same kind of sash The next figure, a woman with two pails hung from her shoulders, wears a long blue dress with the lower edge adorned by flounces. The neck and sleeves are edged by a band of three colours, and this woman also has a red sash edged with two black lines passing obliquely across the chest We know that from the time of the first dynasties in Egypt the priests wore panther's skins at the religious func- tions, and here, too, the priestesses also wear a skin tight to the waist, with an appendage like a tail." — .K. Mosso, Dawn of Mediterranean civi- lisation, pp. 79-iQS. — See also Europe: Prehis- toric period. MINOAN AGE B. C. 3000-1200. — Chronology.— "The 'Minoan Age,' as defined by Sir .Arthur Evans, includes the whole of the bronze age. It is classified in three principal periods, early, middle, and late: and each of these similarly into three sub-divisions, forming a ninefold series in which each phase is sufficiently distineuished bv changing stvles of potterv and other manufactures, sufficiently re- flected in the analogous products of Melos, Thera, and other sites, to provide a standard series for 66 JEGEAN CIVILIZATION Minoan Ages ^GEAN CIVILIZATION the whole Aegean area. Objects of foreign, and particularly of Egyptian make, and of known date, are found at sufficiently numerous points in this series, to permit us to regard the Early- Minoan period as contemporary with Dynasties I-VI in Egypt; the many-coloured pottery of the Middle-Minoan is found on Egyptian sites ac- curately dated to Dynasty XII; and at Cnossus the deposits classed as Middle-Minoan-3 yield an Egyptian statuette of Dynasty XIII and an in- scription of the Shepherd-King Khyan, between 1900 and 1600. The Late-Minoan period is more precisely dated still. Its first two pha.ses, 'L. M. i and 2' are contemporary with Dynasty XVIII, and datable to iboo-1400; they serve in turn to date the royal tombs at Mycenae, and the Va- phio tomb in Laconia with its magnificent em- bossed gold-cups." There was sudden destruction of the Cnossian Palace, to which last phase be- long the third city at Phylakopi, the later graves at Mycenae and lalysus, the 'Sixth City' at Troy, and the large Minoan settlements in Cyprus and Sicily. "Rather later than these, but still within the Late-Minoan period, comes the attempt . . . to occupy Thessaly: and the first contact with the west coast of Asia Minor. "Then, with the cessation of intercourse with Egypt, Palestine, and Cyprus, and the simulta- neous, though gradual, introduction of iron, first for tools, then for weapons — it had been known as a 'precious metal' in the /Ei^ean since 'L. M. 3' or even 'L. M. 3'; of a new sort of costume which required safety-pins (fibula) ; of a new type of decorative art, non-representative, with a limited stock of stiff geometrical designs based on basketwork and incised ornament; and of the practice of cremation — wholly new in the ^^gean, but long familiar in the forest-clad north, begins a new period, the Early Iron Age, with a new distribution of settlements, and centers of power and industry, and almost total extinction of the Late Minoan culture, which was still relatively high, though already far gone in decadence, by the eleventh century." — J. L. Myres, Dawn of his- tory, pp. I73-I7.';. B. C. 3000-2200. — Early Minoan age.— .\t the opening of this period potters discovered a black glaze for coating the wares on which they painted white or red bands or sometimes stripes. Natu- rally as time went on, the shapes of these vases became more regular. From this fact we must conclude the invention of the potters' wheel. Vase decoration, too, became more varied when potters began to depict the human body. At first this work was done in the geometric style — that is, with straight lines alone. We must remember that at this time the chief centre of culture was Melos rather than Crete. LTndoubtedly this was due to the fact that here were available large quantities of hard stone from which could be fashioned all manner of sharp or pointed instruments such as knives and razors, as well as weapons. These wares were exported to the nearby Cyclades, to Troy and to the mainland of Greece. Unfortu- nately, we know little of the life and customs of these early people. They usually lived in rec- tangular stone houses with one or more rooms according to the wealth of the owner. Many of the chieftains built palaces of which the ones at Troy and Tiryns are best known. Rough walls of Cyclopean masonry were constructed about these palaces to prevent raids from neighbouring chieftains or even from foreign invaders. It is interesting to note that due to their geographic isolation the palaces of Crete remained unpro- tected. The most important families built sub- terranean dome-shaped tombs modelled after those in which they lived. Here they placed articles of daily use for the disembodied spirit. — R. M. Bur- rows, Discoveries in Crete, ch. 3. — A. Mosso, Dawn oj Mediterranean civilisation, ch. 6. — C. Tsountas and I. Manatt, Mycencean age, pp. 44-55. — "The great innovation of the age was the introduction of copper most probably from Egypt and Cyprus. Silver and gold became known in the same period. For a long time, however, stone maintained its place in the useful arts. Equally important was the adoption of the system of picture writing, pictographs. They are found in Crete on seals of ivory, stone, and other material, in the form of cylinders, buttons, and prisms. Their near re- semblance to Egyptian types proves a close inter- course between these two countries." — G. W. Bots- ford, Hellenic history, ch. 2. B. C. 2200-1600.— Middle Minoan Age.— "Dur- ing this period the chief seats of culture were Cnossus and Phaestus in central Crete, where we find Minoan civilization at its most brilliant height. By this time pottery had become really a fine art of which the specimens of the Kamares type are the most beautiful. In the egg-shell thin- ness of their walls they may be compared with the best Haviland china of today. At first art- ists paid little attention to a realistic represen- tation of nature but aimed to create a brilliant harmony of colors. Gradually, however, the color scheme became more simple and artists attempted to depict natural objects as they really existed. This was also a period of the great Palace of Cnossus. By the end of this age pictographs gave way to linear writing in pen and ink." — A. Evans, Scripta Minoa, i. 19/. — C. H. and H. Hawes, Crete, the joreninner oj Greece, pp. 136-139. — "Hiero- glyphic writing is at its best, and the first kind of linear signs. Class A, though apparently only just come into fashion, had made rapid progress. They could indeed be used so flexibly that we find inside two cups of the period an inscription written in ink, in a cursive hand. If we are to judge too from the fact that the lines of the letters show a tendency to divide, it was written with a reed pen. What the medium was on which such pen and ink were ordinarily used, -we can- not tell; imported papyrus, or palm-leaves, per- haps, or even parchment. The invention, we may be sure, once made, was not confined to the inside of pottery. The king who built the stately Tomb to rest in at Isopata, between the harbour and the town, on the hill that overlooked the sea, may have had his deeds recorded, not on clay tablets, but on something more worthy of a literature." — R. M. Burrows, Discoveries in Crete, pp, 64-65, B. C. 1600-1200. — Late Minoan or Mycenaean age. — "Before the end of the Middle Minoan .\ge, the inventive spirit of Crete had achieved its ut- most and had begun to stagnate, no longer creat- ing new forms but satisfying itself with stereo- typed conventions. For a time, however, we find a political advance. Power, concentrating in Cnossus involved the downfall of country towns. The palace attained the acme of its grandeur (about 1500). To this period belong most of the frescoes still preserved as well as a remarkably realistic style of reliefs. In vase ornamentation the characteristic development was the 'palace' style, which sacrificed the natural to a desire for decorative unity. The age attained great skill in bronze work and in inlaying metals. In writing, linear script superseded the pictographs, and a new and improved linear stvle usurped the place of the old. Before this age has far advanced the interest shifts, from Crete to Troy, and still more 67 iEGEAN CIVILIZATION ./lirtoan Age C/uiracteristics ^GEAN CIVILIZATION to the Greek Continent, where Archomenus, Tiryns, and Mycenae were entering upon an era of artistic and political splendor." — 0. VV. Bots- ford, Hellenic history, ch. 2. — "The language of the script is not yet deciphered, but from the form of the written documents, which Arthur Evans has found in very large numbers in the palace archives of Cnossus, and other explorers in smaller quan- tity at Phaestos and Agia Triadha, it is possible to learn something ol Minoan government and organization. Most of the tablets are inven- tories of treasure and stores, and receipts for chariots, armour, metal vessels, ingots of copper such as have been found in store at .^gia Triadha, and singly in Cyprus and Sardinia; and smaller quantities of unworked gold by weight. Other tablets contain lists of persons, male and female ; perhaps tribute paid in slaves, or in person, as in the Greelc legend of the Minotaur. Clearly we have to do with the details of a va.^t and exact administration, far more extensive than Cnossus itself would justify ; and the comparative insignif- icance of other Cretan towns during the great 'Palace Period' ('Late-Minoan 2'), the temporary extinction of some of them, and the traces of a system of highly engineered roads and forts over the mountain passes, confirra the impression that the later Greeks were right in the main, in regard- ing Minos of Cnossus as a monarch who ruled the seas and terrorized the land, absolute and ruth- less, if only because inflexibly just." — J. L. Myres, Dawn of history, pp. i83-iS4.-"Minoan religion cannot be fully studied until the Cretan writing is deciphered. It is evident, however, from the ar- tistic remains that the chief figure in the cult of the island was a goddess. She is represented in many ways, from Neolithic nude figures in the form of an excessively fat woman (many primi- tive races have regarded obesity as an element of feminine beauty) to the goddess with a flounced skirt, tight-fitting waist, and bare breast, of the Late Minoan period, who holds serpents in her hands. The serpents apparently typify her con- nection with the earth. Doves and lions were often associated with her. She was, then, god- dess of the air and of wild animals. The bull was sacred to her. He was most often offered in sacrifice, his horns adorned her altars and temples, and ritual ve.ssels were made in his form. The goddess was served by priestesses and wor- shiped at times in wild dances. As in other countries that worshiped goddesses, she was thought to have a son. Later Greek myths traced the birth of Zeus to the Dictean cave in Crete, or to Mount Ida, where Rhea, his mother, secretly brought him forth. . . . The son was thus identified in later time with the Greek Zeus. Cyprus shared in the /Egeari civilization, but Semitic colonies were also established there, and the ^gean goddess was blended with the Semitic. When Minoan civilization was dominant in Greece in the Mycenaian age, the cult of the goddess was firmly established in many parts of the land. She became Rhea, mother of Zeus, Poseidon, and other deities. She became Hera, goddess of Argos, Athena in Attica, and Artemis in .'\ttica and .^r- cada. .\t Corinth, where formative influences may have come from Cyprus, she became Aphro- dite." — G. .\. Barton, Religious oj the world, pp. 247-248. — "The dwellings of the dead passed through many changes of fashion during the Mi- noan Agp, and it has been reasonably argued from this that we may be dealing with more than one set of beliefs, perhaps held and put in practice h*' peoples of different origin .\11 .^Jgean rituals, however, agree in this, that the dead are biiried, not burned, and that they are provided with copious equipment for their other life. The lux- ury of the rich late graves, and even of some of the earlier, is comparable with that of Egypt itself. The earliest tombs are 'contracted burials,' in cist-graves like those of pre-dynastic Egypt, and of most other parts of the Mediterranean world, as well as of the western regions which have been reached by Mediterranean man. As in Egypt, also, some localities, in early periods, practised secondary burial; the body was interred provi- sionally until it was well decayed, and then the bones were transferred to the common charnel- house, as in a modern Greek churchyard. Later, families of distinction practised coffin-burial in larger and larger chambers, constructed under- ground or in hillsides, and (on the mainland) with domed masonry linings. The coffins are of- ten of clay, richly painledi or frescoed as at Agia Triadha with funerary scenes. In the latest phases, such chambers on a smaller scale, with flat roofs, became common and superseded the old 'cist -graves'; but the royal tombs at Mycenae still preserve, on a glorified plan, and with bodies at full length, the form of the primitive 'cist- grave.' Among other originalities, Minoan dresa and armour deserve brief mention, if only for their contrast with that of the .'Egean in Hellenic times. The men's dress was of the simplest; long hair-plaits without other head-dress, strong top- boots (as in modern Crete) for scrubland walk- ing, and a loin-cloth or kilt, plain or fringed, and upheld by a wasp-waisted belt: elders and officials indulged in ample cloaks, and quilted sleeveless capes, like a crinoline hung from the shoulders. Women wore shaped and flounced skirts, richly embroidered, with 'zouave' jackets, low in front, puff-sleeved, with a standing collar or a peak be- hind the neck; they were tight-laced, and the skirts were belted like the men's? Gay curls and shady hats with ribbons and rosettes completed the costume, which resembles more than anything the peasant-girls' full dress in a Swiss valley, and may be 'alpine' too. Armour was simple; for attack, a long spear, and dagger-like sword with two straight hollow-ground edges; on the head a conical helmet of leather, strengthened with metal plates or boar's tusks in rows: and for other pro- tection, the ordinary high boots, and a flexible shield of leather, oblong or oval, with metal rim, but no handle or central boss. It was slung over the left shoulder by a strap, and became distorted by its own weight to a quaint S-shape ; however, it wholly enveloped the wearer from ankles to chin, and could be bent so as to enclose him on each side. The horse was in use, and was brought from oversea; it was driven, not ridden, appar- ently; and light chariots were used both for hunt- ing and in war." — J. L. Myres, Dawn oj history, pp. 186-188. B. C. 1600-1200. — Laborers and artisans of the Minoan Age. — "Many laborers busied them- selves with tilling the soil and with rearing cattle, sheep, goats, and swine. They ground their barley or wheat in querns or crushed it in stone mortars still preserved. .'Vmong their fruits were the fig and the olive, whose oil entered into the preparation of food. Trades were specialized as in the Orient. Among the craftsmen were potters, brickmakers, and carpenters, whose bronze saws, axes, files, and other tools resemble in pattern those of today. Naturally in an age of bronze the workers in that metal filled a large place. Stone, while still serving the le.sser arts, had be- come the essential architecture, and throughout all histon' wood has furnished a convenient ma- 68 ^^T^f^TTy^"' 'jv^-y^/'^^^ ^"^ "y*'''*^ "^ "-^ '7^ Courteay of the Metropolitan Museum of Art ARCH.^OLOGICAL FINDINGS FROM .?5:GEAN AREA I, The golden Vaphio cups (Laconia). 2, Inlaid daggers (Mycenae, 1600-1100 B.C.). 3, Mndel? of house facades (Crete, 1500-1350 B.C.). 4. Statu tte of a snake goddess (Cnossus, 1800-1500 B.C.), 5, Fresco of flying-fish (Phylakopi, Melos, 1600-15 >> B.C.). 69 ^GEAN CIVILIZATION Minoan Decline JEGEAN CIVILIZATION terial for building and for a great variety of furniture. Among the most remarkable of skilled industries was the cutting and engraving of pre- cious stones, which included practically all known to the moderns excepting the diamond. On these gems the engraver skillfully wrought varied scenes from nature and human life. The highest de- velopment of art is found in the work of the goldsmith — an achievement of the painstaking ex- perience of centuries. This metal was more com- mon than silver. Among his products were beads adorned with scenes in intaglio and rings with similarly decorated bezels used as seals. He could inlay gold, as well as ivory and other material, on bodies of different substance, so as to produce a polychrome effect. He wrought bracelets, di- verse artistic patterns repousse on thin plate and graceful drinking cups. Famed for l>eauty are the two gold cups from a beehive tomb at X'aphio, Laconia. The scenes which adorn them are bold, spiritual, and lifelike." — G. W Botsford, Hellenic history, ch. 2. Natural conditions had favored the growth of just such a Minoan world: "easy livelihood from small secluded corn-lands, and abundant culture of fruit-bearing trees; supplemented by upland pasturage, and the harvest of the sea. Lasy in- tercourse with many similar lands, or coast plains of the same land, identical in natural economy, almost infinitely various in mineral resources and in artistic and industrial dialect. Intercourse less easy, but within the power of moderate seaman- ship in the sailing season, with a venerable centre of art and luxury, like Egypt, .^bove all, a land- scape of exceptional beauty, of brilliant atmos- phere; grandly contrasted profile of ridge and promontory ; infinitely various form and colour- ing of spring flowers and sponge-diver's trophies, seaweed, shells, and sea-anemones. It is not sur- prising, then, that it is here that man first achieved an artistic style which was naturalist and idealist in one ; acutely observant of the form and habit of living things, sensitive to the qualities and potentialities of raw material, wonderfully skilled in the art of the potter, painter, gem-en- graver, and goldsmith ; and above all, able to draw inspiration from other styles and methods, with- out losing the sureness of its own touch, or the power to impress its own strong character on its works of art." — J. L. Myres, Daivn of history, pp. 180-181. B. C. 1600-1200. — Minoan architecture. — Pri- vate Dwellings. — The Palace. — "Private dwellings of the wealthy were surprisingly modern They were built on no fixed plan, but followed the necessity of the site and the taste of the owner. Some were three or four stories high and comprised a multitude of rooms The owners furnished them comfortably and developed cooking to a high de- gree of perfection." — G. W. Botsford, Hellenic history, ih. 2. — "Private houses were constructed of mixed timber and stone with stuccoed fronts, many windows, and flat roofs. They crowded one another along narrow tortuous alleys on un- even ground, more stair than street ; and the gen- eral effect of a Minoan town must have been very like what is still to be seen in the Cretan vil- lages. The palace architecture gives the impres- sion of great luxury based on abundant wealth of oil and other produce ; supplemented by skill in applied science, mechanical, hydraulic, sani- tary, which is unparalleled till modern times. On to a central court, entered by an elaborate gate- way, opened halls of reception, with deep porti- coes and antechambers. Others, more secluded, opened on to terraces and bastioned platforms down the slope Between and behind these prin- cipal suites, winding corridors gave access to mag- azines and smaller living rooms. Staircases led to upper stories, with two or even three floors in some places. Practical convenience laid greater stress on inner planning, and room-decoration by fresco and line stone panelling, than on external design. Only the plinths of a few original walls, facing on to the great courts, show any promise of a fine faqade; and there was in any case so much rcbuildinc and patchwork addition, that the general effect must have been that of a crowded village rather than a single residence." — J. L. Myres, Dav:n of history, pp. i84-i8s.^"Naturally the palace was incomparably larger and more magnificent than the richest private dwellings. The residence of the King at Cnossus occupied more than five acres and stood at least four stories high. Its irregularity of plan may be due to ad- ditions and modifications by successive rulers. It comprised an immense central court, smaller courts, long corridors, a theatral space, audience rooms, sanctuaries, an industrial quarter, and 'a system of drainage not equalled in Europe be- tween that day and the nineteenth century.' We may notice more particularl.\ the room in which the throne of gypsum stands against the wall and is fianked on both sides with long benches of the same material. Here in the midst of his noble councillors sat the king on the 'oldest throne in Europe,' presumably to receive embassies and to transact business with his subjects. The indus- trial quarter swarmed with artists and artisan,^ whose labors extended over a wide range of ac- tivities from the preparation and storage of wine and olive oil in huge earthenware jars to the finest gold work and elaborate mural frescoes. One chamber, fitted up with benches and 'a seat for the master,' is thought to be a school room, in which the young learned to mould clay into little tablets and to inscribe them with linear writing Elsewhere were the archives in which those tablets were stored by the thousands. Al- though the script has not yet been deciphered, the inscriptions thus far discovered seem to be accounts of stores and of receipts and dues. \ larger tablet, a case shrine has the appearance of a list of rings. If the Cretans possessed a litera- ture of songs, epics and chronicles, as is not un- likely, it must have been written on perishable material, for nothing of the kind has been dis- covered " — G W. Botsford. Hellenic hist., ch. 2. B. C. 1400-1200.— Decline and fall of Minoan culture. — "In the main, the .-Egean was at peace in the Minoan .^ge, a striking contrast with the wear-and-tear of the Hellespontine bridge, as suc- cessive 'cities' reveal it at Troy. In the south, on the contrary, it is difficult to trace any non- .^igean enemy either in Crete or even in the islands, down to the fall of Cnossus; and it re- mains obscure whether this last catastrophe was not due to internal discord; the circumference, as has been recently suggested, turning against the centre, and terminating its tyranny. Cretan tradition told also, later, how a lord of Cnossus went on a Sicilian expedition, with all his force, and never came back. But at this point in the story, Egyptian records come to our aid where Cretan archives are still dumb. They know of a change in the name and behaviour of the 'people from over-sea' ; and they give a clue to the decline and fall of the Cretan culture." — J. L. Myres, Da-ii'n of Itislory, pp. t88-iSq. — See also Greece: /Egean or Minoan civilization. "These conditions were suddenly brought to an end by the destruction of the palace The black- 70 ^GEAN CIVILIZATION Assimilation by Hellas ^GEAN CIVILIZATION ened walls, the charred ends of beams, the al- most complete absence of gold and bronze seem to proclaim the sack and burning of the city. As the same thing happened at Phaestus and Hagia Triada no long time afterward we conclude that the catastrophe was this time due to no accident or dynastic revolution or uprising of the masses. We can explain the event best by supposing it to have been the work of raiders, who swept over the wealthy cities of the island in their career of plunder, whose object was not colonization but booty. This event occurred about 1400 B. C. It came as a premonition of an upheaval of <^igean populations whose waves of migration were to reach the shores of Syria and Egypt." Among them were peoples whose names sound like Sar- dinians, Sicilians, Achaeans, Lycians and Tyrsen- ians (Etruscans), ".Although we may not with certainty identify all these peoples, we may be sure there were among them vEgean and European tribes." — G. W. Botsford, Hellenic history, ch. 2. B. C. 1200-750. — Assimilation of Minoan cul- ture by the peoples of Hellas. — "It was reserved for British archaeologists, Messrs. Wace, Droop, and Thompson, to prove by their excavations of the magoulas or village-mounds of Thessaly and Phokis that it was not till the 'Mycenaean' period that the ,^Jgean culture, with its bronze, reached Northern Greece, and that before then there had existed no proper Bronze Age in the North. The remarkable remains of the northern stone-using culture are, then, not all contemporary with the Stone Age in the South; only the earliest of them are. The Cretan Stone Age never developed very highly; it was early supplanted by the introduc- tion of copper from Cyprus. But the Northern- ers, without metal, developed their primitive cul- ture more highly, especially in the ceramic art, and almost reached the height which was attained by the stone-users of South Russia, whose culture seems to have died out before metal could reach it." It was, however, impossible that the North- erners should be entirely without knowledge of the great civiHzation and art almost at their doors ; "^gean pottery must have reached them before the general civilization of the .4i;gean im- posed itself upon them in the 'Mycenaean' or Late Bronze Age. And that it did and left traces upon their pottery even in the earlier Bronze Age we see not only from M. Sotiriadis's find, but from traces of spirals, the most charactenistic form of /Egean decorations, in the Neolithic decoration scheme, which was severely geometrical, thus dif- fering in tola from that of the South. . . . But this would not account for the finds in Phokis and Bcpotia, and the ^^Cgeans were from the be- ginning seafarers who could easily reach the Pagasaean Gulf. The facts are very difficult of explanation. A large number of sites of this Northern neolithic culture and its succeeding Chal- colitic development, which lasted down to the time of the Third Late Minoan period of the South, have been excavated from Chaironeia, Schiste, and Drakhmani in Phokis through Liano- kladhi in the Spercheios Valley to Rakhmani in Northern and Tsani Magoula in West-central Thessaly. Besides those mentioned, the chief sites are Dimini, Sesklo, Zerelia, and Tsangli, all in Thessaly." — H. R. Hall, Mgean archceology, pp. 41-42. The period beginning about 1200 B. C, when the Minoan decorative style has yielded to the geometric, and extending to about the middle of the eighth century, when written documents be- gin, "resembles the European Middle Ages in that both followed the inroads of barbarians and that -i both were marked by a vast decline and an incipi- ent recovery of culture. ... In this period the colonial movement from the Greek peninsula east- ward to the Anatolian coast, begun in the preced- ing age, was completed. The chief feature, how- ever, was the blending of the northern invaders with the native Minoans, and through it the for- mation of the Hellenic race and Hellenic culture. We discover the process of assimilation at various stages. In Crete were communities of diverse speech existing side by side ; in Ionia the mingling of peoples was under way, whereas in Attica and in Laconia we come upon the completed blend. Within the .^gean area the Minoan civilization had been most intense from Crete and Laconia northward to Attica and the Cyclades, in other words the region which in the Middle Age came to be occupied by the Dorians and the lonians. A map of Hellas in the Middle Age accordingly will show this area fundamentally Minoan, though necessarily modified by external and internal forces. . . . For example, there prevailed through- out the area a nearly uniform social structure, in which the great lord commanded the labor of a multitude of serfs, whose rights and duties were clearly defined by customary law. The mnoitae of Crete, the Laconian helots, the hectemori of Attica, and the gergiths of Ionia seem to be remnants of Minoan serfdom. In Ionia, too, as in Crete and Laconia, the citizens ate at public tables. The leadership in the fine arts at first belonged to Crete but soon passed to Ionia The Phoenicians were also heirs of Minoan culture. Their chief contribution to civilization was neither in art nor in navigation, but in the transmission of writing from the Minoans to the Hellenes of the Middle Age In the view now most probable the Minoan linear script through wearing and selection gradually grew simpler, the Cypriote syllabary being a stage in the process. A further simplification took place in northern Syria when the number of characters was reduced to twenty- two. This system the lonians adopted and by further changes made phonetic. . . . Perhaps no external feature of life so characterizes the classical Greeks as their loose, graceful dress. From this point of view their ancestors of the Middle Age seem foreign. Among the laborers the Minoan waist-cloth continued far down into historical times. An innovation, however, was the chiton, probably of Oriental origin. Its tightness is reminiscent of Minoan conditions. Woman's dress was more conservative. Doubtless the grand lady, like Artemis Orthia of Sparta, wore a low-cut waist with shoulder straps, a belt, and a tight skirt of strongly Minoan aspect. The introduc- tion of the fibula, however, was bringing about a revolution in dress This method of fastening was used in the peplos, which gradually prevailed over other styles and became the Doric gown of the historical age. Garments of both sexes were elaborately adorned with inwoven or embroid- ered patterns of the prevailing geometric style. The hair of women and men alike grew long, and hung down in several heavy strands on both sides of the face, and was held in order by a band en- circling the head. Although these styles of dress began to appear early in the Mycenaean .\ge (about 1500 B. C), it was not till the Middle Age that they displaced the Minoan patterns. One of the most important constructive elements in the new civilization which gradually emerged from the decadence of the old was the rise of an iron in- dustry. The controversy over the place of its origin is now definitely settled by documentary evidence in favor of the Hittite country in eastern 71 ^GEAN CIVILIZATION MGINA Asia Minor (Mitteilungen der V orderasiatischen Gesellschaft, XVIII. 6i, «. I). This industr>', in- cluding the process of hardening to steel, must have flourished as early as the fourteenth century. In the thirteenth it made its way to Crete, whence it passed more slowly over the disturbed ^gean region to Laconia, Attica, Thessaly, and their colonies. While the metal was still scarce in La- conia, it began to be used as money. It is un- necessary here to dilate on the increased efficiency brought by the use of iron and steel to every walk of life. No human activity felt the impetus more lieenly than warfare, which at the same time was affected by new economic and political causes. The clumsy chariot was consigned to the archseo- logical junk-heap and horse-back riding was sub- stituted for it. Meanwhile the extension of pros- perity, involving military and political aspirations, to a w'idcr circle of the population brought into existence a body of troops which we may de- scribe as heavy-armed, though their shields were lighter than the Minoan. It was mainly the in- troduction of steel swords and lance-points that compelled the strengthening of the defensive ar- mor. The round or oval targe, reinforced by a central boss, became the normal shield. ... In religion, too, great changes took place. Among the Minoans the burial of the unburned body, involving a worship of the dead, prevailed with but the slightest trace of cremation. The custom of burning the dead, now introduced by the Northerners, doubtless weakened the belief in the power of ghosts and in the need of ancestor wor- ship. Gradually, however, inhumation reasserted itself; and henceforth the two forms existed side by side, yet with inhumation more common than burning. It is a curious fact that within this sphere of thought and usage historical Greece pre- served more than half of its Minoan heritage. The work of analyzing the greater gods of Hellas into their Minoan and Indo-European elements has scarcely begun, and yet enough has been done to warrant the assumption that in all probabil- ity no single historical deity of Greece is in char- acter and attributes wholly Indo-European or wholly M,inoan. . . . Identifying their own sky- deity Zeus with the god of the double axe, they converted the shrines and sacred domains of the Carian deity to their own service. No less than six altars to Zeus Labraundios accordingly have been found in Miletus. In like manner their .\rtemis usurped the property and various attri- butes of the .\natolian Great Mother. The char- acter and functions of ."Vpollo, especially his heal- ings, purifications, and oracles, seem to be in con- siderable part Minoan. These are but suggestions of a vast and intricate amalgamation which can- not as yet be analyzed in detail. • The prevailing tendency to-day is to assign to the invading people the sunnier aspects of religion, while leaving to the natives the gloomy features, including magic, the worship of ghosts, the doctrine of sin, and its purification by washing in blood. This con- trast seems justified but should not be pushed to extremes. The great deities were mainly god- desses as in the Minoan past; and correspondingly women occupied a high place in society. . . . This is but a hasty view of the Ionian-Dorian civiliza- tion during the Middle Age. With due apprecia- tion of the danger of attributing too much to the brilliant Cretans the present writer cannot escape the conviction that the life of this area in the period under consideration was more Minoan than Indo-European." — G. W. Botsford, Construc- tion of a chapter on the Greek Middle Age {American Historical Review, Jan., 1918, pp. 351- V 72 353). — It is safe to conclude that "'Mycenaean' culture had dominated all the southern ^gean in the later bronze age, and most of mainland Greece, as far north as South Thessaly, and as far west as Cephallenia ; that it was probably of indigenous growth; that its intercourse with Egypt was ex- tensive ; and that, whatever its origin or precise date, it was wholly prior to that of historic Greece, and separated from it by a violent ca- tastrophe, in which cities were sacked and deserted, palaces and tombs looted, and the whole distribu- tion not only of political power, but of economic vigour, was fundamentally changed, in a 'dark age' of tumult and barbarism." — J. L. My res, Dawn of history, p. 168. — See also Europe: His- toric period: Greek civilization: Cretan and .-Egean. Also in: C. H. and H. Hawcs, Crete, the forerunner of Greece (a clear summary). — J. Baikie, Sea-kings of Crete (popular). — A. Mosso. Dawn of Mediterranean civilization; Palaces of Crete (useful for special topics). — C. Tsountas and I. Manatt, Mycenaean age (brilliant but in need of revision). — H. R. Hall, /Egean archaeology; Ancient history of the Near East. — E. H. Hall, Decorative art of Greece in Bronze age (pottery, the alphabet of archeology well treated here). — R. M. Burrows, Discoveries in Crete (problems). G. W. Botsford and E. G. Sihler, Hellenic civiliza- tion: literary sources and their interpretation. — .■\. Evans, Nine Minoan periods (summary) ; Atlas of Cnossian antiquities, -with explanatory text. .ffiOEAN ISLANDS. See Asw Minor: Earlier kingdoms and people; Cvcladf.s. B. C. 416. — Siege and conquest of Males by Athenians. — Massacre of inhabitants. See Greece: B. C. 416. B. C. 8th century. — Migrations to. See Greece: Migrations to .^sia Minor and islands of the --Egean. A. D. 1146. — Ravage of islands by Roger of Sicily. See Bvzantinx empire: 114b. 1204-1567. — Medieval dukedom of Naxos. See Naxos: 1204-1567. 1821-1829. — In Greek war for independence against Turks. See Greece: 1821-1820. 1912. — Temporary Italian occupation and final evacuation. See Turkey: iqii-igi2. .ffiOIDIUS, king of the Franks (457-464). See G.wl: 417-486. iEGIKOREIS. See Phyl.c: Phratiae: Gentes. .ffiOINA, a small rocky island in the Saronic gulf, between .'\ttica and .-Vrgolis. First colonized by Achsans it was afterwards occupied by Dori- ans (see Greece: Migrations) and was unfriendly to Athens. During the sixth century B. C. it rose to great power and commercial importance, and became for a time the most brilliant center of Greek art. .\t the period of the Persian war, /Egina was "the first maritime power in Greece." But the .-Eginetans were at that time engaged in war with .Athens, as the allies of Thebes, and rather than forego their enmity, they offered sub- mission to the Persian king. The .Athenians there- upon appealed to Sparta, as the head of Greece, to interfere, and the ^Eginetans were compelled to give hostages to .Athens for their fidelity to the Hellenic cause. (See Greece: B. C. 492-491.) They purged themselves to a great extent of their intended treason by the extraordinary valor with which they fought at Salamis. — C. Thirlwall, His- tory of Greece, v. i, ch. 14. — See abo Athens: B. C. 490-485. B. C. 458-456. — Alliance with Corinth in war with Athens and Megara. — Defeat and subju- gation. See Athens: B. C. 457-456; Greece, B. C. 458-456. B. C. 431. — Expulsion of the .Sginetans from iEGIRA COHANS theii island by the Athenians. — Their settlement at Thyrea. B. C. 210.— Desolation by the Romans.— The first appearance of the Romans in Greece, when they entered the country as the allies of the ..^tolians, was signalized by the barbarous de- struction of /Egina. The city having been taken, B. C. 210, its entire population was reduced to slavery by the Romans and the land and build- ings of the city were sold to Attalus, king of Per- gamus. — E. A. Freeman, History oj federal gov- ernment, ch. 8, sect. 2. .£GIRA, a town of Achsa, Greece, near the Corinthian Gulf. iEGITIUM, Battle of (B. C. 426).— A reverse experienced by the Athenian General, Demos- thenes, in his invasion of .-Etolia, during the Pelo- ponnesian War. — Thucydides, History, bk. 3, sect. 97- JEGON, ruling house of Argos. See Greece: B. C. 8th Century. iEGOSPOTAMI (goat streams), a small creek in the Thracian Chersonesus (modern Gallipoli), flowing into the ilellespont or Dardanelles, where the Spartans destroyed the last remaining naval force of Athens, thus leading to the end of the Peloponnesian War (405 B. C). See Greece: B. C. 405. .SHRENTHAL, Alois von, Count Lexa (1854- igi2), Austro-Hungarian statesman; appointed minister to Rumania, 1S88; ambassador to Russia, 1889; premier and minister of foreign affairs, 1Q06; brought about the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 1908. — Sec also World War: Diplo- matic background: 8. Opinion on Friedjung forgeries. See Aus- tria-Hungary: iqoS-iqog. Plans in Novi Bazar. See Novi Bazar. A. E. I. O. U. — "The famous device of Aus- tria, A. E. I. O. U., was first used by Frederic III [1440-1493], who adopted it on his plate, books, and buildings. These initials stand for 'Austriae Est Imperare Orbi Univcrso'; of, in German, 'Alles Erdreich ist Osterreich Unterthan'; a bold assump- tion for a man who was not safe in an inch of his dominions." — H. Hallam, Middle Ages, i>. 2, p. 8q, foot-note. — See also Austria; 1477-1495. iELFRED. See Alfred. .SLFRIC (c. 950-1021), writer in early English prose. See English Literature: 6th-iith cen- turies. JELIA CAPITOLINA, the new name given to Jerusalem bv Hadrian. See Jews: 130-134. .ffiLIAN AND FUFIAN LAWS.— "The JE\mn and Fufian laws (leges /Elia and Fufia) the age of which unfortunately we cannot accurately de- termine . . . enacted that a popular assembly [at Rome] might be dissolved, or, in other words, the acceptance of any proposed law prevented, if a magistrate announced to the president of the assembly that it was his intention to choose the same time for watching the heavens. Such an announcement (obnuntiatio) was held to be a sufficient cause for interrupting an assembly." — W. Ihne, History of Rome, bk. 6, ch. 16. .ffiLIUS, Pons, a Roman bridge and military station on the Tyne, where Newcastle is now situated. .£LLE, leader of the South Saxons. See Ella. .ffiMILIA, or Fulvia, secular basilica in Rome, built in 167 B. C. and later rebuilt by Paulus i^milius in 50 B. C. It is remarkable for its monolithic columns of pavonazetto marble. iEMILIAN WAY.— "M. .^milius Lepidus, Con- sul for the year 180 B. C. . . c»nstructed the great road which bore his name. The .'Emilian Way led from Ariminum through the new colony of Bononia to Placentia, being a continuation of the Flaminian Way, or great north road, made by C. Flaminius in 220 B. C. from Rome to Ariminum. .^t the same epoch, Flaminius the son, being the colleague of Lepidus, made a branch road from Bononia across the Appenines to Arretium."— H. G. Liddell, History of Rome, bk. 5, cit. 41. .a;MILIANUS, Roman emperor, A. D. 253. See Rome: 192-284. .ffiMILIANUS, P. Cornelius Scipio, Roman consul. See Rome: B. C. 149-146. .ffiMILIUS GENS.— One of the most famous ancient patrician houses at Rome, The first mem- ber to obtain the consulship was L. .Emilius Mamercus in 484 B. C; family names are Bar- hula, Buca, Lepidus, Mamercus, Papus, Paulus, Regillus, and Scaurus. .ffiMILIUS PAULUS, Roman consul (217-216 B. C.) ; defeated at Cannae by Hannibal. See Rome: B.C. 218-202; Punic Wars: Second. .ffiNEAS.— "When the Greeks had taken Troy by means of the wooden horse and were slaying the inhabitants, -^neas escaped by sea together with many followers. And though angry Junu threatened him with storms and beset his path with trials and dangers, his goddess mother, Venus, guided him safely through every peril, and brought him after many wanderings to a haven on the west coast of Italy. There he landed and began to build a city. Trojans and natives lived together in peace, all taking the name of Latins, A son of i^neas founded Alba Longa." — G. W. Botsford, History of the ancient world, p. 324. — Roman myth further tells us that ^neas was the ancestor of Romulus, the founder of Rome. .ffiOLIANS.— "The collective stock of Greek nationalities falls, according to the view of those ancient writers who laboured most to obtain an exact knowledge of ethnographic relationships, into three main divisions, .Cohans, Dorians and loni- ans. . . . All the other inhabitants of Greece [not Dorians and lonians] and of the islands included in it, are comprised under the common name of /Eolians — a name unknown as yet to Homer, and which was incontestably applied to a great diver- sity of peoples, among which it is certain that no such homogeneity of race is to be assumed as existed among the lonians and Dorians. Among the two latter races, though even these were scarcely in any quarter completely unmixed, there was incontestably to be found a single original stock, to which others had merely been attached, and as it were engrafted, whereas, among the peoples assigned to the /Eolians, no such original stock is recognizable, but on the contrary, as great a difference is found between the several members of this race as between Dorians and lonians, and of the so-called Cohans, some stood nearer to the former, others to the latter. ... A thorough and careful investigation might well lead to the con- clusion that the Greek people was divided not into three, but into two main races, one of which we may call Ionian, the other Dorian, while of the so-called .-Eolians some, and probably the greater number, belonged to the former, the rest to the latter." — G. F. Schbman, Antiquity of Greece: The state, pi. i, ch. 2, — In Greek myth- ology, i^olus, the fancied progenitor of the Eolians, appears as one of the three sons of Hellen, "^olus is represented as having -eigned in Thessaly: his seven sons were Kre- theus, Sisyphus, Athamas, Salmoneus, Deion, Mag- nes and Perieres: his five daughters, Canace, Al- cyone, Peisidike, Calyce and Permede. The fables 73 a;olis ^SCLEPIADAE of this race seem to be distinguished by a con- stant introduction of the God Poseidon, as well as by an unusual prevalence of haughty and pre- sumptuous attributes among the .-Eolid heroes, leading them to affront the gods by pretences of equality, and sometimes even by defiance." — G. Grote, History oj Greece, pt. i, ch. 6. — See also Achaea; .^ioLis; Asia Minor: Greek colonies; Thessaly, Dorians and Ionians. ^OLIS (^olia), an ancient district of West- ern Asia Minor, extending along the .-Egean coast from the river Hermus to the promontory of Lec- tum; settled by the so-called ^olian Greeks, who before looo B. C. had founded Cyme and several other cities both on the mainland and on the island of Mytilene. — See also Romans. iEOLOPELE, device showing power of steam. See Steam and Gas Engines: Development up to Watt's time. ^OLUS. See ^olians. ^OUI (^quians), an ancient tribe of Italy who occupied the territory called Latium, a sec- tion east of Rome ; frequently fought with Rome but were not subdued until the lifth century B. C. See Rome: B. C. 45S; 300-347. ^OUINOCTIA, the name given by E. C. Abendanon to an old Paleozoic continent, now sunk below the sea. From observations, he draws the following conclusions regarding this ancient continent: "The gneiss, the mica schists, the phyllites, and the real 'old' schists, must be Ar- chean and pre-Cambrian rocks. They once built up an old Paleozoic continent, which extended at least over an area of 45° in latitude, between the tropics, from the southeast of Asia to the east of Australia. Its development from the southwest to northeast is unknown, owing to the presence of the Indian and Pacific oceans, but at all events this continent must have included most of Sumatra and the Philippine Islands, as in those countries also there has not yet been found any fossil of the Old Paleozoic. To the west, it may have stretched out as far as Madagascar. In the cen- tral part, north and south of the equator, moun- tain ranges of an almost east-west direction must have played an important part in this very old continent ."^E. C. Abendanon, Mquinoctia (Jour- nal oj Geology, Oil.. 1010, pp. 562-578). ^RARII, .ffirarians, a class of Roman cit- izens who were subjected to a poll-tax by the censor, usually placed upon inhabitants of con- quered towns. Full Roman citizens were some- times punished for certain dishonorable acts in private life by being placed among this class. See Censors: Roman. ^RARIUM, the name given by the ancient Romans to the public treasury containing the ac- counts and moneys of the state,- the standards of the legions, engraved public laws and other official registers and papers. The aerarium was virtual'y under the administration of the Roman emperors although the latter had separate exchequers, called fiscus. In time the emperors were privileged with an aerarium privatum, apart from the fiscus, an- other allotment which they could use either for their personal purposes or to the interest of the empire. — See also Fisci^s. AERIAL ARMAMENT. See World War: Miscellaneous auxiliarv services: IV. Aviation: a, 3. AERIAL DERBY FLIGHT. See Aviation: Important flights since 1000: 1014. AERIAL FOREST PATROL. See Aviation: Development of airplanes and air service iqi8- iq2i: Mr service after World War. AERIAL LAW. See Aviation: Development of airplanes and air service: I9i8-ig2i: Aerial law. AERIAL LEAGUE OF THE WORLD: Its aims. See Aviation: Development of airplanes and air service; 1918-192 1: Aerial law. AERIAL MAIL. See .Aviation: Development of airplanes and air service: 1918-1921: ."Vir service after World War. AERIAL NAVIGATION, Provisions regard- ing, in treaty of Versailles. See Versailles, Treaty of: Part XI AERIAL NAVIGATION LAWS. See .\via- tion: Development of airplanes and air service: 1918-1921: .\erial law. AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY, in city planning. See City planning: .Aeroplane in city planning; World War: Miscellaneous auxiliary services: IV. .Aviation: a, 1. AERIAL POSTAL SERVICE. See Avution: 1021: .American aerial mail service AERIAL TRANSPORTATION. See Avia- tion. AERIAL WARFARE. See World War: 1915: 1916: IQ17 and 19 18: .Aerial operations. AERODROMES, Floating. See Aviation: Development of airplanes and air service: 1910- 1920. AERODROMES, Langley's. See .A«ation: Development of airplanes and air service: 1889- 1900: .Aerial law AERODROMES, Laws concerning. See .Aviation: Development of airplanes and air serv-- ice: 1918-IQ21: .Aerial law. AERONAUTIC MAPS. See Aviation: Devel- opment of airplanes and air service: 1908-1920. AERONAUTICS. See Aviation. AEROPLANE IN CITY PLANNING. See City planntxg: .Aeroplane in city planning. AEROPLANES. See Avlation. AERSCHOT, or Aarschot, a town of Bel- gium, province of Brabant. Scene of the first acts of terrorism by the Germans in their invasion of Belgium, .August, 1914. See Belciu.m: 1914; World War: 1014: I. Western front: c, 1 and e; also 1916: X. German rule in northern France and Bel- gium: b, 3; also Miscellaneous auxiliary services: X. .Alleged atrocities and violations of international law: a, 7. .ffiSCHINES (389-314 B. C), celebrated Athenian statesman and orator. Sent as a mem- ber of the embassy to Philip of Macedon, 347 B. C. From that time he actively favored Philip and became the leader of the peace party at Athens as against Demosthenes. In 330 B. C. /Eschines unsuccessfully attacked Ctesiphon's ef- forts to reward Demosthenes with a golden crown for his services to the state. .As a result of this defeat he went into voluntary exile at Rhodes. vEschines' most famous contributions to oratory, the three speeches referred to as "The Three Graces," rank close to those of Demosthenes. — See also .Athens: 336-322 B. C. .ESCHINES (5th century B; C), an .Athenian philosopher and friend of Socrates; held in con- tempt by Plato and .Aristotle. He was one of the most gifted orators of his time. His work is con- sidered as the standard of the pure .Attic stvle. .ffiSCHYLUS (525-456 B. C ), first of the'three great Greek tragedians. Fought at Marathon and Salamis. His ninety plays,, grouped in threes, ex- tend over a period of forty years, during which time he won the first prize thirteen times. His plays, of which seven are extant, show the charac- ters gradually displacing the chorus as protagonist. — See also Drama: Origin: Greek tragedy: Rise and development .ffiSCLEPIADAE. See Medical science: .Ancient Greece 74 ^SCULAPIUS ^THELWULF ^SCULAPIUS, Greek god of medicine. See Medical science: Ancient Greece. .ffiSOPUS INDIANS. See Algonquian fam- ily. .ESTHETICS: Croce. See Art: Croce's Aes- thetic. .ffiSTII, or .ffistyi.— "At this point [beyond the SuionesJ the Suevic Sea [the Baltic], on its eastern shore, washes the tribes of the .-Estii, whose rites and fashions and styles of dress are those of the Suevi, while their language is more like the British. They worship the mother of the gods and wear as a religious symbol the device of a wild boar. . . . They often use clubs, iron weap- ons but seldom. They are more patient in cul- tivating corn and other produce than might be expected from the general indolence of the Ger- mans. But they also search the deep and are the only people who gather amber, which they call glesum." — "The .-Estii occupied that part of Prussia which is to the north-east of the Vistula. . . . The name still survives in the form Estonia." — Tacitus, Germany, tr. by Church and Brodribb, with nole. .ffiSYMNET.^;.— Among the Greeks, an ex- pedient "which seems to have been tried not un- frequently in early times, for preserving or re- storing tranquillity, was to invest an individual with absolute power, under a peculiar title, which soon became obsolete: that of aesymnets. At Cuma, indeed, and in other cities, this was the title of an ordinary magistracy, probably of that which succeeded the hereditary monarchy; but when applied to an extraordinary office, it was equivalent to the title of protector or dictator." — C. Thirlwall, History of Greece, ch. lo .ffiTHEL, .aiTHELINGS. — .-Etheling, an Anglo-Saxon word compounded of "aethele" or "ethel," meaning "noble," and "ing," belonging; akin to the modern German words "adel," "no- bility" and "adelig," "noble," was used to denote members of a royal family. "The sons and broth- ers of the king [of the English] were distinguished by the title of Aethelings. The word .-Etheling, like eorl, originally denoted noble birth simply ; but as the royal house of Wessex rose to pre-emi- nence and the other royal houses and the nobles generally were thereby reduced to a relatively lower grade, it became restricted to the near kindred of the national king." — T. P. Taswell-Langmead, Eng. Const. Hist., p 2q. — "It has been sometimes held that the only nobility of blood recognized in Eng- land before the Norman Conquest was that of the king's kin. The statement may be regarded as de- ficient in authority, and as the result of a too hasty generalization from the fact that only the sons and brothers of the kings bear the name of aetheling. On the other hand must be alleged the existence of a noble (edhiling) class among the continental Saxons who had no kings at all. . . . The laws of Ethelbert prove the existence of a class bearing the name of eorl of which no other interpretation can be given. That these, curls and aethel, were the descendants of the primitive nobles of the first settlement, who, on the institution of royalty, sank one step in dignity from the ancient state of rude independence, in which they had elect- ed their own chiefs and ruled their own dependents, may be very reasonably conjectured. . . . The ancient name of eorl, like that of aetheling, changed its application, and, under the influence, perhaps, of Danish association, was given like that of jarl to the official ealdorman. Henceforth the thegn takes the place of the aethel, and the class of thegns probably embraces all the remaining families of noble blood. The change may have been very gradual; the 'north people's law' of the tenth or early eleventh century still distinguishes the eorl and aetheling with a wergild nearly double that of the ealdorman and seven times that of the thegn; but the north people's law was penetrated with Danish influence, and the eorl probably rep- resents the jarl rather than the ealdorman, the great eorl of the fourth part of England as it was divided by Canute. . . . The word eorl is said to be the same as the Norse jarl and another form of ealdor {?); whilst the ceorl answers to the Norse Karl; the original meaning of the two being old man and young man."— W. Stubbs, Constitutional History of England, ch. 6, sect. 64, and note. -ffiTHELBALD, one of the most powerful kings of Mercia, controlling all of Britain up to the Humber; invaded Wessex in 733 and North- umbria in 740; slain by his guards in 757 at Seck- ington, Warwickshire. .ffiTHELBALD, king of Wessex; defeated the Danes (851) with the help of his father, ^thel- wulf. ^thelbald married his father's widow in 858 and ruled until his death in 860 .ffiTHELBERHT OF KENT, Saint (SS2{?)- 616), king of Kent, 560 to 616. Established his supremacy over all the English south of the Hum- ber in 593, after the death of Ceowlin, king of the West Saxons; married the daughter of Chari- bert, king of the Franks, agreeing to permit her to practice her own (Christian) religion ; was him- self converted by St. Augustine in 597 and founded the bishopric of Rochester and erected the church of St. Paul in London; is author of first written Saxon laws. .ffiTHELBERHT, king of the West Saxons; younger brother of .^thelbald, king of Wessex whom he succeeded upon the latter's death in 860. The Danes made two attacks upon his kingdom; in one of these (860) destroyed Winchester. Died in 865. — See also England: 855-880. .ffiTHELFLED, daughter of King Alfred. See Education: Medieval: 871-900: England: King Alfred. .ffiXHELFRITH, king of Northumberland, 593-617 .ffiTHELRED, king of Mercia from 675 to 704. From 704 till his death in 716 he was abbot of Bardnev. .ffiTHELRED, king of Wessex, A. D. 866-871. .SITHELRED II (968-1016), surnamed "The Unready"; in 991 instituted the payment of "danegeld" as a price of peace with the Danes; or- dered a general massacre of the Danes in 1002 which caused more ravages of England by the Danes under King Sweyn, who marched upon London and deposed .^thclred whom the people deserted; was restored to the throne in 1014. — See also England: 979-1016. .ffiTHELSTAN (c. 894-940) succeeded his father. King Edward the Elder, as king of the Saxons (924). Thirteen years later he had es- tablished himself as sovereign over the whole of England and Scotland. .ffiXHELSWISTHA, son of King Alfred. See Education: Medieval: 871-900: England: King Alfred. .ffiXHELWEARD, Anglo-Saxon historian; au- thor of a Latin Chronicle extending to 975; in 991 was associated with Archbishop Sigeric in the conclusion of a peace with the Danes. .ffiXHELWERD, son of King Alfred. See Education: Medieval: 871-900: England: King Alfred. .ffiXHELWULF, king of Wessex, 839-858. Viking invasions. See Scandinavian States: 8th-9th centuries. 75 -ETIUS AFGHANISTAN ^TIUS (d. 4S4), Roman general under Val- entinian III ; won many notable \'ictories in twenty years of warfare in Gaul, thereby delay- ing the collapse of the Roman empire; won a great victory over Attila and the Huns at Chalons- sur-Marne (September 20, 451). ^-Etius, in 454, formally asked \ alentinian to give his daughter in marriage to his son Gaudentius. Suspecting de- signs upon his power, the emperor assassinated his general. — See also Barbarian invasions: 4-3-455; Huns; 451. JETIUS, founder of an extreme sect of Arians; surnamed "the Atheist"; banished from Alexan- dria in 356 b\- Constantius for preaching Arian- ism; was a favorite with the emperor Julian who recalled him and presented him with an estate; died at Constantinople in 367. ^TNA INSURANCE COMPANY. See In- surance: Fire insurance: Development in United States. JETOLIA, a district of central Greece, directly south of Thessaly and Epirus, bordering on the gulfs of Calydon and Corinth. In ancient times the inhabitants of this district were known as a backward and barbarous people. As late as the fifth century they were still bands or tribes under the leadership of plunderers who styled them- selves "kings." The rise of .^itolia as a distinct power may be ascribed to the formation of the .•Etolian League, which was originally intended to meet any invasion by the Macedonian regents, Antipater and Craterus. The confederacy, the members of which were the districts of .-Etolia, F;iis, Locris, Phocis, Bu;otia, CEtsa and Phthio- tis, continued to extend its influence to the north- ern sections of central Greece (2Q0 B. C). The .-Etolian League reached the zenith of its power between the years 245-240 B. C, when the naval power of the .E^tolians extended to the .Egian islands and to the Hellespont. .M this time all central Greece was under the control of the league. .\n inscription recently unearthed, indicates the extent of the .■Etolian League's influence upon the other states of central Greece. "This inscription, discovered at Avaritza in Southern Thessaly, on the site of the ancient Melitea, records a decision of arbitrators appointed by the .E^tolian League in a dispute between the city-state of Melitea and the neighboring settlement of Perea. The two were, at the time, politically united into one com- munity, but the Pereans evidently were dissatis- fied and desired the right of seceding if they should choose to do so. This the decision granted to them, and it also provided for the subsequent relations between the two communities, besides defining the boundar\- line, in the event of a sep- aration. The inscription not only shows the pre- ponderant influence of the .-Etolian League in dis- putes between its member states, but also gives an interesting hint regarding the basis of repre- sentation in the federal council. The date is the last quarter of the third century B. C, when the power of the League extended into Southern Thes- saly."— G. W. Botsford, and E. G Sihler, Hellenic civUizalion, p. 622. — Towards the close of the third century B. C. the /Etolians became greatly alarmed at the growing power of the Macedonians and in order to check the inroads of the Macedo- nian king. Demetrius (230-220 B. C), they joined forces with their former rivals, the .\chcEans. But this did not save their rapidly waning power, for in 228 their .Arcadian po.ssessions were aban- doned to Sparta and in 224 B. C. B(Colia and Phocis were lost to .\ntigonus Doson, son of Demetrius. New enemies began to arise in all directions. The Illyrian pirates, who far sur- passed the .iEtolians in unscrupulous barbarity, raided numerous towns. Subsequent raids into Achsan territory by .Eltolian chiefs brought about a coalition between Achaea and Philip V of Mace- don. The combined forces attacked the .E)tolians, drove them out of the Peloponnesus, marched into .-Etolia and there sacked the capital, Thermon. Peace was finally purchased in 217 B. C. with the loss of .\carnania. Thereupon the .-Etolians con- cluded an arrangement with Rome which helped to support its rapidly declining influence. The combined forces of Rome and the .Etolians in- flicted severe punishment upon the Macedonian troops under Philip V at the battle of Cynoceph- als (iQ7 B. C). Central Greece was again restored to the .-Etolian League. The withholding of the League's former Thessalian possessions by the Romans, however, excited the .-Etolians to such resentment that they concmded a compact wUh .Antiochus III of Syria and war with Rome followed. But in 191 15. C. the .Etolians gave very poor support to Antiochus. Their failure to defend Thermopylse forced him to leave Greece .Alone on the field against the greatest power in the Mediterranean, the .-Etolians- vainly pleaded for some compromise. Their surrender in 189 practically brought the league to an end. The .•Etolian League's constitution, which the .\chian league used as a model for their own, provided for the yearly convocation of a general assembly, which elected officials and usually shaped the league's policies. Although these general as- semblies were open to all freemen they were usually controlled by .E)tolian chiefs. The strait- ens (general) who had complete control in the field, presided over the assembly. Outlying de- pendencies, which were usually considered as pro- tectorates, were rarely represented in the general law making body. .Although the /Etolian troops were reputed to be ruthless and lawless, the re- sponsibility for which rested with their generals and chiefs who enjoyed unlimited powers, .Etolia and the league contributed invaluable aid to the defence of Greece against foreign aggression. In 1205 .-Etolia became part of the old Greek Em- pire. In the fifteenth century it fell under the con- trol of Scanderbeg, and was in turn under the Venetians and the Turks. — See also Gaul: B. C. 280-270. . JETOLIAN LEAGUE. See ^tolm; Federal GOVEKNMF.NT : Greek federations. AFAR PEOPLE. See Eritrea. AFER, Domitius (d. -A. D. 60), a Roman ora- tor who accused Claudia Pulcra, cousin of .Agrip- pina (.A. D. 26) of having designs .against the emperor. AFFONSO. See .Alfonso. AFGHANA, founder of the Afghan race. See .Afghanisian: The name. AFGHANISTAN.— The Name.— The People. — "The name .Afghanistan was invented in the six- teenth century and seventeenth century, as a con- venient term by the Mochul government of India, and since then it has become current in the mouths of foreigners. The .Afghans speak of their country as Wilayat and less commonly as Khurassan IKhorasanl, although .Afghanistan covers less than a third of that ancient Division of .Asia." — G. P. Tate, Kingdom of Afgliani^tan. — -Although a na- tion of anti Semites, the .Afghans take great pride in their supposed Hebrew lineage. They call them- selves Beni-lsrael (Children of Israel), and claim descent from King Saul, through .Afghana, son of Jeremiah, son of Saul, from whose country they were forced to migrate by Nebuchadnezzar. This claim is not substantiated bv obtainable historical 76 AFGHANISTAN, B.C. 330 AFGHANISTAN, 1803-1838 Jata, but the unmistakable Hebrew cast of the Afghan countenance, as well as the opinions of Europeans resident in Afghanistan, put it within (he range of possibility. Nine years after Mo- hammed's announcement of his mission, the "dc- scendents of Afghana" heard of the new prophet and sent to Medina a deputation headed by Kais, to make inquiry. These, won over to the new belief, on their return converted their counlry- men, and from Kais and his three sons the whole body of genuine Afghans claim descent. Geographic description. — "Between the Rus- sian Dominions in .Asia and the Indian Empire of Great Britain, Afghanistan is placed, like a nut between the levers of a cracker. The rivalry be- tween the great powers which are the neighbors of Afghanistan has led to the careful demarcation of the boundaries of that State with the excep- tion of a short and unimportant length on the west and east. The generally accepted area of 243,000 sq. miles, therefore, may be regarded as correct. While, however, a fairly accurate general knowledge exists with regard to Ihc geography of Afghanistan, very little is known as to the num- ber of inhabitants the country supports. From observations made in Seistan, in IQ04, there is reason to believe that an average density of 50 souls to a square mile, is not an excessive estimate or (say) 12,000,000 souls for the population of the country. The richer lands in the wider val- ley drained by the principal rivers of the country carry the densest population. In the more ele- vated and poorer districts, there are fewer inhabi- tants, and they are to a certain extent migratory. Those who arc able to avoid the rigorous winter, descend to the lower levels on the approach of that season. Above these districts again, are others to which shepherds resort in the spring, and in which during the summer, a considerable population is to be found. These tracts are vacated as winter draws on. The flocks are driven down to warmer districts, where fodder is pro- curable and in which during the early spring (the lambing season) the climate is not too severe for the young stock. . . . The great range of the Hin- du-Kush divides Afghanistan into two unequal parts, about a third part lying to the north of the watershed. The country generally consists of nar- row valleys sheltered by giant spurs, and ridges of inferior elevation, which descend from the parent range. The Heri-Rud, the River of Herat, drains )he western end of this trough. Within the pres- ent limits of .Afghanistan, permanent snow covers only the loftier summits of the range or collects at the head of the mo.st elevated valleys, which descend on either side, but the heavy snowfall of winter, on the whole range, and rain which falls at cerfain seasons replenish the rivers which rise high up on the slopes of the mountains. The southern ridge of the Hindu-Kush is pierced by the beds of the principal rivers of Afghanistan, and the northern ridge is broken by torrential streams which descend toward the Oxus; but only the more important of these actually join that river. The beds of these streams and rivers are followed by the routes which cross the lofty sad- dles of the range, and the lowest of these passes is the Khawak, considerably over 11,000 feet above sea-level. The two ridges culminate in the vicinity of the mass of Tirish Mir, close to the eastern boundary of Afghanistan, the highest peak of which attains to an altitude of 25,426 feet above the sea. . . . There is no part of Afghanistan where snow never falls. The rainfall is very small, and except on irrigated lands there is an absence of moisture and the climate of the country is very unfavorable to human existence. About 43,000 square miles of unproductive desert exists in the extreme southern portion of Afghanistan. . . . Ten per cent, of the whole area of Afghanistan may perhaps represent the area which might be culti- vated. . . . The mineral resources of the country arc as yet unexplored, and as it is a task which can be successfully carried out only by foreign experts, progress in this [direction] must be slow." — G. P. Tate, Kingdom of Afghnnislan, pp. i-ii. B. C. 330-A. D. 1747.— Under foreign rulers.— The territory now embraced in Afghanistan has fre- quently changed hands. It was a part of Alexan- der's empire, of the Bagdad Caliphate, of the empire of theSamanids, of the territories of the Ghaznevid dynasty, of the Mongol Empire, the empire of Timur, and of the Mogul Empire. The invasion of Persia in 1722 by the Afghan chieftain Mahmud resulted a few years later in an expedition under Nadir Kuli, who drove the Afghans out of Persia and made the last great conquest of Afghanistan. Nadir Shah was assassinated in 1747, and was succeeded by Ahmed Shah, one of his own officers, who established the Durani dynasty in Afghanistan and the independent status of the country. Ahmed made considerable conquests in India, but none of a permanent nature. B. C. 330.— Conquest by Alexander the Great. —Founding of Herat and Kandahar. See MACEno.MA: B. C. 330-323. B. C. 301-246.— In the Syrian empire. See Macedonia: B. C. 310-301 ; Seleucidae. 13th century. — Conquest by Jenghiz Khan. See India: 077-1200. 1380-1386.— Conquest by Timur. See Timur. 1722. — Mahmoud's conquest of Persia. See Persia: 1490-1887. 1732-1800.— Conquest by Nadir Kuli. See Persia: 1400-1887. 1755-1761. — War against Mahrattas. See In- dia: 1747-1761. 1803-1838. — Shah Shuja and Dost Mohammed. — English interference. — "Shah Soojah-ool Moolk, a grandson of the illustrious .Ahmed Shah, reigned in Afghanistan from 1S03 till iSoo. His youth had been full of trouble and vicissitude. He had been a wanderer, on the verge of starvation, a pedler, and a bandit, who raised money by plun- dering caravans. His courage was lightly reputed, and it was as a mere creature of circumstance that he reached the throne. His reign was perturbed, and in i8oq he was a fugitive and an exiled Runjeet Singh, the Sikh ruler of the Punjaub, defrauded him of the famous Koh-i-noor, which is now the most precious of the crown jewels of England, and plundered and imprisoned the fallen man. Sh.ih Sonjah at 'length escaped from La- hore. After further misfortunes he at length reached the British frontier station of Loodianah, and in 1816 became a pensioner of the East India Company. After the downfall of Shah Soojah, Afghanistan for many years was a prey to an- archy. At length in 1826, Dost Mahomed suc- ceeded in making himself supreme at Cabul, and this masterful man thenceforward held sway until his death in 1865, uninterruptedly save during the three years of the British occupation. Dost Ma- homed was neither kith nor kin to the legitimate dynasty which he displaced. His father Poyndah khan was an able statesman and gallant soldier. He left twenty-one sons, of whom Futteh Khan was the eldest, and 'Dost Mahomed one of the youngest. . . . Throughout his long reign Dost Mahomed was a strong and wise ruler. His youth had been neglected and dissolute. His education was defective, and he had been addicted to wine. 77 AFGHANISTAN, 1803-1838 AFGHANISTAN, 1838-1S42 Once seated on the throne, the reformation of our Henr>- V. was not more thorough than was that of Dost Mahomed. He taught himself to read and write, studied the Koran, became scrupulously abstemious, assiduous in affairs, no longer trucu- lent, but courteous. . . . There was a fine rugged honesty in his nature, and a streak of genuine chivalry ; notwithstanding what he suffered at our hands, he had a real regard for the English, and his loyalty to us was broken only by his armed support of the Sikhs in the second Punjaub war. The fallen Shah Soojah, from his asylum in Loodianah, was continually intriguing for his restoration. His schemes were long inoperative, and it was not until 1832 that certain arrange- ments were entered into between him and the Maharaja Runjeet Singh. To an application on Shah Soojah's part for countenance and pecuniary aid, the Anglo-Indian Government replied that to afford him assistance would be inconsistent with the policy of neutrality which the Government had imposed on itself ; but it unwisely contributed financially toward his undertaking by granting him four months' pension in advance. Sixteen thousand rupees formed a scant war fund with which to attempt the recovery of a throne, but the Shah started on his errand in February, 1833. After a successful contest with the Ameers of Scinde, he marched on Candahar, and besieged that fortress. Candahar was in extremity when Dost Mahomed, hurrying from Cabul, relieved it, and joining forces with its defenders, he defeated and routed Shah Soojah, who fled precipitately, leaving behind him his artillery and camp equi- page. During the Dost's absence in the south, Run- jeet Singh's troops crossed the Attock, occupied the Afghan province of Peshawur, and drove the Afghans into the Khyber Pass. No subsequent efforts on Dost Mahomed's part availed to expel the Sikhs from Peshawur, and suspicious of British connivance with Runjeet Singh's successful aggres- sion, he took into consideration the policy of for- tifying himself by a counter alliance with Persia. As for Shah Soojah, he had crept back to his refuge at Loodianah. Lord Auckland succeeded Lord W'ilUam Bentinck as Governor-General of India in March, 1836. In reply to Dost Ma- homed's letter of congratulation, his lordship wrote: 'You are aware that it is not the practice of the British Government to interfere with the affairs of other independent States;' an abstention which Lord Auckland was soon to violate. He had brought from England the feeling of dis- quietude in regard to the designs of Persia and Russia which the communications of our envoy in Persia had fostered in the Home Government, but it would appear that he was wholly undecided what line of action to pursue. 'Swayed,' says Dur- and, 'by the vague apprehensions of a remote dan- ger entertained by others rather than himself,' he despatched to Afghanistan Captain Burnes on a nominally commercial mission, which, in fact, was one of political discovery, but without definite in- structions. Burnes, an able but rash and ambitious man, reached Cabul in September, 1837, two months before the Persian army began the siege of Herat. . . . The Dost made no concealment to Burnes of his approaches to Persia and Russia, in despair of British good offices, and being hungry for assistance from any source to meet the en- croachments of the Sikhs, he professed himself ready to abandon his negotiations with the west- ern powers if he were given reason to expect countenance and assistance at the hands of the Anglo-Indian Government. . . The situation of Burnes in relation to the Dost was presently com- plicated by the arrival at Cabul of a Russian of- ficer claiming to be an envoy from the Czar, whose credentials, however, were regarded as dubious, and who, if that circumstance has the least weight, was on his return to Russia utterly repudiated by Count Nesselrode. The Dost took small account of this emissary, continuing to assure Burnes that he cared for no connection except with the Eng- lish, and Burnes professed to his Government his fullest confidence in the sincerity of those declara- tions. But the tone of Lord Auckland's reply, addressed to the Dost, was so dictatorial and supercilious as to indicate the writer's intention that it should give offence. It had that effect, and Burnes' mission at once became hopeless. . . . The Russian envoy, who was profuse in his prom- ises of everything which the Dost was most anx- ious to obtain, was received into favour and treated with distinction, and on his return jour- ney he effected a treaty with the Candahar chiefs which was presently ratified by the Russian min- ister at the Persian Court. Burnes, fallen into discredit at Cabul, quitted that place in August 1838. He had not been discreet, but it was not his indiscretion that brought about the failure of his mission. A nefarious transaction, which Kaye denounces with the passion of a just indignation, connects itself with Burnes' negotiations with the Dost ; his official correspondence was unscrupu- lously mutilated and garbled in the published Blue Book with deliberate purpose to deceive the British public. Burnes had failed because, since he had quitted India for Cabul, Lord Auckland's policy had gradually altered. Lord Auckland had landed in India in the character of a man of peace. That, so late as .^pril 1837, he had no design of obstructing the existing situation in Afghanistan is proved by his written statement of that date, that 'the British Government had resolved decidedly to discourage the prosecution by the ex-king Shah Soojah-ool-Moolk, so long as he may remain under our protection, of further schemes of hostility against the chiefs now in' power in Cabul and Candahar.' Vet, in the fol- lowing June, he concluded a treaty which sent Shah Soojah to Cabul, escorted by British bayo- nets. Of this inconsistency no explanation pre- sents itself. It was a far cry from our frontier on the Sutlej ,to Herat in the confines of Central Asia — a distance of more than 1,200 miles, over some of the most arduous marching ground in the known world. . . . Lord William Bentinck, Lord Auckland's predecessor, denounced the project as an act of incredible folly. Marquis Wellesley re- garded 'this wild expedition into a distant region of rocks and deserts, of sands and ice and snow,' as an act of infatuation. The Duke of Welling- ton pronounced with prophetic sagacity, that the consequence of once crossing the Indus to settle a government in Afghanistan would be a perennial march into that country." — A. Forbes, Afghan ■wars, ch. i. Also in: J. P. Ferrier, History of the Afghans, ch. TO-20. — Mohan Lai, Life of Amir Dost Mo- hammed Khan. x\ 1 1808-1810. — Border wars. See India: 1805-1816. 1837. — War with British in India. See India: I 836- I 84 5 1838-1842. — English invasion, and restoration of Shuja Dowlah. — Revolt at Cabul. — Horrors of the British retreat. — Destruction of the entire army, save one man, only. — Sale's defence of Jellalabad. — "To approach Afghanistan it was necessary to secure the friendship of the Sikhs, who were, indeed, ready enough to join against their old enemies; and a threefold treaty was con- 78 AFGHANISTAN, 1838-1842 AFGHANISTAN, 1838-1842 traded between Runjeet Singh, the English, and Shah Soojah for the restoration of the banished house. The expedition — which according to the original intention was to have been carried out chiefly by means of troops in the pay of Shah Soojah and the Sikhs — rapidly grew into an Eng- lish invasion of Afghanistan. A considerable force was gathered on the Sikh frontier from Bengal; a second army, under General Keane, was to come up from Kurrachee through Sindh. Both of these armies, and the troops of Shah Soojah, were to enter the highlands of Afghanistan by the Bolan Pass. As the Sikhs would not willingly allow the free passage of our troops through their country, an additional burden was laid upon the armies, — the independent Ameers of Sindh had to be coerced. At length, with much trouble from the difficulties of the country and the loss of the com- missariat animals, the forces were all collected under the command of Keane beyond the passes. The want of food permitted of no delay; the army pushed on to Candahar. Shah Soojah was declared Monarch of the southern Principality. Thence the troops moved rapidly onwards towards the more important and difficult conquest of Ca- bal. Ghuznee, a fortress of great strength, lay in the way. In their hasty movements the English had left their battering train behind, but the gates of the fortress were blown in with gunpowder, and by a brilliant feat of arms the fortress was stormed. Nor did the English army encounter any important resistance subsequently. Dost Mohamed found his followers deserting him, and withdrew northwards into the mountains of the Hindoo Koosh. With all the splendour that could be collected. Shah Soojah was brought back to his throne in the Bala Hissar, the fortress Palace of Cabul. . . . For the moment the policy seemed thoroughly successful. The English Ministry could feel that a fresh check had been placed upon its Russian rival, and no one dreamt of the terrible retribution that was in store for the unjust vio- lence done to the feelings of a people. . . . Dost Mohamed thought it prudent to surrender him- self to the English envoy. Sir William Macnagh- ten, and to withdraw with his family to the Eng- lish provinces of Hindostan [November, 1840]. He was there well received and treated with liber- ality; for, as both the Governor-General and his chief adviser Macnaghten felt, he had not in fact in any way offended us, but had fallen a victim to our policy. It was in the full belief that their pohcy in India had been crowned with perma- nent success that the Whig Ministers withdrew from office, leaving their successors to encounter the terrible results to which it led. For while the English officials were blindlv congratulating them- selves upon the happy completion of their enter- prise, to an observant eye signs of approaching difficulty were on all sides visible. . . . The re- moval of the strong rule of the Barrukzyes opened a door for undefined hopes to many of the other families and tribes. The whole country was full of intrigues and of diplomatic bargaining, carried on by the English political agents with the various chiefs and leaders. But they soon found that the hopes excited by these negotiations were illusory. The allowances for which they had bargained were reduced, for the English envoy began to be dis- quieted at the vast expenses of the Government. They did not find that they derived any advan- tages from the establishment of the new puppet King, Soojah Dowlah ; and every Mahomedan, even the very king himself, felt disgraced at the predominance of the English infidels. But as no actual insurrection broke out, Macnaghten, a man of sanguine temperament and anxious to believe what he wished, in spite of unmistakable warn- ings as to the real feeling of the people, clung with almost angry vehemence to the persuasion that all was going well, and that the new King had a real hold upon the people's affection. So completely had he deceived himself on this point, that he had decided to send back a portion of the English army, under General Sale, into Hindostan. He even intended to accompany it himself to enjoy the peaceful post of Governor of Bombay, with which his successful policy had been rewarded. His place was to be taken by Sir Alexander Burnes, whose view of the troubled condition of the country underlying the comparative calm of the surface was much truer than that of Mac- naghten, but who, perhaps from that very fact, was far less popular among the chiefs. The army which was to remain at Candahar was under the command of General Nott, an able and decided if somewhat irascible man. But General Elphin- stone, the commander of the troops at Cabul, was of quite a different stamp. He was much respected and liked for his honourable character and social qualities, but was advanced in years, a confirmed invalid, and wholly wanting in the vigour and decision which his critical position was likely to require. The fool's paradise with which the Eng- lish Envoy had surrounded himself was rudely destroyed. He had persuaded himself that the frequently recurring disturbances, and especially the insurrection of the Ghilzyes between Cabul and Jellalabad, were mere local outbreaks. But in fact a great conspiracy was on foot in which the chiefs of nearly every important tribe in the country were implicated. On the evening of the ist of November [1841] a meeting of the chiefs was held, and it was decided that an immediate attack should be made on the house of Sir Alex- ander Burnes. The following morning an angry crowd of assailants stormed the houses of Sir Alexander Burnes and Captain Johnson, murder- ing the inmates, and rifling the treasure-chests be- longing to Soojah Dowlah's army. Soon the whole city was in wild insurrection. The evidence is nearly irresistible that a little decision and rapidity of action on the .part of the military would have at once crushed the outbreak. But although the attack on Burnes's house was known, no troops were sent to his assistance. Indeed, that unbroken course of folly and mismanagement which marked the conduct of our military affairs throughout this crisis had already begun. Instead of occupying the fortress of the Bala Hissar, where the army would have been in comparative security, Elphin- stone had placed his troops in cantonments far too extensive to be properly defended, surrounded by an entrenchment of the most insignificant char- acter, commanded on almost all sides by higher ground. To complete the unfitness of the position, the commissariat supplies were not stored within the cantonments, but were placed in an isolated fort at some Httle distance. All ill-sustained and futile assault was made upon the town on the 3d of November, but from that time onwards the British troops lay with incomprehensible supine- ness awaiting their fate in their defenceless posi- tion. The commissariat fort soon fell into the hands of the enemy and rendered their situation still more deplorable. Some flashes of bravery now and then lighted up the sombre scene of helpless misfortune, and served to show that de- struction might even yet have been averted by a little firmness. . . . But the commander had al- ready begun to despair, and before many days had passed he was thinking of making terms with 79 AFGHANISTAN, 1838-1842 AFGHANISTAN, 1838-1842 the enemy. Macnaghten had no course open to him under such circumstances but to adopt the suggestion of the general, and attempt as well as he could by bribes, cajolery, and intrigue, to di- vide the chiefs and secure a safe retreat for the EngUsh. Akbar Khan, the son of Dost Mohamed, though not present at the beginning of the in- surrection, had arrived from the northern moun- tains, and at once asserted a predominant influ- ence in the insurgent councils. With him and with the other insurgent chiefs Macnaghten entered into an arrangement by which he promised to withdraw the English entirely from the country if a safe passage were secured for the army through the passes. . . . The horrors of the retreat form one of the darkest passages in English military history. In bitter cold and snow, which took all life out of the wretched Sepoys, without proper clothing or shelter, and hampered by a disorderly mass of thousands of camp-followers, the array en- tered the terrible defiles which lie between Cabul and Jellalabad. Whether .Akbar Khan could, had he wished it, have restrained his fanatical followers is uncertain. As a fact the retiring crowd — it can reached Jellalabad to tell fhc tale. Literally one man, Dr. Brydon, came to Jellalabad [January 13] out of a moving host which had numbered in all some 16,000 when it set out on its march. The curious eye will search through history or fiction in vain for any picture more thrilling with the suggestions of an awful catastrophe than that of this solitary survivor, faint and reeling on his jaded horse, as he appeared under the walls of Jellalabad, to bear the tidings of our Thermopylae of pain and shame. This is the crisis of the story. With this at least the worst of the pain and. shame were destined to end. The rest is all, so far as we are concerned, reaction and recovery. Our successes are common enough ; we may tell their tale briefly in this instance.. The garrison at Jella- labad had received before Dr. Brydon's arrival an intimation that they were to go out and march toward India in accordance with the terms of the treaty extorted from Elphinstone at Cabul. They very properly declined to be bound by a treaty which, as General Sale rightly conjectured, had been "forced from our envoy and military com- mander with the knives at their throats.' General ■ ■S*:->,:»iik ^ JAMRLU) FOKT .\T KNTRANCE OF FAMOUS KHYBER PASS scarcely be called an army — was a mere unresist- ing prey to the assaults of the mountaineers. Con- stant communication was kept up with Akbar; on the third day all the ladies and children with the married men were placed in his hands, and finally even the two generals gave themselves up as host- ages, always in the hope that the remnant of the army might be allowed to escape." — J. F. Bright, History of England, v. 4, pp. 61-66. — "Then the march of the army, without a general, went on again. Soon it became the story of a general without an army ; before very long there was neither general nor army. It is idle to lengthen a tale of mere horrors. The straggling remnant of an army entered the Jugdulluk Pass — a dark, steep, narrow, ascending path between crags. The miserable toilers found that the fanatical, impla- cable tribes had barricaded the pass. All was over. The army of Cabul was finally extineuished in that barricaded pass. It was a trap; the British were taken in it. A few mere fugitives escaped from the scene of actual slaughter, and were on the road to Jellalabad, where Sale and his little army were holding their own. When they were within sixteen miles of Jellalabad the number was reduced to six. Of these six fix^e were killed by straggling marauders on the way. One man alone Sale's determination was clear and simple. 'I pro- pose to hold this place on the part of Govern- ment until I receive its order to the contrary ' This resolve of Sale's was really the turning point of the history. Sale held Jellalabad; Nott was at Candahar. Akbar Khan besie.:ed Jellalabad. Nature seemed to have declared herself emphat- ically on his side, for a succession of earthquake shocks shattered the walls of the place, and pro- duced more terrible destruction than the most formidable guns of modern warfare could have done. But the garrison held out fearlessly ; they restored the parapets, re-established every battery, retrenched the whole of the gates and built up all the breaches. They resisted every attempt of Akbar Khan to advance upon their works, and at length, when it became certain that General Pollock was forcing the Khyber Pass to come to their relief, they determined to attack Akbar Khan's army; they issued boldly out of their forts, forced a battle on the Afghan chief, and completely defeated him. Before Pollock, having gallantly fought his way through the Khyber Pass, had reached Jellalabad [.April 16] the beleaguer- ing army had been entirely defeated and dis- persed. . . . Meanwhile the unfortunate Shah Soo- jah, whom we had restored with so much pomp 80 AFGHANISTAN, 1842-1869 AFGHANISTAN, 1869-1881 of announcement to the throne of his ancestors, was dead. He was assassinated in Cabul, soon after the departure of the British, . . . and his body, stripped of its royal robes and its many jewels, was flunf; into a ditch." — J. McCarthy, History of our own times, v. i, cli. ii. Also in: J. W. Kaye, History of the war in Afghanistan. — G. R. Gleig, Sale's Brigade in Afghanistan. — Lady Sale, Journal of the disasters in Afghanistan.— Mohan Lai, Life of Dost Mo- hammed, eh. 15-18 (v. 2). 1842-1869. — British return to Cabul. — Restora- tion of Dost Mahommed. — It was not till Septem- ber that General Pollock "could obtain permis- sion from the Governor-General, Lord Ellenbor- ough, to advance against Cabul, though both he and Nott were burning to do so. When Pollock did advance, he found the enemy posted at Jug- duUuck, the scene of the massacre. 'Here,' says one writer, 'the skeletons lay so thick that they had to be cleared away to allow the guns to pass. The savage grandeur of the scene rendered it a fitting place for the deed of blood which had been enacted under its horrid shade, never yet pierced in some places by sunlight. The road was strewn for two miles with mouldering skeletons like a charnel house.' Now the enemy found they had to deal with other men, under other leaders, for, putting their whole energy into the work, the British troops scaled the heights and steep as- cents, and defeated the enemy in their strongholds on all sides. After one more severe fight with Akbar Khan, and all the force he could collect, the enemy were beaten, and driven from their mountains, and the force marched quietly into Cabul. Nott, on his side, started from Candahar on the 7th of .\ugust, and, after fighting several small battles with the enemy, he captured Ghuzni, where Palmer and his garrison had been destroyed. From Ghuzni General Nott brought away, by command of Lord Elienborough, the gates of Somnauth [said to have been taken from the Hindu temple of Somnauth by Mahmoud of Ghazni. the first Mohammedan invader of India, in 1024], which formed the subject of the cele- brated 'Proclamation of the Gates,' as it was called. . . . These celebrated gates, which are be- lieved to be imitations of the original gates, are now lying neglected and worm-eaten, in the back part of a small museum at Agra. But to return. General Nott, having captured Ghuzni and de- feated Sultan Jan, pushed on to Cabul, where he arrived on the 17th of September, and met Pol- lock. The English prisoners (amongst whom were Brigadier Sheltnn and Lady Sale), who had been captured at the time of the massacre, were brought, or found their own way, to General Pol- lock's camp. General Elphinstone had died during his captivity. It was not now considered neces- sary to take any further steps; the bazaar in Cabul was destroyed, and on the 12th of October Pol- lock and Nott turned their faces southwards, and began their march into India by the Khyber route. The Afghans in captivity were sent back, and the Governor-General received the troops at Feroze- poor. Thus ended the Afghan war of 1838-42. . . . The war being over, we withdrew our forces into India, leaving the son of Shah Soojah, Fathi Jung, who had escaped from Cabul when his father was murdered, as king of the country, a position that he was unable to maintain long, being very shortly afterwards assassinated. In 1842 Dost Mahomed, the ruler whom we had de- posed, and who had been living at our expense in India, returned to Cabul and resumed his former position as king of the country, still bearing ill- 81 will towards us, which he showed on several oc- casions, notably during the Sikh war, when he sent a body of his horsemen to fight for the Sikhs, and he himself marched an army through the Khyber to Peshawur to assist our enemies. However, the occupation of the Punjab forced upon Dost Mahomed the necessity of being on friendly terms with his powerful neighbour; he therefore concluded a friendly treaty with us in 1854, hoping thereby that our power would be used to prevent the intrigues of Persia against his kingdom. This hope was shortly after realized, for in 1856 we declared war against Persia, an event which was greatly to the advantage of Dost Mahomed, as it prevented Persian encroachments upon his territory. This war lasted but a short time, for early in 1857 an agreement was signed between England and Persia, by which the latter renounced all claims over Herat and Afghanistan. Herat, however, still remained independent of Afghanistan, until 1863, when Dost Mahomed at- tacked and took the town, thus uniting the whole kingdom, including Candahar and Afghan Turke- stan, under his rule. This was almost the last act of the Ameers life, for a few days after tak- ing Herat he died. By his will he directed that Shere Ali, one of his sons, should succeed him as Ameer of Afghanistan. The new Ameer imme- diately wrote to the Governor-General of India, Lord Elgin, in a friendly tone, asking that his succession might be acknowledged. Lord Elgin, however, as the commencement of the Liberal policy of 'masterly inactivity' neglected to answer the letter, a neglect which cannot but be deeply regretted, as Shere Ali was at all events the de facto ruler of the country, and even had he been beaten by any other rival for the throne, it would have been time enough to acknowledge that rival as soon as he was really ruler of the country. When six months later a cold acknowledgement of the letter was given by Sir William Denison, and when a rcciuest that the Ameer made for 6,000 muskets had been refused by Lord Lawrence, the Ameer concluded that the disposition of England towards him was not that of a friend; particu- larly as, when later on, two of his brothers re- volted against him, each of them was told by the Government that he would be acknowledged for that part of the countrj- which he brought under his power. However, after various changes in fortune, in i86q Shere Ali finally defeated his two brothers Afzool and Azim, together with Afzool's son, Abdurrahman." — P. F. Walker, Afghanistan, PP- 45-Si- Also in: J. W. Kaye, History of the war in Afghanistan. — G. B. Malleson, History of .ifghan- islan, eh. il. 1869-1881. — Second war with the English and its causes. — The period of disturbance in Afghan- istan, during the struggle of Shere Ali with his brothers, coincided with the vice royalty of Lord Lawrence in India. The policy of Lord Lawrence, "sometimes slightingly spoken of as masterly in- activity, consisted in holding entirely aloof from the dynastic quarrels of the Afghans . . . and in attempting to cultivate the friendship of the Ameer by gifts of money and arms, while carefully avoid- ing topics of offence. . . . Lord Lawrence was himself unable to meet the Ameer, but his suc- cessor. Lord Mayo, had an interview with him at Umballah in i86q. . . . Lord Mayo adhered to the policy of his predecessor. He refused to enter into any close alliance, he refused to pledge him- self to support any dynasty. But on the other hand he promised that he would not press for the admission of any English officers as Residents AFGHANISTAN, 1869-1881 AFGHANISTAN, 1869-1881 in Afghanistan. The return expected by England for this attitude of friendly non-interference was that every other foreign state, and especially Rus- sia, should be forbidden to mix either directly or indirectly with the affairs of the country in which our interests were so closely involved. . . . But a different view was held by another school of In- dian politicians, and was supported by men of such eminence as Sir Bartle Frere and Sir Henry Rawlinson, Their view was known as the Sindh Policy as contrasted with that of the Punjab. It appeared to theni desirable that English agents should be established at Quetta, Candahar, and Herat, if not at Cabul itself, to keep the Indian Government completely informed of the affairs of Afghanistan and to maintain English influence in the country. In 1874, upon the accession of the Conservative Ministry, Sir Bartle Frere pro- duced a memorandum in which this policy was ably maintained. ... A \ iceroy whose views were more in accordance with those of the Govern- ment, and who was likely to be a more ready in- strument in lits] hands, was found in Lord Lyt- ton, who went to India intrusted with the duty of giving effect to the new policy. He was instructed ... to continue payments of money, to recog- nise the permanence of the e.xisting dynasty, and to give a pledge of material support in case of unprovoked foreign aggression, but to insist on the acceptance of an English Resident at certain places in Afghanistan in exchange for these ad- vantages. . . . Lord Lawrence and those who thought with him in England prophesied from the first the disastrous results which would arise from the alienation of the Afghans. . . . The suggestion of Lord Lytton that an English Commission should go to Cabul to discuss matters of common inter- est to the two Governments, was calculated . . . to excite feelings already somewhat unfriendly to England. He (Sherc .\\i] rejected the mission, and formulated his grievances. . . . Lord Lytton waived for a time the despatch of the mission, and consented to a meeting between the Minister of the Ameer and Sir Lewis Pelly at Peshawur. . . . The English Commissioner was instructed to de- clare that the one indispensable condition of the Treaty was the admission of an English represen- tative within the limits of .Afghanistan. The al- most piteous request on the part of the Afghans for the relaxation of this demand proved unavail- ing, and the sudden death of the Ameer's envoy formed a good excuse for breaking off the nego- tiation. Lord Lytton treated the .\meer as in- corrigible, gave him to understand that the Eng- lish would proceed to secure their frontier without further reference to him. and withdrew his native agent from Cabul While the relations between the two countries were in this uncomfortable con- dition, information reached India that a Russian mission had been received at Cabul. It was just at this time that the action of the Home Govern- ment seemed to be tending rapidly towards a war with Russia. ... As the despatch of a mission from Russia was contrary to the engagements of that country, and its reception under existing cir- cumstances wore an unfriendly aspect. Lord Lyt- ton saw his way with some plausible justification to demand the reception at Cabul of an English embassy. He notified his intention to <he Ameer, but without waiting for an answer selected Sir Neville Chamberlain as his envoy, and sent him forward with an escort of more than 1,000 men, too large, as it was obser\'ed, for peace, too small for war As a matter of course the mission was not admitted . . .An outcry was raised both in England and in India. . . . Troops were hastily collected upon the Indian frontier; and a curious light was thrown on what had been done by the assertion of the Premier at the Guildhall banquet that the object in view was the formation of a 'scientific frontier;' in other words, throwing aside all former pretences, he declared that the policy of England was to make use of the opportunity offered for direct territorial aggression. ... As had been foreseen by all parties from the first, the English armies were entirely successful in their first advance [November, 1878]. . . . By the close of December Jellalabad was in the hands of Browne, the Shutargardan Pass had been sur- mounted by Roberts, and in January Stewart es- tablished himself in Candahar. \Vhen the re- sistance of his army proved ineffectual, Shere AU had taken to flight, only to die. His refractory son Vakoob Khan was drawn from his prison and assumed the reins of government as regent. . . . Yakoob readily granted the English demands, con- senting to place his foreign relations under Brit- ish control, and to accept British agencies. With considerably more reluctance, he allowed what was required for the rectification of the frontier to pass into English hands. He received in exchange a promise of support by the British Government, and an annual subsidy of £00,000. On the con- clusion of the treaty the troops in the Jellalabad \'alley withdrew within the new frontier, and Vakoob Khan was left to establish his authority as best he could at Cabul, whither in July Cavag- nari with an escort of twenty-six troopers and eighty infantry betook himself. Then was enacted again the sad story which preluded the first Af- ghan war. All the parts and scenes in the drama repeated themselves with curious uniformity — the English Resident with his little garrison trusting bUndly to his capacity for influencing the Afghan mind, the puppet king, without- the power to make himself respected, irritated by the constant pres- ence of the Resident, the chiefs mutually distrust- ful and at one in nothing save their hatred of English interference, the people seething with anger against the infidel foreigner, a wild outbreak which the .Ameer, even had he wished it, could not con- trol, an attack upon the Residency and the com- plete destruction [Sept., 1870! after a gallant but futile resistance of the Resident and his entire es- cort. Fortunately the extreme disaster of the pre- vious war was avoided. The English troops which were withdrawn from the country were still within reach. . . . About the 24th of September, three weeks after the outbreak, the Cabul field force under General Roberts was able to move. On the 5th of October it forced its way into the Logar Valley at Chara.ssiab, and on the 12th General Roberts was able to make his formal entry into the city of Cabul. . . . The Ameer was deposed, martial law was established, the disarmament of the people required under pain of death, and the country scoured to bring in for punishment those chiefly implicated in the late outbreak. While thus engaged in carrying out his work of retribution, the wave of insurrection closed behind the Eng- lish general, communication through the Kuram Valley was cut off, and he was left to pass the winter with an army of some 8,000 men con- nected with India only by the Kybur Pass. . . . ■A new and formidable personage . . . now made his appearance on the scene. This was Abdurah- man, the nephew and rival of the late Shere Ali, who upon the defeat of his pretensions had sought refuge in Turkestan, and was supposed to be sup- ported by the friendship of Russia. The expected attack did not take place, constant reinforcements had raised the Cabul army to 20,000, and ren- 8i AFGHANISTAN, 1893-1895 AFGHANISTAN, 1907 dered it too strong to be assailed. ... It was thought desirable to break up Afghanistan into a northern and southern province. . . . The policy thus declared was carried out. A certain Shere Ali, a cousin of the late Ameer of the same name, was appointed Wali or Governor of Candahar. In the north signs were visible that the only pos- sible successor to the throne of Cabul would be Abdurahman. . . . The Bengal army under Gen- eral Stewart was to march northwards, and, sup- pressing on the way the Ghuznee insurgents, was to join the Cabul army in a sort of triumphant return to Peshawur. The first part of the pro- gramme was carried out. . . . The second part of the plan was fated to be interrupted by a serious disaster which rendered it for a while uncertain whether the withdrawal of the troops from Af- ghanistan was possible. . . . Ayoob had always expressed his disapproval of his brother's friend- ship for the English, and had constantly refused to accept their overtures. Though little was known about him, rumours were afloat that he intended to advance upon Ghuznee, and join the insurgents there. At length about the middle of June [1880] his army started. . . . But before the end of June Farah had been reached and it seemed plain that Candahar would be assaulted. . . . General Bur- rows found it necessary to fall back to a ridge some forty-five miles from Candahar called Kush- y-Nakhud. There is a pass called Maiwand to the north of the highroad to Candahar, by which an army avoiding the position on the ridge might ad- vance upon the city On the 27th of July the Afghan troops were seen moving in the direction of this pass In his attempt to stop them with his small force, numbering about 2,500 men. Gen- eral Burrows was disastrously defeated. With dif- ficulty and with the loss of seven guns, about half the English troops returned to Candahar. Gen- eral Primrose, who was in command, had no choice but to strengthen the place, submit to an investment, and wait till he should be rescued. . . . The troops at Cabul were on the point of withdrawing when the news of the disaster reached them." General Roberts at once pushed forward to the beleaguered city, and dispersed the army of the Amir. Candahar was then held by the British until the fall of 1881, when they withdrew, Abdurahman having apparently established him- self in power, and the country being in a quieted state. — J. F. Bright, History of England, period 4. pp. 534-544- Also in: Lord Roberts' Forty-one years in India. 1893-1895. — Relinquishment of claims over Swat, Bajour and Chitral. See India; 1805 ( March-September ) . 1895. — Anglo-Russian agreement. — Determina- tion of the northern frontier. — The joint Anglo- Russian commission for fixing the northern fron- tier of Afghanistan, from Zultikar on the Heri- Rud to the Pamirs, finished its work in July, i8qs. This was consequent upon an agreement between the governments of Great Britain and Russia which had been reduced to writing on the previous nth of March. In part, that agreement was as follows; "Her Britannic Majesty's Gov- ernment and the Government of His Majesty the Emperor of Russia engage to abstain from exer- cising any political influence or control, the for- mer to the north, the latter to the south, of the above line of demarcation. Her Britannic Ma- jesty's Government engage that the territory lying within the British sphere of influence between the Hindu Kush and the line running from the east end of Lake Victoria to the Chinese frontier shall form part of the territory of the Ameer of Af- ghanistan, that it shall not be annexed to Great Britain, and that no military posts or forts shall be established in it. The execution of this Agree- ment is contingent upon the evacuation by the Ameer of Afghanistan of all the territories now occupied by His Highness on the right bank of the Panjah, and on the evacuation by the Ameer of Bokhara of the portion of Darwaz which lies to the south of the Oxus, in regard to which Her Britannic Majesty's Government and the Govern- ment of His Majesty the Emperor of Russia have agreed to use their influence respectively with the two Ameers." — Great Britain, Papers by com- mand: Treaty series, no. 8, 1895. — See also India: 189s (March-September). 1896. — Conquest of Kafiristan. — By the agree- ment of 1S93, between the Amir of Afghanistan and the government of India, the mountain dis- trict of Kafiristan was conceded to the former, and he presently set to work to subjugate its warlike people, who had never acknowledged his yoke. By the end of 1896 the conquest of these Asiatic Kafirs was believed to be complete. 1901-1906. — Death of Abdurahman. — Succes- sion of his son, Habibullah. — Signs of a pro- gressive spirit in the new Amir. — The late Amir, Abdurahman, died in October, 1901, and was suc- ceeded by his eldest son, Habibullah. Early in the third year of his reign the new Amir began to show signs of a wish to have his country move a little on the lines of European progress, in the march which so many of his Asiatic neighbors were joining. His undertakings were disturbed for a time by trouble with his half-brother, Omar Jan, and with the latter's mother, the Bibi Halima or Queen of the Harem; but he brought the trouble to an end which does not seem to have been tragical, and that, in itself, is a notable mark in his favor. The Russo-Japanese War interested him immensely, and he established a daily post between Khyber and Cabul to bring speedy news of events. He then read the reports in public, with expositions, to make the listening people under- stand the bearing of what was happening on their . own interests, and the lessons they should learn from what the Japanese were doing. He is said to have done much in the way of improving agri- culture and horse-breeding in Afghanistan ; he had a desire to establish a Chiefs' college, with the English language as the basis of instruction, but he met with strong opposition in this undertaking; and he introduced electric lighting, with probably other luxuries of modern science, in Kabul. Such things in Afghanistan mark a highly progressive man. His political intelligence was proved by the cordiality of his relations with the British Indian Government, .^n interesting account of conditions in the Amir's country in 1004 was given by D. C. Boulger, in the Fortnightly Revieiv of December, that year, under the title of "The Awakening of Afghanistan." 1905. — The Amir becomes king. — In a new treaty between the Government of Great Britain and the Amir of Afghanistan, the latter was rec- ognized as king. 1907. — Convention between Great Britain and Russia relative to Afghanistan. See Anglo-Rus- sian AGREEMENT OF 100?. 1907. — Effect of Russian and British agree- ment on Afghan trade. — "Russian goods enter Afghanistan chiefly through Herat, near to Kush- kinski Post in Russian Turkestan, the terminus of the Nurghab Valley Railway, which connects with the Trans-Siberian Railway into European Rus- sia. The treaty signed between Russia and Great 83 AFGHANISTAN, 1915-1916 AFGHANISTAN, 1921 Britain in 1907 concerning Persia, Afghanistan, and Tibet, states that the British Government engages to exercise its influence in Afghanistan only in a pacific sense, and will not encourage Afghanistan to take any measures threatening Russia, while the Russian Government on its part recognizes that Afghanistan is outside the sphere of Russian influence, and that all political relations with this country shall be conducted through the intermedi- ary of His Britannic Majesty's Government. Further, it engages not to send any agents into Afghanistan, though Russian and Afghan authori- ties may establish direct relations for the settle- ment of local questions of a non-political char- acter. The British Government engages not to interfere in the internal administration of the country, provided that the Ameer fulfills the treaty engagements already contracted by him toward the British Government. Both countries affirmed their adherence to the principle of equal- ity of commercial opportunity in Afghanistan. For whatever diplomatic intercourse is required between .Afghanistan and British India the Indian Government has political agents at Kabul and Kandahar, who, in accordance with treaty regu- lations, must always be Mohammedans, while the .■\fghan Government, on its part, maintains an agent at the capital of India. Interesting evidence as to the awakening of the closed country of Af- ghanistan to modern progressive ideals of civiliza- tion is to be found in important construction works now being carried out under circumstances of great difficulty, especially those connected with costly and difficult transport of needed machinery and other material. The most interesting develop- ment of this sort is a project now under way for transmitting 44,000 volts of electrical energy from a waterfall about 120 feet high to Kabul, the capital, situated about 40 miles away. . . . This hydroelectric scheme will cost between $500,000 and $600,000 when completed, about 5;300,ooo be- ing for machinery and materials. The water power will be used for distributing cheap electrical energy to the pun factory, shoe factory, projected woolen mill, and other industries at Kabul, under control of the Government of the .Ameer; also for electric lighting of the royal palace, other resi- dences. Government offices and street lighting The machinery and material, including switches, generators, steel towers, and copper-covered steel wires, arc being imported chiefly from the United States. The development should particularly bene- fit the industries of Kabul, which have been handi- capped by the excessive cost of fuel. There are no coal mines in the country, and wood is scarce; for factories at Kabul wood has to be carried many miles on hacks of camels. . . . The difficulty of transporting the machinery and ironwork through Khyber Pass and over almost impassable roads to Kabul is delaying the project, which may require several years to complete. The attempt to use motor lorries imported for this purpose failed, owing to the bad condition of the road to Kabul, and it is only by use of elephants that the heavy and bulky articles required can reach Kabul." — H. D. Baker, British India, pp. 543- .■;44- 1915-1916. — Maintenance of neutrality during the war. — "The .Amir of .Afghanistan m.iintained his neutrality in the great war, and the principal- ity did not become involved in the troubles of Persia. At the end of iqi6 information was pub- lished concerning a German mission sent to .Af- ghanistan in the previous year. It appears that the Emperor William had sent a German officer, Lieutenant von Hentig, accompanied by certain Indian revolutionaries who had resided in Berliii, on a mis.-ion to the Amir, with the object of in- ducing him to attack India. The members of the mission had succeeded in making their way through Persia, by breaking up into small parties, and they had remained in .Afghanistan nearly a year. Nevertheless, the Amir had refused the Turko-German proposals, and after the mission left Afghanistan in May, 1916, some of the members were captured by the Russians and British as they were trying to get back to Turkey. "On November 29 an interesting statement was made by Mr. Chamberlain on the failure of a Ger- man mission to .Afghanistan. The mission, he said, consisted of two Indian anarchists, a party of German officers and some Turks. The prin- cipal German Officer was the bearer of a letter from the German Chancellor to the Amir, in which the latter was invited to advise how best India might be liberated from British tyranny. The party were arrested on their arrival in Af- ghanistan and eventually conducted to Kabul where the Amir and his people quickly appraised them at their true value. .At the outbreak of the war the .Amir had given the Viceroy the most solemn assurances of his intention to preserve neutrality, and Mr. Chamberlain acknowledged with great satisfaction the loyalty he had shown to his pledged word." — Annual Register, igio, pp. 200, 192. 1919. — Assassination of the Amir. — Accession of his son. — Attack on India. — On February 20, iQio, Habibullah Khan, .Amir of Afghanistan, otherwise known as Siraj-ul-Millat-Wad-din, WuS assassinated in his camp in the Jelallabad district. .As soon as this became known, Nasrullah Khan, brother of Habibullah. had himself proclaimed ■Amir, after forcing the submission of the late monarch's two older sons. His reign was exceed- ingly brief, however, for .Amanullah Khan (born 1892), third son of Habibullah, who had man aged to get control of the treasury and of the military supplies immediately after his father's assassination, won over to his cause the nobles and the soldiers, and thus simply secured the throne for himself. For complicity in the death of Habibullah, Nasrullah was condemned to life imprisonment, the actual murderer. Colonel Shah .Ali Raza being put to death, while a third person said to be implicated shared the fate of Nasrullah. The new amir found his jiosition very insecure and sought to gain popularity at home by em- barking on a war of aggression upon India. Hos- tilities broke out early in May and ended with a treaty of peace signed at Rawalpindi on .August 8. By this war all former treaties between Af- ghanistan and Great Britain were cancelled and the subsidy paid to former amirs was declared for- feited, but the internal and external independence of -Afghanistan was formally recognized by Great Britain. 1920 (April-July). — Discussions were held at Mussoorie, India, between British and Afghan delegates with a view to a permanent treaty of friendship. 1921. — Alliance with Russia.— Shortly after the accession of .Amanullah an .Afghan mis.sion was sent to Moscow to establish relations with Soviet Russia. The negotiations developed into a treaty of .Alliance concluded Feb. 28, 1021. A few days later a solemn reception was held at the Afghan embassy in Moscow to celebrate the anniversary of Afghan independence. Two representatives of the People's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs were present, also a delegation of the Turkish National 84 APRANIUS AFRICA Assembly and members of the regular Turkish Delegation, representatives of the Persian embassy, the Khiva and Bokhara missions, and representa- tives of Esthonia, Latvia, Finland, etc. AFRANIUS, Lucius, Roman general. Lived about the period of the third Mithridatic War (74-61 B.C.). Consul in 60 B.C.; governor of Cisalpine Gaul in 59 B. C. Assisted Pompey against Csesar, sustaining a severe defeat at Ilerda (49 B.C.). AFRICA The name Africa was originally applied by the Romans to part of the southern shore of the Mediterranean in the vicinity of Carthage, but later extended to include the entire continental mass e.ttending southwest from Eurasia; the second largest of the world's great land divisions, by far the greater part of which lies within the tropics. See Libyans. GEOGRAPHIC DESCRIPTION General features. — "The comparative uniform- ity of the Continent of Africa, and the fact of its having been so repellent to the intervention of white races reared in temperate latitudes, can to a large extent be accounted for by comparing the lie of Africa with that of the other continents. It lies almost evenly balanced on each side of the equator, between about 40^ north and 40° south. The equinoctial line which passes through its centre does not touch the Euro-Asiatic continent. . . . While the climate of the southern shores of Europe is very similar to that of the Mediterra- nean coast of Africa, and while the southern pen- insulas of Asia are purely tropical, every variety of climate is found between that and the ice- bound shores of Siberia. In the other hemisphere, while the feet of the North American continent are laved by the warm waters of the Gulf Stream, its head is almost within hail of the North Pole. . . . Africa, then, is the tropical continent par excellence. Of its total area some two-thirds, al- most 8,000,000 square miles, lie between the trop- ics, and have the sun vertical twice a year, while the rest of the Continent is more or less sub- tropical; so that, so far as climate goes, the popular conception is not far wrong Even of America only about one-third of the land is within the tropics. . . . But there are other geographical factors to be taken into account, which modify the general effects of latitude, partly mitigating, partly intensifying them. We have seen how Africa lies compared with the situation of other continents. What about its relation to the great water-mass of the globe ? We lind its southern shores looking out upon the Antarctic, a long way off; from its western shores the broad Atlantic bears away without obstruction, and nothing intervenes be- tween its eastern coast and the genial influence of the Indian Ocean. The northern and north-east- ern coasts of the Continent are much less fortu- nately situated, only the narrow waters of the Mediterranean and the Red Sea separate Africa from the vast land-mass of Europe and Asia." — J. S. Keltic, Partition of Africa, p. 460. Coastline. — "Though Africa is more than three times the size of Europe, and although it is prac- tically an island while Europe has an extensive land frontier, the coast-line of Africa measures only about 15,000 miles in length, while that of Europe is iq.ooo miles. A glance at a map of the world will show how this marked difference arises. There is not a single indentation on the coast of Africa worthy of the name; the coast-line all round looks like a barrier to keep back the benefi- cent advances of the ocean. . . . There is noth- ing in the whole round of the African coast to compare on the one hand with the gieat sea-arms and magnificent natural harbours that mark the west coast of Europe, nor with the richly broken Atlantic coast of North America on the other. There is only one estuary of real magnitude on the whole continent, that of the Congo; hence partly the great hopes entertained of the future of that river. Such second-rate harbours as those of Delagoa Bay and Mombasa are reckoned valu- able possessions in Africa, for which nations struggle. This monotonous outline of the African coast acts disadvantageously in two ways from the point of view of European enterprise. In the first place, the lack of deep oceanic indentations deprives the great bulk of the Continent of the beneficent influences which contiguity to the sea brings with it; and in the second place, it de- prives the enterprising navigator and trader of ready highways to the interior. Thus the mere character of the contour of the coast has con- tributed to retard the development of the Conti- nent. At the same time, let us recall the fact that the spread of railways over the Continent would tend greatly to counteract the commercial disad- vantages arising from the lack of deep arms of the sea, navigable rivers, and natural harbours. Railways are the great levellers, shattering old geographical traditions, and tending to place all continents on an equal footing, so far as communi- cations are concerned." — Ibid., pp. 463-464. Mountains and plateaus. — "Passing from the contour of the coast-line to the configuration of the surface of the Continent, we find here again certain characteristics which distinguish Africa from all the other continents, except perhaps Aus- tralia, which might have been as far behind in civilisation as Africa had its latitude been different. The surface of Africa is nearly as monotonous as its outline. There is only one mountain range worthy of the name, that of the Atlas, which ex- tends along the northern rim of the Continent from Tunis to the Atlantic coast of Morocco. . . . But when all is put together the really mountain- ous regions of Africa amount to little compared with the great size of the Continent. We have nothing in Africa that can compare in compara- tive mass and extent with the Alps, the Pyrenees, the Apennines, the Carpathians, the Scandinavian ranges, in Europe, not to mention the Himalayas, the stupendous ranges of Central .\sia. . . . This lack of great mountain ranges upon the African Continent must be regarded as another serious drawback to its economical development, since it markedly affects its rainfall and the distribution of its water supply. ... In a general way the composition of the soil of Africa is favourable enough to the varied requirements of humanity; its great want is water. "It is a striking fact that, notwithstanding the paucity of great mountain ranges in .Africa as com- pared with Europe and Asia, the general mean elevation of the former is greater than in either of the latter. . . . This reveals to us the great characteristic feature of the surface of Africa, that of a high plateau, descending almost everywhere 85 AFRICA Climate Early Races AFRICA in terraces to the coast. ... All round the coast is seen a strip varying in breadth, but generally comparatively narrow, of not more than 500 feet in height. But the great bulk of the Continent is a plateau of from 500 to 2000 feet, much nearer to the latter than the former. ... In Africa, in short, the relief of the land, instead of being con- centrated in one or two enormous mountain ranges, has been spread over the Continent with wonderful equality. The practical importance of the plateau character of the surface of .'\frica will be apparent when the influence of latitude in modifying temperature is i:ept in view. . . . The mean annual isotherm of 80° is in the north al- most coincident with the Tropic of Cancer, and on the south enters at the Guinea Coast, but sweeps so abruptly south as to include the bulk of Africa south of the equator. These are enor- mous average temperatures to embrace a conti- nent; no other land-mass has anything like them. . . . More trying even than this, according to many reliable authorities, is the excessive varia- tion of temperature between day and night. The difference between summer and winter tempera- ture in some parts of Africa is very great. . . . Such a difference can be provided for. But when there is a sudden lowering of the temperature at sundown in a tropical or subtropical moisture- laden atmosphere it is apt to tell severely on the European constitution. . . . These are a few of the advantages and disadvantages of the plateau character of Tropical .-Vfrica, so far as concerns the influence of the climate on the European con- stitution. It entails, however, still another ob- stacle to free commercial enterprise. The plateau, which prevails almost everywhere, slopes down in terraces more or less rapidly to the coast, and down these terraces the rivers from the interior must make their way with the result that we fmd the courses of the Nile, the Niger, the Congo, the Zambezi, more or less interrupted by cataracts. These are a serious obstacle to navigation. For tunately on the Niger the break occurs far up the river, leaving a long, clear waterway, but on the Congo we meet with some 200 miles of unnavi- gable cataracts, beginning at about 150 miles from the sea, and so cutting off from direct ac- cess the 1000 miles of splendid waterway above, which leads into the heart of .Africa. Had it not been for this we cannot doubt that the Congo would have been traced from below long before Stanley's brilliant achievement from above. At the same time, as has already been pointed out, these geographical disadvantages can be almost nullified by the construction of railways. No doubt both in Europe and .America river-naviga- tion is of importance but it is insignificant com- pared with the importance of railway communica- tion. In fact, the judicious introduction of rail- ways would greatly enhance the value of the African waterway." — J. S. Keltie, Partition of Africa, pp. 464-468. Climate. — "Prevailing winds have much to do with temperature, and still more perhaps with rainfall; and it is to be feared that here we touch upon one of the weakest of Africa's many weak points. On the east coast the prevailing winds are towards the Continent, bringing with them a fair supply of moisture, while farther south the cold Benguela current will tend to diminish the supply. The north-east trades just skirt the Sa- hara coast, and do it little good, while the winds that cross the Mediterranean and Red Sea have already parted with most of their moisture to the Euro-Asiatic land-mass, and what little re- mains is, levied by the coast-lands. . . . Thus, then, except in the centre of the Continent, ,in Tropical Africa the rainfall is almost everywhere inadequate for industrial operations; so that where Europeans might settle, so far as tempera- ture goes, the water-supply is defective. Even, however, in the central belt, especially in East .Africa, there are considerable areas of desert met with, where the water-supply is almost nil. . . . It is not surprising, then, to lind that the rivers of Africa, with one exception, draw their supplies from the centre of the Continent. . . . But as a general rule, outside the tropical area, permanently flowing water is rare. . . . Between the north of the central belt and the Mediterranean coast, and also over most of the northeast horn of Africa, is found an area cither absolutely desert, or the next stage to it — poor steppe, scrub, or other land of a like nature. This area covers something like 4,000,000 square miles — one-third of the Conti- nent. Of this about one-half is pure desert, the veritable sandy Sahara. ... On the other side of .Africa we find a strip of true desert along the west coast from the Coanza to the Orange River. This spreads out on the south of the Zambezi. Over about two-thirds of South Africa, and ex- tending well to the south of the Orange River, we have the scrub or steppe characteristics known in the Cape region as the Karroo." — J. S. Keltie, Partition of Africa, pp. 475-476. RACES OF AFRICA Prehistoric peoples. — "There is no exact data on the origin of the people of North Africa. The men of the Stone Age have left numerous traces in the country, and one finds everywhere, in caves, a few arms and implements of flint. Many stone implements and arms of various paleolithic types, as well as neolithic hatchets have been found in North .Africa, in Algeria (at TIemcen), in south .Algeria (at El-Golea), up to Timbuctu. Finally there is in Tunis (at Gafsa and in gen- eral west of the Gulf of Gabes) a series of paleo- lithic implements resembling very closely those of Europe. The country bordering on the oasis of Gafsa, at one time wooded, is now completelv denuded and unfertile, and the desert plain and mountains reveal the ancient flints level with the ground. To the east of the oasis considerable heaps of debris and stone chips can be seen at intervals. These first inhabitants belong without doubt to a race which came from the south, after having been expelled from the desert. On the other hand, everything conduces to the behef that at that ancient time, North Africa was connected to Europe by two large Iberian and Italian isth- muses or peninsulas, and it is possible that all the banks of the Mediterranean were inhabited by the same race. " 'Two human groups,' says Tissot, 'have, then, at the most remote period, peopled the Atlantic massif; one coming up from the Sahara toward the north, the other descending from southern Europe towards the south. Such seems to us to be the first groundwork of the Berber race, and since that time we distinguish by this the two ethnic elements of which trace is found in the traditions of the following ages, and also as found in African anthropology, a brown European race, and a brown Saharan race, fundamentally dis- tinct from the black race.' To this foundation the blond men were afterward added, who came originally from the north of Europe, as well as Iberians. The date of the invasion of the fair- headed men is uncertain We can only say that it is previous to the loth Egyptian dynasty. Be- 86 AFRICA Early Races AFRICA fore the igth dynasty, in fact, the inhabitants of the west were represented on the Egyptian monu- ments only by brown men, and after that time, blond men are figured among them. It is cer- tain that the blond race was of considerable im- portance in all the Barbary coast. Even today one discovers numerous types of blonds in Tunis and in Algeria; in Morocco, about one-third of the population is blond; the tribes which inhabit the high regions of the Atlas are exclusively blond. The Iberians penetrated into .'Africa at about the same time. Tissot puts the invasion of the Iber- ians after the European immigration, while re- marking at the same time that in this matter it is impossible to be certain, and that the question is connected with that of the origin of the Iberians. It is to them, according to the same author, that we must attribute the state of civilisation as ad- vanced as Egyptian documents establish, in the north of Libya, at a time previous to the lirst known oriental invasions. "The principal thing to remember is that the inhabitants of the north side of the Atlas alone seem to have been intermingled with new ar- rivals: one can see them modify themselves little by little at their contact, while the inhabitants of the southern side of the high plateaux remain unchanged and just as one finds them today. Among the people of the first race, one must range, in going from west to east, the Moors, the Numidians, and the Libyans. The people of the second race have received the name of Gaetulians and gave rise to the Zcnete and Sanhadja Berbers, as well as to various Tuareg tribes. Finally, the influence of peoples inhabiting eastern Egypt and Africa on the population of Barbary was without doubt considerable, although not well defined. The Nefzaoua — inhabiting the oasis of Djerid — have saved in their traditions the memory of the Kouschite invasion, and the history of Egypt, at that time, is intimately connected with that of Barbary. Traces have been found in Egyptian documents, of numerous expeditions when cutlasses of bronze were taken from the Libyans, as well as money, gold, silver, bows, javelins and chariots. "One may conclude, that since the 14th century before Christ the Libyans had a civilisation and industry. They already had hereditary kings and had concluded alliances with the people of the islands and with the Tyrians in particular. At the other extremity of North Africa the Maure- tanians appear to have arrived, at the same time, at a certain degree of civilisation. We have no exact data on the first inhabitants of North Africa. . . . Herodotus, who has left us the first historic data on North Africa, speaks only of the inhabitants of the eastern part. The Latin and Greek historians have left us some references to these people. The Libyans are represented as vigorous men and long-lived. They had white skin, blue eyes, blond or chestnut hair and beard, which were carefully curled in the manner still used by the Amazigh of the Rif. The headdress of the chiefs was surmounted by two ostrich plumes. The costume of the Libyans consisted of a piece of cloth or of cotton girding the loins and of a dress of wool open the whole length, the upper ends of which were simply knotted on the left shoulder. They carried on their heads a sort of round cap with a necker- chief, like those still worn by women of certain Tripolitan tribes today."— Tr. from V. Piquet, Les civilisations de I'Ajrique du nord, pp. 1-6. — See also Hamites: Hamitic languages; Uganda. "They lived in huts formed of stakes holding up woven rushes or stems of the asphodel. 'The chiefs of the Libyans,' said Diodorus of Sicily, 'had no cities, but only, in the neighborhood of the springs, towers in which they concealed their riches.' Polybius represents them as leading a most miserable existence across their woods and plains. Those of the fertile regions lived on agri- culture and obeyed their kings; the others lived on brigandage and established themselves nowhere. Their arms were sometimes a shield with two sides, an axe, bows and arrows, sometimes a round shield, three javelins and stones kept in a leather bag. All these peoples sacrificed victims to the sun or to the moon. They also worshipped the old sovereigns, the guardian angels of the cities. Each people had in addition, its particu- lar god: it was Sinifere or Mastiman, Ifri or Ifru, god of the caves, or Gurzil to whom human sacrifices were made. Certain peoples offer in- teresting peculiarities. The Mauretanians were the most advanced. They dressed their hair with care and carried jewels; they fought on horseback with a long lance and swords, the infantry carry- ing shields of elephant skin. "The Nasamonians married several women, who were not, however, held to fidelity. This people honored the memory of the men who were dis- tinguished by their justice and their valor. The Nasamonians knew no other divinities than the souls of the dead, swore by them and consulted them like oracles. To that purpose they slept on the tombs of their ancestors and regulated their conduct according to the dreams that were sent them. Certain Barbary tribes of the Sahara have kept this custom. They sheltered themselves among the rocks, and the first caves of the coun- try of the Matmata were excavated by them. Like the Nasamonians the Garamantes went about almost nude, protected only by a shield of skin and by long javelins. The Anceans distinguished themselves by the arrangement of their hair, of which one still finds examples among the Amazigh of the Rif. Their women wore, besides their tunic, an undergarment of goatskin, decorated with a fringe. To the east of Cyrene, finally, the tribes took the Egyptian customs. The Gaetu- lians, who lived on the south side of the high plateaux, remained sheltered from contact with the people who invaded the neighboring regions at different times. The origin of their name — from which might be derived the name of certain Berber tribes, the Guezzoula, for example — is not known. Grouped in families, they wandered with- out covering, in the train of their troops, wearing nothing but a floating tunic and a cloak of skins attached by a clasp. "The question of the sepulchres of these people is particularly interesting, and has given rise to numerous works. One meets with tumuli, or redjem, masses of stones, covering in general a rudimentary sarcophagus formed of large slabs of marble; dolmens, resembling those of other Mediterranean regions and forming a funeral chamber of variable size; and finally, some round tombs which are called clwuclieis. The tumuli are particularly numerous in Oran and in the Hodna, the dolmens on the contrary, in the east (ancient Numidia) ; they are unknown in the Sahara. Nevertheless, one can conclude nothing from the presence of these monuments as to the origin of the populations, one cannot even date them. It is certain only that some of them are relatively recent, and that their structure was maintained in Africa longer than the others." — Tr. from V. Piquet, Les civilisations de I'Ajrique du nord, pp. 1-6. — "The ancient world had really 87 AFRICA Modern Peoples AFRICA very little knowledge of the Dark Continent. These facts about Africa they did know, however; they had an almost correct idea of the bulk of Africa, they knew lower and middle Egypt, the Mediterranean and Atlantic shores, Cyrenaica to Cape Jubi, and the shores of the Indian ocean to Mozambique. But beyond some military pene- tration of the desert and the marshes of the Nile, they were never in direct touch with the black races properly speaking. However, the Sahara offers only a slight obstacle to relations between the peoples who live on its borders. The entire Sudan was thus open to the penetration, although indirect, of the inventions and ideas inherited by the Ethiopians through their contacts with the Egyptians." — Tr. from O. Meynier, L'Afrique noire, p. 69. — See also Mythology: African myth- ology. Modern peoples. — "Africa contains infinitely diversified populations which could not be assimi- lated, less because of different origin than because of dissimilarity of social life and customs. Inter- breeding is not rare, however, and one can even foresee in the distant future the formation of a purely African race, having well defined charac- teristics, some of which one can almost predict even now. But for the present it is still easy to distinguish them from one another and to make a very clear classification. According to a divi- sion generally admitted (and one which does not include the inhabitants of the lower valley of the Nile, descendants of the ancient Egyptians), the people of Africa may be divided into six great classes: (i) The Berbers, (2) Arabs, (3) Fulas, (4) Negroes, properly speaking, (5) Hottentots and Bushmen, and (6) Europeans. "Scientific research up to our day has not been able to establish exactly whether the Berbers were aboriginal inhabitants or whether the source of their migration might not be referred to one of those historic movements which, like the exodus of the famous Hyksos (18th century B. C.) would have led them from the centre of Asia to the north of .\frica, passing through Egypt. The Berbers inhabit the largest part of the regions bordering on the Mediterranean west of Egypt. In the desert they form the principal element of a rather thin but very virile population. Finally they meet and combine with the black element on the southern border of the Sahara, from .Abys- sinia to Senegal. Individuals of pure Berber types are quite exceptional. In the north of the conti- nent they were subjected to the influence of all the invasions that succeeded one another in that region, Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans, and Van- dals have left on the Berbers visible traces of their blood. But the deepest influence has been exercised by the Arabs, who gave a great part of their religion, their art, and in many cases, their language itself to the Berbers The Moorish tribes of the desert, above all the Tuaregs, seem, as far as one can tell, to have better preserved their individuality. The very constitution of a nomad tribe, the spirit of independence which animates it seem, in fact, to have enabled the Berbers to protect themselves from foreign in- fluences more easily than the non-migratory or- ganizations of the north However, the Arabs were still able to establish their influence, to give their language as well as their religion to most of the Moorish tribes of the west. In the south of the Sahara, fre(|uent inter-breeding with the black race occurred. Without counting the . . . rather more mongrel types, combinations of Moors, Tuaregs and negroes, there are peoples either black or red, who by their type, sometimes even by their name (Berberi, Berabras, etc.), have very probably a Berber origin. "There is much more knowledge on the origin of the Arabs than on that of the Berbers. His- tory and tradition show the Arabs, even before the Hegira, crossing the same waters their sail- ing vessels travel over in our day, and coming to establish flourishing sultanates on the coast of Zanzibar and of Mozambique. .After the death of Mohammed, the Arabs, fired with the enthusiasm of their faith, made a definite invasion of Africa. At two different resumptions of the attack their warlike tribes, issuing from Egypt, where one of their most powerful empires was established, spilled upon the African shores of the Mediter- ranean. . . . The number of the conquerors was relatively small, nevertheless the influence that they exercised upon the original inhabitants was considerable. The Berbers borrowed their civiliza- tion, their art, their religion. Many of them even renounced their own language for that of their conquerors, and even today it is difficult to dis- tinguish between pure Arabs and Arabic Berbers, as Moslems everywhere have a strong tendency to claim direct descent from the prophet or his family. The .Arabs have found, in the valley of the Nile, another route for their migrations. Some of their tribes ascended to the sources of the Nile planting their colonies on its banks ; meeting near the great lakes the tribes from the littoral of the Indian Ocean. Others finally pene- trated the west, following the course of the Bahr- el-Ghazal toward the Ouadai and the Bagirmi. These last were crossed like the Berbers with the original black population and of this mixture of blood resulted the Chuas, who are found in great numbers in Central Africa, showing by more deli- cate features and slightly corrupted language their Semitic origin. "Of all the races of Africa, the Fulas have the most uncertain and most controverted derivation. The physical type, characterized by graceful struc- ture and fine features, yellow or red skin, a lan- guage altogether different and admirably homoge- neous wherever spoken — all these attracted the at- tention of scholars. . . . [There are several ex- [jlanations of their origin, but none of them is verifiable.] The Fulas are found in all Sudan from rthe] Senegal to the Ouadai. They are, in general, shepherds with little settlements here and there. One finds some of them interested in let- ters, some even scholars. They have produced, particularly in the last century, a whole line of distinguished statesmen and warriors. A remark- able faculty for adapting themselves as easily as possible to whatever conditions of climate, food, and surroundings their travels and wars might expose them to, has made the Fulas an object of wonder. They frequently allied themselves with the original black population ; the results of these crosses have been new races which have all played an important part in the history of Africa, and which have preserved, for the most part, the lan- guage and pastoral habits of the mother race. "Considerations mainly of a philological nature have induced geographers to refer back the whole of the black population to a single type, which would be the Banlii race. Unquestionably the pure negroes of the Sudan, those of the equatorial regions, and of eastern and southern Africa, pre- sent among themselves some remarkable likenesses in the matter of physique, and even of character, institutions, customs and language. . . . But the black race has not everywhere remained pure. In particular on the southern border of the desert (Sahara], Berbers, Arabs and Fulas are crossed 88 AFRICA Ancient Civilization AFRICA with them. Because ot a great power of absorp- tion due to superior numbers, the negro has seemed sometimes to efface the principal traits of the other elements of the crossing. In reality, the superior races have left their mark. Not only has the physical type been modified, but their ciualities of intelligence and of character have been influ- enced by these accumulated inheritances. . . . The primitive negro race lives, however, in many places. The equatorial forests conceal in their depths some miserable beings who, without material or moral needs, live in a state of complete brutality. But even numerically they form the exception and French Senegalese aborigines speak of them con- temptuously as 'savages.' The negroes are uni- formly settled and mostly agricultural. There- fore they are only met with in the desert oases. Outside of the desert, in the neighborhood of Tan- giers, especially, they are found up to the present only in a state of slavery. When the Europeans, after having rounded the coast of Africa, came to establish colonies in Southern Africa, they found there, settled alongside of the blacks, Kafirs and Zulus, populations of a lighter color, yellow or brown, of gentle and peaceable customs, cul- tivating the land and raising flocks. They were the HolteiUols. Departing soon to explore new lands or fleeing in their ox-wagons before the at- tacks of the English, the descendants of the Dutch and French colonists, the Boers, advanced fur- ther north where they met tribes of hunters, Bushmen, living in the great plateaus of the north and the extended deserts of Kalahari, on the un- certain products of the chase — antelopes, giraffes and ostriches. Today it is believed that the Hot- tentots and Bushmen belong to a common family, and a Malay-Polynesian origin is attributed to them. To speak truly, this hypothesis rests on very weak proofs, and the fact, reported by Prc- ville, that the Hottentots claim to have descended from individuals who had come from the East by the sea, in 'great baskets,' constitutes but a feeble argument in its favor." — Tr. from O. Meynier, L'Ajrique noire, pp. 3q-4S. — Extensive European settlements are in the main confined to Algeria and South Africa, with beginnings in Brit- ish East Africa. In most parts of the continent, officials and traders form practically the only European element. — See also Abyssinia. ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL CIVILIZATION Development of Egyptian civilization. — "In Africa, in the valley of the Nile, was born and developed the most ancient civili/.ation of the west- ern world. The Egyptians, who may have been of African origin, were established at first in the delta of the river, but moved later towards its source, obeying the law imposed by nature on all the masters of the lower valley of the Nile. Under the Memphite emperors, Egyptian power grew constantly and the city of Elephantine, on the island of the same name, became the head- quarters of trade with the Sudan. The Nubian tribes acknowledged the sovereignty of Pharaoh: visited by official missions in the time of Papi I, they were colonized, and later under the first Theban kings assimilated by the rest of Egypt. The rapids of Wadi Haifa formed henceforth the frontier of the empire. Commercial expeditions attacked Barbary and under the eighteenth The- ban dynasty, Ethiopia was conquered to Egyptian customs. In the fourteenth century B. C, Egypt extended her dominion south of the conjunction of the White Nile and the Blue Nile, and over the whole coast of the Red Sea. The great queen Hatsheput even sent a commercial expedition to obtain incense in the fabulous country of Pouanit (probably the coast of SomaLiland). Egyptian dominion was not to progress any further. The old empire exhausted itself in opposing attacks from Asia. Egypt was conquered first by the Assyrians, then by the Persians. She sent fewer vessels to the islands of the /Egean Sea, but re- ceived at her ports those of the Phoenicians and the Greeks. The Greeks established themselves in the cities of the Delta. Certain of the cities, Miletus in particular, founded sizable colonies there. In the seventh century B. C. Greek in- fantry fought on the side of Psammetichus I for the liberty of Egypt, and from that time on the merchants from the North exercised a considerable growing influence on the ancient empire of the Pharaohs without ever being either loved or un- derstood. They respected, however, the glory of her past, attested by her magnificent monuments, and the mysterious science of her priests. Alex- ander never took the trouble to conquer P^gypt and make her adore him. As the situations of Thebes, Sais, and Memphis did not satisfy actual commercial needs, he established, opposite the Island of Pharos, at the town of Rakottis, a city to which he gave his name (332 B C). At the death of the conqueror, Egypt, with Lybia and Arabia, was willed to Ptolemy Soter. This was a period of remarkable prosperity. 'Alexander was the centre of the world's commerce and Egyptian vessels went from the coasts of India and of Ethiopia to Italy and Spain and into the sea.' " — Tr. from R. Ronze, La question d'Afrique. — See also Carthage; Egypt; Libyans; Numidians, Carthaginian empire. — Since about 813 B.C. another empire had grown up on the coast of Africa. The great Phoenician colony of Car- thage had established its authority over a great territory, occupying part of Tunis and Tripoli. And, in her turn, she had established her colonics on the edge of the Mediterranean. Overcoming the distance which separated her from the Atlan- tic, she had sent her vessels to trade with the Canaries and the coast of Morocco. The pros- perity of African Carthage, her maritime triumph and her conquests which led her to the gates of Rome caused her downfall. There was no room in the ancient world for two powerful cities." — Tr. from R. Ronze, La question d'Afrique. — See also Carthage, Carthage after Justinian's conquest. See Carthage: 534-558. Roman occupation. — "The feeling in Rome that Carthage had to be destroyed led in 146 B. C. to the capture and destruction of the great Punic city by Scipio. The Carthaginian territory was reduced to a Roman province Beyond that, extended the territories of Mauretania and Nu- midia, which Scipio was careful to separate from the province directly under the supervision of Rome. After the battle of Thapsus (46 B. C), Cjesar extended the limits of Roman Africa by including Numidia. ... In the year 30 B. C. at the death of Cleopatra, the race of Lagides being extinct, Egypt was reduced to the position of a province. [Sec also Egypt: 30 B. C.l. Finally Mauretania, given by Augustus to Juba 11, was retaken in 40 A. D. by Caligula from the son of that prince and incorporated in the Empire. Latin civilisation penetrated largely into the Roman provinces of Africa: Egypt, Cyrenaica, Numidia and Mauretania, that is to say in all of northern Africa save in Morocco, where it was halted by the desert of Malva. The Arabs themselves were 89 AFRICA Roman Occupation AFRICA struck by the size and the number of the ruins, and they said when showing them to those they called the Rourais (from Rome, properly Roman- Arab name for Christian) 'Vour ancestors be- lieved then that they would never die!' The role that Roman Africa played in the Empire was great. She was not only Italy's granary, but she also furnished the Empire with raw army recruits as well as with the emperors: Septimus-Severus, Albinus, and Macrinus. From Hadrumetum came the great jurist Salvus Julianus who under Hadrian revised the law of the provinces ; and the church of Africa can pride itself on the great names of Tertullian, Minutius Felix, Saint Cyprian, Arnobus, Finnianus, Lactantius and Saint Augus- tine. 'The Roman Empire fell in 420 under the attack of the X'andals. During a century from 42g to 520, the barbarian vandal submerged Af- rica. Reconquered by Belisarius and the patriarch Solomon, 'from TripoUtania to the confines of CcBsarian Mauretania, from the sea to the region of the lakes of Algeria and from Tunis to the mountains of Aurcs and the plateaux of Hodna, the ancient province of Africa recognised (in 5,50) the dominion of the very pious emperor Jus- tinian.'" — Tr. ' from R. Ronze, La question d'Ajrique. — See also Carthage; Founding of. "Inscriptions innumerable bear ample testimony to the condition of the .\frican population at this period, and monumental remains, which still greet the traveller in some of the less trodden parts of this fair land, bear ample evidence of the pres- ence of large communities enjoying the full bene- fits of civilised life. If we turn to inscriptions relating to municipal life, we find that obedience to ruling authority and loyalty to the Emperor are seldom wanting. The discipline which was maintained in Rome till the fall of the Western Empire was equally potent in the provinces. We find the same degrees of magistracy, the same laws so adjusted as not to press too heavily on the old-world traditions of native races, the same gods and ranks of priesthood, and the same public- minded spirit which prompted Roman citizens in all parts of the Empire to ennoble the country of their adoption by works of munificence or general utility. . . . "Allusion has been made to Carthage and Cirta as the great centres of scholarship, proving as at- tractive to students in literature and philosophy as the university towns of our own day in Great Britain or other European countries. A long roll of names, mostly bearing the stamp of Italian origin, has been transmitted to us by various con- temporary writers. Some of these distinguished African scholars were descendants of settlers in the early days of colonisation, and may fairly lay claim to be classed as Africans; while others were of a rambling order, passing from Athens or Corinth, Alexandria or Rome, to take part in some educational movement, or to exhibit their skill in some school of rhetoric or philosophy. The inti- mate commercial relations between Carthaginians and Greeks, prior to the Roman occupation, tended to the spread of Hellenism in the coast tou'ns of North Africa ; while the establishment of Greek merchants in the chief cities of Numidia gave an impetus to the general use of Greek among the better educated classes. ... At a still later period, under the .Antonines, Greek was the accepted lan- guage of the coast towns. Latin had made little progress, and the Punic tongue largely prevailed among the peasantry and labouring classes. . . . "The stamp of originality impressed upon so many literary creations in North Africa is con- spicuous by its absence in all that relates to the artistic products of the country. . . . The reason for this absence of artistic proclivities is not far to seek. The line arts never flourished at Car- thage, and certainly every exploration, either on the site of the city itself or the numerous emporia on the coast, favours this statement. As a tributary of Egypt for a long period the Carthaginians, in spite of their wealth and power, were satisfied with borrowing from their master the skilled prod- ucts of a neighbouring country. And in later years, when Carthage had to contend with Greeks in the fair island of Sicily, resplendent with temples and palaces, embellished with sculpture of the best . period of Greek art, and rich in works of jewellery and specimens of the plastic art, Hellenism exercised an irresistible attraction, tes- tified in a measure by Carthaginian coins which have been transmitted to us almost as perfect as on the day when they were minted. "These two consecutive influences, Egyptian and Greek, have left their mark on the numerous remains which may still be studied in the galleries of the Louvre or in the museum on Carthage hill, where deco- rative forms associated with Egyptian and Hel- lenic art may be seen side by side. . . . "The difficulties which beset the Romans in their career of conquest, at the close of the second Punic war, arose in a great measure from the general configuration of the country, which seemed fatal also to the native races in their attempts to expel the invader. The three zones of the country, separated by high mountains, never impassable, but presenting natural difficulties in the transport of large bodies of disciplined troops, may be said to represent three distinct regions. On the north was the broad stretch of sea — the Mare saevum which, for so many generations, proved an in- superable barrier to Roman advancement, and on the south the sea of sand — the mysterious desert stretching across the equator, and unfit for habi- tation by European races. To these peculiar fea- tures of North Africa may be attributed the par- tial success which attended the rising of frontier and desert tribes at all periods of the Roman occupation, fully sufficient to account for diffi- culties experienced by the Roman legions in sup- pressing a long series of tribal revolts. Till the time of Trajan, colonisation by the Latin race was confined mostly to the towns already peopled by Carthaginians or the descendants of old Phoe- nician traders. The accession of this princely ruler marks a starting-point in the history of Roman .Africa. Under the twelve Caesars prog- ress had been checked by the almost insuperable difficulties attending the invasion of an unknown country, peopled by races whose habits of life and methods of warfare had nothing in common with the more advanced civilisation of the people of Italy, and the islands under Roman domina- tion. Trajan seems to have been born at the right time. His noble bearing and distinguished generalship, coupled with administrative abilities of a high order, roused the enthusiasm of his sub- jects to a degree unknown since the days of .Augustus. The African provinces reaped a full share of benefits from the career of such a ruler. Colonisation was attended with marked success. Cities and towns sprang up at the Emperor's bid- ding. Native tribesmen found themselves un- molested, their forms of religion and habits of life undisturbed, and encouragement given to a free interchange of commercial products. Under the Antonincs the good work still progressing, was checked for a time under the strong hand of Septimius Severus. "It is difficult to ascertain from the latest Latin 90 AFRICA Arab Occupation AFRICA authors, or from Byzantine and Arab writers, whether the boundaries of Roman administration were definitely tixea, and whether the subjugation of the country was ever regarded as complete. Fortunately, archaeology comes to our aid. . . . The remains of a clearly defined line of fortresses and military posts stretching across the mountain ranges of the Tell, and along the desert frontier from Cyrene to the confines of Western Maure- tania, bear ample testimony to the nature of the defensive measures adopted by the Romans against invasion from the west and south, and to a feel- ing of insecurity in the presence of native races so little desirous of cultivating more civilised ways of life. Till the close of the Empire these fron- tier strongholds were mostly occupied by veterans, whose services to the State in limes of raid or in- surrection are recorded in several inscriptions still extant. From the time, of their lirst encounter with the Berbers of the hill country or the rude warriors from the desert, the Romans must have recognised the almost insuperable difficulties in waging irregular warfare with unorganised tribes, having no seat of government and no settled habi- tations — here to-day and gone to-morrow, the hills- man secure in some inaccessible mountain retreat, the man of the desert lost to sight in a whirlwind of sand as he scampered across his trackless do- main. This sense of insecurity seems to have been never absent from the Roman mind, and was particularly apparent at a late period of the Empire, when Diocletian attached the province of Muritania Tingitana to the diocese of Spain, as a means of checking the piratical raids of Moorish corsairs on both shores of the Mediterranean It was also indicated by the unusual authority given to the commander of the legion in Africa, who, from the time of Caligula, received his orders di- rect from the Emperor, and exercised more power than the governor of the province. Exceptional circumstances demanded exceptional forms of gov- ernment, and the defensive measures found neces- sary for the protection of large communities en- joying all the privileges of civilised life redound to the credit of the Roman world; yet, looking back at the six centuries of work accomplished by the Romans in their attempt to make North Africa a prolongation of Italy, one is forced to admit that the subjugation of the country was never complete, and that the native races were never conquered "The climatic condition and the general aspect. of the country in the early days of Roman occu- pation were much as they are in our own time, except, perhaps, on the southern frontiers over- looking the great desert. But with the develop- ment of Roman civilisation a new order of things changed the face of the land. Recognising the value of natural resources, and bending the ele- ments to his indomitable will in the service of mankind, the Roman colonist controlled the water- courses, constructed gigantic reservoirs to meet the necessities of a thirsty soil, encouraged for- estry, and converted a region of desolation into a garden of cultivation. And this is amply borne out in the statements of Arab authors of the seventh century, who are profuse in their praise of the fair land which had fallen into their hands. From Carthage to Tangier, stretching a thousand miles from east to west, the whole country was clothed with timber, and in many parts of the south, olive woods were so dense that you could travel from village to village under a roof of foliage. It may be asserted, with an equal show of truth, that the condition of North Africa as a colony in the present day, and in full recognition of the enlightened policy of the French, as masters of the larger portion, bears a strong resemblance to that which prevailed under the broad but sterner rule of the Roman Emperors. We hear of the same occasional disturbances on the fron- tiers, the same forced submission of the hill tribes, the same difficulties in guarding the outposts from the dangers of tribal revolt, and the same racial antagonism to the methods and habits of civilisa- tion. The Libyan gave place to the Phoenician as a commercial necessity, and surrendered the com- mand of the coast without appeal to arms or the sacrifice of human life. The Carthaginian, in his turn, converted the factories and storehouses of his ancestors into temples and palaces, and a coun- try of traders became the most formidable nation of the old world." — A. Graham, Roman Africa, pp. 207-307. Arab occupation. — Relations with Europe. — Effects of Arab influence. — "During the great offensive movement of Islam at the beginning of the 7th century, the Arabs penetrated into Egypt (638) ; and she succumbed in 641. A first assault upon the Byzantine province permitted the Mus- sulman cavalry to ravage Byzacene after having conquered and killed the patriarch Gregory, who had himself proclaimed emperor of Carthage be- fore he fled from the invaders About 665, the conquest was repeated. A great battle before Tiaret gave the Arabs the chance to break the resistance of the Berbers, and to penetrate to the Atlantic Carthage, taken for the first time in bpS; delivered in 6g7 by the patriarch John, was lost forever in 6q8. In 7oq Count Julian handed over Septem Fratrcs (Ccuta), the last Byzantine citadel, to the Arabs. [See also Caliphate: 647- 709.] The Arabs did not stop at the sea. Under . . . Barbar Tarik, lieutenant to , Mussa-ben- Noceir, they crossed over near the place where Gib- raltar stancis (Djcbel Tarik) and conquered Spain In 718 they crossed the Pyrenees and penetrated into Gaul. The victory of Charles Martel at Poi- tiers (732) stopped their progress. They returned over the Pyrenees, but kept Spain. Separated from Europe, Mohammedan Spain went on re- ceiving African rulers at different intervals dur- ing four centuries. While the Christian redemp- tion (reconquicta) was being carried out, the great sovereigns ot Morocco were often called to the aid of the Spanish Mohammedans attacked by the infidels, Vousscf-bcn-Tachfin, founder of the d\nasty of the .Mmohadcs, defeated Alphonse VI, king of Castille and Leon at Zailarca in 1086 and subdued Spain .Abd-el-Moumen (1130-1163) reigned over southern Spain and over all of North .Africa from Tangiers to Barka. He drove from Africa those Sicilian Normans who under the leadership of Roger II, had from 1143 to 1148 conquered all the country which extends from Tripoli to the neighborhood of Tunis and from the sea to Kairwan (1160). His grandson, Yacoub- el-Mansour (1184-1108) took Madrid. But in the 13th century, the decadence began. The Almohad Empire fell and from its ruins the three kingdoms of Fez, of TIemcen and of Tunis, were born. The African offensive on Europe was stopped, and during nearly a century, friendly relations were established between the commercial towns of south- ern France, Spain, Italy, and Northern Africa. Even in the time of the Almohades, Marseilles, Pisa, and Genoa had signed treaties of commerce by which, by paying certain customs duties (about lo'/'^), the Christians could unload their merchandise in certain ports where a strip of land outside the walls was conceded to them, a strip known to them as the factory on which they 91 AFRICA Arab Influence European Occupation AFRICA could build their warehouses and a chapel near which they buried their dead. From the 12 th to the 14th centuries, Venice, Florence, Majorca and Barcelona came to the same arrangements with the three old commercial cities. At the foot of the eastern Mediterranean, Alexandria in Egypt was then, as in ancient times, a great port, a link between the East and the West. Whatever hor- ror may have been inspired by the Sultan of Egypt, the Christians lived in peace with him ever since they had felt the power of his arms in the Holy Land, and since Louis IX, after the disastrous defeat of Mansural (February, 1250; had had to pay him ransom. . . . The other pow- ers continued their peaceful commerce with Africa. But they were not slow to realize the effect of the decadence of the empires of Northern Africa. As the kings were in no position to police the seas, the Barbary pirates began their fruitful operations, and soon they were dreaded by all sailors. Captive Christians could be found in great numbers in all the cities. . . . The coasts of North Africa had then not ceased to be frequented by Europeans in the Middle Ages. Intercourse between Mohammedan rulers of Africa and Euro- pean kings had been frequent, often warlike, but now and then friendly. But although North Africa was rather well known, as maps would testify, on the other hand Europe was ignorant of almost all of dark Africa at least until the end of the ijth century." — Ibid., pp. 307-308. — "I^et us recapitulate . . . the exposition ... of the Ara- bian attempts at colonization in black Africa. We have seen, on one hand, real colonies, in the modern sense of the word, founded by organized states, Morocco or .Arabia, for the well determined purpose of exploiting the gold of the Niger, or the ivory of eastern Africa. For a certain time, these colonies enjoyed a certain prosperity. As long as the relations with the central government limited the authority of the governors and the first colonists were fortified by the arrival of new blood, the enterprise was, although with difficulty, kept up. But, as soon as the colonies gained their independence through the decadence of the mother country, when the merchants and soldiers who were the support of the administration no longer felt any check upon their cupidity or their thirst for blood, the whole edifice of civilization was upset. Social disorganization followed political anarchy. The civilization of the day before pre- ceded a return to barbarism. The dominant race itself had been slowly but surely absorbed by the greater virility and numbers of the aborigines; who also, in spite of the general work of destruc- tion resulting from these crises, were unable to return to their former depths of barbarity. Else- where, .Arab tribes, or at least tribes that had been arabized (Ouled-Sliman), nomads of the western Sahara, .^rabs of the valley of the Nile, had tried to establish their authority over the settled people who were their neiehbors. But, lacking any strong base of operations, and induced by thqir spirit of independence to oppose any degree of centraliza- tion, their work, based on force, could lead only to destruction and anarchy Before centralized states (Bornu, Bagirmi, Ouadai) Ihey were help- less. At times they have been subjucatrd, re- duced to vassalage; finally in all probability they were absorbed by the Sudanese. . . . But, before states in the process of formation, or even of de- composition, these tribes could exercise all the re- sources of their warlike and destructive spirit The Kanem, cradle of ancient societies, had been ruined. The rich countries of the Senegal were sacked by their Moorish invaders. Sometimes we see that direct contacts of the .\rab race with the Sudanese were followed with disastrous effects. It would be unjust, however, to generalize beyond measure and to say that the arrival of the Arabs was an evil for Africa. Besides the benefits which their civilization had brought, the traces of Sem- itic blood which were introduced by them (as well as by the Berber strain) into the Sudan, will give to the future populations of Africa distinctive traits characteristic of a higher civilization." — Tr. from O. Meynier, L'Ajrique noire, pp. 126-128 — "The achievements of the Romans are a land- mark in the history of mankind, and can never be ignored. Then came the destructive Vandals (sec also X'andals: 42g-439; 431-533], followed by the hybrid Byzantines, and with their final expulsion by .\rabs the history of antiquity may be said to have come to a close. Today is but the yesterday of sixteen hundred years ago. 'The .^rab has replaced the Phoenician,' (as M. Paul Monccaus has observed), 'and the Frenchman has replaced the Roman. But that is all.' The primitive races — the ancient Berbers of the Desert or the mountain ranges, are still in possession, preserving their old traditions of tribal and social life, and speaking almost the same tongue as their ancestors did some three thousand years ago. The Numidian, the Moor, and the Getulian are there also, cultivating their olives in the land of their forefathers, tending their sheep on the broad plains of the Metidja or Chelif, or moving si- lently from place to place, like true sons of the Desert." — A. Graham, Roman Africa, p. 308. MODERN EUROPEAN OCCUPATION Beginnings of European exploration. — "The Genoese were the first to set out on the discovery of the oceanic coasts of Africa. At about the end of the 13th century, they knew the Canary Islands. In 1202, one of the galleys of the expedition of the brothers X'ivaldi reached the mouth of a river which their maps call Gohou and which seems to have been the Senegal. In the middle of the 14th ccntun.- they knew Madeira and the coast opposite, of which the Medician map of 1351 gives an almost correct drawing. About 1365 the first Frenchmen, Normans, were established in Africa; traders from Dieppe and Rouen having associated themselves in 1364 for commerce on the coast of western .Africa built some warehouses at the out- let of the Senegal, in Gambia, on the coasts of Sierra-Leone and of Malaguettc. In 1402, the Norman Jean de Bethcncourt arrived at the Ca- naries from La Rochelle with 53 companions and took possession of the islands in the name of the queen of Castile. So vigorous was this commer- cial movement between France and western Af- rica that it was not halted despite the wars in which France was engaging and the invasion of Normandy by the English. However the Normans pushed their expeditions no further, and it is to the Portuguese that the honor of discovering the coasts of Africa is due." — Tr. from R Ronze, La question d'Afriqiie. — See also Caliphate: 640-646, 647-700, 008-1171; Barbarv states: i';43-t;6o. Chronology of European exploration, mis- sionary settlement, colonization and occupation. 1415.— Conquest of Ceuta by the Portuguese 1434-1461. — Portuguese explorations down the western coast, from cape Bojador to cape Mesu- rado, in Liberia, under the direction of Prince Henrv, cal'ed the Navigator. 1442. — First .\frican slaves brought into Europe by one nf the ship? of Prince Henry. 1463-1498. — Portucuese explorations by Prince 02 AFRICA, 1471-1482 Exploration Settlement AFRICA, 1831 Henry, the Navigator. See Portugal: 1463-1498. 1471-1482. — Portuguese explorations carried be- yond the Guinea Coast, and to the Gold Coast, where the first settlement was established. 1482. — Discovery of the mouth of the Zaire or Conco by the Portuguese explorer, Diogo Cam 1485-1596. — Establishment of Roman Catholic missions on the western coast. 1486. — Unconscious rounding of the Cape of Good Hope by Bartholomew Diaz. 1490-1527.^Visit to Abyssinia of Pero Covilham, the Portugue.se explorer. 1497. — Voyage of Vasco da Gama round the Cape of Good Hope to India. 1505-1508. — Portuguese settlements and fortified stations established on the eastern coast. 1506. — Discovery of Madagascar by the Portu- guese. 1552-1553. — Beginning of English voyages to the Guinea and Gold Coasts 1560. — French trading to the Senegal and Gam- bia begun. 1562. — First slave-trading voyage of Sir John Hawkins to the Guinea Coast. 1578. — Founding of St Paul de Loando, Portu- guese capital on the west coast. 1582 (about). — Founding of the French post, St. Louis, at the mouth of the Senegal. 1595. — Opening of trade on the western coast by the Dutch. 17th century. — Settlements in West Africa by British. See British empire: Expansion: 17th century: .'\frica: West Africa. 1618-1621.^Exploration of the river Gambia for the Royal Niger company of England 1644. — Fort Dauphin founded by the French in the island of Madagascar 1652. — Dutch settlement at the Cape of Good Hope. 1672. — Africa company chartered See British empire: Expansion: 17th centurj : Africa: West Africa: 1672 1694-1724. — Exploration of the river Senegal for the Royal Senegal company. 18th century: British acquire Sierra Leone. See British empire: Expansion: iSth century: .Africa: West Africa. 1723. — Exploration of the Gambia for the Eng- glish Royal African company 1736. — Moravian mission on the Gold Coast. 1737. — Beginning of missionary work. See Mis- sions, Christian: Near East. Moravian mission planted by George Schmidt among the Hotten- tots. 1754. — Substantial beginning of the domination in Madagascar of the Hovas. 1761-1762. — Dutch expedition from Cape Colony beyond the Orange river. 1768-1773. — Journey of James Bruce to the foun- tains of the Blue Nile in Abyssinia. 1774. — Founding of a French colony in Mada- gascar bv Count Bcnvowskv. 1781-l'785.— Travels of M.le Vaillant among the Hottentots and Kaffirs. 1787. — Founding of the English settlement for freed slaves at Sierra Leone. 1788. — Formation of the African association in England, for systematic exploration. 1795. — The Cape Colony taken from the Dutch by the English. 1795-1797. — The first exploring journey of Mungo Park, in the service of the African association, from tht Gambia. 1798. — Mission of Dr. John Vanderkemp to the Kaffirs, for the London Missionary society. 1798. — Journey of the Portuguese Dr. Lacerda from the Lower Zambezi to the kingdom of Cazembe, on lake Moero. 1802-1806.— Restoration of Cape Colony to the Dutch and its reconquest by the English. 1802-1811. — Journey of the Pombeiros (Negroes) across the continent from Angola to Tetc. 1804. — Founding of the Church of England mis- sion in Sierra Leone. 1805. — Second expedition of Mungo Park from the Gambia to the Niger, from which he never returned. 1805. — Travels of Dr. Lichtenstein in Bechuana- land. 1808. — Beginning of missionary efforts in colo- nizing Liberia. See Liberia: Early history. 1810. — Missions in Great Namaqualand and Damaraland begun by the London Missionary society. 1812. — Exploration of the Orange river and the Limpopo by Campbell, the missionary. 1812-1815.— Journey of Burckhardt under the auspices of the African association, up the Nile, through Nubia, to Berbera, Shendi, and Suakin; thence through Jidda to Mecca, in the character of a Mussulman. 1816-1818.— Fatal and fruitless attempts to ex- plore the lower course of the Niger, 1818. — Mission in Madagascar undertaken by the London Missionary society. 1818. — Beginning;, on the Orange river, of the missionary labors of Robert Moffat in South Africa. 1818. — Exploration of the sources of the Gambia by Gaspard Mollien, from Fort St. Louis, at the mouth of the Senegal. 1818-1820. — Exploration of Fezzan to its south- ern limit, from Tripoli, by Captain Lyon. 1820. — First Wesleyan mission founded in Kaffir- land, 1820. — Treaty abolishing the slave-trade in Mad- agascar. 1821. — Mission-work in Kaffraria undertaken by the Glasgow Missionary society. 1822. — Founding of the republic of Liberia. See Slavery, Negro: 1816-1847 1822. — Official journey of Lieutenant Laing from Sierra Leone in the "Timannee, Kooranko and Soolima" countries, 1822-1825. — Expedition of Captain Clapperton, Dr. Oudney, and Colonel Denham, from Trip- oli to lake Chad and beyond. 1825-1826. — Expedition of Major Laing, in the service of the British Government, from Tripoli, through the desert, to Timbuktu, which he reached, and where he remained for a month. Two days after le-iving the city he was mur- dered. 1825-1827. — Expedition of Captain Clapperton from the bight of Benin to Sokoto. 1827. — Moravian mission settled in the Tam- bookie territory. South Africa. 1827. — Journey of Linant de Bellefonds, for the African Association, up the White Nile to 13° 6' north latitude. 1827-1828. — Journey of Caille from a point on the west coast, between Sierra Leone and the Gambia, to Jenne and Timbuktu; thence to Fez and Tangier. 1828. — Undertakings of the Basle Missionary so- ciety on the Gold Coast. 1830-1831. — Exploration of the Niger to the sea by Richard and John Lander, solving the question as to its mouth. 1830-1846. — French conquest and subjugation of Algiers. 1831. — Portuguese mission of Major Monteiro 93 AFRICA, 1831 Exploration Settlement AFRICA, 1855 and Captain Gamitto to the court of Muata Cazembe. • .■ u 1831.— Absorption of the African association Dy the Royal Geographical society of London 1832-1834.— First commercial exploration of the lower Niger, from its mouth, by Macgregor Laird, with two steamers. ,_,.... .v, 1833.— Mission in Basutoland established by tne Evangelical Missionary society of Paris. 1834. Beginning of missionary labors under the American Board of Missions in South .\frica. 1834— Mission founded at cape Palmas on the western coast, by the American Board of Foreign Missions. „ . t. t _ 1834— The great trek of the Dutch Boers from Cape Colony and their founding of the republic of Natal. „ . u,. u J 1835.— Mission among the Zulus established cy the American Board of Foreign Missions. 1835.— Founding of Senussia sect. See Senussia. DR. DAVID LIVINGSTONE 1835-1849.— Persecution of Christians in Mada- ^'' 1836-1837.— Explorations of Captain Sir James E Alexander in the countries of the Great Nama- quas, the Bushmen and the Hill Damaras. 1839-1841.— Egyptian expeditions sent by^Me- hemet Ali up the White Nile to latitude 6 35 N.; accompanied and narrated in part by Ferdi- nand Werne. t T^ i' o„f 1839-1843.— Missionary residence of Ur. Krapi in the kingdom of Shoa, in the Ethiopian high- lands. . • c *v. 1840.— Arrival of Dr. Livingstone in t)0uth Africa as a missionary. , .,, , 1841.— Expedition of Captains Trotter and .\llen, sent by the British government to treat with tribes on the Niger for the opening of commerce and the suppression of the slave trade. 1842.— Travels of Dr. Charles Johnston in south- ern Abyssinia. 1842 —Gaboon mission, on the western coast near the equator, founded by the American Board ot Foreign Missions. 1842— The Rhenish mission established by Ger- man missionaries at Bethany in Namaqualand. 1842.— Wesleyan and Norwegian missions opened in Natal 1842-1862.— French occupation of territory on the Gaboon and the Ogowe. 1843.— British annexation of Natal, and nugra- tioii ul the Boers to found the Orange Free State. , , . 1843.— Exploration of the Senegal and the Faleme bv Huard-Bessinieres and Raffenel. 1843-1845.— Travels and residence of Mr. Par- kvns in Abyssinia. , „ , r^ 1843-1848.— Hunting journeys of Gordon Lum- ming in South Africa. 1844.— Mission founded by Dr. Krapf at Mom- basa, on the Zanzibar coast. 1845.— Duncan's journey for the Royal Geo- graphical societv from Whydah, via Abome, to Adofudia . ,. . j u 1845.— Mission to the Cameroons established by the Baptist Missionary society of England. 1846.— Unsuccessful attempt of Raffenel to cross Africa from Senegal to the Nile, through the Sudan. 1846.— Mission of Samuel Crowther (afterwards Bishop of the Niger), a native and a liberated slave, to the Yoruba country. 1846.— Mission on Old Calabar river founded by the United Presbyterian Church in Jamaica 1847-1849. — Interior explorations of the German missionaries Dr. Krapf and Mr. Rebmann, from Mombasa on the Zanzibar coast. 1843.— Founding of the Transvaal republic by the Boers . . . • ■ 1849.— Missionary journey of David Livingstone northward from the country of the Bechuanas, and his discovery of Lake Ngami. 1849-1851.— Journey of Laszlo Magyar from Benguela to the kingdoms of Bihe and Molua on the interior table-land, and across the upper end of the Zambezi Valley .... 1850.— Sale of Danish forts at Kwitta, .\ddah, and Fingo, on the western coast, to threat Brit- 1850-1851.— Travels of Andersson and Gallon from VValfish bay to Ovampoland and lake Ngami, , , „ . ,. 1850-1855 —Travels of Dr. Barth from Tripoli to lake Chad, Sokoto and the Upper Niger to Timbuktu, where he was detained for nine months . . , _ ... 1851.— Discovery of the Zambezi by Dr. Living- stone. ,. . , 1852-1863.— Hunting and trading journeys ot Mr Chapman in South Africa, between Natal and Walfish bay and to lake Ngami and the 1853 —Founding of the diocese of Natal by the English Church and appointment of Dr. Colenso to be its bishop. . . . , i 1853-1856.— Journey of Dr. Livingstone from Linyante, the Makololo capital, up the Zambezi and across to the western coast, at St. Paul de Loando, thence returning entirely across the con- tinent, down the Zambezi to Quilimane at its mouth, discovering the Victoria falls on his ^^853-1858.- Ivory-seeking expeditions of John Petherick, up the Bahr-el-Ghazal 1853-1859.— Roman Catholic mission established at Gondokoro, on the Upper Nile. 1854 —Exploration of the Somali country— the "eastern horn of Africa"-by Captains Burton ''"l85^5'?-Beginnin • of attempts by the French gov- 94 AFRICA, 1856-1859 Exploration Settlement AFRICA, 1873-1875 ernor of Senegal, General Faidherbe, to carry the flag of France into the western Sudan. 1856-1859.— Journeys of Du Chaillu in the west- ern equatorial regions, on the Gaboon and the Ogobai. 1857-1858. — Expedition of Captains Burton and Speke, from Zanzibar, through Uzaramo, Usagara, Ugogo, and Unyamwezi, to Ujiji, on lake Tan- ganyika — making the first European discovery of the lake; returning to Kaze, and thence continued by Speke alone, during Burton's illness, to the discovery of lake Victoria Nyanza. 1858. — Journey of Andersson from Walfish bay to the Okavango river. 1858. — English mission station founded at Vic- toria on the Cameroons coast. 1858-1863. — Expedition of Dr. Livingstone, in the service of the British government, exploring the Shire and the Rovuma, and discovering and exploring lake Nyasa — said, however, to have been known previously to the Portuguese. 1860-1861. — Journey of Baron von Decken from Mombasa on the Zanzibar coast, to Mt Kiliman- jaro 1860-1862. — Return of Speke, with Captain Grant, from Zanzibar to lake Victoria Nyanza, visiting Karagwe, and Uganda, and reaching the outlet of the Nile ; thence through Unyoro to Gondokoro, and homeward by the Nile. 1861. — Establishment of the Universities mission by Bishop Mackenzie on the Upper Shire. 1861-1862. — English acquisition of the town and kingdom of Lagos on the bight of Benin by ces- sion from the native ruler. 1861-1862. — Sir Samuel Baker's exploration of the .^b\s?inian tributaries of the Nile 1861-1862. — Journey of Captain Burton from Lagos, on the western coast, to .-Mjeokuta, the capital of the Akus. in Voruba. and to the Cam- aroons mountains, 1861-1862. — Journey of Mr Baincs from Wal- fish bay to lake Ngami and Victoria falls. 1862. — Resumption of the Christian mission in Madagascar, long suppressed. 1862-1867.— Travels of Dr Rohlfs in Morocco, Algeria and Tunis, and exjjloring journey from the gulf of the Syrtes to the gulf of Guinea 1863. — Travels of Winwood Reade on the west- ern coast. 1863. — Incorporation of a large part of Kaffraria with Cape Colony. 1863. — -Second visit of Du Chaillu to the west- ern equatorial region and journey to Ashango- Land. 1863-1864. — Official mission of Captain Burton to the king of Dahomey. 1863-1864.— Exploration of the Bahr-el-Ghazal from Khartoum by the wealthy Dutch heiress, Miss Tinne, and her party. 1863-1865. — Expedition by Sir Samuel Baker and his wife up the White Nile from Khartum, re- sulting in the discovery of lake Albert Nyanza, as one of its sources. 1864. — Mission of Lieutenant Mage and Dr. Quintin, sent by General Faidherbe from Senegal to the king of Segu, in the Sudan. 1866. — Founding of a Norwegian mission in Madagascar. 1866-1873. — Last journey of Dr. Livingstone, from the Rovuma river, on the eastern coast, to lake Nyassa; thence to lake Tanganyika, lake Mweru, lake Bangweolo, and the Lualaba river, which he suspected of flowing into the Albert Nyanza, and being the ultimate fountain head of the Nile, 'n November, 1.S71, Livingstone was found at Ujiji, on lake Tanganyika, by Henry M. Stanley, leader of an expedition sent in search of him Declining to quit the country with Stanley, and pursuing his exploration of the Lu- alaba, Livingstone died May i, 1873, on lake Bang- weolo. 1867. — Mission founded in Madagascar by the Society of Friends. 1867-1868. — British expedition to Abyssinia for the rescue of captives; overthrow and death of King Theodore. 1868. — British annexation of Basutoland in South Africa. 1869. — Christianity established as the state re- ligion in Madagascar. 1869. — Fatal expedition of Miss Tinne from Tripoli into the desert, where she was murdered by her own escort. 1869-1871.— Explorations of Dr. Schweinfurth between the Bahr-el-Ghazal and the Upper Con- go, discovering the Welle river. 1869-1873.— Expedition of Dr. Nachtigal from Tripoli through Kuka, Tibesti, Borku, Wadai, D.irfur, and Kordofan, to the Nile. SIR HENRY M. STANLEY 1870-1873. — Official expedition of Sir Samuel Baker, in the service of the khedive of Egypt, Ismail Pasha, to annex Gondokoro, then named Ismailia, and to suppress the slave-trade in the Egyptian Sudan, or Equatoria. 1871. — Transfer of the rights of Holland on the Gold Coast to Great Britain. 1871. — Annexation of Griqualand West to Cape (\)lony. 1871. — Scientific tour of Sir Joseph D. Hooker and Mr. Ball in Morocco and the Great Atlas. 1871.— Missionary journey of Mr. Charles New in the Masai country and ascent of Mt. Kiliman- jaro. 1871-1880. — Hunting journeys of Mr. Selous in South .'\frica, beyond the Zambezi. 1872-1875. — Travels of the naturalist, Reinhold Buchholz, on the Guinea coast. 1872-1879. — Travels of Dr. Holub between the South African diamond fields and the Zambezi. 1873-1875. — Expedition of Captain V. L. Cam- eron, from Zanzibar to lake Tanganyika, and 95 AFRICA, 1873-1875 Exploration Settlement AFRICA, 1880-1886 exploration of the lake; thence to Nyangwe on the Lualaba, and thence across the continent, through Ulundi, to the Portuguese settlement at Benguela, on the Atlantic coast. 1873-1875.— Travels of the naturalist, Frank Gates, from Cape Colony to the Victoria falls. 1873-1876. — Explorations of GiissfeJdt, Falken- stein and Pechuel-Loesche, under the auspices of the German African association, from the Loango coast, north of the Congo. 1874. — British expedition against the Ashantees, destroying their principal town Kumasi. 1874. — Mission of Colonel Chaille-Lon^ from General Gordon, at Gondokoro, on the Nile, to M'tese, king of Uganda, discovering lake Ibrahim on his return, and completing the work of Speke and Baker, in the continuous tracing of the course of the Nile from the Victoria Nvanza. 1874-1875.— Expedition of Colonel C. Chaillf- Long to lake Victoria Nyanza and the Makraka Niam-Niam country, in the Egyptian service. 1874-1876. — First administration of General Gor- don, commissioned by the khedive as governor of Equatoria. 1874-1876. — Occupation and exploration of Dar- fur and Kordofan by the Egyptians, under Colo- nels Purdy, Mason, Prout and Colston. 1874-1877.— Expedition of Henry M. Stanley, fitted out by the proprietors of the New York Herald and the London Daily Telegraph, which crossed the continent from Zanzibar to the mouth of the Congo river; making a prolonged stay in the empire of Uganda and acquiring much knowl- edge of it ; circumnavigating lakes X'ictoria and Tanganyika, and exploring the then mysterious great Congo river throughout its length. 1874-1877.— Explorations of Dr. Junker in Upper Nubia and in the basin of the Bahr-el-Ghazal. 1875. — Expedition of Dr. Pogge, for the German African association, from the west coast, south of the Congo, in the Congo basin, penetrating to Kawende, beyond the Ruru or Lulua river, capital of the Muata Vanvo, who rules a kingdom as large as Germany. 1875. — Expedition of Colonel Chaille-Long into the country of the Makraka Niam-Niams. 1875. — Founding by Scottish subscribers of the mission station called Livingstonia, at cape Mac- lear, on the southern shores of lake Nyasa; head- quarters of the mission removed in i88i to Bandawe, on the same lake. 1875. — Mission founded at Blantyre, in the high- lands above the Shire, by the Established Church of Scotland. 1875-1876. — Seizure of Berbera and the region of the Juba river, on the Somali coast, by Colonel Chaille-Long, for the khedive of Egypt, and their speedy evacuation, on the remonstrance of Eng- land. 1876. — Conference at Brussels and formation of the International African association, under the presidency of the king of the Belgians, for the exploration and civilization of Africa. 1876. — Voyage of Romolo Gcssi around lake Al- bert Nyanza. 1876.— Mission in Uganda established by the Church Missionary society of England. 1876-1878. — Scientific explorations of Dr. Schweinfurth in the .Arabian desert between the Nile and the Red sea 1876-1880. — Explorations and French annexa- tions by Savorgnan de Brazza between the Ogow^ and the Congo 1876-1890. — Congo region explored. See Belgian Congo: 1876-18QO. 1877. — The Livingstone Inland mission, for Christian work in the Congo Valley, established by the East London Institute for Home and Foreign Missions. 1877-1879. — Second administration of General Gordon, as governor-general of the Sudan, Darfur and the equatorial provinces. 1877-1879.— War of the British in South Africa with the Zulus, and practical subjugation of that nation. 1877-1879. — Journey of Serpa Pinto across the continent from Benguela via the Zambezi. 1877-1880. — Explorations of the Portuguese offi- cers, Capello and Ivens, in western and central Africa, from Benguela to the territory of Yacca, for the survey of the river Cuango in its relations to the hydrographic basins of the Congo and the Zambezi. 1878. — Founding in Glasgow of the African Lakes company, or "The Livingstone Central Af- rica company," for trade on lakes Nyasa and Tanganyika ; by which company the "Stevenson road" was subsequently built between the two lakes above named. 1878. — Walfish bay and fifteen miles around it (on the western coast, in Namaqualand) declared British territory. 1878. — Journey of Paul Soleillet from Saint Louis to Segu. 1878-1880. — Royal Geographical society's East Central African expedition, under Joseph Thom- son, to the Central African lakes, Tanganyika, Nyasa and Leopold, from Zanzibar. 1879. — Establishment, by the Belgian Interna- tional society, of a station at Karema, on the eastern shore of lake Tanganyika. 1879. — Formation of the International Con^o association and the engagement of Mr. Stanley in its service. 1879. — Missionary expeditions to the Upper Congo region by the Livingstone Inland mission and the Baptist Missionary society. 1879. — Journey of Mr. Stewart, of the Living- stonia mission, on lake Nyasa, from that lake to lake Tanganyika. 1879. — Discovery of the sources of the Niger, in the hills about 200 miles east of Freetown, the capital of Sierra Leone, by the French explorers, Zweifel and Moustier. 1879-1880. — Journey of Dr. Oskar Lenz, under the auspices of the German African society, from Morocco to Timbuktu, and thence to the .Atlantic coast in Senegambia. The fact that the Sahara is generally above the sea-level, and cannot there- fore be flooded, was determined by Dr. Lenz. 1879-1881. — Expedition of Dr. Buchner from Loanda to Kawende and the kingdom of the Muata Yanvo. where six months were spent in vain efforts to procure permission to proceed further into the interior, 1880. — Mission established by the American Board of Foreign Missions in "the region of Bih^ and the Kwanza," or Quanza, south of the Congo. 1880-1881.— War of the British with the Boers of the Transvaal. 1880-1881. — Official mission of the German ex- plorer, Gerhard Rohlfs, accompanied by Dr. Stecker, to .Abyssinia. 1880-1884. — Campaigns in Upper Senegal, ex- tending French supremacy to the Niger 1880-1884. — German East African expedition to explore, in the Congo basin, the region between the Lualaba and the Luapula. 1880-1886. — Explorations of Dr. Junker in the country of the Niam-Niam, and his journey from the equatorial province, through Unyoro and Uganda, to Zanzibar. 96 AFRICA, 1880-1889 Exploration Settlement AFRICA, 1885-1889 1880-1889. — Journey of Captain Casati, as cor- respondent of tfie Italian geograpfiical review, "L'Exploratore," from Suakin, on the Red sea, into the district of the Mangbettu, west of lake Albert, and the country of the Niam-Niam ; in which travels he was arrested by the revolt of the Mahdi and forced to remain with Erain Pasha until rescued with the latter by Stanley, in iSSg. 1881. — French protectorate over Tunis. 1881. — Portuguese expedition of Captain An- drada from Senna on the Zambezi river to the old gold mines of Manica. 1881. — Journey of F. L. and W. D. James from Suakin, on the Red sea, through the Base country, in the Egyptian Sudan. 1881. — Founding of a mission on the Congo, at Stanley Pool, by the Baptist Missionary society of England. 1881-1884. — Expedition of Dr. Pogge and Lieu- tenant Wissraann to Nyangwe on the Lualaba, from which point Lieutenant Wissmann pursued the journey to Zanzibar crossing the continent. 1881-1885.— Revolt of the Mahdi in the Sudan; the mission of General Gordon ; the unsuccessful expedition from England to rescue him; the fall of the city and his death. , 1881-1887. — French protectorate established on the Upper Niger and Upper Senegal. 1882. — Italian occupation of Abyssinian territory on the bay of Assab. 1882-1883. — German scientific expedition, under Dr. Bohm and Herr Reichard, to lakes Tanganyika and Mweru. 1882-1883. — Journey of Mr. H. H. Johnston on the Congo. .1883. — Delagoa bay arbitration. See Delagoa BAY ARBITRATlbN. 1883. — German acquisition of territory on Angra Pequeria bay, in Great Namaqualand. 1883. — Exploration of Masailand by Dr. Fischer, under the auspices of the Hamburg Geographical society. 1883. — Explorations of Lieutenant Giraud in East Central Africa, descending for some distance the Luapula. 1883. — Scientific investigation of the basins of lakes Nyasa and Tanganyika, by Mr. Henry Drummond, for the African Lakes company. 1883. — Journey of M. Revoil in the south Somali country to the Upper Juba. 1883-1884.— Explorations of Mr. Joseph Thom- son from Mombasa, through Masailand, to the northeast corner of the Victoria Nyanza, under the auspices of the Royal Geographical society. 1883-1885.— War of the French with the Hovas of Madagascar, resulting in the establishment of a French protectorate over the island. 1883-1885. — Exploration of Lieutenant Giraud in the lake region. 1883-1886. — Austrian expedition, under Dr. Ho- lub, from Cape Colony, through the Boer states, Bechuanaland and Matabeleland to the Zambezi, and beyond. 1884. — Annexation by Germany of the whole western coast (e.xcept Walfish bay) between the Portuguese possessions and those of the British in South Africa. 1884. — German occupation of territory on the Cameroon River, under treaties with the native chiefs. English treaties securing contiguous terri- tory to and including ihe delta of the Ni 'er. See Cameroons: Occupation by Germany. 1884.- — German protectorate over Togoland on the Gold Coast declared. See Togoland. 1884. — Expedition of Dr. Peters, representing the Society of German Colonization, to the coast re- gion of Zanzibar, and his negotation of treaties with ten native chiefs, ceding the sovereignty of their dominions. See Tanganyika territory: German colonization. 1884. — Crown colony of British Bechuanaland acquired from the South African republic. 1884. — Portuguese government expedition, under Major Carvalho, from Loanda to the Central Af- rican potentate called the Muata Yanvo. 1884. — Exploration of the Benue and the Adam- awa, by Herr Flegel. 1884. — Scientific expedition of Mr. H. H. John- ston to Mt. Kilimanjaro. 1884. — Discovery of the M'bangi or Ubanghi River (afterwards identified with the Welle), by Captain Hansens and Lieutenant Van Gele. 1884. — Exploration of Reichard in the south- eastern part of the Congo State. 1884-1885. — The Berlin Conference of Powers, held to determine the limits of territory conceded to the International Congo association, to estab- lish freedom of trade within that territory, and to formulate rules for regulating in future the acquisition of .African territory. See Berlin Act. 1884-1885.— Journey of Mr. Walter M. Kerr from Cape Colony, across the Zambezi, to Lake Nyasa, and down the Shire river to the coast. 1884-1885.— Travels of Mr. F. L. James and party in the Somali country. 1884-1887. — Exploration by Dr. Schinz of the newly acquired German territories in Africa. 1884-1893. — England, France and Germany on the Niger coast. Settlement of the boundary of Sudan and Sahara sphere. See Nigeria, Protector- ate of: 1882-1899. 1885. — Transfer of the rights of the Society of German Colonization to the German East Africa company, and extension of imperial protection to the territories claimed by the company. German acquisition of Witu, north of Zanzibar. 1885. — Agreement between Germany and France, defining their respective spheres of influence on the bight of Biafra, on the slave coast and in Senegambia. 1885. — Transformation of the Congo association into the independent state of the Congo, with King Leopold of Belgium as its sovereign. 1885. — British protectorate extended to the Zam- bezi, over the country west of the Portuguese province of Sofala, to the 20th degree of east longitude. 1885. — British protectorate extended over the remainder of Bechuanaland. 1885. — Italian occupation of Massawa, on the Red sea. 1885. — Mission of Mr, Joseph Thomson, for the National African company, up the Niger, to Sokoto and Gando, securing treaties with the sultans under which the company acquired paramount rights. 1885-1888. — Mission of M. Eorelli to the king- dom of Shoa (southern Ethiopia) and south of it. 1885-1889.— When, after the fall of Khartum and the death of General Gordon, in 1885, the Sudan was abandoned to the Mahdi and the fa- natical Mohammedans of the interior, Dr. Eduard Schnitzer, better known as Emin Pasha, who had been in command, under Gordon, of the province of the equator, extending up to lake Albert, was cut off for six years from communication with the civilized world. In 1887 an expedition to rescue him and his command was sent out under Henry M. Stanley. It entered the continent from the west, made its way up the Congo and the Aruwimi to Yambuya ; thence through the unexplored region to lake Albert Nyanza and into communication 97 AFRICA, 1886 Exploration Settlement AFRICA, 1890-1891 with Emin Pasha; then returning to Yambuya for the rearguard which had been left there ; again traversing the savage land to lake Albert, and passing from there, with Emin and his companions, by way of lake Albert Edward Xyanza (then ascertained to be the ultimate reservoir of the Nile system) around the southern extremity of the \ictoria Xyanza, to Zanzibar, which was reached at the end of 1889. 1886.— Settlement between Great Britain and Germany of the coast territory to be left under the sovereignty of the sultan of Zanzibar, and of the "spheres of influence" to be appropriated respectively by themselves, between the lakes and the eastern coast, north of the Portuguese posses- sions. 1886.— Agreement between France and Portugal defining limits of territory in Senegambia and at the mouth of the Congo. 1886. — Transformation of the National African company into the British Royal Niger company, with a charter giving powers of administration over a large domain on the river Niger. 1886. — Mission station founded by Mr. Arnot at Bunkeya, in the southeastern part of the Congo State. ' 1886-1887. — Journey of Lieutenant Wissmann across the continent, from Luluaburg. a station of the Congo association, in the dominion of Muata Yanvo. to Nyangwe, on the Lualaba, and thence to Zanzibar. 1886-1889. — Expeditions of Dr. Zintgraff in the Cameroons interior and to the Benue, for the bringing of the country under German influence. 1887. — .Annexation of Zululand. partly to the Transvaal, or South .African republic, and the re- mainder to the British possessions. 1887. — French gunboats launched on the Upper Niger, making a reconnoissance nearly to Tim- buktu. 1887.— Identity of the Welle river with the M'bangi or Ubanghi established by Captain Van Gele and Lieutenant Lienart. 1887. — First ascent of Kilimanjaro by Dr. Hans Meyer. 1887-1889. — Exploration by Captain Binger of the region between the great bend of the Niger and the countries of the Gold Coast 1887-1890.— Expedition of Count Teleki through Masailand, having for its most important result the discovery of the Basso-Narok. or Black lake. to which the discoverer gave the name of lake Rudolf, and lake Stefanie. 1888. — Chartering of the Imperial British East .Africa company, under concessions granted by the sultan of Zanzibar and by native chiefs, with powers of administration over a region defined ultimately as extending from the river Umba northward to the river Juba. and inland to and across lake Victoria near its middle to the eastern boundary of the Congo Free State. 1888. — British supremacy over Matabeleland se- cured by treaty with its King Lobengula. 1888. — British protectorate extended over .Ama- tongaland. 1888. — Ascent of Mt Kilimanjaro by Mr. Ehlers and Dr. .Abbott ; also by Dr. Hans Meyer. 1888. — Travels of Joseph Thomson in the .Atlas and southern Morocco. 1889. — Royal charter granted to the British South Africa company, with rights and powers in the region called Zambezia north of British Bechuanaland and the South .African republic, and between the Portuguese territory on the east and the German territory on the west. 1889. — Will of King Leopold, making Belgium heir to the sovereign rights of the Congo Free State. 1889. — Protectorate of Italy over Abyssinia ac- knowledged by the Negus. 1889. — Portuguese Roman Catholic mission es- tablished on the south shore of lake Nyasa. Por- tuguese exploration under Serpa Pinto in the lake Nyasa region, with designs of occupancy frus- trated by the British. 1889. — Journey of M. Crampel from the Ogowe to the Likuala tributary of the Congo, and return directly westward to the coast. 1889. — Di. Wolf's exploration of the southeast Niger basin, where he met his death. 1889. — Major Macdonald's exploration of the Benue, sometimes called the Tchadda (a branch ot the Niger), and of its tributary the Kebbi. 1889. — Journey of Mr. H. H. Johnston north of lake Nyasa and to lake Leopold. 1889. — Journey of Mr. Sharpe through the coun- try lying between the Shire and Loangwa rivers. 1889. — Mr. Pigott's journey to the Upper Tana, in the service of the Imperial British East Africa company. 1889-1890.— British protectorate declared over Nyasaland and the Shire highlands. 1889-1890. — Italian protectorate established over territory on the eastern (oceanic) Somali coast, from the gulf of Aden to the Juba river. 1889-1890.— Imperial British East .Africa com- pany's expedition, under Jackson and Gedge, for the exploring of a new road to the Victoria Ny- anza and Uganda. 1889-1890. — Captain Lugard's exploration of the river Sabaki for the Imperial British East Africa company. 1889-1890. — Journey of Lieutenant ilorgen from the Cameroons. on the western coast to the Benue. 1889-1890. — French explorations in Madagascar by Dr. Catat and MM. Maistre and Foucart. 1890. — .Anglo-German convention, defmin; bound- aries of the territories and "spheres of influence" respectively claimed by the two powers; Germany withdrawing from Wiiu, and from all the eastern mainland coast north of the river Tana, and con- ceding a British protectorate over Zanzibar, in exchange for the island of Heligoland in the North sea. 1890. — French "sphere of influence" extending over the Sahara and the Sudan, from Algeria to lake Chad and to Say on the Niger, recognized by Great Britain. 1890. — Exploration of the river Sangha, an im- portant northern tributarv of the Congo, by M. Cholet. 1890. — Exploring journey of M. Hodislcr, agent of the Upper Congo company, up the Lomami river and across country to the Lualaba, at N\angwe. 1890. — Journey of Mr. Garrett in the interior of Sierra Leone to the upper waters of the Niger. 1890. — Journey of Dr. Fleck from the western coast across the Kalihuri to lake Ngami. 1890-1891. — Italian possessions in the Red sea united in the colony of Eritrea. 1890-1891. — Mission of Captain Lugard to Uganda and signature of a treaty by its king acknowledging the supremacy of the British East Africa company. 1890-1891. — Exploration by M. Paul Crampel of the central region between the French territories on the Congo and Lake Chad, ending in the mur- der of M. Crampel and several of his companions. 1890-1891. — Journey of Mr. Sharpe from Man- dala, in the Shire highlands, to Garenganze, the empire founded by an .African adventurer, Msidi, 98 AFRICA, 1890-1891 Exploration Settlement AFRICA, 1893-1894 in the Katanga copper country, between lake Mweru and the Luapula river on the east, and the Lualaba on the west. 1890-1891. — Journey of Lieutenant Mizon from the Niger to the Congo. 1890-1891. — Journey of Captain Becker from Vambuya, on the Aruwimi, north-northwest to the Welle. 1890-1892. — Italian explorations in the Somali countries by Signor Robecchi, Lieutenant Baudi di Vesme, Prince Ruspoli, and Captains Bottego and Grixoni. 1890-1893. — Expedition of Dr. Stuhlmann, with Emin Pasha, from Bagamoyo, via the Victoria Nyanza and the Albert Edward, to the plateau west of the Albert Nyanza. From this point Dr. Stuhlmann returned, while Emin pursued his way, intending, it is said, to reach Kibonge, on the right bank of the Congo, south of Stanley falls. He was murdered at Kinena, 150 miles northeast of Kibonge, by the order of an Arab chief. 1891. — E-xtension of the British protectorate of Lagos over the neighboring districts of Addo, Igbessa, and Ilaro, which form the western bound- ary of Yoruba. 1891. — Treaty between Great Britain and Portu- gal defining their possessions ; conceding to the former an interior extension of her South .'\frican dominion up to the southern boundary of the Congo Free State, and securing to the latter de- fined territories on the Lower Zambezi, the Lower Shire, and the Nyasa, as well as the large block of her possessions on the western coast. 1891. — Convention between Portugal and the Congo Free State for the division of the disputed district of Lunda. 1891. — Convention of the Congo Free State with the Katanga company, an international syndicate, giving the company preferential rights over re- puted mines in Katanga and Urua, with a third of the public domain, provided it established an effective occupation within three years. 1891. — French annexation of the Gold Coast be- tween I^iberia and the Grand Bassam. 1891. — Opening of the Royal Trans-African rail- way, in West Africa, from Loanda to Ambaca, 1^0 miles. 1891. — Survey of a railway route from the east- ern coast to Victoria lake by the Imperial British East Africa company. 1891. — Exploration of the Juba river, in the Somali country, by Commander Dundas. 1891. — Exploration by Captain Dundas, from the eastern coast, up the river Tana to Mount Kenia 1891. — Mr. Bent's exploration of the ruined cities of Mashonaland. 1891. — Journey of M. Maistre from the Congo to the Shari. 1891.^ — Journeys of Captain Gallwey in the Benin country. West Africa. 1891. — Mission established by the Berlin Mission- ary Society in the Konde country, at the northern end of lake Nyasa. 1891-1892. — Incorporation of the African Lakes company with the British South .Africa company. Organization of the administration of northern Zambezia and Nyasaland. 1891-1892. — Expedition of the Katanga company, under Captain Stairs, from Bagamoyo to lake Tankanyika, thence through the country at the head of the most southern affluents of the Congo, the Lualaba and the Luapula. 1891-1892. — Belgian expeditions under Captain Bia and others to explore the southea^^tem por- tion of the Congo basin, on behalf of the Katanga company, resulting in the determination of the fact that the Lukuga river is an outlet of Lake Tanganyika. 1891-1892.— Journey of Dr. James Johnston across the continent, from Benguela to the mouth of the Zambezi, through Bihe, Ganguela, Barotse, the Kalihari desert, Mashonaland, Manica, Goron- goza, Nyasa, and the Shire highlands. 1891-1892.— Expedition of Mr. Joseph Thomson, for the British South .Africa company, from Kili- manc or Quillimane on the eastern coast to lake Bangweolo. 1891-1892. — Journey of Captain Monteil from the Niger to lake Chad and to Tripoli. 1891-1892.— Exploration by Lieutenant Chaltin of the river Lulu, and the country between the Aruwimi and the Welle Makua rivers, in the Congo State. 1891-1893. — Journey of Dr. Oscar Baumann from Tanga, on the eastern coast; passing to the south of Kilimanjaro, discovering two lakes be- tween that mountain and the Victoria Nyanza. 1891-1894. — Expedition under the command of Captain Van Kerckhoven and M. de la KethuUe de Ryhove, fitted out by the Congo Free State, for the subjugation of the Arabs, the suppression of the slave trade, and the exploration of the country, throughout the region of the Welle or Ubanghi Welle and to the Nile. 1892. — Decision of the Imperial British East .'\frica company to withdraw from Uganda. 1892. — Practical conquest of Dahomey by the French, 1892. — Journey of M. Mery in the Sahara to the south of Wargla, resulting in a report favor- able to the construction of a railway to tap the Central Sudan. 1892. — French expedition under Captain Binger to explore the southern Sudan, and to act con- jointly with British officials in determining the boundary between French and English yjossessions. 1892. — Journey of Mr. Sharpe from the Shire river to lake Mweru and the Upper Luapula. 1892-1893. — Construction of a line of telegraph, by the British South ."Xfrican company, from Cape Colony, through Ma.shonaland, to Fort Salis- bury, with projected extension across the Zambezi and -by the side of lakes Nyasa and Tanganyika to Uganda, — and ultimately down the valley of the Nile. 1892-1893. — French scientific mission, under M. Decle, from Cape Town to the sources of the Nile. 1892-1893. — Italian explorations, under Captain Bottego and Prince Ruspoli, in the upper basin of the river Juba. 1893. — Brussels antislavery conference, ratified in its action by the Powers. 1893. — Official mission of Sir Gerald Porter to L'ganda, sent by the British government to report - as to the expediency of the withdrawal of British authority from that country. 1893. — Scientific expedition of Mr. Scott-Elliot to Uganda. 1893. — Scientific expedition of Dr. Gregory, of the British Museum, from Mombasa, on the east- ern coast, through Masailand to Mt. Kenia. 1893. — Journey of Mr. Bent to .^ksum, in Abys- sinia, the ancient capit.al and sacred city of the Ethiopi.ms. 1893-1894. — German scientific survey of Mt. Kili- manjaro, under Drs. Lent and Volken.s. 1893-1894. — Expedition of Mr. .\stor Chanler and Lieutenant von Hiilincl from Witu, on the eastern coast, to the Jombini range and among the Rendile 1893-1894. — Explorations of Baron von Uechtritz and Dr. Passarge on the Beniie. 99 AFRICA, 1893-1894 Exploration Settlement AFRICA, 1897 1893-1894. — Journey of Baron von Scheie from the eastern coast to lake Nyasa, and thence by a direct route to Kihsa. 1893-1894. — Journey of Count von Gotzen across the continent, from Dar-es-Salaam, on the eastern coast, to the Lower Congo. 1894. — Treaty between Great Britain and the Congo Free State, securing to the former a strip of land on the west side of the Nile between the Albert Xyanza and io° north latitude, and to the latter the large Bahr-el-Ghazal region, westward. This convention gave offense to France, and that country immediately exacted from the Congo Free State a treaty stipulating that the latter shall not occupy or exercise political influence in a region which covers most of the territory assigned to it by the treaty with Great Britain. 1894. — Franco-German treaty, determining the boundary line of the Cameroons, or Kamerun. 1894. — Treaty concluded by Captain Lugard, November lo, at Nikki, in Borgu, confirming the rights claimed by the Royal Niger company over Borgu, and placing that country under British protection. 1894. — AL'reement between the British South Africa company and the government of Great Britain, signed November 24, 1894, transferring to the direct administration of the company the protectorate of Nyasaland, thereby extending its domain to the south end of lake Tanganyika. 1894.— Renewed war of France with the Hovas of Madagascar. 1894. — Expedition of Dr. Donaldson Smith from the Somali coast, stopped and turned back by the .\byssinians, in December. 1894. — Completed conquest of Dahomey by the French; capture of the deposed king, January 25, and his deportation to exile in Martinique. De- cree of the French government, June 22, directing the administrative organization of the "colony of Dahomey and dependencies." 1894. — Occupation of Timbuktu by a French force. 1894. — Journey of Count von Gotzen across the continent, from the eastern coast, through Ruanda and the great forest to and along the Lowa, an eastern tributary of the Congo. 1894. — Exploration of the Upper Congo and the Lukuga by Mr. R. Dorsey Mohun, .American agent on the Congo, and Dr. Hinde. 1894. — Scientific expedition of Mr. Coryndon from the Cape to the Zambezi and lake Tan- ganyika. 1894-1895. — War of the Italians in their colony of Eritrea with both the .•\byssinians and the Mahdists. Italian occupation of Kassala. See Italy: 1805-1896. 1895. — Franco-British agreement, signed January 21, 1805, respecting the "hinterland" of Sierra Leone, which secures to France the Upper Niger basin. 1895. — Convention between Belgium and France signed Februar>' s, recognizing a right of preemp- tion on the part of the latter, with regard to the Congo State, in case Belgium should at any time renounce the sovereignty which King Leopold transferred to it. 1895. — Several Bechuana chiefs visited England to urge that their country should not be absorbed by Cape Colony or the British South .\frica com- pany. An agreement was made with them which reserved certain territories to each, but yielded the remainder to the administration of the British South .Africa company. 1895. — The territories previously administered by the Imperial British East Africa company (except- ing the Uganda protectorate, which had been trans- ferred in 1804) were finally transferred to the British government on July i. At the same time, the dominion of the sultan of Zanzibar on the mainland came under the administrative control of the British consul-general at Zanzibar. 1895. — Proceedings for the annexation of British Bechuanaland to Cape Colony were adopted by the Cape parliament in August. 1895. — In June, M. Chaudie was appointed gov- ernor-general of French West Africa, his jurisdic- tion extending over Senegal, the Sudan possessions of France, French Guinea, Dahomey, and other French possessions in the gulf of Benin. 1895. — A resolution making overtures for a fed- eral union with the Transvaal was passed by the Volksraad of the Orange Free State in June. 1895. — By a proclamation in February, the Transvaal government assumed the administration of Swaziland and installed King Buna as para- mount chief. 1895. — A strip of territory west of Amatonga- land, along the Pondoland river to the Maputa was formally added to Zululand in May, the South .African republic protesting. 1895-1896. — The Portuguese were involved in war with Gungunhana, king of Gazaland, which lasted from September, 1805, until the following spring, when Gungunhana was captured and car- ried a prisoner, with his wives and son, to Lisbon. 1895-1897.— Creation of British East Africa. See British East Africa: 1805-1897. 1896. — British protectorate over Sierra Leone; hut tax; insurrection of natives. See Sierra Leone: 1896. 1896. — On the sudden death (supposed to be from poison) of the sultan of Zanzibar, .August 25, his cousin. Said Khalid, seized the palace and proclaimed himself sultan. Zanzibar being an acknowledged protectorate of Great Britain, the usurper was summoned by the British consul to surrender. He refused, and the palace was bom- barded by war vessels in the harbor, with such effect that the palace was speedily destroyed and about 500 of its inmates killed. Khalid fled to the German consul, who protected him and had him conveyed to German territory. A new sultan. Said Hamud-bin-Mahomed, was at once pro- claimed. 1897. — The Congo troops of an expedition led by Baron Dhanis mutinied and murdered a num- ber of Belgian officers. Subsequently they were attacked in the neighborhood of lake .Albert Ed- ward Nyanza and mostly destroyed. 1897. — By a convention concluded in July be- tween Germany and France, the boundary between German possessions in Togoland and those of France in Dahomey and the Sudan was defined. 1897. — In January and February, the forces of the Royal Niger company successfully invaded the strong Fula states of Nupe and Ilorin, from which slave raiding in the territor*' under British pro- tection was carried on. Bida, the Nupe capital, was entered on January 27, after a battle in which 800 Hausa troops, led by European officers, and using heavy artillery, drove from the field an army of cavalry and foot estimated at 30,000 in num- ber. The emir of Nupe was deposed, another set up in his place, and a treaty signed which es- tablished British rule. The emir of Ilorin sub- mitted after his town had been bombarded, and bowed himself to British authority in his govern- ment. .At the <;ame time, a treaty settled the Lagos frontier. Later in the year, the stronghold at Kifti of another slave-raider, Arku, was stormed and burned TOO AFRICA, lf)TH CENTURY European Possessions AFRICA, 19T11 CENTURY 1897. — Under pressure from the British govern- ment, the sultan of Zanzibar issued a decree, on April 6, i8g7, terminating the legal status of slav- ery, with compensation to be awarded on proof of consequent loss. 1897. — By act of the Natal parliament in De- cember, i8q7, Zululand (with Amatongaland al- ready joined to it) was annexed to Natal Colony, and Dinizulu, son of the last Zulu king, was brought from captivity in St. Helena and rein- stated. 1899-1902.— Boer War. 1901. — British control over Somaliland. See British East .'\frica: iqoo-iqoi. 1904. — Anglo-French agreement concerning Egypt and Morocco. 1905. — Railroads. See Cape to Cairo railway. 1906. — Algeciras conference. 1909. — Establishment of the Union of South Africa. See Sou"th Africa, Union of. 1911. — Franco-German agreement concerning Morocco. 1911. — Accjuisition of part of French Congo. See Germany: igii: Acquisition of part of French Congo. 1911. — Italian occupation of Tripoli. See Italy: IQII. 1913. — German colonies. — Anglo-German agree- ments. See World War: Diplomatic background: 71, xii. 1918. — Campaigns in East Africa during World War. See World War: igiS: VII. East African theater: a. 1919. — Repartition of Africa in consequence of the World War. Nationalist movements in Egypt and Union of South Africa. See Egypt: igig; and South Africa, Union or: igig. 1920. — Organization of German East Africa un- der British rule. See Tanganyika territory. 1921. — British East Africa re-named Kenya ter- ritory (q. v.) Cape-to-Cairo aerial mail route es- tablished. See Aviation: 1021. Early 19th century: European possessions In Africa. — In the year 1815 "the eleven and one- half million square miles of Africa formed no part of the great world settlement after the Napoleonic wars. The European State had scarcely pene- trated anywhere into the Continent. On the whole northern coast Europe had no footing at all, for Turkey is not a part of Europe. The whole of the west coast was 'independent' except for the following minute European claims or encroach- ments: I, France possessed the Senegal coast from Cape Blanco to the Gambia, but had nowhere penetrated inland except for a short distance along the Senegal River; 2, Britain had possession of small patches of territory on the Gambia, and the Gold Coast and in Sierra Leone; 3, Portugal claimed territory stretching from what is now the southern boundary of French Congo down to Cape Frio, but she actually occupied only a few places on the coast in what is now Angola. She also possessed the Cape Verde Islands and a small extent of territory in Portuguese Guinea ; 4, Spain held Fernando Po, and Denmark and Holland a few stations on the coast. "In the whole of the rest of Africa there were only two places where the European State had set foot. In the south Britain occupied 120,000 square miles of territory in her Cape Colony, and on the east coast Portugal had an undefined claim to a strip of the coast between Lourenqo Marques and Cape Delgado. Thus in 1815 Europe's claims to African territory amounted to considerably less than 500,000 square miles. . . . But we must re- turn to the period 1815-80. The increase in the territory dominated by the European State was due entirely to the French conquest of Algeria in the north, and to the extension of the British colony in the south. There was no change upon the western and eastern coasts of Africa." — L. Woolf, Empire and commerce in Ajrica, pp. 55-Sg. Later 19th century: Partitioning of Africa among European powers. — "For centuries, col- onisation in Africa was confined to the coast. Though the Portuguese traversed the continent from Angola and Mozambique, their occupation of the interior was never effective, and even on the coast their claims were ill-defined. Africa possessed few attractions. It had been drawn into the life of Europe only because it offered har- bours on the route to India, a source of supply for the rough labour needed in tropical colonies, and a scanty trade in such commodities as palm- oil and gold-dust. During the middle years of the nineteenth century, France was active and ambi- tious in Africa. She established her power in Al- geria, and, extending her influence also along the Senegal to the source of the Niger, planned the union of these dependencies in a great West Afri- can empire. In South Africa England had strong colonies; but, with a dominion vaster than public sentiment approved, she refused to extend her dominion northwards where Dutch exiles were planting new States. In her West African settle- ments she took little interest. . . . Gambia, Sierra Leone, the Gold Coast, and Lagos, which was acquired in 1861, formed the group; from all of which, save Sierra Leone, England trusted ulti- mately to withdraw. But destiny was too strong for her. First the Danes (1850), and then the Dutch (1871), handed over their forts, and thus left her for the time the only Power established on the historic Guinea coast. As the trade in tropical commodities increased, the English de- veloped commercial interests on the Niger mouth, in the Cameroons, and in Zanzibar, which in- terests German merchants came to share. [See also British empire: Expansion: igth century: Africa.] "Meanwhile, a generation of great explorers was opening the way for the rapid occupation of Af- rica. When Livingstone died in 1873, the chief problems of African geography were near to their solution. Stanley, De Brazza, Thomson, and other bold travellers, completed the work. The courses of the Niger, the Nile, and the Congo were made known, and the commercial value of the interior regions of a neglected continent was revealed. Signs of a new period dawning followed each other quickly. The English changed their policy in South Africa; the French increased their ac- tivity in West Africa. In i87g. King Leopold of Belgium formed the Brussels International Asso- ciation for the exploration of Central Africa. This body divided itself into national committees, of which the Belgian concentrated itself on the Congo and prepared the way for the Congo State. In 1882 England commenced that fateful inter- vention in Egypt which led on to a protectorate, to the conquest of the Egyptian Sudan, and the control of the upper waters of the Nile. Most significant of all was the entrance of Germany into the colonial field. ... In 1878 the German African Society, and in 1882 the German Colonial Society, were formed. The arguments of mer- chants with substantial interests in Africa, the commercial needs of a great empire, the course of events in Africa, at last convinced Bismarck that the time had come for action. In Damara- land and N'amaqualand German missionaries had taught, and German merchants traded, for forty lOI AFRICA, lO.'.Il CliNTUKT European Possessions AFRICA, I'Jl'H CENTURY years; and, since Great Britain hesitated to under- take the responsibihties of government outside of Walfisch Bay, a German protectorate was in 18S4 proclaimed over the remainder of the coast. To- goland and the Cameroons also were immediately afterwards annexed; and Great Britain, thus antic- ipated in several quarters, now hastened to ex- tend her sovereignty over the mouths of the Niger and the Oil rivers. It was in these circumstances that in 1SS4 an international Conference assembled at Berlin to con.sider certain African questions. The main interest was concentrated on the Congo. The State which King Leopold had created re- ceived recognition, and the Congo basin was de- clared open to the trade and navigation of all nations. All the Powers concerned bound them- selves to suppress the slave trade. They declared occupation of territory to be valid only when effective, and they defined a 'sphere of influence' as an area within which some one Power possessed a priority of claim. This preliminary agreement facilitated very much the peaceful settlement of the subsequent territorial controversies. "Africa is not divided into very clearly marked geographical areas, but the problems of partition have had certain defniite centres and are capable of being grouped. West Africa, the western Sudan, and the Niger basin formed one sphere of opera- tions; the Congo Basin another; the upper Nile and the region of the great lakes a third; Africa south of the Congo and the lakes a fourth. Out- side of these there remain Morocco, the Mediter- ranean littoral, Abyssinia, Somaliland, and the surrounding islands." — Cambridge modern history, V. 12, pp. 257-25g. — See also Slavery: Negro; South Africa, Union or; Sudan. West Africa, western Sudan and Niger basin. — "In West Africa, the French, extending along the Senegal to the upper waters of the Niger, broke the power of the independent native states, once part of a great Moslem empire in Central .■\frira which barred the way, and in 1S81 estab- lished a protectorate over the left bank of the upper Niger. They occupied points on the coast between the existing settlements of the English and Portuguese, which they linked up with their acquisitions in the interior. They overthrew the kingdom of Dahomey in 1892-4, and in 1803 en- tered Timbuktu. Tlius, by their earlier and su- perior energy, they secured the upper Niger and much of the country within its great bend; while closing the door on the expansion of the English and Portuguese settlements, whose natural hin- terland this would have been. On the lower Niger the course of events was different. The English merchants established there united in 1879 to form a single company, which, after a severe struggle, defeated and bought out a rivah French institution. By Treaties with the Sultans of Sokoto and Gando (1885), it secured access to the Benuo and Lake Chad, which the Germans, operating from the Cameroons, were preparing to close. In 1886 it received a charter of incorporation as the Royal Niger Company, and untlertook the task of pene- trating and administering an immense country. A triple contest had now begun for the trade of the central Sudan. The French from the west, the English up the Niger and Benuc, the Germans from the Cameroons, all pressed towards Lake Chad, where they met, and, by a series of agree- ments between i886 and igo6, divided their spheres of influence. England left to Germany the area between the Cameroons and British East Africa, which Germany divided with Fraace, re- signing to her the territory east of the Shari and making her England's neighbour in Darfur and Bahr-el-Gazal. France (hus gained the oppor- tunity of extending her North African empire to the Nile and the Congo; but, while she linked up the French Congo with her other possessions, her advance to the Nile was frustrated by the simul- taneous approach of the English southwards from Egypt. "Thus has North-western Africa been divided up [1919]. In the northern corner lies the un- tamed empire of Morocco whose trade and sea- ports have proved a dangerous cause of dispute amongst the Powers. Then Spain holds Tiris, and the English the river Gambia, though its trade is now largely in French hands; while, between Cape Roxo and the river Cajet, Portugal retains a last foothold on the coast which her navigators first explored. Save for these two places, the French hold all the coast from Cape Blanco to the English colony of Sierra Leone, now an important commercial emporium through which much trade with the interior passes. Liberia, a Negro republic, adjoins it, while on the historic Ivory Coast the French again are established. The Gold Coast retains its ancient name, though it has added a considerable hinterland. It still yields gold with other more valuable products, but suffers from want of means of communication. In Togoland, as in the Cameroons, the Germans have made con- siderable progress. To the east lies the territory subjugaterl by the French in 1892-4, and east of that the colony of Lagos, now included in Nigeria. In iQoo, the Royal Niger Company, after con- quering the Sultan of Nupe in 1897, surrendered its political privileges to the Crown; and the vast areas which it had governed, together with Lagos and the Oil rivers, were formed into the two pro- tectorates of Northern and Southern Nigeria. Shortlived as it was, it takes a place amongst the great commercial companies which have extended and upheld imperial as well as trading interests in distant and difficult lands, in the face of severe rivalries and great financial difficulties. Envelop- ing Nigeria and the Cameroons as well as the older and smaller settlements, and stretching from the Mediterranean in the north and the Atlantic in the west to Darfur and the Congo east and south, sweeps the great dominion of the French, to whom has fallen the interior, immense in area though often of little value. In igo2, it was divided into five administrative territories, with a Governor-General resident at Dakar." — Cam- bridge modern history, v. 12. Upper Nile and region of tue great lakes. — "Between the Portuguese settlement of Mozam- bique in the south and Somaliland in the north, the Sultan of Zanzibar ruled, having control of the coast and vague claims over the interior. The commerce of his kingdom was largely in the hands of English and Indian merchants, and its administration was in 1878, and again in 1881, offered to the British Government. In the par- tition of Africa, his territories have been divided between England and Germany. Though England and France had agreed in 1862 to recognise the in- dependence of Zanzibar, German emissaries in 1884, taking advantage of the weakness of the Sultan's position in the interior, negotiated trea- ties with some of the inland tribes, and, in 1885, a German East Africa Company was formed to develop the territop.- thus acquired. About the same time a British East Africa Company was formed, and the two associations were soon in competition. An Anglo-German agreement in 1886 made the first delimitation of their respective spheres, and confined the Sultan's territory to a narrow strip of coast ... on parts of which both 102 AFRICA, 1884-1899 European Agreements AFRICA, 1884-1899 Powers speedily obtained leases, lasting for two years (1888-9)." The result was the supersession of the company by the Imperial German Gov- ernment and the purchase from the sultan of the leased territory (1890). "The claims which the Germans had acquired on various parts of the coast and in the interior placed them in a posi- tion to circumvent the English on the north and west, and to gain access to the upper Nile. ' By an important agreement in iSgo, which settled many difficulties, their sphere was more expressly delimited. They surrendered their claims on the coast between VVitu and the river Jub. The northern boundary of their territory was carried from the Victoria Nyanza to the Congo State, excluding them from the upper Nile ; and a Hne was drawn on the south from Lake Nyasa to Lake Tanganyika dividing their possessions from British Central Africa. The British Government declared a protectorate over the islands of Pemba and Zanzibar, and the dominions of the Sultan were thus finally partitioned. While Germany thus withdrew from the contest for the upper Nile, France and the Congo State remained as rivals of Great Britain. In 1890, the British East Africa Company, which had received a charter in 1888, asserted its authority in Uganda — a country di- vided at the time by fierce feuds of a mixed re- ligious and political character. The resources of the Company proved unequal to the task, and two years later it withdrew; but its action resulted in the proclamation of a British protectorate in 1894. In the following year, the Company, which had remained in control of the coast, sold its assets to the State, and the British East Africa Protectorate was formed. To this Company the British owe their position in East Africa, for, though it never prospered, it carried British in- fluence into the interior, and, when it failed, stronger hands took up its work. England thus secured her position on the upper Nile, and, by leasing the Lado enclave to King Leopold, en- abled him also to attain an end which he had sought since 1SS4. But the arrangement which had been made by the two Powers in 1S94 — that King Leopold should have the Bahr-el-Gazal basin and Great Britain a strip of territory be- tween the Albert Nyanza and Tanganyika, link- ing up her East and Central African possessions — was rescinded, in consequence of the opposition of France and Germany. The attempt of the French to reach the Nile at Fashoda was foiled by the English conquest of the Sudan (1898). Experience has shown that East Africa is of more commercial value than Uganda, and, owing to its altitude, capable in part of European settlement. In 189S, the construction of a railway was begun from Mombasa to the Victoria Nyanza, which it reached in 1902. The possession of Uganda is of great political importance, since it both secures the command of the upper Nile and offers to the spread of Islamic movements the barrier of a Christian native State." — Cambridge modern his- tory, V. 12. Congo basin. — "In the Congo basin, an inter- national . . . undertaking issued in the formation of an independent State, which, in the process of time, has become a Belgian dependency. The labours of English and American explorers pre- pared the way for its foundation ; but the State itself was organised by King Leopold, who?e posi- tion as its sovereign was recognised by the Berlin Conference and the Great Powers. By successful war and more successful diplomacy, he enlarged its territories and raised its status. . . . The Congo State was in 1908 transferred to Belgium, and its rulers have thus become responsible to the public opinion of a nation." — Cambridge modern history, V. 12. Southern Africa. — "Africa south of the Congo State and the great lakes has been divided be- tween the Portuguese operating from their his- toric settlements, the English advancing north- wards from Cape Colony, and the Germans. The ambition which the Portuguese cnerished to unite Angola and Mozambique in a transcontinental do- minion was frustrated by the activity of the Eng- lish in Central Africa. Since 1878, English mis- sionaries and traders had established interests in the region between Lakes Nyassa, Tanganyika, and Bangweolo. This region the Portuguese en- deavored to secure, and an important expedition was dispatched under Major Serpa Pinto to extend their claims in the Zambesi basin (1889). In 1S91, an Anglo-Portuguese agreement divided the disputed territory. Mashonaland was secured to the British South Africa Company, and a British protectorate was formed in Central Africa, a large part of which was in 1894 added to the Com- pany's sphere of operations. The share which Portugal has thus obtained in the partition of Africa, though not commensurate with her his- torical place in its occupation, has been more than commensurate with her capacity to develop its resources. . . . The Anglo-German agreements of 1885 and 1890, and a German-Portuguese agree- ment in 1 886, fixed its boundaries, bringing it at one point to the Zambesi. But the colony has proved expensive and disappointing. Namaqualand is dry and barren, though Damaraland is capable of development and, possibly, of European settle- ment. In 1904 a serious revolt of the Hottentots and Hereros arrested their progress, and has only recently been suppressed." — Cambridge modern his- tory, V. 12. Eastern area. — "In the eastern horn of Africa Italy marked out for herself a sphere of expan- sion. Occupying first the bay of Assab in 1870, she secured her hold in 18S2, and extended her influence along the Red Sea coast to Obok, where the French had established themselves in 1862. The dependency of Eretrea thus created proved expensive; but the Italians intended to use it as a base from which to penetrate Abyssinia. That mountain kingdom lay aloof and independent. In 1868 it had been involved in war with England. When the proud warrior king, Theodore, offended by the action of the British Government, threw the British consul and other European residents into prison, Abyssinia was invaded and Magdala stormed; but no lasting intervention followed. Italy was less happy. Near Adowah, in 1896, her forces suffered a disastrous defeat and her inten- tion was foiled. Meanwhile, on the other side of the horn she established a protectorate over a large part of Somaliland, where she found a rival in Great Britain, with whom the country was divided. The prosperity of British Somali- land was disturbed by a destructive war, which broke out in zqoi"— Cambridge modern history, I, 12. — For European occupation of the Mediter- ranean area, see Morocco; Algeria; Tunis; Libya; Egypt. 1884-1899. — Agreements among European powers on the partitioning of the interior. — "The partition of .\irica may be said to date from the Beriin Conference of 1884-85. Prior to that Conference the question of inland boundaries was scarcely considered. . . . The founding of the Congo Independent State was probably the most important result of the Conference. . . . Two months after the Conference had concluded its 103 AFRICA, 1884-1899 European Agreements AFRICA, 1884-1899 labours, Great Britain and Germany had a serious dispute in regard to their respective spheres of in- fluence on the Gulf of Guinea. . . . The com- promise . . . arrived at placed the Mission Sta- tion of Victoria within the German sphere of in- fluence." The frontier between the two spheres of ijifluence on the Bight of Biafra was subse- quently defined by a line drawn, in iS86, from the coast to Yola, on the Benue. The Royal Niger Company, constituted by a royal charter, "was given administrative powers over territories cov- ered by its treaties. The regions thereby placed under British protection . . . apart from the Oil Rivers District, which is directly administered by the Crown, embrace the coastal lands between Lagos and the northern frontier of Camarons, the Lower Niger (including territories of Sokoto, Gandu and Borgo), and the Benue from Yola to its confluence." By a protocol signed December 24, 1S85, Germany and France "defined their re- spective spheres of influence and action on the Bight of Biafra, and also on the Slave Coast and in Senegambia." This "fi.xed the inland exten- sion of the German sphere of influence (Camarons) at is° E. longitude, Greenwich. ... At present it allows the French Congo territories to expand along the western bank of the M'bangi . . . pro- vided no other tributary of the M'bangi-Congo is found to the west, in which case, according to the Berlin Treaty of 1884-85, the conventional basin of the Congo would gain an extension." On May 12, 1880, France and Portugal signed a convention by which France "secured the ex- clusive control of both banks of the Casaraanza (in Senegambia), and the Portuguese frontier in the south was advanced approximately to the southern limit of the basin of the Casini. On the Congo, Portugal retained the Massabi district, to which France had laid claim, but both banks of the Loango were left to France." In 1884 three representatives of the Society for German Coloni- zation — Dr. Peters, Dr. Jiihlke, and Count Pfeil — quietly concluded treaties with the chiefs of Use- guha, Ukami, Nguru, and Usagara, by which those territories were conveyed to the society in ques- tion. "Dr. Peters . . . armed with his treaties, returned to Berlin in February, 1885. On the 27th February, the day following the signature of the General Act of the Berlin Conference [See Berlin .^ct], an Imperial Schutzbrief, or Charter of Protection, secured to the Society for German Colonization the territories . . . acquired for them through Dr. Peters' treaties: in other words, a German Protectorate was proclaimed. When it became known that Germany had seized upon the Zanzibar mainland, the indignation in colonial circles knew no bounds. . . . Prior to 1S84, the continental lands facinc Zanzibar were almost ex- clusively under British influence. The principal traders were British subjects, and the Sultan's Gov- ernment was administered under the advice of the British Resident. The entire region between the Coast and the Lakes was regarded as being under the nominal suzerainty of the Sultan. . . . Still, Great Britain had no territorial claims on the dominions of the Sultan." The sultan formally protested and Great Britain championed his cause; but to no effect. In the end the sultan of Zan- zibar yielded the German protectorate over the four inland provinces and over Witu, and the British and German Governments arranged ques- tions between them, provisionally, by the .■\nglo- German Convention of 1886, which was after- wards superseded by the more definite Convention of July 1800, which will be spoken of below. In April 1887, the rights of the Society for Ger- man Colonization were transferred to the Ger- man East Africa Association, with Dr. Peters at its head. The British East Africa Company took over concessions that had been granted by the sultan of Zanzibar to Sir WiUiam Mackinnon, and received a royal charter in September 1888. In South-west .Africa, "an enterprising Bremen merchant, Herr Liideritz, and subsequently the German Consul-General, Dr. Nachtigal, concluded a series of political and commercial treaties with native chiefs, whereby a claim was instituted over Angra Pequeiia, and over vast districts in the In- terior between the Orange River and Cape Frio. ' ... It was useless for the Cape colonists to pro- test. On the 13th October 1884 Germany for- mally notified to the Powers her Protectorate over South-VVest Africa. ... On 3rd August 1885 the German Colonial Company for South-West Africa was founded, and . . . received the Imperial sanc- tion for its incorporation. But in August 1886 a new Association was formed — the German West- Africa Company — and the administration of its territories was placed under an Imperial Commis- sioner. . . . The intrusion of Germany into South- west Africa acted as a check upon, no less than a spur to, the extension of British influence north- wards to the Zambezi. Another obstacle to this extension arose from the Boer insurrection." The Transvaal, with increased independence had adopted the title of South African Republic. "Zulu-land, having lost its independence, was par- titioned; a third of its territories, over which a republic had been proclaimed, was absorbed (Oc- tober 1SS7) by the Transvaal; the remainder was added (14th May 1887) to the British possessions Amatonga-land was in 1888 also taken under British protection. By a convention with the South African republic, Britain acquired in 1884 the Crown colony of Bechuana-land; and in the early part of 1885 a British Protectorate was pro- claimed over the remaining portion of Bechuana- land." Furthermore, "a British Protectorate was instituted [1885] over the country bounded by the Zambezi in the north, the British possessions in the south, 'the Portuguese province of Sofala' in the east, and the 20th degree of east longitude in the west. It was at this juncture that Mr. Cecil Rhodes came forward, and, having obtained cer- tain concessions from Lobengula, founded the British South Africa Company. ... On the 2Qth October i8Sg, the British South Africa Company was granted a royal charter. It was declared in this charter that 'the principal field of the opera- tions of the British South African Company shall be the region of South Africa lying immediately to the north of British Bechuanaland, and to the north and west of the South African Republic, and to the west Of the Portuguese dominions.' " No northern limit was given, and the other bound- aries were vaguely defined. The position of Swaziland was definitely settled in 1800 by an arrangement between Great Britain and the South African repubUc, which provides for the continued independence of Swaziland and a joint control over the white settlers. .\ British Protectorate was proclaimed over Nyasa-land and the Shire High- lands in i88g-QO. To return now to the proceed- ings of other Powers in Africa: "Italy took formal possession, in July 1882, of the bay and territory of Assab. The Italian coast-line on the Red Sea was extended from Ras Kasar (18° 2' N. Lat.) to the southern boundary of Raheita, towards Obok. During i8Sq, shortly after the death of King Johannes, Keren and Asmara were occupied by Italian troops. Menelik of Shoa, who suc- ceeded to the throne of Abyssinia after subjugat- 104 AFRICA, 1884-1899 European Agreements AFRICA, 1884-1899 ing all the Abyssinian provinces, except Tigre, dis- patclied an embassy to King Humbert, the result of which was that the new Negus acknowledged (2gth September, 1889) the Protectorate of Italy over Abyssinia, and its sovereignty over the ter- ritories of Massawa, Keren and Asmara." By the protocols of March 24 and April 15, i8gi, Italy and Great Britain define their respective spheres of influence in East Africa. "But since then Italy has practically withdrawn from her position. She has absolutely no hold over Abyssinia. . . . Italy has also succeeded in establishing herself on the Somal Coast." By treaties concluded in iS8g, "the coastal lands between Cape Warsheikh (about 2° 30' N. lat.), and Cape Bedwin (8 3' N. lat.) — a distance of 450 miles — were placed under Itahan protection. Italy subsequently extended (1890) her Protectorate over the Somal Coast to the Jub river. . . . The British Protectorate on the Somal Coast facing Aden, now extends from the Italian frontier at Ras Hafiin to Ras Jibute (43° 15' E. long.). . . . The activity of France in her Sene- gambian province, . . . during the last hundred years . . . has finally resulted in a considerable expansion of her territory. . . . The French have established a claim over the country intervening between our Gold Coast Colony and Liberia. A more precise delimitation of the frontier between Sierra Leone and Liberia resulted from the treaties signed at Monrovia on the nth November 1887. In 1888 Portugal withdrew all rights over Da- home. . . . Recently, a French sphere of in- fluence has been instituted over the whole of the Saharan regions between Algeria and Senegambia. . . . Declarations were exchanged (sth August 1890) [between France and Great Britain! with the following results: France became a consenting party to the Anglo-German Convention of ist July i8qo. (2) Great Britain recognised a French sphere of influence over Madagascar. . . . And (3) Great Britain recognised the sphere of in- fluence of France to the south of her Mediter- ranean possessions, up to a line from Say on the Niger to Barrua on Lake Tsad, drawn in such a manner as to comprise in the sphere of action of the British Niger Company all that fairly be- longs to the kingdom of Sokoto." The Anglo- German convention of July, 1890, already referred to, established by its main provisions the following definitions of territory: "(i.) The Anglo-German frontier in East Africa, which, by the Convention of 1886, ended at a point on the eastern shore of the Victoria Nyanza was continued on the same latitude across the lake to the confines of the Congo Independent State ; but, on the western side of the lake, this frontier was, if necessary, to be deflected to the south, in order to include Mount M'fumbiro within the British sphere. . . . Treaties in that district were made on behalf of the British East Africa Company by Mr. Stanley, on his return (May i88q) from the relief of Emin Pasha. . . . (2.) The southern boundary of the German sphere of influence in East Africa was recognised as that originally drawn to a point on the eastern shore of Lake Nyassa, whence it was continued by the eastern, northern, and western shores of the lake to the northern bank of the mouth of the River Songwe. From this point the Anglo-German frontier was continued to Lake Tanganika, in such a manner as to leave the Stevenson Road within the British sphere. (3.) The Northern frontier of British East Africa was defined by the Jub River and the conterminous boundary of the Italian sphere of influence in Galla-land and Abyssinia up to the confines of Egypt; in the west, by the Congo State and the Congo-Nile watershed. (4.) Germany withdrew, in favor of Britain, her Protectorate over Vitu and her claims to all territories on the mainland to the north of the River Tana, as also over the islands of Patta and Manda. (5.) In South-West Africa, the Anglo-German frontier, originally fixed up to 22 south latitude, was confirmed; but from this point the boundary-line was drawn in such a manner eastward and northward as to give Ger- many free access to the Zambezi by the Chobe River. (6.) The Anglo-German frontier between Togo and Gold Coast Colony was fixed, and that between the Camarons and the British Niger Ter- ritories was provisionally adjusted. (7.) The Free- trade zone, defined by the Act of Berlin (1885) was recognised as applicable to the present ar- rangement between Britain and Germany. (8.) A British Protectorate was recognised over the do- minions of the Sultan of Zanzibar within the British coastal zone and over the islands of Zan- zibar and Pemba. Britain, however, undertook to use her influence to secure (what have since been acquired) corresponding advantages for Ger- many within the German coastal zone and over the island of Mafia. Finally (9.), the island of Heligoland, in the North Sea, was ceded by Britain to Germany." By a treaty concluded in June, 1891, between Great Britain and Portugal, "Great Britain acquired a broad central sphere of in- fluence for the expansion of her possessions In South Africa northward to and beyond the Zam- bezi, along a path which provides for the unin- terrupted passage of British goods and British enterprise, up to the confines of the Congo Inde- pendent State and German East Africa. . . . Por- tugal, on the East Coast secured the Lower Zam- bezi from Zumbo, and the Lower Shire from the Ruo Confluence, the entire Hinterland of Mosam- bique up to Lake Nyasa and the Hinterland of Sofala to the confines of the South African Re- public and the Matabele kingdom. On the West Coast, Portugal received the entire Hinterland be- hind her provinces in Lower Guinea, up to the confines of the Congo Independent State, and the upper course of the Zambezi. ... On May 25th 1891 a Convention was signed at Lisbon, which has put an end to the dispute between Portugal and the Congo Independent State as to the pos- session of Lunda. Roughly speaking, the coun- try was equally divided between the disputants. . . . Lord Salisbury, in his negotiations with Ger- many and Portugal, very wisely upheld the prin- ciple of free-trade which was laid down by the Act of Berlin, 1885, in regard to the free transit of goods through territories in which two or more powers are indirectly interested. Thus, by the Anglo-German compact, the contracting powers reserved for their respective subjects a 'right of way,' so to speak, along the main channels or routes of communication. Through the applica- tion of the same principle in the recent Anglo- Portuguese Convention, Portugal obtains not only a 'right of way' across the British Zambesi zone, but also the privilege of constructing railways and telegraphs. She thereby secures free and unin- terrupted connection between her possessions on the East Coast and those on the West Coast. A similar concession is made to Britain in the Zam- besi basin, within the Portuguese sphere. Finally, the Zambesi itself has been declared free to the flags of all nations. Britain has stipulated for the right of preemption in the event of Por- tugal wishing to dispose of territories south of the Zambesi."— A. S. White, Development of Africa, 2d. e(f.— See also Delagoa bay arbitra- tion. 105 AFRICA, 1890-1906 Distribution of European Sovereignty AFRICA, 1914 1890-1906. — Agreements among European powers on the regulation of the slave trade and the liquor traffic. — On July 2, 1S90, a convention relative to the .African slave trade was framed at a conference of the representatives of European, .\merican, African, and .\siatic states, at Brussels. The treaty, known as the General .\ct of Brussels, was signed July 2, iSgo, but did not come into force until .^pril 2, 1804. The text of it may be found in (U. S.) House Doc. No. 2-0, sbth Con- gress, 3d Sess. It put an end to the slave trade (See Slavery: 1860-1803) and either forbade en- tirely or greatly restricted traffic in arms or liquors in specified regions. Without interfering with European settlements in the North and South, the .■\ct was designed to protect the native races. In June, iSqo, representatives of the governments of Great Britain, Germany, Belgium, Spain, the Congo State, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Por- tugal, Russia, Sweden and Norway, and Turkey, assembled at Brussels, with due authorization, and there concluded an international convention resf)ecting the liquor traffic in Africa. Subse- quently the governments of Austria-Hungary, the United States of .\merica, Liberia and Persia, gave their adhesion to the convention, and ratifications were deposited at Brussels in June, 1900. The convention was, in a measure, supplemental to the General Act of Brussels. It provided; "Article I. From the coming into force of the present Convention, the import duty on spirituous liquors, as that duty is regulated by the General Act of Brussels, shall be raised throughout the zone where there does not exist the system of total prohibition provided by Article XCI. of the said General Act, to the rate of 70 fr. the hectolitre at 50 degrees centigrade, for a period of six years. It may, ex- ceptionally, be at the rate of 60 fr. only the hectolitre at 50 degrees centigrade in the Colony of Togo and in that of Dahomey. The import duty shall be augmented proportionally for each degree above 50 degrees centigrade ; it may be diminished proportionally for each degree below 50 degrees centigrade. .\t the end of the above- mentioned period of six years, the import duty shall be submitted to revision, taking as a basis the results produced by the preceding rate. The Powers retain the right of maintaining and increas- ing the duty beyond the minimum fixed by the present Article in the regions where they now possess that right. .Article II. In accordance with .Article XCIII. of the General .Kat of Brussels, distilled drinks made in the regions mentioned in Article XCII. of the said General .\ct. and intended for consumption, shall pay an excise duty. This excise duty, the collection of which the Powers undertake to insure as far as possible, shall not be lower than the minimum import duty fixed by Article I. of the present Convention. Article III. It is understood that the Powers who signed the General Act of Brussels, or who have acceded to it, and who are not represented at the present Conference, preserve the right of acceding to the present Convention." — Great Britain, Parliamen- tarv publications {Papers by command: Treaty series, no. 13, iqoo). — A later conference at Brus- sels in iqo6 again increased the duties on liquors, and as we shall see below, the World War settle- ments secured still greater protection for the African native. 1890-1914. — Extension of e.^isting European possessions. — "The period 1800-1014 again shows a change in the nature of Europe's penetration into Africa. On the east and west coasts the claims of po,sterify had been fully pegged out by the different States. The increase in territory ap- propriated was therefore caused by extension of existing possessions on the coast into the hinter- lands. In fact in these regions the States were occupied not in acquiring new possessions, but in rounding off their previous conquests, and in con- verting spheres of interest into full colonial do- minion. .\nd, since in tropical Africa there was nothing left for Europe to do but attempt to di- gest what she had swallowed, those who still had cravings for 'expansion' and for economic imperi- alism had to turn once more to the only remain- ing places where it was possible to expand, the north and the south. Consequently the history of our last period, 1890-1014, reverts to that of our first, 1S15-80, the penetration of France into the north by the acquisition of Tunis and Morocco, and the penetration of the south by Britain through the conquest or absorption of Rhodesia, the Transvaal, and the Orange Free State." — L. Woolf, Empire and commerce in Africa (1915), pp. 58-50. 1914. — Distribution of European sovereignty in Africa. — "The following European Powers pos- sessed sovereign rights in .Africa before the war: — Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, Portugal, Italy, and Spain. In addition, and as the result of the Boer War, the various British Colonies in South Africa had been welded together and formed, with the newly-annexed Boer Republics, a self-governing British Dominion, a State in .\frica controlled by, and in part composed of, men of European blood, but .\frican-born, known as The Union of South Africa, and stretching from Capetown to the Zambesi. The only part of Africa enjoying its own native government was .\byssinia. For although a certain area on the Kru Coast, together with its hinterland, known as Liberia, supposedly constitutes a 'government' . . . and is recognised as an Independent State, its 'government' consists of a few thousand de- scendants of repatriated .American blacks, who en- joy no authority outside the confines of their set- tlements on the coast line. Egypt was virtually, although not then nominally, a British dependency. I give below the African dependencies of the various European government? with their area and population, ... as they existed at the outbreak of the war. BRITISH AFRICA {.\: Controlled by the Colonial Office) .Area in Square Miles Population Nigeria 336,080 1 7,100,000 British East .Africa 246,822 4,038,000 Uganda 121,437 2,803,494 Sierra Leone 31.000 1,400,000 Nyasaland 39,801 i ,000,000 Gold Coast 24.33s 853,766 .Ashanti 24,800 287,814 Northern Territories .... 31.100 361,806 Basutoland 11.716 405.Q1.? Somaliland 68,000 310,000 Gambia 4.S00 146,100 Bechuanaland 275,000 125,35° Swaziland 6.536 9P.«59 (B: Controlled by the British South Africa Company) .Area in Square Miles Population Rhodesia 4.^8.575 i.772,S" 106 AFRICA, IQH (C: Set j -governing Dominion) Distribution of European Sovereignty AFRICA, 1914 Area in Square Miles Population The Union of South Africa comprising the prov- inces of the Cape, Natal, Transvaal, and Oranse Free State 473, loo 5.073.394 To this list must now be added as definiti'ly British: — Area in Square Miles Population Egypt 400,000 11,287,300 The Sudan 984,520 3,000,000 "The total of British Africa covers, therefore (exclusive of German African territory conquered since the war) an area of 3,517,322 square miles with an estimated population of 51,055,407. Of this total population about I'/j millions are Euro- [jeans or half-breeds; and of the i^-j millions, more than i'^ millions reside in the territories of riie South African Union. This leaves 250,000 Europeans for the remainder of the gigantic area affected, and Egypt accounts for more than half of these. It will be well to bear this fact care- fully in mind when, later on, we pass to a con- sideration of the African problem in its funda- mental aspects. FKENCII AFRICA -Area in Square Miles Population Ateeria 343.500 S.563,828 Tunis 50,000 1,780,527 West Africa 1,478,000 10,465,072 French Congo 669,280 9,000,000 Saharan region 1,544,000 800,000 Somali Coast 5. 790 208,000 Madagascar 228,000 3,104,881 Morocco 219,000 5,000,000 "The total of French Africa embracefl, there- fore, before the war an area of 4,537,570 square miles with an estimated population of 35,922,308. -'Mgeria is looked upon as an extension of France. The total European population — chiefly French, AFRICA IN 1914 107 AFRICA, 1914 Summary of Eufopcan Occupation AFRICA, 1914 Italian and Spanish — in igii was 752,043. The census of igii showed a European and mixed European population in Tunis of 126,265, of whom 46,044 were French (exclusive of the army of occupation) ; in Madagascar 12,000, of whom some 10,000 were French; in West Africa 7,104, of whom 6,377 were French. Before the war there were a considerable number of French troops and French colored troops in Morocco, and a few hundred French and other European residents. In 1Q14 the European population of French Af- rica, apart from the white troops in Algeria, Morocco, and Tunis, was slightly in excess of a million. GERMAN AFRICA "When the war broke out Germany possessed three considerable dependencies in .Africa, and one small dependency. These were: Area in Square Miles Population Karaerun (the Came- roons) 281,950 3,720,000 German East .Africa 384,000 7,651,106 German South-Wtst Af- rica 322'.450 94,386 Togo 33,700 1,031,078 ".\ total of 1,022,100 square miles with a popu- lation of 12,497,470. 'The European population, mostly German, numbered under 20,000. BELGIAN AFRICA "In October, 1008, Belgium annexed the Congo Free State founded, under Treaty stipulations, by King Leopold 11 in 1S84-5, and thereby became an .\frican Power. The area of the Belgian Congo is just under one million square miles with a native population enormously reduced from the Stanleyan period. In igoS the British Consular staff, basing its calculations on the taxable returns, estimated the population at some eight millions. There were 4,000 Europeans in the territory, a little over one- half of this number being Belgians. PORTUGUESE AFRICA Area in Square Miles Population Angola (and Kabinda)... 480,000 5,000.000 Portuguese East .Africa... 300.000 3,200,000 Portuguese Guinea 13.Q40 820,000 The Cocoa Islands (San Thome and Principe).. 442 45,ooo ITALIAN AFRICA Area in Square Miles Population Tripoli 406,000 523,176 Italian Somaliland 130,430 400,000 Eritrea 45,800 450,000 SPANISH AFRICA -Area in Square Miles Population Rio de Oro 73,000 12.000 Spanish Guinea 12,000 200,000 Various enclaves north of the Congo and the Is- land of Fernando Po.. 814 23,844 A narrow strip of territory on the Mediterranen coastline of Morocco and a small 'Enclave' on the .Atlantic coast-line of Morocco." — E. D. Morel, Africa and the peace of Europe, pp. 11-15. Summary of European occupation. — "Such, in brief outline, is the process by which Africa has been conquered and partitioned. Africa has been an eas>- prey because of its divisions, its military weakness, and its low civilisations. Though no one of the incoming Powers has established its position without a struggle, only in Morocco and Abyssinia has the native opposition proved really formidable. More serious difficulties have been encountered in the settlement of rival claims. England and Portugal came to the brink of war over Central Africa in 1891, as did England and France over the Sudan in 1898, and France and Germany over Morocco in 1904. The wide field of enterprise which has given scope to the ambi- tions of every colonising Power, a spirit of reason- ableness, and the definite principles previously agreed upon for the decision of doubtful questions, have made it possible hitherto to reach a peace- ful settlement of all disputes. The political di- visions have not been formed according to geo- graphical divisions — no one of the great river basins belongs exclusively to a single Power — but exhibit a strange diversity, being, in each sphere, a resultant of the forces which historic position and, later, energy and foresight, gave to the competing Powers. England owes much to the happy possession of points of access to the interior from south and north, much also to the energy of private persons acting singly or through Compa- nies, and to the far-reaching conceptions of a few great leaders ; as usual, she owes least of any Power to the direct intervention of Government France, too, has expanded her rule from historic settlements, and owes her great dominion to the imagination which outlined, and the steadfastness which pursued, a vast ambition. The pertinacity with which the Germans discovered weak points in existing claims, the swiftness of their action, their unyielding diplomacy, . . . enabled them, while starting without advantages, to secure ex- tensive possessions. [See also Germany; 1906- 1907.] Belgium owes her share to the activity of her late sovereign, who by benevolent profession rescued a mighty domain from the international scramble to transform it into an estate for private gain. The Portuguese hold, much diminished, the heritage bequeathed them from a distant past. . . . The work of conquest and poUtical organiza- tion is too recent for us to estimate its effects on the peoples of .Africa, and that of economic organi- zation is but beginning. One general end the Pow- ers have had in view — the suppression of the slave trade at its sources — now practically achieved after a century of effort. Domestic slavery — an ancient African institution — is a different problem, but it has been discouraged in lands under direct British government. Tribal life continues and is deliberately preserved. The transformation of the native economy has not been attempted. Whether desirable or not, it is beyond the strength of any Government yet established in tropical Africa. Economic development in most cases proceeds but slowly. Governments are poor, for their subject? are poor; and the problem of adapting taxation to the organization of primitive peoples, though varying in difficulty, has nowhere been found easy. The immense task of associating the native in the development of the country on European lines requires so considerable a change in his ideas and life that it may take a long time to carry out, save where it is attempted by methods of 108 AFRICA, 1914-1920 Obstacles: Climate AFRICA, 1914-1920 compulsion which public opinion more and more decisively condemns. Yet, without the aid of the native, the value of these tropical regions to their European conquerors is much diminished. In Europe, the occupation of Africa has increased wealth and trade, and cheapened some of the comforts of life ; what it will mean for Africa can- not yet be judged." — E. A. Bcnians, European colonies {Cambridge modern history, pp. 057-666). 1914-1920. — Obstacles to European occupa- tion. — There are many obstacles to the white race from Europe overrunning and colonizing the conti- nent of Africa as it has overrun and colonized the two .'\mcricas and Australasia. One is the insalu- brity of the well-watered regions and the unin- habitability of the desert tracts, that is, the cli- matic conditions. Another is the opposition of strong indigenous races influenced by successful Moslem occupation and proselytizing. A third ob- stacle is the lack of adequate railway communica- tion, although, as we shall see, efforts have been made to build many new lines. Another obstacle is the labor problem, and still another is a body of adverse public opinion at home, based largely on the fact that many of the colonies are not self-supporting, but a source of expense. (i) Climatic conditions and topographical FEATURES. — "Deserts, to be made habitable and cul- tivable, only need irrigation, and apparently there is a subterranean water supply underlying most African deserts which can be tapped by artesian wells. The extreme unhealthiness of the well- watered parts of Africa is due not so much to climate as to the presence of malaria in the sys- tems of the Negro inhabitants. This malaria is conveyed from the black man to the white man by certain gnats of the genus .Anopheles — possibly by other agencies. But the draining of marshes and the sterilisation of pools, together with other measures, may gradually bring about the extinc- tion of the mosquito ; while, on the other hand, it seems as though the drug (Cassia Beareana) ob- tained from the roots of a cassia bush may act as a complete cure for malarial fever. . . . "For practical purposes the only areas south of the Sahara Desert which at the present time are favourable to white colonisation arc the fol- lowing. In West Africa there can be no while colonisation under existing conditions; the white man can only remain there for a portion of his working life as an educator and administrator. ... In North-East Africa, .^byssinia and Eritrea will suggest themselves as white man's countries — presenting, that is to say, some of the conditions favourable to European colonisation. The actual coast of Eritrea is extremely hot, almost the hot- test country in the world, but it is not necessarily very unhealthy The heat, however, apart from the existence of a fairly abundant native popula- tion, almost precludes the idea of a European set- tlement. But on the mountains of the hinterland which are still within Italian territory there are said to be a few small areas suited at any rate to settlement by Italians, who, by-the-by, seem to be getting on very well with the natives in that part of Africa. But a European colonisation of Abyssinia, possible as it might be climatically, is out of the question in view of the relatively abun- dant and warlike population indigenous to the Ethiopian Empire. . . . "Then comes Central Africa, which may be taken to range from the northern limits of the Congo basin and the Great Lakes on the north to the Cunene River and the Zambesi on the south. British East Africa and Uganda offer probably the largest continuous area of white man's countn,' in the central section of the continent. The Ankole country in the southwest of the Uganda Protectorate and the highlands north of Tangan- yika, together with the slopes of the Ruwenzori range, offer small tracts of land thoroughly suited to occupation by a white race so far as climate and fertility are concerned; but these countries have already been occupied, to a great extent, by some of the earliest forerunners of the Caucasian (the Bahima), as well as by sturdy Negro tribes who have become inured to the cold. To the northeast of the Victoria Nyanza, however, there is an area which has as its outposts the southwest coast of Lake Rudolf, the great mountains of Debasien and Elgon, and the snow-clad extinct volcanoes of Kenia and Kilimanjaro. This land of plateaux and rift valleys is not far short of 70,000 square miles in extent, and so far as climate and other physical conditions are concerned is as well suited for occupation by British settlers as Queensland or New South Wales. But nearly 50,000 square miles of this East African territory is more or less in the occupation of sturdy Negro or Negroid races whom it would be neither just nor easy to expel. ... "The only portion of German East Africa which is at all suited to European settlement lies along the edge of the Nyasa-Tanganyika Plateau. Here is a district of a little more than a thousand square miles which is not only elevated and healthy, but very sparsely populated by Negroes. A lew patches in the Katanga district and the extreme southern part of the Congo Free State offer simi- lar conditions. "In British Central Africa we have perhaps 6,000 square miles of elevated, sparsely populated, fer- tile country to the northwest of Lake Nyasa and along the road to Tanganyika. There is also land of this description in the North-East Rhodesian province of British Central Africa, in Manikaland, and along the water-parting between the Congo and the Zambesi systems. Then in the southern- most prolongation of British Central .\lnc3. are the celebrated Shire Highlands, which, together with a few outlying mountain districts to the southwest of Lake Nyasa, may offer a total area of about 5,000 square miles suitable to European colonisation. A small portiorf of the Mozambique province, in the interior of the .\ngoche coast, might answer to the same description. Then again, far away to the west, under the same lati- tudes, we have, at the back of Mossamedes and Benguela, other patches of white man's country in the mountains of Bailundo and Sheila. "In South Africa, beyond the latitudes of the Zambesi, we come to lands which are increasingly suited to the white man's occupation the further we proceed south. Nearly all German South- west Africa is arid desert, but inland there arc plateaux and mountains which sometimes exceed 8,000 feet in altitude, and which have a sufficient rainfall to make European agriculture possible. . . . About two-thirds of the Transvaal, a third of Rhodesia, a small portion of southern Bechuana- land, two-thirds of the Orange River Colony, four- fifths of Cape Colony, and a third of Natal sum up the areas attributed to the white man in South Africa. The remainder of this part of the con- tinent must be considered mainly as a reserve for the black man, and to a much smaller degree (in South-East Africa) as a field for Asiatic colo- nisation, preferentially on the part of British In- dians. "Counting the white-skinned Berbers and Arabs of North Africa, and the more or less pure- blooded, light-skinned Egyptians, as white men. 109 AFRICA, 1914-1920 Obstacles: Moslem Occupation AFRICA, 1914-1920 and the land tlicy occupy as part of the white man's share of the Dark Continent, we may then by a rough calculation arrive (by adding to white North Africa the other areas enumerated in the rest of the continent) at the following estimate: that about 070,000 square miles of the whole Af- rican continent may be attributed to the while man as his legitimate share. If, however, we are merely to consider the territory that lies open to European colonisation, then we must considerably reduce our North African estimate." — H. H. John- ston, White man's place in Africa (Nineteenth Century, June, 1904). "What is Europe going to do with Africa? It seems to me there are three courses to be pursued, corresponding with the three classes of territory into which Africa falls when considered geographi- cally. There is, to begin with, that much restricted . . . area, lying outside the tropics (or in very rare cases, at great altitudes inside the tropics), where the climate is healthy and Europeans can not only support existence under much the same conditions as in their own lands and freely rear children to form in time a native European race, but where at the same time there- is no dense native popula- tion to dispute by force or by an appeal to com- mon .fairness the possession of the soil. Such lands as these are of relatively small extent com- pared to the mass of Africa. They are confined to the districts south of the Zambezi (with the exception of the neighborhood of the Zambezi and the eastern coast-belt) ; a few square miles on the mountain plateaux of North and South Nyasa- land; the northern half of Tunisia, a few dis- tricts of North-east and North-west Algeria and the Cyrenaica (northern projection of Barka) ; perhaps also the northernmost portion of Morocco. The second category consists of countries like much of Morocco, .Mgeria, Tunis, and Tripoli; Barka, Egypt, .\byssinia and parts of Somaliland; where climatic conditions and soil are not wholly opposed to the healthful settlement of Europeans, but where the competition or numerical strength or martial spirit of the natives already in posses- sion are factors opposed to the substitution of a large European population for the present own- ers of the soil. The third category consists of all that is left of .\frisa, mainly tropical, where the climatic conditions make it impossible for Euro- peans to cultivate the soil with their own hands, to settle for many years, or to bring up healthy families. Countries lying under the first category I should characterize as being suitable for Euro- pean colonies, a conclusion somewhat belated, since they have nearly all become such. The second description of territory I should qualify as 'tribu- tary states,' countries where good and settled government cannot be maintained by the natives without the control of a European power, the European power retaining in return for the ex- pense and trouble of such control the gratification of performing a good and interesting work, and a field of employment for a few of her choicer sons and daughters. The third category consists of 'plantation colonies' — vast territories to be gov- erned as India is governed, despotically but wisely, and with the first aim of securing good govern- ment and a reasonable degree of civilization to a large population of races inferior to the European." Here, however, the Europeans may come in small numbers with their capital, their energy, and their knowledge to develop a most lucrative commerce, and obtain products necessary to the use of their advanced civilization. — H. H. Johnston, Coloniza- tion of Africa, pp. 278-279. (2) Moslem occupation. — Another great obsta- cle in the way of European colonization is the op- position offered to Christian nations by the rapid spread af the Moslem faith. "The reasons for the great strides that Moham- medanism has made among the primitive, pagan tribes of Africa are not far to seek. Before an aggressive, coordinating faith like Islam, the in- ferior civilization of the negro kingdoms and states in the interior practising polytheism and fetichism, continually at war with each other and thus in a perpetual state of trade stagnation, must inevit- ably give way." Through the ubiquitous Arab traders, all of whom are potential missionaries, the new, simple, quasi-political doctrine is pecu- liarly attractive. "And it has progressed in the same ratio as European nations have penetrated to the interior, and pushed their hinterlands against the savage negro societies, leaving them exposed to the fierce light of civilization. Thus, in Islam, these kingdoms and principalities of back- ward races are finding a ready and effective method of centralization and government. Pagan tribes like the Gallas and Shoans of Ethiopia, un- der centuries of fierce and perpetual persecution from their Abyssinian rulers, successfully resisted Christianity ; yet they have easily fallen under the sway of Islam. Even so in the interior of .'Xfrica and along the coast, wherever Christian mission- aries have . . . [come in] contact with them, the savage tribes have proved impervious to all Chris- tian advances, but have readily turned to Islam, in spite of the fact that for centuries they were cruelly exploited by the Moslem Arab slave- dealers, before the European nations stamped out the trade. The virtue of such wholesale conver- sions lies in the ease with which Islam, like Hin- duism in India, has adopted the customs and tra- ditions of its rude adherents. The community life of these savages is allowed to continue. Rigid though Islam is on the subject of liquor, yet many of these tribes still retain their native habits of intemperance: likewise it must be said that those tribes on the coast that have suffered from the early European drink traffic, being of a higher order of intelligence and orthodoxy, have re- nounced liquor with their conversion to Islam The cannibalism of British Ashantee, of French Dahomey, the fetichism and idolatry of the rest of Africa, have passed away in the wake of Islam, degenerating though the new influences may be in the eyes of the orthodox Islamic pundits of .-M- .\zhar in Cairo. Too much, however, cannot be made of the reforming influence of Islam among the savage Africans. . . . The .•\siatic, and like- wise the African, finds himself forlorn and isolated in Christianity, and no amount of official protec- tion can save him from the social and economic tyranny to which all such converts are subjected In Africa, the pagan negro races find themselves welcome in Islam with all their native customs. They are allowed to practise their polygamy, and their family or home unit is emphasized — a factor of prime importance in .Asiatic psychology from China to Turkey. On the other hand, too much must not be made of the fact that Islam encour- ages lust and easy divorce. Accurate observers report that this offers no particular attraction to savage converts, especially when such vices have long been endemic among African, and some .\siatic tribes. Not the least picturesque feature of the conversions to Islam in Asia and Africa is the important part played by women, particularly when we consider that the Prophet degraded women and barred them from the rewards of a future [life]. In an unconscious way, Islam has spread through their efforts. Among the raiding no AFRICA, 1914-1920 Obstacles: Lack of Railroads AFRICA, 1914-1920 nations of Asia, like the Mongols, and in India, under the early dynasties and later under the Mughals, the propagation of Islam went apace. When a raid was made into Moslem territory the women were carried off and helped to convert the pagan tribe, or when a mercenary Moslem army lent aid to a foreign kingdom, as in the case of China, and was invited to settle, the Mohamme- dans took to wife the women of the country, and thus formed another outpost of Islam. "In India the Mughal consorts founded mad- rasahs or endowed schools, which, together with libraries, were attached to their tombs and mosques. In the course of the many ruthless in- vasions that have swept India, when devastation was invariably practised, these scmi-religiou? foun- dations have alone survived as examples of their culture, and they must have exerted an enormous influence from decade to decade. In Africa the fanatical Scnussei sect opened schools for girls in the region north of Lake Chad. This form of feminine proselytism has also been most active in Africa, especially on the east coast. In the Sudan, Islam has spread through the Egyptian army — every fellah recruit being circumcised at enlist- ment and given a rudimentary education. On the expiration of his term of service, he goes back to his pagan village to be an ardent proselytiser through his wife. In German East Africa the negroes recruited from railway and plantation work form temporary unions with the Moslem women, and since these women insist upon the Moslem rite of circumcision, the men are thus converted to Islam, and eventually take the new creed back to their villages. Perhaps the strong- est reason for the success and appeal of Islam throughout the Orient and Africa is the . . . insti- tution of concubinage and marriage. A Moslem will cherish a son by his negro wife or slave, while he readily offers his daughter in marriage to a Moslem negro. Many a sultan and pasha, many an imam and saint, has not considered it a dis- grace to acknowledge the negro blood in his veins. Thus, in Africa, the lack of any social dis- crimination or ostracism, together with a com- pensating social rise, makes admission into the Islamic brotherhood attractive. "Another appeal lies in the chance the religion gives warlike tribes to continue in the profession of arms, since the Faith countenances conversion through conquest. Wherever such races in Asia or Africa have been prevented by twentieth cen- tury laws and order, by the press of western in- fluence or domination, from indulging in their hereditary pursuit (excepting a few military Hindu tribes like the Sikhs, Gurkhas and Rajputs in India) they will be found to flourish under the semi-military caste of Islam. It is not strange, therefore, that the Turko-Teuton regime seized upon the Moslem idea of jihad as a vehicle for galvanizing the warlike spirit of Islam. . . . "In Africa, as I have endeavored to show, Islam is rapidly expanding in its pristine eighth-cen- tury character, appealing to the dark world of witchcraft and cannibalism that has for centuries made the African a problem to civilization. Writ- ing in 1887 Bosworth Smith said: 'It is hardly too much to say that half of the whole of Africa is already dominated by Islam, while, of the re- maining half, a quarter is leavened and another threatened by it.' In this great Asiatic religion the African negro is finding a facile medium of com- munication and expression ; and the future of Africa's destiny would seem to lie with Islam." — W. G. Tinckom-Fernandez, Asia in Africa (.Asia, Nov., igi7.) — See also Wahhabis. (3) Lack of railway and industrial develop- ment IN Africa. — Negotiations for the Cape-to- Cairo railway. — A third obstacle to European col- onization lies in the lack of adequate railway facilities. "Africa is a big continent — about as large as the United States of America, Mexico, Australia, and the Continent of Europe put to- gether — and as late as 1876 the whole of this vast area possessed less than 400 miles of railway. It has been the last of the great areas of this world to become civilized, and as Livingstone — greatest and best and wisest of all explorers — ■ predicted, Africa's salvation is coming through its industrial development. When I first sailed for Africa in 1881 the railway had only been extended to Beaufort West, joo miles north of Cape Town, where I took the coach to Kimberley. In 1885 the railway reached Kimberley. The main line was next pushed north to the Rand — the greatest goldfield in the world — and the shorter 'economic' lines were built to connect with Delagoa Bay and Natal. The Rand was discovered by the British, and the people of this country put millions into its development. It was not long, however, be- fore financiers of German extraction became to a large extent masters of the Rand, as they had become of Kimberley. "Rhodesia was the next big mineral develop- ment, and therefore the next of Africa's milestones on the road to civilization. At that date, iSgo, the terminus of the main line was at Vryburg, and it reached Bulawayo in 1807. Rhodes wanted me to report on the mineral prospects of Rhodesia. I started in March, 1891, and reported to Rhodes that the minerals were there all right, but that he must have a shorter economic railway from Beira to make them pay. That line was com- pleted to Bulawajo in 1Q02. Rhodes had a des- perate strug'j;le with the finance of the Rhodesian railways. He had asked the British Government to guarantee the interest, and . . . that Govern- ment refused. . . . Rhodes's friend Pauling, the fa- mous railway contractor, and the Messrs. Erianger,' bankers of this city, came to the rescue — they, too, greatly aided the development of the British Em- pire, for they raised about £10,000,000 sterling to finance African railways. . . . The next great min- eral milestone stands 1,000 miles further north, in the very heart of Africa, namely, Katanga. In 1805 Rhodes was anxious to find mineral wealth in Northern Rhodesia, and I sent up one or two of my best men with instructions to examine an area several hundred miles south of Katanga, where gold had been reported to exist. As my men found nothing of value. I stopped operations there and did nothing further until iSqS, when, once again at Rhodes's request, I agreed to make another effort, as Rhodes was most anxious to find minerals that would help his railway forward. But as my services at that time were exclusively bound to the Zambesia Exploring Company, Rhodes granted certain rights in which that com- pany should have a large interest. This grant included the right to locate a 2,000 square mile mineral area anywhere in Northern Rhodesia, to- gether with a township and pier at the bottom uid of Lake Tanganyika which was intended to be the terminus in Chartered Territory of the Cape-to-Cairo Railway. I organized a prospect- ing expedition, and appointed the late Mr. George Grey (Viscount Grey's brother) as leader, with instructions to search for minerals as close up to the Congo State frontier as possible. He and his party discovered the Kansanshi copper mine in Rhodesia, 12 miles south of the Belgian Congo frontier. Ill AFRICA, 1914-1920 Obstacles: Lack of Railroads AFRICA, 1914-1920 "Meantime, I approached King Leopold, and succeeded in making an agreement with him which gave the Tanganyika Company the sole pros- pecting rights for minerals over 60,000 square miles of the Katanga district of the Congo State, adjoining Northern Rhodesia. The King did not believe I should prove mineral wealth to exist in his country, as Professor Cornet, the well-known Belgian geologist, had been sent out by him to examine certain old native workings which had been the subject of comment by Livingstone, Cameron, Stanley, and others. The report by Professor Cornet (which had never been published) had been so unfavourable that the Belgians made no further effort for eight years. George Grey and his staff, in a very short time located these mines, probablj' the greatest in all the world, extending over about 250 miles of country — in short, a copper Rand — and many other deposits, including gold, tin, and diamonds. Katanga is now giving tangible proof of its mineral resources. The smelting works there have already yielded a total value of over £6,000,000 sterling, although they only started to produce on a small scale in 1 91 2. They are at the present moment produc- ing at the rate of 30,000 tons of copper per an- num, of a value of about £4,000,000, and this output will go on increasing steadily year by year. The railway developments which have also re- sulted from the opening up of this latest mineral zone will, when completed, be probably the great- est in all Africa. Railways are now coming from the north, south, east, and west towards this great mineral and future industrial centre. Thus are minerals once again proving themselves verit- able milestones in the progress of African civiliza- tion. "At the date when these discoveries were made, it was Rhodes's intention to take his Cape-to- Cairo Railway to the southern end of Lake Tanganyika, and to utilize the 400-mile waterway as part of the route towards the north. But Ger- many thwarted his scheme by refusing to recog- nize the cession of the strip of Congo territory between Lake Tanganyika and Kivu, granted by King Leopold to JEngland to enable Rhodes to carry forward this railway. The reason we all now know. Germany had already fixed her eyes on the Congo. Rhodes would have liked to run his line through the Congo State, and he tried to negotiate this with King Leopold, but had failed, and he suggested I should approach the King with a view to securing the right to build the Cape-to-Cairo Railway through the Congo State to the Nile. . . . The scheme fell through. I saw I was stone-walled, and I therefore studied the map of Africa to find an alternative route. I saw that the shortest route to the sea was along the same great divide between the Congo and Zam- besi Rivers, as that on which we had discovered the minerals. It led from Katanga in an almost straight line westward to the old Portuguese town of Benguella. I saw instinctively that the eco- nomic route from Katanga to the coast lay along the old slave-road, and moreover that this route, with Lobito Bay as its terminus, was nearer by about 3,000 miles to England. I pointed this out to King Leopold, and. having got his approval and promise of cooperation. I went to Lisbon and without the knowledge of the British Govern- ment secured from the Portuguese Government the right to construct the Benguella Railway. But Germany had already grasped the value of this route; had already seen the future agricultural and trade prospects of Angola, and realized the mag- nificent advantages of the natural harbour of Lobito Bay, how valuable it would be as the Western port to her Central African Empire. Four years before Portugal granted me the Ben- guella Railway Concession Germany had induced the British Government to enter into a secret agreement, under which our Government had pledged itself not to interfere with Germany's political efforts in Angola — the very country in which I had secured the right to build a trunk railway." "Mr. Williams' continued efforts to .^iecure British backing for the completion of the Cape-to-Caifo railway were also futile. He went to London to ask Mr. Joseph Chamberlain about obtaining the support of the Government, but Mr. Chamber- lain's interest in the project was not of a mate- rial nature and the Government was unwilling to guarantee the interest on a loan to the railway. "I again met King Leopold, and we resolved upon a great cooperative railway scheme, comprising over 3,000 miles of railway. We agreed to build the Katanga Railway jointly, in order to link up the Rhodesian Railway with the navigable Congo River at Bukama. The King undertook to con- struct a railway from Leopoldville to Bukama; also the section that would connect the Benguella Railway with the Katanga Railway and the cop- per belt, and the earnings of all these railways were to be 'pooled.' "The last link in this international chain of railways proved the most difficult of all to pro- vide for, although it was only 132 miles in length and lay in British territory. It was the little bit between Broken Hill in Rhodesia and the Congo frontier. There the railway stood literally dying for want of traffic, unwilling to extend itself to serve British or Belgium interests. I saw that if it was to be done, I must do it myself, and I wrote to Dr. Jameson telling him I would arrange the finance for the Rhodesian section on certain conditions, with which I need not trouble you. Suffice it to say, that with the assistance of Mr. George Pauling, the great Af- rican railway contractor, and the Messrs. Erlangef, bankers of this city, I surmounted the difficulty. The Cape-to-Cairo Railway was arranged for at last."^R. Williams, Railway developments in Cen- tral Africa (The Times [London] May 11, igi?)- — See also R.\ilro.\ds: 1805. "Railroad development in Africa has been rapid in the past few years and seems but the beginning of a great system which must contribute to the rapid development, civilization, and enlightenment of the Dark Continent. .Already [in i8qo] rail- roads run northwardly from Cape Colony about 1,400 miles, and southwardly from Cairo about 1,100 miles, thus making 2,500 miles of the 'Cape- to-Cairo' railroad complete, while the interme- diate distance is about 3,000 miles. ... .A line has already been constructed from Natal on the southeast coast; another from Louren(;o Mar- quez in Portuguese territory and the gold and dia- mond fields; another from Beira, also in Portu- guese territory, but considerably farther north, and destined to extend to Salisbury in Rhodesia; . . . still another is projected from Zanzibar to Lake Victoria Nyanza, to connect, probably, at Tabora, with the transcontinental line; another line is under actual construction westward from Pan- gani just north of Zanzibar, both of these being in German East Africa; another line is being con- structed northwestwardly from Mombasa, in Brit- ish territory, toward Lake Victoria Nyanza, and is completed more than half the distance, while at the entrance to the Red Sea a road is projected westwardly into .\byssinia, and is expected to 112 AFRICA, 1914-1920 Obstacles: Lack of Railroads AFRICA, 1914-1920 pass farther toward the west and connect with the main Une. At Suakim, fronting on the Red Sea, a road is projected to Berber, the present terminus of the line running southwardly from Cairo. On the west of Africa lines have begun to penetrate inward, a short line in the French Sudan running from the head of navigation on the Sene- gal eastwardly toward the head of navigation on the Niger, with the ultimate purpose of connecting navigation on these two streams. In the Kongo Free State a railway connects the Upper Kongo with the Lower Kongo around Livingstone Falls; in Portuguese Angola a road extends eastwardly these branches connecting it with either coast. Another magnificent railway project, which was some years ago suggested by M. Leroy Beaulieu, has been recently revived, being no less than an cast and west transcontinental line through the Sudan region, connecting the Senegal and Niger countries on the west with the Nile Valley and Red Sea on the east and penetrating a densely populated and extremely productive region of which less is now known, perhaps, than of any other part of Africa. At the north numerous lines skirt the Mediterranean coast, especially in the French territory of Algeria and in Tunis, where the MODERN RAILROAD LINES IN AFRICA from Loanda, the capital, a considerable distance, and others are projected from Benguela and Mos- samedes with the ultimate purpose of connecting with the 'Cape-to-Cairo' road and joining with the lines from Portuguese East Africa, which also touch that road, thus making a transcontinental line from east to west, with Portuguese territory at either terminus. Farther south on the west- ern coast the Germans have projected a road from Walfisch Bay to Windhoek, the capital of German Southwest Africa, and this will probably be extended eastwardly until it connects with the great transcontinental line from 'Cape-to-Cairo,' which is to form the great nerve center of the system, to be contributed to and supported by length of railway is, in round numbers, 2,250 miles while the Egyptian railroads are, including those now under construction, about i,soo miles in length. Those of Cape Colony and Natal are near- ly 3,000 miles, and those of Portuguese East Africa and the South African Republic another thousand. Taking into consideration all of the roads now constructed, or under actual construction, their total length reaches nearly 10,000 miles, while there seems every reason to believe that the great through system connecting the rapidly develop- ing mining regions of South Africa with the north of the continent and with Europe will soon be pushed to completion. A large proportion of the railways thus far constructed are owned by the 113 AFRICA, 1914-1920 Obstacles: Labor Problems AFRICA, 1914-1920 several colonics or States which they traverse, about 2,000 miles of the Cape Colony system belonging to the Government, while nearly all that of Egypt is owned and operated by the State." — U. S. Bureau of Statistics, Monthly summary, August, 1899. — See also Cape-to-Cairo railway. No transcontinental line has as yet (1921) been completed, but in the years preceding the World War much of the abov-e mentioned mileage was constructed. The Cape was connected with the navigable Congo at Bukama. When fmances per- mit, it is intended to construct the main line northward through Tanganyika Territory (for- merly German East Africa) to connect with the Egyptian system, thus realizing the plan of Cecil Rhodes. From Dakar at Cape Verde, connection was made with the upper Niger. On the east the road from Jibuti, French Somalilaiid, was extended to the Abyssinian capital. .Algerian lines were carried farther. No early day, however, can be set for the completion of a through East and West road, a trans-Sahara route or even a Cape- to-Cairo Railway. (4) Labor problems. — A fourth obstacle to European colonization and the most difficult "problem of trade facing the administration in Africa is that of labour. The question is com- plicated by the absence of certain factors which minimise the difficulty of the labour problem in the West. Machinery has not been extensively introduced. This is largely due to the absence 01 railways, a fact which also influences the problem when the difficulty of transporting native labour has to be considered. White labour, whether skilled or unskilled, can be obtained only in very small quantities. The vast mining concerns of South Africa, the great rubber and cocoa planta- tions of West Africa, the growing cotton indus- try of Uganda, together with the palm-oil trade which spreads right across the continent, are de- pendent upon native labour, or, failing that, upon some substitute which will be equally cheap. The problem of the industrial companies of .Africa is to obtain cheap labour. White labour is too highly paid to make possible any large demand for white labourers in those classes of work where muscle rather than brain is required. Cheap la- bour may be bad labour, but white labour is often impossible where a considerable margin of profit is essential. In course of time it may be possible to secure better labour by the payment of higher wages. But the wages offered can never be so high as those demanded by white men in tropical and subtropical countries. Therefore the bulk of the labour demand will continue to be supplied by natives. The increase in wages will be met by better production Therein lies another difficulty which should only be transient! The native, at present, is only capable of performing work of a certain low standard. Higher wages will not im- mediately, and ipso facto, coax from him better work. He is incapable of it until education, civi- lisation and Christianity have removed certain deficiencies from his character. At the present time the .\frican native is too unstable, too apt to abandon his work under slight provocation, too thriftless in the use to which he puts his money, and consequently thriftless of his efficiency as a worker, to make it desirable, or even profitable, to pay him higher wages. These deficiencies sometimes arise from the conditions of his work, and from the treatment meted out to him by over- seers and paymasters, though more frequently they are due to weaknesses inherent in the native char- acter. But — it is a fact to be emphasised — the development of the natives, in many individual cases, proves that he is capable of overcoming these faults, and promises a time when he will justifiably demand a higher wage, and when the increased return made by his work will enable the employer to meet the demand. The Kibour prob- lem in Africa is most acute on the Rand. It is said that the white man cannot work on the deep levels in the subtropical climate of South Africa. But Cornish miners are able to work on the deep levels of the Comstock mine in Nevada. . . . The real objection lies in the fact that the white man is ashamed to work in the presence of black men. He becomes an autocrat of the worst type. He shirks work because physical exertion 'looks bad.' But apart from these considerations, two insurmountable difficulties lie in the way of employing white labour for unskilled work in the mines: the white population is small; it is not possible to pay wages sufficiently high to attract men in large numbers from the West. The prob- lem has not been completely solved by resorting to black labour. Fresh difficulties have been created, while some of those attached to the sup- ply of white labour have not been overcome. Black labour in South .Africa is not sufficient to meet the requirements of the mines. It has been estimated that only fifty per cent, of the demand can be supplied by the native races which dwell south of the Zambesi, in spite of large sums of money spent in recruiting. "While the native races of South Africa have long since abandoned those warlike and migratory habits which made concentration upon settled labour an impossibility, they have not yet become wearied by the habits of an agricultural and pastoral life, nor have their numbers increased .sufficiently to necessitate a periodical movement towards the centres of urban industry, such as takes place in the older agricultural communities of the West. Provided they can obtain a satis- factor\' settlement on the land, together with the ownership of a certain number of cattle, they have little spontaneous inducement to send them to the mines. The wants of the native are few. They are easily satisfied by a slight cultivation of the soil, and by the cattle which he allows to roam at random over the veldt. Moreover, these wants are supplied by a ver>- limited amount of per- sonal activity. His occupations on the . . . veldt afford him an easy means of livelihood at the cost of a small amount of labour. It is a simple, though not an idle life, suited to his somewhat indolent and unenterprising habits. The South .African native is now a home-loving creature. His social insticts are largely developed. Like the Jew. his great ambition is to found a family. Until the time arrives when, by the process of 'labola,' he is able to make an arrangement with the father of his selected wife, he is content to remain in close touch with his own father's kraal. Since the cessation of intertribal w'ars, the native has swung over to an opposite extreme so far as his migratory habits are concerned. He fears lone journeys, especially when the goal will bring him into a sphere of activity unknown to his past and present experience. Moreover, when the allure- ments of the labour agent, supported by his own desire to hasten the day when he may be .ible to take to himself a wife, have .it last brought him to the mines, he does not often remain at work for any length of time. From three to six months is the average period during which the native stays on the Rand, with the result that the whole labour personnel of the mines changes every two years. His temperament is too uncertain, his moods too changeable, he is too prone to take 114 AFRICA, 1914-1320 Obstacles: Adverse Opinion AFRICA, 1914-1920 offence under slight provocation, to make possible a sojourn at the mines which would be more profitable to production. To these causes, which belong to the native himself, and which can only be removed by the processes of civilisation, others have to be added. They are created by the ad- ministration of labour, and are, therefore, a matter for the attention of the white man. The treat- ment offered to the natives in the mines is not always equitable. It is sometimes even harsh. The white overseers arc often impatient of at- tempting to understand the native mind and the difficulties which new work under strange condi- tions presents. . . . Labour agents and paymasters have not always fulfilled the promises made to the native recruit. Pay has been held back or dimin- ished by the compulsory purchase of goods, sold by interested persons on or near the mine com- pounds. The accommodation offered has some- times afforded a poor substitute for the kraals on the open veldt. Overcrowded quarters, in- sanitar>' conditions, surrounded by moral tempta- tions, have impaired his physical fitness, so that the arduous labour of the mines has become in itself a cause of discontent. At the end of his contract the native labourer often finds himself at a loss to know how to return to his kraal. Little advice is forthcoming from railway officials. If any of the proceeds of his labour remain to him, he is tempted to dispose of them in an un- worthy manner, and at once becomes a member of the community of low-class blacks and whites who surround the mining towns, or attempts to reach his own country by vagrant methods. Perhaps the chief influences which make the native' a bad labourer are not due to the na- tive himself, or to his upbringing. They are due to the aforementioned causes, or to others of a similar nature. That is to say, they arc the con- cern of the white man and his organisation. . . . Men of varied experience in different parts of Africa have testified to the efficiency and assiduity of the native labourer when adequate supervision and fair treatment are meted out to him. The whole procedure, from the action of the labour agent to the attitude of the repatriation officials, needs to be revised. The recruiting of native la- bour should be transferred from the control of monopolist labour associations, which are con- nected with the mining syndicates, to the native affairs department, every care being taken that it does not come within the duties of any revenue official. The native should be transported to the mines without being subjected to annoyance from railway or mining ofticials, and, if necessary, his ticket should be advanced and debited to the first instalment of his wages. Such a system has been introduced into the organisation of contract la- bour in Portuguese West .Africa. "Under the Portuguese regulations of January 20, iqo3, powers were conferred upon a central committee for labour and emigration to appoint and control labour agents, or their substitutes, for the purpose of recruiting native labour. Funds were to be supplied to the agents by applicants for labour, and these payments were to be charge- able upon the wages of the natives. The agents were to co-operate with native chieftains in secur- ing labourers. The native recruits were to be conveyed to the centres of industry by the prin- cipal railroads in the colony. They were to be accompanied by the recruiting agents, who were to supply them with proper food during the jour- ney, whether by road or rail. During halts on the journey the natives were to be lodged by the agents In suitable depots where the sanitary con- ditions were free from objection. When the la- bourer had reached the centre of industry, he v/ould be handed over to the master to whom he had been assigned, and who was responsible for the regular payment of his wages in coin. The native labourers were to be suitably housed by the masters in accommodations which resembled , as nearly as possible tfie native huts. Proper food and clothing, with adequate medical treatment, was also to be supplied by the masters. The regu- lations insisted that every master employing over fifty labourers should maintain a separate in- firmary for members of either sex. On planta- tions where one thousand or more labourers were employed, the doctors were required to pay a visit every day ; where the number employed was less than a thousand, but not less than six hundred, the doctor must visit twice a week; in all other cases once a week. The doctors were to be men qualified at Lisbon, Oporto, or Coimbra. Simi- lar regulations for the care of women and chil- dren, especially in maternity cases, were drawn up. At the close of the period of contract, the labourers were to be returned to their own vil- lages by the repatriation agents at the expense of the masters. But they were free to engage for a further contract. On the return journey simi- lar care was to be taken with regard to accommo- dation and food. The royal regulations of Janu- ary 29, 1903, were revised by the Provisional Republican Government on May 13, 1911. In principle they remained the same. The whole scheme received the congratulation of the British Foreign Office and colonial officials. But later on heavy criticism was directed against the Portu- guese Government to the effect that the regula- tions were not loyally carried out in West Africa, and in particular [that] the option given to the native to re-engage was abused by methods which made re-engagement almost compulsory. The im- portant lesson to be drawn from the Portuguese regulations is the method employed in attempting to secure that the recruiting, payment, accommo- dation, and repatriation of native labour should be conducted by responsible authority. The his- tory of the Congo, and of the more recent Put- umayo atrocities in South America, apart from the past record of some British trading concerns in West Africa, prove that trading companies are not capable of restraining commercial enterprise in the interest of the native, even where moral and physical claims are clearly manifest. But where these matters are placed in the hands of an authority which has no commercial or even administrative interest, some of the difficulties which make native labour on the Rand, and else- where, so wasteful and inefficient will be removed. Recommendations similar to the regulations of the Portuguese Government, but only general in char- acter, were made by the South African Commis- sion of 1003-5, and also by the Natal Commis- sion of 1906-7. The practicability of reforms of this nature is made apparent by the fact that for some considerable time the housing, sanitation, and medical treatment of the native labourers at Cape Town, Kimberley, and Johannesburg have been organised along these lines. The Commission of IQ03-S drew attention to the conditions in these towns. But there is need for extension and room for improvement." — A. J. MacDonald, Trade politics and Christianity in Africa and the East pp. 11-20. (5) Growth of adverse opinion. — Another ob- stacle to European colonisation is the rapid growth in recent years of a markedly adverse public opin- ion. Owing to the fact that many of the African 115 AFRICA, 1914-1916 Effects of World War AFRICA, 1918-1920 colonies at present cost more to administer than their trade Ls worth, there is in each European countrj- owning them a considerable group indif- ferent or opposed to colonial undertakings. "Not all the expectations of the enthusiastic advocates of expansion were realized. The colonial trade of Germany was insignificant, though the expense of maintaining the colonies was very great. France has been more successful ; but she, too, has had to make u[> annually a large colonial deficit. England has more to justify her imperialism than any other country, for she has a large and grow- ing colonial trade; but her important customers are Germany, France, and the United States, and not Canada, Australia, or South Africa. The colonies have not proved successful in drawing off the surplus population of the mother countries. Because they were not attractive to white settle- ment, very few Germans went to the German colonies But many went to the British posses- sions and to the United States. French colonies, although near the mother country, contain few Frenchmen besides military and civil officials. The migration of Italians to Libya has hardly justified Italy's 'war for a desert.' Even Great Britain, with a large surplus population and colo- nies in every climate, has failed to people the Empire with her children. During 1870-1905, a generation which saw the high tide of imperial- ism, six and a half million emigrated from the United Kingdom; of these, only two million set- tled in the colonies, whereas four miUion went to America and half a million to other places. So reluctant are the English masses to go to the colonies that societies have been organized to encourage them to emigrate there." — J. S. Scha- piro, Modern and contemporary European history, p. 682. 1914-1916. — Part played by German colonies, Seuthwest Africa, and East Africa in the World War. See World War: 1914: VI. Africa; loi,?; VIII. Africa; 1016: VII. African theatre: a. 1918-1920.— Effects of the World War upon European occupation. — While it is as yet too early to be certain of the results of the World War on Africa, this much may be confidently asserted. (1) A firmer hold upon their African possessions has been secured by Great Britain, France and Italy. (2) Africa seems destined to be for a long time to come less and less a field for European rivalry and conflict. (3) Under the new mandatary system there is a recognition before the world of a stewardship of the Great Powers for their .\frican territories. (4) The ex- cellent service of the Negro as a worker behind the lines and as a soldier on the battlefields of France has not only been accorded grateful rec- ognition but has doubtless deepened the black man's self-respect and consciousness of his rights as a human being. One of the manifestations of this new attitude on the part of both white and black races is to be seen in the recent (iqiq) Con- vention of the Powers regarding the liquor traffic in Africa. The British government has made public (Treaty series loio. No. lo) a parliamen- t3r>' paper disclosing that on September iq, loio, the United States and .\ssociated Powers entered into a convention intended to safeguard .^frican races from alcohol and displacing for that purpose the Brussels Convention This convention super- sedes, recodifies and amplifies "former interna- tional conventions" dealing with the same sub- ject. Thus come to an end the old liquor clauses of the Brussels General .»\ct (1800I which with their general revisions at periodical conferences of the Powers (1890-1006) have regulated the 1 Central African spirit traffic. The area of the present convention is almost identical with that of the Brussels Act, though political areas are substituted for arbitrary geographical boundaries. Thus .\lgiers, Tunis, Morocco, Libya, Egypt and the Union of South .Africa are excepted from the agreement, and the islands lying within 100 nau- tical miles of the coast are included in it. The objects of the convention as set forth in the pre- amble are to prohibit "the importation, distribu- tion, sale and possession of trade spirits, absinthe," and of other "distilled beverages" containing es- sential oils or chemical products which are rec- ognized as injurious to the health. Other forms of spirits are to be subjected to a minimum duty of 800 francs per hectolitre of pure alcohol, which amounts to about 36 francs per gallon of pure alcohol. By a further provision it is understood that the existing areas of prohibition of all spirits for the natives of these areas will be maintained. This is the only mention of any race distinction except in the preamble already quoted, reliance being placed upon the exclusion of all cheap and specially noxious distilled liquors. Exceptions are allowed for distillation for scientific or pharmaceu- tical purposes, or of industrial alcohol, but other- wise distillation is not allowed. Italy is the only one of the signatory powers which has claimed any concession on certain of the conditions of the convention. There is to be a Central Interna- tional Office, in connection with the League of Nations, for recording the statistics and regula- tions put in force by each of the contracting par- ties and the adhesion to the convention of the other states exercising authority over the terri- tories of the African continent will be Sought. The convention is to come into force "for each signatory power from the date of the deposit of its ratifications," which ratifications will be de- posited in the archives of the French government. Signatories: — The United States of America, Bel- gium, Great Britain, Canada, Australia, South .Africa, France, Italy, Japan, Portugal. TeRRITORIAI, ACQUISITION'S OF FRANCE AND GREAT Britain. — Under the mandate provisions of the Treaty of Versailles, in effect January to, 1920, German Southwest .Africa and German East .Af- rica became practically British possessions. A dis- trict in the extreme northwest of the latter colony was assigned to the Belgian Congo. Cameroon and Togo, the other two former German colonies in .Africa, were divided between Great Britain and France. The latter country received the entire coast and rather more than half of Togo and about nine-tenths of Cameroon, incidentally regaining the large districts which France had ceded to Ger- many in 191 1 as a result of the .Agadir crisis in Morocco. -A strip of varying width along the northwest boundary of Cameroon was given to Great Britain and added to the British colony of Nigeria This strip includes the great Cameroon Mountain near the sea, and adds to the Bornu district near Lake Chad the part of that ancient sultanate formerly held by Germany. The port of Duala and the main routes to the interior are in the hands of the French. Italy's territorial .\couisitions. — In accordance with provisions included in the Treaty of London, which was followed by Italy's entrance into the World War, negotiations were begun early in 1920 to carry out the promises made Italy by Great Britain and France in 1915, by adding generously to Italy's possessions in Africa. The provision in question, article XIII, stipulated that, in the event that France and England should increase their colonial possessions in Africa as a result of the 16 AFRICA, BRITISH CENTRAL AFRICAN SQUADRON World War, Italy too must be compensated in an equitable manner, particularly in the extension of the frontiers of her colonies of Eritrea, Ital- ian Somaliland and Tripoli (Libia Italiana). France offered to cede the territory lying east of the line running north and south between the oases Ghadames and Ghat. This offer the Italian government was ready to accept but is still mak- ing efforts to have the Tibesti and Borku oases, south of the Libyan desert, included in the grant. The British government offered to cede Italy the Egyptian oasis of Jarabub. This has been prac- tically accepted by the Italian government. Great Britain also offered to cede to Italian Somaliland extensive territory along the Juba river. This would give Italy the port of Kismayu, which has a better harbor than any port along the 1,200 mile coast line of Somaliland. Mindful of the value of this accession Italy accepted Great Britain's offer, which greatly increases the value of Italian Somaliland. The border with British Somaliland at the north has also been rectified in Italy's favor. Italy further sought to obtain part of the Anglo- Egyptian Sudan bordering on her colony of Eritrea. The concessions secured by Italy a.ssure her of better facilities for developing her large colonies ill Africa. Africa under the League of Nations. — "In addition to these territories which are to be emancipated under the protection of stronger states, there are the former colonies of Germany, some of which are to be administered by a man- datary under a separate form of government and others to be administered as integral portions of the territory of the mandatary. In both cases provision is made in the covenant and in the body of the treaty that the administration shall be con- ' ducted under conditions approved by the league, by which equal opportunity for trade will be al- lowed to all members of the league, and certain abuses, such as the trade in slaves, arms, and liquor, will be prohibited; and the requirement is laid down that the mandatary shall render to the council of the league an annual report in reference to the territory committed to its charge. The value of these provisions, if it is not too much to assume their observance, lies not only in the fact that they attempt to protect the backward peoples of Africa against possible exploitation, but that they introduce a new principle of interna- tional responsibility into the relations of nations, in that they recognize that the development of such peoples forms 'a sacred trust of civilization.' If the league can secure the fulfillment of the promises thus made, a strong impetus will be given to the further development of international administrative law. At the present moment the functions of the permanent mandates commission, which is to receive the reports of the several mandataries, have been outlined and the person- nel of the commission is about to be appointed." — American Political Science Review, Aug., ig20, p. 487. AFRICA, British Central. See Nyasaland PROTECTORATE. AFRICA, East. See Ken'\'A colony. AFRICA, East Central. See Darfur. AFRICA, Masonic societies in. See Masonic societies: Africa. AFRICA, Northwest. See Nigeria protectorate. AFRICA, Portuguese East. See Portugitese East Africa. AFRICA, South. See South Africa, Union of. AFRICA, West. See Dahomey. AFRICAN ASSOCIATION IN ENGLAND, Formation of (1788). See Africa: Modern Euro- pean occupation: Chronology of European explor- ation. AFRICAN METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH. See Methodists; Colored. AFRICAN SQUADRON.— Although the Con- gress (United States) in 1808 passed an act pro- hibiting the importation of slaves, a good many were smuggled in. The rather unsuccessful at- tempt to suppress this illicit trade is shown in the following articles of the Webster-Ashburton Treats , 1842: "Art. VIIL— The parties [United States and Great Britain] mutually stipulate that each shall prepare, equip, and maintain in service on the coast of Africa a sufficient and adequate squadron or naval force of vessels of suitable numbers and descriptions, to carry in all not less than eighty guns, to enforce, separately and respectively, the laws, rights, and obligations of each of the two countries for the suppression of the slave-trade, the said squadrons to be independent of each other, but the two Governments stipulating, nevertheless, to give such orders to the officers commanding their respective forces as shall enable them most effectually to act in concert and co- operation, upon mutual consultation, as exigencies may arise, for the attainment of the true object of this article, copies of all such orders to be communicated by each Government to the other, respectively. ",^rt. IX. — Whereas, notwithstanding all ef- forts which may be made on the coast of Africa for suppressing the slave-trade, the facilities for carrying on that traffic and avoiding the vigilance of cruisers, by the fraudulent use of flags and other means, are so great, and the temptations for pursuing it, while a market can be found for slaves, so strong, that the desired result may be long delayed unless all markets be shut against the purchase of African negroes, the parties to this treaty agree that they will unite in all be- coming representations and remonstrances with any and all Powers within whose dominions such markets are allowed to exist, and that they will urge upon all such Powers the propriety and .duty of closing such markets effectually, at once and forever." — W. Macdonald, Select documents illus- trative of history of United States, pp. 341-342. "By the cruising convention clause [of the Web- ster-Ashburton Treaty], which the President him- self bore a conspicuous part in arranging, the deli- cate point of 'right of search' was avoided; for instead of trusting Great Britain as the police of other nations for suppressing the African slave- trade, each nation bound itself to do its full duty by keeping up a sufficient squadron on the Afri- can coast. It so happened that Great Britain, by softening the old phrase 'right of search' into 'right of visitation,' had been inducing other na- tions to guarantee this police inspection of sus- pected slave vessels. In December, 1841, am- bassadors of the five great European powers ar- ranged in London a quintuple league of this char- acter. But France, hesitating to confirm such an arrangement, rejected that league when the Ash- burton treaty was promulgated, and hastened to negotiate in its place a cruising convention simi- lar to ours on the slave-trade suppression; nor was the right of search, against which America had fought in the war of 1812, ever again invoked, even as a mutual principle, until by 1S62 the United States had grown as sincere as Great Brit- ain herself in wishing to crush out the last remnant of the .African traffic. This cruising convention, however, left the abstract question of search un- touched, and in that light Sir Robert Peel de- 117 AFRIDIS AGER PUBLICUS fended himself in Parliament." — Schouler, History of the United States, v. iv, pp. 401-402. AFRIDIS, a powerful warlike Afghan or Pathan tribe inhabiting the mountains of the Peshawar border of the north-west frontier of India; are said to have Israelite blood in their veins, and a Semitic cast of features. AFRIKANDER BUND. See South Africa, Union- of: 1877-1870; 1881-1888; 1898; i8q8 (March-October). AFRIKANDER CONGRESS. See South .•Xfrica, Union of: 1900 (December). AFRIKANDERS: Relations with the Boers. See South .\frica, Union of: 1S99 (October- November) and 1000 (May). AFZELIUS, Adam (1750-1837), Swedish bot- anist. He founded the Linnaean Institute at Up- sala, 1S02, and subseijuently wrote the standard biography of Linnaeus, 1823. AGA, or Agha, a word supposedly of Tartar origin, meaning lord or excellency, applied in Turkey to military commanders and other high officials; also used as a general term of respect in addressing person? of the wealthv leisure class. AGA KHAN I, His Highness the (1800-1881), the title accorded to Hasan .'\ii Shah by the Brit- ish government. Was governor of Kerman for Persia until, incurring the displeasure of the ruler, he fled to Bombay ; assisted his protectors in deal- ing with the natives over whom he held religious sway as leader of the Ismailiah sect of Moham- medans. AGA KHAN III, Aga Sultan Mohammed Shah (1S77- ). In 1885, succeeded his father, .\ga Khan II, to the leadership of the Ismailiah Mohammedans. In World War he brought his support to the side of the .'\llies. See Arabu: 1916. AGADE. See .^kk.^d. AGADIR, a small seaport on the south-western coast of Morocco, formerly of some commercial importance. .Acquired international fame in 1911 when the German gunboat Pantlur entered the harbor to maintain imperial economic interests. This, event, known as the ".■\gadir incident" pre- cipitated the second and most acute Moroccan crisis. — See also Fr.\ncf.: 1910-1014; Italy: ioii. AGAGIA, Egypt: defeat of Senussi (1916). See World War: iqi6: VI. Turkish theater: b, 1. AGAMEMNON, a Greek hero of the Homeric age; son of .Atreus and brother of Menelaus. Ruled at Mycenae; leader of the Greeks in the Trojan War. AGAMEMNON, British warship at the Dar- danelles^ See World War: 1915: VI. Turkey: a, 1. AGANA, a fortified town, on the western side of the .American inland of Guam, formerly the Spanish capital of the Ladrone 'Islands. It has several schools, convents, and government build- ings. Sec Guam: i 900-1 921 ; U. S. .A.: 1S9S (June). AGAPETUS I, pope S35-536; collaborated with Cassiodorus in founding a library of ecclesiastical authors at Rome; in 536 was sent by King Theodahad on an embassy to Constan- tinople and there deposed Anthimus from the patriarchal see of Con.stantinople. He died there. Agapetus II, pope 946-955, a Roman by birth; established political rule over the churches of the Empire; also invoked aid of Otto I against Ber- enger II. king of Italy, who proved troublesome to the pontifical state, AGAS. Outer and inner. See Sublimf Porte. AGASSIZ, Alexander Emanuel (1835-igio), American scientist. Only son of Louis .Agassiz; specialized in marine ichthyology ; acquired a for- tune in mining, es[)ecially from the famous Cal- umet and Hecla copper mine, Michigan; gave large sums and much time to biological research. AGASSIZ, Jean Louis Rodolphe (1S07-1873), American scientist. Born in Switzerland, coming to America in 1846; Harvard professor and an enthusiastic and effective teacher; made extensive researches in ichthyology and palaeontology ; en- joyed a world-wide reputation as a biologist, writer and lecturer. AGATHO, pope 678-781, one of the most cour- ageous pontifls who ever occupied the papal chair; compelled St. Wilfrid to restore the bishopric at York (679) and established a precedent by refus- ing to pay tribute on election to the emperor at Constantinople. AGATHOCLES (361-289 B. C), the son of a potter who became tyrant of Syracuse. .After putting thousands of his enemies to death .Agathocles succeeded in taking Syracuse, which he subsequently lost. He ruled over Sicily towards the close of his life. See Syracuse: B. C 317-289 AGATHYRSI, a people of Thracian origin who once occupied the plain of Moris in the region of Transylvania ; had luxurious habits, tattooed their bodies, had wives in common, and like Gallic Druids, recited their laws in sing-song to prevent their being forgotten ; were later driven further north and were unknown to the Romans in their original home. AGBATANA. See Ecbatana. AGE OF STONE, AGE OF BRONZE, etc. See /tcEAN civiLiz.\TioN; .Africa: Races of Africa: Prehistoric peoples; Europe: Prehistoric period; Stone age. AGED, Care of. See Charities. AGELA. — The youths and young men of an- cient Crete were publicly trained and disciplined in divisions or companies, each of which was called an .Agela, and its leader or director the .Agelatas. AGELATAS. See Acela. AGEMA, the royal escort of .Alexander the Great. AGENAIS, or Agenois, a former province of France in what is now the department of Lot-et- Garonne. The district was purchased in 1038 by the dukes of .Aquitaine. Thus, with the mar- riage of Eleanor of .Aquitaine to Henry Plantag- enet (1152) the province was brought under Eng- lish control. Subsequently, it was returned to French rule (1271) with the marriage of Richard Coeur-de-Lion's sister to Raymund VI, count of Toulouse, but restored once more to England in 1279. During the wars between the French and English (fourteenth fifteenth centuries), the prov- ince again passed through a number of similar changes. With the retreat of the English in 1453 -Agenais linally found itself peaceably pos- sessed by the French. AGENDICUM, or Agedincum. See Senones. AGER PUBLICUS.— "Rome was always mak- ing fresh acquisitions of territory in her tarly history. . . . Large tracts of country became Ro- man land, the property of the Roman state, or public domain (ager publicus), as the Romans called it. The condition of this land, the use to which it was applied, and the disputes which it caused between the two orders at Rome, are among the most curious and perplexing questions in Roman history. . . . That part of newly-ac- quired territory which was neither sold nor given remained public property, and it was occupied, according to the Roman term, by private persons, in whose hands it was a Possessio. Hyginus and Siculus Flaccus represent this occupation as being made without any order. Every Roman took what he could, and more than he could use profit- 118 AGER ROMANUS AGNOSTICISM ably. . . . We should be more inclined to believe that this public land was occupied under some regulations, in order to prevent disputes; but if such regulations existed we know nothing about them. There was no survey made of the public land which was from time to time acquired, but there were certainly general boundaries fixed for the purpose of determining what had become pub- lic property. The lands which were sold and given were of necessity surveyed and fixed by boundaries. . . . There is no direct evidence that any payments to the state were originally made by the Possessors. It is certain, however, that at some early time such payments were made, or, at least, were due to the state." — G, Long, De- cline oj the Roman republic, ch. ii. — See also AcF.ARiAN laws; Land titles: Roman titles; Rome: Republic: P.. C. 133-121. AGER ROMANUS. See Land titles: Roman colonial titles. AGESILAUS II, king of Sparta, 401-361 B. C; helped the ."Xsiatic Greeks when attacked by the Persians (306 B. C), defeating the Satraps, Tis- saphernes and Pharnabazus. When recalled to Greece to defend Sparta against the combined forces of Athens, Thebes, Corinth and Argos, Ages- ilaus defeated the allied armies indecisively at the battle of Coronea, Boeotia (304). Various small expeditions followed. Agesilaus spent the last two years of his life in Egypt trying to raise sufficient money to bring Sparta to her former supremacy and died on his way home {361) at the age of 84. — See also Greece: B. C. 4th century, 399-387- AGGER. See Castra. AGHA MOHAMMED KHAN, Shah of Per- sia, 1705-1707. AGHLABITE DYNASTY. See Caliphate: 715-750; Sicily: S27-878. AGHRIM, or Aughrim, Battle of (i6qi). See Ireland; i68o-i6qi. AGHYL BAIR.— Attacked by British (iqi5). See World War: 1015: VI. Turkey: a, 4, x.xvii. AGHYL DERE.— Attacked by British (1015). .See World War: 1015: VI. Turkev: a, 4, xxvi. AGILULPHUS, King of the Lombards, soo- 616. AGINCOURT (Azincourt), a village of north- ern France in the department of Pas de Calais, twenty-nine miles southeast of Boulogne; made famous by the victory of Henry V of England over the French under Constable d'.'Vlbret, October 25, 1415. See France: 141 5. AGIS I, king of Sparta about 1032 B. C. Tra- dition says the maritime city of Helos fell under his attack. Agis II, king of the Spartans about 427 B. C; led his forces to victory at Mantineia (41S B. C.) and helped to blockade Athens (405 B. C). Agis III, king of Sparta, 338-331 B, C; re- volted against Macedonia (333 B. C.) with the aid of the Persians but failed; slain in the de- ciding battle (331 B. C). Agis IV, succeeded his father, Eudamidas II, as king of Sparta at the age of twenty. .\ note- worthy figure in Spartan history who tried to stay the ruin of the state. AGITATORS, Council of, the name given to a body of representatives elected in 1647 by regi- ments of the English Parliamentary army. They prevented the disbanding of the army in April and again in June, 1647. A council composed of officers and agitators refused the offers of Par- liament and demanded a march on London. See England: 1647 (April-August). AGLIPAY, Gregorio (i860- ), Roman Catholic archbishop; seceded 1902; founded the sect of the Independent Catholics. See Philippine Islands: 1002. AGNADELLO, Battle of (1500). See Venice: 1508-1500. AGNATI. See Gens: Gentes: Gentiles. AGNES, Saint, the patron saint of voung girls. Martyred in Rome by order of Diocletian at the age of thirteen. Her feast day is January 21, and her svmbol the lamb. AGNES OF MERAN (d. 1201), queen of France, daughter of Bertold IV, duke of Meran, Tyrol. In iig6 became second wife of Philip II, after his repudiation of his first queen. Papal opposition, culminating in an interdict, forced a separation in 1200. AGNES OF POITIERS (i025?-i077), em- press of Germany, daughter of William V of Aquitaine. In 1043 became second wife of Henry III of Germany. Regent for her son, Henry IV, 1056-1062; her weak rule was finally overthrown by powerful nobles and she fled to Italy. AGNIERS. — Among several names which the Mohawks (sec Iroquois) bore in early colonial his- tory was that of the Agniers. — F. Parkman, Con- spiracy of Pontiac, v. i, p. o, foot-note. AGNOSTICISM, the doctrine that there is no certain knowledge as to the existence of God, a future life or the essential nature of things. Con- trary to Atheism (q.v.), .^gnosticism makes no de- nials, and affirms nothing but present ignorance with reference to ultimate realities. It does not even assert that knowledge may not at some fu- ture time become possible. The term was coined in i86q by Professor Huxley; but the doctrine is extremely old, being essentially contained in the teaching of Protagoras, Pyrrho and the entire skeptical school of Greek philosophers. (See Christianity: 100-300: Church in Alexandria. The majority of modern Freethinkers may properly be classed as .^Kgnostics, rather than Atheists. The late Col. Robert G. Ingcrsoll was perhaps the most notable among the aggressive champions of .^gnosticism, although Charles Darwin, Herbert Spencer, Thomas Huxley, and other prominent scientists and men of letters in England and .'\merica may be cited as adherents of this doctrine, .Agnosticism was, therefore, historically in vogue in the latter decades of the nineteenth century, when it denoted (a) a form of the philosophic revolt against the prevalent mid-Victorian theology, and (b) more broadly a form of philosophic doubt in the minds particularly of "Darwinian" scientists arid the "sensationalist" school of thinkers as to accepting the reality of many current forms of human knowledge in general. In fact they de- nied the validity of any transcendental or extra- empirical tenets. The term "agnostic," invented by Huxley, is unfortunately correlative to the term "Gnostics" of early Christian history. Ag- nostics were engaged in combating latter-day church-men and others in their bigoted opposi- tion to the tenets of modern "Darwinian" science and pushed them hard from many prevalent "Christian" notions. But unfortunately for ag- nosticism intellectual people — whether churchmen or not — cannot rest in suspension of judgment, still less be content with assertions of unknow- ableness. Not merely idealists, but pracmatists and neo-realists "carry on" and agnosticism is simply outgrown. "What Strabo said nineteen centuries ago still holds true. 'It is impossible,' said the old Greek, 'to conduct women and the gross multitude, and to render them holv, pious, and upright by the precepts of reason and phi- losophy ; superstition or the fear of the gods 119 AGNOSTICISM AGNOSTICISM must be called in aid, the influence of which is founded on fiction or prodigies. For the thunder of Jupiter, the aegis of Minerva, the trident of Neptune, the torches and snakes of the Furies, the spears of the gods adorned with ivy, and the whole ancient theology are all fables which the legislators who formed the political constitution of states employ as bugbears to overawe the credulous and simple." — J. Burroughs, LiglU of day, pp. iob-107. — "The name .\gnostic, originally coined by Professor Huxley about i86g, has gained general acceptance." It is sometimes used to indicate the philosophical theory which Mr. Herbert Spencer, as he tells us, developed from the doctrine of Hamilton and Mansel. Upon that theory I express no opinion. I take the word in a vaguer sense, and am glad to believe that its use indicates an advance in the courtesies of con- troversy. The old theological phrase for an in- tellectual opponent was Atheist — a name which still retains a certain flavour as of the stake in this world and hell-fire in the next, and which, moreover, implies an inaccuracy of some impor- tance. Dogmatic Atheism — the doctrine that there is no God, whatever may be meant by God — is, to say the least, a rare phase of opinion. The word Agnosticism, on the other hand, seems to imply a fairly accurate appreciation of a form of creed already common and daily spreading. The Agnostic is one who asserts — what no one denies — that there are limits to the sphere of human intelligence. He asserts, further, what many theo- logians have e.xpressly maintained, that those limits are such as to exclude at least what Lewes called 'metempirical' knowledge. But he goes further, and asserts, in opposition to theologians, that theology lies within this forbidden sphere. This last assertion raises the important issue; and, though I have no pretension to invent an opposi- tion nick-name, I may venture, for the purposes of this article, to describe the rival school as Gnostics. The Gnostic holds that our reason can, in some sense, transcend the narrow limits of ex- perience. He holds that we can attain truths not capable of verification, and not needing veri- fication, by actual experiment or observation. He holds, further, that a knowledge of those truths is essential to the highest interests of mankind, and enables us in some sort of way to solve the dark riddle of the universe. A complete solution, as everyone admits, is beyond our power. But some answer may be given to the doubts which harass and perplex us when we try to frame any adequate conception of the vast order of which we form an insignificant portion. We cannot say why this or that arrangement is what it is ; we can say, though obscurely, that some answer exists, and would be satisfactory, if we could only find it. Overpowered, as every honest and serious thinker is at times overpowered, by the sight of pain, folly, and helplessness, by the jarring discords which run through the vast harmony of the uni- verse, we are yet enabled to hear at times a whis- per that all is well, to trust to it as coming from the most authentic source, and to know that only the temporary bars of sense prevent us from rec- ognising with certainty that the harmony beneath the discords is a reality and not a dream. This knowledge is embodied in the central dogma of theology. God is the name of the harmony; and God is knowable. Who would not be happy in accepting this belief, if he could accept it honestly? Who would not be glad if he could sav with con- fidence, the evil is transitory, the good eternal: our doubts are due to limitations destined to be abolished, and the world is really an embodiment of love and wisdom, however dark it may appear to our faculties? And yet, if the so-called knowl- edge be illusory, are we not bound by the most sacred obligations to recognise the facts? Our brief path is dark enough on any hypothesis. We cannot afford to turn aside after every ignis jatuus without asking whether it leads to sounder footing or to hopeless quagmires. Dreams may be pleas- anter for the moment than realities; but happiness must be won by adapting our lives to the reali- ties. And who, that has felt the burden of ex- istence, and suffered under well-meant efforts at consolation, will deny that such consolations are the bitterest of mockeries? Pain is not an evil; death is not a separation; sickness is but a bless- ing in disguise. Have the gloomiest speculations of avowed pessimists ever tortured sufferers hke those kindly platitudes? Is there a more cutting piece of satire in the language than the reference in our funeral service to the 'sure and certain hope of a blessed resurrection'? To dispel genuine hopes might be painful, however salutary. To suppress these spasmodic eftorts to fly in the face of facts would be some comfort, even in the distress which they are meant to alleviate. Besides the impor- tant question whether the Gnostic can prove his dogmas, there is, therefore, the further question whether the dogmas, if granted, have any mean- ing. Do they answer our doubts, or mock us with the appearance of an answer? The Gnostics rejoice in their knowledge. Have they anything to tell us? They rebuke what they call the 'pride of reason' in the name of a still more exalted pride. The scientific reasoner is arrogant because he sets limits to the faculty in which he trusts, and denies the existence of any other faculty. They are humble because they dare to tread in the regions which he declares to be inaccessible. But without bandying such accusations, or ask- ing which pride is the greatest, the Gnostics are at least bound to show some ostensible justifi- cation for their complacency. Have they discov- ered a firm resting-place from which they are entitled to look down in compassion or contempt upon those who hold it to be a mere edifice of moonshine? If they have diminished by a scruple the weight of one passing doubt, we should be grateful: perhaps we should be converts. If not, why condemn Agnosticism? I have said that our knowledge is in any case limited. I may add that, on any showing, there is a danger in failing to recognise the limits of possible knowledge. The word Gnostic has some awkward associations. It once described certain heretics who got into trouble from fancying that men could frame theories of the Divine mode of existence. The sects have been dead for many centuries. Their fundamental assumptions can hardly be quite ex- tinct. . . ." — L. Stephen, An agnostic's apology and other essays, pp. 1-5. — " 'The great uncertainty I found in metaphysical reasonings,' writes Ben- jamin Franklin, referring to his youthful specula- tions, 'disgusted me, and I quitted that kind of reading and study for others more satisfactory.' Are we to conclude from this that the future statesman, once having ceased applying himself to metaphysics, was thenceforth emancipated from the intellectual attitude which had previously ac- counted for the practice? .Apparently yes. but in reality no; for to the end of his long life — albeit he was not primarily a metaphysicist — Franklin remained, in spite of himself, indelibly stamped with a metaphysical cast of mind The mental experience of the celebrated American philosopher, far from bemg unique or even markedly out of the ordinary, might be paralleled in the lives of 120 AGODE AGRAM TRIALS countless other thinkers, both professional and amateur. Whether or not the phenomenon be traceable to temperamental factors of a basic and ineradicable nature, it cannot be denied that cer- tain persons, once blessed or cursed — let the reader take his choice — with the desire to probe the cos- mos to its very bottom, persist therein even after they have become convinced of the utter futility of such investigation. Like Tantalus of the myth, they must needs make the effort to drink time and time again, though time and time again they fail to quench (heir thirst. Can it be that they are, after all, never qiiile convinced that the quest of ultimate truth is a barren one? Can it be that in an ever-recurring doubt must be sought the reason for the constant renewal of a search which th". mind repeatedly renounces as hopeless? It is not the search for deity with which I am here concerned: I as.sume that the majority of us are agreed in rejecting such doctrines as posit or pro- fess to demonstrate the existence of a personal God, and in maintaining a defmitely Agnostic at- titude with regard to other more or less attenuated phases of Theism. What I have reference to is the fact that many thinking men and women, in- cluding not a few whose Negativism and Agnos- ticism in the realm of theology are unequivocal, seem to fmd it possible to take a positive mental stand as respects the field of general metaphysics — to give assent, that is, to what sometimes is aptly designated as a 'philosophical creed.' Yet there can be no more justification, intellectually speak- ing, for assuming a positive position in the one case than in the other, since in both spheres the natural limitations of the human mind are equally pronounced. . . . \nA what Sir Leslie Stephen, in An Agnostic's Apology, asserts of natural theology is applicable to the entire field of metaphysics — namely, that 'there is not a single proof ... of which the negative has not been maintained as vigorously as the affirmative.' " — A. Kadeson, Through agnostic spectacles, pp. 16-IQ. — "Science deals entirely with phenomena, and has nothing to say as to the nature of the ultimate reality which may lie behind phenomena. There are four possible attitudes to this ultimate reality. There is the attitude of the metaphysician and theolo- gian, who are convinced not only that it exists but that it can be at least partly known. There is the attitude of the man who denies that it exists; but he must be also a metaphysician, for its existence can only be disproved by metaphysi- cal arguments. Then there are those who assert that it exists but deny that we can know anything about it. And finally there are those who say that we cannot know whether it exists or not. These last are 'agnostics' in the strict sense of the term, men who profess not to know. The third class go beyond phenomena in so far as they assert that there is an ultimate though unknow- able reality beneath phenomena. But agnostic is commonly used in a wide sense so as to include the third as well as the fourth class — those who assume an unknowable, as well as those who do not know whether there is an unknowable or not. Comte and Spencer, for instance, who be- lieved in an unknowable, are counted as agnos- tics." — J. B. Bury, History of the freedom of thought, pp. 213-214. AGODE. See Babylonia: Early Chaldean mon- archy. AGOGE, the public discipline enforced in an- cient Sparta ; the ordinances attributed to Lycur- gus, for the training of the young and for the regulating of the lives of citizens. — G. Schomann, Antiquity of Greece: the Stale, pi. 3, ch. i. AGOMAH.— Burned by the British (1916). See World War: igi6: V. Balkan theater: b, 2, ii. AGONCILLA, F., foreign agent and high commissioner of Philippines. Suggested negotia- tions with United States, but his proposition was refused. See U. S. A.: 1897 (November). AGORA.— The market-place of an ancient Greek city was, also, the center of its political life. "Like the gymnasium, and even earlier than this, it grew into architectural splendor with the increasing culture .of the Greeks. In maritime cities it generally lay near the sea; in inland places at the foot of the hill which carried the old feudal castle. Being the oldest part of the city, it natur- ally became the focus not only of commercial, but also of religious and political life. Here even in Homer's time the citizens assembled in consul- tation, for which purpose it was supplied with seats; here were the oldest sanctuaries; here were celebrated the first festive games; here centred the roads on which the intercommunication, both re- ligious and commercial, with neighbouring cities and states was carried on ; from here started the processions which continually passed between holy places of kindred origin, though locally separated. Although originally all public transactions were carried on in these market-places, special local ar- rangements for contracting public business soon became necessary in large cities. At Athens, for instance, the gently rising ground of the Philo- pappos hill, called Pnyx, touching the Agora, was used for political consultations, while most likely, about the time of the Pisistratides, the market of Kerameikos, the oldest seat of Attic industry (ly- ing between the foot of the Akropolis, the Areopa- gos and (he hill of Theseus), became the agora proper, i. e., the centre of Athenian commerce. . . . The description by Vitruvius of an agora evi- dently refers to the splendid structures of post- Ale.xandrine times. According to him it was quad- rangular in size [ ? shape] and surrounded by wide double colonades. The numerous columns carried architraves of common stone or of marble, and on the roofs of the porticoes were galleries for walk- ing purposes. This, of course, does not apply to all market-places, even of later date; but, upon the whole, the remaining specimens agree with the description of Vitruvius." — E. Guhl and W. Koner, Life of the Greeks and Romans, pt. i, sect. 26. — In the Homeric time, the general assembly of freemen was called the Agora. — G. Grote, His- tory of Greece, pt. i, ch. 20. — See also Athens: B.C. .161-431: General aspect of Periclean Athens AGORANOMI, magistrates in the Greek re- publics, similar to the aediles in Rome. They maintained order in the markets, settled disputes, collected harbor dues, and inspected goods offered for sale. AGRA, an ancient city of northern India, cap- ital of a district and of a division of the same name in the United Provinces; principally famous for the Taj Mahal, the supremely beautiful mau- soleum built in 1632 by the Mogul emperor Shah Jahan, for the remains of his favorite wife; also noted for the Pearl Mosque and other fine speci- mens of architecture; at one time capital of the Mogul empire; under British rule since 1803, and today a prosperous railroad, manufacturing and commercial center. — See also India: 1798-1805, and Map. AGRAM, in Slavic, ZSgrSb, capital of Croatia and Slavonia, an old but thoroughly modernized town, with handsome public buildings, churches, and monuments, higher colleges and academies. AGRAM TRIALS. See Austria-Hungary: 1 908- 1 909. T2I AGRARIAN LAWS AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES AGRARIAN LAWS (of ancient Rome) (Lat. ager, land), laws which dealt with the disposi- tion of the public land, since it was unconstitu- tional to gratuitously dispose of the state's prop- erty without the consent of the people. Such land was the property of the Roman state by virtue of the conquests, and was used by the Republic as a means of defrayinR in part the expenses of administration, cither throueh a direct sale, or through the leasing of it to private citi- zens. Often another object was achieved by means of this propcrt\' — the satisfaction of the poorer citizens. In such cases, contrary to instances when property was leased out, the state henceforth ceased to have any right in the land. The state availed itself of still another method of disposing of its surplus properties, that is through a gratui- tous assignment to an organization a colony, or a settlement. In such cases the ownership passed entirely into the hands of the assignee. In 232 B. C, C. Flaminius enacted a law by means of which tracts of land held by large landowners were redistributed in smaller allotments to the poorer people. Still a third method for providing land for unpropertied people was attempted. In 63 B. C. Servilius Rullus tried to have a law en- acted which would have allowed the sale of foreign lands gained through conquests and the purchase of land in Italy with that money, and finally the allotment of this land to the citizens. Cicero's opposition to the bill caused its withdrawal. — "Great mistakes formerly prevailed on the nature of the Roman laws familiarly termed .Agrarian. It was supposed that by these laws all land w'as declared common property, and that at certain intervals of time the state resumed possession and made a fresh distribution to all citizens, rich and poor. It is needless to make any remarks on the nature and consequences of such a law; sufficient it will be to say. what is now known to all, that at Rome such laws never existed, never were thought of. The lands which were to be distrib- uted by Agrarian laws were not private property, but the property of the state. They were, origi- nally, those public lands which had been the do- main of the kings, and which were increased whenever any city or people was conquered by the Romans; because it was an Italian practice to confiscate the lands of the conquered, in whole or in part." — H. G. Liddell. History of Rome, bk. 2, ch. 8. — ^Sec also Rome: Republic: B C. 133-121; .V.RicuLxrRF.: Modern period: United States: 1833- 1860; Ireland: 1858-1860; Russu: iqoq (April) and 1Q16: Condition of peasantry; Yucatan: igii- IQlS. AGRARIAN LEAGUE. See German\-: 1890- 1804: i8o!;-i8q8. AGRARIAN MOVEMENT. See AcRictn.- TURE. AGRARIAN PARTY. Sec .\x'Stria: 1006- 1000; Finland: iq20. AGRARIAN REFORM: Rumania. See Ru- MANU: Break up of large estates. AGREEMENTS, International: Copyrights, Extradition, etc. See .American republics, Ixter- national union of: iqoi-1002; .Arbitration, In- ternational; also under specific articles AGRI DECUMATES.— "Between the Rhine and the Upper Danube there intervenes a triangu- lar tract of land, the apex of which touches the confines of Switzerland at Basel ; thus separating, as with an enormous wedge, the provinces of Gaul and Vindelicia, and presenting at its base no nat- ural line of defence from one river to the other This tract w-as. however, occupied, for the most part, by forests, and if it broke the line of the Roman defences, it might at least be considered impenetrable to an enemy. Abandoned by the warlike and predatory tribes of Germany,, it was seized by wandering immigrants from Gaul, many of them Roman adventurers, before whom the original inhabitants, the Marcomanni, or men of the frontier, seem to have retreated eastward be- yond the Hercynian forest. The intruders claimed or solicited Roman protection, and offered in re- turn a tribute from the produce of the soil, whence the district itself came to be known by the title of the -Agri Decumates, or Tithed Land. It was not, however, officially connected with any prov- ince of the Empire, nor was any attempt madt- to provide for its permanent security, till a period much later than that on which we are now en- gaged [the period of .Augustus]." — C. Merivale, History of the Romans under the empire, ch. 36. — "Wurtcmburg, Baden and Hohenzollern coincide with the .Agri Decumates of the Roman writers. ' — R. G. Latham, Ethnology of Europe, ch. 8. AGRICOLA, Georg (1400-155.0, founder of modern metallurgy. See Science: Middle Ages and the Renaissance. AGRICOLA, Gnaeus Julius (AD. 37-92), Roman general and statesman; held various posts; commanded a legion in Britain, 70-73; governor of .Aquitania, 74-7S; of Britain, 78-85; built a wall from the Frith of Forth, to the Frith of Clyde. See Britain: A.D. 7S-S4, AGRICULTURAL AGENCIES, need of co- operation. See .Agriculture: Modern period: United States: Rural policv. AGRICULTURAL BANKS. See Rur.al credit. AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. See Chemistry. .Agricultltral. AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES. See Educa- tion. .ACRlrULTl'RAL. AGRICULTURAL COOPERATION. See Cooperation: Belgium. AGRICULTURAL CREDIT. See Rural CREDIT AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. See Edu- cation, .AGRICl'LTURiL. AGRICULTURAL EXPANSION IN UNITED STATES. See Agriculture: Modern period: United States: 1860-18S8: Expansion after the Civil War. AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STA- TIONS. See Education, .Agricultural: United States. AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION WORK. See Education, .Agricultural: United States: Sta- tistics of agricultural colleges. AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS, Im provement of. See .AcRicirLTURE : Modern period: United States: i860- 1888: Expansion after the Civil War. AGRICULTURAL LAND BILL. See Eng- land: iSofi. AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS. See Educa- tion, .AC.RICULTUR.\L. AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES, associations for the promotion of agricultural science and knowledge, composed of farmers and other inter- ested persons. .Agricultural associations were first formed in the middle of the eighteenth century, some of the most important now in existence dat- ing from that time. In recent years the tendency has been to form agricultural associations not only for purposes of education and research, but also in order to assist the farmer directly through co- operation. A list of the most important agricultural so- cieties is appended: 1 22 AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURE 1. Denmark: Royal Danish ARiicultiiral Society. 2. France: Society of Auricullurista of France. National Society of Agriculture. 3. Germany: German ."VRricultural Society. 4. United Kingdom: Bath and West of England Society (1774)- Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland (17S4). Roval Agricultural Socictv of ICngland Agricultural Organization Society, Eng- land and Wales — cooperative (igoi). Royal Dublin Society (1749). S- United States: Farmers' Alliance. Patrons of Husbandry (the Grange). Farmers' Educational and Cooperative Union. AGRICULTURAL SYSTEM: Relation to slavery. See .\griculture: .\ncient period: De- velopment of the servile system among the Ro- mans; Sl.werv; United States. AGRICULTURE "So bountiful has been the earth and so se- curely have we drawn from it our substance, that wc have taken it all for granted as if it were only a gift, and with little care or conscious thought of the consequences of our use of it; nor have we very much considered the essential relation that we bear to it as living parts in the vast creation. Wc may distinguish three stages in our relation to the planet, — the collecting stage, the mining stage, and the producing stage. These overlap and perhaps are nowhere distinct, and yet it serves a purpose to contrast them. At first man sweeps the earth to see what he may gather, — game, wood, fruits, fish, fur, feathers, shells on the shore. A certain social and moral life arises out of this relation, seen well in the woodsmen and the fish- ers — in whom it best persists to Vai present day — strong, dogmatic, superstitious folk. Then man begins to go beneath the surface to see what he can fmd, — iron and precious stones, the gold of Ophir, coal, and many curious treasures. This develops the exploiting faculties, and leads men into the uttermost parts. In both these stages the elements of waste and disregard have been heavy. Finally, we begin to enter the productive stage, whereby we secure supplies by controlling the conditions under which they grow, wasting little, harming not. Farming has been very much a mining process, the utilizing of fertility easily at hand and the moving-on to lands unspoiled of quick potash and nitrogen. Now it begins to be really productive and constructive, with a range of responsible and permanent morals. . . . Neces- sarily, the proportion of farmers will decrease. Not so many arc needed, relatively, to produce the requisite supplies from the earth. Agriculture makes a great contribution to human progress by releasing men for the manufactures and the trades. In proportion as the ratio of farmers decreases it is important that wc provide them the best of opportunities and encouragement: they must be better and better men. .And if we are to secure our moral connection with the planet to a large e.xtent through them, we can see that they bear a relation to society in general that we have over- looked. ... If the older stages were strongly ex- pressed in the character of the people, so will this new stage be expressed ; and so it is that we are escaping the primitive and should be coming into a new character. We shall find our rootage in the soil." — L. H. Bailey, Holy earth, pp. 22-24.— See also Europe: Stone h%c. "The history of our Domestic Animals and Cul- tivated Plants is a subject of absorbing interest to the educated man, and (if he knew it) to the un- educated man too. It forms no small part of the history of Man himself and his slow advance to civilization. . . . .\nd who can state the sum of our obliguliuub to the shccii, the pig, the camel, the dog, and even poor mou.sing Puss? Or why should Chanticleer and his family, with other bipeds of the poultry-yard, be forgotten? .And much the same may be said of Cultivated Plants —the grains, the potherbs, garden-flowers, fruit- trees, timber, and even ornamental trees. Now the history of the Plants and .\nimal5 of Europe— of their reclamation from a wild state to the service of man, and their distribution in their present locale— is susceptible of two or three dif- ferent methods of investigation, which sometimes clash, and lead to opposite conclusions. It is certain that some of them are not natives of the countries where we find them; that they have been imported from abroad. But which of them? whence, and along what route? how early, and by whom? Our answers to these questions will be different, accordingly as wc lean chiefly on Natural Science, or on Ancient History, Literature, and even Language. . . . That the animal and vege- table worlds— that is to say, the whole physiog- nomy of life, labour, and landscape in a country — may, in the course of centuries, be changed under the hand of Man is an ex-perimental fact that, especially since the discovery of America, cannot be contradicted. During the last three centuries — in a purely historical period, since the invention of printing, and in full view of the civilized world— the native animals and plants in newly discovered islands and in the colonized countries of the Western Hemisphere have been supplanted b>- tho.se of Europe, or by a flora and fauna collected from all parts of the globe." — V. Hehn, Citllivated plants and domestic ani- mals, pp. vii-viii, 17. ANCIENT PERIOD Beginnings of plant cultivation. — "In the progress of civilization the beginnings are usually feeble, obscure, and limited. There are reasons why this should be the case with the first attempts at agriculture and horticulture. Between the cus- tom of gathering wild fruits, grain, and roots and that of the regular cultivation of the plants v.-hich produce them there are several steps. . . . Cer- tain trees may exist near a dwelling without our knowing whether they were planted, or whether the hut was built beside them in order to profit by them. War and the chase often interrupt at- tempts at cultivation. Rivalry and mistrust cause the imitation of one tribe by another to make but slow progress. If some great personage command the cultivation of a plant, and institute some cere- mony to show its utility, it is probably because obscure and unknown men have previously spoken of it, and that successful experiments have already 123 AGRICULTURE, ANCIENT Plant CuUivation AGRICULTURE, ANCIENT been made. A longer or shorter succession of local and short-lived ejiperiments must have occurred before such a display, which is calculated to im- press an already numerous public. It is easy to understand that there must have been determin- ing causes to excite these attempts, to renew them, to make them successful. The first cause is that such or such a plant, offering some of those ad- vantages which all men seek, must be within reach. The lowest savages know the plants of their country ; but the example of the Austra- lians and Patagonians shows that if they do not consider them productive and easy to rear, they do not entertain the idea of cultivating them. Other conditions are sufficiently evident: a not too rigorous climate ; in hot countries, the moder- ate duration of drought ; some degree of security and settlement; lastly, a pressing necessity, due to insufficient resources in fishing, hunting, or in the production of indigenous and nutritious plants, such as the chestnut, the datepalm, the banana, or the bread fruit tree. When men can live with- out work it is what they like best. Besides, the element of hazard in hunting and fishing attracts primitive, and sometimes civilized, man more than the rude and regular labor of cultivation. . . . The various causes which favor or obstruct the begin- nings of .agriculture explain why certain regions have been for thousands of years peopled by hus- bandmen, while others are still inhabited by no- madic tribes. It is clear that, owing to their well- known qualities and to the favorable conditions of climate, it was at an early period found easy to cultivate rice and several leguminous plants in Southern Asia, barley and wheat in Mesopotamia and in Egypt, several species of Panicum [millet and other grains] in Africa, maize, the potato, the sweet potato, and manioc in America. Centers were thus formed whence the most useful species were diffused. In the north of Asia, of Europe, and of America the climate is unfavorable and the indigenous plants are unproductive ; but as hunting and fishing offered their resources, agri- culture must have been introduced there late, and it was possible to dispense with the good species of the south without great suffering. It was differ- ent in .Australia, Patagonia, and even in the south of .Africa. They were out of reach of the plants of the temperate region in our hemisphere, and the indigenous species were very poor. It is not merely the want of intelligence or security that has prevented the inhabitants from cultivating them. Europeans established in these countries for a hundred years have cultivated only a single species, and that an insignificant green vegetable. "The ancient Egyptians and the Phtrnicians propagated many plants in the region of the Medi- terranean, and the .'\ryan nations,' whose migrations toward Europe began about 2500, or at latest 2000 B. C, carried with them several species al- ready cultivated in Western Asia. Some plants were probably cultivated in Europe and in the north of -Africa prior to the .Aryan migration. This is shown by names in languages more ancient than the .Aryan tongues; for instance, Finn, Ba.sque, Berber, and the speech of the Guanches of the Canary Isles. However, the remains, called kitchen middens, of ancient Danish dwellings have hitherto furnished no proof of cultivation or any indication of the possession of metal. This ab- sence of metals does not in these northern coun- tries argue a greater antiquity than the age of Pericles, or even the palmy days of the Roman republic Later, when bronze was known in Swe- den — a region far removed from the then civilized countries — agriculture had at length been intro- duced. .Among the remains of that epoch was found a carving of a cart drawn by two oxen and driven by a man. The ancient inhabitants of Eastern Switzerland, at a time when they pos- sessed instruments of polished stone and no metals, cultivated several plants, some of which were of .Asiatic origin. The remains of the Lake-dwellers of .Austria prove likewise a completely primitive agriculture: no cereals have been found at Laibach and only a single grain of wheat at the Mondsce. The backward condition of agriculture in this east- ern part of Europe is contrary to the hypothesis, based on a few words used by ancient historians, that the .\ryans sojourned first in the region of the Danube. In spite of this example, agriculture ap- pears in general to have been more ancient in the temperate parts of Europe than we should be inclined to believe from the Greeks, who were dis- posed to attribute the origin of all progress 10 their own nation. "In .\merica agriculture is perhaps not quite so ancient as in .Asia and Egypt, if we are to judge from the civilization of jlexico and Peru, which does not date even from the first centuries of the Christian era. [See Peru: Empire of the Incas; 1200-1527.] However, the widespread cultiva- tion of certain plants, such as maize, tobacco, and the sweet potato, argues a considerable an- tiquity, perhaps two thousand years or there- abouts. History is at fault in this matter and we can only Jiope to be enlightened by the discov- eries of archseology and geology. Men have not discovered and cultivated within the last two thousand years a single species which can rival maize, rice, the sweet potato, the potato, the breadfruit, the date, cereals, millets, sorghums, the banana, soy. These date from three, four, or five thousand years, perhaps even in some cases six thousand years. The species first cultivated dur- ing the Grsco-Roman civilization and later . . nearly all answer to more varied or more refined needs. \ great dispersion of the ancient species from one country to another took place, and at the same time a selection of the best varieties de- veloped in each species. . . . The peoples of South- ern and Western .^sia innovated in a certain de- gree by cultivating the buckwheats, several cu- curbitacea? [cucumbers, melons, etc.], a few al- liums [garlic, chives, leek], etc. In Europe, the Romans and several peoples in the Middle Ages introduced the cultivation of a few vegetables and fruits, and that of several fodders. In .Africa, a few species were then first cultivated separately. .After the voyages of Vasco da Gama and of Columbus a rapid diffusion took place of the species already cultivated in either hemisphere. These transports continued during three centuries without any introduction of new species into cul- tivation. We must come to the middle of the present [10] century t^ find new cultures of any value from the utilit.-.rian point of view, such as the Eiicalyplus globulus of .Australia and the Cin- chonas of South .America." — .A. P. De Candolle. Beginnings of plant cjiUivation (E. G. Nourse, Agricultural economics, pp. 2,^-27). Tree and vine culture. — "WTierever the cultiva- tion of the three . . . plants— the vine, the fii;, and the olive — was prosecuted on a large scale, there the face of the country and the habits and manners of the people were of necessity changed. Tree-culture was one step more on the path to settled habitations; with and by it men first be- came permanently domiciled. The transition from a nomadic to a settled life has nowhere been sud- den ; it was always accomplished in many inter- mediate stages, at each one of which the shepherd 124 AGRICULTURE, ANCIENT £,ome//if "imma/s AGRICULTURE, ANCIENT hastily sows a piece of ground, from which he as hastily gathers the ensuing harvest ; next spring he chooses another and iresh piece, which is no sooner stripped ol its spoils than he neglects it in turn. When a tribe has settled on some es- pecially fertile spot, building fragile huts, there too the soil is exhausted in a few years; the tribe breaks up its quarters, loads its animals and wag- gons with its movable goods, and goes on to new ground. Even when such a settlement has be- come more permanent, the idea of individual right to the ground is not yet realized. The cultivated land, of which there is an abundance in compari- son to the scanty population, is common prop- erty like the pastures, and is divided anew among the people every year. Such was the condition of the Germans in the time of Tacitus, and this is the plain meaning of that historian's words, which have been carefully explained in a contrary and more welcome sense by patriotic commentators. The communistic, half-nomadic form of civiliza- tion, which was closely connected with ancient patriarchal life, still prevails in many parts of Russia, among the Tartars, Bedouins, and other races. During this first stage of agriculture, cattle- breeding is still the principal occupation, milk and flesh are the staple food, roving and plunder the ruling passion. The huts or houses are lightly built of wood, and easily take lire; the plough is nothing but a pointed branch guided by slaves taken in war, and only slightly scratches the ground ; the foresight of the community is very short, extending only from spring to autumn. The sowing of seed in winter is a considerable ad- vance, but the decisive step is taken when the Culture of Trees commences. Then only arises the feeling of a settled home and the idea of property. For a tree requires nursing and watering for many years before it will bear fruit, after which it yields a harvest every year, while the covenant with the annual 'grass' which Demeter taught men to sow is at an end the moment the grain is gathered. A hedge, the sign of complete possession, is raised to protect the vineyard or the orchard; for the mere husbandman a boundary stone had been suf- ficient. The sown field must wait for dew and rain, but the tree-planter teaches the mountain rivulet to wind round his orchards, and in so doing gets involved in questions of law and property with his neighbours — questions that can only be solved by a fixed political organization. One of the oldest political documents with which we are acquainted, the treaty sworn to by the Delphic Amphictyons, contains a decree that 'running water shall not be cut off from any of the allied cities either in peace or in war.' " — V. Hehn, Cultivated plants and domestic animals. Domestic animals. — "In the East and around the Mediterranean, wherever the summers are rain- less, vegetation was threatened with destruction by drought during the three or four hot months of every year. In these countries, therefore, from the earliest times, the art of irrigation, the banking and diverting of streams, their horizontal distribu- tion, the digging of canals, the making of dams and bores, of water-wheels and wells, were prac- tised. So necessary was all this labour under the sunny skies, that it was continued from generation to generation until it became a second nature and innate skill. And as the art of irrigation was originally a sign of awakening reason, it also be- came a powerful stimulant to further mental de- velopment. It bound man to man, not by the stupid natural gregariousness common to beasts, but by free reciprocity, the first germ of all com- munities and states. . . . When the great Aryan Migration brought the first inhabitants of a higher race, that we are historically acquainted with, into the two peninsulas which afterwards became the scene of classic culture, those lands (we may imagine) were covered with thick, impenetrable forests of dark firs and evergreen ilexes, or decidu- ous oaks . . . interspersed in the river valleys with more open stretches of meadow land, grazed by the herds of the newcomers, and with many a naked or grass-grown precipice, climbed by the nibbling sheep, from whose summits here and there could be seen the waste, unfruitful sea. The swine found plenteous nourishment in the abun- dant acorns, the dog guarded the flocks, wild honey-combs furnished wax and honey, wild apple, pear, and sloe trees afforded a hard, sour fruit; at the stag and boar, wild ox and ravening wolf the arrow sped from the bow, or the sharp, stone- tipped spear was hurled. Game and domestic ani- mals furnished all that was needed: skins for clothing, horns for drinking vessels, sinews and entrails for bow-strings, bones for tools and their handles. Raw hides were the principal material, and needles of bone or horn served to stitch them together. The osier boat was covered with hide, and the leathern coat was sewed together with the sinews of bulls. . , . From the bark of trees, es- pecially of the lime tree, and from the fibres of the stalks of many plants, principally of the nettle kind, the women plaited (plaiting is a very an- cient art, the forerunner of weaving, which it nearly resembles) mats and web-like stuffs, hunt- ing and fishing nets. Milk and flesh were the staple food, and salt a favourite condiment, but difficult to procure, and sought for on the sea- shore and in the ashes of plants. The farther south the easier it became to winter the cattle, which up in the north found but scanty nourish- ment beneath the snow, and in severe seasons must have perished wholesale ; for the sheltering of cattle and the storing of dried grass against the winter are inventions of later origin, that followed in the wake of a somewhat advanced husbandry. The domestic animals were of poor breed. The pig, for example, was the small so-called peat- pig (torf-swine), far inferior to the animal now improved by cultivation and commerce. In winter the human dwelling-place was a hole in the ground, artificially dug, and roofed over with turf or dung; in summ&r it was the waggon itself, or, in the woods, a light tent-like hut, made of branches and wicker work. . . . The noble horse, the darling and companion of the hero, the de- light of poets (witness the splendid descriptions in the Book of Job and in Homer's Iliad) — that glossy, proud, aristocratic, quivering, nervous ani- mal, with its rhythmic action — has his home never- theless in one of the wildest and most inhospitable regions of the world — the steppes and pasture- lands of Central Asia, the realm of storms. There, we are assured, the wild horse still roams under the name of Tarpan, which tarpan cannot always be distinguished from the only half-wild Musin, or fugitive from tame or half-tame herds. It grazes in troops, under a wary leader, always moving against the wind, nostrils and ears alert to every danger, and not seldom struck by a wild panic which drives it full speed across the im- measurable plain. During the terrible winter of the steppes, it scrapes the snow away with its hoofs, and scantily feeds on the dead grasses and leaves which it finds beneath. It has a thick, flowing mane and bushy tail, and when the winter cold commences, the hair all over its body grows into a kind of thin fur. And in this very region lived the first equestrian races of whom we have 125 AGRICULTURE, ANCIENT Domestic Animals AGRICULTURE, ANCIENT any knowledge — in the east the Mongols, in the west the Turks; taking those names in their wid- est sense. . . . That the horse in its original wild- ness also roamed westward of Turkestan, over the steppes of the present South-eastern and Southern Russia, and to the foot of the Carpathi- ans, seems likely enough; not so likely that even the forest region of Central Europe once abounded in troops of that animal. .\nd yet much his- torical testimony seems to put the fact beyond a doubt. Varro speaks of Spanish wild horses; and Strabo writes, 'In Iberia there are many deer and wild horses.' Wild horses as well as wild bulls lived among the Alps, as we learn again from Strabo ; and Pliny tells us, not only in the Alps but in the north generally. Nor are ihe Middle Ages wanting in proofs of the existence ul wild horses in Germany and the countries east of Germany. At the time of Venantius Fortunatus the onager — under which name may be understood the wild horse — was hunted in the Ardennes, as well as bears, stags, and wild boars. In Italy wild horses were seen for the first time during the rule of the Longobards, under King Agilulf. ... If wild horses were thus found in the culti- vated west and south of Germany, they must have existed still longer in the wild country on the Baltic, in Poland and Russia. In fact, we find innumerable proofs of this down to modern times. At the time of Bishop Otto of Bamberg, in the first half of the twelfth century, Pomerania was rich in all kinds of game, including wild oxen and horses. At the same period wild horses are men- tioned as extant in Silesia, whence Duke Sobeslaus in 1 132 'carried away many captives, and herds of wild marcs not a few.' It is known, and is confirmed by many literary allusions, that till the time of the Reformation, and even later, the woods of Prussia were inhabited by wild horses. . . . Turning from the European chase to the steppes of Asia, the true home of the wild horse, we meet with the important fact, that the farther a country lies from this point of departure, the later is the appearance of the horse and its his- torical mention in that country, and the more clearly are the modes of breeding the animal seen to be derived from neighbouring nations to the east and north-east of it. In Egypt, to begin with the remotest member, no figure of a horse or of a war-chariot has ever been found under the so- called 'old kingdom.' It is only when the period of the Shepherd Kings is over, and the eighteenth dynasty with its campaigns has commenced (about 1800 B. C), that we find both pictorial repre- sentations and the first mention in the papyri (so far as they have been deciphered) of the horse and of war-chariots equipped in, Asiatic fashion. ... As to the time when the horse became known to the Semites of Western .'Vsia, we are limited to the evidence of the Old Testament — the Penta- teuch, the Book of Joshua, etc.; but when were these books written? There is not a i)iece in this collection that does not consist of different parts, or that has not passed through the hands of suc- cessive revisers. . . . Descriptions of the horse are not wanting in the so-called books of Moses, nor in the historical books. . . . But in these descrip- tions the horse is never mentioned as a domesti- cated animal; it has nn share in the wanderings and battles of the Children of Israel ; it is the war- like .servant of their neichbours and enemies, prancing and stamping before the war-chariot or beneath the rider As a war-horse, and as such only, it is also celebrated in the fitic description in the Book of Job. In the household its place is taken by the ass. 'Thou shalt not covet,' says the Decalogue, the commands of which were de- rived from a relatively very ancient period, 'thy neighbour's wife, . . . nor his ox, nor his ass, nor anything that is his.' The horse, the chief ob- ject of rapine among mounted nomads, is here, very signihcantly, never mentioned. . . . We are told later that King Josiah abolished, among other heathen abominations, the horses and chariots that were sacred to the sun — this was a feature of the Iranian worship of the sun introduced from Media. . . . Nowhere in the Old Testament do we find horses accompanying the shepherds of the Ara- bian desert ; those people travel only with camels and asses, and the mode of warfare in the despotic kingdoms from the Tigris to the Nile is unknown to them. Quite in agreement with the above is the fact that the Arabs in the army of Xerxes rode only on camels. Herodotus writes, 'The .\rabs were all mounted on camels, which yielded not to horses in swiftness.' And Strabo informs us that in Arabia FelLx there were neither horses nor mules: 'There is a superfluity of domestic ani- mals and herds, with the exception of horses, mules, and swine.' " — V. Hehn, Cultivated plants and domestic animals, pp. 26, 30-32, 35, 37-38, 40-42. "If we take all the above data together, we find that nowhere in Europe, neither among the classic nations of the south, nor the North-Euro- pean nations from the (relts in the west to the Slavs in the east, is the high antiquity of the horse and of its subjugation to man betrayed by any clear traces or undoubted evidence. Many facts, indeed, seem positively to exclude any acquaint- ance with the animal in early times; for instance, the fact of the Homeric Greeks not riding, as they must have dune had they possessed the animal from the first, but only driving, as they had seen the .Asiatics do. We have therefore no ground for imagining the Indo-Germans (.\ryans) in their earliest migrations as a horse-riding people, gal- loping over Europe with loose rein, and catching men and animals with horse-hair lasso. But if the horse did not then accompany them on their great march through the world, it must have been the Iranian branch, which remained near the original point of departure, that learnt the art of riding later; and from whom did they learn it if not from Ihe Turks, who dwell next behind them, and in course of time' drew nearer and nearer? Contemporaneous with the adoption of the novel culture, because closely connected with it, were the introduction of the Ass, the breeding of .Kfutes, and the propagation of the Goat. The patient, hardworking, and intelligent Ass, which obediently fulfilled many domestic duties — driving the mill and the draw-well; carrying baskets full of earth to the hills ; and accompanying its master to market and feast, loaded with the produce of the soil — had no need of fat meadows, shady trees, and ample space like the ox ; it was content with what c.'une first, the way-side herb, the refuse of the table, with straw, twigs, thistles, and brambles. That the ass came to Greece from Semitic .'\sia Minor and Syria^though its original home may have been .•\frica, where its relations still live — is taught us by the history of language, and con- firmed by the oldest known conditions of nations and culture. In the epic time, when cattle-breed- ing and agriculture were the chief occupations, the ass had not yet become a common domestic ani- mal; it is only mentioned cure in the lli:id. and that only in a simile invented and inserted by a poet who was prejuilked against the S dam'nians and .Athenians; the simile is paradoxical and awk- wardly paired with the one preceding. In the 126 AGRICULTURE, ANCIENT Domesfic Animals AGRICULTURE, ANCIENT Odyssey, the second part of which afforded plenty of opportunity for noticing such an animal, the ass is never named at all ; nor is it spoken of by Hesiod. As the Latin word asinus has an archaic form which seems to reach back to a period pre- ceding the Greek colonization, the animal must have come into Italy overland through the lUyrian tribes; or must we suppose that the people of Cumas, wher) they founded their first city on the present Isle of Ischia, still said asiiosr' Later on, in Italy the ass, besides being valued for the do- mestic duties he performed, was of great use in facilitating import and export in the mountainous parts of the peninsula. Oil and wine and even corn were carried on donkey-back from the in- terior to the sea ; Varro tells us that merchants kept herds of asses expressly for that purpose. The ass, and with it its name, accompanied the progress of the culture of the vine and olive to the north, not crossing the limits of that culture. In proportion as the ure-ox, the bison, and the elk died out, the long-eared foreign beast became domesticated in Gaul, receiving various names, and living in the customs, jokes, proverbs, and fables of the people. Germany, however, proved too cold for the animal. The Mule, already fre- quently mentioned by Homer, came from Pontic Asia Minor, or, as Homer expressly says, from the Henetians, a Paphlagonian people. "The Mulus, or mule, was brought to Italy, as the name proves, from Greece. The Latin name was afterwards used by all the nations which adopted the animal. In V'arro's time, just as now, cars were drawn along the high-roads by mules, which were not only strong, but pleased the eye by their handsome appearance. The Greeks were equally delighted with the animal, and Nausicaa's car is drawn to the sea-shore and back by mules. The Goat was used as a domestic animal in the mountainous districts of the south, where culti- vation more resembled that of gardens than of fields. It feeds on the spicy herbs that grow on sun-heated cliffs, is content with tough shrubs, and yields aromatic milk. Stony Attica, which was rich in figs and olives, also nourished in- numerable goats; and one of the four old Attic phylae was named after the goat. Even if the animal came into Europe with the first Aryan immigrants,, and accordingly the Hellenes and Ital- ians had not to make its acquaintance after reach- ing their new home, yet it was only there, and under the Semitic mode of cultivation there adopted, that it found its proper place and true use. It is obvious, too, that the keeping of Bees could only have been adopted after the rise of tree-culture. The man who planted his owrt olives, for the fruit of which he had to wait for years, could easily keep beehives within his en- closed ground, nursing the bees through the winter, increasing their number by colonies derived from the parent-stock, and in due season receiving the reward of his exertions in the shape of honey and wax. Aristasus, the inventor of oil, also in- vented apiculture, and Autuchos, i, e., the self- possessing, is named as his brother. Homer knows nothing of beehives; the simile of the Achaeans gathering together 'like bees flying out of a cleft in the rock.' is derived from the swarming of wild bees. We first meet with an artificial bee- hive in a not very old passage in Hesiod's The- ogony ; in it the working-bees are distinguished from the drones, which latter are compared to women I In those days the shepherd robbed the wild honeycombs which he found in the forest, and if the spoil was abundant be made mead of the honey ; the husbandman fermented his flour into a kind of raw beer; the vintner often mixed the honey from his hives with his wine, which he then called muhum, and believed that the enjoy- ment of this beverage would lengthen his days. . . . The domestic joid made its appearance in Western .'Vsia and in Europe much later than one would imagine. The civilized Semitic races can- not have been acquainted with the fowl, for it is nowhere mentioned in the Old Testament. It is never seen on Egyptian monuments otherwise so lull of the details of ancient housekeeping on the Nile. There we see tlocks of tame geese being driven home from the pasture, we see them and their eggs being carefully counted, but nowhere cocks and henS; and when Aristotle and Diodorus say that eggs were artificially hatched in Egypt by burying them in dung, they must mean the eggs of geese and ducks, or refer to a period later than the Persian conquest, which Diodorus seems to hint, for lie commences his account of the tiatcliing ovens with the words: 'The Egyptians inherited many customs relating to the breeding and rearing of animals from their fore-fathers, but other things they have invented, among which the most wonderful is the artificial hatching ot eggs.' The domestic fowl is aboriginal in India, where its supposed parent species, the Bankiva fowl, still exists from Further India and the Indian islands to Cashmere. The domestic fowl first migrated to the West with the Medo-Per- sian invaders. In a work on the Temple of the Samian Hera, Herodotus says that as the cock spread from Persis, so the sacred pe.icuck spread from the Temple of Hera to the surrounding dis- tricts. In the religion of Zoroaster the dog and the cock were sacred animals; the first as the faithful guardian of house and flocks, the second as the herald of dawn and the symbol of light and the sun, , . , Soon after the appearance of cocks and hens in Greece, whole families of these fowls must have been transported to Sicily and South Italy, and there, as in Greece, spread from house to house. That the Sybarites would suffer no cocks near them for fear of being disturbed in their sleep is one of those late-invented anecdotes by which people proved their wit. Sybaris was destroyed in 510 B, C., when the cock was un- known in Italy, or only just introduced. The figure of a cock may be seen on coins of Himera in Sicily, and sometimes the figure of a hen on the reverse side, perhaps as an attribute of .'\sk- lepios, the genius of the healing springs of the lilace. The oldest representations of the cock on coins and vases in Greece, Sicily, and Italy, never go beyond the date we have given, namely, the second half of the sixth century B, C, The Romans, to whom the bird was brought either directly or indirectly from one of these Greek towns, made use of it with truly Roman religious craft as a means of prophecy in war. . . . There is no direct historical testimony as to the manner in which domestic fowls were introduced into Central and Southern Europe. They may have come straight from Asia to the kindred nations of the South Russian steppes and the eastern slopes of the Carpathian mountains, whose religion agreed with that of the other Iranian races, and some of whom already practised agriculture in the time of Herodotus; or by way of the Greek colonies on the Black Sea, the influence of which, as is well known, spread far and wide; or from Thrace to the tribes on the Danube; or from Italy by way of the ancient commercial roads across the Alps; or through Massilia to the regions of the Rhone and Rhine; or, finally, by several of these ways at once. The more a people of 127 AGRICULTURE, ANCIENT %7men/plZd" AGRICULTURE, ANCIENT nomadic habits accustomed themselves to a set- tled mode of life, the. more easily would the do- mestic fowl find shelter and acceptance among them. In the middle of the first century B. C. Caesar found fowls among the Britons, though perhaps only among those who tilled the ground near the south coast and had adopted the cul- ture of the Gauls. . . . While the number of mam- malia that man has tamed and made companions of has only slightly increased in historical times, the farms and settlements of men have become en- riched, at a comparatively late period, with va- rious tame birds, among which the domestic fowl is the most important. Bird and cattle-breeding are to a certain extent opposed to one another. It is not where wide plains fertilized by copious droppings stretch in immeasurable corn-fields and green meadows, and are bordered by thick forests, but in the sunny districts of more restricted horti- culture, where farm stands close to farm, and hedge succeeds to hedge — it is here that the winged tribe peck and flutter about the human habita- tion, forming a not-to-be-undervalued source of sustenance and income in the system of the house- hold. Thus in Europe the Romance nations are, in accordance with tfieir habitat and tradition, the bird-breeding, bird-eating peoples: the Germans, on the contrary, feed principally on the flesh and milk of their cattle. France, at a moderate cal- culation, possesses above a hundred million fowls, and exports to England yearly above four hun- dred million eggs. In southern countries the only meat that the traveller tastes, often for months together, and that the native peasant regales him- self with on feast-days, is a fowl roasted or boiled with polenta. The taming of the Goose and the Dtick is far more ancient than that of the birds hitherto mentioned; and, what is more, they were not introduced from Asia, but have been re- claimed from the wild native species. ... By the Greeks the goose was considered a graceful bird, admired for its beauty, and an elegant present for favoured friends. In the Odyssey, Penelope has a little flock of twenty geese, in which she takes much pleasure, as we learn from the beautiful passage in which she relates her dream to her dis- guised husband. Here the geese appear as do- mestic animals, kept more for the pleasure the sight of them affords than for any profit they might bring. So, in the Edda, Gudrun keeps geese, which scream when their mistress laments over the corpse of Sigurd. At the same time, the Greeks valued geese as careful guardians of the house ; on the grave of a good housewife was placed the figure of a goose as a tender tribute to her quality of — vigilance ! Among the Romans perfectly white geese were carefully selected and used for breeding, so that in course of time a white and lamer species was produced, which differed considerably from the grey wild goose and its direct descendants. In ancient as in modern Italy the goose was not so commonly found on small farms as in the North, partly because the necessary water was scarce, and partly because of the damage she caused to the young vegeta- tion. But numerous flocks of this bird cackled in the huge goose-pens of breeders and proprietors of villas; there the enormous liver that made the mouth of the gourmand water was produced by forced fattening — an artificial disease which was poor thanks for their saving of the Capitol. The use of goose feathers for stuffing beds or cushions was foreign to early antiquity ; the later Romans first learned the practice from the Celts and Ger- mans. . . . "It was also in consequence of the Migration of I Nations that the Bos family — that first friend of man when emerging out of barbarism — was en- riched by the addition of a kinsman from the South, endowed with tremendous pulling power, the black and scowling Buffalo. He now lives in the moist, hot malaria plains of Italy, enjoying their slime, and defying their venomous vapours; the maremmas of Tuscany, the bottomlands about the Tiber's mouth, the Pontine marshes, the swamps of Psstum, the Basilicata; also in the landes of Gascony, in many parts of Hungary, etc. The Pontine buffaloes wallow like immense swine in the high reeds of the swamps, standing still at the sound of a carriage on the high road, and stupidly staring at the traveller; or, when teased by gad-flies, hiding up to the muzzle in the water. The buffalo is employed, like the ox, in dragging the heavy plough, or the loaded har- vest waggon; its milk is made into highly valued cheese (called in Naples muzzarello), and, after death, its thick, heavy skin forms the strongest leather. . . . While progressive culture has almost exterminated those savage, obstinate, and kingly inhabitants of the European forests, the ure-ox and the bison, the buffalo was brought by immi- grating nations from the borders of India to the southern coasts of Italy. Aristotle describes a wild ox living in Arachosia, near modern Kabool, which can be no other than our present buffalo. During the succeeding centuries that animal must have migrated farther west. It was first seen in Italy about the year 600 A. D., in the reign of the Longobardian king, Agilulf — Paul. Diac. 4, 11: 'Then for the first time wild horses and buf- faloes were brought to Italy, and regarded as wonders by the Italian people.' We must be grateful to the Longobardian monk for this re- port, for how seldom do the historians, who have enough to do with questions of war and govern- ment, throw us a crumb of what relates to cul- ture; but we should have liked something still more exact." — V. Hehn, Cultivated plants and do- mestic animals, pp. 59, et seg. Pastoral life of the Homeric period. — The early Greeks, "as they come before us in the Homeric poems, are rather a pastoral than an agricultural race. It is in their herds of cattle, sheep, and swine, rather than in the produce of their lands, that the wealth of the heroic kings consisted. It was cattle which furnished them with a measure of value; and cattle, together with slaves, were the most valuable spoil which they secured in their military and piratical expedi- tions. Thucydides traces the same lines as Homer. In early times, he tells us, the insecurity of prop- erty was too great to allow of the planting of trees, which would of course lie at the mercy of an invading enemy. .And although men tilled the ground, the harvest would very often fall to the foe, whereas cattle could on an alarm be driven to a place of safety. "^ — P. Gardner and F. B. Jones, .igricultural development of ancient na- tions (E. G. Nourse, .igricultural economics, pp. 20-30) . — "Cattle raising seems to have been more important in the Homeric age than afterwards, when the needs of the population could not be satisfied by the home growth, and importation of foreign cattle from the Black Sea and from Africa was necessary. The small number of herds of cattle was probably due to the fact that in Greek antiquity very little cow's milk was drunk, but, chiefly goat's milk. Sheep-rearing, however, was very general, and brought to great perfection, since they not only used the flesh and milk of the sheep for food, but in particular required their skin and wool for clothing. . . . Excellent quali- 28 AGRICULTURE, ANCIENT Homeric Period Roman System AGRICULTURE, ANCIENT ties [of sheep's wool] were produced by Hellas proper, as well as by the Greek colonies in Asia Minor and Lower Italy, and a great deal of it was exported to foreign countries. . . . The goat's hair was woven into stuff, not in Greece itself, but probably in Northern Africa and Cilicia, where a kind of coarse cloth was manufactured of it, which, however, was not often used for clothing. The facility of goat-rearing, which re- quired no special care, and could be carried on even on rocky ground, where but little grass grew, enabled it to become very extensive, and we find it, in fact, throughout almost the whole of Greece in ancient times. The labor of slaves being very cheap and ineffective, shepherds and goatherds were very numerous in proportion to the number of animals they tended, — at least one to every hundred, more often one to fifty. Swine-rearing, on the other hand, played a very small part, for it was not sufficiently remuner- ative. Although the flesh was used for food, yet in the historic period it was not so popular a dish as in the age of Homer, and they did not understand how to draw a profit in other ways from swine. "In its technical aspects, ancient agriculture remained in much the same state throughout the whole of antiquity as it occupied in the heroic age, and probably this was the com- mon inheritance of the Indo-Germanic race. In Homer, we find the custom, which always pre- vailed afterwards, of alternating only between har- vest and fallow; even the succeeding ages seem to have known nothing of the rotation of crops. The implements used for necessary farming occu- pations were of the simplest kind, in particular the primitive plough, which was not sufficient to tear up the earth, so that they had to use the mattock in addition ; they had no harrow or .scythe, in place of which they used the sickle, and their threshing arrangements were most un- satisfactory, since they simply drove oxen, horses, or mules over the threshing floor, and beat out the ears with their hoofs, by which means a great part of the harvest was lost. It was only the large number of labourers at the disposal of the farmers (in consequence of the numerous slaves, to which at times, when there was a press of work, they added hired labourers), and the great care taken in manuring and improving the ground, etc., that enabled them to earn a living at all. Great wealth was never attained in ancient Greece by agriculture, certainly not by growing corn; vines and olives supplied better profits, though here too the instruments used were of the sim- plest, but the ground was especially favourable to their cultivation. Oil in particular, could be sup- plied by Greece to foreign countries, but corn did not grow in a quantity sufficient to provide their own population, and consequently they had to import a great deal from foreign countries, es- pecially from the Black Sea, and afterwards too from Egypt." — A. E. Zimmern, Home life of the ancient Greeks, pp. 4Q.';-4q7. — "It is probable that the downfall of the Achaean race was followed by a time of greater simplicity, when the aristocracy of the Greek tribes lived on their estates in the midst of slaves and retainers, as did the wealthy inhabitants of Elis even in the time of the Acheean League. But Greek civic life began to develop with irresistible attraction. The rich thronged into cities, and left the work of their farms to bailiffs and slaves. There were in par- ticular two states wherein the country life fell into the background — Athens and Sparta. But even at Athens, although the witty and luxurious citizens ridiculed the yeoman as a lout, they could not deny his solid virtues. As a whole, Greece is a country by no means favorable to agriculture. The country is mostly rocky, barren, and uneven, especially unsuited for large farms. The system of farming was that adapted to peasant proprie- tors or yeomen. There can be no doubt that ag- riculture in Attica suffered more and more as time went on, though to a less degree than that of Italy in imperial times, from the competition of richer soils. Great cargoes of corn from Egypt and Sicily and the Black Sea constantly arrived in the Piraeus, and the people of Athens learned the fatal lesson that it was easier to buy agri- cultural produce with money wrung from the allies or extracted from the mines of Laurium than to grow it on the rugged soil around Athens." — P. Gardner and F. B. Jevons, Agriailtttral de- velopment of ancient nations (E. G. Nourse, Agri- cultural economics, pp. 29-31). Development of the servile system among the Romans. — The spread of slavery among ancient peoples was accompanied by a corresponding change in agrarian organization. In the early days of the Roman Republic, "the farm was the only ■place where slaves were employed. The fact that most of the Romans were farmers and that they and their free laborers were constantly called from the fields to fight the battles of their coun- try led to a gradual increase in the number of slaves, until they were far more numerous than the free laborers who worked for hire. ... In the last century of the Republic all manual labor, almost all trades, and certain of what we now call professions were in the hands of slaves. . . . The small farms were gradually absorbed in the vast estates of the rich, the sturdy yeomanry of Rome disappeared, and by the time of Augustus the freeborn citizens of Italy who were not soldiers were either slave holders themselves or the idle proletariate of the cities. . . . The slaves that were employed upon the vast estates were known as familia rustica; that very name implies that the estate was no longer the only home of the master. He had become a landlord, living in the capital and visiting his lands only occasionally for pleas- ure or for business. The estates may, therfore, be divided into two classes: country seats for pleasure and farms or ranches for profit. The former were selected with great care, the pur- chaser having regard to their proximity to the city or other resorts of fashion, their healthful- ness, and the natural beauty of their scenery. They were maintained upon the most extravagant scale. There were villas and pleasure grounds, parks, game preserves, fish ponds and artificial lakes, everything that ministered to open air lux- ury. Great numbers of slaves were required to keep these places in order, and many of them were slaves of the highest class: landscape garden- ers, experts in the culture of fruits and flowers, experts even in the breeding and keeping of the birds, game, and fish, of which the Romans were inordinately fond. These had under them assist- ants and laborers of every sort, and all were sub- ject to the authority of a supermtendent or stew- ard (.vilicus), who had been put in charge of the estate by the master. But the name familia rus- tica is more characteristically used of the drudges upon the farms, because the slaves employed upon the country seats were more directly in the per- sonal .service of the master and can hardly be said to have been kept for profit. The raising of grain for the market had long ceased to be profit- able, but various industries had taken its place upon the farms. Wine and oil had become the most important products of the soil, and vineyards 129 AGRICULTURE, ANCIENT Roman System Fall of Empire AGRICULTURE, ANCIENT and olive orchards were found wherever climate and other conditions were favorable. Cattle and swine were raised in countless numbers, the for- mer more for draft purposes and the products of the dairy than for beef. Sheep were kept for the wool, and woolen garments were worn by the rich and poor alike. Cheese was made in large quan- tities, all the larger because butter was unknown. The keeping of bees was an important industry, because honey served, so far as it could, the pur- poses for which sugar is used in modern times. Besides these things that we are even now accus- tomed to associate with farming, there were others that are now looked upon as distinct and separate businesses. Of these the most important, perhaps, as it was undoubtedly the most laborious, was the quarrying of stone; another was the cutting of timber and working it up into rough lumber, and finally the preparing of sand for the use of the builder. This last was of much greater importance relatively then than now, on account of the ex- tensive use of concrete at Rome. In some of these tasks intelligence and skill were required as they are to-day, but in many of them the most necessary qualifications were strength and endur- ance, as the slaves took the place of much of the machinery of modern times. This was especially true of the men employed in the quarries, who were usually of the rudest and most ungovernable class, and were worked in chains by day and housed in dungeons by night, as convicts have been housed and worked in much later times. The management of such an estate was also intrusted to a vilicus, who was proverbially a hard task- master, simply because his hopes of freedom de- pended upon the amount of profits he could turn into his master's coffers at the end of the year. His task was no easy one. Besides planning for and overseeing the gangs of slaves already men- tioned, he had under his charge another body of slaves only less numerous, employed in providing for the wants of the others. Everything neces- sary for the farm was produced or manufactured on the farm. Enough grain was raised for food, and this grain was ground in the farm mills and baked in the farm ovens by millers and bakers who were slaves on the farm. The task of turn- ing the mill was usually given to a horse or mule, but slaves were often made to do the grinding as a punishment. Wool was carded, spun, and woven into cloth, and this cloth was made into clothes by the female slaves under the eye of the steward's consort, the vilka. Buildings were erected, and the tools and implements necessary for the work of the farm were made and repaired. These things required a number of carpenters, smiths, and masons, though they were not riecessarily work- men of the highest class. It was the touchstone of a good vilicus to keep his men always busy, and it is to be understood that the slaves were alternately plowmen and reapers, vinedressers and treaders of the grapes, perhaps even quarrymen and lumbermen, according to the season of the year and the place of their toiling." — H. W. John- ston, Private life of the Romans, pp. 87, 05-08. "Meanwhile out in the country we can perceive the farm, with its hedges of quick-set, its stone walls, or its bank and ditch. The rather primi- tive plough — though not always so primitive as it was a generation or so ago in Italy — is being drawn by oxen, while, for the rest, there are in use nearly all the implements which were em- ployed before the quite modern invention of ma- chinery. It may be remarked at this point that the rotation of crops was well understood and regularly practised. Then there are the pasture- lands, on the plains in the winter, but in summer on the hills, to which the herdsmen drive their cattle along certain drove-roads till they reach the unfenced domains belonging to the state. . . . It is probable, doubtless, that the greater propor- tion of the slave body were employed as domestic servants. But many others tilled the lands of the larger proprietors. Others laboured under the contractors who constructed the public works. Others were used as assistants in shops and fac- tories. It is obvious that such competition re- duced the field of free labour, when it did not close it entirely, and the free labour must have been unduly cheapened. But to suppose that all the Roman work, whether in town or country, was done by slaves is to be grossly in the wrong. Romans were to be found acting as ploughmen and herdsmen, workers in vineyards, carpenters, masons, potters, shoemakers, tanners, bakers, butchers, fullers, metalworkers, glass-workers, clothiers, greengrocers, shopkeepers of all kinds. There were Roman porters, carters, and wharf- labourers, as well as Roman confectioners and sausage-sellers. To these private occupations must be added many positions in the lower public or civil service. There was, for example, abundant call for attendants of the magistrates, criers, mes- sengers, and clerks. Unfortunately our informa- tion concerning all this class is very inadequate. The Roman writers — historians, philosophers, rhet- oricians, and poets — have extremely little to say about the humble persons who apparently did nothing to make history or thought " — T. li. Tucker, Life in the Roman ivorld of Nero and St. Patil, pp. 246-247, 252-253. Discouragement of agriculture in Europe after the fall of the Roman empire. — "The state of Europe during and alter the period of the bar- barian invasions was not conducive to the best cultivation of either urban or rural lands. The confusion was not so great, however, as to blinil the invading chieftains to the value of the terri- tory under their dominion, and it was not long before all the land occupied by these people was gathered together under the proprietorship of a small number of the barbarian leaders. The huge estates so created escaped division, first, by the establishment of the law of primogeniture, and second, by the introduction of entails. From these great proprietors nothing could be expected in the way of improved methods of agriculture. Prima- rily fighting men, these landowners at first had no time, and later no taste for devotion to agricul- tural pursuits, a profession that requires great care, a certain amount of frugality, and an exact consideration of small advantages to be gained from plodding work. If little improvement was to be expected from such great proprietors, still less was to be hoped for from those who occupied the land under them. In the ancient state of Europe, the occupiers of land were all tenants at will. They were all, or almost all, slaves, but their slavery was of a milder kind than that known among the ancient Greeks and Romans, or even in our West Indian colonies. They were supposed to belong more directly to the land than to their master. . » . Whatever cultivation and improvement could be carried on by means of such slaves was properly carried on by their ma.ster. It was at his expense The seed, the cattle, and the instruments of husbandry were all his. It was for his benefit. Such slaves could acquire nothing but their daily maintenance. It was properly the proprietor himself, therefore, that occupied his own lands and cultivated them by his own bondmen 130 AGRICULTURE, MEDIEVAL Manorial Syatem AGRICULTURE, MEDIEVAL "The experience of all ages and nations, I be- lieve, demonstrates that the work done by slaves, though it appears to cost only their maintenance, is in the end the dearest of any. . , , Under all these discouragements, little improvement could be expected from the occupiers of land. The ancient policy of Europe was, over and above all this, unfavourable to the improvement and cultivation of land, whether carried on by the proprietor or by the farmer; first, by the general prohibition of the exportation of corn, without a special license, which seems to have been a very universal regu- lation; and, secondly, by the restraints that were laid upon the inland commerce, not only of corn, but of almost every other part of the produce of the farm, by the absurd laws against engrossers, forestallers, and regraters, and by the privileges of fairs and markets." — T. N. Carver, Middle Ages (E. G. Nourse, Agricultural economics, pp. 36-38). Bibliography: Of contemporary works on an- cient agriculture, Hesiod, Works and days, will serve for Greek rural life; while Cato, De re rus- lica, and Varro, Rerum rusticarum, are the stand- ard works on Roman agriculture. However, a great many distinguished men of letters in Rome took up farming as a hobby, with the result that whole volumes, as well as many less direct and comprehensive discussions of farming are to be found among the works of such men as Pliny, Vergil and Cicero. Some recent treatments of the subject are contained in Glover's From Pericles to Philip, cli. 9-11, Charles Daubeny, Lectures on Roman husbandry, and in Vladimir G. Simk- hovitch's Rome's jail reconsidered {Polilical Science Quarterly, June, 1916). Ancient and prim- itive agriculture in other parts of the world is handled — for China and Japan, by Franklin H. King, Farmers of forty centuries (Madison, Wis., iQii); in Peru, by O. F. Cook, Staircase farms of tile ancients (Sational Geographic Magazine, May, 1Q16) ; in the tropics, by J. C. Willis, Agriculture in the tropics, ch. viii; and in France, by .'\lbert Babeau, La vie rurale dans Vancienne France. Other material on primitive agriculture may be found in the Scientific .American for March 16, IQ18: Masterpieces of primitive engineering; Max Ringelmann, Essai sur I'histoire du genie rural {.Annates de I'Institule Rationale Agronomique, deuxieme serie, v. ii-i.x), and Le travail dans Vantiquite, by Rene Menard and Claude Sauva- geot, MEDIEVAL PERIOD Manorial system. — "The history of agrarian or- ganisation in western Europe since the opening of the Christian era falls into three great stages, which may be designated the servile, the manorial, and the contractual. Exact chronological delimitation is impossible, for even within the bounds of a single country these stages overlap by very wide margins. Speaking broadly, however, the servile stage comprises the era of the Roman Empire and is marked by a rural economy involving own- ership of the soil by great proprietors and culti- vation mainly by slaves; the manorial stage in- cludes large portions of the Middle .Ages and is distinguished by a quasi-feudal type of agrarian organisation, involving ownership by feudal lords and cultivation by persons neither slave nor free but of status varying widely between the two conditions TSee also Slavery: 6oo-gool ; and the contractual stage comprises the modern era, char- acterised in a degree by the increased number of proprietors but mainly by the full establishment of agrarian relationships upon the basis of volun- tary contract. [See also Feudalism.] [The first of these three stages, the servile, has already been described in the preceding section.] The methods of agriculture and the conditions of the agricul- tural population in all western countries at the present day have been determined fundamentally by the changes involved in the transition from the second to the third of these stages, i. e.., by the break-up of the manorial system. . . . The manor, which was the economic unit and the social cell of the Middle Ages, was an estate owned by a lord and occupied by a community of dependent cul- tivators. The proprietorship of the lord was ac- quired by feudal grant, by purchase, by usurpa- tion, by commendation, or in some other way ; while the tenants were the descendants of owners or occupiers of lands drawn under the lord's con- trol, of persons who had become permanently in- debted to the lord, or of settlers who had sought the lord's favour and protection. Throughout the Middle Ages practically all lands belonged to some manor, and until after commerce, industry, and town life had acquired fresh importance in the 1 2th and 13th centuries, almost the whole of the population was manorial. [See Manors.] Speaking broadly, the cardinal features of the manor were everywhere and at all times the same. The inhabitants dwelt, not apart in isolated farm- houses, but in a 'nucleated' village, consisting of huts grouped about the parish church and the manor-house of the proprietor. Attached to the manor-house, which might be occupied by the pro- prietor himself or by a steward, was usually a courtyard, surrounded by buildings for brewing, cooking, and general farm purposes; and at some distance, situated if possible on a stream, was a mill. The houses of the tenants were likely to be thatch-roofed, one-roomed, cheerless, and closely adjoined by stables and granaries. From the village stretched in all directions the open fields, the cultivated portions lying nearest, with the mead- ows and waste-land beyond. The most charac- teristic feature of agriculture in the Middle .^ges, and one which persisted in some regions until the nineteenth century, was the open-field system. Not only were the holdings of different persons on the manor not fenced off one from another; there were no durable enclosures at all. Growing crops were protected by rudely constructed barriers, as were the meadows during the weeks while the hay was maturing. But after harvest the hedges were removed, the cattle were turned in to graze, and the arable land was treated as common waste or pasture. In the lack of scientific schemes of crop rotation and of fertilisation it was not feasible to cultivate a piece of ground uninterruptedly year after year. Hence there had been devised, very early, the 'two-field' and the 'three-field' systems. Under the two-field system the arable land of the manor was divided into two large tracts, each to be cultivated in alternate years. Under the three-field system the arable land was divided into three parts, two being cultivated and one lying fallow every year. Of the cultivated fields under the latter arrangement, one was planted ordi- narily with wheat, rye, or other crops sowed in the fall and harvested the next summer and the other with oats, barley, peas, or other crops planted in the spring and harvested in the fall. By rotating the three fields, each was given an opportunity every third year to recuperate. Al- though not so widely prevalent as at one time was supposed, the three-field system was probably the more common, A further important feature of the open-field system was the division of the 131 AGRICULTURE, MEDIEVAL Manorial Syatern AGRICULTURE, MEDIEVAL cultivated plots into strips lor assignment to the tenants. To every land-holding inhabitant of the manor was assigned a number of the strips, not contiguous, but lying in different fields, and fre- quently in different parts of the same field. . . . The origins of this practice are obscure, and sev- eral conflicting theories . respecting them have been advanced. There is no need to assume that they were everywhere the same. The basis of the strip system seems very generally to have been, how- ever, the desire to ensure equity uf allotment. Fields were likely not to be uniform in fertility and ease tem was universal. An arable lield was thus made up of any number of blocks of strips set at right angles or inclined one to another, presenting the checkered and variegated appearance of a patchwork quilt. On every manor were meadows sufficient to produce the supply of hay required for the sustenance of the live-stock through the winter months. Sometimes these lay in a block; sometimes they comprised two or more tracts in- terspersed with the cultivated fields." — F. A. Ogg, Economic drvelopmenl of modirn Europe, pp. 18-22. — See also Fertilisers: Origin. Ir'low used hy Ancient ancient Husba-ndnnen CH E^yptia.fL Plow Plov^ o/^ Ancient Greece TKe New plow o 1797^ Ea.rly 6erma.n. plow 16"^!:! CenlviFy ^S^xon. TYPKS OK EARLY AGKICULTUUAI, IMI'LKMEXTS of cultivation, and their minute division into strips was calculated to prevent the more desirable areas from being monopolised by favoured or fortunate persons. In large portions of England the strips were arranged to be forty rods, or a furlong (i. e., a 'furrow-long,' or the normal length of a fur- row), in length and four rods in width, giving an area of one acre. Strips two rods wide contained a half-acre and one rod wide a 'rood,' or quarter- acre. The strips were separated by narrow belts of unploughed turf, or simply by little ridges, which might be marked also with stones. The ridged surface of the fields in many districts to-day bears testimony to the employment of these primi- tive division lines, or 'balks' On the continent arrangements varied in detail, bnl (lie strip sys- "VV'hile the manorial type of rural organization as a method of land tenure was undoubtedly a great advance upon the servile system, farm im- plements and methods of tillage on the other hand showed but little improvement upon those in use in the days of the Roman Empire. Plough- ing was still done by oxen, usually three times a year, in the autumn, in April and in midsummer; the furrows were a foot apart and the plough went no more than two inches deep. Seed was still scattered by hand, grain harvested by sickle and threshed by flail or oxen. Crops were conse- quently not only uncertain and uneven, but piti- fully small. "The amount of wheat, rye, beans, and peas usually sown to the acre was only two bushels; and of oats and, strangely enough, of 13-2 AGRICULTURE, MEDIEVAL Manorial System AGRICULTURE, MEDIEVAL barley, four bushels. The yield of wheat rarely exceeded fivefold, or ten bushels to the acre ; that of leguminous crops ranged from three to sixfold, or from six to twelve bushels to the acre; that of oats and barley varied from three to fourfold, or from twelve to sixteen bushels to the acre. Con- siderable care was exercised in the choice and change of the seed-corn, which was often one of the produce-rents of the tenants. Wheat rarely followed a spring grain crop. The most important crops of the farm were the corn, crops of wheat, rye, and barley, which were raised for human food and drink. For such ready money as he needed, the lord looked mainly to the produce of his live stock. For their consumption were grown the remaining crops — the hay, beans, peas, and oats; though oats were not only used for human food, but in some districts were brewed into in- ferior beer. Horse-farms appear in some estate accounts; but they probably supplied the 'great horse' used for military purposes. As a rule, oxen were preferred to horses for farm work. Though horses worked more quickly when the ploughman allowed them to do so, they pulled less steadily, and sudden strams severely tested the primitive ploughgcar. On hard ground they did less work, and only when the land was stony had they any advantage. Economical reasons further explain the preference for oxen. . . . The winter-keep of horses was about four times that of oxen. In addition to this, the more delicate construction of horses required careful attendance and greater expense than did the stolid and less susceptible oxen. Then again the ox, when no longer available for work, made excellent food, while the horse at that time was only worth his hide. Lack of feeding stuff for live stock made fresh butchers' meat a rarity, as the common pasturage ground supplied no more food for the cattle than was sufficient to keep the animals ali^e, never enough to fatten them. . . . The dairy pro- duce was a greater source of money revenue, though the home consumption of cheese must have been very large. But the management was necessarily controlled, like the management of the stock, by the winter scarcity. The yield of a cow during the twenty-four weeks from the middle of April to Michaelmas was estimated at four- fifths of her total annual yield. Sheep were the sheet anchor of farming. But it was not for their mutton, or their milk, or even for their skins, that they were chiefly valued. Already the me- diaival agriculturist took his scat on the wool-sack. .■Xs a marketable commodity, both at home and abroad, English long wool always commanded a price. It was less perishable than corn, and more easily transported even on the worst of roads. From Martinmas to Easter sheep were kept in houses, or in movable folds of wooden hurdles, thatched at the sides and tops. During these months they were fed on coarse hay or peas- haulm, mixed with whcaten or oaten straw. For the rest of the year they browsed on the land for fallows, in woodland pastures, or on the sheep- commons. Diseases made sheep-farming, in spite of its profits, a risky venture. Swine were the almost universal live stock of rich and poor. As consumers of refuse and scavengers of the vil- lage, they would, on sanitarv grounds, have re- paid their keepers. But mediaeval pigs profited their owners much, and cost them little. A pig was more profitable than a cow. For the greater part of the year pigs were expected to pick up their own living. When the wastes and woodlands of a manor were extensive, they were, except dur- ing three months of the year, self-supporting. They developed the qualities necessary for taking care of themselves. The ordinary pigs of (be Middle Ages were long, fiat-sided, coarse-boned, lop-eared, omniverous animals, whose agility was more valuable than their early maturity. . . ,. [The keeping of poultry, too, was at the time uni- versal, so much so that, when sold, they were almost absurdly cheap. The keeping of fowls, ducks, and geese must, however, have materially helped the peasant in eking out his food supply, or in paying that portion of his rent which was paid in kind.] On the outskirts of the arable fields nearest to -the village lay one or more 'hams' or stinted pastures, in which a regulated number of live stock might graze, and which therefore supplied superior feed. Besides the open arable fields, the meadows, and the stinted hams, there were the common pastures, fringed by the untilled wastes which were left in their native wildness. These wastes provided fern and heather for litter, bedding, or thatching; small wood for hurdles; tree-loppings for winter browse of live stock ; furze and turves for fuel ; large timber for fencing, implements, and building; mast, acorns, and other food for the swine. Most of these smaller rights were made the subject of fixed an- nual payments to the manorial lord; but the right of cutting fuel was generally attached to the occupation, not only of arable land, but of cot- tages. The most important part of these lands were the common pastures, which were often the only grass that farmers could command for their live stock. They therefore formed an integral and essential part of the village farm. No rights were exercised upon them by the general public. On the contrary, the commons were most jealously guarded by the privileged commoners against the intrusion or encroachments of strangers." — R. E. Prothero, Manorial husbandry (E. G. Nourse, Agricultural economics, pp. 38-43). The medieval manor was thus from one point of view "a compactly organized, economically self- sufficing, and socially independent unit. Defects, however, are obvious. The acquisition of land by small proprietors was rendered difficult. The deal- ings of the lord, or of his steward or bailiff, with the tenants were likely to be arbitrary and harsh. The scattered character of the holdings involved waste of the cultivator's time and effort. The lack of permanent fences tempted to trespassing and produced much quarrelling. The rotation of crops, the time of ploughing and sowing, the use of meadow and pasture, the erection and removal of hedges, and the maintenance of roads and paths were determined entirely by the community, on the basis usually of rigid custom, and the individ- ual enjoyed little or no freedom or initiative. Experimentation was almost impossible. In con- sequence, largely, of the restraints which have been mentioned, agriculture continued throughout the Middle Ages to be extremely crude. It is doubtful, indeed, whether prior to the eighteenth century the soil was cultivated again in any con- siderable portions of Europe with either the science or the practical skill which were common in rural husbandry in the best days of the Roman Empire." — F. A. Ogg, Economic development of modern Europe, pp. 24-25. 14th-17th centuries. — Displacement of serfdom by free tenantry. — Growth of enclosures for pasturage. — Beginnings of the contractual sys- tem. — By the middle of the thirteenth century in England, a remarkable change had begun to affect the condition of the serfs or villeins under the manorial system, a change not effected on the Continent till three centuries later, "by which the 133 AGRICULTURE, MEDIEVAL 14th-nth Centuries AGRICULTURE, MODERN villeins became free tenants, subject to a fixed money rent for their holdings. This rent was rapidly becoming a payment in money and not in labour, for the lords of the manors were frequently in want of cash, and were ready to sell many of their privileges. The change was at first gradual, but by the time of the Great Plague (1348) [see also England: 1348-1349: Black Death], money rents were becoming the rule rather than the ex- ception, and though labour rents were not at all obsolete, it was the ill-advised attempt to insist upon them unduly that was the prime cause of Wat Tyler's insurrection (1381). [See also Eng- land: 1381: Wat Tyler's Insurrection.] Before the Plague, in fact, villeinage in the old sense was becoming almost extinct, and the peasants, both great and small, had achieved a large measure of freedom. The richer villeins had developed into small farmers, while the poorer villeins, and es- pecially the cottars, had formed a separate class of agricultural labourers, not indeed entirely with- out land, but depending for their livelihood upon being paid for helping to cultivate the land of others. . . . .^t the end of the thirteenth century we can trace three classes of tenants — (i) Those who had entirely commuted their services for a fixed money rent; (2) those who gave services or paid money according as their lord preferred; and (3) those who still paid entirely, or almost entirely, in services. Throughout the whole of this period the yast majority of the population were continuously engaged in agricultural pursuits, and this was rendered necessary owing to the very low rate of production consequent upon the primi- tive methods of agriculture. [In England the displacement of serfdom by free tenantr>' bore a very close relation to the great increase of sheep- farming which took place after the Great Plague (1348)]. This from two causes. The rapid in- crease of woolen manufacturers, promoted by Edward III, rendered wool-growing more profit- able, while at the same time the scarcity of la- bour, occasioned by the ravages of the Black Death and the consequent higher wages demanded, naturally attracted the farmer to an industry which was at once very profitable, and required but little paid labour. So, after the Plague, we find a tendency among large agriculturists to turn ploughed fields into permanent pasture . . . , instead of turning portions of the 'waste' into arable land. Consequently from the beginning of the fifteenth century we notice that the agricul- tural population decreases in proportion as sheep- farming increases. . . . One consequence of this more extensive sheep-farming was the great in- crease in enclosures made by the landlords in the sixteenth century. So great were those encroach- ments and enclosures in north-east England, that they led, in 154Q, to a rebellion against the en- closing system, headed by Ket ; but though more marked perhaps in Henry VIII's reign, the prac- tice of sheep-farming had been growing steadily in the previous century. ... In fact, it is very clear that at this time a great change was passing over English agriculture, and the old agricultural system was becoming seriously disorganised."^ H. De B. Gibbins, Industry in England, pp. iii- 110. — The second great stage in western European agriculture, the medieval manorial system, was fast giving way before the encroachments of its successor, the modern contractual type of agrarian organization. "During the changes that had been taking place the villein had finally disappeared He was now in many cases a copyholder, and like his neighbour, the yeoman, held his own estate of from JO to ISC acres, and in the smaller farms worked it mainly by the help of his family. The yeomanry, who formed something like one-sixth of the population, found in the seventeenth cen- tury their golden age. Their estates varied con- siderably in size and importance ; the best of them were scarcely inferior in status to the country gentry. To be counted a yeoman, a man had to possess an income of at least forty shillings a year derived from his own freehold land. An act of Parliament of 1430 had made this the quali- fication for the parliamentary vote in the county areas, and the yeomen were proud of this privi- lege and showed their independence in the e.xer- cise of it. The tenant farmers were also pros- perous and occupied a good position, though their social status was inferior to that of the yeomanry. As for the labourers, if they were poorly paid they were in most cases well fed, and, as we have already pointed out, they still had domestic in- dustries and small holdings of land to help them. Unmarried servants of both sexes lived in the houses of the farms on which they worked, and shared in the food of the household. Married labourers supplemented their wages by domestic industries, and could obtain a postion of their food from the little plots of five or six acres at- tached to many cottages, and from the possession of a cow which they could graze upon the com- mon lands. Their wives and children shared in this work and also in agricultural work generally. One of the worst hindrances of the labourer was the Act of Settlement of ib62. This prevented his movement from one district to another in search of higher wages and better employment, and might mean his having to journey a consider- able distance to his work owing to the action of landlords who kept out the undesirable poor by forbidding the erection of cottages upon their estates." — F. W. Tickner, Social and industrial history of England, pp. 336-330. During this period from the fourteenth century to the seventeenth, as wc have seen, there hafi begun in England a gradual disintegration of the manorial system which was destined to be com pleted only throuKh the tremendous forces of the agricultural revolution of the later eighteenth century. In the meantime, however, two oppos- ing tendencies were noticeable: on the one hand the displacement of serfdom by free tenantry with its accompanying development of small hold- ings and a self-sufficing yeomanry ; on the other the transformation of arable manor land and com- mons into sheep-farms for the production of raw wool for continental markets The growth of en closures for pasturage reached its climax, how- ever, during the sixteenth century, while the num- ber of small holdincs continued to increase dur- ing the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, when new methods and new forces introduced the modern period of agricultural development. MODERN PERIOD General survey. — .Agricultural progress in modern times has been profoundly affected by the great revolutions which have occurred in the last two hundred years, particularly those in science, mechanical devices, and transportation .Mthough, unlike the European and .\merican countries, Asia has maintained the use of rude implements, her agriculture has not been untouched by the deep- rooted changes of modern times During the seven- teenth and eighteenth centuries economic forces were at work both in England and on the Con- tinent which were destined to change the entire system of agrarian organization as it had existed 134 AGRICULTURE, MODERN General Survey AGRICULTURE, MODERN during the Middle Ages. It was in England that these forces first became apparent, and there, too, that the resultng changes were soonest effected; but the movement spread rapidly during the early nineteenth century to France, Prussia and other continental nations, and while it presented in each country slightly differing phases due to local eco- nomic and social conditions, the directing forces and the changes wrought, with some noteworthy exceptions, parallel very closely those to be ob- served in England. "A principle woven deeply into the American national system at its beginning is that of full and free industrial opportunity. For an Ameri- can, therefore, it is difficult to conceive how com- pletely the agriculture, the manufactures, and the trade of France, Germany, and other continental European countries were shacliled but four or five generations ago by status, by custom, and by con- tractual arrangements. The guild, the manor, the state, and even the Church, imposed each its pe- culiar restrictions, and the industrial status and prospect of the individual were determined quite as largely by agencies beyond his power to con- trol as by his own habits of enterprise and thrift. It is only within decades comparatively recent that the mass of men in Europe have acquired substan- tial freedom of industrial initiative and achieve- ment. If the key-note of the economic history of the United States since 1780 has been expan- sion, that of the economic development of con- tinental Europe during the same period has been liberation. Speaking broadly, one may say that the first great advance in the direction of libera- tion was accomplished by the Revolution in France in 1789-1704 [see P'ood rf.gulatio.n": 1793- 1794]; that a second was realized under Na- poleon, though accompanied by a certain amount of retrogression; that the period 1815-1845 wit- nessed small progress, except on the side of in- dustrial technique; but that after 1S45-1850 the triumph of the liberalizing principle was rapid and thoroughgoing. The transformations by means of which liberation has been wrought took place within all of the three principal tields of eco- nomic activity, — agriculture, manufacturing, and trade; and in any attempt to measure the pro- gress of the average man during the period in hand the nature and extent of the changes in these three fields must continually be taken into ac- count. "Since 1789 the acreage of land cultivated in most continental countries has been enormously extended and new appliances and methods have been introduced, with the result of an increase that is remarkable in the yield both of foodstuffs and of materials for manufacture. Even more im- portant, however, has been the sweeping read- justment of the position occupied by the tillers of the soil themselves. Emancipated from oppres- sive dues and services to landlord and state, and enabled to acquire land of their own, the rural inhabitants of almost every continental country have been brought up to a status vastly superior to that which their ancestors occupied a century and a half ago. The first nation within which the agricultural liberation took place was France. As has been indicated, one of the earliest decisive achievements of the Revolution in France was the abolition of all survivals of feudalism and serf- dom; and this reform was accompanied by the conversion of numerous tenants, dependent cul- tivators, and ordinary laborers into independent, self-sustaining landholders. It used to be supposed that the multiplicity of little proprietorships which lends distinction to France to-day was wholly a consequence of the Revolution. Research has shown that this is not true — that, in fact, the breaking up of the agricultural lands of France into petty holdings was already under way long before 1789. Some students of the subject have gone so far as to maintain, indeed, that the num- ber of landed proprietorships in France was scarcely smaller prior to 1789 than it is to-day. There can be no question, however, that during the Revolution the growth of little holdings was greatly accelerated, notably through the sale of es- tates confiscated from the crown, the nobility, and the Church; nor that the general effect of the Rev- olution was to enhance the agricultural prosperity of France. . . . Throughout modern times France has been preeminently an agricultural country, and to this day the nation's enormous wealth is derived principally from the products of the soil rather than from manufactures and trade. Nearly one-half of the population of the republic to-day is employed upon the land, whereas in England and Wales the proportion is but one-tenth. No bu.siness has come to be better understood than husbandry, and the nation not only is entirely .self-supporting in the matter of foodstuffs, such as cereals, meat, and dairy produce, but exports these articles heavily to other portions of the world. The great mass of cultivators are pro- prietors of little estates ranging in area from five to fifty acres. Three million proprietors occupy holdings of less than twenty-five acres apiece. Of waste land very little remains. "In considerable portions of Germany agricul- tural advance in the earlier nineteenth century fol- lowed a course roughly analogous to that observed in France, although the remarkable expansion in Germany since 187 1 of industry and of trade has brought that nation into an economic position fundamentally unlike that which France now occupies. At the beginning of the Hast] century Germany was even more purely agricultural than was France. In 1804, 73 per cent of the popula- tion of Pru.ssia was rural, and throughout Ger- many as a whole the proportion of the popula- tion engaged in agriculture was not less than 80 per cent. The natural resources of the country were then, as they are now, less favorable for ag- riculture than those of France, and agricultural methods were very poorly developed, with the con- sequence that the product was inferior and agri- cultural wealth meagre. Advance in technique, even past the middle of the nineteenth century, was distinctly slower than in France, but the changes wrought in the status of the agricultural laborer were in no small measure the same. The Napoleonic era became in Prussia a period of economic transformation, involving the abolition of serfdom Throughout other portions of Ger- many serfdom had all but disappeared prior to the close of the eighteenth century, the serfs having obtained their freedom in some instances by pur- chase, but more frequently through the simple evaporation by imperceptible degrees of the tradi- tional seigncurial rights. The non-existence of serfdom was recognized In all of the states, by 1820. In Germany, as in France, the beginnings of petty peasant holdings antedate the nineteenth century, but by the rise of the agricultural popu- lation from dependency to freedom the tendency toward the multiplication of these holdings was greatly accentuated. Just as in France, however, the small-holding idea did not work out every- where alike, so that the holdings of the northwest became, on the average, considerably larger than those of the .south, so in Germany the principle was very variously applied, and, in truth, in some 13s AGRICULTURE, MODERN Auslralia British Isles AGRICULTURE, MODERN important portion of the countr>- was not applied at all. In the northeast, beyond the Elbe, the same thing happened that happened in the England of the eighteenth century, namely, the concentra- tion of land in estates even larger than those which had prevailed in earlier 'days. But in both the northwest and southwest the number of hold- ings was increased and their average size decreased, the principal difference being that in the north the holdings were as a rule larger than in the south. In the northeast, especially in Mecklen- burg and Silesia, such small holders as there were fell pretty generally, by 1S50, to the status of landless agricultural laborers, and their holdings were absorbed in the large estates, the consequence being that sharp diffentiation of landlords and rural wage-earners which to the present day has comprised one of the principal problems of the east Prussian provinces. Agricultural development in Germany during the course of the nineteenth century was notably inferior to that which took place in France, and the state of German agricul- ture to-day is by no means wholly satisfactory. Between 1816 and 18S7 the acreage under tillage was increased from 23,000,000 to 44,000,000, and in the same period the production of grain was more than doubled. The three decades from 1840 to 1870 were, on the whole, an era of rural pros- perity, marked by an increased price of products and a decreased cost of production, arising prin- cipally from the introduction of agricultural ma- chinery and of scientific methods of cultivation. About 1874-75, however, there set in, as at the same time in England, a pronounced agricultural depression, from which there has never as yet been any considerable recovery. The fundamental cause of depression, as also largely in England, was the decline in the price of agricultural prod- ucts arising from the competition of American grains and meats. Despite tariffs designed to counteract competition, the price of wheat and of rye fell between 1876 and iSq8 by 14 per cent and that of barley by 11. Other contributing causes, however, have been the scarcity and irregularity of labor, the necessity of paying increased wages, the heavy mortgages which to-day encumber half of the agricultural land of the country, and the unbusinesslike methods which long operated to impede the conduct of agricultural operations. Through the spread of education among the agra- rian classes and the estaWishment of cooperative societies, the state of agriculture is tending some- what to be improved, but it is still by no means favorable. In iqoo only 47.6 per cent of the area of the country was under cultivation, as com- pared with upwards of 80 per cent in France. In respect to foodstuffs the nation is not self-sufficing, and there is every reason to suppose that its de- pendence upon supplies obtained from the out- lying world will tend steadily to be increased. Since 1000 the importation of cereals alone has averaged from 4,500,000 to 6,000.000 tons a year." — F. A. Ogg, Social progress in contemporary Europe, pp. 08-106. Australia. See Australia: Agriculture; New South Wales: 1855-1803 ; South Australia: i8q6. Baltic Provinces. See B.\ltic provinces: 1020. Belgium: 1918. — Reconstruction. See World War: Miscellaneous auxiliar.- services: XII. Recon- struction, b, 1. Bosnia-Herzegovina: Land tenure. See Bos- nia-Herzegovina: 1878-1008. British Isles: 16th-18th centuries. — Capitalis- tic enterprises. See Capitalism: i6th-i8th cen- turies: .^!Irirulfure in Enclish capitalism. British Isles: 17th-18th centuries. — Adoption of root crops and improved methods of farming. — Growth of the domestic system of industry. — Its effects upon agrarian organization. — Dur- ing the seventeenth century in En-'land "several improvements were made under the influence of foreign refugees. . . . The inhabitants of the Low Countries . . . now introduced into England the cultivation of winter roots. . . . The introduc- tion of hops also was of great importance. . . . As the use of winter roots had been the special feature of the seventeenth century, so the feature of the eighteenth was the extension of artificial pasture and the increased use of clover, sainfoin, and rye-grass; not of course, that these had been hitherto unknown, but now their seeds were regu- larly bought and used by any farmer who knew his business. At first, like all other processes of agriculture, the development was ver>- slow and gradual, but it went on steadily nevertheless." — H. De B. Gibbins, Industry in England, pp. 206- 270. — "Many new crops were introduced from Holland, where the advantages of turnips and such artificial grasses as clover, sainfoin, and lucerne were well known. Potatoes, too, began to be an important field crop after the middle of the sev- enteenth century, though they had not become a common food but remained rather a delicacy even at its close. . . . Attention was also paid to the implements employed, and the older crude and clumsy tools began to be replaced by better ones. The plough was improved, and drills for sowing began to be employed. The Dutch also taught the importance of the use of the spade. . . . Im- provements were also effected in the use of ma- nures. Liming and marling were renewed, and new forms of manuring were adopted. The use of sand, seaweed, oyster shells, and fish as manures was now known, and these were employed wher- ever the situation of the land made their use possible. The newly formed Royal Society paid much attention to the question of agriculture, and made many useful and profitable suggestions. But the greatest difficulty in the way of improve- ment was the innate conservatism of the farmers, who objected to new crops and new methods and tried to retain the customs of their forefathers. Where the land was still open-field progress was well-nigh impossible; on the enclosed farms there were enlightened agriculturists who were leading the way along better lines." — F. W. Tickner, So- cial and industrial history of England, pp. 337- 3iS. — "The pioneers of this improved agriculture came from Xorlolk, among the first being Lord Townshend and Mr. Coke, the descendant of the great Chief Justice. The former introduced into Norfolk the growth of turnips and artificial grasses, and was laughed at by his contemporaries as Turnip Townshend; the latter was the prac- tical exponent of .\rthur Voung's theories as to the advantages to be derived from large farms and capitalist farmers. With improvements in culti- vation, and the increase both of assiduity and skill, came a corresponding improvement in the live stock. The general adoption of root crops in place of bare fallows, and the extended cultiva- tion of artificial grasses, supplied the farmer with a great increase of winter feed, the quality and nutritive powers of which were greatly improved. Hence with abundance of fodder came abundance of stock, while at the same time great improve- ments took place in breeding. This was mainly due to Bakewell (1760-1785), who has been aptly described as 'the founder of the graziers' art.' 'He was the first scientific breeder of sheep and cattle, and the methods which he adopted with his Leicester sheep and longhorns applied through- 136 AGRICULTURE, MODERN British Isles lSth-19th Centuries AGRICULTURE, MODERN out the country by other breeders to their own animals.' The growth of population also caused a new impetus to be given to the careful rearing and breeding of cattle for the sake of food, while the sheep especially became even more useful than before, since, in addition to the value of its fleece, its carcase now was more in demand than ever for meat. In various ways, therefore, the improve- ments in agriculture mark a very important ad- vance, and the close of the eighteenth century witnessed changes in the field as great in their way as those in the factory." — H. De B. Gib- bins, Industry in England, pp. 429-430. "In order to understand the nature and extent of the changes wrought by the agricultural-in- dustrial revolution [of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries] it is necessary to bear in mind certain facts regarding the economic situa- tion in England before the transformation came about. In the first place, England was still pre- dominantly an agricultural country. Not until 1792 did the production. of British grain fall below the volume of home consumption, so that it began to be necessary for the nation to rely regularly in some degree upon imported foodstuffs. Long past the middle of the eighteenth century the till- ing of the soil was the standard occupation of the laboring masses. Cities were few and small, and city life played a minor part in the economy of the nation. In the second place, it is to be noted that the conditions of land tenure were still largely mediaeval. In portions, of the country where the manorial system had never been estab- lished, land was possessed outright by individual proprietors, but in more than half of the kingdom at the close of the eighteenth century the forms of tenure were governed by survivals of the man- orial regime. ... It was the proprietor who owned the land ; the tenants were owners only of certain 'rights' and 'interests' which the proprietor vested in them. On the manors generally the an- cient methods of administration . . . still pre- vailed. The third point of importance is the inseparable association in the eighteenth century of the cultivation of land and the domestic sys- tem of industry. The ordinary rural family de- rived its support at the same time from agricul- ture and manufacture. The industrial output of England in the earlier eighteenth century was large, but it was the output, not of factories, but of the numerous and widely scattered 'little in- dustries' of the kingdom. And these little indus- tries were, in the main, not urban, but rural. . . . In days when the processes of manufacture in- volved simple handicraft, not the use of com- plicated and costly machines, this was perfectly practicable. One of the most widespread forms of domestic industry was the making of woolen cloth. In the manufacture of this commodity virtually every process involved could be, and was, carried on under the roof of the humblest cottager. . . . Woolen fabrics commanded a ready sale, usually at a good price, and the petty agri- culturist who would have found it difficult enough to support his family solely from the product of his bits of ground had in the woolen and other industries a welcome opportunity to supplement his scant means of livelihood. ... In his 'Tour through Great Britain,' written at the end of the first quarter of the eighteenth century, Daniel Defoe affords an interesting gUmpse of domestic manufacturing as he found it in the region of Halifax, in Yorkshire. 'The land,' he says, 'was divided into small enclosures from two acres to six or seven each, seldom more, every three or four pieces of land having a house belonging to them; hardly a house standing out of speaking distance with another. At every considerable house there was a manufactory. Every clothier keeps one horse at least to carry his manufactures to the market; and every one generally keeps a cow or two, or more, for his family. By this means the small pieces of enclosed land about each house are occupied for they scarce sow corn enough to feed their poultry. The houses are full of lusty fellows, some at [the] dye-vat, some at the looms, others dressing the cloths, the women and children carding or spinning ; being all em- ployed, from the youngest to the oldest.' "It is but fair to observe that the conditions of domestic manufacture varied widely in different regions. . . . Even where the measure of indus- trial independence was largest, the domestic sys- tem operated unquestionably in the eighteenth century to the deterioration at some points of the working population. Competition grew keener; wages fell ; child labor became more common ; workmen were led to dispose of their lands be- cause they had ceased to be able to find time to cultivate them." — F. A. Ogg, Social progress in contemporary Europe, pp. 63-67, British Isles: Late 18th to early 19th cen- turies. — Agricultural revolution.— "During the later eighteenth century and the earlier nineteenth England underwent a social and economic read- justment . , , essentially industrial and social. For present purposes . . . [these changes] may be grouped with convenience under two heads: (i) the transformation of agriculture, and (2) the revolu- tion in industry. . . . Properly considered, the in- dustrial revolution was the transformation which came about in the process and conditions of manu- facture in consequence of the invention of ma- chinery, especially machinery which involved the application of steam-power. , , . The 'agricultural revolution' meant different things in different parts of Europe, , , , What it meant in England was, in brief, the concentration of the ownership and control of land in the hands of a decreasing body of proprietors, the enclosure of the common lands upon the use of which the cottager class had been largely dependent, the reduction of many men to the status of wage-earning agricultural laborers, and the driving of many from agricultural em- ployment altogether. It began toward the close of the eighteenth century and had run its course practically by 1845," — F, A, Ogg, Social Progress in contemporary Europe, pp. 62-63. — See also In- dustrial revolution: France; Industrial revolu- tion: Germany; Industrial revolution: United States. "The formative period of the factory system was the period also in England of the beginnings of the revolutionizing of agriculture. Of the two things each served in part both as cause and as effect. The rise of the factory was facilitated by the dislodgement of large numbers of people who had been accustomed to live by agriculture and domestic manufacturing conjointly. Conversely, the alteration of agricultural economy was stimu- lated by the drawing off to the towns of the sur- plus rural population and by the greatly increased demand for foodstuffs for the support of the in- dustrial and trading classes. . . . The revolution in agriculture worked itself out in a variety of di- rections, but the principal elements in it were (i) a marked improvement in the technique of hus- bandry; (2) a greatly increased application of capital to agricultural operations; (3) the concen- tration of land in great estates owned by a small body of aristocratic proprietors and operated un- der the immediate direction of capitalistic entre- 137 AGRICULTURE, MODERN British Isles lSth-19tli Centuries AGRICULTURE, MODERN preneurs known technically as 'farmers'; and (4) the virtual disappearance of the cottager class by which formerly the tilling of the soil had been carried on in connection with domestic industry. The stimulus came originally from the steady rise after 1760 in the price of agricultural produce, occasioned by the increase of population and of wealth derived from manufactures and commerce. With the growth, especially alter 1775, of the fac- tory system great industrial centres appeared, whence came ever increasing demand fur food, and it was in no small measure to meet this de- mand that farms, instead of continuing small self- sufficing holdings, were enlarged and converted into manufactories of grain and meat. Within the domain of agriculture, as in that of industry, science and skill were brought to bear, to the end that the product might be greater and the cost of production less. Rational schemes of crop- ping replaced antiquated ones, the art of cattle- breeding was given fresh attention, and agricul- tural machinery, which called for considerable ini- tial outlays, was widely introduced. The hus- bandry of the new type involved the employment of capital and the carrying on of farming opera- tions upon a large scale. The average English husbandman of the eighteenth century, however, possessed no capital and had very little land. With the capitalistic agriculturists of the later decades he found it more and more difficult to compete, and the consequence was that gradually but inevitably he was forced into an entirely novel economic position. Through the revival of enclosures he lost his rights in the common lands of his parish ; the land which he had owned or held individually he was compelled to sell or other- wise alienate; while he himself either went off to become a workman in a factory town or sank to the status of a wage-earning agricultural laborer. "Gradually from the readjustment emerged the three great classes of men concerned in the Eng- lish agriculture of later times, and of to-day: (i) the landed proprietors, who let out their land in large quantities to farmers in return for as con- siderable a rental as they can obtain; (2) the farmers, who, possessing no proprietary interest in the soil and no direct community of interest with either landlords or laborers, carry on agricultural operations upon these rented lands as capitalistic, profit-making enterprises; (3) the agricultural la- borers who neither own land nor manage it, but simply work under orders for weekly wages, as do the operatives in the factories. It is in conse- quence of this great transformation that it has been brought about that among western European nations to-day it is Great Britain which has the largest average holding, the smallest projjortion of cultivators who own their holdings, and the small- est acreage owned by its cultivators. In 1876 there was published in England a body of land statistics commonly designated the New Domesday Book. By this return it was shown that the ag- gregate number of landowners in England (out- side London) was q66,:75, of which number only 262,886 possessed more than one acre, .^t the same time France, with a population only a third larger, had some 5.600,000 landed proprietors, and Belgium, with a population of but 7,000.000, had as many as 1,000,000. From the return it further appeared that 28 English dukes held estates ag- gregating nearly 4,000,000 acres; ,^3 marquises i,Soo,ooo acres; 104 earls, 5,862.000 acres; and 270 viscounts and barons, 3,785,000 acres. Nearly one-half of the enclosed land of England and Wales was owned by 2250 persons; while at the same time nine-tenths of Scotland was owned bv 1700, and two-thirds of Ireland by 1942. The divorce of the agricultural laborer from proprie- tary interest in the soil, which was the outcome of the capitalistic, concentrating transformation of agriculture between 1775 and 1850, is above all other things the distinctive feature of British ag- ricultural economy in the last two generations. "By the break-up of the domestic system of in- dustry, occasioned by the development of large- scale manufacturing and of factory methods, the position of the small-farming population must in any case have been altered profoundly for the worse. The process was vastly accelerated, how- ever, by the widespread revival in the later eight- eenth and earlier nineteenth centuries of the en- closure of common lands. To 'enclose' a parish meant to redistribute its open fields, its waste- land, and its meadows among all those who pos- sessed land rights within the parish in such man- ner that each of these persons should obtain one continuous and enclosed holding which would be equivalent to his former scattered holdings in the open fields plus the rights in meadow and waste appurtenant to these holdings. The processes by which enclosure was effected were various. Where it was possible to secure the unanimous consent of the holders of rights and interests of all kinds within the parish, the change might be carried through by the authorities of the parish them- selves. Unanimous consent, however, was not likely to be obtained and in practice the process was pretty certain to involve two stages — first, the procuring of the assent of the possessors of four-fifths of the aggregate value of the land in- volved and, second, the passage of a special act by Parliament authorizing the enclosure and com- pelling the dissenting minority to acquiesce. .\s a rule enclosure measures, in which were stipu- lated the necessary arrangements for surveys, com- pensation, and redistribution, were actually drawn by the large landholders and other persons of in- fluence in the parishes concerned. In 1801 a statute was enacted to make easier the passage of private bills for enclosure. An act of 1836 went further and made it possible, with the consent of two-thirds of the persons interested to enclose certain kinds of common lands 'without specific authorization of Parliament. .And a general en- closure act of 1845 created a board of Enclosure Commissioners authorized to decide upon the ex- pediency of projected enclosures and to carry them into execution if approved. "The number of enclosure acts passed by Par- liament* between 1700 and 1S50 and the approxi- mate area of the lands enclosed were as follows: No. of En- Acres closure .^cts Enclosed 1700-sq 244 337,877 1760-60 385 704,550 1770-70 660 1,207,800 1780-81) 246 450,180 1700-00 46Q 858,270 i8oo-oq 847 1,550,010 1810-19 853 1,560,000 i820-2g 20s 375.150 1830-39 136 248,880 1840-49 66 394,747 "During the period 1760-1S30 enclosures were especially numerous, and after 1850 little open land remained. The lands enclosed, unlike those enclosed in the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries, were intended for cultivation, and care was taken, as a rule, furthermore, that every possessor be compensated, either in land or in money, for all of the common rights of which he 138 AGRICULTURE, MODERN British Isles 1815-1875 AGRICULTURE, MODERN was deprived. None the less, the effects of en- closure upon the average small holder were likely to be disadvantageous. Heretofore the tenant had been accustomed to utilize his own allotments of land entirely for the growing of crops. His cow, his donkey, his flock of geese, found such sus- tenance as they could on the common lands of the parish. Now the common lands disappeared and the cottager must not only grow loudstuffs for his family upon his bit of ground, but must ulso provide upon it pasturage and meadow for his live stock. To share in the use of an open com- mon might be, and generally was, more desirable than to occupy exclusively a petty enclosed hold- ing. Not infrequently the compensation which the individual cottager obtained for the common rights which he yielder], took the form of money. Such sums, however, were easily expended, and the cottager was apt to find himself without anything to show for the valuable rights which once he had possessed. To his difficulties was added the fact that the application of capital to agriculture on the part of the large landholders, and the intro- duction of methods of cultivation which were fur him impracticable, placed him at a distinct disad- vantage in the growing of marketable produce " — • F. A. Ogg, Social progress in conlempurary Eu- rope, pp. 62-63, 70-78. "That the changes induced by the new system have been beneficial to agriculture no one will at- tempt to deny, just as no one can dispute the benefits conferred upon industry by the use of ma- chinery ; but, at the same time, one cannot be bhnd to the fact that these great industrial changes, both in manufactures and agriculture, brought a great amount of misery with them, both to the smaller employers and the mass of the em- ployed. The change in agriculture brought with it a new agricultural and social crisis more severe than that of the Tudor period. The jeighteenth] century closed with the miseries that resulted from enclosures, consolidation of holdings, and the re- duction of thousands of small farmers to the ranks of wage-dependent labourers. The result of the crisis was to consolidate large estates, ex- tinguish the yeomanry and peasant proprietary, to turn the small farmers into hired labourers, and to sever the connection of the labourer from the soil. In a comparatively short time the face of rural England was completely changed; the com- mon fields, those quaint relics of primitive times, were almost entirely swept away, and the large enclosed fields of to-day, with their neat hedge- rows and clearly-marked limits, had taken their places. The improvements in agriculture, the en- closures, the consolidation of small into large farms, and the appearance of the capitalist farm- er are, then, the chief signs of the Agricultural Revolution. They form an almost exact parallel to the inventions of machinery, the bringing to- gether of workers in factories, the consolidation of small by-occupations into larger and more defi- nite trades, and the appearance of the capitalist millowner in the realm of manufacturing indus- try." — H. De B. Gibbins, Lidustry in England, pp. 431-432. — See also Absenteeism. British Isles: 1815-1875.— Prosperity.— "In the history of agriculture in the British Isles during the past hundred years there are to be distinguished two general stages. The first, extending from the close of the Napoleonic wars to about 1875, was a period of intermittent, but on the whole sub- stantial, prosperity. The second, extending from 1875 or 1880 to the present day, has been an epoch of almost unrelieved depression. The prin- cipal facts concerning the first of these periods T can be stated briefly. At the outset it is to be borne in mind that there went on steadily, from beginning to end, and without longer occasioning much comment, the extension of the large farm system which had set in during the preceding century. The enclosing of waste and other com- mon land continued, the number of enclosure acts passed between 1815 and 1845 being 244 and the area enclosed being 199,300 acres; and wherever small farms were given up they were practically certain to be added to larger holdings. Consoli- dation proceeded with equal rapidity in arable and grazing districts. The first half of the period, furthermore, witnessed the almost tt)tal disappear- ance of the yeomanry. The greater part of this once important element in the country's popula- tion had vanished prior to 1815. Between that date and the middle of the century the remainder largely succumbed, and to-day the class is rep- resented by only scant survivors in Westmoreland, Somersetshire, and a few other remoter counties. In legislation of i8iq and 1832 attempt was made to offset the tendencies of the time by provisions under which local authorities should acquire land and allot it to poor and industrious persons; but the effect was negligible. Whereas in i8n the agricultural population comprised thirty-four per cent, of the whole, in 182 1 it comprised but thirty- two per cent.; in 1831, twenty-eight per cent.; in 1841, twenty-two per cent.; in 1851, sixteen per cent.; and in 1861, ten per cent. The social dis- tress occasioned by this continued readjustment was at times scarcely less severe than in earlier decades. To such elements as were in a position to profit from the new conditions, however, the period brought a large measure of prosperity. Pri- marily these were, of course, the greater land- owners. In the first place, the prices of agricul- tural products, while subject to much fluctuation, •continued as a rule to be high. Prior to 1846 they were supported, or were supposed to be, by the Corn Laws; although, contrary to all expecta- tion, the repeal of those measures was followed by no serious fall in the price of wheat and other grains during a period of thirty years. Until the last quarter of the century, the British producers held their own against the vast grain-yielding areas of Russia, America, Egypt, and India, and it was only when, through the improvement and extension of steamship and railway lines, the trans- portation of bulky commodities to great dis- tances had been made convenient, speedy, and cheap that the force of foreign competition became sufficient to involve the British corn-growers in disaster. Until that time production did not decline, and home-grown grain was only supple- mented, not displaced, by the imported com- modity. Between 1853 and 1873 the seasons, with (miy two or three exceptions, were favourable, and it is commonly regarded that for the agricultural interests these decades were the most prosperous of the century. Throughout the whole of the second and the third quarters of the century, moreover, agricultural technique was undergoing steady improvement. The studied application of science to agriculture really began in the nineteenth century, when the chemical composition of soils was first determined carefully, and the means of its restoration made a matter of common knowl- edge and use. Nitrate of soda and guano were employed from about 1835 on; and superphos- phate of lime, first recommended by the German chemist Litbig, was introduced into England by Sir J. B. Lawes, who obtained this by dissolving bone-dust in sulphuric acid The gradual intro- duction of phosphates and ammoniacal manures, AGRICULTURE, MOHERN British Isles 1875-19UU AGRICULTURE, MODERN the increased attention paid to the cultivation of artificial grasses and the selection of seeds, the use of superior machines for agricultural purposes — the sub-soil plough, Meilde's threshing-machine, drilling and reaping machines — all these operated to increase the prosperity of the agricultural classes. "The list of field crops was extended by the addition of Italian rye-grass, winter beans, Belgian carrots, and alsike clover. Stock-breeding was given increased attention, and the better breeds were disseminated more widely through the country. An interest in agricultural science was promoted by the establishment of the Royal Ag- ricultural Socie^ in 1838 and of the Royal Agri- cultural College at Cirencester and the Agricul- tural Chemistry -Association in 1842. In 1S04 the government began the systematic collection and publication of agricultural statistics. Finally may be mentioned the fact that, whereas throughout most of the period arable farming strongly pre- dominated, after about 1865 there was a notable extension of pasture-farming, so that the two were carried on more generally together, and with in- creased profit." — F. A. Ogg, Economic development of modern Europe, pp. 159-161. — See also Tarut: 1815-1828. British Isles: 1875-1900. — Decline. — "As a great department of economic activity, agriculture had long since been eclipsed, in point of numbers and of value of output, by manufacturing. Under con- ditions thus fundamentally altered, however, the agriculture of the middle portion of the nineteenth century was prosperous, and its well-being was prolonged almost unimpaired until the immediate eve of the great era of depression. ... In 1876 and 1877 poor harvests, cattle-plague, and sheep- rot involved the agricultural classes in dire dis- aster. In 18S2 a government commission testified mournfully to the 'great extent and intensity of the distress which has fallen upon the agricultural community.' And as time went on it began to appear that, far from being merely ephemeral, the adverse conditions which had arisen were perma- nent and perhaps largely irremediable. In point of fact, the depression which had thus settled upon the agrarian portion of the country has continued with only a modicum of relief to the present day. The statistics of the decline of agricultural pros-' perity are easier to ascertain than are the causes involved; and the causes are less difficult to de- termine than are the remedies. The first matter to be observed is the sharp reduction since 1875 of the amount of land under cultivation and the con- siderable increase of the amount utilized for graz- ing. . . .The total area devoted to wheat fell from about 3,700,000 acres in 1870 to 3,100,000 acres in 1880; 2,500.000 in iSoo,' and 1,700,000 in iQoo. In iQii it was about 1,900,000 acres. The decline in acreage has been heaviest in the case of wheat ; but it has appeared in some measure in all corn crops grown in the United Kingdom except oats. Taking corn crops as a whole, the area cultivated was diminished by three million acres, or almost forty per cent., in the three dec- ades 1876-1006. TDuring the Great War there was a marked increase. The acreage of wheat was 2,221,000 in iQiq.J From these facts it follows that there has been a large falling off in the out- put of agricultural product. The production of wheat in the United Kingdom, which in the years 1841-1845 was sufficient for 24,000,000 persons, or almost ninety per cent, of the population, has declined until home-grown wheat in 1006 fed but 4,500,000 persons, or 10.6 per cent, of the popula- tion. The area under grass increased by almost one-third in 1876-IQ06; yet the quantity of meat produced from home-fed stock was increased by only five per cent. From this situation it arises that the British people have become dependent in a fairly astounding degree upon foodstuffs im- ported from abroad. In 1S75 ^^^ value of im- ported food supplies of all kinds was £124,000,000; in IQ05 it was £205,000,000. On their face these figures, however, convey no adequate impression of the magnitude of the change. . . . This factor taken into consideration, it appears that the volume of food imports was increased during the period by 130 per cent., or almost four times the increase in population." — Ibid., pp. 101-162. British Isles: 20ih century. — Development. — 1 "Speaking generally the British Isles are inten- sively cultivated, the amount of land available being small and the agricultural population high- ly skilled in their industry. .\t the same time the proximity of valuable industries with a high rate of wages has drawn the agricultural popula- tion off all land that does not yield a high return to the cultivator, and in consequence there are in the British Isles many comparatively large areas which can hardly be said to be farmed at all, though they pay a trifling return per acre on an inconsiderable expenditure for labour. The den- sity of the agricultural population in England averages about 125 per square mile, in Ireland about iqo, both very high figures as compared with America and other new countries, but far below those which prevail in India, China, and Japan. They are also exceeded on the continent of Europe in Belgium, Holland, and Denmark, though not to any marked degree. The average yield per acre is only exceeded in Belgium, Hol- land, and Denmark. . . . "The most characteristic feature of the agricul- ture of Great Britain is [that] the greater part of the land is farmed by comparatively large tenant farmers holding from 200 to 500 acres of land and possessed of both a considerable amount of capital and a high standard of cultivation. On less than 12 per cent, of the land are the occu- piers owners, and the occupier-owners have stead- ily decreased of late years. . . . The British sys- tem of land tenure with its comparatively large holdings is in the main the ' outcome of the enclosures of the old common fields which took place most markedly towards the end of the eighteenth century. In a few districts the land has not been enclosed but is still held in narrow strips of one-acre and half-acre pieces. ... In the British system of tenant farming the owner not only provides the land and buildings but is also responsible for all the permanent improvements upon the farm, and continues to supply material for gates, fences, drains, and repairs to the fabric. He thus becomes a very considerable partner in the farming enterprise, and it has been shown that on many of the large estates the rent does not represent a commercial interest on the capital that has been expended on the land during the last century, without allowing any value to the land itself. The development of British farming and the comparatively advan.ced stage it has reached have been due to the manner in which the tenant's capital has thus been free for the purposes of his business; he has been tempted to embark his capital freely by possessing a prac- tical security of tenure and yet no obligation to remain if the business became unprofitable. The majority of the farms in Great Britain are held on yearly tenure, long leases being very uncom- mon The effectiveness of the system may be judged not only from the comparatively high \ields per acre but also from the improvement 140 AGRICULTURE, MODERN British Isles 20ih Century AGRICULTURE, MODERN that has been effected in the breeds of live stock, chiefly by tenant farmers. The conscious forma- tion of specific breeds of live stock began in Eng- land in the latter part of the eighteenth century, and in no other country has attained to such a degree of perfection. As a consequence the newer countries which have been so largely opened up during the nineteenth century have been peopled almost exclusively with British breeds of live stock. The great cattle ranches of America, Ar- gentina, and Austraha are exclusively occupied by British stock, chiefly Shorthorns and Herefords, and certain British races of sheep have an equally wide distribution ; in fact the only continental races that have been developed out of their own districts are the Holstein-Friesian dairy cattle and the Merino sheep. At the present time Great Brit- ain is still resorted to by the breeders of all coun- tries for sires whereby to improve their country stock and a valuable export trade in pedigree ani- mals is carried on. One of the most marked fea- tures of English farming is the number of sheep that are carried . . . and though the British num- bers are exceeded in Australia, . . . Argentina . . . and the United States ... the density of the sheep in Great Britain is far greater than in any other country. In England also the sheep are almost as abundant on arable land as on the grass, because of the practice prevailing on all the lighter soils of consuming turnips and other green crops by sheep folded on the arable land. ... It is difficult to trace any general causes at work in the distribution of large or small holdings. Poor land that is still fit for arable farming is generally divided into extensive farms, as for example, the land lying on the chalk, where the holdings are very often of 800 acres and upwards. On the other hand, the poorest land in the country is often cut up into comparatively small farms be- cause it has never been sufficiently tempting to the large capitalist farmer. . . . Light soils in the neighbourhood of good markets arc generally oc- cupied by small holders engaged in market-garden- ing, milk production and other intensive forms of agriculture demanding a good deal of labour. . . . In Ireland, in Wales, and in Scotland away from the rich arable land in the eastern straths, we find the land divided into small grazing farms occu- pied by comparatively poor men employing little or no additional labour and content to work for a small pecuniary return. Finally, on the extreme western seaboard of Scotland and Ireland where both the land and the climate are unfavourable to agriculture we have a population of crofters tilling very small areas for a bare subsistence, far below the usual economic level prevailing in the British Isles. [For statistics of production see England: iqoi.] "The cultivated land in Scotland is confined to the fringe of lowlands on the eastern coast, the broad river valleys and straths and the western seaboard of the lowland counties below the eleva- tion of 600 feet or so. Of the cultivated land the greater proportion is under arable cultivation, but a large proportion of this is occupied by tempo- rary grass which is left down for two or three years before coming into crop again. . . . Scot- tish farming generally is distinguished by a very high level of skill, culminating in the Lothians, where the most highly developed arable farming in the world may be seen. The statistics of pro- duction bear evidence of the general excellence of Scottish agriculture. [See ScoTL.xNn: T75o-ig2i.] . . . The holdings in Wales are . . . small, and be- cause of the elevnted . . country and the high rainfall only a small proportion of the land is un- der arable cultivation, except on some of the allu- vial soils in the valleys and in Anglesey. The up- lands are chiefly occupied by sheep, of which two races may be distinguished — the true mountain sheep and the forest sheep, which more properly belong to the march countries, Radnor and Mont- gomery. From the latter stock one or two distinct breeds have been segregated; indeed the widely distributed Shropshire breed has originated from it through a certain infusion of South Down blood. . . . Speaking generally Welsh farms are small and the land not rich, but even in the favourable dis- tricts, as in the island of .Anglesey, the agriculture is backward and undeveloped. "In many respects it is difficult to compare the farming of Ireland with that of the rest of Great Britain, so entirely different has been the sys- tem of land tenure. In Ireland the landlord has never carried out the improvements, but merely allowed his tenants the use of the land. [See also Absenteeism.] The absence of any compet- ing industries, to draw the sons of the farmers off. the land, also resulted in continued subdivision, until the average size of the holding has become very small — 28 acres, as compared with 63 acres in Great Britain. Having to such an extent made their farms, the tenants acquired, first by custom and then by law, a tenant-right in their improve- ments, which within the last few years has de- veloped into a system of State-aided purchase, which will eventually make the tenants owners of their own farms. Owing to the comparatively high rainfall, the indifferent drainage of the river valleys in the central plain, and the equable tem- perature, Ireland as a whole is a country more suited to the growth of grass than to corn, and over a large part of the country very little arable farming is to be found. By temperament also the Irishman seems to be rather a grazier than a farmer. . . . With this restriction of arable farm- ing to the better lands, and the equable climate and rainfall, the yields per acre of corn and es- pecially of roots in Ireland are comparatively high. The area under tillage, however, is only just beginning to show signs of increase, though it is difficult to see how holdings of the Irish size can be economically profitable, except under intensive arable cultivation. The most strongly- marked farming district in Ireland lies in the east- ern side of Ulster and comprises County Down and other counties abutting on Lough Neagh. These are arable counties, except where the eleva- tion is too great or the land too boggy ; the land is mostly divided into small farms, not exceeding 50 acres, occupied by men of Scottish origin. Very fine farming is to be found in Ulster; par- ticularly the crops of potatoes and roots are often very large. Little wheat is grown, but on the coast of County Down, especially in the Ards peninsula, barley becomes an important crop; everywhere else oats form the chief and almost only cereal. Flax-growing forms an important feature in the Ulster farming; except on a small recently revived area in Cork, flax is now confined to Ulster, where the acreage undergoes rapid fluc- tuations from year to year according to the de- mand for fibre. Another characteristic crop of the district is grass seed. Cattle are extensively bred, there being a number of pedigree Shorthorn herds in the neighbourhood of Lough Neagh ; but sheep are unimportant. This district has an export trade in oats, potatoes, and hay with Glasgow and Liverpool. Going southivard the arable land does not extend much past Dundalk, but in the South of Louth, Meath, and northern Kildare passes into a great area of rich grassland — a thinly populated 141 AGRICULTURE, MODERN British Isles 20ih Centurv AGRICULTURE, MODERN country given over to the summer grazing of bul- locks and commanding lor that purpose excep- tional rents up to £3 an acre or more. These fa- mous Meath grazings are largely let on terms of eleven months only, so as to prevent the occupier acquiring any tenant-right by a continuous ten- ancy. Below the central grazing district will be found a few areas of arable farming in south Kil- dare, Queen's County, Tipperary, and Kilkenny; similar areas occur in Wexford and again in Cork, though the farming in the centre and south of Ireland rarely reaches the general high pitch of Ulster. The Shannon counties, and particularly Limerick, form the great dairying district of Ire- land, and here also are raised the store cattle British Isles: Ireland. — Wyndham Act. Sec Ireland: 1903. Also in: Journals of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries and the Royal Agricultural Society (London). — Journal of Agricultural Science, igo5 seq. — C. E. Green and D. Young, Encyclopedia of agriculture. — Sir H. R. Haggard, Rural England. — F. G. Heath, British rural life and labour. — R Wallace, Farm live stock of Great Britain. — R. Wallace and E. Brown, British breeds of live slock.— Sir A. Fitzherbert, Boke of husbandrie (1523). — J. Tull, Horse-shoring husbandry (1733). ■ — A. Young, Annals of agriculture. — Vinogradoff, Growth of the manor. — R. M. Gamier, History of the English landed interest. — W. Hasbach, History LEVELLING A FAR-EASTERN RICE FIELD FOR SOWING Rice is one of the most important cereal foods in the world © Elmendorf Frniu E. Galloway which cross the Channel in such large numbers to be fattened by the English graziers. Lastly, on the western seaboard in Clare, Galway, Mayo, and Donegal come the congested districts, where an impoverished population wring a bare suste- nance out of entirely inadequate patches of land that have been reclaimed from the mountain and bog.— A. D. Hall. Oxford survey of the British empire, pp. 148- 171. —See also Conservation or NATURAL resources: Great Britain; Ireland: 1881- 1882. British Isles: Ireland. — Land Act. See Ire- land: 1870; 1882. British Isles: Ireland. — Land Commission. See Ireland: 1885-1Q03. British Isles: Ireland. — Land League. See Ireland: 1873-1870. British Isles: Ireland. — Land Purchase Acts. See Ireland: 1000-1911. of the English agricultural laborer. — W. MacDon- ald. Makers of modern agriculture. — H. Bradley, Enclosures in England. — VV. Somerville, Agricul- tural progress in the nineteenth century (Journal of the Bath and West and Southern Counties So- ciety, 1001-1002). — W. H. R. Curtlcr, Short history of English agriculture. — M. Fordham, Short his- tory of English rural life. — R. E. Prothero, Eng- lish farming past and present. — J. E. T. Rogers. His- tory of agriculture and prices. — Traill, Social Eng- land. — W. Cunningham, Growth of English indus- try and commerce during the Middle Ages; Growth of English industry and commerce in modern times. Canada. See Canada: .^griculture. China. See China: .Agriculture France: Development since the Revolution. — Small holdings. — "The continental country in which the liberation of agriculture first took place upon a considerable scale was France. There, as 142 AGRICULTURE, MODERN France AGRICULTURE, MODERN elsewhere, the development presents three prin- cipal phases: (i) the emancipation of the rural labourer in respect to his person; (2) the release of agricultural technique from the fetters imposed by law and custom; and (3) the liberation of the land, similarly, from ancient legal and customary fetters, and the opening of it to the possession of large numbers of people. One of the capital achievements of the Revolution was the aboHtion of all survivals of feudalism and serfdom. The number of serfs remaining to be set free in 178Q was not large. None the less, the liberation of such as there were, together with the cancellation of an intricate mass of surviving feudal and mano- rial obligations, was a step necessary to be taken before the French agricultural classes could be put in the way of the largest prosperity. By it the French people were guaranteed for the first time a universal status of personal legal freedom. The liberation of technique, involving especially the abandonment of the threc-tield system and the introduction of machinery and of new methods of cultivation, came gradually and did not reach full fruition before the second half of the nine- teenth century. In some of its aspects, at least, it was promoted, as well as accompanied, by a development which must be considered much the most important of all, i. c., the conversion of tenants, dependent cultivators, and ordinary la- bourers into independent, self-sustaining landhold- ers; and attention must first be directed in some detail to this fundamental matter. Formerly it was supposed that the multiplicity of small pro- prietorships which is the distinguishing feature of rural France to-day was wholly a consequence of the Revolution. Research has shown that this is not true — that, on the contrary, the breaking up of the agricultural lands of France into little hold- ings was already under way long before 1789. . . . Throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth cen- turies impoverished seigneurs in increasing num- bers had been obliged to sell land to their tenants; while the number of small holdings had been in- creased steadily by the redemption of waste land and by the enclosure and division of common land. No reliable statistics of French landholding prior to 1789 exist. Arthur Young, however, says that in 1787 a third of the land was tilled by peasant owners; and it has been estimated that at the out- break of the Revolution the total number of pro- prietors was about three millions, of whom three- fifths would be classified to-day as small proprie- tors. . . . After full allowance has been made for the growth of small holdings before the Revolu- tion, the fact remains that the development was much accelerated by the Revolution itself. In the first place, the improvement of the conditions of landholding, through the suppression of manorial obligations, stimulated the desire of larger num- bers of men to become proprietors. In the second place, the Revolution emphasised the principle — and Napoleon sought to enforce it in the Code — of egalitarian inheritance, in accordance with which the bulk of a testator's property was re- quired to he divided equally among all of his children, without distinction of age or sex. . . . More important than these influences, however, was the extensive sale of lands confiscated from the crown, from the emigres, and from the Church. Through the years 1790-1705 large areas were placed upon the market. Prices were low, payment was spread over a period of twelve or more years, a clear title was given, and no com- plicating obligations were imposed. The law of May 14, 1700. specifically enjoined that the lands should be sold in small portions, the large estates being broken up for the purpose, to the end that the number of 'happy proprietors' might be in- creased. Until 1793, when the practice was pro- hibited, peasants frequently combined to purchase large tracts which they forthwith divided among themselves." — F. A. Ogg, Economic development of modern Europe, pp. 188-190. France: Land tenure in recent times.^ — "From the Revolution to the present day France has re- mained a land of numerous and small holdings. The law of partible inheritance has been, however, the theme of heated controversy. . . . Statistics* prepared in 1862 showed that in that year 56.29 per cent, of all holdings in the country had an area of five hectares {a little less than twelve and one-half acres) or less; 30.47 per cent., an area of between five and twenty hectares; 8.47 per cent., an area of between twenty and forty hectares; and only 4.77 per cent., an area of more than forty hectares. . . . "At the present day there are somewhat more than three million proprietors whose holdings are under ten hectares in extent, and these holdings aggregate upwards of twenty per cent, of the total arable area of the country. The remainder is owned by some 750,000 proprietors — half of it by 150,000 whose holdings exceed one hundred and sixty hectares, the other half by 600,000 whose holdings fall between ten and one hundred and sixty hectares. About eighty per cent, of all hold- ings to-day are cultivated by their owners. Of the remainder, thirteen per cent, are leased and seven per cent, are worked under the system known as metayage, involving the division of the produce, on some designated percentage basis. between proprietor and cultivator. The number of small holders continues to increase. . . . The French peasant still displays a deep attachment for the soil. The ground is not so rich or well- favoured that hard work is not required for its tillage, but it repays the husbandmen's effort to his reasonable satisfaction." — F. A. Ogg, Economic development of modern Europe, pp. 190-194. France: Century of agricultural development. — "While Great Britain was becoming distinctly an industrial and commercial nation and Ger- many, at a later period, was tending strongly in the same direction, France remained a predomi- nantly agricultural country. And such she still is. . . . Throughout the past hundred years ag- ricultural progress has been more steady and sub- stantial than in any [other] country of Europe, with the possible exception of Belgium and Den- mark. In the Napoleonic period Flemish and English systems of crop rotation were introduced and the cultivation of many products — dyes, chic- ory, flax, hemp, and beet-root — was begun or extended; although it must be added that after the restoration of normal trade relations in 1814- 15 some of the newer forms of cultivation (c g., that of beet-root) which had been undertaken as a means of providing substitutes for commodities cut off by the war languished. The period 181S- 47 was, in general, a time of rapid agricultural advance and of great rural prosperity. The coun- try was at peace externally, and the people, al- though at times agitated by political questions, were in the main profitably employed and con- tented. After 1848 advance was somewhat re- tarded. The political unsettlement incident to the overthrow of the Orleanist monarchy and the es- tablishment of the Second Empire, the Crimean War and the war with Austria in 1859. outbreaks of the cholera, and the poor har\'ests of 1853 and r855 operated, along with other circumstances, to withdraw men from the land and to jeopardize 143 AGRICULTURE, MODERN United States Beginnings AGRICULTURE, MODERN agriculture interests. At no time during the second half of the century did these interests quite re- gain their former prosperity. After i860, how- ever, the reclamation of waste land set in upon a large scale, and likewise the introduction of agricultural machinery. . . . Scientific methods of rotation, soil-preparation, and fertilization were introduced, and between 1818 and i88q the aver- age yield of wheat per acre was raised from eleven to seventeen and one-half bushels, and between 1S25 and 1S75 that of barley was increased by •eight bushels, ajid that of oats by ten bushels. ... In the matter of foodstuffs France today is practically self-supporting, and her exports of ag- ricultural products are extensive. A main char- acteristic of the agriculture of the country is the diversity of its products. Wheat and wine are the staples, but there is a heavy output of rye, barley, buckwheat, oats, maize, fruits and dairy produce. Almost one-third of the cultivated land is devoted to cereals. ... Of a total of 105,000 square miles of arable land, 171,000 square miles, or eighty-eight per cent., are steadily under cul- tivation." — F. A. Ogg, Economic development of modern Europe, pp. i88-iq4. "The agricultural interests in France receive the assistance of the government mainly through the imposition of duties on imported agricultural commodities, a policy which reached its culmina- tion in the decade 1881-1800 and has been en- forced to this day bj' successive tariff legislation. The Ministry of Agriculture maintained by the state is a thoroughly modern and well-equipped institution, with an advisory council of politicians and agricultural experts, and a body of inspectors who travel ov-er the country and indicate direc- tions for state assistance to the farmer. One of the most important respects in which agriculture has been liberated by the state is the freedom of association, which was not granted in France until 1884. Before that time, agricultural societies were mainly of a scientific nature, although quite among the best of their kind in Europe. The great need for and impulse toward association is shown by the rapid growth of agricultural so- cieties, of which there were 648 in 1800, with 234,234 members, and 6,178 in IQ13, with q76,i57 members. Membership is limited by region and by class, but there are small unions of the various local societies as well as the Union Centrale des Syndicats Agricoles, an association of about 2500 of the local societies. The purpose of these or- ganizations is to promote the interests of the ag- ricultural class through governmental interposi- tion, through instruction of the farmer in the bet- terment of his own situation, and through secur- ing the benefits of cooperation.":— /hjrf. — See also AcRictiLnTRF.: Modern period: General survey; Cooperation: France. France: 1914-1918. — Damages from war. See World War: Miscellaneous auxiliary services: XI. Devastation, b, 2. France: 1918. — Reconstruction work follow- ing war. See World War: Miscellaneous auxiliary services: XII. Reconstruction, a, 4. Germany: 19th-20th centuries. — Agricultural development. See above under General survey. Germany: Food policy during the World War. See Food reguxation: iqi4-iqi8: German food policy. Germany: Illicit trade during World War. See Food regulation: iqi4-iqi8: Rationing. India. See India: Agriculture. Japan. See Japan: Agriculture. Korea. See Korea: Agriculture. Mexico. See Latin- America: Agriculture. Poland. See Poland: iq2i. Russia. See Russia: igoq; 1916: Condition of peasantry; 1917-1920; Land distribution by the Bolsheviki. — See also Baltic provinces: 1920. Siam. See Siam; Agriculture. South America. See Latin- America : Agricul- ture. Spain: Canal irrigation. See Spain: 1759-1788. United States: Beginnings of American ag- riculture. — "The agricultural as well as the polit- ical history of the United States is divided into two eras. The first is the colonial era, lasting from 1607 to 1770. The second is the era of national development, lasting from 1776 to the present time. This era of national development, ho%vever, is divisible into four distinct periods; first, from 1776 to 1833; second, from 1833 to 1864; third, from 1864 to 1888; fourth, from 1888 to the present time. The first era, being con- temporaneous with the colonial era of our politi- cal history, may be called the era of establish- ment. It was the time during which the colonists transplanted European methods of agriculture to American soil and readaptcd them to the new con- ditions. This readaptation consisted in learning how to live a wilderness life, and to clear wild land of trees, stumps, and stones. It consisted also in learning by experiment what crops were adapted to the soil and climate, and what methods of cultivation were best calculated to insure satis- factory returns. The first European settlers in America . . . learned many of their first and, as it proved, most valuable lessons directly from the Indians. . . . They taught our ancestors how to grow two crops which were destined to play a large part in our national economy. The.se crops were tobacco and Indian corn, or maize. The former was the most important money crop in the southern colonies during the entire colonial period, and remained in the lead until 1801, when it was outstripped by cotton. During our entire history corn has been the leading agricultural prod- uct of the country as a whole, and still retains that position with no other crop even, a close second. The history of land tenure in colonial times was one that was natural to the circum- stances of a new country, sparsely settled under conditions of great hardship. In the first place, all titles were derived ultimately from the British Crown, which made grants to various companies, which in turn made grants to individuals. This was true of Virginia, after a period of unsuccess- ful communal ownership, but in New England the system was somewhat different. There grants were made to groups of individuals for the purpose of establishing a settlement or town. The middle colonies had several forms of land tenure — New York under the Dutch having the semi-feudal patroon system, while Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Delaware were under the proprietary system, upon which their government was based. It was not many years after settlement that speculation, which has been a characteristic of American ex- pansion westward almost up to our own time, became a common practice. In colonial times it took this form: — that an individual or a group of persons would obtatin a grant for a large tract of land, organize settlers on part of it, and hold the remainder of the tract until a high price could be demanded for it. While the early colonists learned their first lessons in successful agriculture from the Indians, and began growing corn or to- bacco after the manner of their teachers, they were naturally unwilling to follow the Indian type of agriculture exclusively. Accordingly a great many experiments were tried. In Virginia especi- 144 AGRICULTURE, MODERN United States 1776-1833 AGRICULTURE, MODERN ally these experiments were numerous. An at- tempt was made to develop the silk industry be- cause mulberry trees were found growing wild, and to develop grape culture and wine making be- cause wild grapes were found; and attempts were also made to grow the fig, the olive, and other semi-tropical fruits. . . . But after all their ex- perimenting the Southern colonists fell back upon corn and tobacco as their leading field crops, though European grains, vegetables, and fruits were also introduced. Indigo and rice also be- came important crops in South Carolina and Georgia. In the middle colonies wheat became the staple crop, though corn was always grown, and European fruits and vegetables were cultivated in considerable quantities. There grew up a consider- able export trade in wheat to the West Indies. In New England there were no great staple crops produced for export. Farming was of a more general sort, and products were grown mainly for the local markets. "One of the most interesting phases of our colonial agricultural history is the live stock in- dustry. All the domestic animals and fowls now grown in the United States, except the turkey, were first brought from Europe. Everywhere the hog flourished, running half wild in the woods, living upon mast and roots, and multiplying rap- idly in spite of the depredations of wolves, bears and marauding Indians. Early in our colonial era Virginia hams and bacon acquired high reputa- tion. Goats flourished also, being better able than sheep to protect themselves against wolves. Later, however, as the country became more settled, sheep displaced goats as a form of live stock. Sheep were grown in all the colonies where condi- tions were sufficiently settled to furnish protec- tion from wolves. Cattle were naturally better fitted than sheep to defend themselves against the savage denizens of the woods, and have been bred in considerable numbers on the frontier ever since the earliest settlement. In Virginia and the Caro- linas a flourishing cattle business, resembling mod- ern cattle ranching, grew up. . . . The first [Euro- pean animals] to reach the New World were brought by Columbus to the West Indies on his second voyage in 1403. Horses, cattle, hogs, goats, sheep, asses, chickens, ducks, and geese were known to have been brought at that time. During the colonial period there was considerable trade be- tween our own colonies and the West Indies, and it is not improbable that specimens of all these Spanish varieties may have found their way to our shore. This is known to have been the case with horses, cattle, hogs, and sheep. Dutch cattle were brought to New York and Danish cattle to New Hampshire. In general, however, our farm animals came from the British Isles." — T. N Carver, Principles of rural economics, pp. 63-72. United States: 1776-1833. — National develop- ment. — Public land policy. — Cotton industry. — Westward migration. — Live stock. — "The War of Independence marks an era in our agricul- tural as well as in our political history. Shortly after this event a series of epoch-making changes began in agriculture. In the first place, the fron- tier moved rapidly westward into the great in- terior valley. The life of the pioneers on our frontier, wherever that frontier may happen to have been, has always retained certain of the essential features which it possessed in the colonial era. The next great epoch-making event was the establishment of the public-land policy of the federal government. At the close of the Revolu- tion the land was all regarded as the property of the various states. By a series of acts the greater part of the unoccupied or unsold lands were ceded to the central government, which then began to devise plans for their sale to private individuals. No other poUcy than that of turning the public domain as rapidly as possible into private prop- erty for individual farmers ever seems to have been seriously considered. At first the policy was to sell the lands for the benefit of the national Treasury and the extinction of the national debt. By a scries of changes the financial motive was abandoned altogether, and a policy was adopted which aimed to put the land in the hands of ac- tual settlers without any direct profit to the national Treasury whatever. . . . "The next epochal change in the agricultural history of this period was the rise of cotton to the first place among Southern products. During the colonial era, and down to 1803, tobacco held first place, but at this date cotton began to out- strip it and soon left it far behind. This rise of cotton to a position of predominance came about as a result of several factors working together. During the latter half of the eighteenth century there had been a remarkable series of inventions, mainly in England, for the manufacture of cloth. These had greatly increased the demand for cotton on the markets of the world. In 1786 the long-staple or sea-island cotton was introduced and proved to be well adapted to the low lands of South Carolina and Georgia. But more im- portant than all other factors was the invention of the saw gin in 1703. This was the first suc- cessful device for separating the seed from the short-staple or upland cotton. This is the kind of cotton from which the great bulk of the cotton fabrics of the world are manufactured, and the saw gin made its production profitable in this country where labor was scarce and land abun- dant. One of the unpleasant results of this rise of the cotton industry, however, was to give slav- ery a new lease of life. . . . The almost complete exclusion of white labor from cotton growing was by far the most importont effect of slavery upon .American agriculture. Three other effects are commonly attributed to it. First, it is held re- sponsible for the process of 'land killing,' by which is meant the practice of growing a few crops from a piece of land until its original virgin fertility was partially exhausted and then aban- doning it for a new and unexhausted tract. It is doubtful, however, whether this practice was due more to slavery than to the presence of indefinite supplies of new land. . . . Second, slavery tended to concentrate cotton growing in large plantations worked by gangs of slaves under supervision. . . . Third, the tools and implements used in Southern agriculture remained crude and heavy long after improvements had been introduced in the North. Tobacco, live stock, and general farming con- tinued in the northern belt of slave states, that is, in Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Ken- tucky, Tennessee, and Missouri; but through the institution of slavery these found their interests to be with the cotton states to the south of them rather than with the free states of the North. The cotton states furnished a market for slaves and also for the horses, mules, cattle, hogs, hay, and grain produced by these border states. . . . [See Maryland: 1660-1776.] "The opening up of the Northwest Territory under the ordinances of 1785 and 1787 stimulated a rapid migration westward to this new territory. Inasmuch as the government at this period sold land to speculators as well as to settlers, this westward migration was made up of very diverse elements, though then, as well as later, the home 145 AGRICULTURE, MODERN United States 1833-1860 AGRICULTURE, MODERN seeker predominated. The land sought during this early period all lay in the continuous stretch of forest which extended westward from the coast to the present state of Indiana. Therefore the pioneering of this period differed, in some re- spects, from that which we have known later in the prairie states, though resembling that of the colonial period on the Atlantic seaboard. After locating his land and building a shelter, the first task of the settler was to clear his land of timber. The work of destroying the forest was prosecuted with such vigor and ingenuity as have probably never been equaled in the history of the world. "There were few changes in agricultural imple- ments until after 1833. The plow and harrow were almost the only tools not driven by human muscle. The wooden plow with an iron share was still in use, through sometimes the wooden mold- board was protected b.\- .strips of iron. In 1798 Thomas Jefferson wrote a treatise on the proper form of a moldboard of a plow. A year earlier Charles Newbold of New Jersey had invented a cast-iron plow having the share, moldboard, and land side all in one piece. It did not come into general use at once because some one invented the absurd doctrine, which farmers seem to have be- lieved, that the cast-iron plow poisoned the land so that crops would not grow. Jethro Wood of New York, a correspondent of Jefferson, took out patents for cast-iron plows in 1814 and 1810. He had designed a moldboard resembling some- what those now in use. Though there were few significant inventionsi of agricultural implements during the period from 1776 to 1833, there was the beginning of an interest in agricultural im- provement which promised well for the future. Agricultural societies were founded in South Caro- lina in 1784, in Pennsylvania in 1785, in New York in 1701, in Massachusetts in 1792. In 18 10 an exhibition of agricultural products was held in Georgetown, D. C, and another in Pittsfield, Massachusetts. In 1816 a somewhat larger ex- hibition was held in Brighton, Massachusetts. These were the forerunners of the agricultural fairs which have since had such a large development. During this period there were new importations of improved live stock, particularly Shorthorn and Hereford cattle, Kentucky, Massachusetts, and New York taking the lead. . . . One of the most interesting chapters in the history of .Ameri- can husbandry relates to the general introduction of the Merino sheep. The first animals of this breed were imported in 1773, but the industry was not yet in a flourishing condition. With the restrictions upon trade growing out of the Na- poleonic disturbances in Europe, there grew up a necessity for a domestic supply of wool. At the same time the Peninsular War created such con- ditions in Spain that the herds of Merinos, which up to that time had been guarded as a quasi- national monopoly, were broken up and offered for sale. Enterprising American farmers began buying them, and by iSoo there were said to be 5000 in the country. The price of Merino wool soared, and the prices of sheep soared still higher. There grew up a speculative craze in Merinos, and some fabulous prices were paid. Hogs have always been an important agricultural product in the United States. The earliest settlers in all the co-'l^tTO.had found hogs very adaptable, multi- plyflur'Tapidly and flourishing on the food found in the forest. . . . During the period we are now studying, Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky, and Tennessee were the principal hog-growing states, and Cin- cinnati, the center of this region, soon became famous as the center of a large pork-packing in- dustry, a position which she held until surpassed by Chicago many years later. In 1805 fat cattle began to be driven across the .Alleghcnies to the eastern seaport cities, but a good part of the produce of the Ohio valley found its way south- ward, first to New Orleans and later to supply the cotton states. In 1825 the Erie Canal, con- necting the Great Lakes with the .\tlantic, was opened. This marked the beginning of a new out- let for the products of the great interior, es- pecially the northern belt of that interior. Wheat became the leading export from the Northwest, but corn, beef, and pork remained the leading products of the Ohio River region." — T. N. Car- ver, Principles of rural ecomimics, pp. 74-84. United States: 1833-1860.— Transformation.— Cattle raising. — "Beginning with 1833; there oc- curred on American soil during the next lhirt\' years one of the most remarkable agricultural transformations ever known in the history of the world. In 1S33 practically all the work of the farm e.xcept plowing and harrowing was done by hand. Though there had been minor improve- ments in hand tools, and considerable improve- ment in livestock and crops, particularly in Europe, yet it is safe to say that so far as the general character of the work actually performed by the farmer was concerned, there had been practically no change for 4000 years. Small grain was still sown broadcast, and reaped either with a cradle or the still more primitive sickle. The cradle, however, was a relatively new invention, being a modification of the scythe, which had been used for centuries in mowing grass. The addition of the frame and 'fingers' to the old-fashioned scythe, together with a few changes in the handle to restore the balance, made it into a so-called cradle and adapted it to the reaping of grain But the sickle or reaping hook had been in use for thousands of years. ... It is still in use in oriental countries and in some parts of Europe Grain was still threshed with a flail in 1833, or trodden out by horses and oxen, as it had been in ancient Egypt or Babylonia. Hay was mown with a scythe and raked and pitched by hand. Corn was planted and covered b_\' hand and cultivated with a hoe. By 1806 every one of these opera- tions U'as done by macliinery driven by horse power, except in the more backward sections of the country. The increased use of farm machin- ery also helped the horse to displace the ox as a draft animal, the former being much better suited than the latter to the drawing of these improved implements. . . . The transformation which took place in the agriculture of the North was due to several causes, any one of which might be called epoch making. The first was the railroad. At the beginning of this period there were none. By i860 there were 30,000 miles in operation and they had penetrated every state east of the Mis- souri River. While the markets of the world were brought nearer to the Western farms by the build- ing of the railroads, the markets themselves were growing larger. The building of the factory towns of New England called for larger supplies of food. In 1846 the English Corn Laws were repealed, though the repeal did not go into effect until 1840, when American foodstuffs began to be ad- mitted to that country free of duty. The great Irish potato famine began in 1846. The continent of Europe was disturbed by the revolutions of 1848 and by the Crimean War of 1854, . . . An- other set of causes was at work in the form of a more liberal land policv. . . . Another factor of great importance was the development of prairie farming. At the beginning of this period the van- 146 AGRICULTURE, MODERN Unifed States 1833-1860 AGRICULTURE, MODERN guard of the westward-movinR army of settlers was just emerging from the great primeval forest, which covered the entire eastern third of the con- tinent, and was beginning to settle in the great natural meadows of the upper Mississippi Valley. In this new region the settler was saved the enor- mous task of clearing his land of timber. . . . But the most important factor of all was the series of inventions of agricultural machinery by means of which horse power was substituted for human muscles as a motor force. In 1831 William Man- ning of New Jersey was granted a patent for a mowing machine. In 1833 and 1S34 Obed Hussey of Baltimore and Cyrus McCormick were each granted patents for reaping machines. After 1840, when these machines had been improved and their practicability demonstrated, they began to come into general use. About the same time the thresh- ing machine began to be widely used, and very soon displaced the old primitive methods. It was not, however, until about 1850 that the 'thresher' and the 'separator,' that is, the machine for beat- ing out the grain and the machine for separating it only those sections suitable for dairying, stock raising, and market gardening continued to pros- per. The competition of the Eastern farmer with the farmer of the Western prairies might have been foreseen to be a helpless one. . . . Sometimes it was not even necessary to plow the prairie land before the crop could be raised. Furrows were plowed across the sod and the corn was planted in the bottom of these and covered with a hoe. The soil was so very rich and there were so few pests that a fair crop could be grown the first year with practically no cultivation. Another method of growing the tirst crop, however, was to plow the land and plant the corn in the up- turned sod by means of an ax or mattock. ... It was the smoothness of this prairie land as much as anything else which led to the rapid develop- ment of farm machinery during this period when the prairie states were being settled. When these states began to be cultivated by means of ef- fective modern machinery, and when the railroads began to transport the products of these states to the eastern seaboard, it became impossible for the COMBINED RKAPER ANO THRESHER. DRAWN BV A TR^VCTOR from the straw and chaff, were combined. These machines were usually run by horse power, though a steam thresher was beginning to be used before 1864. John Deere made his first steel plow from an old saw blade in 1837. Scarcely less important than the mower, the reaper, and the thresher were the corn planter and the two-horse cultivator, which came into use during this period. (See also Inventions: igth century: Reapers.] . . . Every part of the work of growing corn, except that of husking the crop, was done by horse power be- fore 1864, e.xcept in certain sections where corn is a minor crop. In view of the fact that corn is and always has been our principal crop, it is doubtful whether the grain-harvesting machinery effected a greater saving of labor than did these improvements in the implements for corn produc- tion, by means of which horse power was sub- stituted for man power. ... It was during this period also, and as a result of the changes already described, that the agricultural decHne in New England began. As early as 1S40 the abandon- ment of the hill farms began to attract attention. General farming on these rocky hills in compe- tition with the prairie farms and machine culti- vation of the West was no longer possible, and farmer on the hilly lands of the Appalachian slopes to hold his own in competition with them." — T. N. Carver, Principles of rural economics, pp. 84-00. "During the period now under discussion the cattle industry in the Far West underwent a most interesting and spectacular development. Cattle ranching has always been associated with our fron- tier life, particularly in Virginia and the Carolinas. After the acquisition of Texas the American cattle- man who had already penetrated that Territory took over the ranching business and reorganized it. The descendants of the Spanish cattle brought over by Cortes and his followers had multiplied rapidly in the mild climate of Mc^iico, which then included Texas, where they had run wild for more than two hundred years. . . . Under American dominion, however, American cattlemen made vari- ous attempts to open up a market for Texas beef. As early as 1857 a few Texas cattle were driven to the cornfields of Illinois, but they did not become popular. During the Civil War the outlet for Texas cattle was cut off and yet the cattle con- tinued to multiply. Consequently the ranges were ready to swarm in the late sixties. The quality of the grass in the northern plains is somewhat better than that in the Texas ranges, and it was dis- 147 AGRICULTURE, MODERN United States 1860-1888 AGRICULTURE, MODERN covered that the Texas cattle gained in weight more rapidly in the north than on their native ground. . . . From 1870 to the close of the period we are now considering, the great cattle trail was pretty well marked as the route over which vast num- bers of cattle drifted north from the great breed- ing grounds of Texas. The migrating cattle were mainly young steers, besides some heifers taken north for the stocking of the northern ranges. Inasmuch as cattle seemed to multiply more rap- idly in Texas, because apparently cows were more prolific in the milder climate of that state, and inasmuch as young cattle grew more rapidly after being moved north, a territorial division of labor grew up. The ranches of the south supplied the young and immature cattle, and those of the north matured them and prepared them for beef. . . . After 1885 the importance of the great cattle trail began to decline. The westward advance of the line of settlements tended to cut off this line of march, but the chief factor of the decline was the competition of the railroads, which were built into the heart of the cattle country and which trans- row and planting the corn in the bottom by means of an automatic seeder. . . . This method of planting . . . has certain advantages, chief of which is that the deeper planting of the seed en- ables the crop to withstand drouth somewhat more successfully than does the shallower planting prac- ticed farther east. Though the expansion of agri- culture during the period immediately preceding the Civil War had been marvelously rapid, it was even more rapid during the period immediately following. The Civil War scarcely imposed even a temporary check upon the development of agri- culture in the North, though it completely dis- organized the cotton industry of the South and involved it in temporary ruin. [See also North Carolina; 1870-1892.] During the preceding period agriculture had . . . passed into the com- mercial stage, where farmers were living upon the profits of farming rather than on the products of the farm itself, and it was now ready to respond to the new opportunities . . . created by the railroads, the inventions of farm machinery, the opening of the prairie states, and the development of the VVALLli. 1K.'VC1\)K rl l.LliNl, (.ASK DISC I'LOW A.M) HARROW ported the cattle more quickly and almost as cheaply as they could be driven overland." — T. N. Carver, Principles of rural economics, pp. 101-104. United States: 1860-1888.^Expansion after the Civil War. — "The invention of the twine binder, by increasin.; the amount which a farmer could harvest, increased . . . the quantity which he could profitably grow. In other words, it was the twine binder more than any other single ma- chine or implement that enabled the country to increase its production of grain, especially wheat, during this period. . . . Among the improved articles of machinery used in growing corn was the 'check rower.' This device attached to a corn planter enabled one man to do work which had formerly required two. It automatically drops the seed in rows running across the field at right angles to the direction in which the planter is being driven, thus planting the rows in two directions and permitting of cross cultivation. In the somewhat drier regions west of the Missouri corn came to be planted by means of the 'lister,' — a double-moldboard plow, throwing a deep fur- county fairs There followed, therefore, such an expansion of agricultural enterprise as the world had never seen before, so far as we have any record, and such as it may never see again. The chief factors in stimulating this remarkable expension were the Homestead Laws of 1862 and 1864, the disbanding of the armies, the invention of the twine binder, the roller process of manufacturing flour, the building of the transcontinental rail- roads, the permeation of every nook and corner of the Mississippi \allcy by the so-called 'granger roads,' and the development of the immense cattle ranches of the Far West. [See U, S. A : 1866-1877.] While this tremendous expansion was going on in the North and West the cotton industry was under- going a complete transformation in the South and getting ready for the expansion ... to come later. This transformation . . . was made necessary by the abolition of slavery. Durine the next decade, however, that is, from 1870 to 1880, over 207,000 square miles, a territory equal in extent to Great Britain and France combined, were added to the cultivated area of the United States. This in- crease in the cultivated area was due partly to 148 AGRICULTURE, MODERN United States 1880-1916 AGRICULTURE, MODERN the increased effectiveness of labor when it was equipped with the improved machinery which had come into use, partly to the westward migration of our native population, and partly to the enor- mous immigration of that decade. . . . "The following figures from the United States census will show the increase in the principal grain crops since the census of 1840. Corn Wheat Oats (bushels) (bushels) (bushels) iSsQ 377,531,875 84,823,272 123,071,341 1849 592,071,104 100,485,944 146,584,179 1859 838,792,742 173,104,924 172,643,185 1869 760,944,549 287,745,626 282,107,157 1879 i,7S4,59i,676 459.483,137 407.858,999 1889 2,122,327,547 468,373,968 809,250,666 1899 2,666,440,279 658,534,252 943,389,375 I9I9* 2,900,000,000 918,000,000 1,220,000,000 * In round numbers. [Last figures obtained. — Ed.] heaviest work, such as breaking the sod, the latter seem to have been preferred. Since this time oxen have continued to be used in small numbers and in backward sections, but this date may be fixed upon as the turning point in the transition from the ox to the horse as the typical draft animal. . . . Among the more important inventions of agricultural machinery during this period the twine binder stands preeminent." — T. N. Carver, Principtts oj rural economics, pp. 92-95. See also Black Belt; U. S. A.: 1919. United States: 1880-1916.— New problems. — "Thirty years ago this country was in ... a period of agricultural depression ; those were 'hard times' for farmers. . . . Railroads were being built into the West ; population was advancing rapidly upon the new, rich soil ; crops increased faster than the demand for the products; prices were low and falling lower. Before the year 1900, a new era of prosperity for farmers began, which we still enjoy. The supply of land ready for cultivation approached exhaustion, and immigration poured IkRICATION TRENCHES IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA "One result of this enormous increase in our agri- cultural productivity was the increase in the ex- portation of breadstuffs. This did not begin on a large scale until after 1S60, but after that date it increased by leaps and bounds until within twenty years, that is, by 1880, this country had become the world's greatest exporter of wheat. Only a small fraction of the corn crop has ever been ex- ported in the form of corn, a greater part being fed to live stock; our exports of corn, therefore, have been mostly in the form of animals and animal products. . . . Before this period [1860-1888! both horses and o.\en were used, but for much of the in from foreign countries; hence population caught up with the production of foods, causing the prices of agricultural products to advance. . . . In the decade 1900-1910, the population of cities increased three times as fast as rural population. The effect of these new conditions is also seen in the increased value of farm land, which more than doubled the same years. In 1900 the aver- age value of a farm was $3,563. In 1910 this value had increased to $6,444. These figures in- clude not only the land itself, but also the build- ings, machinery, improvements, and stock. Mr. James Wilson, who was Secretary of Agriculture 149 AGRICULTURE, MODERN United States JS86-19J0 AGRICULTURE, MODERN from 1891-1913, called attention to the remark- able agricultural advance of the country during that time. When Mr. Wilson took office, the farm products of each year were worth $4,000,- 000,000. When he retired they were worth more than double that amount, $0,500,000,000 being the figure for 1012. Only a part of this increase is accounted for by larger crops, since there has also been a great increase in the prices ol farm products. Besides increased crops and greater values, many other changes have come about in our agriculture. . . . One of the greatest of these is seen in the increased use of mixed farm- ing. . . . Where once were seen wheat fields, em- bracing thousands of acres, there now are seen much smaller fields producing a variety of grains; and these are interspersed with orchards, pastures, and crops of clover and alfalfa. (See South D.4- kota: 1913.] Where once a crop failure meant ruin, we now find the farmers secure from such disaster, because their capital is invested in a dozen crops instead of one. The growth of stock and dairy interests is adding still greater security to intelligent farming. For those who wish to continue the old methods of extensive farming, with single crops and speculation in land values, the door to western Canada is wide open, and thousands of farmers from the Middle States have gone there. . . . Fruit growing (see also Califor- nia: 1900) is a phase of agriculture that de- serves treatment by itself. The spread of this industry has been made possible, not only by scientific discoveries, but also by improvements in transportation and by the use of refrigeration. Refrigeration in the shipment of perishable crops was first tried about the year 1866, the fruit being packed with ice in chests. Soon afterwards the idea of refrigerator cars was worked out, and by 1872 this method had proved successful. Refrig- eration made possible the rapid development of truck farming — one of the remarkable features of recent agriculture. Truck farming on a large scale had its beginnings in the decade between 1840 and 1850, in the region about Norfolk, \'ir- ginia. ... At present, -many special districts in the South have been developed, where particular crops are raised, such as watermelons in Georgia, and sweet potatoes in eastern Maryland. In ad- dition, all the common vegetables and small fruits are produced in immense quantities throughout the year for Northern markets. Consequently, dwellers in cities and the larger towns may enjoy fresh fruits and vegetables all through the winter months. This means much for the general health of the people. "With the changes in this great era of pros- perity there have come many problems. . . . One of these is the question of tenantry. To-day, more than one-third of our six million farmers rent their farms instead of owning them. In 1880, but one-fourth were tenants; so the num- ber of tenants is increasing faster than the num- ber of farmers. One reason for this condition is found in the great rise of land values within re- cent years. A laborer now must have consider- able capital before he can buy a farm ; so he is often obliged to become a tenant, if he would be a farmer at all. In the Middle West, a- great many farmers whose lands have become valuable move to town and live upon the income received from renting their farms. Besides, the increase in land values has caused many city dwellers to purchase farms, hoping to sell later at a profit : in the meantime thev rent their farms to tenants. ... A more serious problem faces the .American farmer to-day -that of the scarcity of labor This is one reason why many farmers have preferred to rent their farms, and why others have sold out and moved to town. It is not a new problem, for back in colonial times it was impossible to keep farm hands; they went off to get land for themselves, and only those who were in compul- sory service (indentured servants and slaves) could be held for any considerable time. But in recent years the problem has become more acute. The growth of cities has emphasised the differences between rural and urban life. The farm has come to seem relatively less attractive; the growth of manufactures has enticed laborers from the farms by offers of higher wages. These are not necessaril>' bad signs, for the>' may represent the striving of individuals for a higher standard of living. The conclusion follows that, in order to obtain a supply of the best farm laborers^ farm- ers must offer inducements that equal those of city life. In recent years farm wages have risen; but this is not a complete remedy. Social life on the farm must be made more attractive if the laborers are to be held The increased use ol machinery and the keeping of fine stock call for a type of skilled laborers for farm work. This demand will best be met when homes are pro- vided on farms where married men may live com- fortably as hired workers. This is the condition under which workmen prove to be most satisfac- tory in city employments — why not on the farm?" — .\. H. Sanford, Story oj agriculture in the United Slates, pp. .378-3S3. United States: 1886-1910. — Dry farming in the West. — The Campbell system. — For twenty consecutive years, in scores of places from the James river to the .Arkansas, H. W. Campbell, of Lincoln, Nebraska, the pioneer "dry farmer" of arid ■America, "has been uniformly successful in pro- ducing without irrigation the same results that are expected with irrigation, with comparatively little additional expense, but not without a great deal more watchfulness and labor. UTiat Western people have become accustomed to calling the 'Campbell system of dry farming' consists simply in the exercise of intelligence, care, patience, and tireless industry. It differs in details from the 'good-farming' methods practised and taught at the various agricultural experiment stations; but the underlying principles are the same. "These principles are two in number. First to keep the surface of the land under cultivation loose and finely pulverized. This forms a soil mulch that permits the rains and melting snows to percolate readily through to the compacted soil beneath; and that at the same time prevents the moisture stored in the ground from being brought to the surface by capillary attraction, to be absorbed by the hot, dry air. The second is to keep the sub-soil finely pulverized firmly com- pacted, increasing its water-holding capacity and its capillary attraction and placing it in the best possible physical condition for the germination of seed and the development of plant roots. The 'dry farmer' thus stores water not in dams and artificial reservoirs, but right where it can be reached by the roots of growing crops. "Through these principles, a rainfall of twelve inches can be conserved so effectively that it will produce better results than :>re usually expected of an annual precipitation of twenty-four inches in humid .America. The aiscoverer and demon- strator of the.se principles deserves to rank among the greatest of national benefactors." — John L. Cowan, Dry jarming, the hope oj the West (Cen- tury Magazine. July. looft! — "Just as the sheep- men, by determination and plodding methods, 150 AGRICULTURE, MODERN United States World War AGRICULTURE, MODERN have all but driven the cattlemen from the range — those that remain are dying hard — another in- dustry is slowly arising, which appears destined, within ten years, to put an end to the sheepman as he conducts his business to-day. This menace to the free and open range is the dry farmer. Within the past two years thousands of soil tillers have settled upon the prairies of Wyoming and Montana. Agriculturalists are beginning to learn that farm produce will grow, luxuriantly, profit- ably, in these high areas where the annual [rain] precipitation is fifteen inches and less, if a man knows how to cultivate. The state of Wyoming has taken official cognizance of dry farming, and is doing all that can be done to encourage it. An expert. Dr. V. T. Cooke, of Oregon, has been em- ployed at a salary of $2,000 a year to show farm- ers how to succeed without irrigation. The office (if state dry farmer was created two years ago, at which time an appropriation barely sufficient to pay Dr. Cooke was grudgingly made. The legis- lature of iQOQ, convinced and enlightened by the success of the several experimental farms, made an appropriation of .$10,000 to carry on this work. The State .Agricultural College of Wyoming also is doing a great deal along this lead, issuing bulle- tins of information to farmers, encouraging the movement in every way. It is well known that increased cultivation will be followed by increased rainfall. This has been demonstrated in the great wheat belt of Kansas, once almost as arid as the plateaus of the West. But there is no quarrel between the farmer and the sheepman. Home- steading the range means smaller flocks, the sheep- men admit, and [will put] an end to promiscuous grazing. It will necessitate, however, the feeding of flocks in winter, at once disposing of the farm- er's output and saving the percentage of loss now suffered through starvation. Dr. Cooke, Wyo- ming's expert at dry farming, speaking of the in- dustry, said: 'Dry farming is already established in the semi-arid West. Some parts of California, with an annual precipitation of ten inches, have been dry farming for over forty years, eastern Oregon and eastern Washington for over twenty- five years, with an annual precipitation as low as eight inches, and Utah, Idaho, and Montana have been dry farming for years. Colorado, Wyoming, and western Nebraska have also been dry farm- ing for several years, but only in the last two or three years has it been brought intelligently to the front. Many early settlers failed — and will continue to do so — principally through ignorance of how to do their work properly, through mis- information, and through having too good an opinion of what they know. A man must be ready to take the advice of those that know in this business. The effect of dry farming in Wyo- ming to the stockmen will be that instead of losing vast numbers of sheep and cattle during the winter and early spring through neglect of providing feed for them, they will be able to buy feed from the farmer and save the stock from starvation. The ranges have been over- stocked. The government has made stockmen take their fences from immense areas of public land, thereby preventing them from holding pastures for the winter. The average stockman never has pretended to feed his stock at all, so, the range being overstocked, with no fenced winter pastures, it is easy to understand that the dry farmer is really a necessity, a benefit, rather than an ill, as some of the stockmen believed at first.' Dr. Cooke says that most of the grains, except corn, will grow in Wyoming under the dry method, and that the secret of dry farming is 'the use of brains and muscle, deep plowing, cultivation at the proper time, the use of labor-saving machin- ery and seeds that are adapted to the climate.' So a few more years will see this last romantic phase of Western range life pass away. The sheep- herder will go as the cowboy has gone, the flock- master will turn his attention to the soil, and where immense flocks now roam in the owner- ship of one man scores of smaller bands will feed in comfort upon the new farms of the semi-arid West. With the old order of romance and pic- luresqueness will vanish the hardship and cruelty to flocks and herders alike; and the West, under Ihe coming conditions, will yield more and better sheep than in the past." — G. W. Ogden, Dry farm- ing in Wyoming (Evervbod\'s, Sept., igio). United States: Effects of the World War. — War gardens. — Relation of agriculture to cost of living. — Farmers' associations. — County agents. — "In nearly all important respects with regard to foodstuffs .America has been not only substantially self-sufficing but a country of sur- plus. This has been true for many years, both before and during the war. Incidentally we were dependent upon our neighbors for certain com- mercial fertilizers, and the difficulties attendant upon getting along without them or getting them elsewhere are very great. However, America has been and is a land of surplus food. While this is true beyond all controversy, it is just as true and nu doubt a good deal more astonishing to notice that the amount of the surplus has for some years been steadily on the decline. The occasion for this lessening surplus is not mysterious. Of course if all the land in use were to be used to its fullest extent by the entire population, that is, if the country produced the minimum amount of other goods and utilities, devoting itself exclusively or mainly to agriculture, there would be an enormous surplus of food products. But since the normal course is to produce that which society wants most rather than that for which it will pay relatively little, we have no cause for complaint on account of the failure to make the land produce to its physical and biological maximum. Farmers, both consciously and unconsciously, limit their efforts in accordance with economic returns, instead of in accordance with the limits set by the laws of physics and biology. ... In 1880 the population of the country was 70.5 per cent rural. In iqio it was s,v7 per cent rural. Thus the proportion of producers to eaters has been undergoing a rapid change. Actually on farms the proportion is by no means S,v7 per cent, since in this classification there were included in rural population all villages and towns of less than 2,500 inhabitants. The farm population therefore was in loio, as nearly as can well be estimated, about one-third of the entire population of the country. This is a rapidly decreasing proportion, yet it is still in marked contrast to the very small proportion of the popu- lation of England and Wales engaged in agricul- ture, where there are but 8 per cent so reported. On the other hand it coincides rather closely with the German situation where 20,000,000 people out of 70,000,000 are getting their living by, or im- mediately out of, agriculture. . . . "In normal times Great Britain, France and Italy import about 313,000,000 bushels of wheat. This supply comes largely, but by no means ex- clusively, from the United States and Canada. Under the conditions existing since the beginning of the war in 1Q14 the supply has come more and more from these two sources. Ordinarily the United States and Canada furnish for export about two-thirds as much wheat as the three European 151 AGRICULTURE, MODERN Uniied States World War AGRICULTURE, MODERN Allies import. Under war conditions the produc- tion of wheat by the Allies has been greatly re- duced, notwithstanding the slight increase in Great Britain. On account of bad weather the supply of American wheat has been hardly above the amount required at home for normal con- sumption during the two years igi6 and igi?- The United States wheat crop of 1014 was the heaviest ever known and constituted almost one- fourth of the world's crop. Following as it did rather heavy crops for the two years preceding, the amount of wheat on hand at the outbreak of the war was by far greater than normal. . . . [See Food regul.^tion: 1SS5-1Q14.] "From the standpoint of world production the United States occupies the predominating position with respect to corn, producing from two-thirds to three-fourths of the world supply. In 1914 the world production was, according to the reports, 3,878,000,000 bushels, of which the United States produced 2,673,000 bushels or 6q per cent. The production of oats in the United States, in terms of bushels, ranks next to corn. In value oats rank normally below wheat. The acreage of oats has increased more, relatively, during the past forty years than have the acreages of either corn or wheat. In 1014 the world crop was 4035,- 000,000 bushels, of which the United States pro- duced 1,141,000,000 bushels, or 28 per cent. The importance of the oat crop is largely indirect so far as food is concerned since no considerable part is eaten. However, as a war commodity oats play an important role as feed for horses. . . . None of the other cereals enter greatly either directly or indirectly, into the food supply of the United States. As a barley producing nation the United States ranks second only to Russia, but even so the production in this country is normally under 200,000,000 bushels per year, or only about a quarter that of wheat, and not a tenth that of corn. Barley does not enter greatly into the food of the people of the United States nor of the European Allies. One of the most important food crops other than the cereals is the potato. The normal potato crop of the countn,' ranges from 300,000,000 to 400,000,000 bushels, it being a crop which varies widely according to weather condi- tion. To this may be added the sweet potato crop of 60,000,000 to 75,000,000 bushels. . . . Compared with that of other countries the potato crop of the United States is not large. The world crop is over 5,000.000,000 bushels, of which the United States produces but about 7 per cent. . . . No doubt the most important crop other than the cereals is sugar. The United States, including island possessions, produces from two to two and a half million tons, or four to fi\'e billion pounds, annually This is about half of the amount con- sumed, the additional amount coming mainly from Cuba. . . . With the European supply mainly cut off the Allies are obliged to get their sugar in large part from Cuba, which is also the source of the .American importations. In this roundabout man- ner the supply of sugar for .American use is seri- ously reduced. . . . The production of beet sugar was begun in earnest about 1800. In 1006 the beet sugar production exceeded the cane sugar pro- duction [See also Loutsian.^: 1014-1016.! . . . The cotton crop is sometimes second and sometimes third in value of all crops, it being exceeded uni- formly by corn and part of the time by hay. Cotton is the most important commercial crop of the countn.', outranking corn in this respect be- cause of the fact that substantially all cotton is sold as such by the producer, while corn has many uses, and is turned into other products without leaving the farm. Three-fifths of the world's supply of cotton is grown in the United States. The yield ranges from 10,000,000 to 16,- 000,000 bales per year varying greatly with weather conditions. . . . While there is almost without fail a reduction in the cotton acreage fol- lowing an unusually heavy yield with its attendant lower price it so happened that for the two years preceding the war the acreage and yield were both above normal, with the result that an unprece- dented supply of cotton was on hand when hos- tilities began in Europe in IQ14. . . . An idea of the growth of the Cotton industry may be had from the fact that the acreage increased from 13,000,000 in 18S0 to 37,000,000 in 1913. And the importance of the supply on hand in 1914 may be gathered from the figures showing an average yield from iqo6 to igog of 11,000,000 bales per year, while from loio to 1014 this aver- age was 14,000,000 bales."— B. H. Hibbard, Effects of the war upon agriculture (Department of Agri- culture Yearbook, pp. 3-12). It has been conservatively estimated that the gardens throughout the countr>' trebled in area in IQ17 when a concerted effort was made to in- crease the food supply in the United States. In practically every city, suburb and village home gardens were enlarged. Many thousands of acres of idle land, which heretofore had been wastefuUy neglected, were utilized during the World War, by individuals, municipalities and corporations, in the production of such staples as corn, potatoes, cabbage, turnips, onions, etc., as well as other perishable vegetables. Factors which gave in- valuable aid to the spirit of utilizing gardens for food production were the extension services of the United States Department of Agriculture, as well as of the various State departments, the ag- ricultural and the general press. All these agen- cies actively cooperated in furnishing assistance and information dealing both with the culture and consecvation of vegetables. Where no garden space was available, the practice in the homes was to can and dry large quantities of vegetables. Although the season was unfavorable for suc- cessful cultivation in many localities, especially in cases of amateur gardening, the net result was an important addition to the countr\''s supply of fresh, dried and canned vegetables, which brought about the release of a considerable amount of food td the soldiers and sailors of our army and nav>' and those of our allies. "It is customar>' to attribute the high cost of living to lessened production due to a supposed de- cline of agriculture, and to advise, therefore, that more persons engaiie in farming for the purpose of increasing the product. This position is met by an editorial of the Nexv York Tribune, which holds that intermediary trading combinations are respon- sible: 'It is true that the raising of cattle for the market has almost ceased in the East and that agri- culture generally has not kept pace with the demand for food products. Yet it is hard to believe that agriculture in any part of the Union would steadily decline in the face of an enormous ap- preciation of the cost to the consumer of all farm products, were there not some powerful disturb- ing factor operating to deny the farmer the bene- fits of that appreciation. If the Eastern farmer could have reaped a legitimate share of the in- crease in the price of farm produce which has taken place in the last twenty years, he would cer- tainly be in a position to command all the labor he needs and to develop resources now neglected because it does not pay to develop them. 'Yet economic law has not operated to stimulate agri- 152 AGRICULTURE, MODERN United States Rural Policy AGRICULTURE, MODERN culture, because the returns from steadily mount- ing prices have not really reached the producer. Thirty years ago the fattening of steers for the local markets was common in the East. But when the vast Western ranges were opened, and the great packing houses were established, the cheap- ness of range beef, refrigerated and delivered in Eastern cities, was used as a weapon to kill off the cattle industry of the East. When the Eastern cattleman was driven out of business, the price of beef rose, but virtually all the increase has gone to the packing combinations, which fix their own price to the Western range man and their own price to the consumer and artificially control the supply so as to discourage increased production in the West and to prevent a revival of produc- tion in the East. The country is growing in popu- lation at the rate of twenty to twenty-five per cent each decade. But Secretary Wilson has shown that the supply of food animals is not being maintained in proportion to population. In the last decade cattle have remained about sta- tionary in numbers, swine are actually decreasing, and, while more sheep are available, the supply has diminished relatively to population.' " — L. H. Bailey, Country-li^e movement in the United States, pp. 153-155. — See also Conservation of j^ATURAL resources: United States. Two associations of farmers have recently been formed and are at work in the United States to improve the conditions of farming and of farm- ers. One, the American Farm Bureau Federation, had been encouraging cooperative action on the part of farmers in order to lessen the profits of middlemen; while the other, the National Board of Farmers' Organizations was formed during the war to unify the agricultural interests and bring their cause before the people. Its activities con- tinued after the war, and recently it announced the intention of building a "temple of agriculture" at Washington to act as headquarters for the or- ganized farmers of the United States. Another agency for improving agricultural conditions has been employed in some of the States, notably in New York, namely, the farm county agents. On July I, igiS, there were over 6,200 farm county agents employed in this country. Farmers are coming to demand a larger share in the adminis- tration of the government, claiming that theirs is the largest single industry in America and repre- sents the largest investment. The presidential candidates of both great parties in iq20 acknowl- edged the justice of these claims and pledged to the farmers more representation on government boards. (See U. S. A.: 1020: Democratic platform. Republican platform). The junior agricultural movement in the country schools has developed rapidly in recent years, and the accomplishments of children in the schools along these lines form a prominent feature of the exhibits at country fairs. (See U. S. Bovs working re.serve.) The bitterest feelings have been engendered in the rural districts by the attempt to prolong the daylight saving laws and the farmers were mainly instrumental in effecting their repeal. — See also Agricultural education ; Agricultural societies; California: 1917 (Breed bill) ; Day- light SAVING movement: 1Q19; Food regulation: 1920. United States: Rural policy. — Information. — "A policy may be simply that which actually hap- pens through a series of years, but a policy for the New Day, a real policy, implies adequate knowledge, definite plans, correlation of effort. So in our governmental affairs, whatever is done or advo- cated by departments, boards or bureaus, should be the result of a well-founded and well-rounded policy. Probably there is in these agencies no lack of definite knowledge, and it should be easy for them to make plans. But it is more difficult to secure their cooperation. Within the state, for example, how may we adjust the administrative functions of a department of agriculture and the educational functions of a college of agriculture? We find in Washington half a dozen or more bureaus or boards dealing with matters of agricul- tural education. If these cannot be consolidated, at least they ought to be forced to cooperate in- timately and freely and unreservedly. Perhaps an agricultural development committee in each state and in Washington might be a means of grace in this connection. The British .Agricultural Develop- ment Committee is virtually an advisory commit- tee to Parliament. It has no direct authority, but its recommendations as to appropriations and as to the work of the different governmental agencies, both national and local, carry far in Parliament. [See Food regulation: 1914-iqiS: Legislative enactments in Great Britain] Some such group authorized by law, and composed of representatives of the public agencies involved, with additional members appointed by the President and in the state by governors, might be able to secure the necessary cooperation of governmental agencies. It is not too strong a statement to say that we are on the verge of chaos with reference to the inter- relationships of public boards, departments and bureaus. It is a serious situation and there is only one way out. There must be cooperation, if not voluntary, then compulsory. "Whatever our conclusions as to the place of the government dealing with agricultural matters, there is clearly one task that it can perform better than any other agency and which is evidently its duty. That is the task of discovering and disseminating information. This function embraces the necessity for accurate in- vestigations, for wise and clear interpretation of these investigations, for well planned and numer- ous demonstrations of the applicability of the principles worked out as the result of investiga- tion, and for widespread publicity that will reach the masses of farmers with understandable expert advice. Government, both state and national, should gather and distribute the fullest possible information on all of the different aspects of the rural problem. Its duty does not stop with information about production, but in- cludes the field of distribution of farm products and the welfare or country life phase of the farm- ers' interests. This information should not only be made available to all the farmers, but they must be all but compelled to listen if they arc unresponsive." — K. L. Buttcrfield, Farmer and the new day, pp. 193-195. — See also Agriculture, Department of (United States). United States: Railroad problem. — The prog- ress of agriculture and the welfare of the farmer have been continuously bound up with the railroad question, and many states have seriously under- taken to bring closer cooperation between agricul- tural interests and the railroads. — See also Minne- sota: 1916; North Dakota: 1880-1916; 1892-1896. See also Alaska: 1919-1920; Indians, American: 1920: Review of agricultural development; Philip- pine Islands: 1917-1918; U. S. A.:: Economic map. Also in: Annah of the American Academy of Political and Socio} Science, March, 1912. — J. M. Gillette, Conditions and needs of country life. — K. L. Buttcrfield, Rural sociology as a college dis- cipline. — F. B. Mumford, Education for agricul- ture. — T. N. Carver, Economic significance of 153 AGRICULTURE, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, INSTITUTE OF changes in country population. — L. C. Gray, South- ern agriculture. — G. F. Wells, Rural church. — H, W. Fought, Country school. — S. G. Dixon, Rural home. — J. Hamilton, Influences exerted by agri- cultural fairs. — R, B. Watrous, Civic arts and country lije. — J. C. Marquis, Social significance of the agriciilturai press. — M. T. Scudder, Rural rec- creation, a socializing factor. — Cyclopedia of American agriculture, 4 v., edited by L. H. Bailey, New York, 1917. — K. L. Butterlield, Chapters in rural progress, Chicago, igoS. — G. W. James, Re- claiming the arid West. — Scientific American, .\pril 27, IQ18. — .igricultural revolution in the South. — C. Turnor, Land probletns and national welfare. — J. Wilson and H. Wallace, .igricultural conditions in Great Britain and Ireland. AGRICULTURE, Biology as applied to. See BioLOGv ; Applications. AGRICULTURE, Department of (United States), had its origin in one of Ihc early duties of the Patent Bureau, that of the distribution of seeds and plants to farmers. In 1802 a bureau of agriculture was created and in i8Sg it w»s raised to the dignity of an executive department, with a secretary having a seat in the cabinet. The weather bureau has charge of weather forecasts, including warnings of storms, cold waves, frosts and floods; it also reports temperature and rain- fall conditions for agricultural staples. The bureau of animal industry conducts the inspection of ani- mals slaujhtercd for food. The bureau of plant industry takes charge of the scientilic investiga- tion of plant life and the distribution, through members of Congress, of flower and garden seeds. The bureau of statistics prepares crop reports. The bureau of chemistry takes charge of the en- forcement of the Pure Food and Drug Act. The forest service has charge of the national forest re- serves and cooperates with state governments and private owners of forests. The bureau of ento- mology investigates injurious insects affecting crops, fruits and forests. The bureau of biological sur- vey enforces federal laws for the protection of birds and game, has charge of the bison range and the protection of migratory birds. The bureau of soils, the division of publications, the office of experiment stations and the office of public roads have duties such as their titles suggest. The work of the department as a whole "is cov- ered in three general classes: (i) Research work, which includes the scientific study of the funda- mental problems of agriculture. (2) Educational or extension work, which aims to make available to the rural population the results of the depart- ment's experiments and discoveries. (3) Regulatory work which includes the enforcement of statues re- lating to meat inspection, animal and plant quar- antine, foods and drugs, game -and migratory birds, seed adulteration, insecticides and fungicides, the manufacture of vaccines and viruses, and the ad- ministration of the national forests. There stands to the credit of the Department of Agriculture the eradication of the cattle tick from 204,000 square miles of territory in ten years, the suppression of the foot-and-mouth disease in all the country from Massachusetts to Montana, the saving of the citrus industry of California, and a score of other in- valuable services protecting the orchards and fields and forests from destruction by insect and fungus pests. In addition, new farm products to the value of $270,000,000 have been promoted by the introduction and development of new crops, and one-third of the total area of the United States has been covered by the soil surveys conducted by this Department." — J. C. Hemphill, ,4 great farmer, David Franklin Houston (North American Review, June, 1917). — "The federal and state gov- ernments at present do little directly to aid in preserving and improving the fertility of the soil ; but the experiments in advanced methods of cul- tivation carried on by the Department of Agricul- ture, the Experiment Stations, and state agricul- tural colleges, are doing much to show the farm- ers how to make the best use of their land and at the same time to conserve it for the use of posterity. Science will become the servant of agriculture as well as of industry." — C. A. Beard, .\merican government and politics, p. 408. — See also Food regulation: 1917-1918: Food control in the United States. AGRICULTURE, International Institute of. — The idea of an international organization for systematizmg the agricultural production of the world and regulating the markets of food prod- ucts, by constant and authentic knowledge ol crops and conditions, was conceived some years ago by Mr. David Lubin, of California. It was first expressed by him publicly at Budapest in i8gft, but was the growth of thirteen years of thought preceding that date. As the result of Mr. Lubin's efforts to interest governments and peoples in the project. King Victor Emmanuel III, of Italy, be- came its hearty patron in 1903, and took the initial step toward effecting an organization as wide as the civilized world, by inviting all nations to take part in a convention of delegates for the purpose, at Rome, in May, 1905. The invitation, as ad dressed to the Government of the United States by the Italian ambassador at Washington, on Feb- ruary 26, igos, was in these words: "By order of my government, I have the honor to inform your excellency that His Majesty the King, my august sovereign, has taken the initiative in the formation of an international institute of agricul- ture to be composed of representatives of the great agricultural societies of the various countries and of delegates from the several governments. This institute, being devoid of any political intent, should tend to brinff about a community of inter- ests among agriculturists and to protect these in- terests in the markets of the world. It will study agricultural conditions in the different countries, periodically indicating the supply and the quality of products with accuracy and care, so as to pro- portion production to demand, increase and dis- tribute the various crops according to the rate of consumption, render the commerce of agricultural products less costly and more expeditious, and suit- ably determine the prices thereof. Acting in unison with the various national bureaus already existing, it will furnish accurate information on conditions regarding agricultural labor in various localities, and will regulate and direct the cur- rents of emigration It will favor the institution of agricultural exchanges and labor bureaus. It will protect both producers and consumers against the excesses of transportation and forestalling syn- dicates, keeping a watch on middlemen, pointing out their abuses, and acquainting the public with the true conditions of the market. It will foster agreements for common defense against the dis- eases of plants and live stock, against which in- dividual defense is less effectual. It will help to develop rural cooperation, agricultural insurance, and agrarian credit. It will study and propose measures of general interest, preparing interna- tional agreements for the benefit of agriculture and the agriculturil classes Carrving out the in- tention of His Majesty, the Italian Government appeals to all friendly nations, each of which ought to have its own representatives in the in- stitute, appointed to act as the exponents of their 154 AGRICULTURE, INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURE, INSTITUTE OF respective governments, as organs of mutual rela- tions, and as mediums of reciprocal influence and information. It accordingly now invites them to participate through their delegates in the lirst con- vention, which is to be held at Rome next May for the purpose of preparing rules for the new institute. The king's government trusts that the United States will be vrtlling to cooperate in the enterprise, the first inspiration of which is due an American citizen, and that, accepting the invi- tation to the conference at Rome, it will send thither a delegation commensurate with its im- portance as the foremost agricultural nation in the world." 1905. — Conference at Rome. — Gratifying re- sponses to the invitation were made by most, if not all, of the governments addressed, and a royal proclamation was issued calling an international conference at Rome to which thirty-eight powers responded. It concluded its sessions on June 7, iQOS, by adopting a final act embodying the reso- lutions upon which they had agreed. The text of the act follows: "Article i. There is hereby created a perma- nent international institute of agriculture, having its seat at Rome. "Article 2. The international institute of agri- culture is to be a government institution, in which each adhering power shall be represented by dele- gates of its choice. The institute shall be com- posed of a general assembly and a permanent com- mittee, the composition and duties of which arc defined in the ensuing articles. "Article 3. The general assembly of the insti- tute shall be composed of the representatives of the adhering governments. Each nation, what- ever be the number of its delegates shall be en- titled to a number of votes in the assembly which shall be determined according to the group to which it belongs, and to which reference will be made in article 10. "Article 4. The general assembly shall elect for each session from among its members a president and two vice-presidents. The sessions shall take place on dates fixed by the last general assembly and according to a programme proposed by the permanent committee and adopted by the adher- ing governments. "Article .$. The general assembly shall exercise supreme control over the international institute of agriculture. It shall approve the 'projects prepared by the permanent committee regarding the or- ganization and internal workings of the institute. It shall fix the total amount of expenditures and audit and approve the accounts. It shall submit to the approval of the adhering governments modi- fications of any nature involving an increase in expenditure or an enlargement of the functions of the institute. It shall set the date for holding the sessions. It shall prepare its regulations. The presence at the general assemblies of delegates rep- resenting two-thirds of the adhering nations shall be required in order to render the deliberations valid. "Article 6. The executive power of the insti- tute is intrusted to the permanent committee, which, under the direction and control of the gen- eral assembly, shall carry out the decisions of the latter and prepare propositions to submit to it. "Article 7. The permanent committee shall be composed of members designated by the respective governments. Each adhering nation shall be rep- resented in the permanent committee by one mem- ber. However, the representation of one nation may be intrusted to a delegate of another adher- ing nation, provided that the actual number of members shall not be less than fifteen. The con- ditions of voting in the permanent committee shall be the same as those indicated in article 3 for the general assemblies. ".Article 8. The permanent committee shall elect from among its members for a period of three years a president and a vice-president, who may be reelected. It shall prepare its internal regula- tions, vote the budget of the institute within the limits of the funds placed at its disposal by the general assembly, and appoint and remove the of- ficials and employees of its office. The general secretary of the permanent committee shall act as secretary of the assembly. ".Article 0. The institute, confining its opera- tions within an international sphere, shall — "(a) Collect, study, and publish as promptly as possible statistical, technical, or economic informa- tion concerning farming, both vegetable and ani- mal products, the commerce in agricultural prod- ucts, and th£ prices prevailing in the various markets; "(h) Communicate to parties interested, also as promptly as possible, all the information just re- ferred to ; "(c) Indicate the wages paid for farm work; "(d)Mdkc known the new diseases of vegetables which may appear in any part of the world, showing the territories infected, the progress of the disease, and, if possible, the remedies which are effective in combating them ; "(e) Study questions concerning agricultural cooperation, insurance, and credit in all their as- pects; collect and publish information which might be useful in the various countries in the organiza- tion of works connected with agricultural coop- eration, insurance, and credit ; "(/) Submit to the approval of the govern- ments, if there is occasion for it, measures for the protection of the common interests of farmers and for the improvement of their condition, after hav- ing utilized all the necessary sources of informa- tion, such as the wishes expressed by international or other agricultural congresses or congresses of sciences applied to agriculture, agricultural socie- ties, academies, learned bodies, etc. "All questions concerning the economic inter- ests, the legislation, and the administration of a particular nation shall be excluded from the con- sideration of the institute. "Article 10. The nations adhering to the insti- tute shall be classed in five groups, according to the place which each of them thinks it ought to occupy. The number of votes which each nation shall have and the number of units of assessment shall be established according to the following gradations: Groups of nations Numbers of votes Units of assessment I II Ill s 4 3 16 8 4 2 I IV V 2 I "In any event the contribution due per unit of assessment shall never exceed a maximum of 2,500 ■ francs. As a temporary provision the assessment for the first two years shall not exceed 1,500 francs per unit. Colonies may, at the request of the nations to which they belong, be admitted to form part of the institute on the same condi- tions as the independent nations. 155 AGRIGENTUM AHMAD SHAH "Article ii. The present convention shall be ratified and the ratifications shall be exchanged as soon as possible by depositing them with the Ital- ian Government." On March 27, iqo6, the Italian ambassador at Washington was able to announce that "the States which were represented at the conference of last year at Rome . . . have now all sanctioned by the signature of their plenipotentiaries, the Conven- tion drafted at that Conference," As appears from a copy transmitted, the convention had been signed by the plenipotentiaries of forty nations, includ- ing twelve .\merican republics besides the United States. At the second general meeting of the in- stitute at Rome, Dec. 12, iqog, at which more than one hundred foreign delegates were present, Victor Emmanuel III of Italy bestowed upon it a yearly allowance of 300,000 lire. This generous grant was used in the construction of a palace, which the institute now occupies. The organiza- tion carried on its work throughout the duration of the World War, supplying the data upon which all food commissions based their plans for con- servation. Today (1021) fifty-eight nations are members of the institute and until his recent death David Lubin had a goodly share in its fine work. Upon learning that Belgium, Germany and Italy were far better organized for farm credit than the United States, he urged the United States to ap- point a commission to study cooperation in rural credit and finance. This they did, and partly as a result of the work of this commission we have the establishment of the Federal Farm Loan banks in 1Q16. AGRIGENTUM (Acragas), one of the young- est of the Greek colonies in Sicily, founded about 582 B. C. by the older colony of Gela, became in the fifth century B. C. one of the largest and most splendid cities of the age, as is testified by its ruins. It was the scene of the notorious tyranny of Phalaris, as well as that of Theron. Agrigentum was destroyed by the Carthaginians, 405 B. C, and rebuilt by Timoleon, but never recovered its former importance and grandeur. — E. Curtius, History oj Greece, bk. 4, cli. 3. See Sicily: B.C. 400-405. — It was the scene of a great defeat of the Carthaginians by the Romans, in 262 B. C. See Punic W.\rs: First. AGRIPPA, Baths of. Among the principal Ro- man baths said to have been built 21 B. C. im- mediately behind the Pantheon. See Baths. AGRIPPA, Herod, I. (c. B C. lo-A. D. 44), king of Judea, the grandson of Herod the Great; was a great favorite with Gains fCaUgula) who gave him jurisdiction over Batansa and Tracho- nitis, later adding the tetrarchy of Herod Anti- pas (A. D. 39), whose, banishment he procured. — See also Jews: B. C. 40-A. D. 44; Christianity: .'\. D. ^■^-^o. AGRIPPA, Herod, II (A.D. 27-100), the last of the descendants of Herod the Great; king of Judea, following his father Agrippa I; deprived of the tetrarchy of Chalcis by Claudius in A. D. 53. — See also Jews: B. C. 40-.^. D. 44. AGRIPPA, Marcus Vipsanius (63-12 B. C), Roman general and statesman ; advisor to the em- peror Augustus who succeeded Julius Caesar (44 B. C.) ; carried on successful expeditions against the Aquitanians and the Germans 38 B. C; was made consul in 37 B. C; defeated Pompeius at Mylae, 36 B. C, and was responsible for the vic- tory at .Actium (^i B. C). AGRIPPINA,' the "younger" (A. D. 16-50), daughter of Agrippina the elder and sister of Gaius fCaligula). She was (he mother of Nero whom she placed upon the throne through intrigue. Nero had her put to death. — See also Rome: A. D. 47- '54: and A. D. 54-64. AGUESSEAU, Henri Francois d' (166S- 1751), illustrious chancellor of France; at twenty- one was appointed advocate-general to the Parlia- ment of Paris and procurator-general in 1700. AGUILA, Don Juan de: Commander of Span- ish fleet sent to aid Ulster. See Ulster: 1585-1608. AGUILAR Y CORREA, Antonio, Marques de la \'ega de .^rmijo (1824-1000), Spanish states- man. Associated with the Union Liberal party, 1855-1866; in 1873 became ambassador to France; played a prominent part in frustrating the plans of the Carlists. Held many ministerial positions in Spain, among others, minister of state. AGUINALDO, Emilio (1S70- ), a Filipino mestizo of Chinese and Tagolog parentage, and the leader first of the revolt against Spain, and then of the insurrection against the United States He was educated at the College of San Juan de Letran and at the University of St, Thomas in Manila. He became mayor of Cavite Viejo. While still a very young man, he became inter- ested in the liberal movement in the Philippines. When the insurrection of i8q6 was suppressed, he was the chief of the revolutionary leaders exiled by Spain to Hongkong. (See Philippine Islands: 1806-1808). With Hongkong as a center, Agui- naldo contrived to continue his machinations against Spain until they culminated in the insur- rections of i8q8, when he returned to Manila to aid the United States against Spain. (See U. S. A.: i8q8 (April-May): Philippines). Aguinaldo ar- rived in Manila May lo, iSgS, and proceeded to organize the insurgent forces. Although Aguinal- do's first attitude towards the United States in the Philippines was one of welcome and cooperation, he gradually became antagonistic toward the Ameri- can army, and with him also many of the more notable Filipinos. (See U. S. A.: 1898 (July- August): Philippines). When the manifesto es- tablishing a protectorate over the Philippines was issued, Aguinaldo, who had proclaimed himself president of the Philippine Republic (see U. S. A.: i8qS (July-September)), met it with a counter- proclamation asserting the independence of the islands, saying, "The United States did not take me out of Hongkong to make war for their own benefit." (See Philippint; Islands: i8q8-i8qq: December-January). This manifesto he followed with an armed insurrection against the llnited States forces. After three years' fighting Aguinaldo was forced to flee to the mountains of Luzon. (Sec Pun^iPPiNE Islanos: i8qq: Armed opposition to establishment of American government.) He was finally captured in iqoi by Brigadier-General Fun- ston at Palawan, Luzon, and capitulated with some grace by issuing an address to his countrymen ask- ing them to acknowledge the sovereignty of the United States. (See Philippine Islands: iqoi: Es- tablishment of civil government). He retired from public life. A. H. (Anno hejirae). See Chronology: Era of the hcgira. AHENOBARBUS ("brazen-bearded"), a ple- beian family of Rome, the name being derived from the peculiar fact that most of the members of the family had red hair or beards. Some of the mem- bers of this family were: Gnaeus Domitius Aheno- barbus, tribune (104 B. C), Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, consul in 54 B. C, and Gnsus Domitius Ahenobarbus, son of the above, consul in the year 32 B. C. and supporter of Octavius against .\ntnnv. AHMAD SHAH (1724-1773'. the founder of the Durani dynasty in Afghanistan ; led a revolt of 156 AHMADIYA AIRCRAFT the Afghanistan tribes in 1747 and was crowned sovereign in October of that year. He was the possessor cA the famous Koh-i-noor diamond; gained control of the Punjab in 1751, subdued Kashmir the following year and pillaged Delhi in 1756. Ahmad inflicted a serious defeat upon the Mahrattas who essayed to take possession of the Punjab (1758), which he later lost to the Sikhs. — See also India: 1747-1761; Afghanistan; 330- 1747- AHMADIYA. — "A sect which claims to have 500,000 members in various parts of India is the Ahmadiya. It was founded in iSSq by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, who was born at Quadian near Batala about fifty years earlier. He claimed to be the promised Mahdi of the Moslems, the Mes- siah of the Christians, and the Avatar of the Hindus; and taught that Mohammed revealed the same great truths as are contained in other re- ligions and embodied them in the Koran. Mr. O'Malley writes of the cult in the Census Re- port : " 'One significant feature of the cult is its op- position to Christianity. According to Mussalman belief, when the end of the world approaches^ Dajjal (Anti-Christ) will rule, and the powers of evil will reign till Christ reappears, and, with the help of Mahdi, overthrows Dajjal and converts the whole world to Islam. The Ahmadiya re- jects this doctrine and identifies Dajjal with the teachings of the Christian Church, such as the atonement and the divinity of Jesus Christ. In fact, he holds that the prophecy of the advent of Dajjal has been fulfilled by the spread of Christian missionaries.' " — S. M. Zwemer, Disin- tegration, of Islam, p. loi. AHMAR, Mahomet Ibn-Al (Mohammed I, of Granada) : Founder of the Alhambra. See SrAiN: 1238-1273. , AHMED I (158Q-1617), Turkish sultan. Ahmed II (1643-1605), Turkish sultan. Ahmed III. (1637-1736), Turkish sultan. Shel- tered Charles XII of Sweden, after the battle of Poltava. Fought a successful war with Russia, but was defeated in other contests. Deposed by the Janissaries, and died in prison. Struggle with Hungarians. See Hungary: i6Qg-i7i8. AHMED (Al Mostanser Billah), last caliph of Bagdad. See Bagdad: 12 58. AHMED ARABI (Arabi Pasha) (c. 183Q- ), Egyptian revolutionary leader. See Egypt: 1875- 1882. AHMED MIRZA (i8q8- ), shah of Persia, succeeding his deposed father in igoq, in the midst of unsettled conditions. See Persia: igoS-igog. AHMED VEFIK, Pasha (1819-1801), Turkish statesman and man of letters. Furthered the spread of French culture by translations; editor of the first official annual of his country ; am- bassador to Persia, 1851-1855; president of the Turkish parliament in 1877; prime minister in 1878 and 1S82. As vali of Brusa (1878-1882) in- augurated many internal reforms. AHMEDABAD, British India, scene of a re- beUion in iqiS. See Indi^: igig. AHMEDNAGAR, or Ahmadnagar, city and district of British India in the central division of Bombay. The city, founded 1494, was the seat of a monarchy until 1636; in 1803 captured by the British (see India: 1708-1805), who obtained possession of it bv the Treaty of Poona, 181 7. AHTENA INDIANS. See Indians, Ameri- can: Mackenzie .^rea. AHURAMAZDA, Zoroastrian deity. See ZoRO- ASTKiANs: Magians: Parsees. AHVAZ, Persia.— 1914.— Held by Turks. See World War: igi4: IV. Turkey: i. 1915. — Turks driven from it. See World War: igiS: VI. Turkey: c, 1. AIBAK, ruler in India. See India: 977-i2go. AIDAN, or Aedan (d. 651), first bishop of Lindisfarne (about 634) ; helped in the restoration of Christianity in Northumbria See Christian- ity: 5g7-8oo: Lindisfarne: 635-664. AIDIN, a town in the former Turkish vilayet of the same name, situated near the river Men- dere, about seventy miles southeast of Smyrna, the capital. It is near the ruins of ancient Tralles and contains numerous fine bazaars, Greek relig- ious edifices and several Turkish mosques. In i8gg the town was greatly damaged by an earthquake. After the World War the greater part of the vila- yet, including the city of Smyrna, was placed under the mandate of Greece. AIGINA. See ^gina. AIGUILLON, Emmanuel Armand de Wigne- rod du Plessis de Richelieu, Due d' (1720-1782), French statesman and nephew of the Marechal de Richelieu ; took part in the campaign against Italy and in the War of the Austrian Succession; ap- pointed governor of Brittany, 1753. AIGUILLON, Siege of, a notable siege in the Hundred Years' War, 1346. An English garrison under the famous knight, Sir Walter Manny, held the great fortress of Aiguillon, near the confluence of the Garonne and the Lot, against a formidable French army. — J. Froissart, Chronicles, v. i, bk. 1, ell. 120. AILETTE, a river in France, flowing into the Oise; south of St. Gobain forest and north of the Chemin des Dames; was the scene of severe, fight- ing in the World War, especially in 1017 and igi8. — See also World War: 1017: II. Western front: b, 2, i; igi8: II. Western front: g, 1, g, 6. AILLES, taken by the French (1017). See World War: 1Q17: II. Western front: f, 3. AIN KOHLEH, Palestine.— 1917.— British ob- jective. See World War: 1917: VI. Turkish theater: c, 2, iii. AINCREVILLE, French town, north-west of Verdun, taken by the Allies in igiS. See World War: igi8: II. Western front: x, 4. AINOS, aborigines of Japan. See Japan: In- habitants and their origins. AINTAB, Syrian town in the vilayet of Aleppo with a large population of Armenians and Greek Christians. It is the site of the Central Turkey College, founded by the American Board of For- eign Missions, and in March, igog, was included in the Adana massacres, during which 15,000 Ar- menians were killed in three days. — See also Tur- key: igog. Siege of Aintab. — French forced to evacuate (ig2o). See Syria: igo8-ig2i. AIR BRAKE: Various forms. See Inven- tions: igth century: Railroad air brake. AIR NAVIGATION, Commission on. See Aviation: Development of airplanes and air ser- vice: igi8-ig2i: Aerial law. AIR RAIDS. See England: igi4 (Dec. 16, 24); Londos: igi5-igi7; Paris: igi4; World War: igis: X. War in the air; 1918: VIII. Avia- tion. AIR ROUTES, Africa, England, France, Ger- many, Italy, U. S. See Aviation: Development of airplanes and air service: igi8-io2i: Air service after World War; also Cape-to-Cairo railway: Air route established. ;; AIR SERVICE, American. See Aviation: De- velopment of airplanes and air service: igi4-igi8. AIRCRAFT. See Aviation. 157 AIRCRAFT AIRCRAFT: Military. See Aviation: 1896- 'loio- 1014: Aviation in war. AIRCRAFT PRODUCTION, Bureau of. See ^A^IRCRAFT PRODUCTION INVESTIGA- "ATR-E.'^Fr^nfe:^Ca'p\u^re by Marlborough ^^i'^iRr ^n™cTld'^r-^'navigation CANAL. See Canals: Principal European canals: British Isles. , „ „a ^ AIREY, Richard Airey, Baron {1803-1881), Bn^ish general. Served in the Cnn.ea governor of Gibraltar, 1865 1870; presided over the cele brated Airev commission on army relorms. AIRPLANE. See Aviation: Development ot airplanes and air service: 1809-1874; 18S9-1Q00; '^AIRSHIPS: Invention. See Aviation: Devel- opment of balloons and dirigibles: 1884-1SP7. AIRY Sir George Biddell (i8oi-i8gi), Eng- lish astronomer. Conducted the astronomical ob- servations preliminary to the boundary survey be- tween the United States and Canada, and mvented a device to correct the compass variations on war ships. See Astronomy. . ^ ,• u >i; AISLABIE, John (1670-1742), English poli- tician In 1 7 18 became chancellor ol the ex- chequer; supported the P'^P^'^f f'^' ^^"'^„ ^he Company to pay the national debt and on he collapse of that company w.as expelled from the TlSNE a French river flowing through Soissons, tributarv 'to the Gise. Tlie Germans occupied strong positions north of the A.sne after their retreat from the Marne, September 12-28 iqi4- The Allied forces succeeded in partially dislodg- ing the Germans from these positions and some of the most bitter fighting of igi" and iqi8 took place in this vicinity. The valley ol the A.sne with its chief affluents, the Aire and the Vesle, constitutes one of the natural highways from the Belgian frontier to the neighborhood of Faris. AISNE, Department of: 1600.— Cession to France. See France: 1599-1610. Topography of area. See World War: 1Q14: I. Western front: s, 1. 1914.— Scene of fighting. See World War. IQ14: I. Western front: p; p, 3; and r 1914.— First battle of. See World War: 1914: I Western front: s, and 3, 4. ,. , c 1914 —Weakening of German attacks, bee World War: 1Q14: I- Western front: s, 3. 1914.— Troyon. See World War: 1914: 1- West- ern front: s, 5. .^, » j \.„ 1917— Gained by French.— Threatened by Germans.- Offensive by French. See World War: igi7: H Western front: b, 1; b, 1, 1; and b, 2, iii. „ . ca. 1917— Chemin des Dames offensive. bee World W.^r: IQ17: " Western front: b, 1, 11. 1917._Second battle of. See World War. IQI7- II Western front: f, and f, 3. 1918.— Third battle of. See World War: 1918: n. Western front: a, 3. 1918— Aisne River reached and crossed by Germans. See World War: igiS: II. Western front: f, 1, and g, 1. 1918— Region of fighting. €ee World War^ igi8: II. Western front: d, 19; g, 6; g, 9, iv; and ' Devastation by the Germans. See World War: Miscellaneous auxiliary services: XI. Devas- tation: C. , , , -A T„ AISTULF, king of the Lombards, 749-756. in 751 seized Ravenna and soon after threatened I AIX-LA-CHAPELtE * Rome The pope secured the aid of Pepin, who defeated Aistulf at Pavia and forced him to return the Exarchate of Ravenna to the papacy, bee Italy- 568-800; Lombards: 754-774- AITKEN, Major-General John James (b. 1878), Campaign against Tanga. See World War: 1914: VI. .\frica: c, 1. , „ 1, a., AIX, a city in the department of Bouches-du- Rhone, France, known to the Romans as Aqus Sextia? It was founded as a military colony in ,21 B C. In the vear 102 B. C. not far from the city Marius defeated the Teutones and their allies. It was later the capital of Provence and a liter- arv center Before the French Revolution it was the seat of one of the chief provincial parle- ments. . r AIX, a small island off the western coast of France between the mouth of the Charente and the Island of Oleron. The roadstead near the Wand affords the best anchoras-.e between the mouths of the rivers Loire and tlironde. It was here in 181S that Napoleon went aboard the -Bellerophon," which took him to England, whence he was sent to St. Helena. ^ .^ , ^ AIX-LA-CHAPELLE: The Capital of Charlemagne.— The favorite residence and one ot the two capitals of Charlemagne was the city which the Germans call Aachen and the French have named Aix-la-Chapelle. "He ravished the ruins of the ancient world to restore the monu- mental arts. A new Rome arose in the depths ol the forests of Austrasia— palaces, gates, bridges, baths, galleries, threatres, churches,— for the erec- tion of which the mosaics and marbles ot Italy were laid under tribute, and workmen summoned from all parts of Europe. It was there that an extensive library was gathered, there that the schoo of the palace was made permanent, there that foreign envovs were pompously welcomed, there that the monarch perfected his plans lor the in- troduction of Roman letters and the improvement of music."— P; Godwin, History of France: .in- dent Gaul, bk. 4, ch. 17. Cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle.-A famous cathedral founded by Charlemagne, the plan ol which bears resemblance to San Vitale and simi- lar Italian buildings. It consists of a polygonal structure built in 796 and a fourteenth century pointed choir. Treaty of 803. See Venice: 697-810- . Modern city.-The city lies forty-four miles west of Cologne on the great railway trunk line Berlin— Brussels— Paris. Previous to 1914 Aix-la- Chapelle (Aachen) was made a place of great miUtary importance by means of a network ol strategic railwavs. With the outbreak of the World War it became with Metz the prmcipal detraining station for the German arniies and therefore the principal gateway trough which thev poured, for the invasion ol Belgium and northern France.-See also Germany: Map. Congresses of Aix-la-Chapelle.-Three con- gresses have been held by the European Powers at Aix-la-Chapelle, a city in Prussia, the lirst in 1668, the second in 1748 and the third m 1818. ■ (I) The Treaty of .\ix-l.^-Chapelte, May 2, 1668 put an end to the W'lr of Revo u tion and closed the Treaty of St. Ger- ml which was signed April 15 of that year by representatives of France and the nations m he Triple Alliance France gained '"^''"';''l>' '^\»'^! orovisions of the treaty, being permitted to hold all heTerritorv she conquered in Flanders durmg ?he campaign of i667.-See also Netherlands: '^^2) The Congress and Treaty which ended 58 AIX-LA-CHAPELLE Congress of 174S Congress of 1818 AIX-LA-CHAPELLE THE War of the Austrian Succession (1748). — The War of the Austrian Succession, which raged in Europe, on the ocean, and in India and America, from 1740 to 1748 (see Austria: 1718-1738, 1740- 1741, and after), was brought to an end in the latter year by a congress of all the belligerents which met at Aix-la-Chapelle, in April, and which concluded its labors on October 18 following. "The influence of England and Holland . . . forced the peace upon Austria and Sardinia, though both were bitterly aggrieved by its conditions. France agreed to restore every conquest she had made during the war, to abandon the cause of the Stuarts, and expel the Pretender from her soil ; to demolish, in accordance with earlier treaties, the fortifications of Dunkirk on the side of the sea, while retaining those on the side of the land, and to retire from the conquest without acquiring any fresh territory or any pecuniary compensation. England in like manner restored the few conquests she had made [see England: 1754-1755!, and sub- mitted to the somewhat humiliating condition of sending hostages to Paris as a security for the restoration of Cape Breton. . . . The disputed boundary between Canada and Nova Scotia, which had been a source of constant difficulty with France, was left altogether undefined. [See also New England: 1745-1748.I The Assiento treaty for trade with the Spanish colonies was confirmed for the four years it had still to run ; but no real compensation was obtained for a war expenditure which is said to have exceeded sixty-four millions, and which had raised the funded and unfunded debt to more than seventy-eight millions. Of the other Powers, Holland, Genoa, and the little state of Modena retained their territory as before the war, and Genoa remained mistress of the Duchy of Finale, which had been ceded to the king of Sar- dinia by the Treaty of Worms, and which it had been a main object of his later policy to secure. Austria obtained a recognition of the election of the Emperor, a general guarantee of the Pragmatic Sanction, and the restoration of everything she hud lost in the Netherlands, but she gained no addi- tional territory. She was compelled to confirm the cession of Silesia and Glatz to Prussia, to abandon her Italian conquests, and even to cede a consid- erable part of her former Italian dominions. To the bitter indignation of Maria Theresa, the Duch- ies of Parma, Placentia and Guastella passed to Don Philip of Spain, to revert, however, to their former possessors if Don Philip mounted the Spanish throne, or died without male issue. The King of Sardinia also obtained from Austria the territorial cessions enumerated in the Treaty of Worms [see Italy: 1743; also 1740-1752], with the important excejitions of Placentia, which passed to Don Philip, and of Finale, which re- mained with the Genoese. For the loss of these he obtained no cnm]wnsation. Frederick [the Great, of Prussia] obtained a general guarantee for the possession of his newly acquired territory, and a long list of old treaties was formally con- firmed. Thus small were the changes effected in Europe by so much bloodshed and treachery, by nearly nine years of wasteful and desolating war. The design of the dismemberment of Austria had failed, but no vexed questions had been set at rest. ... Of all the ambitious projects that had been conceived during the war, that of Frederick alone was substantially realized." — W. E. H. Lecky, England in the iS(/i century, ch. 3. — "Thus ended the War of the .Austrian succession. In its origin and its motives one of the most wicked of all the many conflicts which ambition and per- fidy have provoked in Europe, it excites a pecul- iarly mournful interest by the gross inequality in the rewards and penalties which fortune assigned to the leading actors. Prussia, Spain and Sardinia were all endowed out of the estates of the house of Hapsburg. But the electoral house of Bavaria, the most sincere and the most deserving of all the claimants to that vast inheritance, not only re- ceived no increase of territory, but even nearly lost its own patrimonial possessions. . . . The most trying problem is still that offered by the mis- fortunes of the Queen of Hungary [Maria The- resa]. . . . The verdict of history, as expressed by the public opinion, and by the vast majority of writers, in every country except Prussia, upholds the justice of the queen's cause and condemns the coalition that was formed against her." — H. Tuttle, History oj Prussia, 1745-1756, ch. 2. (3) Conference of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818). — The negotiations carried on in 1818 at Aix-la-Cha- pelle and the subsequent treaty had to deal with problems so akin to those confronting the delegates to the Versailles Conference in iqiq that it has been thought best to treat them quite fully, "The great problem that confronted the statesmen of the Res- toration was how to prevent the order estab- lished by the Congress of Vienna from being de- stroyed by revolutionary outbreaks. France, es- pecially, as the home of revolution, needed care- ful watching. A coalition of great powers known as the Quadruple Alliance, composed of Russia, .'\ustria, Prussia, and England, was organized, in 1815, for the purpose of preserving the 'tranquillity of Europe.' It was to meet every year to hold a sort of political inquest on the state of Europe, to suppress rebellions, and to advise on the best means of preventing the spread of democratic ideas. The moving spirit of this league to en- force autocracy was the Austrian Prince Metter- nich who was firmly convinced that the only way to fight revolutionary movements which, owing to the French Revolution, had become international, was by a compact of the despots pledged to sup- port one another in case of an uprising. If revo- lution was to be international, so would be re- pression. Because of this Metternich developed his theory of 'intervention'; namely, that Europe was a social and political unit with a uniform sys- tem of government and society ; hence an attack on any part of it would be fatal to the whole unless defended by the whole. International con- gresses were held at .Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818, at Troppau in 1820, and at Laibach in 1821, where the principle of 'intervention' was adopted by the Powers." — J. S. Schapiro, Modern and contem- porary European history, pp. 20-21. "The Conference of Aix-la-Chapelle, of which the first session was held on September 30th, was attended by the Emperor Alexander of Russia, the Emperor Francis of Austria, and King Frederick William of Prussia in person, while Cireat Britain uas represented by Wellington and Castlereagh. The ministers of the other Powers were Capo d'Istria and Nesselrode for Russia. Richelieu, though not admitted to the conferences, was pres- ent on behalf of France. The first question dis- cussed was that of the withdrawal of the Allied army of occupation, and on this there was com- plete unanimity. At the second session, on Oc- tober ist, the four Powers signed a protocol agree- ing to the principle of the evacuation of France at the end of the third year, or earlier if possible, subject to satisfactory arrangements being made for the payment of the instalments of the indem- nity still due, which amounted to 265,000,000 francs. In regard to this latter, Wellington had been empowered to make an arrangement with the 159 ;>IX-LA-CHAPELLE Congress of 1818 AIX-LA-CHAPELLE financial houses of Hope, of Amsterdam, and Bar- ing, by which these agreed to take over the debt on certain terms, thus converting it into an ordinary pubhc obligation, which, to use the language of a draft memorandum laid before the Cabinet, could not be repudiated by the French Government with- out an act of violent bankruptcy. The details of the negotiation outstanding on September 30th were soon settled, and on October qth a treaty was signed by which the Allies agreed to withdraw their troops from French soil by November 30th. ... In coming to this decision there was complete harmony among the Powers; there was, however, no such harmony on the question of what further consequences were to follow on it. The Due de Richelieu argued that the same reasoning which had induced the Powers to put an end to the armed occupation should lead them, as a logical consequence, to admit France to the Alliance on equal terms. This was, however, far from repre- senting the mind of the .Allies, whose policy of evacuation had not been inspired by any confi- dence in the improved temper of the French people. The autocratic Powers especially were seriously alarmed by what they considered the weak attitude of the French Government towards the Liberal Revival, to which recent elections had borne disquieting evidence. . . . On the question of admitting France to the Alliance on the basis of the Treaty of Chaumont the British Cabinet was at one with the other Allies, for Castlereagh and his colleagues had a strong sense of the pre- carious tenure of the restored monarchy in France, and believed that the maintenance of the Quad- ruple Alliance was essential to the peace of Europe; they realized, too, the paradox involved in making France a party to a treaty which was primarily directed against herself. On the other hand, were she to be altogether excluded, she would inevitably become the nucleus of a separate alliance, and everything that had been gained by the European Concert would be placed in jeopardy. . . . The problem of the future relation of France to the Alliance thus opened up at .'\ix-la-Chapelle the whole broader question of the future form of the 'Confederation of Europe.' As to this, much of course depended upon the attitude of the Em- peror Alexander. His first care on arriving at Aix had been to place beyond doubt his own ab- solute loyalty to the European .Alliance. In an interview with Metternich on September 20th he indignantly repudiated the truth of the rumours that he had been meditating a breach with the Alliance and a separate understanding with France. ... In subsequent interviews with Wellington and Castlereagh he used the same language, insisting that his army was the army of Europe, and that he could not admit that it would be otherwise employed than with Europe, to repress any at- tempt that might be made to shake the system of which his empire formed only a part. . . . Mean- while, Castlereagh had laid before the Powers the proposal of the British Government . . . which Metternich at once approved, while Hardenberg and Bernstorff gave it a friendly but more re- served reception. This formed the basis of the negotiations that followed, and in a couple of days Castlereagh reported home that the probable result of the Conference would be (i) to adhere strictly to the treaties, especially those of Chau- mont and Paris, which constituted the Quadruple Alliance; (2) not to admit France to them, not to replace them by a Quintuple Alliance; (3) to invite France to join in the deliberations of the Powers under Article VI of the Treaty of .Alliance of November 2oth, which, as this article is the I only one that survived the war or that would be operative so long as France kept quiet, would in effect place her in a line with the other Powers so long as the state of peace subsisted; (4) in order to calm the alarm of the other Powers, to issue a declaration to the effect that, by these regular assemblies the Powers had no intention of arrogating to themselves any supremacy, or of interfering in the politics of other states in any way not warranted by the law of nations. . . . These proposals, however, did not go far enough for the P^mperor Alexander. On the one hand, he was eager to publish to all the world the renewal of the disciplinary Alliance of Chaumont, which the others were anxious to keep effective, but in the background. On the other hand, he was bent on using this opportunity of realizing his political ideal of a confederated Europe. The outcome of this religious fervour was the presentation to the other -Allies on October Sth of a confidential mem- orandum of the Russian cabinet drafted by Pozzo di Borgo, stating the Tsar's views on the measures to be adopted in order to ])reserve Europe from a return of revolutions and of the principle that might is right. Europe, it is said, had been restored in 181 5 and served till now by the .Alliance of the great states, unalterable in principle, but extending its sphere according to circumstances, and becom- ing thus the Alliance of all the states. The re- sults thus far achieved had been due, less to the uncertain combinations of men than to that Su- preme Intelligence to which the sovereigns had done homage by the act of September 20, 1815. The woes of humanity had been caused by egoism and partial combinations in politics, and the proof of this was the good derived from the empire of Christian morality and of the Rights of Man which had given Europe peace. The system of Europe was a general association, which had for founda- tion the Treaties of Vienna and Paris, for con- servative principle the fraternal union of the Al- lied Powers, for aim the guaranteed best interests of the great European family ; and it was the work not of any man but of Providence. Its moral support lay in the Quadruple .Alhance and the Holy .Alliance, its material support in the armed occupation of France. . . . The Emperor then proposed: (i) That the Quadruple .Alliance should be preserved as against danger from France; (2) that a general Alliance should be formed, con- sisting of all the signatories of the Treaties of Vienna, having as its object the guarantee of the state of territorial possession and of sovereignty al> antiquo. The first of these objects was to be established by a protocol defining the casus jcederis and the military measures to be taken should this arise, and arranging for future meet- ings. The second was to be accomplished by a declaration of the Great Powers announcing to Europe the results of their deliberations at .Aix, to which declaration, since the (Quadruple .Alliance was not a partial combination but the basis of the General Alliance, all the states which had signed the acts of 1S15 should be invited to subscribe. The Quadruple Alliance, the memorandum e.x- plained, was held together as yet only by the sentiment of the parties to it ; but if it formed part of a wide European association no Power could break away from it without being at once isolated. The Quadruple and General .Alliance would be proclaimed as a single and indivisible system by the signatures of the Powers to the declaration. Such a svstem would guarantee the security of Governments by putting the rights of nations under a guarantee analogous to that which protects individuals The Governments, for their 60 AIX-LA-CHAPELLE Congresa of 18IS AIX-LA-CHAPELLE parts, being relieved from fear of revolutions could offer to their peoples Constitutions of a similar type ... so that the liberties of peoples, wisely regulated, would arise without effort from this state of affairs once recognized and publicly avowed. . . . "So far as the European Concert was concerned, then, the outcome of the Conference of Aix-la- Chapelle was a compromise, embodied in two in- struments signed on November 15th. The first, in the form of a secret protocol, renewed the Quad- ruple Alliance for the purpose of watching over France in case of fresh revolutionary outbreaks menacing the peace of Europe ; this was com- municated in confidence to Richelieu. The second, to which France was invited to adhere, was a dec- laration, which ran as follows: 'The Convention of October 9, 1818, which definitely regulated the execution of the engagements agreed to in the Treaty of Peace of November 20, 1815, is consid- ered by the sovereigns who concurred therein as the accomplishment of the work of peace, and as the completion of the political system destined to secure its soHdity. The intimate union established among the monarchs, who are joint-parties to this system, by their own principles, no less than by the interests of their people, offers to Europe the most sacred pledge of its future tranquillity. The object of the union is as simple as it is great and salutary. It does not tend to any new political combinations — to any change in the relations sanc- tioned by existing treaties ; calm and consistent in its proceedings, it has no other object than the maintenance of peace, and the guarantee of those transactions on which the peace was founded and consolidated. The sovereigns, in forming this august union, have regarded as its fundamental basis their invariable resolution never to depart, either among themselves or in their relations with other states, from the strictest observation of the principles of the rights of nations: principles, which, in their application to a state of perma- nent peace, can alone effectually guarantee the independence of each Government, and the stabil- ity of the general association. Faithful to these principles, the sovereigns will maintain them equally in those meetings at which they may be personally present, or in those which shall take place among their ministers; whether they be for the purpose of discussing in common their own interests, or whether they shall relate to questions in which other Governments shall formally claim their interference. The same spirit which will direct their councils and reign in their diplomatic . communications will preside also at these meet- ings; and the repose of the world will be con- stantly their motive and their end. It is with these sentiments that the sovereigns have consum- mated the work to which they were calle(,i. They will not cease to labour for its confirmation and perfection. They solemnly acknowledge that their duties towards God and the people whom they govern make it peremptory on them to give to the world, as far as it is in their power, an example of justice, of concord, and of moderation ; happy in the power of consecrating, from henceforth, all their efforts to protect the arts of peace, to in- crease the internal prosperity of their states, and to awaken those sentiments of religion and mo- rality whose influence has been but too much en- feebled by the misfortunes of the times.' . . . These debates, however, by no means occupied the whole time of the Conference, It had been decided to use the occasion of its meeting to settle if pos- sible a number of questions of common interest, of which the most important were defined in the memorandum of the British Cabinet already quoted. These were: (i) The effective suppres- sion of the Slave Trade, which had been abolished in principle at Vienna; (2) the suppression of the Barbary pirates; (3) the refusal of the King of Sweden to carry out the provisions of the Treaty of Kiel; and (4 J— the most fateful of all — the proposed general mediation between Spain and her revolted American colonies. "It is clear that at this period the Alliance was looked upon even by British statesmen as some- thing more than a mere union of the Great Pow- ers for preserving peace on the basis of the trea- ties; and in effect, during its short session the Con- ference acted, not only as a European representa- tive body, but as a sort of European Supreme Court, which heard appeals and received peti- tions of all kinds from sovereigns and their sub- jects alike. The German mediatized princes in- voked the aid of the Powers against the tyranny of their new overlords, and received satisfaction. The Elector of Hesse begged to be allowed to ex- change his now meaningless title for that of king; a request which was refused because it was judged inexpedient to make the royal style too common. The mother of Napoleon, in a pathetic letter, pe- titioned for the release of her son, pleading that he was now too ill ever again to be a menace to Europe, a petition refused on the ostensible ground that there was proof that the letter was a pohtical move and had been concocted under Napoleon's own direction. The people of Monaco presented a list of grievances against their prince. Questions as various as the settlement of the ranks of diplo- matic agents, the rival claims of Bavaria and the Hochberg line to the succession in Baden, a quarrel between the Duke of Oldenburg and Count Ben- tinck about the lordship of Kniphaussen, the situa- tion of the Jews in Austria and Prussia, were brought under discussion, settled or postponed. In general, on these minor matters it was possible to come to an agreement. It is, however, significant that on the greater issues discussed there was no such edifying harmony. The Powers had already agreed in principle to the suppression of the Slave Trade; jealousy of British sea-power prevented their accepting that mutual 'right of search' by which alone it could have been suppressed. The Barbary pirates were the scourge of the whole continental sea-board; they held up trading ves- sels at the mouth of the Elbe, and in the Medi- terranean no vessel was safe that did not sail under the British or the Ottoman flag; yet it was found impossible to concert measures against them because of British jealousy of Russian intervention in the Mediterranean. The struggle between Spain and her colonies was regarded as a serious menace to the peace of Europe ; the Powers were agreed as to the principle of mediation, but could not agree as to its form. They did agree in calling the King of Sweden to order. He obeyed, but at the same time protested against the 'dictatorship' arrogated to themselves by the Great Powers, a protest reinforced by an indignant letter from the King of VViirttemberg. ... Of the more important questions thus discussed and left unsettled at Aix- la-Chapelle, the most interesting, from our pres- ent point of view, was that of the Spanish colo- nies, the debates on which opened up the whole question of the relations of the Old World and the New, and even foreshadowed the idea of that world-alliance which has been imperfectly realized in the Hague Conventions." — W. .\. Phillips, Con- federation of Europe, pp. 163-191. — See also France: 1815-1830. Also in W. Russell, History of modern Europe, 161 AIX-LES-BAINS pt 2, letter 30.-W. Coxe, History of the House of •""Afx'LES-1irNS;a watering place in the de- panme^t ot Sivoie, France. Celebrated m Roman trr^efunder the name of Aqux Grat.an* he s.te o, numerous ancient «.™-'"^ ^ ^ P°P"^;;'"'^ "" '-A^-^l^^yrt^e's^Ldrfcrs'trstatesman of Mvste Indi:^ promoted internal improvement, Ld^'purt'^he^tate La sound Jinanaal footmg^ AIZNADIN, Battle of (034) ■ ^^e lalipha. ''a?AN, ancient name by which the northeast ^"llclS^a'fo^tS Xe"of Arabia on the PMf nf Akabah It was formerly the seat of the ^'iKARNAmANtEAGUE. See Acak^aku. '''^a'^karNANIANS. See Acarnanians. IkBAR Jelfaladin Mahomn.ed (i542-x6o5) AK-HVNATON See Amenophis iv. ^^St AT Battle at See Turkey: 1063-1073- iKlNDJALliTaken by the British (1916). Se^ WoRLO War: 1Q16: V. Balkan theater: b, ^'AkKAD-"The beginnings of the history of BaSfa^are shrouded in darkness and un«r- tainty P-'-'-lJ-^'rdisUnct'^ra-'ce's occupying ?riand S^m'iUc and Sumerian. The SemUes oc- cupied the northern part of the land, called Akkad Td'the other ^^ ^^^ ttS^ Scholars =>f^«=?_''?at neither pe p ^^^^,^^. iTa^e^^rVVv net- it'is'htghTp^obable that vallev is not known. —A. 1. >.-iay, /*" > rule 'the four quarters (of ^e wor.a ^^ ^.^ still earlier kmg Lugal-zaggisi in authority in Sumer, adopted the it ^^^ a pardonable one 1- vv .^ ^^ a«d Akkad, pp. 14-15— • ■ • •^°'*"^ -5"" ALABAMA calculated, King Sargon of Akkad carried his "fns beyond the limits of Shinar east and west and north and south. . . . He ^ad conquered almost the whole world known to the men «' Sh"^'' ^^^''""^'^ there was onlv barbarian darkness-except, 01 course \n the Nile Valley, whose kings, about the same ime as the conquests of Sargon, were an- ne™ng pTlestine and Pha-nicia, and must have had dpomatic relations with the King «' ^kkad^ Sargon was now "lord of the lour quarters o he earth" for the men of Shinar did not think ol the barbarian^ darkness beyond 'he ran«e o| th knowledge as worth reckoning Th s 7 'd t^a Sargon conquered in the middle of the third mil Sum before Christ is to^ay a l^W for the operations of armies come in part from the lana orCia, far beyond the hills of Elam on the east"-E Bevan, Land oj the two rivers pp. ffe 27-See also Babylonia: Earliest inhabitants; Jews: Early Semitic migrations; Religion: B.C. 2000-200; Semites. i,a.,f,\ See AKKERMAN, Convention of (1826). see AKOMINATOS, Michael, metropolitan ot Attnfu'bo), in defence of Athens. See Athens: 120^-1308. aKRAGAS See .\crigentum. AKROKERAUNIAN PROMONTORY. See ^AKRON, Ohio.-Housing problem. See »?.7r BA^RADAlI-'leader of Jacobite Church. '"a^TaDSHrTtTI (d. 1007), Spanish mathe- -IrrBAMl-Onrof the Southern States of the United States, bordering on the Gulf ol Mexico kjpp TI S ■K • Economic map. Aboriginal inhabitants. See Cherokees, MusKiioGEAN or Maskoki t.amily. il29.-Embraced in the Carolina grant to Sir Pnhprt Heath. See Ameuica: 1620. 1663.-Emb;aced in the Carolina grant to Monk, Shaftesbury, and others. See North Car- " m2 im -French occupation and first set- tlement!-Founding of Mobile.-See Louisiana. "'?7i2'r810-Early settlement by Americans.- "In th^ eadv davs territorial Alabama was made up\ftorLricts, based on the riv.rs>.tems^^^^^^ "rnded by the French and later developed by th English -d Sp..,.r<^s^ Th- . Tbe and a;:^und Mobile in Uat is "ow Baldwin MobUe and Washington Counties, even before aU this had become American territory. In 7Q-. afer M6bile itself, the most PoP"'""* ."f thes« ttUements was that upon the Tensas River. It carried on pack horses. ^^"^ ,, •* t,,,„,,^:„i,„» River the American settlements on he Tomb^^eR..^^ I'^h'the' CmbiVe This -- -de -n I7,7jnd i, believed to be one of «»^'^..';^'^ ^^^ The set- ;i:;^t^:or:::^r,r;hljMI^^eek country 62 ALABAMA, 1779-1781 ALABAMA, 1848 from Georgia. . . . From the time that the claims of Georgia to the Mississippi territory were ex- tinguished (1804), immigrants began to flock into what is now Alabama. One party left North Caro- lina, scaled the Blue Ridge with their wagons, and descended into the valley of the Tennessee. At Knoxville they built flatboats and floated down the river to the Muscle Shoals, where they disem- barked their goods, placed them on pack horses, which had been brought overland from Knoxville, and from the Muscle Shoals as a new basis, de- parted overland for the English settlements on the Tombigbee, about St. Stephens, in southern Ala- bama, thus traversing in a journey of 120 days from North Carolina nearly the whole length of the state from north to south. "The northern section of Alabama, the Tennessee valley region, was settled mainly from Tennessee, as early as 1787, and in the earlier period filled up more rapidly than some of the other sections. These immigrants came overland from the Cum- berland settlements or floated down the river in flatboats from the settlements farther east. The fourth district was that along the Alabama River, with centers near Claiborne, in Monroe county, and along the Alabama River from the confluence of the Coosa and the Tallapoosa rivers down to and including the present city of Montgomery. This section was settled mainly by Georgians and Carolinians, who came in over the government road. From these four centers population grew and extended to the intervening sections." — S. B. Weeks, United States Bureau of Education {Bulle- tin 12, 1915, pp. 11-12). 1779-1781.— Reconquest of West Florida by the Spaniards. See Fi.orid.a: 1770-1781. 1783. — Mostly covered by the English cession Jo the United States. See U. S. A.: 1783 (Sep- tember) . 1783-1787. — Partly in dispute with Spain. See Florida: 1783-1787. 1798-1804.— All but the West Florida district embraced in Mississippi territory. See Mis- sissippi: 1708-1804. 1803. — Portion acquired by the Louisiana pur- chase. See Louisiana: 1798-1803. 1804. — Embraced in Mississippi Territory. See Mississippi: 1708-1804. 1813-1814.— Creek War. See U. S. A.: 1813- 1814 (August- — April). 1817. — Detached from Mississippi and made territory of Alabama. Sec Mississippi: 181 7. 1817-1819. — Organized as a territory. — Con- stituted a state, and admitted to the Union. — "By an act of Congress dated March i, 1817, Mis- sissippi Territory was divided. Another act, bear- ing the date March 3, thereafter, organized the eastern portion into a Territory, to be known as Alabama, and with the boundaries as they now exist. ... By an act approved March 2, i8ig, congress authorized the inhabitants of the Terri- tory of Alabama to form a state constitution, 'and that said Territory, when formed into a State, shall be admitted into the Union upon the same footing as the original States.' . . . The joint resolution of congress admitting Alabama into the Union was approved by President Monroe, De- cember 14, 1810." — W. Brewer, Alabama, ch. 5. 1830-1833. — Alabama's first railroads. — The Tuscumbia Railway Company, incorporated Jan. 26, 1830, completed a track of two and one-eighth miles and celebrated the event by the firing of cannon, and the giving of a dinner and ball on June 12, 1832. This was the first railway track laid west of the Alleghany mountains. By the 4,th of July, 1833, the Tuscumbia, Courtland and Decatur Railroad Company (inc. 1832) had con- structed eight and seven-tenths miles of road from Tuscumbia toward Decatur. Among the pro- moters of these railroad enterprises were the lead- ing citizens and business men of the Tennessee valley. The General Assembly was now called on at each session to incorporate one or more rail- road companies. 1835-1838.— Removal of the Indians.— "And now came the end of the Indian question in Ala- bama. All but a few of the Creeks departed for their new lands in the west. The stronger race had driven out the weaker; but none of us who now possess the ancient home of the Muscogees can fail to respect the courage with which they battled against their fate. Only the Cherokees re- mained, and the final treaty for their removal was already concluded. It was dated December 29, 1835, and its provisions resembled those of the final treaty with the Creeks. New homes in the west and a large sum of money were given to the Cherokees, and in return they gave up all their lands east of the Mississippi. But among them also, as among the Creeks, there was a strong party that opposed the treaty, and threatened to make trouble. However, a large force of volun- teers was assembled, including some fifteen hun- dred Alabamians, and the Cherokees were removed in 1838 without an outbreak. There were left in Alabama only a few scattered families of Indians, who for many years used to peddle bows and arrows and blow-guns to the children of their con- querors."- — W. G. Brown, History oj Alabama, p. 170. 1848. — Alabama platform. — Before 1832 the Democratic party ruled the state of Alabama with- out a rival for its power. However, about that time the question of nullification caused a split in the ranks, some adhering to the Jacksonian prin- ciple, and others to the State's Rights, Calhoun, principle. William L. Yancey, leader of the State's Rights men, the minority party, neverthe- less was active and able enough to impose upon the whole Democratic party in the state the most radical views of his faction, which he embodied in a series of resolutions proposed to the Demo- cratic state convention of 1848. "The resolutions, in principle, were the same the committee had reported, except that they included in their condemnation of unconstitutional political propositions, the new doctrine of squatter sov- ereignty ; and, in this, they were in advance of the Democratic party. They became the historic .Alabama Platform bearing no less important rela- tion to the great events of 1861, in the United States, than the resolutions of Patrick Henry bore to the crisis of 1776. " 'Whereas, Opinions have been expressed by eminent members of the Democratic party and by a convention of the party assembled in New York to appoint deleeates to the Baltimore Con- vention, that the municipal laws of the Mexican territory, ceded to the United States, should not be changed and that slavery could not be re-es- tablished except by authority of the United States or of the Territorial government, therefore, to the end that no doubt should be allowed to exist upon a subject so important and at the same time so exciting. Be it ... : " '9. Resolved, That the treaty of cession should contain a clause securing an entry into those Territories to all citizens of the United States together with their property of every description and that the same should remain protected by the United States while the Territories are under its authority. . . . 163 ALABAMA, 1860 ALABAMA, 1861 "'ii. Resolved, That the opinion advanced or maintained by some that the people of a Terri- tory acquired by the common toil, suffering, blood and treasure of the people of all the States, can, in other event than the forming of a State Con- stitution preparatory to admittance as a State into the Union, lawfully or constitutionally prevent any citizen of any such States from removing to or settling in such Territory with his property, be it slave property or other, is a restriction as inde- fensible in principle as if such restriction were imposed by Congress. "'i2. Resolved, That the Democratic party is, and should be, co-extensive with the Union; and that while we disclaim all intention to interfere in the local divisions and controversies in any of our sister States, we deem it a solemn duty, which we owe to the Constitution, to ourselves and to that party, to declare our unalterable determina- tion, neither to recognize as Democrats or to hold fellowship or communion with those who attempt to denationalize the South and its institutions, calculated to array one section in feeling and senti- ment against the other; and we hold the same to be alike treason to party faith and to the per- petuity of the Union of these States. " '13. Resolved, That this convention pledge itself to the country, and the members pledge themselves to each other under no political neces- sity whatever to support for the offices of Presi- dent and vice-President of the United States, any persons who shall not be openly and unequivocally opposed to either of the forms of excluding slav- ery from the Territories of the United States, men- tioned in these resolutions, as being alike in viola- tion of the Constitution and of the just and equal rights of the citizens of the slaveholding States. "'14. Resolved, That these resolutions be con- sidered as instructions to our delegates to the Baltimore Convention to guide them in their votes in that body ; and that they vote for no men for President and vice-President who will not un- equivocally avow themselves to be opposed to either of the forms of restricting slavery which are described in these resolutions.' "The Alabama Legislature endorsed the Alabama Platform by special resolutions; the Legislature of Georgia endorsed it. The press of the party throughout the South repeated the praises of Yancey, confessing him to be the leader of the first organized effort to resist revolution." — J. C. DuBose, Lije and times of William L. Yancey. — See also U. S. A.; 1850 (June). I860.— Occupation of Fort Mobile. See U. S. A.: i860 (December-February). 1861. — Attitude of North Alabama toward secession. — Proposed state of Nickajack. — "To the convention of 1861 forty-four members from north Alabama were elected as cooperationists, that is, in favor of a union of the southern states, within the old Union, for the purpose of securing their rights under the Constitution or of securing safe secession. They professed to be afraid of separate state secession as likely to lead to disintegration and war. Thirty-one of these cooperationists voted against the ordinance of secession, and twenty-four of them (mostly members from the northern hill counties) refused lo sign the ordinance, though all expressed the in- tention to submit to the will 'of the majority, and to give the state their heartiest support. When war came all espoused the Confederate cause The cooperafionist party as a whole supported the Confederacy faithfully, though nearly always in a more or less disapproving spirit toward the ad- ministration, both state and Confederate. North Alabama differed from other portions of the state in many ways. There was no railroad connect- ing the country north of the mountains with the southern part of the state, and from the northern counties it was a journey of several days to reach the towns in central and south Alabama. Hence there was little intercourse between the people of the two sections, though the seat of government was in the central part of the state; even to-day the intimacy is not close. For years it had been a favorite scheme of Alabama statesmen to build railroads and highways to connect more closely the two sections. Geographically, this northern section of the state belonged to Tennessee. The people were felt to be slightly different in char- acter and sympathies from those of central and south Alabama, and whatever one section favored in public matters was usually opposed by the other. Even in the northern section the population was more or less divided. The people of the val- ley more closely resembled the west Tennesseeans, the great majority of them being planters, having little in common with the small farmers of the hill and mountain country, who were like the east Tennesseeans. Of the latter the extreme ele- ment was the class commonly known as 'moun- tain whites' or 'sand-mountain' people. These were the people who gave so much trouble during the war, as 'Tories' and from whom the loyal southerners of north Alabama suffered greatly when the country was stripped of its men for the armies. Yet it can hardly be said that they ex- ercised much influence on politics before the war. Their only representative in the convention of 1861 was Charles Christopher Sheets, who did not speak on the floor of the convention during the entire session. On the part of all in the northern counties there was a strong desire for delay in secession, and they were angered at the action of the convention in not submitting the ordinance to a popular vote for ratification or rejection. Many thought the course taken indicated a sus- picion of them or fear of their action, and this they resented. Their leaders in the convention expressed the belief that the ordinance would have easily obtained a majority if submitted to the popular vote. Much of the opposition to the or- dinance of secession was due to the vague sec- tional dislike between the twi parts of the state. It was felt that the ordinance was a south Ala- bama measure, and this was sufficient reason for opposition by the northern section. Throughout the entire session a local sectional spirit dictated a course of obstruction. In January and February of 1861 there was some talk among the discon- tented people of seceding from secession, of with- drawing the northern counties of Alabama and uniting with the counties of east Tennessee to form a new state, which should be called Nick- a-Jack, an Indian name common in East Tennes- see. Geographically this proceeding would have been correct, since these two parts of the country are closely connected, the people were alike in character and sentiment, and the means of inter- course were better. The people of the valley and many others, however, had no sympathy with this scheme. Lacking the support of the politicians and no leaders appearing, the plan was abandoned after the proclamation of Lincoln, April 10, 1861. Had the war been deferred a few months, it is almost certain that the discontented element of the population would have taken positive steps to em- barrass the administration; many believed that reconstruction would take place. Only after four years of war was there after this any appreciable number of the jjeople willing to listen again to 164 ALABAMA, 1861-1865 ALABAMA, 1866 such a proposition." — W. L. Fleming, Civil war and reconstruction in Alabama, pp. loq-iii. 1861-1865. — Agriculture in the Black Belt. See Black belt. 1861 (January). — Secession from the Union. See U. S. A.: iS6i (January-February). 1861 (February). — Convention of Confederate states at Montgomery. See U. S. A.: i86i (Feb- ruary) : Adoption of a constitution for "The Con- federate States of America." 1862. — General Mitchell's expedition. See U. S. A.: 1862 (April-May: Alabama). 1864 (August). — The battle of Mobile bay. — Capture of Confederate forts and fleet. See U. S. A.: 1804 (.August; Alabama). 1865 (March— April).— The fall of Mobile.— Wilson's raid. — End of the rebellion. See U. S. A.: 1805 (April-May). 1865. — Losses from the Civil War.— "The num- ber of soldiers furnished by Alabama to the Confed- erate service will never be known. The estimates range from 60,000, the number given by Col. M. V. Morre, in the Louisville Evening Post of May 30th, iQoo, to 122,000 claimed by Governor Par- sons in his proclamation of July, 1865. Like- wise the number of Alabama soldiers who lost their lives on the battlefield and from wounds, or from disease directly traceable to exposure in the army during the Confederate war will never be known. We only know that Alabama soldiers were buried in every battle-field of importance east of the Mississippi, near every large hospital through the same extent of country, in all cemeteries of the war prisons of the North, and in every grave- yard in this State. . . . The property losses of the people of Alabama during the war were tre- mendous. We can form no just conception of them, except by comparing some items of the cen- sus of T860 with those of 1870. . . . Nearly all the manufacturing industries of Alabama were burnt by the Federals. Most of the engines, cars, steam-boats, warehouses and depots were de- stroyed, a number of railroad bridges and trestles were burnt and most of the rails, which were made of iron, were worn out, 50 that the transporta- tion property of the State was worth many mil- lions of dollars less in 1S65 than in i860. An- other heavy loss, which cannot be estimated, was the complete destruction of State and Confederate scrip and bonds, and railroad bonds and stocks, and all banking capital and securities. The mer- chandise in the stores, usually amounting to many millions of dollars, was all gone at the close of the war. Town property had depreciated in value. In the Tennessee valley hundreds of thousands of dollars' worth of private residences and public buildings were burnt, and the people stripped of nearly everything that they could not carry off or hide successfully. The property losses of the people of Alabama could not have been less than $300,000,000, besides the loss of 435,000 slaves, which were worth $500 each in gold or a total of $217,000,000, making the total property losses not less than $500,000,000 in Alabama." — L. D. Miller, History of Alabama, p. 233. — See also U. S. A.: r86s: Civil War losses. 1865 (December). — Ratification of 13th amend- ment. — On December 2, 1865, the thirteenth amendment to the Constitution of the United States was ratified. Also in: Owen, Annals of Alabama, ch. 6. 1865-1868. — Reconstruction. See Black and TAN conventions; U. S. a : 1865 (May — July), to 1868-1870: Reconstructiim complete. 1866. — Rejection of 14th amendment. — "In the fall of 1866 the proposed Fourteenth Amendment was submitted to the legislature. There was no longer any belief that further yielding would do any good ; the more the people gave the more was asked. State Senator E. A. Powell wrote to John W. Forney that the people would do nothing about the Fourteenth Amendment because they were con- vinced that any action would be useless. Condi- tion after condition had been imposed and had been absolved ; slavery had been abolished, seces- sion acknowledged a failure, and the war debt repudiated by the convention ; the legislature had ratified the Thirteenth Amendment, had secured the negro in all the rights of property and person ; and after all the state was no nearer to restoration. This was the view of nearly all the newspapers of the state, and in this they represented popular opinion. They were intensely irritated by the fact that, although they had made so many concessions, still they were excluded from representation in Congress, and were heavily and unjustly taxed. Moreover, they were opposed to the amendment because it branded their best men as traitors. One newspaper, alone, advocated adoption of the amendment as the least of evils. ... By most persons the question of negro political rights was considered to belong to the state and was not a matter for the Federal government to regulate. 'Loyalists' as well as 'rebels' were afraid to leave negro affairs to the regulation of Congress. In his annual message to the legislature, in November 1866, Governor Patton advised the legislature not to ratify the Fourteenth Amendment, on the ground that it could do no good and might do harm. It involved the creation of a penalty after the act. On this point, he said that it was an ex post facto law, and contrary to the whole spirit of modern civilization ; that such a mode of deal- ing with citizens charged with offences against government belonged only to despotic tyrants; that it might accomplish revengeful purposes, but that was not the proper mode of administering justice, that adoption would vacate nearly all offices in most of the unrepresented states — gov- ernors, judges, legislators, sheriffs, justices of peace, constables — and the state governments would be completely broken up and reduced to utter and hopeless anarchy; that the disabilities imposed by the test oath were seriously detrimental to the interests of the government ; that ratification of the Amendment could not accomplish any good to the country and might bring upon it irretrievable disaster. Under the circumstances, the legislature refused to consider the Amendment. But the gov- ernor during the next few weeks was induced by various considerations to recommend the ratifica- tion, and on December 7, 1866, he sent a special message stating that there was a purpo.se on the part of those who controlled the national legisla- tion to enforce their own terms of restoration at all hazards; and that their measures would im- measurably augment the distress already existing and inaugurate endless confusion. The cardinal principle of restoration seemed to be, he said, fav- orable action on the Fourteenth Amendment. Upon principle he was opposed to it. Yet neces- sity must rule. So now he recommended recon- sideration. If they should ratify and restoration should follow, they might trust to time and their representatives to mitigate its harshness. If they should ratify and admission should be delayed, it would serve as a warning to other states and thus prevent the necessary number for ratificalion." W. L. Fleming, Cii'i! war and reconstruction in Alabama, p. 304. — ^See also Suffrage, Manhood: U. S. A.: 1864-102 1. — In spite of the governor's ur- gent recommendation, the legislature refused to 165 ALABAMA, 1867 ALABAMA, 1886-1907 ratify the amendment, and Alabama, together with nine other southern states, prevented the fourteenth amendment from becoming a Federal law As a result, Alabama was put under military government by the Reconstruction Act of 1S67 and the state came under the sway of the negro and the "carpet- bagger." 1867 (November).— Meeting of the constitu- tional convention. — In the fall of 1867 a con- stitution was framed for .Alabama in accordance with the principles of the Reconstruction .Act and the fourteenth amendment. 1868 (February). — Constitution ratified. — When the constitution received a bare majority of the vote cast, but not a majority of the registered vote. Congress declared the constitution in effect by hurriedly changing the law which necessitated a state constitution receiving a majority of the registered vote. 1868 (June). — Ratification of 14th amendment. — Readmission to the union. — In the spring of 1868 the fourteenth amendment was adopted and Alabama was admitted to the union, June 25, iSbS. 1868 (July 14). — Cessation of military rule.— Military rule ceased on this date and .-Mabama took up her own administration. 1870 (November 16).— Ratification of 15th amendment. 1874. — Whites regain control of the govern- ment. — "By 1874, the State had become bankrupt; its credit was gone; city and county indebtedness had grown, with few betterments to show for the expenditures; and 'more intolerable were the tur- moil and strife between whites and blacks kept alive' for political hold on the Negro vote. Every office was to be filled at a general election in November. .As early as April 2Qth the Demo- cratic and Conservative convention was organized in Montgomery. George Houston, the old 'Bald Eagle of the Mountains' from north .Alabama, was chosen by acclamation for Governor. Houston, many years a member of Congress, and personally opposed to secession, had taken no part in the war. He was neither a full-fledged Confederate nor an offensive Unionist. Of the more important planks in the platform, the first averred 'that the radical and dominant faction of the Republican Party in this state persistently and by fraudulent representations have inflamed the passions and prejudices of the Negroes as a race against the white people, and have thereby made it necessary for the white people to unite and act together in self-defense and for the preservation of white civi- lization.' The third plank denounced the so-called 'Civil Rights Bill' then pending in Congress, and the fifth plank advocated economy. The Republi- cans renominated David P. Lewis for Governor, and in section 5 of their platform declared: 'We only ask equal advantages in matters of public and common right. This we consider to be all that is embraced in the Civil Rights Bill, and in order that we may be understood, and no_ false charges made against us, we hereby declare that the Republican Party does not desire mixed schools or mixed accommodations — we want no social equality enforced by law.' . , . On October igth the Committee issued an appeal to the voters urging them to close their 'several places of busi- ness on the third day of November,' and to dedi- cate 'their individual 'and collective exertion to the redemption of Alabama.' ... As the end of the canvass approached the forces making for good government were in line as never before in the history^ of the state. Every precaution was taken to have the polls guarded on Nov. 3. Every highway leading into the state was watched to prevent the importation of voters. Railroad com- panies for days Jjcfore the election reported every negro that came in and the station where he de- barked. Victory was so important to our future that thousands were prepared to leave the state and seek homes where the Negro did not control, in case the election went against us — as many thousands had already done since March, 1868. ... At the election there wa? rioting in Mobile, at Belmont, and at Gainesville, and one Negro was killed at each of these places. At Eufaula oc- curred the most serious riot of the Reconstruction period. Both whites and blacks were armed. While the whites were trying to protect from a mob a colored Democrat who was offering to vote a Negro fired a shot. Four Negroes were killed and sixty wounded. Ten whites were wounded. The whole Democratic State ticket was elected by majorities ranging more than 10,000 and the Su- preme Court and both Houses of the Legislature were ours. Alabama was redeemed," — H. A. Her- bert, How we redeemed Alabama {Century, v. 85, pp. 850-862). 1875 (September-October). — Constitutional convention. — The convention was held from Sep- tember to October 2. A new constitution was adopted, omitting the guaranty of the "carpet- baggers' " constitution that no one should be denied suffrage on account of race, color, or previous con- dition of servitude. It also forbade the state to engage in internal improvements. 1883 (February). — Establishment of a rail- road commission. — A railroad commission was established in .Alabama February 26, 1883. 1886-1887. — Farmers' Alliance. — The Farmers' .Alliance of .Alabama was incorporated by the ses- sion of the legislature of 1886-1887, and was then a strictly non-partisan agricultural organization. It was the forerunner of the Populist party, which was destined to play an important part in the politics of Alabama. 1886-1907. — Child labor legislation. — "Alabama began agitation against the child labor system in 1886. On page ninety of the .Acts of the Legisla- ture, 1886-7, will be found the law passed in this state against the employment of children and women in factories and manufacturing establish- ments, except as therein provided. The act was crude and carried no provisions for enforcement. It showed, however, that the public mind of the state had been aroused to the necessity of pro- tecting those in need of protection. The act of 1886 remained on the statute books until the ses- sion of the legislature in 1804-5, when it was re- pealed through the efforts oi a lobby sent to Montgomery by the cotton mills, headed by a superintendent of one of the New England mills which had lately been established in the state. There was no more child labor legislation until 1903, when mainly through the earnest and zeal- ous work of Edgar Gardner Murphy, the second child labor law for Alabama was enacted. The law of 1Q03 was by no means satisfactory to those who had been contending for an effective child labor law. The provisions of this law made the age limit twelve years, but orphans and chil- dren of dependent families were exempt. No child under ten years of age was permitted to work under any circumstances. No child under thirteen years of age could be employed at night work, and none under twelve was allowed to work more than thirty-six hours per week. In IQ07 a more acceptable law was enacted. The age limit was placed at twelve, without exception, and night work was permitted only by children of six- teen years of age and over. Provision was also 166 ALABAMA, 1897-1898 ALABAMA, 1916 made for inspection, the state inspector of prisons and almshouses being empowered to inspect cot- ton mills and factories. There was general dis- appointment over the practical failure of the in- spection feature of the law of 1007. Governor O'Neal has recommended in a message to the leg- islature raising the age limit of children working in cotton mills to fourteen years. He has also pointed out a defect in our present law which has greatly weakened the statute, namely the pro- vision that the employer must 'knowingly violate' the law before any punishment can be imposed for its violation." — Dr. B. J. Baldwin (Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, July, iQii, pp. 111-113). — A law was passed by the Alabama legislature which went into effect Sept. I, 191S, providing that no children under thirteen should be permitted to work and a year afterward no children under fourteen. 1897-1898. — Period of great industrial depres- sion. — During this period the price of cotton dropped to 4V2 cents per pound. 1898. — Part played in Spanish-American War. — Like every other state, Alabama responded loy- ally to the call for troops in the war with Spain. Members of the national guard and many other citizens joined the colors, and Alabama had her due representation in the regular army and navy. After the Civil War General Joseph Wheeler of the Confederate army settled in Alabama, where he lived as farmer, merchant and lawyer. He was in 1882 elected to Congress, in which he served continuously for eighteen years. In 1898, Presi- dent McKinley appointed him a major-general of volunteers, and he served with distinction in the Santiago campaign. In the navy, the most con- spicuous enterprise of daring was led by a native of Alabama, Richmond Pearson Hobson. With seven men he attempted to block the channel of Santiago harbor and "bottle up" the fleet of Ad- miral Cervera. He took the collier Merrimac into the narrow passage and sunk her, but the ship did not completely obstruct the channel. Although under heavy fire, the men escaped in- jury, and were taken prisoners. Hobson after- wards represented his state in Congress. 1899. — Dispensary laws. — Acts applying the South Carolina "dispensary" system of regula- tion for the liquor traffic (see South Carolina: 1892-1890) to seventeen counties, but not to the state at large, were passed by the legislature. 1901. — Alabama's new constitution. — "The new Constitution in Alabama was adopted by a re- ported majority of nearly thirty thousand. The important provisions of the new Constitution are as follows: (i) Disfranchisement for crime or for failure to pay a voluntary poll tax of $1.50 a year eight months before the election. This ap- plies to whites and blacks alike. (2) Disfranchise- ment for illiteracy, unless the illiterate has been a soldier or is descended from a soldier, or is thought by the registrars of election to be of good char- acter and to understand the duties of citizenship. The enfranchised illiterate must be enrolled as a voter before 1903. After that date the illiteracy disqualification applies to new voters of both races alike. (3) But after January i, 1903, every male of age, white or black, literate or illiterate, may register and vote on his proving ownership, in his own or his wife's right, of property of tax- able value of $300. (4) Four-year terms for Governor and Legislature, the legislative session to last only fifty days. (5) A State tax of three mills for school purposes, with permission to lo- calities to levy an additional tax of one mill. The State tax, together with the poll taxes and other 167 funds, insures a school revenue of $1,100,000 a year, or one-fifth more than the revenue last year." — Outlook, Nov. 23, 1901, p. 571. "In Alabama — where a little more than 14 per cent of the adult male whites of American par- entage are reported as illiterate, while 59.5 per cent of the male negroes of voting age are illiter- ate, — it is declared that the new constitution was adopted by popular vote on November 11, and under the operation of the clauses relating to the franchise this entire mass of negro illiteracy will be at once excluded from the voting privilege. Most of the white illiterates will probably be able, under exceptional clauses, to place their names on the registration books. But after a limited period the system will work with prac- tical equality, and every man of whatever race who knows enough to be morally entitled to exer- cise poHtical privileges will be allowed to register and vote. These Southern franchise systems, — viewed broadly in their main features rather than narrowly in their minor details, — bid fair to be of advantage to both races. They supply the most powerful incentive to education and personal im- provement. They create at once a bold and sweeping division between the enfranchised and the disenfranchised, but they do not erect an ar- bitrary or difficult barrier. An object-lesson in the disadvantages of illiteracy will be constantly before the eyes of the rising generation of both races. The children of native-born Americans will be impelled to follow the example of the Ameri- can-born children of foreign parents and acquire the rudiments of an ordinary education." — .Ameri- can Review of Reviews, Dec, iqoi, p. 650. — See also Suffrage: Manhood: United States: 1804-1921. Also in: A. E. McKinley, Constitution of Ala- bama {Political Science Quarterly, Sept., 1903). 1903. — Law against boycott. See Boycott: Re- cent judicial decisions. 1909. — Sixteenth Federal amendment ratified. — The income tax amendment to the Federal con- stitution was ratified .\ugust 17, 1909. 1911. — Case of Alonzo Bailey in United States Supreme Court. — This decision grew out of the case of a Negro, .Alonzo Bailey, who had been hired as a plantation hand. His wage was set at .$12 a month and he was paid in advance .$15. Before the month was over he left and according to the existing law was considered guilty of fraud- ulent intention, in not returning the money ad- vanced. He was obliged to prove his innocence which was not easy to do, since he could not testify as to his intentions. He could therefore according to the state law be convicted and forced to work without remuneration. The decision was rendered by Justice Hughes who held that the state law was contrary to the constitution. 1911. — Arbitration board created. See Arbi- tration AND CONCILIATION, INDUSTRIAL: United States: 1886-1920. 1912. — Internal improvements. — By the char- tering of the Interstate Power Company a large plan of internal improvements was begun, to cost in the neighborhood of $50,000,000 before com- pleted. A dam and lock on the Coosa river was the first piece of construction and by this electric power was created for Birmingham, Montgomery, .\nniston, Gadsden and Huntsville. 1916. — Educational revival. — Constitution amended. — "Alabama, as she herself fully admits, is down close to the bottom on the Hst of States made up according to literacy tests. Until re- cently Alabama raised most of her school funds by the State tax of three mills on the dollar. This gave her about $1,813,000 to spend on her public ALABAMA ALABAMA CLAIMS schools each year. The Legislature sometimes supplemented this fund by special appropriations averaging about $283,000 yearly. In addition, some of the counties voted a one-mill local tax for their respective schools, one mill being the limit established by the State Constitution to which any county could tax itself for public edu- cation. As a result of this constitutional limi- tation Alabama has had no free school system to speak of except in the cities. The rural dis- tricts, the sources of production and wealth, have been miserably provided with schools. The little one-teacher school has been open seventy-five or eighty, or possibly a hundred, days in the year. Ten per cent of the children were, according to recent statistics, illiterate. The total number of illiterates in the State, was 360,000. Of these 93,000 were white, many of them men and women of middle age. This was the situation that Mr. William F. Feagin, State Superintendent of Educa- tion, determined to alter, if possible, during the recent Presidential campaign. His idea was to carry an amendment to the State Constitution that would give each county and also each school district the right to tax itself for long-term con- solidated schools. By a preliminary campaign he succeeded in having placed on the ballots a con- stitutional amendment enabling each county to tax itself three mills on the dollar for its own schools, and in addition enabling each district to tax itself three mills — a tax right of six mills in all. . . . Even those who supported Mr. Feagin's plan supposed that the people were in no mood to consider additional taxation, and, generally speaking, they are always against constitutional amendments. But, nothing daunted. Superintend- ent Feagin plunged in to organize the entire State, county by county. The people of .Alabama were waked up. They were expecting an un- eventful election, with the usual Democratic ma- jority for the President and Congressmen. But they found themselves in the midst of a regular old-time enthusiastic campaign, and for educa- tion per se. . . . When the votes were counted it was found that the amendment had been carried by more than 20,000 majority. The campaign and amendment have given public education an im- petus in Alabama which will be very far-reaching in its effects." — L. McClurg, Educational revival in Alabama (Outlook, Feb. 28, iqi?). 1917-1918.— Part played in the World War.— The state furnished in all 67,000 soldiers, and es- tablished two National Guard camps; Camp Mc- Clelland at Anniston and Camp Sheridan at Mont- gomery. 1919. — Industrial development resulting from the World War. — The effect of the war was to stimulate the industrial development of the state. The United States Steel Corporation, through the Tennessee Iron and Railroad Company initiated important enterprises. Plate mills were opened at Birmingham and a ship-building plant was estab- lished at Mobile. The federal government also opened a nitrocen plant at Sheffield to extract nitrogen from the air. 1919 (January). — Eighteenth Federal amend- ment ratified. — The prohibition amendment to the federal constitution was ratified on January 14, igiq. 1919 (September 2). — Nineteenth amendment defeated (woman suffrage). ALABAMA (Confederate cruiser). See Ala- bama claims: 1862-1864. ALABAMA CLAIMS: 1861-1862.— Origin.— Earlier confederate cruisers. — Precursors of the Alabama. — The commissioning of privateers, and of more officially commanded cruisers, in the .American Civil War, by the government of the Southern Confederacy, was begun early in the progress of the movement of rebellion, pursuant to a proclamation issued by Jefferson Davis on .April 17, 1S61. "Before the close of July, i86i, more than 20 of those depredators were afloat, and had captured millions of property belonging to .American citizens. The most formidable and notorious of the sea-going ships of this character, were the Nashville, Captain R. B. Pegram, a Vir- ginian, who had abandoned his flag, and the Sum- ter [a regularly commissioned war vessel], Cap- tain Raphael Semmes. The former was a side- wheel steamer, carried a crew of eighty men, and was armed with two long 12-pounder rifled can- non. Her career was short, but cjuite successful. She was finally destroyed by the Montauk, Cap- tain Worden, in the Ogeechee River. The career of the Sumter, which had been a New Orleans and Havana packet steamer named Marquis de Ha- bana, was also short, but much more active and destructive. She had a crew of sixty-five men and twenty-five marines, and was heavily armed. She ran the blockade at the mouth of the Missis- sippi River on the 30th of June, and was pursued some distance by the Brooklyn. She ran among the West India islands and on the Spanish Main, and soon made prizes of many vessels bearing the American flag. She was everywhere received in British Colonial ports with great favor, and was afforded every facility for her piratical operations. She became the terror of the American merchant service, and everywhere eluded National vessels of war sent out in pursuit of her. At length she crossed the ocean, and at the close of 1861 was compelled to seek shelter under British guns at Gibraltar, where she was watched by the Tus- carora. Early in the year 1862 she was sold, and thus ended her piratical career. Encouraged by the practical friendship of the British evinced for these corsairs, and the substantial aid they were receiving from British subjects in various ways, especially through blockade-runners, the conspira- tors determined to procure from those friends some powerful piratical craft, and made arrangements for the purchase and construction of vessels for that purpose. Mr. Laird, a ship-builder at Liver- pool and member of the British Parliament, was the largest contractor in the business, and, in de- fiance of every obstacle, succeeded in getting pirate ships to sea. The first of these ships that went to sea was the Oreto, ostensibly built for a house in Palermo, Sicily. Mr. Adams, the .American min- ister in London, was so well satisfied from infor- mation received that she was designed for the Confederates, that he called the attention of the British government to the matter as early as the i8th of February, 1862. But nothing effective was done, and she was completed and allowed to de- part from British waters. She went first to Nas- sau, and on the 4th of September suddenly ap- peared off Mobile harbor, flying the British flag and pennants. The blockading squadron there was in charge of Commander George H. Preble, who had been specially instructed not to give of- fense to foreign nations while enforcing the block- ade. He believed the Oreto to be a British vessel, and while deliberating a few minutes as to what he should do, she passed out of range of his guns, and entered the harbor with a rich freight. For his seeming remissness Commander Preble was summarily dismissed from the service without a hearing — an act which subsequent events seemed to show was cruel injustice. Late in December, the Oreto escaped from Mobile, fully armed for a 68 ALABAMA CLAIMS ALABAMA CLAIMS piratical cruise, under the command of John New- land Maffit. . . . The name of the Oreto was changed to that of Florida," — B. J. Lossing, Pic- torial field book of the Civil War, v. 2, cli. 21. Also in: J. Davis, Rise and fall of the confed- erate government, v. 2, ch. 30-31. 1862-1864. — The Alabama, her career and her fate. — "The Alabama (the second cruiser built in England for the Confederates] ... is thus de- scribed by Semmes, her commander: 'She was of about goo tons burden, 230 feet in length, 32 feet in breadth, 20 feet in depth, and drew, when provisioned and coaled for cruise, 15 feet of water. She was barkentine-rigged, with long lower masts, which enabled her to carry large fore and aft sails, as jibs and try-sails. . . . Her engine was of 300 horse-power, and she had attached an apparatus for condensing from the vapor of sea-water all the fresh water that her crew might require. . . . Her armament consisted of eight guns.' . . . The Ala- bama was built and, from the outset, was 'in- tended for a Confederate vessel of war.' The contract for her construction was 'signed by Cap- tain Bullock on the one part and Messrs. Laird on the other.' ... On the 15th of May [1862] she was launched under the name of the 2qo. Her officers were in England awaiting her completion, and were paid their salaries 'monthly, about the first of the month, at Eraser, Trenholm & Co.'s office in Liverpool.' The purpose for which this vessel was being constructed was notorious in Liverpool. Before she was launched she became an object of suspicion with the Consul of the United States at that port, and she was the sub- ject of constant correspondence on his part with his Government and with Mr. Adams. . . . Early in the history of this cruiser the point was taken by the British authorities — a point main- tained throughout the struggle — that they would originate nothing themselves for the maintenance and performance of their international duties, and that they would listen to no representations from the officials of the United States which did not furnish technical evidence for a criminal prosecu- tion under the Foreign Enlistment .Act. ... At last Mr. Dudley [the Consul of the United States at Liverpool] succeeded in finding the desired proof. On the 21st day of July, he laid it in the form of affidavits before the Collector at Liver- pool in compliance with the intimations which Mr. Adams had received from Earl Russell. These affidavits were on the same day transmitted by the Collector to the Board of Customs at London, with a request for instructions by telegraph, as the ship appeared to be ready for sea and might leave any hour. . . . It . . . appears that not- withstanding this official information from the Col- lector, the papers were not considered by the law advisers until the 28th, and that the case appeared to them to be so clear that they gave their advice upon it that evening. Under these circumstances, the delay of eight days after the 21st in the order for the detention of the vessel was, in the opinion of the United States, gross negligence on the part of Her Majesty's Government, On the 2Qth the Secretary of the Commission of the Customs re- ceived a telegram from Liverpool saying that 'the vessel 2qo came out of dock last night, and left the port this morning.' . . . After leaving the dock she 'proceeded slowly down the Mersey.' Both the Lairds were on board, and also Bullock. . . . The 2go slowly steamed on to Moelfra Bay, on the coast of Anglesey, where she remained 'all that night, all the next day, and the next night ' No effort was made to seize her. . . . When the Ala- bama left Moelfra Bay her crew numbered about 90 men. She ran part way down the Irish Chan- nel, then round the north coast of Ireland, only stopping near the Giant's Causeway. She then made for Terceira, one of the Azores, which she reached on the loth of August. On i8th of August, while she was at Terceira, a sail was observed mak- ing for the anchorage. It proved to be the 'Agrip- pina of London, Captain McQueen, having on board six guns, with ammunition, coals, stores, etc., for the Alabama.' Preparations were immediately made to transfer this important cargo. On the afternoon of the 20th, while employed discharging the bark, the screw-steamer Bahama, Captain Tessier (the same that had taken the armament to the Florida, whose insurgent ownership and character were well known in Liverpool), arrived, 'having on board Commander Raphael Semmes and officers of the Confederate States steamer Sum- ter.' There were also taken from this steamer two 32-pounders and some stores, which occupied all the remainder of that day and a part of the next. The 22d and 23d of August were taken up in transferring coal from the Agrippina to the Ala- bama. It was not until Sunday (the 24th) that the insurgents' flag was hoisted. Bullock and those who were not going in the 2qo went back to the Bahama, and the Alabama, now first known under that name, went off with '26 officers and 8s men.' "—Case of the United States before the tribunal of arbitration at Geneva (42^ Congress, 2d Session, Senate Executive Document, No. 31, 146-171). — The Alabama "arrived at Porto Praya on the 10th August. Shortly thereafter Capt. Raphael Semmes assumed command. Hoisting the Confederate flag, she cruised and captured several vessels in the vicinity of Flores. Cruising to the westward, and making several captures, she ap- proached within 200 miles of New York; thence going southward, arrived, on the iSth November, at Port Royal, Martinique. On the night of the igth she escaped from the harbour and the Fed- eral steamer San Jacinto, and on the 20th Novem- ber was at Blanquilla. On the 7th December she captured the steamer Ariel in the passage between Cuba and St. Domingo. On January 11, 1863, she sunk the Federal gunboat Hatteras off Gal- veston, and on the joth arrived at Jamaica. Cruising to the eastward, and making many cap- tures, she arrived on the loth April, at Fernando de Noronha, and on the nth May at Bahia, where, on the 13th, she was joined by the Confederate steamer Georgia. Cruising near the line, thence southward towards the Cape of Good Hope, numerous captures were made. On the 2gth July she anchored in Saldanha Bay, South Africa, and near there on the sth August, was joined by the Confederate bark Tuscaloosa, Commander Low. In September, 1863, she was at St. Simon's Bay, and in October was in the Straits of Sunda, and up to January 20, 1864, cruised in the Bay of Bengal and vicinity, visiting Singapore, and mak- ing a number of very valuable captures, including the Highlander, Sonora, etc. From this point she cruised on her homeward track via Cape of Good Hope, capturing the bark Tycoon and ship Rock- ingham, and arrived at Cherbourg, France, in June, 1864, where she repaired. A Federal steamer, the Kearsarge, was lying off the harbour. Capt. Semmes might easily have evaded this enemy; the business of his vessel was that of a privateer; and her value to the Confederacy was out of all comparison with a single vessel of the enemy. , . . But Capt, Semmes had been twitted with the name of 'pirate;' and he was easily persuaded to at- tempt an eclat for the Southern Confederacy by a naval fight within sight of the French coast, 169 ALABAMA CLAIMS ALABAMA CLAIMS which contest, it was calculated would prove the sibly to revive '•°'' 4" ju g^r^t motives Paris and London. These ^"<=J°f p"^ Semmes of the gratuitous fight with wh.chCapt^ Semmes ned four broad. me 3 H ,^ ^^^^ thus mie 28-pound rifle , ^l^^ ,^;° ^.^nt ■ and their ,bout equal ■"-l'^^;;^^?!^ A Pollard, /--t tonnage was a^outhse^.^^^^^^^^^^^^.^ anise, p. 549- }■ >^„^^ i:par-;aree in a report to United States f,;^;"" ,,*r^^; ttl^'on the afternoon the Secretary of he Na> w^" Alabama, June "' 'iLfU- ' hav the honor to inform the Snrcr^n i.r. »«■ — -s.-™;;; sail was made 0," ^" ^^hen the object was again «ach>ng Cherbourg^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ apparent he ^"rsarge was ^^^^^^^ nf the Alabama lor a raKiug "i^^, tt_^p. «Sil 53"js ^i^'S TheKearsarge; whom we were tr>-in. to m We s ^"■"Ihrthe DeSu^d Xarmovi^g^r I could me that tne uceniuunu vessel prevent it, but continued to k^eP "ur boaU jj ro-s^yXf^tm^:raU:n%TD"erhlp m| ^-C^^ro^-^totr^^^ !!7n;f ^i.r later report Captain VV nslow gav. I'jtlioSTl sta^d shi'discrarged ..o or more she 1 and shot, was not of serious damage to the STan/:^.^ih:u,:n;ro^^1S H^^^sSinJten-o^:ir,^ fire of the Kearsarge, although only i73 projectile. knocked down."-«ebc/;;o« record, v. 9, PP- 221 "Lso in: J. R. Soley, B/oc^oj/. a«<i {'- ^-^,^« (iVoi.v in the Civil War. v. i, c''- 7).-J- J^;, =°'7 ' J McI Kell and J. M, Browne. Conjederalecrus- Irs^Banle. and leaders, v. 3>.-R- «-,fX, 5 .Xf i/.^" "/ ''- confederate states ^n Europe, "■iRfi2''l865 -Other Confederate cruisers.-''A s'73np» '£::-;*""— which made 10 The Florida was captured in the Bwrnrnm iSU'rJS . i.,. tail, in Bri.1.1, .bipy.rf.'- "id 'oncb.,. .».il »d" b„ ».« »»- ; K;.,'if 'i. 't S-iribiS'-K-dS-ved . s;;:„s^t.r.b=*r.b:?;s3t';;; \ii ^,f 'KioQoooo and considering that it oc Tred 'tr'months after the Confederacy had •n'ally passed out of existence >t -V ^^^ /^^ ^ acterized as the most ^^^^^^'i "^he e'pta'" °^ he had news o. th^ « ^ ' ^f ^o thrBritish govern- i^tent-^w^hl^hlliv^redTel 1^ the United States.- 70 ALABAMA CLAIMS ALABAMA CLAIMS J. R. Soley, Conjederate cruisers (Battles and leaders, v. 4) . For statistics of the total losses inflicted by the eleven Confederate cruisers for which Great Britain was held responsible, see U. S. A.: 1865 (May). 1862-1869. — Definition of the indemnity claims of the United States against Great Britain. — First stages of the negotiation. — Rejected John- son-Clarendon treaty. — "A review of the history of the negotiations between the two Governments prior to the correspondence between Sir Edward Thornton and Mr. Fish, will show . . . what was intended by these words, 'generically known as the Alabama Claims,' used on each side in that cor- respondence. The correspondence between the two Governments was opened by Mr. Adams on the 20th of November, 1862 (less than four months after the escape of the Alabama), in a note to Earl Russell, written under instructions from the Government of the United States. In this note Mr. Adams submitted evidence of the acts of the Alabama, and stated: 'I have the honor to inform Your Lordship of the directions which I have re- ceived from my Government to solicit redress for the national and private injuries thus sustained.' . . . Lord Russell met this notice on the igth of December, 1862, by a denial of any liability for any injuries growing out of the acts of the Ala- bama. . . » As new losses from time to time were suffered by individuals during the war, they were brought to the notice of Her Majesty's Govern- ment, and were lodged with the national and in- dividual claims already preferred ; but argumen- tative discussion on the issues involved was by common consent deferred. . . . The fact that the first claim preferred grew out of the acts of the Alabama explains how it was that all the claims growing out of the acts of all the vessels came to be 'generically known as the Alabama claims.' On the 7th of April, 1865, the war being virtually over, Mr. Adams renewed the discussion. He transmitted to Earl Russell an official report show- ing the number and tonnage of American vessels transferred to the British flag during the war. He said: 'The United States commerce is rapidly van- ishing from the face of the ocean, and that of Great Britain is multiplying in nearly the same ratio.' 'This process is going on by reason of the action of British subjects in cooperation with emis- saries of the insurgents, who have supplied from the ports of Her Majesty's Kingdom all the ma- terials, such as vessels, armament, supplies, and men, indispensable to the effective prosecution of this result on the ocean.' ... He stated that he 'was under the painful necessity of announcing that his Government cannot avoid entailing upon the Government of Great Britain the responsibility for this damage.' Lord Russell . . . said in reply, 'I can never admit that the duties of Great Britain toward the United States are to be measured by the losses which the trade and commerce of the United States have sustained. . . . Referring to the offer of arbitration, made on the 26th day of October, 1863, Lord Russell, in the same note, said: 'Her Majesty's Government must decline either to make reparation and compensation for the captures made by the Alabama, or to refer the question to any foreign State.' This termi- nated the first stage of the negotiations between the two Governments. ... In the summer of 1866 a change of Ministry took place in England, and Lord Stanley became Secretary of State for For- eign Affairs in the place of Lord Clarendon. He took an early opportunity to give an intimation in the House of Commons that, should the rejected claims be revived, the new Cabinet was not pre- pared to say what answer might be given them; in other words, that, should an opportunity be of- fered. Lord Russell's refusal might possibly be re- considered. Mr. Seward met these overtures by instructing Mr. Adams, on the 27th of August, 1S66, 'to call Lord Stanley's attention in a respect- ful but earnest manner,' to 'a summary of claims of citizens of the United States, for damages which were suffered by them during the period of the civil war,' and to say that the Government of the United States, while it thus insists upon these particular claims, is neither desirous nor willing to assume an attitude unkind and unconciliatory toward Great Britain. . . . Lord Stanley met this overture by a communication to Sir Frederick Bruce, in which he denied the liability of Great Britain, and assented to a reference, 'provided that a fitting Arbitrator can be found, and that an agreement can be come to as to the points to which the arbitration shall apply.' ... As the first result of these negotiations, a convention known as the Stanley-Johnson convention was signed at London on the loth of November, 1868. It proved to be unacceptable to the Government of the United States. Negotiations were at once resumed, and resulted on the 14th of January, i86q, in the Treaty known as the Johnson-Clarendon conven- tion [having been negotiated by Mr. Reverdy Johnson, who had succeeded Mr. Adams as United States Minister to Great Britain]. This latter convention provided for the organization of a mixed commission with jurisdiction over "all claims on the part of citizens of the United States upon the Government of Her Britannic Majesty, including the so-called Alabama claims, and all claims on the part of subjects of Her Britannic Majesty upon the Government of the United States which may have been presented to either govern- ment for its interposition with the other since the 26th July, 1853, and which yet remain unsettled.' " — Argument of the United States delivered to the tribunal of arbitration at Geneva, June 15, 1872, Division 13, sect, 2. "It came up there [in the Senate] April 13, when Andrew Johnson was no longer president, and was defeated by a vote of 54 to i. Sumner alone spoke against it. As chairman of the sen- ate's foreign committee he felt it his duty to sum up the case for the United States, and his speech was printed for the information of the people. Through his bold handling, our case against Eng- land became far-reaching. He demanded satis- faction, first for all the losses of Americans through England's recognition of belligerency for the Con- federacy, secondly for losses due to the activity of the Alabama and other ships which England's negligence suffered to take the sea, and thirdly for the expenses of prolonging the war through the hope of the South that England would assist her. From the first class, he said, the losses amounted to $100,000,000, from the second to .fi5,ooo,ooo, and from the third the inference was — although he wo'uld name no figure — a loss of $2,000,000,000. Mr. Rhodes pronounces Sumner's claim 'outra- geous.' It is evident that Sumner himself did not expect England to pay the amounts specified, but stated them in this way so that England and the world migh't realize the vast wrong done us. But it was an unwise utterance. It raised too high the expectation of the American people, and if it were insisted upon by the government, it made impos- sible further negotiation by England. John Bright, one of our best friends in England, said that either Sumner was a fool or thought the English people were fools. No immediate action, however, fol- lowed the speech, and after a time the passions it 171 ALABAMA CLAIMS ALABAMA CLAIMS raised were cooled by sober thought. It was for the skillful hand of Hamilton Fish, Grant's secre- tary of state, to reopen the question in a more reasonable spirit and carry it to successful -solu- tion." — J. S. Bassett, Short history of the United States, p. 671. 1869-1871. — Renewed negotiations. — Appoint- ment and meeting of the joint high commission. — The action of the Senate in rejectinf; Ihc John- son-Clarendon treaty was taken in April, iSoo, a few weeks after President Grant entered upon his office. At this time "the condition of Europe was such as to induce the British Ministers to take into consideration the foreign relations of Great Britain; and, as Lord Granville, the British Min- ister of Foreign Affairs, has himself stated in the House of Lords, they saw cause to look with solici- tude on the uneasy relations of the British Govern- ment with the United States, and the inconvenience thereof in case of possible complications in Europe. Thus impelled, the Government dispatched to Washington a gentleman who enjoyed the con- fidence of both Cabinets, Sir John Rose, to ascer- tain wTiether overtures for reopening negotiations would be received by the President in spirit and terms acceptable to Great Britain. ... Sir John Rose found the United States disposed to meet with perfect correspondence of good-will the ad- vances of the British Government. Accordingly, on the 26th of January, 1871, the British Govern- ment, through Sir Edward Thornton, ftnally pro- posed to the American Government the appoint- ment of a joint High Commission to hold its ses- sions at Washington, and there devise means to settle the various pending questions between the two Governments affecting the British possessions in North America. To this overture Mr. Fish replied that the President would with pleasure ap- point, as invited. Commissioners on the part of the United States, provided the deliberations of the Commissioners should be extended to other dif- ferences, — that is to say, to include the differ- ences growing out of incidents of the late Civil War. . . . The British Government promptly ac- cepted this proposal for enlarging the sphere of the negotiation." The joint high commission was speedily constituted, as proposed, by appointment of the two governments, and the promptitude of proceeding was such that the British commission- ers landed at New York in twenty-seven days after Sir Edward Thornton's suggestion of January 26 was made. They sailed without waiting for their commissions, which were forwarded to them by special messenger. The high commission was made up as follows; "On the part of the United States were five persons, — Hamilton Fish, Robert C. Schenck, Samuel Nelson, Ebenezer Ruckwood Hoar, and George H. Williams, — eminently fit rep- resentatives of the diplomacy, the bench, the bar, and the legislature of the United States: on the part of Great Britain, Earl De Grey and Ripon, President of the Queen's Council; Sir Stafford Northcote, Ex-Minister and actual Member of the House of Commons; Sir Edward Thornton, the universally respected British Minister at Washing- ton; Sir John [A.] Macdonald, the able and elo- quent Premier of the Canadian Dominion; and, in revival of the good old time, when learning was equal to any other title of public honor, the Uni- versities in the person of Professor Montague Ber- nard. ... In the face of many difficulties, the Commissioners, on the 8th of May, 187 r. com- pleted a treaty [known as the Treaty of Washing- ton], which received the prompt approval of their respective Governments." — C. Cushing, Treaty of Washington, pp. 18-20 and ii-i.s. Also in: A. Lang, Life, letters, and diaries of Sir Stafford Northcote, first earl of Iddesleigh, v. 2 ch. 12. — \. Badeau, Grant in peace, ch. 25. 1871.— Treaty of Washington.— The treaty signed at Washington on May 8, 187 1, and the ratifications of which were exchanged at London on June 17 following set forth its principal agree- ment in the first two articles as follows: "Whereas ilifferences have arisen between the Government of the United States and the Government of Her Britannic Majesty, and still exist, growing out of the acts committed by the several vessels which have given rise to the claims generically known as the 'Alabama Claims;' and whereas Her Bri- tannic Majesty has authorized Her High Com- missioners and Plenipotentiaries to express in a friendly spirit, the regret felt by Her Majesty's Government for the escape, under whatever cir- cumstances, of the Alabama and other vessels from British ports, and for the depredations committed by those vessels: Now, in order to remove and adjust all complaints and claims on the part of the United States and to provide for the speedy settlement of such claims which are not admitted by Her Britannic Majesty's Government, the high contracting parties agree that all the said claims, growing out of acts committed by the aforesaid vessels, and generically known as the 'Alabama Claims,' shall be referred to a tribunal, of arbi- tration to be composed of five Arbitrators, to be appointed in the following manner, that is to say: One shall be named by the President of the United States; one shall be named by Her Britannic Majesty ; His Majesty the King of Italy shall be requested to name one; the President of the Swiss Confederation shall be requested to name one; and His Majesty the Emperor of Brazil shall be re- quested to name one. . . . The Arbitrators shall meet at Geneva, in Switzerland, at the earliest convenient day after they shall have been named, and shall proceed impartially and carefully to ex- amine and decide all questions that shall be laid before them on the part of the Ciovernments of the Llnited States and Her Britannic Majesty re- spectively. .\\\ questions considered by the tribu- nal, including the final award, shall be decided by a majority of all the Arbitrators. Each of the high contracting parties shall also name one per- son to attend the tribunal as its .Agent to represent it generally in all matters connected with the arbi- tration." Articles 3, 4 and 5 of the treaty specify the mode in which each party shall submit its case. .■\rticle 6 declares that, "In deciding the matters submitted to the -Arbitrators, they shall be gov- erned by the following three rules, which are agreed upon by the high contracting parties as rules to be taken as applicable to the case, and by such principles of international law not incon- sistent therewith as the .Arbitrators shall determine to have been applicable to the case: A neutral Government is bound — First, to use due diligence to prevent the fitting out, arming, or equipping, within its jurisdiction, of any vessel which it has reasonable ground to believe is intended to cruise or to carry on war against a Power with which it is at peace; and also to use like diligence to prevent the departure from its jurisdiction of any vessel intended to cruise or carry on war as above, such vessel having been specially adapted, in whole or in part, within such jurisdiction, to warlike use. Secondly, not to permit or suffer either bel- ligerent to make use of its ports or waters as the base of naval operations against the other, or for the purpose of the renewal or augmentation of military supplies or arms, or the recruitment of men Thirdly, to exercise due diligence in its own 172 ALABAMA CLAIMS ALABAMA CLAIMS ports and waters, and, as to all persons within its jurisdiction, to prevent any violation of the foregoing obligations and duties. Her Britannic Majesty has commanded her High Commissioners and Plenipotentiaries to declare that Her Majesty's Government cannot assent to the foregoing rules as a statement of principles of international law which were in force at the time when the claims mentioned in Article i arose, but that Her Maj- esty's Government, in order to evince its desire of strengthening the friendly relations between the two countries and of making satisfactory provision for the future, agrees that in deciding the questions between the two countries arising out of those claims, the Arbitrators should assume that Her Majesty's Government had undertaken to act upon the principles set forth in these rules. And the high contracting parties agree to observe these rules as between themselves in future, and to bring them to the knowledge of other maritime powers, and to invite them to accede to them." Article 7 to 17, inclusive, relate to the procedure of the tribunal of arbitration, and provide for the de- termination of claims, by assessors and commis- sioners, in case the arbitrators should find any liability on the part of Great Britain and should not award a sum in gross to be paid in settlement thereof. Articles 18 to 25 relate to the Fisheries. By article 18 it is agreed that in addition to the liberty secured to American fishermen by the con- vention of 1S18, "of taking, curing and drying fish on certain coasts of the British North American colonies therein defined, the inhabitants of the United States shall have, in common with the sub- jects of Her Britannic Majesty, the liberty for [a period of ten years, and two years further after notice given by either party of its wish to ter- minate the arrangement] ... to take fish of every kind, except shell fish, on the sea-coasts and shores, and in the bays, harbours and creeks, of the prov- inces of Quebec, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, and the colony of Prince Edward's Island, and of the several islands thereunto adjacent, without be- ing restricted to any distance from the shore, with permission to land upon the said coasts and shores and islands, and also upon the Magdalen Islands, for the purpose of drying their nets and curing their fish ; provided that, in so doing, they do not interfere with the rights of private property, or with British fishermen, in the peaceable use of any part of the said coasts in their occupancy for the same purpose. It is understood that the above- mentioned liberty applies solely to the sea-fishery, and that the salmon and shad fisheries, and all other fisheries in rivers and the mouths of rivers, are hereby reserved exclusively for British fisher- men." Article lo secures to British subjects the corresponding rights of fishing, &c., on the eastern sea-coasts and shores of the United States north of the 3gth parallel of north latitude. Article 20 re- serves from these stipulations the places that were reserved from the common right of fishing under the first article of the treaty of June 5, 1854. Article 21 provides for the reciprocal admission of fish and fish oil into each country from the other, free of duty (excepting fish of the inland lakes and fish preserved in oil). Article 22 pro- vides that, "Inasmuch as it is asserted by the Gov- ernment of Her Britannic Majesty that the privi- leges accorded to the citizens of the United States under Article XVIII of this treaty are of greater value than those accorded by Articles XIX and XXI of this treaty to the subjects of Her Bri- tannic Majesty, and this assertion is not admitted by the Government of the United States, it is further agreed that Commissioners shall be ap- pointed to determine ... the amount of any com- pensation which in their opinion, ought to be paid by the Government of the United States to the Government of Her Britannic Majesty." Article 23 provides for the appointment of such commis- sioners, one by the president of the United States, one by her Britannic majesty, and the third by the president and her majesty conjointly ; or, failing of agreement within three months, the third commissioner to be named by the Austrian Min- ister at London. The commissioners to meet at Halifax, and their procedure to be as prescribed and regulated by articles 24 and 25. Articles 26 to 31 define certain reciprocal privileges accorded by each government to the subjects of the other, including the navigation of the St. Lawrence, Yukon, Porcupine and Stikine rivers, lake Michi- gan, and the Welland, St. Lawrence and St. Clair Flats canals; and the transportation of goods in bond through the territory of one country into the other without payment of duties. Article 32 extends the provisions of articles 18 to 25 of the treaty to Newfoundland if all parties con- cerned enact the necessary laws, but not otherwise. Article 33 limits the duration of articles 18 to 25 and article 30, to ten years from the date of their going into effect, and "further until the expira- tion of two years after either of the two high contracting parties shall have given notice to the other of its wish to terminate the same." The remaining articles of the treaty provide for sub- mitting to the arbitration of the German Emperor the northwestern water-boundary question (in the channel between Vancouver Island and the conti- nent) — to complete the settlement of northwestern boundary disputes. — Treaties and conventions be- tween the United States and other Powers (ed. oj i88q), pp. 478-403. Also in: C. Cushing, Treaty oj Washington, app. 1871-1872. — Tribunal of arbitration at Geneva, and its award. — Summary of the controversy. — "The appointment of .Arbitrators took place in due course, and with the ready good-will of the three neutral governments. The United States ap- pointed Mr. Charles Francis Adams; Great Britain appointed Sii- .Alexander Cockburn ; the King of Italy named Count Frederic Sclopis; the President of the Swiss Confederation, Mr. Jacob Stsmpfli; and the Emperor of Brazil, the Baron d'ltajuba. Mr. J. C. Bancroft Davis was appointed Agent of the United States, and Lord Tentcrden of Great Britain. The Tribunal was organized for the re- ception of the case of each party, and held its first conference [at Geneva, Switzerland] on the 15th of December, 1871," Count Sclopis being chosen to preside. "The printed Case of the United States, with accompanying documents, was filed by Mr. Bancroft Davis, and the printed Case of Great Britain, with documents, by Lord Tenterden. The Tribunal made regulation for the filing of the respective Counter-Cases on or before the 15th day of April next ensuing, as required by the Treaty ; and for the convening of a special meeting of the Tribunal, if occasion should require; and then, at a second meeting, on the next day, they adjourned until the 15th of June next ensuing, subject to a prior call by the Secretary, if there should be oc- casion." The sessions of the tribunal were re- sumed on June 15, 1872. according to the adjourn- ment, and were continued until September 14 fol- lowing, when the decision and award were an- nounced, and were signed by all the arbitrators except the British representative. Sir Alexander Cockburn, who dissented. It was found by the tribunal that the British government had "failed to use due diligence in the performance of its 173 ALABAMA CLAIMS ALABAMA CLAIMS neutral obligations" with respect to the cruisers Alabama and Florida, and the several tenders of those vessels; and also with respect to the Shen- andoah after her departure from Melbourne, Feb. 18, 186S, but not before that date. With respect to the Georgia, the Sumter, the Nashville, the Tallahassee and the Chickamauga, it was the find- ing of the tribunal that Great Britain had not failed to perform the duties of a neutral power. So far as relates to the vessels called the Sallie, the Jef- ferson Davis, the Music, the Boston, and the V. H. Joy, it was the decision of the tribunal that they ought to be excluded from consideration for want of evidence. "So far as relates to the particulars of the indemnity claimed by the United States, the costs of pursuit of Confederate cruisers" are de- clared to be "not, in the judgment of the Tribunal, properly distinguishable from the general expenses of the war carried on by the United States," and "there is no ground for awarding to the United States any sum by way of indemnity under this head." A similar decision put aside the whole consideration of claims for "prospective earnings." Finally, the award was rendered in the following language; "Whereas, in order to arrive at an equitable compensation for the damages which have been sustained, it is necessary to set aside all double claims for the same losses, and all claims for 'gross freights' so far as they exceed 'net freights;' and whereas it is just and reasonable to allow interest at a reasonable rate; and whereas, in accordance with the spirit and letter of the Treaty of Washington, it is preferable to adopt the form of adjudication of a sum in gross, rather than to refer the subject of compensation for further discussion and deliberation to a Board of .\ssessors, as provided by .Article X of the said Treaty; The Tribunal, making use of the author- ity conferred upon it by .Article \'n of the said Treaty, by a majority of four voices to one, awards to the United States the sum of fifteen mil- lions five hundred thousand Dollars in gold as the indemnity to be paid by Great Britain to the United States for the satisfaction of all the claims referred to the consideration of the Tribunal, con- formably to the provisions contained in .\rticle VII of the aforesaid Treaty." It should be stated that the so-called "indirect claims" of the United States, for consequential losses and damages, growing out of the encouragement of the southern Rebellion, the prolongation of the war, &c., were -dropped from consideration at the outset of the session ot the tribunal, in June, the arbitrators agreeing then in a statement of opinion to the effect that "these claims do not constitute, upon the principles of international law applicable to such cases, good foundation for an award of compensation or com- putation of damages between nations." This declaration was accepted by the United States as decisive of the question, and the hearing pro- ceeded accordingly. — C. Gushing, Treaty of Waslt- ingtoi:. An excellent summary of the .Mabama contro- versy by Prof. W. .X Dunning makes clear the general background of public opinion in the United States and Great Britain. .After an account of the diplomatic preliminaries of the Treaty of Washing- ton. Prof. Dunning says; — "As to the .Uahama claims, the agreement embodied in the treaty sig- nified great concessions on both sides in the in- terest of an amicable settlement. Great Britain expressed regret 'for the escape, under whatever circumstances, of the Alabama and other vessels from British ports, and for the depredations com- mitted by those vessels' In addition to this soothing admission that something disagreeable had happened to the United States, the British Gov- ernment consented to arbitration in the fullest sense in reference to all the claims. [See Arbitra- tion, International; Modern Period; 1871-1872.] Three rules were laid down as to the duties of a neutral government, and the arbitral trib- unal was enjoined to base its judgment on these rules, though the British Government recognized them, not as a statement of principles of international law in force in 1861-65, but as principles that ought in the future to be adopted by maritime powers, and that Great Britain had, in fact, sought to live up to during the .American War. The three rules defined the duty of a neu- tral government, in respect to the fitting out and supplying of war-ships, in such terms as to make it morally certain that judgment would be adverse to Great Britain on the case of the Alabama, if not as to other of the Confederate cruisers. The British Government, in short, not only assumed a somewhat apologetic attitude at the outset, but also submitted to be judged by principles that were not obligatory as rules of international con- duct at the time of the acts concerned, and that insured an unfavorable decision. A proud and powerful nation does not put itself in such a posi- tion without potent motives. One such was ob- vious and unconcealed: the general adoption of rigorous rules of neutral duty would be very ad- vantageous to Great Britain whenever she should become a belligerent. More influential than this selfish interest, however, was the desire, in no small measure purely sentimental, to be on friendly terms with the United States. The American democracy had proved in the severest of tests its fitness to survive, and the homage of a people and a generation in whom Darwinism was taking deep root was generously bestowed on the people who so opportunely illustrated the dogma of science Not all the concession in the Treaty of Washing- ton was on the part of the British. One point that had been strenuously insisted on as the origi- nal grievance of them all by Secretary Seward and Mr. Sumner was allowed by Secretary Fish to recede quietly into the background. This was the premature recognition of the Confederacy as a belligerent. Fish took the position that this action of the British Government was evidence of an unfriendly spirit, but could in no sense be the ground of a claim for compensation. This admission was regarded as having a bearing on the general question of the national or indirect claims These were not the subject of any reference or allusion in the treaty, and it was understood by the British negotiators that the .American Govern- ment had definitely abandoned them, as it was known to have ignored the demand of Sumner that a withdrawal of the British flag from the Western Hemisphere should be a preliminary condition to any settlement whatever. .As a matter of fact, the .Americans had no desire to urge the extravagant claims that Sumner had made so conspicuous. The British commissioners, on their side, were with- out authority to consider them. Yet bccau.se pop- ular feeling was so sensitive about them on both sides of the water the negotiators avoided all ref- erence to them, and by this very excess of caution left room for a dangerous misunderstanding. The tribunal of arbitration met and organized at Geneva. Switzerland, in the middle of December, 1871. It consisted of five arbitrators, appointed respectively by the governments of the United States, Great Britain. Italy. Switzerland, and Brazil. The cases of the two contending govern- ments were at once presented in printed form That of the United States was found to include, 174 ALABAMA CLAIMS ALAND ISLANDS in addition to thf claims for losses due to the de- struction of vessels by the cruisers and to the pur- suit of the cruisers, claims also for the loss in- volved in the transfer of the merchant marine to the British flag, the increased cost of insurance, and the prolongation of the war. That is, the in- direct or national claims were laid before the tribunal along with the rest. Protests arose at once from every organ of opinion in Great Britain. To admit responsibility for that kind and degree of loss would mean, it was declared, national hu- miliation and financial ruin. The government and the negotiators contended that the wording of the treaty excluded the indirect claims from submission to the tribunal, and that such exclusion had been agreed to in conference by the American negotia- tors. The latter denied any such agreement or in- terpretation. Great Britain stood firm in her con- tention, however, and her agent was directed to withdraw from the arbitration in case considera- tion of the indirect claims should be persisted in. After many months of tension and of deep distress among the friends of peace and amity, a way out of the impasse was found that was acceptable to both parties. The tribunal itself declared that it did not consider itself authorized, under inter- national law, to award money compensation for such losses as those involved in the indirect claims. The American agent thereupon refrained from demands upon the arbiters for further attention to these claims. This happy outcome of the dis- pute was quite as pleasing to the American as to the British Government. Fish and his coadjutors had no expectation or desire that Great Britain should be mulcted in consequential damages. Sum- ner's speech had created a surprisingly strong senti- ment in support of such mulcting, and it was problematical whether the administration could afford, in the year of a presidential election, to run counter to this sentiment. Animosity toward the Southerners was at this time a strong factor in the politics of the Republican party, and it fell in well with this feeling to disparage the South by con- tending that the remarkable prolongation of its resistance to the North was due solely to the aid it received from Great Britain. The rejection of the indirect claims by the tribunal of arbitra- tion itself relieved the administration of all re- sponsibility for abandoning them, and. passed without noteworthy effect on American public opinion. The judgment of the tribunal needs but casual mention. In respect to three of the Con- federate cruisers, the Alabama, the Florida, and the Shenandoah* Great Britain was found to have contravened the three rules of neutral conduct laid down by the treaty, and the damages due to the United States on account of the dereliction were assessed at .$15,500,000. Sir Alexander Cock- burn, the British arbitrator, dissented from the judgment of the tribunal on all but a single point, namely, that due diligence had not been used in ascertaining the character of the Alabama and pre- venting her departure from Liverpool. The dis- senting opinions of the Englishman were embodied in a very lengthy document, in which he expressed with unjudicial candor his contempt for the in- telligence of his fellow arbitrators and for the methods and attainments of those who conducted the American case. Corkburn's caustic criticism found some reflection in the Tory press, and there appeared more or less of the once familiar diatribe against the Yankees In general, however, the judgment was acquiesced in by British public opinion with good grace. Even Cockburn ended his offensive opinion with an expression of the hope and desire that the arbitration would prove a potent influence in maintaining amity between the two kindred peoples. In the United States the announcement of the actual award attracted little attention or comment. It came in the midst of a heated electoral campaign, and was little avail- able for partisan purposes. The Treaty of Wash- ington had afforded to the Americans their most substantial victory a year earlier, whei Great Brit- ain expressed her regret and agreed to arbitration. The carrying out of the treaty was followed with the somewhat languid interest of him who gathers up the trophies after the victory is won." — W. A. Dunning, British empire and the United Slate), pp. 251-257. Also in: J. K. Hosmer, Appeal to arms, pp. 315-317- — W. A. Dunning, Reconstruction, political and economic, pp. I5q-i63, 166-167, 16Q-170. — A. B. Hart, National ideals historically traced, p. 315. — J. F. Rhodes, History oj the United States V. 6, pp. 335-344. 349. 351. 354-361. 364, 376.— C. F. Adams, Jr., Life oj Charles Francis Adams, American Statesmen Series. — A. E. Conning, Ham- ilton Fish. — F. Wharton (Digest of International Laiv oj United Stales, v. 3, ch. 21). — J. B. Moore, Digest of international lar.K ALACAB, or Toloso, Battle of (1212). See Almohades. ALAMANCE, Battle of (1771). See North Carolin.a: 1766-1771. ALAMANNI. See .Alemanni. ALAMO, a Franciscan mission situated in San Antonio, Texas, so called from the grove of cotton- wood in which it stands; built about 1722; used occasionally after 1703 as a fort. Bought by the state in 1883 and maintained as a public monu- ment. For the massacre of the .Alamo (1836), see Te.xas: 1835-1S36. ALAMOOT, or Alamout, Castle of.— The stronghold of the "Old Man of the Mountain," or sheikh of the terrible order of the Assassins, in northern Persia. Its name signilies "the eagle's nest," or "the vulture's nest." See Assassins. ALAffD ISLANDS, an archipelago of about 300 islands situated in the Baltic sea, at the en- trance to the Gulf of Bothnia. The western part of the Baltic, which extends from the Iliig^ten lighthouse to that of the Lagskar and separates the Aland Islands from Sweden, is called the Aland sea. The sea to the eastward, separating Aland from the coast of Finland, is full of small islands and islets, eighty of which are inhabited. The rest are rocky islets, reefs and skerries. The largest island is that which gives its name to the group, Aland proper; its length is twenty-three miles and its greatest width twenty miles. The total area of the islands is about 550 square miles and the population numbers nearly 27,000, mostly of Swedish blood. The only town on the islands, which are sparsely populated, is Mariehamm, sit- uated on the south coast of .Mand. 12th century to World War. — In the 12th century the islands were occupied by Eric, the Saint; by the peace of Noteborg (1323) they were incorporated together with Finland in Sweden, after they had been a duchy since 1284. In the Union of Calmar, 1307-1523, the Danes had con- trol, but in 1634 'he islands were made part of the government of Finland by the Swedish con- stitution. Peter the Great conquered the islands in 1714, but restored them to Sweden in 1721. Part of Finland fell under Russian rule in 1 743 ; after the war between Russia and Sweden (1808), both Finland and the islands were ceded to Russia by the treaty of Frederikshamm. By the treaty of Paris, in 1856, Russia was prohibited from erect- ing fortifications on the islands, despite which some T75 ALAND ISLANDS defence works were constructed while in 1906 a Russian garrison was installed there. In the fol- fowSg v'ar Russia requested France and Grea BrilaSi to cancel the convention of 1856, aboui fh 'Tme time a secret treaty was cone udedbe^ tween Germany and Russia, by which the latter was promised a free hand with «g-/d 'o \he '^^ bnd- This agreement was first published to the world by Leon' Trotsky Bolshevis|^ore.gnmmis- ter, in December, 1917. I" the Baltic Treat> con eluded in iqo8 between Russia, Germans, Svseaen and Denmark, no specific mention was made o^ ?he Alands, but the memorandum appended taken ?he World War broke out, the Russians lost no ime in fortifying the islands, and in January, Z\ the assured Sweden that the fortifications ^^' „nlv temDorarv This assurance was re- pe'atedTn'w t?n^ in Vpi6 and confirmed by Brit- Fsh and French ministers. Great excitement was aroused fn Sweden, and military ineasures were openly advocated. The ebullition, however, died Hnwn in the greater turmoil of the war 1917-1919 -The Russian revolution mtroduced a new perfod in the history of inland and the question of the Aland islands, "« longer one merely of fortifications, became acute. On -^u Tust '-o 1Q17, a communal assembly was held in fh! inlands consider the question of reunvon ',lu Sweden A delegation was sent to Sweden o urge he execution of that P-I^Vh '"n the"!!' Decei^ber 25-29 a plebiscite was h'-'d m the «^ lands, at which 95 per cent, of the adult male and female population voted for reunion. A petition to that effect was sent to Stockholm and favor^ ably rec ived by the king. Meanwhile Sweden had addressed a note to Germany, Austria-Hun- gary and^Turkey requesting that the .^andques^ Uon should be considered at Brest-L.tovsk n nrder to safeguard vital interests of Sweden m hoL inlands." The Swedish governn^nt was urged bv the country to occupy the island., Dui "hfBolsheviki forestalled them by landing ;0°° trooDs together with a number of "Red Guards rom F nTami. Outrages were committed on the inhabitants, who appealed to Sweden for a>d . A Swedish military expedition arnved to protect their co-nationals, forced the Russians and R^ds to retire but were forced to evacuate their position by German troops, which occupied the islands on March 6 iQiS. The German force remained till Octol^r 19^8 By Article \T of the Brest-Litovsk ?r°a5 (March 3^ X9i8), Russia w.s obhgated o evacuate the islands and remove the f<" 'i^"""^^ as soon as possible. On December 31. i9iS. it was announced ^hat an agreement had been signed be_ tween Sweden, Finland and Germany with regard rthe postponed demolition of the Aland for ito^ tions, and that the agreement was to be ratified at once On March 24. i9io, a dispatch from Sweden announced that the new Aland expedition wouW leave Stockholm on March 31 t°."™™^"« The destruction of the fortifications. Finland, the other claimant, had meanwhUe not been .dle_ In March 1918, the Finnish government had issi^ed a decree declaring their intention of forming the islands into a separate province ""der a civil and militarv governor. Then came the islanders ap ^lafandTe Swedfeh and German occupations al- ALAND ISLANDS ^.- rpterred to In Februar%-, 1919, a deputation rte Afandert proceeded to Paris to Uy their rase before the Powers. On March 18, the t)wea sh government suggested that the Peace Conf«^ nee' should consider the Aland q"«"on^-Ba^d on Handbook Ac. 48. prepared under the d^ec "°" oV'%9i:-"I^n eSMto^^the'difpu't^dq"::- C^on ?the Aland I^"ands^.hich had been agitating both Finland and Sweden ever since the Russian Revolution, the Paris Peace Conference deeded That the islands should be neulralued under the 'guarantee of the League of Nations."-.4««<^ ^?j20-FiL''no-Swe''dish quarrek- Intervention of the' League of Nations.-The dispute between Finland and Sweden over the disposition of the \hnd Islands reached an acute ^tage. Sweden wthdrew her minister from the . Finnish capi 1 and a conflict loomed on the horizon The Brit ish government brought the matter to the atten ion of the secretariat of the League; the latter promptly intervened and induced the disputan^ to debate the case under the supervision of the League Council itself.— 4 H«»a/ Reg>ster, 1920, PP. mn-mi— See also Finland: 1920. I920-Problem submitted to arbitration of iurists -"The Swedes claimed that the Alanders debt of self-determination was an 'nternationa^ question. The Finns claimed that the probl m was one within the domestic Jurisdiction of Fin- Ind The Council of the League of Nations de- cked to submit this preliminary con ention to a mall committee of international jurists^ The fd- lowine three were chosen; Herr Huber (Swiss), M LLnaude (French), and Mynherr Steruyck n (Dutch) This Commission decided the initial iuestion in favor of the Swedes and A anders^ and Reported that the question was essentially an in ternational one. This, however, was onl> the pre Um"narv point, and although representatives of the LMgueof Nations proceeded to the Alands m the tutumn the Council of the League had reached no d^ci^ion up to the end of the year."-.4«««a/ ^t;f-S 'report of commission.-lsUnds awa ded to Finland.-League o* N*'?""" *^'^; tion -"Great excitement was manifested in all the Swedish press over the announcement from Ge bweais^ pre commission appointed ro'e'xamine the Question whether the Aland Islands n he Baltic should belong to Sweden or Finland had found for the latter country. Keen disap- pfmtment and indignation fr^ted the repor „,,.,. rViori. with expression of the hope mai hk S: wo'uld 'rdu:e'to adopt the recommendation, c^w., \, =anftion Ihe report, according to Tidmit- ™r SliSo m° t 'vooW del Ih. doathbloc to lid,.? cStoco In th, will ol tb. L..;n. »^ E.ff;oi;rnt:^5'ad:o;'-oZ^.r^ r'i'sfST,r^^s,^fr"H •, Tn the course of its 36,000-word report, the commiSion Vat^d that the Aland Islands fotrn a fbi; tZ f pfebSrfhe^rf^ouldrdolte^dfy afoV Swefen it is questionable whether any one hl,d the right to take them away from Finland The desire of the Alanders to join Sweden was ?ound to be mainly due to their anxiety to main- tabi their Swedish language and culture. As Fm- uITh fs readv to grant satisfactory guarantees to 1?." Afandert the commission urged that it would 176 ALAND ALARODIANS be unjust to deprive Finland of the islands. Fur- thermore, the Aland population is too small to stand alone, and the islands are in other ways hardly capable of survivinR as an independent State. Therefore, the commission recommends that the Alands remain under Finland, but that Fin- land grant certain linguistic, cultural and trade guarantees to the Swedish population of the archi- pelago. . . . The commission recommends that the Alanders should have the right tc present to the Finnish government a list of three candidates for Governor of the islands, and that the Governor be chosen from this list. The report ends the procedure begun in July, iq2o, when Swedo-Fin- nish relations over the Aland question became acute, and Earl Curzon referred the question to the League of Nations." — Neiv York Times Cur- rent History, June, 1021, pp. 543-544. — It may be added that this report w.ie based on investigations conducted by Mr. A. Elkus, former United States Ambassador to Constantinople; M. Calonder, former President of the Swiss Confederation, and Baron Beyens, former Belgian Minister to Ger- many. On June 24, iq2i, the Council of the League of Nations finally decided that the Alands should definitely be placed under the rule of Fin- land, but neutralized in regard to military af- fairs, while the guarantees recommended by the commission (see above, 1Q21), were also adopted. Also in: C. Hallendorf, La question d'Aland avant et pendant la guerre de Crimee (Stockholm, 1917). — E. Sjaestedt, La question des lies d'Aland (Paris, igig).- — S. Tunberg, Les lies d'Aland dans I'histoire {Paris, iqig). — Sir E. Hertslet, Map of Europe hv treaty 4 v., iSyq-iSqi. ALANO.—igis.— Stormed by Italians. See World War: iqi8: IV. Austro-Italian theater: c, 5. ALANS, or Alani. — "The Alani are first mentioned by Dionysius the geographer (B. C. 30-10) who joins them with the Daci and the Tauri, and again places them between the latter and the Agathyrsi. A similar position (in the south of Russia in Europe, the modern Ukraine) is assigned to them by Pliny and Josephus. Seneca places them further west upon the Ister. Ptolemy has two bodies of Alani, one in the position above described, the other in Scythia within the Imaus, north and partly east of the Caspian. It must have been from these last, the successors, and, according to some, the descendants of the ancient Massagetje, that the Alani came who attacked Pacorus and Tiridates [in Media and Armenia, A. D. 75]. . . . The result seems to have been that the invaders, after ravaging and harrying Media and Armenia at their pleasure, carried off a vast number of prisoners and an enormous booty into their own country." — G. Rawlinson, Sixth great oriental monarchy, ch. 17. — E. H. Bunbury, His- tory of ancient geography, ch. 6, note H. — "The first of this [the Tartar] race known to the Ro- mans were the Alani. In the fourth century they pitched their tents in the country between the Volga and the Tanais. — J. C. L. Sismondi, Fall 0} the Roman empire, -ch. 3. See also Europe: Eth- nology: Migrations: Map showing barbaric migra- tions. 406-409. — Final invasion of Gaul. See Galtls: 406 -4og. 409. — Invasion of Cartagena. See Cartagena: 409-713; Spain: 400-414. 429. — With the Vandals in Africa. See Van- dals: 429-439. 451.— At the Battle of Chalons. See Huns: 451- ALARCON, Hernando de (fl. 16th century), a Spanish navigator sent in 1540 to assist Coronado in New Mexico. Entered the gulf of California, explored, and made an excellent map of that ter- ritory; dispelled the popular belief that California was an island; explored Colorado river to point above Fort Yuma. ALARCOS, Battle of (1195). See Almohades. ALARIC I (Gothic, Ala-reiks, "all ruler") (370-410), renowned chieftain of the Visigoths. In 395 he was chosen by the Visigoths to be their leader. "The very year of the death of Theodo- sius (A. D. 395), the Visigoths rose under Alaric, their chieftain, and marched into Greece. [See -Athens: 395.] Seven years later they attacked Italy. Stilicho, the general of Honorius, success- fully resisted them, until, out of jealousy and fear, he was murdered by his royal master. Then Alaric was able to overrun Italy and even to cap- ture Rome (A. D. 410). It was ... in this crisis that the Roman legions departed from Britain, leaving it exposed to the attacks of the Picts and Scots." — G. Goodspeed, History of the Ancient World, pp. 427-428. — "For the first time in 800 years, foreign soldiers were marched into the Forum and encamped in the streets of Rome. For three days and nights Alaric gave up the city to plunder. Then he gathered his forces together and started for southern Italy."— A. M. Wolfson, An- cient civilization, p. 106. While preparing to invade Sicily and Africa, Alaric died and was buried with a vast treasure in the bed of the river Busento. The Visigoths then left Italy and moved into Spain, where they established a kingdom (412) which lasted for three hundred years. — See also Barbarian inva- sions: 395-408, 408-410; Goths: 395, 400-403; Roip: 394-39S, 408-410; Europe: Ethnology; Mi- grations: Map showing barbaric migrations. Alaric II (d. 507), King of Visigoths. See Goths: 507-500. ALARODIANS, IBERIANS, COLCHIANS. — "The Alarodians of Heroditus, joined with the Sapeires ... are almost certainly the inhabitants of Armenia, whose Semitic name was Urarda, or Ararat. 'Alarud,' indeed, is a mere variant form of 'Ararud,' the 1 and r being undis- tinguishable in the old Persian, and 'Ararud' serves determinately to connect the Ararat of Scripture with the Urarda, or Urartha of the Inscriptions. . . . The name of Ararat is constantly used in Scripture, but always to denote a country rather than a particular mountain. . , , The connexion ... of Urarda with the Babylonian tribe of Akkad is proved by the application in the inscrip- tions of the ethnic title of Burbur (?) to the Ar- menian king , . . ; but there is nothing to prove whether the Burbur or Akkad of Babylonia de- scended in a very remote age from the mountains to colonize the plains, or whether the Urardians were refugees of a later period driven northward by the growing power of the Semites. The former supposition, however, is most in conformity with Scripture, and incidentally with the tenor of the inscriptions." — H. C. Rawlinson, History of Herod- otus, bk. 7, app. 3. — "The broad and rich valley of the Kur, which corresponds closely with the modern Russian province of Georgia, was [an- ciently] in the possession of a people called by Herodotus Saspeires or Sapeires, whom we may identify with the Iberians of later writers. Ad- joining upon them towards the south, probably in the country about Erivan, and so in the neigh- bourhood of Ararat, were the Alarodians, whose name must be connected with that of the great mountain. On the other side of the Sapeirian country, in the tracts now known as Mingrelia and Imeritia, regions of a wonderful beauty and fer- 177 ALARUD ALASKA tility, were the Colchians, — dependents, but not exactly subjects, of Persia." — G. Rawlinson, Five great monarchies: Persia, cli. i. ALARUD. See Alarodians; Iberians; Col- chians. ALASHEHR. See Philadelphia, Asia Minor. Battle of (1920). See Greece; 1920. ALASKA, a territory of the United States, situated at the extreme northwestern extremity of North .■\merica. Until 1867 it was known as Russian America. The name .Maska was given by William H. Seward, and is derived from the Aleut word alak' sliak or al-ay' ek-sa, meaning "a great country." The range of climate is great with wider extremes than from Maine to Florida. Only the northern third of the territory has a really .Arctic climate, and the warm waters and winds of the Pacific make the southern seaboard com- paratively temperate. .-Maska has an area of 500,- 884 square miles Not all of this is well-known — the density of population is a little more than I person per 10 square miles — but the general characteristics are a matter of common knowledge and the resources have been roughly estimated. ,;■.■!..-».: TYPES OF TOTEM POLES, AL.ASKA Exploration has been going on from its acquisi- tion right up to the present, so continually, that a statement of the most recent knowledge is soon superseded by later discoveries. Natives. — The natives of the interior include two races, the Indian and the Esquimo. The valley of the Yukon is inhabited by the Indians, down to three or four hundred miles of its mouth, while its lower valley, as well as those of the Kus- kokwim and the rivers that drain into the Arctic Ocean west and north are occupied by the Es- quimos. (See also Indians. .American: Cultural areas in North .America: Eskimo area.) "The Indians of the interior of .Alaska are a gentle, . . . kindly . . . tractable people. They have old traditions of bloody tribal warfare that have grown in ferocity, one supposes, with the lapse of time. for it is . . . difficult for one who knows them to believe that so mild a race could ever have been pugnacious or bloodthirsty. ... It is true that . . . murders . . . have been committed — murders of white men . . . ; but in the sixty years from the Nulato massacre of 1851, over the whole vast interior, these crimes can be counted on the fintiers of one hand. They are not a revengeful people. . . . The Indian is ... in most cases eager to learn and eager that his children may learn. . . . The government has undertaken the education of the Indian, and has set up a bureau charged with the establishment and conduct of native schools. There are five such schools on the Yukon between Eagle and Tanana, including these two points, amongst Indians all of whom belong to the Epis- copal Church, and five more between Tanana and .Anvik, amongst natives divided in allegiance be- tween the Episcopal and the Roman Catholic Churches. When, somewhat late in the day, the government set its hand to the education of the natives, mission schools had been conducted for many years at the five stations of the Episcopal Church above Tanana and at the various mission stations below that point. . . . That the Indian race of interior .Alaska is threatened with extinc- tion, there is unhappily little room to doubt. . . . .At most places where vital statistics are kept the death-rate exceeds the birth-rate, though it is sometimes very difficult to secure accurate sta- tistics. . . . Certain diseases that have played havoc in the past are not much feared now. ... In the last few years there have been no serious epi- demics; but epidemic disease does not constitute the chief danger that threatens the native. That chief danger looms from two things; tuberculosis and whiskey. Whether tuberculosis is a disease indigenous to these parts, or whether it was intro- duced with the white man, has been disputed and would be difficult of determination. Probably it was always present amongst the natives; the old ones declare that it was; but the changed condi- tions of their lives have certainly . , . aggravated it. They lived much more in the open when they had no tree-felling tool but a stone-axe and did not build cabins. Perhaps as great a cause of the spread of tuberculosis is the change in clothing. The original native was clad in skins, which are the warmest clothing in the world. The Indian usually sells all his furs and then . . . buys manu- factured clothing from the trader at a fancy price. That clothing is almost always cotton and shoddy. . . . But far , . . beyond any other cause of the native decline stands the curse of the country, whiskey. Recognising by its long Indian experi- ence the consequences of . . . liquor-drinking habits amongst the natives, the government has forbidden under penalty the giving or selling of any intoxicants to them. A few years ago a new law [was] passed making such giving or selling a felony. The Indian is the only settled inhabitant of interior .Alaska to-day ; for the prospectors and miners, who constitute the bulk of the white pop- ulation, are not often very long in one place. Many of them might rightly be classed as perma- nent, but very few as settled inhabitants. It is the commonest thing to meet men a thousand miles away from the place where one met them last. It is unquestionable that the best natives in the country are those that have had the least inti- macy with the white man. and it follows that the most hopeful and promising mission stations are those far up the tributarv- streams, away from min- ing camps and off the routes of travel, difficult of access, winter or summer, never seen hy tourists at all : seen only by those who seek them with 178 ALASKA, 1741-1787 ALASKA, 1787-1867 cost and trouble At such stations the improve- ment of the Indian is manifest and the popula- tion increases." — H. Stuck, Ten thousand miles with a dog sled, pp. 349-368. — See also Athapascan family: Chippewyans: Tinneh: Sarcees; EsKi- MAUAN FAiULY. Also in: H. Stuck, Voyages on the Yukon and Us tributaries, 1917. — G. B. Gordon, In the Alas- kan wilderness, 1918. — E. Higginson, Alaska, the gieat country, 1909. — J. J. Underwood, Alaska, an empire in the making, 1913. 1741-1787. — Early Russian exploration in Alaska. — Attitude of Peter the Great towards the new-found territory. — Catherine II refuses to colonize Alaska. — Establishment of Russian supremacy through private enterprise. — "Unlike other European powers Russia came into posses- sion of territory in America by accident and not by design. Bering was sent to determine the re- lation between the old and the new worlds. Peter the Great had in mind scientific discovery and not Ihe acquisition of new lands. When it was re- ported that Bering had located the northwest coast of America, the government took no steps to hold it. Who cared far a distant land inhabited by savages? Until the time of Cook the e.xact geo- graphic situation of the islands and their relation to the mainland were matters of speculation. The statesmen in St. Petersburg had their faces turned towards the Near East and not the Far East. Had it not been for fur-traders, who, regardless of the neglect of the government, exploited one island after another, the term Russian-America would not have appeared on the maps. Catherine had not been on the throne very long before the newly discovered islands were called to her attention in various ways. The profitable trade attracted many adventurers, and the wealthier traders came to the capital to ask for special privileges, and to bring charges against their competitors. To gain their point they painted in bright colors the new pos- sessions, the limitless territory for expansion, — the great future empire. In addition to these Russian promoters there were others of foreign counties who offered to lead expeditions of discovery and to extend Russia's commerce and empire in the Indies and Am.erica. It should be remembered that this was the last part of the eighteenth century, when the atmosphere of Europe was full of such projects, the voyages of Cook and La Perouse being evidence enough on that point. Here was a serious and thoughtful problem for Catherine to decide. Catherine understood that in order to hold dominions out in the ocean and far from the me- tropolis a nation must have an over-flowing popu- lation, a strong navy, and a merchant marine. Russia had none of these. In order then to un- derstand Russia's problem in Alaska, one should constantly keep in mind these factors — the need of population and of a navy. After thinking the subject over the Empress decided on a line of action. In a letter to her minister, Panin, written in 1769, in answer to various projects of foreign adventurers, she said: 'It is for traders to traffic where they please. I will furnish neither men, nor ships, nor money, and I renounce forever all lands and possessions in the East Indies and in America.' That was a clear statement of policy and could not be misunderstood. ... In 1787, two Siberian merchant adventurers laid before the Empress a petition in which they undertook, in exchange for special commercial privileges in Alaska, to colo- nize that land and to extend the limits of the Russian Empire in America. Catherine drew up a paper in reply covering the questions of coloniza- tion and expansion in the North Pacific. In the first place she declared that the proposition was an impracticable one because the population for the proposed colonies would have to be drawn from Siberia, and that country had none to spare; one hundred people in Siberia, were equal to a thousand in Europe. . . . Russia would not benefit from expansion in the Pacific; to claim a territory and trade in a colony was one thing, to hold and govern it was another."— F. A. Colder in Pacific ocean in history, pp. 269-273.— In spite of the lack of encouragement on the part of the government, numerous voyages were made to Alaska by private adventurers and considerable wealth was accumu- lated by them. In 1767 "the merchants Polo- ponissof and Popof also sent out a ship, the Joann Predtecha, which returned after an absence of five years with 60 sea-otters, 6,300 fur-seals, and 1,280 blue foxes. This ends the list of private enter- prises prior to the resumption of exploration by the imperial government. . . . The gradual es- tablishment of Russian supremacy in north-west- ermost America upon a permanent basis had not escaped the attention of Spanish statesmen. . . . Alarmed by tidings of numerous and important discoveries along the extension of her own South Sea coast line, Spain ordered an expedition for exploring and seizing the coast to the northward of California in 1773." — H. H. Bancroft, History of jilaska (Works of H. H. Bancroft, v. 33), pp. 156, 194. — In 1786 French and English ships were cruising the coasts of Alaska and reporting on the fur-trade. 1787-1867. — Formation of United American Company. — Name changed to Russian American Company and first charter granted, 1799. — Sec- ond charter, 1821. — Company in the favor of the imperial government. — Third charter, 1841. Re- fusal to grant fourth charter. — Growth of friendly relations between Russia and United States and desire of Russia to sell Alaska. — In 1787 "the idea of a subsidized monopoly of trade and industry, to embrace all Russian discoveries and colonies on the shores of the north Pacific, first arose in the fertile brain of Grigor Shelikof. ... In pursuance of this report an imperial oukaz was issued September 28, 1788, granting the company exclusive control over the region actually occupied by them. ... It was at first feared that the de- cease of Catherine II. would be a death-blow to the ambitious schemes of the Shelikof party, for it was known that her successor, Paul I., was opposed to them. But ... on the nth of August, 1790, the act of consolidation of the United American Com- pany was confirmed by imperial oukaz, and the association then received the name of the Rus- sian American Company. 'By the same oukaz,' continues the report, 'the company was granted full privileges, for a period of twenty years, on the coast of northwestern America. . . . [The chief manager of the company under this charter was Baranof.] Baranof's complaints of foreign en- croachment appear to have been well grounded. . . . 'The Americans,' writes the chief manager, 'have been acquainted with these tribes for two or three years, and have sent from six to eight ships each year. ... At the end of the twenty years for which the exclusive privileges of the Russian American Company were granted, we find this powerful monopoly firmly established in the favor of the imperial government, many nobles of high rank and several members of the royal family being among the shareholders. The com- pany already occupied nearly all that portion of the American continent and the adjacent islands south of the Yukon River now comprised in the territory of Alaska. . . . While the company's 179 ALASKA, 1787-1867 ALASKA, 1787-1867 business was thus progressing satisfactorily, a deud arose in the diplomatic horizon, which at one time threatened the very existence of the colonies. [In 1 82 1 the Tsar of Russia issued a ukase forbidding the vessels of any other nation to approach within 100 rniles of the coast of Alaska above the tifty- first parallel.] As soon as the arbitrary measure of Russia became known to English and .American northwest traders, protestations and complaints were forwarded to their respective governments. The matter was discussed with some heat in the United States congress, causing voluminous diplo- matic correspondence. [This attitude of Russia towards her colonial territories was backed by the Holy Alliance whose pledge to restore the power and possession of all the 'legitimate thrones' was causing diplomatic complications.) In the mean- time some traffic was carried on under protest, and the matter was finally settled by the .Anglo- Russian and Russo-.American treaties of 1824 and 1825. . . . [From 1S20 to 1825 the Russian gov- ernment prohibited foreign trade to such an extent that the company was on the brink of financial ruin. Foreign intercourse was necessary to supply the needs of the colony and develop its re- sources.] The expense of supporting the colonies, apart from the sums required for the home office, taxes, and other items, increased from about 676,- 000 roubles, scrip, in 1821, to over i,2iq,ooo roubles in 1841, and amounted for the whole period to nearly 18,000.000 roubles. ... At the request of the directors, and after a careful investigation into the condition of the colonies, the imperial council at St. Petersburg decided, on the sth of March, 1841, to renew the charter of the Rus- sian American Company for a further period of twenty years.'' — Ibid., pp. 305-566. — "From 1S20 to i860 .\laska became more and more a burden on the Empire. The fur-bearing animals were being killed off, the natives were dying out. and it was difficult to persuade Russians to engage for service in Alaska when Siberia and the .Amur of- fered so many better opportunities. The men who did come were in large part worthless. New in- ternational problems were coming up. The Cri- mean War demonstrated that Russia was not in a position to defend the colonies from an enemy unless she possessed a navy. If some agreement had not been reached as to the neutralization of .Alaska. England would have captured it without any difficulty in 1854. There was also the finan- cial question. The government stood back of the company and had to protect its credit by advanc- ing loans to pay its bills. These were some of the considerations the Russian statesmen had to take into account when a request was made for a fourth charter. Before this was granted a committee was ordered to .Alaska to make a report, which report did not promise much for the future of the ter- ritory. [In the meantime exposure of abuses in the company's affairs caused the government to refuse to renew the charter except on such terms as the company was unwilling to accept and in 1862 an officer of the imperial government was sent to take charge of the company's affairs] The gov- ernment realized that the only sensible thing to do with its .American possession was to get rid of it. Even before i86o it was proposed to sell it to the United States, but the war interfered. .As soon as peace was declared the proposition was taken up again and successfully carried through. In a letter to the minister of finance written by Stoeckl. the Russian minister in Washington, a number of reasons are given why the sale was necessary, i. With the exception of England every European nation, that at one time or other had I acquired colcnies in America, has lost them. Eng- land still retains Canada but it is only a matter of years before that territory will become inde- pendent. If all these nations could not hold their colonies, it is not likely that Russia will be able to keep Alaska indefinitely. 2, In case of war Russia is in no position to defend her American territory. To be obliged to protect the large stretch of American coast would be a source of weakness. 3, The ports of .Alaska are closed to American shipping If the government of the United States should retaliate by closing the Pa- cific coast markets to Russian vessels the Alas- kan trade would be badly affected. Should .Alas- ka be thrown open to the Yankees they would soon exhaust it. If they close their ports to us we are lost; if we open ours to them we are equally lost. 4. The .American people believe that it is their 'manifest destiny' to expand on the Pacific coast . . . By handing the territory to the United States we bind that nation in friendship to us. Russia, too. has her manifest destiny, but it is on the other side of the Pacific, along the .Amur. Our men and resources are needed there and should not be wasted in .America. 5. From the very begin- ning .Alaska- has brought nothing but embarrass- ment, diplomatic complications, financial sacrifices and loss in men. If Russia should keep it there would be more trouble and additional sacrifices Is .Alaska worth the price? Looking at the matter from the point of view of the good of Russia we mu.st answer in the negative." — F. A. Colder. Pa- cific ocean in history, pp. 260-273. — ".As early as 1861. the executive governments of the two coun- tries came to an understanding to act in concert with a view to the establishment of a connection between San Francisco and St Petersburg, by an interoceanic telegraph line across Behring's Straits .At a subsequent day Congress sanctioned and gave its co-operation to that policy. On the 2tith ol December. 1864. the Secretary of State, by direc- tion of the President, invited the Emperor of Russia to send his principal advisor, the Grand Duke Constantine. upon a visit to the United States, intimating an opinion that such a visit would be beneficial to the United States, and by no means unprofitable to Russia, and giving the assurance that the Grand Duke, coming as a na- tional guest, would receive a cordial and most demonstrative welcome by the government and people of the United States. The condition of domestic affairs in Russia fat that time] prevented the acceptance of this invitation. . . . The me- morial of the legislature of Washington Territory to the President, received in February, 1866, was made an occasion, in general terms, for communi- cating to Mr. de Stoeckl the importance of some early and comprehensive arrangement between the two countries, to prevent the growth of difficul- ties arising out of the fisheries in the Russian pos- sessions. In the spring of 1866, Mr. Fox, late .Assistant Secretary of the Na\'y. was made the bearer of the expressions of national .sympathy with the Emperor, arising out of the attempt at his assassination. He was especially charged to express the most friendly feelings towards the gov- ernment and people of Russia. In the month of October, 1866, Mr. de Stoeckl. who had long been the Russian minister here, and enjoyed in a high degree the confidence of the government of the United States, went home on a leave of absence, promising his best exertions to facilitate the es- tablishment of good relations upon a permanent basis. He returned to Washington early in the month of March last. The treaty for the cession of Russian .American to the United States was 80 ALASKA, 1867 ALASKA, 1884-1912 concluded and signed on the 30th day of March [1867]." — Papers relating to the cession and trans- fer of Alaska to the United States in 1867, p. 324. 1867. — Purchase by the United States. — In March, 1867, definite negotiations on the subject were opened by the Russian minister at Washing- ton, and on the 23d of that month he received from Secretary Seward an offer, subject to the presi- dent's approval, of $7,200,000, on condition that the cession be "free and unencumbered by any reservations, privileges, franchises, grants, or pos- sessions by any associated companies, whether cor- porate or incorporate, Russian, or any other. Two days later an answer was returned, stating that the minister believed himself authorized to accept these terms. On the 20th final instructions were received by cable from St. Petersburg. On the same day a note was addressed by the minister to the secretary of state, informing him that the tsar consented to the cession of Russian America for the stipulated sum of $7,200,000 in gold. At four o'clock the next morning the treaty was signed by the two parties without further phrase or nego- tiation. In May the treaty was ratified, and on June 20, 1867, the usual proclamation was issued by the president of the United States." On Oc- tober 18, 1867, the formal transfer of the terri- tory was made, at Sitka, General Rousseau taking possession in the name of the Government of the United States.— H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pa- cific states, V. 28, ch. 28. Also in: W. H. Dall, Alaska and its resources, pt. 2, ch. 2. — W. A. Dunning, Paying for Alaska (Political Science Quarterly, Sept., iqi2). 1867-1883. — Lack of government in Alaska. — Geodetic surveys. — Obstacles in the establish- ment of civil government. — The only govern- ment in Alaska between 1867 and 1877 was that of more or less formal military authority. Dur- ing these years considerable work was done in charting the coast, locating new harbors and ex- ploring the sources of the Yukon. From 1877 to 1884, Alaska was almost entirely without gov- ernment, both as to laws and officers. "The main obstacle in the establishment of some form of civil government for Alaska appears to have been the difficulty in reconciling the conflicting claims of the several sections, separated as they are by a vast extent of territory, and having few interests in common, ... In 1883 Alaska was but a cus- toms district, with a collector and a few deputies. For laws, the territory had the regulations made by the secretary of the treasury ; and for protec- tion, the presence of a single war-vessel, the crew of which was sometimes employed as a police force among the settlements of the .Alexander Archipelago." — H. H. Bancroft, History of Alaska, (Works of H. H. Bancroft, v. 33) p. 627. 1884-1912. — Civil government. — First estab- lishment and development. — Defects. — Civil gov- ernment was first established in Alaska in May, 1884. Better provision was made by an act which passed Congress after much debate and was ap- proved by the President on June 6, iqoo. It con- stituted Alaska a civil and judicial district, with a governor invested with the duties and powers that pertain to the governor of a territory, and a district court of general jurisdiction, civil and criminal, and in equity and admiralty, the court being in three divisions, each with a district judge. The act also provided a civil code for the district. The Civil Government Act of iqi2, approved by President Taft on August 24, altered the status of Alaska to that of an organized territory, with a capital at Juneau. (Previously for many years the government headquarters were at Sitka.) A 18 legislature, consisting of a senate and a house of representatives was created. Constitutional hmits set to the powers of the legislature preclude the authority to grant divorces, special privileges and private charters; its fiscal policy is prescribed in regard to taxation, while its borrowing powers are limited to administrative expenditure, "The development of Alaska is held up by the laws governing it. Alaska's government is a motley affair. Franklin K. Lane, Secretary of the Inte- rior [died May, 192 1], who understands the situ- ation admirably, calls it a patchwork. Many of the laws that govern it are passed by Congress. There is a territorial government, but here again Congress holds the controlling power, for their are many federal restrictions and all laws passed by the home legislature must be transmitted to Congress and if disapproved by the legislative body at Washington they are void. To be sure, Alaska has a delegate at the national capital, but he has no vote. . . . Thus, in its practical working out, Alaska is largely governed from Washington. . . . This distant lawmaking, inefficient as it is, is not all of the maladministration of -'Vlaskan affairs. Many departments and bureaus have the carrying out of the laws passed. This results in almost in- extricable confusion. There is a government for certain public lands and forests, another for other lands and forests. There is one procedure for making homesteads, mineral and other land entries within the national forests; another procedure for making such entries in land outside the forest re- serves. Certain islands along the southern coast of Alaska may be leased for fox farming by the De- partment of Commerce; adjoining unreserved islands may not be leased, but may be acquired under the general land laws from the Department of the Interior. Still other islands are reserved for special purposes under the control of the De- partment of Agriculture. Vast areas in the for- est reserves are entirely untimbered, but are held under the regulations of the Forest Service, while timbered lands in other sections are unprotected. Some of the timbered islands off the coast are in- cluded within the forest reserves. Other islands equally well timbered are not. Homesteads within the forest reserves are surveyed by the Forest Service without cost to the entry man. Homestead- ers on unsurveyed lands outside the Forest Re- serves must pay for their own surveys. It has happened that three separate investigations of mineral claims have been made by field officers of the Forest Service Land Office and Geological Survey. Roads and trails within the Forest Re- serves are built by the Forest Service Roads and trails outside these reserves are built by a com- mission of army officers. Still a third depart- ment having charge of road building has now been established by the Territorial Legislature. . . . Nor is this interlocking and overlapping of many governmental bureaus the only cause of confu- sion. In the individual department there is much distraction. The Land Office, one of the most vital to the fullest development of Alaska, is a fair sample. The administration of laws here is not plain and simple. They need many construc- tions to arrive at their meaning. And the regu- lations and reservation orders are many, ambigu- ous, and not known to the settler. . . . The legis- lative power of the Territory itself is vested in a Territorial Legislature consisting of a Senate and a House of Representatives, The Senate consists of eight members, two from each of the four judicial divisions into which Alaska is now di- vided. The House of Representatives consists of sixteen members, four from each of the four ju- I ALASKA, 1884-1922 ALASKA, 1898-1899 dicial divisions. The term of each member of the Senate is four years, one member from each judi- cial division being elected ever>- two years. The term of each member of the House of Representa- tives is two years. The legislature convenes bi- annually at Juneau on the first Monday of March in odd years, and the length of the session is limited to sixty days, but the governor is em- powered to call an extra session. The executive power is vested in the governor, who is appointed by the President for a term of four years by and with the advice of the United States Senate." — A. k. Hurr, Alaska, pp. 401-412. 1884-1922. — Governors of Alaska. — "After the purchase of the territory of -■Vlaska in 1867, Lovell H. Rousseau was appointed a special commissioner to formally take possession of the region, but aside from that, .-Maska practically remained without civil government until May 17, 1884, when, by act of congress, it was created a 'civil and judicial district,' with executive officers appointed by the president for four years, but without representa- tive institutions (until 1Q12]. — J. H. Kinkead, ex- governor of Nevada, was appointed first governor by Pres. .Arthur in 1884, but he resigned the following year upon the inauguration of Pres. Cleveland, and Mr. [.Alfred P.] Swineford suc- ceeded to the office [May 0, 18S5I and served for four years. He was deeply interested in the de- velopment of the territory and repeatedly urged its organization. . . . On .Apr. 20, 1880, . . . I Lyman E. Knapp] was appointed governor of .■\laska, serving until .Aug. 20, 1803. During his administration the development of the material industries, mines, fisheries and other resources of the territory marked an important era. The or- ganization of the Indian police, the local militia, a territorial historical society and library, improve- ment in the public buildings and methods of con- ducting the public business, the more rapid prog- ress in civilization by the natives, and improve- ments in the laws concerning town sites and pre- emption of lands occupied his attention. Nearly the whole of the seal fisheries controversy occurred during his administration and he was called upon to aid in the investigations made by both .Ameri- can and English Government vessels. [See U. S. A.: i88q-i8q2.} He earnestly labored for better mail service in the territory and succeeded in se- curing an extension of more than sixteen hundred miles of the established mail routes. He published many reports, official and unofficial, on .Alaska and discussions of important public questions, among them 'The Legal and Political Status of the Na- tives of Alaska,' in the '.American Law Register,' May, i8qi. [See Territories and dependencies of THE United St.\tes.1 ... [In 18Q3 James Sheak- ley became fourth governor of .Alaska] ... In 1887 Pres. Cleveland appointed him as one of the U. S. commissioners of Alaska, while the educa- tional department made him superintendent of schools for southeast .\laska. Upon the expiration of his term as U. S. commissioner in 1802, he re- signed the superintendency of the schools. . . . He was appointed governor of .Alaska by Pres. Cleve- land, June 28, 1803, entered upon his official duties .Aug. 2q, and served in that position four years. Gov. Sheakley gave every encouragement to the cause of education, assisted the missionaries of all denominations, and did what he could to protect, improve, and civilize the native Indians. The rich placer mines of British Columbia were discovered, and the great rush to the Klondike mining region began during his administration. In the fall of 1807 the San Francisco chamber of commerce sent him East, for the purpose of giving the public correct information in regard to the Klondike mines. . . . [In 1897 John G. Brady was appointed fifth governor of .Alaska]. In 1878 Mr. Brady went to .Alaska as a missionary, with Dr. Sheldon Jack- son, and later became manager of the Sitka 'Trad- ing Co. On June 16, 1807, he was appointed to succeed James Sheakley as governor of .Alaska. Under his administration there has been marked progress in the development of its resources, the expansion of trade and increase of population. On July I, i8gq, a new code of criminal procedure went into effect, and it has been of the greatest advantage to the territory. .A territorial conven- tion met in Juneau in October the same year, and submitted a memorial to congress petitioning for various reforms and for a delegate to that body. Gov. Brady in his annual reports ha? supported many of the measures asked for in the petition and has especially urged the extension of the land laws, the adoption of a code of civil procedure and the necessity for roads, telegraphs, and the erection of lighthouses upon dangerous points of the coast. His administration was so successful that on June 6, iqoo, he was reappointed governor, his second term expiring in 1Q04." — Xalional cyclo- pedia of American biography, pp. 355-356. — Gov- ernor Brady was again reappointed in 1904 an<l served until 1006. The governors of Alaska who have served since then are as follows: Wilfred B. Hogatt, iqo6-iQio; Walter E. Clark, 1010-1014; John F. Strong, 1014-1018; Thomas Riggs, Jr., iqiS-iq22. Scott Bone has been appointed to begin his term in 1022. 1897. — Gold discoveries in the Klondike re- gion. See Klondike gold fields. 1898-1899. — Discovery of the Cape Nome gold mining region. — The Cape Nome mining region lies on the western coast of .Alaska, just beyond the military reservation of St. Michael and about 120 miles south of the .\rctic Circle. It can be reached by an ocean voyage of ten or twelve days from Seattle. It had long been known that gold existed in the general vicinity of Cape Nome, and during the years 1804-1808 a few adventurous miners had done more or less prospecting and claim staking throughout the district lying be- tween the Norton and Kotzebue sounds. During the winter of i8q8-i8oq, a large number of miners entered the Kotzebue country, while others spent the season in the vicinity of Golofnin bay. On Oct. 15, i8q8, a party of seven men reached Snake river in a schooner. "Between that date and the 18th a miners' meeting was held, the boundaries of a district 25 miles square were established, local mining regulations were formulated, and Dr. Kit- tleson was elected recorder for a term of two years. .After organizing, the district natives were hired to do the necessary packing, and a camp was es- tablished on .Anvil Creek. The prospecting outfits were quickly brought into service. In one after- noon S76 was panned out on Snow Creek. Encour- aged by this showing lumber was carried up from the schooner and two rockers were constructed. . . . In four or five days over Si, 800 was cleaned up with these two rockers. . . . The weather turne<l cold and the water was frozen up. .As it was im- possible to do any more work with the rockers the party broke camp on the 3d of November and returned to the schooner, which they found frozen solid in 2 feet of ice. They then made their way in a small boat to an Indian village, near Cape Nome, where they obtained dogs and sleds, and a little farther on they were met by reindeer from the Swedish Mission, with which they returned to Golofnin Bay. "The lucky miners had agreed among themselves 182 ALASKA, 1898-1899 ALASKA, 1904-1911 that their discovery should be held secret, but the news was too good to keep, and soon leaked out. A general stampede commenced at once and con- tinued all winter. Every available dog and rein- deer was pressed into the service, and they were soon racing with each other for the valuable claims which had been left unstaked in the vicinity of Anvil Creek. As soon as that creek had been all taken up the stampede extended to the neighboring streams and gulches, and Glacier and De.xter creeks, as well as many others which have not [iroved equally valuable, were quickly staked and recorded. By the 25th of December a large party armed with numerous powers of attorney had entered the district, and as the local regulations allowed every man to stake on each creek one claim of the full legal dimensions (660 by 1,320 feet), it was not long until the whole district had been thoroughly covered, and nearly every stream had been staked with claims, which in some cases were 'jumped' and the right of possession disputed. "The news of a rich strike at Nome worked its way up the Yukon River during the winter, and as soon as the ice broke in June a large crowd came down from Rampart City, followed by a larger crowd from Dawson. . . . Those to whom enough faith had been given to go over to Cape Nome were disgusted and angered to find that pretty much the whole district was already staked, and that the claims taken were two or three times as large as those commonly allowed on the upper river. Another grievance was the great abuse of the power of attorney, by means of which an immense number of claims had been taken up, so that in many cases (according to common report) single individuals held or con- trolled from so to 100 claims apiece. . . . "A miners' meeting was called by the new- comers to remedy their grievances. Resolutions were prepared, in which it was represented that the district had been illegally organized by men who were not citizens of the United States and who had not conformed with the law in properly defining the boundaries of the district with ref- erence to natural objects, in enacting suitable and sufficient mining regulations, and in complying with any of the details of organization required by law. It was intended by the promoters of this meeting to reorganize the district in such a way as would enable them to share the benefits of the discovery of a new gold field with the men who had entered it the previous winter, and, as they expressed it, 'gobbled up the whole country.' It is, of course, impossible to say what would have been the result if their attempt had not been in- terfered with. ... On the 28th of June Lieuten- ant Spaulding and a detachment of 10 men from the Third Artillery had been ordered to the vi- cinity of Snake River, and on the 7th of July their numbers were increased by the addition of 15 more. As soon as it was proposed to throw open for restaking a large amount of land already staked and recorded an appeal was made to the United States troops to prevent this action by prohibiting the intended meeting, which was called to assemble July 10. It was represented to them that if the newcomers should attempt, under the quasi-legal guise of a miners' meeting, to take forcible possession of lands already claimed by others, the inevitable consequence would be a reign of disorder and violence, with 'the possibility of conpiderable bloodshed. On the strength of this representation and appeal the army officers decided to prevent the adoption of the proposed resolu- tions. The miners were allowed to call their meeting to order, but as soon as the resolutions were read Lieutenant Spaulding requested that they be withdrawn. He allowed two minutes for compliance with his request, the alternative bein^ that he would clear the hall. The resolutions were not withdrawn, the troops were ordered to fix bayonets, and the hall was cleared quietly, with- out a conflict. Such meetings as were subse- quently attempted were quickly broken up by virtue of the same authority. The light in which this action is regarded by the people at Nome depends, of course, upon the way in which their personal interests were affected. . . . "The great discontent which actually did exist at this time found sudden and unexpected relief in the discovery of the beach diggings. It had long been known that there was more or less gold on the seashore, and before the middle of July it was discovered that good wages could be taken out of the sand with a rocker. Even those who were on the ground could hardly believe the story at first, but its truth was quickly and easily dem- onstrated. Before the month was over a great army of the unemployed was engaged in throwing up irregular intrenchments along the edge of the sea, and those who had just been driven nearly to the point of desperation by the exhaustion of all their resources were soon contentedly rocking out from $10 to $50 each per day and even more than that. This discovery came like a godsend to many destitute men, and was a most fortunate development in the history of the camp. "Meantime the men who were in possession of claims on Anvil and Snow creeks were beginning to sluice their ground and getting good returns for their work, while others were actively making preparations to take out the gold which they knew they had discovered. More sluice boxes were con- structed and put into operation as rapidly as possible. A town site was laid off at the mouth of Snake River, and on the 4th of July a post- office was established. The town which has sprung so suddenly into existence is called 'Nome' by the Post-Office Department, but at a miners' meeting held February 28, it was decided to call it 'Anvil City,' and this is generally done by the residents of the district, as well as in all official records. .'\t a meeting held in September, however, the name was again changed to 'Nome.' " — United States, S^tk Cong., ist sess., Senate Doc. No. 357, pp. 1-4- 1900. — Explorations in the north. See Arctic F..\PLORATio.\: iqoo. 1903. — Settlement of boundary question with Canada. See Al.aska boundary question. 1904-1911. — Coal-Iand controversy. — Cunning- ham claims. — Ballinger vs. Pinchot. — The de- velopment of the coal deposits in Alaska has been retarded by the lack of transportation facilities and the controversies over the administration of the coal lands. The two issues at stake in the coal land controversy, which aroused considerable dis- cussion from ic)04 to igii, were the fate of the principle of conservation and the rapid economic ilevelopment of Alaska. Some of the claims en- tered previous to 1Q06, when the Alaska coal fields were withdrawn from entry by executive order, were charged with fraud because monopoly in- terests (especially the Alaska, or Morgan-Guggen- heim syndicate) were supposed to be getting con- trol of the coal lands. The investigation of the notable Cunningham group of claims dragged on in the Department of the Interior for several years and eventually gained publicity, resulting in a heated dispute between Chief Forester Pinchot and Secretary of the Interior Ballinger. Pinchot was removed by President Taft for insubordination 183 ALASKA, 1906 ALASKA, 1918 and Ballinger, accused of collusion, although up- held by a congressional investigating committee, resigned in ign. Soon after, the Cunningham claims were cancelled, this acting as a precedent for the rejection of most of the remaining claims. The opening up of 12,800 acres of coal land with- drawn from the Chugach National Forest in Oc- tober of iqio raised again the fear of monopoly by the "Morgan-Guggenheim Syndicate," through its control of terminal facilities. President Taft and Secretary of the Interior Fisher defended this executive order by stating that the territory opened was guarded from monopoly by the reservation of 80-rod strips between the better claims. — See also Conservation': ioio; 1010-1012. 1906. — Election of a delegate to Congress. — .\n act to authorize the election of a delegate to Congress from the territory of .Alaska was ap- proved by the President May 7, iqo6. 1911. — First territorial legislature and its work. — "The more important legislation is sum- marized as follows: An act revising and making additions to the territorial licenses and taxes, and an act creating a territorial treasury and provid- ing for the appointment of a treasurer; an act making important and comprehensive amendments to the general mining law as applied to Alaska; an employers' liability act; a poll-tax law, the poll taxes to be applied exclusively to the con- struction of wagon-roads; arbitration of labor dis- putes; a miners' labor-lien law; two acts limit- ing hours of labor, the first prescribing eight hours in all metalliferous lode mines, and the other plac- ing the same limit on all labor in connection with public works for the territory ; regulating banks and banking, and providing for examination; en- abling municipal corporations to extend their boundaries; quarantine law and a simple sanitary code ; compulsory registration ol births, marriages and deaths; compulsory school attendance; pro- viding for incorporated towns of the second class ; extending the eJective franchise to women. The first two named are the most important of all, because of their fundamental nature, but I would not be understood as implying that the measure which I have mentioned last is, in my opinion, of least importance. In respect to the general tax and license measure, the difficulty was encountered at the beginning of its consideration, of raising revenues in a territory whose population is small and whose developed resources are already taxed under federal laws. The new revenue law is some- what unequal as to the various taxes imposed, but it is not a vicious or very burdensome measure. It is roughly estimated that it will yield about $240,000, per annum. The appropriations author- ized by the legislature amount to about S6o,ooo per annum for the next two years." — Alaskans first legislature {American Review of Reviews, v. 48, pp. 402-403). 1912. — Eruption of Mount Katmai.— "This volcanic ridge, a great lissure or vent it is supposed to be, extends on down the .Alaska Peninsula where its most famous peak is Mt. Katmai. The erup- tion of this mountain in June, 1012, was the most tremendous volcanic explosion ever recorded. . . . The explosions and the shocks threw men and horses to the ground four hundred miles away. It was felt to the .shore of the .Arctic Ocean. The ash fell nine hundred miles away, and according to scientists the fine dust went into the higher regions of the atmosphere over the whole world and affected the weather for the summer, being the cause of the cold, wet season of that year. . . . Professor Robert F. Griggs, who was the leader of the expedition sent by the National Geographic Society to Katmai after the disaster, computes that the ashes that fell, buried an area as large as the State of Connecticut to a depth varying from ten inches to more than ten feet. . . . Fortunately, the disaster did not occur in a settled district. Kodiak was the chief sufferer and its green beauty became a gray desert. Though one hundred miles away, the island was buried under ash. The roofs of the houses were broken in by the ashes that settled on them. The land was a land of dark- ness and stifling fumes and all the water was poisoned. .A vessel that happened to be in the harbor of Kodiak took the people on board and supplied their needs as best it could until a weird, gray dawn at last broke and they returned to their homes and began the task of rehabilitation. Many of the cattle on the island perished for there was neither food nor drink. The govern- ment experimental station shipped its herd to the States until vegetation again appeared. But the greatest desolation was wrought on the Alaska Peninsula in the immediate vicinity of the moun- tain. The little village of Katmai though five times as far away as Pompeii from Vesuvius or St. Pierre from Mt. Pelee was a barren waste. The roofs were sunken in on the houses and the build- ings were filled with pumice. The church stood in a sea of liquid mud. Trees were dead. Pumice was everywhere. To add to the destruction, if this were possible, a lake that had been formed by rubbish that had gathered across a stream and dammed it, broke and a flood swept down bring- ing boulders and trees and leaving a great plain of sticky mud. For several years after the ex- plosion columns of steam a mile high and a thou- sand feet in diameter poured from other volcanoes of the group. New volcanoes came into existence at the time. Katmai itself really blew its head off and is to-day but a stub of what it was before the explosion. The force of the explosion right at the peak was so great that rocks were literally blown to pieces and the lava was so charged with gas it became steam." — A. R. Burr, Alaska, pp. 176-178. 1914. — Coal lands opened up by Congress under limitations. — Law passed to build a Fed- eral railroad in Alaska. — By a law passed in iqi4, the Secretary of the Interior was permitted to lease coal lands in blocks of forty acres or multiples to 2,560 acres. .A royalty was fixed of not less than two cents a ton. In the same year a bill was passed authorizing a bond issue of $35,000,000 for the purpose of building a Fed- eral railroad in .Alaska. The bill was vigorously opposed by the Guggenheim interests. "The gov- ernment aims. Secretary Lane says, will be not merely to construct a railroad from the sea to the interior, but to select a route that will develope both the agricultural and mineral resources of the countn.' 'so that we may have a road that will tap large coal fields and have other freight to carry.'" — Independent, March 23, IQ14. 1915-1918 — Important legislation. — In IQ15 a workmen's compensation law was adopted which surpassed that of other sections in its liberality. The following year the Mount McKinley district was set a.side as a national park. The year loi" was marked by two laws of note: an eight hour day law and a land law. In accordance with this latter law, homeseekers are allowed to secure titles though they aVe not residents on the land. In 1Q18 the prohibition law was passed. 1918.— Part played in the World War.— The territory furnished over 3,000 men for the service, and outranked all sections in purchase of war stamps. It was also a liberal subscriber to bonds. 184 V. eiMoltypalsdleatMicUtlT* < . „ ' I^ogltuile -tg"' 'f"" QraWWlM 1 Maps prepared specially for (he NEW LARNED under direction of thf editors and publishers. ^ o.^ o ALASKA, 1919-1920 ALASKA, 1919-1920 1919-1920. — Phases of economic development. — Problem of transportation. — Common car- riers. — Roads. — Construction of the Federal railroad. — Mining handicapped. — Fisheries menaced. — Growth of agriculture and forest products. — "The great outstanding problem of Alaska is that of transportation. The public of coastal Alaska is served by three regular passenger and freight steamship lines — two American and one Canadian — representing about 25 per cent of the tonnage operating in the Territory. The Yukon River system is served by one line of river steam- ers of the White Pass & Yukon Route presumably controlled by British capital. The Kushokwim River is served by a small, combination freight and passenger ship sailing from San Francisco to Bethel, while the inhabitants of the valley itself are dependent upon one small American river steamer. There are a few semicommon carriers operating locally with indifferent success. The Copper River & Northwestern Railroad runs from Cordova to Kennecntt, a distance of iq6 miles, and is primarily an ore-carrying road, but per- forms the function of a common carrier The railroad of the White Pass & Yukon Route ex- tends from Skagway in Alaska to Whitehorse in Yukon Territory, a distance of no miles, 2,1 of which are in Alaska. The Yakutat & Southern Railroad, from Yakutat to the Sectuck River, carries little besides fish. The Government rail- road from Seward to Fairbanks is still under con- struction. . . , [Its progress was handicapped dur- ing the World War for lack of labor and inade- quacy in appropriations] This, then, in brief prac- tically covers the common-carrier systems to and within Alaska. . . . The Alaska Road Commission, constituted by act of Congress approved January 27, 1Q05, is composed of three officers of the Army, reporting to the War Department through the Chief of Engineers. . . . Approximately 5,000 miles of wagon road, sled road, and trail have been constructed and maintained by this board since 1Q05. Of the roads constructed about 400 miles have a gravel surface and are suitable for light automobile traffic. ... In addition to roads constructed and maintained directly through Fed- eral appropriation or authorization the legisla- ture, at its last session, appropriated .$375,000 for roads and trails. . . . Not a great deal was ac- complished in actual new construction of the Government railroad in Alaska during the first few months of the fiscal year 1020 because of the lack of appropriation and the uncertainty surrounding it. The original authorization of $35,000,000 was almost exhausted and data was being assembled for presentation to Congress asking for an addi- tional authorization of $17,000,000, This was pre- sented in July, iQio, and after extended hearings Congress granted the additional authorization in an act which was approved by the President on October 18, iqio (Public No. 50). Of course, during these months the road was operated and maintained as well as possible under the circum- .stances, and some construction work done." — Re- port of the governor of Alaska to the Secretary of the Interior, 1020, pp. 11-15. One of the most important industries of Alaska is mining: gold, silver, copper and coal are found in large quantities. "It is true that mining has never before been so handicapped as at present, that operating costs are practically prohibitive in places, and that transportation could hardly be worse. . . . The winning of some $20,000 worth of gold from placer mines near Juneau in 1880 marked the beginning of the great mining industry of Alaska, the value of whose total product up to the close of 1919 is $438,161,000. Alaska's de- veloped mineral deposits are chiefly gold and copper. Hence, her mining industry in igig was subject to the same depression that affected gold and copper mining throughout the world. This f.act explains in large measure why the value of Alaska's mineral output in 1919 is only about $19,620,000, while that of 1918 was $28,254,000. . . . The outlook of gold mining in Alaska under present economic conditions is not hopeful, yet the continued success of certain larger ventures, like dredging, shows that it is by no means hopeless. Such operations and the mining of bonanza de- posits will continue. Alaska still contains large reserves of gold-bearing gravels that can be mined profitably when transportation conditions are im- proved. No one can foretell whether any more bonanza camps will be found, and therefore the only certain future lies in the development of de- posits of lower grade. Therefore the most im- portant event of the year for the future of mining in Alaska was the continuation of the work on the Government railroad and the assurance by congres- sional action of the money needed to complete the line. It is now certain that in three years there will be a standard-gauge railway connecting tidewater on the Pacific with Fairbanks and navi- gable waters on the Yukon. To give its full benefit to the mining industry, however, the Alaska Railroad must be connected with mining centers by good wagon roads." — Ibid., pp. ig-24. — The production of coal, which reached a value of $411,- 850 in iqi8, was largely the work of the .Alaskan Engineering Commission, which was responsible for 84 per cent of the total output. The copper production has been increasing regularly until it reached 88,703,400 pounds, worth $24,240,508 in 1Q17. A decrease in production the following year was due to the shortage of labor and ships. Fishing came to the fore in Alaska life in the 'eighties of the last century, when pelagic sealing had already made serious inroads into the seal- herds of the surrounding seas. The catching and canning of salmon, at first undertaken as a rather puny substitute for seal catching, has in recent years become the most important industry of Alaska, being in iqi8 three and a half times greater than that of copper, which is next in rank. "Alaska's at present most important industry is seriously menaced. There must be speedy action of sorts taken by the Government or the salmon- fishing industry, normally furnishing trade to the United States in the sum of approximately $50,- 000,000 annually, will be slowly wiped out. . . . In igio the salmon pack was only about two- thirds that of igi8, but a partial report of the canneries to the Territorial treasurer shows the profits of those reporting to have been considerably over $2,000,000. Present indications are that the pack for 1020 will be less than that of loig. . . . Due to overfishing both in and outside of salmon streams in iqi8, igig, and ig2o, the cyclic return of salmon spawned in those years is becoming, and will become, less and less. As the runs decrease, newly devised and increased numbers of floating and fixed gear further decrease the escapement of spawning fish. . . . The take of seal and fox skins from the Pribilof Islands for 1917 and igi8 will net the Government $6,400,000. In this large amount the Territory participates in not the slightest measure. Under careful governmental supervision the herd, at one time on the verge of annihilation, has increased to about 525,000 ani- mals, which inhabit the waters of Alaska during the summer season." — Ibid., pp. 48-51. See Fish- eries; Bering sea QUEsnoN. i8s ALASKA BOUNDARY QUESTION ALASKA BOUNDARY QUESTION The agricultural value of Alaska has only re- cently been shown — certain grasses, grains, live- stock and vegetables being suitable to the climate. Alaska is expected to have as much arable land as Finland, a country which exports agricultural prod- ucts and also supports a population of 2,500,000. To further agricultural progress, government ex- periment stations have been established (see Edu- cation, .'\gricultur.\l: United States), and an agricultural college has been founded at Fairbanks. Recently two industries related to agriculture have been developed. The breeding of reindeer as a native industry has increased considerably, the reindeer numbering, in iqiQ, over 125,000 head, of which only about 28 per cent are not owned by the Indians. Within the last year (1Q20) prepara- tions have been made for the opening up of vast national forests for the manufacture of wood pulp. Alaska's resources in this direction are stated by Chief Forester W. B. Greeley who says that Alaska contains 100,000,000 cords of pulp- wood. She has the resources to produce 1,500,000 tons of paper yearly. With reasonable care, under the methods followed by the Forest Service, this output can be kept up perpetually. 1920. — Education. — "The public schools of Alaska are under the direction of the Territorial board of education with the commissioner of education, Juneau. Alaska, as executive head. They are maintained for white children and for children of mixed blood leading a civilized life, and are administered under both Federal and Territorial laws. . . . There are 163 teachers in the schools of .Alaska. . . . Schools in the following towns offer four years of high school work: .\nchorage, Douglas, Fairbanks, Juneau, Ketchikan. Nome, and \aldez. . . . .Alaska high schools are in general ac- credited at the leading State universities. . . ."— Report of the governor of Alaska to lite Secretary oj Ike Interior, 1020, pp. 11-15. PP- 64-65.— See also Epi'Cattox: Alaska. 1920. — Population. — Increase. — Effects of the World War.— "The white population of .Alaska, ^0,000 in iQio, increased by IQ15 to about 50.000. From IQIS to iqi8, owing to war conditions, the population declined, but in igiq the tide set north- ward again and there was a slight increase, which will probably continue in 1020. The present white population of the Territor>- is estimated to be 36,000, in addition to about 25,000 natives, some of whom are civilized. The industrial population of the Territory exceeds 40,000. The loss in popu- lation during the period of the war was due to ( I ) men entering the militan,' service, estimated to number 3,000, (2) high wages in the States. (3) the decrease in number of men employed in mining. In 1015 about 0,600 men wpre employed in the .Alaska mining industry as compared with about 4,500 in IQIQ." — Ibid., p. 104. ALASKA BOUNDARY QUESTION.— 1867- 1903.— Basis of dispute.— Failure of Anglo- American joint commission to settle question in 1898._Modus Vivendi.— Hay-Herbert Conven- tion, 1903.— "When Alaska was acquired from Russia bv purchase in 1867, the boundary-line separating that territory from the British pos- sessions had never been marked or even accurately surveved, though the treaty between Great Brit- ain and Russia, on which the controversy turned, had been made as far back as 1S25. The language of this treaty seemed to exclude Great Britain al- together from the coast north of 54 degrees and 40 minutes. . . . But owing mainly to the expenses of a survey in that deserted region the matter was indefinitely deferred by both government? There had never been any difference of opinion expressed I as to the general interpretation to be given to the treaty, and the question of marking the boundary was regarded merely as a surveying problem to be settled by commissioners appointed in the usual way and with the usual powers. The discovery of gold in the Klondike district, on the upper tributaries of the Yukon, in Canadian territory, in 1807, put a very different aspect on the matter. The short- est and quickest route to the gold-bearing region was by the trails leading up from Dyca and Skag- way on the headwaters of Lynn Canal — Skagway being about 11 15 miles from Seattle and less than boo miles from Dawson. The Yukon, or all-water route, was much easier but slower — the distance from Seattle to St. Michael by ocean steamer being 2700 miles and from that point to Dawson by river steamer 1300 miles. Dyea and Skagway soon became important places, and the population rapidly increased. The Canadians now laid claim to these ports on Lynn Canal, and pushed their outposts down in that direction. Serious difficul- ties threatened from the conflict of authority over the collection of customs. The general question of the boundary was, therefore, referred to the .Anglo-.American joint high commission, which met at Quebec in the summer of 1808 for the purpose of adjusting matters relating to commercial reci- procity and fisheries. The commission not only failed to reach an agreement on this question, but it developed here for the first time that the Canadi- ans had set up an entirely new theory as to the interpretation to be given to the treaty of 1825, so as greatly to narrow the American coast strip and throw the boundary line across the heads of inlets and channels in such a way as to give the Canadians access to several deep-water harbors. . . . The United Slates commissioners naturally did not feel authorized to trade off .American ter- ritory in this way. When this interpretation was set up, it became at once evident that the perma- nent adjustment of the boundary was a matter that would require long diplomatic negotiation. Meanwhile there was a steady movement of men and supplies to the Klondike by way of Dyea and Skagway; and the situation of the headwaters of Lynn Canal, where both United States and Cana- dian officials claimed jurisdiction, was growing serious. Under these circumstances the L'nited States agreed upon a modus viveiidi with Great Britain, fixing a provisional line at certain points, and accordingly notes were exchanged October 20, i8oq; the line thus established gave the Canadians temporary possession of several points which had always been regarded as within .American juris- diction. The main question was left for future adjustment, it being specifically provided that this provisional line was fixed 'without prejudice to the claims of either party in the permanent ad- justment of the international boundan,'.' Finally, on January 24, 1003, Mr. Hay signed a convention with Sir Alichael Herbert, agreeing to submit the question to a limited sort of arbitration: the tribu- nal was to consist of three .Americans and three British members. ... .As the tribunal was finally constituted, no decision could be reached unless at least one commissioner failed to sustain the con- tention of his own government and upheld that of the other. The American members were Elihu Root, at that time secretary of war; Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, of Massachusetts; and ex- Senator George Turner of Washington. The Brit- ish members were Lord Alverstone, lord chief justice of England; Sir Louis .Amable Jette, lieu- tenant-governor of the province of Quebec; and .Allen B. Aylesworth, of Toronto. ... It was evi- dent from the first that the trial was really before 86 ALASKA BOUNDARY QUESTION ALASKA BOUNDARY QUESTION Lord Alverstone, the chief justice of England; in case he sustained the American contention, there would be an end of the controversy; in case he sus- tained the Canadian view, there would be an even division, and matters would stand as they stood be- fore the trial began, except that a great deal more feeling would have been engendered, and the United States might have had to make good its claim by force. . . . After a good deal of diplomatic sparring over points connected with the presenia- tion of the cases, the members of the tribunal met m London September 3, iQo.i." — J. H. Latane, Amerka as a world power, pp. 102-203 1903. — Disputed treaty clauses. — Contentions of both sides. — Decision and award of arbitra- tors, Oct. 20, 1903. — As stated above the contro- versy arose over the ambiguous language of the Anglo-Russian treaty of 1825, Articles ill and IV of which had been mcorporated in the treaty of cession of the territory to the United States in 1867. These articles read as follows: "III. The line of demarcation between the possessions of the High Contracting Parties upon the Coasts of the Continent and the Islands of America to the North-West, shall be drawn in the following man- ner: Commencing from the southernmost point of the Island called Prince of Wales Island, which point lies in the parallel of 54 degrees 40 minutes, North Latitude, and between the 131st and 133d Degree of West Longitude (Meridian of Green- wich), the said line shall ascend to the North along the Channel called Portland Channel, as far as the Point of the Continent where it strikes the 56th Degree of North Latitude; from this last mentioned Point the line of demarcation shall fol- low the summit of the mountains situated parallel to the coast, as far as the point of intersection of the 141st Degree of West llongitude (of the same meridian), and, finally, from the said point of in- tersection, the said Meridian Line of the 141st Degree, in its prolongation as far as the Frozen Ocean, shall form the limit between the Russian and British Possessions on the Continent of Amer- ica to the North-West. "IV. With reference to the line of demarca- tion laid down in the preceding Article, it is un- derstood: ist. That the Island called Prince of Wales Island shall belong wholly to Russia. 2d. That wherever the summit of the mountains which extend in a direction parallel to the Coast, from the S6th Degree of North Latitude to the point of intersection of the 141st Degree of West Longitude, shall prove to be at the distance of more than ten marine leagues from the Ocean, the limit between the British Possessions and the line of Coast which is to belong to Russia, as above mentioned, shall be formed f)y a line parallel to the windings of the Coast, and which shall never exceed the distance of ten marine leagues therefrom. "This language was indefinite in several particu- lars. In the first part of the boundary described — that is, from the southernmost point of Prince of Wales Island along Portland Channel to the 56th degree, there was room for doubt as to the side of the line on which the islands at the mouth of Portland Channel should fall ; and there was the further difficulty that Portland Channel does not extend as far north as the 56th degree. In the second part of the line described — that is, from the 56th degree of north latitude to the 141st de- gree of west longitude (Mount St. Elias approxi- mately) — there is no dominant range of moun- tains parallel to the coast corresponding to the language of the treaty, though such a range was prominently marked on the maps of Vancouver of 1798, and on the maps of other cartographers prior to 1825. In 1893 a joint international sur- vey of the coast between Portland Channel and Lynn Channel was undertaken by the United States and Great Britain, and in their report the American commissioners testified 'that throughout the lisiere the mountains are composed of numer- ous isolated peaks and short ridges running in different directions, and that within ten leagues of tidewater there is no defined and continuous range such as appears upon the early maps and charts following the sinuosites of the coast.' As to the third section of the line — that is, from Mount St. Elias to the Arctic Ocean^there has never been any dispute. A number of specific questions were submitted to the tribunal for decision. The most important of these was number five: 'Was it the intention and meaning of said convention of 1825 that there should remain in the exclusive posses- sion of Russia a continuous fringe or strip of coast on the mainland, not exceeding ten marine leagues in width, separating the British possessions from the bays, ports, inlets, havens, and waters of the ocean?' If this question should be answered in the negative, the tribunal was to tell how the li- siere was to be measured, whether from the line of the general direction of the mainland coast, or from the line separating the territorial waters from the waters of the ocean or from the heads of inlets and bays. The English contention was that the line should follow certain peaks along the coast and run parallel with the general direction of the mainland coast, cutting through inlets, bays, and headlands. This interpretation ignored the meaning of the word sinuosities, and failed to construe the plain intent of the negotiators. The United States claimed: (i) that the treaty of 1825 confirmed in full sovereignty to Russia a strip of territory along the continental shore from the head of Portland Canal to Mount St. Elias, ten marine leagues in width measured from the heads of all gulfs, bays, inlets, and arms of the sea — that is, from tidewater — unless within that distance from tidewater there was a range of mountains lying parallel to the sinuosities of the coast, in which case the summit of such range was to form the boundary; (2) that the acts of Great Britain sub- sequent to this treaty, and the universal inter- pretation given it by governments, geographers, cartographers, and historians, agreed with and con- firmed the intention and meaning as above stated; (3) that the United States purchased Alaska, en- tered into possession of and occupied the lisiere above described, and exercised sovereign rights therein, and remained in possession for thirty years without any notice from Great Britain that she claimed any portion of the territory ceded by Russia; (4) that there being no continuous range of mountains between Portland Channel and Mount St. Elias parallel with the sinuosities of the coast, the width of the lisiere above described was limited by the agreed distance of ten marine leagues from tidewater. In support of its claims the United States showed from the records of the negotiations leading up to the treaty of 1S25 that Sir Charles Bagot, the English negotiator, made effort after effort to secure an outlet to deep water through the lisiere, and was finally forced to yield the point. The most interesting feature of the case was the overwhelming array of maps presented by the United States, including British, and Canadian, showing the boundary line claimed by Russia and the United States. It was also shown that both the Canadian and British authori- ties had, by repeated acts, recognized our title to the strip in dispute. The decision of the tribu- nal was rendered October 20, igo3. On all the 187 ALASKA BOUNDARY QUESTION ALBA important points the vote stood four to two, Lord Alverstone, Root, Lodge, and Turner concurring in the decision ; and the two Canadian members dissenting. The decision sustained in the main the American claim, holding that it was the intention of the treaty of 1S25 to shut England out from access to tidewater through the lisiere. Wales and Pearse islands, at the entrance of Portland Chan- nel, were awarded to England, and the line from the head of Portland Channel to Mount St. Elias was slightly drawn in, though it ran well around the heads of all inlets. The tribunal designated certain mountain peaks as the mountains referred to as parallel to the coast, except between the Stikine and Taku rivers. From the greater part of the distance between these rivers the tribunal declared that 'in the absence of further survey the evidence is not sufficient to enable the Tribunal to say which are mountains parallel to the coast within the meaning of the treaty.' The commis- sioners appointed later to complete this part of the boundary agreed on what is practically a straight line, and this was accepted by both gov- ernments as final. The decision was, of course, a disappointment to the Canadians, but it did not justify the charge that I^ord Alverstone had sacri- ficed their interests in order to further the British policy of friendly relations with the United States." — J. H. Latane, /4merjra as a world power, pp. 103- 203. — See also Arbitration, International: 1003; U. S. A.: 1892: Settlement of Alaskan boundary. 1906-1914. — Convention to provide for final establishment of the boundary line. — Surveys. — Boundary line completed. — Final proceedings for establishing the boundary line of Alaska were pro- vided for in a convention between the United States and Great Britain, signed April 21, igo6. Tlie need and object of the convention were set forth in its preamble as follows: "Whereas by a treaty between the United States of America and His Majesty the Emperor of all the Russias, for the cession of the Russian possessions in North America to the United States, concluded March 30, 1867, the most northerly part of the boundary line between the said Russian possessions and those of His Britannic Majesty, as established by the prior convention between Russia and Great Britain, of February 2S-16, 182,1;, is defined as following the 141st degree of longi- tude west from Greenwich, beginning at the point of intersection of the said 141st degree of west longitude with a certain line drawn parallel with the coast, and thence continuing from the said point of intersection, upon the said meridian of the 141st degree in its prolongation as far as the Frozen Ocean, "And whereas, the location of said meridian of the 141st degree of west longitude between the terminal points thereof defined in said treaty is dependent upon the scientific ascertainment of con- venient points along the said meridian and the survey of the country intermediate between such points, involving no question of interpretation of the aforesaid treaties but merely the determination of such points and their connecting lines by the ordinary processes of observation and survey con- ducted by competent astronomers, engineers and surveyors ; "And whereas such determination has not hith- . erto been made by a joint survey as is requisite in order to give complete effect to said treaties." To make such determination it was agreed that each Government should "appoint one Commis- .sioner, with whom may be associated such sur- veyors, astronomers and other assistants as each Government may elect." The work of surveying continued year by year, and at its completion, in igi4, a well-defined boundary line lay between Alaska and Canada. — See also Alaska: Map. Also in: Message of President Roosevelt, Dec. 7, 1Q03. — British Parliamentary Papers by com- mand (U. S., So. I, 1004) Cd. 1877. — Alaskan Boundary Tribunal: cases, counter-cases, argu- ments, aliases oj United States and Great Britain (Washington, 1003). — T. W. Balch, Alaska-Can- ada frontier. ALASKA-YUKON-PACIFIC EXPOSITION. Sec Skattle: iooq. ALASKAN ENGINEERING COMMIS- SION, Duties of. See Interior, Department of THE. ALATOONA, Battle of. See U. S. A.: 1864 (September-October: Georgia). ALA-UD-DIN, founder of the Bahmani dy- naslv in the Deccan in 1347. ALA-UD-DIN KHILJI (d. c. 1316), sultan of Delhi after assassinating Feroz II, his uncle; subjected the Deccan and Gujarat to the rule of Islam. See India: 1200-1308. ALAUNG PAYA or Alompra. Sec Alompra, Aloii.vg Houra. ALAVA, Miguel Ricardo de (1771-1843), Spanish soldier and diplomat. Fought under Wel- lington in the Peninsular campaign; opposed Don Carlos; ambassador to England, 1834, and to France, 1835. ALAVA, province in Spain. See Basque prov- inces; Basques. ALBA, Celtic form for Caledonia. See Scot- land: The name. ALBA. — Alban Mount.— "Cantons . . . having their rendezvous in some stronghold, and including a certain number of clanships, form the primitive political unities with which Italian history begins At what period, and to what extent, such cantons were formed in Latium, cannot be determined with precision ; nor is it a matter of special historical interest. The isolated Alban range, that natural stronghold of Latium, which offered to settlers the most wholesome air, the freshest springs, and the most secure position, would doubtless be first oc- cupied by the new comers. Here accordingly, along the narrow plateau above Palazzuola, between the .\lban lake (Lago di Castello) and the .'Vlban mount (Monte Cavo) extended the town of Alba, which was universally regarded as the primitive .seat of the Latin stock, and the mother-city of Rome, as well as of all the other Old Latin com- munities. Here, too, on the slopes lay the very ancient Latin canton-centres of Lanuvium, Aricia, and Tusculum. ... All these cantons were in primitive times politically sovereign, and each of them was governed by its prince with the co-oper- ation of the council of elders and the assembly of warriors. Nevertheless the feeling of fellowship based on community of descent and of language not only pervaded the whole of them, but mani- fested itself in an important religious and political institution — the perpetual league of the collective Latin cantons. The presidency belonged originally, according to the universal Italian as well as Hel- lenic usage, to that canton within whose bounds lay the piecting-place of the league; in this case it was the canton of .Mba. . . . The communities entitled to participate in the league were in the beginning thirty. . . . The rendezvous of this union was, like the Pambceotia and the Panionia among the similar confederacies of the Greeks, the 'Latin festival' (feria- Latinae) at which, on the Mount of .\lba, upon a day annually appointed by the chief magistrate for the purpose, an ox was offered in sacrifice by the assembled Latin stock 188 ALBA DE TORMES ALBANIA, ANCIENT to the 'Latin god' {Jupiter Latiaris)." — T. Moram- sen, History of Rome, bk. i, ch. 3. Also in: W. Gell, Topograph^/ of Rome, v. i. ALBA DE TORMES, Battle of. See Spain: 1809 (Aui;ust-\ovcmber.) ALBA GR^CA, ancient name. See Belgrade. ALBAIAS. See Pampas tribes. ALBAN, Kingdom of. See Albion; Scotland: 8th-oth centuries. ALBANIA, tlie name given in ancient geography to a portion of the eastern Caucasus and a region west of the Caspian sea. The inhabitants, known as Albani, were spread over an extensive region to the northwest and up in the Caucasus mountains. They were described by Strabo as a people of line physique and excellent character, but in a primi- tive stage of culture. Although they were a nomad people their form of government was a monarchy. In the wars between the Romans and Mithradates (King of Pontus) they came to the attention of Porapey, who subjected them to a formal recog- nition of Roman authority. At the time of the barbarian invasion in the second century A. D., Albania was invaded by the Alani. These were afterwards driven into Armenia by the Khazars. Still later the country was conquered by Persia under its Sassanid rulers. The successive inva- sions of the Huns, Mongols, and other barbarians effaced Albania from the map. This .Albania must not be confused with the modern state of that name on the Adriatic coast of the Balkan Penin- sula, (q, v.) ALBANIA. — Name and people. — Lack of po- litical organization. — Population. — Religion. — Language. — In a modern geographical sense Albania is a name applied to a region on the western shores of the .'\driatic north of Greece, west of Macedonia and south of Serbia. It con- stituted part of what the Romans called Illyriu, but has no easily defmed natural boundaries. The entire region is extremely rough and mountainous, being traversed from northwest to southwest by a number of parallel mountain chains. Although the climate is salubrious and bracing and much of the soil fertile, the country as a whole has no in- dustrial development and appears to have always been extremely poor. The people are famed for their mixed primitive virtues of honesty, lawless- ness and courage, but do not seem to lend them- selves to high political organization. "The Al- banian people . . . are liqisl not a unit in race, language, religion or any other vital interest. They have refused to accept the political unity of the state, and have not progressed in thought beyond the stage of clan-organization. But they are a unit in not being related to any one else in the peninsula. When the invading swarms of Slavs, Bulgars and the like swept over the Peninsula, they swept the earlier inhabitants before them and in the almost inaccessible mountain fastnesses of the extreme south-west those who refused to be conquered or absorbed found a refuge. So in the Pyrenees and the Caucasus we Imd remnants of earlier races which the immigrant hosts have crowded out of their path and left as a glacier leaves its terminal or lateral moraines." — 11. H. Powers, Things men fought for. — "The .Mbanian population may be reckoned at about two and a half million souls, the large majority of whom in- habit the southwestern portion of the Balkan Peninsula. The Albanians belong to three relig- ions: the Roman Catholic Chur(h, the Greek Or- thodox Church, and to Islam, The Mohammedans exceed in number both the Catholics and Ortho- dox put together. The members of these three faiths all live together, but the Catholics are more numerous in the north and the Orthodox in the south. The Mohammedans are found every- where, but form compact masses in the center of the country. . . . The language is one and the same. It is, moreover, one of the oldest languages in Europe, and our people have clung to it tena- ciously in the face of much enemy opposition." — M. B. Konitza, Albanian question (International Conciliation, May, 1919). — See also Balkan states: Races existing; and Maps; Europe: Mod- ern: Political map of Europe. Early history. — Rule of Pyrrhus. — Entrance of Christianity. — Under the Roman empire. — Invasion of Slavs. — "We first hear of our ances- tors from classical authors who describe and give the names of many of the independent clans who inhabited the Balkan Peninsula when its history dawns. All authorities agree that they are not Greek. The Greeks, in fact, designated them 'bar- barians.' The main groups formed by these clans were known as Macedonia, Illyria, and Epirus. The inhabitants of all three, so Strabo informs us, spoke the same tongue and had similar cus- toms. The very name of Macedonia, formerly known as 'Emathia,' derives in all probability from the Albanian word E Madhia (the great). As for Illyria, 'liria' in Albanian means 'freedom,' and we Albanians' mterpret it as 'land of the free.' [Throughout their history the Albanians obstinately resisted subjugation from invading foes and were in the main successful. They were under the rule of Pyrrhus, however, from 296-272 B. C] Christianity arrived early in Illyria. 'Round about Illyria,' says St. Paul, 'have I fully preached the Gospel of Christ.' The Albanians claim hira as the first missionary among them. Illyria formed part of the Patriarchate of Rome at an early date, and a large number of the North Albanians (Ghegs) are faithful to Rome to this day. Scutari and Antivari have been bishoprics since the fourth century. The Roman Empire in the East was repeatedly invaded by hordes of barbarians from beyond the Danube. [Fourth and fifth centuries.] The Avars devastated wide tracts, and after them came the Slavs [640]. These, the ancestors of the Serbs, Montenegrins, and Bosniaks, swarmed in in overpowering numbers. They settled first in some districts depopulated by the Avars, and by the seventh century were widely spread in the Peninsula. They were a tribal and a pastoral people, and, taking possession of the rich plains for their flocks, they drove Roman civilization to the coast of the Adriatic, where it has never com- pletely died out. (From 640-1360 with some in- terruptions the .Albanians were under Serbian rule.l Of the native Illyrian population, that of the north disappeared. But southward the Illyrians defended themselves in the mountains of modern .Albania, and there they preserved their language and customs uninterruptedly, up to the present day, against all comers." — Ibid. Medieval period. — Bulgarian kingdom in Albania. — Byzantine, Norman and Sicilian con- quests. — Rise of the Serbian kingdom of Rashia. — Reign of Stefan Dushan. — "From the settle- ment of the Servian Sclavonians within the bounds of the empire [during the reign of Heraclius, first half of the seventh century], we may . . . venture to date the earliest encroachments of the Illyrian or .Albanian race on the Hellenic popula- tion. The Albanians or .Arnauts, who are now called by themselves Skiptars, are supposed to be remains of the great Thracian race which, under various names, and more particularly as Paion- ians, Epirots and Macedonians, take an important part in early Grecian history. No distinct trace 189 ALBANIA, MEDIEVAL ALBANIA, MEDIEVAL of the period at which they began to be co-pro- prietors of Greece with the Hellenic race can be found in history. ... It seems very difficult to trace back the history of the Greek nation with- out suspecting that the germs of their modern condition, like those of their neighbours, are to be sought in the singular events which occurred in the reign of Heraclius." — G. Finlay, Greece un- der the Romans, cli. 4, sect. 6. — "The most un- changed people in the [ Balkan 1 peninsula must be the Albanians, called by themselves Skipelar, the representatives of the old Illyrians. . . . Before the end of the twelfth century the other primi- tive nations of the peninsula . . . began to show themselves more distinctly alongside of the Greeks. We now first hear of Albanians and Vlaclis by those names." — E. A. Freeman, Historical grog- united Bulgar force. In the twelfth century they united under the rule of the remarkable line of Xemanya princes, and established the Kingdom of Rashia and extended it rapidly. Rashia, in Al- banian, means plain. It is possible, therefore, that Rashia was the original Illyrian name of the plains of Kosovo. The Serbs were, in fact, known by the name of Rashians even into the eighteenth century. Each of the Ncmanya kings extended his realm by conquest. They spread over North Al- bania and seized Scutari. Scutari, the capital of North .Albania, is one of the oldest capitals in Europe. It is first mentioned under its native name of Scodra in 004 B. C. And as Shkodra it is known still to all Albanians. The name of Scutari was given to it by the Venetians in the thirteenth century. That the Albanians were, GkOl r OF .MODEliN AI.B.\NI.\NS In thr ancient MohammetJan dre.ss still worn raphy of Europe. — In 861 the Bulgars conquered the southern portion of .Albania and gradually extended their sway northward. This Bulgarian kingdom was brought to a close by the victory of Basil II in 1014. Albania continued under Byzantine rule until 1204, but not without numer- ous revolts. In loSi the Normans seized Durazzo, returning to Italy in iioo. In iiSo the Serbians established an independent kingdom in upper .Al- bania. From 1204 to 13 18 Epirus was held by Comnenus, a member of the imperial family at Constantinople who was forced to flee when the capitol was taken by the Crusaders, but Durazzo was under Sicilian kings of the house of .Anjou (1271-1368). In the meantime the Serbian king- dom in the north was rising in importance. "Not till the fall of the . . . Bulgar Empire did the Serbs play an important part in Balkan affairs. .\ tribal people, they had been weak before the when conquered by the Serbs, Roman Catholic, is evident from contemporary accounts. In 1321 they appealed to Charles of Anjou and to Filippo of Taranto to force the Serb King Milutin to respect their religious rights. [In 1331 the greatest of the Nemanya kings, Stefan Dushan ascended the throne. His rule lasted until 135S. He in- cluded all of .Albania in his kingdom and ruled under the title "Imperator Romaniae, Slavoniae et Albaniae."] In 1332 the French friar, Pere Bro- chard, describes the land and people. 'It is in- habited,' he says, 'by two peoples, the Albanians and the Latins, who both belong to the Church of Rome. The .Albanians have a language quite other than Latin. . . . They have four Bishops under the Archbishop of Antivari. . . . Both these peoples are oppressed under the very hard servi- tude of the most hateful and abominable lord ship of the Slavs ' That the friar did not exag- 190 ALBANIA, 1338-1443 ALBANIA, 1478-1880 gerate is shown by the extremely severe laws en- acted against the [Roman] Catholics by the great Czar Stefan Dushan in 1349 in his celebrated canon. Here we find that those of the Latin heresy who refuse to be converted are punishable by death, as are also Latin priests who attempt to convert anyone to the Latin faith." — M. B. Konitza, Albanian question (International Con- ciliation, May, 1919). 1358-1443. — Growth of native rule after the fall of the Serbian kingdom. — Despotat of Epirus under the house of Thopia. — Venetian, Greek and Turkish invasions. — "On the break-up of that power [the Serbian] came a time oi utter confusion and endless shiftings, which has, how- ever, one marked feature. The Albanian race now comes fully to the front. Albanian settlers press into all the southern lands, and Albanian princi- palities stand forth on a level with those held by Greek and Latin lords. The chief Albanian power which arose within the bounds of the despotat [of Epirus] was the house of Thopia in northern Epeiros. They called themselves Kings oj Al- bania; they won Durazzo from the Angevins, and their power lasted [1359-1392] till that duchy passed to Venice. ... In Epeiros the Servian and Albanian despots had both to yield to Italian princes. . . . Early in the fifteenth century the Turk won all Albania, except the Venetian posts. [The Turkish advance began with the capture of lannina in 1431] Seventeen years later came a revolt and a successful defence of the country, whose later stages are ennobled by the name of George Kastriota of Croja, the famous Scander- beg." — E. A. Freeman, Historical geography oj Europe, pp. 423-425. — During this period of native rule from the middle of the fourteenth century to the early fifteenth, part of upper Albania was ruled by the Balsha dynasty (1366- 142 1) and a southern section by the Musaki (1368-1476). Towards the close of the century Albanian prin- cipalities fell by degrees under Venetians and Greeks. 1443-1467. — Scanderbeg's war with the Turks. — "John Castriot, Lord of Emalthia (the modern district of Moghlene) [in Epirus or Al- bania] had submitted, like the other petty despots of those regions, to Amurath early in his reign, and had placed his four sons in the Sultan's hands as hostages for his fidelity. Three of them died young. The fourth, whose name was George, pleased the Sultan by his beauty, strength and intelligence. Amurath caused him to be brought up in the Mahometan creed; and, when he was only eighteen, conferred on him the government of one of the Sanjaks of the empire. The young Albanian proved his courage and skill in many exploits under Amurath's eye, and received from him the name of Iskanderbeg, the lord Alexander. When John Castriot died, Amurath took posses- sion of his principalities and kept the son con- stantly employed in distant wars. Scanderbeg brooded over this injury ; and when the Turkish armies were routed by Hunyades in the campaign of 1443, Scanderbeg determined to escape from their side and assume forcible possession of his patrimony. He suddenly entered the tent of the Sultan's chief secretary, and forced that function- ary, with the poniard at his throat, to write and seal a formal order to the Turkish commander of the strong city of Croia, in Albania, to deliver that place and the adjacent territory to Scanderbeg, as the Sultan's viceroy. He then stabbed the secretary and hastened to Croia, where his strate- gem gained him instant admittance and submis- sion. He now publicly abjured the Mahometan faith, and declared his intention of defending the creed of his forefathers, and restoring the indepen- dence of his native land. The Christian popula- tion, flocked readily to his banner and the Turks were massacred without mercy. For nearly twen- ty-five years Scanderbeg contended against all the power of the Ottomans, though directed by the skill of Amurath and his successor Mahomet, the conqueror of Con.stantinople." — E. S. Creasy, His- tory oj the Ottoman Turks, ch. 4. — "Scanderbeg died a fugitive at Lissus on the Venetian territory I1467]. His sepulchre was soon violated by the Turkish conquerors ; but the janizaries, who wore his bones enchased in a bracelet, declared by this superstitious amulet their involuntary reverence for his valour . . . His infant son was saved from the national shipwreck; the Castriots were invested with a Neapolitan dukedom, and their blood con- tinues to flow in the noblest families of the realm." — E. Gibbon, History oj the decline and jail oj the Roman empire, ch. 67. Also in: A. Lamartine, History oj Turkey, bk. II, sect. 1 1-25. 1478-1880.— Albania under Turkish rule.— Struggles for independence. — Effect of the Treaty of Berlin. — Struggle for education. — Between 1478 to 1502 the most important Vene- tian strongholds in Albania were captured by the Turks, including Scutari and Durazzo (see Greece: 1454-1479) and by 1571 the Turks were masters of Albania. The Christians either emigrated or fled to the mountains, but the Turks were never able fully to convert Albania to Islam and the country was torn by endless strife between the mountainers and the Turks, the Christians and the Mohammedan converts. When the Turkish power began to wane towards the end of the 17th century, anarchy and confusion were abundant (See TuRKEv: 1684-1696). "There was nothing for it but to accept Turkish rule. From the be- ginning the Albanians had contrived to retail local autonomy. In the seventeenth century many be- gan to go over to Islam. But, as above stated, unlike the other Balkan peoples, when Moham- medanized they retained their strong sense of nationality. No sooner did the Moslem Albanian chiefs rise to power than they began to work for independence. The Albanians, both Moslem and Christian, descended from the mountains and be- gan a struggle to retake the plains from which their forefathers had been driven by the conquer- ing Serbs. Bit by bit they regained territory and settled upon it. Attacked by the Albanians on the one side, and oppressed on the other by the Turk- ish government, and oppressed also by the Greek Church — which strove ever to replace the Serb and Bulgar churches by Greek ones throughout Turkey in Europe — the Serbs of Kosovo, led by the Patriarch of Ipek, decided to emigrate and moved in vast masses into Austria, where they were given land in the Banat by the Emperor. The Albanians speedily resettled the vacated lands, occupying the whole of the Kosovo district as far as Mitrovitza and northeast as far as Nish and Uskub Eastward they spread as far as Mon- astir, and the greater part of the Moslem villages of Macedonia are Albanian. In truth, they thus retook a great part of their ancient Illyria and Macedonia. Christian and Moslem united to pre- serve and maintain their customs, rights, and language, and brooked but little Turkish inter- ference. [In the latter half of the eighteenth cen- tury, Moslem chieftans set up independent prin- cipalities, but failed to maintain their sovereignty against the Porte except for short periods. The last of these, the dynasty of Scutari, came to aa 191 ALBANIA, 1478-1880 ALBANIA, 1908-1914 end in 1831 with the surrender of its head to the Grand Vizier Reshid Pasha.] The beginning of the nineteenth century was a time of great stress and struggle in the Balkan Peninsula. Repeated attacks by the Russians and Austrians, who each pretended they were animated by a desire to free the Christians from Turkish rule, and were in truth aiming only at territorial gains, had greatly weakened Turkish power and roused, too, the hopes of the subject peoples. Serbia rose first and, with the aid of both Austria and Russia, at- tained autonomy. Greece rose shortly afterward and, also with European help, obtained her free- dom. "The Greeks were greatly helped, too, by the Al- banians of the south, of whose valor Lord Byron tells. In return for this help they hoped that Greece would aid them, too, when their time came. . . . Far from aiding Albania to gain free- dom, Greece has had but one object, and that is to obtain more and more of Albanian territory. . . . In 1880 an International Commission, called the Eastern Roumelian Commission, was appointed to regulate the affairs of Turkey. Great Britain was ably represented by Lord Edmund Fitzmau- rice, who recognized the important fact that if peace were to be permanent in the Balkan the rights of each nationality must be considered. Convinced, after careful examination, that the Al- banians had been treated with great injustice, he made strong representations on the subject, and recommended the immediate formation of a large and autonomous Albania, which should become independent on the break-up of the Turkish Em- pire in Europe. Having caused inquiries to be made about the population of the various vilayets, he recommended that the state of Albania should consist of the whole of the vilayets of Scutari and Janina, the larger part of the vilayet of Kosovo, and a large part of the vilayet of Monastir. In this scheme he was strongly supported by [the British] Ambassador at Constantinople, Lord Goschen. The formation, however, of an inde- pendent Albania did not suit the ambitious plans either of Austria or of Russia. And, unfortunately for Europe, nothing was done save to recommend certain reforms to the Turks. [See B.^lkan states: 1878] The Albanian question remained and re- mains unsolved. . . . Though by means of the Al- banian League a certain amount of Albanian terri- tory was saved, yet the Treaty of Berlin resulted disastrously for Albania." — M. B. Konitza, Albanian question (International Conciliation, May, iqig). — The Albanian League was formed to resist the concessions granted by the Treaty of Berlin (July 13, 1878) to Austria-Hungary, Servia and Monte- negro, but in spite of the efforts of the league, the independence of Montenegro and Serbia were guar- anteed with portions of Albanian territory. — "Al- bania's struggle to obtain national education in the face of difficulties merits a chapter in the history of education. . . . Books and papers printed in London, Brussels, and Bucharest were smuggled into the country at great risk and eagerly studied, in spite of the fact that anyone found in posses- sion of such works was liable to even fifteen years' imprisonment. Many people, both Moslem and Christian, studied their own language from the Gospels and the Book of Genesis which were published in Albanian by the British and Foreign Bible Society and circulated with great difficulty. Schoolmasters found guilty of teaching .\lbanian were severely punished^in some cases the extreme sentence of fifteen years being inflicted. But the Albanians did not relax their efforts. In South Albania the Americans, to whom Albania is deeply indebted, opened a Girls' School at Koritza which was protected by the great Republic. This was a center of national enthusiasm. The girls taught their brothers to write their mother tongue. In the north education was better provided for. Both Italy and Austria, being anxious to obtain in- fluence there, opened schools for boys, girls, and infants in Scutari and Durazzo. And the Abbott of the Mirdites started a school in his mountains." —Ibid. 1908-1914. — Young Turk revolution. — Balkan wars. — Temporary monarchy under Prince William of Wied. — Independence granted by the powers under an International Council of Control. — Revolt of Essad Pasha. — "Such was the situation of Albania when the Young Turk revolution took place in 190S. To this the Al- banians at first lent their hearty support, believ- ing that it meant equal opportunities for all races. They were soon undeceived. The Young Turks began a policy of forcible Ottomanization and the Albanians rose against it. [See also Turkey: igoS.] This most useful and loyal corner of the sultan's dominions was turned into a country of perennial revolutions, which started soon after the inauguration of the constitutional regime. In the winter of igii-1912, when the group of Albanian deputies in the Ottoman ParUa- ment saw their demands for reforms rejected by the cabinet, and even the right of dis- cussion of their complaints refused on the floor of Parliament, the Albanians north and south, Ro- man Catholics and Moslems, united in resistance to the Turkish authorities that extended to Uskub and Monastir. After the spring elections of igu, the resistance became a formidable revolt. (See also Turkey: igio-igii.) For the Young Turks had rashly maneuvered the balloting with more than Tammany skill. The Albanians were left without representatives in Parliament. Former deputies, such as Ismail Kemal Bey, and chiefs such as Isa Boletinatz, Idris Sefer, and Ali Riza joined in a determination to demand autonomy by force of arms. When, in July, the cabinet decided to move an army against the Albanians, there were wholesale desertions from the garrison at Monastir, and of Albanian officers from all parts of Euro- pean Turkey. Mahmud Shevket Pasha was com- pelled to resign the ministry of war, and was fol- lowed by Said Pasha and the whole cabinet. The Albanians demanded as a sine qua non the disso- lution of Parliament. The Mukhtar cabinet agreed to the dissolution, and accepted almost all the de- mands of the rebels in a conference at Pristina." — M. B. Konitza, Albanian question (International Conciliation, May, igig). The situation was still further complicated by a split in the Albanian provisional government, Es- sad Pasha, minister of the interior and lately de- fender of Scutari, having refused to recognize Av- lona as the seat of government, and having started a government of his own at Durazzo, apparently with the object of having himself elected Prince of Albania, as he possessed great influence in that part of the country where his extensive estates were situated. Meanwhile Serbia marched her troops into Albania as a counter-attack to the .Albanian raid, but she withdrew them a week after in response to a peremptory summons to do so from the Austro-Hungarian government. On November 23, igi3, Prince William of Wied, nephew of the queen of Rumania, an officer in the Prussian army, regarded as a well-informed and capable soldier, was selected by the powers as the future sovereign of Albania. (See Serbia: 1909- 1913) 192 ALBANIA, 1908-1914 ALBANIA, 1915-1917 "The principle of the erection of Albania into an independent State was, of course, adopted by what used to be known as the Concert of Europe some years before the decision to liberate the small peoples who had long lived under the alien domi- nation became the most widely advertised object of the Associated Powers in the present [world] war. When, after the first Balkan War, the Powers attempted to elaborate a settlement of the Balkan question, they decided that the moment had arrived to grant Albania its independence, and, following a series of difficult and long-drawn-out negotiations, the representatives of the six great European States, united under the presidency of Sir Edward Grey, created an independent, autono- mous, and hereditary principality of Albania. The reasons which motived that decision still exist, and have been strengthened rather than weakened by the international changes which have taken place in the meantime. But Albania had been so neg- lected by Turkey that she could not reasonably be expected to work out her own salvation single- handed, and, in order to assist her organization, the Powers accorded her assistance in the form of an International Council of Control. From its very inauguration this Council produced excellent results; the statute elaborated by it was admirably suited to a country such as mine, and it is in many ways unfortunate that the world war put an end to its mandate." — Essad Pasha, My policy for Al- bania (Balkan Review, London, June, igig, pp. 329-330). "Prince William of Wied . . . arrived at Du- razzo, which he constituted his capital, on March 7, 1914. The fact that his regime was a total failure is due in part to the international conditions then prevailing and in part to the role he person- ally played. On the international side trouble arose from the fact that Albania had been con- stituted largely in order to relieve European ten- sion and some of the ever-recurring difficulties be- tween the Great Powers. [See Balkan states: 1912-1913.] Moreover, whilst Europe had nomi- nally fixed the northern and southern frontiers, she took no effective measures to hand over to the prince territory which was his. In the south, the Greeks remained in (jossession of large areas of Albania until the end of March, 1914. Most, if not all, of these districts were then officially evacuated. But, instead of the Greek regular army, there came the Epirote insurgents and the Epirote independent government, who, secretly supported from Athens, maintained a reign of ter- ror in an area actually alloted to Albania. Thus throughout the stay of the 'Mpret,' as the Alba- nians called their ruler, the European concert, if concert it can be called, ignored the necessity for taking the measures essential for the protection of the country and looked on passively whilst the Greeks infringed the frontiers already delimited in the south and whilst the insurgents threatened and practically besieged Durazzo in a manner which finally confined the powers of the prince almost to the very precincts of his palace. Thus enormous difficulties must have beset any ruler of Albania. His Royal Highness, whose shortcom- ings were apparent from the first, made little en- deavor to overcome them. To say nothing of his attitude towards the southern frontier question, concerning which he should have made some stipu- lation with the Great Powers before he ever en- tered upon his new task, the prince made at least two fundamental mistakes. By arriving at Durazzo, instead of entering his new country by way of Sku- tari, which was still in the hands of the interna- tional forces which occupied it in the first Balkan War, and which was therefore more or less neutral country, the new ruler seemed to show his par- tiality towards Essad Pasha and thus offended all the enemies of a man, who, if then powerful in the center of the country, was certainly not be- loved beyond the confines of his own particular district. [Essad Pasha soon led a rebellion against him and had himself proclaimed president.] Sub- sequently, instead of trying to take the people into his confidence before it was too late, and of en- deavoring to travel among them, the prince ap- peared to think that he could maintain his author- ity by encouraging one section of the community to support him against the other and that he could succeed in Albania without any display of cour- age. Thus on May 24, a few days after the ban- ishment of Essad Pasha, at a time when Durazzo was threatened by the insurgents, the prince and his family took refuge on an Italian warship — an act which was enough to seal his fate in a country where cowardice is not one of the faults of the people. [Before Albania had time even to organize gendarmerie, the Greeks attacked and oc- cupied a large part of south Albania, and the com- mission looked on and did nothing.] As time wore on things went from bad to worse until the outbreak of the war, immediately before which the international contingent vacated Skutari and im- mediately after which [Sept. 3] the prince and the International Commission of Control left Durazzo."— H. C. Woods, Albania and the Alba- nians (Geographical Review, April, 1918, pp. 257- 273). — During the early months of the war Essad Pasha made an effort to have his title of president confirmed by the Powers. As soon as Italy en- tered the war he went to Rome to persuade Gen- eral Porro to attack Austria-Hungary by way of the Balkans, but he was unsuccessful in both un- dertakings. — See also World War: 1914: III. Bal- kans: e. 1915. — Agreement of Allies and Italy over Al- bania, by Treaty of London. See London, Treaty OR Pact of. 1915-1917.— Effect of Serbian debacle.— Italian advance. — Independence proclaimed, July 3, 1917. — "The Montenegrins, though ostensibly engaged in opposing Austria, poured their troops into de- fenseless Scutari and remained there. No protest was made by the Powers for this unprovoked vio- lation of the decision made by them in 1913 when they unanimously declared Scutari to be Alba- nian territory. The Serbs also entered Albania for a short time, but withdrew again. Then came the debacle of the Serbs and their flight across the Albanian mountains into Scutari. This was fatal for Albania. The Austrian and Bulgarian forces poured into Albania in pursuit of them. All mem- bers of the Entente departed, and Albania was left to her fate. The Bulgars withdrew, but three- quarters of Albanian territory have been mili- tarily occupied by Austria until the last few weeks. Meanwhile, Italy had advanced in the south and occupied Tepelen and Argyrokastro. The Greek troops of King Constantine had poured into South Albania and were using Koritza as a center through which Austrian and German couri- ers could pass to or from Athens. They exported the foodstuffs, and the Albanian population was reduced to great straits. The French reached Koritza in December, 1916, evicting Greek troops; and at the request of the inhabitants of the whole district hoisted the Albanian flag at Koritza and proclaimed it an Albanian Republic. The Italians extended their occupation, and on July 3, 191 7, General Ferrero at Argyrokastro proclaimed the independence of the whole of Albania under the 193 ALBANIA, 1918 ALBANIA, 1919 protection of Italy. We must now consider the question of Italy with regard to Albania, [See also Italy: igi2-iQi4.] Albania's independence was proclaimed in 1912. But before she had time to organize or establish herself she was at once caught up by the whirlwind of opposing interests — those of Italy and Austria. [See World War: Diplomatic background; 71, iv.] Not only did the two currents paralyze Albania, but they encouraged the neighbor states to make existence impossible to her. Today [igig] the situation is altogether changed. Austria has broken up completely, and on the frontier Albania will see arising in her place a large Slav State which is frankly hostile to her. To guard against possible danger, Albania must seek a support, and this time she will have no difficulty of choice. But if Albania needs the support of Italy, Italy, too, needs the support of Albania. For to Italy this state is of vital im- portance." — M. B. Konitza, Albanian question {International Conciliation, May, igig).^ — "I am often asked if Albania can ever become a self- supporting state. History, I am convinced, will reply to that question in the affirmative. Few countries have been subjected to so many changes and to so many dominations. But just as from ancient times she has been condernned to alien rule, so from ancient times she has fought for her independence. She has never been subjected. Even though a great part of the population adhered to the Moslem faith, and though the land remained under the nominal sovereignty of the Ottomans for centuries, she never submitted to Turkish rule, and her people rejected all attempts to 'Ottoman- ize' them. Even the Turks admitted this fact. When, in 1913, the Great Powers proposed that the Porte should maintain its sovereignty over Albania, Mahmud Shevket Pasha, the Grand Vi- zier, categorically declined the proposition, recall- ing to the London Conference that five hundred years of such sovereignty had merely involved his country in frequent, expensive, and disastrous campaigns. Albania has passed through a variety of crises without the character of her people hav- ing been subjected to the slightest alteration — a fact due to her social organization and the oral transmission of her laws and customs from gener- ation to generation from the early days of history. The code which governs the conduct of the people and the administration of justice is that of the 'Law of Lek Dukaghin,' in whom some of us recognize the personality of the Duke Jean D'Anjou. Despite all the political changes that have taken place, the language has remained as it was in early days, and its persistence is all the more remarkable in that this is exclusively the re- sult of the will of the people, for neither alphabet nor grammar have existed to perpetuate any par- ticular system. There is not only every reason to believe that Albania can be formed into a self- supporting State, but it is obvious, even from the facts I have cited above, that any decision to throw the country back under foreign domination will conflict with the aspirations of the people, possibly with unhappy results for the peace of the Balkan Peninsula." — Essad Pasha, My policy for Albania (Balkan Review, London, June, 1919, pp. 320-331). — See also World War: 1916: IV. Austro- Italian front: d; V. Balkan theater: a. 1918. — Campaign of Italians and French. See World War: iqi8: V. Balkan theater: a. 1918. — Property loss due to war. See World War: Miscellaneous auxiliary services: XIV. Cost of war: b, 4. 1919. — Italy's strategic claims. — Albanian problem at the Peace Conference. — "The position of Albania at the Peace Conference has been seri- ously compromised by the attempt of certain Al- banians, who do not represent the people and whose only claim to notoriety would seem to con- sist in their former relations with the States with whom Britain, France, and America are now at war, to put themselves forward as the spokesmen of our people." — Essad Pasha, My policy for Al- bania (Balkan Review, London, June, igig, /i. 331). — "Much of the business which occupied the at- tention of the (Peace) Council was formal in character. The smaller states, excluded from its deliberations, demanded at least the opportunity to present to it their claims, and many hearings were granted to their representatives. . . . Every one recognized the extravagance and unreality of many of the nationalist demands. . . . [By the Italian representatives] control over all Albania, instead of the portion tentatively assigned to Italy by the Treaty of London, was asked. The Italian representatives felt that Italy was entitled to in- creased compensation partly because the war had lasted longer than anticipated, and partly because the collapse of Russia had thrown a heavier bur- den upon Italy than was foreseen when the Treaty of London was negotiated. ... It could not be forgotten that one of the potent causes of unrest in the Balkans had long been the mistaken policy of blocking Serbia's effors to obtain 'free and se- cure access to the sea.' The possible political con- sequence of sanctioning Italy's desire to obtain a solid foothold in the Balkans through control of Albania and the annexation of Slavonic territories, against the bitter protests of both peoples con- cerned, appeared most grave. The people who were rejoicing over the elimination of Austrian interference in Balkan affairs were evidently equally hostile to anything which might savor of Italian interference. I'nder these conditions it was believed that to grant Italy's claims to the eastern islands and main-land must be to sow the seeds of a new Balkan conflict. When examined from the standpoint of strategic geography the three main areas along the eastern Adriatic coast claimed by Italy were seen to possess tremendous military value. It was the manifest duty of the American specialists, without in the least degree questioning the motives actuating the Italian claims, to study the inevitable consequences which must necessarily follow upon granting them. [See Balkan states: ig2i: .Albania.] It seemed ob- vious that the Fiume region and adjacent terri- tory at the head of the .Adriatic, by dominating the great northwestern gateway into the Balkans . . . and Albania with Valona, by commanding the most important southern routes into the Balkans and blocking access to and egress from the .Adriatic Sea, did in effect constitute three extremely strong and admirably strong military bridge-heads, as- suring to Italy the possibility of moving across the .Adriatic and advancing them into the Balkans, should occasion require. . . . Every direct access to the sea possessed by the Jugo-Slav lands would be blocked, and the power of resistance to an Italian advance enormously curtailed." — E. M. House and C. Seymour, What really happened at Paris, pp. 127-130. "In Albania Italy had always maintained a lively interest, more particularly because of the magni- ficent harbour of Valona, situated on the eastern shore of the Strait of Otranto, and less than fifty miles from the Italian coast. The first object of her policy was to prevent the port from falling directly or indirectly into the hands of Austria, while the latter was equally concerned to prevent Italy from acquiring a position which would en- 194 ALBANIA, 1920 ALBANY PLAN OF UNION able her to bottle up the Adriatic. The two al- lies intrigued actively against each other with the Albanian tribes, planting rival schools in the country and seeking to extend their influence over the clan chiefs. The result was a stalemate which was recognized in the mutual self-denying ordi- nance of 1906, by which the two Powers agreed to abstain from any attempt to obtain political dominion over the coveted territory. For the rest this agreement was never whole-hearted, and merely registered the fact that the two States, unable to bring their plans to fruition at the mo- ment, were willing to hang the matter up till a more propitious moment for one or the other. Under pretext that the Turks had failed to fulfill the provisions of the Treaty of Lausanne, Italy had maintained her occupation of the Twelve Islands (the Dodecanese), but it was during the negotiations in London in the winter of 1912 that Italy first showed her hand openly in the matter of the Western Balkans. . . . [The Italian press] loudly proclaimed the necessity for a big Albania which should include Prizren and Pec in the north, as wel^ as Debar (Dibra) and other territories in the centre, and Northern Epirus in the south ; the two allies, in short, while jealous of each other, had no mind to tolerate the presence of a third competitor in the Adriatic." — A. H. E. Taylor, Italy and the Balkans, pp. 344-345. — See also Italy; 1914: Military coup in Albania. — "The Alban- ians number 1,000,000 people. Like the states about them, they have slowly gained political self- consciousness. Their homeland is a broken coun- try, and a large part of the population leads a pastoral life. Its coastal towns and lowland cities are intimately tied up with the commercial sys- tems of its neighbors, and its mountain popula- tion retains the primitive organization of the clan. Under these circumstances it is obvious that the Albanians should not have had a strong national programme or the means to advance it. . . . Had the terms of the secret Treaty of London of 1915 been carried out, Albania would have been di- vided. The central portion would have been an autonomous Mohammedan state under Italian pro- tection ; the northern part would have been under the protection of Jugo-Slavia, and the southern part was to have been divided between Greece and Italy. Koritsa would have become a Greek city, Valona an Italian stronghold and point of penetration; Scutari and the Drin valley would have become an outlet for Jugo-Slavia 's trade — and all of these points would have become places for military and political conflict, for the Alba- nians; though having no unity of sentiment regard- ing a national programme, are united in the be- lief that they can manage their affairs better than the people about them. The Italians have been driven from Valona by the efforts of the Albanians themselves, and Albanian independence has been recognized by the Council of the League of Na- tions." — E. M. House and C. Seymour, What really happened at Paris, pp. 174-175. 1920. — Admitted to the League of Nations. See League of nations: First meeting of the as- sembly. 1920 (June). — Murder of Essad Pasha.— On June 13, 1920, Essad Pasha was shot dead in the city of Paris by an Albanian student named Aveni Rustem. Also in: C. A. Chekrezi, Albania past and present (New York, 1919). — C. A. Dako, Albania, the master key to the Near East (Boston, 1919)- - .^I. J. Cassavetes, Question of Northern Epirus at the Peace Conference (Boston, 1919). — R- Puaux, Sorrows of Epirus (London, 1918). — I. D. Levine, Resurrected nations. — J. C. Powell, Italy in Albania (New Europe, Aug. 26, 1920). — M. E. Durham, Story of Essad Pasha (Contemporary Review, Aug., 1920).— J. S. Schapiro, Modern and contemporary European history.— E. M. House and C. Seymour, What really happened at Paris, Story of the Peace Conference — Memorandum submitted by the Albanian Delegation to the Peace Confer- ence (published by the Association for Interna- tional Conciliation, American Branch, New York, 1919). — C. H. Haskins and R. H. Lord, Some prob- lems of the Peace Conference. — C. Seymour, Diplo- matic background of the war, 1870-1914. ALBANIA, Latin form for Caledonia. See Scotlanu: The name. ALBANO, Elias Fernandez (d. 1910), vice- president of Chile. See Chile: 1910. ALBANY, N. Y.— The capital, since 1797, of New York state, claims to be the oldest perma- nently settled town of the original thirteen colo- nies. As far back as 1540 a French trading post stood near its present site, though its continuous history begins with its first settlement by some Dutch families about 1623. In 1614, the year after the first Dutch traders had established their opera- tions on Manhattan island, they built a trading house, which they called Fort Nassau, on Castle island, in the Hudson river, a little below where the city now stands. Three years later this small fort was washed away by a flood and the island abandoned. In 1623 Fort Orange, a more im- portant fortification was erected on the site after- wards covered by the business part of Albany, when the settlement took place. "As soon as the colonists had built themselves 'some huts of bark' around the fort, the Mahikanders or River Indians [Mohegans], the Mohawks, the Oneidas, the Onondagas, the Cayugas, and the Senecas, with the Mahawawa or Ottawawa Indians, 'came and made covenants of friendship . . . and desired that Ihey might come and have a constant free trade with them, which was concluded upon.' " — J. R. Brodhead, History of the state of New York, V. I, pp. 55, I5i- 1630.^Embraced in the land purchase of the Patroon Kiliaen Van Rensselaer. (See New York: 1621-1646.) The original name was the Fuyck, or "hoop-net;" afterwards it was known as Be- verwyck. 1664. — Occupied and named Albany by the English, in honor of the duke of York and Albany (James II). See New York: 1664. 1673. — Again occupied for a short time by the Dutch. See New York: 1673. 1686. — City charter received from Governor Dongan. 1777. — Encounters during revolution. See U. S. A., 1777 (July-October). 1866. — International Convention of Y. M. C. A. — International committee. See Young Men's Chkistian .Association: 1865-1870. ALBANY CONGRESS. See Albany plan of UNION. ALBANY PLAN OF UNION 1754.— For the purpose of securing a better treaty with the Six Nations, commissioners from the colonies of New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connect- icut, New York, Pennsylvania and Maryland met at Albany in the Iroquois country. The meeting was suggested by the Lords of Trade. Councils were held with the Iroquois chieftains and Indian affairs were discussed. The convention drew up a general plan of union which seems to have been mainly the work of Franklin. This plan proposed an act of Parliament creating "one general government" in America. 195 ALBANY REGENCY The sovereign of England was to appoint and pay a president-general. The assemblies of the colo- nies were to choose delegations to a colonial grand council, the number being in proportion to taxes paid, provided that no colony could have less than two nor more than seven. All acts of the council needed the assent of the governor-general. To- gether thev could control Indian affairs, regulate Indian trade, raise troops and levy taxes. Laws were to be submitted to the king and council and if not disapproved within three years were to remain in force. Neither the colonies nor the English government adopted the plan.— See also U. S. A.: 1754- ,„,.-• , ,, Also in' G E. Howard, Prehmmaries of the Revolution, pp. 13. i4, 226.— W. MacDonald, Select charters (1004), pp. 253-257. ALBANY REGENCY.— A group of clever politicians of New York state who manipulated the Democratic party machinery of that state from about 1820 to the middle of the nineteenth cen- tury. Martin Van Buren, Silas Wright, William L. Marcv and John A. Dix were among its lead- ers They maintained a strict party discipline by a strict svstem of rewards to the faithful, usually in the form of patronage, and by making offenders of the ring conscious of their displeasure. It derived its name from its position at the state capital. The steadfast support of one another as politicians, and friends, caused General Jackson to say, "I am no politician, but if I were one, I would be a New York politician."— See also New York: 1823. . , . Also in: W. Wilson, History of the American "^ALBATEGNIUS (c. 8so-92g), Arabian astron- omer See Scienx-e: Ancient: Arabian science. ALBATROS D-III AEROPLANE. See World W.\r; Miscellaneous auxiliary services: IV. .\viation. b. „ o . ALBEMARLE, Confederate ram. See U. S. A.: 1864 (.^pril-May: North Carolina) ; 1864 (October; North Carolina) ALBEMARLE, Earls and dukes of.— The name Albemarle, now the title held by the English familv of Keppel, is derived from the French Aumale (Latin, Alba Maria). Albemarle was "a town and territorv in the dukedom of Normandy" -ranted by William III to Arnold Joost van keppel in i6q6-i6g7. He was the first earl of \lbemarle and was born in 1670; he served with the English and Dutch troops, was a major-gen- eral in i6q7, and governor of Bois-le-Duc. He commanded at the siege of Aire in 17 10, led Marl- borough's second line in 1711, and was general of the Dutch forces in 171 2. He died on May 30, 1718, leaving a son William .\nne, who succeeded him as the second earl of Albemarle. Of the later earls, George Thomas Keppel (1700-1801), the sixth earl, is worthy of mention. He entered the army in 1S15 and rose to the rank of general. He trav- elled extensively and published several accounts of his journevs. From 1832-1S35 he was a member of Parhanient for East Norfolk. In t66o Charles II bestowed the title of Duke of Albemarle on the famous General George Monk; this dukedom be- came extinct in 1088 on the death of Christopher, the Second duke. The earldom of Albemarle sur- vives. ALBEMARLE, N. C— 1667-1669.— Settlement under Stephens. See North Carolin.^; 1663-1670. ALBERCA COURT. See Alil-vmbra. ALBERIC I (d 025), a Lombard adventurer, who, joininn forces with Berengar, became mar- grave of Camerino and later duke of Spoleto. Through marriage with Marozia he became the ALBERT most powerful noble in Rome. In 916 he assisted Pope John X in e.xpelling the Saracens from Italy. Alberic II (d. 954), son of Alberic I and Marozia. Rebelling against the authority of his mother, in 933 he overthrew her alien husband (second), Hugh, temporal ruler of Rome, and im- prisoned Pope John XI, her son; for this, he was made "prince and senator of all the Romans;" ruled Rome wisely and moderately until his death. — See also Rome; Q03-964. ALBERONI, Giulio, Cardinal (1664-1752), Spanish-Italian statesman. Consular agent for Parma to the court of Philip V of Spain. Prime minister of Spain in 1715 and cardinal in 1717; banished from Spain in 171Q. In 1724 he was proposed for the papal chair, receiving ten votes. Founded the Collegio .Mberoni, a school for train- ing poor boys for the priesthood. For details of his Spanish Ministry see Spain: 1713-1725; Italy: I7I5-173S- , , „ , . ALBERT I (187s- ), king of the Belgians. Succeeded his uncle, Leopold II, in iqoq; upheld the neutrality of Belgium in August, 1914, so dtlaying the Germans' advance as to defeat their plan for the quick capture of Paris; remained at the head of his little army to see final triumph and a re- stored Belgium.^ee also Belgium: 1909 (De- cember); Belgium; 1914: World War; World War; iqi8: II. Western front; b; XI. End of the war; d; and d, 1; 1919: Visit of royal family to United States. a Albert I, German king, 1 298-1308. .^s duke of .Austria contended for the German throne with .•Vdolph of Nassau, who was defeated and slain by Albert's army in 1298; at first antagonized and later cultivated Philip IV of France; recognized by Pope Boniface in 1303; tried unsuccessfully to extend his sway over Holland and Thuringia. — See also .Austria; 1291-1349; Germany: 1273- 1308. Albert II (1397-1439), German king, 1438- 1439. As duke of .Austria (with the title of Al- bert V) was successively chosen king of Hungary, king of Bohemia and German king; fought the disaffected Bohemians, also the Turks; showed ability in his short reign.— See also Austria; 143S- 1403. Hungary; 1301-1342. Albert, Hungarian king. See .Albert II, Ger- man king (1307-1430). Albert II, kin^ of Sweden, 1363-1389. Son of Albert I of Mecklenburg; held his throne with some difficullv and in 1389 was defeated and im- prisoned bv Queen Margaret of Denmark and Nor- wav. widow of King Haakon; released in 1305 he renounced the throne and returned to rule over Mecklenburg until his death in 1412. Albert (1819-1801), prince consort of Eng- land. -A member of the house of Saxe-Coburg- Gotha and first cousin of Queen Victoria of Eng- land, whom he married in 1840; by tact and abil- ity in affairs overcame earh prejudice against him; he was cut off in the prime of life by a sudden illness, to the overwhelming grief of the queen and the mourninn of the nation, which has since remembered him as Albert the Good.— See also England: 1840: Queen's marriage. Albert, (1848- ), prince of Monaco. Con- ductor of oceanographic research around Spits- bergen. See Spitsbergen: 1006-1921. Albert (1550- 1621), archduke of .Austria. He was sixth son of the emperor Maximilian II, arid was brought up at the Spanish court; was made cardinal in i577. archbishop of Toledo m 1584 and viceroy of Portugal in 1594; governor-general of the Netherlands; renounced his religious vows iq6 ALBERT ALBIGENSES in isqS and married the Infanta Isabella; engaged in constant warfare in the unsuccessful attempt to subdue, the rebellious Low Countries. — See also Netherlands; i5S8-i5g3 and 1594-1 bog. Albert I, duke of Austria. See Albert I, Ger- man king, 12Q8-1308. Albert V, duke of Austria. See Albert II, German king, I3g7-i43q. Albert (1490-1568), first duke of Prussia and grand master of the Teutonic Order. Third son of Frederick of Hohenzolk'rn; as grand master engaged in struggles and negotiations over East Prussia ; followed the advice of Martin Luther to marry and make Prussia an hereditary duchy; in- vested with the duchy in 1525 by Sigismund I, king of Poland ; founded the university of Kbnigs- berg. — See also Poland; 13.3,^-1572. Albert, duke of Wiirtemberg, commander of the fourth Germany army, directed against south- eastern Belgium at the opening of the World War. His army was the German center at the battle of the Marne. In October-November (1914) he opened the first drive to the Channel ports by an attack on Ypres and Dixmude (battle of the Yser), and in igi6 commanded the northern army group opposed to the Anglo-Belgian armies. Albert III, elector of Brandenburg, 1470-1486. Third son of Frederick I of Hohenzollern; early began a stormy career as a German prince, rul- ing over Ansbach, but failing in several attempts at wider power; inherited Bayrcuth from his brother John in 1464; six years later became elector of Brandenburg on the abdication of his other brother, Frederick II; acrjuircd Pnnierania and put down a revolt ; one of the most energetic and ambitious rulers of the fifteenth century.- — See also Brandenburg: 1417-1640. Albert, the Bear (1100-1170), margrave of Brandenburg. See Brandenburg; 1142-1152. Control of Lauenburg. See Saxony; 1180-1553. Albert, The Great. See Aleertus Mag- nus. ALBERT, Marcellin, leader of the wine-grow- ers revolt in France. See France; 1907 (May- July). ALBERT, a town of France in the department of the Somme, eighteen miles northeast of Amiens, situated on a small stream, the Ancre. During the battle of the Somme it was the "jumping-off place" of the British attacks in the direction of Bapaume. Was captured by the Germans in March of 1918 and recovered by the British in August of that same year. — See World War: 1918; II Western front; a, 1 ; c, 26; i; k, 1. ALBERT ACHILLES OF BRANDEN- BURG. See Albert III; Brandenburg, 1470- 1486. ALBERT CROSS OF WAR.— Its origin and pattern. See World War: Miscellaneous auxiliary services; VIII. War medals: a. ALBERT EDWARD, Prince of Wales. See Edward VII. ALBERTA, since 1905 a province of the Do- minion of Canada, east of British Columbia and north of western Montana. In 1S67, when the British North American Act was passed. Alberta was a part of the Northwest Territories. The prov- ince is governed by a uni-cameral legislature, the legislative assembly and a cabinet known as the executive council. The nominal head of the ex- ecutive department is a lieutenant-governor, ap- pointed by the Canadian government. Woman suffrage exists. Area 406,525 square miles. Ed- monton is the capital and Calgary the chief city. — See also Canada; 1905, also 1914-1918: War-time prohibition ; and Map of Dominion of Canada and Newfoundland; Northwest territory; Tele- graphs AND telephones; 1916; U. S. A.: Economic map. ALBERTINE LINE OF HOUSE OF SAX- ONY. See Sa.xony; 1180-1553 ALEERTUS MAGNUS (1193- or 1206- 12S0), Count of Bollstiidt, German scholastic phi- losopher. Distin;uished for his wide learning and his interest in the spread of knowledge, particu- larly the doctrines of Aristotle. Lectured at Paris, where he had as pupil Thomas Aquinas. Endeav- ored to reconcile philosoiihy and theology, using Aristotelian principles. Preached the eighth Cru- sade in Austria. Member of the Dominican order, and one of its ardent defenders. He was the most learned man of his time, and his writings dealt with philosophy and the Aristotelian sciences. — See also Universities and colleges: 1348-1826. ALBI, capital of the department of Tarn, France; gives its name to the Albigenses (q. v.). Site of the cathedral of St. Cecile, a fortress-church in unornamented Gothic style with slit-like win- dows. From the twelfth century, authority was usurped by the bishops of AIbi until, after the Albigensian War, the land passed to the crown of France. — See also Albigenses. ALBICI. — A Gallic tribe which occupied the hills above Massilia (Marseilles) and who are de- scribed as a savage people even in the time of Caesar, when they helped the Massiliots to defend their city against him. — G. Long, Decline of the Roman republic, v. 5, cit. 4. • ALBIGENSES. -"The Albigensians, so called from the town of AIbi in Languedoc, were a branch of a widely spread group of persons who could not be satisfied with the Christian theory of the universe and its government. While they differed very widely in details, all members of the group agreed in their fundamental notion that the only reasonable explanation of the existence of evil in the world was to give up, once for all, the idea of a single administration of the uni- verse. If there were only one God and that an all- powerful one, why had he not done his work better? Why haci he, the all-good, allowed so much evil to get into the world? Why had he, the all-wise, apparently made so many mistakes in his management of things? The ready answer to all this was, that there was not one God but two, ' one good, wise, perfect, absolute; the other evil, capable of errors, imperfect, limited. Such reason- ing has satisfied vast masses of men. For in- stance, it forms the basis of the great Persian re- ligion, which has been for centuries the religious inspiration of a race allied to our own by com- munity of descent. When, however, men came to apply it to Christianity, and especially to Chris- tianity as the outcome of Judaism, they found themselves involved in many difficulties. One of the first consequences of the dualistic theory was that the God of the Jews, as described in their writings, could never have been the good God, but must have been the lesser power, used by the greater as a convenient, though unconscious, agent in the creation of the world The dualists there- fore rejected the Old Testament as authority. An- other consequence was the drawing of a sharp line between the spiritual and the material. What- ever was material belonged in the domain of the lower deity and was essentially base in its char- acter. Man, therefore, in so far as he was a ma- terial being, was evil and his body was in a con- dition of hopeless conflict with his soul. The only way for the race of man to be redeemed was through a gradual process of spiritualization. . . . Then again the idea that the great God could have 197 ALBIGENSES First Crusade ALBIGENSES come down to earth and actually have become a man was beyond all conception to the dualist. The thing we call Christ was only an emanation from the deity and was not at all a man, excepting in the mere form. His life on earth was only a vision, intended to impress men with the truth of his teaching, but not essentially the life of a man. Hence followed naturally the rejection of the doc- trine of the Eucharist." — E. Emerton, Mediaeval Europe, pp. 33S-336. — "Nothing is more curious in in Christian history than the vitality of the Mani- chean opinions. That wild, half poetic, half ra- tionalistic theory of Christianity, . . . appears al- most suddenly in the 12th century, in living, al- most irresistible power, first in its intermediate settlement in Bulgaria, and on the borders of the Greek Empire, then in Italy, in France, in Ger- many, in the remoter West, at the foot of the Pyrenees. . . . The chief seat of these opinions was the south of France. Innocent III., on his accession, found not only these daring insurgents scattered in the cities of Italy, even, as it were, at his own gates (among his first acts was to sub- due the Paterines of Vitcrbo), he found a whole province, a realm, in some respects the richest and noblest of his spiritual domain, absolutely dis- severed from his Empire, in almost universal re- volt from Latin Christianity." — H. H Milman, Latin Christianity, bk. q, r/i. 8. — "Of the secta- ries who shared the errors of Gnosticism and Mani- chiism and opposed the Catholic Church and her hierarchy, the .Mbigenses were the most thorough and radical. Their errors were, indeed, partly Gnostic and partly Manichaean, but the latter was the more prominent and fully developed. . . . They are called Cathari and Patarini in the acts of the Council of Tours (1163), and in those of the third Lateran, Publiciani (i. e., Pauliciani). Like the Cathari, they also held that the evil spirit created all visible things."— J. Alzog, Manual of universal church history, periad 2, epoch 2, pt. 1, ch. 3, sect. 236. "It is not without significance that these ideas found their readiest acceptance in a population that was, probably, as keenly intelligent as any in Europe. The citizens of the great industrial towns of southern France caught at the teachings of the dualistic missionaries. . . . They did not proceed to any violence, but simply w'ithdrew themselves from the association of the dominant religion. Their secular rulers, especially the count Raymond V'l of Toulouse, finding nothing of- fensive to the public welfare in their doctrines, let them alone or even directly protected them from attack. Under these conditions they in- creased so rapidly that practically whole com- munities became converted, and the machinery of the church found itself for the moment inca- pable of dealing with so obstinate a resistance. . . . In addition to this all-sufficient religious motive for persecution there were not wanting others of a more practical sort. There was, first, the antag- onism of North and South, an opposition which, in spite of all efforts on the part of the French government, was still far from being overcome. The chief feudal prince in the South was Raymond of Toulouse, one of the leading feudatories of the crown. If he could be brought down by a com- bination of the crown with the papacy, the game was worth the candle. If his lands could be brought into the hands of more pliant subjects, it would be so much gain in the great effort of Philip Augustus to make himself king indeed of all France The tempting bait of the rich lands of Languedoc was enough to secure abundant fighting material and the dangers of this domestic crusade were as nothing compared with those of an ex- pedition to the East. The crusading ardor was at this moment decidedly on the wane. Jlhe re- sult of the fourth Crusade had been far from en- couraging to the purely religious interests con- cerned. It had ended in the capture of the friendly and Christian Constantinople by the crusading army under the lead of the clever traders of Ven- ice and in much negotiation, with mutual good- will, between the heathen and the Christian lead- ers. "The outlook in southern France seemed to offer to the ambition of Innocent III the compensation he needed. There is probably no doubt whatever as to the personal integrity of his purposes. . . . Certainly it cannot be said that Innocent resorted to the sword until he had exhausted all the re- sources of peaceful endeavor. Almost immedi- ately upon his accession he had sent two legates into the infected districts and had called upon the local clergy to assist them in converting or in punishing the heretics. The response was not en- couraging. It became evident that the . . . prin- ciple of toleration had made great progress in the land. The local clergy knew too intimately the quality of the persons they were called upon to discipline and it was clear that a foreign agent would be needed. This point is characteristic of the whole history of the persecution. Nowhere in Europe, probably, was there a population more loyal to itself. A series of foreign, i. e., French monastic clergymen, Arnold of Citeaux and Peter of Castelnau the most prominent, headed the work of peaceful exhortation. The inhabitants made no resistance, were in fact more than willing to set their own champions against the strongest debaters of the Roman church ; but this process did not succeed. The more the method of argument was tried, the more the heresy grew. . . . For nearly ten years the campaign of ideas went on ; then a crisis came at the murder of Castel- nau, possibly with the connivance of Count Ray- mond. "From that time on there was no hesitation on the part of the pope. All previous efforts to rouse the crusading temper had failed. Philip Augustus, the overlord of the land, had his hands full in the north and the great barons of France were not yet ready to act. The murder of the papal legate seemed to break all restraints. Innocent renewed his summons to all the faithful in Europe. . . . The response this time was unexpectedly gratifying. Philip of France took no action himself, fearing possibly lest the appearance of wanting the south- ern lands for the crown might alienate the loyalty of his nearer neighbors; but he placed no obstacles in the way of his barons. Recruits of every de- scription poured in from all over Europe, indi- viduals and groups drawn together by the curious combination of motives usual in all the crusading armies." — E. Emerton, Mediaeval Europe, pp. 337- 340 — Sec also Cathari; Paulicians. 1209. — First Crusade. — Pope "Innocent III., in organizing the persecution of the Catharians [or Catharistsl, the Patarins, and the Pauvres de Lyons, exercised a spirit, and displayed a geniu? similar to those which had already elevated him to almost universal dominion ; which had enabled him to dictate at once to Italy and to Germany ; to control the kings of France, of Spain, and of England ; to overthrow the Greek Empire, and to substitute in its stead a Latin dynasty at Constan- tinople. In the zeal of the Cistercian Order, and of their .^bbot. .■Vrnaud .^malric ; in the fiery and unwearied preaching of the first Inquisitor, the Spanish Missionary, Dominic; in the remorseless 198 ALBIGENSES Second Crusade ALBIGENSES activity of Foulquet, Bishop of Toulouse; and above all, in the strong and unpitying arm of Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester, Innocent found ready instruments for his purpose. Thus aided, he excommunicated Raymond of Toulouse [1207], as Chief of the Heretics, and he promised remission of sins, and all the privileges which had hitherto been exclusively conferred on adventurers in Palestine, to the champions who should enroll themselves as Crusaders in the far more easy en- terprise of a Holy War against the Albigenses. In the first invasion of his territories [1209], Ray- mond VI. gave way before the terrors excited by the 300,000 fanatics who precipitated themselves on Languedoc; and loudly declaring his personal freedom from heresy, he surrendered his chief castles, underwent a humiliating penance, and tooli the cross against his own subjects. The brave resistance of his nephew Raymond Roger, Viscount of Bezieres, deserved but did not obtain success. When the crusaders surrounded his capital, which was occupied by a mixed population of the two Religions, a question was raised how, in the ap- proaching sack, the Catholics should be distin- guished from the Heretics. 'Kill them all,' was the ferocious reply of Amalric; 'the Lord will easily know His own.' In compliance with this advice, not one human being within the walls was permit- ted to survive ; and the tale of slaughter has been variously estimated, by those who have perhaps exaggerated the numbers, at 60,000, but even in the extenuating despatch, which the Abbot him- self addressed to the Pope, at not fewer than 15,000. Raymond Roger was not included in this fearful massacre, and he repulsed two attacks upon Carcassonne, before a treacherous breach of faith placed him at the disposal of de Montfort, by whom he was poisoned after a short imprisonment. The removal of that young and gallant Prince was indeed most important to the ulterior project of his captor, who aimed at permanent establishment in the South. The family of de Montfort had ranked among the nobles of France for more than two centuries; and it is traced by some writers through an illegitimate channel even to the throne: but the possessions of Simon himself were scanty ; necessity had compelled him to sell the County of Evreux to Philippe Auguste; and the English Earl- dom of Leicester which he inherited maternally, and the Lordship of a Castle about ten leagues distant from Paris, formed the whole of his reve- nues." — E. Smedley, History of France, cli. 4. — See also Christianity: iith-i6th centuries. Also in J. C. L. de Sismondi, History of the crusades against the Albigenses, ch. i. — H. H. Mil- man, History of Latin Christianity, bk. g, ch. 8. — J. Alzog, Manual of universal church history, period 2, epoch 2, pt. i, ch. 3. 1210-1213. — Second Crusade.— "The conquest of the Viscounty of Beziers had rather inflamed than satiated the cupidity of De Montfort and the fanaticism of Amalric [legate of the Pope] and of the monks of Citeaux. Raymond, Count of Toulous, still possessed the fairest part of Langue- doc, and was still suspected or accused of afford- ing shelter, if not countenance, to his heretical sub- jects. . . . The unhappy Raymond was . . . again excommunicated from the Christian Church, and his dominions offered as a reward to the cham- pions who should execute her sentence against him. To earn that reward De Montfort, at the head of a new host of Crusaders, attracted by the promise of earthly spoils and of heavenly blessedness, once more marched through the devoted land [1210], and with him advanced .Amalric. At each succes- sive conquest, slaughter, rapine, and woes such as may not be described tracked and polluted their steps. Heretics, or those suspected of heresy, wherever they were found, were compelled by the legate to ascend vast piles of burning fagots. . . . At length the Crusaders reached and laid siege to the city of Toulouse. . . . Throwing himself into the place, Raymond . . . succeeded in repulsiog De Montfort and Amalric. It was, however, but a temporary respite, and the prelude to a fearful destruction. From beyond the Pyrenees, at the head of 1,000 knights, Pedro of Arragon had marched to the rescue of Raymond, his kinsman, and of the counts of Foix and of Comminges, and of the Viscount of Beam, his vassals; and their united forces came into communication with each other at Muret, a little town which is about three leagues distant from Toulouse. There, also, on the 12th of September [1213], at the head of the champions of the Cross, and attended by seven bishops, appeared Simon de Montfort in full mili- tary array. The battle which followed was fierce, short and decisive. . . . Don Pedro was numbered with the slain. His army, deprived of his com- mand, broke and dispersed, and the whole of the infantry of Raymond and his allies were either put to the sword, or swept away by the current of the Garonne. Toulouse immediately surren- dered, and the whole of the dominions of Raymond submitted to the conquerors. At a council subse- quently held at Montpellier, composed of five archbishops and twenty-eight bishops, De Mont- fort was unanimously acknowledged as prince of the fief and city of Toulouse, and of the other counties conquered by the Crusaders under his command." — Sir J. Stephen, Lectures on the history of France, led. 7. — See also Aragon. Also in: J. C. L. de Sismondi, History of crus- ades against the Albigenses, ch. 2. 1217-1229. — Renewed Crusades. — Dissolution of the county of Toulouse. — Pacification of Languedoc. — "The cruel spirit of De Montfort would not allow him to rest quiet in his new Em- pire. Violence and persecution marked his rule ; he sought to destroy the Proven(;al population by the sword or the stake, nor could he bring him- self to tolerate the liberties of the citizens of Tou- louse. In 12 17 the Toulousans again revolted, and war once more broke out betwixt Count Raymond and Simon de Montfort. The latter formed the siege of the capital, and was engaged in repelling a sally, when a stone from one of the walls struck him and put an end to his existence. . . . Amaury de Montfort, son of Simon, offered to cede to the king all his rights in Languedoc, which he was unable to defend against the old house of Tou- louse. Philip [."Vugustus] hesitated to accept the important cession, and left the rival houses to the continuance of a struggle carried feebly on by either side." King Philip died in 1223 and was succeeded by a son; Louis VIII, who had none of his father's reluctance to join in the grasping per- secution of the unfortunate people of the south. Amaury de Montfort had been fairly driven out of old Simon de Montfort's conquests, and he now sold them to King Louis for the office of constable of France. "A new crusade was preached against the Albigenses; and Louis marched towards Lan- guedoc at the head of a formidable army in the spring of the year 1226. The town of Avignon had proferred to the crusaders the facilities of cross- ing the Rhone under her walls, but refuged entry within them to such a host. Louis having arrived at Avignon, insisted on passing through the town: the Avignonais shut their gates, and defied the monarch, who instantly formed the siege. One of the rich municipalities of the south was almost 199 ALBIGENSES ALBION a match for the king of France. He was kept three months under its walls ; his array a prey to fam- ine, to disease and to the assaults of a brave gar- rison. The crusaders lost 20,000 men. The people of Avignon at length submitted, but on no dis- honourable terms. This was the only resistance that Louis experienced in Languedoc. . . . All sub- mitted. Louis retired from his facile conquest; he himself, and the chiefs of his army stricken by an epidemic which had prevailed in the con- quered regions. The monarch's feeble frame could not resist it; he expired at Montpensier, in Au- vergne, in November, 1226.'' Louis \III was suc- ceeded by his young son, Louis IX (St. Louis), then a boy, under the regency of his energetic and capable mother, Blanche of Castile. "The termi- nation of the war with the Albigenses, and the pacification, or it might be called the acquisition, of Languedoc, was the chief act of Queen Blanche's regency. Louis VIII had overrun the country without resistance in his last campaign; still, at his departure, Raymond VI. again ap- peared, collected soldiers and continued to struggle against the royal lieutenant. For upward of two years he maintained himself; the attention of Blanche being occupied by the league of the barons against her. The successes of Raymond VII., ac- companied by cruelties, awakened the vindictive zeal of the pope. Languedoc was threatened with another crusade; Raymond was willing to treat, and make considerable cessions, in order to avoid such extremities. In April, I2 2q, a treaty was signed: in it the rights of De Montfort w'ere passed over. About two-thirds of the domains of the count of Toulouse were ceded to the king of France; the remainder was to fall, after Raymond's death, to his daughter Jeanne, who by the same treaty was to marry one of the royal princes: heirs failing them, it was to revert to the crown [which it did in 1271]. On these terms, with the humiliating addition of a public penance, Ray- mond VII. once more was allowed peaceable pos- session of Toulouse, and of the part of his do- mains reserved to him. Alphonse, brother of Louis IX., married Jeanne of Toulouse soon after, and took the title of count of Pointiers; that pro- vince being ceded to him in apanage. Robert, an other brother, was made count of Artois at the same time. Louis himself married Margaret, the eldest daughter of Raymond Berenger, count of Province." — E. E. Crowe, History of France, v. i, eft. 2-3- Results of the Crusades. — "The struggle ended in a vast increase of the power of the French crown, at the expense alike of the house of Tou- louse and of the house of Aragon. The domin- ions of the count of Toulouse- were divided. A number of fiefs, Beziers, Narbonne, Nimes, Albi, and some other districts were at once annexed to the crown. The capital itself and its county passed to the crown fifty years later. ... The name of Toulouse, except as the name of the city itself, now passed away, and the new acquisitions of France came in the end to be known by the name of the tongue which was common to them with Aquitaine and Imperial Burgundy [Provence]. Under the name of Languedoc they became one of the greatest and most valuable provinces of the French kingdom." — E. A. Freeman, Historical geography of Europe, ch. q. — "So far as the ap- parent purpose of the crusade, the purifying of the land from heretical thought was concerned, the papacy might well congratulate itself. It had dis- tinctly established the principle that, if political allies could be found, divergence from its system might successfully be met with the sword. Its most important result was the permanent estab- lishment of the Holy Tribunal of the Inquisition. The proceedings against the heretics of 'Toulouse had shown how utterly useless it was to entrust the pursuit of heresy to the local episcopal author- ity. Not only was the episcopate very largely con- taminated by wordliness in every f onn ; it was bound up with local interests in too many ways to make it a safe instrument of persecution. The next recourse had been to papal legates, specially created for this purpose, but this had only been able to call forth a lukewarm assistance from the existing local authorities. The only effective method was to create a new tribunal which should be composed of men who had no other interests. Such men were provided by the new mendicant orders and within a few years after the death of Innocent, we find the formal recognition by the papacy of the Domincans as the regular organ for the searching out of heresy and its trial. From about 1230 on, it is fair to speak of the Inquisi- tion as permanently established. . . . The politi- cal result of the crusade was the definite breaking- up of the overgrown power of the counts of Tou- louse. ... In this way the French monarchy gained the south of France, and perhaps its suc- cess there w'ould have been long postponed if the religious troubles had not offered it this entering wedge." — E. Emerton, Mediaeval Europe, pp. 341- 342. — "The Church of the Albigenses had been drowned in blood. These supposed heretics had been swept away from the soil of France. The rest of the Langucdocian people had been over- whelmed with calamity, slaughter, and devasta- tion. The estimates transmitted to us of the num- bers of the invaders and of the slain are such as almost surpass belief. We can neither verify nor correct them ; but we certainly know that, during a long succession of years, Languedoc had been in- vaded by armies more numerous than had ever before been brought together in European warfare since the fall of the Roman empire. [We know that these hosts were composed of men inflamed by bigotry and unrestrained by discipline; that they had neither military pay nor magazines; that they provided for all their wants by the sword, living at the expense of the country, and seizing at their pleasure both the harvests of the peasants and the merchandise of the citizens.] More than three- fourths of the landed proprietors had been de- spoiled of their fiefs and castles. In hundreds of villages, every inhabitant had been massacred. . . . Since the sack of Rome by the Vandals, the Euro- pean world had never mourned over a national disaster so wide in its extent or so fearful in its character." — J. Stephen, Lectures on the history of France, led. 7. Albigenses in Bosnia. See Bosnia: 12th cen- turv. ALBIGEOIS. See Albigenses. ALBINUS, Clodius' (d. iq? A. D.), Roman commander. Governor of Gaul and Britain; in 104 was made Cssar by Septimius Severus. ALBION, ancient name for the island of Great Britain ; generally confined to England. "The most ancient name known to have been given to this island [Britain] is that of Albion. . . . There is, however, another allusion to Britain which seems to carry us much further back, though it has usu- ally been ill understood. It occurs in the story of the labours of Hercules, who, after securing the cows of Geryon, comes from Spain to Liguria, where he is attacked by two giants, whom he kills before making his way to Italy. Now, according to Pomponius Mela, the names of the giants were .Mbiona and Bergyon, which one may, without 200 ALBIS ALCANTARA much hesitation, restore to the forms of Albion and Iberion, representing, undoubtedly, Britain and Ireland, the position of which in the sea is most appropriately symbolized by the story mak- ing them sons of Neptune or the sea-god. . , . Even in the time of Pliny, Albion, as the name of the island, had fallen out of use with Latin au- thors; but not so with the Greeks, or with the Celts themselves, at any rate those of the Goidelic branch ; for they are probably right who suppose that we have put the same word in the Irish and Scotch Gslic Alba, genitive Alban, the kingdom of Alban or Scotland beyond the Forth. Albion would be a form of the name according to the Brythonic pronunciation of it. . . . It would thus appear that the name Albion is one that has re- treated to a corner of the island, to the whole of which it once applied." — J. Rhys, Celtic Britain, ch. b. — See also Britannia; Scotland; Sth-gth cen- turies. Also in: E. Guest, Origines Celticae, ch. i. ALBIS, the ancient name of the river Elbe. ALBIZZI, Rinaldo de (d. 1452), Florentine statesman who opposed Medici. See Florence: 1433-1464. ALBOIN (d. c. 573), king of the Lombards, son of Audoin, whom he succeeded. He destroyed the kingdom of the Gepidae and married Rosamund, daughter of the slain king Cunimund. In 568 he invaded and conquered a large portion of Italy. At ,the instigation of his queen he was assassinated by his chamberlain Peredeo, in revenge for having forced her to drink wine from a cup formed from her father's skull. — See also Lombards: 568- 573. ALBORNOZ, Gil Alvarez de (c. 1310-1367), Spanish cardinal. Fought in the battles of Tarifa (1340) and Algeciras (1344), sent to Italy as papal legate and paved the way for the return of Urban V to Rome; founder of the college of St. Clement at Bologna and author of a work on the constitu- tion of the Roman church. — See also Papacy: 1352- 1378 ALBRET, Lordship of, in the Landes, France, gave its name to a powerful feudal family, whose members distinguished themselves in local wars; during the fourteenth century supported first the English cause and later the French. By the ac- cession of Henry IV whose mother was Jeanne d'Albret the dukedom came under the crown ; in 165 1, was granted to the family of La Tour d'Auvergne. Jean d'Albret, belonging to a younger branch, was employed by Francis I in his intrigues to become emperor. — See also Navarre: 1528- 1563. ALBRIGHT, Jacob (1759-1808), founder of the Evangelical Association (q.v.). ALBRIGHT ART GALLERY. — "Incorpor- ated 1862. Occupies magnificent gallery of white marble in Delaware Park [Buffalo, N. Y.l built and endowed by John J. Albright in IQ05. Collec- tions comprise 2S6 modern oil paintings by Ameri- can, English, Scottish, German, French, Dutch, Austrian, Italian, Spanish and Scandinavian art- ists; 7g6 engravings, including a historical collec- tion of the masters of engraving and an almost complete collection of the works of Sir Seymour Haden; Arundel prints, cartoons, drawings, sculp- tures and casts and various art objects — a total of over 1,300 exhibits. Maintains an art school attended by some 300 students and publishes a quarterly art magazine, 'Academy Notes.' The commission for two caryatid-porticos in white marble, for the north and south wings of the art building, was given to Augustus St. Gaudens, and the eight beautiful statues were his last work." — Year's art, 1920, p. 238. ALBU, Celtic form for Caledonia. See Scot- land: The name. ALBUERA, or Albuhera, La, a small village in Spain in the province of Badajoz, celebrated for the victory of the British, Portuguese and Spaniards over the French in the Peninsular War, May, 1811. ALBUM (Latin, albus, white), a board chalked or painted white, on which decrees, edicts, and other public notices were inscribed in black, in ancient Rome. In medieval and modern times album denotes a book of blank pages in which verses, autographs, sketches and the like are col- lected. In law, the word is the English equivalent of "mailles blanches," for rent paid in silver ("white") money. ALBUMAZAR (805-885), Arabian astrologer. Author of over fifty works which contained some serious errors, but several of which were never- theless translated into Latin. ALBUQUERQUE, Affonso d', surnamed "the Great" and "the Portuguese Mars" (1453-1515), was a celebrated Portuguese navigator and con- queror, being the founder of the Portuguese em- pire in the east; made his first expedition to India in 1503; conquered Goa, the whole of Malabar, Ceylon, the Sunda Islands, the peninsula of Ma- lacca and the island of Ormuz. — See also Com- merce: Era of geographic expansion: I5th-i7th centuries: Leadership of the Portuguese. 'ALBUQUERQUE, the largest city of New Mexico and the capital of Bernalillo county ; situ- ated on the Rio Grande, 60 miles southwest of Sante Fe. Due to its climate, which is especially adapted for the treatment of tuberculosis, it has become a famous health resort. It was founded in 1706, and named in honor of the duke of Al- buquerque, viceroy from Spain 1702-1710. Dur- ing the Civil War it was occupied by Confederate troops under General Henry Hopkins Sibley. The modern city really dates from the completion of the first railway to Albuquerque in 1880. ALCALA DE HENARES, a town of Spain, in New Castile, the birthplace of Cervantes, 1547; its once famous university founded by Cardinal Jimenez in 1510 was removed to Madrid in 1836. The city is supposed to be on the site of the Ro- man Complulnm, hence the name Compluteiisian Polyglot which was given to the famous edition of the Bible prepared here between 1514 and 1517. ALCALA UNIVERSITY. — 1510. — Founded by Ximenes. — Constitution. See Universities AND COLLEGES: I240-Ii;iO. ALCALDE, ALGUAZIL, CORREGIDOR.— "The word alcalde is from the Arabic 'al cadi,' the judge or governor. . . . Alcalde mayor signifies a judge, learned in the law, who exercises [in Spain] ordinary jurisdiction, civil and criminal, in a town or district." In the Spanish colonies the alcalde mayor was the chief judge. "Irving (Columbus, ii. 331) writes erroneously alguazil mayor, evi- dently confounding the two ofiices. ... An al- guacil mayor, was a chief constable or high sher- iff." "Corregidor, a magistrate having civil and criminal jurisdiction in the first instance ('nisi prius') and gubernatorial inspection in the political and economical government in all the towns of the district assigned to him." — H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific states, v. i, pp. 207 and 250, foot- notes. — See also Audiencias; Holy Brotherhood or Herman'dad. ALCANTARA, town of western Spain on the Tagus, seven miles from the Portuguese frontier. The town was famous as the stronghold of the 201 ALCANTARA ALDEN kjiightly order of Alcantara ; and also for the bridge over the Tagus built by Trajan in A. D., lOS and still in a tine state of preservation. From Arabic, al Kantara, "the bridge." For the bat- tle of Alcantara (1580). See Portugal: 157Q- 1580. ALCANTARA, Knights of. See Alcantara, Order of. ALCANTARA, Order of.— "Towards the close of Alfonso's reign [Alfonso VIII of Castile and Leon, who called himself 'the Emperor,' 1126- 1157], may be assigned the origin of the military order of Alcantara. Two cavaliers of Salamanca, don Suero and don Gomez, left that city with the design of choosing and fortifying some strong natural frontier, whence they could not only arrest the continual incursions of the Moors, but make hostile irruptions themselves into the territories of the misbelievers. Proceeding along the banks pf the Coales, they fell in with a hermit, Araando by name, who encouraged them in their patriotic de- sign and recommended the neighbouring hermitage of St. Julian as an excellent site for a fortress. Having examined and approved the situation, they applied to the bishop of Salamanca for permission to occupy the place: that permission was readily granted: with his assistance, and that of the her- mit Amando, the two cavaliers erected a castle around the hermitage. They were now joined by other nobles and by more adventurers, all eager to acquire fame and wealth in this life, glory in the ne.xt. Hence the foundation of an order which, under the name, first, of St. Julian, and subse- quently of Alcantara, rendered good ser\'ice alike to king and church." — S. A. Dunham, History of Spain and Portugal, bk. 3, sect. 2, ch. i, div. 2. ALCAZAR, or "The Three Kings," Battle of (1578 or 1570). See Morocco: 647-1860; Portu- gal: 1579-1580. ALCEDO, United States patrol boat sunk by a German submarine during the World War. See World War: 1Q17: IX. Naval operations: c, 4. ALCESTER, Frederick Beauchamp Paget Seymour, Baron (1821-1895), British admiral. Commanded the naval brigade in New Zealand during the Maori War; commanded the squadron sent to Albania in 1880 to compel the Porte to cede Dulcigno to Montenegro; commander of the British fleet at the bombardment of Alexandria, 1882. ALCHEMY.— "The term 'alchemy,' or, as it was spelt until the nineteenth century, alchymy, derived from the Arabic, is said to have come originally from a Greek word (chyma) signifying things melted and poured out. It is more probably derived from Kliem, 'the land of Egypt,' which was so named from the dark colour of its soil, composed of crumbling syenite. Alchemy, accord- ing to this derivation, is the 'art of the black country,' the Black Art. In Egypt it was carried to a high degree of development, and consequently this theory of the origin of the name receives sup- port from the philological character of the deriva- tives — al, the .Arabic definite article, and Khem, dark — because the term first came into use when the Arabian Mohammedans dominated Egypt, learned the secrets of the temple laboratories, and spread throughout the civilized parts of Western Europe the knowledge they had thus acquired. The application of the term has frequently, but wrongfully, been restricted to the pretended arts of making gold and silver, and the more profitable arts of adulterating and of imitating gold. It had, however, a wider application, and ought to be regarded as including all the arts known in an- cient times, which dealt with things now compre- hended in the science of chemistry." — J. C. Brown, History of chemistry, p. 2. — See also Chemistry, Practiced by Arabs. See Science: .\ncient: Arabian Science. ALCHUINE. See Alcuin, ALCIBIADES (c, 450-404 B.C.), Athenian politician and general. Commander of the Athe- nians in the enterprise against Syracuse. To escape trial for mutilation of statues, lied to Sparta where he arranged an alliance with Persia and an Ionian revolt against .Athens; later assisted the .Athenians by defeating the Lacedsmonians and returned to his native city in triumph. — See also Athens: B.C. 413-411; Greece; B. C. 421-418; 419-416; 413-412; 411-407; Syracuse: B.C. 415-413. ALCLYDE. — Rhydderch, a Cumbrian prince of the sixth century who was the victor in a civil conflict, "fixed his headquarters on a rock in the Clyde, called in the Welsh Alclud [previously a Roman town known as Theodosia], whence it was known to the EnglLsh for a time as Alclyde ; but the Goidels called it Dunbrettan, or the fortress of the Brythons, which has prevailed in the slightly modified form of Dumbarton. . . . Alclyde was more than once destroyed by the Northmen." — J. Rhvs, Celtic Britain, ch. 4. — See also Cumbria. ALCMAEONIDAE, a distinguished family in Athens. The family was banished about 596 B. C, for the slaying of Cylon by Archon Megacles ; re- turned in 510 through the aid of Sparta. To this family belonged Clisthenes, Pericles and ."Mcibiades. — See also .\thens: B.C. 612-595; Greece; B, C, Sth-5th centuries. ALCOCK, Captain Sir John William, mem- ber of the Royal .Mr Force, decorated in IQ19 for first crossing the .Atlantic in an airplane, from Newfoundland to Clifden, Ireland. [See Avia- tion: Important flights since igoo: 1919 (June).] Alcock was created knight in 1919. He died Dec. 1 8 of the same vear. ALCOCK, Sir Rutherford (1809-1897), Eng- lish diplomat. Consul to China, 1844-1846; con- sul-general in Japan, 1846-1865, where he stayed through the period of feudal anarchy. Served as minister plenipotentiary to Peking until 1871. Brought the art of Japan to the world's no- tice. ALCOHOL PROBLEM. See Liquor problem. ALCOLEA, Battle of (1868). See Spain: 1868-1873. ALCORTA, Jos§ Figueroa, President of Ar- gentine republic, 1906-1910. See Acre disputes. ALCUIN, or Albinus Flaccus (735-804), cele- brated English prelate and scholar at the time of Charlemagne; active in ecclesiastical and literary movements on the Continent ; writer of many learned treatises on grammar, rhetoric, theology and philosophy; at Troyes from 78 j to 790; his school conducted for Charlemagne and his en- tourage, was instrumental in introducing Latin cul- ture (see School of the palace, Charlemagne's) ; spent last years as abbot at Tours; a facile writer of prose and verse, and the leading intellectual figure of the Carolingian Renaissance. — See also Annals: French, German, Italian and Spanish an- nals; Christianity: 597-800: English church; Edu- cation: Medieval: 724-814; Charlemagne and Alcuin, ALDBOROUGH, England, called by the Ro- mans Isurium Brigantum. See Isurium, ALDEN, Ichabod (1739-1778), .\merican officer. See U. S. .\: 1778 (June-November). ALDEN, John (1599-1687), one of the Pilgrim Fathers, who emigrated to .America in the May- flower in 1620. One of the first settlers of Dux- bury. Of great assistance in the government of 202 ALDERNEY ISLAND the colony, and the last male survivor of the origi- nal group. The romance of his marriage to Pris- cilla Mullens was the theme of Longfellow's poem "The Courtship of Miles Standish " ALDERNEY ISLAND. See Channel islands ALDERSHOT COMMAND, the body of troops stationed at the great military camp estab- lished in 1855 at Aldershot, Hampshire, England. The permanent force is made up of troops avail- able for service with the first army corps ALDERSON, Sir Edwin Alfred Herrey (1859- ), British Lieutenant-general. See World War: igis: II. Western front: c, 11. ALDIE, Battle of. See U. S. A.: 1863 (June- July: Pennsylvania ) . ALDINE PRESS. See Printinc and the Press: 1460-1515. ALDOBRANDINI, Florentine family. See Rome: 1600-1656. ALDRED, or Ealdred (d. 1069), English arch- bishop. In 1046 led an unsuccessful expedition against the Welsh, supported the cause of Edgar the ^theling, but later submitted to William the Conqueror, and crowned the Norman king ALDRICH, Nelson Wilmarth (1841-1915), Republican member of the United States Senate from Rhode Island for thirty years; previously in the House of Representatives, 187S-1S80. He evi- denced an unusual skill in parliamentary organiza- tion as leader of the conservative faction in the Seriate; chiefly responsible for the Payne-.'^ldrich tariff act, which was received with keen disappoint- ment by tariff reformers; responsible for the en- actment of the Aldrich-Vreeland currency law. (q. V.) As chairman of the National Monetary Commission, he recommended revision of the bank- ing laws, which furnished the basis for the Federal Reserve act of 1913. See Tariff: 1909; U. S. A.: 1910 (March-June). ALDRICH-VREELAND ACT (1908), Ameri- can monetary act. "The Aldrich-Vreeland act, 1908, undertook to supply the need [of a more elastic currency] by allowing banks to issue additional notes on depositing approved state, country, or municipal bonds and by forming as- sociations with joint responsibility to issue notes secured by commercial paper. ... In the Aldrich- Vreeland act was a provision for a monetary com- mission. Senator Aldrich becoming chairman." — J. S. Bassett, Short history of the United States, p. 850. See Money and banking: Modern period: 1912-1913: Federal reserve system. ALDRINGER, Johann, Count von (1588- 1634), general in the imperial German army during the Thirty Years' War. Served under Wallenstein and Tilly, on the death of the latter (1632) suc- ceeding to his command ; fought against the Swedes on the Danube. ALEANDRO, Cirolamo (Hieronymus Alex- ander, 1480-1542), Italian ecclesiastic (cardinal) and scholar; author of a "Lexicon grjeco-latinum" (1512), etc.; was several times papal legate to Germany, and an ardent opponent of the Reforma- tion. ALEICHEM, Sholem (1859-1916), pseud, of Solomon J. Rabinowitz, Jewish author. See Jews: Language and literature. ALEMAN, Louis (c. 1390-1450), French cardinal ; member of the council of Basel where he maintained the supremacy of a council over the pope. In 1440 proclaimed the deposition of Pope Eugenius IV, elevating the antipope Felix V. ALEMANNI, or Alamanni. — 213. — Origin and first appearance. — "Under Antoninus, the Son of Severus, a new and more severe war once more (213) broke out in Raetia This also was ALEMANNI waged against the Chatti; but by their side a second people is named, which we here meet for the first time— the Alamanni. Whence they came, we know not. According to a Roman writing a little later, they were a conflux of mixed elements; the appellation also seems to point to a league of communities, as well as the fact that, afterwards, the different tribes comprehended under this name stand forth— more than is the case among the other great Germanic peoples— in their separate character, and the Juthungi, the Lentienses, and other Alamannic peoples not seldom act independ- ently. But that it is not the Germans of this region who here emerge, allied under the new name and strengthened by the alliance, is shown as well by the naming of the Alamanni along side of the Chatti, as by the mention of the unwonted skil- fulness of the Alamanni in equestrian combat. On the contrary, it was certainly, in the main, hordes coming on from the East that lent new strength to the almost extinguished German resistance on the Rhine; it is not improbable that the powerful Sem- nones, in earlier times dwelling on the middle Elbe, of whom there is no further mention after the end of the second centurv, furnished a strong contingent to the Alamanni."— T. Mommsen, His- tory of Rome, bk. 8, ch. 4.— "The standard quota- tion^respecting the derivation of the name from 'al' — 'all' and 'm-n' = 'man,' so that the word (somewhat exceptionably) denotes 'men of all sorts,' is from .'\gathias, who quotes Asinius Quadratus. . . . Notwithstanding this, I think it is an open ques- tion, whether the name may not have been applied by the truer and more unequivocal Germans of Suabia and Franconia, to certain less deiinitely Germanic allies from Wurtemberg and Baden, — parts of the Decumates Agri — parts which may have supplied a Gallic, a Gallo-Roman, or even a Slavonic element to the confederacy ; in which case, a name.so German as to have given the pres- ent French and Italian name for Germany, may, originally, have applied to a population other than Germanic. . . . The locality of the Alemanni was the parts about the Limes Romanus, a bound- ary which, in the time of Alexander Severus, Nie- buhr thinks they first broke through. Hence they were the Marchmen of the frontier, whoever those Marchmen were. Other such Marchmen were the Suevi; unless, indeed, we consider the two names as synonymous. Zeuss admits that, between the Suevi of Suabia, and the Alemanni, no tangible difference can be found." — R. G. Lathan, Germania of Tacitus; EpUegomena, sect. 11. — See also Ger- many: 3d century. Also in: T. Smith, Arminiiis, pt. 2, cli. i. 259. — Invasion of Gaul and Italy.— The Ale- manni, "hovering on the frontiers of the Empire . . . increased the general disorder that ensued after the death of Decius. They inflicted severe wounds on the rich provinces of Gaul ; they were the first who removed the veil that covered the feeble majesty of Italy. A numerous body of the .•Memanni penetrated across the Danube and through the Rhaetian Alps into the plains of Lom- bardy, advanced as far as Ravenna and displayed the victorious banners of barbarians almost in sight of Rome [259]. The insult and the danger rekindled in the senate some sparks of their ancient virtue. Both the Emperors were engaged in far distant wars — Valerian in the East and Galienus on the Rhine" The senators, however, succeeded in confronting the audacious invaders with a force which checked their advance, and they "retired into Germany laden with spoil" — E. Gibbon, His- tory of the decline and fail of the Roman empire, ch. 10. 203 ALEMANNI ALENgON 270. — Invasion of Italy. — Italy was invaded by the Alemanni, for the second time, in the reign of Aurelian, 270. They ravaged the provinces from the Danube to the Po, and were retreating, laden with spoils, when the vigorous Emperor intercepted them, on the banks of the former river. Half the host was permitted to cross the Danube ; the other half was surprised and surrounded. But these last, unable to regain their own country, broke through the Roman lines at their rear and sped into Italy again, spreading havoc as they went. It was only after three great battles, — one near Placenlia, in which the Romans were almost beaten, another on the Metaurus (where Hasdrubal was defeated), and a third near Pavia, — that the Germanic invad- ers were destroyed. — E. Gibbon, History 0) the decline and fall of the Ro"nan empire, ch. 11. — See also Barbaria.\ i.vv.hsio.ns: 3d century. 355-361.— Repulse by Julian. See Gaul: 35s- 361. 365-367.— Invasion of Gaul.— The Alemanni invaded Gaul in 305, committing widespread rav- ages and carrying away into the forests of Ger- many great spoil and many captives. The ne.vt winter they crossed the Rhine, again, in still greater numbers, defeated the Roman forces and captured the standards of the Herulian and Ba- tavian auxiliaries. But \ alentinian was now Emperor, and he adopted energetic measures. His lieutenant Jovinus overcame the invaders in a great battle fought near Chalons and drove them back to their own side of the river boundary. Two years later, the Emperor, himself, passed the Rhine and inflicted a memorable chastisement on the Alemanni. At the same time he strengthened the frontier defences, and, by diplomatic arts, fo- mented quarrels between the .Aiemanni and their neighbors, the Burgundiuns, which weak- ened both. — E. Gibbon, History of the decline and fall of the Roman empire, ch. 25. 378. — Defeat by Gratian. — On learning that the young Emperor Gratian was preparing to lead the military force of Gaul and the West to the help of his uncle and colleague, X'alens, against the Goths, the Alemanni swarmed across the Rhine into Gaul. Gratian instantly recalled the legions that were marching to Pannonia and en- countered the German invaders in a great battle fought near Argentaria (modern Colmar) in the month of May, .\. D. 378. The .Memanni were routed with such slaughter that no more than S.ooo out of 40,000 to 70,000, are said to have escaped. Gratian afterwards crossed the Rhine and humbled his troublesome neighbors in their own country. — E. Gibbon, History of the decline and fall of the Roman empire, ch. 26. 496-504. — Overthrow by the" Franks. — "In the year 4g6 the Salians ISalian Franks 1 began that career of conquest which they followed up with scarcely any intermission until the death of their warrior king. The Alemanni, extending them- selves from their original seats on the right bank of the Rhine, between the Main and the Danube, had pushed forward into Germanica Prima, where they came into collision with the prankish sub- jects of King Sigebert of Cologne. Clovis flew to the assistance of his kinsman and defeated the Alemanni in a great battle in the neighbourhood of Ziilpich [called, commonly, the battle of Tol- biac]. He then established a considerable number of his Franks in the territory of the Alemanni. the traces of whose residence are found in the names of Franconia and Frankfort." — W. C. Perry, The Franks, ch. 2. — "Clovis had been in- tending to cross the Rhine, but the hosts of the Alamanni came upon him, as it seems, unexpvct- 204 edly and forced a battle on the left bank of the river. He seemed to be overmatched, and the horror of an impending defeat overshadowed the Frankish king. Then, in his despair, he bethought himself of the God of Clotiiaa [his queen, a Bur- gundian Christian princess, of the orthodox or Catholic faith]. Raising his eyes to heaven, he said: 'Oh Jesus Christ, whom Clotilda declares to be the Son of the living God, who art said to give help to those who are in trouble and who trust in Thee, I humbly beseech Thy succor ! I have called on my gods and they are far from my help. If Thou wilt deliver me from mine ene- mies, I will believe in Thee, and be baptised in Thy name.' At this moment, a sudden change was seen in the fortunes of the Franks. The .Ala- manni began to waver, they turned, they fled. Their king, according to one account was slain; and the nation seems to have accepted Clovis as its over-lord." The following Christmas day Clo- vis was baptised at Reims and 3,000 of his war- riors followed the royal example. "In the early years of the new century, probably about 503 or 504, Clovis was again at war with his old ene- mies, the .Alamanni. . . . Clovis moved his army into their territories and won a victory mucli more decisive, though less famous than that of 406. This time the angry king would make no such easy terms as he had done before. From their pleasant dwellings by the Main and the Neckar, from all the valley of the Middle Rhine, the terrified .Alamanni were forced to flee. Their place was taken by Frankish settlers, from whom all this district received in the Middle .Ages the name of the Duchy of Francia, or, at a rather later date, that of the Circle of Franconia. The .Ala- manni, with their wives and children, a broken and dispirited host, moved southward to the shores of the Lake of Constance and entered the old Roman province of Rhastia. Here they were on what was held to be, in a sense, Italian ground; and the arm of Theodoric, as ruler of Italy, as successor to the Emperors of the West, was stretched forth to protect them. . . . Eastern Switzerland, Western Tyrol. Southern Baden and WiJrtemberg and Southwestern Bavaria probably formed this new .Alamannia, which will figure in later history as the 'Ducatus Alamanniae.' or the Circle of Swabia." — T. Hodgkin, Italy and her in- vaders, bk. 4, ch. p. — See also Suevi: 460-500; F'ranks: 4S1-511; SwiTZERtAND: Celtic inhabitants; ist-3d centuries; Europe: Ethnology: Migrations: Map showing Barbaric migrations. 528-729. — Struggles against the Frank domin- ion. See Ger.manv: 4S1-768. 547. — Final subjection to the Franks. See Bavaria: 547. .Also in: P. Godwin, History of France: Ancient Gaul, bk. 3, ch. 11. ALEMANNIA: Mediaeval duchy. See Ger- many: 843-002. ALEN^ON, Counts and dukes of.— First line founded by Yves, lord of Belesmc, who fortified the town of .AIen(;on in tenth century. All his successors were involved in the wars of the kings of England, in Normandy. Mabille, countess of .AIeni;on and heiress of this family, married Roger de Montgomery, and thus a second house of Alen- i;on was started, which became extinct with the death of Robert IV. Established in a third house in the person of Charles of Valois, it was raised to a peerage in 1367 and into a dukedom in 1414. John, first duke of .Alen(;on, was killed at Agin- court on October 25, 141 s, after having killed the duke of York. The dukedom reverted back to the crown in 1524, was given to Catherine de ALEPPO ALEXANDER Medici in 1559, and as an appanage to her son Francis in 1566. Henry IV pawned it to the duke of Wiirtembcrg, and, by grant of Louis XIII, it passed to Gaston, duke of Orleans. ALEPPO (Haleb), a vilayet of the former Turkish empire including northern Syria and northwestern Mesopotamia. The city of the same name is the junction point of the Bagdad and Hejaz railways, and with the surrounding ter- ritory was captured by General Allenby in igi8. Location. See Arabu: Map; Turkey: Map of Asia Minor. 637. — Surrender to Moslems. See Caliphate: 632-639. 638-969. — Taken by the Arab followers of Mo- hammed in 638, this city was recovered by the Byzantines in 969. See Byzantine empire; 963- 1025. 1260. — Destruction by the Mongols. — The Mongols, under Khulagu, or Houlagou, brother of Mangu Khan, having overrun Mesopotamia nnd extinguished the caliphate at Bagdad, crossed the Euphrates in the spring of 1260 and advanced to Aleppo. The city was taken after a siege of seven days and given up for five days to pillage and slaughter. "When the carnage ceased, the streets were cumbered with corpses. ... It is said that 100,000 women and children were sold as slaves. The walls of Aleppo were razed, its mosques destroyed, and its gardens ravaged." Damascus submitted and was spared. Khulagu was meditating, it is said, the conquest of Jeru- salem, when news of the death of the Great Khan called him to the east. — H. H. Howorth, History of the Mongols, pp. 200-211. 1401. — Sack and massacre by Timur. See TiMUR. 16th-18th centuries. — Conquest by the Otto- mans. — Revival of trade. — Under the strong rule of the Ottomans, who took possession of Aleppo in 1517, its trade with the East revived and in- creased. In the reign of James I one of the first provincial factories and consulates of the British Turkey Company was established there. It was long the eastern outpost of the company's opera- tions, and was connected by private postal serv- ice with the western outpost of the East India Company in Bagdad. Aleppo's importance in trade was first diminished by the discovery of the Cape route to India; the opening of a land route through Egypt to the Red sea lessened it further; and the making of the Suez canal struck the final blow. 1916 (May). — Declared independent with French and English spheres of influence. See Syria: 1908-1921. 1918. — Captured and occupied by British. See World War: 1918: VI. Turkish theater: c, 13 and 24. ALERIA, Naval battle of (537 B.C.). See Rome: Ancient kingdom: B.C. 753-510. ALESIA, ancient name for a hill in central France now Alise-Ste.-Reine, where in 52 B. C. Ciesar besieged Vercingctorix, forced him to sur- render and completed the conquest of Gaul. Ex- cavations of the siege works were made by Napo- leon III. See Gaul: B.C. 58-51. ALESSANDRI, Arturo, president of Chile, 1920. As the result of a disputed election in 1920, a court of honor was appointed, and after careful examination, Seiior Alessandri was declared elected. The result was accepted by the people. — See also Chile: 1920 (June). ALESSANDRIA: Creation of the city (1168). See Italy: i 174- it 83. ALEUTIAN ISLANDS, a chain of islands ex- tending westward from the coast of Alaska into the Pacific ocean. See Alaska: Map. Inhabitants. Sec Eskimauan family. 1741.— Bering's exploration.— Russian claims. See Oregon: 1741-1836. ALEXANDER I, pope (A. D. 106-115). Alexander II, pope, 1061-1073 coadjutor of Hildebrand in suppressing simony ; was threat- ened by the pretentions of the German anti-pope Honorarius II, who was soon deposed. Alexander III, pope, 1159-1181; opposed Fred- erick Barbarossa who withheld recognition of him as pope until 1177. Held the third Lateran Synod; humbled Henry II of England in the Thomas Becket affair; confirmed the kingship of Alphonso I of Portugal; excommunicated William the Lion of Scotland and laid the interdict on that coun- try. — See also Italy: 1154-1162 to 1174-1183; Papacy: 1122-1250; Venice: 1177. Alexander IV, pope, 1254-1261 ; opposed the Hohenstaufens under Conradin and Manfred ; tried to unite the Greek and Latin churches; es- tablished the Inquisition in France; attempted to organize a Crusade against the Tatars. See Ve- rona: 1236-1259. Alexander V, pope, 1409-1410; promoted the council of Pisa, which elected him to supersede the two rival claimants to the papal succession in order to effect a solution of the Great Schism; conferred investiture of the kingdom of Sicily on Louis II of Anjou. — See also Papacy: 1377- 1417. Alexander VI, pope, 1492- 1503, lived a purely secular life, using all his power to gain wealth and station for his children. Intervened in the Franco-Spanish quarrels over the possession of Naples; attempted the conquest of central Italy. Crushed the power of several of the great fami- lies of Italy; patron of Italian art. — See also Papacy: 1471-1513; America: 1492; 1493; Flor- ence: 1490-1498. Alexander VII, pope, 1655-1667, patron of literature and art; favored the Jesuits; carried on protracted controversies with France and Portu- gal. — See also Papacy: 1644-1667; Port Royal and THE Jansenists: 1602-1700. Alexander VIII, pope, 1689-1691, condemned the proclamation of the liberties of the Galilean church made in 1682; indulged in nepotism; con- demned the Jesuit doctrine of philosophic sin. Alexander, of Battenberg (1857-1893). Made prince of Bulgaria in 1879 through the influence of the Russian tsar. In 1881 assumed absolute power, but restored the constitution in 1883; as- sumed the government of the revolted East Rume- lia in 1885, causing a war with Serbia which' he closed successfully ; was forced by Russian influ- ence to abdicate in 1886. — See also Bulgaria: 1885-1886; 1879. Alexander III, the Great (356-323 B.C.), king of Macedon. Was ambitious to establish a Pan- hellenic empire; subdued Greece, the greater part of Asia Minor, and Egypt, where he founded the city that bears his name. Completely routed the Persians under Darius, and extended his empire to India. Attempted to fuse Oriental and Greek civilizations. — Sec also Asia: B.C. 334-A. D. 1498; Athens: B. C. 336-322 ; Egypt: B. C. 332 ; 332-322 ; Gaza: B.C. 332; Gordian knot; Greece: B.C. 336-335; India: B.C. 327-312; Macedonia: B.C. 334-330; B.C. 330-323; Persepolis: B.C. 330; Rhodes, Island of: B.C. 332; Samaria: Change of population by Alexander the Great; Sidon; Tyre: B.C. 332. Alexander (1893-1920), king of Greece, second son of king Constantine, whom he succeeded on 20: ALEXANDER ALEXANDRIA, B.C. 332 his abdication, June, igt?. Died, October, 1920. See Greece: 1916; 1920-1021; World War: iqi7: V: Balkan theatre: a, 1; a, 5; a, 7. Alexander (1461-1506), IcinK of Poland, 1501- 1507. The parsimony of the Polish nobles, who controlled the mint, forced him to sue for peace with Russia, and assisted Prussia and Moldavia in their efforts to secure their freedom. See Po- land: 1333-1572 Alexander I (Aleksander Pavlovich) (1777- 1825), tsar of Russia, 1801-1825. Posed as a re- former, but did little; made war on Napoleon, but became his ally at Tilsit. Took Finland from the Swedes (1809). After Napoleon's downfall, formed the Holy Alliance; was patron of liberal government in Europe until 1818 when Metter- nich gained influence over him ; refused aid to the Greeks, but later threatened war upon Turkey. — See also Austrl\: 1809-1814 ; Holy Alliance; Russia; 1801 ; 1807-1820. Alexander II (1818-1881), tsar of Russia. Came to the throne 1855. In 1861 emancipated the serfs, retaining the communal system ; organized the army and navy ; drew up a new judicial ad- ministration, a new penal code, a system of rural government. Made war on Turkey 1877 to pro- tect Christians in the east, but lost much of his gain at the Congress of Berlin. Assassinated, March 13, 1881. See Europe: Modern period: Russia in the 19th century; Russia: 1879-1881. Alexander III (1845-1894), tsar of Russia. A firm believer in autocracy and an ardent Slavo- phil. Annulled his father's reforms in local gov- ernment, centralizing the imperial administration. He was the father of the last Russian tsar, Nich- olas II. — See also Europe: Modern period: Russia in the loth century; Russu: 1881-1894; 1894. Alexander I (1078-1124) king of Scotland, son of Malcolm Canmore and Margaret, sister of Edgar the .-Etheling ; brother of Edgar whom he succeeded to the Scottish throne in 1107. He married Sibylla, daughter of Henry I of England. Gained the title of "the Fierce" by his ruthless suppression of an insurrection in his northern dominion. Alexander II (1198-1240), king of Scotland, son of William the Lion, whom he succeeded in 1214; surnamed "the Peaceful." Led an army into England to support the English barons against John in their struggle for Magna Carta. Alexander III (i 241 -1285), king of Scotland, son of Alexander II, whom he succeeded in 1249 Mar- ried Princess Margaret, eldest daughter of Henry III of England in 1251; defeated the Norwegians in their attempt at invasion in 1263. Alexander (il, 323 B.C.), Greek painter. See Painting: Greek. ALEXANDER, The Great. See .Alexander UI (356-323 B.C.). ALEXANDER, Sir James Edward (1S03- 1885), British soldier, traveler and author. Served in the war against Burma (1825); conducted an exploring expedition into .Africa 1836-18^7. ALEXANDER, Joshua Willis (1S52- ), appointed secretary of commerce. See \J. S. A: 1919-1920. ALEXANDER, Sir William (1567-1640) See America; Map of early colonial grants; New Eng- land: 1621-1631; Nova Scotia: 1621-1668. ALEXANDER OF HALES (d. 1245). English theologian Received a doctor's degree at Paris where he was a celebrated teacher Hi? work, the "Summa Theologiae," formulates a system of edu- cation and is the first philosophical contribution of the Franciscan order, which Alexander had entered in 1222. ALEXANDER JANNAEUS (d. 76 B.C.), king of the Jews. See Gaza: B. C. 100 ALEXANDER KARAGEORGEVICH, prince- regent of Serbia and successor of Peter I, as king of the United Kingdom of Jugo-Slavia (1888- ); distinguished himself in the national struggle against .'\ustria and Bulgaria, 1914-1918. ALEXANDER NEVSKY, Saint (1220-1263), grand duke of Vladimir. Fought against Germans, Swedes and Lithuanians, who attacked Russia after the Tatar invasions, in 1262, to prevent a revolt, induced the Tatars to lighten the yearly tribute and abolish military service rendered by the Russians to the Tatars. ALEXANDER OBRENOVICH (1876-1903), king of Serbia, 1889-1903; in 1893 overthrew the regency and took authority into his own hands Restored the conservative constitution of i86g To appease the people's anger at his marriage to a lady of the court, granted a bi-cameral legisla- ture; was assassinated with his consort by revo- lutionists, June II, 1903. See Serbia: 1885-190^ ALEXANDER SEVERUS (AD. 209-235). Roman emperor. Defeated .\rtaxerxes, king of Persia; defended his borders from the German in- vaders; killed in an insurrection in the army; though a pagan, reverenced the teachings of Christianity. See Rome: 192-284. ALEXANDER-SINCLAIR, Sir Edwyn Sin- clair (1867- ), Rear-admiral served in battle of Jutland. See World War: igi6: IX. Naval opera- tions: a. ALEXANDERSON. Ernst Fredrik 'Werner (1878- ). See Electrical discovery: Telegra- phy and telephony: Alexanderson alternator. ALEXANDRA FEODOROVNA, Princess .Mix of Hesse (1872-1918), last empress of Russia through marriage to Tsar Nicholas II in 1894; was a grand daughter of Queen Victoria ; was made prisoner by the Soviet government, and put to death with her husband and children. See Rus- sia: 1916: Opposition of Duma to cabinet. ALEXANDRETTA, or Iskanderun, a town of North Syria, the key to Beisan Pass; scene of the victory of Ibrahim Pasha in 1832 which opened Cilicia to his advance. 1920. — Recognized as of international interest by treaty of Sevres. See Sevres, Treaty of: 1020: Contents of treaty: Part XI. Ports, water- ways and railways 1921. — French administration. See Sevres, Treaty of: 1921: Secret pact of France with Turkey ALEXANDRIA.— B. C. 332.— Founding of the city. — "When Alexander reached the Egyptian military station at the little town or village of Rhakotis, he saw with the quick eye of a great commander how to turn this petty settlement into a great city, and to make its roadstead, out of which ships could be blown by a change of wind, into a double harbour roomy enough to shelter the navies of the world. .Ml that was needed was to join the island by a mole to the continent The site was admirably secure and convenient, a narrow strip of land between the Mediterranean and the great inland Lake Mareotis. The whole northern side faced the two harbours, which were bounded east and west by the mole, and beyond by the long, narrow rocky island of Pharos, stretching parallel with the coast On the south was the inland port of Lake Mareotis The length of the city was more than three miles, the breadth more than three-quarters of a mile; the mole w^ above thref-quarters of a mile long and six hundred feet broad; its breadth is now doubled, owing to the silting up of the sand. Modern Alexandria until lately only occupied the mole, 206 ALEXANDRIA, B.C. 304 ALEXANDRIA, B.C. 282-246 and was a great town in a corner of the space which Alexander, with large provision for the future, measured out. The form of the new city was ruled by that of the site, but the fancy of Alexander designed it in the shape of a Mace- donian cloak or chlamys, such as a national hero wears on the coins of the kings of Maccdon, his ancestors The situation is excellent for commerce. .Alexandria, with the best Egyptian harbour on the Mediterranean, and the inland port connected with the Nile streams and canals, was the natural emporium of the Indian trade. Port Said is supe- rior now, because of its grand artificial port and the advantage for steamships of an unbroken sea- route." — R S. Poole, Cities oj Egypt, ch. 12. — See also Macedonia, &c.: B. C. 334-330; and Egypt: B. C. ir- B. C. 304. — Antigonus and Demetrius make war on Ptolemy. — Rhodes sends fleet to aid Egyptian king. See Rhodes, Island of: B. C. 304. B.C. 282-246.— Reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus. — Greatness and splendor of the city. — Com- merce. — Libraries. — Museum. — Schools. — Ptolemy Philadelphus, son of Ptolemy Soter, suc- ceeded to the throne of Egypt in 282 B. C. when his father retired from it in his favor, and reigned until 246 B. C. "Alexandria, founded by the great conqueror, increased and beautified by Ptolemy Soter, was now far the greatest city of Alexan- der's Empire. It was the first of those new foun- dations which are a marked feature in Hellenism; there were many others of great size and impor- tance — above all, Antioch, then Seleucia on the Tigris, then Nicomedia, Nica^a, Apamea, which lasted; besides such as Lysimacheia, Antigoneia, and others, which early disappeared, . . . Alexan- dria was the model for all the rest. The inter- section of two great principal thoroughfares, adorned with colonnades for the footways, formed the centre point, the omphalos of the city. The other streets were at right angles with these thoroughfares, so that the whole place was quite regular. Counting its old part, Rhakotis, which was still the habitation of native Egyptians, Alex- andria had five quarters, one at least devoted to Jews who had originally settled there in great numbers. The mixed population there of Mace- donians, Greeks, Jews, and Egyptians gave a pe- luliarly complex and variable character to the population. Let us not forget the vast number of strangers from all parts of the world whom trade and politics brought there It was the great mart where the wealth of Europe and of Asia changed hands. .Alexander had opened the sea- way by exploring the coasts of Media and Persia Caravans from the head of the Persian Gulf, and ships on the Red Sea, brought all the wonders of Ceylon and China, as well as of Further India, to .Alexandria. There, too, the wealth of Spain and Gaul, the produce of Italy and Macedonia, the amber of the Baltic and the salt fish of Pontus, the silver of Spain and the copper of Cyprus, the timber of Macedonia and Crete, the pottery and oil of Greece — a thousand imports from all the Mediterranean — came to be exchanged for the spices of Arabia, the splendid birds and embroider- ies of India and Ceylon, the gold and ivory of Africa, the antelopes, the apes, the leopards, the elephants of tropical climes. Hence the enormous wealth of the Lagidje, for in addition to the mar- vellous fertility and great population — it is said to have been seven millions — of Egypt, they made all the profits of this enormous carrying trade. We gain a good idea of what the splendours of the capital were by the very full account preserved to us by Athenaeus of the great feast which inaugu- rated the reign of Philadelphuf. ... All this seems idle pomp, and the doing of an idle syba- rite. Philadelphus was anything but that. ... It was he who opened up the Egyptian trade with Italy, and made Puteoli the great port for ships from Alexandria, which it remained for centuries. It was he who explored Ethiopia and the southern parts of Africa, and brought back not only the curious fauna to his zoological gardens, but the first knowledge of the Troglodytes for men of science. The cultivation of science and of letters too was so remarkably one of his pursuits that the progress of the Alexandria of his day forms an epoch jn the world's history, and we must sepa- jate his University and its professors from this summary, and devote to them a separate section. . . . The history of the organization of the Uni- versity and its staff is covered with almost im- penetrable mist. For the Museum and Library were in the strictest sense what we should now call an University, and one, too, of the Oxford type, where learned men were invited to take Fellowships, and spend their learned leisure close to observatories in science, and a great library of books. Like the mediaeval universities, this en- dowment of research naturally turned into an engine for teaching, as all who desired knowledge flocked to such a centre, and persuaded the Fel- low to become a Tutor. The model came from Athens. There the schools, beginning with the .Academy of Plato, had a fixed property — a home with its surrounding garden, and in order to make this foundation sure, it was made a shrine where the Muses were worshipped, and where the head of the school, or a priest appointed, performed stated sacrifices. This, then, being held in trust by the successors of the donor, who bequeathed it to them, was a property which it would have been sacrilegious to invade, and so the title Museum arose for a school of learning. Demetrius the Phalerean, the friend and protector of Theophras- tus, brought this idea with him to Alexandria, when his namesake drove him into exile and it was no doubt his advice to the first Ptolemy which originated the great foundation, though Philadel- phus, who again exiled Demetrius, gets the credit of it. The pupil of Aristotle moreover impressed on the king the necessity of storing up in one central repository all that the world knew or could produce, in order to ascertain the laws of things from a proper analysis of detail. Hence was founded not only the great library, which in those days had a thousand times the value a great library has now, but also observatories, zoologi- cal gardens, collections of exotic plants, and of other new and strange things brought by exploring expeditions from the furthest regions of Arabia and Africa. This library and museum proved indeed a home for the Muses, and about it a most brilliant group of students in literature and science was formed. The successive librarians were Zcnodotus, the grammarian or critic; Callimachus, to whose poems we shall presently return ; Eratosthenes, the astronomer, who originated the process by which the size of the earth is determined to-day ; .Appol- lonius the Rhodian, disciple and enemy of Calli- machus; Aristophanes of Byzantium, founder of a school of philological criticism; and Aristarchus of Samos, reputed to have been the greatest critic of ancient times. The study of the text of Homer was the chief labour of Zenodotus, Aristophanes, and Aristarchus, and it was Aristarchus who mainly fixed the form in which the Iliad and Odyssey remain to this day. . . The vast collec- tions of the library and museum actually deter- mined the whole character of the literature of 207 ALEXANDRIA, B.C. 282-246 ALEXANDRIA, B.C. 48-47 Alexandria. One word sums it all up — erudition, whether in philosophy, in criticism, in science, even in poetry. Strange to say, they neglected not only oratory, for which there was no scope, but history, and this we may attribute to the fact that history before .Alexander had no charms for Hel- lenism. Mythical lore, on the oth;r hand, strange uses and curious words, were departments of re- search dear to them. In science they did great things, so did they in geography. . . . But weie they original in nothing? Did they add nothmg of their own to the splendid record of Greek litera- ture? In the next generation came the art of criticism, which .Aristarchus developed into a real science, and of that we may speak in its* place; but even in this generation we may claim for them the credit of three original, or nearly original, de- velopments in literature — the pastoral idyll, as we have it in Theocritus; the elegy, as we have it in the Roman imitators of Philetas and Callimachus; and the romance, or love story, the parent of our modern novels. .'\ll these had early prototypes in the folk songs of Sicily, in the love songs of Mim- nermus and of .^ntimachus, in the tales of Miletus, but still the revival was fairly to be called origi- nal. Of these the pastoral idyll was far the most remarkable, and laid hold upon the world for ever." — J. P. Mahaffy, Story of Alexavder's em- pire, ch. 13-14. — "Tbere were two Libraries of Alexandria under the Ptolemies, the larger one in the quarter called the Bruchium, and the smaller one, named 'the daughter,' in the Serapeum. which was situated in the quarter called Rhacotis. The former was totally destroyed in the conflagration of the Bruchium during Cssar's Alexandrian War fsee below: 48-47 B. C] ; but the latter, which was of great vahie, remained uninjured (see J. Mat- ter, Essai Itistorique siir I'Ecole d'Alexandric, v. i, p. 133 seg., 237 seq.). It is not stated by any ancient writer where the collection of Pcrgamus was placed, which Antony gave to Cleopatra (Plutarch, Anton., c. 58) ; but it is most probable that it was deposited in the Bruchium, as that quarter of the city was now without a library, and the queen was anxious to repair the ravage; occa- sioned by the civil war. If this supposition is cor- rect, two Alexandrian libraries continued to exist after the time of Cfesar, and this is rendered still more probable by the fact that during the first three centuries of the Christian era the Bruchium was still the literary quarter of .Alexandria. But a great change took place in the time of .■\ureli3n. This Emperor, in suppressing the revolt of Firmus in Egypt, A.D. 273 [see below: 273I is said to have destroyed the Bruchium : and though this statement is hardly to be taken literally, the Bruchium ceased from this time to be included within the walls of .Mexandria, and was regarded only as a suburb of the city. Whether the great library in the Bruchium with the museum and its other literary establishments, perished at this time, we do not know; but the Scrapcum for the next century takes its place as the literary quarter of Alexandria, and becomes the chief library in the city. Hence later writers erroneously speak of the Serapeum as if it had been from the beginning the great Alexanddan library. . . . Gibbon seems to think that the whole of the Serapeum was de- stroyed [38q, by order of the Emperor Theodo- sius — see below! ; but this was not the case. It would appear that it was only 'M'l sanctuarv of the god that was levelled with the ground, and that the library, the halls and other buildings in the consecrated ground remained standing long afterwards." — E. Gibbon, History of the decline and fall of the Ronian empire, ch. 2S. Notes by Dr. William Smith.- — Concerning the reputed final destruction of the library by the Moslems, see below; A.D. 641-646. — See also Education: An- cient: .Alexandria; Europe; Historic period; Spread of Hellenism; Hellenism: Hellenism and Alexan- dria; iNVExnoNs: Greek; Libraries: Ancient Alex- andria; Painting: Greek. .Also in: O. Delepierre, Historical difficulties and contested events, ch. 3. — S. Sharpe, History of l^Sypty <"''• 7' 8 and 12. "If we consider in its large features what the early Hellenistic period has done for us in litera- ture, we may divide its action into the care and preservation of Hellenic masterpieces, and the pro- duction of works of its own. .As regards the former, there can be no douiit that the creation of the great cosmopolitan library at .Alexandria, and the great trade in books which came thence, were the greatest acts of protection ever done for the greatest literature the world has seen. And not only were all the masterpieces of the Golden .Age sought out and catalogued, but the chief librarian made it his business to publish critical studies on the purity of the texts, and to see that the .Alex- andrian text represented the best and soundest tra- dition. ... So there was collected at this wonder- ful library all that was rare and precious, ordered and catalogued by competent scholars. I go a step farther, and say that, though we have no explicit record telling us the fact, there must have been some regular permission to copv books in the library, and, multiplying them by slave hands, to disperse them by way of trade all over the Greek- speaking world." — See also Greece, Literature of: Development of philosophical Ulerature. — "We have from Alexandria, Theocritus, and we have the love- novel. I will here add a word upon two more of these poets. . . . The first is Aratus, who was in- deed a Hellenistic, but not an .Alexandrian, poet, whose didactic work on the astronomy of use for navigation, and on the signs of the weather of use for farming, has survived to us complete. . . . Wc still possess the Argonautics of ApoUonius the Rhodian — a pedant-poet of the same generation. In the midst of pages of tedious prolixity, which have forever damned the popularity of the work, occurs the great episode of the meeting and love at first sight of Medea and Jason. The treat- ment of this world-w'ide, but never world-worn, theme is so wholly fresh, so wholly un-Hellenic, that it requires no subtle criticism to see in it the broad light of the oriental love-novel which had first dawned in the East upon the companions of .Alexander. It is no longer the physical, but the sentimental side of that passion which interests the poet and his readers. The actual marriage of the lovers is but an episode, in which the surrounding anxieties and the unhappy omens take the foremost place." — J. P. Mahaffy, Story of Alexander's em- pire, p. 100. B.C. 48-47. — Caesar and Cleopatra. — Rising against the Romans. — Siege. — Destruction of the great library. — Roman victory. — From the battle field of Pharsalia Pompey fled to .Alexandria tn Egypt, and was treacherously murdered as he stepped on shore. C<esar arrived a few days after- wards, in close pursuit, and shed tears, it is said, on being shown his rival's mangled head. He had brought scarcely more than 3,000 of his soldiers with him, and he found Egypt in a turbulent state of civil war. The throne was in dispute between children of the late king, Ptolemaeus Auletes. Cleopatra, the elder daughter, and Ptolemaeus, a son, were at war with one another, and Arsinoe. a younger daughter, was ready to put forward claims. Notwithstanding the insignificance of his 208 ALEXANDRIA, A. D. 100-312 ALEXANDRIA, A. D. 389 force, Caesar did not hesitate to assOme to occupy Alexandria and to adjudicate the dispute. But the fascinations of Cleopatra (then twenty years of age) soon made him her partisan, and her scarcely disguised lover. This aggravated the irritation which was caused in Alexandria by the presence of Cjesar's troops, and a furious rising of the city was provoked. He fortified himself in the great palace, which he had taken possession of, and which commanded the causeway to the island, Pharos, thereby commanding the port. Destroy- ing a large part of the city in that neighborhood, he made his position exceedingly strong. At the same time he seized and burned the royal fleet, and thus caused a conflagration in which the greater of the two priceless libraries of Alexandria — the library of the Museum — was, much of it, con- sumed. [See above; B.C. 282-246.] By such "measures Caesar withstood, for several months, a siege conducted on the part of the Alexandrians with great determination and animosity. It was not until March', 47 B.C., that he was relieved from his dangerous situation, by the arrival of a faithful ally, in the person of Mithradates, of Pergamum, who led an army into Egypt, reduced Pelusium, and crossed the Nile at the head of the Delta. Ptolemffius advanced with his troops to meet this new invader and was followed and over- taken by Caesar. In the battle which then oc- curred the Egyptian army was utterly routed and Ptolemeeus perished in the Nile. Cleopatra was then married, after the Egyptian fashion, to a younger brother, and established on the throne, while Arsinoe was sent a prisoner to Rome. — A. Hirtius, Alexandrian war. A. D. 100-312. — Early Christian church. — Its influence. See CuRisn.^NiTv; 33-100: Rise of the churches: Alexandria, also 100-312: Period of growth and struggle: Alexandria. 116. — Destruction of the Jews. See Jews: 116. 215. — Massacre by Caracalla. — "Caracalla was the common enemy of mankind. He left the capi- tal (and he never returned to it) about a year after the murder of Geta [213]. The rest of his reign [four years] was spent in the several provinces of the Empire, particularly those of the East, and every province was, by turns, the scene of his rapine and cruelty. ... In the midst of peace, and upon the slightest provocation, he issued his commands at Alexandria, Egypt [215], for a general massacre. From a secure post in the tem- ple of Serapis, he viewed and directed the slaugh- ter of many thousand citizens, as well as stran- gers, without distinguishing either the number or the crime of the sufferers." — E. Gibbon, History of the decline and fall of the Roman empire, ch. 6. 260-272. — Tumults of the third century. — "The people of Alexandria, a various mixture of nations, united the vanity and inconstancy of the Greeks with the superstition and obstinacy of the Egyptians. The most trifling occasion, a transient scarcity of flesh or lentils, the neglect of an accus- tomed salutation, a mistake of precedency in the public baths, or even a religious dispute, were at any time sufficient to kindle a sedition among that vast multitude, whose resentments were furious and implacable. After the captivity of Valerian [the Roman emperor, made prisoner by Sapor, king of Persia, 260] and the insolence of his son had relaxed the authority of the laws, the Alex- andrians abandoned themselves to the ungoverned rage of their passions, and their unhappy country was the theatre of a civil war, Vv'hich continued (with a few short and suspicious truces) above twelve years. All intercourse was cut off between the several quarters of the afflicted city, every street was polluted with blood, every building of strength converted into a citadel; nor did the tumult subside till a considerable part of .Mexan- dria was irretrievably ruined. The spacious and magnificent district of Bruchion, with its palaces and museum, the residence of the kings and phi- losophers of Egypt, is described, above a century afterwards, as already reduced to its present state of dreary solitude." — E. Gibbon, History of the decline and fall of the Roman empire, ch. 10. 273. — Destruction of the Bruchium by Aure- lian. — After subduing Palmyra and its queen Ze- nobia, 272, the emperor Aurclian was called into Egypt to put down a rebellion there, headed by one Firmus, a friend and ally of the Palmyrene queen. Firmus had great wealth, derived from trade, and from the paper-manufacture of Egypt, which was mostly in his hands. He was defeated and put to death. "To Aurelian's war against Firmus, or to that of Probus a little before in Egypt, may be referred the destruction of Bru- chium, a great quarter of Alexandria, which ac- cording to Ammianus Marcellinus, was ruined un- der Aurelian and remained deserted ever after." — J. B. L, Crevier, History of the Roman emperors, bk. 27. 296. — Siege by Diocletian. — A general revolt of the African provinces of the Roman empire occurred 206. The barbarous tribes of Ethiopia and the desert were brought into alliance with the provincials of Egypt, Cyrenaica, Carthage and Mauretania, and the flame of war was universal. Both the emperors of the time, Diocletian and Maximian, were called to the African field. "Dio- cletian, on his side, opened the campaign in Egypt by the siege of Alexandria, cut off the aqueducts which conveyed the waters of the Nile into every quarter of that immense city, and, rendering his camp impregnable to the sallies of the besieged multitude, he pushed his reiterated attacks with caution and vigor. After a siege of eight months, Alexandria, wasted by the sword and by fire, im- plored the clemency of the conqueror, but it ex- perienced the full extent of his severity. Many thousands of the citizens perished in a promiscu- ous slaughter, and there were few obnoxious per- sons in Egypt who escaped a sentence either of death or at least of exile. The fate of Busiris and of Coptos was still more melancholy than that of Alexandria; those proud cities . . . were utterly destroyed." — E. Gibbon, History of the decline and fall of the Roman empire, ch. 13. 389. — Destruction of the Serapeum. — "After the edicts of Theodosius had severely prohibited the sacrifices of the pagans, they were still toler- ated in the city and temple of Serapis. . . . The archepiscopal throne of Alexandria was filled by Thcophilus, the perpetual enemy of peace and virtue; a bold, bad man, whose hands were al- ternately polluted with gold and with blood. His pious indignation was excited by the honours of Serapis. . . . The votaries of Serapis, whose strength and numbers were much inferior to those of their antagonists, rose in arms [380] at the in- stigation of the philosopher Olympius, who ex- horted them to die in the defence of the altars of the gods. These pagan fanatics fortified them- selves in the temple, or rather fortress, of Serapis; repelled the besiegers by daring sallies and a reso- lute defence; and, by the inhuman cruelties which they exercised on their Christian prisoners, obtained the last consolation of despair. The efforts of the prudent magistrate were usefully exerted for the establishment of a truce till the answer of Theo- dosius should determine the fate of Serapis." The judgment of the emperor condemned the great 209 ALEXANDRIA, 413-1882 ALEXEIEV temple to destruction and it was reduced to a heap of ruins. "The valuable library of Alexandria was pillaged or destroyed ; and, near twenty years afterwards, the appearance of the empty shelves excited the regret and indignation of every spec- tator whose mind was not totally darkened by re- ligious prejudice." — E. Gibbon, History of the de- cline and Jail of the Roman empire, ch. 28. — Gib- bon's statement as to the destruction of the great library in the Serapeum is called in question by his learned annotator, Dr. Smith. See above, B. C. 282-246. 413-415. — Patriarch Cyril and his mobs. — "His voice [that of Cyril, patriarch of Alexandria, 412-444] inflamed or appeased the passions of the multitude: his commands were blindly obeyed by his numerous and fanatic parabolani, familiarized in their daily office with scenes of death ; and the prjefects of Egypt were awed or provoked by the temporal power of these Christian pontiffs. Ar- dent in the prosecution of heresy, Cyril auspi- ciously opened his reign by oppressing the No- vations, the most innocent and harmless of the sectaries. . . . The toleration, and even the priv- ileges of the Jews, who had multiplied to the number of 40,000, were secured by the laws of the Cssars and Ptolemies, and a long prescription of 700 years since the foundation of Alexandria. Without any legal sentence, without any royal mandate, the patriarch, at the dawn of d.ay, led a seditious multitude to the attack of the syna- gogues. Unarmed and unprepared, the Jews were incapable of resistance : their houses of prayer were levelled with the ground, .ind the episcopal warrior, after rewarding his troops with the plun- der of their goods, expelled from the city the remnant of the misbelieving nation. Perhaps he might plead the insolence of their prosperity, and their deadly hatred of the Christians, whose blood they had recently shed in a malicious or accidental tumult. Such crimes would have deserved the animadversions of the magistrate; but m this pro- miscuous outrage the innocent were confounded with the guilty." — E. Gibbon, Hilary of the de- dine and fall of the Roman empire, ch. 47.— "Be- fore long the adherents of the archbishop were guilty of a more atrocious and unprovoked crime, of the guilt of which a deep suspicion attached to Cyril. All Alexandria respected, honoured, took pride in the celebrated Hypatia. She was a woman of extraordinary learning ; in her was centred the lingering knowledge of that Alexandrian Platonism cultivated by Plotinus and his school. Her beauty was equal to her learning; her modesty commended both. . . . Hypatia lived in great intimacy with the praefect Orestes ; the only charge whispered against her was that she encouraged him in his hostility to the patriarch. . . . Some of Cyril's ferocious partisans seized this woman, dragged her from her chariot, and with the most revolting in- decency tore her clothes off and then rent her limb from limb." — H. H. Milman, History of Latin Christianity, bk. 2, ch. 3. Also in: C. Kingsley, Hypatia. 641-646. — Moslem conquest. — The precise date of events in the Moslem conquest of Egypt, by .Amru, lieutenant of the Caliph Omar, is uncertain. Sir WiUiam Muir fixes the first surrender of .Alex- andria to Amru in 641. .After that it was reoccu- pied by the Byzantines either once or twice, on occasions of neglect by the .Arabs, .is they pur- sued their conquests elsewhere. The probability seems to be that this occurred only once, in 646. Tt seems also probable, a? remarked bv Sir William Muir, that the two sieges on the taking and re- taking of the city — 641 and 646 — have been much confused in the scanty accounts which have come down to us On the first occasion Alexandria would appear to have been generously treated ; while, on the second, it suffered pillage and its fortifications were destroyed. How far there is truth in the commonly accepted story of the deliberate burn- ing of the great Alexandrian library — or so much of it as had escaped destruction at the hands of Roman generals and Christian patriarchs — is a question still in dispute. Gibbon discredited the story, and Sir William Muir, the latest of students in Mohammedan history, declines even the men- tion of it in his narrative of the conquest of Egypt. But other historians of repute maintain the probable accuracy of the talc told by \h\i\- pharagus — that Caliph Omar ordered the destruc- tion of the library, on the ground that, if the books in it agreed with the Koran they were useless, it they disagreed with it they were pernicious. Sec Caliphate: 640-646. 829.— Translation of the body of St. Mark to Venice. See Venice: 820. llth-15th centuries.— Trade. See Commerce: Medieval: iith-ihth centuries. 1798. — Captured by the French under Bona- parte. See France: 1708 (May-Auuust) . 1801-1802.— Battle of French and English.— Restoration to the Turks. See France: 1801- 1802. 1807.— Surrendered to the English.— Brief occupation and humiliating capitulation. See Turkey: 1806-1807. 1840. — Bombardment by the English. See Titrkey, 1831-1840. 1882. — Bombardment by the English fleet. — Massacre of Europeans. — Destruction. See Egypt: 1875-1882; 1882-1883. ALEXANDRIA, University of. See Alexan- dria: B. C. 282-246. ALEXANDRIA, Library of. See Alexandria: B.C. 282-246. ALEXANDRIA, LA., Burning of. See U. S. A'.: 1864 (March-May; Louisiana). ALEXANDRIA, VA.: 1861 (May).— Occupa- tion by Union troops. — Murder of Colonel Ells- worth. See U. S. .\.: 1861 (May: Virginia). 1861 (July). — Alexandria government. — After the secession of Virginia in 1861, unionist delegates meeting at Wheeling set up on July i a "reorgan- ized state government" which was recognized by Congress. Its governor was Francis H. Pierpont. .After the admission of West Virginia as a separate state (June 20, i86.^1, the capital of the unionist government of Virginia was transferred to Alex- andria, where Governor Pierpont asserted juris- diction over all the counties of Virginia lying within the federal lines. This "Alexandria gov- ernment" continued until the close of the war in 1865 when a new state government was set up at Richmond. ALEXANDRINE SCHOOL. See Eclecti- cism. ALEXANDROPOL, a Russian town and for- tified camp in Transcaucasia, the scene of the de- feat of the Turks by the Russians in 1853. In iQio, an important center for American relief work in the Near East. ALEXEIEV, Eugene Ivanovitch, Count (1845- ), Russian admiral and the tsar's viceroy in the Far East. Regarded as responsible for pre- cipitating the Russo-Japanese War (1Q04) through his aggressive policy in seeking valuable conces- sions in Korea; established his headquarters at Port .Arthur when the Japanese suddenly attacked, opening hostilities without a declaration of war. 210 ALEXEIEV ALFRED, THE GREAT ALEXEIEV, M. V. (1843- ), Russian gen- eral. Commander of the 3d Army in Manchuria, Russo-Japanese War, and chief of headquarters staff ; commander of one of the Russian armies in the World War; chief of staff under the tsar when the latter took personal command in September, 1915; with other generals secured the abdication of the tsar at Pskov, March 15, iqi?; commander- in-chief under Kerensky's provisional government ; succeeded by Brussilov in June, iqi", Rerensky at the time, as minister of war, endeavoring to rally the troops for what proved to be a short-lived offensive. — See also Russia: 1918-1920; World War: 1916: III. Eastern front: a. ALEXIS, tsar of Russia. See Alexius Mik- HAILOVITCH. ALEXIUS I, Comnenus (1048-1118), son of John Comnenus, brother of the emperor Isaac Comnenus. In loSi with the aid of soldiery, sup- planted the old and feeble emperor Nicephorus Bo- tantiates, who retired to a monastery. Was By- zantine emperor from 108 1 to 11 18, and during that time successfully defended his empire against the Petchenegs, the Turks and the Normans. The first Crusade also occurred during his reign ; he used the Crusaders as his instruments to recon- quer the islands and coast? of Asia Minor from the Turks. — See also Byzantine empire: 1081- 1085; Crusades: 1096-iooq; Venice: iooq-iioi. Alexius II, Comnenus (1167-1183), Byzan- tine emperor from 1180 to 11S3, having succeeded his father Manuel I. Was strangled by his uncle, Andronicus. Alexius III, Angelus (d. 12 10), brother of Isaac II, Byzantine emperor, whose throne he usurped in iiQS; was emperor until 1203, when an army of Crusaders besieged and captured Con- stantinople, deposed him, and reinstated Isaac II. Alexius died a few years later in exile. — S^e also Byzantine empire: 1203-1204. Alexius IV, Angelus (d. 1204), Byzantine emperor 1203- 1204, son of Isaac II, Angelus. Was associated with his father in the government ; put to death by Alexius V after a reign of six months. Alexius V, (d. 1204), surnamed Ducas Murt- zuphlos, became Byzantine emperor in 1204 after the death of Alexius IV by usurping the throne, but was driven from Constantinople by the Cru- saders, who had resolved to partition the empire. He fled to Morea where he was seized, tried for the murder of Alexius IV, and executed. ALEXIUS COMNENUS (1180-1222), a grandson of Andronicus I. In 1204, while the Crusaders were besieging Constantinople, he cap- tured Trebizond, and some other cities on the Black sea. He took the title of Grand Comnenus, and became governor or duke of Trebizond. His family ruled there for two and a half centuries, his grandson having assumed the title of emperor. — See also Trebizond: i204-i4bi. ALEXIUS MIKHAILOVITCH (1629-1676), second Russian tsar of the Romanoff line; son of Michael Romanoff, whom he succeeded in 1645. Early part of his reign was stormy, due to his youthfulness, but in ten years he quelled all in- surrections; waged war on Poland from 1654 to 1667, acquiring possession of Smolensk and east- ern Ukraine. In a war with Sweden from 1655 to 1658 he conquered a part of Livonia and Inger- manland. but by the treaty of Kardis of June 21, 1661, he had to relinquish this territory. He also extended his conquests to eastern Siberia, codified the laws of the various provinces of Russia, and began to introduce European civilization, thus paving the way for his son, Peter the Great.- — See also Russia: 1645-1675. ALEXIUS PETROVITCH (1690-1718), eld- est son of Peter the Great ; entered a monastery rather than acquiesce in Peter's reforms and in- novations; was disinherited in 1718 and con- demned to death after an investigation followed by the discovery of a conspiracy to undo the re- forms of Peter. Soon afterward he was par- doned, but the terror and agitation of the trial, and the torture to which he had been subjected, led to his death in 1718. To avoid scandal, Peter pub- lished the proceedings of the trial. ALEXSINAC: Occupied by Bulgarians. See World War: 1915: V. Balkans; b, 4. ALFARO, Eloy, General, president of Ecuador, 1897-1001. See Ecuador: 1888-1899. ALFIERI, Vittorio Amadeo (1749-1803), Ital- ian dramatist. See Italian literature: 1710-1890 ALFONSO I, king of Aragon and Navarre, 1104-1134. See Aragon. Alfonso II, king of Aragon, 1162-1196. See Aragon. Alfonso III, king of Aragon, 1285-1291. Sec Cortes. Alfonso IV, king of Aragon, 1327-1336. Alfonso V, king of Aragon and I as king of Sicily, 1416-1458; I of Naples, 1443-1458. See Italy: 1412-1447. Alfonso I, king of Castile, 1072-1109 and VI of Leon, 1065-1109. Alfonso II, king of Castile, 1126-1157. Alfonso III, king of Castile, 1158-1214. Alfonso I, king of Leon and the Asturias, or Oviedo, 739-757. See Spain: 713-950. Alfonso II, king of Leon and the Asturias, or Oviedo 791-842. Alfonso III, king of Leon and the Asturias, or Oviedo, 866-910. Alfonso IV, king of Leon and the Asturias, or Oviedo, 925-930. Alfonso V, king of Leon and the Asturias, or Oviedo, 999-1027. Alfonso VI, king of Leon, 1065-1109, and I, as king of Castile, 1072-1109. Alfonso VII, king of Leon, 1109-1126 and I, as king of Aragon. Alfonso VIII, king of Leon, 1126-1157. Alfonso IX, king of Leon, 1 188-1230. Alfonso X, king of Leon and Castile, 1252- 1284. See Cadiz: 1262; Cortes; Spain: 1248-1350. Alfonso XI, king of Leon and Castile, 13 12- 1350. Alfonso II, king of Naples, 1494-1495. Alfonso I (Alfonso Henriques) (1094-1185), king of Portugal, 1112-1185. See Portugal: 1095- 1325- Alfonso II, king of Portugal, 1211-1223. See Portugal: 1095-1325. Alfonso III, king of Portugal, 1248-1279. See Portugal: 1095-1325. Alfonso IV, king of Portugal, I325-I3S7- Alfonso V, king of Portugal, 1439-1481. Alfonso VI, king of Portugal, 1656-1667. Alfonso I, king of Sicily, 1416-1458. Alfonso XII, king of Spain, 1874-1885. See Spain: 1S74-18S5. Alfonso XIII (1886- ), king of Spain. Born a king, being the posthumous son of Alfonso XII ; he assumed the duties of a constitutional monarch in 1902 at the age of 16. In iqo6 he mar- ried Princess Victoria Ena of Battenberg, niece of Edward VII of England. See Spain: 1885-1896; 1902-1906; 1914-1918. ALFORD, Battle of (1645). See Scotland: 1644-1645. ALFRED, the Great (848-900), king of Wessex, 871-900. He repelled the invasions of the Danes. 211 ALFRED UNIVERSITY ALGERIA in a battle at Edington in Wiltshire, 878, thereby promoting the consoUdation of the country. He furthered the spread of learning by translations of books on history and philosophy from the Latin and the initiation of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. — See also Bible, English: 8th- nth centuries; Ed- ucation: Medieval: 871-qoo; England: King Al- fred; Engl.^nd: 855-8S0; English literature: bth-iith centuries. ALFRED UNIVERSITY, a non-sectarian, coeducational, American university at Alfred, N. Y. Chattered in 1S57. Has sixteen university build- ings, including a new Carnegie library. Depart- ments of industrial mechanics, theology, music, fine arts. Has state school of clayworking and cera- mics and state school of agriculture. Presidents of the university have been William Kenyon, Jona- than Allen, Arthur Elwin Main and Boothe Cowell Davis. ALFUROS. See Celebes. ALGARDI, Ale^sandro (1602-16S4), Italian sculptor. The statue of San Filippo Neri, the Villa Doria Pamfili, the monument of Leo XI, a bronze statute of Innocent X, and La Fuega d'At- tila mark the high points of his career. ALGAU, Battle of (1525). See Germany: 1524-1525. ALGEBRA is a branch of mathematics which treats of the relation of quantities by means of letters and symbols. The word is of Arabic origin. First mention of algebra is found in a work called ilm al-jebr wa'l-muqabala. by Mo- hammed ben musa al-Khowarizmi, who lived in the ninth century. It is interesting to note that a celebrated Moorish savant by the name of Geber, living in the eleventh century, was at one time believed to have been the founder of algebra. Proof, however, exists that the subject was treated as early as 1700 B. C. by Ahmes, an Egyptian. The invention of algebra was at one time attributed to the Greeks; but this theory has been discarded since Eisenlohr's decipherment of the "Rhind papyrus," inasmuch as distinct signs of an algebraic analysis are in evidence in this work. Egyptian algebra was probably of an elementary type, as Greek geometers ignore the subject. The earliest work on algebra, which ex- ists only in translation, is by Diophantus (about 350 A. D.), an Alexandrian mathematician, who probably followed earlier investigators. It was the Hindus, however, who extended the scope of algebra. They evolved a method of solving de- terminate equations, and made even greater prog- ress in their treatment of indeterminate equations of the first and second degrees. Aryabhatta is the mathematician who is generally recognized as the man responsible for this extended study of the sub- ject. Hankel credits the Brahmans with being the real inventors of algebra. With regard to the Arabs in the west, Cordova, the capital of the Moorish empire in Spain, like Bagdad in the east, became a center of learning, particularly along mathematical lines. The most famous Spanish mathematician is Al Madshritti (1007), who con- tributed an excellent dissertation on amicable num- bers. Following the decline of the Moorish em- pire, the Arabs in the west failed to produce an- other mathematician comparable with the bril- liant minds of the seventh to the eleventh centu- ries. Leonardo of Pisa, an Italian merchant, in 1202, published a work called "Liber abaci," thus bringing algebra into Christendom. Contempor- aneously with this (Pisa's) historic achievement the popularity of algebra spread ta Germany, France, and England. The writings of the German mathematicians, Michael Stifel and Johann Scheu- belius (Scheybl, 1494-1570), are marked by the fact that they introduced into the field of algebra a more complete symbolism for quantities and op- erations. It was in consequence of their work that the sign ( + ) for addition or a positive quan- tity, the sign ( — ) for subtraction or the minus quantity, and ( V ) for denoting the square root, were aciopted and are still in use to-day. In 1552 Robert Recorde published the first treatise on al- gebra in English. He it was who introduced the sign (=^) for equality. Early in the seventeenth century many new terms and symbols were intro- duced through the works of Franciscus Victa, re- published at Leiden in 1646. He also vastly im- proved the methods for solving equations and devised a new means for determining approxi- mate values of the roots of equations. In 1673 Rene Descartes, the famous French philosopher, rendered invaluable service to algebra by develop- ing the modern theory of analytical geometry and by demonstrating the relationship between algebra and geometry. The seventeenth century also brought forward the epoch-making discoveries of Ke[)ler and Bonaventura Cavalicri, upon the foundation of which both Newton and Leibnitz brought to light the infinitesimal calculus. Early in the nineteenth century-, Benjamin and Charles S. Pierce, father and son respectively, devised sys- tems of pure symbolic algebra. Also in: T. H. Heath, Diophantus, (Greek al- gebra). — Wallis, Opera mathematics (16Q3-16Q9). — Hutton, Mathematical and philosophical dic- tionary (181S). — F. Cajori, History of mathemat- ics, iQiq. — G. R. Kaye, /«rf;(7H mathematics. 1015. — M. Cantor, Vorlesiingen iiber Geschichte der Math- matic, 1007. — D. E. Smith, History of modern mathematics. ALGECIRAS, a seaport in southern Spain, four miles west of Gibraltar. It was perhaps the Portus Albus of the Romans and was probably refounded in 1713 by the Moors; taken by Alfonso XI in 1344 after a long siege and destroyed; re- built by King Charles III in 1760; in 1801 the scene of a naval encounter between the English and Franco-Spanish fleets. In 1006 the important international conference on Morocco (q.v.) was held here. See France: 1004-1906; Italy: 1906: Part of Italy at .Mgeciras conference; Tangier: 1Q06; U. S. A.: 1005-T906. 1907. — Demonstration against French occupa- tion. See Morocco: 1907-1000. ALGER, Russell Alexander (1836-1907), .American soldier and politician. Served in the Civil War; governor of Michigan, 1885-1897; secretary of war. 1897-1890 (See U. S. A.: 1897, March; iSgS, July-.'Xugust: .Army administration), appointed L'nited States senator, 1902, and elected to that office, 1903. ALGERIA, a Mediterranean country forming part of French .Africa. It is bounded on the east by Tunis, on the west by Morocco, and on the south by the Sahara, all now under French control. (See .Africa: Map). .After the Turkish conquest, the name .Algeria was applied to a ter- ritory which in ancient times was occupied in the cast by the Numidians. and in the west by the Moors (or Mauri). 1516-1535. — Under Barbarossa rule. See Bar- BARY states: 1516-1535. 1541. — Disastrous invasion of Charles V. See Barbarv states: 1541. 1815. — War with the U. S. A. See Barbary states: 181 5. 1816.— War with England. — Exmouth's expe- dition. — Slavery abolished. See Barbary states: 1816. 212 ALGERIA, 1830-1898 ALGERIA, 1898-1912 1830. — Conquest by the French. See Barbary states: 1830; France: 1815-1830. 1830-1846. — Abd-el-Kader and the war with France. See Barbarv states: 1830-1846. 1830-1898. — French colonization. — Beginning of the French African empire. — "The establish- ment of the French Protectorate over Morocco in igi2 was the culmination of eighty years of effort in North .Africa. . . . The French African empire started on the Mediterranean under Louis Philippe, was spread to West Africa under Napoleon III, and across the Sahara and through the Sudan to Central Africa under the Third Republic. Algeria was the nucleus on the Mediterranean, and Senegal on the Atlantic. It has been a curious combina- tion of foresight and luck, the building of this empire, and, as in the case of every other African colony and every other Power, more the latter than the former. The late Europeanization of the Mediterranean is the great enigma of modern history. While remote regions of the globe were being transformed and brought under the aegis of European civilization, the Mediterranean remained under the shadow of Islam, a closed sea, whose waters washed nations in the embryo and vast coasts where anarchy had reigned for fifteen cen- turies since the disappearance of the Roman Em- pire. France went into Algeria in 1830, and in- augurated the modern era of the Middle Sea, not because of a conviction that the time had come to do away with the pirates of the Barbary Coast, but because ol a trivial dispute between the Bey of Algiers and the French Consul over a question of grain ! It was an auspicious moment, however. The sea power of the Ottoman Empire had been irrevocably destroyed three years before at the battle of Navarino. Mohammed .\\i was severing in Egypt the essential link of the chain that bound Africa to Turkey. Christian civilization was be- ing reestablished in the Hellenic peninsula. Italy was at the threshold of the generation which was to bring national unity. . . . Fashoda was the awakening. This humiliation had to come. With aims definitely centered on 'definitely assured ter- ritories, the builders of the colonial empire were able to proceed to administrative organization along lines that would bring financial results. The money needed for economic development could then be solicited and obtained from Parliament and from private capital. . . . Napoleon's idea of an Arab empire was abandoned. The natives could not be assimilated. Algeria could not be held indefinitely as a vast military camp. A European element — for the most part French — must be introduced, given means of acquiring land, and encouraged to come and stay by the granting of privileges not enjoyed by the natives. The first step was the law of 1873 concerning native property. It resulted in the unjust and wholly indefensible eviction of thousands of pro- prietors from their lands. Then followed the sup- pression of the Moslem system of administering justice through kadis, which resulted in the op- pression of the natives and the awakening of re- ligious antagonism. The third step was the ex- tension to Algeria of the new French municipal law. This put the government of communes into the hands of minor officials and white colonists, who became legally the masters of the destinies of the natives among whom they lived. All sorts of advantages were granted to colonists to bring them and to keep them in Algeria: partial exemption from military service, partial exemption from tax- ation, and a gift of lands of dispossessed natives. At the same time, the process of governing from Paris resulted in arrested economic development and administrative confusion. The Governor of Algeria had no control over the military authori- ties. Administrations, depending upon ministries in Paris, were directed by considerations and gov- erned by rules totally contrary to the interests of Algeria and unsuited to its different economic and political situation and its peculiar problems. There was no coordination of policy and effort between branches of the Government. Finances were man- aged from Paris, revenues collected by Paris, and credits voted in the general French budget. . . . ."Vlgeria did not prosper. The natives regarded the French, as they had every right to do, as gendarmes and merchants whose one thought was to exploit them and to treat them unjustly. They resented bitterly a regime which farced intruders upon them, gave the intruders exemption from military service and taxation, and imposed upon them (the natives] the burdens from which the intruders were free. The colonists felt that they had exchanged ihe orderly civil administration at home for a half-baked, improvised uncertain regime that was neither military nor civil, and under which they did not know exactly where they stood. They did not enjoy all the rights of French citizens, especially in the matter of voting upon how the money they paid in taxes and the revenue from the wealth they created should be spent. Essential reforms were enacted after Fashoda, reforms that have brought wealth and prosperity, and make the days of the nineteenth century seem like an ugly dream." — H. A. Gibbons, New map of Africa, pp. 130-133. — See also Africa: Mod- ern European occupation: Later iqth century. 1896-1906. — Encroachments on the Moroccan boundary. See Morocco: 1895-1906. 1898-1912. — Economic and cultural develop- ment under the French. — Attitude of French in- habitants towards the natives. — "In 1898, three delegations, to be elected separately by French cit- izens, taxpayers other than citizens, and natives, were established to decide upon the expenditure of the tax-payers' money. This was the beginning of self-government. But it had no real importance until the law of December 24, iqoo, separated .Al- gerian from French finances, and establfshed a dis- tinct Algerian budget. The Algerian delegations, now masters of their finances, discussed and de- cided how their money should be spent. The re- sult was magical. Immediately there was an ex- tension of public works. Natives as well as colonists began to take an interest in their coun- try. Let one illustration suffice. Before 1900, the forests of .Algeria brought in only several hundred thousand francs, which represented fines collected from natives. To-day there are practically no fines. But forest products figure in the budget for more than five million francs. Since 1900, Al- geria has become, after Great Britain, Germany, Belgium, and the United States, the best client of France. Eighty per cent, of her trade, which amounts to nearly $250,000,000 per annum, is with the mother country. Railways have been extended [see Africa: Modern European occupation: Sum- mary: Modern railroad and industrial development] so that Algeria, whose means of transportation were limited fifteen years ago, has now two thou- sand miles in exploitation. This has meant a rapid development of mineral wealth, and the possibility of using forest produce, especially cork. The great prosperity of Algeria, however, is in agriculture, where dry farming has brought under cultivation cereal-bearing areas that the natives never utilized. The most remarkable phenomenon in Algeria, from the standpoint of the colonists, is the way the soil takes to vines. .Algerian wine 213 ALGERIA ALGONQUIAN FAMILY has become a factor in the French markets, and brings to its producers financial returns far beyond their dreams. Algeria is also looked upon as a most important source of mutton for French markets. Popular education was established in Algeria in 1892, and is more extended than any- where else in Africa except in the South African Commonwealth. Since the inhabitants received ihe privilege of voting the budget, sums are al- lotted that would make possible primary educa- tion everywhere were it not for the unfortunate -system of communal responsibility. There are still a hundred thousand boys in populated cen- ters who have no school facilities, and little has been done to educate girls. But it is the will of the Government to give education to all, and the funds for that purpose are provided. In the matter of schools the French in Algeria have felt much more keenly their stewardship than the British in Egypt. The effort they are making in all their colonies is rivaled only by what the United States is doing in the Philippines. But education brings its problems, especially in old Moslem countries where the natives believes that they are superior to their rulers. In their attitude socially toward natives, the French are found by subject races to be far more pleasant to live with than the British. Especially among the upper classes life is happier and richer for French than for British subject races. . . . The Frenchman feels no racial antipathy for the natives and the native knows it. So the Frenchman has not as much to fear from Moslem education as the Englishman. His political interest does not suf- fer greatly by the spread of primary education. Higher education of native races is not a night- mare for him. He can conceive of the day when the native holds the franchise, full and free of French citizenship. What he asks is that the native learn to speak French and become im- pregnated with French ideals. His only fear is being too greatly outnumbered in the midst of a native population. Between iqoi and igos, the territory of Algeria was greatly extended into the hinterland. By the decree of August 14, 1905, Southern Algeria was organized. It includes the oases on the northern edge of the Sahara. The extension of the railway to the desert and the paci- fication of the Sahara enabled the civil authori- ties to take over much sooner than was anticipated the administration of the Algerian hinterland. Not many years ago, a deputy declared in the Palais Bourbon that France would never hold Southern .Algeria in any other way than by military posts, whose garrisons would be afraid to go out for a walk unless they were all together and all armed. Garrisons are few to-day, especially since they are needed more in France than in Algeria." — H. A. Gibbons, New map of Africa, pp. 133-140. 1919. — Fiscal reform. — "On January i, iqig, an important fiscal reform went into effect. From that time on. native tax-payers in Northern Algeria were subjected to the same municipal and depart- mental charges as the European colonist?, while they were freed from the whole of the special charges known as "impots arabes." The new sys- tem of taxation includes (i) a land tax on prop- erty not devoted to building purposes, to be fixed generally at five per rent, of the taxable revenue of such property, and affecting Europeans in the same way as natives; (2) taxes on industrial and commercial profits, on profits of agriculture and development, on public and private salaries, and on the incomes in non-commercial professions; and (3) a comprehensive tax on income as a whole Equality between Europeans and natives in regard to taxation has by now been established in all French colonies in the north of Africa." — Ibid., p. 141. Also in: Cat, Petite histoire de I'Algerie, Tunisie, Maroc. — H. D. Gramont, Histoire d'Alger sous la domination turque. — P. Leroy-Beaulieu, L'Algerie el la Tunisie. — P. Masson, Histoire des etablisse- ments et du commerce fran(ois dans I'Afrique bar- baresque. — E. Plantet, Correspondance des deys d'Alger avec la cour de France.— C. Rousset, La Conquete de /'.l/genV.— Thomas-Stamford, About Algeria. — M. Wahl, L'Algerie. — Watson, Voice of the South. — T. Wolf, Im Land des Lichts ALGERIAN HINTERLAND. See Algeria: 1898-1912. ALGIERS, the capital and largest city of Al- geria, on the west shore of the Bay of Algiers. It is of great commercial importance. 1666. — Bombardment by French. See Barbary states: 1004-1684. 1684. — Bombardment by French. See Barbary states: 1604-1684. 1785-1801.— Tribute exacted for navigation of Mediterranean. See Barbary states: 1 785-1801. 1795.— Treaty with United States. See Bar- bary states: 1785-1801. ALGIHED, the term by which a war is pro- claimed among the Mahommedans to be a Holy War. Also written Al Jihad. ALGONQUIAN (Algonkin) FAMILY.— "About the period 1500- 1000, those related tribes whom we now know by the name of Algonkins were at the height of their prosperity. They occupied the Atlantic coast from the Savannah river on the south to the strait of Belle Isle on the north. . . . The dialects of all these were related, and evi- dently at some distant day had been derived from the same primitive tongue. Which of them had preserved the ancient forms most closely, it may be premature to decide positively, but the tendency of modern studies has been to assign that place to the Cree — the northernmost of all. We cannot erect a genealogical tree of these dialects. . . . We may, however, group them in such a manner as roughly to indicate their relationship. This I do" — in the following list: "Cree. — Old Algonkin. — Montagnais. — Chipeway, Ottawa, Pottawattomie, Miami, Peoria, Pea, Piankishaw, Kaskaskia, Me- nominee, Sac, Fox, Kikapoo. — Sheshatapoosh, Se- coffee, Micmac, Melisceet, Etchemin, Abnaki. — Mohe.'an, Massachusetts, Shawnee, Minsi, Unami, Unalachtigo [the last three named forming, to- gether, the nation of the Lenape or Dela wares), Nanticoke, Powhatan, Pampticoke. — Blackfoot, Gros Ventre, Sheyenne. . . . kW the Algonkin na- tions who dwelt north of the Potomac, on the east shore of Chesapeake Bay, and in the basins of the Delaware and Hudson rivers, claimed near kinship and an identical origin, and were at times united into a loose, defensive confederacy. By the west- ern and southern tribes they were collectively known as Wapanachkik — 'those of the eastern re- gion' — which in the form Abnaki is now confined to the remnant of a tribe in Maine. . . . The mem- bers of the confederacy were the Mohegans (Mahi- canni) of the Hudson, who occupied the valley of that river to the falls above the site of Albany, the various New Jersey tribes, the Delawares proper on the Delaware river and its branches, including the Minsi or Monseys, among the mountains, the Nanticokes, between Chesapeake Bay and the At- lantic, and the small tribe called Canai, Kanawhas or Ganawese, whose towns were on tributaries of the Potomac and Patuxent. . . . Linguistically, the Mohegans were more closely allied to the tribes of New England than to those of the Delaware Val- 214 ALGONQUIAN FAMILY ALGONQUIAN FAMILY Jey. Evidently, most of the tribes of Massa- chusetts and Connecticut were comparatively recent offshoots of the parent stem on the Hudson, supposing the course of migration had been east- ward. . . . The Nanticokes occupied the territory between Chesapeake Bay and the ocean, except its southern extremity, which appears to have been under the control of the Powhatan tribe of Vir- ginia." — D. G. Brinton, Lenape and their legends, ch. 1-2. — "Mohegans, Munsees, Manhattans, Me- toacs, and other affiliated tribes and bands of Al- gonquin hneage, inhabited the banks of the Hudson and the islands, bay and seaboard of New York, including Long Island, during the early periods of the rise of the Iroquois Confederacy. . . . The Mohegans finally retired over the Highlands east of them into the valley of the Housalonic. The Munsees and Nanticokes retired to the Delaware river and reunited with their kindred, the Lenapees, or modern Delawares., The Manhattans, and nu- merous other bands and sub-tribes, melted away under the influence of liquor and died in their tracks." — H. R. Schoolcraft, Notes on the Iroquois, ch. 5. — "On the basis of a difference in dialect, that portion of the Algonquin Indians which dwelt in New England has been classed in two divisions, one consisting of those who inhabited what is now the State of Maine, nearly up to its western border, the other consisting of the rest of the native popu- lation. The Maine Indians may have been some iS,ooo in number, or somewhat less than a third of the native population of New England. That portion of them who dwelt furthest towards the east were known by the name of Etetchemins. The Abenaquis, including the Tarratines, hunted on both sides of the Penobscot, and westward as far as the Saco. if not quite to the Piscataqua. The tribes found in the rest of New England were designated by a greater variety of names. The home of the Penacook or Pawtucket Indians was in the southeast corner of what is now New Hamp- shire and the contiguous region of Massachusetts. Next dwelt the Massachusetts tribe, along the bay of that name. Then were found successively the Pokanokets, or Wampanoags, in the southeasterly region of Massachusetts, and by Buzzard's and Narragansett Bays; the Narragansetts, with a trib- utary race called Nyantics in what is now the western part of the State of Rhode Island ; the Pequots, between the Narragansetts and the river formerly called the Pequot River, now the Thames ; and the Mohegans, spreading themselves beyond the River Connecticut. In the central region of Massachusetts were the Nipmucks, or Nipnets; and along Cape Cod were the Nausets, who appeared to have owed some fealty to the Pokanokets. The New England Indians exhibited an inferior type of humanity. . . . Though fleet and agile when ex- cited to some occasional effort, they were found to be incapable of continuous labor. Heavy and phlegmatic, they scarcely wept or smiled." — J. G. Palfrey, Compendious history of Neiv England, bk. i,v.\, ch. 3. — "The valley of the 'Cahohatatea,' or Mauritius River fi. e., the Hudson river, as now named] at the time Hudson first ascended its waters, was inhabited, chiefly, by two aboriginal races of Algonquin lineage, afterwards known among the English colonists by the generic names of Mohegans and Mincees. The Dutch generally called the Mohegans, Mahicans ; and the Mincees, Sanhikans. These two tribes were subdivided into numerous minor bands, each of which had a dis- tinctive name. The tribes on the east side of the river were generally Mohegans; those on the west side, Mincees. They were hereditary enemies. . . . Long Island, or 'Sewan-hacky,' was occupied by the savage tribe of Metowacks, which was sub- divided into various clans. . . . Staten Island, on the opposite side of the bay, was inhabited by the Monatons. . . . Inland, to the west, hved the Rar- itans and the Hackinsacks; while the regions in the vicinity of the well-known 'Highlands,' south of Sandy Hook, were inhabited by a band or sub- tribe called the Nevesincks or Navisinks. ... To the south and west, covering the centre of New Jersey, were the Aquamachukes and the Stanke- kans; while the valley of the Delaware, northward from the Schuylkill, was inhabited by various tribes of the Lenape race. . . . The island of the Man- hattans" was occupied by the tribe which received that name Lsee Manhattan]. On the shores of the river, above, dwelt the Tappans, the Weck- quaesgeeks, the Sint Sings, "whose chief village was named Ossin-Sing, or 'the Place of Stones,' " the Pachami, the Waorinacks, the Wappingers, and the Waronawankongs. "Further north, and occupying the present counties of Ulster and Greene, were the Minqua clans of Minnesincks, Nanticokes, Mincees, and Delawares. These clans had pressed onward from the upper valley of the Delaware. . . . They were generally known among the Dutch as the .■Esopus Indians." — J. R. Brodhead, History of the slate of New York, v. i, ch. 3. — "The area formerly occupied by the Algonquian family was more ex- tensive than that of any other linguistic stock in North .'Xmerica, their territory reachin; from Lab- rador to the Rocky Mountains, and from Churchill River of Hudson Bay as far south at least as Pamlico Sound of North Carolina. In the eastern part of this territory was an area occupied by Iroquoian tribes, surrounded on almost all sides by their Algonquian neighbors. On the south the Algonquian tribes were bordered by those of Iro- quoian and Siouan (Catawba) stock, on the south- west and west by the Muskhogean and Siouan tribes, and on the northwest by the Kitunahan and the great Athapascan families, while along the coast of Labrador and the eastern shore of Hudson Bay they came in contact with the Eskimo, who were gradually retreating before them to the north. In Newfoundland they encountered the Beothukan family, consisting of but a single tribe. A portion of the Shawnee at some early period had separated from the main body of the tribe in central Ten- nessee and pushed their way down to the Savannah River in South Carolina, where, known as Savan- nahs, they carried on destructive wars with the sur- rounding tribes until about the beginninj of the iSlh century they were finally driven out and joined the Delaware in the north. Soon afterwards the rest of the tribe was expelled by the Cherokee and Chicasa, who thenceforward claimed all the country stretching north to the Ohio River. The Cheyenne and Arapaho, two allied tribes of this stock, had become separated from their kindred on the north and had forced their way through hostile tribes across the Missouri to the Black Hills coun- try of South Dakota, and more recently into Wy- oming and Colorado, thus forming the advance guard of the Algonquian stock in that direction, having the Siouan tribes behind them and those of the Shoshonean family in front. [The following are the] principal tribes: Abnaki, Algonquin, Ara- paho, Chevenne, Conoy, Cree, Delaware, Fox, Illi- nois, Kick'apoo, Mahican, Massachuset, Menomi- nee, Miami, Micmac, Mohegan, Monta'-nais, Mon- tauk, Munsee, Nanticoke, Narraganset, Nauset, Nipmuc, Ojibwa, Ottawa, Pamlico, Pennacook, Pequot, Piankishaw, Pottawotomi, Powhatan, Sac, Shawnee. Siksika. Wampanoag, Wappinger. The present number of the .Mgonquian stock is about QS 600, of whom abovit 60,000 are in Canada and the remainder in the United States."—! W. Powell, Seventh annual report (Bureau of Ethnology, pp. 2T5 ALGONQUIN ALIEN ENEMIES 4J.48). — See also Blackfeet; Howkans; Hurons; Indians, Amepjcan: Cultural areas in North Amer- ica; Eastern woodlands area, also Linguistic char- acteristics; Iroquois confederacy; New England; 1637 (Pequot War), 1674-1075 to 1676-1678 (King Philip's War) ; Pontiac's War ; Shoshonean fam- Also in: J. W. DeForest, History of the Indians of Connecticut.— \. Gallatin, Synopsis of the In- dian tribes (Archaologia Americana, v. 2), inlrod., sect. 2— S. G. Drake, Aboriginal races of North America, bk. 2-3. ALGONQUIN, an American steamship sunk, March \ 1017, by a German submarine which continued to shell the ship after it had stopped; although there was no loss of life, the crew was twenty -seven hours in open boats, before reach- ing the Irish coast. One of a series of mcidents directly leading to America's entry of the World War.-^See also U. S. A.; 1917 (Feb.-April.) ALGUAZIL. See Alcalde. ALHAMA, Fall of (1476-1492). See Spain; '''aLHAMBRA, Granada, the most interesting example of the splendid citadel-palaces built by the Moorish conquerors. It was begun in 124S by Mohammed-ben-Al-Hamar, enlarged in 1279 by his successor, and again in 1306, when its mosque was built. It "represents the best preserved as well as the most perfect example of the Moorish-Arabic genius It was a fortress-palace, much of it built on the brink of the rock, the steep slopes of which were used to construct the lower stories of baths, offices, and guard-rooms. The exterior has no im- pressiveness, though the original grouping of walls and roofs must have been highly picturesque. Its halls, chambers, and remains of a mosque are clustered about two rectangular courts or patios, which are joined like the two parts of an 'L'—the •Court of the Alberca' and the 'Court of the Lions.' From one of the ends of the Alberca Court pro- jects the 'Hall of the Ambassadors'; from the other the 'Hall of the Tribunal,' while the long sides of the Court of Lions open respectively into the 'Hall of the Abencerrages' and the 'Hall of the Two Sisters.' The 'Court of the Lions' is so called from the fountain in its centre, an immense marble basin supported, upon twelve lions, which form a remarkable exception to the Muhammedan rule against representing the image of any living thing. Both these Courts are arcaded, the columns, set singly or in pairs, or groups, exhibiting, as do all the columns in the Alhambra, distinctive features in their capitals, which are separated by a high necking from the shaft. It is, however, in the interior of the halls that the decoration reaches its finest pitch and nowhere more than in the 'Hall of the Two Sisters,' which form'ed the culminating feature of the harem quarters. The name is sup- posed to have been derived from two slabs of marble in the pavement but may well have been suggested bv the window, which occupies a bay and is divided by a small column and two arches into two lights. The walls, above a high wainscot of lustred tiles, are encrusted with flat moulded arabesques, representing a delicate lacelike tracery of leafy vines and tendrils, still tinctured with the red, blue, and gold that formerly enriched them. The arabesques melt into the stalactite embellish- ments which completely cover the hollow of the dome; created, as it seems, by giant bees, whose cells hang down like grape-clusters in an endless profusion of exquisite intricacy Time was when this unsurpassable delicacy of magnifuence glowed with gold touched into a thousandfold diversity of tones, by the light of hanging lamps. As an expression of the Arabic genius in the direction of subtlety, this represents finality. It embodies the culture of a race that in its learning as in its art had been devoted to the exaltation of details; and embodies also the latent instinct of a desert-wandering race whose eye had been little habituated to varieties of form, but saturated with colour and in the watches of the night had been long familiar with the mystery of vaulted sky, sown with star-clusters and hung with the jewelled lamps of planets. It was characteristic also of the Oriental fondness of abstraction that revels in subtleties and loves to merge itself in the contemplation of the infinite. It is the kind of decoration that being denied the reinforcement of nature was bound to evolve sterility." — C. H. Caffm, How to study architecture, pp. 226-227. — See also Architecture: Mohammedan; Spain: 1238-1273. ALHAZEN (d. T038), Arabian astronomer and mathematician. See Science; Ancient: Ara- bian. ALI (Ali ben Abu Talib) (c. 600-661), fourth caliph. See Caliphate; 661; Suhtes. ALI DINAR, appointed sultan of Darfur (q.v.) in iSgq; grandson of Mahommed-el-Fadhl. Raids the British border of the Sudan.— Loss of his monarchy. See Sudan; 1014-1020. ALI MUNTAR: British operations and cap- ture. See World W.«; 1Q17: \L Turkish theatre: c, 1, iii and iv. ALI PASHA (1741-1S22), Turkish pasha of lannina. Called the "Lion," because of his power and bravery; by brigandage and strategem over- powered neighboring pashas and took over their territories; put his enemies to death without scruple; by bribery gained favor at Constantinople and in 178S was made pasha of lannina (.Mbania) ; in turn cultivated relations with the French and the English; for a time master of .Mbania, Epirus and Thessaly, controlling Morea and Lepanto through his sons; even dared intrigue at Constan- tinople to further his inordinate ambitions. He was murdered in the spring of 1822, while suing for peace with Constantinople. ALIBAMUS, or Alabamas. See Muskhogean FA^^LY. ALICULUFS. See Pat.agonians. ALIEN ANARCHiST BILL: Passed June 5, 1920. See U. S. \.: 1920 (June). ALIEN AND SEDITION LAWS. See U.S.A.; 1798. ALIEN CONTRACT LABOR LAW (1885). See L.VBOR legislation; 1S64-1020. ALIEN ENEMIES, residents or sojourners in a country who are citizens or subjects of a hos- tile State Their legal position is accurately indi- cated bv the assurance addressed by the President to alien enemies in the United States, in his proc- lamation of April 6, 1917. that so long as they refrained from acts of hostility toward the United States and obeyed the laws they should "be un- disturbed in the peaceful pursuit of their hves and occupations and be accorded the consideration due to all peaceful and law-abiding persons, except so far as restrictions may be necessar>- for their own protection and for the safety of the United States. ' Restrictions in United States.— These were prescribed by the President in his proclamations of April 6 and' November 16, 1017, by virtue of au- thority conferred upon him by paragraphs 4067- 4070 of the Revised Statutes. By the earlier proc lamation alien enemies were forbidden to have in their possession any firearms, ammunition, explo- sives, wireless apparatus or parts thereof; or to approach within one-half mile of any fort, camp, 16 © E. M. Newman COURT OF THE LIONS IN THE ALHAMBRA, GRANADA, SPAIN ALIEN IMMIGRATION LAWS ALLEGHANS arsenal, aircraft station, navel vessel, navy yard, or munitions factory; or to write, print, or publish any attack upon the Government of the United States, Congress, or any person in the service of the United States, or upon any measure of the Government ; or to abet any hostile acts against the United States, or to give its enemies informa- tion or aid and comfort. Alien enemies transgress- ing those restrictions were liable to summary ar- rest and to removal to any place designated by the President. Finally, no alien enemy could either leave or enter the United States except under restrictions to be prescribed by the President. The supplementary proclamation of November i6 for- bade alien enemies to "enter or be found within" the District of Columbia or the Panama Canal Zone; or within loo yards of any canal, wharf, pier, dry dock, warehouse, elevator, railroad ter- minal, etc.; or to be found on the waters within i miles of the shore line of the United States, or on any of the Great Lakes, except on public fer- ries; or to ascend in any airplane, balloon, etc. It also provided for the registration and issuance of registration cards to all alien enemies, with pro- hibition of change of abode or travel except on permission ; and for monthly, weekly, or other periodical report to Federal, State, or local au- thorities as might be specified. Subsequent in- structions to water-front operators provided for cooperation with United States troops in guard- ing docks, piers, warehouses, etc. — Sec also World War: 1Q17: VIII. United States and the war: e; also Alien property custodian; U. S. A.: igi7 (October) : Trading with the Enemv Act. ALIEN IMMIGRATION LAWS: Canada. See Immigration and emigration: Canada: ig20. ALIEN LAND LAWS.— In many countries laws exist limiting or prohibiting the ownership of real estate by aliens. At common law it was not allowed, but in England and in most of the States in this country the disability has been removed since 1870. Various countries for obvious military reasons prohibit alien land ownership in frontier districts. Japan prohibits the owning of land by foreigners, but seeks for her nationals a continuance of the privilege of holding land in California. In view of the referendum of 1020, by which the people of California voted in favor of prohibitmg alien land ownership, a controversy developed with Japan. There arose from this the question of the validity of state law if in seeming conflict with a national treaty. — See also California: iqoo-iq20. ALIEN LAW: Venezuela. See Venezuela: iqiQ. In Australia. See Immigration and emigra- tion: Australia: 1Q00-1021. ALIEN PROPERTY CUSTODIAN, United States, an official created during the World War by the Trading with the Enemy Act, with power to require, at his discretion, any property held within the United States for, or on behalf of, an "enemy" or "ally of enemy," to be transferred to him, and to hold the same as trustee till the end of the war. The primary purpose of the measure was to prevent the property of the enemy from being used in the service of the enemy and to safeguard well-dis- posed enemy aliens from having their property thus abused. It also put it in the power of the government to requisition easily such property when it might require the same for the prosecu- tion of the war, or even to confiscate it should Germany confiscate the property of Americans held in Germany. The provisions of the act applied to patents, debts, and readv money, and the latter was expected to be invested in Liberty Bonds. It should be added that German subjects and the subjects of her allies, resident in the United States, did not, from the mere fact of their nationality, fall within the operation of the act.— See also U. S. A.: 1917 (Oct.): Trading with the Enemy Act. .ALIENATION, Right of. See Common law: i2qo. ALIENS ACT: England. See Immigration and emigration: England: iqos-igoq. ALIGARH, district and city of British India. The city contains Fort Aligarh, which was stormed by the British in 1803, and the Mohammedan An- glo-Oriental College. See India: i7o8-i."<o5. ALIORUMNAS. See Huns: Gothic account of. ALIWAL, Battle of (1846). See India: 1845- 1840. ALJUBARROTA, Battle of (1385). See Portugal: 1383-1385; Spain: 1368-1479. ALKMAAR, a town of north Holland. 1573. — Siege and deliverance. See Nether- lands: i.i;73-iS74- 1799 (September).— Battle of. See France: 1 790 (September-October). 1799 (October). — Convention, by the terms of which the Anglo-Russian army under the Duke of York evacuated the Netherlands. ALL GERMAN INDUSTRIAL COMBINA- TIONS. See Trusts: Germany: 1920. ALL INDIA MOSLEM LEAGUE. See India: 1907-1921. ALL RUSSIAN CENTRAL EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE: Organization, powers and du- ties. See Russia, Soviet constitution or. ALL RUSSIAN CONGRESS. See Bolshe- viKi: Development and political form of their power; Russia: 1917: Disintegrating propaganda, etc.; Russia, Soviet constitution of. ALL RUSSIAN GOVERNMENT (1918). See Russia: 1918-1920: Anti-Bolshevik movement. "ALL THE TALENTS" MINISTRY. See England: 1806-1812. ALLANSON, Cecil John Lyons (1877- ), British lieutenant colonel. See World War: 1915: VI. Turkev: a, 4 (xxx). ALLATOONA. See Alatoona. ALLDEUTCHER VERBUND. See Pan- Germanism. ALLECTUS, Minister of Carausius in Brit- ain. — Battle with the Romans. See Britain: 288- 2q7. ' ALLEGEWIS. See Alleghans. ALLEGHANS, or AUegewi, or Talligewi.— "The oldest tribe of the United States, of which there is a distinct tradition, were the Alleghans The term is perpetuated in the principal chain of mountains traversing the country. This tribe, at an antique period, had the seat of their power in the Ohio Valley and its confluent streams, which were the sites of their numerous towns and villages. They appear originally to have borne the name of AUi, or AUeg, and hence the names of Talligewi and AUegewi. (Trans. Am. Phi. Soc, vol. I.) By adding to the radical of this word the particle 'hany' or 'ghany,' meaning river, they de- scribed the principal scene of their residence — name- ly, the Alleghany, or River of the Alleihans, now called Ohio. The word Ohio is of Iroquois origin, and of a far later period; having been bestowed by them after their conquest of the country, in alliance with the Lenapees, or ancient Delawares. (Phi. Trans.) The term was applied to the entire river, from its confluence with the Mississippi, to its origin in the broad spurs of the AUeghanies, in New York and Pennsylvania. . . . There are evi- 217 ALLEGIANCE ALLEN dences of antique labors in the alluvial plains and valleys of the Scioto, Miami, and Muskingum, the Wabash, Kaskaskia, Cahokia, and Illinois, denoting that the ancient AUeghans, and their allies and confederates, cultivated the soil, and were serai- agriculturists. These evidences have been traced, at late periods, to the fertile table-lands of Indiana and Michigan. The tribes lived in Axed towns, cul- tivating extensive fields of the zea-maize; and also, as denoted by recent discoveries, ... of some spe- cies of beans, vines, and esculents. They were, in truth, the mound builders." — H. R. Schoolcraft, Information respecting the Indian tribes, pi. s, p. 133. — This conclusion, to which Mr. Schoolcraft had arrived, that the ancient AUeghans or Tallegwi were the mound builders of the Ohio valley is being sustained by later investigators, and seems to have become an accepted opinion among those of highest authority. The AUeghans, moreover, are being identified with the Chcrokees of later times, in whom their race, once supposed to be extinct, has apparently survived; while the fact, long suspected, that the Cherokee language is of the Iroquois family is being proved by the latest studies. According to Indian tradition, the Al- leghans were driven from their ancient seats. Ion.; ago, by a combination against them of the Lenape (Delawares) and the Mengwe (Iroquois). The route of their migrations is being traced by the character of the mounds which they built, and of the remains gathered from the mounds. "The gen- eral movement [of retreat before the Iroquois and Lenape] . . . must have been southward, . . . and the exit of the Ohio mound builders was, in all probability, up the Kanawah Valley on the same line that the Cherokees appear to have followed in reaching their historical locality. ... If the hypothesis here advanced be correct, it is apparent that the Cherokees entered the immediate valley of the Mississippi from the northwest, striking it in the region of Iowa." — C. Thomas, Problem of the Ohio mounds (Bureau of Ethnology, i8Sq). See Cherokees; Iroquois coxfeder.*cy ; also America, Prehistoric. Ai^o in: C. Thomas, Burial mounds of Northern sections of the U. S. (Fifth An. Rept. of the Bureau of ethnology, 1883-84) . — J. Heckeweldcr, Account of the Indian Nations, ch. i. ALLEGIANCE, the fidelity owed by every person to a ruler or to a state. Developing from feudal times, when it was a personal obligation to the subject's liege lord, it« is in modern mon- archies a duty owed nominally to the sovereign but really to the country which he personifies. In the United States of America, allegiance is due the state itself. It readily falls into three classes: (i) natural allegiance, due to birth within the country; (2) acquired allegiance, due to volun- tary naturalization or to acquiescence in citizen- ship granted in connection with the transfer of territory from one country to another; (3) tem- porary limited allegiance, due from a foreigner to the country in which he is sojourning, and involv- ing proper obedience to authority. This last ob- ligation is terminated on departure from the coun- try. Natural allegiance also applies to those born abroad under certain circumstances, and cases of ambiguity are settled by voluntary election of citizenship. For example, if an American citizen has a child born abroad, it is considered a natural born .American. At the same time the child born in America of foreign parents may choose Ameri- can allegiance and automatically assume American citizenship. The right of voluntarv naturalization and transfer of allegiance has been generally rec- ognized since about 1870 by most civilized nations, although previously allegiance was regarded as in- alienable. The former doctrine had led to the British claim of the right to impress seamen of alleged British birth ; and to demands of conti- nental countries that their nationals should not escape military duty by American naturalization. The late German empire asserted the right of dual citizenship and actually passed a law by which Germans could retain the rights and duties of German allegiance even after taking oath to sup- port and defend another country. — See also Brit- ish empire: Citizenship; Naturalization; U. S.A.; 1812 and 1814. ALLEGRI, Gregorio (1584-1652), Italian composer. Entered the Papal chapel in 1629. His works are chiefly motets, the most famous of which is the Miserere sung annually by the Pontifical choir on Wednesday and Friday of Holy Week. See Music: i6th century. ALLEMAGNE, the French name for Germany, derived from the confederation of the Alemanni. See Alsace-Lorraine; 1871. ALLEMANT, France, taken by the French (1017). See World War: 191 7: II. Western front: f, 3. ALLEN, Charles Herbert (1848- ), Amer- ican politician and banker. Appointed governor of Porto Rico. See Porto Rico: 1900 (May), (No- vember-December) . ALLEN, Ethan (1737-1789), American sol- dier. Upheld the rights of New Hampshire against New York state for jurisdiction over the "New Hampshire Grants," now \ermont. To protest against the disregard of this claim, he organized the Green Mountain Boys, and at the outbreak of the Revolution offered their services to the Ameri- can cause. Captured Fort Ticonderoga in 1775. Accompanied the Montgomery expedition to Mon- treal and was made prisoner. His correspondence with Governor Haldimand of Canada laid him open to a charge of treason which was never sub- stantiated. — See also Vermont: 1749-1774, 1781; U. S. A.: 1775 (Mav), (August-December). ALLEN, Grant '(1848-1899). See Art: What is art. ALLEN, Henry Justin (1868- ), American editor and statesman; governor of Kansas, 191Q- 192 1. An independent Republican. Broke a coal miners' strike by calling upon citizens to serve as volunteer miners. Sponsored some drastic legis- lation for compulsory arbitration of industrial dis- putes which he defended in debate with Samuel Gompers. — See also Arbitration and Conciliation, Industrial: United States: 1020-1921. ALLEN, Horatio (1802-1S89), American en- gineer. Inventor of the swivelling truck for loco- motives. See Railroads: 1830-1880. ALLEN, Ira (1751-1814), brother of Ethan .Mien, one of the founders of Vermont. See Ver- mont: 1 781. ALLEN, James Lane (1849- ), American novelist and short-story writer. Graduate of Ken- tucky University (1S72), where he later taught languages. Since 1S86 he has devoted himself to the writing of novels dealing almost wholly with the 'blue-grass region' and containing studies of nature and the pioneers. ALLEN, Sir James (1855- ), Prime Minis- ter of New Zealand since 1912 and minister of finance and education from 1012 to i9i.S- For his action in the New Zealand coal strike see Labor STRIKES AND BOYCOTTS: 191? ALLEN, William (1806-1879), American statesman. Member of Congress from Ohio. 1833- 3,!;: United States senator, 1837-49. Elected Dem- ocratic governor of Ohio, 1873. Favored green- 18 ALLENBY ALMA-TADEMA Jjack paper money. Defeated for reelection by R. B. Hayes. Reputed author of the slogan "Fif- ty-four forty, or fight." Known in the senate as "Earthquake Allen," and "The Ohio Gong." ALLENBY, Edmund Henry Hynman, Vis- count (1861- ), British field marshal; served in South Africa in various campaigns from 1884 to igo2, commanding cavalry in the Boer War and being cited and decorated; had important cavalry command at beginning of World War, being pro- moted to lieutenant-general; commander-in-chief Egyptian Expeditionary Force, I9i7-i9ig; served throughout Palestine campaign and was made field- marsbal and viscount; captured Jerusalem in 191 7 and in the campaign of IQ18 crushed Turkish re- sistance m Syria. In 1920, made High Commis- sioner for Egypt. — See also Egypt: 1918-1919. British retreat. See World War: 1914: I. Western front: n. At the battle of the Aisne. See World War: 1914: I. Western front: s, 1. Operations around Lys. See World War: 1014: I. Western front: w, 4. At the battle of Ypres. See World War: 1914: I. Western front: w, 14. In command of the British third army. See World War: 1915: H, Western front; a, 7. At the battle of the Somme. See World War: 1916: H. Western front: d, 5. At the battle of Arras. See World War: 1917: n. Western front: c, 4. Capture of Jerusalem. — Despatches. See Jerusalem: 1917; World War: 1917: VI. Turkish theater: c; c, 2; c, 2, vii; c, 2, ix; c, 3. ALLENDE, Ignacio (1779-1811), Mexican gen- eral. See Mexico: 1810-1810. ALLENSTEIN, a town of East Prussia, sixty miles south of Konigsberg, on the Thorn-Kovno railroad. Figured prominently in the maneuvers preliminary to the battle of Tannenberg, August, IQ14. — See also World War; 1914: II. Eastern front: c, 3. ALLENTICAN INDIANS. See Indians, American; Cultural areas in South America: Pam- pean area ALLERHEIM, Battle of (or Second battle of Nordlingen, 1645). See Germany: 1640-1645. ALLIA, Battle of (390 B.C.). See Rome: B.C. 300-347- ALLIANCE, Dual, Holy, etc. See under name, as Dual alliance, Holy alliance. For list of alliances, see League. ALLIANCE ISRAELITE UNIVERSELLE. See Jews; i8th-ioth centuries, and Zionism. ALLIGEWI INDIANS. See Iroquois con- federacy. ALLISON, William Boyd (1829-1908), Ameri- can legislator, served as Republican in House of Representatives (1863-1871) ; elected to Senate in 1873 and reelected in 1878, 1884, 1890, 1896 and 1902; assured the passage of the Silver Coinage Act of 1878, known as the Bland-Allison Act, by amending Bland's original bill and striking out the provision for "free and unlimited" silver coinage. ALLIZE: French minister at Munich and Bavaria. See World War; Diplomatic back- ground: 12, and 4. ALLMAN, George James (1812-1898), Scot- tish zoologist ; Regius professor of natural history in Edinbur^'h University, 1855; president of the Linnaean Society, 1874, and president of the British Association, 1870. ALLOBROGES, Conquest of the.— The Allo- broges having sheltered the chiefs of the Salyes, when the latter succumbed to the Romans, and having refused to deliver them up, the proconsul Cn. Domitius marched his army toward their country, B. C. 121. The Allobroges advanced to meet him and were defeated at V'indalium, near the junction of the Sorgues with the Rhone, and not far from Avignon, having 20,000 men slain and 3,000 taken prisoners. The Arverni, who were the allies of the Allobroges, then took the field crossing the Cevennes mountains and the river Rhone with a vast host, to attack the small Roman army of 30,000 men, which had passed under the command of Q. Fabius Maximus ^milianus. On the 8th of August, B. C. 121, the Gaulish horde encountered the legions of Rome, at a point near the junction of the Isere and the Rhone, and were routed v/ith such enormous slaughter that 150,000 are said to have been slain or drowned. This battle settled the fate of the Allobroges, who surrendered to Rome without further struggle; but the Arverni were not pursued. The final con- quest of that people was reserved for Caesar. — G. Long, Decline nf the Roman Republic, v. i, cli. 21. ALLOTMENTS.— "From 1882 to 1890, [in England] a series of allotment Acts were passed to enable the local authorities to acquire lands to rent in small parcels. This was followed in 1892, by the Small Holdings Act, empowering County Councils to obtain lands and advance sums of money to those who desired to purchase holdings of fifty acres or under. But none of these meas- ures proved effective ; for in fifteen years not more than 850 acres were sold. A new Small Holdings and Allotments Act of 1907, authorizing the County Councils to take lands at the current price with or without the consent of the large owners, has proved more successful, and within three years nearly 100,000 acres were allotted to small cultivators. At present [1920], plans are under discussion to improve the housing conditions of the agricultural laborer, to raise his wages, to secure deserving tenants against eviction, and to increase still further the number of peasant pro- prietors." — A. L. Cross, History of England and Greater Britain, pp. 742-7^13. ALLOUEZ, Claude Jean (1620-1689), one of the early French Jesuits to visit the Great Lakes. Founded the Mission of the Holy Ghost on Lake Superior in 1665, explored Green Bay and estab- lished missions among the Illinois Indians. — See also Canada: 1634-1673; Wisconsin; 1658-1669. ALLPORT, Sir James Joseph (1811-1892), F.nglish railway manager. Was connected with the growth and development of railway lines from their beginning and rose to be manager of the great Midland system, one of the most important in England. Developed the third-class passenger service at a penny a mile. ALLSTON, Washington (1779-1843), Ameri- can historical painter and poet. "Elijah in the wilderness," "The Prophet Jeremiah" and "Saul and the Witch of Endor" are among his most noted works. ALMA, Battle of (1854). See Russia: 1854- 18S6. ALMAGEST OF PTOLEMY. See Science: Ancient: Greek. ALMAGRO, Diego de (1475-1538). See Amer- ica; 1524-1528; Chile: 1535-1724; Peru: 1528- 1531. iS3i-i,«3, 1533-1548. ALMANSOR, Jacob. See Almohades. ALMANZA, or Almansa, Battle of. See Spain: 1707. ALMA-TADEMA, Sir Laurence (Laurens) (1836-1912), Dutch-British painter. Many of his paintings were designed to reproduce the life of ancient Egypt, Greece and Rome. "The education of the children of Clovis," "An Egyptian at his 219 ALMEIDA ALOD doorwaj'," "The mummy," "Phidias and the Elgin marbles," and "The vintage festival" are among his most notable works. ALMEIDA, Francisco de (c. 1450-1510), Por- tuguese warrior. Served against the Moors ; estab- lished Portuguese fortresses in Cochin, Ceylon and Sumatra ; destroyed the Egyptian fleet at Diu in 1508. — See also Commerce; Era of geographic ex- pansion: I5th-i7th centuries: Leadership of the Portuguese; India: 1408-1580. ALMENARA, Battle of (1710). See Spain: 1707-1710. ALMERIC. See AAtALRic. ALMOGAVARES, mercenary Spanish soldiers of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. They originally came from the Pyrenees, though they were later recruited from Navarre, Aragon, and Catalonia. They were frontier foot-soldiers, light- ing with javelins, short stabbing swords, and shields. The culmination of their achievements was the foundation of the .■\ragonese duchy of Athens. The name died out in the sixteenth cen- tury. ALMOHADES.— The empire of the Almora- vides, in Morocco and Spain, which originated in a Moslem missionary movement, was overturned in the middle of the twelfth century by a movement of somewhat similar nature. The agitating cause of the revolution was a religious teacher named Mahomet ben Abdallah, who rose in the reign of .All (successor to the great Almoravide prince, Joseph), w'ho gained the odor of sanctity at Mo- rocco and who took the title of AI Mehdi, or El Mahdi, the Leader, "giving himself out for the person whom many Mahometans expect under that title. As before, the sect grew into an army, and the army grew into an empire. The new dyn- asty were called .\lmohades from Al Mehdi, and by his appointment a certain .'\bdelmumen was elected Caliph and Commander of the Faithful. Under his vigorous guidance the new kingdom rapidly grew, till the Almohades obtained quite the upper hand in .Africa, and in 1146 they too passed into Spain. [See Spain: 1146-1232.] Un- der Abdelmumcn, Joseph and Jacob Almansor, the .Mmohades entirely supplanted the .Mmoravides, and became more formidable foes than they had been to the rising Christian powers. Jacob .Almansor won in 1105 the terrible battle of Alarcos against Alfonso of Castile, and carried his conquests deep into that kingdom. His fame spread through the whole Moslem world. . . . With Jacob .Mmansor perished the glory of the .Mmohades. His succes- sor, Mahomet, lost in 1211 [June i6l the great battle of .Alacab or Tolosa against .\lfonso, and that day may be said to have decided the fate of Mahometanism in Spain. The . Almohadc dynasty gradually declined. . . . The .\lmohades, like the Ommiads and the .'\lmoravides. vanish from his- tory amidst a scene of confusion the details of which it were hopeless to attempt to remember." — E. -A. Freeman, History and conqufsts of the Saracens, ted. $. — See also .Africa: Ancient and medieval civilization: .Arab occupation. Also tn H. Coppee, History of the conquest of Spain hx the Arah-.\foors, bk. 8, ch. 4. ALMONACID, Battle of (1800). See Spain: 1800 (.August-November). ALMORAVIDES.— During the confusions of the nth century in the Moslem world, a mission- ary from Kairwan — one .Abdallah — preaching the faith of Islam to a wild tribe in Western North Africa, created a religious movement which "na- turally led to a political one." "The tribe now called themselves .Almoravides, or more properly Morabethah, which appears to mean followers of the Marabout or religious teacher. .Abdallah does not appear to have him- self claimed more than a religious authority, but their princes Zachariah and .Abu Bekr were com- pletely guided by his counsels. After his death .Abu Bekr founded in 1070 the city of Morocco. There he left as his lieutenant his cousin Joseph, who grew so powerful that .Abu Bekr, by a won- derful exercise of moderation, abdicated in his favour, to avoid a probable civil war. This Joseph, when he had become lord of most part of Western Africa, was requested, or caused himself to be requested, to assume the title of Emir al Momenin, Commander of the Faithful. As a loyal subject of the Caliph of Bagdad, he shrank from such sacrilegious usurpation, but he did not scruple to style himself Emir Al Muslemin, Com- mander of the Moslems. . . . The Almoravide Joseph passed over into Spain, like another Tarik; he vanquished .Alfonso [the Christian prince of the rising kingdom of Castile] at Zalacca [Oct. 23, 10S6] and then converted the greater portion ot Mahometan Spain into an appendage to his own kingdom of Morocco. The chief portion to escape was the kingdom of Zaragossa, the great out-post of the Saracens in northeastern Spain. . . . The great cities of Andalusia were all brought under a degrading submission to the .Almoravides. Their dynasty hoivever was not of long duration, and it fell in turn [1147] before one whose origin was strikingly similar to their own" [the Almohades q.v.]. — E. A. Freeman, History and conquests of the Saracens, led. 5. — See also Crusades: Map; AD. 1097; PoRTUCU.; Early history; Sp.ain: 1146- 1232. Also in: H. Coppee, History of the conquest of Spain by the Arab-Moors, bk. 8, ch. 2 and 4. ALMUTZ, Siege of (1758). See Germany: 1758. ALNWICK CASTLE, a British merchant ship torpedoed March 19, iqi7, by a German submarine without warning 320 miles from land; the crew was forced to take to six open boats, some of which were lost. After several days of severe sufferins the survivors were rescued by the French steamer Vene- zia. ALOD, ALODIAL.— "It may be questioned whether any etymological connexion exists between the words odal and alod, but their signification ap- plied to land is the same: the alod is the heredi- tary estate derived from primitive occupation; for which the owner owes no service except the personal obligation to appear in the host and in the council . . . The land held in full ownership might be either an ethcl, an inherited or other- wise acquired portion of original allotment ; or an estate created by legal process out of public land. Both these are included in the more common term alod; but the former looks for its evidence in the pedicree of its owner or in the witness of the com- munity, while the latter can produce the charter or book by which it is created, and is called boc- land. .As the primitive allotments gradually lost their historical character, as the primitive modes of transfer became obsolete, and the use of written records took their place, the ethel is lost sight of in the bookland. .All the land that is not so ac- counted for is folcland, or public land." — W. Stubbs, Constitutional history of Eni;land, ch. 3, sect. 24, and ch. 5, sect. 36. — ".Alodial lands are commonly opposed to beneficiary or feudal; the former being strictly proprietary, while the latter depended upon a superior. In this sense the word is of continual recurrence in ancient histories, laws and instruments. It sometimes, however, bears the sense of inheritance. . . . Hence, in the charters 220 ALOMPRA ALPHABET of the eleventh century, hereditary fiefs are fre- quently termed alodia." — H. Hallam, View of the slate oj Europe during tlie Middle Ages, cli. 2, pi. I, nole. — See also Folcland. Also in: J. M. Kemble, Saxons in England, bk. I, ch. II. ALOMPRA, Aloung P'Houra (1711-1760), founder of the last Burmese dynasty. Ousted the invading Peguans in 1753, and seized the Burmese throne; founded the city of Rangoon. In 1757 conquered Pegu, making himself one of the most powerful of eastern monarchs. — See also Burma: Early history. ALONZO, Severe, president of Bolivia, i8q6- 1S99. See Bolivi.a: iSqq. ALOST, a town in central Belgium, the old capital of East Flanders, thirty miles west of Louvain. Printing was introduced into Belgium in 1475 by Thierry Martens, a native of Alost. In 1914 the scene of military severities and violations of the laws of war by the Germans. See Belgium: 1667; World War: Miscellaneous auxiliary serv- ices: X. Alleged atrocities and violation of inter- national law: a, 11. ALP, the name given by the Swiss inhabitants of the Alpine valleys to the summer pastures situ- ated on the slopes of the mountains, below the snow line. These mountain pastures, found throughout the Alpine system, have been in use for more than a thousand years; references to their existence in the years 730, 868 'and gqg have been noted. In the German-speaking mountain districts these alps are the centers of the pastoral life of the inhabitants. Statistics show that there are 4778 such pastures now in the country, 45% of which are owned jointly or exclusively by the communes, 54 '/r by individuals, and the remaining I'/f by the state or a few of the larger monasteries. Also in: J. Ball, Hints and notes, practical and scientific, jar travellers in the Alps (art. X and pp. Ivii-lxv). ALP ARSLAN, or Mohammed ben Da'ud (102Q-1072), sultan of Khorasan, 105Q-1072. Con- quered Georgia and .'Armenia about 1064; in 107 1 captured Aleppo and took prisoner the Byzantine emperor Romanus Diogenes; founder of the Sel- juk empire of Rum. See Turkey: 1063-1073. ALPHABET.— Importance of the alphabet.— "To us nothing seems more natural or more easy than to express on paper the sounds of our spoken words by means of those twenty-six simple signs which we call the letters of the Alphabet. The phrase 'as easy as A. B. C has actually become a proverbial expression. And yet, if we set aside the still more wonderful invention of speech, the discovery of the Alphabet may fairly be accounted the most difficult as well a? the most fruitful of all the past achievements of the human intellect. It has been at once the triumph, the instrument, and the register of the progress of our race. But, long before the Alphabet had been invented, men had contrived other systems of graphic represen- tation by means of which words could be recorded. The discovery of some rude form of the art of writing was, we may believe, the first permanent step that was taken in the progress towards civ- ilization. Till men could leave behind them a record of acquired knowledge the sum of their acquisitions must have remained almost stationary. Thus only could successive generations be enabled to profit by the labours of those who had gone before, and begin their onward progress from the most advanced point which their predecessors had attained. It is true that at a time when writing was unknown it would be possible for civiliza- tion to advance in certain defined directions. There would, for example, be nothing to prevent a considerable development of artistic skill ; the me- tallurgic, the ceramic, and the textile arts might flourish, and certain forms of poetry — lyric, epic, and dramatic — would not altogether be impossible. All this might easily be the case, but, on the other hand, law would be mainly custom, science could be little more than vague traditions, history would be uncertain legend, while religion must have con- sisted mainly of rhythmic adorations, and of for- mulas of magical incantation. The \'edic hymns, the Arval chants, the Rhapsodies of the Kalevala, the metrical maledictions of Accadian priests, the tale of Troy, the legend of Romulus, the tradi- tional folk lore of the Maoris, may give us a measure of the extreme limits which are attain- able by the religion, the literature, the history, and the science of unlettered nations. It is more than a mere epigram to affirm that unlettered races must of necessity be illiterate. But not only may a people have a literature without letters, but they may possess the Art of Writing without the knowl- edge of an Alphabet. Every system of non- alphabetic writing will, however, either be so limited in its power of expression as to be of small prac- tical value, or, on the other hand, it will be su difficult and complicated as to be unsuited for gen- eral use. It is only by means of the potent sim- plicity of the alphabet that the art of writing can be brought within general reach. The famil- iar instances of Egypt, Assyria, and China are sufficient to prove that without the alphabet any complete system for the graphic representation of speech is an acquirement so arduous as to de- mand the labour of a lifetime. Under such condi- tions, science and religion necessarily tend to re- main the exclusive property of a sacerdotal ca.ste; any diffused and extended national culture be- comes impossible, religion degenerates into magic, the chasm which separates the rulers and the ruled grows greater and more impassable, and the very art of writing, instead of being the most effective of all the means of progress, becomes one of the most powerful of the instruments by which the masses of mankind can be held enslaved. Hence it must be admitted that the really impor- tant factor in human progress is not so much the discovery of a method by which words can be recorded, as the invention of some facile graphic device, such as the alphabet, by means of which the art of writing can be so far simplified as to become attainable before the years of adolescence have been passed." — I. Taylor, History of the al- phabet, pp. 1-3. Earliest stages of development. — "The art of writing involves very complex factors. It can hardly be in doubt that man learned that art by slow and painful stages. The conception of such an analysis of speech-sounds as would make the idea of an alphabet possible must have come as the culminating achievement of a long series of efforts. The precise steps that marked this path of intellectual development can for the most part be known only by inference; yet it is probable that the main chapters of the story may be repro- duced with essential accuracy. For the very first chapters of the story we must go back in imagina- tion to the prehistoric period. Even barbaric man feels the need of self-expression, and strives to make his ideas manifest to other men by pictorial signs. The cave-dweller scratched pictures of men and animals on the surface of a reindeer horn or mammoth tusk as mementos of his prowess. The American Indian does essentially the same thing to-day, making pictures that crudely record his successes in war and the chase. The Northern 221 ALPHABET Earliest Stages ALPHABET Indian had got no farther than this when the white man discovered Amerira ; but the Aztecs of the South-west and the Maya people of Yucatan had carried their picture-makinp to a much higher state of elaboration. They had developed systems of pictographs or hieroglyphics that would doubt- less in the course of generations have been elabo- rated into alphabetical systems, had not the Euro- peans cut off the civilization of which they were the highest exponents. What the Aztec and Maya Z <. y Z X 0^^ << lU-J Si -1 -J d <i >- 7 vflz Ozf tii ^- O *■■ to I §5 -Its. -1 -1 >- u INSCRIPTION AT JERUSALEM l%7CENT'y B.C. UJ a: Ui I ALPHA < A A A ;\ >i CC \, •^l ^ BETA ^ B W B B a h B *7 n GAMMA -1 r C C C A c r A :i DELTA A A t> 6 ;• d A "f ^ EP5ILON <\ E E E e V e e iT TT DI6AMMA V [F] F F L r •) ^ ZETA ^ z (G) 9 K s 7. 7 T ETA N H B H 7? U h H TT rr THETA ^ e ^ XQ IOTA ^ 1 1 1 r i 1 T *> s KAPPA f K K K 1 K :7 :d LAMBDA C A U U i; 1 I A u ^ MU ^ M r^ /A /n U m M i Ji) rsiu y N K N NT 1 n N J :) (X.) $ — :7^ rl .Y > )D OMICRON o O o o <1 y ^ PI -^ n r P P t p n CJ B lv [^] :$' V COPPA ^ Q Q q d) q P P RHO ^ P p R A -J r P -7 ^ SIGMA w Z 5 S 5 e r» c V »? TAU X T T T T A T T Jl i^ UPSILOfN Y V V LC ll PHI * -1- X ^r^ CHI X X PSI y OMEGA -r\_ VY EXAMPLES OF EARLY ALPHABETS 222 ALPHABET Deciphering Hieroglyphs ALPHABET were striving toward in the sixteenth century A. D., various Oriental nations had attained at least five or six thousand years earlier. In Egypt at the time of the pyramid-builders, and in Babylonia at the same epoch, the people had developed sys- tems of writing that enabled them not merely to present a Hmited range of ideas pictorially, but to express in full elaboration and with finer shades of meaning all the ideas that pertain to highly cultured existence. The man of that time made records of military achievements, recorded the transactions of every-day business life, and gave expression to his moral and spiritual aspirations in a way strangely comparable to the manner of our own time. He had perfected highly elaborate systems of writing. Of the two ancient systems of writing just referred to as being in vogue at the so-called dawning of history, the more picturesque and suggestive was the hieroglyphic system of the Egyptians. This is a curiously conglomerate sys- tem of writing, made up in part of symbols rem- iniscent of the crudest stages of picture-writing, in part of symbols having the phonetic value of syllables, and in part of true alphabetical letters. In a word, the Egyptian writing represents in itself the elements of the various stages through which the art of writing has developed. We must con- ceive that new features were from time to time ad- ded to it. while the old features, 'curiously enough, were not given up. Here, for example, in the midst of unintelligible lines and pothooks, are various pictures that are instantly recognizable as repre- sentations of hawks, lions, ibises, and the like. It can hardly be questioned that when these pictures were first used calligraphically they were meant to represent the idea of a bird or animal. In other words, the first stage of picture-writing did not go beyond the mere representation of an eagle by the picture of an eagle. But this, obviously, would confine the presentation of ideas within very nar- row limits. In due course some inventive genius conceived the thought of syombolizing a picture To him the outUne of an eagle might represent not merely an actual bird, but the thought of strength, of courage, or of swift progress. [See also Aztec AND Maya picture writing.] Such a use of sym- Dols obviously extends the range of utility of a nascent art of writing. Then in due course some wonderful psychologist — or perhaps the joint ef- forts of many generations of psychologists — made the astounding discovery that the human voice, which seems to flow on in an unbroken stream of endlessly varied modulations and intonations, may really be analyzed into a comparatively limited number of component sounds — into a few hun- dreds of syllables. That wonderful idea conceived, it was only a matter of time until it would occur to some other enterprising genius that by selecting an arbitrary symbol to represent each one of these elementary sounds it would be possible to make a written record of the words of human speech which could be reproduced — rephonated — by some one who had never heard the words and did not know in advance what this written record con- tained. This, of course, is what every child learns to do now in the primer class, but we may feel assured that such an idea never occurred to any human being until the peculiar forms of picto- graphic writing just referred to had been practised for many centuries. Yet, as we have said, some genius of prehistoric Egypt conceived the idea and put it into practical execution, and the hierogly- phic writing of which the Egyptians were in full possession at the very beginning of what we term the historical period made use of this phonetic system along with the ideographic system already described." — H. S. Williams, History of the Al- phabet (Harper's Magazine, v. loS, pp. 534-535). Deciphering the hieroglyphs. — "Of all the splendid achievements of archaeological research during the present century, there are none of more universal interest and importance than those which are revealing the origin and history of letters. . . . .\t the beginning of the present [igj century the great mass of testimony now laid open before us was an apparently impenetrable mystery. Egyp- tian hieroglyphics and cuneiform inscriptions yet remained, for the most part, but confusion of or- nament and meaningless signs. Some little ad- vance, it is true, had been reached during the latter part of the eighteenth century, as to the signification of certain hieroglyphic characters, but these were as yet but conjecture; a groping in the dark, with no means to verify, uncertain, unas- sured. [See also Cuneiform writing.] With the opening of the present century two events occurred which were to place in the hands of scholars the keys to these mysteries. The first in date of these discoveries, through not in results, was the finding of the Rosetta Stone in 1799. This was an outcome of the French scien- tific expedition to Egypt under the first Napoleon. At this date, a French artillery officer, named Boussard, while digging among some ruins at Fort St. Julian, near Rosetta, discovered a large stone, of black basalt, covered with inscriptions. This tablet, now known as 'The Rosetta Stone,' was of irregular shape, portions having been broken from the top and sides. The inscriptions were in three kinds of writing ; the upper text in hieroglyphic characters, the second in a later form of Egyptian writing, called enchorial or demotic, and the third was in Greek. No one of these had been entirely preserved. Of the hieroglyphic text, a considerable portion was lacking; perhaps thir- teen or fourteen lines at the beginning. From the demotic, the ends of about half the lines were lost, while the Greek text was nearly perfect, with the e.xception of a few words at the end. The im- mediate inferences were that these three inscrip- tions were but different forms of the same decree, and that in the Greek would be found some clew for the decipherment of the others. It was first presented to the French Institute at Cairo where it was destined not long to remain. The sur- render of Alexandria to the British, in 1801, placed the Rosetta Stone, by the terms of the treaty, in the hands of the British commissioner. This gen- tleman, himself a zealous scholar and keenly alive to the importance of the treasure, at once dis- patched it to England, where it was presented by George III to the British Museum. A fac-simile of the inscriptions was made in 1802, by the So- ciety of Antiquaries, of London, and copies were soon distributed among the scholars of Europe. When the Greek inscription was read, it was found to be a decree by the priests of Memphis in honor of King Ptolemy Epiphanes, B. C. iqS: That, in acknowledgment of many and great benefits con- ferred upon them by this king, they had ordered this decree should be engraved upon a tablet of hard stone in hieroglyphic, enchorial and Greek characters; the first, the writing sacred to the priests; the second, the language or script of the people, and the third that of the Greeks, their rulers. Also, that this decree, so engraved, should be set up in the temples of the first, second and third orders, near the image of the ever living King. It might be supposed that with this clew the work of decipherment would be readily ac- complished. On the contrary, many of the most distinguished scholars of Europe tried, during the 223 ALPHABET Theories of Origin ALPHABET twenty following years, without success. The chief obstacle in the way was the prevailing opinion that the pictorial forms of Egyptian hieroglyphs were mainly ideographic symbols of things. In consequence, the absurd conceptions read into these characters, led all who attempted the decipher- ment of these far away from the truth. It is true that Zoega, a Danish archaeologist, and Thomas Young, an English scholar, each inde- pendently, about 1787, had made the discovery that the hieroglyphs in the ovals represented royal names, and were perhaps alphabetic ; but the sig- nification of these characters were never fully com- prehended by either of these great scholars. The claim made by the friends of Mr. Young as the first discoverer of the true methods of decipher- ment, rests upon the fact that he gave the true phonetic values to five of these characters in the spelling of the names of certain royal personages, and in 1819 published an article announcing this discovery. He seems, however, to have had so little confidence in this conception that he went no farther with it, and still later, in 1823, lost the prestige he might have gained, by the publication as his belief, that the Egyptians never made use of signs to express sound until the time of the Roman and Greek invasions of Egypt. The real work of decipherment was reserved for Champol- lion, who, born at Grenoble, in 1700, was but nine years old when the famous stone was discovered which later on was to yield to him the long lost language of the hieroglyphs. Among the characters on the Rosetta Stone, in the hieroglyphic text, were to be found certain pictorial forms enclosed in an oval. It had hitherto been suggested that these ovals contained characters signifying royal names. Were these symbolic signs, or how were they to be interpreted? Champgllion concluded that some of these signs expressed sound and were alphabetic in character. Thus, if the signs in the cartouche supposed to signify Ptolemy, could be found to be identical, letter for letter, with the Ptolemaioi of the Greek inscription, an important proof would be obtained. It so happened that on an obelisk found at Phila; there was a hieroglyphic inscription, which, according to a Greek text on the same shaft should be that of Cleopatra. If, then, the signs for P, t and / in Ptolemaios cor- responded with the signs for p, t and / in Cleo- patra, the identity of these as alphabetic signs would be confirmed. The comparison fully justi- fied his theory, and further confirmation was sup- plied by further comparisons, until he finally came into possession of hieroglyphic signs for all the consonants."— F. D. Jermain, hi the path of the alphabet, pp. q-14. Theories of origin and • development. — "At first .sight the diversity of alphabets seems as little connected as the diversity of languages. But as the labours of the philologist have gradually traced the various relations of the better-known languages one to the other, so likewise the epigraphist has dealt with the varieties of the Greek and Roman alphabets which are the more familiar, v/hilc the archaologist has yet to trace and connect the al- phabets of the less-known races, many of which were used for languages which are still unread. The more obvious questions of the origins and connections of the better-known alphabets of var- ious countries seemed to have been fairly settled and put to rest a generation ago; the more remote alphabets and the more ancient signary had not then been brought to light to complicate the sub- ject. The old traditional view of the derivation of the western alphabets from the Phoenician fitted well enough to most of the facts then known, and was readily accepted in general. Further, De Rouge's theory of the derivation of the Phcenician from the Egyptian hieratic writing of the xiith dynasty was plausible enough to content most en- quirers, though only two out of twenty-two let- ters were satisfactorily accounted for. In 1883 Isaac Taylor could safely claim that he had 'sum- marised and criticised all previous discoveries and researches as to the origin and development of alphabets' by his general outline in his work on The Alphabet: in that book a sound general basis seemed to have been reached, and only minor questions needed further discussion and adjust- ment. Yet the voice of caution was heard even then. Dr. Peile, in 1SS5, when judicially report- ing on Isaac Taylor's work, and while agreeing that 'his book deserves to be, and doubtless will be, the standard book in England on the history of the alphabet,' yet saw that other solutions might arise. He added: 'But no proof of the affilia- tion of the Phcenician alphabet can be complete without evidence from writing to fill up the long gap between the period of the Papyrus Prisse and that of the Baal Lebanon and Moabite inscriptions. In default of this it must always be possible that the Phoenician alphabet is descended from some utterly lost, non-Egyptian system of writing, traces of which may some day turn up as unex- pectedly as the- so-called Hittite hieroglyphs.' Within a generation later this possibility clearly appears to be the forecase of the real history." — W. M. Flinders Petrie, Formation of the alpliabet, pp. 1-2. "The investigation of the origin of our alphabet, always a subject of great interest, has been stimu- lated in recent years by the discovery of writing in Crete, and by the claim of Sir .Arthur Evans that this .Aegean writing was the source of the so- called Phoenician alphabet. In the midst of the present writer's work on the subject, in all too brief intervals snatched from other pressing duties, the trend of his own results has meantime received unexpected confirmation from the remarkable es- say of Dr. .\lan H. Gardiner revealing the exis- tence of a hitherto unknown script of Egyptian origin in Sinai, which may have been a form of the Proto-Semitic script, posited by Praetorius as the probable ancestor of both the Phoenician and South Semitic alphabets, .\t the same time the thoughtful remarks of Schaefer, in a discussion of the reasons for the vowelless character of the Phoenician alphabet, have likewise lent further support to the author's conviction that the old and now widely rejected hypothesis of an Egyp- tian origin of the alphabet commonly called Phoe- nician must be carefully re-examined. One of the neglected aspects of the entire problem has been its connection with the related question of the physical process and material equipment of writ- ing in the Near East. This subject has bearing, and important bearing, on the whole question of the influence of any given system of writing in the eastern Mediterranean. ... An examination of the civilizations of the Near East shows clearly that (excluding monumental documents) there were two physical processes of writing in the east- ern Mediterranean world. One, which grew up < the Nile, consisted in applying a colored fluid to a vegetable membrane ; the other, which arose in the Tigris-Euphrates world, incised or impressed its signs on a yielding or plastic surface which later hardened. Both of these methods reached the classical world: in the wax tablet for the Greek or Roman gentleman's memoranda, and in the pen, ink, and paper (papyrus) which have descended to our own day. "The early geographical line to 224 ALPHABET Theories of Origin ALPHABET be drawn between these two methods of writing may be indicated in the shortest terms by saying that the practice of incision on a plastic surface was Asiatic; the process employing pen, ink, and vegetable paper was Egyptian. ... If anyone has a lingering doubt about the Egyptian character of the writing equipment of these Aramean scribes in the Assyrian reliefs, such doubt will I am sure disappear on examination of a relief of the Ara- mean king of Samal, discovered at Senjirli by von Luschan. . . . The king is seated on his throne at the left, while before him stands his secretary, with an object under his left arm, which looks surpris- ingly like a book, but as this is impossible it may perhaps be a roll partly unrolled. In his left hand, however, he carries an unmistakable Egyptian writing outfit. . . . This Egyptian writing outfit, carried by the Aramean secretary of Samal, of course contained reed pens with a soft brush point like those we have found in Egypt. If this official were to begin taking down his lord's dictation, he would spread his papyrus paper on his left hand, as we have seen the Egyptian scribe doing, and after him the Aramean scribes on the Assyrian re- liefs. The pen would make the same broad strokes produced by the Egyptian scribe, and to settle the matter once for all it is important to notice at this point that the Aramaic ostraca found at Samaria, perhaps reaching back into the ninth century B. C, clearly show that the soft-pointed Egyptian brush pen was employed in writing them. Finally we know exactly how these Aramean docu- ments of Western Asia looked, since we have been able to hold in our hands the Elephantine papyri. The system of writing which employed pen, ink, and paper was the only one which possessed an alphabet, and which wrote that alphabet without vowels. It is evident that the pen-ink-and-paper method of writing came from Egypt into Asia and spread there at the very time when the alphabet also was appearing and coming into common use in the same region. It follows therefore that the Egyptian system of writing was in most intimate contact with the whole scribal situation in West- ern Asia, and it is highly unlikely that we can entirely dissociate the physical process and material equipment contributed by Egypt to Asia at this time from the alphabet which Asia Hkewise gained at the same time." — J. H. Breasted, Physical pro- cesses of writing in the early Orient and their re- lation to the origin of the alphabet (American Journal of Semitic Languages, July, igi6, pp. 230- 248). — See also ^gean civii-ization: Minoan age: B. C. 1200-750. "The vexed question of the origin of our alpha- bet has given rise to a long series of controversies and theories, but of recent years the matter ap- pears to have been comfortably settled among philologists. A recent discovery of great impor- tance has caused us, however, to reconsider our ideas and to push back farther into the mists of antiquity. It is, of course, a matter of common knowledge that our English alphabet is taken di- rectly from that of the ancient Greeks, who in their turn received it from the Phoenicians. It is indeed true that not later than 1,000 years before the Christian era a perfect alphabet of twenty-two consonants, but without vowels, was used upon Phoenician soil, and it is clear that Greece adopted most of the letters of this script, although possibly in an earlier stage of development than that in which we first encounter it. Some of the Greek letters, however, seem to have a closer affinity with those of another Semitic alphabet, akin to Phoenician, but used In slightly varying forms in South Arabia and Abyssinia, and generally known as South Semitic, the North Semitic being Phoeni- cian proper. The mutual relations of the North and South alphabets seem to postulate a common parent which came into existence at least anterior to 1000 B. C, and which may be called Original Semitic. Opinions differ considerably as to the origin of this hypothetical script, and a cluster of divergent theories ascribe its origin respectively to Babylonian cuneiform, Egyptian hieratic, the lately discovered Cretan, and finally a number of marks and other symbols found on Egyptian pot- tery, but certainly not Egyptian in origin. All these derivations present diificulties, and a different solution of the problem has been presented by Dr. Alan H. Gardiner, who has studied the subject exhaustively and whose researches have already been propounded by Mr. T. E. Peet. Our data are the early forms of the letters, and their names, which can be shown with great probability to be as old as the letters themselves. The signs were originally chosen on the acrophonic principle; thus, in order to represent the sound B, a com- mon object, whose name began with B — namely, BET, 'a house' — was chosen. The sign was hence called BET, which has survived in the Greek BETA. Can we see this process in its early stages? In the peninsula of Sinai, on a plateau called Serabit-el-Khadim, anciently frequented by the Egyptians for the purpose of turquoise-mining, stood a temple dedicated to the goddess Hathor, really called 'the Lady of the Turquoise.' In this temple the expedition sent by the Egypt Explora- tion Fund in 1905 discovered various monuments bearing inscriptions in an unknown script, and near the turquoise mines in the same district were found seven further inscriptions in the same writ- ing. Careful copies were made of these documents, but it was not until 1Q14 that their true significance was realized, when Dr. Alan H. Gardiner, submit- ted them to a long and minute study. It soon became manifest to Dr. Gardiner that, though the language was not Egyptian, many of the characters were taken from Egyptian hieroglyphs, but this borrowing was confined merely to the forms of the sign and not to their Egyptian values. As Semites are known from other evidence to have accompanied the Egyptian expeditions to Sinai, Dr. Gardiner argued that the new script might well be Semitic, and he proceeded to fix the values of the signs on the acrophonic principle already al- luded to. These signs being only thirty-two in number could scarcely be other than alphabetic. Having thus determined the values of fifteen signs, with their help a group of four signs which recurs in several of the texts was found to read BA'ALAT — the Semitic word for Lady, or Goddess — the evi- dent equivalent of the Hathor of the purely Egyp- tian inscriptions of this site. Dr. Gardiner and other scholars have added new readings for other groups of signs, but none of these are quite as convincing as the instance just quoted. Here, then, in Sinai, we have at a date probably earlier than 1500 B. C. a Semitic people apparently in the very act of borrowing signs from the Egyptian hieroglyphic script, in order to form on the acro- phonic principle a true alphabet which would suf- fice to write their own speech. For B they bor- rowed the Egyptian sign for 'house' because their own word BET began with the b-sound, and so on. From the very crude alphabet which these in- scriptions reveal, it is possible to trace many of the letters of the Phoenician alphabet, and thus to show that they are conventionalized forms of ob- jects selected originally from the Egyptian hiero- glyphs on the acrophonic principle. If we have not here the actual origin of the Phoenician — and 225 ALPHEUS ALPS hence of our own — alphabet, we have at least a striking example of the process to which both are due." — W. R. Dawson, Egyptian origin of the al- phabet (Asiatic Review, Jan., 1920, pp. i24-i2b). — See also Arabia: The Sabaeans; Runes; Semitic LITERATURE. Origin of the English alphabet. — "The printed letters or sound-signs which compose our alphabet are about two thousand five hundred years old. 'Roman type' we call them, and rightly so, since from Italy they came. They vary only in slight degree from the founts of the famous printers of the fifteenth century, these being imitations of the beautiful 'minuscule' (so called as being of smaller size) manuscripts of four hundred years earlier. Minuscule letters are cursive (i.e. running) forms of the curved letters about an inch long called 'uncials' (from Latin uncia, 'an inch,' or from uncus, 'crooked'), which were themselves derived from the Roman letters of the Augustan age. These Roman capitals, to which those in modern use among us correspond, are practically identical with the letters employed at Rome in the third century B. C; such, for instance, as are seen in the well-known inscriptions on the tombs of the Scipios, now among the treasures of the Vatican. These, again, do not differ very materially from forms used in the earliest existing specimens of Latin writing, which may probably be referred to the end of the fifth century B. C. Thus it appears that our English alphabet is a member of that great Latin family of alphabets, whose geographical extension was originally conterminous, or nearly so, with the limits of the Western Empire, and afterwards with the ancient obedience to the Ro- man." — E. Clodd, Story oj the alphabet, pp. 34-35. Slavonic alphabet. — Invented by Cyril and Methodius. See Russian literature: gth-i4th centuries. Russian alphabet first used by Peter the Great. See Russian literature: 1680-1752. ALPHEUS, the principal river of the Pelopon- nesus, the modern Morea. The Modern Ruphia, which rises near Asea, is for the most part a shal- low, rapid stream. It flows into the Ionian Sea. For a short space the stream flows beneath the ground, hence, the fable that it passed underneath the sea and rose in Svracuse, Sicily. ALPHONSO. See Alfonso. ALPINI: On Grappa front. See World W.\r: 1Q17: IV. Austro-Italian front: e, 5. ALPS. — The name Alps has been given to the crescent-shaped mountain system of Europe, ex- tending from Savona, Italy to Vienna, Austria. The system covers part of Italy, France, Switzer- land, Bavaria and Austria. The length of the chain along the main line is 660 miles, and the area of the surface covered by the entire range is said to be 80,000 square miles. In the main the range is a continued chain of towering mountains, with sharp, abrupt peaks. Among the rivers which flow from the slopes of the Alps are the Rhine, Rhone, Danube and Po. The loftiest and most famous summits of the Alps are. Mount Blanc (15,782 ft.); Monte Rosa (15,215 ft,); Weisshorn (14,804 ft.); Breithorn (13,685 ft.) and Matter- horn (14,780 ft.). .Metsch is the name of the larg- est glacier in the .'Mps system, being thirteen miles long. The origin of the word Alps is uncertain, writers differing between a derivation from the Celtic root "alb" (height), and the Latin adjective "albus," white. The word Alps should not be con- fused with Alp, which is the name given to the summer mountain pastures by the natives of the Alpine valleys (See .Alp ) .Among the first men who did extensive exploration work in the ice and snow regions were Horace Benedict de Saus- sure (1740-179Q), and Placidus a Spescha (1752- 1833), the Benedictine monk of Disentis. The first known English .\lpine climber was Colonel Mark Beaufoy (1764-1S27). The higher Alps are per- petually covered with snow, offering, with their picturesque glaciers, cascades and forests, scenery which is famous throughout the world for grand- eur and magnificence. Several important moun- tain groups, although they might be considered in- dependent ranges, are arranged in such a manner as to appear connected with the main system. It is therefore incorrect to suppose that the .\lps form strictly a single range. It may be said, more ac- curately, that the main chain or group is flanked on either side by other important ranges, which, however, are not comparable with the main group, in point of height, grandeur or picturesqueness. Concerning the early inhabitants of the Alps we know little more than what has come down to us from the Roman and Greek historians. Other than that a number of Alpine tribes were conquered by .Ai^'ustu3, we are in ignorance of the history of the Alpine dwellers previous to the early part of the eleventh century, when the Carolingian em- pire was finally dismembered. In 1349 Dauphine became France's prize, following a prolonged struggle for the Alpine region between the feudal lords of Savoy, Dauphine and Provence. The county of Nice, which was formerly part of Pro- vence, fell to the feudal house of Savoy in 1388, as did Piedmont and other lands on the Italian side of the .Alps. France began to drive back the house of Savoy across the range, however, even- tually forcing it to limit its power solely to Italy. (See also Venice: 1508-1509.) In i860 this rivalry came to an end when the rest of the county of Nice and Savoy were given over to France, making the latter a definite power in the Alpine region. This reversal of power is significant of the marked historical influence which the physical aspect of the .Alpine ranges has exerted upon the Central European countries, particularly upon Italy. As barriers. — Importance of passes. — It is to be noted that the .Alps have had a great influ- ence upon history. Passable only at a few points and there not leadily, they have made it hard for the invadei of Italy. Hannibal's failure to crush Rome in 218 B. C. was undoubtedly due to the hardships suffered by his army in crossing the bleak Alpine passes. As a result of the World War, Italy's northeastern frontier has been ex- tended to the crest of the eastern Alps, making the country easier to defend on that side. "The vast majority of these [passes] are natu- rally of no practical importance. Armies cannot use them: traffic over them is impossible. ... At the utmost some of them may serve, as in the Pyrenees, for a smuggling trade, but even this dis- appears when the profits of smuggling cease to be great. There are, however, an appreciable number of gaps in the chain, by which there was never any difficulty for travellers on foot or with laden animals, over which in modern limes good car- riage roads have been made. These gaps occur at fairly long intervals, and in all parts of the Alps." — H. B. George, Relations oj geography and liis- tory, p. 202. — The natives of the Alpine regions were probably the first to use these passes, al- though the outside world first learned of their existence when they were crossed by the Romans during military expeditions. It is more than likely that the inhabitants themselves pointed out these convenient paths to the Romans. Cisar makes no mention of the .Alps beyond that he has crossed them; when scmie of the mountain tribes try to 226 ALPS Passes ALPS block the passage of Roman merchants or armies, they become important enough to be conquered. It was not till after the Cimbri in 102 B, C. in- vaded Italy by the Brenner route that the Romans realized the value of Rhaetia (Tyrol) as a thor- oughfare from Italy to Germany, and began its conquest in 36 B. C. We know for certain that the Romans availed themselves of the Mont Ge- nevre Pass, later used by Charles VIII in 1404 in his invasion of Italy ; in the Central Alps the Ro- mans used the Spliigen and Septimer routes, as well as the Great St. Bernard, farther west, subse- quently so advantageously made use of by Napo- leon in his conquest of Italy. [See also Com- merce: Ancient: 200-600.) "The Alps long retarded Roman expansion into central Europe, just as they delayed and obstructed the southward advance of the northern barbarians. Only through the partial breaches in the wall Provincia. . . . Mountains folded into a succes- sion of parallel ranges are greater obstructions than a single range like the Erz, Black Forest, and Vosges, or a narrow, compact system like the West- ern Alps, which can be crossed by a single pass. Owing to this simple structure the Western Alps were traversed by four established routes in the days of the Roman Empire. These were: I. The Via Aiirelia between the Maritime Alps and the sea, where now runs the Cornice Road. II. The Alons Malrona (Mont Genevre Pass, 6080 ft. or 1854 meters) between the headstream of the Dora Riparia and that of the Durance, which was the best highway for armies. III. The Little St. Ber- nard (7075 ft. or 2157 meters), from Aosta on the Dora Baltea over to the Isere and down to Lug- dunum (Lyons). IV. The Great St. Bernard (8ioq ft. or 2472 meters) route, which led northward from Aosta over the Pennine Alps to Octodurus at ALL'S Roaii over the St. (nittliarcl Pass known as passes did the .Alps admit small, divided bodies of the invaders, like the Cimbri and Teu- tons, who arrived, therefore, with weakened power and at intervals, so that the Roman forces had time to gather their strength between successive attacks, and thus prolonged the life of the declin- ing empire. So in the Middle Ages, the Alpine barrier facilitated the resistance of Italy to the German emperors, trying to enforce their claim upon this ancient seat of the Holy Roman Em- pire. The northern expansion of the Romans, re- buffed by the high double wall of the Central Alps, was bent to the westward over the Maritime, Cot- tine and Savoy Alps, where the barrier offered the shortest and easiest transmontane routes. Hence Germany received the elements of Mediter- ranean culture indirectly through Gaul, second- hand and late. The ancient Helvetians, moving southward from northern Switzerland into Gaul, took a route skirting the western base of the .'Mps by the gap at Geneva, and thus threatened Roman 2 the elbow of the upper Rhone, where Martigny now stands. Across the broad double rampart of the central Alps the Roman used chiefly the Bren- ner route, which by a low saddle unites the deep reijntrant valleys of the Adige and Inn rivers, and thus surmounts the barrier by a single pass. How- ever, a short cut northward over the Chalk Alps by the Fern Pass made closer connection with Augusta Vindelicorum (.Augsburg). The Romans seem to have been ignorant of the St. Gotthard, which, though high, is the summit of an unbroken ascent from Lake Maggiore up the valley of the Ticino on one side, and from Lake Lucerne up the Reuss on the other. . . . Mountains are seldom equally accessible from all sides. Rarely does the crest of a system divide it symmetrically. This means a steep, diflicult approach to the summit from one direction, and a longer, more gradual, and hence easier ascent from the other. It mean-; also in general a wide zone of habitation and food supply on the gentler slope, a better commissary 227 ALPS Roman Period Medieval Times ALPS and transport base whence to make the final as- cent, whether in conquest, trade or ethnic growth. Its boundary along the crest of the Alps from Mont Blanc to the Mediterranean brings over two- thirds of the upheaved area within the domain of France, and gives to that country great advantages of approach to the Alpine passes at the expense of Italy. With the exception of the ill-matched con- flict between the civilized Romans and the barba- rian Gauls, it is a matter of hi,story that from the days of Hannibal to Napoleon III, the campaigns over the Alps from the north have succeeded, while those from the steep-rimmed Po Valley have miscarried. The Brenner route favored alike the Cimbri hordes in 102 B. C. and later the medieval German Emperors invading Italy from the upper Danube. The drop from the Brenner Pass to Munich is «8oo ft.; to Rovereto, an equally dis- tant point on the Italian side, the road descends 3770 ft. . . . The strategic importance of pass peoples tends early to assume a poUtical aspect. The mountain state learns to exploit this one ad- vantage of its ill-favored geographical location. The cradle of the old Savoyard power in the late Middle Ages lay in the Alpine lands between Lake Geneva and the western tributaries of the Po River. This location controlling several great mountain routes between France and Italy gave the Savoyard princes their first importance. The autonomy of Switzerland can be traced not less to the citadel character of the country and the native independence of its people, than to their po- litical exploitation of their strategic position." — E. C. Semple, Infiuences of geographic environ- ment, pp. 4, 532-554. — See also Brenner P.ass. The formation of the Swiss Confederation, be- tween 1281 and 181S, marked a consolidation of the smaller and weaker cantons on the northern side of the Central Alpine chain. This unification of the smaller states, made possible by their strate- gic advantages, successfully achieved the desired re- sult of maintaining a combined defen.se against foreign aggression. That the policy of the Swiss Federation has been exemplary has been borne out during the Great War when Switzerland insisted on maintaining strict neutral relations with all the warring nations unless an act of aggres.'iion were made against it. In consequence of this policy Switzerland was the only European country which held strictly to its neutrality although completely surrounded by neighbors warring against each other in a life-and-death struggle, Roman period. — Hannibal's crossing of the Alps. — Medieval times.— "The position of the territories once occupied by the Etruscans, Tus- cany and much of the Po basin, seems to imply that they [the Greeks] followed- the Latins rather than preceded them, and traces of them are sup- posed to show that they came in from the north, through what are called the Rhaetian ."Mps. More confidently it can be affirmed that the Gallic tribes, who by the end of the fifth century B.C. had spread over the whole plain of the Po, came over the western .^Ips, though it is of course im- possible to guess by what routes. They continued to form the bulk of the population north of the Apennines, even after Rome had in some sense conquered them in the interval between the first and second Punic wars, and were no small sup- port to Hannibal, after he had crossed from the land of their kindred beyond the .-Mps info Cisal- pine Gaul — the name of Italy was not yet extended to the plain of the Po. "The most remarkable historical event connected with the passes of the .\lps is certainly the passage of Hannibal ; and much critical energy has been expended in trying to determine his route, with- out further success than showing that he must certainly have crossed by some pass south of Mont Blanc. . . . Hannibal, coming from distant Car- thage, had of course to rely upon guidance from the Gauls: he obviously knew before starting that the Alps were passable, but there is no indication that he had any knowledge either of the difficulties of the task, or that there was any choice of routes. . . . All that he knew himself was doubtless that his guides undertook to take him across into Cisalpine Gaul. The conduct of Scipio, the Roman general commanding against Hannibal, also tends to show that Roman knowledge of the Alpine passes was slight. Scipio, when he found that the Carthaginians had marched up the Rhone, took for granted that they were going to cross the Alps, and removed his army by sea to Italy, in order toi meet the enemy in the plain of the Po. Scipio was not wanting in capacity, as this prompt ac- tion shows. It is no unfair conjecture that if he had possessed any definite knowledge of the Al- pine valleys, he would have landed at Genoa, and posted himself at Turin, in order to encounter Hannibal before he could reach the open plains, where the famous .African cavalry would have free scope. If, however, he knew that there were various routes, but had only confused and imperfect in- formation about them, the course which he adopted, of waiting on the Ticino, was obviously right. "The historical importance of Hannibal's feat is not however concerned with the determination of his exact route. It was a revelation to the world that an army, as distinguished from a mere horde — that an army with all its impedimenta could be conveyed across a great mountain range. Nor was it long before his example was followed. His brother Hasdrubal led an army into Italy ten years later, apparently by one of the passes from the Isere, with unexpected ease and speed. .\ cen- tury afterwards occurred another invasion of Italy, which illustrates the difficulty of defending a mountain frontier such as the .\lps. The Romans were by that time effectively masters of the whole Po basin, as well as of Provence; geographical Italy was also now politically united under one government. They were aware that the hordes of barbarians, known to history as the Cimbri and Teutones, were on the move for Italy. These formidable enemies had either trampled over, or won to their side, the tribes beyond the .Alps, both in the Rhone-land and in the modern Switzerland. They apparently formed a scheme, highly advanced for their stage of civilization, of entering Italy by two widely distant entrances, and joining forces on the Po. The Romans were informed of their purpose, and sent one consul to Provence, while the other waited on the .Adige. Unfortunately our authorities are so brief that they give no hint as to the route by which the Cimbri entered Italy; all we know is that the consul Catulus failed to stop them, and that they moved westwards up the north bank of the Po to meet their kindred. For- tunately Marius had destroyed the Teutones in Provence, and was in time to join his colleague, and cru'^h the Cimbri also, not far from the Ti- cino. One may conjecture that the St. Gotthard pass was unknown at the time, or the Cimbri, who were guided by their Helvetian allies, would not have gone so far to the eastwards as they did; though whether they crossed from the head of the Rhine, or made the still longer circuit by the Inn and .\dige, we cannot even guess. ".As the Roman empire extended to its ultimate limits in Europe, the .Alps became no longer a frontier. Naturallv therefore centuries elapsed be- 28 ALPS ALSACE-LORRAINE fore they again figured in history. In the convul- sions which followed the death of Nero, two can- didates for the imperial throne successively en- tered north Italy, one from the west, the other from the east. Each in turn defeated the rival in possession on the Lombard plain, and as it hap- pened on the same battlefield, but in neither case was there any defence of the mountain passes. In the break up of the Western empire, the Teuton tribes seem to have entered Italy as they pleased: the Alps might as well not have existed. Through- out the Middle Ages, the regions on both sides of the Alps were divided up into so many small states (if the word can be reasonably applied), all virtually independent, and all formally included in the Empire, that the mountains continued to be of little political importance. If the Emperor had to expect opposition on one route, he could take another; practically his communications with Italy lay chiefly over the Brenner and its varia- tions. From western Europe the usual routes were, as has been said, the Great St. Betnard and the Mont Cenis; but nothing historically turned on this fact, travel over the Alps being substantially that of private persons, largely on business con- nected with the Church." — H, B. George, Relations oj geography and history, pp. 211-212, 213-215. Aerial flight over the Alps (igio). Sec Avia- tion; Important flights since 1900: igio. Factor in World War. See World War: iqi6: IV. Austro-Italian front: a; b, 2; b, 4; and c; 1917: I. Summary: b, 8; 1918: IV. Austro-Italian theater: c, 3; c, 12. Frontiers of Italy. — Peace Conference claims. — "Now if there is one country in Europe of which nature has made a geographic unity it is Italy. In all epochs, geographers have seen in the Alps the natural frontiers of that peninsula des- tined to be the first hearth of civilization in Eu- rope. It can easily be understood, therefore, how Italy came [at the Peace Conference] to include among her war ambitions, the aim of gathering to herself the northern and eastern crests of the Alps, that is to say, the frontiers which Augustus had assigned to Italy, but which were held in 1Q14, by the Austrian Empire. By advancing to that line, and by annexing the Trenlino and Istria, Italy would achieve, at one and the same time, both her geographical and her national unity. She would be, in Europe, the almost perfect model of the nation which, should a desire for war seize upon her, must face the greatest difficulties in attacking others, possessing, the while, the best facilities of defense in case she were attacked by others." — G. Ferrero, National aspirations of Italy (in Le Fi- garo, quoted in Tlie Living Age, April 26, 1919). —See also Italy: IQ15: Treaty of London. Also in: J. Ball, Alpine guide. — T. G. Bonney, Alpine regions of Switzerland and the neighbour- ing countries. — Sir M. Conway, The Alps, and Alps from end to end. — G. Allais, Le Alpi occidentali nell' antichila. — E. Oehlmann, Die Alpenpdsse im Mittelalter.^A. Smith, Story of Mont Blanc. — A. B. Edwards, Untrodden peaks and unfrequented valleys. — A. F. Mummery, My climbs in the Alps. — Sir L. Stephen, Playground of Europe. — E. Whymper, Scrambles amongst the Alps.— P. J. de Bourcet, Memoires militaires sur les frontieres de la France, du Piemont, et de la Savoie (1801). AL-RUNAS. See Huns: Gothic account of. ALSACE. — Name. See Alemanni: 213. 1648. — Ceded to France by peace of West- phalia. See Alsace-Lorraine: 1552-1789; West- phalia, Peace of. 1672-1714.— Frederick William's attempted re- covery. See Austria: 1672-17x4. ALSACE-LORRAINE.— Its history as af- fected by its position. — The history of Lorraine up to modern times will be found under Lorraine. The French geographer and historian Vidal de la Blache has characterized Alsace-Lorraine as "France of the east," a region between the Rhine, the Meuse, and the Ardennes. This territory has always been historically a frontier country lying at the junction of France, Belgium, Germany and Switzerland, and without such natural frontiers as might mark it off definitely from these neigh- boring countries. To be sure, Alsace is bounded on the east by the Rhine, but Lorraine has always had entirely artificial boundaries. The fate of Al- sace-Lorraine has been complicated by the fact that it has been a meeting-place of two powerful aggressive peoples, the French and the German, and also because it lay on the cross-roads between the Rhine and the Danube valleys as well as the historic routes leading through the Alps from the Po valley and from the Rhone valley through the gap at Belfort. It may be said then, that this region has no geographic unity. Until very recent times Lorraine was closer to France than it was to Alsace, while Alsace itself is divided into a number of natural regions having little intricate indications. Although it was as late as 1648 when France secured possession of the greater part of Alsace [see also Germany: 1648] and not until more than one hundred years later that she ac- quired Lorraine, the process of assimilation was completed over a century ago. It was the French Revolution that made Alsace-Lorraine an integral part of the French nation. The development of communications, particularly canals and railroads, connected this territory with France and with the Rhine, so that by 1S71 an economic unity with France was achieved. Early history. — Romans, Gauls and Huns. — "But the Roman conquest was accomplished at last in Belgium and in the rest of Celtic land, and then was extended over the Rhine until the bar- barian tribes were so interwoven with the Roman legions that it was hard to distinguish between them. Ruins of monuments planned by Romans and constructed by barbarian labour are scattered over Western Europe to tell the tale of who built, who saw, and who destroyed. In .Msace, the earliest ruins are not, however, these. There are still traces of preceding occupation. Parts of a great wall, the so-called Heidenmauer, are to be seen on the Odilienburg, showing how primitive people of the Vosges highlands tried to protect themselves against assault. Then there are many Druid remains, some near the sites of the Roman temples which are found in considerable numbers. Of Latin theatres, arches, aqueducts, such as blos- somed in many parts of Gaul, there are no ex- amples in Alsace. Fortifications and highways, however, remain to prove that the Romans did not neglect the Vosges region. Argentoratum, followed by Strasburg, was one of the Roman strongholds which has never ceased to be a fortified place. The splendid military roads show the best work of the Romans in this section of their domain. . . . Some of the most important ran from Besani;on (to use modern terms) to Strasburg, on to May- ence, to Ell, Breisach, and on to the Rhine, from Brumath to Saverne and Metz, from .\lsace into Lorraine through the valley of Schirmeck, from Alsace into Lorraine through the valley of the Villi, and in many other directions. If the Peu- tinger map be rightly dated, many of these high- ways were later than 200 A. D. But on it can be seen three highways leading out of Strasburg, — Argentoratum. The end of the Gallo-Roman 229 ALSACE-LORRAINE Treaty of Verdun ALSACE-LORRAINE period came imperceptibly. Roman domination simply ceased to exist, and oflicials of northern races who had administered affairs in the name of Rome continued to hold sway without respect to trans- Alpine authority. German settlement, pre-emi- nently Prankish and Teutonic, in the V'osges tract westward of the Rhine was not the result of de- cisive conquest. It was merely gradual trans- Rhenish migration, not differing radically from the kind that had been inaugurated by Ariovistus and checked by Julius Caesar, except that it was less aggressive and in smaller numbers. The Celtic inhabitants were neither entirely dispossessed nor enslaved by the German colonists, to whom, more over, they did not remain antagonistic. This must be taken into account in attempting to arrive at any conclusion as to the ultimate racial status of the Alsatian tract. Whether in the course of the centuries before Soo A. D. the predominant ele- ment remained as essentially Gallo-Frankish, with the characteristics of activity, enterprise, energy, independence, irony, and badinage ascribed to the people of the French realm, as it finally took shape, or whether an inherent Teutonic quality continued to differentiate the Alsatians from their French neighbours on the other side of the Vosges, re- mains a moot question. ... As far as geographic nomenclature is concerned, it must be conceded that the dominant note in the formative period was Germanic. Strasburg, Breisach, Ebersheim, Rouffac, Seltz, Ell-Sass, itself, however spelled at different epochs, all tell one story, and they arc not names that have changed radically during the last phase of political affiliation. . . . Many of those that passed over Alsatian soil did not trouble themselves, indeed, to leave any constructive trace of themselv-es, though they left trace enough of the damage they wrought. After the Burgundians came Attila, who destroyed Argentoratum — where Strasburg later came to replace the Roman city — and various other settlements. That was in the middle of the fifth centun.', not long before the invaders were repulsed at Chalons (451 .\. D.) by Romans and Germans fishting as allies, .attila went on to Italy and gradually the .Msatians stole down to the plains from) the highlands where, like other Gauls, they had taken refuge, and took up their life again amidst the ruins of the Roman civilization, which had indeed retreated, but which had left a permanent impress upon the land be- tween the Rhine and mountains. There came a time when the Prankish sovereicns of Gaul rec- ognized .the individuality of the province so far as to create a duke of Alsace, and we hear of one Ettich or Attich as bearing that title before Chris- tian times. Legends have clustered about his daughter Odilia, who brought bitter disappoint- ment to her father at her birth, because she was not only a girl when he had desired a boy, but blind at that. The water of baptism finally gave her sight, and the Odilienberg, where she grew up, away from her father's unfriendly eyes, re- mains to bear witness to the miracle of her con- version to Christianity. The Bishop of Strasburg, too, comes upon the scene and .Msarc thus be- comes a duchy anrl has 3 bishopric, is Christian and provincial. . . . Had this title of duke not come into being there might never have been an AUace. but the name persisted even though the unit was fractured." — R. Putnam, Alsace and Lor- raine, pp. 15-21. 842-1477.— Strasburg Oath.— Treaty of Ver- dun. — Foundation of House of Hapsburg. — Treaty of St. Omer. — "The Treaty of Verdun, 84.1 A. D , between the three grandsons of Charles the Great (Charlemagne seems far more befitting that sovereign) gave to Charles the Bald the nu- cleus of prc^ent-day France, to Louis the German, trans-Rhine territory as far as the River Elbe, while to Lothaire, eldest son and Emperor, fell a middle realm between the two familiar divisions of modern Europe. It was Lotharii regniim, a realm which bequeathed to posterity one legacy in the name Lotliaringia, Lolhriiigen, Lorraine, and another in the phantom of an ideal kingdom. One bequest was permanent, though applied to units of different area, the other intermittent in vitality. Modern Lorraine, .Msace, Burgundy, Provence, and Italy, excepting the States of the Church, were all comprised within Lothaire's heritage, in addition to the imperial title. [See also Lorr.hine: S43-870.] But that allotment was of brief duration. Lothaire II. succeeded his father, indeed, but on his death, his uncle:-. Charles the Bald and Louis the German, took it upon themselves to make a fresh division of the Carolingian empire into only two parts as far as Europe north of the Alps was concerned The son of Lothaire II. was permitted to retain the Italian provinces alone of the paternal 'Mid- dle Kingdom,' while the remainder was parcelled out between his great-uncles, thus marking the confines of Prance, Germany, and Italy, or rather indicating those three geographical unities. More- over, not only did modern European boundary lines cast their shadows before at the crisis of these territorial division but an interesting evi- dence of the linguistic scission between the sub- jects of the Prankish sovereigns remains as one result of these fraternal bargains. This is the document containing the oaths sworn at Stras- burg, 842 A. D., as a prelude to the formal tri- angular convention at X'erdun, the following year The two younger brothers safe-guarded them- selves against their senior by interchanging pledges of mutual support. The occasion was a formal and solemn function. The brothers were accom- panied by their armies, who were taken into their confidence, each over-lord addressing his own sol- diers in their own vernacular, explaining the reasons for enmity towards Lothaire, and then proceeding to give the formal oath each to the adherents of his brother, Louis the German speak- ing in the lingua romana, the speech of Roman- ized Gaul, and Charles, sovereign of the same realm, using the lingua teudisca, spoken across the Rhine. The phrases that were comprehen- sible to these ninth-century French and Germans look like a very queer jumble of words. Their interest lies in the fact that both vernaculars were probably comprehensible to the bystander in Stras- burg, just as the two more polished languages have been in our day. It is probable that thu.s early the children of the borderland had their ears attuned to bi-lingual addresses. The words of Louis were: 'Pro Deo amur et pro christian poblo et nostro commun salvament, dist di in avant, in quant Deus savir et podir me dunat, si salvaraeio cist meon fradre Karlo et in adiudha et in cadhuna cosa, si cum om per dreit son fradra salvar dist, in n quid il mi allresi fazet ; et ab Ludhcr nul plaid numquam prindrai, qui meon vol cist meon fradre Karle in damno sit.' "The form of Charles' oath was: 'In Codes minna ind in thes christianes folches ind unser bedhero gealtnissi. fon thesemo dagc frammordes, so fram so mir Got gewizci indi madh furgibit, 50 haldih tesan minan bruodher, soso man mit rehtu sinan bruodhfr seal, in thiu, thaz er mig sosoma duo; indi mit Ludheren in nonheiniu thing ne gegango the minan willon imo ce scadhen werhen.' 230 ALSACE-LORRAIN E Hapsburg Dominion ALSACE-LORRAINE "[For the love of God, and for the sake as well of our peoples as of ourselves, I promise that from this day forth, as God shall grant me wisdom and strength, 1 will treat this my brother as one's brother ought to be treated, provided that he shall do the same by me. And with Lothair I will not willingly enter into any dealings which may injure this my brother." — E. Emerton, Medioeval Europe, p. 27.] "The actual division between Louis and Charles of Lothaire's 'Middle Kingdom' did not take place until many years after the Treaty of Ver- dun. It was not until about 870 that Louis the German entered into the possession of his share, which included Alsace as well as other of the Lotharingian parcels. Then the Vosgcs Moun- tains, instead of the Rhine River, became the boundary between the Germanic and Prankish kingdoms. . . . Germany counted her own birthday as the day when the Treaty of Verdun was signed. A thousand years of existence was celebrated in 1843. Into that thousand-year nationality, Alsace did not enter either at the beginning or the end. On both days her fate was linked to another sov- ereignty. . . . "Had the realm covered by the titular authority of Charles the Great remained intact, the Alsatian tract might have had a different history, for the great Carolingian made Colmar and Schlestadt his residence from time to time, and a mid-Euro- pean capital might have grown into importance, — a capital looking east and west over a wide im- perial domain. But after 870 A. D. the lot of Alsace as a border land on Germanized territory was practically decided, although confusing changes continued to make her ultimate political affiliations look very uncertain from time to time. [See also Lorraine: pii-q8o.l The trail of hazardous for- tune cannot be followed in detail. In the twelfth century her fealty was due to the great German King and Roman Emperor (1152), Frederick Bar- barossa, while her immediate control was in the hands of various lesser authorities. A new power was springing into being at that period, destined to affect European life more than was possible for the sovereign, seldom seen by the people at large. That was the free city, waxing into prowess by means of valuable privileges bought from em- perors who wished to obtain money for schemes of conquest or personal ambition, or bestowed by them voluntarily for the purpose of erecting burgher bulwarks against over-powerful nobles. In course of time, ten of these communes came into being in Alsace, while Strasburg besides being a city state continued to exert influence as a dominant episcopal see. Long before the two Pragmatic Sanctions of Frederick II (1220 and 1232) endowed bishops and nobles with supremacy in their own towns, — except when the Emperor was present in person, — this Alsatian bishopric had accjuired territorial independence and a high de- gree of temporal power. Once, indeed, when the city attempted to use influence in an imperial election, it suffered seriously at the hands of the successful candidate whom it had opposed to no purpose, but as a rule it managed to hold its own against any interference from without. By the third C|uarter of the fifteenth century, the state of Alsatian administration was as follows: First, it must be noted that after the episode of Duke Ettich — Eticho, Attich — the dukedom does not seem to have been revived as such. Without examining too curiously how it all happened, we find in existence two landgraviates, dividing Alsace into two gaueit, the Sundgau and the Nordgau, the latter. Lower Alsace, dependent on the see of Strasburg, the former, Upper Alsace, in the hands of the cadet branch of the House of Habs- hurg. . . . Financial embarrassments led to a curious commercial transaction in regard to the lands to which the Habsburgs had title. Sigis- mund of Austria mortgaged his rights to Charles of Burgundy and the report made to the latter by Jean Poinsot and Jean Pellot, June 13, 1471, gives a detailed account of the condition of Al- sace. Here is the story of what happened and what led to such happening. "The Habsburgs took the title by which they have so long been known from a castle built in the eleventh century by one bishop of Strasburg and his brother Radbod upon the Aar, in Swiss territory, not far from the border of Upper Alsace. Tradition has it that Radbod followed his hawk— Habicht — into an unknown region and was so much charmed with the beauty of the spot that he decided to build a castle there and, later, named the house Habichlsburg from the guide who had led him thither. The longer term con- tracted, naturally, by easy transition into Habsburg and has held its own to this day. Little by little, the family grew to be one of the foremost in the Empire, and in 1273 its reputation was en- hanced by the elevation of Rudolph, Count of Habsburg, to the imperial dignity, — the first of many sons of the race to hold that office, although it did not become the assured perquisite of the Habsburgs until later. [See also Austria: 124b- 1282.] It may be added that Radbod and his brother the bishop, Werner, who collaborated in the castle building on the heights of the Wulpelsberg, are alleged to be descendants of Duke Ettich of Alsace. Possibly the tradition originated to ac- count for the partition of the two gauen or dis- tricts of Alsace between the see of Strasburg and the count of Habsburg. After three centuries of fortunes, more or less fair, we find Frederick III, Emperor, and his cousin the Archduke Sigismund, of the cadet branch, in possession of the Habsburg lands in Tyrol in various other places, besides being Landgrave of the Sundgau and holding other estates in Alsace. Sigismund did not have a com- pact principality to administer from his capital, ' Innspruck, and perhaps that was the reason why he fell into serious difficulties in every direc- tion. . . . There was a group of princes in Europe at this epoch (1460), Louis XI. of France, Charles of Burgundy, Frederick III. and his son Maxi- milian, who spent their lives in trying to over- reach each other. Frederick could not help his cousin, so Sigismund applied to Louis XL for assistance, but fear of the Swiss made the King refuse. Then the Archduke went down to the Netherlands with his petition and found Charles more amenable. The reason was plain. Charles was most desirous of uniting his Netherland group of duchies, countships, and seigniories with his two Burgundies, and the territories offered to him by Sigismund lay so as to fill in part of the gap between. The Burgundian's hope of erecting a new edition of a 'Middle Kingdom' affected his policy in many respects and never more markedly than in this transaction with Sigismund. The bargain was made. Perhaps the fact that the applicant was pretty close to the Emperor, who alone could turn a duke into a real king, made Charles espe- cially willing to oblige his needy visitor. At St. Omer on May qth another of the long row of treaties was signed which, without the slightest concern for the will of the inhabitants, disposed of the political control of Alsatian soil. Charles agreed to pay Sigismund ten thousand florins im- mediately and forty thousand before Septembe- 231 ALSACE-LORRAINE French Ownership ALSACE-LORRAINE 24th in return for the cession of all Sigismund's seigniorial rights in the landgraviate of Alsace, the county of Ferrette, and in certain Rhine towns. If he found himself in possession of means to buy back his landgraviate, Sigismund was to be per- mitted so to do, provided that he could produce at Besani;on tlie whole sum at once, that aug- mented by all the outlays made by the Burgundian upon the property. ... No real gain came to Charles from the Treaty of St. Omer. The Aus- trian dukes had not been popular in Alsace, but their poverty had prevented them from being hard masters even where they retained the right to exert any local authority at all. . . . Before the death of Charles at Nancy in 1477, Sigismund had drawn back the Alsace estates to the Habsburgs. His friends rallied around him when they saw what Charles was about. Money was found for the Archduke, who was enabled to offer his creditor full redemption, with the required payment in one sum. Charles had refused to accept this and, as far as appears clearly, no money ever did return to the Burgundian treasury." — R. Putnam, Alsace and Lorraine, pp. 22-37. 843-870. — Included in the kingdom of Lor- raine. See Lorraine: 843-870. 10th century. — Joined to the Holy Roman em- pire. See Lorraine: qii-gSo. 13th century. — Origin of the house of Haps- burg. See Austria: 1246-1282. 1525. — Revolt of the peasants. See Germany: 1 524-1525. 1552-1774.— Medieval period.— Thirty Years' War. — Under Louis XIV, acquired by Louis XV. — "In the later Middle Ages Lorraine formed a duchy, within which lay a number of small and in some cases independent feudal states and the city of Metz, a free city of the Holy Roman Empire whose people spoke French. In 1552, on the petition of certain German Protestant princes, Metz was placed under the protection of the king of France, who took possession of the city and the surrounding territory subject to it. In 1613 the bishopric of Metz and its lands were taken over by the F'rench king, the whole being com- bined with Toul and Verdun into the three prov- inces of the Three Bishoprics (Trois Eveches), and the cession was confirmed by the Emperor in the treaty of Westphalia of 1648. [See also Ger- many: 1648.1 Further acquisitions made in the seventeenth century, notably Sierck and Saarlouis, gave France a strategic line of communication through Lorraine to Alsace. The duchy of Lor- raine, which had likewise been dependent on the Holy Roman Empire, was declared free by Emperor Charles V and was gradually drawn into the French sphere of influence. Relinquished by its Hapsburg duke in 1736, in 1738 by the treaty of Vienna it was handed over to a Polish duke, Stanislas Leszcynski, on condition that at his death it should pass to his son-in-law, Louis XV of France, by whom it was accordingly acquired in 1766. Certain small enclaves within Lorraine did not pass to France until the Revolution. Alsace, except the city of Miilhouse, was annexed to France in the course of the reign of Louis XIV. The Middle .\ges had broken the countr\- up into a great variety of feudal states and free cities; the Reformation divided it still further by re- ligious dissensions. In the Thirty Years' War France intervened on the side of the Protestant princes of Germany ; at its close France received considerable possessions in .Msace, in much the same way that Brandenburg (the future Prussia) then secured valuable additions in the north. The treaty of Westphalia (1648) assured to France 2y. certain lands and certain governmental rights pos- sessed by the Emperor in his imperial capacity and as head of the house of Hapsburg, but the pro- visions were, possibly with intention, left vague at certain points and became the occasion of pro- tracted legal and historical disputes. By a com- bination of undoubted grants, more or less justi- fied legal interpretations, and the direct seizure of the city of Strasburg, Louis XIV rounded out his possession of the whole of Alsace. [See also France: 1679-1681.] The sole exception, Miilhouse, allied with the Swiss Confederation, voluntarily offered itself to France in 1798." — C. H. Haskins and R. H. Lord, Some problems of the Peace Conference, pp. 77-79. 1621-1622. — Invasions by Mansfeld and his predatory army. See Germany: 1021-1623. 1636-1639. — Invasion and conquest by Duke Bernhard of Weimar. — Secured for France by Richelieu. See Germany: 1634-1639. 1659. — Renunciation of the claims of the king of Spain. See France: 1659-1661. 1674-1678. — Ravaged in the campaigns of Turenne and Cond£. See Netherlands; 1674- 1678. 1744. — Invasion by the Austrians. See Aus- tria: 1 743- 1 744. 1789-1794. — French revolution period. — Origin of the Marseillaise. — The abolition of feudal privileges was one of the first steps of the Revo- lution, which reverberated in Alsace, where Ger- man princes held feudal privileges. These being directly threatened, the rulers appealed to the emperor, .\cording to Maurice Leon, this attempt by a handful of German princes to force their feudal claims upon the country that first abol- ished them in Europe precipitated the war of monarchical Europe against revolutionary France and the consequent attempt to suppress repub- licanism in France. The Revolution, however, won the day ; the people of Alsace and Lorraine sent delegates to the Assembly, while the princes held aloof. The stirring strains of the "Marseillaise" were first sung in Strassburg in 1792, and breathe de- fiance to the German invaders from Prussia. — See also Music: Folk music and nationalism: France. 1871. — Cession to Germany. — "At the close of the Franco-Prussian war Germany required of France the cession of Alsace and Lorraine, with a boundary on the west which was defined by the treaty of Frankfort in 1871. In the next forty years Alsace-Lorraine passed through various stages of government, from military dictatorship through a certain amount of territorial indepen- dence to the definite constitution imposed by the Reichstag in 191 1. Those who had hoped for autonomy were disappointed in this instrument, which failed to elevate the Rcichsland to the posi- tion of a federated state of the empire, although an anomalous provision was made for its repre- sentation in the Bundesrat. Legally Alsace-Lor- raine was still a subject territory of the em- pire. . . . For more than half a century the prob- lem of Alsace-Lorraine has been debated back and forth with arguments which have had no effect on the opposite sides of the controversy. . . . To the French ."Msace and Lorraine had become and remained fundamentally French, having been assimilated gradually and without violence in the eighteenth century, French most of all by having entered fully into the spirit of the French Revolution and taken an active part therein. They begged to remain a part of France in 1871, as the unanimous protests of their representatives show, and they continued French at heart against the strongest pressure in the opposite direction. In ALSACE-LORRAINE German Rule ALSACE-LORRAINE spite of differences of language, sucli as exist in other parts of France, Alsace and Lorraine were Frencfi in social structure, in political ideals, and in the sympathies of the population Without these lost provinces France was a mutilated coun- try, not fully France. Furthermore, the posses- sion of Metz and the Vosges by a military power like Germany constituted a standing menace to a peaceful country like the French Republic; it also menaced the economic life of France and its de- fence by making possible, as in IQ14, immediate seizure of the richest part of its iron supply. France was robbed of these provinces by force in 187 1, and the wrong had to be righted, not only in the interest of France but for the sake of the inhabitants." — C. H. Haskins and R. H. Lord, Some problems of the Peace Conference, pp. 80-85. — "The French call their neighbour [Germany] Allemagne, after an unimportant Teuton people that settled in and about Alsace in the break-up of the Western empire. . . . Teutonic Alsace, Protestant and German-speaking, was conquered by France in the seventeenth century, the last stage of the conquest being marked by circumstances of exceptional treachery and wrong. Neverthe- less it became thoroughly French in sentiment, and strongly resented being re-transferred to Germany in 1871. On which side is the principle of nation- ality to be invoked in the case of Alsace — for or against the present [1907] state of things? There is nothing but sentiment to draw it towards France, nothing except sentiment to alienate it from Ger- many." — H. B. George, Relations of geography and history, pp. 58, 65-66. — "The last great cession of territory in Europe I1871] deprived France of its piece of territory bordering on the Rhine, and restored to Germany a district German in race and language." — Ibid., p. 30. — "The German con- quest of 1870 made the political frontier corre- spond much more nearly to the division of races and languages, though entirely against the wish of the people, who had in the interval been incor- porated in France. It is instructive to compare the fate of Lorraine with that of Savoy, that is to say with the composite state over which the dukes of Savoy ruled. Both were divided in language, and more or less in race: both were situated between two great and often hostile pow- ers: both were to a certain extent, in the person of their princes, attracted towards France. Yet Lorraine was, so to speak, squeezed to death be- tween France and Germany, while the house of Savoy throve on the vicissitudes of several cen- turies, and ultimately became sovereigns of united Italy. . . . But the main reason for the contrast between Lorraine and Savoy is geographical. It has been pointed out . . . how the Alps between Savoy and Piedmont helped the fortunes of those princes. Lorraine had no such backbone: it lay completely open to France, and Germany had no particular motive for defending it ; for it can hardly be said that Metz, in French hands, con- stituted a menace to Germany, however the case may be now that it has reverted to German hands [in 1871]. The acquisition of Alsace by France marks the end of the period of religious wars, as the seizure of the three bishoprics marks the beginning. It was a piece of sheer undis- guised'conquest, without any excuse of nationality or of a personal convention between any Alsatian ruler and France. Richelieu simply took advantage of the distractions of Germany to lay hands on a German province ... a province essentially German ever since the Allemanni invaded the Roman empire, and Protestant in addition. Louis XIV completed the robbery, and indeed improved on the method. During a period of general peace he seized Strassburg and other places — which, though situated within Alsace, were politically in- dependent of it — and the Empire was not strong enough to resent the outrage." — Ibid., pp. 237-238. — See also France: 1871 (January-May;. 1871-1879. — Organization of government as a German imperial province. See Germany: 1871- 1879. 1879-1894. — Manteuffel era of German rule. — Administration of Hohenlohe as Statthalter. — Policy of Alsatian minister Puttkammer. — "The 'Manleuliel Era,' as this period of Alsatian history is called, lasted six years, from 1879 to 1885. If anyone could have succeeded in the role he had mapped out Manteuffel could have. Believing correctly that no government is successful for any length of time that does not have the people on its side, Manteuffel sought first to know those among whom he had come to rule. He traveled much through the country, trying to impart his ideas to local officials and notabihties, municipal councilors, clergymen, and teachers, to say the happy and healing word to everyone. He told the people of Alsace and Lorraine that he understood and respected their sentiments, that he did not ask for an enthusiastic adhesion to the new order of things, but only a reasoned submission to the ineluctable fact. He warned them, however, that he would proceed d outrance against anyone who should conspire with the foreigner. He announced that as the Doge of Venice had solemnly wedded the Adriatic, so he wbhed to woo Alsace-Lorraine and obtain her liberties for her. ... In his per- sonal capacity he won general esteem. Accessible to all, receiving freely even workingmen who came to present their grievances, he exemplified the fine politeness of the Old Regime and was a more pop- ular figure than his predecessor or than any of his successors were to be. ... In his fundamental purpose Manteuffel could not succeed. Moreover, he did not have the support of his own officials whose conduct served more or less to nullify and insulate the Staathalter. All through his regency the bureaucrats of Alsace-Lorraine, big and little, carried on an incessant and perfidious campaign in the German press, seeking to undermine him. Harassed by the Germans who criticised his mod- eration and irritated by the Alsatians and Lor- rainers whose passive resistance to the one thing that counted revealed the essential superficiality of the 'pacification,' moreover compelled from time to time in the discharge of his obligations to the authorities in Berlin to adopt harsh and unpopular measures, such as the suppression of certain newspapers. . . . Manteuffel stood inse- curely upon treacherous sands. So strong was the opposition to his policy in Germany that he would have been recalled had it not been that the octo- genarian Emperor, William I, did not like to dis- miss old friends and advisers. . . . Manteuffel's programme, the only wise one, could only succeed if assured of length of years for its realization. And these were not to be vouchsafed the sagacious experiment. . . . Manteuffel's official days were numbered. But he was spared the crowning hu- miliation of recall because his earthly days were also numbered. He died on June 17, 18S5, and the policy for which he stood died with him. . . . As the Manteuffel regime had not, in the brief space of six years, reconciled Alsace to Germany, as the process of comparatively mild Germaniza- tion had made no appreciable advance, the Ger- man government now resorted to methods with which it was more familiar, and in which it had a more robust faith. Coercion, pure and simple, 233 ALSACE-LORRAINE Constitution ALSACE-LORRAINE coercion thorough and undisguised, applied at every point considered dangerous and applied without hesitation and without interruption, was hence- forth the programme of the government. To pre- side over the execution of this policy a new Statthalter, Prince Chlodwig von Hohenlohe- Schillingsfiirst was appointed. . . . The period of greatest tension since 1S71 now began and lasted for several years, indeed all through this regency, which ended only with the promotion of Hohen- lohe to the chancellorship of the Empire in 1804. It was a period of danger, replete with incidents that set Germany, France, and Alsace-Lorraine on edge. . . . Meanwhile Hohenlohe had tried to use the war scare in Alsace to secure from the voters the election of candidates favorable to the project of the Chancellor. He told the Alsatians that, if war came, their province would inevitably be the theater of hostilities and would be fear- fully harried by the contending armies. The re- sult of his intervention was quite unexpected. . . . Candidates patronized and supported by the Stat- thalter were decisively defeated. A solid delega- tion of fifteen 'protestataires' was sent to the Reichstag. Of 314,000 registered voters, the 'pro- testers' received 247,000 votes, that is 82,000 more than had been cast for them in 1884. So stiff- necked a f)eople needed emphatically to be tamed and tamed it should be. Bismarck went at the congenial task with determination, exceedingly ir- ritated by the overwhelming condemnation of his policy in Alsace at the time it was so overwhelm- ingly approved throughout the Empire. Extraor- dinary, exceptional measures now rained upon the devoted heads of this independent people. The leading Alsatian minister, Hoffman, considered too mild for the work, was recalled and Puttkammer, J, relative of Bismarck, was appointed in his place, and began at once a policy of punishment and repression. Puttkammer had declined even to accept his post, that of Secretary of State and President of the Ministry of .Msace-Lorraine, until Antoine, deputy from Metz . . . had been ex- pelled from the Reichstag. Accordingly the Reich- stag expelled him on March 31, 1887, an act en- tirely pleasing to those who did not care for par- liamentary immunities. Against another deputy from Alsace, Lalance of Mulhouse, a decree of expulsion was issued, then suspended, then re- placed by judicial prosecution and finally by a mere administrative measure, which forced the unwelcome deputy to depart. A vigorous attack was made forthwith on various Alsatian organiza- tions, art clubs, the medical society of Strasburg, botanical and zoological societies. Other organiza- tions which refused to admit the German immi- grants to their membership, such as gymnastic and choral and student clubs, were likewise dis- solved by administrative decree. ... A series of ' incidents also occurred, alarming and calculated to increase the irritation and tension of the times, such as the brutal arrest, on Alsatian soil, of Schnaebele, a French railway official at Pagny-sur- Moselle, by his German colleague of Noveant who had summoned him hither for the transaction of routine business, an incident that for several days caused all Europe to hold its breath (April 20, 1887). . . . This policy of intimidation received its appropriate coronation in a measure, which, in the opinion of the German government would completely subdue the recalcitrants, a new and drastic regulation prescribine the use of passports, a measure put into force June 1, 1888. Hence- forth certain categories of people were absolutely excluded from .Alsace-Lorraine, for instance, any- one connected with the French armv. Everv other person, not a German, who wished to enter Alsace-Lorraine, must get a passport viseed at the German embassy in Paris, and it was intended that this passport should be granted only in ex- ceptional cases." — C. D. Hazen, Alsace-Lorraine under German rule, pp. 125-134. 1911. — Constitution. — "The people of Alsace- Lorraine had for forty years been in absolute subjection to other wills than their own. Though allowed a Delegation or Landesausschuss, before which routine legislative proposals were laid, yet that body was elected not directly by the people but indirectly and largely by and from district and municipal councils, so that, by reason of its complicated and carefully controlled composition as well as because of the humble character of its powers, it could only be servile. It could at any moment be overruled by outside powers, by the local executive, appointed from Berlin, or by Ber- lin itself. There was in this form of government no satisfaction given to the legitimate desire of the Alsatians to manage their own affairs. . . . On March 15, iqio, the Chancellor of the Empire, Bethmann-Hollweg, announced in the Reichstag that the Emperor had agreed with the confeder- ated governments to grant a more autonomous constitution to Alsace-Lorraine. This announce- ment was received with lively satisfaction. But the people of the Rfichsland were soon to learn that the Greeks are not the only people to suspect when they come forward bearing gifts. When, on June 20, the members of the Landesausschuss ex- pressed the desire that the Landesausschuss should be consulted beforehand as to the constitutional changes under consideration in Berlin they were informed by the Alsatian ministry that the Im- perial Government did not recognize the right of the Landesausschuss to mix in questions which be- longed exclusively to the Bundersrath and the Reichstag. Indeed, the speech of the Chancellor ought to have checked any undue optimism on the part of the Alsations. Stating that it was neces- sary to grant 'a greater political independence to Alsace,' the Chancellor proceeded to lecture both the Pan-Germanists — for their opposition to any concessions — and those whom he called the 'Pan- French,' for their particularistic and Francophile agitation. The cry 'Alsace for the .\lsatiuns' had, he said, a seductive sound, but he added that this could never be realized as long as the leaders of the movement affected not to recognize the fun- damentally German character of the population and aimed at G'allicizing the country in the face of ethnography and history The cause of Alsace was thus really lost in advance. . . . The actual plan for reform was not laid before the Reichstag until December, igio. Its discussion dragged from the start. When the Landesausschuss expressed opposition to certain features of the plan its session was abruptly closed, May g, iqii, an action which naturally produced a bad impression upon the country. On May 26, ign, the new Constitution of Alsace-Lorraine was voted by the Reichstag. Violently opposed by the Pan- Germanists and betrayed by those so-called liberal parties in the Reichstag whose supposed princi- ples required that they support it. .Alsatian au- tonomy came out practically by the same door wherein it went. Only one change of any impor- tance was made. The Landesausschuss. or single- chambered body, was now to give way to a bi- cameral legislature which was henceforth to be the sole source of legislation for Alsace-Lorraine. The lower house was to be elected by secret and practically manhood suffrage, but this house was to be balanced by an upper house in which the 234 ALSACE-LORRAINE Constitution ALSACE-LORRAINE Government would always be assured of a major- ity. The control of the legislature over the budget, a vital test of its importance, was affirmed but was rendered illusory by the provision that if it should refuse to vote it, then the Government ahould be entirely free to levy taxes and incur expenses on the basis of the preceding budget, that is, to raise and spend as much money as ever. Moreover the legislature, in this respect like the other legislatures of Germany, would have no means of enforcing its wishes. The executive power remained concentrated, as before, in the hands of the Statthalter who would reside, it is true, in Strasburg, but whose inspiration and in- structions would come, as hitherto, from Berlin. The local ministry was to be, as hitherto, respon- ible not to the elected chamber, but to the Stat- thalter alone, and the Statthalter was responsible only to the Emperor. As the Statthalter and the ministry were to appoint and control the bureau- iiacy, or civil service, Alsace would remain, as ill the past, entirely subject to an oligarchy of lorcign officials, the detested immigrants from Germany, and to the daily vexations and irrita- cions of a despotic bureaucracy. Every individual in Alsace would be subjected as during the past lOrty years to the system of espionage which is one of the ubiquitous elements of modern Ger- man government. The Constitution of iqii pre- tended to raise Alsace-Lorraine to the rank of a German state, to place it on a plane of equality with the other twenty-five members of the con- federation. In practice it did nothing of the kind. It allowed her three votes in the Bundes- rath. She would thus, like all the other states, be represented in both the Bundesrath and the Reichstag. But the three delegates from Alsace- Lorraine were to receive their instructions from the Statthalter, were to vote in the Bundesrath as he might direct. But the Statthalter was not an independent sovereign like the King of Saxony or the Duke of Mecklenburg, ruling by his own right ; nor was he an elected republican head of the state. He was appointed by the Emperor, and was his representative, revocable at will and consequently not likely to do anything distasteful to him. The Constitution of iqii increased greatly the power of the Emperor; it did not in- crease the power of the people. In theory Alsace- Lorraine was given statehood; in practice, she was to be as tightly bound as ever. . . . The Alsatians were shown, in all this campaign of much talk about nothing, that nowhere in Ger- many did they have any friends in their desire for real self-government, not even in the Center and Socialist parties which decisively betrayed their allies in the Reichsland for the sake of the immediate political advantages which offered them- L^elves. The latter cooperated with the Conserva- tives and the Pan-Germanists in granting this mockery of autonomy. The trail of Pan-German- ism was everywhere to be seen in the annexed provinces during the few remaining years of peace. It was indeed provided by Article 28 that any further modification of the new Constitution should be made by the Reichstag and the Bundesrath. The people themselves of the new 'state' would not be able to change their fundamental law in any particular. Their Constitution of ion, like that of 187Q, now superseded, was blighted in the same way. . . . .\t any moment the legislative organs of the German Empire were at liberty to withdraw it or to alter it. Alsace-Lorraine re- mained what she had always been in theory and in fact, an Imperial Territory, a Reichsland, the property of the collective states of the confedera- tion. . . . The period from igii to igi4 was the last act in the long and ignoble history of op- pression which since 1870 has been the sign man- ual of German rule. The situation became stead- ily more and more critical for the Alsatians and Lorrainers. "After 1911 a species of terrorization was or- ganized in Alsace-Lorraine. Spies infested the country, denouncing every manifestation of oppo- sition or criticism. Even local officials like the Statthalter, Wedel, or the chief secretary, Zorn von Eulach, a native Alsatian who had long ago gone over to the German official side, were re- proached bitterly . . . with lukewarmness and in- difference to the welfare of the Fatherland. . . . During the three years preceding . . . [the World War] the cloven hoof appeared repeatedly. The public opinion of the provinces was exacerbated and alarmed by a series of irritating episodes which showed the people the humiliation of their posi- tion, the fragility, indeed the non-existence, of any guarantee of their liberties. Hansi (J. J. Waltz), a native Alsatian, was thrown into prison ... for having caricatured a Pan-German high school teacher, Herr Gneisse, and in 1Q14 he was . . . prosecuted for high treason in the federal court at Leipsic because of caricatures which in any self-governing country would pass current as the most ordinary satires upon the foibles and pretensions of the official class. Abbe Wetterle, editor of a newspaper in Colmar, and formerly a member of the Reichstag, was condemned to fine and imprisonment for protesting against the in- solence of the Pan-Germans. A merchant of Miil- house was expelled from Alsace for having asked a hotel orchestra to play the Marseillaise. During these years, also, the authorities proceeded against numerous Alsatian societies and clubs in a way that could only create widespread irritation and resentment, against choral unions, gymnastic clubs, and societies founded for the purpose of caring for the graves of Alsatians who died on Alsatian soil during the Franco-German war. In addition to military and political pressure, economic pressure was also used to further the programme of Ger- manization. Alsatian economic interests were re- peatedly sacrificed in the interest of neighboring states like Baden or of the powerful Rhenish- Westphalian steel-and-iron-mongers. Alsatian man- ufacturers or merchants were the victims of despic- able informers and all who were suspected of French sympathies were made to fee! the full displeasure of the government. The great locomo- tive corporation of Graffenstaden, on which the life of that town absolutely depended, was in- formed that there would be no more government contracts, unless it dismissed a manager whom the Pan-Germanists considered Francophile As the business would have been ruined without govern- ment orders, the corporation submitted. . . The reaction of all these incidents, grave or petty as the case might be, was exactly what might have been expected. The Alsatians and Lorrainers united as one man against this recrudescence of tyranny. Dropping their differences of opinion, ignoring party lines, they joined in indignant pro- test against a government which subjected them to continued maltreatment, which failed to assure them the most elementary rights of free men. The hollowness and the mockery of the boasted Constitution of loii were patent to all the world in the light of these events "—C. D. Hazen, .4/- sace-Lorrniiir under German rule. pp. 175-186. 1913.— Zabern (Saverne) affair.— "The Berlin government was harassed by the fear of treason- able arrangements between Alsace-Lorraine and 235 ALSACE-LORRAINE Returned to France ALSACE-LORRAINE Paris. That this fear was well grounded was made more than probable by the fact that with the declaration of martial law in the 'Imperial Land' after the war tocsin sounded at the begin- ning of August, 1914, several prominent Alsatians, including Wetterle fled across the border into France, and that others who were not so fortu- nate as to make their escape were arrested and found guilty of treasonable acts. As it was, how- ever, the threats against the constitution and the various pin pricks which the government was able to inflict effectively destroyed any national patri- otism which the granting of the constitution might have inspired. Popular irritation grew and showed itself in many ways, culminating in the incident at Zabern in December, 1013. In this busy Alsa- tian town of some ten thousand inhabitants a Prussian regiment of infantry was quartered. Sol- diers on duty at the barracks and at liberty in the town had been subjected to insults, and in sev- eral cases to rough treatment on the part of rude fellows of the baser sort among the populace. Their officers, filled with the Prussian tradition of military supremacy, ordered the privates to make forcible resistance, employing at the same time the rugged language of the barracks, which being faithfully reported in the town, added still further to the excitement. A crisic was reached in an encounter between civilians anJ a squad of soldiers led by a young lieutenant, in which the latter fearing, as he claimed, that he would be assaulted by a civilian of the lower class, with the consequent irreparable loss of honor according to the peculiar Prussian military tradi- tion, sabred a lame shoemaker. In the riot which resulted Colonel Reutter, in command at the bar- racks, took over the administration of public order, brusquely thrusting aside the civil officials and pacifying the city by the abrupt methods of the military. Instantly a shout of protest arose, not only from Alsace-Lorraine, but from all non-feudal circles in Germany as well. The rude supplant- ing of the civil power by the military \yas re- garded as a recession to the most autocratic days of Prussian history, and in the Reichstag loud calls went up for an authoritative statement from the Kaiser. The Imperial Diet recorded a vote of censure upon the Chancellor for a speech in which the majesty of the law was not vindicated. The whole matter went to the Emperor as supreme military authority and the net result was the trans- ferring of the regiment and the court-martialing of its officers. The latter were finally acquitted, and Colonel Reutter soon after was promoted by the Emperor. The feeling of the feudal classes was summed up in the words of the reactionary Police President of Berlin, Voii Jagow: 'Alsace- Lorraine is the enemy's country.' Non-feudal Ger- many accepted a technical statement from the ministry confirming the supremacy of the consti- tution over the military power, with a further promise from the government that a certain old Prussian cabinet order of 1S20 which might be interpreted to the contrary would be amended. Radical and Socialist were the more ready to still their attacks and hush the matter up, be- cause the French journals, always ready to foment discord in the lost provinces, had seized upon the situation."— R H. Fife, German empire between two wars. pp. 227-230. 1914-1918.— Part in the World War.— Alsace- Lorraine lay close to the scene of conflict, but was only occasionaliv the actual scene of severe fierht- ing except during the first two months of the war A little fringe of western Alsace was occu- pied uninterruptedly by the French throughout the great struggle and was also the scene of occa- sional local fighting.— See also World War: 1914'. I. Western front; h. 1915. — Department of Haut-Rhin formed. See Frj\nce; 1915 (January). 1918 (Nov.) — Germany forced to evacuate. See World War: Miscellaneous auxiliary services: I. Armistices: f, 1; and IQ18: XI. End of the war: c. 1918.— Political aspects of recovery by France. See France: igiS (November). 1918. — President Wilson's peace program.— Lloyd George's and President Wilson's declara- tion of war aims. — Count Hertling's attitude. See World War: igi8: X. Statement of war aims; b; and d. 1918-1920. — Reconstruction work. See World War; Miscellaneous auxiliary services: XII. Recon- struction; a, 3. 1919. — Peace Conference decision. — "Alsace- Lorraine took little of the time of the peace con- ference. This would have seemed strange at any time during the war or the generation which pre- ceded it, for .Msace-Lorraine was an open wound which, in President Wilson's phrase, 'had unset- tled the peace of the world for nearly fifty years.' It was not a direct cause of the war, but it be- came a burning issue as soon as the war broke forth, and it remained one of the chief obstacles to any peace of compromise. But the problem of .Msace-Lorraine was settled by the .Allied victory and evacuation required by the armistice, and these military acts were sealed by the enthusiastic reception of the French troops immediately there- after. There was no way of reopening the ques- tion at the conference, for the Germans had accepted President Wilson's eighth point requiring that the wrong done to France should be righted, and by their enforced evacuation they were no longer in a position to delay or to interfere. Nev- ertheless at \'ersailles Germany put up a last fight for the retention of these territories, tied up as they were with Germany's imperial tradition, with her strategic position, and with her supply of iron ore She demanded that there should be a popu- lar vote. For this there was no legal ground, the language of President Wilson speaking only of the wrong done to France, and the armistice having assimilated .Msace-Lorraine to other occu- pied territories. . . . Since the signing of the treaty the secret propaganda of the German Heimat- dienst [Home Service! has been active in Al- sace-Lorraine, keeping alive German feeling where it still exists and in particular fomenting a so- called Neutralist movement for the separation of this region as a neutralized state under the pro- tection of the League of Nations. . . . With the major question of the return of the lost provinces to France settled in advance, the Paris confer- ence had only to deal with matters of detail, such as naturallv arise in a retrocession from one coun- trv to another. The draft of such clauses was submitted bv the French and referred by the council of four to the special committee of three, Messrs Tardieu, Headlam-Moriey, and Haskins, which had already been at work on the Saar valley. . . The clauses respectine citizenship are particularlv complicated, and much depends upon the spirit of liberality with which these and the economic clauses are interpreted by the French administration"— E. M. House and C. Seymour, What really happened at Paris, story 0/ the Peace Conference, pp. 46-4S. "The treaty therefore restored the provmces with the frontiers of 187 r. Since Germany had refused to assume any share of the French debt in 236 ALSACE-LORRAINE ALTAR 1871, France now recovers the provinces free of obligations as to the German national debt. Simi- larly German state property including railroads is transferred without payment or credit on Ger- many's reparation account. Other articles fix the details as to customs, court proceedings, and the like. For five years products of Alsace-Lorraine are to enter Germany duty-free, up to the average amounts of 1911-1913. Germany also is to allow free export and re-import ot yarns and textile products. The French government has the right to exclude German capital from public utilities and mines, and it also reserves the right (0 retain and liquidate the property of German citizens in Alsace-Lorraine. An annex provides for the restor- ation to French citizenship of the old Alsace- Lorrainers and their descendants, with some ex- ceptions. Various others within a year may claim French nationality, thou.;h in individual cases the French may reject the claim. Germans born or domiciled in Alsace-Lorraine before the war must be naturalized, a period of three years from No- vember I, 1918, being required." — A. P. Scott, /«- troduction to the peace treaties, p. 16. — See also Versaii,les, Treaty of: Part III; Section V. "France had not provoked the war in order to regain Alsace-Lorraine ; but from the moment the war began, every Frenchman was determined that the old 'open wound' in the side of France must be healed. Although during the war there had been some talk among outside observers of a pos- sible division •of Alsace-Lorraine along the lines of the prevailing languages, and although Presi- dent Wilson had not specified just how 'the wrong done to France in 1871' was to be righted, there was not the slightest doubt after the armis- tice that Alsace-Lorraine should be restored entire to France. The Germans admitted that in spite of their historic and nationalistic claims, they had, according to present conceptions of right, done an injustice in 1871, when they had not consulted the»peoplc of Alsace-Lorraine. In acordance with the new principle of self-determination, however, they demanded a plebiscite, which should decide whether the region wished to join France or Ger- many or become a free state. This proposal was summarily rejected. It was felt that restoration to France was necessary to redress the injustice of 1871. The will of the inhabitants had been shown by their protests at that time, and later. Practically, a fair plebiscite would have been dif- ficult in view of the fact that many French sym- pathizers had left after 1871, that many Germans had come in since then, and that during the war the Germans had treated the territory as enemy country. The treaty therefore restored the prov- inces to France with the frontiers of 1871. . . . The restoration of Alsace-Lorraine is doubly sig- nificant. It has a moral and sentimental value, as marking the failure of that Prussian policy of blood and iron which seemed so triumphant in 1871. For France, the stronger frontier and the added population are additional safeguards. But still more important is the iron of Lorraine, the richest field in Europe. From it Germany drew nearly all her ore. With it Germany was able tn forge her industrial and military machine. Without it Germany will be helpless fo' aggression, and dependent for her industrial development on the cultivation of friendly economic relations with France." With the signing of the armistice, the transition period began. The French government by the de- cree of November 26, IQ18, took over the ad- ministration of the country and French troops displaced the Germans. On March 22, 1919, M. .Alexandre Millerand was appointed first governor- general. The task of submitting civil officials and courts for the administration of French law and of organization of the educational system along French lines, has been substantially achieved. Seri- ous difficulties were encountered due to French unfamiliarity with the country and the barrier of languages, for, in Alsace at least, the great ma- jority of the people speak a German dialect. The currency question also offered certain peculiar difficulties of its own. The franc was made to take the place of the mark. Altogether there was much confusion and disappointment over these various diftkultics in spite of the great popular acclaim with which the transfer of these last provinces from German to French sovereignty was received. "For France the reacquisition of the lost prov- inces brings not only renewed strength but per- plexing problems and responsibilities. Germany had signally failed to win the affection and loy- alty of Alsace-Lorraine. On the other hand, the German connection had brought much prosperity to the provinces, and by no means all — perhaps not even a majority — of the people were in 1914 anxious to return to France. In 1918, however, the French were welcomed with a heartiness which even the Germans had to admit. The problem of the complete reincorporation of the provinces in France is not a simple one. Great caution will have to be e.xercised in applying the French laws as to the separation of church and state, and limiting clerical control of education. If Alsace- Lorraine should prove less prosperous than under German rule, or if the anti-clericalism of France should offend the strong Catholic sentiment of the people, grave dissatisfaction may yet arise. It is to be hoped that as little occasion as possible will be given for the growth of a new irredentism, and that the historic wrong of 1871 may have found its final solution." — A. P. Scott, Introduction to the peace treaties, pp. nS-118. — See also France: 1918 (November). Also in: E. A. Vizetelly, True story of Alsace- Lorraine. — C. Phillipson, Alsace-Lorraine. — -G. W. Edwards, Alsace-Lorraine described and pictured (London, 1919). — B. Cerf, Alsace-Lorraine since 1870 (New York, 1919). — Marie Harrison, Stolen lands: Study on Alsace-Lorraine (London, iqi8). — C. Phillipson, Alsace-Lorraine, past, present, and future (London, 1918). — C. D. Hazen, .Alsace-Lor- raine under German rule (New York, 1917).— D. S. Jordan, Alsace-Lorraine (1916). ALSO? CLAIM. See Chile: 1909. ALSUA, Enrigue Dorn y de, Representative from Ecuador at the Peace Conference (loio). See Versailles, Treaty of: Conditions of peace. ALT AUTZ, Poland: Taken by the Germans (1915). See World War: 1915: III. Eastern front: g, 8. ALTA CALIFORNIA (Upper California). See California. ALTAMIRA, caves in northern Spain wherein notable examples of prehistoric paintings were found. See Painting: Pre-classical. ALTAMSH, or Altimsh (d. 1236), king of Delhi. See India: 977-1290. ALTAR, a raised place of earth, stone or other material, which forms the central point of worship in the sacred building or enclosure of any reli- gion. In the older religions it was upon the altar that sacrifices were made, libations poured, or gifts deposited. In the liturgical Christian churches the sacrament is administered from the altar. In the Protestant churches, the altar has disappeared, or has been replaced by the simple communion table. 2Z7 ALTDORFER AMALEKITES ALTDORFER, Albiccht ( ?i48o-i53S), Ger- man painter and engraver, called the "Giorgionc of the North." His engravings on wood and copper rank next to those of Albrecht Diirer. ALTEN, Sir Charles (1704-1S40), Hanoverian and British soldier. Participated in the cainpaign in the Low Countries, 1703-1705, in the Hano- verian expedition 1S05, was with Moore in the expedition to Spain, and commanded Wellington's third division at Waterloo. ALTENBURG: Its origin and dukedom. See Saxony: i 180- is ^3 ALTENHEIM, Battle of (1675). See Neth- erlands: 1674-1678. ALTGELD, John Peter (1847-1002), governor of Illinois, 1S03-1807; came to the United States from Germany at an early age. While governor he was severely criticized for his leniency in par- doning three anarchists, said to have been guilty of exploding a bomb in Chicago during a strike in 1886. He again showed that his sympathies were with the workers when he refused to call out the militia in 1804, during the Pullman strikes. President Cleveland sent federal troops over Alt- geld's protest on the ground that his action was necessary to protect the federal mills. He supported William J. Bryan in the iSq6 and iQoo presidential campaigns, in favor of "free silver," and was a strong advocate of prison reform. ALTHING. See Thing. ALTHING (General Diet): Denmark. See Denmark: 1S00-1S74. ALTINUM, an ancient town of Venitia, de- stroyed bv Attila in 452. Sec Venice: 452. ALTITUDE RECORDS. See Aviation: De- velopment of airplanes and air service: 1008-1020. ALTMAN, Benjamin (1840-1913), American art collector and merchant. See Gifts and be- quests. ALTOBELLI, Argentina (c. i860- ), Italian communist. In 1020 she was head of the union of peasants or land workers, and an influential agitator in the Italian industrial struggle. ALTON, a railroad town of Madison Co., 111., on the Mississippi, which is here spanned by a bridge, first settled in 1783. In 1837, during the anti-slavery agitation. Elijah P, Lovejoy, a prom- inent abolitionist, was killed in what was known as "the Alton riot." ALTON A, Schleswig-Holstein: 1713.— Burned by the Swedes. See Sweden: 1707-1718. ALTOPASCIO, Battle of (1325)- See Italy: 1313-1330. ALVA, or Alba, Fernando Alvarez de To- ledo, Duke of (1508-1583), famous Spanish gen- eral and statesman ; prime minister and general of the armies of Spain under Charles V and Philip II; fought in the campaigns of Charles V, and was important factor in the victory at Mijhlberg (1547) against Elector John Frederick of Saxony; was victorious against the combined French and Papal forces in the Italian campaign (1555); was sent to suppress Dutch revolt in Netherlands (1567) ; in 1580. conducted a campaign against Don Antonio of Portugal. — See also Netherlands: i,S67-iS73; 1573-1574; Rome: Modern city: 1537- 1621. ALVARADO, Pedro de (1405-1541), Spanish soldier appointed commander of a fleet for the conquest of Mexico. He later conquered Guate- mala, and in 1527 was appointed governor of the captured territory by Charles V. See Me-\ico: 1510-1520; i=;2i (Mav-Julv). ALVARADO, Salvador (1880- ), Mexican general and statesman; governor of the state of Yucatan (1015-1917) under socialistic system; gov- ernor of state of Tabasco for a short time; par- ticipated in revolution of 1920 which caused the downfall of Carranza ; special envoy to Washington for General Alvaro Obregon, leader of the revo- lution; made minister of finance under the Obre- gon government; sent on. mission to New York, Washington, and European capitals to discuss re- sumption of payments on Mexican foreign debt. — Sec also Y'ucatan: 1911-1918. ALVAREZ, Juan (1780-1897), President of Mexico. See Mexico: 1848-1861. ALVEAR, Carlos Maria (c. 1785-1850), aids Uruguay to establish its independence. See Uru- guay: 1821-1905. ALVERSTONE (Sir Richard Everard Web- ster), Baron (1842-1915), lord chief justice of England. Counsel for The Times in the Parnell inquiry ; in 1803 represented England in the Ber- ing sea arbitration; in 1903 a member of the .Maska boundary commission (q.v.). ALVES, Rodriquez, president of Brazil, 1918- 1922. Sec Brazil: 1918. ALWANIYAH See Dervishes. ALYATTES (609-500 B.C.), king of Lydia, founder of the Lydian empire. Fixed the Halys as the boundary between Media and Lydia; drove the Cimmcrii from .\sia, subdued the Carians. His tomb at Sardis was excavated in 1854. A.M. (Anno mundi), the Year of the World, or the year from the beginning of the world, accord- ing to the formerly accepted chronological reck- oning of .Archbishop Usher and others. Computed from biblical sources, the date of the creation was set at 4004 B. C, a theory no longer accepted bv scientists. AMADE, Albert d', French general. In 1914, with a newly-formed corps, delayed the attempted German drive between the British and French armies. See World War: 1914; Western front For operations in Morocco see Morocco: 1907- 1909; 1909. AMADEO, king of Spain, 1871-1873- See Amedeo Ferdinando Maria di Savoia. AMAHUACO. See Andesians. AMAL, the name of the leading family of the Ostrogoths, from which nearly all their kings, known as .Amalings, were chosen. AMALEKITES.— "The Amalekites were usu- ally regarded as a branch of the Edomites or 'Red-skins.' Amalek, like Kenaz, the father ol the Kenizzites or 'Hunters,' was the grandson of Esau (Gen. 36: 12, 16). He thus belonged to the group of nations, — Edomites, .Ammonites, and Moabites, — who stood in a relation of close kin- ship to Israel. But they had preceded the Israelites in dispossessing the older inhabitants of the land, and establishing themselves in their place. The Edomites had partly destroyed, partly amalgamated the Horites of Mount Seir (Deut. 2:12); the Moabites had done the same to the Emlin, a people great and many, and tall as the Anakim' (Deut. 2:10). while the .Ammonites had extirpated and succeeded to the Rephaim or 'Giants,' who in that part of the country were termed Zamzum- min (Deut. 2:20; Gen.' 14:5^ Edom however stood in a closer relation to Israel than its two more northerly neighbours. . . . Separate from the Edomites or .Amalekites were the Kenites or wandering 'smiths.' They formed an important Guild, in an age when the art of metallurgy was confined to a few. In the time of Saul we hear of them as camping among the Amalekites (I. Sam. 15:6.) . . . The Kenites . . did not con- stitute a race, or even a tribe. They were, at most, a caste. But they had originally come, ^38 AMALFI AMATONGALAND like Ihe Israelites or the Edomites, from those bar- ren regions of Northern Arabia which were peo- pled by the Menti of the Egyptian inscriptions. Racially, therefore, we may regard them as allied to the descendants of Abraham. While the Kenites and Amalckites were thus Semitic in their origin, the Hivites or 'Villagers' are specially associated with Amorites." — A. H. Sayce, Races of the Old Testament, cli. 6. — See also Jews; Israel under the Judges, and Kingdoms of Israel and Judah; Chris- tianity: Map of Sinaitic peninsula. Also in: H. Ewald, History of Israel, bk. i, sect. 4. AMALFI, a seaport town in Campania, south Italy. It is about twenty-two miles southeast of Naples, on the Gulf of Salerno. An interesting building is the old cathedral, with bronze doors cast in Constantinople in the nth century. A hotel now makes use of an old Capuchin monas- tery, which dates from the beginning of the 13th century. "It was the singular fate of this city to have filled up the interval between two periods of civilization, in neither of which she was destined to be distinguished. Scarcely known before the end of the sixth century, Amalfi ran a brilliant career, as a free and trading republic which was checked by the arms of a conqueror in the mid- dle of the twelfth. . . . There must be, I suspect, some exaggeration about the commerce and opu- lence of Amalfi, in the only age when she pos- sessed any at all." — H. Hallam, Europe during the Middle Ages, cit. g, pt. i, with note. — "Amalfi and Atrani lie close together in two . . . ravines, the mountains almost arching over them, and the sea washing their very house-walls. ... It is not easy to imagine the time when Amalfi and Atrani were one town, with docks and arsenals and har- bourage for their associated fleets, and when these little communities were second in importance to no naval power of Christian Europe The Byzan- tine Empire lost its hold on Italy during the eighth century; and after this time the history of Calabria is mainly concerned with the republic of Naples and .Amalfi, their conflict with the Lom- bard dukes of Benevento, their opposition to the Saracens, and their final subjugation by the Nor- man conquerors of Sicily. Between the year 83q when Amalfi freed itself from the control of Naples and the yoke of Benevento, and the year 1 13 1, when Roger of Hauteville incorporated the republic in his kingdom of the Two Sicilies, this city was the foremost naval and commercial port of Italy. The burghers of Amalfi elected their own doge ; founded the Hospital of Jerusalem, whence sprang the knightly order of S. John ; gave their name to the richest quarter in Palermo; and owned trading establishments or factories in all the chief cities of the Levant. Their gold coinage of 'tari' formed the standard of currency before the Florentines had stamped the lily and S. John upon the Tuscan florin. Their shipping regulations supplied Europe with a code of maritime laws. Their scholars, in the darkest depths of the dark ages, prized and conned a famous copy of the Pandects of Justinian, and their seamen deserved the fame of having first used, if they did not actually invent, the compass. . . . The republic had grown and flourished on the decay of the Greek Empire. When the hard-handed race of Hauteville absorbed the heritage of Greeks and Lombards and Saracens in Southern Italy these adventurers succeeded in annexing Amalfi. But it was not their interest to extinguish the state. On the contrary, they relied for assistance upon the navies and the armies of the little commonwealth. New powers had meanwhile arisen in the North of Italy, who were jealous of rivalry upon the open seas; and when the Neapolitans resisted King Roger in 1135, they called Pisa to their aid, and sent her fleet to destroy Amalfi. The ships of Amalfi were on guard with Roger's navy in the Bay of Naples. The armed citizens were, under Roger's orders, at Aversa. Meanwhile the home of the republic lay defenceless on its mountain- girdled seaboard. The Pisans sailed into the har- bour, sacked the city and carried off the famous Pandects of Justinian as a trophy. Two years later they returned, to complete the work of de- vastation. Amalfi never recovered from the in- juries and the humiliation." — J. A. Symonds, Sketches and studies in Italy, pp. 2-4. AMALFITAN TABLES'. See International law: Maritime codes. AMALGAMATED CLOTHING WORKERS STRIKE. See Arbitration and conciliation. In- dustrial: United States: loiS-ioiq. AMALGAMATED LABOR UNION. See American Federation of Labor: 1881-1886. AMALIKA. See Arabia: Ancient succession and fusion of races. AMALINGS, or Amals. — The royal race of the ancient Ostrogoths, as the Balthi or Balthings were of the Visigoths, both claiming a descent from the gods. AMALRIC I (113S-1174), king of Jerusalem. Reigned from 1162 till his death. Made several unsuccessful incursions into Egypt. See Jerusa- lem: 1144-1187. Amalric II (1144-1205), king of Jerusalem from 1 197 to his death. Merely nominal ruler, as Jerusalem remained in the hands of the Saracens throughout his reign; was also king of Cyprus, as Amalric I, from 1194. See Jerusalem: 1187- 1229. AMANA COMMUNIT"if, German religious communistic society of Iowa. See Socialism: 1843- 1874. AMANDO. See Alcantra, Knights of. AMANI (East Africa), Battle of. See World War: 1916: VII. African theater: a, 11. AMAPALA, Treaty of (1895). See Central America: 1895-1002. AMARA, Mesopotamia, Captured by British (1915). See World War: 1915: VI. Turkey: c, 2. AMARYNTHUS, (i), king of Eubrea; (2) a town under the rule of King Amarynthus, famed for its temple of Artemis. AMASIA, a small Turkish city in Asia Minor about 200 miles southwest of Trebizond, in an- cient times the capital of the kingdom of Pon- tus. Strabo, the father of geography, was born here. AMASIS I (c. 1700 B.C.), founder of the Eighteenth Dynasty in Egypt. Waged successful wars against the Hyksos princes. Amasis II, last great ruler of Egypt, 570-526 B. C; usurped the throne of King Apries; main- tained friendly relations with Greece. See Egypt: B. C. 670-525. AMATHUS, an ancient Phcenician city on the southern coast of Cyprus. It was involved in the successful revolt of Cyprus against Persian rule (500-494 B. C). Amathus refused to join the phil-Hellene league; that refusal brought on a siege of the city by Onesilas of Salamis, who was captured and executed when his attempt failed. AMATI, Nicolo (1596-1684), the most famous of the Amati family that founded the Cremona school of violin makers. Nicolo was the teacher of Andrea Guarnicri and Antonio Stradivari. AMATONGALAND, or Tongaland.— On the cast coast of South .Africa, north of Zululand, un- 239 AMAURY AMAZON RIVER der British protection since 1888. See Africa; Modern European occupation: 1884-1S89. AMAURY. See Aiialrk. AMAZIGH OF THE RIF, Characteristics of. See Africa: Races of Africa: Prehistoric peoples. AMAZON INDIANS. See India.ns, Amer- ican: Cultural areas in South America: Amazon area. AMAZON RIVER: Its course.— Madeira- Mamore railway. — The .\mazon is a river of South America, and is the longest and most ex- tensive inland waterway in the world. Its length is variously estimated at between 3,000 and 4,000 miles; with more than ;oo tributaries this great fluvial system drains an area of over 2,700,000 square miles. About 2.500 miles of its length courses through Brazil. Rising in the Peruvian Andes in two main arteries, the Maranon or Tingu- ragua and the Ucayali, also known as the Apuri- mac, the stream becomes united at Tabatinga on the borders of Peru and Brazil, abou. 5 south and flows eastward as the SoHmoens river to the Rio Negro confluence. From this point the Amazon proper, or lower course, winds through Brazil and empties itself into the .Atlantic directly on the equator. From Tabatinga the two sections of the main stream, together with most of their ramifying branches, are comprised within Brazil- ian territory ; the upper section, together with the upper valleys of some of the Solimoens affluents, belong entirely to Peru. Here rise and flow for hundreds of miles the Maraiion, the Huallaga, and the Ucayali, that is, the three farthest head- streams of the whole system with which the Paute, Pastaza, Tigre and Napo from Ecuador converge above Tabatinga to form the Solimoens. It is apparently owing to its westernmost position, far- thest from the ."Atlantic, that the Marafion is com- monly regarded as the true upper source of the Amazon. Judging by length and volume, however, this distinction should be awarded to the Ucayali, which is the largei; of the two at the confluence and has also a much longer course. "From Para to the Amazon proper much can be seen, but by far the greater interest lies in the pas- sage through the narrows; that is, the latter part of this stretch, and it can be enjoyed only by day- light, when the sometimes threatening closeness to the banks permits those on the deck of the steamer to catch the details within or about the small thatched huts (barracas) of the natives; to watch the children at their games, which are much the same as games of children in other parts of the world; and to study the endless variety of the crowded, impenetrable vegetation of the forest. Here the trees appear to be higher and greener, the sparse clearings, whether made by nature or man, farther apart; but the huts are numerous, and the traveler can fancy a certain degree of neighborhood life among the simple people. One seldom sees a patch along the water's edge be- tween any two huts, or settlements, but the water is always there, and it affords the only traveled highway for either sociability or commence. The main river to the novelty-seeking tourist may be somewhat disappointing. He who has seen the Rhine, the Thames, the Danube, or the Hudson is apt to come away with the fixed opinion that the Amazon is rather monotonous. The only reason upon which such an opinion can be based is the fact that the four or five days on the river to Man- aos present no striking views of constantly varying scenery, no great evidences of the struggles of nature when the earth was forming, and only here and there substantial traces of man's conquest of the land. The stream flows practically due east from the Andes with only a few turns in its course, although the channel alters from season to season. The numerous islands are in general indistinguishable from the mainland; the entrance of any one of the many important tributaries cre- ates little disturbance and seems not to increase at all the tremendous volume of water between the two banks. . . . Only three places really at- tract notice on the through voyage — Obidos, San- tarem, and Itacoatiara a few miles below the mouth of the Madeira River. The two former are historical, being early settlements grown into cities since the time of the Province and the Empire; the latter was originally an Indian vil- lage and once had the name of Serpa which is yet heard on the lips of experienced river men. Para is one of the oldest cities in Brazil, and offers for the tourist much that is interesting from any point of view. Manaos, on the contrary, is one of the newest cities in Brazil, and illustrates fairly well what Brazilians can do in civic foundation and improvement. ... To those who are travelers with a different purpose, however, the Amazon Valley is a wonderland, the richest in opportunity of any of the world's hitherto unoccupied spaces. For the botanist, for instance, an unlimited field for investigation is still open, and the studies of Bates, Spruce, or others have merely hewn a slight path through this most luxuriant of nature's gar- dens. For the biologist and zoologist, the amount of the unknown is fascinating, and the needed re- searches into the natural history of this region will furnish activity for inquiring minds during the greater part of the present century. The eth- nologist also must be fascinated by the chance here offered to discover man in an environment which, while leaving him essentially savage, has yet developed in him many of the better phases of human nature. In fact every student of what- ever degree or inclination should know that here is a theater that calls him most ardently to ac- tion now, and in which there need be not one moment of dullness or monotony. . . . One of the seven wonders of the first part of the twen- tieth century . . . [is] the Madeira-Mamore Rail- way. ... In a sentence, the Madeira-Mamore Railway is to Brazil and Bolivia what the Panama Canal is to Chile and Peru. . . . The Madeira- Mamore Railway is 363.4 kilometers long (202 miles). It extends in a direction almost due south, within the Brazilian State of Matto Grosso, be- tween the terminals Porto Velho at the north, on the Madeira River, to Guajara-Mirim at the south, on the Mamore River. . . . The Madeira-Mamore Railway was built to avoid the rapids and falls of the Madeira River, and it is evident, when passing over the line, that the result was most satisfactorily obtained." — H. Hale, Valley of the river Amazon. — Madeira-Mamore Railway Com- pany {Pan American Union, Dec., 1912). — See also Brazil: Geographic description; Latin America: Map of South America. Discovery and naming. — The mouth of the great river of South America was discovered in 1500 by Pinzon, or Pincon, who called it "Santa Maria dc la Mar Dulc" (Saint Mary of the fresh- water sea). "This was the first name given to the river, except that older and better one of the Indians, 'Parana,' the Sea; afterwards it was Maraiion and Rio das Amazonas, from the female warriors that were supposed to live near iti banks. . . . After Pinion's time, there were others who saw the fresh-water sea, but no one was hardy enough to venture into it. The honor of its real discovery was reserved for Francisco de Orellana; and he explored it, not from the east, 240 AMAZON RIVER AMAZON RIVER but from the west, in one of the most daring voyages that was ever recorded. It was accident rather than design that led him to it. After . . . Pizarro had conquered Peru, he sent his brother Gonzalo, with 340 Spanish soldiers, and 4,000 Indians, to explore the great forest east of Quito, 'where there were cinnamon trees.' The expe- dition started late in 1539, and it was two years before the starved and ragged survivors returned to Quito. In the course of their wanderings they had struck the river Coco; building here a brig- antine, they followed down the current, a part of them in the vessel, a part on shore. After a while they met some Indians, who told them of a rich country ten days' journey beyond — a country of gold, and with plenty of provisions. Gonzalo placed Orellana in command of the brigantine, and ordered him, with 50 soldiers, to go on to this gold- land, and return with a load of provisions. Orel- lana arrived at the mouth of the Coco in three days, but found no provisions; 'and he considered that if he should return with this news to Pizarro, he would not reach him in a year, on account of the strong current, and that if he remained where he was, he would be of no use to the one or to the other. Not knowing how long Gonzalo Pizarro would take to reach the place, without consulting any one he set sail and prosecuted his voyage on- ward, intending to ignore Gonzalo, to reach Spain, and obtain that government for himself.' Down the Napo and the Amazons, for seven months, these Spaniards floated to the Atlantic. At times they suffered terribly from hunger: 'There was nothing to eat but the skins which formed their girdles, and the leather of their shoes, boiled with a few herbs. ' When they did get food they were often obliged to fight hard for it; and again they were attacked by thousands of naked Indians, who came in canoes against the Spanish vessel. At some Indian villages, however, they were kindly received and well fed, so they could rest while building a new and stronger vessel. . . . On the 26th of August, 1541, Orellana and his men sailed out to the blue water 'without either pilot, com- pass, or anything useful for navigation ; nor did they know what direction they should take.' Fol- lowing the coast, they passed inside of the island of Trinidad, and so at length reached Cubagua in September. From the king of Spain Orellana re- ceived a grant of the land he had discovered; but he died while returning to it, and his company was dispersed. It was not a very reliable account of the river that was given by Orellana and his chronicler. Padre Carbajal. So Hcrrera tells their story of the warrior females, and very properly adds: 'Every reader may believe as much as he likes.' " — H. H. Smith, Bra::i!, the Amazons, and the coast, ch. i. — In chapter eighteen of this same work "The Amazon Myth" is discussed at length, with the reports and opinions of numerous travel- lers, both early and recent, concerning it. Mr. Southey had so much respect for the memory of Orellana that he made an effort to restore that bold but unprincipled discoverer's name to the great river. "He discarded Maranon, as having too much resemblance to Maranham, and Amazon, as being founded upon fiction and at the same time inconvenient. Accordingly, in his map, and in all his references to the great river he denominates it Orellana. This decision of the poet-laureate of Great Britain has not proved authoritative in Brazil. O Amazonas is the universal appellation of the great river among those who float upon its waters and who live upon its banks. . . . Para, the aboriginal name of this river, was more appro- priate than any other. It signifies 'the father of waters.' . . . The origin of the name and mystery concerning the female warriors, I think, has been solved within the last few years by the intrepid Mr. Wallace. . . . Mr. Wallace, I think, shows conclusively that Friar Gaspar [Carbajal] and his companions saw Indian male warriors who were attired in habiliments such as Europeans would attribute to women. ... I am strongly of the opinion that the story of the Amazons has arisen from these feminine-looking warriors encoun- tered by the early voyagers."— J. C. Fletcher and D. P. Kidder, Brazil and the Brazilians, ch. 27. Also in: A. R. Wallace, Travels on the Ama- zon and Rio Negro, ch. 17. — R. Southey, History of Brazil, v. i, ch. 4. Tributaries. — River of Doubt.— Development of river system.— The more important of the many tributaries of the Amazon are: Tocantins, Xingu, Tapajos, Purus, Jurua, Japura, Rio Negro and Ma- deira. One of the largest affluents of this great arm of the Amazon is the Rio Teodoro, which was named in honor of the discoverer, the late ex-president, Theodore Roosevelt, who led the Roosevelt-Ron- don exploration expedition through the Brazilian wilderness in 1914 "On February 27, 1914, shortly after midday, we started down the River of Doubt (Rio Teodoro) into ihe unknown. We were quite uncertain whether after a week we should find outselves in the Gy-Parana, or after six weeks in the Madeira, or after three months we knew not where. ... We put upon the map a river some fifteen hundred kilometres in length, of which the upper course was not merely utterly unknown to, but unguessed at by, anybody; while the lower course, although known for years to a few rubber-men, was utterly unknown to cartographers. It is the chief affluent of the Ma- deira, which is itself the chief affluent of the .Ama- zon. The source of this river is between the 12th and 13th parallels of latitude south and the ^gth and 60th degrees of longitude west from Green- wich ... we finally entered the wonderful Ama- zon itself, the mighty river which contains one- tenth of all the runnin; water of the globe. It was miles across, where we entered it; and indeed we could not tell whether the farther bank, which we saw, was that of the mainland or an island. . . . The mightiest river in the world is the Amazon. It runs from west to east, from the sunset to the sunrise, from the Andes to the At- lantic. The main stream flows almost along the equator, while the basin which contains its af- fluents extends many degrees north and south of the equator. This gigantic equatorial river basin is filled with an immense forest, the largest in the world, with which no other forests can be compared save those of western Africa and Ma- laysia." — T. Roosevelt, Through the Brazilian wil- derness. "So fertile is the soil of the Amazon that it is claimed that for every bushel of maize, rice, or beans planted over 800 bushels are harvested . . . '.Amazonia' is an agricultural El Dorado, and it is an amazing incongruity that food should ever have been imported into the valley, where enough rice, for instance, could be raised to feed the en- tire world ; yet until two or three years ago rice was imported, some of it from China." — J. F. Barry, Great possibilities of Amazonia (Pan Amer- ican Union, Mar., 1920).— The last ten years have brought great changes in the civilization and commercial life of the .Amazon and "Amazonia." Probably the most important factors in the de- velopment of this fabulously wealthy river system are the construction of the railroad line from Porto 241 AMAZON RUBBER COMPANY AMBROSIAN CHANT Velho to Guajara-Wirim, and the establishment of the Amazon iNavigation Company in 1912. The importance of the latter undertaking, to the hfe and progress 0! the Brazilians, can hardly be over- estimated. The Amazon Navigation Company, which operates under a federal charter, covers fif- teen routes and a total distance of 235,552 miles annually. The fleet consists of about 100 crafts, some of which have been taken from the old (Eng- lish) Amazon Navigation Company The steamers ply not only on the .Amazon but also on all of its more important affluents, such as the Tapajos, the ' Javory. the Madeira, the Rio Negro, the Purus and the lurua. AMAZON RUBBER COMPANY: Putumayo rubber atrocities. Sec Pkku: 1012-1013. AMAZONS. — "The .Vmazons, daughters of Ares and Harmonia, are both early creations, and fre- quent reproductions, of the ancient epic. ... A nation of courageous, hardy and indefatigable women, dwelling apart from men, permitting only a short temporary intercourse for the purpose of renovating their numbers, and burning out their right breast with a view of enabling themselves to draw the bow freely, — this was at once a general type stimulating to the fancy of the poet, and a theme eminently popular with his hearers. Nor was it at all repugnant to the faith of the latter — who had no recorded facts to guide them, and no other standard of credibility as to the past except such poetical narratives themselves — to conceive communities of .Amazons as having actually existed in anterior time. Accordingly we find these war- like females constantly reappearing in the ancient poems, and universally accepted as past realities In the Iliad, when Priam wishes to illustrate em- phatically the most numerous host in which he ever found himself included, he tells us that it was assembled in Phrygia, on the banks of the Sanga- rius, for the purpose of resisting the formidable Amazons When Bellerophon is to be employed on a deadly and perilous undertaking, by those who indirectly wish to procure his death, he is despatched against the Amazons. . . . The ."Xrgo- nautic heroes find the .Amazons on the river Ther- modon in their expedition along the southern coast of the Euxine. To the same spot Herakles goes to attack them, in the performance of the ninth la- bour imposed upon him by Eurystheus, for the purpose of procuring the girdle of the .\mazonian queen, Hippolyte; and we are told that they had not yet recovered from the losses sustained in this severe ag -rcssion when Theseus also assaulted and defeated them, carrying off their queen Antiope. This injury they avenged by invading .Attica . . . and penetrated even into Athens itself: where the final battle, hard-fought and at one time doubtful, by which Theseus crushed them, was fought — in the very heart of the city, .\ttic antiquaries con- fidently pointed out the exact position of the two contending armies. . . . No portion of the ante- historical epic appears to have been more deeply worked into the national mind of Greece than this invasion and defeat of the .^mazons. . . . Their proper territory was asserted to be the town and plain of Themiskyra, near the Grecian colony of Amisus, on the river Thermodon [northern Asia Minor], a region called after their name by Roman historians and geographers. . . . Some authors placed them in Libya or Ethiopia." — G. Grote, Hislorv of Greece, pt. i, ch. 11. AMA-ZULU. See Zululaxd. AMBACTI.— "The Celtic aristocracy [of Gaull . . . developed the .system of retainers, that is. the privilege of the nobility to surround themselves with a number of hired mounted servants — the am- bacti as they were called — and thereby to form a state within a state; and, resting on the support of these troops of their own, they defied the legal authorities and the common levy and practically broke up the commonwealth. . . . This remark- able word [ambacti] must have been in use as early as the sixth century of Rome among the Celts in the valley of the Po. ... It is not merely Celtic, however, but also German, the root of our 'Amt,' as indeed the retainer-system itself is com- mon to the Celts and the Germans. It would be of great historical importance to ascertain whether the word — and therefore the thing — came to the Celts from the Germans or to the Germans from the Celts. If, as is usually supposed, the word is originally German and primarily signified the servant standing in battle 'against the back' ('and' =against, 'bak'=back) of his ma.ster. this is not wholly irreconcilable with the singularly early oc- currence of the word among the Celts. ... It is . . . probable that the Celts, in Italy as in Gaul, employed Germans chiefly as those hired servants- at-arms. The 'Swiss guard' would therefore in that case be some thousands of years older than people suppose." — T. Mommsen. History of Rome, hk. 5, cli. 7. and foot-note. AMBAN, the title of two imperial Chinese resi- dents in Lhasa. Tibet, who supervised the man- agement of all secular affairs of the country by the four ministers of state. See Tibet: 1902 -1904; 1010-IQ14, AMBARRI, a small tribe in Gaul which occu pied anciently a district between the Saone. the Rhone and the Ain. AMBASSADOR SERVICE. See Diplomatic AND COXSULAR SERVICE. AMBASSADORS, Hall of. See Ai.hambra. AMBIANI. See Belg.t.. AMBIORIX, prince of the Eburones in Belgian Gaul. Fought unsuccessfullv against Cjesar in 54 B. C. See Eburones; Gaul: B. C. 58-51. AMBITUS. — Bribery at elections was termed ambitus among the Romans, and many unavail- ing laws were enacted to check it. — W. Ramsay, Manual of Roman antiquity, ch. g. AMBI'VARETI, a tribe in ancient Gaul which occupied the left bank of the Meuse, to the south of the marsh of Peel. AMBLEVE, Battle of (716). See Franks: 511-752 AMBOISE, Georges d' (1460-1510), French cardinal and prime minister in the reign of Louis XII. In 150^, made papal legate to France for life. AMBOISE, a town of central France, on the left bank of the Loire. It is noted for the chateau, overlooking the Loire from the eminence above the town. The Logis du Roi, the chief part, was built by Charles VIII. the other wing by Louis XII and Francis I. AMBOISE, Conspiracy or Tumult of. See France: ii;^Q-i=;6i. AMBOISE, Edict of. See France; 1560-1563. AMBOYNA, Massacre of. See India: 1600- 1702. AMBRACIA (Ambrakia). See Corcyra. AMBRONES, a Germanic tribe which joined the Tcutones against the Romans in 102 B. C. See CiMBRi AND Teutones: B.C. 113-101. AMBROSE, Saint (340-307), celebrated Father of the ancient church: unanimously elected bishop of Milan in 374; reputed author of the .^mbrosian ritual. See Milan: 374-307; Music: Ancient: B.C 4-A D. 307 AMBROSIAN CHANT, the ecclesiastical mode of saying and singing Divine service, organized by 242 AMBROSINl AMENDMENTS St. Ambrose about 3S4 for the cathedral of Milan. — See also Milan: 374-397; Music: Ancient: B.C. 4-A. D. 307, and 540-604. AMBROSINl, Bartolomeo (1588-1657), Ital- ian naturalist, director of the botanical garden at the university of Bologna, succeeding Aldrovandi, whose pupil he was. AMBROSIUS AURELIANUS, leader of the Britons against the Saxons in the fifth century; identified by some with Uther-Pendragon, father of King .\rthur. — See also .'Vrthurian legend. AMBULANCE CORPS, American. See American ambulance. AMEDEO FERDINANDO MARIA DI SA- VOIA (1845-1800), king of Spain, 1870-1873. Third son of Victor Emmanuel II of Italy; elected by the Cortes after disturbances following the revolution of 1868, by which Isabella II had been deposed; abdicated February 11, 1873, after which the Republic was proclaimed. See Spain: 1868- 1873. , AMEER. See .Amir. AMEIXIAL (Estremos), Battle of (1663). See Portugal: 1637-1668. AMELIA CASE.— The Amclin had sailed from Hamburg to Calcutta and on the return voyage was captured by the French, who held her about ten days, when she was captured by the Constitu- tion, commanded by Captain Silas Talbot, U. S. N. Talbot had brought suit in the New York district court that the Amelia be judged lawful prize, which the owners disputed, since Hamburg and the United States were not at war. Seeman appealed from the decision of the district court, and Tal- bot from that of the circuit court. The supreme court ordered the vessel to be sold and the costs to be paid from the proceeds of the sale; of the residue one-sixth was to go to the libellant, for commander and crew, the remainder to the own- ers of the vessel. This practically reaffirmed the decision of the circuit court. The decree was handed down in August, iSoi. Jared Ingersoll was principal counsel for plaintiff, .\lexander James Dal- las for defendant. — J. A. Bayard, Annual report of the American Historical Association, 1013, p. 123. AMELIUS (fl. 246-260), Greek philosopher. See Neoplatonism. AMEL-MARDUK, or Amil-Marduk, king of Babvlonia. See Babylonia: Decline of the Empire. AMENDMENTS TO CONSTITUTIONS: United States. — To the Federal constitution. — The framers of the Constitution of the United States seem to have felt that the sovereignty of the states would be best protected by the legislatures of the several states. They provided that Congress may propose amendments by a two-thirds vote of each house, but that such amendments must be ratified by three-fourths of the several states either through their legislatures or by conventions. The states themselves may take the initiative in proposing amendments and Congress is required to call a convention for this purpose on application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the states. One part of the Constitution is virtually unamendable because of the provision "that no State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate." Between 1780 and 1Q20, nineteen amendments were adopted. The first ten, however, were adopted at one time and comprise a Bill of Rights omitted from the original Constitution be- cause the framers of the Constitution took these rights for granted. (See also U. S. A.: 1701.) The eleventh amendment prevents the Federal Government from being party in law suits brought by citizens of any state against the government of another state. The twelfth amendment chanced the manner of voting in the electoral college. The thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth amendments were adopted after the Civil War. The thirteenth gives the slaves their freedom, [see also U. S. A.: 1865 (January)] the fourteenth gives civil rights to the freedman and defines citizens as "all persons born or naturalized in the United States and sub- ject to the jurisdiction thereof." It also forbids any state to abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United Stales" or to "deprive any person of life, liberty, or property without due process of law." [See also Suffrage, Manhood: United States: 1864-1921; U. S. A.: 1S66 (June), 1866-1867 (October-March), looi (January).] The fifteenth amendment provides that "the right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any stale on account of race, color, or previous conditions of servitude." [See also U. S. A.: i8b8- 1870: Process of reconstruction; also 1869-1870] ."Vmcndment sixteen empowers Congress to levy and collect taxes on incomes. [See U. S. A: igoo (July).] The seventeenth amendment provides for the election of United States senators by vote of » the people. [See also Arizona: 1912.] The eighteenth is as follows [Constitutional League of America, p. 31] :— "Section I.— After one vear from the ratification of this article the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors with- in, the importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the United States and all territory subject to the junsdicion thereof for beverage pur- poses is hereby prohibited. Section II.— The Con- gress and the several States shall have concurrent power to enforce this article by appropriate legis- lation. Section III. — This article shall be inoper- ative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the Legislatures of the several States, as provided in the Constitu- tion, within seven years from the date of the sub mission thereof to the States by the Congress." [See also Liquor problem: United States: 1913- 1919.] The nineteenth amendment forbids any state to deny suffrage to a citizen because of sex. [See Suffrage, Woman: United States: 1851-1920.] It will thus be seen that in this period of over a century and a quarter the Constitution has been amended at only eight different times. It requires a strong popular demand to get Congress to pass a proposed amendment. More than one-half of eighteen hundred propositions of this sort intro- duced into Congress in the first hundred years were "pigeon-holed" or killed in committees. — See also U. S. A.: Constitution. Court decisions covering amendments to Fed- eral constitution. — "In March, 1920, a United States District Court held that both the Amend- ment and the National Prohibition Act are valid; that there is nothing in the subject-matter of the .Amendment incompetent or improper to form part of the Constitution; that there is no usurpation of powers properly belonging to the States alone; that since an amendment of the Constitution pro- vides that future amendments shall be ratified by the Legislatures of the States, the objection urged as regards States which have a referendum law, namely, that the .Amendment should have been submitted to referendum, is of no force; that Con- gress had a right to define (as it has defined, by the 'half of one per cent.' provision in the Volstead Law) what intoxicating liquor is; and that the contention that the plaintiff's property has been destroyed without compensation, contrary to the Constitution, has no basis, because Congress has the right to determine whether compensation shall be made when the property (as here) is not taken 24 3 AMENDMENTS for public use. The discussion by Judge Rellstab orth'e meaning of the clause •concurrent power to enforce by appropriate legislation is i^ull ana '" erestng He rejects any dictionary fhrn ,on of the word 'concurrent' which would restrict the ac- tion of Congress and the Legislatures to agree- is"if^^^.^\^^io1SSet^ rei^^^:ci^^^^vr5^£ P^-T'har'merniS'Xh will carry out the in- tended pur^e of'congress should be given to this word The thing sought to be prohibited is the T^anufac lire of and commerce in intoxicating hq- ^ fnr heverige purposes, and the prohibition rndfthrrugS^he' United States aiid all ter ii:-^^u:j^oh^;^^r^bi:^rtti| slat ^e power, and this power is delegated to both Congres^nd the several States^ If Congressidha Sn to be effective is dependent upon each of ?he States joining with it in its enforcemen leg s- ation an absolute failure to effect such legis a- tion "s not merely possible but decidedly pM\e '""in another form the anti-nulhfying o-e of this decision is expressed in the words: When Con gress acts to enforce this Amendment its com mands extend throughout the Union This is cer- U nlv plain and direct doctrine It - — ^'f/^ by k reference to a statement of Chief-Justce Marshall, of the United States Supreme Court, manv vears ago. Justice Marshall said "•Should this collision [between an act of Con- gress and New York [legislation] exist, '» will be immaterial whether those laws were passed in vir- tue of a concurrent power 'to regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the several States, ; in virtue of a power to regulate their domestic trade and police. In one case and the other the acts of New York must yield to the law of Con- gress and the decision sustaining the privilege ?hev confer, against a right given by a law o the Union, must be erroneous. . . . The nullity ot anv act, inconsistent with the Constitution is pro- duced bv the declaration, that the Constitution is ''^'pSr JuTge Rellstab holds 'The prohibi- torv section of the Eighteenth Amendment is of national scope and operation and its efficacy de- pends upon its bein: nationally enforced. Us en- forcement section was nationally envisaged, as was he need of the co-operation of the several States secure general observance. To carry out such a concept Congress alone, of all the legislative bodies r^ust take the lead, and its leadership, when assumed, dominates."-OK//oofe, March 31, 1920- See also Supreme Court: 1882-1808; lOM^io^i^ The Supreme Court held, in the case of Hollings- worth tv. Virginia (3 Dallas 78) that the president had nothing to do with the proposing or adoptmg of amendments. <:„,„„ Amendment of state constitutions.-Referen- dum -There is as yet no uniform practice with regTrd to consulting the people before calling a constitutional convention In nearly th>ft> /'ates the legislature mav use its discretion as to the time of consulting the' people. In several ^t^'- New York among the number, the people must be con- sulted at stated intervals on the question of hold- ng a constitutional convention. Thomas Jefferson held that once in each generation a new constitu- AMENDMENTS but a few states leave these details entirely to leg- [J^ative discretion. In the states that have the d re t popular initiative the voters are 'nc^ependent of the legislatures in the matter of calling and organizing constitutional conventions These S number more than a third of the total There is no uniform practice in the matter 01 securing the approval of the electorate alter con- s Hut^^ns have been revised. New England New York and Virginia led the way in the practice of Securing popular approval to propose amendmen s and it is^ow general, though there has been m recent vears some departure f^<"",/^is custorn. For a discussion of these cases, consult W. F Dodd, Revlion and amcdment of stale conMuUons, (,-, (,-71 _See also Minnesota: iSqb. ^^Other methods of amending sta e constitu- tions.-"In the beginning there seems to have been no clear recognition of the necessity for a distinc- tion bctween'the revision and the amendment of state constitutions. In the original states the prac- tice varied Onlv three of the original state con- stitutions contained any special provisions for their amendment by legislative action. Delaware provided that certain parts of the constUution should not be subject to amendment at al , and hat 'no other part should be altered except with the consent of five out ot;^ the seven members o the legislative assembly and ^e^'e" ,?"' ° .'^^^ " "„'_ members of the legislative council. South Laro Una also established a distinction between the proc- ess of ordinary legislation and that of constitu- tional amendment by requiring an exceptional ma^ ioritv for the adoption of a measure of the latter ch-i!acter Marvland made a sharper distinction between constitutional amendments and prdinary statutes by requiring that the former, having been adopted bv the legislature, should be published at ea^r three months before the fction of he next lecislature, and then readopted by the latter, m order to become effective. The Maryland plan of action by two successive legislatures was accepted Sy South Carolina in 1790 and by Delaware m 1702 and grafted upon their own original devices^ This arrangement was generally considered at he time to give adequate popular control over the pro ess of' amendment, and was adopted in severa other states; but the only state which till clings ^0 dav to a process of amendment which makes no provision for a special popular vote upon each proposed amendment is Delaware. A somewhat more democratic practice was adopted m Alabama in ,8iQ. This consisted in the provision that an amend'„,ent proposed by the 'eP'^lature shouM be voted on directly by (he people, mstead of be ng merely published for their information but he nower to take final action was still vested in the xTsuc^ceeding legislature. This plan was never widelv copied, and exists to-day in only t^vo states South Carolina and Mississippi. A still more dem- nrratic practice was Inaugurated in Connecticut in 8 lns?eld of placing the popular vote between he two successive legislative actions the popular ote was placed after the second legislative action hi s giving to the electorate the final decision, and making Hs action definitive instead of mere V ad- v'ov The Connecticut plan was adopted in Mline in 1810 and simplified by the omission of ?Se requirement that a second legislature endo se proposed amendments, thus enabhng any legisla- 244 AMENEMHAT AMERICA ture to submit its proposals directly to the people. The Connecticut and Maine plans have since been widely copied, and popular control over the process of amendment through legislative initiative has been almost completely established. The final stage in the evolution of the amending process has been the adoption of the direct popular initiative, thus dispensing altogether with legislative intervention. This stage was first entered upon in Oregon in igo2, and is now established in twelve states." — A. N. Holcombe, Slate government in the United States, pp. 98-9Q. — See also Initiative and ref- erendum; South Dakota: 18S0-1012. The method of altering constitutions piece- meal by separate amendments seems to be yielding to the method of general overhauling by constitutional conventions. In none of the states is action by the governor necessary in amending the state constitution. The growing tendency to distrust the legislature and to make the state con- stitutions resemble a group of statutes has made it necessary to amend the fundamental law rather often. For further details of state constitutional amendments see various states as Arkansas: 1S85- IQ08; California: iqoo-iqoq: Constitutional changes; Immigration and emigration: United States: 1920-1021: Anti-Japanese law in California; Indiana: 1918; North Carolina: 1900. .^Lso in: F. N. Thorpe, Federal and state con- stitutions; colonial charters, and other organic taws of the state, territories, and colonies now or heretofore forming the United States of America, 7 I'., Washington, igog. For amendments to constitution in other countries, see country head, as Australia, Constitution. AMENEMHAT, or Amenemhe, I, King of Egypt (c. B. C. 2130), founder of the twelfth dyn- asty. See Moeris, Lake. Amenemhat II, King of Egypt (c. B. C. 2066- 2031). Amenemhat III, King of Egypt (c. B. C. 1986- 1942). See Moeris, Lake. Amenemhat IV, King of Egypt (c. B. C. 1941- 1932)- AMENHOTEP. See Amenophis. AMENOPHIS I, Egyptian pharaoh (c. B.C. 1778). See Egypt; About B.C. 1700-1300. Amenophis II, Egyptian pharaoh (c. B. C. 1687). See Egvpt: About B.C. 1700-1300. Amenophis III, King of Egypt (c. B.C. 1493). See Egypt: B. C. 1414-1379. Amenophis IV (died c. 1350 B.C.), one of the Pharoahs of the Eighteenth Dynasty in Egypt; endeavored to substitute exclusive worship of the sun for Egyptian polytheism and shifted his capital to the city of Tell-El-.Amarna. After his reign of about 18 years, his reforms were soon abolished. — See also Egypt: B. C. 1379. AMERICA Politico-geographical survey. — Arrival of the white man. — Influence of the discovery on European history. — Geography and climate: factors in settlement. — Natural resources. — Area. — "The history of America covers but a short period, and the political conditions have been peculiar. It furnishes very few instances, similar to those afforded in abundance by European his- tory, of the influence of geography on the political destinies of nations. Though the whole of South America, e.xcejbt the European settlements in Guiana, is now partitioned among independent na- tions, they are all of one type; and their turbu- lent annals record no events of the slightest in- terest from the geographical point of view. The same holds good of the southern portion of North America: the descendants of the Spanish conquer- ors have mingled with the natives, and have formed states like their southern neighbors, with a similar veneer of modern civiHzation largely due to immigrants from Europe, and a similar sub- stratum of comparative barbarism. The United States were saved by the triumph of the North in the war of secession from breaking up into separate nations, so that a single government rules the whole centre of the continent from ocean to ocean. Similarly the whole of America north of the United States is occupied by the single domin- ion of Canada, loyal to the British crown, but in other respects an independent nation. The fron- tier between the two is in most of its length ab- solutely conventional, but happily there have been only trifling wars upon it. The geography of North America to some extent accounts for the fact that two great nations now occupy the whole of it, north of the comparatively narrow portion which tapers down to the isthmus of Panama The Rocky mountains, which form the watershed be- tween the Atlantic and the Pacific, run close to the western side of the continent. East of them is one boundless plain, not of couri^e altogether flat, but containing no chain of mountains long or high enough to form a definite barrier. Even the Alleghanies are not hard to cross, and sink away into the plain at each end. Thus when the white men, having settled along the Atlantic coast, began to push their way westward, they encountered no geographical obstacles. The question as to which of the European peoples should dominate America was fought out before the great expansion began." — H. B. George, Relations of geography and his- tory, pp. 294-295. "Two great events happened within thirty years of each other, the discovery of the New World and the Reformation. These two events closely involved with two others, viz., the consolidation of the great European States and the closing of the East by the Turkish Conquest, caused the vast change which we know as the close of the Middle Ages and the opening of the modern period. But of the two leading events the one was of far more rapid operation than the other. The Reformation produced its effect at once and in the very front of the stage of history. . . . Meanwhile the occu- pation of the New World is going on in the back- ground, and does not force itself upon the atten- tion of the student who is contemplating Europe. The achievements of Cortez and Pizarro do not seem to have any reaction upon the European struggle. And perhaps it is not till near the end of the sixteenth century, when the raids of Francis Drake and his fellows upon the Spanish settle- ments in Central America mainly contributed to decide Spain to her great enterprise against Eng- land, perhaps it is not till the time of the Spanish Armada, that the New World begins in any per- ceptible degree to react upon the Old. But from this time forward European affairs begin to be controlled by two great causes at once, viz., the Reformation and the New World, and of these the Reformation acts with diminishing force, and the New World has more and more influence. . . . fin the eighteenth centuryl the religious question with all its grandeur has sunk to rest, and the colonial question, made up of worldly and material considerations, has taken its place Now the New 245 AMERICA Politico- geographical Survey AMERICA World, considered as a boundless territory open to settlement, would act in two ways upon the nations of Europe. In the first place it would have a purely political effect, that is, it would act upon their governments. For so much debatable territory would be a standing cause of war. It is this action of the New World that we have been considering hitherto, while we have observed how mainly the wars of the eighteenth century, and particularly the areat wars of England and France, were kindled by this cause. But the New World would also act upon the European com- munities themselves, modifying their occupations and ways of life, altering their industrial and eco- nomical character." — Sir J. Seeley, Expansion of England, pp. 7S-80. "For over one hundred years after the discovery of .America the Spanish and the Portuguese were permitted to select the sites of their colonies and occupy as much of the land of the new continent as they desired, undisturbed by any interference of the English or French. Fortunately for the future of Anglo-Sa.\on supremacy in North .Amer- ica, the Portuguese directed their efforts to South America, .Africa, and southeastern .Asia. The Span- iards followed in a general way the tracks of Columbus and concentrated their efforts upon the West Indies, and Central and South .America. The initial impulse which was given to exploration and settlement in this region was retjnforced by the finding of precious metals in Mexico and Peru. For generations afterwards, the energies of Spain were concentrated here, leaving the northern part of the .American continent to others. This was largely accident, although the winds and ocean currents had been the chief factors in tak- ing Columbus over the course which he sailed and bringing him to the particular portion of the newly discovered lands which he actually reached. "Similarly, the claims of the New World which were staked out by the English, French, and Dutch were determined in the first instance mainly by geographical considerations The North .Atlantic is relatively narrow between Newfoundland on the one side and Ireland and Brittany on the other. Knowledge that the Spaniards had already pre- empted the lands for the south also directed the later arrivals to the more northern portion of North America. All these influences combined to apportion in a rough way the newly discovered lands among the maritime powers. The new con- ditions of life which the English and French found awaiting them were arduous enough to discourage the timid and weed out the unfit, without abso- lutely discouraging immigration from Europe. The climate of our Atlantic seaboard is more rigorous than that of France and the British Isles but it is a white man's country and makes no impossible demands upon a European's powers of adaptation. South of Chesapeake Bay many districts suffered from malaria which, combined with the hot sum- mers, put a premium upon negro slavery. On the northern end of the habitable area, in the St. Lawrence region, agriculture was made difficult by severe winters and a thin soil. Physiography and climate, therefore, discouraged the growth of a dense population in what is now lower Canada and hampered the growth of the French settle- ments there, despite the profits in the fur trade. "The main outlines of the growth of the English colonies were also fixed fairly early by these same natural features The climate, the configuration of the land, the presence or absence of natural harbors, the fertility of the soil, and the fauna and flora directed industrs- into this or that chan- nel. The mountain wall of the Appalachians flanked by dense forest growths opposed a mighty barrier to westward migration, while the warlike aborigines assisted the mountains and forests in hemming in the English colonists close to the At- lantic shore-land." — D. E. Smith, in J. N. Lamed, Ed., English leadership, pp. 210-212. "The first Europeans in America were doomed to many a disappointment in the matter of climate The effects of the Gulf Stream, which carries the heat of the Gulf of Mexico away from North .America to warm the shores of western Europe, were at first not recognized by the newcomers. Their natural expectation was that in a given lati- tude the climate of America would approximate that of Europe. New England, from June to Sep- tember, did appear in the same latitude. A New England winter, on the other hand, resembled that of Norway or Sweden, while Labrador, which was only as far north as England, had a climate which in Europe was known only within the .Arctic Circle. . . . Low-lying shores, cut by numerous navigable streams, rendered the .Atlantic coast of .North .America more easy of access than was the Pacific coast. The majority of these Atlantic riv- ers were short and swift, and possessed of water power well suited to the manufacturing which was to spring up in later centuries. The interior of the continent could not easily be penetrated along these streams, for the reason that some few miles inland they were usually broken in their cour.=e by rapids and falls, which were difficult of pas- sage. Still farther inland they lost themselves in a mountain barrier, the .Appalachians, which ex- tended parallel to the seashore as far south as Georgia. The waters of the St. Lawrence cut this barrier in the north, but it v.as early found that this waterway, filled with rapids and frozen over for nearly half the year, was not all that could be desired as a key to the interior of the continent Nor was the Mississippi a much more satisfactory route inland, since hidden shoals rendered its as- cent so difficult that navigation of its waters could be easily accomplished only southward with the current. Confronted bv these conditions, the Eu- ropean settlers quite naturally contented themselves at first with the coast. They did nut explore the passes over the mountains to the west till almost a century after their first settlement, and they did not push through these barriers in any con- siderable numbers for another half century. . . . Fortunately the Europeans found the struggle for existence in .America comparatively easy. The .At- lantic Ocean, from Newfoundland to Cape Cod, contained an abundance of .sea food, particularly the valuable codfish and mackerel, which were highly esteemed as early as the days of Columbus and have constituted the basis of a valuable in- dustry down to the present time. On land the fertile soil responded quickly to the efforts of the husbandmen. .As has been well said, raising their own food has seldom been a serious problem for the settlers in virgin .America. Over and above its own needs, the country has usually been able to furnish a surplus for consumption abroad. Supplies of game, such as deer, elk. wild geese, and turkeys, abounded. The forests, extending as far west as the plains of the interior, furnished an abundance of lumber; and everywhere, in forests, streams, and plains, the beaver, otter, sable, badger, buffalo, deer, and other fur-bearing animals yielded rich returns to the fur trader. The vast mineral resources of gold, silver, copper, coal, iron, and petroleum, though not yielding up their treasure to the early settlers, have added immensely to the wealth of the countr\-, as fnmi time to lime 246 AMERICA Prehistoric Period AMERICA the secret of their existence has been wrested from nature. "The vastness of the new continent surprised the Europeans. Both North America, with 8,000,000 square miles, and South America, with 6,800,000 square miles, are larger than Europe, which totals only 3,700,000 square miles. Exclusive of the island possessions, the present area of the United States, 3,600,000 square miles, is almost as large as the whole of Europe." — E. D. Fife, History of the United Stales, pp. 26-28. Name. See below: 1500-1514. Aboriginal inhabitants. See Indians, A\rER- ican; Mythology: Primitive mytholoKy; also un- der the names of the tribes, and under countries, e.g., Mexico: Aboriginal inhabitants, etc. the theme of many an essay on the wonders of ancient civilization. The research of the past years has put this subject in a proper light. First, the annals of the Columbian epoch have been care- fully studied, and it is found that some of the mounds have been constructed in historical time, while early explorers and settlers found many ac- tually used by tribes of North American Indians; so we know that many of them were builders of mounds. Again, hundreds and thousands of these mourfds have been carefully examined, and the works of art found therein have been collected and assembled in museums. At the same time, the works of art of the Indian tribes, as they were produced before modilication by European culture, have been assembled in the same museums, and Photogrftph. Department at Interior CLIFF DVVF.r.LINGS IN MESA VFROE N.^TIO.N.M. P.VRK. COI.OK.\DO Oldest signs of human habitations in America Prehistoric. — "Widely scattered throughout the United States, from sea to sea, artificial mounds are discovered, which may be enumerated by the thousands or hundreds of thousands. They vary greatly in size; some are so small that a half- dozen laborers with shovels might construct one of them in a day, while others cover acres and are scores of feet in height. These mounds were observed by the earliest explorers and pioneers of the country. They did not attract great at- tention, however, until the science of archaeology demanded their investigation. Then they were as- sumed to furnish evidence of a race of people older than the Indian tribes. Pseud-archa^ologists descanted on the Mound-builders that once inhab- ited the land, and they told of swarming popula- tions who had reached a high condition of culture, erecting temples, practicing arts in the metals, and using hieroglyphs. So the Mound-builders formed the two classes of collections have been carefully compared. All this has been done with the great- est painstaking, and the Mound-builder's arts and the Indian's arts are found to be substantially identical. No fragment of evidence remains to support the figment of theory that there was an ancient race of Mound-builders superior in culture to the North American Indians. . . . That some of these mounds were built and used in modern times is proved in another way. They often con- tain articles manifestly made by white men, such as glass beads and copper ornaments. ... So it chances that to-day unskilled archa;ologists are collecting many beautiful things in copper, stone, and .shell which were made by white men and traded to the Indians. Nov,;, some of these things are found in (he mounds; and bird pipes, elephant pipes, banner stones, copper spear heads and knives, and machine-made wampum are collected 247 AMERICA Prehistoric Period Arvheological Research AMERICA in quantities and sold at high prices to wealthy amateurs. . . . The study of these mounds, his- torically and archaeologically, proves that they were used for a variety of purposes. Some were for sepulture, and such are the most common and widely scattered. Others were used as artilicial hills on which to build communal houses. . . . Some of the very large mounds were sites of large communal houses in which entire tribes dwelt. There is still a third class . . . constructed as places for public assembly. . . . But to explain the mounds and their uses would expand this article into a book. It is enough to say that the Mound- builders were the Indian tribes discovered by white men. It may well be that some of the mounds were erected by tribes extinct when Columbus first saw these shores, but they were kindred in cul- ture to the peoples that still existed. In the south- western portion of the United States, conditions of aridity prevail. Forests are few and are found only at great heights. . . . The tribes lived in the plains and valleys below, while the highlands were their hunting grounds. The arid lands below were often naked of vegetation ; and the ledges and cliffs that stand athwart the lands, and the canyon walls that inclose the streams, were everywhere quarries of loose rock, lying in blocks ready to the builder's hand. Hence these people learned to build their dwellings of stone; and they had large communal houses, even larger than the structures of wood made by the tribes of the east and north. Many of these stone pueblos are stiJl occupied, but the ruins are scattered wide over a region of country embracing a little of California and Ne- vada, much of Utah, most of Colorado, the whole of New Mexico and Arizona, and far southward toward the Isthmus. . . . No ruin has been dis- covered where evidences of a higher culture are found than exists in modern times at Zuni, Oraibi, or Laguna. The earliest may have been built thousands of years ago, but they were built by the ancestors of existing tribes and their congeners. .\ careful study of these ruins, made during the last twenty years, abundantly demonstrates that the pueblo culture began with rude structures of stone and brush, and gradually developed, until at the time of the exploration of the country by the Spaniards, beginning about 1540, it had reached its highest phase. Zuni [in New Mexico] has been built since, and it is among the largest and best villages ever established within the territory of the United States without the aid of ideas de- rived from civilized men." With regard to the ruins of dwellings found sheltered in the craters of extinct volcanoes, or on the shelves of cliffs, or otherwise contrived, the conclusion to which all recent archsological study tends -is the same "All the stone pueblo ruins, all the clay ruins, all the cliff dwelUngs, all the crater villages, all the cavate chambers, and all the tufa-block houses are fully accounted for without resort to hypothetical peoples inhabiting the country anterior to the Indian tribes. . . . Pre-Columbian culture was in- digenous; it began at the lowest stage of savag- ery and developed to the highest, and was in many places passing into barbarism when the good queen sold her jewels." — J. W. Powell, Prehistoric man in America (.Forum, Jan., iSgo). — "The writer believes . . . that the majority of American archaeolo- gists now sees no sufficient reason for supposing that any mysterious superior race has ever lived in any portion of our continent. They find no archzeological evidence proving that at the time of its discovery any tribe had reached a stage of culture that can properly be called civilization Fven if we accept the exaggerated statements of the Spanish conquerors, the most intelligent and advanced peoples found here were only semi-bar- barians, in the stage of transition from the stone to the bronze age, possessing no written language, or what can properly be styled an alphabet, and not yet having even learned the use of beasts of burden." — H. W. Haynes, Prehistoric archaeology of North America {Narrative and Critical History of America, v. i, ch. 6). — "It may be premised . . . that the Spanish adventurers who thronged to the New World after its discovery found the same race of Red Indians in the West India Islands, in Central and South America, in Florida and in Mexico. In their mode of life and means of sub- sistence, in their weapons, arts, usages and customs, in their institutions, and in their mental and physi- cal characteristics, they were the same people in different stages of advancement. . . . There was neither a political society, nor a state, nor any civiUzation in America when it was disco%'ered; and, excluding the Eskimos, but one race of In- dians, the Red Race." — L. H. Morgan, Houses and house-life of the American aborigines {Contribu- tions to North American Ethnology, v. 4, ch. 10). — "We have in this country the conclusive evi- dence of the existence of man before the time of the glaciers, and from the primitive conditions of that time, he has lived here and developed, through stages which correspond in many particulars to the Homeric age of Greece." — F. W. Putnam, Re- port Peabody Museum of Archaeology, 1886. "In recent years archeologists have uncovered a number of interesting ancient Indian villages in the southwestern part of the United States where the four states of Arizona, Utah, Colorado and New Mexico corner. It is a collection of remark- able ruins called Mummy Lake Village, so named from a mummy pit found there. It contains a strange three-story house 113 feet long and no feet wide; a large front court is inclosed with a stone wall. The house had more than 100 rooms. In one of these southwestern villages an ancient fire-place was found and a grinding mill with the grinding stones still in their original position. Aztec Spring City is another interesting place. It extends over 15 acres and the stone wall built into it is estimated to contain 2,000,000 cubic feet It seems queer that the stones had to be carried from a distance. This village has been dug into considerably by grave robbers. At Goodman Point Village there was a large building in the center, apparently a community house, and similar structures around it. \ community spring fur- nished water for the villagers. The National Geographic Society through the Yale University Expedition to Peru in 1915 resulted in making known to the world the marvelous civilization of the early Peruvian Indians. Megalithic or big stone people were probably the ancestors of the modern Quichuas, a tribe of the Incas whom the Spaniards conquered. It is clear that there were settled agri- cultural communities centuries before America was discovered by Columbus. These .Aborigines had tillage agriculture, used fertilizer, and irrigated arid regions. They also built terraces with large stones carefully fitted together behind which soil, brought from a distance, was placed for the growing of crops. River courses were straightened and this valley land was reclaimed for agriculture. The Peruvian Indians placed more importance on the raising of crops than on the tombs of the dead. Their agricultural terraces show finer workman- ship than their dwellings. Early Spanish historians tell us that they had special gardens for raising po- tatoes for the royal household. Among the crops of the ancient Peruvians were the sweet potato. 248 AMERICA Prehistoric Connections with Africa and Asia AMERICA I he potato, the tomato and Indian coin. When we think of the importance of the potato as an ar- ticle of food today we can see that the real treas- ure of the Incas was not their gold but their agriculture. In the masonry of these Staircase Farms are some joints so delicate as to be invisible to the naked eye, indicating the finest craftsman- ship." — O. F. Cook, Staircase farms of the ancients {National Geographic Magazine, May, iqi6). Also in: L. Carr, Mounds of the Mississippi Val- ley. — C. Thomas, Burial mounds of the northern sections of the United States: Annual report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1883-1884.— Marquis de Na- daillac, Prehistoric American. — J. Fiske, Discovery of America, ch. i. — J. W. Fewkes, Bureau of American Ethnology. Bulletin 51. — Indian mound groups and village sites about Madison (.American Antiquarian, v. 33, Oct., 240-241). — W. P» Lewis, Published facts relating to early man in North America (Archceological Bulletin 2, Sept., pp. 102-106). — K. Sumner, Cave and cliff -dwellings of the Southwest (Ameri<-ana, v. 6, .iug., pp. 738-743). — E. S. Curtis, North American Indian, VI, VII. — A. W. Ivins, Record keeping among the Aztecs (Utah General and Historical Magazine, v. 2, April, pp. go-92), — J. C. Morton, Vanishing race (Ohio Archwological and Historical Publication, v. 2, January, pp. 48-56). — C, Wissler, Research and exploration among the Indians of the northern plains (American Museum Journal, v. 11, April, pp. 126-127). Theory of a land bridge from Africa. — Read- ers conversant with various theories of the origin of the American Indians and their culture will recognize immediately the significance of the hy- pothesis of a land bridge between America and Africa in pre-historic times. The idea is not new but it has been given a new interest because its defense has been taken up recently by M. Joleaud. The existence of such a land bridge extending in recent geologic times from the West Indies to Morocco, would explain most of the heretofore inexplicable similarities between Aztec and Inca civilization on the one hand, and Egyptian civiliza- tion on the other. This theory has also been sponsored recently by Professor Leo Wiener of Harvard, in a work entitled Africa and the discov- ery of America. Professor Wiener induces the aid of philology and archaeology to prove that African negroes, mainly from the neighborhood of the river Niger, crossed the Atlantic and settled in America long before the arrival of Columbus. He claims that many Indian words quoted by Columbus are in reality of African origin ; and that the habit of smoking, and the cultivation of certain plants, were practiced by Africans before they were taken up by American Indians. Theory of a cultural wave across Asia. — An- other theory of the origin of ancient civilization in America was presented by Mr. G Elliot Smith in Science, August 11, iqi6. He holds that the dis- tinguishing characteristics of American cultures, such as the mummifying of the dead, the use of irrigation canals and pyramidal structures, come from the ancient civilization of Egypt through a 'great cultural wave.' He believes that this cul- tural wave passed from the valley of the Nile by way of Assyria into India, Korea, Siberia, the Pa- cific islands and America. He thinks it started about 900 B. C. He says: — "In the whole range of ethnological discussion perhaps no theme has evoked livelier controversies and excited more widespread interest than the problems involved in the mysteries of the wonderful civilization that re- vealed itself to the astonished Spaniards on their first arrival in America. During the last century, which can be regarded as covering the whole peri- od of scientific investigation in anthropology, the opinions of those who have devoted attention to such inquiries have undergone the strangest fluc- tuations. If one delves into the anthropological journals of forty or fifty years ago they will be found to abound in careful studies on the part of many of the leading ethnologists of the time, demonstrating, apparently in a convincing and un- questionable manner, the spread of curious cus- toms or beliefs from the Old World to the New. Then an element of doubt began to creep into the attitude of many ethnologists, which gradually stiffened until it set into the rigid dogma — there is no other term for it — that as the result of 'the similarity of the working of the human mind' similar needs and like circumstances will lead vari- ous isolated groups of men in a similar phase of culture independently one of the other to invent similar arts and crafts, and to evolve identical be- liefs. The modern generation of ethnologists has thoughtlessly seized hold of this creed and usefl it as a soporific drug against the need for mental exertion. For when any cultural resemblance is discovered there is no incentive on the part of those whose faculties have been so lulled to sleep to seek for an explanation ; all that is necessary is to murmur the incantation and bow the knee to a fetish certainly no less puerile and unsatisfy- ing than that of an African negro. It does not seem to occur to most modern ethnologists that the whole teaching of history is fatal to the idea of inventions being made independently. Origi- nality is one of the rarest manifestations of human faculty. . . . From Indonesia the whole eastern Asiatic littoral and all the neighboring islands were stirred by the new ideas; and civilizations bearing the distinctive marks of the culture-complex which I have traced from Egypt sprang up in Cochin- China, Corea, Japan and eventually in all the islands of the Pacific and the western coast of America. The proof of the reality of this great migration of culture is provided not merely by the identical geographical distribution of a very extensive series of curiously distinctive, and often utterly bizarre, customs and beliefs, the precise dates and circumstances of the origin of which are known in their parent countries; but the fact that these strange ingredients are compounded in a definite and highly complex manner to form an artificial cultural structure, which no theory of independent evolution can possibly explain, be- cause chance played so large a part in building it up in its original home. For instance, it is quite conceivable (though I believe utterly opposed to the evidence at our disposal) that different people might, independently the one of the other, have in- vented the practises of mummification, building megaUthic monuments, circumcision, tattooing and terraced irrigation ; evolved the stories of the petri- fication of human beings, the strange adventures of the dead in the underworld, and the divine ori- gin of kings; and adopted sun-worship. But why should the people of America and Egypt who built megalithic monuments build them in accord- ance with very definite plans compounded of Egyptian, Babylonian, Indian and East Asiatic models? And why should the same people who did so also have their wives' chins tattooed, their sons circumcised, their dead mummified? Or why should it be the same people who worshiped the sun and adopted the curiously artificial winged- sun-and-serpent symbolism, who practised terraced irrigation in precisely the same way, who made idols and held similai beliefs regarding them, who had identical stories of the wanderings of the dead 249 Prehistoric Connections AMERICA AMERICA ^jffj Africa and Asia cthnoRraphy of their country have called forth the adoration of all anthropologists, seriously to re- consider the significance of the data they are amass- '"objection was urged to this theory by Mr. Philip Ainsworth Means in Saaicc Oc( 13. ig'^ He says: "This theory is important. But there are several serious objections to 1 . (O " Mf Elliot Smith is right in thinking that the Ameri- can aborigines in Mexico, Peru, etc., "sed py- ramidal structures, numerous irrigation systems, and manv customs closely resembling those of the ancient Egyptians because their culture was really an offshoot of the Egyptian culture how can it be explained that in all pre-Columbian America there was no such thing as a wheeled vehicle i- Chariots of various sorts were much used in an- cient Egvpt, as well as in the intervening areas, vet there is not a shred of evidence to prove that the Indians of America ever knew anything even remotely resembling them. Had the founders o \merican culture come from an area where wheclecl vehicles were known, is it not inevitable that they would have made use of such vehicles during then- long journcv? Does it not seem that wheeled vehicles would be more useful to them than pyr- amids, and that therefore they would have been remembered first on the arrival of the wanderers in their new land? It is difficult to be leve that the American aborigines were the cultural descend- ants of a wheel-using people, for wheels, being essentially useful, would inevitably have Persisted as a feature of their material culture, had that been the case. (2.) In a like manner, one is puzzled bv a lack of any ships or vessels of ad- vanced type among the .\merican Indians. Even in Mexico, Yucatan and Peru, where civilization was. in other respects, of a well-advanced type, there were no really complicated vessels before th" coming of the Spaniards. On the coast of Ecuador there was found the most elaborate type of boa known to the Indian race. It consisted of a raft of light wood with a flimsy platform on which stood a rude shelter A simple sail, sometimes even two, was used. Large canoes with sails were also used in Yucatan Not one of these however is'worthv to be compared with even the earlies and simplest ships used in Egypt It is known, of course, that boat-building reached very early a high development in Babylonia, India and China, through all of which the 'cultural wave is said to have passed (3 ) Finally, the date B. C. Qoo is altogether too late for the beginning of the alleged migration of cultures If this migration took place at all, it must have left Egypt much earlier than this for we have the Tuxtla statuette (dated about B C 100) to prove that even before the conv mencement of our era the Maya calendar had already gone through its long preliminary stages and was already in existence in P^^etica lly its final form. No doubt every one will admit that fhe period B. C ooo-.oc is entirely too short for a 'great cultural wave' to roll from Egypt to America. The year B. C. 1500 is much more likely to be the date needed. In conclusion, the present writer admits that, despite the three ob- jections here noted (and several others , the e s a large amount of seemingly ^"""borative evi- dence that tends to support the views « M/ ^ ''^ Smith It will, however, be a long time before American anthropologists will be forced to accept thTse views as final, and many tests, based on physical anthropology, history, archeology, etc win have to be successfully applied be ore the Egyptian source of American civilization is finally proved" in the underworld? If any theory of evolution of customs and beliefs is adequate to explain the independent origin of each item in the extensive repertoire, either of the New Empire Egyptian o the Pre-Columbian American civilization (which 1 deny) it is utterly inconceivable that the fortui- tous combination of hundreds °\f'"^y Z.°7Zc ous and fantastic elements could possibly have happened twice. It is idle to deny the complete- n sTof the demonstration which the existence e such a civilization in America supplies of the fact that it was derived from the late New Empire Egyptian civilization, modified by Ethiopian, Mediterranean, West Asiatic, Indian mdone^^n. East Asiatic and Polynesian influences. The com Plate overthrow of all '^e objections a gen- eral nature to the recognition of the facts has already been ex|)lained. There is nothing to hinder one, therefore, 'from accepting the obvious signift- can^e of the evidence. Moreover every ink m this chain of connections is admitted by inycsAi- gators of localized areas along the great migra- ?ion route, even by those who most s renuous^ deny the more extensive migrations of evilturc^ Ihe connections of the New E-^P'^-:. •^•^V ""' w\th Soudan and with Syria and its relat ons with Babylonia; the intercourse betwxen the latter and India in the eighth and seventh centuries B. C , the migrations of culture from India to Indonesia and To the farthest limits of Polynesia-all these are well authenticated and generally admitted 111 that I claim, then, is that the mfluence o Egypt was handed on from place to place; that (he links which all ethnologists recognize as gen- uine bonds of union can with equal certamty be joined up into a cultural chain uniting Egypt to Cerica In almost every one of the ocal point along this great migration route the folk-lore ot ?o day has preserved legends of the culture^heroes who 'introduced some one or other of the ele- ments of this peculiarly distinctive civilization Those familiar with the literature of ethnology must be acquainted with hundreds of scraps of corroborative evidence testifying to the reality of the spread postulated. For I have mentioned only a small part of the extraordinary cargo of bizarre practises and beliefs with which these ancient mariners (carrying of course their characterise ideas of naval construction and craftsmanship) set out from the African coast more than twenty-tive centuries ago on the great expedition which e-en- tuallv led their successors some centuries later to the New World At every spot where they touched and tarried, whether on the coasts of Asia the islands of the Pacific or on the continent of Amer^ ica, the new culture took root and flourished in its own distinctive manner, as it was subjected to the influence of the aborigines or to that ot later comers of other ideas and traditions ; and each place became a fresh focus from which the new knowledge continued to radiate for long a;es after the primary inoculation. The first great cultural wave (or the series of waves of whicti it was composed) continued to flow for several centuries It must have begun some time after B C QOO because the initial equipment of the great wanderers included practises which were not in- vented in Egypt until that time. The last of the series of ripples in the creat wave set out from India just after the practise of cremation made its appearance there, for at the end of the series the custom of incinerating the dead made its ap- pearance in Indonesia, Polynesia,- Mexico and else- where . I wish especially to appeal to that band of American ethnolocists, whose devo ed labors in rescuini: the information concernmg the 250 AMERICA Discoveries of the Northmen AMERICA In a rejoinder to Mr. Means, Mr. Smith writes in Science, March g, 1917. — "It is signilkant that, when citing six memoirs relating to shippnig, some of them quite irrelevant, Mr. Means should have omitted all reference to the writings of Paris, Pitt- Rivers, Assmann and Friederici, where he will fmd the evidence he imagines to be non-existent. But does the argument from ships really help his case ? Where is the 'similarity of the workin.; of the human mind' if the highly civiUzed people of Peru and Mexico hadn't sufficient of what Dr. Goldcnweiser calls 'happy thoughts' to accomplish more in the way of ship-building? Is not this paucity of ship- ping merely a token of the remoteness of America from the home of its invention? The fact that the culture-bearers who first crossed the Pacific by the Polynesian route were searching for pearls and precious metals is surely a sufficient explana- tion of their desertion of the sea once they reached the American eldoradn. Another of Mr. Means's difficulties I fail to understand. Why was eight centuries too brief a time for a ship to have made its way from the Red Sea to America? Before the introduction of steam-ships what was to prevent a vessel doing the journey as quickly in the eighth century B. C. as in the eighth, or perhaps even the eighteenth, A. D.? There are reasons, given in de- tail by Aymonier and others, for believing that western culture had already made its influence felt in Cambodia before the close of the seventh cen- tury B. C. ; Indonesia and even Japan received the leaven at the same time; and it can hardly be in doubt that the ancient mariners did not limit their easterly wanderings to Indonesia, but pushed out into the Pacific, and soon afterwards crossed it to America. The remaining difficulty which is holding Mr. Means back is that the Pre-Columbian Americans did not use wheeled vehicles. Seeing that the whole of the migration, which I have described as extending from the Red Sea to Amer- ica, consisted of a series of maritime expeditions, it is not altogether clear what Mr. Means is re- ferring to when he asks; 'Is it not inevitable that they would have made use of such vehicles during their long journey?' .At the time the great cultural movement took place it is quite likely that none of the wanderers had ever seen, or even perhaps heard of, a wheeled vehicle. Even if, on some rare occasion of state, in Egypt or one of the Asiatic monarchies, they had seen the king drive in a chariot, was that an adequate reason why these sailors, when, after many years of adventure, they at last reached the American coast, teeming with the spoils they coveted, should have remembered the chariot, and at once set to work to build carts and train llamas to draw them? Surely the utter improbability of this whittles down Mr. Means's difficulty to the vanishing point. Or alternatively, if there is any substance in the 'psychic unity' hypothesis, why didn't the Americans get a 'happy thought' and invent 'so simpfe and obvious a de- vice' as a wheeled vehicle?" lOth-llth centuries. — Supposed discoveries by the Northmen. — "The fact that the Northmen knew of the existence of the Western Continent prior to the age of Columbus, was prominently brought before the people of this country in the year 18.^7, when the Royal Society of Northern Antiquaries at Copenhagen published their work on the Antiquities of North America, under the editorial supervision of the great Icelandic scholar. Professor Rafn. But we are not to suppose that the first general account of these voyages was then given, for it has always been known that the his- tory of certain early voyages to America by the Northmen were preserved in the libraries of Den- mark and Iceland. . . . Vet, owing to the fact that the Icelandic language, though simple in construc- tion and easy of acquisition, was a tongue not un- derstood by scholars, the subject has until recent years been suffered to lie in the background, and permitted, through a want of interest, to share in a measure the treatment meted out to vague and uncertain reports. ... It now remains to give the reader some general account of the contents of the narratives which relate more or less to the dis- covery of the western continent. . . . The first extracts given are very brief. They are taken from the 'Landanama Book,' and relate to the report in general circulation, which indicated one Guinni- born as the discoverer of Greenland, an event which has been fixed at the year 876. . . . The next narrative relates to the rediscovery of Green- land by the outlaw, Eric the Red, in qS.j, who there passed three jcars in exile, and afterwards returned to Icelanci. About the year q86, he brought out to Greenland a considerable colony of settlers, who fixed their abode at Brattahlid, in Ericsfiord. Then follow two versions of the voyage of Biarne Heriulfson, who, in the same year, q86, when sailing for Greenland, was driven away during a storm, and saw a new land at the southward, which he did not visit. Next is given three accounts of the voyage of Leif, son of Eric the Red, who in the year 1000 sailed from Brat- tahlid to find the land which Biarne saw. Two of these accounts are hardly more than notices of the voyage, but the third is of considerable length, and details the successes of Leif, who found and ex- plored this new land, where he spent the winter, returning to Greenland the following spring [hav- ing named different regions which he visited Hellu- land, Markland and Vinland, the latter name in- dicative of the finding of grapes.) After this follows the voyage of Thorvald Ericson, brother of Leif, who sailed to Vinland from Greenland, which was the point of departure in all these voyages. This expedition was begun in 100:, and it cost him his life, as an arrow from one of the natives pierced his side, causing death Thorstein, his brother, went to seek Vinland, with the inten- tion of bringing home his body, but failed in the attempt. The most distinguished explorer was Thorfinn Karlsefne, the Hopeful, an Icelander whose genealogy runs bark in the old Northern annals, through Danish, Swedish, and even Scotch and Irish ancestors, some of whom were of ro\al blood. In the year 1006 he went to Greenland, where ho met Gudrid, widow of Thorstein, whom he married. Accompanied by his wife, who urged him to the undertaking, he sailed to Vinland in the spring of 1007, with three vessels and 160 men, where he remained three years. Here his son Snorre was born. He afterwards became the founder of a great family in Iceland, which gave the island several of its first bishops. Thorfinn finally left Vinland because he found it difficult to sustain himself against the attacks of the na- tives. The next to undertake a voyage was a wicked woman named Freydis, a sister to Leif Ericson, who went to Vinland in ion, where she lived for a time with her two ships, in the same places occupied by Leif and Thorfinn. Before she returned, she caused the crew of one ship to be cruelly murdered, assisting in the butchery with her own hands. After this we have what are called the Minor Narratives, which are not essen- tial." — B. F. De Costa, Pre-Columbian discovery of America, general introduction. — "By those who accept fully the claims made for the Northmen, as discoverers of the .American continent in the voyages believed to be authentically narrated in ^Si AMERICA Search for Trade Routes AMERICA these sagas, the Helluland of Leif is commonly iden- tified with Newfoundland, Markland with Nova Scotia, and Vinland with various parts of New England. Massachusetts bay, Cape Cod, Nantucket island, Martha's Vineyard, Buzzards bay, Narra- gansett bay. Mount Hope bay. Long Island sound, and New York bay are among the localities sup- posed to be recognized in the Norse narratives, or marked by some traces of the presence of the Vi- king explorers. Prof. Gustav Storm, the most re- cent of the Scandinavian investigators of this sub- ject, finds the Helluland of the sagas in Labrador or Northern Newfoundland, Markland in New- foundland, and Vinland in Nova Scotia and Cape Breton island." — G. Storm, Studies of the Vine- land voyages. — "The only discredit which has been thrown upon the story of the Vinland voyages, in the eyes either of scholars or of the general public, has arisen from the eager credulity with which ingenious antiquarians have now and then tried to prove more than facts will warrant. . . . Arch^ological remains of the Northmen abound in Greenland, all the way from Imraartinek to near Cape Farewell; the existence of one such relic on the North .American continent has never yet been proved. Not a single vestige of the North- men's presence here, at all worthy of credence, has ever been found. . . . The most convincing proof that the Northmen never founded a colony in America, south of Davis Strait, is furnished by the total absence of horses, cattle and other domes- tic animals from the soil of North America until they were brouchf hither by the Spanish, French and English settlers" — J. Fiske, Discovery of America, ch. 2. — "What Leif and Karlsefne knew they experienced," writes Prof. Justin Winsor, "and what the sagas tell us they underwent, must have just the difference between a crisp narrative of personal adventure and the oft-repeated and embellished story of a fireside narrator, since the traditions of the Norse voyages were not put in the shape of records till about two centuries had elapsed, and we have no earlier manuscript of such a record than one made nearly two hundred years later still. ... .A blending of history and myth prompts Horn to say that 'some of the sagas were doubtless oricinally based on facts, but the telling and retelling have changed them into pure myths.' The un.sympathetic stranger sees this in stories that the patriotic Sandinavians are over-anxious t.j make appear as genuine chronicles. . . . The weight of probability is in favor of a Northman descent upon the coast of the American mainland at some point, or at several, somewhere to the south of Greenland; but the evidence is hardly that which attaches to well established historical records. . . . There is not a 'single item of all the evidence thus advanced from time to time which can be said to connect by archa>ological traces the presence of the Northmen on the soil of North .\merica south of Davis' Strait?" Of other imagined pre-Columban discoveries of .American, by the Welsh, by the .Arabs, by the Basques. &-c., the possibilities and probabilities are critically dis- cussed by Professor Winsor in the same connection. — J. Winsor, Narrative and critical history of America, v. i, cli. 2, and Critical notes to the same. — See also below: 1404. Also in: Bryant and Gay, Popular history of the United States, ch. 3.— E. F. Slafter. ed. Voy- ages of the Northmen to .America (Prince So- ciety, 1877). — E. F. Slafter, Discovery of America by the Northmen (New Hampshire Historical Society, t888). — N. L. Beamish, Discovery of America by the Northmen. — .A. J. Weise, Dis- coveries of America, ch, i. — O. Mossmiiller, Erik the Red, Leif the Lucky, and other pre-Columbian discoveries of America, translated Irom the German by P. Upton. — F. Nanscn, in northern mists; Arctic exploration in early times. — T. S. Lonergan, Was iit. Brendan .-Imerica's first discoverer f (Ameri- cana, V. 0, Oct., pp. 953-964). — B. L. Wick, Did the Norsemen erect the Newport round towerl — C. K. Adams, Recent discoveries concerning Columbus (Report American Historical Association gi, pp. 4, 89-99) ■ — W. E. Curtis, E.xisting autographs, v. 94, pp. 445-451. — J. B. Thacher, Christopher Colum- bus, his life, his work, his remains. — E. G. Bourne, Spain in .America. — J. Winsor, Christopher Colum- bus (1892).— R. H. Major, Select letters of Co- lumbus (2nd ed., 1890). — C. R. Markham, Life of Christopher Columbus. — H. Latane, America as a world power, p. 16. 15th century. — Need of new trade routes. — "During this period the city republics of Italy were losing their prosperity, their wealth, their enter- prise, and their vigor. This was due, as a matter of fact, to a variety of causes, internal and ex- ternal, political and economic; but the sufferings in the wars with the Turks and the adverse con- ditions of the Levant trade on which their prosper- ity primarily rested were far the most important causes of their decline. Thus the demand of European markets for Eastern luxuries could no longer be met satisfactorily by the old methods; yet that demand was no less than it had been, and the characteristic products of the East were still sought for in all the market-places of Eu- rope. Indeed, the demand was increasing. As Europe in the fifteenth century became more wealthy and more familiar with the products o' the whole world, as the nobles learned to demanc. more luxuries, and a wealthy merchant class grew up which was able to gratify the same tastes as the nobles, the demand of the West upon the East became more insistent than ever. Therefore, the men, the nation, the government that could find a new way to the East might claim a trade of indefinite extent and extreme profit. This is the explanation of that eager search for new routes to the Indies which lay .at the back of so many voyages of discovery of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Southward along the co.ast of .Africa, in the hope that that continent could be rounded to the southeast ; northward along the coast of Eu- rope in search of a northeast passage; westward relying on the sphericity of the earth, and hoping that the distance from the west coast of Europe to the east coast of Asia would prove not to be interminable ; after .America was reached, again northward and southward to round and pass be- yond that barrier, and thus reach .Asia — such was the progress of geographical exploration for a century and a half, during which men gradually became familiar with a great part of the earth's surface. .A study of the history of trade-routes corroborates the fact disclosed by many other lines of study — that the discovery of America was no isolated phenomenon: it was simply one step in the development of the world's history. Changes in the e.astern Mediterranean led men to turn their eyes in other directions looking for other sea routes to the East When they had done so, alone with much else that was new, .America was dis- closed to their vision . . . but the diversion of commercial interest was only a part: the restless energies of the Latin races of southern Europe turned into a new channel; search for trade led to discovery, discovery to exploration, explora- tion to permanent settlement : and settlement to the creation of a new centre of commercial and political interest, and eventually to the rise of 252 AMERICA, 1484-1492 First Voyage of Columbus AMERICA, 1492 a new nation." — E. P. Cheyney, European back- ground of American history, 1300-1600, pp. 38-40. — See also Commerce: Era of geographic expan- sion: 15th. 17th centuries: Spanish enterprise. 1484-1492. — Great project of Columbus, and the sources of its inspiration. — Seven years' suit at the Spanish court. — Departure from Palos. — ".\\\ attempts to diminish the glory of Columbus' Lichievement by proving a previous discovery whose results were known to him have signally failed. . . . Columbus originated no new theory respecting the earth's form or size, though a pop- ular idea has always prevailed, notwithstanding the statements of the best writers to the contrary, that he is entitled to the glory of the theory as well as to that of the execution of the project. He was not in advance of his age, entertained no new theories, believed no more than did Prince Henry, his predecessor, or Toscanclli, his contemporary; nor was he the first to conceive the possibility of reaching the east by sailing west. He was however the first to act in acordance with existing beliefs. The Northmen in their voyages had entertained no ideas of a New World, or of an Asia to the West. To knowledge of theoretical geography, Columbus added the skill of a practical navigator, and the iron will to overcome obstacles. He sailed west, reached Asia as he believed, and proved old theories correct. There seem to be two undecided points in that matter, neither of which can ever be settled. First, did his experience in the Portu- guese voyages, the perusal of some old author, or a hint from one of the few men acquainted with old traditions, first suggest to Columbus his proj- ect? .. . Second, to what extent did his voyage to the north [made in 1477, probably with an English merchantman from Bristol, in which voy- age he is believed to have visited Iceland] influ- ence his plan? There is no evidence, but a strong probability, that he heard in that voyage of the existence of land in the west. . . . Still, his visit to the north was in 1477, several years after the first formation of his plan, and any information gained at the time could only have been confirma- tory rather than suggestive." — H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific states, v. i, summary ap- pended to ch. I.— "Of the works of learned men, that which, according to Ferdinand Columbus, had most weight with his father, was the 'Cosmo- graphia' of Cardinal Aliaco. Columbus was also confirmed in his views of the existence of a west- ern passage to the Indies by Paulo Toscanelli, the Florentine philosopher, to whom much credit is due for the encouragement he afforded to the enter- prise. That the notices, however, of western lands were not such as to have much weight with other men, is sufficiently proved by the difficulty which Columbus had in contending with adverse geog- raphers and men of science in general, of whom he says he never was able to convince any one. .'\fter a new world had been discovered, many scattered indications v/ere then found to have foreshown it. One thing which cannot be denied to Columbus Is that he worked out his own idea himself. . . . He first applied himself to his countrymen, the Geno- ese, who would have nothing to say to his scheme. He then tried the Portuguese, who listened to what he had to say, but with bad faith sought to antici- pate him by sending out a caravel with instruc- tions founded upon his plan. . . . Columbus, dis- gusted at the treatment he had received from the Portuguese Court, quitted Lisbon, and. after visit- ing Genoa, as it appears, went to see wh.at favour he could meet with in Spain, arriving at Palos In the year 1485." The story of the long suit of Columbus at the court of Ferdinand and Isabella; of his discouragement and departure, with intent to go to France; of his recall by command of Queen Isabella; of the tedious hearings and negotiations that now took place; of the lofty demands ad- hered to by the confident Genoese, who required "to be made an admiral at once, to be appointed viceroy of the countries he should discover, and to have an eighth 01 the profits of the expedition;" of his second rebuff, his second departure for France, and second recall by Isabella, who finally put her heart into the enterprise and persuaded her more skeptical consort to assent to it — the story of those seven years of the struggle of Co- lumbus to obtain means for his voyage is familiar to all readers. "The agreement between Colum- bus and their Catholic highnesses was signed at Santa Fc on the 17th of April, 1492; and Colum- bus went to Palos to make preparation for his voyage, bearing with him an order that the two vessels which that city furnished annually to the crown for three months should be placed at his disposal. . . . The Pinzons, rich men and skilful mariners of Palos, joined in the undertaking, sub- scribing an eighth of the expenses; and thus, by these united exertions, three vessels were manned with 90 mariners, and provisioned for a year. At length all the preparations were complete, and on a Friday (not inauspicious in this case), the 3d of August, 1492, after they had all confessed and received the sacrament, they set sail from the bar of Saltes, making for the Canary Islands." — Sir A. Helps, Spanish conquest in America, bk. 2, ch. I. Also in: J. Winsor, Christopher Columbus, ch. 5-9, and 20. 1492. — First voyage of Columbus. — Discovery of the Bahamas, Cuba and Haiti. — The three vessels of Columbus were called the Santa Maria, the Pinta and the Nina. "All had forecastles and high poops, but the 'Santa Maria' was the only one that was decked amidships, and she was called a 'nao' or ship. The other two were caravelas, a class of small vessels built for speed. The 'Santa Maria,' as I gather from scattered notices in the letters of Columbus, was of 120 to 130 tons, like a modern coasting schooner, and she carried 70 men, much crowded. Her sails were a foresail and a foretop-sail, a sprit-sail, a main-sail with two bonnets, and maintop sail, a mizzen, and a boat's sail were occasionally hoisted on the poop. The 'Pinta' and 'Nifia' only had square sails on the foremast and lateen sails on the main and mizzen. The former was 50 tons, the latter 40 tons, with crews of 20 men each. On Friday, the 3d of August, the three little vessels left the haven of Palos, and this memorable voyage was commenced. . . . The expedition proceeded to the Canary Islands, where the rig of the 'Pinta' was altered. Her lateen sails were not adapted for running before the wind, and she was therefore fitted with square sails, like the 'Santa Maria.' Repairs were completed, the vessels were filled up with wood and water at Gomera, and the expedi- tion took its final departure from the island of Gomera, one of the Canaries, on September 6th, 1492. . . . Columbus had chosen his route most happily, and with that fortunate prevision which often waits upon genius. From Gomera, by a course a little south of west, he would run down the trades to the Bahama Islands. From the parallel of about 30'' N. nearly to the equator there is a zone of perpetual winds — namely, the north-east trade winds — always moving in the same direction, as steadily as the current of a river, except where they are turned aside by local causes, so that the ships of Columbus were 253 AMERICA, 1492 Second Voyage of Coliiml)H:i AMERICA, 1492 steadily carried to their destination by a law of nature which, in due time, revealed itself to that close observer of her secrets. The constancy of the wind was one cause of alarm among the crews, for they began to murmur that the pro- visions would all be exhausted if they had to beat against these unceasing winds on the return voyage. The next event which excited alarm among the pilot? was the discovery that the com- passes had more than a point of easterly varia- tion. . . . This was observed on the 17th of Sep- tember, and about 300 miles westward of the meridian of the Azores, when the ships had been eleven days at sea. Soon afterwards the voyagers found themselves surrounded by masses of sea- weed, in what is called the Sargasso Sea, and this again aroused their fears. They thought that the ships would get entangled in the beds of weed and was on the poop and saw a light. ... At two next morning, land was distinctly seen. . . . The island, called by the natives Guanahani, and by Columbus San Salvador, has now been ascer- tained to be VVatUng Island, one of the Bahamas, 14 miles long by 6 broad, with a brackish lake in the centre, 24° 10' 30" north latitude. . . . The difference of latitude between Gomera and VVat- ling Island is 235 miles. Course, W. s" S.; dis- tance 3,114 miles; average distance made good daily, 85'; voyage 35 days. . . . After discovering several smaller islands the fleet came in sight of Cuba on the 27th of October, and explored part of the northern coast. Columbus believed it to be Cipango, the island placed on the chart of Tos- canelli, between Europe and Asia. •. . . Crossing the channel between Cuba and St. Domingo [or Hayti], they anchored in the harbour of St. i..\\iiiN(; OF cm I'Mi'.i'S From the painting !»>■ \'anci<-rlyn become immovable, and that, the beds marked the limit of navigation. The cause of this accumu- lation is well known now. If bits of cork are put into a basin of water, and a circular motion given to it, all the corks will be found crowding to- gether towards the centre of the pool where there is the least motion. The .Atlantic Ocean is just such a basin, the Gulf Stream is the whirl, and the Sargasso Sea is in the centre. There Colum bus found it, and there it has remained to this day, moving up and down and changing its position ac- cording to seasons, storms and winds, but never altering its mean position. ... As day after day passed, and there was no sign of land, the crews became turbulent and mutinous. Columbus en- couraged them with hopes of reward, while he tnid them plainly that he had come to discover India, and that, with the help of God, he would [lersevere until he found it At length, on the nth of October, towards ten at night, Colimibus Nicholas Mole on December 4th. The natives came with presents and the country was enchanting. Columbus . . . named the island 'Espaiiola' lor Hispaniola] But with all this peaceful beauty around him he was on the eve of disaster." The Santa Maria was drifted by a strong current upon a sand bank and hopelessly wrecked. "It was now necessary to leave a small colony on the island. . . . .\ fort was built and named 'La Navi- dad,' 30 men remaining behind supplied with stores and provisions," and on Friday, Jan. 4, 1493, Columbus began his homeward voyage. Weather- ing a dangerous gale, which lasted several days, his little vessels reached the Azores Feb. 17. and arrived at Palos March 15, bearing their marvel- lous news. — C. R. Markham, Sea fathers, ch. 2. — The same. Life of Columbtta, ch. 5. — The state- ment above that the island of the Bahamas on which Columbus first landed, and which he called San Salvador, "has now been ascertained to be Wat- AMERICA, 1492 Papal Bnll AMERICA, 1493 ling Island" seems hardly justified. The question be- tween Watling island, San Salvador or Cat island, Samana, or Attwood's Cay, Mariguana, the Grand Turk, and others is still in dispute. Professor Justin Winsor says "the weight of modern testi- mony seems to favor Watling 's Island;" but at the same time he thinks it "probable that men will never quite agree which the Bahamas it was upon which these startled and exultant Europeans lirst stepped." — J. Winsor, CItrisloplier Colum- bus, ch. Q. — The same. Narrative and critical history of America, v. 2, ch. i, note B. — Professor John Fiske says: "All that can be positively asserted of Guanahani is that it was one of the Bahamas; there has been endless discussion as to which one, and the question is not easy to settle. Perhaps the theory of Captain Gustavus Fox, of the United States Navy, is on the whole best supported. Cap- tain Fox maintains that the true Guanahani was the little Island now known as Samana or Att- wood's Cay." — J. Fiske, Discovery of America, v. I, ch. S- Also in: U. S. Coast and geodetic survey, Rep., 1880, app. 18. 1492. — Discovery of the Virgin Islands. See Virgin Islands: Discovery and settlement. 1493. — Papal grant of the New World to Spain. — Demarcation of maritime and colonial domains of Spain and Portugal. — "Spain was at this time connected with the Pope about a most momentous matter. The Genoese, Cristoforo Co- lombo, arrived at the Spanish court in March, 1493, with the astounding news of the discovery of a new continent. . . . Ferdinand and Isabella thought it wise to secure a title to all that might ensue from their new discovery. The Pope, as Vicar of Christ, was held to have authority to dispose of lands inhabited by the heathen ; and by papal Bulls the discoveries of Portugal along the African coast had been secured. The Portu- guese showed signs of urging claims to the New World, as being already conveyed to them by the papal grants previously issued in their favour. To remove all cause of dispute, the Spanish mon- archs at once had recourse to Alexander VI., who issued two Bulls on May 4 and 5 [1493] to de- termine the respective rights of Spain and Portu- gal. In the first, the Pope granted to the Spanish monarchs and their heirs all lands discovered or hereafter to be discovered in the western ocean. In the second, he defined his grant to mean all lands that might be discovered west and south of an imaginary line, drawn from the North to the South Pole, at th^ distance of a hundred leagues westward of the Azores and Cape de Verd Islands. In the light of our present knowledge we are amazed at this simple means of disposing of a vast extent of the earth's surface." Under the Pope's stupendous patent, Spain was able to claim every part of the American Continent e.^cept the Brazilian coast. — M. Creighton, History of the Papacy: during the period of the Reformation, bk. 5, v. 3, ch. 6. "Perhaps there are, in the whole history of di- plomacy, no documents which have aroused more passionate discussions and given occasion to more divergent commentaries, than the bulls of Alexan- der VI. relating to the colonial expansion of Spain. Promulgated at a critical moment in the evolution of Europe, a moment marked by the rise of the modern states and a decline of the papacy, they belong to a period of political and religious transi- tion. If they have obtained so extraordinary a prominence, it is because of the mass of various and important events with which they were asso- ciated: the rapid enlargement of the geographical horizon, colonial expansion, religious propaganda, the foundation of international law, the trans- formation of the relations between Church and State. They have been published in the great diplomatic collections, and the chief of them (Inter caetera, May 4) is found in the Corpus of the Catholic canon law. It is nowise surprising that they have been considered from very different points of view: they have been of interest alike to geographers and to historians, to theologians, statesmen, and jurists, and the opinions expressed regarding them have varied with the different epochs, quite as much as with the different minds of those expressing them. To relate the history of the discussions occasioned by these documents would be to set forth comprehensively all the transformations of modern and contemporary his- toriography. Even to-day, despite the searching investigations to which these bulls have been sub- jected, despite the publication of a number of sources already considerable, opinions are much divided, and several problems, enigmas even, are still to be solved, with respect to their scope and meaning. In the first place what was the role of Alexander \'l. himself? Did he undertake a veri- table partition of the world? And did he do this in the capacity of an arbiter, of a supreme judge, of a guardian of the peace, or otherwise? Was he protecting the interests of the two leading colonial powers, or only those of one of them? What was, at the beginning, the importance of the line of demarcation, and who was its author? What force did the Spanish sovereigns and the princes of the period ascribe to the bulls in ques- tion ? The opinion which has long prevailed is that which regards Alexander VI. as an arbiter. This opinion was sustained especially by Hugo Grolius, and one of its principal upholders at the present time is L. Pastor. According to this au- thor, the pope, at the time of the conflict which arose between Spain and Portugal with respect to the lands discovered by Columbus, was in- vited to act as mediator; he decided in a peaceful manner a series of very thorny boundary ques- tions, and these decisions are to be regarded as one of the glories of the papacy. Another view, held by E. G. Bourne, S. E. Dawson, and H. Harrisse, is that Alexander VI. intervened in the conflict between Spain and Portugal, not as an arbiter, but as supreme judge of Christendom, or guardian of its peace. It is asserted that, at least in respect of certain dispositions appearing in the bulls, he took the initiative in order to prevent strife. Finally, an opinion completely differing from all the preceding has been expressed by E. Nys. He beHeves it possible to prove that the role of Alexander VI. was absolutely a nullity, his bulls containing neither an arbitral decision nor even an ascription of sovereignty. . . . ."Xt the moment when Columbus was undertaking the ex- ploration of the Atlantic, the Spanish sovereigns had renounced for the benefit of Portugal all colonial expansion 'beyond or on this side of the Canaries over against Guinea.' Sixtus IV. (1481) had confirmed this treaty as well as the bulls granted to the Portuguese by Nicholas V. and Calixtus III. The same pope had assured to the Portuguese the discoveries which should be made in Guinea and beyond in the direction of these 'southern regions,' sanctioning thus the bulls of his predecessors, notably that which Nicholas V. (1454) issued in consequence of the Portuguese discoveries 'in the Ocean Sea toward the regions lying southward and eastward ' Out in the At- lantic the maps of the period place the mysteri- ous island Antilia or Island of the Seven Cities. ^55 AMERICA, 1493 Papal Bull AMERICA, 1493 In 1475 and in i486 the King of Portugal had granted it, together with neighboring islands and lands, to F. Telles and to Dulrao respectively. He considered the 'Ocean Sea' as his domain, imagin- ing, as did all his contemporaries, that it lay chiefly in the equatorial zone. On the return from his first voyage Columbus, as is well known, landed in Port''gal. King John II., declaring that he had operated in 'the seas and limits of his lord- ship of Guinea,' had the discoverer brought be- fore him (about March 6, 1403) and Columbus declared to him that he was returning from 'Cy- pangu and Antilia,' islands which formed the ap- proaches to India. Shortly after, Peter Martyr, the Italian humanist, chaplain of Isabella, spoke of the 'western Antipodes' discovered by Chris- topher Columbus in contrast to the 'southern An- tipodes,' toward which the Portuguese navigators sailed. But it was believed that the chief trans- oceanic lands lay in the southern hemisphere, bal- ancing thus the Eurasian continent. Zurita, chron- icler of Aragon under Charles V. and Philip II., alludes to the fact that the ancients represented this southern world in the form of islands, large and small, separated by great distances. John II. went to Torres Vedras to pass Easter (.4pril 7). Two days before, he sent to the court of Spain the alcalde mayor of that town, Ruy de Sande, to ascertain whether Columbus intended to pur- sue his discoveries to the south, or would confine his enterprises to the west. But this envoy did not arrive till after the departure from Barcelona (April 22) of the Spanish ambassador charged to announce to the King of Portugal the discovery, on behalf of the Spanish sovereigns, of the islands and continents situated in the direction of the Indies. Ferdinand and Isabella had not waited till this time to obtain from the sovereign pontiff a monopoly of the discoveries and the right of commercial exploitation in the Oceanic Sea and in the islands of the Indies. As early as March 30, they had addressed their congratulations to Co- lumbus, 'Admiral of the Ocean Sea and viceroy and governor of the islands discovered in the In- dies.' They no doubt hastened to address to their agents or permanent ambassadors at the court of Rome the instructions necessary to enable the latter to assert title as soon as possible, over against the claims which would without question be asserted by the King of Portugal. The re- ception which the Curia would give to this de- mand could not fail to be most favorable. The many bonds which attached Alexander VI. to Spain during the first years of his pontificate are well known, as also the care with which he strove then to maintain them in spite of all sorts of dif- ficulties. Though he had not- lived long in his native country he had remained a true .Aragonese, and had constantly surrounded himself by compa- triots and by other Spaniards in the course of his cardinalate. ... An upholder of Spanish-Neapoli- tan policy during his cardinalate, Alexander VI. treated it with solicitude at the beginning of his pontificate, and was able to derive from his rela- tions with the Spanish sovereigns valuable ad- vantages for his family. As is well known, he sacrificed everything, both spiritual and temporal interests, to his children ; in the first place to Juan, whose 'fortunes and influence depended entirely upon the prosperity and strength of Spain. The death of Pedro Luis, duke of Gandia, had caused that duchy in 148S to pass to Juan, for whom the pope obtained the hand of Dona Maria En- riquez, fiancee of the deceased (August, 1403). Meanwhile, however, Alexander VI. allowed him- self to be drawn away by Cardinal .Ascanio, to whom he owed the tiara, toward the Milano-Ve- netian alliance, hostile to the King of Naples and favorable to France. Ascanio Sforza, brother of Ludovico il Moro, after becoming vice-chancellor exercised for some time a considerable ascendancy over the pope, and so caused him to attach him- self to that alliance, represented as intended to insure the peace of Italy (.'\piil 25). It was just at this time that the Spanish sovereigns requested the bull of donation of the islands recently dis- covered. To secure their pardon, so to speak, for his equivocal course, Alexander VI. took pains to give them satisfaction and at the same time to address to them a formal document attested by a notary {instrumenlum publicum), by which he declared that he 'desired that even his allies should preserve entire and inviolable the bond which united him to these sovereigns, and this under all circumstances whatever.' He also informed Ferdi- nand and Isabella of the conditions of the alliance which he had concluded with Milan and Venice, and made his excuses for not having offered his mediation between Spain and France by declaring that he had supposed peace to have been concluded by the restoration of Perpignan and Roussillon to the first of these powers. Finally, he sent them, by the hand of the same nuncio, the cor- respondence e.xchanged between the Emperor and the King of France relating to a plan of peace. The pope visibly exerts himself to please the mon- archs to whom he was soon about to grant the title of 'Catholic,' and informs them of his whole policy. The conclusion of the letter which Podo- catharus addressed in his name to the nuncio in Spain contains this interesting recommendation: 'Moreover tell them distinctly with what care we lay ourselves out to satisfy them in all things and to furnish to all the world proofs of the paternal affection we have for them.' Evidently then Alexander VI. could refuse nothing to Ferdi- nand and Isabella ; eager to give them evidences of his good-will he did not hesitate to comply entirely with their request relative to the discov- eries made by Columbus, without examining whether their claim menaced the rights of other sovereigns or not. He was to continue in this attitude of favor until the time when he came under the influence of his son, Caesar, that is to say, after the death of Juan, duke of Gandia (1407). The question has often been discussed, whether Ferdinand and Isabella needed a papal grant in order to acquire the sovereignty of lands discovered by one of their agents. This question directly depends upon that of the nature of the papal power, and opinions relating to the latter vary according to place and time. By the terms of the bull itself, the pope disposed, in favor of the Spanish monarchs, of the temporal sovereignty [dominium) of lands discovered or to be discov- ered in a certain region. While the Catholic sov- ereigns clearly held at that time that they had in temporal matters no superior within theif own dominions, including all lands of which they had made effective acquisition, the bulls in question were titles to future discoveries, and were de- signed to repeal bulls which previous popes had promulgated in favor of the kings of Portugal. Proof that Ferdinand and Isabella attached a great value to them is seen in their anxiety that the things which they desired should be incor- porated in them, and also in the revisions to which, as we shall see, they subsequently caused them to be subjected. Before the end of May, negotiations had begun between John II. and the Spanish monarchs. They were conducted with peaceful intentions on both sides. In the course 256 Euriipe It ikown at at Iht aecnUon nf Charten l', ISI3. - Tht dalt o//iiunilallun glveii a/ler Inwnnamti. Cvlmiitt anil dtprn(tttnflrt In ItiO, eclartit tl-iil- Jlnglish 1 I Frtncl. \ ' \ Maps preparcl specially for the NEW LARNED under direction of the editors aud publishers. c AMERICA, 1493 Papal Bull AMERICA, 1493 of them, Ferdinand and Isabella obtained a fuller knowledge of the extent of the claims made by the Portuguese king, and of his intention to re- serve to himself discoveries made toward the south and the Ocean Sea. Thereupon the dispositions made by the bull of May 3 became inadequate, for Columbus counted with certainty, as we have seen, upon making new expeditions, and first of all toward the south. He was urgent that this bull should be replaced by another, containing a new stipulation with respect to the maritime and colo- nial dominion of Spain. The Spanish monarchs desired to include in that dominion the whole Atlantic, as is proved by the confirmation of priv- ileges which was granted to Columbus on May 28. 'This sea,' they say, 'belongs to us to the west of a line passing through the Azores and the Cape Verde Islands, and extending from north to south, from pole to pole.' It is manifest with what insistence they claim the Ocean Sea in both hemispheres. Columbus however suggested that the line should be set further to the west, a hun- dred leagues from the Portuguese islands in ques- tion. That fact is explicitly shown in a letter which the sovereigns addressed to him later (Sep- tember 5) and which reports a rumor that had been spread of the existence of very rich lands between that line and the southern part of Africa, lands of which they feared that they might be deprived in virtue of the terms of the bull already amended. The text of the latter must have been drawn up during the month of June and sent then to the Spanish agents at the court of Rome. The determination of Columbus to operate in the south of the Ocean Sea as well as in the west gave rise to the repetition of the words 'toward the west and the south' which determined in so strange a fashion the position of the boundary in the ocean between the Spanish and the Portuguese dominions. It was, then, at the instance of Co- lumbus that the line of demarcation was mentioned in the papal document. Was he himself the author of that line, and if so on what basis did he select it? It does not appear to have been suggested to him by his sovereigns. The instruc- tions which they gave him at the beginning of September, 1403, and a little earlier, with a view to his second voyage, were merely that he should sail as far as possible from the Portuguese posses- sions. On the other hand, everything leads us to believe that both the papal chancery and the pope himself were entirely strangers to the establish- ment of this line. If they did not take the initia- tive in the case of any of the essential stipulations contained in the bulls in question, why should they have done so in precisely that one which con- cerns the delimitation of the two colonial domains, so advantageous to Spain? The supposition of Alexander von Humboldt attributing to Columbus the authorship of the line of demarcation appears accordingly very plausible, and in the present state of the sources, practically certain. Whether Co- lumbus, in establishing the line, was guided by facts of physical geography observed in the course of his first voyage — changes in the stars, the aspect of the sea, the temperature, the variation of the compass and the like — drawing inferences from these as to the beginning of the Orient and the end of the Occident, may be doubted, but it is no longer possible to deny him an essential part in the planning of the famous line of demarca- tion. . . . We do not enter now into the history of those diplomatic negotiations between Spain and Portugal, which, beginning on August 18, 1403, resulted in the treaty of Tordesillas (June 7, 1494). Early in the course of those negotiations the Span- ish sovereigns, in a letter of September S, ad- dressed to Columbus, asked his advice as to whether it was not necessary to modify the 'bull' — evidently that of May 4. His reply was no doubt affirmative. Such a modification might be brought about through a simple additional and amplifying bull. Columbus intended to pursue his discoveries to the very Orient itself, where the Portuguese hoped to arrive soon. He wished to plant the standard of Castile in the eastern as well as in the southern Indies and it was no doubt for this reason that he requested the papal ratifi- cation of the Spanish monopoly of conquests be- yond the sea, by way of the west, in all regions not occupied by Christians, especially in the Orient and in the Indies. The bull, dated Sep- tember 26, revoked, it will be recalled, all con- trary dispositions in previous bulls granted to kings, princes, infantes, or religious or military orders (this stipulation is evidently directed at Portugal), even when granted for motives of piety, the spread of the gospel, or the ransom of captives. It also gave expression to the principle that the posses- sion of territories, to be valid, must be effective; but its chief object was to secure to Spain access to the Orient, where it was customary to locate In- dia properly so called. The position of India is however not clearly defined in the papal document ; it names it at first in connection with the 'orien- tal regions,' and then after a mention of these regions. That the King of Portugal did not suc- ceed in preventing so considerable an extension of the sphere of influence of Spain must probably be attributed to the fact that at this time he was making it the chief objective of his policy to pro- cure that his natural son, Dom Jorge, should be recognized as his heir presumptive to the prej- udice of his brother Manoel, and to obtain for him the hand of a Spanish infanta. The decision of the Spanish and Portuguese ambassadors that the line of demarcation should be set at a point 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands dif- fering considerably from that set forth in the bull of May 4, 1493, the contracting parties agreed to insert in the treaty of Tordesillas a clause stipulating that the papal confirmation should be sought; but that no papal mot it propria should dispense either one of the two parties from ob- serving the convention. The maintenance of the treaties was thus guaranteed against the arbitrary action of the plenitudo poteslatis of the sovereign pontiff. The confirmation of the treaty was not obtained under the pontificate of Alexander VI., nor until January 24. 1506. The other European states bordering on the Atlantic, contrary to what has generally been believed, made no account of the bulls issued in favor of the first two colonial powers. . . . The kings of France, like those of England, whose line of conduct with respect to the pope they had imitated, did not recognize the supreme jurisdiction of the Holy See even in ecclesiastical matters; naturally they were still less disposed to recognize it in temporal affairs. To sum up, then, the bull of demarcation, like the other bulls delivered to Spain in 1403, con- stituted at first a grant exclusively Spanish; it was in large part, if not wholly, shaped by the chancery of Ferdinand and Isabella; the line of demarcation itself, which played so important a part in subsequent transactions, had been sug- gested and probably first devised by Christopher Columbus. Moreover, the different bulls of that year were but successive increments of the favors granted to the Spanish sovereigns, Alexander VI. being at that time but an instrument in their hands. Friction with Portugal was increased 257 AMERICA, 1493-1496 Second Voyage of Columbus AMERICA, 1494 rather than diminished by the granting of these bulls. Far from recognizing the prior rights of that country in the Atlantic, the Holy See re- stricted them more and more, in the interest of Spain. The difficulties between the two powers were smoothed away by their own diplomatic means and Portugal distinctly repudiated the incidental arbitration of the pope or of any other authority. If later she relied upon the bull of demarcation, it was because new circumstances brought her into that attitude, for the force of a diplomatic document arises less from the conditions under which it has been shaped than from the events with which it is subsequently associated, and which usually modify its range of application." — H. Van- der Linden, Alexander VI and the demarcation of the maritime and colonial domains of Spain and Portugal, 1403-1404 (American Historical Review, Oct., 1916, pp. 1-20). Also in: E. G. Bourne, Demarcation line of Pope .Alexander VI (Yale Review, May, 1920). — J. Fiske, Discovery of .imerica, v. i, ch. 6. — J. Gordon, Bulls distributing America (American Society of Church History, v. 4). 1493-1496. — Second voyage of Columbus. — Discovery of Jamaica and the Caribbees. — Sub- jugation of Hispaniola. — "The departure of Co- lumbus on his second voyage of discovery presented a brilliant contrast to his gloomy em- barkation at Palos. On the 25th of September [1493], at the dawn of day, the bay of Cadiz was whitened by his fleet. There were three large ships of heavy burden and fourteen caravals. . . . Before sunrise the whole fleet was under way." Arrived at the Canaries on the ist of October, Columbus purchased there calves, goats, sheep, hogs, and fowls, with which to stock the island of Hispaniola; also "seeds of oranges, lemons, bergamots, melons, and various orchard fruits, which were thus first introduced into the islands of the west from the Hesperiodes or Fortunate Islands of the Old World." It was not until the 13th of October that the fleet left the Canaries, and it arrived among the islands since called the Lesser Antilles or Caribbees, on the evening of Nov. 2. Sailing through this archipelago, dis- covering the larger island of Porto Rico on the way, Columbus reached the eastern extremity of Hispaniola or Haiti on the 2 2d of November, and arrived on the 27th at La Navidad, where he had left a garrison ten months before. He found nothing but ruin, silence and the marks of death, and learned, after much inquiry, that his unfortunate men, losing all discipline after his departure, had provoked the natives by rapac- ity and licentiousness until the latter rose against them and destroyed them. Abandoninc the scene of this disaster, Columbus found an excellent har- bor ten leagues east of Monte Christi and there he began the founding of a city which he named Isabella. "Isabella at the present day is quite overgrown with forests, in the midst of which are still to be seen, partly standing, the pillars of the church, some remains of the king's store- houses, and part of the residence of Columbus, all built of hewn stone." While the foundations of the new city were being laid, Columbus sent back part of his ships to Spain, and undertook an exploration of the interior of the island — the mountains of Cibao — where abundance of gold was promised. Some gold washings were found — far too scanty to satisfy the expectations of the Span- iards; and, as want and sickness soon made their appearance at Isabella, discontent was rife and mutiny afoot before the year had ended. In .\pril, :494, Columbus set sail with three caravels to revisit the coast of Cuba, for a more extended exploration than he had attempted on the first discovery. "He supposed it to be a continent, and the extreme end of Asia, and if so, by following its shores in the proposed direction he must even- tually arrive at Cathay and those other rich and commercial, though semi-barbarous countries, de- scribed by Mandeville and Marco Polo." Re- ports of gold led him southward from Cuba until he discovered the island which he called Santiago, but which has kept its native name, Jamaica, sig- nifying the Island of Springs. Disappointed in the search for gold, he soon returned from Jamaica to Cuba and sailed along its southern coast to very near the western extremity, confirming him- self and his followers in the belief that they skirted the shores of Asia and might follow them to the Red Sea, if their ships and stores were equal to so long a voyage. "Two or three days' further sail would have carried Columbus round the extremity of Cuba; would have dispelled his illusion, and might have given an entirely different course to his subsequent discoveries. In his present convic- tion he lived and died; believing to his last hour that Cuba was the extremity of the .Asiatic conti- nent." Returning eastward, he visited Jamaica again and purposed some further exploration of the Caribbee Islands, when his toils and anxieties overcome him. "He fell into a deep lethargy, re- sembling death itself. His crew, alarmed at this profound torpor, feared that death was really at hand. They abandoned, therefore, all further prosecution of the voyage ; and spreading their sails to the east wind so prevalent in those seas, bore Columbus back, in a state of complete insen- sibility, to the harbor of Isabella," Sept. 4. Re- covering consciousness, the admiral was rejoiced to find his brother Bartholomew, from whom he had been separated for years, and who had been sent out to him from Spain, in command of three ships. Otherwise there was little to give pleasure to Co- lumbus when he returned to Isabella. His follow- ers were again disorganized, again at war with the natives, whom they plu.idered and licentiously abused, and a mischief-making priest had gone back to Spain, along with certain intriguing of- ficers, to make complaints and set enmities astir at the court. Involved in war, Columbus prose- cuted it relentlessly, reduced the island to submis- sion and the natives to servitude and misery by heavy exactions. In March. 1496, he returned to Spain, to defend himself against the machinations of his enemies, transferring the government of His- paniola to his brother Bartholomew. — W. Irving, Life and voyages of Columbus, bk. 6-8, v. 1-2. .^Lso in: H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific states, v. I, ch. 2. — J. Winson, Christopher Co- lumbus, ch. 12-14. 1494. — Treaty of Tordesillas. — Amended par- tition of the New World between Spain and Portugal. — "When speaking or writing of the conquest of .America, it is generally believed that the only title upon which were based the con- quests of Spain and Portugal was the famous Papal Bull of partition of the Ocean, of 1403. Few modern authors take into consideration that this Bull was amended, upon the petition of the King of Portugal, by the [Treaty of Tordesillas], signed by both powers in 1494, augmenting the portion assigned to the Portuguese in the partition made between them of the Continent of America. The arc of meridian fixed by this treaty as a dividing line, which gave rise, owing to the ignorance of the .age, to so many diplomatic congresses and interminable controversies, may now be traced by anv student of elementary mathematics. This = 58 AMERICA, 1497 Cabot and Vespucci AMERICA, 1497-1498 line . . . runs along the meridian of 47° 32' 56" west of Greenwich. . . . Ihe name Brazil, or 'tierra del Brazil,' at that time [the middle of the i6th century] referred only to the part of the conti- nent producing the dye wood so-called. Nearly two centuries later the Portuguese advanced toward the South, and the name Brazil then covered the new possessions they were acquiring." — L. L. Dominguez, Introd. to "The conquest oj the River Plate" (Hakliiyt Society Publications, No. 81). 1497. — Discovery of the North American con- tinent by John Cabot. — "The achievement of Columbus, revealing the wonderful truth of which the germ may have existed in the imagination of every thoughtful mariner won [in England] the admiration which belonged to genius that seemed more divine than human; and 'there was great talk of it in all the court of Henry VII.' A feeling of disappointment remained, that a series of disasters had defeated the wish of the illustrious Genoese to make his voyage of essay under the flag of Eng- land. It was, therefore, not difficult for John Cabot, a denizen of Venice, residing at Bristol, to interest that politic king in plans for discovery. On the 5th of March, 1406, he obtained under the great seal a commission empowering himself and his three sons, or either of them, their heirs, or their deputies, to sail into the eastern, western, or northern sea with a fleet of five ships, at their own expense, in search of islands, provinces, or regions hitherto unseen by Christian people ; to affix the banners of England on city, island, or continent; and, as vassals of the English crown, to possess and occupy the territories that might be found. It was further stipulated in this 'most ancient American State paper of England,' that the patentees should be strictly bound, on every return, to land at the port of Bristol, and to pay to the king one-fifth part of their gains; while the exclusive right of frequenting all the countries that might be found was reserved to them and to their assigns, without limit of time. Under this patent, which, at the first direction of English enterprise toward America, embodied the worst fea- tures of monopoly and commercial restriction, John Cabot, taking with him his son Sebastian, em- barked in quest of new islands and a passage to Asia by the north-west. After sailing prosper- ously, as he reported, for 700 leagues, on the 24th day of June [1407] in the morning, almost four- teen months before Columbus on his third voyage came in sight of the main, and more than two years before Amerigo Vespucci sailed west of the Canaries, he discovered the western continent, prob- ably in the latitude of about 56° degrees, among the dismal cliffs of Labrador. He ran along the coast for many leagues, it is said even for 300, and landed on what he considered to be the territory of the Grand Cham, But he encountered no human being, although there were marks that the region was inhabited. He planted on the land a large cross with the flag of England, and, from affection for the republic of Venice, he added the banner of St. Mark, which had never been borne so far before. On his homeward voyage he saw on his right hand two islands, which for want of provisions he could not stop to explore. After an absence of three months the great discoverer re- entered Bristol harbor, where due honors awaited him. The king gave him money, and encouraged him to continue his career. The people called him the great admiral; he dressed in silk; and the English, and even Venetians who chanced to be at Bristol, ran after him with such zeal that he could enlist for a new voyage as manv as he pleased. ... On the third day of the month of February ne.xt after his return, 'John Kaboto, Venecian,' accordingly obtained a power to take up ships for another voyage, at the rates fixed for those employed in the service of the king, and once more to set sail with as many companions as would go with him of their own will. With this license every trace of John Cabot disappears. He may have died before the summer; but no one knows certainly the time or the place of his end, and it has not even been ascertained in what country this finder of a continent first saw the light."— G. Bancroft, History of the United States (Author's last Revision), pt. i, ch. i. — In his crit- ical work on the discovery of America, published in i8g2, Mr. Henry Harrisse states his conclusions as to the Cabot voyages, and on the question whether the American discoveries were made by John Cabot or his son Sebastian, as follows: . "i. — The discovery of the continent of North America and the first landing on its east coast were accomplished not by Sebastian Cabot, but by his father John, in I4g7, under the auspices of Kin; Henry VII. 2.— The first landfall was not Cape Breton Island, as is stated in the planisphere made by Sebastian Cabot in 1544, but eight or ten degrees further north, on the coast of Labrador; which was then' ranged by John Cabot, probably as far as Cape Chudley. 3. — This fact was tacitly acknowledged by all pilots and cosmographers throughout the first half of the i6th century; and the knowledge of it originated with Sebastian Cabot himself, whatever may have been after- wards his contrary statements in that respect. 4- — The voyage of 1408, also accomplished under the British flag, was likewise carried out by John Cabot personally. The landfall on that occasion must be placed south of the first; and the ex- ploration embraced the northeast coast of the present United States, as far as Florida. 5. — In the vicinity of the Floridian east coast, John Cabot, or one of his lieutenants, was detected by some Spanish vessel, in 1498 or T4Q9. 6. — The English continued in 1501, 1502, 15^,4, and afterwards, to send ships to Newfoundland, chiefly for the pur- pose of fisheries." — H. Harrisse, Discovery of North America', pt. i, bk. 8, ch. 5. Also in: Narrative and critical history of America, v. 3, ch. x. Critical essay (C. Deane). — R. Biddle, Memoir of Sebastian Cabot, ch. 1-8. — G. E. Winship, Cabot bibliography. — E. G. Bourne, Spain in America, p. 328. — C. R. Beazley, John and Sebastian Cabot (iSqS). — The principal Cabot documents are found in translation in Markham, Journal of Christopher Columbus (1803). 1497-1498. — First voyage of Vespucci. — Mis- understandings and disputes concerning it. — Vindication of the Florentine navigator. — His exploration of 4,000 miles of continental coasL. — "Our information concerning Americus Vespu- cius, from the early part of the year 1406 until after his return from the Portuguese to the Span- ish service in the latter part of 1504, rests primarily upon his two famous letters; the one addressed to his old patron Lorenzo di Pier Francesco de' Medici (a cousin of Lorenzo the Magnificent) and written in March or April, 1503, giving an ac- count of his third voyage; the other addressed to his old school-fellow Piero Sodcrini [then Gon- faloniere of Florence] and dated from Libson, September 4, 1504. giving a brief account of four voyages which he had made under various com- manders in the capacity of astronomer or pilot. These letters . . . became speedily popular, and many editions were published, more especially in France, Germany, and Italy. . . . The letter to Soderini gives an account of four voyages in wh:ch 259 AMERICA, 1497-1498 Explorations of Vespucci AMERICA, 1497-1498 the writer took part, the first two in the service of Spain, the other two in the service of Portu- gal. The first expedition sailed from Cadiz, May 10, 1497, and returned October 15, 1498, after having explored a coast so long as to seem un- questionably that of a continent. This voyage, as we shall see, was concerned with parts of .America not visited again until 1513 and 1517. It discovered nothing that was calculated to invest it with much importance in Spain, though it by no means passed without notice there, as has often been wrongly asserted. Outside of Spain it came to attract more attention, but in an unfortunate way, for a slight but very serious error in proof- reading or editing, in the most important of the Latin versions, caused it after a while to be prac- tically identified with the second voyage, made two years later. This confusion eventually led to most outrageous imputations upon the good name of Americus, which it has been left for the present century to remove. The second voyage of Ves- pucius was that in which he accompanied Alonso de Ojeda and Juan de la Costa, from May 20, 14QQ, to June, 1500. They explored the northern coast of South America from some point on what we would now call the north coast of Brazil, as far as the Pearl Coast visited by Columbus in the preceding year; and they went beyond, as far as the Gulf of Maracaibo. Here the squadron seems to have become divided, Ojeda going over to Hispaniola in September, while Vespucius re- mained cruising till February. ... It is certainly much to be regretted that in the narrative of his first expedition, Vespucius did not happen to men- tion the name of the chief commander. . . . How- ever ... he was writing not for us, but for his friend, and he told Soderini only what he thought would interest him. ... Of the letter to Soderini the version which has played the most important part in history is the Latin one first published at the press of the little college at Saint-Die in Lorraine, .April 25 (vij Kl' Maij), 1507. ... It was translated, not from an original text, but from an intermediate French version, which is lost. Of late years, however, we have detected, in an excessively rare Italian text, the origfnal from which the famous Lorraine version was ultimately derived. ... If now we compare this primitive text with the Latin of the Lorraine version of 1507, we observe that, in the latter, one proper name — the Indian name of a place visited by .Amer- icus on his first voyage — has been altered. In the original it is 'Lariab;' in the Latin it has be- come 'Parias.' This looks like an instance of in- judicious editing on the part of the Latin trans- lator, although, of course, it may be a case of careless proof-reading. Lariab is a queer-looking word. It is no wonder that a scholar in his study among the mountains of Lorraine could make noth- ing of it. If he had happened to be acquainted with the language of the Huastecas, who dwelt at that time about the river Panuco — fierce and dreaded enemies of their southern neighbours the Aztecs — he would have known that names of places in that region were apt to end in ab. . . . But as such facts were quite beyond our worthy translator's ken, we cannot much blame him if he felt that such a word as Lariab needed doctoring. Parias (Paria) was known to be the native name of a region on the western shores of the .Atlantic, and so Lariab became Parais. As the distance from the one place to the other is more than two thousand miles, this little emendation shifted the scene of the first voyage beyond all recognition, and cast the whole subject into an outer darkness where there has been much groaning and gnash- ing of teeth. .Another curious circumstance came in to confirm this error. On his first voyage, shortly before arriving at Lariab, Vespucius saw an Indian town built over the water, 'like Venice.' He counted 44 large wooden houses, 'like bar- racks,' supported on huge tree-trunks and com- municating with each other by bridges that could be drawn up in case of danger. This may well have been a village of communal houses of the Chontals on the coast of Tabasco; but such vil- lages were afterwards seen on the Gulf of Mara- caibo, and one of them was called Venezuela, or 'Little Venice,' a name since spread over a terri- tory nearly twice as large as France. So the amphibious town described by Vespucius was in- continently moved to Maracaibo, as if there could be only one such place, as if that style of de- fensive building had not been common enough in many ages and in many parts of the earth, from ancient Switzerland to modern Siam. . . . Thus in spite of the latitudes and longtitudes distinctly stated by Vespucius in his letter, did Lariab and the little wooden Venice get shifted from the Gulf of Mexico to the northern coast of South Amer- ica. . . . We are told that he falsely pretended to have visited Paria and Maracaibo in 1407, in order to claim priority over Columbus in the discovery of 'the continent.' What continent ? When Ves- pucius wrote that letter to Soderini, neither he nor anybody else suspected that what we now call .America had been discovered. The only continent of which there could be any question, so far as supplanting Columbus was concerned, was .Asia. But in 1504 Columbus was generally supposed to have discovered the continent of .Asia, by his new route, in 1402. ... It was M. Varnhagen who first turned inquiry on this subject in the right direction. . . . Having taken a correct start by simply following the words of Vespucius himself, from a primitive text, without reference to any preconceived theories or traditions, M. Varnhagen finds 'that .Americus in his first voyage made land on the northern coast of Honduras; that he sailed around Yucatan, and found his aquatic vil- lage of communal houses, his little wooden Venice, on the shore of Tabasco.' Thence, after a fight with the natives in which a few tawny prisoners were captured and carried on board the caravels, Vespucius seems to have taken a straight course to the Huasteca country by Tampico, without touching at points in the region subject or tribu- tary to the Aztec confederacy. This Tampico country was what Vespucius understood to be called Lariab. He again gives the latitude defi- nitely and correctly as 23° N., and he mentions a few interesting circumstances. He saw the na- tives roasting a 'dreadfully ugly animal,' of which he gives what seems to be 'an excellent descrip- tion of the iguana, the flesh of which i? to this day an important article of food in tropical .Amer- ica. . . . .After leaving this country of Lariab the ships kept still to the northwest for a short dis- tance, and then followed the windings of the coast for 870 leagues. , . . After traversing the 870 leagues of crooked coast, the ships found them- selves 'in the finest harbour in the world' [which M. Varnhagen supposed, at first, to have been in Chesapeake Bay, but afterwards reached con- clusions pointing to the neighbourhood of Cape Caiiaveral. on the Florida coast] . It was in June, 1408, thirteen months since they had started from Spain. . . . They spent seven-and-thirty days in this unrivalled harbour, preparing for the home voyage, and found the natives very hospitable. These red men courted the aid of the 'white strangers,' in an attack which they wished to 260 AMERICA, 1497-1498 Second Voyage of Cabot AMERICA, 1498 make upon a fierce race of cannibals, who inhab- ited certain islands some distance out to sea. The Spaniards agreed to the expedition, and sailed late in August, taking seven of the friendly Indians for guides, 'After a week's voyage they fell in with the islands, some peopled, others uninhabited, evidently the Bermudas, 600 miles from Cape Hatteras as the crow flies. The Span- iards landed on an island called Iti, and had a brisk fight,' " resulting in the capture of more than 200 prisoners. Seven of these were given to the Indian guides, who paddled home with them. " 'We also [wrote Vespucius] set sail for Spain, with 222 prisoners, slaves; and arrived in the port of Cadiz on the 15th day of October, 149S, where we were well received and sold our slaves.' . . . The obscurity in which this voyage has so long been enveloped is due chiefly to the fact that it was not followed up till many years had elapsed, and the reason for this neglect impresses upon us forcibly the impossibility of understanding the history of the Discovery of America unless we bear in mind all the attendant circumstances One might at first suppose that a voyage which re- vealed some 4,000 miles of the coast of North America would have attracted much at- tention 'in Spain and have become altogether too famous to be soon forgotten. Such an argument, however, loses sight of the fact that these early voyagers were not trying to 'discover America.' There was nothing to astonish them in the exis- tence of 4,000 miles of coast line on this side of the Atlantic. To their minds it was simply the coast of Asia, about which they knew nothing ex- cept from Marco Polo, and the natural effect of such a voyage as this would be simply to throw discredit upon that traveller." — J Fiske, Discov- ery oj America, v. 2, ch. 7. The arguments against this view are set forth by Mr. Clements R, Markham, in a paper read before the Royal Geographical Society, in 1802, as follows: "Vespucci was at Seville or San Lucar, as a provision merchant, from the middle of April, 1497, to the end of May, 1598, as is shown by the official records, examined by Muiioz, of expenses incurred in fitting out the ships for western ex- peditions. Moreover, no expedition for discovery was despatched by order of King Ferdinand in I4Q7; and there is no allusion to any such expedi- tion in any contempor.iry record The internal evi- dence against the truth of the story is even stronger. Vespucci says that he sailed W. S. W. for nearly 1000 leagues from Grand Canary. This would have taken him to the Gulf of Paria, which is rather more than ooo leagues W. S. W. from Grand Canary. ... No actual navigator would have made such a blunder. He evidently quoted the dead reckoning from Ojeda's voyage, and in- vented the latitude at random. . . . His statement that he went N. W. for 870 leagues (2,610 miles) from a position in latitude 23° N. is still more preposterous. Such a course and distance would have taken him right across the continent to some- where in British Columbia. The chief incidents in the voyage are those of the Ojeda voyage in 1409. There is the village built on piles called Little Venice. . . . There was the encounter with na- tives, in which one Spaniard was killed and 22 were wounded. These numbers are convincing evidence." — C. R. Markham, Columbus (Royal Geographical Society Proceedings, Sept., 1892). Also in: J. Winsor. Christopher Columbus, ch. IS- 1498. — Second voyage of John Cabot, some- times ascribed to his son Sebastian. — "Very soon after his return, John Cabot petitioned Henry 26 VII. for new letters patent, authorizing him to visit again the country which he had just discov- ered. The King granted his request on the 3rd of February, 1498. There is no ground whatever for the assertion, frequently repeated, that John Cabot did not command this second expedition, or that it was undertaken after his death. On the contrary, Pasqualigo and Soncino mention him by name exclusively as the party to whom Henry VII. intended to entrust the fleet. Besides, this time, John Cabot is the only grantee, and the new letters patent omit altogether the names of Sebas- tian and of his brothers. Moreover, John ex- plained in person to Soncino his plans for the second voyage ; and July 25, 1498, Puebia and Ayala announced officially to the Spanish Sov- ereigns that the vessels had actually sailed out 'con otro ginoves como Colon,' which description does not apply certainly to Sebastian, but to John Ca- bot, as we know from corroborative evidence al- ready stated. The fact is that the name of Se- bastian Cabot appears in connection with those voyages, for the first time, in Peter Martyr's ac- count, printed twenty years after the event, and taken from Sebastian's own lips; which ... is not a recommendation. In England, his name reveals itself as regards the discovery of the New World at a still later period, in John Stow's Chronicle, published in 1580. And, although both that historian and Hakluyt quote as their author- ity for the statement a manuscript copy of Robert Fabian's Chronicle, everything tends to show that the name of Sebastian Cabot is a sheer interpola- tion. . . . The expedition was composed of five vessels, fitted out at the expense of John Cabot, or of his friends: 'paying for theym and every of theym.' We have not the exact date when the fleet sailed. It was after April i, 1498, as on that day Henry VII. loaned £30 to Thomas Bradley and Louncelot Thirkill, 'going to the New Isle.' On the other hand, Pedro de Ayala already states, July 25, 1498, that news had been received of the expedition, which was obliged to leave behind, in Ireland, one of the ships, owing to a severe storm. The vessels therefore set out (from Bristol?) in May or June. Puebia states that they were ex- pected back in the month of September follow- ing: 'Dizen que seran venydos para el Sep- tiembre;' yet the vessels had taken supplies for one year: 'fueron proueydas por hun ano.' We possess no direct information concerning this voy- age, nor do we know when Cabot returned to England. It is important to note, however, that the expeditions of 1497 and 1408 are the only ones which in the fifteenth century sailed to the New World under the British flag, and comprise, therefore, all the transatlantic discoveries made by Cabot before the year 1500. Our only data concerning the north-west coast, which the Vene- tian navigator may have visited in the course of his second voyage, are to be found in the map drawn by Juan de la Cosa in the year 1500. . . . In that celebrated chart, there is. in the proximity and west of Cuba, an unbroken coast line, deline- ated like a continent, and extending northward to the extremity of the map. On the northern por- tion of that seaboard La Cosa has placed a con- tinuous line of British flags, commencing at the south with the inscription ; 'Mar descubierta por ingleses;' and terminating at the north with 'Cape of England: — Cauo de ynglaterra.' Unfortunately, those cartographical data are not sufficiently pre- cise to enable us to locate the landfalls with ade- quate exactness Nor is the kind of projection adopted, without explicit degrees of latitude, of such a character as to aid us much in determining I AMERICA, 1498-1505 Later Voyages of Columbus AMERICA, 1498-1505 positions. We are compelled, therefore, to resort to inferences. . . . Taking the distance from the equator to the extreme north in La Cosa's map as a criterion for measuring distances, and com- paring relatively the points named therein with points corresponding for the same latitude on mod- ern planispheres, the last English flagstaff in the southern direction seems to indicate a vicinity south of the Carolinas. . . . This hypothetical es- timate finds a sort of corollary in Sebastian Ca- bot's account, as reported by Peter Martyr. In describing his alleged north-western discoveries, Sebastian said that icebergs having compelled him to alter his course, he steered southwardly, and followed the coast until he reached about the lati- tude of Gibraltar. . . . Several years afterwards, Sebastian Cabot again mentioned the matter in his conversation with the Mantua gentleman; but this time he extended the exploration of the north- west coast five degrees further south, naming Flori- da as his terminus. . . . Twenty years after . . . Sebastian . . . declared, under oath before the Council of the.Indies, December 31, 1535, that he did not know whether the mainland continued northward or not from Florida to the Bacallaos region." — H. Harrisse, Discovery of America, pt. I, bk. 2. 1498-1505. — Third and fourth voyages of Columbus. — Discovery of Trinidad, the northern coast of South America, the shores of Central America and Panama. — When Columbus reached Spain, June, 1496, "Ferdinand and Isabella received him kindly, gave him new honors and promised him other outfits. Enthusiasm, however, had died out and delays took place. The reports of the re- turning ships did not correspond with the pictures of Marco Polo, and the new-found world was thought to be a very poor India after all. Most people were of this mind ; though Columbus was not disheartened, and the public treasury was read- ily opened for a third voyage. Coronel sailed early in 140S with two ships, and Columbus fol- lowed with six, embarking at San Lucas on the 30th of May. He now discovered Trinidad (July 31), which he named either from its three peaks, or from the Holy Trinity ; struck the northern coast of South America, and skirted what was later known as the Pearl coast, going as far as the Island of Margarita. He wondered at the roaring fresh waters which the Ch-onoco pours into the Gulf of Pearls, as he called it, and he h;ilf be- lieved that its exuberant tide came from the ter- restrial paradise. He touched the southern coast of Hayti on the 30th of August. Here already his coltjnists had established a fortified post, and founded the town of Santo Domingo. His brother Bartholomew had ruled ener.gftically during the Admiral's absence, but he had not prevented a re- volt, which was headed by Roldan. Columbus on his arrival found the insurgents still defiant, but he was able after a while to reconcile them, and he even succeeded in attaching Roldan warmly to his interests. Columbus' absence from Spain, however, left his good name without sponsors; and to satisfy detractors, a new commissioner was sent over with enlarged powers, even with author- ity to supersede Columbus in general command, if necessary. This emissary was Francisco de Bo- badilla, who arrived at Santo Domingo with two caravels on the 23d of .August, 1500, finding Diego in command, his brother, the Admiral, being ab- sent. An issue was at once made. Diego refused to accede to the commissioner's orders till Colum- bus returned to judge the case himself; so Boba- dilla assumed charge of the crown property vio- lently, took possession of the Admiral's house, and when Columbus returned, he with his brother was arrested and put in irons. In this condition the prisoners were placed on shipboard, and sailed for Spain. The captain of the ship offered to re- move the manacles; but Columbus would not per- mit it, being determined to land in Spain bound as he was; and so he did. The effect of his degra- dation was to his advantage; sovereigns and people were shocked at the sight ; and Ferdinand and Isabella hastened to make amends by receiving him with renewed favor. It was soon apparent that everything reasonable would be granted him by the monarchs, and that he couid have all he might wish short of receiving a new lease of power in the islands, which the sovereigns were determ- ined to see pacified at least before Columbus should again assume government of them. The Admiral had not forgotten his vow to wrest the Holy Sepulchre from the Infidel; but the monarchs did not accede to his wish to undertake it. Dis- appointed in this, he proposed a new voyage; and getting the royal countenance for this scheme, he was supplied with four vessels of from fifty to sev- enty tons each. ... He sailed from Cadiz, May 9, 1502, accompanied by his brother Bartholomew and his son Fernando. The vessels reached San Domingo June 29. Bobadilla, whose rule of a year and a half had been an unhappy one, had given place to Nicholas de Ovando; and the fleet which brought the new governor — with Maldo- nado. Las Casas and others — now lay in the har- bor waiting to receive Bobadilla for the return voyage. Columbus had been instructed to avoid Hispaniola; but now that one of his vessels leaked, and he needed to make repairs, he sent a boat ashore, asking permission to enter the harbor. He was refused, though a storm was impending. He sheltered his vessels as best he could, and rode out the gale. The fleet which had on board Bobadilla and Roldan, with their ill-gotten gains, was wrecked, and these enemies of Columbus were drowned. The Admiral found a small harbor where he could make his repairs; and then, July 14, sailed westward to find, as he supposed, the richer portions of India. ... A landing was made on the coast of Honduras, August 14. Three days later the explorers landed again fifteen leagues farther east, and took possession of the country for Spain. Still east tLey went; and, in gratitude for safety after a long storm, they named a cape which they rounded, Gracias a Dios — a name still preserved at the point where the coast of Honduras begins to trend southward. Columbus was now lying ill on his bed, placed on deck, and was half the time in revery. Still the vessels coasted south," along and beyond the shores of Costa Rica ; then turned with the bend of the coast to the northeast, until they reached Porto Bello, as we call it, where they found houses and orchards, and passed on "to the farthest spot of Bastidas' exploring, who had, in 1 501, saileci westward along the northern coast of South America." There turning back, Colum- bus attempted to found a colony at Veragua, on the Costa Rica coast, where signs of gold were tempting. But the gold proved scanty, the natives hostile, and, the Admiral, withdrawing his colony, sailed away. "He abandoned one worm-eaten caravel at Porto Bello, and, reaching Jamaica, beached two others. A year of disappointment, grief, and want followed. Columbus clung to his wrecked vessels. His crew alternately mutinied at his side, and roved about the island. Ovando, at Hispaniola, heard of his straits, but only tardily and scantily relieved him. The discontented were finally humbled : and some ships, despatched by the Admiral's agent in Santo Domingo, at last 62 AMERICA, 1499-1500 Second Voyage of Vespucci AMERICA, 1499-1500 reached him and brought him and his companions to that place, where Ovando received him with ostentatious kindness, lodging him in his house till Columbus departed for Spain, Sept. 12, 1504," Arriving in Spain in November, disheartened, broken with disease, neglected, it was not until the following May that he had strength enough to go to the court at Segovia, and then only to be coldly received by King Ferdinand — Isabella being dead. "While still hope was deferred, the infirmi- turers who accompanied Columbus on his second voyage (in 1493) was Alonzo de Ojeda, Ojeda quarrelled with the Admiral and returned to Spain in 1498. Soon afterwards, "he was provided by the Bishop Fonseca, Columbus' enemy, with a frag- ment of the map which the Admiral had sent to Ferdinand and Isabella, showing the discoveries which he had made in his last voyage. With this assistance Ojeda set sail for South America, accom- panied by the pilot, Juan de la Cosa, who had FIRST MAP SHOWING AMERICAN CONTINENT Sketch of map drawn by La Costa in 1500 ties of age and a life of hardships brought Colum- bus to his end; and on Ascension Day, the 20th of May, 1506, he died, with his son Diego and a few devoted friends by his bedside." — J. Winsor, Narratwe and critical history of America, v. 2, cli. I. — See also Venezuela: 1409-1550. Also in: H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific states, V. I, ch. 2 atjd 4. — W. Irving, Life and voyages of Cobimbtis. bk. 10-18, v. 2. 1499-1500. — Voyages and discoveries of Ojeda and Pinzon. — Second voyage of Vespucci. — One of the most daring and resolute of the adven- accompanied Columbus in his first great voyage in 1492, and of whom Columbus complained that, 'being a clever man, he went about saying that he knew more than he did,' and also by Amerigo Vespucci. They set sail on the 20th of May, 1499. with four vessels, and after a passage of 27 days came in sight of the continent, 200 leagues east of the Oronoco. At the end of June, they landed on the shores of Surinam, in six degrees of north lati- tude, and proceeding west saw the mouths of the Essequibo and Oronoco. Passing the Boca del Drago of Trinidad, they coasted westward till they 263 AMERICA, 1500 Third Voyage of Vespucci AMERICA, 1500-1514 reached the Capo de la Vela in Granada. It was in this voyage that was discovered the Gulf to which Ojeda gave the name of Venezuela, or Little Ven- ice, on account of the cabins built on piles over the water, a mode of life which brought to his mind the water-city of the Adriatic. From the American coast Ojeda went to the Caribbee Islands, and on the 5th of September reached Vaguimo, in Hispaniola, where he raised a revolt against the authority of Columbus. His plans, however, were frustrated by Roldan and Escobar, the delegates of Columbus, and he was compelled to withdraw from the island. On the sth of February, 1500, he re- turned, carrying with him to Cadiz an extraordi- nary number of slaves, from which he realized an enormous sum of money. At the beginning of December, 1400, the same year in which Ojeda set sail on his last voyage, another companion of Co- lumbus, in his first voyage, Vicente Yafiez Pinzon, sailed from Palos, was the first to cross the line on the American side of the Atlantic, and on the 20th of January, 1500, discovered Cape St. Augus- tine, to which he gave the name of Cabo Santa Maria de la Consoiacion, whence returning north- ward he followed the westerly trending coast, and so discovered the mouth of the Amazon, which he named Paricura. Without a month after his de- parture from Palos, he was followed from the same port and on the same route by Diego de Lepe, who was the first to discover, at the mouth of the Oronoco, by means of a closed vessel, which only opened when it reached the bottom of the water, that, at a depth of eight fathoms and a half, the two lowest fathoms were salt water, but all above was fresh. Lepe also made the observation that beyond Cape St. Augustine, which he doubled, as well as Pinzon, the coast of Brazil trended south- west." — R. H. Major, Life of Prince Henry of Portugal, ch. lo. Also in: W. Irving, Life and voyages of Colum- bus, I'. 3, ch. 1-3. 1500. — Voyages of the Cortereals to the far north and of Bastidas to the Isthmus of Darien. — "The Portuguese did not overlook the north while making their important discoveries to the south. Two vessels, probably in the spring of 1500, were sent out under Caspar Cortereal. No journal or chart of the voyage is now in existence, hence little is known of its object or results. Still more dim is a previous voyage ascribed by Cor- deiro to Joao Vaz Cortereal, father of Caspar. . . , Touching at the .Azores, Caspar Cortereal, possibly following Cabot's charts, struck the coast of New- foundland north of Cape Race, and sailing north discovered a land which he called Terra Verde, perhaps Greenland, but was stopped by ice at a river which he named Rio Nevado, whose loca- tion is unknown. Cortereal returned to Lisbon before the end of 1500. ... In October of this same year Rodrigo de Bastidas sailed from Cadiz with two vessels. Touching the shores of South America near Isla V'erde, which lies between Guad- alupe and the main land, he followed the coast westward to El Retrete, or perhaps Nombre de Dios, on the Isthmus of Darien, in about g" 30' north latitude. Returning he was wrecked on Es- panola toward the end of 1501, and reached Cadiz in September, 1502. This being the first authentic voyage by Europeans to the territory herein de- fined as the Pacific States, such incidents as are known will be given hereafter." — H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific states, v. i, p. 113 — "We have Las Casas's authority for saying that Bastidas was a humane man toward the Indians. Indeed, he afterwards lost his life by this humanity; for, when governor of Santa Martha, not consenting to harass the Indians, he so alienated his men that a conspiracy was formed against him, and he was murdered in his bed. The renowned Vasco Nunez [de Balboa] was in this expedition, and the knowl- edge he gained there had the greatest influence on the fortunes of his varied and eventful life." — Sir A. Helps, Spanish conquest of America, bk. 5, ch. I. — See also Newtoundland: 1501-1578. Also in: J. G. Kohl, History of the discovery of Maine, ch. S- — R. Biddle, Memoir of Sebastian Cabot, bk. 2, ch. 3-5. 1500-1514. — Voyage of Cabral. — Third voyage of Vespucci. — Exploration of the Brazilian coast for the king of Portugal. — Curious evolu- tion of the continental name "America."^ "Affairs now became curiously complicated. King Emanuel of Portugal intrusted to Pedro Alvarez de Cabral the command of a fleet for Hindustan, to follow up the work of Gama and established a Portuguese centre of trade on the Malabar coast. This fleet of 13 vessels, carrying about 1,200 men, sailed from Lisbon March 9, 1500. After passing the Cape V'erde Islands, March 22, for some reason not clearly known, whether driven by stormy weather or seeking to avoid the calms that were apt to be troublesome on the Guinea coast, Cabral took a somewhat more westerly course than he realized, and on April 22, after a weary progress averaging less than 60 miles per day, he found himself on the coast of Brazil not far beyond the limit reached by Lepe. . . . Approaching it in such a way Cabral felt sure that this coast must fall to the east of the papal meridian. Accordingly on May day, at Porto Seguro in latitude 16° 30' S., he took formal possession of the country for Portu- gal, and sent Caspar de Lemos in one of tis ships back to Lisbon with the news. On May 32 Cabral weighed anchor and stood for the Cape of Good Hope. . . . Cabral called the land he had found Vera Cruz, a name which presently became Santa Cruz; but when Lemos arrived in Lisbon with the news he had with ^im some gorgeous paro- quets, and among the earliest names on old maps of the Brazilian coast vve find 'Land of Paro- quets' and 'Land of the Holy Cross.' The land lay obviously so far to the east that Spain could not deny that at last there was something for Portugal out in the 'ocean sea.' Much interest "was felt at Lisbon. King Emanuel began to prepare an expedition for exploring this new coast, and wished to secure the services of some eminent pilot and cosmographer familiar with the western wa- ters. Overtures were made to Americus, a fact which proves that he had already won a high reputation. The overtures were accepted, for what reason we do not know, and soon after his return from the vovage with Ojeda, probably in the autumn of 1500, Americus passed from the service of Spain into that of Portugal. ... On May 14, 1 501, Vespucius, who was evidently prin- cipal |)ilot and guiding spirit in this voyage under unkown skies, set sail from Lisbon with three caravels. It is not quite clear who was chief cap- tain, but M. Varnhagen has found reasons for believing that it was a certain Don Nuno Manuel. The first halt was made on the African coast at Cape Verde, the first week in June. . . . After 67 days of 'the vilest weather ever seen by man' they reached the coast of Brazil in latitude about 5° S., on the evening of the i6th of .\ugust, the festival- day of San Roque, whose name was accordingly given to the cape before which they dropped an- chor. From this point .they slowly followed the coast to the southward, stopping now and then 10 examine the countrv'. ... It was not until All Saints day, the first of November, that they 264 AMERICA, 1500-1514 Evolution of the Name AMERICA, 1500-1514 reached the bay in latitude 13° S., which is still known by the name which they gave it, Bahia de Todos Santos, On New Year's day, 1502, they arrived at the noble bay where 54 years later the chief city of Brazil was founded. They would seem to have mistaken it for the mouth of an- other huge river, like some that had already been seen in this strange world; for they called it Rio de Janeiro (River of January). Thence by Feb- ruary 15 they had passed Cape Santa Maria, when they left the coast and took a southeasterly course out into the ocean. Americus gives no satisfactory reason for this change of direction. . . . Perhaps he may have looked into the mouth of the river La Plata, which is a bay more than a hundred miles wide ; and the sudden westward trend of the shore may have led him to suppose that he had reached the end of the continent. At any rate, he was now in longitude more than twenty de- grees west of the meridian of Cape San Roque, and therefore unquestionably out of Portuguese waters. Clearly there was no use in going on and discovering lands which could belong only to Spain. This may account, I think, for the change of direction." The voyage southeastwardly was pursued until the little fleet had reached the icy and rocky coast of the island of South Georgia, in latitude 54° S. It was then decided to turn homeward. "Vespucius . . . headed straight N. N. E. through the huge ocean, for Sierra Leone, and the distance of more than 4,000 miles was made — with wonderful accuracy, though Vespucius- says nothing about that — in 33 days. . . . Thence, af- ter some further delay, to Lisbon, where they ar- rived on the 7th of September, 1502. Among all the voyages made during that eventful period there was none that as a feat of navigation surpassed this third of Vespucius, and there was none, except the first of Columbus, that outranked it in his- torical importance. For it was not only a voyage into the remotest stretches of the Sea of Dark- ness, but it was preeminently an incursion into the antipodal world of the Southern hemisphere. . . . A coast of continental extent, beginning so near the meridian of the Cape Verde islands and run- ning southwesterly to latitude 35° S. and perhaps beyond, did not fit into anybody's scheme of things. ... It was land unknown to the ancients, and Vespucius was right in saying that he had beheld there things by the thousand which Pliny had never mentioned. It was not strange that he should call it a 'New World,' and in meeting with this phrase, on this first occasion in which it ap- pears in any document with reference to any part of what we now call America, the reader must be careful not to clothe it with the meaning which it wears in our modern eyes. In using the expression 'New World' Vespucius was not thinking of the Flor'da coast which he had visited on a former voyage, nor of the 'islands of India' dis- covered by Columbus, nor even of the Pearl Coast which he had followed after the Admiral in ex- ploring. The expression occurs in his letter to Lorenzo de' Medici, written from Lisbon in March or April 1503, relating solely to this third voyage The letter begins as follows: 'I have formerly written to you at sufficient length about my return from those new countries which in the ships and at the expense and command of the most gracious King of Portugal we have sought and found. It is proper to call them a new world.' Observe that it is only the new countries visited on this third voyage, the countries from Cape San Roque south- ward, that Vespucius thinks it proper to call a new world, and here is his reason for so calling them; 'Since among our ancestors there was no knowl- edge of them, and to all who hear of the affair it is most novel. For it transcends the ideas of the ancients, since most of them say that beyond the equator to the south there is no continent, but only the sea which they call the Atlantic, and if any of them asserted the existence of a continent there, they found many reasons for refusing to consider it a habitable country. But this last voy- age of mine has proved that this opinion of theirs was erroneous and in every way contrary to the facts.' . . . This expression 'Novus Mundus' [New World], thus occurring in a private letter, had a remarkable career. Early in June, 1503, about the time when Americus was starting on his fourth voyage, Lorenzo died. By the beginning of 1504, a Latin version of the letter [translated by Gio- vanni Giocondo] was printed and published, with the title 'Mundus Novus.' . . . The little four- leaved tract, 'Mundus Novus,' turned out to be the great literary success of the day. M. Harrisse has described at least eleven Latin editions prob- ably published in the course of 1504, and by 1506 not less than eight editions of German versions had been issued. Intense curiosity was aroused by this announcement of the existence of a populous land beyond the equator and unknown (could such a thing be possible) to the ancients," — who did know something, at least, about the eastern parts of the Asiatic continent which Columbus was sup- posed to have reached. The "Novus Mundus," so named, began soon to be represented on maps and globes, generally as a great island or quasi- continent lying on and below the equator. "Eu- rope, Asia and Africa were the three parts of the earth [previously known], and so this opposite re- gion, hitherto unknown, but mentioned by Mela and indicated by Ptolemy, was the Fourth Part. We can now begin to understand the intense and wildly absorbing interest with which people read the brief story of the third voyage of Vespucius, and we can see that in the nature of that interest there was nothing calculated to bring it into com- parison with the work of Columbus. The two navigators were not regarded as rivals in doing the same thing, but as men who had done two very different things ; and to give credit to one was by no means equivalent to withholding credit from the other." In 1507, Martin Waldseemiiller, pro- fessor of geo.;raphy at Saint-Die, published a small treatise entitled "Cosmographie Introductio," with that second of the two known letters of Vespucci — the one addressed to Soderini, of which an account is given above (1407-1498) — appended to it. "In this rare book occurs the first suggestion of the name America. After having treated of the di- vision of the earth's inhabited surface into three parts — Europe, Asia, and Africa — Waldseemiiller speaks of the discovery of a Fourth Part," and says: " 'Wherefore I do not see what is rightly to hinder us from calling it Amerige or America, i. e., the land of Americus, after its discoverer Americus, a man of sagacious mind, since both Europe and Asia have got their names from women.' . . . Such were the winged words but for which, as M. Harrisse reminds us, the western hem- isphere might have come to be known as Atlantis, or Hesperides, or Santa Cruz, or New India, or per- haps Columbia. ... In about a quarter of a cen- tury the first stage in the development of the nam- ing of America had been completed. The stage consisted of five distinct steps: i. Americus called the regions visited by him beyond the equator 'a new world' because they were unknown to the an- cients; 2. Giocondo made this striking phrase 'Mundus Novus' into a title for his translation of the letter. ... ; 3. the name Mundus Novus got ^6S AMERICA, 1502 Settlement at Darien AMERICA, 1509-1511 placed upon several maps as an equivalent for Terra Sanctae Crucis, or what we call Brazil; 4. the suggestion was made that Mundus Novus was the Fourth Part of the earth, and might properly be named America after its discoverer; 5. the name America thus got placed upon several maps I the first, so far as known, being a map ascribed to Leonardo da Vinco and published about 1514, and the second a globe made in 1515 by Johann Schbner, at Nuremberg] as an equivalent for what we call Brazil, and sometimes came to stand alone as an equivalent for what we call South America, but still signified only a part of the dry land be- yond the Atlantic to which Columbus had led the way. . . . This wider meaning [of South America] became all the more firmly established as its nar- rower meaning was usurped by the name Brazil. Three centuries before the time of Columbus the red dye-wood called brazil-wood was an article of commerce, under that same name, in Italy and Spain. It was one of the valuable things brought from the East, and when the Portuguese found the same dye-wood abundant in those tropical forests that had seemed so beautiful to X'espucius, the name Brazil soon became fastened upon the coun- try and helped to set free the name America from its local associations." When in time, and by slow degrees, the great fact was learned, that all the lands found beyond the Atlantic by Columbus and his successors, formed part of one continental sys- tem, and were all to be embraced in the concep- tion of a New World, the name which had become synonymous with New World was then naturally extended to the whole. The evolutionary process of the naming of the western hemisphere as a whole was thus made complete in 1541, by Mer- cator, who spread the name America in large let- ters upon a globe which he constructed that year, so that part of it appeared upon the northern and part upon the southern continent. — J. Fiske, Dis- covery of America, ch. 7, v. 2. Also in: W. B. Scaife, Americn: its geographi- cal history, section 4. — R. H. Major, Life 0/ Prince Henry 0/ Portugal, ch. ig. — J. Winsor, Narrative and critical history of America, v. 2, ch. 2, notes. — H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific states, v. ii PP- 9Q-II2, and 123-125. Complete bibliography of the Vespucci question and of the name America prepared by G. Fuma- galli for G. Uzielli's new edition of A. M. Ban- dini. Vita di Amerigo Vespucci (1893). A good modern critical discussion of the Vespucci ques- tion is that by Hugues, in Raccolta Columbiana. A good resume of the diffusion of the name Amer- ica is L. Hugues, La Vicende del yome "America" (i8q8). Also in H. Ludin, Naming of America, {Americana, v. 6, Dec, pp. 1174-1176). 1502. — Second voyage of Ojeda. — The first voyage of .Monzo de Ojeda, from which he re- turned to Spain in June 1500, was profitable to nothing but his reputation as a bold and enterpris- ing explorer. By way of reward, he was given "a grant of land in Hispaniola, and likewise the gov- ernment of Coquibacoa, which place he had dis- covered [and which he had called Venezuela]. He was authorized to fit out a number of ships at his own expense and to prosecute discoveries on the coast of Terra Firma. . . . With four ves- sels, Ojeda set sail for the Canaries, in 1502, and thence proceeded to the Gulf of Paria, from which locality he found his way to Coquibacoa. Not lik- ing this poor country, he sailed on to the Bay of Honda, where he determined to found his settle- ment, which was, however, destined to be of short duration. Provisions very soon became scarce; and one of his partners, who had been sent to procure supplies from Jamaica, failed to return until Ojeda's followers were almost in a state of mutiny. The result was that the whole colony set sail for Hispaniola, taking the governor with them in chains. All that Ojeda gained by his expedition was that he at length came off winner in a lawsuit, the costs of which, however, left him a ruined man." — R. G. Watson, Spanish and Por- tuguese Soulli America, bk. i, ch. i. , 1503-1504. — Fourth voyage of Vespucci. — First settlement in Brazil. — In June, 1503, ■■.\merigo sailed again from Lisbon, with six ships. The object of this voyage was to discovered a cer- tain island called Melcha, which was supposed to lie west of Calicut, and to be as famous a mart in the commerce of the Indian world as Cadiz was in Europe. They made the Cape de Verds, and then, contrary to the judgment of Vespucci and of all the fleet, the Commander persisted in standing for Serra Leoa." The Commander's ship was lost, and \'espucci, with one vessel, only, reached the coast of the New World, finding a port which is thought to have been Bahia. Here "they waited above two months in vain expectation of being joined by the rest of the squadron. Having lost all hope of this they coasted on for 260 leagues to the Southward, and there took port again in 18° S. 35 W. of the meridian of Lisbon. Here they remained five months, upon good terms with the natives, with whom some of the party penetrated forty leagues into the interior; and here they erected a fort, in which they left 24 men who had been saved from the Commander's ship. They gave them 12 guns, besides other arms, and provisions for six months; then loaded with brazil [w-ood], sailed homeward and returned in safety. . . . The honour, therefore, of having formed the first settlement in this coun- try is due to Amerigo Vespucci. It does not ap- pear that any further attention was at this time paid to it. . . . But the cargo of brazil which Ves- pucci had brought home tempted private adven- turers, who were content with peaceful gains, to trade thither for that valuable wood; and this trade became so well known, that in consequence the coast and the whole country obtained the name of Brazil, notwithstanding the holier appellation [Santa Cruz] which Cabral had given it."— R, Southey, History of Brazil, v. i, ch. i. 1509-1511. — Expeditions of Ojeda and Nlcuesa to the Isthmus. — Settlement at Darien.— ''For several years alter his ruinous, though successful lawsuit, we lose all traces of .\lonzo de Ojeda, ex- cepting that we are told he made another voyage to Coquibacoa [\'enezucla], in 1505. No record remains of this expedition, which seems to have been equally unprofitable with the preceding, for we find him, in 1508, in the island of Hispaniola as poor in purse, though as proud in spirit, as ever. . . . About this time the cupidity of King Ferdi- nand was preatly excited by the accounts by Co- lumbus of the gold mines of Veragua, in which the admiral fancied he had discovered the Aurea Cher- sonesus of the ancients, whence King Solomon pro- cured the gold used in building the temple of Jerusalem. Subsequent voyagers had corroborated the opinion of Columbus as to the general riches of the coast of Terra Firma ; King Ferdinand re- solved, therefore, to found regular colonies along that coast, and to place the whole under some capable commander." Ojeda was recommended for this post, but found a competitor in one of the gentlemen of the Spanish cotirt, Diego de Nicuesa. "King Ferdin^md avoided the dilemma by favoring both : not indeed by furnishing them with ships and money, but by granting patents and dignities, which cost nothing, and might bring rich returns. He 266 AMERICA, 1509-1511 Discovery of Florida AMERICA, 1512 divided that part of the continent which lies along the Isthmus of Darien into two provinces, the boundary line running through the Gulf of Uraba. The eastern part, extending to Cape de la Vela, was called New Andalusia, and the government of it given to Ojeda. The other to the west [called Castilla del Oro], including Veragua, and reaching to Cape Gracias a Dios, was assigned to Nicuesa. The island of Jamaica was given to the two gov- ernors in common, as a place whence to draw sup- plies of provisions." Slender means for the equip- ment of Ojeda's expedition were supplied by the veteran pilot, Juan de la Cosa, who accompanied him as his lieutenant. Nicuesa was more amply provided. The rival armaments arrived at San Domingo about the same time (in 1509), and much quarreling between the two commanders ensued. Ojeda found a notary in San Domingo, Martin Fer- nadez de Enciso, who had money which he con- sented to invest in the interprise, and who prom- ised to follow him with an additional ship-load of recruits and supplies. Under this arrangement Ojeda made ready to sail in advance of his com- petitor, embarking Nov. 10, 1509. Among those who sailed with him was Francisco Pizarro, the future conqueror of Peru. Ojeda, by his energy, gained time enough to nearly ruin his expedition before Nicuesa reached the scene ; for, having landed at Cartagena, he made war upon the na- tives, pursued them recklesslj' into the interior of the country, with 70 men, and was overwhelmed by the desperate savages, escaping with only one companion from their poisoned arrows. His faith- ful friend, the pilot, Juan de la Cosa, was among the slain, and Ojeda himself, hiding in the forest, was nearly dead of hunger and exposure when found and ref-cued by a searching party from his ships. At this juncture the fleet of Nicuesa made its appearance. Jealousies were forgotten in a common rage against the natives and the two ex- peditions were joined in a attack on the Indian villages which spared nothing. Nicuesa then pro- ceeded to Veragua, while Ojeda founded a town, which he called San Sebastian, at the east end of the Gulf of Uraba. Incessantly harassed by the natives, terrified by the effects of the poison which these used in their warfare, and threatened with starvation by the rapid exhaustion of its supplies, the settlement lost courage and hope. Enciso and his promised ship were waited for in vain. At length there came a vessel which certain piratical adventurers at Hispaniola had stolen, and which brought some welcome provisions, eagerly bought at an exorbitant price. Ojeda, half recovered from a poisoned wound, which he had treated heroically with red-hot plates of iron, engaged the pirates to convey him to Hispaniola, for the procuring of supplies. The voyage . was a disastrous one, re- sulting in shipwreck on the coast of Cuba and a month of desperate wandering in the morasses of the island. Ojeda survived all these perils and sufferings, made his way to Jamaica, and from Jamaica to San Domingo, found that his partner Enciso had sailed for the colony long before, with abundant supplies, but could learn nothing more. Nor could he obtain for himself any means of returning to San Sebastian, or of dispatching re- lief to the place. Sick, penniless and disheart- ened, he went into a convent and died. Meantime the despairing colonists at San Sebastian waited until death had made them few enough to be all taken on board of the two little brigantines which were left to them; then they sailed away, Pizarro in command. One of the brigantines soon went down in a squall; the other made its way to the harbor of Cartagena, where it found the tardy Enciso, searching for his colony. Enciso, under his commission, now took command, and insisted upon going to San Sebastian. There the old ex- periences were soon renewed, and even Enciso was ready to abandon the deadly place. The latter had brought with him a needy cavalier, Vasco Nufiez de Balboa — so needy that he smuggled him- self on board Enciso's ship in a cask to escape his creditors. Vasco Nuiiez who had coasted this region with Bastidas, in 1500, now advised a re- moval of the colony to Darien, on the opposite coast of the Gulf of Uraba. His advice, which was followed, proved good, and the hopes of the settlers were raised; but Enciso's modes of govern- ment proved irksome to them. Then Balboa called attention to the fact that, when they crossed the Gulf of Uraba, they passed out of the territory covered by the patent to Ojeda, under which Enciso was commissioned, and into that granted to Nicuesa. On this suggestion Enciso was promptly deposed and two alcaldes were elected, Balboa bemg one. While events in one corner of Nicuesa's domain were thus estab- lishing a colony for that ambitious governor, he himself, at the other extremity of it, was faring badly. He had suffered hardships, separation from most of his command and long abandonment on a desolate coast; had rejoined his followers af- ter great suffering, only to suffer yet more in their company, until less than one hundred remained of the 700 who sailed with him a few months before. The settlement at Veragua had been deserted, and another, named Nombre de Dios undertaken, with no improvement of circumstances. In this situa- tion he was rejoiced, at last, by the arrival of one of his lieutenants, Rodrigo de Colmenares, who came with supplies. Colmenares brought tidings, moreover, of the prosperous colony at Darien, which he had discovered on his way, with an in- vitation to Nicuesa to come and assume the gov- ernment of it. He accepted the invitation with delight; but, alas, the community at Darien had repented of it before he reached them, and they refused to receive him when he arrived. Permitted finally to land, he was seized by a treacherous party among the colonists — to whom Balboa is said to have opposed all the resistance in his power — was put on board of an old and crazy brigantine, with seventeen of his friends, and com- pelled to take an oath that he would sail straight to Spain. "The frail bark set sail on the first of March, 15 11, and steered across the Caribbean Sea for the island of Hispaniola, but was never seen or heard of more." — W. Irving, Life and voy- ages of Columbus and his companions, v. 3. Also in: H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific stales, V. I, ch. 6. 1510-1661. — Portuguese and Dutch in Brazil. See Brazil: 1510-1661. 1511. — Spanish conquest and occupation of Cuba. See Cuba: 1511. 1512. — Voyage of Ponce de Leon in quest of the fountain of youth, and his discovery of Florida. — "Whatever may have been the South- ernmost point reached by Cabot in coasting America on his return, it is certain that he did not land in Florida, and that the honour of first ex- ploring that country is due to Juan Ponce de Leon. This cavalier, who was governor of Puerto Rico, induced by the vague traditions circulated by the natives of the West Indies, that there was a country in the north possessing a fountain whose waters restored the aged to youth, made it an object of his ambition to be the first to discover this marvellous region. With this view, he re- signed the governorship, and set sail with three 267 AMERICA, 1513-1517 Discovery of the Pacific AMERICA, 1513-1517 caravels on the 3d of March 1512. Steering N. J4 N., he came upon a countr>' covered with flow- ers and verdure ; and as the day of his discovery happened to be Palm Sunday, called by the Span- iards 'Pasqua Florida,' he gave it the name of Florida from this circumstance. He landed on the 2d of April, and took possession of the country in the name of the king of Castile. The warlike people uf the coast of Cautio (a name given by the Indians to all the country lying between Cape Cafiaveral and the southern point of Florida) soon, however, compelled him to retreat, and he pursued his e.xploration of the coast as far as 30 8' north latitude, and on the 8th of May doubled Cape Caiiaveral. Then retracing his course to Puerto Rico, in the hope of finding the island of Bimini, which he believed to be the Land of Youth, and described by the Indians as opposite to Florida, he discovered the Bahamas, and some other islands, previously unkown. Bad weather compelling him to put into the isle of Guanima to repair dam- ages, he despatched one of his caravels, under the orders of Juan Perez de Ortubia and of the pilot Anton de Alaminos, to gain information respecting the desired land, which he had as yet been totally unable to discover. He returned to Puerto Rico on the 2ist of September; a few days afterwards, Ortubia arrived also with news of Bimini. He re- ported that he had explored the island, — which he described as large, well wooded, and watered by numerous streams, — but he had failed in discover- ing the fountain. Oviedo places Bimini at 40 leagues west of the island of Bahama. Thus all the advantages which Ponce de Leon promised himself from this voyage turned to the profit of geography: the title of 'Adelantado of Bimini and Florida,' which was conferred upon hira, was purely honorary ; but the route taken by him in order to return to Puerto Rico, showed the advantage of making the homeward voyage to Spain by the Bahama Channel." — W. B. Rye, Introduction to "Discovery and conquest of Terra Florida, by a gentleman oj Elvas" (Hakluyt Society, 1851). .\i.so i.v: G. R. Fairbanks. History of Florida. ch. I. — E. G. Bourne, Spain in America. — J. B Shea, Ancient Florida in Winsor, Narrative and critical history, 11. 1513-1517.— Discovery of the Pacific by Bal- boa. — Pedrarias Davila on the isthmus. — With Enciso deposed from authority and Nicuesa sent adrift, Vasco Nuiiez de Balboa seems to have easily held the lead in affairs at Darien, though not without much opposition ; for faction and turbu- lence were rife. Enciso was permitted to carry his grie%'ances and complaints to Spain, but Bal- boa's colleague, Zamudio, went with him, and an- other comrade proceeded to Hispaniola, both of them well-furnished with gold. For the quest of gold had succeeded at last. The Darien adven- turers had found considerable quantities in the possession of the surrounding natives, and were gathering it with greedy hands. Balboa had the prudence to establish friendly relations with one of the most important of the neisihhorirg caciques. whose comely daughter he wedded — according to the easy customs of the country — and whose ally he became in wars with the other caciques. By gift and tribute, therefore as well as by plunder. he harvested more gold than any before him had found since the ransacking of the new world be- gan. But what they obtained seemed little com- pared with the treasures reported to them as e^xist- ing beyond the near mountains and toward the south. One Indian youth, son of a friendly ca- cique, particularly excited their imaginations by the tale which he told of another great sea, not far to the west, on the southward-stretching shores of which were countries that teemed with every kind of wealth. He told them, however, that the/ would need a thousand men to fight their way to this Sea. Balboa gave such credence to the story that he sent envoys to Spain to solicit forces from the king for a adequate expedition across the moun- tains. They sailed in October, 151 2, but did not arrive in Spain until the following May. They found Balboa in much disfavor at the court. En- ciso and the friends of the unfortunate Nicuesa had unitedly ruined him by their complaints, and the king had caused criminal proceedings against him to be commenced. Meantime, some inkling of these hostilities had reached Balboa, himself, conveyed by a vessel which bore to him, at the same time, a commission as captain-general from the authorities in Hispaniola. He now resolved to become the discoverer of the ocean which his In- dian friends described, and of the rich lands bord- ering it, before his enemies could interfere with him. "Accordingly, early in September, 1513, he set out on his renowned expedition for finding 'the other sea,' accompanied by 190 men well armed, and by dogs, which were of more avail than men, and by Indian slaves to carry the burdens. He went by sea to the territory of his father-in-law. King Careta, by whom he was well received, and ac- companied by whose Indians he moved on into Poncha's territory." Quieting the fears of this cacique, he passed his country without fighting. The next chief encountered, named Quarequa, at- tempted resistance, but was routed, with a great slaughter of his people, and Balboa pushed on. "On the 25th of September, 1513, he came near to the top of a mountain from whence the South Sea was visible. The distance from Poncha's chief town to this point was forty leagues, reck- oned then six days' journey; but Vasco Xunez and his men took twenty-five days to accomplish it, as they suffered much from the roughness of the ways and from the want of provisions. A little before Vasco Nuiiez reached the height, Quarequa's Indians informed him of his near approach to the sea. It was a sight in beholding which, for the first time, any man would wish to be alone. Vasco Nufiez bade his men sit down while he ascended, and then, in solitude, looked down upon the vast Pacific — the first man of the Old World, so far as we know, who had done so. Falling on his knees, he gave thanks to God for the favour shown to him in his being permitted to discover the Sea of the South. Then with his hand he beckoned to his men to come up. When they had come, both he and they knelt down and poured forth their thanks to God. He then addressed them. . . . Having . . . addressed his men, Vasco Nunez proceeded to take formal possession, on behalf of the kings of Castile, of the sea and of all that was in it; and in order to make memorials of the event, he cut down trees, formed crosses, and heaped up stones. He also inscribed the names of the monarchs of Castile upon great trees in the vicinity." After- war Is, when he had descended the western slope and found the shore, "he entered the sea up to his thighs, having his sword on. and with his shield in his hand; then he called the by-standers to witness how he touched with his person and took possession of this sea for the kings of Castile, and declared that he would defend the possession ol it against all comers. .After this, Vasco Nunez made friends in the usual manner, first conquering and then npL'otiati'.-.g with" the several chiefs or caciques V hose territories came in his way. He explored the Gulf of San Miguel, finding much wealth of pearls in the region, and returned to Darien by a route 268 AMERICA, 1513-1517 Discovery of Mexico AMERICA, 1517-1518 which crossed the isthmus considerably farther to the north, reaching his colony on the 2Qth of Janu- ary, 1514, having been absent nearly five months. "His men at Darien received him with exultation, and he lost no time in sending his news, 'such sig- nal and new news,' ... to the King of Spain, ac- companying it with rich presents. His letter, which gave a detailed account of his journey, and which, for its length, was compared by Peter Martyr to the celebrated letter that came to the senate from Tiberius, contained in every page thanks to God that he had escaped from such great dangers and labours. Both the letter and the presents were intrusted to a man named Arbolanche, who de- parted from Darien about the beginning of March, 1514. . . . Vasco Nunez's messenger, Arbolanche, reached the court of Spain too late for his master's interests." The latter had already been superseded in the Governorship, and his successor was on the way to take his authority from him. The new governor was one Pedrarias De Avila, or Davila, as the name is sometimes written ; — an envious and malignant old man, under whose rule on the isth- mus the destructive energy of Spanish conquest rose to its meanest and most heartless and brain- less development. Conspicuously exposed as he was to the jealousy and hatred of Pedrarias, Vasco Nunez was probably doomed to ruin, in some form, from the first. At one time, in 1516, there seemed to be a promise for him of alliance with his all-powerful enemy, by a marriage with one of the governor's daughters, and he received the command of an expedition which again crossed the isthmus, carrying ships, and began the exploration of the Pacific. But circumstances soon arose which gave Pedrarias an opportunity to accuse the ex- plorer of treasonable designs and to accomplish his arrest — Francisco Pizarro being the officer fitly charged with the execution of the governor's war- rant. Brought in chains to Ada, Vasco Nunez was summarily tried, found guilty and led forth to swift death, laying his head upon the block (1517). "Thus perished Vasco Nuiiez de Balboa, in the forty-second year of his age, the man who, since the time of Columbus, had shown the most states- manlike and warriorlike powers in that part of the world, but whose career only too much re- sembles that of Ojeda, Nicuesa, and the other unfortunate commanders who devastated those beautiful regions of the earth." — Sir A. Helps, Spanish conquest in America, bk. 6, v. 1. — "If I have applied strong terms of denunciation to Pedrarias Davila, it is because he unquestionably deserves it. He is by far the worst man who came officially to the New World during its early gov- ment. In this all authorities agree. And all agree that Vasco Nunez was not deserving of death." — H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific states, v. I, ch. 8-12 [foot-note, p. 458). Also in: W. Irving, Life and voyages of Co- lumbus and his companions, v. 3. — E. G. Bourne, .Spain in America, pp. loS-iii, 331. — C. L. G. Anderson, Old Panama and Caslilla del Oro. 1515. — Discovery of La Plata by Juan de Soils. See PARAGUA^■: 7515-1557. 1517-1518. — Spaniards find Mexico. — "An hi- dalgo of Cuba, named Hernandez de Cordova, sailed with three vessels on an expedition to one of the neighbouring Bahama Islands, in quest of In- dian slaves (Feb. 8, 1517). He encountered a succession of heavy gales which drove him far out of his course, and at the end of three weeks he found himself on a strange and unknown coast. On landing and asking the name of the country, he was answered by the natives 'Tectelan,' mean- ing 'I do not understand you,' but which the Span- iards, misinterpreting into the name of the place, easily corrupted into Yucatan. Some writers give a different etymology. . . . Bernal Diaz says the word came from the vegetable 'yuca' and 'tale,' the name for a hillock in which it is planted. . . . M. Waldeck finds a much more plausible derivation in the Indian word 'Ouyouckatan,' 'listen to what they say.' . . . Cordova had landed on the north- eastern end of the peninsula, at Cape Catoche. He was astonished at the size and solid materials of the buildings constructed of stone and lime, so dif- ferent from the frail tenements of reeds and rushes which formed the habitations of the islanders. He was struck also, with the higher cultivation o£ the soil, and with the delicate texture of the cotton garments and gold ornaments of the natives. Everything indicated a civilization far superior to anything he had before witnessed in the New World. He saw the evidence of a different race, moreover, in the warlike spirit of the people. . . , Wherever they landed they were met with the most deadly hostility. Cordova himself, in one of his skirmishes with the Indians, received more than a dozen wounds, and one only of his party es- caped unhurt. At length, when he had coasted the peninsula as far as Compeachy, he returned to Cuba, which he reached after an absence of sev- eral months. . . . The reports he had brought back of the country, and, still more, the specimens of curiously wrought gold, convinced Velasquez [gov- ernor of Cuba] of the importance of this discov- ery, and he prepared with all despatch to avail himself of it. He accordingly fitted out a little squadron of four vessels for the newly discovered, lands, and placed it under the command of his nephew, Juan de Grijalva, a man on whose prob- ity, prudence, and attachment to himself he knew he could rely. The fleet left the port of St. Jago de Cuba, May i, 1518. . . . Grijalva soon passed over to the continent and coasted the pen- insula, touching at the same places as his prede- cessor. Everywhere he was struck, like him, with the evidences of a higher civilization, especially in the architecture ; as he well might be, since this was the region of those extraordinary remains which have become recently the subject of so much speculation. He was astonished, also, at the sight of large stone crosses, evidently objects of worship, which he met with in various places. Reminded by these circumstances of his own coun- try, he gave the peninsula the name New Spain, a name since appropriated to a much wider extent of territory. Wherever Grijalva landed, he experi- enced the same unfriendly reception as Cordova, though he suffered less, being better prepared to meet it." He succeeded, however, at last, in open- ing a friendly conference and traffic with one of the chiefs, on the Rio de Tabasco, and "had the satisfaction of receiving, for a few worthless toys and trinkets, a rich treasure of jewels, gold orna- ments and vessels, of the most fantastic forms and workmanship. Grijalva now thought that in this successful traffic — successful beyond his most san- guine expectations — he had accomplished the chief object of his mission." He therefore dispatched Alvarado, one of his captains, to Velasquez, with the treasure acquired, and continued his voyage along the coast, as far as the province of Panuco, returning to Cuba at the end of about six months from his departure. "On reaching the Island, he was surprised to learn that another and more for- midable armament had been fitted out to follow up his own discoveries, and to find orders at the same time from the governor, couched in no very cour- teous language, to repair at once to St. Jago. He was received by that personage, not merely with 269 AMERICA, 1519-1524 Voyage of Magellan AMERICA, 1519-1524 coldness, but with reproaches, for having neg- lected so far an opportunity of establishing a colony in the country he had visited.'' — W. H. Prescott, Conquest of Mexico, bk. 2, cli. i. Also in: C. St. J. Fancourt, History of Yuca- tan, ch. 1-2. — Bernal Diaz del Castillo, Memoirs, V. I, cb. 2-19. 1519-1524. — Spanish conquest of Mexico. See Mexico: 1519 C February- April) ; 1519-1520; 1520 (June-July); 1520-1521; 1521 (May-July) ; 1521 (July); 1521 (.\ugust) ; 1521-1524. 1519-1524. — Voyage of Magellan and Sebas- tian del Cano.— New World passed and the earth circumnavigated. — Congress at Badajoz. — Fernando Magellan, or Magalhaes, was "a disaf- fected Portuguese gentleman who had served his country for five years in the Indies under Albu- querque, and understood well the secrets of the Eastern trade. In 1517, conjointly with his geo- graphical and astronomical friend, Ruy Falerio, another unrequited Portuguese, he offered his ser- vices to the Spanish court. At the same time these two friends proposed, not only to prove that the Moluccas were within the Spanish lines of demar- cation, but to discover a passage thither different from that used by the Portuguese. Their schemes were listened to, adopted and carried out. The Straits of Magellan were discovered, the broad South £ea was crossed, the Ladrones and the Phillipines were inspected, the Moluccas were passed through, the Cape of Good Hope was doubled on the homeward voyage, and the globe was circumnavigated, all in less than three years, from i5ig to 1522. Magellan lost his life, and only one of his five ships returned [under Sebas- tian del Cano] to tell the marvelous story. The magnitude of the enterprise was equalled only by the magnitude of the results. The globe for the first time began to assume its true character and size in the minds of men, and the minds of men began soon to grasp and utilize the results of this circumnavigation for the enlargement of trade and commerce, and for the benefit of geography, as- tronomy, mathematics, and the other sciences. This wonderful story, is it not told in a thousand books? . . . The Portuguese in India and the Spiceries, as well as at home, now seeing the in- evitable conflict approaching, were thoroughly aroused to the importance of maintaining their rights. They openly asserted them, and pro- nounced this trade with the Moluccas by the Span- ish an encroachment on their prior discoveries and possession, as well as a violation of the Papal Compact of 1494, and prepared themselves en- ergetically for defense and offense. On the other hand, the Spaniards as openly declared that Magellan's fleet carried the first XThristians to the Moluccas and by friendly intercourse with the kings of those islands, reduced them to Chris- tian subjection and brought back letters and tribute to Caesar. Hence these kings and their people came under the protection of Charles V. Besides this, the Spaniards claimed that the Moluc- cas were within the Spanish half, and were there- fore doubly theirs. . . . Matters thus waxing hot. King John of Portugal begged Charles V. to delay dispatching his new fleet until the disputed points could be discussed and settled. Charles, who boasted that he had rather be right than rich, consented, and the ships were staid. These two Christian princes, who owned all the newly dis- covered and to be discovered parts of the whole world between them by deed of gift of the Pope, agreed to meet in Congress at Badajos by their representatives, to discuss and settle all matters in dispute about the division of their patrimony, and to define and stake out their lands and waters, both parties agreeing to abide by the decision of the Congress. Accordingly, in the early spring of 1524, up went to this little border town four- and-twenty wise men, or thereabouts, chosen by each prince. They comprised the first judges, lawyers, mathematicians, astronomers, cosmogra- phers, navigators and pilots of the land, among whose names were many honored now as then — such as Fernando Columbus, Sebastian Cabot, Estevan Gomez, Diego Ribero, etc. . . . The de- bates and proceedings of this Congress, as re- ported by Peter Martyr, Oviedo, and Gomara, are very amusing, but no regular joint decision could be reached, the Portuguese decUning to subscribe to the verdict of the Spaniards, inasmuch as It deprived them of the Moluccas. So each party published and proclaimed its own decision after the Congress broke up in confusion on the last day of May, 1524. It was, however, tacitly under- stood that the Moluccas fell to Spain, while Brazil, to the extent of two hundred leagues from Cape St. Augustine, fell to the Portuguese . . . How- ever, much good resulted from this first geograph- ical Congress. The extent and breadth of the Pacific were appreciated, and the influence of the Congress was soon after seen in the greatly improved maps, globes, and charts." — H. Stevens, Historical and geographical notes, 1453-1530. — • "For three months and twenty days he [Magellan] sailed on the Pacific and never saw inhabited land. He was compelled by famine to strip off the pieces of skin and leather wherewith his rigging was here and there bound, to soak them in the sea and then soften them with warm water, so as to make a wretched food; to eat the sweepings of the ship and other loathsome mat- ter; to drink water gone putrid by keeping; and yet he resolutely held on his course, though his men were dying daily. ... In the whole his- tory of human undertakings there is nothing that exceeds, if indeed there is anything that equals, this voyage of Magellan's. That of Columbus dwindles away in comparison. It is a display of superhuman courage, superhuman perseverance." — J. W. Draper, History of the intellectual de- velopment of Europe, ch. 19. — "The voyage [of Magellan] . . . was doubtless the greatest feat of navigation that has ever been performed, and nothing can be imagined that would surpass it except a journey to some other planet. It has not the unique historic position of the first voyage of Columbus, which brought together two streams of human life that had been disjoined since the Glacial Period. But as an achievement in ocean navigation that voyage of Columbus sinks into insignificance by the side of it, and when the earth was a second time encompassed by the greatest English sailor of his age, the advance in knowledge, as well as the different route chosen, had much reduced the difficulty of the performance. When we consider the frailness of the ships, the immeas- urable extent of the unknown, the mutinies that were prevented or quelled, and the hardships that were endured, we can have no hesitation in speaking of Magellan as the prince of navi- gators." — J. Fiske, Discovery of America, v. 2, ch. 7. .'\i-SO in: Lord Stanley of Alderley, First voyage round the world (Hakluyt Society. 1874). — R. Kerr, Collection of voyages, v. 10. — F. H. H. Guil- lemard, Life of Ferdinand Magellan and the first circumnavigation of the globe (1891). — E. G. Bourne, Spain in America. — C. R. Markham, Early Spanish voyage (Hakluyt Society, 2nd series, v. 38, 12). 270 AMERICA, 1519-1525 Voyages of V errazano AMERICA, 1523-1524 1519-1525. — Voyages of Garay and Ayllon. — Discovery of the mouth of the Mississippi. — Exploration of the Carolina coast. — In 1519, Francisco de Garay, governor of Jamaica, who liad been one of the companions of Columbus on his second voyage, having heard of the richness and beauty of Yucatan, "at his own charge sent •out four ships well equipped, and with good pilots, under the command of Alvarez Alonso de Pineda. His professed object was to search for some strait, west of Florida, which was not yet certainly known to form a part of the continent. The strait having been sought for in vain, his ships turned toward the west, attentively examining the ports, rivers, inhabitants, and everything else that seemed worthy of remark; and especially noticing the vast volume of water brought down by one very large stream. At last they came upon the track of Cortes near Vera Cruz. . . . The care- fully drawn map of the pilots showed distinctly the Mississippi, which, in this earliest authentic trace of its outlet, bears the name of the Espiritu Santo. . . . But Garay thought not of the Mis- sissippi and its valley: he coveted access to the wealth of Mexico; and, in 1523, lost fortune and life ingloriously in a dispute with Cortes for the government of the country on the river Panuco. A voyage for slaves brought the Spaniards in 1520 still farther to the north. A company of seven, of whom the most distinguished was Lucas Vasquez de Ayllon, fitted out two slave ships from St. Domingo, in quest of laborers for their plantations and mines. From the Bahama Islands they passed to the coast of South Carolina, which was called Chicora. The Combahee river re- ceived the name of Jordan ; the name of St. Helena, whose day is the iSth of August, was given to a cape, but now belongs to the sound." Luring a large number of the confiding natives on board their ships the adventurers treacherously set sail with them; but one of the vessels foundered at sea, and most of the captives on the other sick- ened and died. Vasquez de Ayllon was rewarded for his treacherous exploit by being authorized and appointed to make the conquest of Chicora "For this bolder enterprise the undertaker wasted his fortune in preparations; in 1525 his largest ship was stranded in the river Jordan ; many of his men were killed by the natives ; and he himself escaped only to suffer from the consciousness of having done nothing worthy of honor Yet it may be that ships, sailing under his authority, made the discovery of the Chesapeake and named it the bay of St. Mary; and perhaps even entered the bay of Delaware, which, in Spanish geography, was called St. Christopher's." — G Bancroft, History of the United States, pt. i, cli. 2. Also in: H, H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific states, V. 4, ch. 11, and v. J, ch. 6-7. — W. G Simms, History of South Carolina, bk. i, ch. i. 1523-1524. — Voyages of Verrazano. — First un- dertakings of France in the New World. — "It is constantly admitted in our history that our kings paid no attention to America before the year 1523 Then Francis I., wishing to excite the emu lation of his subjects in regard to navigation and commerce, as he had already so successfully in regard to the sciences and fine arts, ordered John Verazani, who was in his service, to go and ex- plore the New Lands, which began to be much talked of in France . . Verazani was accord- ingly sent, in i,';23, with four ships to discover North America ; Ijut our historians have not spoken of his first expedition, and we should be in igno- rance of it now, had not Ramusio preserved in his great collection a letter of Verazani himself ad- dressed to Francis I. and dated Dieppe, July 8, 1524. In it he supposes the king already informed of the success and details of the voyage, so that he contents himself with stating that he sailed from Dieppe in four vessels, which he had safely brought back to that port. In January, 1524, he sailed with two ships, the Dauphine and the Nor- mande, to cruise against the Spaniards. Towards the close of the same year, or early in the next, he again fitted out the Dauphine, on which, em- barking with 50 men and provisions for eight months, he first sailed to the island of Madeira." — Father Charlevoix, History of New France (trans- lated by J. G. Shea), bk. i.— "On the 17th of January, 1524, he [Verrazano] parted from the 'Islas desiertas,' a well-known little group of is- lands near Madeira, and sailed at first westward, running in 25 days 500 leagues, with a light and pleasant easterly breeze, along the northern bor- der of the trade winds, in about 30" N. His track was consequently nearly like that of Colum- bus on his first voyage. On the 14th of February he met 'with as violent a hurricane as any ship ever encountered.' But he weathered it, and pur- sued his voyage to the west, 'with a little deviation to the north;' when, after having sailed 24 days and 400 leagues, he decried a new country which, as he supposed, had never before been seen either by modern or ancient navigators. The country was very low. From the above descrip- tion it is evident that Verrazano came in sight of the east coast of the United States about the loth of March, 1524. He places his land-fall in 34° N., which is the latitude of Cape Fear." He first sailed southward, for about 50 leagues, he states, looking for a harbor and finding none. He then turned northward. "I infer that Verra- zano saw little of the coast of South Carolina and nothing of that of Georgia, and that in these regions he can, at most, be called the discoverer only of the coast of North Carolina. ... He rounded Cape Hatteras, and at a distance of about SO leagues came to another shore, where he an- chored and spent several days. . . . This was the second principal landing-place of Verrazano If we reckon 50 leagues from Cape Hatteras, it would fall somewhere upon the east coast of Delaware, in latitude 38° N., where, by some authors, it is thought to have been. But if, as appears most likely, Verrazano reckoned his dis- tance here, as he did in other cases, from his last anchoring, and not from Cape Hatteras, we must look for his second landing somewhere south of the entrance to Chesapeake Bay, and near the en- trance to Albemarle Sound. And this better agrees with the 'sail of 100 leagues' which Ver- razano says he made from his second to his third landing-place, in New York Bay. ... He found at this third landing station an excellent berth, where he came to anchor, well-protected from the winds, . . . and from which he ascended the river in his boat into the interior. He found the shores very thicklv settled, and as he passed up half a league further, he discovered a most beautiful lake ... of three leagues in circum- ference Here, more than 30 canoes came to him with a multitude of people, who seemed very friendly . . This description contains several ac- counts which make it still more clear that the Bay of New York was the scene of these occur- rences" — Verrazano's anchorage having been at Gravesend Bay, the river which he entered being the Narrows, and the lake he found being the Inner Harbor From New York Bay Verrazano sailed eastward, along the southern shore of Long Island, and following the New England coast, 271 AMERICA, 1524 Voyage of the Dauphine AMERICA, 1524 (ouching at or describing points which are iden- tified with Narragansett Bay and Newport, Blocli Island or Martha's Vineyard, and Portsmouth. His coasting voyage was pursued as far as 50' N., from which point he sailed homeward. "He en- tered the port of Dieppe early in July, 15:4. Hia whole exploring expedition, from Madeira and back, had accordingly lasted but five and a half months." — J. G. Kohl, History of the discovery of Maine (Maine Historical Society Collection, 2d Series, v. i, cli. 8) . 1524. — Verrazano's voyage along the Atlantic coast of North America. — Letter of Bernardo Carli to his father about Verrazano's voyage. — "So there being here news recently of the ar- rival of Captain Giovanni da Verrazano, our Florentine, at the port of Dieppe, in Normandy, with his ship, the Dauphine, with which he sailed from the Canary islands the end of last January, to go in search of new lands for this most serene crown of France in which he displayed very noble and great courage in undertaking such an unknown voyage with only one ship, which was a caraval of hardly tons, with only fifty men, with the intention, if possible, of discovering Cathay [China], taking a course through other climates than those the Portuguese use in reach- ing it by the way of Calicut [Calcutta], but going towards the northwest and north, entirely believing that, although Ptolemy, .-Aristotle and other cos- mographers affirm that no land is to be found to- wards such climates, he would find it there never- theless. And so God has vouchsafed him as he distinctly describes in a letter of his to this S.M.; of which, in this, there is a copy. And for want of provisions, after many months spent in navigating, he asserts he was forced to return from that hemisphere into this, and having been seven months on the voyage, to show a very great and rapid passage, and to have achieved a won- derful and most extraordinary feat according to those who understand the seamanship of the world. Of which at the commencement of his said voyage there was an unfavorable opinion formed, and many thought there would be no more news either of him or of his vessel, but that he 'might be lost on that side of Norway, in consequence of the great ice which is in that northern ocean; but the Great God, as the Moor said, in order to give us every day proofs of his infinite power and show us how admirable is this worldly ma- chine, has disclosed to him a breadth of land, as you will perceive, of such extent that according to good reasons, and the degrees of latitude and longtitude, he alleges and shows it greater than Europe, Africa and a part of Asia; ergo mundiis novus [Note. — Translation: 'therefore a new world.' Ed] : and this exclusive of what the Spaniards have discovered in several years in the west. . . . What this our captain has brought he does not state in this letter, except a very young man taken from those countries; but it is supposed he has brought a sample of gold which they do not value in those parts, and of drugs and other aromatic liquors for the purpose of conferring here with several merchants after he shall have been in the presence of the Most Serene Majesty. And at this hour he ought to be there, and from choice to come here shortly, as he is much desired in order to converse with him; the more so that he will find here the Majesty, the King, our Lord, who is expected here in three or four days. And we hope that S.M. will en- trust him again with half a dozen good vessels and that he will return to the voyage. And if our Francisco Carli be returned from Cairo, advise him to go, at a venture, on the said voyage with him; and I believe they were acquainted at Cairo where he has been several years; and not only in Egypt and Syria, but almost through all the known world, and thence by reason of his merit is esteemed another Amerigo Vespucci; an- other Fernando Magellan and even more; and we hope that being provided with other good ships and vessels, well built and properly victualled, he may discover some profitable traffic and matter; and will, our Lord God granting him life, do honor to our country, in acquiring immortal fame and memory." History of the Dauphine and its voyage. — Selections from a letter of the Navigator Giovanni da Verrazano to the King of France, Francis I, Patron and Director of the Explora- tion, about the Voyage which He Made along the Eastern Coast of the Present United States and during which He Entered the Harbor of the Present City of New York.) From Madeira to the New World. — Tempest ON the ocean. — "From the deserted rock near to the island of Madeira of the Most Serene King of Portugal a- (Note a — commencing 1524.) [Lettered notes are the annotations found in the manuscnpt Ed.j with the said Dau- phine, on the XVII of the month of January past, with fifty men, furnished with vic- tuals, arms and other instruments of war and naval munitions for eight months, we departed, sailing westward by an east-south-east wind blow- ing with sweet and gentle lenity. In XXV days we sailed eight hundred leagues. The XXIIII days of February ^ (Note a — perhaps 16 hours) we suffered a tempest as severe as ever a man who has navigated suffered. From which, with the divine aid and the goodness of the ship, adapted by its glorious name and fortunate destiny to support the violent waves of the sea, we were de- livered. We pursued our navigation continuously toward the west, holding somewhat to the north In XXV more days we sailed more than 400 leagues where there appeared to us a new land never be- more seen by anyone, ancient or modern." Land first seen in 34° North latitude. — "At first it appeared rather low; having approached to within a quarter of a league, we perceived it, by the great fires built on the shore of the sea, to be inhabited We saw that it ran toward the south ; following it, to find some port where we could anchor with the ship and investigate its nature, in the space of fifty leagues we did not find a port or any place where it was possible to stay with the ship. And having seen that it trended continually to the south^', (Note 6 — in order not to meet with the Spaniards) we de- cided to turn about to coast it toward the north, where we found the same place. (Note — ^That is, to the place where he first came in sight of land — about 34 degrees north latitude.) We an- chored by the coast, sending the small boat to land. We had seen many people who came to the shore of the sea and seeing us approach fled, sometimes halting, turning back, looking with great admiration. Reassuring them by various signs, some of them approached, showing great delight at seeing us, marvelling at our clothes, fig- ures and whiteness, making to us various signs where we could land more conveniently with the small boat, offering to us of their foods." First landing and the first indigenes. — "We were on land, and that which we were able to learn of their life and customs I will tell Your Majesty briefly: They go nude of everything except that . . . they wear some skins of little animals like 272 ^S8T?rr-r-.° M U D&OtsI CORTEZ AMERICAN EXPLORERS AMERICA, 1524 Voyage of the Dauphine AMERICA, 1524 martens, a girdle of fine grass woven with various tails of other animals which hang around the body as far as the knees; the rest nude; the head likewise. Some wear certain garlands of feathers of birds. They are of dark color not much un- like the Ethiopians, and hair black and thick, and not very long, which they tie together back on the head in the shape of a little tail. As for the symmetry of the men, they are well propor- tioned, of medium stature, and rather exceed us. In the breast they are broad, their arms well built, the legs and other parts of the body well put together. There is nothing else, except that they incline somewhat to broadness in the face ; but not all, for in more we saw the face clear- cut. The eyes black and large, the glance intent and quick. They are not of much strength, in craftiness acute, agile and the greatest runners. From what we were able to learn by experience, they resemble in the la.st two respects the Orien- tals, and mostly those of the farthest Sinarian regions. (Note — Ramusio's text has the 'regions of China.') We were not able to learn with par- ticularity of the life and customs of these people because of the shortness of the stay we made on land, on account there being few people and the ship anchored in the high sea." [Here follows a description of the country and the climate in the vicinity of the Carolinas.] Sailor among the indigenes. — "We left this place continually skirting the coast, which we found turned to the east. Seeing every- where great fires on account of the mul- titude of the inhabitants, anchoring there off the shore because it did not contain any port, on account of the need of water we sent the little boat to land with XXV men. Because of the very large waves which the sea cast up on the shore on account of the strand being open, it was not possible without danger of losing the boat for any one to land. We saw many people on shore making us various signs of friendship, motioning us ashore ; among whom I saw a magnificent deed, as Your Majesty will hear. Sending ashore by swimming one of our young sailors carrying to them some trinkets, such as little bells, mirrors, and other favors, and being approached within 4 fathoms of them, throwing the goods to them and wishing to turn back he was so tossed by the waves that almost half dead he was carried to the edge of the shore. Which having been seen, the people of the land ran immediately to him; taking him by the head, legs and arms, they carried him some distance away. Where, the youth, seeing himself carried in such way, stricken with terror, uttered very loud cries, which they did similarly in their language, showing him that he should not fear. After that, having placed him on the ground in the sun at the foot of a little hill, they performed great acts of admiration, re- garding the whiteness of his flesh, examining him from head to foot. Taking off his shirt and hose, leaving him nude, they made a very large fire near him, placing him near the heat. Which hav- ing been seen, the sailors who had remained in the small boat, full of fear, as is their custom in every new case, thought that they wanted to roast him for food His strength recovered, having remained with them awhile, he showed by signs that he desired to return to the ship; who, with the greatest kindness, holding him always close with various embraces, accompanied him as far as the sea, and in order to assure him more, extending themselves on a high hill, stood to watch him until he was in the boat. Which young man learned of this people that they are thus: of dark color like the others, the flesh more lustrous, of medium stature, the face more clear-cut, much more delicate of body and other members, of much less strength and even of intelligence. He saw nothing else." [Here follows an annota- tion on the names which Verrazano gave to various places in this locality.] Three days in 'Arcadia' (Note — Maryland or Delaware) : A boy stolen. — "Having departed thence, following always the shore which turned somewhat toward the north, we came in the space of fifty leagues to another land which appeared much more beautiful and full of the largest forests. Anchoring at which, XX men going about two leagues inland, we found the people through fear had fled to the woods. Seeking everywhere, we met with a very old woman and a damsel of from XVIII to XX years, who through fear had hidden themselves in the grass. The old one had two little girls whom she carried on the shoulders, and back on the neck a boy, all of eight years of age. The young woman had as many . . . but all girls. Hav- ing approached toward whom, they began to cry out, [and] the old woman to make signs to us that the men had fled to the woods. We gave them to eat of our viands, which she ac- cepted with great gusto; the young woman re- fused everything and with anger threw it to the ground. We took the boy from the old woman to carry to France, and wishing to take the young woman, who was of much beauty and of tall stature, it was not however possible, on account of the very great cries which she uttered, for us to conduct her to the sea. And having to pass through some woods, being far from the ship, we decided to release her, carrying only the boy." Textile plants and the grapes: the offering OF FIRE. — Here is given a description of the prod- ucts found in the vicinity of Maryland and Dela- ware] "Having remained in this place three days, anchored off the coast, we decided on account of the scarcity of ports to depart, always skirting the shore''- . (Note a — which we baptized Arcadia on account of the beauty of the trees.) In Arcadia we found a man who came to the shore to see what people we were ; who stood hesitating and ready for flight. Watching us, he did not permit himself to be approached. He was handsome, nude, with hair fastened back in a knot, of olive color. We were about XX [in number] ashore and coaxing him he approached to within about two fathoms, showing a burning stick as if to offer us fire. .\n6 we made fire with powder and flint-and-steel and he trembled all over with ter- ror and we fired a shot. He stopped as if as- tonished and prayed, worshipping like a monk, lift- ing his finger toward the sky, and pointing to the ship and the sea he appeared to bless us. [We sailed] toward the north and east, navigating by daylight and casting anchor at nights. (Note 6 — we followed a coast very green with forests but without ports, and with some charming promon- tories and small rivers. We baptized the coast 'di Lorenna' on account of the Cardinal; the first promontory 'Lanzone," the second 'Bonivetto,' the largest river 'Vandoma,' and a small mountain which stands by the sea 'di S. Polo' on account of the Count.)" Land of Angouleme, Bay Saint Margherita (New York), River Vendome (Hudson), Island OF Queen Louisa' (Block Island?). — "At the end of a hundred leagues we found a very agree- able situation located within two small promi- nent hills, in the midst of which flowed to the sea a very great river, which was deep within the 273 AMERICA, 1524 Voyage of the Dauphinc AMERICA, 1524 mouth; and iTom the sea to the hills of that [place] with the rising of the tides, which we found eight feet, any laden ship might have passed. On account of being anchored off the coast in good shelter, we did not wish to adventure in with- out knowledge of the entrances. We were with the small boat, entering the said river to the land, which we found much populated. The peo- ple, almost like the others, clothed with the feathers of birds of various colors, came toward us joyfully, uttering very great exclamations of admiration, showing us where we could land with the boat more safely. We entered said river, within the land, about half a league, where we saw it made a very beautiful lake with a circuit of about three leagues; through which they [the Indians] went, going from one and another part to the number of XXX of their little barges, with innumerable [jeoplc, who passed from one shore and the other in order to see us. In an instant, as is wont to happen in navigation, a gale of un- favorable wind blowing in from the sea, we were forced to return to the ship, leaving the said land with much regret because of its commodious- ness and beauty, thinking it was not without some properties of value, all of its hills showing indica- tions of minerals.'- (Note a — called Angoleme from the principality which thou attainedst in lesser fortune, and the bay which that land makes Santa Margherita from the name of the sister who vanquishes the other matrons of modesty and art.) The anchor raised, sailing toward the east, as thus the land turned, having traveled LXXX leagues always in sight of it, we discovered an island triangular in form, distant ten leagues from the continent, in size like the island of Rhodes, full of hills, covered with trees, much populated [judging] by the continuous fires along all the surrounding shore which we saw they made. W'e baptized it in the name of your most illustrious mother'" (Note 6 — Aloysia) ; not anchoring there on account of the unfavorableness of the weather." "Refugio," the very beautiful port (New- port), AND ITS TWO KINGS. — "We Came to another land, distant from the island XV leagues, where we found a very beautiful port, and before we entered it, we saw about XX barges of the people who came with various cries of wonder round about the ship. Not approaching nearer than fifty paces, they halted, looking at the edifice [that is, the ship], our figures and clothes; then altogether they uttered a loud shout, signifying that they were glad. Having reassured them somewhat, imitating their gestures, they came so near that we threw them some little bells and mirrors and many trinkets, having taken which, regarding them with laughter, they entered the ship con- fidently. There were among them two Kings, of as good stature and form as it would be possible to tell; the first of about XXXX years, the other a young man of XXIIII years, the clothing of whom was thus: the older had on his nude body a skin of a stag, artificially adorned like a damask with various embroideries; the head bare, the hair turned back with various bands, at the neck a broad chain ornamented with many stones of diverse colors. The young man w.as almost in the same style. This is the most beautiful people and the most civilized in customs that we have found in this navigation. They excel us in size; they are of bronze color, some inclining more to whiteness, others to tawnv color; the face sharply cut, the hair long and black, upon which they bestow the greatest study in adorning it ; the eyes black and alert, the bearing kind and gentle, imitating much the ancient [manner]. Of the other parts of the body I will not speak to Your Majesty, having all the proportions which belong to every well built man. Their women are of the same beauty and charm ; very graceful ; of comely mien and agreeable aspect; of habits and be- havior as much according to womanly custom as pertains to human nature; they go nude with only one skin of the stag embroidered like the men, and some wear on the arras very rich skins of the lynx; the head bare, with various arrangements of braids, composed of their own hair, which hang on one side and the other on the breast. Some use other hair-arrangements like the women of Egypt and of S\ ria use, and these are they who are advanced in age and are joined in wed- lock. They have in the ears various pendent trinkets as the orientals are accustomed to have, the men like the women, among which we saw many plates wrought from copper, by whom it is prized more than gold; which, on account of its color, they do not esteem; wherefore among all it is held by them more worthless ; on the other hand rating blue and red above any other. That which they were given by us which they most valued were little bells, blue crystals and other trinkets to place in the ears and on the neck. They did not prize cloth of silk and of gold nor even of other kind, nor did they care to have them; likewise with metals like steel and iron ; for many times showing them our arms they did not conceive admiration for them nor ask for them, only examining the workmanship. They did the same with the mirrors; suddenly looking at them, they refused them laughing. They are very liberal, so much so that all which they have they give away. We formed a great friend- ship with them, and one day, before we had ente''ed with the ship in the port, remaining on account of the unfavorable weather conditions anchored a league at sea, they came in great num- bers in their little barges to the ship, having painted and decked the face with various colors, showing to us it was evidence of good feeling, bringing to us of their food, signaling to us where for the safety of the ship we ought anchor in the port, continually accompanying us until we cast anchor there." Fifteen days among the indigenes of "Refu- gio." — "In which we remained XV days, supplying ourselves with many necessities; where every day the people came to see us at the ship, bringing their women, of whom they are very careful ; because, entering the ship themselves, remaining a long time, they made their women stay in the barges, and however many entreaties we made them, offering to give them various things, it was not possible that they would allow them to enter the ship. And one of the two Kings (Note — When Roger Williams went to this same country over a century later he found that they had two chief kings or sachems, Canonicus and Mianto- nomo) coming many times with the Queen and many attendants through their desire to see us, at first always stopped on a land distant from us two hundred paces, sending a boat to inform us of their coming, saying they wished to come to see the ship ; doing this for a kind of safety. \nA when they had the response from us, they came quickly, and having stood awhile to look, hearing the noisy clamor of the sailor crowd, sent the Queen with her damsels in a very light barge to stay on a little island distant from us a quarter of a league ; himself remaining a very long time, discoursing by signs and gestures of various fanci- ful ideas, examining all the equipments of the ship, asking especially their purpose, imitating 274 AMERICA, 1524 Discovery of Peru AMERICA, 1524-1528 our manners, tasting our foods, then parted from us benignantly. And one time, our people re- maining two or three days on a httle island near the ship for various necessities as is the custom of sailors, he came with seven or eight of his attendants, watching our operations, asking many times if we wished to remain there for a long time, offering us his every help. Then, shooting with the bow, running, he performed with his at- tendants various games to give us pleasure. . . ." [Here follows a description of the land and the products in the vicinity of Newport. This is followed by a description of the coasts of Cape Cod and those to the north of that cape. Then follows a description of the Indians living along those coasts.] The return. — "We departed, skirting the coast between east and north. . . . [Here follows a description of a coast with many islands, prob- ably the coast of Maine.] Navigating between east-south-east and north-north-east, in the space of CL leagues we came near the land which the Britons found in the past, which stands in fifty degrees, and having consumed all our naval stores and victuals, having discovered six hundred leagues and more of new land, furnishing ourselves with water and wood, we decided to turn toward France. . . ." Object of the voyage. — "My intention was in this navigation to reach Cathay and the extreme east of Asia, not expecting to find such an obstacle of new land as I found ; and if for some reason I expected to find it, I thought it to be not without some strait to penetrate to the Eastern Ocean. And this has been the opin- ion of all the ancients, believing certainly our Western Ocean to be one with the Eastern Ocean of India without interposition of land. This Aristotle affirms, arguing by many similitudes, which opinion is very contrary to the moderns and according to experience untrue. Because the land has been found by them unknown to the ancients, another world with respect to the one which was known to them, it manifestly shows itself to be larger than our Europe and Africa and almost Asia, if we estimate correctly its size; as briefly I will give Your Majesty a little ac- count of it." New lands form a great continent. — [Here are put some more mathematical calculations.] "On the other hand, we, in this navigation made by order of Your Majesty beyond Q2 degrees, etc., from said meridian toward the west to the land we first found in 34 degrees'^, (Note a — land near Temistitan) navigated 300 leagues between east and north and almost 400 leagues to the east uninterruptedly along the shore of the land, attaining to 54 degrees, leaving the land that the Lusitanians'' (Note b — that is, Bacalaia, so called from a fish) found a long time ago, which they followed farther north as far as the Arctic circle leaving the end unknown. Therefore the northern latitude joined with the southern, that is, 54 degrees with 66 degrees, make 120 degrees, more latitude than Africa and Europe contain, because joining the extremity of Europe which the limits of Norway form [and] which stand in 71 degrees with the extremity of Africa, which is the Promon- tory of Good Hope in 35 degrees, makes only 106 degrees, and if the terrestrial area of said land corresponds in extent to the seashore, there is no doubt it exceeds Asia in size. ... In such way we find the globe of the Earth much larger than the ancients have held and contrary to the Mathe- maticians who have considered that relatively to the water it [the land] was smaller, which we have found by experience to be the reverse. And as for the corporeal area of space, we judge there cannot be less land than water, as I hope on a better occasion by further reasoning to make clear and proven to Your Majesty." New World is isolated. — "All this land or New World which above I have described is con- nected together, not adjoining Asia nor Africa (which I know to a certainty) ; it may join Europe by Norway and Russia ; which would be false ac- cording to the ancients, who declare almost all the north from the promontory of the Cimbri to have been navigated to the east, going around as far as the Caspian Sea itself they affirm. It would therefore remain included between two seas, be- tween the Eastern and the Western, and that, ac- cordingly (secondo), shuts off one from the other; because beyond 54 degrees from the equator to- ward the south it [the new land] extends toward the east for a long distance, and from the north passing 66 degrees it continues, turning toward the east, reaching as far as 70 degrees. I hope we shall have better assurance of this, with the aid of Your Majesty, whom God Almighty prosper in everlasting glory, that we may see the perfect end of this our cosmography, and that the sacred word of the evangelist may be accomplished: 'Their sound has gone out into all the earth,' etc.— In the ship Dauphine, VIII of July, M. D. XXIIII. Humble servant, Janus Verazanus." Also in: G. Dexter, Corlereal, Verrazano, etc. (Narrative and Critical History of America, v. 4, cli. i), — Relation of Verrazano (New York His- torical Society Collection, v. i, and new series, v. I). — J. C. Brevoort, Verrazano the Navigator. — B. Suite, Verrazano et Cartier, Society geograph- ique Quebec Bulletin V, No. 6, Nov., 378-381. — J. Fiske, Dutch and Quaker colonies I, 58. — H. C. Murphy, Voyage of Verrazano. Good discussions of the Verrazano question are those of Hughes in the Raccolta Columbiana and Harrisse in the Discovery of North America. 1524-1528. — Explorations of Pizarro and dis- covery of Peru. — "The South Sea having been discovered, and the inhabitants of Tierra Firraa having been conquered and pacified, the Governor Pedrarias de Avila founded and settled the cities of Panama and of Nata, and the town of Nom- bre de Dios. At this time the Captain Francisco Pizarro, son of the Captain Gonzalo Pizarro, a knight of the city of Truxillo, was living in the city of Panama; possessing his house, his farm and his Indians, as one of the principal people of the land, which indeed he always was, having distinguished himself in the conquest and settling, and in the service of his Majesty. Being at rest and in repose, but full of zeal to continue his labours and to perform other more distinguished services for the royal crown, he sought permis- sion from Pedrarias to discover that coast of the South Sea to the eastward. He spent a large part of his fortune on a good ship which he built, and on necessary supplies for the voyage, and he set out from the city of Panama on the 14th day of the month of November, in the year 1.S24. He had 112 Spaniards in his company, besides some Indian servants. He commenced a voyage in which they suffered many hardships, the season being winter and unpropitious." From this un- successful voyage, during which many of his men died of hunger and disease, and in the course of which he found no country that tempted his cupidity or his ambition, Pizarro returned after some months to "the land of Panama, landing at an Indian village near the island of Pearls, called Chuchama. Thence he sent the ship to Panama, 275 AMERICA, 1524-1528 European Rivalry AMERICA, 1528-1648 for she had become unseaworthy by reason of the teredo; and all that had befallen was reported to Pedrarias, while the Captain remained behind to refresh himself and his companions. When the ship arrived at Panama it was found that, a few days before, the Captain Diego de Almagro had sailed in search of the Captain Pizarro, his com- panion, with another ship and 70 men." Almagro and his party followed the coast until they came to a great river, which they called San Juan [a few miles north of the port of Buenaventura, in New Granada]. . . . They there found signs of gold, but there being no traces of the Captain Pizarro, the Captain Almagro returned to Chu- chama, where he found his comrade. They agreed that the Captain Almagro should go to Panama, repair the ships, collect more men to continue the enterprise, and defray the expenses, which amounted to more than 10,000 castellanos. At Panama much obstruction was caused by Pedrarias and others, who said that the voyage should not be persisted in, and that his Majesty would not be served by it. The Captain .Almagro, with the authority given him by his comrade, was very constant in prosecuting the work he had com- menced, and . . . Pedrarias was forced to allow him to engage men. He set out from Panama with no men; and went to the place where Pizarro waited with another 50 of the first no who sailed with him, and of the 70 who accom- panied Almagro when he went in search. The other 130 were dead. The two captains, in their two ships, sailed with 160 men, and coasted along the land. When they thought they saw signs of habitations, they went on shore in three canoes they had with them, rowed by 60 men, and so they sought for provisions. They conlinued to sail in this way for three years, suffering great hardships from hunger and cold. The greater part of the crews died of hunger, insomuch that there were not 50 surviving, and during all those three years they discovered no good land. All was swamp and inundated country, without inhabitants. The good country they discovered was as far as the river San Juan, where the Captain Pizarro remained with the few survivors, sending a cap- tain with the smaller ship to discover some good land further along the coast. He sent the other ship, with the Captain Diego de Almagro to Panama to get more men." At the end of 70 days, the exploring ship came back with good reports, and with specimens of gold, silver and cloths, found in a country further south. "As soon as the Captain Almagro arrived from Panama with a ship laden with men and horses, the two .ships, with their commanders and all their people, set out from the river San Juan, to -go to that newly- discovered land. But the navigation was difficult; they were detained so long that the provisions were exhausted, and the people were obliged to go on shore in search of supplies. The ships reached the bay of San Mateo, and some villages to which the Spaniards gave the name of Santiago. Next they came to the villages of Tacamez fAta- cames, on the coast of modern Ecuador], on the sea coast further oi\. These villages were seen by the Christians to be large and well peo- pled: and when 00 Spaniards had advanced a league beyond the villages of Tacamez, more than 10,000 Indian warriors encountered them ; but see- ing that the Christians intended no evil, and did not wish to take their goods, but rather to treat them peacefully, with much love, the Indians desisted from war. In this land there were abun- dant supplies, and the people led well-ordered lives, the villages having their streets and squares. One village had more than 3,000 houses, and others were smaller. It seemed to the captains and to the other Spaniaids that nothing could be done in that land by reason of the smallness of their numbers, which rendered them unable to cope with the Indians. So they agreed to load the ships with the supplies to be found in the villages, and to return to an island called Gallo, where they would be safe until the ships arrived at Panama with the news of w-hat had been dis- covered, and to apply to the Governor for more men, in order that the Captains might be able to continue their undertaking, and conquer the land. Captain .•\lmagro went in the ships. Many per- sons had written to the Governor entreating him to order the crews to return to Panama, saying that it was impossible to endure more hardships than they had suffered during the last three years. The Governor ordered that all those who wished to go to Panama might do so, while those who desired to continue the discoveries were at liberty to remain. Sixteen men stayed with Pizarro, and all the rest went back in the ships to Panama. The Captain Pizarro was on that island for five months, when one of the ships returned, in which he continued the discoveries for a hundred leagues further down the coast. They found many vil- lages and great riches; and they brought away more specimens of gold, silver, and cloths than had been found before, which were presented by the natives. The Captain returned because the time granted by the governor had expired, and the last day of the period had been reached when he entered the port of Panama. The two Captains were so ruined that they could no longer prose- cute their undertaking. . . . The Captain Fran- cisco Pizarro was only able to borrow a little more than 1,000 castellanos among his friends, with which sum he went to Castile, and gave an ac- count to his Majesty of the great and signal services he had performed." — F. de Xeres (Secre- tary of Pizarro), Account of the province of Cuzco; tr. and ed. by C. R. Markham (Hakluyt society, 1872). Also in: W. H. Prescott, History of the conquest of Peru, v. i, bk. 2, ch. 2-4. — J. H. Campe, Francisco Pizarro, translated from the German by P. Upton (Life stories for young people) . 1525. — Voyage of Gomez. See Canada: The name. 1526-1531. — Voyage of Sebastian Cabot and attempted colonization of La Plata. See Para- guay: 1515-1557- 1528-1542. — Florida expeditions of Narvaez and Hernando de Soto. — Discovery of the Mis- sissippi. See Florida: 1528-1542. 1528-1648. — America and European diplomacy, to Treaty of MUnster. — "The history of the strug- gle of the European nations for participation in the profits of the American trade naturally falls into three periods. In the first, France was the most formidable opponent of the Spanish-Por tuguese monopoly. Jean Ango and his pilots led the attacking forces. This phase ended with the treaty concluded between France and Spain at Cateau-Cambresis in 15.^0. In the second period England took the place of France as the principal antagonist. Hawkins and Drake were the most conspicuous foes of Spain. This epoch extended to the treaty concluded between England and Spain at London in 1604. In the third period commercial maritime supremacy passed from Eng- land to the LTnited Provinces. The Dutch West India Co., organized within this epoch, played a role similar in many respects to that of the 276 AMERICA, 1528-1648 European Rivalry AMERICA, 1528-1648 French corsairs and English privateers; but in addition posessed great administrative powers. This period ended with the treaty concluded be- tween the United Provinces and Spain at Miinster in 1648. Jean Ango and his pilots, Hawkins and Drake, and the Dutch West India Co., each at- tacked the Spanish-Portuguese monopoly for the sake of pecuniary gain ; each represented a syndi- cate of capitalists, and had government support; and the profits of each were derived partly from trade and partly from booty. "Throughout the first period, to 1559, France and Portugal were at peace; while during a part of the same interval France and Spain were at war. As between France and Spain, Portugal posed as neutral. This, however, clid not suft^ce to protect her vast colonial trade and territory, which she was unable to defend. Jean Ango, like the directors of the Dutch West India Co., 'dreamed of an empire in Brazil.' But when his pilots reached Brazilian waters they met the crud- est of receptions ; and their sufferings caused them to undertake reprisals. The complaints arising from these reprisals, which Portugal, from 15 10 onward, repeatedly made to France, proved un- availing and Portugal endeavored to frighten off the intruders. In 1526 the King of Portugal or- dered his subjects under pain of death to run down all French vessels going to or returning from these distant territories. This and other instances of harshness on the part of Portugal and also of Spain toward interlopers were defended chiefly on the ground that thci intruders were pirates, and that treaties provided that pirates should be put to death. On this pretext Charles V refused for a time to send back to France the companions of Fleury (the captor of Montezuma's treasure), although the treaty of Cambray had provided for the mutual return of all prisoners of war. For the same reason Philip II refused to deliver over the survivors of the Florida massacre, although the French ambassador protested that their enter- prise was authorized by the Admiral of France. Under this name Hawkins, returning to England after a peaceful trading voyage, was denounced by the Spanish ambassador. Other instances might be cited. But whatever the excuse for Portugal's treatment of French corsairs, France could not tamely accept it. In 1528 Francis I affirmed the principle of freedom of trade 'as of all rights one of the most natural.' Following a practice then in use, he granted to Ango and to one of his associates letters of marque, giving them the right to reimburse themselves for the losses which they had suffered from the Portuguese. General letters of marque were also issued enjoining the French admirals to permit all their captains, wherever they should be, to run down the Portuguese, seize their persons, goods, or merchandise and bring them to France. In 1531 the King of Portugal complained that the French had captured 300 of his ships. Unable to defend himself by force, he employed gold, and by bribing the French admiral managed to have Ango's letters of marque revoked. In obtaining this revocation he v/as also helped by the intervention of the Emperor, Charles V, who in the matter of defending the oversea trade identified the interests of Portugal with his own. The reasons for this identification is not far to seek — the Portuguese Islands of Madeira and the Azores were situated on or near the routes of ocean commerce. The Spanish fleets returning from America put in at the Azores, hence Spain must always keep on the best terms with Portu- gal. Hence, also, the Emperor's displeasure when *in 1536 Portugal concluded a treaty with France which permitted the French to bring their prizes — i. e., Spanish ships — into all Portuguese havens and had the effect of making the harbors of the Azores and Madeira as well as of Portugal lurk- ing places from which the French preyed upon the ocean shipping of Spain. In return Francis I forbade his subjects to sail to Brazil and Guinea; but when a few years later Portugal's bribery of the French admiral was discovered this prohibi- tion was revoked. The activities of Ango's cap- tains were directed not only against their Portu- guese friends but also against their Spanish ene- mies. The sensational capture made by one of them of a part of Montezuma's treasure has al- ready been referred to. In 1523 and 1525 the Cortes of Castile complained of the frequent and intolerable depredations committed by the French at sea, and their feeling appears to be reflected in the treaty of Madrid in 1526. The question of admitting the French to the American trade seems to have been discussed in the negotiations for the Franco-Spanish truce of 1538, as it certainly was in connection with the treaty of 1544. In 1544 the Emperor had been greatly disturbed by Car- tier's plan to colonize in Canada. Despairing of keeping the French altogether away from the new world, Charles V was willing to come to terms with them. An article signed by the French com- missioners in 1544 contained the following stipula- tion: That the King of France, his successors and subjects, would leave the Emperor and the King of Portugal at peace in all that concerned the East and West Indies and would not attempt any discoveries or other enterprises there. French sub- jects might, for purposes of trade only, go to both the East and the West Indies, but if they com- mitted any acts of violence in going or returning they should be punished. This article was appar- ently acceptable to the Emperor and Prince Philip and to the president of the Council of the Indies. Other councilors believed that the permission to trade would lead to further trouble, because the French would not conduct it in accordance with regulations. The Council of the Indies urged that in this as in former treaties matters pertaining to the Indies should not be mentioned at all. If, however, the French were permitted to trade they should be held to the laws prohibiting the removal of gold and silver from territory subject to Cas- tile, even in exchange for merchandise, and their homeward-bound ships should be obliged to ti^uch at Cadiz or San Lucar. The King of Portugal also objected to the article, declaring that the French went in armed ships not only for the pur- pose of trading but in order to rob with more security. The article seems never to have been ratified. In the truce between France and Spain concluded in 1556 it was agreed that during the period of the truce the French should not sail to or trade in the Spanish Indies without license from the King of Spain. In a few months the truce was violated. The Venetian ambassador ascribed the rupture partly to the sending of French ships to the Indies 'to occupy some place and hinder the navigation.' The reference is to Villegagnon's colony in Brazil, which seemed a danger to Spain as well as to Portugal. In the negotiations for the treaty of Cateau-Cambresis, in 1550, the right of the French to go to the Spanish Indies was dis- cussed repeatedly and at length. [See also France; 1547-1550.1 The Spanish commissioners urged that Villegagnon .should be recalled. They based their claim to a monopoly of the western navigation on the bulls of Popes Alexander VI and Julius II, and on the fact that Spain alone had borne the labor and expense of discovery. The French depu- 277 AMERICA, 1528-1648 European Rivalry AMERICA, 1528-1648 ties argued that the sea was common. They would not consent to exclude Frenchmen from places dis- covered by them and not actually subject to the Kings of Portugal or Castile. On the other land, they would agree that the French should keep away from lands actually possessed by the aforesaid sovereigns ; or, as an alternative, that the Indies should not be mentioned, and if Frenchmen were found doing what they should not there, they might be chastised. King Philip did not approve of the former alternative. The Indies were there- fore not mentioned in the treaty, but an oral agreement was made, the precise wording of which is not known. . From accounts in Spanish and French documents it appears that it was to the effect that Spaniards and Frenchmen encountering one another west of the prime meridian might treat each other as enemies, without thereby giv- ing ground for complaint of the violation of exist- ing treaties. The location of the prime meridian remained a matter of dispute. In 1634 the King of France placed it at the island of Ferro, in the Canaries. Richelieu stated that Spain preferred to locate it farther west, in the Azores, because ships captured west of the prime meridian must be declared good prize. The rule that might would be the only right recognized between na- tions west of the prime meridian was the one permanent result of Spanish-French diplomacy re- garding America up to 1559, or indeed up to 1648. In the treaty of Vervins, in 1508, no better ar- rangement could be agreed on. [See also France: 1593-1508.] "During the wars of religion in France the mari- time strength of that nation fell to its lowest ebb. Leadership in maritime affairs, and hence in the effort to force an entrance into the American trade, passed to England — the second great an- tagonist of the Portuguese-Spanish monopoly. In 1553 3 joint-stock company was founded in Lon- don for the Guinea trade. This intrusion of the English into regions claimed by Portugal led to repeated complaints by the ambassador of Portu- gal, who was supported by the ambassador of Spain. Important negotiations relative to the com- merce with Portuguese colonies were in progress in 1555, 1561, 1562, and from 1569 to 1576. The treaty signed in 1576 permitted the English to trade in Madeira and the Azores, but did not men- tion Barbary, Guinea, or Brazil. Between 1562 and 1568 Hawkins made three slave-trading voy- ages to the West Indies. Subsequently English privateers played havoc with Spanish shipping there, and in 1580 Drake returned from his voyage around the globe with treasure e-timated at a mil- lion and a half sterling. The Spanish ambassador in London wrote that Drake was preparing for another voyage and that everybody wanted to have a share in the expedition. He therefore con- sidered it in the King of Spain's interest that or- ders be given that no foreign sh-'p should be spared in either the Spanish or the Portuguese In- dies, but that every one should be sent to the bot- tom. War followed in a few years. Peace nego- tiations took place in 1588, 1600, and 1604. The negotiations of 1588 were insincere, at least on the part of Spain, in whose ports the Armada was preparing. But they have an interest as indicating England's attitude. Of her two main grievances against Spain, one was the restrictions imposed by Spain upon English trade to the newly discovered lands. The instructions issued to Elizabeth's com- missioners also, in so far as they relate to the West Indies, are of interest. For they indicate that England based her claim to trade in the Indies lipon the ancient treaties concluded between Charles V and Henry VIII providing for reciprocal trade in all of her dominions. On this ground, in 1566, Cecil asserted a right to the Indian trade, and the claim seems to explain Philip II's reluc- tance to renew these treaties. The Spanish view was that the Indies were a new world, to which treaties between European powers did not apply unless the Indies were indubitably referring to them. "Not until after the death of Elizabeth could peace be made. After the accession of King James negotiations were again undertaken. Concerning trade to the East and West Indies an arrangement was then effected, though no real agreement was reached. The instructions of the English commis- sioners in this matter were identical with those for the negotiations of 1600. They sanctioned only one concession, that Englishmen should be pro- hibited from going to any places in the Indies where the Spaniards were actually 'planted' — a principle embodied in the charter granted to the English East India Co. on December 31, 1600. It was rejected by the Spaniards, who insisted that the English should be excluded from every part of the Indies, either expressly or by clear impli- cation; or else that the King of England should declare in writing that his subjects would trade in the Indies at their own peril. These demands the English refused. Cecil and Northampton alleged that an express prohibition to trade would wrong James's honor since Spain had not put it in the treaties made with France and other princes. Af- ter much debate it was resolved that intercourse should be permitted in those places 'in which there was commerce before the war, according to the observance and use of former treaties.' These words were differently interpreted by each party. Soon after the conclusion of the treaty Cecil wrote to the English Ambassador in France: 'If it be well observed how the (ninth) article is couched, you shall rather find it a pregnant affirmative for us than against us; for, sir, where it is written that we shall trade in all his dominions, that com- prehends the Indies; if you will say, secundum tractatus antiquos, no treaty excluded it.' When the Venetian ambassador wished to hear from his majesty's own lips how he read the clause about the India navigation, and said, 'Sire, your sub- jects may trade with Spain and Flanders, but not with the Indies.' 'What for no?' said the king. 'Because,' I replied, 'the clause is read in that sense.' 'They are making a great error whoever they are who hold this view,' said His Majesty; 'the meaning is quite clear.' The Spaniards, on the other hand, resolutely affirmed that the terms of the peace excluded the English from the Indies. However, as was remarked in the instructions, Spain was not able to bar out the English by force, and the latter not only continued their trade in the East, but in spite of Spanish opposi- tion proceeded to colonize Virginia under a char- ter which allotted to the grantees a portion of America 'not actually possessed by any Christian prince.' The memorable year of 1580, which saw Drake's return to England, witnessed also Spain's annexation of Portugal's vast empire and trade. The threat of Spnin's sudden aggrandizement brought France and England together; and toward the close of the century the United Provinces ioined the alliance against the common enemy. Several treaties pro-ided for joint naval opera- tions by England and the United Provinces against Spain. Early in the seventeenth century the Dutch outstripped Spain in the rare for commercial su- premacy The Dutch East India Co., founded in 1602, undermined the power of the Portuguese iif 278 AMERICA, 1528-1648 Treaty of Miinster AMERICA, 1528-1648 the East; and in Guiana, Brazil, Guinea, Cuba, and Hispaniola, the Dutch were also prosecuting an active trade. In 1607 peace negotiations between Spain and the United Provinces began. The hope of expelling the Dutch from the forbidden regions was believed by many to be the principal motive that induced Spain to treat. Another reason was the project of a Dutch West India Co. 'that should with a strong fleet carry at once both war and merchandize into America.' During the protracted negotiations one of the main points of dispute was the India trade. Both sides regarded the question as vital. The States brought forward three al- ternative means of accommodation ; peace, with free trade to those parts of the Indies not actually possessed by Spain; peace in Europe, and a truce in the Indies for a term of years with permission to trade during that period; trade to the Indies 'at their peril' after the example of the French and English. The Catholic deputies totally re- jected the first and third propositions, but would submit the second to Spain if it were acceptably modilied. They wished the States to declare ex- pressly that they would abstain from going to the West Indies, and that in the East Indies they would not visit the places held by the Portuguese. The Dutch, who meanwhile had tried to frighten their opponents by showing a renewed interest in the West India Co., finally drafted what was deemed an acceptable article, but Spain insisted on their prompt withdrawal from both the East and West Ind'es as one of the two indispensable con- ditions for her recognition of their independence. Peace was unattainable, and negotiations were broken off. The French ambassador, however, persuaded the States to revive negotiations for a truce and to employ the French and English am- bassadors as intermediaries. The principal point of difficulty was the India trade. The French am- bassador labored for the end desired by the Dutch not because France wished to strengthen them un- duly but because she was unwiUing to restore Spain to her former power or to play into the hands of the English, who were believed to desire the trade for themselves. An article was finally agreed on which was a concession of the India trade veiled by circumlocutions. Traffic was per- mitted in Spain's European lands and in any other of her possessions where her allies were permitted to trade. Outside these limits (i. e., in the Indies) subjects of the States could not traffic without ex- press permission from the King in places held by Spain, but in places not thus held they might trade upon permission of the natives without hindrance from the King or his officers. The agreement that Spain would not hinder the subjects of the States in their trade 'outside the limits' was also strength- ened by a special and secret treaty in which the name Indies was again avoided. The name, how- ever, appeared in an act signed by the French and English ambassadors, which certified that the archdukes' deputies had agreed that, just as the Dutch should not traffic in places held by the King of Spain in the Indies v/ithout his permission, so subjects of the King of Spain should not traffic in places held by the States in the Indies with- out their permission. In 162 1 the truce of 1609 expired and Spain declared war on the United Netherlands. Between 162 1 and 1625 the Dutch negotiated with Denmark, France, and England to secure their alliance against Spain. The States General earnestly desired that these nations should cooperate with the Dutch West India Co., char- tered by the States in 162 1 for the purpose of at- tacking Spain's American possessions and treasure fleets as well as for trade, but the Danes and French preferred rather to share in the East India commerce. In 1621 the Dutch and Danish com- missioners signed an agreement that in their jour- neys, trade, and nav'^ition in the East and West Indies, Africa, and Terra Australis subjects 01 either party should befriend subjects of the other. The treaty between the Dutch and French merely stipulated that the question of traffic to the East and West Indies should be treated later by the French ambassador. The offensive alliance with England in 1625 enjoined attacks by both parties on Spain's dominions on both sides of the line and especially on the treasure fleets, and one of the results of this treaty was the opening of trade between the Dutch and the English colonists in North America. [See also Commerce: Medieval: 8th-i6th (Centuries.] During the 20 years following 162 T there were repeated negotiations for peace between the United Provinces and Spain. The most important took place in 1632 and 1633. They failed chiefly because no agreement could be reached on colonial matters, particularly those in which the Dutch West India Co. was involved. Since this company had captured the port of Pemambuco, in Brazil, it looked forward to a rapid extension of its authority and trade in this region and to profits from raids undertaken thence against the Spanish treasure fleets, the West India Islands, and Central America, Having acquired a great fleet equipped for war, it opposed any peace or truce with Spain that should extend beyond the Line, unless, indeed, Spain would permit the Dutch to trade in both Indies. Since Spain refused these demands, negotiations ended fruitlessly. "The negotiations at Miinster from 1646 to 1648 were carried on under widely different circum- stances from those of 1632, 1633, just mentioned. In 1646 peace was essential to the Spanish Govern- ment, exhausted by its efforts against domestic and foreign foes. Moreover, the chief obstacle to peace had been removed by her loss of Brazil and other Portuguese colonies. On the other hand, the Dutch East and West India companies would willingly have continued the war. The West India Co. con- sidered that if the two companies should be united it would be more profitable to continue hostilities in both Indies anci Africa than to conclude any peace or truce with Spain. In case of a peace or truce the company desired freedom to trade in all places within the limits of its charter where the King of Spain had no castles, jurisdiction, or ter- ritory, and it further sought the exclusion of Span- iards from trade in all places similarly held by the company unless like privileges were granted to the company in places under the dominion of Spain. These stipulations were practically those agreed to in the truce of 1600. Somewhat modified they were finally included in the treaty of Miinster, a treaty in which for the first time Spain granted to another nation, as a permanent concession, in clear and explicit terms, and with mention of the Indies, the right to sail to, trade, and acquire ter- ritory in America. By treaties concluded in 1641 and 1642, Portugal, newly liberated from Spain, had legalized the trade which the Dutch and Eng- lish had previously established with the African coast, and recognized Dutch possession of a part of Brazil. Thus, in the fifth decade of the sev- enteenth century, the two Iberian powers, then bitterly estranged from each other, were both com- pelled to concede to certain European nations the right to occupation and trade in those oversea lands from which, since the period of discovery, they had endeavored to exclude them. But, as old walls were breached, new ones were erected. The Dutch, English, and French, having acquired much 279 AMERICA, 1531-154b Explorations by Cartier AMERICA, 1534-1535 oversea territory and commerce, each tried to use them for the exclusive profit of their respective peoples, or even oi certain of their own trading companies. Hence in 1648 the ideal of free ocean commerce and navigation, conceived long before by Grotius, remained unrealized." — F. G. Daven- port, American and European diplomacy to i64S (Annual Report American Historical Association, J915, pp. i53> 161). 1531-1548. — Pizarro's conquest of Peru. See Peru: i5:'S-i53i; 1531-1533; and 1533-1548. 1531-1641.— Republic of St. Paul in jrazU. — Jesuits. — Mamelukes in Brazil. See Brazil: 1531- 1041. 1533. — Spanish conquest of the kingdom of Ouito. See Ecuador: Aboriginal kingdom of Quito. . 1534-1535. — Exploration of the St. Lawrence to Montreal by Cartier. — ".At last, ten years after [the voyages of \'errazano], Philip Chabot, Ad- miral of France, induced the king [Francis I.] to resume the project of founding a French colony in the New World whence the Spaniards daily drew such great wealth ; and he presented to him a Captain of St. Malo, by name Jacques Cartier, whose merit he knew, and whom that prince ac- cepted. Cartier having received his instructions, left St. Malo the 2d of .April, 1534, with two ships of 60 tons and 122 men. He steered west, inclin- ing slightly north, and had such fair winds that, on the loth of May, he made Cape Bonavista, in Newfoundland, at 46" north. Cartier found the land there still covered with snow, and the shore fringed with ice, so that he could not or dared not stop. He ran down si.x degrees south-southeast, and entered a port to which he gave the name of St. Catharine. Thence he turned back north. . . . After making almost the circuit of Newfoundland, though without being able to satisfy himself that it was an island, he took a southerly course, crossed the gulf, approached the continent, and entered a very deep bay, where he suffered greatly from heat, whence he called it Chaleurs Bay. He was charmed with the beauty of the country, and well pleased with the Indians that he met and with whom he exchanged some goods for furs. . . . On leaving this bay, Cartier visited a good part of the coasts around the gulf, and took possession of the country in the name of the most Christian king, as \'erazani had done in all the places where he landed. He set sail again on the isth of -Au- gust to return to France, and reached St. Malo safely on the 5th of September. ... On the report which he made of his voyage, the court concluded that it would be useful to France to have a set- tlement in that part of America ; but no one took this affair more to heart than the Vice-.Admiral Charles de Mony, Sieur de la' Mailleraye. This noble obtained a new commission for Cartier, more ample than the first, and gave him three ships well equipped. This fleet was ready about the middle of May, and Cartier . . . embarked on Wednesday the loth. His three vessels were sep- arated by violent storms, but found one another, near the close of July, in the gulf which was their appointed place of rendezvous. 'On the ist of -August bad weather drove him to take refuge in the port of St. Nicholas, at the mouth of the river on the north. Here Cartier planted a cross, with the arms of France, and remained until the 7th This port is almost the only spot in Canada that has kept the name given by Cartier. ... On the loth the three vessels re-entered the gulf, and in honor of the saint whose feast is celebrated on that day, Cartier gave the gulf the name of St. Lawrence; or rather he gave it to a bay lying between Anticosti Island and the north shore, whence it e-xtended to the whole gulf of which this bay is part; and because the river, before that called River of Canada, empties into the same gulf, it insensibly acquired the name of St. Law- rence, which it still bears. . . . The three vessels . . . ascended the river, and on the ist of Septem- ber they entered the river Saguenay. Cartier merely reconnoitered the mouth of this river, and . . . hastened to seek a port where his vessels might winter in safety. Eight leagues above Isle aux Coudres he found another much larger and handsomer island, all covered with trees and vines. He called it Bacchus Island, but the name has been changed to Isle d'Orleans. The author of the re- lation to this voyage, printed under the name of Cartier, pretends that only here the country be- gins to be called Canada. But he is surely mis- taken ; for it is certain that from the earliest times the Indians gave this name to the whole country along the river on both sides, from its mouth to the Saguenay. From Bacchus Island, Cartier pro- ceeded to a little river which is ten leagues off, and comes from the north; he called it Riviere de Ste Croix, because he entered it on the 14th of September (Feast of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross) ; but it is now commonly called Riviere de Jacques Cartier. The day after his arrival he re- ceived a visit from an Indian chief named Donna- cona, whom the author of the relation of that voy- age styles Lord of Canada. Cartier treated with this cliief by names of two Indians whom he had taken to France the year before, and who knew a little French. They informed Donnacona that the strangers wished to go to Hochelaga, which seemed to trouble him. Hochelaga was a pretty large town, situated on an island now known under the name of Island of Montreal. Cartier had heard much of it, and was loth to return to France with- out seeing it. The reason why this voyage troubled Donnacona was that the people of Hochelaga were of a different nation from his, and that he wished to profit exclusively by the advantages which he hoped to derive from the stay of the French in his country.' Proceeding with one vessel to Lake St. Pierre, and thence in two boats, Cartier reached Hochelaga Oct. 2. 'The shape of the town was round, and three rows of palisades inclosed in it about so tunnel shaped cabins, each over 50 paces long and 14 or 15 wide. It was entered by a single gate, above which, as well as along the first palisade, ran a kind of gallery, reached by lad- ders, and well provided with pieces of rock and pebbles for the defence of the place. The inhabi- tants of the town spoke the Huron language. They received the French very well. . . . Cartier visited the mountain at the foot of which the town lay, and gave it the name of Mont Royal, which has become that of the whole Island [Montreal]. From it he discovered a great extent of country, the sight of which charmed him. ... He left Hochelaga on the 5th of October, and on the nth arrived at Sainte Croix.' Wintering at this place, where his crews suffered terribly from the cold and from scurvy, he returned to France the following spring. 'Some authors . . . pretend that Cartier, disgusted with Canada, dissuaded the king, his master, from further thoughts of it; and Cham- plain seems to have been of that opinion. But this does not agree with what Cartier himself says in his memoirs. . . . Cartier in vain extolled the country w-hich he had discovered. His small re- turns, and the wretched condition to which his men had been reduced by cold and scurvy, per- suaded most that it would never be of any use to France. Great stress was laid on the fact that he 280 AMERICA, 1535-1540 Coronado's Expedition AMERICA, 1540-1541 nowhere saw any appearance of mines; and then, even more than now, a strange land which pro- duced' 'neither gold nor silver was reckoned as nothing.' " — Father Charlevoix, History oj New France, bk. i. Also in: R. Kerr, General collection of voyages, pt. 2, bk. 2, cli. 12.— F. X. Garneau, History of Canada, v. i, cli. 2.— H. P. Biggar, Precursors of Jacques Cartier; Ottawa, Government printing bureau 213 (Publication of the Canadian Archives No. S). — H. B. Stephens, Jacques Cartier and his four voyages to Canada (Gives modern English translations). — J. Winsor, America, v. 4, pp. 62-68. — J. Winsor, Cartier to Frontenac. — H. P. Biggar, Early trading companies of New France. — For the question of Cartier's route consult W. F. Ganong, Royal Society of Canada's transactions, V., sect. 2, p. 121, and Bishop Howley, Ibid., XII, sect. 2, p. 151. — C. Channing, History of the United States, V. I. — R. G. Thwaitcs, France in America. — B. Suite, Vcrrazano et Cartier (Societe Geographique, Que- bec, Bulletin 5, no. 6, Nov., pp. 37S-381). 1535-1540. — Introduction of printing in Mex- ico. See Printing and the press: 1535-1709. 1535-1550. — Spanish conquests in Chile. See Chile: 1535-1724- 1536-1538. — Spanish conquests of New Gra- nada. See Colombia; 1536-1731. 1540-1541. — Coronado expedition. — "Its [De Soto's expedition] only parallel is the contemporary enterprise of Coronado, which did for the south- west what De Soto did for the eastern and central belt. If Cabeqa de V'aca's reports of the riches of Florida spurred on De Soto and his followers in Spain they were not less exciting in Mexico. There the ground had been in a measure prepared by the fusing of an Indian folk tale of seven caves with the old geographical myth of the Seven Cities; and the whole was made vivid by the stories told by an Indian of a visit when a child to these seven towns, which he compared to the city of Mexico. It seemed advisable to Mendoza, the viceroy of New Spain, to explore the region, and he chose a Franciscan, Friar Marcos, of Nizza, or Nice, who had been in Peru with Pizarro, and in Mexico had had some missionary experience in the frontier, to make a reconnoissance. He was now instructed to make careful observations of the country, its products and people, and to re- port them in detail to Mendoza. The negro Ste- phen, who had come with De Vaca, was given to him to serve as a guide, and he was also at- tended by some Christianized Pima Indians. Friar Marcos left Culiacan in the western frontier of Sinaloa a few weeks before De Soto landed in Florida. Following the coast as far as the Yaqui, he then went nearly due north, veering later towards the east, until he came within sight of the Zuni villages in western New Mexico. The negro Stephen had gone on ahead with a retinue of Indians, and Friar Marcos now learned that he had been killed by the Indians of Cibola, the first of the seven cities (which are now usually identi- fied with the Zuni pueblos) . From a distant point of view, the pueblo seemed to the friar in that magnifying atmosphere as large as the city of Mexico. The magic of the association with the legend of the 'Seven Cities' reinforced the im- pression made by the narrative of the friar, some of whose exaggerated reports may have arisen from imperfectly understanding his informants; and elaborate preparations were at once made to invade the new land of wonder, and to repeat, if possible, the history of the conquest of Mexico. The enterprise was placed in the charge of Fran- cisco de Coronado, the recently appointed gov- ernor of New Galicia, the northern frontier prov- ince of New Spain, and a personal friend of Men- doza. The vigor and energy ot Mendoza's gov- ernment as well as the resources of New Spain at that early date are strikingly displayed in the preparations for what is perhaps the most elabo- rate single enterprise of exploration in North .Amer- ican history. The land force under Coronado num- bered three hundred Spaniards and eight hundred Indians, and was accompanied by a large number of extra horses and droves of sheep and pigs. There was in addition a sea force of two ships under Hernando de Alarcon to cooperate with Coronado by following the coast of the Gulf of California and keeping in communication with the army and carrying some of its baggage. Alarcon discovered the mouth of the Colorado River, and August 26, 1540, started to explore it with boats. In the second of his two separate trips he ap- parently got as far as the lower end of the canon, about two hundred miles up, as he estimated it. Coronado himself set out in February, 1540, march- ing up the west coast of Mexico. At Culiacan he left the main force and went ahead with about fifty horsemen, some foot-soldiers, and most of the Indian allies. Passing across the southwestern sec- tion of .Arizona they verged to the eastward till they came to Cibola, which was captured. Here they were profoundly disappointed. However plausible Friar Marcos's comparison of the distant view of the pueblo with the city of Mexico may be made to seem in our time, there is no doubt that it completely misled the men of that day who knew Mexico. Coronado now sent back Melchior Diaz to order up the main force. Diaz did so, and then set out to explore the region at the head of the Gulf of California. He crossed the Colorado River and penetrated the country to the west. Another important side expedition during this sum- mer was that of Pedro de Tovar to the province of Tusayan, northwest of Cibola, which led to the discovery of the Grand Cafion of the Colorado by De Gardenas. As they looked into its depths it seemed as 'if the water was six feet across, al- though the Indians said it was half a league wide.' They tried to get down to the stream, but in vain. 'Those who stayed above had estimated that some huge rocks on the sides of the cliffs seemed to be about as tall as a man, but those who went down swore that when they reached these rocks they were bigger than the great tower of Seville.' When the main army reached Cibola, Coronado moved with it to about the middle of New Mexico, where he went into winter quarters at Tiguex, on the Rio Grande. Here the burden of requisitions for supplies and individual acts of outrage against the Indians of Tiguex provoked them to an attack on the Spaniards, which was successfully repelled. The cruelty of the reprisals inflicted on the Indian prisoners exceeded anything done by De Soto, and constitutes a dark stain on the expedition. In the spring of 1541, Coronado set out to reach Quivira, a town of which an In- dian prisoner had given a glowing description. It seems probable that the thirty-seven days' march took them northeasterly, but constantly verging to the right, across the plains until they reached the borders of the [former] Oklahoma Territory. A further advance with the main force now seemed inadvisable ; but to verify, if possible, the stories about Quivira, Coronado went on early in June with thirty horsemen to the northeast. After a ride of about six weeks the goal was reached, and proved to be nothing more than a village of semi- nomadic Indians in the centre of the present state of Kansas. A few hundred miles to the southeast 281 AMERICA, 1541 Voyages of Hawkins AMERICA, 1562-1567 De Soto at this same time was exploring Arkansas. An Indian woman who had run away from Cor- onado's army fell in with De Soto's nine days later. Fertile as was the soil of the western pra- ries, the region had nothing at that time adequate to reward settlement so far inland; and Coronado in the following spring returned to New Spain with all his force save two missionaries and a few others. The expedition, like De Soto's, failed of its immediate object, but it revealed the character of a large part of the southwest and of the trans- Mississippi plains; and the branch expeditions had proved that Lower California was a peninsula and not an island." — E. G. Bourne, Spain in America, pp. 16S-172. — In regard to the literature of south- western exploration, G. P. Winship, Bibliography of the Coronado Expedition, is a very valuable guide. It was appended to his edition of all the Coronado documents in English translation, in- cluding the original Spanish text, not previously ptinted, of Castaneda's narrative, published by the United States Bureau of EtLnoIogy, Fourteenth Annual Report (1896). The translations have been revised in G. P. Winship 's Journey of Coro- nado (1Q04). Also in: L. D. Scisco, Coronado's march across the high plains (Americana, VI, pp. 237-24S). — • C. F. Lummis, Spanish pioneers. — Coronado's ex- petition (Papers of the American Historical Asso- ciation, V. 3, pp. 168-171). — Report American his- torical association, p'p. 83-92, 94 (article by C. P. Winship). 1541. — Spanish settlement in Yucatan. See Yucat.'\n: Gaographical description. 1541-1603. — Cartier's last voyage. — Abortive attempts at French colonization in Canada.^ "Jean Francois de la Roque, lord of Roberval, a gentleman of Picardy, was the most earnest and energetic of those who desired to colonize the lands discovered by Jacques Carticr. . . . The title and authority of lieutenant-general was conferred upon him ; his rule to extend over Canada, Hochelaga, Saguenay, Newfoundland, Belle Isle, Carpon, Lab- rador, La Grand Baye, and Baccalaos. with the delegated rights and powers of the Crown. This patent was dated the 15th of January, iS40- Jacques Cartier was named second in command. . . . Jacques Cartier sailed on the 23d of May, 1 54 1, having provisioned his fleet for two years." He remained on the St. Lawrence until the follow- ing June, seeking vainly for the fabled wealth of the land of Saguenay, finding the Indians strongly inclined to a treacherous hostility, and suffering se- vere hardships during the winter. Entirely dis- couraged and disgusted, he abandoned his under- taking early in the summer of 1542, and sailed for home. On the road of St. John's, Newfound- land, Cartier met his tardy chief, Roberval, just coming to join him; but no persuasion could in- duce the disappointed explorer to turn back. "To avoid the chance of an open rupture with Rober- val, the lieutenant silently weighed anchor during the night, and made all sail for France. This in- glorious withdrawal from the enterprise paralyzed Roberval's power, and deferred the permanent set- tlement of Canada for generations then unborn. Jacques Cartier died soon after his return to Europe." Roberval proceeded to Canada, built a fort at Ste Croix, four leagues west of Orleans, sent back two of his three ships to France, and remained through the winter with his colony, hav- ing a troubled time. There is no certain account of the ending of the enterprise, but it ended in failure. For half a century afterwards there was little attempt made by the French to coloni:^e any part of New France, though the French fisheries on the Newfoundland Bank and in the Gulf of St. Lawrence were steadily growing in actiyity and importance. "When, after fifty years of civil strife, the strong and wise sway of Henry IV. restored rest to troubled France, the spirit of discovery again arose. The Marquis de La Roche, a Breton gentleman, obtained from the king, in 1598, a patent granting the same powers that Roberval had possessed." But La Roche's undertakmg proved more disastrous than Roberval's had been. Yet, there had been enough of successful fur- trading opened to stimulate enterprbe, despite these misfortunes. "Private adventurers, unpro- tected by any special privilege, began to barter for the rich peltries of the Canadian hunters. A wealthy merchant of St. Malo, named Pont- grave, was the boldest and most successful of these traders ; he made several voyages to Ta- dousac, at the mouth of the Saguenay, bringing back each time a rich cargo of rare and valuable furs." In 1600, Pontgrave effected a partner- ship with one Chauvin, a naval captain, w'ho obtained a patent from the king giving him a monopoly of the trade; but Chauvin died in 1602 without having succeeded in establishing even a trading post at Tadousac. De Chatte, or De Chastes, governor of Dieppe, succeeded to the privileges of Chauvin, and founded a company of merchants at Rouen [1603] to undertake the development of the resources of Canada. It was under the auspices of this company that Samuel Champlain, the founder of New France, came upon the scene. — E. Warburton, Conquest of Can- ada, V. I, ch. 2-3. — See also France: Colonial em- pire. Also in: F. Parkman, Pioneers of France in the Xew World: Champlain, ch. 1-2. 1542-1648. — Jesuit missionaries. See Jesuits: 1542-164S. 1562-1567. — Slave-trading voyages of Haw- kins. — Beginnings of English enterprise in the New World. — "The history of English America begins with the three slave-trading voyages of John Hawkins, made in the years 1562, 1564, and 1S67. Nothing that Englishmen had done in connection with .America, previously to those voyages, had any result worth recording. England had known the New World nearly seventy years, for John Cabot reached it shortly after its discovery by Columbus; and, as the tidings of the dis- covery spread, many English adventurers had crossed the Atlantic to the .\merican coast. But as years passed, and the excitement of novelty subsided, the English voyages to America had become fewer and fewer, and at length ceased altogether. It is easy to account for this. There was no opening for conquest or plunder, for the Tudors were at peace with the Spanish sovereigns: and there could be no territorial occupation, for the Papal title of Spain and Portugal to the whole of the new continent could not be disputed by Catholic England. No trade worth having existed with the natives: and Spain and Portugal kept the trade with their own settlers in their own hands. ... As the plantations in America grew and multiplied, the demand for negroes rapidly increased. The Span- iards had no .African settlements, but the Portu- guese had many, and, with the aid of French and English adventurers, they procured from these settlements slaves enough to supply both them- selves and the Spaniards. But the Brazilian plan- tations grew so fast, about the middle of the century, that they absorbed the entire supply, and the Spanish colonists knew not where to look for negroes. This penury of slaves in the Spanish 282 AMERICA, 1562-1567 Drake's Voyages AMERICA, 1572-1580 Indies became known to the English and French captains who fiequcntcd the Guinea coast; and John Hawkins, who had been engaged from boy- hood in the trade with Spain and the Canaries, resolved in 1502 to take a cargo of negro slaves to Hispaniola. The little squadron with which he executed this project was the first English squadron which navigated the Vv'est Indian seas. This voyage opened those seas to the English. England had not yet broken with Spain, and the law excluding English vessels from trading with the Spanish colonists was not strictly enlorced. The trade was profitable, and Hawkins found no difficulty in disposing of his cargo to great advan- tage. A meagre note . . . from the pen of Hak- luyt contains all that is known of the first Amer- ican voyage of Hawkins. In its details it must have closely resembled the second voyage. In the first voyage, however, Hawkins had no occasion to carry his wares further than three ports on the northern side of Hispaniola. These ports, far away from San Domingo, the capital, were already well known to the French smugglers. He did not venture into the Caribbean Sea; and having loaded his ships v>'ith their return cargo, he made the best of his way back. In his second voyage ... he entered the Caribbean Sea, still keeping, however, at a safe distance from San Domingo, and sold his slaves on the mainland. This voyage was on a much larger scale. . . . Having sold his slaves in the conti- nental ports [South American], and loaded his vessels with hides and other goods bought with the produce, Hawkins determined to strike out a new path and sail home with the Gulf-stream, which would carry him northwards past the shores of Florida. Sparke's narrative . . . proves that at every point in these expeditions the Englishman was following in the track of the French. He had French pilots and seamen on board, and there is httle doubt that one at least of these had already been with Laudonniere in Florida. The French seamen guided him to Laudonniere's settlement, where his arrival was most opportune. They then pointed him the way by the coast of North America, then uni- versally known in the mass as New France, to Newfoundland, and thence, with the prevailing westerly winds, to Europe. This was the pioneer voyage made by Englishmen along coasts after- wards famous in history through English colo- nization. . . . The extremely interesting narrative . . . given . . . from the pen of John Sparke, one of Hawluns' gentlemen companions . . . contains the first information concerning America and its natives which was published in England by an English eye-witness." Hawkins planned a third voyage in 1566, but the remonstrances of the Span- ish king caused him to be stopped by the English court. He sent out his ships, however, and they came home in due time richly freighted, — from what source is not known. "In another year's time the aspect of things had changed." England was venturing into war with Spain, "and Haw- kins was now able to execute his plans without restraint. He founded a permanent fortified fac- tory on the Guinea coast, where negroes might be collected all the year round. Thence he sailed for the West Indies a third time. Young Francis Drake sailed with him in command of the 'Judith,' a small vessel of fifty tons " The voyage had a prosperous beginning and a disastrous ending. After disposing of most of their slaves, they were driven by storms to take refuse in the Mexican port of Vera Cruz, and there they were attacked by a Spanish fleet. Drake in the Judi'l' and Hawkins in another small vessel escaped. But the latter was overcrowded with men and obliged to put half of them ashore on the Mexican coast I'he majority of those left on board, as well as a majority of Drake's crew, died on the voyage home, and it was a miserable remnant that landed in England, in January, 1569. — E. J. Payne, Voyages of Elizabethan seamen to America, ck. 1. Also in; Hawkins' voyages; ed. by C. R. Mark- ham (Hakluyl Society, No. 57). — R. Southey, Lives of the British admirals, v. 3. 1572-1580. — Piratical adventures of Drake and his encompassing of the world. — "Francis Drake, the first of the English Buccaneers, was one of the twelve children of Edward Drake of Tavistock, in Devonshire, a staunch Protestant, who had fled his native place to avoid persecution, and had then become a ship's chaplain. Drake, like Colum- bus, had been a seaman by profession from boy- hood; and . . . had served as a young man, in command of the Judith, under Hawkins. . . . Hawkins had confined himself to smuggling: Drake advanced from this to piracy. This practice was authorized by law in the middle ages for the pur- pose of recovering -debts or damages from the subjects of another nation. The English, espe- cially those of the west country, were the most formidable pirates in the world ; and the whole nation was by this time roused against Spain, in consequence of the ruthless war waged against Protestantism in the Netherlands by PhiUp II. Drake had accounts of his own to settle with the Spaniards. Though Elizabeth had not declared for the revolted States, and pursued a shifting policy, her interests and theirs were identical; and it was with a view of cutting off those supplies of gold and silver from America which enabled Philip to bribe politicians and pay soldiers, in pursuit of his policy of aggression, that the famous voy- age was authorized by English statesmen. Drake had recently made more than one successful voy- age of plunder to the American coast." In July, 1572, he surprised the Spanish town of Nombre de Dios, which was the shipping port on the northern side of the Isthmus for the treasures of Peru. His men made their way into the royal treasure-house, where they laid hands on a heap of bar-silver, 70 feet long, 10 wide, and 10 high; but Drake himself had received a wound which compelled the pirates to retreat with no very large part of the splendid booty. In the winter of 1573, with the help of the runaway slaves on the Isthmus, known as Cimarrones, he crossed the Isthmus, looked on the Pacific ocean, approached within sight of the city of Panama, and waylaid a transportation party conveying gold to Nombre de Dios; but was disappointed of his prey by the excited conduct of some of his men. When he saw, on this occasion, the great ocean beyond the Isth- mus, "Drake then and there resolved to be the pioneer of England in the Pacific; and on this resolution he solemnly besought the blessing of God. Nearly four years elapsed before it was exe- cuted; for it was not until November, 1577, that Drake embarked on his famous voyage, in the course of which he proposed to plunder Peru it- self. The Peruvian ports were unfortified. The Spaniards knew them to be by nature absolutely secured from attack on the north; and they never dreamed that the English pirates would be daring enough to pass the terrible straits of Magellan and attack them, from the south. Such was the plan of Drake; and it was executed with complete success." He sailed from Plymouth, Dec. 13, 1577, with a fleet of four vessels, and a pinnace, but lost one of the ships after he had entered the Pacific, 283 AMERICA, 1580 Guilberfs Expedition AMERICA, 1584-1586 in a storm which drove him southward, and which made him the discoverer of Cape Horn. Another of his ships, separated from the squadron, re- turned home, and a third, while attempting to do the same, was lost in the river Plate. Drake, in his own vessel, the Golden Hind, proceeded to the Peruvian coasts, where he cruised until he had taken and plundered a score of Spanish ships. "Laden with a rich booty of Peruvian treasure he deemed it unsafe to return by the way that he came. He therefore resolved to strike across the Pacific and for this purpose made the latitude in which this voyage was usually performed by the Spanish government vessels which sailed an- nually from Acapulco to the Philippines. Drake thus reached the coast of California, where the Indians, delighted beyond measure by presents of clothing and trinkets, invited him to remain and rule over them. Drake took possession of the country in the name of the Queen, and refitted his vessel in preparation for the unknown perils of the Pacific. The place where he landed must have been cither the great bay of San Francisco or the small bay of Bodega, which lies a few leagues further north. The great seaman had already coasted five degrees more to the northward before finding a suitable harbour. He believed himself to be the first European who had coasted these shores; but it is now well known that Spanish explorers had preceded him. Drake's circum- navigation of the globe was thus no deliberate feat of seamanship, but the necessary result of circumstances. The voyage made in more than one way a great epoch in English nautical history." Drake reached Plymouth on his return Sept. 26, 1580. — E. J. Payne, Voyages of the Elizabethan seamen to America, pp. 141-143. Also in: F. Fletcher, World encompassed by Sir Drake (Hakluyt Society, 1854). — J. Barrow, Life of Drake. — R. Southey, Lives of British ad- mirals, V. 3. — Nuno de Silva, Report on a part of Francis Drake's famous voyage of circumnavi- gation. — J. Corbett, Drake and the Tudor navy. — E. Channing, History of the United States, V. I, pp. 116, 133, 141. — L. G. Tyler, England in America, pp. 10, 13, 25. — Papers American Historical Association, v. 2, p. 168; v. 5, pp. 303, 950. — Reports American Historical Associa- tion. 1580. — Final founding of the city of Buenos Ay res. See .Argentina: i 580-1 777. 1583. — Expedition of Sir Humphrey Gilbert. — Formal possession taken of Newfoundland. — In 1578, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, an English gentleman, of Devonshire, whose younger half-brother was the more famous Sir Walter Raleigh, obtained from Queen Elizabeth a charter empo'wering him, for the next six years, to discover "such remote heathen and barbarous lands, not actually possessed by any Christian prince or people," as he might be shrewd or fortunate enough to find, and to occupy the same as their proprietor. Gilbert's 'rst expedi- tion was attempted the next year, with Sir Walter Raleigh associated in it; but misfortunes drove back the adventurers to port, and Spanish intrigue prevented their sailing again. "In June, 1583, Gilbert sailed from Cawsand Bay with five vessels, with the general intention of discovering and col- onizing the northern parts of .\merica. It was the first colonizing expedition which left the shores of Great Britain; and the narrative of the expe- dition by Hayes, who commanded one of Gil- bert's vessels, forms the first page in the history of English colonization. Gilbert did no more than go through the empty form of taking possession of the island of Newfoundland, to which the English name formerly applied to the continent in general . . . was now restricted. . . . Gilbert dallied here too long. When he set sail to cross the Gulf of St. Lawrence and take possession of Cape Breton and Nova Scotia the season was too far advanced; one of his largest ships went down with all on board, including the Hungarian scholar Parmenius, who had come out as the historian of the ex- pedition ; the stores were exhausted and the crews dispirited; and Gilbert resolved on sailing home, intending to return and prosecute his discoveries the next spring. On the home voyage the little ves.sel in which he was sailing foundered ; and the pioneer of English colonization found a watery grave. . . . Gilbert was a man of courage, piety, and learning. He was, however, an indifferent seaman, and quite incompetent for the task of colonization to which he had set his hand. The misfortunes of his expedition induced Amadas and Barlow, who followed in his steps, to abandon the northward voyage and sail to the shores intended to be occupied by the easier but more circuitous route of the Canaries and the West Indies." — E. J. Payne, Voyages of Elizabethan seamen to America, pp. 173-174. — "On Monday, the gth of Septem- ber, in the afternoon, the frigate [the 'Squirrel'] was near cast away, oppressed by waves, yet at that time recovered; and giving forth signs of joy, the general, sitting abaft with a book in his hand, cried out to us in the 'Hind' (so oft as we did approach within hearing), 'We are as near to heaven by sea as by land,' reiterating the same speech, well beseeming a soldier resolute in Jesus Christ, as I can testify he was. On the same Monday night, about twelve o'clock, or not long after, the frigate being ahead of us in the 'Golden Hind,' suddenly her lights were out, whereof as it were in a moment we lost the sight, and withal our watch cried the General was cast away, which was too true; for in that moment the frigate was de- voured and swallowed up by the sea. Yet still we looked out all that night and ever after, until we arrived upon the coast of England. ... In great torment of weather and peril of drowning it pleased God to send safe home the 'Golden Hind,' which arrived in Falmouth on the 2 2d of September, bein^ Sunday." — E. Haies, A report of the voyage by Sir Humphrey Gilbert (reprinted in Payne's Voy- ages) . Also in: E. Edwards, Life of Raleigh, v. i, ch. 5. — R. Hakluyt, Principal navigations; edited by E. Goldsmid, v. 12. — L. G Tyler, England in Amer- ica, pp. 13-21. — E. Channing, History of the United States, pp. 122-124. — Prince Society, Sir Humphrey Gylberte and his enterprise of colo- nization in .'imerica; edited by C. Slafter. — G. Pat- terson, Royal Society of Canada's transactions, second series, p. 113. — W. G. Gosling, Life of Sir Humphrey Gilbert (Calendar of State Papers, Col. 1.S74-1674. p. 17). 1584-1586. — Raleigh's first colonizing attempts and failures. — "The task in which Gilbert had failed was to be undertaken by one better qualified to carry it out. If any Englishman in that age seemed to be marked out as the founder of a colonial empire, it was Raleigh. Like Gilbert, he had studied books; like Drake he could rule men. . . . The associations of his youth, and the training of his early manhood, fitted him to sym- pathize with the aims of his half-brother Gilbert, and there is little reason to doubt that Raleigh had a share in his undertaking and his failure. In 1584 he obtained a patent precisely similar to Gilbert's. His first step showed the thoughtful and well-planned system on which he began his task. Two ships were sent out, not with any idea of 284 AMERICA, 1584-1586 Raleigh's Colonization AMERICA, 1584-1586 settlement, but to examine and report upon the country. Their commanders were Arthur Barlow and Philip Amidas. To the former we owe the extant record of the voyage: the name of the latter would suggest that he was a foreigner. Whether by chance or design, they took a more southerly course than any of their predecessors. On the 2d of July the presence of shallow water, and a smell of sweet flowers, warned them that land was near. The promise thus given was amply fullilled upon their approach. The sight before them was far different from that which had met the eyes of Hore and Gilbert. Instead of the bleak coast of Newfoundland, Barlow and Amidas looked upon a scene which might recall the soft- ness of the Mediterranean. . . . Coasting along for about 120 miles, the voyagers reached an inlet and with some difficulty entered. They then solemnly took possession of the land in the Queen's name, and then delivered it over to Raleigh ac- cording to his patent. They soon discovered that the land upon which they had touched was an island about 20 miles long, and not above six broad, named, as they afterwards learnt, Roanoke. Beyond, separating them from the mainland, lay an enclosed sea, studded with more than a hundred fertile and well-wooded islets." The Indians proved friendly, and were described by Barlow as being "most gentle, loving and faithful, void of all guile and treason, and such as live after the man- ner of the golden age." "The report which the voyagers took home spoke as favourably of the land itself as of its inhabitants. . . . With them they brought two of the savages, named Wanchese and Manteo. A probable tradition tells us that the queen herself named the country Virginia, and that Raleigh's knighthood was the reward and ac- knowledgment of his success. On the strength of this report Raleigh at once made preparations for a settlement. A fleet of seven ships was pro- vided for the conveyance of 108 settlers. The fleet was under the command of Sir Richard Gren- ville, who was to establish the settlement and leave it under the charge of Ralph Lane. . . . On the gth of April [1585] the emigrants set sail." For some reason not well explained, the fleet made a circuit to the West Indies, and loitered for five weeks at the island of St. John's and at Hispaniola, reaching Virginia in the last days of June. Quar- rels between the two commanders, Grenville and Lane, had already begun, and both seemed equally ready to provoke the enmity of the natives. In August, after exploring some sixty miles of the coast, Grenville returned to England, promising to come back the next spring with new colonists and stores. The settlement, thus left to the care of Lane, was established "at the north-east corner of the island of 'Roanoke, whence the settlers could command the strait. There, even now, choked by vines and underwood, and here and there broken by the crumbling remains of an earthen bastion, may be traced the outlines of the ditch which enclosed the camp, some forty yards square, the home of the first English settlers in the New World. Of the doings of the settlers during the winter nothing is recorded, but by the next spring their prospects looked gloomy. The Indians were no longer friends. . . . The settlers, unable to make fishing weirs, and without seed corn, were entirely dependent on the Indians for their daily food. Under these circumstances, one would have supposed that Lane would have best employed himself in guarding the settlement and improving its condition. He, however, thought otherwise, and applied himself to the task of ex- ploring the neighbouring territory." But a wide combination of hostile Indian tribes had been formed against the English, and their situation be- came from day to day more imperilled. At the beginning of June, 1586, Lane fought a bold bat- tle with the savages and routed them ; but no sign of Grenville appeared and the prospect looked hopeless. Just at this juncture, a great English fleet, sailing homewards from a piratical expedition to the Spanish Main, under the famous Captain Drake, came to anchor at Roanoke and offered succor to the disheartened colonists. With one voice they petitioned to be taken to England, and Drake received the whole party on board his ships. "The help of which the colonists had despaired was in reality close at hand. Scarcely had Drake's fleet left the coast when a ship well furnished by Raleigh with needful supplies, reached Virginia, and after searching for the departed settlers re- turned to England. About a fortnight later Gren- ville himself arrived with three ships. He spent some time in the country exploring, searching for the settlers, and at last, unwilling to lose possession of the country, landed fifteen men at Roanoke well supplied for two years, and then set sail for England, plundering the Azores, and doing much damage to the Spaniards." — J. A. Doyle, Engliili' in America: Virginia, &c., ch. 4. — "It seems to be generally admitted that, when Lane and his com- pany went back to England, they carried with them tobacco as one of {he products of the coun- try, which they presented to Raleigh, as the planter of the colony, and by him it was brought into use in England, and gradually in other Euro- pean countries. The authorities are not entirely agreed upon this point. Josselyn says: 'Tobacco first brought into England by Sir Tohn Hawkins, but first brought into use by Sir Walter Raleigh many years after.' Again he says: 'Now (say some) Tobacco was first brought into England by Mr. Ralph Lane, out of Virginia. Others will have Tobacco to be first brought into England from Peru, by Sir Francis Drake's Mariners.' Camden fixes its introduction into England by Ralph Lane and the men brought buck with him in the ships of Drake. He says: 'And these men which were brought back were the first that I know of, which brought into England that Indian plant which they call Tobacco and Nicotia, and use it against crudities, being taught it by the Indians.' Certainly from that time it began to be in great request, and to be sold at a high rate. . . . Among the 108 men left in the colony with Ralph Lane in 1585 was Mr. Thomas Harlot, a man of a strongly mathematical and scientific turn, whose services in this connection were greatly valued. He remained there an entire year, and went back to England in 1586. He wrote out a full account of his observations in the New World." — I. N. Tarbox, Sir Walter Raleigh and his colony iti Amer- ica (Prince Society, 1884). Also in: T. Hariot, Brief and true report (re- printed in above-named Prince Society Publica- tion). — F. L. Hawks, History of North Carolina, v I (containing reprints of Lane's Account, Harlot's Report, &c. — Original documents edited by E. E. Hale (Archa-ologia Americana, v. 4). — A. Brown Genesis of the United States, v. i, p. i8g. — E. C Breece, Lounging in the footprints of the pioneers (Harper's Magazine, v. 2, p. 730). — T. Williams Surroundings of Raleigh's colony (Papers of the American Historical Association, 1895, p. 17).— H. Macmillan, Sir Walter Raleigh's lost colony.— L. G. Tyler, England in America, pp. 15-3S1 56-— E. Channing, History of the United States, v. i. pp. 124-12Q, 141-142, 156. — E. Edwards, Life of Raleigh. 285 AMERICA, 1587-1590 Lost Colony of Roanoke AMERICA, 1602-1605 1587-1590. — Lost colony of Roanoke. — End of the Virginia undertakings of Raleigh. — 'Ra- leigh, undismayed by losses, determined to plant an agricultural state; to send emigrants with their wives and families, who should make their homes in the New World; and, that life and property might be secured, in January, 15S7, he granted a charter for the settlement, and a municipal gov- ernment for the city of 'Raleigh.' John White was appointed its governor; and to him, with eleven assistants, the administration of the colony was intrusted. Transport ships were prepared at the expense of the proprietary ; 'Queen Elizabeth, the godmother of Virginia,' declined contributing 'to its education.' Embarking in April, in July they arrived on the coast of North Carolina; they were saved from the dangers of Cape Fear; and, passing Cape Hatteras, they hastened to the isle of Roanoke, to search for the handful of men whom Grenville had left there as a garrison. They found the tenements deserted and overgrown with weeds; human bones lay scattered on the field where wild deer were reposing. The fort was in ruins. No vestige of surviving life appeared. The instructions of Raleigh had designated the place for the new settlement on the bay of Chesapeake. But Fernando, the naval officer, eager to renew a profitable traffic in the West Indies, refused his assistance in exploring the coast, and White was compelled to remain on Roanoke. ... It was there that in July the foundations ot the city of Raleigh were laid." But the colony was doomed to disaster from the beginning, being quickly involved in warfare with the surrounding natives. "With the returning ship White embarked for England, un- der the excuse of interceding for re-enforcements and supplies. Yet, on the iSth of .\ugust, nine days previous to his departure, his daughter Eleanor Dare, the wife of one of the assistants, gave birth to a female child, the first offspring of English parents on the soil of the United States. The infant was named from the place of its birth. The colony, now composed of 89 men, 17 women, and two children, whose names are all preserved, might reasonably hope for the speedy return of the gov- ernor, as he left with them his daughter and his grandchild, Virginia Dare. The farther history of this plantation is involved in gloomy uncer- tainty. The inhabitants of 'the city of Raleigh,' the emigrants from England and the first-born of America, awaited death in the land of their adop- tion. For, when White reached England, he found its attention absorbed by the threats of an invasion from Spain. . . . Yet Raleigh, whose patriotism did not diminish his generosity, found means, in .^pril 1588, to despatch White with supplies in two ves- sels. But the company, desiring a gainful voy- age rather than a safe one, ran in chase of prizes, till one of them fell in with men of war from Rochelle, and, after a bloody fight, was boarded and rifled. Both ships were compelled to return to England. The delay was fatal: the English kingdom and the Protestant reformation were in danger; nor could the poor colonists of Roanoke be again remembered till after the discomfiture of the Invincible Armada. Even then Sir Walter Raleigh, who had already incurred a fruitless ex- pense of £40,000, found his impaired fortune in- sufficient for further attempts at colonizing Virginia. He therefore used the privilege of his patent to endow a company of merchants and ad- venturers with large concessions. Among the men who thus obtained an assignment of the proprie- tary's rights in Virginia is found the name of Richard Hakluyt ; it connects the first efforts of England in North Carolina with the final coloniza- tion of Virginia. The colonists at Roanoke had emigrated with a charter; the instrument of March, 1589, was not an assignment of Raleigh's patent, but the extension of a grant, already held under its sanction by inci easing the number to whom the rights of that charter belonged. More th.in another \ear elapsed before White could return to search for his colony and his daughter; and then the island of Roanoke was a desert. An in- scription on the bark of a tree pointed to Croatan; but the season of the year and the dangers from storms were pleaded as an excuse for an immediate return. The conjecture has been hazarded that the deserted colony, neglected by their own country- men, were hospitably adopted into the tribe [the Croatans] of Hatteras Indians. Raleigh long cher- ished the hope of discovering some vestiges ol their existence, and sent at his own charge, and, it is said, at five several times, to search for his liege men. But im.agination received no help in its attempts to trace the fate of the colony of Roanoke." — G. Bancroft, History of the United Stales, pt. I, V. I, ch. 5. — "The Croatans of to-day claim descent from the lost colony. Their habits, disposition and mental characteristics show traces both of savage and civilized ancestors. Their lan- guage is the English of 300 years ago, and their names are in many cases the same as those borne by the original colonists. No other theory of their origin has been advanced." — S. B. Weeks, Lost col- ony of Roanoke (American Historical Association Papers, v. 5, pt. 4). — "The last expedition [of White, searching for his lost colony] was not de- spatched by Raleigh, but by his successors in the American patent. .And our history is now to take leave of that illustrious man, with whose schemes and enterprises it ceases to have any further con- nexion. The ardour of his mind was not exhausted, but diverted by a multiplicity of new and not lesa arduous undertakings. . . . Desirous, at the same time, that a project which he had carried so far should not be entirely abandoned, and hoping that the spirit of commerce would preserve an inter- course with Virginia that might terminate in a colonial establishment, he consented to assign his patent to Sir Thomas Smith, and a company of merchants in London, who undertook to estab- lish and maintain a traffic between England and Virginia ... It appeared very soon that. Raleigh had transferred his patent to hands very different from his own. . . . Satisfied with a paltry traffic carried on by a few small vessels, they made no at- tempt to take possession of the country: and at the period of Elizabeth's death, not a single Englishman was settled in .America.'' — J. Grahame, History of the rise and progress of the United States of North America, till 1688, ch. i. .Also in: W. Stith, History' of Virginia, bk. i. — F. L. Hawks, Hist, of Korth Carolina, v. i, Nos. 7-8. 17th century. — British settlements. See British empire: Expansion: 17th century: North .America. 17th century. — Colonial women in industry. See Woman's rights: 1644-1852. 1602-1605. — Voyages of Gosnold, Pring, and Weymouth. — First Englishmen in New Eng- land. — Batholomew Gosnold was a West-of-Eng- land mariner who had served in the expeditions of Sir Walter Raleigh to the Virginia coast. Un- der his command, in the spring of 1602, "with the consent of Sir Walter Raleigh, and at the cost, among others, of Henry Wriothesley, Earl of Southampton, the accomplished patron of Shakes- peare, a small vessel, called the Concord, was equipped for exploration in 'the north part of Vir- ginia,' with a view to the establishment of a colony. At this time, in the last year of the Tudor 286 AMERICA, 1602-1605 Gosnold, Pring and Weymouth AMERICA, 1609 dynasty, and nineteen years after the fatal ter- mination of Gilbert's enterprise, there was no Euro- pean inhabitant of North America, except those of Spanish birth in Florida, and some twenty or thirty French, the miserable relics of two frus- trated attempts to settle what the; called New France. Gosnold sailed from Falmouth with a company of thirty-two persons, of whom eight were seamen, and twenty were to become planters. Taking a straight course across the Atlantic, in- stead of the indirect course by the Canaries and the West Indies which had been hitherto pur- sued in voyages to Virginia, at the end of seven weeks he saw land in Massachusetts Bay, probably near what is now Salem Harbor. Here a boat came off, of Basque build, manned by eight na- tives, of whom two or three were dressed in Euro- pean clothes, indicating the presence of earlier for- eign voyagers in these waters. Next he stood to the southward, and his crew took great quantities of codfish by a head land, called by him for that reason Cape Cod, the name which it retains. Gosnold, Brereton, and three others, went on shore, the first Englishmen who are known to have set foot upon the soil of Massachusetts. . . . Sounding his way cautiously along, first in a southerly, and then in a westerly direction, and probably passing to the south of Nantucket, Gos- nold ne.ijt landed on a small island, now called No Man's Land. To this he gave the name of Martha's Vineyard, since transferred to the larger island further north. . . . South of Buzzard's Bay, and separated on the south by the Vineyard Sound from Martha's Vineyard, is scattered the group denoted on modem maps as the Elizabeth Islands. The southwesternmost of these, now known by the Indian name of Cuttyhunk, was denominated by Gosnold Elizabeth Island. . . . Here Gosnold found a pond two miles in cir- cumference, separated from the sea on one side by a beach thirty yards wide, and enclosing 'a rocky islet, containing near an acre of ground, full of wood and rubbish.' This islet was fixed upon for a settlement. In three weeks, while a part of the company were absent on a trading expedition to the mainland, the rest dug and stoned a cellar, prepared timber and built a house, which they fortified with palisades, and thatched with sedge. Proceeding to make an inventory of their provisions, they found that, after supplying the vessel, which was to take twelve men on the return voyage, there would be a sufficiency for only six weeks for the twenty men who would remain. A dispute arose upon the question whether the party to be left behind would receive a share in the proceeds of the cargo of cedar, sassafras, furs, and other commodities which had been collected. A small party, going out in quest of shell-fish, was attacked by some Indians. With men having al- ready, it is likely, little stomach for such cheer- less work, these circumstances easily led to the decision to abandon for the present the scheme of a settlement, and in the following month the adventurers sailed for England, and, after a voy- age of five weeks, arrived at Exmouth. . . . The expedition of Gosnold was pregnant with conse- quences, though their development was slow. The accounts of the hitherto unknown country, which were circulated by his company on their return, excited an earnest interest." The next year (.^pril, 1603), Martin Pring or Prynnc was sent out, by several merchants of Bristol, with two small ves- sels, seeking cargoes of sassafras, which had ac- quired a high value on account of supposed medic- inal virtues. Pring coasted from Maine to Mar- tha's Vineyard, secured his desired cargoes, and gave a good account of the country. Two years later (March, 1605), Lord Southampton and Lord Wardour sent a vessel commanded by George Wey- mouth to reconnoitre the same coast with an eye to settlements. Weymouth ascended either the Kennebec or the Penobscot river some 50 or bo miles and kidnapped five natives. "Except for this, and for some addition to the knowledge of the local geography, the voyage was fruitless." — J. G. Palfrey, Compendious history oj New England, v. i, ch. 2. Also in: Massachusetts Historical Society Col- lection, id series, v. 8 (1843), — J. McKeen, On the voyage of Geo. Weymouth (Maine Historical So- ciety Collection, v. s). — L. G. Tyler, England in America, pp. 34, 4.-!, 49, 51, 35, 39.— E. Channing, History of the United States, v. i, pp. 156, i6q, 170, 171, 1S7. — Report American Historical Associ- ation V. 95, p. 546. 1603-1608. — First French settlements in Arca- dia. See Canada; 1603-1605. 1607. — Land law. See Land titles: 1607. 1607. — Founding of the English colony of Virginia, and the failure in Maine. See British empire: Expansion: 17th century: North America; Virginia: 1606-1607, and after; M.aine: 1607-1608. 1607-1608. — First voyages of Henry Hudson. — "The first recorded voyage made by Henry Hud- son was undertaken . . . for the Muscovy or Rus- sia Company [of England]. Departing from Gravesenci the first of May, 1607, with the in- tention of sailing straight across the north pole, by the north of what is now called Greenland, Hud- son found that this land stretched further to the eastward than he had anticipated, and that a wall of ice, along which he coasted, extended from Greenland to Spitzbcrgen. Forced to relinquish the hope of finding a passage in the latter vicinity, he once more attempted the entrance of Davis' Straits by the north of Greeland. This design was also frustrated and he apparently renewed the attempt in a lower latitude and nearer Greenland on his homeward voyage. In this cruise Hudson attained a higher degree of latitude than any previous navi- gator. ... He reached England on his return on the 15th September of that year [1607]. ... On the 22d of April, 1608, Henry Hudson commenced his second recorded voyage for the Muscovy or Russia Company, with the desi.'n of 'finding a passage to the East Indies by the north-east.' ... On the 3d of June, 1608, Hudson had reached the most northern point of Norway, and on the nth was in latitude 75° 24', between Spitzbergen and Noza Zembla." Failing to pass to the north- east beyond Nova Zembla, he returned to England in August. — J. M. Read, Jr., Historical inquiry concerning Henry Hudson, pp. 133-138. Also is: G. M. Asher, Henry Hudson, the navi- gator (Hakluyt Society, i860). 1608-1616. — Champlain's explorations in the valley of the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes. See Canada: 1608-1611, also 1611-1616. 1609. — Hudson's voyage of discovery for the Dutch. — "Henry Hudson comes into the historian's notice in 1607, and he disappears in the ice and mist of Hudson Bay in 161 1. In this brief period he gained a 'farther north' than any other man for many a long year and made two memorable voyages which are commemorated in the names Hudson River and Hudson Bay. His antecedents are unknown, though conjectures have not been wanting; J. R. Read [Historical inquiry concern- ing Henry Hudson'] gives many facts about sundry Hudsons who lived in the reigns of Elizabeth and James I; but the links connecting these persons with the navigator are still lacking. The sources 287 AMERICA, 1609 Henry Hudson AMERICA, 1609 are given in the original and in translation in Asher's Henry Hudson, tlie navigator (Hakiuyt So- ciety Publications, i860). H. C. Murphy, to whom students of New York history are largely in- debted, printed the contract between the Dutch East India Company and Hudson in his Henry Hudson in Holland. For some inscrutable rea- son, he refused Asher a sight of the brochure, which was designed for private distribution, nor is there any certain information as to the reasons for his voyaging in the service of the Dutch East In- dia Company. Unquestionably he was an English- man, and as certainly he sailed, in i6og, in search of a new waterway to India and Cathay. His vessel was named the Half -Moon; she was a 'fly- boat,' or fast sailing vessel whose speed was secured by making her long in proportion to her beam ; she carried eighteen or twenty men. The Haif- Moon's crew was ill-assorted of Englishmen and "On the morning of the live-and-twentieth,' so the chronicler of the expedition informs us, 'we manned our scute with four muskets and sixe men and tooke one of their shallops and brought it abroad. Then we manned our boat and scute with twelve men and muskets and two stone pieces or mur- derers, and drave the savages from their houses, and tooke the spoyle of them, as they would have done of us,' — which was quite likely after the un- provoked seizure of their boat. Once again, the Halj-Moon steered to the south and, rounding Cape Cod, made the Virginia coast. After coast- ing southward for a time, Hudson turned to the north again and possibly entered Chesapeake Bay. [Asher's Hudson, 73, note ] He certainly sailed into Delaware Bay and, not liking the looks of the shoal water, soon ran out again, and, steer- ing northward, anchored inside of Sandy Hook. On the 4th of August, i6oq, a party went on HENRY HUDSON AND SON CAST ADRIFT IN HUDSON BAY BY MUTINOUS SAILORS, 161 1 Dutchmen and was soon discouraged by ice and storms. Hudson, therefore, abandoned his north- ward course through Arctic seas and steered west- ward for America, to which he was drawn by the knowledge of Weymouth's voyage and of the dis- coveries of the Virginia explorers. [Murphy's Hudson, pp. 47, 63, and .■\sher's Hudson, p. 148. The former is in many ways to be preferred.] It is not unlikely that this following up of the Eng- lish explorations was in the minds of Hudson and his Dutch employers before he sailed from the Texel. In her westward course across the At- lantic, the Half-Moon encountered gale after gale. In one of these her foremast was injured, but on she kept under such sail as she could carry. Off Newfoundland, Hudson sighted some French fish- ing vessels, and stopped long enough for his men to catch 'one hundred and eighteen great coddes. On the 17th of July, in the heat and fog of a Maine summer, he anchored in the vicinity of Penobscot Bay. While lying at his moorings the natives came to the ship in two 'French shallops.' shore, — tradition says on Coney Island, but the landing might have been at almost any other point. Carefully exploring the Narrows, Hudson navigated the Half-Moon into the upper bay, and then into the mouth of the river which now bears his name. The water was salt, and the tide ebbed and flowed with great force. Here, at last, seemed to be the long-looked-for passage to the Pacific Ocean. For eleven days, therefore, the Half-Moon drifted and sailed northwardly. The wonderful scenery of the Hudson — the Pali- sades, the Donderberg, West Point, and the Cat- skills — impressed the explorers. Above the site of the modern Albany the water became too shoal for the ship, but a boat party proceeded eight or nine leagues farther on. [Brodhead, in his New York (i, 31), identifies localities.] While the Half-Moon was at anchor in one of the north- ern reaches, Hudson invited a party of Indians into the cabin and 'gave them much wine and aqua- vitae, that they were all merrie. In the ende one of them was drunke.' As a requital for this hos- 288 S - £ ►4 S AMERICA, 1609-1755 Capf. John Smith Plymouth Colony AMERICA, 1620 pitality, the Indians the next day presented Hud- son with tobacco, wampum, and venison. These natives were Iroquois of the Mohawk tribe. A traditional account of a scene of revelry at the first coming of the whites was preserved among them until the American Revolution; it is generally regarded as descriptive of the coming of Hudson and his crew, but it may possibly refer to earlier French explorers. Two things, however, seem to be reasonably certain. The first is that the Iro- quois appreciated the attentions of the early Dutch navigators and fur traders, who supplied them with fire water and firearms. [See New York His- torical Society's Collections, New Series, i, 71, and Asher's Hudson, 173.] The other assured fact is that these Indians had had slight intercourse with white men, or they would not have been so friendly The natives of the lower Hudson showed their fa- miliarity with the whites by attacking the Half- Moon at every good opportunity. The future careers of the Half-Moon and her gallant captain were not fortunate; putting into Dartmouth, England, Henry Hudson was forbidden to remain longer in the service of the Dutch, and in April, 1610, he sailed from the Thames on his last voyage in quest of the Northwest Passage. Fourteen months later he was set adrift in a shallop in Hudson Bay by a panic-stricken mutinous crew, and no trace of him has since been found. As to the Half-Moon, she gained a Holland port early in 161 1, and four years later was wrecked on the shore of the island of Mauritius." — E. Chan- ning. History of the United States, v. i, pp. 439- 442. Also in: G. Bancroft, History of the United States, ch. 15 (or pt. 2, ch. 12 of "Author's last revision"). — H. R Cleveland, Life of Henry Hud- son, ch. 3-4. — R Juet, Journal of Hudson's voy- age (New York Historical Society Collection, second series, v. i), — J. V. N, Yates and J. W. Moulton, History of the State of New York, pt. i. 1609-1755. — Slavery in colonial New York. See Slavery: 1600-1755 1610-1614. — Dutch occupation of New Neth- erlands, and Block's coasting exploration. See New York State: 1610-1614. 1614-1615.— Voyages of Capt. John Smith to North Virginia. — Naming of the country New England. — "From the time of Capt Smith's de- parture from Virginia [see Virginia: 1607-1610], till the year 1614, there is a chasm in his bio- graphy. ... In 1614, probably by his advice and at his suggestion, an expedition was fitted out by some London merchants, in the expense of which he also shared, for the purposes of trade and dis- covery in New England, or, as it was then called North Virginia. ... In March, 1614, he set sail from London with two ships, one commanded by himself, and the other by Captain Thomas Hunt. They arrived, April 3olh, at the island of Man- hegin, on the coast of Maine, where they built seven boats The purposes for which they were sent were to capture whales and to search for mines of gold or copper, which were said to be there, and, if these failed, to make up a cargo of fish and furs. Of mines, they found no indi- cations, and they found whale-fishing a 'costly conclusion;' for, although they saw many, and chased them too, they succeeded in taking none They thus lost the best part of the fishing season ; but, after giving up their gigantic game, they diligently employed the months of July and Au- gust in taking and curing codfish, an humble, but more certain prey. While the crew were thus employed. Captain Smith, with eight men in a small boat, surveyed and examined the whole coast, from Penobscot to Cape Cod, trafficking with the Indians for furs, and twice fighting with them, and taking such observations of the prominent points as enabled him to construct a map of the country. He then sailed for England, where he arrived in August, within six months after his departure. He left Captain Hunt behind him, with orders to dispose of his cargo of fish in Spain. Unfortunately, Hunt was a sordid and unprinci- pled miscreant, who resolved to make his coun- trymen odious to the Indians, and thus prevent the establishment of a permanent colony, which would diminish the large gains he and a few others derived by monopolizing a lucrative traffic. For this purpose, having decoyed 24 of the natives on board his ship, he carried them off and sold them as slaves in the port of Malaga. . . . Cap- tain Smith, upon his return, presented his map of the country between Penobscot and Cape Cod to Prince Charles (afterwards Charles I.), with a re- quest that he would substitute others, instead of the 'barbarous names' which had been given to particular places. Smith himself gave to the coun- try the name of New England, as he expressly states, and not Prince Charles, as is commonly supposed. . . . The first port into which Captain Smith put on his return to England was Plymouth. There he related his adventures to some of his friends, 'who,' he says, 'as I supposed, were in- terested in the dead patent of this unregarded country.' The Plymouth Company of adven- turers to North Virginia, by flattering hopes and large promises, induced him to engage his services to them." Accordingly in March, 1615, he sailed from Plymouth, with two vessels under his com- mand, bearing sixteen settlers, besides their crew. A storm dismasted Smith's ship and drove her back to Plymouth. "His consort, commanded by Thomas Dermer, meanwhile proceeded on her voy- age, and returned with a profitable cargo in Au- gust ; but the object, which was to effect a per- manent settlement, was frustrated. Captain Smith's vessel was probably found to be so much shattered as to render it inexpedient to repair her; for we find that he set sail a second time from Plymouth on the 24th of June, in a small bark of 60 tons, manned by 30 men, and carry- ing with him the same 16 settlers he had taken be- fore. But an evil destiny seemed to hang over this enterprise, and to make the voyage a succes- sion of disasters and disappointments." It ended in Smith's capture by a piratical French fleet and his detention for some months, until he made a daring escape in a small boat. "While he had been detained on board the French pirate, in order, as he says, 'to keep my perplexed thoughts from too much meditation of my miserable estate,' he em- ployed himself in writing a narrative of his two voyages to New England, and an account of the country. This was published in a quarto form in June, 1616 . . . Captain Smith's work on New England was the first to recommend that country as a place of settlement." — G. S. Hillard, Life and adventures of Captain John Smith, ch. 14-1S. Also in: Captam John Smith, Description of New England. — L. G. Tyler, England in America, pp. 150-152. — Papers, American Historical Associa- tion, V. 4, p 395- 1619. — Introduction of negro slavery into Virginia. See Virginia: 1610. 1620. — Planting of the Pilgrim colony at Plymouth, and the chartering of the council for New England. See Massachusetts: 1620; New England: 1620-1623. 1620. — Formation of the government of Rio de La Plata. See Argentina: 1580-1777. 289 AMERICA, 1620-1660 Grants and C/iarters Buccaneers AMERICA, 1639-1700 1620-1660.— Puritans in New England. See Puritans: 1620-1660. 1621. — Conflicting claims of England and France on the north-eastern coast. — Naming and granting of Nova Scotia. See New Eng- land: 1621-1631. 1629.— Carolina grant to Sir Robert Heath.— "Sir Robert Heath, attorney-general to Charles I., . obtained a grant of the lands between the 38th [36th?] degree of north latitude to the river St Matheo. His charter bears date of October s, 1629. . . . The tenure is declared to be as ample as any bishop of Durham [Palatine], in the kingdom of England, ever held and enjoyed, or ought or could of right have held and enjoyed. Sir Rob- ert, his heirs and assigns, are constituted the true and absolute lords and proprietors, and the coun- try is erected into a province by the name of Carolina [or Carolana], and the islands are to be called the Carolina islands. Sir Robert conveyed his right some time after to the earl of Arundel. This nobleman, it is said, planted several parts of his acquisition, but his attempt to colonize was checked by the war with Scotland, and afterwards the civil war. Lord Maltravers, who soon after, on his father's death, became earl of -Arundel and Sussex . . . made no attempt to avail himself of the grant. ... Sir Robert Heath's grant of land, to the southward of Virginia, perhaps the most e-xtensive possession ever owned by an individual, remained for a long time almost absolutely waste and uncultivated. This vast extent of territory oc- cupied all the country between the 30th and 36th degrees of northern latitude, which embraces the present states of North and South Carolina, Georgia, [.Alabama], Tennessee, Mississippi, and, with very little exceptions, the whole state of Louisiana, and the territory of East and West Florida, a considerable part of the state of Mis- souri, the Mexican provinces of Texas, Chiuhaha, &c. The grantee had taken possession of the coun- try, soon after he had obtained his title, which he afterwards had conveyed to the earl of Arundel Henry Lord Maltravers appears to have obtained some aid from the province of Virginia in 1639, at the desire of Charles I., for the settlement of Carolana, and the country had since become the property of a Dr. Cox; yet, at this time, there were two points only in which incipient English settlements could be discerned; the one on the northern shore of .Albemarle Sound and the streams that flow into it. The population of it was very thin, and the greatest portion of it was on the north-east bank of Chowan river. The settlers had come from that part of Virginia now known as the County of Nansemond. , . . They had been joined by a number of Quakers and other sectaries, whom the spirit of intolerance had driven from New England, and some emigrants from Bermudas . . The other settlement of the English was at the mouth of Cape Fear river; . . those who composed it had come thither from New England in 1659. Their attention was confined to rearing cattle. It cannot now be ascertained whether the assignees of Carolana ever surrendered the charter under which it was held, nor whether it was con- .sidered as having become vacated or obsolete by non-user, or by any other means." — F. X Martin, History of North Carolina, v. i, ch. $ and 7. Also in: L. G. Tyler, England in America, p 120. — C. McL. .Andrews, Colonial self-government, pp. 130, 134. — Papers American Historical Associa- tion, V. 5, p. 443. — Reports American Historical Association, 190^, "'. i, p. 105, 1629. — Attempted settlement in the Bahama Islands. See Bahama Islands. 1629. — Royal charter to the governor and company of Massachusetts bay. See Massachu- setts: 1623-1020. 1629-1631. — Dutch occupation of the Dela- ware. Sec Delaware: 1029-1631. 1629-1632.— English conquest and brief occu- pation of New France. See Canada: 1628-1635 1632. — Charter to Lord Baltimore and the founding of Maryland. — Boundaries of original grant. See Marvlaxd: 1632. 1633-1637.— Charter to Cecil, Lord Baltimore and the planting of the colony at St. Mary's. — Catholicism. See Makvland: 1633-1637 1638. — Planting of a Swedish colony on the Delaware. See Delaware: 1638-1640. 1638-1781. — Slaves in Massachusetts. See Slavery: 163S-17S1. 1639-1663. — Pioneer and unorganized coloniza- tion in North Carolina. See North Carolina: 1639-1663. 1639-1700, — Buccaneers and their piratical warfare with Spain.— "The 17th century gave birth to a class ol rovers wholly distinct from any of their predecessors in the annals of the worici, differing as widely in their plans, organization and exploits as in the principles that governed their ac- tions , , . .After the native inhabitants of Haiti had been exterminated, and the Spaniards had sailed farther west, a few adventurous men from Normandy settled on the shores of the island, for the purpose of hunting the wild bulls and hogs which roamed at will through the forests. The small island of Tortugas was their market ; thither they repaired with their salted and smoked meat, their hides, &c., and disposed of them in exchange for powder, lead, and other necessaries The places where these semi-wild hunters prepared tLe slaugh- tered carcases were called 'boucans,' and they themselves became known as Buccaneers. Prob- ably the world has never before or since witnessed such an extraordinary association as theirs Un- burdened by women-folk or children, these men lived in couples, reciprocally rendering each other services, and having entire community of property — a condition termed by them niatelotage, from the word 'matelot,' by which they addressed one an- other. , , , A man on joining the fraternity com- pletely merged his identity Each member received a nickname, and no attempt was ever made to inquire into his antecedents. When one of their number married, he ceased to be a buccaneer, hav- ing forfeited his membership by so civilized a pro- ceeding He might continue to dwell on the coast, and to hunt cattle, but he was no longer a 'mate- lot' — as a Benedick he had degenerated to a 'colonist,' , , . L'ncouth and lawless though the buccaneers were, the sinister signification now at- taching to their name would never have been merited had it not been for the unreasoning jeal- ousy of the Spaniards. The hunters were actually a source of profit to that nation, yet from an in- sane antipathy to strangers the dominant race resolved on exterminating the settlers Attacked whilst dispersed in pursuance of their avocations, the latter fell easy victims ; many of them were wantonly massacred, others dragged into slavery. . . Breathing hatred and vengeance, 'the brethren of the coast' united their scattered forces, and a war of horrible reprisals commenced. Fresh troops arrived from Spain, whilst the ranks of the buccaneers were filled by adventurers of all nations, allured by love of plunder, and fired with indignation at the cruelties of the aggressors , . , The Spaniards, utterly failing to oust their oppo- nents, hit upon a new expedient, so short-.sighted that it reflects but little credit on their statesman- 290 .OS" ■S-SaSa © s -■SB I sls-s^;..*- • H as 5 i" AMERICA, 1639-1700 Buccaneers Colonial Conflicts AMERICA, 1720-1744 bhip. This was the extermination of the horned cattle, by which the buccaneers derived their means of subsistence; a general slaughter took place, and the breed was almost extirpated. . . . The puffed up arrogance of the Spaniard was curbed by no prudential consideration ; calling upon every saint in his calendar and raining curses on the heretical buccaneers, he deprived them of their legitimate occupation, and created wilfully a set of desper- ate enemies, who harassed the colonial trade of an empire already betraying signs of feebleness with the pertinacity of wolves, and who only de- sisted when her commerce had been reduced to in- significance. . . . Devoured by an undying hatred of their assailants, the buccaneers developed into a new association — the freebooters." — C. H. Eden, West Indies, ch. 3. — "The monarchs both of Eng- land and France, but especially the former, con- nived at and even encouraged the freebooters [a name which the pronunciation of French sailors transformed into 'hlibustiers,' while that corruption became Anglicized in its turn and produced the word filibusters], whose services could be obtained in time of war, and whose actions could be dis- avowed in time of peace. Thus buccaneer, fili- buster, and sea-rover, were for the most part at leisure to hunt wild cattle, and to pillage and massacre the Spaniards wherever they found an op- portunity. When not on some marauding expedi- tion, they followed the chase." The piratical buc- caneers were first organized under a leader in 1630, the islet of Tortuga being their favorite rendezvous. "So rapid was the growth of their settlements that in 1641 we find governors appointed, and at San Christobal a governor-general named De Poincy, in charge of the French filibusters in the Indies. During that year Tortuga was garrisoned by French troops, and the English were driven out, both from that islet and from Santo Domingo, se- curing harborage elsewhere in the islands. Never- theless corsairs of both nations often made common cause. ... In [1654] Tortuga was again recap- tured by the Spaniards, but in 1660 fell once more into the hands of the French; and in their con- quest of Jamaica in 1655 the British troops were reenforced by a large party of buccaneers." The first of the more famous buccaneers (and appar- ently the most ferocious among them all, was a Frenchman called Fran(;ois L'Olonnois, who be- tween 1600-1665 harried the coast of Central Amer- ica with six ships and 700 men. At the same time another buccaneer named Mansvelt, was rising in fame, and with him, as second in command, a Welshman, Henry Morgan, who became the most notorious of all. In i6b8, Morgan attacked and captured the strong town of Portobello, on the Isthmus, committing indescribable atrocities. In 1671 he crossed the Isthmus, defeated the Spaniards in battle and gained possession of the great and wealthy city of Panama — the largest and richest in the New World, containing at the time 30,000 in- habitants. The city was pillaged, fired and totally destroyed. The exploits of this ruffian and the stolen riches which he carried home to England soon afterward gained the honors of knighthood for him, from the worthy hands of Charles II. In 1680, the buccaneers under one Coxon again crossed the Isthmus, seized Panama, which had been considerably rebuilt, and captured there a Spanish fleet of four ships, in which thev launched themselves upon the Pacific. From that time their plundering operations were chieflv directed against the Pacific coast. Towards the close of the seventeenth century, the war between England arid France, and the Bourbon alliance of Spain with France, brought about the discouragement, the decUne and finally the extinction of the bucca. neer organization. — H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific states: Central America, v. 2, ch. 26-30. — See also Jamaica: 1655; 1655-1796. Also in; W. Thornbury, Tlie Buccaneers. — A.O. Exquemelin, History of the Buccaneers. — J. Bur- ney, History of the Buccaneers of .Imerica. 1655. — Submission of the Swedes on the Delaware to the Dutch. See Delaware: 1640- 1656. 1660-1776. — Production of tobacco in Mary- land. See M.\ryland: 1660-1776. 1663. — Grant of the Carolinas to Monk, Clarendon, Shaftesbury, and others. See North Carolina: 1663-1670. 1664. — English conquest of New Netherland. See New York: 1664. 1669-1693. — Failure of Locke's Fundamental Constitutions in America. See North Carolina: 1669-1693. 1673. — Dutch reconquest of New Netherland. See New York: 1673. 1673-1682. — Discovery and exploration of the Mississippi, by Marquette and La Salle. — Louisiana named and possessed by the French. See Canada: 1634-1673; 1669-1687. 1674. — Final surrender of New Netherland to the English. See Netherlands: 1674. 1681. — Proprietary grant to William Penn. See Pennsylvania: 1681. 1685. — Trade with Bristol. Sec Bristol: 1685. 1688-1780. — Beginning and growth of anti- slavery sentiment among the Quakers. — Eman- cipation in Pennsylvania. See Slavery: 1688- 17S0. 1689-1697. — First inter-colonial war: King William's War (the War of the League of Augsburg). See Canada: 1689-1690; 1692-1697; also Newfoundland: 1694-1697. 1690. — First colonial congress. See U. S. A.: 1690; also Canada: 16S0-1600. 1698-1712. — French colonization of Louisiana. — Broad claims of France to the whole valley of the Mississippi. See Louisiana: 1698-1712; 1699- 1763. 1698-1776. — English monopoly of supply of slaves to Spanish colonies. — Asiento contract. Sec Slavery: 1698- 1776. 1699-1763. — French and English trade with the Indians. See Louisiana: 1690- 1763. 1700-1735. — Spread of French occupation in the Mississippi valley and on the lakes. See Canada: 1700- 173 5 1702. — Union of the two Jerseys as a royal province. See New Jersey: 1688-1738. 1702-1713. — Second inter-colonial war; Queen Anne's War (the War of the Spanish Succes- sion). — Final acquisition of Nova Scotia by the English. See Canada: 1711-1713; New England: 1702-1710. 1704-1729. — Early newspapers in America. See Printing and the press: 1704-1729. 1713. — Division of territory between England and France by the Treaty of Utrecht. See Canada: 1713; Utrecht; 1712-1714. 1713-1776. — English crown opposes the aboli- tion of slavery in the colonies. See Slavery: 171,^1776. 1720-1744.— Relations of England with Span- ish America. — "The imperial policy, the English Government's plans and their execution are by no means of the same importance in the English colo- nies on the mainland, because these were self- sufficient and independent enough to work out their own development, and could easily confront imperial regulations by a passive resistance or by a 291 AMERICA, 1720-1744 England and Spanish- America AMERICA, 1720-1744 practical evasion. This method was more difficult in the West Indies; the islands had actually to be fed with Irish salt beef, Old English herrings, and New English com. They were continually subject to inspection by the British fleet, by Brit- ish mihtary officers, and by governors who were not in general liable to the same pressure from their assemblies as were those on the continent. Speaii- ing broadly, the continental colonies developed along their own lines, hampered but not checked permanently by restrictive commercial and politi- cal regulations. The West Indies grew up under the imperial shadow, and felt the influence of Burke's 'winged messengers of vengeance who car- ried (England's) bolts in their pounces to the re- motest verge of the sea.' During our period the West Indies were important to England on every ground, popular, parliamentary, strategic, and com- mercial. It was in the West Indies that Drake and Hawkins had reaped a golden harvest, and the popular imagination still regarded the isles as the outposts from which assaults could be made on the treasure houses of the Incas. Pious Protes- ant adventurers could be trusted to destroy the popish inquisition at the same time that they de- prived Spain of the gold of Eldorado. To the out- bursts of the mob and of popular feeling neither of England's two real rulers in this period were ever indifferent. To parUaraentary pressure W'al- pole and Newcastle were even more susceptible, and there were in the House of Commons not only mem'oers of the South Sea Company, but also West Indian landlords. The West Indian archipelago, unlike the American continent, was in large part settled and exploited by men who lived in England, and who employed agents or factors to manage their West Indian estates. Such men often found it convenient or commercially profitable to ob- tain seats in the Commons, and the young Glad- stone was perhaps the last man who represented the West Indian slavery interest in that body. It was as literally true to say that the West Indies were represented in British Parliament as it was absurd to assert that the American colonies were. Commercial considerations were the most impor- tant of all; in the early eighteenth century Eng- land judged colonies by the value of their trade even more than by their provision of materials — raw and human — for the British Navy. From the trade test the West Indies emerged triumph- antly. The English exports to the West Indies differed so amazingly from the imports that even contemporaries ceased to trust entirely to the bal- ance of trade as a measure of value. By the import test the West Indian trade was about equal during this period to that from the northern colo- nies, and it brought more direct gains to English pockets. Unlike the continental colonies the West Indies could not rival English manufactures, for coffee, cocoa, indigo, cotton, fruits, and sugar were all tropical products. The West Indies were also the center and clearing house of that traffic in negroes, which was so dear to the hearts and pockets of the merchants of Liverpool, Bristol, and London. But more important than all this, they were the subterranean channel which micht con- vey to England the whole measureless volume of Spanish trade, the silks and tea of the East, car- ried from .^capulco to Mexico and thence to Vera Cruz, the Peruvian gold piled high on the quays of Porto Bello, the galleons laden with jewels and plate which sailed from Cartagena and Havana. Bv the .^siento treaty England, and England alone of European powers, had the opportunity of tap- ping these boundless resources. This treaty gave England the sole contract for supplying negroes to Spanish America and also permission to un- lade in Spanish America the cargo of one large ship filled with English goods. Both these privi- leges could be used to open up the Spanish trade. The limited right of entry for English goods might well become an unlimited one under an easy-going Spanish governor. Even when he refused to wink at an illicit commerce, he was often quite unable to police the coast and suppress the smugglers. An enormous illicit trade with the Spanish islands and the mainland was thus promoted or permitted by the interest, the impotence, or the supineness of the Spanish governors themselves. Other coun- tries were not so fortunate in their attempts to smuggle goods into Spanish America. Newcastle admitted to Keene (England's ambassador to Spain) that the 'Dutch trade in the West Indies in general is much more confined than ours, and that which they carry on to the Spanish colo- nies is altogether an illicit one.' As their trade was altogether illicit the poor Dutch could not complain of confiscated goods, but by the .^siento it was hard to draw the line between the avowed English trade and the smuggling. Keene and Vil- larias (the Spanish foreign minister) both declared that the French Government had almost entirely stopped French illicit practices in the West Indies. Even if we do not altogether accept this state- ment it seems safe to assume that the English illicit trade with Spanish America was far larger than the French or the Dutch. It is at least worthy of note that in 1762 the French trade to Spanish America was reckoned at £1,250,000 and the English at ii, 090,000. This was 23 years after 1730, the year in which England's privileged monopoly practically ceased, and we must assume, therefore, that in the interval the destruction of English privilege enabled France to equalize mat- ters. In January, 1738, Horatio Walpole. not the most delightful of historical gossips but his uncle, the most learned and informed of contemporary English diplomatists, wrote a famous secret me- moir for the British Government. In it he re- viewed the whole subject of the English relations with Spanish .America, and his arguments formed the basis of all the diplomacy which led up to the war of 1739. He begins by surveying the treaties between Spain and England and admits that a beneficial construction of treaties had given a large amount of illicit trade to England until the end of the seventeenth century, 'which with- out doubt was by connivance and indulgence on the part of Spain, by treating us in a more fa- vorable manner than any other country whatso- ever.' Spain even extended their indulgence, with respect to navigation and trade, farther than we could pretend to claim by treaty.' When Spain ceased to be England's ally, beneficial construc- tions ceased also. But in 1713 came the peace of Utrecht (q.v.) and the Asiento, which increased the possibility of smuggling. From 1717 to 1710 and from 1726 to 1727 there was actual war be- tween the two countries. From 1734 to 1737 there was, however, again greater freedom of in- tercourse, but from 1737 onward a greater Span- ish severity than at any previous period in the eighteenth century. Walpole's general conclusion as to England issuing letters of reprisal on Spain in case of war is interesting. He avows that this is not a good plan, because the Spaniards have nothing worth taking even in the galleons; 'two- thirds or one-half at least of all these rich load- ings belonged to the French.' Reprisal mav, there- fore, embroil against us those nations 'that have a chief property in the galleons. ' On the other hand, England's rich and valuable West Indian 292 AMERICA, 1720-1744 Spanish- America American Colonies AMERICA, 1776 trade will be at the mercy of all pirates and in- terlopers, as well as privateers in case of reprisal. Accordingly he does not recommend action against Spain, but the conclusion of an agreement by which both nations should arrange to restrain by legislation illicit intercourse between their subjects in the West Indies. Hardwicke or Newcastle wrote a note on the margin of the memoir as follow: 'The trade to the Spanish West Indies, although illicit by treaties between sovereign and sovereign, is so very lucrative that the Parliament will never pass such a law, and the Enghsh merchant will run the hazard of carrying it on in spite of treaty.' This aristocratic Government was singularly defer- ential to the trader. Newcastle complains how he had to endure threats from deputations of mer- chants 'who used in times past to come cap in hand . . . now and the second word is . . . you shall hear of it in another place' (meaning the Commons), and the duke also approved of 'yield- ing to the times' (meaning not the newspaper but the London mob). It was quite clear that neither Newcastle nor Walpole could oppose the Commons or the capital too far, and in fact the main cause of the war of 1739 appears to have been an out- cry of Parliament and people, stimulated by com- mercial influence. If we survey the facts, we shall, I believe, find that during 173S-3Q, the ques- tion of Spanish-American trade dominated and subordinated to itself the w^hole domestic and colonial policy of England. There was in 1739 a popular clamor about Jenkins and his ear [see England i 739-1 741], about outrages on English- men by Spanish governors, and about the tortur- ing of Protestants by Jesuits. There was also a very strong commercial pressure on the Govern- ment to preserve the whole of the existing illicit trade with Spain and Spanish America. None the less it remains a striking fact that, at one point in the negotiations to preserve peace in 1738-30, Wal- pole and Newcastle were willing to suppress a large part of that illicit trade with Spain. They actually prepared and drafted articles for a treaty which would have suppressed the illicit trade of private adventurers to the Spanish Indies and mainland. They were not, however, prepared to suppress the illicit trade conducted by the South Sea Co. under the shadow of the .^siento. They were willing enough to put pressure on private ad- venturers and smugglers because these undercut the profits of the South Sea Co., but they abso- lutely refused to put any pressure on the company to force it to trade fairly. The reason I believe to be rather an interesting one. The English Gov- ernment was financially and officially committed to the support of the South Sea Co., which was an English venture and which had an important parliamentary interest. Private individuals who smuggled on the Spanish M^in were some of them perhaps English, more were West Indians, the ma- jority were from the continental colonies, espe- cially from. New England. The continental colo- nies possessed very little interest in Parliament, the West Indian smugglers had less than the South Sea Co. Hence, if there was to be a suppression of illicit trade that of private individuals must suffer. In a sense this action was a sacrifice of colonial interests to purely English ones. In a way it is a more serious instance of such sacrifice than Walpole's sugar act of 1733. He never at- tempted to enforce the prohibitions of that act, but he did seriously contemplate this other suppres- sion of illicit trade. Thus we see as far back as 1730, a growing difference of treatment and a pos- sible cause of irritation arising between mother- land and her continental colonies. When the wars were over, the separation of commercial interests between the two was soon to be revealed, and to set one fighting against the other. But as yet the difference was hidden in ministerial portofolios. W'hen war broke out in 1739 the New Englanders fitted out ships and spent money to aid the Old Englanders against the Spaniards, and side by side they shared the triumphs and treasure of Porto Bello and disease and defeat beneath the fever- haunted walls of Cartagena." — H. W. V. Temper- ley, Relations of England with Spanish America, 1 720-1 744 (American Historical Association, pp. 231-237). — See also Commerce: Era of geographic expansion: I7th-i8th centuries: North American colonies. 1729. — End of the proprietary government in North Carolina. See North Carolina: 1688- 1729. 1729-1730. — Founding of Baltimore. See Mary- land: I 72 Q- I 730. 1732. — Colonization of Georgia by General Oglethorpe. See Georgia: 1732-1739. 1744-1748. — Third inter-colonial war: King George's war (War of the Austrian Succes- sion). See New England: 1744; 1745; and 1745- 174S. 1748-1760. — Unsettled boundary disputes of England and France. — Fourth and last inter- colonial war, c.-illed the French and Indian War (Seven Years War of Europe) — English con- quest of Canada. See Canada: 1750-1753; 1756; 1759; 1760; Nova Scotia: 1749-1755; 1755; Ohio (Valley): i 748-1 754; 1754; 1755; Cape Breton Island: 1758-1760. 1749. — Introduction of negro slavery into Georgia. See Georgia: 1735-1749. 1750-17S3. — Dissensions among the English colonies on the eve of the great French war. See U. S. A.: 1750-1753. 1754. — Colonial congress at Albany. — Frank- lin's plan of union. See .'\lbany plan of union; U. S. A.: 1754. 1756. — Extent and distribution of slavery in the English colonies. Sec Slavery: 1756. 1762-1803. — Spanish rule in Louisiana. See Missouri: 1762-1803. 1763. — Peace of Paris. — Canada, Cape Breton, Newfoundland, and Louisiana east of the Mis- sissippi (except New Orleans) ceded by France to Great Britain. — West of the Mississippi an-d New Orleans to Spain. — Florida by Spain to Great Britain. See Seven Years War. 1763-1764. — Pontiac's War. See Pontiac's War. 1763-1765. — Growing discontent of the Eng- lish colonies. — Question of taxation. — Stamp Act and its repeal. See U. S. A.: 1760-1775, to 1766. 1766. — Russians on the northwestern coast of United States. See Oregon: 1741-1S36. 1766-1769. — Spanish occupation of New Or- leans and Western Louisiana, and the revolt against it. See Louisiana: i 766-1 768, and 1769. 1769-1785. — Abolition of slavery in Connect- icut and New Hampshire. See Slavery: 1769- 178S. 1774. — Rhode Island prohibits the introduction of slaves. See Sl.avery: 1774. 1775. — Committee of secret correspondence. See State Department, LT^jj^q States: 1774-1789. 1775-1783. — Independence of the English colo- nies achieved. See U. S. A.: 1775 (.'\pril) to 1783 (September) . 1776. — Political powers of Maryland vested in a convention. See Maryland: 1776. 1776. — Rhode Island declares its independence. See Rhode Island: 1776. 293 AMERICA, CENTRAL AMERICAN ASSOCIATION 1776.— Erection of the Spanish vice-royalty of Buenos Ayres. See Arcextina; 1580-1777. 1776-1784. — Maryland's influence on the founding of the western domain. See Mary- land: 1 776-1 784. 1776-1784.— Ordinance of 1784.— Confederation and attitude of Maryland. See M.\r\i.and: 1776- 1784. 1776-1808. — Anti-slavery sentiment in south- ern states. — Its disappearance. See Slavery: 1776-1808. 1792-1807. — Attempts to suppress the slave trade. See Slavery: 17Q2-1S07. 1803-1812. — Control of Louisiana by United States. See Missouri: 1803- 181 2. 1810-1816. — Revolt, independence and confed- eration of the Argentine provinces. See Argen- tina: 1806-1S20. 1815.— Declaration of the Powers against the slave trade. See Slavery: 1815. 1818. — Chilean independence achieved. See Chile: 1S10-181S. 1820-1821. — Independence acquired by Mex- ico and the Central American states. See Mexico: 1820-1826; and Central America: 1S21- 1871. 1823. — Enunciation of Monroe Doctrine. See Monroe Doctrine. 1824. — Peruvian independence won at Aya- cucho. See Perli; 1S20-1S26. 1835. — Russian and British claims in Oregon. — Compromise. See Oregox: 1741-1836. For the detailed development of the various countries in both North and South .America, sec Alaska; .\rgentina; Bolhia; Brazil; Canada; Central America; Colombia; Ecuador; Mexico; Paraguay; Peru; U. S. A.; Uruguay; Venezuela; also American republics, International Union of; Latin America; Railroads: U. S. A.: Inter- continental. AMERICA, Central. See Central America. AMERICAN ABORIGINES. See Indians, .\merican; also under the names of various tribes. AMERICAN ACADEMY IN ROME, an in- stitution for the cultivation of American talent in the field of art, founded in 1865 by a group of men among whom were Charles F. McKim, .Augus- tus Saint-Gaudens, Francis D. Millet, J. Pier- po'nt Morgan, and William K. Vanderbilt. "The Academy offers fellowships to men and women who have already had a preliminary education in the arts and have given evidence of being poten- tial creators of art of the hiehest order. It holds out to the gifted youth throughout the Union ex- actly the same privileges which the French Acad- emy offers to the geniuses of France. Fellows, or prize-holders, are given an opportunity of living in an artistic environment and meeting with great minds in their own and allied arts and letters. That the American .\cademy fills a long-felt want, and that the plan upon which it was founded is ideal, is attested by the fact that during the past quarter of a century it has produced, in the fine arts, such men as John Russell Pope, Harry Al- len Jacobs, Paul Manship, Herman A. MacNeil, George Breck and Eugene Savage. From its classi- cal studies fellowships, it has furnished our uni- versities and schools with nearly one hundred and fifty professors trained in the humanistic as op- posed to the pedantic spirit." — G. Rene du Bois, American Art (Arls and Decoration, Mar. 25, 1020.1 AMERICAN AIR SERVICE. See .\\x\tion: Development of airplanes and air service: 1914- 1918. AMERICAN ALLIANCE FOR LABOR AND DEMOCRACY. See American Federa- tion or Labor: 1017-1018. AMERICAN AMBULANCE. — "During the first eight months of the World War the .American .Ambulance continually hoped to extend its work to an .Ambulance Service delinitely connected with the armies in the field, but not until April, 1015, were these hopes delinitel\' realized. The history, however, of these lirst eight months is important ; its mistakes showed the way to suc- cess; its expectations brought gilts of cars, in- duced volunteers to come from .America, and laid the basis upon which the present service is founded. A gift of ten ambulances, whose bodies were made out of packing-boxes, enabled the .American Am- bulance, at the very outset of the war, to take part in the transportation service, and as more and more donations were made, small squads were formed in an attempt to enlarge the work. ... In .April, iqi5, . . . the French authorities made a place for American .Ambulance Sections at the front on trial. .A squad of ten ambulances was sent to V'osges, and this croup attracted the at- tention of their commanding officers, who asked that it be increased by ten cars so as to form it into an independent Sanitary Section. -As soon as this was done, the unit took its place in con- junction with a French Section in an important Sector on the front in .Alsace. With this initial success a new order of things began, and in the same month a second Section of twenty cars was formed and was stationed, again in conjunction with an cxistins French service, in the much-bom- barded town of Pont-a-Mousson. In the mean- time, two squads of five cars each had been work- ing at Dunkirk. These were now reenforced by ten more and the whole Section was then moved to the French front in Belgium, with the result that at the end of the month of .April, 1015, the Field Service of the American .Ambulance had really come into existence. It comprised three Sections of twenty ambulances, a staff car, and a supply car. . . . The story of the next year is one of real achievement, in which the three Sections emerged from the test with a record of having fulfilled the highest expectations of proving their utility to France. . . . The ambulances were manned chiefly by .American college men who agreed to serve not less than six months, and who brought to the work youth and intelligence, initia- tive and courage. ... In November, 1015, at the request of General Headquarters, a fourth Section, made possible through the continued aid of gen- erous friends in .America, took its place in the field ... In Feb:uary, loib. Section 2 was summoned to the vicinity of Verdun at the moment of the great battle, and in March definite arrangements for a fifth Section was completed." — H. S. Harri- son and S. Galatti, Friends of France, pp. 1-4. — By the end of the war, 47 companies had been or- ganized with a personnel of 4,760 men. After bringing the men together and instructing them in first-aid. the Red Cross turned them over to the .Army Medical Department and they were at once mustered into service. All of them were motor companies. Until 1Q16 the .Army had made no provision for such motorized companies, and ani- mal-drawn vehicles were used in all cases. AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE. See Ar- chitectire: Modern: .America. AMERICAN ART. See Painting: American; Sculpture: Modern: .American sculpture. AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR LABOR LEGISLATION, an organization affiliated with the International .Association for Labor Legisia- 294 AMERICAN ASSOCIATION AMERICAN COMMISSION tion; founded igo6; interests itself chiefly in la- bor problems and endeavors to influence legislation for the betterment of labor conditions throughout the country ; has been a great influence in the en- actment of federal and state workmen's compensa- tion and insurance laws. The association publishes a quarterly, American Labor Legislation Review. — See also Labok legislation: igo6-iQ2i. AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, the most important American scientific society ; was organ- ized in Boston in 1S47. It was an outgrowth of the Association of American Geologists and Natur- alists, The society is organized in sections, each of which holds its own convention at the time of the annual meeting of the association. These sec- tions include: A, mathematics and astronomy; B, physics; C, chemistry; D. mechanical science and engineering; E, geology and geography; F, zool- ogy; G, botany; H, anthropology and psychology; I, social and economic science; K, physiology and experimental medicine; L, education. Since igoi the journal Science has been the semi-official organ of the association. AMERICAN BLACKLIST. See Blacklist: American. AMERICAN CABINET. See Cabinet, Amer- ican. AMERICAN-CANADIAN FISHERIES CONFERENCE. See Alaska: 1914-1918. AMERICAN CIVIC ASSOCIATION.— "Or- ganized effort for the systematic makin-^ of a beau- tiful America did not manifest itself until within comparatively recent years. Prior to 1904 there had been various short-lived state associations, a few interstate societies and two national organizations, working with the same general objects in view. But at St. Louis, in 1Q04, the year of the great exposition, a merger of the two national organiza- tions brought forth the American Civic Association which, since that time, has carried on with increas- ing success and popular support the greatly needed work for a- 'More Beautiful America'; and since that time it has been recognized as the one great national agency for the furtherance of that work. With its purpose as staled in its constitution clearly before it, it has constantly widened the circle of its usefulness until recently they were grouped under fifteen general departments, each department headed by an expert in his or her particular spec- ialty. In classifying its varied activities, the As- sociation announces that it aims 'to make Ameri- can hving conditions clean, healthful, attractive; to extend the making of public parks; to promote the opening of gardens and playgrounds for chil- dren and recreation centers for adults; to abate public nuisances — including objectionable signs, un- necessary poles and wires, unpleasant and wasteful smoking factory chimneys ; to make the buildings and the surroundings of railway stations and fac- tories attractive; to extend the practical influence of schools; to protect existing trees and to en- courage intelligent tree planting ; to preserve great scenic wonders (such as Niagara Falls and the White Mountains) from commercial spoliation. So vigorously has it pursued these activities that it has seen some of them develop to such proportions that they were ready to swing off from the par- ent circle into spheres of their own. Such was the case with the playground movement, which for years was fostered most energetically by the .Ameri- can Civic Association until it grew into an inde- pendent organization known as the National Play- ground Association, and which is now an agency of splendid achievements in its one specialized func- tion." — B. Watrous, American Civic Association {American City, October, 1909). — During 1913 a group of the association's members visited various European countries to study the civic progress there and to see what methods of efficient adminis- tration might be adapted to American needs. From Oct. 13-15, 1920 the American Civic Association held its sixteenth annual convention at Amherst. — See also Civic beauty; City planning; Bill- boards: Efforts of women. AMERICAN CIVIL WAR. See U. S. A.: i860 (November-December) and after. AMERICAN COLONIES. See America; U. S. A.: 1607 and after. Development of agriculture. See Agricul- ture: Modern period: United States: Beginnings. AMERICAN COLONIZATION SOCIETY, an organization formed in 1816 for the purpose of returning negroes to Africa. It had strong support, especially in the South and was aided by some state governments and by federal appropriations. It formed a settlement called Liberia on the Af- rican coast to which it sent out some negroes. — See also Liberia; Early history. Also in: H. T. McPherson, History of Liberia — A. B. Hart, Slavery and abolition. AMERICAN COMMISSION FOR RELIEF IN BELGIUM. See Belgium; 1914. AMERICAN COMMISSION IN SYRIA. See International relief: Near East. AMERICAN COMMISSION TO NEGO- TIATE PEACE.— "The Paris Conference was opened in January [1919]. . . . The President of the United States, Dr. Woodrow Wilson, had ar- rived in Europe in the previous month; and the American representatives being present in Paris, no time was lost in making arrangements for the Con- ference. Dr. Wilson was accompanied by Mr. Robert Lansing (Secretary of State), and by Colo- nel E. M. House, Mr. Henry White, and General T. H. Bliss. The last-named delegate had previous- ly been the American representative on the Supreme War Council at Versailles, and hence he was, of course, well-known in Paris." — Annual Register for 1919, p. ISO. — The Commission was accompanied by a band of expert advisers. "As to personnel, the problem proved to be less difficult than at first it threatened to be. . . . Work of such de- tail could not be expected of statesmen and diplo- mats, nor would they have been competent for it. The need was for men expert in research. Con- sequently the staff was in the main recruited from strong universities and colleges but also from among former officials, lawyers, and business men. The studies that were made during the winter, spring and autumn of 1918 in the geography, his- tory, economic resources, political organization and affiliations, and ethnic and cultural characteristics of the peoples and territories in Europe, Africa, Asia, and the islands of the Pacific, served as tests for the selection and elimination of workers; the men making these studies and reporting thereon were under constant observation, and as a result the best fitted among them emerged and were put in charge of various subdivisions of the work and assigned groups of assistants. As a consequence, by the fall of 1918 The Inquiry was thus organ- ized: "Director, Dr. S. E. Mezes, College of the City of New York. "Chief Territorial Specialist, Dr. Isaiah Bowman, American Geographical Society. (Dr. Bowman was named executive officer in the summer of 1918, after Mr. Walter Lippmann resigned as sec- retary to undertake intelligence work for the army in France.) "Regional Specialiits: 295 AMERICAN DRAMA AMERICAN EXPEDITIONARY FORCES For the northwestern frontiers — Dr. Charles H. Haskins, Harvard University. For Poland and Russia — Dr. R. H. Lord, Har- vard University. For Austria-Hungary — Dr. Charles Seymour, Yale University. For Italian boundaries — Dr. W. E. Lunt, Hav- erford College. For the Balkans — Dr. Clive Day, Yale Univer- sity. For Western Asia — Dr. W. L. Westermann, Uni- versity of Wisconsin. For the Far East— Capt. S. K. Hornbeck, U. S. A. For Colonial Problems — Mr. George L. Beer, formerly of Columbia University. "Economic Specialist, Dr. A. A. Young, Cornell University "Librarian and Specialist in History, Dr. James T. Shotwell, Columbia University. "Specialist in Boundary Geography, Maj. Doug- las Johnson, Columbia University. "Chief Cartographer, Prof. Mark Jefferson, State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Michigan. "Besides The Inquiry proper, and affiliated with they would have on the spirits of the allied peoples, and the first division under Pershing was dis- patched. .'\t the same time steps were taken to raise a great army." — J. S. Bassett, Our u<ar with Germany, pp. iSg-igo. — General Pershing reached Paris on June 13, igi7, and the first contingent of American troops arrived at the port of St. Na- zaire, France, on June 25, igi?. "The first Ameri- can artillery in France undertook a schedule of studies in an old French artillery post located near the Swiss frontier. This place is called Valda- hon, and for scores of years had been one of the training places for French artillery. But during the third and fourth years of the war, nearly all of the French artillery being on the front, all sub- sequent drafts of French artillery received their training under actual war conditions. ... It was after midnight that our men reached the front line. It was the morning of October 23, igiy, that American infantrymen and Bavarian regiments of Landwehr and Landsturm faced one another for the first time in front line position on the Euro- pean front. . . . The first shot was fired at 6:5:10 [5 minutes and 10 seconds after 6 o'clock] A. M., October 23, igi7. The missle fired was a 75-mil- .fi&OV,/ 4S00O ICMtSTtR 4M0 veRPOOL S44(M0 tSTOL PORTS 11000 ■ALMOUTM 1000 ^LYMOUTM 1000 Y/scurnArtpjxM S70CO fyLQNDON 6t00tt MOVEMENT OF AMERICAN EXPEDITIONARY FORCES TO EUROPE although distinct from it, were the experts in in- ternational law, Mr. David Hunter Miller and Major James Brown Scott. This body of men proceeded to Paris at the opening of December, 1918, except Mr. Miller, who had gone in Oc- tober. In Paris they assisted the commissioners plenipotentiary with data and recommendations, and themselves served on commissions dealing with three types of problems: First, territorial; second, economic questions and reparation; third, interna- tional law and the League of Nations. ... As it turned out, the staff of The Inquiry were concerned in Paris, as members of commissions, with delicate questions of policy, and it may be noted that the decisions which they had a part in negotiating were only in the rarest instances modified by the supreme council." — E. M. House and C. Seymour, What reallv happened in Paris, pp. 6-8. AMERICAN DRAMA. See American litera- ture: 17S0-1861. AMERICAN EMBARGO CONFERENCE. See U. S. A.: 1014-1017. AMERICAN EXPEDITIONARY FORCES. — "Interviews with members of the French and British missions that arrived in Washington in April [191 7] convinced the president that we ought to send troops [to Europe] for the effect limetre or 3-inch high-explosive shell. The target was a German battery of iso-millimctre or 6-inch guns located two kilometres back of the German first line trenches, and one kilometre in back of the boundary line between France and German- Lorraine. The position of that enemy battery on (he map was in a field 100 metres west of the town which the French still call Xaurey, but which the Germans have called Scheuris since they took it from France in 1870. Near that spot . . . fell the first .American shell fired in the Great War.. . . . The first executive work of the American Ex- peditionary Forces overseas was performed in a second floor suite of the Crillon Hotel in the Place de la Concorde in Paris. This suite was the first temporai-y headquarters of the American com- mander." — F. Gibbons, And they thought we ■wouldn't fight, p. g6. — "The American Expedition- ary Force . . . was composed of forty-two divi- sions, twenty-nine of which were combat units. In the last week of October, igi8, when these twenty-nine were in action, they held loi miles of front, or twenty-three per cent, of the Allied line. They advanced in battle 485 miles, and captured 63,o7g prisoners and 1,378 guns. The part taken by the American Expeditionary Force in the fighting on the Western Front [may be 296 AMERICAN FABIUS AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR summarized as follows:] . . . The First Division captured Cantigny, in the Amiens sector, on May 28th. The Second Division, with elements of the Third and Twenty-eighth, helped to stop the Ger- man advance in the neighbourhood of Chateau- Thierry. The Second Division (June sth-iith) took Bourcsches, Torcy, and Belleau Wood — a brilliant operation. Eighty-live thousand Ameri- can troops cooperated in the repulse of Luden- dorff's Fifth Offensive — the Forty-second Division fighting with Gouraud, in Champagne, east of Rheims, and the Third and Twenty-eighth fight- ing with de Mitry south of the Marne. Eight di- visions — the First, Second, Third, Fourth, Twenty- sixth, Twenty-eighth, Thirty-second, and Forty- second were employed in Foch's attack against the Aisne-Marne salient, beginning July 18th. Ele- ments of the Thirty-third Division took part in Haig's offensive against the Montdidier salient, be- ginning -August Sth. They helped the AustraHans to storm Chipilly Ridge, on the north side of the Somme. The Twenty-seventh and Thirtieth di- visions were used in conjunction with the Austra- lians to break the Hindenburg Line about Le Cate- let and in the subsequent advance toward Mau- beuge. The Twenty-eighth, Thirty-second, and Seventy-seventh divisions participated in the first stages of General Mangin's Oise-Aisne offensive, beginning August i8th. The Twenty-seventh and Thirtieth divisions, before storming the Hinden- burg Line, had helped to recapture Mount Kem- mel. On October 31st two other American divi- sions — the Thirty-seventh and Ninety-first — were sent to Flanders from the Meuse. They took part in the last stages of the Ypres-Lys offensive, reach- ing the line of the Scheldt." — W. L. McPherson, Short history of the great war, pp. 385-386. — • With the termination of hostilities (November 11, igiS), the American Expeditionary Forces took over the administration of the city of Coblenz. Out of a total mobilization of 4,272,521 fighting men, of which more than half comprised the A. E. F,, the greater part of the remaining force awaiting orders to join the A. E. F., the total cas- ualties were 274,659. This figure included the 67,813 dead, the 192,483 wounded and the 14,363 prisoners or missing.— See also Trench warfare: Defensive weapons; World War: 191 7: VIII. United States and the war: j. Also in: W. R. Skillman, A. E. P.: Who they were I what they did! how they did it! — B. Crow- ell and R. F. Wilson, How America went to war. AMERICAN FABIUS, a sobriquet bestowed upon George Washington for his tactics against the British forces. Like the old Roman Dictator, Fabius Cunctator (Delayer), he harassed the en- emy, but avoided open battle. This policy was un- popular and nearly led to Washington's removal. — See also U. S. A.: 1783 (November-December). AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR: 1881-1886. — Organization. — Early relations with Knights of Labor. — "A call was issued conjointly by the 'Knights of Industry' and a society known as the 'Amalgamated Labor Union' — an offshoot of the Knights of Labor, composed of disaffected members of that order — for a convention to meet in Terre Haute, Ind., on August 2, 1881. . . . The Terre Haute convention had for its object the es- tablishment of a new secret order to supplant the Knights of Labor, although on the face of the call, its object was stated to be to establish a national labor congress. There was a large rep- resentation of delegates present from St. Louis, Cleveland, Chicago, and other western cities, but the only eastern city represented was Pittsburgh. The trade union delegates represented the largest constituency, but were less in number themselves than the delegates of the other societies. But, by the exercise of tact and diplomacy, the trades union men, who were at that time also members of the Kriights of Labor, successfully opposed the project of adding another new organization to the list of societies already in existence, and, for the time being, the friends of the proposed secret or- ganization were defeated. A call was published, however, for subsequent convention, to be held in Pittsburgh on November 15, 1S81, and this gath- ering proved to be the most important of its kind that had thus far been held. . . . There were 107 delegates present at the Pittsburgh convention, rep- resenting 262,000 workingmen, A permanent or- ganization was formed and named the Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions of the United States and Canada. A legislative commit- tee, now known as the Executive Council, was ap- pointed. . . . Knights of Labor assemblies and trades unions were equally represented, and it was thoroughly understood that the trade unionists should preserve their form of organization and the Knights of Labor should maintain theirs, and that the two should work hand in hand for the thorough amalgamation of the working people under one of these two heads. . . . [The convention of 1883] favored arbitration instead of strikes. The eight- hour rule was insisted upon and laws were de- manded to limit the dividends of corporations and to introduce governmental telegraph systems. . . . The 1885 convention in Washington was princi- pally directed to strengthening the national or- ganization and preparing for the eight-hour move- ment. . . . The 1886 convention was originally called to meet in St. Louis in the latter part of the year, but the stirring events incident to the eight-hour strikes and the difficulties existing with the Knights of Labor led to the memorable con- ference of the officers of the trades unions on May iS, when defensive measures were outlined to pro- tect the trades unions and to secure harmony with the Knights of Labor. A committee attended the special session of the Knights' General Assembly, at Cleveland, on May 26, and, after several days' waiting, marked by long and animated discussions ... no definite assurances were obtained, and no action was taken. The trades union committee a second time met the Knights of Labor Executive Board on September 26, and secured promises that definite action would be taken at the Richmond General Assembly, which would lead to harmony between the two organizations. The trade unions objected to the admission to the Knights of Labor of members who had been suspended, expelled, or rejected for cause by their own organization ; they opposed the formation of Knights of Labor as- semblies in trades already thoroughly organized into trades unions, and complained of the use of Knights of Labor trade-marks or labels, in com- petition with their own labels, notably so in the case of the Cigar Makers' International Union. At the Richmond General Assembly, the trade union chiefs presented a mass of grievances, show- ing where their local unions had been tampered with by Knights of Labor organizations, where movements had been made to disrupt them, and where, in cases where such disruption could not be effected, antagonistic organizations were formed by the Knights. The General Assembly, however, in- stead of removing these alleged evils or giving sat- isfactory redress to the trade union element, ad- ministered to the Federation a slap in the face, as the latter understood it, by passing a resolution compelling the members of Cigar Makers' Interna- tional Union connected with the Knights of Labor 297 „^« AMVRICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR AMERICAN to withdraw from the order. The call for the St. ^^^-^.a^^^S^^and^f^^ers^^^ elected. Re^ol"''""^^ St-h'^urul? demanding 'VY "'"^''thetssa^e of a compulso'ry indenture of Congress the passage m "^ , Protective deliberation, a co"-i organization ganizations, to secure s establishment of na- ana luc h .:j;i,„ and encouragement ol tne bodies; and '^^.^ ^'™",f,3^ .._An.erican Federation iijij' sitp^ rnnvention, and iviay i, S. It *..'''" *,S,..;^». .--»...-; Fach local union was asked to vote on lue h sSfilliSi ^-J:eded'L^"Vurn.u.^-^^^^ mised on nme hours. The Carpente^ ^.^^^ ^^ eight hours in seven cities and c p^^^^ ^^^^^^^^ nine m eighty-four. . . . ivia> , \^^ j^v. fh";Xgg.e: "^^rLccessfu, in U, citie. be.^ fitting 47.IP7 ^^"^''"?!" ,,3,-,tm go^g on. It was strike for eight hours, and t w ^^^^ ^^ through trade umon activity, the A. !■. oi i> sistently demanded the shorter work-day loj^l'L r^Ti'^hfa^rTi:s.^t^:ithrre't^ tfe^'bu w't wholW dependent on the view- .nint nf the federal official having the power to point ol tne i"ierd. Congress enacted an being enforced. It also was soon found that th ■isb"'" w-"'" -""""■' '■'• meni Owing to the emergencies created by he ^:i:t wooing ^^^,,:if L^-„,^ri:w '^nTrcrarv- tt "SeV that ''all overtime hould be paid for at the rate of time and a haf^ TWs mainlined the ,eight-hour principle while meeting an emergency^ -/W.,PP^ i°-^ - of^S-7i"ghrrgrst°the'mT iuiance U ?'ade ut^ons 'see Labor strikes a.o bovcotts: '*?^«''°°Trouble over Buck stove and range boy?ou-'^s7e"tvc^^^ Recent judicia^^^^^^^^^^^ 1910.-Admi3sion of Negroes. See Race pbob "igTl-Union'with W. F. M. See Ikousxrial WORKERS OP THE WORUK R-ent tendencies. Wo^d-X-'AtearAuLncelor Labor and KcrYcy:-War,,.abor boards S,ppo^ states support the government but they caMmto existence [in 'be summei^ oj i i , -Pa^^^ ^^^„ ine weeiv " .,, , ^^ organized labor m served as Losalty \\eeK d> "6 pffectivelv to anti-American propaganda^ -F^L XV ar^ lif labor 298 AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR as they got into working order, the work of the Cominiliec on Labor of the Council of National Deleiisc became, relatively at least, less important. At the outset, however, the whole work of de- termining fiindcimEntal policies and of taking ac- tion to secure their adoption fell upon this body. The Committee was formally constituted on Feb- ruary 13, 1917. The first step taken by Mr. Gompers was to secure a general agreement on the part of organized labor as to the attitude it would take towards the war and the problems engen- dered by it. In his capacity as President of the American Federation of Labor he iirst called a preliminary conference of representatives of or- ganized labor on February 28, and a meeting of the Executive Committee of the Federation on March g. This was followed by a general con- ference in Washington on March 9, 1017, of the executive officers of all the leading labor organiza- tions of the United States. At this meeting, which was a very important gathering attended by more than ISO persons, there was adopted a formal dec- laration of principles setting forth the attitude of union labor towards the war. In this declaration organized labor pledged its unqualified support of the war and made known its demands. Among them were the demands that Government should take energetic steps to curb profiteering, and that labor should have adequate representation in all bodies created by the Government for the handling of industrial matters. This meeting of labor was followed by a general conference of representatives of labor, employers' organizations, and others prominent in the field of social reform at Wash- ington on April 2, 1917, called by Mr. Gompers as Chairman of the Committee on Labor of the Council of National Defense. The persons invited to participate in this conference, numbering from 180 to 200 persons, effected a permanent organiza- tion as the full Committee on Labor of the Coun- cil of National Defense. It thereupon organized itself into numerous subcommittees to deal with specific phases of the labor problem and provided for the creation of an Executive Committee of 11 members who should act for the whole Committee. This E.xecutive Committee on April 6, 1917, adopted a formal resolution, the most important provision of which was a recommendation that the Council of National Defense should issue a statement to employers and employees in all in- dustrial establishments and transportation sys- tems, advising that 'neither employers nor em- ployees shall endeavor to take advantage of the country's necessities to change existing standards.' " — W. F. Willoughby, Government organization in war time and after, pp. 207-210. — "For the pur- pose of formulating a national labor policy and for devising and providing a method of labor ad- justment which would be acceptable to employers and employes at least for the war emergency pe- riod, the Wilson administration created on Janu- ary 28, 1918, the War Labor Conference Board consisting of five representatives of employers, five representatives of employes, and two of the gen- eral public. . . . The five representatives of the employes were officials of national and interna- tional labor unions whose members were almost entirely engaged in war production. The mem- bers of the board were appointed by the Secretary of Labor upon nomination by the president of the National Industrial Conference Board, an or- ganization of employers, and the president of the American Federation of Labor, the latter repre- senting all the more important labor unions of the country with the exception of the four railway brotherhoods whose members were engaged in the operation of trains. Each of the two groups thus selected chose one of the two representatives of the public. This board presented a formulation of industrial principles which represented the Ad- ministration's labor policy and which were to govern the relations between workers and employ- ers in war industries for the duration of the war. These principles are [in part] as follows: There should be no strikes or lockouts during the war. The right of workers to organize in trade unions and to bargain collectively through chosen repre- sentatives is recognized and affirmed. [The ana- logous right of the employers was also recognized and affirmed.] . . . Employers should not dis- charge workers for membership in trade unions, nor for legitimate trade union activities. The workers, in the exercise of their right to organize, shall not use coercive measures of any kind to induce persons to join their organizations, nor to induce employers to bargain or deal therewith. In establishments where the union shop exists the same shall continue and the union standards as to wages, hours of labor, and other conditions of employment shall be maintained. . . . Established safeguards and regulations for the protection of the health and safety of workers shall not be re- laxed. If it shall become necessary to employ women on work ordinarily performed by men, they must be allowed equal pay for equal work and must not be allotted tasks disproportionate to their strength. The basic eight hour day is rec- ognized as applying in all cases in which existing law requires it. . . . The right of all workers, in- cluding common laborers, to a living wage is hereby declared." — F. J. Warne, Workers at war, pp. 84-87. — "Among the most important of these [agencies to control labor relations] is the Na- tional War Labor Board recommended by the War Labor Conference Board in its report of March 29 and created by Presidential Proclamation April 8, 1918. This board had jurisdiction over all mat- ters of labor controversies between employers and employes in all fields of industrial or other activ- ity affecting war production where there did not already exist by agreement or federal law a means of settlement. Even where such agencies were provided, jurisdiction was with the War Labor Board in case these agencies failed to secure ad- justment. . . . The War Labor Board consisted of the same members selected in the same manner and by the same agencies as the War Labor Con- ference Board." — Ibid., pp. 131-132. — "On Novem- ber g [1919] a specially called meeting of the ex- ecutive council of the American Federation of La- bor, representing 114 national and international unions and an individual membership of more than four miUion workers engaged in all the occupa- tions throughout the country, took up considera- tion in a most serious attitude of mind the coal miners' strike and the action of the Government in relation to it. . . . The attitude of organized labor as represented by this supreme advisory au- thority of the labor unions was expressed in an 'ap- peal to the public' containing among other things the following: . . . 'By all the facts in the case the miners' strike is justified. We indorse it. We are convinced of the justice of the miners' cause. We pledge the miners the full support of the .American Federation of Labor and appeal to the workers and the citizenship of our country to give like endorsement and aid to the men engaged in this momentous struggle." — Ibid., pp. 172-173. — See also Labor p.^rties: 1868-1019. 1919. — Thirty-ninth Annual Convention. — "The 30th annual convention of the American Federation of Labor was held in Atlantic City, N. J., from 299 AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR June 7 to June 24, 191Q. . . . Almost all official recommendations were upheld by an overwhelming vote, the only evidence of any dissenting opinion being the nature of some of the 211 resolutions introduced but always defeated when of a radical nature. . . . 'The conflict for industrial democracy is just beginning,' declared Samuel Gompers, presi- dent of the American Federation of Labor, in his openirfg address to the convention. . . . Previous to Gompers' address, which was the key-note speech of the convention and sounded the new in- ternational relationship of labor thiough the League of Nations, a cablegram was read from President Wilson, lauding Gompers for having es- tablished in international circles as well as at home, the reputation of the .'Vmerican Federation of La- bor for sane and helpful counsel.' . . . The after- noon of the first day was consumed with the read- ing of the report of the .'\merican Federation of Labor Delegation to the Peace Conference by James Duncan, first vice-president. . . . Miss Mar- garet Bonfield, fraternal delegate from the British Trades Union Congress, addressed the convention bringing the greetings of the organized wage earn- ers of Great Britain. . . . One of the most note- worthy [speeches was] an address by Glenn E. Plumb, counsel of the four railroad brotherhoods, advocating the railroad workers' plan for govern- ment ownership and democratic control of the rail- roads. The executive council of the Federation was later instructed to take necessary steps toward realizing this project. . . . The one successful at- tack on the administration was the overturn of the committee on resolutions' recommendation 'that the principle of self-determination of small nations applies to Ireland' for the stronger amend- ment from. the convention itself calling for recog- nition of the Irish republic and later providing in the indorsement of the League of Nations that this ?hould not exclude Irish independence. The Irish nationalists in the convention backed by the radi- cals anxious to score over the administration and demonstrate the imperialist character of the peace settlement forced the issue and defeated the com- mittee recommendation ... by a vote of 181 to 150 and adopted the amendment asking recogni- tiofi for Ireland by the Peace Conference. . . . This was the only revolt of the convention, the Irish being placated and assisting in the condem- nation of the Russian Soviet republic soon there- after. . . . John P. Frey, secretary of the resolu- tions committee, brought in a recommendation as a substitute [for three other resolutions] urging the Government to withdraw all troops from Rus- sia but refusing the endorsement of the Soviet Government or any other Russian government un- til a constituent assembly has been held to estab- lish 'a truly democratic form of government.' . . . Vigorous opposition . . . failed to change the re- sult and the recommendation of the committee was adopted. . . . One of the favorable results of the convention was the support obtained by the Negro workers from the e.\ecutive council and the con- vention, tending to break down the bars against admission of colored workers in the international unions. Nearly fifty of the international officials reported that they raised no barrier against the Negro, and the convention authorized the forma- tion of federal locals of all colored workers re- fused membership in any international union. . . . The most dramatic incident of the convention was the solitary stand made against the League of "Nations covenant and the labor charter contained in the peace treaty by Andrew Furuseth, the sea- men's leader. . . . The entire executive council of the American Federation of I^abor and its national officials were re-elected. . . . Samuel Gompers was appointed to represent the Federation at the meet- ing of the Trades Union International Congress in Amsterdam on July 25." — C. Laue, igig A. F. oj L. convention (American Labor Year Book, igig- ig20, pp. I4g-is5), — See also Labor parties; igiS- iQ2o; R.ULROADs: igig: Plumb plan. 1920. — Fortieth Annual Convention. — Statistics of the federation. — ^Gompers and the national election. — "The American Federation of Labor met in annual convention for the fortieth time at Montreal, Canada, on June 7, ig20. . . . The most contentious issue fought out on the floor of the convention during its 12 days' session was the ques- tion of Government ownership of the railroads. The resolution in favor of Government ownership and democratic operation, which was passed by a vote of 20,058 to 8,348, is as follows: "Resolved, That the Fortieth Annual Conven- tion of the American Federation of Labor go on record as indorsing the movement to bring about a return of the systems of transportation to Gov- ernment ownership and democratic operation; and be it further "Resolved, That the executive Council be, and are hereby, instructed to use every effort to have the transportation act of ig2o repealed and legis- lation enacted providing for Government owner- ship and democratic operation of the railroad sys- tems and the necessary inland waterways. . . . "The convention indorsed the covenant of the League of Nations without reservations. 'It is not a perfect document and perfection is not claimed for it. It provides the best machinery yet devised for the prevention of war. It places human rela- tions upon a new basis and endeavors to enthrone right and justice instead of strength and might as the arbiter of international destinies.' Other reso- lutions adopted by the convention may be sum- marized as follows: Compulsory military train- ing and military training in schools were con- demned as 'unnecessary, undesirable, and un- .American.' Public oflicers were urged to make all possible effort to release political prisoners. The Kansas court of industrial relations was condemned and its abolition urged. Four resolutions on this subject were referred to the executive council of the Federation for action in bringing about the repeal of the law involved. Congress was enjoined to enact immediately the legislation necessary to establish the United States Employment Service as a permanent bureau in the Department of Labor. The creation of a Federal compensation insurance fund for maritime workers, under the administra- tion of a Federal or State compensation commis- sion, was urged to offset the recent decision of the United States Supreme Court denying longshore- men the benefits of State workmen's compensation laws. Reclassification of the civil service was ad- vocated and the adoption of a wage scale com- mensurate with the 'skill, training, and responsi- bility involved in the work performed.' Enact- ment of legislation granting civil-service employees the right to a hearing and to an appeal from judg- ment in case of demotion or dismissal was also urged. The nonpartisan political campaign inau- gurated by the Federation at its .Atlantic City con- vention in igiq to defeat candidates for office 'hostile to the trade-union movement' and 'elect candidates who can be relied upon to support measures favorable to labor,' was indorsed. A fund of $20,545.42 was donated to the campaign committee by members of the Federation between February 24, 1020, and April 30, ig20. Repeal of the Lever law and of the espionage act and other wartime legislation was demanded. Legislation 300 AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR AMERICAN HISTORICAL against profiteering, in support of the Women's Bureau and of a Federal housing program was advocated, and the strengthening of the Depart- ment of Labor was urged. Continued organization of the steel industry and particular attention to organization of laundry workers and telephone op- erators were ordered. The Nolan minimum-wage bill (H. R. 5726), providing a minimum wage of $3 a day for Federal employees, was approved. The secession movement of the 'outlaw' railway unions was condemned. The convention adopted a resolution in favor of the independence of Ireland and voted against recognition of the Soviet Gov- ernment. Cooperation between labor unions and the farmers was advocated. A committee was ap- pointed to report upon the question of health in- surance to the IQ2I convention of the Federation. On the question of Asiatic immigration, the con- vention concurred in the resolution proposed by the Building Trades Council of California urging upon Congress: 'First, cancellation of the "gentle- men's agreement;" second, exclusion of "picture brides" by action of our Government; third, ab- solute exclusion of Japanese, with other Asiatics, as immigrants; fourth, confirmation and legaliza- tion of the principle that Asiatics shall be forever barred from American citizenship; fifth, amend- ment of section i of Article XIV of the Federal Constitution, providing that no child born in the United States of Asiatic or Oriental parents shall be eligible to American citizenship unless both parents are eligible for such citizenship.' The em- ployment of alien labor on the Panama Canal was protested. Fullest support was pledged to 'rees- tablish the rights of free speech, free press, and free assemblage,' wherever denied. A congressional investigation into conditions in the West Virginia coal fields was asked. Congress was urged to make adequate provision for World War veterans. Relief for the people of Austria, Serbia, Armenia, and neighboring countries was urged. . . . "Membership in the American Federation of Labor has passed the four million mark. In iqoo it was over half a million, in iqo2 over one million, in 1914 over two million, and in igig over three million. The paid-up and reported membership of affiliated unions for the year ending April 30, ig20, was 4,078,740. This number does not in- clude the 207,065 members of the national organ- izations at present suspended from the Federation, nor does it include the membership of those rail- way brotherhoods partially affiliated. The mem- bership of the Federation in iq2o represents an increase of 100.6 per cent over the membership in igiS, when it was 1,946,347 [having fallen slightly from igi4]. There are 36,741 local unions in the no national and international unions directly af- filiated with the Federation in addition to the 1,286 local trade and federal labor unions, which are similarly affiliated. The strike benefits paid by the Federation to local trade and federal unions for the year ending April 30, ig2o, totaled $67,- 9i2.gs. A total of $3,213,406.30 in death benefits, $937,2 ig. 25 in sick benefits, and $65,026.42 in un- employed benefits, was paid during the same period by affiUated international organizations. These figures do not include the benefits paid by local unions, many of which provide death, sick, and out-of-work benefits, and therefore represent but a small proportion of the aggregate sum paid by trade unions for these purposes." — Monthly Labor Review (Ihiiled Stales Bureau of Labor Statistics, August, 1920, pp. 168-171).- — In line with the fed- eration's political policy of "rewarding its friends and punishing its enemies," Mr. Gompers during the presidential campaign urged organized labor to vote for James Cox, the Democratic candidate; Cox received about seven million votes fewer than Harding. — See also Railroads; 1920: Esch-Cura- mins .-^ct. 1921. — Forty-first Annual Convention. — The federation held its forty-first annual convention at Denver, Colo., June 13 to 25, ig2i. One notable feature of the convention was the contesting of the election for the presidency. John L. .Lewis, president of the United Mine Workers of America, was the opposition candidate, but Samuel Gompers was reelected by a vote of 25,022 to 12,324; not voting, 1,984. This was Mr. Gompers' fortieth election to the presidency of the federation. At one of the opening sessions, J. H. Thomas, British fraternal delegate to the convention, warned the federation against encouraging any American in- tervention in the Irish question. This question aroused much discussion at various sessions; Irish sympathizers gradually divided into those who fav- ored a resolution calling for American recognition of Ireland as a republic and those who favored a resolution demanding a boycott of English- made goods. The resolution of the "recognition" was finally adopted. The convention defeated by a roll call vote of 21,742 to 14,530 a resolution proposing that the war-making power be taken from Congress and given to the people to be exer- cised through a referendum. The convention adopted a resolution favoring public ownership of the railroads, after a clause providing for govern- ment control of all basic industries had been stricken out. Definite action on the campaign for a six-hour day was postponed. A resolution offered by negro delegates asking the federation to take steps toward abolishing the Ku-Klux-Klan was opposed. The convention declined to interfere with the autonomy of international or national unions in regard to the membership of women or negroes. It endorsed the Sheppard-Towner bill (to aid in the establishment of maternity centers), called for federal control and development of na- tural resources, declared against universal military training and denounced the "growing abuse of in- junctions in labor disputes." 1921. — Unemployment statistics. See U. S. A.: 1921 (May); Unemployment figures. AMERICAN FICTION. See American lit- erature; 1790-1860. AMERICAN FUR TRADING COMPANY. See Oregon: 1808-1826; TJ'isconsin: 1812-1825; WYOi.nxG: 1S07-1833. AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. — Executive. See President; Cabinet members; also department heads under name of department as. Labor, De- partment or. Judicial. See Supreme court; Courts, etc. Legislative. See Congress of the United States; Federal government; Representative government. state. See State go\'ERNMENt. AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIA- TION, founded at Saratoga in 18S4. An Ameri- can Historical Society had been founded in Wash- ington in 1835 by Peter Force and others. It had had John Quincy Adams, Lewis Cass and Levi Woodbury as presidents and had published one vol- ume of transactions. The call for the meeting at which the American Historical Association was or- ganized was signed by John Eaton, President, and Frank B. Sanborn, Secretary of the Social Science Association, Charles Kendall Adams of Ann Arbor, Moses Coit Tyler of Ithaca and Herbert B. Adams. About forty responded to the call. A constitution was prepared by C. K. Adams, H. B. Adams, Clar- ence W. Bowen, Ephraim Emerton, M. C. Tyler 301 AMERICAN HISTORICAL REVIEW and William B. Weeden. The first paper was read by President Andrew D. White of Cornell On studies in general history and the history of civili- zation," Mr. White was the first and George Ban- croft the second president of the Association^ On January 4, iSSq, President Cleveland signed the act of incorporation of the Association in the Dis- trict of Columbia, "for the promotion of historica studies, the collection and preservation of historical manuscripts, and for kindred purposes in the in- terest of American history and of history in America." This act requires the Association to have its principal office in Washington and to re- port annually to the secretary of the Smithsonian Institution concerning its proceedings and the con- dition of historical study in America. The annual reports were to be published by the public printer. Prior to 188Q the publications were known as Papers of the American Historical Association. The connection with the government has brought some disadvantages, such as the barring from publica- tion in the annual reports of some discussions on reUgious questions and the papers of the Churcti History section. The Association has a Historical Manuscripts Commission which has done much to preserve valuable historical manuscnpt material. Members of the Association were prominent in the founding of the American Historical Review in 180'; [The issue of October, ig20, contains the history of its first 25 years.] At the meeting m i8q6 a Committee of Seven on the teachmg of his- tory in secondary schools was appointed at the in- stance of Professor Henry Morse Stephens. The report of this committee did much to improve the teaching of history in high schools and acadernics. Since i8q8 the Association has aided the Amencan Historical Review and distributed it to all the members. Standing committees on bibliography and publications and a Public Archives Cominis- .ion have done good work. The Association awards prizes for historical essays. In 1904 a Committee of Eight was appointed to prepare a re- port on the studv of history in elementary schools after the analogy of the Committee of Seven. "The Committee on History and Education lor citizenship in the Schools was constituted in 191 8, first by the National Board for Historical Service and later bv the Association, in order to consider those extensive modifications in the methods of historical teaching in the Schools which it was then felt, must be brought about as a result of the Great War, in order that history might do its full part in training the minds of the young for proper service to a new era."— Amencan Historical Revie-w. AprU. 1021, p. 410-During the World War the Association rendered valuable services for the Committee on Public Information and the National Board of Historical Service. AMERICAN HISTORICAL REVIEW.-A periodical, founded in 1895. See American his- torical ASSOCIATION. AMERICAN INDIANS. See Indians, Amer- ican; also under the names of various tribes^ AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF INTERNA- TIONAL AFFAIRS.— "Because these facts [in- creasing international relationships] are recognized, simultaneous efforts are being made [October, 1Q20I in several nations to build up institutes of inter- national affairs. Such organizations have already been established in the United States, in Great Britain and in Japan. The American branch is now in the process of reor ;anization and ot com- bination with the Council on Foreign Relations under the title of the American Institute of Inter- national Affairs. The undertaking, it is significant to note, arose out of the informal meeUngs which AMERICAN INSTITUTE were held by the experts of the American and British peace delegations at Paris. Lmdsay Russell, Chairman of the Council on Foreign Relations, is actively aiding the reorganization. Concerning the activities of the new body, he said . . . 'What is being attempted is to establish a national centre of international thought. ... The Amencan Insti- tute of which Whitney Shepardson is secretary, has established a nucleus for an international library and outlined the publication of monographs on international topics which concern us as a nation The first work of the American Insti- tute has been to co-operate with the British Insti- tute in causin; to be published a voluminous his- tory of the Peace Conference [in five volumes, edited bv H. W. V. Temperleyl. This has been distributed to libraries. It is important to note that the American Institute of International Attairs is designed to be a source and centre of informa- tion, but not of propaganda. .\s such, the institute can formulate no policies. ... The British were wilUng to undertake the first work, that of pre- paring the history of the treaty. The Americans among them Thomas W. Lamont, provided a part of the funds for the work."-W. L. Chenery, For amitv of nations (New York Times, October 31. AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF INTERNA- TIONAL LAW, "organized at Washington m October, 1912, is a body which is likely to have great influence in promoting the peace and wel- fare of this hemisphere. The Institute is compos°d of five representatives from the national society ot international law in each of the twenty-one Ameri- can republics. At the suggestion of Secretary Lansing the Institute at a session held in the city of Washington, January 6, 1Q16, adopted a Dec- laration of the rights and duties of Nations, which was as follows: I. Every nation has the right to exist and to protect and to conserve its existence , but this right neither implies the right nor jus- tifies the act of the state to protect itself or to con- >;erve its existence by the commission of unlawful acts against innocent and unoffending states. U. Every nation has the right to independence in the sense that it has a right to the pursuit of happiness and is free to develop itself without interference or control from other states, provided that in so doing it does not interfere with or violate the rights of other states. HI. Every nation is m law and before law the equal of every other na- tion belonging to the society of nations, and all na- tions have the right to claim and according to the Declaration of Independence of the United States, 'to assume, among the powers of '^e earth the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them^ IV. Everv nation has the right to territory within de- fined boundaries, and to exercise exclusive juris- diction over its territory, and all persons whether native or foreign found therein V Every na- tion entitled to a right by the law of nations is entitled to have that right respected and protected bv all other nations, for right and duty are corre- lative, and the right of one is the duty of all to observe VI. International law is at one and the same time both national a"fi i"t""'>'!°"^' ' , "f T tional in the sense that it is the law of the land and applicable as such to the decision of all ques- tions involving its P"nciples . international in the sense that it is the law of the society of nations and applicable as such to all questions bet;yeen and among the members of the society n^t'O"^. ^"- vTlving its principles.' This Declaration has been criticized as being too altruistic for a world n which diplomacy has been occupied with selfish 302 AMERICAN KNIGHTS AMERICAN LEGION aims." — J. H. Latane, United States and Latin America, pp. 304-306. — See also • Internationai. law: 1856-iQog. AMERICAN KNIGHTS, Order of. See Knights of the Golden Circle. AMERICAN KNIGHTS OF LABOR. See American Federation of Labor: 1881-1886; Knights of Labor. AMERICAN LABOR PARTY. See Labor parties: 1Q18-1920. AMERICAN LEAGUE OF ANTI-IMPERI- ALISTS. — Indianapolis declaration. See U.S.A.: 1900 (Mav-November) . AMERICAN LEGION, an organization of American veterans of the World War. "The pur- pose of the American Legion is . . . twofold: ser- vice to ex-service persons and service to the coun- try. The organization is exerting ... its influence and strength to the end that all ex-service men, es- pecially the disabled and their dependents, and the dependents of the those who [were killed, should] receive that just and fair treatment which they have reason to expect from a patriotic and Uberal country. In serving the country, the organization is endeavoring to keep alive that spirit of service which induced all to respond to the country's call in time of need. . . . The American Legion is not a military organization, nor does membership therein affect or increase liability for military or police service. It is absolutely non-political and is not to be used for the dissemination of partisan principles or for promoting the candidacy of any person seeking public office or preferment. The constitution of the American Legion provides for active membership only. There is no honorary membership in the Legion. The following are eligible to membership: i, Men and women who served honorably in any branch of the army, navy, or marine corps for any length of time between April 6, 1917, and November 11, 1918. 2, Men and women who served in the naval, military, or air forces of any nation associated with the United States in the war, provided that at the time of their entry into this service they were American citizens and that they have resumed their Ameri- can citizenship by the time they apply for mem- bership in the Legion, and received upon discharge an Honorable Discharge or its equivalent." — Facts about the American Legion (Publications of the A merifan Legion ) . Women's Auxiliary. — "The first National Con- vention, held at Minneapolis, provided for the formation of an Auxiliary Organization to be governed by the rules and regulations prescribed by the National Executive Committee, to be known as the Women's Auxiliary of the Ameri- can Legion. Those eligible to this auxiliary are the mothers, wives, daughters and sisters of the members of the American Legion; the mothers, wives, daughters and sisters of all men and women who were in the military or naval service of the United States at some time between April 6, 1017, and November 11, 1918, and died in line of duty or after honorable discharge and prior to Novem- ber II, 1920. Mothers, wives, sisters and daugh- ters by law have been ruled eligible to member- ship in this auxiliary organization, on the ground that any person related to any member of the Legion, either by birth or by law, under the above classification, is entitled to membership in this or- ganization." — Facts about the American Legion (Publications of the American Legion). Organization. — "Each state constitutes a de- partment of the ,\merican Legion and has direc- tion of all posts within its area. Each department has a department commander, a department adju- tant, and a department executive committee and such other officers as the department may deter- mine. Post officers are determined by the various state constitutions. The organization is thoroughly democratic. From the Sergeant-at-Arms of the smallest post to the national commander, every Legion official in the organization is chosen by ma- jority vote of the members or their duly elected representatives. Any fifteen ex-service persons eligible to membership can form a post on appli- cation to the Commander of the department in which the post is to be located. Any ex-service person desiring to enroll in the Legion who does not know of a post in his community should write the department commander. The National Con- vention is the law-making body, the administrative authority being vested in the National Executive Committee, between conventions. The National Convention elects the National commander, five National vice-commanders, and a National chap- lain. The National commander appoints the Na- tional adjutant. The Executive Committee ap- points the National treasurer and such officials and standing committees as may be necessary. The E.xecutive Committee is composed of the National commander and Vice-commanders in office, and one representative and one alternate from each de- partment, to be elected as such department shall determine. The American Legion is financed by membership dues, and from such other sources as may be approved by the National Executive Com- mittee, as provided by the Constitution. The Minneapolis convention last year fixed the annual dues for the fiscal year 1920, at one dollar a mem- ber, this to cover the cost of maintaining head- quarters and publishing the American Legion Weekly." — Facts about the American Legion (Pub- lications oj the American Legion). Policies. — "The American Legion assembled in convention at Minneapolis November 10, 11 and 12, 1919, went on record as follows: " 'Americanism. — That relief to civilian popula- tion of countries now or lately our enemies be ex- tended only through agencies incorporated by Con- gress. That all foreign language papers be re- quired to furnish a true and correct translation, properly sworn, to the Postmaster-General of the United States. That proper punishment be meted out to all slackers and to those who aided and abetted slackers. That any attempt at this time to resume relationship with German activities be condemned, as well as the resumption of German operas, instruction of German in the schools and public performances of German and Austrian per- formers. That all American Indians who served in the war be given the full rights of citizenship, provided they did not attempt to evade full and complete performance of such services. That the Government's Thrift, Savings and Investment Cam- paign be heartily supported. That the immigra- tion policy be revised along the lines of adaptabil- ity of alien races for American citizenship. That the so-called "Gentlemen's .'\greement ' with Japan be abrogated. That foreign-born Japanese be forever barred from American citizenship. That all other aliens advocating the overthrow of our Government by force and violence be tried and if possible convicted and deported. That a course in citizenship be made a part of the curriculum of every school in the country. That the Department of Justice be changed from a passive, evidence- collecting organization to a militant and active group of workers whose findings shall be forcefully acted upon. That all ahens who withdrew appli- cation for American citizenship because of Ameri- ca's participation in the war be deported. That 303 AMERICAN LEGION Policies Chronology AMERICAN LEGION a list of names of all persons granted exemption from the selective sen'ice laws on the grounds of alienage be compiled and published for the Bureau of Naturalization. That all aliens in the United States be required to learn the American language and that all instruction in the elementary, public and private schools be in the American language. That the War Department recall all honorable dis- charges granted to conscientious objectors and that legislation be enacted providing for their prompt punishment. [See also Americaniz.mion.] " 'Compensation. — That the Sweet Bill, provid- ing increased compensation for disabled men, pay- ment of insurance in a lump sum, or installments, covering three years, be passed. That war risk in- surance rates be revised to actual mortality costs. That the Government pay $75.00 a month to all ex-service persons disabled by tuberculosis, and a special payment of ?5o.oo a month to all other disabled men and women. That all disabled of- ficers and enlisted personnel be placed on the same basis as to retirement for disability whether they served in the Regular Army, National Guard, Na- tional Army or Reserve Corps. That all ex-service persons suffering from the recurrence of disease, or other disability, resulting from service, become automatically eligible to all provisions of the War Risk or Vocational Rehabilitation Act. That all unproductive lands be reclaimed by direct Gov- ernment operation for settlement by service men and women. That Government credit be extended for settlement of rural communities by service men and women. That no child born to parents in- eligible to citizenship be granted citizenship in this country. That every public and private school be required to devote at least ten minutes of each day to patriotic exercises and that the American flag be raised over each school during the day, weather permitting. That all aliens tried, convicted or in- terned as enemies of our Government be deported. That the Government lend money to service men and women for the purchase and development of farms, or for the purchase of city homes. That the obligation which the 'Government owes to all ser- vice men and women to relieve the financial dis- advantages incidental to their military service be left to Congress to discharge. " 'Employment. — That preference be given to ex- service men in all civil service appointments and to the widows of those who laid down their lives in service, absolute preference being given to those physically disabled. That only ex-service men be employed in the quartermasters' depots and navy commissary stores. " 'Memorial. — That the National Executive Com- mittee select a site for a memorial in France and organize a movement to raise a popular subscrip- tion fund for the erection of such a memorial. That the American Legion co-operate with the G. A. R. and Confederate Veterans in their memo- rial services. That the bodies of the American dead be not returned from France except where the parents or next of kin desire that the Government return them. That arrangements be made with the people of France to maintain as permanent memo- rials of America's unselfish service to humanity, the graves of those who made the supreme sacri- fice. " 'Miscellaneous. — That the achievements of the Boy Scouts be commended and the work of the organization aided by various Posts. [See Boy Scouts: Cooperation with American legion.] That nurses should have absolute rank, with opportunity of promotion. That the Articles of War and Court Martial laws be revised. That a program of social and community service be outlined. That the efficiency of the Finance Office be improved.' " — Facts about the American Legion {Publications oj the American Legion). — At the Minneapolis convention a committee of military policy was ap- pointed. The Legion favors military training in high schools and colleges, universal miUtary train- ing with safeguards for civilian control and pro- tection against a military caste. It favors measures to eradicate illiteracy and believes that "the only agitator that eventually need be feared is injus- tice." The Legion stands unreservedly for law and order. Persons who were not in active ser- vice during the war are not eligible to member- ship. Membership in the Students' army training corps is not sufficient for eligibility to membership in the Legion. Members of the Red Cross, Y. M. C. A. and similar welfare organizations are not eligible. Members of exemption boards and the public health service board are not eligible. Chronology. — "February 15, 1919, Paris. — Idea of a war veteran's organization crystalUzed at meet- ing of twenty members of the A. E. F. "March 15-17, igig, Paris. — A. E. F. Caucus, rep- resentatives of all divisions and S. O. S. sections, temporary constitution adopted and plans formu- lated to organize in the United States. Executive Committee of one hundred elected. Name chosen. "April 7, 1 91 9, Paris. — Executive Committee or- ganized and appointed committee of fifteen to work in the United States, and also arranged for exploitation of work in France. "May 8-9-10, 1019, St. Louis. — Caucus of dele- gates representing troops at home, temporary con- stitution adopted, general policies formulated and plans perfected for organizing the Legion prepara- tory to first national convention on November 10, II, 12, 1919. "May 23, 1 91 9, New York. — Amalgamation of Paris and St. Louis Executive Committee into Joint National Executive Committee responsible for organization of the American Legion on tem- porary basis preparatory to national convention. "June 9, 1919, New York. — Formal amalgama- tion of Paris and St. Louis sub-committees ef- fected at meeting of Joint Executive Committee of thirty-four. "September 16, igig^^Congressional Charter granted, incorporating the American Legion. "November 10-11-12, igig, Minneapolis. — First national convention of the American Legion, per- manent organization effected, permanent consti- tution adopted, policies projected. Franklin D'Olier elected National Commander. "November 24, 1919, Indianapolis. — Permanent National Headquarters established at Indianapolis pursuant to mandate of National Convention. "December 12, 1919. — Conference in Washington on Sweet Bill. "December 19-20, iqig, Indianapolis. — First meeting National Executive Committee. "January iq, 1920, Indianapolis. — First meeting of National Americanism Commission. "February 9. 1920, Indianapolis. — Meeting Mili- tary Policy Committee. "February 22, 1020. — Legionnaires throughout country as part of Washington's birthday cere- mony, bestowed French certificates on next of kin of those who died in the war. "March 22-23-24, 1920, Washington. — Special conference of Executive Committee and Depart- ment representatives to discuss adjusted compen- sation, and four-fold plan was adopted. ".April 22-23-24, IQ20, Indianapolis. — First con- ference of Department Adjutants." The preamble of the National Constitution of the American Legion is as follows: 304 AMERICAN LEGION Chronology AMERICAN LEGION "For God and Country, we associate ourselves together for the following purposes: To uphold and defend the Constitution of the United States of America ; to maintain law and order ; to foster and perpetuate a one-hundred-per-cent American- ism; to preserve the memories and incidents of our association in the Great War; to inculcate a sense of individual obligation to the community, state and nation; to combat the autocracy of both the classes and the masses; to make right the master of might ; to promote peace and good will on earth; to safeguard and transmit to posterity the principles of justice, freedom and democracy; to consecrate and sanctify our comradeship by our devotion to mutual helpfulness." — Facts about the American Legion (Publications of the Ameri- can Legion). — The American Legion's constitution is drafted on a non-partisan basis and prominent members from General Pershing down have stressed the importance of keeping it non-partisan. The forces likely to bring the American Legion to par- ticipation in political affairs have been thus pre- •sented: — "Can you picture the American soldier sitting idle in a crisis? Did he play a spectator's part at Chateau-Therry ? Then can you picture the new civilian taking no part in government at a time when it is so obvious that the most im- portant duty of an American is to see that chang- ing conditions are changed rightly ? It is too pessimistic a picture. Too large a part of the Nation is made up of returned soldiers. It is hard to see how they can hold aloof, for there are live millions of them with a similar point of view, and a body of men of that size would make its influ- ence felt if it were deaf and dumb. In the light of many discussions at sea, it is impossible to be- lieve that the soldier intends to neglect civil duties in which he showed such decided interest. He is too good an American. He feels too keenly that he has had an experience denied to most men, and is a better man for it. When the American Legion decides to stay out of politics, it must be because the former service man has decided that his ideal of government cannot be achieved by 'political' methods. Whatever power the American Legion is to exercise will be derived from the lessons learned in military life. In that, and in that, alone, the returned soldier differs from the rest of the popu- lation. . . . The man in service learned to work his utmost at his own job. He learned that re- sults were the only things which counted, and that two men doing one man's work was a clear waste, not of one man, but of two, for neither did it. He learned that the way to get things done was to take up the little things which were wrong one at a time and get them right, and not try to win the whole war by his lonesome. He learned chiefly to do his work and forget about promotion — to do his bit for the good of the service. He came back to this side and found that, as far as he could see, politicians were genuinely concerned with the triumph of the party at the next election. That he cannot stomach. .It is in some such way as this that the American Legion will manifest itself in politics. For its members had an opportunity to see at first hand the methods and the results of monarchy. They returned determined to take more interest in the affairs of the republic." — R. R. Perry, American Legion in politics (Outlook, Jan. 14, IQ20). September 27-28-25, 1Q20. — The annual con- vention of the American Legion was held in Cleveland, Ohio, September 27, 28 and 20, 1020. Eleven hundred delegates, representing a milUon members, took the following important action: "Pledged the American Legion to continued ser- vice to the country in accordance with the Pre- amble of its Constitution, Reaffirmed the cardinal principle that the Legion's first thought is for the sick and wounded, and Ln accordance with that principle recommended that a new cabinet officer be created to coordinate and direct the Bureau of War Risk Insurance, the United States Public Health Service, the Federal Board for Vocational Education and other Government agencies for the assistance of the sick and wounded. Reiterated the Legion's intention to work unremittingly for justice to all veterans by obtaining the enactment in Congress of the fourfold plan of beneficial legis- lation, based on adjusted compensation. Re- affirmed emphatically the Legion's policy of abso- lute political neutrahty. Confirmed the Legion's established stand for impartiality in disputes be- tween capital and labor, while pledged to the pres- ervation of law and order. Recorded its support of the new Army act of June 4, 1920, promising tc help upbuild under that Act the National Guard and Organized Reserve and anticipating the adop- tion of universal military service. Extended to the Legion's affiliated women's organization full opportunity and encouragement for independent development and management. Condemned the Government agencies responsible for neglecting to take proper steps for the deportation of alien slackers and for withholding the publication of lists of known draft dodgers and deserters. Voted for the continuance of the Legion's work in Ameri- canism to assist aliens to become good citizens and to foster the growth of patriotic devotion among all citizens. Designated that the 1921 Convention of the American Legion be held in Kansas City, Mo., October 31, November i and 2. Adopted the Shirley poppy as the official flower of the American Legion. . . . The convention declared with determination that the Legion should press ahead in its fight for justice to all veterans by continuing to champion before Congress the four- fold plan of beneficial legislation, embodying ad- justed compensation, which already has passed the House of Representatives and now awaits action by the Senate. By a vote practically unanimous the convention recorded itself in favor of all four of the provisions which this bill contains — for aid in buying homes or farms, for vocational training, for land settlement and for adjusted cash compensation based on length of service. . . . Some southern delegates opposed the adjusted cash compensation, or 'bonus,' on the ground that it would have a bad effect on the negro ex-service men, and that it would probably be spent un- wisely in many cases. . . . Several state delega- tions came instructed to secure some modification of the Legion's constitutional ban on political ac- tivities, and the Constitution Committee reported favorably what it called a clarifying resolution. The delegates, however, defeated the resolution by a vote of 06.^ to 142. The defeated resolution, after reaffirming the non-political and non-partisan char- acter of the Legion, nevertheless went on to say: 'Now therefore, be it resolved by the American Legion in National convention assembled that the Legion is not prohibited by its Constitution and charter from supporting and promoting those poli- cies and principles within the purposes enumerated in the preamble to its National Constitution, as interpreted by acts of its National conventions and rulings of its National Executive Committee; and be it further — Resolved, that the Legion through its organization has the right under its charter and constitution to ascertain, for the information of its members, the attitude of candidates for public office towards such policies and principles.' 305 AMERICAN LEGION AMERICAN LITERATURE The convention was unanimous in declaring the Legion's intention to give serious and continued support to the new Army plan provided for by the Army reorganization act of June 4, 1920. It expressed its belief that the success of the National Guard and Organized Reserve under that bill de- pends largely on the cooperation of the American Legion and pledged support for the recruiting and the maintenance of these forces at their proper standards. It also declared in favor of the policy of universal military training of young men and expressed the hope that this policy might later be legally adopted by a change in the new Army act. The creation of a new cabinet position to deal exclusively with the United States Air Service was advocated, and other recommendations were adopted favoring rules permitting Army enlisted men to retire on part pay after ib, 20 and 25 years of service and the extension of the war time system of family allowances for the benefit of the enlisted men of the Army in peace time. "The report of the Convention Committee on Americanism was adopted after a lively debate on a single feature — the recommendation dealing with Japanese immigration. The committee merely re- affirmed the resolution adopted at Minneapolis the previous year: 'That we go on record as being in favor of the cancellation of the so-called "gentle- men's agreement," exclusion of "picture brides," and the rigorous exclusion of Japanese as immi- grants,' and 'that we enter a vigorous protest against the demand of Japan that naturalization rights be granted to its nationals now located in the United States and that we earnestly request the State Department of the United States in its settlement of this question not to consider any proposition which will grant rights of naturaliza- tion to this unassimilable people.' . . . The other recommendations of the Committee were for the Americanization of the Territory of Hawaii, the continuance of the Legion's National .Americanism Commission and its removal to headquarters at Indianapolis, and for free education in English, .American history and civil government for foreign and native born illiterates." — American Legion Weekly, Oct. 15, 1920. October 31, November 1-2, 1921, Kansas City. — Third national convention of The American Legion decided; "'To support the \'eterans Bureau in every way to carry out the plans for hospitalization and handling of claims, insisting that the letter and spirit of the law be observed in decentralizing the agencies for the benefit of disabled ex-service men and that politics must not interfere with the bu- reau's work. To continue the Legion's stand for the .Adjusted Compensation Bill and to fight for its earliest possible enactment. To adopt the daisy as the official flower in place of the poppy. To con- tinue its opposition to immigration and naturaliza- tion of Orientals. To ask a suspension of all immi- gration for five years, and to ask the strictest examination of immigrants at ports of embarka- tion in the absence of a restriction law. To urge legal punishment for disloyalty in the schools. To oppose a pardon for Eugene V. Debs and to insist on the return and prosecution of Grover Cleveland Bergdoll. To support limitation of armaments, while insisting upon adequate military protection for the United States. To recognize officially La Societe des 40 Hommes et 8 Chevaux as the "Le- gion playground" and to consider the establishment of a Father's Auxiliary' The American Legion Auxiliary [the re-christened Women's .Auxiliary] came into being November 2nd at Kansas City — a perfected national organization . . . The name was selected by delegates of the Women's Auxiliary of The American Legion from every State but Ala- bama, Arkansas, Maryland, Tennessee, Utah, West Virginia and Wyoming, and these seven States had unofficial representatives without vote on the floor. The Territory of Hawaii was represented by a duly authorized delegate." — American Legion Weekly, Nov. 18, 1921. — Hanford MacNider of Mason City was chosen national commander of the American Legion. AMERICAN LIBRARY ASSOCIATION. See Libraries: Modern: United States: American library association. War service. See Libraries: Modern: United States: Effects of the World War; World War: Miscellaneous au.xiliary services: XIV. Cost of war: b, 8. AMERICAN LITERATURE: General Char- acteristics. — "American literature is a branch of English literature, as truly as are English books written in Scotland or South Africa. Our litera- ture lies almost entirely in the nineteenth century when the ideas and books of the western world were freely interchanged among the nations and. became accessible to an increasing number of readers. In literature nationality is determined by language rather than by blood or geography. M. Maeterlinck, born a subject of King Leopold, be- longs to French literature. Mr. Joseph Conrad, born in Poland, is already an English classic. Geography, much less important in the nineteenth century than before, was never, among modern European nations, so important as we sometimes are asked to believe. Of the ancestors of English literature 'Beowulf is scarcely more significant, and rather less graceful, than our tree-inhabiting forebears with prehensile toes; the true progeni- tors of English literature are Greek, Latin, Hebrew, Italian, and French. . . . "American literature is English literature made in this country. Its nineteenth-century character- istics are evident and can be analyzed and dis- cussed with some degree of certainty. Its 'Ameri- can' characteristics — no critic that I know has ever given a good account of them. You can define certain peculiarities of American politics, American agriculture, American public schools, even Ameri- can religion. But what is uniquely American in .American literature? Poe is just as .American as Mark Twain ; Lanier is just as American as Whit- tier. . . . The ideas at work among these English men of letters are world-encircling and fly between book and brain. The dominant power is on the British Islands, and the prevailing stream of in- fluence flows west across the .Atlantic. Sometimes it turns and runs the other way. Poe influenced Rossetti; Whitman influenced Henley. . . . For a century Cooper has been in command of the Brit- ish literary marine. . . . The catholicity of Eng- lish language and literature transcends the tem- poral boundaries of States. "What, then, of the 'provincialism' of the Ameri- can province of the empire of British literature? Is it an observable general characteristic, and is it a virtue or a vice? There is a sense in which .American literature is not provincial enough. . . . The welcome that we gave Whitman betrays the lack of an admirable kind of provincialism ; it shows us defective in local security of judgment. Some of us have been so anxiously abashed by high standards of European culture that we could not see a poet in our own back yard until Euro- pean poets and critics told us he was there. This is queerly contradictory to a disposition found in some .Americans to disregard world standards and proclaim a third rate poet as the Milton of Osh- kosh or the Shelley of San Francisco. ... Of pro- 306 AMERICAN LITERATURE Colonial AMERICAN LITERATURE vincialism of the narrowest type American writers, like other men of imagination, are not guilty to any reprehensible degree. It is a vice sometimes imputed to them by provincial critics who view literature from the office of a London weekly re- view or from the lecture rooms of American col- leges. Some American writers are parochial, for e.xample, Whittier. Others, like Mr. Henry James, are provincial in outlook, but cosmopolitan in experience, and reveal their provinciality by a self- conscious internationalism." — J. Macy, Spirit oj American literature, cli. i, 1607-1740. — Colonial literature. — "An instruc- tive impression of the character of Hterature in America during the seventeenth century may be derived from a glance at the titles recorded in Mr. Whitcomb's 'Chronological Outlines.' Speaking roughly, — and in considerations like this minute precision is of little importance, — we may say that out of about two hundred and fifteen of these titles one hundred and ten deal with matters which may unquestionably be described as religious, and that of these all but one name books produced in New England. The next most considerable class of writings includes matters which may be called historical or biographical, beginning with 'The True Relation' of Captain John Smith, — a work hardly to be included in any classification of American literature which should not equally in- clude M. de Tocqueville's study of our democracy and Mr. Bryce's of our contemporary common- wealth; this list also includes such biographies as those of Cotton Mather, whose main purpose was quite as religious as it was biographical. Out of fifty-five titles thus comprehensively grouped, thirty-seven are of New England origin ; the other eighteen, including the separate works of Captain John Smith, come either from Virginia or from the middle colonies. Twenty of Mr. Whitcomb's titles, including such things as 'The Freeman's Oath,' of 163Q, said to have been the first product of the press in the United States, may be called political ; only three of these twenty are not from New England. Of nineteen other titles, including almanacs and works of scientific character, which may best be classified with miscellanies, all but two originated in this same region. Finally there are nine titles to which the name of literature may properly be applied, if under the head of literature one include not only the poems of that tenth Muse, Mrs. Anne Bradstrect, but the 'Bay Psalm Book,' and so pervasively theological a poem as Michael Wigglesworth's 'Day of Doom,' and the first version of the 'New England Primer.' Of the nine books thus recorded only Sundays's translation of Ovid did not proceed directly from Itew England. Now, the men who founded the colonies of Virginia and of New England were on the one hand men of action, and on the other, men of God. It is precisely such matter as their Eliza- bethan prototypes left in books now remembered only as material for history that the fathers of America produced throughout the first century of our national inexperience." — B. Wendell, Literary history oj America, ch. 4., pp. 35-37. 1750-1861. — Development of American drama. — "It is possible to trace in the development of the drama in this country before the Civil War certain fairly distinct periods. The first ends with the closing of the theatres in 1774 and has as its principal event the production of The Prince oj Parthia in 1767. The second, from 1774 to 1787, includes the Revolutionary satirists and is a tran- sition period. The third begins with the produc- tion of The Contrast in 1787 and closes with the termination of Dunlap's first period of managership in 1805. It was a period of tentative effort, partly under the influence of German and French models. The fourth period from 1805 to 1825 is one of development, with considerable native effort, but still largely under foreign influence, both English and Continental. The fifth was a significant and creative period, from 1825 to the Civil War, with its climax in Francesca da Rimini in 1855. This development was interrupted naturally by the Civil War. What would have been its course had the war not occurred it is perhaps fruitless to speculate. There were signs of a quickening of dramatic in- terest in the late fifties under the encouragement of such managers as Lester Wallack and Laura Keene; but the domination of the stage by Dion Boucicault and John Brougham, while it resulted in some sig- nificant plays, especially in a later period, was not an unmixed blessing from the point of view of the production of American drama. The dram- atization of English and French novels with re- sultant long runs; indeed the very success of Bou- cicault's original dramas, made for conditions in which the work of new play-wrights became less in demand. The old days in which a manager was willing to put on a play for a few nights were going fast, and with them went our early drama. That its significance in the history of our litera- ture has never been appreciated is due largely per- haps to the fact that some of its most important monuments are still unprinted. But of its signifi- cance both in itself and for the later drama there is no shadow of doubt." — W. P. Trent, History oj American literature, p. 231 ct seg. 1775-1789. — Revolutionary period. — "A wide reader of Colonial literature notes two general characteristics: its narrowness and its isolation. Almost every writer dwells apart from the world; his book is as a voice crying in the wilderness; and life seems to him only a pilgrimage, a brief day of preparation for eternity. Hence poetry, history and biography are all alike theological, that is, they interpret the human in terms of the divine life. In Revolutionary literature there is no isola- tion, but rather a splendid sense of comradeship, strong and loyal. When the Colonies draw near together, after the Stamp Act, they find themselves one in spirit. Otis and Henry voice the thought and feeling of a multitude; Hamilton and Jeffer- son appeal not only to the new nation but to the men of every land who have pondered the problems of democracy. Even in the satires of Freneau, in the ballads of Hopkinson against the Tories, and of Odell against the Patriots, there is no sense of solitariness; for each writer is but the voice of a great party which cherishes the same ideals and follows the same leader. As American literature thus emerges from its isolation, we note instantly that it has become more practical, more worldly, more intent on solving the problems of the present than of the future life. In nearly all books of the period the center of interest shifts from heaven to earth; theology gives way to politics; and the spiritual yearnings of an earlier age, which reached a climax in Jonathan Edwards, are replaced by the shrewd, practical 'philosophy of common sense,' with Benjamin Franklin as its chief apostle. Not only the spirit but the form also of literature is changed in the Revolutionary period. The great social movement which we have outlined gave rise to numerous newspapers and magazines, with their poems, satires, essays, stories, — a bright and varied array compared with the Colonial product. More significant of the new social life are the crude plays of Royall Tyler and William Dunlap, which were immensely popular in the new play- houses, and the romances of Charles Brockden 307 AMERICAN LITERATURE The Novel AMERICAN LITERATURE Brown, which at the close of this period mark the beginning of the American novel. Just as the new social life brought forth this ephemeral writ- ing — a kind of literature of amusement, to be en- joyed to-day and forgotten to-morrow — so the various political movements had each its distinctive form of literary expression. The years following the obnoxious Stamp .^ct saw the beginning of that brilliant oratory which was, and still is, one of the great molding influences in American Ufe and literature. The strife of Whigs and Tories is mir- rored in a host of ballads, songs and satires in verse; and the struggle between Federalists and Anti-Federalists over the Constitution produced, in the writings of John Adams, Washington, Madi- son, Jay, Hamilton, Jefferson, and many others, a new form of political writing, the first true litera- ture of Democracy, which had influence far beyond the borders of the American nation. "If the lonely Colonial writers impress us as voices crying in the wilderness, the Revolutionary authors seem like men speaking in a great as- sembly ; and their words have power because they voice the thought and aspiration of a multitude. For a new problem has been suddenly thrust upon the Colonies by the Revolution. It is the problem of forming one union out of many states, of mak- ing one government out of many factions, of bringing a multitude of all sorts and conditions of men into national peace and harmony. Hence the orators and prose writers, if they are to help solve that mighty problem, must appeal to the love of freedom and the sense of justice which lie deep in the hearts of men ; they must emphasize ideals which are acknowledged by rich and poor, wise and ignorant, and, like Bradford, they must have an eye single to the truth in all things. That they felt their responsibility, that they used voice and pen nobly in the service of the nation, is evident enough to one who reads even a part of the prose literature appearing between Henry's impassioned 'Liberty or Death' speech and Washington's calm and noble 'Farewell Address' to his people. Clear- ness, force, restraint ; here a touch of humor, when the crowd must be coaxed; there a sudden exalta- tion of soul, when the old Saxon ideal of liberty is presented, — all the elements of a fine prose style are manifest; but it is not so much the form as the substance that appeals to us, and especially the greatheartedness of the Revolutionary writers. They gave the world the first example of what has been well called 'citizen literature,' that is, the expression of the ideals of a whole commonwealth, and to this day their work remains unrivaled in its own political field. This Revolutionary prose belongs largely to the 'literature of knowledge' and is seldom found in literary .textbooks; but it is well to remember two things concerning it: that it began with our national Ufe ; and that it re- flects a strong, original and creative impulse of the American mind. It was as if Democracy, si- lent for untold ages, had at last found a voice, and the voice spoke, not doubtfully, fearfully, but in trumpet tones of prophecy. It gave the startled old world something new and vital to think about; and it is quite as remarkable in its way as are the forest and sea romances of Cooper, which sur- prised and delighted all Europe a half century later." — W. J. Long, American literature, p. 92-qg. — "Springing from a common stock, the two branches of eighteenth-century English literature showed many similarities. The charge of imita- tion and even of plagiarism has been brought against the American writers of that period; but it seems in no way unsafe to point to the single origin as the probable cause of the same character- istics appearing in the literature produced here, and that produced in the mother-country. No one can deny, of course, that not a few of our au- thors went to school to Englishmen, but the asser- tion that America until recently has produced nothing but pinchbeck literature is as false as it is absurd. That like produces like may be a trite saying, but its frequent repetition does not impair its truth. The English mind, whether expressing itself at home or in the colonies, naturally put forth the same kind of shoots: that their develop- ment was not in all respects equally rapid, that in time they became so much unlike as to appear unrelated, can be traced, no doubt, to the un- sheltered fortune of the American scion in early days, and to the complete removal of the slip from the parent stem in after-years. With this thought in mind, the most thorough-going Ameri- can may admit, without apologetic reserve, that the essayists of eighteenth-century England have counterparts in Irving and certain of his contem- poraries, and that those of a slightly later date have much in common with Emerson and Thoreau. Should one feel, however, that excusable pride is to be taken only in those authors who exhibit qualities indigenous to America, one may trium- phantly mention Warner, and Lowell, and Mar- garet Fuller; for, although these essayists show the racial instinct of English writers, they are none the less emphatically American in thought, tone, and expression." — F. Stanton, ed., Manual of American literature, p. 321. 1790-1860. — New tendencies. — Cooper and the novel. — Bryant and the new poetry. — Poe, Haw- thorne and the short atory. — -"Aside from oratory and politics, in spite of the early literary superiority of the Puritan, the foundations of our really na- tional literature were laid in the Middle States. Poetry really found its voice, not in the pretentious efforts of the New En^landers, Barlow, Trumbull, or Dwight, but in the verse of the Philadelphian William Clifton, or yet more indubitably in a few lyrics of the New Jersey poet Philip Freneau. In romance, through the stories of Charles Brockden Brown, the Middle States were not only in advance of the rest of the country, but were practically without a rival. In the first quarter of the century the leadership of the middle region of the country became even more marked, and in that great sec- tion New York succeeded Philadelphia as a literary center. . . . From the literary advent of Irving in 1807 to the decisive entrance of Longfellow and Emerson about 1S36, the work of our greatest men of letters was centered in New York. Two of our then most famous authors, Irving and Cooper, were sons of the Middle States; the third, Bryant, chose New York city as the sphere of his literary career. Besides the greater lights, there were many others of lesser magnitude. Althou h our literature thus had, for the time, its center in New York, it must not be inferred that other parts of the country were en- tirely unproductive. While New England could boast of no writers comparable to those in the Middle States, we note the signs of the great litei^ ary awakening of New England which was near at hand. ... A new spirit, the realization of the beautiful, was softening the crude but intense and vigorous intellect of the Puritan." — H. S. Pancoast, Introduction to American literature, pt. Ill, ch. i. "After the Revolution the novel-reading habit grew, fostered by American publishers and cried out against by many moralists whose cries appeared in magazines side by side with moral tales. Nearly every grade of sophistication applied itself to the problem. It was contested that novels were lies; that they served no virtuous purpose ; that they 308 AMERICAN LITERATURE New Poetry Bryant AMERICAN LITERATURE melted rigorous minds; that they crowded out bet- ter books; that they painted adventure too roman- tic and love too vehement, and so unfitted readers for solid reality ; that, dealing with European man- ners, they tended to confuse and dissatisfy republi- can youth. In the face of such censure, native nov- elists appeared late and apologetically, armed for the most part with the triple plea that the tale was true, the tendency heavenward, and the scene devoutly American. Before 1800 the sweeping philippic of the older school had been forced to share the field of criticism with occasional efforts to distinguish good novels from bad. No critical game was more frequently played than that which compared Field- ing and Richardson. Fielding got some robust preference, Smollett had his imitators, and Sterne fathered much 'sensibility,' but until Scott had definitely set a new mode for the world, the potent influence in American fiction was Richardson. . . . The amiable ladies who produced most of these early novels commonly held, like Mrs. Rowson, that their knowledge of life had been 'simply gleaned from pure nature,' because they dealt with facts which had come under their own observation, but like other amateurs they saw in nature what art had assured them would be there. Nature and Richardson they found the same. Whatever bias they gave this Richardsonian universe was due to a pervading consciousness of the sex which read their novels. The result was a highly domestic world, limited in 'outlook, where the talk was of careless husbands, grief for dead children, the peril of many childbirths, the sentiment and the religion which enabled women to endure their sex's des- tiny. Over all hangs the furious menace of the seducer, who appears in such multitudes that one can defend the age only by blaming its brutality less than the pathetic example of Clarissa Harlowe. Thus early did the American novel acquire the permanent background of neutral domestic fiction against which the notable figures stand out." — Cam- bridge history of American literature, p. 284, et seq. —"In 1820, American literature, so far as it has survived, consisted of the novels of Brockden Brown then ten years dead, and of Irving's Sketch Book, which had begun to appear the year before. Apart from these works, what had been produced in this country was so obviously imitative as to ex- press only a sense on the part of our numerous writ- ers that they ought to copy the eminent authors of England. In 1S20 appeared the first work of a new novelist, soon to attain not only permanent reputation in America, but also European recogni- tion. This was James Fenimore Cooper (lySg- 1851). His first novel was Precaution, his second The Spy, published the following year. When The Spy was published, the novels of Brockden Brown were already almost forgotten; and Irving had produced only the Knickerbocker History and the admirable essays of his Sketch Book. The Spy is an historical novel of the American Revo- lution. ... In The Pilot . . . instead of laying the scene on American soil. Cooper lays it for the first time in literature on board an American ship. . . . The Last of the Mohicans, published in 1826, is probably the best [of the Leatherstocking sto- ries]. . . . These are, in their order as successive chapters in the life of their hero: The Deer slayer (1841); The Last of the Mohicans (1826); The Pathfinder (1840); The Pioneers (1823); The Prairie (1827). . . . "The three writers . . . Brockden Brown, Ir- ving, and Cooper — were the only Americans who between 1708 and 1832 achieved lasting names in prose. Though they form no school, though they are very different from one another, two or three things may be said of them in common. They all developed in the Middle States, the names of all are associated with the chief city of that region, New York. The most significant work of all as- sumes a form which in the general history of litera- ture comes not early but late, — prose fiction. . . . This prose . . . was the most important literature produced in New York, or indeed in America, dur- ing the period. . . ." — B. Wendell and C. N. Green- ough. History of literature in America, pp. 148, 151- 152, 156-157- "By 1851 there were, or had been, many hovel- ists whose names could find place only in .an ex- tended account of American fiction: writers of adventure stories more sensational than Simms's or of moral stories more obvious than Miss Sedg- wick's and Mrs. Childs's, authors for children, authors preaching causes, authors celebrating fash- ionable or Bohemian life in New York. Not only regular novels and romances but briefer tales mul- tiplied. The period which could boast in Cooper but one novelist of first rank could show three such tale-tellers as Irving, Hawthorne, and Poe. The annuals and maga^^ines met the demand for such amusement and fostered it, but the novel was en- couraged more than it was hurt by the new type. Prose fiction, in fact, though somewhat late in starting, had firmly established itself in the United States by the middle of the century, and Cooper, followed in Great Britain by the nautical romancers, and on the Continent by such writers about wild life as Karl Anton Postl ('Charles Sealsfield'), Fried- rich Gerstacker, and Gustave Aimard, and every- where read, had become a world figure." — Cam- bridge history of American literature, p. 284, el seq. "Our earlier poets, that is, [those who came] im- mediately after the Revolution, but a.'ain, and especially, after the War of 181 2, had confirmed our sense of national solidarity, are much given to the utterance of their patriotism. . . . Key's 'Star-Spangled Banner' (1814), conceived at the close of the second war, antedates 'The American Flag' (1819) of Drake by but five years; these two, with Hopkinson's 'Hail Columbia' (i7g8), and 'America' (1832), the well-known hymn by S. F. Smith, whatever their relative or obsolute merits as literature, remain our most cherished national poems," — L. Cooper, Poets, in T. Stanton, Manual of American literature, pp. 244-245. "William Cullen Bryant is designated by Eng- jiishmen as the first American poet, and the Americans are not disinclined to subscribe to that judgment. And since the poem Thanatopsis, upon which this judgment is based, appeared in 1S17, that year is straightway designated as the natal year of American poetry. This sort of criticism and literary history presupposes iron-bound rules of literary jesthetics. For the present, such r"o not exist for us. One cannot, therefore, go so far as to annihilate at a stroke the whole of the some- what ample body of poetry before Bryant." Among poets of this period should be mentioned Philip Freneau (1752-1832), John Trumbull (1752-1831), J. H. Payne (1791-1852) author of "Home Sweet Home," Fitz-Green Halleck (1700-1867), Nathaniel Parker Willis (1806-1867), and Joseph Rodman Drake (1705-1820). William Cullen Bryant (1704- 1878) was "by far the most eminent man of let- ters in our chief city [New York]. . . . His first published work — a very precocious one . . . — had appeared before Brockden Brown died. . . . Inci- dentally, Bryant was for a full half-century at the head of the New York Evening Post ... a news- paper in which from beginning to end the editor could feel honest pride. As a journalist, indeed. . Bryant belongs to [a later time]. ... As a poet,- 309 AMERICAN LITERATURE p^^ ^^°'''^j°'^>^^^^g AMERICAN LITERATURE however, — and it is as a poet that we are consid- ering him here, — he belongs to the earliest period of American letters." — B. Wendell and C. N. Green- ough, History oj literature in America, p. 159. — "When 'Thanatopsis' was submitted by the poet's father to The North American Review (in 1817), people would hardly believe that such an exalted strain had been conceived outside of Eng- land. . . . 'To a waterfowl' was published with several other poems, including 'Thanatopsis,' in 1821. , . . By 1S32 he was ready to publish an- other edition of his 'Poems,' adding more than eighty pieces that were new — notably, the 'Forest Hymn,' the 'Song of Marion's Men,' and 'The Death of the Flowers.' At intervals of a few years . . . other editions or volumes followed. . . . The achievement of Bryant's declining years was his translation of Homer." — L. Cooper, Poets, in T. Stanton, Manual oj American literature, pp. 257- 260. — "His work was really the first which proved to England what native American poetry might be. The old world was looking for some wild mani- festation of this new, hardly apprehended, western democracy. Instead, what it found in Bryant, the one poetic contemporary of Irving and Cooper whose writings have lasted, was fastidious over- refinement, tender sentimentality, and pervasive luminosity. ... In its beginning the .American lit- erature of the nineteenth century was marked rather by delicacy than by strength, by palpable consciousness of personal distinction rather than by any such outburst of previously unphrased emotion as on general principles democracy might have been e.xpected to excite." — B. Wendell, Lit- erary history oj America, p. 203. — "After Bryant it is convenient to speak of a few poets, very different from him, and for the most part from each other, whose contemporaneous presence in New York is almost the only thing that con- nects them." Among these are John G. Saxe (1816-1887), Herman Melville (i8ig-i8gi), Alice Cary (1820-1871), and her sister Phcebe (1824- 1871). "We turn to a number of writers whose careers are to be more closely identified with New England. Many of these, like Rich- ard Henry Dana, senior (1787-1870), of Boston were only poets secondarily. Dana was a jour- nalist and a politician." Others are Sprague, Hill- house, Pierpont, Warren. "The same genera- tion produced several women of note, whose poetry demands some attention ; in particular, Lydia Huntley Sigoumey (1701-1865)." — L. Cooper, Poets, in T. Stanton, Manual oj Ameri- can literature, pp. 262-265. — Edgar Allan Poe (1809-1840) figures in American literature both as poet and prose-writer. He it was who developed the short story to its highest perfection. "Born fifteen years later than Bryant and dead twenty- nine years earlier, Poe . . . seems to belong to an earlier period of our letters; but really, as we have seen, Bryant's principal work was done before 1832." — B. Wendell and C. N. Greenough, History oj literature in .imerica, p. 171. — "In Bos- ton in 1827 he had published a thin little book called 'Tamerlane and Other Poems. . . . Two years later in Baltimore he had published what was really an enlargement of this first venture. . . . He began to write short-stories; and one of these, a tale of striking vigor and novelty, the 'MS. found in a Bottle,' won him a . . . prize. . . . At last in 1835, one of [his! friends got him the post of assistant editor of the Southern Literary Messenger. . . . Poe printed in it his own poems and short-stories, and thus began to make himself known as an imaginative writer of strange orig- inality and power. As a critic also he revealed unexpected strength. . . . After leaving Richmond Poe published, in 1S38, the 'Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym, and ... in 1840 . . . the 'Tales of the Grotesque and the Arabesque,' the most origi- nal collections of short-stories written by any American author. ... As a writer his reputation steadily rose." The "Murders in the Rue Morgue," the "(iold Bug," and other stories, as well as the "Raven" and other poems, added to his in- creasing fame. "By long study he had made himself a master of the tcchnic of verse, and he combined with extraordinary skill all the effects to be derived from lilting rhythm, intricate rhyme, artful repetition, and an aptly chosen refrain. He bent words to do his bidding, and he made his verse so melodious that it had almost the charm of music." — B. Matthews, Introduction to American literature, pp. 85-86, 00-03. — In 1S37 Nathanial Hawthorne published his "Twice-Told Tales." "Af- ter the publication of this collection of short- stories, Hawthorne ceased to be what he once called himself, 'the obscurest man of letters in ■America.' ... It was five years before his next book was published. ... In 1846 [he published] 'Mosses from an Old Manse.' . . . [HeJ was forty- six when he sent forth the 'Scarlet Letter' in 1850. With the striking exception of 'Uncle Tom's Cabin,' no American work of fiction has had the quick and lasting popularity of the 'Scarlet Letter.' . . . The 'House of Seven Gables' was published in 1851." — Ibid., pp. 1 15-119. — Other books appeared in following years, the "Marble Faun," the last to be published during his life-time, appearing in i860. 1830-1845. — Period of New England leader- ship. — Oratory. — Humanitarian movements. — "From about 1830-40 New England entered upon a long period of literary supremacy. The in- tellectual awakening which preceded and accom- panied this literary period began in Boston and its vicinity, and Boston rapidly distanced New York as a literary center, as New York had distanced Philadelphia. Between 1826 and 1S40 nearly all of the great New England writers of this period had definitely begun their work. Longfellow published his first collection of poems in 1826. Holmes began his work in 1827, and Hawthorne in 1828. Emerson, Prescott, Lowell, Whittier, and Motley all followed between 1830 and 1840. The expression of the New England mind in the works of this group of writers constitutes, as a whole, our most memorable contribution to literature; it is one of the greatest and most lasting achieve- ments of our American civilization." — H. H. Pan- coast, Introduction to .American literature, p. 160. • — "During her years of intellectual leadership New England led the country in oratory also, and the work of her succession of great orators belongs, at least in part, to literature. We have said that in the Revolutionary period and during the early days of the Republic the supremacy in ora- tory lay with the South. But as the present cen- tury advanced and the country passed into the shadow of those anxious years when sla- very threatened the very existence of the Union, it was New England that gave America, in Daniel Webster (1782-1852), her greatest orator. It was New England also that gave us Edward Everett (1704-1865), the master of a finished and scholarly eloquence; Wendell Phil- lips (1811-1884), and Charles Sumner (1811- 1874), the orators of the Abolitionists. ... As we look back upon the work of these great ora- tors of New England as a whole, from Web- ster to Sumner and Phillips, as we recall its ster- ling quality and its incaluable effects upon our na- tional history, we see that it was by no means the 310 AMERICAN LITERATURE Humanitarians AMERICAN LITERATURE least important part of New England's service to the country at large. To all that the Puritan gave us we add this also. We appreciate that in those years of her full strength New England not only wrote our greatest poetry, our best histories, and our keenest political satire ; that she not only charmed us with her humor, and led the way in scholarship, but that, besides all this, she gave us men who, in a time of national uncertainty and peril, could lead opinions and control events by their genius for speech." — Ibid., pi. lll,cli. 2. p. 230. "There has been but one movement in the his- tory of the American mind which has given to literature a group of writers having coherence enough to merit the name of a school. This was the great humanitarian movement, or series of movements, in New England, which, beginning in the Unitarianism of Channing, ran through its later phase in transcendentalism, and spent its last strength in the anti-slavery agitation and the en- thusiasms of the Civil War. The second stage of this intellectual and social revolt was tran- scendentalism . . . Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803- 82) was the prophet of the sect, and Concord was its Mecca; but the influence of the new ideas was not confined to the little group of professed tran- scendentalists ; it extended to all the young writ- ers within reach, who struck their roots deeper into the soil that it had loosened and freshened. We owe to it in great measure, not merely Emer- son, [A. B.] Alcott, Margaret Fuller, and Thoreau, but Hawthorne, Lowell, Whittier, and Holmes. In its strictest sense transcendentalism was a restate- ment of the idealistic philosophy, and an applica- tion of its beliefs to religion, nature, and life. But in a looser sense, and as including the more outward manifestations which drew popular at- tention the most strongly, it was the name given to that spirit of dissent and protest, of universal inquiry and experiment, which marked the third and fourth decades of this century in America, and especially in New England." — H. A. Beers, Short hist, of Eng. and Amer. literature, pp. gS-gb. — "In 1836, he [Emerson] put forth his first book, 'Na- ture,' and the next year he delivered an oration on 'The American Scholar,' Hitherto little had hap- pened to him except the commonplaces of exist- ence; thereafter, though his life remained tran- quil, he was known to the world at large. He was greeted as are all who declare a new doctrine ; welcomed by some, abused by many, misunder- stood by most. Proclaiming the value of self-re- liance, Emerson denounced man's slavery to his own worldly prosperity, and set forth at once the duty and the pleasure of the plain living which permits high thinking. ... He never put himself forward; and yet from that time on there was no denying his leadership of the intellectual ad- vance of the United States. The most enlight- ened spirits of New England gathered about him; and he found himself in the center of the vague movement known as 'Transcendentalism.' ... He edited for a while the Dial, a magazine for which the Transcendentalists wrote, and which existed from 1840 to 1844. But he took no part in an experiment of communal life undertaken by a group of Transcendentalists at Brook Farm 1841 to 1847. ... In 1841 Emerson published his first volume of his 'Essays'; and he sent forth a second series in 1844. In his hands the essay returns almost to the form of Montaigne and Bacon; it is weighty and witty; but it is not so light at it was with Addison and Steele, with Goldsmith and Ir- ving. He indulged in fancies sometimes, and he strove to take his readers by surprise, to startle them, and so to arouse them to the true view of life. Nearly all his essays had been lectures, and every paragraph had been tested by its effect upon an audience. Thus the weak phrases were dis- carded one by one, until at last every sentence, polished by wear, rounded to a perfect sphere, went to the mark with unerring certainty. . . . Emerson's first volume of 'Poems' was published in 1846. Ten years before he had written the hymn sung at the completion of the monument com- memorating the Concord fight. . . . This is one of the best, and one of the best known, of the poems of American patriotism. But Emerson cared too lit- tle for form often to write so perfect a poem. . . . Following Bryant, Emerson put into his verse na- ture as he saw it about him — the life of American woods and fields. . . . One of Emerson's poems most richly laden with emotion and experience is the 'Threnody,' which he wrote after the death of his first-born. . . . Certain of the lectures prepared for delivery in England supplied the material for his next book — 'Representative Men' — published in 1S50. Only two of Emerson's books have any singleness of scheme, and this is one of them." — ■ B. Matthews, Introduction to the study of Ameri- can literature, pp. 96, 100-103, 106. "While several of those who composed the group of Transcendental thinkers in the Concord circle became more or less noted either for eccentricity or utterance, the most remarkable among them all, after Emerson, was Henry David Thoreau [1817- 1862]. A genuine lover of nature — a naturalist first of all — he was also a philosopher and a poet, too, although a crude one. . . . His acquaintance with Emerson began early. ... In 1845 Thoreau built for himself a cabin on the shore of Walden Pond, and here for two years he lived. ... It is this experience in his life with its subsequent record which has more than anything else aroused interest in the personality of Thoreau. . . . Walden, or Life in the Woods, contains the stor>' and the thought of these two years ; it reveals Thoreau at his best and has long since become an American classic. . . . An earlier volume [1840] . . . was . . . A Week on the Concord and Merrimac Rivers. His journal was . . . drawn up by others after his death . . . and published. . . . Various articles by Thoreau were published in The Dial and, through the friend- ship and assistance of Horace Greeley, in the New York magazines as well as in the Tribune itself." — W. E. Simonds, Student's history of American lit- erature, pp. 177-180, 1S2. " 'The Autocrat of the Breakfast-Table' [by Oli- ver Wendell Holmes] has already given evidence that it will outlast 'Elsie Venner' and 'The Guar- dian Angel'; yet if the miscellanies of Dr. Holmes (1809-04) possess more vitality than his novels, this is in some measure due to the 'Autocrat's' oc- casional employment of verse. In the 'Breakfast- Table' series appeared 'The Chambered Nautilus' and 'The Wonderful "One-Hoss Shay," ' which, with his youthful 'Old Ironsides,' and 'The Broom- stick Train,' have retained the firmest hold on the popular memory. Holmes was pleased to trace his ancestry back to Anne Bradstreet, the first Ameri- can poetess. His own poetry commenced with a schoolboy rendering into heroic couplets from Vir- gil, and hardly ended with his tribute to the mem- ory of Whittier in 1S02. In the standard edition of his works his poems occupy three volumes. Many of them, corresponding to his turn for the novel, are narrative; for story-telling he had a knack amounting to a high degree of talent. His sense of order and proportion is stronger than that of other members of the New England school, and he has a command of at least formal structure. One may not unreasonably attribute this com- 311 AMERICAN LITERATURE Anti-slavery Movement AMERICAN LITERATURE mand in part to his studies in human anatomy. At the same time Holmes is beset with the temptation to value manner and brilliancy rather than sub- stance, and he will go out of his way for a fanci- ful conceit or a striking expression. In the use of odds and ends of recondite lore his cleverness Is amazing. He had a tenacious memory and a habit of rapid association, so that as a punster he is al- most without a match. However, his glance is not deeply penetrating ; he sees fantastic resem- blances between things that are really far removed from one another, not so often the fundamental similarities in things whether near or apart. . . . A constructive criticism, however, will lay stress, not on his inheritance of New England provin- cialism or his slight tendency to be flippant, but on his kindliness, his inexhaustible good humour, his quick and darting intellectual curiosity, and on the appeal which his sprightly moralising makes to the young. It is not a little thing to say of a wit and a power of epigram like this that they were ever genial, and ever on the side of some- thing better than a merely conventional morality." — T. Stanton, Manual of American literature, pp. 294-295; 207. 1830-1890. — Antislavery movement and Civil War.— "Uncle Tom's Cabin."— Lincoln.— Whit- tier. — Whitman. — Longfellow. — Lowell. — Many of the early "antislavery men did some of their chief work when the cause they advocated seemed far from public favor. We come to a book pro- duced by the antislavery movement, which sud- denly proved that movement popular. This was Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe's (1S12-1896) Uncle Tom's Cabin, published in 1852, the year after Sumner had entered the Senate from Massachusetts, and two years after Webster's Seventh of March speech. ... At first little noticed, this book rap- idly attracted popular attention. During the next five years above half a million copies were sold in the United States alone; and it is hardly excessive to say that wherever Uncle Tom's Cabin went, public conscience was aroused. Written carelessly, and full of crudities, Uncle Tom's Cabin remains a remarkable piece of fiction. The truth is, that al- most unawares Mrs. Stowe had in her the stuff of which good novelists are made. . . . Should any one doubt Mrs. Stowe's power as a writer, re- membering only that in Uncle Tom's Cabin she achieved a great popular success, partly caused by the changing public opinion of her day, we need only glance at some of her later work to make sure that she had in her a power which, if circum- stances had permitted its development, might have given her a distinguished place in English fiction. Her best book is probably Oldtown Folks (1S69). . . . Mrs. Stowe differed from most American novelists in possessing a spark of 'genius. Had this genius pervaded her work, she might have been a figure of lasting literary importance. Even as it was, she had power enough to make Uncle Tom's Cabin the most potent literary force of the anti- slavery days. "Uncle 'Tom's Cabin was published in 1852. To its unprecedented popularity may perhaps be traced the final turn of the public tide. [See also U. S. A.: 1852: Appearance of "Uncle Tom's Cabin."] With- in ten years the conflict between the slave States and the free reached the inevitable point of civil war. The ist of January, 1863, saw [thel final proclamation of emancipation. . . . We can hardly speak of the Emancipation Proclamation without touching for a moment upon the great name in .American history of the nineteenth centur\'. .Abra- ham Lincoln (1800-1865) proved himself in the Lincoln-Douglas campaign such a master of debate. and in his inaugural addresses and m the famous Gettysburg speech such a master of simple and powerfully eloquent Enghsh, that, aside from his great political services, any account of American oratory or of antislavery would be incomplete with out some mention of him. But Lincoln s historical importance is so great that any discussion of him would lead us far afield. . . . Among the anti- slavery leaders of Massachusetts was one who, with the passing of time, seems more and more distin- guished as a man of letters. John Greenleaf Whit- tier {1807- 1892), born at Haverhill, Massachusetts, came of sound country stock, remarkable only be- cause for several generations the family had been Quakers. . . . Though Whittier was precocious, and his Hterary career extended over more than sixty-five years, he was not prolific. He never wrote much at a time, and he never wrote anything long. . . . His masterpiece, if the word be not excessive, is 'Snowbound,' written when he was about fifty years old. . . . Such vividness as distinguishes the descriptive passages of 'Snow- Bound' appears throughout Whittier's descriptive verse, ... for example, [in] . . . the 'Prelude' which take [s] one to the very heart of our drowsy New England summers. ... In general, of course, the most popular literature is narrative. So Whit- tier's Yankee ballads often seem his most obvious works, — 'Skipper Ireson's Ride,' for example, ot that artlessly sentimental 'Maud Muller.' " — B. Wendell, and C. N. Greenough, History of litera- ture in America, pp. 284-294.^"At heart Whittier was no more stirred than were the other anti- slavery leaders, nor was he gifted with such literary power as sometimes revealed itself in the speeches of Parker or of Phillips, or as enlivened Mrs. Stowe's novel with its gleams of creative genius. But Whittier surpassed all the rest in the impreg- nable simplicity of his inborn temper, derived from his Quaker ancestry and nurtured by the guile- lessness of his personal life." — B. Wendell, Literary history of .America, pp. 366-367. "Walt VV'hitman {1819-1892) was almost exactly contemporary with Lowell. No two lives could have been much more different. . . . The contrast between Whitman and Whittier, however, is al- most as marked as that between Whitman and Lowell. . . . The first edition of Whitman's Leaves of Grass appeared in 1855, the year which pro- duced the Knickerbocker Gallery. During the Civil War he served devotedly as an army nurse, .^fter the war, until 1S73, he held some small Govern- ment clerkships at Washington. In i87'3 a paralytic stroke brought his active life to an end; for his last twenty years he lived an invalid at Camden, New Jersey. Until 1855, when the first edition of Leaves of Grass appeared in a thin folio, some of which he set up with his own hands. Whitman had not declared himself as a man of letters. From that time to the end he was constantly pub- lishing verse, which from time to time he collected in increasing bulk under the old title. He pub- lished, too, some stray volumes of prose, — Demo- cratic Vistas (1S71), Specimen Days and Colled (1882-83), and the like. Prose and poetry alike seem full of a conviction that he had a mission to express and to extend the spirit of democracy, which he believed characteristic of his country. Few men have ever cherished a purpose more lit- erally popular. Yet it is doubtful whether any man of letters in this country ever appealed less to the masses. . . . Sometimes, of course, he was more articulate. The Civil War stirred him to his depths; and he d'-ew from it such noble verses as 'My Captain,' his poem on the death of Lin- coln, or such little pictures as 'Ethiopia Saluting 312 AMERICAN LITERATURE Realism AMERICAN LITERATURE the Colors.' Even in bits like these, however, which come so much nearer forra than is usual with Whitman, one feels his perverse rudeness of style. Such eccentricity of manner is bound to affect different people in different ways. One kind of reader, naturally eager for individuality and fresh glimpses of truth, is disposed to identify odd- ity and originality. Another kind of reader in- stinctively distrusts literary eccentricity. In both of these opinions there is an element of truth. . . . In one aspect he is thoroughly American. The spirit of his work is that of world-old anarchy ; his style has all the perverse oddity of paralytic decadence; but the substance of which his poems are made — their imagery as distinguished from their form or their spirit — comes wholly from his native country. In this aspect, then, though prob- ably in no other, he may, after all, l^hrow light on the future of literature in America." — B. Wendell and C. N. Greenough, History of literature in Amer- ica, pp. 371-378. "Henry Wadsworth Longfellow . . .was born in Portland, Maine, February 27, 1807. ... At the age of thirteen, Longfellow printed four stanzas, 'The Battle of Lovell's Pond,' in a corner of The Portland Gazette. Within the next six years he wrote a considerable number of poems for The United States Literary Gazette By 1S33, in ad- dition to text-boo.ks for his classes, he had, in vari- ous magazines, published original articles, stories, and several reviews; among them an important estimate, of poetry, especially the poetry of Amer- ica, in a notice of 'Sidney's Defense of Poesy' contributed to The North American Revieiv; as well as translations from the Spanish of Manrique and others, with an 'Introductory Essay on the Moral and Devotional Poetry of Spain' (1833). 'Outre-Mer,' first published as a series of sketches, appeared in book form in 1835, 'Hyperion' in 1830, and 'Voices of the Night' in the same year as 'Hyperion.' 'Voices of the Night' made Long- fellow's reputation as a poet ; the edition was im- mediately exhausted. 'Hyperion,' which eventu- ally EoM well, though at present it is not often enough read, was at first unfortunate, the pub- lisher failing before this book had a fair start. Of Longfellow's better known works, published during the latter half of his lifetime, his 'Ballads and Other Poems' appeared in 1841, 'The Spanish Student.' in 1843, 'Evangeline' in 1847, 'Kavanagh,' another prose romance, in 1840, 'Hiawatha' in 1855, 'The Courtship of Miles Standish' in 1858, 'The Golden Legend' in 1872, and 'Aftermath' in 1873. The 'Tales of a Wayside Inn' came out in 1863, 1872, and 1S73, the First Day separately, the Second and Third Day in company with other writ- ings. . . . Longfellow was the most popular poet ever brought forth on this continent. . . . "By gen- eral consent, Longfellow is our American poet, par excellence, Emerson our philosopher, James Russell Lowe!! our man of letters. . . . No one, however, when his initial talents are considered, has pro- duced so much poetry as Longfellow; no one in the realm of philosophic thought has been so pa- tiently influential as Emerson; and no one, not even Irving, had fared well in so many avenues of literature and popular scholarship as Lowell. He was poet, critic, professor, editor, diplomat, patriot, humanist; and withal he was a man and a friend. ... It is well-nigh impossible to char- acterise Lowell briefly. An attempt to sum up a personality that chose so many avenues of expres- sion, and that at bottom was not thoroughly uni- fied, can hardly do justice to the component parts. The most striking thing about the man was his fertiUty, if not in great constructive ideas, at all events in separate thoughts. What he writes is full of meat. His redundancy is not in the way of useless verbiage; he wants to use all the materials that offer. A less obvious thing in Lowell is what we may term his lack of complete spiritual or- ganization. He lived in an age of dissolving beliefs and intellectual unrest. Though he was not tor- mented, as were others, by fierce internal doubts, he yet failed ever to be quite clear with himself on fundamental questions of philosophy and re- ligion. He was never quite at one with himself. As a writer, his serious and his humorous moods were continually interrupting each other. Partly on ..his account, he did not possess an assured style. . . . The fact is that he wrote mainly for his own time, and was bound to have but a tempo- rary reward. This is not saying that the reward was not worth while. His interpretations of Spen- cer, of Dante, of Milton, of the elder dramatists, sent to those poets many a reader who would not otherwise have gone; for America, he opened the road in the study of Chaucer; and his own 'Vision of Sir Launfal' has unlocked many a hard heart to divine influences. When he wrote in dialect, as in the 'Biglow Papers,' he was manifestly writing for a time; but in their time the second series did more to justify the Northern cause than almost any other publication that could be mentioned, Whittier's poems not excepted It may be thought that his wonderful command of dialect, contrasted with a less perfect and less instinctive success in any higher medium, marks him as above all else a satiric poet When he was once sitting for his portrait, he so denominated himself, speaking gener- ally — 'a bored satiric poet.' Yet were we to name Lowell the greatest of all American satirists, his urgent poems of patrioitism — 'The Washers of the Shroud,' the 'Commemoration Ode' — his 'Vision of Sir Launfal,' and 'The Cathedral' would imme- diately proclaim him something greater than any satiric poet could be Last of all, nobler than the sum of his writings was the work which he effected in bringing together his native land and the mother country, England, in a bond of sympathy unknown smce their separation." — T. Stanton, Manual of American literature, pp. 275-290. 1865-1900.— Literature after the Civil War.— Realistic school. — American humor. — "Following the lead of certain great contemporary novelists in Russia, France, and Spain, many of our later fic- tion-writers have aimed to reproduce, with an un- relieved and unswerving truth and minuteness, just those every-day. aspects of .American society which their great predecessors instinctively idealized or ignored. A so-calied 'realistic' school of fiction has consequently risen up among us, which, according to one definition, 'aims at em.bodying in art the com- mon landscape, common figures, and common hopes and loves and ambitions of our common life.' In nearly every great section of our huge country keen-eyed observers have been recording in fiction one or another of the almost innumerable phases of American society. Taken together, these studies give to the careful reader a fairly accurate notion of our composite national life. But life in this country is as yet such a roughly-pieced patch- work of local differences, that the novelist who aims at a faithful reproduction of it often gets no further than a study of some particular locality, which he paints over and over again up to the extreme limits of endurance. The last thirty years has given us a long procession of these local studies; it has produced writers who are practically specialists on some particular and often narrow plot of ground. We have had experts on the old lady of the New England village, on the Tennes- 3^3 AMERICAN LITERATURE Humor AMERICAN LITERATURE see mountaineer and the plantation negro ; or, among the novelists who have taken a somewhat wider outlook, we have had elaborate studies of society life in Boston, Washington, Newport, Phila- delphia, or New York. . . . New England has not lacked some notable writers in recent years, some of wh»m have been clearly leaders in the especial line to which they have devoted themselves. In fiction. New England life, particularly in the coun- try districts and the smaller towns, has been por- trayed with minuteness and fidelity by such writers as Elizabeth Stuart Phelps, Harriet Prescott Spof- ford, Sarah Orne Jewett, and Mary E. Wilkins. John Fiske has become widely known as a scien- tist and philosophical thinker, and more recently as one of our ablest writers on American history. The labors of a group of writers in this Last-named field — Justin Winsor (1831-1807), the author of a scholarly and elaborate history of America ; Henry Adams, Henry Cabot Lodge, and others — are too important to be passed over. Indeed it may be said here that outside of New England as well as within its limits an increasing attention to our country's history and institutions has been one of the distinctions of these later years. In the South the labors of Professor Herbert B. Adams, of Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, have been instrumental in raising up a school of capable stu- dents and historians of our institutions and our past. The Middle States have given us the ad- mirable works of Professor [President] Woodrow Wilson, [formerly] of Princeton University and of John Bach McMaster, Professor of .American History at the LTniversity of Pennsylvania. . . . One characteristic feature of our recent literature — its humor — we have reserved for a separate men- tion. Probably no other element in our literature is so distinctly and exclusively American. Imita- tive as much of our serious work may be, our humor is unmistakably a genuinely national pro- duction. Even the English, while their perception of the American joke is apt to be delayed and un- certain, admit that our humor is ours alone. They may call it 'vulgar.' or 'rudimentary,' or 'middle- class,' but they acknowledge that we are at least entitled to say of it, 'a poor thing, sir, but mine own.' A leading English critic and essayist, for in- stance, writes: 'The Americans are of our own stock, yet in their treatment of the ludicrous how unlike us they are ! As far as fun goes, the race has certainly become differentiated.' In fact, humor is a charactertistic clement in the American people. Neither our poetry nor our scholarship rests on such a broad basis of popular apprecia- tion Our sense of the ludicrous is not the pos- session of a limited class; it is a national trait. It declares itself in the funny columns of count- less newspapers, in our popular songs, our min- strels, our theatres, our slang: it is stamped on thousands of funny stories that, handed on from one to another, traverse the whole country with wonderful swiftness. No wonder, then, that when some of this popular sense of humor gets into liter- ature we recognize in it marks of a national trait." — H. S Pancoast, Introduction to American liter- ature, pt. Ill, ch. S- "Samuel Langhorne Clemens, 'Mark Twain,' (1835-1010), after an apprenticeship to a printer, became a pilot on the Mississipi River in 1851. Later he tried mining, and still later journalism in California. Thence he removed to Hawaii, and finally to Hartford, Connecticut. ... In 1884 he founded the publishing firm of C. L. Webster S: Company; he lost heavily by its failure His sub- sequent labor to pay its debts suggests the similarly heroic efforts of Sir Walter Scott. His first book. Tli€ Jumping Frog and Other Skelcltes, came out in 1867, Innocents Abroad in 1869, Adventures of Tom Sau^yer in 1876, Life on the Mississippi in 1883, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn in 1885, Pudd'n-head Wilson in 1894, snd Personal Recol- lections of Joan of Arc in 1805-1896. The earlier work of Mark Twain seemed broadly comic — only another manifestation of that rollicking sort of journalistic fun which is generally ephemeral. As the years . . . passed, however, he . . . slowly dis- tinguished himself more and more from anyone else. No other . . writer, for one thing, so completely exemplifies the kind of humor which is most char- acteristically .\merican — a shrewd sense of fact ex- pressing itself in an inextricable confusion of literal statement and wild extravagance, uttered with no lapse from what seems unmoved gravity of man- ner." — B. Wendell and C. N. Grcenough, History of literature in America, pp. 421-422. "I suppose that Mark Twain transcends all other .American humorists in the universal qualities. He deals very little with the pathetic, which he never- theless knows very well how to manage, . . . but there is a poetic lift in his work, even when he per- mits you to recognize it only as something satirized. There is always the touch of nature, the presence of a sincere and frank manliness in what he says, the companionship of a spirit which is at once de- lightfully open and deliciously shrewd . . . His humor is at its best the foamy break of the strong tide of earnestness in him But it would be limiting him unjustly to describe him as a satirist; and it is hardly practicable to establish him in people's minds as a moralist ; he has made them laugh too long. ... I prefer to speak of Mr. Clemens's ar- tistic qualities because it is to these that his humor will owe its perpetuity. ... He portrays and inter- prets real types, not only with exquisite apprecia- tion and sympathy, but with a force and truth of drawing that makes them permanent. . . . One of the characteristics I observe in him is his sinle- minded use of words. ... He writes English as if it were a primitive and not a derivative language. . . . The result is the Enghsh in which the most vital works of English literature are cast. . . . What you will have in him is a style which is as personal, as biographical as the style of any one who has written, and expresses a civilization whose courage of the chances, the preferences, the duties, is not the measure of its essential modesty. It has a thing to say, and it says it in the word that may be the first or second or third choice, but will not be the in- strument of the most fastidious car, the most del- icate and exacting sense, though it will be the word that surely and strongly conveys intention from the author's mind to the reader's. It is the .^bra- ham Lincolnian word, ... it is American, West- ern." — W. D Howells, My Mark Twain, pp. 140- 141, 143, 169-170. "Among the representatives of the 'New South,' Sidney Lanier (1842-81), musician, poet, teacher of English, is easily foremost . . . The poor recep- tion given to his 'Tiger Lilies' (1867), a novel based on experiences in the army, did not dis- hearten him. In 1875 he definitely announced him- self by his poem entitled 'Corn,' published in Lip- pincolt's Magazine, a vision of the South restored through agriculture. This brought him the oppor- tunity of writing the 'Centennial Cantata' for the Philadelphia Exposition, where he expressed the faith he now had in the future of the reunited na- tion. The Cantata finished, he immediately be- gan a much longer centennial ode, his 'Psalm of the West' (1876), which appeared in Lippincott's Magazine, and which, with 'Corn' and 'The Sym- phony,' made part of a small volume published in .^14 AMERICAN LITERATURE English Influence AMERICAN LITERATURE the autumn of 1876 Lanier's important critical works were the product of the years between 1876 and his death. Some three years after he died, his poems were collected and edited by his wife If we had to rely upon one poem to keep alive the fame of Lanier, thinks his biographer, Mr. Edwin Mims, we 'could single out "The Marshes of Glynn" with assurance that there is something so individual and original about it, and that, at the same time, there is such a roll and range of verse in it, that it will surely live not only in American poetry but in English. He is the poet of the marshes as surely as Bryant is of the forests.' " — T. Stanton, Manual oj American literature, pp. 272-274. 1894-1915. — Significant phases. — Howells and James. — "The death of Holmes in the fall of 1894, following fast upon the deaths of Whittier and of Parkman and of Lowell, marked the close of an epoch. The leaders of the great New England group of authors had gone; and the period of American literature which they had made illustri- ous was completed In the first half of the nine- teenth century the literary center of the United States had been in New York, where were Irving and Cooper, Bryant, Halleck, and Drake. Toward the middle of the century the literary center had shifted to Boston, in which city or in its imme- diate vicinity were the homes of Emerson, Long- fellow, Whittier, Holmes, Parkman, Lowell, and Thoreau. When these had departed they left no successors there of the same relative influence. The nation has been spreading so fast and the men of letters are so scattered, that there is in the last years of the nineteenth century no single group of authors whose position at the head of American literature is beyond question. . . The example .set by Irving has been followed by writers who happened to have special knowledge of this or that portion of the country, until there is now hardly a corner of the United States which has not served as the scene of a story of some sort Many of these local fictions are short stories, but some of them are long novels. As was natural, New England is the portion which has been most carefully explored. But of late the young writers of the South and of the West have been almost more successful in this department of literature than the writers of New England and of New York In story and in sketch we have had made known to us the Southern gentleman of the old school, the old negro body-servant, the field hand, and the poor white. In like manner we have had faithfully observed and honestly presented to us the more marked types of Western character. What gives its real value to these studies of life in the South and in the West is that they are studies of life, that they have the note of sincerity and of real- ity, that they are not vain imaginings merely, but the result of an earnest effort to see life as it is and to tell the truth about it — the whole truth, and nothing but the truth. Many of these Southern and Western tales, even more than the New York and New England tales on which they are modeled, abound in humor, which sometimes refines itself into delicate character-drawing, and which some- times breaks out into more hearty fun. Franklin was perhaps the earliest of .American humorists; after him came Irving, and then Lowell ; and they have to-day many followers not unworthy of them. "The earlier American historians, Prescott and Motley and Parkman, have also many not un- worthy followers, working to-day as loyally as did their great predecessors. At no time since the United States became an independent nation has there been greater interest in historical study. At no time have more able writers been devoting themselves to the history of our own country. Although we have now no essayist of the stipulat- ing force of Emerson, and no critic with the in- sight and the equipment of Lowell, yet there is no lack of delightful essayists and of accomplished critics Indeed the general level of American criti- cism has been immensely raised since the days of Poe. American critics are far more self-reliant at the end of the nineteenth century than they were at the beginning They hare lost the colonial at- titude, for they no longer look for light across the Atlantic to England only. They know now that American literature has to grow in its own way and of its own accord Yet they are not so narrow as they were, and they are ready to apply far higher standards. An American poet or novelist or historian is not now either unduly praised or unduly condemned merely because he is an Ameri- can. He is judged on his own merits, and he is compared with the leading contemporary, writers of England and of France, of Germany, of Italy. and of Spain. It is by the loftiest standards of the rest of the world that .'\merican literature must hereafter be measured " — B. Matthews, In- trodiKlion to the study oj American literature, p. 229-233. "One who compares American literature of the last fifty years with that of the preceding half century will be struck first of all by the scarcity of great writers, the very large number of minor au- thors, and the high average of talent shown, espe- cially in prose. This literary talent is well dis- tributed. New England and the Middle States hav- ing lost the preeminence they once had The lack of a literary metropolis deprives .American authors of a valuable stimulus and hinders an all-Ameri- can point of view ; yet the fact that our men of letters work alone, or in literary centres far apart in space and widely different in temper and tradi- tions, encourages originality and the use of varied material ; and if we ever have a more unitary and national literature, these pictures of local condi- tions in North, South, and West will prove to have been of much value as preliminary studies. Largely because of such studies there has emerged another marked feature of the new literature, its .Americanism in subject and spirit. While Ameri- can writers are more cosmopolitan than ever be- fore in the sense of being open to the cultures of the world, foreign influence as a whole is rela- tively less apparent than formerly, and American literature is much more the product of American soil This is due in part to the Civil War, which brought the country to a new sense of its power and even of its fundamental unity, for during thai struggle the men of the East and the West and the South came to know one another better, recog- nizing in comrades and foes alike a common .Amer- icanism. The fading away of the Old South as a result of the war, and the disappearance of the most picturesque features of the West in the re- cent rapid expansion of population and wealth, gave a heightened value to these aspects of .Ameri- can life in the eyes of writers and readers. To these causes has been added of late a growing feel- ing of independence, the natural result of greater maturity and power. The present generation cares less than did its forefathers for the censure or the approval of Europe, and is rather amused than ir- ritated by Old World misunderstanding and con- descension, feeling that if it has much to learn it has also much to teach" — W. C. Bronson, Short history of American literature, p. 282-283 "It is in accordance with the spirit of the time that recent tendencies in novel writings are in the direction of realism and character analysis. There 315 AMERICAN LITERATURE Howells and James AMERICAN LITERATURE have been occasional violent reactions in the direc- tion of ultra-romanticism, and about the close of the century the country suffered from an epidemic of hastily written historical novels. The two most distinguished [contemporary] American novelists, William Dean Howells [d. 1920] and Henry James [d. 1916] stand, however, for the study and por- trayal of things as they are. In the recent develop- ment of the short story as a distinct literary form America has done its full share, and more; and perhaps American writers of short stories are rela- tively more distinguished than American authors in any other field of literature. The increasing number of magazines offers opportunities for the publication of short stories, and short stories in turn help to make the magazines possible and popu- lar. Many young persons with literary interests have found time to attempt the briefer form when circumstances would have prevented them from writing an old-fashioned two volume novel; and though this has led to the production of an im- mense amount of experimental and mediocre work, it has developed a few writers who might not otherwise have been discovered The valuable achievement of the last quarter-century in poetry has been small. The best work has been done by writers who made their reputation before 1883. The fashion has set toward short and epigrammatic lyrics, and few poems on an ambitious scale have been attempted. The Americans who have had most influence on their latest successors are Em- erson and Whitman. There are many experiments in the manner of European poets and of other times, but there is little that seems a high and genuine expression of to-day. An increasing num- ber of younger men have been tempted to the writing of plays, and some of them have produced work admirably suited to effective presentation by the complex art of the modern stage. There have, however, been no dramas of the first literary rank, and few of the second. The perpetual demand for sensational plays has been filled by melodramas which stage-craft is able to make more lurid than ever before; but the tendency in the drama, as in prose fiction, is toward realism. It may be partly as a result of that tendency that the sucessful ac- tion plays written within the last few years have been almost all in prose. Within recent years there have been many writers of good prose essays, but none of preeminent distinction. The sharp dif- ferentiation of the short story from the essay has modified the latter, and no recent writings are of the same order as some of the most charming work of Addison, Lamb, and Irving. Essays on various aspects of nature-study haye become popu- lar, and discussions of literary and artistic matters are more widely read than ever before. In the better newspapers lighter discussions of social questions and of evils of the day have been more refined and more truly humorous than formerly. Though these can hardly be classed as literature their improvement indicates better popular taste. With the development of modern ideals of scholar- ship the writings of scholars take less and less rank as literature. Thoroughness of investigation and impartiality of statement are the chief mer- its of the monograph or treatise; and many in- vestigators seem to fear that literary graces are to be shunned lest they seduce the writer from accuracy in the presentation of facts." — W. B. Cairns, History of American literature, pp. 463- 465. "The first thing which it occurs to me to note is that the relation between American and British lit- erature has become closer. I say 'British,' not for the sake of including more categorically Scottish 3 and Irish, but because American literature is neces- sarily 'English' in the larger, which is also the truer, sense of the term. All that is written in English, wherever it is written, is English litera- ture because it descends <rom the same source — viz., the great writers of the seventeenth century, when the people now poUtically separated were one people, and because every part of it has continued to affect and mold every other part. To-day peo- ple in Britain read books published in America and Americans read books published in Britain, far more generally than was ever the case before. The taste and the criticism of each country are more influenced by that of the other. When living in the United States [as British ambassador] I was con- stantly struck by the fact that a new British writer of some fresh quality was often sooner known and more promptly appreciated there than in his own country. The same thing happens, though less markedly, in Great Britain. ... As respects what may be called 'solid literature,' that is to say books on history, philosophy, economics, and all the so- called human or 'social' sciences, the greatest change of recent years is the enormously increased Amer- ican output. . . . These books and articles are emi- nently painstaking and accurate, disdaining no facts, however trivial they may seem. Comparatively few large historical works are produced, for the writers are occupied not so much in rearing edi- fices as in laying foundations, or perhaps in quar- rying stones and carrying them to the place where the building is to be erected. They are regardful rather of the substance than of the style and man- ner of their compositions, and are right in this, for the work is of a class in which accuracy is the one essential thing. Nevertheless, the treatises of Henry C. Lea, most learned of all American historians, and those of Francis Parkman and of John Fiske, were of admirable quality ; nor are their successors wanting among living writers, whom I do not men- tion because selection would be invidious where there are several of conspicuous excellence. Much of this work relates to local history or State his- tory, and makes its special appeal to citizens of the United States. But much also deals with large constitutional questions and with problems in political science that are of universal interest. Americans have begun to realize that their country is both the workshop and the laboratory of democ- racy. In their forty-eight States and their Congress they are trying experiments in every form of popu- lar government by which the whole world may profit, and indeed is profiting. The other field from whose heavy soil a large crop is being raised is the field of economics and of the social sciences in their application to social progress. Here the af- finities of American authors are rather with Eng- land than with Germany, for the exaggerated doc- trines of State omnipotence which German think- ers have (to their own injury) embraced do not commend themselves to English-speaking men nur- tured in the principles of liberty. The substantial identity of industrial problems, and social problems generally, in Britain and the United States, as v/e\\ as the similarity of spirit and aims, has made the experiments and the literature bearing on these subjects especially helpful to both countries. When one passes from these grave subjects to the greener and gayer meadows of fiction, the change from forty years ago shows itself rather in quality than in quantity. In the seventies few novels of liter- ary merit were appearing in America, certainly very few that won reputation in Europe, until those who are now illustrious veterans — Mr. W. D. Howells and Mr. Henry James — made them- selves known. Isolated works of striking indi- 16 nlph wa \a/a; noted american writers AMERICAN LITERATURE AMERICAN POLITICAL SCIENCE viduality shone out now and then, like the best of Mark Twain's, but there was no such number of really finished and artistic story-tellers as America has to-day, when at least three novelists (besides the veterans just referred to) are admittedly equal to the best of their En dish competitors. The American novel is now no longer content to de- pict phases of local life, though that is still ef- fectively done, and the romantic element that has long been associated with the Far West is now so fast fading away that it will soon cease to be available for local color. But several of the best writers of to-day are grappling with the newer issues of life, in an imaginative way, and in a more 'continental' spirit, so to speak, than any of their predecessors. They are less influenced by French models than most of our English writers have been; and in their hands realism does not so much occupy itself with sm.all details. One is now struck by the presence of what European travelers when they return from America used to complain of as wanting there: I mean delicate elaboration in workmanship. This care and finish are now evident not only in fiction, but in literary criti- cism also. Good criticism is almost as rare both in literature and in art, as good original work; and in the United States there was but little of it in the seventies or eighties, and far less than one finds now. ... It is now more than thirty years since the chief names in poetry were ceasing to write both in America and in Britain; and just as in the latter the places left vacant by the disap- pearance of Tennyson, Browning, Matthew Ar- nold, and Swinburne have not been filled, so neither have any successors to Longfellow, Lowell, Emer- son, Bryant, Holmes, or Whitticr — some might add Whitman — attained an equally conspicuous posi- tion. It is not that in either country people care less for poetry — all the verses of merit that appear are eagerly read — but not only these two countries, but the nations of continental Europe also, still await the great geniuses who will doubtless, as after former periods of comparative quies- cence, at last swim into the sky. The question may also be put: Are British and Amer- ican literature drawing closer to each other with the immensely increased personal intercourse of the two peoples and the better knowledge each has of the other? They are doubtless more occupied with the same subjects than they used to be, because the United States is altogether in fuller touch with the Old World. But the dis- tinctive color or flavor, whichever one is to call it, of the New World is still evident. When one opens a book without knowing who the author is or where it is published, there is something not merely in the words or style, but in the way of thinking, and in the atmosphere (so to speak) which the thoughts breathe, which reveals the au- thor's nationality. The difference between spirit and flavor of the literature of the two peoples seems to me personally less marked than are the differences between their institutions and their re- spective national characters. Neveretheless, it exists, and it seems likely to continue. That it should continue is much to be desired by those who value individuality and who feel that the ideas and tastes of mankind may some day find them- selves in danger of becoming too uniform. The more variety there is, so much the more progress, for variety is stimulating as well as enjoyable." — J. Brj'ce, Stray thoughts on American literature (North American Review, March, 1Q15). "Both in New York and in New England the most popular form of recent literature has prob- ably been the short story. From influences in a way common to both regions, combined with in- fluences quite distinct, there have emerged mean- while the three American novelists who have at- tained such eminence as to demand separate con- sideration. One — Howells — is completely Ameri- can; the other two — James and Crawford — are Americans whose principal work has been deeply affected by European environment." — B. Wendell, and C. N. Greenough, History oj literature in America, pp. 395. Review of the literature of Virginia. See Virginia: 1900. AMERICAN LYCEUM. See Education: Modern developments: Extension work: Lyceum. AMERICAN MUSIC. ^See Music: 1774-1908; also Folk music and nationalism; United States. AMERICAN NATIVE RACES.— Archaeo- logical study. See Archaeology: Importance of American field. AMERICAN PACIFISTS BROTHER- HOOD OF RECONCILIATION. See Peace movements: Constructive plans. AMERICAN PAINTING. See Painting: Modern: American. AMERICAN PARTY, or Know-Nothing Party. See Massachusetts: 1852-1865; U. S. A.: 1S52; 1855-1856. AMERICAN PEACE SOCIETY.— This soci- ety was founded 1^28 by William Ladd and in- corporated various organizations going back to 1815; it was reorganized in 191 1. The program of the society calls for the organization of the nations of the world with a court and an inter- national legislature. The decrees of this tribunal are to supplant armed force in the settlement of international disputes. The headquarters of the society are in Washington, D. C. See League of nations: Former projects. AMERICAN POETRY. See American lit- erature: 1790-1860. AMERICAN POLITICAL SCIENCE AS- SOCIATION.— In December, 1902, "at the Phila- delphia meeting [of the American Historical As- sociation, q. v.] a number of persons who were members either of the Historical Association or of the Economic Association met and discussed the advisability of forming an association devoted to the study and discussion of topics in political science. It was then decided to take the matter under advisement and to give it serious consider- ation. A committee, appointed at Philadelphia to investigate the subject and gather opinions, re- ported at New Orleans in favor of establishing an organization not affiliated formally with either of the older associations. In accordance with that recommendation, a new society called the American Political Science Association was formed. Its pur- pose is to advance the study of politics, public law, administration, and diplomacy. There was a general feeling among the men who formed this association that their fields of work were so de- cidedly different from the fields of economics and history that only by the formation of a separate society could their topics receive proper attention and be sufficiently discussed." — Meeting of the American Historical Association at New Orleans (American Historical Review, April, 1904, p. 439). — "The need for such an association as this, which should do for political science what the American Economic and American Historical Associations are doing for economics and history respectively, had been felt for a number of years. ... At a meeting of those interested, in the Tilton Memo- rial Library of Tulane University, December 30, 1903, there was established, as has been said, The American Political Science Association. As its 317 AMERICAN PROTECTIVE AMERICAN REPUBLICS first president was elected Dr. Frank J. Goodnow, professor of administrative law in Columbia Uni- versity. . . . Professor W. W. Willoughby of Johns Hopkins University was elected as the -secretary and treasurer." — W. W. Willoughby (American Political Science Quarterly, March, 1904, p. log- in). — Since that time the Association has had, through its annual meetings and its publication, the American PolHical Science Review, a stimulat- ing effect on political thought and teaching. AMERICAN PROTECTIVE ASSOCIA- TION, or A. P. A., a secret order formed in 1887 at Clinton, Iowa, under the leadership of Henry F. Bowers. It was an outgrowth of the Know-Nothing Party and was opposed to Roman Catholic influence in politics, and in the schools. Its influence was greatest in 1896, after which its power declined rapidly. Also in: H. J. Desmond, A. P. A. movement. — Congressional Record, Oct. 31, 1893. AMERICAN PROTECTIVE LEAGUE. See World War: Miscellaneous auxiliary services: II. Espionage: a, 4. AMERICAN RAILWAY EXPRESS COM- PANY. See R.MLRO.xus: 1916-1920. AMERICAN RAILWAY UNION. See U.S.A.: 1894: Strike at Pullman. AMERICAN RED CROSS. See Red cross: American National Red Cro?s; 1917-1919; 1919- AMERICAN RELIEF ADMINISTRATION. See I.VTERN.^TIONAL RELIEF. AMERICAN REPUBLICS, Bureau of. See .American republics, International union of. AMERICAN REPUBLICS, International Union of. — South and Central American na- tions: Their recent rapid advance in character, dignity, and importance. — In iSoo, when Mr. Blaine, as secretary of state, opened the first well- planned erideavor of the government of the United States to put itstif into such relations with them, of friendly influence, there was little appreciation of the importance of the movement. Even Mr. Blaine did not seem to be fully earnest and fully sanguine in it, or else his chief and his colleagues in the government were not heartily with him ; for his admirable scheme of policy was almost wrecked in the second year of its working, by ill feelings aroused between Chile and the United States, casting suspicion on the motives with which the great republic of North America had made overtures of fraternity to the republics of the south and freshening an old distrust in their minds. Happily, however, Mr. Blaine, in 1890, had brought about the creation of a harmonizing and unifying agency which needed only time to effect great results. This was the bureau of the American republics, established at Washington, by a vote of the delegates from eighteen North, South and Central .■\merican governments, at an International American Conference, held in that city in March of the year named. Its immediate purpose was the promotion of commercial inter- course; but the information spread with that ob- ject, through all the countries concerned, has car- ried with it every kind of pacific understanding and stimulation. The common action with com- mon interests thus organized must have had more than anything else to do with the generating of a public spirit in the Spanish-American countries very different from any ever manifested before. The Central and South American republics had so little standing among the nations that few of them were invited to the Peace Conference of 1899, and the invitation was accepted by none. Span- ish America was represented by Mexico alone. At the conference of 1907 at The Hague there were delegates from all, and several among their dele- gates took a notably important part, giving a marked distinction to the peoples they represented. It was by special effort on the part of our then secretary of state that they were brought thus into the council of nations. Mr. Root had great suc- cess, indeed, in realizing the aim of the policy projected and initiated by Mr. Blaine. He did much to clear away distrust and to win the confi- dence of the .Americans at the middle and south of the hemisphere. 1890. — First International American Confer- ence at Washington. — Pan-American Union and its bureau created. — .\ "bureau, or agency, repre- senting the Republics of the Western Hemisphere, was suggested to the delegates accredited to the In- ternational American Conference held in Wash- ington in 18S9-90, by the conference held at Brus- sels in May, 1888, which planned for an interna- tional union for the publication of customs tar- iffs, etc. . . . On March 29, 1S90, the International American Conference, by a unanimous vote of the delegates of the eighteen countries there represented, namely: The Argentine Republic, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Paraguay, Peru, Salvador, United States, Uruguay, and Vene- zuela, provided for the establishment of an asso- ciation to he known as 'The International Union of .American Republics for the Prompt Collection and Distribution of Commercial Information,' which should be represented at the capital of the United States by a Bureau, under the title of 'The Bureau of the American Republics.' This organ, so to speak, of the independent governments of the New World was placed under the supervision of the Secretary of State of the United States, and was to continue in existence for a period of ten years, and. if found profitable to the nations par- ticipating in its advantages, it was to be maintained for successive periods of ten years indefinitely. .At the first session of the Fifty-first Congress of the United States, that body, in an '.Act making ap- propriations for the support of the Diplomatic and Consular Ser\"ice, etc.,' approved July 14,1800, gave the President authority to carry into effect the recommendations of the Conference so far as he should deem them expedient, and appropriated ,$36,000 for the organization and establishment of the Bureau, which amount it had been stipulated by the delegates in the Conference assembled should not be exceeded, and should be annually advanced by the United States and shared by the several Re- publics in proportion to their population. . . . The Conference had defined the purpose of the Bureau to be the preparation and publication of bulletins concerning the commerce and resources of the -American Republics, and to furnish information of interest to manufacturers, merchants, and shippers, which should be at all times available to persons desirous of obtaining particulars regarding their customs tariffs and regulations, as well as commerce and navigation." — Bulletin of the Bureau of Ameri- can republics, June, 1898. — .A plan of government for the international union, by an executive com- mittee composed of representatives of the .Ameri- can nations constituting the union, was adopted in 1896, but modified at a conference held in Washington, March 18, 1899. .As then adopted, the plan of government is as follows: "The Bureau of the .American Republics will be governed under the supervision of the Secretary of State of the United States, with the cooperation and advice of four rep- resentatives of the other Republics composing the International Union, the five persons indicated to 318 AMERICAN REPUBLICS 1901-1902 AMERICAN REPUBLICS constitute an Executive Committee, of which the Secretary of State is to be ex-officio Chairman, or, in his absence, the Acting Secretary of State. The other four members of the Executive Committee shall be called to serve in turn, in the alphabetical order of the official names of their nations in one of the four languages of the Union, previously se- lected by lot at a meeting of the representatives of the Union. At the end of each year the first of these four members shall retire, giving place to an- other representative of the Union, in the same al- phabetical order already explained, and so on until the next period of succession. . . . The interest taken by the various States forming the Interna- tional Union of American Republics in the work of its organic bureau is evidenced by the fact that for the first time since its creation in i8qo all the re- publics of South and Central America are now I iSgg] represented in it. The unanimous recom- mendation of the International American Confer- ence, providing for the International Union of American Republics, stated that it should continue in force during a term of ten years from the date of its organization, and no country becoming a member of the union should cease to be a member until the end of said period of ten years, and un- less twelve months before the expiration of said period a majority of the members of the union had given to the Secretary of State of the United States official notice of their wish to terminate the union at the end of its first period, that the union should continue to be maintained for another period of ten years, and thereafter, under the same con- ditions, for successive periods of ten years each. The period for notification expired on July 15, 1899, without any of the members having given the necessary notice of withdrawal. Its mainte- nance is therefore assured for the next ten years." — Message of the president of the United Slates, December 5, 1899.— See also U. S. A.; 1889-1891. 1901-1902. — Second International American Conference, held at the City of Mexico. — Its proceedings, conventions, resolutions, etc. — On the suggestion of President McKinley and on the invitation of President Diaz, of Mexico, a second conference was convened at the city of Mexico, on October 23, 1901. The sessions of this conference were prolonged until January 31, 1902. It was at- tended by delegates from every independent nation then existing in America, being twenty in number ; but the delegation of Venezuela was withdrawn by the government of that state on January 14 and the withdrawal was made retroactive to and from the preceding December 31. The delegation from the United States was composed of ex-United States Senator Henry G. Davis; Mr. William I. Buchanan, formerly envoy extraordinary and min- ister plenipotentiary to the Argentine Republic ; Mr. John Barrett, formerly minister resident of the United States to Siam; and Messrs. Charles M. Pepper and Volney W. Foster. The following ac- count of the work of the conference and its re- sults is compiled from the report made by the delegates of the United States to the Department of State: "Sefior Raigosa, chairman of the Mexi- can delegation, was chosen temporary president, and the Conference then proceeded to its perma- nent organization by the election of his excellency Senor Lic.Don Ignaci Mariscal, minister of foreign affairs of Mexico, and Hon. John Hay, Secretary of State of the United States, honorary presidents; Seiior Lic.Don Genaro Raigosa, of Mexico, president; Senor Don Jos6 Hygino Duarte Pereira, of Brazil, first vice-president, and Senor Doctor Don Baltasar Estupinian, of Salvador, sec- ond vice-president. . . . Under the rules adopted 19 committees were appointed and the work of the conference was apportioned among them. . . . Discussion between the representatives of the Re- publics that would constitute the conference began months previous to its opening upon the subject of arbitration, and while every desire was mani- fested then and thereafter by all to see a conclusion reached by the conference in which all might join, unsettled questions existed between some of the Republics that would participate in the conference of a character that made their avoidance difficult in any general discussion of the subject. . . . This difficulty became more apparent as the conference proceeded with its work, ... It was tacitly agreed between delegations, therefore, that the discussion of the subject should be confined, so far as possible, to a committee. . . . There was at no time any difficulty with regard to securing a unanimous re- port favoring a treaty covering merely arbitration as a principle; all delegations were in favor of that. The point of discussion was as to the extent to which the principle should be applied. Concern- ing this, three views were supported in the confer- ence: (a) Obligatory arbitration, covering all ques- tions pending or future when they did not affect either independence or the national honor of a country; (b) Obligatory arbitration covering future questions only and defining what questions shall constitute those to be excepted from arbitration; and (c) Facultative or voluntary arbitration, as best expressed by The Hague convention. ... A plan was finally sugested providing that all dele- gations should sign the protocol for adhesion to the convention of The Hague, as originally sug- gested by the United States delegation, and that the advocates of obligatory arbitration sign, be- tween themselves, a project of treaty obligating their respective governments to submit to the per- manent court at The Hague all questions arising or in existence, between themselves, which did not affect their independence or their national honor. Both the protocol and treaty were then to be brought before the conference, incorporated in the minutes without debate or action, and sent to the minister of foreign relations of Mexico, to be officially certified and transmitted by that official to the several signatory governments. After pro- longed negotiations this plan was adopted and car- ried out as outlined above, all of the delegations in the conference, excepting those of Chile and Ecuador, signing the protocol covering adherence to The Hague convention before its submission to the conference. These, after a protracted debate on a point of order involving the plan adopted, later accepted in open conference a solution which made them — as they greatly desired to be. in an- other form than that adopted — parties to the proto- col. The project of treaty of compulsory arbitra- tion was signed by the delegations of the Argen- tine Republic, Bolivia, Santo Domingo, El Salva- dor, Guatemala, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, and Venezuela. . . . "In addition to accepting The Hague conven- tion the conference went further. It accepted the three Hague conventions as principles of public American international law, and authorized and requested the President of the Mexican Republic^ as heretofore explained, to enter upon negotiations with the several American Governments looking toward the most unrestricted application of arbi- tration possible should the way for such a step appear open. In addition to the protocol and treaty referred to, another step was taken in the direction of the settlement of international con- troversies by the adoption and signing, on the part of every country represented in the conference, of 319 AMERICAN REPUBLICS 1906 AMERICAN REPUBLICS a project of treaty covering the arbitration of pecuniary claims. Under this the several repubUcs (obligated] themselves for a period of five years to submit to the arbitration of the court at The Hague all claims for pecuniary loss or damage which [might] be presented by their respective citizens and which [could not] be amicably ad- justed through diplomatic channels when such claims [were] of sufficient importance to warrant the expense of arbitration. . . . "Among the most important recommendations made by the First International American Confer- ence, held in Washington in i88q-Qo, with a view to facilitating trade and communication between the American Republics, was that looking to the construction of an intercontinental railway, by which all of the republics on the American conti- nent would be put into rail communication with each other. In pursuance of the recommendations of that conference, an international railway com- mission was organized, and under its direction sur- veys were made which showed that it would be entirely practicable, by using, as far as possible, existing railway systems and filling in the gaps between them. . . . The report of the interconti- nental railway commission showed that the dis- tance between New York and Buenos .\yres by way of the proposed line would be 10.471 miles, of which a little less than one-half had then been constructed, leaving about 5456 miles to be built. Following up the work of the first conference and the intercontinental railway commission, the [sec- ond] conference adopted a strong report and a series of carefully considered recommendations on this subject. . . . Another resolution ... is that regarding quarantine and sanitary matters. In dealing with this subject the object of the confer- ence was to malie sanitation take the place of quarantine. . . . "The conference fully recognized the value and importance to all the Republics of the Interna- tional Bureau of the American Republics, which was established m Washington in pursuance of the action of the First International .American Conference. . . . With a view to .rendering the Bureau still more useful to all the countries rep- resented in its administration, and making it still more valuable in establishing and maintaining closer relations between them, the conference adopted a plan of reorganization, or rather of broadening and expanding the existing organiza- tion. . . . The new regulations adopted [provided] that the Bureau [should] be under the management of a governing board to be composed of the Sec- retary of State of the United States, who [was] to be its chairman, and the diplomatic representa- tives in Washington of all the other governments represented in the Bureau. This governing board [was] to meet regularly once a month, excepting in June, July, and .August of each year. ... In order that the archaeological and ethnological re- mains existing in the territory of the several Re- publics of the Western Hemisphere might be sys- tematically studied and preserved, the conference adopted a resolution providing for the meeting of an American international archaeological com- mission in the city of Washington, D. C, within two years from the date of the adoption of the resolution. . . . The conference gave its most hearty indorsement to the project for the construc- tion of an interoceanic canal by the Government of the United States. . . . The recommendation of the conference that there be established in New York, Chicago, San Francisco, New Orleans, Buenos Ayres, or any other important mercantile center, a bank with branches in the principal cities in the American republics, [was] in line with the similar resolution adopted by the First Interna- tional .American Conference in Washington in 1889- QO. "In addition to the protocol for the adhesion of the American Republics to the Convention of The Hague, the treaty of compulson.' arbitration signed by nine delegations, and the treaty for the arbi- tration of pecuniary claims, the Conference agreed to and signed a treaty for the extradition of crimi- nals, . . . including a clause making anarchy an extraditable offense when it shall have been de- fined by the legislation of the respective countries; a convention on the practice of the learned pro- fessions, providing for the reciprocal recognition of the professional diplomas and titles granted in the several Republics; a convention for the formation of codes of public and private inter- national law ; . . . a convention on literary and artistic copyrights; ... a convention for the ex- change of official, scientific, literary, and indus- trial publications; ... a treaty on patents of in- vention, etc.; . . . and a convention on the rights of aliens." The treaty on patents and the conven- tion on the rights of aliens could not be signed by the delegates cf the United States, for reasons set forth in their report. — 571'/! Congress, isl Session i90i-igo2, Senate Document 330. — See also Arbi- TRATiox, IxTtRNATioxAL: Modcm period: 1902; Mexico: 1004-1005. 1906. — Third International American Confer- ence, at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. — Proceedings, conventions, resolutions. — The third international conference of American republics was held at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from July 21 to August 26, 1906. It was attended by delegates from each of the twenty-one .'\merican republics, excepting only Hayti and Venezuela. The delegates from the United States of .America were the Hon. William I. Buchanan, chairman, formerly envoy extraordi- nary and minister plenipotentiary to the Argentine RepubUc; Dr. L. S. Rowe, professor of political science. University of Pennsylvania; Hon. A. J. Montague, cx-governor of Virginia; Mr. Tulio Lar- rinaga, resident commissioner from Porto Rico in Washington; Mr. Paul S. Reinsch, professor of political science, university of Wisconsin; Mr. Van Leer Polk, ex-consul-general ; with a staff of secre- taries, etc., from several departments of the public service at W'ashington. The conference was at- tended also by the secretary of state of the United States, the Hon. Elihu Root, incidentally to an important tour through many parts of South .America which he made in the months of that summer. In the course of his journey he visited, on invitation, not only Brazil, but Uruguay, Ar- gentina, Chile, Peru, Panama, and Colombia; and, as stated in the next annual message of President Roosevelt, "he refrained from visiting Paraguay, Bolivia, and Ecuador only because the distance of their capitals from the seaboard made it imprac- ticable with the time at his disposal. He carried with him a message of peace and friendship, and of strong desire for good understanding and mu- tual helpfulness ; and he was every w here received in the spirit of his message." In the instructions to the delegates from the United States, prepared by Secretary Root, this wise admonition was conveyed: — It is important that you should keep in mind and, as occasion serves, impress upon your colleagues, that such a conference is not an agency for compulsion or a tribunal for adjudication ; it is not designed to compel States to make treaties or to observe trea- ties; it should not sit in judgment upon the con- duct of any State, or undertake to redress alleged 320 AMERICAN REPUBLICS 1906 AMERICAN REPUBLICS wrongs, or to settle controverted questions of right. A successful attempt to give such a character to the Conference would necessarily be fatal to the Conference itself, for few if any of the States represented in it would be willing to submit their sovereignty to the supervision which would be ex- ercised by a body thus arrogating to itself supreme and indefinite powers. The true function of such a conference is to deai with matters of common in- terest which are not really subjects of controversy, but upon which comparison of views and friendly discussion may smooth away differences of detail, develop substantial agreement and lead to coopera- tion along common lines for the attainment of objects which all really desire. It follows from this view of the functions of the Conference that it is not expected to accomplish any striking or spectacular final results; but is to deal with many matters which, not being subjects of controversy, attract little public attention, yet which, taken to- gether, are of great importance for the develop- ment of friendly intercourse among nations; and it is to make such progress as may now be possible toward the acceptance of ideals, the full realizStion of which may be postponed to a distant future. All progress toward the complete reign of justice and peace among nations is accomplished by long and patient effort and by many successive steps; and it is confidently hoped that this Conference will mark some substantial advancement by all the American States in this process of developing Christian civilization. Not the least of the bene- fits anticipated from the Conference will be the establishment of agreeable personal relations, the removal of misconceptions and prejudices, and the habit of temperate and kindly discussion among the representatives of so many Republics." The following account of the conference and its action is derived from the subsequent official report of the delegates of the United States: — "The sessions of the Conference were held in a spacious and ornate building, erected especially for this purpose by the Brazilian Government, and situated on the superb new boulevard that for nearly four miles follows the shore of the Bay of Rio, and at the end of the new Avenida Central. The building is a permanent one, reproduced in granite and marble from the plans of the palace erected by Brazil at the Louisiana Purchase Ex- position, at St. Louis. ... It was christened 'The Monroe Palace' by special action of the Brazilian Government. The Brazilian Government installed in the palace a complete telegraph, mail, and tele- phone service, and telegrams, cables, and mail of the different delegations and of individual dele- gates were transmitted free. . . . The governments of the Argentine Republic, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Chili . . . officially extended, through the director of telegraphs of Brazil, the courtesy of free transit for all telegrams sent by delegates over the tele- graph lines of their respective countries. ... In connection with the work of the Conference, the Brazilian Government organized and maintained at its expense an extensive and competent 'corps of translators, stenographers, and clerical assistants, whose services were at all times at the command of the delegates. . . . The palace was elaborately lighted and was the center of attraction day and night for great crowds of people, and nothing in connection with its equipment and administration or that concerned the comfort or convenience of delegates was left undone by the Brazilian Govern- ment. "The Conference was formally opened in the pres- ence of a large and distinguished audience on the evening of July 23, IQ06, by His Excellency the Baron do Rio Branco, the distinguished Brazilian minister for foreign affairs. The approaches to the palace were lined with troops, the public grounds and avenues of the city brilliantly illumi- nated and packed with people. . . . The Confer- ence unanimously chose as its president. His Ex- cellency Seiior Dr. Joaquim Nabuco, the BraziUan Ambassador to the United States; as honorary vice-presidents. His Excellency the Baron do Rio Branco, and the Hon. Elihu Root, Secretary of State of the United States, and as its Secretary- General, His Excellency, Senor Dr. J. F. de Assis- Brasil, the Brazilian envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary to the Argentine Repub- lic. The Conference was attended by delegates from each of the 21 American Republics, with the exception of Haiti and Venezuela. The extraordi- nary session of the Conference to receive the Sec- retary of State of the United States was held on the evening of July 31 and was one of great bril- liancy. In introducing the Secretary of State to the Conference, His Excellency Dr. Joaquim Na- buco, the BraziUan Ambassador to the United States and President of the Conference, delivered a notable address, to which the Secretary of State replied." Mr. Roofs address well deserved the distinction that was accorded to it by the presi- dent of the United States, when he appended it to his message to Congress the following Decem- ber. Much of it gains new significance from the World War. "I bring from my country," said the secretary, "a special greeting to her elder sisters in the civi- lization of America. Unlike as we are in many respects, we are alike in this, that we are all en- gaged under new conditions, and free from the traditional forms and limitations of the Old World in working out the same problem of popular self- government. It is a difficult and laborious task for each of us. Not in one generation nor in one century can the effective control of a superior sovereign, so long deemed necessary to government, be rejected and effective self-control by the gov- erned be perfected in its place. The first fruits of democracy are many of them crude and unlovely; its mistakes are many, its partial failures many, its sins not few. Capacity for self-government does not come to man by nature. It is an art to be learned, and it is also an expression of character to be developed among all the thousands of men who exercise popular sovereignty. To reach the goal toward which we are pressing forward, the governing multitude must first acquire knowledge that comes from universal education, wisdom that follows practical experience, personal independence and self-respect befitting men who acknowledge no superior, self-control to replace that external con- trol which a democracy rejects, respect for law, obedience to the lawful expressions of the public will, consideration for the opinions and interests of others equally entitled to a voice in the state, loyalty to that abstract conception — one's country — as inspiring as that loyalty to personal sovereigns which has so illumined the pages of history, sub- ordination of personal interests to the public good, love of justice and mercy, of liberty and order. All these we must seek by slow and patient effort; and of how many shortcomings in his own land and among his own people each one of us is con- scious! Yet no student of our times can fail to see that not America alone but the whole civilized world is swinging away from its old governmental moorings and intrusting the fate of its civilization to the capacity of the popular mass to govern. By this pathway mankind is to travel, whithersoever it leads. Upon the success of this our great un- 321 AMERICAN REPUBLICS 1906 AMERICAN REPUBLICS dertaking the hope of humanity depends. Nor can we fail to see that the world makes substantial progress towards more perfect popular self-govern- ment. ... It is not by national isolation that these results have been accomplished or that this progress can be continued. No nation can live unto itself alone and continue to !'ve. Each na- tion's growth is a part of the development of the race. There may be leaders and there may be laggards, but no nation can long continue very far in advance of the general progress of mankind, and no nation that is not doomed to extinction can remain very far behind. It is with nations as with individual men ; intercourse, association, correction of egotism by the influence of others' judgment, broadening of views by the experience and thought of equals, acceptance of the moral standards of a community the desire for whose good opinion lends a sanction to the rules of right conduct — these are the conditions of growth in civilization. ... To promote this mutual inter- change and assistance between the American re- publics, engaged in the same great task, inspired by the same purpose, and professing the same principles, I understand to be the function of the American Conference now in session. There is not one of all our countries that cannot benefit the others; there is not one that cannot receive benefit from the others; there is not one that will not gain by the prosperity, the peace, the happiness of all. . . . The association of so many eminent men from all the Republics, leaders of opinion in their own homes; the friendships that will arise among you ; the habit of temperate and kindly discussion of matters of common interest; the ascertainment of common sympathies and aims; the dissipation of misunderstandings; the exhibition to all the American peoples of this peaceful and considerate method of conferring upon international questions — this alone, quite irrespective of the resolutions you may adopt and the conventions you may sign, will mark a substantial advance in the direction of international good understanding. These benefi- cient results the Government and the people of the United States of America greatly desire. We wish for no victories but those of peace ; for no territory except our own ; for no sovereignty ex- cept the sovereignty over ourselves. We deem the independence and equal rights of the smallest and weakest member of the family of nations en- titled to as much respect as those of the greatest empire, and we deem the observance of that respect the chief guaranty of the weak against the oppres- sion of the strong. We neither claim nor desire any rights, or privileges, or powers that we do not freely concede to every American republic. We wi^ to increase our prosperity, to expand our trade, to grow in wealth, in wisdom, and in spirit, but our conception of the true way to accomplish this is not to pull down others and profit by their ruin, but to help all friends to a common pros- perity and a common growth, that we may all become greater and stronger together. Within a few months, for the first time the recognized pos- sessors of every foot of soil upon the American continents can be and I hope will be represented with the acknowledged rights of equal sovereign states in the great World Congress at The Hague. This will be the world's formal and final accept- ance of the declaration that no part of the Ameri- can continents is to be deemed subject to coloniza- tion. Let us pledge ourselves to aid each other in the full performance of the duty to humanity which that accepted declaration implies; so that in time the weakest and most unfortunate of our republics may come to march with equal step by the side of the stronger and more fortunate. Let us help each other to show that for all the races of men the liberty for which we have fought and labored is the twin sister of justice and peace. Let us unite in creating and maintaining and mak- ing effective an all-American public opinion, whose power shall influence international conduct and prevent international wrong, and narrow the causes of war, and forever preserve our free lands from the burden of such armaments as are massed be- hind the frontiers of Europe, and bring us ever nearer to the perfection of ordered liberty. So shall come security and prosperity, production and trade, wealth, learning, the arts, and happiness for us all." — See also Peace movement: Attitude of governments. The fruits of the conference were embodied in four conventions and a number of important reso- lutions. One convention agreed to, established be- tween the states signing it the status of naturalized citizens who again take up their residence in the country of their origin. (See Naturalization.) Another, which amended and extended the opera- tion of a treaty signed at the second conference, at Mexico, in IQ02, is as follows: "Sole article. The treaty on pecuniary claims signed at Mexico January thirtieth, nineteen hundred and two, shall continue in force, with the exception of the third article, which is hereby abolished, until the thirty- first day of December, nineteen hundred and twelve, both for the nations which have already ratified it, and for those which may hereafter ratify it." The third convention signed was a modification and extension of another of the agree- ments of the second conference, at Mexico, having relation to patents of invention, literary property, etc. The fourth convention provided for an "in- ternational Commission of Jurists, composed of one representative from each of the signatory States, appointed by their respective Governments, which Commission shall meet for the purpose of preparing a draft of a code of Private Interna- tional Law and one of Public International Law, regulating the relations between the nations of America " The more important of the resolutions adopted were the following: "To ratify adher- ence to the principle of arbitration , and, to the end that so high a purpose may be rendered prac- ticable, to recommend to the Nations represented at this Conference that instructions be given to their Delegates to the Second Conference to be held at The Hague, to endeavor to secure by the said Assembly, of world-wide character, the cele- bration of a General Arbitration Convention, so effective and definite that, meriting the approval of the civilized world, it shall be accepted and put in force by every nation. To recommend to the Governments represented therein that they consider the point of inviting the Second Peace Conference, at The Hague, to examine the question of the compulsory collection of public debts, and, in gen- eral, means tending to diminish between Nations conflicts having an exclusively pecuniary origin." Other resolutions of the conference were directed to a broadening of the work and an enlargement of the influence of the international bureau of the American republics ; to the erection of a building for that bureau and for the contemplated library in memory of Columbus; to the erection in the bureau of a section having "as its chief object a special study of the customs legislation, consular regulations and commercial statistics of the Re- publics of America," with a view to bringing them into more harmony, and to securing the greatest development and amplification of commercial re- lations between American republics; to promote 322 AMERICAN REPUBLICS 1906-1920 AMERICAN REPUBLICS the establishment and maintenance of navigation lines connecting the principal ports of the Ameri- can continent; to bring about more effective co- operation in international sanitary measures; to advance the construction of lines that shall form, connectedly, the desired Pan-American railway, extending through the two continents. 1906-1908. — Bureau's increased efficiency. — Building given by Andrew Carnegie. — The in- ternational bureau of the American republics as- sumed larger functions and increased importance in 1906, after the return of Mr. Root, United States secretary of state, from his tour of visits to the South American states. The Hon. John Barrett, who had successively represented the gov- ernment of the United States in Panama, in Ar- gentina and in Colombia, as well as at the second Pan-.\merican conference, in Mexico, was made Director of the Bureau and entered upon his duties with a strong belief in the possibilities of good to be done in the American hemisphere by an ener- getic promotion of more intimate relations be- tween its peoples. At the same time a new dig- nity was given to the international union of the American republics, embodied in the work of the bureau, by the provision of a stately building for its use. Mr. Root had persuaded Congress to appropriate $200,000 for the site and building of such a home, to be offered to the union, and this inadequate sum was supplemented by a generous private gift from Andrew Carnegie, who offered an addition of $750,000 to the fund for the Pan- American building. The site secured for the struc- ture was that of the old Van Ness mansion, about half-way between the State, War and Navy build- ings and the Potomac River. It covers a tract of five acres, facing public parks on two sides. There the corner stone of a central seat of Pan-American cooperations and influences was laid in May, 1908, in the presence of official representatives from twenty-one American republics, and under their assembled flags. — See also ABC Conferenxe. 1910. — Fourth International American Confer- ence, at Buenos Aires. — "It was notable for having finally dealt with all the subjects on its program, including treaties relating to patents, trademarks, and copyrights. A treaty was also made for the indefinite extension of the agreement for the arbitration of pecuniary claims. In the report of the delegates to the fourth conference special reference is made to the harmony which characterized its deliberations. There can be no doubt that, quite apart from the actual work ac- complished, the free interchange of views in friendly conference between representative men from all parts of America cannot fail to create a better understanding and to draw closer the re- lations between the countries concerned. This is indeed one of the chief benefits of the Interna- tional American Conferences. The process of as- similating or harmonizing legal rules and remedies in countries whose systems of jurisprudence are derived from different sources is necessarily slow and uncertain. But this by no means implies the existence of a serious obstacle to the promotion of a free and beneficial intercourse." — J. B. Moore, Principles of American diplomacy, p. 3Q2. — See also American Institute of Ixternation.al Law. 1914. — Pan-American Neutrality. — On Dec. 8, 1914, a meeting of the governing board of the Pan- American Union was held in Washington to con- sider the question of Pan-American neutrality in the War, and appointed a committee to study the problems of the War. 1915. — Pan-American Financial Conference. See Pan-American hnancial conference. 1915. — Conference aiming to formulate plans for a provisional government for Mexico. — Recognition of Carranza. See U. S. A.: 1915 (August-October). 1915-1916. — Pan-American Scientific Con- gress. See Pan-American scientific congress 1915-1920.— Effect of World War.— Closer union. — "One of the most significant effects of the war upon the southern Republics was the change which it wrought in their relations with one an- other. I do nut refer to the formation of such political or diplomatic associations as the so-called ABC arbitration league of May, 1915. More significant and fundamental, though far less spectacular than this, are the prosaic commercial, economic, and social bonds which have grown up among them during the enforced cessation of many of their contacts with the outside world from 1914 to 1919. For the first time in their history they were compelled to become acquainted with one an- other, and the effects of this are strikingly apparent to any observer who has been in a position to com- pare prewar impressions with those of to-day. Just as the preoccupations of Europe in its pre- vious great cataclysm, the Napoleonic war, enabled Latin America to achieve her political independence, so has the recent upheaval in the Old World giveii the southern Republics their first real appreciation of their own capacity for self-development and interregional cooperation along economic and social lines. . . . Since 1918 detailed plans or arrange- ments have bee 1 made for the construction in Latin America of at least five international railways and six or more international cable and telegraph lines. . . . The noteworthy point is the fact that the majority of these enterprises are being undertaken with local capital. Commercial changes of the same sort are noticeable on every hand, due especially to the extraordinary diversification of industries and production in the past six years. Since 1914 the trade between Argentina and Brazil has grown 500 per cent, and all the latest statistics point to even further expansion. Mexican commerce with the more important South .'\merican countries, includ- ing such items as foodstuffs, oil, fibers, and even newsprint paper, has been more than quadrupled during the war, and the most rapid growth has come in the past two years. During 1919 and 1920 at least five inter-Latin American congresses were held, not with the object of exchanging those beau- tiful expressions of fraternal affection which too fre- quently befog the atmosphere of such assemblages. Quite the contrary; their subject matter in each case was prosaic and unpicturesque, but at the same time definite and constructive — dairying and pas- toral argriculture, police regulations, immigration, architecture, and physical education. . . . Before 1914 there was not one American branch bank in Latin America, while to-day there are over a hun- dred; that there are nearly a dozen American cham- bers of commerce in the southern Republics, the oldest of them having been founded about two years ago; that important new .American cable con- nections and the valuable services of the two great American news-gathering associations have been greatly extended in that field ; and that American ships are now sufficiently numerous in southern waters to carry nearly 50 per cent of our trade there, which is five times the proportion carried in 1914. The Inter-American High Commission has since loiS been unostentatiously but surely working out a definite and effective series of bonds in the shape of uniform commercial law and practice — a constructive program of the highest value." — J. Klein, Monroe Doctrine as a regional understand- ing (Pan-American Union, Bulletin, v. 52, No. 2, 323 AMERICAN RESCUE WORKERS AMERICANIZATION Feb., 1921, pp. 140-142). — The same author states: "It would be absurd, of course, to suggest that the years 1914-iqiS had delivered Latin America from any further economic dependence upon Europe ; but in view of certain significant facts . . . it would be equally ridiculous to assume that Latin America will continue to look to Europe, or even to the United States, for the fulfillment of all of her needs for manufactured commodities, and even for capital and fuel. The amount of evidence on this point is ample, and instead of falling off after iqi8, it has steadily increased. . . . Argentine citi- zens recently loaned 1,500,000,000 lire to the Italian Government ; the .'\rgentine Government has ad- vanced 140,000,000 to the .Mlies." — Ibid. — See also Pan-Americ.a.nism and names of American repub- lics. AMERICAN RESCUE WORKERS, the out- come of a secession movement from the Salvation .Army in 1882. There are 2p organizations in the eastern part of the United States. — United States Census, Religious bodies. IQIO, pt. 2, p. 35. AMERICAN REVOLUTION. See U. S. A.: 177S-1782. AMERICAN RITE. See Masonic socrenEs: Masonic bodies. AMERICAN SCHOOL FOR ORIENTAL RESEARCH IN JERUSALEM. See .Arch^o- LOCICAL IxSIITVTE OF .AMERICA. AMERICAN SCULPTURE. See Sculpture: Modern: .American. AMERICAN SECRET SERVICE. See World War: Miscellaneous auxiliary services: II. Espionage: a, 4. AMERICAN SOCIETY OF INTERNA- TIONAL LAW. See International law: 1850- 1Q09. AMERICAN SUGAR REFINING COM- PANY (the Sugar Trust). See Trusts: 1907- iQog: Thievery of the sugar trust; U. S. A.: 1909 (October-November) . AMERICAN SUPPLY SERVICE. See World War: Miscellaneous auxiliary services: V. Moving men and material: a. AMERICAN SYSTEM, a tariff system pro- posed by Henry Clay, about the time of the be- ginning of protectionism, by which home manu- factures were to be protected for the greater de- velopment of the cities, and raw materials were to be protected for the advantage of western farmers. Such an arrangement would be mutually profit- able to the North and the West, but distinctly un- favorable to the South, where high tariffs on im- ported manufactured goods created strong opposi- tion to the .American system. — See also Tariff: 1808-1824, 1832. AMERICAN TOBACCO COMPANY: Su- preme Court case. See Supreme Court: 1888- 1913- AMERICAN VOLUNTEERS. See S.alvation .Ar.mv: 1896-1000. AMERICANISM. See .American' Legion: Pol- icies; also .America.nization'. AMERICANIZATION.— Early work for im- migrants. — ".Americanization is the educational process of unifying both native-born and foreign- born Americans in perfect support of the prin- ciples of liberty, union, democracy, and brother- hood. It selects and preserves the best qualities in our past and present .Americanism ; it singles out and fosters such traits of the foreign-born as will contribute to the welfare of our people." — E. S. Bogardus, Essentials of .imericanization. pp. 11. — Most of the early work for immigrants was done by churches, Bible societies, etc. "The first and most primitive form of work among immigrants was that of the Bible Society. The form this work took was "colportage,' the peddling of Bibles Yet something more than the ability ol the book- agent to make sales was required of the 'colporteur'. . . . The men chosen to sell Bibles in immigrant communities were often foreigners, many of them men who were preparing themselves for mission- ary work in their own countries." The Young 'Women's Christian .Association was one of the pioneers in the tield, working through its depart- ment for foreign born women for the mothers and the industrial girls of foreign communities. "In- ternational Institutes," with both .American and foreign-speaking nationality workers, provide edu- cation, recreation, and training in home-making and citizenship. "In point of time, the first so- cieties for immigrants in the field were those main- tained by their own people. Their object was chiefly benevolent. The German Society for ex- ample was organized in 1784, the French Be.ievo- lent Society goes back to 1809, the Irisn Emigrant Society gives 1841 as the date of foundation, the Swiss Benevolent Society was organized in 1851, the Home for Scandinavian Immigrants in 1881, the Spanish Benevolent Society in 1882, the So- ciety for Italian Immigrants in 1901 and so on. It is interesting that the society administering the Baron de Hirsch Fund for Roumanian, Russian and Galician Immigrants, as well as the Hebrew Sheltering and Immigrant Aid Society, are the only foreign societies which for years have made the .Americanization of immigrants one of the objects of their organizations. Of course this is explained by the fact that the majority of the immigrants handled by these societies had a nationality — to gain and none to lose in coming to this country. However, we now have the swing-back of the penduluum and see the Jews claiming territorial rights in Palestine. . . . 'The Slavonic peoples also establish benefit so- cieties for the purpose of aiding the needy among their co-nationals. Those coming from countries where they were deprived of the means of educa- tion often pursue educational aims. For example, the National Slovak Society of the United States of .America states as its object: 'To educate the Slovak immigrants ... to teach them to love their adopted country and to become useful citi- zens of this republic' The non-sectarian Cleveland Slovak union insists that all members become U. S. citizens within six years after arrival. The Sokels, ostensibly an athletic organization, have every- where a strong national background. In illustra- tion of this, you will find its members in America enlisting in the Polish .Army, the Czecho-Slovak Legions, etc., rather than under the U. S. flag. Representatives of various nationalities have joined in a League of Foreign-born Citizens of which Wm. Fellows Morgan, President of the Mer- chants .Association, is the head This League con- cerns itself with the education and naturaliza- tion of the foreisn born. It is rather interesting that one of the earliest .American societies concern- ing itself with immigrants was organized with a view to the reslrielion of immigrations. This is the Immigration Restrictions League with head- quarters in Boston founded in 1894. This League was one of the warmest supporters of the Burnett bill— or literacy test. It has stood for a higher head-tax, the abolition of the bond, the deporta- tion of aliens without time-limit, etc. In contrast to this Leaeue, we have five corrective (among them), the National LiDeral Immigration League, which pleads for distribution and education and vigorously opposes indiscriminate restriction. Like the Restrictions League it disseminates information 324 AMERICANIZATION Effects of World War AMERICANIZATION and seeks to influence legislation. Like the Restric- tion League it has a racial axe to grind, with this difference — that the Restriction League would de- crease the non-Anglo-Saxon percentage of our population, while the Liberal League discounten- ances all legislation unfavorable to the admission of an oppressed people in Eastern Europe. . . . Like the National Liberal Immigration League, the Chicago Immigrant Protective League was founded in igo8 with Judge Mack as President, Jane Addams as Vice-president and Miss Grace Abbott, author of 'The Immigrant and the Com- munity' as Director. . . . From the beginning the League has had a staff of foreign visitors. This League stresses what so many Americanization agencies either disregard or forget, and that is, the necessity for reaching the immigrant in his own language before he learns English and loses in the process the ideals of America which he brought with him. . . . "The foregoing represent some of the agencies which for the last decade or so have been working for the gradual adjustment of the alien to Ameri- can environment, without ever saying very much about Americanization. Their chief concern has been for the immigrant himself. The unemploy- ment situation due to the great war drew the in- terest of quite different organizations into the field — whose chief concern became not the immigrant, but the rest of us — America ! Their entrance is marked by such slogans as 'America First'; their platform is a common language, a united citizen- ship, an American standard of living, a home-stake in America. Their heaviest emphasis is laid on the teaching of English. Among them the Cham- ber of Commerce of the United States has taken tirst place and has rendered invaluable service in the way of publicity to the whole movement. Through its Committee on Immigration it has conducted preliminary surveys of immigration con- ditions in i6s industrial towns." — Address at Na- tional Training School, Y. W. C. A., February, igig. — See also Immigration and emigration: United States: iqio-iq2o; Naturalization. Effect of World War and later development. — "The current emphasis upon Americanization had its origin in igi4 when the European War started and a renaissance of nationalism oc- curred. Americanization Day had its beginning on July 4, IQ14, in Cleveland, Ohio; it was fathered by the 'sane Fourth committee.' In igi5 at least I. so cities observed Americanization Day. In that same year, the National Americanization Commit- tee was organized by the Committee for Immi- grants in America for the purpose of furthering a nationalization movement that would unify the various peoples in the United States. In iqi8, the government undertook specific Americanization work. In the Department of the Interior, the Bureau of Education outlined an Americanization program which has been endorsed and furthered by the National and State Councils of Defense and which has resulted in the appointment of county Americanization councils, and of regional directors under the supervision of the Division of American- ization of the Bureau of Education." — E. S. Bo- gardus. Essentials of Americanization, pp. 12. The World War brought increased recognition of the importance of the work of Americanization. The census of loio had indicated an illiteracy of 7 or 8%, but investigations made at the army camps preliminary to the use of the intelligence tests showed that a much larger proportion of young men were practically illiterate, being unable to read the newspaper or to write a letter home. The proportion ran as high as 17.18% in one camp, and as high as 41.08% in another. It has been estimated that one-fourth of the members of the American Expeditionary Forces were prac- tically illiterate. This illiteracy was not confined to any particular section of the country. White soldiers from the Soilth were almost as frequently illiterate as the colored soldiers. Non-English- speaking illiterate young men from New York, New Jersey, and New England were sufticiently numerous to shake the confidence of the North in the effectiveness of its education. Illiteracy seemed to be a national problem. The war re- vealed the fact that many of our naturalized citi- zens were not truly American in spirit. Early in the year 1916 there was held in Philadelphia a great national conference on immigration and Americanization, participated in by many people of note, such as Mary Antin, P. P. Claxton, United States Commissioner of Education, and Governor Brumbaugh of Pennsylvania. It was pointed out that there are ten million negroes and thirteen million white persons of alien birth in the United States, and that 330,000 men, women and chil- dren born outside of this country represent fifty- nine per cent of the depositors in postal banks and seventy-two per cent of the $70,000,000 deposits. Among the valuable results of the conference was the formation of a National .Americanization Council, for the cooperation of public and private agencies. Among the various suggestions were: a Congressional appropriation of $50,000 for the Bureau of Education's work in eliminating illiter- acy among the foreign ; a Federal picture-poster of welcome to women aliens as well as to men; Federal protection for women as for men ; the abolition of the head-tax on immigrants; the keeping of naturalization courts open at night, and Dr. Sidney Gulick's sane propositions for immi- grant registration and the open door. Betterment of laws is anticipated to provide for the education of the foreigner, to guide him into suitable em- ployment, to give him proper housing facilities, to protect him from accident and industrial diseases, and furnish accident compensation. Hyphenism. — On several public occasions Presi- dent Wilson called attention to the danger from hyphenated Americans. In May of 1017 he spoke in New York City at the unveiling of a monument to John Barry, the man who held the first com mission in the American Navy. He said: "John Barry was an Irishman, but his heart crossed the Atlantic with him. He did not leave it in Ireland Some Americans need hyphens in their names be- cause only part of them have come over, but who'i the whole man has come over, heart and though' and all, the hyphen drops of its own weight out of his name. This man was not an Irish-American, but was an Irishman who became an American. I venture to say that if he voted, he voted with regard to the questions as they looked on th's side of the water, and not on the other side, and that is my infallible test of the genuine American This man illustrates for me all the splendid strength which was brought into this country by the magnet of freedom. Men have been drawn to this coun- try by the same thing that made them love this country, by the opportunity to live their own lives and to think their own thoughts and to let their whole natures expand with the expansion of this free and mighty nation. We have brought out of the stocks of all the world all the best im- pulses, and have appropriated them and American- ized them and translated them into the glory and majesty of this great country." In his annual message to Congress in iqi6 at the opening of its session President Wilson denounced the hyphenates 325 AMERICANIZATION Methods AMERICANIZATION and asked for means to restrict their activities. He said: "I am sorry to say that the gravest threats against our national peace and safety have been uttered within our own borders. There are citizens of the United States, I blush to admit, bom under other flags, but welcomed under our gen- erous naturalization laws to the full freedom and opportunity of America, who have poured the poison of disloyalty into the very arteries of our national life; who have sought to bring the au- thority and good name of our Government into contempt, to destroy our industries wherever they thought it effective for their vindictive purposes to strike at them, and to debase our politics to the uses of foreign intrigue. Their number is not so great as compared with the whole number of those sturdy hosts by which our nation has been enriched in recent generations out of virile foreign stocks; but is great enough to have brought deep disgrace upon us and to have made it necessary that we should promptly make use of processes of law by which we may be purged of their corrupt distempers. ... A little while ago such a thing would have seemed incredible. Because it was in- credible we made no preparation for it. . . . But the ugly and incredible thing has actually come about, and we are without adequate Federal laws to deal with it. I urge you to enact such laws at the earliest possible moment and feel that in doing so I am urging you to do nothing less than save the honor and self-respect of the nation." Theodore Roosevelt said: "There is no room in this country for hyphenated Americanism. When I refer to hyphenated Americans, I do not refer to naturalized Americans. Some of the very best Americans I have ever known were natural- ized Americans, Americans born abroad. But a hyphenated American is not an American at all. This is just as true of the man who puts 'native' before the hyphen as of the man who puts Ger- man or Irish or English or French before the hyphen. .Americanism is a matter of the spirit and of the soul. Our allegiance must be purely to the United States. We must unsparingly con- demn any man who holds any other allegiance. But if he is heartily and singly loyal to this Re- public, then no matter where he was born, he is just as good an American as any one else. The one absolutely certain way of bringing this na- tion to ruin, of preventing all possibility of its continuing to be a nation at all, would be to per- mit it to become a tangle of squabbling nationali- ties, an intricate knot of German-.Americans, Irish- ,'\mericans, English-.Americans, Frcnch-.\raericans, Scandinavian-Americans, or Italian-Americans, each preserving its separate nationality, each at heart feeling more sympathy with purop>eans of that nationality than with the other citizens of the American Republic. The men who do not be- come Americans and nothing else are hyphenated Americans; and there ought to be no room for them in this country. The man who calls him- self an American citizen and who yet shows by his actions that he is primarily the citizen of a foreign land, plays a thoroughly mischievous part in the life of our body politic. He has no place here: and the sooner he returns to the land to which he feels his real heart-allegiance, the better it will be for every good American. There is no such thing as a hyphenated American who is a good American. The only man who is a good American is the man who is an American and nothing else."— -T. Roosevelt, Fear God and take your oicn part, pp. ,^6r-,^63. Program and methods. — Foreign-born peoples should be Americanized "by calling upon the fine things that are within them; by appreciating what they have to offer us, and by revealing to them what we have to offer them. The best test of whether or not we are Americans will come when we, all together, recognize that there are defects in our land and lacks in our system; that our pro- grams are not perfect; that our institutions can be bettered; but look forward constantly by co- operation, to making this a land in which there will be a minimum of fear and a maximum of hope." — F. K. Lane, (World Outlook, Nov., 1919). — "Americanization is the uniting of new with native-born Americans in fuller common under- standing and appreciation to secure by means of self-government the highest welfare of all. Such Americanization should produce no unchangeable political, domestic and economic regime delivered once for all to the fathers, but a growing and broadening national life, inclusive of the best wher- ever found. With all our rich heritages Ameri- canism will develop best through a mutual giv- ing and taking of contributions from both newer and older Americans in the interest of the com- mon weal." — Evening schools of New I'ork City {School and Society, Jan. 12, 1918). — "The prob- lems of Americanization usually are conceived as questions of assimilation of the European alien. . . . But it should be borne in mind that America of today has taken over also the assimilation of the Negro, the Indian, the Creole, the Filipino, the Porto Rican, the natives of Alaska, of Haiti, of San Domingo, of the Virgin Islands, and of Hawaii, as well as large numbers of Mexican peons, and a few hundred thousand Chinese, Nip- ponese and other Asiatic immigrants. [See also Race problems.] It is well to remind ourselves that we have not yet really set ourselves to work in earnest at Americanizing some of our native-born, for example the isolated mountain whites of Kentucky and West Virginia, the dwell- ers in the flatlands of the Mississippi Valley, the decadents and defectives of the New England Hinterland, the absentee director in industry, and the insulated devotee to wealth and class." — W. Talbot, Americanization, p. 74. — The necessity for Americanization work has been summarized as follows by Howard C. Hill, of the School of Education, University of Chicago: "(i) There are 13,000,000 persons of foreign birth and 33.000,000 of foreign origin living in the United States. (2) Over 100 different foreign languages and dialects are spoken in the United States. (3) Over 1,300 foreign-language newspapers are published in the United States, having a circulation estimated at 10,000,000. (4) Of the persons in the United States 5,000,000 are unable to speak English. (5) Of these persons 2,000,000 are illiterate. (6) Of the unnaturalized persons 3,000,000 are of mili- tary age. (7) In iqio, 34 per cent of alien males of draft age were unable to speak English; that is, about half a million of the registered alien males between twenty-one and thirty-one years of age were unable to understand military orders given in English. ... (0) Only about 13 per cent of adult non-English-speaking aliens are reached by the schools. (10) Many large schools in American cities have been spending more for teaching Ger- man to .American children than for teaching Eng- lish and civics to aliens." — H. C Hill, Americaniza- tion movement (American Journal of Sociology, May, iqio, pp. 600-642). — According to Henry Pratt Fairchild, Americanization is simply "assimi- lation into America." He sounds a warning against our assuming that the Melting-pot is melting be- cause of the "readiness with which the immigrants adopt American clothes, the eagerness with which 326 AMERICANIZATION Problems AMERICANIZATION they attend the night schools, the enthusiasm with which they sing The Star-Spangled Banner, and the fluency with which their children use American swear words." He says that "Americanization to a foreigner may mean locating him within a cer- tain area, or mingling him with a certain group of people, or conferring naturalization upon him, or imbuing him with a certain set of ideas and ideals. It needs merely the statement to make plain that it is the last of these four possibilities which constitutes the only Americanization worth talking about." — H. P. Fairchild, Americanizing the immigrant (Yale Review, July, 1916, pp. 731-740). Problems of language and segregation. — Theodore Roosevelt in his last public message, writ- ten just before his death, expressed as follows his conception of the Americanization problem; "There must be no discrimination because of creed or birth- place or origin in the case of any American who be- comes an American and nothing but an American. But if he tries to keep segregated with men of his own origin and separated from the rest of Amer- ica then he isn't an American. There can be no divided allegiance here. Any man who says he is an American, but something else also, isn't an American at all. We have room for but one flag, the American flag, and this excludes the red flag, which symbolizes all wars against liberty and civilization, just as much as it excludes any foreign flag of a nation to which we are hostile. We have room for but one language here, and that is the English language, for we intend to see that the crucible turns our people out as Americans, of American nationality, and not as dwellers in a polyglot boarding-house; and we have room for but one soul — loyalty, and that is loyalty to the American people." Some students of Americaniza- tion do not share Mr. Roosevelt's opposition to a foreign language. For example: "The persistent confusion exists in the popular mind that no one can be an American who does not readily under- stand, read and speak the English language. Sen- ator Kenyon's bill (S. 3315 — entitled 'Americaniza- tion of Aliens') provides for the expenditure of $6,500,000 annually after June 30, 1920, for 'com- pulsory teaching of English to illiterates and those unable to speak, read or write the English lan- guage.' Secretary Lane in his report to the Presi- dent says: 'Twenty-five per cent of the 1,600,000 men between 21 and 31 years of age who were first drafted into the Army could not read nor write our language, and tens of thousands could not speak it nor understand it. To them the daily paper telling what Von Hindenburg was doing was a blur. To them the appeals of Hoover came by word of mouth, if at all. To them the messages of their commander-in-chief were as so much blank paper. To them the word of mother or sweetheart came filtering in through other eyes that had to read their letters ' While the Secre- tary's pity for some of the foreign-born may not be amiss, it certainly cannot apply to those who could speak, read, or write some other language than English. It is absurd to suppose that be- cause many of the men were ignorant of English, 'the daily paper telling what Von Hindenburg was doing was a blur.' Thousands of those men were diligently reading in another tongue every move made in the theater of war. They knew, moreover, the very territory over which the Armies were moving and had a more vital interest in the suc- cess of the Allied Armies than many of the native- born in this country could ever conjure up. Else why did tens of thousands of Czechs, Slovaks, Poles, Jugoslavs (Croatians, Slovakes, Serbians), Italians and others enlist in the United States Army and not wait for the draft?"— S. P. Hrb- kova, Bunk in Americanization (Forum, April, 1920). — See also American Legion: Policies. — Several state legislatures, however, took ac- tion designated to suppress the foreign language newspaper and the teaching of foreign languages in the schools. Early in 1919 Nebraska passed the Siman law which wiped out temporarily instruc- tion in every language except English. Oregon by an act of January, 1920, made it unlawful to print, publish, circulate, display, sell or offer for sale any newspaper or periodical in any language other than the English, unless the same contain a hteral translation thereof in the English language of the same type and as conspicuously displayed, and providing a penalty therefor of imprisonment in the county jail not to exceed six months or by fine not exceeding five hundred dollars, or by both such imprisonment and fine. "The measure of [the foreigners'] value as po- tential members of American citizenship is some- times sought in the rapidity with which such po- tential citizens give up their methods of life, their language, their religion, their dress, their leisure- time predilections. The foreigner who changes his whole mode of Hfe with the ease and carelessness with which he takes off his coat is erroneously considered a good prospective American. This standard of measuring assimilation is as dangerous as it is unfair to those who preserve a certain loy- alty to their traditions and customs, etc., and change them only as they become convinced that the new is better than the old. 'In Rome do as the Romans do' is not assimilation but simulation. . . . The Americanization movement should not only tolerate these exotic manifestations of creative thought and creative functioning, but it should con- sider the conservation of these creative instincts as a means of accelerating progress and of increas- ing the variability and creative powers of the na- tion. Native music, native Uterature, native arts and crafts, the native dance, philosophic thought, political idealism, etc., are all to be found among the foreign people. These represent potentially their contribution toward native creative genius, they are capable of new interpretations for their own perfecting, and they may interpret America from new angles and with benefit to all. They constitute an aspect of Americanization that will save this country from the decadence that has overcome Spain and the stifling rigidity of the Pan-Germanic chamber of horrors. . . . The open- ing of adequate schools for the teaching of English, the proper subsidy of all institutions of learning which undertake the teaching of English to both adults and children, and similar friendly efforts are the only effective means of achieving this end. Love of country requires no special language, but it does require a spirit of loyalty and service and devotion beyond the bounds of any known tongue. . . . The evidence seems to lead to the conclusion that in so far as illiteracy or the learning of the English language is concerned there has been no serious difficulty created by the immigrants them- selves. The main difficulties, however, are to be found in the lack of facilities for learning English, the low grade of teachers provided, the hours and conditions under which teaching must be done, the failure to employ teachers with experience in handling foreign adults, and above all the fact that most adult foreigners during their first years in the United States must earn their living in ill paid and exhausting occupations which leave them physically unfit for any mental effort. With about three million persons still to be trained in the use of the English language, the federal, state, 327 AMERICANIZATION Problems AMERICANIZATION and local governments should develop well-trained teachers and proper conditions of teaching during hours when mental effort is least difficult. Per- haps there is no nation in the world that is so non-linguistic as are the natives of this country, and they should have a sympathetic understanding of the difficulties of learning a new language, par- ticularly by people with a limited education or al- together without education. While language is the common denominator of all social and political ed- ucation among the people already assimilated, it must be recognized that the most important period of political and social education in the life of the immigrant is during the first twelve months or two years in this country. It is then that the im- pressions are strongest and count the most in the future adjustments to the new environment. It is obvious, therefore, that a prohibition of the use of a foreign language in public meetings, and par- ticularly the abolition of the foreign press in this country, would be nothing short of a calamity. They are the channels through which the foreigner can keep in touch with conditions, and all leader- ship of the foreigners is impossible unless it is ex- pressed in the native tongue. To assume that any foreigner can acquire a knowledge of English so as to listen to or read intelligently during a period of less than two years is to expect a great deal more than many intelligent American travelers have been able to achieve in their sojourns in foreign lands. . . . We need the music of Italy, the clear thinking of France, the industry and thoroughness of Germany, the truthfulness and art of Russia. . . . The din of the reiterated panacea that the distribution of immigrants would solve the Ameri- canization problem is in everyone's ears. Take the foreigner out of the congested cities, place him in small communities or on the farm, isolate him from his fellow-countrymen, surround him by Americans and compel him to speak nothing but Enghsh and you have solved the whole problem. This method sounds so simple and practical that it is bound to be impractical and inconsistent with the experience of society. It is clear to anyone familiar with immigrant hfe that congestion, poor sanitation, low standards of living, are not the reasons why the immigrants prefer the cities with all their attending evils. These conditions are merely the commodities as they find them when they reach these shores, and their control depends not upon the new arrival who has no voice in government and whose economic position is too precarious to afford a choice, but upon the already assimilated people participating in the conduct and control of our social and political institutions. The Irish and the German immigrants were the fore- runners of the Italian and the Polish, and their transition into Americanism took place through slums that were even worse than what we now find on the lower east side of New York, or in the stockyard district of Chicago. When we an- alyze the causes of congestion among the immi- grants we find that they are fundamentally eco- nomic. A large proportion of our immigrants are unskilled workers or tradesmen with skill and training which require new adjustments to indus- tries in which the division of tasks, the trade pro- cesses, and the conditions of labor are essentially different from those found in the same industries in the old country. Unskilled trades and the semi- skilled trades employ large numbers of workers and these are largely open to the immigrant. Without a knowledge of the language and igno- rant of American methods of work and employ- ment he must depend upon the people of his own race or nationality for guidance and assistance. 3 In learning a new trade he must be able to under- stand instructions, and in looking for a job he must be able to speak and read the language of his employer or his agent. If he desires to go out on the farm the only choice he has is day labor, a very precarious occupation with all the attending evils of seasonal employment, ignorance of the newer methods of cultivation and complete isola- tion from those who in time of need can under- stand and help meet difficulties. To become a farm owner requires capital and a knowledge of Ameri- can methods of cultivation, marketing, and busi- ness. For these reasons the immigrant remains in his colony. He also has certain social needs which he cannot get in an American environment. The church, the lodge, the social center, cannot exist except when there are present in the community or neighborhood large enough groups of the same nationality or race to justify their presence and guarantee their maintenance. All these institutions if conducted in English are of no value to the im- migrant for at least the first two or three years of his stay in the United States. Even evening schools for foreigners for the purpose of teaching them the English language cannot be maintained with any degree of efficiency without having a certain amount of segregation. The very work of Ameri- canization cannot function unless it can deal with groups instead of individuals. To endeavor Ameri- canization by scattering individual immigrants in American communities is to attempt Americani- zation by a process of gradual social and eco- nomic suffocation." Aronovici holds that environ- ment is an important socializing factor in Ameri- canization ; that the workers for social insurance and the abolishment of child labor have done more toward Americanizing the immigrant than all the special leagues, societies, and commissions organ- ized for Americanization work. Concerning the American overseas army he says: "A polyglot army with differing traditions, born in every cor- ner of the accessible areas of the globe, with re- ligious beliefs representing every creed and de- nomination known to the civilized world, fought for democracy in the trenches of Europe They were Yanks in spirit and in aspiration, those mil- lions who went overseas prepared for the supreme sacrifice, but in their veins flowed the blood of all nations and in their hearts were hidden treasures of tradition and culture that have not been and will not be discovered and developed until the Americanization movement realizes that a new na- tionalism must be created out of the old." — C. Aronovici, Americanization: its meaning and Junc- tion (American Journal of Sociology, May, iq2o). — Another student stresses the following principles of Americanization work: "(i) .Americanization cannot be defined as simply learning the language. It is exceedingly broad in its scope, and the learn- ing process continues throughout the life of the individual. (2) Americanization work should not be confined to persons of non-.\merican extraction. Many people born in the United States need to be brought into sympathy with the non-American just as much as he needs to be brought into sympathy with them (3) The learning of the language pro- vides only the tools of contact to the individual, so that he may be enabled to develop an intelligent appreciation of .American conduct and ideals. (4) The menace of the non-English-speaking alien is so great to his community and to himself that we ought to consider carefully the desirability of in- sisting upon his learning the language if he is to remain in the country (5) Those undertaking Americanization work should be absolutely sincere in their purpose, as any scheme which bears even 28 AMERICANIZATION Libraries and Schools AMERICANIZATION the faintest taint of exploitation will react harm- fully upon the worker and upon the cause of Americanization. (6) It must be constantly borne in mind that no element of condescension can safely be introduced into Americanization work. There is much that the new American can teach us if we are in the right attitude of mind, and we can teach him very little if we are not. (7) Above all things avoid paternalism. (8) The final pur- pose of all Americanization work is to develop self- acting progressive Americans, (g) Education is primarily a public function and the industry should take the initiative only where the community has failed. It should always be ready to cooperate. (10) Above all things it should be borne in mind that 'Americanism' is a state of the heart as much as it is a state of the mind. It is a feeling as much as it is a thought." — C. H. Paull, Aims and stand- ards in industrial Americanization (Industrial Man- agement, Feb., iQiQ, pp. 148-151). — The view of a naturalized American may be seen in these extracts from an address by Edward A. Steiner, Professor of Applied Christianity, Grinnell College, Iowa: "I am not sure that we can, or that we ought, to accelerate Americanization. Thus far it has been a contagion with no artificial stimulus. When we shall say 'Go to, we will Americanize you,' there will be organized efforts to resist us, and the re- sistance will grow with our insistence. We have, I am sure, lost many opportunities to interpret America to the immigrant, especially to the adult. He does not come in contact with any of our na- tional institutions except the saloon and the police court. If he does become a citizen he usually at- tains to that high and holy privilege through the venal politician. The whole process of naturaliza- tion, which has received some attention in these later years, needs to be further revised and im- proved ; especially by dignifying it and by making the applicant realize that it is a privilege which he may forfeit if he does not perform its duties conscientiously. I am not sure that the attempt to accelerate naturalization, by making the process easier, may not end in cheapening it still further. I believe that every man who wishes to become a citizen ought to be willing to take pains and make sacrifices, if necessary to gain that end. Citizen- ship is too valuable a possession to be thrown at people, and it is a mistaken notion to believe that because a man has taken out his naturalization papers he is necessarily a patriot. In fact, we know that the two are not identical, and I can easily imagine myself loving this country and being ready to sacrifice myself for it, even had I not the sometimes doubtful privilege of voting. .We should apply a test more searching than the mere an- swering of a few questions which may be learned by rote. No man should be allowed to become a citizen unless his conduct, during five years' resi- dence in this country, has proved that he is already an American in spirit ; that he knows the meaning of liberty and has not abused it; and that he is capable of cooperating with others in realizing that freedom. He ought to be able to prove that he has left behind him Europe's racial, religious and national animosities and prejudices. He ought not to become a child of this democracy, and, as often happens, an added care, until he has proved that he knows its meaning and has lived up to it. ... A rigid insistence upon economic and social justice, and the assurance that the state looks upon them as something more than animated machines, to be used and abused at the owners' will, would bind these millions in gratitude to the country of which they know Httle or nothing except when they are punished for breaking its laws. I have strongly urged, but thus far in vain, that every ship which carries in immigrants should have on board a United States officer who would use the time of transit to instruct the people coming to us. They should be told of their privileges and their duties, the nature of our government and the part they may ultimately have in it. I have often acted voluntarily in such a capacity, and have found that by the aid of immigrants who are returning to us, such instruction can be effec- tively given. Much of the preliminary work of inspection could thus be done. I know there are difficulties in the way, but they are not insur- mountable. The immigrant-receiving station should, not be merely a heartless machine for this sifting of human material. The government ought to do something more for these people than put a chalk mark upon their coats, or open the gate of a strange and new country without a word of ad- vice or warning. Consider the attitude of the average American toward the government of his city or country, the low tone of our discussion of public issues, the ridicule* which we heap upon our officials, from which even the chief magis- trate is not spared; the personal and partisan sel- fishness so strongly in evidence even in this most critical moment of our national life. Need we then wonder if every hyphenated citizen does not manifest the gracious unselfishness of a George Washington or the sacrificial devotion of an Abra- ham Lincoln?" — E. A. Steiner, Confession of a hyphenated American, pp. 51-63. Cooperation by the libraries. — Mr. George B. Utley, secretary of the American Library Asso- ciation, has summarized as follows what the libra- ries have done to promote good citizenship: "(i) They have gained the adult foreigner's confidence and good will. (2) They have educated themselves in his needs, prejudices, racial characteristics and native responses. (3) They have afforded him democratic, hospitable places — libraries — in which the usefulness and the recreational quality of books, magazines and newspapers have been discovered by him and to him. (4) They have cooperated with established organizations, local, state and fed- eral, for his education, (s) They have instituted new ways of procedure in helping him, such as the use of the foreign-language press as a medium of instruction; of foreign-language lectures for teaching citizenship, English language and home- making. (6) They have given or promoted home- lands exhibits and municipal parties at which re- spect and admiration have been shown for his handiwork and customs with an increase of his own self-respect." — Statement furnished for Ameri- canization (Handbook Series, p. 344) . Cooperation by the public schools. — In the public schools of many large cities* more atten- tion has recently been given to the teaching of government. In the City of New York a required course of not less than four periods a week for one half year aims to acquaint freshmen high school pupils with the government of their city and its state and federal relations. The following are among the topics taught. — The city's water supply, The part of the citizen in government. Parties and elections, etc.. Protecting the health of the people, Protecting the food of the people, Disposal of city's wastes. Regulation of buildings. Lighting, Heating, etc.. Communication and transportation, Safeguarding life and property. Public regulation of work. Clothing, Public provision for recreation, City planning, and Civic beauty. Care of the city's wards (Public welfare). Care of the city's wards (Correction), Public education, Making the laws, Carrying out the laws. Judicial action and Paying 329 AMERICANIZATION AMIDA, SIEGES OF the city's bills. In the great work of making our population American in spirit, we can probably do nothing better than to strengthen the agencies al- ready at work and furnish them adequate financial support, particularly the public schools, the libra- ries, the churches, the social settlements, the com- munity centers, the immigrant protective leagues and the legal aid societies. Various agencies. — Due to the present univer- sahty of the work, only a few of the leading agen- cies are enumerated under each heading. Federal agencies. — Department of the Interior: Bureau of Education; Department of Labor: Bureau of Naturalization; Bureau of Immigration (controls immigration of entire country) ; Immi- gration stations. Slate agencies. — Councils of national defense; immigrant commissions; industrial departments; state boards of education. Municipal agencies. — City boards of education; community councils; official municipal agencies [Americanization committees, research bureaus, etc.] Universities and colleges. — [Surveys, Americani- zation training courses, etc. Among these are] University of State of New York (maintains di- rector of immigrant education, with a staff; makes surveys, . . . conducts institutes for teach- ers in Americanization, methods of teaching Eng- lish to foreigners, etc.) ; Columbia University (maintains Columbia House ... for centralization of American activities . . . ) ; University of Wis- consin (first university to establish a chair of Americanization; [and others]. Special immigrant organizations. — Immigrants' Protective League; North American Civic League for Immigrants; Immigration Restriction League; National Liberal Immigration League; Immigrant Education Society; Baron de Hirsch fund (estab- lished for the benefit of Galician, Russian and Roumanian Jews); Council of Jewish Women; Y. W. C. A.; Y. M. C. A.; Y. M. H. A.; National Committee for Constructive Immigration Legisla- tion; World Alliance for International Friendship (specially concerned with adjustmert of relations with the Orient); Hebrew Sheltering and Immi- grant Aid Society of America; Jewish Agricultural and Industrial Aid Society. Religious organizations. — Church home mission work, port work, recreation, etc. Foreign organizations. — League of Foreign-born Citizens (first organization instituted for the pur- pose of helping the 'foreign-born to become Ameri- can citizen and appreciate American institutions) ; American Waldensian Aid Society; Armenian Colonial Association; Ukrainian National Alliance; Ukrainian Federation of the United States;' Greek- American National Union ; Czecho-Slovak National Alliance; Czecho-Slovak Sokel Organizations; Am- erican Lettish Baptist Literary Society; Slavonic Immigrant Society; Syrian-American Club; Slo- vak League of America; Polish Falcon's Alliance in America. Private organizations. — Sons of the American Revolution; Daughters of the American Revolu- tion; Educational Alliance (Hebrew); Carnegie Corporation; Conference of Social Work; General Federation of Women's Clubs. Women's Committees.— [C\v\c and municipal; conduct classes, clubs, lectures, etc.] Miscellaneous. — Chambers of commerce; clubs; industries; libraries; settlements; parent-teacher as- sociations. — From list compiled by division for for- eign-bom women. National Y. W. C. A., July 1919. Also in: C. S. Cooper, American jieo/j.— Royal Dixon, Americanization. — H. P. Fairchild, Immi- gration: A world movement and its American significance. — E. A. Steiner, Nationalizing America. — F. V. Thompson, Schooling of the immigrant. AMERIGO VESPUCCI. See Vespucci, Amer- igo. AMERONGEN, a village in Holland, to which the deposed German Emperor fled in November, 1918, after the collapse of his army. He found asylum in the chateau of Count Bentinck. AMERVAL. See World War: 1918: II. West- ern front: s, 1. AMES, Fisher (1758-1808), orator, political writer and statesman, graduate of Harvard, mem- ber of the Massachusetts legislature, conspicuous in the Massachusetts convention of 1788 to ratify the Federal Constitution; a Federalist leader in Congress 1789-1797; made an able defense of the Jay treaty ; prominent member of the Essex Junto (q.v.). Complete edition of his works published by his son, Seth Ames, 1854. AMES, Oakes (1804-1873), manufacturer; Re- publican member of Congress from Massachusetts, 1862-1873; censured by House" of Representatives for his connection with the Credit Mobilier (q. v.) and later vindicated by Massachusetts legislature. See Credit Mobilier scandal. AMETER. See Electrical discoveries: Meas- uring instruments. AMHERST, Jeffrey Amherst, Baron (1717- 1797), British soldier; in War of Austrian Suc- cession and Seven Years' War; commanded expe- dition against Louisburg 1758; made Commander- in-chief of English forces in America 1759; cap- tured Ticonderoga and Crown Point and later Montreal; made Governor-general of British North America; unsuccessful in war against Pontiac ; re- fused to serve against .American colonists in the Revolution ; aided in suppressing Gordon Riots, 1780. The city of Amhei'st, Mass., was named in his honor by Governor Pownall in 1759. — See also Canada: 1758; 1759 (July-August); 1763-1774; South Carolina: i 750-1 761. Also in: G. O. Trevelyan, American Revolution, V. 2, pp. 208-218. AMHERST, William Pitt, Earl (i773-i857). a British diplomat; Governor-general of India 1823- 1828; created earl in 1826, in recognition of his services in the' first Burmese war in 1824, which resulted in the cession of .\rakan and Jenasserim to Great Britain. — See also India: 1823-1833. AMHERST COLLEGE, Founding of. See Education, Modern: U. S. A.: 1821 (Massa- chusetts); UNrVERSITIES AND COLLEGES: 1818-182I. AMICALES". See France: 1919-1920. AMICITI.S;. See Guilds of Flanders. AMIDA, Sieges of. — The ancient city of Amida, now Diarbekr, on the right bank of the Upper Tigris was thrice taken by the Persians from the Romans, in the course of the long wars between the two nations. In the first instance, A. D. 359, it fell after a terrible siege of seventy-three days, conducted by the Persian king Sapor in person, and was given up to pillage and slaughter, the Roman commanders crucified and the few surviv- ing inhabitants dragged to Persia as slaves. The town was then abandoned by the Persians, repeo- pled by the Romans and recovered its prosperity and strength, only to pass through a similar ex- perience again in 502, when it was besieged for eighty days by the Persian king Kobadh, carried by storm, and most of its inhabitants slaughtered or enslaved. A century later, in 60S, Chosroes took Amide once more, but with less violence. — G. Rawlinson, Seventh great oriental monarchy, ch. 9, ig and 24. — See also Persia: (A. D.) 226-627. 330 AMIDEI FAMILY AMORIAN DYNASTY AMIDEI FAMILY, Florence: Rise of Guelf and Ghibelline strife. See Italy: 1215. AMIENS, a city in northern France 81 miles from Paris, situated on the river Somme, a textile manufacturing center ; surprised by the Spaniards in 15Q7 and recovered same year by Henry IX (see France; I5g3-I5Q8) ; gavv; its name to the treaty of 1802 between Great Britain, France, Spain and Holland [see England: 1801-1806; France: 1801- 1802]; captured by the Germans in 1870 (see France: 1870-1871) and again in 1914, when they held it for a time in the first advance on Paris, later withdrawing ; was the objective of some of the greatest German onslaughts in 1918, but was held by the Allies. (See World War; 1915: X. War in the air; 1918; II. Western front: c, 27; c, 32; j.) For origin of name, see Belgae. AMIENS, Cathedral of, the largest cathedral of France, begun in 1220 by Robert de Luzarches and continued by Thomas de Cormont and his son Renault. The plan of the building is typical of French Gothic architecture. The groin rib and pointed arch have taken the place of the sex- partite plan and the bays are oblong. While the area of Amiens is smaller than the Hypostyle Hall at Karnak the height of its nave is 140 feet as compared with 80 at Karnak. As in all French cathedrals the west front is a special feature of the exterior. The Romanesque twin towers are con- nected by an arcade and there is a rose or wheel window above the central recessed door. Speak- ing of its interior as an example of Gothic archi- tecture, Charles H. Caffin says: "It is as if some power had pulled the older form upward into a slenderer, more elastic fabric ; less massive, possi- bly less stately, but also less inert, infinitely alive in its inspiring growth, with grace of movement as well as dignity." — C. H. Caffin, How to study architecture, p. 284, AMIENS, Treaty of (1527), negotiated by Cardinal Wolsey, between Henry VIII of England and Francis I of France, establishing an alliance against the emperor, Charles V. The treaty was sealed and sworn to in the cathedral church at Amiens, Aug. 18, 1527.— J. S. Brewer, Reign of Henry VIII, v. 2, ch. 26 and 28. — See also Italy: 1527-1529. AMIENS, Treaty of (1802). See France: 1801- 1802. As affecting Knights of the Order of St. John, see Hospitallers of St. John of Jeru- salem: 1565-1870. AMIN AL, Caliph, 809-813, son and successor of Harun al-Rashid. After a troublous reign, which was due to his own misgovernment, he was de- feated by a revolting faction, captured and put to death, AMINULLAH KHAN, Amir. See Afghanis- tan; igig. AMIR, also written Ameer and Emir, Moham- medan title of nobility, especially used to refer to the rulers of Afghanistan and Scinde. AMIR TOMAN, Persian army officer. See World War; 1915; VII. Persia and Germany. AMIRANTES. See Mascarene Islands. AMISTAD, Case of.— The Amistad was a Spanish vessel bound from Havana to Puerto Principe with a cargo of slaves in 1839. The slaves killed the whites and took possession of the ship. A United States war vessel seized the Amistad off Long Island and took it into New London harbor. The United States district court of Connecticut held that the slaves were "prop- erty rescued from pirates" and that they should be returned to their Spanish owners according to the treaty between the United States and Spain. This decision was reversed by the Supreme court of the United States. According to this tribunal the ne- groes were free men, having been kidnapped from a foreign country. — See also Slavery: Negro: 19th Century. AMISUS, Siege of.— The siege of Amisus by Lucullus was one of the important operations of the third Mithridatic war. The city was on the coast of the Black sea, between the rivers Halys and Lycus; it is represented in site by the modern town of Samsun. Amisus, which was besieged in 73 B. C, held out until the following year. Tyran- nion the grammarian was among the prisoners taken and sent to Rome. — G. Long, Decline of the Roman republic, v. 3, ch. 1 and 2. AMITABHA. See Mythology: Eastern Asia: Indian and Chinese influences. AMMAN, Palestine.— Captured by British (1918). See World War: 1918: VI. Turkish the- ater: c, 5; c, 13; c, 20. AMMANATI, Bartolomeo (1511-1592), Flor- entine architect and sculptor; designed many buildings in Rome, Lucca and Florence, an addi- tion to the Pitti Place being one of his most cele- brated works. — See also Sculpture: High Renais- sance. AMMANN, title of the mayor, or president of the Swiss Communal Council or Gcmeinderat. See Switzerland; 1848-1890. AMMISM. See Mythology: Greek mythology: Anthropomorphic character of Greek myth. AMMON, a god of Egypt.— Power of his priests. See Egypt; B.C. 1379. AMMON, Temple and Oracle of.— The Am- monium or Oasis of .^mmon, in the Libyan desert, which was visited by Alexander the Great, has been identified with the oasis now known as the Oasis of Siwah. "The Oasis of Siwah was first visited and described by Browne in 1792; and its identity with that of Amnion fully established by Major Rennell (Geography of Herodotus, pp. 577- 591). . . . The site of the celebrated temple and oracle of Ammon was first discoveted by Mr. Ham- ilton in 1853. Its famous oracle was frequently visited by Greeks from Cyrene, as well as from other parts of the Hellenic world, and it vied in reputation with those of Delphi and Dodona." — E. H. Bunbury, History of ancient geography, ch. 8, sect. I, and ch. 12, sect, i and note E. — An ex- pedition of 50,000 men sent by Cambyses to Am- mon, B.C. 525, is said to have perished in the desert, to the last man. See Egypt: B.C. 525- 332- AMMONITES. — According to the ■ narrative in Genesis xix: 30-39, the Ammonites were descended from Ben-Ammi, son of Lot's second daughter, as the Moabites came from Moab, the eldest daugh- ter's son. The two people are much associated in Biblical history. "It is hard to avoid the conclu- sion that, while Moab was the settled and civilized half of the nation of Lot, the Bene Ammon formed its predatory and Bedouin section." — G. Grove, Dictionary of the Bible. — See also Amalekites; Jews; Conquest of Canaan, and Israel under the Judges; Moabites; Christianity: Map of Sinaitic peninsula. AMMONITI, political party. See Florence: 1358. AMMONIUS SACCAS, Greek philosopher. See Neoplatonism. AMNAS: Occupied by the British. See World War; 1917: VI. Turkish theater; c, 2, vi. AMNESTY PROCLAMATION. See U. S. A.: 1863 (December). AMOOR. See Amur. AMORIAN DYNASTY. See Byzantine em- pire: 820-1057. 331 AMORIAN WAR AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL AMORIAN WAR.— The Byzantine emperor, Theophilus, in war with the Saracens, took and de- stroyed, with peculiar animosity, the town of Zapetra or Sozopetra, in Syria, which happened to be the birthplace of the reigning caliph, Motassem, son of Harun al-Rashid. The caUph had conde- scended to intercede for the place, and his enemy's conduct was personally insulting to him, as well as atrociously inhumane. To avenge the outrage he invaded Asia Minor, A. D. S3S, at the head of an enormous army, with the special purpose of de- stroying the birthplace of Theophilus. The unfor- tunate town which suffered that distinction was Amorium in Phrygia, — whence the ensuing war was called the .■\morian War. Attempting to de- fend .\morium in the field, the Byzantines were hopelessly defeated, and the doomed city was left to its fate. It made an heroic resistance for fifty- five days, and the siege is said to have cost the caliph 70,000 men. But he entered the place at last with a merciless sword, and left a heap of ruins for the monument of his revenge. — E. Gibbon, His- torv oj the decline and fall of the Roman empire, ch.'s--. AMORITES.— "The Hittites and Amorites were . . . mingled together in the mountains of Pales- tine like the two races which ethnologists tell us go to form the modern Kelt. But the Egyptian monuments teach us that they were of very dif- ferent origin and character. The Hittites were a people with yellow skins and 'Mongoloid' features, whose receding foreheads, oblique eyes, and pro- truding upper jaws, are represented as faithfully on their own monuments as they are on those of Egypt, so that we cannot accuse the Egyptian art- ists of caricaturing their enemies. If the Egyp- tians have made the Hittites ugly, it was because they were so in reality. The Amorites, on the contrary, were a tall and handsome people. They are depicted with white skins, blue eyes, and red- dish hair, all the characteristics, in fact, of the white race. Mr. Petrie points out their resem- blance to the Dardanians of .\sia Minor, who form an intermediate link between the white-skinned tribes of the Greek seas and the fair-complexioned Libyans of Northern Africa. The latter are still found in large numbers in the mountainous regions which stretch eastward from Morocco, and are usually known among the French under the name of Kabyles. The traveller who first meets with them in Algeria cannot fail to be struck by their likeness to a certain part of the population in the British Isles. Their clear-white freckled skins, their blue eyes, their golden-red hair and tall stature, remind him of the fair Kelts of an Irish village; and when we find that their skulls, which are of the so-called dolichocephalic or 'long-headed' type, are the same as the skulls discovered in the prehistoric cromlechs of the country they still in- habit, we may conclude that they represent the modern descendants of the white-skinned Libyans of the Egyptian monuments. In Pale=tine also we still come across representatives of a falr-com- plexioned blue-eyed race, in w'hom we may see the descendants of the ancient .Amorites, just a? we see in the Kabyles the descendants of the ancient Libyans. We know that the .^morite type con- tinued to exist in Judah long after the Israelit- ish conquest of Canaan The captives taken from the southern cities of Judah by Shishak in the time of Rehoboam, and depicted by him upon the walls of the great temple of Karnak, are people of Amorite origin. Their 'regular profile of sub- aquiline cast,' as Mr, Tomkins describes it. their high cheek-bones and martial expression, are the features of the .Amorites, and not of the Jews. Tallness of stature has always been a distinguish- ing characteristic of the white race. Hence it was that the Anakim, the Amorite inhabitants of He- bron, seemed to the Hebrew spies to be as giants, while they themselves were but 'as grasshoppers' by the side of them (Num. xiii: a). After the Israelitish invasion remnants of the Anakim were left in Gaza and Gath and Ashkelon (Josh xi. 22), and in the time of David, Goliath of Gath and his gigantic family were objects of dread to their neighbors (2 Sam. xxi: 15-22). It is clear, then, that the Amorites of Canaan belonged to the same white race as the Libyans of Northern Africa, and like them preferred the mountains to the hot plains and valleys below. The Libyans themselves be- longer to a race which can be traced through the peninsula of Spain and the western side of France into the British Isles. Now it is curious that wher- ever this particular branch of the white race has extended it has been accompanied by a particular form of cromlech, or sepulchral chamber built of large uncut stones, ... It has been necessary to enter at this length into what has been discovered concerning the Amorites by recent research, in or- der to show how carefully they should be dis- tinguished from the Hittites with whom they af- terwards intermingled. They must have been in possession of Palestine long before the Hittites ar- rived there. They extended over a much wider area." — \. H. Sayce, Hittites, ch. i, — -See also Ca- naan; Jews: Israel under the Judges, AMORTIZATION. See Rural credit: Amor- tization, AMOS, Hebrew prophet. See Jews: Religion and the prophets, AMO'Y, Chinese seaport on the south-eastern coast. See China: 1839-1842; Map. AMPERE, Andre Marie (1775-1836), a French physicist, famous for his service to science in es- tablishing the relation between electricity and mag- netism. The unit of measurement of the intensity of electric currents is named "ampere" after him. — See also Electrical discovery: 1784-1800. AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL, AMPHICTY- ONY. — ".An .Amphiktyonic, or, more correctly, an .■\mphiktionic, body was an assembly of the tribes who dwelt around any famous temple, gathered together to manage the affairs of that temple. There were other Amphiktyonic Assemblies in Greece [besides that of Delphi], amongst which that of the isle of Kalaureia, off the coast of Argolis, was a body of some celebrity. The Am- phiktyons of Delphi obtained greater importance than any other .Amphiktyons only because of the greater importance of the Delphic sanctuary, and because it incidentally happened that the greater part of the Greek nation had some kind of repre- sentation among them. But that body could not be looked upon as a perfect representation of the Greek nation which, to postpone other objections to its constitution, found no place for so large a fraction of the Hellenic body as the Arkadians Still the .\mphiktyons of Delphi undoubtedly came nearer than any other existing body to the char- acter of a general representation of all Greece. It is therefore easy to understand how the relig- ious functions of such a body might incidentally assume a political character. . . . Once or twice then, in the course of Grecian history, we do find the .Amphiktyonic body acting with real dignity in the name of united Greece. . . , Thouch the list of members of the Council is eiven with some slight variations bv different authors, all agree in making the constituent members of the union tribes and not cities. The representatives of the Ionic and Doric races sat and voted as single mem ii^ AMPHILOCHIANS AMSTERDAM bers, side by side with the representatives of petty peoples like the Magnesians and Phthiotic Achaians, When the Council was first formed, Dorians and lonians were doubtless mere tribes of northern Greece, and the prodigious development of the Doric and Ionic races in after times made no difference in its constitution. . . . The Amphi- ktyonic Council was not exactly a diplomatic con- gress, but it was much more like a diplomatic con- gress than it was like the governing assembly of any commonwealth, kingdom, or federation. The Pylagoroi and Hieromncmo were not exactly Ambassadors, but they were much more like mem- bers of a British Parliament or even an American Congress. . . . The nearest approach to the Am- phiktyonic Council in modern times would be if the College of Cardinals were to consist of mem- bers chosen by the several Roman Catholic nations of Europe and America." — E. A. Freeman, History of federal government, v. i, cli. 3. — See also Greece: B. C. 8th and 6th centuries: Economic con- ditions; and B.C. 357-336; Ionic (Pan-Ionic) Am- PHICTYONY. AMPHILOCHIANS. See Acarnanians. AMPHIPOLIS.— This town in Macedonia, oc- cupying an important situation on the eastern bank of the river Strymon, just below a small lake into which it widens near its mouth, was originally called "The Nine Ways," and was the scene of a horrible human sacrifice made by Xerxes on his march into Greece. — Thirlwall, History of Greece, ch. 15. — It was subsequently taken by the Athe- nians, B. C. 437, and made a capital city by them, dominating the surrounding district, its name be- ing changed to Amphipolis. During the Pelopon- nesian war B. C. 424, the able Lacedsmonian general, Brasidas, led a small army into Macedonia and succeeded in capturing Amphipolis, which caused great dismay and discouragement at Athens. (See Athens: B.C. 426-422) Thucydides, the his- torian, was one of the generals held responsible for the disaster and he was driven as a conse- quence into the fortunate exile which produced the composition of his history. Two years later the .Athenian demagogue-leader, Cleon, took com- mand of an expedition sent to recover .Amphipolis and other points in Macedonia and Thrace. It was disastrously beaten and Cleon was killed, but Brasidas fell likewise in the battle. Whether Athens suffered more from her defeat than Sparta from her victory is a question. — Thucydides, His- tory, bk. 4, sect. 102-135, bk. 5, sect. i-ii. — Am- phipolis was taken by Philip of Macedon, B.C. 358. See Greece: 350-358; Map of ancient Greece. AMPHISSA, Seige and capture by Philip of Macedon (B.C. 339-338). See Greece: B.C. 357- 336. AMPHITHEATER, in Roman antiquity, a building much hke a double theater, circular in plan, with the seats of the spectators surround- ing the place of exhibition. Wooden theaters seem to have been numerous, but the first stone one, the Coliseum (q.v.), was built in the reign of Augustus. Amphitheaters were later erected in almost all of the large cities, the finest being at Verona, Capua, Pozzuoli and Nimes. "There was hardly a town in the [Romanl empire which had not an amphitheatre large enough to contain vast multitudes of spectators. The savage excitement of gladiatorial combats seems to have been almost necessary to the Roman legionaries in their short intervals of inaction, and was the first recreation for which they provided in the places where they were stationed. . . . Gladiatorial combats were held from early times in the Forum, and wild beasts hunted in the Circus; but until Curio built his celebrated double theatre of wood, which could be made into an amphitheatre by turning the two semi-circular portions face to face, we have no record of any special building in the peculiar form afterwards adopted. It may have been, therefore, that Curio's mechanical contrivance first suggested the elliptical shape. ... As specimens of architec- ture, the amphitheatres are more remarkable for the mechanical skill and admirable adaptation to their purpose displayed in them, than for any beauty of shape or decoration. The hugest of all, the Coliseum, was ill-proportioned and un- pleasing in its lines when entire." — R. Burn, Rome and the campagna, introduction. — See also Arena; Coliseum. AMPHORA, MODIUS.— "The [Roman] unit of capacity was the Amphora or Quadrantal, which contained a cubic foot . . . equal to 5.687 imperial gallons, or 5 gallons, 2 quarts, i pint, 2 gills, nearly. The Amphora was the unit for both liquid and dry measures, but the latter was gen- erally referred to the Modius, which contained one- third of an Amphora. . . . The Culeus was equal to 20 Amphora." — W. Ramsay, Manual of Roman antiquities cli. 13. AMPTHILL, Ode William Leopold Russell, 1st baron (1829-1884), British diplomat. Held various diplomatic positions in Vienna, Paris, Con- stantinople, Florence and Rome and was British ambassador to Berlin from 1871 until his death. — • See also Masonic societies: England: Ideals of Freemasonry. AMPUDIA, Pedro de, Mexican general. See Mexico: 1846-1847. AMR-IBN-EL-ASS, or Amru (d. 664), a dis- tinguished Arabian general under Mohammed and his immediate successors. The conquest of Syria and Egypt and the final triumph of the Omayyads over the followers of AH were due largely to him. See Cai^ii'iiate: 640-646. AMRITSAR, a city of British India, in the Punjab; long celebrated as a holy place of the Sikhs (q. v.) ; while the place is one of the rich- e;;t trading bazars of India, the most remarkable feature is the great fortress built by Runjit Singh in 1809. In 1919 there were riots and disturb- ances which were quickly subdued by the British military under General Dyer, who was removed from his command and censured for his severity. — See also I.n'dia: 1919; Map. AMRU, Mosque of, one of the oldest mosques in Cairo, Egypt, a splendid example of Moham- medan architecture. It was founded immediately after the conquest of the country in 643, and con- siderably enlarged in the succeeding periods. Its distinguishing features are "a square open court, surrounded by arcades, set at right angles to the mihrab and supported by columns taken from Byzantine and Roman buildings." — C. H. Caffin, Hoiv to study architecture, p. 223. AMSTERDAM, the "most important city of Holland, situated in the province of North Hol- land, on the Y river, an arm of thcZuider Zee. Amsterdam, or the "dyke of the Amste'l," is named after the Amstel, the canalized river passing through the city to the Y. The city has a population of almost 640,000. Between the years 1640-1656, the famous portrait painter Rembrandt lived in the Jewish center of Amsterdam, which also boasts of the birth of the philosopher Spinoza (1632). The city was virtually founded by Giesebrecht II and III of Amstel. The former, in 1204, found .Amsterdam but a fishing hamlet, and constructed a castle in the vicinity. The latter, the son of the builder of the castle, constructed a dam in 1240 to keep the sea out. The place passed out 333 AMSTERDAM, BANK OF ANABAPTISTS OF MUNSTER of the control of the house of Amstel in i2q6 when Giesebrecht IV was found to have taken part in the murder of Count Floris V of Holland. The fief passed into the hands of Guy of Hainaut who gave the town its first charter (1300). "The town was early admitted to the fellowship of the Hansa League; and, in 1342, having outgrown its primary limits, required to be enlarged. For this an expensive process, that of driving piles into the swampy plain, was necessary ; and to this circum- stance, no doubt, it is owing that the date of each successive enlargement has been so accurately recorded." — \V. T. McCullagh, Industrial history of free nations, v. 2, ch. g. — The walls about the town were built in 1482. The city began to de- velop and prosper most rapidly. With the be- ginning of the i6th century the signing of the treaty of Westphalia in 1648 proved most favor- able to the city inasmuch as, by one of its pro- visions, the Scheldt was closed, thereby bringing ruin upon Antwerp, Amsterdam's commercial rival. Holland's chief commercial center was oc- cupied successively by the Prussians in 1787 and the French, under Pichegru, in 1705. — See also Netherlands: Map of the Netherlands and Bel- gium. 1813. — Revolt against the French. See Neth- erlands: 1 81 3. 1904. — Congress of, International. See Inter- national: 1Q04. 1907. — Meeting of International Woman Suf- frage Alliance. See Suffrage, Women. AMSTERDAM, Bank of. See Bank of Am- sterdam. AMSTERDAM, New. See New York (State): 1634; 1653; 1664. AMSTERDAM CANAL. See Canals: Princi- pal European canals: Holland. AMULIUS, legendary king of Alba Longa, Italy, in the seventh century B.C.; usurped the throne of his younger brother Numitor, whose grandchildren, Romulus and Remus, set adrift in the river Tiber by Amulius, survived to slay the usurper and to found Rome. AMUNDSEN, Roald (1872- ), Norwegian arctic explorer; made magnetic survey of North Pole regions in IQ03; achieved Northwest Passage in IQ05; discovered South Pole in Dec. 14, 1911. See Antarctic explorations: igii-iqia; Map of .Antarctic regions; Arctic explorations: 1901- iQoo; Spitsbergen: 1906-1921. AMUR, or Amoor, river and district of East Siberia. See Siberia: Land; World War: igiS: III. Russia: e, 1; China: Map. AMURATH. See Murad. AMYCL.S;, chief city of Laconia while that district of Peloponnesus was occupied 1 . the .•VchcEans, before the Doric invasion and before the rise of Sparta. It maintained its independence against the Doric Spartans for a long period, but succumbed at length under circumstances which gave rise to a proverbial saying among the Greeks concerning "the silence of Amycls." "The peace of .Amyclae, we are told, had been so often dis- turbed by false alarms of the enemy's approach, that .at length a law was passed forbidding such reports, and the silent citv was taken bv surprise." — C. Thirlwall, History ' of Greece, eh. 7.— This sforv is also told of a city of the same name in Latium. Ttnlv. AMYNTAS I, king of Macedonia c. S40-408 B. C. Submitted to the Persians about 513 B. C. See Macedonia: B.C. 700-3^9. Amyntas II (or III) , king of Macedonia c. 394- 369 B.C. See Macedonia: B.C. 700-359. AN, City of. See On. ANABAPTISTS.— "None of the sects which sprang up in the wake of the Reformation pro- duced so great a ferment as the Anabaptists. The name, which signifies rebaptizers, was affixed to them by their adversaries for the reason that they rejected infant baptism and baptised anew all of their number who had received the sacrament in infancy. The Anabaptists were the radicals of the Reformation. They considered that the Reformers had left their work half done. . . . The Church, they insisted, must be composed exclusively of the regenerate, and religion is not a matter to be regu- lated and managed by civil rulers. Under the name of Anabaptists are included different types of doctrine and of Christian life. It is a gross in- justice to impute to them all the wild and de- structive fanaticism with which a portion of them are chargeable. This fanatical class are first heard of in Germany, under Thomas Miinzer, as a leader, who ... in the Peasants' War in 1525 sought to establish his revolutionary doctrines. These in- volved the abolition of all existine authorities in Church and State, and the substitution of a king- dom of the saints, in which he was to be the chief. . . . Very different from the disciples of Miinzer, however, were Grebel and other Anabaptists who organized themselves at Zurich. . . . They were en- thusiasts but not fanatics. They were peaceful in their spirit, and, as it would appear, were sin- cerely devout. These traits, however did not pro- tect them from harsh and unwarrantable treat- ment. . . . Some of them were put to death. . . . They went no farther, however, than to maintain that no Christian could be a magistrate, or take part in the infliction of capital punishment. . . . in the third and fourth decades of the sixteenth century 'Anabaptism spread like a burning fever through all Germany ; from Swabia and Switzer- land, along the Rhine to Holland and Friesland. from Bavaria, Middle Germany, Westphalia, and Saxony, as far as Holstein.' In the Netherlands, in the time of Charles V., Anabaptists were guilty of offences against decency and morality which were repaid with savage penalties. Afterwards, v/e find that a numerous body who were stigmatized by the same name but were of a totally different spirit were organized under the guidance of Menno Simonis, a religious and conscientious man. . . . English Brownists, or Independents, who came over to Holland, were brought into connection with the Mennonites. . . . After 1535 many Anabaptists crossed over to England and formed congrega- tions. . . . They were reinforced by certain Brown- ists who had espoused .Anabaptist opinions in Hol- land." — G. P. Fisher, History of the Christian Church, pp. 424-426. — See also .A.vabapiists of Mi'NSTER ; Baptists; Mennonites. ANABAPTISTS OF MUNSTER.— "Munster is a town in Westphalia, the seat of a bishop, walled round, with a noble cathedral and many churches; but there is one peculiarity about Miin- ster that distinguishes it from all other old Ger- man towns; it has not one old church spire in it. Once it had a great many. How comes it that it now has none? In Miinster lived a draper, Knipperdolling by name, who was much excited over the doctrines of Luther, and he gathered many people in his house, and spoke to them bit- ter words against the Pope, the bishops, and the clergy. The bishop at this time was Francis of Waldeck, a man much inclined himself to Lu- theranism; indeed, later, he proposed to suppress Catholicism in the diocese, as he wanted to seize on it and appropriate it as a possession to his family. Moreover, in IS44> he joined the Protest- ant princes in a league against the Catholics; but 334 ANABAPTISTS OF MUNSTER ANESTHETICS he did not want things to move too fast, lest he should not be able to secure the wealthy See as personal property. Knipperdolling got a young priest, named Rottmann, to preach in one of the churches against the errors of Catholicism, and he was a man of such fiery eloquence that he stirred up a mob which rushed through the town, wrecking the churches. The mob became daily more daring and threatening. They drove the priests out of the town, and some of the wealthy citizens tied, not knowing what would follow. The bishop would have yielded to all the religious innovations if the rioters had not threatened his temporal position and revenue. In 1532 the pas- tor, Rottmann, began to preach against the bap- tism of infants. Luther wrote to him remonstrat- ing, but in vain. The bishop was not in the town; he was at Minden, of which See he was bishop as well. Finding that the town was in the hands of Knipperdolling and Rottman, who were con- fiscating the goods of the churches, and exclud- ing those who would not agree with their opin- ions, the bishop advanced to the place at the head of some soldiers. Miinster closed its gates against him. Negotiations were entered into ; the Landgrave of Hesse was called in as pacificator, and articles of agreement were drawn up and signed. Some of the churches were given to the Lutherans, but the Cathedral was reserved for the Cathohcs, and the Lutherans were forbidden to molest the latter, and disturb their religious serv- ices. The news of the conversion of the city of Miinster to the gospel spread, and strangers came to it from all parts. Among these was a tailor of Leyden, called John Bockelson. Rottman now threw up his Lutheranism and proclaimed him- self opposed to many of the doctrines which Luther still retained. Amongst other things he re- jected was infant baptism. This created a spHt among the reformed in Miinster, and the disorders broke out afresh. The mob now fell on the ca- thedral and drove the Catholics from it, and would not permit them to worship in it. They also invaded the Lutheran churches, and filled them with uproar. On the evening of January 28, 1534, the Anabaptists stretched chains across the streets, assembled in armed bands, closed the gates and placed sentinels in all directions. When day dawned there appeared suddenly two men dressed Hke Prophets, with long ragged beards and flowing mantles, staff in hand, who paced through the streets solemnly in the midst of the crowd, who bowed before them and saluted them as Enoch artd Elias. These men were John Bockelson, the tailor, and one John Mattheson, head of the Anabaptists of Holland. Knipperdolling at once associated himself with them, and shortly the place was a scene of the wildest ecstacies. Men and women ran about the streets screaming and leaping, and crying out that they saw visions of angels with swords drawn urging them on to the extermination of Lutherans and Catholics alike. ... A great number of citizens were driven out, on a bitter day, when the land was covered with snow. Those who lagged were beaten ; those who were sick were carried to the market-place and re- baptized by Rottman. . . . This was too much to be borne. The bishop raised an army and marched against the city. Thus began to siege which was to last sixteen months, during which a multitude of untrained fanatics, commanded by a Dutch tailor, held out against a numerous and well-armed force. Thenceforth the city was ruled by divine revelations, or rather, by the crazes of the dis- eased brains of the prophets. One day they de- clared that all the officers and magistrates were to be turned out of their offices, and men nominated by themselves were to take their places; another day Mattheson said it was revealed to him that every book in the town except the Bible was to be destroyed; accordingly all the archives and li- braries were collected in the market-place and burnt. Then it was revealed to him that all the spires were to be pulled down; so the church towers were reduced to stumps, from which the enemy could be watched and whence cannon could play on them. One day he declared he had been ordered by Heaven to go forth, with promise of victory, against the besiegers. He dashed forth at the head of a large band, but was surrounded and he and his band slain. The death of Mattheson struck dismay into the hearts of the Anabaptists, but John Bockelson took advantage of the mo- ment to establish himself as head. He declared that it was revealed by him that Mattheson had been killed because he had disobeyed the heavenly command, which was to go forth with fe.w. In- stead of that he had gone with many. Bockelson said he had been ordered in vision to marry Mat- theson's widow and assume his place. It was fur- ther revealed to him that Miinster was to be the heavenly Zion, the capital of the earth, and he was to be king over it. . . . Then he had another revelation that every man was to have as many wives as he liked, and he gave himself sixteen wives. This was too outrageous for some to en- dure, and a plot was formed against him by a blacksmith and about 200 of the more respectable citizens, but it was frustrated and led to the seizure of the conspirators and the execution of a number of them. ... At last, on midsummer eve, 1536, after a siege of sixteen months, the city was taken. Several of the citizens, unable longer to endure the tyranny, cruelty and abominations committed by the king, helped the soldiers of the prince- bishop to cUmb the walls, open the gates, and sur- prise the city. A desperate hand-to-hand fight ensued; the streets ran with blood. John Bockel- son, instead of leading his people, hid himself, but was caught. So was Knipperdolling. When the place was in his hands the prince-bishop en- tered. John of Leyden and Knipperdolling were cruelly tortured, their flesh plucked off with red- hot pincers, and then a dagger was thrust into their hearts. Finally, their bodies were hung in iron cages to the tower of a church in Miinster. Thus ended this hideous drama, which produced an indescribable effect throughout Germany. Miinster, after this, in spite of the desire of the prince-bishop to establish Lutheranism, reverted to Catholicism, and remains Catholicto this day." — S. Baring-Gould, Slory of Germany, ch. 36. Also in: L. von Ranke, History of the Reforma- tion in. Germany, bk. 6, ch. 9, v. 3. — C. Beard, Re- formation, (Hibbert Lectures, 1883). ANABASIS, the name given by Xenophon to his account of the retreat of the 10,000 Greeks after the battle of Cunaxa (401 B.C.). See Persia: B.C. 401-400; also History: 16. ANABASIS OF ALEXANDER. See Arrian. ANACLETUS (d. 1138), anti-pope from 1130 till his death, maintaining his rule in Rome against Innocent II. ANACONDA COPPER MINE (Montana). See Montana: 1Q07-1917. ANACTORIUM. See Corcyra. ANAESTHESIA: In the Middle Ages. See Medical science: Ancient: loth century. AN.a;STHETICS, Discovery of. See Medicai. science: Modern: 19th century: Discovery of an- aesthetics; Chuvhstry: Practical application: Drugs. 335 ANAFARTA ANARCHISM ANAFARTA: Object of British attack. See World War; 1915: \'I. Turkey: a, 4, xxxviii. ANAH: Occupied by the British. See World War: 191S: VI. Turkish, theater: a, 1. ANAHUAC— "The word Anahuac signifies 'near the water.' It was, probably, first applied to the country around the lakes in the Mexican Valley, and gradually extended to the remoter re- gions occupied by the Aztecs, and the other semi- civilized races. Or, possibly, the name may have been intended, as Veytia suggests (Historical An- tiquities, lib. I, cap. i), to denote the land be- tween the waters of the .\tlantic and Pacific." — W. H. Prescott, Conquest of Mexico, bk. i, ch. i, note II. See Mexico: Aboriginal inhabitants; also 1325-1502. ANAKIM. See Amorites. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY. See Chem- istry: Analytical. ANAM. See .^nnam. ANAPA, Russia. Frontier town originally built by the Turks for defense purposes. Finally taken by the Russians in 1828 and ceded to them in the treaty of Adrianople in 1829. See Turkey: 1826- 1829. ANARCHISM.— Definition and theory.— An- cient theories. — "Anarchism, as its derivation in- dicates, is the theory which is opposed to every kind of forcible government. It is opposed to the State as the embodiment of the force employed in the government of the community. Such gov- ernment as Anarchism can tolerate must be free government, not merely in the sense that it is that of a majority, but in the sense that it is that as- sented to by all. Anarchists object to such insti- tutions as the police and the criminal law, by means of which the will of one part of the com- munity is forced upon another part. In their view, the democratic form of government is not very enormously preferable to other forms so long as minorities are compelled by force or its poten- tiality to submit to the will of majorities. Lib- erty is the supreme good in the Anarchist creed, and liberty is sought by the direct road of abolish- ing all forcible control over the individual of the community. Anarchism, in this sense, is no new doctrine. It is set forth admirably by Chuang Tzu, a Chinese philosopher, who lived about the year 300 B. C. . . . Ancient Greece also had its anarchistic philosophers, of whom the most im- portant was Zeno {342-267 B.C.). Zeno denied omnipotence such as Plato desired, to the state, and pled for the elevation of individual moral law in the place of organized police power as wielded by the state. The modern Anarchism, in the sense in which we shall be concerned with it, is associated with belief in the communal own- ership of land and capital, and is thus in an im- portant respect akin to Socialism. The doctrine is properly called .'\narchist Communism, but as it embraces practically all modern Anarchism, we may ignore individualist Anarchism altogether and concentrate attention upon the communistic form. Socialism and .Anarchist Communism alike have arisen from the perception that private capital is a source of tyranny by certain individuals over others. Orthodox Socialism believes that the in- dividual will become free if the State becomes the sole capitalist. Anarchism, on the contrary, fears that in that case the State might merely inherit the tyrannical propensities of the private capitalist. Accordingly, it see"ks for a means of reconciling communal ownership with the utmost possible diminution in the powers of the State, and indeed ultimately with the complete abolition of the State. It has arisen mainly within the Socialist move- ment as its extreme left wing. " — B. Russell, Pro- posed roads to freedom, p. 33. — See also Socialism: Definition of terms. "In the popular mind an anarchist is identified with one who desires to destroy existing govern- ment through the use of the bomb and other vio- lent means. It is quite true that many adherents to this school do advocate the use of violence in achieving their ends. It is important to bear in mind, however, that we are here dealing only with means, not the end itself. The really important thing, at least from the standpoint of political science, is the end or the principle which the users of these means seek to make prevail. The anar- chistic school represents the extreme school of in- dividual rights. There are many persons who be- long to this school who do not approve of the use of violence. They constitute what are known as scientific anarchists. Prince Kropotkin [died 192 1] is probably the most distinguished representative of this class, and in his writings one can find the best exposition of the philosophy of this school. It is the belief of this school, not only that the principles for which they stand are theoretically sound, but are susceptible of successful applica- tion in practice. It is their belief that common action for the general welfare should rest upon voluntary association rather than state compulsion. They point to the fact that great branches of ac- tivities are now conducted in this way. Men form all sorts of associations for common action in which the principle of compulsion is absent. Especially is the great success achieved in the field of dis- tributive cooperation in England and Europe gen- erally referred to as an example of what can be done through purely voluntary association. In boards of trade, chambers of commerce, trade unions, and like organizations, are found other illustrations." — W. F. Willoughby, Governments of modern states, p. 170. 1578-1652. — Anarchy in Poland. See Poland: 1578-1652. 1793. — Godwin's theory. — William Godwin, an Englishman (1756-1836), published his famous "Enquiry Concerning Political Justice, and Its In- fluence on General Virtue and Happiness," in 1793. It contained the first modern formulation of the principles of anarchism. He based his theory on the doctrine of natural rights and demanded the abolition of all laws and government as being false and unnecessary. Small, self-governing com- munities, he held, made up the most equitable so- ciety. From the conviction that "monarchy was a species of government unavoidably corrupt," he ar- rived at the conclusion that "government by its very nature counteracts the improvement of orig- inal mind." Despite its importance in the do- main of political literature, however, Godwin's essay bore little fruit, and the history of anarchism proper begins with Pierre Joseph Proudhon (1809- 186S). 1839-1894. — Proudhcn and his doctrines. — Max Stirner and the individualistic school of an- archists.— "Of the Socialistic thinkers who serve as a kind of link between the Utopists and the school of Socialism of historical evolution, or scientific Socialists, by far the most noteworthy figure is Proudhon, who was born at Besanqon in 1809. By birth he belonged to the working class, his father being a brewer's cooper, and he himself as a youth followed the occupation of cow- herding. In 1838, however, he published an es- say on general grammar, and in 1839 he gained a scholarship to be held for three years, a gift of one Madame Suard to his native town. The result of his advantage was his most important though 33^ ANARCHISM, 1839-1894 ANARCHISM, 1839-1894 far from his most voluminous work, published the same year as the essay which Madame Suard's scholars were bound to write: it bore the title of 'What is Property?' {Qu' est-ce que la propriete?) his answer being Property is Robbery (La propriete est le vol). As may be imagined, this remarkable essay caused much stir and indigna- tion, and Proudhon was censured by the Besangon Academy for its production, narrowly escaping a prosecution. In 1841 he was tried at Besan(;on for a letter he wrote to Victor Considerant, the Fourierist, but was acquitted. In 1846 he wrote his 'Philosophie de la Misere' (Philosophy of Poverty), which received an elaborate reply and refutation from Karl Marx. In 1847 he went to Paris. In the Revolution of 1848 he showed him- self a vigorous controversialist, and was elected Deputy for the Seine. . . . After the failure of the revolution of '48, Proudhon was imprisoned for three years, during which time he married a young woman of the working class. In 1858 he fully developed his system of 'Mutualism' in his last work, entitled 'Justice in the Revolution and the Church.' In consequence of the publication of this book he had to retire to Brussels, but was amnestied in i860, came back to France and died at Passy in 1865."— W. Morris and E. B. Bax, Socialism, its growth and outcome, ch. 18. — "In anarchism we have the extreme antithesis of so- cialism and communism. The socialist desires so to extend the sphere of the state that it shall em- brace all the more important concerns of life. The communist, at least of the older school, would make the sway of authority and the routine which follows therefrom universal. The anarchist, on the other hand, would banish all forms of authority and have only a system of the most perfect lib- erty. The anarchist is an extreme individualist. . . . Anarchism, as a social theory, was first elabo- rately formulated by Proudhon. In the first part of his work, 'What is Property?' he briefly stated the doctrine and gave it the name 'anarchy,' ab- sence of a master or sovereign. In that connec- tion he said: 'In a given society the authority of man over man is inversely proportional to the stage of intellectual development which that so- ciety has reached. . . . Property and royalty have been crumbling to pieces ever since the world be- gan. As man seeks justice in equality, so society seeks order in anarchy.' About twelve years be- fore Proudhon published his views Josiah War- ren reached similar conclusions in America. But as the Frenchman possessed the originality neces- sary to the construction of a social philosophy, we must regard him as altogether the chief authority upon scientific anarchism. . . . Proudhon's social ideal was that of perfect individual liberty. Those who have thought him a communist or socialist have wholly mistaken his meaning. . . . Proudhon believed that if, the state in all its departments were abolished, if authority were eradicated from society, and if the principle of laissez faire were made universal in its operation, every form of so- cial ill would disappear. According to his views men are wicked and ignorant because, either di- rectly or indirectly, they have been forced to be so: it is because they have been subjected to the will of another, or are able to transfer the evil results of their acts to another. If the individual, after reaching the age of discretion, could be freed from repression and compulsion in every form and know that he alone is responsible for his acts and must bear their consequences, he would become thrifty, prudent, energetic; in short he would al- ways see and follow his highest interests. He would always respect the rights of others; that is, act justly. Such individuals could carry on all the great industrial enterprises of to-day either separately or by voluntary association. No com- pulsion, however, could be used to force one to ful- fil a contract or remain in an association longer than his interest dictated. Thus we should have a perfectly free play of enlightened self-interests: equitable competition, the only natural form of social organization. . . . Proudhon's theory is the sum and substance of scientific anarchism. "Opposed to the communist anarchism of God- win and Proudhon is revolutionary individualist anarchism, of which Max Stirner (pseudonym for Kaspar Schmidt) was the ablest exponent. Stirner's main thesis was the fullest development of the individual, the highest elevation of the ego — not of the majority of men, but of the bet- ter endowed,^and the aboUtion of morals in con- nection with 'the association of the egotists.' [See also Individualistic school. 1 . . . How closely have the American anarchists adhered to the teach- ings of their master? One group, with its centre at Boston and with branch associations in a few other cities, is composed of faithful disciples of Proud- hon. They believe that he is the leading thinker among those who have found the source of evil in society and the remedy therefor. They accept his analysis of social phenomena and follow his lead generally, though not implicitly. They call themselves Individualistic Anarchists, and claim to be the only class who are entitled to that name. They do not attempt to organize very much, but rely upon 'active individuals, working here and there all over the country.' It is supposed that they may number in all some five thousand ad- herents in the United States. . . . They, like Proudhon, consider the government of the United States to be as oppressive and worthless as any of the European monarchies. Liberty prevails here no more than there. In some respects the system of majority rule is more obnoxious than that of monarchy. It is quite as tyrannical, and in a republic it is more difficult to reach the source of the despotism and remove it. They regard the entire machinery of elections as worthless and a hindrance to prosperity. They are opposed to po- litical machines of all kinds. They never vote or perform the duties of citizens in any way, if it can be avoided. . . . Concerning the. family rela- tion, the anarchists believe that civil marriage should be abolished and 'autonomistic' marriage substituted. This means that the contracting par- ties should agree to live together as long as it seems best to do so, and that the partnership should be dissolved whenever either one desires it. Still, they would give the freest possible play to love and honor as restraining motives. . . . [Probably the most influential American anarchist was Benjamin R. Tucker, who was an admirer and follower of the economic doctrines of Proud- hon, several of whose works he translated. Lib- erty, a leading anarchist journal, was established by him in 1881.] "The Individualistic Anarchists . . . profess to have very little in common with the Internationalists. The latter are Communistic .Anarchists. They borrow their analysis of exist- ing social conditions from Marx, or more accurately from the 'communistic manifesto' written by Marx and Engels in 1847. In the old International Workingman's association they constituted the left wing, which, with its leader, Bakunine, was ex- pelled in 1872. Later the followers of Marx, the socialists proper, disbanded, and since 1883 the In- ternational in this country has been controlled wholly by the anarchists. Their views and meth- ods are similar to those which Bakunine wished to 337 ANARCHISM, 1861-1876 ANARCHISM, 1872-1912 carry out by means of his Universal Alliance, and which exist more or less definitely in the niinds of [the former] Russian Nihilists. [See also Nihilism.] Like Bakunine, they desire to organ- ize an international revolutionary movement of the laboring classes, to maintain it by means of conspiracy and, as soon as possible, to bring about a general insurrection. In this way, with the help of explosives, poisons and murderous weapons of all kinds, they hope to destroy all existing insti- tutions, ecclesiastical, civil and economic. Upon the smoking ruins they will erect the new and perfect society. Only a few weeks or months will be necessary to make the transition. During that time the laborers will take possession of all lands, buildings, instruments of production and distribu- tion. With these in their possession, and without the interposition of government, they will organize into associations or groups for the purpose of car- rying on the work of society." — H. L. Osgood, Scientific anarchism {Political Science Quarterly, March, i88g). Also in: F. Dubois, Anarchist peril. 1861-1876. — Bakunin and the International. — "In the same sense in which Marx may be re- garded as the founder of modern Socialism, Ba- kunin may be regarded as the founder of Anarch- ist Communism. . . . Michael Bakunin was born in 1814 of a Russian aristocratic family. ... In 1857, after eight years of captivity, he was sent to Siberia. From there, in 1861, he succeeded in escaping to Japan, and thence through America to London. From this time onward, he devoted him- self to spreading the spirit of Anarchist revolt, without, however, having to suffer any further term of imprisonment. For some years he lived in Italy, where he founded in 1S64 an 'International Fraternity' or '.\Uiance of Socialist Revolutionaries.' This contained men of many countries, but ap- parently no Germans. It devoted itself largely to combating Mazzini's nationalism. In 1867 he moved to Switzerland, where the following year he helped to found the 'International Alliance of Socialist Democracy,' of which he drew up the pro- gram. This program gives a good succinct resum6 of his opinions: 'The .Alliance declares itself atheist ; it desires the definitive and entire abolition of classes and the political equality and social equalization of individuals of both sexes. It de- sires that the earth, the instrument of labor, like all other capital, becoming the collective property of society as a whole, shall be no longer able to be utilized except by the workers, that is to say, by agricultural and industrial associations. It recog- nizes that all actually existing political and au- thoritarian States, reducing themselves more and more to the mere administrative' functions of the public services in their respective countries, must disappear in the universal union of free associa- tions, both agricultural and industrial.' The In- ternational Alliance of Socialist Democracy desired to become a branch of the International Working Men's Association, but was refused admission on the ground that branches must be local and could not themselves be international. The Geneva group of the Alliance, however, was admitted later, in July, i86q. The International Working Men's Association had been founded in London in 1864, and its statutes and prograth were drawn up by Marx. Bakunin at first did not expect it to prove a success and refused to join it. But it spread with remarkable rapidity in many countries and soon became a great power for the propagation of Socialist ideas. Originally it was by no means wholly Socialist, but in successive Congresses Marx won it over more and more to his views. At its third Congress, in Brussels in September, 1868, it became definitely Socialist. Meanwhile Bakunin, regretting his earlier abstention, had decided to join it, and he brought with him a considerable following in French-Switzerland, France, Spain and Italy. At the fourth Congress, held at Basle in September, 1869, two currents were strongly marked. The Germans and English followed Marx in his belief in the State as it was to become after the abolition of private property; they followed him also in his desire to found Labor Parties in the various countries, and to utilize the machinery of democracy for the election of representatives of Labor to Parliaments. On the other hand, the Latin nations in the main followed Bakunin in opposing the State and disbelieving in the ma- chinery of representative government. The con- flict between these two groups grew more and more bitter, and each accused the other of various offences. The statement that Bakunin was a spy was repeated, but was withdrawn after investiga- tion. Marx wrote in a confidential communication to his German friends that Bakunin was an agent of the Pan-Slavist party and received from them 25,000 francs a year. Meanwhile, Bakunin be- came for a time interested in the attempt to stir up an agrarian revolt in Russia, and this led him to neglect the contest in the International at a crucial moment. During the Franco-Prussian war Bakunin passionately took the side of France, es- pecially after the fall of Napoleon III. He en- deavored to rouse the people to revolutionary re- sistance like that of 1793, and became involved in an abortive attempt at revolt in Lyons. The French Government accused him of being a paid agent of Prussia, and it was with difficulty that he escaped to Switzerland. The dispute with Marx and his followers had become exacerbated by the national dispute. Bakunin, like Kropotkin after him, regarded the new power of Germany as the greatest menace to liberty in the world. He hated the Germans with a bitter hatred, partly, no doubt, on account of Bismarck, but probably still more on account of Marx. To this day. Anarchism has remained confined almost exclusively to the Latin countries, and has been associated with a hatred of Germany, growing out of the contests between Marx and Bakunin in the International. The final suppression of Bakunin's faction occurred at the General Congress of the International at the Hague in 1872. The meeting-place was chosen by the Gen- eral Council (in which Marx was unopposed), with a view — so Bakunin's friends contend — to making access impossible for Bakunin (on account of the hostility of the French and German governments) and difficult for his friends. Bakunin was expelled from the International as the result of a report accusing him inter alia of theft backed up by in- timidation. The orthodoxy of the International was saved, but at the cost of its vitality. From this time onward, it ceased to be itself a power, but both sections continued to work in their vari- ous groups, and the Socialist groups in particular grew rapidly. Ultimately a new International was formed (1880) which continued down to the out- break of the [World] War. By this time Baku- nin's health was broken, and except for a few brief intervals, he lived in retirement until his death in i8y6." — B. Russell, Proposed roads to jreedom, P- 36. 1872-1912. — Kropotkin's system. — Scientific anarchism. — "We do not find in Bakunin's works a clear picture of the society at which he aimed, or anv argument to prove that such a society could be stable. If we wish to understand An- archbm we must turn to his followers, and espe- 338 ANARCHISM, 1878 ANARCHISM, 1898-1900 daily to Kropotkin [died igJi], like him, a Rus- sian aristocrat familiar with the prisons of Europe, and, like him, an Anarchist who, in spite of his in- ternationalism, is imbued with a fiery hatred of the Germans. Kropotkin has devoted much of his writ- ing to technical questions of production. In 'Fields, Factories and Workshops' and 'The Conquest of Bread' he has set himself to prove that, if produc- tion were more scientific and better organized, a comparatively small amount of quite agreeable work would suffice to keep the whole population in comfort. Even assuming, as we probably must, that he somewhat exaggerates what is possible with our present scientific knowledge, it must never- theless be conceded that his contentions contain a very large measure of truth. In attacking the subject of production he has shown that he knows what is the really crucial question. If civilization and progress are to be compatible with equality, it is necessary that equality should not involve long hours of painful toil for httle more than the necessaries of life, since, where there is no leisure, art and science will die and all progress will be- come impossible. The objection which some feel to Socialism and Anarchism alike on this ground cannot be upheld in view of the possible produc- tivity of labor. The system at which Kropotkin aims, whether or not it be possible, is certainly one which demands a very great improvement in the methods of production above what is common at present. He desires to abolish wholly the system of wages, not only, as most Socialists do, in the sense that a man is to be paid rather for his willing- ness to work than for the actual work demanded of him, but in a more fundamental sense: there is to be no obligation to work, and all things are to be shared in equal proportions among the whole population. Kropotkin relies upon the possibility of making work pleasant: he holds that, in such a community as he foresees, practically everyone will prefer work to idleness, because work will not involve overwork pr slavery, or that excessive specialization that industrialism has brought about, but will be merely a pleasant activity for certain hours of the day, giving a man an outlet for his spontaneous constructive impulses. There is to be no compulsion, no law, no government exercising force; there will still be acts of the community, but these are to spring from universal consent, not from any enforced submission of even the smallest minority." — B. Russell, Proposed roads to freedom, p. 51. 1878. — Anarchist attempt to assassinate King Humbert of Italy. Two attempts on William I, German emperor. 1878-1879. — Two anarchist attempts on life of King Alfonso XII of Spain. 1883. — Repudiated by Socialists. See Social- ism: 1874-1901. 1885. — Anarchists expelled from Switzerland. 1886. — Chicago Haymarket bomb explosions by anarchists. See Chicago: 1886-1887. 1892. — Bomb explosions by anarchists in Italy and Spain. 1892-1894.— Anarchist terrorism.— "We should be doing more than justice to Anarchism if we did not say something of its darker side, the side which has brought it into conflict with the police and made it a word of terror to ordinary citizens. In its general doctrines there is nothing essentially involving violent methods or a virulent hatred of the rich and many who adopt these general doc- trines are personally gentle and temperamentally averse from violence. But the general tone of the Anarchist press and public is bitter to a degree thai seems scarcely sane. One of the most curious features of popular anarchism is its martyrology, aping Christian forms, with the guillotine (in France) in place of the cross. Many who have suf- fered death at the hands of the authorities on ac- count of acts of violence were no doubt genuine sufferers for their belief in a cause, but others, equally honored, are more questionable. One of the most curious examples of this outlet for the repressed religious impulse is the cult of Ravachol, who was guillotined in 1S92 on account of various dynamite outrages. As was natural, the leading Anarchists took no part in the canonization of his memory ; nevertheless it proceeded, with the most amazing extravagances. It would be wholly un- fair to judge Anarchist doctrine, or the views of its leading exponents, by such phenomena ; but it remains a fact that Anarchism attracts to itself much that lies on the borderland of insanity and common crime. This must be remembered in exculpation of the authorities and the thoughtless public, who often confound in a common detesta- tion the parasites of the movement and the truly heroic and high-minded men who have elaborated its theories and sacrificed comfort and success to their propagation. The terrorist campaign in which such men as Ravachol were active prac- tically came to an end in 1894. After that time, under the influence of Pelloutier, the better sort of Anarchists found a less harmful outlet by advocating Revolutionary Syndicalism in the Trade Unions and Bourses du Travail. [See also Labor organization: 1867-1912.] The economic organization of society, as conceived by Anarchist Communists, does not differ greatly from that which is sought by Socialists. Their difference from Socialists is in the matter of government: they demand that government shall require the con- sent of all the governed, and not only of a major- ity."— /Wd., pp. 51-52. 1893 (February).^Bomb explosions in Rome. 1893 (Sept. 23). — At Barcelona, a bomb, thrown among a party of officers at a military review by an anarchist, killed Captain-General Martinez Campos and a guard. For this crime Codina and five accomplices were shot on May 21, 1894. 1893 (Dec. 9). — Vaillant, an anarchist of Ger- man descent (real name, Konigstein), threw a bomb from the gallery in the Chamber of Deputies in Paris. A woman caught his arm and the bomb, striking a chandelier, exploded without fatal re- sults. A law was passed making attempts of this nature a capital crime, even if no deaths ensued, and Konigstein was guillotined. A week after the execution another anarchist, Emile Henry, threw a bomb in the cafe of the Hotel Terminus, Paris, for which he suffered the death penalty. 1894 (June 24). — French President, Marie F. Sadi Carnot, stabbed to death by an Italian an- archist named Caserio at a banquet in Lyons. The same year French government issued an "an- archist album" containing portraits of about 500 anarchists. — See also France: 1804-1895. 1894 (Nov. 7). — Bomb thrown by an anarchist in a Barcelona theater killed thirty people and wounded eighty. The perpetrator was executed. 1897 (Aug. 8). — Assassination of CAnovas del Castillo, Spanish premier. See Spain: 1897 (Aug.-Oct.). 1898 (Sept. 10). — Assassination of the Em- press Elizabeth of Austria. See Austwa-Hun- cary: 1808 (September). 1398 (Nov. 24-Dec. 21). — International anti- anarchist conference (in camera) held in Rome. See Rome: Modern city: 1871-1007. 1898-1900. — Anarchy in Italy. See Italy: 1898; I 899- I 900. 339 ANARCHISM, 1900 ANARCHISM, 1919 1900 (July 29). — Assassination of King Hum- bert of Italy at Monza. See Italy: 1899- 1900; 1900 (July-September) ; Rome: Modem city: 1871- 1907. 1901 (Sept. 6). — Assassination of President McKinley. See McKixlev, William; 1901. 1906 (April 17).— Death of Johann Most, Ger- man-American anarchist editor. 1906 (May 31).— Attempt to assassinate king and queen of Spain on their wedding day. See Spain: 1900. 1909. — Barcelona riots. — Accusation of Fran- cisco Ferrer of anarchistic propaganda. — His execution (Oct. 12). See Spain: 1909. 1909. — Assassination of Colonel Falcon. See Argentina; 1909; Assassination of Colonel Falcon. 1910. — Emma Goldman's definition. — "The phi- losophy of a new social order based on liberty un- restricted by man-made law; the theory that all forms of government rest on violence, and are therefore wrong and harmful, as well as unneces- sary. The new social order rests, of course, on the materialistic basis of life; but while all An- archists agree that the main evil today is an eco- nomic one, they maintain that the solution of that evil can be brought about only through the con- sideration of every phase of life, — individual, as well as the collective; the internal, as well as the external phases. A thorough perusal of the his- tory of human development will disclose two ele- ments in bitter conflict with each other; elements that are only now beginning to be understood, not as foreign to each other, but as closely related and truly harmonious, if only placed in proper environ- ment: the individual and social instincts. The in- dividual and society have waged a relentless and bloody battle for ages, each striving for supremacy, because each was blind to the value and importance of the other. The individual and social instincts, — the one a most potent factor for individual en- deavor, for growth, aspiration, self-realization ; the other an equally potent factor for mutual helpful- ness and social well-being. The explanation of the storm raging within the individual, and be- tween him and his surroundings, is not far to seek. The primitive man, unable to understand his being, much less the unity of all life, felt him- self absolutely dependent on blind, hidden forces ever ready to mock and taunt him. Out of that attitude grew the religious concepts of man as a mere speck of dust dependent on superior powers on high, who can only be appeased by complete surrender. .\l\ the early sages rest on that idea, which continues to be the leit-motif of the biblical tales dealing with the relation of man to God, to the State, to society, .■^gain and again the same motif, man is nothing, the powers- are everything. Thus Jehovah would only endure man on condi- tion of complete surrender. Man can have all the glories of the earth, but he must not become con- scious of himself. The State, society, and moral laws all sing the same refrain: Man can have all the glories of the earth, but he must not be- come conscious of himself Anarchism is the only philosophy which brings to man the consciousness of himself: which maintains that God, the State, and society arc non-existent, that their promises arc null and void, since they can be fulfilled only through man's subordination. .Anarchism is there- fore the teacher of the unity of life: not merely in nature, but in man. There is no conflict between the individual and the social instincts, any more than there is between the heart and the lungs: the one the receptacle of a precious life essence, the other the repo5itor\' of the element that keeps the essence pure and strong. The individual is the heart of society, conserving the essence of social life; society is the lungs which are distributing the element to keep the life essence — that is, the individual — pure and strong. .Anarchism is the great liberator of man from the phantoms that have held him captive; it is the arbiter and paci- fier of the two forces for individual and social harmony. To accomplish that unity, .Anarchism has declared war on the pernicious influences which have so far prevented the harmonious blending of individual and social instincts, the individual and society. Religion, the dominion of the human mind; Property, the dominion of human needs; and Government, the dominion of human conduct, represent the stronghold of man's enslavement and all the horrors it entails." — Emma Goldman, An- archism. 1912. — Assassination of Spanish premier Can- alejas. See Sp.«n; 1Q12. 1913. — Assassination of George I, king of the Hellenes, by an anarchist. See Greece: 1913- 1919. — Compatability with American citizen- ship. — "Michael Stuppiello, an Italian by birth, a cobbler by trade and an anarchist by profession, after residing in the United States for a period of fifteen years, became a naturalized citizen. In his declaration of intention and petition for naturaliza- tion he stated that he was not an anarchist nor opposed to organized government. Later he was arrested charged with being an anarchist, which, upon his examination, he admitted, but. being a citizen, he was released from custody. The Gov- ernment subsequently brought an action in the Federal District Court for the Western District of New York to cancel his naturalization certificate, and the decree was in its favor. Judge Hazel, who wrote the opinion of the court, which is published in United States vs. Stuppiello, 260 Federal Re- porter, 4S3, in discussing the case, said in part: " '.At the trial the defendant frankly admitted that he was an anarchist, coupling his admission with the statement that he did not believe in the use of force or violence for the overthrow of the Government, but simply believed in philosophical anarchy — anarchy tantamount to that entertained by political philosophers — or, as he puts it. in "evolution by education, in order to reach a state of education of mind that it won't be necessary to have a Government." He limited his definition of an anarchist to a person who believed in violence or the destruction of the Government by force of arms. .Although he testified before the Bureau of Immigration that he did not believe in the form of government of the United States, he now modi- fies such testimony by stating that he believes it necessary to have a Government as society is at present organized. He was uncertain as to whether or not he entertained such views at the time of his naturalization, but finally admitted having them for about five, six or seven years. If the de- fendant had declared on the hearing of his ap- plication for citizenship that he was a philosophical anarchist, as distinguished from a dynamic or ni- hilistic anarchist, or one who believes in destroying the Government by violence, and a disbeliever in organized Government as now constructed, it is inconceivable that his application would have been granted. " 'In a popular sense, it is true, an anarchist is regaided as one who seeks to overturn by violence all constituted forms of society and government, including all law and order and all rights of prop- erty, without intending to establish any other sys- tem of order in place of that destroyed. — Century Dictionary. Yft the word is also defined as one who advocates the absence of government as a 340 ANASTASIS ANCRUM MOOR political ideal — a believer in an anarchic theory of society. In using the word "anarchist" without qualification Congress intended to include all aliens who had in mind a theory of anarchy, or the absence of all direct government, in opposition to that of organized government. The former is diametrically opposed to the latter, and the philo- sophical anarchist who exploits and expounds his views is none the less dangerous to the welfare of the country than the anarchist who believes in overthrowing or destroying the Government by force or violence. The means of accomplishing the end, though different, are both destructive ; one consisting of insidious propaganda to arouse senti- ment in opposition to the Government, and the other to incite violence and disorder. Both are designed to discredit constituted authority.' " — New York Times. — See also Naturalization. 1920. — Legislation against alien anarchists in United States. See U. S. A.: 1920 (June). 1921. — Anarchism in Spain. See Spain; 1921: Political outlook in Spain. Also in: P. Kropotkin, Anarchist communism: its basis and principles. — P. Eltzbacher, Anarchism. — G. B. Shaw, Impossibilities of anarchism. — B. R. Tucker, Instead of a book: a fragmentary exposi- tion of phiiosophical anarchism. — Also the writings of Bakunin, Proudhon, Tolstoi, Zenker, Max Stirner, Staatenlose Oekonomie. ANASTASIS, sacred building of Jerusalem con- taining the Holv Sepulcher. See Holy Land. ANASTASltlS I, pope, 399-401. Anastasius II, pope, 4961-498. Anastasius III, pope, 911-913. Anastasius IV, pope, 1153-1154. Anastasius I, Roman emperor (Eastern), 491- 518. See Rome: 400-518. Anastasius II, Roman emperor (Eastern), 713-716. ANATOLIA, name for Asia Minor. See Asia Minor; also Turkey: Land, and 1915-1916; Map of Asia Minor. ANATOLIA RAILROAD. See Railroads: 1899-1916. ANATOMY. See Medical science: Ancient: 2nd century; Ancient: Hindu; Modern; i8th cen- tury: Work of John Hunter in surgery and anatomy, also Physiological views of Bichat; Science; Mid- dle Ages and the Renaissance: i6th centurv. ANAXAGORAS (c. 500-428 B.C.), Greek phi- losopher, ■ whose advanced teachings on scientific subjects led to his arrest and banishment from Athens. See Evolution: Historical evolution of the idea. ANAXIMANDER, Greek philosopher. See Evolution; Historical evolution of the idea; Miletus: ico-1920. A. N. C. (ante navitatem Christi), an abbrevi- ation occasionally used in place of A. C or B. C. ANCA INDIANS. See Pampas tribes. ANCALITES, a tribe of ancient Britons whose home was near the Thames, ANCASTER, England, Origin of. See Cau- senn.»;. ANCEANS, Manners and customs. See Af- rica: Races of .Africa: Prehistoric peoples. ANCESTOR WORSHIP. See Church and state: Totemism. Africa. See Mythology: Latin American myth- ology: African mythology. Aryans. See Religion: B.C. 1000. China. See China: Religion of the people. Japan. See Mythology: Japan: Characteristics of Japanese Kami or gods, ANCHORITES, HERMITS. — "The fertile and peaceable lowlands of England . . . offered few spots sufficiently wild and lonely for the habi- tation of a hermit ; those, therefore, who wished to retire from the world into a more strict and solitary life than that which the monastery af- forded were in the habit of immuring themselves, as anchorites, or in old English 'Ankers,' in little cells of stone, built usually against the wall of a church. There is nothing new under the sun; and similar anchorites might have been seen in Egypt, 500 years before the time of St. Antony, immured in cells in the temples of Isis or Serapis. It is only recently that antiquaries have discovered how common this practice was in England, and how frequently the traces of these cells are to be found about our parish churches." — C. Kingsley, Hermits, p. 329. — The term anchorites is applied, generally, to all religious ascetics who lived in solitary cells. — J. Bingham, Antiquities of the Christian church, bk. 7, ch. i, sect. 4. — "The es- sential difference between an anker or anchorite and a hermit appears to have been that, whereas the former passed his whole life shut up in a cell, the latter, although leading indeed a solitary life, wandered about at liberty." — R. R. Sharpe, Introduction to "Calendar of wills in the court of busting, London," v. 2, p. 21.— See also Chris- tianity: 312-337; Church and the Empire. ANCIEN REGIME.— The political and social system in France that was destroyed by the Revo- lution of 1789 is commonly referred to as the "ancien regime." Some writers translate this in the Uteral English form — "the ancient regime"; others render it more appropriately, perhaps, the "old regime." Its special application is to the state of things described under France: 1789. ANCIENTS, Council of the, governing body provided for by the Constitution of the year III. See France: 1795 (June-September); 1797 (Sep- tember); 1799 (November). ANCON, Treaty of. See Chile; 1894-1900. AN CON A, Italian city and seaport on the western coast of the Adriatic. The place played a minor part in the World War as the chief Ital- ian naval base for operations a,'ainst Austria. — See also Adriatic question. 1814. — Surrender to Murat. See Italy: 1814. 1832. — Occupied by France. See Austria: 1815-1846. 1914. — Revolutionary riots. See Italy: 191 2- 1914; Labor strikes and boycotts: 19x4. 1915. — Bombarded by Austrians. See World War; 1915: IX. Naval operations: b, 2. ANCONA, an Italian steamship, which while sailing from Genoa with Americans on board, was shelled and torpedoed by an Austro-Hungarian submarine in November, 1Q15, before the crew and passengers had been put in a place of safety or even given suflicient time to leave the vessel. After two protests by the American Secretary of State Lansing, the Austro-Hungarian government acknowledged "that hostile private ships, in so far as they do not flee or offer resistance, may not be destroyed without the persons on board having been placed in safety," and agreed to in- demnify the American sufferers. — See also U. S. A.: 1915 (December). ANCRE, the name of a region and river of France, the scene of intense fighting during the World War See World War; 1916: II. Western front: c, 1 ; c, 4; d, 3; d, 16; d, 17; e; e, 1; e, 4; 1917: II. Western front; a; 1918: II. Western front; c, 18; k, 1. ANCRUM MOOR, Battle of.— A success ob- tained by the Scots over an English force making an incursion into the border districts of their 341 ANGUS MARCIUS ANDESIANS country in 1545.— J. H. Burton, History of Scot- land, ch. 35, V. 3. ANGUS MARGIUS (640-616 B.C.), fourth legendary king of Rome; conquered the Latins, fortified the Janiculum, founded the port of Ostia. As builder of a bridge across the Tiber, he may be a priestly duplicate of Numa, and his second name is Numa Marcius. — See also Rome: Ancient king- dom: 753-5IO- ANCYRA. See Angora. ANDALUSIA: Name.— "The Vandals, . . . though they passed altogether out of Spain, have left their name to this day in its southern part, under the form of Andalusia, a name which, under the Saracen conquerors, spread itself over the whole peninsula." — E. A. Freeman, Historical geog- rapky of Europe, ch. 4, sect. 3. — See also Baltica; Vandals: 428. — Roughly speaking, Andalusia rep- resents the country known to the ancients, first as Tartessus, and later as Turdetania. 1702. — Resistance to English and Dutch dur- ing the sacking of Gadiz. See Cadiz: 1702. ANDALUSIAN SCHOOL.— A Spanish school of painting, "came into existence about the middle of the sixteenth century. Its chief centre was at Seville, and its chief patron the church rather than the king. Vergas (1502-1568) was probably the real founder of the school, though De Castro and others preceded him." — J. C. Van Dyke, Text-book of the history of painting, p. 180. — Other promi- nent members of this school were Cespedes, Roe- las, Pacheco, Herrera the Elder, Zurbaran, Cano, and Murillo. ANDAMAN ISLANDS, a group of islands in the Bay of Bengal, in number 204, mentioned by Marco Polo. The British government established a penal colony there in 1858. See India: Inhabi- tants, Aboriginal. ANDASTES. See Iroquois confederacy; Shawanese; Susquehannas. ANDEGAVI, the ancient name of the city of Angers, France, and of the tribe which occupied that region. ANDEGHY, town of France south-east of Amiens. See World War: 1915: II. Western front: j, 6; 1918: II Western front: c, 22. ANDERIDA, or Anderida Sylva, or An- dredsweald. — A ^reat forest which anciently stretched across Surrey, Sussex and into Kent (southeastern England) was c::lled Anderida Sylva by the Romans and .^ndredsweald by the Saxons. It coincided nearly with the tract of country called in modern times the Weald of Kent, to which it gave its name of the Wald or Weald. On the southern coast-border of the Anderida Sylva the Romans established the important fortress and port of Anderida, which has been identified with modern Pevensey. Here the Romano-Britons made an obstinate stand against the Saxons, in the fifth century, and Anderida was only taken by Ella after a long siege. In the words of the Chronicle, the Saxons "slew all that were therein, nor was there henceforth one Briton left." — J. R. Green, Making of England, ch. 1. hiso in: T. Wright, Celt, Roman, and Saxon, ch. 5. ANDERSON, Judge Albert Barnes (1857- ). — Acquittal of the Standard Oil Company. See Tri'sts: U. S. a. 1Q04-1000. ANDERSON, John (1833-iqoo). — Scottish scientist. Professor of comparative anatomy at Calcutta Medical College 1S64-1886. ANDERSON, Robert (1805-1871), defender of Fort Sumter at the outbreak of the Civil War. See U S A : i860 (December) ; 1861 (March- AprU); 186S (February: South Carolina) ANDERSON, General Thomas M. McArthur (1836-1917). — Correspondence with Aguinaldo. See U. S. A.: 1898 (April-July) ; 1898 (July- August : Philippines) . ANDERSON v. UNITED STATES (1869- 1870). See U. S. A.: 1869-1872. ANDERSONVILLE PRISON-PENS. See Prisons and prison-pens. Confederate. ANDES, or Andi, or Andecavi. See Veneh of WESTERN CAUL. ANDESIANS.— "The term Andesians or An- tesians, is used with geographical rather than eth- nological Umits, and embraces a number of tribes. First of these are the Cofan in Equador, east of Chimborazo. They fought valiantly against the Spaniards, and in times past killed many of the missionaries sent among them. Now they are greatly reduced and have become more gentle. The Huamaboya are their near neighbors. The Jivara, west of the river Pastaca, are a warlike tribe, who, possibly through a mixture of Spanish blood, have a European cast of countenance and a beard. The half Christian Napo or Quijo and their peaceful neighbors, the Zaporo, live on the Rio Napo. The Yamco, living on the lower Chambiva and cross- ing the Maraiion, wandering as far as Saryacu,have a clearer complexion. The Pacamora and the Yu- guarzongo live on the Maraiion, where it leaves its northerly course and bends toward the east. The Cochiquima live on the lower Yavari; the Mayo- runa, or Barbudo, on the middle Ucayali beside the Campo and Cochibo, the most terrible of South American Indians ; they dwell in the woods between the Tapiche and the Maraiion, and like the Jivaro have a beard. The Pano, who formerly dwelt in the territory of Lalaguna, but who now live in villages on the upper Ucayali, are Christians. . . . Their language is the principal one on the river, and it is shared by seven other tribes called col- lectively by the missionaries Manioto or May- no. .. . Within the woods on the ri.-ht bank live the Amahuaca and Shacaya. On the north they join the Remo, a powerful tribe who are dis- tinguished from all the others by the custom of tattooing. Outside this Pano linguistic group stand the Campa, Campo, 0/ Antis on the east slope of the Peruvian Cordillera at the source of the Rio Beni and its tributaries. The Chontaquiros, or Piru, now occupy almost entirely the bank of the Ucayali below the Pachilia. The Mojos or Moxos live in the Bolivian province of Moxos with the small tribes of the Baure, Itonama, Pacaguara. A number of smaller tribes belonging to the Antesian group need not be enumerated. The late Pro- fessor James Orton described the Indian tribes of the territory between Quito and the river Amazon. The Napo approach the type of the Quichua. . . . Among all the Indians of the Provincia del Oriente, the tribe of Jivaro is one of the largest. These people are divided into a great number of sub- tribes. All of these speak the clear musical Jivaro language. They are muscular, active men. . . . The Morona are cannibals in the full sense of the word. . . . The Campo, still very little known, is perhaps the largest Indian tribe in Eastern Peru, and, according to some, is related to the Inca race, or at least with their successors. They are said to be cannibals, though James Orton does not think this possible. . . . The nearest neighbors of the Campo are the Chontakiro, or Chontaquiro, or Chonquiro, called also Piru, who, according to Paul Marcoy, are said to be of the same origin with the Campo; but the language is wholly different. . . . .Among the Pano people are the wild Conibo ; they are the most interesting, but are passing into ex- tinction " — Standard natural history (J. S. Kings- ley, ed.), V. 6, pp. 227-331. 342 ANDEVANNE ANGARIA ANDEVANNE: 1918.— Taken by allies. See World War: iqiS: II. Western front: v, 10; x, 4. ANDORRA, a little semi-republic in the Span- ish Pyrenees. Enjoying a certain self-government since the French Revolution, it is practically a part of Spain. The inhabitants are exempt, however, from Spanish conscription. ANDOVER, a town and borough of Hamp- shire, England. Site of several Roman villas and early earthworks, and of the traditional meeting between /Ethelrcd and Olaf the Dane; meeting place of the Witenagemot. ANDRADA E SYLVA, Bonifacio Joze d' { 1 765-1838), Brazilian statesman. Was made min- ister of the interior and of foreign affairs when the independence of Brazil was declared in 1822, but was banished to France in 1823 because of his democratic principles and lived there in exile till i82g. ANDRASSY, Count Julius (1823-1800), fa- mous Hungarian statesman. Prominent adherent of the revolution of 1S4S; member of the Diet, 1861 ; prime minister after reconstruction of Aus- tria and Hungary on a dual basis, 1867 ; minister of foreign affairs, 1871 ; with Bismarck drew up the famous "Andrassy note," 1S76; chief representa- tive of .\ustria-Hungary at the Congress of Ber- lin, 1878; largely responsible for the making of the Hungarian state and constitution. — See also Austria: 1866-1867; Berlin, Congress of; Hun- gary: 1856-1868; Triple Alliance: Austro-Ger- man Alliance of 1879. ANDRASSY, Count Julius (i860- ), Hun- garian political leader, son of the foregoing Count Andrassy. Minister of interior, iQo6-igoq, in Wekerle cabinet; as Austrian delegate tried to pre- vent Balkan War, 1Q12; opposition leader, igi2- igi8. — See also Austria-Hungary: i903-igo5; igos-igo6; igi4-igis; Hungary: 1918 (Novem- ber). ANDRE, John (1751-1780), British soldier. Negotiated with Benedict Arnold in 1780 for the betrayal of West Point; taken prisoner by the Americans and hanged as a spy October 2, 1780. —See also U. S. A.: 1780 (August-September). ANDREA, Johann Valentin (1586-1654), Ger- man theologian. See Rosicrucians: Illuminati. ANDREA DEL SARTO (1487-1531), Floren- tine pamter of the Renaissance. The Last Supper, Madonna de Sacco, and the Apparition of the An- gel to Zaeliarias are among his most celebrated \yorks. See Painting: Italian: Early Renaissance. ANDREANI, Andrea (c. 1540-1023), Italian engraver on wood, in chiaroscuro. Among others the most remarkable of his works are Mercury and Ignorance, the Deluge, and Pharaoh's host drowned in the Red Sea. ANDREDSWEALD. See Anderida, Anber- IDA Sylva. a ndredsweald. ANDR^E, Solomon August (1854-1807), Swedish engineer and aeronaut. See Aviation: Development of balloons and dirigibles: i87o-igi3. ANDREEV, Leonid (Andreieff, Leonid Niko- laevich'), Russian writer. See Russian literature: i883-igo5. ANDREW I, king of Hungary, 1046-1060. Andrew II (1175-1235), king of Hungary, 1205-1235; participated in the fifth Crusade in 1217; forced by Hungarian barons to sign the Golden Bull, the Magna Carta of Hungary, in 1222. See Crusades: I2i6-i22g; Hungary: 1116- 1301. Andrew III, king of Hungary, i2go-i30i. See Hungary: 1116-1301. Andrew, prince of Hungary, murder of. See Italy (Southern) : 1343-1389. ANDREW, John Albion (1818-1867), Amer- ican statesman ; prominent as the Republican war governor of Massachusetts (1861-1866) ; was one of the first northern governors to send troops to the war; organized the first colored regiment (1863). ANDREWS, Thomas (1813-1885), Irish chem- ist and physicist. Studied medicine and the physi- cal sciences at Glasgow, Paris, Edinburgh, and Dublin ; professor of chemistry in Queens Col- lege, Belfast, i845-i87g; made important discov- eries on the liquefaction of gases. See Chemistry; Physical. ANDRONICUS 1 (Comnenus) (c. 1110-1185), Roman emperor in the East, 1183-1185. See By- zantine empire: 1203-1204. Andronicus II (Palseologus (1260-1332), Roman emperor in the East, 1282-1328. Andronicus III (1296-1341), Roman emperor in the East, 1328-1341. ANDRONICUS OF CYRRHUS, Greek archi- tect and astronomer. Lived in the first century B. C. He erected at Athens the so-called Tower of the Winds on which was a turning figure of Triton with his spear, the prototype of the later weathercock. ANDROPHAGI ("man-eaters"), a race of northern cannibals mentioned by Herodotus. It is supposed that they were related to the Finns. ANDROS, Sir Edmund (1637-1714), English colonial governor in America. Served in the army of Prince Henry of Nassau, appointed governor of New York and the Jerseys, 1674; capable but unpopular governor. Recalled 1681. Knighted, 1678; governor of the "Dominion of New Eng- land," i686-i68g (see also Connecticut: 1685- 1687) ; deposed by the colonists after the over- throw of James II; governor of Maryland, i6g3- i6g4; governor of Guernsey, 1704-1706. — See also Massachusetts: i686-i68g; New York: 1688; U. S. A.: 1678-1780; 1686-1689. ANDROS, the largest of the Cyclades, situated in the /Egean sea southeast of Euboea. The island supplies ships to Xerxes in 480 B.C. In 408 B.C. the inhabitants of Andros successfully withstood an Athenian attack. Subsequently it became, in turn, the possession of Athens, Macedon, Pergamus and Rome. ANECDOTE, Early use of. See Arabic lit- erature, ANEGADA ISLAND. See Virgin islands. ANERIO, Felice (1560-1630?), Italian com- poser of the Roman school. A boy soprano in the papal choir (1575-1579); upon the death of Pal- estrina succeeded him as composer to the choir in 1504. ANFU CLUB, the name of a political faction prominent in the affairs of northern China, during the troublous times following the overthrow of the Manchu dynasty in iqi2. The name is made up of the first syllables of the names of the provinces Anhwei and Fukien, and was meant to symbolize the combination of the leaders controlling the Chi- nese army and navy. The idea back of this union is similar to that which in Japan brou ht about the famous Sat-Cho combination. Traditionally, the Japanese army is controlled by the Satsuma clan, and the navy, by the clan of Choshu. Hence, the Anfu Club has been regarded as typifying a military clique, dominating the country by force. — See also China: 1920. ANGA, Bengal. See Bengal. ANGARIA, a relay system of mounted couriers for the transmission of intelligence, adopted under the Roman empire from the example of the an- cient Persians. 343 ANGARY, RIGHT OF ANGLES ANGARY, Right of (Lat, jus angarice), the right of a belligerent to commandeer and seize any sort of enemy or neutral property on belliger- ent territory if needed for military use. This right has been exercised from the earliest times, and is recognized by articles 53 and 54 of the Hague regulations of i8gg, which further state that at the conclusion of peace the property must be re- stored and indemnity paid for its use. The seiz- ure of Dutch merchantmen in IQ18 by the United States was defended as being in conformity with the right of angary. ANGAS, George Fife (i78g-i879), a founder of South Australia, who devised a system of land settlement. See South .Australia: 1834-1836. ANGELES, Felipe, Mexican revolutionary gen- eral. Executed, 1520. ANGELICO, Fra (1387-1455), Italian painter. Entered Dominican order in 1408. Angelico's art is essentially pietistic. Two of the subjects he most frequently painted were the Last Judgment and the Annunciation.— See also Painting: ItaUan: Early Renaissance. ANG^LIQUE (Arnauld, Jacqueline Marie Angelique) (1591-iobi), abbess at Port Royal. See Port Royal and the Jansenists: 1002-1700. ANGELL, George Thorndike (1823-1909), American educator and philanthropist. Founded Massachusetts Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals and American Humane Education So- ciety. ANGELL, James Burrill (1829-1916), Ameri- can educator and diplomat, professor of modern languages of Brown University, 1853-1860; editor of Providence Journal, 1860-1866; president of the University of Vermont, 1866-1871, and of Univer- sity of Michigan, 1871-1909; United States minister to China, 1880-1SS1 and to Turkey, 1897-1898; made president emeritus of University of Michigan in 1909. ANGELL, James Rowland (1869- ), psy- chologist and educator, son of James Burrill Angell ; professor of psychology at University of Chicago, 190S; dean of the university faculties, 1911; acting president, 191S-1919; president of Yale, 1921. ANGELL, Norman, pseud. See Lane, Ralph Norman Angell. ANGELO, Michael. See Michelangelo. ANGELUS, Isaac, emperor in the East. See Byzantine empire: 1203-1204. ANGERS, Origin of. See Veneti of Western Gaul. ANGEVIN KINGS AND ANGEVIN EM- PIRE. — The Angevin kings of England were so- called since their family, the Plantagenets, came from .■\njou in France. (See England: 1154-11S9.) About the middle of the thirteenth century Anjou was bestowed on Charles, son of Louis VIII of France, who became the founder of the Angevin kings in Naples and Sicily in 1266. See Anjou: 1206-1442. Defeat of the Angevins in Naples. See Italy (Southern): 1386-1414. Defeat of the Angevins by Alphonao. See Italy: 1412-1447. ANGHIARI, Battle of (1425). See Italy: 1412-1447. ANGKOR, a group of ruins in Cambodia, relics of the ancient Khmer civilization. They include remains of the town of ,\ngkor-Thom and the temple of Angkor- Vat. The ornamentation con- sists of reliefs of men, gods and animals displayed on every flat surface ; the stones are cut in huge blocks carefully fitted together without the use of cement. ANGLES.— The mention of the Angles by Tac- itus is in the following passage: "Next [to the Langobardi] come the Reudigni, the Aviones, the Anglii, the Varini, the Eudoses, the Suardones, and Nuithones, who are fenced in by rivers or forests. None of these tribes have any noteworthy fea- ture, except their common worship of Ertha, or mother-Earth, and their belief that she interposes in human affairs, and visits the nations in her car. In an island of the ocean there is a sacred grove, and within it a consecrated chariot, covered over with a garment. Only one priest is permitted to touch it. He can perceive the presence of the god- dess in this sacred recess, and walks by her side with the utmost reverence as she is drawn along by heifers. It is a season of rejoicing, and fes- tivity reigns wherever she deigns to go and be re- ceived. They do not go to battle or wear arms; every weapon is under lock; peace and quiet are welcomed only at these times, till the goddess, weary of human intercourse, is at length restored by the same priest to her temple. Afterwards the car, the vestments, and, if you like to believe it, the divinity herself, are purified in a secret lake. Slaves perform the rite, who are instantly swal- lowed up by its waters. Hence arises a mysteri- ous terror and a pious ignorance concerning the nature of that which is seen only by men doomed to die. This branch indeed of the Suevi stretches into the remoter regions of Germany." — Tacitus, Germany; translated by Church and Brodribb, ch. 40. — "In close neighbourhood with the Saxons in the middle of the fourth century were the Angli, a tribe whose origin is more uncertain and the application of whose name is still more a mat- ter of question. If the name belongs, in the pages of the several geographers, to the same nation, it was situated in the time of Tacitus east of the Elbe; in the time of Ptolemy it was found on the middle Elbe, between the Thuringians to the south and the Varini to the north; and at a later period it was forced, perhaps by the growth of the Thu- ringian power, into the neck of the Cimbric penin- sula. It may, however, be reasonably doubted whether this hypothesis is sound, and it is by no means clear whether, if it be so, the Angli were not connected more closely with the Thuringians than with the Saxons. To the north of the Angli, after they had reached their Schleswig home, were the Jutes, of whose early history we know nothing, except their claims to be regarded as kinsmen of the Goths and the close similarity between their descendants and the neighbour Frisians." — W. Stubbs, Constitutional history of England, v. i, ch. 3. — "Important as are the Angles, it is not too much to say that they are only known through their relations to us of England, their descendants; indeed, without this paramount fact, they would be liable to be confused with the Frisians, with the Old Saxons, and with even Slavonians. This is chiefly because there is no satisfactory trace or fragment of the Angles of Germany within Ger- many ; whilst the notices of the other writers of antiquity tell us as little as the one we find in Tacitus. And this notice is not only brief but complicated. ... I still think that the Angli of Tacitus were — i: The Angles of England; 2: Oc- cupants of the northern parts of Hanover; 3: At least in the time of Tacitus; 4: .\nd that to the exclusion of any territory in Holstein, which was Frisian to the west, and Slavonic to the east. Still the question is one of great magnitude and numerous complications." — R. G. Latham, Ger- many of Tacitus; Epilegomena. sect. 49. — See also Aviones; Saxons. — The conquests and settlements of the Jutes and the Angles in Britain are de- 344 ANGLESEY ANGLO-JAPANESE ALLIANCE scribed under Barbarian invasions: 5th-6th cen- turies; England: 547-633; see also Europe: Eth- nology: Migrations: Map. Anglic kingdom of Bernicia. See Scotland: 7th century. Also in: J. M. Lappenberg, History of England under the Anglo-Saxon kings, v. i, pp. 89-95. ANGLESEY, Arthur Annesley, 1st earl of, (1014-1686); English statesman, member of Crom- well's parliament of 1658; president of council of state 1660, and aided in restoration of Charles II; lord privy seal 1672-1682. ANGLESEY, Henry William Paget, 1st mar- quess of (1768-1854), English field-marshal and statesman; served in Spain and in the Low Coun- tries 1 808- 1 809, and commanded British cavalry at Waterloo; lord-lieutenant of Ireland, 1828-1829 and 1830-1833. ANGLESEY, Ancient. See Normans: 8th-9th Centuries. ANGLI. See Aviones. ANGLICAN CHURCH. See Church or England. Orders of. — Declared invalid by Pope Leo XIII. See Papacy: 1896 (September). ANGLO-ABYSSINIAN TREATY. See Abyssinia: 1896-1897. ANGLO-BELGIAN CONVERSATIONS. See World War: Diplomatic background: 35. ANGLO-DUTCH WAR: 1652-1654. See Eng- land: 1652-1654. ANGLO-EGYPTIAN CONDOMINIUM. See Sudan or Soudan: 1899. ANGLO-FRENCH AGREEMENT: 1890. See Madagascar. 1904. See Entente Cordiale; Nigeria, protec- torate of: 1901-1913. ANGLO-FRENCH MILITARY CONSUL- TATIONS. See World War: Diplomatic back- ground: 56. ANGLO-FRENCH RELATIONS: Entente Cordiale (1904). See England: 1912. ANGLO-FRENCH WARS: 1294-1297. See France: 1285-1314. 1337-1453. See France: 1337-1360; 1360-1380; 1415; 1417-1422; 1429-1431; 1431-1453. 1491-1492. — Henry VII engaged in a war with France because Charles VIII annexed Brittany. The Peace of Estaples ended the war 1495. — Edward IV invaded France in league with the duke of Burgundy, and laid claim to the French crown. War was ended without a battle by the Peace of Pequigny (1475). 1512-1515. See France: 1513-1515. 1557-1558. See France: 1547-1559. 1626-1630. See France: 1627-1628. 1689-1697. See England: 1690; 1692; Canada: 1689-1690; 1692-1697; France: 1689-1690; 1689- 1691; 1692; 1693; 1694; 1695-1696; 1697; New- foundland: 1694-1697. 1740-1748. See France: 173 8- 17 70; Austria: 1740. 1755-1763. See Canada; 1755; (June-Sept.); 1756-1757; 1758; 1759; 1760; Ohio: 1755; Mi- norca: 1756; Germany: 1757 (July-Dec); 1759 (April-August); 1760; 1761; 1762; Cape Breton Island: 1758-1760; India: 1758-1761; England: I7S4-I75S; 1757-1760; 1758; 1759. 1778-1783. See U. S. A.: 1778; 1780; 1782 ; 1783. 1793-1802. See France: 1792-1793; 1794 (March- July); 1794-1795 (October-May); 1796 (Septem- ber); 1798 ( May- August ) ; 1798-1799; 1799; 1800; 1801-1802. 1803-1814. See France: 1802-1803; 1805; 1806- 1810; 1814-1815; Spain: 1809-1810; 1810-1812; 1812; 1812-1814. 1815. See France: 1815. ANGLO-GERMAN CONVENTION (1890). See Africa: Modern European occupation: 1884- 1889. ANGLO-GERMAN RELATIONS. See Eng- land: 1912; 1912-1914; World War: Diplomatic background: 71 x. ANGLO-JAPANESE ALLIANCE.— "Great Britain was the first to welcome Japan into ttie ranks of the Great Powers. In 1902 a treaty of friendship had been signed by the two island na- tions [see Japan; 1895-1902; 1894-1Q14]; in 1905 this compact was greatly strengthened by a treaty of alliance [see Japan: 1902-1905]. The latter provided for (1) the preservation of peace in Eastern Asia and India; (2) the maintenance of the integrity of China and of the principle of the 'open door'; and (3) the defense of the territorial rights of each party in Eastern Asia and India. This treaty, which was renewed in 1911, gave Japan a free hand in the Far East, so far as England was concerned, in return for Japan's prom- ise to safeguard British rule in India." — J. S. Schapiro, Modern and contemporary European history, pp. 670-671. The text of the 1911 treaty between England and Japan continuing the alliance for a ten-year period, is as follows: "Preamble. — The Government of Great Britain and the Government of Japan, having in view the important changes which have taken place in the situation since the conclusion of the Anglo-Japa- nese Agreement of the 12th August, 1905, and be- lieving that a revision of that Agreement respond- ing to such changes would contribute to general stability and repose, have agreed upon the follow- ing stipulations to replace the Agreement above mentioned, such stipulations having the same ob- ject as the said Agreement, namely: — (a) The con- solidation and maintenance of the general peace in the regions of Eastern Asia and of India; (b) The preservation of the common interests of all Powers in China by insuring the independence and integrity of the Chinese Empire and the principle of equal opportunities for the commerce and in- dustry of all nations in China; (c) The mainte- nance of the territorial rights of the High Con- tracting Parties in the regions of Eastern Asia and of India, and the defence of their special interests in the said regions. Article I. It is agreed that whenever, in the opinion of either Great Britain or Japan, any of the rights and interests referred to in the preamble of this Agreement are in jeop- ardy, the two Governments will communicate with one another fully and frankly, and will consider in common the measures which should be taken to safeguard those menaced rights or interests. Article II. If by reason of unprovoked attack or aggressive action, wherever arising, on the part of any Power or Powers, either High Contracting Party should be involved in war in defence of its territorial rights or special interests mentioned in the preamble of this Agreement, the other High Contracting Party will at once come to the as- sistance of its ally, and will conduct the war in common, and make peace in mutual agreement with it. Article III. The High Contracting Par- ties agree that neither of them will, without con- sulting the other, enter into separate arrange- ments with another Power to the prejudice of the objects described in the preamble of this Agree- ment. .Article IV. Should either High Contract- ing Party conclude a treaty of general arbitration with a third Power, it is agreed that nothing in this Agreement shall entail upon such Contract- ing Party an obligation to go to war with the 345 ANGLO-JAPANESE TREATY Power with whom such treaty of arbitration is in force. Article V. The conditions under which armed assistance shaU be afforded by either Power to the other in the circumstances mentioned in the present Agreement, and the means by w^J'^^ such assistance is to be made available, will be ar- ranged by the Naval and MiUtary ^"'h^"^'" °^ the High Contracting Parties, who «';ll/'^°°i .^""^ to time consult one another fully and freely upon all questions of mutual interest. Article \ I. ihe nresenl Agreement shall come into effect immedi- ^[ely after the date of its ^-^^-^'r^' ^T iT^s. in force for ten years from that date I" "se Neither the High Contracting Parties should Save notified twelve months before the expira ion of the said ten years the intention of termmating it it shall remain binding until the expiration of CM year from the day on which either of the High Contracting Parties shall have denounced it. But if when the date fixed for its expiration ar- rives either allv is actually engaged in war, the alliailce shall, ipso f'^to, continue until peace is concluded. lli faith whereof the Undersigned, duly authorized by their respective Governments have signed this Agreement, and have affixed thereto their Seals Done in dupUcate at London, the 13th dS of Juy-'9ii."-E.C.Stowell,D,/-/«m«o' of the 7ar il\,PP. S4i-542.-See also PAcmc "cea^. iqi8-iQ:!i ; U. S. A.: 1Q19-1921 ; World War. 1914- V Tapan; b; Washington Conference 1921 -Question of its renewal. See British EMPIRE- Colonial and Imperial conferences: 1921. ANGLO-JAPANESE TREATY. See Anglo- JTNGL0^'PA1L1STINE COMPANY, Ltd. See Tews- Zionism; 20th century. ANGLO-PERSIAN TREATY, an agreement concluded between Great Britain and Persia on August Q, 1919. In this treaty the British govern- ment agreed to respect the independence and m- tegrity of Persia ; to supply expert advisers tor tne various civil departments and the army; to grant a substantial loan; to aid in rai vyay and road building and in tariff revLsion. Although Great Britain denied any intention of absorbing Persia, many foreign observers regarded the treaty as amounting to a protectorate. However, on Feb. 27 1 92 1, the treaty was abrogated.— See also Persia. '7nGLO-PORTUGUESE CONVENTION (1891). See Africa: Modern European occupa- ''°ANGLO-RUSSIAN AGREEMENT OF 1895. 'InGLoTuSSiInAGREEMENT of 1907. —Convention between Great Britain and Rus- sia, containing arrangements on the subject of Persia, Afghanistan, and Tibet.-Parallel with the Agreements-thc "Entente Cordide —of 1904 between England and France, in its purpose and in its importance to Europe, was the Conven- tion between England and Russia in 1007, which harmonized the interests and the policy of the two nations in matters relating to Persia, Afghanis- tan and Tibet. In each case the dictating motive looked not so much to a settlement of the particu- lar questions involved, as to a general cxtingmsh- ment of possible causes of contention which might at some time disturb the peaceful or fnendlv- rela- tions of the peoples concerned. Taken together, he two formallv expressed understandings, Anglo- French and Anglo-Russian, added to the Franco- Russian Alliance of '^o? . '^'=<=, Fx*^^"'^- '^''S) constituted, not a new Triple Alliance, set over against that of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, but an amicable conjunction which bore sug- ANGLO-RUSSIAN AGREEMENTS eestions of alliance, and which introduced a coun- terweight in European politics that made undoubt- edly for peace. The Anglo-Russian Convention, signed August 31, i907. contained three distinct "Arrangements," under a common preamble, as follows: "His Majesty the King of the United Km:dom of Great Britain and Ireland and of the British Dominions beyond the Seas, Emperor ol India, and His Majesty the Emperor of AH the Russias animated by the sincere desire to settle by mutual agreement different questions concerning the inter- ests of their States on the Continent of Asia, have determined to conclude Agreements destined to nrevent all cause of misunderstanding between Great Britain and Russia in regard to the questions referred to, and have nominated for this purpose their respective Plenipotentiaries. . . Who, hav- ing communicated to each other their full powers, found in good and due form, have agreed on the following: "ARRANGEilENT CONCERNING PERSIA "The Governments of Great Britain and Russia having mutually enga-.ed to respect the mtegrity and independence of Persia, and smcerely desurmg 'he preservation of order throughout that country and its peaceful development, as weU as the per- manent establishment of equal advantages for the trade and industry of all other nations; "Considering that each of them has, for geo- graphical and economic reasons, a special mterest in the maintenance of peace and order m certam provinces of Persia adjoining, or in the neighbour- hood of, the Russian frontier on the one hand, and the frontiers of Afghanistan and Baluchistan on the other hand; and being desirous avoiding all cause of conflict between their .'^'^^P^t^t,'"!": esls in the above-mentioned Provinces of Persia, "Have agreed on the following terms: "I Great Britain engages not to seek for hersell, and not to support in favour of British subjects or in favour of the subjects of third Powers any Concessions of a political or commercial nature— Sih as Concessions for railways, banks, telegraphs roads transport, insurance, &c.-beyond a Ime tart^g fror^ K^sr-i-Shirin, passing through Isfa- han, Yezd, Kakhk and ending at ^^ P"""' °" ^= Persian frontier at the intersection of the Russian and Afghan frontiers, and not to oppose, directly or indirectly, demands for ^iniUar Concessions in this region which are ^"PP-'^^f ,^^ '^1 '^.boTe Government. It is understood .^^l'^^^^^^ mentioned places are •"^'"'^'^'i. '" '^1 \he Con" which Great Britain engages not to seek tne «-on "^^irRliSron'her part, engages not to s«k for mmmm telegraphs, roads^transport^nsurance,^&c^ J^ ^^ a line going from the A'snan ^^^^ Gazik, Birjand, ^"'"^"; /"I'uy or indirectly. Abbas, and not to "PP^^^'^f^^f ''m^'tlns region demands for similar Concession ^^^^^^„t which are ="PP-^^^^ ^^^'^/bo,.' mentioned places It s understood that tne auu „ : engages are included in the region in wh^h Russia engag British subjects in the regions of Persia situatea 346 ANGLO-RUSSIAN AGREEMENTS ANGLO-RUSSIAN AGREEMENTS between the lines mentioned in Articles I and II. Great Britain undertakes a similar engagement as regards the grant of Concessions to Russian sub- jects in the same regions of Persia. All Conces- sions existing at present in the regions indicated in Articles I and II are maintained. "IV. It is understood that the revenues of all the Persian customs, with the exception of those of Farsistan and of the Persian Gulf, revenues guaranteeing the amortization and the interest of the loans concluded by the Government of the Shah with the 'Banque d'Escompte et des Prets de Perse' up to the date of the signature of the pres- ent Arrangement, shall be devoted to the same pur- pose as in the past. It is equally understood that the revenues of the Persian customs of Farsistan and of the Persian Gulf, as well as those of the fisheries on the Persian shore of the Caspian Sea and those of the Posts and Telegraphs, shall be devoted, as in the past, to the service of the loans concluded by the Government of the Shah with the Imperial Bank of Persia up to the date of the signature of the present Arrangement. "V. In the event of irregularities occurring in the amortization or the payment of the interest of the Persian loans concluded with the 'Banque d'Escompte et des Prets de Perse' and with the Imperial Bank of Persia up to the date of the signature of the present Arrangement, and in the event of the necessity arising for Russia to estab- lish control over the sources of revenue guarantee- ing the regular service of the loans concluded with the first-named bank, and situated in the region mentioned in Article II of the present Arrange- ment, or for Great Britain to establish control over the sources of revenue guaranteeing the regular service of the loans concluded with the second- named bank, and situated in the region mentioned in Article I of the present Arrangement, the British and Russian Governments undertake to enter be- forehand into a friendly exchange of ideas with a view to determine, in agreement with each other, the measures of control in question and to avoid all interference which would not be in conformity with the principles governing the present Arrange- ment. "Convention Concerning Aeghanistan "The High Contracting Parties, in order to ensure perfect security on their respective frontiers in Central Asia and to maintain in these regions a solid and lasting peace, have concluded the follow- ing Convention: "Article I. His Britannic Majesty's Govern- ment declare that they have no intention of chang- ing the political status of Afghanistan. His Britannic Majesty's Government further engage to exercise their influence in Afghanistan only in a pacific sense, and they will not themselves take, nor encourage Afghanistan to take, any measures threatening Russia. The Russian Government, on their part, declare that they recognize Afghanistan «s outside the sphere of Russian influence, and they engage that all their political relations with Afghan- istan shall be conducted through the intermediary of His Britannic Majesty's Government; they fur- ther engage not to send any Agents into Afghan- istan. "Article II. The Government of His Britannic Majesty having declared in the Treaty signed at Kabul on the 21st March, 1905, that they recog- nize the Agreement and the engagements concluded with the late Ameer Abdur Rahman, and that they have no intention of interfering in the internal government of Afghan territory. Great Britain en- gages neither to annex nor to occupy in contra- vention of that Treaty any portion of Afghanistan or to interfere in the internal administration of the country, provided that the Ameer fulfils the en- gagements already contracted by him towards His Britannic Majesty's Government under the above- mentioned Treaty. "Article III. The Russian and Afghan author- ities, specially designated for the purpose on the frontier or in the frontier provinces, may establish direct relations with each other for the settlement of local questions of a non-political character. "Article IV. His Britannic Majesty's Govern- ment and the Russian Government affirm their adherence to the principle of equality of commer- cial opportunity in Afghanistan, and they agree that any facilities which may have been, or shall be hereafter obtained for British and British-Indian trade and traders, shall be equally enjoyed by Rus- sian trade and traders. Should the progress of trade establish the necessity for Commercial Agents, the two Governments will agree as to what meas- ures shall be taken, due regard, of course, being had to the Ameer's sovereign rights. "Article V. The present Arrangements will only come into force when His Britannic Majesty's Government shall have notified to the Russian Gov- ernment the consent of the Ameer to the terms stipulated above. "Arrangement Concerning Tibet "The Governments of Great Britain and Russia recognizing the suzerain rights of China in Thibet, and considering the fact that Great Britain, by reason of her geographical position, has a special interest in the maintenance of the status quo in the external relations of Thibet, have made the follow- ing Arrangement: — "Article I. The two High Contracting Parties engage to respect the territorial integrity of Thibet and to abstain from all interference in its internal administration. "Article II. In conformity with the admitted principle of the suzerainty of China over Thibet, Great Britain and Russia engage not to enter into negotiations with Thibet except through the inter- mediary of the Chinese Government. This engage- ment does not exclude the direct relations between British Commercial Agents and the Thibetan au- thorities provided for in Article V of the Con- vention between Great Britain and Thibet of the 7th September, 1Q04, and confirmed by the Convention between Great Britain and China of the 27th April, iqo6; nor does it mod- ify the engagements entered into by Great Britain and China in Article I of the said Convention of 1906. "It is clearly understood that Buddhists, subjects of Great Britain or of Russia, may enter into chrect relations on strictly religious matters with the Dalai Lama and the other representatives of Buddhism in Thibet; the Governments of Great Britain and Russia engage, as far as they are concerned, not to allow those relations to infringe the stipulations of the present Arrangement. "Article III. The British and Russian Govern- ments respectively engage not to send Representa- tives to Lhassa. "Article IV. The two High Contractini? Parties engage neither to seek nor to obtain, whether for themselves or their subjects, any Concessions for railways, roads, telegraphs, and mines, or other rights in Thibet. "Article V. The two Governments agree that no part of the revenues of Thibet, whether in kind or in cash, shall be pledged or assiirned to Great Britain or Russia or to any of their subjects. 347 ANGLO-RUSSIAN AGREEMENTS ANGOLA "Annex to the Arrangement between Great Britain and Russia Concerning Tibet "Great Britain reaffirms the Declaration, signed by his Excellency the Viceroy and Governor-Gen- eral of India and appended to the ratification of the Convention of the 7th September, 1904, to the effect that the occupation ol the Chumbi Valley by British forces shall cease after the payment of three annual instalments of the indemnity of 25,- 000,000 rupees, provided that the trade marts men- tioned in Article II of that Convention have been effectively opened for three years, and that in the meantime the Thibetan authorities have faithfully complied in all respects with the terms of the said Convention of 1904. It is clearly understood that if the occupation of the Chumbi Valley by the British forces has, for any reason, not been ter- minated at the time anticipated in the above Declaration, the British and Russian Governments will enter upon a friendly exchange of views on this subject." As an Inclosure with the Convention, Notes were exchanged by the Plenipotentiaries, of which that from Sir A. Nicolson was in the following words, M. Isvolsky replying to the same effect. "St. Petersburg, .\ugust 18 (31), 1907. "M. LE MlNISTRE, "With reference to the .Arrangement regarding Thibet, signed to-day, I have the honour to make the following Declaration to your E.xcellency; — •• 'His Britannic Majesty's Government think it desirable, so far as they are concerned, not to allow, unless by a previous agreement with the Russian Government, for a period of three years from the date of the present communication, the entry into Thibet of any scientific mission whatever, on con- dition that a like assurance is given on the part of the Imperial Russian Government. " 'His Britannic Majesty's Government propose, moreover, to approach the Chinese Government with a view to induce them to accept a similar obligation for a corresponding period; the Russian Government will as a matter of course take sim- ilar action. " 'At the expiration of the term of three years above mentioned His Britannic Majesty's Govern- ment will, if necessary, consult with the Russian government as to the desirability of any ulterior measures with regard to scientific expeditions to Thibet.' I avail, &c. (Signed) A. Nicolson." In authorizing Sir A. Nicolson to sign the above Convention, Sir Edward Grey, the British Secretary for Foreign .Affairs, wrote, on .August 29, as fol- lows: "I have to-day authorized your Excellency by telegraph to sign a Convention with the Russian Government containing .Arrangements on the sub- ject of Persia, .Afghanistan, and Thibet. "The Arrangement respecting Persia is limited to the regions of that country touching the re- spective frontiers of Great Britain and Russia in Asia, and the Persian Gulf is not part of those regions, and is only partly in Persian territory. It has not therefore been considered appropriate to introduce into the Convention a positive decla- ration respecting special interests possessed by Great Britain in the Gulf, the result of British action in those waters for more than a hundred years. "His Majesty's Government have reason to be- lieve that this question will not give rise to diffi- culties between the two Governments, should de- velopments arise which make further discussion affecting British interests in the Gulf necessary. For the Russian Government have in the course of the negotiations leadins up to the conclusion of this Arrangement explicitly stated that they do not deny the special interests of Great Britain in the Persian Gulf — a statement of which His Majesty s Government have formally taken note. "In order to make it quite clear that the present .Arrangement is not intended to affect the position in the Gulf, and does not imply any change of policy respecting it on the part of Great Britain, His Majesty's Government think it desirable to draw attention to previous declarations of British poUcy, and to reaffirm generally previous state- ments as to British interests in the Persian Gulf and the importance of maintaining them. "His Majesty's Government will continue to direct all their efforts to the preservation of the status quo in the Gulf and the maintenance of British trade; in doing so, they have no desire to exclude the legitimate trade of any other Power." — Parliamentary Papers by Command. Russia. No. I. 1907 (Cd. 3750). ANGLO-RUSSIAN RELATIONS. See Triple Entente: 1007; England: 1907. ANGLO-RUSSIAN TREATY, 1825. See Alaskan boundary question: Claims of both sides. ANGLO-SAXON, a term which may be con- sidered as a compound of .Angle and Saxon, the names of the two principal Teutonic tribes which took possession of Britain and formed the English nation by their ultimate union. As thus regarded and used to designate the race, the language and the institutions which resulted from that union, it is only objectionable, perhaps, as being superfluous, because English is the accepted name of the people of England and all pertaining to them. But the term .Anglo-Saxon has also been more particularly employed to designate the early English people and their language, before the Norman Conquest, as though they were .Anglo-Saxon at that period and became English afterwards. Modern historians arc making strong protests against this use of the term. Mr. Freeman {Norman conquest, v. i, note A) says: "The name by which our forefathers really knew themselves and by which they were known to other nations was English and no other. '.Angli,' 'Engle,' '.Angel-cyn,' 'Englisc' are the true names by which the Teutons of Britain knew themselves and their language. ... As a chronological term, .Anglo-Saxon is equally objectionable with faxon. The 'Anglo-Saxon period,' as far as there evei was one, is going on still. I speak therefore of our forefathers, not as 'Saxons,' or even as '.Anglo- Saxons,' but as they spoke of themselves, as Eng- lishmen— '.Angli,' 'Engle,'— 'Anjelcyn.' "—See also .Angles : Saxons. ANGLO-SAXON CHRONICLE: See Ballad: Ballad and history; English liter.\ture: 6th-i:th centuries: History: 19. ANGLO-SAXON LITERATURE. See Eng lish liter.\ture: 6th- nth centuries. ANGLON, Battle of (543) —Fought in Arme- nia between the Romans and the Persians. ANGOLA, the name now given to the territory which the Portuguese have occupied on the western coast of South .Africa since the sixteenth century, extending from Belgian Congo, on the north, to Damaraland, on the south, with an interior bound- ary that is somewhat indefinite. It is divided into fovr districts. Congo, Loando, Benguela. and Mossamedc? For modern developments, railroads, etc., see .Africa: Modern European occupation: Summary of European occupation: Modern railway and industrial development of .Africa; Map. 348 ANGORA ANJOU ANGORA or Ancyra, a city of Asia Minor, fa- mous in ancient times for its culture and trade. On the walls of the beautiful Greek temple dedi- cated to the emperor Augustus was found in 1553 the celebrated "Inscription of Ancyra" commemo- rating his exploits. Goats and similar animals in this district are famous for their long silky hair, due apparently to peculiar conditions. 1402. — Battle of Angora. See Timur or Ti- mour; Turkey: 1389-1403. 1915. — Massacre by Turks. See World War; 1915: VI. Turkey: d, 1. 1921. — Seat of Turkish Nationalist govern- ment in Asia Minor. — War against Greece. See Greece: 1921; Sevres, Treaty of: 1921: Near East conference; also Bagdad railway: Plan; Turkey: Map of Asia Minor. ANGOSTURA, or Buena Vista, Battle of. See Mexico: 1846-1847. ANGOULEME, Charles De Valois, Due d' (1573-1650), French statesman and general; il- legitimate son of Charles IX and Marie Touchet ; became Due d'Angouleme in 1619, three years after his release from the Bastille, where he spent eleven years for a conspiracy against Henry IV. ANCOUMOIS, an old province of France, ceded to England, 1360. See France: 1337-1360. ANGRA PEQUENA, a harbor on the coast of what later became German South West Africa (now Southwest Africa Protectorate) ; German flag first raised on African soil there, in 1884. ANGREAU: 1918.— Taken by British. See World War: 1918: II. Western front: w, 2. ANGRES, France: 1917.— Occupied by Brit- ish. See World War: 191 7: II. Western front: c, 9. ANGRIA, division of ancient duchy of Saxony. See Saxony. ANGRIVARII.— The Angrivarii were one of the tribes of ancient Germany. Their settlements were to the west of the Weser. See Bructeri. ANGRO-MAINYUS, spirit of evil in dual doc- trine of Zoroaster. See Zoroastrians. ANHALT, a free state, was a duchy of Ger- many and a state of the empire after 1871. It was formed of Anhalt-Dessau-Cothen and Anhalt- Bernburg in 1863. Originally (in the eleventh cen- tury) a part of Saxony [see Saxony: ii 78-1 183], it became united to the margravate of Branden- burg in the twelfth century by Albert the Bear, witfi whom the ruling dynasty of the duchy originated. In 12 18, when Prince Henry became count of Anhalt, it was separated from Saxony, and was later divided by his sons into the three principalities of Bernburg, .Aschersleben and Zerbst. After a subsequent reunion in 1570, it became again divided in 1603 into Dessau, Bernburg, Plbtzkau, Zerbst, and Cbthen. This al- ternation of split and reunion continued until the interference of the Prussian rulers and the gradual extinction of the individual lines led to the estab- lishment of a joint constitution in 1859, and a final unification under Leopold IV, in 1863. The last reigning duke was Edward, who succeeded to the throne on April 21, 1918. On July 18, 1919, An- halt became a free state. Its constitution provides for a diet to be elected by the people every three years and for a state council of live members, the chairman of which bears the title of president. It is divided by Prussian Saxony into Eastern and Western Anhalt (the latter also called Upper Duchy or Ballenstedt), and b surrounded by* the Prussian territories of Potsdam, MasFdcbursr and McrseburK and by Brunswick along five miles on the west. Its principal river is the Elbe, which intersects its eastern part from east to west, and is joined by the Saale and the Mulde, and minor tributaries. It is mountainous in the southwest of its western part, to which the Harz range extends, and becomes level as it approaches the Elbe. E.xcept for the portion east of the Elbe, which to a great extent is a sandy plain, the soil is rich. In 1910, of the total area of 888 miles, sixty per cent of the land was cultivated ; seven per cent is pasture land, which stretches along the Elbe, and twenty-five per cent is forest-covered. The chief yields are rye, wheat, potatoes and oats. Vegetables, corn, fruits, beets, tobacco, flax, hops and linseed are also grown. The forests abound in game and the rivers in fish. Its chief mineral resources are salts of different kinds and lignite. Before the World War almost half of the population was occupied in the mineral and manufacturing industries. The country is crossed by 180 miles of railway. Its largest cities are Dessau, the capital, Bernburg, Cothen, Zerbst, and Rosslau. According to the census of 1910 its population is 331,128. The greater majority are Protestants; 12,755 are Catho- lics, and 1,383 Jews. Also in: W. Mueller, Die Entsteliung der an- haitischen Slddte (Halle, 1912). — F. Knoke, An- haltisclie Gesckichle (Dessau, 1893). — Siebigk, Das Herzogtiium Anhalt historisch, geographisch und statisthch dargestellt (Dessau, 1867). ANHALT-DESSAU, Leopold I, prince of (1676-1747), distinguished Prussian field-marshal; served with Frederick the Great and gained im- portant victory over the Austrians at Kesselsdorf, 1745. — See also Austria: 1744- 1745. ANI, an ancient Armenian city, stormed by Turks (1064). See Turkey: 1063-1073. ANIDO, Martinez, governor of Barcelona. See Spain: 192 i. ANILINE DYES. See Chemistry: Practical application: Dyes. ANIMAL BOUNTIES. See Bounties: State bounties on animals. ANIMAL INDUSTRY, Bureau of. See Agri- culture, Department of. ANIMALS, Domestic. See Agriculture: Early period. ANIMISM. See Babylonia: Religion: From an- imism to polytheism; Egypt: Religion; Religion: Universal elements; Mythology: Egypt: Kinship to savage; Mythology: India: Primitive elements; Mythology: Rome. ANIMUCCIA, Giovanni (d. 1571), Italian com- poser; was choirmaster at St. Peter's (1555-1571), filling the interval between Palestrina's terms; com- posed the famous "Laudi, " which were sung at the Oratorio of St. Filippo after the regular office, and out of which the oratorio is said to have developed ANJOU, Frangois (Hercule) de France, due d', duke of Brabant, 1554-1584. See Netherlands: 1577-1581, 1581-1584. ANJOU, a former province in the west of France, now Maine-et-Loire. In ancient times in- habited by the Andecavi ; became a center of power under Geoffrey Martel (1040-1060); a possession of the English crown during the Plantagenet mon- archy (11 54- 1 203); seized by Philip .Augustus. United with Provence under the rule of the king of Naples; anne.xed to the royal dominions by Louis XI in 1480. Counts and dukes of (Summary). — Line orig- inated with Ingelgerius, seneschal of Gatinais, who received the countship from Charles the Bald in 870. Among his descendants were Fulk V, count of Anjou, king of Jerusalem in 1131; Geoffrey IV, le Plantagenet, who married Matilda, daughter of Henry I of England, and Henry, son of Geoffrey and grandson of Fulk V, who as Henry II was 349 ANJO0 ANJOU the first Plantagenet king of England. In the reign of King John of England, the title of Anjou passed to Philip Augustus of France, who granted it to Charles, the brother of Louis IX. Creation of the county. — Origin of the Plan- tagenets. — "It was the policy of this unfairly de- preciated sovereign [Charles the Bald, grandson of Charlemagne, who received in the dismemberment of the Carlovingian empire the Neustrian part, out of which was developed the modern kingdom of France, and who reigned from 840 to 877 J, to re- cruit the failing ranks of the false and degenerate Frankish aristocracy, by calling up to his peerage the wise, the able, the honest and the bold of ig- noble birth. ... He sought to surround himself with new men, the men without ancestry ; and the earliest historian of the House of Anjou both de- scribes this system and affords the most splendid example of the theory adopted by the king. Pre- eminent amongst these parvenus was Torquatus or Tortulfus, an Armorican peasant, a very rustic, a backwoodsman, who lived by hunting and such like occupations, almost in solitude, cultivating his 'quillets,' his 'cueillettes,' of land, and driving his own oxen, harnessed to his plough. Torquatus entered or was invited into the service of Charles- le-Chauve, and rose high in his sovereign's confi- dence: a prudent, a bold, and a good man. Charles appointed him Forester of the forest called 'the Blackbird's Nest,' the 'nid du merle,' a pleasant name, not the less pleasant for its familiarity. This happened during the conflicts with the Northmen. Torquatus served Charles strenuously in the wars, and obtained great authority. Tertullus, son of Torquatus, inherited his father's energies, quick and acute, patient of fatigue, ambitious and as- piring; he became the liegeman of Charles; and his marriage with Petronilla the King's cousin. Count Hugh the Abbot's daughter, introduced him into the very circle of the royal family. Chateau Lan- don and other benefices in the Gastinois were ac- quired by him, possibly as the lady's dowry. Sen- eschal, also, was Tertullus, of the same ample Gas- tinois territory. Ingelger, son of Tertullus and Petronilla, appears as the first hereditary Count of Anjou Outre-Maine, — Marquis, Consul or Count of Anjou, — for all these titles are assigned to him. Yet the ploughman Torquatus must be reckoned as the primary Plantagenet: the rustic Torquatus founded that brilliant family." — F. Palgrave, His- tory of Normandy and England, bk. i, ch. 3. Also in: K. Norgate, England under the An- gevin kings, V. I, ck. 2. 987-1129. — Greatest of the old counts. — "Fulc Nerra, Fulc the Black [987-1040] is the greatest of the Angevins, the first in whom we can trace that marked type of character which their house was to preserve with a fatal constancy through two hundred years. He was without natural affection. In his youth he burned a wife at the stake, and legend told how he led her to her doom decked out in his gayest attire. In his old age he waged his bitterest war against his son, and exacted from him when vanquished a humiliation which men reserved for the deadliest of their foes. 'You are conquered, you are conquered!' shouted the old man in fierce exultation, as Geoffry, bridled and saddled like a beast of burden, crawled for pardon to his father's feet. . . . But neither the wrath of Heaven nor the curses of men broke with a single mishap the fifty years of his success. At his accession Anjou was the least important of the greater provinces of France. At his death it stood, if not in extent, at least in real power, first among them all. . . . Hb overthrow of Brittany on the field of Conquereux was followed by the gradual absorption of Southern Touraine. . . . His great victory at Pontlevoi crushed the rival house of Blois; the seizure of Saumur completed his con- quests in the South, while Northern Touraine was won bit by bit till only Tours resisted the Ange- vin. The treacherous seizure of its Count, Herbert Wake-dog, left Maine at his mercy ere the old man bequeathed his unfinished work to his son. As a warrior, Geoffry Martel was hardly inferior to his father. A decisive overthrow wrested Tours from the Count of Blois; a second left Poitou at his mercy ; and the seizure of Le Mans brought him to the Norman border. Here . . . his advance was checked by the genius of William the Con- queror, and with his death the greatness of Anjou seemed for the time to have come to an end. Stripped of Maine by the Normans, and weakened by internal dissensions, the weak and profligate ad- ministration of Fulc Rechin left Anjou powerless against its rivals along the Seine. It woke to fresh energy with the accession of his son, Fulc of Jeru- salem. . . . Fulc was the one enemy whom Henry the First really feared It was to disarm his rest- less hostility that the King yielded to bis son, Geof- fry the Handsome, the hand of his daughter Ma- tilda." — J. R. Green, Short history of the English people, ch. 2, sect. 7. Also in: K. Norgate, England under the Ange- vin kings, V. I, ch. 2-4. 1154. — Counts become kings of England. See England: ii 54-1 189. 1154-1360. — Extent of territory. See France: Maps of medieval period: 1154-1300. 1204. — Wrested from the English King John. See France: 1180-1224. . 1206-1442. — English attempts to recover the county. — Third and fourth houses of Anjou. — Creation of the dukedom. — King John, of Eng- land, did not voluntarily submit to the sentence of the peers of France which pronounced his for- feiture of the fiefs of Anjou and Maine, "since he invaded and had possession of Angers again in 1206, when. Gothlike, he demolished its ancient walls. He lost it in the following year, and . . . made no further attempt upon it until 1213. In that year, having collected a powerful army, he landed at Rochelle, and actually occupied Angers, without striking a blow. But . . . the year 12 14 beheld him once more in retreat from .Anjou, never to reappear there, since he died on the 19th of October, 12 16. In the person of King John ended what is called the 'Second House of Anjou.' In 1204, after the confiscations of John's French pos- sessions, Philip Augustus established hereditary seneschals in that part of France, the first of whom was the tutor of the unfortunate Young .Arthur [of Brittany], named William des Roches, who was in fact Count in all except the name, over Anjou, Maine, and Tourraine, owing allegiance only to the crown of France. The Seneschal, William des Roches, died in 1222. His son-in-law, Amaury de Craon, succeeded him," but was soon afterwards taken prisoner during a war in Brittany and in- carcerated. Henry III. of England still claimed the title of Count of Anjou, and in 1230 he "dis- embarked a considerable army at St. Malo, in the view of re-conquering Anjou, and the other for- feited possessions of his crown. Louis IX , then only fifteen years old . . . advanced to the attack of the allies: but in the following year a peace was concluded, the province of Guienne having been ceded to the English crown. In 1241, Louis gave the counties of Poitou and Auvergne to his brother .Alphonso; and. in the year 1246, he invested his brother Charles, Count of Provence, with the coun- ties of Anjou and Maine, thereby annulling the 350 ANJOU ANNALS rank and title of Seneschal, and instituting the Third House of Anjou. Charles I., the founder of the proud fortunes of this Third House, was ambitious in character, and events long favoured his ambition. Count of Provence, through the in- heritance of his consort, had not long been in- vested with Anjou and Maine, ere he was invited to tie conquest of Sicily [see Italy (Southern): 1250-1268)." The third house of Anjou ended in the person of John, who became king of France in 1,350. In 1356 he invested his son Louis with Anjou and Maine, and in 13O0 the latter was cre- ated the first duke of Anjou. The fourth house of Anjou, which began with this first duke, came to an end two generations later with Rene, or Regnier — the "good King Rene" of history and story, whose kingdom was for the most part a name, and who is best known to English readers, perhaps, as the father of Margaret of Anjou, the stout-hearted queen of Henry VI. On the death of his father, Louis, the second duke, Rene became by his father's will count of Guise, his elder brother, Louis, inheriting the dukedom. In 1434 the brother died without issue and Rene succeeded him in Anjou, Maine and Provence. He had already become duke of Bar, as the adopted heir of his great-uncle, the cardinal-duke, and duke of Lorraine (1430), by designation of the late duke, whose daughter he had married. In 1435 he received from Queen Joanna of Naples the doubt- ful legacy of that distracted kingdom, which she had previously bequeathed first, to Alphonso of Aragon, and afterwards — revoking that testament — to Rene's brother, Louis of Anjou. King Rene enjoyed the title during his life-time, and the actual kingdom for a brief period; but in 1442 he was expelled from Naples by his competitor Alphonso (see Italy: 1412-1447). — M. A. Hookham, Life and times of Margaret of Anjou, introduction and ch. 1-2. 1282. — Loss of Sicily. — Retention of Naples. See Italy (Southern): 1282-1300. 1204-1311. — Rule in Athens. See Athens: 1205-1308. 1310-1382. — Possession of the Hungarian throne. See Hungary: 1301-1442. 1370-1384. — Acquisition and loss of the crown of Poland. See Poland: 1333-1572. 1381-1384. — Claims of Louis of Anjou. — His expedition to Italy and his death. See Italy: (Southern): 1343-1389, 1480. — Forced to recognize power of the crown. See France: 1461-1468. 1492-1515.— Claims to throne of Sicily. See France: 1492-1515. ANJOU, Genealogical table. See France ANJUMAN, or Enjumen, a term which seems to signify in Persia either a local assembly or a Ijolitical association of any nature. See Persia: iqo8-iaoq. ANKARSTROM, or Anckarstrom, Jakob Johan ( 1 761 -1 792), the assassin of King Gustavus III of Sweden. ANICENDORFF, Battle of. See Germany: 1807 (Februar>'-June). ANLEY, Frederick Gore (1864- ), British brigadier-general at battle of Ypres. See World War: 1914: I. Western front: w, 13. ANN ARUNDEL COUNTRY. See Mary- land: 1643-1640. ANNA AMALIA (1739-1807), duchess of Saxe- Weimar; a patroness of art and literature; made Weimar the center of culture in Germany ; is com- memorated in Goethe's work "Zum Andenken der FUrstin Anna-Amalia." ANNA IVANOVNA (1693-1740), empress of Russia 1730-1740; participated in War of Polish Succession and was successful against the Turks in the Crimean War (1736-1739); reformed the army, and granted greater liberty to the landed gentry. — See also Russia: 1725-1739. ANNAHAWAS. See Siouan family: Sioux. "ANNALES" (of 'William Camden). See His- tory: 23. ANNALS, from the Latin annus, year, a rela- tion of events in chronological order, wherein each event is recorded under the year in which it oc- curred. In a broader sense, the word is not in- frequently used by writers to designate history in general, as, for instance, "the most tremendous event in our annals." In the singular, annal, it may signify a record of a single event. Annals differ from chronicles in that they are original records set down from day to day, perhaps by different writers, whereas by chronicles we under- stand a complete written or edited narrative; which may be the work of one author and bear the impress of his individuality. Thus, to draw a comparison, Hayden's "Dictionary of Dates" con- tains the annals of the world; the "American Year Book" and the ".Annual Register" each present the chronicles (a connected narrative) of a certain year. Annals are of Roman, chronicles of Greek, origin; the latter term is derived from chronos, meaning both time and year. Originally signifying a chronological table, the word chronicle during the Middle Ages came to include every form of history. Roman annals. — Ennius. — Livy. — Tacitus. — "The Romans did not begin to write the history of their city until about 200 B. C. Even then the first histories were meager annals. For the early centuries the composers found two kinds of ma- terial, — scant official records and unreliable family chronicles. . . . From such sources, early in the second century B. C, Fabius Pictor wrote the first connected history of Rome. He and his succes- sors (mostly Greek slaves or adventurers) trimmed and patched their narratives ingeniously to get rid of gross inconsistencies ; borrowed freely from in- cidents in Greek history, to fill gaps; and so pro- duced an attractive story that hung together pretty well in the absence of criticism. These early works are now lost; hut, two hundred years later, they furnished material for Livy and Dionysius, whose accounts of the legendary age were accepted as real history until after iSoo A.D." — W. M. West, Ancient world, pp. 262-263. — "There grew up in Rome (as in other Italian towns) two important 'colleges' of city priests, — pontiffs and augurs. The six pontiffs had a general oversight of the whole system of divine law, and they were also the guar- dians of human science. Their care of the exact dates of festivals made them the keepers of the calendar and of the rude annals; they had over- sight of weights and measures; and they themselves described their knowledge as 'the science of all things human and divine.'" — Ibid., pp. 272-273. — The Romans called these writings the annales pontificum or annales maximi, on account of their being issued by the pontifex maximns. "Ennius possessed great power over words, and wielded that power skillfully. He improved the language in its harmony and its grammatical forms, and increased its copiousness and power. What he did was improved upon, but was never un- done, and upon the foundations he laid the taste of succeeding ages erected an elegant and beauti- ful superstructure. His great epic poem — the 'An- nals' — gained him the attachment and admiration of his countrymen. In this he first introduced the hexameter to the notice of the Romans, and de- 351. ANNALS Roman Medieval ANNALS tailed the rise and progress of their national glory, from the earliest legendary period down to his own times. The fragments of this work which remain are amply sufficient to show that he pos- sessed picturesque power, both in sketching his narratives and in portraying his characters, which seem to live and breathe ; his language, dignified, chaste and severe, rises as high as the most ma- jestic eloquence, but it does not soar to the sub- limity of poetry." — A. C. L. Botta, Hand book oj universal literature, p. 132. — "Livy (5Q-i8 B.C.) . . . was a warm and open admirer of the ancient institutions of the country, and esteemed Pompey as one of its greatest heroes; but Augustus did not allow political opinions to interfere with the regard which he entertained for the historian. His great work is a history of Rome, which he mod- estly terms 'Annals,' in 142 books, of which 35 are extant. Besides his history, Livy is said to have written treatises and dialogues, which were partly philosophical and partly historical." — Ibid., p. i$i. — The historical writings of Tacitus deal- ing with events befoie his time are called the Annates; those treating of his own period, events that happened within his own experience, bear the name Hislorice, though it is doubted whether this distinction was drawn by Tacitus himself or later editors. — "The 'Annals' consist of sixteen books; they commence with the death of Augustus, and conclude with that of Nero (14-68 A. D.). The object of Tacitus was to describe the influence which the establishment of tyranny on the ruins of liberty exercised for good or for evil in bring- ing out the character of the individual. In the extinction of freedom there still existed in Rome bright examples of heroism and courage, and in- stances not less prominent of corruption and deg- radation. In the annals of Tacitus these indi- viduals stand out in bold relief, either singly or in groups upon the stage, while the emperor forms the principal figure, and the moral sense of the reader is awakened to admire instances of patient suffering and determined bravery, or to witness abject slavery and remorseless despotism." — Ibid., p. 167. — See also Latin liter.'ITure. Medieval annals. — Roman prototype. — Eccle- siastical annals. — Sources of local history. — Froissart. — De Commines. — The famous Chron- ographus or Calendar, an official document of the Roman empire, was completed in 354, and may be regarded as the prototype of the long catalogue of medieval annals. The range of its contents is quite remarkable: It is an official calendar and a universal chronicle (the latter to the year 338) ; it contains a record of consular annals, a list of the popes to Liberius (352-366), and the paschal tables worked out up to the year 412. .^nglo-Saxon missionaries introduced the custom of compiling chronological lists into Germany and Gaul dur- ing the seventh century. Paschal tables, fixing the dates for Easter, were in use very early in the Brit- ish Isles. Notes of important events were added down the margins opposite the years in which they occurred, and thus arose the institution of annals. Elaborations of and additions to the list of popes in the Chroiwgraphns gave rise to the Pontificale Romantim, better known as the Lilier Pontifitalis, from which there sprang a number of similar rec- ords compiled in monasteries, abbeys, and cathe- drals, dealing in the main with local affairs. In the course of time these documents were copied, passed around and compared ; discrepancies were brought into harmony ; omissions were inserted and errors rectified. When these data had been arranged in chronological order, they represented a mine of original sources and contemporary evi- dence for future historians to explore and delve in. "Froissart (1337-1410) was an ecclesiastic of the day, but little in his life or writings bespeaks the sacred calling. Having little taste for the duties of his profession, he was employed by the Lord of Montfort to compose a chronicle of the wars of the time; but there were no books to tell him of the past, no regular communication between nations to inform him of the present ; so he fol- lowed the fashion of knights errant, and set out on horseback, not to seek adventures, but, as an itinerant historian, to find materials for his chroni- cle. He wandered from town to town, and from castle to castle, to see the places of which he would write, and to learn events on the spot where they transpired. His first journey was to England; here he was employed by Queen Philippa of Hai- nault to accompany the Duke of Clarence of Milan, where he met Boccaccio and Chaucer. He after- wards passed into the service of several of the princes of Europe, to whom he acted as secretary and poet, always gleaning material for historic record. His book is an almost universal history of the different states of Europe, from 1322 to the end of the 14th century. He troubles him- self with no explanations or theories of cause and effect, nor with the philosophy of state policy ; he is simply a graphic story-teller. Sir Walter Scott called Froissart his master." — Ibid., p. 264- 265. "Philippe de Commines (i445-i5og) was a man of his age, but in advance of it, combining the simplicity of the 15th century with the sagacity of a later period. An annalist, like Froissart, he was also a statesman, and a political philosopher; embracing, like Machiavelli and Montesquieu, the remoter consequences which flowed from the events he narrated and the principles he unfolded. He was an unscrupulous diplomat in the service of Louis XL, and his description of the last years of that monarch is a striking piece of history, whence poets and novelists have borrowed themes in later times. But neither the romance of Sir Walter Scott nor the song of Beranger does jus- tice to the reality, as presented by the faithful Commines." — Ibid., p. 265. English annals. — The more important annals in England developed from the tables of Bede and the paschal cycles. Among these the chief are the .-iunales Cantuarienses (Canterbury Annals) of 6i8-6qo; the .Innales Nordhumbrani (Northumber- land) of 734-802; the Hisloria Eliensis Ecclesice (Church of Ely) dated 700; the .Annates Cam- brice (Welsh Annals) of 440 to the Norman Con- (|uest in 1066, and the .Annaies Lindisjarnenses (Holy Island) of 532-oq3. The science of history writing with any degree of accuracy in England dates from 1066. Irish annals. — "Among the various classes of persons who devoted themselves to literature in ancient Ireland, there were special Annalists, who made it their business to record, with the utmost accuracy, all remarkable events simply and briefly, without any ornament of language, without exaggeration, and without fictitious em- bellishment. The extreme care they took that their statements should be truthful is shown by the manner in which they compiled their books. As a general rule they admitted nothing into their records except either what occurred during their lifetime, and which may be said to have come under their own personal knowledge, or what they found recorded in the compilations of previ- ous annalists, who had themselves followed the same plan These men took nothing on hearsay: 352 ANNALS Irish ANNALS and in this manner successive annalists carried on a continued ctironicle from age to age, thus giving the whole series the force of contempo- rary testimony. We have still preserved to us many books of native Annals. . . . Most of the ancient manuscripts whose entries are copied into the books of Annals we now possess have been lost; but that the entries were so copied is ren- dered quite certain by various expressions found in the present existing Annals, as well as by the known history of several of the compilations. The Irish Annals deal with the affairs of Ireland — generally but not exclusively. Many of them re- cord events occurring in other parts of the world; and it was a common practice to begin the work with a brief general history, after which the An- nalist takes up the affairs of Ireland." — P. W. Joyce, Social history of ancient Ireland, p. 224. — "The Irish Annals record about twenty-five eclipses and comets at the several years from A. D. 496 to 1066. The dates of all these are found, according to modem scientific calculation and the records of other countries, to be correct. This shows conclusively that the original records were made by eye-witnesses, and not by calculation in subsequent times: for any such calculation would be sure — on account of errors in the meth- ods then used — to give an incorrect result. A well-known entry in the Irish account of the Bat- tle of Clontarf, fought A. D. 1014, comes under the tests of natural phenomena. The author of the account, who wrote soon after the battle, states that it was fought on Good Friday, the 23rd of April, 1014; and that it began at sunrise, when the tide was full in. To test the truth of this . . . after a laborious calculation. Dr. [Rev. Sam- uel] Haughton found that the tide was at its height that morning at half-past five o'clock, just as the sun was coming over the horizon: a striking con- firmation of the truth of this part of the narra- tive. It shows, too, that the account was writ- ten by, or taken down from, an eye-witness of the battle. Whenever events occurring in Ireland in the Middle Ages are mentioned by British or Continental writers they are always — or nearly always — in agreement with the native records. Irish bardic history relates in much detail how the Picts landed on the coast of Leinster in the reign of Eremon, the first Milesian king of Ireland, many centuries before the Christian era. After some time they sailed to Scotland to conquer a territory for themselves: but before embarking they asked Eremon to give them Irish women for wives, which he did, but only on this condition, that the right of succession to the kingship should be vested in the female progeny rather than in the male. And so the Picts settled in Scotland with their wives. Now all this is confirmed by the Venerable Bede, who says that the Picts obtained wives from the Scots (i.e., the Irish) on condition that when any difficulty arose they should choose a king from the female royal line rather than from the male; 'which custom,' continues Bede, 'has been observed among them to this day.' ... All the Irish Annals record a great defeat of the Danes near Killarney in the year 812. This account is fully borne out by an authority totally unconnected with Ireland, the well-known Book of Annals, writ- ten by Eginhard (the tutor of Charlemagne), who was living at this very time. Under AD. 812 he writes: — 'The fleet of the Northmen, having in- vaded Hibernia, the island of the Scots, after a battle had been fought with the Scots, and after no small number of the Norsemen had been slain, they basely took to flight and returned home.' . . . References by Irishmen to Irish affairs are found in numerous volumes scattered over all Europe: — Annalistic entries, direct statements in tales and biographies, marginal notes, incidental references to persons, places, and customs, and so forth, written by various men at various times; which, when compared one with another, and with the home records, hardly ever exhibit a disagree- ment. The more the ancient historical records of Ireland are examined and tested, the more their truthfulness is made manifest. Their uniform agreement among themselves, and their accuracy, as tried by the ordeals of astronomical calcula- tion and of foreign writers' testimony, have drawn forth the acknowledgments of the greatest Irish scholars and archaeologists, that ever lived." — Ibid., pp. 225-228. "The following are the principal books of Irish Annals remaining. The 'Synchronisms of Flann,' who was a layman, Ferleginn or chief professor of the school of Monasterboice ; died in 1056. He compares the chronology of Ireland with that of other countries, and gives the names of the mon- archs that reigned in the principal ancient king- doms and empires of the world, with the Irish kings who reigned contemporaneously. Copies of this tract are preserved in the Books of Lecan and Ballymote. The 'Annals of Tighernach' (Teerna): Tighernach O'Breen, the compiler of these annals, one of the greatest scholars of his time, was abbot of the two monasteries of Clonmacnoise and Ros- common. He was acquainted with the chief his- torical writers of the world known in his day, com- pares them, and quotes from them ; and he made use of Flann's Synchronisms, and of most other ancient Irish historical writings of importance. His work is written in Irish mixed a good deal with Latin; it has lately been translated by Dr. Stokes. He states that authentic Irish history begins at the foundation of Emania, and that all preceding ac- counts are uncertain. Tighernach died in 10S8. The 'Annals of Innisfallen' were compiled about the year 1215 by some scholars of the monastery of Innisfallen, in the Lower Lake of Killarney. The 'Annals of Ulster' were written in the little island of Senait MacManus, now called Belle Isle, in Upper Lough Erne. The original compiler was Cathal (Cahal) Maguire, who died of small-pox in 1408. They have lately been translated and published. The 'Annals of Lough Ce' (Key) were copied in 1588 for Bryan MacDermot, who had his residence on an island in Lough Key, in Ros- common. They have been translated and edited in two volumes. The 'Annals of Connaught,' from 1224 to 1562. The 'Chronicon Scotorum' (Chroni- cle of the Scots or Irish), down to A. D. 113S, was compiled about 1650 by the great Irish anti- quary Duald MacFirbis. These annals have been printed with translation. The 'Annals of Boyle,' from the earliest time to 1253, are written in Irish mi.xed with Latin; and the entries throughout are very meagre. The 'Annals of Clonmacnoise,' from the earliest period to 1408. The original Irish of these is lost ; but we have an English translation by Connell MacGeoghegan of Westmeath, which he completed in 1627. The 'Annals of the Four Masters,' also called the Annals of Donegal, are the most important of all. They were compiled in the Franciscan monastery of Donegal, by three of the O'Clerys, Michael, Conary, and Cucogry, and by Ferfesa O'Mulconry. who are now commonly known as the Four Masters. They began in 1632, and completed the work in 1636. The '.'\nn3ls of the Four Masters' was translated with most elabo- rate and learned annotations by Dr. John O'Dono- van ; and it was published — Irish text, translation, and notes — in seven large volumes. A book of an- 353 ANNALS ANNAPOLIS CONVENTION nals called the 'Psalter of Cashcl,' was compiled by Cormac MacCullenan, but this has been lost. He also wrote "Cormac's Glossary-,' an explanation of many old Irish words. This work has been translated and printed. The Annals noticed so far are all in the Irish language, occasionally mixed with Latin ; but besides these there are Annals of Ireland wholly in Latin; such as those of Clyn, Dowling, Pembridge. Multylarnham, etc.. most of which have been published." — Ibid., pp. 228-230. "None of the Irish writers of old times conceived the plan of writing a general history of Ireland. The first history of the whole country was the 'Forus Feasa ar Erinn,' or History of Ireland, from the most ancient times to the Anglo-Norman invasion, written by Dr. Geoffrey Keating of Tubbrid in Tipperary, a Catholic priest: died 1644. Keating was deeply versed in the ancient language and literature of Ireland; and his history, though containing much that is legendary, is very interest- ing and valuable. The genealogies of the princi- pal families were most faithfully preserved in an- cient Ireland. Each king and chief had in his household a Shanachy ur Historian, whose duly it was to keep a written record of all the ancestors and of the several branches of the family. Many of the ancient genealogies are preserved in the Books of Leinster. Lecan, Ballymote, etc. But the most important collection of all is the great Book of Genealogies compiled in the years 1050 to loob in the College of St. Nicholas in Galway, by Duald MacFirbis. In this place may be men- tioned the Dmnsenchus ( Din-Shan'shus), a topo- graphical tract giving the legendary history and the etymology of the names of remarkable hills, mounds, caves, cams, cromlechs, raths. duns, plains, lakes, rivers, fords, islands, and so forth. The stories are mostly fictitious, invented to suit the really existing names: nevertheless this tract is of the utmost value for elucidating the topography and antiquities of the country. Copies of it are found in several of the old Irish Books of mis- cellaneous literature, as already mentioned. .An- other very important tract — one about the names of remarkable Irish persons, called Coir .-Knmann ('Fitness of Names'), corresponding with the Dinn- senchus for place-names, has been published with translation by Dr. Stokes." — Ibid. pp. 230-232. — See also Books: Books in medieval times; Celts: An- cient Irish sagas. French, German, Italian and Spanish annals. — Early in the 8th century annals of Frankish origin began to appear. The German historian G. H. Pertz (1705-1876), in one of his numerous literarv- exploration journeys, discovered some valu- able annals in a manuscript of the St. Germain- des-Pres church in Paris, founded by King Childe- bert in 542 or 543. This collection of annals begin with some short annotations from Lindisfarne in the years 643-604 and from Canterbury for 673- 600. The manuscript, it appears, was brought from England by .\lcuin, adviser of Charlemagne and the most distinguished scholar of the 8th cen- tury, to that monarch's court. From 782 to 787 .Alcuin had inserted for each year the names of the places where Charlemagne had spent the Easter- tide. The monks of St. Germain-des-pres had during later years added matter taken from the ancient annals of St. Denis up to 887. The earli- est annals of the Carolingian period are divided by historians into three groups: the Annales S. Amandi, and their derivatives; those which grew out of the historical annotations of the convent of Laurissa or Lorsch in Germany; and the Annales Murba- censes (Murbach in .Msace). These are all bald records of events arranged in chronological order. During the reign of Charlemagne, annals as- sumed something of an official stamp and began to develop a real historical character under patron- age of the court. To distinguish them from the ecclesiastic annals, they were styled Reichsannaien, or "annals of the state." They betray a wide and intimate knowledge of state affairs, while unpleas- ant facts are diplomatically omitted. These stata annals begin from the year 741 and contain much material borrowed from earlier documents, notably the Liber Pontificalis, Gesla Francorum, Bede's Little Chronicle, and the chronicles of Fredegarius and of Isidor of Seville. Under the Roman Em- peror Louis the Pious (778-S40) and his successors the Annales Fitldenses were brought out, containing the history of the realm, with matter taken from the Annales Lanrissenses minores and others to fill in the history between 711 and 829. The Annales S. Bertini (,830-835) are more ambitious in scope and appear to have been heavily drawn upon in the production of the Chronicon de gestis Korman- noriim in Francid. .Another important collection of the oth century arc the so-called Annales Ein- hardi and the Annales Laiiresliamenses. Frotn this stage the annals begin to develop into chronicles, or carefully-written histories. They passed from hand to hand as death removed the authors and became merged in latter compilations under other names. In Italy and Spain the output was poor in comparison with that of the northern countries. The principal Italian contributions are the Chronica Sancti Benedict! Casinensis (014-934) ; the chroni- cle of Bendict of St. .Andrew (q6S) ; the Construc- tio Farfensis (about 848) ; and the more famous Chronicon Salernilanum (074). The chief Spanish products are: the De Sex aetatibus tnundi (from B.C. 38). and the Chronicon of Bishop Idatius (S70). .^Lso in: S. R. Gardiner and J. B. Mullinger, In- troduction to the study of English history. — C. W. -N'itzsch, Die romische .innalistik — L O. Brocker, Moderne Quellenforscher iind antike Geschicht- schreiber. — Monod, Etude critique sur les sources de Vhistoire carolinginne. — Wibel. Beilriige zur Kritik der Annales Regni Francorum und .\nnales qui dicuntur Einhardi. ANNAM, or Anam, a French colony in south- eastern .\sia, part of French Indo-China ; became a French protectorate June 6, 1884. It is ruled by King Khai-Dink who came to the throne in 1Q16. Internal affairs are administered by .\n- namite officials in accordance with the advice of the French government. — See also Fr.*N'CE: 1875- iSSo. Ancient mythology. See Mythology: Eastern Africa: Indian and Chinese influences. French trade with China. See Indo-China: 1787-1801. Government. Sec Indo-Ciiina. Native rule. See Indo-Ciiina: B.C. 2i8-.\. D. 1886. ANNAPOLIS, Attack on (1744) See New Excl-\nd: 1744. ANNAPOLIS (Port Royal): 1713.— Relin- quished to Great Britain. See Newtoundland, DOMi.NioN- ok: 171 ( ANNAPOLIS ACADEMY. See Annapolis NaV.^I, .\C.-\DEMV. ANNAPOLIS CONVENTION.— The necessity for amending the articles of confederation became patent immediately after peace was declared in 1783 The weakness of the union was emphasized by the many inadjustable causes of difference be- tween the states; commercial regulations were from the beginning mutually incompatible, and it was with difficulty that Madison finally convinced the 354 ANNAPOLIS NAVAL ACADEMY ANSON Virginia legislature of the only possible remedy: calling the other states to a convention for com- mon action. He finally succeeded in this purpose — delegates were to be sent from all states to con- sider commercial regulations. "The place was to be Annapolis, remote from New York, where con- gress then sat, and far away from any large port whose merchants might influence its deliberations. The time of meeting was to be September ii, 178b. This convention, be it remembered, was to be a creature of the states, to report to them, and was not concerned with the continental congress. At the appointed time delegates assembled from Vir- ginia, Pennsylvania, Delaware, New York, and New Jersey; and Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New Hampshire, and North Carolina named dele- gates who did not attend. The other states, Georgia, South Carolina, Maryland, and Connecti- cut, took no notice of the call. More discourag- ing than these absences was the fact that no real good could be accomplished unless a power existed strong enough to enforce common regulations, if they were made. The convention, therefore, gave up the task before it and issued an address to the states urging them to call a constitutional conven- tion to meet in Philadelphia the second Monday in May. Its action was to be binding when ap- proved by congress and confirmed by all the state legislatures." — J. S. Bassett, Short history of the United States, pp. 241-242. ANNAPOLIS NAVAL ACADEMY.— "Estab- lished at Annapolis | Maryland! in 1845, while George Bancroft, the historian, was Secretary of the Navy. It began on a small scale, by execu- tive order ; and Congress gradually provided it with buildings and funds. Its graduates enter the Navy with commissions as ensigns. By the act of February 15, igi6, three midshipmen may be ap- pointed each year to the academy for each Sena- tor, Representative, and Delegate in Congress, while, by a later act of the same year, the number of annual appointments at large was made 15, that from among enlisted men of the Navy 25, and the appointment of 4 Filipinos was authorized. Finally, by the act of .^pril 25, IQ17, the appoint- ment of one additional midshipman for each Sena- tor, Representative, and Delegate in Congress [was] authorized for the year 1Q17-1S. (At that time] the possible maximum enrollment of the academy [was] about 2,200. The selection of candidates for nomination from any State, Terri- tory, or congressional district is entirely in the hands of the member of Congress entitled to the appointment, but these appointments are now made upon the basis of competitive examination. A person securing such appointment must stand rigid physical and mental examinations before be- ing admitted to the academy." — War cyclopedia, p. 184. ANNATES, or First-fruits. — "A practice had existed for some hundreds of years, in all the churches of Europe, that bishops and arch- bishops, on presentation to their sees, should trans- mit to the pope, on receiving their bulls of in- vestment, one year's income from their new prefer- ments. It was called the payment of .Annates, or first-fruits, and had originated in the time of the crusades, as a means of providing a fund for the holy wars. Once established it had settled into custom, and was one of the chief resources of the papal revenue " — J. A. Froude, History of England, ch. 4. — "The claim [by the pope] to the first- fruits of bishoprics and other promotions was ap- parently first made in England by Alexander IV. in 1256, for five years; it was renewed by Clement V. in 1306, to last for two years; and it was in a measure successful. By John XXII. it was claimed throughout Christendom for three years, and met with universal resistance. . . . Stoutly contested as it was in the Council of Constance, and frequently made the subject of debate in parliament and council the demand must have been regularly com- plied with." — W. Stubbs, Constitutional history of England, ch. iq, sect. 718. — The papal exaction was abolished in England in the reign of Henry VIII. and later, during the same reign, right to annates was annexed by the crown. ANNE (1665-1714), queen of Great Britain and Ireland 1702-1714; last of the house of Stuart; sided with the Prince of Orange in the revolution of 1688 against her father; successful participa- tion in the War of the Spanish Succession, and the union of Scotland and England in 1707 were the most important events in her reign.— See also England: 1702-1714, and after. ANNE BOLEYN. See Boleyn, Anne; Eng- land: I527-I534> and 1536-154.^ ANNE OF AUSTRIA (1601-1666), queen of France (1615-1006) through marriage to Louis XIII; was concerned in conspiracies of Chalais (1628) and Cinq-Mars (1642) against Richelieu; regent (1643-1661) for her son, Louis XIV. — See also France: 1042-1043, and 1651-1653. ANNE OF BRITTANY (1477-1514), queen of France; by her marriage to Charles VIII in 1491, Brittany, the last of the great fiefs, was permanently united to the crown of France. Sec Brittany: 1491. ANNE OF CLEVES (1515-1557), queen of England, fourth wife of Henry VIII ; was divorced in the year of her marriage. See England: 1536-1543. ANNEUX, France: 1917.— Taken by British. See World War: 1917: II. Western front: g, 5. 1918. — Region of fighting. See World Wah: 1918: II. Western front: o, 1. ANNO, or Hanno, Saint (c. 1010-1075), arch- bishop of Cologne. Prominent in the government of Germany during the minority of Henry IV. .^i the synod of Mantua 1064, declared Alexander II the rightful pope. ANNOBON ISLAND, an island in the Gulf ol Guinea, belonging to Spain. Discovered in 1471 bv the Portuguese; ceded to Spain in 1778. ANNUNZIO, Gabriele d'. See D'Annunziu, Gabriele. ANSBACH. See Br.'^ndenburc: 1417-1640. ANSCHAR, Saint. See Ansgar, Saint. ANSELM (c. 1033-1109), early scholastic philos- opher. .\ monk under Lanfranc, whom he suc- ceeded as prior of Bee. In 1092 he was called to England to become archbishop of Canterbury, in- volving a dispute over investiture lasting until 1107. He advanced the ontological proof of the existence of God, and is generally regarded as the first of the schoolmen. — See also Abbot; England: 1087-1135. ANSGAR or Anskar, Saint (801-865), French preacher, called "the Apostle of the North" be- cause of his labors to bring Christianity to Den- mark, Sweden and Northern Germany ; first arch- bishop of Hamburg. See Christianity: gth-iith centuries; Swf.dk.n: uth-i2th centuries. ANSON, George Anson, Baron (1697-1762), English admiral and navigator. Fought against Spain in the South Sea, 1740-1744; during this pe- riod circumnavigated the globe and added much to the knowledge of navigation and geography ; in 1747 defeated the French at Cape Finisterre. — See also England: 1745-1747; Pacific ocean: 1513- 1764. ANSON, Sir William Reynell (1843-1Q14), English jurist. Member of Parliament; identified 355 ANTALCIDAS, PEACE OF ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION with educational movements; active in the estab- lishment ot a school of law at Oxford; author of many standard books on legal subjects. ANTALCIDAS, Peace of (386 B.C.), named after the Spartan statesman who defeated the Athenians. It was ratified by all the Greek states, and gave to Persia the Greek towns on the main- land of Asia Minor and guaranteed independence to all others. — See also Greece; 3Qq-3S7 B.C. ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION: Problem or discovery. — Area. — Though quite as important from the geographical and scientitic point of view as the North Pole, the ."Vntarctic regions and the South Pole had been comparatively neglected un- til modern times. While the northern portion of this planet has been practically overrun by ex- plorers and expeditions during the past 300 years and more, the south had long remained a terra incognita. So far as is known, the southern ocean was first navigated by Magellan during the first quarter of the sixteenth century. Circumnavigat- ing the earth in 1774, Captain Cook proved the e.xistence of a circumpolar ocean, and concluded that there was a great mass of land there. The most striking information he gathered was the iso- lation of the mythical Antarctic continent, and that the strongest evidence of the presence of land pointed to about no deg. W. long, and 71 deg. S. lat. More definite knowledge, however, was hid- den from human ken until the Australian whaling fleet made incursions into those unknown waters. It seems that the extent of land diminished as in- vestigations progressed; whalers discovered land close to the Antarctic circle a hundred years ago. The honor of original discovery of the Antarctic continent — or of the fact that it really is a con- tinent — has been variously credited to the Rus- sian, Capt. von Bellingshausen (1S20-1822) ; to an American, Capt. N. B. Palmer (1821) ; and the Englishman, Capt. John Biscoe (1831). Of more than passing interest is the following excerpt from the Annual Register of 1821, p. 686: "In Octo- ber, i8ig, the brig Williams, of Blythe, Northum- berland, Smith, master, on a voyage from Buenos Ayres to Valparaiso, stretching to the south, from contrary winds, discovered land, on which the cap- tain landed, and performed the usual formalities of taking possession, in the name of his late majesty, George III." In 183Q began a systematic and in- ternational attack upon the South. British, Ameri- can, French and Russian expeditions had already been dispatched, each returning with its quota of useful results. "Since the introduction of steam power in ships, the facilities for fuller explorations have been utilized, so that data, somewhat scanty, exist for the outlining of the regions as. a whole. Among distinguished scientists who have attempted to solve this indeterminate equation. Sir John Mur- ray, of the Challenger, is the most advanced and definite. Basing his conclusions on a study of sedi- ments from the southern sea, he outlined ... a new southern continent, christened Antarctica." — A. W. Greely, Handbook of polar discoveries, p. 276. — -According to Prof. T. W. Edgeworth David, of the University of Sydney, who has given con- siderable study to the .Antarctic continent, the area of the land definitely known is estimated at 5,000,- 000 square miles. The coast line, Prof David had calculated measures 14,000 miles long. This estimate includes the seaward boundary of thick fast ice, a large part of which, however, remains still undis- covered The Antarctic region opens up an im- mense field for research in meteorology. When science acquires a more thoroueh knowledge of glaciology, oceanography and meteorology of this region, the cycle of weather conditions over all the hemisphere will be understood much more readily. 1519-1819. — Early exploration. — Magellan. — Drake. — Bouvet. — Duf resne. — Captain Cook. — "The hbtory of .Antarctic discovery may be di- vided at the outset into two categories. In the first of these I would include the numerous voy- agers who, without any definite idea of the form or conditions of the southern hemisphere, set their course toward the South, to make what landfall they could. These need only be mentioned briefly before passing to the second group, that of Ant- arctic travellers in the proper sense of the term, who, with a knowledge of the form of the earth, set out across the ocean, aiming to strike the Antarc- tic monster — in the heart, if fortune favoured them. . . . We then meet with the greatest of the older explorers, Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese by birth, though sailing in the service of Spain. Setting out in 1510, he discovered the connection between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans in the strait that bears his name. No one before him had penetrated so far South — to about lat. 52" S. One of his ships, the Victoria, accompUshed the first circumnavigation of the world, and thus es- tabhshed in the popular mind the fact that the earth was really round. From that time the idea of the Antarctic regions assumed definite shape. There must be something in the South: whether land or water the future was to determine. In 1578 we come to the renowned English seaman, Sir Francis Drake. ... He rounded Cape Horn and proved that Tierra del Fuego was a great group of islands and not part of an Antarctic continent, as many had thought. . . . The French- man, Bouvet (1738), was the first to follow the southern ice-pack for any considerable distance, and to bring reports of the immense, flat-topped .Ant- arctic icebergs. In 1756 the Spanish trading-ship Leon came home and reported high, snow-covered land in lat. 55^ S. to the east of Cape Horn. The probabiUty is that this was what we now know by the name of South Georgia. The Frenchman, Marion-Dufresne, discovered, in 1772, the Marion and Crozet Islands. In the same year Joseph de Kergu^len-Tremarec — another Frenchman — reached Kerguelen Land. This concludes the series of expeditions that I have thought it proper to class in the first group. . . . [See Pacific ocean: 1513- 1764.] "Captain James Cook — one of the boldest and most capable seamen the world has known — opens the series of Antarctic expeditions properly so called. The British .Admiralty sent him out with orders to discover the great southern continent, or prove that it did not exist. The expedition, con- sisting of two ships, the Resolution and the Ad- venture, left Plymouth on July 13, 1772. ... In the course of his voyage to the south Cook passed 300 miles to the south of the land reported by Bouvet, and thereby estabhshcd the fact that the land in question — if it existed — was not continu- ous with the great southern continent. On Janu- ary 17, 1773, the Antarctic Circle was crossed for the first time — a memorable day in the annals of .Antarctic exploration. Shortly afterwards a solid pack was encountered, and Cook was forced to re- turn to the north. .A course was laid for the newly discovered islands — Kerguelen, Marion, and the Crozets — and it was proved that they had nothing to do with the great southern land. In the course of hi? further voyages in .Antarctic waters Cook completed the most southerly cir- cumnavigation of the globe, and showed that there was nn connection between any of the lands or islands that had been discovered and the great 356 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION mysterious 'Antarctica.' His highest latitude (January 30, 1774) was 71" 10' S. Cook's voy- ages had important commercial results, as his re- ports of the enormous number of seals round South Georgia brought many sealers, both English and American, to those waters, and these sealers, in turn, increased the field of geographical dis- covery. In i8iq the discovery of the South Shetland? by the Englishman, Captain William Smith, is to be recorded. And this discovery led to that of the Palmer Archipelago to the south of them." — R. Amundsen, South Pole, v. i, pp. 3-7. — See also New Zealand: 1642-1814. 1819-1838. — Bellingshausen. — Weddell. — d'Urville. — Wilkes. — "The next scientific expedi- tion to the Antarctic regions was that despatched by the Emperor Alexander I. of Russia, under the command of Captain Thaddeus von Bellingshausen. It was composed of two ships, and sailed from Cronstadt on July 15, i8iq. To this expedition belongs the honour of having discovered the first land to the south of the Antarctic Circle — Peter I. Island and Alexander I. Land." — Ibid., p. 8. "In 1823 Capt. James Weddell discovered and named the South Orkneys and penetrated 240 miles nearer the South Pole than any previous ex- plorers. Among other valuable observations he no- ticed the same slow vibrations of the compass which Peary had noticed in the Arctic regions. "The English firm of shipowners, Endcrby Brothers, plays a not unimportant part in Ant- arctic exploration. The Enderbys had carried on sealing in southern waters since 1785. They were greatly interested, not only in the commercial, but also in the scientific results of these voyages, and chose their captains accordingly. In 1830 the firm sent out John Biscoe on a sealing voyage in the Antarctic Ocean with the brig Tula and the cutter Lively. The result of this voyage was the sight- ing of Endeiby Land in lat. 66° 25' S., long. 4q' 18' E. In the following year Adelaide, Biscoe, and Pitt Islands, on the west coast of Graham Land were chartered, and Graham Land itself was seen for the first time. . . . We then come to the cele- brated French sailor. Admiral Jules Sebastien Du- mont d'Urville. He left Toulon in September, 1837, with a scientifically equipped expedition, in the ships Astrolabe and Zelee. The intention was to follow in Weddell's track, and endeavour to carry the French flag still nearer to the Pole, Early in 1838 Louis Philippe Land and Joinville Island were discovered and named. Two years later we again find d'Urville's vessels in Antarctic waters, with the object of investigating the magnetic con- ditions in the vicinity of the South Magnetic Pole, land was discovered in lat. 66" 3c' S. and long. 138° 21' E. With the exception of a few bare islets, the whole of this land was completely covered with snow. It was given the name of Adelie Land, and a part of the ice-barricr lying to the west of it was called Cote Clarie, on the supposition that it must envelop a line of coast. * "The American naval officer, Lieutenant Charles Wilkes, sailed in August, 1S38, with a fleet of six vessels. The expedition was sent out by Congress, and carried twelve scientific observers. In Febru- ary, iS3g, the whole of this imposing Antarctic fleet was collected in Orange Harbour in the south of Tierra del Fuego, where the work was divided among the various vessels. As to the results of this expedition it is difficult to express an opin- ion. [The land claimed to have been discovered by Wilkes has never been found.! Certain it is that Wilkes Land has subsecjuently been sailed over in many places by several expeditions. Of what may have been the cause of this inaccurate cartography it is impossible to form any opinion. It appears, however, from the account of the whole voyage, that the undertaking was seriously con- ducted." — Ibid., pp. 8-10. 1839-1845.— Ross.— "Then the bright star ap- pears, — the man whose name will ever be remem- bered as one of the most intrepid polar explor- ers and one of the most capable seamen the world has produced — Admiral Sir James Clark Ross. The results of his expedition are well known. Ross himself commanded the Erebus and Commander Francis Crozier the Terror. The former vessel, of 370 tons, had been originally built for throwing bombs; her construction was therefore extraordi- narily solid. The Terror, 340 tons, had been previ- ously employed in Arctic waters, and on this ac- count had been already strengthened. In pro- visioning the ships every possible precaution was taken against scurvy, with the dangers of which Ross was familiar from his experience in Arctic, waters. The vessels sailed from England in Sep- tember, 183Q, calling at many of the Atlantic Is- lands, and arrived in Christmas Harbour, Kergue- len Land, in the following May. Here they stayed two months, making magnetic observations, and then proceeded to Hobart. Sir John Franklin, the eminent polar explorer, was at that time Governor of Tasmania, and Ross could not have wished for a better one. Interested as Franklin naturally was in the expedition, he afforded it all the help he possibly could. During his stay in Tasmania Ross received information of what had been accom- plished by Wilkes and Dumont d'Urville in the very region which the Admiralty had sent him to explore. The effect of this news was that Rosa changed his plans, and decided to proceed along the 170th meridian E., and if possible to reach the Magnetic Pole from the eastward. . . . After call- ing at the Auckland Island and at Campbell Island, Ross again steered for the South, and the Antarctic Circle was crossed on New Year's Day, 1841. The ships were now faced by the ice-pack, but to Ross this was not the dangerous enemy it had appeared to earlier explorers with their more weakly con- structed vessels. Ross plunged boldly into the pack with his fortified ships, and, taking advantage of the narrow leads, he came out four days later, after many severe buffets, into the open sea to the South. ... It was in lat. 60° 15' S. and long. 176° 15' E. that Ross found the open sea. On the following day the horizon was perfectly clear of ice. . . . The course was set for the Magnetic Pole, and the hope of soon reaching it burned in the hearts of all. Then — just as they had accustomed themselves to the idea of open sea, perhaps to the Magnetic Pole itself — the crow's-nest reported 'High land right ahead.' This was the mountain- ous coast of South Victoria Land. What a fairy- land this must have seemed to the first voyagers who approached it! Mighty mountain-ranges with summits from 7,000 to 10,000 feet high, some covered with snow and some quite bare — lofty and rugged, precipitous and wild. It became apparent that the Magnetic Pole was some 500 miles distant — far inland, behind the snow-covered ridges. On the morning of January 12 they came close under a little island, and Ross with a few companions rowed ashore and took possession of the country. They could not reach the mainland itself on account of the thick belt of ice that lay along the coast. The expedition continued to work its way south- ward, making fresh discoveries. On January 28 the two lofty summits. Mount Erebus and Mount Terror, were sighted for the first time. The for- mer was seen to be an active volcano, from which smoke and fiames shot up into the sky. It must 357 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION have been a wonderfully fine sight, this flaming fire in the midst of the white, frozen landscape. Captain Scott has since given the island, on which the mountains lie, the name of Ross Island, after the intrepid navigator. . . . From Ross Island, as far to the eastward as the eye could see, there extended a lofty, impenetrable wall of ice. . . . .Ml they could do was to try to get round it. .\nd then began the first examination of that part of the great .•\ntarctic Barrier which has since been named the Ross Barrier. The wall of ice was fol- lowed to the eastward for a distance of 250 miles. Its upper surface was seen to be perfectly flat. The most easterly point reached was long. 107 ' W., and the highest latitude 78° 4' S. No opening having been found, the ships returned to the west, in order to try once more whether there was any possibility of reaching the Magnetic Pole. But this attempt soon had to be abandoned on account of the lateness of the season, and in April, 1841, Ross returned to Hobart. His second voyage was full of dangers and thrilling incidents, but added little to the tale of his discoveries. On February 22, 1842, the ships came in sight of the Barrier, and, following it to the east, found that it turned north- eastward. Here Ross recorded an 'appearance of land' in the very region in which Captain Scott, sixty years later, discovered King Edward VII. Land. On December 17, 1842, Ross set out on his third and last .Antarctic voyage. His object this time was to reach a high latitude along the coast of Louis Philippe Land, if possible, or alterna- tively by following Weddell's track. Both attempts were frustrated by the ice conditions. On sighting Joinville Land, the officers of the Terror thought they could see smoke from active volcanoes, but Ross and his men did not confirm this. About fifty years later active volcanoes were actually dis- covered by the Norwegian, Captain C. A. Larsen, in the Jason. .^ few minor geographical discov- eries were made, but none of any great impor- tance. This concluded Ross's attempts to reach the South Pole. .\ magnificent work had been achieved, and the honour of having opened up the way by which, at last, the Pole was reached must be ascribed to Ross. "The Pagoda, commanded by Lieutenant Moore, was the next vessel to make for the South. Her chief object was to make magnetic observations in high latitudes south of the Indian Ocean. The first ice was met with in lat. $y 30' S., on Janu- ary 25, 1845. On February 5 the .\ntarctic Circle was crossed in long, .^o' 45' E. The most south- erly latitude attained on this voyage was 67' 50' in long. 30' 41' E. "This was the last expedition to visit the .Ant- arctic regions in a ship propelled by sails alone. . . . Less known, but no less efficient in their work, were the whalers round the South Shetlands and in the regions to the south of them. . . ." — Ibid., pp. 10-15. — Sec also Pacific ocean: 1764-1850. 1892-1893. — In i8Q2-i8g3 occurred the whaling voyage of the Dundee vessels, the Balaena, Active, Diana and Polar Star, equipped for geographical observation by the Royal Geographical Society and others interested, carrying William S. Bruce, C. W. Donald, and W. G. Burn Murdoch. They were accompanied by the Norwegian sealer Jaseii. under Captain Larsen. South Shetlands and Graham Land were visited and valuable observations made. 1894-1895. — ".\ most important whaling expedi- tion ... is that of the Antarctic, under [the Nor- wegian] Captain Leonard Kristensen. Kristensen was an extraordinarily capable man, and achieved the remarkable record of being the first to set foot on the sixth continent, the great southern land — 'Antarctica.' " — Ibid., p. 18. — This commercial ex- pedition was sent out by Captain Svcnd Foyii. fitted out by H. J. Bull, and carried the scientist Carsten E. Borchgrevink. The valuable right whale was not found, but large beds of guano were dis- covered in Victoria Land, where a landing was made near Cape .'\dare. 1897. — "An epoch-making phase of .\ntarctic re- search is now ushered in by the Belgica, under the leadership of Commander .Adricn de Gerlache. Hardly any one has had a harder fight to set his enterprise on foot than Gerlache. He was success- ful, however, and on .\ugust 16, 1807, the Belgica left .Antwerp. The scientific staff had been able to secure the services of exceedingly able men. His second in command. Lieutenant G. Lecointe, a Bel- gian, possessed every qualification for his difficult position. It must be remembered that the Belgica's company was as cosmopolitan as it could be — Bel- gians, Frenchmen, .Americans, Norwegians, Swedes, Rumanians, Poles, etc. — and it was the business of the second in command to keep all these men to- gether and get the best possible work out of them. .And Lecointe acquitted himself admirably ; amiable and firm, he secured the respect of all. . . . The object of the expedition was to penetrate to the South Magnetic Pole, but this had to be abandoned at an early stage for want of time." — Ibid., p. 18. — Near .Alexander I Land the Belgica caught in the ice pack and held for a year, drifting as far south as lat. 71° 36', in long. 87° 30' W. Finally re- leased by the cutting of a canal through the ice. This dreary winter was the first spent by men far enough south to lose sight of the sun. The con- tinent found to be mountainous, glaciated, and without land animals except a few insects, though sea fowl abounded. One flowering grass, and a few mosses, rock lichens, and fresh-water algae consti- tute the flora. Some 500 miles of coast charted. 1897. — -Anglo-.Australasian .Antarctic conference was held in London. 1898. — Conference on .Antarctic exploration held in the rooms of the Royal Society, London, Feb. 24- Carsten E. Borchgrevink, the Norwegian ex- plorer, who had led an expedition to the .Antarctic in 1894-1805, led another in i8q8. The latter was equipped by the late Sir George Newncs, and was absent nearly two years. Borchgrevink penetrated to the farthest point south that had ever been reached, Lat. 78' 50' S., and fixed the magnetic position of the South Pole at about latitude 73 degrees 20 minutes south, and 146 east. 1898-1899. — German expedition for deep-sea ex- ploration in .Antarctic waters, in charge of Prof. Carl Chun, on the Valdivia. Southern ocean found to be of great depth. 1901-1909. — English, German, Swedish, and Scottish expeditions. — Successes of Lieutenant Shackleton. — In .April 1001. several expeditions to the .Antarctic region were reported as being under preparation, in England, Germany, and Sweden. The English expedition, for which the ship Dis- covery was being fitted out, sailed on .August 6. iQoi, under the command of Capt Robert F. Scott, with Lieut. Ernest H. Shackleton of the British navy as second in command. Its object was a further exploration of the ^real mountainous re- gion named Victoria Land, which Capt James Ross had disrovrred half a ccntur)- before. This coast the Discovery reached in January 1Q02. and followed it southward, to and beyond the Erebus volcano, skirting the great ice barrier which stretches far eastward, seeming to forbid a pene- tration of the frozen territory it hems in. In this survey the British explorers reached an unvisited 358 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION section, which t'hey named King Edward Land. They wintered that year near Mount Erebus, push- ing sledge expeditions southward over the snow fields, finding a more upheaved and broken sur- face of land, less ice-capped, than is the common feature of the Arctic polar zone. In the longest of these sledge-trips the latitude of 82' 17' S. was attaiiied, — far beyond any previous approach to the southern pole, but still more than 500 miles from that goal. Through a second winter the Dis- covery was held fast in the ice, with considerable sickness among officers and men, notwithstanding which important additions to their survey of the region were made. In Januar>' 1Q04, they were reached by two relief ships, and escaped from the ice in the following month, arriving at New Zea- land not long after. The German expedition commanded by Dr. Drygalski, left Kiel August 11, looi, borne by the steamer Gauss, built specially for battling with ice. In January 1Q02, it took on stores at Ker- guelen island, and proceeded thence to a point in the Antarctic circle far eastward of that chosen by the British explorers, being within the region of the discoveries made by Captain Wilkes, about sixty years before, and indefinitely named Wilkes Land. It was the purpose of Dr. Drygalski to establish a station on the section of this unex- plored territory known as Termination Land and from thence make thorough surveys. He failed, however, to find the supposed land in its expected place, and was unfortunately frozen in for a year, with sledge expeditions baffled by the violence of winter storms. In geographical exploration the Gauss party seem to have accomplished little, but they made rich collections of scientific data. As soon as they were freed from the ice they received orders from Berlin to return home. The Swedish expedition, under Dr. Otto Nor- denskjold [nephew of the famous discoverer of the Northeast Passage], left Europe in October igoi, in the ship Antarctk, destined for Graham Land, south of the South .American continent. There, on the east coast of that land, in Admiralty inlet. Dr. Nordenskjold established winter quarters in February IQ02, and the Antarctic was sent to South America, to return thence some months later. A Scottish expedition, under Dr. W. S. Bruce, in the steamer Scotia, was sent out in October iqo,!, for special oceanographic investigations in Weddell sea, — south of the Atlantic ocean. All previous Antarctic explorations were eclipsed, in igoS-iqoQ, by that of Lieutenant Shackleton, commanding the barkentine Nimrod. a converted whaling vessel, much smaller than the Discovery, on which Lieutenant Shackleton had accompanied Captain Scott to the same region some years be- fore. The Nimrod sailed from England in July IQ07, and from New Zealand on New Year Day, IQ08, going to the same section of the Arctic cir- cle that the Discovery had sought. Winter quar- ters were established at a point abort twenty miles north of the spot where Scott and Shackleton had wintered in 1Q02-1Q03. One of the first achieve- ments of the party was the ascent of Mount Ere- bus by six of the scientists of the expedition, who began their difficult climb on March 5. Caught in a blizzard on the second day of their undertaking, they had to lie in their sleeping-bags for thirty hours; but they made their way to the summit and looked down into the live fire of the crater. The party making this ascent were Lieutenant Adams, R. N. R. (geologist). Sir Philip Brockle- hurst (surveyor and map maker) , Professor David, of Sydney University, Mr. A. Forbes Mackay, as- sistant surgeon, Mr. Eric Marshall, surgeon and cartographer, and Mr. Marson a scientist of Ade- laide. Early in the spring the sledging journeys were begun. Speaking at a reception given to him by the Royal Geographical Society, on his return to Eng- land in June igog. Lieutenant Shackleton gave a brief account of the most important of these journeys, led by himself, with Lieutenant .Adams, geologist. Surgeon Eric Marshall, and a third com- panion named Wild. The march of the party was directly toward the Pole: On December 3 they climbed a mountain 4,000 feet high, and from its summit saw what they believed to be a royal road to the Pole — an enor- mous glacier stretching southwards. There was only one pony left at this time, and, taking this animal with them, they started the ascent of the glacier, which proved to be seamed with crevasses. Progress became very slow, for disaster threatened at every step. On December 7 the remaining pony was lost down a crevasse, very nearly taking Wild and a sledge with it. Finally the party gained the inland plateau, at an altitude of over 10,000 feet, and started across the great white snow plain to- ward the Pole. They were short of food, and had cut down their rations to an absolute minimum; the tempera- ture at the high altitude was extremely low, and all. their spare clothing had been deposited lower down the glacier in order to save weight. On January 6 [1900], they reached latitude 88° 8' south, after having taken the risk of leaving a depot of stores on the plateau, out of sight of all land. Then a blizzard swept down upon them, and for two days they were unable to leave their tent, while, owing to their weakened condition and the intense cold, they suffered from frostbite even in their sleeping bags. When the blizzard moderated on January q they felt that they had reached their limit of endur- ance, for their strength was greatly reduced and the food was almost done. They therefore left the camp standing, and pushing on for five hours, planted Queen .Alexandra's flag in 88' 23' south, took pos- session of the plateau for the King, and turned their faces north again. Lieut. Shackleton described the difliculties of the journey back to the coast, when the men were desperately short of food and nearly worn out, and attacks of dysentery added to their troubles. One day on the Barrier they were unable to march at all, being prostrated with dysentery, and they reached each depot with their food finished. On February 23, however, they reached a depot prepared for them by a party from the ship, and on March i. Lieut. Shackleton and Wild reached the Nimrod. Lieut. Shackleton at once led a relief party back to get .Adams and Marshall, the latter having been unable to continue the march owin; to dysentery, and on March 4 all the men were safe on board. The following excerpts from the diary kept by the leader of the party are taken from E. H. Shacklcton's Heart of the Antarctic, pp. 208-210. "January 8. .Again all day in our bags, suffering considerably y^hysically from cold hands and feet, and from hunger, but more mentalh-, for we can- not get on south, and we simply lie here shivering. Every now and then one of our party's feet go, and the unfortunate beggar has to take his leg out of the sleeping-bag and have his frozen foot nursed into life again by placing it inside the shirt, against the skin of his almost equally unfortunate neigh- bour. We must do something more to the south, even though the food is going, and we weaken lying in the cold, for with 72' of frost the wind cuts through our thin tent, and even the drift is find- 359 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION ing its way in and on to our bags, which are wet enough as it is. Cramp is not uncommon every now and then, and the drift all round the tent has made it so small that there is hardly room for us at all. The wind has been blowing hard all day ; some of the gusts must be over seventy or eighty mi'es an hour. This evening it seems as though it were going to ease down, and directly it does we shall be up and away south for a rush. I feel that this march must be our limit. We are so short of food, and at this high altitude, ii,6oo ft., it is hard to keep any warmth in our bodies be- tween the scanty meals. We have nothing to read now, having depoted our little books to save weight, and it is dreary work lying in the tent with nothing to read, and too cold to write much in the diary. "January g. Our last day outwards. We have We stayed only a few minutes, and then, taking the Queen's flag and eating our scanty meal as we went, we hurried back and reached our camp about 3 p. m. We were so dead tired that we only did two hours' march in the afternoon and camped at 5.30 p. m. The temperature was minus 10 Fahr. Fortunately for us, our tracks were not obliterated by the blizzard; indeed, they_ stood up, making a trail easily followed. Homeward bound at last. Whatever regrets may be, we have done our best." 1908-1910. — Charcot expeditions. — In iqo8 the French physician and explorer Dr. Jean Baptiste Charcot led his second scientific expedition to the Antarctic. The following account of the voyage of his ship the Potirquoi-pas? (Why Not?) is translated from the explorer's first published ac- count: "On leaving Deception Island (lat. 62 deg. Photograph by Hurley MEMBERS OF SHACKLETON'S PARTY Toderwood 4 Underwood Abandoning the sinking "Endurance," they hiked 1,000 miles to the nearest Norwegian whaling station shot our bolt, and the tale is latitude 88^ 23' South, longitude 162° East. The wind' eased down at i a. m., and at 2 a. m. we were up and had break- fast. At 4 a. m. started south, with the Queen's Union Jack, a brass cylinder containing stamps and documents to place at the further south point, camera, glasses and compass. At o a. m. we were in 88° 23' South, half running and half walking over a surface much hardened by the recent bliz- zard. It was strange for us to go along without the nightmare of a sledge dragging behind us. We hoisted Her Majesty's flag and the other Union Jack afterwards, and took possession of the pla- teau in the name of His Majesty. While the Union Jack blew out stiffly in the icy gale that cut us to the bone, we looked south with our powerful glasses, but could see nothins; but the dead white snow plain. There was no break in the plateau as it exlnded towards the Pole, and we feel sure that the goal we have failed to reach lies on this plain. 55 min. S.), we made our way to Port Lockray, where we commenced our work. From here I made a trip of observation with Godcfroy and Gourdon to Wandel, in order to study the lay of the ice, which would save both coal and time. This little journey of forty miles was exciting enough, and the final result of it was satisfactory. Some days later we arrived with the Pourquoi-pas? at Wandel. . . . The creek w'as rather small for our vessel ; we had not had the time to install a satisfactory barrage, and the small ice did not pro- tect us. For a week we were in danger there-r^ unable to come out, assailed by enormous ice- blocks, which had to be pushed off or lashed up night and day. ... On January i, Godefroy, Jacques, Gourdon, and I made a reconnaissance to find a better shelter ... at Petcrmann Island. . . . A few days after we brought the Pourquoi-pas? round, having escaped from Wandel without suf- fering any serious damage by gently wriggling 360 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION round the icebergs. I set out the same day with Godefroy and Gourdon to explore the south, chiefly to climb some eminence to see whether we had any channels to pass with the Pourquois-pas? be- tween Biscoe Islands and the coast. As we reck- oned upon returning the same day we had taken neither supplies nor change of clothes. Our mis- sion was easily fulfilled, and we saw that the coast was blocked ; but when we wanted to retrace our steps we found that our path was also blockaded by the ice. During a four days' blinding snow- storm we struggled to liberate ourselves — I will pass over the details of that trail. We were in peril of succumbing from hunger and cold; on the fourth day we shouldered our traps and determined to attempt some point of vantage on the ice cliffs, whence our signals might be observed by our com- rades, when the Pourquoi-pas? came to our rescue, skilfully guided by Bongrain and Rouch, whose operations on the syren could be heard through the fog and snow. On the journey back, unfor- tunately, the vessel stranded violently upon one of the innumerable reefs level with the water ; we had to unload, and, after three days' and three nights' incessant labour, we got her off again. But we had to leave behind a large piece of her prow, and it was with this vessel that we accomplished the whole of our expedition. From Petermann Is- land we went towards the South, skirting the coast, and completing the chart of the Fran(;ais [his ship of the 1903 expedition]. We found the bay again which was marked by Pendleton, American whaler, and discovered to the north of Adelaide Island a large bay, which we have since named Matha Bay. We next took hydrographic observations of Ade- laide Island, which has a very peculiar configura- tion. But instead of being eight miles in length, as is generally supposed, the configuration has a length of seventy miles! South of Adelaide, in a region neither explored nor even seen, we discov- ered a great bay, which I have named Marguerite. We entered here, despite the reefs and compact ice, and anchored at a little isle which I named 'Jenny,' after Bongrain's wife. We now encountered such violent weather for four days that it was a mira- cle the vessel escaped. An enormous iceberg ap- peared in front of us, from which only a very rapid tacking manoeuvre saved us. . . . To the south of Marguerite Bay we were continually fighting our way through ice and icebergs, but we managed to explore the sea bottom round 120 miles of un- known coast. After two attempts to find our way across the ice to Alexander Land, we decided to abandon the project till the following summer. . . . Our winter station was organised as comfort- ably as possible. . . . During the autumn we made numerous excursions. We saw no sun for five days; the wind blew strongly from N.E., and the snow fell heavily. The ice floes were continually shifting. Many icebergs passed. Despite all pre- cautions, our barrage was frequently broken. The ship was often in danger, and her rudder was smashed; we constructed a new one by cutting up a spar. ... An expedition to cross Graham's I>and was prepared with great care. I intended to lead it myself, but I was disabled by scurvy. Gourdon took my place, setting out with six com- panions. They brought back some interesting ob- servations, but without being able to scale the in- surmountable barrier of granite and ice. Other excursions were also' made. After considerable trouble, towards the end of November, we were able to release the vessel. We returned to Decep- tion Island, where we found some whalers who had been held up by ice and bad weather. . . . From Deception Island I wanted to make for Joinville Land to seek for fossils, but the ice very quickly compelled me to change my plan. We did not wish to compromise our journey southward or to suffer the fate which befell the Antarctic in the same lati- tude. After a brief struggle we were beaten back to Bridgeman Island, where we landed; then to Admiralty Bay and the south coast of the Shet- lands, where we did some good work. Thence we set out to the south, the weather all along being bad and misty, and the ice and icebergs abundant. Nevertheless, we were able to go beyond all the latitudes attained to the south-west of Alexander Land, and to complete the chart. We then dis- covered a series of new lands to the south and west of Alexander Land, in an unexpected place, thus solving an important problem. The deplor- able ice-belt barred our nearer approach; in one hour we got no further than ten yards! We continued our route by following the ice barrier until we reached Peter I. Island, which has not been seen since Bellingshausen discovered it. There we were overwhelmed by a tempest and thick mist, during which we had to steer care- fully among the icebergs. They were so numer- ous that I estimated we saw more than 5000 of them in less than a week. We had to drift with- out steam, all the time, through a fog so dense that we could not see further than twenty yards ahead. Despite this and the strong gusts of wind we reached the 126th deg. long. W., having sailed from the place where the Belgica set out, between 6g deg. and 71 deg. lat., that is to say, well to the south of both Cook and Bellingshausen. Our stock of coal being exhausted, the health of several of the party became alarming. We had to turn our faces northward; for a long time the icebergs had been innumerable, but they gradually dimin- ished, and then we saw the last. The crossing of the Antarctic to Cape Pillar was extremely rapid, thanks to an uninterrupted series of southwesterly and northwesterly winds, but the sea was terrific. In ten days we arrived at the entrance of the Magellan Straits, where we encountered severe weather. . . . We anchored at Punta Arenas, where we were heartily received after fourteen months' absence." — London Standard, March 30, igio. Also in: J. B. Charcot, Denxiemc expedition antarctiqne franfoise igo8-igio; and Pourquoi- pas? dans r Antarctiqne. 1910-1913. — Scott's expedition; discovery of the Pole; fatal termination. — Results of the Ter- ra Nova expedition. — "We find Captain Ro'uert F. Scott in the spring of 1910 busily occupied in fur- thering the departure of another British Antarctic expedition. Captain Scott had planned this expe- dition with the utmost detail and thoughtfulness. Through the public press he had explained the man- ner in which he desired to conduct his enterprise, and aided by the members of the Royal Geographi- cal Society and other learned bodies, a subscrip- tion fund of $200,000 was raised to promote the expedition. The Terra Nova, a Dundee whaling ship, was selected and refitted. Prior to her last voyage she had made several trips to Arctic waters and had proved her efficiency in ice navigation. Captain Scott made every preparation for the equipment towards achieving the great results he hoped from his undertaking. He carried with him three newly devised motor sledges intended for ice travel, as well as the usual dog sledges. The 'prob- lem of reaching the South Pole from a wintering station is purely one of transport,' wrote Captain Scott before his departure. 'The distance to be covered there and back is about 1,500 miles. The time at the disposal of an explorer in a single sea- son never exceeds 150 travelling days. An average 361 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION of ten miles a day can easily be maintained by men of good physique, provided adequate trans- port facilities are made.' Accompanying him was a carefully selected crew, and a highly efficient scientific staff. Scott's plan was to arrange two parties, one to leave King Edward Land, the other to leave McMurdo Sound, to converge on the Pole. Captain Scott purposed to follow his own track and that of Sir' Ernest Shackleton, except for the last hundred miles. The Terra Nova left England June I, loio, and sailed for New Zealand. Cap- tain Scott joined the party at Port Chalmers, near Christchurch, and the final departure southward was made November 2g, iqio. The personnel of the shore party and crew numbered fifty men, of which twenty-four officers and men were of the Royal Navy, one from the Army and two from the Public Services of India. The Terra Nova encoun- lered bad weather and heavy seas from the outset, and was over three weeks in pushing her way through 380 miles of pack ice. By January 1st, iqii, she stood in open water in Ross Sea and to establish a supply depot at Corner Camp. On the outward journey they passed the ponies going well. Again blizzards delayed the return to camp and when Scott returned he found the animals had suffered so severely that a prompt retreat to Hut Point was at once ordered. . . . The Western Geo- graphical party which landed at Butter Point, be- low Farrar Glacier, January 27, iqn, had made a depot at Cathedral Rocks, and from this base they took a sledge journey westward for miles down the glacier. At an altitude of twenty-four hun- dred feet above the glacier a crater was discovered and basalt flows in places eighty feet in depth From the glacier they entered a dry, snow-free valley trending toward the sea. A freshwater lake was discovered estimated about four miles in length. On February 13th, they returned down the Farrar Glacier and crossed the dangerous ice of New Harbor . . . and finally reached Discovery Hut after an absence of six weeks. The Western party again set out on November 7, iqii, for Granite Harbor. Owing to the exceptionally heavy EARNEST HENRY SHACKLETON ROALD AMUNDSEN ROBERT F. SCOTT sighted the Admiralty Mountains, Victoria Land two days later. Pushing her way southward she passed Cape Crozier and reached McMurdo Sound, where winter quarters were established distant about fourteen miles north of Discovery Station, where the first Scott expedition had wintered, and eight miles to the south of Cape Royds, The work of landing stores proved exceedingly arduous as the distance of transportation was a mile and a half. Ponies, dogs and motor sledges were util- ized by the men to assist in transportation and at the end of a week the main work had been com- pleted and the building of the house was begun. The Terra Nova left Scott making ready for his preliminary journeys southward. She steamed eastward and surveyed the Great Ice Barrier as far as 170° West longitude, when a gale forced her to make for Cape Colbeck, where her further progress to the east was prevented by the pack. On the 4th of February the Terra Nova entered the Bay of Whales and there found the Fram of the Amundsen Antarctic Expedition. She then returned to the depot-laying party and found all well. . . "From the first Captain Scott seemed to have worked against great odds. The depot-laying party where left Cape Evans January 25, igii, con- sisting of twelve men, eight ponies, and two dog teams, made the most difficult progress over the soft surface of the barrier and experienced a bliz- zard which exhausted both men and beasts and re- sulted in the loss of two ponies On Februan,' 24th, Captain Scott started with men and a single pony loads which they carried, they made the slow prog- ress of about five miles a day, being forced to re- lay the distance to a cape about nine miles inside the harbor. Building a stone hut and erecting a store as a base for scientific operations they devoted the next two months to exploring the northern shores and sledging around West Harbor where remarkably large mineral deposits such as topaz were discovered. Another curious discovery at their headquarters was that of myriads of wingless in- sects of two distinct varieties which clustered in a half-frozen condition under every stone. Mean- while Captain Scott had been completing his preparations for his final journey to the Pole, On November 2, iqii, the final start was made. . . . Bad weather seemed to persist from the out- set. It soon became necessary to sacrifice some of the ponies to feed the dogs. December 4, iqii, the party had reached 83.24, about twelve miles distant from Mount Hope. Day by day these men plodded on, in the face of snows, storms and gales. ... As the main party advanced, sections of the supporting parties turned back. Day and Hooper, who had left Scott first, returned safely to Camp, January 21st; a week later, Atkinson, Wright, Gerrard and Keohane showed up. On December 2ist, Captain Scott had reached just beyond 85° South, longitude 163 04 East, and an altitude 6,800 feet. On January 3, iqi2, he was within 150 miles of the South Pole, when he sent back the following message: 'I am going forward with a party of five men, sending three back under Lieu- 362 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION tenant Evans with this note. The names and de- scriptions of the advance party are: Capt. Scott, R. N., Dr. Wilson, Chief of the scientil'ic staff; Captain Gates, Inniskillen Dragoons, in charge of the ponies and mules; Lieutenant Bowers, Royal Indian Marine, commissariat ofticer; Petty Ofticer Evans, R. N., in charge of sledges and equipment. The advance party goes forward with a month's provisions and the prospects of success seem good, providing the weather holds and no unforeseen ob.itacles arise. It has been very difficult to choose the advance party, as every one was fit and able to go forward. Those who return are naturally much disappointed. Every one has worked his hardest. The weather on the plateau has been good, on the whole. The sun has never deserted us, but the temperatures are low, now about minus twenty degrees, and the wind pretty constant. How- ever, we are excellently equipped for such condi- tions, and the wind undoubtedly improves the sur- face. So far all arrangements have worked out most satisfactorily. It is more than probable no further news will be received from us this year, as our re- turn must necessarily be late.' " — H. S. Wright, SeveuUi continent, pp. 330-336. In the light of subsequent events there is some- thing very touching in this last message before the final dash to the Pole. Lieutenant Evans and his companions bore it painfully, faithfully, in the face of .scurvy and sickness, back over the frozen ice sheets through snow and storm to the Discovery Hut. "Our return must necessarily be late" — -the words were a prophecy which he bravely fultilled. On February 10, 1Q13, the news was flashed all over the world that Captain R, L. Scott and his four companions, who were returning to their base after reaching the South Pole Ion Jan. 18, iqi2] and finding Amundsen's records there, had per- ished from starvation and cold within 11 miles of a food depot and only 150 miles from their headquarters. According to Captain Scott's diary, which he kept up to the day of his death I March 25, IQ12], the party had been caught in a nine- days' blizzard which prevented traveling until sup- plies were exhausted and death was caused by ex- posure. "The British Museum has undertaken the publi- cation of the Natural History results of the British .Antarctic Expedition of iqio, better known as the Terra Nova Expedition. . . . .An especial interest attaches to the small collection of geological speci- mens that were retrieved after the tragic death of Captain Scott and his heroic associates, and the present publication I part I, dealing with fossil plants] bears ample testimony to the fact that iheir efforts have not only furnished the world with a lasting monument to British pluck and man- hood but have also yielded facts of the greatest scientific interest. "Although determinable fossil plants are few in number traces were seen, as well as numerous car- bonaceous laminae and small seams of coal, at a number of widely separated localities, particularly in what is called the Beacon sandstone, which at latitude 85° S. is 1,500 feet thick". This com- prises an upper 500 feet of sandstone resting on 300 feet of interbedded standstone and shale with several seams of coal, underlain by 700 feet of similar sandstone conglomeratic at the base. The character of the grains in the sandstone suggests wind action, and sun cracks and ripple marks have also been observed. This extensive forma- tion has been traced from Mt. Nansen as far south as latitude S5', a distance of over 700 miles. The most significant plants are those representing the genus GUn^npteri'i found at Mount Buckley or Buckley Island which is situated just west of the Beardmore Glacier in latitude 85°. These are partly referred to the wide-spread Glossopteris in- dica Schimper and in part described as a new va- riety of that species. There are also represented objects identified as those of Vertebraria and rep- resenting the axial organs of Glossopteris, and others doubtfully correlated with the scale leaves of the latter genus. From the Priestley Clacier rather indifferently preserved wood is described under the name Antarcticoxyhn Priestleyi and considered as a new type probably Araucarian in its relation- ship. Winged pollen grains are described as Pity- osporiles antarcticus. These are suggestive of the Abietineae, but may be those of the Po- docarpineae. The remainder of the collection has little interest beyond its indication of the presence of arboreal forms in high southern latitudes. The exact age of these plant-containing beds can not be definitely determined from the present collec- tions, although there is no reason to doubt the le- gitimacy of the author's conclusion that the Bea- con sandstone is probably Permo- Carboniferous in age with the further po.ssibility that its upper part may be early Mesozoic. The demonstration of the former presence of Glossopteris in Antarc- tica is of the greatest importance. ... Its pres- ence in Antarctica supplies an important link in the chain connecting the now isolated land masses of the southern hemisphere and also suggests the possibility of this flora having originated on the broad bosom of the Antarctic continent." — E. W. Berry, Scientific results of the Terra Nova expedi- tion (Science, June 4, 1Q15, pp. 830-831). 1911. — A Japanese expedition. — Lieutenant Shirase of the Japanese navy headed an expedi- tion which sailed from Wellington, New Zealand, on Feb, 11, igii, with the object of reaching the South Pole. Owing to insufficient equipment the expedition was obliged to turn back a few months later. 1911-1912. — Amundsen's successful expedition to the South Pole. — "Amundsen as a veteran Polar explorer and successful navigator of the North- west Pa.ssage, had accompanied a previous expe- dition to the South Polar regions. His original plan, however, in equipping another expedition for scientific research in Polar waters was not to ven- ture south but to continue work beyond the Arc- tic Circle. How the change of program was in- augurated which finally resulted in one of the greatest achievements on record is best told by himself. T was preparing my trip toward the North Polar regions,' Amundsen has explained, 'it may be to the North Pole — in iqoo. It was not very easy to start an expedition from Norway, for it was hard work among us to raise money and I was preparing this expedition slowly. Then sud- denly the news flashed all over the world that the North Pole had been attained, that Admiral Peary had planted the Stars and Stripes up there. The money which had been scarce now went down to nothing. I could not get a cent more, and I was in the midst of my preparations. One of the last mysterious points of the globe had been discov- ered. The last one still remained undiscovered, and then it was that I took the decision to turn from the north toward the south in order to try to discover this last problem in the polar regions.' .Amundsen's party made a successful landing on the Ross Barrier in longtitude 162" W. about fifty miles to the west of King Edward Land. He established his winter quarters at a station which he appropriately called fafttr his ship, the Fram\ Framheim. and there in good health and spirits he and his slunh companions parsed a cheerful and 3'^\3 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION busy season. . . . The Norwegian expedition relied on the most primitive methods for its success, fa- vored by unusually good conditions of weather and ice. 'Amundsen's victory is not due,' says Nansen, 'to the great inventions of the present day and the many new appliances of every kind. The means used are of immense antiquity, the same as were known to the nomad thousands of years ago when he pushed forward across the snow-covered plains of Siberia and Northern Europe. But everything, great and small, was thoroughly thought out, and the plan was splendidly executed. It is the man of these canine friends who occupied every avail- able foot of room upon the decks and were tethered upon the bridge as well. .Amundsen's previous experience in the .Arctic as well as his Nor- wegian training as a disciple of Nansen had convinced him of the importance depending on dogs in all human efforts to reach high latitudes. Their superiority over ponies was demonstrated by their being able to cross more easily the snow ridges that span the dangerous crevasses of the Barrier. . . . .Another important factor in favor of dog teams is the fact that dog eats dogs in case of v£) Uoited PTewBDaperB, London From Underwood A I'nderwood AMUNDSEN T.AKING OBSERVATIONS AT THE SOUTH I'OLE, DECEMBER 14. 1911 that matters, here as everywhere. . . . Both the plan and its execution are the ripe fruit of Nor- wegian life and experience in ancient and modern times,' and he comments, 'Like ever\thing great, it all looks so plain and simple.' Amundsen had placed his chief reliance for transportation of equip- ment and supplies on the service of dogs. Nearly one hundred of these animals had been secured from Greenland, and these had increased in num- bers during the long voyage of nearly 16,000 miles through many waters and climes. The slogan 'Dogs first and all the time,' seems to have inspired the men from the start and the greatest care was taken emergency, whereas extra food must be carried to support 'poni»s during the entire journey. . _. . From Amundsen's winter quarter? at Framheim to the South Pole was a distance of 870 miles. To cover this distance and return, the party of five men took provision? for four months, with four sledges, drawn by lifty-two dogs. .Amundsen left Framheim on October 20, igii, and was ab- sent three month? and five days, returning to head- quarters with two sledges and eleven dogs Jan- uary 25, 1912. When one recalls the uneven surfaces over which the route was followed, the high altitude of the undulating plateau, the moun- 364 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION tainous rcRion to be crossed before the goal could be reached and the herculean exertions which Shackleton had made to reach that goal, and been obliged to turn back, one marvels that these Nor- wegian vikings returned with any dogs at all; nevertheless, men and beasts not only returned safely but in excellent condition. To be sure Amundsen was singularly favored. There were few accidents. Nevertheless they encountered bliz- zards and were weather-bound in their tents on more than one occasion. On December the qth they passed the record of the 'Furthest South," Amundsen writes . . . 'eighty-eight degrees and 23 minutes was passed ; we were further south than any human being had been. No other moment of the whole trip affected me like this. We all shook hands with mutual congratulations; we had won our way far by holding together and we would go further yet — to the end.' The distant horizon which Shackleton had seen with regretful eyes Amundsen now saw. The road was straight ahead, there to the south lay their goal. As was the case in Peary's final success, so it was with Amundsen, nothing untoward happened. No obstacles hin- dered them, the weather favored them and on De- cember 14th [iQii], the greatest day of all, they experienced that sense of nervousness incident to great expectations that were soon to be realized." On this day Amundsen and his party reached the South Pole, only four weeks before Captain Scott arrived at the same destination. — H. S. Wright, Seventh continent, pp. 337-342. "Up to this moment the observations and our reckoning had shown a surprising agreement. We reckoned that we should be at the Pole on De- cember 14. On the afternoon of that day we had brilliant weather — a light wind from the south- east with a temperature of — 10° F. The sledges were going very well. The day passed without any occurrence worth mentioning, and at three o'clock in the afternoon we halted, as according to our reckoning we had reached our goal. We all as- sembled about the Norwegian flag — a handsome silken flag — which we took and planted all together, and gave the immense plateau on which the Pole is situated the name of 'King Haakon VII's Pla- teau.' It was a vast plain of the same character in every direction, mile after mile. During the af- ternoon we traversed the neighbourhood of the camp, and on the following day, as the weather was fine, we were occupied from six in the morn- ing till seven in the evening in taking observations, which gave us 8g" 55' as the result. In order to take observations as near the Pole as possible, we went on, as near true south as we could, for the remaining nine kilometres. On December 16 we pitched our camp in brilliant sunshine, with the best conditions for taking observations. Four of us took observations every hour of the day — twen- ty-four in all. . . . We have thus taken observa- tions as near to the Pole as was humanly possible with the instruments at our disposal. We had a sextant and artificial horizon calculated for a radius of 8 kilometres. On December 17 we were ready to go. We raised on the spot a little circular tent, and planted above it the Norwegian flag and the Frnin's pennant. The Norwegian camp at the South Pole was given the name of 'Polheim.' The distance from our winter quarters to the Pole was about 870 English miles, so that we had cov- ered on an average 15'/^ miles a day. We began the return journey on December 17. The weather was unusually favourable, and this made our re- turn considerably easier than the march to the Pole. We arrived at 'Fraraheim,' our winter quarters, in January, 1912, with two sledges and eleven dogs. all well. On the homeward journey we covered an average of 22^2 miles a day. The lowest tem- perature we observed on this trip was — 24° F., and the highest + 23" F. The principal result — besides the attainment of the Pole — is the deter- mination of the extent and character of the Ross Barrier. Next to this, the discovery of a connec- tion between South Victoria Land and, probably. King Edward VII Land through their continua- tion in huge mountain-ranges, which run to the southeast and were seen as far south as lat. 88 8', but which in all probability are continued right across the Antarctic Continent. We gave the name of 'Queen Maud's Mountains' to the whole range of these newly discovered mountains, about 530 miles in length. The expedition to King Edward VII Land, under Lieutenant Prostrud, has achieved excellent results. Scott's discovery was confirmed, and the examination of the Bay of Whales and the Ice Barrier, which the party carried out, is of great" interest. Good geological collections have been obtained from King Edward VII Land and South Victoria Land. The Fram arrived at the Bay of Whales on January g, having been delayed in the 'Roaring Forties' by easterly winds. . . . We are all in the best of health." — R. Amund- sen, South Pole, Norwegian Antarctic expedition with the Fram, 1910-1012, pp. 17-IQ. 1911-1913. — Dr. Mawson's Australasian expe- dition. — An Antarctic expedition, financed by grants amounting to $130,000 from the Australian, New Zealand and British governments, set out from Adelaide, South Australia, in the ship Aurora un- der the leadership of Dr. D, Mawson on Nov. 20, IQII. The expedition was provided with an oceon- ographical equipment contributed by the prince of IVIonaco. Dr. Mawson returned to Sydney in the early spring of 1913, after having successfully mapped about a thousand miles of Termination Land. Two members of the expedition lost their lives — Lieutenant Innes, who fell into a deep ice crevasse, and Dr. Merz, who died from exposure. 1913. — Return of the German expedition under Filchner. — "News was received by tele Taph on January 7 of the return of Lieut. Filchner in the Deutschland to Buenos Aires. The return was somewhat earlier than had been anticipated, for . . . the original programme had in view a com- plete crossing of the South Polar area from the Weddell to the Ross Sea; and though this was afterwards abandoned, it was hoped to push a long way south into the unknown region between the Weddell Sea and the Pole. According to the scanty telegrams made public at the time of writ- ing, the farthest south reached seems to have been in the neighbourhood of 79" S. Even this marks an important advance on the farthest previously reached on this side of the globe, or in fact in any part of the Antarctic region apart from the Ross Sea, and the lands to the south of it; no previous navigator having crossed 75° S., except in the lat- ter region — i. e. within the 60° of longitude between i.=;o" E. and 150" W. .^ftcr crossing an ice-belt 1200 (sic; probably 120) miles wide, the expedi- tion is said to have discovered, in 76° 35' S., 30° W., a new land which continued as far as 70. To this land Lieut. Filchner gives the name Prince Re- gent Luitpold Land, after the late Regent of Ba- varia, while an ice-barrier to the west has been named the Kaiser Wilhelm Barrier. From the po- sition assigned to the new discovery it might seerrt to be a south-westward continuation of Coats Land, discovered by Bruce in 1004. The state- ment that in 78° S. the Weddell Sea forms its southern boundary is somewhat puzzling, for even were the new land an island, the Weddell Sea 365 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION would, of course, be mainly north of it. Possibly there is some mistake in the telegram, and the meaning intended is that the land forms the south- ern boundary of the Weddell Sea. Lieut. Filchner hopes to return south to continue his explorations." — Geographical Journal, February, 1913, p. I73- 1914-1916. — Shackleton's second Antarctic ex- pedition. — "In February, 1014, Sir Ernest Shackle- Ion presented before the Royal Geographical So- ciety of London his program for a new ■'\ntarctic Expedition, the purpose of which was to cross the South Polar Continent from the Weddell Sea to the Ross Sea. Such a journey was a stupendous un- dertaking, but Shackleton hoped that from the geographical point of view the complete conti- nental nature of the Antarctic might be solved. It was the purpose of the expedition to take con- tinuous magnetic observations from Weddell Sea right across the Pole, and to follow conscien- tiously all branches of science, with the hoped-for result of greatly adding to the sum total of human knowledge. To carry out his bold project of a trans-.\ntarctic expedition Shackleton had planned to go with his party to the coast line on the Wed- dell Sea, while Captain Mackintosh and nine com- panies [in the Aurora'] were to start from the coast nf Ross Sea, on the other side of the Pole, and meet Shackleton's party at a point far inland. Having received the encouragement and support of the scientific world. Sir Ernest left Buenos ,\ires on board the Endurance October ;5th, 1014, and the last word was heard from him in February of the following year. In May, 1Q16, Shackleton cabled his arrival in the Falkland Islands, bringing with him an account of his failure to reach his destination, through adverse ice conditions. No at- tempt at a trans-Antarctic journey could be made — the Endurance was beset in January, and from then on drifted at the mercy of the elements, reaching the farthest South of 77^ in longitude .VS" West. Then a zizzag drift was made across Weddell Sea and she continued Northwest. In- tense ice pressure was experienced in June when the ridges of ice reached the height of twenty feet near the ship, and during July they reached twice that height. It was not until October, however, that the pressure against the hull of the Endurance became too much for the ship, and she was finally crushed by the ice; all hands abandoned her, tak- ing to boats and sledges, with a part of their pro- visions. After a drift northward for two months, the ice became strong enough to travel over it and the march was pursued through deep snow. During the next few months the party lived on the ice floes, narrowly escaping death on more than one occasion. In April, loifi, the ice suddenly opened beneath them and forced them to take to the open sea in boats. They made their way to F^lephant Island and here they found themselves in such dire straits that Sir Ernest with five men in a small boat started for South Georgia 1750 miles] for assistance. This amazing journey, ac- compHshed under such hazardous conditions, is one of the most daring and heroic feats in Ant- arctic history. .^fter reaching the Falklands, Shackleton made several unsuccessful attempts to rescue his men left on Elephant Island. The first was made from South Georgia on May :3rd in a whaling vessel furnished by a Norwegian whal- ing station. The boat could not penetrate the pack ice and was obliged to return to the Falkland Islands, reaching Port Stanley on May 31st. On the 8th of June a second attempt was made in the steamer InslHufn Pesca of the Uruguayan Bureau of Fisheries which loft Montevideo, stop- ping en route at Port Stanley, June 17th, to pick up Shackleton. It was found impossible lo reacli Elephant Island because of the ice and the trip was abandoned June 2Sth. The ship had aji proached to within twenty miles of the Island, and it was ascertained that penguins abounded in the vicinity, giving reasonable assurance that the men would be able to subsist until help came, al though when their leader had left them they had only five weeks' rations. Shackleton's third at- tempt was made July 13th, when he set sail from Punta Arenas on the schooner Emma. The schooner was forced back by the terrific gales and ice fields; with engines injured and a battered hull she returned to the Falkland Islands on August 4th. Undaunted by repeated failures, worn in body and mind from exhaustion and anxiety, this heroic explorer renewed every effort to rescue the twenty-two marooned men whose trust in him had never wavered, and again set out upon his quest. The fourth and successful journey was made from Punta Arenas, where Sir Ernest chartered a steamer and finally reached his men, when they had all but given up hope of rescue. The party had en- dured many hardships during the [seventeen weeks'! absence of Shackleton. . . . "Disaster had likewise pursued Captain Mackin- tosh and his party. The Aurora, in which he bad sailed, broke away in a blizzard off Ross Barrier, leaving Mackintosh and his men stranded on shore. The ship drifted to New Zealand, where she was repaired and Sir Ernest Shackleton sailed in her to the final rescue of the remaining band of ad- venturous men. In their isolation of twenty months three of their number had died, including Captain Mackintosh, the leader, A. P. Spencer Smith, and Victor G. Hayward. Part of the pro- gram of the Ross Sea party had been to lay depots on the Ross barrier ice, for the use of the Shackleton party when it came down from the .Antarctic plateau. This they did, in spite of their abandonment, the last depot being made in Oc- tober, at Mount Hope (83 ^ i^ S.), at the foot of Beardman Glacier. . . "Though at every turn dis- aster and misfortune followed Shackleton's last ex pedition to Antarctica, the indomitable courage, heroism, and faith exhibited by leader and men will ever stand in this story of 'failure' as an ex ample to all and stir the heart with the deepest admiration and enthusiasm." — H. S. Wright, Sev- enth continent, pp. 372-378. Scientific observations. — Problems of the ice age. — "Recent .Antarctic explorations and researches have yielded significant evidence regarding the problems of the Ice .Age, and of the similarity of the succession of geological climates in polar with those in other latitudes. These researches have been prosecuted to the ultimate limit of courage, devotion to duty and endurance — the noble sacri- fice of life — as in the cases of Captain Scott, R.N., and his devoted companions and members of the expedition of Sir Ernest Shackleton. The data secured by these expeditions are alone sufficient to establish the following premises: (1) That Ant- arctic ice, although covering areas several times larger than all other ice covered areas, is slowly decreasing in extent and depth (.') That the same succession of genlneiral rlimates have prevailed in .Antarctic as in other latitudes. So vital arc these evidences of the retreat of .Antarctic ice that it may be well to briefly quote or refer to the most prominent instances: All these evidences and many others . . . lead up to one great fact — namely, that the glaciation of the .Antarctic regions is receding. The ice is everywhere retreating. The high level morains decrease in height above the present sur- face of the ice, the debris being two thousand feet 366 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION up near the coast and only two hundred feet above near the plateau. "This observation applies to an icc-covercd area nf over 116,000 square miles. ... In speaking of the evidence of ice retreat over Antarctic areas ex- plored by him, Sir Ernest Shackleton said; 'Some time in the future these lands will be of use to humanity.' This impressive and conclusive evi- dence is corroborated by the greater and still more impressive evidences of the comparatively recent uncovering of temperate land areas, and the pro- gressive retreat of the snow line to higher eleva- tions in temperate and tropical latitudes and towards the poles at sea level, being far greater in Arctic than in Antarctic regions. We are there- fore confronted with the conclusions; (i) That the disappearance of the Ice Age is an active pres- ent process and must be accounted for by activities and energies now at work, and that the use of as- sumptions and hypotheses is not permissible; (2) That the rates and lines of retreat are and have been determined by exposure to solar energy and the temperatures established thereby ; and by the difference in the specific heat of tTie land and water hemispheres; (3) That the lines of the disappear- ance of ice are not conformable with those of its deposition, and mark a distinctly different exposure and climatic control from that which prevailed prior to the culmination of the Ice Age. (4) This retreat also marks a rise in mean surface tempera- ture along these new lines, manifestly due to re- cently inaugurated exposure to solar radiation and also the inauguration of the trapping of heat derived from such exposure ; which pro- cess is cumulative and has a maximum not yet reached. "The researches under the direction of Captam Scott and Sir Ernest Shackleton have therefore very rigidly conditioned any inquiry as to the causes of glacial accumulation and retreat. These conditions are corrective and directive — correct- ive, in that they have entirely removed any doubts as to the alternate glaciation of the poles under the alternate occurrence of aphelion and perihelion polar winters by the precession of the equinoxes, as advanced by Croll; directive, in that they have imposed an appeal to energies now active as causes of retreat, and divested the problem of resorts to the fascinating but dangerous uses of suppositions and hypotheses. "They have, moreover, pointed out with unerring accuracy the vital conclusion that the same ener- gies which have but recently converted the glacial lake beds of Canada into the most productive grain fields of the world will in time convert the tundras of to-day into the grain fields of to-mor- row. The bearing of this conclusion upon the ul- timate development of the human race is so far- reaching in its consequences that the great sacrifice of life attendant upon the prosecution of these researches stands forever as a memorial in the correction of the erroneous and wide spread con- ception that the earth is in a period of refrigera- tion, desiccation and decay ; and establishes the conclusion that it is in the spring time of a new climatic control during which the areas fitted for man's uses are being extended and that the moss of polar wastes will be replaced by rye and wheat." — M. Manson, Bearing of the facts' revealed by Ant- arctic research upon the problems of the ice age (^Science. Dec. 28, iqi;, pp. 639-640). Climatic conditions.— Fauna. — "The great se- verity of climate in South Polar regions, the lack of vegetation, the desolation of unpeopled lands upon which no quadrupeds are to be found,— lands that are mere barren wastes of snow and ice, so different from the more hospitable coasts and val- leys of the Arctic, where at equal distances from the equator are found lands green with vegetation, abounding with animal life and the habitat of the hardy Esquimaux, — is accounted for by the pre- dominance of sea in the South Polar regions. The vast continental masses in the north are warmed by the summer sun rays and become centers of radiating heat; while the Antarctic lands are iso- lated in the midst of frigid waters and constantly chilled by cold sea winds 'which act at every sea- son as refrigerators of the atmosphere.' " 'In the north,' writes Hartwig, 'the cold currents of the Polar Ocean, with their drift-ice and bergs, have but the two wide gates of the Greenland Sea and Davis Strait through which they can emerge to the south, so that their influence is confined within comparatively narrow limits, while the gelid streams of the Antarctic seas branch out freely on all sides, and convey their floating ice-masses far and wide within the temperate seas. It is only to the west of Newfoundland that single icebergs have ever been known to descend as low as 39° of latitude ; but in the southern hemisphere they have been met with in the vicinity of Cape of Good Hope (35° S. lat.) near Tristan da Cunha, oppo- site to the mouth of the Rio de la Plata, and within a hundred leagues of Tasmania. In the north, finally, we find the gulf stream conveying warmth even to the shores of Spitsbergen and Novaya Zemblya ; while in the opposite regions of the globe, no traces of warm currents have been observed beyond 55° of latitude. Thus the pre- dominance of vast tracts of flat land in the boreal hemisphere, and of an immense expanse of ocean in the Antarctic regions, sufficiently accounts for the istival warmth of the former, and the com- paratively low summer temperature of the latter. In 182Q . , . the Chanticleer, Captain Foster, was sent to New Shetland for the purpose of making magnetic and other physical observations, and re- mained for several months at Deception Island, which was selected as a station from its affording the best harbour in South Shetland. Though these islands are situated at about the same distance from the Pole as the Faroe Islands, which boast nf numerous flocks of sheep, and where the sea never freezes, yet, when the Chanticleer ap- proached Deception Island, on January 5 (a month corresponding to our July), so many ice- bergs were scattered about that Foster counted at one time no fewer than eighty-one. A gale having arisen, accompanied by a thick fog, great care was needed to avoid running foul of these float- ing cliffs. After entering the harbour — a work of no slight difficulty, from the violence of the wind — the fogs were so frequent that, for the first ten days, neither sun nor stars were seen; and 't was withal so raw and cold, that Lieutenant Kendall, to whom we owe a short narrative of the expedi- tion, did not recollect having suffered more at any time in the .Arctic regions, even at the lowest range of the thermometer. In this desolate land, frozen water becomes an integral portion of the soil; for this volcanic island is composed chiefly of alter- nate la\ crs of ashes and ice, as if the snow of each winter, during a series of years, had been prevented from melting in the following summer b.\- the ejection of cinders and ashes from some part where volcanic action still goes on. . . .' The absence of quadrupeds south of 60° has already been noted, but mention should be made of innumerable sea- birds which, though they belong to the same fami- lies as those of the north, are a 'distinct genera or species, for with rare exceptions no bird is found to inhabit both Arctic and Antarctic regions.' " — 367 ANTESIGNANI ANTHROPOLOGY H. S. Wright, Seventh continent, pp. 92-g4. — See also Arctic exploration. Also in: H. R. Mill, Siege of the South Pole.— K. Fricker, Antarctic regions. — C. E. Borchgrevink, First on the Antarctic continent. — .Antarctic man- ual (iQOi). — O. Nordenskjold and J. G. Andersson, Antarctica. — E. H. Shacklcton, Heart of the Ant- arctic. — Capt. R. F. Scott, Voyage of the Discov- ery. — L. Bernacchi, To the South Polar regions. ANTESIGNANI.— "In each cohort [of the Roman legion, in Caesar's time] a certain number of the best men, probably about one-fourth of the whole detachment, was assigned as a guard to the standard, from whence they derived their name of Antesignani." — C. Merivale, History of the Romans tinder the empire, ch. 15. ANTHEMIUS, Roman emperor (Western), 467-472. See Rome: 455-476. ANTHONY, Susan BrowBell (1820-1906), American teacher, author, and woman suffragist. Took a prominent part in temperance and anti- slavery agitation; devoted herself especially to woman's rights; published a weekly paper. The Revolution, edited by Elizabeth Cady Stanton; vice-president of the National Woman's Suffrage Association, 1860-1892; became its president. She drafted an amendment to the Constitution extend- ing suffrage to women, which was passed by Con- gress in igig and ratified by the necessary thirty- six states in 1920. — See also Suffrage, Woman: United States. ANTHRACITE COAL: Control by railroads. — Commodities clause of Hepburn Act. See Railroads: 100S-190Q. ANTHRACITE COAL COMBINATION. See Trusts: 1Q07-1912. ANTHRACITE COAL STRIKE COMMIS- SION, appointed by President Roosevelt. See Arbitration and conciliation. Industrial: U. S. A.: 1902-1920; Labor strikes and boycotts: 1877- 1911; U. S. A.: 1Q02 (October). ANTHROPOLOGY: Deanition.— Early re- searches. — The simplest definition of anthropology is found in the derivation of the word. "Anthro- pos" is the Greek word for man; "logos" in Greek means science or discourse ; therefore anthropology is the science of man. Aristotle is supposed to be the first f)erson to use the term. After that it is not met with again until the i6th century when the Latin word "anthropologium" is used to desig- nate the study of bodily structure. In fact an- thropological research in Europe until very re- cently was limited to the field now called physical anthropology. The development and growth of anthropology into the comprehensive science that it is to-day, is closely connected with the general scientific development of Europe .during the 17th, i8th and 19th centuries. "In earlier days certain philosophers had been spoken of as anthropologists, and again in later times, i. e. in the iSth century, Anthropology was treated (by Kant and others) as a branch of philosophy, rather than of biology. The latter end of the 17th century was a most important epoch in the history of Physical An- thropology, using the term in the sense which it has now acquired and which will presently be ex- plained. In the year 1699, Dr. Edward Tyson, a member of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, published under the auspices of the Royal Society a treatise entitled 'Orang-Outang, siva Homo Syl- vestris. Or, the Anatomy of a Pygmie compared with that of a Monkey, an Ape, and a Man.' Without entering upon detailed criticism of this Tifork, it will suffice to remark that it constitutes a most remarkable anticipation of modern methods of research, and still serves as a model for investi- gations into the structure of Man and Apes. Nevertheless, although so important in these re- spects, the work was not described as one on An- thropology, nor is it certain that Tyson made use of the term in connection with it. The i8th cen- tury in turn affords several notable names in the hi5tor>' of Physical Anthropology. The chief con- tributors to the subject were Linnzeus, Daubenton, Camper, Hunter, Soemmering and Blumenbach. The Systema Naturae of Linnaeus (of which the first edition appeared in 1735) will remain for ever memorable to anthropologists from the fact that Man was therein restored definitely to a place with other animals in a scheme of comparative zoology. Daubenton (1764), a colleague of Buff on, is to be credited with the first strictly scientific memoir in which the comparative anatomy of the skull was studied by means of angular measurements. Camper's great work was first published in 1770. Born at Leyden in 1722, Camper had attained the age of sixty-seven when he died. But for the work of Tyson, that of Camper would hold the place of honour as anticipating the soundest and most pro- ductive methods of modern physical anthropology. Camper's researches dealt with the comparative anatomy of the Orang-utan (a chapter being de- voted specially to its comparison with Man), with the different varieties of anthropoid apes, with the organs of speech in the Orang-utan, with the sig- nificance and origin of pigmentation in the negro races, and finally with the comparative study of skulls. In this connection, special reference is due to the method employed, for it was based on the principle of projections, i. e., the comparison of forms and contours drawn in rectilinear projection. Errors due to perspective, such as occur when the object is viewed in the ordinary way, were thus eliminated. In the same treatise, Camper defines and explains the use of the facial angle which he devised, and through which his name will be per- petuated in the literature of craniometry. The work of John Hunter (172S-1793) stands in a cate- gory apart from all others. If not avowedly an- thropological, the researches carried out by Hunter in Comparative Anatomy define the field or extent of the larger part of modern Physical Anthro- pology. For the rest, it must be added that while in Hunter's work the anatomical notes are num- bered in thousands, the physiological background is never lost to view. Herein, it is fair to believe, a clue will be found to Hunter's success. This vitalizing principle was rigidly maintained and may be studied to-day, not only in the literary monuments left by Hunter, but also in the noble Collection by which his memory is perpetuated. The accomplished anatomist Soemmering published in 1785 a monograph on the anatomy of a Negro, which has become classical. The author extended the comparative methods employed by Camper in the case of the external characters, to the details of every part and structure of the body. In this research again, we may notice the substitution of exact and precise information for speculative sur- mise. Not the least important point made by Soemmering was his observation that the brain- weight of his subject exceeded that of most Euro- peans. This very paradox (as it seemed even then to Soemmering) led him to anticipate (in part at least) important researches carried out a century later by Snell and Dubois. For Soemmering found that while the Negro's brain exceeded that of the European in weight, it held nevertheless a more lowly position when judged by a comparison of its size with the combined mass of the cerebral nerves. The absolute weight taken alone is thus deprived of value as an index of developmental 368 ANTHROPOLOGY Scope and Methods of Study ANTHROPOLOGY status. It is further shewn that for the interpre- tation of the significance of the brain-weight, the size and complexity of the organs supplied by those nerves must be held accountable for a certain part (now called the 'corporeal concomitant'). And finally, it is on the part which remains over, called by Soemmering the 'superfluous quantity,' that judgment as to the real 'size' of the brain is to be passed. [See also Ary.^ns: Distribution.] Blumenbach is distinguished particularly by his studies in comparative human craniology. Bom at Gotha in 1752, ... he studied ... at Jena and at Gottingen, at which latter University he ob- tained a professorial chair; and at Got- tingen Blumenbach died in 1840. Three charac- teristics seem to be prominent before all others in the character of this remarkable man. His extraordinary versatility in scientific pursuits has rarely been surpassed, even in the fatherland of Goethe, Helmholtz, and Virchow. Scarcely less impressive was his enormous range of literary ac- quaintance. A third point is that he was emi- nently a laboratory worker ... for he travelled but little. Blumenbach's principal contributions to science consist of a treatise on the 'Natural Varieties of the Human Species' and of numerous craniological descriptions, to which must be added certain essays on the Natural History of Man, in- cluding an anatomical comparison of Man with other animals. And the chief advances determined by these researches may be summarized as fol- lows: (i) The employment of the word 'an- thropology' as descriptive of morphological studies. (2) Recognition of the fact that no sharp lines demarcate the several varieties of Mankind, the transition from type to type being imperceptible. (3) The clear enunciation of a classificatory scheme of the varieties of Mankind, admittedly arbitrary, but devised with the object of facilitating study: the classification was based on considerations of the characters of the skin, the hair, and the skull. (4) A clear enunciation of the external causes in producing and perpetuating variations in animals, including Man; recognition of the origin of varie- ties through 'degeneration'; Blumenbach thus very nearly anticipated some important discoveries re- served for Darwin at a later date. All differences in the cranial forms of Mankind were referred either to environment or to artificial interference. At the same time, it is suggested that artificial modifications may in time be inherited (cf. Blu- menbach's Works, p. 121)." — W. L. H. Duckworth, Morphology and anthropology, pp. 1-5. — See also Europe: Prehistoric period: Earliest remains, etc.; PAcrnc ocean: People. Scope of study. — Historical method. — In- fluence of evolutionary theories. — "This brings us to the point when anthropology begins to as- sume a wider aspect. Although in earlier periods men noticed the differences in physical appearance and culture existing among various peoples, the discussions of such facts were not within the field of anthropology. Observation of racial differences are recorded on Egyptian monuments and in the tales of early travellers. The Greek and Roman writers mention it and later in the travels of Marco Polo and explorers of the isth, i6lh and 17th cen- turies there are very accurate accounts of primi- tive customs. 'At the present time anthropologists occupy themselves with problems relating to the physical and mental life of mankind as found in varying forms of society from the earliest times up to the present period and in all parts of the world.' In this way Franz Boas, the leader of American anthropologists outlines the scope of an- thropology. Naturally it is impossible for one person to command such a range of knowledge, and so distinct fields of specialization have sprung up. The two main divisions are physical ancl cul- tural anthropology, the latter often termed eth- nology. Under physical anthropology are included all studies relating to the physical characteristics of man, his place in nature, comparative anatomy and physiology, the antiquity of man as shown in fossil remains, which evidences are correlated with the findings of geology and a comparative study of the physical characteristics of the different races and subdivisions of races. Cultural anthropology or ethnology deals with the antiquity of man as shown by remains of his handiwork, a comparative study of the arts and industries of man, specula- tion as to their origin; their development and geographical distribution. On the sociological side we have the social and political organization of various peoples; their ethics and religion. The psychological side of life is studied through the languages and mythologies. And finally when these surveys are finished, the different peoples of the world can be arranged into ethnic groups ex- hibiting a certain degree of uniformity of cul- ture. (See also Ethnology.) In anthropology two distinct methods of research have developed, the historical method which aims to reconstruct the actual history of mankind, the other is the generalizing method which attempts to establish the laws of its development. "About this time the historical aspect of the phenomena of nature took hold of the minds of investigators in the whole domain of science. Be- ginning with biology, and principally through Dar- win's powerful influence, it gradually revolutionized the whole method of natural and mental science and led to a new formulation of their problems. The idea that the phenomena of the present have developed from previous forms with which they are genetically connected and which determine them, shook the foundations of the Old principles of classification and knit together groups of facts that hitherto had seemed disconnected. Once clearly enunciated, the historical view of the natu- ral sciences proved irresistible and the old problems faded away before the new attempts to discover the history of evolution. From the very begin- ning there has been a strong tendency to combine with the historical aspect a subjective valuation of the various phases of development, the present serving as a standard of comparison. The oft- observed change from simple forms to more com- plex forms, from uniformity to diversity, was in- terpreted as a change from the less valuable to the more valuable and thus the historical view assumed in many cases an ill-concealed teleological tinge. The grand picture of nature in which for the first time the universe appears as a unit of ever-changing form and color, each momentary aspect being determined by the past moment and determining the coming changes, is still obscured by a subjective element, emotional in its sources, which leads us to ascribe the highest value to that which is near and dear to us. The new historical view also came into conflict with the generalizing method of science. It was imposed upon that older view of nature in which the discovery of general laws was considered the ultimate aim of investi- gation. . . . Anthropology also felt the quicken- ing impulse of the historic point of view, and its development followed the same lines that may be observed in the history of the other sciences. The unity of civilization and of primitive culture that had been divined by Herder now shone forth as a certainty. The multiplicity and diversity of cu- rious customs and beliefs appeared as early steps 369 ANTHROPOLOGY Evolutionary Theories ANTHROPOLOGY in the evolution of civilization from simple forms of culture. The strlkinc similarity between the customs of remote districts was the proof of the uniform manner in which civilization had de- veloped the world over. The laws according to which this uniform development of culture took place became the new problem which engrossed the attention of anthropologists. This is the source from which sprang the ambitious system of Her- bert Spencer and the ingenious theories of Edward Burnett Tylor. The underlying thought of the numerous attempts to systematize the whole range of social phenomena or one or the other of its features — such as religious belief, social organiza- tion, forms of marriage — has been the belief that one definite system can be found according to which all culture has developed, that there is one type of evolution from a primitive form to the highest civilization which is applicable to the whole of mankind, that notwithstanding many varations caused by local and historical conditions, the gen- tian and Gcorg Gerland. Both were impressed by the sameness of the fundamental traits of culture the world over. Bastian saw in their sameness an effect of the sameness of the human mind and terms these fundamental traits 'Elementargedanken' [elementary thoughts I, declining all further con- sideration of their origin, since an inductive treat- ment of this problem is impossible. For him the essential problem of anthropology is the discovery of the elementary ideas, and in further pursuit of the inquiry, their modification under the influence of geographical environment. Gerland's views agree with those of Bastian in the emphasis laid upon the influence of geographical environment on the forms of culture. In place of the mystic ele- mentary idea of Bastian, Gerland assumes that the elements found in many remote parts of the world are a common inheritance from an early stage of cultural development. It will be seen that in both these views the system of evolution plays a second- ary part only, ajid that the main stress is laid CHIMPANZEE COMPARISON OF SKELETONS OF VERTEBRATES. SHOWING EVOLUTIONARY SIMILARITfES Krom specimens in Royal College of Surgeons, London cral type of evolution is the same everywhere. This theory has been discussed most clearly by Tylor, who finds proof for it in the sameness of customs and beliefs the world over. The typical similarity and the occurrence of certain customs in definite combinations are explained by him as due to their belonging to a certain stage in the develop- ment of civilization. They do not disappear sud- denly, but persist for a time in the form of sur- vivals. These are, therefore, wherever they occur, a proof that a lower stage of culture of which these customs are characteristic has been passed through. . . . The generalized view of the evolu- tion of culture in all its different phases which is the final result of this method may be subjected to a further analysis regarding the psychic causes which bring about the regular sequence of the stages of culture. Owing to the abstract form of the results, this analy.sis must be deductive. It can not be an induction from empirical psychologi- cal data. In this fact lies one of the weaknesses of the method which led a number of anthropolo- gists to a somewhat different statement of the problem. I mention here particularly Adolf Bas- on the causes which bring about modifications of the fundamental and identical traits. There is a close connection between this direction of an- thropology and the old geographical school. Here the psychic and environmental relations remain amenable to inductive treatment, while, on the other hand, the fundamental hypotheses exclude the origin of the common traits from further in- vestigation. The subjective valuation which is characteristic of most evolutionary systems, was from the very beginning part and parcel of evo- lutionary anthropology. It is but natural that in the study of the history of culture our own civiliza- tion should become the standard, that the achieve- ments of other times and other races should be measured by our own achievements. In no case is it more difficult to lay aside the 'Culturbrille' [cultural spectacles] — to use Von den Steinen's apt term — than in viewing our own culture For this reason the literature of anthropology abounds in attempts to define a number of stages of culture leading from simple forms to the present civiliza- tion, from savagery through barbarism to civiliza- tion, or from an assumed pre -savagery through the 370 ANTHROPOLOGY Branches of the Science ANTHROPOLOGY same stages to enlightenment. The endeavor to establish a schematic hne of evolution naturally led back to new attempts at classification in which each group bears a genetic relation to the other. Such attempts have been made from both the cul- tural and the biological point of view." — F. Boas, History oj anthropology (Science, Oct. 21, 1904). — See also Evolution: Historical development, etc. After this brief summary of the general method of anthropology it is perhaps best to take each branch of the science separately and show its de- velopment, bearing in mind the aims of the entire subject. Linguistics. — The point of view of the student of linguistics depends very much on his back- ground. If he comes from physical anthropology he is interested in correlating the phonetic system with the structure of the organs of speech ; the ethnologist studies language to gain light on ethnic affinity and cultural contact, or if he is interested in psychology, to learn categories of thought and the trend of mental processes. The study of lin- guistics was first directed to the investigation of the "Aryan" question. "The connection between linguistics and anthropology assumed its greatest importance in the middle of the nineteenth cen- tury, when the discoveries and theories of philol- ogists were adopted wholesale to explain the problems of European ethnology, and the Aryan controversy became the locus of disturbance throughout the Continent. No other scientific question, with the exception, perhaps, of the doc- trine of evolution, was ever so bitterly discussed or so infernally confounded at the hands of Chau- vinistic or otherwise biased writers." — A. C. Had- don, History of anthropology, p. 144. In recent years linguistics has assumed a broader outlook and is studied by the anthropologist to- day principally in the unwritten languages of prim- itive people. "The origin of language was one of the much-discussed problems of the nineteenth century, and owing to its relation to the develop- ment of culture, it has a direct anthropological bearing. The intimate ties between language and ethnic psychology were expressed by no one more clearly than by Stcinthal, who perceived that the form of thought is molded by the whole social environment of which language is part. Owing to the rapid change of language, the historical treatment of the linguistic problem had developed long before the historic aspect of the natural sciences was understood. The genetic relationship of languages was clearly recognized when the ge- netic relationship of species was hardly thought of. With the increasing knowledge of languages they were grouped according to common descent, and when no further relationship could be proved, a classification according to morphology was at- tempted. To the linguist whose whole attention is directed to the study of the expression of thought by language, language is the individuality of a people, and therefore a classification of languages must present itself to him as a classification of peoples. No other manifestation of the mental life of man can be classified so minutely and definitely as language. In none are the genetic relations more clearly established. It is only when no further genetic and morphological relationship can be found, that the linguist is compelled to coordi- nate languages and can give no further clue re- garding their relationship and origin. No wonder, then, that this method was used to classify man- kind, although in reality the linguist classified only languages. The result of the classification seems eminently satisfactory on account of its definiteness as compared with the results of biological and cultural classifications." — F. Boas, History of an- thropology (Science, Oct. 21, 1904). The study of linguistics together with the de- velopment of physical anthropology brought about theories which connected race and language. The modern anthropologists have fought valiantly to show why any such theory is untenable. "Mean- while the methodical resources of biological or somatic anthropology had also developed and had enabled the investigator to make nicer distinctions between human types than he had been able to make. The landmark in the development of this branch of anthropology has been the introduction of the metric method, which -owes its first strong development to Quetelet. ... A clearer definition of the terms 'type' and 'variabihty' led to the application of the statistical method by means of which comparatively slight varieties can be dis- tinguished satisfactorily. By the application of this method it soon became apparent that the races of man could be subdivided into types which were characteristic of definite geographical areas and of the people inhabiting them. The same misinterpre- tation developed here as was found among the linguists. As they identified language and people, so the anatomists identified somatic type and people and based their classification of peoples wholly on their somatic characters. The two prin- ciples were soon found to clash. Peoples genetic- ally connected by language, or even the same in language, were found to be diverse in type, and people of the same type were found to be diverse in language. Furthermore, the results of classifica- tions according to cultural groups disagreed with both the linguistic and the somatic classifications. In long and bitter controversies the representatives of these three directions of anthropological research contended for the correctness of their conclusions. This war of opinions was fought out particularly on the ground of the so-called .Aryan question, and only gradually did the fact come to be understood that each of these classifications is the reflection of a certain group of facts. The linguistic classifica- tion records the historical fates of languages and indirectly of the people speaking these languages; the somatic classification records the blood rela- . tionships of groups of people and thus traces an- other phase of their history ; while the cultural classification records historical events of still an- other character, the diffusion of culture from one people to another and the absorption of one cul- ture by another. Thus it became clear that the attempted classifications were expressions of his- torical data bearing upon the unwritten history of races and peoples, and recorded their descent, mix- ture of blood, changes of language and develop- ment of culture. Attempts at generalized classifi- cations based on these methods can claim validity only for that group of phenomena to which the method applies. An agreement of their results, that is, original association between somatic type, language and culture, must not be expected." — F. Boas, History of anthropology (Science, Oct. 21, 1004). Just as the languages of Europe have been grouped into a great family, so linguists have at- tempted to do the same for .America. The atti- tude toward this question as far as .American posi- tion can best be seen in the following summary: "As symptomatic of the synthetic tendency so pronounced in recent years may be cited the sig- nificant utterance of one of the most competent collaborators, E. Sapir, to the effect that the fifty- seven linguistic families hitherto officially recog- nized will be ultimately reduced to not more than about sixteen. On the other hand, a more skep- 371 ANTHROPOLOGY Branches of the Science ANTHROPOLOGY tical attitude is maintained editorially. In his 'Introductory' statement Boas explains that while far-reaching morphological resemblances may be based on community of origin the absence of his- torical data for primitive languages precludes t"he evidence from becoming demonstrative; what is interpreted by some as the result of an ultimate connection may be due merely to assimilation re- sulting from contact. Accordingly, Boas regards the minute study of dialectic differentiation as af- fording a more promising field for research than the quest for remote relationships. He likewise calls attention to the study of literary form as a well-nigh neglected but extremely fruitful task for the linguist. In spite of all methodological warn- ings the consolidation of languages once reckoned as distinct is progressing merrily, especially in Cali- fornia, where Yuki now remains as the solitary isolated form of speech, all others having been linked with larger groups." — University oj Cali- fornia publications, {American Archaeology and Ethnology, v. 13, no. 1) . — See also Indians, Amer- ican: Linguistic characteristics. In a similar way Father Schmidt, the editor of Anthropos, a German anthropological periodical, has worked on the languages of Australia, and British colonial offices and government ethnolo- gists like N. W. Thomas are preparing the native languages of Africa. Physical anthropology. — Physical anthropology deals with man past and present. In the late years of the iqth century several remarkable finds of remains of fossil man were made in Western Europe. Famous among these are the Heidelberg jaw, the Neanderthal skull, the Grunaldi and Cro- magnon skeletons of Southern France and the Pilt- down man of England. Still more important is the Pithecanthropus Erectus found in iSgS bv E. DuBois near the Frimil River in Java. From these fossil remains physical anthropologists try to re- construct the appearance of prehistoric man. Af- ter the pioneers mentioned by Duckworth, there is a group of distinguished men in the loth century who each contributed something vital to physical anthropology. Among them are A. de Quatrefages, Topinard and Bertillon in France, Virchow in Ger- many and Sergi in Italy and Galton and Pearson in England. Bertillon first used the term anthro- pometry to designate a system of identification de- pending on the unchanging character of certain measurements of parts of the human frame. His methods were applied principally to criminology and have been replaced by the finger print system invented by Francis Galton. Craniometry was begun very early by artists who wished to get more accurate measurements of the human figure. Ex- act measuring of the head was developed further by Anders Retzius, w'ho worked out the system of comparing various measurements of the skull in indices and classifying objects accordincly. The best known of these indices is the cephalic index, the formula of which is: Width of skull in millimeters x 100 Length of skull in millimeters x 100 This gives a percentage index and these indices are classified: X - 74.g dolichocephalic (long) 75.0 - 7Q.q mesocephalic (medium) 80.0 - X brachyccphalic (short) Karl Pearson's contribution to physical anthro- pology is the application of the methods of statis- tical science in dealing with large numbers of bio- metric data. Ethnology. — .'Mtho the earliest ethnologists were Herodotus, Strabo and Lucretius, it was only comparatively recently that real ethnologies were written. In 1850 there appeared one of the first synthetic works which is still valuable to-day, Waetz, 'Anthropologic der Naturvolker.' In 1885 Ratzel began to publish his \ blkerkunde. Later Kean's 'Ethnology' and Deruber's book were de- voted to an account of a single people. This sort of monograph is becoming more and more com- prehensive and is advocated especially by the his- torical school of anthropologists, for it gives those small blocks from which to build up culture. In America especially these monographs have been produced with great success. A good ethnological monograph must include: arts and industries witn exact descriptions of techniques employed; food, how secured and its preparation; type of shelter, how built, materials used; clothing and personal decoration; social organization, political organiza tion, religions, ceremonials; mythologv', folk tale, and customs; relations to neighboring peoples; pas^ history obtained through archeology if possible. When an account like this is available for large areas then generalizations about economic life, social and religious developments, etc, can be made. Before this comprehensive ethnology was developed loth century writers spent much time in the various fields of ethnology. In theories about social organizations the names of Bachofen. Morgan and ilcl.ennan must be mentioned. In primitive religion Tylor, Herbert Spencer, Frazer and Durkheim all figure as the authors of valu- able treatises, the first three as exponents of the evolutionary theory of culture. Economic life and ethics have also been studied separately. The former is a monumental work by Halen and the latter by Westermarck on the 'Origin and Develop- ment of Moral Ideas' and Hobhouse's, 'Morals in Evolution.' Folklore and mythology is not con- fined to primitive peoples but probably received its first stimulations from the collection of Euro- pean fairy tales made by the Grimm Brothers. — See also Ethnology; Mythology: Meaning of word. This summary of the progress of anthro- pology can best be closed by quoting what Franz Boas considers the outlook and value of anthro pology: ".\ last word as to the value that the anthropo- logical method is assuming in the general system of our culture and education. I do not wish to refer to its practical value to those who have to deal with foreign races or with national questions Of greater educational importance is its power to make us understand the roots from which our civilization has sprung, that it impresses us with the relative value of all forms of culture, and thus serves as a check to an exaggerated valuation of the standpoint of our own period, which we are only too liable to consider the ultimate goal of human evolution, thus depriving ourselves of the benefits to be gained from the teachings of other cultures and hindering an objective criticism of our own work." — F. Boas, History of anthropology (Science. Oct. 21, IQ04). — See also Africa: Races of Africa: Prehistoric peoples; Haw.^han Islands: Anthropology of the islands; Indians, American; Origins of the American Indian ; M.\lav, Malaysian OR BROWN race; Matriarchate ; Mexico: Aborig- inal peoples; New Zealand: 1375-1642; Super- stitions. Also in: F. Boas, Mind of primitive man. — R. H. Lowie, Primitive society. ^Ibid., Culture and ethnology. — R. R. Marett, Anthropology .—K. F. Osborn, Men of the old Stone Age. — E. B. Tylor, Primitive culture. 372 ANTHROPOMORPHISM ANTI-FEDERALISTS ANTHROPOMORP,HISM: Greek religion. See Mvthology: Greek mythology: Anthropo- morphic character of Greek myth. ANTI-ADIAPHORISTS. See Germany: 1546-1552. ANTI-BOLSHEVISM: Russia. See Russia: iQi8-ig20, 1920, 1920 (October-November). ANTI-BOYCOTT LAWS. See Boycott: Re- cent judicial decisions. ANTI-CLERICALISM, in European politics, the doctrine of those opposing the influence of the Roman Catholic hierarchy in secular affairs. In France and Italy the anti-clerical elements have perhaps been stronger than in other Catholic coun- tries, but their influence in Germany, Spain and Portugal has been considerable. ANTI-COMBINE LAWS: Canada. See Trusts: Canada; 1010-1912. ANTI-CORN-LAW LEAGUE, an organiza- tion in England which began to e.xercise great in- fluence in politics about 1838, Richard Cobden and John Bright being its leading spokesmen. The corn laws had for many years imposed heavy duties on grain, especially wheat. The agitation conducted by the league and its able leaders helped to bring about the reduction of the duties in 1846, and their practical abolition in 1849. At this period, free trade began to be adopted as the gen- eral policy for the United Kingdom. — See also Tariff: 1836-1841; 1S45-1S46. ANTICOSTI: 1763.— Added to government of Newfoundland. See Canada: i 763-1 774. ANTIETAM, Battle of. See U. S. A.: 1862 (September: Maryland) : Lee's first invasion: Harper's ferry. ANTI-FEDERALISTS, a political party in the United States opposed to the ratification of the constitution, led by Patrick Henry and George Clinton, and others. Their opposition was mani- fested, though feebly, during the session of the First Congress. "At one extreme of the Anti- federal party was a body of men, numerous, re- spectable, and not without influence, who leaned toward monarchy and were for setting up a king. They could, they protested, see no way out of the ills that lay so thick on either hand but by abandoning the attempt at republican government, and taking refuge in that very system they had with so much difficulty just thrown off. At the other extreme were to be found many men of note ; almost all the first characters in the country, and a large proportion of the community. They ab- horred, they said, the idea of a monarchy; they would never give up the idea of a republic. But they were convinced that no one republican gov- ernment could rule harmoniously over so vast a country, and over such conflicting interests. They were therefore for three separate confederations, marked off by such boundaries as difference of cli- mate, diversity of occupations, and the natural products of the soil required. Everybody knew that the eastern men were fishers and shippers and merchants, while the southern men were planters and farmers. The late discussion over the Mis- sissippi had shown how impossible it was to recon- cile the interests of men so variously employed. It was better, therefore, that they should part ; and that, as Massachusetts built her ships and Virginia raised her tobacco and her slaves under different climates, they should do so under different flags. They hoped there would be three republics: a republic of the East, a republic of the Middle States, and a republic of the South. . . . And now the minority published an address. It was not, they said, till the termination of the late glorious contest that any defects were discovered in the Confederation. Then of a sudden it was found to be in such a shocking condition that a conven- tion was called by Congress to revise it. To this convention came a few men of the first character, some men more noted for ambition and cunning than for patriotism, and some who had always been enemies to the independence of the States. The session lasted four months, and what took place during that time no one could tell. Tue doors were closed. The members were put under the most solemn engagements of secrecy. The jour- nals of the conclave were still hidden. Yet i was well known that the meeting was far from peace- ful. Some delegates had quitted the hall before the work was finished; some had refused to lend their names to it when it was done. But the plan came out in spite of this, and was scarce an hour old when petitions, approving of the system and praying the Legislature to call a convention, were to be found in every coffee-house ^nd tavern in the city. No means were spared to frighten the people against opposing it. The newspapers teemed with abuse; threats of tar and feathers were lib- erally made. The petitions came in, the conven- tion was called by a Legislature made up in part of members who had been dragged to their seats to make a quorum, and so early a day set for the election of delegates that many people did not know of it till the time had passed. The lists of voters showed that seventy thousand freemen were entitled to vote in Pennsylvania, yet the conven- tion had been elected by but thirteen thousand. Forty-six members had ratified the new plan, yet these represented but six thousand eight hun- dred voters. Some freemen had kept away from the polls because of ignorance of the plan, some because they did not think the convention had been legally called, and some because they feared violence and insult. The ratification was in their opinion worthless. Twenty-one of the twenty- three put their names to the address. . . . But the Antifederalists were not, they maintained, to be misled by the glamour of grea't names. They had seen names as great as any at the foot of the Constitution subscribed to the present reprobated Articles of Confederation. Nay, some of the very men who had put their hands to the one had also put their hands to the other. Had not Roger Sherman and Robert Morris recommended the Confederation ? If these patriots had erred once, was there any reason to suppose that they, or a succeeding set, could not err a second time? Had a few years added to their age made them in- faUible? Was it not true that the Federalists, who so warmly supported the new plan and would force it down the throats. of their fellows because Franklin had signed it, affected to despise the Con- stitution of Pennsylvania which was the work of no one so much as of that same venerable patriot? What, then, was the value of these boasted great names? Many of the signers, it was quite true, had done noble deeds. No one could forget the debt of gratitude the continent owed to the il- lustrious Washington. But it was well known that he was more used to command as a soldier than to reason as a politician. Franklin was too old. As for Hamilton and the rest of them, they were mere boys. These unkind remarks called forth the highest indignation from the Federalists. But party spirit ran high, and it was not long before one of their antagonists went so, far as to assert, that to talk of the wisdom of the Great Commander and the Great Philosopher was to talk nonsense; for Washington was a fool from nature, and Franklin was a fool from age." — J. C. McMaster, History of the people of the United States, v. i, pp. 393, 373 ANTIGONID KINGS ANTIOCH 473, 406-467. — See also U. S. A.: 1787-1789; 1789- 1792. Also in a broadside entitled, Address and rea- sons of dissent of the minority of the convention of the state of Pennsylvania to their constituents. ANTIGONID KINGS. See Greece: B. C. 307- 197- ANTIGONUS CYCLOPS (382-301 B.C.), Macedonian king. See M.acedonxa ; B. C. 323-316, 315-310, 310-301 ; Rhiioks, Island of: B. C. 304. ANTIGONUS GONATUS (c. 319-239 B.C.), Macedonian king. See .\ihe.ns: B.C. 288-263; M.ACEuu.sn: B.C. 277-244. ANTIGUA, one of the British West Indian islands. Discovered by Columbus in 1493, settled by the British in 1632 ; in 1834 slavery was abol- i.<ihed. ANTI-IMPERIALISTS, League of American. See U. S. A.: 1000 (Mav-Xovember) . ANTI-JAPANESE AGITATION: Califor- nia. See R.ACE problems: 1913-1021. ANTILLES, ANTILIA.— "Familiar as is the name of the ."Vntilles, few are aware of the an- tiquity of the word ; while its precise significance >ets etymology at defiance. Common consent identified the Antilia of legend with the Isle of the Seven Cities. In the year 734, says the story, the .■\rabs having conquered most of the Spanish pen- insula, a number of Christian emigrants, under the direction of seven holy bishops, among them the archbishop of Oporto, sailed westward with all that they had, and reached an island where they founded seven towns. .\rab geographers speak of an .Atlantic island called in Arabic El-tennyn, or .■M-tin (Isle of Serpents), a name which may f>os- sibly have become by corruption Antilia. . . . The seven bishops were believed in the i6th century to be still represented by their successors, and to preside over a numerous and wealthy people. Most geographers of the 15th century believed in the e.xistence of .Antilia. It was represented as lying west of the .\zores. ... .As soon as it became known in Europe that Columbus had discovered a large island, Espanola was at once identified with .Antilia, . . . and the name . . . has ever since been applied generally to the West Indian islands." — -E. J. Payne, History of the \ew World called America, v. i, p. 98 — See also West Indies. ANTILLES, U. S. army transport sunk by sub- marine. See World W.\r: 1917: IX. Naval opera- tions: c, 2. ANTI-MASONIC PARTY, American, a party opposed to secret societies, especially to Free Ma- sons. The deeper causes of this movement are probably to be found in the desire for social and political reorganization which came with the new democratic awakening after 1814, In 1826, Wil- liam Morgan, of Batavia, N. Y., threatened to reveal the secrets of the Masonic order. He was arrested and a judgment was obtained against him for debt. .After being taken to Niagara in a closed carriage, he was never again heard of. In western New York there developed an organized opposition to freemasonry as subversive of religion and good citizenship. A number of .Anti-Masons were elected to the legislature, and there followed legislative investigations of the Morgan incident and of freemasonry in general. In 1830, Thurlow Weed founded the Albany Evening Journal, which became the leading .Anti-Masonic newspaper The Anti-Masonic party soon displaced the National Republicans as opponents of the Democrats in New York, its leaders being William H Seward, Thurlow Weed and Millard Fillmore. The party was strong enough in some other states to affect the elections, notablv in Pennsylvania and Ver- mont. In their national convention in 183 1, the first of the national nominating conventions, the .Anti-Masons nominated William Wirt and Amos Ellmaker, hoping to force Clay, who was a Mason, out of the field. Wirt addressed the convention, declared that he was a Mason and offered to with- draw if he had been named under any misappre- hension. The nomination was then unanimously reaffirmed. Some of the more radical of the parts were alienated by Wirt's nomination. In several states the National Republicans indorsed the Anti- Masonic electoral ticket, although Clay was Jack- son's chief opponent in the country at large. Ver- mont was the only state to give its electoral vote to Wirt. After 1832 the party rapidly declined, as it split on the questions of the United States Bank and the tariff. — See also Masonic societies: Anti- Masonic agitations; U. S. A.: 1832. In Mexico. See Me.xico: 1822-1828. ANTI-MILITARISM, the spirit of opposition to large standing armies and extensive armaments and to the growth of a military caste. In con- tinental Europe during the years between the Franco-Prussian War and the World War the anti- militarists, including socialists and philosophical pacificists, denounced conscription — universal on the continent — and the increased production oi arms and munitions. They condemned the spend- ing of huge sums, the withdrawal of men from industry and the tendency to exalt the military over the civil power, and held that it was prepara- tion for war that brought war. The sentiment of anti-militarism has always been prevalent in the United States of America, as is evidenced by the fact that the country has never been prepared for any of the wars in which it has engaged. America has always clung to a small standing army, has kept down expenditures for arms and munitions, has not developed a military caste as known in Europe and has adopted conscription only in the two critical emergencies of the Civil War and the World War. — See also Pe.^ce move- ment; Intern'.^tion.al: i8Sq, ANTI-MONOPOLY PARTY IN lO'WA. See Io\v.\: 1871- 1874. ANTINOMIAN CONTROVERSY: Anne Hutchinson in conflict with the Puritans. See M.ASSAfiu-SKiT^s: 1636-1038 ANTIOCH, (mod. Antakia) a city near what is now .Aleppo, Syria, founded by Seleucus Nicator, son of .Antiochus, (301 B.C.) (See Macedonia, etc.: 310-301 B.C.; Seleucid.ic, Empire of the; Syria: B.C. 332-167.) As the capital of Syria (until the year 65 B.C.), the city rose to great splendor. It became one of the earliest seats of Christianity during the period 33- 100 (See Christianity: AD. 33-52. According to tradition the city was evangelized by Peter It is also said that the converts were the first to be called "Christians." .Antioch, more than any other ancient city, suffered keenly from sporadic earth- (|uakes. A. D. 115. — Great earthquake.— "Early in the year 115, according to the most exact chronology, the splendid capital of Syria was visited by an earthquake, one of the most disastrous appar- ently of all the similar inflictions from which that luckless city has periodically suffered. . . . The calamity was enhanced by the presence of unusual crowds from all the cities of the east, assembled to pay homage to the Emperor [Trajan], or to take part in his expedition [of conquest in the eastl. .Among the victims were many Romans of distinction . . Trajan, himself, only escaped by creeping through a window." — C. Merivale, History of the Romans, ch. 65. 374 ANTIOCHUS ANTI-TRUST DECISIONS 260. — Surprise, rriassacre and pillage by Sha- pur, king of Persia. See Persia: 226-627. 272.— Battle of Antioch. See Palmyra. 526. — Destruction by earthquake. — During the reign of Justinian (518-565) the cities of the Ro- man empire "were overwhelmed by earthquakes more frequent than at any other period of history. Antioch, the metropolis of Asia, was entirely de- stroyed, on the 20th of May, 526, at the very time when the inhabitants of the adjacent country were assembled to celebrate the festival of the Ascen- sion; and it is affirmed that 250,000 persons were crushed by the fall of its sumptuous edifices." — J. C. L. de Sismondi, Fall of the Roman Empire, ch. 10. Also in: E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, ch. 43. 638. — Surrender to the Arabs. See Caliphate: 632-639. 969. — Recapture by the Byzantines. — After having remained 328 years in the possession of the Saracens, Antioch was retaken in the winter of 96Q by the Byzantine emperor, Nicephorus Phocas, and became again a Christian city. Three years later the Moslems made a sreat effort to recover the city, but were defeated. The Byzantine arms were at this time highly successful in the never ending Saracen war, and John Tzimisces, succes- sor of Nicephorus Phocas, marched triumphantly to the Tigris and threatened even Bagdad But most of the conquests thus made in Syria and Mesopotamia were not lasting. — G. Finlay, History of the Byzantine Empire, A. D. 716-1007, bk. 2, ch. 2. — See also Byzantine empire: 963-1025. 1097-1098.— Siege and capture by the Cru- saders. See Crusades: ioq6-ioqq. 1268. — Extinction of the Latin Principality. — Total destruction of the city. — Antioch fell, be- fore the arms of Bibars, the sultan of Egypt and Syria, and the Latin principality was bloodily extinguished, in 1268. "The first seat of the Chris- tian name was dispeopled by the slaughter of sev- enteen, and the captivity of one hundred thousand of her inhabitants." This fate befell Antioch only twenty-three years before the last vestige of the conquests of the crusaders was obliterated at Acre. — E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Em- pire, ch. 50. — "The sultan halted for several weeks in the plain, and permitted his soldiers to hold a large market, or fair, for the sale of their booty. This market was attended by Jews and pedlars from all parts of the East. ... 'It was,' says the Cadi Mohieddin, 'a fearful and heart-rending sight. Even the hard stones were softened with grief.' He tells us that the captives were so numerous that a fine hearty boy might be purchased for twelve pieces of silver, and a little girl for five. When the work of pillage had been completed, when all the ornaments and decorations had been carried away from the churches, and the lead torn from the roofs, Antioch was fired in different places, amid the loud thrilling shouts of 'Allah .\cbar,' 'God is Victorious.' The great churches of St. Paul and St. Peter burnt with terrific fury for many days." — C. G. Addison, The Knights Tem- plars, ch. 6. With the exception of the colossal ruins of the Roman walls and aqueducts modern Antakia holds little of the ancient city. Although superseded by Aleppo as capital of N. Syria, Antakia is con- stantly growing in importance. Its present popu lation is 25,000. — See also Syria. ANTIOCHUS, the name of thirteen kings of the Seleucid dynasty of Syria. The most famous are Antiochus III (223-187 B.C.) who sheltered Hannibal and made war on Rome (See Seleuci- dae: 224-187 B.C.), and Antiochus IV (176-164 B. C.) who attempted the suppression of Judaism by persecution. See Jews; B.C. 332-167; 166- 40. ANTIPATER (c. 398-319 B.C.), Macedonian general under Philip and Alexander the Great. Assisted the latter in establishing his kingdom; re- gent of Macedonia during Alexander's Eastern ex- pedition (334-323), and was left as ruler on the death of the king. — See also Greece: B.C. 323- 322, 321-312. ANTIPHONAL SINGING. See Music: An- cient: B.C. 4-A. D. 397. ANTI-POPE. See Papacy: 1056-1122 and after. ANTIQUITIES. See Arch.^solocical re- search; ARcii.toLOGY ; also names of countries, subhead Antiquities. "ANTIQUITIES OF THE JEWS" (by Jo- sephus). See History: 14. ANTI-RENTERS. See Livingston Manor. ANTI-SALOON LEAGUE, United States. See Liquor problem: United States: 1913-1019. ANTI-SEMITISM, a policy of agitation against the Jews, on religious, political, social and eco- nomic grounds. The anti-semitism of the hall- century preceding the World War had its origin in Germany and Austria and for many years played a great part in parliamentary struggles. (See Austria: 1895-1806, and after; Jews: Germany: 1914-1920.) In Russia and in Rumania it led to severe persecutions. In France anti-semitism culminated in the notorious Dreyfus case (1894- 1899) in which justice was finally done. (See France: 1804-1906.) Since the World War, agi- tation against the Jews has been overshadowed in all countries by other political and social prob- lems. (See Jews: 20th Century.) In 1919 and 1920, however, there appears to have been a re- crudescence of anti-semitism in Hungary and Po- land. — See also Jews: i8th-i9th centuries; 1914- 1920. In Austria. — 1919. See Austria: 1919 (Septem- ber). In England. See Jews: England: 1189; Jews: England: nth century. In France. See Jews: France: 1791. In Poland. See Poland: igig-1920: Status of Jews. In Russia. See Beiliss case; Jews: Russia: 1728-1880; 1817-1913; Jews: Russia: Ukraine; Russia: 1903 (April) ; 1913. In Spain. See Jews: Spain: 7th centurv. ANTISEPTICS: In the Middle Ages. See Medical science: Ancient: loth century. Lister's reforms. See Medical science: Mod- ern: 19th century: Antiseptic surgery and obstet- rics. ANTI-SLAVERY MOVEMENT. See Slav- ER\ : 1688-1780, and after. ANTISTHENES: Philosophy. See Ethics: .Ancient Greece: B.C. 4th century. ANTI-TOXINS, complex soluble chemical com- pounds occurring in the blood, normally or under special conditions, that have the property of neu- tralizing some specific poison, usually those pro- duced in the human body by pathogenic bacteria ; they usually confer immunity or facilitate recovery from the disease cau.sed by the bacteria. — See also Medical science: Modern: 19th century: Anti- toxin. ANTI-TRUST ACT, or Sherman Act. See Sherman anti-tri'St act. ANTI-TRUST DECISIONS, in United States Courts. See Supreme Court: 1887-1914; 1888- 1913; 1Q14-1921; Trusts: 1901-1Q06. 375 ANTI-TRUST LEGISLATION ANTWERP ANTI-TRUST LEGISLATION. See Trusts: 1901-1Q06, igi4. ANTIUM. — "Antium, once a flourishing city of the V'olsci, and afterwards of the Romans, their conquerors, is at present reduced to a small num- ber of inhabitants. Originally it was without a port ; the harbour of the Antiates having been the neighbouring indentation in the coast of Ceno, now Nettuno, distant more than a mile to the eastward. . . . The piracies of the ancient Antiates all pro- ceeded from Ceno, or Cerio, where they had 22 long ships. These Numicius took; . . . some were taken to Rome and their rostra suspended in tri- umph in the Forum. ... It [Antium] was reck- oned 260 stadia, or about 3^ miles, from Ostia." — Sir W. Cell, Topography of Rome, v. i. ANTIVARI: 1915. — Promised to territory of Croatia, Serbia and Montenegro by Treaty of London. See London, Treaty or Pact of. ANTIVESTjEUM. See Brit.mn: Celtic tribes. ANTOFOGASTA: Trouble of Chile and Bo- livia over town. See Bolivia: 1020-1021. ANTOINE DE BOURBON, king of Navarre. ii;54-i5ti2. See Navarre: 1528-1563. 'ANTOING, Belgium: 1918.— Captured by British. See World War: 1918: II. Western front: w, 2. ANTONELLI, Giacomo (1806-1876), Italian cardinal. Adviser of Pius IX, serving as presi- dent of the council of state in 1847 ; premier of the first constitutional ministry of Pius IX; secre- tary of state in 1848. Opposed all liberalism and especially the Risorgimento. See Rome: Modem city: 1850-1870. ANTONELLO DA MESSINA (1430-1479), Italian painter, introduced Flemish tendencies and invention into Italian painting. His work com- prises renderings of "Ecce Homo," Madonnas, saints, and half-length portraits, many of them painted on wood. The nameless picture of a man in the Berlin Museum is said to be the finest of them all. ANTONINES. See Rome: A. D. 138-180. ANTONINUS, Marcus Aurelius. See Mas- cus Aurelius .\ntoninus. ANTONINUS PIUS, Roman emperor, A. D. 138-161. See Rome: Empire: 138-180. ANTONIO, known as "The Prior of Crato" '(1531-1595)1 a Portuguese monk, claimant of the Ihrone of Portugal. Routed by the Duke of Alva in 15S0 at Alcantara (See also Portugal: 1579- 1580) ; fled to France and later to England, whence in 1590 he accompanied Drake and Norris to Por- tugal in an unsuccessful attempt to provoke an uprising against Philip II. ANTONIUS, the name of many prominent cit- izens of Rome, of the gens Antonia. The most important are the following: Antonius, Lucius, brother of the triumvir. Tribune of the people in 44; supported his brother after Caesar's murder; consul in 41. As defender of those who suffered by the land distribution of the triumvirate, entered the Persian War; defeated and sent to Spain as governor by Octavius. Antonius Marcus (143-87 B.C.), a distini;uished orator; praetor in Cilicia; consul in 99 B.C. Antonius Marcus (d. 72-71 B.C.), a military leader, who failed in his operations against the pirates and against the Cretans. Antonius Marcus (S3 -30 B. C), known as Mark Antony, the triumvir. Raised to power by Csesar; triumvir with Octavius and Lepidus, his province being Gaul ; fell a victim to the charms of Cleo- patra ; by a new division of the empire, ruled the East, where he attempted to eubdue the Parthians. In 32 B. C. the senate deprived him of power and declared war on Cleopatra. Antony, fighting in her behalf, was defeated at Actium, 31 B.C. and both committed suicide. — See also Egypt: B.C. 48- 30; Rome: Republic: B.C. 50-49, 48, 44-42, 44-31, 44: After Ca-sar's death, 31. ANTRIM, a county of Ulster in the north-east corner of Ireland. See Ireland: Historical map ANTRUSTIONES.— In the Salic law, of the Franks, there is no trace of any recognized order of nobility. "We meet, however, with several titles denoting temporary rank, derived from offices po- litical and judicial, or from a position about the person of the king. Among these the Antrustiones, who were in constant attendance upon the king, played a conspicuous part. . . . Antrustiones and Convivae Regis [Romans who held the same posi- tion] are the predecessors of the Vassi Dominici of later times, and like these were bound to the king by an especial oath of personal and perpetual service. They formed part, as it were, of the king's family, and were expected to reside in the palace, where they superintended the various de- partments of the royal household." — W. C. Perry, The Franks, ch. 10. — See also Franks: 500-768. ANTUNG-MUKDEN RAILWAY. See Ciuna: 1905-1909. ANTWERP.— Principal seaport and fortress of Belgium and one of the great commercial cities of the world. It is situated on the Scheldt sixty miles from the North sea and twenty-eight north of Brussels. Name of the city. — Its commercial greatness in the 16th century. — "The city was so ancient that its genealogists, with ridiculous gravity, as- cended to a period two centuries before the Tro- jan war, and discovered a giant, rejoicing in the classic name of Antigonus, established on the Scheld. This patriarch exacted one half the mer- chandise of all navigators who passed his castle, and was accustomed to amputate and cast into the river the right hands of those who mfringed this simple tariff. Thus 'Hand-werpen,' hand-throwing, became Antwerp, and hence, two hands, in the es- cutcheon of the city, were ever held up in heraldic attestation of the truth. The giant was, in his turn, thrown into the Scheld by a hero, named Brabo, from whose exploits Brabant derived its name. . . . But for these antiquarian researches, a sim- pler derivation of the name would seem 'an t' werf,' 'on the wharf.' It had now [in the first half of the sixteenth century] become the principal en- trepot and exchange of Europe . . . the commer- cial capital of the world. . . . Venice, Nuremburg, ."Xugsburg, Bruges, were sinking, but .Antwerp, with its deep and convenient river, stretched its arm to the ocean and caught the golden prize, as it fell from its sister cities' grasp. . . . No city, except Paris, surpassed it in population, none approached it in commercial splendor." — J. L. Motley, Rise of the Dutch republic. Historical introduction, sect. 13. — See also Netherlands: Map of the Nether- lands and Belgium. 16th century. — Commercial importance. See Commerce: Era of geographic expansion: i6th-i7th centuries: Netherlands; and ComiiIekce: Medieval: 8th-i6th centuries. 16th century. — Famous school of art. See Painting: Flemish. 1566. — Riot of the image-breakers in the churches. See Netherlands: 1566. 1576. — Spanish Fury. See Netherlands: iS7S- 1577. 1577. — Deliverance of the city from its Span- ish garrison. — Demolition of the citadel. See Netherlands: 1577-1581. 1583. — Treacherous attempt of the duke of 376 ANTWERP, SCHOOL OF APALACHEE INDIANS Anjou. — French Fury. See Netherlands: 1581- 1584- 1584-1585. — Siege and reduction by Alexander Farnese, duke of Parma. — Downfall of pros- perity. See Netherlands; 15S5. 1706. — Surrendered to Marlborough and the Allies. See Netherlands: 1706-1707. 1832. — Siege of the citadel by the French. — Expulsion of the Dutch garrison. See Belgium: 1830-1S32. 1914. — German occupation. — At the time of the German invasion of Belgium, August, 1914, Ant- werp would have been the natural place of debark- ation of the British Expeditionary forces, but this would have been a violation of international law because the seaward approaches of Antwerp (the mouths of Scheldt) lay in neutral Dutch territory. After the fall of Brussels the entire Belgian de- fense centered about Antwerp. On September 28, 1914, the Germans opened fire upon the outer forts. On October 5 the Belgian army began to withdraw from the city, and the Germans occupied it on October q, 1914.^-See also World War: 1914: Western front: c, 1; also Western front. 1916-1918. — German rule. — Retaken by the Allies. See World War: X, German rule in north- ern France and Belgium: b, 1; 1918; XI. End of war: c; d, 1. Modern aspects. — For centuries the city has been regarded as one of the strongest fortiiied places in Europe and during the middle of the nineteenth century the fortifications were modern- ized by the celebrated Belgian engineer Brialmont. The waterfront of Antwerp was largely rebuilt by Napoleon, but of the vast docks and basins which he constructed but few remain in their original form. The new wharves which have been built since 1S77 are over three miles in length, so that the modern harbor ranks with that of Hamburg as the best on the continent of Europe. The famous citadel dating from the sixteenth century was razed in 1 8 74. The most recent of the modern con- structions of the city is the great stadium specially erected for the Olympic games of 1920. — See also Belgium: 1920: Olympic games. ANTWERP, School of, a sbtteenth century school of Flemish painters begun with Matsys. The pupils of this school, Mabuse, Frans Floris, Bernard van Orley, Peter Pourbus, and Antonio Moro went to Italy and eventually became Italian- ized. — See also Painting: Flemish. ANZAC, cove on the north-western coast of Gallipoli, so-called because of the landing of the Anzacs. See World War: 1915: VI. Turkey: a, 4, XX ; a, 6. ANZACS, a composite word used to designate the British colonial troops engaged in the World War, made by taking the initial letters of the words Australia-New Zealand army corps. — See also Australia: 1914-1915; World War: 1915: VI. Turkey: a, 4, xvii; 1917: VI. Turkish theater: c, 1, ii; c, 1, iv. AOSTA, Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of (i86g- ), Italian general, cousin of Kin; Victor Emmanuel III and a grandson of King Amadeus of Spain; commanded the Italian 3d army in a well-conducted retreat to the Piave river after the Caporetto dis- aster of 1917. See World War: 1917: IV. Austro- Italian front: e; d, 1. Against Austrian offensive. See World War: 191S: I\^ .'\ustro-Italian theater: b. APA SAHIB (d. 1840) : Revolts in India. See India: 1816-1810. APACHE INDIANS.— Under the general name of the Apaches "I include all the savage tribes roaming through New Mexico, the north-western portion of Texas, a small part of northern Mexico, and Arizona. . . . Owing to their roving procU\'- ities and incessant raids they are led first in oat direction and then in another. In general terms they may be said to range about as follows: The Comanches, Jetans, or Nauni, consisting of three tribes, the Comanches proper, the Yamparacks, andi Tenawas, inhabiting northern Texas, eastern Chi^ huahua, Nuevo Leon, Coahuila, Durango, and por- tions of SQuth-western New Mexico, by language allied to the Shoshone family ; the Apaches, who call themselves Shis Inday, or 'men of the woods,' and whose tribal divisions are the Chiricaguis, Coyoteros, Faraones, Gileiios, Lipancs, Llaneros, Mescaleros, Mimbreiios, Nata'.:es, Pclones, Pina- leiios, Tejuas, Tontos, and Vaqueros, roaming over New Mexico, Arizona, Northwestern Texas, Chi- huahua and Sonora, and who are allied by lan- guage to the great Tinneh family; the Navajos, or Tenuai, 'men,' as they designate themselves, having linguistic affinities with the Apache nation, with which they are sometimes classed, living in and around the Sierra de los Mimbres; the Mojaves, occupying both banks of the Colorado in Mojave Valley ; the Hualapais, near the head-waters of Bill Williams Fork; the Yumas, on the east bank of the Colorado, near its junction with the Rio Gila; the Cosninos, who, like the Hualapais, are some- times included in the Apache nation, ranging through the Mogollon Mountains; and the Yam- pais, between Bill Williams Fork and the Rio Has- sayampa. . . . The Apache country is probably the most desert of all. ... In both mountain and des- ert the fierce, rapacious Apache, inured from child- hood to hunger and thirst, and heat and cold, finds safe retreat. . . . The Pueblos . . . are nothing but partially reclaimed Apaches or Comanches." — H. H. Bancroft, Native races of the Pacific states, v. 1, eh. 5. — Dr. Brinton prefers the name Yuma for the whole of the Apache group, confining the name Apache (that being the Yuma word for "fightine, men") to the one tribe so called. "It has also beeni called the Katchan or Cuchan stock." — D. G. Brin- ton, The American race, p. 109. — See also Atha- pascan faiuly; Indians, American: Cultural areaS' in North America; Southwest area. Subjugation. See Arizona: 1877; Indians, American: 1S86; U. S. A.: 1S66-1876. APALACHEE INDIANS.— "Among the ab- original tribes of the United States perhaps none is more enigmatical than the Apalaches. They are mentioned as an important nation by many of the early French and Spanish travellers and historians, their name is preserved by a bay and river on the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, and by the great eastern coast ran;e of mountains, and has been applied by ethnologists to a family of cognate na- tions that found their hunting grounds from the Mississippi to the Atlantic and from the Ohio river to the Florida Keys; yet, strange to say, their own race and place have been but guessed at." The derivation of the name of the Apalaches "has been a 'questio vexata' among Indianologists." We must "consider it an indication of ancient connections with the southern continent, and in itself a pure Carib word '.^paliche' in the Tamanaca dialect of the Guaranay stem on the Orinoco signifies 'man,* and the earliest application of the name in the northern continent was as the title of the chief of a country, 'I'homme par excellence,' and hence, like very many other Indian tribes (.Apaches, Lenni Lenape, Illinois), his subjects assumed by eminence the proud appellation of 'The Men.' . . . We have . . . found that though no general migration took place from the continent southward, nor from the islands northward, yet there was a considerable in- 377 APALACHEN APOLLO tcrcourse in both directions; that not only the natives of the greater and lesser Antilles and Yu- catan, but also numbers of the Guaranay stem of the southern continent, the Caribs proper, crossed the Straits of Florida and founded colonies on the shores of the Gulf of Mexico; that their customs and language became to a certain extent grafted upon those of the early possessors of the soil; and to this foreign language the name Apalache be- longs. As previously stated, it was used as a gen- eric title, applied to a confederation of many na- tions at one time under the domination of one chief, whose power probably extended from the Alleghany mountains on the north to the shore of the Gulf; that it included tribes speaking a tongue closely akin to the Choktah is evident from the fragments we have remaining. . . . The location of the tribe in alter years is very uncertain. Dumont placed them in the northern part of what is now Alabama and Georgia, near the mountains that bear their name. That a portion of them did live in this vicinity is corroborated by the historians of South Carolina, who say that Colonel Moore, in 1703, found them 'between the headwaters of the Savannah and .Mtamaha.' . . . .According to all the Spanish authorities, on the other hand, they dwelt in the region of country between the Suwannee and Apalachicola rivers — yet must not be confounded with the .Apalachicolos. . . . They certainly had a large and prosperous town in this vicinity, said to contain 1,000 warriors. ... I am inclined to be- lieve that these were different branches of the same confederacy. ... In the beginning of the i8th cen- tury they suffered much from the devastations of the English, French and Greeks. [From 1702-1708 English from Carolina invaded .•Xpalaches territory and nearly exterminated the tribe. The mission churches (Spanish) were burned, the missionaries slain, and over a i.ooo Indians were sold into slavery.] . . . .\bout the time Spain regained pos- session of the soil, they migrated to the West and settled on the Bayou Rapide of Red River Here they had a village numbering about 50 souls." — D. G. Brinton, Notes on the Floridian peninsula, ch. 2. — See also Muskhocean family. APALACHEN. See Canada: Names. APAMEA. — Apamea, a city founded by Seleu- cus Nicator on the Euphrates, the site of which is occupied by the modern town of Bir, h:id be- come, in Strabo's time (near the beginning of the Christian era) one of the principal centers of Asi- atic trade, second only to Ephesus. Thapsacus, the former customary crossing-place of the Euphrates, had ceased to be so, and the passage was made at Apamea. A place on the opposite bank of the river was called Zeugma, or "the bridge." Bir "is still the usual place at which travellers proceed- ing from .^ntioch or .Meppo towards Bagdad cross the Euphrates." — E. H. Bunbury, History of an- cient geography, ch. 22, sect, i, v. 2, pp. 298 and 317. APANAGE. See Appanage. APATURIA.- An annual family festival of the .Mhenians, celebrated for three days in the early part of the month of October (Pyanepsion) . "This was the characteristic festival of the Ionic race; handed down from a period anterior to the con- stitution of Kleisthcnes, and to the ten new tribes each containing so many denies, and bringing to- gether the citizens in their primitive unions of family, gens, phratry, etc., the aggregate of which had originally constituted the four Ionic tribes, now superannuated. .\t the Apaturia, the family ceremonies were gone through ; marriages were en- rolled, acts of adoption were promulgated and cer- tified, the names of youthful citizens first entered on the gentile and phratric roll; sacrifices were jointly celebrated by these family assemblages to Zeus Phratrius, .\thenc, and other deities, accom- panied with much festivity and enjoyment." — G Grotc, History oj Greece, pt. 2, ch. 64, v. 7. APELDERN, Albert von: Founder of town of Riga. See Livonia: I2th-i3th centuries. APELLA, Spartan assembly. See Sparta: Con- stitution ascribed to Lycurgus. APELLES, Greek painter of the fourth cen- tury EC; friend of .Alexander, who sat for him frequently ; his most famous works were mytho- logical or allegorical; considered the greatest painter of ancient times. — See also Cos. APHEK, Battle of (845 B.C.), a great victory won by .\hab, king of Israel, over Benhadad, king of Damascus. — H. Ewald, History oj Israel, bk. 4, sect. I. APHET.ffi:. See Greece: B.C. 480: Persian wars: .\rtcmisium. APHRODITE, or Venus, the Greek goddess of love and beauty ; often connected with the sea, the lower world, and productivity in the animal and vegetable kingdom. Her oriental prototype was Astarte or .\5ht0reth, APIA, principal town in the Samoan islands, scene (March 15. iSSb) of a hurricane which de- stroyed one American and two German war ves- sels. Seized in IQ14 by an expeditionary force from New Zealand. APIU. See Thebes, Egypt. APOCALYPSE, the last book of the New Tes- tament, known as the Revelation of St. John the Divine. See Christianity: ?5-6o. APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE, works which claim to be sacred, although excluded from ca- nonical scriptures. These books are purported to have been kept secret because they revealed events unfulfilled at the time of their writing. The apoc- ryphal books found in the Greek text but not in the Hebrew or .\ramaic are as follows: Ecclesiasticus, Wisdom of Solomon, Baruch, Epistle of Jeremiah, Tobit, Judith, First and Second Maccabees, sec- tions of Esther and sections of Daniel. These were in the Latin Vulgate of the Middle Ages, and, by the Council of Trent in 1546, the Roman Catho- lic church declared them deutcrocanonical or in- spired, but the Protestant churches and the Greek Catholic (after the iSth century) pronounced them apocryphal. Other books considered apocryphal are First. Second, Third and Fourth Esdras and the Prayer of Manasses. APODACA, Juan Ruiz de (1770-1835), Span- ish soldier and viceroy of Mexico. See Mexico: 1820-1826. APODECT.ffi.— "When Aristotle speaks of the officers of government to whom the public reve- nues were delivered, who kept them and distributed them to the several administrative departments, these are called, he adds, apodectfe and treasurers. In .\thens the apodectje were ten in number, in ac- cordance with the number of the tribes. They were appointed by lot . They had in their pos- session the lists of the debtors of the state, re- ceived the money which was paid in, registered an account of it and noted the amount in arrear, and in the council house in the presence of the council, erased the names of the debtors who had paid the demands against them from the list, and deposited this again in the archives. Finally, they, tofjether with the council, apportioned the sums received." —A. Boeckh, Public economy oj the .Athenians (tr. by Lamb), bk. 2, ch. 4. APOLLO, Greek divinity of the sun, second in importance only to Zeus; of his many attributes the most important were those of prophecy, music 378 APOLLO, ORACLES OF APPONYI and song; there arc innumerable representations of him in art, notably in the temples of Delphi, Naucratis, Palatine, and Tolosa; of the many con- ceptions of him embodied in sculpture one ex- treme is represented by the Riant Colossus of Rhodes, the other by the Apollo Belvedere, found at Frascati in 1455 and now in the Vatican. — See also Mythology: Greek mythology: Anthropo- morphic character of Greek myth; Religion: B.C. 7SO-A. D. 30; Delos. APOLLO, Oracles of. See Oracles. APOLLODORUS, of Damascus, a famous Greek architect of the second century A. D. See P.mmino: Greek. APOLLONIA, an important group of more than thirty ancient cities in lllyria, founded by the Corinthians. (See CorcvRj\.) They played a prominent part in the wars against Philip of Mac- edon and the struggle between Pompey and Caesar for Roman supremacy. This group was the important center of culture and learning towards the close of the Roman republic, and was famed for Calamis' statue of Apollo, which was removed to Rome. APOLOGISTS OF CHRISTIANITY. See Christianity: 100-300: Period of growth and struggle. APOSTASION. See Polet.?;, APOSTLES. See CHRisnANiTv: 33-52, 33-70; Miracles of. See Miracles: ist century. APOSTOLIC BRETHREN. See Dulcinists. APOSTOLIC CHRISTIAN CHURCH. See Evangelistic associations. APOSTOLIC CHURCH. See Evangelistic associations. APOSTOLIC CONSTITUTION OF THE CURIA. See Papacy: 1008. APOSTOLIC FAITH MOVEMENT. See Evangelistic associations. APOSTOLIC INQUISITION. See Inquisi- tion. APOSTOLIC SEDIS, papal bull. See Bulls, Papal: 1800. APOTHEOSIS.— Deification of a human be- ing, thus raising him to the rank of a god; closely allied with ancestor worship. The ancients often deified the founder of a dynasty or a city. Sev- eral Roman emperors received divine honors after, and sometimes even before, death, by vote of the Senate, and many Christians suffered martyrdom for refusing to recognize such an apotheosis. APPA SAHIB. See Apa Sahib. APPAM.— "The Appam. a British merchant vessel, was captured by the German cruiser Mowe on January 15, iqi6, and was brought by a Ger- man crew into Newport News, Va. The German government claimed that under certain provisions of the treaty of 1700 between Prussia and the United States, carried over into the treaty of 1828, the vessel might remain as long as it pleased in American waters. Secretary Lansing held that inasmuch as the provisions in question were con- trary to general principles of international law, they must be strictly construed, and that they did not give a German prize the right to enter Ameri- can ports unattended by the capturing vessel. The same view was adopted by Judge Waddell, of the United States District Court, and, on appeal, by the Supreme Court (Mar. 6, IQ17)." — War cyclope- dia, p. 17. — See also U. S. A.: igi6 (February- October); World War: iqi6: IX. Naval opera- tions: c. APPANAGE.— "The term appanage denotes the provision made for the younger children of a king of France. This always consisted of lands and feudal superiorities held of the crown by the tenure of peerage. It is evident that this usage, as it produced a new class of powerful feudataries, was hostile to the interests and policy of the sov- ereign, and retarded the subjugation of the ancient aristocracy. But an usage coeval with the mon- archy was not to be abrogated, and the scarcity of money rendered it impossible to provide for the younger branches of the royal family by any other means. It was restrained however as far as circumstances would permit." — H. Hallam, Mid- dle Ages, cli. I, pt. 2. — "From the words 'ad' and 'panis,' meaning that it was to provide bread for the person who held it. A portion of appanage was now [in the reign of Louis VIII, i223-i22()j given to each of the king's younger sons, which descended to his direct heirs, but in default of them reverted to the crown."— T. Wright, History of France, v. i, p. 308, twte. — The creation of the appanage was an unfortunate reenforcement of feudalism. It opened the way to strife among the members of the king's family and retarded the consolidation of the kingdom. See France: 1226- 1270. APPELLANTS. See Convulsionists. APPELOUSAS. See Texas: Aboriginal inhab- itants. APPERT, Benjamin Nicholas Marie (1797- 1847), French philanthropist and educator. Gave much time and study to the question of educating inmates of schools, prisons, and hospitals; it is asserted that he taught at least 100,000 soldiers to read and write. APPIAN WAY.— Appius Claudius, called the Blind, who was censor at Rome from 312 to 308 B.C. (See Rome: B.C. 312), constructed during that time "the Appian road, the queen of roads, because the Latin road, passing by Tusculum, and through the country of the Hernicans, was so much endangered, and had not yet been quite re- covered by the Romans: the Appian road, passing by Terracina, Fundi and Mola, to Capua, was in- tended to be a shorter and safer one. . . . The Appian road, even if .Appius did carry it as far as Capua, was not executed by him with that splen- dour for which we still admire it in those parts which have not been destroyed intentionally: the closely joined polygons of basalt, which thousands of years have not been able to displace, arc of a somewhat later origin. Appius commenced the road because there was actual need for it ; in the year A. U. 457 [207 B. C] peperino, and some years later basalt (silex) was first used for paving roads, and, at the beginning, only on the small distance from the Porta Capena to the temple of Mars, as we are distinctly told by Livy. Roads constructed according to artistic principles had previously existed." — B. G. Niebuhr, Lectures on the history of Rome, led. 45. Also in: Sir W. Gell, Topography of Rome, v. i. — -H. G. Liddell, History of Rome, v. i, p. 251. APPIUS CLAUDIUS, surnamed Caecus, Ro- man censor. 312-308 B.C.; consul in 307 and 2q6; leader of the spirited opposition of Rome to the invasion of Pyrrhus; began the construction of the .Appian Wav; in 312 extended the franchise t') landless citizens. — See also Rome: Republic: B.C. 312- APPOLONIUS, Phodius (c. 235 B.C.), libra- rian. See Alexandria: B C. 282-246: Reign of Ptolemv Philadelphus APPOMATTOX COURT HOUSE: Surren- der of confederates. See U. S. A.: 1865 (April: Virginia) . APPONYI, Count Albert (1846- ), Hungar- ian statesman. Chosen President of Chamber of 379 APPORTIONMENT APPRENTICES, STATUTE OF Deputies by Liberals, igoi; minister of education, 1906, in Wekerle cabinet; delegate to World's Peace Conference in America, 191 1; leader of Constitu- tional Democrats, IQ17; minister of education in Hungarian cabinet, 1917. — See also Austria-Hun- gary: 1900-1903; IQ04; 1905-1906; Hungary: 1914; 1918: End of the War; Slovaks. APPORTIONMENT.— "Several methods of apportioning or distributing legislative representa- tives have been followed. One is to distribute them among the political divisions of the 'State with- out regard to their population, or at least without exclusive regard to it. In all the important fed- eral unions except the [former] German Empire and the Dominion of Canada the principle ot equality of representation among the component members prevails in the construction of the upper chambers. In the German Biindesratli the number of votes to which each state of the empire [wasl entitled varied from one to seventeen ; and in the Canadian House of Lords the number varies from four to twenty-four, the latter being the number allowed the province of Quebec. In the French Republic the number of senators from each depart- ment varies from one to ten. Another method of distribution is to apportion the representatives among the political divisions of the state with some regard to the amount or value of property in each. The chief merit of such a method is that it takes into consideration one of the important elements which enter into the physical make-up of the state. The doctrine that taxation should go hand in hand with representation has long been a cherished political theor>' of the people of .'\merica and England, and perhaps no better system could be devised for protecting the rights of property than by giving it a share of representation in the legislative branch. For other reasons, however, it has not commended itself to the people of demo- cratic states; and outside of a few European mon- archies where property is taken into consideration to some extent in organizing representation in the upper chambers, the system no longer prevails. — In no state is property to-day the sole basis of representation in either chamber, and the few re- maining traces of the principle that have survived the nineteenth centurs' will doubtless disappear in the course of time. Another principle is that which bases representation on the total popula- tion, citizens and aliens, male and female, en- franchised and unenfranchised alike, and not on the number of voters merely. This is now the al- most universal rule governing the apportionment of representation in lower chambers, and in some states it is also the basis of representation in the upper chambers. It possesses the element of sim- plicity and uniformity and is regarded as being more in harmony with presenl day notions of representative government. The ratio of repre- sentation varies widely among different states. . . . The same variety prevails among the individual states composing the federal republic of the United States, where the principle of apportionment on the basis of population is generally the rule for the constitution of both the upper and lower cham- bers. Perhaps an ideal system would be one which would take into consideration the elements of population, geographical area, and property com- bined, if there are any criteria for determining the relative weight which should be given to each of these elements. As yet no satisfacton,- scheme of this kind has been devised. For convenience in choosing representatives it is customary to divide the state into electoral circumscriptions or districts. The entire body of representatives might be chosen from the state at large on a general ticket, each elector being allowed to cast a vote for the entire number; but in states of considerable geographi- cal area, where several hundred members are to be elected, such a method would obviously be im- practicable. The time and effort involved in vot- ing such a ticket would be very great; and, what is of more importance, the ignorance of the elec- tor concerning the candidates from distant parts of the state would be so great that an election under such circumstances would be largely a farce. The practice of all states, therefore, is to divide their territory into electoral districts or to utilize for this purpose the political subdivisions already in existence. In constituting electoral districts two methods are employed: one is to parcel the state into as many districts as there are representatives to be chosen and allow a single member to be chosen from each ; the other is to create a smaller number of districts, from each of which a number of representatives is chosen on the same ticket. The former is known as the single member dis- trict plan ; the latter, as the general ticket method. Each has been employed by most states at dif- ferent times in their history, though nearly all have come at last to the single member district method." — J. W. Garner, Introduction to political science, pp. 440-443. — See also Suffr.age; Elec- tions, Presidential; Congress of the U. S.: House: Reapportionment; U. S. A.: 1901 (Jan- uary). APPRENTICE SCHOOLS, IndustriaL See Education: Modern developments: Vocational edu- cation: Industrial education in the U. S. APPRENTICES, Statute of.— "The Statute of Apprentices (1562) fin England] was unquestion- ably the most notable embodiment of the policies that dominated industrial life until the Industrial Revolution was far advanced. It was in a meas- ure a codification of older statutes which had been imperfectly administered, and the dominant purpose seems to have been to prevent change rather than to make innovations. In fact, how- ever, the statute made a number of important in- novations. It was hoped that the statute would check the decline of the corporate towns, provide for more adequate training of village artisans, as- sure a more considerable supply of agricultural labor, and afford some guarantee that wages would be adjusted to the 'advancement of prices of all things belonging to said servants and la- borers.' Few social concerns were not in some measure affected by this great codification of industrial and social legislation. Thirty-two crafts, including all the more important and frequent occupations, are enumerated in the articles refer- ring to the length of term for which such crafts- men should be hired. These crafts were later desig- nated as crafts to be taught in corporate and mar- ket towns to the sons of freeholders. The mercers, drapers, goldsmiths, ironmongers, and clothiers were forbidden to take any person as apprentice whose father or mother was not possessed of a forty-shilling freehold. These were crafts whose masters were characteristically employers so that this distinction is significant. In another article twenty-one crafts are enumerated which were al- lowed to be taught either in towns or in the coun- try; all of these crafts were to be open to persons whose parents had no property at all. There are thus implications that a wage-earning class was alreadv established: it is assumed by the statute that the larger proportion of artisans work for hire, and it is for this reason that the regulation of the waees of town artisans became a matter of solicitude. The wages of agricultural laborers and of certain 'artificers' had long been regulated by 380 APRAKSIN AQUEDUCTS justices of the peace, but these 'artiiicers' seem to have been the masons, smiths, carpenters, and the like who were recognized as being a distinctly rural group. The artisans of the towns had not been included in earlier statutes, partly because their interests were presumed to be in charge of the municipality, but partly because they had not been mere wage-earners. The statute must have tended to accentuate the changes that were taking place because the status of the various classes was so specilically defined. The conditions of entrance into the crafts practiced in towns amounted to a real restriction. Every person was ordered to adopt a definite profession or calling. Excepting persons owning property, persons of gentle birth, and scholars, every one must needs choose between the sea, the crafts, and agricul- ture. Any person failing to make a decision could be required to work at agriculture. Freedom of movement was likewise curtailed: no person might leave the town or parish in which he had been employed unless he obtained a formal testi- monial from appropriate authorities or from two householders. These restrictions destroyed the con- ditions that had made craft autonomy possible in the earlier period. In so far as craft organizations continued to exist they were mere shadows of what they had been formerly. The wage-fixing clauses constitute perhaps the most famous por- tion of the statute and their place in the history of the centuries that followecl shows how great a change had taken place in the position of the craftsmen. The intent of these clauses, however, was other than might be supposed. The provisions were designed to assure the payment of not merely a living wage, but an equivalent of the wages that had prevailed before the rise in prices. The clauses were not intended to guarantee an im- provement in the relative well-being of the artisan, but to protect him in his existing state against the unfavorable effects of the price revolution. The justices of the peace were presumed to ascer- tain the cost of maintaining the appropriate stand- ards of life and to regulate wages accordingly. The notions underlying the statute were in some respects similar to the thought expressed by the phrase a 'Uving wage,' but there was no implica- tion that the artisan had not been getting an appropriate living." — A. P. Usher, Industrial his- tory of England, pp. 192-194. — See also Guilds or gilds: Operation. APRAKSIN, Theodor Matvyeevich (1671- 1728), Russian admiral, friend and advisor of Peter the Great. Creator of the Russian navy; in 1708, saved St. Petersburg from the Swedes. His victories in 17 13 gained the Baltic Provinces for Russia at the peace of Nystad. APRIES, an Egyptian king of the Twenty- sixth Dynasty, 580 to 570 B. C. Aided the Jews in their resistance to Nebuchadrezzar; warded off a Babylonian attack upon Egypt. Dethroned by Amasis.— See also Egypt: B. C. 670-525. APRIL MOVEMENT, Netherlands. See Netherlands: 1853. APROS, Battle of (1307). See Catalan Grand Company. APSE, "a projecting room or wing of a build- ing having its plan rounded or polygonal at the outer end. In early Chri-stian churhes an apse at one end generally contained the bishop's throne and seats of the clergy, and sometimes a high altar. In later churches the apse is a mere curved end- ing of the choir, not often used in England but commonly on the continent." — R. Sturgis, Short history of architecture: Europe, p. 548. — Some ec- clesiastical edifices, as for instance the cathedrals of Pisa, Monreale and Worms, have several apses. APULIA, _,e.:tiLiu of Italy along the Adriatic; allied with Rome in 326 B. C, but generally un- friendly durin; i^unic Wars. Much of the second Punic War was fought in Apulia, where the battle of Cannae occurred. After Hannibal's defeat Apulia was subjugated by Rome. — See also Rome: Map of ancient Italy, 1042-1127. — nlorman conquest and dukedom. — Union with Sicily. See Italy (Souiiiern): io8i- 1194; 1282-ijoo. 15th century.— -Venetians acquire five cities. — Settlement of Jews from Spain. See Venice: 1494-1503. APULIANS. See Sabines or Sabellians. APURIMAC RIVER. See Amazon: Course. AQUA CLAUDIA. See Aquedticis: Roman AQU^ GRATIN.S; (Ancient name). See AlX-LES-BAINS. AQVJE SEXTI.^;, or Aix. See Aix; Salyes. Battle of. See Barbarian invasions: B.C. 113; CiMBRi and Teutokls: B. C. 113-101. AQVM SOLIS.— The Roman name of the long famous watcr.ng-place known in modern Eng- land as the city of Bath. It was splendidly adorned in Roman times with temples and other edifices. — T. Wright, Celt. Roman and Saxon, ch. 5. AQUAS CALIENTES: 1914.— Convention at. See Mexico: 1014-1915. AQUAVIVA, Clodio (1543-1615), fifth general of the Jesuits. See Jesuits: 1542-1648. AQUAVIVA, Ottavio (c. 1560-1612), arch- bishop of Naples and patron of learning. See Edu- cation: Modern: 1540- 1756. ; AQUEDUCTS, conduits for conveying water from a distant source to a city, the pipes usually, but not necessarily, being laid along elevated ma- sonry for a considerable distance. Aqueducts of this kind, as well as inverted syphons (by means of which water is sent through pipes below the surface of the earth under pressure) were built by the ancients — the Persians, Phoenicians and Greeks using the subterranean type for the most part, the Romans coming eventually to use the arched aqueduct exclusively. Peruvian. — rhe Indians of ancient Peru built aqueducts that are unequaled elsewhere. The best account of these is to be found in an article by O. F. Cook, Staircase farms of the ancients (Na- tional Geographic Magazine, May, 1916). — Ac- cording to Mr. Cook the construction of chan- nels presented an engineering work perhaps not equaled anywhere else in the world. .According to Garcilasso, an early Spanish writer, one of them was 360 miles long and 12 feet deep. Many miles of the channels were paved with stones. 'Tunnels were drilled in the mountains and channels cut in the cliffs. Waters from these aqueducts seemed to have been used for shower baths. — See also, Peru: 1200-1527. Roman. — Between 312 B. C. and A. D. 226 eleven main aqueducts were built to supply the city of Rome with water. The most famous of these — the Aqua Claudia, begun by Caligula in A. D. 38 and completed by Claudius in A. D. 52, was forty-five miles long, of which ten miles are still in a re- markable state of preservation. Roman aqueducts are still to be found in Europe wherever ihe empire extended. The most remarkable of these- are at Nimes (Pont du Gard) and Segovia. (See also Architecture: Etruscan.') Three tiers of arches are superimposed upon one another to form a bridse over the valley of the river Gard at Nimes, the whole structure reaching a height of 160 feet The Segovian aqueduct also crosses a. river and consist of two tiers 102 feet high. — See 381 AQUEDUCTS AQUEDUCTS also Rome: Modern city: Population and water supply. Byzantine. — The work of the Romans was con- tinued by the Byzantine emperors Valens and Jus- tinian, the latter providing many eastern cities with aqueducts. Gothic. — The great viaduct at Spoleto is the work of the Goths. Moorish. — The Spanish Moors took up the building ol aqueducts which the Goths had be- gun in Spain, the most notable of which was the aqueduct of Elvas. Middle Ages. — During the Middle .Ages the building of aqueducts was more or less inactive. The best e.xamples of the period are the aque- ducts at Solmona and Constances. Renaissance. — The Roman popes of the six- teenth century revived the construction of aque- ducts. the great artificial covered channel which leads the water from the .\shokan reservoir into the city [New York]. Owing to the varied character of country lying between the mountains and the city, the aqueduct is made up of several types of conduit. Some portions are of plain Portland cement concrete built in trenches and covered with earth, known as cut-and-cover ; other portions are tunnels through the mountains and hills or be- neath the broad, deep valleys; while still other portions are of steel and cast-iron pipes. It is of sufficient capacity to deliver water at the rate of about 600.000,000 gallons daily into the city, so that even if out of service for short periods oc- casionally for cleaning, inspection or repair, the average rate of delivery will be equivalent to 500,000,000 gallons daily. Alpng the aqueduct provisions have been made for storing a large quantity of water near the c'ly in Kensico reser- ANCIENT ROMAN AQUEDUCT, SEGOVIA, SPAIN Modern. — In 1613 Marie de Medici built the Arceuil at Paris and Louis XIV that of Mante- non. The great aqueduct at Caserta was built by Charles III (of Spain) in 1753 and the forty- mile aqueduct of Marseilles was begun in 1S47. From 1855 to 1800 an aqueduct was built from Loch Catrine to Glasgow, and in 1868 an aqueduct supplying Dublin was completed. In 1881 and 1885 conduits were built to supply Manchester and Liverpool. In 1873 'he fifty-five mile aqueduct at Vienna was completed, and in 1800 the second Franz-Kaiser-Joseph aqueduct was begun to take the place of the inadequate .system by the same name. American (1800-1013). — Notable aqueducts were built for the following cities in the United States: New York, 1842 fOld Croton), 1800 (New Cro- ton) ; Boston, 1848, 1878, 1807; Brooklyn, 1850; Baltimore, 1862, 1880: Washington, 1863, 1883; St. Louis, 1S03: Jersey Citv. 1004; Los Angeles, IQ13; New York, 1013 (Catsklll aouedurt) Catskill aqueduct. — "The Catskill aqueduct is voir; for equalizing the steady draft from Kensico reservoir against the hourly fluctuating demands ol the city, by means of Hill View reservoir; for storing a few days' supply on Staten Island as a local safeguard; for improving the quality 01 the water by aeration, filtration and other means; and for measuring all the water drawn from the reservoirs and sent into the City . . . From the .■\shokan reservoir it is almost a three-days' jour- ney for the water at the average velocity to flow through the aqueduct to the Silver Lake terminal reservoir on Staten Island, in the course of which it flows along many a steep hillside, crosses sev- eral broad plains, pierces mountains, descends be- neath rivers and wide, deep valleys, traverses the Boroughs of The Bronx. Manhattan and Brooklyn, and crosses the Narrows of New York harbor. . . . For surveys, real estate, construction, engi- neering and general supervision, and all other items except intere'^t on the bonds, the total cost of the completed Catskill system will be about .•?: 77,000.- 000, of which $22,000,000 are for th" Sthohari 382 AQUEDUCTS AQUINAS works. . . . The cut-and-cover aqueduct and the tunnels are more than big enough for railroad trains to pass through them with ease. Catskill aqueduct is twice as long as the two Croton aque- ducts put end to end. . . . The water used by New York City each day weighs about eight times as much as its population. The two deepest .shafts of the City tunnel of the Catskill aqueduct, one at the corner of Clinton and South streets, and the other at the corner of Delancey and Eldridgc streets, Manhattan, are each as deep as the tower of the Woolworth Building is high. If the Eiffel Tower could be stood with its foundations in the Hudson River tunnel, its top would not appear above the river surface, or if two Woolworth Build- ings were stood one on top of the other, the lower AQUILA, Battle of (1424). See Italy: 1412- 1447- AQUILEIA. — Aquileia, at the time of the de- struction of that city by the Huns, A. D. 452, was, "both as a fortress and a commercial em- porium, second to none in Northern Italy. It was situated at the northernmost point of the gulf of Hadria, about twenty miles northwest of Trieste, and the place where it once stood is now in the Austrian dominions, just over the border which separates them from the kingdom of Italy. In the year iSi B. C. a Roman colony had been sent to this far corner of Italy to serve as an out- post against pome intrusive tribes, called by the vague name of Gaul. . . Posse.ssing a good harbour, with which it was connected by a naviga- CATSKILL AQUEDUCT. NEW YORK Steel pipe siphon, mortar-lined and concrete-jacketed one having its foundation in the Hudson River tunnel, the top of the upper one would just reach the level at which the water flows away through the mountain on the east bank of the Hudson al- ter rising in the shafts from the tunnel beneath the river. If the Catskill aqueduct should be out of service, Croton water could be admitted to the city tunnel and conduits and delivered to any of the boroughs, but of course only at the lower pressure of the Croton system." — Annual report, Department of Water Supply, gas and elec- tricity, City of New York, IQ16. — See also New York city: igos-iqiq. Hetch Hetchv water project for San Fran- cisco. See Hetch Hetchy water dam project. Owen river, Los Angeles. See Los Angeles: 1Q05-100Q. AQUIDAY, or Aquetnet, the native name of Rhode Island. See Rhode Island: 1638-1640. ble river, .Aquileia gradually became the chief en- trepot for the commerce between Italy and what are now the lllyrian provinces of Austria." — T. Hodgkin, Italy and her invaders, bk. 2, ch. 4. — See also Europe: Ethnology: Migrations: Map showing barbaric invasions. 238. — Siege by Maximin. See Rome: 102-284. 388.— Overthrow of Maximus by Theodosius. See Rome: FJmpire: i/Q-.^Q.s. 452.— Destruction by the Huns. See Barb.arian invasions: 423-455; Huns: 452. AQUILLIUS, Manius, Roman general, con- sul in loi B. C. Put down a revolt of the slaves in Sicily. In 88 acted as legate against Mith- radates the Great ; defeated and imprisoned by him. — See also Mithradatic Wars. AQUINAS, Thomas, St. (c. 1227-1274I, great lihilosopher and scholar. Made profound studies in theology in Naples, Cologne, Paris, London, 383 AQUITAINE AQUITAINE Rome, Bologna and other centers of learning; ex- ercised great influence on the theological teachings of the Western church, his doctrines remaining authoritative to this day in the Roman Catholic church; in philosophy a follower of Aristotle; en- dorsed by various popes as a sound leader in re- ligious doctrine and scholastic philosophy. — See also Averroism; Astronomy: 130-1609; Capital- ism: In antiquity; Universities and colleges: ■ 1348-1826. AQUITAINE, or Aquitania: Ancient tribes.^ The Roman conquest of Aquitania was achieved, 56 B. C, by one of Caesar's lieutenants, the Younger Crassus, who first brought the people called the Sotiatcs to submission and then de- feated their combined neighbors in a murderous battle, where three-fourths of them are said to have been slain. The tribes which then sub- mitted "were the Tarbelli, Bigerriones, Preciani, \'ocates, Tarusates, Elusates, Garites, Ausci, Ga- rumni, Sibuzates and Cocosates. The Tarbelli were in the lower basin of the Adour. Their chief place was on the site of the hot springs of Dax. The Bigerriones appear in the name Bi- gorre. The chief place of the Elusates was Elusa, Eause; and the town of Auch on the river Gers preserves the name of the Ausci. The names Garites, if the name is genuine, and Garumni contain the same element, Gar, as the river Ga- rumna [Garonne] and the Gers. It is stated by Walckenaer that the inhabitants of the southern part of Les Landes are still called Cousiots. Cocosa, Causseque, is twenty-four miles from Dax on the road from Dax to Bordeaux." — G. Long, Decline of the Roman republic, v. 4, ch. 6. — "Before the arrival of the brachycephalic Li- gurian race, the Iberians ranged over the greatest part of France. ... If, as seems probable, we may identify them with the Aquitani. one of the three races which occupied Gaul in the time of Caesar, they must have retreated to the neighbourhood of the Pyrenees before the beginning of the his- toric period." — I. Taylor, Origin of the Aryans, ch. 2, seel. 5. — See also Gaul: Caesar's description. 681-768. — Independent dukes and their subju- gation. — "The old Roman Aquitania, in the first division of the spoils of the Empire, had fallen to the Visigoths, who conquered it without much trouble. In the struggle between them and the Merovingians, it of course passed to the victorious party. But the quarrels, so fiercely contested be- tween the different members of the Frank mon- archy, prevented them from retaining a distant possession within their grasp ; and at this period [681-71S, when the mayors of the Palace, Pepin and Carl, were gathering the reins of government over the three kingdoms — .^ustrasia, Neustria and Burgundy — into their hands], £udo, the duke of Aquitaine, was really an independent prince. The population had never lost its Roman character; it was, in fact, by far the most Romanized in the whole of Gaul. But it had also received a new element in the Vascones or Gascons a tribe of Pyrenean mountaineers, who descending from their mountains, advanced towards the north until their progress was checked by the broad waters of the Garonne. .At this time, however, they obeyed Eudo" This duke of Aquitaine. Eudo, allied himself with the Neustrians against the ambitious Austrasian Mayor, Carl Martel, and shared with them the crushing defeat at Soissons, 718, which established the Hammerer's power. Eudo acknowl- edged allegiance and was allowed to retain his dukedom. But. half-a-centurv afterwards, Carl's son, Pepin, who had pushed the "faineant" Mero- vingians from the Frank throne and seated himself upon it, fought a nine years' war with the then duke of Aquitaine, to establish his sovereignty. "The war, which lasted nine years [760-768], was signalized by fiightlul ravages and destruction of life upon both sides, until, at last, the Franks became masters of Berri, Auvergne, and the Limou- sin, with their principal cities. The able and gal- lant Guaifer [or W'aifer] was assassinated by his own subjects, and Pepin had the satisfaction of finally uniting the grand-duchy of Aquitaine to the monarchy of the Franks." — J. G. Sheppard, Fall of Rome, led. 8. — See also Germany: 687-800. .'\lso in; P. Godwin, History of France: Ancient Gaul, ch. 14-15. — W. H. Perry, Franks, ch. 5-6. 732, — Ravaged by the Moslems. See Cali- phate: 715-732. 781. — Erected into a separate kingdom by Charlemagne. — In the year 781 Charlemagne erected Italy and .Aquitaine into separate king- doms, placing his two infant sons, Pepin and Lud- wig or Louis on their respective thrones. "The kingdom of Aquitaine embraced Vasconia [Gas- cony], Septimania, .Aquitaine proper (that is, the country between the Garonne and the Loire) and the county, subsequently the duchy, of Toulouse, Nominally a kingdom, .Aquitaine was in reality a province, entirely dependent on the central or per- sonal government of Charles. . . . The nominal designations of king and kingdom might gratify the feelings of the Aquitanians, but it was a scheme contrived for holding them in a state of absolute dependence and subordination." — J. I. Mombert, History of Charles the Great, bk. 2, ch. II. 884-1151. — End of the nominal kingdom. — Disputed ducal title. — 'Carloman [who died 884], son of Louis the Stammerer, was the last of the Carlovinsians who bore the title of king of Aqui- taine. This vast state ceased from this time to constitute a kingdom. It had for a lengthened period been divided betueen powerful families, the most illustrious of which are those of the Counts of Toulouse, founded in the ninth century by Fredelon, the Counts of Poitiers, the Counts of .Auvergne, the Marquises of Septimania or Gothia, and the Dukes of Gascony. King Eudes had given William the Pius, Count of .Auvergne, the inves- titure of the duchy of .Aquitaine. On the extinc- tion of that family in 02S, the Counts of Toulouse and those of Poitou disputed the prerogatives and their quarrel stained the south with blood for a long time. .At length the Counts of Poitou ac- quired the title of Dukes of Aquitaine or Guy- enne [or Guienne, — supposed to be a corruption of the name of .Aquitaine, which came into use during the Middle Ages], w'hich remained in their house up to the marriage of Eleanor of Aquitaine with Henry Plantagenet I. [Henn.' II], King of England (1151)." — E. De Bonnechose, History of France, bk. 2, ch. 3, foot-note. — "The duchy .Aqui- taine, or Guyenne, as held by Eleanor's predeces- sors, consisted, roughly speaking, of the territory between the Loire and the Garonne. More ex- actly, it was bounded on the north by .Anjou and Touraine, on the east by Berry and .Auvergne, on the south-east by the Qnercy or County of Cahors, and on the south-west by Gascony, which had been united with it for the last hundred years. The old Karolingian kingdom of Aquitania had been of far greater extent; it had, in fact, included the whole country between the Loire, the Pyrenees, the Rhone and the ocean. Over all this vast territory the Counts of Poitou asserted a theoretical claim of overlord^hip by virtue of their ducal title: they had, however, a formidable rival in the house of the Counts of Toulouse." — 384 • n AQUITAINE ARABIA K. Norgate, England under the Angevin kings, v. I, ch. 10. — See also Toulouse: loth and nth cen- turies. 1034. — Origin of Truce of God. See Truce of God; France: Maps of medieval period: 1154-1360. 1137-H52. — Transferred by marriage from the crown of France to the crown of England. — In 1137, "the last of the old line of the dukes of Aquitaine — William IX., son of the gay cru- sader and troubadour whom the Red King had hoped to succeed — died on a pilgrimage at Compo- stella. His only son was already dead, and be- fore setting out for his pilgrimage he did what a greater personage had done ten years before: with the consent of his barons, he left the whole of his dominions to his daughter. Moreover, he bequeathed the girl herself as wife to the young king Louis [VII] of France. This marriage more than doubled the strength of the French crown. It gave to Louis absolute possession of all western Aquitaine, or Guyenne as it was now beginning to be called; that is the counties of Poitou and Gascony, with the immediate overlordship of the whole district lying between the Loire and the Pyrenees, the Rhone and the ocean: — a territory five or six times as large as his own royal do- main and over which his predecessors had never been able to assert more than the ;Tierest shadow of a nominal superiority." In 1:52 Louis ob- tained a divorce from Eleanor, surrendering all the great territory which she had added to his do- minions, rather than maintain an unhappy union. The same year the gay duchess was wedded to Henry Plantagenet, then Duke of Normandy, af- terwards Henry II. King of England. By this marriage Aquitaine became joined to the crown of England and remained so for three hundred years. — K. Norgate, England under the Angevin kings, V. I, ch. 8. 1360-1453. — Full sovereignty possessed by the English kings. — Final conquest and union with France. — "By the Peace of Bretigny [see France: 1337-1360] Edward III. resigned his claims on the crown of France ; but he was recognized in re- turn as independent Prince of Aquitaine, without any homage or superiority being reserved to the French monarch. When Aquitaine therefore was conquered by France, partly in the 14th, fully in the 15th century [see France: 1360- 1380], it was not the 'reunion' of a forfeited fief, but the absorption of a distinct and sovereign state. The feelings of Aquitaine itself seem to have been di- vided. The nobles to a great extent, though far from universally, preferred the French connexion. It better fell in with their notions of chivalry, feudal dependency, and the like; the privileges too which French law conferred on noble birth would make their real interests lie that way. But the great cities and, we have reason to believe, the mass of the people, also, clave faithfully to their ancient Dukes; and they had good reason to do so. The English Kings, both by habit and by in- terest, naturally protected the municipal liberties of Bourdeaux and Bayonne, and exposed no part of their subjects to the horrors of French taxation and general oppression." — E. A. Freeman, Franks and the Gauls (Historical Essays, 1st series, no. 7). ARAB BUABIN: 1917.— Occupied by British. — Reoccupied by Turks. See World War: 1Q17: VI. Turkish theater: a, 2. ARABESQUE, a word technically used to de- note "a fanciful, painted, modelled or carved orna- mentation, composed of plant forms, often com- bined with human, animal and grotesque forms. Used by the Romans and revived by the Renais- sance decorators. It was ako used by the Arabs — hence the name — for a flatly modelled and coloured ornament of intricate design, without human or, generally, animal forms." — C. H. Coffin, How to study architecture, pp. 479-480. ARABI pasha, Ahmed (1839-1911), an Egyptian soldier and nationalist revolutionary leader; said to have been a descendant of Mo- hammed; was the figure-head leader of a military insurrection fomented by an oposition party to Anglo-French domination; defeated at Tel-el- Kebir (1882) by the British and e.xiled to Ceylon, 1883; permitted to return in iqoi. See Egypt: 1875-1882; 1882-1883. ARABIA, ARABS. — Arabia is a large peninsula in the southwestern part of Asia, bounded on the north by Syria and the Sinai peninsula, on the west by the Red sea, south by the Gulf of Aden and the Indian ocean, and east by the Persian gulf and the Gulf of Oman. The area is esti- mated at about 1,000,000 square miles, with a population of approximately 8,000,000. More than a third of this territory is desert; the rest is dotted with rich, fertile tracts, settled and culti- vated. A large number of the population lead a nomadic life driving their cattle and carrying their tents from place to place. These itinerant Arabs, known as Bedouins or Bedawi, entertain a profound contempt for house-dwellers and are not averse to combining the pursuit of guerrilla warfare and robbery with the ideals of a peace- ful, pastoral existence. The two principal regions on the west, covering almost the entire length of the Red sea, are known as the Hejaz and the Ye- men ; they have an area of about 100,000 and 7S,- 000 square miles respectively. The portions of the country capable of cultivation produce wheat, barley, dates, tobacco, indigo, cotton, sugar, cof- fee and spices. Dates and coffee are the most im- portant exports. Arabia is a country better suited for grazing than agriculture and is famous for its horse-breeding, but in spite of this, the most useful and characteristic animal of the peninsula is the camel. The mineral resources of the coun- try are iron, copper, lead and precious stones. Political divisions. — (1) The Hedjaz or Hejaz, with a population of about 1,000,000, emerged from the World War as an independent Arab kingdom under the rule of Hussein Ibn Ali Pasha, the Grand Shereef of Mecca, who in June T916 raised the standard of revolt against the Turkish rule and formally entered the war on the Allied side; (2) The imamate of Yemen, with the capi- tal at Sana, is ruled by an imam of the Zeidi sect who traces his descent from the prophet's daugh- ter; (3) Jcbel Shammar, an emirate in the cen- tre of the peninsula, with a capital at Hail, con- sists of a number of Bedouin tribes; (4) Nejd and Hasa, an emirate of the fanatical Wahhabite tribes of the eastern oases, has its center at Riadh; (5) Asir, on the Red sea, is ruled by an Arab prince of the Idrisi family; (6) The British pro- tectorate of Aden, on the gulf of that name; (7) Koweit, a sultanate on the northwestern coast of the Persian gulf, is under British protection; and (8) Oman, a sultanate, the independence of which is guaranteed by Great Britain and France, on the gulf of Oman. Name. — "There can be no doubt that the name of the Arabs was . . . given from their liv- ing at the westermost part of Asia ; and their own word 'Gharb,' the 'West,' is another form of the original Semitic name Arab." — G. Rawlinson, Notes to Herodotus, v. 2, p. 71, Ancient succession and fusion of races. — "The population of Arabia, after long centuries, more especially after the propagation and triumph 8.=; ARABIA Fusion of Races ARABIA of Islamism, became uniform throughout the pen- insula. . . . But it was not always thus. It was very slowly and gradually that the inhabitants of the various parts of Arabia were fused into one race. . . . Several distinct races successively immigrated into the peninsula and remained sepa- rate for many ages. Their distinctive character- istics, their manners and their civilization prove that these nations were not all of one blood. Up to the time of Mahomet, several different lan- guages were spoken in Arabia, and it was the in- troduction of Islamism alone that gave predomi- nence to that one amongst them now called Arabic. The few Arabian historians deserving of the name, who have used any discernment in collecting the traditions of their country, Ibn Khaldoun, for ex- ample, distinguish three successive populations in the peninsula. They divide these primitive, sec- ondary, and tertiary Arabs into three divisions, called Ariba, Motareba, and Mostareba. . . . advanced civilisation analogous to that of Chaldaea, professing a religion similar to the Babylonian ; a nation, in short, with whom material progress was allied to great moral depravity and obscence rites. ... It was about eighteen centuries before our era that the Joktanites entered Southern Arabia. . . . According to all appearances, the in- vasion, like all events of a similar nature, was accomplished only by force. . . . After this in- vasion, the Cushite element of the population, being still the most numerous, and possessing great superiority in knowledge and civilisation over the Joktanites, who were still almost in the nomadic state, soon recovered the moral and material su- premacy, and political dominion. A new empire was formed in which the power still belonged to the Sabsans of the race of Cush. . . . Little by little the new nation of .\d was formed. The cen- tre of its power was the country of Shcba proper, where, according to the tenth chapter of Genesis, TOMB OF EVE AT njEDn.'\H (HEJAZ) (From Arab Legend) The Ariba were the first and most ancient inhabi- tants of Arabia. They consisted principally of two great nations, the Adites, sprung from Ham, and the .'\maHka of the race of Aram, descend- ants of Shem, mixed with nations of secondary importance, the Thamudites of the race of Ham, and the peo[3le of the Tasm, and Jadis, of the family of Aram. The Motareba were tribes sprung from Joktan, son of Eber, always in Arabian tra- dition called Kahtan. The Mostareba of more modern origin were Ismaelitish tribes. . . . The Cushites, the first inhabitants of Arabia, are known in the national traditions by the name of Adites, from their progenitor, who is called Ad, the grandson of Ham. All the accounts given of them by Arab historians are but fanciful le- gends. ... In the midst of all the fabulous traits with which these legends abound, we may perceive the remembrance of a powerful empire founded by the Cushites in very early ages, apparently in- cluding the whole of Arabia Felix, and not only Yemen proper. We also find traces of a wealthy nation, constructors of great buildings, with an there was no primitive Joktanite tribe, although in all the neighbouring provinces they were al- ready settled. ... It was during the first centuries of the second .^dite empire that Yemen was tem- porarily subjected by the Egyptians, who called it the land of Pun. . . . Conquered during the minority of Thothmes III, and the regency of the Princess Hatasu, Yemen appears to have been lost by the Egyptians in the troublous times at the close of the eichtcenth dynasty. Ramcses II re- covered it almost immediately after he ascended the throne, and it was not till the time of the effeminate kings of the twentieth dynasty, that this splendid ornament of Egyptian power was finally lost. . . . The conquest of the land of Pun under Hatasu is related in the elegant bas-reliefs of the temple of Deir-el-Bahari, at Thebes, pub- lished by M. Duemichen. . . . The bas-reliefs of the temple of Deir-el-Bahari afford undoubted proofs of the existence of commerce between In- dia and Yemen at the time of the Egyptian ex- pedition under Hatasu. It was this commerce, much more than the fertility of its own soil and 386 ARABIA Ancient Trade Sabaeans ARABIA its natural productions, that made Southern Arabia one of the richest countries in the world. . . . For a long time it was carried on by land only, by means of caravans crossing Arabia ; for the navi- gation of the Red Sea, much more difficult and dangerous than that of the Indian Ocean, was not attempted till some centuries later. . . . The caravans of myrrh, incense, and balm crossing Arabia towards the land of Canaan are mentioned in the Bible, in the history of Joseph, which be- longs to a period very near to the first establish- ment of the Canaanites in Syria. As soon as com- mercial towns arose in Phcenicia, we find, as the prophet Ezekiel said, 'The merchants of Sheba and Raamah, they were thy merchants: they oc- cupied in thy fairs with chief of all spices, and with all precious stones and gold.' ... A great number of Phanician merchants, attracted by this trade, established themselves in Yemen, Hadramaut, Oman, and Bahrein. Phoenician factories were also established at several places on the Persian Gulf, amongst others in the islands of Tylos and Arvad, formerly occupied by their ancestors. . . . This commerce, extremely flourishing during the nine- teenth dynasty, seems, together with the Egyptian dominion in Yemen, to have ceased under the feeble and inactive successors of Ramses III. . . . Nearly two centuries passed away, when Hiram and Solomon despatched vessels down the Red Sea. . . . The vessels of the two monarch? were not content with doing merely what had once before been done under the Egyptians of the nineteenth dynasty, namely, fetching from the ports of Ye- men ■ the merchandise collected there from India. They were much bolder, and their enterprise was rewarded with success. Profiting by the regularity of the monsoons, they fetched the products of India at first hand, from the very place of their shipment in the ports of the land of Ophir. or Ab- hira. These distant voyages were repeated with success as long as Solomon reigned. The vessels going to Ophir necessarily touched at the ports of Yemen to take in provisions and await favour- able winds. Thus the renown of the two allied kings, particularly of the power of Solomon, was spread in the land of the Adites. This was the cause cf the journey made by the queen of Sheba to Jerusalem to see Solomon. . . . The sea voy- ages to Ophir, and even to Yemen, ceased at the death of Solomon. The separation of the ten tribe?, and the revolutions that simultaneously took place at Tyre, rendered any such expeditions im- practicable. . . . The empire of the second Adites lasted ten centuries, during which the Joktanite tribes, multiplying in each generation, lived amongst the Cushite Sabaeans. . . . The assimila- tion of the Joktanites to the Cushites was so com- plete that the revolution which gave political su- premacy to the descendants of Joktan over those of Cush produced no sensible change in the civilisa- tion of Yemen. But although using the same lan- guage, the two elements of the population of South- ern Arabia were still quite distinct from each other, and antagonistic in their interests. . , . Both were called Sabasans, but the Bible always care- fully distinguishes them by a different orthog- raphy. . . . The majority of the Saba?an Cushites, however, especially the superior castes, refused to submit to the Joktanite yoke. A separation, there- fore, took place, giving rise to the Arab proverb, 'divided as the Sabaeans,' and the mass of the Adites pmisrated to another country. According to M. C.TUEsin de Perceval, the passage of the Sabsans into Abyssinia is to be attributed to the conse- quences of the revolution that established Jok- tanite supremacy in Yemen. . . . The date of the passage of the Sabaeans from Arabia into Abys- sinia is much more difficult to prove than the fact of their having done so. . . . Y'arub, the con- queror of the Adites, and founder of the new monarchy of Joktanite Arabs, was succeeded on the throne by his son, Yashdjob, a weak and feeble prince, of whom nothing is recorded, but that he allowed the chiefs of the various prov- inces of his states to make themselves indepen- dent. Abd Shems, surnamed Sheba, son of Yashd- job, recovered the power his predecessors had lost. . . . Abd Shems had several children, the most celebrated being Himyer and Kahlan, who left a numerous posterity. From these two personages were descended the greater part of the Yemenite tribes, who still existed at the time of the rise of Islamism. The Himyarites seem to have settled in the towns, whilst the Kahlanites inhabited the country and the deserts of Yemen. . . . This is the substances of all the information given by the Arab historians." — F. Lenormant and E. Chevalier, Manual of ancient history of the East, bk. 7, ch. 1-2, V. 2. — See also Semites. Sabseans. — "For some time past it has been known that the Himyaritic inscriptions fall into two groups, distinguished from one another by phonological and grammatical differences. One of the dialects is philologically older than the other, containing fuller and more primitive grammatical forms. The inscriptions in this dialect belong to a kingdom the capital of which was at Ma'in, and which represents the country of the Mina^ans of the ancients. The inscriptions in the other dialect were engraved by the princes and people of Saba, the Sheba of the Old Testament, the Sabaeans of classical geography. The Sabcean kingdom lasted to the time of Mohammed, when it was destroyed by the advancing forces of Islam. Its rulers for several generations had been converts to Judaism, and had been engaged in almost constant warfare with the Ethiopic kingdom of Axum, which was backed by the influence and subsidies of Rome and Byzantium. Dr. Glaser seeks to show that the founders of this Ethiopic kingdom were the Habasa, or Abyssinians, who migrated from Him- yar to Africa in the 2d or ist century B. C. [See also Africa: Ancient and medieval civilization: Arab occupation] ; when we first hear of them in the inscriptions they are still the inhabitants of Northern Yemen and Mahrah. More than once the Axumites made themselves masters of Southern Arabia. About A. D. 300, they occupied its ports and islands, and from 350 to 378 even the Sabaean kingdom was tributary to them. Their last suc- cesses were gained in 525, when, with Byzantine help, they conquered the whole of Yemen. But the Sabsean kingdom, in spite of its temporary sub- jection to Ethiopia, had long been a formidable State. Jewish colonies settled in it, and one of its princes became a convert to the Jewish faith. His successors gradually extended their dominion as far as Ormuz, and after the successful revolt from Axum in 37S, brought not only the whole of the southern coast under their sway, but the western coast as well, as far north as Mekka. Jewish in- fluence made itself felt in the future birthplace of Mohammed, and thus introduced those ideas and beliefs which subsequently had so profound an ef- fect upon the birth of Isalm. The Byzantines and Axumites endeavoured to counteract the in- fluence of Judaism by means of Christian colonies and prosclytism. The result was a conflict between Saba and its assailants, which took the form of a conflict between the members of the two religions. A violent persecution was directed against the Christians of Yemen, avenged by the Ethiopian 387 ARABIA, 5TH-8TH CENTURIES Sabaeans Chronology ARABIA, 1908-1916 conquest of the countr>- and the removal of its capital to San'a. The intervention of Persia in the struggle was soon followed by the appearance of Mohammedanism upon the scene, and Jew, Christian, and Parsi were alike overwhelmed by the flowing tide of the new creed. The epigraphic evidence makes it clear that the origin of the kingdom of Saba went back to a distant date. Dr. Glaser traces its history from the time when its princes were still but Makarib, or 'Priest?,' like- Jethro, the Priest of Midian, through the ages when they were 'kings of Saba.' and later still 'kings of Saba and Raidan,' to the days when they claimed imperial supremacy over all the princi- palities of Southern .Arabia. It was in this later period that they dated their inscriptions by an era, which, as Halevy first discovered, corresponds to 15 B. C. One of the kings of Saba is mentioned in an inscription of the Assyrian king Sargon (B.C. 715), and Dr. Glaser believes that he has found his name in a 'Himyaritic' text. When the last priest, Samah'ali Darrahh. became king of Saba, we do not yet know, but the age must be sufficiently remote, if the kingdom of Saba already existed when the Queen of Sheba came from Ophir to visit Solomon. The visit need no longer cause astonishment, notwithstanding the long jour- ney by land which lay between Palestine and the south of Arabia. ... As we have seen, the in- scriptions of Ma'in set before us a dialect of more primitive character than that of Saba. Hitherto it had been supposed, however, that the two dia- lects were spoken contemporaneously, and that the Minasan and Sabsan kingdoms existed side by side. But geography offered difficulties in the way of such a belief, since the seats of the Minaean power were embedded in the midst of the Sabaean kingdom, much as the fragments of Cromarty are embedded in the midst of other counties. Dr. Glaser has now made it clear that the old suppo- sition was incorrect, and that the Minsean king- dom preceded the rise of Saba. We can now un- derstand why it is that neither in the Old Testa- ment nor in the Assyrian inscriptions do we hear of any princes of Ma'in, and that though the classical writers are acquainted with the Minsan people they know nothing of a Minaean kingdom. The Minaean kindgom, in fact, with its culture and monuments, the relics of which still survive, must have flourished in the gre> dawn of history, at an epoch at which, as we have hitherto imag- ined, Arabia was the home only of nomad bar- barism. .And yet in this remote age alphabetic writing was already known and practised, the al- phabet being a modification of the Phcenician writ- ten vertically and not horizontally. To what an early date are we referred for the origin of the Phoenician alphabet itself ! The Minsan Kingdom must have had a long existence. The names of thirty-three of its kings are already known to us. ... A power which reached to the borders of Palestine must necessarily have come into contact with the great monarchies of the ancient world. The army of .^^lius Callus was doubtless not the first which had sought to gain possession of the cities and spice-gardens of the south. One such invasion is alluded to in an inscription which was copied by M. Halevy. . . . But the epigraphy of ancient .Arabia is still in its infancy. The inscrip- tions already known to us represent but a small proportion of those that are yet to be discovered. . . . The dark past of the .Arabian peninsula has been suddenly lighted up, and we find that long before the days of Mohammed it was a land of culture and literature, a seat of powerful king- doms and wealthv commerce, which cannot fail to have exercised an influence upon the general history of the world."— A. H. Sayce, Ancient Arabia (Contemporary Review, Dec, 1889). Ancient Arabian calender. See Chronolocv : Arabian and Mohammedan system. Early Arabian medical schools. See Science: .Ancient: .Arabian science. 5th-8th centuries. — Commerce. See Commerce: Medieval: sth-Sth centuries. 6th century. — Partial conquest by the Abys- sinians. See .Abvssi\-i.\: oth-ioth Centuries. 7th century. — Arab occupation of Africa. See .Africa: .Ancient and medieval civilization: .Arab occupation. 7th-llth centuries. — Medical progress. See Medical science: .Ancient: 7th-iith centuries: Medical art of the .Arabs. 632-634. — Conquest of Syria. See Caliph.'Vte: 032-030. 636. — Arab invasion of Armenia. See Ar- menia: 387-000. 640-646. — Islamite conquest of Egypt. See Calip.l^te: 640-640. 647-709. — Arab conquest of North Africa. See Caliphate: 647-700. 698. — Conquest of Carthage. See Carthage: 6q8. 698. — Conquest of Morocco. See Morocco: 047-1800. 8th century. — Paper industry. See Printi.nu AND THE press: Before 14th century. 700-1200. — Development of music. See Music: .Ancient: B.C. 2000-.A. D.. 1200. 711-713. — Conquest of Spain. See Spain:- 711- 713- 711-828. — Invasion into India. See Indu: B.C. 240- .A. D. I2Q0. 823. — Conquest of Crete. See Crete: 823. 834-855.— Conquest of Zotts. See Gypsies. 870. — Conquest of Malta. See Malta, Island of: 870-1530. 961-963. — Loss of Crete. See Crete: 961-063. 1517. — Brought under the Turkish' sovereign- ty. SeeTi'RKEv: 14S1-1520. 1609. — Expulsion of Arabs from Spain. See Moors or Mauri: 1402-1600. 1811-1918. — Wahhabi movement and influence. — Capture of Mecca and Medina by Wahbabis. See Wahhabis. 1827. — Beginning of missionary work. See Missions, Christian: N'ear East. 1899. — Arab slave trade in Belgian Congo. See Belgian Co.ngo: 1S85-1902. 1903-1905.— "Holy War" with the sultan. See TiTfKEv: 1003-1905. 1908-1916. — Events leading up to the Arabian revolt. — "Up to 1870 the .Arab tribes were left almost entirely alone by the Turks. The Sultan was recognized, but not obeyed. Tribes were of- ten at war with each other, the one under Idriz havin? been during the last fifteen years the most powerful. During the same period an almost con- tinuous attempt has been made to make Turkish rule effective, but it is, and always has been, hate- ful to the .Arabs. The Governors who have been sent from Constantinople abused their position mainly to fill their own pockets. The distance from Constantinople, the absence of railways or other roads, except an unsafe desert track, in- fested always by robbers, were so great that Turk- ish officials were able to plunder the .Arabs with impunity. When the Revolution in 1Q08 occurred, it was alleged that the Governor had made an arrangement with a small .Arab tribe which com- manded the route between Medina and Mecca, the two most Holy Places, by which no one was al- 388 ARABIA, 1913 Arab Revolt Causes ARABIA, 1916 lowed to pass unless he paid at least one Turkish pound (i8s. 2d.), half of which was alleged to go into the pocket of the Governor. While the Arab tribes were often at war with one another, they were all hostile to the Turks. This hostility extended from Aden northward into Syria, where Christian as well as Moslem Arabs have been abominably treated. [See also Aden.] A constant series of revolts against the Turks have occurred during the last ten years, and troops were sent from various parts of the Empire to attack the rebels. The troops disliked the service, because the Arabs fought bravely, and the Turks suffered badly from the climate. Almost immediately after the revolu- tion of July, igo8, Ratib Pasha, with the Turk- ish troops under him, revolted against the Commit- tee of Union and Progress, and joined the rebels. The Hedjaz Railway, however, was opened on September ist, iqo8, and Ratib himself was cap- tured. The Committee promised various reforms, and for a few months no revolt took place. In- deed, an honest attempt was made by the Young Turks to make arrangements in the Hedjaz which would produce good government among the tribes. A careful project was drawn up,' which is said to have been satisfactory to all the Arab leaders. Then there came a change of government. Kiamil lost his position, and his successor opposed the project, largely because it had been brought for- ward by the e.x-Grand Vizier. No serious improve- ments were made to secure Arab loyalty. Among the many big blunders which the Committee made, the greatest was that of attempting to Turkify the whole country by forcing upon it the use of Turk- ish instead of Arabic or Albanian or any other of the native languages. So far as all the Arabs of the Empire were concerned, it was an act of madness. Arabic is the language of the Koran. Turkish is detested, not merely as a barbarous tongue, but as that of their oppressors. The feel- ing of hostility between Arabs and Turks was in- tensified. The Turk is a Moslem, on whom his religion sits somewhat lightly ; the Arab is a fa- natic. ... So long as the Arabs were let alone by the Turks they do not seem to have greatly objected to Turkish domination, and they had grown used to the exactions of their Turkish Gov- ernors; but when the Young Turks set aside the arrangements which Kiamil and Hilmi and other leading statesmen in Turkey had made and their own leaders approved, they readily believed that the Turkish 'unbelievers,' as they were persuaded the Young Turks were, intended to gain the upper hand. They were then always ready for revolt." — E. Pears, Arab revolt (Living Age, Aug. 12, 1916, pp. 438-440). — See also Turkey: igoq. 1913. — Syrian Arab congress at Paris. — Pro- gram. See Syria: iqo8-iq2i. 1913-1920. — Relations with Abyssinia. See Abyssinia: 1913-1920. 1915. — Arab revolt. — Shortly after the surren- der of General Townshend at Kut, the Shereef of Mecca informed the British government that the Arabs could no longer submit to Turkish rule and tyranny. He asked for assistance in arms, food and money, which were duly promised by the Allies. Almost from the outbreak of the World War an attempt had been in progress under German direction to preach a jehad or holy war. "It was represented that the Kaiser was a con- vert to Islam, and that presently the Khalif would order a Jehad against the infidel. Stories were told of the readiness of the Mohammedan sub- jects of Britain, Russia and France to revolt at this call, and preparations were made for the manufacture of Indian military uniforms at Aleppo to give proof to the Syrians that the Indian faith- ful were on their side. Egypt, which had long been the hunting-ground of German emissaries, was considered ripe for revolt, and the Khedive [Abbas Hilmi II, deposed in 1914] was known to be friendly. . . . [The Young Turk Party] en- visaged a Holy War, engineered by unbelievers, which should beguile the Mohammedan popula- tions of Africa and Asia, and they naturally leaned on the broad bosom of Germany, who made a specialty of such grandiose visions. There never was a chance of such a Jehad suceeding. . . . The Sultan's title to the Khalifate, too, was fiercely questioned. The Turks had won it origi- nally by conquest from the Abbasids, and the Arabs had never done more than sullenly acquiesce. Most important of all, the Turco-German alliance was breaking its head against an accomplished fact. By September [1914] the whole of Mohammedan India and the leaders of Mohammedan opinion in British Africa were clearly on the Allied side, and their forces were already moving to Britain's aid, while forty thousand Arab Moslems were fighting for France in the battles of the West. Islam had made its choice before Enver sent his commissaries to buy Indian khaki in Aleppo and inform the Syrians that the Most Christian Em- peror had become a follower of the Prophet." — J. Buchan, Nelson's history of Ike war, v. Hi, pp. 125- I2q. — Another circumstance that undoubtedly con- tributed largely towards swaying the bulk of the Mohammedan world to the Allied cause as against the Turks was the powerful manifesto issued to Moslems by his highness the Aga Khan HI, who is the recognized spiritual head of some 70,000,000 Mohammedans in India, and has, besides, a con- siderable following in Persia, Afghanistan, Central Asia, Syria and Morocco. Not only did the Aga Khan utterly condemn the proposed jehad and assert the justice of the Allied cause, but he even volunteered to serve as a private in any infantry regiment of the Indian Expeditionary Force. "From the day when he took over the Emirship [of Mecca, in 1910], Shereef Hussein ibn Ali was a faithful counsellor and sincere supporter of the Ottoman government. ... He and his four sons — the Emirs Ali, Abdullah, Feisal and Zeid — adhered so faithfully to this loyal policy that some of the Arab Emirs ascribed to him arrant Tur- kophilism. Then the 'Unionists' started their vio- lent anti-Arab campaign of persecution and ex- termination. Free-minded Arabs in Syria and EI Irak thereupon turned to the great Emir of Arabia, the guardian of the Holy Shrines of Islam, for suc- cour and redress. He tried then to calm them and comfort them with earnest promises of inter- vention and at the same time he represented to the Unionists the gravity of the situation and the danger to which the Empire would be exposed if such a policy were persisted in. Soon afterwards the Great War broke out, and the Unionists were not long in siding with the Germanic Powers and throwing the fortunes of the Empire into the melting pot. They had consulted the Grand She- reef, informing him, at the same time, of their re- solve to join the Central Powers. He wisely ad- vised the strictest neutrality. Their object in con- sulting him, however, had doubtless been to sound his own and his people's feelings and intentions, rather than to seek his advice. ".'\bout four months later a rumour was cir- culated in Constantinople as to the existence of a movement in Syria and El Irak unsympathetic to the alliance of Turkey with Germany. The Union- ists seized this as an occasion, or rather pretext, to send out to Syria Jemal Pasha, in order to carry 389 ARABIA, 1916 Arab Revolt Proclamation ARABIA, 1916 out, with ruthless rigour, their programme for crushing out the life and spirit of this 'Arab move- ment,' by hanging its leaders, exiling the Arab notables, and starving the masses. On his arrival, however, Jemal found that the inhabitants were peaceful, and practically all supporting the Gov- ernment with their lives and property in its con- duct of the war which it had imposed on them; and that, therefore, there was nothing to justify the institution of a reign of terror. Thereon, he, with the characteristic cunning and deceit of the Turk, tried at first to pose as the friend of the Arabs, gathered round him the elite of Syria, and lured them into confidence by falsely pretending to approve and admire the Arab national move- ment. It is even said that he went so far as to make a speech, on the occasion of a banquet given in his honour at Damascus, wherein he said; 'How can we expect the fatherland to progress when Arab and Turk forget and neglect their respective national ideals and when ignorance prevails? On suitable occasions he gave expression to other views of a similar character, and thus entrapped the Arab patriots, who revealed to him their inner- most hopes and aspirations, assuring him, at the same time, in all sincerity, that they were ready to sacrifice their very lives on the altar of Empire, provided the Government respected and recognised their national claims and rights. He then started dispersing Arab officers and men in the outlying provinces of the Empire, in the Caucasus, the Dardanelles and Persia, and organised an elabo- rate system of spying; and when finally he saw the country cleared of its militant elements, and his position absolutely secure, he brought down his heavy hand on the helpless population and indulged in that series of atrocities that has horri- fied the civilised world. When all this was re- ported to the Grand Sherecf, he at once sent his son Emir Faisal ... to remonstrate with Jemal against this suicidal policy, and to advise him to refrain from it. The Pasha promised to do so; but hardly had Emir Faisal arrived back in the Hejaz when the same ruthless policy was revived with even greater violence. Cases of hanging and exile became more frequent, and, worse than all, the wilful starving of the population was inaugu- rated. Meantime, the blockade of the Turkish coasts had been declared, and as the Turks stopped the carriage of all foodstuffs by the railway and by caravan to the Hejaz, a state of famine was brought about. "The Unionists, meantime, had become so drunk with the lust of blood that they actually set about condemning, wholesale, Arab officers who were fighting for them on distant fronts, and degrading Arab soldiers to the position of slaves, and driving them to menial work and calling, them on every occasion 'traitors.' As a crowning of this mad career they finally attacked the Arabs in their most sensitive and vital point, the Sheriat, a well- known member of the Committee, going so far as to declare publicly his contempt for Islam and its teachings. Finding that persuasion and argu- ment were worse than useless with a people of such temper and mind, the Grand Shereef finally drew the sword as the final arbiter." — Near East, Feb. 2, 1917. — On June g, 1916, the Grand She- reef made his first move by declaring himself in- dependent of the Turkish government. Mecca and the surrounding district were loyal to him and the Turkish garrison in Jeddah was overcome. Taif was soon captured, hut with Turkish troops in Medina it was too strong for the .\rabs (o in- vest. The latter tore up over a hundred miles of the Hejaz Railway tracks and thus severely handi- capped the Turks in sending reinforcements. The Turks, however, were too seriously involved else- where to be able to devote any large force to handle the rising. A decree was issued in Con- stantinople deposing the Grand Shereef, who in reply published a proclamation in Cairo setting forth numerous indictments against the Turkish Committee of Union and Progress in general and against Enver Pasha, Talaat Bey and Jemal Pasha in particular. — See also Wokld War: 1916: VI. Turkish theater: c. 1915 (June). — Proclamation of the sherif of Mecca. — "In the name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate. This is our general proclamation to all our Moslem brothers. O God, judge be- tween us and our people in truth ; Thou art the Judge. The world knovveth that the first of all Moslem princes and rulers to acknowledge the Turkish Government were the Emirs of Mecca the Blessed. This they did to bind together and make strong the brotherhood of Islam, for they saw the Sultans of the House of Osman (may the dust of their tombs be blessed, and may they dwell in Paradise!), how they were upright, and how they carried out all the commandments and ordinances of the Faith and of the Prophet (prayers be upon him!) perfectly. Therefore they were obedient to them at all times. For a token of this, remember how in A. H. [.Anno Hegira] 1327 [1908] I with my Arabs helped them against the Arabs, to save Ebhah from those who were besieging it, and to preserve the name of the Government in honor; and remember how again in the next year I helped them with my armies, which I entrusted to one of my sons; for in truth we were one with the Government until the Committee of Union and Progress rose up, and strengthened itself, and laid its hands on power. Consider how since then ruin has overtaken the State, and its possessions have been torn from it, and its place in the world has been lost, until now it has been drawn into this last and most fatal war. All this they have done, being led away by shameful appetites, which are not for me to set forth, but which are public and a cause for sorrow to the Moslems of the whole world, who have seen this greatest and most noble Moslem Power broken in pieces and led down to ruin and utter destruction. Our lament is also for so many of its subjects, Moslems and others alike, whose lives have been sacrificed without any fault of their own. Some have been treacherously put to death, others cruelly driven from their homes, as though the calamities of war were not enough. Of these calamities the heaviest share has fallen upon the Holy Land. The poor, and even families of substance, have been made to sell their doors and windows, yea, even the wooden frames of their houses, for bread, after they had lost their furniture and all their goods. Not even so was the lust of the [Party of] Union and Prog- ress fulfilled. They laid bare all the measure of their wicked design, and broke the only bond that endured between them and the true followers of Islam, They departed from their obedience to the precepts of the Book. [Here follow a number of charges, sacrilegious, etc., against the Turkish government] . . . We leave all of this to the Mos- lem world for judgment. Yes, we can leave the judgment to the Moslem world; but we may not leave our religion and our existence as a people to be a plaything of the Unionists. God (Blessed be He!) has made open for us the attainment of freedom anti independence, and has shown us a way of victory to cut off thi> hand of the oppres- sors, and to cast out their garrison from our midst. We have attained independence, an independence of 390 ARABIA, 1916 Hussein Ibn Ali King of Hejaz ARABIA, 1918 the rest of the Ottoman Empire, which is still groaning under the tyranny of our enemy. Our independence is complete, absolute, not to be laid hands on by any foreign influence or aggression, and our aim is the preservation of Islam and the uplifting of its standard in the world. We fortify ourselves on the noble religion which is our only guide and advocate in the principles of administra- tion and justice. We are ready to accept all things in harmony with the Faith and all that leads to the Mountain of Islam, and in particular to up- lift the mind and the spirit of all classes of the people in so far as we have strength and ability. This is what we have done according to the dic- tates of our religion, and on our part we trust that our brethren in all parts of the world will each do his duty also, as is incumbent upon him, that the bonds of brotherhood in Islam may be confirmed. We beseech the Lord of Lords, for the sake of the Prophet of Him who giveth all things, to grant us prosperity and to direct us in the right way for the welfare of the faith and of the faithful. We depend upon God the AU-Powerful, whose de- fence is sufficient for us. — Shereef and Emire of Mecca, El Hussein ibn Ali, 25 Sha'ban 1334." [June 27, 1916.] "Later in the year another manifesto was pub- lished, and finding that the Turkish government was unable to send any large army to suppress the revolt, Shereef Hussein became more daring. On November 4 the Shereef had himself formally proclaimed 'Sultan of Arabia'; and a large num- ber of Arab chiefs assembled in Mecca for the cere- mony." — Annual Register, 1916, p. 275. — "The offi- cial recognition by England, France, and Italy of the proclamation of the Grand Shereef of Mecca as King of the Hejaz invests a really re- markable figure with singular interest. . . . His Majesty the King of the Hejaz Hussein Ibn Ali, has the distinction of being able to claim what is probably the purest and oldest lineage of all the crowneci heads of the world. Added to his personal qualities and achievements, this fact goes far to account for the remarkable phenomenon of a prac- tically unanimous acknowledgment of him as their supreme lord by the great chieftains of Arabia, whose mutual jealousies and exaggerated love of personal authority are proverbial. Purity of line- age is a source of great pride with the Arabs, and, when it is traceable to their Prophet, it commands the highest veneration on their part. The high value they place on documents attesting the de- scent of their thoroughbred horses may be cited as a proof of the value they attach to the prin- ciple of selection. Shereef Hussein Ibn Ali comes from Beni Hashem, the quintessence, so to say, of the tribe of Koreish. His descent is traceable, through his immediate ancestors, Ali Ibn Moham- med, Ibn Abdul Aziz, Ibn Aoun, back in unbroken line to the Prophet Mohammed. All the Moslems of the world acknowledge this lineage, and believe in Ishmael as being the original ancestor of the Arabs, whose lineage is again traced back to Noah."— A^ear East, Feb. 2, 1917.— In their reply to President Wilson's note of Dec. 20, 1916, the Allied powers stated the general nature of their war aims, and included among them "the setting free of the populations subject to the bloody tyr- anny of the Turks." And Mr. Balfour, in his despatch of Jan. 16, 191 7, in which he explained these aims from the point of view of Great Britain, observed that "the interests of peace and the claims of nationality alike require that Turkish rule over alien races should, it possible, be brought to an end." It was in the same spirit that President Wilson, in his speech to the Senate on Jan. 23, 1917, proposed that the Monroe Doctrine be adopted as the doctrine of the world, "that no na- tion should seek to extend its polity over any other nation or people." Thus the effort of the Arabs of Hejaz to free themselves from the oppressive rule of the Turks received the sanction of all the Allies. The province of Western Arabia to which the name of Hejaz has been given extends along the Red Sea coast from the Gulf of Akaba to the south of Taif. It is bounded on the north by Syria, on the east by the Nafud desert, and by Nejd, and on the south by Asir. Its length is about 750 miles, and its greatest breadth from the Harra, east of Khaibar, to the coast is 200 miles. Barren and uninviting mostly in its north- ern part, yet with many very fertile and well-cul- tivated portions in the southern section, sustaining a brave, hardy and fearless population, the chief claim of Hejaz to fame is that it contains the holy cities of Mecca and Medina, to which Moham- medan pilgrims come annually from all parts of the world. During the World War the Arabs rendered splendid services in fighting and harassing the Turks. Of particular interest is the romantic part played in the task of uniting the Arab tribes by a young English Oxford graduate, Thomas Lawrence. When the World War broke out he was studying archsological inscriptions in Meso- potamia. He was then twenty-six years old and possessed a profound knowledge of the land and its languages. Though he had had no military experience, he was appointed an officer (colonel) in the British army, but he usually wore the costume of an Arab, which he carried like a na- tive. Mounted on horse or camel, he led armies of Arabs in many fights with the Turks. The latter and their German allies were not slow to discover that Lawrence was a mighty factor in the Arab problem. — "Through their spies they learned that Lawrence was the guiding spirit of the whole Ara- bian revolution. They offered a reward of S.soo,- 000 for him, dead or alive. But the Bedouins would not have betrayed their idolized leader for all the gold in the fabled mines of Solomon." — L. Thomas, Thomas Lawrence, Prince of Mecca (Asia, Sept., 1919, p. 829). — After the capture of Bagdad the British commander. General Maude, issued a proclamation to the people of that ancient city on March 19, 1917, in which the following reference to the Arabs occurs: "In Hejaz the Arabs have expelled the Turks and Germans who oppressed them and proclaimed the Shereef Hus- sein as their king, and his lordship rules in inde- pendence and freedom, and is the ally of the na- tions who are fighting against the power of Turkey and Germany; so, indeed, are the noble Arabs, the lords of Koweyt, Nejd, and Asir. Many noble Arabs have perished in the cause of Arab freedom, at the hands of those alien rulers, the Turks, who oppressed them. ... It is the hope and desire of the British people and the nations in alliance with them that the Arab race may rise once more to greatness and renown among the peoples of the earth, and that it shall bind itself together to this end in unity and concord. O people of Bagdad, remember that for twenty-six generations you have suffered under strange tyrants who have ever en- deavored to set one Arab house against another in order that they might profit by your dis- sensions. This policy is abhorrent to Great Britain and her Allies, for there can be neither peace nor prosperity where there is enmity and misgovern- ment." 1918. — Speech of Lloyd George on British war aims. See World War: 191S: X. Statements of war aims: a. 391 ARABIA, 1918 Results of World War ARABIA, 1919 1918. — Aid to Allies against Turks in Meso- potamian campaign. See World War: iqiS: VI. Turkish theater: c, 4. 1918. — British attack Hejaz communications. See World War: 1918: VI. Turkish theater: c, 5; c, 6. 1918. — Conditions in Hejaz during British campaign. See World War: iqi8: VI. Turkish theater: c, 9. 1918 (September). — Aid to British in Palestine campaign. See World War: 1918: VI. Turkish theater: c, 12. © E. M. Newman KMIR FEISAL, KING OF IRAK (MESOPOTAMIA) 1919. — Results of the Treaty of Versailles. — Spheres of influence and the Syrian problem.— Dissatisfaction of the Arabs. — "After the prin- cipal Allies had been allotted their quotas at the Peace Conference, there was a belated announce- ment that the Kingdom of the Hejaz would be given two seats. That little Arab kingdom, rec- ognized by France and England as a belligerent Ally in 1916, had been left out, but Faisul, third son of the King of the Hejaz (or, as the King pre- fers to be called, Cherif of Mecca), and a young English colonel named Lawrence, who had been adopted into the family of the descendants of the prophet Mohammed and was a major-general in Faisul's Arab army, made a few spirited re- marks about the share of the Arab army in the liberation of Syria and the feelings which those Arabs might entertain if omitted from the Peace Conference; and the Kingdom of the Hejaz se- cured its two seats. . . . Meantime certain states- men in Europe had drawn up secret treaties ar- ranging for a division of Syria and Mesopotamia between Russia, France, and England. This was in igi6, before the Russian Revolution and before the Syrians had achieved their independence. France was to receive the coast strip of Syria, the Vilayet of Adana, and a large strip of land to the north; Russia, in addition to Constantinople, most of what is commonly called Armenia, and some of the south coast of the Black Sea; England, south- ern Mesopotamia and the Syrian ports of Caiffa and .^crc. Palestine was to have a special regime ; and the territory between the French and English acquisitions was to be formed into a confedera- tion of .Arab governments, or a single independent Arab government, and was divided into 'zones' in which France and England were to have varying degrees of 'influence.' Faisul did not know of this treaty when he led the Arab revolt ; nor did the Arabs and Syrians when they revolted. No one was satisfied with the old treaty. The Rus- sians no longer wanted a share of the spoils; the Syrians wanted real independence ; and certain French interests wanted a 'unified Syria' under French tutelage. ... To the Arab, Syria is sim- ply a region where Arabs, a few of whom are Christians, live more settled industrial lives; there is no word for 'Syria' in the .\rab tongue." — Na- tion, April ig, 1919. — "The .\rab world, where considerations into which the wishes of the in- habitants or the main interests of the country did not always enter, have led to its division into spheres of influence. It is unnecessary to go into the different agreements. . . . The French at pres- ent hold and administer the Syrian coast towns from Tyre to Alexandretta inclusive, while the Emir Feisal, the son of the King of the Hedjaz, whose services to the Allies in the war are a mat- ter of common knowledge, rules inland Syria [whence he was expelled by the French in Au- gust, 1920]. The cities of Damascus, Hama, Homs, and Aleppo are [were until then] under his govern- ment. . . . [He is now ruler of Irak (Mesopo- tamia) under British mandate.] The Hedjaz it- self is declared by the Treaty to be a free, in- dependent state. Palestine is to remain under the direct administration of the mandatory. Meso- potamia and Syria are made independent states in accordance with Article 22 of the League of Nations, though they are to receive the advice and assistance of mandatories until they are able to stand alone. The boundaries of all three coun- tries are to be fixed by the principal .Mlied Powers. Many of the .\rabs object to the present arrange- ment. Their view, which is shared by not a few Europeans, is that it splits up into several parts a country which is essentially one. In the end they will, they say, certainly come together again either in the form of a single state or of a confed- eration. Nature herself favours this unity. The great rivers would disregard division. So would the nomad. He crosses the country from end to end. There is summer pasture in Syria, while win- ter grazing takes him as far as the Persian Gulf. He is also the carrier of the desert, so that neither Syria nor Arabia can be permanently cut off from Mesopotamia. And the desert will only support a limited number of people. In other countries the surplus goes to America. Here the Bedu has an .\merica at his tent door. He just goes to the river strip or he settles in Syria, as he has done from time immemorial. Its outlying settlements 392 ARABIA ARABIA, CASE OF are his mark^ towns. The differences between Arabs seem great to the stranger. They really only go skin deep. Townsman, settler, and Bedu may be kept apart by mutual contempt, but all are proud of their descent from the desert. Like their religion they belong to it. What keeps the country one is something deeper than Arab na- tionality, though the population is in any case mainly Arab. So are its language and its civiliza- tion. This applies to Syria and Palestine as well as to the rest. In Palestine the Zionist claims are based not on the present, but on the past and the future ; they count on a large immigration of Jews, who at present form only one-sixth to one- ninth of the inhabitants. The Christian Syrians of the coast and in the Lebanon are against com- ing into an Arab confederation or kingdom. It is not, however, because they are likely to be ill- treated. Christians are already helping the Arabs to build a state at Damascus. But the Christian population is too small, and if the rest of the coun- try one day comes together it will be impossible to keep it from its natural outlet to the Mediter- ranean. The Persian Gulf is only a back door." — Round Table, June, 1920, p. 511. Also in: L. Thomas, King Hussein and his Ara- bian knights (Asia, May, IQ20). 1919. — King of Hejaz and the revolt of the Wahabites. — "The Lebanon Syrian Committee in the second week of August addressed to the Cen- tral Syrian Committee located in Paris the follow- ing telegram: 'The Arabian military authorities at Damascus are continuing their arbitrary re- cruiting. They have just decided to send an army of Syrians to the Hejaz, on a payment of three Egyptian pounds per man, probably to fight against the Wahabites. They are thus treating Syria as a country conquered by the Hejaz, and are misapplying the subsidies furnished by the Al- lies.' The Mussulman sect of the Wahabites is at war with Hussein, King of Arabia. The causes that led to these hostilities were briefly as follows: When the Ottoman Empire joined the European war the Hejaz and the other Emirates of Arabia joined the Allies, who created Hussein King of Arabia. Hussein played a prominent part from this time on. He only was represented at the Peace Conference. His son, Feisul, became a can- didate for the throne of Hejaz under the aegis of England. Hussein's proclamation of himself as Khalif, or great religious leader of Islam, gave offense to the Wahabites among other sects. His subsequent proposal to unite Hedjaz with Nedj, where the Wahabites are mainly centred, brought on a crisis, and the conflict was declared by the Wahabite leader." — Times Current History, Oct., igiQ, p. 172. — See also Syria. — "The Arab tribes are notoriously independent, and, so far as the outside world knows, have not acted together since the time of Mohammed and of the early con- quests of Islam. Even then, some were lukewarm and worse. It will, therefore, be in point to con- sider the positions taken up by the other elements in Arabia. Of the maritime states to the east, Koweit, Bahrein, Oman, little need be said. The Persian Gulf has known English control since the seventeenth century, a control which is the oldest element in the British Empire. It has known also the Turks, and has no desire for further knowl- edge. The population of Oman, also, is Ibadite, a sect of Puritans, dissenting and protesting from the earliest Moslem history and standing apart from both Sunnites and Shi'ites. No call to a Holy War from a schismatic Ottoman Caliph would affect them. The great valley of Hadramaut has sent its sons over the farthest seas and is more cosmopolitan than any other part of Arabia. It, too, has little use for Ottoman-German dreams. The Yemen is a land where recorded history reaches into Babylonian times. Since the renewed occupation by the Turks, in 1871, it has been fight- ing them; and at Sa'da and San'a there has been, and is a line of Imams, of the Zaidite branch of the Shi'ites, which dates its foundation back to a certain Rassi in A. D. 860. The Zaidites are very modified Shi'ites, holding principally to the di- vine right to rule inherent in the blood of the Prophet, and thus have found it possible to work together with the Sharifs of Mecca. In Athir, or Asir, a district on the Red Sea, a certain Imam Idrisi has been in insurrection against the Turks since, at least, the Turko-Italian war. The pres- ent Great Sharif assisted the Turks then in reliev- ing the Turkish garrison of Obha and securing for it a safe retreat. Now, naturally, he is at one with Idrisi and his followers. In the interior there are two states, settled round greater oases, which have made the politics of central Arabia for about a century. One, to the southeast of Riyad, is all of the Wahabite empire that maintains independence. Once it threatened Syria and Egypt, and indeed, the Moslem world, but now it is lim- ited to a little island in the deserts. But it is still war-like and maintains the traditions of the earliest Islam. It is, in fact, a revival of the ideals of the monkish state of Medina under the first succes- sors of Mohammed. To the north, at Hayil, is the dynasty of the Ibn Rashids. It may be best compared to the Arab court of the Umayyads at Damascus. The Ibn Rashids are orthodox Sun- nite Moslems; but they wear their religion more lightly than do the austere Wahabites to the southeast of them. They appreciate literature and poetry and the joy of life. Between them and the Ibn Sa'ud at Riyad lies the headship of inner Ara- bia. Now one and now the other has held it. But, invariably, up till now, on every question they have taken opposite sides." — G. B. Macdonald, Arabian situation (Nation, Nov. 8, 1917, pp. 505- 507). 1920. — Separated from Turkey by Treaty of Sevres. See Hejaz, kingdom of; Sevres, treaty OF: 1920: Contents: Part HI. Pohtical clauses: Hejaz. For further information on Arabia, see also Caliphate; Mohammedanism. Also in: T. Noldeke, Geschichte der Perser und Araber zur zeit der Sassaniden. — S. Lane-Poole, Mohammedan dynasties. — C. Huart, Geschichte der Araber (2 vols., 1916). — S. M. Zwemer, Arabia, the cradle of Islam. — R. F. Burton, Pilgrimage to El Medinah and Meccah. — A. Sprenger, Alte Geog- raphie Arabiens. — D. G. Hogarth, Penetration of Arabia. — J. T. Bent, Southern Arabia. ARABIA, Case of.— The sinking in the Med- iterranean, on November 6, 1916, of the Peninsular and Oriental Company's steamer Arabia with one American on board was made the occasion of a protest by the Department of State to the Ger- man government, and a charge that the promise made after the Sussex case had been broken. "The German note on the Arabia, now made pub- lic, gave as the reason for sinking her the belief that she wa3 a transport. November 6, one hundred miles west of the [Ionian] island of Cerigo, a German submarine, said the note, fell in with a large steamship coming from the Cerigo Straits. She was painted black, and did not, as was usual with the Peninsular and Oriental steamers, have light-colored superstructures. Though identical with the Arabia, she was off the route taken by steamers between Port Said and Malta, and on that taken by vessels of war. On board were 393 ARABIA FELIX AKABIC LITERATURE 'large batches of Chinese and other colored persons in their national costumes.' Supposing them to be workmen soldiers, 'such as are used in great num- bers behind the Iront by the enemies of Germany,' the submarine commander believed he was con- cerned with a transport ship, and 'attacked with- out delay and sank her.' Should the United States give the data showing that the Arabia was an ordi- nary passenger steamer, the action of the subma- rine commander would not then be in accordance with his instructions. The act would be a regret- table mistake 'from which the German Government would promptly draw the appropriate conse- quences.' The British Government, when informed of this reply and asked for the facts, answered that the Arabia was not, when sunk, and never had been, in the service of the Government ; that there were no Asiatics on board save the Indian crew ; and that she did not take the usual route, for fear of submarines." — J. B. McMaster, United States in the World War, pp. 280-2S1. — See also World War: igi6: IX. Naval operations: b. ARABIA FELIX: Conquests in. See Abys- sinia: 6th-i6th centuries. ARABIAN MUSIC. See Music: Ancient period. ARABIC, White Star liner, torpedoed by a German submarine on August ig, 1915, while on a voyage to New York. The attack, which occurred near the scene of the Lusitania tragedy, was without warning, and the vessel sank within 10 minutes, with resultant loss of fifty-four lives, in- cluding three Americans. The German Govern- ment at first asserted that the Arabic had attempted to ram the submarine but later waived this con- tention. While the case was in discussion between the two Governments, Count von Bernstorff, on September i, gave a pledge for his Government that "liners will not be sunk by our (German) submarines without warning and without safety of the lives of noncombatants, provided that the lin- ers do not try to escape or offer resistance." This pledge was given in ostensible answer to the third Lusitania note and without reference to tbe Arabic sinking, which, however, was adjusted under it. In a second note, dated October s, the German ambassador notified the State Department that his Government "regretted and disavowed" the sink- ing of the Arabic, which "was undertaken against the instructions issued to the commander," and was "prepared to pay an indemnity for the Ameri- can lives" lost. — See also U. S. A.: 1915 (May- September); 191S (August); World War: 1915: XI. Politics and diplomacv: d. ARABIC LITERATURE.— Its characteris- tics. — "Of no civilization is the complexion of its literary remains so characteristic of its varying fortunes as is that of the Arabic. The precarious conditions of desert life and of the tent, the more certain existence in settled habitations, the gran- deur of empire acquired in a short period of en- thusiastic rapture, the softening influence of luxury and unwonted riches, are so faithfully portrayed in the literature of the .^rabs as to give us a pic- ture of the spiritual life of the people which no mere massing of facts can ever give. Well aware of this themselves, the .•Xrabs at an early dake com- menced the collection and preservation of their old literary monuments with a care and a studious concern which must excite within us a feeling of wonder. For the material side of life must have made a strong appeal to these people when they came forth from their desert homes. Pride in their own doings, pride in their own past, must have spurred them on ; yet an ardent feeling for the beautiful in speech is evident from the begin- ning of their history. The first 'knowledge that we liave of the tribes scattered up and down the deserts and oases of the Arabian peninsula comes to us in the verses of their poets. The early Teu- ton bards, the rhapsodists of Greece, were not lis- tened to with more rapt attention than was the simple Bedouin, who, seated on his mat or at the door of his tent, gave vent to his feeling; of joy or sorrow in such manner as nature had gifted him. As are the ballads for Scottish history, so are the verses of these untutored bards the record of the life in which they played no mean part. Nor could the splendors of court life at Damascus, Bagdad, or Cordova make their rulers insensible to the charms of poetry, — that 'beautiful poetry with which Allah has adorned the Muslim.' \ verse happily said could always charm, a satire well appointed could always incite; and the true .Arab of to-day will listen to those so adorned with the same rapt attention as did his fathers of long ago. This gift of the desert — otherwise so sparing of its favors — has not failed to leave its impres- sion upon the whole Arabic literature. Though it has produced some prose writers of value, writing, as an art to charm and to please, has always sought the measured cadence of poetry or the un- measured symmetry of rhymed prose. . . . ".■\rabic poetry is thus entirely lyrical. There was too little, among these tribes, of the common national life which forms the basis for the Epos. The Semitic genius is too subjective, and has never gotten beyond the first rude attempts at dramatic composition. I^ven in its lyrics, Arabic poetry is still more subjective than the Hebrew of the Bible. . . . The horizon which bounded the .Arab poet's view was not far drawn out. He describes the scenes of his desert life: the sand dunes; the camel, antelope, wild ass, and gazelle; his bow and arrow and his sword; his loved one torn from him by the sudden striking of the tents and de- parture of her tribe. The virtues which he sings are those in which he glories, 'love of freedom, in- dependence in thought and action, truthfulness, largeness of heart, generosity, and hospitality.' His descriptions breathe the freshness of his out- door life and bring us close to nature ; his whole tone rings out a solemn note, which is even in his lighter moments grave and serious, — as existence itself was for those sons of the desert, who had no settled habitation, and who, more than any one, depended upon the bounty of Allah." — F. F. .\r- buthnot, Arabic authors, pp. 23-24. — See also Se- mitic LITER.\TURE. — "The oral communications of the ancient Egyptians, Medes and Persians, the two classic tongues of Europe, the Sanscrit of the Hindus and the Hebrew of the Jews, have long since ceased to be living languages. For the last twelve centuries no Western language has pre- served its grammar, its style, or its literature intact and intelligible to the people of the present day. But two Eastern tongues have come down from ages past to our own times, and continue to exist unchanged in books, and, to a certain extent, also unchanged in language, and these are Chinese and .Arabic. . . . The unchangeable character of the Ar.abic language is chiefly to be attributed to the Koran, which has, from its promulgation to the present time, been regarded by all Muhammedans as the standard of religion and of literary composi- tion. Strictly speaking, not only the history, but also the literature of the .Arabs begins with Muham- mad. Excepting the Mua'llakat, and other pre- Islnmitic poems collected in the Hamasas of .Abu Tammam and .Al-Bohtori, in Ibn Kutaiba and in the Mofaddhaliat, no literary monuments that pre- ceded his time are in existence. The Koran became^ 394 ARABIC LITERATURE ARABIC LITERATURE not only the code of religious and of civil law, but also the model of the Arabic language, and the standard of diction and eloquence. Muhammad himself scorned metrical rules; he claimed as an apostle and lawgiver a title higher than that of soothsayer and poet. Still, his poetic talent is manifest in numerous passages of the Koran, well known to those able to read it in the original, and in this respect the last twenty-five chapters of that book are, perhaps, the most remarkable. [See also Koran.] Although the power of the Arabs has long ago succumbed, their literature has survived, and their language is still more or less spoken in all Muhanimadan countries. Europe at one time was Ughtened by the torch of Arabian learning, and the Middle Ages were stamped with the genius and character of Arab civilization." — R. A. Nichol- son, Literary history of the Arabs, pp. xxi-xxii. Pre-Mohammedan literature. — 'The oldest monuments of written Arabic are modern in date compared with the Sabeean inscriptions, some of which take us back 2,500 years or thereabout. Apart from the inscriptions of Hijr in the north- ern Hijaz, and those of Safa in the neighbor hood of Damascus (which, although written by northern Arabs before the Christian era, exhibit a pecul- iar character not unike the Sabaean and cannot be called Arabic in the usual acceptation of the term), the most ancient examples of Arabic writing which have hitherto been discovered appear in the trilin- gual (Syriac, Greek, and Arabic) inscription of Zabad, south-east of Aleppo, dated 512 or 513 A. D., and the bilingual (Greek and Arabic) of Harran, dated 568 A. D. With these documents we need not concern ourselves further, especially as their interpretation presents great difficulties. Very few among the pre-Islamic Arabs were able to read or write. Those who could read or write generally owed their skill to Jewish and Christian teachers, or to the influence of foreign culture radi- ating from Hira and Ghassan. But although the Koran, which was first collected soon after the battle of Yamama (633 A. D.), is the oldest Arabic book, the beginnings of literary composition in the Arabic language can be traced back to an earlier period. Probably all the pre-Islamic poems which have come down to us belong to the century pre- ceding Islam (500-622 A. D.), but their elaborate form and technical perfection forbid the hypothesis that in them we have 'the first sprightly runnings' of Arabian song. It may be said of these magnifi- cent odes, as of the Iliad and Odyssey, that 'they are works of highly finished art, which could not possibly have been produced until the poetical art had been practised for a long time.' They were preserved during hundreds of years by oral tradi- tion . . . and were committed to writing, for the most part, by the Moslem scholars of the early Abbasid age, i. e., between 750 and goo A. D." — Ibid., pp. xxi-xxii. Influence of the Koran. — Mohammedan and later literature. — "None of the prose of those ancient times has come down to us. It was not written, and was, indeed, not reckoned of suf- ficient importance to merit such an honour. The researches of the Arab philologists give us some idea of what this very primitive stage of litera- ture must have been like. There were evening tales {samar) told under the nomads' tents, stories which were already being carried from town to town by the professional story-tellers, such as Nadr ibn Harith, of Mecca, who had learnt the fine legends of the ancient Persian kings at Hira, and by them gained a fame which at one moment counterbalanced that Mahomet owed to the Koran stories, drawn from the Bible. The battle of Bedr put an end to this dangerous competition. There were also the legendary and not at all trustworthy recitals of the Arab Days — tales of the great desert battles; proverbs, collected at a later date by philologists, and founded on forgotten incidents, frequently incomprehensible, and explained by purely imaginary comments and allocutions, whose makers flattered themselves they would impress the minds of their fellow-creatures. All these go to make up the elements of a literary art of which we possess no written specimens, but which was eventually to undergo a great development."— C. Huart, History of Arabic literature, pp. 31-32. — "With the rise of the Abbassidcs (750), that 'God- favored dynasty,' Arabic literature entered upon its second great development ; a development which may be distinguished from that of the Umayyids (which was Arabian) as, in the very truth, Mu- hammadan. With Bagdad as the capital, it was rather the non-Arabic Persians who held aloft the torch than the Arabs descended from Kureish. It was a bold move, this attempt to weld the old Persian civilization with the new Muhanimadan. Yet so great was the power of the new faith that it succeeded. The Barmecide major-domo ably seconded his Abbasside master; the glory of both rests upon the interest they took in art, literature, and science. The Arab came in contact with a new world. Under Mansiir (754), Harun al-Rashid (786), and Ma'mun (813), the wisdom of the Greeks in philosophy and science, the charms of Persia and India in wit and satire, were opened up to enlightened eyes. Upon all of these, what- ever their nationality, Islam had imposed the Arab tongue, pride in the faith and in its early history. 'Qur'an' exegesis, philosophy, law, history, and science were cultivated under the very eyes and at the bidding of the Palace. And at least for several centuries, Europe was indebted to the cul- ture of Bagdad for what it knew of mathematics, astronomy, and philosophy. The Arab muse profited with the rest of this revival. History and philoso- phy, as a study, demanded a close acquaintance with the products of early Arab genius. The great philologian al-Asmai (740-831) collected the songs and tales of the heroic age ; and a little later, with other than philological ends in view, Abu Tamman and al-Buchturi (816-913) made the first antholo- gies of the old Arabic literatures (Hamasah). Poetry was already cultivated: and amid the hun- dreds of wits, poets, and singers who thronged the entrance to the court, there are many who claim real poetic genius. . . . During the third period — from Ma'mun (813), under whom the Turkish body-guards began to wield their baneful influence, until the break-up of the Abbasside Empire in 1258 — there are many names, but few real poets, to be mentioned. . . . Withal, the taste for poetic composition grew, though it produced a smaller number of great poets. But it also usurped for itself fields which belong to entirely different liter- ary forms. Grammar, lexicography, philosophy, and theology were expounded in verse; but the verse was formal, stiff, and unnatural. Poetic com- position became a tour de force. ■ ■ . Such tales as these, told as an exercise of linguistic gymnas- tics, must not blind us to the presence of real tales, told for their own sake. Arabic literature has been very prolific in these. They lightened the graver subjects discussed in the tent, — philoso- phy, religion, and grammar, — and they furnished entertainment for the more boisterous assemblies in the coffee-houses and around the bowl. For the .'\rab is an inveterate story-teller; and in nearly all the prose that he writes, this character of the 'teller* shimmers clearly through the work of the 395 ARACAUNO INDIANS ARAGON 'writer.' He is an elegant narrator. Not only does he intersperse verses and lines more frequently than our own taste would license; by nature, he easily falls into the half-hearted poetry of rhymed prose, for which the rich assonances of his lan- guage pre-dispose him. His own learning was further cultivated by his early contact with Per- sian literature; through which the fable and the wisdom of India spoken from the mouths of dumb animals reached him. . . . Nor were the Arabs wanting in their own peculiar 'Romances,' influ- enced only in some portions of the setting by Per- sian ideas. Such were the 'Story of Saif ibn dhi Yazan,' the 'Tale of al-Zir,' the 'Romance of Dalhmah,' and esp)ecially the 'Romance of Antar' and the 'Thousand Nights and A Night.' The last two romances are excellent commentaries on Arab life, at its dawn and at its fullness, among the roving chiefs of the desert and the homes of revelry in Bagdad. . . . Though the Arab delights to hear and to recount tales, his tales are generally short and pithy. It is in this shorter form that he de- lights to inculcate principles of morality and norms of character. He is most adroit at repartee and pungent replies. He has a way of stating principles which delights while it instructs. The anecdote is at home in the East: many a favor is gained, many a punishment averted, by a ciuick answer and a felicitously turned expression. Such anecdotes exist as popular traditions in very large numbers, and he receives much consideration whose mind is well stocked with them. Collections of anecdotes have been put in writing from time to time. Those dealing with the early history of the caliphate are among the best prose that the Arabs have produced." — C. D. Warner, ed.. Library of the world's best literature, v. 2, pp. 669-675. — See also Mohammedanism. ARACAUNO INDIANS. See Pampas tribes. ARACHOTI, a people who dwelt anciently in the Valley of the Arghandab, or Urgundab, in east- ern Afghanistan. Herodotus gave them the tribal name of "Pactyes," and the modern .Afghans, who call themselves "Pashtun" and "Pakhtun," signi- fying "mountaineers," are probably derived from them. — M. Duncker, History of antiquity, bk. 7, ch. I. ARACID DYNASTY. See Armenia: 387-600. ARAD, temporary capital of Hungary. See Hungary: 1847-1840. ARADUS, or Arvad. See Ruad. ARAGO, Dominique Frangois Jean (1786- 1853), French astronomer and physicist. Made important contributions to astronomy and to our knowledge of magnetism, galvanism and polariza- tion of light ; discovered the development of mag- netism by rotation ; as a Republican, took part in the revolution of 1830, was :i member of the Chamber of Deputies on the extreme Left; min- ister of war and marine in the provisional govern- ment of 1848; opposed the election of Louis Na- poleon. ARAGON. — The kingdom of .\ragon which was one of the important independent states of West- ern Europe during the Middle .Ages, lay in the northeastern part of the Iberian peninsula. In the eleventh century, it had already acquired a po- sition of considerable importance through its ex- pansion, at the expense of the Moors. In 1076, by the annexation of the kingdom of Navarre, Aragon became perhaps the strongest Christian state in Spain. In the reign of .Alfonso I (1104-11.^4) oc- curred the capture of Saragossa (1T18) which now became the capital of the kingdom. Disputes over the succession to the crown distracted the kingdom for manv vears after the dealh of Alfonso But in the reign of Alfonso II the important union of Aragon and Catalonia took place (11 64). In the course of the next few years Alfonso acquired ex- tensive dominions in southern France though the natural frontiers, especially the Pyrenees, inter- fered with the real union of the French and Span- ish elements in Alfonso's dominions. In 1x79, he made a treaty with the King of Castile, by which the two sovereigns agreed upon their respective spheres of influence. "The reign of Pedro II (11Q6-1213) was troubled by the religious disturbances in the French part of his dominion. Southern France was, at this time, perhaps the most civilized part of Europe, but was kept in a state of political distraction through the turbulance of the nobility and the ambition of the kings of France to extend their authority over this region. By the end of the twelfth century the Albigenian heresy had secured a foothold in the country and was accepted by the majority of the inhabitants and this was to in- volve Pedro in a conflict with the redoubtable Simon de Montfort who was engaged in the pious and lucrative exercise of punishing heresy and seizing the rich lands of the heretical nobility. "In 1 2 13 the wicked and bloody, Albigensian Crusade seemed drawing toward its end. The vic- torious Crusaders had reduced their chief enemy, the Count of Toulouse, and his allies the Counts of Foix and the Comminges, to the lowest depths of despair: there hardly remained anything to con- quer save the towns of Toulouse and Montauban, and the majority of the victors were already turn- ing homeward, leaving Simon de Montfort and the knights whom he had enfeoffed on the con- quered land to deal the last blow at the exhausted enemy. At this moment a new actor suddenly appeared upon the scene. The King of Aragon had long possessed a broad domain in Languedoc, and looked with jealousy upon the establishment of a new North-French power upon his borders. Car- cassonne and other smaller places which owed him homage had been stormed and plundered by the Crusaders: Ihey sheltered themselves under the plea of religion, and King Peter had long been loth to intervene, lest he should be accused of taking the side of the heretics. But as it grew more and more obvious that the war was being waged to build up a kingdom for Simon de Mont- fort rather than to extirpate the Albigenses, he de- termined at last to interfere. His vassals had been slain, his towns harried, and he had every excuse for taking arms against the Crusaders. Accord- ingly he concluded a formal alliance with the Counts of Toulouse and Foix, and promised to cross the Pyrenees to their aid with a thousand men-at-arms. He spent some months in preparing his host, mortgaged royal estates and pawned his jewels to raise money, and finally appeared near Toulouse in the month of September with the promised contingent. Most of his followers were drawn from Catalonia ; his .Aragonese subjects showed little liking for the expedition, fearing that they might be sinning against Christendom by lending aid to heretics. At the news of Peter's approach the men of Languedoc took arms on all sides, and the Counts of Toulouse and Foix were soon able to assemble a large army beneath their banners. They stormed Pujols, the nearest hos- tile garrison, and slew sixty of De Montfort's fol- lowers. The whole countryside was with them, and Simon's newly-won realm seemed likely to dis- appear in a moment." — C. Oman, History of the art of war, pp. 448-44Q.— "In a few moments the fight was over: King Peter was recognised and slain by a band of Crusaders, who had sworn be- 396 ARAGON ARANJUEZ fore the fight to mark him down and stoop at no meaner prey. The most faithful of the knights of his household fell around him. the rest dispersed and fled in all directions. The slaughter was great, for the victors gave little quarter to heretics, and the prisoners were much less numerous than the dead." — Ibid., pp. 455-456. — See also Albigenses: 1210-1213. "After the death of Pedro II, the succession of the crown fell to James I, the conqueror (1213- 1276). The first years of his reign were troubled by civil wars but by 1228 he was in secure posses- sion of the throne. His first conquest was the Island of Majorca which had been, for many years, a thorn in the side of the Catalans and was now a strong center ol Moslem power. This con- quest was achieved in i2 2g and in six more years all the Balearic Isles were in his possession. Soon after the conquest of the rich province of Valencia was undertaken and by 1228 was completed by the capture of the city of Valencia. In the years 1265-1266, the King of Aragon effected the con- quest of Nurcia for the King of Castile. (See also Albigenses: 1217-1229; Spain: 1212-1238.) "Jaime was not only a great conqueror; he was also a great administrator. Owing to the entry of feudalism into northeastern Spain his nobles had such power that even the able Jaime was obliged often to compromise or to yield to their wishes. He took steps to reduce their power, at the cost of civil war, and in many other respects bettered the administration of his kingdom. ... In 1276 when the great king died he left a will which con- tradicted the policies of centralization and the aggrandizement of the kingdom which in his life- time he had unfailingly pursued. He divided his realms, giving Aragon, Catalonia, and Valencia to his eldest son, Pedro, and Majorca and the Rous- sillon (in southern France) to his son Jaime. The division was not to endure long, however." — C. E. Chapman, History of Spain, p. 82. — See also Cata- lonia: 7T2-IIQA; Spain: 1035-1258. 1133.— Beginning of popular representation in the Cortes. — Monarchical constitution. See Cortes: Early Spanish. 1164. — United with Catalonia. Sec Catalonia: 712-11Q6. 1218-1238. — Conquest of Balearic Islands. — Subjugation of Valencia. See Spain: 1212-1238. 1282. — Claims to kingdom of Two Sicilies. See Italy (Southern): 12S2-1300. 1301-1523. — Taxation through Cortes. See Cortes: Early Spanish. 1410-1475. — Castilian dynasty. — Marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella of Castile. See Spain: 1368-147Q. 1412-1447.— Defeat of Angevins. See Italy: 1412-1447- 1442-1521. — Union with Navarre. See Na- varre: 1442-1521. 1469-1492. — War with Florence. See Florence: 1460-1402 1501-1504.— Desire for partition of Naples : Quarrel with France. See Italy: 1501-1504. 1511. — Holy League against France. Sec Italy: i 510- i 513. 1516.— United to Castile by Joanna, mother of Charles V. See Spain: 1406-1517. 1809. — Siege of Gerona. See Spain: iSoq (Feb- ruary-June). ARAGON, House of: Control of Catalans during 14th century. See Catalan Grand Com- pany. ARAICU INDIANS. See Guck or Coco GROITP. ARAK IBRAHIM. — Taken by the British (igi8). See Wori,d War: 1918: VI. Turkish the- ater: c, 1. ARAKAN, Lower Burma; taken by the Eng- lish in 1826. See India: 1823-1813. ARAKCHEEV, Aleksyei Andreevich, Count (1769-1834), Russian soldier and statesman. Hon- ored by two Tsars, Paul and Alexander, for his ability and devotion; an expert artillery officer; was largely responsible for Russian victories in the Napoleonic wars and for Russia's conquest of Finland, in the Swedish war of i8og. ARAM. See Arabia: Ancient succession and fusion of races. ARAMAEANS, or Arameans, a branch of the Semites, who became very powerful in Syria about icoo B.C.; they earlier inhabited the north- ern border of Palestine. This people carried on age-long disputes over the land east of the Jordan. Damascus was their principal city and was taken from them by David, to be restored by Solomon. The city was later conquered by Assyria. The Aramaean language became the common tongue in Syria and Palestine. — See also Hittites ; Semites ; Syria: B.C. 64-63; ftLPHABLT; Theories of origin and development. ARAMAEO-ARABS: Roman colonies among the Arabs. See Syria: B.C. 64-63. ARAMAIC LANGUAGE. See Jews: Lan- guage and literature; Semitic literature; Syria: B.C. 64-63. ARAMBEC. See Norumbega. ARAN ISLANDS, three small barren islands in Galway bay, off the west coast of Ireland. The life is exceedingly primitive and the entire popu- lation very poor, for the only means of livelihood is fishing. Gaelic costumes, language and customs are here preserved to a remarkable degree. The islands are famous for the number of antiquities they contain, the best known being that of Dun- Aengus, a fortress tower supposed to have been built in the first century A. D. The islands are the scene of several plays, particularly "Riders to the Sea," by John Millington Synge, who made four or five visits to them. It is from his account that the following quotation is taken. "There are three islands: .^ranmor [or Inishmorl, the north island, about nine miles long; Inishmaan, the middle island, about three miles and a half across, and nearly round in form; and the south island, Inishere — in Irish, east island, — like the middle island but slightly smaller. They lie about thirty miles from Galway, up the centre of the bay, but they are not far from the cliffs of County Clare, on the south, or the corner of Connemara on the north. Kilronan, the principal vil- lage on Aranmor, has been much changed by the fishing industry. The other islands are more primitive, but even on them many changes are being made." — J. M. Synge, Aran Islands, pp. 11-12. ARANDA, Pedro Pablo Abarca de Bolea, Count of (1719-1798), Spanish statesman and general of the period of "enlightened despotism." Commanded the army against Portugal 1763; in T764 became governor of Valencia. As president of the council from 1766 to 1773 (see Sp.mn: 17S9- 178S) he restored order and expelled the Jesuits (see also Jesuits: 1757-1773); ambassador to Paris until 1787; prime minister under Charles IV for a brief time. ARANJUEZ, town and royal residence of Spain, on the Tagus in New Castile, about thirty miles south of Madrid. It is noted for its beau- tiful parks and gardens. The treaty between France and Spain was signed here in 1772 The uprising of the populace in 1808 led to the ab- 397 ARAPAHOE INDIANS ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL dication of Charles I\' and his flight into France, accompanied by the Queen and Godov. ARAPAHOE INDIANS. See 'Algonquian (Algo.nkix) family; Indians, American: Cultural areas in North America: Plains area; also 1865- 1S76; Pawnee family; Shoshonean family; Wy- oming: 1851-1865. ARAR, the ancient name of the river Saone in France. ARARAT, the name given to the high peak of the .■\rmenian plateau, rising 17,000 feet above sea level; according to one tradition, the landing place of Xoah's ark. See Alakodians; Armenia: B.C. 585-55. ARARUD. See Al.akodlans. ARAS, .Armenian river. See Araxes. ARASON, Jon (1484-1551, the last Roman Catholic bishop in Iceland. A celebrated poet of his day, he introduced the art of printing in that island. ARATUS (271-213 B.C.), Greek statesman, born at Sicyon, which he delivered from the rul- ing tyrant and enrolled in the Achaean League; as general of the League, won over Corinth, Megal- opolis and Argos. His success in making the League a weapon against tyrants and foreign foes was undone by his opposition to demo- cratic reforms. Sec Ach.ean League; Alexan- dria: B.C. 282-241: Culture; Greece: B.C. 280- 146. ARAUCA (Arawak) INDIANS. See Caries; Indians, American: Cultural areas in South Amer- ica: -Amazon area. ARAUCANIAN INDIANS. See Chile: Ab- origines; Indians, America: Cultural areas in South .America: Pampean area. ARAUCANIAN WAR OF INDEPEND- ENCE. See Chile: 1535-1724. ARAUSIO, a Roman colony, was founded by .'\ugustus at Arausio, which is represented in name and site by the modern town of Orange, in the department of Vaucluse, France, eighteen miles north of Avignon. — P. Godwin, History of France; Ancient Gaul, bk. 2, cli. 5. Battle of Arausio (B.C. 105). See Cimbri and Teuiones: B.C. 113-101. ARAVISCI AND OSI.— "Whether ... the Aravisci migrated into Pannonia from the Osi, a German race, or whether the Osi came from the Aravisci into Germany, as both nations still re- tain the same language, institutions and customs, is a doubtful matter. The locality of the Ara- visci was the extreme north-eastern part of the province of Pannonia, and would thus stretch from Vienna (Vindobona), eastwards to Raab (.\rrabo), taking in a portion of the south-west of Hungary. . . . The Osi seem to have dwelt near the sources of the Oder and the Vistula. They would thus have occupied a part of Gallicia." — Tacitus, Ger- many. ARAWAK (Arauaca) INDIANS. See Caribs; Indians, American: Cultural areas in South Amer- ica: .Amazon area. ARAXES. — This name seems to have been ap- plied to a number of Asiatic streams in ancient times, but is connected most prominently with an .Armenian river, now called the .\ras, which flows into the Caspian. AREAS, Battle of (581).— One of the battles of the Romans with the Persians in which the for- mer suffered defeat. ARBE, island in the Adriatic, part of northern Dalmatia, promised to territory of Croatia, Serbia, and Montenegro, by Treaty of London. See Lon- don, Treaty' or pact of. ARBELA, or Gaugamela, Battle of (331 B.C.). See M.acedonia: B. C. 334-330. ARBELEST: Its use in warfare. See Long- bow. , ARBILITIS. See Adwbene. ARBITRATION: Defined.— Its place in law. See Common law: 1Q11-1921. ARBITRATION, IndustriaL See Arbitration AND conciliation, INDUSTRIAL. ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL "The decision of disputes by international arbitra- tion is a question of rapidly increasing importance, especially in view of the growing agitation for in- ternational peace. It is a mode of settling dis- putes between two or more states by submitting the controversy to the ultimate decision of third parties. This is done by a form of treaty, which provides for the appointment of the arbitrators, rules of procedure, and all other matters necessary to the arbitration. The award of the arbitrators is as binding upon the parties as any treaty obliga- tion, and the United States courts have held that the finding of a court of arbitration will be given the same effect in courts as a regular treaty. The award may be avoided when the tribunal has clearly exceeded its powers as conferred by the treaty of arbitration, when the decision is an open denial of justice, when the award has been secured through fraud or corruption, and when the terms of the finding are equivocal." — A. B. Hall. Outline of international law, p. 64. — See also Treaties, Making and termination of: Forms of interna- tional contract. — "A host of support could be marshalled for the contention that arbitral settle- ment is one and the same thing as judicial settle- ment, the distinction being not between law and arbitration, but between arbitration and mediation. The authorities have been collected by Balrh in an article entitled 'Arbitration' as a Term of Inter- national Law wherein the use of the term in in- ternational law as opposed to municipal law is traced. He finds little support for the theory that international arbitration is a system of compro- mise. He quotes Pufendorf, Kliiber, Rolin-Jac- quemyns, Renault, Westlake, and Martens, all to the same effect as John Bassett Moore, who says [History and digest of international arbitrations, 1'. 5. P- 5042], 'It is important, from the practical as well as the theoretical side of the matter, to keep in view the distinction between arbitration and mediation — a distinction either not understood or else lost sight of by many who have under- taken to discuss the one subject or the other. Me- diation is an advisory, arbitration a judicial, func- tion. Mediation recommends, arbitration de- cides.' "— F. C. Hicks, AVti' world order, pp. 152- 153. — See also International law. ANCIENT TIMES "As early as the seventh century before Christ the Greeks had already adopted the idea of arbi- trating boundary questions and other disputes which arose between the different city-states. These must be regarded as real cases of inter- state arbitration because the city-states con- cerned were, in the earlier period, politically in- dependent and approximately equal in military .^98 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL strength. In the period after the formation of the Hellenic League their freedom of independent ac- tion was, of course, curtailed. Philip of Macedon and Alexander made a conscious and apparent at- tempt to have the numerous disputes of the Greek states settled by arbitral decisions, using the Gen- eral Council of the Hellenic League in the work. Under the Hellenistic kings who succeeded Alex- ander, many of the Greek states retained complete freedom and others a measure of their old inde- pendence in their foreign relations. The Aetolian and Achaean Leagues acknowledged the principle and resorted to the use of arbitration. — [See also AcH-EAN League.] We may, therefore, regard the cases decided in that period as faUing under the head of pure arbitration. With the advent of Rome and the ascendancy of the Roman senate in the affairs of the eastern Mediterranean, the ba'ance of power had so markedly shifted to the senate that it becomes increasingly difficult to de- termine where arbitration ends and dictation to inferior and semi-dependent powers begins. It is safe to say that real arbitration between the Greek city-states ceased after 146 B.C." — G. W. Bots- ford and E. G. Sihler, Hellenic civilization, p. 579. —"In ancient times, when war constituted the normal state of peoples and the foreigner was everywhere treated as an enemy, arbitrations were necessarily rare, and we do not find either a gen- eral system or harmonious rules governing the sub- ject. There were a few cases of arbitration in the East and in Greece, but the mode of procedure was not suited to the temperament of the people, and, after the peace of Rome was established, with the civilized world under one government, there was no place for it, since arbitration presupposes a conflict between independent states." — M. A. Mer- ignhac, Traite theorigue el pratique de I'arbitrage international. Also in: M. N. Tod, International arbitration amongst the Greeks. MIDDLE AGES "In the Middle Ages, owing to the peaceful [and powerful] influence of the church, arbitrations were more frequent, and yet their influence was far from producing all the results which might have been expected, perhaps because Europe was then divided into a great number of petty states, or because the rude manners of the period were intolerant of the idea of conciliation. . . . The popes by degrees accepted the idea that they were placed above sovereigns and were the representa- tives of God on earth. In virtue of their divine power the Roman pontiffs, recognized everywhere as the delegates of God, from whom all sovereignty emanates, constituted themselves judges of alt cases and evoked to their tribunal all differences between peoples and kings. Innocent III. declared that the pope was the sovereign mediator on earth. . . . The principle of pontifical sovereignty had so en- tered into the manners of the times that popes were often chosen also as voluntary arbitrators. It has sometimes been said that their intervention, whether spontaneous or specially invoked, was more frequently employed in matters of private interest and internal policy, than of actual inter- national conflict. This may have been so in many instances, but it cannot be denied that they were also called upon to decide litigations much more important, as certain examples will readily show. Popes Alexander III., Honorius III., John XXII., Gregory XI. were chosen as arbitrators in quar- rels which agitated Europe ; and Pope Alexander VI., by a decision of arbitration which is still cele- brated, traced an imaginary line from pole to pole, dividing between the Spaniards and the Portuguese the possession of all countries discovered in the new world. And even after the schism of England, when the Papacy had lost Teutonic and Gallo- Teutonic Europe, and when Gallo-Romanic Europe was itself formed, the prestige of the popes was still so great that it forced itself on the Poles and the Muscovites. But acts of opposition, which began to appear on the part of kings before the i6th century, were accentuated after that time, and the choice of the pope as arbitrator became less frequent. . . . Beside the religious influence of the popes, we should place, as having con- tributed during the Middle Ages to the development of arbitration, feudalism, which, while extending itself over all Europe, naturally predisposed vassals to accept their lords as judges of their respective grievances. The most eminent of these lords, the kings, were often chosen as arbitrators, chiefly the kings of France. Saint Louis was constituted judge between Henry III. of England and his barons, in 1263, and between the counts of Luxemburg and of Bar, in 126S. Owing to his great wisdom and to the authority of his character, Louis IX., says M. Lacointa, rivalled the Papacy in the role of con- ciliator and arbitrator. Philip VI., Charles V., Charles VII., and Louis XI. were all chosen as ar- bitrators. The other monarchs of Europe filled the role, though not so often, notably the kings of England, Henry II. and William III. But the commission of arbitration was not generally con- fided to sovereigns from whom were apprehended attempts at absolute domination. . . . Occasionally a city assumed the duties of arbitrator, but such occasions were rare. . . . The parliaments of France, renowned for their wisdom and equity, were chosen to settle disputes between foreign sovereigns. Besides popes, kings, cities, and great constituted bodies, we may mention commissions of arbitration instituted by parties in proportions fixed in advance and invested with full power over particular subjects. . . . The doctors of the Italian universities of Perugia and Padua, and particularly of the celebrated University of Bologna, were, says Wheaton, on account of their fame and their knowledge of law, often employed as diplomatists or arbitrators, to settle conflicts between the dif- ferent states of Italy. . . . Under the influence of religious and feudal ideas arbitrations were very frequent in the Middle Ages, which afford the re- markable spectacle of conciliation and peace mak- ing their way amid the most warlike populations that have ever existed. They were especially fre- quent in Italv, where in the 13th century there were not less than a hundred between the princes and inhabitants of that country. But when the Papacy had renounced its rule over civil society, and absolute monarchies gradually became estab- lished in Europe on the ruins of feudalism, arbi- trations became more rare. They diminished dur- ing the course of the 14th and isth centuries, and it is stated that from the end of the i6th centuVy till the French Revolution they had almost dis- appeared from international usage. ... If we should trv to find judicial rules that governed ar- bitration in the different periods at which we have glanced, we should discover that they did not present great stabiHty. . . . The procedure, also, varied according to the case, but it usually afforded certain guarantees and was invested with a certain judicial aspect. . . . The arbitral clause, or stipula- tion for the arbitration of difficulties that may arise, does not appear to have been frequent in the Middle Ages, or in later times, though we have had occasion to cite some examples of it. It seems, 399 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL however, to have been in use between the com- mercial cities of Italy. Vattel relates that the Swiss, in the alliances which they contracted, whether among themselves or with foreign peoples, had recourse to it; and he justly praised them for it. We may cite two applications of it in the case of the cities of Italy and the Swiss Cantons. In a treaty of alliance concluded in 123S, between Genoa and Venice, there is an article which reads thus: 'If a difficulty should arise between the aforesaid cities, which cannot easily be settled by themselves, it shall be decided by the arbitration of the Sovereign Pontiff; and if one of the parties violate the treaty, we agree that His Holiness shall excommunicate the offending city.' " — M. A. Mer- inghac, Traite theorique et pratique de I'arbitrage international. — The above is translated from the French and quoted by Prof. John Bassett Moore, in his History and digest of the international arbi- trations to which the U . S. has been a party," v. J, App. 3 (House of R. Mis. Doc. 212, 53 Cong., 2d Sess.). MODERN PERIOD The period of the absolute monarchies did not further the use of arbitration, but with the rise of modern states, built as they are upon a com- plexity of economic and social interdependence that constantly increases as the means of com- munication increase, arbitration has become a prac- tical and accepted necessity. The tremendous eco- nomic cost of war has strengthened the case of the many humanitarians who support the societies and conventions of the Peace Movement (q. v.) and who urge arbitration as the basis of peace. For the most part, the reformers have set before themselves the ideal of an international tribunal possessing, if not compulsory jurisdiction, at least such moral weight that resort to its award, except in case of extreme necessity, may become a duty of customary obligation. This is an admirable ideal, and the progress now made towards it is considerable, when we remember how lately the most that seemed practicable was a vague sugges- tion of appeal to the good offices of some friendly third power. But we must not forget that arbi- tration in any form is only an instrument for settling disputes, and is not equally appropriate in all cases. It is not safe to -assume that all questions between sovereign states are analogous to those which cause litigation between individuals, and that no difficulty remains in the way of judi- cial solution if once an adequate judicial authority can be found. This is far from being so. Tjrpes and methods of arbitration. — "Interna- tional controversies may be divided, for the pur- pose in hand, into four classes. .... In the first are such as relate to boundaries and territorial rights, including the construction of any treaties or other authentic documents bearing on such rights. Here we have almost a perfect analogy to cases between private owners. The main problem is to find an arbitrator, board of arbitrators, or standing tribu- nal, whose decision will command the respect of both parties. . . . Moreover, it may be said of these cases, as of similar cases in men's private affairs, that a decision arrived at by competent persons after argument is more likely to be just in itself and, what is more, satisfactory to the parties, than a compromise arrived at by direct negotiation. We may place in the same category with boundary settlements, though in a less im- portant rank, the adjustment of pecuniary claims by subjects of one State against the Government of another, arising out of transactions or events as to which no matter of principle is in dispute. Such claims have often been dealt with by joint Commissions proceeding in a more or less judicial manner, and there is seldom much difficulty about them, though the justice ultimately done is not always prompt. Here there is still a good deal of analogy to the ordinary civil business of municipal Courts. A second class of controversies turns on alleged breach or non-performance of active ob- ligations arising out of the interpretation of treaties or official declarations, or out of the common cus- tomary duty of nations in particular circumstances, as -where a breach of neutrality or excess in the exercise of a belligerent's rights against neutrals is complained of. ... A third class of cases is that which is analogous to civil actions for wrongs. Here, a sovereign State, for the most part repre- senting individual grievances and claims of its sub- jects, though not always or necessarily so, seeks compensation for harm caused to innocent per- sons, as owners of property or otherwise, by the incidents of warlike operations or civil disorder within the jurisdiction of the State to which the complaint is addressed; by denial of justice to its subjects in that jurisdiction ; by alleged illegal or excessive proceedings of that other State's officers; or by acts done under colour of exercising some in- ternational right, but alleged to be a manifest abuse. Arbitral proceedings and awards have been of great use in these cases, but chiefly when the rules to be applied have been already agreed upon by the parties or are otherwise too plain for serious dispute. Very difficult and delicate ques- tions arise when an aribtrator or arbitral com- mission has to consider whether acts done, perhaps, in a remote quarter of the world and under a foreign system of public law and legislation are to be deemed illegal or in the nature of unfriendly conduct. To whatever class a settled claim be- longed in its inception, it would not be possible, without enormous labour, to say with any certainty what proportion of such claims have in substance been incident to the working out of former agree- ments, or otherwise mere items in a series of diplo- matic transactions, or what proportion of the resi- due were in themselves capable of leading to serious trouble between the nations concerned. But it may be observed as to doubts of this kind: first, that accumulation of unsettled differences is a source of risk directly and indirectly, though they may be individually small; secondly, that the pre- vention of war between powerful States, or the termination of dangerous recrimination and ill- will, is much to have been accomplished even in a few cases. It is true that Governments submit to arbitration only when they do not want to fight; but it is also true that peaceful intentions are not always easy to carry out in the face of excited public opinion, and the existence of a known pro- cedure which provides an honourable way of ac- commodation may make all the difference. There are moments when any expedient is good if only it serves to gain time. But the following classifi- cation may be useful. Nearly 200 cases of arbi- tration between 1815 and the end of the nineteenth century are collected in Mr. W. Evans Darby's International Tribunals. Omitting from the total the cases (nearly 10 per cent.) in which the pro- ceedings were only after hostilities, were not of a juridical character, led to no decision, or vyere not between independent States, a rough analysis shows the remaining effective arbitrations to fall into the following groups: — questions of title and bounda- ries, about 30 per cent. ; pecuniary claims of citizens in miscellaneous civil matters, about 20 per cent.; construction of treaties (other than boundary), 400 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL about 10 per cent.; claims arising out of warlike operations and for alleged illegal proceedings, or denial of justice, about 40 per cent. . . . There re- mains a fourth kind of differences between States, and the most dangerous; those which do not ad- mit of reduction to definite issues at all. . . . Con- tests for supremacy or predominant influence are not disposed of by argument, in whatever shape they are disguised; indeed, the Powers concerned are usually less willing to invite or tolerate inter- ference in proportion as the formal cause of quar- rel is weak. . . . Only one remedy would be quite effectual, namely, that a coalition of Powers of superior collective strength should be prepared to enforce the principles which now stand unani- mously acknowledged by the Second Peace Con- ference of the Hague. A certain number of minor wars have already been prevented, or kept within bounds, by influence of this kind; but the benc- ficient arts of diplomacy as hitherto practised have certainly not lost their importance in maintaining peace among the Great Powers. It is a grave mis- take to depreciate them, as unthinking or ignorant enthusiasts for arbitration have sometimes done. They have probably been successful in our own time oftener and on more critical occasions than the Governments concerned have yet thought it wise to make public. . . . Broadly speaking, there are two methods of international arbitration, and subdivisions of procedure within each of them. First, the parties may refer the matter in difference to a judge or judges of their own choice, in pur- suance of a standing treaty or a special convention for the case in hand. The arbiter may be the ruler of a third State, or a tribunal composed of persons named by the parties directly, or in part by friendly Governments at their joint request. Secondly, the States concerned may prefer to use the machinery provided by a standing international agreement of more general scope." — F. Pollock, Modern law of nations (Cambridge Modern His- tory, pp. 716-71Q). The lead in developing the principle of arbitra- tion has been taken by United States and Great Britain. The two governments have intermittently advanced proposals for an Anglo-United States arbitral treaty since the time of William Jay's pro- posal (1842)' and that of John Bright (1887).— See also Diplomatic and consular service; Peace MOVEMENT. 1794. — Jay treaty. — The treaty between United States and Great Britain, negotiated by John Jay in 1704, which referred several questions to arbi- tration, may be said to have paved the way for the revival of modern arbitration. By this treaty three mixed commissions were provided: one to settle the boundary along the St. Croix river; one to settle the question of contraband, prizes, and rights of neutrals; and one to decide upon the compensation due Great Britain for the violation of the peace treaty (1783) by the states in pre- venting the collection of debts due British creditors. See U. S. .\ : 1704. 1814.— Treaty of Ghent. — Three commissions were provided to arbitrate between the United States and Great Britain: one to settle the owner- ship of islands in the Bay of Fundy and Passama- quoddy Bay; a second to settle the boundary be- tween the St. Croix and the St. Lawrence; a third to settle the boundary between U. S. and Canada along the middle of the Great Lakes to the Lake of the Woods. 1818. — Agreement between United States and Great Britain regarding restoration of slaves. — The question regarding the restoration of slaves taken by the British from their possessions up to the signing of the treaty of Ghent was referred to the Emperor of Russia who judged that the United States was entitled to compensation. 1819.— Treaty of Florida.— United States agreed to settle by arbitration her claims against Spain during her occupation of Florida. 1827. — North-Eastern boundary question. — The United States and Great Britain agreed to ar- bitrate this question, but later the United States refused to accept the award of the King of Ihe Netherlands who was chosen arbitrator. The question was compromised by the Webster-Ash- burton treaty. 1831. — Settlement of claims between United States and France. — The two countries agreed to arbitrate the claims of United States citizens for losses at sea during the Napoleonic wars, the claim to commercial privileges under the Louisiana Cession Treaty and the French Beaumarchais claim. 1835. — Compromise between Russia and Great Britain regarding claims in North America. See Oregon: 1741-1836. 1855.— "Reserved Fisheries Rights."— This question was settled by a mixed commission agreed upon between Great Britain and the United States. Privileges renounced in 1818 of taking and curing fish in unsettled bays and harbors along the Cana- dian shore were renewed. 1856. — Creation of Commission of the Danube. See Danube: 1850-1916. 1871-1872. — Alabama claims. — "The arbitra- tion between Great Britain and the United States on the claims generically known as the Alabama claims, for damage done by the Confederate cruis- ers equipped or harboured in British ports during the American Civil War, was provided for by (he Treaty of Washington of 1871; the award was made by a composite tribunal sitting at Geneva in 1872. This case is commonly said to have given great encouragement to the promoters of interna- tional arbitration, and cited as a kind of preroga- tive instance. An admirable example was certainly set by the determination of the two Powers to come to an understanding, and by the skill and lact of the diplomatists who settled the Treaty under anything but favourable conditions. The immediate effect in England was certainly not to increase the favour in which international arbi- tration was held; nor could it well be disputed, in the result, that the damages were excessive, since the balance for which no claimants could be found was left in the hands of the United States. Never- theless, a fruitful example remained. A dispute between two Powers of the first rank, which, rea- sonably or not, had in fact become acute and even dangerous, was reduced to terms of judicial com- pensation without loss of honour on either side. Perfection was not to be looked for in an experi- ment of such novelty. . . ." — F. Pollock, Modern law of nations (Cambridge modern history, pp. 720-721). — See also Alabama Claims: 1871-1872. 1884. — Berlin Act. See Berlin Act. 1889-1890. — Inter-Parliamentary Union for International Arbitration established. — In 1880 there was held in Paris the first meeting of the Inter-Parliamentary LTnion (founded in 1887) for International Arbitration (q. v.), an association composed of members or former members of the legislatures of the world. In this body centered the activities of the promoters of an international court and the Hague Tribunal was largely a re- sult of these activities. The year 1889 also saw the initial meeting of the Pan-American Congress, attended by representatives of all the American states but Santo Dommgo. The International Bureau of American Republics was established and 401 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL in 1890 a general treaty of compulsory arbitration was proposed, to apply to all the American states for a period of twenty years. The proposal failed of ratification. 1889-1899.— Claims to Samoa by the United States, Great Britain and Germany. — The three powers agreed in 1889 to arbitrate their claims, but resulting complication caused the joint high com- mission (.in 1S99) to proceed to the islands, and there an agreement was signed for their partition. See Samoa: 18S9-1900. 1890. — First Pan-American Conference. See American republics, IxiERNAnoNAL union of: 1890. 1891. — Delagoa Bay arbitration. See Delagoa Bay arbitration. 1892. — Arbitration of Bering sea seal fisheries question between United States and Great Britain. See Bering sea iiuestion; U. S. A.: 18S9- 1892. 1893. — Arbitration on bimetallism. See Money AND banking: Modern: 1S67-1803. 1893. — Arbitration of boundary dispute be- tween Colombia and Costa Rica. See Colombu: 1803-1000. 1897. — Settlement of Nicaragua and Costa Rica boundary dispute. See Central America: 1397. 1897. — Proposed Anglo-American arbitration treaty. — Secretary of State Olney and Lord Paunce- fote negotiated in 1S97 an arbitration treaty be- tween the United States and Great Britain. The treaty, submitted to the United States Senate by President Cleveland, was rejected by that body. It lacked only two votes of the necessary two- thirds because of the oft-recurrent question of Constitutional usage: the impairing of the Senate's treaty-making power by dispensing with the need for Senatorial consent in a matter adjusted by arbitration. 1897-1899. — Venezuela and Great Britain. — Guiana boundary. See Venezuela: 1896-1899; U. S. A.: 1897 (January-May). 1898. — Argentina and Chile. See Argentina: 1898. 1898. — Treaty between Italy and Argentina. See Argentina: 1898. 1898-1899. — Tsar's rescript. — First Hague Conference. — Permanent Court of Arbitration established. — In .August, 1898, the late tsar Nich- olas II issued his famous "Peace Manifesto" calling the nations to a conference. The stated object was the diminution and regulation of armaments to re- lieve the heavy burden of taxation which oppressed the peoples, and the prevention of war by diplo- matic-judicial procedure. The first conference opened at The Hague on May 18, 1899, under the presidency of a Russian jurist, the late Frederic de Martens, and sat till July 29. The greatest achievement of the conference was the establish- ment of a permanent court of arbitration at The Hague. (See below: 1907: Second Peace Con- ference at The Hague. ".At the First Peace Con- ference, of 1899. an attempt, strongly supported, was made to frame and secure the adoption of a treaty of arbitration by which the nations would bind themselves to arbitrate a carefully selected list of subjects. This failed, owing to the opposi- tion of Germany. .As a compromise. .Article lo of the convention for the peaceful adjustment of international differences was adopted: 'Inde- pendently of existing general or special treaties im- posing the obligation to have recourse to arbitra- tion on the part of any of the Signatory Powers, these powers reserve to themselves the richt to conclude, either before the ratification of the pres- ent convention or subsequent to that date, new agreements, general or special, with a view of ex- tending the obligation to submit controversies to arbitration to all cases which they consider suit- able for such submission' (reenacted in 1907 as Article 40). The article did not seem at the time to be of any special importance and it was gen- erally looked upon as useless because independent and sovereign States possess the right without special reservation to conclude arbitration agree- ments, general or special, without being specifically empowered to do so. The fact is, however, that this article, insignificant and useless as it may seem, marks, one may almost say, an era in the history of arbitration. The existence of the article has called attention to the subject of arbitration and by reference to it many States have negotiated arbitration treaties. It is true that there is no legal obligation created by the article and it is difficult to find a moral one, for it is not declared to be the duty of any State to conclude arbitra- tion treaties. The moral effect of the article has, however, been great and salutary, and the exist- ence of numerous arbitration treaties based upon the reservation contained in the article shows the attention and respect which nations pay to the various provisions of The Hague Conference." — J. B. Scott, Hague Peace Conferences of 1899 and 1907. "For an unquestioned example of a court of arbitration open to the whole world we must turn to the Permanent Court of Arbitration set up by The Hague Conference of 1899. . . Chapter II of the Convention sets up the court and provides rules of procedure. It has been said of this tribu- nal that it is neither a court nor permanent ; but we have the opinion of Professor John Bassett Moore written in 1914 that the convention estab- lishing it 'is the highest achievement of the past twenty years in the direction of an arrangement for the peaceful adjustment of international con- troversies.' — [J. B. Moore, International arbitra- tion; a survey of the present situation.^ The Con- vention was revised by the Conference of 1907, the changes being largely verbal, or concerned with procedure. The essential character of the court and its jurisdiction remain as originally pro- vided. The features of permanent organization are: first, a list of judges made up of not more than four persons of known competency in ques- tions of international law and of the highest moral reputation, chosen by each contracting state. By agreement the same person may be selected by different powers. The judges are appointed for six years and their appointments may be renewed. . . . The Court has no obligatory jurisdiction but is competent to decide all cases submitted to it by agreement of the contracting parties. Its jurisdic- tion may. within the regulations, be extended to disputes between non-contracting powers [i. e., those not signers of The Hague agreement] or be- tween contracting powers and non-contracting powers, on joint petition of the parties to such dis- putes. . . . The decisions are not made jointly by all members of the Court. When it has been agreed to submit a case to the Court, each party must choose its arbitrators from the general list. The number may be decided upon by the parties, but if they cannot acree the Convention stipulates that each party shall choose two arbitrators from the list, only one of whom can be its national ap- pointee to the list, and these four arbitrators choose an umpire. . . . Pleadings are conducted by the presentation of cases, counter cases, and replies, accompanied with papers and documents; and the arguments are developed by oral discussions. . . . 402 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL The decision of the court is arrived at in private by majority vote, and the proceedings remain secret. ... As pointed out by Professor Wilson in the preface to his Hague Arbitration Cases, the work of the Court has amply justified its creation. Fifteen cases have been decided relating to a va- riety of questions, including not only financial questions, but those of more delicate character such as the violation of territory, the right to fly the flag, the delimitation of boundaries, etc. The fact that these questions have been submitted is of great significance. Seventeen different states in all have been parties in cases before the Court. . . ." F. C. Hicks, New world order, pp. 158-161. — See also Hague conferences: iSqq. Following is a list of the cases decided with the dates of the awards: Mexico V. United States, Pious fund case, October 14, 1902. Germany, Great Britain, Italy v. Venezuela, Vene- zuelan preferential claims, February 22, 1904. France, Germany, Great Britain v. Japan, Japa- nese house tax case, May 22, '1Q05. France v. Great Britain, Muscat Dhows case, Au- gust 8, 1005. France v. Germany, Casablanca case. May 22, 1Q09. Norway 11. Sweden, Grisbadarna case, Oct. 23, igog. Great iSritain v. United States, North Atlantic fish- eries case, September 7, igio. United States v. Venezuela, Orinoco Steamship Co. case, October 25, igio. France v. Great Britain, Savarkar case, February 24, 1911. Italy V. Peru, Canevaro case. May 3, igi2. Russia V. Turkey, Russian indemnity case, Novem- ber II, igi2. France v. Italy, Carthage and Manouba cases, May 6, igi3- Netherlands v. Portugal, Island of Timor case, June 25, 1914. Commission of Inquiry Cases Great Britain v. Russia, Dogger Bank case, Feb- ruary 26, igoS. France v. Italy, Tavignano, Camouna, and Gau- lois cases, July 23, igi2. Spain, France, Great Britain v. Portugal, Seizure of pious funds in Portugal, Pending. In about one-half the cases no parties to the controversy have sat as arbitrators. Nearly one- half the cases have been before three judges. Also in; G. G. Wilson, Hague arbitration cases. — J. B. Scott, Hague court reports. 1900. — Brazil and French Guiana boundary dispute. See Brazil: igoo. 1900. — Panama and Costa-Rica boundary dis- pute. See Costa-Rica: igoo. 1900. — Compulsory arbitration proposed at the Spanish-American Congress. See Spain: 1900 (November) . 1902. — Arbitration of Argentina and Chile boundary dispute. See Argentina: igo2. 1902. — Second Pan-American Conference. — Compulsory arbitration project. — Central Amer- ican states. — "Ten of the nineteen nations repre- sented at the City of Mexico [Second Pan-Amer- ican Conference, igo2] united in the project of a treaty, to be ratified by their respective govern- ments, providing for compulsory arbitration of all controversies which, in the judgment of any of the interested nations, do not affect either their inde- pendence or national honor; and it is prescribed that in independence and national honor are not in- cluded controversies concerning diplomatic privi- leges, limits, rights of navigation, or the validity, interpretation, and fulfillment of treaties. [The treaty was signed by Argentine, Bolivia, Guate- mala, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, Dominican Repub- lic, Salvador and Uruguay and became effective Jan. 31, igo3.j "Mexico became a party to this project, but the United States declined; thus show- ing an entire change of attitude on the part of these two nations since the Washington conference of iSgo. Mexico had in the meantime adjusted its boundary dispute with Guatemala. But since Mr. Blaine's ardent advocacy of compulsory arbitration the Senate of the United States had manifested its opposition to the policy by the rejection of the Olney-Pauncefote arbitration treaty of i8g7, and it is to be inferred that the Secretary of State did not think it wise to commit our government to a measure which had been cUsapproved of by the co- ordinate branch of the treaty-making power." — J. W. Foster, Pan-American diplomacy (.itlantic Montlily, April, igo2). — In fulfillment of the agree- ment at Mexico City a treaty of compulsory arbi- tration and obhgatory peace was signed on Jan. 20, 1902, by the Central American states: Nicaragua, Salvador, Honduras, and Costa Rica, and they were joined on March i, igo2, by Guatemala. A third treaty was signed at the Conference, Jan. 30th, between seventeen states, including the United States, relating to the adjustment by means of arbitration of difficulties resulting from finan- cial questions. — See also American Republics, In- ternational UNION of: igoi-1902. 1902-1904. — Claims against Venezuela. See Venezuela: 1902 -1904. 1903. — Alaska boundary question. See Alas- ka BOUNDARY QUESTION: I9O3. 1904. — Arbitration of boundary dispute be- tween Brazil and British Guiana. See Brazil: igo4. 1904. — Orinoco Steamship Company case. See Orinoco Steamship Company case. 1905. — Arbitration of boundary dispute be- tween Peru, Colombia, and Ecuador. See Peru: 1905. 1905. — President Roosevelt's treaty negotia- tions. — Arbitration treaties drawn up between the United States and Germany, Switzerland, Por- tugal and Great Britain, were in igo5 submitted by President Roosevelt to the United States Senate for ratification. The treaties were finally ratified after such, changes had been made that Roosevelt said, "they probably represent not a step forward but a step backward as regards the question of international arbitration," and he refused to carry the matter further. — See also U. S. A.: 1905 (June- October). 1905. — Fisheries questions between United States and Great Britain. See Newfoundland, DoinNiON of: 1905-1909. 1906. — Third Pan-American conference at Rio de Janeiro. See American Republics, Interna- tional UNION of: igo6. 1907. — Central American court of arbitration established. — The five Central American states, meeting at the Central American Peace Conference at Washington, established in 1907 a court of com- pulsory arbitration. To this (Central American Court of Justice the states agreed "to submit all controversies or questions which might arise among them, of whatsoever nature, and no matter what their origin may be, in case the respective depart- ments of foreign affairs should not be able to reach an understanding." — See also Central Amer- ica: 1907. 1907. — Second Peace Conference at The Hague. — Representatives of forty-five states met at The Hague in 1907 at the call for the second 403 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL Peace Conference. The principal achievement of this conference was the revision and ampHfication of work initiated by the conference of iSgg, es- pecially in the case of consolidating the Perma- nent Court of Arbitration. Constructive work was also accomplished in laying foundations for the International Prize Court. "The Second Hague conference also declared itself in principle in favor of obligatory arbitration and stated that those dif- ferences relating to the interpretation of interna- tional conventional stipulations are susceptible of being submitted to obligatory arbitration without any reservation. The failure of this conference to agree upon a definite plan of obligatory arbitra- tion was mainly due to the opposition of Germany and .\ustria." — C. H. Stowell, Outlhtrs oj interna- tional law, pp. 276-277. — "As to arbitration, the constitution of the permanent Court of Arbitra- tion is confirmed. Its essential feature is a stand- ing list of qualified arbitrators, not more than four being named by each contracting Power. When a Court has to be made up, each Power concerned in the cause chooses two members from the list, and the arbitrators choose an umpire; there are further and seemingly effectual provisions in case they fail to agree. The bureau international, which is the permanent office or chancellery of the Court, is under the direction of a diplomatic board at The Hague. Terms of reference are, as a rule, to be handed in by the parties; but the Court may settle them itself if so requested by both parties, or under certain conditions even if only required by one. Elaborate provisions are made for the conduct of the proceedings. Further, a more sum- mary form of arbitration with two arbitrators and an umpire may be adopted in affairs of less weight. All this appears, from a lawyer's point of view, to be sound and businesslike work. Doubtless, the jurisdiction is voluntary: but so was all jurisdio tion in its beginning. As time goes on, it will be less and less reputable among civilized States to talk of going to war without having exhausted the resources of the Hague Convention ; and the ne- cessity of any formal international declaration in that behalf may be avoided altogether, if the tribu- nal acquires by custom, as one hopes it will, a stronger authority than any express form of words would confer. That the time is not now ripe for any such form is shown by the vague and baiting recognition 'in principle' of a general duty of ar- bitration which is embodied in the Final Act of the Conference. Nor do we sec much reason to regret the failure of an attempt to set up a new tribunal of arbitral justice, with permanent paid judges, which was to be more formal, more continuous, and less dependent on the parties' choice, and, it was hoped, would eventually supersede the existing Court. This scheme was brought forward by the United States. It broke down on the impossibility of agreeing in what manner and proportions judges should be appointed by the several Powers; the rec- ognized equality of all independent States before the law of nations being extended by several mem- bers of the Conference, especially the leading South -American delegates, to a claim for absolute equality in all political and administrative schemes. This interpretation, we submit, is perverse; but, on more than one occasion, it was among the gravest hin- drances to the work of the Conference. In our opinion, however, there were much better reasons for not being in haste to imitate the forms of a Court exercising true federal jurisdiction. What is wanted to promote peace is not the nearest ap- proach to compulsion, nor the most imposing Court, nor the most learned decisions possible, nor yet the speediest (for sometimes delay is rather of advantage), but a working plan for producing, with as little friction as may be, decisions likely to be accepted. This the two Peace Conferences at the Hague have given us, and it is much." — F. Pollock, Modern law oj nations (Cambridge modern history, v. 12, p. 72b). — As regards the American plan for the arbitral tribunal, the posi- tion is made clear in Secretary Root's instructions to the American delegation. It reads as follows: "It has been a very general practice for arbitra- tors to act, not as judges deciding questions of fact and law, upon the record before them, under a sense of judicial responsibility but as negotiators effecting settlement of the questions brought before them in accordance with traditions and usages and subject to all the considerations and influences which affect diplomatic agents. The two methods are radically different, proceed upon different stand- ards of honorable obligation, and frequently lead to widely differing results. It very frequently hap- pens that a nation which would be willing to sub- mit its differences to an impartial judicial deter- mination is unwilling to subject them to this kind of diplomatic process. If there could be a tribunal which would pass upon questions between nations with the same impartial and impersonal judgment that the Supreme Court of the United States gives to questions arising between citizens of the differ- ent states, or, between foreign citizens and the citizens of the United States, there can be no doubt that nations would be more ready to submit their controversies to its decision than they are now to take the chance of arbitration. It should be your effort to bring about in the 2nd confer- ence a development of The Hague tribunal into a permanent tribunal composed of judges who are judicial officers and nothing less, who are paid adequate salaries, who have no other occupation, and who will devote their entire time to the trial and decision of international causes by judicial methods and under a sense of judicial responsi- bility. These judges should be so selected from the different countries that the different systems of law and procedure and the principal languages shall be fairly represented. The court should be made of such dignity, consideration and rank that the best and ablest jurist will accept appointment to it, and that the whole world will have absolute con- fidence in its judgments." — Sec also Hague con- ferences: 1007. 1907-1909. — Casablanca incident, between Ger- many and France, at The Hague. See Morocco: igo7-iooo. 1908-1909. — General treaties. — The extended confidence in the Permanent Court of The Hague after the second Hague Conference resulted in the signing of numerous treaties designating the Per- manent Court as the agreed tribunal in cases of arbitration. At the outbreak of the World War the only great power which was not a party to one or more of these agreements was Germany. (See below. Treaties ) The treaties of this date, technically called Conventions, were all very simi- lar and practically all of five-year duration. Through the efforts of Elihu Root, then Secretary of State, the United States became a party to twenty-four of these agreements. Recognition is given to the constitutional position of the Senate in the United States by requiring a special agree- ment of reference to be entered into by the presi- dent "with the advice and consent of the Senate." The distinctive article of the 1008-iqog treaties is given under Treaties. Note "C," where it is stated in elastic phrasing that differences shall be arbi- trated provided, nevertheless, "that they do not affect the vital interests, the independence, or the 404 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL honour of the two Contracting States, and do not concern the interests of third Parties. . . . Lord SaUsbury wrote, in the course of the negotiations preceding the unratified treaty of 1897 with the United States: 'Neither Government is wilHng to accept arbitration upon issues in which the na- tional honour or integrity is involved.' Clearly, no nation will submit to any tribunal the question whether it shall accede to demands which its rul- ers consider ruinous or humiliating. What arbi- trable question was there between Elizabeth of England and Philip of Spain when the Armada was off the Lizard? or, as has been pertinently asked, between Austria and France in 1850, or Russia and Turkey in 1877? Therefore, some such clause of exception appears unavoidable if the good faith of treaties is to be upheld, and we confess that we do not attach much importance to its exact form. It may be said that these exceptions can be used frivolously or in bad faith. But the same draw- back exists in the construction and application of all treaties whatever. Well-meant proposals were made at the Hague for settling a list of causes of differences which should not be deemed vital; but the only result that appeared practicable was an enumeration of such matters of current business as have commonly been found well within the re- sources of diplomacy, and the project was wisely dropped." — F. Pollock, Modern law oj nations (Cambridge modern history, v. 12, p. 727). 1909. — Dutch Guiana boundary settlement with Brazil. See Brazil; iqoq. 1909. — Alsop claim of United States against Chile. See Chile; iqcq. 1909. — World petition for a general treaty of obligatory arbitration. — At the annual meet- ing of the International Peace Bureau at Brussels, October q, igoQ, the following resolution was adopted, expressing approval of the world-petition to the third Hague conference in favor of a general treaty of obligatory arbitration; "Whereas, Public opinion, ij recorded, will prove an influential factor at the third Hague Conference; and Wherea^i, The 'world-petition to the third Hague Conference' has begun to successfully establish a statistical record of the men and women in every country who desire to support the governments in their efforts to per- fect the new international order based on the prin- cipal of the solidarity of all nations; Resolved, That the Commission and the General Assembly of the International Peace Bureau, meeting of Brussels October 8 and q, looq, urgently recom- mend the signing of the 'world-petition to the third Hague Conference.' " 1909 (October). — American proposal that the prize court now established be also a court of arbitral justice. — By reference to the proceedings of the second peace conference at The Hague, as set forth above, it will be seen that the conference gave favorable consideration to a draft convention for the creation of a "judicial arbitration court" (the text of which draft is given at the end of said proceedings) , and that the conference went so far as to declare the "advisability of adopting . . . and of bringing It into force as soon as an agree- ment has been reached respecting the selection of the judges and the constitution of the Court." It will be seen, also, that the conference adopted measures for the creation, of an international prize court, preliminary to which an international naval conference was held in London from December 4, iqo8, until February 26, iqoo. At that conference a suggestion was made that "the jurisdiction of the International Prize Court might be extended, by agreement between two or more of the signatory Powers, to cover cases at present excluded from its jurisdiction by the express terms of the Prize Court Convention, and that in the hearing of such cases that Court should have the functions and follow the procedure laid down in the draft Convention relative to the creation of a Judicial Arbitration Court, which was annexed to the Final Act of the Second Peace Conference, of 1007." In Une with this suggestion, it was made known, in the later part of the past year, that the gov- ernment of the United States, through its state department, had proposed in a circular note to the Powers, that the prize court should be invested with the jurisdiction and functions of the proposed judicial arbitration court. The difficulties in se- lecting judges for that contemplated court, which caused the creation of it to be postponed in 1007, would thus be happily surmounted, and, as re- marked by Secretary Knox, there would be at once given "to the world an international judicial body to adjudge cases arising in peace, as well as con- troversies incident to war." 1910. — Fourth Pan-American conference at Buenos Aires. See American republics. Interna- tional UNION of: iqio. 1911. — German government's views on arbi- tration. — "World-embracing international arbitra- tion treaties dictated by an international areopa- gus I consider just as impossible as general inter- national disarmament. Germany takes up no hos- tile position toward arbitration. In all the new German treaties of commerce there are arbitra- tion clauses. In the main it was due to Germany's initiative that an agreement was arrived at at the second Hague conference for the establishment of an International Prize Court. Arbitration treaties can certainly contribute in a great measure to maintain and fortify peaceful relations. But strength must depend on readiness for war. The dictum still holds good that the weak becomes the prey of the strong. If a nation can not or will not spend enough on its defensive forces to make its way in the world, then it falls back into the second rank." — German Imperial Chancellor von Belhmann-Hollweg in Reichstag, Mar. 30, iqii. 1911-1912.— Treaties of the United States with Great Britain and France. See U. S. A.; iqii- iqi2. 1913. — President Wilson's proposal. See Latin America: 1913. 1913. — Arbitration on Rumanian boundary. See Rumania: iqi2-iqi3. 1913. — Bryan-Wilson treaties. — Body of the treaties. — Character. — List of treaties from 1896- 1920, including the Bryan-Wilson treaties. — On entering upon his duties as secretary of state Mr. Bryan was faced with the problem of the re- newal of the twenty-four treaties of iqoS-iqoq. He proposed the insertion in the treaties of a clause requiring that if a disagreement should oc- cur between the contracting parties which, in the terms of the arbitration treaty, need not be sub- mitted to arbitration, they should, before declar- ing war, submit the matter to the Hague Court or to some other impartial tribunal for investi- gation and report. The final form of the Bryan- Wilson treaties, of which approximately thirty are in force, is the development of the commis- sion of inquiry and is not technically an arbi- tration agreement. The body of these treaties is: ".Article I. The high contracting parties agree that all disputes between them, of every nature whatsoever, "which diplomacy shall fail to adjust, shall be submitted for investigation and report to an International Commission, to be consti- tuted in the manner prescribed in the next suc- ceedinu Article; and they agree not to declare 405 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL war or begin hostilities during such investigation and report. "Article II. The International Commission shall be composed of five members, to be appointed as follows: One member shall be chosen from each country, by the Government thereof; one mem- ber shall be chosen by each Government from some third country; the fifth member shall be chosen by common agreement between the two Governments. The expenses of the Commission shall be paid by the two Governments in equal proportion. The International Commission shall be appointed within four months after the ex- change of the ratifications of this treaty ; and va- cancies shall be filled according to the manner of the original appointment. "Article III. In case the high contracting par- ties shall have failed to adjust a dispute by diplo- matic methods, they shall at once refer it to the International Commission for investigation and report. The International Commission may, how- ever, act upon its own initiative, and in such case it shall notify both Governments and re- quest their cooperation in the investigation. The report of the International Commission shall be completed within one year after the date on which it shall declare its investigation to have begun, unless the high contracting parties shall extend the time by mutual agreement. The report shall be prepared in triplicate; one copy shall be pre- sented to each Government, and the third retained by the Commission for its files. The high con- tracting parties reserve the right to act independ- ently on the subject-matter of the dispute after the report of the Commission shall have been sub- mitted. "Article IV. Pending the investigation and re- port of the International Commission the high contracting parties agree not to increase their military or naval programs, unless danger from a third power should compel such increase, in which case the party feeling itself menaced shall confi- dentially communicate the fact in writing to the other contracting party, whereupon the latter shall also be released from its obligation to maintain its military and naval status quo. "Article V. The present treaty shall be ratified by the President of the United States of America, by and with the advice and consent of the Sen- ate thereof; and by [the President of the Repub- lic of Salvador] with the approval of the Con- gress thereof; and the ratification shall be ex- changed as soon as possible. It shall take effect immediately after the exchange of ratifications, and shall continue in force for a period of five years; and it shall thereafter remain in force un- til twelve months after one of the high contracting parties have given notice to the other of ;fn in- tention to terminate it. ". . . The success of the Wilson-Bryan proposal may be defined as due to its strict ad- herence to the principle of the commission of inquiry ; the advance it records is that of the greatest possible development within the limits of that principle. It brings forward into the range of practical affairs the well-attested maxim that war will not come in cold blood from a dispute the facts of which are thoroughly at- tested. It goes no further, for freedom of action is reserved by both parties after the commission's work is done. . . . The fact that the commission becomes a permanent one makes appointments to it on the part of the United States subject to con- firmation by the Senate. On this account the Sen- ate, as a coordinate part of the treaty-making power, is in a position always to secure commis- sion members for the American quota who are satisfactory to it." — D. P. Myers, Commission of inquiry {World Peace Foundation Pamphlet series, V. 3, no. 2, p. 25). Also in: Treaties for the advancement of peace between the United States and other Powers, ne- gotiated by the Honorable William J. Bryan, Sec- retary of State of the United States. The treaties differ in the range given to the obligation imposed upon the signatory parties, as to the nature of the differences they shall sub- mit to arbitration. Most of them, however, are divisible in this respect into three classes, distin- guished by the reference letters "A," "B," and "C," and the distinctions are described in J. B. Scott, "Hague Peace Conferences of 1899 and 1907." Treaties concluded by the United States have otherwise distinctive characters, as explained in notes "D" and "E." "A. — The article of reference in these treaties is substantially (when not identically) as follows: " 'The high contracting parties agree to submit to the permanent Court of Arbitration established at The Hague by the Convention of July 29, 1890, the differences which may arise between them in the cases enumerated in Article 3, in so far as they affect neither the independence, the honor, the vital interests, nor the exercise of sovereignty of the contracting countries, and provided it has been impossible to obtain an amicable solution by means of direct diplomatic negotiations or by any other method of conciliation. "'i. In case of disputes concerning the applica- tion or interpretation of any convention concluded or to be concluded between the high contracting parties and relating — (a) To matters of interna- tional private law; (b) To the management of com- panies; (c) To matters of procedure, either civil or criminal, and to extradition. "'2. In cases of disputes concerning pecuniary claims based on damages, when the principle of indemnity has been recognized by the parties. " 'Differences which may arise with regard to the interpretation or application of a convention con- cluded or to be concluded between the high con- tracting parties and in which third powers have participated or to which they have adhered shall be excluded from settlement by arbitration.' "B. — The treaties of this noble class are the few thus far concluded which pledge the parties en- gaged in them to submit all differences that may arise between them to pacific arbitration, reserving no dispute of any nature, to become a possible entanglement in war. The formula of reference in them is substantially this: " 'The high contractin.' parties agree to submit to the permanent Court of Arbitration established at The Hague by the Convention of July 20, 1800, all differences of every nature that may arise be- tween them, and which cannot be settled by di- plomacy, and this even in the case of such dif- ferences as have had their origin prior to the con- clusion of the present Convention.' "C.— The reference clause in these treaties is sub- stantially alike in all, to the following purpose: " 'Differences which may arise of a legal nature, or relating to the interpretation of treaties ex- isting between the two contracting parties, and which it mav not have been possible to settle by diplomacv, shall be referred to the Permanent Court of' Arbitration, established at The Hague by the convention of the 20th July, 1800; provided, nevertheless, that they do not affect the vital in- terests, the independence, or the honor of the two contracting States, and do not concern the interests of third parties.' 406 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL "D. — In these treaties of arbitration negotiated by the United States the article of reference is like that last quoted, in note C; but the following is added to it: " 'In each individual case the High Contracting Parties, before appealing to the Permanent Court of Arbitration, shall conclude a special Agreement, deiining clearly the matter in dispute, the scope of the powers of the arbitrators, and the periods to be fixed for the formation of the Arbitral Tri- bunal and the several stages of the procedure. It is understood that on the part of the United States such special agreements will be made by the Presi- dent of the United States, by and Vv-ith the advice and consent of the Senate thereof, and on the part of Costa Rica shall be subject to tly; procedure required by the Constitution and laws thereof.' "This was required by the United States Senate, which rejected a number of earlier arbitration trea- ties, negotiated by Secretary Hay, because they would have allowed cases of controversy with other nations to be referred to The Hague tribunal by the president without specific consent from the Senate in each particular case. This brings the general treaty of arbitration down very close to absurdity, leaving almost nothing of its intended pacific influence to act." E. — The Bryan-Wilson treaties are designated by the letter "E." The abbreviation "S" is used be- fore the date of signature and "R" 'before the date of the final ratification, or, in the case of the Bryan-Wilson treaties, the "R" signifies the date of the exchange of ratifications. Under each country is given a list of the treaties with other countries. Each treaty is mentioned only once, with references to it from the other countries concerned in Italics. ARGENTINA Bolivia. S. February 3, 1902; R. March 13, 1902. Brazil. S. September 7, 1905; R. October 2, 190S. Chile. S. May 28, 1902; Renew. September 13, 1910. Colombia. S. January 20, 1912. Ecuador. S. July '16, 1911. France. S. September 7, 1910. Italy. S. July 23, 1896; not ratified. S. September 18, 1907; not ratified. Paraguay. S. June 8, 1S90; R. December 21, 1901. Additional Protocol. S. December 21, 1901; R. December 18, igoi. Portugal. S. August 27, 1909. Spain S. January 28, 1902. United States.'^ S. July 24, 1914; not ratified (?). Uruguay. S. June 8, 1899; R. December 21, 1901. Additional Protocol. S. December 21, i go i ; R. December 18, 1901. Venezuela. S. July 24, igir. (See above: 1902: Second Pan-American Con- ference.) austria-hungary Brazil. S. October 19, 1910. Great Britain.'' S. January 11, 1905; R. May 17, 1005. Renew. S. July 16, 1910. Portugal.^ S. February 13, 1906; R. October 16, igo8. Switzerland.'^ S. December 3, 1904; R. October 17, 1905. United States, S. January 6, 1905; not ratified. United States. d S. January 15, 1909; R. May 13, 1909. Denmark.-A- S. April 26, 1905; R. May 2, 1906. Greece. S. May 2, 1905; R. July 22, 1905. Honduras. S. April 29, 1910. Italy. S. November 18, 1910. Nicaragua. S. March 6, 1906; not ratified. Norway.'^ S. November 30, 1904; R. October 30, 1906. Rumania. S. May 27, 1905; R. October 9, 1905. Russia. S. October 30, 1904; R. September 9, 1905. Spain. •'^ S. January 23, 1905; R. December 16, 1905. Sweden.^ S. November 30, 1904; R. August 11, 1905 Switzerland.-^ S. November iS, 1904; R. Au- gust, 1905. See Argentina; Brazil. Peru. S. November 21, 1901; R. December 29, 1903. Peru. Renew. S. March 31, 1911. See Spain; United Stales. (See above: 1902: Second Pan-American Con- ference.) Argentina. S. September 7, 1905; R. October 2, 1908. Austria-Hungary. S. October 19, 1910. Bolivia. S. June 25, 1909. Chile. S. May 18, 1899; R. March 7, 1906. China. S. August 3, 1909. Colombia. S. July 7, 1910. Costa Rica. S. May 18, 1909. Cuba. S. June 19, 1909. Denmark. S. November 27, 1911. Dominican Republic. S. April 29, 1910. Ecuador. S. May 13, 1909. France. S. April 7, 1909. Great Britain. S. June 18, 1909. Greece. S. August 28, 1910. Haiti. S. April 25, 1910. Honduras. S. April 26, 1909. Mexico. S. April 11, 1909. Nicaragua. S. June 28, 1909. Norway. S, July 13, 1909. Panama. S. May i, 1909. Paraguay. S. February 24, 1911. Peru. S. November 5, 1909. Portugal. S. March 25, 1909. Russia. S. August 26, 1910. Salvador. S. September 3, 1909. Spain. S. April 8, 1909. Sweden. S. December 14, 1909. United States. R. July 26, 191 1; automatic renew. 1916, If not denounced by either coun- try six months prior to July 26, 1921, will auto- matically extend to 1926 and so on by five-year periods. United States.^ S. July 24, 1914; R- October 28, 1916. Uruguay. S. January 12, 1911. Renew. S. December 28, 1916. (See above: 1902: Second Pan-American Con- ference.) See Argentina; Brazil; United States. (See above: 1902: Second Pan-American Con- ference.) 407 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL CHINA See Brazil; United States. COLOMBIA See Argentina; Brazil; Great Britain. Peru. S. September 12, 1905; R. July 6, 1Q06. See Spain. (See above: 1902: Second Pan-American Con- ference.) costa rica See Brazil; Italy; Panama; United States. (See above: 1902-^ Second Pan-American Con- ference; 1907: Central American court of arbi- tration established.) See Brazil. CUBA DENMARK See Belgium; Brazil; France; Great Britain; Italy; Netherlands; Norway; Portugal; Russia; Spain; Sxveden; United States. DOMINICAN REPUBLIC See Brazil; Spain; United States. (See above: 1902: Second Pan-American Con- CREAT BRITAIN Austria-Hungary .c S. January 11, 190S; R. May i7> 1905- Renew. S. July 16, 1910. Brazil. S. June 18, 1909. Colombia. S. December 30, 1908. Denmark. S. October 25, 1905; R. May 4, 1906. France.'' S. October 14, 1903; R. February 25, 1904. Germany."" S. July 12, 1904; without reserve of ratification. Italy.'' S. February i, 1904; not ratified (?). S. February i, 1907. Netherlands.'" S. February 15, 1905; R- July ". 1005. Norway.'^ S. August 11, 1904; R. November 9, 1904. Portugal.c S. November 16, 1904; not ratified. Spain.c S. February 27, 1904; R. March 16, 1904. Sweden.c S. August 11, 1004; R. November 9. 1004. Switzerland.'^ S. November 16, 1904; R. July 12, 1905. United States. S. January 11, 1897. but not rat- ified. (See above: 1897: Proposed Anglo-Ameri- can ARBITRATION TRE.ATY.) United States. (See above: 1905: President Roosevelt's treaty negotiations.) United States.^ S. .April 4, 1908; R. June 4, 1908. Renew. April 10, 1914. (It had lapsed, June 4, 1913, but was kept in force by mutual agree- ference; 1907: Central-American court of AR- ment. Again renewed September 24, 1918. To ex \ r.'ww.a Tuna O .. T nt 1 \ bitration established.) ECUADOR See Brazil; United States. (See above: 1902: Second Pan-American Con- ference.) FRANCE Argentina. S. September 7, 1910. Brazil. S. April 7, 1909. Denmarki^ S. September 15, 190.S; R. May 31, 1906; Renew. S. August 9, 1911. Great Britain.*" S. October 14, 1903; R- Febru- ary 25, 1904. Italy.'" S. December 25, 1903; R. March 26, 1904. Netherlands'" S. April 6, 1904; R July 5. iQOS- Norway.'" S. July 9, 1904; R- November 9, 1904. Portugal."^ S. Julv 9, 1906; not ratified. Spain.t' s. February 26, 1904; R- April 20, 1904. Sweden.'^' S. July 9, 1004; R- November 9, 1904. Switzerland.'" S. December 14, 1904; R. July 13, 1905. United States.r> s. February 10, 1908; R. March 12, 1908. Renew. 1913, 1918. To expire February 23, 1923. S. .August 3, 1911. United States." S. September 15, 1914; R Janu- ary 22, 1915. GERMANY Great Britain.<" S. July 12, 1004; without reserve of ratification. United States. S. November 22, 1904; not rati- fied. (See above: 1905: President Roosevelt's TREATY negotiations.) Venezuela S. May 7, 1903; not ratified. pire June 24, 1923.) United States. S. August 3, 1911- United States.'' S. September 15, 1Q14; R- No- vember 10, 1914. GREECE See Belgium; Brazil; Italy; Spain; United States. GUATEMALA' Nicaragua— Honduras— Salvador. S. November, 1903. See Spain; United States. (See above: 1902: Second Pan-American Con- ference; 1907: Central American court of ar- bitration ESTABLISHED.) See Brazil. Guatemala— Nicaragua— Salvador. S. Novem- ber, 1903- HONDURAS See Belgium; Brazil; Spain; United States. (See above: 1902: Second Pan-,\merican Con- ference; 1007: Central American court of ar- bitration ESTABLISHED.) ITALY Argentina. S. Julv 23, 1896; not ratified. Argentina. S. September 18, 1907 ; not ratified. Belgium. S. November 18, 1910. Costa Rica. S. January 8, 1910. Denmark.^* S. December 16, 1905; R- May 22, France.^ S. December 25, 1Q03; R- March 26, 1904. 408 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL Great Britain.^ S. February i, 1904; not ratified (?). Greece. S. September 2, 1910. Mexico. S. October 16, 1907; R. December 31, 1907. Netherlands. S. November 21, 1909. Norway. S. December 4, igio. Panama. S. May 11, 1905. Peru. S. April 18, 1905; R. November 11, igoS. Portugal.*^' S. May 11, 1905; not ratified. Russia. S. October 27, igio. Spain. S. September 2, 1910. Sweden. S. April 30, 191 1. Switzerland.'' S. November 23, 1904; R. Decem- ber s, 1905. United States."^ S. March 28, igo8; R. January 22, IQ09. Renew. 1914, 1919. To expire January 22, 1914. United States.i^ S. May 5, 1914; R. March ig, 1915- JAPAN United States.D S. May 5, 1908; R. August 24, 1908. Renew. 1914, made retroactive to igi3. Renew. igi8. To expire August 24, 1923. See Brazil; Italy; United States. (See above; 1902: Second Pan-American Con- ference.) Netherlands Denmark.B S. February 12, 1904; R. March 18, 1906. See France; Great Britain; Italy. Portugual. S. October i, 1904; R. October 29, 1908. See United States. See United States. (See above: 1902; Second Pan-American Con- ference.) Mexico. S. May 14, 1902. See United States. See Bolivia; Brazil; Colombia; Italy; Para- guay; United States. (See above: igo2: Second Pan-.^merican Con- ference.) Argentina. S. August 27, 1909. Austria-Hungary .c S. February 13, 1006; R. October 16, iqo8. Brazil. S. March 25, igog. Denmark. B S. March 20, igo7; R. October 26, 1908. France. S. July 29, 1906; not ratified. Great Britain. S. Noven'rber 16, 1904; not rati- fied. Italy .c S. May 11, 1905; not ratified. Netherlands. S. October i, 1904; R. October 29, 1008. Nicaragua. S. July 17, igog. Norway .<^ S. May 6, igos; not ratified. S. December 8, igo8. Spain. S. May 31, igo4; not ratified. Sweden.c S. May 6, igoS; not ratified. Switzerland. c S. August 18, igoS; R. October 23i igo8. See United States. RUMANIA See Belgium. NICARAGUA See Belgium; Brazil. Guatemala — Honduras — Salvador. S. November, igo3. See Portugal; Salvador; Spain; United States. (See above: igo2: Second Pan-American Con- ference; igo7: Central American court of ar- bitration ESTABLISHED.) Sec Belgium; Brazil. Denmark.^ S. March i, igos; R. April 11- April 3, igos. See Italy. Norway.-* S. December g, igo4; R February 27, igos- Sweden. A S. December g, igo4; R. February 25, 1 90s. See United States. See Belgium; Brazil. Denmark. S. October 8, igo8; not ratified. See France; Great Britain; Italy; Portugal; Rus- sia; Spain. Sweden. A S. October 26, 1905; without reserve of ratification. See Switzerland ; United States. SALVADOR See Brazil. Guatemala — Honduras — Salvador. S. November, 1903- Nicaragua. S. April 3, 1907; not ratified. See Spain; United States. (See above: 1902: Second Pan-American Con- ference; igo7: Central American court of ar- bitration established.) See Brazil. Costa Rica. S. March 17, igio. See Italy; United States. (See above: 1902: Second Pan-American Con- ference.) paraguay See Argentina. See Brazil. Peru. S. May 18, 1903. SIAM See United Stales. Argentina. S. January 28, 1902. Belgium. A S. January 23, igoS; R. December 16, igos. Bolivia. S. February 17, 1902; R. October 10, 1903. 409 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL Brazil. S. April S, igog. Colombia. S. February 17, 1902 ; R. July 18, 1902. Denmark.^ S. December i, 1905; R. May 14, igo6. Dominican Republic. S. January 28, 1902; R. July iS, 1902. France."-' S. February 26, 1904; R. April 20, 1904. Great Britain.'-' S. February 27, 1904; R. March 16, 1904. Greece. S. December 16, 1909. Guatemala. S. February 28, 1902; R. July 18, 1902. Honduras. S. May 13, 1905; R. July 16, 1906. Italy. S. September 2, 1910. Mexico. S. January 11, 1902; R. July 18, 1902. Nicaragua. S. October 4, 1904; R. March 19, 1908. Norway. S. January 23, 190S; R. March 20, 1905. Portugal. S. May 31, 1904; not ratified. Russia S. August 15, 1910. Salvador. S. January 28, 1902; R. July 8, 1902. Sweden. S. January 23, 1905; R. March 20, 1905- Switzerland.^ S. May 14, 1907; R. July 9, 1907. See United States. Uruguay. S. January 28, 1902; R. July 18, 1902. See Belgium; Brazil. Denmark. D S. July 17, 190S; not ratified. See France; Great Britain; Italy. Norway. S. October 26, 1905; without reserve of ratification. See Portugal; Russia. See Switzerland.^ S. December 17, 1904; R. July 13, 1905. See United States. SWITZERLAND See Austria-Hungary; Belgium; France; Great Britain; Italy. Norway.-^ S. December 17, 1904; R. July 13, See Portugal; Spain; Siaeden; United Stales. UNITED STATES Argentina. S. July 24, 1914; not ratified (?). Austria-Hungary. S. January 6, 1Q05; not rati- fied. S. January 15, 1909; R. May 13, IQ09. Bolivia. E S. January 22, 1914; R. January 8. 1915- Brazil. R. July 26, 1911, automatic renew. iqi6. If not denounced by either country six months prior to July 26, iq2i, will automatically extend to 1926 and so on by five-year periods. Brazil. E S. July 24, 1914; R. October 28, 1916. Chile. S. July 24, 1914; R. January 19, igi6. China. u S. October 8, 190S; R. April 6, 1909. China.E s. September 15, 1914; R. October 22, 1915. Costa Rica.D S. January 13, 1909; R. July 20, 1909. Renew. 1014. Costa Rica.i= S. February 13, 1914; R. Novem- ber 12, 1914. Denmark. D S. May 18, 1908; R. March 29, 1909. Denmark.!' S. .'Vpril 17, 1914; R. January iq, 1915. Dominican Republic. S. February 17, 1914; not ratified, Ecuador. R. June 22, 1910, for five years, au- tomatically renewed every year. Terminable upon year's notice. Ecuador. t^ S. October 13, 1914; R. January 22, 191 6. France.!^ S. February 10, 190S; R. March 12, 1908. Renew. 1913, 1918. Expires February 23, 1923- S. August 3, 1911. France.i=^ S. September 15, 1914; R. January 22, IQI5- Germany. S. November 22, 1904; not ratified. Germany. (See above: 1905: President Roose- velt's TREATY NEGOTIATIONS.; Great Britain. S. January 11, 1897; not rati- fied. (See above: 1897: Proposed Anglo-Ameri- can ARBITRATION TREATY.) Great Britain. (See 1905: President Roose- \llt's treaty negotl^tioxs.) Great Britain. d S. April 4, 1908; R. June 4, iqoS. Renew. April 10, iqi4. (It had lapsed June 4, 1913, but was kept in force by mutual agree- ment) ; Renew. September 24, 191S. Expires June 24. 1923- S. August 3, 1911. Great Britain. '=' S. September 15, 1914; R. No- vember 10, 1914. Greece. S. February 29, 1908; not ratified (?) Greece.^ S. October 13, 1914; not ratified (?) Guatemala. '■^ S. September 20, 1913; R. Octo- ber 13, 1914. Honduras.^ S. November 3, 1913; R. July 27, 1916. Italy. D S. March 28, 190S; R. January 22, 1909. Renew. 1914, 1919. Expires Jan. 22, 1924. Italy .^ S. May 5, 1914; R. March 19, 1915. Japan. D S. May 5, igoS; R. August 24, 1908. Renew. 1914, made retroactive to 1913. Renew. 1918. Expires Au ust 24, 1923. Mexico. t^ S. March "24, 190S; R. June 27, 1908. Netherlands. D S. May 2, 1908; R. March 25, 1909. Renew. 1915, 1919. Netherlands.^ S. December 18, 1913; not rati- fied. Nicaragua.^ S. December 17, 1913; not ratified. Norway. S. April 4, iqo8; R. June 24, 1908. Renew. 1913, 1918. Expires June 24, 1923- Norway .'^ S. June 24, 1914; R. October 21, 1914 Panama.''- S. September 20, 1913; not ratified. Paraguay. J' S. August 29, 1914; R. March 9, I9I.';- Persia.'^ S. February 4, 1014; not ratified. Peru."^ S. December s, iqoS; R. June 29, 1909. Peru.'' S. July 14, 1914; R. March 4, 191S. Portugal. D S. April 6, 190S; R. November 14, 1908. Renew. 1913. Portugal.'' S. February 4, 1914; R. October 24, 1914. Russia.'' S. October i, 1914; R. March 22, 1914- Salvador.^ S. December 21, 1908; R. July 3, 1000. Renew. 19 14. Salvador." S. August 7, 1913; not ratified. Spain.i^ S. April 20, 1908; R. June 2, 1908. Renew. 1913, 1919. Expires 1924. Spain.E S. September 15, 1914; R. December 21, 1914. Sweden.!^ S. May 2, 1908; R. August 18, iqo8. Renew. 1013. Sweden.E S. October 13, iqi4; R. January 11, iqi.S- Switzerland.'^ S. February 29, 1908; R. Decem- ber 23, 1908. 10 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL Switzerland. E S. February 13, 1914. Uruguay. li^ S. July 20, 1914; R. February 24, Renew. November 14, 1913, automatic renew. igiS. Remains in force until a year after its de- nunciation by either country. Uruguay. li S. July 20, 1914; R. February 24, 1914- Venezuela.^ S. March 21, 1914. (See above: 1902: Second Pan-American Con- ference.) See Argentina; Brazil; Spain; United States. (See above: 1902: Second Fan-American Con- ference.) venezuela See Argentina; Germany; United States. (See above: 1902: Second Pan-.'Xmerican Con- ference.) 1914. — Arbitration agreements at the outbreak of the World War. — Considering the number of arbitration treaties in force in 1914 it is signifi- cant that only three were operative between those states which fought on opposing sides in the World War. Of the three, that between Germany and Great Britain expired by limitation on July i, 1914, or thirty-five days before the contracting states were at war. The other two treaties were between Austria-Hungary and Great Britain and between Austria-Hungary and Portugal, respec- tively. 1914. — Arbitration proposals to avoid the war. — Count Berchtold, Austro-Hungarian foreign minister, launched the fateful ultimatum to Ser- bia on July 23, 1914. Of the ten demands pre- sented in that document, the Serbian government, acting on Russian advice, acceded to all with only two reservations — articles 3 and 4, which they asked to be permitted to submit to The Hague tribunal. The request was rejected by Austria. The late tsar Nicholas II telegraphed to the former German emperor at the end of July a proposal to submit the Austro-Serbian dispute to The Hague tribunal — an appeal that received no answer. — See also World War: Diplomatic background: 21; 22; 23; 26; 28. 1914. — Ratification of the convention adopted at the Third Pan-American Conference (1906). — Seventeen participants ratit'ied this convention, the gist of which is as follows: The contracting Powers agree not to have recourse to armed force for the recovery of contract debts. This undertak- ing is, however, not applicable when the debtor state refuses or neglects to reply to an offer of arbi- tration, or after accepting the offer, prevents any compromise from being agreed on, or after the arbitration fails to submit to the award. 1919. — Obligatory general arbitration treaty between Paraguay and Uruguay. See Paraguay: iqig (November). 1919-1920. — Arbitration provisions in the League of Nations.— The nations of the league agree to use arbitration to settle "arbitrable" dis- putes in which diplomacy has failed and while the league council stands as one tribunal it is generally conceded that only extreme cases will come before it, and a temporary arbitral com- mission or The Hague permanent court will be used. The league court for which provision is made in the covenant is in no way intended to take the place of The Hague permanent court of arbitration. According to article 13 of the cove- nant "Disputes as to interpretation of a treaty, as to any question of international law, as to the existence of any fact which, if established, would constitute a breach of any international obligation, or as to the extent and nature of the reparation to be made for any such breach, are declared to be among those which are generally suitable for submission to arbitration." Article 21 reads: "Nothing in this covenant shall be deemed to affect the validity of international engagements, such as treaties of arbitration or re- gional understandings like the Monroe Doctrine, for securing the maintenance of peace." On Dec. 13, 1920, the session of the League of Nations at Geneva adopted the proposal for the establishment of a "permanent court of interna- tional justice." "Before coming into operation, the plan must be ratified by a majority of the members of the League. The court, which is to sit at The Hague, will be composed of eleven judges chosen by the League, but not invested with compulsory jurisdiction. Of the forty na- tions represented, thirty-six favored compulsory jurisdiction, while France, Great Britain, Italy and Japan opposed it. The four great powers carried their point, as the alternative lay be- tween no court at all or a court unendowed with compulsory jurisdiction. The plan to constitute the court had been drafted by an international group of jurists including Elihu Root, and com- pulsory jurisdiction had been attached for the valid reason that such a court would be useless or at least impotent if resort to its mediation were merely voluntary and not obligatory. Owing to the opposition of the 'Big Four,' however, that provision was eliminated, although particular stress was laid on the point that had such a court been in existence in 1914 it would have been powerless to prevent the war, since Austria could have refused to submit her quarrel with Serbia to its adjudication. A proposal to abolish the Hague arbitration court was rejected on the ground that the new court would "render decisions according to the rules and forms of law, and that an institution [as that at The Hague] organ- ized for purely arbitral decisions will still be re- quired." — New York Times, Dec. 14, 1020. — The league council has already proved its value as an arbitral court. On September 17, 1920, Poland and Lithuania invited its good offices as arbitrator and the following day Finland and Sweden re- ferred to it the disputed ownership of the Aland islands (q. v.). "In production, in commerce and in finance, the progress of invention and of world organization has brought about an ever closer com- munity of interest between the nations, and even the countries which have sought to be self-con- tained have been compelled to move with the times and to base their welfare in an ever increas- ing degree upon world production, upon interna- tional trade, and upon world finance. But po- litically, until the present war, the nations have continued to pursue a purely individualistic policy. Even now the policy of cooperation between the various nations for the purpose of making war has been pursued by most of them merely because of the imminent and great danger to which they were exposed until they did cooperate, not because it is the wiser policy in peace as well as in war, but because it is the only policy that can give to the nations security under modern conditions. It is true that some progress was made in this di- rection prior to the war, but when one considers the difficulty then experienced in inducing the nations to take collective action, even about matters upon 411 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL which every one seemed to be agreed in piinciplc, and recollects the really trivial causes of interna- tional friction that were allowed to endanger the world's peace from time to time, one is compelled to realize that politically the nations had lagged far behind their economic, financial and intellectual development. . . . The reasons for the backward- ness of the world from the standpoint of inter- national relations are obvious. For one thing, na- tional matters are usually so much more immedi- ate and more pressing than international prob- lems, and consequently monopolize the attention of politicians and statesmen to the exclusion of mat- ters of more fundamental importance, except in periods of temporary crisis. The second reason is that in the past the number of persons who concerned themselves with international affairs was very limited, that consequently there was not the same amount of constructive criticism devoted to foreign affairs as to other branches of public policy, that the few experts deprecated, and in some measure resented, either public discussion or pub- lic criticism, and that in consequence of lack of information, lack of discussion and lack of criti- cism, the general public was kept almost in com- plete ignorance of world politics. The third rea- son is that hitherto very few statesmen or ex- perts in foreign affairs have realized the com- munity of economic interest in all countries which has been created by the wonderful improvements in the means of communication and of intercourse, and by the introduction of the credit system, all of which have so greatly stimulated and assisted world production and distribution of the necessaries of life." — Sir G. Paish, Permanent league oj nations, pp. 24-28. 1920-1921.— Aland Islands settlement. See Aland Islands; 1920; iq2i. 1921. — Panama and Costa-Rica boundary dis- pute. See Costa-Rica: 1921. 1921. — Vilna award. See Lithuania: 1021 (December). Also in: W. E. Baff, Evolution of peace by ar- bitration {American Law Review, igio, v. 53, pp. 229-268). — R. L. Bridgman, First book of world law. — C. Heath, Pacific settlement of international disputes. — W. H. Blymyer, International arbitra- tion: the isolation plan. — T. Barclay, New' methods of adjusting international disputes and the future (1917). — J. B. Moore, History and digest of the in- ternational arbitrations to which the United States has been a party, together with appendices con- taining the treaties relating to such arbitrations and historical and legal notes on other interna- tional arbitrations (189S). — See also the World Pca^-c Foundation Pamphlet Series, to date, and the Bulletins of the Carnegif Peace Foundation. ARBITRATION, Permanent Court of: List of cases arbitrated. See .Arbitration, Interna- tional: Modern period: 1S98-1899; Hague confer- ences: 1899: Convention for Pacific settlement; Hague Tribunal. ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION, INDUSTRIAL The subject of industrial arbitration and concilia- tion is intimately connected with nearly every phase of the labor question, and the reader is therefore referred to the articles Labor legislation, Labor ORGANIZATION. LaBOR REMUNERATION, and LaBOR strikes and boycotts for much information which supplements and amplifies the material in this article. The interests of the public, of the employer, and of the employee are served by continuity of pro- duction, which depends in large part upon har- monious relations between the management and the workers. Conciliation, whereby a mediator or mediating board, bringing the two sides to- gether or acting as a go-between, effects a com- promise, has often been of service in preserving or renewing that harmony. In many cases, how- ever, dependence has been placed upon arbitra- tion, in which the decision is made by a third party; the process leading to it may be voluntary, or it may follow from investigation required by law, or, in addition to the investigation being com- pulsory, the award may be binding under law. Legislation along these lines has concerned itself chiefly with public utilities. Publicity for the facts has at times accomplished much through the force of aroused public opinion. "In spite of its many obvious advantages the method of arbitralion is not popular either with employers or employed. Employers object to it because it means (hat the method in which they are to carry on their business is decided for them by an outsider who is frequently not sufficiently acquainted with the practical and technical diffi- culties of the industry ; while employees on the other hand object to it because they have found that the arbitrator bases his award upon funda- mental assumptions which they do not accept. Thus, as Mr. and Mrs. Webb point out, arbitration can only be successful when certain main points are agreed upon as common ground between the parties, as for example that a fixed minimum standard of life should be regarded as a first charge upon the industry of the country, or that wages should vary with the selling price of the product. So long as fundamental points and principles of this kind are not agreed on by both sides, arbitration does not stand much chance of satisfying the parties to a dispute; and the real value which an arbitrator performs as a rule in the settlement of disputes is in the work of conciliation. .\n impartial outsider, who is unaffected by any personal feeling in the matter, may do a great deal to bring the parties to a dispute together, and acting as a go-between may thus prevent them from resorting to extreme meas- ures. The real defect of arbitralion as a method of settling trade disputes is that the award is not binding on the parties, and there has consequently been a strong tendency in some quarters in recent years to provide a machinery which would have I he effect of compelling emplo\ers and workmen to submit their disputes for arbitration and to abide by the result." — G. O'Brien, Labour organization (1021), pp. 92-03. — "It will be seen , . . that among the Australasian countries the general ten- dency of legislation is to place a limitation, and with practically one exception, a prohibition upon the right to strike upon railway and practically all other classes of industrial workers. Complete ma- chinery, however, has been provided for the settle- ment of controversies. Another group of countries, on the other hand, such as Canada, the Transvaal, Spain, and Portugal, have not denied employees the right to strike, but have made the exercise of this right contingent upon certain conditions — a notification to the Government of the intention to strike or after a governmental investigation and report. In the case of other countries, as Rou- 412 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL mania, the right of railway workers or other pub- lic-utility employees to strike is absolutely prohib- ited, and no machinery is provided for ventilating grievances. Belgium and Holland also prohibit strikes but have devised methods for employees to take up grievances or requests with railroad man- agers. Strikes are not formally prohibited in Ger- many or Austria among railway workers, but are practically prevented by the control of the au- thorities over the trade-union affiliations of em- ployees. In Germany, however, administrative machinery has been provided through which trans- portation workers may have a vent for their griev- ances. Strikes are not prohibited by formal legis- lative enactment on French railways, but are prac- tically impossible, because of the policy of the Gov- ernment in calling employees to the colors and placing them under military orders in the event of a strike. Italy depends upon the same policy to prevent industrial conflict on her railways. In Great Britain and the United States there is no abridgement of the right to strike. Both countries have provided official machinery for the adjustment of wage and other difficulties between the railroads and their operating forces." — American Labor Year Book, 1917-1918, p. 145. AUSTRALIA 1891-1912. — Early legislation in Australian states. — Federal legislation. — Commonwealth court established by the Act of 1904. — The first Australian states to pass arbitration statutes were Victoria and New South Wales, whose laws were promulgated in 1801. South Australia followed in 1894, West Austrial in 1900. "By the act of 1891, Victoria provided for the voluntary arbi- tration of collective disputes somewhat after the system of the English councils of conciliation act of 1867, except that the latter applied only to individual disputes and enforced arbitration. . . . In 1896, wages boards were introduced in Vic- toria. . . . These might be appointed on applica- tion of either party. A court of appeal, consist- ing of a supreme judge, had power under the act to review the determination of boards, and asses- sors might be appointed to assist the judge. The act fixed an absolute minimum wage. While it was originally designed to guarantee a minimum wage, it has gradually grown to be used more for the purpose of conciliation. . . . New South Wales passed its trade dispute conciliation and ar- bitration act after the great strike of 1891. . . The act was passed to continue four years but it was a complete failure, only two of the sixteen cases referred having been settled during the first year of the operation of the act. ... A compul- sory arbitration law, following somewhat the out- lines of the New Zealand act but which did not provide for conciliation, was passed in looi. . . . The law was superseded by the industrial disputes act of 1008 . . . (which was in turnl superseded by the industrial arbitration act of 1012. This act created a court of industrial arbitration con- sisting of a Supreme Court judge and district court judge or barrister of five years' standing, appointed by the governor, also an additional judge and a deputy judge. Boards under the old act Tof 1908I were dissolved. Twenty-seven industries were scheduled for which industrial boards were ap- pointed on recommendation of the court by the minister of the Crown. . . . These boards have conciliatory powers. Special committees for con- ciliation are provided for metal and coal miners when more than five hundred are involved and a special commissionei, appointed by the minister of the Crown, is charged with wide powers to bring about settlements in cases not covered by the act. Lockouts and strikes are punishable by heavy penalties, and heavy penalties are also pre- scribed for breaches of awards and other offenses. Boards have power to declare 'that preference of employment shall be given to any industrial union of employees over other persons offering their labor at the same time, other things being equal.' Declarations of preference may be suspended if employees engage in strikes. About seventy-five trades registered under the 1Q08 act. Twenty-four trades, including sixty-two per cent, of the em- ployees, had come under the jurisdiction of the wages boards by 1911. In 1912, the court of ar- bitration had made awards in one hundred thirty cases, each affecting many other disputes. New South Wales provided for the legal incorporation of trade unions, under prescribed conditions, and imposed legal responsibilities for the care of trade union funds in 1912. South Australia provided for the registration of trade unions and employ- ers' associations, industrial agreements and boards of conciliation, both public and private, in the act of 1894. Awards under the act were compul- sory and it was an offense for a registered or- ganization to engage in a strike or lockout. It was necessary for employers or employees to come under the act, and as late as 1905 it was pro- nounced a complete failure for the reason that neither employers nor work people chose to ac- cept what it offered them. South AustraUa adopted a wages board system in 1908 and one hundred thirty-nine boards had been created by the middle of 1010. They had decided ninety cases. Queensland has the wages board system. Western Australia passed an act modeled after the New Zealand law in 1900 but this act w«s replaced by another in IQ02. ... In 1Q04, the Australian Par- liament passed the commonwealth conciUation and arbitration act, which provided a system of com- pulsory arbitration similar to that in New Zealand for all interstate labor disputes. The common- wealth court was given power to employ the usual methods of conciliation, and failing in that, to make an equitable award binding on all parties. Strikes and lockouts were subjected to a penalty of four thousand eight hundred sixty dollars. Breaches of the court's award were subject to a penalty of four thousand eight hundred sixty dol- lars iri ca.se of the employer and forty-eight dol- lars and sixty cents in case of an individual em- ployee. The power to fix a minimum wage was lodged in the commonwealth court, also the right to deprive those failing to observe an award of all rights and* privileges under the act. One case arose under the act of 1Q04 during the first five years of -its existence involving four thousand men in a New South Wales mine. It resulted in a victory for the men. The decision, however, was severely criticized by the employers and not wholly satisfactory to the men. This act was amended in 1000, 1910 and 19". The amendments of iQoo prevented employers from discharging em- ployees about to be registered under the act." — C. H. Mote, Indmtrial arbitration, pp. 154-163. 1913-1917. — Success of the couirt in preventing strikes.— "The Commonwealth Court of Arbitra- tion has not had to deal with many disputes. Dur- ing the vears loi.vioi? • • • 'f'^ number .settled under this Court amounted to only twenty, but these disputes, covering, as they did, employees in two or more states of Australia, affected large in- terests and many persons The subjects in dispute comprised practically all conditions of the industry. 4T.3 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL Thus, a claim made by the employees of the meat industry in Victoria and South Australia included regulation of rates of pay, hours of labor, holidays, terms and conditions of employment, and prefer- ence to unionists. The heanup of this claim occu- pied the attention of the Court for forty-two court days. There were 1,2:5 respondents in the case, and the printed award covers sixty pages. The award was preceded by a lengthy judgment in which the President of the Court entered into a full discussion of wages, prices, piece and time rates of wages, the effect of wages upon prices, budgets of income, questions of skill and effic-.ency, waiting time, hours and wages in small shops and appren- ticeship. In short, the Commonwealth Court of Arbitration is significant, less for the number of disputes it handles than for their size and impor- tance, and for its success in preventing strikes. No investigation is entered upon by its President till work has been resumed, and only once has the decision of the Court been followed by a strike." — Arbitration and wage-fixing in Australia (Rfseardi report No. 10. Oct., 1Q18, pp. 37-38.) 1915. — Arbitration in New South Wales coal strike. See L.abok strikes .\nd boycotts: 1015 1917-1918. — Act of 1918. — "The war introduced political elements that were reflected in the state's industrial history. The question of conscription dis- rupted the Labor party and threw it out of office. Its experienced leaders were expelled. Extremists gained control, both of the unions and the Labor political organization, and in .\ugust, 1017. precip- itated a trial of strength with organized govern- ment. The employees of the state-owned railways of New South Wales struck against a method adopted by the Railway Commissioners to obtain a better accounting system in their workshops. The unions issued an ultimatum demanding the with- drawal of the method, .^s all the employees were servants of the state, the Government of New South Wales, like the Government of France in 1910, joined issue on the question of control of public services. A sympathetic strike involved ulti- mately 76,000 persons, with a loss in wages esti- mated at £1,700,000 (approximately ?S,5oo,ooo). .\s the matter was one of principle, no measures of conciliation were attempted till the strikers seemed beaten. Aften ten weeks matters were adjusted. The penal provisions of the ."Vet were set in motion against striking unions. The result was such altered conditions of industrial organization as to demand important amendments to the Act. In February, 1Q18, Mr. G. S. Beeby, author of the Act of igi2, introduced an amending bill which, after many alterations in the legislative process, became law on March 22, igi8. This measure is the most sig- nificant worked out in the Australian laboratory of social experimentation. Its chief provisions relate to the distinction made between legal and illegal strikes, the conditions under which strikes may be legal, more extended machinery for conciliation, and provisions for a more scientific calculation of the minimum and living wage. This historical sum- mary shows that without any alteration in princi- ple, arbitration in New South Wales has increased in complexity and extended in scope. The process through which it has passed has been one of ex- periment and amendment. From the very begin- ning it has had the definite aim of fixing a living wage and thereby minimizing industrial conflict. But in the process there has been a change of atti- tude toward strikes. It must be remembered that arbitration is an alternative to the strike as a method of industrial agreement, \ svstem of arbi- tration, therefore, calls for measures to reduce or prevent strikes. From 1901 to 1910 the adminis- 414 trative policy was definitely to penalize striking by characterizing it as a misdemeanor, punishable with line and imprisonment. From igic onwards a large measure of conciliation was added to the arbitration machinery, and striking was made 'an extravagant proceeding,' which might involve the offender in penalties and the attachment of his wages. In igiS a more definite and extended sys- tem of conciliation was adopted, to minimize the number of trivial and resultless strikes, which in- volved little that could be subjected to arbitration. .\t the same time a distinction was made between legal and illegal strikes. Strikes are declared illegal in any industry under governmtnt or municipal control, or under an industrial award or agreement, or in case fourteen clear days notice had not been given of the intention to strike. Illegal strikes arc to be heavily penalized, penalties are specified against the union, the individual strikers, and any one encouraging them by word or act. A union may, however, strike legally, but only after at least twelve months trial of an award; further, a secret ballot, in which two-thirds of its members lake part must be held in all cases. The .^ct of 1018, therefore, while recognizing the right to strike under certain conditions, nevertheless sharply limits that right and lays far greater stress on the prin- ciple of arbitration." — Ibid., pp. 20-21. .Also in: H. B. Higgins, New province for law and order (3 articles), {Harvard Law Review, No- vember, igis; January, igig; December, 1920). BELGIUM 1917-1918. — "Trade unions of employees of pub- lic utilities are permitted under Government super- vision. Employees may present grievances or re- quests to the minister of railways, posts and tele- graph through official channels. Strikes and lock- outs prohibited on railroads and in all forms of th,- public service (railway, postal, telegraph, and tele- phone service, all of which are under state control) . . . . There has been no serious strike on Belgian railroads since their establishment. This is due to the fact that positions on the railways are much sought after because of stability of employment, pensions, and on account of the prestige of being in the Government service." — .American Labor Year Book, igi7-igiS, pp. i3g-i40. CANADA 1900-1918. — Industrial Disputes Investigation Act. — Its predecessors. — Its successes. — Opposi- tion to it. — "The Canadian Industrial Disputes Investigation Act of 1907 is an outgrowth from, and the result of experience under, earlier legisla- tion. Two such earlier laws are of particular im- portance. One of these, the Conciliation Act of I goo, followed in a general way certain usages long in operation, first as custom, and later as law, in the coal-mining districts of England. That -Act created a Department of Labour and provided a machinery for mediation or arbitration, but its use was left to voluntary action of the parties to a dispute. This .Act had been supplemented to some extent by the Railway Disputes .Act of 1003, which gave to the Minister of Labour a limited power of compulsion with respect to establishment of conciliation boards in labor disputes between railroad companies and their employees. Where such a dispute arose, a Board of Conciliation could be appointed by the Minister of Labour on the request of either of the parties, without consent of the other. These two Acts were consolidated, ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL forming the Conciliation and Labour Act of 1906, and are still [igiS] operative. In igo6 a bitter and prolonged strike closed the coal mines of Leth- bridge, Alberta. The Deputy Minister of Labour, Hon. W. L. Mackenzie King, succeeded in bringing about a settlement, but not until much public hardship had developed. The failure of the exist- ing Conciliation Act to prevent this strike revealed the need of further legislation, and the Industrial Disputes Investigation Act of 1907 was a direct result of the sentiment thus aroused. The Cana- dian Industrial Disputes Investigation Act of 1907 applies specifically only to transportation com- panies, other public utilities and mines, but may also be invoked for settlement of disputes in other industries on application of both parties to a dis- pute, that is, by mutual consent. Since the be- ginning of the war, industries supplying war ma- terials have been brought under the action of the provisions previously applying only to transporta- tion companies, other public utilities and mines. On application in due form by either party, the Minister of Labour appoints a Board of Reference consisting of one nominee of each party and a chairman selected by the two. No person having a direct pecuniary interest in the dispute may be appointed. To prevent a deadlock, in case all other provisions of the Act governing applications for a Board have been complied with, but where either or both of the parties fail to agree on nomi- nations, the Minister of Labour may both select and appoint a Board. The Board fully investigates the dispute and no strike or lockout may legally occur before or during such investigation. Boards are given power to summon witnesses, administer oaths, and to compel witnesses to testify and pro- duce books and other evidence in the same manner as courts of record in civil cases. If settlement of a dispute is reached by the parties during the course of its reference to a Board, a brief memo- randum drawn up by the Board and signed by the parties is filed with the Minister of Labour. If settlement is not arrived at during the refer- ence, the Board is required to make a full written report to the Minister of Labour, setting forth the details of its investigation and its recommendation for settlement of the dispute. The report is filed in the office of the Registrar and copies are sent free of charge to the parties and to any news- papers in Canada which apply for them. The Minister may also distribute copies in such manner as he considers desirable, as a means of securing compliance with the Board's recommendation. In addition to this, for the information of Parliament and the public, a copy of the report must be pub- lished without delay in the Labour Gazette, and be included in the annual report of the Depart- ment of Labour to the Governor General. It can- not be too strongly emphasized that the Act of 1907 is not a compulsory arbitration law. While the Act undertook to carry the element of compul- sion a step further, it did not alter the principle of voluntary adjustment on which the old law was founded. In pursuit of this aim, and to avoid difficulties involved in compulsory arbitration, the machinery was changed to consist of Boards of Conciliation and Investigation and, although it was the duty of these Boards to do all in their power to affect conciliations, and to offer recommenda- tions of settlement, compulsijn was restricted to their investigatory function. Compliance with the recommendations of the Reference Boards is op- tional ; the weight of public opinion is relied on to make settlements effective. . . . The only provision giving mandatoi-y power to the finding of a Board is that if, at any time before or after a Board has made its report and recommendation, both parties to the dispute agree in writing to be bound by the recommendation of the Board in the same manner as parties are bound in the case of a ref- erence to arbitration on the order of a court of record, the recommendation shall be made a rule of the court on application of either party, and shall be enforceable in like manner. Canadian courts, however, have hesitated to regard such an agreement as constituting a rule of court. . . . The commonly accepted statement that the Act was based on Australian labor legislation is historically incorrect, and tends to give a mistaken conception of the nature of the Act. Indeed, this statement has not been without influence in the development of a hostile attitude toward the Canadian Act, which, unlike the Australian legislation, as far as possible avoids compulsion, and instead is frankly based on an appeal to the power of public opinion. . . . The Minister of Labour, who is responsible for the administration of the Act, thus far has taken the stand that the penalty provided for strikes or lockouts prior to investigations will be imposed only where prosecution is initiated by one or the other of the disputants, and although there have been many 'illegal' strikes since the Act became effective, the penally seldom has been im- posed. This fact has led to the rather hasty as- sumption in the United States that the compul- sory feature is a failure in Canada. . . . While this is to some extent true, it fails correctly to reflect the spirit and intention of the Canadian Act, which should be interpreted in the light of its original purpose. Hon. W. L. Mackenzie King has said: 'The Government has never laid particular stress on the penalty end of it. The penalty part . . . has always been treated much in the same light as penalty for trespass.' ... A procedure which ap- pears to be responsible for much of the opposition to the Act on the part of organized labor in Can- ada is the use made of the discretion which it al- lows to the Minister of Labour to grant or refuse Boards of Investigation. Boards have been refused in a number of cases where the workers felt that they had a real grievance. Thus, in strikes involv- ing several employers or several unions where these employers or unions could not agree on a single representative, the Minister of Labour has de- clined to appoint a Board. A strike involving many companies is regarded by the Minister of Labour as a separate dispute for each company and, where the various interests agree on a single nomination, although one Board is appointed to investigate the whole trouble, it is legally consid- ered that there are as many separate Boards as there are independent employers. . . . The opera- tion of the Act has shown that the opinion of the chairman usually controls the finding of the Board. This arises naturally from the fact that employers and employees each select a representative favor- able to their respective cause, and it has gradually come to pass that, in almost all cases, these two members of the Board disagree and' the decision rests with the chairman. It has even been sug- gested on this account that, in the case of im- portant disputes involving large public issues, the position of the chairman be strengthened by ap- pointment by the Minister of Labour of three out- side representatives. It is believed that decisions of a Board so constituted would inspire greater public confidence. . . . The operation of the Act has further developed the fact that Boards are most successful when least formal, and particularly when least legalistic in their attitude and proce- dure. Boards of which prominent jurists have been chairmen have notably failed. The difficulty of 415 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL securing acceptable chairmen is very great. . . . Yet another source of difficulty arising through the operation of the Act and not directly from its pro- visions, but apparently contrary to them, is the delay which may occur in the appointment of a Board. . . . For the nine-year period endin? March 31, 1Q16, igi applications for Boards have been made, and i6q have been established. Of this number only 60 were established within the 15 days. In 14 cases, between 46 and 61 days elapsed between the application and the establishment of the Board; in 21 cases, between 31 and 46 days; in 66 cases, between 16 and 31 days. . . . The Act also states that employers or employees shall give at least thirty days' notice of an intended change affecting conditions of employment with respect to wages or hours, and provides a penalty for disregard of this provision. ... In spite of this provision no complaint among workmen is more common than that wages and hours are changed without notice, and are followed by de- lays in appointment of Boards. ... In the first year of the operation of the Act only three appli- cations for Boards were refused, in the second year two, in the third year one, in the fourth year five, in the fifth year five. ... In the fourth and fifth years there were four failures each year to avert or end a strike after a Board had been ap- pointed. ... In 889<' of the disputes referred to Boards, strikes or lockouts were averted or ended. If the number of applications refused is added to the number of cases in which strikes or lockouts were not prevented, as also indicating failure on the part of the Act to meet the situation, the per- centage of successful conciliations is reduced to 78%. . . . For the first two years of the operation of the Act but little opposition appeared; but from that time to the present, hostility among organ- ized labor unions has steadily increased. This op- position is most outspoken on the part of the in- ternational labor organizations. . . . The rank and file of Canadian labor express little opposition to the principles of the Act, although some modifica- tions are desired; the official attitude of the in- ternational labor organizations in Canada, how- ever, is increasingly hostile. ... It is difficult to escape the conclusion that, whether or not the penalties of the Act are enforceable against work- ers, the very existence of the Act and the manner of its administration is felt by them to hamper the operations of the union, and particularly to limit use of the strike to enforce demands. This conclu- sion is strengthened by the fact that, of the recom- mendations of Boards since the enactment of the Act, Q0% favored the employees and granted a major part of their demands. Also, more than qo% of the Boards have been instituted on ap- plication of employees. It is not, therefore, dis- satisfaction in general with the recommendations of the Boards that can account for organized labor's opposition. This must arise from the gen- eral ojieration of the Act and the effect of its con- tinued existence on the statute books, which de- prives striking employees who have not applied for a Board of Investigation, of the moral support of the community. But perhaps the fundamental reason for this opposition, not to speak of possible antipathy to certain officials, is the fact that the settlement of disputes apart from the manipula- tion of the union leaders, tends to weaken their hold on the rank and file, and their relative im- portance in gaining concessions for their followers." — National Industrial Conference Board, Canadian Industrial Disputes Investigation Act (Research report No. 5, pp. 3-6, 8-q, 11-14, 16, 17, 18, 19-20. DENMARK 1910-1918. — By a law passed in loio provision is made for the appointment of a permanent arbitra- tion court of six members selected from organiza- tion of employers and employees with a president and vice-president with qualifications of an ordi- nary judge. It is the duty of this court to make the parties to a dispute respect any agreement be- tween them. A government conciliator is appointed for two years. Whenever a strike or lockout is im- pending (public notice being compulsory) it is his duty to intervene and attempt to effect a settle- ment. Strikes or lockouts are prohibited in cases where court awards or trade agreements are broken. In cases where no trade agreements exist, a strike is legal, but public notice must be given before it is started." — American Labor Year Book, 1917-1918, pp. 140-141. FRANCE 1806-1909. — Conseils des prud'hommes. — Arbi- tration council.— "Industrial arbitration and con- ciliation in France dates practically from the crea- tion of the councils of experts {Conseils des Prud'- hommes) by Napoleon I in 1806, after his return from Elba. These councils were the successors to the ancient corporative tribunals which had held certain jurisdiction in the silk trade and which were swept away when the trade guilds were abol- ished in 1791. . . . Inhabitants of Lyons, center of the silk industry, had been loyal to the first Na- poleon and feted him on his return. Incidentally, they took diplomatic adventage of his good feeling toward them in 1806 to ask the restoration of the corporative tribunals. The councils of experts were created in response to this request. The councils of experts originally were composed of five employers and four foremen, while the guild tribunal was composed entirely of manufacturers. The councils of experts were established to settle minor difficulties by conciliation, or, in the failure of conciliation, to adjudicate formally any matter involving less than sixty francs. The bureau of conciliation, composed of one manufacturer and one foreman, met once a day while the general bureau of arbitration met once a week to decide cases in which the bureau of conciliation had failed. By 1804, fourteen French towns had es- tablished councils of experts. In 1S94, there were one hundred seventeen councils in France." — C. H. Mote, Industrial arbitration, pp. 87-88. — "The Conseils des prud'hommes . . . assumed jurisdiction of individual disputes only. It was not until the enactment of the conciliation and arbitration law of 1802 that legal machinery was created for the settlement of collective disputes. Under the act of 1802, the initiative may be taken by the parties themselves, or, in the ca.se of actual strikes or lockouts, the initiative may be taken by a justice of the peace. Both parties may apply jointly for conciliation, or, if only one applies, it is the duty of the justice of the peace to notify the opposite party, who must reply within three days. In the application for, or acceptance of conciliation, each party must name five persons to act as its representatives in conciliation. If neither party applies for concilia- tion, it is the duty of the justice of the peace to request the parties to notify him of their willing- ness or refusal to accept conciliation or arbitra- tion. The justice of the peace is ex-officio chair- man of the conciliation committee. Conciliation failing, the justice of the peace must endeavor to 16 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL obtain arbitration, each side to name an arbitrator or both to agree on a common arbitrator. If ar- bitrators can not agree, they may name an umpire, and if they are unable to agree upon an umpire, he is named by the president of the local tribunal. Decisions must be in writing and the expenses of hearings are borne by the Communes. Every feature of the act is voluntary. Reports of con- ciliat'on committees, arbitration boards and re- quests for and refusal of conciliation or arbitration arc to be made public." — Ibid., pp. loo-ioi. — By an act of July 22, igoq, a permanent arbitration council was created by the French government with a view to investigating disputes between ship- ping companies and their crews. The council has headquarters in Paris. The council consists of three members appointed for three years by decree drawn up on the proposal of the keeper of seals, minister of justice, and selected from among the ordinary state councilors, also from the council- ors of the Court of Cassation; also arbitrators se- lected for three years by the employers, who shall be present to the number of five at each arbitra- tion ; also arbitrators elected for three years by the employees, who shall be present to the num- ber of five at each arbitration. The three mem- bers from the State Council and Court of Cassa- tion elect a president and vice-president and con- stitute the central section of the Permanent Arbi- tration Council. In each maritime district, the ship owners elect five regular and five deputy ar- bitrators. Each of four specified classes of em- ployees in each maritime district elects five regular and five deputy arbitrators. In detail the act sets out how the council is made up for the settlement of a collective dispute. The central section is al- ways present. Detailed provisions are also set out for the election of arbitrators and deputy arbitra- tors every three years. When a collective dispute arises, the parties may submit their controversy to the Director of the Seamen's Register, or he may take the initiative in an endeavor to concili- ate the parties. Upon the failure of conciliation, there is a roundabout process by which the ser- vices of the arbitration council are offered the parties. If they refuse arbitration, a certificate to that effect is entered by the central section of the council. If the parties agree to arbitration, the court is convened. It has full power of in- vestigation, hearing and of giving judgment, al- though it does not appear that either party is bound by the judgment. The judgment is pub- lished. The public is not admitted to the council meetings." — Ibid., pp. 112-113. GERMANY 1890-1908. — Industrial courts. — "An act of 1890, regulating industrial courts, was the first [German] legislation recognizing the principle of collective disputes and providing for collective bargaining. These courts were empowered to act as concilia- tion bureaus in disputes concerning the 'terms of continuation or renewal of the labor contract,' but only on condition that both parties requested ac- tion, and, if they numbered more than three, ap- pointed delegates to the hearing. Conciliation bureaus consisted of the president of the court and at least four members, two employers and two workmen, but there might be added, and it was compulsory when the delegates so requested, rep- resentatives in equal number of employers and employees. Representatives and miembers of the bureau could not act if concerned in the dispute. The bureau could hear and examine witnesses under the act but could not compel their attendance. After hearing, each side was required to formulate its opinions of the allegations of the other side, whereupon an effort at conciliation was to be made. Failing in this, a decision followed and the dele- gates were required to declare within a specified time their acceptance or rejection of the award. At the expiration of this time the decision was published. In some cases, the president of these courts intervened informally with conspicuous suc- cess, but in three years, i8gg, 1900 and 1901, there were nearly four thousand strikes, one hundred thirty-two only having been settled by the in- dustrial courts. The German law of 1890 was quite successful in the settlement of individual disputes but not successful in the settlement of collective disputes. The act of iqoi took the ap- pointment of arbitrators out of the hands of the president and lodged it with the parties concerned in a controversy. Not only regular assessors of the court may be chosen but any other persons in whom the parties have confidence. The new act made the appearance of parties to a dispute com- pulsory in the event one or both parties call upon the court to act as a board of arbitration. When both parties ask for arbitration, the court is con- stituted as a formal board of arbitration. If only one side applies, it is the president's duty to at- tempt to obtain the cooperation of the other party. If successful, the board is constituted for the pur- pose of conciliation. If neither party applies for arbitration, it is the president's duty to urge the arbitration of the controversy. This provision per- mits the court to intervene with a view to settling threatened strikes and lockouts. There is nothing novel in the proceedings before an industrial court sitting as a board of arbitration. Failure to ap- pear before the court in answer to a summons of the president is punishable by a fine. Decisions are given by a majority but the president may ab- stain from voting if there is a tie. The acceptance of the decision is not compulsory and a failure to declare whether the decision is accepted is con- strued as a refusal. An award is binding, however, if both parties have previously agreed to such an award. The Berlin court, between 1902 and iqo8, was appealed to by both sides in one hundred sixty-four cases and by one side in sixty instances. Most of the applications from one side are from the workers. Out of one hundred forty applica- tions for arbitration in the empire in 1908, one hundred thirty-four were from workmen while only six came from the employers. Out of one thousand two hundred sixty disputes submitted by both parties in the empire between 1902 and 1908, nine hundred eight were settled cither by agreement or awards acceptable to both parties. In seventy-six cases the board failed to reach a decision. Mercantile courts for the settlement of disputes between merchants and their employees were established in 1904. For the settlement of individual disputes, the German industrial courts are composed of at least four assessors and a presi- dent and vice-president. The latter must belong to neither side of the controversy. . . . Industrial courts operate not only for the conciliation or legal decision of individual disputes and the concilia- tion and arbitration of collective disputes, but for the guidance of public opinion and of public officials and legislative bodies in matters where expert advice is needed. The jurisdiction of in- dustrial courts in individual disputes is limited by the arbitration courts of the guilds, organized quite like the industrial courts, or by legal statute, but generally extending over all industrial occupa- tions Special courts exist for special industries: 417 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL Even after a court is organized for hearing in an individual dispute or a collective dispute, it is charged with the duty of attempting conciliation at any time before a decision is given, if concilia- tion seems feasible. Hearings generally are public, though they may be private. The decisions of the court in individual disputes are determined by a majority vote." — Ibid., pp. 73-77. 1915-1919. — Creation of a labor department. — "By an imperial decree of October 4, loiS, pub- lished in the Beichsgesetzblatt, matters relating to social policy administered hitherto by the Imperial Economic Office {Beichswirtschajtiamt) , are hence- forth to be within the province of a special central authority, entitled the Imperial Labor Department (Beichsarbeitsamt) . The decree orders the impe- rial chancellor to arrange for the transfer of func- tions and officials from the Imperial Economic Of- fice to the new department. . . . "Two tasks confront organized labor at the pres- ent time: .A chamber of labor law corresponding to their demands and the statutory regulation of employment exchanges in agreement with the pro- posals unanimously adopted by the Reichstag in the spring of 1015, but hitherto neglected. A con- ference of the combined associations of workmen, minor oflicials, and salaried employees had been called for the end of October, but it has been abandoned, as it is expected that the new labor de- partment will itself submit legislative proposals satisfactjjry to the wage workers. A third task is the reform of the right of coalition; with this is connected the giving of a legal status to collective agreements and the extension of the conciliation principle to an imperial conciliation office " — Labor bureau (Labor Review, January, loio). GREAT BRITAIN 1562-1896. — Preliminary legislation. — "Provi- sions for the settlement of individual disputes be- tween master and workmen were common in English laws as far back as the middle of the six- teenth century. Beginning with the Statute of .Apprentices in 1562 and ending with a special act of Parliament in 1747, these laws simply referred all disputes between employer and employee to the local magistrate for adjudication. Reference of disputes was compulsory on the request of either party and decisions likewise were binding upon both parties and enforceable by proceedings of dis- tress and sale or imprisonment. . . . With the rise of the industrial state and especially the cotton in- dustry in England, disputes between employer and employee multiplied. . . . The local magis- trates were notoriously under the influence of the employers, and justice was arbitrarily distorted to the prejudice of the working classes. A jus- tice of the peace was wholly unfit to act as media- tor between employer and employee, because he was always a party in interest. ... In the midst of England's industrial revolution the English Par- liament passed a series of four acts, in 1800, 1803, 1805 and 1813 applying to England, Scotland and Ireland, and designed to regulate the relations be- tween master and workmen A notable departure from the earlier forms of this legislation was made. Substantially the acts provided for the appoint- ment of two arbitrators, one by the employers and one by the employees, from nominations made by the local justice of the peace. These laws ap- plied only to the cotton trade Like the former acts they made reference of disputes compulsory and decisions binding. The act of 1824, which consolidated the three acts then in force, extended the operation of the principle of concihation and arbitration, as defined by law, to all trades. To insure the maintenance of the freedom of contract between employer and employee, first secured by the repeal of the Statute of .Apprentices in 1814, mutual consent of master and workmen was made necessary as a condition precedent to the fixing by local magistrates of rate of wages or price of labor or workmanship. This clause abolished the compulsory features of earlier legislation on the subject and is noteworthy only for this reason. The consolidation act of 1824 remained in force until i8q6. . . . The act of 1824 was amended in 1S37 to provide for compulsory arbitration be- tween employers and workmen, upon the appli- cation of either party. The local magistrate was empowered to nominate four or six arbitrators, half workmen and half masters. In the event of the arbitrators' failure to agree, it was provided that the case should be referred to the appointing magistrate. Subjects for arbitration included price for work done, hours of labor, injury or damage to work, delay in completing work or bad ma- terial. The act provided that in emergencies, the justice of the peace might grant a summary hear- ing. Mutual consent was a condition precedent to the fixing of future rates of wages and standards of workmanship. The awards of the boards could be enforced by distress or imprisonment. This act was intended mainly for the textile industries. The council of conciliation act, drawn from the French system, was passed in 1867. It made it possible for any number of employers and workmen to agree to create a council of conciliation and arbitration and receive a license from the government with all the powers of the boards under the act of 1824. Fixing wages was expressly forbidden. Disputes, before reaching the council, must have been re- ferred first to the 'committee on conciliation,' con- sisting of one master and one workman. .Although this act remained in force until i8q6, it was never more than a dead letter, no application for license ever having been made under it. The only definite answer offered in explanation of the failure of this act, according to Leonard W. Hatch, in referring to the later debates in Parliament, is that the act was too inelastic, laying down too many hard and fast rules as to the constitution and procedure of the councils, so that no latitude was left to em- ployers and workmen who might desire to form them. The act provided for little more than conciliation committees for collective disputes. But this feature of the act is noteworthy for the reason that it is the first instance of legal recog- nition in England of collective disputes and con- sequently of collective bargaining between em- ployer and employee. Councils were empowered to take cognizance of disputes involving one or more workmen. In 1872 Parliament passed the masters and workmen act. It provided that mas- ters and workmen might contract as to terms of employment and bind both parties to submit their disputes to arbitration. It. however, offered no in- ducement to the parties to enter into contracts and permitted either party to withdraw from such contracts after a brief notice to the other party .Although penalties could be provided for under the contracts, no provision was made to enforce them. This act was in force until 1806, but no practical results ever came of it. Private boards of concili- ation were established in England as early as 1856, and private voluntary boards were common in England at the time of the passage of the council of conciliation act in 1867 Trade boards of con- ciliation and arbitration, made up of an equal number each of employers and workmen, were :l8 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL quite successful in averting trouble in the iron and steel industry in England. Joint committees of conciliation and arbitration similar to the trade boards but with less machinery and jurisdiction in particular establishments also made notable progress toward friendly relations between em- ployer and employee. District boards of concilia- tion and arbitration had general jurisdiction over a variety of employments. The first permanent and successful board of conciliation was organized in iSoo in the hosiery and glass trade at Notting- ham, England, by A. J. Mundella. Modern con- ciliation and arbitration in England dates from the dock laborers' strike in iS8q. The movement for industrial peace following that strike was begun by Sir Samuel Boulton." — C. H. Mote, Indtts- trial arbitration, pp. 23-25, 32, 34-38. 1850. — Rate war of railroads in England. — Gladstone's arbitration. — Octuple agreement. See Railroads: 1759-18S1. 1889-1920. — Modern legislation. — "The Arbi- bilration Act [of] i88q is not to apply to the set- tlement by arbitration of such differences or dis- putes, but the proceedings are to be conducted in accordance with such of the provisions of that Act, or such of the regulations of any Conciliation Board, or under such other rules and regulations, as may be mutually agreed upon by the parties to the difference or dispute. The Act contains a fur- ther provision (sect. 4) enabling the Board of Trade (now the Minister of Labour), if it appears to it that in any district or trade adequate means do not exist for having disputes submitted to a Con- ciliation Board for the district or trade, to ap- point any person or persons to inquire into the conditions of the district or trade, and to confer with employers and employed, and if the Board of Trade (now the Minister of Labour) thinks iit, with any local authority or body, as to the expediency of establishing a Conciliation Board for the district or trade. These are the main provisions of the Act, and it will be seen that they furnish the means of (i) conciliation, (2) ar- bitration on the application of the parties to the dispute, and (3) without any application by them, inquiry into the causes and circumstances of a dif- ference. The Act was supplemented, however, on the ist September, iqo8, by certain very impor- tant administrative provisions. These had no statu- tory force or authority, but they came into prac- tical operation, having continued since, and their principle was embodied in the Munitions of War Act, lOiS, and the subsequent legislation, as will be seen presently. The Conciliation Act, i8q6, only provided for one arbitration tribunal, that is to say, 'an arbitrator.' The administrative pro- vision added a Court of Arbitration composed of representatives of employers and workers re- spectively, chosen from panels, with an indepen- dent Chairman, also taken from a panel. The administrative provisions were in the form of a Memorandum, communicated to Chambers of Com- merce and Employers' and Workmen's .Associations, and were published in the Board of Trade Labour Gazette for September, iqcS. The Memorandum was as follows: '(t) Under the Conciliation Act of 1806 the Board of Trade has power to appoint a Conciliator in trade disputes and an .Arbitrator at the request of both parties. These slender means of intervention have been employed in cases where opportunity has offered, and the work of the Department in this sphere has considerably in- creased of recent years. In igo; the Board of Trade intervened in 14 disputes and settled them all; in 1Q06 they intervened in 20 cases and settled 16; in TQcy they intervened in 39 cases and settled 32 ; while during the first eight months of the present year [1908] no fewer than 47 cases of in- tervention have occurred, of which 35 have been already settled, while some of the remainder are still being dealt with. (2) It is not proposed to curtail or replace any of the existing functions or practices under the Conciliation Act, nor in any respect to depart from its voluntary and per- missive character. The good offices of the De- partment will still be available to all in industrial circles for the settlement of disputes whenever opportunity otfers; single Arbitrators and Concilia- tors will still be undertaken in special cases, and no element of compulsion will enter into any of these proceedings. But the time has now arrived when the scale of these operations deserves, and indeed requires, the creation of some more formal and permanent machinery ; and, with a view to consolidating, expanding and popularising the working of the Conciliation Act, I propose to set up a Standing Court of Arbitration. (3) The Court, which will sit wherever required, will be composed of three (or five) members, according to the wishes Of the parties, with fees and ex- penses to members of the Court, and to the Chair- man during sittings. The Court will be nominated by the Board of Trade from three panels. The first panel — of chairmen — will comprise persons of eminence and impartiality. The second will be formed of persons who, while pre- serving an impartial mind in regard to the particu- lar dispute, are nevertheless drawn from the "em- ployer class." The third panel will be formed of persons similarly drawn from the class of work- men and Trade Unionists. . . . Lastly, in order that the peculiar conditions of any trade may be fully explained to the Court, technical assessors may be appointed by the Board of Trade at the request of the Court or of the parties to assist in the deliberations, but without any right to vote. (4) The state of public opinion upon the general question of Arbitration in Trade Disputes may be very conveniently tested by such a voluntary ar- rangement. Careful inquiry through various chan- nels open to the Board of Trade justifies the ex- pectation that the plan would not be unwelcome in industrial circles. The Court will only be called into being if, and in proportion as, it is actually wanted. No fresh legislation is necessary. (5) Steps will now be taken to form the respective panels.' "The Munitions of War Act, iqi5, in providing for the compulsory settlement of differences as to rates of wages, hours of work, or otherwise as to terms or conditions of, or affecting, employment on the manufacture or repair of munitions of war, provided three alternative forms of arbitrative tribunals (Schedule I. to Munitions of War Act, IQ15): — (a) The Committee on Production; (()) A single arbitrator to be agreed upon by the par- ties, or in default of agreement appointed by the Board of Trade (afterwards the Minister of La- bour) ; or (f) A Court of Arbitration consisting of an equal number of persons representing em- ployers, and persons representing workmen, with a chairman appointed by the Board of Trade (af- terwards the Minister of Labour). The tribunal to which the reference was made was to be de- termined by agreement between the parties to the difference, or in default of agreement by the Board of Trade (afterwards Minister of Labour), and the Arbitration .Act, 1880, was not to apply to such references. ... On the conclusion of the armistice an .Act was passed, shortly entitled 'The Wages (Temporary Regulation) Act, iqiq' fiQi8?l. The principal object of this Act, the full title of which 419 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL was 'An Act for prescribing Minimum Rates of Wages during a limited period and for repealing certain provisions of the Munitions of War Acts',' and which was to be in force for six months only (afterwards extended for a further period of six months, to expire on the 21st November, igiS [loig?], was the stabilisation of wages during the abnormal conditions still prevailing on account of the war and which were expected to continue to prevail for a time. ... On the 21st November the provisions of the Wages (Temporary Regulation) Act, 1918, as extended for six months, were due to come to an end. As a result all provisions for enforcing the payment of a prescribed or substi- tuted rate of wages would then cease, and the Interim Court of Arbitration would determine. It was under these circumstances that the Industrial Courts Bill was introduced shortly before the 21st November, loiq. ... Its objects may be sum- marised as (i) continuation of the stabilisation of wages until the 30th September, 1020; (2) pro- vision of a standing Court for the settlement of industrial disputes; and (3) a provision for ju- dicial inquiry and report into the causes and cir- cumstances of apprehended or existing trade dis- putes. It was preservative for a limited period of some of the provisions of the Wages (Temporary Regulation) Act, iqi8, creative concurrently with the Conciliation Act, 1806, of Courts and tribunals of arbitration, and further developed in this country [England] the machinery of Courts of Inquiry and Investi;ation. ... By way of sum- mary . . . conciliation is under the provisions of the acts of 1806 and igig . . .; or under agree- ments between Federations or Associations of em- ployers or workers ; or under the National Indus- trial Councils which have been established in some industries. According to the Labour Gazette of December, iqig, there were at the end of igig fifty-one National Industrial Councils, the num- ber formed during igig being thirty-one. Although these cover a number of industries and workers, yet they are very far short of [being] exhaustive of the- various industries of the country, and a large margin is therefore left for procedure under the above Acts. . . . Arbitrations are now [ig2o] either under — (i) The Conciliation Act, 1896; or (2) The Industrial Courts Act, iqig. Under (i) all that is required is the application of the parties to the dispute for either a hearing before a single ar- bitrator, or before a Court of Arbitration ... as- suming that the provisions of the administrative Memorandum [of September, igo8] ... are still in continuance. Under (2), assuming that there do not exist in the particular trade or industry concerned arrangements for settlement made in pursuance of an agreement between organizations of employers and organizations of workmen representative respec- tively of substantial proportions of the employers and workmen engaged in that industry, the Min- ister may at once, with the consent of the parties, refer the matter for settlement either to the In- dustrial Court or to the arbitration of one or more persons appointed by him, or refer the matter to a Board of Arbitration as set out in . . . the In- dustrial Courts Act, igig. . . . Whether the matter has been referred for settlement under the Con- ciliation .\ct or under the Industrial Courts .'Vet, the settlements or awards made are not compul- sory on the parties."— W. H. Stoker, Industrial courts aft, igig, and conciliation and arbitra- tion in industrial disputes, pp. B-VC, 23-24.— See also Whitley cottxcils: Organization and method. 1915. — Arbitration in Clyde shipyard strike. See Labor strikes and boycotts: igis. HOLLAND 1903-1918. — "Delegates are selected from differ- ent groups of railway employees who are authorized to present the wishes and complaints of railway workers before the managers. .Arbitration boards have been established for the enforcement of pen- alties imposed because of infractions of working rules and conditions. Strikes in railway service are prohibited. . . . Legislation prohibiting strikes was the outcome of a general strike in the Dutch railway service in igo3." — .imerican Labor Year Book, igi7-igi8, p. 142. ITALY 1917-1920.— Effect of World War. — National Council of Labor instituted. — "The legislation re- lating to labour disputes ... in force in 1918, could not be called complete. . . . The principle of state intervention for the amicable solution of la- bour conflicts had not, before the outbreak of the war, been applied to agriculture, except in isolated cases. The state of public opinion, and the peculiar industrial conditions which arose during the war ... led the Government to enact measures similar to those adopted in industry. The Decrees of 6 May igi7 which codified several Decrees, including those of 30 May igi6 and 2 November igi6, established in every judicial district a district arbitration com- mittee . . . empowered to intervene in disputes re- lating to the prolongation of agrarian contracts, and to the supply of horses, cattle, etc.; further, at the request of one or both of the parties or of the Prefect, in disputes relating to labour and wage agreements and general collective disputes concern- ing agricultural work in any way. . . . The concil- iation settlement had the force of an agreement be- tween the parties, who might also authorise the committee to decide the dispute, acting as arbi- trators with power to effect an amicable settlement. . . . The system . . . was considerably altered by the Decree of 14 September iqig. . . . These com- mittees are presided over by a member of the trib- unal and arc constituted of four members, two landowners or large tenant farmers and two work- ers, appointed by their respective organisations, or, failing this, by the provincial agricultural commit- tees. They may intervene with a view to settle- ment by conciliation, at the request of the parties, or of the Prefect, or on their own initiative, in col- lective disputes relating to agricultural work. If conciliation is successful the settlement has the force of an agreement between the parties, but if conciliation fails, the committee embodies its own views in the form of a 'judgment' and suggests a possible solution of the dispute. Both the district arbitration committees and the committees attached to the provincial agricultural committees have met fairly regularly, and still continue to meet. They have helped to solve a larce number of disputes, to the satisfaction of the disputants. . . . The ma- chinery for the settlement of labour conflicts is not only increasing, but is gradually tending to assume the form of real labour tribunals. . . . The Decree of February igig. on agreements in private em- ployment, provided for the institution of special joint committees constituted of an equal number of representatives of managements and employees. These committees are competent to draw up draft agreements for particular firms, and to intervene in individual and collective disputes and in dis- agreements about the interpretation of employment contracts or work hours and work conditions. In cases of collective disputes, the functions of these committees are Hmitcd to attempting concilia- 420 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL tion. . . . Other cases are referred to special arbi- tration tribunals, constituted of five members, two nominated by the plaintiff, two by the defendant, and the fifth by agreement between the members. . . . The importance of the tribunals as regards col- lective disputes apears to consist less in their func- tion of attempting to effect amicable settlements, than in their power to prevent disputes by drawing up draft agreements. . . . Both provincial commit- tees, and later the joint tribunals, have in practice rendered very valuable service by providing peaceful solutions of a large number of disputes between employers and employees. . . . The Bill on the in- stitution of a National Council of Labour, which was introduced in the Chamber of Deputies by the Minister of Labour on lo November ig20, contains some very important clauses on arbitration. Arti- cle I id) of the Bill provides that the CouncU shall arbitrate in industrial disputes at the request of the parties. For this purpose the Council at its first sitting appoints a conciliation and arbitration committee, constituted of twelve members, six elected by the representatives of employers and six by the representatives of the workers, and with the president of the Council as a chairman. The com- mittee, or a sub-committee appointed by it from time to time, may intervene at the request of the Minister of Labour or of the parties, for the pur- pose of settling by conciliation such disputes and disagreements between employers and workers, as concern whole industries or large districts or a very large number of workers. If conciliation fails, the Minister of Labour, with the consent of the parties, may refer such disputes for arbitration to special arbitration tribunals, chosen as the need arises by the parties themselves, or, should they fail to agree, by the Minister. These tribunals are to be chosen from the members of the committee and are to consist of an equal number of repre- sentatives of employers and workers. The chair- man shall be nominated by the members them- selves, or, if they fail to agree, by the Minister of Labour." — Labor conditions {International Labour Review, March, 1921). NEW ZEALAND 1892-1913. — Compulsory arbitration. — "From the earliest times. New Zealand depended almost al- together upon water transportation for communi- cation between various parts of the two islands. In i8q2, there occurred the organized strikes of the workers in Australian colonies, in which the Seamen's Union took a leading part. Sympathy for the Australian cause practically resulted in a general strike of the New Zealand Seamen's Union, and trade was badly disorganized. As a result of this strike, the New Zealand arbitration law was passed in 1803 and became effective in 1894. The minister of labor was designated to administer the act. It provided for local boards of conciliation in 'industrial disputes' and a general court of ar- bitration. District boards were composed of three or five members, the chairman being chosen by the representative members from the working and em- ploying classes who elected their members. They were appointed by the governor from nominations made by registered trade unions and registered em- ployers' associations. The president of the court was chosen directly by the governor from the judges of the Supreme Court. Either party be- fore a hearing had begun might require a dispute to be referred from the district boards of concilia- tion to the court of arbitration. Once a case was referred for conciliation, it was unlawful to call a strike or lockout. Agreements might be made be- tween the parties, but their enforcement was com- pulsory, the same as an award by the arbitration court. Full power to compel the presence and testimony of witnesses was given the district boards of conciliation and the arbitration court. Every industrial dispute, except indictable of- fenses, came under the operation of the law, and since the act was based upon a free recognition of trade unionism, conciliation boards and the court were required to give preference to the mem- bers of trade unions. While this act was regarded as a compulsory arbitration statute, there was no penalty for failing to register, and unregistered organizations did not come under the act. Awards were automatically extended to whole industries by the act of iqoo, the amendments of iqoi and iqo3 and an interpretation of the court in iqo4. Between 1896 and IQ03, two hundred thirteen employers were charged with violating awards and one hundred seventy-one were convicted. During the same period, four employees were charged with similar offenses and three convictions were obtained. The industrial conciliation and arbitra- tion acts were consolidated in iqo8 and amend- ments were added in 1908 and 1910. The New Zedand Official Vear-Book for igii gives a sum- mary of the main provisions. Under the act the Dominion of New Zealand is divided into eight industrial districts. Any society consisting of not less than three persons in the case of employers or fifteen in the case of workers in any specified industry or industries in an industrial district may be registered as an industrial union. Any incor- porated company may be registered as an indus- trial union of employers. Any two or more in- dustrial unions of employers or employees may form an industrial association and register under the act. Industrial associations are formed usu- ally for the whole or greater part of New Zea- land, comprising unions registered in the various industries. Registration enables any union or as- sociation to enter into and file an industrial agree- ment setting out the conditions of employment. Although this agreement is limited to a period of three years, it remains in force until superseded by another agreement or an award of the court of arbitration, except where the registration of the union of workers concerned is canceled. In the event of a failure to reach an industrial agree- ment, registration permits the parties to bring an industrial dispute before the council of conciliation and, if necessary, before the court of arbitration. A council of conciliation has no compulsory powers but merely makes an endeavor to bring about a settlement which, if made, is filed as an industrial agreement. If no settlement is reached, the council of conciliation is required to refer the dispute to the board of arbitration, which, after hearing the parties, may make an award. Such awards, lilcc industrial agreements, are binding on all parties concerned. Unless otherwise provided, the award applies to the industrial district in which it is made. Awards are limited to a period of three years but remain in force until superseded by an- other award or by a subsequent agreement, ex- cept where registration of the union of workers has been canceled. It is now impossible to refer a dispute directly to the court of arbitration with- out waiting for a hearing by the board of con- ciliation. Four conciliation commissioners, holding office for three years, may be appointed and three were appointed in 1911. and each of the eight industrial districts was placed under the jurisdic- tion of the commissioner. When a dispute arises, the commissioner is notified and recommendations are received for one, two or three assessors to act 421 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL as representatives on the council of conciliation. Councils of conciliation are set up after notice to the other party by the commissioner and recom- mendations by them of an equal number of as- sessors. The court of arbitration is appointed for all New Zealand and consists of three members, one of whom, the permanent judge of the court, possesses the same powers and privileKes as a judge of the Supreme Court. The other judges are nominated, one by the various unions of em- ployers and one by the unions of workers and their appointments determined by a majority of the unions on each side respectively. They hold office for three years and are eligible to reappoint- ment. The judge and one member constitute a quorum. There is no appeal from the decision of the court, except in cases beyond the scope of the act. Strikes and lockouts are illegal only if the parties concerned arc bound by an award or agreement. Workers arc subject to a penalty of forty-eight dollars and sixty cents and employers to a penalty of two thousand four hundred thirty dollars for strikes and lockouts. Gifts of money are deemed to be aiding or abetting a strike or lockout and these are punishable by a fine. In certain industries affecting the supply of water, milk, meat, coal, gas or electricity, or the operation of a ferry, tramway or railway, fourteen da\s" notice must be given within one month of an intended strike or lockout, whether subject to an award or agreement, or not. Strikes and lock- outs are forbidden during the hearing of a dis- pute by the council or court of arbitration. Breaches of awards and industrial agreements are punishable by fines of four hundred eighty-six dol- lars against a union, association or employer, and twenty -four dollars and thirty cents against a worker. Since the passage of the New Zealand act in i8q3 to the thirty-first of March, igii, there was a total of forty-two strikes, of which twelve were of the slaughtermen. These twelve strikes occurred in 1Q07. Of the twelve slaughtermen strikes, six were within the scope of the act and twenty-two outside the scope of the act. In loog, there were four strikes in New Zealand, in 1010, eleven, and in iqti, up to March 31, two strikes. . . . Perhaps nothing so completely demonstrates the strength of the New Zealand system of arbi- tration and its underlying basis of social ju.-tice as the Dominion's experiences with syndicalism and the efforts of the syndicalists to carry out a gen- eral strike during the latter part of iqii. loi^. and 1013. The effort was a complete failure, and although more than fifty strikes were called dur- ing the period, all of them were lost ; direct action was thoroughly discredited; the arbitration system and the government which stood sponsor for it emerged from the contest with added t;lorv. In December, iqi3, a labor disputes investigation act, similar to the Canadian statute, was made to apply to workers' unions not registered under the arbitration act." — C. H. Mote, Industrial arbitra- tion, 1016, pp. 137-145. — "The statute in force to- day [iqiqI is that of IQ08, with the important amendment of that year and the minor amend- ments of loii and 1013. A proposed addition to the contemplated consolidated .4ct of 1Q13 was made into a separate measure and passed as the Labor Disputes Investigation Act, 1013. . . . The .\mending Act of iqii dealt largely with the form and force of awards. The important feature of the Amending Act of 1013 was a provision that where the parties to a dispute did not object to a recommendation of a Council of Conciliation, this should operate as an industrial agreement and not as an award, thus limiting its application to the parties specifically agreeing, whereas an award covers all employers and all workers in the indus- try in the particular district. . . . The .'\mending Act of 1013 consisted of two clauses, and was passed expressly to provide that the recommendation of a Council of Conciliation to which the parties had not objected should op- erate as an industrial agreement, not an award. In explanation of this distinction it should be said that an industrial agreement binds only the par- ties agreeing thereto, while an award covers all employers and all workers in the industry in the district specified." — Conciliation and arbitration in yew Zealand (Research Report No. 23, Dec, igiq, pp. 6, 7-8, 40.) — See also L.^bor strikes and boy- cotts: iQ06-igi3. NORWAY 1914-1916. — Obligatory arbitration boards.— "In March 1014, a special congress of labor unions was held, to oppose an attempt of the govern- ment to make striking illegal and to introduce ob- ligatory arbitration boards, by a general strike. When the proposed bill was brought before the Storthing in May, a general strike was ordered for May 6th, which lasted until May ii, when the bill was withdrawn. This, however, did not pre- vent the government, a few months later, from again attempting to introduce a similar bill — with- out success. Later the government brought in a bill, which provided for the settling of labor dis- putes by arbitration boards. This bill, though not quite as severe as the first one, was also opposed by the Socialist Party, but was finally adopted by Parliament. This law contains a number of ef- fective repressive measures. All workers employed in public industries must give 14 days' notice be- fore laying down their work; furthermore the or- ganization may be held responsible for the failure of any of its members to comply with the con- tract, through illegal strikes or lockouts. The public arbitration commission has the power to prohibit strikes and lockouts, so long as there seems a possibility of arbitration. In July, igi6, in the midst of tremendous conflicts between capi- tal and labor, the government, under the direc- tion of the employers, forced the passage of a bill providing for obligatory arbitration boards. After all parties, with the exception of the Social-De- mocratic Party, had declared themselves in favor of the bill, the labor unions, in accordance with the decision of the labor congress held two years before, declared a general strike .Mthough 120,000 persons answered the call, the law was passed, in spite of this protest of organized labor, and after eight days the strike was called off." — American Labor Year Book, igi6, pp. 203-204. SWEDEN 1920. — Central arbitration board.— "In accord- ance with the decision of the Riksdag, a central arbitration board for the settlement of labor dis- putes has been appointed in Sweden [October, 1020I. This board consists of seven members; three of these are appointed by the Government and arc neutral, representing the interests neither of employers nor of workix-ople. Of the four remaining members, two are appointed by the Council of the Employers' Association, and two by the Workmen's National Council. The object of the board is to render it easier for workmen and their employers to have collective agreements cor- rectly interpreted, thus obviating recourse to lock- 422 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL outs or strikes. Appeals to the board ate to be voluntary, and the decision of the board will be final."— United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, Monthly Labor Revinv, January, 1921, p. 232. SWITZERLAND 1897-1918.— Effect on railway problem.— "The Canton of Geneva has established a system of con- ciliation and arbitration. Conciliators are elected directlv by the two parties to the dispute. If they cannot reach a settlement, recourse is had to an arbitration board under Government auspices. There is no law for the settlement of disputes in the Federal railway service. Strikes are prohibited in the Federal railway service and in the Canton of Geneva whenever an industrial agreement or award is broken. In the Federal service strikes are pun- ishable by fines and reprimands. There are no pen- alties in the Canton of Geneva. There have been no strikes on the railways of Switzerland since their nationalization in i8g7." — American Labor Year Book, IQ17-1918, p. 143. TURKEY 1917-1918. — "In the case of a dispute relative to wages or working conditions, a conciliation board is organized, composed of six members, three rep- resenting employers and three representing em- ployees. The boards are presided over by an of- ficial appointed by the Government. The agree- ments reached by these boards are enforced by the Government. If the parties to the dispute cannot agree, the employees are free to stop work, but nothing must be done by them opposed to freedom of action. Strikes in public utilities are unlawful until grounds of dispute are communicated to the Government and attempts at conciliation have failed. . . . The organization of trade-unions in es- tablishments carrying out any public service is for- bidden."— .4 wpr;co« Labor Year Book, 1Q17-1918, p. 144. UNITED STATES 1886-1920. — State legislation for arbitration. — "The seventeen states having permanent [arbitra- tion] boards [in iqi6] and the dates of their creation by statute .arc as follows: Massachusetts and New York, 1886; Missouri, i88g; California, 1801 ; Ohio, 1803; Louisiana, 1894; Illinois, Con- necticut, Minnesota and Montana, 1895; Utah, 1896; Oklahoma, 1907; Maine, 1909; Alabama, 1911 ; Vermont, 1912; Nebraska and New Hamp- shire, 1913." — C. H. Mote, Industrial arbitration, p. 199. — "A majority of the states have [1920] leg- islation providing for the settlement of industrial disputes, and Wyoming has a constitutional provi- sion to the same effect. Many of these states have permanent boards called boards of conciliation and arbitration or some similar title, with from two to six members, although three is the usual number. It is provided in every state except Alabama that one member shall be a representative of the em- ployees, while all but Alabama and Connecticut provide for representation of employers. The Ok- lahoma board represents farmers in addition. Many states forbicl that more than two members of the board be chosen from the same political party. In other states the labor commissioner acts as mediator, as in Idaho, Indiana, and Maryland. In states having industrial commissions, a chief mediator is appointed along with temporary boards for arbitration. In a score or so of states com- pulsory investigation is provided for. The state board of arbitration must proceed to make an in- vestigation (i) on failure to adjust the dispute by mediation or arbitration, as in Indiana and Massa- chusetts; (2) when it is deemed advisable by the governor, as in Alabama and Nebraska; or (3) simply when the existence of the dispute comes to the knowledge of the board, as in Colorado and Vermont. In other states such investigation is permissive. The board of arbitration may investi- gate (i) when it is deemed advisable by the iri- dustrial commission, as in New York. In Ohio the Industrial commission can make an investi- gation, if it deems necessary, where a strike exists or is threatened, but if no settlement is obtained on account of the opposition of one of the parties investigation is to be made only if requested by the other party. Compulsory investigation may be employed (2) when both parties refuse arbitra- tion and the public would suffer inconvenience, as in Illinois and Oklahoma, or simply where the parties do not agree to arbitration, as in New Hampshire; (3) or generally, whenever a dispute occurs, as in Connecticut and Minnesota. Pro- vision for enforcement of an arbitration award when arbitration has been agreed to by representa- tives of both sides is made by about a dozen states. In Illinois, if the court has ordered compliance with an award, failure to obey is punishable as contempt, but not by imprisonment. In Idaho and Indiana the award is filed with the district court clerk, and the judge can order obedience, viola- tion being punishable as contempt, but imprison- ment may be inflicted only for wilful disobedience. In Missouri violation of a binding award is punishable by a fine or jail sentence, and in Ohio a binding award may be enforced in the county court of common pleas as if it were a statutory award. In Nevada, Texas, and Alaska the award is filed with the district court clerk, and may be specifically enforced in equity. In Nevada appeal is made to the supreme court, in Texas to the court of civil appeals, and in Alaska to the United States Circuit Court of Appeals. Colorado is the only state that has copied (1915) the Canadian act forbidding strikes or lockouts m certain industries pending investigation and recom- mendation. In about twenty states [Alabama, Alaska, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Indiana, Iowa, Louisiana, Maine, Massachusetts, Montana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, Ohio, Texas, Utah, Vermont] the voluntary agreement to arbitrate must contain a promise to abstain from strike or lockout pending arbitration proceedings. In Mas- sachusetts it is the duty of the parties to give notice of impending stoppage of work. In Nevada and Alaska strikes or lockouts, during arbitration, and in Alaska for three months, after, without thirty days' notice, are unlawful and ground for damages."— J. R. Commons and J. B. Andrews, Principles of labor legislation (2nd ed.), pp. 136- 138. 1888-1921.— Federal legislation.— "Federal legis- lation on mediation and arbitration is comprised in five acts concerning interstate commerce carriers," the acts of 1888, of 1808 (the Erdman act [See also U. S. A.: 1808 (June)], of 1913 (the Newlands act), "Section 8 of the act creating the Department of Labor, also enacted in 1913, and Title III of the transportation act by which the railroads were re- turned to private hands on March i, 1920, at the end of the war-time period of government control and operation."— /ftid., p. 138— "The general pop- ular belief is that arbitration is the main feature of our [American] present plan of settlement. . . . Few understand that the chief and most success- 423 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL ful part of our system is 'mediation,' or, as it is sometimes called, 'conciliation.' ... In both the national and state laws a sharp distinction is made between mediation and arbitration. The first ef- fort of public officials, when a dispute arises, is to 'mediate.' They interview each party to the dis- pute separately and secure the utmost concessions which each is willing to make. Next they try to bring about a settlement on the basis of these con- cessions. . . . Arbitration, however, is entirely dif- ferent. If the officials fail to secure enough con- cessions to settle the dispute, they bend their ef- forts towards obtaining an agreement of the parties to refer the dispute to a board of arbitration. This is the substance of the Erdman Act, the Newlands Act and all the state arbitration laws. . . . The law of 1888 . . . provided that the President might appoint two investigators who, together with the United States Commissioner of Labor, should form a temporary commission to examine the causes of any interstate railway controversy, the conditions which accompanied it, 'and the best means for ad- justing it.' The report of this body was to be transmitted to the President and Congress. Such a purely investigating commission might be ap- pointed on the request of either party or by the President himself, or need not be appointed at all. The act also contained a weak provision for a board of arbitration to be chosen by the parties if they wished, which should render a decision on all the matters in dispute. This decision, however, was not binding. That is, the parties might agree to arbitration without consenting to abide by its awards. This statute, which remained a dead letter on the books for ten years, was never utilized. The reasons are very simple and easily discovered: (a) The balance of power lay entirely with the railway managers; many of the strikes were com- plete failures; the unions were on the defensive, (ft) Both sides in the labor controversies of the time were poorly organized. No principles or methods of dealing between labor and capital had yet been worked out. There were no established habits of procedure, but each strike or dispute was an event in itself, separate and distinct from all others. We were in the 'rule of thumb' stage of opinion on labor controversies. For these reasons the decade i883-i8g8, and even to IQ05, represents an era in w^hich arbitration was not the habitual but the most unusual thing to do. The second law, known as the Erdman .\ct, was passed in 1898 and provided that the federal officers, on learning of a serious interstate dispute, should at- tempt to mediate in the method already described. Failing in this they should, if possible, persuade the parties to sign a contract, the terms of which were fixed by the law itself. This contract pro- vided for the submission of the dispute to a board of arbitration composed of three members chosen by the parties themselves. The award made by this board should be binding for a definite period. An appeal might be taken from the board's de- cision to the federal courts. It is a remarkable fact that only one case was brought up under this law in the first eight years of its history. This shows clearly that the parties concerned, and public opinion in general, had not yet developed to the point where arbitration was a natural and in- stinctive method of settlement. In the one case that was presented during this time the railways declined arbitration and the government system failed. The employees voted to strike by an al- most unanimous ballot, whereupon the managers conceded the substance of the union's demands, — a settlement that could have been easily made by arbitration. Meanwhile in the period from 1901 to 190S there were 329 strikes affecting the rail- ways, with only this single case of attempted ar- bitration above described, and it a failure. This would seem to show conclusively that the unwill- ingness to make use of the previous act was not due to the weakness of the law, but to the lack of experience of the parties and the backward state of public opinion. Beginning with 1905, however, a complete reversal in conditions took place. Despite the failure of several abortive at- tempts, the unions had finally got a firm grip upon all the labor supply of the interstate trains. With this there had come a parallel development in the control of railway capital; mergers had taken place; railway systems had been more firmly cemented together; the 'community of interest' be- tween competing lines had become a familiar fea- ture of transport management. In 1902 the public had received that dramatic proof of the possibil- ities of arbitration which we still refer to as 'the' anthracite coal strike. This was probably the last great controversy in which the mining companies felt assured of success in a contest with labor or- ganizations, and when victory was within their reach it was wrested from them by the national executive who forced arbitration. It is difficult to exaggerate the spectacular effect of this case. It established once for all the fact that arbitration on a grand scale in a crisis of national proportions is possible. The similarity of the issues with those arising on the railways was also helpful. This striking demonstration removed the chief obstacle to the use of the Erdman Law, and in the next eight years there followed in rapid succession a series of 61 cases, most of which were finally solved by mediation, there being only 12 in which arbitration was necessary. The third act, known as the Newlands Law, was passed in July, 1913. It differs from the Erdman Act in only two important points, — the boards of arbitration under the Erd- man .■\ct were considered too small by the railway managers; under the Newlands Act they may, by consent of the parties, be doubled to six members instead of three. The new law also provides that the work of mediation shall be undertaken by a special, permanent commissioner of mediation act- ing with one or two other federal officers, to be designated by the President, and forming a 'Board of Mediation and Conciliation.' Following the 61 cases presented for settlement under the Erdman Act, 60 more have already been brought up under the Newlands Law, that is, in the last three years [1914-1916] as many controversies have been sub- mitted and settled as in the entire preceding twenty-five years. Of these 60 cases, 51 have been settled by mediation and 9 by arbitration. Taking the entire results of the Erdman and Newlands Laws since 1906, that is, since arbitration has be- come an accepted method, we observe that a total of 121 cases have been submitted. Of these over 70 were settled by mediation. Of the remainder, 21 cases were settled by arbitration, or by arbitra- tion combined with mediation. In the remaining cases, the services of the mediators were either re- fused or a direct settlement made without resort to arbitration. This is an astonishing record. Two features stand out with especial prominence — the rapid increase in effectiveness of mediation, and the great importance and breadth of the problems sub- mitted to arbitration. Mediation settled more than half of the controversies brought up to the board under the Erdman Law, and over four-fifths of those brought in the last three years under the Newlands Act. Among the matters subjected to arbitration were issues ranging from the most minute point up to the entire terms of employment 424 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL on over 40 railroads; from the discharge of an electric motorman for disobedience of orders to the settlement of pay and basic hours of work per day for many thousands of men." — J. T. Young, Government arbitration and mediation (Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, January, igi?, pp. 268-272). — "For the four years ending June 30, 11,17, the Federal Board of Mediation and Conciliation functioned in sev- enty-one controversies, fourteen of which were settled partly or wholly by arbitration, and fifty- two by mediation. One dispute was settled by Congressional action, the Adamson law, which meant, in effect, the breakdown of the Newlands act. The outstanding feature of events leading up to the Adamson law of September, 1916, was the failure of arbitration by existing agencies. The demands of the railway brotherhoods were met with counter-demands by the railway managers and the proposal to refer demands of both sides to arbitration under the Newlands act or by the Interstate Commerce Commission. The brother- hoods refused arbitration. Their experience with settlements by third parties had not been fortunate, they asserted. An overwhelming strike vote set the stoppage of work for September 2, 1916. The Federal Board of Mediation and Conciliation ex- ercised its prerogative of offering mediation, but a four-day conference failed to bring agreement. Facing a country-wide railroad tie-up, the Presi- dent conferred with both sides to the controversy and proposed (i) the concession of the eight-hour day, (2) postponement of the other demands until a commission appointed to investigate the effect of the eight-hour day reported. The brotherhoods agreed, but the managers delayed. The President asked Congress for legislation not only to deal with the existing situation, but also to remedy the all too apparent failure of the Newlands act. The Congressional answer was the Adamson law, passed on the day the strike was to have gone into effect. The law embodied just the proposals made by the President to the railroad men and employers. — [See also Adamsox Law; American Federation of Labor: 1S84-1017; Railroads: 1Q16.] It was plainly evident that the Federal Board of Mediation and Conciliation met defeat largely through the refusal of the v/orkers to submit voluntarily to arbitration. This difficulty was recognized by the President again in December, igio, when he asked Congress for compulsory arbitration legislation. War legislation swamped Congress before action was taken on his recommendation. The Newlands act again failed in March, 1017. At that time the brotherhoods renewed strike threats, owing to the delay of the Supreme Court in deciding the constitutionality of the Adamson Law and to the alleged evasions of the railroad managers during the Supreme Court's delay. Disregarding the existing Federal Board, the President immediately appointed a committee of the Council of National Defense to mediate. Into the resulting agreement was written the es- tablishment of the eight-hour day and provision for a commission of eight, representing employers and employees, to decide disputes under the agree- ment. The Eight-hour Commission appointed un- der the Adamson law reported inconclusively shortly after the railroads were taken under control by the government for the period of the war. The labor situation was immediately taken hold of when the government assumed railroad control and operation in December, igi7. . . . A Railway Wage Board was appointed in January to make recommendations to the Director-General, and a Division of Labor, headed by a brotherhood of- ficial, was created in February to be the connecting link between employees and officials on one band, and Railway Boards of Adjustment, when later instituted, on the other. The Railway Wage Board's recommendations were accepted by the Director-General and orders were issued providing for substantial increases in wages among all classes of employees. Thereafter a permanent advisory board on 'Railway Wages and Working Conditions' was created. — Successive orders of the Director- General formulated a liberal labor policy and es- tablished machinery for handling disputes under these orders. Board of Adjustment No. i, dating from March, igi8, dealt with controversies af- fecting conductors, engineers, trainmen, firemen, and enginemen ; up to December i, 1918, it had docketed 408 cases and made 292 decisions. Board of Adjustment No. 2, authorized in May, igiS, for workers in mechanical departments, handled 147 cases and made 128 decisions up to December, 1918. Board of Adjustment No. 3, with jurisdic- tion over telegraphers, switchmen, clerks, and main- tenance-of-way men, had docketed only one case in its fortnight's existence prior to December i, igi8. In all cases coming before Boards of Ad- justment it was obligatory that the usual attempt at carrying the disagreement to the chief operating official of the railroad be made before calling on the boards. The boards were composed equally of representatives of the administration and employ- ees, and their liberal decisions did much to smooth out the differences remaining after the breakdown of the Newlands act and the enactment of the Adamson law. While the railroad employees of- ficially voiced their approval of the government Boards of Adjustment, on which only the parties in dispute were the arbitrators, they have consistently opposed the submission of disagreements to a neu- tral party which is in their opinion either biased or ignorant. — [An order of Director General Payne, issued December 9, 1920, provided for the aboli- tion of Board No. i on February 15, 192 1, and of Boards No. 2 and 3 on January 10, 1921.] The act of March 4, igi3, creating a Department of Labor, provides that the Secretary of Labor shall have the power to act as mediator and to appoint commissioners of conciliation in labor disputes, whenever in his judgment the interest of industrial peace may require it to be done. No appropria- tion was made for the expenses of commissioners till October, igi3, and none for their compensation till April, 1914. Until the latter date, therefore, it was necessary to detail government employees from their regular work. An executive clerk was appointed in July, igi4, and the work systema- tized. In three important disputes the Secretary of Labor's offer of mediation was rejected. In the Pere Marquette Railroad shop strike, the Calu- met copper miners' strike, and the Colorado coal strike, mediation was desired by the employees, but declined by the employers. In case mediation fails, arbitration may be proposed by the medi- ators, but they do not themselves act as arbi- trators. In the five years 191S to 1919, inclusive, the Secretary of Labor took cognizance of 3,644 cases, effecting 2,539 adjustments. During igig alone, 1,780 assignments of commissioners of con- ciliation resulted in r,233 adjustments, not includ- ing 2ig cases referred to the National War Labor Board. . . . The policy of having disputes settled by representatives of the two parties most directly at interest, the workers and the employers, was In the main adopted in the transportation act of 1920. The act declares it the duty of the roads and of their employees to 'exert every reasonable effort and adopt every available means to avoid any interruption to the operation of any carrier' 425 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL growing out of any dispute. In case a dispute arises, it is to be decided if possible in conference between representatives of both sides. Such dis- putes involving only grievances, rules, or working conditions, as cannot be settled in this way, are to go before 'railroad boards of labor adjustment,' which may be established by agreement between any road or group of roads and the employees. Except that the boards are to [include] . . . rep- resentatives of the organized workers, their size and composition are left entirely to the parties concerned. Matters may come before the adjust- ment boards either upon application by the road or the organized workers affected, upon written petition of a hundred unorganized employees, upon the boards' own motion, or upon the request of the 'Railroad Labor Board.' This Railroad Labor Board is set up by the act as the final tribunal for the settlement of railroad labor disputes. It is composedi of nine members, appointed by the President with the consent of the Senate, to rep- resent in eflual proportion the workers, the ein- plsyers and the public. The three representatives <^.it})^ first .two groups are to be selected from a J(gt.,c»t, not lees than six nominees submitted by the it#'u,]g'iQups, themselves. Members of the board ;ipa^;.riot, during their five-year term of office, be .iy;t«.Yfi. n^enibers or officers of labor organizations ;j»r. hold stocks or bonds of any carrier. Dis- piites come before the Railroad Labor Board either upon failure of the adjustment board, or directly. All of its decisions must be by majority vote, but on matters taken up directly one of the members representing the public must concur in the decision. The Railroad Labor Board also has power to suspend any decision on wages made by the initial conference, if it is of the opinion that the decision 'involves such an increase in wages or salaries as will be likely to necessitate a substan- iial readjustment of the rates of any carrier.' In such cases the Railroad Labor Board must, after a hearing, affirm or modify the suspended decision. As principles for settling standards of wages and working conditions, consideration must be given to wage scales in other industries, cost of living, haz- ards of the employment, training and skill re- quired, degree of responsibility, character and regularity of the employment, and inequalities re- sulting from previous adjustments. Hearings on alleged violations of decisions are to be held by the Railroad Labor Board, which must publish its decision. [See also Labor legisl.mion: 1862- iQ2o; Railroads: iq2o: Esch-Cummins Act.] The Board of Mediation and Conciliation created in J913 is still left in operation, but its jurisdiction does not extend to any dispute under investigation, by the boards established under the new act." — J,,,R. Commons and J. B. Andrews, Principles of labor legislation (2nd ed.). pp. 142-14S, 147-148. .ili.898. — Interstate Commerce Commission cre- i(tfid. See U. S. A.: i8q8 (June). 1902-1920. — Arbitration in the coal industry. — "A semi-official instance of arbitration occurred in the case of the great anthracite coal strike in Pennsylvania in 1002. In this case the government appointed an arbitration commission on the re- quest of the parties without any special authority in law. The miners wanted an agreement, the operators felt that it would not be binding and that the union obstructed discipline. In October, five months after the beginning of the strike. Presi- dent Roosevelt appointed the Anthracite Coal Strike Commission The men returned to work and the commission began its inquiry. It took the testimony of 558 witnesses. The losses of the strike were estimated at S2S,ooo,ooo in wages. $1,800,000 in relief funds, $46,100,000 to the op erators, and $28,000,000 in freight receipts to trans- portation companies. The commission found the underlying cause of the strike to be the issue of recognition of the union. The award stated that the commission would recommend recognition oi the union, were the anthracite unions separated from the bituminous unions, but that difficulties should be referred to a permanent joint committee of miners' and operators' representatives, with an umpire appointed by the federal court, and that the life of the award should be till March, igoo. The commission further recommended a system of compulsory investigation. The agreement has been renewed, with modifications, and was still in force at the beginning of 1020." — J. R. Commons and J. B. .Andrews, Principles of labor legislation (2nd ed.), pp. 148-149. — .\ bureau of labor was estab- lished in the United States fuel administration to take care of industrial disputes in the coal mining industry. [See also U. S. A.; iqo2 (October).] For the settlement of the coal strike of 1Q19, see Labor STRIKES AND BOYCOTTS: iQip: Bituminous coal strike. 1910-1916. — Protocol and arbitration in the garment industry. — An interesting experiment "in the adjustment of labor disputes is that represented by what is generally known as the Protocol System in the garment industry. The system derives its name from the collective agreement made between the Cloak Makers' Union of New York [and] . . . an association of employers on September 2nd, iQio. The agreement, formally designated 'Proto- col of Peace,' was adopted at the conclusion 01 a long and embittered strike. It was drafted with great care and with the aid of several eminent students of social problems, prominent among whom was Mr. Louis D. Brandeis, now [iqi6] a Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. . . . Essentially it was a collective agreement be- tween an association of employers and a union of workers, regulating hours of laboi, overtime- work, holidays, week- wages, methods of adjusting piece rates and other shop conditions. The novelty of the arrangements consisted mainly in the attempt to abolish all struggles between the individual em- ployer and his workers and to substitute for them a peaceful method of adjusting disputes. To this end the workers surrendered their right to call shop strikes for any grievance whatsoever, and the Union bound itself to order its members back to work in all cases in which such shop strikes would break out. In return for this surrender of their most effective weapon, the workers were promised peaceful, fair and speedy adjustments of all their grievances. To secure such adjustments an elab- orate joint machinery was devised, consisting of Chief Clerks with numerous staffs of assistance to investigate and adjust grievances, a Grievance Board, and subsequently a Committee on Imme- diate Action, to pass upon disputed cases, and finally a Board of Arbitration, acting as the su- preme tribunal in the industry and vested with judicial and legislative powers. It is this joint machinery, which constitutes the distinguishing feature of a Protocol, as the arrangement has come to be generally known. The 'Protocol system' seemed to be well adapted to the pecularities of the needle industries with their highly seasonal character, their irregular workings and countless daily problems and shop disputes. Within the first few years after its adoption in the New York cloak trade the system spread to a number of kindred trades. Collective agreements generally patterned after the 'Peace Protocol' were adopted by associa- tions of employers and unions of the workers in 426 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL the various branches of the garment trade in the cities of New York, Philadelphia, Boston, Chicago, St. Louis and other centers of the tailoring indus- try. At the beginning of iqi6, no less than 150,000 workers operated under that system." — M. Hill- quit, "Protocol" in the needle industry {Ameri- can Labor Year Book, iqi6, pp. 5S-S6)- — The em- ployers' association broke up the arrangement by abrogating the Protocol of Peace, after an exist- ence of almost five years, on May 20, 1Q15. ... A number of forces were .set to work to prevent a general conflict. Mayor Mitchel of New York or- ganized a Council of Conciliation, composed of some of New York's best known citizens. . . . Af- ter a series of remarkable public hearings which lasted over three weeks at the New York City Hall, the Council of Conciliation handed down a decision which was . . . accepted by the union, and after- wards agreed to . . . by the Manufacturers' As- sociation. ... It raised the scale of wages for piece and week workers, granted the right of re- view of discharges, upheld the principle of col- lective bargaining and renewed the Protocol peace arrangements that existed heretofore. . . . Dissatis- faction grew with startling rapidity and ... on April 30 I1Q16] . . . after a second abrogation of the Protocol the 400 members of the Association ordered a lockout in all their shops. It w.is quick- ly followed by the proclamation of a general strike by the union on May 3, . . . involving 60,000 workers. . . . The strike was finally settled on terms which represented strongly modified arrange- ments from those prevailing under the Protocol. The working hours were reduced from 50 to 40: the wages for both piece and week workers were materially increased, and principally, the right of shop strikes was conceded to the union." — M. Danish, Briej history of the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union (American Labor Year Book, igi7-iqi8, pp. iio-iii). 1912-1913. — West 'Virginia coal strikes. See West Virginia: 1002-1013. 1914. — Ohio coal miners' strike. See Labor STRIKES AND BOYCOTTS: igi4-igi5. 1917-1918. — Bridgeport munitions strike. See Labor strikes and boycotts: iqiy-iqiS. 1917-1919. — President's mediation commission. — War Labor Board. — "In addition to the direct efforts of the Secretary of Labor, two arbitration boards were called into existence to meet exigencies of war. The President's Mediation Commission, appointed in the fall of iqi7, under the chairman- ship of the Secretary of Labor, made settlements or investigations in (i) the copper mines of Ari- zona, (2) the California oil fields, (3) the Pacific coast telephone dispute, (4) unrest in the lumber industry of the Northwest, (5) the packing in- dustry. It should be recalled that this commission was a government enterprise beginning its study generally after an acute situation had arisen. Its primary intention was investigation rather than arbitration ; but settlements were made in all dis- putes except the lumber industry, largely because existing means of arbitration had failed. The Na- tional War Labor Board was the outgrowth of conferences beiween representatives of employer?' and employees' organizations, the public, and the government. Its existence was not sanctioned by specific legislation, but was the result of a Presi- dential proclamation in April, iqi8. The member- ship of the board consisted of joint chairmen rep- resenting the public, selected respectively by em- ployers' and employees' national organizations, and five representatives of each of the two groups. Premises to govern its decisions were the first business of the board, and the following were ar- rived at: (i) No strikes or lockouts during the war, (2; settlement of controversies by mediation or conciliation, (3) provision of machinery for local mediation and conciliation, (4) summons of parties to the controversy before the national board in the event of failure of local machinery, (5) failing to reach decision in the national board, provision of an umpire appointed by national board or by the President ironi a panel of disin- terested persons, (b) refusal to take cognizance of dispute where other means of setllenieiit b\ agree- ment or federal law had not been invoked, (7) right of employers and employees to organize with- out discrimination, (8) right of collective bar- gaining. Acting on these principles as an official expression of the government's war labor policy, the board received 1,24s controversies up to May 31, iqig. In 462 of these cases awards or finds were made, 3qi were dismissed because of volun- tary settlement, lack of jurisdiction, or for other reasons, 315 were referred to other agencies having primary jurisdiction, fifty-three, involving only three distinct disputes, remained on the docket because the board was unable to agree, twenty- three were pending, and one was suspended. In the enforcement of awards the National War Labor Board had no specific legal sanction or penalty; appeal was usually made to patriotic motives. There were but three instances of resistance to the board's awards. In one case the Western Union Telegraph Company discriminated against union employees and refused to abide by the board's de- cision in favor of the men. The President was rebuffed in his appeal for patriotic acquiescence, but was sustained by Congress in taking over the telegraph lines for the government. Later, in Sep- tember, 1Q18, the organized workers at Bridge- port, Conn., struck against an award of the board but on the President's threat of unemployment enforced by governmental agencies, they returned to work. Finally, the Smith and Wesson Com- pany in Springfield, Mass., manufacturing fire- arms, refused to abide by the board's warning not to discriminate against union employees, and the President retaliated by ordering the War Depart- ment to take over the factory. " — J. R. Commons and J. B. .Andrews, Principles oj labor legislation (2nd ed.), pp. 145-146- ".\fter the armistice was signed . . . there were very many cases in which both employers and em- ployees disregarded complaints to the [War Labor] Board and refused to submit to its jurisdiction and carry out its findings. Shortly after the armistice the Board decided not to entertain complaints after December 5, iqi8, unless both sides agreed to abide by its award or unless the President, through the Secretary of Labor, specially requested the Board to hear the case. In the absence of the ex- treme pressure for uninterrupted production, which had accompanied the war, the influence of the Board grew le.ss and less until finally on June 25, iqiq, the Board by resolution decided to receive no more new cases or applications, to finish up its work, and to transfer its records and files to the Department of Labor. [It ceased to exist on August 1 2. 1" — .•\. M. Bing, War-time strikes and their adjustment, pp. 121-122. 1918-1919. — Failure in Seattle shipyards strike. See Labor strikes and boycotts: iqiS- iqiq: Seattle general strike. 1918-1919. — New York harbor strike. See La- bor .strikfs and boycotts: iqi8-iqiq: New York harbor strikes. 1918-1919. — War labor boards and the cloth- ing industry. — On October 28, iqi8, the joint board of the children's clothing grades began a 427 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL general strike to enforce the demand for the es- tablishment of. the forty-four hour week and for wage increases of 20 per cent. "In the midst of negotiations with Dr. William Z. Ripley, Adminis- trator of Labor Standards for Army Clothing, lead- ing to arbitration of the demands, the American Men's and Boys' Clothing Manufacturers' Associa- tion on November g locked out the workers in the men's clothing industry, adding 50,000 to the num- ber on strike in the children's clothing trade. The New York Joint Board of the Amalgamated Clothing Workers on November 11 called out all workers from independent factories in a general strike to light the lockout and to enforce demands for the forty-four hour week and for wage in- creases. The demand for the reduction in the work week was made primarily to provide places in the shops for thousands of clothing workers who had entered the nation's fighting forces and to ensure employment in civilian clothing factories of the workers who had been making military cloth- ing. . . . The conclusion of the New York strike was brought about at conferences initiated by Chairman Felix Frankfurter of the War Labor Policies Board. Frankfurter on January 15 invited both parties to come together to discuss possible means of ending strife in the clothing industry. At a meeting with Frankfurter the union and the em- ployers' association agreed to continue conferences with an Advisory Board composed of Frankfurter, Dr. William Z. Ripley and Louis Marshall. The Adviron.' Board on Januar>' 22 [igio] recommend- ed the establishment of the forty-four hour week not only for the New York market affected by the general strike but also throughout the clothing in- dustry. The .Advisory Board urged the scientific computation of the effect of the increased cost of living before the granting of wage increases and recommended the selection of an impartial chairman to adjust differences in the shops. The award of the Advisory Board was approved at mass meetings of the strikers on January 23, and the return to work, with the forty-four hour week established, was begun on January 27. George R. Bell, Execu- tive Officer of the National War Labor Policies Board, left that post on February 11 to become Impartial Chairman in the relations between the Amalgamated and the New York Employers' .As- sociation and the machinery for amicable relations was established." — I. W. Bird, Strike of the Amal- gamated Clothing Workers of America (American labor year book, iqio-iq20, pp. 166-167). — In the summer of 1Q18 the Cleveland cloakmaker unions, affiliated with the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, presented demands to their em- ployers for a raise in wages, standard union hours, ■with a request that these demands be arbitrated. The refusal by the employers to grant the cloak- makers' demands was followed by a general strike. "The National War Labor Board and Secretary of War Baker, however, quickly took a hand in the situation. The War Department asked both sides to agree to arbitration, and the manufacturers . . . accepted the invitation. Sccretarv- Baker forthwith appomted a Board of Referees, headed by President Hopkins of Dartmouth College, then an assistant to the Secretary of War, which took up the grievances of the workers for investigation with powers of awarding an adjudication. The workers meanwhile returned to their shops. . . . After an exhaustive study of the conditions of the cloak trade in Cleveland and elsewhere, the earn- ings of the workers and their standards of work, the referees rendered a decision w'hich was highly favorable to the workers. Later this decision was amplified; it provided for a scale of wages cover- 428 ing every part and section of the trade and for its thoroughness was equal to the best scales in the union towns in the East. It recognized shop committees and also recommended a Board of Ar- bitration to pass upon matters that could not be settled between the union and the employers. These were the maximum demands to which the Cleveland workers had ever aspired." — M. Danish, Cleveland cloakmakers' strike (American labor year book, igiQ-1920, p. 175). 1919. — Bituminous coal strike. See Labor STRIKES AND BOYCOTTS: igig; Bituminous coal strike. 1919-1920. — Industrial conferences called by President. — Proposed remedy for strikes. — On a call by President Wilson, the industrial conference met in Washington Oct. 6, igig. It was composed of three groups, which represented the public, the employers and the employees; the secretary of the interior, Franklin K. Lane, was elected the perma- nent chairman. Lack of harmony in the confer- ence was soon evident. On October 22, Mr. Gom- pers offered a resolution recognizing the right of workers to organize, to bargain collectively and to be represented by leaders of their own choice; the employers' group opposed it and the employees' group withdrew from the conference. The second industrial conference, representing only the public, was convened by President Wilson on December I, igiQ. Before the end of that month it issued "a tentative plan of machinery to adjust disputes in general industry by conference, conciliation, in- quirv' and arbitration." The conference reconvened on January 12, iq2o, and issued its report on March 6, ig20. Its chairman was William B. Wilson, secretary of labor, and its vice-chairman, Herbert Hoover. The report says: "The Conference now proposes joint organization of management and employees as a means of preventing misunder- standing and of securing cooperative effort. It has modified the tentative plan of adjustment so as to diminish the field of arbitration and enlarge the scope of voluntary settlement by agreement. .■\s modified the plan makes machinery available for collective bargaining, with only incidental and limited arbitration. The Conference has extended the plan to cover disputes affecting public utilities other than steam railroads and it has enlarged it to cover the services of public employees. . . . Indus- trial problems vary not only with each industry but in each establishment. Therefore, the strategic place to begin battle with misunderstanding is within the industrial plant itself. Primarily the settlement must come from the bottom, not from the top. The Conference finds that joint organiza- tion of management and employees where under- taken with sincerity and good will has a record of success. ... It is not a field for legislation, be- cause the form which employee representation should take may vary in every plant. The Con- ference, therefore, does not direct this recommenda- tion to legislators but to managers and employees. If the joint organization of management and em- ployees in the plant or industry fails to reach a collective agreement, or if without such joint or- ganization, disputes arise which are not settled by existing agencies, then the Conference proposes a system of settlement close at hand and under governmental encouragement, and a minimum of regulation. The entrance of the Government into these problems should be to stimulate further cooperation. The system of settlement consists of a plan, nation-wide in scope, with a National Industrial Board, local Regional Conferences and Boards of Inquiry. . . . The plan provides ma- chinery for prompt and fair adjustment of wages ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL and working conditions of government employees. It is especially necessary for this class of employees, who should not be permitted to strike. The plan involves no penalties other than those imposed by public opinion. It does not iinpose compulsory arbitration. It does not deny the right to strike. It does not submit to arbitration the policy of the 'closed' or 'open' shop. The plan is national in scope and operation, yet it is decentralized. It is different from anything in operation elsewhere. It is based upon American experience and is de- signed to meet American conditions. It employs no legal authority except the right of inquiry. Its basic idea is stimulation to settlement of differ- ences by the parties in conflict, and the enlistment of public opinion toward enforcing that method of settlement." The general outline is as follows: "The United States shall be divided into a speci- fied number of industrial regions, in each of which there shall be a chairman. Whenever a dispute arises in a region, which can not be settled by ex- isting machinery, the regional chairman may re- quest each side to submit the dispute to a Regional Adjustment Conference, to be composed of two representatives from each side, parties to the dis- pute, and two representatives to be selected by each side from the panels herein provided for. The regional chairman shall preside but not vote at the Conference. If the Conference reaches a unanimous agreement it shall be regarded as a collective bar- gain between the parties to the dispute and shall have the force and effect of a trade agreement. If the Conference does not reach an agreement and the disagreement relates to wages, hours or working conditions, it shall make a finding of the material facts, and state the reasons why it was unable to reach an agreement. The regional chairman shall report such finding and statement to the National Industrial Board herein provided for, which shall determine the matters so submitted as arbitrator. If the National Industrial Board shall reach a unanimous agreement, it shall report its determina- tion back to the Regional Adjustment Conference, which shall in accordance therewith state the agree- ment between the parties to the dispute the same as if the Conference had reached a unanimous con- clusion. If the National Industrial Board shall fail to reach a unanimous conclusion, it shall make majority and minority reports and transmit them to the regional chairman, who shall immediately publish such reports, or such adequate abstracts thereof, as may be necessary to inform the public of the material facts and the reasons why the Board was unable to reach an agreement. If the Conference does not reach an agreement and its disagreement relates to matters other than wages, hours, or working conditions, it shall make and publish its report, or majority and minority re- ports stating the material facts and the reasons why it was unable to reach an agreement. If the parties to the dispute so desire, they may select an umpire to act as arbitrator in place of the National Industrial Board, and in such case, the determination of the umpire shall be transmitted to the Regional Adjustment Conference with the same force and effect as a determination by the National Industrial Board. The appointment of representatives to the Regional Conference consti- tutes a voluntary agreement, (a) that there shall be no cessation of production during the processes of adjustment, (b) to accept as an effective col- lective bargain the unanimous agreement of the Regional Adjustment Conference, (c) to accept as an effective collective bargain, (in case of failure of the Regional Adjustment Conference) the de- cision of a mutually chosen umpire, (d) to accept as an effective collective bargain, (in case of fail- ure of the Regional Adjustment Conference, or upon failure of the parties to agree upon an um- pire) the unanimous decision of the National In- dustrial Board upon wages, hours and working conditions. If both parties to the dispute refuse to submit it to a Regional Adjustment Conference through the failure to appoint representatives within the time allowed, the chairman shall or- ganize forthwith, a Regional Board of Inquiry, con- sisting of two employers from the top of the em- ployers' panel for the industry concerned, and two employees from the top of the employees' panel for the craft or crafts concerned. The four so chosen with the chairman shall constitute the Board of Inquiry. If either side shall have selected representatives, and thereby agreed to submit to the process of adjustment of the dispute, such rep- resentatives may select two names from their panel in the same manner as for a Regional .Adjustment Conference. Such representatives of ttie party to the dispute, may sit on the Board of Inquiry and take full part as members thereof. The six thus selected, with the chairman, shall thereafter con- stitute the Board of Inquiry. The Board of In- quiry shall proceed forthwith to investigate the dispute, and make and publish its report, and if not in agreement, its majority and minority reports, in order that the public may know the facts material to the dispute, and the points of difference between the parties to it." — Report of industrial conference called by the president, pp. 5, 7, 8, 13, 14. 1920-1921. — Kansas Court of Industrial Rela- tions. — "The Kansas law [of January, ig2ol cre- ates a Court of Industrial Relations [organized February 2, 1920] consisting of three judges, whose term of office is three years [and who are ap- pointed by the governor]. The jurisdiction of the court is over the manufacture of food or clothing, the mining of fuel, the transportation of these com- modities and over public utilities. . . . These in- dustries are declared by the Kansas law to be 'affected with a public interest.' In these indus- tries there must be no strikes, and there must be no suspension without the permission of the indus- trial court. The penalties for violation of the law are, if by a 'person' $1,000, or one year in jail, or both; if by an official of a union or a corpora- tion $5,000, or two years in jail, or both. The court may intervene in the case of an industrial dispute, either on its own motion or when requested to do so by either one of the parties, or on the appeal of ten citizens, or on the complaint of the attorney-general of the state. It may issue a tem- porary award at the outset and then after its investigation a final award. The final award is to be retroactive, so that if wages are raised the em- ployees will be entitled to back pay from the date that the investigation began. If the result is the reduction of wages the employees will have to pay back to the employer the amount that they have received over and above the amount awarded by the court. The court must proceed in accordance with the rules of evidence as laid down by the Supreme Court of the state. There are certain protective features. Wages and profits are to be 'reasonable.' The workers are not to be discharged on account of testimony given before the court, the employer is not to be boycotted for anything he has done in connection with the court, and the right of appeal to the Supreme Court of the stale by either side is affirmed." — J. A. Fitch, Govern- ment coercion in labor disputes (Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Juh', 1020, pp. 76-77). — "The Industrial Welfare Commission and the Department of Labor of the 429 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL State of Kansas passed out of existence March i6, iQJ!!, a bill having passed the legislature con- solidating these two with the Industrial Court." — United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, Monthly Labor Review, April, 1921, p. 188. — "The first an- nual report of the Kansas Court of Industrial Re- lations covers a period of ten months, from the establishment of the court February i, ig;o, to November 30, ig20. The law providing for the court conferred upon it the duty of carrying on the work of the public utilities commission, so that the two undertakings have gone on side by side. On the industrial side only 28 cases were actually filed during the period. Of these, 25 were filed by labor and i by capital, while 2 were in- vestigations initiated by the court. Of the 25 cases tiled by labor, 20 received formal reco.^nition and decision. In 13 cases a wage increase was granted, in 2 only working conditions were in- volved, in 3 wages were found to be fair so that no increase was allowed, while in i the complaint of the employees was satisfied by the action of the employers, the court simply approving the set- tlement made. The remaining case was merely referee action on a collective agreement. . . . Only low-paid labor, as a rule, has been before the court — a situation naturally resulting from the ob- ject of the law to establish a minimum wage." — Ibid., June, iq2i, p. 133. — "Employers arc forbid- den to discharge employees because of testimony given before the Court but no immunity is pro- vided for discharge on account of union member- ship or activity, and inasmuch as strikes are for- bidden, it would seem as though the workers were without any protection against the breaking up of their unions by systematic discriminatory dis- charges. The enactment of this law was vigorously opposed both by organized labor and by many em- ployers and since its passage labor unions all over the country have made it the target for bitter at- tacks. President Howatt of the Kansas [coal] miners and a number of his associates were im- prisoned because of their refusal to testify before the Court, and both the enactment of the law [and] . . . the imprisonment of Mr. Howatt re- sulted in strikes of the miners. . . . Governor Al- len toured the country explaining the nature of the new Court and urging other states to adopt similar measures, and bills patterned after the Kansas sta- tute having been introduced in the legislatures of a number of states." — A. M. Bing, War-time strikes and their adjustment, pp. 146-147. 1920-1921. — One national and one local arbi- tration agreement. — .•Xs examples of non-govern- mcntal attempts to provide conciliation and arbi- tration facilities, the following are described, one dealing naturally with the electrical construction industry and the other with the building industry in San Francisco. "As a result of joint meetings of five representatives each of the National Asso- ciation of Electrical Contractors and Dealers and of the National Brotherhood of Electrical Work- ers, the following plan was drawn up early in 1920 and adopted in April [of the same year] . . . , providing for the creation of a council of indus- trial relations for the electrical construction indus- try in the United States and Canada [the foregoing being adopted as the council's official name]. The purposes of this council are stated to be the 'pro- motion of peace and harmony in the electrical in- dustry, the adjudication of disputes between em- ployers and employees, the establishment of friendly relations between all parties interested, which should ultimately result in the elimination of dis- trust, suspicion, and the wasteful methods of the old-fashioned strikes and lockouts.' The plan is voluntary, no local union or employer being com- pelled to refer a case to the council. [Certain sec- tions from the text of the plan follow] . . . '(3) That the Council shall consist of five representa- tives appointed by each of the [two] member or- ganizations. . . . (11) That the council shall adopt the following procedure in the adjustment of dis- putes; When a dispute arises which can not be adjusted by the existing local machinery, and notice to that effect is received by the secretary of the council, from either of the parties to the dispute, the secretary of the council after investigation may, if circumstances warrant, request each side to sub- mit the dispute to a board of conciliation to be composed of two representatives from each side, parties to the dispute, and one representative to be selected by the council who shall act as chairman but cast no vote. The appointment of representa- tives by the parties to the dispute to act for them on the board of conciliation shall constitute a voluntary agreement between the parties to accept as an effective agreement between them the unani- mous decision of the board of conciliation. If the board of conciliation does not reach an agreement it shall make a finding of the material facts and state the reasons why it has been unable to reach an agreement. The chairmin shall report such finding and statement to the council and the coun- cil shall determine the matters so submitted as arbitrator. If the council reaches a unanimous agreement, it shall report its decision back to the board of conciliation through its chairman, and the board shall then state the agreement between the parties to the dispute the same as if the board itself had reached a unanimous decision. If the council shall fail to reach a unanimous decision it shall make majority and minority reports and transmit them to the chairman of the board of conciliation who shall immediately publish them in order to inform the public of the material facts and the reasons why the council has been unable to reach an agreement.' " — United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, Monthly Labor Review, March 1921, pp. 126-127. — ".\11 present and future dis- |)Utcs [written in January, 192 1] relating to wages, hours, and working conditions in the building trades in San Francisco will be submitted to a per- manent arbitration board for adjustment under an agreement recently signed by the San Francisco Building Trades Council representing the workers and the San Francisco Builders' Exchange repre- senting employers. The board consist of three members, . . . [the] Archbishop of San Francisco, . . . fal former justice of the Supreme Court of California, and ... [a] consultant in industrial relations and management. The findings and de- cision of the board in each case will be accepted as final by the parties to the agreement The board may initiate investigations into all conditions affecting the building trades and is empowered to call for contracts of agreements pertaining to any phase of the building situation. The hearings arc to be public unless the board decides othervvlss and the expense of operation is to be borne equally by each party." — Ibid., p. 12S. .\lso in: a. E. Suffern, Conciliation and arbitra- tion in the coal industry of America. — G. E. Bar- nctt and D. A. McCabe, Mediation. investif:,ation and arbitration in industrial disputes. — D. Knoop, Industrial conciliation and arbitration. — J. H. Cohen, Law and order in industry. — M. T. Rankin, .Arbitration and conciliation in Australasia. — J. N. Stockett, Arbitral determination of railway wages. — F. J. Warne, Workers at war. pp. 79-139. — W. F. Willoughby, Government organization in war time and after, pp. 221-257. 430 ARBOGAST ARCH ARBOGAST (d. 394), officer in the Roman army, though a barbarian (probably a Frank). In 388 overcame Maximus and pacified Gaul; made chief minister for Valentinian II by Theodosius. Overthrew Valentinian and invaded Italy, but was defeated at Frigidus. — See also Rome: 379-395. ARBOR DAY, a day set aside by most of the states of the United States of America for the planting of trees. In 1872 J. Sterling Morton of the Nebraska state board of agriculture success- fully inaugurated the plan, which received official recognition in 1S74 and spread rapidly to other states. The date is not uniform in the different states; in the North it is May or near that date, while in the South it is much earlier, ARBUCKLE, Matthew (1776-1851), American brigadier-general, established Forts Gibson and Towson in. 1S24. See Oklahoma: 1806-1824. ARBUTHNOT, Harriot (1711-1794), British admiral See U. S. A.: 1780 (July). ARBUTHNOT, Sir Robert Keith (1864- 1916), British rear-admiral. Commanded ist cruis- er squadron in battle of Jutland (May 31, 1916), losing three of his four ships (the Defence, War- rior and Blaek Prince) and being killed in action. — See also World War: 1916: IX. Naval opera- tions: a, 1; also a, 9. ARC DE TRIOMPHE DE L'ETOILE, ("triumphal arch of the star"), largest triumphal arch in the world, begun in 1806 by Napoleon I but not completed until 1836. It is situated at the head of the Champs Elyses, Paris, and commemo- rates the triumphs of the Revolutionary and Na- poleonic troops. Famous not only for its archi- tectural features but also for the beautiful sculp- tured monuments on its fai;ades. — See also Arch. ARC DE TRIOMPHE DU CARROUSEL ("triumphal arch of the tilting match"), an arch built at Paris by Napoleon I to commemorate his victories of 1805-1806. It stands in the square en- closed by the Tuileries and the Louvre, and is a smaller copy of the Arch of Constantine at Rome — See also .\kch. ARC LAMP. See Electrical discovery: Elec- tric light. ARCADE, "a system or range of arches, sup- ported on columns, e.g., the range of arches and columns on each side of the nave of a cathedral or church. When used as an embellishment of exterior or interior walls, it is distinguished as Open or Blind ,\rcade, according as it is detached from or attached to the plane of the >vall." — C. H. Caffin, How to study architecture, p. 480. — The earliest arcade was in the palace of Diocletion in Dalmatia built c.300. During the middle ages the use of the arcade increased ; the most noted example of a Gothic arcade is in the cathedral of Pisa. Beautiful street arcades are employed in Bologna and Paris. ARCADELT, Jacob (1,514-1556), one of the most prominent among the distinguished Flemish musicians who taught in Italy in the i6th century. — See also Mtisic: 16th century: Transition period. ARCADIA, the central' district of Pelopon- nesus, the great southern peninsula of Greece, some- times called "the Switzerland of Greece." It is "a country consisting of ridges of hills and elevated plains, and of deep and narrow valleys, with streams flowing through channels formed by precip- itous rocks; a country so manifestly separated by nature from the rest of the Peloponnesus that, al- though not politically united, it was always con- sidered in the light of a single community."^— C. O. Miiller, History and antiquity of the Doric race, bk. I. ch. 4. — Arcadia played an important part in Greek history owing to its strategic position be- tween Sparta and the isthmus (of Morca). The Spartans' attempts to force a passage thiough the central plateau met with continual resistance from the Arcadian cities. (See Greece: B.C. 480: Wars: Thermopylae). It was not until the sec- ond Messenian war that the land was finally sub- jugated. Subsequent rebellions against Sparta's rule were easily quelled. In 420 B. C, however, the various cities, with the aid of Ar,;os, consolidated, with the object of establishing their independence. (See Greece: B.C. 421-418.) This attempt failed, as did a subsequent one in 371 (see Greece: B.C. 371) when the .Arcadians suffered a disasterous defeat at the hands of the Spartans (368). With the formation of the Achsean and the Aetolian leagues (q. v.) Arcadia once more became the battle-ground for the Spartan and Macedonian armies, due chiefly to the fact that the cities were divided in their allegiance between the two pow- ers. Several centuries later the country suffered greatly from the internal disputes of its Frankish barons (1205- 1460). Partly because of the way it was used by the later Roman poets, the name, .Arcadia, has come to signify an idyllic land of pastoral simplicity and innocence. — See also Greece: B.C. 371-362, 357-336, 280-146. ARCADIAN ACADEMY. See Italian litera- ture: 1000-, 800. ARCADIUS (378-408), Roman emperor, first emperor of the east. During his reign the control of the government was in the hands of a series of advisers and favorites. His rule was marked by the invasion of the Goths and the spread of Arianism. — See also Rome: Empire: 394-395. ARCEUIL AQUEDUCT. See Aqueducts. ARCH, Joseph (1826-1919), English social re- former; founder of the National Agricultural La- borers' JJnion in 1872; member of Parliament 1885-1886, and 1895-1900. ARCH, "generally, a structure supported at the sides or ends and composed of pieces, no one of which spans the whole interval. Specifically, a structure involving one or more curves, supported at the sides, spanning an opening and capable of supporting weight. Distinguished according to the nature of the curve, as, segmental, semi-circular, ogee, pointed, horseshoe, four-centred, trefoil, cinquefoil, and multifoil. Arches involving straight lines as well as curved, are known as 'shouldered.' " — C. H, Caffin, How to study architecture, p. 480. — The arch was used by the Egyptians, Babylon- ians, Assyrians, Greeks and Etruscans; but the Romans were the first to use it as a dominant feature of both external and internal design, es- pecially in secular buildings. Later in Europe the arch became so great a feature in the con- struction of ecclesiastical edifices as to charac- terize distinct periods of architecture, notably the Romanesque, or round-arched, style and the more pointed (jothic, (See also Architecture,) Tri- umphal or memorial arches, spanning a road, are built to commemorate great military triumphs, successful campaigns, or great events of peace. Al- though temporary arches such as those of the p'cs- ent day were erected in early Greece and Etruria, the Romans were the first to erect such structures in stone or marble and to enrich them with sculp- ture or to raise on their summit the quadriga with statues and trophies. There are two types of arches: the single arches and those having a central and two side arches which often displayed great skill in architectural as well as sculptural design. Several of the most famous are: the arch of Titus, the arch of Trajan recording the Dacian victories, the arches of Septimius Severus, Constantine, St. Rcmy, Orange, and the Arc dc Triomphe de 431 ARCH^ANAKTIDAE ARCHAEOLOGY I'Etoile. — See also Arc de Triomphe de L'£toile; Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel; .\RCHirECTURE: Oriental: India: Moslem architecture: 1300-1700. ARCH^ANAKTIDAE OLIGARCHY. See Bosporus: Citv and kinedom. ARCH^ffiOLOGICAL^ INSTITUTE OF AMERICA, a society founded in Boston in 1879 and incorporated by Act of Congress approved May 26, 1006, with Washington as its head- quarters. Its purpose is to promote archaeological research, to increase and diffuse archaeological knowledge, to stimulate the love of art, and to con- tribute to the higher culture of the country. It has founded the .American School for Oriental Re- search in Jerusalem, the American Schools for Classical Studies in ."Athens and in Rome, and the School of American .Archeology in Santa Fe. It has also departments of Medieval and Renaissance Studies and Colonial and National .Art. It has conducted notable excavations in .Asia Minor, Greece, Cyrene, the Southwestern states and Cen- tral America. It publishes besides its reports, etc., a monthly illustrated magazine. Art and Archctol- ogy; a quarterly, the American Journal of Archce- ology; and a yearbook, the Bulletin of the Archce- ological Institute. The society also maintains lec- ture circuits in the United States and Canada, thus bringing regularly to its members several times a year the latest and most vital information in the fields of archeology and art. The institute is composed of affiliated societies, located m lead- ing cities of the United States and Canada. The American school at .Athens has been ably assisted in some of its undertakings by the School of Classical Studies at Rome, especially in its ex- cavations at Heraeum and Argolid. The Car- negie Institute supports a fellowship in the school at Athens and pays ?i5oo yearly" for ex- cavations. In 1 91 2 the school at Rome was ab- sorbed by the .American .Academy at Rome, and the American school at Jerusalem is working, since the war, in cooperation with the British school. "The School of .American .Archeology was created in 1907 by the Council of the Archeological Insti- tute of America, with the object of organizing and giving direction to the study in .America of this and cognate branches, constituting the science of man in a broader sense — anthropology. It is con- trolled by a managing committee appointed by the institute, consisting of thirty-three prominent citizens and scientists of Canada, the United States and Mexico; and its field of activity embraces those countries, with the addition "of Central America. .After canvass of various localities the school was located at Santa Fe, New Mexico, be- cause it is in the heart of a vast region of pre- historic cultures upwards of i.oob miles long by 800 miles wide, extending from Utah to southern Chihuahua. It thus dominates a typical field for the investigation of the character and probable origin of the native races of this continent. The general plan of the school contemplates that a portion of each year's work shall be done in the field, in direct contact with the things to be studied. The first fully organized session under this plan was held during the summer of loio in the region tributary to Santa Fe, under the personal direction of Dr. Edgar L. Hcwett, Director of American .Archeology, and of the school. . . . The United States Bureau of Ethnology collaborates with the school during four months of field work and two months for preparation of reports, under the joint authority of the chief of the bureau and the director of the school. . . . The bureau, how- ever, has nothing to do with the administration or maintenance of the school — collaboration being ar- ranged only for mutual benefit, and to avoid dupli- cation of work in the field." — F. Springer, Field session of the School of American ArchtEology (.Science, Nov., 1910). — See also Arch.iology: Im- portance of American field. ARCH.ffi;OLOGY: DefiniUon.— "The deriva- tion of the word archaeology gives little idea of its present use. 'The study of antiquity' is at once too broad in scope and too limited in time — for the followers of a dozen other 'ologies' are studying antiquity, while the archeologist does not confine himself to that period. . . . Actually, time has nothing whatever to do with the limitations of archjeology ; to think of it as leaving off where history begins, is to misconceive them both. The only proper limitation upon archaeology lies in its subject matter. I conceive that it cannot further be defined than as, 'The scientific study of human remains and monuments." . . . The first duty oi the archaeologist is to discover such material and to verify it; the next is to secure its preservation, preferably its actual tangible preservation — but il that is not possible, by description. Then comei the task of studying it, classifying and arranging it, and making it ready for use. At this point the function of the archsologist ceases, and the duty of the historian begins — to interpret it, and to bring it into harmony with the recognized body of information regarding the past. . . . When the archieologist ceases from the preparation of his ma- terial, and begins the reconstruction of the past, he commences to act as an historian." — C. R. Fish, Relation of arcbceology and history, pp. 146-148. — ".Archaeology is the history of civilization told through its monuments." Even this definition nar- rows the field possibly mote than is strictly ad- visable, for archsology, or, in English parlance, the science of antiquities, is the broadest, most human and progressive of sciences. Its scope includes man and his history, the material things he has pro- duced, the causes that produced them, the stories they tell, and the feelings they evoke. New dis- coveries are constantly adding to its material, open- ing up fresh fields, and forcing revisions of opinion. Such studies as religion and mythology, history, politics and economics, arts and industries, man- ners and customs, now depend largely on archae- ology for progress not only in material but in method. ... All works of architecture, sculpture, and painting, of the industrial arts and numis- matics, everything from a tombstone to an ivory carving or an illuminated manuscript, belongs to the domain of archeology. It is impossible to say where art ends and archeology begins, because art is merely one section of the subject. . . . The process by which a work of art is characterized and given its proper place, whether it is temple, cathedral, statue, or painted vase, is made up of elements both esthetic and archaeological. For instance, the use of literary texts, of historical documents, of deductions from site, structure, cir- cumstances of find, are all in the archaeological do- main. Also when generalization as to the charac- ter of the artistic development of any period or style are made, a? in the case of Greek sculpture or Gothic architecture, nearly all the elements for the construction of a theory of artistic evolution are archaeological. By their means the monuments are marshaled in ordered array, each made to take its place and yield its secret. In other words, without archaeology as a basis and co-efficient, esthetics would not exist except in the form of subjective effusions of doubtful value. [See also .Architecture.! It is, then. archa?ology which creates the Historv of Art. Of course it is, con- 432 ARCHiEOLOGY Definition Significance ARCHEOLOGY versely, true that complete appreciation either of a single work of art or of any group cannot be se- cured without the element of esthetic understand- ir;g which every true archjeoiogist should possess. . . . Thus far archa;ology has been treated as fur- nishing the materials for exact knowledge of the past through the spade and through close study and observation. But it has done far more than this. It has developed gradually, during the course of a century and a half, certain valuable scientific meth- ods by which to utilize this material and draw from it the most valuable conclusions. With these new methods, of which it borrowed the principles from the e.xact sciences, it has inoculated the fields of history and philology, helping to rid them of much loose and hypothetical thinking. In fact, it has given a scientific and observational basis to a large part of the field of the Humanities. Its care- ful application of the inductive and deductive methods in gathering and analyzing masses of ma- terial and in using them to formulate results and to state historic laws has made its work often safer than in the case even in some fields of pure science, because its data are more abundant and complete. This has not only given their full value to what has been discovered, but it has revolutionized the views held of monuments always seen and known, but never, as we now know, clearly understood." — A. L. Frothingham, Where archwology comes in (North American Review, v. 104, Oct., igii, pp. 580-582). — "The new conception, which perhaps first came obviously forward in the discoveries of prehistoric man, is that of materialized history in place of written history. The permanence of the traces of man and of the results of his acts and works has never been grasped till the present gen- eration. Even to this day the sites of ancient cities and palaces are raked to pieces and destroyed in the search for inscriptions, regardless of the great amount of history shown in the material re- mains, often much wider and fuller than any that is recovered from inscriptions. The first use to which material history is applied is the confirma- tion and illustration of what is already recorded. . . . These confirmations are the least important use of material. The next use of material is to fill out and consolidate the fragmentary statements or bare outlines. . . . But the most valuable result from material history is the extension of it to ages before the written record of each country. So soon as man becomes a settler, and acquires anything beyond the skin and wood vessels of the nomad, he begins to lay by history; so soon as he disturbs the surface of the land by roads, entrenchments, or fields, he leaves the proof of his industry to the future, so soon as he even breaks a stone by skill and design he leaves an imperishable trace of his abilities. There is no land in which civilized man has hved, in which we cannot reconstruct his history entirely from his material remains. . . . The history of artistic influence is an immense sub- ject still awaiting study and classification, but it will be seen to form an important part of the material history of man. We may perhaps sum up by saying that material history is the only trace left of far the greater part of man's develop- ment and duration ; it is quite on a par with writ- ten history in ages where both are preserved, so far as the whole of a people is studied as a com- munity ; and the only peculiar province of writ- ten history is in dealing with individual character and influence. In the social view of history the material history is far more important than the written record as a whole; in the individualist view the written record is unapproachable, as deal- ing with the influences of the exceptional minds which advance the frontier of ideas. Each has its fit place, and each is entirely powerless in the special region ot the other means of research. The whole past of man during hundreds of thousands of years, down to the little clear fringe bordering on our own times, is entirely the province of ma- terial history ; and even down to our own age it shares with written history that power of inter- preting human action and change which is perhaps the most fascinating study that can engage our minds." — W. M. Flinders-Petrie, Archaeological evidence {Lectures on the method of science, pp. 225-230). — "The conservative historian might be tempted to object at the start that however im- portant the development of man would seem to be before the opening of history, we can unfortunately know practically nothing about it, owing to the almost total lack of documents and records. ArchKology has, of course, he would admit, re- vealed a few examples of man's handiwork which may greatly antedate the earhest finds in Egyptian tombs; some skulls and bones and even skeletons have been found, and no one familiar with the facts doubts that man was living on the earth thousands of years before the Egyptian civiliza- tion developed. But what can be known about him, except the shape of his jaw and the nature of his stone and bone utensils, which alone survive from remote periods? If we feel ill-informed about the time of Diocletian or Clovis, how base- less must be our conjectures in regard to the haoits of the cave man ! It is certainly true that the home life of the cave man is still veiled in obscurity and is likely to remain so. Nevertheless, the mass or information in regard to mankind before the ap- pearance of the earliest surviving inscriptions has already assumed imposing proportions. Its im- portance is perhaps partially disguised by the un- fortunate old term 'prehistoric' . . . However, . . . the distinction between 'historic' and 'prehis- toric' is after all an arbitrary one. 'Prehistoric' originally meant such information as we had about man before his story was taken up by Moses and Homer, when they were deemed the earliest sur- viving written sources. History, however, in the fullest sense of the term, includes all that we know of the past of mankind, regardless of the nature of our sources of information. Archseological sources, to which the student of the earlier history of man is confined, are not only frequently superior in authenticity to many written documents, but they continue to have the greatest importance after the appearance of inscriptions and books. We now accept as historical a great many things which are recorded neither in inscriptions nor in books." — J. H. Robinson, New history, pp. 84-85. — "It is from these diversified records, present and past, that the story of the race — of the seven grand divisions of human history — must be drawn. Archaeology stands quite apart from this classification of the science of man, since, . . . fit] claims for its own more especially that which is old or ancient in this vast body of data. It is even called on to pick up the lost lines of the earlier written records, as in the shadowy beginnings of glyphic and phonetic writing, and restore them to history. It must recover the secrets of the commemorative monuments — the tombs, temples, and sculptures intended to immortalize the now long-forgotten great. It must follow back the obscure trails of tradition and substantiate or discredit the lore of the fathers. It must interpret in its way, so far as interpretation is possible, the pictorial records inscribed by the ancients on rock faces and cavern walls, these being among the most lasting of pur- poseful records. [See also Painting: Meaning of 433 ARCHEOLOGY Method and Scope ARCHEOLOGY painting: Its progress. J All that archjeology re- trieves from this wide field is restored to human Knowledge and added to the volume ol written history. Archsology is thus the great retriever of history. The science of archseology is equally useful in the field of the fortuitous records of hu- manity, for its reads or interprets that which was never intended to be read or interpreted. The prod- ucts of human handicraft, present and past, which have automatically recorded the doings of the ages, are made to tell the story of the struggles, the defeats, and the triumphs of humanity. The for- tuitous records embodied in the nonmaterial pro- ducts also of man's activities are made to cast a strong light on the history and significance of the material things of the past. Even the body of knowledge gathered from many sources and stored in the memory of the living, though untrustworthy as a record, may be made, if wisely employed, to illuminate the past; and the physical and psychical man of to-day are in themselves records and may be made to tell the story of their own becoming, thus explaining the activities and the products of activity throughout the ages. All that arch£Eology Christ, while if the Greek historians had any ink- ling of the advanced civilization that developed in the ./Egean in the early second millennium, it con- sisted only of such vague suggestions as are in- corporated in the Platonic account of the lost At- lantis. Modern interest in archaeology cannot be said to be older than the seventeenth century and dates from the time of the travels in the Levant undertaken chiefly by the French and English. . . . These early travelers have given us invaluable records of numberless ruins that have long since been destroyed ; but they are not men who would initiate or advance a systematic study of objects or sites, and that great achievement was left to a German scholar, VVinckelmann, who published his 'History of Art,' the first modern work on archae- ology, in the closing years of the eighteenth cen- tury. The realization that a work of art is not an isolated phenomenon, but can be understood only in relation to its predecessors and successors, was slow to penetrate, and after the discovery of the statues of the /Eginetan pediments in 1811 Thorvaldsen was as supremely successful in recon- stituting them perfect works of art as he was in- ' ■nu^tps^■ -Mpfrop-ilif an .Muaeuri REMOVING SPECIMENS EXCAVATED FROM THEBES gathers from this wide field of research is con- tributed to the volume of written history. It is thus not only the retriever of that which was treasured and lost, but equally the revealer of vast resources of history of which no man had pre- viously taken heed." — \V. H. Holmes, Place of ar- chmology in human history (Proceedings of the Second Pan-American Scientific Congress, Jan. 8, iqi6, p. 188). Method and scope. — "Archaeology has been called the Queen of Sciences inasmuch as the science of antiquity comprises all that the mind of man in the past has conceived and then produced in concrete form, from the primitive stone axe of palajolithic times to Roman cities like Pompeii with their innumerable ramifications of complex life. Archaeology, therefore, is not limited to the .^Cgean or the Mediterranean basin, but is all-comprehen- sive in its scope, proceeding far and wide and es- tablishing branches in every continent, in far and near Asia, in Europe, North .Africa, and both Americas. . . . The scientific study of archa;ology is a purely modern development, and it has become a commonplace to assert that the ceneration now livinc knows far more about the Homeric Greeks than did the dwellers in .\thens five centuries before genious in his efforts to conceal the intention and cover the hand of the artist who made them. The result is that the statues as now exhibited in Munich are not creations of the early fifth century B. C, but such works as interpreted by an artist who lived nearly twenty-five centuries later. The sculptures of the Parthenon, brought from Greece by Lord Elgin, escaped a similar fate only through the subtle feeling and unerring taste of Canova, who refused to desecrate masterpieces; and yet as late as 1816 the English Government showed much hesitancy about purchasing these very masterpieces for the British Museum. .Artistic appreciation of these products of Greek sculpture was expressed grudgingly at first, but in due time with such measure that an incessant demand for new ex- amples led to a general ransacking of ancient sites with much consequent destruction of interpretative landmarks. Schliemann went to the Troad in search of the city of Troy and returned with the 'Treasure of Priam'; but the brutal trench that he drove through the mound revealed to him noth- ing of its history while it obliterated countless records which his successors would have prized. It is only within the past few decades that a method of archaeology has been universally rec- 4.14 ARCHEOLOGY Meihod and Scope ARCHEOLOGY ngnized and adopted, and the secret of archjEologi- cal method is the most intensively trained observa- tion. . . . Perhaps this was first realized for a Greek site with the beginning of the excavation of the Acropolis at Athens (q. v.) in 1885, where the fact was appreciated that in order to wrest its secrets from a continuously occupied citadel no mark on the stone could be overlooked and no inch of earth disregarded Moreover the results justified the method, and the history of the Acrop- olis was revelaed, to the eye that can see, almost from the time of Erecthcus to the present day. But the best illustration of the way in which ar- chsological method accomplishes remarkable re- sults may be seen in the site of Knossos in Crete. When Sir Arthur Evans began excavations here in ever uniform the training may have been, and is widely different at different periods of man's so- cial development. The mental process of observa- tion must, therefore, be immediately supplemented by physical records in the form of notes, measure- ments, drawings and photographs, which should be complete and accurate and made irrespective of preconceived theory on the subject treated. . . This developed science of archseology has as its broad aim the reconstitution of the past in the terms of the present for the use of the future, and this aim may be most easily interpreted by dis- cussing the relation of archfeology to other im- portant branches of knowledge. . . . The interrela- tions of archeology and history are very intimate. No archaeologist approaches an ancient site with Courtesy Metropolitan Museum of Art EXCAVATIONS AT THEBES, 1918-1919. Coffin of Prince Anienemhet 11)00 everything he turned up was strange and new in type. There were no parallels, no material for comparison, no resemblances in product and style to sites elsewhere, uncovered. So he was entirely dependent on inductive reasoning, which through his care in e.^cavation and closeness of observation has enabled him to reconstruct the development of Cretan civilization from a long period of stone- age occupation to an era of the highest bloom in art and culture about 2000-1800 B. C, with its subsequent decadence and practical end possibly by 1200 B C. — This archseological method with ob- servation as its basis is not limited to cities and citadels, but is equally applicable to the study of individual works of art. . . . [But] observation is not enough, because observation is a psychological phenomenon that varies with each individual, how- thc purpose of study or of excavation without per- fect familiarity with every scrap of information available in earlier writers. . . . History also re- veals important data by means of which sites have been identified and cities located. . . . Thus a knowledge of ancient, medieeval, and modern his- tory is a necessary preliminary to practical archae- ology ; but on the other hand archa:ology U the great maker of history. . . . Every inscription is a contemporary historical document ; every site ex- cavated writes a new chapter of history. But the spade has gone even further and constructed whole departments of history, which by way of distinc- tion are called protohistory and prehistory; and the prehistory of Crete furnishes us more infor- mation of man's life, actions, and social develop- ment than is available for many periods comprised 435 ARCHJEOLOGY Development ARCHiEOLOGY within historical limits." — T. L. Shear, Archa-ology as a liberal study (Columbia University Quarterly, June, IQI7, pp. 238-265). — See also /Egean crviL- IZ.^TION. Development. — "The excavations that have given us the skulls of the earliest men, the rock- pictures sonic fifteen or twenty thousand years old, and the earliest fashioned implements and potteries are archsology's contribution to anthropology and pre-history. [See also Europe: Prehistoric period: Paleolithic art] For the age when historic civiliza- tions began, at the close of the Neolithic Age, after Sooo or 4000 B. C, it is only necessary, in order to realize the revolution brought about by archseology, to pick out any ancient history written more than seventy years ago, . . . and compare it with one written during the last two or three decades. It is difficult to realize that only a little more than a century ago, almost nothing was known of ancient history prior to the days of Greece and Rome, except the account given in the Old Testament. [See also Moabites.] Following the discovery of the Rosetta Stone by one of Na- poleon's soldiers in Egypt and its decipherment by Champollion a few years later, many events in the history of Egypt became known and inter- est was aroused in other fields. [See also Archi- tecture: Oriental: Egypt; Egypt: About B.C. 1500-1400; Jerusalem: 1850-1QO0; Jews; Children of Israel in Egypt.] The rapid growth of modern science in the early years of the nineteenth century, the development of biblical criticism furnished further motives for archaeological research. The excavation and resurrection of the ancient cities of Assyria, Babylonia [see also Arciiitecture : Oriental: Mesopotamia; Babylon: Results of ex- vacations; B.ABVLONIA: Nebuchadrezzar, and Ham- urabi: His character and achievements], and Persia through the efforts of Rawlinson, Botta, Layard and others followed one after another with ever- increasing interest, while the decipherment by Raw- linson of the inscription of Behistun in 1837 opened the way for the interpretation of the whole series of inscriptions, cuneiform tablets and other records which had been unearthed. [See also Alphabet: Deciphering the hieroglyphics.] Since 1840 or 1850 archeology has practically created for us four thousand years of history: a new heaven as well as a new earth for the pre-Hellenic world. Egypt, Babylonia, Assyria, the Hittites have emerged from an almost Cim- merian darkness. We can now decipher their writings, read their literature, reconstruct their annals, religion, and life, while looking into the faces of the men and women of their race. The Northern races that entered so much later into the arena and yet were even more intangible than these Eastern nations are being unveiled by archiEology: Goths, Scandinavians, Celts [see Ogam inscriptions], Gauls, Slavs, and Germans, from the mountains of Armenia and the Caucasus to Brittany, are being shown by their archa'olo- gical remains as either half yielding to the in- fluence of Greece and Rome or maintaining their primitive integrity. Our science is helped at times by literature, but often it is obliged to seek un- aided for an answer in these fields of the primitive and undeveloped races. This illustrates how much broader as well as more faithful it is than litera- ture. . . . .After this, in the main currents of his- toric development, arch.Tology must share with literature the credit of picturing the past. Yet we hardly realize, perhaps, how little Greece would be the Greece w'e visualize if we were to depend entirely on her literature, eliminating her archi- tecture and her sculpture, the embodiments of her sense of beauty, and the minor arts which give the picture of Greek dress, jewelry, arms, and furni- ture, with all those concrete details of the daily life, the games and wars, the religious ceremonies, and the thousand and one things that literature leaves untold while telling us so much. Even Greek literature itself owes most of its recent slen- der additions to the work of the archaeologists who have unearthed the papyri preserved in the sands of the Fayum. . . . The real significance of all the material things produced by man, their relation to thought and life and their correlation to one another, is so recent and so blinding that it is hardly as yet understood that any attempt to study the world's past without their help is bound to be futile, misleading, or superficial. It is, therefore, customary to consider archaeology as a very mod- ern study, and to speak of Winckelmann as its founder after the middle of the eighteenth cen- tury. While this is true in a large and critical sense, it is interesting to note that there has been at all times a certain amount of unconscious archae- ology, and that the work of a student traveler like Pausanias, under the Antonine emperors, is even conscious archaeology. . . . When the Emperor Augustus insisted on having copies of the best works of Greek sculpture of different ages and styles made in the exact manners of the originals, including archaic works, he was obliging his sculp- tors to be archsologists. ... It would not be difficult to find examples in post-classical times; among medieval miniaturists who reproduced il- luminations several centuries old; among Renais- sance artists like Michelangelo and Raphael, who were so successful in reincarnating antique forms. It is a curious fact that the one man who can be pointed to as preceding Winckelmann to a certain extent as a real scientific archaeologist is not in the field of classical studies, but in that of Chris- tian archsology. He is Bosio, a Roman priest of the seventeenth century (1620), who originated the scientific methods by which the Roman cata- combs were made the basis for our study of early Christian life. Winckelmann's revolutionary idea was the formulation of a philosophy of the history of art and of the theory that works of art and archaeology should be studied for their own sakes, instead of as illustrations of ancient literature, and as parts of a well-ordered whole instead of as unrelated objects of curiosity. It appears to be forgotten that what he did for a History of Ancient .'\rt the Frenchman Seroux d'.'Xgincourt attempted immediately after to do for the entire post-classic age. It seems also to be forgotten by many that, while Winckelmann's methods w'ere published be- tween 1760 and 1767, they did not bear full fruit until after the founding at Rome in 1828 of the International .'\rchsological Institute, with its splen- did series of publications and its co-ordination of effort. Ottfried Miiller gave, in 1830, the synthesis of the new movement in his Manual of the archa- otogy of art. In the great era of excavation which had been opened by the discovery of Her- culaneum in 171Q and continued at Pompeii after 1748, the increased knowledge of Roman art was paralleled by additional revelations regarding Greek sculpture through the bringing to Western Europe of the archaic sculptures of ^Egina and those of Phigaleia and the Parthenon. Very soon the opening of numerous tombs in Italy disclosed the wonderful minor arts of Hellas and Etruria, especially in jewelry and painted vases. While these early excavations previous to 1850 were in the nature of looting forays, they afforded to archaeologists for the first time a fairly well- rounded survey of the various branches of the 436 ARCHiEOLOGY Fields of Research ARCHEOLOGY art and industry of Greece and of the peoples connected with her. The scholars of the Roman Institute tool; instant advantage of this, and to their inspiration was largely due the immediate emulation in discovery of France, Germany, and England. Previous centuries had been content to travel and study what was above ground. The new school realized that what was visible was but a small fraction of what could be unearthed. At the same time there was no surcease in explora- tion. The new science gave different eyes for of Austrian, English, and German excavators the Greek cities of Asia Minor gave unexpectedly fruitful finds at Pergamon, Halicarnassus, Miletus, Ephesus, Priene, and Magnesia. At Priene an entire city of the Alexandrian age was laid bare. In several of these Asia Minor cities, and in others whose ruins are above ground, we can also study the amalgamation of Greek and Roman civiliza- tion. Then a revelation of the purely Roman work of extending civilization came in the exploration of the abandoned cities of Central Syria [see AscA- EXCAVATIONS IN ANCIENT BABYLON The Esaglia Temple built to the god Marduc understanding the things above ground. There were also important regions of Asia Minor, Syria, and Roman Africa which had never been archse- ologically explored. Even now this work has not been completed. The founding of the German and French archaeological schools at Athens gave a great impetus to excavation, especially after the spectacular success of Dr. Schliemann at Troy and Mycenae, and that of the Germans at Olym- pia. [See ^gean civilization: Excavations and antiquities; Troy.1 In quick succession came Eleu- sis, Epidaurus, Delos, and Delphi. In the hands lon], and in the . . . excavation of those in North Africa through the occupation by the French of Algeria and Tunisia. At the same time the period immediately following, the age of the incubation of Christianity, was revealed in the exploration of the Roman catacombs by de Rossi and his masterly unveiling of their secrets. The sharpening of the critical and intuitive faculties upon this mass of new material affected, as we saw in the case of Gothic architecture, the attitude of schol- ars toward the rest of the field, especially those of the Medieval and Renaissance periods, where 4?>7 ARCHEOLOGY American Field ARCHAEOLOGY there was little to uncover, but where application of the new historico-scientific methods effected quite as radical a revolution in the ability to un- derstand and correlate the monuments. ISee also Architecture: Classic] Between about 1850 and i860 it may be said that the New Idea had pene- trated every field and was being embodied in the literature of the subject, and especially well in such general histories of the monuments as Kugler and Schnaase. In each country a solid basis was being given to the history and science of the national antiquities by the organization of asso ciations, by congresses, and by the new chairs for teaching the subject at the universities and eveii the schools. In this process the science and its irresistible trend is everything ; the individual is of small account. Yet certain archaeologists of the last fifty years emerge as among the greatest scholars that the world has seen, directing the current and setting a permanent seal upon men and things. Such men were Mommsen, who practically created the science of Roman antiquities and his- tory; de Rossi, who gave us a complete science of Early Christian archaeology ; Evans, who has brought into being both the material and the sci- ence of Early .•Egean civilization. Hundreds are following the paths they have blazed. In Euro- pean universities the teaching of archaeology as an independent department has long been recognized and is also carried on sometimes, as in the Ecole du Louvre, in connection with large museums. Special courses in Egyptian, Babylonian and Assyrian, Greek, Roman, Christian, Medieval, and Renais- sance monuments in many branches, have been well established for thirty or forty years throughout Europe. Only American institutions have remained indifferent and retrograde. In the rank and file of workers the Germans show the greatest perti- nacity in elaborating special themes ; the French are paramount in clear-eyed and facile exposition without loss of scholarship." — A. L. Frothingham, Where archaeology comes in (North American Re- view, V. 194, Oct., iqii, pp. 577, 578, 584-587). Remains in Britain and Ireland. See Ave- bury; SrcNEitENCE. Relics of Buddha. See Buddha: Discovery of birthplace and tomb. Paintings in caves of Altamira. See Painting: Preclassical. Importance of the American field. — "In Amer- ican archeology man in the cultural process is the unit of investigation. This establishes the limits of the science. Its subject matter lies mainly in the prehistoric period, but this must be studied in the light of auxiliary sciences which have for their field of investigation the living people. It necessitates the study of all phenomena that will add to our knowledge of the intellectual attainments of the native .American races or illustrate the evo- lution of their culture. It aims at a reconstruc- tion and interpretation of the order of civilization existing in America before the Caucasian occupancy. . . . The first task of the archaeologist is to rescue the material and intellectural remains of the peo- ple whose history he is seeking to restore. It can never be hoped that a continuous record will be recovered, but the greater the amount of material secured the more nearly complete can it be made. But archaeological research is more than the re- covery and study of material. As history is not only a recital of events but an inquiry into their genesis, it is imperative to investigate and describe all phenomena upon which such events are condi- tioned. Therefore it is the belief of the writer that physiographic conditions are essentially correlative with facts of culture, that physical and psvrhic causes are to be held in the closest possible relation if we are to correctly interpret the intellectual re- mains of the native races of America, whether in the form of myth, ritual and symbolism of plains and desert tribes, or in architectural, sculptural, pictorial, and glyphic remains of the Mexican and Central American civilization." — E. L. Hewett, Groundwork of American archaeology (American Anthropologist, Oct., iqoS, pp. 5Q1-5QS). — See also America: Prehistoric. . "Perhaps no better indication of the importance I of American archaeology can be given than to refer " to several of the questions which it and it only can solve. Among them are these, — ist. Who were the mound builders, especially of the Ohio region and other places where great heaps of dirt and stone seem to be effigies and represent ::nimals of different kinds, or, as at Seltzertown in Mis- sissippi, are terraced with architectural skill? Were they the same as Indians of historic times, or were they a separate race ? If the former, were they not of Choctaw and Cherokee origin, as Brinton concludes? 2nd. Whence came the red men of this continent ? Were they a separate creation or did they immigrate from other con- tinents? If they did, was the Pacific slope crossed from China and Polynesia, and was the great Mississippi basin settled from some eastern source, or were all the red men of one stock ? Here geology must tell us as to the connection of the continents in tertiary times. 3rd. There being evidently, as we have seen, a number of races on this continent, what were their inter-migrations? Did they come from North to South or East to West? And what were the limits of these move- ments? On this the spread of agriculture, partic- ularly of maize and tobacco, native only to Te- huantepec, may throw great light, while strange to say the banana seems to come to America with the whites. This becomes a part of the interesting study of the distribution of plants on the earth 4th. What were the limits and boundaries of the historic tribes? Language is teaching us something, but only by a systematic study of the districts inhabited by the respective tribes can we solve this with any satisfaction. 5th. What degree of civil- ization had been attained by these different tribes? What advance had Chickasaws made over the Choctaws or the Creeks over the Cherokees? How do all compare with those of Mexico and Yucatan? 6th. There is one matter of greater interest and greater value than all the other; and yet it is seldom thought of. It is this, — can we recon- struct the primeval speech of the inhabitants of America ? If we can, we shall contribute more than we imagine to the archaeology of the whole world. This was first pointed out by Wilhelm Von Humboldt, and in our own times by D. (^ Brinton. The reason is that the Indian languages seem to be based upon a different plan from those of any other continent. What was the speech of primeval man is a curious question but so far utterly insoluble. It is thought we can see on the earth's surface a few primary linguistic stocks. ... It is the opinion of many good scholars that the Indians when first discovered by Europeans had preserved their ancient languages and lan- guage plan better than any other races on the globe. Even yet two hundred independent stocks are known. If this is so, a study of their lan- guages presents a unique field, one which will carry us further back into the archreologic past then any other linguistic stock. This feature of .American archsology has not been sufficiently no- ticed. The har\'est truly is plentiful, but the la- borers are few. Finally therefore in studying 438 ARCHiEOLOGY American Field Chronology ARCHEOLOGY Indian antiquities we are carrying ourselves further back into the past of the human race, getting closer to the primitive savage, than is possible in the study of any other tribes on the globe, and be- coming better able to decipher the beginnings of all human civilization than is possible in any other way!" — P. J. Hamilton, Importance of ar- chaeology, pp. 263-264. — "It is sufficient for me, in order to show wliat. significant impulses have pro- ceeded from both the archeology and the ethnog- raphy of America, to recall to you that the whole modern development of primitive sociology took its real beginning from the investigations of Lewis H. Morgan into the tribal constitution of the Iroquois, and that in the most recent researches into the philosophy of religion the old Mexican belief is beginning to play an increasingly important part. American archeology and ethnography are also of the greatest importance to general eth- nology. . . . For that science, also, which tries to search out the mysteries of the laws which have governed the human mind in its development from its obscure beginnings, the observations which we have made or are in a position to make on Ameri- can soil will be of greater importance than those made in any other part of the world. For the observations made here have all the advantages of pure experiment. That is the special privilege of American studies, and the special interest which attaches to them. To provide the material for that comprehensive science, the study of the human race as a whole is thus not only the real and greatest task of American archeology, but also its most rewarding. It will be a great joy to me if the conviction of this shall spread in ever wider circles, and bring to American archeology the new laborers of which it still has such pressing need." — G. E. Seler, Problems of archeology (Congress of Arts and Sciences, 1Q04, pp. 540-541.) — "There is an awakening to the place of the native American race in culture history which Americanists are happy to see and encourage. There is a destiny for the American Indians more honorable than to be exploited as material for stirring fiction and spectacular exhibition. They are being recognized as representatives of a race of splendid works and noble characteristics — a people who, in spite of the appalling adversities of the last four centuries, may look forward to a future on the high plane of their ancient traditions. Masterpieces of art worthy of presentation to the public in museums, galleries, and publications devoted to art and culture ; archi- tecture which in design and construction com- mands the admiration of the master-builders of today ; systems of government and religion, ideals of right and practice of justice matching the most exalted that civilization has brought forth — these are achievements of the Indian race worthy of the consideration of the educated. Classical archae- ology has long had its constituency of scholars, consistently true to the ancient shrines, keeping alive the literature, art and drama of the people who set standards for the modern world. There has been no lack of capable exponents for every branch of Caucasian culture through its own racial eyes and mind and forms of expression. The Indian race has had few to maintain its sacred fires. The disposition has been to put them out rather than to preserve them. History affords no parallel to the absolute, relentless subjugation of an entire race inhabiting a whole continent. It has been interpreted to the world almost wholly by its alien conquerors; less and less unsympathet- ically as years go by, and in some instances with rare understanding, but, nevertheless, by those of other blood. ... It would do no harm to forget most of the efforts that have been made to explain the Indian race and let its works tell the story. . . . Literary record is absent and vocal representation not much used. But these can be spared, for the race has, like every other, revealed itself in its art. There was no conscious effort to do it. So the picture is true. What the race actually thought, felt, did, is clear. Words would only obscure it. The vast archaeological heritage from the unknown .America of two or three millenniums furnishes an authentic history of the Indian people. It is their own picture of themselves, their testimony as to how they met and tried to solve the problems that all humanity has confronted. There has been a singular tendency to think of the ancient master- works of the race found in Mexico [see Mitla], Central .'\merica and South America, as other than Indian art. It is necessary to repeat . . . that all native American remains, whether of plains, tribes, mound-builders, cliff-dwellers, Pue- blo, Navaho, Toltec, Aztec, Maya [see Aztec and Maya picture-writing], Inca [see Peru: 1200- 1527], are just the works of the Indian. Plain fic- tion and romantic archaeology have a firm hold on the reading public. The most homogeneous of all racial art is that of the .'\merican Indian. Chronologically it is without serious gaps, and ethnologically it is unbroken. . . . The Indian race and its achievements, then, constitute America's archaeological heritage. It has a very intimate and particular interest to us in the United States where we have forcibly intervened in its destiny and where it is being slowly incorporated into our citizenship. . . . Viewed from any standpoint it is a noble heritage that comes down to us from the long past of America — a heritage of experience, of thought, of expression, recorded in art, religion, social order ; results of fervent aspiration and mighty effort; a race pressing its way toward the sun. Its study is the finest aspect of the con- servation movement — the conservation of human- ity; an attempt to rescue and preserve the life history of a great division of the human species." — E. L. Hewett, America's archceological heritage {.Art and archceology, Dec, 1Q16, pp. 257-266). For description and bibliography of archaeo- logical research and antiquities, see names of the various continents, peoples and countries; also Architecture; Painting; Sculpture. Chronology of important events in the devel- opment of archaeological research: 1762-1816. Stuart and Revett's "Antiquities of .Athens" (4 vols.). 1764. Winckelmann's "Geschichte der Kunst des Altertums." I7Q7. Treaty of Tolentino: Roman antiques de- livered to France. 1708-1801. Bonaparte's Expedition to Egypt; London acquires the Rosetta Stone. I7gg. Pompeii: excavations by Championnet. 1800-3. Athens: Elgin works there. 1801. Opening of the Musee Napoleon. 1804. Paris: Societe des Antiquaires de France. 1805. London acquires the Townley collection. 1807. Wilkins, "Antiquities of Magna Gracia." Pompeii: excavations under Queen Caro- line. 1811-12. ^gina: pediment groups of the tem- ple; acquired by Munich. 1812. Burckhardt discovers Petra. 1812-14. Bassi: the frieze; acquired by London. 1815. Visconti, "Memoires sur des ouvrages de sculpture du Parthenon." 1816. The British Museum acquires the Elgin Marbles. 439 ARCHiEOLOGY Chronology of Research ARCHJEOLOGY 1816. The antiques of the Musee Napoleon are returned. 181 6-1 7. Laborde, "Monuments de la France." 1818. Quatremere, "Lettres a M. Canova." 1820. Aphrodite of Melos. 182 1. Nibby recognizes the groups of Galatians from Pergamon. 1821-2. The Athenian Acropolis bombarded by V'outier. 1822. 1824. Gerhard in Rome: in Etruria. 1823. Panofka in Rome; Society of the Roman Hyperboreans. 1826. The Athenian Acropolis bombarded by Reshid Pasha. 1827. Corneto; wall paintings. 1828-9. \'ulci: mural paintings; discovery of vases 182S-30. Egypt: Italian expedition under the direction of Rosellini and Champollion. 1S29. Rome: Institute di corrispondenza arche- ologica. Olympia: French excavations at the Tem- ple of Zeus. 1830. The conquest of Algeria begun. The Crimea: Dulrux opens the Kul Oba, near Kertch. Opening of the Museum in Berlin and the Glyptothek in Munich. 1831. Pompeii: mosaic, Alexander the Great. 1832. Thomsen distinguishes the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age. 1833-6. Athens: clearing of the citadel by Ross. 1834. Dodwell, "Views of Cyclopian Remains." 1834-42. Serradifalco, "Archita della Sicilia." 1835. Athens: reconstruction of the Temple of Apteros Nike. 1836. Cervetri: the Regulini-Galassi Tomb. 1837. Rawlinson deciphers the inscription of Behistun. Athens: Pennethorne discovers the horizon- tal curves on the Parthenon. Athens: Founding of Greek Archaeolog- ical Society. Kramer on "The Origin and Style of Greek Painted Pottery." 1838-44. Fellows travels in Lycia. 1830. Discovery of the Sophocles statue. 1 840- 1. Coste and Flandin travel in Persia. 1842. Luni: pediment groups of terra-cotta. London acquires the Nereid Monument from Xanthos. 1S43-4, 1845. Ross in Rhodes; inscriptions of artists; work in Cyprus. 1843-5. Egypt: Lepsius directs the Prussian ex- pedition. 1843-6. Khorsabad excavated by Botta. 1845-7. Layard excavates Niirfrud. 1846. Halicarnassos: reliefs sent to London. The Apollo of Tenea discovered. First find at Hallstatt. Boucher de Perthes begins a prehistoric publication. Athens: ficole Frangaise. 1848. Rome: paintings of the Odyssey in the Via Graziosa. 184Q. Rome: the Apoxyomenos of Lysippos. Rome: discovery of the Catacomb of Calixtus by De Rossi. 184Q-51. Excavations at Kuyunjik by Layard and Rassam. 1849-52, 1853-5. Loftus in Babylonia. 1851. Penrose, "An Investigation of the Prin- ciples of Athenian Architecture." 1851-5. Memphis: Marielte discovers the Sera- peum. 1852. The Heraion near Argos examined. Beginning of the excavations in southern Russia. 1852-3. Athens: Beule uncovers the approach to the citadel. 1S53. First discoveries in caves in southern France. The Marsyas of Myron recognized by Brunn. Vienna: Commission appointed for in- vestigating and preserving architectural monuments. 1854. First discovery of pile-dwellings in Switzerland. Sardes: Spiegelthal examines the Tomb of Alyattes. 1855-bo. Pompeii: the Stabian Therms. 1857. Halicarnassos: Newton uncovers the Mausoleum. 1858. Athens: Odeion of Herodes .\tticus. 1859. Eleusinian relief discovered. Lenormant discovers statuette of Athene. London acquires vases from Karaeiros (Salz- mann). i860. Renan travels in Phcrnicia. Cyrene: Smith and Porcher. 1860-75. Pompeii: Fiorelli directs the excava- tions. 1861-2. Delphi: Foucart and Wescher. De Vogue travels in the Hauran. 1861-9. Rome; excavations on the Palatine. 1862. Athens: Botticher (Acropolis), Curtius (Pnyx), and Strack (theatre). 1862-3. Nikopol: discoveries of tombs. 1S63. Rome: Augustus from Prima Porta. Samothrace: Nike (Champoiseau) . Kirchoff, "Studien zur Geschichte des grie- chischen Alphabets" (Chalcidian vases). Friedrichs recognizes the Doryphoros of Polykleitos. 1864. Thasos: Miller. First discoveries at La Tene. 1565. Rome: the temple on the Capitoline. .Alexandria: the sanctuary of Arsinoe. 1566. Smintheion and Temple of Athene at Pricnc: PuUan. 1S66-Q. Humann in Asia Minor. 1S67-9. Cyprus: Cesnola. 1865. Schliemann visits the Homeric sites. Hildeshcim: discover}' of the silver treas- ures. i860. Rome: House of Livia. 1860-74. Ephesus: Wood discovers the Arte- mision. 1S70. Brunn recognizes the statues from the vo- tive offering of .Aittalos. Conze, "Zur Geschichte der Anfange der griechischen Kunst" (Geometric style). 1870-71. .'Vthens: the Street of Tombs at the Dipylon ; vases. 1870-4. Tanagra; the discovery of terra-cottas. 1871. Troy: Schliemann. The Archsological Institute becomes a Prussian government institution. Helbig recognizes the Diadumcnos of Poly- kleitos. 1S72. Rome: the reliefs of the tribune in the Forum. 1873. Samothrace: .\ustrian excavations. Mau distinguishes the periods of Pom- pcian wall paintings. Helbig, "Untcrsuchungen iiber die cam- panische VVandmalerei" (Hellenism). 1S74. Mycens: Schliemann. The German Archsological Institute be- comes an imperial institution. 1875. Samothrace: Austrian excavations. 440 ARCHiEOLOGY Chronology of Research ARCHEOLOGY 1875-80. Olympia: German excavations. 1875-6. Rome: Temple of the Capitoline Jupi- ter. 1876. Athens: Asklepieion: tower removed from south wing of Propylaea. La Tene: beginning of excavations. 1877. Olympia: the Hermes of Praxiteles. Sparta: Myceneean finds. 1877-94. Delos: French excavations. 1877-1007. Carnuntum: excavations. 1878. Troy: Schliemann a second time. Knossos: Kalokairinos' excavations. Andreas at Persepolis. 1878-86. Pergamon: Prussian excavations. 1879. Samos: Girard investigates the Heraion. London: Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies. Boston: Archaeological Institute of Amer- ica. 1870-81. Duhn collects remains of the Augustan Ara Pacis. 1880. Flinders Petrie begins to work in Egypt. Delphi: Haussoullier. Orchomenos: Schliemann. Menidi: vaulted tomb. F. Lenormant in Southern Italy. 1880-2. Myrina: French excavations. 18S1. Clermont-Ganneau travels in Phcenicia. Maspero begins to work in Egypt. Dijrpfeld, Borrmann, and others study col- oured architectural terra-cottas. Tunis under a French protectorate. Constantinople: Museum in the Tchinili- Kiosk. 1881-3. Assos: American excavations. 1881-1903. Hieron of Epidauros: Greek excava- tions. 1882. Caria and Lycia: Austrian excavations (Giblbashi). Sardes: Dennis opens a tumulus. Clazomenai: first painted terra-cotta sar- cophagi found. Samos: conduits of Eupalinos. Wilson visits Petra. Robert distinguishes a class of vases as of Polygnotan style. Athens: American School of Classical Studies. London: Egypt Exploration Fund. 1882-90. Eleusis: Greek excavations. Adamklissi: Rumainian sxcavations. 1884. Crete: the grotto of Zeus on Mt. Ida, Italian excavations. Tiryns: Schliemann. Athens: Stamatakes begins excavations on the Acropolis. Wright, "Empire of the Hittites." Dorpfeld elucidates the most ancient Greek architecture. 1885. Athens: British School. Dorpfeld on the Propylaea. 1885-91. Athens: Kavvadias directs excavations on the Acropolis. 1S86. Athens: statue of a woman by Antenor. 1886. 1889, 1895. Athens, Dionysic Theatre, Dorpfeld. 1887. Sidon: Tombs of princes, Alexander sar- cophagus. Tell-el-Amarna: Archives on clay tablets. Fayum: the first paintings on mummies. Delphi: Pomtow. Eleusis: Eubouleus. Rome: Ludovisi marble throne. 1887-8. Athens: the Stoa of Eumenes. Mantineia: French excavations, Praxitelean reliefs. 1888. Vaphio, near Sparta: Greek excavations, Mycenaean gold cups found. Senjirli: first German excavations. 1888-99. Marzabotto: Italian excavations plan of city. 1888-1900. Babylonia (Nippur): American ex- cavations. 1889. Neandreia: Koldewey. Locroi: Italian excavations (Ionian tem- ple). 1889-90. Sikyon: American excavations (thea- tre). 1890. Tell-el-Hesy: Flinders Petrie 's excava- tions. Troy: Schliemann works there a third time. 1890-1. Sinjirli: further German excavations. Megalopolis: British excavations. 1800-3. Rome: investigations on the Pantheon. 1891. Delphi: agreement with France. Rome: statue of Apollo found in the Tiber. 1891-3. Magnesia: excavations of the Berlin Museum. 1892-4. Sicily and lower Italy: Koldeway and Puchstein investigate temple ruins. 1892-5. Heraion, near Argos: American excava- tions. 1892-7. Athens: German excavations on the Pnyx. 1892-1903. Investigations of the Ge/manic Limes. 1893. Furtwangler recognizes the Lemnir.n Athene of Phidias. 1893-4. Troy: Ddrpfela. 1S93-1901. Delphi: French excavations. 1894. Senjirli: German excavations. Samos: Bohlau investigates the Necropolis. Rome: Peterson reconstructs the Ara Pacis. 1894-5. Pompeii: House of the Vettii. Boscoreale: villa rustica; the silver treas- ure. 1894-6. Deir-el-Bahari: Temple of Hatshepsut. 1895. Tell-el-Amarna: British excavations (.\m- enhotcp IV). Borchardt begins work in Egypt. 1895-6. Didymaion: French excavations. 1895-9. Priene: excavations of the Berlin Museum. 1896-7. Athens: the grotto of Pan, northwest corner of the Acropolis. 1896-1901. Thera: Hiller von Gartringen. 1S96-1907. Ephesos: Austrian excavations. 1897. Nagada: tomb of Menes. Susa: French excavations. 1897-9. Thermos: Greek excavations. 1898. Vienna: Austrian Archaeological Institute Berlin: Deutsche Orient Gesellschaft. 189S-9. Alexandria: German excavations. 1899. Megara: German excavations, fountain. Preuner recognizes the Ai;ias of Lysippos. 1899, 1904. Howard Crosby Butler travels in Syria. Baalbec: German investigations. 1899-1907. Babylon: excavations by the Deutsche Orient Gesellschaft. Miletos: excavations by the Berlin Museum. iQoo. Antikythera: recovery of bronze statues from the sea. 1900-8. Knossos: Arthur Evans. Pergamon; new German excavations. 1901. Waldstein recognizes the Hera of Poly- kleitos. ^gina: Bavarian excavations of the Tem- ple. Romano-Germanic commission of the Archaeological Institute. 441 ARCHjEOLOGY ARCHILOCHUS 1902. Samos: Greek excavations at the Heraion. Delos: the French resume their excavations. Treu recognizes the Maenad of Scopas. Peterson, Ara Pacis Augustae. 1902-4. Kos: German excavations of Askle- pieion. Abusir: Borchardt investigates pyramids. Tell-Taanek: .Austrian excavations. Lindos: Danish excavations on the citadel. .\rgos: Dutch excavations. 1902-5. Geser: British excavations. 1903. Pergamon: head of the Hermes by .M- kamenes found. 1903-4. Rome: excavations to recover the .Ara Pacis. 1903-7- Assur: excavations by the Deutsche Orient Gesellschaft IQ04. Karnak: ancient statues found. Deir-el-Bahari: Temple of the Dead of Mentuhotep. 1004-8. Leukas-Ithaca: Dorpfeld's excavation. 1006. Abyssinia: German expeditions. 1907. Jericho: .Austrian excavation. 1908. A. Evans excavating at Knossos. German School excavating at Pergamon. French School excavating at Delos. British School excavating at Sparta. American School excavating at Corinth American School excavating at Moklos in Crete. Austri n School excavating at Ephesus. 1910. Opening of School of .American Arch<e- ology. 1914-19. Research suspended by World War. 1020. Work resumed by British, .American, and French Schools in Mediterranean area. The above table with many omissions and some additions is taken from .A. Michaelis, Century of archdological discoveries, pp. 341-352. Except for the maintenance of a very small staff, the various schools excavating in Egypt, Greece. Italy, Syria and other places of arch<E- ological interest, were forced to suspend their ivork during the World War and are only now. in 1921, beginning to resume work on a normal basis. The war has in some ways opened up many new avenues of research, as for example the concordat of cooperation agreed upon between the British and .American schools in Jerusalem; great results, consequcntlv, arc anticipated in the near future, ARCHAGET.a;, Spartan kings. Sec Sp.^rta: Constitution ascribed to Lycurgus. ARCHANGEL, a town of European Russia, capital of the government of the same name, the only large seaport on the north coast of Russia. From its settlement in the sixteenth century by English traders it flourished until the time of Peter the Great, who sacrificed its development for the benefit of St. Petersburg (Petrograd), which supplanted .Archangel as the sole seaport of Russia at that time The United States commer- cial attache at Petrograd, Mr. H. D Baker, de- scribes the startling rise of .Archangel to com- mercial eminence a year after the opening of the World War in Commerce Reports CWashinf,- tpn: GovernmenI PrintitiR Office): "Previous to the war the trade of this port was confined to comparatively small exports of timber, fish, furs, and other local products of northern Russia, and a relatively small return movement of goods re- quired for local consumption. Xow, however, .Archangel is the only port of European Russia open for foreign business by direct sea communi- cation. . . . From a comparatively unimportant port about a year ago, dependent chiefly upon its 44 sawmills and fishing fleet for prosperity, it has suddenly become one of the most important ports in the world, rivaling even New York in the number and tonnage of ships arriving and depart- ing between about May i and the close of ice-free navigation. . . . The river begins freezing in October, but is expected to be kept open from Archangel out through the White Sea till Decem- ber." Archangel was the most northerly point in the railroad system of Europe until 191b when the Murmansk railroad was built In 1918 a force of English, French and .Americans seized the city and outlying district to keep it and its ac- cumulated military stores from falling into the hands of the Russian Soviet government. The city later became the headquarters of various mili- tary undertakings launched against the Russian Soviet government. — See also Russia: 1918-1020: .Anti-Bolshevik movement; and Map; World War, 1918: III. Russia: d. ARCHAVA, captured by the Russians during the World War. See World War: 1916: VI. Turkish theater: d, 1. ARCHBISHOP, or Metropolitan, in the Cath- olic hierarchy, is a bishop in a metropolis, who, in addition to the government of his own diocese, controls the bishops of other simple dioceses within a definite district. (See Bishop: Investiture: Au- thority.) In the .Anglican church there are two archbishops, those of York and Canterbury. In the Episcopal church in .America, it was proposed in 1020 that there be an archbishop at Washington to act as the supervisory head of the church in .America. See Christianity: 312-337. ARCHCHANCELLOR (Latin, archicancel- larius), a title held by the highest official of the Holy Roman Empire ; of modern interest mainly because the officer was the i)rototype of the power- ful imperial German chancellor, 1871-1018. ARCHDEACON, an oflicial of the Christian church, with executive powers subordinate to the bishop. ".Above the rural dean we find the arch- deacon, an officer placed over a larger group of parishes and vested with much more extensive functions." — E. Emcrton. Mediceval Europe, p. 553. ARCHDUKE, the title of princes of the im- perial family of .Austria. See .Austria: Singularity of .Austrian historv. ARCHELAUS (413-399 B.C.), king of Mace- donia. Conducted internal reforms, organized the army : fostered the spread ol Greek civilization by entertaining celebrated men at his court. — See also Greece: B. C. 8th-5th centuries: Growth of Sparta. ARCHELAUS OF CAPPADOCIA, general of Mithradates the Great in the war with Rome. In 87 B. C. he was sent to Greece and was defeated by Sulla in two battles; deserted to the Roman side in the second and third wars. — See also MiTHRAOATir Wars. ARCHERY: Use of bows as weapons. Sec Longbow, ARCHIDAMUS, the name of five Spartan rulers of the Eurypontid line The best known are the following: Archidamus II, ruled 476-427 B.C. Tried to avert the Peloponnesian War; invaded .Attica, 4^1-4:9- See Grf.f.ce: B.C. 477-461; 43i; 429-427- Archidamus III, 360.3.^8 B. C. Led the relief force sent to the battle of Lcuctra; defeated the Arcadians and their allies in the "tearless battle" and captured Caryae, 367; defended Sparta against Epaminondas. Archidamus IV, defeated in 294 B. C. at Man- tineia bv Demetrius Poliorcetes. ARCHILOCHUS, Greek lyric poet and writer ARCHIMEDES ARCHITECTURE of scathing lampoons, who lived in the seventh century B. C. He contributed much to met- rical form, especially the iambic and its application to satiric verse. ARCHIMEDES (c. 287-212 B.C.), celebrated Greek geometrician and inventor of antiquity. He invented the spiral water-screw, known as the screw of Archimedes, and discovered the principle of the lever. By means of engines of war which he invented, he aided King Hiero in delaying the fall of Syracuse when attacked by Marcellus, the story being (erroneously) that he burned the Roman fleet by means of mirrors. Archimedes was killed in the final capture of Syracuse. — See also Hellenism: Science and invention; Science: Development of science: Ancient Greek science. ARCHIPRESBYTER, an administrative office in the Christian church, between the parish clergy and the archdeacon. "The immediate execution of the episcopal orders was intrusted to the care of an official called the arch-priest (arcliipresbyter) or rural dean {decanns ruralis). himself a parish clergyman, but set over a group of other parishes as inspector of church life in general and with certain minor judicial functions." — -E. Emerton, Medimval Europe, p. 553. ARCHITECTURE Definition of Architecture. — "The art of architecture has been defined very variously. It was defined by Mr Garbett as 'the art of well building; in other words, of giving to a building all the perfection of which it is capable.' Mr. Ru.'-kin defined it as 'the art which so disposes and adorns the edifices raised by man, for whatever uses that the sight of them may contribute to his mental health, power, and pleasure.' In the .'\merican Dictionary of Architecture and Building ments. Now these two operations, the prelimi- nary and the subsequent one, may be carried on by the same individual, or they may not. . . . When a large and important building is erected nowa- days, one and the same man docs not undertake both divisions of the work; one part of the work is handed over to one man, the other part to another; in modern parlance the first is the archi- tect, the second the builder. And wc may be sure that at all periods when any great building was .STONEHENOK Probal'ly erected in i6So U.C. (1901) it is defined as 'the art of building with some elaboration and skilled labour; and, in a more limited sense, as 'the modification of the structure, form, and colour of houses, churches, and civic buildings, by means of which they become interesting as works ot fine art.' But it can hardly be held that there is one art of making things well and another of making them badly. There is not one art of mak- ing clothes that fit and another art of making misfits. One and the same art makes flower-pots for the gardener and Worcester ware for the con- noisseur. So it is with Architecture. It is simply 'the art of building.' Good architecture is indeed the art of building beautifully and expressively; and bad architecture is the reverse. But archi- tecture is the art of building in general. . . . This seems clear enough. But as a matter of fact the definition contains an ambiguity in the use of the term 'building.' In the erection of every edifice the work necessarily falls into two parts. There is the preliminary process of planning and de- signing the buildings, and, it may be, of making drawings, whether rough sketches, or drawings to scale or full size, as well as that of superintend- ence. There is also the actual putting together of the materials by manual labour and the ma- chinery so as to form roofs, supports, and abut- erected, there was a similar division of func- tions. ... To be accurate therefore, we must not, except in comparatively small and unimportant work, define 'architecture' as 'the art of building,' but as 'the art of planning, designing, and drawing buildings, and of directing the execution thereof.' " — F. Bond, Gothic architecture in England, pp. 1-2. PREHISTORIC "Structures of the prehistoric period, although interesting for archsological reasons, have little or no architectural value. . . . The remains may be classified under: — I. Monoliths, or single up- right stones, also known as menhirs. ... II. Dol- mens (Daul, a table, and maen, a stone), con- sisting of one large flat stone supported by up- right stones. . . . III. Cromlechs, or circles of stone, as at Stonehenge, Avebury (Wilts), and elsewhere, consisting of a series of upright stones arranged in a circle and supporting horizontal slabs. IV. Tumuli, or burial mounds, were prob- ably prototypes of the Pyramids of Egypt. V. Lake Dwellings as discovered in the lakes of Swit- zerland, Italy and Ireland consisted of wooden huts supported on piles, so placed for protection against hostile attacks of all kinds. These fore- 443 ARCHITECTURE, ORIENTAL Egypt ARCHITECTURE, ORIENTAL going primitive or prehistoric remains have little constructive sequence, and are merely mentioned here to show from what simple beginnings the noble art of architecture was evolved." — B. Fletcher and B. F. Fletcher, History oj architecture on the comparative method, p. 3. America. — Architecture of American aborigines. See Indians, American: Cultural areas in Mexico and Central America: Maya area; Mexico: Aborig- inal peoples; Pueblos. ORIENTAL Egypt: General characteristics. — Principal re- mains. — -"W'e shall not attempt in such limited space, to trace the development of architecture during the successive dynasties of Egyptian histon.-, but merely to note the conditions of climate, re- ligion, and materials which gave rise to the style; their massiveness that we realize their height. The obelisk, which is the only aspiring form in Egyp- tian architecture, is also the only one which has no counterpart in nature, and is distinctly a prod- uct of the imagination." — M. Brimmer, Three es- says on the history, religion and art oj ancient Egypt, P- b2- "The brilliancy of light led to adopting an architecture of blank walls without windows. The reflected light through open doorways was enough to show most interiors ; and for chambers far from the outer door, a square open- ing about six inches each way in the roof, or a slit along the wall a couple of inches high, let in sufficient light. The results of this system were, that as the walls were not divided by structural fea- tures, they were dominated by the scenes that were carved upon them. . . . The most gigantic buildings had their surfaces crowded with delicate TEMPLE OF LUXOR AT THEBES An example of Egyptian architecture © Publisbsre' Photo Service and to note the principal examples of it remain- ing. The essential conditions in Egypt are be- fore all, an overwhelming sunshine; next, the strongest of contrasts between 3 vast sterility of desert and the most prolific verdure of the narrow plain; and thirdly, the illimitable level lines of the cultivation, of the desert plateau, and of the limestone strata, crossed by the vertical precipices on either hand rising hundreds of feet without a break."— W. M. F. Petrie, Arts and crafts of an- cient Egypt, p. 2. — "Thus the outlines of the pyramid, of the flat-roofed temple with its mas- sive columns and of the rock tomb must have been familiar to the eye of the early Egyptian architect from the natural forms about him. The Sphinx itself stands prefigured in its general outline by the hand of nature. Both the scenery and archi- tecture of Egypt convey the same general impres- sion of form, not lofty, but broad, massive and ponderous. Such is the effect of the pyramids themselves when one first sees them. It is not till our eyes have recovered from the effect of sculpture and minute colouring. What would be disproportianate elsewhere, seems in harmony amid such natural contrasts." — W. M. F. Petrie, Arts and crafts of ancient Egypt, pp. 3, 5. — "The char- acter of Egyptian architecture was also in part conditioned by religious beliefs, which demanded the utmost permanence and grandeur for tombs and temples, the residences of the dead and of the gods, in contrast with the light and relatively temporary houses which sufficed for even the greatest of the living. Such permanence was sought by the almost exclusive employment of fine stone, which the cliffs of the Nile Valley furnished in abundance, and by the adoption, as the dominant constructive types, of the simple mass, and of the column and the lintel. The arch (q. v.). occasionally used from the earliest times, was confined to substructures where it had ample abutment and was little in view. The architec- tural members, moreover, were generally of great size and massiveness, although sometimes of ex- treme refinement and . . . even of delicacy. Tra- 444 ARCHITECTURE, ORIENTAL Egypt Babylonia ARCHITECTURE, ORIENTAL ditional elements of composition in plan recurred in many types of buildings. These were the open court, often surrounded by a continuous in- terior colonnade or peristyle, and the rectangular room opening on its broader front, with its coiling supported by columns." — F. Rimball and G. H. Edgell, Hiitory of architecture, pp. 15-16. — "The architect employed only straight lines, these being perpendiculars and horizontals, very boldly and felicitously combined. The arch, although known, was not employed as a member in architecture. In order to carry the roof across the void, either the simplest of stone piers, a square pillar of a single block of granite was employed, or an al- ready elaborate and beautiful monolithic column of granite supported the architrave." — J. H. Breas- ted, History of Egypt, p. 107. — "Of a very ancient period, earlier than 2500 B.C., are the columns of the rock-cut tombs at Beni Hassan, famous for their resemblance to the Greek Doric, whose earliest standing example is more than fourteen hundred years later. Another form of column and capital found at Beni Hassan, and at Thebes, of the same early time, imitates a bunch of lotus buds and stems, bound together. . . . Forms of the capi- tal are noticeable in these ruins, resembling an in- verted bell and representing an open lotus flower, the qlosed lotus bud, etc. The Period of the existing Egyptian ruins is generally much later than that of the isolated columns of Beni Hassan just mentioned. Between 1800 B.C. and 1200 B. C, a period of great building activity, were erected most of the temples, now in ruins, at Thebes. These are variously known, from the sites of modern Arab villages erected at various points of the ancient city, as the ruins of Karnak, of Luxor, of Medinet Habou, and of Gourneh. . . . Of a still older period than any of the temple ruins now standing, and not later than 3800 B. C, are the royal pyramid tombs near Cairo. . . .In construction they consisted of a series of step- like platforms, diminishing from base to summit, and furnished with a casing of Umestone or red granite, to fdl the angles, and present four pol- ished surfaces against the attacks of time and weather. . . . The largest pyramid, that of Shufu (Cheops [Keeops] as Grecianized in pronuncia- tion), covers nearly thirteen acres of ground, and was once over four hundred and eighty feet high. The adjacent pyramid of King Shatra (Chephren) was four hundred and seventy feet. Beside it is the colossal Sphinx, with human head and Hon's body, possibly of still more ancient date, now buried to the shoulders in sand, sixty-five feet high, and one hundred and forty-two feet long. This Sphinx is an emblem of the Egyptian Divin- ity Horus, one of the forms of the Sun-god. The most famous Egyptian temple ruin is the 'Great Hall' of Karnak, built in the 14th century B. C. by the kings Seti I and Ramses II . . . The temple at Abydos is a construction of Seti I. The 'Ramesseum' at Thebes dates from Ramses II. There is a famous rock-cut temple in Nubia at Ipsamboul dating from this last king. On this upper portion of the Kile, above the limits of Egypt proper, there are many other Egyptian ruins. After the time of the ruin at Medinet Habou, Thebes, about 1270 B.C., many centuries passed of which no remains are now known. The tem- ple of Edfou dates from the Greek rule over Egypt, B. C. 332-B. C. 30. Of the same time are the temple of Denderah and the temples at Philae. The temples at Esneh and Kom Ambos belong to the period of Roman rule." — W. H. Goodyear, History of art, pp. 33-34.-866 also Egypt: Monu- ments; Mastaba. Mesopotamia: Chaldean. — Old Babylonian. — Assyro-Babylonian.— "Remains at the Sumerian center of Lagash, the modarn Tello, include a building of the king Ur-Nina — the oldest struc- ture yet found in Mesopotamia which can be dated — built perhaps 3000 years before Christ. There is also a fragment of the staged tower built by Gudea about 2450 B.C. incorporated in a later palace. The early Semitic religious center was at Nippur, where the ruins of the temple precinct include superposed remains of several staged towers, dating from the very ear- liest times. The general similarity of these build- ings of Assyria and Babylon establishes the essen- tion continuity of Mesopotamian architecture." — F. Kimball and G. H. Edgell, History oj architec- ture, p. 25. — "The buildings of the Babylonians were made of brick, as there was very little stone to be had in their marshy and low-lying country. The clay from the banks of the great rivers, when moulded, was either dried in the sun or baked in kilns. When stone had to be used it was brought from a distance and was generally of a hard volcanic kind, such as basalt or diorite. Great brick platforms were used as foundations for buildings to raise them above the marshy ground. The Assyrians followed Babylonian traditions in building, as in everything else, and although drier and firmer ground often rendered platforms un- necessary, the people continued to build them as foundations for temples and palaces. In the same way bricks were universally used, although the country possessed a fair supply of Umestone and alabaster. The latter materials were employed in decoration, and served to line walls and make pavements and sometimes columns and plinths. Wood was brought from a distance for pillars and roofs, although the latter are thought to hjive been frequently vaulted and made of brick. Many bas-reliefs represent buildings as surmounted by a series of small domes, and they also show, as an almost invariable feature of Mesopotamian architec- ture, a parapet with a crenelateci edge as the dec- oration to a flat roof. Walls were of great thick- ness. In Sargon's palace at Khorsabad the inner ones measure from twelve to twenty-eight feet in width, and this has been mentioned in support of the theory of domed roofs which would neces- sitate strong walls. Babylonian and Assyrian tem- ples have been discovered in a worse state of preservation than the palace. The earliest were probably built with only one or two stages, but later seven of these were frequently erected above the artificial platform on which the temple stood. These ziggurats or staged towers were built 'to reach the heavens,' and as kings were sometimes buried in them, some archsologists have drawn a parallel between them and the Egyptian pyra- mids. The temples, which were enclosed by mas- sive walls, contained chambers for the priests' treasure, houses, granaries, and enclosures for the sacrificial victims. . . . Hidden in their inmost re- cess, or sometimes erected on the highest stage of the tower, was the holy of holies, containing the golden table, mercy seat, altar, and statue of the god." — M. Bulley, Ancient and medieval art, pp. 77-78.— "In Babylonian and Assyrian archiiecture the tower is always separate from the temple proper — as though to symbolize the independent origin of the two structures, the mountain-motif and the house-motif. ... In the case of many mosques the Babylonian-Assyrian tradition is fol- lowed through the virtual ndependence of the minarets [lofty towers] as adjuncts to the mosque, though in others the minaret is directly attached and eventually becomes a steeple placed on or at 445 ARCHITECTURE, ORIENTAL Persia Palestine ARCHITECTURE, ORIENTAL the side of the mosque. ... At Warka, Tello, Nippur and Babylon remains of arches were found at a depth which left no doubt as to the great antiquity to which the construction of arches is to be traced back in the Euphrates Valley — at least to 3000 B. C. . . . These early arches were used as tunnels through which drains passed to carry off the rain water and the refuse from the structures beneath which they were erected." — M. Jastrow, Cii'ilization of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 377-378. — "Throughout ancient times, as now, the normal method of rooting in IVlesopolamia was by wooden beams supporting a mat of reeds, and then a thick bed of clay graded with a slight inclination to permit vater to run off. . . . Col- umns were used but sparingly, as supports for light, isolated structures, and in porticos along the sides of a court. They were, for the most part, apparently, of wood, painted or covered with metal plates. . . . Winged bulls of stone carved in high relief were used to decorate the jambs of arched gateways and the bases of towers. Friezes in low relief representing historical subjects or hunting scenes ornamented the state apartments of the palaces. Brick enameled in colors was also a favorite mode of surface decoration." — F. Kimball and G. H. Edgell, Hislory of archi- tecture, pp. 30-32. — The palaces at N'imrud, Nine- veh and Khorsabad are characteristic of the style of the Assyrians and Babylonians. These palaces were built on immense platforms of sun-dried bricks, enclosed in masonry, and covering, as in the case of the palace at Khorsabad, one million square feet, raised forty-eight feet above the town level. Factors of special note in the construction of the palaces are: the great length of halls as compared with the width; and the immense thick- ness of the walls. "The famous 'hanging gardens' of Babylon were built upon terraces supported by pillars and arches, and formed one of the most dis- tinctive features of the palaces. It is noticeable that while in Egypt the temples were the buildings of the greatest grandeur, in Babylonia and Assyria the position is reversed, and the palaces were the most splendid monuments." — M. H. Bulley, .in- dent and medieval art, p. 7q. — See also B.abvlon: Nebuchadrezzar and the wall of Babylon; Baby- lonia: Earliest inhabitants. Persia: Palaces. — Halls of Darius and Xerxes. — "The architecture of the Persians . . . borrowed certain forms from . . . Mesopotamia, Ionia and Egypt. Nevertheless it retained a large native ele- ment, suggestive of a primitive columnar archi- tecture of wood. . . . The entablatures and roof framing remained of wood throughout the .\chs- menian period, making possible the unusual slen- derness and wide spacing of the columns. The roof itself was a thick mass of clay, terraced, with very slight inclination. Though the Persians drew some decorative forms from other countries, their chief source of them was Assyria. The winged bulls and bas-reliefs are but clumsily imitated and even the polychrome friezes of enameled brick from Susa are relatively crude compared with their prototypes at Babylon. Zoroastrianism. the an- cient religion of Persia, required neither true tem- ples nor sepulchres. . . . More important are the palaces, which reflect the proud absolutism of the Great King. The Persian palaces at Pasar- gadae and Persepolis stood on great platforms like those of .Assyria. Here these were built of stone, and served at once to give military security and monumental setting. At Persepolis a vast double staircase leads up from the plain, giving access to the |)latform through a tall columnar porch flanked with winged bulls. On lower platforms resting on the larger one stand three palaces, those of Darius, Xerxes and Artaxerxes III. They are similar in general arrangement with a large, square, columned hall, preceded by a deep portico and surrounded by minor rooms. Independent of the palaces are the magnificent audience-halls of Darius and of Xerxes, each covering more than an acre. In disposition they reproduce the cen- tral feature of the palaces, but on a larger scale. The hall of Darius has ten columns each way in- closed by massive walls. . . . The hall of Xerxes has but six, . . . but has porticos the full width of this on three sides. With its columns thirty feet apart and almost seventy feet high, this build- ing takes rank with the greatest columnar buildings of Egypt and of Greece. The earliest royal tomb, supposed to be that of Cyrus, ... is obviously imitative of Ionian architecture. . . . Those of later monarchs seem to have been inspired by the rock- cut tombs of Egypt. Their chief interest lies in their representation of the Persian entablature of wood. With its architrave of three superposed bands, its projecting beam ends above, this is clearly related in its origin to the forms of the Ionic entablature in Greece. The Persian columns were slender, and crowned with a peculiar capital in which the heads and forequarters of two bulls are united back to back in the direction of the archi- trave. Beneath these were placed multiplied pairs of volutes on end, and then bells, upright and inverted, in incoherent sequence. Thus the capital became long out of all proportion to the shaft below. In its problems of the column and lintel, Persian architecture was related to the classic archi- tecture of Greece, which was roughly contemporary with it, and which carried its solutions much further in technical facility and refinement." — F. Kimball and G. H. Edgell, History oj architecture, pp. 32-36. Palestine: Temple. — Lack of indigenous art. — "The Hebrews borrowed from the art of every people with whom they had relations, so that we encounter in the few extant remains of their architecture Egyptian, .Assyrian, Phoenician, Greek, Roman, and Syro-Byzantine features, but nothing like an independent national style. .Among the most interesting of these remains are tombs of various periods, principally occurring in the val- leys near Jerusalem, and erroneously ascribed by popular tradition to the judges, prophets, and kings of Israel. Some of them are structural, some rut in the rock; the former (tombs of .Absalom and Zechariah) decorated with Doric and Ionic engaged orders, were once supposed to be primi- tive types of these orders and of great antiquity. They are now recognized to be debased imitations of late Greek work of the third or second century B.C.... The one great achievement of Jewish architecture was the national Temple of Jehovah, represented by three successive editlces on Mount Moriah, the site of the present so-called 'Mosque of Omar.' The first, built by Solomon (101.! B.C.) appears from the Biblical description to have combined Egyptian conceptions (successive courts, lofty entrance-pylons, the Sanctuary and the sekos or 'Holy of Holies') with Phoenician and Assyrian details and workmanship (cedar woodwork, em- paistic decoration or overlaying with repousse metal work, the isolated brazen columns Jachin and Boaz). The whole stood on a mighty plat- form built up with stupendous masonry and vaulted chambers from the valley surrounding the rock on three sides. This precinct was nearly doubled in size by Herod (18 B.C.) who extended it south- ward by a terrace-wall of still more colossal ma- sonrv. Some of the stones are twenty-two feet 446 ARCHITECTURE, ORIENTAL The Temple China ARCHITECTURE, ORIENTAL long; one reaches the prodigious length of forty feet. The 'Wall of Lamentations' is a part of this terrace, upon which stood the Temple on a raised platform. As rebuilt by Herod, the Temple re- produced in part the antique design, and retained the porch of Solomon along the east side; but the whole was superbly reconstructed in white mar- ble with abundance of gilding. Defended by the Castle of Antonia on the northwest, and embel- lished with a new and imposing triple colonnade on the south, the whole edifice, a conglomerate of Egyptian, Assyrian, and Roman conceptions and forms, was one of the most singular and yet magnificent creations of ancient art. The temple of Zerubbabel (515 B.C.), intermediate between those above described, was probably less a re- Phoenicia. — Very little remains of the archi- tecture of the Phoenicians. They . . . built in stone and like the Egyptians employed cyclopean masonry. The great fortifications of Arvad, Tyre and Sidon are the main examples of this. Their temples were merely small shrines, and in general their architecture was of a utilitarian nature. China: Typical forms and materials. — Uses of color. — "Early records prove that contemporary Chinese architecture is still the same in essentials as that of the fourth and fifth centuries B. C. The most common form in building is the Ting, which consists of a large and massive roof sup- ported by a number of wooden columns. The walls are formed by filling in the space between the columns with stone and brick. The roof, which is . 1 "^'^ ..'-'■ ^^ I I . I I ' I > - ■ E" " tt;K J". TEMPLE OF HEAVEN, FORBIDDEN riTY, PEKING edification of the first, than a new design." — A. D. F. Hamlin, Textbook oj the history of architecture, pp. 3g-4i. — See also Jerusalem: B.C. 1400-700. — "The Hebrews . . . had no art, and never pretended to have one; they were contented with the art- products which other nations made for them, in perfect accordance with the clearly-expressed prom- ise of the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob: 'That He would give them great and goodly cities, which they would not build; and houses full of good things, which they would not fill; and wells digged, which they would not dig; and vineyards and olive trees, which they would not plant.' With such principles neither architecture, sculp- ture, nor ornamentation could flourish." — G. G. Zerffi, Manual of the historical development of art, p. 151. always the most important part of a Chinese build- ing, is often a double or a triple one, with elab- orately carved ridges and eaves, and is often cov- ered with gay tiles. Another favourite archi- tectural form is that of the Pai-lou. an elaborate stone or wooden archway, generally built with a tiled roof, and erected only by official consent in commemoration of some famous person. A third typical Chinese building is the T'ai or stone tower, also known as pagoda. It is an octagonal struc- ture with thirteen stories, and probably owes its proportions to the same symbolic idea that sug- gested the Gothic spire, although in this instance the symbolism would refer to the Buddhist creed. The Great Wall is one of the most famous ex- amples nf Chinese building. It marks the boun- daries of four northern provinces, and following 447 ARCHITECTURE, ORIENTAL China Japan ARCHITECTURE, ORIENTAL the windings, is 1500 miles in length. It was begun in the third century B.C., repaired in the fifteenth centurj- A. D., and was extended some 300 miles in the sixteenth century. It generally measures from 20 to 30 feet in height, and its towers, which come at intervals of about 200 yards, are some 40 feet high. It measures 15 to JS feet in breadth at its base."— M. H. Bulley, Ancient and medieval art, p. in. — "The Chinese idea of an architectural triumph is not that of a single building rising in beautiful lines to a great height, but a large number of buildings and patios symmetrically arranged and covering a great deal of ground. Individualism has always appealed strongly to Western nations, and this ideal seems to be expressed in our architecture. In the Orient, on the contrary, the family has always been more important than the ' individual. It is therefore quite natural and in keeping that the group idea should find expression in Chinese architecture. . . . Instead of considering only how his buildings will look to a person standing on the ground, the archi- tect plans them in such a way that they will present a symmetrical and harmonious group to any one viewing them from a hill or a pagoda. The fact that there may be no convenient hill or pagoda from which his masterpiece may be viewed does not concern him a great deal, for he expects all those who really care anything about art to have enough imagination to picture in their minds the general harmony of his design, even though they can only see a part of it at a time. Any one who visits a Chinese temple or palace without no- ticing that all the buildings in the enclosure blend, into one harmonious whole has failed to get the comprehensive idea of Chinese architecture. . . . The Chinese house exhibits certain features which can be traced back to the tents of the barbarian an- cestors of the Chinese who wandered in from the West. The roof, though made of heavy beams, rafters, and tiles, still retains to same extent the shape of a tent. . . . The roof does not rest on the walls, but on pillars corresponding to the poles of a tent. The roof hangs in graceful lines and is caught up at the corners like looped canvas. . . . .\ Chinese building owes a great deal of its beauty to these graceful roof lines. . . . Internally as well as externally the Chinese house reminds one of a tent. There is no ceiling to hide the surface of the sloping roof and its rafters. Instead of a wooden floor there is only a layer of bricks paving the cold earth, with mats and rugs covering this flooring. The various buildings composing a house are arranged so as to face a courtyard, much as one would pitch tents around a campfire. The beams and rafters supporting the roofs of the more pretentious houses are decorated with curious de- signs and miniature landscape paintings in pleas- ing colors. Some of the courtyards are trans- formed into miniature landscape gardens. There are miniature mountains, precipices, lotus ponds, bridges, grottos, and rustic nooks. The irregular rocks are so well fitted together and built up against the sides of the house that they seem to have been placed there by nature long before the houses were erected. The proportions are so care- fully worked out that everything seems to be larger than it really is. And the arrangement is so irreg- ular that nature is simulated to perfection. . . . A striking feature of Chinese architecture is the coloring. The boldness with which the Chinese employ bright colors is justified by their excel- lent good taste. They comprehend better the harmonious combination of bright colors than any other people and are therefore able to produce ef- fects at once startling and pleasing. The walls of a Chinese house are constructed of brick, wood being used for pillars, beams, rafters, window frames, and doors. As a rule, only the woodwork is painted, but in the more pretentious buildings, such as palaces and temples, the e.xterior brick work is covered with a coating of plaster which is painted a deep red. The roofs of temples, palaces, and pagodas are usually covered with tiles glazed in beautiful colors. The Temple of Heaven in Peking owes much of its beauty to the roof, which is covered with blue tiles of a rare hue. The palaces in Peking are roofed with yellow tiles, which shine like gold in the sunlight. . . . Comparing the buildings of the Chinese with those of the ancient Egyptians we find that Chinese architecture is weakest in that quality which the Egyptian buildings possessed to the highest degree, namely stability. The idea of building for future genera- tions was never developed among the Chinese. Their thoughts have always been directed more to the past than to the future. Unless frequently repaired their buildings soon fall into decay." — L. Anderson, Splendor of Chinese architecture (Asia, June, 1917). Japan: Relation to Chinese architecture. — Fragility. — "Japan, like China, possesses an archi- tecture, but one exclusively of wood; for although the use of stone for bridges, walls, etc., had been general, all houses and temples were invariably • built of wood until the recent employment of foreigners led to the erection of brick and stone buildings. The consequence has been that nearly all the old temples have been burnt down and rebuilt several times ; and though it is probable that the older forms were adhered to when the buildings were reerected, it is only by inference that we can form an idea of the ancient archi- tecture of the country. The heavy curved roofs which are so characteristic of Chinese buildings are found also in Japan, but only in the Buddhist temples, and this makes it probable that this form of roof is not of native origin, but was in- troduced with the Buddhist cult (q. v.). A pe- culiar feature of Japanese houses is that the walls, whether external or internal, are not filled in with plaster, but arc constructed of movable screens which slide in grooves formed in the fram- ing of the partitions. Thus all the rooms can easily be thrown together or laid open to the outer air in hot weather. . . . The chief effect in the buildings of the Japanese is intended to be pro- duced by colour, which is profusely used ; and they have attained to a height of per- fection in the preparation of varnishes and lacquers that has never been equalled." — T. R. Smith and B. A. Slater, Architecture, pp. 77-7P- India. — It is impossible to do justice to the architecture of India in a brief sketch, — partly be- cause there is so much of it ; and partly because it is bound up with a long and exceedingly com- plex social, political, religious, and ethnological history, and the details of it are alien to the west- ern imagination. Roughly speaking, however, the architecture may be divided into two chief types: Hindu architecture and Moslem architecture. Hindu architecture: B.C. 300-A. D. 1300. — "While stone and brick are both used, sandstone pre- dominating, the details are in large measure derived from wooden prototypes. Structural lines are not followed in the exterior treatment, purely decora- tive considerations prevailing. Ornament is equally lavished on all parts of the building, and is be- wildering in its amount and complexity. Realistic and grotesque sculpture is freely used, forming multiplied horizontal bands of extraordinary rich- ness and minuteness of execution. Spacious and 448 © Publiahers' Photo Service INDIAN ARCHITECTURE Taj Mahal, Agra, India (16^9-1650). Jain temple of Rai Buddree Das Bahadur, Calcutta. ARCHITECTURE, ORIENTAL Moslem Greek ARCHITECTURE, CLASSIC lofty interiors are rarely attempted, but wonderful effects are produced by seemingly endless repeti- tion of columns in halls and corridors, and by external emphasis of important parts of the plan by lofty tower-like piles of masonry. The source of the various Indian styles, the origin of the forms used, the history of their development, are all wrapped in obscurity. All the monuments show a fully developed style and great command of technical resources from the outset. When, where, and how these were attained is as yet an unsolved mystery. In all its phases previous to the Moslem conquest Indian architecture appears like an in- digenous art, borrowing little from foreign styles, and having no affinities with the arts of Occidental nations." — A. D. F. Hamlin, Textbook of Ike his- tory of architecture, pp. 402-403. Moslem arciiitectuke: 1300-1700. — Infinitely superior to the Hindu architecture in grandeur is the Moslem architecture. The Moslems understand pre-eminently the architectural value of space and size, the dignity of the blank wall, and the use of the arch and the dome. With the simplicity of the great spaces and massive walls, in the finest the most beautiful building in the world. It is built of white marble so delicately sculptured in places as to seem almost a fme pattern of lace, and inlaid, in the interior, with semi-precious stones. It is set, in a garden, like most Moslem tombs, amidst pools and cypress trees, and if anything is needed to complete the singular charm of the building, it is supplied by the setting. Also in: J. Burgess, Rock-cut temples of Ele- phanta. — Idem., Buddhist Stupas of Amaravati. — Idem., Ancient monuments, temples, sculptures in India. — J. Ferguson, History of Indian and eastern arcltitecture. — E. W. Smith, Mughal architecture of Falepbur Sikri. — R. P. Spiers, Architecture East and West. CLASSIC Greek Doric and Ionic styles: Most famous buildings. — Restraint and balance. — "The posi- tion with regard to our knowledge of Greek archi- tecture is a peculiar one. . . . We find the differ- ent styles of Greek architecture in a state of al- most complete development ; the preparatory stages THE PARTHENON © Publish»r8* Photo Service Moslem Ijuildings there goes a mastery of exquisite and luxurious detail. Of the earlier Moslem struc- tures one of the most perfect is the Kutab Miliar on the plains outside of Delhi, one of the 'finest pillars in the world. It is a shaft of red sandstone 240 high, ornamented by projecting balconies and bands of fine sculpture. The most famous of the Moslem buildings are the mosques, tombs, and palaces in the Indian Saracenic style of the Mogul emperors at Agra and Delhi and Fatephur Sikri. The building material is either red sandstone often inlaid with fine patterns ir> white and black marble (as in the Jama Masjid, the noble mosque of Shah- jehan at Delhi) or marble, either exquisitely sculp- tured in geometrical patterns or inlaid with pat- terns in semi-precious stones,— cornelian, jade, lapis •lazuli, blood-stone, etc. The structure depends for its effect on the fine proportioning of arch and dome, and massive size and simplicity in the main design, with detail in the ornament almost of the most delicate and elaborate type. Of all the buildings of the great line of Mogul emperors, the most renowned is the tomb of Mumtaz Mahal, the famous Taj Mahal (q. v.). Few who have seen the lyrical grace of its snowy domes, and delicate upspringing towers would dispute its claim to be . are lacking. But we can perfectly well compre- hend the nature of Greek architecture. The mov- ing principle is the column. In point of form the styles are divided into Doric and Ionic; for the Corinthian is but a development of the latter. The Doric style has a lofty simplicity, shown by the absence of a special base and by unadorned capital; the Ionic has more elegance: a diversified base, a slenderer shaft, and a more elaborate capi- tal; the entablature of the columns is also more varied, but we miss the beautiful triglyphs and metopes. The Doric style with its greater severity (masculine as contrasted with the feminine Ionic) gives the impression of greater originality. It is highly probable that the Doric style was the re- sult of Egyptian, and the Ionic more of Asiatic influence. What are called proto-Doric columns have been pointed out in Egypt. The character- istic element of the Ionic capital, the volute, is a very ancient mode of decoration, and appears sometimes single and sometimes double, as in the Ionic column. In its single form we meet with it on the roof of the thesaurus at Orchomenus dis- covered by Schliemann, and in its double form on the gold plates of Mycenae. [See also ^gean civilization: Excavations and antiquities: Mycen- 449 ARCHITECTURE, CLASSIC Greek ARCHITECTURE, CLASSIC nean area.] But to apply this well-known kind of decoration to columns in such a way that it fits them as if it were specially created for them (as theorists have proved to their satisfaction), marks the inventive genius of Greek art. [See also Acanthus.] The remains of temples belonging to the [early] period . . . are in the Doric style. This may be due to the fact that the Doric style was more in vogue than the Ionic at that time. In any case, the Doric style was the favourite one in the west. The Ionic is said to have first come into use about the beginning of the sixth century B. C, at the restoration of the temple of Artemis at Ephesus ; yet there can be no doubt that it is of higher antiquity. Strange to say, the archi- tects of the Ephcsian temple were Cretans, Cher- siphron of Cnossus and his son Metagenes. The building was of vast extent, more than 400 feet found in the swamps of Metapontum; at Paestum (Poseidonia) there are three, all in an excellent state of preservation, and presenting an imposing spectacle in the desert plain surrounded by moun- tains and the sea. At Syracuse there are also two on the site of Ortygia, but the effect is spoiled by the modern edifices, of which they actually form a part; a third, standing in the open, has barely two columns remaining. The ruins of Selinus are on the grandest scale of all, and have proved of great importance in the history of art ; they have not, however, been sufficiently studied from an architectural point of view. Some remains of temples in Corfu and at Corinth are considered to be the oldest Doric buildings extant." — A. Holm, History of Greece, p. 354-357 — See also Alexan- dria: B.C. 282-246: Architecture; Hellenism: Hellenism and Alexandria. THE ACKOPOLIS OF ATHENS Restoration by G. Rehlender long, and over 200 feet in breadth; it was a dipteros, i.e. provided with a double peristyle of separate columns. The lonians had probably gazed on its colossal prototypes in Egypt and so been inspired with the idea of imitating them. The remains that have been lately discovered of the temple belong to the time of its reconstruction, after the famous fire at the birth of Alexander. Another equally colossal building was the temple of Hera in Samos, begun by the Samian Rhoecus and completed by Polycrates. There were other colossal temples of that period in Clarus, Phocaea and Branchids. The principal divinities of Asia Minor were meant to inhabit splendid dwellings; and Peisistratus wished to erect a no less colossal temple to the Olympian Zeus at Athens. In the west, we find few records of the building of temples, but some grand ruins, all in the Doric style, and in places which became unimportant at an early date in antiquity and have long since become desolate. The remains of two temples are "The Athenians, although lonians by blood, had for centuries been ruled by Doric institutions, and produced the most famous monument of Doric architecture just before the decline of this style. This was the Parthenon, the temple of the Virgin Goddess Minerva (Greek, Athene), finished in 438 B. C. The supervising director of this building was the sculptor Phidias, who designed its sculp- ture decorations now known as the 'Elgin Marbles,' and himself constructed for the interior a colossal gold and ivory Minerva, long since destroyed. The present ruined condition of this building is the* result of a gunpowder explosion in the 17th cen- tury. . . . The Propylaea, or entrance gates to the Acropolis (Citadel Hill), on which the Parthenon stood, were a scarcely less famous structure. They were completed, also under the direction of Phidias, between 437 and 430 B.C. On account of the extra height required for the columns of the pas- sage-way, these were made of the Ionic order, whose proportions are more slender than the Doric. 450 ARCHITECTURE, CLASSIC Etruscan Roman ARCHITECTURE, CLASSIC This is a rare case of mixture of the orders, which, in the Greek period, were usually confined to dis- tinct buildings. Even in the case of distinct buildings, the orders were not in general use simul- taneously. They represent, on the contrary, suc- cessive tendencies of Greek history. The distinc- tion between the period of conservative tendencies, religious belief, and stern patriotism, and the period of refined luxury, religious skepticism, and political decay. The period of the Ionic Order, when gener- ally diffused over Greece, is, in round numbers, from 430 to 330 B. C. The Erechtheum is the most famous Ionic building and ruin. Also on the Athe- nian Acropolis, it was constructed between 430 and 400 B. C. The new Erechtheum was erected on the site of an older building, whose irregular ground plan was followed in the new structure from a sentiment of reverence and religious tra- dition. The name of the temple is derived from an Athenian king and hero of the mythical period, whose tomb was beneath the structure. [See also Acropolis of Athens.] The little Temple of Nike Apteros, or 'Wingless Victory,' generally so called, but now known to have been a temple of Minerva, has been chosen as type of the Ionic illustration because the small size of the building allows a larger view of its details. This little temple, also on the Acropolis, was built about twenty years before the Erechtheum. Its small dimensions show how modestly the style first made its appearance beside the older Doric at Athens." — W. H. Good- year, History of art, pp. 51-57. — It should be noted that in architecture, as in the other arts, the Greeks displayed their characteristic acute aesthetic perceptions. They did not plan great columnar halls as did the Egyptians, but rather relied on external effect, on proportion and refined line, one exact balance of delicacy and stability. In fact never until the period of decadence was there any attempt at impressive size. This balance, restraint and simplicity, given life and variety by masterly use of sculptural decoration, shows the intensely intellectual apprehension of integral design for which the Greeks have been so justly famed. — See also Art: Relation of art and history; Athens: B.C. 461-431: General aspect of Periclean Athens, and 1806; Theater. Etruscan: Character and effect on Roman architecture. — "In dealing with Roman Archi- tecture mention must be made of the Etruscans or early inhabitants of central Italy, who were great builders, and those methods of construction had a marked effect on that of the Romans. The style dates from about B. C. 750, and from their buildings it is known that they were aware of the value of the true or radiating arch for constructive purposes, and used it extensively in their buildings. The architectural remains consist chiefly of tombs, city walls, gateways (as in Perugia), bridges and aqueducts, and their character is similar to the early Pelasgic work at Tiryns and Mycenae. The walls are remarkable for their great solidity of construction, and for the cyclopean masonry, where huge masses of stone are piled up without the use of cement, or mortar of any kind. The 'Cloaca Maxima' (c. B.C. 578), or great drain of Rome, constructed to drain the valleys of Rome, has a semicircular arch of 11 feet span, in three rings of voussoirs, each 2 feet 6 inches high. There are no remains of Etruscan temples, hut Vitruvius gives a description of them. The Temple of Ju- piter Capilolinus was the most important Etruscan example (dedicated B.C. 5oq), and is generally taken as being typical. Its cella was divided into three chambers containing statues of Jupiter, Mi- nerva (Livy VII., iii) and Juno, and was nearly square in plan, with widely spaced columns and wooden architraves. It was burnt in B. C. 83 and rebuilt by Sulla, who brought some of the marble Corinthian columns from the Temple of Zeus Olympius at Athens." — B. Fletcher and B. F. Fletcher, History of architecture on the compara- tive method, pp. 11 0-120. Roman : Derivation. — Examples. — Develop- ment of the arch and vaulting. — "What we call Roman art is not merely Hellenistic art imported into or copied in Italy, as has been too often asserted. It is true that the imitation of Greek works was an important factor in Roman art. From the third century before Christ onwards, the victorious generals of Rome enriched their city with a quantity of Greek masterpieces from Sicily and Southern Italy; later, after the year 150, the methodical pillage of Greece and Asia Minor be- gan, carried on not only by military leaders and governors, but by influential private persons. On the other hand, the wealth of Rome attracted the Greek artists, who readily found purchasers for their imitations or copies of classic works; the houses, villas, and gardens of wealthy Romans, such as Lucullus or Crassus, were veritable mu- seums." — S. Reinach, Apollo, pp. 87-88. — "We now reach the last of the classical styles of antiquity, the Roman, — a style which, however, is rather an adaptation or amalgamation of other styles than an original and independent creation or a de- velopment. ... In the earlier styles temples, tombs, and palaces were the only buildings deemed worthy of architectural treatment ; but under the Romans baths, theatres, amphitheatres, basilicas, aqueducts, triumphal arches &c., were carried out just as elaborately as the temples of the gods. It was under the Emperors that the full magnificence of Roman architectural display was reached. . . . It was not in Rome only that great buildings were erected. The whole known civilised world was under Roman dominion, and wherever a centre of government or even a flourishing town existed there sprang up the residences of the dominant race, and their places of business, public worship, and public amusement. . . . The ruins of a magnificent pro- vincial Roman temple exist at Baalbek — the ancient Heliopolis — in Syria, not far from Damascus. This building was erected during the time of the .'Xntonines. . . . Circular temples were an elegant variety, which seems to have been originated by the Romans, and of which two well-known ex- amples remain — the Temples of Vesta at Rome and at Tivoli. . . . Although the Romans were not par- ticularly addicted to dramatic representations, yet they were passionately fond of shows and games of all kinds: hence, not only in Rome itself, but in almost every Roman settlement, from Silchester to Verona, are found traces of their amphitheatres, and the mother-city can claim the possession of the most stupendous fabric of the kind that was ever erected — the Colosseum or Flavian Amphi- theatre, which was commenced by Vespasian and finished by his son Titus. [See Colosseum.] An amphitheatre is really a double theatre without a stage, and with the space in the centre unoccupied by seats. This space, which was sunk several feet below the first row of seats, was called the arena, and was appropriated to the various exhibitions which took place in the building. The plan was elliptical or oval, and this shape [was] universal. [See also Amphitheater ; Theater.] Nothing can give us a more impressive idea of the grandeur and lavish display of Imperial Rome than the remains of the huge Thermae, or bathing establishments, which still exist. Between the years 10 A. D., when Agrippa built the first pubKc 451 ARCHITECTURE, CLASSIC Roman Sassanian ARCHITECTURE, CLASSIC baths, and 324 A. D., when those of Constantine were erected, no less than twelve of these vast estabUshments were erected by various emperors, and bequeathed to the people. . . . The baths of Caracalla and of Diocletian are the only ones which remain in any state of preservation, and these were probably the most extensive and mag- nificent of all. [See also Baths.] . . . The Pan- theon is the finest example of a domed hall which we have left. The building, which originally was consecrated as a temple, has been considerably al- tered at various times since its erection, and now consists of a rotunda with a rectangular portico in front of it."— T. R. Smith and B. A. Slater, Archi- tecture, pp. 144-166. — See also Pantheon at Rome. — "Within the last few years we have learnt that the vault of the Pantheon was built in the time, not of Augustus, but of Hadrian (A. D. one among the Roman triumphal arches, that of Titus, which commemorates the destruction of Jerusalem, shows any actual beauty of execu- tion; the others are chiefly interesting to archfe- ologists. [See also Arch. J The same may be said of the vast utilitarian works, aqueducts [see Aque- ducts: Roman], bridges, dams, and sewers with which Rome endowed all parts of her Empire. . . . A characteristic of the architecture of the Roman period, which gives it a certain affinity to that of Egypt and Assyria, is its tendency to colossal pro- portions, as exemplified in the temples of Baalbek and of Palmyra, in Syria. These temples, imitated from Greek models, are primarily remarkable for their size; the decoration is as careless as it is exuberant. But this exuberance, though it offends our taste, does not lack originality ; it was in Syria mainly that the new style was elaborated, EXCAVATED STREET IN POMPEII Casa di Cornelio Rufo 117-138). This date is of importance in the his- tory of art, for it marks the definite adoption of a system of construction, the further development of which was to produce Byzantine and Roman- esque architecture. From the first century after Christ to the time of the completion of St. Peter's at Rome, the problem of the vault never ceased to occupy architects. The various solutions they essayed had a powerful influence on the succes- sive styles. Vaulted architecture was so essentially a Roman product that it continued to develop when sculpture had sunk to uniform mediocrity. Constantine's basilica, built after 305 A.D., with its three colossal vaults, the central one nearly 120 feet high, with a span of more than So feet marks a great advance on former constructions; it served as a model to the architects of the Renais- sance. Bramante, when he conceived the plan of St. Peter's, said that he intended 'to raise the Pantheon over the basilica of Constantine.' Only which gave birth to Byzantine decorative art." — S. Reinach, Apollo, p. 8g-qo. — See also .\rt: Rela- tion of art and history; Basilicas; Forums of Rome; Rome: Modern city: 153 7-1 621. Sassanian: Contribution to vaulting and dec- oration. — "In return for its heritage from the pre-classical civilization of the Levant, Greece en- dowed the Asiatic empires of .Mexander and his successors with a Hellenistic art, which extended even beyond their borders. When the Parthian rulers (130 B.C.-226 A.D.) overran Mesopo- tamia, they adopted the Greek columnar system. With the rise of the new Persian empire under the Sassanian dynasty (227-641 A.D.), however, the tide of art once more began to flow from East to West. The subterranean vaults and occasional domes of ancient Mesopotamia were taken as the basis of a consistently vaulted style. In such in- stances as the palace at Ctesiphon, with its great elliptically arched hall and facade of blank ar- 452 ARCHITECTURE, CLASSIC Byzantine ARCHITECTURE, CLASSIC cades, this achieved new effects both monumental and decorative. In other cases the dome, sup- ported over a square room by means of diagonal arches or squinches, was a notable feature. In its westward expansion this virile art contributed largely ... to the formation of the Byzantine sys- tems of construction and ornament," — F, Kimball and G. H. Edgell, History of architecture, p. 572. Byzantine: Development. — St. Sophia and St. Marco. — Plan and decoration. — "Byzantine art with the Persians, and later with the Saracens, almost stopped all building; and in the following centuries the fury of the iconoclasts against images and decoration generally, drove many of the best workmen out of the country, and still further impeded architectural progress. Under the domin- ion of the house of Macedonia, 867-1057, a re- vival commenced which is especially marked in Venetian territory, where St. Mark's stands as the rival of St. Sophia; but it was not until some INTERIOR OF ST. SOPHIA Byzantine style of architecture is divided into two periods, each of which possesses distinct characteristics. The two are separated from one another by a considerable gap, during which time few churches were built. The first and greater period is that of the sixth century, when, under Justinian, 527-65, a powerful movement, which culminated in St. Sophia, Constantinople, lifted architecture on to a high pedestal, and pro- duced a renaissance which influenced all work for many countries in the West. At the beginning of the seventh century, the struggles of the Empire years later, under the Comneni, who were em- perors of the Eastern Empire from 1057-1185, that this bore fruit. Most of the existing churches in the capital, in Greece, Armenia, and in other parts of the Empire belong to the second period." The plan of the typical Byzantine church is a Greek cross, the center covered with a dome supported on pendcntives. The materials used are brick and •stone, exteriors are as a rule plain and unimpres- sive, but "the simplicity of the exteriors is atoned for by the richness of the interiors. All the decor*- 453 ARCHITECTURE, MEDIEVAL Early Christian Mohammedan ARCHITECTURE, MEDIEVAL tion is of an applied character; that is to say the carcase of the building was built first, and was allowed to take its bearings before the mosaics and the marble linings for the doors, windows and walls were added." — F. M. Simpson, History oj architectural development, v. i, p. 213, 214, 219. — "If the architectural type of the basilica, character- ised by its rectangular plan and flat roof, predomi- nates in the churches in Italy, those of Constan- tinople applied and developed the principle of the dome. The great church of Byzantium, St. Sophia, was built between 532 and 562 under Justinian, by Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus, that is to say, by Asiatic architects. W'e have seen that the cupola was known to the Assyrians ; the tradi- tion had been preserved in Persia, whence it spread into Syria towards the third century after Christ, passing from Syria into Asia Minor in the fol- lowing centuries. The architects of St. Sophia were probably inspired by Asiatic models, and not by the Roman Pantheon." — S. Reinach, Apollo, p. 99. — "Byzantine architecture at its best, which really means as seen in the interior of Hagia Sophia (for there is nothing else equal to that) is a remarkable combination of qualities not often found together; it seems to combine the refinement of Greek detail with the warmth and the colour of Oriental art. From the coldness and the super- ficial and pompous spirit of display which charac- terize Roman architecture, it is as alien as pos- sible." — H. H. Statham, Short critical history of architecture, p. 219. — See also Byz.^xtine empike: Part in history ; Saint Sophia. MEDIEVAL Early Christian: New spirit in architecture. — "The debt of universal architecture to the early Christian and Byzantine schools of builders is very great. They evolved the church types, they car- ried far the exploration of domical construction, and made wonderful balanced compositions of vaults and domes over complex plans. They formed the belfry tower from the Pharos and fortification towers. We owe to them the idea of the vaulted basilican church, which, spreading westward over Europe, made our great vaulted cathedrals possible. They entirely recast the secondary forms of architecture: 'the column was taught to carry an arch,' the capital was recon- sidered as a bearing block and became a feature of extraordinary beauty. The art of building was made free from formulas, and architecture became an adventure in building once more. We owe to them a new type of moulding, the germ of the Gothic system, by the introduction of the roll- moulding and their application of it to 'strings' and the margins of doors. The first arch known to me which has a series of roll-mouldings is in the palace of M'shatta [Mashetta]. The tendency to cast windows into groups, the ultimate source of tracery, and the foiling of arches, has already been mentioned. We owe to Christian artists the introduction of delightfully fresh ornamentation, crisp foliage, and interlaces, and the whole scheme of Christian iconography." — W. R. Lethaby, Ar- chitecture, pp. i5S-i';6. — "The Christian Church is a place for the gathering together of the faith- ful, thus differing es5enti,ally from the paean temple, which was the abode of the divinity. The first Christian churches were accordingly modelled on those enclosed places of assembly known as basihcas. fq. v.l . . . Amone the Roman basilicas, that of St. Paul without-the-Walls, built by Con^ Stantine and restored after a fire in 1823, may be cited as a chaiacteristic example. It consists of a large nave with a horizontal roof, and of two lower side-aisles; the central nave is lighted by windows above the side-aisles. At the end is a gate called the Triumphal Arch, behind which is the altar; the end wall is circular and forms the apse. Both apse and triumphal arch are richly decorated with glass mosaics on a blue or gold ground, the splendour of which rivals that of goldsmiths' enamels. . . . These mosaics ornament the vertical walls and the vaults, instead of forming pavements as in the Roman houses and temples. Specimens of them, very beautiful in colour, and grandiose though frigid in style, are to be seen in Rome, and at Ravenna, which was the seat of the Roman Court from 404, the residence of Theodoric, King of the Goths, about 500, and an appanage of Byzantium from 534 to 752. Several churches of the sixth century still exist, as Sant' Apollinare Nuovo, Sant' Apollinare in Classe {on the ancient port) and San Vitale: the last is a circular domed building, in which Byzantine influences are very apparent; the others are basilicas, the interiors of which are striking and majestic, though their ex- ternal aspect is neither graceful nor cUgnified." — S. Reinach, Apollo, pp. 98-99. Mohammedan: Origin and development. — General characteristics. — "The Sassanian em- pire was brought to an end by the sudden ex- pansion of Mohammedanism. In a few years from the flight of its prophet from Mecca (622), his followers conquered Mesopotamia (637), Egypt (638) , Persia (642 ) , northern Africa and Spain (711). ... At first Mohammedan architecture in these regions was little else than the art of the differ- ent conquered peoples adapted to the worship and the customs of the conquerors. In Syria, in Egypt, and in Spain the Romano-Byzantine column and arch were employed for the construction of build- ings such as the mosque of Amru at Cairo (642), or the great mosques of Damascus and Cordova (785-848). In Mesopotamia and Persia the domed and vaulted halls of the Sassanians (q. v.) were adopted as prominent features of the designs. Besides the uniformity of the programs, however, a certain community of artistic character between different regions soon developed — a character pro- nouncedly Oriental. This was due in part to the taste and the traditions of the Arabs themselves, but more largely to the earlier conquest of the Eastern lands, the prestige of these as the seat of the early caliphates of Damascus and Bagdad, and the vitality of Eastern art as the general source of inspiration in the early Middle Ages. Thus the lace-like incised carving of Mschatta in Syria, which had earlier contributed to Byzantine de- velopment, now appeared in the earliest Arab monuments of Africa and Spain. Thus, too, the pointed arch, common in Persia from the eighth century, appeared in Syria and Egypt from the beginning of the ninth. The tall dome of pointed silhouette, and the court with vaulted halls abut- ting it — also Persian features — penetrated Egypt in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The conquest of northern India and its conversion to Mohammedanism opened the way for Persian in- fluence there in the fourteenth and fifteenth cen- turies, while Persia itself then borrowed from In- dia the ogee arch and the bulbous dome With the conquest of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks (1453), finally, began a new return in- fluence of Byzantine architecture in their Oriental empire, through the imitation of Hagia Sophia [Saint Sophia], which became the chief mosque of the Turkish caliphs. The development of the various schools which resulted from the mingling of local traditions and distinct influences continued 454 ARCHITECTURE, MEDIEVAL J*fohammedan ARCHITECTURE, MEDIEVAL ' Coptic uninterruptedly until the eighteenth and even the nineteenth century, and has been checked only by internal disorganization and by the conquests of European powers. . . . For their formal places of worship, the mosques, the early believers naturally adopted the peristylar court — the universal scheme of the Levant — the porticoes of which furnished shelter from the tropical sun. The Mirltab, a small niche in the outer wall, indicated the direction of Mecca, and on this side of the court the porticoes were deepened and multiplied. This fundamental scheme is seen in the first great mosque built after the conquest of Egypt, the mosque of Amru at Cairo. [See also Amru, Mosque of.] The ten- dency was to develop the deeper side of the court into an inclosed building — often of vast extent, as at Cordova — with aisle after aisle of columns and arcades, carrying wooden beams and a terrace roof. In later western mosques the aisle leading to the mirhab was widened, and a special sanctuary pre- ceded, by a vast open nave or niche was early adopted, and corresponding features were intro- duced at the other cardinal points of the court. The Egyptian mosques based on Persian models, such as the mosque of Sultan Hassan, have a court so reduced that these features occupy the greater part of each side, and the scheme becomes cruci- form. On the capture of Constantinople, Hagia Sophia — with its atrium, its main building to the east, its great central nave, and its eastern apse — was found perfectly adapted to Mohammedan wor- ship. It was copied almost literally in the Mosque of Suleiman at Constantinople {1550). In other Ottoman mosques the possible variants were used, especially the scheme of a central dome with four abutting half domes, which the Byzantines them- selves had not developed. Among minor elements of the mosques, which are yet among their most striking features, are the minarets, or slender tow- ers, with corbeled balconies from which the muez- zin gives the call to prayers. These were erected at one or more of the corners of the buildings, in- geniously incorporated with it. Their forms var- ied much in different regions, the Ottoman form, with a very tall cylindrical shaft ending in a slender cone, being especially daring. The enjoyment of worldly goods and pleasures was not despised by Mohammedanism, and the absolute power and vast revenue of the caliphs enabled them to gratify their taste for splendor and luxury by the con- struction of magnificent palaces. . . . The rooms were distributed about one or more courts, the facades made as blind as possible, except for loggias and balconies high above the ground and guarded by latticed screens. To relieve the heat of the climate, the courts were surrounded by shady porticoes and provided with basins and foun- tains. A complex axial system governed the re- lations of the principal rooms and the courts. The luxurious elegance sometimes attained is well seen in the Alhambra at Granada, built by the last Mohammedan rulers of Spain, chiefly in the four- teenth and fifteenth centuries. The Court of Lions, with its slender columns, its delicate sta- lactite decoration in stucco, colored and gilded, shows Mohammedan architecture in the final de- velopment of one of its local schools, when the elements of diverse origin had been fused in a characteristic whole. [See also Alhambra.] In Egypt, in Persia, and especially in India, the tombs of great monarchs rival the palaces and mosques. The Indian type was a domed mauso- leum, set in the midst of a garden. The most noted example is the Taj Mahal at Agra [q.v.], built by Shah Jahan in 1630, in which the central domQ i?. flanked by four smaller domes, and the principal, minor, and diagonal axes are marked on the exterior by great arches expressively and har- moniously proportioned. The Mohammedan build- ers were confronted by few structural problems for which solutions had not already been found by late Roman, Byzantine, and Sassanian archi- tecture. At first, like the early Christian build- ers, they employed borrowed classical columns and capitals, supporting impost blocks and stilted arches. Their early domes rested on squinches. Later their treatment of fundamental structural elements, such as the arch and the vault, was governed by decorative conceptions. In Spain and Africa arches were given a horseshoe shape or were cusped; in Persia, Egypt, and Spain vaults were treated with a multitude of small squinches re- sembling stalactites. Stalactite motives were also used in some capitals, although in others modified Corinthian motives were used, much as in the most expressive Gothic examples. The ornamenta- tion depended little on effects of bold relief, but greatly on effects of line, of material, and, above all, of color. The prohibition against representing man and animals, with the mathematical bent of the Arabs, resulted in a geometrical ornament of interlacing figures, extraordinarily fertile and in- tricate. Precious materials were freely used ; in Persia whole buildings were faced with colored and glazed faience in patterns suggested by rugs and textiles."— F. Kimball and G. H. Edgell, History of architecture, pp. 573-579. Coptic: Relation to Byzantine. — "A side glance should be bestowed, in passing, on the evi- dences of Byzantine influence to be seen in the plans of some of the ancient Coptic churches of Egypt — not very certainly dated, but of a period probably not long subsequent to the rise of By- zantine architecture at Constantinople. These are mostly of the aisle type of plan, but combined with square domed compartments which are ob- viously of Byzantine suggestion. The plan of the church of Deir-Baramous with its three domed compartments at the east end, given by Gayet in his work on Coptic art, may be taken as a typical example. The nave is barrel-vaulted, and there is no central dome, but the three domed compart- ments betray Byzantine influence. As is perti- nently remarked by Mr. Russell Sturgis in the ar- ticle, 'Coptic Architecture,' in his dictionary: 'It argues great vitality in the Coptic architecture proper, that, in the sixth century, it did not take over the Byzantine style in its completeness.' Cop- tic architecture, however, can only now be regarded as a back-water outside of the main stream of architectural development." — H. H. Statham, Sltort critical history of architecture, pp. 2oq-2io Romanesque. — "The term Romanesque is here used to indicate a style of Christian architecture, founded on Roman art, which prevailed through- out Western Europe from the close of the period of basilican architecture to the rise of Gothic; except in those isolated districts where the in- fluence of Byzantium is visible. By some writers the significance of the word is restricted within narrower limits; but excellent authorities can be adduced for the employment of it in the wide sense here indicated. Indeed some difficulty exists in deciding what shall and what shall not be termed Romanesque, if any more restricted defini- tion of its meaning is adopted; while under this general term, if applied broadly, many closely al- lied local varieties — as, for example, Lombard, Rhenish, Romance, Saxon, and Norman — can be conveniently included." — T. R. Smith and J. Slater, Architecture, p. 222. — "Our Romanesque and our . Gothic are not two styles but one style. Gothic 455 ARCHITECTURE, MEDIEVAL Romanesque ARCHITECTURE, MEDIEVAL is perfected Romanesque; Romanesque is Gothic not fully developed, nor carried structurally to its logical conclusion." — F. Bond, Gothic architec- ture in England, p. 12. Lombard and German. — "By degrees, as build- ings of greater extent and more ornament were erected, the local varieties . . . began to develop themselves. In Lombardy and North Italy, for example, a Lombard Romanesque style can be recognised distinctly; here a series of churches were built, many of them vaulted, but not many of the largest size. Most of them were on sub- stantially the same plan as the Basilicas, though a considerable number of circular or polygonal churches were also built. Sant' Ambrogio at Milan, and some of the churches at Brescia, Pavia, and Lucca, may be cited as well-known examples of early date, and a little later the cathedrals of Parma, Modena, and Piacenza, and San Zenone at Verona. These churches are all distinguished by the free use of small ornamental arches and nar- row pilaster-strips externally, and the employment of piers with half-shafts attached to them, rather than columns, in the arcades ; they have fine bell- towers; circular windows often occupy the gables, and very frequently the walls have been built of, or ornamented with, coloured materials. The sculpture — grotesque, vigorous, and full of rich variety — which distinguishes many of these build- ings, and which is to be found specially enriching the doorways, is crl great interest, and began early to develop a character that is quite distinctive. . . . Turning to Germany, we find that a very strong resemblance existed between the Romanesque churches of that country and those of North Italy. At Aix-la-Chapelle [q. v.] a polygonal church exists, built by Charlemagne, which tradition asserts was designed on the model of San Vitale at Ravenna. The resemblance is undoubted, but the German church is by no means an exact copy of Justinian's building. Early examples of German Romanesque exist in the cathedrals of Mayence, Worms, and Spires." — T. R. Smith and J. Slater, Architecture, pp. 224-225. — "The Romanesque of Germany is, on the whole . . . the most distinctly national of the countr\''s styles. [It] was extremely prolific and lingered longer than in any other country. . . . The most striking and typically German character- istic of the style is its complexity and pictur- esqueness, acquired by a multiplication of archi- tectural members." — F. Kimball and G. H. Edgell, History of architecture, pp. 242-243. French and Norman. — "France exhibits more than one variety of Romanesque; for not only is the influence of Greek or Venetian artists trace- able in the buildings of certain districts, especially Perigueur, but it is clear that in others the exist- ence of fine examples of Roman architecture af- fected the design of buildings down to and during the eleventh century. This influence may, for ex- ample, be detected in the use, in the churches at Autun, Valence, and .\vignon, of capitals, pil- asters, and in the employment through a great part of Central and Northern France of vaulted roofs. A specially French feature is the chcvet, a group of apsidal chapels which were combined with it to make of the east end of a great cathedral a singularly rich and ornate composition. This fea- ture, originating in Romanesque churches, was retained in France through the whole of the Gothic period, and a good example of it may be seen in the large Romanesque church of St. Sernin at Toulouse. ... In Normandy, and generally in the North of France, round-arched architecture was excellently carried out, and churches remarkable both for their extent and their great dignity and. solidity were erected. Generally speaking, how- ever, Norman architecture, especially as met with in Normandy itself, is less ornate than the Roman- esque of Southern France; in fact some of the best examples seem to suffer from a deficiency of ornament. The large and well-known churches at Caen, St. Etienne, otherwise the Abbaye aux Hommes — interesting to Englishmen as having been founded by William the Conqueror immediately after the Conquest — and the Trinite, or Abbaye aux Dames, are excellent examples of early Nor- man architecture. ... In Great Britain, as has been already pointed out, enough traces of Saxon — that is to say, Primitive Romanesque — architec- ture remain to show that many simple, though comparatively rude, buildings must have been erected previous to the Norman Conquest. . . . Shortly after the Conquest distinctive features be- gan to show themselves. Norman architecture in England soon became essentially different from what it was in Normandy, and we possess in this country a large series of fine works showing the growth of this imported style, from the early sim- plicity of the chapel in the Tower of London to such elaboration as that of the later parts of Dur- ham Cathedral. The number of churches founded or rebuilt soon after the Norman Conquest must have been enormous, for in examining churches of every date and in every part of England it is com- mon to find some fragment of Norman work re- maining from a former church: this is very fre- quently a doorway left standing or built into walls of later date ; and, in addition to these frag- ments, no small number of churches, and more than one cathedral, together with numerous castles, remain in whole or in part as they were erected by the original builders. Norman architecture is con- sidered to have prevailed in England for more than a century ; that is to say, from the Conquest (1066) to the accession of Richard I. (ii8g). The oldest remaining parts of Canterbury Cathedral are specimens of Norman architecture executed in England immediately after the Conquest. . . . More complete and equally ancient is the chapel in the Tower of London, which consists of a small apsidal church with nave and aisles, vaulted throughout, and in excellent preservation. This building, though very charming, is almost desti- tute of ornament. A little more ornate, and still a good example of early Norman, is St. Peter's Church, Northampton. ... To these examples of early Norman we may add a large part of Roch- ester Cathedral, and the transepts of Winchester. The transepts of Exeter present a specimen of rather more advanced Norman work; and in the cathedrals of Peterborough and Durham the style can be seen at its best. [The parish church at Ifflcy is also a notable example.] In most Nor- man buildings we find ver>' excellent masonry and massive construction. The exteriors of west fronts, transepts, and towers show great skill and care in their composition, the openings being al- ways well grouped, and contrasted with plain wall- spaces; and a keen sense of proportion is percep- tible. The Norman architects had at command a rich, if perhaps a rather rude, ornamentation, which they generally confined to individual fea- tures, especially doorways; on these they lavished mouldings and sculpture, the elaboration of which was set off by the plainness of the general struc- ture. In the interior of the churches we usually meet with piers of massive proportion, sometimes round, sometimes octagonal, sometimes rectangular, and a shaft is sometimes carried up the face of the piers; as, for example, in Peterborough Cathedral. The capitals of the columns and piers have a 456 ARCHITECTURE, MEDIEVAL Gothic ARCHITECTURE, MEDIEVAL square abacus, [q. v.] and, generally speaking, are of the cushion-shaped sort, commonly known as basket capitals, and are profusely carved. The larger churches have the nave roofed with a timber roof, and at Peterborough there is a wooden ceil- ing; in these cases the aisles only are vaulted, but in some small churches the whole building has been so covered. Buttresses are seldom required, owing to the great mass of the walls; when em- ployed they have a very slight projection, but the same strips or pilasters which are used in German Romanesque occur here also. Low towers were common, and have been not infrequently pre- served in cases where the rest of the building has been removed. As the style advanced, the propor- tions of arcades became more lofty, and shafts be- came more slender, decorative arcades became more common, and in these and many other changes the approaching transition to Gothic may be easily detected."— T. R. Smith and J. S. Slater, Archi- tecture, pp. 226-235. — See also Cathedral. Gothic: Full development of vaulting. — Ar- tistic value. — Centers of diffusion. — "In Gothic the possibilities of Romanesque reach their logical conclusions. More analytically and completely the vault determines the rest of the structure. Down- ward stress and lateral thrusts have been analyzed; they have been gathered up and then distributed in currents of pressure exerted along the lines of the ribs of the vaulting. Each thrust or stress is met by separate support of pillar or colonnette, or by directly counteracting pressure of pier and flying buttress. Through these the weight and lat- eral thrusts of the building are conducted down- ward and outward in channels as definite as the gutters which lead the rain-water from the roof. More especially the devices of rib and flying but- tress have faciliated the use of the pointed arch, and have lifted Romanesque from the earth ; while the confinement of stresses to definite channels has enabled the architect to replace opaque walls with a many-colored translucency of glass, in which the Christian story is painted in the light of heaven. The architectural ornament emphasizes the struc- ture of the building as determined by the require- ments of the vault. Constructively, artistically, and symbolically, the ornament of a Gothic church completes and perfects it and renders it articulate. The strength of the building is in its ribs and arches, columns, piers, and flying buttresses. Their sustaining forms render this strength visible." — H. O. Taylor, Classical heritage oj the Middle Ages, pp. 311-312. — "If the aim of architecture, considered as an art, should be to free itself as much as possible from subjection to its materials, it may be said that no buildings have more suc- cessfully realized this idea than the Gothic churches." — S. Reinach, Apollo, p. 118. — "The new style evolved with great rapidity. The Gothic choir of the Abbey Church of St. Denis was begun in ri44, the Church of Noyon in 1150, Notre Dame (Paris) in 1163, Bourges in 1172, Chartres in irg4, Reims in 1211, Amiens in 1215. [See also Amiens, Cathedral of.] The Sainte-Chapelle of Paris was consecrated in 124S. From the north of France the Gothic type — propagated more espe- cially by the monks of Citeaux — passed into Alsace (Strasburg, 1277), into Germany (Cologne, 1248), into Italy (Milan), into Spain, Portugal, Sweden, Bohemia, and Hungary. The French Crusaders introduced it into the island of Cyprus and into Syria. In England, it assumed a national char- acter, the main features of which were a greater structural sobriety and care for solidity, combined later with more richness and beauty in the ribbing of vaults and in ornament generally, and a ten- dency to rely upon the length for sublimity of effect, rather than upon height, as did the French architects. It has, however, been made a re- proach to the English Gothic artists that they made an excessive use of vertical lines, especially in their windows. In 11 74, a French architect, Wil- liam of Sens, rebuilt the cathedral of Canterbury which had been, for the second time, destroyed by fire. The choir of Lincoln was built from 1190 to 1200, that of Westminster Abbey from 1245 to 1269; Salisbury from 1220 to 125S. Everywhere else, the French type prevailed. Chartres and Bourges were the models for Spain; Noyon and Laon were imitated at Lausanne and at Bamberg (the towers); Cologne [q. v.] is a combination of Amiens and Beauvais. The country which least readily assimilated the Gothic style was Italy (Mi- lan Cathedral). The Romanesque churches did not disappear here ; there is an unbroken continuity between them and the buildings of the Renaissance, whereas Gothic art intervenes as a brilliant epi- sode, the apogee of which was but little removed from its decline. Three f)eriods have been dis- cerned in Gothic architecture, determined by the shape and decoration of the windows; to these the terms a lancettes (lancet-shaped) or Primitive, Rayonnant or Secondary, and Flamboyant or Third Period, are applied in France, while in Eng- land three distinct periods are also recognised, and generically distinguished as Thirteenth Century, or Early English; Fourteenth Century, or Decorated, and Fifteenth Century, or Perpendicular. But all these terms are somewhat loosely applied. It will be enough to say here that the principle of Gothic architecture led it on incessantly to increase the height of vaults, to enlarge open spaces and win- dows, to multiply belfries and pinnacles. The Gothic churches of the fifteenth century are both mannered, and alarming in the overslenderness of their structure. Gothic art was not crushed by the art of the Renaissance ; it fell a victim to its inherent fragility. Churches were not the sole fruit of Gothic art, though the cathedral is its most perfect expression. Among the monuments of its later period are the beautiful town-halls of Flemish cities, which rose confronting the churches, with belfries containing the municipal bells, as if to symbolise the growth of a new power, that of the civic laity. Other productions were magnificent abbeys [see also Abbey: Abbeys in history, and Architectural features] notably that of Mont St. Michel, and charming private houses, such as the Hotel de Cluny in Paris, and Jacques Coeur's House at Bourges. Fortified castles, and keeps, or donjons (from the Latin dominium) in the Romanesque style had multiplied from the tenth century on- wards. The exigencies of defence forbade the full acceptance in these of a style in which open spaces predominated; but Gothic art inspired the interior arrangement, the decoration of the doors, the windows, and the roof; it will suffice to in- stance the castles of La Ferte-Milon and Pierre- fonds, dating from the close of the fourteenth cen- tury, buildings which have been justly eulogised for 'their imposing masses, their noble outlines, the Doric pride and frankness of their perpendicular design.'" — S. Reinach, Apollo, pp. 116-117. — The Spanish use of the Gothic was freer and more genuine than that of Germany or Italy, and al- though the French influence was dominant, cer- tain characteristic features of plan and proportion were developed, notably increased width of nave, position of choir, internal buttresses and wide vaulting. The Gothic style in Spain and also in southern Italy and Sicily is noteworthy for Sara- cen influence, as evidenced by rich surface decora- 457 ARCHITECTURE, RENAISSANCE Ifaly ARCHITECTURE, RENAISSANCE tions, pierced stonework tracery, and the horse- shoe arch. — See also Art: Relation of art and his- tory; Cathedral; Historical importance. RENAISSANCE Relation to preceding styles. — "Greek archi- tecture is the embodiment of supreme serenity, of self-restraint, and the sense of inevitable fate. It is the expression of an ideal of life that never sought to leave the earth, the ideal of a sound mind in a sound body. Its impulse is purely pagan. Roman architecture, with its bridges and aqueducts, its triumphal arches, its domes and its auditoriums, speaks of the majesty of the Roman government, of the imperial scope of its power and its law. When paganism had fallen and Chris- tianity had built a new civilization upon the wreck of the old, Gothic architecture gave expression to the new spirit, to the new ideal of life, to the new vision that soared aloft until it was lost in the blue sky. Pure beauty w'as the sole object of Hellenic art, but Gothic architecture strove to voice the aspirations of the human soul. The predomi- nant lines of classic architecture are horizontal lines, which are restful and belong to the earth, while those of Gothic architecture are vertical. In a Gothic cathedral, slender window, towering pillar, pointed arch, lofty vault, delicate pinnacle, and soaring spire, irresistibly carry the eye upward. Classic architecture was rooted in the rational fac- ulty; Gothic was born of the spiritual. The ra- tional faculty looks about it with understanding. The spiritual faculty aspires with rapture to God. But it is not form alone that creates the impres- sion produced by a Gothic cathedral. The win- dows, made up of separate fragments of glass, ruby, or sapphire blue, or emerald green, let in mellow light and permit mysterious shadows. The lofty interior is steeped in the brooding richness and solemn splendor of a strange twilight. The effect is profoundly emotional. It is the language of the soul become articulate. . . . Gothic archi- tecture could not express the combination of clas- sicism and modernity that formed the spirit of the Renaissance. A new style of architecture was required. The pure Gothic of northern and cen- tral France had never found a congenial soil in Italy. Only a modified form of Gothic, in which the horizontal principle held an important part, had flourished there. Breadth rather than height was its characteristic attribute. The spire was almost unknown, its place being taken by the dome. In retaining something of the character of classic architecture Italian Gothic expressed the genius of the Italian people, a genius with classic inheritance, as contrasted with the genius of the French people, a genius with a marked Celtic strain. In the creation of an architecture that should give expression to the senii-classic spirit of the Renaissance, a less radical change was re- quired of the Italians than of the northern na- tions. The spirit of the Renaissance appealed to the Italian mind promptly and decisively. A new style of architecture, that rapidly reached ma- turity, gave expression to that spirit." — E. M. Hulme, Renaissance, the Protestant Revolution and the Catholic Reformation, pp. 108-110. "Compared with the medieval architecture which preceded it. Renaissance architecture was less con- cerned with problems of structure and more with those of pure form. As in the case of Roman architecture, the forms of detail were sometimes used as trophies of classical culture, with relative indifference to their original structural functions. The forms were not merely ends in themselves, however, but means for a rhythmical subdivision of space, more complex and more varied than either ancient or medieval times had known. A further contrast between the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, though one which has often been exaggerated, lay in the relation of the designer to his work. The architect, in the ancient and in the modern sense, reappeared. We now realize that in both the Middle Ages and the Renaissance the general design was controlled by a single mind, and that in both periods there were sculptured details of which the design was left to the initiative of individual sculptors. Unlike the medieval masterbuilder, however, the Renaissance architect did not himself work on the scaffold, whereas he did dictate, in a greater measure than his pre- decessors, the form of many uniform details." — F. Kimball and G. H. Edgell, History of archi- tecture, pp. 345-346. Italy. — "The first period of Renaissance archi- tecture in Italy may be characterized as the at- tempted fusion of the forms of the Middle Ages and those of antiquity. Novelty is less apparent at first in the conception of buildings than in their decorations, in which Graeco-Roman motives play a part. For the first time since the fall of the Empire, civil architecture becomes more important than religious architecture. This was a conse- quence of the progress of the secular spirit. The type of the new art is the Florentine palace, a massive structure built round a quadrangular court with a columned portico. The exterior still pre- serves the character of the medisval fortresses, in which solid surfaces occupy far more space than apertures. It is in the interior, with its arcades, its rows of columns, the decoration of its pilasters and vaults that the imitation of antique models manifests itself. Some of this decoration, no longer realistic but fantastic, was inspired by that of the Roman tombs lately excavated, and known as grottoes; hence the term grotesque, which, in its original sense, implies no sort of censure or ridi- cule. The Renaissance church differs from the Gothic church mainly in that it is generally crowned by a cupola square in plan; clustered col- umns are replaced by pillars; the vault on inter- secting arches by a barrel vault or a horizontal coffered ceiling; on the exterior we find columns, pediments, and niches, all the various elements of Roman art. The Florentine Brunellesco (1377- 1466) was the initiator of the first Renaissance. From 1420 to 1434 he raised the dome of the Cathedral of Florence to a height of about 300 feet. . . . About the year 1445, [he] began the Pitti Palace at Florence. It is a building charac- terised by a severe beauty, due mainly to the clarity of the design and the perfection of the proportions. Classic influences are more apparent in the Riccardi Palace, the work of Michelozzo about 1430, and in the Strozzi Palace, Florence, built about 1489 by Benedetto da Majano and Cronaca. This is surmounted by an attic or cor- nice inspired by the best Roman models and justly celebrated. . . . The marvellous fa<;ade of the Cer- tosa at Pavia was built in 1491, two years later than the Strozzi Palace. Here decoration abounds, infinitely rich and varied; if it borrows elements from antique art, it lavishes them with truly Gothic exuberance. . . . "The centre of true Renaissance architecture, characterized by the constructive, non-decorative use of columns and pilasters, was not Florence but Rome, where the monuments of antiquity furnished models. It began with Bramante of Urbino (1444- 1514), the director of the first works undertaken at St. Peter's. His influence was principally ex- 458 TYPES OF ITALIAN ARCHITECTURE • Leaning Tower of Pisa. Cathedral of San Lorenzo, Genoa. St. Peter's, Rome. ARCHITECTURE, RENAISSANCE Italy France ARCHITECTURE, RENAISSANCE ercised to restrain parasitical decoration and em- phasise the structure of a building ; this formula has become the law of modern architecture. Per- haps the most gifted of his successors was Andrea Palladio, who worked at Venice (1518-1580). A characteristic work by him is the Church of the Redentore in that city. As an example of a palace built in this second phase of the Renaissance, we may cite the beautiful Library of St. Mark at Venice, the work of Jacopo Tatti, called Sansovino (1486-1570), with its Doric ground floor, its Ionic i^rst floor, its graceful frieze and balustrade en- riched with statues. The third period was entirely dominated by the influence of Michelangelo (1475-' 1564), especially from about the year 1550 on- wards. This redoubtable genius imposed pic- turesque elements and individual fancies upon ar- tendency developed, at the close of the sixteenth century, into the style known as Baroque, from the name given by the Portuguese to irregularly shaped pearls (barocco). It is a kind of de- generescent Renaissance art, allied by its defects to the Flamboyant Gothic of the fifteenth century, its most pronounced characteristic being the prefer- ence of the curved to the straight line. In the interior of the churches of this period the so- called Jesuit style held sway ; it aimed at dazzling the eye by wealth and variety of motive, without regard to the true function of ornament, which is to emphasize form. This was the period of decor- ation treated as an end in itself, introduced every- where and in the most contradictory fashion, re- sulting in feverish visions of tortured lines and unexpected reliefs. The genius of the Renaissance MICH.\ELANGELO'S STVLK dl KKX.M- ■ .ARCHITECTURE Salon of Angeli at the Karnese Palace, Italy chitecture. He continued, but did not finish, the enormous Church of St. Peter, the plans of which had already been modified by several architects, Raphael among the number. After the death of Michelangelo, the huge cupola, some 430 feet high, was finished from his designs; but the fa<;ade was spoilt in the seventeenth century by Maderna, and more especially by Bernini, the author of two lateral towers by no means pleasing in their effect. ... It is the largest church ever built, covering a superficies of over 225,000 square feet, while Milan Cathedral and St. Paul's in London occupy only some 118,300, St. Sophia some 107,000, and Cologne Cathedral some 86,000. . . . The example of Michelangelo inspired a taste for the colossal and a straining after effect, to the detriment of simplicity and good taste. His disciples have left many powerful and original works, which are marred by too great an exuberance of fancy. This succumbed at last in this decorative orgy, though down to the end of the eighteenth century it never ceased to produce buildings remarkable for their boldness or their elegance. As an example of the latter, we may mention the Palazzo Pesaro [at Venice or Bevilacqua at Bologna] where, in spite of the profusion of useless ornament, the eye is charmed by the nobility of the proportions and the plavful fancy of the decorations (about 1650)." — S. Reinach, Apollo, pp. 131-13S.— See also Venice: i6th century. France. — "Next to Italy it was France that was the chief contributor to the Renaissance. But the change from Gothic to pseudo-classic ideals that began to overtake architecture in the fifteenth century in that country cannot correctly be called a revival because there had never been a time in French history when architecture had been classic in its spirit. ... In France Gothic architecture, 459 ARCHITECTURE, RENAISSANCE France Germany ARCHITECTURE, RENAISSANCE born of the national spirit, had found its most logical and artistic development ; and therefore its modification and replacement were not accom- plished without a struggle. Some things there were that helped to make the change less difficult. . . . The architectural needs of the time were becoming secular and civic. . . . French artists went to learn in Italy, and Italian artists came to teach in France. It was not classic architecture that found it3 way into France but rather the varying Italian interpretations of that architecture. The fusion of the flamboyant Gothic with the florid Italian styles resulted at first in a transitional style that was the autumnal splendor of the medie- val manner; but about the middle of the sixteenth century a decided break with the Gothic past took place." — E. M. Hulme, Renaissance, the Pro- testant Revolution, and the Catholic Rejormation, pp. 3gi-392. — "The oldest monuments of the French Renaissance are the country mansions built in the valley of the Loire during the reign of Francis I. They retain the high sloping roof, the towers, turrets, and spiral staircases of the Middle Ages; it is only in the decoration, that Italian influences are revealed. . . . We need go no further than Paris to study the beautiful gate of the Chateau de Gaillon (1502-1510) built by the Cardinal d'Amboise, and now erected in the courtyard of the Ecole des Beaux-Arts. A bolder example of the style is Chenonceaux on the Cher (1512-1523), a well-preserved building, in which Gothic forms are everywhere perceptible, under the veil of Renaissance decoration. The masterpiece of this style is Chambord, the work of Pierre Trinqueau (c. 1523), with its forest of chimneys and gables, a fairy apparition rising in the midst of a desolate sandy plain. But if we examine it closely, we are struck by the incongruities of construction: a Gothic roof, a Renaissance main building, and massive Romanesque towers. The older parts of the Castle of Blois (especially on the north) abound in charming Renaissance details, still allied to Gothic elements. Fontainebleau is severe in style, even a trifle wearisome ; the most severe of all Francis I.'s chateaux is that of St. Germain, where the austerity of the facade and the flat roof recall the Florentine palaces of the early Renaissance. The hybrid union of Gothic and Renaissance is found in several of the churches of this period, as, for instance, in St. Etienne-du- Mont (1517-1540-1610) and St. Eustache (1532) in Paris. Towards 1540 a purification of style took place. Pierre Lescot, who worked at the Louvre from the year 1546, Jean Bullant (1515- 1578), who built Ecouen and began the Tuileries, completed by Philibert Delorme, were thoroughly saturated with the spirit of the Italian Renais- sance, but they also developed -a decorative and picturesque talent which presaged the French art of the Eighteenth century. The masterpiece of French Renaissance architecture, and perhaps of all modern architecture, is the Louvre. Of the many who have seen it, but few know it, for its different portions date from various periods, and it requires careful scrutiny to grasp the distinctive characteristics. The part of the Louvre courtyard which we owe to Lescot (south-west) struck the note that was taken up by his successors, and it is not too much to say that this courtyard affords the most admirable view of a palace in existence. On the outside, facing the Rue du Louvre. Louis Xr\\ commissioned Claude Perrault to build a long monotonous faqade with double columns, which gives the measure of the distance between the art of the French Renaissance and that of the age of Louis XIV. Even the exquisite grace of a Les- cot seemed frivolous to that age; its artists no longer sought inspiration in the Italy of the six- teenth century, but found their models in imperial Rome. The style then adopted is known as the academic style, because it was enforced mainly by the Academies of Sculpture, Painting, and Archi- tecture founded by Mazarin (1648) and by Col- bert (1671). . . . Perrault's collonade and the fa- cade of the Palace of Versailles, completed by Jules Hardouin Mansard (1646-170S), are memorable examples of this sad, solemn, and lofty style, in which symmetry is the supreme law, and every picturesque and unexpected element is banished. Mansard's best work is the dome of the Invalides (1675-1706), the silhouette of which, at once ele- gant and majestic, is much finer than that of the Pantheon by Soufflot (1757-1784). The imposing facade of St. Sulpice (1733) is the work of an Italian architect, Servandoni. The two Garde- Meubles, on the Place de la Concorde, akin to Perrault's colonnade, but greatly superior to it, are due to Gabriel, the best architect of the time of Louis XV. These fine buildings have one very unsuitable feature, the flat Italian roofs, so ill- adapted to the climate of Paris. As it is absolutely necessary to warm them, the roofs have been crowned by a forest of chimney-pots, which pro- duce a somewhat grotesque effect."- — S. Reinach, Apollo, pp. 131-135- Germany. — "In Germany the Renaissance move- ment seems to have followed in the steps of French Renaissance rather than of Italian. . . . But it is somewhat difficult to assign any decisive tendency to German architecture in the Renaissance period; it seems to have varied very much with locality and individual influence. The later work at Hei- delberg shows a more Renaissance spirit than the earlier part, but in a rather florid and tawdry manner; while the portico of the Rathaus at Cologne, with its two stories of orders on pedestals, with round arches between, is almost academic in style, and seems derived rather from Italian than French influence. On the other hand, reminiscences of Gothic . . . survive in the most surprising man- ner in buildings of much later date than this. A church at Biickeburg, for instance (1613), has aisles defined by Corinthian columns, with the or- thodox architrave blocks above the capitals, and mullioned windows of the long three-light German Gothic type, only with circular instead of pointed tracery, and a fa(;ade of the most villainously rococo character; and the Marien-Kirche at Wol- fenbijttel, about the same date, has buttresses of Gothic plan, but terminating in a frieze and cor- nice, and the long three-light mullioned window with pointed arches, but with the tracery-bars ragged with ornamentation in reUef. One never knows what one may find in German Renaissance buildings; it is a period of experiments and vaga- ries, often crude and coarse to a degree, yet not without a certain picturesque effect, and Gothic feeling is often quite prevalent even where nearly all the details are Classic. One may take as an example the Rathaus at Bremen (1612), with its open arcade in the ground story, its balcony with rococo carved ornament, and its mullioned win- dows above, with Classic pediment heads, . . . and it can hardly be denied that the total spirit of this building, in spite of its little orthodox pediments over the wuidows, is medieval rather than Renais- sance. Medieval in feeling, too, are the frequent high-gabled street fronts, such as that of the Ge- wandhaus at Brunswick (1502), with four stories each with an order, then an immense gable in several diminishing stages with crude details of pilasters and scrolls. The same kind of thing is 460 AUCHITECTURE, RENAISSANCE Spain England ARCHITECTURE, RENAISSANCE shown more in detail in the illustration of a house front at Heidelberg. There is a certain pictur- esqueness about it, but alter all it is a kind of nursery architecture, like children building with toy bricks, that no French architect of the Renais- sance would have descended to. Among German buildings which exhibit something of the refine- ment and sobriety of the Italian and French Renaissance a favourable example is the Gymna- sium in the Bank Platz at Brunswick (1592) in which square-headed mullioned windows of the Francis I. type are grouped in pairs, with a niche and a statue between each pair ; and one may men- tion also the Rathaus at Augsburg (1615), a plain building with pedimented windows, somewhat re- calling the style of the Farnese Palace. But the general tendency of German Renaissance is to ec- centricity and exuberance of ornamental detail, the unquestionable vigour of which hardly compen- sates for its want of refinement." — H. H. Statham, Short critical history of architecture, pp. 4S7-494. Spain. — "In Spain, as in France and other countries outside of Italy, there was a mingling of Italian forms with those already existing in the native medieval architecture. Here, however, the medieval style itself included a large admixture of Moorish forms. Moriscoes, until their expulsion in 1610. remained prominent among artificers, and thus had their influence on the Renaissance forms as well Thus arose the Plateiesque or silver- smith's style, so called from the intricate and deli- cate ornament abounding in it. This, which cor- responds with the early Renaissance, extended from about 1500 to 1560. A notable example is the Town Hall at Seville, built in 1527-32. Here there is an application of engaged orders in two stories which in its main lines is thoroughly grammatical, but which has pilasters, columns, window enframe- ments, and panels alike covered with the richest arabesques and candelabra-like forms. Even more characteristic in its mode of composition is the doorway of the University at Salamanca. Here the ornament is massed in a great panel above the opening, which contrasts with the broad neighbor- ing surfaces of unbroken masonry. Other notable features of style are open arcaded loggias which often terminate a fai;ade, as in the Casa de Mon- terey at Salamanca (1530), and the courts or pa- tios surrounded by galleries which are found in all important buildings. Forms like those of the High Renaissance in Italy first appeared in the palace begun for Charles V. in the Alhambra (1527), by Pedro Machuca. This building is square in plan with a circular colonnaded court having super- posed orders, Doric and Ionic. In purity and classical quality the building holds its own with contemporary monuments of Italy. .■ . . The con- quest of the Indies made Spain, by the middle of the sixteenth century, the greatest power in Eu- rope. Philip II. gave expression to this power by the building of the Escurial (1563-84), comprising a votive church and mausoleum, monastery, and palace, with every needful dependency for the ser- vice of both church and state. Its building lay chiefly in the hands of Juan de Herrera (1530-97), whose work, severely academic in its forms, es- tablished the post-Renaissance tendencies in Spain. In the Patio of the Evangelists, to be sure, he employed the Roman arch order with equal bays and unbroken entablatures, but elsewhere the mem- bering abounds in the complex grouping of sup- ports, the breaking of horizontal members, the uniting of interior spaces by penetrating vaults, and the multiplication of aspects in perspective by the combination of dome and towers. Herrera's sobriety was soon superseded by baroque freedom. which ultimately in the hands of Jose Churriguera (1650-1723) became the boldest license. The na- tional traditions of the Plateresque were reflected in the 'Churngueresque' style, which paid less at- tention to the creation of new forms of plan and space than to the luxuriant elaboration of detail. It reached its fullest development in the great por- tals and altar-pieces, such as the high altar of the church of El Salvador in Seville. The accession of the Bourbons in 17 14, which marked the end of Spanish domination in politics, brought also a subordination of Spanish tendencies in art. The palaces of the new rulers at La Granja and Madrid imitated not only the worldliness of Versailles but its architectural formalism. The baroque ten- dency, which comported so well with national sym- pathies, persisted nevertheless, now creating novel forms of interior space, and still filling the frame- work of the orders with an exuberance of orna- ment." — F. Kimball and G. H. Edgell, History of architecture, pp. 3S7-388, 420-422. England. — "Gothic architecture endured longer in England than elsewhere, and took a new lease of life under the name of Tudor Style (1485-1558). To this transitional style belong the Royal Chap- els, St. George's at Windsor and Henry VII.'s Chapel, Westminster Abbey, with their unique sys- tem of fan-vaulting. Hampton Court Palace is a charming example of the Tudor Style as applied to domestic architecture. Renaissance architecture only flournished in the time of Charles I., when it was represented principally by Inigo Jones (1572-1662), the author of the beautiful Banquet- ing Hall of Whitehall, London, and by Christopher Wren {1632-1723), the architect of the vast church of St. Paul's, a building inspired by St. Peter's at Rome, though not copied from it." — S. Reinach, Apollo, p. 142. MODERN General tendencies. — Our discussion of modern architecture is necessarily diverse and incomplete. Any critical evaluation must be regarded rather as a proposition for debate than as a final dictum. "Although the kaleidoscopic interplay of forces makes it difficult to generalize regarding the archi- tectural characteristics of the period, they may be conceived broadly as the result of a synthesis of retrospective and progressive tendencies, which ex- ist side by side, not unlike the academic and baroque tendencies in the previous period. In matters of form and detail it is the newly-won historical understanding of previous styles which has been chiefly influential resulting in a series of attempted revivals followed by a season of eclec- ticism. In matters of plan and construction, how- ever, the growth of material civilization and the development of new forms of government and commerce have produced a multitude of novel types of buildings as well as constant changes in the form and importance of the old types, making every supposed revival unconsciously a new crea- tion. Finally there has begun a conscious move- ment to give the new functional types and struc- tural systems an expression that shall also be novel and entirely characteristic." — F. Kimball and G. H. Edgell, History of architecture, pp. 460-461. Belgium. — "Belgium has produced, in the Law Courts at Brussels, by Poelaert (18:6-1870), a building which in the Classic revival period stands almost alone as an attempt to use Classic ma- terials in a free and original spirit both of com- position and detail. It is not altogether satisfac- tory ; there is a want of unity of design as a whole, and a want of scholarly character in a class of 461 ARCHITECTURE, MODERN England France ARCHITECTURE, MODERN detail in which we seem to require that char- acter; but it is a building which gives evidence of architectural genius." — H, H. Statham, Sltart critical history of architecture, p. 541. England. — "The early part of the [igth] century was marked by a Greek revival ; a revulsion from the austere and rather prim simplicity to which the Renaissance had been reduced in the Georgian era, when hardly anything of Renaissance architecture was left except the Classical cornice and the sym- metrical arrangement of windows. 'Back to Greece,' was the cry, without any consideration as to whether the climate of England and the condi- tions of modern life were suitable to Greek archi- tecture; and one of the earliest results was the formation (1822) of the steeple of St. Pancras' church by Inwood's simple process of putting imi- tations of two small Greek buildings one on the top of the other, above a main portico of Ionic columns. Sir John Soane's (17S3-1837) earlier treatment of the Bank of England was much better than this; having to provide for a low building with all the windows opening on the interior courtyard, the employment of a large one-story order as a means of giving decorative effect to these blind walls was not a bad idea; and at all events the building looks Hke a bank, and could hardly be taken for anything else. Then we had Wilkins's National Gallery and University Col- lege, both with admirable details but rather weak in general effect. . . . The great building of the Greek revival is St. George's Hall at Liverpool, by Elmes (1814-1847). ... St. George's Hall, Greek externally and Roman in the interior of its great hall, is a noble conception, and contains moreover a certain originality in portions of the exterior, which may be described as Egyptian motifs trans- lated into Greek form; it is true that the interior is very badly planned for its purposes, and the corri- dors lamentably deficient in light ; but in those days, and in Elraes's mind certainly, that was a matter of quite secondary consequence provided that a grand architectural effect were obtained; and perhaps, for architecture, that extreme is better than the opposite extreme of ultra-utilitarianism. . . . The Gothic revival in England, a little before the middle of the century, was more or less acted on by an ecclesiastical or religious revival — at all events the architectural and religious movements went hand in hand, and the result was a wide- spread erection of churches in imitation of those of the medieval period, and a drastic restoration of the cathedrals; in both classes of operation Sir Gilbert Scott (1811-187S) was the largest operator. . . . His churches, it must be admitted, are quite uninteresting now; the stamp of imitation Gothic is over them all. Pugin (181 2-1852), that im- passioned modern mediaevalist, was also a leading influence at the outset of the Gothic revival, and had the faculty of ii^iparting a great impression of height and scale to the interiors of his plastered churches with their 'half-baked chalk rosettes,' as Bishop Blougram expressed it. Street's (1824- 1881) churches have more individual character than Scott's, and Butterfield's (1814-IQ00') still more so; perhaps hi? .Ml Saints', Margaret Street, is the one Gothic revival church which is still as interesting, externally at least, as when it was built. . . . The greatest modern Gothic building in Eng- land, or in the world, the Houses of Parliament, stands apart, as owing its style to influence? out- side of the Gothic revival movement, which, in fact, it rather preceded. The Tudor style appears to have been dictated to the architect mainly for historical reasons, as a typical English style; per- haps also owing to the proximity of Henry VII .'s chapel. Sir Charles Barry . . . has the merit of having produced, though working in a style forced upon him and with which he was not in sympa- thy, one of the grandest and most picturesque groups of architecture in the world, based on a plan so fine and effective that it has been copied again and again in buildings for a similar purpose, notably in the Budapest Parliament House, which is practically a reproduction of Barry's plan. . . Since the collapse of the Gothic revival, English architecture has taken a turn towards greater freedom of design, and a tendency once more to the employment of Renaissance materials and sug- gestions, without too great deference to precedent. Much may be hoped from this new movement in English architecture." — Ibid., pp. 526-533. France. — "France has had too much of the sense of tradition in architecture to be taken cap- tive by revivals. There is the great modern Gothic church of Ste. Clotilde at Paris, about the middle of the century, but there has been no Gothic revival on a large scale in France. There was, under the first empire, a certain tendency to a Greek, or we should perhaps rather say a Roman, revival, illustrated in such columned struc- tures as the Bourse and the Madeleine, by Brongniart and Vignon respectively; and the stu- pendous Arc de I'Etoile [see also Arc de Tri- OMPHE DE l'Etoile], in which the general effect is better than the details, with the exception of Rude's grand sculpture. But there was no gen- eral movement like the Greek revival in England. There was for a time a certain tendency to build churches with details founded on Byzantine sug- gestions, which were not successful ; the attempt was not in harmony with the French genius, which, in spite of the fact that France was the cradle of mediaeval architecture, is now essentially Classic in its tendencies The great church of the Sacr6 Cocur, by .Abadie (181 2-1884), which overlooks Paris from the hill of Montmartre, is (like the Roman Catholic cathedral in London) a frank adoption of Byzantine architecture, and a grand piece of work as such; but it is exceptional. The characteristic successes of the French architects of the century in church architecture are to be seen in such buildings as the church of La Trinite, by Ballu (1817-1885), in which a Gothic type of com- position has been translated into Classic detail; in Baltard's (1805-1874) domed church of St. Au- gustin, where by a happy recognition of the fact that the streets which limit the site meet at an acute angle, the exterior lines of the building are made to expand from the entrance front to the base of the dome; and in Hittorff's (i 703-1867) fine and severe basilica church of St. Vincent de Paul. The new Hotel de Ville at Paris, built after the Commune [1871], keeps a good deal to the style of the earlier French Renaissance, being partly influenced by the fact that the design of the earlier building is reproduced in a portion of the new one. .■Vt presenT the tendency of French architecture is towards the use of the Classic order, in large buildings, combined with a mod- ern school of decorative detail which tends to be a little too florid. The Opera House [built from 1861-1874I, by Chas. Gamier (1825-1898), is a fine though somewhat too florid building, redolent (as one may say) of the Second Empire; but the modern French style receives its best exemplifica- tion in the two great art-palaces at the Champs Elysees, one of which, that called the Petit Palais (though it is a very large building), by M. Gi- rault, is also a really original conception in plan. The Musee de Galliera at Paris, by the late M. Ginain (1825-1898), is a little gem of modern 462 ARCHITECTURE, MODERN Germany Vniied States ARCHITECTURE, MODERN Classic arhitecture, treated in a style distinctively French but with perfect good taste and refine- ment of detail. Speaking generally, however, what modern French architecture needs is a greater simplicity and reticence in decorative detail. But France is the only country which seems to have anything like a recognised tradition and a com- sistent purpose in architecture." — H. H. Statham, Short critical history of architecture, pp. 533-536. Germany. — "Germany anticipated the Greek re- vival, before the end of the eighteenth century, in the erection of the Brandenburg Gate at Ber- lin, with its great Doric columns. With the new century the Germans went into Classic revival with enthusiasm, and on a great scale, and their archi- tects certainly did the thing exceedingly well. Klenze's (1784- 1864) columned Ruhmes-Halle at Munich, with its two projecting wings, forming the architectural background to a colossal statue, is a grand conception of its kind; his Glyptothek at Munich, with its columned central portico and plain contrasting wings, is a good composition, and an appropriate fagade for a sculpture gallery. The other and perhaps more important representa- tive of Greek classicism in Germany in the early part of the century was Schinkel (1781-1841), who was an architect of some genius in rather columnar Classic buildings at Berlin — the Museum, a quadrangular building with an open colonnade in front, and the Royal Theatre; and his pupil Strack subsequently carried out, in a similar style, the National Gallery at Berlin, also a fine build- ing of its type. Schinkel could perceive, however, that revived Greek was not everything in modern architecture, and endeavoured to treat the Bau- Akademie at Berlin in a modern style, with col- oured brickwork and flat buttresses ; but he was hardly at his best away from the Classic orders, which he understood thoroughly how to use. His Nikolai church at Potsdam, however, is a striking and rather original building, with a columned dome mounted on an immense square block of wall with turrets at the angles, which rather re- minds one of the masses of walling in Soufflot's Pantheon, and was possibly suggested by it, though the building is by no means equal to the Pantheon. Semper (1803-1879) was a classical architect of somewhat the same school as Schinkel, and is credited with the designs of the Hofburg Theatre, and the new crescent-shaped wing of the Hof- burg Palace at Vienna, though they were not car- ried out by him, but by Hasenauer after his death. Vienna also contributed largely to revived Classic architecture; the Parliament House, by Hansen (1830-1890), about the middle of the century, is to exterior appearance a group of temples of the Corinthian order. At Vienna, however, though there was nothing like a Gothic revival either there or elsewhere in Germany, some large Gothic churches were built, especially the Votive church by Ferstel (1828-1883), which may be described as a starved reproduction of Cologne Cathedral. Vienna has also a Gothic Town Hall, by Schmidt (1825-18Q1), which is better than the Votive church. The more recent architecture of Ger- many seems to present a dual aspect. It seems still to be considered that revived Classic is the style for national buildings of the first importance; but the new Houses of Parliament with its [ugly] square cupola and heavy details, is, as Classic architecture, a sad descent from the scholarly re-- finement of Klenze, Schinkel, and Semper; and the new Berlin cathedral is like a bad St. Peter's. But in the general trend of recent German archi- tecture there is, along with a good deal of hor- rible stuff which has the trail of I'art nouveau all over it, a great deal of interesting novelty and originality in design, sometimes rather eccentric, but which at least shows that there is a spirit of life in German architecture, in the more general class of buildings, however they seem to fail at present in great monumental works. . . . More- over, the Germans pay great attention to sculptural decoration in connection with architecture, and introduce it so as to have a point and meaning in relation to the purpose of the building.'' — H. H. Statham, Short critical history of architecture, pp. 536-540. Italy and Spain. — "In regard to recent archi- tectural progress Italy and Spain may almost be considered negligible." — H. H. Statham, Short critical history of architecture (igi2), p. 541. United States. — "The United States of America occupy a somewhat important place in modern ar- chitecture. The short history of American architec- ture has been rather a curious one. In what is called the 'old Colonial' period the houses and other buildings, generally small, had often a good deal of architectural interest from the fact that they represented late English Renaissance carried out in wood, as the most available material, in- stead of in stone; and the difference in the character of the material, and the treatment suited to it, gave to the old architectural details a new effect and expression. And apart from this use of tim- ber, the early Colonial buildings in stone or brick were of a simple and unaffected style which rendered thera pleasing. With the development of civilised America into a national power as the United States, came a period of more pretentious architecture with no artistic feeling behind it. L'Enfant's scheme for the laying out of Washing- ton was a fine one, which is only just now in process of being carried out; but the Capitol it- self is only an effort at sublimity in cement ; and till about thirty years ago American architecture (except for Richardson's short-lived movement in favour of a kind of Romanesque-Byzantine) was like bad English architecture. Since then it has been, as far as public buildings are concerned, like good French architecture, which in a sense is the highest praise. . . . There is no doubt that American architecture at the present moment takes a very high place indeed, especially in the applica- tion of Classic ideals to public buildings. It is superior to that of either Germany or England; and if we do not regard it as quite equal to that of France, that would mainly be because it is obviously derived from French study, and one nat- urally feels that the copy cannot claim to be put quite on a level with the original. As an ex- ample of the best American architecture of the day we might take perhaps the Field Columbian Museum at Chicago, than which it would be diffi- cult to find anything better in its way. There are, however, two other phases of modern Ameri- can architecture to be recognised. In small coun- try houses, sea-side dwellings, &c., the American architects of late years have shown a great deal of invention and picturesqueness, combined as a rule with perfectly good taste; and their country houses of this class may be advantageously con- trasted with the ugly vagaries of French and Ger- man country-house architecture. ... A much less pleasing phase of modern American architecture is the development of the 'high building,' consisting of a framework of steel construction with an outer skin of masonry ; a manner of building suggested entirely by the commercial consideration of get- ting the greatest possible amount of rent out of every square yard of site." — H. H. Statham, Short critical history of architecture, pp. 541-543. — Among 463 ARCHITECTURE, MODERN ARCHON the significant contributions of the United States to architecture have been the colossal railway terminals such as the Union Railway station at Washington and the New York Central and Penn- sylvania stations in New Vork City. Educational architecture has occupied a very important and prolific field during the early twejitieth century, the most notable and extensive plans being carried out at West Point, Annapolis, University of Cali- fornia and Columbia University in New York City. — See also Theater. Recent tendencies: Classical tradition. — Mod- ernism. — Functionalism. — "The modern and in- creasing use of reinforced concrete construction has been regarded by some as affording a basis for a new architectural st\le; but there is no sign as yet of anything worth calling by that name, nor does it seem likely that so intractable and unsuggestive a material could ever take the place of stone for architecture of the highest class. The ultra-com- mercial spirit in America, the spirit which regards a building merely as a thing to be run up as fast as possible to bring a commercial return, has invaded London and is beginning to invade Paris; and unless it is checked will be the death of architecture. If there is one thing that a survey of the history of architecture shows clearly, it is that all that is great in architecture has arisen from the desire to do something fine and noble for its own sake ; and where there is not that desire there will be no great architecture." — H. H. Statham, Short critical history of architecture, pp. 544-545. — Other critics find the industrial phase of architecture not the most deplorable but the most hopeful. "Modern armoured concrete is only a higher power of the Roman system of con- struction. If we could sweep away our fear that it is an inartistic material, and boldly build a rail- way station, a museum, or a cathedral, wide and simple, amply lighted, and call in our painters to finish the walls, we might be interested in building again almost at once. . . . Our great difficulty is lack of spontaneous agreement ; an expressive form of art is only reached by building out in one di- rection during a long time. No art that is only one man deep is worth much ; it should be a thou- sand men deep. We cannot forget our historical knowledge, nor would we if we might. . . . Our survey should have shown us that there is not one absolute external form of beauty, but rather an endless series of changing modes in which the uni- versal spirit of beauty may manifest itself; that, indeed, change of the form is one of the condi- tions of its continuance. In Egyptian architecture power, wonder, terror, are expressed; in the Greek, serenity, measure and balance, fairness; in the Roman, force and splendour; in the Byzantine, solemnity, mystery, adoration ; in the Romanesque, strife and life; in the Arab, elasticity, intricacy and glitter, a suggestion of fountain spray and singing birds; in the Gothic, intensity, swiftness, a piercing quality, an architecture not only of stone, but of stained glass, bells and organ music. Beauty is the complexion of health, to reach it we must put aside our preoccupation about differ- ent sorts of rouge. We are always agonizing about design, but design, as Rodin has said, is as noth- ing compared to workmanship. Any one may see a beautiful landscape composition, but it needs a Turner to paint it. A rearing horse is a living statue, but the difficulty is to carve like Phidias. A skilful architect may design the lines of a cathedral bigger than Bourges, and embodying sev- eral excellent new ideas, before his breakfast, but there is little virtue in writing '700 feet long,' or in planning three transepts instead of one, or in making the chapels quatrefoils instead of octag- onal; these are nothing compared to great build- ing skill." — W. R. Lethaby, Architecture , pp. 248- 250. — This revolt from the conservative and his- torical tradition, strongest in Germany and Amer- ica, is thus summarized. "The conscious en- deavors in modern architecture to make the forms of individual members correspond to their struc- tural duties, to make the aspect of buildings char- acteristic of their use and purpose, to make the style of the time expressive of the distinguishing elements in contemporary and national culture, may be inclusively designated by the name func- tionalism. . . . Sometimes the attempt has been to give to new materials like steel or glass, or new systems of construction like reinforced concrete, a form suggested by their own properties. Some- times the effort has been to express on the ex- terior of buildings the function of each of their component elements, and to endow each building as a whole with a specific character in conformity with its purpose. More recently there has been a tendency not to remain satisfied unless all the forms employed, even in the solution of time- honored problems, owe as little as possible to the historic styles, and thus are peculiarly and em- phatically modern. ... At the moment of cessa- tion of architectural activity in Europe due to the great war, two contrary tendencies were struggling for mastery in matters of style. One emphasizes the elements of continuity with the past, the other the elements of novelty in modern civilization. In the Germanic countries it is the radical emphasis on novel elements which has secured the advantage, in France and England it is the conservative em- phasis on continuity which on the whole retains the supremacy. . . . Whether the present conserva- tive or the present radical tendency may ultimately be victorious, we may be sure that change in architectural style is bound to be constant, and that architecture will remain a living art, not less expressive of the complicated texture of modem life than it has been of the life of earlier and simpler periods." — F. Kimball and G. H. Edgell, History of architecture . pp. 400, 502, 517. Also in: J. Fergusson, History of architecture. — R. Sturgis and A. L. Frothingham, History of architecture. — R. Sturgis, Dictionary of architecture and building. — Sir J. Lubbock, Prehistoric times. — G. C. C. Maspero, .irl in Egypt: Dawn of civiliza- tion. — W. J. Anderson and R. P. Spiers, Architecture of Greece and Rome. — A. L. Frothingham, Monu- ments of Christian Rome. — T. G. Jackson, Byzan- tine and Romanesque architecture. — C. H. Moore, Character and development of Gothic architecture. — F. Bond, Introduction to English church archi- tecture. — C. E. Street, Gothic architecture in Spain. — R. Blomfield, History of Renaissance archi- tecture in England; History of Renaissance archi- tecture in France. — F. Wallis, Old Colonial archi- tecture and furniture. — R. Glazier, Manual of his- toric ornament. — O. Jones, Grammar of orna- ment. ARCHIVE, the building in which public records or state papers are kept ; also applied to the docu- ments proper; generally used in the latter sense in the plural. — See also Vatican: 1881. ARCHON, the highest magisterial office in the government of Athens, which, at its institution, usurped many powers of the king. "The archon was the supreme judge in all civil suits. At a later time this sphere of judicial power was limited and he judged mainly cases in which injured par- ents, orphans, and heiresses were involved. He held the chief place among the magistrates, hav- ing his official residence in the Prytaneum where 464 1. Public Library, New York. 2. State Capitol, Missouri. 3. Woolworth Building, New York, EXAMPLES OF MODERN AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE 4. Municipal Building, New York. 5. Hotel Commodore, New York. 6. Union Railway Station, Washington. ARCIS-SUR-AUBE ARCTIC EXPLORATION was the public hearth, and his name appeared at the head of official lists." — J. B. Bury, History of Greece, p. 171. ARCIS-SUR-AUBE, Battle of. See France: 1814 (January-March). ARCOLA, Battle of (1796), See Fkance: 1796- 1797 (October-April). ARCOT, the principal city in the district of North Arcot near Madras, British India. The eity played a prominent part in the conquest of India. In the middle of the eighteenth century the British and the French supported rival claim- ants to the throne of the Carnatic. It was dur- ing the ensuing war that the famous episode of dive's capture and defense of Arcot occurred, when with but a handful of native and white troops the British general forced the far superior forces of the enemy to abandon the city without a. struggle. — See also India: 1743-1752. ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1527-1773.— John Davis rounds the southern end of Greenland. — Hudson's record. — Dutch in the Arctic circle. — Phipp's farthest north. — "The struggle for the North Pole began nearly one hundred years before the landing of the Pilgrim Fathers at Plymouth Rock, being inaugurated (1527) by that king of many distinctions, Henry VIII of England. In 1588 John Davis rounded Cape Farewell, the southern end of Greenland, and followed the coast for eight hundred miles to Sanderson Hope. He discovered the strait which bears his name, and gained for Great Britain what was then the record for the farthest north, 72" 12', a point 1128 miles from the geographical North Pole. Scores of hardy navigators, British, French, Dutch, Ger- man, Scandinavian, and Russian, followed Davis, all seeking to hew across the Pole the much- coveted short route to China and the Indies. The rivalry was keen and costly in lives, ships, and treasure, but from the time of Henry VIII for three and one-half centuries, or until 1882 (with the exception of 1594-1606, when, through Wm. Barents, the Dutch held the record), Great Brit- ain's flag was always waving nearest the top of the globe. The same year that Jamestown was founded, Henry Hudson (1607), also seeking the route to the Indies, discovered Jan Mayen, cir- cumnavigated Spitzbergen, and advanced the eye of man to 80° 23'. Most valuable of all, Hudsen brought back accounts of great multitudes of whales and walruses, with the result that for the succeeding years these new waters were thronged with fleets of whaUng ships from every maritime nation. The Dutch specially profited by Hud- son's discovery. During the 17th and i8th cen- turies they sent no less than 300 ships and 15,000 men each summer to these arctic fisheries and established on Spitzbergen, within the Arctic Circle, one of the most remarkable summer towns the world has ever known, where stores and warehouses and reducing stations and cooperages and many kindred industries flourished during the fishing season. With the approach of winter all build- ings were shut up and the population, numbering several thousand, all returned home. Hudson's record remained unequaled for 165 years, or until 1773, when J. C. Phipps surpassed his farthest north by twenty-five miles." — G. H. Grosvenor, in Foreword to Robert E. Peary's North Pole, pp. xv-xvi. 1819-1848. — Parry's explorations beyond the magnetic north pole. — His plan to dash to the pole on foot. — Discoveries of Ross. — Sir John Franklin's tragic expedition. — "The first half of the 19th century witnessed many brave ships and gallant men sent to the arctic regions. While most of these expeditions were not directed against the Pole so much as sent in an endeavor to find a route to the Indies round North America — the Northwest Passage — and around Asia — the Northeast Passage — many of thera are intimately interwoven with the conquest of the Pole, and were a necessary part of its ultimate discovery. England hurled e.xpedition after expedition, manned by the best talent and energy of her navy, against the ice which seemingly blocked every channel to her ambitions for an arctic route to the Orient. In 1819 Parry penetrated many in- tricate passages and overcame one-half of the dis- tance between Greenland and Bering Sea, winning a prize of £5000, offered by Parliament to the first navigator to pass the iioth meridian west of Greenwich. He was also the first navigator to pass directly north of the magnetic North Pole, which he located appro.ximately, and thus the first to report the strange experience of seeing the compass needle pointing due south. So great was Parry's success that the British government sent him out in command of two other expeditions in search of the Northwest Passage. In explorations and discoveries the results of these two later ex- peditions were not so rich, but the experience in ice work so obtained gave Parry conclusions which revolutionized all methods in arctic naviga- tion. Hitherto all attempts to approach the Pole had been in ships. In 1827 Parry suggested the plan of a dash to the Pole on foot, from a base on land. He obtained the assistance of the gov- ernment, which for the fourth time sent him to the Arctic provided with well-equipped ships and able officers and men. He carried a number of reindeer with him to his base in Spitzbergen, purposing to use these animals to drag his sledges. The scheme proved impracticable, how- ever, and he was compelled to depend on the ■muscles of his men to haul his two heavy sledges, which were in reality boats on steel runners. Leaving Spitzbergen on June 23 with twenty-eight men, he pushed northward. But the summer sun had broken up the ice floes, and the party re- peatedly found it necessary to take the runners off their boats in order to ferry across the stretches of open water. After thirty days' incessant toil Parry had reached 82° 45', about 150 miles north of his base and 43s geographical miles from the Pole. Here he found that, while his party rested, the drift of the ice was carrying him daily back, almost as much as they were able to make in the day's work. Retreat was therefore begun. Parry's accomplishments, marking a new era in polar explorations, created a tremendous sensa- tion. Knighthood was immediately bestowed upon him by the King, while the British people heaped upon him all the honors and applause with which they have invariably crowned every explorer re- turning from the north with even a measure of success. In originality of plan and equipment Parry has been equaled and surpassed only by Nansen and Peary. In those early days, few men being rich enough to pay for expeditions to the north out of their own pockets, practically every explorer was financed by the government under whose orders he acted. In 1S29, however, Felix Booth, sheriff of London, gave Captain John Ross, an English naval officer, who had achieved only moderate success in a previous expedition, a small paddle-wheel steamer, the Victory, and en- tered him in the race for the Northwest Passage. Ross was assisted, as mate, by his nephew, James Clark Ross, who was young and energetic, and who was later to win laurels at the opposite end of the globe. This first attempt to use steam for ice 465 ARCTIC EXPLORATION, 1818-1848 ARCTIC EXPLORATION, 1850-1883 navigation failed, owing to a poor engine or in- competent engineers, but in all other respects the Rosses achieved gloriously. During their five years' absence, i82g-i834, they made important discoveries around Boothia Felix, but most valu- able was their definite location of the magnetic North Pole and the remarkable series of magnetic and meteorological observations which they brought back with them. No band of men ever set out for the unknown with brighter hopes or more just anticipation of success than Sir John Franklin's expedition of 1845. The frightful trag- edy which overwhelmed them, together with the mystery of their disappearance, which baffled the world for years and is not yet entirely explained, forms the most terrible narrative in arctic history. Franklin had been knighted in 1827, at the same time as Parry, for the valuable and very exten- sive explorations which he had conducted by snow- shoes and canoe on the North American coast between the Coppermine and Great Fislj rivers, during the same years that Parry had been gain- ing fame in the north. In the interval Franklin had ser\'ed as Governor of Tasmania for seven years. His splendid reputation and ability as an organizer made him, though now fifty-nine years of age, the unanimous choice of the government for the most elaborate arctic expedition it had pre- pared in many years. Franklin's fame and ex- perience, and that of Crozier and his other lieu- tenants, who had seen much service in the north, his able ships, the Terror and the Erebus, which had just returned from a voyage of unusual suc- cess to the Antarctic, and his magnificent equip- ment, aroused the enthusiasm of the British to the highest pitch and justified them in their hopes for bringing the wearying struggle for the North- west Passage to an immediate conclusion. For more than a year everything prospered with the party. By September, 1846, Franklin had navi- ' gated the vessels almost within sight of the coast which he had explored twenty years previously, and beyond which the route to Bering Sea was well known. The prize was nearly won when the ships became imprisoned by the ice for the winter, a few miles north of King William Land. The following June Franklin died; the ice continued impenetrable, and did not loosen its grip all that year. In July, 1848, Crozier, who had succeeded to the command, was compelled to abandon the ships, and, with the los survivors who were all enfeebled by the three successive winters in the Arctic, started on foot for Back River. How far they got we shall probably never know. Mean- while, when Franklin failed to return in 1848 — he was provisioned for only three years — England be- came alarmed and despatched relief expeditions by sea from the Bering Sea and the Atlantic and by land north from Canada, but all efforts failed to gather news of Franklin till 1854, when Rae fell in with some Eskimo hunters near King William Land, who told him of two ships that were beset some years previous, and of the death of all the party from starvation. In 1857 Lady Franklin, not content with this bare and indirect report of her husband's fate, sacrificed a fortune to equip a searching party to be commanded by Leopold McClintock, one of the ablest and toughest travel- ers over the ice the world has ever known. In 185Q McClintock verified the Eskimos' sad story by the discovery on King William Land of a record dated April, 1848, which told of Franklin's death and of the abandonment of the ships He also found among the Eskimos, silver plate and other relics of the party ; elsewhere he saw one of Franklin's boats on a sledge, with two skeletons inside and clothing and chocolate; in another place he found tents and flags; and elsewhere he made the yet more ghastly discovery of a bleached hu- man skeleton prone on its face, as though attest- ing the truthfulness of an Eskimo woman who, claiming to have seen forty of the survivors late in 1848, said 'they fell down and died as they walked.' ' — Ibid., pp xvi-xxi. 1850-1883. — Northwest passage accomplished by Robert McClure. — Kane's achievements. — Charles Francis Hall and the voyage of the Polaris. — British explorations in 1875 and 1876. — English record broken by Greely. — "The dis- tinction of being the first to make the Northwest Passage, which Franklin so narrowly missed, fell to Robert McClure (1850-53) and Richard Collin- son (1850-SS), who commanded the two ships sent north through Bering Strait to search for Franklin. McClure accomplished the passage on foot after losing his ship in the ice in Barrow Strait, but Collinson brought his vessel safely through to England. The Northwest Passage was not again made until Roald Amundsen navigated the tiny Gjoa, a sailing sloop with gasoline engine, from the Atlantic to the Pacific, 1903-06. Yankee whalers each year had been venturing further north in Davis Strait and Baffin Bay and Bering Sea, but America had taken no active part in polar exploration until the sympathy aroused by the tragic disappearance of Franklin induced Henry Grinnell and George Peabody to send out the Ad- vance in charge of Elisha Kent Kane to search for Franklin north of Smith Sound. In spite of inexperience, which resulted in scurvy, fatal acci- dents, privations, and the loss of his ship, Kane's achievements (1853-55) were very brilliant. He discovered and entered Kane Basin, which forms the beginning of the passage of the polar ocean, explored both shores of the new sea, and outlined what has since been called the American route to the Pole. Sixteen years later (1871) another American, Charles Francis Hall, who had gained much arctic experience by a successful search for additional traces and relics of Franklin (i862-6g), sailed the Polaris through Kane Basin and Ken- nedy Channel, also through Hall Basin and Robe- son Channel, which he discovered, into the polar ocean itself, thus completing the exploration of the outlet which Kane had begun. He took his vessel to the then unprecedented (for a ship) latitude of 82° 11'. But Hall's explorations, be- gun so auspiciously, were suddenly terminated by his tragic death in November from over-exertion caused by a long sledge journey. Wnen the ice began to move the ensuing year, his party sought to return, but the Polaris was caught in the deadly grip of an impassable ice pack. After two months of drifting, part of the crew, with some Eskimo men and women, alarmed by the groaning and crashing of the ice during a furious autumn storm, camped on an ice floe which shortly after- wards separated from the ship. For five months, December to April, they lived on this cold and desolate raft, which carried them safely 1,300 miles to Labrador, where they were picked up by the Tigress. During the winter one of the Eskimo women presented the party with a baby, so that their number had increased during the arduous experience. Meanwhile the Polaris had been beached on the Greenland shore, and those re- maining on the ship were eventually also rescued. In 187s Great Britain began an elaborate attack on the Pole via what was now known as the American route, two ships most lavishly equipped being despatched under command of George Nares. He succeeded in navigating the Alert fourteen 466 ARCTIC EXPLORATION, 1867-1901 ARCTIC EXPLORATION, 1867-1901 miles further north than the Polaris had pene- trated four years previous. Before the winter set in, Aldrich on land reached 82° 48', which was three miles nearer the Pole than Parry's mark made forty-eight years before, and the following spring Markham gained 83° 20' on the polar ocean. Other parties explored several hundred miles of coast line. But Nares was unable to cope with the scurvy, which disabled thirty-six of his men, or with the severe frosts, which cost the life of one man and seriously injured others. The next expedition to this region was that sent out under the auspices of the United States government and commanded by Lieutenant A. W. Greely, U. S. A., to establish at Lady Franklin Bay the American circumpolar station (1881). Greely during the two years at Fort Conger carried on extensive explora- tions of Ellesmere Land and the Greenland coast, and by the assistance of his two lieutenants, Lock- wood and Brainard, wrested from Great Britain the record which she had held for 30c years. Greely 's mark was 83° 24', which bettered the British by four miles. As the relief ship, promised for 1883, failed to reach him or to land supplies at the prearranged point south of Fort Conger, the winter of 1883-84 was passed in great misery and horror. When help iinally came to the camp at Cape Sabine, seven men only were alive." — Ibid., pp. xxii-xxiv. 1867-1901. — Explorations in the polar area north of Siberia. — De Long's expedition. — Nan- sen and the Fram. — Explorations along the arc- tic coasts of Europe, Siberia and Greenland. — "While these important events were occurring in the vicinity of Greenland, interesting develop- ments were also taking place in that half of the polar area north of Siberia. When in 1867 an American whaler, Thomas Long, reported new land, Wrangell Land, about 500 miles northwest of Bering Strait, many hailed the discovery as that of the edge of a supposed continent ex- tending from Asia across the Pole to Greenland, for the natives around Bering Strait had long excited explorers by their traditions of an icebound big land beyond the horizon. Such extravagant claims were made for the new land that Com- mander De Long, U. S. N., determined to ex- plore it and use it as a base for gaining the Pole. But his ship, the Jeannette, was caught in the ice (September, 1879) and carried right through the place where the new continent was supposed to be. For nearly two years De Long's party re- mained helpless prisoners until in June, 1881, the ship was crushed and sank, forcing the men to take refuge on the ice floes in mid ocean, 150 miles from the New Siberian Islands. They saved several boats and sledges and a small supply of provisions and water. After incredible hardships and suffering, G. W. Melville, the chief engineer, who was in charge of one of the boats, with nine men, reached, on September 26, a Russian village on the Lena. All the others perished, some be- ing lost at sea, by the foundering of the boats, while others, including De Long, had starved to death after reaching the desolate Siberian coast. Three years later some Eskimos found washed ashore on the southeast coast of Greenland sev- eral broken biscuit boxes and lists of stores, which are said to be in De Long's handwriting. The startling circumstance that these relics in their long drift from where the ship sank had neces- sarily passed across or very near to the Pole aroused great speculation as to the probable currents in the polar area. Nansen, who had already made the first crossing of Greenland's ice cap, argued that the same current which had guided the relics on their long journey would similarly conduct a ship. He therefore constructed a unique craft, the Fram, so designed that when hugged by the ice pack she would not be crushed, but would be lifted up and rest on the ice ; he provisioned the vessel for five years and allowed her to be frozen in the ice near where the Jeannette had sunk, 78° 50' N., 134° E. (September 25,, .1893). When at the end of eighteen months th^ ship had approached 314 miles nearer to the Pole, Nansen and one companion, Johansen, with kayaks, dogs, sledges, and three months' provisions, deliberately left the ship and plunged northward toward the Pole, March 14, 1805. In twenty-three days the two men had overcome one-third of the distance to the Pole, reaching 86° 12'. To continue onward would have meant certain death, so they turned back. When their watches ran down Providence guided them, and the marvelous physique of both sustained them through fog and storm and threat- ened starvation until they reached Franz Josef Land, late in August. There they built a hut of stones and killed bears for meat for the winter. In May, 1896, they resumed their southward jour- ney, when fortunately they met the Englishman Jackson, who was exploring the Archipelago. Meanwhile the Fram, after Nansen left her, con- tinued her tortuous drifting across the upper world. Once she approached as near as 85° 57' to the Pole — only fifteen miles less than Nansen's farthest. At last, in August, 1896, with the help of dyna- mite, she was freed from the grip of the ice and hurried home, arriving in time to participate in the welcome of Nansen, who had landed a few days earlier. Franz Josef Land, where Nansen was rescued by Jackson, has served as the base of many dashes for the Pole. It was from its northern, most point that the illustrious young member of the royal family of Italy, the Duke of the Abruzzi, launched the party captained by Cagni that won from Nansen for the Latin race the honor of the farthest north, 86° 34', in 1901. This land, which consists of numerous islands, had been named after the Emperor of Austria-Hungary by Wey- precht and Payer, leaders of the Austrian-Hunga- rian polar expedition of 1872-74, who discovered and first explored the Archipelago. It was from Spitzbergen that Andree, with two companions, sailed his balloon toward the Pole, in July, 1897, never to be heard from again, except for three message buoys dropped in the sea a few miles from the starting-point. The Northeast Passage was first achieved in 1878-1879 by Adolph Erik Nor- denskjold. Step by step energetic explorers, prin- cipally Russian, had been mapping the arctic coasts of Europe and Siberia until practically all the headlands and islands were well defined. Nordensk- jold, whose name was already renowned for im- portant researches in Greenland, Nova Zembia, and northern Asia, in less than two months guided the steam whaler Vega from Tromsoe, Norway, to the most easterly peninsula of Asia. But when barely more than loo miles from Bering Strait, intervening ice blocked his hopes of passing from the Atlantic to the Pacific in a single season and held him fast for ten months. . . . The preceding brief summary gives only an inadequate concep- tion of the immense treasures of money and lives expended by the nations to explore the northern ice world and to attain the apex of the earth. All efforts to reach the Pole had failed, notwith- standing the unlimited sacrifice of gold and en- ergy and blood which had been poured out with- out stint for nearly four centuries. But the sacri- fice had not been without compensation. Those who had ventured their lives in the contest had 467 ARCTIC EXPLORATION, 1886-1909 ARCTIC EXPLORATION, 1886-1909 not been actuated solely by the ambition to win a race — to breast the tape first — but to con- tribute, in Sir John Franklin's words, 'to the ex- tension of the bounds of science.' The scores of expeditions, in addition to new geographical dis- coveries, had brought back a wealth of informa- tion about the animals and vegetable life, the winds and currents, deep sea temperatures, sound- ings, the magnetism of the earth, fossils and rock specimens, tidal data, etc., which have enriched many branches of science and greatly increased the sum of human knowledge." — Ibid., pp. .x.xiv-xxviii. 1886-1909. — Peary's three expeditions in search of the Pole. — Controversy between Peary and Cook. — Peary recognized as the discov- erer of the Pole. — His account. — "A brief summer excursion to Greenland in i886 aroused Robert E. Peary, a civil engineer in the United States navy, to an interest in the polar problem. ... He realized at once that the goal which had eluded so many hundreds of ambitious and dauntless men could be won only by a new method of attack. The first arctic problem with which Peary grappled was considered at that time in importance second only to the conquest of the Pole; namely, to de- termine the insularity of Greenland and the ex- tent of its projection northward. At the very beginning of his fiist expedition to Greenland, in i8qi, he suffered an accident which sorely taxed his patience as well as his body. ... As his ship, the Kite, was working its way through the ice fields off the Greenland shore, a cake of ice be- came wedged in the rudder, causing the wheel to reverse. One of the spokes jammed Peary's leg against the casement, making it impossible to extricate himself until both bones of the leg were broken. The party urged him to return to the United States for the winter and to resume his exploration the following year. But Peary in- sisted on being landed as originally planned at McCormick Bay, stating that the money of his friends had been invested in the project and that he must 'make good' to them. The assiduous nurs- ing of Mrs. Peary, aided by the bracing air, so speedily restored his strength that at the ensuing Christmas festivities which he arranged for the Eskimos, he outraced on snowshoes all the natives and his own men ! In the following May, with one companion, Astrup, he ascended to the summit of the great ice cap which covers the interior of Greenland, 5,000 to 8,000 feet in elevation, and pushed northward for 500 miles over a region where the foot of man had never trod before, in temperatures ranging from 10' to 50° below zero, to Independence Bay, which he discovered and named, July 4, iSq2. Imagine his surprise on descending from the tableland to enter a little valley radiant with gorgeous flowers and alive with murmuring bees, where musk oxen were lazily browsing. This sledding journey, which he dupli- cated by another equally remarkable crossing of the ice cap three years later, defined the northern extension of Greenland and conclusively proved that it is an island instead of a continent ex- tending to the Pole. In boldness of conception and brilliancy of results these two crossings of Green- land are unsurpassed in arctic history. The mag- nitude of Peary's feat is better appreciated when it is recalled that Nansen's historic crossing of the island was below the .\rctic Circle, i.ooo miles south of Peary's latitude, where Greenland is some 250 miles wide. Peary now turned his attention to the Pole, which lay 306 geographical miles far- ther north than any man had penetrated on the western hemisphere. To get there by the Ameri- can route he must break a virgin trail every mile north from Greely's 83° 24'. No one had pio neered so great a distance northward. Markham and others had attained enduring fame by ad- vancing the Flag considerably less than 100 miles. Parry had pioneered 150 miles, and Xansen 128 from his ship. His experiences in Greenland had convinced Peary, if possible more firmly than before, that the only way of surmounting this last and most formidable barrier was to adopt the manner of life, the food, the snowhouses, and the clothing of the Eskimos, who by centuries of experience had learned the most effective method of combating the rigors of arctic weather ; to utilize the game of the northland, the arctic rein- deer, musk ox, etc., which his explorations had proved comparatively abundant, thus with fresh meat keeping his men fit and good-tempered through the depressing winter night ; and lastly to train the Eskimo to become his sledging crew. In his first North Pole expedition, which lasted for four years, 1808-1902, Peary failed to get nearer than 343 ntilcs to the Pole. Each successive year dense packs of ice blocked the passage to the polar ocean, compelling him to make his base approximately 700 miles from the Pole, or 200 miles south of the headquarters of Nares, too great a distance from the Pole to be overcome in one short season. During this trying period, by sledging feats which in distance and physi.;al obstacles overcome exceeded the extraordinary records made in Greenland, he explored and mapped hundreds of miles of coast line of Green- land and of the islands west and north of Green- land. On the next attempt, Peaiy insured reaching the polar ocean by designing and constructing the Roosevelt, whose resistless frame crushed its way to the desired haven on the shores of the polar sea. From here he made that wonderful march of igo6 to 87° 6' a new world's record. Winds of unusual fury, by opening big leads, robbed him of the Pole, and nearly of his life." — Ibid., pp. xxix-xxxi. Also in: F. Nansen, In the mists: Arctic ex- ploration in early times. Once more, in July, 1008, Commander Peary set his face Arcticward, on the staunch Roosevelt, with two scientific companions, and equipped him- self at Elah with Eskimos and dogs for another journey across the ice-fields, from some point on the Grant Land coast. On Sept. i, igoQ, the whole world was startled and excited by a message, flashed first to Lerwick, in the Shetland islands, from a passing Danish steamer, the Hans Egede, and thence to all corners of the earth, saying: "We have on board the American traveller. Dr. Cook, who reached the North Pole April 21, iqo8. TDr. Frederick A. Cook was the physician on Peary's expedition (1891-1892) and the Belgian expedition (1897-1899) and had left for the Pole in 1907.] Dr. Cook arrived at Upernivik (the northernmost Danish settlement in Greenland, on an island og the west coast) in May of iqoo from Cape York (in the northwest part of Green- land, on Baffin Bay). The Eskimos of Cape York confirm Dr. Cook's story of his journey." The next dav brought a cabled announcement from Dr. Cook himself, to the New York Her- ald, briefly telling of his triumph, "after a pro- loneed fight against famine and frost," and de- scribing the emotions with which he had found himself at the goal which so many had striven vainlv to attain. "What a cheerless spot," he moralized, "to have aroused the ambition of man for so many ages An endless field of purple snows. No life. No land. No spot to relieve the monotony of frost. We were the 468 ARCTIC EXPLORATION, 1886-1909 ARCTIC EXPLORATION, 1886-1909 only pulsating creatures in a dead world of ice." Two days later the hero was landed at Copen- hagen, and all the excited world devoured graphic descriptions of his reception by the en- thusiastic Danes: by the Crown Prince, who hastened to welcome him before he had stepped from the ship; by the crowds who cheered him; by the King, who dined him; by the University of Copenhagen which awarded him an honorary degree, and whose faculty he made happy and proud by the promise that it should be the first to examine the record of his observations and the proofs in general that he had reached the Pole. Two more days passed, and then the climax of this world-spread excitement and astonish- ment was marked by another radio-electric flash of news out of the Arctic North, — this time from the American North, — proclaiming another conquest of the icy fortress of the Pole. It spoke "to the Associated Press, New York," from "In- dian Harbor, via Cape Ray, Nova Scotia," saying: "Stars and Stripes nailed to North Pole. Peary." It reached New York a little after noon of Sep- tember 6th, and before night, evervwhere, people in all languages were asking each other: "Is it possible that two men had suddenly done what none have been able to do before?" Other mes- sages from Commander Peary which soon fol- lowed the first one fixed the date of his attain- ment of the Pole as having been April 6, igog, — being fifteen days less than a year after Dr. Cook claimed to have planted the American flag at the same spot. They brought angry denunciations, too, of Cook's pretension, which Peary had learned of from the Eskimos in the North. "Cook's story," he said in one despatch, "should not be taken too seriously. The two Eskimos who accom- panied him say he went no distance north and not outside of land. Other members of the tribe confirm their story." In another he declared: "Cook has sold the public a gold brick." Dr. Cook, meantime, gave out expressions as to Peary's achievement very different in temper and tone. He had no doubt that Commander Peary had reached the Pole; but he. Cook, had been for- tunately the first to enjoy the favorable condi- tions which gave success to them both. His mag- nanimity, his coolness, his easy self-confidence, in contrast with Peary's words and bearing, won pub- lic admiration and sympathy, and the majority in most communities inclined strongly, for a time, to the judgment that both explorers had done what they said they did, but that Cook, in char- acter, was the more estimable man. When he arrived in New York, on the 2ist of September, that city gave him almost as wild a hero worship as Copenhagen had done. Commander Peary was then just landing at Sydney, Nova Scotia, and it was some weeks before he would proceed to New York, or put himself at all in the way of receiving any public deinonstrations of honor. But grounds of skepticism as to Dr. Cook were acquiring a rapid multiplication. When he pub- lished his story in detail, or told it in lectures, it started questions which people having critical knowledge insisted that he must answer if he could; but he made no attempt. He was in no haste to produce the records which he had in- sisted would prove his claims beyond a doubt. He required weeks of time to prepare them for examination, and they must go to the University of Copenhagen before any other tribunal of sci- ence could see them. Meanwhile, he was harvest- ing large gains from lectures and newspaper pub- lications, and seemed more interested in that pur- suit than in the vmdication of his questioned honor. Hence, suspicion of him grew, until it made itself heard and felt at last with a force which drove the Doctor to put his professed proofs in shape and send them by the hand of his secre- tary, Mr. Lonsdale, to Copenhagen. Before they reached ■ their destination he, himself, disappeared mysteriously from public view, nervously shattered, it was said, and seeking some hidden place of refuge abroad. On the 2ist of December the report of the scientific committee of Copenhagen university, to which the records forwarded by Dr. Cook were submitted, was made public by the University Council. "The report, which was sent in by the committee on December i8, states that the following papers were submitted to it for investigation: i. A type- written report by Mr. Lonsdale on Dr. Cook's Arctic voyage, consisting of 6 1 folios. 2. A type-written copy of i6 folios, made by Mr. Lonsdale, comprising the note-books brought back by Dr. Cook from his journey and covering the period from March i8 to June 13, iqo8, stated to have been written on the way from Svartevaag to the Pole and back until a place west of Heibergsland was reached. . . . The committee points out as a result of its investiga- tions that the aforementioned report of the jour- ney is essentially identical with that published some time ago in the New York Herald, and that the copy of the note-books did not contain astro- nomical records, but only results. In fact, the com- mittee remarks that there are no elucidatory state- ments which might have rendered it probable that astronomical observations were really taken. Neither is the practical side — namely, the sledge journey — illuminated by details in such a way as to enable the committee to form an opinion. The committee therefore considers that from the material submitted no proof can be adduced that Dr. Cook reached the North Pole. The council of the University accordingly declares as a re- sult of the committee's report that the documents submitted to Copenhagen University contain no observations or explanations to prove that Dr. Cook on his last Polar journey reached the North Pole." That Commander Peary had accomplished at last the object of his indomitable striving was never in doubt. His own testimony to the fact had sufficed from the beginning, and the decision rendered on the 3d of November by a committee of the Na- tional Geographic Society, which examined the records of his march to the Pole, added nothing to the public belief. But his laurels had been lamentably blighted by the atmosphere of scandal, wrangle, and disgust with which Cook's monstrous imposture had vulgarized the whole feeling that attended the exploit. The incidents of the final Peary expedition, from start to finish, were sum- marized by the Commander in a message from Battle Harbor to the London Times, Sept. 8th, as follows: "The Roosevelt left New York on July 6, igo8. She left Sydney on July 17th; arrived at Cape York, Greenland, on August ist; left Etah, Greenland, on August Sth; arrived at Cape Sheridan, Grant Land, on September ist, and win- tered at Cape Sheridan. The sledge expedition left the Roosevelt on February 15th, igog, and started north of Cape Columbia on March ist. It passed the British record on March 2d; was delayed by open water on March 2d and 3d; was held up by open water from March 4th to March nth; crossed the 84th parallel on March nth and en- countered an open lead on March isth; crossed the 85th parallel on March i8th; crossed the 86th parallel on March 22d and encountered an open lead on March 23d; passed the Norwegian 469 ARCTIC EXPLORATION, 1886-1909 ARCTIC EXPLORATION, 1886-1909 record on March 23d; passed the Italian record on March 24th and encountered an open lead on March 26th; crossed the 87th parallel on March 27th; passed the American record on March 28th and encountered a lead on March 28th; held up by open water on March 2gth; crossed the 88th parallel on April 2d; crossed the 89th parallel on April 4th, and reached the North Pole on April 6th. On returning we left the Pole on April 7th; reached Camp Columbia on April 23d, arriving on board the Roosevelt on April 27th. The Roosevelt left Cape Sheridan on July i8th, passed Cape Sabine on August 8th, left Cape York on August 26th and arrived at Indian Harbor. All the members of the expedition are returning in good health except Professor Ross G. Martin, who unfortunately drowned on April loth, 45 miles north of Cape Columbia, while returning from 86 degrees north latitude in command of a support- ing party. "The last march northward ended at ten o'clock on the forenoon of April 6th. I had now made the five marches planned from the point at which Bartlett turned back, and my reckoning showed that we were in the immediate neighborhood of time, in case the sky should be clear, but at that hour it was, unfortunately, still overcast. But as there were indications that it would clear before long, two of the Eskimos and myself made ready a light sledge carrying only the instruments, a tin of pemmican, and one or two skins; and drawn by a double team of dogs, we pushed on an estimated distance of ten miles. While we traveled, the sky cleared, and at the end of the journey I was able to get a satisfactory series of observa- tions at Columbia meridian midnight. These ob- servations indicated that our position was then beyond the Pole. Nearly everything in the cir- cumstances which then surrounded us seemed too strange to be thoroughly realized; but one of the strangest of those circumstances seemed to me to be the fact that, in a march of only a few hours, I had passed from the western to the eastern hemi- sphere and had verified my position at the summit of the world. It was hard to realize that, in the first miles of this brief march, we had been traveling due north, while, on the last few miles of the same march, we had been traveling south, although we had all the time been traveling precisely in the same direction. It would be ROBERT E, PEARY THE ROOSEVELT VILHJALMUR STEKANS.SON the goal of all our striving. After the usual ar- rangements for going into camp, at approximate local noon, of the Columbia meridian, I made the first observation at our polar camp. It indicated our position as 89° 57'. We were now at the end of the last long march of the upward journey. Yet with the Pole actually in sight I was too weary to take the last few steps. The accumu- lated weariness of all those days and nights of forced marches and insufficient sleep, constant peril and anxiety, seemed to roll across me all at once. I was actually too exhausted to realize at the moment that my life's purpose had been achieved. As soon as our igloos had been completed and we had eaten our dinner and double-rationed the dogs, I turned in for a few hours of absolutely necessary sleep. Henson and the Eskimos having unloaded the sledges and got them in readiness for such repairs as were necessary. But, weary though I was, I could not sleep long. It was, therefore, only a few hours later when I woke. The first thing I did after awaking was to write these words in my diary: 'The Pole at last. The prize of three centuries. My dream and goal for twenty years. Mine at last. I cannot bring myself to realize it. It seems all so simple and commonplace.' Everything was in readiness for an observation at 6 p. a.., Columbia meridian difficult to imagine a better illustration of the fact that most things are relative, .^gain, please consider the uncommon circumstances that, in order to return to our camp, it now became neces- sary to turn and go north again for a few miles and then to go directly south, all the time travel- ing in the same direction. As we passed back along that trail which none had ever seen before or would ever see again, certain reflections intruded themselves which, I think, may fairly be called unique. East, west, and north had disappeared for us. Only one direction remained and that was south. Every breeze which could possibly blow upon us, no matter from what point of the horizon, must be a south wind. Where we were, one day and one night constituted a year, a hundred such days and nights constituted a century. Had we stood in that spot during the six months of the arctic winter night, we should have seen every star of the northern hemisphere circling the sky at the same distance from the horizon, with Polaris (the North Star) practically in the zenith. All during our march back to camp the sun was swinging around in its ever-moving circle. At six o'clock on the morning of April 7, having again arrived at Camp Jesup, I took another series of observa- tions. These indicated our position as being four or five miles from the Pole, toward Bering Strait. 470 ARCTIC EXPLORATION, 1886-1909 ARCTIC EXPLORATION, 1886-1909 Therefore, with a double team of dogs and a light sledge, I traveled directly toward the sun an estimated distance of eight miles. Again I returned to the camp in time for a final and completely satisfactory series of observations on April 7 at noon, Columbia meridian time. These observations gave results essentially the same as those made at the same spot twenty-four hours before. In traversing the ice in these various di- rections as I had done, I had allowed approxi- mately ten miles for possible errors in my ob- servations, and at some moment during these marches and counter-marches, I had passed over or very near the point where north and south and east and west blend into one. Of course there were some more or less informal ceremonies connected with our arrival at our difficult destina- tion, but they were not of a very elaborate char- appropriate to raise the colors of the Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity, in which I was initiated a member while an undergraduate student at Bow- doin College, the 'World's Ensign of Liberty and Peace,' with its red, white, and blue in a field of white, the Navy League flag, and the Red Cross fiag. After I had planted the American flag in the ice, I told Hensen to time the Eskimos for three rousing cheers, which they gave with the greatest enthusiasm. Thereupon, I shook hands with each member of the party — surely a sufficiently un- ceremonious affair to meet with the approval of the most democratic. The Eskimos were childishly delighted v^iith our success. While, of course, they did not realize its importance fully, or its world- wide significance, they did understand that it meant the final achievement of a task upon which they had seen me engaged for many years. Then, in a MEMBERS OF PEARY'S POLAR EXPEDITION Transferring supplies from the Roosevelt to winter quarters acter. We planted five flags at the top of the world. The first one was a silk American flag which Mrs. Peary gave me fifteen years ago. That flag had done more traveling in high lati- tudes than any other ever made. I carried it wrapped about my body on every one of my ex- peditions northward after it came into my posses- sion, and I left a fragment of it at each of my successive 'farthest norths': Cape Morris K. Jesup, the northernmost point of land in the known world; Cape Thomas Hubbard, the northernmost known point of Jesup Land, west of Grant Land; Cape Columbia, the northernmost point of North American lands; and my farthest north in igo6, lat- itude 87° 6' in the ice of the polar sea. By the time it actually reached the Pole, therefore, it was somewhat worn and discolored. A broad diagonal section of this ensign would now mark the far- thest goal of earth — the place where I and my dusky companions stood. It was also considered space between the ice blocks of a pressure ridge, I deposited a glass bottle containing a diagonal strip of my flag and records of which the follow- ing is a copy: "'go N. Lat., North Pole, " 'April 6, igog. "'Arrived here to-day, 27 marches from C. Columbia. I have with me 5 men, Matthew Henson, colored, Gotah, Egingwah, Seegloo, and Ookeah, Eskimos; 5 sledges and 38 dogs. My ship, the S. S. Roosevelt, is in winter quarters at C. Sheridan, go miles east of Columbia. The expedition under my command which has suc- ceeded in reaching the Pole is under the auspices of the Peary Arctic Club of New York City, and has been fitted out and sent north by the mem- bers and friends of the club for the purpose of securing this geographical prize, if possible, for the honor and prestige of the United States of 471 ARCTIC EXPLORATION, 1886-1909 ARCTIC EXPLORATION, 1910-1916 America. The officers of the club are Thomas IT. Hubbarci, of New York, President ; Zenas Crane, of Mass., Vice-president; Herbert L. Bridgman, of New York, Secretary- and Treasurer. I start back to Cape Columbia to-morrow. " 'qo N. Lat., North Pole, " '.April 6, iqog. " 'I have to-day hoisted the national ensign of the United States of .America at this place, which my observations indicate to be the North Polar axis of the earth, and have formally taken posses- sion of the entire region, and adjacent, for and in the name of the President of the United States of .America. " 'I leave this record and United States flag ir possession. '"Robert E. Peary, "'United States Navy.' "If it were possible for a man to arrive at 90° north latitude without being utterly exhausted, body and brain, he would doubtless enjoy a series of unique sensations and reflections. But the attainment of the Pole was the culmination of days and weeks of forced marches, physical discomfort, insufficient sleep, and racking anxiety. It is a wise provision of nature that the human con- sciousness can grasp only such degree of intense feeling as the brain can endure, and the grim guardians of earth's remotest spot will accept no man as guest until he has been tried and tested by the severest ordeal. Perhaps it ought not to have been so, but when I knew for a certainty that we had reached the goal, there was not a thing in the world I wanted but sleep. But after I had a few hours of it, there succeeded a con- dition of mental exaltation which made further rest impossible. For more than a score of years that point on the earth's surface had been the object of my every effort. To its attainment my whole being, physical, mental, and moral, had been dedicated. Many times my own life and the lives of those with me had been risked. My own ma- terial and forces and those of my friends had been devoted to this object. This journey was my eighth into the arctic wilderness. In that wilderness I had spent nearly twelve years out of the twenty-three between my thirtieth and my fifty-third year, and the intervening time spent in civihzed communities during that period had been mainly occupied with preparations for returning to the wilderness. The determination to reach the Pole had become so much a part of my being that, strange as it may seem, I long ago ceased to think of myself save as an instrument for the attainment of that end. To the layman this may seem strange, but an inventor can understand it. or an artist, or anyone who has devoted himself for years upon years to the service of an idea. But now, while quartering the ice in various di- rections from our camp, I tried to realize that, after twenty-three years of struggles and discour- agement, I had at last succeeded in placing the flag of my country at the goal of the world's de- sire. It is not easy to write about such a thing, but I knew that we were going back to civiliza- tion with the last of the great adventure stories — a story the world had been waiting to hear for nearly four hundred years, a story which was to be told at last under the folds of the Stars and Stripes, the flag that during a lonely and iso- lated life had come to be for me the symbol of home and ever>'thing I loved — and might never see again." — R. E. Peary, North pole, pp. 287- 300. 1901-1909. — Summary of other important ex- plorations during the first decade of the twen- tieth century. — Two expeditions were fitted out in igoi and 1903, by Mr. Zicgler, of New York, the former under Evelyn B. Baldwin, the latter under .Anthony Fiala. The latter reached latitude 82' 13', remaining in the .Arctic regions until the summer of 1905. In June, 1903, Captain Roald .Amundsen, of Norway, sailed from Christiania in the small sloop Gjoa, beginning a voyage which carried him entirely through the Northwest Passage from Baffin bay to Bering strait and which oc- cupied three years. Much of that time, how- ever, was devoted to studies and searches of great value in determining the location of the Magnetic Pole. In 1905 the ranks of the .Arctic explorers were joined by the Duke of Orleans, who sailed from Christiania in May, in the Belgica, com- manded by Lieut, de Gerlache. In 1907, Mr. John R. Bradley, of New York, supplied Dr. Frederick A. Cook with equipments for an attempt to reach the North Pole, and accompanied him in a schoon- er yacht to Annatok, a little north of Etah, in North Greenland, where the Doctor, with one white man, Rudolph Francke, were landed, with their supplies, to begin the undertaking. Sev- eral attempts were made in successive years by Mr. Walter Wellman to make the journey to the Pole from Spitzbergen by a dirigible airship. Each of them, down to 1000, was frustrated by mis- fortunes of circumstance or weather. A tragically ended survey of the northeast coast of Greenland was accomplished in 1906-7 by Dr. Mylius Erichsen and Lieutenant Hagen-Hagen, who perished while groping their way southward in the growing dark- ness of the approaching winter. These fill out the important items of the record of Arctic explora- tion, since .April, ipoi, down to the ist of Sep- tember. lOOQ. 1910-1916. — Baffinland crossed by Hantzsch. — Expedition of Schroder-Stranz. — Russian arctic explorations. — ''.A young German traveller, hail- ing from Dresden, Bernard Hantzsch by name, has met his death in Baffinland. after effecting the first crossing of that island ever made by a European. Setting out in igio. with the support of various German scientific bodies, the traveller, after a preliminary trip to Labrador, passed over to Cumberland sound, where he had the misfor- tune to lose most of his equipment through ship- wreck. .A relief fund was collected for him by the Dresden Geographical Society, but he had already set out for the interior before the fresh supplies reached him, and he ap, rs to have been brought to some straits in consequence. Only last autumn, on the return of the yearlv vessel from Baffinland, was the news received in Germany that he had already succumbed to his hardships in June, 1911, on Fox channel. Such results of the journey (undertaken with a view to natural history, ethnological, and geographical research) as had reached Berlin, gave promise of valuable additions to knowledge from the undertaking. The expedition planned by Lieut. Schrbder-Stranz for the achievement once more of the northeast passage has already met with a severe check in its prelim- inary stage. The leader undertook an expedition to Spitsbergen last summer [1912! in order to prepare himself for the more serious undertaking to follow. He had intended to return in the autumn, but all accounts show that the .Arctic winter set in un- usually early last year, and when the last vessel reached Europe without brineing him back, it was realized that he would have to submit to an en- forced detention. .Accounts received in the autumn stated that the voyager had first attempted to push 472 ARCTIC EXPLORATION, 1910-1916 ARCTIC EXPLORATION, 1913-1918 north along the ice-obstructed east coast of Spits- bergen, but that, foiled here, he tried to reach the north coast by way of the west. Wireless messages received in Kristiania early in January from the Norwegian station in Spitsbergen show that the experiences of the expedition have been most un- fortunate. Captain Ritschel, who commanded the small vessel Herzog Ernst in which the expedition sailed to Spitsbergen, arrived at Advent bay on December 27 in a miserable condition after various adventures, having pressed on and left his com- panions behind exhausted with cold and hunger — ■ the oceanographer Dr. Rudiger at Wijde bay, and three others at Cape Petermann. He reports that the Herzog Ernst was frozen in at Treurenburg bay, but can be fetched off next summer. Lieut. Schrbder-Stranz and his companions had left the ship on a sledging expedition in August, and had not since been heard of, though hopes are ex- pressed that he may have reached the station at Cross bay. Otherwise, as he had but few sup- plies at his disposal, and an outbreak of scurvy is reported, his position would seem precarious. A relief party was at once organized at the wire- less station at Advent bay on Captain Ritschel's arrival. Both he and Dr. Rudiger had suffered severely from frozen feet. Towards the end of the summer [1Q12] Captain Russanof was re- ported to be on the coast of Novaya Zemlya (having first visited the coal-bearing region of West Spitsbergen), about to set sail for the north- west coast on his way east. His further inten- tions seem somewhat obscure, but he is said to have referred to a design of possibly making his way to the New Siberia islands, or even, far- ther. The particularly unfavourable conditions which prevailed last year have given rise to some uneasiness as to the fate of Lieut. Brussilof's ex- pedition in the Saint Anna, which sailed from Alexandrovsk on the Murman coast about the end of August. ... At the opposite end of the Arctic waters of Asia some success has attended the re- newed endeavours to promote navigation between Bering strait and the Kolyma and Lena. The ice- breakers Taimyr and Vaigatz passed Cape Deshnef on July 22 (Old Style), reaching the Lena in safety on August 25. Soundings and coast surveys were carried out en route. Depths of 15 feet were ob- tained in the mouth of the Lena. Two attempts to continue the voyage round the Taimyr penin- sula to Archangel were frustrated by ice, shallow water, and unfavourable weather, it being neces- sary to turn back from 76"N. The return voy- age through Bering strait was safely accomplished." —Monthly record oj polar regions {Geographical Journal, February, iqi,}). Lieutenant Brussiloff, an officer of the Russian navy, sailed in the Saint Anna in IQ12 by way of the Kara sea, through Yugor Shar, the strait at the northern extremity of Russia, which in recent years has been used by commercial vessels plying between the United States and the mouths of the Ube and Yenisei rivers. Brussiloff pushed his way north keeping close to the shore of the Yalmal Peninsula to avoid the danger of ice floes. He reached a point northeast of Franz Josef Land ; beyond that little is known of the fate of Brussilov's vessel or his party. It is believed that the Saint Anna drifted north and was crushed in the ice. The sea route to Siberia through the Kara sea, however, is considered as established and practical for commercial voyages. In iqi6 Jonas Lied suc- cessfully completed his fifth trading voyage along this route. The Kara sea is now [:q2o] fringed with a number of wireless stations which give val- uable aid to the navigators by sending out frequent warnings when certain sea areas are obstructed by ice. 1913-1918. — Canadian Arctic expedition. — Stefansson expedition. — Anderson expedition. — In the early summer of 19 13 Stefansson led the northern division of the Canadian .Arctic Expedi- tion into the Parry Archipelago and was not heard of again until 1915. "One of the most important events in the field of Arctic exploration was the sudden reappearance in the fall of 1915 of Vil- hjalmur Stefansson, who had been given up as dead, with a record of distinct achievement. Arc- tic explorers believed that the ice drift north of .Alaska had taken Stefansson farther west where a replenishment of his food supply would be an impossibility. The ice drift, in fact, took him east towards Banks Island where he purposed to establish his winter quarters. Stefansson stored up more than a sufficient food supply, while on his way toward Banks Island, which place he did not reach until the ice broke up. He finally landed and wintered within thirty miles of the location which was to have been his winter quarters. This fact led whalers who frequented Banks Island to spread the report that the whole crew probably perished. The party finally landed on Banks Island June 26, 1914, where it accumulated a large supply of food, and in early February started due north making but slow progress owing to thick fogs and soft snow. "In igi6 Stefansson again wintered on Banks Island, intermittently making extended sledge journeys on the adjoining islands,, which, subsequently, he partly surveyed. .On one of these trips the party reached point So° 10' N. latitude, 98" west longitude. Stefansson spent his third winter (1916-1917) on Melville Island where fish as well as game was found to be plentiful. The Canadian Arctic Expedition under Stefansson ended in November 1918 with the safe return of S. Stork- erson. Owing to the daring explorer's vast explo- rations the unknown areas of the polar western hemisphere is placed at 100,000 square miles. His discoveries, which cover about 70,000 square miles, are undoubtedly the most important contributions to geography of the unknown Arctic areas for many years. Other important contributions by Stefansson are his hydrographic observations which, among other achievements, have outlined the con- tinental shelf of the Arctic Ocean from Alaska northeast to Prince Patrick Island. The Canadian Arctic Expedition consisted of two main divisions, the Northern Party, commanded by Vilhjalmur Stefansson, and the Southern Party, under my direction. The Northern Party was to devote its chief attention to the Beaufort Sea in the region west of the Parry Archipelago and north of Alaska and Yukon Territory. The Southern Party planned to explore the northern coast of Canada between Cape Parry (124° W.) and Kent Penin- sula (io8°W.). It was arranged to have its sur- veys extend inland about 100 miles and also cover the southern and eastern portions of Victoria Island. . . . We cleared from Nome in the gasoline schooner Alaska, July 19, 1913, reaching Point Barrow on August 19, after some difficulty with gales in Bering Sea and Kotzebue Sound. . . . East of Point Barrow we found the Arctic Ocean practically filled with heavy ice. In that part of the world there are no true icebergs; but enor- mous pressure ridges often form along tide-cracks or are heaped up by gales along the edge of the floefields, where they are cemented by spray and by spring thaws and augmented by snowdrifts. These masses are sometimes of immense size, rising thirty or forty feet out of the water — too large to melt during the short summer. ... In 1913, for 473 ARCTIC EXPLORATION, 1917-1918 ARCTIC EXPLORATION, 1917-1918 the first time in about twenty-five years of whal- ing in that region, no ship from the west was able to reach Herschel Island. It was known as 'a bad ice year.' . . . The Southern Party of the Cana- dian Arctic Expedition entered upon the summer of 1 91 6 with most of their originally outlined work completed. Many cases of specimens in all branches of science — geology, zoology, botany, ethnology, archaeology — all had to be packed and compressed into one small 6s-foot schooner. . . We were well loaded down when we left Bernard Harbor on the evening of July 13, 1916. We made a quick and easy voyage out: Baillie Island, July 24; Herschel Island, July 28; Point Barrow, Au- gust 8; and Nome, August 15. Our weather-beaten schooner was left at Nome to be sold, while men and specimens went on to Seattle and Victoria through the famous Alaska and British Columbia Inside Passage. Everything ultimately reached Ot- tawa safely, and the scientific men of the expedi- tion have spent the winter of 1Q16-1917 work- ing up their reports. Maps have been computed and plotted, mineral analyses made, plants and animals are being identified and new species de- scribed. Some of the collections represent speci- mens of groups which have never been collected anywhere in the western Arctic area, and prac- tically all of them are from districts- and localities which are unrepresented in collections anywhere and from regions never before visited by a col- lector." — R. M. Anderson, Recent explorations on the Canadian Arctic coast (Georgraphical Review, Oct., 1917, p. 241-266). "But the most striking features of the expedi- tion's work must be the wonderful results attained in the application of the instruments developed during the past twenty years. We say 'instruments' with a 'feeling of apology; for we are sure that the possibilities of the phonograph and the moving picture — perhaps even of the ordinary- camera — as scientific instruments are not fully realized by all our readers. These have been of extraordinary value to the ethnological branch of the expedition. Phonographic records in considerable number have been made of the folk-songs, the music, even the language of various Eskimo tribes — notably of the blonde Eskimos discovered by Stefansson himself at an earlier date. Several thousand feet of cinema films have been made showing certain features of Eskimo life. Altogether, these items present a most impressive demonstration of the present status of scientific methods." — Return of the Scientific Sec- tion of the Stefansson expedition (Scientific Ameri- can, Aug. 26, 1916, p. 194). 1917-1918. — Journey round the arctic coast of Alaska. — "A letter written by Archdeacon Stuck, at Fort Yukon, Alaska, in June of this year [1918] describing a journey made by him last winter round the whole Arctic coast of Alaska, is abstracted in the British Geographical Journal. The journey, which naturally involved no small amount of hardship, afforded an unrivalled opportunity for gaining acquaintance with the Eskimo throughout the great stretch of country traversed, as well as for a comparative study of the work carried on among them by the various Christian organizations busy in that remote region. These Eskimos, the writer says, are 'surely of all primitive peoples the one that has the greatest claim to the generous con- sideration of civilized mankind. Where else shall a people be found so brave, so hardy, so indus- trious, so kindly, and withal so cheerful and con- tent, inhabiting such utterly naked country lashed by such constant ferocity of weather?' Every- where he received from them the greatest possible help and kindness, and brought away the warmest feeling of admiration and friendship. The start was made on the west coast first made known to the world by Cook and Kotzebue, Beechey, Col- linson and Bedford Pirn, and here it was possible to find some habitation, usually an underground igloo, on every night but one of the journey. Storms were encountered, but there were commonly fair winds and there were no special hardships, traveling being far more rapid than is usual in the interior. At Point Barrow a halt of two weeks gave opportunity for the study of the largest Es- kimo village in Alaska. In spite of the advancing season the difficulties increased with the resump- tion of travel, March being the month in which the severest weather is to be expected here. Throughout the 250 miles to Flaxman Island the party saw only one human being and were housed only twice. 'It is,' says the writer, 'the barrenest, most desolate, most forsaken coast I have ever seen in my life; flat as this paper on which I write, the frozen land merging indistinguishably into the frozen sea; nothing but a stick of driftwood here and there, half buried in the indented snow, gives evidence of the shore.' The fortnight's travel along this stretch was a constant struggle against a bitter northeast wind with the thermometer 20° to 30° below zero Fahrenheit, and at night, warmed only by the primus oil cooking stove, the air within their little snow house was as low as from 48° to 51° below zero. The almost ceaseless wind was a torment, and the faces of all were continually frozen. There are Eskimo on the rivers away from the coast, but it was impossible to visit them. East of Point Barrow all the dog-feed had to be hauled on the sledge, and — for the first time since the archdeacon had driven dogs — they occasionally went hungry when there was no driftwood to cook with. The heaviest task however came on the journey inland to Fort Yukon. Beyond the moun- tains the winter's snow lay unbroken, and for eight days a trail down the Collen River had to be beaten ahead of the dogs. At the confluence of the Collen with the Porcupine Stefansson and his party were met with, escorted on the way to Fort Yukon by Dr. Burke, of the hospital there. Stefansson had lain ill all the winter at Herschel Island, and would never have recovered had he not finally resolved to be hauled 400 miles to the nearest doctor." — Journey round the Arctic coast of Alaska (Science, Nov. 29, 1918). Another Arctic explorer of recent years who rendered distinguished services by his contributions to geography, botany and geology is Knud Ras- mussen, a Danish-Greenlander. Accompanied by a Danish geologist, L. Koch and Dr. T. Wulff, Swedish botanist, he set out in April, 1917, with a small party of Eskimos, crossed the perpetual ice- cap of Greenland and surveyed the western shore while his colleagues accumulated a botanical and geological collection. The party fell into desperate straits owing to lack of food and the absence of game. The botanist and the Eskimo hunter of the expedition lost their lives. The rest of the party was saved by Rasmussen's feat of obtaining relief after a forced march to Etah and back, a round distance of 280 miles, accompanied by one Eskimo. Chronological summary: 1262.— Hakonson wins Iceland for Norway. See Iceland: 1262; and i2th-i3th century 14th-18th centuries. — Danish control of Iceland, Commerce, and English interests. See Iceland: I4th-i8th centuries. 1498. — Route of Sebastian Cabot in the explora- tion of Greenland. See America: Map showing voyages of discovery. 474 ARCTIC EXPLORATION Chronology 1500-1819 ARCTIC EXPLORATION 1500-1502. — Discovery and exploration of the coast of Labrador and the entrance of Hudson strait by the Corte-Reals. 1553. — Voyage of Willoughby and Chancellor from London, in search of a northeast passage to India. Chancellor reached Archangel on the White sea and learned that he was in the dominions of the sovereign of Muscovy or Russia. With much difficulty he obtained permission to visit the court at Moscow, and made the long journey to that city by sledge over the snow. There he was admitted to an interview with the Tsar, and returned with a letter which permitted the opening of trade between England and Russia. Willoughby, with two vessels and their crews, was less fortunate. His party, after wintering on a desolate shore, per- ished the next year in some manner, the particulars of which were never known. The two ships, with their dead crews, were found long afterwards by Russian sailors, and their log-book recovered, but it tolJ nothing of the tragical end of the voyage. The chartered company of London merchants which sent out these expeditions is believed to have been the first joint stock corporation of share- holders formed in England. As the Russia Com- pany, it afterwards became a rich and powerful corporation, and its success set other enterprises in motion. 1556. — Exploring voyage of Stephen Bur- roughs to the northeast, approaching Nova Zem- bla. 1576-1578. — Voyages of Frobisher to the coast of Labrador and the entrance to Davis strait, dis- covering the bay which bears his name, and which he supposed to be a strait leading to Cathay ; af- terwards entering Hudson strait. Having brought from his first voyage a certain glittering stone which English goldsmiths concluded to be ore of gold, his second and third voyages were made to procure cargoes of the imagined ore, and to found a colony in the frozen region from which it came. The golden ore proved delusive ; the colony was never planted. 1580. — Northeastern voyage of Pet and Jack- man, passing Nova Zembla. 1585-1587. — Three voyages of John Davis from Dartmouth, in search of a northwestern passage to India, entering the strait between Greenland and Baffinland which bears his name and exploring it to the 72nd degree north lat- itude. 1594-1595. — Dutch expeditions (the first and second under Barents) to the northeast, passing to the north of Nova Zembla, or Novaya Zem- lya, but making no progress beyond it, 1596-1597. — Third voyage of Barents, when he discovered and coasted Spitsbergen, wintered in Nova Zembla with his crew, lost his ship in the ice, and perished, with one third of his men, in undertaking to reach the coast of Lapland in open boats. — See also Spitsbergen: i5q6-i82q. 1602. — Exploration for a northwest passage by Captain George Weymouth, for the Muscovy Company and the Levant Company, resulting in nothing but a visitation of the entrance to Hud- son strait. 1607. — Polar voyage of Henry Hudson, for the Muscovy Company of London, attaining the northern coast of Spitsbergen. 1608. — Voyage of Henry Hudson to Nova Zembla for the Muscovy Company. 1610. — Voyage of Henry Hudson, in English employ, to seek the northwest passage, being the voyage in which he passed through the Strait and entered the great Bay to which his name has been given, and in which he perished at the hands of a mutinous crew. — See also America: Map showing voyages of discovery. 1612-1614. — Exploration of Hudson bay by Captains Button, Bylot, and Baffin, practically dis- covering its true character and shaking the previous theory of its connection with the Pacific ocean. 1614. — Exploring expedition of the Muscovy Company to the Greenland coast, under Robert Fotherby, with William Baffin for pilot, making its way to latitude 80°. 1616. — Voyage into the northwest made by Captain Baffin with Captain Bylot, which resulted in the discovery of Baffin bay. Smith sound, Jones sound, and Lancaster sound. 1619-1620. — Voyage of Jens Munk, sent by the King of Denmark to seek the northwest pas- sage; wintering in Hudson bay, and losing there all but two of his crew, with whom he succeeded in making the voyage home. 1632. — Voyages of Captains Fox and James into Hudson bay. 1670. — Grant and charter to the Hudson's Bay Company, by King Charles II. of England, con- ferring on the Company possession and govern- ment of the whole watershed of the bay, and nam- ing the country Prince Rupert Land. 1676. — Voyage of Captain John Wood to Nova Zembla, seeking the northeastern passage. 1728. — Exploration of the northern coasts of Kamchatka by the Russian Captain Vitus Bering, and discovery of the strait which bears his name. 1741. — Exploration of northern channels of Hud- son bay by Captain Middleton. 1743. — Offer of £20,000 by the British Parlia- ment for the discovery of a northwest passage to the Pacific. 1746. — Further exploration of northern chan- nels of Hudson bay by Captains Moor and Smith. 1753-1754. — Attempted exploration of Hudson bay by the colonial Captain Swaine, sent out from Philadelphia, chiefly through the exertions of Dr. Franklin. 1765. — Russian expedition of Captain Tchit- schakoff, attempting to reach the Pacific from Archangel. 1768-1769. — Exploration of Nova Zembla by a Russian officer, Lieutenant Rosmyssloff. 1769-1770. — Exploring journey of Samuel Hearne, for the Hudson's Bay Company, from Churchill, its most northern post, to Coppermine river and down the river to the Polar sea. 1773. — Voyage of Captain Phipps, afterwards Lord Mulgrave, toward the North Pole, reaching the northeastern extremity of Spitsbergen. 1779. — Exploration of the Arctic coast, east and west of Bering strait, by Captain Cook, in his last voyage. 1789. — Exioring journey of Alexander Mac- kenzie, for the Northwest Company, and discovery of the great river flowing into the Polar sea, which bears his name. 1806. — Whaling voyage of Captain Scoresby to latitude 81° 30' and longitude ig° east, a record until Parry eclipsed it. 1818. — Unsatisfactory voyage of Commander John Ross to Baffin bay and into Lancaster sound. 1818. — Voyage of Captain Buchan towards the North Pole, reaching the northern part of ■ Spitsbergen. 1819-1820. — First voyage of Lieutenant Parry, exploring for a northwest passage, through Davis strait, Baffin bay, Lancaster sound, and Barrow strait, to Melville island. 1819-1820. — Journey of Captain (afterwards Sir John) Franklin, Dr. Richardson, and Captain (afterwards Sir George) Back, from Fort York, on 475 ARCTIC EXPLORATION Chronology 1819-1853 ARCTIC EXPLORATION the western coast of Hudson bay by the way of Lake Athabasca, Great Slave lake, and Copper- mine river, to Coronation gulf, opening into the Arctic ocean. 1819-1824. — Russian expeditions for the survey of Nova Zembla. 1820-1824. — Russian surveys of the Siberian polar region by Wraiigcll and Anjou. 1821-1823. — Second voyage of Captain Parry, exploring for a northwest passage to the Pacific ocean, through Hudson strait and Fox channel, discovering the Fury and Hecla strait, the north- ern outlet of the bay. 1821-1824. — Russian surveying expedition to Nova Zembla, under Lieutenant Liitke. 1822. — Whaling voyage of Captain Scoresby to the eastern coast of Greenland, which was con- siderably traced and mapped by him. 1822-1823. — Scientific expedition of Captain Sabine, with Commander Clavering, to Spits- bergen and the eastern coast of Greenland. 1824-1825. — TUrd voyage of Captain Parry, exploring for a northwest passage, by way of Davis strait, Baffin bay, and Lancaster sound, to Prince Regent inlet, where one of his ships was wrecked. 1825-1827. — Second journey of Franklin Rich- ardson, and Back, from Canada to the Arctic ocean \ Franklin and Back by the Mackenzie river and westward along the coast to longitude 149^ 37'; Richardson by the Mackenzie river and the .•\rctic coast eastward to Coppermine river. 1826. — Voyage of Captain Beechey through Bering strait and eastward along the Arctic coast as far as Point Barrow. 1827. — Fourth voyage of Captain Parry, at- tempting to reach the North Pole, by ship to Spitsbergen and by boats to 82° 45 north lati- tude. — See also Spiisbergex; 1596-1827. ■ 1829-1833. — Expedition under Captain Ross, fitted out by Mr. Felix Booth, to seek a north- west passage, resulting in the discovery of the position of the north magnetic pole, southwest of Boothia, not far from which Ross' ship was ice- bound for three years. .Abandoning the vessel at last, the explorers made their way to Baffin bay and were rescued by a whale-ship. 1833-1835. — Journey of Captain Back from Canada, via Great Slave lake,, to the river which he discovered and which bears his name, flowing to the Polar sea. 1835-1837. — Voyage of Captain Back for sur- veying the straits and channels in the northern extremity of Hudson bay. 1837-1839. — Expeditions of Dease and Simp- son, in the service of the Hudson Bay Company, determining the .•\rctic coast line as far east as Boothia. 1845. — Departure from Englind of the gov- ernment expedition under Sir John Franklin, in two bomb-vessels, the Erebus and the Terror. which entered Baffin bay in July and were never seen afterward. 1848. — Expedition of Sir John Richardson and Mr. John Rae down the Mackenzie river, search- ing for traces of Sir John Franklin and his crews. 1848-1849. — Expedition under Sir James Clarke Ross to Baffin bay and westward as far as Leo- pold Island, searching for Sir John Franklin. 1848-1851. — Searching expedition of the Her- ' aid and the Plover, under Captain Kellett and Commander Moore, through Bering strait and westward to Coppermine river, learning nothing of the fate of the Franklin party. 1850. — Searching expedition sent out by Lady Franklin, under Captain Forsyth, for the exam- ination of Prince Regent inlet. 1850-1851. — United States Grinnell expedition, sent to assist the search for Sir John Frank- lin and his crew, consisting of two ships, the Ad- vance and the Rescue, fursished by Mr. Henry Grinnell and officered and manned by the U. S. government, Ueutenant De Haven commanding and Dr. Kane surgeon. B'rozen into the ice in Welling- ton channel, in September, 1S50, the vessels drifted helplessly northward until Grinnell Land was seen and named, then southward and westward until the next June, when they escaped ill Baffin bay. 1850-1851. — Franklin search expedition, sent out by the British government, under Captain Penny, who explored Wellington channel and Cornwallis Island by sledge journeys. 1850-1851. — Discovery of traces of Franklin and his men at Cape Riley and Beechey island, by Captain Ommaney and Captain Austin, 1850-1852. — Franklin search expedition under Captain Collinson, through Bering strait and east- ward into Prince of Wales strait, sending sledge parties to Melville island. 1850-1854. — Franklin search expedition under Captain McClure, through Bering strait and westward, between Banks Land and Prince Albert Land, attaining a point within 25 miles of Melville sound, already reached from the east ; thus dem- onstrating the existence of a northwest passage, though not accomplishing the navigation of it. McClure received luiighthood, and a reward of £10.000 was distributed to the officers and crew of the expedition. 1851. — Expedition of Dr. Rae, sent by the Brit- ish government to descend the Coppermine river and search the southern coast of Wollaston Land, which he did, exploring farther along the coast of the continent eastward to a point opposite King W'illiam's Land. 1851-1852. — Franklin search expedition sent out by Lady Franklin under Captain Kennedy, for a further examination of Prince Regent inlet and the surrounding region. 1852-1854. — Franklin search expedition of five ships sent out by the British government under Sir Edward Belcher, with Captains McClintock, Kellett, and Sherard Osborn' under his command. Belcher and Oshnrn, going up Wellington channel to Northumberland sound, were frozen fast; Mc- Clintock and Kellett experienced the same mis- fortune near Melville island, where they had re- ceived Captain McClure and his crew, escaping from their abandoned ship. Finally all the ships of Belcher's fleet except one were abandoned. One, the Resolute, drifted out into Davis strait in 185.1;, was rescued, boueht by the United States govern- ment and presented to Queen Victoria. 1853-1854. — Hudson's Bay Company expedition by Dr. Rae, to Repulse bay and Pelly bay, on the Gulf of Boothia, where Dr. Rae found Eskimos in possession of articles which had be- longed to Sir John Franklin, and his men, and was told that in the winter of 1S50 they saw white men near King William's Land, traveling southward, dragging sledges and a boat, and afterwards saw dead bodies and graves on the main- land. 1853-1855. — Grinnell expedition, under Dr. Kane, proceeding straight northward through Baffin bay, Smith sound and Kennedy channel, nearly to latitude 70°, where the vessel was locked in ice and remained fast until abandoned in the spring of 1855, the party escaping to Greenland and being rescued by an expedition under Lieu- tenant Hartstein which the American government had sent to their relief. 476 ARCTIC EXPLORATION Chronology 1855-1881 ARCTIC EXPLORATION 1855.— Cruise of the U. S. ship Viiuennes, Lieutenant John Rodgers commanding, in the Arc- tic sea, via Bering strait to Wrangcll Land. 1855. — Expedition of Mr. Anderson, of the Hudson's Bay Company, down the Great Fish river to Point Ogle at its mouth, seeking traces of the party of Sir John Franklin. 1857-1859. — Search expedition sent out by Lady Franklin, under Captain McClintock, which became ice-bound in Melville bay, August, 1857, and drifted helplessly for eight months, over 1,200 miles; escaped from the ice in April, 1858; re- fitted in Greenland and returned into Prince Regent inlet, whence Captain McClintock searched the neighboring regions by sledge journeys, discover- ing, at last, in King William's Land, not only remains but records of the lost explorers, learning that they were caught in the ice somewhere in or about Peel sound, September, 1846; that Sir John Franklin died on the nth of the following June; that the ships were deserted on the 22A of April, 1848, on the northwest coast of King William's Land, and that the survivors 105 in number, set out for Back or Great Fish river. They perished probably one by one on the way. 1860-1861. — Expedition of Dr. Hayes to Smith sound; wintering on the Greenland side at lati- tude 78° 17'; crossing the Sound with sledges and tracing Grinnell Land to about 82° 45'. 1860-1862. — Expedition of Captain Hall on the whaling ship George Henry, and discovery of relics of Frobisher, 1864-1869. — Residence of Captain Hall among Eskimos on the north side of Hudson strait and search for further relics of the Franklin expedition. 1867. — Tracing of the southern coast of Wrangell Land by Captains Long and Raynor, of the whal- ing ships Nile and Reindeer. 1867. — Transfer of the territory, privileges and rights of the Hudson's Bay Company to the Do- minion of Canada. 1868. — Swedish Polar expedition, directed by Professor Nordenskiold, attaining latitude Si" 42', on the i8th meridian of east longitude. 1869. — Yacht voyage of Dr. Hayes to the Green- land coasts. 1869-1870. — German Polar expedition, under Captain Koldewey, one vessel of which was crushed, the crew escaping to an ice floe and drifting i.ioo miles, reaching finally a Danish settlement on the Greenland coast, while the other explored the east coast of Greenland to latitude 77°. 1871-1872. — Voyage of the steamer Polaris, fitted out by the U. S. government, under Captain Hall; passing from Baffin bay, through Smith sound and Kennedy channel, into what Kane and Hayes had supposed to be open sea, but which proved to be the widening of a strait, called Robe- son strait by Captain Hall, thus going beyond the most northerly point that had previously been reached in Arctic exploration. Wintering in lati- tude 81° 38' (where Captain Hall died), the Polaris was turned homeward the following August. Dur- ing a storm, when the ship was threatened with destruction by the ice. a number of her crew and party were left helplessly on a floe, which drifted with them for 1,500 miles, until they were res- cued by a passing vessel. Those on the Polaris fared little better. Forced to run their sinking ship ashore, they wintered in huts and made their way south in the spring, until they met whale- ships which took them on board. 1872-1874. — Austro-Hungarian expedition, under Captain Weyprecht and Lieutenant Payer, seeking the northeast passage, with the result of discovering and naming Franz Josef Land, Crown Prince Rudolf Land and Peterraann Land, the latter (seen, not visited) estimated to be beyond latitude 83°. The explorers were obliged to aban- don their ice-locked steamer, and make their way by sledges and boats to Nova Zembla, where they were picked up. 1875. — Voyage of Captain Young, attempting to navigate the northwest passage through Lan- caster sound, Barrow strait and Peel strait, but being turned back by ice in the latter. 1875-1876. — English expedition under Captain Nares, in the Alert, and the Discovery, at- taining by ship the high latitude of 82' 27', in Smith sound, and advancing by sledges to 83° 20' 26", while exploring the northern shore of Grinnell Land and the northwest coast of Greenland. 1876-1878. — Norwegian North-Atlantic expedi- tion, for a scientific exploration of the sea be- tween Norway, the Faroe islands, Iceland, Jan Mayen, and Spitsbergen. — See also Spitsbergen: igo6-i02i. 1878. — Discovery of the island named "Ein- samkeit," in latitude 77 40' N. and longitudt 86" E., by Captain Johannescn, of the Norwegian schooner Nordland. 1878-1879. — Final achievement of the long- sought, often attempted northeast passage, from the Atlantic to the Pacific ocean, by the Swedish geographer and explorer. Baron Nordenskiold, on the steamer Vega, which made the voyage from Gothenburg to Yokohama, Japan, through the .'\rctic sea, coasting the Russian and Siberian shores. 1878-1883. — Six annual expeditions to the Arctic seas of the ship Willem Barents, sent out by the Dutch Arctic Committee. 1879. — Cruise of Sir Henry Gore-Booth and Captain Markham, R. N., in the cutter Isbjorn to Nova Zembla and in Barents sea and the Kara .sea. 1879-1380.— Journey of Lieufenant Schwatka from Hudson bay to King William island, and exploration of the western and southern shores of the latter, searching for the journals and logs of the Franklin expedition. 1879-1882. — Polar voyage of the Jeannette, fitted out by the proprietor of the New York Herald and commanded by Commander De Long, U. S. N. The course taken by the Jeannette was through Bering strait towards Wrangell Land, and then northerly, until she became icebound when she drifted helplessly for nearly two years, only to be crushed at last. The officers and crew es- caped in three boats, one of which was lost in a storm; the occupants of the other two boats reached different mouths of the river Lena. One of these, two boats, commanded by Engineer Melville, was fortunate enough to find a settle- ment and obtain speedy relief. The other, which contained Commander De Long, landed in a region of desolation, and all but two of its occupants perished of starvation and cold. 1880-1882. — First and second cruises of the United States revenue steamer Corwin in the Arc- tic ocean, via Bering strait, to Wrangell Land seek- ing information concerning the Jeannette and searching for two missing whaling ships. 1880-1882. — Two voyages of Mr. Leigh Smith to Franz Josef Land, in his yacht Eira. in the first of which a considerable exploration of the south- ern coast was made, while the second resulted in the loss of the ship and a perilous escape of the party in boats to Nova Zembla, where they were rescued. 1881. — Expedition of the steamer Rodgers to search for the missing explorers of the Jeannette; entering the Arctic sea through Bering strait, but 477 ARCTIC EXPLORATION Chronology 1881-1896 ARCTIC EXPLORATION abruptly stopped by the burning of the Rodgers, on the 30th of November, in St. Lawrence bay. 1881.— Cruise of the U. S. Alliance, Com- mander Wadleigh, via Spitsbergen, to 79" 3' 36" north latitude, searching for the Jeannelte. 1881-1884. — International undertaking of ex- peditions to establbh Arctic stations for simul- taneous meteorological and magnetic observations: by the United States at Smith sound and Point Barrow; by Great Britain at Fort Rae; by Russia at the mouth of the Lena and in Nova Zembla; by Denmark at Godhaab, in Greenland; by Holland at Dickson's Haven, near the mouth of the Yenisei; by Germany in Cumberland sound, Davis strait; by Austro-Hungary on Jan Mayen island; by Sweden at Mussel bay in Spitsbergen. The United States expedition to Smith sound, under Lieuten- ant Greely, established its station on Discovery bay. Exploring parties sent out attained the high- est latitude ever reached, namely 83° 24'. After remaining two winters and failing to receive ex- pected supplies, which had been intercepted by the ice, Greely and his men, twenty-five in number, started southward, and all but seven perished on the way. The survivors were rescued, in the last stages of starvation, by a vessel sent to their re- lief under Captain Schley, U. S. N. 1882-1883. — Danish Arctic expedition of the Dijmpha, under Lieutenant Hovgaard; finding the Varna of the Dutch Meteorological Expedition beset in the ice ; both vessels becoming frozen in together for nearly twelve months; the Dijmphna escaping finally with both crews. 1883.— Expedition of Lieutenant Ray, U. S. N., from Point Barrow to Meade river. 1883. — Expedition of Baron Nordenskibld to Greenland, making explorations in the interior. 1883-1885. — East Greenland expedition of Cap- tain Holm and Lieutenant Garde. 1884. — Second fruise of the U. S. revenue marine steamer Corwin in the Arctic ocean. 1886. — Reconnoissance of the Greenland in- land ice by Civil Engineer R. E. Peary, U. S. N. 1888. — Journey of Dr. Nansen across South Greenland. 1890. — Swedish expedition to Spitsbergen, under G. Nordenskibld and Baron Klinkowstrom. 1890. — Danish scientific explorations in North and South Greenland. 1890. — Russian exploration of the Melo-Zemel- skaya, or Timanskaya tundra, in the far north of European Russia, on the Arctic ocean. 1891-1892. — Expedition of Lieutenant Peary, U. S. N., with a party of seven, including Mrs. Peary, establishing headquarters on McCormick bay, northwest Greenland; thence making sledge journeys. The surveys of Lieutenant Peary have gone far toward proving Greenland to be an island. 1891-1892. — Danish East Greenland expedi- tion of Lieutenant Ryder. 1891-1893. — Expeditions of Dr. Drygalski to Greenland for the study of the great glaciers. 1892. — Swedish expedition of Bjorling and Kallstenius, the last records of which were found on one of the Cary islands, in Baffin bay. 1892. — French expedition under M. Ribot to the islands of Spitsbergen and Jan Mayen. 1893. — Expedition of Dr. Nansen, in the Fram from Christiania, aiming to enter a current which flows, in Dr. Nansen's belief, across the Arctic region to Greenland. 1893. — Russian expedition, under Baron Toll, to the New Siberian islands and the Siberian Arctic coasts. 1893. — Danish expedition to Greenland, under Lieutenant Garde, for a geographical survey of the coast and study of the inland ice. 1893-1894. — Expedition of Lieutenant Peary and party (Mrs. Peary again of the number) , landing in Bowdoin bay, August, 1893 ; attempt- ing in the following March a sledge journey to Independence bay, but compelled to turn back. An auxiliary expedition brought back most of the party to Philadelphia in September, 1894; but Lieutenant Peary with two men remained. 1893-1894.— -Scientific journey of Mr. Frank Russell, under the auspices of the state univer- sity of Iowa, from Lake Winnipeg to the mouth of Mackenzie river and to Herschel island. 1893-1900. — Scientific exploration of Labrador by A. P. Low. 1894. — Expedition of Mr. Walter Wellman, an American journalist, purposing to reach Spitzber- gen via Norway, and to advance thence towards the Pole, with aluminum boats. The party left Tromso May i, but were stopped before the end of the month by the crushing of their vessel. They were picked up and brought back to Nor- way. 1894. — Departure of what is known as the Jackson-Harmsworth North Polar Expedition, planned to make Franz Josef Land a base of op- erations from which to advance carefully and per- sistently towards the Pole. 1895. — Preparations of Herr Julius von Payer, for an artistic and scientific expedition to the east coast of Greenland, in which he will be accom- panied by landscape and animal painters, photog- raphers and savants. 1895. — Return of Peary relief expedition with Lieut. Robert E. Peary and his companions. In spite of great difficulties Lieut. Peary had again crossed the ice-sheet to Independence bay, deter- mined the northern limits of Greenland, charted 1,000 miles of the west coast, discovered eleven islands and the famous Iron Mountain (three great meteorites), and obtained much knowledge of the natives. The purely scientific results of the ex- pedition are of great value. The relief expedi- tion was organized by Mrs. Peary. 1895. — Cruise of Mr. Pearson and Lieut. Feilden in Barents sea. 1895. — Return of Martin Ekroll from Spitz- bergen after a winter's study of the ice conditions there. Convinced that his plan of reaching the pole by a sledge journey had little chance of suc- cess. 1895. — Survey of the lower Yenisei river and Ob bay by Siberian hydrographic expedition. 1895. — Commercial expedition of Capt. Wig- gins from England to Golchika, at the mouth of the Yenisei 1895. — Russian geological expedition to Nova Zembla. 1895-. — Russian expedition under the geologist Bogdanovich to the Sea of Okhotsk and Kam- chatka. 1895-1896. — Two scientific voyages of the Danish cruiser Ingolf in the seas west and east of Greenland. 1896. — Summer expedition of naturalists and college students to the northern coast of Labra- dor. 1896. — Attempt of Lieut. Peary to remove the great meteorite discovered by him at Cape York, Greenland. After dislodging it he was compelled by the ice to leave it. Small parties from Cornell university and Massachusetts Institute of Technol- ogy and one under Mr. George Bartlett, left by Peary at different points to make scientific ob- servations and collections, returned with him. 478 ARCTIC EXPLORATION Chronology 1896-1898 ARCTIC EXPLORATION 1896. — Hydrographical survey of the Danish waters of Greenland and Iceland. 1896. — Hansen sent to Siberia to look for traces of Nansen. 1896. — Return of Dr. Nansen from voyage begun in i8g3. After skirting the coast of Siberia almost to the Lena delta, the Fram was enclosed by the ice and drifted with it north and north- west. On March 14, iSqs, in 84° 4' N. lat., 102" E. long., Nansen and Johansen left the Fram and pushed northward with dogs and sledges across an ice floe till they reached lat. 86" 13.6', at about 95° W. long., on April 8, within 261 statute miles of the pole. With great difficulty they made their way to Franz Josef Land, where they wintered, and in June met explorer Jackson. Returning on the Jackson supply steamer Windward, they reached Vardo Aug. 13. The Fram drifted to lat. 85° 57' N., 66° E. long., then southwestward, reaching Tromso Aug. 20, 1896. Nansen demon- strated the existence of a polar sea of great depth, comparatively warm below the surface, apparently with few islands; though he did not find the trans- polar current he sought. 1896. — Spitsbergen crossed for the first time, by Sir W. Martin Conway and party. 1896. — Many parties visit the northern coast of Norway and Nova Zembla to view the total eclipse of the sun, Aug 8-g. 1896. — Expedition sent by Russian Hydro- graphic Department to find site for a sealers' refuge in Nova Zembla. Bielusha bay, on the southwest coast, chosen. 1897. — Expedition sent by Canadian govern- ment to investigate Hudson bay and strait as a route to Central Canada. Passage found to be navigable for at least sixteen weeks each summer. 1897. — Seventh Peary expedition to Green- land. Accompanied by parties for scientific re- search. Preliminary arrangements made with the Eskimos for the expedition of i8q8, and food-sta- tions established. Relics of Greely's expedition found on cape Sabine, and the great meteorite at cape York brought away at last. I 1897. — Second expedition of Sir Martin Con- way for the exploration of Spitsbergen. 1897. — A summer resort established on west •oast of Spitsbergen, with regular steamer service for tourists during July and August. 1897. — Cruise of Mr. Arnold Pike and Sir Savile Crossley among the islands east of Spits- bergen. 1897. — Cruise of Mr. Pearson and Lieut. Feil- den in the Laura in the Kara sea and along the east coast of Nova Zembla, for the purpose of studying the natural history of the region. 1897.— Expedition of F. W. L. Popham with a fleet of steamers through Yugor straits to the Yenisei. 1897. — Hydrological and commercial expedi- tion, comprising seven steamers, under Rear-Ad- miral Makaroff, sent by the Russian government to the north Siberian sea. 1897. — Balloon voyage of Salomon August Andree and two companions, Mr. Strindberg and Mr. Fraenkel, starting from Danes' island, north of Spitsbergen, in the hope of being carried to the Pole. Four buoys from the balloon have been found. The first, found in Norway in June, i8qg, and containing a note from Andree, was thrown out eight hours after his departure. The "North Pole buoy," to be dropped when the Pole was passed, was found empty on the north side of King Charles Island, north-east of Spitzbergen, Sept. 11, 1899. A third buoy, also empty, was found on the west coast of Iceland July 17, 1900. Another, reported from Norway, Aug. 31, igoo, contained a note showing that the buoy was thrown out at 10 p. M., July II, 1897, at an altitude of 250 metres {820 ft.), moving N. 45 E., with splendid weather. Many search expeditions, some equipped at great expense, have returned unsuccessful. In spite of many rumors nothing definite is known of the fate of any of the party. One message from Andree was brought back by a carrier pigeon. It was dated July 13, 12.30 p. m., in lat. 82" 2', long. 12° s' E., and stated that the balloon was moving eastward. 1897. — New islands on the southern coast of Franz Josef Land discovered by Capt. Robertson of the Dundee whaler Balasna. 1897. — Return of Jackson-Harmsworthy expedi- tion from three years' exploration of Franz Josef Land and the region north of it. Franz Josef Land was resolved into a group of islands and almost entirely mapped. Small parties journey- ing northward over the ice, establishing depots of supplies, the most northern in latitude 81° 21', discovered and named Victoria sea, the most north- ern open sea in the world. 1897-1899. — Journey of Andrew J. Stone through the Canadian Rockies, down Mackenzie river and along the arctic coast, in search of rare mam- mals and information concerning the native tribes. Mr. Stone often had only one companion. He traveled rapidly, in one period of five months covering 3,000 miles of arctic coast and moun- tains, between 70° and 72° N. lat. and between ll^y>° and 140° W. long. 1898.— Expedition of Dr. K. J. V. Steenstrup to Greenland to study the glaciers of Disco island. 1898. — Completion by Dr. Thoroddsen of his systematic exploration of Iceland, begun in 1S81. 1898. — Spitsbergen circumnavigated and sur- veyed by Dr. A. G. Nathorst. Coast mapped and important scientific observations made. 1898. — Pendulum observations made in Spits- bergen by Prof. J. H. Gore, with instruments of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, for the determination of the force of gravity in that latitude. 1898. — Cruise of Prince Albert of Monaco, on coast of Spitsbergen, for the purpose of making scientific observations. 1898. — Some claim to Spitsbergen made by Russia. Never before claimed by any nation. 1898. — German arctic expedition under Theo- dor Lerner to the islands east of Spitsbergen, for scientific purposes and to obtain news of Andree if possible. 1898. — Andree search expedition under J. Stadling sent to the Lena delta, the mouth of the Yenisei and the islands of New Siberia by the Swedish Anthropological and Geographical Society. 1898-1899. — Reconnoitring expedition by Dan- ish party under Lieut. G. C. Amdrup, to east coast of Greenland. Coast explored and mapped from Angmagssalik, 65-)4° N. lat., to 67° 22'. Remains of a small extinct Eskimo settlement found. 1898-1899.— Second attempt by Walter Well- man to reach the North Pole. Wintered in Franz Josef Land, establishing an outpost, called Fort McKinley, in lat. 81° N. In February Mr. Well- man, with three companions, started northward and seemed likely to succeed in their undertaking, but a serious accident befalling Mr. Wellman, and an icequake destroying many dogs and sledges, a hurried return to headquarters was necessary. Here important scientific observations were made. The 82 d parallel was reached by the explorer. 1898. — Carefully planned expedition of Lieut. Peary, purposing to advance toward the pole by 479 ARCTIC EXPLORATION Chronology 1898-1910 ARCTIC EXPLORATION west coast of Greenland, establishing food stations and depending upon picked Eskimos for coopera- tion with his small party. In the last dash for the pole, supply sledges to be sent back as emptied, and the returning explorer, with two companions only, to be met by a relief party of Eskimos. The Windward was presented by Mr. Harmsworth for this expedition. Lieut. Peary was disabled for several weeks in i8p8-g by severe frost-bites, caus- ing the loss of seven toes. The Greely records were found at Fort Conger and sent back by the annual supply vessel. Sextant and record of the Nares expedition found and sent back; presented by Lieut. Peary to the Lords of the Admiralty of Great Britain and placed in the museum of the Royal Naval College at Greenwich. Vessel sent to Greenland each summer to carry supplies and bring back letters, carrying also small parties of ex- plorers, scientists, university students and hunters, to be left at various points and picked up by the vessel on its return. 1898-. — Expedition of Capt. Sverdrup to north- ern Greenland — Lieut. Peary's especial field. Hav- ing planned a polar expedition similar to Peary's he sailed up the west coast, but the Fram was frozen in near cape Sabine. Sverdrup therefore explored the western part of Ellesmere Land, then sailed again in an attempt to round the northern coast of Greenland. 1899. — International conference held at Stock- holm in June recommended a program for hydro- graphical and biological work in the northern parts of the Atlantic ocean, the North sea, the Baltic, and adjoining seas. 1899-. — Scientific expedition of Edward Bay, a Dane, to Melville bay, Greenland. 1899. — Swedish expedition under Dr. A. G. Nathorst to search for .^ndree in eastern Green- land. Valuable observations made and fjord sys- tems of King Oscar fjord and Kaiser Franz Josei fjord mapped. 1899. — Explorations in Iceland by F. W. W. Howell and party. 1899. — Hydrographic sur\-eys on the coasts of Iceland and the Faroe islands by MM. Holm and Hammer in the Danish guard-ship Diana. 1899. — Joint Russian and Swedish expedition to Spitsbergen, for the measurement of a degree of the meridian. Owing to the condition of the ice, the northern and southern surveying parties unable to connect their work. 1899. — Explorations in Spitsbergen by the Prince of Monaco, with a scientific staff. 1899. — Successful experimental voyage of the Russian Vice-Admiral Makaroff in his ice-break- ing steamer, the Yermak, north of Spitsbergen. 1899. — Russian government expedition, to cost £5,400, to explore northern shores of Siberia to mouths of the Ob and Yenisei. 1899-1900. — Arctic expedition of the Duke of the .^bruzzi. His ship, the Stella Polare, was left at Crown Prince Rudolf Land during the winter. The Duke became incapacitated by a fall and by the loss of two joints from the fingers of his left hand, incurably frost-bitten ; but a small party under Capt. Cagni pushed northward till provisions were exhausted. Nansen's record was beaten, the Italian party reaching lat. 86° 33', at about 56° E. long. No land was found north or northwest of Spitsbergen. Three men were lost from Cagni's party. 1899-. — Exploration of Ellesmere Land, Green- land, by Dr. Robert Stein, of the United States Geological Survey. Dr. Leopold Kann of Cornell, and Samuel Warmbath of Harvard, who took pas- sage in the Peary supply ship Diana, trusting to chance for conveyance home. Their totally in- adequate outfit was generously augmented by Peary's friends of the Diana. Dr. Kann returned in iQoo, leaving Dr. Stein. 1900. — Seward peninsula, the most westward extension of Alaska, explored and surveyed by five government expeditions. 1900. — Exploration of the interior of northern Labrador by a party from Harvard university. Soundings along the coast by schooner Brave. 1900. — Second Danish expedition under Lieut. Amdrup to east Greenland, completing the work of i8g8-9 by mapping the coast between 67° 20' N. and cape Gladstone, about 70" N., and making valuable scientific collections. 1900. — Swedish expedition, under Gustav Kolthoff, to eastern Greenland, for study of the arctic fauna. 1900. — Swedish scientific expedition of Prof. G. Kolthoff to Spitzbergen and Greenland. 1900. — Exploration of Spitsbergen by a Rus- sian expedition under Knipovich. 1900. — Russian expedition to east coast of Nova Zembla by Lieut. Borissoff to complete survey of the islands. 1900- . — Dr. Nansen's expedition under the leader- ship of Dr. J. Hjort, for the physical and biological examination of the sea between Norway, Iceland, Jan Mayen and Spitsbergen. — See also Spitsbergen: 1 006- 1 02 1. 1900-. — German expedition, under Capt. Bade, to explore East Spitsbergen, King Charles' Land and Franz Josef Land, and to look for traces of Andree. 1900-.— -Attempt of a German, Capt. Bauen- dahl, to reach the North Pole, leaving his vessel in the ice north of Spitsbergen and traveling over the ice with provisions for two years, -weighing ten tons. 1900-. — Scientific expedition of Baron E. von Toll to the unexplored Sannikoff Land, sighted in 1805 from the northern coast islands of New Si- beria. Preceded by a party which established food depots at various places months before. 1901. — Three exploring parties sent to Alaska by the United States Geological Survey. 1901.— Expedition sent by the Duke of the .•\bruzzi to Franz Josef Land to search for the three men lost from his party in igoo. 1901. — Roald .Amundsen's investigation of the oceanographic conditions around Spitsbergen. See Sutsbekcen: iQ06-ig2i. 1901. — North polar expedition under Mr. Eve- lyn B. Baldwin of the United States Weather Bu- reau; splendidly equipped by Mr. Wm. Ziegler of New York. 1903-1905. — Expedition under Anthony Fiala, reaching a latitude 82° 13'. 1903. — .Amundsen's voyage through the north- west passage. 1905.— Explorations of the Bdgica under Ger- lache. 1906. — Prince of Monaco's sur\Tey of the western part of Spitsbergen. See Spitsbergek: igo6-ig2i. 1906-1907.— Erichsen and Hagen-Hagen's survey of Greenland which ended in a tragedy. 1907. — Expedition under Captain Isachsen and the mapping of northwestern Spitsbergen. Sec Spitsbergem: ioo6-ig2i. 1907-1909.— Dr. Cook's attempt to reach the Pole. 1908.— Botanical survey of the fiord region in West Spitsbergen under Mrs. Hanna Resvoll-Holm- sen. See SprrsBERGKN: 1Q06-1Q21. 1910.— Expedition to Spitsbergen under Captain Isachsen. See Spitsbergen: igo6-ig2i. 480 ARDAHAN AREOPAGUS 1910-1911.— Hantzsch, the first European to cross Baffinland. 1911-1918. — Topographical and geographical sur- veys of Spitsbergen made under Adolf Hoel and Captains Arve Staxrud and Sverre Rovig. See Spitsbergen: 1906-1921. 1912. — Nansen's investigation of the waters on the northern and western coasts of Spitsbergen. See Spitsbergen: 1Q06-1921. 1912. — Brussiloff's voyage north, outcome never known. 1912. — Expedition under Lieutenant Schroder- Stranz. 1913-1918. — Stefansson expedition, its great im- portance in arctic explorations. 1917-1918.— Explorations along the arctic coast of Alaska by Archdeacon Stuck. 1917. — Rasmussen's surveys in the Arctic. ARDAHAN, a fortified town of Russian Ar- menia, ceded to Russia by Turkey in 1S78. On the outbreak of war between Turkey and Russia in the fall of 1914 a Turkish army was organized for the invasion of the Russian Caucasus with Ardahan as an immediate objective. The city was taken by Enver Pasha, January i, 191S, but was quickly lost in the subsequent defeat of his troops. It was successively in the hands of Turks, Arme- nians and Bolsheviki in 1918 and 1919. ARDASHIR, the modern form for Artaxerxes, the name of several Persian rulers. ARDEN, Forest of, the largest forest in early Britain, which covered the greater part of modern Warwickshire and "of which Shakespeare's Arden became the dwindled representative" — J. R. Green, Making of England, ch. 7. ARDENNES, Forest of. — "In Caesar's time there were in TGaul] very extensive forests, the largest of which was the Arduenna (Ardennes), which extended from the banks of the lower Rhine probably as far as the shores of the North Sea." — G. Long, Decline of the Roman republic, v. 3. ch. 22. — "Ardennes is the name of one of the north- ern French departments which contains a part of the forest Ardennes. Another part is in Luxem- burg and Belgium. The old Celtic name exists in England in the Arden of Warwickshire." — [bid., V. 4, ch. 14. — This wild hilly region extend- ing over parts of Belgium and France slopes grad- ually towards the plains of Flanders. The aver- age height of these hills is about 1600 feet al- though Mt. Saint-Hubert rises to an altitude of 2100. Within this section are some of the finest forests of Europe where gently undulating areas are densely covered with oak and beech. The most important river flowing through the Ardennes is the Meuse which has cut a deep channel with precipitous walls 600 feet high in some places. Coal and iron mines' lie in the northwest, and cattle and sheep are extensively raised. The dis- trict, both in Belgium and in France, was the scene of severe fighting (between the French and the Germans) in the first weeks of the World War. See World W.ar: 1Q14: I. Western front: j. ARDESH, Caucasus region: Capture by Rus- sians (1916). See World War: 1016: VI. Turkish theater: d, 1. ARDGLASS ("Green Height"), a small pic- turesque-town on the Irish coast between Kingston mole and Belfast bay in County Down. The popu- lation in 1901 was 501. The harbor was one of importance from earliest times. After the Norman invasion it "was the outlet for the trade of the rich agricultural and wool-producing lands of Down, Tyrone, and Armagh, and traffic was car- ried on in wines, cloth, kerseys, all kinds of fish, wool, and tallow. . . . With the revival of Irish life in the fourteenth century, and the gatherings of English merchants to Irish fairs, commerce increased and flourished [see Commerce: 14th century]. ... It is said that a trading company with a grant from Henry IV built the famous 'New Works.' "—A. S. Green, Old Irish World, p. 137 — Wars of the English and Irish raged around this harbor and brought devastation to the town (see Ireland: 1559-1603). . . . "In the course of the gloomy years that followed the old house fell into decay. [In June, 191 1] the whole derelict prop- erty, long deserted by its landlords, both land and village, was sold for the benefit of English mort- gagees and bought by local people." — Ibid., p. 149 ARDRI, or Ardrigh, "over kings" of Ireland. See Ireland, 1014; Tuath. ARDSCUL, Battle near. See Ireland: 1314- 1318. ARDSHIR. See Ardashir. AREANS. See Media and the Medes. ARECUNAS. See Caribs: Their kindred. AREIOS. See Aria. ARELATE. The ancient name of Aries. The territory covered by the old kingdom of Aries is sometimes called the Arelate. See BimcuNDY: 1127-1378, and SAiYES. ARENA, "in an amphitheatre the flat, open space enclosed by the seats for spectators and re- served for gladiatorial combats or other spectacles; so called because spread with sand. Hence, any level space wholly or partly surrounded by seats for athletic contests, combats, or sports." — R. Sturgis, Dictionary of architecture and building. ARENGO (Arringo), general assembly. See San Marino, Republic of. ARENSKY, Anton Stephanovich (1861-1906), distinguished Russian composer. In 1883 he be- came professor of composition at the Imperial Con- servatory in Moscow and in 1895 succeeded Bala- kirev as conductor of the Imperial Court Chorus at St, Petersburg AREOPAGITICA (1644), a pamphlet by Mil- ton, protesting against government supervision and control of literature; considered his greatest prose work. See Censorship: England; Printing and the press: 1644. AREOPAGUS.— "Whoever [in ancient Athens] was suspected of having blood upon his hands had to abstain from approaching the common altars of the land. Accordingly, for the purpose of judg- ments concerning the guilt of blood, choice had been made of the barren, rocky height which lies opposite the ascent to the citadel. It was dedicated to Ares, who was said to have been the first who was ever judged here for the guilt of blood ; and to the Erinyes, the dark powers of the guilt-stained conscience. Here, instead of a single judge, a col- lege of twelve men of proved integrity conducted the trial. If the accused had an equal number of votes for and against him, he was acquitted. The court on the hill of Ares is one of the most ancient institutions of Athens, and none achieved for the city an earlier or more widely-spread recogni- tion." — E. Curtius, History of Greece, bk. 2, ch. 2. — "The Areopagus, or, as it was interpreted by an ancient legend. Mars' Hill, was an eminence on the western side of the Acropolis, which from time immemorial had been the seat of a highly revered court of criminal justice. It took cog- nizance of charges of wilful murder, maiming, poisoning and arson. Its forms and modes of pro- ceeding were peculiarly rigid and solemn. It was held in the open air, perhaps that the judges might not be polluted by sitting under the same roof with the criminals. . . . The venerable character of the court seems to have determined Solon to apply it 481 AKEQUIPA ARGENTINA to another purpose; and, without making any change in its original jurisdiction, to erect it into a supreme council, invested with a superintending and controlling authority, which extended over every part of the social system. He constituted it the guardian of the public morals and religion, to keep watch over the education and conduct of the citizens, and to protect the State from the dis- grace or pollution of wantonness and profaneness. He armed it with extraordinary powers of inter- fering in pressing emergencies, to avert any sudden and imminent danger which threatened the public safety. The nature of its functions rendered it scarcely possible precisely to define their limits; and Solon probably thought it best to let them remain in that obscurity which magnifies what- ever is indistinct. ... It was filled with archons who had discharged their office with approved fidelity, and they held their seats for life." — C. Thirlwall, History of Greece, v. i, ch. ii. — These enlarged functions of the Areopagus were with- drawn from it in the time of Pericles, through the agency of Ephialtes, but were restored about B C. 400, after the overthrow of the Thirty. "Some of the writers of antiquity ascribed the first es- tablishment of the senate of Areopagus to Solon. . . . But there can be little doubt that this is a mistake, and that the senate of Areopagus is a primordial institution of immemorial antiquity, though its constitution as well as its functions un- derwent many changes. It stood at first alone as a permanent and collegiate authority, originally by the side of the kings and afterwards by the side of the archons: it would then of course be known by the title of The Boule, — the senate, or council; its distinctive title 'senate of Areopagus,' borrowed from the place where its sittings were held, would not be bestowed until the formation by Solon of the second senate, or council, from which there was need to discriminate it." — G Grote, History of Greece, pt. 2, ch 10, v. 3. — See also Athens: B.C. 472-462. — In Roman times it still remained one of the governing bodies of Athens, and it was on the hill of the Areopagus that the Apostle Paul delivered his famous address to the Athenians. AREQUIPA, the capital of a department of the same name in southern Peru, founded by Francisco Pizarro, the Spanish explorer and con- queror of the country, in the year 1540; captured by the Chileans in 1883 toward the close of the war between Peru and Chile ARETAS (Arab, Haritha). the name (Greek form) of a line of kings of the Nabataeans who reigned at Petra, Arabia. ARETHUSA, Fountain of. See Syracuse. AREVACa;, one of the tribes of the Celti- berians in ancient Spain. Their chief town, Nu- mantia, was the stronghold of Celtiberian resist- ance to the Roman conquest. ARGADEIS. See Gentes; Phyi..«: Phratris. ARGALL, Sir Samuel (c. 1580-1626), English navigator and deputy I'overnor of Virginia. Quarrel with the French. — Attack on Nova Scotia. See Canada: 1610-1613. Control of Virginia settlement. See Virginia: 1 6 1 7 - 1 6 1 ARGAND, Aim6 (1775-1803), Inventor of lamp chimneys See Inventions: i8th century: Arti- ficial light. ARGAUM, Battle of (1803). See India: 1798- 1805 ARGENSON, the name of a French family which produced a long line of celebrated states- men, men of letters and soldiers. Among the states- men who were members of this prominent family were Rene de Voyer, seigneur d'Argenson (1596- 1651), entrusted by Cardinal Richelieu with many important state missions and appointed ambassador at Venice by Mazarin, and his son Marc Rene de Voyer, comte d'Argenson (1623-1700), who suc- ceeded to the embassy at Venice at his father's, death. Others of this influential family who dis-. tinguished themselves in public life were Marc Rene de Voyer, marquis de Paulmy and maoquis, d'.'\rgenson (1652-1721), greatly feared for bis in- timate knowledge of state secrets and intrigues," the latter's eldest son, Rene Louis de Voyei de Paulmy, marquis d'.Argenson (1694-1757) who was a prominent statesman, a writer of considerable ability and associate of Voltaire and the other great philosophers of his time; his younger brother. Marc Pierre de Voyer de Paulmy, comte d'Argen- son (1696-1764), and the latter's son, Marc Rene, marquis de Voyer de Paulmy d'.\rgenson (1721- 1782), who served as governor of Vincennes (1754) and was the father of Marc Rene Marie de Voyer de Paulmy, marquis d'Argenson (1771-1842), the most liberal-minded member of the historic family, who embraced the revolutionary cause at the out- break of the French revolution. ARGENTARIA, Battle of (378). See Ale- manni: 378. ARGENTARIUS, money dealer. See Money AND banking; Ancient: Rome, ARGENTINA: Geographic description.-^. The federal republic of .Argentina is next to Brazil the largest state in South America "To outline the physical basis of the Argentine nation we may take a glance at the country itself The totak area is [roughly] 1,500,000 square miles, or one- half that of the continental United States. It is a country long from north to south, wider in its northern and warmer section, and tapering to the point of Cape Horn. . . . Buenos .Aires [the capital] lies in the latitude of Memphis, Tennessee, and has a mean annual temperature equivalent to that of South Carolina or Alabama. . . . Thus we may say that the central region of .Argentina corre- sponds closely with the southern Gulf states and the southwest. . . . Thus .Argentina, which reaches from within the tropics almost to the Antarctic Circle, experiences a range of temperatures less than those found in the United States, and must be characterized as a region of mild temperature or subtropical climate throughout the greater part of its extent. . . . The agricultural products of the country vary with the conditions of tempera- ture and rainfall. . . . The orange grower of Flor- ida and the cotton grower of the Gulf states would be at home in the northeastern part. . . . The corn planter might till his fields in the north- ern part of "Buenos Aires province and the wheat farmer in the central and southern parts. The sugar grower from Louisiana would find cane and the sugar monopoly at Tucuman, the orchardist of California could grow grapes and fruits under ir- rigation in the valleys at the foot of the Andes about Mendoza. The cattlemen of northern Texas and the sheep-herder from .Arizona and Wyoming might duplicate their ranges from Cordoba south to Santa Cruz, and in the far south, in Tierra del Fuego, the webfooted Oregonian would find con- genial gray skies, mists, and rain. .After this gen- eral survey it is desirable to distinguish more clearly the nucleal region of .Argentina. The river provinces that range along both sides of the navi- gable Parana and Paraguay on the north and east are Entre Rios, Corrientes, and Missiones; on the south and west Buenos Aires, Sante Fe. and the territories of El Chaco and Formosa. These form the nucleus of the Argentine domain about which 482 ARGENTINA Railroads ARGENTINA the other provinces and territories are grouped. Here are the rich delta lands and the pampas fa- vored by climate, soil and facile communication with the world. Here will gather a dense popula- tion and will always be the seat of Argentine wealth and commerce — the heart of the Argentine nation. . . . Here are immense plains now widely flooded by the tropical rains, but a slight change of level would convert them from swamps into rich ex- tensive agricultural lands. ... A peculiarity of the loess soils is their capacity to store up water and to retain their fertility under cultivation. The Chinese fields have been tilled for more than 4000 years without exhaustion, and there is every reason to believe that the fields of the Pampas, under intelligent culture, will also remain prac- tically inexhaustible. . . . Eastward beyond the reach of the Andean streams, in the territories of central and southern Argentina is the great area of land which must always be devoted to grazing, and in large part to sheep raising. In the northern and drier regions of Patagonia the tine wooled Merino finds a congenial home, and there may be grown the wool suited to the manufacture of fine clothing and knitted goods. As we go south into the colder and moister districts toward the straits, the Merino give? place to the heavier and coarser English breeds, which are bred rather for mutton than for wool, and there already are lo- cated the freezing establishments which prepare mutton for the European markets. . . . Where it is practical it is more profitable to grow wheat and corn than to grow beef and mutton, and the eco- nomic advantage will in time displace the less profitable industry. , . . Argentina has no coal and throughout nine-tenths of her territory no large amount of water-power which can be utilized for manufacturing. Here she is definitely and narrowly Umited, and must always be dependent for manu- factured products upon countries more fortunately conditioned. . . . There are two districts in which water-power may be applied to manufacturing on a scale sufficient to affect the welfare of the na- tion. One of them is in the far northeast where the falls of Iguazu may yield twice the power of Niagara, and the other in the southwest where many streams in the valleys of the Cordillera will afford power to attract a manufacturing popula- tion. . . . The power of Iguazu is near the great centers of commerce, being situated on the Parana and capable of transmission down the val- ley of the river to within reach of navi- gable waters. . . . The Cordilleran district is as far from Buenos .Aires as St. Louis from New York, or Rome from London, and at present is still isolated for lack of communication; but railways are in process of extension toward it, and it will soon be brought within reach of freight and also of tourist traffic. Three raw ma- terials of prime importance — wool, hides and wood — are immediately available in the district itself and the surrounding areas, and there will eventu- ally be established important manufacturing in- dustries to supply the great agricultural provinces." — G. H. Blakeslee, Latin America, pp. 344-351. — See also Latin America: Agriculture; and Map of South America. Railroads. — "There are 20,000 miles of railroads in the Republic. The British showed the way in the initial building, and their lines pass through some of the fattest territory. The French have been tardy followers, but have constructed useful minor lines. The Argentine Government has built State lines through country that was suitable for colonisation, but which did not appeal to the out- side investor. These State railways are financially a failure. One reason is that the territory through which they run is not of the best. The principal reason is that they are the prey of the pohticians. Constituencies have to be considered, and innum- erable jobs found for the hangers-on of poUtical parties. Business conditions are the last to be thought of, and, though the Government has done well in throwing these lines into distant regions needing development, they are not likely to suc- ceed until placed under different control. Not only have the Argentines themselves not started railway companies, but they have no money invested in the foreign companies. One cause is that, though the Government insists on a local board of direct- ors, the real board of directors is abroad, chiefly in London. Another cause is that dividends are lim- ited by law to 7 per cent., and that is not a suf- ficient return for the Argentine. He does not care to touch investments that do not yield 12 per cent., and when he gets 30 per cent, he thinks that about fair — and the country is so prosper- ous it can afford it. Although within the last fifteen years millions of British money have poured into Argentina for railway construction, the in- vestor in the old days cast a hesitating eye on South America as a place to sink his capital. In the 'fifties a railway a few miles long was all that Argentina could boast, and ten years later, when 7 per cent, was guaranteed, money was not forth- coming. As an inducement to construct a line be- tween Rosario and Cordoba the absolute ownership of three miles on either side of the line was offered. Even with such an attraction the British investor was shy. Gradually, however, money was forth- coming, and lines were laid. In the 'eighties there came a spurt. It was not till the years following iQoo that money could be had for the asking. Lines cobwebbed the profitable country ; distant points were linked up; land which previously had little beyond prairie value bounced up in price. Railway companies in England have had to fight landowners to make headway. In Argentina land- owners welcome the coming of a railway, for ob- vious reasons. Most of the wealthy Argentines owe their fortunes to their land being benefited by the railways. As a rule, out in the far districts, a railway company can get the necessary land for nothing. Owners are willing to make financial contributions. The general managers of the big British railways in Argentina get large salaries — £7,000 [.$35,000] a year. This is partly to remove them from the range of temptation of being bribed by owners, syndicates, or land companies to authorise the making of railways where they would not be economically advisable. Of course, extensions near the big towns cost the railways as much as they would in England. I know a man who thirty years ago bought a piece of land for £1,600 r$8,ooo]. He sold it to a railway com- pany for over £200,000 [$i,ooo,oool. Though foreign capital Is having so extensive a run in net- working the country with railways, the Argentine Government has a much closer grip on the work- ing of the lines than the Board of Trade has on English companies. It is therefore no misrepresen- tation to say that, whilst private owners are glad to have their prop>erty enhanced in value by the juxtaposition of a railway, the Government puts obstacles in the way for what are ostensibly public reasons. Accordingly, expensive 'diplomacy' has sometimes to be used. The Government is suffi- ciently aware of the return the foreign investor gets — and when fresh extensions are sought it in- variably withholds its consent until some conces- sion has been wrung out of the company, such as an undertaking to construct a line through a 483 ARGENTINA Railroads Racial Elements ARGENTINA district that cannot, for some time at any rate, be a success. There is never any guarantee that another company will not be tormed to work the same district. The Government smiles at the tight between the two lines for traffic — to the public benefit. When companies propose to amalgamate the Government either malies such demands in re- gard to uneconomic lines that the thing falls through or a veto is put upon the amalgamation altogether. All railway material comes in duty free, but one of the conditions is that 3 per cent, of the profits shall be used for the making of roads leading to railway stations. The companies do not object, because the call is not large, and it is to their interest that agriculturists should be able to get their produce to the railway station to be transported over the lines. The Direccion-General de Ferrocarriles [railroads] is the authority over the railways in Argentina. It decides the num- ber of trains which shall be run, and it insists on the number of coaches. There must be a certain number of dormitory cars on all-night trains, and restaurant cars are obligatory over certain dis- tances. Every train carries a letter-box, and re- cently the companies have been squeezed into car- rying the mails for nothing. A medicine chest, a stretcher, a bicycle — so that quick communication can be made with the nearest station in case of accident — and all sorts of necessities in case of a breakdown are compulsor,' Every carriage is thoroughly disinfected every month, and there is always a card to be initialled by an inspector. All bedding and mattresses are subject to scientific disinfection such as I have seen nowhere in Europe. No time-tables can be altered without the sanction of the National Railway Board at least two months before coming into operation. If trains stop at stations for which they are not schedued a heavy fine is imposed; and all late trains, and the reason, have to be reported to the Government authority. No alteration, however small, to a station building or to the design of rolling stock is permissible without the sanction of the Government representa- tives. A complaint book is at every station, open to anyone to complain on any subject. The Re- public lives by its exports of meat and agricultural product. Ninety-five per cent, of this trade is carried to the ports by the railways. From the railroad cars one beholds productiveness; yet fif- teen or twenty miles away lies land just as pro- ductive but as yet untouched by the plough, be- cause there is neither sufficient population to cul- tivate nor railways to carry. Within the next dozen years there must inevitably be a further spurt in the making of feeding or auxiliary lines. Something like £20,000,000 a year is crossing the ocean for fresh railway enterprises in Argentina. Nearly 40,000,000 tons of goods are carried over the lines each year, and the receipts are something Hke £25,000,000 annually." — J. F. Eraser, Amazing Argenline, pp. 45-40 — "Railways open, January I, iqio, 22,578 miles, of which 3,816 miles (18 per cent.) belong to the State. The capital invested in Argentine railways amounts to 1,254,705,500 gold dollars." — Statesmuii's Year-Book, 1020. — See also Railroads: iqi7-iQiq. Political divisions. — In igai the republic was composed of a group of one federal district: Buenos Aires with Martin Garcia island; fourteen prov- inces: Buenos Aires (La Plata), Cordoba. Mendoza, Santa Fe, Santiago del Estero, Salta, Entre Rio.s (Parana), Corrientes. San Luis, Tucuman, San Juan, La Rioja, Catamarca and Jujui; ten terri- tories: Santa Cruz (Gallegos), Chubut (Rawson), Rio Negro (Viedma), Pampa Central (Santa Rosa de Toay), Chaco (Resistencia), Formosa, Neu- quen, Los Andes (San Antonio de los Cobres), Misiones (Posadas), Tierra del Fuego (Ushuaia). Population. — Racial elements. — .According to the first census taken in twenty years (1914) the population was 7,905,502. The number of foreign- ers, principally of Spanish and Italian origin, was 2,357,952, including about 40,000 of British ex- traction. Latest estimates of the total population were— 1915: 7,979,259; 1919: 8,533,332.— "No other Spanish- American state, except Uruguay, has a people of a stock so predominantly European. The aboriginal Indian element is too small to be worth regarding. It is now practically confined to the Gran Chaco in the extreme north, but elsewhere the influence of Indian blood is undiscernible among the people to-day. The aborigines of the central Pampas have disappeared, — nearly all were killed off, — and those of Patagonia have been dying out. We have, therefore, a nation practically of pure South European blood, whose differences from the parent stock are due, not to the infusion of native elements but to local and historical causes. Till thirty or forty years ago this population was almost entirely of Spanish stock. Then the rapid development of the Pampas for tillage began to create a demand for labour, which, while it in- creased immigration from Spain, brought in a new and larger flow from Italy. The Spaniards who came were largely from the northern provinces and among them there were many Basques, a race as honest and energetic as any in Europe. . . . The Italians have flocked in from all parts of their peninsula, but the natives of the north take to the land, and furnish a very large part of the ag- ricultural labour, while the men from the south- ern provinces, usually called Napolitanos, stay in the towns and work as railway and wharf porters, or as boatmen, and at various odd jobs. In igog, out of 1,750,000 persons of foreign birth in the republic, there were twice as many Italians as Spaniards, besides one hundred thousand from France, the latter including many French Basques, who are no more French than Spanish. Between 1004 and 1900 the influx of immigrants had risen from 125,000 annually to 255,000. The Spaniards, of course, blend naturally and quickly with the natives, who speak the same tongue. The Italians have not yet blent . . . but there is so much simi- larity . . . that they will eventually become ab- sorbed into the general population. Children bom in the country grow up to be .Argentines in senti- ment, and are, perhaps, even more vehemently pa- triotic than the youth of native stock. ... In con- sidering the probable result of the commingling, and as a fact explaining the readiness with which Italian immigrants allow themselves to be Argen- tinized, one must remember that. these come from the humblest and least-educated strata of Italian society. They are, like all Italians, naturally in- telligent, but they have not reached that grade of knowledge which attaches men to the literature and the historical traditions of their own country. . . . The other foreigners, French, English (busi- ness men and landowning farmers), and German (chiefly business men in the cities) are hardly nu- merous enough to affect the .Argentine type, and the two latter have hitherto remained as distinct ele- ments, being mostly Protestants and marrying per- sons of their own race. They occupy themselves entirely with business and have not entered Argen- tine public life: yet as many of them mean to remain in the country, and their children born in it become thereby Argentine citizens, it is likely that they, also, will presently be absorbed, and their Argentine descendants may figure in politics here, as families of Irish and British origin do in 484 ARGENTINA, 1515-1557 Buenos Aires ARGENTINA, 1580-1777 Chile." — Lord Bryce, Soulh America, pp. 338-341. — Sec also Gr.an Chaco. 1515-1557. — Discovery, exploration and early settlement on La Plata. See Paraguay: 1515- 1535-1542. — Mendoza's and Cabeza de Vaca's explorations. — Founding of Buenos Aires. See Buenos .Aires: 1535-1542. 1580-1777. — Final founding of the city of Buenos Aires. — Conflicts of Spain and Portugal over La Plata. — Creation of the viceroyalty of Buenos Aires. — "In the year 1580 the founda- tions of a lasting city were laid at Buenos Ayres by De Garay on the same situation as had twice previously been chosen — namely, by Mendoza, and by Cabeza de Vaca, respectively. [See Buenos Aires: 1580-1650.] The same leader [De Garay] had before this founded the settlement of Sante Fe on the Parana. The site selected for the future capital of the Pampas is probably one of the worst ever chosen for a city . . . has probably the worst harbour in the world for a large commercial town. . . . Notwithstanding the inconvenience of its har- bour, Buenos Ayres soon became the chief com- mercial entrepot of the Valley of the Plata. The settlement was not effected without some severe fighting between De Garay's force and the Que- rar.dies. The latter, however, were effectually quelled. . . . The Spaniards were now nominally masters of the Rio de La Plata, but they had still to apprehend hostilities on the part of the natives between their few and far-distant settlements [con- cerning which see Paraguay: 1515-1557). Of this liability De Garay himself was to form a lamentable example. On his passage back to Asun- cion, having incautiously landed to sleep near the ruins of the old fort of San Espiritu, he was surprised by a party of natives and murdered, with all his companions. The death of this brave Biscayan was mourned as a great loss by the en- tire colony. The importance of the (pities founded by him was soon apparent; and in 1620 all the settlements south of the confluence of the rivers Parana and Paraguay were formed into a separate independent government, under the name of Rio de La Plata, of which Buenos -Ayres was declared the capital. This city likewise became the seat of a bishopric. . . . The merchants of Seville, who had obtained a monopoly of the supply of Mexico and Peru, regarded with much jealousy the prospect of a new opening for the South American trade by way of La Plata," and procured restrictions upon it which were relaxed in 1618 so far as to permit the sending of two vessels of 100 tons each every year to Spain, but subject to a duty of 50 per cent. "Under this miserable commercial legislation Buenos Ayres continued to languish for the first century of its existence. In 1715, after the treaty of Utrecht, the English . . . obtained the 'asiento' or contract for supplying Spanish colonies in America with African slaves, in virtue of which they had permission to form an establishment at Buenos Ayres, and to send thither annually four ships with 1,200 negroes, the value of which they might export in produce of the country. They were strictly forbidden to introduce other goods than those necessary for their own establishments; but under the temptation of gain on the one side and of demand on the other, the asiento ships naturally became the means of transacting a con- siderable contraband trade. . . . The English were not the only smugglers in the river Plate. By the treaty of Utrecht, the Portuguese had obtained the important settlement of Colonia [the first settlement of the Banda Oriental — or 'Eastern Border' — afterwards called Uruguay] directly facing Buenos Ayres. . . . The Portuguese, . . not contented with the possession of Colonia . . . commenced a more important settlement near Monte Video. From this place they were dis- lodged by Zavala [governor of Buenos Ayres), who, by order of his government, proceeded to establish settlements at that place and at Maldo- nado. Under the above-detailed circumstances of contention . . . was founded the healthy and agreeable city of Monte Video. . . . The inevitable consequence of this state of things was fresh an- tagonism between the two countries, which it was sought to put an end to by a treaty between the two nations concluded in 1750. One of the articles stipulated that Portugal should cede to Spain all of her establishments on the eastern bank of the Plata; in return for which she was to re- ceive the seven missionary towns [known as the 'Seven Reductions'] on the Uruguay. But . . . the inhabitants of the Missions naturally rebelled against the idea of being handed over to a people known to them only by their slave-dealing atroci- ties. . . . The result was that when 2,000 natives had been slaughtered [in the war known as the War of the Seven Reductions] and their settle- ments reduced to ruins, the Portuguese repudiated the compact, as they could no longer receive their equivalent, and they still therefore retained Colo- nia. When hostilities were renewed in 1762, the governor of Buenos Ayres succeeded in possessing himself of Colonia; but in the following year it was restored to the Portuguese, who continued in possession until 1777, when it was definitely ceded to Spain. The continual encroachments of the Portuguese in the Rio de La Plata, and the im- punity with which the contraband trade was car- ried on, together with the questions to which i? constantly gave rise with foreign governments, had long shown the necessity for a change in the gov- ernment of that colony; for it was still under the superintendence of the Viceroy of Peru, residing at Lima, 3,000 miles distant. The Spanish authorities accordingly resolved to give fresh force to their representatives in the Rio de La Plata ; and in 1776 they took the important resolution to sever the connection between the provinces of La Plata and the Viceroyalty of Peru. The former were now erected into a new Viceroyalty, the capital of which was Buenos Ayres. ... To this Vice- royalty was appointed Don Pedro Cevallos, a for- mer governor of Buenos Ayres. . . . The first act of Cevallos was to take possession of the island of St. Katherine, the most important Portuguese possession on the coast of Brazil. Proceeding thence to the Plate, he razed the fortifications of Colonia to the ground, and drove the Portuguese from the neighbourhood. In October of the fol- lowing year, 1777, a treaty of peace was signed at St. Ildefonso, between Queen Maria of Portu- gal and Charles III. of Spain, by virtue of which St. Katherine's was restored to the latter country, whilst Portugal withdrew from the Banda Orien- tal or Uruguay, and relinquished all pretensions to the right of navigating the Rio de La Plata and its affluents beyond its own frontier line. . . . The Viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres was sub-divided into the provinces of — (i.) Buenos Ayres, the capi- tal of which was the city of that name, and which comprised the Spanish possessions that now form the Republic of Uruguay, as well as the Argentine provinces of Buenos Ayres, Santa Fe, Entre Rios, and Corrientes; (2.) Paraguay, the capital of which was Asuncion, and which comprised what is now the Republic of Paraguay; (3.) Tucuman, the capital of which was St. lago del Estero, and which included what are to-day the Argentine 485 ARGENTINA, 1806-1820 Conflict with English ARGENTINA, 1806-1820 provinces of Cordova, Tucuman, St. lago, Salta, Catamarca, Rioja, and Jujuy; (4.) Las Charcas or Potosi, the capital of which was La Plata, and which now forms the Republic of Bolivia; and (5.) Chiquito or Cuyo, the capital of which was Men- doza, and in which were comprehended the pres- ent Argentine provinces of St. Luiz, Mendoza, and St. Juan." — R. G. Watson, Spanish and Portuguese South America, v. 2, ch. 13-14. Also in: E. J. Payne, History of European colonies, ch. 17.— S. H. Wilcocke, History of the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres. 1806-1820. — English invasion. — Revolution. — Independence achieved. — Confederation of the provinces of the Plate river and its dissolution. — "The trade of the Plate River had enormously increased since the substitution of register ships for the annual flotilla, and the erection of Buenos Ayres into a viceroyalty in 177S; but it was not until the war of 1797 that the English became aware of its real extent. The British cruisers had enough to do to maintain the blockade: and when the English learned that millions of hides were rotting in the warehouses of Monte Video and Buenos Ayres, they concluded that the people would soon see that their interests would be best served by submission to the great naval power. The peace put an end to these ideas ; but Pitt's favourite project for destroying Spanish influence in South America by the English arras was re- vived and put in execution soon after the opening of the second European war in 1803. In 1806 ... he sent a squadron to the Plate River, which offered the best point of attack to the Brit- ish fleet, and the road to the most promising of the Spanish colonies. The English, under General Beresford, though few in number, soon took Buenos Ayres, for the Spaniards, terrified at the sight of British troops, surrendered without know- ing how insignificant the invading force really was. When they found this out, they mustered courage to attack Beresford in the citadel; and the English commander was obliged to evacuate the place. The English soon afterwards took pos- session of Monte Video on the other side of the river. Here they were joined by another squad- ron, who were under orders, after reducing Buenos Ayres, to sail round the Horn, to take Valparaiso, and establish posts across the continent connecting that city with Buenos Ayres, thus executing the long-cherished plan of Lord Anson. Buenos Ayres was therefore invested a second time. But the English land forces were too few for their task. The Spaniards spread all round the city strong breastworks of oxhides, and collected all their forces for its defence. Buenos Ayres was stormed by the English at two points on the 5th of July, 1807; but they were unable to hold their ground against the unceasing fire of the Spaniards, who were greatly superior in numbers, and the next day they capitulated, and agreed to evacuate the prov- ince within two months. The English had imag- ined that the colonists would readily flock to their standard, and throw off the yoke of Spain. This was a great mistake; and it needed the events of 1808 to lead the Spanish colonists to their inde- pendence. ... In iSio, when it came to be known that the French armies had crossed the Sierra Morena, and that Spain was a conquered country, the colonists would no longer submit to the shad- owy authority of the colonial officers, and elected a junta of their own to carry on the Government. Most of the troops in the colony went over to the cause of independence, and easily overcame the feeble resistance that was made by those who re- mained faithful to the regency in the engagement of Las Piedras. The leaders of the revolution were the advocate CastelU and General Belgrano; and under their guidance scarcely any obstacle stopped its progress. They even sent their armies at once into Upper Peru and the Banda Oriental, and their privateers carried the Independent flag to the coasts of the Pacific ; but these successes were ac- companied by a total anarchy in the Argentine capital and provinces. The most intelligent and capable men had gone off to fight for liberty else- where ; and even if they had remained it would have been no easy task to establish a new gov- ernment over the scattered and half-civilized pop- ulation of this vast country. . . . The first result of independence was the formation of a not very intelligent party of country proprietors, who knew nothing of the mysteries of politics, and were not ill-content with the existing order of things. The business of the old viceroyal government was dele- gated to a supreme Director; but this functionary was little more than titular. How limited the aspirations of the Argentines at first were may be gathered from the instructions with which Belgrano and Rivadavia were sent to Europe in 1814. They were to go to England, and ask for an English protectorate; if possible under an English prince. They were next to try the same plan in France, .Austria, and Russia, and lastly in Spain itself: and if Spain still refused, were to offer to renew the subjection of the colony, on condition of cer- tain specified concessions being made. This was indeed a strange contrast to the lofty aspirations of the Colombians. On arriving at Rio, the Ar- gentine delegates were assured by the English minister. Lord Strangford, that, as things were, no European power would do anything for them: nor did they succeed better in Spain itself. Mean- while the government of the Buenos Ayres junta was powerless outside the town, and the country was fast lapsing into the utmost disorder and con- fusion. At Ijngth, when Government could hardly be said to exist at all, a general congress of the provinces of the Plate River assembled at Tucuman in 1S16. It was resolved that all the states should unite in a confederation to be called the United Provinces of the Plate River: and a constitution was elaborated, in imitation of the famous one of the United States, providing for two legislative chambers and a president. . . . The influence of the capital, of which all the other provinces were keenly jealous, predominated in the congress; and Puyrredon, an active Buenos Ayres politician, was made supreme Director of the Confederation. The people of Buenos Ayres thought their city destined to exercise over the rural provinces a similar in- fluence to that which .Athens, under similar cir- cumstances, had exercised in Greece ; and able Buenos Ayreans like Puyrredon, San Martin, and Rivadavia, now became the leaders of the unitary party. The powerful provincials, represented by such men as Lopez and Quiroga, soon found out that the Federal scheme meant the supremacy of Buenos .'\yres, and a political change which would deprive them of most of their influence. The Federal system, therefore, could not be expected to last very long; and it did in fact collapse after four years. Artigas led the revolt in the Banda Oriental [now Uruguay], and the Riverene Prov- inces soon followed the example. For a long time the provinces were jiractically under the authority of their local chiefs, the only semblance of political life being confined to Buenos .Ayres itself." — E. J. Payne, History of European colonies, ch. 17. — See also Latin America: 177S-1824; Uruguay: 1806- i8iS- Also in: M. G, Mulhall, The English in South 486 ARGENTINA, 1817-1818 Civil War ARGENTINA, 1819-1874 America, ch. 10-13, and i6-i«. — J. Miller, Mem- oirs of General Miller, v. i; ch. 3. — T. J. Page, La 'Plata, the Argentine confederation and Para- !gUay, ch. 31. 1817^1818.^ War with Spain. See Chile: 1810- 1818. 1819-1874. — Anarchy, civil war, despotism. — Long struggle for order and confederation. — "A new Congress met in 1819 and made a Con- ■stitution for the country, which was never adopted by all the Provinces. Pueyrredon resigned, and on June loth, 1819, Jose Rondeau was elected, who, however, was in no condition to pacify the civil war which had broken out during the government of his predecessors. At the commencement of 1830, the last 'Director General' was overthrown ; the municipality of the city of Buenos-Aires seized the government ; the Confederation was declared dis- solved, and each of its Provinces received liberty to organize itself as it pleased. This was anarchy officially proclaimed. After the fall in the same year of some military chiefs who had seized the power, Gen. Martin Rodriguez was named Gov- ernor of Buenos-Aires, and he succeeded in estab- lishing some little order in this chaos. He chose M. J. Garcia and Bernardo Rivadavia — one of the most enlightened Argentines of his times — as his Ministers. This administration did a great deal of good by exchanging conventions of friendship and commerce, and entering into diplomatic relations with foreign nations. At the end of his term Gen- eral Las Heras — gth May, 1824 — took charge of the government, and called a Constituent Assembly of all the Provinces, which met at Buenos-Aires, De- cember i6th, and elected Bernardo Rivadavia President of the newly Confederated Republic on the 7th February, 1825, This excellent Argentine, however, found no assistance in the Congress. No understanding could be come to on the form or the test of the Constitution, nor yet upon the place of residence for the national Government. Whilst Rivadavia desired a centralized Constitution — called here 'unitarian' — and that the city of Buenos- Aires should be declared capital of the Republic, the majority of Congress held a different opinion, and this divergence caused the resignation of the President on the sth July, 1827. After this event, the attempt to establish a Confederation which would include all the Provinces was considered as defeated, and each Province went on its own way, whilst Buenos-Aires elected Manuel Dorrego, the chief of the federal party, for its Governor, He was inaugurated on the 13th August, 1827, and at once undertook to organize a new Confederation of the Provinces, opening relations to this end with the Government of Cordoba, the most important Province of the interior. He succeeded in reestab- lishing repose in the interior, and was instrumental in preserving a general peace, even beyond the limits of his young country. The Emperor of Brazil did not wish to acknowledge the rights of the United Provinces over the Cisplatine province, or Banda Oriental [now Uruguay]. He wished to annex it to his empire, and declared war to the Argentine Republic on the loth of December, 1826. An army was soon organized by the latter, under the command of General Alvear, which on the 20th of February, 1827, gained a complete victory over the Brazilian forces — twice their number — at the plains of Ituzaingo, in the Brazilian province of Rio Grande do Sul. The navy of the Argentines also triumphed on several occasions, so that when England offered her intervention, Brazil renounced all claim to the territory of Uruguay by the con- vention of the 27th August, 1828, and the two parties agreed to recognize and to maintain the neutrality and independence of that country. Dor- rego, however, had but few sympathizers in the army, and a short time after his return from Bra- zil, the soldiers under Lavalle rebelled and forced him to fly to the country on the ist December of the same year. There he found aid from the Com- mander General of the country districts, Juan Manuel Rosas, and formed a small battalion with the intention of marching on the city of Buenos- Aires. But Lavalle triumphed, took him prisoner, and shot him without trial on the 13th December. . . . Not only did the whole interior of the prov- ince of Buenos-Aires rise against Lavalle, under the direction of Rosas, but also a large part of other Provinces considered this event as a declara- tion of war, and the National Congress, then as- sembled at Santa-Fe, declared Lavalle's govern- ment illegal. The two parties fought with real fury, but in 1829, after an interview between Rosas and Lavalle, a temporary reconciliation was ef- fected. . . . The legislature of Buenos-Aires, which had been convoked on account of the reconciliation between Lavalle and Rosas, elected the latter as Governor of the Province, on December 6th, 1829, and accorded to him extraordinary powers. . . . During this the first period of his government he did not appear in his true nature, and at its con- clusion he refused a re-election and retired to the country. General Juan R. Balcarce was then — 17th December, 1832 — named Governor, but could only maintain [the office] some eleven months: Viamont succeeded him, also for a short time only. Now the moment had come for Rosas. He accepted the almost unlimited Dictatorship which was offered to hira on the 7th March, 1835, and reigned in a horrible manner, like a madman, until his fall. Several times the attempt was made to deliver Buenos-Aires from his terrible yoke, and above all the devoted and valiant efforts of General Lavalle deserve to be mentioned; but all was in vain; Rosas remained unshaken. Finally, General Justo Jose De Urquiza, Governor of the province of Entre-Rios, in alliance with the province of Cor- rientes and the Empire of Brazil, rose against the Dictator. He first delivered the Republic of Uru- guay, and the city of Monte-Video — the asylum of the adversaries of Rosas — from the army which be- sieged it, and thereafter passing the great river Parana, with a relatively large army, he completely defeated Rosas at Monte-Caseros, near Buenos- Aires, on the 3rd February, 1852. During the same day, Rosas sought and received the protection Of an English war-vessel which was in the road of Buenos-Aires, in which he went to England, where he [died in 1877]. • • ■ Meantime Urquiza took charge of the Government of the United Provinces, under the title of 'Provisional Director,' and called a general meeting of the Governors at San Nicolas, a frontier village on the north of the province of Buenos-Aires. This assemblage confirmed him in his temporary power, and called a National Con- gress which met at Santa-Fe and made a National Constitution under date of 25th May, 1853. [See also Federal government: Modern federations.] By virtue of this Constitution the Congress met again the following year at Parana, a city of Entre-Rios, which had been made the capital, and on the sth May, elected General Urquiza the first President of the Argentine Confederation. , . . The important province of Buenos-Aires, however, had taken no part in the deliberations of the Congress. Previously, on the nth September, 1852, a revolu- tion against Urquiza, or rather against the Pro- vincial Government in alliance with him, had taken place and caused a temporary separation of the Province from the Republic. Several efforts to 487 ARGENTINA, 1824 CensfUuiion ARGENTINA, 1898 pacify the disputes utterly failed, and a battle took place at Cepeda in Santa-Fe, wherein Urquiza, who commanded the provincial troops, was victorious, although his success led to no definite result. A short time after, the two armies met again at Pavon — near the site of the former battle — and Buenos-Aires won the day. This secured the unity of the Republic of which the victorious Gen- eral Bartolome Mitre was elected President for six years from October, 1862. At the same time the National Government was transferred from Parana to Buenos-Aires, and the latter was declared the temporary capital of the Nation. The Republic owes much to the Government of Mitre, and it is probable that he would have done more good, if war had not broken out with Paraguay, in 1865 [see Par.^guav; 1608-1873]. The Argentines took part in it as one of the three allied States against ' the Dictator of Paraguay. Francisco Solano Lopez. On the T2th October, 1868, Domingo Faustino Sar- miento succeeded Gen. Mitre in the Presidency. . . . The 12th October, 1874. Dr. Nicolas Avel- laneda succeeded him in the Government." — R. Napp, Argentine republic, ch. 2. — See also Brazil: 1825-1865; Uruguay: 1821-1005. Also in: D. F. Sarmiento, Life in the Argentine republic in the days of the tyrants. — J. \. King, Twenty-four years in the Argentine republic. 1824. — At first congress of South American republics. See Latin .'\merica: 1822-1830. 1880-1891. — Constitution and its working.^ Governmental corruption. — Revolution of 1890, and the financial collapse. — "The Argentine con- stitutional system in its outward form corresponds closely to that of the United States. . . . But the inward grace of enlightened public opinion is lack- ing, and political practice falls below the level of a self-governing democracy. Congress enacts laws, but the President as commander-in-chief of the army, and as the head of a civil service dependent upon his will and caprice, possesses absolute au- thority in administration. The country is gov- erned by executive decrees rather than by consti- tutional laws. Elections are carried by military pressure and manipulation of the civil service. . . . President Roca [who succeeded Avellaneda in 1880] virtually nominated, and elected his brother- in-law, Juarez Celman, as his successor. President Juarez set his heart upon controlling the succes- sion in the interest of one of his relatives, a promi- nent official ; but was forced to retire before he could carry out his purpose. . . . Nothing in the Argentine surprised me more than the boldness and freedom with which the press attacked the gov- ernment of the day and exposed its corruption. . . . The government paid no heed to these at- tacks. Ministers did not trouble themselves to repel charr^es affecting their integrity. . . . This wholesome criticism from an independent press had one important effect. It gave direction to public opinion in the capital, and involved the organiza- tion of the Union Civica. If the country had not been on the verge of a financial revulsion, there might not have been the revolt against the Juarez administration in July, 1890; but with ruin and disaster confronting them, men turned against the President whose incompetence and venality would have been condoned if the times had been good. The Union Civica was founded when the govern- ment was charged with maladministration in sanc- tioning an illegal issue of $40,000,000 of paper money. . . . The government was suddenly con- fronted with an armed coalition of the best battal- ions of the army, the entire navy, and the Union Civica. The manifesto issued by the Revolutionary Junta was a terrible arraignment of the political crimes of the Juarez Government. . . . The revolu- tion opened with every prospect of success. It failed from the incapacity of the leaders to co- operate harmoniously. On July iq, i8go, the defection of the army was discovered. On July 26 the revolt broke out. For four days there was bloodshed without definite plan or purpose. No determined attack was made upon the government palace. The fleet opened a fantastic bombardment upon the suburbs. There was inexplicable mis- management of the insurgent forces, and on July 2q an ignominious surrender to the government with a proclamation of general amnesty. General Roca remained behind the scenes, apparently master of the situation, while President Juarez had fled to a place of refuge on the Rosario railway, and two factions of the army were playing at cross purposes, and the police and the volunteers of the Union Civica were shooting women and children in the streets. .Another week of hopeless confusion passed, and General Roca announced the resigna- tion of President Juarez and the succession of vice- President Pellegrini. Then the city was illumi- nated, and for three days there was a pandemo- nium of popular rejoicing over a victory which nobody except General Roca understood. ... In June, 1801, the deplorable state of Argentine finance was revealed in a luminous statement made by President Pellegrini. . . . .\\\ business interests were stagnant. Immigration had been diverted to Brazil. . . . .Ml industries were prostrated except politics, and the pernicious activity displayed by factions was an evil augury for the return of prosperity. . . . During thirty years (1862-1892) the countp.- has trebled its population, its increase being relatively much more rapid than that of the United States during the same period." — I. N. Ford. Tropical .America, ch. 6. 1887. — Trans-Andean railway building with Chile. See Railroads: 1872-1012. 1890. — First International American Congress at Washington. See American republics, Inter- NATIOXAL VNIOX OF: 180O. 1892. — Presidential election. — Dr. Luis Saenz- Peiia, former chief justice of the Supreme Court, reputed a man of great integrity and ability, WaS chosen president, and inaugurated October 12, 1892. 1895. — Resignation of President Peiia.— Presi- dent Saenz Pena having refused to issue, at the re- quest of Congress, a decree of amnesty, extended to all persons implicated in the last revolution, his cabinet resigned (January 16), and he found it im- possible to form another. Thereupon the president himself resigned his office, on January 22, and his resignation was accepted by the Congress. Senor Uriburu was elected president on the following day, and promptly issued the desired decree, 1898. — Settlement of boundary dispute with Chile. — Election of president. — ".\ long unset- tled dispute as to the extended boundary between the Argentine Republic and Chile, stretching along the Andean crests from the southern border of the Atacama Desert to Magellan Straits, nearly a third of the length of the South .American continent, assumed an acute stage in the early part of the year, and afforded to this Government occasion to express the hope that the resort to arbitration, al- ready contemplated by existing conventions be- tween the parties, might prevail despite the grave difficulties arising in its application. I am happy to say that arrangements to this end have been perfected, the questions of fact upon which the re- spective commissioners were unable to agree being in course of reference to Her Britannic Majesty for determination. A residual difference touching 488 ARGENTINA, 1901 Arbitration Treaties ARGENTINA, 1902 the northern boundary line across the Atacama Desert, for which existing treaties provided no ade- quate adjustment, bids fair to be settled in like manner by a joint commission, upon which the United States Minister at Buenos Aires has been invited to serve as umpire in the last resort." — • Message o) the presidinl of the United States of America, Dec, 1898. — The arbitration of the United States minister, Hon. William I. Buchanan, proved successful in the matter last referred to, and the Atacama boundary was quickly deter- mined. June, i8g8. General Julio Roca was elected president and assumed the office in October. In July a treaty of arbitration was concluded with the government of Italy, which provides that there shall be no appeal from the decision of the arbitrators. 1901. — Second International American Con- gress at Mexico City. See .-Xmerican republics. International union* of: iqoi-1902. 1902. — Drago's note to United States asking aid against foreign intervention. See Drago DOCTRINE. 1902. — Treaties between Argentina and Chile for obligatory arbitration of all disputes, and for restriction of naval armaments. — Notwith- standing the fortunate arrangement, in i8g8, for arbitration of a serious boundary dispute between Argentina and Chile (see ante, i8q8), there con- tinued to be troublesome frictions between the two Spanish-American neighbors, while awaiting the decision of the arbitrator. King Edward VII, which was not rendered until Nov. 27, 1902. These had led to a ruinous rivalry in naval armament. Re- porting on this state of affairs in May of that year, Mr. William P. Lord, the American minister to Argentina, wrote: "Both countries have incurred heavy expense for the equipment and maintenance of largely increased arm.y and naval forces. Chile has recently contracted for two formidable war- ships involving a heavy cost with the ot)ject of putting her navy upon an equality with the Argen- tine na>vy, whereupon Argentina, not to be out- done, contracted for two warships larger in size and perhaps more formidable at a like heavy cost in order to continue and maintain her naval su- periority. The costly expenditure incurred on ac- count of war and naval preparations is paralyzing industrial activity and commercial enterprise. Both countries are largely in debt and confronted with a deficit. Both have appropriated their conver- sion funds which had been set apart for a specific purpose, and which, it would seem, should have been preserved inviolable. Neither is able to make a foreign loan without payir.g a high rate of in- terest and giving guarantees to meet the additional expenses which their war policy is incurring, and both Governments know and their people know that the only remedy to which either can resort to meet existing financial conditions is to levy fresh taxes of some description, notwithstanding nearly everything that can be taxed is now taxed to the utmost limit. The weight of taxation already im- posed bears heavily upon the energies and activities of the people. The outlook is not promising, busi- ness being dull, wage employment scarce, and fail- ures frequent." On June 3, 1902, the same writer forwarded to Washington the text of four re- markable "peace agreements" which had been sigred on May 28, at the Chilean capital, by the Chilean minister of foreign relations and the Ar- gentine minister plenipotentiary to Chile, who had been brought to negotiations by the 'friendly medi- ation of Great Britain. The four documents were: a political convention declaring a common inter- national policy on the part of the two republics; a broad treaty of general arbitration ; an agree- ment for reducing naval forces ; an agreement for the conclusive marking of boundary lines by the engineers of the arbitrator. King Edward. The general arbitration treaty is no less unreserved and comprehensive than that between Peru and Bolivia and offers another Spanish-American model for imitation in the interest of peace. Its articles are as follows: "Art. I. The high contracting parties bind themselves to submit to arbitration every diffi- culty or question of whatever nature that may arise between them, provided such questions do not affect the precepts of the respective constitu- tions of the two countries, and that they can not be solved through direct negotiation. "Art. 2. This treaty does not/ embrace those questions that have given rise to definite agree- ments between the two parties. In such cases the arbitration shall be limited exclusively to questions of validity, interpretation, or fulfillment of these agreements. "Art. 3. The high contracting parties designate as arbitrator the Government of His Britannic Ma- jesty or, in the event of either of the powers hav- ing broken off relations with the British Govern- ment, the Swiss Government. Within sixty days from the exchange of ratifications the British Gov- ernment and the Swiss Government shall be asked to accept the charge of arbitrators. "Art. 4. The points of controversy, questions ' or divergencies shall be specified by the high con- tracting parties, who may determine the powers of the arbitrator or any other circumstance con- nected with the procedure. "Art. $. In the case of divergence of opinion, either party may solicit the intervention of the arbitrator, who will determine the circum- stances of procedure, the contracting parties plac- ing every means of information at the service of the arbitrator. "Art. 6. Either party is at liberty to name one or more commissioners near the arbitrator. "Art. 7. The arbitrator is qualified to decide upon the validity of the obligation and its inter- pretation, as well as upon questions as to what difficulties come within the sphere of the arbitra- tion. "Art. 8. The arbitrator shall decide in accord- ance with international law, unless the obligation involves the application of special rules or he have been authorized to act as friendly mediator. "Art. 9. The award shall definitely decide each point of controversy. "Art. 10. The award shall be drawn up in two copies. "Art. II. The award legally dehvered shall decide within the limits of its scope the question between the two parties. "Art. 12. The arbitrator shall specify in his award the term within which the award shall be carried out, and he is competent to deal with any question arising as to the fulfillment. "Art. 13. There can be no appeal from the award, and its fulfillment is intrusted to the honor of the signatory powers. Nevertheless, the recourse of revision is admitted under the following circum- stances: I. If the award be given on the strength of a false document; 2. If the award be the result, either partially or totally, of an error of fact. "Art. 14. The contracting parties shall pay their own expenses and each a half of the expenses of the arbitration. "Art. 15. The present agreement shall last for ten years from the date of the exchange of the ratifications, and shall be renewed for another term 489 ARGENTINA, 1902-1909 ^evo/u/iWy Movement ARGENTINA, 1909 ' Mitre Law ' of ten years, unless either party shall give notice to the contrarj' six months before expiry." — Papers relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, 1902, pp. 13-20. In their convention on naval armaments the two governments "renounced the acquisition of the war vessels they have in construction and the mak- ing for the present of any new acquisitions, agreeing to reduce their fleets to "a prudent equilibrium." 1902-1909. — Controversy with Brazil over equilibrium of armament. See War, PREPARAnoN for: 1902-1909. 1903. — Population. — "Statistics of 1903 showed 1,000,000 foreigners in Argentina in a total of 5,000,000. Of these 500,000 were Italians, 200,000 Spaniards, 100,000 French, 25,000 English, 18,000 Germans, 15,000 Swiss, 13,000 Austrians, and the remainder of many nationalities. The number of Americans did not exceed 1,500, although many are coming now, to go into cattle-raising and farming in the country or into all kinds of business in Buenos Ayres. English influence is very strong, especially in financial circles, with the Germans al- most equally active." — J. Barrett, Argentina (American Review of Reviews, July, 1905). 1904. — Inauguration of President Quintana. — Dr. Manuel Quintana, elected president of the republic, was inaugurated on October 12. 1905. — Revolutionary movement promptly sup- pressed. — A revolutionary undertaking, in Buenos Aires and several provinces, had its outbreak on February 4, but was suppressed so promptly that the public disturbance by it was very brief. Par- ticulars of the affair were reported by the Ameri- can minister at Buenos Aires, Mr. Beaupre, as fol- lows: "On the afternoon of the 3d instant rumors of an intended movement subversive of the estab- lished government of this country came to the Federal authorities from various parts of the Re- public. These rumors were at first discredited, but finally proved so persistent that the President and heads of the various departments of the govern- ment proceeded to take measures of precaution. In the early hours of the morning of the ne.xt day, the 4th instant, the anticipated outbreak came simultaneously in the capital, Rosario, Mendoza, Cordoba, and Bahia Blanca, these being the larg- est cities of the Republic and the principal political and military centers. In the capital the plan of the revolutionists seems to have been to attack the police stations and military arsenal, with a view perhaps of forcing the police of the capital into their ranks and of supplying themselves with arms and munitions. At the arsenal, by a simple strata- gem of the minister of war, the malcontents were lured into the building and arrested. About the police stations there was some fighting, particularly at Station No. 14; but the insurgents proved un- prepared and insufficiently organized, so that by dawn the movement had completely failed in this city. Except that many of the shops remained closed throughout the day of the 4th, and except for the presence of armed police in the streets, there were no evidences of any revolutionary ef- fort. Some half dozen fatalities are reported. The prompt and effective suppression of the revo- lution in this city is due in large measure to the energy and judgment displayed by the President and his ministers, who spent the entire night in the Government House in council. . . . The Presi- dent proceeded at 8 A. M. of the 4th to declare the Republic in a state of siege for a period of thirty days, to call out the reserves and to estab- lish a censorship of the press and of the telegraph service. . . . The real center of the movement was the city of Cordoba, while serious trouble seemed in view in the city of Mendoza, where the revolu- tionists were said to be in a strong position, and in the province of Buenos Aires, where troops and marines were already in movement from Bahia Blanca upon the capital. Forces despatched to those points made as quick an ending of the revolt there as at the capital. . . . The revolu- tionists, finding threats and resistance vain, fled yesterday before the government troops arrived. With the failure of the movement in Cordoba the revolution is considered at an end and the country has returned to its former condition of peace and tranquillity." 1906. — Death of President Quintana. — Dr. Manuel Quintana, president of Argentina, died in March, 1906, and was succeeded by the vice-presi- dent. Dr. Figuero Alcorta, whose term of office ended in 1910. 1906. — Third International American Congress at Rio de Janeiro. See American republics. In- ternational UNION of: 1906. 1909. — Assassination of Colonel Falcon. — As Colonel Falcon, prefect of police at Buenos Aires, was returning from a funeral, with his secretary, on November 14, a bomb was thrown into the carriage and exploded, with fatal effects to both. The assassin, a youth of nineteen years was cap- tured. The murder had been preceded by a num- ber of bomb explosions during a period of six months, all attributed to anarchists from Europe, of whom large numbers were said to have gathered in Buenos Aires. 1909. — Chief food supply to Great Britain. — "How many readers of The Times (said a special correspondent of the London Times writing from Buenos Aires, October 15, 1909), if asked to name the country which supplied the United Kingdom last year with the largest quantity of wheat, of maize, and of refrigerated and frozen cattle, would unhesitatingly award the first place to the Argen- tine Republic ? How many English people realize that this South American Republic is changing places with the North American Republic in the exporting of these and other food products to the United Kingdom ? The change is partly due to the shortage of meat in America, and partly to the fact that with their increasing population the United States will have less and less surplus pro- visions with which to supply the world." 1909. — Arbitration of the Act& boundary dis- pute between Bolivia and Peru. See Acre dis- putes. 1909. — Mitre Law and the railroads. — "Until 1909 each of the Argentine railway companies was (as the Uruguayan still are) controlled by the terms of its particular concession or concessions. In that year, however, a law was passed, usually called the 'Mitre Law,' after its initiator, the late Senor Epiilio Mitre (an eminent Argentine states- man and son of the famous General Mitre, per- haps Argentina's greatest president and historian, by which all then existing companies agreeing to be bound by its provisions should be exempt from all National, Provincial and Municipal taxation and Import Duties on material until the year 1947; they, on their part, to pay to the National Gov- ernment a single tax of 3% on their net earnings, the amount of such earnings to be ascertained by deducting lo'/'e (for working expenses) from their gross receipts. Only one Company was then en- joying even more favourable terms under its origi- nal concession than those given by the Mitre Law; but as that concession was approaching the time of its expiration it would have been ill-judged on the part of the Company to have shown itself 490 ARGENTINA, 1909 Political Reform ARGENTINA, 1910-1914 recalcitrant to the evident wishes of the Argen- tine Government. Therefore it exercised its op- tion in favour of the Mitre Law, as did all tlie other Companies. . . . Besides British, considerable French and Belgian capital is invested in Argen- tine railways. The 'Province of Santa Fe' and the 'Province of Buenos Aires' railways are controlled by French Companies. Incidentally it may be mentioned that in recent years most of the shares of the '.Anglo-Argentine' Tramways Company (which owns the principal tramway system of the Capital) had found their way to Belgium. A short while ago a United States Syndicate, deemed powerful and feared as menacing a monopoly, obtained control of some of the River Plate lines, notably those of the Central Cordoba, Santa Fe and Entre Rios Companies, under certain arrange- ments. This Syndicate has since, however, been unable to command the capital necessary to fulfil its part of those arrangements, and, practically, the control of the hnes has now reverted to the original companies, the first and last named of which are British." — G. Ross, Argentina and Uru- guay, pp. 122-124. 1909. — Building of the Transandine railway tunnel. See Railroads: 1872-1912. 1910. — Agreement with Uruguay concerning the river Plate. — The following message came from Buenos Aires on January 6, 1910; "A burn- ing question between Argentina and Uruguay, which for two years was seemingly insoluble and possibly involved Brazil, has been settled by Seiior Roque Saenz-Pefia. As Argentine Plenipotentiary he signed a Protocol at Montevideo yesterday, of which the following is a summary: Recognizing the reciprocal desire for friendly relations, fortified by the common origin of the two nations, the parties agree to declare that past differences are not capa- ble of being regarded as a cause of offence and shall not be allowed to continue. The navigation and use of the waters of the River Plate will con- tinue as heretofore without alteration, and dif- ferences which may arise in the future will be removed and settled in the same spirit of cordial- ity." 1910. — Fourth International American Confer- ence at Buenos Aires. See American republics. International union of: iqio. 1910-1914. — Political reform. — "Dr. Roque Saenz Peiia, when he came into power in iqio, was convinced that the country was ready for re- form. He thoroughly realised that it would be necessary, not merely to amend the existing laws or to make new ones, but to encourage and foster in every citizen an intelligent interest in all mat- ters of national concern. In his presidential cam- paign, he promised to observe absolute impar- tiality in all political matters; and in order to carry out this promise, from his first day of office, he severed all ties with the party that had sup- ported him in his candidature. But 'party' in the Argentine signifies men and not opinions, so that Saenz Peria did not in any way renounce his former views, though taking the greatest pains to show no special favour to those who had helped him to his position. For the sake of a forcible example, he permitted himself no outward display of gratitude or friendship. This step was specially significant in a country where, by tradition and a false conception of loyalty, the Presirjent had al- ways felt it his duty to raise members of his party to the highest posts in the State. By a kind of tacit agreement his will was thus completely bound up with each individual will of his friends and colleagues. By accepting outside assistance he thereby pledged himself to repay it, and thus en- tangled himself in a multiplicity of obligations, which hampered his every action. . . . Saenz Pena was desirous of putting a speedy end to this condition of things, a condition that crippled the power of the E.xecutive and upset the whole ma- chinery of constitutional government. He fully realised that, in separating himself from his friends and thus depriving himself of their support — • which was relied on as a matter of course by all former Presidents — he was cutting himself com- pletely adrift and was thus risking the failure of his policy. But his care was for the State and not for the security of his own office, and in acting thus he hoped to increase the prestige of the Executive and strengthen its hands for the future. In order to keep the Executive free from all cor- rupt influences, he chose his ministers for their integrity rather than for their political leanings. But he did not confine himself merely to showing his intention of governing without the help of any political group; he seized every opportunity of letting the Provincial Governors know that he could do without their costly friendship. But, though he could dispense with their protection, he still required their loyalty; and he therefore left to each of the federal states full responsibility for its actions and absolute autonomy. Thus Congress gradually became composed of conscientious mem- bers who eventually transformed the once submis- sive ally of the Executive into a powerful inde- pendent body. This step of Saenz Pena, which is clearly the indication of a master mind, may be regarded as the fundamental characteristic of his government. The change brought a sense of re- lief to the people, which had long awaited in vain its introduction. It meant no mere correction of past faults; it was the foundation stone of political and administrative honesty. Its effect was to keep each branch of the government within the bounds assigned to it by the constitution, and to make the people their own rulers. . . . The hearty recep- tion accorded to this great change, both by the people and by the Press, showed clearly the feeling of grateful appreciation it had aroused among the whole nation. It was evident that the success of the legislation which was bound to follow was already assured. It was in fact but the first step towards the introduction of a bill for the reform of the whole electoral system, which was destined to effect a sweeping political change. . . . The ob- vious inference to be drawn from his conduct was that he felt, above all, anxious to prevent cor- ruption in the elections, to guarantee the purity of the ballot and the free exercise of the vote, in order that the candidates elected should be the true representatives of the people. In Januriry iqt2, he laid before Parliament his Electoral Reform Bill, which at once met with keen, though not unex- pected opposition; many members, elected under the old regime, perceived the risk of losing their seats under the proposed new system. The moral value of the Bill, however, was recognised, and the majority of members, though not pinning much faith to its working in actual practice, gave it their support ; it seemed, on the face of it at any rate, a step in the right direction. Saenz Pena, strange as it may seem, found public opinion inclined the same way, both before and after the passing of the Bill. Though favourably disposed towards it, people were somewhat sceptical. ' They believed that it would be inoperative owing to the attitude of the politicians of the old school, who would probably find some means of evading the new law ; they were afraid that corruption would still triumph, that the masses would vote no more freely than before; and they looked upon the 491 ARGENTINA, 1910-1914 Political Reform World War ARGENTINA, 1916-1917 whole thing as an impracticable Utopia. After a brilliant defence by the Minister of the Interior, M. Indalecio Gomez, the measure, despite all op- position, passed through the Lower House to the Senate and shortly afterwards became law. The new statute established compulsory voting and the secret ballot, and provided for representation of the minority. The elector now no longer holds a civil certificate, as formerly, but a military one, which contains his signature, his photograph and his finger-prints; and the register used in the elec- tions is compiled by the officials of the War Office. This arrangement not only acts as a great check upon impersonation, but has the advantage also of doing away with the old method of the census; the register, after being drawn up by the War Office, is revised by the federal judges, to ensure its accuracy. Any person on the list, who re- fuses to vote, is liable to a penalty of ten piastres or two days' imprisonment, while public servants are prohibited from taking any active part in the elections and from becoming candidates, without having previously handed in their resignations. In order to record his vote, the elector has to present himself at one of the polling booths of his parish and take his military certificate with him. The officer in charge, after identifying him, nands him a special envelope and allows him to pass into the voting-room, where he finds the voting papers of each candidate. There the voter exercises his choice and places the paper in the envelope, which he then seals and slips into the box as he goes out, in the presence of the presiding official. The counting takes place in public, and the validity of the voting papers is secured by a committee com- posed of the President of the Court of Appeal, the President of the Municipal Council, and one of the federal judges. As formerly. Congress is the supreme tribunal for all questions concerning the validity of elections. On April 7. 1Q12, the election of sixty deputies — to take the place of the half about to resign— gave the people their first opportunity of testing the new law and veri- fving the promises of strict impartiality that had been so freely given. , . . Out of an electorate of Q34,40i persons, 840.852 voted at the 4,650 polling booths, whereas formerly scarcely 25 per cent, re- corded their votes. The Radical Party, which for the past twenty years had taken no active part in any of the elections, the Civic Union, which in the end came near following ^the example of the Radicals; the Socialist Party, which had struggled in vain for eight years; the National Union, which under various different names had triumphed at many successive elections, and several other parties of minor importance, — all took part in the con- test. Corruption was not entirely absent, but it frequently rebounded against those who resorted to it. The voter open to bribery accepted bribes, but, owing to the secrecy of the ballot, was able to cheat the giver and drop his voting p..per into the box of the party of his choice. . . . The elec- tions, which all took place on the same day, passed off peaceably and without any exerci.se of official pressure. The suffrage had been made free; the President had kept his word. The results were all declared together, some few weeks later. They formed a complete vindication of the new system and indicated the real views of the people, while showing up in their true colours the fictitious tri- umphs of past elections Thus in Buenos Ayrcs Ihe Radicals, who had not been able to enter the Chamber for twenty years, gained eight seats in the Lower House and one in the Upper; the So- cialists won two seats, and the Civic Union one ; while the National Union, which had formerly swamped every other party, kept only one, and that solely on account of the personal qualifications of the candidate. . . . The compulsory vote has finally roused the people from the state of indif- ference into which they had drifted. It is no longer useless for them to record their votes, no longer excusable to hold themselves aloof from the affairs of the nation. . . . The new system, if it has not completely done away with corruption, has at any rate set a great check upon it. The compulsory vote has made the electors so numer- ous that it is impossible now for any candidate to purchase a majority ; while no bribe, as the election of April 7 clearly proved, affords sufficient guarantee for any party to try again an experi- ment at once so costly and so meagre in its re- sults. But it must not be forgotten that the Ar- gentine is a Federal Republic, which means that, in order that this great reform shall become an effective reality throughout the country, it is necessary for each province to enforce it within its own boundaries. Now the provinces are by no means so advanced or civilised as the capital They present, moreover, an obstacle that time alone can surmount ; they are very sparsely popu- lated, and the people are so scattered that com- pulsory voting is very difficult to enforce." — Po- litical evolution in Argentina {Quarterly Review, Jan.. 1016, pp, 4,?-5i). 1910-1914. — Immigration of Italians. See Latin' .America: 1010-1014. 1913-1914. — Relations with Mexico. See Mexico: 1013-1014. 1914. — A B C Conference. — The ambassadors at Washington, of the three leading South .Ameri- can nations, .Argentina, Brazil and Chile, united in tendering their "good offices" in an attempt to settle the differences between the United States and Mexico. Dr. Naon was the representative of .Argentina. — See also ABC Conference; U. S. A.: IQ14 (.April). 1914-1918.— Argentina and the World War.— Count Luxburg incident. — In spite of the indig- nation aroused in the country over the depreda- tions of the German submarines, .Argentina never came to an open declaration of war. Diplomatic relations were strained to the utmost, however, when the messages of Count Luxburg, the German charge d'affaires at Buenos Aires were discovered, advising his government that if Argentine vessels were sunk they should be destroyed without a trace being left ("spurlos versenkt"). See Latin Amer- ica: 1014. 1915. — Formation of the A B C Alliance. — Reasons. See L.\tin .America: 1012-1015. 1915. — Pan-American Conference. See U. S. A.: 1015 (.August-October). 1915. — Municipal government and population of Buenos Aires. See Buenos .Aires: IQ15. 1916-1917.— Effects of the World War.— Elec- tion of Hipolito Irigoyen as president. — Dispute with Chile over the Straits of Magellan. — "The year witnessed a further development of the politi- cal and commercial life of this prosperous republic. With Ihe exception of the United States, no coun- try in the Western Hemisphere enjoyed such happy conditions as did Argentina. During the year the statistics of the census taken in 1014 were pub- lished, and these showed that the republic con- tained a population of 7,885,237 persons, as com- pared with a population of under four millions in 1805, the year of the previous census. The proportion of foreigners dwelling in the country was, however, extraordinarily high. No fewer than 2,358,000 foreign subjects were living in .Argentina in 1014, but this total had since been reduced 492 ARGENTINA, 1918-1920 Effects of World War ARGENTINA, 1920-1921 by the European War, because many of the foreign men (amongst whom Italians were especially nu- merous) had returned to Europe to fight for their respective countries. The large majority of the foreign residents were males, but the Argentine population proper showed that slight excess of females which is usual in nearly all countries. During the earlier part of the year the attention of the ceuntry was fixed upon the presidential election and election of one moiety of the mem- bers of the Chamber, that is, sixty members. These elections were due in April. The Radical party was first in the field with its candidate for the Presidency, Dr. Hipolito Irigoyen being chosen. The Radicals selected Dr. Pelagio Luna as their candidate for the Vice-Presidency. The elections tCHjk place on April 2, and the polUng was car- ried out without disturbances or rioting. The con- test for the Presidency really lay between Dr. Irigoyen and Dr. de la Torre, the latter being the representative of the Democratic Progressives; but two other candidates were in the field, one of them being a Socialist. The system of election for the Argentine Presidency resembles that existing in the United States, that is, it is indirect, a college of 300 electors being chosen. The result is usually known, however, immediately after the popular election of the college, since the manner in which each member of the college will exercise his func- tion is in practice usually known beforehand. On this occasion, however, the result remained uncer- tain for weeks, because nineteen electors belonged to the party of so-called Dissident Radicals, and those nineteen electors held the balance between the larger parties. It was not certain that they would vote for the candidate of the Radicals proper. Dr. Irigoyen. In the meantime, in the elections for the Chamber of Deputies, or rather, for one half of that Chamber, the Radicals had great successes, and secured thirty-five of the sixty vacant seats. The Socialists won only three seats, but it is notable that all three of these were for the city of Buenos Ayres. The voting in the Col- lege of Electors took place on June 12, and in the result a sufficient number of the Dissident Radicals voted for Dr. Irigoyen and Dr. Luna to ensure the election of those statesmen. These two candi- dates secured 152 votes, an absolute majority of the entire college, and were thus duly elected. The majority was made up of 14s Radicals and seven Dissident Radicals. The group of Dissident Radi- cals belonged to the province of Santa Fe. Ac- cording to the laws of the republic the new Presi- dent and the new Vice-President would not be in- stalled in their respective .offices until October 12. The outgoing President, Dr. de la Plaza, opened Congress on May 30, and delivered his last mes- sage to" the legislature. He stated that although the republic had been suffering many injuries from the European War, it could face the unparalleled state of affairs with equanimity. The internal situ- ation in Argentina was highly satisfactory, and resting on the foundation of a respect for law and for individual liberty, the commonwealth continued to develop. In foreign relations, both the Gov- ernment and the nation had preserved strict neu- trality in the war. The President then referred to the recent elections, and said that he had pre- served strict impartiality in these contests, and had exercised no influence in the political battle. He informed Congress that of the 1,180,282 vot- ers whose names were on the register, only 745,825 had gone to the polls. Speaking of the recent action of the Chilian Ministry in proclaiming ju- risdiction over the Straits of Magellan and the Islets Canal, he said that his Government had made representations to Chile on this question, and that it was gratifying to be able to record that the Chilian Government had agreed to refer the matter to the arbitration of the King of Great Britain. The remainder of the message dealt at great length with financial and commercial matters. The republic, said the President, had been less seriously affected by the war than had been .an- ticipated, and the excellent harvest and the high prices to be obtained for all agricultural produce had done much to counteract the adverse influence of the European conflict. On July q an anarchist named Juan Mandrini made an attempt to assassi- nate the President which was happily unsuccessful. In October the new President and Vice-President were duly installed in office. The Budget for 1017 showed an expenditure of £31,200,000 and a reve- nue of £31,508,000." — Annual Register, 1916, pp. 351-353- 1918-1920.— Effect of World War.— Argentina like every other civilized nation was deeply af- fected by the widespread economic dislocation. As a great producer of raw material, particularly food- stuffs, the country found compensation for the in- terruptions of the normal course of finance and trade in the greatly increased prices for its prod- ucts. Moreover, the closer knitting together of the commercial relation of Argentina and the United States made up in part for the disturbances of her European trade This was reflected in the rates of foreign exchange and the .\rgentina "peso" has remained at a premium not only over the pound'sterling but over the American dollar. The prosperity of Argentina, however, did not prevent industrial discontent and social unrest and the year loio was marked by a number of serious strikes and labor conflicts. During the early part of the year the transportation facilities of the city of Buenos Aires both for foreign and domestic trade were tied up for two months. Matters became so bad that a general strike was called May ist, and although the government intervened the strikes were not completely ended. The economic read- justment after the World War was slow and painful and the great industrial revival which the war had brought about was seriously checked. In a general way the foreign policy of the republic continued to be favorable to Germany as it had been during the war, but in her relations with the United States Argentina preserved a correct if not altogether sympathetic attitude. — See also Latin .^MERic.^: ioi8-iq2i: Effect of natural resources. 1920. — Housing problem. See Housing: South .America. 1920-1921. — Invited to join League of Na- tions. — Withdrawal from the assembly at Ge- neva. — "In the anne.xe to the Covenant of the League of Nations thirteen countries, which had remained neutral during the war, were formally invited to accede to the Covenant. ... In ad- dition to . . . European countries, six American Republics were invited to join, these being, .Ar- gentina, Chile, Colombia, Paraguay, Venezuela, and Salvador. All these countries likewise joined; and the adhesion of Argentina and Chile (which to- gether with Brazil constituted the three leading Republics of Latin America) may be regarded as only second in importance to the accession of the European neutrals." — Annual Register, 1920, pp. 151-152. — Consequently, on October 8, 1920, Seiior Puyerredon, Argentine foreign minister, left Buenos .Aires to attend the Geneva meeting of the League of Nations. Among the first of important matters before the delegates was the question of amendments to the coven.int of the League. In order to avoid serious clashes until more pressing 493 ARGENTINA, 1920-1921 ARGENTINA, CONSTITUTION needs had been dealt with, amendments were waived after some discussion. This decision im- mediately precipitated a violent dispute. "Most prominent of all those to move for amendments had been the Argentinians, headed by Seiior Puyer- redon. Argentina stood especially for compulsory arbitration by the International Court of Justice, the election of members of the Council by the Assembly, the admission of all States to the League, including Germany, «nd the admission of small States of undefined boundaries without a vote. It was clear from the start that Puyerredon was leading the campaign of the small nations to un- dermine the power of the larger ones. The fight culminated on Dec. 4 [1920], when the Argen- tinian delegation had read a resolution advocating the admission of all sovereign States unless they voluntarily decided to stay outside. Serior Puyer- redon frankly admitted that the object was to open the way to the admission of Germany. This, with all the other changes proposed, was rejected, where- upon Seiior Puyerredon, with all the members of his delegation, withdrew from the Assembly, de- claring that he would not return until all four proposals were accepted. The Assembly refused to rescind its action and accepted the departure of the Argentinians." — New York Times Current History, Jan., 1921, pp. 7-8. — "Argentina on May 12 [1Q21] sent an official communication to the Secretariat of the League of Nations on amend- ments offered last November by Honorio Puyerre- don, the Argentine Foreign Minister, showing that Argentina continues to consider herself a member of the League." — Ibid., June, 1921, p. 536. — For discussion of the League, see also League of Na- tions. 1921. — Colby's diplomatic mission. — Absence of enthusiasm. — Cordial treatment by president. See L'. S. A.: 1021. ARGENTINA: Masonic societies. See M.*- soNic societies: Central and South America. ARGENTINA: Universities. See Universi- ties AND colleges: 1551-1912. ARGENTINA, Constitution of.— The constitu- tion is dated May 15, 1S53, and amended in i860, 1866 and 1898. At the head of the execu- tive power is a president who is elected for six years by an electoral college chosen by the several provinces, aiid as in the case of the United States the number of electors is double the total number of senators and deputies. The legislative authority is vested in a national congress consisting of a senate and a chamber of deputies. The senate consists of thirty members, two from the capital and from each province, who are elected by a spe- cial body of electors and by the legislatures in the provinces. The chamber of deputies has one hun- dred and twenty members elected, by the people in congressional districts. A deputy must have been a citizen for four years and must be twenty-five years of age. The term of office for the deputies is four years, but one-half of the chamber retires for two years. The senators must be thirty years of age and must have been a citizen for six years. One-third of the senate retires every three years. A vice-president, elected in the same manner and at the same time as the president, acts as chairman of the senate, and succeeds to the presidential of- fice in case of the death, resignation or disability of the president. The president is commander-in- chief of the military and naval forces of the re- public and has the appointing power to all federal offices as well as the right of presentation to bish- oprics. The president and vice-president must be Roman Catholics, born in the country and cannot be candidates for re-election. The cabinet is ap- pointed by and acts under the order of the presi- dent. It is made up of the heads of the depart- ments of interior, foreign affairs, finance, war, justice and public instruction, agriculture, marine, and public w'orks. The constitution of Argentina was modeled on that of the LInited States. The Federal Govern- ment is in charge of matters affecting the republic as a whole. Like the United States the country is divided into states, territories and a federal dis- trict. The states, fourteen in number, are called provinces, at the head of which are elected gov- ernors, who have very^ extensive powers. The provinces have their own legislatures with com- plete control over local affairs. The governors of the territories are appointed by the president. The City of Buenos Aires is governed by a mayor, ap- pointed by the president, subject to ratification by the senate. The constitution of Argentina is a document of one hundred and ten articles arranged in the gen- eral way like the constitution of the United States. The first article is a simple enacting clause and the following thirty-four articles cover the ground of our Bill of Rights (q. v.) and the relative pow- ers of the federal and state governments. The greater part of the document, articles thirty-six to one hundred and three inclusive, deals with the federal government, w'hile the remainder of the document, articles one hundred and four to one hundred and ten, deals with the states or provin- cial governments. The outline immediately fol- lowing may be used as an index to thi principal matters dealt with in the document: Declarations, Rights, and Guaranties (.\rts. 1-3S) The Federal Government The Legislative Power (.^rt. 36) The House of Deputies (Arts. 37-4S) The Senate (Arts. 46-54) Provisions Common to Both Houses (Arts. 55-66) Powers of Congress (Art. 67) Enactment and Approval of Laws (Arts. 68- 73) The Executive Power Its Nature and Duration (.\rts. 74-80) Manner and Time of Electing the President and Vice-President of the Nation (Arts. 81- 85) Powers of the Executive (Art. 86) The Ministers of the Executive Power (Arts. 87-03) The Judicial Power Its Nature and Duration (Arts. 94-99) Functions of the Judicial Power (Arts. 100- 103) Provincial Governments (.'Krts. 104-10) Part I .^rt. I. The -Argentine Nation adopts the fed- eral-republican, and representative form of Gov- ernment, as established by the present Constitu- tion. .■\rt. 2. The Federal Government shall main- tain the Apostolic Roman Catholic Faith. .\rt. 3. The authorities of the Federal Govern- ment shall reside in the city which a special law of Congress may declare the capital of the Re- public, subsequently to the cession by one or more of the Provincial Legislatures, of the terri- tory about to be federalized. Art. 4. The Federal Government shall admin- ister the expenses of the Nation out of the revenue in the National Treasury, derived from import and 494 ARGENTINA, CONSTITUTION ARGENTINA, CONSTITUTION export duties; from the sale and lease of the public lands; from postage; and from such other taxes as the General Congress may equitably and pro- portionably lay upon the people ; as also, from such loans and credits as may be decreed by it in times of national necessity, or for enterprises of national utility. Art. S. Each Province shall make a Constitu- tion for itself, according to the republican repre- sentative system, and the principles, declarations and guarantees of this Constitution; and which shall provide for (secure) Municipal Government, primary education and the administration of jus- tice. Under these conditions the Federal Govern- ment shall guarantee to each Province the exercise and enjoyment of its institutions. Art. 6. The Federal Government shall inter- vene in the Provinces to guarantee the republican form of Government, or to repel foreign invasion, and also, on application of their constituted au- thorities, should they have been deposed by sedi- tion or by invasion from another Province, for the purpose of sustaining or re-establishing them. Art. 7. Full faith shall be given in each Prov- ince to the public acts, and judicial proceedings of every other Province ; and Congress may by general laws, prescribe the manner in which such acts and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. Art. 8. The citizens of each Province shall be entitled to all the rights, privileges and immuni- ties, inherent to the citizens of all the several Provinces. The reciprocal extradition of criminals between all the Provinces, is obligatory. Art. 9. Throughout the territory of the Nation, no other than the National Custom-Houses shall be allowed, and they shall be regulated by the tariffs sanctioned by Congress. Art. 10. The circulation of all goods produced or manufactured in the Republic, is free within its borders, as also, that of all species of merchandise which may be dispatched by the Custom-Houses of entry. Art. II. Such articles of native or foreign pro- duction, as well as cattle of every kind, which pass from one Province to another, shall be free from all transit-duties, and also the vehicles, vessels or animals, which transport them ; and no tax, let it be what it may, can be henceforward imposed upon them on account of such transit. Art. 12. Vessels bound from one Province to another, shall not be compelled to enter, anchor, or pay transit-duties; nor in any case can prefer- ences be granted to one port over another, by any commercial laws or regulations. Art. 13. New Provinces may be admitted into the Nation ; but no Province shall be erected within the territory of any other Province, or Provinces, nor any Province be formed by the junction of various Provinces, without the consent of the leg- islatures of the Provinces concerned, as well as of Congress. Art. 14. All the inhabitants of the Nation shall enjoy the following rights, according to the laws which regulate their exercise: viz., to labor and to practice all lawful industry ; to trade and navi- gate; to petition the authorities; to enter, remain in, travel over and leave, Argentine territory; to publish their ideas in the public-press without pre- vious censure; to enjoy and dispose of their prop- erty; to associate for useful purposes; to profess freely their religion ; to teach and to learn. Art. 15. In the Argentine Nation there are no slaves ; the few which now exist shall be free from the date of the adoption of this Constitution, and a special law shall regulate the indemnity acknowl- edged as due by this declaration. All contracts for the purchase and sale of persons is a crime, for which those who make them, as well as the notary or functionary which authorizes them, shall be responsible, and the slaves who in any manner whatever may be introduced, shall be free from the sole fact that they tread the territory of the Republic. Art. 16. The Argentine Nation does not admit- the prerogatives of blood nor of birth ; in it, there are no personal privileges or titles of nobility. All its inhabitants are equal in presence of the law, and admissible to office without other condition than that of fitness. Equality is the basis of tax- ation as well as of public-posts. Art. 17. Property is inviolable, and no inhabi- tant of the Nation can be deprived of it, save by virtue of a sentence based on law. The expropri- ation for public utiUty must be authorized by law and previously indemnified. Congress alone shall impose the contributions mentioned in Art. 4. No personal service shall be exacted save by virtue of law, or of a sentence founded on law. Every author or inventor is the exclusive proprietor of his work, invention or discovery, for the term which the law accords to him. The confiscation of property is henceforward and forever, stricken from the Argentine penal-code. No armed body can make requisitions, nor exact assistance of any kind. Art. 18. No inhabitant of the Nation shall suf- fer punishment without a previous judgment founded on a law passed previously to the cause of judgment, nor be judged by special commis- sions, or withdrawn from the Judges designated by law before the opening of the cause. No one shall be obliged to testify against himself; nor be arrested, save by virtue of a written order from a competent authority. The defense at law both of the person and his rights, is inviolable. The domicil, private papers and epistolary correspond- ence, are inviolable; and a law shall determine in what cases, and under what imputations, a search- warrant can proceed against and occupy them. Capital punishment for political causes, as well as every species of torture and whippings, are abol- ished for ever. The prisons of the Nation shall be healthy and clean, for the security, and not for the punishment, of the criminals detained in them, and every measure which under pretext of precau- tion may mortify them more than such security requires, shall render responsible the Judge who authorizes it. Art. ip. Those private actions of men that in nowise offend public order and morality, or in- jure a third party, belong ajone to God, and are beyond the authority of the magistrates. No in- habitant of the Nation shall be compelled to do what the law does not ordain, nor be deprived of anything which it does not prohibit. Art. 20. Within the territory of the Nation, foreigners shall enjoy all the civil rights of citizens; they can exercise their industries, commerce or pro- fessions, in accordance with the laws; own, buy and sell real-estate; navigate the rivers and coasts; freely profess their religion, and testate and marry. They shall not be obliged to become citizens, nor to pay forced contributions. Two years previous residence in the Nation shall be required for natu- ralization, but the authorities can shorten this term in favour of him who so desires it, under the al- legation and proof of services rendered to the Re- public. Art. 21. Every Argentine citizen is obliged to arm himself in defense of his country and of this Constitution, according to the laws which Congress 495 ARGENTINA, CONSTITUTION ARGENTINA, CONSTITUTION shall ordain for the purpose, and the decrees of the National Executive. For the period of ten years from the day on which they may have obtained their citizenship, this service shall be voluntary on the part of the naturalized. Art. 22. The people shall not deliberate nor govern save by means of their Representatives and Authorities, created by this Constitution. Every armed force or meeting of persons which shall arrogate to itself the rights of the people, and pe- tition in their name, is guilty of sedition. Art. 23. In the event of internal commotion or foreign attack which might place in jeopardy the practice of this Constitution, and the free ac- tion of the Authorities created by it, the Prov- ince or territory where such disturbance exists shall be declared in a state of siege, all constitu- tional guarantees being meantime suspended there. But during such suspension the President of the Republic cannot condemn nor apply any punish- ment per se. In respect to persons, his power shall be limited to arresting and removing them from one place to another in the Nation, should they not prefer to leave Argentine territory. Art. 24. Congress shall establish the reform of existing laws in all branches, as also the trial by Jury. Art. 25. The Federal Government shall foment European immigration; and it cannot restrict, limit, nor lay any impost upon, the entry upon Argen- tine territory, of such foreigners as come for the purpose of cultivating the soil, improving manu- factures, and introducing and teaching the arts and sciences. Art. 26. The navigation of the interior rivers of the Nation is free to all flags, subject only to such reglations as the National Authority may dictate. Art. 27. The Federal Government is obliged to strengthen the bonds of peace and commerce with foreign powers, by means of treaties which shall be in conformity with the principles of public law laid down in this Constitution. Art. 28. The principles, rights and guarantees laid down in the foregoing articles, cannot be al- tered by any laws intended to regulate their prac- tice. Art. 2q. Congress cannot grant to the Execu- tive, nor the provincial legislatures to the Governor of Provinces, any "extraordinary faculties," nor the "sum of the public power," nor "renunciations or supremacies" by which the lives, honor or for- tune of the Argentines shall be at the mercv of any Government or person whatever. Acts of this nature shall be irremediably null and void, and shall subject those who frame, vote, or sign them, to the pains and penalties incurred by those who are infamous traitors to their country. Art. 30. This Constitution can be reformed in whole or in part. The necessity for the reform shall be declared by Congress by at least a two- thirds vote ; but it can only be accomphshed by a convention called ad hoc. Art. 31. This Constitution, and the laws of the Nation which shall be made in pursuance there- of, and all treaties made or which shall be made with Foreign Powers, shall be the supreme law of the land; and the authorities of every Prov- ince shall be bound thereby, anything in the Con- stitution or laws of any Province to the contrary notwithstanding, excepting in the case of Buenos- Aires, in the treaties ratified after the compact of Nov. nth, 1850. Art. 32. The Federal Congress shall not dic- tate laws restrictmg the liberty of the press, nor estabUsh any federal jurisdiction over it. Art. 33. The enumeration in this Constitution of certain rights and guarantees, shall not be construed to deny or disparage other rights and guarantees, not enumerated; but which spring from the principle of popular sovereignty, and the republican form of Government. Art. 34. The Judges of the Federal courts shall not be Judges of Provincial tribunals at the same time; nor shall the federal service, civil as well as military, constitute a domicil in the Province where it may be exercised, if it be not habitually that of the employe; it being understood by this, that all Provincial public-service is optional in the Province where such employe may casually reside. Art. 3S. The names which have been succes- sively adopted for the Nation, since the year 1810 up to the present time; viz., the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata, Argentine RepubUc and Argentine Confederation, shall henceforward serve without distinction, officially to designate the Gov- ernment and territory of the Provinces, whilst the words .'\rgentine Nation shall be employed in the making and sanction of the laws. Part II. — Section I Art. 36. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress composed of two Chambers, one of National Deputies, and the other of Senators of the Provinces and of the capital. Chapter I Art. 37. The Chamber of Deputies shall be composed of representatives elected directly by the people of the Provinces, for which purpose each one shall be considered as a single elec- toral district, and by a .simple plurality of votes in the ratio of one for each 20,000 inhabitants, or for a fraction not less than 10,000. .Art. 38. The deputies for the first Legislature shall be nominated in the following proportion: for the Province of Buenos-.\ires, twelve; for that of Cordoba, six; for Catamarca, three; Corrientes, four; Entre-Rios, two; Jujui, two; Mendoza, three; Rioja, two; Salta, three; Santiago, four; San Juan, two; Santa-Fe, two; San Luis, two; and for that of Tucuman, three. -Art. 30. For the second Legislature a general census shall be taken, and the number of Deputies be regulated by it; thereafter, this census shall be decennial. Art. 40. No person shall be a Deputy who shall not have attained the age of twenty-five years, have been four years in the exercise of citi- zenship, and be a native of the Province which elects him, or a resident of it for the two years immediately preceding. .\rt. 41. For the first election, the provincial Legislatures shall regulate the method for a direct election of the National Deputies. Congress shall pass a general law for the future. Art. 42. The Deputies shall hold their place for four years, and are re-eligible ; but the House shall be renewed each biennial, by halves; for which purpose those elected to the first Legislature, as soon as the session opens, shall decide by lot who shall leave at the end of the first period. Art, 43. In case of vacancy, the Government of the Province or of the capital, shall call an elec- tion for a new member. Art. 44. The origination of the tax-laws and those for the recruiting of troops, belongs exclu- sively to the House of Deputies. Art. 4S. It has the sole right of impeaching before the Senate, the President, Vice-President, 496 ARGENTINA, CONSTITUTION ARGENTINA, CONSTITUTION their Ministers, and the members of the Supreme Court and other inferior Tribunals of the Nation, in suits which may be undertaken against them for the improper discharge of, or deficiency in, the exercise of their functions; or for common crimes, after having heard them, and declared by a vote of two-thirds of the members present, that there is cause for proceeding against them. Chapter II Art. 46. The Senate shall be composed of two Senators from each Province, chosen by the Legis- latures thereof by plurality of vote, and two from the capital elected in the form prescribed for the election of the President of the Nation. Each Senator shall have one vote. Art. 47. No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained the age of thirty years, been six years a citizen of the Nation, enjoy an annual rent or income of two thousand hard- dollars, and be a native of the Province which elects him, or a resident of the same for the two years immediately preceding. Art. 48. The Senators shall enjoy their trust for nine years, and are indefinitely re-eligible; but the Senate shall be renewed by thirds each three years, and shall decide by lot, as soon as they be all re-united, who shall leave at the end of the first and second triennial periods. , Art. 4q. The Vice-President of the Nation shall be President of the Senate ; but shall have no vote, except in a case of a tie. Art. 50. The Senate shall choose a President pro-tempore who shall preside during the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the Nation. Art. si. The Senate shall have sole power to try all impeachments presented by the House of Deputies. When sitting for that purpose they shall be under oath. When the President of the Nation is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside. No person shall be convicted without the concur- rence of two-thirds of the members present. Art. 52. Judgment in case of impeachment, shall not extend farther than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under the Nation. But the party convicted shall, nevertheless, be liable to indictment, trial, judgment and punishment ac- cording to law, before the ordinary tribunals. Art. 53. It belongs, moreover, to the Senate, to authorize the President to declare martial law in one or more points of the Republic, in case of foreign aggression. Art. 54. When any seat of a Senator be va- cant by death, resignation or other reason, the Gov- ernment to which the vacancy belongs, shall im- mediately proceed to the election of a new mem- ber. Chapter III Art. 55. Both Chambers shall meet in ordinary session, every year from the ist May until the 3ofh September. They can be extraordinarily convoked, or their session be prolonged by the President of the Nation. Art. 56. Each House shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and qualifications of its own members. Neither of them shall enter into session without an absolute majority of its members; but a smaller number may compel absent members to attend the sessions, in such terms and under such penalties as each House may establish. Art. 57. Both Houses shall begin and close their sessions simultaneously. Neither of them whilst in sessions can suspend its meetings for more than three days, without the consent of the other. Art. 58. Each House may make its rules of proceeding, and with the concurrence of two-thirds punish its members for disorderly behavior in the e.xercise of their functions, or remove, and even expel them from the House, for physical or moral incapacity occurring after their incorporation; but a majority of one above one-half of the members present, shall suffice to decide questions of volun- tary resignation. Art. 50. In the act of their incorporation the Senators and Deputies shall take an oath to prop- erly fulfil their charge, and to act in all things in conformity to the prescriptions of this Constitu- tion. Art. 60. No member of Congress can be in- dicted, judicially interrogated, or molested for any opinion or discourse which he may have uttered in fulfilment of his Legislative duties. Art. 61. No Senator or Deputy, during the term for which he may have been elected, shall be arrested, except when taken "in flagrant" com- mission of some crime which merits capital pun- ishment or other degrading sentence; an account thereof shall be rendered to the Chamber he be- longs to, with a verbal process of the facts. Art. 62. When a complaint in writing be made before the ordinary courts against any Senator or Deputy, each Chamber can by a two-thirds vote, suspend the accused in his functions and place him at the disposition of the competent judge for trial. Art. 63. Each of the Chambers can cause the Ministers of the Executive to come to their Hall, to give such explanations or information as may be considered convenient. Art. 64. No member of Congress can receive any post or commission from the Executive, with- out the previous consent of his respective Cham- ber, excepting such as are in the line of promotion. Art. 65. The regular ecclesiastics cannot be members of Congress, nor can the Governors of Provinces represent the Province which they govern. Art. 66. The Senators and Deputies shall be remunerated for their services, by a compensation to be ascertained by law. Chapter IV Art. 67. The Congress shall have power: — (i) To legislate upon the Custom-Houses and establish import duties; which, as well as all appraisements for their collection, shall be uniform throughout the Nation, it being clearly understood that these, as well as all other national contributions, can be paid in any money at the just value which may be current in the respective Provinces. Also, to es- tablish export duties. (2) To lay direct taxes for determinate periods, whenever the common de- fense and general welfare require it, which shall be uniform throughout the territory of the Nation. (3) To borrow money on the credit of the Nation. (4) To determine the use and sale of the National lands, (s) To establish and regulate a National Bank in the capital, with branches in the Provinces, and with power to emit bills. (6) To regulate the payment of the home and foreign debts of the Nation. (7) To annually determine the estimates of the National Administration, and approve or reject the accounts of expenses. (8) To grant sub- sidies from the National Treasury to those Prov- inces, whose revenues, according to their budgets, do not suffice to cover the ordinary expenses. (9) 497 ARGENTINA, CONSTITUTION ARGENTINA, CONSTITUTION To regulate the free navigation of the interior rivers, open such ports as may be considered neces- sary, create and suppress Custom-Houses, but without suppressing those which existed in each Province at the time of its incorporation. (lo) To coin money, regulate the value thereof and of foreign coin, and adopt a uniform system of weights and measures for the whole Nation, (ii) To decree civil, commercial, penal and mining Codes, but such Codes shall have no power to change local jurisdiction; their application shall belong to the Federal or Provincial courts, in ac- cordance with such things or persons as may come under their respective jurisdiction; especially, gen- eral laws embracing the whole Nation, shall be passed upon naturalization and citizenship, subject to the principle of native citizenship; also upon bankruptcy, the counterfeiting of current-money and public State documents; and such laws as may be required for the establishment of trial by Jury. (12) To regulate commerce by land and sea with foreign nations, and between the Provinces. (13) To establish and regulate the general post-offices and post-roads of the Nation. (14) To finally settle the National boundaries, fix those of the Provinces, create new Provinces, and determine by a special legislation, the organization and govern- ments, which such National territories as are be- yond the limits assigned to the Province, should have. (15) To provide for the security of the frontiers; preserve peaceful relations with the In- dians, and promote their conversion to Catholi- cism. (16) To provide all things conducive to the prosperity of the country, to the advancement and happiness of the Provinces, and to the increase of enlightenment, decreeing plans for general and uni- versity instruction, promoting industry, immigra- tion, the construction of railways, and navigable canals, the peopling of the National lands, the in- troduction and establishment of new industries, the importation of foreign capital and the exploration of the interior rivers, by protection laws to these ends, and by temporary concessions and stimulat- ing recompenses. (17) To constitute tribunals in- ferior to the Supreme Court, create and suppress public offices, fix their attributes, grant pensions, decree honors and general amnesties. (18) To accept or reject the resignation of the President or Vice-President of the Republic, and declare new elections; to make the scrutiny and rectification of the same. (19) To ratify or reject the treaties made with other Nations and the Concordats with the Apostolic See, and regulate the patronage of advowsons throughout the Nation. (20) To admit religious orders within the Nation, other than those already existing. {21) To authorize the Executive to declare war and make peace. (22) To grant let- ters of marque and reprisal, and to make rules concerning prizes. (23) To fix the land and sea forces in time of peace and war: and to make rules and regulations for the government of said forces. (24) To provide for calling forth the militia of all, or a part of, the Provinces, to exe- cute the laws of the Nation, suppress insurrections or repel invasions. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining said militia, and for gov- erning such part of them as may be employed in the service of the Nation, reserving to the Prov- inces respectively, the appointment of the corre- sponding chiefs and officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipUne prescribed by Congress. (25) To permit the in- troduction of foreign troops within the territory of the Nation, and the going beyond it of the Na- tional forces. (26) To declare martial law in any or various points of the Nation in case of domes- tic commotion, and ratify or suspend the declara- tion of martial law made by the executive during the recess. (27) To exercise exclusive legislation over the territory of the National capital, and over such other places acquired by purchase or cession in any of the Provinces, for the purpose of estab- lishing forts, arsenals, warehouses, or other needful national buildings. {28) To make all laws and regulations which shall be necessary for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all others vested by the present Constitution in the Gov- ernment of the Argentine Nation. Chapter V Art. 68. Laws may originate in either of the Houses of Congress, by bills presented by their members or by the Executive, excepting those rela- tive to the objects treated of in Art. 44. Art. 69. A bill being approved by the House wherein it originated, shall pass for discussion to the other House. Being approved by both, it shall pass to the Executive of the Nation for his ex- amination ; and should it receive his approbation he shall publish it as law. Art. 70. Every bill not returned within ten working-days by the Executive, shall be taken as approved by him Art. 71. No bill entirely rejected by one House, can be presented again during that year. But should it be only amplified or corrected by the revising House, it shall return to that wherein it originated; and if there the additions or corrections be approved by an absolute majority, it shall pass to the Executive. If the additions or corrections be rejected, it shall return to the revising House, and if here they be again sanctioned by a ma- jority of two-thirds of its members, it shall pass to the other House, and it shall not be understood that the said additions and corrections are re- jected, unless two-thirds of the members present should so vote. Art. 72. A bill being rejected in whole or in part by the Executive, he shall return it with his objections to the House in which it originated; here it shall be debated again; and if it be con- firmed by a majority of two-thirds, it shall pass again to the revising House. If both Houses should pass it by the same majority, it becomes a law, and shall be sent to the Executive for promulgation. In such case the votes of both Houses shall be by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons so voting shall be recorded, as well as the objections of the Executive, and shall be immediately pub- lished in the daily press. If the Houses differ upon the objections, the bill cannot be renewed during that year. Art. 73. The following formula shall be used in the passage of the laws: "The Senate and Chamber of Deputies of the Argentine Nation in Congress assembled, etc., decree, or sanction, with the force of law." Section II. — Chapter I Art. 74. The Executive power of the Nation shall be exercised by a citizen, with the title of "President of the Argentine Nation." Art. 75. In case of the sickness, absence from the capital, death, resignation or dismissal of the President, the Executive power shall be exercised by the Vice-President of the Nation. In case of the removal, death, resignation, or inability of the President and Vice-President of the Nation, Con- gress will determine which public functionary shall 498 ARGENTINA, CONSTITUTION ARGENTINA, CONSTITUTION then fill the Presidency, until the disability be re- moved or a new President be elected. Art. 76. No person except a natural-born citi- zen or a son of a natural-born citizen brought forth abroad, shall be eligible as President or Vice-Presi- dent of the Nation ; he is required to belong to the Apostolic-Roman-Catholic communion, and possess the other qualifications required to be elected Sen- ator. Art. 77. The President and Vice-President shall hold office during the term of six years; and can- not be re-elected except after an interval of an equal period. Art. 78. The President of the Nation shall cease in his functions the very day on which his period of six years expires, and no event whatever which may have interrupted it, can be a motive for completing it at a later time. Art. 79. The President and Vice-President shall receive a compensation from the National Treasury, which cannot be altered during the period for which they shall have been elected. During the same period they cannot exercise any other office nor receive any other emolument from the Nation, or any of its Provinces. Art. 80. The President and Vice-President be- fore entering upon the execution of their offices, shall take the following oath administered by the President of the Senate (the first time by the President of the Constituent Congress) in Con- gress assembled: "I (such an one) swear by God our Lord, and by these Holy Evangelists, that I will faithfully and patriotically execute the office of President (or Vice-President) of the Nation, and observe and cause to be faithfully observed, the Constitution of the Argentine Nation. If I should not do so, let God and the Nation indict me." Chapter II Art. 8x. The election of the President and Vice- President of the Nation, shall be made in the fol- lowing manner: — The capital and each of the Provinces shall by direct vote nominate a board of electors, double the number of Deputies and Sen- ators which they send to Congress, with the same qualifications and under the same form as those prescribed for the election of Deputies. Deputies or Senators, or officers in the pay of the Federal Government cannot be electors. The electors being met in the national capital and in that of their respective Provinces, four months prior to the con- clusion of the term of the out-going President, they shall proceed by signed ballots, to elect a Presi- dent, and Vice-President, one of which shall state the person as President, and the other the person as Vice-President, for whom they vote. Two lists shall be made of all the individuals elected as President, and other two also, of those elected as Vice-President, with the number of votes which each may have received. These lists shall be signed by the electors, and shall be remitted closed and sealed, two of them (one of each kind) to the President of the Provincial Legislature, and to the President of the Municipality in the capital, among whose records they shall remain deposited and closed; the other two shall be sent to the Presi- dent of the Senate (the first time to the President of the Constituent Congress). Art. 82. The President of the Senate (the first time that of the Constituent Congress) all the Usts being received, shall open them in the pres- ence of both Houses. Four members of Congress taken by lot and associated to the Secretaries, shall immediately proceed to count the votes, and to announce the number which may result in favor of each candidate for the Presidency and Vice- Presidency of the Nation. Those who have re- ceived an absolute majority of all the votes in both cases, shall be immediately proclaimed Presi- dent and Vice-President. Art. 83. In case there be no absolute major- ity, on account of a division of the votes. Con- gress shall elect one of the two persons who shall have received the highest number of votes. If the first majority should have fallen to a single per- son, and the second to two or more. Congress shall elect among all the persons who may have obtained the first and second majorities. Art. 84. This election shall be made by abso- lute plurality of votes, and voting by name. If, on counting the first vote, no absolute majority shall have been obtained, a second trial shall be made, limiting the voting to the two persons who shall have obtained the greatest number of suf- frages at the first trial. In case of an equal num- ber of votes, the operation shall be repeated, and should the result be the same, then the President of the Senate (the first time that of the Constitu- ent Congress) shall decide it. No scrutiny or rec- tification of these elections can be made, unless three-fourth parts of all the members of the Congress be present. Art. 85. The election of the President and Vice-President of the Nation shal be concluded in a single meeting of the Congress, and thereafter, the result and the electoral lists shall be published in the daily press. Chapter III Art. 86. The President of the Nation has the following attributes: — (i) He is the supreme chief of the Nation, and is charged with the general ad- ministration of the country. (2) He issues such instructions and regulations as may be necessary for the execution of the laws of the Nation, tak- ing care not to alter their spirit with regulative exceptions. (3) He is the immediate and local chief of the National capital. (4) He participates in making the laws according to the Constitution; and sanctions and promulgates them. (5) He nominates the Judges of the Supreme Court and of the Inferior Federal tribunals, and appoints them by and with the consent and advice of the Senate. (6) He has power to pardon or com- mute penalties against officers subject to Federal jurisdiction, preceded by a report of the proper Tribunal, excepting in case of impeachment by the House of Deputies. (7) He grants retiring-pen- sions, leaves of absence and pawnbrokers' licences, in conformity to the laws of the Nation. (8) He exercises the rights of National Patronage in the presentation of Bishops for the cathedrals, choos- ing from a ternary nomination of the Senate, (g) He grants letters-patent or retains the decrees of the Councils, the bulls, briefs and rescripts of the Holy Roman Pontiff, by and with the consent of the Supreme Court, and must require a law for the same when they contain general and perma- nent dispositions. (10) He appoints and removes Ministers Plenipotentiary and Charges dAffaires, by and with the consent and advice of the Senate; and himself alone appoints and removes the Min- isters of his Cabinet, the officers of the Secretary- ships, Consular Agents, and the rest of the em- ployfe of the Administration whose nomination is not otherwise ordained by this Constitution. (11) He annually opens the Sessions of Congress, both Houses being united for this purpose in the Sen- ate Chamber, giving an account to Congress on this occasion of the state of the Nation, of the 499 ARGENTINA, CONSTITUTION ARGENTINA, CONSTITUTION reforms provided by the Constitution, and recom- mending to its consideration such measures as may be judged necessary and convenient. (12) He pro- longs the ordinary meetings of Congress or con- vokes it in extra session, when a question of prog- ress or an important interest so requires. (13) He collects the rents of the Nation and decrees their expenditure in conformity to the law or estimates of the Public expenses. (14) He negotiates and signs those treaties of peace, of commerce, of navi- gation, of alliance, of boundaries and of neutrality, requisite to maintain good relations with foreign powers; he receives their Ministers and admits their Consuls. (15) He is commander in chief of all the sea and land forces of the Nation. (16) He confers, by and with the consent of the Sen- ate, the high military grades in the army and navy of the Nation ; and by himself on the field of battle. (17) He disposes of the land and sea forces, and takes charge of their organization and distribution according to the requirements of the Nation. (18) By the authority and approval of Congress, he declares war and grants letters of marque and reprisal, (iq) By and with the con- sent of the Senate, in case of foreign aggression and for a limited time, he declares martial law in one or more points of the Nation. In case of internal commotion he has this power only when Congress is in recess, because it is an attribute which be- longs to this body. The President exercises it under the limitations mentioned in Art. 23. (20) He may require from the chiefs of all the branches and departments of the Administration, and through them from all other employes, such re- ports as he may believe necessary, and they are compelled to give them. (21) He cannot absent himself from the capital of the Nation without permission of Congress. During the recess he can only do so without permission on account of im- portant objects of public service. (22) The Presi- dent shall have power to fill all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by grant- ing commissions, which shall expire at the end of their next session. Chapter IV Art. 87. Five Minister-Secretaries; to wit, of the Interior; of Foreign Affairs; of Finance; of Justice, Worship and Public Instruction; and of War and the Navy ; shall have under their charge the dispatch of National affairs, and they shall countersign and legalize the acts of the President by means of their signatures, without which requis- ite they shall not be efficacious. A law shall deter- mine the respective duties of the Ministers. Art. 88. Each Minister is responsible for the acts which he legalizes, and collectively, for those which he agrees to with his colleagues. Art. 8q. The Ministers cannot determine any- thing whatever, by themselves, except what con- cerns the economical and administrative regimen af their respective Departments. Art. go. .'\s soon as Congress opens, the Min- isters shall present to it a detailed report of the State of the Nation, in all that relates to their respective Departments. Art. 91. They cannot be Senators or Deputies without resigning their places as Ministers. Art. 92. The Ministers can assist at the meet- ings of Congress and take part in its debates, but they cannot vote. Art. 03. They shall receive for their services a compensation established by law, which shall not be increased or diminished, in favor or against, the actual incumbents. Section III. — Chapter I Art. 94. The Judicial Power of the Nation shall be exercised by a Supreme Court of Justice, and by such other inferior Tribunals as Congress may establish within the dominion of the Nation. Art. 95. The President of the Nation cannot in any case whatever, exercise Judicial powers, arrogate to himself any knowledge of pending causes, or reopen those which have terminated. Art. 96. The Judges of the Supreme Court and of the lower National Tribunals, shall keep their places quamdiu se bene gesserit, and shall receive for their services a compensation determined by law, which shall not be diminished in any manner whatever during their continuance in office. .^RT. 07. No one can be a member of the Su- preme Court of Justice, unless he shall have been an attorney at lav.' of the Nation for eight years, and shall possess the qualifications required for a Senator. Art. 98. At the first installation of the Supreme Court, the individuals appointed shall take an oath administered by the President of the Nation, to discharge their functions, by the good and legal administration of Justice according to the pre- scriptions of this Constitution. Thereafter, the oath shall be taken before the President of the Court itself. .'Xrt. 00 The Supreme Court shall establish its own internal and economical regulations, and shall appoint its subaltern employes. Chapter II .^RT. 100. The Judicial power of the Supreme Court and the lower National Tribunals, shall ex- tend to all cases arising under this Constitution, the laws of the Nation with the reserve made in clause II of Art. 67, and by treaties with foreign na- tions; to all cases affecting ambassadors, public Ministers and foreign Consuls; to all cases of ad- miralty and maritime jurisdiction; to controver- sies to which the Nation shall be party; to con- troversies between two or more Provinces; between a Province and the citizens of another; between the citizens of different Provinces; and betv/een a Province or its citizens, against a foreign State or citizen. .■\rt. ici. In these cases the Supreme Court shall exercise an appellate jurisdiction according to such rules and exceptions as Congress may pre- scribe ; but in all cases affecting ambassadors, min- isters and foreign consuls, or those in which a Province shall be a party, it shall exercise original and exclusive jurisdiction. Art. 102. The trial of all ordinary crimes ex- cept in cases of impeachment, shall terminate by jury, so soon as this institution be established in the Republic These trials shall be held in the same Province where the crimes shall have been committed, but when not committed within the frontiers of the Nation, but against International Law, Congress shall determine by a special law the place where the trial shall take effect. Art. 103. Treason against the Nation shall only consist in levying war against it, or in adhering to its enemies, giving them aid and comfort. Congress shall fix by a special law the punishment of trea- son ; but it cannot go beyond the person of the criminal, and no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood to relatives of any grade whatever. Art. 104. The Provinces keep all the powers not delegated by this Constitution to the Federal Government, and those which were expressly re- 500 ARGENTORATUM ARGOS served by special compacts at the time of their incorporation. Art. ios. They create their own local institu- tion."; and are governed by these. They elect their own Governors, their Legislators and other Pro- vincial functionaries, without intervention from the Federal Government. Art. io6. Each Province shall make its own Constitution in conformity with the dispositions of Art. 5. Art. 107. The Provinces with the consent of Congress can celebrate contracts among themselves for the purposes of administering justice and pro- moting economical interests and works of common utility, and also, can pass protective laws for tht- purpose with their ov^n resources, of promoting manufactures, immigration, the building of rail- ways and canals, the peopling of their lands, the introduction and establishment of new industries, the import of foreign capital and the exploration of their rivers. Art. 108. The Provinces cannot exercise any powers delegated to the Nation. They cannot cele- brate compacts of a political character, nor make laws on commerce or internal or external naviga- tion; nor establish Provincial Custom Houses, nor coin money, nor establish Banks of emission, with- out authority of Congress; nor make civil, com- mercial, penal or mining Codes after Congress shall have sanctioned those provided for in this Consti- tution; nor pass laws upon citizenship or naturali- zation; bankruptcy, counterfeiting money or public State documents; nor lay tonnage dues; nor arm vessels of war or raise armies, save in the case of foreign invasion, or of a danger so imminent that it admits of no delay, and then an account there- of must be immediately given to the Federal Gov- ernment; or name or receive foreign agents; or admit new religious orders. Art. 109. No Province can declare or make war against another Province. Its complaints must be submitted to the Supreme Court of Justice and be settled by it. Hostilities de facto are acts of civil- war and qualified as seditious and tumultuous, v,'hich the General Government must repress and suffocate according to law. Art. 1 10. The Provincial Governors are the natural agents of the Federal Government to cause the fulfilment of the laws of the Nation. See Argentina: 1880-1891. The above text of the Constitution of Argentina is a translation "from the official edition of 1868," taken from R. Napp's work on "The Argentine Republic," prepared for the Central Argentine Commission on the Centenary Exhibition at Phila- delphia, 1876. ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. See Argentina. ARGENTORATUM, ancient name of Stras- bourg. See Alsace-Lorraine: Early history. ARGINUSAE, Battle of. See Greece: 406 B.C. ARGIVE LEAGUE. See Greece: B.C. 421- 418. ARGO, ship which bore the Argonauts. See Argonautic e.xpedition. ARGOLIS. See Argos. ARGONAUTIC EXPEDITION.— "The ship .Argo was the theme of many songs during the oldest periods of the Grecian Epic, even earlier than the Odyssey. The king ^etes, from whom f-he is departing, the hero Jason, who commands her, and the goddess Here, who watches over him, enabling the Argo to traverse distances and to es- cape dangers wh'ch no ship had ever before en- countered, are all circumstances briefly glanced at by Odysseus in his narrative to Alkinous. . . . Jason, commanded by Pelias to depart in quest of the golden fleece belonging to the speaking ram which had carried away Phryxus and Helle, was encouraged by the oracle to invite the noblest youth of Greece to his aid, and fifty of the most distinguished amongst them obeyed the call. Herakles, Theseus, Telamon and Peleus, Kastor and Pollux, Idas and Lynkeus — Zetes and Kalais, the winged sons of Boreas — Meleager, Amphiaraus, Kepheus, Laertes, Autolykus, Mencctius, .Aktor, Er- ginus, Eupheraus, Anksus, Pceas, Periklymenus, Augeas, Eurytus, Admetus, Akastus, Ksneus, Euryalus, Peneleos and Leitus, Askalaphus and lalmenus, were among them. . . . Since so many able men have treated it as an undisputed reality, and even made it the pivot of systematic chrono- logical calculations, I may here repeat the opinion long ago expressed by Heyne, and even indicated by Burmann, that the process of dissecting the story, in search of a basis of fact, is one altogether fruit- less." — G. Grote, History of Greece, v. i, pt. i, ck. 13. — "In the rich cluster of myths which surround the captain of the Argo and his fellows are pre- served to us the whole life and doings of the Greek maritime tribes, which gradually united all the coasts with one another, and attracted Hellenes dwelling in the most different seats into the sphere of their activity. . . . The Argo was said to have weighed anchor from a variety of ports — from lolcus in Thessaly, from Anthedon and Siphae in Bceotia: the home of Jason himself was on Mount Pelion by the sea, and again on Lemnos and in Corinth ; a clear proof of how homogeneous were the influences running on various coasts. However, the myths of the Argo were developed in the great- est completeness on the Pagasean gulf, in the seats of the Minyi; and they are the first with whom a perceptible movement of the Pelasgian tribes be- yond the sea — in other words, a Greek history in Europe — begins." — E. Curtius, History of Greece, bk. I, ch. 2-3. ARGONNE, a rough, heavily forested region in northeastern France between the rivers Aisne and Meuse and west of Verdun. Scene of Dumouriez's defense against the Prussians in 1702 and the great .American offensive in October-November, 1918. 1914. — Battle of the Marne. See World War: 1 91 4: I. Western front: p, 3; r. 1915. — Operations of the French. See World War: 1915: 11. Western front: g; j, 2; j, 6. 1916-1918. — Region of fighting. See World War: 1016: II. Western front: b, 1; igi8: II. Western front: o, 1; u. 1918. — U. S. troops in action. See World War: 1Q18: II. Western front: v; v, 1. ARGOS, the chief city of Argolis in the Pelo- ponnesus and the foremost Dorian city up to the middle of the eighth century B.C. was Argos. She early dominated the cities of the district of Argolis and in 670 B.C. formed them into a union to withstand the rising power of Sparta. "No dis- trict of Greece contains so dense a succession of powerful citadels in a narrow space as Argolis [the eastern peninsular projection of the Peloponnesus]. Lofty Larissa, apparently designed by nature as the centre of the district, is succeeded by Mycena, deep in the recess of the land; at the foot of the mountain lies Midea, at the brink of the sea-coast Tiryns; and lastly, at a farther distance of half an hour's march, Nauplia, with its harbour. This succession of ancient fastnesses, whose indestruct- ible structure of stone we admire to this day Icon- sult Schliemann's "Ancient Mycena" and "Tiryns"] is clear evidence of mighty conflicts which agitated the earliest days of Argos; and proves that in this one plain of Inachus several principalities must have .SOI ARGOS ARGOS arisen by the side of one another, each putting its confidence in the walls of its citadel ; some, accord- ing to their position, maintaining an intercourse with other lands by sea, others rather a connec- tion with the inland country. The evidence pre- served by these monuments is borne out by that of the myths, according to which the dominion of Danaus is divided among his successors. Exiled PrcEtus is brought home to Argos by Lycian bands, with whose help he builds the coast-fortress of Tiryns, where he holds sway as the first and might- iest in the land. . . . The other line of the Dan- aidae is also intimately connected with Lycia; for Perseus . . . [who] on his return from the East founds Mycenae, as the new regal seat of the united kingdom of Argos, is himself essentially a Lycian hero of light, belonging to the religion of Apollo. . . . Finally, Heracles himself is connected with the family of the Perseidae, as a prince born on the Tirynthian fastness. . . . During these divisions in the house of Danaus, and the misfortunes befalling that of Prcetus, foreign families acquire influence and dominion in Argos: these are of the race of /Eolus, and originally belong to the harbour-coun- try of the western coast of Peloponnesus — the Amythaonidas. . . . While the dominion of the Ar- give land was thus subdivided, and the native war- rior nobility subsequently exhausted itself in sav- age internal feuds, a new royal house succeeded in grasping the supreme power and giving an entirely new importance to the country. This house was that of the Tantalidae [or Pelopids, which see], united with the forces of Achsean population. . . . The residue of fact is, that the ancient dynasty, connected by descent with Lycia, was overthrown by the house which derived its origin from Lydia. . . . The poetic myths, abhorring long rows of names, mention three princes as ruling here in succession, one leaving the sceptre of Pelops to the other, viz., Atreus, Thyestes and Agamemnon. Mycens is the chief seat of their rule, which is not restricted to the district of Argos." — E. Curtius, History oj Greece, bk. i, ch. 3. — After the Doric invasion of the Peloponnesus (see Greece: Migra- tions of Hellenic tribes; also, Dorlans and Ioni- ANS) , Argos appears in Greek history as a Doric state, originally the foremost one in power and influence, but humiliated after long years of rivalry by her Spartan neighbours. "Argos never forgot that she had once been the chief power in the peninsula, and her feeling towards Sparta was that of a jealous but impo- tent competitor. By what steps the decline of her power had taken place, we are unable to make out, nor can we trace the succession of her kings sub- sequent to Pheidon [8th century B.C.]. . . . The title [of king] existed (though probably with very limited functions) at the time of the Persian War [4QO-47Q B.C.]. . . . There is some ground for presuming that the king of Argos was even at that time a Herakleid — since the Spartans offered to him a third part of the command of the Hellenic force, conjointly with their own two kings. The conquest of Thyreates by the Spartans [about 547 B. C] deprived the Argeians of a valuable por- tion of their Pericekis, or dependent territory. But Orneae and the remaining portion of Kynuria still continued to belong to them: the plain round their city was very productive; and, except Sparta, there was no other power in Peloponnesus superior to them. Mykense and Tiryns, nevertheless, seem both to have been independent states at the time of the Persian War, since both sent contingents to the battle of Plataea, at a time when Argos held aloof and rather favoured the Persians." — G. Gioie, History of Greece, pt. 2,ch. S,v. 2. — "It was . . . perhaps shortly after the victory over Tegea [c. 550 B. C] that Sparta at length succeeded in rounding off the frontier of Laconia on the north- eastern side by wresting the disputed territory of Thyreatis from Argos. The armies of the two states met in the marchland, but the Spartan kings and the Argive chiefs agreed to decide the dispute by a combat between three hundred chosen cham- pions on either side. The story is that all the six hundred were slain except three, one Spartan and two Argives; and that while the Argives hurried home to announce their victory, the Spartan — Othryades was his name — remained on the field and erected a trophy. In any case, the trial was futile, for both parties claimed the victory and a battle was fought in which the Argives were ut- terly defeated. Thyreatis was the last territorial acquisition of Sparta. She changed her policy, and instead of aiming at gaining new territory, she en- deavoured to make the whole Peloponnesus a sphere of Lacedaemonian influence. This change of policy was exhibited in her dealing with Tegea. The defeat of Argos placed Sparta at the head of the peninsula. All the Peloponnesian states, ex- cept Argos and Achaea, were enrolled in a loose confederacy, engaging themselves to supply military contingents in the common interest, Lacedaemon being the leader. The meetings of the confederacy were held at Sparta, and each member sent repre- sentatives. [See also Sparta: B.C. 743-510] Corinth readily joined; for Corinth was naturally ranged against Argos, while her commercial rival, the island state of Aegina, was a friend of Argos. Per- iander [tyrant of Corinth, 625-585 B.C.] had al- ready inflicted a blow upon the Argives by seizing Epidaurus and thus cutting off their nearest com- munications with Aegina. The other Isthmian state, Megara, in which the rule of the nobles had been restored, was also enrolled. Everywhere Sparta exerted her influence to maintain oligarchy, everywhere she discountenanced democracy ; so that her supremacy had important consequences for the constitutional development of the Pelo- ponnesian states. [See also Sparta: 743-510 B.C.] In northern Greece the power of the Thessalians was declining ; and thus Sparta became the strong- est state in Greece in the second half of the sixth century. She was on the most friendly terms with Athens throughout the reign of Pisistratus [See also Athens: B. C. 560-510] ; but the tyrant was careful to maintain good relations with Argos also. With Argos herself indeed Athens had no cause for collision ; but the rivalry which existed between Athens and Aegina naturally ranged Athens and Argos in opposite camps. It was, perhaps, not long before the accession of Pisistratus that the Athenians had landed forces in Aegina and had been repulsed with Argive help. The policy of Pisistratus avoided a conflict with his island neigh- bour and courted the friendship of Argos; but the deeper antagonism is shown by the embargo which Argos and Aegina placed upon the importation of Attic pottery. The excavations of the temple of the Argive Hera have illustrated this hostile measure ; hardly any fragments of Attic pottery, dating from the period of Pisistratus or fifty years after his death, have been found in the precinct." — J. B. Bury, History of Greece, pp. 203-204. B. C. 496-421. — Calamitous war with Sparta. — Non-action in the Persian War. — Slow re- covery of the crippled state. — "One of the heav- iest blows which Argos ever sustained at the hand of her traditional foe befell her about 4Q6 B. C , six years before the first Persian invasion of Greece. A war with Sparta having broken out, Cleomenes, the Lacedaemonian king, succeeded in landing a 502 ARGOS ARIA large army, in vessels he had extorted from the /Eginetans, at Nauplia, and ravaged the Argive territory. The Argeians mustered all their forces to resist him, and the two armies encamped op- posite each other near Tiryns. Cleomenes, how- ever, contrived to attaclc the Argeians at a mo- ment when they were unprepared, maliing use, if Herodotus is to be credited, of a stratagem which proves the extreme incapacity of the opposing generals, and completely routed them. The Ar- geians took refuge in a sacred grove, to which the remorseless Spartans set lire, and so destroyed al- most the whole of them. No fewer than 6,000 of the citizens of Argos perished on this disastrous day. Cleomenes might have captured the city itself; but he was, or affected to be, hindered by unfavourable omens, and drew off his troops. The loss sustained by Argos was so severe as to reduce her for some years to a condition of great weak- ness; but this was at the time a fortunate circum- stance for the Hellenic cause, inasmuch as it en- abled the Lacedaemonians to devote their whole energies to the work of resistance to the Persian invasion without fear of enemies at home. In this great work Argos took no part, on the occa- sion of either the first or second attempt of the Persian kings to bring Hellas under their dominion. Indeed, the city was strongly suspected of 'medis- ing' tendencies. In the period following the final overthrow of the Persians, while Athens was pur- suing the splendid career of aggrandisement and conquest that made her the foremost state in Greece, and while the Lacedaemonians were para- lyzed by the revolt of the Messenians, Argos re- gained strength and influence, which she at once employed and increased by the harsh policy . . . of depopulating Mycena; and Tiryns, while she compelled several other semi-independent places in the Argolid to acknowledge her supremacy. [For alliance with Athens see Athens: B.C. 462-458.] During the first eleven years of the Peloponnesian war, down to the peace of Nicias (421 B.C.), Ar- gos held aloof from all participation in the struggle, adding to her wealth and perfecting her military organization. As to her domestic condi- tions and political system, little is known ; but it is certain that the government, unlike that of other Dorian states, was democratic in its character, though there was in the city a strong oligarchic and philo-Laconian party, which was destined to exercise a decisive influence at an important crisis." — C. H. Hanson, Land oj Greece, ch. 10. Also in: G. Grote, History of Greece, pt. 2, ch. 36. 1'. 4- B. C. 421-418. — League formed against Sparta. — Outbreak of war. — Defeat at Mantinea. — Revolution in the oligarchical and Spartan interest. See Greece; B. C. 421-418 B.C. 419-416.— Alliance with Athens. See Atken's: B.C. 410-416. B. C. 395-387. — Confederacy against Sparta. — Corinthian War. — Peace of Antalcidas. See Greece: 300-387 B.C. B. C. 371. — Mob outbreak and massacre of chief citizens. See Greece: B.C. 371-362. B. C. 370. — Scytalism. See Scytalism at Argos. B. C. 338.— Territories restored by Philip of Macedon. See Greece: B. C. 357-336. B. C. 271.— Repulse and death of Pyrrhus, king ef Epirus. See Macedonia: B. C. 277- 244. B, C. 229. — Liberated from Macedonian con- trol. See Greece: B C. 280-146. A. D. 267.— Ravaged by the Goths. See Goths: 258-267- 395.— Plundered by the Goths. See Goths: 395- 1205-1308.— Control by Otto de la Roche. See Athens: 1205-1308. 1463.— Taken by the Turks, retaken by the Venetians. See Greece: 1454-1479. 1686. — Taken by the Venetians. See Turkey: 1684-1696. ARGOS, Acropolis of, the site of the struc- tures composing the Heraeum, so-called from its dedication to the goddess Hera, whose jtatue fn gold and ivory by Polyclitus was enthroned there. It was always a place of worship for the Argive people and seems to have been the first center of civilized life. The Heraeum served as sanctuary for both Mycenae and Argos. lis architecture seems to show that it was founded many genera- tions before Mycenae was built, and before the Homeric age. Much has been learned from the extensive excavations of the American archaeologi- cal institute and school of Athens carried on from 1892 and 1805. ARGYLL, Earls, marquesses and dukes of, titles borne by a long line of Scottish peers. The best known of them are the following: Archibald Campbell, 5th earl of Argyll (1530-1573). — He was an adherent of John Knox; later supported Mary, queen of Scots, and was partly responsible for her defeat at Langside in 1568. Became lord high chancellor of Scotland. — See also Scotland: 1557. Archibald Campbell, 1st marquess and 8th earl of Argyll (1607-1661). — Supported the Presbyterian struggle against Charles I and Laud; leader of the .Assembly which procured control over judicial and political appointments. Sup- ported Charles II and later Cromwell; upon the restoration of the former was beheaded. — See also Scotland: 1644-1645. Archibald Campbell, 1st duke of Argyll (1651-1703), active partisan of William of Orange in 1688. A lord of the treasury 1696. — See also England: 1685 (May-July). Archibald Campbell, 3rd duke of Argyll (1682 -1 761), commanded the royal army in Scot- land at the battle of Sheriff muir. See Scotland: 1715- George John Douglas Campbell, 8th duke of Argyll (1823-1900). — Succeeded to title 1847; eloquent speaker, and a writer on scientific ques- tions as related to religion ; well known as a pub- licist. John Douglas Sutherland Campbell, 9th duke of Argyll (1845-1914), governor-general of Can- ada 1878-1883. ARGYRASPIDES, a corps of veteran soldiers of the Macedonian army. "He [Alexander the Great] then marched into India, that he might have his empire bounded by the ocean, and the ex- treme parts of the East. That the equipments of his army might be suitable to the glory of the Ex- pedition, he mounted the trappings of the horseS: and the arms of the soldiers with silver, and called, a body of his men, from having silver shields, Argyraspides." — Justin, History, bk. 12, ch. 7. — See also Macedonia: B.C. 323-316. Also in: C. Thirlwall, History of Greece, ch. 58. ARGYRE, mythical island. See Chryse. ARIA, a song with orchestral accompaniment often part of a larger composition such as an opera or oratorio. ARIA, AREIOS, AREIANS, the name by which the Herirud and its valley, the district of modern Herat, was known to the ancient Greeks. Its inhabitants were known as the Areians. — M. Duncker, History of antiquity, bk. 7, ch. i. 503 ARIADNE ARIANISM ARIADNE, steamer sunk by the Mowe. See World War: 1916: IX. Naval operations: c. ARIANA.' — "Strabo uses the name Ariana for the land of all the nations of Iran, except that of the Medes and Persians, i. e., for the whole eastern half of Iran" — Afghanistan and Beloochistan. — M. Duncker, History of antiquity, v. 5, bk. 7, cti. i. ARIAN-ATHANASIAN CONTROVERSY. See Nic.4:a: 325. ARIANISM, ARIANS— From the second century gf its existence, the Christian church was divided by bitter controversies touching the mys- tery of the Trinity. "The word Trinity is found neither in the Holy Scriptures nor in the writings of the first Christians; but it had been employed from the beginning of the second century, when a more metaphysical turn had been given to the minds of men, and theologians had begun to at- tempt to explain the divine nature. . . . The Founder of the new religion, the Being who had brought upon earth a divine light, was he God, was he man, was he of an intermediate nature, and, though superior to all other created beings, yet himself created? This latter opinion was held by Arius, an .Alexandrian priest, who maintained it in a series of learned controversial works between the years 318 and 325. As soon as the discussion had quitted the walls of the schools, and been taken up by the people, mutual accusations of the gravest kind took the place of metaphysical subtle- ties. The orthodox party reproached the .Brians with blaspheming the deity himself, by refusing to acknowledge him in the person of Christ. The .Arians accused the orthodox of violating the fun- damental law of religion, by rendering to the creature the worship due only to the Creator. . . . It was difficult to decide which numbered the larg- est body of followers; but the ardent enthusiastic spirits, the populace in all the great cities (and especially at Alexandria) the women, and the newly-founded order of the monks of the desert . . . were almost without exception partisans of the faith which has since been declared orthodox. . . . Constantine thought this question of dogma might be decided by an assembly of the whole church. In the year 325, he convoked the council of Nice [see Nic.tA, Council of), at which 300 bishops pronounced in favour of the equality of the Son with the Father, or the doctrine generally regarded as orthodox, and condemned the Arians to exile and their books to the fJames." — J. C. L. de Sismondi, Fall oj the Roman empire, ch. 4. — "The victorious faction (at the Council of Nice] . . . anxiously sought for some irreconcilable mark of distinction, the rejection of which might in- volve the .\rians in the guilt and consequences of heresy. A letter was publicly read and ignomin- iously torn, in which their patron, Eusebius of Nicomedia, ingeniously confessed that the admis- sion of the homoousion, or consubstantial, a word already familiar to the Platonists, was incompatible with the principles of their theological system. The fortunate opportunity was eagerly embraced. . . . The consubstantiality of the Father and the Son was established by the Council of Nice, and has been unanimously received as a fundamental article of the Christian faith by the consent of the Greek, the Latin, the Oriental and the Protestant churches." Notwithstanding the decision of the Council of Nice against it, the heresy of Arius con- tinued to gain ground in the East. Even the Em- peror Constantine became friendly to it, and the sons of Constantine, with some of the later em- perors who followed them on the eastern throne. were ardent .Brians in belief. The Homoousians, or orthodox, were subjected to persecution, which was directed with special bitterness against their great leader, Athanasius, the famous bishop of .Mexandria. But Arianism was weakened by hair- splitting distinctions, which resulted in many di- verging creeds. "The sect which asserted the doc- trine of a 'similar substance' was the most numer- ous, at least in the provinces of Asia. . . . The Greek word which was chosen to express this mys- terious resemblance bears so close an affinity to the orthodox symbol, that the profane of every age have derided the furious contests which the difference of a single diphthong excited between the Homoousians and the Homoiousians." — E. Gibbon, History oj the decline and jail oj the Roman em- pire, ch. 21 — The Latin churches of the West, with Rome at their head, remained generally firm in the orthodoxy of the Homoousian creed. But the Goths, who had received their Christianity from the East, tinctured with Arianism, carried that heresy westward, and spread it among their bar- barian neighbors — Vandals, Burgundians and Sueves — through the influence of the Gothic Bible of Ulfilas, which he and his missionary successors bore to the Teutonic peoples. "Almost all the bar- barians when they entered the empire were con- verted, not to Catholicism, but to Arianism. The Visigoths of Spain, the Ostrogoths of Italy, the Burgundians of Gaul, the Vandals of Africa, and the Lombards who came in the sixth century, were all .Brians. ... It would seem that the Germans had difficulty in adopting the creed of Nicaea ; per- haps they hesitated to make the Son equal with the Father. Their Roman subjects were orthodox. This difference in religion caused for more than a century much strife and many persecutions. Oft«n the barbarian king would refuse to appoint ortho- dox bishops; the see of Carthage thus remained vacant for twenty-four years. The Vandal king Genseric, not content with exiling the bishops, en- deavored to apply to his subjects the edicts that the emperors had proclaimed against the heretics." — C. Seignobos, History oj mediaeval and oj mod- ern civilization to end oj ijth century, pp. 18-19. — "The Vandals and Ostrogoths persevered in the profession of .Arianism till the final ruin (AD. 533 and 553] of the kingdoms which they had founded in .Africa and Italy. The bargarians of Gaul submitted (507] to the orthodox dominion of the Franks; and Spain was restored to the Catholic Church by the voluntary conversion of the Visigoths (580]." — E. Gibbon, History oj the decline and jail oj the Roman empire, ch. 37.— Theodosius form.Tlly proclaimed his adhesion to Trinitarian orthodoxy by his celebrated edict of 380, and commanded its acceptance in the Eastern Empire. (See Rome: 379-305) "Whatever may be one's personal belief upon the theological point, the fact which condemns Western Arianism in the sight of histon.', and makes its fate deserved, is that, at a time when there was the utmost need that the shattered fragments of the empire should be held together in some way, and when disor- ganization was most dangerous, it stood for separa- tion and local independence, and furnished no strong bond of unity on the religious side, as did the Catholic faith, to replace that political unity which was falling to pieces. Burgundian and Visi- goth, Vandal and Ostrogoth and Lombard, had no common religious organization and recognized no primacy in the Bishop of Rome, and though they tolerated the Catholicism of their Roman subjects, and did not break off the connection of these with the Roman church, that result would certainly have followed had they grown into strong and per- manent states, still .Arian in faith. The continued life of these nations would have meant not merely ^04 ARIBA ARISTOCRACY the political, but also the religious disintegration of Europe. The unity of the future, in a Chris- tian commonwealth of nations, was at stake in the triumph of the Roman church and the Prank- ish empire." — G. B. Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, p. 143. — See also Goths: 341-381; Franks: 481-511; Goths (Visigoths): 507-sog; and FmoQUE controversy. Also in: A. Neander, General history of Christian religion and church, v. 2, seel. 4. — ■ J. Alzog, Manual of universal church history, sect. 110-114.— W. G. T. Shedd, History of Christian doctrine, bk. 3. — J. H. Newman, Arians of the fourth century. — A. P Stanley, Lectures on the history of the eastern church, lectures 3-7. — J. A. Dorner, History of the development of the doctrine of the person of Christ, div. i, V. 2. ARIBA. — Most ancient inhabitants of Arabia. See Arabia: Ancient succession and fusion of races. ARICA, a seaport of northern Chile. See Latin America: Map of South America. Battle of (1880). See Chile: 1833-1884. Disputes over. See Chile: 1885-1891; 1804- 1900. ARICA-LA PAZ RAILWAY. See Bolivia: 1Q13 (May); Chile: igoo-1012; Railroads: 1872- 1912. ARICIA, Battle of.— A victory won by the Ro- mans over the .Aurunci (407 B.C.), which sum- marily ended a war that the latter had declared against the former. — Livy, History of Rome, bk. 2, ch. 26. — See Alba. ARICIAN GROVE.— The sacred grove at Aricia (one of the towns of old Latium, near Alba Longa) was the center and meeting-place of an early league among the Latin peoples, about which little is known. — W. Ihne, History of Rome, bk. 2, ch. 3.— W. Gell, Topography of Rome, v. i.— "On the northern shore of the lake [of Nemi] right under the precipitous cliffs on which the modern village of Nemi is perched, stood the sacred grove and sanctuary of Diana Nemorensis, or Diana of the Wood. . . . The site was excavated in 1885 by Sir John Saville Lumley, English ambassador at Rome. [For a general description of the site and excavations, consult the Athenceum, loth October, 1885. For details of the finds consult 'Bulletino deir Instituto di Corrispondenza Archeologica,' 1885]. . . . The lake and the grove were sometimes known as the lake and grove of Aricia. But the town of Aricia (the modern La Riccia) was situated about three miles off, at the foot of the Alban Mount. . . . According to one story, the worship of Diana at Nemi was instituted by Orestes, who, after killing Thoas, King of the Tauric Chersonese (the Crimea), fled with his sister to Italy, bringing with him the image of the Tauric Diana. . . . Within the sanctuary at Nemi grew a certain tree, of which no branch might be broken. Only a runaway slave was allowed to break off, if he could, one of its boughs. Success in the attempt entitled him to fight the priest in single combat, and if he slew him he reigned in his stead with the title of King of the Wood (Rex Nemorensis). Tradition averred that the fateful branch was that Golden Bough which, at the Sibyl's bidding, ^neas plucked before he essayed the perilous journey to the world of the dead. . . . This rule of succession by the sword was observed down to imperial times; for amongst his other freaks Caligula, thinking that the priest of Nemi had held of- fice too long, hired a more stalwart ruffian to slay him." — J. 0. Frazer, Golden bough, ch. i, sect. 1. ARICINI, the inhabitants of Aricia, an ancient Latin city. ARICONIUM, a town of Roman Britain which appears to have been the principal mart of the iron manufacturing industry in the Forest of Dean. — T. Wright, The Cell, the Roman and the Saxon, p. 161. ARID LANDS, Reclamation of. See Con- servation OF natural resources. ARII (Harii), barbarian invaders of Gaul. See LVGIANS. ARIKARA INDIANS. See Indians, Ameri- can: Cultural areas in North America: Plains Area; Pawnee family. ARIKAREE, or South Fork, Battle of. See U. S. A.: 1866-1876. ARIMASPI, an ancient and semi-mythical tribe dwelling in northeastern Scythia. ARIMINUM, the Roman colony, planted in the third century B.C., which grew into the mod- ern city of Rimini. (See Rome: B.C. 295-igi.) When Csesar entered Italy as an invader, crossing the frontier of Cisalpine Gaul — the Rubicon — his first movement was to occupy Ariminum. He halted there for two or three weeks, making his preparations for the civil war which he had now entered upon and waiting for the two legions that he had ordered from Gaul. — C. Merivale, History of the Romans, ch. 14. ARIOBARZANES, the name of several kings of Pontus, the most famous being the founder ot the kingdom, who revolted against Artaxerxes in 362 B. C. (See also Mithradatic Wars). A second was the son of Mithradates III, king 266-240 B. C, who enlisted the aid of the invading Gauls in Asia. Among the kings of Cappadocia by that name the most important is the ruler from 51 to 41 B.C. who aided Porapey against Cjesar. ARIOSTO, Lodovico (1474-1533), Italian poet. During his service with Cardinal d'Este he wrote "Orlando Furioso," a great poem which uses the material of the chivalric romances in classical epic style. See Italian literature: 1450-1595. ARIOVALDUS, king of the Lombards, 626- 638. ARIOVISTUS (c. 60 B.C.), a German chief who invaded Gaul; aided the Sequani in their war with the Aedui; defeated by Caesar in 58 B.C. —See also Gaul: B.C. 58-51. ARISTA, Mariano (1802-1855), Mexican gen- eral. See Mexico: 1846-1847; 1848-1861. ARISTAGORAS ( P-497 B.C.), leader of an unsuccessful revolt of Ionian cities against Persia. See Greece: B.C. 500-493: Rising of lonians. ARISTARCHUS (c. 220-143 B.C.), Greek grammarian and critic. See Education: Ancient: Alexandria. ARISTIDES (c. 530-46S B.C.), Athenian statesman and military leader, called "the Just"; took part in the battle of Marathon (490 B. C.) ; opposed Themistocles vigorously, which brought about his ostracism in 483 B.C.; returned to his native land in time to take part in the victory of Salamis (480 B.C.) and the battle of Plataea the following year; a strong advocate for civic reforms and founder of the League of Delos. — See also Athens: B.C. 472-462. ARISTIPPUS, philosopher. See Ethics: An- cient Greece: B.C. 4th Century. ARISTOBULUS II (d. 49 B.C.), king of Judaea. Usurped the throne of Hyrcanus II; de- feated by Pompey and removed from power. Sup- ported by Caesar against Pompey in 49. See Jews: 166-40 B. C. ARISTOCRACY.— "If the supreme governing authority is intrusted to a small group or class of 505 ARISTOCRACY ARISTOTLE the population, the government is said to be aristo- cratic. . It is a government in which only a minor- ity of the citizens have a share, the rest of the population, as Montesquieu remarks, being in re- spect to the former the same as the subjects of a monarch in regard to the sovereign. . . . Aristoc- racies, like monarchies, may likewise be of several varieties. There may be aristocracies of wealth as at Carthage and later at Venice, and these may be based either on ownership of land or of all property in general ; or they may be hereditary and hence based upon birth or family connection; or they may be official in character, that is, composed mainly of those who hold or have held public office such as the 'senatorial class' in both repub- lican and imperial Rome ; or they may be military •or a combination of some or all of the above ele- ments. . . . Originally it was one of the most re- spected, as it was one of the most widely dis- tributed, of all forms of political organization; but in recent years the name has come to have an unsavory if not a disreputable ring about it. The ancient writers like Aristotle, as has been said, carefully distinguished between aristocracy, which they defined as government by the 'best,' and oligarchy, which they described as government by a wealthy minority in their own interest. [For establishment in .Athens, see .\thens: B.C. 753- '650.1 But with modern notions concerning gov- ernment by the few the distinction has largely dis- appeared, so that aristocracy has come to possess the same disagreeable meaning which the ancients associated with oligarchy. In short, the two, as forms of government, are now regarded as sub- stantially the same. One of the distinguishing characteristics of aristocracy, is that it emphasizes quality rather than quantity, character rather than mere numbers. It assumes that some are better fitted to govern than others, attaches great weight to experience and training as political virtues, and seeks to reward special talent and attract it into the public service. It is preeminently conservative government; it honors authority, especially when it has had the sanction of long acquiescence, and has great reverence for long-established custom and tradition. . . . But the weakness of aristocracy as a practical system of government lies in the dif- ficulty of finding any safe and just principle of selection by which the fittest, politically speaking, may be differentiated from the unfit and, when this is done, of providing any adequate security against the temptation of the former class to ex- ercise their powers in their own interest. It is now generally agreed that the most capable and fit of the population cannot be selected by con- ferring the power to govern upon certain families and their descendants, for political capacity and probity are qualities not always transmitted from father to son. . . . The possession of property, whether of land or personalty, is an equally un- satisfactory test of political capacity, especially if it be inherited wealth. ... In other words, prop- erty, like birth, is not the only criterion, and there- fore the governing power cannot wisely be re- stricted to either class or to both combined. And so with all other tests which do not rest upon in- trinsic merit. Yet to prove that no just or adequate tests can be found really proves nothing against aristocracy itself. . . . Public opinion toward aris- tocracies in recent times has been so unfavorable that no example of a pure aristocracy has survived the middle of the nineteenth century. The anciejit aristocracy of Rome gave way to democracy. The medieval aristocracies of Germany and Italy were superseded by the growing power of the princes, and the royal governments which they established were in time overwhelmed by the rise of the democracy. In modem tin»es they survive only in part, being associated wherever they exist with democracy and monarchy. . . . Aristocracy is a very common form of government in the infancy of states, when political consciousness manifests itself only in the minds of a few. . . . Aristocracy proper is a principle which all states have admitted and to some extent followed in practice. In all ancient states, democracies and aristocracies alike, large classes of persons were excluded from par- ticipation in public affairs. The laboring classes everywhere have been enfranchised only in com- paratively recent years. . . . Modem democracies no longer exclude the laboring classes, yet prac- tically all of them apply standards of fitness, even if they sometimes apply them indirectly and in a manner unconsciously. In this sense the govern- ments of most states are aristocratic. Modern government is such a difficult art and requires so much skill and special knowledge that the whole number of persons really qualified is very small. In short, it must from the very nature of the case be largely government by specialists." — J. W. Gar- ner, Introduction to political sciencf, pp. 170-219. — Whoever may carry on the machinery of gov- ernment, the source of political power is likely to be found in the dominant social class. "But leadership and aristocracy are progressive factors only in so far as they produce more than they cost: just to pay their way is not enoush. Social differentiation into class with more or less fixed status has served in the past. But the social wastes through inhibited talent and productivity, through exploitation and fostering the mores of servility and resignation, make it doubtful ^'hether aris- tocracy is worth the price. The onjj' upper classes a progressive civilization can tolerate are men and women of superior mental ability xvho at the same time have social vision, and a sense of social solid- arity." — A. J. Todd, Theoriis vf social progress, pp. 404-405. — Historically an aristocracy developed from a primitive monarchy, the best known being those of ancient Greece. Among the states which were famous aristocracies, through part, at least, of their history are the following: Athens, Sparta, Rome, Carthage, Venice, Genoa, Dutch Netherlands, and the Free Imperial Cities of Germany. Great Britain was in practice an aristocracy from 1689- 1832, and France to 1789. — See also Democracy: Progress following the industrial revolution; and Genesis of modern democracy; Feudalism. ARISTOGEITON, Athenian hero, who slew the tvrant Hipparchus at the Panathenaic festival (514 B.C.). ARISTOMNEAN WAR. See Messenian Wars. First and Second. ARISTOPHANES (c. 448-385 B.C.), greatest comic dramatist of Athens ; notable also for the excellence of his poetry. His eleven extant plays are a commentary and criticism on Athenian life of his day. — See also Athens: B.C. 421; Drama; Greek comedy. Ideas on position of women. See Women's rights: B.C. 600-300. ARISTOPHANES OF BYZANTIUM, li- brarian. See Alexandria: B. C. 282-246: Reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, etc. ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.), the most cele- brated of the Greek philosophers. "Aristotle, the tutor of Alexander, had come to Athens upon his pupil's accession to the throne, and from 334 B.C. to 323 B. C. he taught philosophy in the Lyceum in that city. He had been a pupil of Plato . . . but in his temperament, his method, and his con- clusions h? departed widely from his master. 506 ARISTOTLE ARIZONA Plato was a poet, full of imagination, aiming after lofty ideals which he saw by a kind of inspired vision. Aristotle was a cool and cautious thinker, seeking the meaning of the world by a study of things about him, not satisfied until he brought everything to the test of observation. Thus he investigated the laws which governed the arts of rhetoric and poetry; he collected the constitutions of many Greek states and drew from them some general principles of politics ; he studied animals and plants to know their structure; he examined into the acts and ways of men to determine the essence of their right- and wrong-doing. He set his students to this kind of study and used the results of their work. Thus a new method of in- vestigation was created and new light thrown on all sides of life. A most learned man, he had a passion for truth and reason ; one of his most fa- mous sayings is 'Plato and truth are both dear to me, but it is a sacred duty to prefer truth.' His works, especially his Politics, Ethics, and Poetics, have had vast power in guiding the thinking of men since his day."— G. S. Goodspeed, History of the ancient world, p. 224. — "The most striking peculiarity of the instruction in the mediaeval uni- versity was the supreme deference paid to Aristotle. Most of the courses of lectures were devoted to the explanation of some one of his numerous trea- tises, — his Physics, his Metaphysics, his various treatises on logic, his Ethics, his minor works upon the soul, heaven and earth, etc. Only his Logic had been known to Abelard, as all his other works had been forgotten. But early in the thirteenth century all his comprehensive contributions to science reached the West, either from Constanti- nople or through the Arabs who had brought them to Spain. . . . Aristotle was, of course, a pagan. He was uncertain whether the soul continued to exist after death; he had never heard of the Bible and knew nothing of the salvation of man through Christ. One would have supposed that he would have been promptly rejected with horror by those who never questioned the doctrines of Christian- ity. But the teachers of the thirteenth century were fascinated by his logic and astonished at his learning. The great theologians of the time, Al- bertus Magnus (d. 1280) and Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274), did not hesitate to prepare elaborate commentaries upon all his works. He was called 'The Philosopher'; and so fully were scholars con- vinced that it had pleased God to permit Aristotle to say the last word upon each and every branch of knowledge that they humbly accepted him, along vidth the Bible, the church fathers, and the canon and Roman law, as one of the unquestioned authorities which together formed a complete guide for humanity in conduct and in every branch of science." — J. H. Robinson, Introduction to the history of western Europe, pp. 271-272. — See also Europe: Ancient: Greek civilization: Philosophy; Middle Ages: Scholasticism; and Greek litera- ture: Development of philosophical literature. On aristocracy. See Aristocracy. On astronomy. See Astronomy: B.C. 4th cen- tury. On biology. See Biology: History. On economics. See Economics: Greek theory. On education. See Education: Ancient: B.C. 7th-A. D. 3d centuries: Greece. On ethics. See Democracy: During classical period; Ethics: B.C. 4th century. On evolution. See Evolution: Historical evo- lution of the idea. On philosophy. See Neoplatonism. On science. See Science: Ancient: Greek. Influence on Middle Ages. See Education: Medieval: gth-isth centuries: Scholasticism; Mod- ern: isth-i6th centuries: Humanist aims in edu- cation. Also in: J. B. Bury, History of Greece to the death of Alexander the Great, pp. 833-836. ARITHMETIC: Ancient Egyptian. See Edu- cation: Ancient: B.C. 4oth-6th centuries: Egypt. ARIUS, Alexandrian priest, founder of Arian- ism (318-325). See Arianism. ARIZONA, a state in the southwestern part of the United States. It is bounded on the north by Utah, on the east by New Mexico, on the south by Mexico, and on the west by California and Ne- vada. It contains 113,956 square miles, ranking fifth in area among the states, and in 1920 had a population of 333>2 73- Agricultural and mineral resources. See U. S. A.: Economic map. Name. — "Arizona, probably Arizonac in its orig- inal form, was the native and probably Pima name of the place — of a hill, valley, stream, or some other local feature — just south of the modern boundary, in the mountains still so called, on the headwaters of the stream flowing past Saric, where the famous Planchas de Plata mine was discovered in the middle of the i8th century, the name being first known to Spaniards in that connection and being applied to the mining camp or real de minas. The aboriginal meaning of the term is not known, though from the common occurrence in this region of the prefix 'ari,' the root 'son,' and the termina- tion 'ac,' the derivation ought not to escape the research of a competent student. Such guesses as are extant, founded on the native tongues, offer only the barest possibility of a partial and acci- dental accuracy; while similar derivations from the Spanish are extremely absurd. . . . The name should properly be written and pronounced Ari- sona, as our EngUsh sound of the z does not oc- cur in Spanish." — H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific states of North America, v. 12, p. 520. Aboriginal inhabitants. See Apache group; Piman family; Pueblos. 1540. — Exploration by Coronado. See Amer- ica: 1540-1541. 1600-1800. — Beyond the establishment of Span- ish ranches, and the activities of Jesuits and Fran- ciscans, there was very little growth in the ter- ritory that is now Arizona until the nineteenth cen- tury. In 1772 there were only two missions, and two settlements: Tuscon and Tubac. 1800-1830. — The decay of the Spanish presidios attendant upon the struggle of Mexico for inde- pendence, the expulsion of the friars, and the hos- tility of the Apaches and other Indians prevented settlers from seeking homesteads in Arizona, but American trappers and traders appeared along the Gila river in the early nineteenth century. 1848. — Partial acquisition from Mexico. See Mexico: 1848. 1853. — Purchase by the United States of the southern part from Mexico. — Gadsden Treaty. — "On December 30, 1853, James Gadsden, United States minister to Mexico, concluded a treaty by which the boundary line was moved southward so as to give the United States, for a monetary consideration of $10,000,000, all of modern Arizona south of the Gila, an effort so to fix the line as to include a port on the gulf being unsuccessful. ... On the face of the matter this Gadsden treaty was a tolerably satisfactory settlement of a bound- ary dispute, and a purchase by the United States of a route for a southern railroad to California." — H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific states of North America, v. 12, ch. 20. 1863-1884. — Mormon settlements. — "Among the early settlers were the Mormons, who in 1863 had a settlement at St. Thomas, in Pah-Ute 507 ARIZONA, 1864 Territorial Government Railroads ARIZONA, 1877 county, a region later attached to Nevada. In 1873 the authorities in Utah formed a plan of coloniza- tion, and a pioneer party of 700 men was sent south, intending to get a start by working on the Texas Pacific Railroad, but became discontented with the prospect and went home. The project was revived in 1876-77, and a beginning was made in two districts — on the Upper Colorado Chiquito and on Salt River. At a meeting held at Salt Lake City, in January, 1S76, missionaries were present from different parts of Utah, and an organization was effected under Lot Smith as president. The first partv arrived in March at the Sunset crossing, and sooii the camps of Sunset, Allen, Ballinger, and Obed were established. Progress was slow, the first season's crop not sufficing for the colony's needs, and teams having to be sent to Utah for supplies; but the pioneers were resolute men, and though many, first and last, abandoned the enter- prise, at the end of 1877 the mission numbered 564 souls, and a year later 587. In 1884 the popu- lation is given by the newspapers as 2,507, the chief settlements being Sunset, St. Joseph, and Brigham City. . . . The Mormons have always been regarded as among the best of Arizona set- tlers, being quiet, industrious, and economical in their habits, and not disposed to intrude their religious peculiarities. As a rule polygamy has not been practised, though there are many exceptions. Their neat adobe houses, orchards, gardens, and well-tilled fields form veritable oases in the desert. Their lands are held by the community ; work and trade are carried on for the most part on the co- operative plan, and they even live in community houses, eating at a common table, though each family has its separate rooms. It has been their aim to produce all that they eat and wear, sugar cane and cotton being among their crops. Not- withstanding their community system, much free- dom is conceded to individuals, who may in most respects live as they please and mingle freely with the gentiles. Less despised and persecuted than in Utah [see also Utah: i857-i859]> they are naturally less clannish, peculiar,, and exclusive. In politics they are nominally democratic, but often divide their vote on local issues, or put their united vote where it will do most good for their own interests. As a rule, they are prosperous but not yet wealthy farmers."— H. H. Bancroft, Ari- zona and New Mexico, pp. 533-534- 1864 (November). — Organization of the ter- ritory. — "The territorial act having been passed by Congress in February, 1863, and officials appointed by President Lincoln in March, the whole party of emigrant statesmen, headed by Governor John N. Goodwin, of Maine, started in .\ugust for the Far West, leaving Leavenworth on September 25th, Santa Fe November 26th, and Albuquerque De- cember 8th, under the escort of troops from Mis- souri and New Mexico. It was on the 27th that the party crossed the meridian of loq degrees into Arizona, and two days later in camp at Navajo Spring, the government was formally organized in the wilderness. The flag was raised and cheered ; a prayer was said by H. W. Read; the oath of office taken by the officials ; and a proclamation of Governor Goodwin was read, in which the vicinity of Port Whipple, established only a month earlier by Major Willis of the California column, was named as the temporary seat of government ; and here all arrived on January 22, 1864. In May the fort was moved some 200 miles to the southwest, and near it by July a town had been founded on Granite Creek to become the temporary capital. It was named Prescotf, in honor of the historian. Meanwhile the governor made a tour of inspection in the south and other parts of the territory; by proclamation of April gth three judicial districts were created and the judges assigned; the marshal was instructed to take a census; and an election proclamation was issued on the 26th of May. Ac- cordingly, at the election of July i8th, there were chosen a council of nine members, and a house of eighteen ; also a delegate to Congress in the person of Charles D. Poston, The legislature was in ses- son at Prescott from September 26th to the loth of November. Besides attending to the various routine duties, and passing special acts, this body adopted a mining law, and a general code of laws, prepared by Judge Howell, and called in his honor the Howell Code, being based mainly on the codes of New York and California. It also divided the territory into four counties under the aboriginal names of Pima, Yuma, Mojave, and Yavapai ; and adopted a territorial seal, though for nearly 20 years a different seal appears to have been in use." —Ibid., pp. 521-523- 1864-1883. — Development of the Southern Pacific railroad. — .Arizona could not expect to progress until her resources were opened up by railroads. "From 1864 the subject was always under discussion, and various projects took more or less definite shape; but there was a broad region to be crossed before the iron road should even approach Arizona. In 1866 the Atlantic and Pa- cific was chartered with a land grant on the 35th paiallel, but no western progress was made. In 1870-1 this company was reorganized, making some show of active work, and the Texas and Pacific was organized to reach San Diego by the Gila route, with a land grant like that of the At- lantic and Pacific, including the alternate sections for a width of So miles throughout the whole ex- tent of Arizona from east to west. For a few years from 1872 Arizonans believed their railroad future assured from this source; but financial ob- stacles proved insuperable, and Scott's line never reached the eastern line of the territorj'. In 1877, however, the Southern Pacific from California was completed to the Arizona line at Yuma, and in the following years, not without some serious compli- cations with the rival company, was rapidly con- tinued eastward, reaching Tucson in 1880, and in 1881 effecting a junction with the Atchison, To- peka, and Santa ¥6 road at Deming, New Mexico. Practically by the latter company the Sonora road, connecting Guaymas with the Southern Pacific at Benson, was completed in 1882. . . . Meanwhile the completion of the Atchison line down the Rio Grande valley enabled the .Atlantic and Pacific to resume operations in the west, and in 1880-3 this road was completed from Isleta to the Colorado at the Needles, connecting there with the Cali- fornia Southern. As all these roads were built, so they have been operated without any special regard to the interests of Arizona ; yet they have neces- saril\ — even as masters instead of servants of the people . . . been immensely beneficial to the ter- ritory " — Ibid., pp. 603-604. 1877. — Subjugation of the Apaches. — "The principal events in the histor\' of Arizona, since the reesiiablishment of the national authority, in 1864, have been those connected with the subjugation of the .Apaches. This work was not fairly commenced until the appointment to command of General Crook, or rather, to be more just, to the appear- ance of Gen. O. O. Howard, as Special Indian Com- missioner. In Arizona itself, the only comment, as a rule, is that of bitter hostility, not alone of the aborigines, but of all who have adopted or advocated any means other than those of destruc- tion to bring about peace. Whatever else may be said of Gen. Howard, it must also be acknowledged that his policy was the first successful breach in SO8 ARIZONA, 1900 Statehood ARIZONA, 1912 the long and unbroken line of savage warfare. It brought Cochise (the most annoying Indian Chief- tain) to terms, so far as the Americans were con- cerned. The appointment of Gen. Crook to com- mand, and the unrelenting warfare he waged, soon made other bodies of Apaches surrender. Crook adopted the policy of dividing his foes by employ- ing them to fight one another. Under this policy a considerable number of Apache and Hualapais Indians have been used as scouts. . . . The Apaches were, under Gen. Howard's policy, first congre- gated on the Chiricahui Reservation, occupying the southeastern portion of the territory. The unwise nature of the location was soon exemplified by the Indians making it a base of operations for attack on the people of Sonora. Gen. Crook removed the savages to the White Mountains Reservation, north of Gila River, where they are now located. Since the severe chastisement given by Crook to the Tonto Apaches and others, there has been no gen- eral Indian marauding, but for a long period, . . . the New Mexican line and the Chiricahui were rendered unsafe by small parties of renegades — Indians who slipped off the Arizona or New Mexi- can reservations and went on predatory raids, gen- erally following the valley of the Rio de Sauz, in the Chiricahui mountain region, or that of the San Simeon, down to the Sonora line. They would plunder and murder on either side of the New Mexican line, carry their plunder into Chihuahua or Sonora, trading it off with the Lipans or Mexi- cans. . . . The Santa Rita and San Pedro regions were concerned, in the spring of 1877, when a new era slowly but surely began to dawn upon this wonderfully rich but undeveloped irontier region ; this territory, the oldest in civilization to all ap- pearance of the vast continental area embraced by the American Union, but almost the newest and least advanced of any of our organized communi- ties." — R. J. Hinton, Handbook to Arizona, p. 44. —See also U. S. A.: 1866-1876. 1906. — Refusal of statehood in union with New Mexico. See U. S. A.; iqo6 (June). 1907. — I. W. W. agitation in mines. See In- dustrial Workers of the World; Recent ten- dencies. 1908-1911. — Admission to the Union. — "After the failure of several attempts to have Arizona and New Mexico territories enler the Union as a single state, a measure for the separate admission of Arizona, introduced in Congress in 1908, failed of passage in the Senate because of charges of cor- ruption on the part of territorial officials. Finally, on January 20, iqio, an act was passed enabling the Governor of Arizona to call a Constitutional Convention composed of elected delegates, to form a constitution for the proposed state of Arizona. This was done, and an extremely radical constitu- tion was submitted to the people for ratification. The approval of the people was signified by an overwhelmingly favorable vote — 12,000 to 7,500. The provision that aroused most discussion was one providing for the recall of public officers by twenty-five per cent of all the voters for the office concerned, at the last general election. Presi- dent Taft vetoed the joint resolution for the ad- mission of Arizona as a state on account of the clause providing for the recall of judges, and Con- gress passed another resolution, permitting Arizona to join the Union if the obnoxious provision were omitted from the Constitution. Arizona complied, and was formally admitted as a state on February 14, igi2. The first legislature that convened under the new Constitution amended the Constitution again so as to provide for the recall of judicial officers. Following is a discussion of the question by Theodore Roosevelt; 'But Arizona also should clearly, and as a matter of right and duty, at once be admitted to Statehood. The only objection of consequence to admitting her is that her Constitu- tion provides for the recall of judges. Outside of this provision no serious objection has been made to her Constitution, and ... as a whole, it is a Constitution well above the average. . . . The whole question, therefore,, narrows down to the point as to whether it is legitimate to reject Ari- zona's plea because she has done what Oregon has done, what CaUfornia has announced she will do. . . . Moreover, it must be remembered that, if the people of Arizona desire to exercise the right of recall of the judges their desire can be made ef- fective immediately after their admission to State- hood; even though, in order to get in, they con- sent to alter the provision in their Constitution as proposed. It seems to me that the mere statement of these facts is sufficient to show that, on the ground alleged, there is no excuse for failure, to admit Arizona to Statehood. ... It is the nega- tion of popular government to deny the people the right to establish for themselves what their judicial system shall be. Arizona has the absolute right to try the recall just as any of the existing States has the absolute right to try it or not to try it, and to have an elective or appointive ju- diciary as it pleases. To keep Arizona from State- hood because she has adopted the recall as applied to the judiciary is a grave injustice to Arizona, and an assault upon the principles which under- lie our whole system of free popular government.' " — T. Roosevelt, Arizona and the recall of judiciary (Outlook, June 24, 1911, pp. 378-379). 1911 (March 8). — Roosevelt dam opened. — The construction of the Roosevelt dam was a part of the United States plan for reclamation of arid lands. It consisted of a dam 283 feet high and 168 feet thick at the base. The water was supplied by the Salt river, which is high in winter but very low in summer. The reservoir is considered one of the largest artificial lakes in the world. By means of this supply of water over 200,000 acres of land are recovered for agricultural purposes. 1912. — First legislature. — Liberal measures adopted. — Ratification of the 16th and 17th amendments. — "The first legislature of the State of Arizona, the newest and last of the continental states to be admitted into the Union, has estab- lished a record for social betterment measures which will not be surpassed by any of her older .sisters in many a long session. Arizona is youth- ful and virile, full of pluck and ambition, con- scious of the magnitude of the great problems which confront her, and eager to work out their solution. She possesses rich natural resources, but is poor in point of numbers, in human resources. For thirty years she has been struggling for state- hood, and for the right to put into law, through a legislature controlled only by her people, meas- ures of social reform and betterment. Her capital- ists have felt the need of developing her natural resources, but her people have felt the greater need of protecting and conserving her human resources. In the first session of her first legislature, recently concluded, constructive social measures were passed of which any of the older states of the Union might be justly proud. Many of the men who drew up the constitution continued their work as members of the legislature. There is, therefore, a close harmony between the two bodies of legisla- tion. The members of the constitutional conven- tion, some of whom were greatly interested in social reform, were unwilling to rest many reforms with the new-legislature-to-be, the character of which no man could foretell. Therefore there were embodied in the constitution several strikingly pro- 509 ARIZONA, 1912 16th and 17th Amendments ARIZONA, 1915 gressive measures, among the most important of which are the following: "(i) The common law doctrine of fellow ser- vant, so far as it affects the liability of master for injuries to his servant, is forever abrogated. (2) The right of action to recover damages for in- juries shall never be abrogated, and the amount to be recovered shall not be subject to any statu- tory limitation. (3) An employers' liability law shall be passed, by the terms of which any em- ployer . . . shall be liable for death or injury ... in all cases in which death or injury shall not have been caused by the negligence of the em- ployee killed or injured. (4) The legislature shall enact a workmen's compulsory compensation law applicable in such employments as the legislature may determine to be especially dangerous, by which compulsory compensation shall be required to be paid ... by the employer ... if accident is caused in whole or in part, or is contributed to, by a necessary risk or danger of such employment, or a necessary risk or danger inherent in the na- ture thereof or by failure of employer ... to ex- ercise due care . . . , it being optional with em- ployee to settle for such compensation, or to re- tain the right to sue, etc. (5) The defence of contributory negligence, or assumption of risk, shall be a question of fact, and left to the jury. (6) No child under the age of fourteen shall be em- ployed in any gainful occupation during any part of the school year. (7) It shall be unlaw- ful for any corporation ... to require of its em- ployees as a condition of their employment any contract whereby such corporation . . . shall be released from liability on account of personal in- juries. "Other clauses of social importance, including the one of establishing the office of mine in- spector, were embodied in the constitution. Per- manence and dignity were added to the work of the legislature by the unpartisan action of the governor and legislators. Members of the same political party, they were yet actuated by the ambition to establish a record for nonpartisan and enlightened legislation and administration. Re- publicans as well as Democrats were put upon the most important committees, and both houses, as well as the governor, though differing upon smaller details, were in harmony on the larger questions and worked together with the one end in view — strong, progressive legislation that would stand the test of future political contests. Of the three hundred bills introduced, over 100 were passed, and of the hundred new laws, fully one- third are of important social significance. The most important bills dealt with the following topics: child labor; woman labor; mining code, with provisions for mine inspection and important limitations upon conditions of underground work in mines; miners' labor lien law; five laws regu- lating hours of labor, including eight-hour day for miners; several reformatory measures, includ- ing indeterminate sentence for criminals and care for unfortunate girls; anti-labor black list; work- men's compulsory compensation. It was the earn- est desire of the legislature to pass the best child- labor law in the United States, and it must be conceded that they did remarkably well. The act was introduced by Mike Cunniff, president of the Senate and former managing editor of World's Work, a man who has been a miner and owner of mines and who is deeply interested in all labor questions. The most important provisions of this act are: no child under fourteen is f)ermitted to work in any industrial or mercantile pursuit ; it is unlawful for any person, firm or corpora- tion to employ any child under fourteen in any business whatever during any part of the school year; more than sixty dangerous and unhealthful occupations, in which no child under sixteen may be employed, are enumerated; the state board of health is empowered to determine from time to time what other occupations are dangerous and unhealthful, and may prohibit employment in such additional ones; females under sixteen are not per- mitted to work in any occupation requiring them to stand constantly ; the right of corporations and others to employ any minors is conditioned upon strict examination by school officials and the board of health, and upon previously obtaining proper certificates as well as upon keeping correct rec- ords, the most important of which must be con- spicuously posted; the state superintendent, tru- ant officers, etc., are given right to enter any and all estabhshments at all times; no child under eighteen can be employed about blast fur- naces, smelters and twenty other hazardous occu- pations; no female is permitted to work about any mine, quarry or coal breaker; no boy under sixteen and no girl under eighteen is permitted to work before seven in the morning or after seven in the evening. The presence of any child in an establishment is prima facie evidence of his employment there. Physical fitness of any child must be passed upon by the state board of health before he can be employed. In strict com- pliance with the constitutional mandate the leg- islature passed the employers' liability act and the workmen's compulsory compensation act. These strengthened the force of the constitutional provisions dealing with these important subjects, the Utter by clearly laying down the principle that 'compulsory compensation shall be paid by his employer to any workman ... if injury is caused in whole or in part ... by failure of em- ployer or his agents to exercise due care, etc.,' and further by declaring the common law doctrine of 'no liability without fault' to be abrogated. The employers' liability act clearly states that 'any employer shall be liable for death of or injury ... in all cases in which such death or injury . . . shall not have been caused by the negli- gence of the employee killed or injured.' Two very important bills were the one establishing the office and defining the duties of mine inspector, and the one containing the new mining code. A bill was passed making the miner's lien for wages take precedence of a tirst mortgage. The mining bill has been well received by both miners and op- erators. In addition to the foregoing, several other important laws have been enacted to pro- tect the laboring classes in .Arizona." — H. A. E. Chandler, With Arizona's first legislature (Survey, Aug. 17, igi2, pp. 647-648). — On .\pril g, the Ari- zona legislature ratified the sixteenth federal amendment, providing for a federal income tax, and on June 3, it ratified the seventeenth federal amendment, for the direct election of United States senators. 1915. — Alien Labor Law. — Foreign objection to. — Upheld by United States Supreme Court. — "At a recent general election the people of Arizon^, by a majority of 10,604 iu 3 popular vote upon a measure submitted to them, en- acted into law these provisions: 'Any company, corporation, partnership, association, or individual who is or may hereafter become an employer of more than five workers at any one time, in the State of Arizona, regardless of kind or class of work, or sex of workers, shall employ not less than eighty per cent qualified electors or native- born citizens of the United States, or some sub- division thereof,' and making any violation of the provisions of the act a misdemeanor subject to 510 ARIZONA, 1916 ARKANSAS, 1819-1836 fine and imprisonment. "The Ahib^ssadbfs of the Britisli and Italian Goverrlmfcnts at once made rep- resentations to the Department of State to the effect that the Arizona law was in violation of the priviliges accorded to the two countries under treaties with our Government. The State De- partment thereupon requested the Governor of Arizona to defer issuing his proclamation of the law. Under the Arizona Constitution and statutes it is made the duty of the Governor to issue that proclamation 'forthwith,' upon the certification of the returns by the Secretary of State." — Arizona alien labor law {Outlook, Jan. 20, 1915, pp. log- 1 10). — When the constitutionaUty of the Arizona law was tested in the Federal District Court of Arizona in the case of Raich i;. Truax (January 7, igis, ziq Federal 273), the court rendered a decision unfavorable to the law on the ground that it did not give equal protection of the laws to all persons; aliens are entitled to the same protection of the laws as citizens. The United States Supreme Court reversed this de- cision on appeal, November i,. 1915. 1916. — State suffrage granted women. See Suffrage, Woman: United States: 1851-1920. 1917. — Rival claimants for the governorship. — Deadlock in the capital. — "The Democratic governor of Arizona, G. W. P. Hunt, created a stir throughout the state when he refused to sur- render his office to Thomas E. Campbell, the Re- publican governor-elect. Governor Hunt believes that when the ballots cast at the November elec- tion [iqi6] are recounted his reelection will be established beyond a doubt, and, acting upon that belief, he refuses to recognize in any way his op- ponent. Mr. Campbell is governor upon the face of the returns, and his election has been con- ceded by the Democratic State Central Commit- tee. The question as to which of the two claim- ants is the rightful governor will be fought out in the courts. ... On the first of January both governors were to be inaugurated, and the town of Phoenix filled with partizans of each side ready to take a hand if there should be a conflict. Gover- nor Hunt, however, locked his rival out of the capitol building and governor-elect Campbell did not insist upon going through the formal cere- mony. He had already satisfied the requirements of the law by taking the oath of office before a notary, and so he contented himself with an informal address to the crowd on the capitol grounds. Governor Hunt still refusing to accept his credentials, governor-elect Campbell established a temporary executive office in another part of the city. Feeling on both sides ran high, but trouble was averted by the large force of deputy police, by the new prohibition law, which made liquor inaccessible, and by the good sense and self-restraint which often characterizes even a very angry American crowd." — State with two gov- ernors (Independent, Jan. 15, 1917, p. 96). — Ex- Governor Hunt eventually relinquished his un- tenable position. 1917. — Minimum wage law. See Labor re- muneration: 1910-1920. 1918 (May 23-24). — Federal prohibition amendment ratified. — Arizona was the twelfth state to ratify the prohibition amendment. 1918.— Part played in the World War.— The state furnished about 10,000 soldiers. 1919. — Decision of United States Supreme Court. — This was the outgrowth of the em- ployers' liability feature of the Workmen's Com- pensation act which provided that in all employ- ments inherently dangerous the employer should be liable for accidents whether he or his agent were directly responsible for it or not. The de- cision held that such provision is allowable and is not in violation of the fourteenth amendment, as claimed. — See also Supreme court: 1888-1913; 1917-1921. 1920. — Woman suffrage amendment ratified. — Arizona ratified the woman suffrage (19th federal) amendment February 12. ARKA: 1570 B. C— Destroyed by Egyptians. See Phoenicians: Origin. ARKANSAS, a south central state of the United Spates. It is bounded on the north by Missouri; on the east by the Mississippi River, which separates it from Tennessee and Mississippi; on the south by Louisiana, and on the west by Oklahoma and Texas. It contains an area of 53,335 square miles, and in 1920 had a population of i.7';o.99S- Agricultural and mineral resources. See U. S. .\.: Economic map. Aboriginal inhabitants. See Siouan famxly: Sioux. 1542. — Entered by Hernando de Soto. See Florida: 1528-1542. 1803. — Embraced in the Louisiana Purchase. See Louisiana: 1798-1803. 1815-1840.— Early settlement.— Origin of pop- ulation. — "As is well known, the American pio- neer has, as a rule, emigrated along lines of lati- tude. The Mississippi River was the route by which the earliest settlers came into .'\rkansas, either from New Orleans or down the River from St. Louis and the settlements farther north and east. Many came by boat from southern Indiana and Ohio and from river points in Kentucky and Tennessee, but with the development of the older states of the Middle West and the building of the great National Road the methods of im- migration changed. The horse became the motive power and the covered wagon superseded the flat- boat; so that a large majority of the immigrants who entered Arkansas between 1815 and 1S30 came overland on horseback or in wagons, entering the territory from Missouri at Davidsonville in old Lawrence County. In 1820 their line had extended through Batesville to Cadron in Pulaski County, and in 182 1 down to Red River through Clark and Hempstead Counties. 'Far-away Hemp- stead,' says Shinn, 'then had more than one sev- enth of the population, and although for the most part from Georgia, North Carolina, Virginia, and Kentucky, they came in from Missouri in wagons i-'uided by the National Road.' Prof. Shinn is also authority for the further statement that the English-speaking population who en- tered Arkansas before 1820 was largely cosmo- politan in character; that for the decades between 1820 and 1840 immigrants from Kentucky, Ohio, and Indiana were dominant, with the Kentuckians in the lead." — S. B. Weeks, History of public school education in .Arkansas {United States Bu- reau of Education, Bulletin No. 27, 1912). 1819-1836. — Detached from Missouri. — Or- ganized as a territory. — Admitted as a state. — "Preparatory to the assumption of state govern- ment, the limits of the Missouri Territory were restricted on the south by the parallel of 36° 30' north. The restriction was made by an act of Congress, approved March 3, 1819, entitled an 'Act establishing a separate territorial government in the southern portion of the Missouri Terri- tory.' The portion thus separated was subse- quently organized into the second grade of terri- torial government, and Colonel James Miller, a meritorious and distinguished officer of the North- western army, was appointed first governor. This territory was known as the Arkansas Territory, and, at the period of its first organization, con- Sii ARKANSAS, 1850 Reconstruction ARKANSAS, 1865-1866 tained an aggregate of nearly 14,000 inhabitants. Its limits comprised all the territory on the west side of the Mississippi between the parallels 33" and 36° 30', or between the northern limit of Louisiana and the southern boundary of the State of Missouri. On the west it extended indefinitely to the Mexican territories, at least 550 miles. The Post of Arkansas was made the seat of the new government. The population of this exten- sive territory for several years was comprised chiefly in the settlements upon the tributaries of White River and the St. Francis ; upon the Mis- sissippi, between New Madrid and Point Chicot; and upon both sides of the .\rkansas River, within 100 miles of its mouth, but especially in the vicinity of the Post of Arkansas. ... So feeble was the attraction in this remote region for the active, industrious, and well-disposed portion of the western pioneers, that the Arkan- sas Territory, in 1830, ten years after its organi- zation, had acquired an aggregate of only 30,388 souls, including 4,57b slaves. . . . The western half of the territory had been erected, in 1S24, into a separate district, to be reserved for the future residence of the Indian tribes, and to be known as the Indian Territory. From this time the tide of emigration began to set more actively into Arkansas, as well as into other portions of the southwest. . . . The territory increased rapidly for several years, and the census of 1835 gave the whole number of inhabitants at 58,134 souls, in- cluding 0,630 slaves. Thus the Arkansas Terri- tory in the last live years had doubled its popu- lation. . . . The people, through the General Assembly, made application to Congress for au- thority to establish a regular form of state gov- ernment. The assent of Congress was not withheld, and a Convention was authorized to meet at Little Rock on the first day of January, 1836, for the purpose of forming and adopting a State Constitution. The same was approved by Con- gress, and on the 13th of June following the State of Arkansas was admitted into the Federal Union as an independent state, and was, in point of time and order, the twenty -fifth in the confed- eracy. . . . Like the Missouri Territory, Arkansas had been a slaveholding country from the earliest French colonies. Of course, the institution of negro slavery, with proper checks and limits, was sustained by the new Constitution." — J. W. Monette, Discovery and settlement of the valley of the Mississippi, bk. s, v. 2, ch. 17. — See also Oklahoma: 1824-1837; U. S. A.: 1818- 1821. 1850. — Slavery question. See U. S. A.: 1850 (June). 1861 (March). — Secession voted down. See U. S. A.: i8bi (March-April). 1861 (April). — Governor Rector's reply to President Lincoln's call for troops. See U.S.A.: 1861 (President Lincoln's call to arms). 1862 (January-March). — Advance of national forces into the state. — Battle of Pea Ridge. See U. S. .\.: 1862 (January-March: Missouri- Arkansas). 1862 (July-Septem.ber). — Progress of the Civil War. See U.S.A.: 1862 (July-September: Mis- souri-.\rkansas) . 1862-1864. — Beginnings of Reconstruction. — "There was not a time during the Civil War when there were not many Federal sympathizers in the State. Early in the struggle, the Confederate State government arrested many Union sympa- thizers in north .Arkansas. In 1862, General Curtis, in his march at the head of a Union army from Pea Ridge to Batesville, met with loyal senti- ments everywhere. During the winter of 1862-63 loyal citizens began to hold primary assemblies with a view to the re-establishment of a loyal state government ; and after General Steele occu- pied Little Rock, many original Union men who had fled the State returned under protection of the Federal army and set about the establishment of a new stale government loyal to the Union. The army at first did not encourage the move- ment ; but October 30, fifty days after the fall of Little Rock, the loyal men held a convention at the capital, avowed Union sentiments and ap- pointed a committee ... to draft resolutions, assuring the President of their loyalty to the United States and of their desire to have a loyal state government established in Arkansas. Con- temporary with this convention, similar gatherings were held at Fort Smith and Van Buren. Octo- ber 24, twelve citizens of these two places met in Fort Smith and inaugurated a movement which resulted in the constitutional convention of 1864. After canvassing the situation, they called popu- lar conventions to be tried for Sebastian County at Fort Smith and fur Crawford County at Van Buren. At these conventions, loyalty was avowed, much enthusiasm was manifested and resolutions were adopted, calling upon the people of the sev- eral counties to hold conventions and elect dele- gates to a constitutional convention to be held in Little Rock January 4, 1864. The purpose of the convention, they declared, was to re-establish civil government, and to restore normal relations with the central government. The committee on Federal relations in the legislature of 1S64 says that there was an enthusiastic response to this call. But at that time bushwackers were nu- merous and south Arkansas was under control of the Confederates. If the Conventions were held, many of them could not have been more than quiet, informal, irregular gatherings of loyal men in the several counties. Union sentiment, how- ever, was developing rapidly. . . . The President at an early date looked upon .'\rkansas as a favor- able field for beginning the work of reconstruc- tion. In 1862, a few days after appointing John- son military governor of Tennessee, the President appointed John S. Phelps to a similar position in Arkansas. Secretary Stanton, in notifying him of his appointment, said the main object of his ap- pointment was to re-establish Federal authority in the State and provide protection to loyal in- habitants, until they could re-establish civil gov- ernment. But the appointment was premature and nothing came of it. The office was abolLshed the following year." — E. Cypert (Arkansas Historical Association, v. 4). — See also U. S. A.: 1863-1864 ( December- J uly ) ; and U. S. A.: 1865 (May- July). 1863 (January). — Capture of Arkansas Post from the Confederates. See U.S.A.: 1863 (January: .\rkansas). 1863 (July). — Defense of Helena. See U. S. A.: 1863 (July: On the Mississippi). 1863 (August-October). — Breaking of Con- federate authority. — Occupation of Little Rock by national forces. See U. S. A.: 1863 (August- October: .Arkansas-Missouri). 1863-1864 (December-July). — Attempts to re- enter Union. See U. S. A.: 1S03-1864 (December- July). 1864 (March-October). — Last important oper- ations of the war. — Price's raid. See U. S. A.: r864 (March-October: .\rkansas-Missouri). 1865-1866. — Garland case. — Augustus Hill Garland was admitted to the Arkansas bar in 1853, and in i860 was admitted to the Supreme Court of the United States as attorney and coun- selor, taking the oath then required. Although he 512 ARKANSAS, 1868 Reconstruction ARKANSAS, 1908-1916 opposed secession in 1861, he finally went with his state and served as a member of the Confederate House of Representatives and later as a Con- federate Senator. In 1862, the Congress of the United States passed an act requiring all candidates for office to take oath that they had never in any way engaged in hostility against the Union. In 186s all persons admitted to the bar of the United States Courts were required to take this oath, known as the "Ironclad Oath." Garland, who had been pardoned for his participation in the rebellion, entered a plea before the Supreme Court in 1866 against his taking the prescribed oath in 1865. He contended that the act re- quring this oath was unconstitutional and void, as affecting his status in court and that his pardon released him from complying with it, even if it were unconstitutional. The Court granted his plea on the ground that the act was ex post facto. 1868. — Constitutional Convention. — Recon- struction. — "The State of Arkansas had enjoyed comparative peace and quiet for three years suc- ceeding the Civil War. Under the presidential method of reconstruction inaugurated by President Lincoln, the loyal people of the State had met in 1864, and adopted a constitution which abolished slavery, but did not enfranchise the negroes. The constitutional convention of 1S6S was the result of reconstruction acts of Congress which had been vetoed by President Johnson, and passed by Con- gress over his veto. For the purpose of recon- struction in the Secession States under these vari- ous acts, all negroes and all other persons who had been in the State twelve months were en- titled to vote and hold seats in the convention, 'Provided that no person who has been a mem- ber of the legislature of any State, or who has held any executive or judicial office in any State, whether he has taken an oath to support the constitution of the United States or not, and whether he was holding such office at the com- mencement of the rebellion or not, or had held it before, and who afterwards engaged in insur- rection or rebellion against the United States, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof, should be entitled to vote.' The quaUfications of all electors were to be passed on by reg- istrars in the various counties who were ap- pointed by the military authorities in the South. At that time Arkansas was in the same military ■district with Mississippi, and Gen. Edward O. C. ■Ord of the United States army was the com- mander. The apportionment in Arkansas was unequal; large negro counties like Pulaski, Jeffer- son and Phillips were allowed four delegates in the convention, while large white counties like Benton, Sebastian and Crawford were allowed one each. Six counties were joined, two in a dis- trict, each district being allowed only one dele- gate. Some of these counties thus joined together were not even adjoining each other. The whole membership of the convention consisted of sev- enty-five delegates, though several counties were, for some reason, not represented at all. The convention met at Little Rock on the 7th day of January, 1868, and all the proceedings were held in the old House of Representatives, where the first legislature had convened, and where also the Secession Convention had met in 1861. It was composed of two parties then known as Radi- cal and Conservative. The radicals were largely in the majority. They elected Thomas M. Bowen, of Crawford, president of the convention by a vote of 43, the conservatives at that time being able to rally only seven votes against him." — E. Cypert, Constitutional convention of 1868 (Arkansas His- torical Association, v. 4, pp. 7-8). — See also U. S. A.: 1868-1870; Reconstruction complete. 1868. — Readmitted to the Union. — On June 22, iSbS, Arkansas was readmitted to the Union un- der the Reconstruction act of 1865. 1872-1874. — Brooks-Baxter war. — Democrats regained power. — Constitutional Convention. — Elisha Baxter, regular Republican candidate for governor in 1872, was opposed by Joseph Brooks, who was supported by disaffected Republicans and by the Democrats. Baxter was irregularly elected and Brooks contested the election. Baxter's elec- tion was confirmed by the legislature, but in April, 1874, Brooks got possession of the public build- ings by means of a judgment of ouster. Fed- eral aid was invoked and Federal troops main- tained order during investigation by a Con- gressional committee, whose findings led President Grant to decide in favor of Baxter. The demo- crats, however, regained power, when in 1873 the article in the constitution disenfranchising the whites was repealed. A constitutional convention was held July to October, 1874, and the new constitution, which in the main returned to ante- bellum conditions, was ratified October 13, 1874. 1885-1908. — Amendments added to the consti- tution of the state.— "Down to 1908 . . . eight amendments to the constitution of 1874 had been adopted. The first (1885) was an act of repudiation, the second required a poll-tax re- ceipt as a qualification for suffrage, the third and sixth were administrative, the fourth empowered the legislature to correct abuses and prevent un- just discriminations by transportation companies, the fifth provided for a road tax, the seventh re-enacted section 16 of the constitution providing pay of legislators, and the eighth increased the amount of taxes which may be raised for school purposes." — Political Science Quarterly, v. 2g, p. 84. 1908-1915. — Political issues. — "In recent years [up to about igi6 at least] the chief issues in state politics have been the railroads, the state capitol, the deficit, state-wide prohibition, and the legislature. These have not been issues as between the Democratic and Republican parties; indeed, little consideration is given to what the Republicans want. The issues have hardly caused factions within the Democratic party, but they have been used as convenient tools in personal fights for office. The railroads have been pretty well excluded from the legislature since 1907, in which year the passenger and freight-rate reduc- tion laws were passed. Everybody wanted a new capitol, but the politicians divided on the manner of its building. For years the expendi- tures of the state have exceeded its revenues. All candidates for governor have agreed that more revenue must be raised without increasing the taxes of the people, but each has denounced the specific proposals of the others. The liquor ques- tion has come nearer being a real issue than any of the foregoing, though most candidates have declined to take a decided stand on the matter of state-wide prohibition. Every two years each county votes on the question of hccnse or no license. For some time the total vote against hcense has been considerably in excess of that for it. [Important only as history since the pas- sage of the federal prohibition amendment, in ef- fect January 16, 1920.] Encouraged by this the prohibitionists tried several times to get the legislature either to pass a state-wide law or to submit a prohibition amendment, but the liquor interests were always able to defeat every such measure. This led to a demand for the initiative." — Political Science Quarterly, v. 29, pp. 84-85. 513 ARKANSAS, 1910-1919 ARLES 1910. — 16th federal amendment ratified. — State amendment added. — The state ratified the sixteenth tederal amendment, allowing the federal income tax, on April 22, igio. In September of the same year the state constitution was amended to include the initiative and referendum. 1913. — Comaussion government for cities. — 17th federal amendment ratified. — A law passed in this year made the commission form of govern- ment permissible for all cities having between iS.ooo and 40,000 population. In this same year the state ratified the seventeenth federal amend- ment, providing for direct election of senators. 1917. — Educational and other legislation. — "Many constructive measures for social reform were passed by the .Arkansas legislature during its sixty-day session ending March 8 [1917]. An act that stimulated especial interest was that calling for a constitutional convention to be held in Little Rock, November 19. For the first time Arkansas will have compulsory education, re- quiring all children from seven to fifteen, in- clusive, to attend school. A compulsory at- tendance law was passed in the state several years ago, but the counties having a large Negro popu- lation were exempt, and this left over half of the state without any such attendance law. Here- tofore there had been no uniform textbooks, but they were changed indiscriminately, making a hard- ship, especially for those children who come from poor families. Now a commission is created which will make contracts for textbooks and arrange for their uniformity. The act also provides that school boards shall furnish books to children who are unable to buy them. Moreover, a commis- sion composed of nine members appointed by the Governor is to investigate means of eliminating illiteracy in this state. The University of Arkan- sas and the normal schools have heretofore been in politics, since those interested in the university found it necessary to lobby at the state capital in order that the legislature vote a sufficient ap- propriation. The new law will remove these educational institutions from politics by the levy- ing of a tax of one-eighth mill to pay the inter- est on the common school bonds held by the state. ... .A mother's pension bill was passed authorizing each county to allow pensions to in- digent widowed mothers with children under fourteen. Fifty-one counties were exempt from its provisions, however, so the law applies to prac- tically only one-third of the state. The wis- dom of this law is questioned, since the county judges under the present law can and do give outdoor poor relief and the law itself does not qualify this relief. Therefore, even without the passage of this law, county judges can grant pensions if they choose, and since the law is not mandatory they are not obligated any more than formerly." — Making over Arkansas in sixty days (Survey, Apr. 14, 1017). — The legislature also passed a road act, enabling the state to receive its proportion of funds according to the federal Shackleford .-Kct, and an act giving women the right to vote in primary elections; as Democratic candidates have generally been elected, the right granted was practically that of voting for Presi- dent. 1917-1918. — Constitutional Convention. — Rad- ical nature. — Constitution defeated. — .\ constitu- tional convention met in Little Rock in November, 1917, but soon adjourned to July, 1Q18, when rad- ical changes were proposed, including giving full vote to women, recasting the initiative and referen- lum provision, providing for the budget system, and establishing "bone-dry" prohibition instead of statutory prohibition. The proposed new constitu- tion was submitted to the people December 14, 1918, and defeated. 1918.— Part played in the World War.— The state furnished 03,632 men to the military and naval forces. An army cantonment. Camp Pike, was located near Little Rock and an aviation field, Ebert Field, was located near Lonoke. See U.S.A.: 1919: Contribution to World War. 1919. — Legislation and legal decisions. — The year 1919 set a record in the state's legislative history since there were three sessions of the leg- islature and a fourth session was called before the year was ended. The governor was authorized by the legislature to appoint a commission to draft a workmen's compensation law. The existing limitations on working hours were extended to women engaged by employers hiring three or less. The regular session ratified the federal prohi- bition amendment. .'\n extra session at the end of July ratified the federal woman suffrage amend- ment, .Arkansas being the twelfth state. The regular and the second extra session enacted much highway construction legislation. Much of this legislation was declared invalid December 2, 1919, by the Supreme Court on the ground that the constitutional provision requiring publication of intention to apply for special acts had not been complied with. Consequently a third extra ses- sion was called for January 26, 1920. Also in: J. W. Burgess, Civil War and the con- stitution, V. I, pp. 54, 102, 175. — J. B. McMaster, History of the United Stales, v. 4, pp. 574-576; V. 7, pp. 21, 22, 157, 184. — J. F. Rhodes, History of the United States, v. 6, pp. 168-169, 174, 175, 183; v. 7, pp. &6-&8.— Poland Report House of Representatives, 43rd Congress, 2nd Session, Mo. 127. ARKANSAS RIVER: Wilkinson's expedi- tion. See Okl.^hoiia: 1S06-1824. Development of steam navigation. See Okla- hom.^: 1824-1837. ARKITES.— A Canaanite tribe who occupied the plain north of Lebanon. ARKWRIGHT, Sir Richard (1732-1792), English inventor, originally a barber. Celebrated for his invention of machinery which revolution- ized the cotton-spinning industry, 1732-1792; from the mills of .'\rkwright the modern factory sys- tem originated. — See also Industrml revolution: Inventions in textile industry; Inventions: i8th century; and U. S. .\ : 1703: Whitney's cotton gin. ARLES, a town of south-eastern France, and the capital of the former kingdom of Aries. Origin. See S.\lves. A. D. 200-600. — Ancient commercial impor- tance. See Commerce: .Ancient: 200-600. 407. — Seat of government of Constantine. See Britain-: 407. 411. — Double siege. See Britain: 407. 425. — Besieged by the Goths. See Goths (Visigoths): 419-451. 508-510.— Siege by the Franks.— After the overthrow of the V'isigothic kingdom of Toulouse, 507, by the victory of Clovis, king of the Franks, at Voclad, near Poitiers, "the great city of Aries, once the Roman capital of Gaul, maintained a gallant defence against the united Franks and Burgundians, and saved for generations the Visi- gothic rule in Provence and southern Languedoc. Of the siege, which lasted apparently from 508 to 510, we have some graphic details in the life of St. Casarius, Bishop of Aries, written by his disciples." The city was relieved in 510 by an Ostrogothic army, sent by King Theodoric of Italy, after a great battle in which 30,000 Franks were reported to be slain. "The result of the battle of Aries was to put Theodoric in secure 514 ARLEUX ARMED NEUTRALITY possession of all Provence and of so much of Languedoc as was needful to ensure his access to Spain" — where the Ostrogothic king, as guardian of his infant grandson, Amalaric, was taking care of the Visigothic kingdom. — T. Hodgkin, Italy and her invaders, bk. 4, ch. g. 933. — Formation of the kingdom. See Bur- gundy: 843-933; Orange, The principality. 1032-1378. — Breaking up of the kingdom and its gradual absorption in France. See Bur- gundy: 1032; 1127-1378. 1092-1207. — Gay court of Provence. See Provence: 943-1092; 1179-1207. ARLEUX, a town of France, northeast of Arras and four miles due east of Vimy Ridge. Captured by British in battle of Arras, April, 1917. See World War: 1917: II. Western front: c, 14; c, 19. ARLON, capital of the Belgian province of Luxemburg, occupied by Americans after armis- tice (November, 1^18). See World War: 1918: XI. End of the war: c. ARMADA, Spanish. See England: 1588: Spanish armada. ARMAGEDDON, a place mentioned in the Bible (Rev. .xvi, 16) as the location of the last great decisive battle of the nations before the final Judgment. (See Megiddo.) Often used by modern writers to signify any great conflict ac- companied by much slaughter and perhaps in- volving the downfall of civilization. Applied specifically to a plain in Palestine famous as an ancient battlefield, where General Allenby in 1918 finally overwhelmed the Turkish army. ARMAGH. — "Hardly any town of importance in Ireland is so little visited as Armagh, for it hes on no main thoroughfare of railroad; yet there is hardly any town or city, great or small, of equal interest to the historically minded. Its ecclesiastical primacy is contmuous from the time when St. Patrick, after long wanderings, fixed there his own monastic settlerhent, fifteen hun- dred and sixty-four years ago. Yet through all that long tract of generations Armagh is never so salient in Ireland's history as it was in the day of its still earlier glory ; for the Height of Macha rivalled Tara's fame when Dublin was only the Hurdle Ford across the Liffey ; or rather, if the newest and most probable theory of Irish history be true, Tara itself was only the seat of a petty principality when the heroes of the Red Branch mustered round Conchobar MacNessa. All that is most glorious in Irish epic story springs from this root; and, legendary though the stories be, they have certainly a basis in. fact. We can stand to-day in Conchobar's fortress where the sons of Usnach were foully done to death ; and we can fix, by a tradition which has in it noth- ing improbable, the period of Cuchulain's feats. Emain Macha, the great rath with double en- closure of bank and mound, which lies rather more than a mile to the westward of Armagh, was none of Conchobar's building. According to the tradition which dates its foundation about 330 years before Christ, Macha was daughter of the High King, Aedh Ruad, who left his life and his name in the dangerous ford of Erne at As- saroe, Eas Aedh Ruaidh, Red Hugh's Waterfall. After Aedh's drowning, Macha, like the Amazon that she was, claimed his throne, but found her succession disputed. One of the rival claimants, Cimbaeth, she wedded, and, as for the other princes, single-handed she captured them (by a stratagem which, says Archbishop Healy, did more credit to her cunning and valour than to her modesty) ; and she set the captives digging earth- works on a line, which she traced out with eo muin, the broochpin of her neck; iinde, Emain Macha." — S. Gwynn, Fair hills oj Ireland, pp. 98, 141. — See also Ireland: Historical map. 5th century.— School founded by St. Patrick. See Education: Medieval; 5th-bth centuries: Ire- land. 1795. — Riots. See Ireland: i 705-1 796. ARMAGNAC, Counts of. See France: 1328. Civil war between Armagnacs and Burgun- dians. See France: 1380-1415. Destruction of Soissons by Armagnacs. See SoissoNs: 1414. Massacre of Armagnacs. See France: 1415- MIO. ARMAMENTS: Armies. See War, Prepara- tion FOR. Equilibrium of. — Controversy of Argentina and Brazil (1902-1909). See War, Preparation FOR. Limitation proposed. See Hague conferences: 1899; Peace movement: Attitude of governments; U. S. A.: 1921 (July-.'\ugust) ; Washington Con- ference. ARMAS TRIBES, Colombia. See Colombia: Inhabitants. ARMATOLES, a body of irregular mihtary police, reciuitfd by the Turkish government from the Greek mountaineers who had turned brigands after the capture of Greece by the Turk; in the fifteenth century. They were given certain rights and privileges during the sixteenth centun,- in ex- change for policing their districts against the ravages of the brigands. In the eighteenth cen- tury, the Turks sought to weaken their power by replacing them with Mohammedan Albanians. For this the armatoles gave their services to Ali Pasha against his government in 1S20-22. Dur- ing the Greek revolution they fought in the cause of Greece. ARMED MERCHANTMEN, Legal status of. — "The enemy merchant ship has the right ot defense against belligerent attack, and this right it can exercise against visit, for this indeed is the first act of capture. The attacked merchant ship can, indeed, itself seize the overpowered warship as a prize." — Dr. Hans Wehberg, Ger- man authority on international law, quoted in American Journal oj International Law, Oct., 1916, P- 871. — As a corollary of this right, an enemy merchant ship may, of course, arm for purely de- fensive purposes, without prejudice to its status as a merchant vessel either in neutral harbors or on the high seas. This is the position which our government took at the outset of the war. Early in 1916, however, it approached both belligerents with the proposition that enemy merchantmen should forego their defensive right on condition that belligerent submarines should in all cases ex- ercise visit and search preliminary to capture This effort at compromise failing, our government re- turned to its original stand on the established principles of law. The test of defensive arma- ment is the use to which it is put, not its size." — War cyclopedia, p. 19. See McLemore resolu- tion: Resistance, Right of. "ARMED NEUTRALITY," a league of Euro- pean states, headed by Russia, and including Prus- sia, the Empire, Sweden, Holland, Denmark, .Aus- tria, Portugal and the two Sicilies, formed in 1780 to protect neutral flags from the right of search claimed by Great Britain during the latter's struggle with France, Spain and the United States. "England's position became still more precarious on account of the Armed Neutrality, formed by the Baltic Powers and the Dutch as a protest against an unjust extension by the English of the term 'contraband' and the right of search. 515 ARMELLIN ARMENIA This brought about war between England and the United Provinces." — H. E. Bourne, Revolutionary period in Europe {1763-1815), p. 68. — In Decem- ber, 1800, the Armed Neutrality was revived by Bonaparte, but the league, consisting of Russia, Sweden, Denmark and Prussia, was short-lived. ARMELLIN, member of a Roman triumvirate. See Rome: Modern city: 1849. ARMENIA: Geographic description. — "Al- most immediately to the west of the Caspian there rises a high table-land diversified by moun- tains, which stretches eastward for more than eighteen degrees, between the 37th and 41st paral- lels. This highland may properly be regarded as a continuation of the great Iranean plateau, with which it is connected at its southeastern corner. It comprises a portion of the modern Persia, the whole of Armenia, and most of .\sia Minor. Its principal mountain ranges are latitudinal, or from west to east, only the minor ones taking the op- posite or longitudinal direction. . . . The heart of the mountain-region, the tract extending from the district of Erivan on the east to the upper course of the Kizil-Irmak river and the vicinity of Sivas upon the west, was, as it still is, Armenia. Amidst these natural fastnesses, in a country of lofty ridges, deep and narrow valleys, numerous and copious streams, and occasional broad plains — a country of rich pasture grounds, productive or- chards, and abundant harvests — this interesting peo- ple has maintained itself almost unchanged from the time of the early Persian kings to the present day. Armenia was one of the most valuable portions of the Persian empire, furnishing, as it did, besides stone and timber, and several most important minerals, an annual supply of 20,000 excellent horses to the stud of the Persian king." — G. Rawlinson, Five great monarchies: Persia, cit. I. — See also B.^bylonw: Map of Egyptian, As- syrian, Babylonian and Median powers; Turkey: Map of Asia Minor. Physical features. — ^"Lake Van is the most important inland water, 5,100 feet above the sea level, with an area of about 1,300 miles, or, says Lynch: 'Six times as great as Lake Geneva.' It possesses two considerable islands, on which have stood for many centuries two Armenian convents. Other lakes are: Lake Urmia (4,000 feet above sea level), like Lake Van, a salt lake; and Lake Sevan (5,870 feet above sea level), discharging into the .\rax [Aras]. . . . The monotony of the plateau is increased by the treelessness of vast areas. 'There is no reason why this country should not be strewn with woodlands and her plains ver- dant, with a kinder rainfall and an extended ir- rigation. Patches of forest, but thin and miser- able, still struggle towards the interior from the luscious zone in the North. They are seen on the sides of the passes at a distance from the villages. But with the exception of Kighi and the Dersim and the slopes of the Soghanlu Moun- tains, southwest of Kars, the land has been de- nuded of any covering as a result of progressive economical decline. Centuries of unchecked li- cense on the part of tribal shepherds— Tartars, Turkomans. Kurds — have brought about the de- struction of a source of salubriousness and wealth, which, under any circumstances, would require careful husbanding. If the plateaus are mo- notonous in their lack of adornment, on the other hand the gorges of the Euphrates and Tigris pos- sess a wild beauty of scenery which is unsurpassed. The climate varies. On the higher reaches of the plateau the winter is long and the cold severe; summer is short, very dry and hot. The tempera- ture at Erzeroum varies from 22° to 84°. Snow sometimes falls in June, and in July the wells near Erzeroum are occasionally thinly frozen over. The mountain chains with their heavy snow ac- cumulations are the sources of the many streams. But the rainfall is not heavy, and in summer the plains are scorched and demand irrigation. The soil shows vulcanic products, especially in the vicinity of Maku, in the narrow valley which extends from the Araxene plain near .Ararat to- wards Lake Van; and also in the country round Lake Gokcha. In the interior the few towns there are, lie high — from 4,000 to 6,000 feet above sea level. The villages are on the gentle slopes, and the peasantry, as their forefathers did 800 years ago, burrow in the hillsides, and find in the excavations protection against the rigours of the long and trying winter. Xenophon's descrip- tion of the sufferings of the 10,000 Greeks in this climate is well known. Both the Taurus and the Anti-Taurus ranges are crossed at different points by passes, generally at low elevations and fairly easy of access. One of the most famous is the pass of Erkenek, the only one by which an army could descend from the interior of Asia Minor towards Syria or Mesopotamia. An even more famous pass, either from the military or com- mercial point of view, is the Golek Boghaz or 'Cilician Gates' — a deep gorge, 3,300 feet above sea level, running about 30 miles north of Tarsus, over the Taurus and connecting .\natolia with North Syria and the Euphrates Valley. The width of the road through the Gates proper is only 25 feet. Through the gorge between walls of per- pendicular rock, rushes a tributary of the Tarsus River. This famous defile has been used in all ages by migrating peoples, traders and conquering hosts. Through it marched .Alexander to the con- quest of Persia and the far-distant East. In more modern times, Mehemet Ali, in his revolt against the Ottoman Sultan, twice penetrated through the 'Cilician Gates' into .Anatolia on his march to Constantinople." — W. L. Williams, Ar- menia, pp. 8-1 1. — See also Asia Minor: Greek col- onies; Caucasus: Ethnology; Turkey: The Land. B. C. 1SOO-14(X).— Relations with Egypt. See Egypt: .About B.C. 1500-1400. B. C. 585-55. — Persian conquest. — Reign of King Tigranes. — "The strong compact Kingdom of Urartu [Urardhu, .Ararat, included most of Armenia] lies at the dawn of Armenian history like a golden age. It had only existed two cen- turies when it was shattered by the invaders from the Russian steppes, and the anarchy into which they plunged the country had to be cured by the imposition of a foreign rule. In 585 B. C. the nomads were cowed and the plateau annexed by Cyaxares the Mede, and, after the Persians had taken over the Medes' inheritance, the great organizer Darius divided this portion of it into two governments or satrapies. One of these seems to have included the basins of Urmia and Van, and part of the valley of the Aras; the other corresponded approximately to the modern Vilayets of Bitlis, Mamouret-ul-.Aziz and Diyar- bekir, and covered the upper valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates. They were called respectively the satrapies of Eastern and Western Armenia, and this is the origin of the name by which the Haik and the Haiasdan are now almost uni- versally known to their neighbours. The word 'Armenia' (Armina) first appears in Darius's in- scriptions ; the Greeks adopted it from the Persian official usage, and from the Greeks it has spread to the rest of the world, including the Osmanli Turks. [See Al.\rodians ; Iberiavs: Colchians.] Under the Persian Dynasty of the -Achaemenlds and their Macedonian successors, the two .Armenian satrapies remained mere administrative divisions. S16 ARMENIA, B.C. 105 Arabian Rule ARMENIA, 908-1085 Subject to the payment of tribute, the satraps were practically independent and probably heredi- tary, but the rulers' autonomy did not enable their subjects to develop any distinctive national life. In religion and culture the country took on a strong Persian veneer; and the situation was not essentially changed when, early in the second cen- tury B. C, the two reigning satraps revolted simultaneously from their overlord, the Seleucid King of Western Asia, and each founded a royal dynasty of his own. The decisive change was accomplished by Tigranes (Dikran) the Great (94 to 56 B.C.), a scion of the Eastern Dynasty, who welded the two principalities into one kingdom-, and so created the first strong native sovereignty that the country had known since the fall of Urartu five centuries before. "If Gregory the Illuminator is the ecclesiastical hero of .Armenia, King Tigranes is his pohtical forerunner and counterpart. He was connected by marriage with Mithradates, the still more fa- mous King of Pontic Cappadocia, who may be taken as the first exponent of the Near Eastern idea. Mithradates attempted to build an empire that should be at once cosmopolitan and national, Hellenic and Iranian, of the West and of the East, and Tigranes was profoundly influenced by his brilliant neighbour and ally. He set himself the parallel ambition of reconstructing round his own person the kingdom of the Seleucids, which had been shaken a century before by a rude encounter with Rome, weakened still further by the defec- tion of Tigranes' own predecessors, and was now in the actual throes of dissolution. He laid him- self out a new capital on the northern rim of the Mesopotamian steppe, somewhere near the site of Ibrahim Pasha's Viran Shehr, and peopled it with masses of exiles, deported from the Greek cities he devastated in Syria and Cilicia. It was to be the Hellenistic world-centre for an Oriental King of Kings; but all his dreams, like Mith- radates', were shattered by the methodical progress of the Roman empire. A Roman army igno- minously turned Tigranes out of Tigranokerta, and sent back his Greek exiles rejoicing to their homes. The new Armenian kingdom failed to establish its position as a great power, and had to accept the position of a buffer state between Rome on the west and the Parthian rulers of Iran. Never- theless, Tigranes' work is of supreme pohtical importance in Armenian history. He had con- so'lidate'd the two satrapies of Darius into a united kingdom, powerful enough to preserve its unity and independence for nearly five hundred years. It was within this chrysalis that the interaction of religion and language pro-duced the new germ of modern Armenian nationality; and when the chrysalis was rent at last, the nation emerged so strongly grown that it could brave the buffets of the outer world. Before Tigranes, Armenia had belonged wholly to the East. Tigranes loosened these links and knit certain new links with the West. The period that followed was marked by a perpetual struggle between the Roman and Parthian Governments for political influence over the kingdom, which was really a battle over Armenia's soul. Was Armenia to be wrested away altogether from Oriental influences and rallied to the European world, or was it to Cnk back into being a spiritual and political appanage of Iran? It seemed a clear issue, but it was not destined to be decided in either .'iense. Armenia was to be caught for two millenniums in the uncertain eddy of the Nearer East." — J. Bryce, Treatment of the Armenians, pp. 600-601. B. C. 103. — Allied with kingdom of Pontus. See MiTHRADAIIC WARS, B. C. 69-68. — War with the Romans. — Great defeat at Tigranokerta. — Submission to Rome. See Rome: Republic: B.C. 78-68, and 69-63. B. C. 67. — Conquest by Pompey. See Pom- PEius, Gnaeus Magnus: In the East. A. D. 115-117. — Annexed to the Roman em- pire by Trajan and restored to independence by Hadrian. See Rome: Empire: 96-138. A. D. 387-900. — Swing from the Persian to Arabian rule. — "In this opposition of forces, the political balance inclined from the first in favour of the Oriental Power. The Parthians succeeded in re- placing the descendants of Tigranes by a junior branch of their own Arsacid Dynasty ; and when, in 387 A. D., the rivals agreed to settle the j^rmenian question by the drastic expedient of partition, the Sassanid kings of Persia (who had superseded the Parthians in the Empire of Iran) secured the hon's share of the spoils, while the Romans only received a strip of country on the western border which gave them Erzeroum and Diyarbekir for their frontier fortresses. [See also Persia: 226-627.] In the cultural sphere, on the other hand, the West was constantly increas- ing its ascendancy. King Tiridates was an Arsacid, but he accepted Christianity as the religion of the State he ruled; and when, less than a century after his death, his kingdom fell and the greater part of the country and the people came directly under Persian rule, the Persian propaganda failed to make any impression. No amount of preach- ing or persecution could persuade the Armenians to accept Zoroastrianism, which was the estab- Ushed religion of the Sassanian State. They clung to their national church in despite of their political annihilation, and showed thereby that their spiritual allegiance was given irrevocably to the West. The partition of 387 A. D. produced as long a political interregnum in Armenian his- tory as the fall of Urartu in the seventh cenlurj' B.C. In the second quarter of the seventh cen- tury A. D., the mastery of Western Asia passed from the Persians to the Arabs, and the Armenian provinces changed masters with the rest. Persian governors appointed by the Sassanid King of Kings were superseded by Arab governors appointed by the Omayyad and Abbasid Caliphs, and the in- tolerance of Zoroastrianism was replaeed by the far stronger and hardly less intolerant force of Islam. Then, in the ninth century, the political power of the Abbasid Caliphate at Baghdad be- gan to decline, the outlying provinces were able to detach themselves, and three independent [Bagratid] dynasties emerged on .Armenian soil." — J. Bryce, Treatment of the Armenians, pp. 601- 602. 908-1085. — Seljuk invasions. — The Ardzunian Kagig became king of Van in 908, and his suc- cessors ruled till 1080. For a century from 984 Arabs, Byzantines and Seljuks held the ruling power. Arabs drove many Armenians into Turkey. "In the eleventh century A. D., a new power ap- peared in the East. The Arab Empire of the Cahphs had long been receiving an influx of Turks from Central Asia as slaves and professional soldiers, and the Turkish bodyguard had assumed control of politics at Baghdad. But this in- dividual infiltration was now succeeded by the migration of whole tribes, and the tribes were organised into a political power by the clan of Seijuk. The new Turkish dynasty constituted itself the temporal representative of Je Ab- basid Caliphate, and the dominion of Moham- medan Asia was suddenly transferred from the devitalised Arabs to a vigorous barbaric horde of nomadic Turks. These Turkish reinforcements brutalised and at the same time stimulated the 517 ARMENIA, 12TH-14TH CENTURIES Seljuks ARMENIA, 1453-1878 Islamic world, and the result was a new impetus of conquest towards the borderlands. The brunt of this movement fell upon the unprepared and dis- united Armenian principalities. In the first quarter of the eleventh century the Seljuks began their incursions on to the Armenian plateau. The Armenian princes turned for protection to the East Roman Empire, accepted its suzerainty, or even surrendered their territory directly into its hands. But the Imperial Government brought little com- fort to the .'\rmenian people. Centred at Con- stantinople and cut off from the Latin West, it had lost its Roman universality and become trans- formed into a Greek national state, while the established Orthodox Church had developed the specifically Near Eastern character of a nationalist ecclesiastical organization. The Armenians found that incorporation in the Empire exposed them to temporal and spiritual Hellenisation, without protecting them against the common enemy on the east. The Seljuk invasions increased in intensity, and culminated, in 1071 A. D., in the decisive battle of Melazkerd. in which the Imperial Army was destroyed and the Emperor Romanos II. taken prisoner on the field. Melazkerd placed the whole of Armenia at the Seljuks mercy — and not only Armenia, but the Anatolian provinces of the Empire that lay between Armenia and Europe. The Seljuks carried Islam into the heart of the Near East. [See also Turkey: 1063-1073.] The next four-and-a-half centuries were the most dis- astrous period in the whole political history of Armenia It is true that a vestige of inde- pendence was preserved, for Roupen [Rupinl the Bagratid conducted a portion of his people south- westward into the mountains of Cilicia, where they were out of the main current of Turkish invasion, and founded a new principality which survived nearly three hundred years (1080-1375). There is a certain romance about this Kingdom of Lesser Armenia. It threw in its lot with the Crusaders, and gave the Armenian nation its first direct contact with modern Western Europe. But the mass of the race remained in Armenia proper, and during these centuries the Armenian table- land suffered almost ceaseless devastation. The Seljuk migration was only the first wave in a prolonged outbreak of Central Asiatic disturbance, and the Seljuks were civilised in comparison with the tribes that followed on their heels. Early in the thirteenth century came Karluks and Khariz- mians, fleeing across Western Asia before the ad- vance of the Mongols; and in 1235 came the first great raid of the Mongols themselves — savages who destroyed civilisation wherever they found it, and were impartial enemies of Christendom and Islam. All these waves of invasion took the same channels. They swept across the broad plateau of Persia, poured up the valleys of the Aras and the Tigris, burst in their full force upon the Armenian highlands and broke over them into Anatolia beyond. Armenia bore the brunt of them all, and the country was ravaged and the population reduced quite out of proportion to the sufferings of the neighboring regions. The di- vision of the Mongol conquests among the family of Djengis Khan established a Mongol dynasty in Western Asia which seated itself in Azerbaijan, accepted Islam and took over the tradition of the Seljuks, the Abbasids and the Sassanids. It was the old Asiatic Empire under a new name, but it had now incorporated Armenia and extended north-westwards to the Kizil Irmak (Halys)." — J. Bryce, Treatment of the Armenians, pp. 603- 604. 12th-14th centuries. — Medieval Christian kingdom. — "The last decade of the 12th century saw the establishment of two small Christian kingdoms in the Levant, which long outlived all other relics of the Crusades except the military orders; and which, with very little help from the West, sustained a hazardous existence in com- plete contrast with almost everything around them. The kingdoms of Cyprus and .\rmenia have a his- tory very closely intertwined, but their origin and most of their circumstances were very differ- ent. By Armenia as a kingdom is meant little more than the ancient Cilicia, the land between Taurus and the sea, from the frontier of the principality of Antioch, eastward, to Kelcnderis or Palaeopolis, a Httle beyond Seleucia ; this terri- tory, which was computed to contain 16 days' journey in length, measured from four miles of Antioch, by two in breadth, was separated from the Greater Armenia, which before the period on which we are now employed had fallen under the sway of the Seljuks, by the ridges of Taurus. The population was composed largely of the sweepings of Asia Minor, Christian tribes which had taken refuge in the mountains. Their religion was partly Greek, partly Armenian. . . . Their rulers were princes descended from the house of the Bag- ratids, who had governed the Greater Armenia as kings from the year 885 to the reign of Con- stantine Monomachus, and had then merged their hazardous independence in the mass of the Greek Empire. After the seizure of Asia Minor by the Seljuks, the few of the Bagratidae who had retained possession of the mountain fastnesses of Cilicia or the strongholds of Mesopotamia, acted as independent lords, showing little respect for Byzantium save where there was something to be gained. . . . Rupin of the Mountain was prince [of Cilicia] at the time of the capture of Jeru- salem by Saladin ; he died in iiSg. and his suc- cessor, Leo, or Livon, after having successfully courted the favour of pope and emperor, was recognised as king of Armenia by the emperor Henry \'I., and was crowned by Conrad of Wit- telsbach, Archbishop of Mainz, in 1198." The dynasty ended with Leo IV, whose "whole reign was a continued struggle against the Moslems," and who was assassinated about 1342. "The five remaining kings of .Armenia sprang from a branch of the Cypriot house of Lusignan [see Cvpkus: 1 102-1480]." — W. Stubbs, Lectures on the study of mediaeval and modern history, led. 8. — See also Crus.^des: Map of Mediterranean lands after 1204. 1453-1878.— Under Turkish dominion.— "The Osmanii State is the greatest and most character- istic Near Eastern Empire there has ever been. In its present decline it has become nothing but a blight to all the countries and peoples that remain under its sway ; but at the outset it manifested a faculty for strong government which satisfied the supreme need of the distracted Near Eastern world. This was the secret of its amaz- ing power of organisation, for it enabled the Osmanlis to monopolise all the vestiges of political genius that survived in the Near East. The original Turkish germ was quickly absorbed in the mass of Osmanlicised native Greeks. The first expansion of the State was westward, across the Dardanelles, and before the close of the four- teenth century the whole of South-Eastern Europe had become Osmanii territory, as far as the Danube and the Hungarian frontier. The seal was set on these European conquests when Sul- tan Mohammed II entered Constantinople in 1453, and then the current of expansion veered to- wards the east. Mohammed himself absorbed the rival Turkish principalities in Anatolia, and an- nexed the Greek 'Empire' of Trebizond. In the second decade of the sixteenth century, Sultan S18 ARMENIA, 1623-1635 Turkish Atrocities ARMENIA, 1915 Selim I. followed this up with a sweeping series of campaigns, which carried him with hardly a pause from the Taurus barrier to the citadel of Cairo. Armenia was overrun in 1514; the petty Turkish chieftains were overthrown, the new Per- sian Empire' was hurled back to the Caspian, and a frontier established between the Osmanli Sultans and the Shahs of Iran, which has endured, with a few fluctuations, until the present day. In the sixteenth century the whole Near Eastern world, from the gates of Vienna to the gates of Aleppo and Tabriz, found itself united under a single masterful Government, and once more Armenia was linked securely with the West. From 1514 onwards the great majority of the Armenian nation was subject to the OsmanJi State. It is true that the province of Erivan (on the mid- dle course of the Aras) was recovered by the Persians in the seventeenth century, and held by them till its cession to Russia in 1834. But, with this exception, the whole of Armenia remained under Osmanli rule until the Russians took Kars, in the war of 1878. These intervening centuries of union and pacification were, on the whole, beneficial to Armenia; but with the year 1878 there began a new and sinister epoch in the rela- tions between the Osmanli State and the Armenian nation." — J. Bryce, Treatment of the Armenians, pp. 604-605. 1623-1635. — Subjugated by Persia and re- gained by the Turks. See Turkey; 1623-1640. Also in: K. Asian, Armenia and the Armenians. — Lord Bryce, Trans-Caucasia and Ararat. — N. and H. Buxton, Travel and politics in Armenia. — N. Gregor, History of Armenia. — H. F. B. Lynch, .Armenia: travels and studies. Murray's Hand- book for Asia Minor. — John Catholicos, Patriarch of Armenia, Histoire d'.irmenie. — VV. E. Glad- stone, Armenian, question. — Ozhderian, Turk and the land of Haig. or Turkey and Armenia. — W. L. Williams, Armenia past and present. 1877. — Relations with Kurdistan. See Kur- distan AND THE. Kurds. 1890-1893. — Trouble with Turkey. See Tur- key: 1800-1803. 1894-1895. — Revolts and massacres. — Atroci- ties of Armenians and Turks. See Turkey: 1804-1S05. 1896 (August). — Attack of revolutionists on Ottoman bank at Galata. — Turkish massacre of Armenians. See Turkey: i8q6 (August). 1899. — Concessions by Turks. See Turkey: i8qq (October). 1903-1904. — Incursions of Armenian revolu- tionists from Russia and Persia into Asiatic Turkey. See Turkey: 1003-1004. 1903-1907. — Revolutionary plans of Young Turks, and cooperation with Armenians. See Turkey: 1003-1007. 1905. — Massacre by Tatars in the Caucasus. See Russu: iqo; (April-November). 1909. — Massacre of Armenians in Adana. See Turkey: iqop. 1915. — Turkish atrocities. — Causes of hostility toward the Armenians. — This year of the World War witnessed some of the most terrible atrocities. The Turkish defeat at the hands of the Russians in the Caucasus campaign during the winter 1914- igi5 had roused the bitter resentment of Enver Pasha and Talaat Bey againstrthe Armenians, many of whom had joined the Russian forces and con- tributed in no small measure to their military successes. Hence, early in iqis "the following proc- lamation was sent to all the officials in the interior of Turkey: — " 'Our fellow countrymen the Armenians, who form one of the racial elements of the Ottoman Empire, having, under foreign instigation, for many years past, adopted false ideas of a na- ture to disturb the public order and brought about bloody happenings and attempted to destroy the peace and security of the Ottoman State, the safety and interest of their fellow countrymen as well as their own; and, moreover, as they have presumed to join themselves to their mortal en- emy, Russia, and to the enemies now at war with our State, Be it known that our Govern- ment is compelled to adopt extraordinary meas- ures both for the preservation of order and security of the country and for the welfare and the con- tinuation of the existence of the Armenian people itself. Therefore, as a measure to be applied until the conclusion of the war, the Armenians shall be sent away to places which have been prepared in the Vilayets of the interior; and a literal obedience to the following orders is categorically enjoined on all Ottomans: First. All Armenians, with the exception of the sick, shall leave th»ir villages or quarters, under the escort of the gendarmerie, within five days from the date of this proclamation. Second. Though they are free to carry with them on their journey such articles of movable property as they may desire, they are forbidden to sell their lands or their extra effects, or to leave the latter with other persons, as their exile is only temporary, and their landed property and the effects they are unable to take with them will be taken care of under supervision of the Government, and stored in protected build- ings. Any one who sells or attempts to dispose of his movable effects or landed property in a manner contrary to this order, shall be tried by court-martial. Persons are free to sell to the Gov- ernment only such articles as may answer the needs of the army.' The third clause contains a promise of safe conduct. The fourth threatens with severe punishment any one attempting to molest the Armenians on their way to the in- terior. The fifth clause reads: 'Since the Armeni- ans are obliged to submit to the decision of the Government, if any of them attempt to resist the soldiers or gendarmes by force of arms, arms shall be used against them, and they shall be taken dead or alive. In like manner, those who, in opposition to the Government's decision, refrain from leaving or seek to hide themselves, shall be sent before a court-martial ; and if they are shel- tered or given food and assistance, the persons who shelter or aid them shall be sent before the court-martial for execution.' "In these few sentences a responsible gov- ernment sanctioned and set in motion one of the most terrible of recorded tragedies — the .'\rmenian deportation. To the average person, these two words convey little but a vague sense of injustice done, of suffering endured. Such, after all, are the chief associations connected with the name of the Ottoman Empire, which has enjoyed most of its world-prominence through wholesale barbar- ities. Massacres have been one of the common occurrences of Turkish history. No wonder, then, that at a time when all Europe is filled with blood and tears, and desolation stalks abroad among her nations, it is difficult to get people to lend an ear to the supreme ordeal of the Armenians, and to convince them that at this mo- ment the Turks are writing unhindered what Pro- fessor Gibbons justly calls the 'blackest page in modern history.' It is difficult to convince them that the cruelties of Abdul Hamid were merciful by comparison with this final turn of the screw. The suffering caused by massacres was scattering ; it smote only a fraction of the people, a thousand here, ten thousand there, while the bulk of the 519 ARMENIA, 1915 Turkish Atrocities ARMENIA, 1915 race survived. Such was the policy or wisdom of the Old Turk; he kept the cow aUve that he might continually milk her. Not so with the Young Turk. IntelUgent, cultured, irreligious, and unscrupulous, the old-fashioned method of dealing with the Armenians was too slow for him; he 'Set about finding a way to settle the problem once for all, and devised the scheme of deporta- tion — which, bluntly, is another way of saying the extermination of the Armenian race in the Ottoman Empire. "The full story of the deportation will never be written, for the reason that it deals so largely with suffering that is indescribable, heartlessness that is incredible. The central fact is, however, that under the pretext of war-measures the Armenians have been driven eii masse from the shores of the Black Sea and Marmora southward as far as the Syrian desert. . . . For the com- pleter evolution of the 'deportation' system, we may again examine the case of Marsovan. This town is an important missionary centre. Under the American Board, an extensive medical, evan- gelical, and educational work was carried on here. There was .■\natolia College, with more than four hundred students; a girls' boarding school of almost three hundred pupils; a hospital, a theological seminary, and an industrial institu- tion. Forces for good were at work which spread their influence throughout the Ottoman Empire, and beyond — into Russia, Greece, and Egypt. Ambassador Morgenthau had secured promises from Enver Pasha and Talaad Bey that the col- lege people should not be molested but the gov- ernor of Marsovan declared that he had been notified of no such promise, and had received no orders save those to deport all Armenians. Once more the Turks had pulled wool over the diplomat's eyes. And so, on August lo, igis. sixty-one ox-carts entered the college compound. The gendarmes forced the great gates open, and battered down every closed door. They entered even the homes of Americans, and took away every .■\rmenian on the premises. . . . According to the testimony of the wives of the professors, seen near Sivas, they were all kept together un- til they passed Zilch . . . then they were sep- arated. The men, bound with ropes, were driven in one direction, the women and young children in another. According to the testimony of the gendarmes, all the men were killed. It should be kept in mind that the tragedy of Marsovan was being enacted, on a greater or lesser scale, in hundreds of other villages and towns, in all of which the eliminative processes had been work- ing on the Armenians in the same general fashion. . . . This 'selection' continued methodically all along the caravan routes which the refugees were following. Kurds, Turks, Arabs, attacked the de- fenseless victims and took their pick of them unhindered. The rest were forced to go on under the whips of gendarmes and other officials worse than slave-drivers. .\s fatigue and hunger made their inroads on the Armenians, the conditions became indescribable. . . . During my stay in An- gora all the male .Armenians were deported, chiefly toward the southern interior. Villagers and gendarmes reported that great numbers of them were killed a short distance outside the city. Every day I saw them hurrying through the streets in miserable droves, with the police brutally fol- lowing them up. The .Armenian? of .^neora were mostly Catholics. No massacres took place among them under .\bdul Hamid. They were most loyal to the Turks: they took no part in nationalistic movements. They did not even call themselves Armenians. The Young Turks, however, made no discrimination of creed: Gregorians, Protestants, and Catholics were all put on the same footing and ruthlessly deported. Gregorian and Catholic priests were often driven off in the same wagon and decapitated with the same axe. It is worth noting that while I was still in Angora the leaders of the Turkish Union and Progress Committee sent word to the Catholic bishop of the city that if he and his people would embrace Islam, they would all be spared. The refusal was unanimous. "No one can hear the terrible tale of the Ar- menian deportation without asking what the un- derlying reasons for it all might be. Even beasts of prey, it will be said, do not kill for the mere lust of killing; what is the object to be attained? What results do the Turks hope to get in return for the energy they have expended in prosecuting this extermination? (i) According to the Turk- ish Government, the plan was necessitated by the exigencies of war. 'Turkey,' they said, 'was engaged in a tremendous struggle against over- whelming odds, fighting for her very life. The Armenians were plotting with the enemy and pre- paring internal disturbances; therefore they had to be removed to a place where they could be rendered harmless.' This charge of plotting is groundless. The only instance in which the Ar- menians made armed resistance to the Turks was at Van— and then only when they had been at- tacked and saw that they were doomed to ex- termination. It is true that, when the sale of arms was generally permitted after the revolu- tion of iqo8, many Armenians took advantage of the occasion to secure weapons of defense. The source of these arms was controlled by the gov- ernment, however, coming as they did direct from Germany; and when, after the declaration of war, the Armenians were commanded to give them up, they voluntarily obeyed, those persons who were at first inclined to conceal their weapons finally yielding to the persuasion of their priests or pastors. Some slight excuse for the action of the Turks might seem to be found in the ex- istence of the organized .Armenian 'Hinchakist' and 'Tashuagist' societies which, under the reign of Abdul Hamid, were perforce kept secret. But after the revolution of iqo8, these societies openly proclaimed themselves, and won the approval of the Young Turks, who declared that 'the Ar- menian revolutionists were among the pioneers of Ottoman liberty.' Their programme was broadly socialistic and educational, aiming at the instruc- tion of the people and their elevation to those ideals which the Young Turks themselves had espoused with such high-sounding phrases. When the test came, it was shown how empty these phrases really were. (2) Race- jealousy is a fac- tor to be reckoned with. The Turks are really aliens in the country they rule: they came as conquerors, and have maintained their supremacy by force. The .Armenians, when they were sub- jugated by the Turks, were an ancient and civilized people, with an organized society which the Turks, in long centuries, have never been able to ap- proximate: an enterprising race, thrifty, energetic, and capable of progress and culture along all lines. In spite of savage repression, they became the leading merchants, traders, lawyers, doctors of the country, especially in the interior. Even in the reign of Abdul Hamid the Minister of Finance was usually an Armenian. They amassed great wealth and property, and the Turkish peasant was usually dependent on them. Now [1016] the real pro- gramme of the Young Turk party is 'Turkey for the Turks.' Under the name of 'Ottomanization,' they were determined to assimilate or eliminate all the non-Turkish elements in the Empire and 520 ARMENIA, 1916 Peace Conference ARMENIA, 1919-1920 uplift their own race at the expense of the non- Moslem peoples of the country. They were drunk with the idea of nationalism. They condemned the statesman-like policy of Mohammed II, con- queror of Constantinople, in organizing and es- tablishing the Greek Patriarchate, with its special privileges and immunities, and bewailed the fact that the Old Turks had allowed the Greek, Ar- menian, Bulgarian, Serbian, and Jewish elements of the Empire to keep intact their religious, linguistic, and racial pecularities for so many cen- turies. They were determined to be supreme in the land they conquered, absolute masters over the subject peoples. (3) All attempts to reform Turkey have been shattered against Mohammedan- ism. The very first article of the Turkish Con- stitution declares: 'The religion of the Ottoman Empire is Islam.' The Young Turks are mostly indifferent to matters of faith, if not actually irreligious, but they know the power of Islam over the people, — its value has often been proved in assimilating the non-Turkish elements. . . . Re- ligious fanaticism was especially appealed to when the Russians withdrew from Van and the Gallipoh campaign collapsed, and the idea of the Jehad or Sacred War gained in popularity. That the cause of the Armenian atrocities was not wholly re- ligious, however, is shown by the extremely Timited categories of persons to whom the choice between deportation or acceptance of Islam was offered. (4) As a fourth factor one must mention the conflicting interests and the intrigues of European diplomacy. The Christians of Turkey have suf- fered untold misery because Europe cannot agree. Turkey owes her existence to-day to the backing England gave her in the nineteenth century." — Calvary of a nation: A personal narrative { At- lantic Monthly, November, IQ16). — "And now for nearly thirty years Turkey gave the world an illustration of government by massacre. . . . Through all these years the existence of the Ar- menians was one continuous nightmare. Their property was stolen, their men were murdered, their women were ravished, their young girls kid- napped and forced to live in Turkish harems. . . . And now the Young Turks, who had adopted so many of Abdul Hamid's ideas, also made his Armenian policy their own. ... On April 15th [1915], about 500 young Armenian men of Akantz were mustered to hear an order of the Sultan; at sunset they were marched outside the town and every man shot in cold blood. This procedure was repeated in about eighty Armenian villages in the district north of Lake Van, and in three days 24,000 Armenians were murdered in this atrocious fashion. . . . Doctor Ussher, the Ameri- can medical missionary whose hospital at Van was destroyed by bombardment, is puthority for the statement that, after driving off the Turks, the Russians began to collect and to cremate the bodies of Armenians who had been murdered in the province, with the result that 55,000 bodies were burned." — Ambassador Morgenthau's story, pp. 289-290; 297, 299. — In a vivid description of how the "deportation" of the Armenians was car- ried out, and the barbaric proceduie of Turkish gendarmes. Ambassador Morganthau estimates that ''at least 600,000 people were destroyed and per- haps as many as 1,000,000." — See also World War; IQ15: VI. Turkey: d. Also in: A. J. Toynbee, Armenian atrocities, the murder oj a nation. — M. Niepage, The horrors of Aleppo seen by a German eyewitness. — R. Pinon, La suppression des Armeniens: methode allemande — travail turc. 1916. — Conquest by Russians. See World War: 1916: VI. Turkish theater: d, 1; d, 3; d, 5. 1916 (May).— Southern section ceaed to France. See Svria: 1908-1921. 1918.— Speech of Lloyd George on British war aims. See World War: 1918: X. Statements of war aims: a. 1918.— Military operations.- Turkish activ- ities. — Massacres. See World War: 1918- VI Turkish theater: b; b, 2; b, 3. 1918.— Troops aid British in Palestine. See World War: 1918: VI. Turkish theater: c 14 1918-1920.— Republic formed. See Caucasus: 1918-1920. 1919-1920.— Peace Conference on Armenia's destiny.— Problems of mandate.— "The libera- tion of Armenia was the one outstanding re- sult expected from the Near Eastern negotiations at the Peace Conference. The failure to meet this general expectation was indirectly a result of the struggle among the Allied Powers for e-quality or priority of opportunity in the commercial exploi- tation of the old Turkish Empire in the case of a successful termination of the war. In the pursuit of these objects the independence and protection of Armenia became a thing men talked about, but did not work for. ... In May, 1916, it was secretly agreed that Russia was tc acquire in sovereignty the four Armenian vilayets of Trebizond, Erzerum, Van, and Bitlis. British and French negotiations, conducted at the same time, roughly defined the respective areal acquisitions or spheres of these two Powers by the ill-fated Sykes-Picot Treaty. "When the Peace Conference assembled, the Saz- onof-Paleologue Agreement lay buried in the ruins of Russia. Constantinople and the four Armenian vilayets had lost their secret tags. The President of the United States sat in the chair which Sazonof or Isvolsky had expected to occupy. It was a natural thing for men to assume that the United States would replace Russia in the political set- tlement of the Turkish problems as she had in the war, by accepting, under provisions entirely ad- justable to our own ideals of international fair play, the territorial assignments which the Russian collapse had left vacant. The Armenians desired this with all their hearts. Liberal British and French opinion urged upon our delegation the ne- cessity of American acceptance of a mandate over Armenia. I was one who shared their opinion and I still share it. However strongly President Wil- son favored this plan I never heard any man say that either he, or any one of his colleagues on the American Peace Commission, made any promise vvhich would tend to preempt the constitutional right of the American people to answer this ques- tion through their representatives in Congress. . . . From behind it all came the sound of children's and women's voices crying for bread. American relief workers began to drift in and tell about the conditions in Armenia. The younger men always spoke passionately: 'Why do the American people permit this? Why do you, who are sitting at Paris, not do something?' The middle-aged men spoke more quietly, as if their hearts were old and their sympathies shrivelled. They were much the more terrible to listen to. . . . For Armenia has been betrayed by the civilized world and thrown upon the tender mercies of Bolshevist Russia and the Turkish Nationalist forces. . . . The efforts of the two Armenian delegations at Paris were directed toward the ultimate end of establishing an independent state, including the Armenians of Russian Transcaucasus and the four northeastern vilayets of Turkey, stretching southwestward so as to embrace a part of Cilicia, and debouching upon the Mediterranean Sea at the Bay of Alex- andretta. Their immediate desire was to obtain 521 ARMENIA, 1920 ARMENIAN CHURCH recognition of the Armenian Republic of the Trans- caucasus as a de facto government, so that they might be in a position to obtain credits, money for food for tlie 400,000 refugees assembled in Russian Armenia, and for arms and ammunition with which they might defend themselves against Moslem Tartar and Turkish attacks and move the refugees back to their homes in Turkish Armenia. But the Armenian mountains have little to offer in exchange for help, except a brave, industrious, and broken people. "The Armenian desire for Cilicia conflicted with the territorial assignment to France by the Sykes- Picot Treaty. Cilicia and central Anatolia, there- fore, remain to Turkey in the Treaty of Sevres, and are designated as a sphere of French interest in the Tripartite Agreement. Again, the secret treaties had won in the diplomatic field. But the attempt of the French to occupy Cilicia has been frustrated by the Turkish Nationalist opposition. Bitterly disillusioned, the French press is demanding that the entire Cilician adventure be abandoned." — E. M. House and C. Seymour, What really hap- pened at Paris, pp. 178-180, 182, 187-188, igo, 195, 202-203. 1919-1920. — Relations with Georgian republic. • — See Georgia, Republic of; 1Q19-1920. 1920. — Treaty of Sevres. — Independence es- tablished. — Boundaries fixed. — According to the terms of the treaty of peace imposed by the Allied powers upon Turkey, and signed at Sevres, France, on Aug. 10, 1920, Armenia was definitely liberated from Turkish rule. Article 88 of the treaty. Section vi, stipulates that — "Turkey, in accordance with the action already taken by the Allied Powers, hereby recognizes Armenia as a free and independent .State. "Article 89. — Turkey and Armenia, as well as the other high contracting parties, agree to submit to the arbitration of the President of the United States of America the question of the frontier to be fixed between Turkey and Armenia in the Vila- yets of Erzerum, Trebizond, Van and Bitlis, and to accept his decision thereupon, as well as any stipulations he may prescribe as to access for Ar- menia to the sea, and as to the demilitarization of any portion of Turkish territory adjacent to the said frontier. "Article 90. — In the event of the determination of the frontier under Article 89 involving the trans- fer of the whole or any part of the territory of the said Vilayets to Armenia, Turkey hereby renounces, as from the date of such decision, all rights and title over the territory so transferred The pro- visions of the present treaty applicable to terri- tory detached from Turkey shall thereupon become applicable to the said territory. The proportion and nature of the financial obligations of Turkey which Armenia will have to assume, or of the rights which will pass to her, on account of the transfer of the said territory will be determined in accordance with Articles 241 to 244, Part viii. (Financial Clauses) of the present treaty. Subse- quent agreements will, if necessary, decide all ques- tions which are not decided by the present treaty and which may arise in consequence of the trans- fer of the said territory. ".Article 91 — In the event of any portion of the territory referred to in Article 89 being trans- ferred to .Armenia, a boundary commission, whose composition will be determined subsequently, will be constituted within three months from the de- livery of the decision referred to in the said article to trace on the spot the frontier between .Armenia and Turkey as established by such decision ".Article 92. — The frontiers between .Armenia and Azerbaijan and Georgia respectively will be determined by direct agreement between the States concerned. If in either case the States concerned have failed to determine the frontier by agreement at the date of the decision referred to in Article 89. the frontier line in question will be determined by the Principal .Allied Powers, who will also provide for its being traced on the spot. "Article 93. — Armenia accepts and agrees to embody in a treaty with the principal allied powers such provisions as may be deemed necessary by these powers to protect the interests of inhabitants of that State who differ from the majority of the population in race, language or religion. Armenia further accepts and agrees to embody in a treaty with the principal allied powers such provisions as these powers may deem necessary to protect free- dom of transit and equitable treatment for the commerce of other nations." — British treaty, series No. II, 1920 (Cd. 964). — See also Sevres, Tre.my of: 1920: Part III. Political clauses: Ar- menia "By the Treaty of Sevres President Wilson was asked to fix by arbitration the boundaries between Armenia and the Turkish state. His competence was limited to drawing these boundaries within the four vilayets of Erzerum, Trebizond, Bitlis, and Van. In other words, the territory which he could possibly assign to .Armenia approximates that for- merly given to Russia by the Paleologue-Sazonof Treaty. Here, too, the territorial dispositions of the Treaty of Sevres are the offspring of the secret treaties Though the Turkish treaty declares them to be free, in actuality the Armenians have been betrayed by the western world. Lenine and Mus- tapha Kemal have cracked the whip and they have sovietized. WTio of us dares look an Armenian in the face and upbraid him for this." — E. M. House and C. Seymour, What really happened at Paris, p. 203. — See also Sevres, Tre.^ty of: 1920: Part II. 1920. — Free passage to Black sea granted. See Sevres, Treaty of: 1920: Part XI. Ports, wa- terways and railways. 1920. — Party platforms in United States on Armenia. See US .A.: 1920: Democratic plat- form ; Republican platform. 1920. — Turk and Bolshevist attacks. — League of Nations membership denied. — "In October, 1920, the Turkish Nationalists and the Bolsheviks made a concerted attack upon .Armenia. The Armenians resisted bravely for two months, not without some success against the Turks, but at the end of the year the Russians overran the country and established a Bolshevik regime at Erivan The original .A,rmenian Government asked for admission [December 16] to the League of Nations, but was refused. President Wil- son suggested that Armenia's frontiers should be extended so as to include Trebizond, Erzerum, Kars, Mush, and Bitlis. This, of course, ap- plied to the non-Bolshevik State, which existed until December." — Annual Register, 1920, pp. 269- 270. — The refusal to admit Armenia, as well as Lithuania. Esthonia and Latvia was based on the ground that those countries were not sufficiently established. — Ibid., p. 15b. 1921. — Conditions of self-government of Sevres Treaty changed in Near East Conference. See Sevres, Treaty of: 1921: Near East Confer- ence: -Armenia. ARMENIA, Lesser. Sec .Armenia: 908-1085. ARMENIAN CHURCH.— "The origin of this Church is clearly discernible. It was beyond doubt .Apostolic. Primitive and unvarying traditions agree in regarding St. Thaddeus and St. Bartholo- mew as the first preachers of the Gospel in Ar- menia, and as the founders of the Christian 522 ARMENIAN CHURCH ARMENIAN CHURCH churches in the land. These two are spoken of as First Illuminators of Armenia. St. Bartholomew's labours and martyrdom in Armenia are as well authenticated as any facts in the history of the founding of the first churches during the great forty years after our Lord's ascension. Concern- ing Thaddeus there is less certainty. Some affirm him to be Thaddeus Didymus, brother of the Apostle St. Thomas, whilst a second tradition sees in him the Apostle St. Judas Thaddeus, surnamed Lebbeius. The details are lost, but the broad fact remains that the earliest preaching was by these two men, and that the first communities of Christians in Armenia were gathered from the mass of heathendom as the result of their la- bours. Beyond these facts we know little or noth- ing. The primitive era is shrouded in darkness. But the work did not cease when the Apostolic workers received the crown of martyrdom. The best guarantee for the spread of the Gospel was the missionary zeal of the first converts. The Ar- menian Church grew in numbers, influence, en- dured persecution, and had its martyrology. There are records of religious persecutions by King Ar- taxerxes (c. no A. D.), by Chosroes (c. 250), and by Tiradates (c. 287). It is permissible to argue that had the Christians been small in numbers, and of small social importance, they would have es- caped persecution. The fact points to the existence of a large body of Christians. Indeed, only on the supposition of a widespread acceptance of the faith can the almost instantaneous conversion to Christianity of the whole land in the first years of the Fourth Century be explained. It had al- ready taken deep root in the life of the nation when the events occurred which issued in Armenia becoming the first Christian State. [See also Christianity: A.D. 33-100. j What are the Dis- tinctive Claims of the Armenian Church? (i) It claims to be Apostolic. That is, in origin it claims . a place alongside the^proudest Churches in Chris- tendom. Hence it is equal in point of antiquity and authority with any Churches of the East or West which make these the indispensable notes of a true branch of the Catholic Church. 'The Apos- tolic origin of the Armenian Church,' says Orman- ian, 'is established as an incontrovertible fact in ecclesiastical history. And if tradition and his- toric sources which sanction this view should give occ'tsion for criticism, these have no greater weight than the difficulties created with regard to the origin of other Apostolic Churches, which are uni- versally admitted as such.' (The Church of Ar- menia, p. S). (2) It claims to be Independent. The dominant Churches of the East and West repudiate this claim, and affirm that the Armenian church owns allegiance to them. It is certain that through long and troubled centuries both Churches have made endless and forcible attempts to assert their mastery over this small national Church. These efforts to bring her into a state of dependency and submission the Armenians have resisted with all the strength, energy, and passion of their nature. Deprived of political independence they have clung all the more tenaciously to the in- tegrity of their Church, whatever may have been the grounds upon which these attacks have been made. (3) It claims to be National. This claim rests equally upon an unassailable basis of his- torical fact. Through the ages whilst every other bond has been broken save that of language, the Church has knit the scattered units of the nation into one indivisible whole. Its head has stood for each succeeding generation as the symbol of the national life Deprived of a political head and even a political capital the people have, for at least five hundred vars, looked to Etchmiadzin as the home of their people, the centre to which they looked for guidance, unfaiUng sympathy, and prac- tical aid. It is 'National' in a more complete sense than any other Church in Christendom which em- ploys the term. Two facts emphasise its national character. First, wherever are members of the race, whatever may be their dogmatic creed or ecclesiastical polity, Etchmiadzin and the Cathol- icos are still the representative of their race, the depository of their traditions, and the fountain and centre of their hopes. Secondly, for perfectly ob- vious and adequate reasons, the Armenian Church commands no adherents outside the limits of the nation. Moslem, Orthodox Greek, Roman Catho- lic, and Evangelical Protestants have all in turn proselytised, weakened her still further by drawing away from the national fold members of the flock. She herself has proselytised no Church or nation. The missionary spirit which in the earliest days of its history drove heroic men far and wide in the Caucasus, and steeled them to win the crown of martyrdom has vanished under the oppressive regi- men of successive conquerors. Whether under the happier conditions which will follow this world- war, this spirit will not again lay hold of a race eminently aggressive and enterprising, is a ques- tion those who know Armenia best will have no difficulty in answering in the affirmative. (4) It claims to be Democratic. It is also episcopal. In other Churches the hierarchical principle has to a greater or lesser degree banished the democratic principle and shown itself opposed to the demo- cratic spirit. 'Among the Armenians,' says Or- manian (p. 151), 'the clergy are not looked upon as absolute masters and owners of the Church. The Church since its institution has belonged as much to the faithful as to the ministers of wor- ship. In virtue of this principle, and apart from sacramental acts, for the performance of which ordination is indispensable, nothing is done in ec- clesiastical administration without the co-opera- tion of the lay element.' Logically it follows that every ministering servant at its altars occupies his place from the highest to the lowest by the free choice of the people. Equally the pastor of a re- mote village, and the Catholicos who addresses Popes and Potentates as 'Dear Brother,' are where they are by virtue of the power exercised by the laity. The village priest is elected by the people, often one of their own number, and his support is from their free-will offerings. The head of the Church is similarly elected by an assembly of dele- gates who are first elected by their various dioceses. The check upon the election of the Catholicos does not invade this principle in any vital degree. In a word, so far. as representation and adminis- tration go, the Armenian Church is an ancient and successful blend of two opposite principles of church government, viz., the Congregational and the Episcopal. Further, the democratic principle has been applied from most ancient times not only to government but also to the determination of doctrine. 'The Armenian Church is the one wherein the democratic spirit,' says Ormanian, 'ex- cels in all vividness and truth. . . . The leading men and the deputies, in a word, the representatives of the people, have ever continued to take their place, side by side, with bishops and doctors in the Council. They are known to have taken an active part in all discussions bearing on questions of doctrine and discipline, and have set their sign manual at the foot of deeds and canons as effec- tive members of councils.' It is. therefore, not to be marvelled at that 'clericalism' is unknown on the one hand, and indifference on the other. (5) It claims to be Liberal. Not for a moment must that be confused with lax views or with vagueness 523 ARMENIAN MASSACRES ARMISTICE of belief in Christian dogmas. Her liberalism arises from her historical attitude towards that develop- ment of Christian doctrine which it has been the function of Church councils to mark, stereotype, and make binding upon the consciences of the faithiul. The Armenian Church has limited that function to the lowest possible degree by strictly Umiting the number of Councils she recognises. Each successive Council has added to the number of dogmas which must be received under penalty of forfeiting eternal salvation. The Latin Church recognises twenty ; the Greek Orthodox Church admits seven; the Armenian Church only three, viz., Nicea, Constantinople, in the Fourth Century, and Ephesus in the Fifth Century." — L. Williams, Armenia: past and present, pp. 100-102, 130-136. "The religion of Armenia could not derive much glory from the learning or the power of its inhabi- tants. The royalty expired with the origin of their schism; and their Christian kings, who arose and fell in the 13th century on the confines of Cilicia, were the clients of the Latins and the vassals of the Turkish sultan of Iconium. The helpless na- tion has seldom been permitted to enjoy the tran- quility of servitude. From the earliest period to the present hour, Armenia has been the theatre of perpetual war; the lands between Tauris and Erivan were dispeopled by the cruel policy of the Sophis; and myriads of Christian families were transplanted, to perish or to propagate in the dis- tant provinces of Persia. Under the rod of op- pression, the zeal of the Armenians is fervent and mtrepid; they have often preferred the crown of martvrdom to the white turban of Mahomet; they devoutly hate the error and idolatry of the Greeks." — E. Gibbon. History of the decline and jail of the Roman empire., ch. 47.— Statistics show thirty-four church organizations with 27,450 mem- bers in the United States.— United States Census, Religions bodies, 1916, pt. 2, p. 40. ARMENIAN MASSACRES. See Armenia; igiS; Russia: 1905 (April-November); Syria: 1908-1921; Turkey: 1894-1895; 1896 (August); 1909. ARMENIAN RELIEF. See International relief: Near East Relief. ARMINIUS, Jacobus (1560-1609). See Ar- MiNiANS; Netherlands, 1603- 161 9. ARMENOIDS. See Pacific ocean: People. ARMENTIERES, a manufacturing town of France, department of Nord, on the river Lys, nine miles northwest of Lille. The town was bom- barded, sacked, and ruined by the German armies in the World War. 1914. — Occupied by British. See World War: 1914: I. Western front: t, 1; u, 1; w. 1918. — Battle. — Capture by Germans and with- drawal of British. See World War: 1918: II. Western front: a, 2; d, 3; d, 7. 1918. — Taken by Allies and abandoned by Germans. See World War: 1918: 11. Western front: i; m; q, 1. ARMIES, European and American. See Mn.- IT.VRV organization; War, Preparation for. ARMINA: See Armenia: B.C. 585-55. ARMINIANS, a religious group of the seven- teenth century among the Calvinists, followers of Arminius (Jakob Hermansen, 1560-1609), profes- sor at the university of Leyden ; declared their opinions in the year 1610 opposing, among other things, the former doctrine that Christ died for the elect alone; were also designated by the name of Remonstrants. — See also Netherlands: 1603- 1619. ARMINIUS (17 B.C.-A. D. 21), early German national hero of the tribe of Cherusci. He was an officer in the Roman legions in his youth, but, re- turning to his tribe, he led a rebellion against Quintilius Varus, Roman governor, in A. D. 9. Varus was disastrously defeated. (See Germany B.C. S-A. D. II). In the year .•\. D. 15, German- icus Ca;sar led the Romans against Arminius and in the year after defeated him. (See Germany A, D. 14-16), Arminius was murdered in .\.D. 21. ARMISTICE.— A cessation of lighting, a short truce, during which it is possible to make terms for a longer truce, or for peace. A modern armis- tice provides that a neutral zone shall be ii.xed be- tween the fronts of the respective armies who are parties to the agreement, forbids naval bombard- ment, the taking of maritime prizes, and the send- ing of reinforcements into the theater of war. — See also Hague Conferences: 1899: Convention with respect to the laws and customs on land. 1797.^Such an armistice was signed during the Napoleonic wars at Leoben on April 7, 1797, after the battle of Ball-Platz, and provided the prelim- inaries for the treaty of Campo-Formio between the Emperor Joseph and Napoleon. See France: 1 796-1 797 (Oct.-Apr). 1805. — In 1805 an armistice signed at Austerlitz paved the way for peace (Pressburg) between Aus- tria and France. See German"\': 1805-1806. 1859. — In 1859 the armistice signed at V'illefranca between Napoleon III and the Emperor Francis Joseph, resulted in the treaty of Zurich signed on November 10, 1859. See Italy: 1S56-1859. 1801. — .\n unusually interesting instance of a naval armistice is that which was arranged be- tween the Danes and the British in April, 1801, after which there were in fact no other negotia- tions between the two belligerents. 1884. — On May 11, 1S84, an armistice between France and China provided the preliminary base of the definitive treaty which was concluded at Tien Tsin on April 4, 1885, and which gave Ton- quin to China. See France: 1875-1889. 1895. — .An armistice was signed between the Jap-, anese and Chinese at the close of the Chino-Jap- anese war in 1895, which preceded the treaty of Shimonoseki. See China: 1894-1895. 1905. — The peace negotiations held at Ports- mouth, New Hampshire, which ended the Russo- Japanese war, were preceded by an armistice be- tween the warring countries. (See Japan: 1905- 1914). The agreement for a general armistice is made between the commanders-in-chief of the con- tending armies; but, unless express authority has been conferred upon them for this purpose, the agreement must be ratified by their respective gov- ernments. On the other hand, a partial armistice may be entered into between commanders, under the general powers which they possess. — See also Treaties of peace. 1918. — Those ending hostilities in the World War were chronologically as follows: September 30, IQ18, armistice signed by Bulgaria, yielding control of railways to the .Miles, and cut- ting the connection between the Teuton powers and Turkey. See World War: Miscellaneous auxiliary services: I. Armistices: c. October 31, 1018, armistice signed by Turkey, in- volving opening the Dardenelles and substantially an unconditional surrsnder. See World War: Mis- cellaneous auxiliary services: I. Armistices: d. November 3, 1918, armistice signed by Austria- Hungary, yielding completely to the Allies and opening her territory for an Allied attack upon Germany. See World War: Miscellaneous auxil- iary services: I. .Armistices: e. November 11. loiS, armistice signed by Ger- many, including such great concessions as to make it physically impossible for Germany to renew the struggle. The terms of this armistice assured to 524 ARMOR ARMY the Allies the power absolutely to dictate the con- ditions of the peace treaty. All of these armis- tices were successively requested by the four de- feated countries. See World War: Miscellaneous auxiliary services: I. Armistices: i. There was also an armistice between Germany and the Bolsheviki, (December, 1917), preliminary to the signing of the abortive treaty of Brest- Litovsk on March 3, iqi8. That treaty was repu- diated in the final settlement forced by the Allies. — See also U. S. A.: iqi8 (September-November) ; World W.^r: Miscellaneous auxiliary services: I. Armistices: a. ARMOR. See Costume: Military. Ancient Greek. See /Egean civilization: Minoan Age. Of the Franks. See Franks: 500-768. Viking. See Scandinavian states: Sth-gth centuries. Medieval. See Longbow. Spanish: 14th century. See Spain: 1366-1369. In trench warfare. See Trench warfare: De- fensive weapons. ARMOR PIERCING BULLET. See Rifles AND revolvers: Shot-guns in World War. ARMORIAL BEARINGS, Origin of.— "As to armorial bearing^s, there is no doubt that emblems somewhat similar have been immemorially used both in, war and peace. The shields of ancient warrfors, and devices upon coins or seals, bear no distant resemblance to modern blazonry. But the general introduction of such bearings, as hereditary distinctions, has been sometimes attributed to tour- naments, wherein the champions were distinguished by fanciful devices; sometimes to the crusades, wherR a multitude of all nations and languages stood in need of some visible token to denote the banners of their respective, chiefs. In fact, the peculiar symbols of heraldry point to both these sources and have been borrowed in'part from each. Hereditary arms were perhaps scarcely used by private families before the beginning of the thir- teenth century From that time, however, they became very general."^ — H. HaUam,, Europe during the middle, ages, ch. 2, pt. 2. ARMORICA, ARMORICANS.— The penin- sular projection of the coast of Gaul between the mouths of the Seine and the Loire, embracing modern Brittany, and a great part of Normandy, was known to the Romans as Armorica. The most important of the Armorican tribes in Caesar's time was that of the Veneti. "In the fourth and fifth centuries, the northern coast from the Loire to the frontier of the Netherlands was called 'Tractus Aremoricus," or Aremorica, which in Celtic sig- nifies 'martitime country.' The commotions of the third century, which continued to increase dur- ing the fourth and fifth, repeatedly drove the Romans from that country. French antiquaries imagine that it was a regularly constituted Gallic republic, of which Chlovis had the protectorate, but this is wrong." — B. G. Niebuhr, Lectures on ancient ethnography and geography, v. 2, p. 318. — See also Brittany: 409; 818-912; Ve- neti OF Western Gaul; and Iberians, West- ern. .^Lso in: E. H. Bunbury, History of ancient geography, v. 2, p. 235. ARMOUR, Philip Danforth (1832-1901), American philanthropist: Founder of Armour In- stitute of Technology. See Gifts and bequests. ARMOUR AND CO., Case of U. S. against. See Trusts: 1003-1906. ARMS, Assizes of. See England: 1170-1189. ARMS, Hereditary. See Armorial bearings. ARMS EMBARGO.— Just before the World War, the United States placed an embargo on ship- ments of arms and munitions to Mexico in their recent civil war. (See Me.xico: 1912, 1914.) Dur- ing the first years of the World War, there was much agitation in the United States against shipping arms and munitions to the Allies, and an embargo was advocated. The president, however, maintained that such shipments were in accord with international usage' and that an embargo would set a precedent that might be dangerous in the fu- ture to America. The Mexican government also appealed to the United States to place an embargo on shipping arms and munitions to Europe. See Mexico: 1917-1918. ARMSTRONG, Vice-Consul J. P.: Reports on affairs in the Congo state. See Belgian Congo: 1906-1909. ARMSTRONG, John (1758-1843), American soldier, diplomatist and political leader. Served in the Revolutionary War. Wrote and issued anony- mously the famous Newburgh addresses. (See U. S. A. 1782-1783). United States senator, 1801- i8o2 and 1803-1804; minister to France, 1804- 1810; brigadier-general, 1812-1813; secretary of war, January, 1913-August, 1814 (see U. S. A.: 1813 (October-November)); forced to resign be- cause of unpopularity. ARMSTRONG, Samuel Chapman (1839-1893), American soldier and educator. Founded Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute to educate the Negro and Indian races, and became its principal. ARMSTRONG, William George, first Baron (1810-1900), English engineer, inventor and scien- tist. He was celebrated for his invention of rifled cannon and breech-loading ordnance. Founded great armament works at Elswick, on the Tvne. ARMSTRONG, GENERAL (privateer). See General Armstrong, Case of. ARMY, a body of soldiers systematically or- ganized, trained and equipped. In its broadest sense, the term applies to a nation's entire force under arms; in a narrower sense to a portion of that force in a particular locality, as Great Brit- ain's Indian army or France's army in Indo-China. There is also the definite technical meaning, of army, viz., a force of three army corps with ad- ditional auxiliary units classed as army troops. In this sense the United States in the World War formed in France a first, a second and a third army, and the other principal combatants each organized several armies. Such an army is prop- erly commanded by a general, while a group of several armies is properly commanded by a field marshal, and the entire armed forces of a nation or an alliance by a generalissimo or commander- in-chief. In 1918, the United States had only one general, Pershing, in the war zone, and the three armies organized by him were commanded by of- ficers of lower rank. The first and second armies were commanded by lieutenant-generals, and the third army, which was the army of occupation, by a major-general. The proper command of a lieu- tenant-general is an army crops and the proper command of a. major-general is a division. (The history of the armies of the principal military na- tions, find accounts of important military institu- tions, such as the general staff, conscription, etc., are dealt with in the article Military Organiza- tion). Belgian. — 1909-1913. — Military service made general. See War, Preparation for: 1009-1913. English. — 1907-1909. — Reorganization. See War, Preparation for: 1907- 1909: British army reorganization. Hungarian Red. See Hungary: 1919 (March). Pragmatic. See Austria: 1743. Prussian. — Reorganized under Frederick Wil- liam. See Prussia: 1618-1700. 525 ARMY AND NAVY BOARD ARNOLD Russian. See Russia: 1914 (August); Status of array; IQ17 (July) ; iqiS-igig. U. S. — Aviation department. See World War: 1017: \III. United States and the war: i, 9. U. S. — Control. See War department. U. S. — Court-martial law. See Military law: igii. U. S. — Engineer departirient. See World War: IQ17: VIII, United States and the war: i, 10. U. S. — National army. — Creation. — Training camps. See World War: 1017; VIII. United States and the war: i, 1; i, 6; i, 8. U. S. — Power of Congress to support army. See War powers of the United States: Con- gressional power over state militia. U.S. — Reorganization. See World War: 1917: VIII. United States and the war: i, 4. ARMY AND NAVY BOARD: United States. See Milit.arv organization: 7. ARMY CANTEEN. See U.S.A.: 1901 (Feb- ruary). ARMY CORPS, the largest complete tactical and administrative unit in an array, which is com- posed of two or more corps. The corps is the appropriate command of a lieutenant-general. In the United States service an army corps is formed by corabining two or more divisions, under orders given by the president when he deems such a for- mation necessary. Such a corps may consist of corps headquarters, six complete divisions, and special corps troops, including one pioneer regi- ment of infantry, two regiments of cavalary, one anti-aircraft machine-gun battalion, one anti-air- craft artillery battalion, one trench mortar bat- talion, one field battalion, signal corps, one tele- graph battalion, one aero wing, one regiment of engineers, one pontoon train, one corps artillery park, one remount depot, one veterinary hospital, one bakery company, one supply train, one troop transport train. In addition, one artillery brigade, one sanitary train, and one corps engineer park may be formed from detachments from the di- visional organizations. Its approximate strength is 185,000 officers and men. — See also Division; Mili- tary organization; Tank corps, U. S. .\rmy'. ARMY EQUIPMENT: In World War. See World War: Miscellaneous auxiliary services: VI. Military and naval equipment. ARMY LAW. See Military law. ARMY MEDALS. See World War: Miscel- laneous auxiliarv services: VIII War medals. ARMY OF THE COMMONWEAL OF CHRIST. See U. S. A.: 1804: Co.xev movement. ARMY OF THE ORIENT. See World War: igi6: V. Balkan theater: b. ARMY OF THE WEST: In Mexican War. See Missouri: 1846-1848. ARMY PURCHASE, Abolition of, in Eng- land. See England: 1871. ARMY REGULATIONS OF WARFARE. See H.\GL'E conterences: i8qo: Convention with respect to the laws and customs of war on land. ARMY TRAINING CORPS. See Education: Modern developments: World War and education: Students armv training corps. ARMY WAR COLLEGE, a school in Washing- ton to which selected officers (captains and above) are sent to study the higher problems of war, and to work upon detailed plans of national defense. It was first organized in looi, after the Spanish War, and our present military system is largely based upon its leadership. ARN.^EANS. See Greece: Migration of Hel- lenic Tribes in the Peninsula ARNAUD AMAURY, popes legate, 13th cen- tury. See Albigenses or Albigeois: nog; 1210- X313. ARNAULD, Jacqueline Marie Ang^lique, Abbess of Port Royal monastery. See Port Royal AND the Jansenists: 1602-1700. ARNAUTS. See .\lranians: Medieval period. ARNAY-LE-DUC, Battle of (1570). See France: 1563-1570. ARNDT, Ernst Moritz (1769-1860), German poet and patriot. By his writings stirred German sentiment against Napoleon, .^fter the revolu- tion of 1848, he took his seat in the National .Assembly at Frankfort. He was one of the depu- tation that offered the crown to Frederick W'il- liam IV. ARNE, Thomas Augustine (1710-1778), emi- nent English composer. He wrote numerous op- eras, masques and other dramatic works. The melody to "Rule Britannia," which was or^inally giyen in a popular performance, the "Masque of ."Mfred." is his composition. The words are by James Thomson (1700-1748). See Music: Modern: 1750-1870. ARNIM, Sixt von, Prussian general in com- mand of the army operating in the Flanders sector (from the North sea to south of Vpres) during 1Q17 and 1Q18. He was beaten to death by peasants on his estate in March, igig. — See also World War: IQ14: I. Western front: c, 2; World War: iqi8: II. Western front: t. ARNO (c. 750-821), archbishop of Salzburg. Acted in 7S7 as envoy from Tassilo III, duke of the Bavarians, to Charlemagne ; drew up a cata- logue of church lands and rights in Bavaria, called the hidktilus or Cnngestum Arnonis. ARNOLD, Benedict (1741-1801), American general and traitor. Served under Ethan .\llen in the capture of Ticonderoga (see U. S. A.: 1775: May). Fought in campaign against Montreal and Quebec, and was wounded at the attack of the lat- ter (see Canada: 1775-1776; U. S. \.: 1775; Au- gust-December). With a flotilla he had con- structed on Lake Champlain, he engaged the Brit- ish fleet off \alcour Island (Oct. 11, 1776) and after inflicting severe damage on a superior enemy, managed to escape at Crown Point (see U. S. .\.: '776-1777: Washington's retreat through New Jer- sey). Raised the siege of Fort Stanwix. or Schuy- ler (see U. S. .\.: 1777: July-October). In com- raand of Philadelphia after the British retired. Was placed in command of West Point, 1780; was frustrated in plot to surrender it to the British (see U S. .■v.: 1780: .■\ugust-September). Fled to the British array, where, as brigadier-general, he served against the Colonial forces until December, 1781 (see U. S. .'\.: 17S1: January-May). He died in London, June 14, 1801. ARNOLD, Matthew (1822-1888), English poet, essayist and literary critic, son of the famous Dr. .Arnold of Rugby and uncle of Mrs. Humphrj- Ward, the novelist. Educated at Rugby and Ox- ford. His annual reports as inspector of schools, 1S51-1S86, greatly hastened educational reforms, particularly in secondary schools; was sent abroad by the government to study foreign educational systems. Profes.sor of poetry at Oxford 1857-1867. Among his poems, "Thyrsis, The Forsaken Mer- man," "Dover Beach." and "The Grande Char- treuse" reveal his Hellenic desire for pure beauty, common to many poets of the Victorian period. His essays emphasize the thouHhtful. poised attitude in criticism, among the best being "Sweetness and Light," "Culture and .Anarchy," and "Essays in Criticism." Some of his finest pieces are "Sohrab and Rustum," "Rugby Chapel" and "The Scholarly Gypsy." He wrote several critical works on theol- ogy, notably "Literature and Dogma." — See also Bible, English: Modern estimates of the Bible; English literature: 1832- 1880. 52O ARNOLD OF BRESCIA AROOSTOOK WAR ARNOLD, Thomas (1795-1842), English clergy- man and head-master of Rugby School, August, 1828, to December, 1841, when he took the chair of modern history at Oxford, See also Classics. ARNOLD OF BRESCIA (c. 1100-1155), Italian churchman. Opposed the property-owning power of the Catholic church. Leader in the re- volt in 1 143 against the temporal power of the papacy, which ended in a papal interdict and the execution of Arnold. See Rome: Medieval city: 1145-1155- ARNOLD VON WINKELRIED. See Win- KELRIED, Arnold. ARNOLDSEN, K. P. See Nobel prizes; Peace: igo8. ARNULF I (d. 965), Count of Flanders, son of Baldwin II of Flanders and .Aelfthrytha, daughter of Alfred the Great. See Belgium: Ancient and medieval history. ARNULF OF CARINTHIA (c. 850-899), duke of Bavaria, king of the East Franks (Ger- many), 88S-899, king of Italy and emperor, 894- 899. See Italy: 843-951. Capture of Louvain by. See Scandinavian states: 8th-9th centuries. War with Svatopulk. See Moravia: gth century. AROGI, Battle of (1868). See Abyssinia: 1854- 1889. ARONDE, northern France: 1918.— Captured by Germans. See World War: 1918; II. Western front: d, 19. AROOSTOOK WAR.— This disturbance, which occurred during, the presidency of Van Buren, threatened to bring on war with Great Britain. — "The blame for this condition of affairs was laid, by the Whigs, on the new Democratic Governor (Fairfield) of Maine. In that State, indeed, the boundary dispute had never been a party issue, and men of every shade of poUtical belief had held but one view. In the country at large, how- ever, the acts of Governor Fairfield found no sup- port, and his Aroostook War was condemned as a piece of political folly. The Aroostook country, the section of Maine where trouble arose, must not be confounded with the Madawaska region, where Greeley had been arrested two years be- fore. The River St. John, it should be remem- bered, flows, from its source in the west, almost due northeast into the northern part of the State, then turns a right angle and flows almost due southeast into New Brunswick. Just at the right angle it is entered by the Madawaska River, com- ing down from the northwest. Near where it enters New Brunswick the St. John is joined by the Aroostook River, coming up from the south- west. Along the Madawaska the Crown had made grants before the Revolution, and Great Britain had thus some show of right to exclusive jurisdic- tion till the boundary line was determined. Along the Aroostoook she had no claim to jurisdiction, for there were no settlements there prior to 1822, when they were made by citizens of the United States and by men who came from New Brunswick that they might be beyond the reach of creditors. Along the Aroostook again jurisdiction had been exercised by Massachusetts, while Maine belonged to her. After the monument was placed at the source of the St. Croix, Massachusetts ran from it a due north line and located two ranges of townships, six miles square, contiguous to the line and extending many miles north of the Aroostook. In 1807 townships, including a part of the river, were sold and conveyed by Massachusetts, and still others in later years. In 1826 townships west 'of the two ranges and extending nearly to the St. John were surveyed by Maine and Massachusetts and divided between them. Later still a military road was laid out from the Matawaukeog, a tributary of the Penobscot, across the Aroostook to the St. John. Land agents of both states had long been accustomed each year to sell timber, grant permits to cut down trees, and had driven out trespassers in this region. In 1838, following the usual custom, agents of Maine and Massachu- setts entered the Aroostook country in April, and in October, and served processes on certain men cutting timber, broke up their camps, and drove off their teams. Later still a third official visited the region. At Grand River he found fifty tres- passers; at Fish River, seventy-five with sixteen yoke of oxen and ten teams. These men not only refused to depart, but told the agent they defied Maine to put them out. When Governor Fairfield was informed of these things he sent a special and confidential message to the Legislature and asked for authority to provide the agent with a force sufficient to disperse the trespassers. (Senate Documents, 25th Congress, 3d Session, Vol. IV, Document 270, pp. 8, 9.) The authority was at once given and ten thousand dollars appropriated to meet the expense, (Ibid., p. 12,) With one hundred and fifty men the land agent, Mr. Rufus Mclntire, set off from Bangor and, accompanied by the sheriff of Penobscot County, repaired to the mouth of the Aroostook River where three hundred trespassers, well armed, were ready to re- sist. Finding he had with him a six-pound cannon, they retreated down the river toward New Bruns- wick. The agent then dispatched a letter to the British warden of the disputed territory asking for a meeting at the house of a certain settler; but one night, while asleep in the house, Mr. Mclntire was seized by a party of trespassers, was carried to Woodstock in New Brunswick, and then under guard to the jail at Frederickton. When the land agent reached Woodstock, and news of his capture and the presence of Maine troops on the Aroostook spread, a mob broke into the arsenal, took out several hundred stand of arms and set off for the disputed country. On the ariival of the prisoner at Frederickton, Lieutenant-Governor Harvey, of New Brunswick, issued a proclamation, summoned all who had carried off arms and munition to return them, denounced the presence of the Maine forces on the Aroostook as an invasion and outrage, and ordered the militia to be ready to march at a mo- ment's notice. (Senate Document 270, p. 13.) A copy of the proclamation was forwarded to the Governor of Maine, with a letter in which General Harvey demanded the recall of the Maine forces, asserted exclusive jurisdiction of Great Britain over the Aroostook region, said that his instructions did not permit him to suffer any interference with this exclusive jurisdiction, and that he had ordered a strong force of Her Majesty's troops to be in readiness to support her authority. The Governor at once demanded that General Harvey release Mr. Mclntire, and transmitted the copy of the procla- mation to the Legislature, General Harvey re- plied that the land agent was a State prisoner, and that his fate rested with Her Majesty's Gov- ernment; but that he had ordered the release, on parole, of Mr. Mclntire; that if it was the desire of the Governor of Maine that the friendly rela- tions existing between Great Britain and the United States should not be disturbed, the armed force then within the disputed territory must be immediately withdrawn ; and that Mr, James Mac- lauchlan the British warden of the territory who, while on a visit to the camp of the land agent, had been seized by way of reprisal, should be released. The Governor answered that Mr, Maclauchlan should be released on parole of honor, but re- fused to withdraw the troops. Reinforcements 527 AROOSTOOK WAR ARRAS were meantime hurried to the Aroostook camp which, since the arrest of Mclntire, was com- manded by Charles Jar\'is, and a thousand miUtia were ordered to assemble at Bangor. The Legis- lature as soon as the Governor's message was re- ceived unanimously resolved that a sufficient body of men should be stationed on the Aroostook and if practicable on the St, John near the boundary line; appropriated eight hundred thousand dollars for the purpose and instructed the Governor to request the cooperation of Massachusetts, and to write to the President and ask the aid of the Federal Government. When the appeal for aid reached Van Buren he sent it with a message to Congress. The acts of the British Governor, he said, were based on the assumption that the United States had agreed to leave Great Britain in sole possession of, and with exclusive jurisdiction over, the disputed territory tUl the question of boundary was settled. No such agreement existed. Maine had a right to stop the depredations of the timber cutters. But between an effort on the part of Maine to preserve the timber and a military oc- cupation by that State of the disputed territory- there was an essential difference. In such an en- terprise he did not think Maine should call on the Government for aid. Amicable means alone should be used. On the other hand, should the authorities in New Brunswick seek to enforce their claim to exclusive jurisdiction b>' a military force he should feel bound to consider a call from Maine for aid in repelling the invasion. The proper course in the present case was for Maine to disband her force of militia and for each party to release the captured agent of the other. (Messages and Papers of the Presidents; Richardson, Vol. Ill, pp. 512- 21.) The end of the session was near, but in the Senate the message and documents were referred to the Committee on Foreign Relations, and in the House to the Committee on Foreign Affairs. The House Committee recommended that a special min- ister should be sent to Great Britain to aid the resident minister in an attempt to settle the long- pending controversy, and reported a bill, which promptly passed. (Congressional Globe, 25th Con- gress, 3d Session, pp. 217,218.) The Senate Com- mittee could find no trace of any understanding, expressed or implied, much less of any agreement, that the disputed territory should be under the exclusive jurisdiction of Great Britain. There was, however, a clear understanding that neither party should exercise jurisdiction over any portions of it save such as had been in the actual possession of the one or the other. In sending armed men to drive out the intruders Maine had not vio- lated the understanding, and should Her Majesty's Government persist in the attempt to maintain ex- clusive jurisdiction by force then the President would be justified in using the military power of the United States to repel invasion. When, there- fore, the House bill to give the President author- ity to resist any attempt of Great Britain to en- force by arms her claim to exclusive jurisdiction over the disputed territory in Maine, use the land and naval forces if necessary, and in the event of the actual invasion of our territory, call for fifty thousand volunteers, borrow ten million dollars, arm and equip the naval force, and put such a fleet of vessels on the lakes as he thought proper, reached the Senate it was passed unanimously. One section made an appropriation for the outfit and salary of a special minister to Great Britain if the President saw fit to send one. Yet another limited the duration of the act to sixty days after the meeting of the first session of the next Con- gress. "While the two committees were considering the question, Forsyth (J. Forsyth, Sec. of State, June 27, 1834 to March S, 1841), and the British Min- ister drew up and signed a memorandum. This stated the views of Great Britain and of the United States as to jurisdiction, declared that the issue could only be settled by friendly discussion, and that meantime Her Majesty's officers would not seek to drive out the armed party sent by Maine; that the Governor of Maine would with- draw it ; and that the agents of both parties who had been taken into custody should be released. [Congressional Globe, 25th Congress, 3d Session, pp. 526, 527.] As soon as the memorandum was signed copies were sent post-haste to the Governors of Maine and New Brunswick, and General Scott was ordered to Augusta. There he found a new levy of a thousand men about to start for the Aroostook. But the arrival of the memorandum and the presence of Scott induced the Governor to delay the march till the Legislature had con- sidered the action of the Secretary of State. Scott meantime dispatched a proposition to Governor Harvey. If the Governor of New Brunswick would agree not to attempt to take military pos- session of the disputed territory, or seek by force of arms to drive out the armed posse or troops of Maine, Scott was sure the Governor of Maine would agree not to disturb New Brunswick in the possession of the Madawaska settlements, or seek to dislodge the British by force of arms. Harvey at once agreed to this (Harvey to Scott, March 23, 1839, National Intelligencer, April i, 1S39), the Governor of Maine also assented (Governor Fair- field to Scott, March 25, 1839, Jbid.) ; the troops at Augusta were sent home, others were recalled from the Aroostook country, and the prospect of war, for the present, was averted." — J. B, McMaster, History of the people of the United States, v. 6, pp. 513-518. — See also U. S. A.: 1842: Ashburton ■Treaty with England; Maine: 1841-1842. ARPAD, ancient city of Syria, near Aleppo. Siege conducted by the Assyrian conqueror Tiglath- Pileser, beginning 742 B. C, and lasting two years. The fall of the city brought with it the submis- sion of all northern Syria. — A. H. Sayce, Assyria, ch. 2. ARPAD, Dynasty of, Magyar line founded by Arpad, who was elected chief by the tribes which began the conquest of Hungary in 889. See Hun- gary: 806; 972-1116; 1116-1301. ARQUES, Battles at (1589). See France: 1589-1500- ARRABBIATI, political party in Florence. See Florence: 1498-1500. ARRAN, a large island off the west coast of Scotland at the mouth of the Firth of Clyde. Its caves were the refuge of Robert Bruce. ARRAN, Earls of, a line of Scottish nobles, whose title, derived from the island of Arran, was first given to Thomas Boyd and later transferred to the Hamilton family. The latter was active in border wars and in the support of Mary, queen of Scots. See Scotland: 1544-1548: and 1546. ARRAPACHITIS, Semitic country notheast of Nineveh. See Jews: Early Hebrew History. ARRAS, a town and fortress of France, on the Scarpe one hundred miles northeast of Paris. It was formerly the capital of Artois, .was fortified by Vauban in the reign of Louis XIV and was the birthplace of Robespierre. The city is partly situ- ated on high ground and has always been a place of considerable military importance. [For origin of Arras, see Belg.e.] Arras lies in the indus- trial region of northern France and near the Lens coal mines. Here was held the first congress be- tween European powei's, in 1435. In the spring of 191 7 the British prepared for an offensive north oi 528 ARREBOE ART Arras instead of planning to continue the battle of the Somnie as the Germans had expected. In the great German offensive of the spring and early summer of 1918 all attempts to wipe out the Brit- ish bastion around Arras were shattered in some of the bitterest fighting of the war. 1414-1435. — Treaties of Arras. See France: 1380-1415, and 1431-1453. 1482. — Treaty between Louis XI and Maxi- milian I. 1583. — Submission to Spain. See Netherlands: 1584-1585. 1654. — Unsuccessful siege by the Spaniards under Cond6. See Fra.n'ce: 1654. 1914. — Scene of attack by Germans. See World War: 1914; I. Western front; u, 4. 1915. — Region of fighting. See World War: 1915: II. Western front: d. 1916. — Near Hindenburg line. See World War: 1916: II. Western front: e, 7. 1917. — Battle of Arras. See World War: 1917: I. Summary: b, 2; II. Western front: c; c, 1; c, 19. 1918. — German attack. See World War: 1918: II. Western front: b, 1; c, 2; c, 28; k. ARREBOE, Anders Christensen (1587-1637), Danish poet. See Scandinavian literature: 1479- 1750. ARRELLANO, Don Cayetano, Chief Justice of Philippine Islands. See Philippine Islands: 1900: Progress toward civil government. ARRETIUM, Battle of (285 B.C.), See Rome: B. C. 295-191- ARRHENIUS, Svante August (1859- ), a distinguished Swedish organic and electrical chem- ist; since 1905 director of the physico-chemical de- partment of the Nobel Institute; in 1887 promul- gated the important modern theory of dissociation in electrolytes, known as the ionization hypothesis ; was awarded in 1902 the Davy medal of the Royal Society; in 1903 received the Nobel Prize for physics, and in 19 14 received the Faraday medal from the Chemical Society. — See also Nobel prizes: Chemistry: Modern: Lavoisier. ARRIAGA, Dr. Manoel (1842-1917), Portu- guese statesman, formerly a journalist ; member of Chamber of Representatives, 1861-1889; helped es- tabUsh the republic and became first president, 1911 ; resigned 1915. See PoRruG.-u.: 1910-1912; 1911-1914. ARRIAN (Latin, Flavius Arrianus), Greek historian and philosopher of the second century A. D. His most important work is the "Anabasis of Alexander," the most reliable account now ex- isting of the life of Alexander the Great. ARRONDISSEMENT, an administrative di- vision of a French department (q. v.), similar to a "congressional district" in U. S. A. Since the Revolution France has been divided into depart- ments and arrondissements. The latter are di- vided again into cantons and communes. There are 362 arrondissements in France. — See also So- cialism: 1904-1921. ARROW, Canton river vessel, whose possession was disputed by China and England. See China: 1856-1860. ARROW HEAD COPSE, in the Somme region, northern France; ' captured by the Allies in 1916. See World W.xr: 1016: II. Western front: d, 7. ARROW HEAD WRITING. See Cunei- form Writing. ARROWS, the name of a United States army division active in the Meuse-Argonne region dur- ing the World War. See World War: 1918: II. Western front: v, 6. ARSACID.S;.— The dynasty of Parthian kings were so called, from the founder of the lines, Arsaces, who led the revolt of Parthia from the rule of the Syrian Seleucidse and raised himself to the throne. According to some ancient writers Arsaces was a Bactrian ; according to others a Scythian. — G. Rawlinson, Sixth great oriental monarchy, ch. 3. ARSEN. — In one of the earlier raids of the Seljukian Turks into Armenia, in the eleventh cen- tury the city of Arsen was destroyed. "It had long been the great city of Eastern Asia Minor, the centra of Asiatic trade, the depot for merchandise transmitted overland from Persia and India to the Eastern Empire and Europe generally. It was full of warehouses belonging to Armenians and Syrians and is said to have contained 800 churches and 300,000 people. Having failed to capture the city, Togrul's general succeeded in burning it. The de- struction of so much wealth struck a fatal blow at Armenian commerce." — E. Pears, Fail of Con- stantinople, ch. 2. ARSENALS AND NAVY YARDS WAGE COMMISSION (U. S. A.).— During the World War "the arsenals of the [United States] War De- partment and the navy yards of the Navy De- partment were direct competitors for many classes of labor. It was manifestly both inequitable and detrimental to efficiency that these two classes of institutions should pay different rates of wages for the same labor or in other respects provide for divergent labor conditions. To secure unity of action between the two Departments in respect to such matters, the Secretaries of War and of the Navy, acting in cooperation with the Secretary of Labor, in August, 1917, created a body known as the Arsenals and Navy Yards Wage Commission. This Commission, composed of Franklin D. Roose- velt. Assistant Secretary of the Navy, Stanley King, Assistant to the Secretary of War, and Row- land B. Mahaney, mediator of the Department of Labor, had as its function to pass upon all wage questions arising in arsenals and navy yards. On September 17, 1917, announcement was made in the Official BuUelin that the Commission had com- pleted its work of revising the scale of wages paid in arsenals and navy yards. In making this re- vision the Commission, although paying attention to wages paid in other local establishments, sought to standardize wages as far as' possible." — W. F. Willoughby, Government organization in war time and after, pp. 217-218. ARSEN E, Lake. — An ancient name of the lake of Van, in Armenia, which is also called Thopitis by Strabo.— -E. H. Bunbury, History of ancient geography, ch. 22, sect. i. ARSIERO, a town of northern Italy; during the World War captured by the Austrians in their invasion of May, 1916; recaptured in June when the Russian offensive called Austrian troops back f om the Italian front. This, ovith the similar events at Asiago, marked the turning point of the Austrian effort to break thiough into the Venetian plain. See World war: 1916: IV. Austro-Italian front: b, 2; also b, 4. ARSUF, or Arsouf, a small town on the coast of Palestine, scene of the victory of Richard I of England over Saladin in the third Crusade (1191)- See Crusades: Military aspect of the Crusades. ART: Application of the term. — "The term 'art' covers a vast field. In its broader sense it includes the mechanical arts and the fine arts. The fine arts fall into three divisions: the arts of poetry and literature; [also] the arts of music (q. v.); and the arts of sculpture (q. v.), painting (q. v.) and architecture (q. v.). To this last group, the term is in its narrowest sense applied; that is, to "the fine arts depending on the sense of vision or sight; the glyptic [relating to carving], plastic and graphic arts; the arts of form and color; the arts of sculpture, carving, drawing, painting, etching, 529 ART Distribution Definitions ART engraving, tattooing, decoration, costume (q. v.), pottery, architecture . . . the arts of space, and not to the arts of thought or sound." — E. S. and E. M. Balch, Art and man, p. ii. Distribution. — "Art is found in every part of the world e.xcept Antarctica. Some of its branches, such as modern European art, Roman art, Greek art, Egyptian art and Assyrian art have been studied carefully and voluminous treatises have appeared upon them. But when we turn to such arts as African art or Brazilian art, there have been no special publications about them. In the case of the wonderful art of China, it is only in the twentieth century that the first serious attempt was made to trace it back. From an artistic or an ethnological standpoint, the art of the world as a whole is so far almost untouched. . . . From one point of view, namely from that of the same kind of development, art might be divided into art families as follows; Pleistokene, Bushman and Arctic; Neolithic; /Egean, Greek and European; Egyptian and West Asiatic ; South Asiatic ; East Asiatic ; African, Australasian and Amerind. Pos- sibly the best way of classifying the main arts of the world is geographically, namely in accordance with their distribution in the five great inhabited divisions of the world. In Europe one might per- haps specify Pleistokene art; NeoUthic-Bronze Age art; JEgean art; Graeco-Roman art; Byzantine art; modern European art. In .\frica: Bushman art, Negro art, Zimbabwe art, Egyptian art. In Asia: West Asiatic art; Early East-South Asiatic art; South Asiatic art; East Asiatic art. In Asia and Africa: Arab art. ... In Australasia: Poly- nesian art; Melanesian art. In Asia and America: .\rctic art. In America: Amerind art. Whilst there are certainly many more arts than these, it seems as if most of them were derived from one or more of these primary arts, and that they may be considered as secondary arts." — Ibid., pp. 13-14, 27-28. Definitions. — Croce's .Esthetic. — ".\mong the ancients the fundamental theory of the beautiful was connected with the notions of rhythm, sym- metry, harmony of parts: in short, with the general formula of unity in variety. Among the moderns we find that more emphasis is laid on the idea of significance, expressiveness, the utterance of all that life contains; in general, that is to say, on the conception of the characteristic." — B. Bosanquet, History of ctsthetic, pp. 4, 5.— "Not reckoning the thoroughly inaccurate definitions of beauty which fail to cover the conception of art, and which suppose beauty to consist either in utility, or in adjustment to a purpose, or in symmetry, or in order, or in proportion, or in smoothness, or in harmony of the parts, or in unity amid variety, or in various combinations of these — not reckoning these unsatisfactory attempts at objective defini- tion, all the aesthetic definitions of beauty lead to two fundamental conceptions. The first is that beauty is something having an independent exist- ence (existing in itself), that it is one of the mani- festations of the absolutely Perfect, of the Idea, of the Spirit, of Will, or of God; the other is that beauty is a kind of pleasure received by us, not having personal advantage for its object. The first of these definitions was accepted by Fichte, Schel- ling, Hegel, Schopenhauer, and the philosophizing Frenchmen, Cousin, Jouffroy, Ravaisson, and others, not to enumerate the second-rate aesthetic philosophers. And this same objective-mystical definition of beauty is held by a majority of the educated people of our day. It is a conception very widely spread, especially among the elder generation. The second view, that beauty is a cer- tain kind of pleasure received by us, not having personal advantage for its aim, finds favor chiefly among the English ssthetic writers, and is shared by the other part of our society, principally by the younger generation. . , . What is art, if we put aside the conception of beauty, which confuses the whole matter? The latest and most compre- hensible definitions of art, apart from the concep- tion of beauty, are the following: (i a) Art is an activity arising even in the animal kingdom, and springing from sexual desire and the propensity to play (Schiller, Darwin, Spencer), and (i b) accom- panied by a pleasurable excitement of the nervous system (Grant Allen). This is the physiological- evolutionary definition. (2) Art is the external manifestation, by means of lines, colors, move- ments, sounds, or words, of emotions felt by man (Veron). This is the exf)erimental definition. Ac- cording to the very latest definition (Sully), (3) Art is 'the production of some permanent object or passing action, which is fitted, not only to supply an active enjoyment to the producer, but to con- vey a pleasurable impression to a number of spec- tators or listeners, quite apart from any personal advantage to be derived from it.' Notwithstanding the superiority of these definitions to the metaphy- sical definitions which depended on the conception of beauty, they are yet far from exact. . . . The inaccuracy of all these definitions arises from the fact that in them all (as also in the metaphysical definitions) the object considered is the pleasure art may give, and not the purpose it may serve in the life of man and of humanity. In order cor- rectly to define art, it is necessary, first of all, to cease to consider it as a means to pleasure, and to consider it as one of the conditions of human life. Viewing it in this way, we cannot fail to obser\'e that art is one of the means of intercourse between man and man. Every work of art causes the receiver to enter into a certain kind of rela- tionship both with him who produced, or is pro- ducing, the art, and with all those who, simultan- eously, previously, or subsequently, receive the same artistic impression. Speech, transmitting the thoughts and experiences of men, serves as a means of union among them, and art acts in a similar manner. The peculiarity of this latter means of intercourse, distinguishing it from intercourse by means of words, consists in this, that whereas by words a man transmits his thoughts to another, by means of art he transmits his feelings. ... If a man infects another or others, directly, imme- diately, by his appearance, or by the sounds he gives vent to at the very time he experiences the feeling; if he causes another man to yawn when he cannot help yawning, or to laugh or cry when he himself is obliged to laugh or cry, or to suffer when he himself is suffering — that does not amount to art. .^rt begins when one person, with the ob- ject of joining another or others to himself in one and the same feeing, expresses that feeling by cer- tain external indications To take the simplest example: a boy, having experienced, let us say, fear on encountering a wolf, relates that encounter; and, in order to evoke in others the feeling he has experienced describes himself, his condition before the encounter, the surroundings, the wood, his own light-heartedncss, and then the wolf's appearance, its movements, the distance between himself and the wolf. etc. .Ml this, if only the boy, when tell- ing the story, again experiences the feelings he lived through and infects the hearers and compels them to feel what the narrator has experienced, is art. . . . Art is not, as the metaphysicians say, the manifestation of some mysterious Idea of beauty, or God; it is not, a? the aesthetical physiologists say, a game in which man lets off his excess of stored-up energy; it is not the expression of man's 530 ART Croce's Aesthetic Relation to History ART emotions by external signs; it is not the produc- tion of pleasing objects; and, above all, it is not pleasure; but it is a mean^ of union among men, joining them together in the same feelings, and indispensable for the life and progress toward well- being of individuals and of humanity. — L. Tolstoi, What is art, pp. 38-50. — "That art must have a moral motive is another confusing proposition. . . . It is at this point that Tolstoy in bearing with his whole colossal weight upon the subject and pur- pose of art gives us after all but a one-sided an- swer to his question, 'What is Art?' insisting as he does in the conclusion of his exhaustive treatise that 'the destiny of art is to transmit from the realm of reason to the realm of feeling the truth that the well-being of men consists in being united together.' . . . This is a true epitome of the priv- ilege of art, but the enthusiasm of the moral teacher blinds him to the simple fact that this could not be done if it were not possible to inter- est men in art by pleasing them therewith. The emotion (or feeling) which will unite two men over the painting of a landscape cannot be evoked unless they enjoy the picture, nor can the design of a Turkish rug unite men unless it first please them. [Poore does not, however, define this plea- sure in terms of a special esthetic faculty ; his ar- gument, on the other hand] places the apprehen- sion and appreciation of art upon the basis of the intellectual process and denies that there is such a thing as indefinable beauty in art." — H. R. Poore, Conception of art, pp. 41, 63, gs-g6. — Clive Bell explicitly dissociates beauty from art, and de- fines the essential quality of art as "significant form." The theory of Rodin, although less con- sistently phrased, is similar in intention. "In fact, in art, only that which has character is beautiful. Character is the essential truth of any natural ob- ject whether ugly or beautiful: ; it is even what one might call a double truth, for it is the inner truth translated by the outer truth ; it is the soul, the feelings, the ideas, expressed by the features of a face, by the gestures and actions of a human being, by the tones of a sky, by the lines of a horizon." — P. Gsell, Art, by Rodin, p. 44. Reasoning from the point of view of the phi- losopher as distinct from that of the artist, Bene- detto Croce has formulated the Expressionist Theory, which is at present widely accepted. "Croce's theory of Beauty rests on the affirmation of an jesthetic activity as a special sphere of mental activity, distinct alike from the logical activity on one hand and from the ethical activity on the other hand. . . . Beauty is successful expression. We may even leave out the qualification 'successful' and say simply, Beauty is expression, for unsuc- cessful expression is not expression. What then is expression? It is the form the mind gives to its intuitions, the form intuition takes as it expresses itself. And as there is no matter without form and no form without matte/, the intuition is expres- sion. . . . 'When we have mastered the internal word, when we have vividly and clearly conceived a figure or a statue, when we have found a musical theme, expression is born and is complete, nothing more is needed. If then, we open our mouth and speak or sing, the action is voluntary, and what we then do is say aloud what we have already said within, sing aloud what we have already sung within. If our hands strike the keyboard of the pianoforte, if we take up pencil or chisel, such ac- tions are willed and what we are then doing is executing in great movements what we have al- ready executed briefly and rapidly within. By these actions we stamp our intuitions on a material which will hold the traces of them more or less enduringly. . . . The work of art is always and 53 only internal, and what is called external is no longer a work of art.' (Croce, Eslctica, p. 58). . . The beautiful then is Eesthetic value and a;sthetic value is successful aesthetic activity, that is, ex- pression. The ugly is spoilt expression, a short- coming or a failure to express. . . . We are ac- customed to accept the truth of the saying poela nascitiir non fit. Croce tells us the true doctrine is homo nascitur poeta. Every man is born a poet, little poets some, great poets others. . . . There is no difference between the intuition of the artist of genius and the intuition of the humblest individual who finds enjoyment in contemplating the work of genius so far as pure intuition is concerned, not- withstanding the utter incompetence the one may feel in himself to accomplish what the other has performed. It is always our own intuition we express when we are enjoying a work of genius. The great artist enables me to express my intuition, his work assists me. I cannot, that is to say, have any intuition but my own, and it can only be my own intuition when reading Shakespeare I form the image of Hamlet or Othello, but the greatness of Shakespeare is that he enables me to rise to higher and more extensive ranges of intuition than I could hope to reach without his assistance." — H. W. Carr, Philosophy of Benedetto Croce, pp. 70, 72, 161-165. Relation of art and history. — Spirit of an- tiquity and Renaissance in architecture, sculp- ture and painting. — "Art is a language. It gives expression to the spirit of the age, the nation, and the individual that produced it. These three creat- ing forces of the age, the nation, and the individual may be discerned in every work of art. They make of art the most eloquent expression of life." — E. M. Ku\me, Renaissance, Protestant Revolution, and Catholic Reformation, in continental Europe, p. 108. — "It is true that in recent centuries, those namely of recent modern history, the arts of paint- ing and sculpture, at least, have become mainly matters of luxury, and that as arts of popular edu- cation and instruction they have been displaced by printed books. Hence the difficulty of making im- mediately apparent, before the subject itself has been opened up, that a history of art is not so much a history of the arts of design as it is a his- tory of civilization. But if this point is not ap- parent in advance, it is notwithstanding the point which in recent years has drawn more and more attention to the subject, until it is beginning to figure as an indispensable part of the philosophy and knowledge of general history. As soon as history ceases to be conceived as a series of dis- connected national chronicles, as soon as it begins to be conceived as a sequent evolution of races and of epochs — which has been unbroken in continuity since the time of the Chaldeans and Egyptians down to the nineteenth century — the history of art appears as a study of the first importance. This is because it deals with the now visible relics of the past; not only with buildings, statues, reliefs, and paintings, but with fabrics, utensils, coins, furniture, and all the accessories of daily life ; for in historic periods all these things were given an appropriate artistic treatment and setting forth. As revelations of the life of a nation or an epoch these relics appeal to the imagination because they appeal to the eye and assist each student to picture the past to himself. The student is no longer, then, dependent on the descriptions and accounts of an- other student; he becomes himself an independent historian, for whoever evokes in imagination the life of the past deserves this title. The history of art has, moreover, especial value for a true philos- ophy of history in that it forces the student to subordinate the history of nations to the history I ART Relation to History ART of epochs. The grand divisions between the suc- cessive epochs of the ascendency of the ancient oriental nations — of the Greeks [see also ^gean cr\iLizATiox ; Athens; Sparta], of the Romans, of the Germanic races (the Middle Ages), and of the Italians (the Renaissance) — are only seen dis- tinctly when the history of art is called in evi- dence." — \V. H. Goodyear, Roman and medieval art, pp. iii-iv. — "Each epoch of the world develops its own proper form of expression. Greek archi- tecture is the embodiment of supreme serenity, of self-restraint, and the sense of inevitable fate. It is the expression of an ideal of life that never sought to leave the earth, the ideal of a sound mind in a sound body. Its impulse is purely pagan. Roman architecture, with its bridges and acqueducts, its triumphal arches, its domes and its auditoriums, speaks of the majesty of the Roman government, of the imperial scope of its power and its law. When paganism had fallen and Christian- ity had built a new civilization upon the wreck of the old, Gothic architecture gave expression to the new spirit, to the new ideal of life, to the new vi- sion that soared aloft until it was lost in the blue sky. Pure beauty was the sole object of Hellenic art, but Gothic architecture strove to voice the aspirations of the human soul. The predominant lines of classic architecture are horizontal lines, which are restful and belong to the earth, while those of Gothic architecture are vertical. In the Gothic cathedral, slender window, towering pillar, pointed arch, lofty vault, delicate pinnacle, and soaring spire, irresistibly carry the eye upward. Classic architecture was rooted in the rational fac- ulty ; Gothic was born in the spiritual. . . . The Renaissance was in part a harking back to the classic ideals. The new classicism of the time de- manded an architecture that could give it expres- sion. Gothic architecture could not express the lucidity and the sanity of Greek thought, nor the grandiose nature of the Roman civilization. Nor could it express the combination of classicism and modernity that formed the spirit of the Renais- sance. A new style of architecture was required. The pure Gothic of northern and central France had never found a congenial soil in Italy. Only a modified form of Gothic, in which the horizontal principle held an important part, had flourished there. Beadth rather than height was its characteristic attribute. The spire was al- most unknown, its place being taken by the dome. In retaining something of the char- acter of classic architecture Italian Gothic ex- pressed the genius of the Italian people, a genius with a classic inheritance, ns contrasted with the genius of the French people, a genius with a marked Celtic strain. In the creation of an archi- ture that should give expression to the semi-classic spirit of the Renaissance a less radical change was required of the Italians than of the northern na- tions. The spirit of the Renaissance appealed to the Italian mind promptly and decisively. A new style of architecture, that rapidly reached matur- ity, gave expression to that spirit. . . . The Greeks serenely enjoyed the external world. They drew the inspiration for their sculpture from the men and women they saw about them. They were not much disturbed by the moral struggles and the ceaseless and often-times painful questionings re- garding the destiny of the individual soul that Christianity emphasized. ... As we have seen, this change in the attitude towards life, coming by im- perceptible degrees, brought with it a change in the ideals of art. The Greek temple gave place to the Gothic cathedral. And when men began to recover something of the pagan attitude towards life the architecture of the early Renaissance gave expression to that spirit. A similar change took place in all the arts, in sculpture and in painting. In sculpture the Italian, sense of reality had never been completely extinguished. The carving of leaves and flowers and fruit in the medieval churches of the peninsula give testimony to a cer- tain power of observation. Vet the Italian sculp- tors were in no small measure bound by the sub- jection of their art to the exclusive service of the Church. The men of the medieval centuries were exceedingly skilful carvers of stone. Indeed, the medieval sculptors made the thirteenth century one of the great periods of their art. But the spell of the Church under which sculpture worked is seen in the almost exclusive devotion to eccles- iastical subjects, in the thin and gaunt figures, the emaciated faces, the angular gestures, and above all in the spirit that informs it. It was Nicholas of Piso (i207( ?)-8o), . . . who, disregarding the limiting traditions of the past, first instilled some- thing of the new life into the forms of medieval sculpture. ... He went direct to nature. And from him onwards not one of the Itahan sculptor^ copied classical statuary in a slavish manner. So into the sculpture of the Renaissance, as into its Hterature, its architecture and its painting, there flowed from the beginning two streams of inspira- tion, that of classic art and that of nature it- self. . . . "In the Middle Ages painting was merely the handmaid of the Church. Its function was not to reveal to man the beauty of the present world, but to help him to win the salvation of his soul in the next. In the latter medieval centuries the only school of painting was the Byzantine school. It is true that the Greek church had been separated from the Latin church for centuries, but the paint- ing of the former dominated that of the latter. Byzantine painting was completely under the spell of the Church. The subjects of the pictures were taken from the Scriptures, from the legends of the Church, or from the lives of the saints. An arid symbolism, void of all initiative, dominated art. . . . The style of treatment, the attitudes, the com- position, and the colors, were all determined by traditional rules. . . . There was no direct refer- ence to nature. .Ml that painting had to do was to assist the Church in its teaching. . . . But softly and unnoticed a new era dawned upon the world. In the thirteenth century life began to animate painting once more as it had done in the days of Greece and Rome, and as it was already doing in Italy in literature and sculpture. Men once again became sensitive to the beauty of na- ture and the significance of humanity. Among the painters who first made their art more expressive of life were Guido of Siena, Giunta of Pisa, and more important, Cimabue (1240 ( ?)-i302) of Florence. . . . The beginning of the revival 01 sculpture preceded that of painting by almost half a century; but the genius of one great man, Giotto (1276-1336), raised painting to so high a pitch that it overtook and overshadowed the develop- ment of sculpture. . . . Fra .\ngelico had abjured antiquity and Mantagna had discarded the inheri- tance of the Middle .Ages. But up to this time most of the artists of the Renaissance had striven to unite the pagan and the Christian elements. It was only ver>' gradually that the classical and the modern were amalgamated." — E. M. Hulme, Ren- aissance, Protestant Revolution and Catholic Re- formation in continental Europe, pp. 108, 111-112, 116-117, 121. "Now I think it may well profit us to turn away from the art of our own Western tradition and consider an art which has grown up and flowered among races of a quite different civilization, among 532 ART Periods of Art ART a different order of ideas and nourished by a dif- ferent inspiration: the art of Asia. That is the only other body of creative art which can be com- pared with our art, the art of the Western world, on equal terms. . . . We have always thought of perfection as something completed, and therefore finite. But, as Mr. Okakura tells us in his charm- ing Book of Ted, Laoist thought rejects the finite, because where there is an end, where there is completion, there is death. Growth has stopped. Therefore we find a dwelling on the idea of the imperfect, the uncompleted, when the capacity for growth still remains. . . . The Chinese seem never to have felt the need to throw their imagination of the life-force into a human image. They have kept their thought strangely vague and impersonal. ... It is characteristic of this art and poetry that this spirit in it goes out exulting to the immensi- ties and profundities, as to its natural home. . . . We in the West have found that the vitality of our art has been nourished chiefly by the influx of new material. The spur to our artists has been the zest of exploration. The painters of the East have remained content to repeat the same motive century after century. And not only this, but they have remained content with the same means of expression. . . , The art of the West has been like a fire, choked with the fuel which we have heaped on it so eagerly ; burning fiercely but tur- bidly, with smoke and crackling. In the art of the East the flame has burned far clearer and purer; the danger for it is rather inanition from want of fresh fuel. How much, what a plenitude of material has our Western art to consume ! how grand an inspiration remains!" — L. Binyon, Ideas of design in east and laest {Atlantic Monthly, Nov., iqi3)- Also in: J. Ruskin, Seven lamps of architec- ture; Stones of Venice. — W. Pater, Renaissance: studies in art and poetry. — J. A. Symonds, Renais- sance in Italy, v. 3. — E. M. and E. S. Balch, Com- parative ari.—G. B. Brown, Fine arts. — Kenyon Cox, Classic point of view. — C. Noyes, Gale of appreciation. — L. M. Phillips, Form and colour. — P. Gaultier, Meaning of art. — E. Rowland, Signifi- cance of art. — W. H. Wright, Creative will. The following is an index of the various arts, arranged alphabetically under the distinctive periods ; Prehistoric Art American aborigines. See Arch.^ology: Im- portance of American field; Aztec and Maya pic- TtjEE writing; Indians, American: Cultural areas in North America: Southwest area, also Plateau area; Mayas; Mexico: Aboriginal peoples; Mu- sic: Primitive; Peru: 1200-1527; Pueblos. Palaeolithic. See Architecture: Prehistoric; Europe: Prehistoric period: Palaeolithic art; Paint- ing: Pre-classical. Ancient Art Ancient writing. See Aztec and Maya picture writing; ^gean civilization: Cretan writing, also Minoan Age: B.C. 2200-1600; Cuneiform inscrip- tions; Egypt: Language and writing; Japan: Lan- guage. Babylonian and Assyrian. See Architecture: Oriental: Mesopotamia; Assyria: Art and archaeo- logical remains; Babylon: Nebuchadrezzar and the wall of Babylon; Babylonia: Earliest inhabitants; Music: Ancient: B.C. 3000-7th century; Sculp- ture: Western Asia. Chinese. See Architecture: Oriental; China: China: Origin of the people, also 1294-1736; Cos- tume: China; Music:* Ancient: B.C. 2852-478; Painting: Chinese; Sculpture: India, China and Japan. Egyptian. See Alexandria: B.C. 282-246; Arch.eology: Development; Architecture: Ori- ental; Egypt; Costume: Egypt; Egypt: Monu- ments, also B. C. 1500-1400, and Language and writing; Hellenism: Hellenism and Alexandria; Music: Ancient: B.C. 4000-525; Mythology: Egyptian; Sculpture: Egyptian. Greek. See Acropolis or Athens; Archeol- ogy: Development; Architecture: Greek, Doric and Ionic styles; Athens: B.C. 461-431: Aspect of Periclean Athens; CosTtiME: Greece; Music: Ancient: B.C. 540-4th century; Painting: Greek; Parthenon: B.C. 445-431; Sculpture: Greek. Hebrew. See Architecture: Oriental: Pales- tine; Jerusalem: B.C. 1400-700. Indian. See Architecture: Oriental: India: Hindu architecture; Costume: India; Music: An- cient: B.C. 2000-A. D. 1200; Painting: Asiatic: In- dia and Persia; Sculpture: India, China and Japan. Irish. See Dublin: I2th-i4th centuries; Music: Folk music and nationalism: Ireland. Japanese. See Architecture: Oriental: Japan; Costume: Japan; Japan: Language; Painting: Japan; Sculpture: India, China and Japan. Persian. See Architecture: Oriental: Persia; Music: Ancient: B.C. 2000-A. D. 1200; Painting: Asiatic: India and Persia; Sculpture: Western Asia. Roman. See Amphitheatre; Aqueducts; Arch; Architecture: Classic: Roman; Baths; Costume: Rome; Music: B.C. 146-A. D. 524; Painting: Roman; Sculpture: Roman. Scotch and Welsh. See Music; Folk music and nationalism: Scotland, Wales. Early Christian Art Early Christian. See Basilicas; Music: B.C. 4-A. D. 397; 314-590; 540-604; P.wnting: Early Christian. Medieval Art Illuminated manuscript. See Books: Books in medieval times. Byzantine. See Byzantine empire: Part in history; Sculpture; Romanesque sculpture. Chinese. See Painting: Chinese; Sculpture: India, China and Japan. Coptic. See Architecture: Medieval; Coptic. Dutch. See Music: Medieval: 1350-1500; 1450- 1600; Painting: Dutch. English. See Music: Folk music and national- ism: Medieval: England, also 1226-1622. Flemish. See Painting: Flemish. French. See Architecture: Medieval: Ro- manesque: French and Norman; Costume: iooo- 1500; Music: Folk music and nationalism: France, also 12th, I2th-i4th century, 12th century-1350; Painting: French; Sculpture: Gothic. German. See Abbey: Architectural features: Architecture: Medieval: Romanesque: Lombard and German; Music: Medieval: 12th, I2th-i4th century, 12th century-1350; Painting: German; Sculpture: Gothic. Gothic. See Architecture: Medieval: Gothic. Indian. See Painting: Asiatic; Sculpture: In- dia, China and Japan. Italian. See Florence: 1469-1492 ; Music: Folk music and nationalism: Italy; Painting: Italian: Early Renaissance; Rome: Modern city: 153 7-1 621. Japanese. See Painting: Japanese; Sculpture: India, China and Japan. Lombard architecture. See Architecture: Medieval: Romanesque: Lombard and German. 533 /RT ART GALLERIES AND MUSEUMS Mohammedan architecture. See Architec- ure: Medieval: Mohammedan; Alhambra; Amru, Mosque of. Norman. See .■\RCinTECTURE; Medieval: Ro- manesque; French and Norman. Romanesque. See Architecture: Medieval: Romanesque. Scandinavian. See Music: Folk music and na- tionalism: Scandinavia. Spain.— Moorish art. See Architecture: Med- ieval: Mohammedan; Painting: Spanish; Sculp- ture: Gothic. Renaissance English. See Architecture: Renaissance: Eng- lish. French. See Architeciure: Renaissance: French. See also Renaissance. Italian. See .\rchitecture: Renaissance: Ital- ian; P.mnting: Italian: Early Renaissance, also High Renaissance; Sculpture: Early Renaissance, also High Renaissance; Venice: i6th century. Modern Art American. See Architecture: Modem: Amer- ican; Music: Modern: 17 74- 1908; Painting: .American; Sculpture: Modern sculpture. Belgian. See .Architecture: Modern; Belgian; Music: Folk music and nationalism: Netherlands. Bohemian. See Bohemia: Art, Music, Educa- tion; Music: Folk music and nationalism: Bo- hemia. Celtic. See Music: Folk music and national- ism: Celtic: Hebrides. English. See Architecture: Modern: English; Costume: 17th century, also 1815-1880; Music: Modern: 1660-1604; 1750-1870; 1842-1921; Pain-t- ing: English, also Europe (19th century) ; Sculp- ture: Modern sculpture. Finnish. See Music: Folk music and national- ism: Finland. French. See Architecture: Modern: French; Costume: 1795-1815; Music: Modern: 1645-1764; 1730-1816; 1774-1864; 1800-1908; 1830-1921; Painting: French; P.unting: Europe (19th cen- tury ) ; Sculpture: Modern Sculpture. German. See .Architecture: Modern: German; Music: Modern: 1540-1672; 1630-1800; 1700-1827; Later i8th century; 1620-1722; 1740; 1818-1921; 1847-1921; Painting: Europe (19th century); Sculpture: Modern sculpture. Italian. See Music: Modern: 1527-1613; 153S- 674; 1575-1676; 1607-1737; 1675-1764; 1650-1739; 1730-1816; 1818-1868; 1842-1921. Oriental. See Painting: Asiatic, also Japanese; Sculpture: India, China and Japan. Russian. See Music: Folk music and national- ism: Russia. Scandinavian. See Music: Folk music and na- tionalism; Scandinavia. Spanish. See Painting: Spanish, also Europe (19th century). Besides the subjects referred to, there are also articles on Art galleries and museums; Art edu- cation ; Arts and crafts movement ; and the Lit- eratures, e. g., American literature, English lit- erature, etc. Drama; also articles on the princi- pal museums, Abbeys, Cathedr-U.s, etc., and names of artists. ART ALLIANCE OF AMERICA. See Edu- cation, Art; United States: Museums used lor art education. ART COLLECTIONS. See Art galleries AND museums. ART EDUCATION. See Education, Art. ART GALLERIES AND MUSEUMS.— The term "museum," derived from the Museion or "Temple of the muses" at Alexandria, covers a collection of all sorts of art objects, while an art gallerv is occasionally, though not as a rule, restricted to a collection of pictures. Public museums are those supported by public money, to which the public has free access. "While the Romans were industrious collectors of statues and paintings they sought them merely as decorative objects and not for the purpose of cultivating taste, or as instruments for the study and teach- ing of the arts of design. At first they were em- ployed exclusively for the decoration of temples and places of public resort; but private collec- tions began to be formed and by the close of the Republic it had become fashionable for wealthy citizens to have a room in their houses for the reception and display of works of art. . . . Natural objects, such as we call curiosities, had long been preserved in temples, both in Greek and Roman times. ... By far the most important museum of antiquity was the great institution at -Alex- andria (Museion) founded by Ptolemy Philadel- phus in the third century before Christ. ... In the Middle .Ages many monasteries had collec- tions of curiosities. . . . Every church had its treasury, and most treasuries contained relics. . . . The vast treasuries of art which had been re- covered in Italy [during the Renaissance] were gradually absorbed into special collections and formed the foundation of the museums of the Vatican and the Lateran at Rome, of the museum of Florence and of those of Vienna, Dresden, Munich, Paris, St. Petersburg, and London."— D. Murray, Museums, pp. 1-18.— "It is only within recent years that communities have taken or shared the initiative in the foundation of museums of art. The older museums abroad and at home have originated in private collections either be- queathed to the public or taken possession of in the name of the nation. [See .Albright g.\l- lerv.] The purchase of Sir Hans Sloane's col- lection in 1753 was the nucleus of the British Museum; the Pitti and the Uf&zi collections gathered bv the Medici family have now been acquired bv the Italian Government. Some great museums, like the Vatican in Rome, still remain private propertv, while open in a measure free to the public. Some, like our American museums, mostly established during the past half-century, are the property of corporations created for the purpose." — B. I. Gilman, Museum ideals of pur- pose and method, p. 383.— "The character of the buildings which, as time went on, were here and there erected to house these collections of price- less originals, was determined by several fac- tors. .As most of the collections had found their first homes in the palaces of rulers or mem- bers of the nobility, it was quite naturally con- cluded that their new homes should be also in the stvle of the local palace or royal residence. .As the things collected were objects of art, it seemed obvious that they should be housed in artistic buildings, and as for several centuries it has been difficult for architects or those having power over art collections to conceive of an artistic building save in terms of Greek or Renaissance architecture, nearly all special museum buildings imitated either the Greek temple or the Italian palace In Europe, therefore, we find museums to be either old buildings of the loyal palace type or later constructions copying the palace or the Greek temple, containing priceless originals in all lines of art, craftsmanship and archsology, arranged as the characters of the several build- ings compel. . . . The prevalence of th" Euro- pean idea of a museum determined not only the character of our museum buildings, but also their 534 ART GALLERIES AND MUSEUMS ART INSTITUTE location. As they must be works of art, and as only those buildings which took the form of temples and palaces could be considered works of art, and as temples and palaces need open space about them to display their excellence, and as space in the centers of towns is quite expensive, donors, architects, trustees and city fathers all agreed that the art museum building should be set apart from the city proper, preferably in a part with open space about it." — J. C. Dana, Gloom of the museum, pp. 11-13. — "There is im- posed upon museums of the fine arts by the nature of their contents an obligation paramount to the duty of public instruction incumbent on all mu- seums, . . . namely, to promote public appre- ciation of certain visible and tangible creations through which the fancy of man has bidden his sense follow its flight. ... An art museum is a selection of objects adapted to impress; a sci- entific or technical museum is a selection of objects adapted to instruct. . . . Art is an end, educa- tion a means to an end. The office of an art museum is one which is warranted in itself ; that of an educational museum is one whose fruits are its warrant. . . . Thus neither in scope nor in value is the purpose of an art museum a pedagogic one. An institution devoted to the preservation and exhibition of works of the line arts is not an educational institution, either in essence or in its claims to consideration. ... In their chief function, it is theirs to gather up the art of the past, whose public no longer exists, and offer hospitality to the art of foreign lands, whose public is another than ours. They are instru- mentalities by which civilization provides that neither shall antique art be lost, nor exotic art be non-existent to us. The distinctive purpose of an art museum may be precisely defineci as the aim to bring about that perfect contempla- tion of the works of art it preserves which is implied in their production and forms their con- summation. . . . While museums of other kinds are at bottom educational institutions, a museum of fine art is not didactic but aesthetic in primary purpose, although formative in its influence, and both admitting of and profiting by a secondary pedagogical use. The true conception of an art museum is not that of an educational institu- tion having art for its teaching material, but that of an artistic institution with educational uses and demands." — B. I. Oilman, Museum ideals of purpose and method, pp. 89-98. "The educational value of museums is recog- nised by all universities, inasmuch as every de- partment, where possible, has its museum to en- able the student to see the things and realise sensually the qualities described in lessons or lectures — in short, to learn what cannot be learned by words. But the 'Teaching Museums' of a university are very different in character from Public Museums. In the first place the clientele is altogether different. The university student comes to his museum primed with the teaching of the classroom, and inspired to acquire knowl- edge from what may be seen there. There is not the necessity for special preparation to attract the interest, or even to preserve the life-like char- acters of specimens." — Proceedings and transaf- tions of the Liverpool Biological Society, v. 32, 1917-1918, pp. 3-4. — See also Education, Art: United States: Museums used for art education. The following is a selected list of art galleries and museums in various parts of the world: Argentina, Buenos Aires. — Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes. Australia. — National Gallery, Melbourne. Austria. — Art-history Museum, Gallery of Paint- ings, Lichtenstein Gallery and Imperial Museum, Vienna (q.v.). Belgium. — Galleries of old and modern pictures in the Royal Museums, Brussels. Brazil, Rio de Janeiro. — Eschola Nacional de Bellas Artes. China. — Peking Imperial Museum in Peking. Denmark. — .^rt Museum at Copenhagen. ^Sypl- — Musee Greco-Romain at Alexandria, and Museum of Egyptian Antiquities and National Museum of Arab Art at Carlo. France. — Louvre (q.v.), Musee du Luxembourg, Musee de Cluny and Musee Carnavalet (see Car- NA VALET, Musee), Paris, and Musee Nationale at Versailles. Musees des Departments that have shown positive evidence of growth during the last quarter of a century are those of Amiens, Abbe- ville, Boulogne-sur-mer. Clermont, Douai, Lille, Poitiers, Saint-Quentin, Senlis and Valenciennes. Germany — Old and New Museums and National Gallery at Berlin, the Royal Gallery of Paintings at Dresden (see Dresden museum), and the Glyptothek and the Old and New Pinakothek at Munich (q.v.), Darmstadt Museum (q.v.). Great Britain. — Museum and Art Gallery at Bir- mingham, the National Gallery and the Muni- cipal Gallery of Modern Art at DubUn (see Dub- lin museum), the National Gallery of Scotland at Edinburgh, the Art Gallery and Museum at Glasgow (see Glasgow museum), the Walker Art Gallery at Liverpool, the Ashmolean Museum, Ox- ford (q.v.), the Ruskin Museum at Sheffield, and the following in London: National Gallery, Na- tional Portrait Gallery, National Gallery of British Art (formerly the Tate), Victoria and Albert Mu- seum (q.v.) (formerly South Kensington Museum), British Museum (q.v), and Wallace Collection. Greece. — National Museum at Athens. Holland. — Koninklyk Kabinet van Schilderyen and Municipal Museum at The Hague and Ryks Museum at Amsterdam (q.v.). India. — The Indian Museum at Calcutta. 7(a/.v.— The Accademia di Belle Arti, the Uffizi, the Pitti Palace and the Bargello, at Florence, the Brera at Milan, the Museo Nazionale at Naples (q.v), Museo Nazionale at Florence (q.v.), the Vatican (q.v.), the Capitoline, the Borghese and the Doria at Rome, and the Accademia ed Instituto di Belle Arti at Venice. Japan. — The Imperial Museums In Tokio, in Kioto, and in Nara. Mexico, Mexico City.— Museo de Arte de Academia de Ciencias. Peru, Lima. — Gallery of Paintings in the Museo de Historia Natural, Palacio de la Exposicion. Porttigal. — Museu Nacional de Antiga and Museu Nacional de Arte Contemporanea at Lis- bon. Russia. — The Hermitage (q. v.) and the Rus- sian Museum of Alexander III at Petrograd. Spain. — Museo del Prado (see Prado, Museo del) and Academia de Bellas Artes at Madrid, the Casa Greca at Toledo, and the Palacio de Bellas .\rtes at Barcelona, Museo de Artilleria. Siveden. — National Museum at Stockholm. United States and Canada. — Art Institute ot Chicago (q.v.) ; Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Science; Hispanic Society of America, Metro- politan Museum of Art (q.v.), and Public Li- brary (paintings and prints department). New York City [see also New York City: 1870-1921]; Carnegie Institute, Pittsburgh; Museum of Fine Arts, Boston ; The National Gallery of Canada (Ottawa) ; Corcoran Gallerv of Art, Washing- ton, D. C. ART INSTITUTE, Chicago.— "From an art school founded in 1866 rose the Chicago Academy 535 ART INSTITUTE ARTEVELDE of Design, which until 1882 was the only notable art center of Ihe city. In 1S79 it was organized anew as the Chicago Academy of Fine Arts, and incorporated by the State 'for the founding and maintenance of schools of art and design, the formation and exhibition of collections of objects of art, and the cultivation and extension of the arts of design, by appropriate means.' In 1883 it was given its present name. First installed in rented rooms, the society obtained in 1882 and 1885 (obliquely across from its present home) a large piece of ground, upon a part of which it built, but in 18S6 it erected there a fine museum, 100 feet long and 87 feet wide, of a Romanesque style, after plans of J. W. Root. As this soon be- came too small it was in 1892 sold for $400,000 to the Chicago Club in order that there might be erected in 1893 the present spacious building, near the edge of the lake, in the extensive Lake Front Park. . . . The Chicago Exposition in 1893 needed a building for holding congresses, and by mutual agreement with the art institute this one was built upon a site belonging to the city, on the lake front, near the busiest section. The exposition paid $200,000, the art institute $500,000, and the city gave the site, 425 feet long, on the broad Michigan avenue under the condition that the property rights in the building should belong to it, but that the art institute should occupy it rent free, so long as they use it for its present purposes. The art institute therefore presented it to the city. . . . The Art Institute is entirely independent and obtains no support from the city, to say nothing of the State, except that the city, as already mentioned, gave the ground for a site, in e.xchange for which it obtained the property right of the building. The yearly expenditure for 189Q-1900 was about $90,000 the art school costing $38,000, which was, however, wholly re- paid by the pupils. ... At the head of the in- stitute is a board of trustees of 23 persons, who from their number select a president and a vice- president, as well as an executive committee of seven and an art committee of five members." — A. B. Meyer, Studies of the museums and kindred institutions of New York City, Albany, Buffalo and Chicago, pp. 442-447. "The museum has collections of paintings, es- pecially Dutch, Flemish, French, and American; Egyptian and classical antiquities; about 1,400 casts of sculpture of all periods, including archi- tectural sculpture ; prints, inclnding very fine col- lections of etchings by Meryon, Whistler, and Zorn ; modern medals and plaquettes; ceramics, notably old Wedgwood and other English wares; textiles, furniture, and other examples of indus- trial art. Two organizations exist for the pur- pose of adding to the collections — the .\ntiquarian Society and the Friends of American Art. Be- sides the permanent exhibitions there are held an- nually more than 40 diverse temporary exhibitions, foreign as well as American. . . . 2,200 students are included in the day, night, Saturday juvenile classes in drawing, painting, sculpture, design, il- lustration, architecture, and normal instruction, and Summer School. Forty teachers including visiting instructors compose the regular faculty. [See Art EnvcATioN.l The Ryerson Library of Art and the Burnhara Library of Architecture have 16,000 volumes, 46.000 photographs, and 20,000 lantern slides. The Extension Department, in ex- istence since November ior6, has carried exhibi- tions of modern American painting to forty or fifty cities; has conducted art institutes of three to five days' duration in these cities, and has provided lectures and assisted in the organiza- tion of local exhibitions in many cities of the Middle Western states." — Year's art 1920, pp. 238- 239. — See also Painting: Modern: American. ART MUSEUMS. See Art galleries and MUSEUMS. ART SCHOOLS. See Education, Art; Amer- ican ACADEMY IN RoiiE ; .\rt INSTITUTE, Chicago. ARTABA, ancient Persian dry measure. See Ephah. ARTAGUETTE (d. 1736), French military leader under Bienville ; became colonial governor of Louisiana during which period he engaged in wars against the Chickasaw Indians. See Louislana: 1719-1750. ARTAPHERNES.— Persian satrap of Sardis. Took prominent part in suppressing the Ionian revolt. (See Greece: B.C. 500-493: Rising of lonians.) His son, of the same name, together with Datis, commanded the expedition sent by Darius against Athens and Eretria for their share in this revolt. The expedition was defeated at Marathon. See Greece: B. C. 490. ARTAXATA, the ancient capital of Armenia, said to have been built under the superintendence of Hannibal, while a refugee' in Armenia. At i later time it was called Neronia, in honor of the Roman Emperor Nero. Siege of. See Rome: Republic: B.C. 78-68. ARTAXERXES, the name of three ancient Persian kings of the .^chiemian dynasty. Artaxerxes I (Longimanus), reigned 465-425 B.C. See Athens: B.C. 460-455; Persia: B.C. 486-405. Artaxerxes II (Mnemon), ruled >i0m 404 to 359 B.C. (See Persia: B.C. 486-405 and 401- 400.) Persian supremacy in Greece was proclaimed at the Peace of Antalcidas (see Greece: B. C. 399- 387) ; but the last years marked the weakening and disintegration of his kingdom. Artaxerxes III (Ochus), Kin^ of Persia, 359- 338 B.C. A cruel and despotic ruler; subjugated Egypt about 343 B. C. and gave his support to Perinthus and Byzantium (340 B. C.) against Philip of Macedon. The same name was also borne by (Be founder and two other rulers of the Sassanid dynasty, though they are generally known as Ardashir or Ardshir. See Persia: B.C. 150-A. D. 226; and Sassanun dynasty. ARTEMIS, a Greek divinity known among the Romans as Diana, the protectress of young men and maidens, the goddest of chastity, of nature and of the hunt, and later regarded as the moon- goddess. She has many symbols in art, notably the hind, the bear, the bow and arrow, the torch, and the crescent. There are beautiful representations of her on the coins of .Arca- dia, Aetolia, Crete and Sicily; her most famous statue, the Diana of \'ersailles, is now in the Louvre. Temple of. See Temples: Stage of culture rep- resented bv temple architecture. ARTEMISIA.— (i) Sister and wife of Mauso- lus, king of Caria, whom she followed as ruler, 353-350 B. C. Built the famous Mausoleum in Halicarnassus in honor of her husband. (See Carians.) (2) A queen of Halicarnassus and Cos (c. 480 B. C.) ; fought at the battle of Salamis (see Greece: B. C. 480: Persian Wars) on the side of Xerxes against the Greeks. She became a mvthological heroine. ARTEMl'SIUM, a promontory in the north- west coast of Euboea. The Greeks, undijr Eury- biades, won a naval battle against the Persians off the point (480 B.C.). See Greece: B.C. 480: Persian Wars: .^rtemisium; also Map of ancient Greece. ARTEMITA, city in Assyria. See Dastagerd. 536 ARTEVELDE ARTHURIAN LEGEND ARTEVELDE, Jacqu»s van (12Q0-1345), a Flemish leader of the fourteenth century who was successful in repulsing the Count of Flanders, a French vassel, and was instrumental in forming a league between Ghent, Bruges and Ypres which later made a treaty with Edward III of England. He was killed in 1345 during an uprising of the populace. — See also Flanders: 1335-1337; 134S. ARTEVELDE, Philip van (about 1340-1382), a son of Jacques van Artevelde. He lost his life in the battle of Roosebeke in which he led the Flemings against the French army under Charles VI. — See also Flanders: 1382. ARTHUR, King, and Knights of the Round Table. See Arthurian Legend; and Cumbria. ARTHUR, Chester Alan (1830-1886), the twenty-first president (Republican) of the United States; appointed collector of the port of New York in 1S71 by President Grant; in 1880 was Garfield's running mate for vice-presidency and subsequently elected; succeeded Garfield (who died on September iq) as president in 1881 and remained in office until 18S5. — See also Civil serv- ice reform: United States; Tariff: 1883; U. S. A.: 1880: Twenty-fourth presidential election; 1881; 1881-1885. ARTHURIAN CYCLE. See Arthurian legend. ARTHURIAN LEGEND.— An early medieval romance of Britain, laid in the latter part of the fifth, and first quarter of the sixth, centuries. The story concerns a semi-mythical hero, King Arthur. "On the difficult question, whether there was a historical Arthur or not, ... a word or two must now be devoted . . . ; and here one has to notice in the first place that Welsh litera- ture never calls Arthur a gwledig or prince but emperor, and it may be inferred that his his- torical position, in case he had such a position, was that of one filling, after the departure of the Romans, the office which under them was that of the Comes Britanniae or Count of Britain. The officer so called had a roving commission to de- fend the Province wherever his presence might be called for. The other military captains here were the Dux Britanniarum, who had charge of the forces in the north and especially on the Wall, and the Comes Littoris Saxonici [Count of the Saxon Shore], who was entrusted with the defence of the south-eastern coa^t of the island. The successors of both these captains seem to have been called in Welsh gwledigs or princes. So Arthur's suggested position as Comes Britan- niae would be in a sense superior to theirs, which harmonizes with his being called emperor and not gwledig. The Welsh have borrowed the Latin title of imperator, 'emperor,' and made it into 'amherawdyr,' later 'amherawdwr,' so it is not impossible, that when the Roman imperator ceased to have anything more to say to this country. the title was given to the highest officer in the island, namely the Comes Britanniae, and that in the words 'Yr Amherawdyr Arthur,' 'the Emperor Arthur,' we have a remnant of our insular history. If this view be correct, it might be regarded as something more than an accident that Arthur's position relatively to that of the other Brythonic princes of his time is exactly given by Nennius, or whoever it was that wrote the Historia Brit- tonum ascribed to him: there Arthur is represented fighting in company with the kings of the Brythons in defence of their common country, he being their leader in war. If. as has sometimes been argued, the uncle of Maglocunus or Maelgwn, whom the latter is accused by Gilda of having slain and superseded, was no other than Arthur, it would supply one reason why that writer called Maelgwn 'insularis draco,' 'the dragon or war-captain of the island,' and why the latter and his successors after him were called by the Welsh not gwledigs but kings, though their great ancestor Cuneda was only a gwledig. On the other hand the way in which Gildas alludes to the uncle of Maelgwn without even giving his name, would seem to suggest that in his estimation at least he was no more illustrious than his pred- ecessors in the position whith he held, what- ever that may have been. Hov,' then did Arthur become famous above them, and how came he to be the subject of so much story and romance? The answer, in short, which one has to give to this hard question must be to the effect, that besides a historic Arthur there was a Brythonic divinity named .Arthur, after whom the man may have been called, or with whose name his, in case it was of a different origin, may have become identical in sound owing to an accident of speech; for both explanations are possible, as we shall attempt to show later. Leaving aside for a while the man Arfhur, and assuming the ex- istence of a god of that name, let us see what could be made of him. Mythologically speaking he would probably have to he regarded as a Cul- ture Hero; for, a model king and the institutor of the Knighthood of the Round Table, he is represented as the leader of expeditions to the isles of Hades, and as one who stood in some- what the same kind of relation to Gwalchmei as Gwydion did to Lieu. It is needless heie to dwell on the character usually given to Arthur as a ruler: he with his knights around him may be compared to Conchobar, in the midst of the Cham- pions of Emain Macha, or Woden among the Anses at Valhalla, while Arthur's Knights are called those of the Round Table, around which they are described as sitting ; and it would be interesting to understand the signification' of the term Round Table. On the whole it is the table, probably, and not its roundness that is the fact to which to call attention, as it possibly means that Arthur's court was the first early court where those present sat at a table at all in Britain. No such thing as a common table figures at Con- chobar's court or any other described in the old legends of Ireland, and the same applies, we be- lieve, to those of the old Norsemen. The at- tribution to Arthur of the first use of a common table would fit in well with the character of a Cul- ture Hero which we have ventured to ascribe to him, and it derives countenance from the pretended history of the Round Table; for the Arthurian legend traces it back to Arthur's father, Uthr Bendragon, in whom we have under one of his many names the king of Hades, the realm whence all culture was fabled to have been derived. In a wider sense the Round Table possibly signified plenty or abundance, and might be compared with the table of the Ethiopians, at which Zeus and the other gods of Greek mythology used to feast from time to time." — J. Rhys, Studies in the Arthurian legend, ch. i. — See also Cumbria. Historical basis. — The simple ungarnished story of Arthur's birth, as set forth in Welsh tradi- tion, is as follows: "Uter Pendragon, son of Cystennyn Vendigaid or 'Constantine the Blessed,' King of Britain, falls in love with Eigyr, wife of Gorlais, Duke of Cornwall, and by a subtlety gains access to her and begets Arthur. Besides Uter Pendragon, Constantine had two older sons. The eldest Constans, a Monk, was of weak in- tellect, but nevertheless upon his father's death succeeded to the British throne, and was shortly afterwards murdered at the instigation of Vorti- gern, who thereupon became King of Britain. The second son was one Emrys Wledig, or Ambrosiu? 537 ARTHURIAN LEGEND Sources Growth ARTHURIAN LEGEND Aurelianus, who revenged his brother's death by overthrowing Vortigern, and was elected King of Britain in his stead. Upon the death of Am- brosius Aurelianus, Uter Peiidragon, the third son, succeeded to the British throne. So much for the Welsh tradition. The first historian of any repute to mention Arthur is Nennius, who wrote his British History circa 706. He calls him Arlur Mab liter, which Vneans 'Arthur, son of Uther,' and he states that as 'Dux bellorum cum regibus Britonum,' he led the British forces victoriously twelve times against the Saxons. The twelfth and last battle of this series was Radon Mount. . . . The Anglo Saxon Chronicle gives the date of the landing of the Saxons as circa 449, so the battle of Badon Mount would take place circa 493. . . . Taking the two statements of Gildas and Nennius it seems to me that we are justified in saying that Arthur was a descendant of Am- brosius Aurelianus. The statement in Gildas that Ambrosius was the last of his race left alive [in his own generation, must be understood, as he left 'soboles' or 'issue'], altogether upsets the Welsh tradition that his younger brother Uther Pendragon succeeded him upon the throne. . . . There can be little doubt but that Geoffrey of Monmouth, king of imaginative historians, is responsible for this splitting up of one man into two, and this is somewhat indicated by the com- plete failure of his imagination to deal with them; he states that both .Ambrosius and Uther were poisoned, and buries them both at Stonehenge, which is a very tame effort on his part. So I would sugger.t that King Arthur was the son of the 'victorious commander-in-chief,' in British, 'Uther Pendragon,' whose name. Latinized, was, 'Am,brosius Aurelianus,' or, in British, 'Emrys Wledig.' . . . Although a Briton by descent, with such progenitors, he must have been in cultiva- tion and at heart a Roman. His grandfather and great grandfather Constantine the Blessed and Maximus, held their courts in Gaul. His father Ambrosius Aurelianus would have no time for courtly functions, as he must have been fully em- ployed fighting against the enemies of his coun- try; not only had he to keep in check the Saxon invasion and the inroads of the Picts and Scots, but also to iight against and overthrow the de- based British rule under Vortigern. To Arthur alone of this line of Romano-British warriors and kings did the opportunity arise of holding court in Britain. After the battle of Badon Mount A. D. 493, comparative peace reigned in the island for a considerable period. [See also E.ngland: 449-473 to 547-633]. Then it would be that Arthur settled down to social life, and we may be sure that, with his Roman education and tastes, his court must have been a surprise indeed to the rough untutored British kings and chieftains, his immediate followers. We gtt a glimpse of the civilization of this period in the ruins, now being excavated, of the Romano-British city of Silchester. Arthur, no doubt, had accumulated great we'alth in the only way in which wealth could be amassed in those days, by the power of the sword, and his court would therefore be sur- rounded with all the luxuries of the then modern Roman civilization." — A. S. Scott-Gatty, (Gene- ologist, n. s. V. 18, pp. 209-216). Sources and growth of the legend. — Com- posite nationality. — "At present there are two conflicting views on the question. Professor Zim- mer, Professor Foerster, and others — mostly Ger- man scholars — have thought that the chief source of the Arthurian romances and p.-ieudo-chronicles was continental. The kernel, at least, was Celtic; and it began to germinate in Brittany, where it had been carried from Britain in the great mi- gration of southwestern Cymri in the second half of the sixth century. From Brittany, after taking on various legendary additions, the Arthur-story spread to the Normans; and from them over all northern France. On its native heath, however, the Arthurian hero-story remained comparatively undeveloped; there it got but little beyond the stage at which it appears in Nennius. . . . While the writers holding this view are inclined to min- imise the Celtic element in the Arthurian romances, they differ considerably as to its importance. Professor Zimmcr, for instance, sees a great deal that is Celtic. He seems to think that the ro- mances of Chretien de Troies, the greatest of the early French Arthurian writers, have sub- stantially the same relation to the original Celtic tales as Shakespeare's plays to those 'novels' v/hich gave him so much dramatic material. Pro- fessor Foerster, on the other hand, sees much less that is Celtic ; and some scholars would see little more of a Celtic element than a few names of people and of places. The .Arthurian romances, they hold, came almost wholly from general Euro- pean folklore, and from the invention of French writers, conscious literary artists, especially of Chretien de Troies. [See also French literature: 1050-1350.] Professor Gaston Paris and other scholars — French, English and American — have held a different view. They think that the French gave literary finish to the Arthurian stories, but little else. Incidents, often plots, sometimes even the spirit of a romance, they regard as Celtic. The stories took shape, they think, not so much among the northern French as among the Anglo- Normans, that is, in England. Before the con- quest, the Saxons had got the stories to some ex- tent from the Welsh, among whom the stories were fairly well developed; and the Saxons gave them to the Normans. . . . The antecedent prob- ability seems to be that there is truth in both theories ; there is no reason why a story should not flourish in the land in which it was born and in that to which it has been transported. . . . The forms of many proper names in Round Table romances of the twelfth century point to a Breton rather than a Welsh origin. The only way to explain Arthurian proper names in the south of Italy at the beginning of this century, is that the Arthurian stories were carried there by the Normans who conquered Sicily about the middle of the preceding century. The conclusion seems inevitable, therefore, that the Normans knew Arthur and his knights before they went to England, where the legend of the hero had had independent growth. . . . Not all the Celtic ma- terial in Arthurian legends came from the Britons; some of it came from the Irish. The more medieval literature is studied, the more it be- comes evident that Ireland had considerable in- fluence in shaping the Round Table stories. . . . Irish influence on the Arthurian legends appears in many proper names. Even .Arthur's sword, the famous Excalibur, seems to have come from Ire- land. . . . Stray incidents, too, of Arthurian ro- mance are paralleled in Irish story. The hideous damsels that Perceval meets in the Grail romances, some of whom, apparently, can change at will into creatures of radiant beauty, are the counter- parts of Irish hags who are resplendent fairies in disguise. And. finally, several whole stories con- nected with Arthur appear to have come from Irish sources. That excellent story of the Green Knight; the tale, likewise, of the knight who was changed into a were-wolf; and the story of the Marriage of Sir Gawain ... all these are mani- festly of Irish origin. So now we have some idea 53S ARTHURIAN LEGEND Poetic Expansion ARTHURIAN LEGEND of the popular beginnings of the Arthurian legends. The historical hero, a semi-barbarous British war- rior, became a romantic hero through the tendency of human nature to fasten stories to noted char- acters. Once he had attracted a few stories to himself, he attracted tales more and more marvel- lous. As the hero-story went on growing, it attracted popular material of all kinds. . . . Thus on both sides of the British Channel, but probably more in the British Isles than on the Continent, there grew up a conglomerate mass of romantic material, which has given us the stories of Arthur as we know them." — H. Maynadier, Arthur of the En[,lish poets, pp. 43-4Q. Reflex of Age of Chivalry. — Poetic expansion of the legend. — "One of the strangest phenomena in the history of literature is the outburst of Arthurian romance in the second half of the twelfth century. A few years suffice to lift the hero of obscure and half-subjugated tribes into unrivalled popularity and fame, and the exploits of his followers, a little while before unknown to the world at large, become all at once the en- grossing topic for the imagination of Europe. Whatever circumstances may have contributed to this sudden success, it cannot be fully explained save by supposing that the new matter was exceptionally suitable to the spirit of the time. It must have met a deep-felt want, and shown itself capable of receiving the stamp of the medieval spirit and expressing the medieval modes of life and thought more perfectly, than any previous theme. And in the history of the typical and international fiction of the Middle Ages there are indications that this was the case. The im- aginative activity of these centuries seems to at- tempt the satisfaction of certain spiritual de- mands, but till the Arthurian stories become avail- able, the attempt has only partial success. . . . Now the ideals that swayed the higher classes in those days were almost summed up in what is styled Chivalry. It would be wrong to call the romances chivalrous, for only one group of them fully answers this description ; but, at least, they are all of chivalrous tendency and aim at em- bodying its conceptions. And these conceptions were essentially ideals. It has once and again been shown that there never was an actual age of chivalry, and that when in later times people tried, as they thought, to restore it, they were attempting to import into practical life what was in truth a minstrel's dream. Nevertheless, as it was a dream that flitted before the eyes of many generations, it was in its way a very substantial reality. There never was a time when the feudal knights were exactly knights errant, but there was a time when the best of them wished that they might be such, eagerly attaching themselves to any hazardous enterprise that had been set on foot for more politic objects; and that time was practically over when the semblances and out- ward trappings of knighthood were most in vogue for spectacle and pageantry. The real meaning of chivalry lay deeper. It had arisen as a kind of compromise between the ascetic theology of the medieval church and the unsanctified life of the world which that church rejected as wholly bad. . . . Faithful service, unselfish virtue, chaste constancy in love, are celebrated in several popu- lar poems especially of England and Germany, which are all more modern, though more rude in feeling, than the international romances. But for that very reason they are less representatively medieval. But the adaptation of lay ethics to clerical ethics was the problem of the higher classes, and its solution was found in chivalry. The transition from the primitive to the medieval state of things is marked by the picturesque trait, that the hero becomes a knight. This short statement implies a very important change, which is symbolised in the complicated ceremonies of knightly investiture, very different from the few simple rites that used to accompany the Teutonic youth's assumption of arms. . . . The principle of honour is introduced, which appeals to the individual's desire for pre-eminence and mastery, but which gratifies it only if he submit to a cer- tain code of conditions. His valour must be car- ried to an extravagant pitch ; he must seek out adventures, and face the greatest odds ; he must refuse advantages and show mercy to the suppliant and courtesy to all: his quarrel must be just, and he must succour the poor and the distressed. Far removed is the knight from the old heathen who fought and fled, waylaid and slew, precisely as it pleased himself. And in the third place, while only some of the knightly orders were pledged to celibacy, they were all bound to uphold the honour of women; and gradually, without oath, they submitted themselves to that strange kind of gallantry known as the Service of Love, which at this distance of time strikes one almost as the most obvious feature of the chivalrous char- acter. . . . Arthur's story, congenial in all es- sential respects to the spirit of the day but with- out the rigidity of a fixed historical tradition, was still plastic in the hands of the medieval poets and lent itself to all their desires. His exploits and feats could be made to reflect the adventurousness, the sense of honour, the courtoisie in love which were the dream of knighthood in the twelfth century. There were only two limita- tions to the perfect adequacy of the material. In the first place no single person could completely exhaust the possibilities of chivalry (q. v.); the biography of Arthur was insufficient to portray its whole fulness and wealth, and though it might fulfil the requirements in little, it could not bring out the various developments of the one scheme. Arthur's career invited supplements from the ca- reers of his followers. . . . But in the second place, these personages were in some ways ever more suitable for chivalrous treatment than their chief. For they were knights while he was king. His exploits were necessarily on the large public scale, while they had leisure for the private adventures of errantry. They offered themselves for the il- lumination of the knightly character in the in- dividual, which was the more important side, in all its various aspects. It was natural, there- fore, that medieval poetry should occupy itself with them rather than with the king. To make room for them he is thrust aside, as Charlemagne had been by the peers, and his historical signifi- cance is altogether forgotten." — M. W. Maccalum, Tennyson, Idylls of the King and Arthurian story from the sixteenth century, pp. 36-52. — See also Chiv.^lry. "In order to form a true estimate of the sub- ject, we must never lose sight of the fact that the Anglo-Norman romancers set themselves the task of drawing, not simply a series of separate tales, but a connected epic cyclus. Consistency and unity were to them, therefore, the very soul of their labours. What Arthur was as a simple squire in Sir Hector's Cornish castle, that must he be as the dying hero of Camlan, modified only by such changes of character as the circumstances of his life would naturally bring about. He must be drawn in accordance with twelfth century notions, idealised, as matter of necessity, since he was the hero of a romance, but, nevertheless, a being with all the passions and failings of hu- manity clinging to him. He must not, in word, 539 ARTI ARTS AND CRAFTS MOVEMENT thought, or deed, contradict the majestic move- ment of the story, whether with respect to the Grail Quest or the worlcing out of the tragic curse. He must be true King, true knight, true war- rior, true husband, true man; and yet, withal, true to the honest failings as well as to the noblest aspirations of poor, frail humanity. If Lancelot is the ideal of earthly knighthood, Galahad of earthly purity. Merlin of worldly wis- dom, Elaine and Vivienne of human love; so Arthur must be the ideal King, surpassing neither Lancelot in knighthood, Galahad in purity, Elaine in love, nor Marlin in wisdom; but surpassing all his knights in kingly character. And we hold that this delicate balance has been maintained in the narrative of the Norman trouveres. In the Anglo- Norman version of the epic there is a curse that dogs the whole life of King Arthur, and which stands out as one of the grand projections of the picture; an idea too vast to have had its birth in the imagination of one man; a dark, over- hanging shadow, doubtless cast by some national tradition of a terrible disaster. This tragic ele- ment was seized upon by the Norman romancer and worked into the legend. Following oider traditions, Map [or Mapes, medieval author, d. 1208] had to bring about the fall of the King, in a final battle, the utter ruin and desolation of which required the richest imagination to scheme and the broadest genius to depict. It was to be the finale of a knightly epoch; the closing scene of a curse; the death of King and knights at the hands of an abandoned and traitorous wretch. How could the Norman romancer heighten the colouring of the picture more effectively than by adopting the story already in existence, and de- picting the wretch whose hands were to be stained with the blood of his sovereign, as the natural offspring of the monarch? And if, m addition, this miscreant should be painted not only as a natural son, but as the result of a terrible sin, an incest, on the part of the King himself, what could possibly be wanting to render the ending, in the highest degree, tragic? But the deadly sin of incest must be unwittingly com- mitted, else the King would be a villain. And all this is duly carried out by the Norman ro- mancer. To draw Arthur as Tennyson does, 'Blameless King and stainless man,' or 'selfless man and stainless gentleman,' is to eliminate the curse, the tragic element from the romance, and destroy the most appalling, and at the same time the most telling part of the narrative. A 'blameless' king, whether of the sixth, twelfth or nineteenth century, is unthinkable. Even Tennvson himself tells us: 'He is all fault who is no fault at all.' To make Arthur 'blameless' and 'stainless' is to confound two distinct per- sonages, Galahad and Arthur, and by so doing, to destroy the perfection of the epic." — S. H. Gur- teen, Arthurian epic. pp. 32S-.^3i. ARTI (Guilds) OF FLORENCE. See Flor- ence: 1248-1278. ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION (Amer- ican). See U. S. A.: 1777-1781, and 1783-1787. ARTICLES OF FAITH. See Church of Engwno: i534-i';63; Thirty-nine articles. ARTICLES OF HENRY. See Poland: 1573. ARTICLES OF UNION. See Scotland: 1707. ARTILLERY. See Ordnance: igth century, also 20th century; World War: Miscellaneous auxiliary services: VI. Military and naval equip- ment: a, 1. ARTISANS: Law governing, in England (1562), See .Apprentices, Statxite of. Their importance in republic of Rome. See Guilds: Roman. ARTOIS, Comte d', later known as Charles X. See Charles X. ARTOIS (Latin, Atrebates, the name of a Gal- lic tribe), ancient province of France, capital Arras, almost corresponding to modern depart- ment of Pas-de-Calais; under Flemish rule in early Middle Ages, and annexed to France by Philip Augustus (1180) ; ceded to Robert, brother of Louis IX (1237), and later passed under con- trol of Flanders and Burgundy (see also Bur- gundy: 1364; 1477); ceded to France by treaties of Nimeguen, 1678-1670. The region was the scene of severe fighting during the World War. See World War: 1915: II. Western front: a, 5; a, 7; j, 2; j, 8; 1918: II. Western front: m. ARTOIS, House of, the hereditary line of no- bility attached to the ancient province of Artois in the extreme north of France. — See also Bour- bon, House of. ARTS AND CRAFTS MOVEMENT.— "In the preface to the Catalogue of the Arts and Crafts Exhibition at Copley Hall, Boston, in 1907, it is written: 'The Arts-and-Crafts movement is founded on the belief that the objects of daily use are just as capable in their lesser degree, of being made the vehicles of artistic expression and thus of being works of art, as are the works of paint- ing or of sculpture. If they are to be so, it is clear that they must be the work of men and women who in their degree are artists, and that they must thus be made by the hand of the artist himself.' " — C. Peabody, Arts and crafts movement (American Anthropologist, v. 9, p. 437, New Scries) . — The arts and crafts movement, as a conscious development of modern art, is to be attributed largely to William Morris and the others of the pre-Raphaelite group; although Ruskin's emphasis on the same points was also influential. [See English literature.] The first Arts and Crafts Society in America was organized in Boston in 1897. About 1900 the German government, after a systematic study of English organizations and methods, founded the German "Werkbund." Al- though more or less interrupted by the war, the movement has increased steadily in influence and popular interest throughout Europe and America It is everywhere characterized by a return to the comparatively spontaneous and unconscious art of the medieval, oriental, or primitive crafts- man, as a guide to technique and a source of artistic inspiration. "The movement, indeed, rep- resents in some sense a revolt against the hard mechanical conventional life and its insensibility to beauty (quite another thing to ornament). [See .\rt.] It is a protest against that so-called industrial progress which produces shoddy wares, the cheapness of which is paid for by the lives of their producers and the degradation of their users. It is a protest against the turning of men into machines, against artificial distinctions in art, and against making the immediate market value, or possibility of profit, the chief test of artistic merit. ... It asserts, moreover, the value of the prac- tice of handicraft as a good training for the faculties, and as a most valuable counteraction to that overstraining of the purely mental effort under the fierce competitive conditions of the day ; apart from the very wholesome and real pleasure in the fashioning of a thing with claims to art and beauty, the struggle with the trmmph over the stubborn technical necessities which refuse to be gainsaid." — W. Crane, Arts and crafts essays, pp. 12-14. — "To give people pleasure in the things they must perforce use, that is one great office of decoration ; to give people pleasure in the things they must perforce make, that is the other use of it."— W. Morris, Hopes and fears for art, p. 4. 540 ARTZYBASHEV ARYANS — See also Education, Art: England; Guilds: Medieval. Also in: W. Crane, William Morris to Whistler. — W. Morris, Art, architecture and wealth. ARTZYBASHEV, Mikhail Petrovitch, born 1878, Russian writer. See Russian literature: 1905-1921. ARUMANI, Rumanians. See Vlakhs. ARUNDEL, Earls of, the line of the premier earldom of England. Origiuated in the grant of a large portion of Sussex by Henry I to his sec- ond wife; in 1580 passed from the Fitzalan line to the Howards, dukes of Norfolk. ARUNDEL, Thomas (1353-1414), archbishop of Canterbury, 1303-1414; impeached and banished through the enmity of Richard II (1397); re- stored to his archbishopric by Henry IV' (1399); was spokesman of the clergy and vigorous op- ponent of the Lollards. — See also England: 1360- 1414. Also in: W. F. Hook, Lives of the archbishops of Canterbury, v. 4. ARUNDEL MARBLES, a collection of in- scribed marbles gathered by Thomas Howard, earl of Arundel, and presented to Oxford uni- versity in 1667 by the heirs of the estate. ARUSCHA, town in former German East Africa, southwest of Kilimanjaro. Occupied by the British. See World War: 1916: VII. African theater: a, 6; a, 7. ARVADITES, Canaanite inhabitants of the island of Aradus, or Arvad. See Ruad. ARVERNA. See Gergovia oe the Arverni. ARVERNI, an ancient Gallic tribe, rivals of the ^dui (q.v.). — See also ^dui; Allobroges; and Gaul: People. ARX, the citadel of Rome. See Capitoline Hill; also Gens, Roman. ARXAMUS, Battle of.— One of the defeats sustained by the Romans in their wars with the Persians. Battle fought 603 A. D.— G. Rawlinson, Seventh great oriental monarchy, ch. 24. ARYA SAMAJ (Society of the Noble), was founded in India, 1875, by Mul Sankar, better known as Swami Dayanand Sarasvati, who was born as a member of the Shiva cult, broke away from it for the Vedanta philosophy, and finally be- came a religious reformer on the basis of the Sankhya-Yoga philosophies. (See also India: Ab- original Inhabitants). Dayanand Sarasvati had come in contact with modern civilization through many channels, and endeavored to reform Hindu- ism to meet the conditions of modem life. He taught belief in a personal God, who is all-truth, all-knowledge, incorporeal, almighty, just, merciful, unbegotten, unchangeable, all-pervading, and the cause of the universe. "The Vedas are the books of true knowledge; one should always be ready to accept truth; all ought to be treated with love, justice, and in disregard of their merits ; ignor- ance should be dispelled ; and everyone should re- gard his prosperity as included in that of others. His great cry was 'back to the Vedas.' ISee also I.ndia: Immigration and Conquest.] He pro- fessed to derive all his teaching from them, but the method of interpretation by which he ex- tracted the true doctrine and put aside all that contradicted it was peculiarly his own. It con- formed neither to Hindu canons of interpretation nor to those of scientific exegesis. According to him salvation was to be accomplished by ef- fort. No distinctions of caste are regarded valid. It is estimated that the adherents of the Arya Samaj now [1917] number about 100,000, The Samaj is now divided into a 'cultured' and a con- servative party. The former eats meat and fos- ters modern education, maintaining a creditable college at Lahore; the latter is vegetarian, and adheres to the ancient ideas of education." — G. A. Barton, Religious of the world, pp. igS-igg. — "Originally it was a purely religious movement, bused upon the teaching of the Vedas. It pro- motes the abolition of caste and idoltary, con- demns early marriages, and permits the remarriage of widows. At the same time it is violently hos- tile to Christianity. There can be no question tbat laige numl.ers of members of the Arya Samaj are only concerned with its spiritual side; but there can be equally no question that the organiza- tion, as a whole, has developed marked political tendencies subversive of British rule. . . . The members of I he Samaj strenuously deny that their organization has a political side. The literature of the sect, and particularly the writings of their founder, who came from Kathiawar, show no trace of any interest in mundane politics. Dayanand was an enthusiast who denounced the idolatrous tendenciss of modern Hinduism, and advocated a return to the earlier, purer faith. . . . Dayanand's clarion call of 'Back to the Vedas' produced a complete revulsion of feeling, and he made the Punjab a stronghold of the new creed. For that reason, the Arya Samaj is to this day the bitterest opponent of Christianity in India; and Punjab Mahomedans declare that it is also their most formidable foe." — India cor- respondence of The London Times. ARYABHATTA, (c. 476), Hindu astronomer. See Algebra. ARYANS, or Aryas. — Meaning of term. — Theories of origin. — "This family (which is sometimes called Japhetic, or descendants . of Japhet) includes the Hindus and Persians among Asiatic nations, and almost all the peoples of Europe. It may seem • strange that we English should be related not only to the Germans and Dutch and Scandinavians, but to the Russians, French, Spanish, Romans and Greeks as well; stranger still that we can claim kinship with such distant peoples as the Persians and Hindus. . . . What seems actually to have been the case is this: In distant ages, somewhere about the rivers Oxus and Jaxartes, and on the north of that mountainous range called the Hindoo-Koosh, dwelt the ancestors of all the nations we have enumerated, forming at this time a single and united people, simple and primitive in their way of life, but yet having enough of a common na- tional life to preserve a common language. They called themselves Aryas or Aryans, a word which, in its very earliest sense, seems to have meant those who move upwards, or straight; and hence, probably, came to stand for the noble race as compared with other races on whom, of course, they would look down. ... As their num- bers increased, the space wherein they dwelt be- came too small for them who had out of one formed many different peoples. Then began a series of migrations, in which the collection of tribes who spoke one language and formed one people started off to seek their fortune in new lands. . . . First among them, in all probability, started the Kelts or Celts, who, travelling perhaps to the South of the Caspian and the North of the Black Sea, found their way to Europe and spread far on to the extreme West. . . . An- other of the great families who left the Aryan home was the Pelasgic or the Grsco-Italic. These, journeying along first Southwards and then to the West, passed through Asia Minor, on to the countries of Greece and Italy, and in time sep- arated into those two great peoples, the Greeks (or Hellenes, as they came to call themselves), and the Romans. . . . Next we come to two other 541 ARYANS Distribution Anthropology ARYANS great families of nations who seem to have taken the same route at first, and perhaps began their travels together as the Greeks and Romans did. These ars the Teutons and the Slavs. . . . The word Slav comes from Slowan, which in old Slavonian meant to speak, and was given by the Slavonians to themselves as the people who could speak in opposition to other nations whom, as they were not able to understand them, they were pleased to consider as dumb. The Greek word barbaroi (whence our barbarians) arose in obedience to a like prejudice, only from an imita- tion of babbling such as is made by saying, 'bar- bar-bar.' " — C. F. Keary. Dawn of history (1878), ch. 4. — The above passage sets forth the older theory of an Aryan family of nations as well as of languages in its unqualiiied form. Its later modifications are indicated in the following: "The discovery of Sanscrit and the further discovery to which it led, that the languages now variously known as Aryan, Aryanic, Indo-European, Indo- Germanic, Indo-Celtic and Japhetic are closely akin to one another, spread a spell over the world of thought which cannot be said to have yet wholly passed away. It was hastily argued from the kinship of their languages to the kin:-hip of the nations that spoke them. . . . The question then arises as to the home of the 'holethnos,' or parent tribe, before its dispersion and during the proethnic period, at a time when as yet theie was neither Greek nor Hindoo, neither Celt nor Teuton, but only an undifferentiated Aryan. Of course, the answer at first was — where could it have been but in the East. And at length tho gU)ttologist found it necessary to shift the cradle of the Aryan race to the neighbourhood of tho Oxus and the Jaxartes, so as to place it somewhere between the Caspian Sea -and the Himalayas. I See also India: B.C. 2000-600.] Then Doctor Latham boldly raised his voice against the Asiatic theory altogether, and stated that he regarded the at- tempt to deduce the Aryans from Asia as resem- bling an attempt to derive the reptiles of this country from those of Ireland. Afterwards Ben- fey argued, from the presence in the vocabulary common to the Aryan languages of words for bear and wolf, for birch and beach, and the absence of certain others, such as those for lion, tiger and palm, that the original home of the .iry-ins must have been within the temperate zone in Europe. ... As might be expected in tho case of such a difficult question, those who are inclined to believe in the European origin of the Aryans are by no means agreed among themselves as to the spot to be fixed upon. Latham placed it east, or south-east of Lithuania, in Podolia, or \olhynia ; Benfey had in view a district above the Black Sea and not far from the Caspian; Peschel fixed on the slopes of the Caucasus; Cuno on the great plain of Central Europe; Fligier on the southern part of Russia ; Posche on the tract between the Niemen and the Dnieper; L. Geiger on central and western Germany ; and Penka on Scandinavia." — J. Rhys, Race theories (New Princeton Review, Jan., 1888). Distribution. — Anthropological characteristics. — Race relations. — "For the last two thousand years, at least, the southern half of Scan- dinavia and the opposite or southern shores of the Baltic have been occupied by a race of mankind possessed of very definite charac- ters. Typical specimens have tall and massive frames, fair complexions, blue eyes, and yel- low or reddish hair — that is to say, they are pronounced blond? Their skulls are long, in the sense that the breadth is usually less, often much less, than four-fifths of the length, and they are usually tolerably high. But in this last respect they vary. Men of this blond, long-headed race abound from eastern Prussia to northern Belgium ; they are met with in northern France and are common in some parts of our own islands. The people of Teutonic speech, Goths, Saxons, Ale- manni, and Franks, who poured forth out of the regions bordering the North Sea and the Baltic, to the destruction of the Roman Empire, were men of this race; and the accounts of the ancient historians of the incursions of the Gauls into Italy and Greece, between the fifth and the sec- ond centuries B.C., leave little doubt that their hordes were largely, if not wholly, composed uf similar men. The contents of numerous inter- ments in southern Scandinavia prove that, as far back as archaeology takes us into the so-called neolithic age, the great majority of the inhabitants had the same stature and cranial pecularities as at present, though their bony fabric bears marks of somewhat greater ruggedness and savagery. There is no evidence that the country was oc- cupied by men before the advent of these tall, blond long-heads. But there is proof of the presence, along with the latter, of a small per- centage of people with broad skulls; that is, the breadth of which is more, often very much more, than four-fifths of the length. .•\t th': present day, in whatever direction we travel in- land from the continental area occupied by the blond long-heads, whether south-west into cen- tral France; south, through the Walloon provinces of Belgium into eastern France; into Switzerland, South Germany, and the Tyrol; or south-east into Poland and Russia; or north, into Finland and Lapland, broad-heads make their appearance, in force, among the long-heads. And, eventually, we find ourselves among people who are as regularly broad-headed as the Swedes and North Germans are long-headed. As a general rule, in France. Belgium, Switzerland, and South Germany, the increase in the proportion of broad skulls is ac- companied by the appearance of a larger and larger proportion of men of brunet complexion and of a lower stature; until, in central France and thence eastwards, through the Cevennes and the .\lps of Dauphiny, Savoy, and Piedmont, to the western plains of North Italy, the tall blond long-heads practically disappear, and are replaced by short brunet broad-heads. The ordinary Savoy- ard may be described in terms the converse of those which apply to the ordinary Swede. He is short, swarthy, dark-eyed, dark-haired, and his skull is very broad. Between the two extreme types, the one seated on the shores of the North Sea and the Baltic, and the other on those of the Mediterranean, there are all sorts of inter- mediate forms, in which breadth of skull may be found in tall and in short blond men, and in tall brunet men. There is much reason to be- lieve that the brunet broad-heads, now met with in central France and in the west central Euro- pean highlands, have inhabited the same region, not only throughout the historical period, but lone before it commenced ; and it is probable that their area of occupation was formerly more extensive. For. if we leave aside the comparatively late in- cursions of the Asiatic races the centre of erup- tion of the invaders of the southern moiety of Europe has been situated in the north and west. In the case of the Teutonic inroads upon the Empire of Rome, it undoubtedly lay in the area now occupied by the blond long-heads; and, in that of the antecedent Gaulish invasions, the physical characters ascribed to the leading tribes point to the same conclusion. Whatever the causes which led to the breaking out of bounds of 542 ARYANS Anthropology Types ARYANS the blond long-heads, in mass, at particular epochs, the natural increase in numbers of a vigorous and fertile race must always have impelled them to press upon their neighbours, and thereby afford abundant occasions for intermixture. If, at any given pre-historic time, we suppose the lowlands verging on the Baltic and the North Sea lo have been inhabited by pure blond long-heads, while the central highlands were occupied by pure brunet short-heads, the two would certainly meet and intermix in course of time, in spite of the vast belt of dense forest which extended, almost un- interruptedly, from the Carpathians to the Ar- dennes; and the result would be such an irregular gradation of the one type into the other as we do, in fact, meet with. On the south-east, east, and north-east, throughout what was once the kingdom of Poland, and in Finland, the pre- ponderance of broad-heads goes along with i wide prevalence of blond complexion and of good stature. In the extreme north, on the other hand, marked broad-headedness is combined with low stature, swarthiness, and more or less strongly Mongolian features, in the Lapps. And it is to be observed that this type prevails increasingly to the eastward, among the central Asiatic popula- tions. The population of the British Islands, at the present time, offers the two extremes of the tall blond and the short brunet types. The tall blond long-heads resemble those of the con- tinent ; but our short brunet race is long-headed. Brunet broad-heads, such as those met with in the central European highlands, do not exist among us. . . . The short brunet long-heads are not peculiar to our islands. On the contrary, they abound in western France and in Spain, while they predominate in Sardinia, Corsica, and South Italy, and, it may be, occupied a much larger area in ancient times. Thus, in the region which has been under consideration, there are evidences of the existence of four races of men — ( i ) blond long- heads of tall stature, (2) brunet broad-heads of short stature, (3) mongoloid brunet broad-heads of short stature, (4) brunet long-heads of short stature. The regions in which these races ap- pear with least admixture are — (i) Scandinavia, North Germany, and parts of the British Islands; (2) central France, the central European high- lands, and Piedmont; (3) Arctic and eastern Eu- rope, central Asia; (4) the western parts of the British Islands and of France, Spain, and South Italy. And the inhabitants of the localities which lie between these foci present the intermediate gradations, such as short blond long-heads, and tall brunet short-heads, and long-heads v.'hich might be expected to result from their intermix- ture. The evidence at present extant is consistent with the supposition that- the blond long-head=, the brunet broad-heads, and the brunet long-heads have existed in Europe throughout historic times, and very far back into pre-historic times. Thure is no proof of any migration of Asiatics into Europe, west of the basin of the Dnieper, down to the time of Attila. On the contrary, the first great movements of the European population of which there is any conclusive evidence is that series of Gaulish invasions of the east and south, which ultimately extended from North Italy as far as Galatia in Asia Minor." — T. H. Huxley, Man's place in nature (1863), pp. 230-243. "(a) It is held, on the one hand, that there is but a single blond race, type or stock (Keane, Lapouge, Sergi), and on the other hand that there are several such races or types, more or less distinct but presumably related (Deniker, Beddoe, and other, especially British, ethnologists). (6) There is no good body of evidence going to estab- lish a great antiquity for the blond stock, and there are indications, though perhaps inconclusive, that the blond strain, including all the blond types, is of relatively late date — unless a Berber (Kabyle) blond race is to be accepted in a more unequivocal manner than hitherto, (c) Neither is there anything like convincing evidence that this blond strain has come from outside of Europe — except, again, for the equivocal Kabyle — or that any blond race has ever been widely or permanently distributed outside of its present Eu- ropean habitat, (d) The blond race is not found unmixed. In point of pedigree all individuals showing the blond traits are hybrids, and the greater number of them show their mixed blood in their physical traits, (c) There is no com- munity, large or small, made up exclusively of blond:, or nearly so, and there is no good e^"!- dence available that such an all-blond or virtually all-blond community ever has existed, either in historic or prehistoric times. The race appears never to have lived in isolation. (/) It occurs in several (perhaps hybrid) variants — unless these variants are to be taken (with Deniker) as sev- eral distinct races. (g) Counting the Dolicho- blond as the original type of the race, its nearest apparent relative among the races of mankind is the Mediterranean (of Sergi), at least in point of physical traits. At the same time the blond race, or at least the Dolicho-blond type, has never since neolithic times, so far as known, extensively and permanently lived in contact with the Medi- terranean, ill) The various (national) ramifica- tions of the blond stock — or rather the various racial mixtures into which an appreciable blond element enters — are all, and to all appearance have always been, of Aryan ('Indo-European,' 'Indo- Germanic') speech — with the equivocal exception of the Kabyle. (i) Yet far the greater number and variety (national and linguistic) of men who use the Aryan speech are not prevailingly blond, or even appreciably mi.xed with blond. (;') The blond race, or the peoples with an appreciable blond admixture, and particularly the communities in which the Dolicho-blond element prevails, show little or none of the peculiarly Aryan institutions — understanding by that phrase not the known institutions of the ancient Germanic peoples, but the range of institutions said by competent philolo- gists to be reflected in the primitive Aryan speech. (k) These considerations raise the presumption that the blond race was not originally of Aryan speech or of Aryan culture, and they also suggest (/) that the Mediterranean, the nearest apparent relative of the Dolicho-blond, was likewise not originally Aryan." — T. B. Veblen, Place of science in modern civilization and other essays, pp. 459- 460. — The theories which dispute the Asiatic origin of the Aryans are strongly presented by Canon Taylor in "Origin of the Aryans," by G. H. Kendall, in "Cradle of the Aryans," and by Dr. O. Schrader in "Prehistoric antiquities of the Aryan peoples." Aryan types. — "And the man himself, this older Aryan? What of him? Is it possible after so many ages to form a race picture of that Proto-Aryan, the manner of man he was physically, mentally, spiritually? A composite portrait might after a fashion be made by combinmg the salient features of his various race descendants. He certainly had within him the germs at least of a masterful man, for each of his descendants has been somewhere, at some time in the world's his- tory, one of its masters, and the history of the world is largely of their making. In fact, the history of the world is largely only the his- tory of the Aryan man. It must have been a vigorous stock that could thus stamp its impress 543 ARYO-DRAVIDIANS ASCALON so indelibly upon the ages. Reconstructing him physically from the transmitted features which mark his children in aU lands, as one produces from a group of photographs a composite picture, and especially reproducing the picture from the race types of those of his children who are liv- ing their race life amid climatic environments similar to those of the original Proto-Aryan race home, and making due allowance for the varia- tions vvhich are incident to migration and civiliza- tion, we may judge hii.i to have been in stature of medium height, yet varying from this toward tallncss rather than toward undersize; full-chested; long-limbed, yet symmetrical of build; a free step- per; a clear striker whether with the hand or the sword; in build rather spare, of active habit; a lover of outdoor life, of the field, of the chase; a man already feeling that he was the superior of the races about him, feeling already the stir of the masterful spirit within him, features well- marked and clean-cut; nose finely chiseled but rather prominent; chin well developed; mouth large yet not gross; teeth regular, showing ample jaw space; eyes blue or gray, rather than dark, and set well under brows that project in a strongly developed supra-orbital ridge; a forehead high rather than broad, yet swelling out above and behind the temples; dome of the head well arched; head long rather than thick through, the dolicho- cephalous rathe'- than the brachicephalous type, broad above rather than at the base; hair fine, light in color, reddish or brown rather than black, straight or slightly wavy; complexion tanned by the winds of his life afield, yet back of the tan tlie ruddy skin of the blonde: in all things the opposite of the Mongol upon the east or the Negroid upon the south; more akin in form and feature to the Semite. This tall, fair, dolichocephalous type we find everywhere among the Aryan peoples; and where another type is mixed with it, the first type as here given domi- nates as leader. It is inferentially, and indeed may be assumed to be logically, the true Aryan type, as, while it remains constant in all the family ramifications, the other types vary and change." — J. P. Widney, Race life of the Aryan peoples, pp. 26-27. — See also Anthropology; Linguistics; Bal- kan states: Races existing; Brehon laws: Gen- eral character of ancient Irish laws; Europe: Intro- duction to the historic period: Distribution of races; Georgia, Republic of: Ethnology; India: People; India: B.C. 2000-600; Macebonia: Early inhabitants; Religion: B.C. 1000; Shutes. Also in: S. Leslie. Celt and the world (1907). — T. B. Veblen, Blond race and the Aryan cul- ture (1013)- ARYO-DRAVIDIANS. See India: People. ARZ, Field Marshal von, Austrian commander- in-chief, in an attack near Lembcrg, See World War: 1915: III. Eastern front: f, 6. AS, LIBRA, DENARIUS, SESTERTIUS. — "The term As [among the Romans] and the words which denote its divisions, were not con- fined to weight alone, but were applied to meas- ures of length and capacity also, and in gen- eral to any object which could be regarded as consisting of twelve equal parts. Thus they were commonly used to denote shares into which an inheritance was divided." As a unit of weight the as, or libra, "occupied the same posi- tion in the Roman system as the pound does in our own. According to the most accurate re- searches, the As was equal to about 11 4/5 oz. avoirdupois, or .737S of an avoirdupois pound." It "was divided into 12 equal parts called uncia, and the uncia was divided into 24 equal parts called scrupula." "The As, regarded as a coin [of copper] originally weighed, as the name im- plies, one pound, and the smaller copper coins those fractioas of the pound denoted by their names. By degrees, however, the weight of the As, regarded as a coin, was greatly diminished. We are told that, about the commencement of the first Punic war, it had fallen fsum 12 ounces to 2 ounces; in the early part of the second Punic war (B.C. 217), it was reduced to one ounce; and not long afterwards, by a Lex Papiria, it was fixed at half-an-ounce, which remained the standard ever after." The silver coins of Rome were the denarius, equivalent (after 217 B.C.) to 16 asses; the quinarius and the sestertius, which became, respectively, one half and one fourth of the denarius in value. The sestertius, at the close of the republic, is estimated to have been equivalent in value to two pence sterling of English money. The coinage was debased under the Empire. The principal gold coin of the Empire was the denarius Aureus, which passed for 25 silver denarii. — W. Ramsay, Manual of Roman antiquities, ch. 13. ASAF-UD-DOWLAH, nawab wazir of Oudh, India, 1775-1797- The spoliation of his mother and grandmother, the begums of Oudh, was one of the charges against Warren Hastings. See India: 1773-1785. ASKI, George (1788-1S71), Rumanian teacher. See Rumania: 19th century. ASBURY, Francis (1745-1S16), founder of Methodist church in America. See Bristol: 1739; Methodists. ASCALON, Ashkelon or Askelon, one of the five chief cities of ancient Philistia, situated on the Mediterranean thirty-nine miles southwest of Jerusalem; birthplace of Herod I; scene of victory of Crusaders under Godfrey of Bouillon (1099) ; captured by the Crusaders under Baldwin III in 1 157, and by Saladin in 1187; destroyed in 1270. "The Philistine city where Samson slew the 30 men and took their spoil, is now being ex^ cavated by the Palestine Exploration Fund, under the direction of Professor Garstang. The site of Ascalon has been uninhabited practically since the end of the thirteenth century. The prophecies in Zephaniah (ii, 4), 'For Gaza shall be for- saken and Ashkelon a desolation,' and Zechariah (ix, 5), 'and the king shall perish from Gaza and Ashkelon shall not be inhabited,' have been fulfilled. When the British troops occupied Ascalon in 1917, a few squalid huts were found among the ruins of this once great city. Terraced gar- dens and orchards cover the site, and a mound runs round it composed of the fallen ramparts partly covering the Byzantine and medieval ramparts and the many towers. In the Crusades Ascalon was the last place to hold out against the Crusaders, being finally taken by them, re- taken by Saladin, and again taken by Richard C(£ur-de-Lion, who renovated the destroyed walls and towers. By mutual consent and cooperation the fortifications were again destroyed. In 1240 an attempt was made to refortify the town, but in 1270 the complete destruction came under the Sultan Bibars. So thorough was this destruc- tion that not a single architectural fragment has been found in its original position, and the stones and sculptures were destroyed, many being sawn through. During the Roman period Ascalon was an important city, and in 104 B. C. was made a free state under Roman protection. In the pre- liminary excavations two statues already known to exist were unearthed, one a statue of Fortune, the other of Victory, half built into the walls. These statues of large size are in half relief. The statue of Victory stands with feet resting on 544 ASCANIANS ASHANTI the earth, which is supported on the shoulders of Atlas. There has been excavated a third statue presumed to be of Peace. A sixth century writer, Antonius the Martyr, speaks of a Pool of Peace, with steps like the seats in a Greek or Roman theater and a portico of steps leading to the water's edge; this has now been revealed by the excava- tions. Near by is the legendary well of Abraham, presumably the legendary sacred lake of Ascalon. Since the recommencement of the excavations this spring, a gigantic sandaled foot, a yard long, and an arm of a huge marble statue have been found in a marble shrine. The history of Ascalon can be taken back to about 1370 B. C. in the Telel-Amarna tablets; at this time its inhabitants were still Canaanites. The Philistines came about 1184 B.C. This Philistine period is one known little about. Caphtor, the ISiblical home of the Philistines, is the land of Kefti of the Egyptian records, presumed to be Crete. The Philistines had some connection with Crete, but they do not ap- pear to have been Cretans; it is also more doubt- ful that they came from Cyprus. They are rep- resented on ancient reliefs, etc., as wearing peculiar headdresses with a band under the chin, and carrying round shields. There is a resemblance in the Kefti dress on the Egyptian monuments to the Hittite. Kefti may possibly be greater Cilicia ; some of their vessels and gold even have a simi- larity to those from the Taurus. From the pres- ent excavations it is hoped to fill up the gap in the Philistine period of the history of Ascalon, and to clear up many doubts on the origin of the Philis- tines, the circumstances of their invasion, their rela- tions with the Jews and their position in the early Mediterranean civilizations." — Christian Science Monitor, July 21, iqai. — See also Jerusalem: loqq- 1131, HOC,' 1144-1187; Syria: B.C. 64-63. ASCANIANS, descendants of Albert the Bear. See Brandenburg: Q28-1142; 1168-1417; and Ger- many: 1417. ASCENSION ISLAND, South Atlantic; dis- covered by Portuguese in 1501. Area, 34 square miles; population about 250. See British empire: Extent. ASCETICISM. See Ethics: Christian ethics. ASCHAM, Roger (1515-1568), English writer, humanist, and classical scholar. Taught Greek and read Greek lectures at Cambridge University ; master of languages to Princess (afterward Queen) Elizabeth ; held secretaryship in embassy to Charles V; was Latin secretary to Queen Mary. His fa- mous Toxiphilus, a treatise on archery, ranks for its pure English style among English classics. His great work The Scholemaster (begun 1563, pub- lished 1570) was a treatise on the proper method of teaching Latin. See Education: Modern: 1510- 1670: Ascham and The Scholemaster. ASCHHOOP, Belgium, captured by the French (1017). See World War: 1Q17: II. West- ern front: d, 23. ASCIDEANS, or Chasidim (Hebrew, "pious ones"), a Jewish religious sect. See Assideans. ASCLEPIADiE.— "Throughout all the his- torical ages [of Greece] the descendants of As- klepius '[or Asclepius] were numerous and widely diffused. The many families or gentes called Ask- lepiads, who devoted themselves to the study and practice of medicine, and who principally dwelt near the temples of Asklepius, whither sick and suf- fering men came to obtain relief — all recognized the god, not merely as the object of their com- mon worship, but also as their actual progenitor." — G. Grote, History of Greece, pi. i, ch. q. — ^See also Medical science: Ancient: 2nd century. ASCRIVIUM, supposed Roman site of modern Cattaro, Dalmatia. See Cattaro. ASCULUM, Battle of (279 B. C). See Rome: Republic: B. C. 281-272. Massacre at. See Rome; Republic: B. C. 90-88. ASELLI (Asellius or Asellio), Gasparo (1581- 1626), Italian physician, the discoverer of the lac- teal vessels. For his experiments with lymph tis- sue and blood, see Medical science: Modern: 17th century: Discovery of lymphatic circulation; Science: Middle Ages and Renaissance: i6th cen- tury. ASHANTI, a British possession on the west coast of Africa, made up of negro tribes, included for practical purposes under the Gold Coast Colony, in as much as the governor of the Gold Coast is the governor of Ashanti. The area is about 20,000 square miles and the population in iqii was 287,814. See Africa: Map. 1700-1807.— Conquests of the Ashantis.— King Osai Tiktu I made Kumasi his capital and con- quered most of the important neighboring states. About 1807 the Ashantis reached the coast where they came into conflict with the British. 1807-1873. — Conflicts with British. — These years were marked by a series of wars, truces broken and renewed wars, the British frequently suffering serious defeats. 1873-1874.— War with the British. See Eng- land: 1873-1880. 1895-1900.— British occupation of the coun- try.— Rising of the tribes.— Siege and relief of Kumasi.— In 1895, King Prempeh, of Ashanti, provoked a second expedition of British troops against his capital, Kumasi, or Coomassie (for some account of the former expedition see Eng- land: 1873-1880), by persistence in slave-catching raids and in human sacrifices, and by other viola- tions of his treaty engagements. Late in the year a strong force was organized in Gold Coast Colony, mostly made up of native troops. It marched without resistance to Kumasi, which it entered on the 17th of January, i8q6. Prempeh made com- plete submission, placing his crown at the feet of the Governor of the Gold Coast; but he was taken prisoner to Sierra Leone. A fort was built and garrisoned in the center of the town, and the country was then definitely placed under British protection, politically attached to the Gold Coast Colony. It submitted quietly to the practical con- quest until the spring of 1900, when a fierce and general rising of the tribes occurred. It was said at the time that the outbreak was caused by ef- forts of the British to secure possession of a "golden stool" which King Prempeh had used for his throne, and which had been effectually con- cealed when Kumasi was taken in 1896; but this has been denied by Sir Frederic Hodgson, the Gov- ernor of the Gold Coast. "The 'golden stool,' " he declared, "was only an incident in the affair and had nothing to do with the cause of the rising, which had been brewing for a long time. In his opinion the Ashantis had been preparing ever since the British occupation in 1896 to reassert their in- dependence." The Governor was, himself, in Kum- asi when the Ashanti first attacked it, on the 25th of March, and he has given an account of the desperate position in which the few British officials, with their small native garrison and the refugees whom they tried to protect, were placed. "Our force," said Sir Frederic Hodgson, "consisted of only some 200 Hausas, while there is reason to believe that we had not less than 15,000 Ashantis surrounding us. In addition to our own force we had to protect some 3,500 refugees, chiefly Ma- homedan traders, Fantis, and loyal Kumassis, none of whom we were able to take into the fort, where every available bit of space was required for mil- itary purposes. It was heartrending to see the 545 ASHBOURNE ACT ASIA efforts of these poor people to scale the walls or break through the gate of the fort, and we had to withdraw the Hausas from the cantonments and draw a cordon round the refugees. It is impossible to describe the horror of the situation with these 3,500 wretched people huddled together without shelter under the walls of the fort. That same night a tornado broke over Kumassi, and the scene next morning with over 200 children was too ter- rible for words. Afterwards they were able to ar- range shelters for themselves." Near the end of April, two small reinforcements from other posts reached Kumasi; but while this strengthened the numbers for defense, it weakened the food supply. Taking stock of their food, the besieged decided that they could hold out until June 23, and that if the main body then marched out, to cut, if pos- sible, their way through the enemy, leaving a hundred men behind, the latter might keep the fort until July 15. This, accordingly, was done. On the 23d of June Governor Hodgson, with all but 100 men, stole away from Kumasi, by a road which the Ashantis had not guarded, and succeeded in reaching the coast, undergoing great hardships and dangers in the march. Meantime, an expedi- tion from Cape Coast Castle was being energetic- ally prepared by Colonel Sir J. Willcocks, who overcame immense difficulties and fought his way into Kumasi on July 15, the very day on which the food-supply of the little garrison was e.tpected to give out. The following account of his entry into Kumasi is from Colonel Willcocks' official report: "Forming up in the main road, we marched towards Kumassi, a mile distant, the troops cheer- ing wildly for the Queen and then followed silence. No sound came from the direction of the fort, which you cannot see till quite close. For a mo- ment the hideous desolation and silence, the head- less bodies lying everywhere, the sickening smell, &c., almost made one shudder to think what no one dared to utter — 'Has Kumassi fallen? Are we too late?' Then a bugle sound caught the ear — 'the general salute' — the tops of the towers appeared, and again every man in the column, white and black, broke into cheers long sustained. The brave defenders had at last seen us; they knew for hours past from the firing growing ever nearer, that we were coming, yet they dared not open their only gate; they perforce must wait, for even as we ap- peared the enemy were making their last efforts to destroy the outlying buildings, and were actually setting them on fire until after dark, when a party of 100 men went out and treated them to volleys and cleared them out. If I have gone too fully into details of the final scene, the occasion was one that every white man felt for him comes perhaps but once, and no one would have missed it for a kingdom." 1901. — Annexed by British. — Sept. 26, iqoi, the country was definitely annexed to Great Britain. ASHBOURNE ACT, Ireland. See Ireland: 1885-1003. ASHBURTON TREATY. See U. S. A.: 1842: Treaty with England. ASHDOD, one of the five cities of the Philistine confederacy. See Philistines. ASHDOWN, Battle of (871). See Scandi- navian states: 8th-oth centuries. ASHIKAGA FAMILY. See Japan: 600-1853. ASHKALA, Armenia, occupied by the Rus- sians (iqi6). See World War: 1916: VI. Turk- ish theater: d, 3; also d, 5. ASHLEY, William H. (1778-1838), one of the explorers of Utah and Wyoming. See Utah: 1825- 1843; WvoimNG: 1650-1807. ASHLEY, Sir William (James) (i860- ), English economist and educator. Lecturer in his- tory at Lincoln college, Oxford, 1885-1888; pro- fessor of constitutional history and political econ- omy at University of Toronto, 1888-1SQ2; profes- sor of economic history at Harvard university, 1892-1901; dean of faculty of commerce, Univer- sity of Birmingham, England. ASHLEY COOPER, Anthony, 1st and 7th Earls of Shaftesbury (1621-16S3); (1801-188S). See Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, ist; 7th Earl of. ASHMOLEAN MUSEUM (Oxford).— "The nucleus of this museum, which is the oldest in England, consists of the collection formed by the travellers, John Tradescant, and his son, about 1600-1650. 'Tradescant's Ark,' as it was then pop- ularly known, subsequently passed into the pos- session of Elias Ashmole, and was transferred by him to the University of Oxford in 1683. . . . Thanks to the large contributions made by the late Dr. Fortnum, a new Museum building was erected behind the building formerly known as the University Galleries in Beaumont Street. The museum contains a collection of objects of ancient art beginning from prehistoric times. The Anglo- Saxon series includes King Alfred's jewel, one of the mo.st important historical relics in England. The Keltic and other West and North European collections are of special interest, and include those of the late Sir John Evans. The prehistoric period in Egypt and that of the earliest dynasties are better illustrated here than in any other Museum, as is also the Meroitic culture of Nubia and the Sudan. A unique section illustrates Sir Arthur Evan's excavations in the Palace of Knos- sos, in Crete, and the various periods of 'Minoan' and Aegean culture. Among other collections are the best exhibition of small Hittite objects in Europe. . . . The gallery of Greek sculpture has become of great importance largely through ac- quisitions from the Hope and other collections. The Department of Fine Art, in which is incor- porated the contents of the former University Gal- leries, contains a collection of pictures rich in specimens of the Primitive Italian Schools, and of the Dutch and Flemish Schools of the XVII and British School of the XVIII century." — Year's Art, 1021, pp. 170-180. ASHOKAN RESERVOIR. See Aqueducts: American; Catskill aqueduct; New York City: iQOS-XQig. ASHTI, Battle of (1818). See India: 1816- 1819. ASHUR, or Assur. See Assyria: People, re- ligion and early history; Babylonia: Creation myths; Religion: B.C. 2000-200. ASHUR-BANI-PAL, king of Assyria. See Assur-bani-pal, king of Assyria. ASHUR-NAZIR-PAL, king of Assyria. See Assur-Nazir-Pal, king of Assyria. ASIA: Name. — "There are grounds for believ- ing Europe and Asia to have originally signified 'the west' and 'the east' respectively. Both are Semitic terms, and probably passed to the Greeks from the Phccnicians. . . . The Greeks first applied the title [Asia] to that portion of the eastern con- tinent which lay nearest to them, and with which they became first acquainted — the coast of Asia Minor opposite the Cyclades; whence they ex- tended it as their knowledge grew. Still it had always a special application to the country about Ephesus." — G. Rawlinson, Notes to Herodotus, v. 3, P- a- Influence of geography on the political prob- lems of Asia. — Climate. — Topography. — Move- ment of Asia from north to south. — Powerful position of Russia. — Central position of Great Britain in India. — "As we look at the continent 546 ASIA Influence of Geography ASIA of Asia, in its length and breadth, we may note, first, that it lies wholly north of the equator, and in great part between the northern tropic and the arctic circle — that is, in the so-called temperate zone. The inferences as to climate which might be drawn from this are deceptive, owing to modifi- cations occasioned by physical conditions. The great plains of the north and of the south — of Si- beria and of India- — are subject, respectively, to extremes of cold and of heat, due primarily to the vast extent of land in the continent itself, which precludes the moderating power of the sea from e.xercising extensive influence. The effect of this immense region upon temperature is most strikingly shown in the monsoons, the periodical winds which alternate with the seasons — as land and sea breezes change with night and day — but which during their continuance have the steadiness characteristic oi the permanent trades. This phenomenon, which prevails throughout the Indian Ocean, the Bay of Bengal, and the China Sea, is attributable to the alternate heating and cooling of the continent, as the sun moves north or south of the equator, in inducing a periodical set of the atmosphere — from the northeast during the winter, and from the southwest during the summer. Within its main outlines, the greatest breadth of the continent from east to west is about five thousand statute miles, following the thirtieth degree of north latitude; but along the fortieth this distance is increased by some hundreds of miles, through the projection of two peninsulas — Asia Minor on the west, and Korea on the east. Between these two parallels are to be found, speaking roughly, the most de- cisive natural features, and also those pohtical di- visions the unsettled character of which renders the problem of Asia in the present day at once perplexing and imminent. Within this belt are the Isthmus of Suez, Palestine and Syria, Mesopotamia, the greater part of Persia, and Afghanistan — with the strong mountain ranges that mark these two countries and Armenia — the Pamir, the huge ele- vations of Tibet, and a large part of the valley of the Yang-tse-kiang, with the lower and mo„t important thousand miles of that river's course. Within it also are the cities of Aleppo, Mosul, and Bagdad, of Teheran and Ispahan, of Merv and Herat, Kabul and Kandahar, and in the far east of China, Peking, Shanghai, Nanking, and Han- kow. No one of these is in the territory of a state the stability of which can be said to repose securely upon its own strength, or even upon the certainty of non-interference by ambitious neighbors. The chain of the Himalayas is exterior to, but only a little south of, the zone indicated. Although Japan is extra-continental, it may be interesting to note that the greater part of her territory and the centre of her power lie also within the belt, and extend almost across it, from north to south. Within these bounds, speaking broadly and not ex- clusively, is the debatable and debated ground. North and south of it, in similar wide generaliza- tion, political conditions are relatively determined, though by no means absolutely fixed. Along the northern and southern borders, where exterior im- pulses impinge, there are uncertainty and jealousy, aggression and defence, not as yet military, but political. Still, whatever its form, such action is at bottom that of conflicting, if not contending, impulses. The division of Asia is east and west, movement is north and south. It is the character of that movement, and its probable future, as in- dicated by the relative forces, and by the lines which in physics are called those of least resistance, that we are called to study; for in the greatness of the stake, and in the relative settledness of condi- tions elsewhere, there is assurance that there will continue to be motion until an adjustment is reached, either in the satisfaction of everybody, or by the definite supremacy of someone of the contestants. . . . That the dividing line of un- settled political status is along the belt defined may be ascertained by a brief examination of a map. That movement is from and to the north and the south is a matter of history — not yet a generation old — and of names familiar to all readers of news. The mere sound of Turkestan, Khiva, Merv, Herat, Kandahar, Kabul, attests the fact; as do Manchuria and Port Arthur. Thus both in the western half and in the extreme east is observed the same tendency, which would be still more amply demonstrated by an appeal to history but little more remote. It is, in fact, no longer con- sistent with accuracy of forecast to draw a north and south line of severance; to contemplate eastern Asia apart from western; to dissociate, practically, the conditions and incidents in the one from those in the other. Both form living parts of a large problem, to which both contribute elements of perplexity. The relations of each to the other, and to the whole, must therefore be considered. Accepting provisionally the east and west belt of division as one stage in the process of analysis, we may profitably consider next the character and distribution of the forces whose northward and southward impulses constitute the primary factors in the process of change already initiated and still continuing. Upon a glance at the map one enor- mous fact immediately obtrudes itself upon the at- tention — the vast, uninterrupted mass of the Rus- sian Empire, stretching without a break in terri- torial consecutiveness from the meridian of west- ern Asia Minor, until, to the eastward, it over- passes that of Japan. In this huge distance no political obstacles intervene to impede the concen- trated action of the disposable strength. Within the dominion of Russia only the distances them- selves, and the hindrances — unquestionably great and manifold — imposed by natural conditions, place checks upon her freedom and fulness of movement. To this element of power — central position — is to be added the wedge-shaped outhne of her terri- torial projection into central Asia, strongly sup- ported as this is, on the one flank, by the moun- tains of the Caucasus and the inland Caspian Sea — wholly under her control — and on the other by the ranges which extend from Afghanistan northeast- erly, along the western frontier of China. From the latter, moreover, she as yet has no serious danger to fear. The fact of her general advance up to the present time, most of which has been made within a generation, so that the point of the wedge is now inserted between Afghanistan and Persia, must be viewed in connection with the tempting relative facility of farther progress through Persia to the Persian Gulf, and with the strictly analogous movement, on the other side of the continent, where long strides have been made through Manchuria to Port Arthur and the Gulf of Pe-chi-li. Thus, alike in the far east and in the far west, we find the same characteristic of remorseless energy, rather remittent than intermit- tent in its symptoms. Russia, in obedience to natural law and race instinct, is working, geograph- ically, to the southward in Asia by both flanks, her centre covered by the mountains of Afghanis- tan and the deserts of eastern Turkestan and Mon- golia. ... As north and south are logically op- posed, so it might be surmised that practically the opposition to this movement of Russia from the north would find its chief expression to the south of the broad dividing belt, between the thirtieth and fortieth parallels. In a measure this is so, but with a very marked distinction, not only In degree 547 ASIA Unity of Civilisation ASIA but in kind. In the progress of history, in which, as it unrolls, more and more of plan and of pur- pose seems to become evident, the great central peninsula of southern Asia, also projecting wedge- shaped far north into the middle debatable zone, has come under the control of a people the heart of whose power is far removed from it locally, and who, to the concentration of territory char- acteristic of Russia's geographical position, present an extreme of racial and military dispersal. In- dia, therefore, is to Great Britain not the primary base of operations, political and military — for mili- tary action is only a specialized form of political. It is simply one of many contingent — secondary — bases, in different parts of the world, the action of which is susceptible of unification only by means of a supreme sea power. Of these many bases, India is the one best fitted, by nearness and by conformation, both for effect upon Central .Asia and for operations upon either extremity of the long line over which the Russian front extends. Protected on the land side and centre by the moun- tains of -Afghanistan and the Himalayas, its flanks, thrown to the rear, are unassailable, so long as the navy remains predominant. They constitute also frontiers, from which, in the future as in the past, expeditions may make a refreshed and final start, for Egypt on the one hand, for China on the other ; and, it is needless to add, for any less distant des- tination in either direction. "It is not intrinsically only that India possesses the value of a base to Great Britain. The central position which she holds relatively to China and to Egypt obtains also towards Australia and the Cape of Good Hope, assisting thus the concentra- tion upon her of such support as either colony can extend to the general policy of an Imperial Federation. Even in its immediate relations to .Asiatic problems, however, India is not unsup- ported. On land and in the centre, the acquisition of Burmah gives a continuous extension of frontier to the east, which turns the range of the Hima- layas, opening access, political or peaceful, for in- fluence or for commerce, to the upper valley of the Vang-tse-kiang, and to the western provinces of China proper. By sea, the Straits Settlements and Hong-Kong on the one side, Aden and Egypt on the other, facilitate, as far as land positions can, maritime enterprises to the eastward or to the westward, directed in a broad sense upon the flanks of the dividing zone, or upon those of the opposing fronts of operations that mark the deployment of the northern and southern powers, which at the present time are most strongly established upon .Asian territory." — .A. T. Mahan, Problem of Asia, pp. 20-20. — See also Baluchist.an; Pacific ocean: B.C. 2S00-A. D. 1500. Unity of Asiatic civilization. — Unifying force of Buddhism. — Embodied in the spirit of Japan. — Contrast to western currents of thought.— "While the psychological unity of the Oriental na- tions has nut been so clearly and definitely worked out as it has been in the West, notwithstanding all minor national idiosyncrasies, still the Orient has also had its share of international unifying influ- ences. The sacred places in India where the great teacher lived have for two thousand years attracted pilgrims from all jiarts of the Buddhist world; and earnest students have sought deeper wisdom by communing with the monks of famous monasteries in Burmah and Ceylon. Ever since the embassy of Emperor Ming-ti sought for the new gospel in the year bi, and the sage Fa-hien undertook his great journey, India has thus been visited by seek- ers after new light. .Also the apostles of India's missionary religion, in its first age of flourishing enthusiasm, spread the teaching of Gotama to all the lands of southern and eastern Asia, even from Palestine, where they implanted the germs of the Western monastic system, to the far islands of the rising sun. Thus Buddhism became the greatest unifying force in eastern .Asia, and no mind nor personality commands a wider and more sincere homage than he who found the light and pointed the way, the great teacher 'who never spake but good and wise words, he who was the light of the world.' So it is that also in more recent epochs down to our own day, his thought and life have been and are the chief centre of the common feel- ings and enthusiasms of Asia. [See also Budd- hism: Buddha and his mission.] The great age of illumination under the Sung dynasty in China saw the beginning of the attempts to merge and fuse Taoist, Buddhist, and Confucian thought, in Neo-Confucianism, called by Okakura 'a brilliant effort to mirror the whole of Asiatic consciousness.' It was Buddhist monks and missionaries who acted as messengers between China and Japan in that great formative period of a thousand years, in which all the currents of Indian and Chinese civi- lization made their impress upon Japanese national character. Then, under the Tokogawa regime the independent spirits of Japan trained themselves for the demands of an exacting epoch in the thought of Wang-yang-ming. or Oyomei, which combined with the noblest ideals and the deepest insight of Buddhism, joins to these a zest in active life, an ardent desire to participate in the surging develop- ment in which the universe and human destiny are unfolding themselves. In this school, which com- bines a truly poetic sentiment for the pathos of fading beauty and fleeting fragrance, for the ghost- liness of an existence made up of countless vibra- tions of past joy and suffering, with the courage- ous desire to see clearly and act with energy, to share to the full in this great battle we call Hfe, — in this school were trained the statesmen and war- riors of Satsuma and Choshu who have led Japan to greatness in peace and glory in war. [See also Buddhism: Later history; and Different forms of Buddhism.] The unity of .Asiatic civilization has found an actual embodiment in the spirit of Japan. There it is not the product of political reasoning, nor the discovery of philosophical abstraction. All the phenomena of the overpowering natural world of .Asia are epitomized in the islands of the morn- ing sun, where nature is as luxuriant and as for- bidding, as caressing and as severe, as fertile and as destructive, as in all that cyclorama of storm, earthquake, typhoon, flood, and mountain vastness which we call .Asia. Even thus has Japan in the course of her historic development received by gradual accretion the spirit of all Asiatic thought and endeavor. Nor have these waves from the mainland washed her shores in vain; her national life has not been the prey of capricious conquer- ors — imposing for a brief time a sway that would leave no permanent trace on the national life. Her mind and character have received and accepted these continental influences, as the needs of her own developing life have called for them ; they have not been adopted perforce or by caprice, but have exerted a moulding influence and have been assimilated into a consistent, deep, and powerful national character. .A psychological unity has thus been created — an actual expression of the flesh and blood of life — in touch with the national ideals and ambitions of a most truly patriotic race. This is a far different matter from the mere intellectual recognition of certain common beliefs, ideals, and institutions throughout the Orient. On such a per- ception of unity at most a certain intellectual sym- pathy could be founded But in Japan the Oriental spirit has become flesh — it has ceased to be a 548 ASIA Movement of Races ASIA bloodless generalization, and it now confronts the world in the shape of a nation conscious of the complicated and representative character of its psychology, and ardently enthusiastic over the loftiness of its mission. We know Japanese pa- triotism as national, inspired by loyalty to the Mikado and by love for the land of Fujiyama ; we are also learning to know it as Asiatic — deeply stirred by the exalting purpose of aiding that Asiatic thought-life which has made Japan to come to its own and preserve its dignity and independ- ence through all the ages. ... It is said that Asia is pessimistic. Yet her pessimism is not the sodden gloom of despair, whose terrifying scowl we en- counter in European realistic art, and which is the bitter fruit of perverted modes of living. The pessimism of Asia, which makes the charm of her poetry from Firdusi to the writers of the delicate Japanese Haikai, is rather a soothing, quieting, ip.sthetic influence, like the feeling of sadness that touches the heart at the sight of great beauty, and which perhaps is due to the memory of all the .\earnings and renunciations in the experience of a long chain of lives. The pessimism of the Orient is tragic, rather than cynical, and Japan at the present time gives proof of the fact that the spirit of tragedy belongs to strong nations. ... It is but a short time since the broader and more represen- tative minds among the Asiatic races have begun to realize the unity of Asiatic civilization. The endless variety in speech and custom, the differ- ence in character and temper between the Chinese and the Hindu, the opposite political destiny that has made one nation subject to foreigners while it has led another into an honored position among the independent Powers — all these differences can no longer obscure the deep unity of customs and of ideals that pervades the entire Orient. This unified character of Oriental life, in its essence so totally different from Western civilization, frequently ex- presses itself on the surface in customs and insti- tutions which seem to us bizarre and even barbar- ous, and which invite the active reformer from the West to sweep them away and put in their place a more enlightened system. But whoever considers carefully the conditions of the Orient may arrive at a very different conclusion, and may see even in these apparently backward institutions the marks of a broad and noble ideal of life. The vastncss of Oriental populatioiis, the long dura- tion of their institutions, create a feeling of per- manence and peace. The frequency of natural catastrophes, the overpowering aspect of moun- tains, torrents, and typhoons, have given the Ori- entals an entirely deferential attitude toward na- ture, which they have not tried to conquer or subdue. Busied rather with the causes of things and with the general laws of existence, they turned to religion and philosophy, and gave but little at- tention to practical facts, to scientific control of the forces of nature, and to the betterment of social conditions. The pessimistic tinge of Oriental thought is due to this feeling of helplessness, which causes the world and existence to appear as a great procession of shadows, full of suffering anc' evil. But in all this impermanence. in the multitude of fleeting and ephemeral individual existences, the Oriental mind sees the manifestation of an omni- present force." — P. S. Reinsch, Intellectual and po- litical currents in the Far East, pp. 20-28. — See also China: Origin of the people; Mythology: Eastern Asia: Indian and Chinese influences. Art of writing. See Alphabet: Theories of ori- gin and development. Earliest history. — Movements of Asiatic races. — Invasions into Europe. — "When we search into the remotest past of Asia, the geolo- gist, not the historian, presents a very surprising spectacle to our view: two lands stand opposite; one, to the north, shaping a long arch round what is to-day Irkutsk; the other, to the south, consti- tutes a portion of the future peninsula of Hindu- stan; a large mediterranean sea, to which M. Suess has given the name of Tethys, separates the two continents; this ocean, in gradually drying up, has by its folds given rise to the Pamirs, the Himalayas, the high Tibetan tableland — and its total disap- pearance and the union of the two, northern and southern, lands gave birth to Asia. If we seek in this vast continent for the territory having an authentic record of the oldest times, we find it in the lands of biblical tradition, Chaldea and Elam, where Asia tells again the story of its past with the most irrefragable evidence in the in- scriptions registered on stones which, lying buried for centuries have withstood the wear and tear of ages ; thus has been revealed to us the oldest code of the world, the Law of Hammurabi, discovered at Susa by M. J. de Morgan, and described by the Dominican Father V. Scheil, both Frenchmen. However, if Elam carries us back to a period fur- ther than four thousand years before Christ, other countries of Asia, including those which are sup- posed to possess the most ancient civilization, are far from giving the material proof of the high an- tiquity to which their books and their legends lay an unfounded claim. [See also BAB^LOMA: Ear- liest inhabitants.] India cannot boast of a single monument which for age is to be compared with those of Nineveh and of Egypt, and before the eighth century B.C., no solid basis to the history of China is to be found. The perishable quality of the materials used in rearing the edifices of this last country cannot allow us to hope that the zeal of modern archcBologists will unearth the secret of monuments vanished long ago. ... At the pres- ent time [1904] nothing definite gives us a right to broach an opinion with regard to the primitive inhabitants of Oriental Asia and their cradle. "... During a long time Europe remained in complete ignorance of the steady though irregular movements of the populations of Asia, which was really a volcano in eruption, the terrible effects of which were felt afar. When the Roman Empire crumbling to pieces was threatened westwards by the barbarians of Germanic race, — Teutonic, Gothic, or Scandinavian, — these, pressed in their turn by the wild hordes from .4sia, like a rolling wave invaded the Empire and, crushed in by the newcomers, founded as far as Spain, more or less flourishing kingdoms at the expense of the domain of the Caesars. The march of the Huns from the heart of Asia is in great part the cause of these migrations of people; menacing the Chinese ter- ritory, driving away the Yue-chi, a branch of the Eastern Tartars, who, after several halts of which we shall speak further on, carved for themselves an empire on the banks of the Indus at the cost of the occupiers of the valley of this river. The invading Huns, like a huge wave, gained gradually on from horde to horde, from tribe to tribe, from people to people, till they reached Europe which, when struck by the Scourge of God, could not dis- cern whence the blow was first dealt. During the course of the fifth century, the Huns under Attila had not only subdued all the Tartar nations of Central Asia, but had also brought under the yoke the whole of the German tribes between the Volga and the Rhine. The defeat of the great chief by the allied armies of the Franks, the Visigoths, and the Romans at the battle of the Catalaunic Fields (451), his death two years later, stopped the tide of the Eastern invaders; as the victory of Charles Martel at Poitiers (732), three centuries later, set 549 ASIA European Invasions ASIA bounds to the throng of Arabs, who after having torn the north of Africa from the Roman Empire, had crossed the sea, destroying the power of the Visigoths, who after a long migratory period throughout Europe, had apparently found a per- manent home in the Iberian Peninsula. [See also Huns.] The invasion of the barbarians, who flocked together to share the spoils of the agoniz- ing Roman Empire in the fifth century, will con- tinue later with the Mongol raids and till 1453 [See also Mongolia: 1206-1500], the year of the capture of Constantinople by the Turltish Osman- lis, which we may consider to mark the climax of the Asiatic encroachments." — H. Cordier, Gen- eral survey oj the history oj Asia {International Congress of Arts and Science, v. 2, pp. 86-89, St. Louis, igo4). B. C. 334-A. D. 1498. — European invasions into Asia. — Alexander. — Romans. — Crusaders. — Modern movement. — "(i) Taking the European advances into Asia first, and dealing with them only, in order of date, there have been within historic times four great European invasions of Asia. The first was the wonderful campaign of Alexander of Macedon and his Greek armies. His forces marched unbeaten to the Indus and defeated Porus on the borders of Hindustan. As a miU- tary feat the whole expedition was a marvellous success. But, great as were his victories in the field and far-reaching his projects for foundins an Eastern Empire, the fact remains that Ale.xander's exploits and those of his lieutenants produced no permanent effect whatever upon the important countries over which they and their immediate descendants ruled. There is nothing to show, either in arms or in arts, in philosophy or in religion, that the Asratics, who were compelled to submit for the time being, adopted Greek methods or ab- sorbed Greek ideas. It was conquest without colonisation: victory without continuous influence. The wave of invasion receded and matters went on below the surface much as they did before. [See also MACEDO^^A: B.C. 345-,?36, to B.C. 315-310.] (2) Even the Roman mastery of a large portion of Asia scarcely influenced Eastern thought or East- ern customs at all. Yet this second great Euro- pean invasion lasted for many centuries, and was maintained, alike when Rome was at the height of her power, and when her magnificent system of civil and military organisation was slowly totter- ing to its fall. Those long, long years of peaceful and successful rule failed to impress European con- ceptions, or European methods, upon the mass of the subject population, or even upon the educated classes as a whole. They remained essentially Asiatic, in all important respects, below the sur- face. The Pax Romana passed away and the Asiatics of centuries before became Asiatics again for centuries after. This was so, first and fore- most and all through, from the days when the Parthians on the frontier routed Crassus and his army, to the period when the Byzantine emf)erors were vainly struggling against the Arabs and Turks. . . . [There was] the great legacy of administra- tion, laws and jurisprudence in Asia. The splendid roads, harbours, water-conduits and other public works, of which the ruins still bear witness to the genius and foresight of her Emperors and engi- neers, conduced to great material prosperity, as the wealth and luxury of the principal cities testified. But the whole elaborate system left the psychology, habits and beliefs of the people untouched. The Asiatic mind remained impervious to European thought. Asiatic customs, Asiatic tribal and fam- ily relations, Asiatic religions long survived Greek and Latin teaching and Greek and Latin cults. Nay, in all these departments of human activity. as in some others, Asia, even under Roman suprem- acy, had a continuous and peaceful influence upon her conquerors at a period when all hope of shak- ing off the Roman yoke had been practically abandoned. In Rome itself and in other great cities of the Western Empire, Asiatic philosophy and Asiatic superstitions made way long before the Asiatic religion of Christianity spread its network from Palestine over the European provinces. At Constantinople imitations of Asiatic forms and ceremonies pervaded the whole Imperial Court. [See also Jews: B.C. 40-A. D. 44.] (3) Where the powerful organisation and efficiency of the Roman Empire had failed after hundreds of years of successful domination to produce a permanent effect, it was little likely that other disorderly and spasmodic efforts from the West would prevail. . . . The motley hosts who went forth under the banners of the Crusaders formed the third impor- tant invasion of Asia by Europe. Whatever may have been the hopes and intentions of the more capable statesmen and warriors of Europe we can now see that they were doomed to disappointment, even if the attacks ufon 'the infidel' had been far better organised and disciplined than in fact they were. At first, at any rate, the Crusades were nothing more than spasmodic religious raids, bred of hysteria and inspired by fanaticism. Later they may have had some conscious, or unconscious, economic motive; and unquestionably racial an- tagonism developed as a result of the long series of encounters with the Moslem armies. These freebooters of Christianity and marauders of feu- dalism, however, were as little animated by any great scheme of polity as were their opponents. Here and there the leaders carved out short-lived kingdoms for themselves and their followers, chiefly at the expense of the decadent Christian Empire of the East, whose outposts in Asia Minor and Palestine they went forth to defend. But the Crusades . . . made no lasting impression what- ever upon 'the East.' The Holy City of Chris- tianity, Jerusalem, remained for centuries after- wards and continued till yesterday in the custody of those rival monotheists, the followers of Mo- hammed. Thus the third assault of Europe upon Asia produced even less effect than its two pre- decessors. . . . [See also Crusades.] (4) The fourth European invasion of Asia has taken place in modern times. It is a much wider, more con- tinuous and far more formidable assault than any of its predecessors. This great movement is still in progress, and we are by no means as yet in a position to judge of its final effect. French, Eng- lish and Russians, following upon the early re- ligious and commercial efforts of the Portuguese and Dutch, have carried on for three centuries a steady pressure of, firstly religious propaganda, then mercantile persuasion, and lastly armed con- quest at the expense of the inhabitants. The re- sult is that Europeans have now seized and domi- nate more than half of the area and Httle less than half of the population of the great Eastern Con- tinent, with its adjacent islands." — H. M. Hynd- man, .Awakening of Asia, pp. 3-7. 1500-1900. — Latest European invasion. — Ad- vance upon China. — Portuguese in the East. — Spaniards in the Philippines. — East opened by the English after defeat of French. — Russian movements across Asia. — Japan transformed by western civilization. — "The decline of China co- incides with the efforts of the Western Powers to break her doors open. Until the middle of the nineteenth centur>-, with the exception of a few Catholic missionaries, retained as savants at the court of Peking or hidden in the provinces, where they led a precarious existence, foreigners were 550 ASIA European Invasions ASIA lodged in a quarter of the single port of Canton without the right of moving freely about the city ; moreover, they could only stay at the place the time strictly necessary to the settlement of their affairs, that is to say, during a pretty short portion of the year; afterwards they had to return to the Portuguese Colony of Macao, where lived their families, who were not allowed to accompany the cargoes to the Chinese port. Business was not conducted freely with the natives, but through the medium of privileged merchants, called hong mer- chants, whose monopoly was finally abolished by the fifth article of the treaty signed at Nanking by England August 2q, 1842. [See also China: 1839- 1842.] Wanton vexations were inflicted upon foreigners; it was forbidden to the natives to teach their language to any "Western Devil" (Yang- kwei-tse) ; the lex talioiiis, man for man, was ap- plied with all its cruelty and injustice. This state of things lasted till the Opium War, which gave England the means of opening China more widely to the foreign trade and of making way for the introduction of Western ideas, without abating, however, the arrogant pretension? of the man- darins. In the course of the sixteenth century began the double march toward China, by the north and the south, by land and by sea, which brought into contact nations of the Occident and those of the Far East. Ermak's Cossacks were the pioneers of the northern route, Vasco da Gama's sailors and Albuquerque's soldiers were the pilots and the conquerors of the southern route. To the Portuguese we owe the discovery, or more exactly the reopening, of the road of Asia in mod- ern times. The cape discovered by Bartholomew Diaz in 1485, doubled by Vasco da Gama in 1497, was the great port of call from Europe to Asia, until the ancient way of Egypt was resumed dur- ing the nineteenth century. [See also Portugal: 1463-1498.] Masters of the Indian Ocean, the capture of Malacca in 1511, their first voyage to Canton in 1514, a wreck in 1542 at Tanegashima, in the Japanese Archipelago, gave to the Portu- guese the possession of an immense empire and the control of an enormous trade which they were not able to keep. The annexation of Portugal to Spain, 'The SLxty Years' Captivity,' under Philip the Second, was as harmful to the first, drawn by its conqueror into a struggle fatal for her prosperity, as was to the Dutch colonies the absorption of Holland by Napoleon I. "The Spaniards settled in the Philippine Islands; the Dutch, with the enterprising Cornelius Hout- man, landed in 1596 at Bantam, created the short- lived colony of Formosa, and a lasting empire in the Sunda Islands, where in i6iq they laid the foundations of the town of Batavia, on the ruins of the old native port of Jacatra. However, one may say that England really opened Eastern Asia to foreign influence, at least by sea, from the day in 1634 when the gun of Captain Weddell thun- dered for the first time in the Canton River. It was with the accompaniment of British powder that during two centuries the countries of the Far East carried on trade with the Western merchants. It was on sea, and of course by the south, that England fought for the supremacy in Asia. A terrible struggle in India against the French, where Clive and Hastings got the benefit of the labors and exertions of Franqois Martin, Dumas, Dupleix, and others, three wars against the Mahrattas, the conquest of the Punjab, the crushing of the great rebelUon of 1857, the suppression of the Empire of the great Mogul, have secured to Great Britain the possession of the Indies, threatened only as of yore by the northwestern invaders. Three lucky campaigns have given Burmah to England, al- ready master of the greater part of the Malay Peninsula. [See also India: 1823-1833, 1852: and BRinsH empire: E.xpansion: 19th century: Asia.] The treaty signed by Great Britain at Nanking in August, 1842, broke up the Chinese barrier; the various Powers followed in emulation the example of England; the United States, France, Belgium, Sweden and Norway, by turn signed treaties or conventions with the Son of Heaven. At that time England was truly without a rival in the Far East, but was not far-sighted enough; the pledge she took at Hong Kong, important as it was, was but a small one with regard to the hopes of the future. England gave back to the Chinese the Chusan Islands, which had been in her hands, as the French returned the Pescadores after the set- tlement of the Tonquin question; of course, loyal and honest acts, but also acts of improvident poli- tics. ... "However, the two facts dominating the political history of the Far East during the last fifty years are the spread of the Russian power through Asia on the one hand, and the revolution and the trans- formation of the Japanese Empire on the other. During the reign of Ivan IV, in the middle of the sixteenth century, to the east of the Ural Moun- tains began this tremendous march of the Russians which drove them beyond the sea, since the author- ity of the Tsar was formerly extended to this side of the Straits of Behring; indeed, it was but in 1867 that the Russian possessions in America, Alaska, were acquired by the United States. The unification of the states of Great Russia, the con- quest of the Tartar Kingdoms of Kazan (1552) and of Astrakhan (iSS3), removed the boundaries of Russia to the east; the Russian advance to the Baltic had been stopped by the victories of Stephen Bathory ; the East only was left open to their en- terprise. In 1558 a certain Gregori Strogonov ob- tained from the Tsar the cession of the wild lands on the Kama River. With some companions he settled in that region, created colonies, and some of the hardy fellows went as far as the Ural Moun- tains. An adventurous Cossack of the Don, Ermak Timofeevitch, whose services had been secured by Strogonov, crossed the Ural Mountains at the head of eight hundred and fifty plucky men, and ad- vanced as far as the Irtysh and Ob rivers, on the way subduing the Tartar princes. Ermak was the real conqueror of Western Siberia, but if he had the luck and the glory of adding a new kingdom to the states of the prince who has been surnamed the Terrible, to his immediate successors was due the foundation of the first town in the territory snatched from the Tartars, for Ermak was drowned in the Irtysh in 1584, and Tobolsk dates only from 15S7. The effort of the Russians was then directed to the north of Siberia ; they did not meet with any resistance until fTiey reached the Lena River; in 1632 they built the fort of Yakutsk on the banks of this river, and pushed their explorations on to the sea of Okhotsk. In 1636 tidings of the Amoor River were for the first time heard from Cossacks of Tomsk, who had made raids to the south. Wasili Poyarkov (1643-46) is the first Russian who navigated the Amoor from its junc- tion with Zeia to its mouth. In 1643-51, Kha- barov led an expedition in the course of which he built on the banks of the river several forts, Albasine among them. In 1654, Stepanov for the first time ascended the Sungari, where he met the Chinese, who compelled him to trace his way back to the Amoor. In spite of all their exertions, after two sieges of Albasine by the Chinese, the Rus- sians were obliged on the 27th of August, 1689, to sign at Nerchinsk a treaty by which they were driven out of the basin of the Amoor. The Rus- 551 ASIA Russian Movements ASIA sians, bound to carry their efforts to the north, subdued Kamchatka. What is perhaps most re- marlcable in the history of the relations of the two great Asiatic empires is the tenacity of the Mus- covite grappling with the cunning of the Chinese, and the comparison between the starting-point of these relations, the Russia of Michael and Alexis and the China of K'ang-hi, and their culminating- point in iS6o, when these very nations shall have passed, one through the iron hands of Peter the Great and become the Russia of Alexander II, and the other under the backward government of Kia- K'ing and Tao-kwang and become the China of their feeble successor Hien-Fung. Only on the i8th of May, i8S4, did the Governor-General Muraviev navigate again the waters of the Amoor River; on the i6th of May, 1858, he signed at Aigun a treaty which made the Amoor until its junction with the Usuri the boundary between the Russian and Chi- nese Empires, the territory between the Usuri and the sea remaining in the joint possession of the two Powers, but after the Pe-king Convention (2-14 November, i860) this land was abandoned to Russia and the Usuri became the boundary. In the meantime, the treaty signed at T'ien-tsin by Admiral Euthymus Putiatin (1-13 June, 1858) se- cured for Russia all the advantages gained by France and England after the occupation of Can- ton and the capture of the Taku forts. [See also Sibema: 1578-1800.] The second Russian move had Central Asia as its aim ; it was the result of the foundation of the town of Orenburg, the ex- ploration of the Syr-Daria by Batiakov the build- ing of Kazalinsk (1848) near the mouth of this river; the unsuccessful effort of General Perovsky (1830) turned the enterprise of the Russians to the Khanate of Khokand; the storming of Tash- kend by Colonel Chernaiev on the 27th of June, 1865, was the crowning point of the conquest of Turkestan by the Russians. The road to the T'ien- Shan Nan Lu, had already been opened to the Russians by the treaty signed at Kulja (July 25- August 8, 1851) by Colonel Kovalcsky, which, however, was known only ten years later (28 February-ii March, 1861). While Yakub Bey had founded a Mohammedan Empire in the T'ien- Shan Nan Lu, the Russians took possession of the Hi Territory on the 4th of July, 1871. The re- trocession of this territory to China after the death of the Attalik Ghazi was the cause of long and difficult negotiations between Russia and China, which ended with the treaties of Livadia (October, 1870) and of St. Petersburg (February 12-23, 1881). Russia restored the lands which she de- tained illegitimately, keeping, however, a small por- tion, not the least valuable. . . . The third Russian move was aimed at the countries beyond the Cas- pian Sea, and was the result of the conquest of the Crimea by Potemkin in the naijue of the great Catherine, and of the treaty of Kutschuk Quain- ardji (1774), which gave to the Russians the free navigation of the Black Sea. Under the rei^n of Nicholas I, Putiatin established a permanent iriari- time station on the Island of Akurade in the Gulf of Astrabad, and a line of ships on the Cas- pian Sea, securing from the Persian Government facilities for Russian fishermen and traders on the southern coast of that sea. At last, in 1860, Rus- sia took a definite position on the eastern coast of the Caspian Sea in settling at Kranovodsk. Later, on the break-up of the Turkish barrier of Geok- tepe by Skobelev, the occupation of the Oasis of Merv by Aliknanov, the capture of Samarkand, made of the Transcaspian country a Russian pos- session, rendered Russian influence paramount in the north of Persia, and threatened Herat and the route of India. TSee also Russia: :8s9-i876.1 The railway which the ingenuity and tenacity of Annenkov threw across the burning desert, united the Caspian Sea to Bokhara and Samarkand, cross- ing the Oxus at Charjui. The continuation of this railway from Samarkand to Tashkend and the Si- berian line was to place the whole of Asia beyond the Ural Mountains and the Caspian Sea in the hands of the Russians. It seems as if nothing could put a stop to this expansion ; on the con- trary, the bold and rapid construction of a railway across the frozen steppes of Siberia was to unite Russia directly with the Far East by an unbroken chain ; the ports of Manchuria and Korea, watered by the seas of China and Japan, being considered the termini of the long line. Work on the western part of the Siberian Railway began on July 7, 1802. Its extension beyond the Baikal Lake was to take it on the one hand to Vladivostock at the eastern extremity of the Russian possessions in Asia, and on the other to Port Arthur in the south of the Liao-tung Peninsula. It was fair to think that the point where the two lines met, in the very heart of Manchuria, should become a most impor- tant centre of industry and population; indeed, this has been realized, and in a few years, in the place of a barren spot, the considerable town of Kharbin (Harbin) has been built in the twinkling of an eye so to speak. . . . [See also Railroads: i8Q5-igio.] While Russia was making this enormous extension in the northwest of Asia, Japan was pursuing the series of reforms which were to secure for her a very special position in the concert of the nations of the world. Previous to the revolution of 1868, which altered entirely the state of things in Japan, a real duality in the government existed in this country; while the Tenno, or Mikado, the only Emperor, reigned nominally at Kioto, the power was held in fact by the Shogun, a sort of Mayor of the Palace, residing at Yedo. From lyeyasu, at the beginning of the seventeenth century, who gave to feudality the definitive constitution which lasted to our days, the power remained in his house, that of Tokugawa. The foreigners, who landed in Japan in the sixteenth and the beginning of the seventeenth century — Portuguese and English — were expelled in 1637, and by the end of 1630 the Dutch and the Chinese were the only outsiders al- lowed to live on the islet of Deshima, in the Bay of Nagasaki, in order to supply the Japanese with the goods they required. This state of things, not- withstanding the attempts vainly made by Great Britain and Russia during the first years of the nineteenth century, was to last until the arrival of the American Commodore Matthew Calbraith Perry, who in July, 1853, anchored at Uraga at the entrance of the Bay of Yedo, and who signed on March 31, i8S4, at Kanagawa, the first treaty concluded between Japan and a foreign power. . . . [See also Japan: 1854-1863.! Europe used to consider .^sia, except in her western part, as a domain where events rolled on without any dis- tant effect and having therefore but an interest of mere curiosity. Chimi. Bossuet could pass over in silence, that is to say the third of the total population of the globe, in his Discours sur I'his- toire universelle . . . admired only by those who have not read it. However, during the course of the fifth century the invasion of the barbarians, and in the thirteenth the raids of the Mongols, should have opened the eyes of the most blind of observers. And these considerable events were not the result of fortuitous causes, but the natural con- sequence of important events which had happened in the interior of Asia, while our ancestors had not the faintest suspicion of them. Moreover, the great navigators of the sixteenth century unraveled the mystery which shrouded the remote countries 552 • Maps prepaid ^|.<■l■ially for the NEW LARNED under direction of the editors and publishers. /^ r^ n ASIA Results of European Exploitation ASIA and helped to make clear the interest Europe had in knowing them better, and let us say, with frank cynicism, in speculating upon them. The first at- tempts to create factories, then the conquests at the end of the seventeenth and during the eight- eenth centuries, showed that Europe had aban- doned her majestic indifference, and was feeling the necessity of a policy which reached beyond the horizon bounded by her small and greedy con- tinent. "At the close of the wars of the First Empire, as soon as peace is signed, we see the Western na- tions resume the routes to Asia, for a short pe- riod neglected. England in India and China, the Dutch in the Spice Islands, France in Indo-China, later on the Russians in Central Asia, then in the basin of the Amoor River, all rush to the con- quest of new territories ; appetites are sharpened, rivalries created ; means of more rapid locomotion shorten distances; a new nation, Japan, is born to civilization, or to what it pleases us to call civiliza- tion; and Central and Eastern Asia, being no more isolated, are dragged into the inharmonious concert of universal politics." — H. Cordier, Gen- eral survey of the history of Asia (International Congress of Arts and Science, v. 2., pp. Q5-103, St. Louis, IQ04). Results of European exploitation. — The fol- lowing is a comparison and recapitulation of rela- tions between Asia and Europe by a very liberal Englishman, Mr. H. M. Hyndman, who expresses a rathe_r pessimistic attitude toward the aims and methods of Europeans in Asia. "It is well to recall that, within comparatively recent times, wave alter wave of conquering Asi- atic armies broke in upon Europe; and barbarian as most of these warlike hordes were, great gen- erals, great organisers, great administrators rose up from among them, both in West and East, whose equals could not be found in the Europe of their day. The Arabs of Spain, the various Mos- lem rulers of Baghdad, Egypt and Adrianople left, directly or indirectly, their mark on the civilisa- tion of the West. The Mongols of Delhi, the Bahmany dynasty of the Deccan, Kublai Khan in China, and the rulers of the Khanates of Central Asia showed splendid capacity, in arts as in arms. These men and others built up Empires which the white races saw and heard of dimly from afar. But whether as distant rulers or as terribly near invaders these Asians were very formidable foes, and in the changing course of time we may yet have good cause to fear Asians again. We now know to our cost what a war to the death between nations and races, provided with equal means of destruction, really is. In the long run, should no exceptional military genius manifest himself, nor any incalculable spirit animate one of the com- batants, the number of the trained soldiers on either side determines who shall be the victor. In numbers the East has an enormous advantage over the West. And there is no reason why a really great admiral, or general, should not appear in the countries which border upon the Pacific Ocean, as well as in those whose outlet is the Atlantic. While all the Powers of Europe were engaged in a desperate war of resistance to Teutonic aggres- sion, and we were looking on, practically help- less, at the internecine butchery of the white race, there has been a steady revival among the vast populations which inhabit the territories extending from the Persian Gulf to the Sooloo Sea, and from the Amoor River to the Straits of Singapore. Nevertheless, we still talk with confidence of cap- turing more of Asiatic trade and influencing for all time Asiatic development. "Not long ago, European nations were calmly discussing and deciding among themselves how much more of sleepy Asia they should appropriate, for the benefit, no doubt, of the peoples brought under this foreign rule. But now our sense of conscious superiority is being shaken, and when we find the inscrutable Asiatic learning to meet us successfully with our own weapons, we draw back a little. We even begin to see that he may have good grounds for regarding his white rivals as the uncultured and discourteous barbarians that, in many respects, we really are. Compared with the madness of Europe, also, the comparative quietude of Asia has been sanity itself. Yet this may not endure. With all the facts before us, and with prejudice thrown aside, we are still unable to lay bare the causes of the gigantic Asian move- ments of the past. They were certainly not all economic in their origin, unless we stretch the boundaries of theory so far as to include the mas- sacre of whole populations and the destruction of their wealth within the limits of the invader's de- sire for material gain. And, whether these move- ments arose from material or emotional causes, they have been before, and they may occur again. Forecast here is impossible. . . . Japan herself, whose leadership of Asia, afield and afloat, may yet, unless we are very careful, teach white men a lesson all over the world, was driven into close contact with Europe and America against her will, first, by Commodore Perry's dexterous di- plomacy, supported by the power of the United States, and then by the much less justifiable measures of other white nations. . . . Asia raided and scouraged Europe for more than a thousand years. Now for five hundred years the counter- attack of Europe upon Asia has been going stead- ily on, and it may be that the land of long mem- ories will cherish some desire to avenge this period of wrong and rapine in turn. The seed of hatred has already been but too well sown. The conti- nent which has long regarded itself as the home of the progressive peoples and the hope of the entire planet is beginning to forfeit its assumed suprem- acy. The warlike and industrial potentialities of the near future are passing slowly but surely to the Far East. ... If all those portions of the globe which are inhabited or dominated by the white races are seriously taking account at the present moment of their strength, their population, and their possibilities for the increase of their wealth on a larger scale than ever before, we may be sure the ablest men in Asia are not blind to what can be achieved in their own countries in peace and in war. It is true that the differences between the Asiatic peoples are as acute as any which exist in Europe. But against the white man they are practically all at one. Yet the white man still holds control over nearly half of Asia and its vast population! Asia comprises, including its islands, little less than 1,000,000,000 of the human race; England, France, Russia, Holland and the United States are all deeply concerned in the fu- ture of this mass of people, in view of the scope of territory and population they control. All will be greatly affected by the general political, eco- nomic and social movement of Japan, China and India. In a word, the position of Great Britain foremost, and of the other Powers in their degree, is now being steadily undermined. The determined, effort to secure Asia for the Asiatics, once begun as earnestly in action as it is now being seriously considered in thought, might spread with a rapidity which would paralyse all attempts of reconquest, if, indeed, such attempts could ever be effectively made. The West deprived of British India, the Asi- atic Provinces of Russia, French Tonquin and Cochin China, Dutch Java, Sumatra and the 553 ASIA Results of European Exploitation ASIA Celebes, the Philippines under the United States, would be a very different Europe from that to which we have been accustomed. That is a possi- bility of which the West, with forces now weakened and depleted to a wholly unprecedented extent, must soon take account. Unconsciously, but none the less certainly, it is making way. Where fifty, or even twenty years ago, the continuous expansion of Western domination over the East was taken for granted, now an uneasy but not yet openly ad- mitted feeling is growing that the tide has turned, and that ere long the area of European influence in the East will be considerably reduced. The partition of China among the 'Great Powers' is not to-day within the sphere of practical politics, and Japan pursues her policy in respect to that mag- nificent Empire with little regard to the suscep- tibilities of the white man and his burden. Wheth- er the appeal of China herself to the White Pow- ers, that they should aid her to resist the unwar- ranted demands of Japan, will obtain a favourable reception remains to be seen. But while The League of Nations' is being generally discussed it is certain that, in the opinion of the Chinese, the national independence of China is seriously men- aced if the much-cherished 'Open Door' is being carefully, though silently, closed. All this is more remarkable since the Ottoman Turks, for centuries the advance guard of Asia in Europe, are at last being driven from their hereditary camping- ground. Even their mastery over Asia Minor, (q. v.), irrespective of the baffled German pro- gramme of appropriation, is obviously threatened by Great Britain and France. What, under other circumstances, would undoubtedly be considered additional evidence of the growing predominance of Europe, seems to-day scarcely a makeweight against the probable insecurity of the white race in the Far East. . . . Happily the same views as to the madness of modern warfare which are now being forced upon the rest of the world are also making way with Asiatic statesmen. They ton see that friendly cooperation for common advantage might be far more advantageous to all than rivalry for power or competition for gain. Freedom of nationalities, equality of rights, respect for treaties and conventions, international arrangements for securing permanent peace are as important for Asia as for any other continent. But the respon- sibility for adopting them, should the Japanese democratic party prevail, and India and China press their demands without violence, rests entirely with Europe. The Asiatic nations are so far threatening no legitimate European interest: they ask only that the principles for which the Allies justly claim they fought Germany should be ap- plied in the most populous regions of the world. But it is useless to disguise from ourselves that this concession would involve 'of itself a complete revolution in the East. For such policy honestly applied would mean: (i) The emancipation of India from foreign rule by peaceful agreements with its numerous peoples. (2) The cessation of attempts to force foreign capitalism and foreign trade upon Asiatic countries. (3) The recognition that Japanese and Chinese are entitled, in coun- tries and colonies inhabited or controlled by Euro- peans, to rights equal with those of Europeans in China and Japan. (4) The granting of similar rights to Indians on the same basis. (5) The general acceptance by Europeans of the princi- ple of 'Asia for the Asiatics' as a rightful claim. But no student and no statesman would con- tend that such a wide policy of justice can be suddenly realised. Yet, if, in the near future, public opinion in Europe and America were to endorse such a programme, and the nations in- terested would take the first steps towards its realisation, much of the antagonism which is al- ready manifesting itself in Asia might be removed. Past injuries cannot now be remedied. The most to hope for is that, in the Asiatic mind, they may be held to balance those Eastern attacks upon the West which belong to a past more remote." — H. M. Hyndman, Awakening of Asia, pp. 275-2S2. European influences on education, industry, medicine, political movements, social reform and ethical reform. — (i) Education. — "The edu- cation which the Orient used to give to the favored few had little relation to modern life or thought, and nothing which fitted for leadership in conape- tition with the West. The missionary was the pioneer in introducing western education into the East. Started by the missionary, the work has now been taken up by the people in each country. Under the lead of the British officials, India has been given an educational system heading up in five universities, which prescribe courses of study, set examinations, and confer degrees, which are the gateway through which the young men of India pass into public or commercial life. . . . India con- tains schools of every grade, from the kinder- garten to the university, including technical and professional schools. India is headed in the di- rection of universal compulsory education, which Ceylon has already, in theory at least, attained. Japan has created within a few years a system of education from the elementary schools, attendance upon which is compulsory, up to the universities. China has discarded entirely its centuries-old sys- tem of examinations in the Chinese Classics, and has provided on paper a comprehensive system of universal education, which is gradually being put into effect. Siam, too, has its schools which teach western science and other western subjects. The effect of this education is to break down old super- stitions, broaden the vision, and bring the stu- dents into touch with the life, thought, and ideals of the West. All this is good, but there is an- other side. The system of education is too ex- clusively literary, as, apart from technical schools, it all looks to preparation for university courses, which are taken by a very small fraction of the student body. The remainder get the idea that they are above a life of productive activity in the industrial world and must be clerks, teachers, or officials. The supply of such candidates far ex- ceeds the demand. Again, the education is too western in its character and tends to unfit the stu- dent for life and work among his own people. This is especially true in India and Ceylon, where the history and literature of Greece and Rome are over emphasized as compared with the literature and history of India. .\n extreme instance of this occurred in Ceylon, where there is no local uni- versity and English examinations are used. It was only after a struggle that pupils were permitted to offer themselves for examination upon the botany of Ceylon and not upon the botany of Great Britain. Instances are by no means rare of students who cannot communicate with their par- ents because they have lost their command of the vernacular. The university men of India believe that the political theories of the West cannot be put into immediate operation among people whose whole history and life have been along different lines. Japan has solved this problem of adaptation with tolerable success, and China believes in both western and Chinese education, but the two are not sufficiently welded. Again, the education is apt to be superficial. This is true in India. Jap- anese education is more comprehensive than thorough, and few schools in China have compe- tent teachers. Still more serious is the moral ef- 554 ASIA European Influences ASIA feet of this education. It breaks down the old religious beliefs, the old standards and sanctions, and it puts almost nothing in their place. The teaching is for the most part agnostic, if not posi- tively anti-religious, and pupils, in the life of whose nation religion and ethics have played a prominent part, cannot so easily and safely ad- just themselves to the agnostic position as pupils who have back of them generations of believers in Christian standards of conduct. The moral waste of the new education of the Orient is discourag- ing. Men are cast adrift and have no way of getting their bearings. "2. Industry. — There are two phases in the in- dustrial development of the East, the development of means of communication — railroads, steamer lines, telegraphs, and postal faciUties — and the growth of the factory system. Much of the pro- vincialism of India and China has been due to isolation. The marvel is that there has been so much intercommunication by foot and hy cart. These barriers are now breaking down. The rail- road, the telegraph, and the post-office have ex- tended themselves all over India and Japan. In Chma, the telegraph and the mail carrier are pene- trating the most inaccessible parts of the empire, and the railroad will soon bring the remotest prov- inces within a few days' journey of the capital. The effect of this is to break down caste in India and provincialism in China, to unify the political life of these countries, and, by greater centraliza- tion of administration, to stop the graft and in- justice of local officials. On the other hand, the railroads and steamers are throwing into the ranks of the unemployed of China thousands of coolies, boatmen, carters, and innkeepers, whose occupation has vanished. It is no longer possible in India to isolate the effects of such calamities as famine and pestilence. All parts now bear their share of the burden, through the prevalence of famine prices and the spread of contagion. Industrially, too, there have been great changes. The factory sys- tem is invading India, and the Indian artisans are feeling the competition, not only of imported goods, but also of the local factory-made product. China is moving in the same direction. In weav- ing, it is using a more efficient hand loom, while at Hanyang, across the river from the Chicago of China, Hankow, is an up-to-date steel plant, which has even exported its products to the United States. Japan is in the full swing of industrial de- velopment along western lines. Its great industrial plants closely resemble those of the United States. All this gives promise of increasing wealth, higher standards of living, greater comforts, and a richer hfe. At the same time, it means that China, India, and Japan are either facing or are already strug- gling with all these phases — industrial, social, sani- tary, and moral — of industrial centers with which the West is far too familiar. It is a suggestive fact that the slum problem has entered Asia through following the example of the West. What is worse is that these people do not have the high western sense of the value of the life of the in- dividual, and are, comparatively speaking, without any restraining influence similar to our enlightened public opinion, which has been aroused by the struggles of a century of industrial strife. Unless these elements can be suppUed, there is danger of suffering and of abuses worse than any the West has known. "3. Medicine. — Within a generation, Japan has created for herself a corps of competent physicians and surgeons. She is also as rapidly as possible applying the principles of sanitation to the prob- lems of public health. In India, the British gov- ernment recognizes the importance of medicine and sanitation and there is a regular body of scientifi- cally trained physicians throughout the country. However, their number and their training are often inferior, and the ignorance of the people and their social customs make it impossible fully to relieve suffering or to do more than reduce the ravages of cholera and plague. China is practically without competent physicians. Medical missionaries and those trained by them have the field almost to themselves, although now the government is aid- ing and supporting medical schools. Those in a position to judge afhrm that there is a greater amount of unnecessary physical suffering in China today than in any other part of the world. West- ern medicine is now entering China, both helpfully and otherwise, for China is now getting, not only fully trained European and Chinese physicians, but also charlatans, who pretend to a knowledge and skill utterly foreign to them, and dealers in patent medicines as well. In nearly every bazaar drugs are sold to those who have no knowledge what- ever of their proper use. The poster nuisance is found in China and the most widely advertised medicines are nostrums for the diseases of vice. [See also Medical science: China.] "4. Political movements. — In the sphere of gov- ernment the most significant change is the growth of the nationalistic spirit. The day when the West could dominate and control with arrogance the great peoples of Asia has passed. Japan has al- ways possessed a spirit of proud independence, and ever since she emerged from her isolation she has bent every effort to secure recognition as the peer of any western power. The same purpose is back of the political and social development of China. China is proud of her ancient civilization and of the fact that she has gone serenely on her way during the rise and fall of the successive empires of the West. She is firmly resolved to end forever the day when the young western nations can bully and despoil her. The provincial spirit is growing into a national spirit and China is resolved, at the earliest possible day, to make herself strong enough to control China for the Chinese. Into the ques- tion of the unrest of India, which has voiced itself in protests and in bombs, we cannot enter. Suffice to say that leaders who have been trained and educated by Britain and have been taught the poUtical philosophy of the western nations are de- manding a greater control over their own affairs, either as a member of the British Empire or as an independent people. . . . "S- Social reform. — The oriental social reformer has been very active in recent years. In India, his agitation has chiefly concerned the two great in- stitutions of caste and the family. The minute subdivision of the people of India into hundreds or even thousands of endogamous subdivisions, many of which have but a comparatively small membership, has resulted in an interbreeding which has reduced the virility of the race. Caste is an almost insurmountable barrier to the creation of a true public spirit or to hearty cooperation be- tween the sections of society. The range of sym- pathy is narrowed, as a member of one caste has no feeling of obligation to assist a member of an- other caste. Millions, who are below even the lowest of castes, are condemned by the caste sys- tem to an existence which is too often unworthy of a human being and with no possibility of relief. Closely connected with the caste system is the in- stitution of child marriage, which has made pres- ent-day India the offspring of children, which puts on mere boys and girls the responsibilities of mar- riage, saps the vitality and ambition of the boy fathers, and prevents the education of the girl mothers. Racial deterioration and physical suf- 555 ASIA European Influences ASIA fering are other results of the prevailing marriage customs, while the position of widows and the joint-family system bring in their turn evils all their own. AH these evils are fully recognized by the leaders of the social-reform movement and one can read such condemnations by them of these customs as no foreigner would dare to make. Progress had been made, caste is in many respects disintegrating, and the agitation for raising the marriage age of girls, for the remarriage of wid- ows, especially child widows, and for intercaste marriages has not been without results, some of which are seen on the statute book. At the same time, the present nationalistic movement tends strongly toward a reactionary clinging to those insti- tutions which are peculiarly Indian, and the agita- tors are stronger in talking than in acting. . . . One of the social reforms most agitated in China is the natural-foot movement. So rapidly is this spread- ing, that the time may not be far distant when no girl in China will undergo the physical suf- fering, with its resulting disabilities, which come? from binding the feet. These movements mean also that woman is coming to her own. While, as has already been said, she has never been without her influence, yet she has too often been denied educa- tion and freedom to develop her own individu- ality. In India, the government, and the Chris- tian, Moslem, and Hindu communities are now all providing schools for girls, and educated young men are demanding educated wives, who can be real companions in their intellectual life and social work, as well as the mothers of their children. There is already a new woman in China, but, like all other pioneers, she tends to go to the extreme, and these new women are not always models Many of them are too bold, openly and brazenly defy all conventions of Chinese society, and do not always know where liberty ends and license be- gins. . . . "6. Ethical reform. — The ethical standards of the Orient have changed greatly under western in- fluence. It must be confessed at the outset that all western mfluence has not been ethically help- ful. The moral conditions of the port cities are a disgrace to that western civilization upon the rep- resentatives of which the chief responsibility rests There can be found in the bookstalls of Japan and Korea pictures and postcards of a sort all too familiar to us of the West, but which formerly Japan would never have tolerated outside of a brothel. Nearly every nation has its into.xicating beverages, but these are usually less injurious physically and morally than the strongest western liquors, which have been introduced into the Orient by westerners, and which those who imitate the foreigners are beginning to use, often to excess. Westerners are trying to drive out of China the Chinese pipe, which is used almost universally, and to substitute the cigarette. The effect is physically harmful and at the same time impover- ishing, a week's or at least a month's supply of cigarettes costing nearly as much as a year's sup- ply of tobacco for the Chinese pipe. On the other hand, it is undeniable that there has been a great ethical revival throughout the great nations of Asia. India has been going through a process of Louse-cleaning and the immorali- ties connected with religious ceremonies are be- ing reduced. Teachers devise sports to prevent their pupils from sharing in the ribaldry, if not shameless indecencies, connected with the great festival of Holt. . . . Many temple cars, with iheir obscene carvings, are now kept under cover when not in actual use. The marriage of girls to the gods an(f their condemnation to a life of prosti- tution is now under the ban. China is in the midst of its great anti-opium crusade, and it looks as if, within a reasonable time, the world would wit- ness, for the first time, the spectacle of a great nation curing itself of a habit which was tending to ruin it physically and ethically. Ethical stand- ards in Japan have been raised, although there are many discouraging features in the life of present- day Japan. But note this, the whole tone of pres- ent-day literature, including magazines and peri- odicals, is no longer Buddhistic but Christian. Ja- pan means so to readjust her customs and stand- ards that no western people can point at her a finger of scorn. In this whole matter of ethical reform, the chief difficulty is in the character of the leaders, some of whom are themselves faithless to the new standards. In other words, the great- est need of the Orient today is for a larger num- ber of intelligent leaders, unselfish and ethically sound, and for the spread of a spirit of enlightened progress through the ranks of the common people." — E. VJ. Capen. Sociological appraisal of western influence in the Orient (.American Journal of .Sociology, May. iQii. pp. 738-745). Chronology of the chief events in Asiatic his- tory. — It is among the Asiatics that we find the earliest known stratum of population, such as some of tribes of China and the Malay Archipelago, the V'eddahs of Ceylon and the .Ainus of Japan; but. outside of Babylonia and .As.syria. the authentic history of .^sia does not date back of 1500 B. C B. C. 4500-2000.— Babylonia, the ruling power in .Xsia. See B.abyloxw. B. C. 1500. — Chinese advance along the Hwang Ho; entrance of Aryans into India from the north- west. B. C. 1450-1300.— Height of Hittite power in Asia Minor ,ind Syria. See Hittites B. C. 10th century. — Jewish kingdom at its height, overcome by the .Assyrians. See .\ssvRi.*: Assyrian empire. B. C. 9th-8th centuries. — Assyria chief power in western .Asia. See .'\ssvRW B. C. 6th-5th centuries. — Rise of the Asiatic empire of Cyrus and its conflicts with the earliest European civilization (Greek) See Persi.'V: B C. S4Q-52I- B. C. 4th century. — .Alexander's conquest of western asia to the Indus river; marked influence of Greeco-Persian civilization on India and Asia Minor. See IxriiA: B.C. 327-312; Macedonia; B.C 334-330; B.C. 330-3^3- B. C. 264-227. — Empire of Asoka in India from Afghanistan to Madras. See India: B.C. 312. B. C. 250-A. D. 227.— Rule of the Parthians over Western .Asia. See Parthia, and the Par- thian EMPIRE. B. C. 200-A. D. 1127.— China a great Asiatic power under the Han, T'ang and Sung dynasties. See China: Origin, etc. B. C. 2nd century-A. D. 5th century.— Con- quest of the Romans over Hellenistic kingdoms of .Alexander; conflicts with rebellious Asiatic Mon- archs. See Rome; Republic; B.C. 211-202, to Rome: Empire; 404-408; Seleiioid.*;: B.C. 224- 187. A. D.- 3rd century-7th century. — Sassanids rule Persia and western .Asia as the Roman power declines See Persia: B.C. 150-A. D. 220; 220-627. 4th-6th centuries. — Invasion of Europe by Huns. Bulgarians and .Avars. See .Avars; Huns. 7th century. — Conquest by Mohammedans of many of the .Asiatic provinces under the Eastern Roman empire (Byzantine). See Caliphate: 632- 630, to 680, 7th-15th centuries. — .Arabia a prominent Asiatic state as the center of Mohammedan power; Arabs 556 ASIA ASIA MINOR in contact with Europe in Spain. See Arabia; Spain: 711-713, to 1031-1086. 8th century. — India invaded by the Moslems. lOth-llth centuries. — Seljuk Turlcs in Persia, Asia Minor and Palestine; Hindus in Indo China, later in Malaysia. See Turkey: 999-1183, to 1092- 1160. 1096-1272. — Crusades last medieval struggle be- tween Europe and Asia ; power of Mohammedan state in southwest Asia cut off the western world from Asia and deprived Europe of knowledge of .\sia. See Crusades. 1162-1227. — Rise of Mongol power under Jenghis Khan and its spread to the borders of Europe; Tibet nominally under the suzerainty of Jenghis Khan; spread of the Chinese to Siam. See Mon- golia: 1153-1227. 13th century. — The thirteenth century was marked by the power of the Mongol descendants of Jenghis Khan, and the conquests of Timur. See Mongolia: 1229-1294; 1238-1391. 1241. — Russia invaded by Batu and the Golden Horde; Silesia entered. See Russia: 1237-1294. 1259. — Kublai Khan, grandson of Jenghis, came into possession of China, Korea, Mongolia, Man- churia and Tibet; attempted to invade Japan (which has never been invaded) but was re- pulsed. See Mongolia: 1229-1294. 1281. — Argun who came into possession of the Mongolian dominions in Persia, Georgia, Armenia, Khorosan, etc., opened up diplomatic relations with Europe and proposed an alliance against the Mo- hammedan powers. 1299-1326.— Growing power of the Ottoman Turks within the confines of the Byzantine Empire. See Turkey: 1240-1326. 14th century. — Ming dynasty in China gained control and ruled 300 years; sent out far-reaching expeditions into neighboring states and Pacific islands; Ottoman Turks a menace to Europe. See China: i 294-1 736. 1453. — Ottoman Turks enter Europe. See Con- stantinople: 1453. Early 16th century.— Portuguese established fac- tories at Goa and Macao ; built up a littoral em- pire on coasts of India and China; traded with Japan. See Commerce: Era of geographic expan- sion: I5th-i7th centuries. 16th century. — Rise of modern European pow- ers and their commercial explorations brought Eu- rope into contact with Asia. See Commerce; Era of geographic expansion. 1526-1707. — Mogul domination in India; came from Transoxiana and seized Delhi; lasted nomi- nally to the mutiny of 1857. See India: 1399-1605, to 1747-1761. Later 16th century.— Dutch in the Indian Ocean and Pacific (India, East Indies and China). See Netherlands: 1594-1620. 1565. — Philippines taken by Spain. See Phil- ippine Islands: 1564-1572. 1580. — Siberia invaded by Russians under the Cossack Yermak. See Siberia: 1578-1890. 1592. — Korea taken by Japan. See Japan: boo- 1853- 1603-1868. — No foreign contact with Japan ex- cept through Dutch under restrictions. See Japan: 1542-1,593; 1593-1625. 1627. — Manchus capture Korea. See Korea. 1644-1912. — Manchus overcame the Mings; ruled China to the Revolution of 1912. See China: 1662- 1838, to 1912. 17th century.— Rivalry of the Dutch and Eng- lish for possession of India; English successful. See India: 1600-1702. 1745-1761.— Wars between French and English for possession of India; English successful. See In- dia: 1743-1752. 1840-1842.— English forced China to open her ports to trade. See China: 1839-1844. 1854-1859. — Japan opened to European trade; Japanese set themselves to assimilate Western civ- ilization. See Japan: 1797-1854. 1895. — China defeated by Japan ; Korea taken. See China: 1894-1895. 1905. — Russia defeated by Japan; first instance in modern history where an Asiatic power has competed on equal terms with a European power. See Japan: 1902-1905; 1905-1914. For a detailed treatment of the historical de- velopment of the various countries in .\sia, see under names of countries, e.g., China, India, etc. Also in: N. Prjevalski, Explorations in Asia. — R. Temple, Central plateau oj Asia.—]. T. Walker, Asiatic explorers of the Indian survey.— S. Beal, Buddhist records of the western world. — C. Doughty, Travels in Arabia Deserta. — A. Carey, Explorations in Turkestan. — C. Yate, Northern Afghanistan. — F. Younghusband, Heart of a con- tinent; Journey through Manchuria. — W. W. Rockhill, Land of the Lamas. — N. Elias and Ross, History of the Moguls of Central Asia.—S. Hedin, Central Asia and Tibet. — P. M. Sykes, Ten thou- sand miles in Persia. — W. Hunter, History of Brit- ish India. — A. Little, Far East. — A. Durand, Making a frontier. — C. McL. Andrews, Contemporary Asia and Africa. — G. N. Curzon, Problems of the Far East. — H. Norman, Peoples and politics of the Far East. — h.. R. Colquhoun, Russia against India. —A. T. Mahan, Problem of Asia.—U. G. Wells, Outline of History. ASIA, Eastern. — Common elements in myth- ology. Sec Mythology: Eastern Asia: Indian and Chinese influences. ASIA, Masonic societies in. See Masonic so- cieties: .^sia, Persia and India. ASIA, Roman province (so called). — "As originally constituted, it corresponded to the do- minions of the kings of Pergamus . . . left by the will of .'\ttalus III to the Roman people 133 B. C. ... It included the whole of Mysia and Lydia, with .^iolis, Ionia and Caria, except a small part which was subject to Rhodes, and the greater part, if not the whole, of Phrygian A portion of the last region, however, was detached from it." — E. H. Bunbury, History of ancient geography, ch. 20, sect. I. — See also Cilicia. ASIA MINOR: Name.— Geographical and physical characteristics. — "The name of Asia Minor, so famihar to the student of ancient geog- raphy, was not in use either among Greek or Ro- man writers until a very late period. Orosius, who wrote in the fifth century after the Christian era, is the first extant writer who employs the term in its modern sense." — E. H. Bunbury, History of an- cient geography, ch. 7, sect. 2. — The name Anatolia, which is of Greek origin, synonymous with "The Levant," signifying "The Sunrise," came into use among the Byzantines, about the loth century, and was adopted by their successors, the Turks. — "The western portion of Asia Minor was known in the lime of the Byzantine Empire, as Anatolia (the land of 'the rising sun'), and the term was used to distinguish the peninsular portion of Asia from continental Asia. From East to West paral- lel with the Black Sea and the Mediterranean run two ranges of mountains at no great dis- tance from the seas. Between them lies the great elevated table-land plateau from 2,500 to 4,500 feet high, broken up by other mountains which give a peculiar character to the whole country, making it difficult of access, and tend- ing to keep it what it has been from the very 557 ASIA MINOR, B. C. 1500-1400 ASIA MINOR, B. C. 1100 dawn of history, a pastoral country, inhabited by a people in the main nomad, lawless, and in- tractable. The southernmost range of mountains are known as the Taurus and the Anti-Taurus, of which the highest point is the Akjah-Dagh (11,000 feet). Till very recent times, these moun- tains and the country generally were little known. They form the south and south-west boundary of the six Vilayets or provinces which are known as Armenia, and it is in their most northerly reaches that the great rivers Euphrates and Tigris take their rise. 'Both branches of the Eu- phrates,' says Lynch, 'wind their way by immense stages at the foot of thesa mountains, in the lap of these plains; the eastern branch, called Murad Su, rising . . . near the base of the Ararat sys- tem, and traversing Armenia almost from one extremity to the other. The more westerly chan- nel is composed in its infancy by two streams . . . one . . . flowing sluggishly through the plain of Erzeroura; the other springing in the neigh- bourhood of the sources of the Chorokh. The Kelkid and Chorokh are both in their upper courses typical Armenian rivers. What a con- trast,' he concludes, 'between this wealth of wa- ter, many of which might be rendered navigable, and the hopeless sterility of great parts of Persia, from which no river finds its way to the ocean!' "It is the mountain systems and the numerous and fertilising rivers which give to Asia Minor its striking beauty, its salubriousness, its wealth, and its extraordinary economic promise. 'There is nothing needed,' Lynch declares, 'but less per- versity on the part of the human animal to convert Armenia into an almost ideal nursery of his race. The strong highland air, the rigorous but bracing winters, and the summers when the nights are always cool; a southern sun, great rivers, immense tracts of agricultural soil, an abundance of minerals — such blessings and subtle properties are calculated to develop the fibre in man, foster with material sufficiency the growth of his winged mind and cause it to expand like a flower in a generous light. One feels that for various reasons outside inherent qualities, this land has never enjoyed at any period of history the fulness of opportunity. And one awaits her future with expectant interest.' The country which is known as Armenia lies in the extreme east of the peninsula, south of the Black Sea and of the Caucasus." — VV. L. Williams, Armenia, past and present, pp. 4-6. — See also Asia: Influ- ence of geography on the political problems ; Tur- key: Map of Asia Minor. Earlier kingdoms and people. See Phrygians AND MvsiANs; Lydians; Carians; Lycians; BiTHYNIANS; PaPHLAGONIANS ; MlTHRADATIC WARS; Isaurians; Galatia, Galatians; Lucians; Troy; Dorians and Ionians; etc. B. C. 1500-1400. — Relations with Egypt. See Egypt: About B.C. 1500-1400. B.C. 1100. — Greek colonies. — "The tumult . . . caused by the irruption of the Thesprotians into Thessaly and the displacement of the population of Greece [see Greece: Migrations to .^sia Minor and islands of the ^^gean] did not subside within the limits of the peninsula. From the north and the south those inhabitants who were unable to maintain their ground against the incursions of the Thessalians, Arnaeans, or Dorians, and pre- ferred exile to submission, sought new homes in the islands of the /Egean and on the western coast of Asia Minor. The migrations continued for several generations. When at length they came to an end, and the Anatolian coast from Mount Ida to the Triopian headland, with the adjacent islands, was in the possession of the Greeks, three great divisions or tribes were dis- tinguished in the new settlements: Dorians, Ioni- ans, and Aeolians. In spite of the presence of some alien elements, the Dorians and Ionians of Asia Minor were the same tribes as the Dorians and Ionians of Greece. The Aeolians, on the other hand, were a composite tribe, as their name implies. ... Of these three divisions the Aeolians lay farthest to the north. The precise Umits of their territory were differently fixed by differ- ent authorities. . . . The Aeolic cities fell into two groups: a northern, of which Lesbos was the centre, and a southern, composed of the cities in the immediate neighbourhood of the Hermus, and founded from Cyme. . . . The north- ern group included the islands of Tenedos and Lesbos. In the latter there were originally six cities: Methymna, Mytilene, Pyrrha, Eresus, Arisba, and Antissa, but Arisba was subsequently conquered and enslaved by Mytilene. . . . The second great stream of migration proceeded from Athens [after the death of Codrus — according to Greek tradition, the younger sons of Codrus lead- ing these Ionian colonists across the ^gean, first to the Carian city of Miletus — [see Miletus] — which they captured, and then to the conquest of Ephesus and the island of Samos]. . . . The colonies spread until a dodecapolis was estab- lished, similar to the union which the Ionians had founded in their old settlements on the north- ern shore of Peloponnesus. In some cities the Ionian population formed a minority. . . . The colonisation of Ionia was undoubtedly, in the main, an achievement of emigrants from Attica, but it was not accomplished by a single family, or in the space of one life-time. . . . The two most famous of the Ionian cities were Miletus and Ephesus. The first was a Carian city previously known as Anactoria. . . . Ephesus was originally in the hands of the Lelcges and the Lydians, who were driven out by the Ionians under Androclus. The ancient sanctuary of the tutelary goddess of the place was transformed by the Greeks into a temple of Artemis, who was here worshipped as the goddess of birth and productivity in accordance with Oriental rather than Hellenic ideas." The remaining Ionic cities and islands were Myus (named from the mosquitoes which infested it, and which finally drove the colony to abandon it), Priene, Erythrae, Clazomenae, Teos, Phocaea, Colophon, Lebedus, Samos and Chios. "Chios was first inhabited by Cretans . . . and subsequently by Carians. ... Of the manner in which Chios became connected with the Ionians the Chians could give no clear account. . . . The southern part of the Anatolian coast, and the southern- most islands in the ^-Egean were colonised by the Dorians, who wrested them from the Phoenician or Carian occupants. Of the islands, Crete is the most important. . . . Crete was one of the old- est centres of civilisation in the i^gean [see Crete; and ^gean civilization]. . . . The Dor- ian colony in Rhodes, like that in Crete, was ascribed to the band which left Argos under the command of Althaemenes. . . . Other islands colonised by the Dorians were Thera, . . . Melos, . . . Carpathus, Calydnae, Nisyrus, and Cos. . . . From the islands, the Dorians spread to the main- land. The peninsula of Cnidus was perhaps the first settlement. . . . Halicarnassus was founded from Troezen, and the Ionian element must have been considerable. ... Of the Dorian cities, six united in the common worship of Apollo on the headland of Triopium. These were Lindus, lalysus, and Camirus in Rhodes, Cos, and, on the mainland, Halicarnassus and Cnidus. . . . The ter- ritory which the Aeolians acquired is described 558 ASIA MINOR, B. C. 724-539 ASIA MINOR, B. C. 192-189 by Herodotus as more fertile than that occupied by the lonians, but of a less excellent climate. It was inhabited by a number of tribes, among Which the Troes or Teucri were the chief. . . . In Homer the inhabitants of the city of the Troad are Dardani or Troes, and the name Teucri does not occur. In historical times the Gergithes, who dwelt in the town of the same name . . . near Lampsacus, and also formed the subject population of Miletus, were the only remnants of this once famous nation. But their former great- ness was attested by the Homeric poems, and the occurrence of the name Gergithians at various places in the Troad [see Troy]. To this tribe belonged the Troy of the Grecian epic, the site of which, so far as it represents any historical city, is fixed at Hissarlik. In the Iliad the Trojan empire extends from the Aesepus to the Caicus; it was divided — or, at least, later his- torians speak of it as divided — into principali- ties which recognised Priam as their chief. But the Homeric descriptions of the city and its emi- nence are not to be taken as historically true. Whatever the power and civilisation of the ancient stronghold exhumed by Dr. Schliemann may have been, it was necessary for the epic poet to represent Priam and his nation as a dan- gerous rival in wealth and arms to the great kings of Mycenae and Sparta. . . . The tradi- tional dates fix these colonies [of the Greeks in Asia Minor] in the generations which followed the Trojan war. . . . We may suppose that the colonisation of the JE^can and of Asia Minor by the Greeks was coincident with the expulsion of the Phoenicians. The greatest extension of the Phoenician power in the ^^Lgean seems to fall in the 15th century B.C. From the 13th it was gradually on the decline, and the Greeks were enabled to secure the trade for themselves. . . . By HOC B.C. Asia Minor may have been in the hands of the Greeks, though the Phoenicians still maintained themselves in Rhodes and Cyprus. But all attempts at chronology are illusory." — E. Abbott, History of Greece, v. i, ch. 4.— See also Miletus; Phoc.ians. Also in: E. Curtius, History of Greece, bk. 2, V. I, ch. 3. — G. Grote, History of Greece, pt. 2, ch. 13-15. — J. A. Cramer, Geographical and his- torical description of Asia Minor, v. i, sect. 6. B. C. 724-539. — Prosperity of the Greek col- onies.— Their submission to Croesus, king of Lydia, and their conquest and annexation to reduce these states were unavailing. At length (Ol. SS) [568 B.C.] the celebrated Croesus mounted the throne of Lydia, and he made all Asia this side of the River Halys (Lycia and Cilicia excepted) acknowledge his dominion. The Aeolian, Ionian and Dorian cities of the coast all paid him tribute ; but, according to the usual rule of eastern conquerors, he meddled not with their political institutions, and they might deem themselves fortunate in being insured against war by the payment of an annual sura of money. Croesus, moreover, cultivated the friendship of the European Greeks." But Crcrsus was over- thrown, 554 B.C., by the conquering Cyrus and his kingdom of Lydia was swallowed up in the great Persian empire then taking form [see Persia: B.C. 549-531] Cyrus, during his war with Croesus, had tried to entice the lonians away from the latter and win them to an alliance with himself. But they incurred his resentment by refusing. "They and the /^iolians now sent ambassadors, praying to be received to submis- sion on the same terms as those on which they had obeyed the Lydian monarch; but the Mile- sians alone found favour: the rest had to prepare for war. They repaired the walls of their towns, and sent to Sparta for aid. Aid, however, was refused; but Cyrus, being called away by the war with Babylon, neglected them for the pres- ent. Three years afterwards (01. SQ. 2). Harpa- gus, who had saved Cyrus in his infancy from his grandfather Astyages, came as governor of Lydia. He instantly prepared to reduce the cities of the coast. Town after town submitted. The Teians abandoned theirs, and retired to Abdera in Thrace; the Phocsans, getting on shipboard, and vowing never to return, sailed for Corsica, and being there harassed by the Carthagenians and Tyrrhenians, they went to Rhegion in Italy, and at length founded Massalia (Marseilles) on the coast of Gaul. The Grecian colonies thus became a part of the Persian empire."— -T. Keightley, His- tory of Greece, pt. i, ch. 9. Also in: Herodotus, History (tr. and ed. by G. Rawlinson), bk. i, and app.—M. Duncker, His- torv of antiquilv, bk. 8, v. 6, ch. 6-7. B. C. 501-493. — The Ionian revolt and us suppressions. See Persia: B. C. 521-493- B. C. 477.— Formation of Confederacy or Delos. See Greece: B. C. 478-477- B. C. 413. — Tribute again demanded from the Greeks by the Persian king.— Conspiracy the Persian empire.— "The Grecian colonies on aeainst Athens. See Greece: B. C. 413 the coast of Asia early rose to wealth by means of trade and manufactures. Though we have not the means of tracing their commerce, we know that it was considerable, with the mother coun- try, with Italy, and at length Spain, with Phoenicia and the interior of Asia, whence the productions B. C. 413-412.— Revolt of the Greek cities from Athens.— Intrigues of Alcibiades. See Greece: B. C. 413-412. . B. C. 412.— Re-submission to Persia. See Per- sia: B. C. 486-405. B. C. 401-400. — Expedition of Cyrus the of India passed to Greece. The Milesians, who youneer and retreat of the Ten Thousand. See had fine woolen manufactures, extended their com merce to the Euxine, on all sides of which they founded factories, and exchanged their manu- factures and other goods with the Scythians and the neighbouring peoples, for slaves, wool, raw hides, bees-wax, flax, hemp, pitch, etc. There is even reason to suppose that, by means of caravans, their traders bartered their wares not far from the confines of China [see Miletus]. . . . But while they were advancing in wealth and pros- perity, a powerful monarchy formed itself in Lydia, of which the capital was Sardes, a city at the foot of Mount Tmolus." Gygcs, the first of the Mermnad dynasty of Lydian kings (see Lydians), whose reign is supposed to have begun about 724 B. C, "turned his arms against the Ionian cities on the coast. During a century and a half the efforts of the Lydian monarchs to Persia: B. C. 401-400. B. C. 399-387. — Spartan war with Persia on behalf of the Greek cities.— Their abandonment by the Peace of Antalcidas. See Greece: B. C. 399-387. B. C. 363. — Mithradatic wars. — Kingdom of Pontus. See Mithradatic wars. B. C. 334. — Conquest by Alexander the Great. See MACEnoNiA: B. C. 334-330. B. C. 301. — Largely annexed to the Thracian kingdom of Lysimachus. See Macedonia, &c.: B. C. 310-301. B. C. 281-224. — Battle-ground of the warring monarchies of Syria and Egypt.— Changes of masters. See Seleucid.«. B. C. 192-189. — Conquest by Rome. See Rome: Republic: B. C. 192-189- 559 ASIA MINOR, B.C. 191 B C. 191.— First entrance of the Romans.— Their defeat of Antiochus the Great.— Their ex- pansion of the kingdom of Pergamum and the republic of Rhodes. See Seleucid.e: B. C. 224- 18? B. C. 133. — Further conquest by Rome. See Rome: Republic: B. C 171-167. B C 120-65.— Mithradates.— Complete Ro- man conquests. See Mithrad.^tic Wars; and Rome: Republic: B. C. 78-68. 60-63. A D. 33-52.— Rise of Christian churches.— Paul's teachings. See Christianity: .\.T>. 33-S2; ^^29°!— Diocletian's seat of empire established at Nicomedia. See Rome: Empire: 284-305. 602-628.— Persian invasions.— Deliverance by Heraclius. See Rome: Medieval City: 565-628^ 1063- 1092.— Conquest and ruin by the 6el]UK Turks See Turkey: 1063-1073; 1073-10Q2. 1097-1149— Wars of the Crusaders. See Cru- sades: 10Q6-10Q9; 1147-1149; and Military aspect of the crusades. _ 1204-1261.— Empire of Nicaa and the empire of Trebizond. See Nic.?:a, Greek empire of. 1261-1453.— Abandoned to Turks. See Con- stantinople: 1261-1453- 1453-1878. — Turkish control in Armenia. — Capture of Trebizond. See .\rmenia: 1453- 1878 1481-1520.— Conquest of Mameluke sultans by Turkey. See Turkey: 1481-1520- 1623-1640. — Persian war with Turkey. — Ar- menia subjugated by Persia and regained by Turkey. See Turkey: 1623-1640. 1831-1840.— Siege and capture of Acre by Me- hemet Ali. See Turkey: 1831-1840. 1890-1893.— Armenian troubles with Turkey. See Turkey: 1800-1893. 1894-1895.— Armenian massacres by Turkey. See Turkey: 1804-1805. 1896 (August), and 1899 (October).— Ar- menian and Turkish troubles. See Turkey: i8q6 (.\uKUSt); and iSgq (October). 1899-1916. — German interests.— Berlin to Bag- dad railway. See Bagdad Railway; Germany: iqi2: Balkan and Asia Minor interests; Turkey: 1QIS-IQ16; World War: Diplomatic background: 71, xvi. . 1903-1904.— Incursions of Armenian revolu- tionists into Asiatic Turkey. See Turkey: 1903- 1Q04. 1903-1907. — Revolutionary plan of Young Turks and cooperation with Armenians. See Turkey: 1Q03-1Q07. 1909. — Massacre of Armenians in Adana. See Turkey: igoq. 1914-1918. — Dardanelles campaign in the World War. See Bosporus: 1914-1918. 1915-1916. — Turkish interests. See Turkey: I9I5-I9I6. . . o C 1919. — Greek occupation of Smyrna. aee Greece: 1919. 1919.— Revolt stirred up by Kemal Pasha. See Sevres, treaty or: 1920; Contents of treaty. 1919-1920. — Interests of Russia and Turkey in Armenia.— President Wilson's attitude on boundary dispute. See Armenia: igiq-iqio; 1920. 1920.— Treaty of England, France and Italy regarding Anatolia. See Sevres, treaty of: 1920 (August 10). 1920.— Italy's interest. See Italy: 1920. 1920. — French mandate for Syria. See Syria: 1908-1921. 1920-1921. — War between Turkish National- ists and Greece over provisions of Treaty of ASPERN Sevres. See Sevres, Treaty of: 1921: Near East conference; Greece: 1020; 192 1. 1921.— Negotiations of Turkey and Italy re- garding Anatolia. See Sevres, treaty of: 1921; Italv's pact with Kemalist Turks. ASIAGO, a town of Italy, province of Vicenza, chief place of the district known as "The Seven Communes" (sette communi) ; the population is largelv of German descent. The town gives its name to the high ground in the neighbor- hood and the .^siago plateau was the theater of some of the niost si:vere fighting on the .\u5tro- Italian front in the World War. See World War: 1916: IV. .\u5tro-Italian front: b, 2; b, 4; 1917: IV. ,\ustro-Italian front: b; d; e; e, 7; 1918: IV .\ustro-Italian theater: b, 1; b, 6; c, 2; c, 8. ASIATIC EXCLUSION LEAGUE (1005), California. See California: 1900-1020. ASIATIC IMMIGRATION: Resistance to it in South Africa, Australia, America, and else- where. See R.\CE problems; and Immigration and Emigration: Australia: 1909-1921; Canada: 1020; and United States: 1862-1913; Labor legis- lation: 1864-1020. ASIENTO, or Assiento, a Spanish word meaning contract; applied specifically to agree- ments made by Spain giving subjects of other powers the exclusive privilege of furnishing negro slaves and a limited quantity of manufactured goods to the Spanish colonies in America. The Asiento treaty of 1713 was one of the conventions of the Peace' of Utrecht and gave the monopoly to the English for thirty years. See Aix-la- Ciiapelle, " Congress of; Engl.and: i739- 1741; Georgia: 1738-1743; Slavery: 1698-1776; Utrecht: 1712-1714. ASIENTO TREATY: Relation to slave trade. See America: i 720-1 744- ASINELLO ISLAND, North Adriatic, prom- ised to Italy by Treaty of London (1915)- See London, Treaty- or Pact of. ASIR. See Arabia: Political divisions; also Map. , ASKARIS V'asker". Turkish word for sol- dier"), native East African troops in German service during the World War. ASKE, Robert, executed iS37; leader ot the Yorkshire insurrection called the "Pilgrimage of Grace." ASKELON. SeeAscALON; Philistines. ASKLEPIADS. See Asclepiad.e. ASMONEANS. See Jews: B. C. 166-40. ASOKA, emperor of India, 294-227 B.C. He is famous as the great patron of Buddhism. He convoked great councils for the establishment of the unity of the faith, and made Buddhism the state religion— See also Buddha; Buddhism: Early spread of teaching; India: B.C. 312. King of Magadha. — Introduction of Buddhism to Ceylon. Sec Ceylon: Earliest history. ASOKAN (Ashokan) RESERVOIR. See .\queducts. ASOLONE, Mount, the scene during the World War of a protracted struggle on the .\ustro- Italian front between the Piave and Brenta rivers. See World W.\r: 1918: IV. .\ustro-Italian theater: c, 3; c, 5. ASOV. See Azov. ASPASIA, born 440 B.C.; celebrated mistress of Pericles; her house became the center of liter- ary and philosophical society of Athens; the Samian and Peloponnesian wars are ascribed in part to her influence. ASPERN, a village in Austria, on the left bank of the Danube, five miles northeast of Vienna; in the summer of 1809, the scene of the defeat of the French army under Napoleon I by 560 ASPHYXIATING GASES ASSASSINATIONS the Austrians under Archduke Charles in battle of Aspern-Essling (or the Marchfeld). See Ger- many: 1809 (Januarv-Tune). ASPHYXIATING AND POISONOUS GASES AND SHELLS IN WARFARE. See Poison gas. ASPROMONTE, Defeat of Garibaldi at (1862). See Italy: 1862-1866. ASPROPOTAMO, modern name for Achelous. See Achelous. ASQUITH, Herbert Henry (1852- ), British statesman. Home secretary in Gladstone's last ministry, 1892-1804, and Rosebery's ministry, 1894- 1895; chancellor of the exchequer, 1905-1908; prime minister, 1008-1916; in 1915 he formed a coalition cabinet, but was forced to resign in favor of David Lloyd George in December, 1916. — See also England: 1008 (April) ; 191 6 (Decem- ber) ; Ireland: 1914-1916; and Liberal party: 1906-1918; War, Preparation for: 1909; British navy war council. Hia surroundings and life. See World War: Diplomatic background,: 71, xxi. On the importance of the Defense Committee. See War, Preparation for: 1907-1909: British army reorganization. On the rejection of the licensing bill by the House of Lords. See Liqltor Problem: England: 1908. On the budget of 1909. See England: 1909 (April-Dec). Dreadnaught debate for 1909. See War, Prep- aration for: 1000-1913. His speech at the Imperial press conference. See British Empire: Colonial and Imperial con- ference: igog (June). Desires for reform in Suffrage. See Suffrage, Manhood: British Empire: 1910-1918; Suffrage, Woman: England: i9o6-ic>i4. Speech on the Fryatt case. See World War: 1916: IX. Naval operations: d. HisT resignation. See World War: 1916: XII. Political conditions in the belligerent countries: f. ASSAM, a province of British India near Ben- gal, with which it was uni,ted. in 1905 under the title Eastern Bengal and Assam. (See India: 190S-1910; also Map.) For the English acquisi- tion of .^ssam, see India,: 1S2V1833. ASSANDUN, Battle of.— The sixth and last battle. 1016, between Edmund Ironsides, the English King, and his Danish rival. Cnut, or Canute, for the cro.wn of England. The English were terribJy defeated and the flower of their nobility perished on the field. The result was a division of the kingdom ; but Edmund soon died, or was killeid Ashington, in Essex, was the battle-ground. ASSASSINATIONS.— Of the poUticaL assassi- nations, many of which had a great influence upon the historj' of a country, the most important are the following: Abbas Pasha, of Egypt. See Egypt: 18,10-1869. Abdul Aziz, Sultan. Sec Turkey: 1861-1876. Albert I, German king. See .Austria: 1291-1349. Alexander, King, and Queen Draga. See Serbia: 1S85-1903. Alexander II. Sec Russia: 1879-1S81. AH, Caliph. See Caliphate: 66 i. Ali Akbar ^han, the Atabek Azam, in Persia (1907). Ashutosh Biswas, in India (Feb. 10, 1909). Barrios, President. See Guatemala: 1885-1898. Beaton, Cardinal. See Scotland: 1546. Becket, Thomas a.. See England: 1162-1170. Beckman, General. See Denmark: 1909 (June). Bobrikov, Governor-general. See Finland: 1904. Bogoliepov, in Russia (Feb. 27, 1901). Boniface, St See Christianity: 496-800. Borda, President of Uruguay. See Uruguay: 1821-1905. Boutros, Prime Minister of Egypt. See Egypt: iqii-1014. Buckingham, Duke of. See England: 1628. Caceres, President. See Santo Domingo: 1911. Cassar, Julius. See Rome: Republic: B.C. 44. Canalejas, Premier. See Spain: 1910-1914. Canovas del Castillo. See Spain: 1897 (August-October). Capo d'Istria, Count, president of Greece. See Greece: 1830-1862. Carlos, King, and Crown Prince Luiz Felipe. See Portugal: 1906-1909. Carnot, President. See Anarchism: 1894 (June 24) ; France: 1804-1895, Carranza, Venustiano, President. See Mexi- co: 1920 (May). Cavendish, Lord Frederick, and T. H. Burke. See Ireland: 1882. Charles III, Duke of Parma (1854). Concini. See France: 1610-1619. Curzon-Wyllie, Sir William H.,. in London (July, 1909). Danilo, Prince of Montenegro (i860). See Montenegro: 1389-1869. Dato, premier of Spain.. See Spain: 1921. Darboy, Archbishop,_ in Commune (1S71), Darnley, Lord. See Scotland: 1561-1568. Delyannis, Premier. See Greece: 1905. Droubi Pasha, Syrian Premier, near Haifa, Syria, August 20, 1920. Eichhorn, von. Field Marshal, of Germany (191S). Eisner, Kurt, Premier (Feb. 21, igig). See Bavaria: 1918-iqio. Elizabeth, Empress of Austria and Queen of Hungary. See Austria-Hungary: i8qS (Septem- ber). Ellsworth, Captain. Sec U. S. A.: 1861 (May: Virginia). Essad Pasha. See Albania: 1920 (June 13), Falcon, Colonel. See Argentina: 1909. Fehim Pasha. See Tukkey: 1909 (May- December). Franz Ferdinand, Archduke, of Austria- Hungary, and his wife. See Austria-Hungary: 1014 (June); Serajevo: 1914; Serbia: 1914; World War: Causes: Indirect: a. Francis of Guise. See France: 1560-1563, Gallienus, Publius Licinius, Roman emperor. See Milan: 268. Gar&eld, President. See U. S, A,: 1881. George I, King of Greece. See Greece: 1913. Goebel, Governor. See Kentucky: 1895-1900. Gustavus III,, of Sweden. See Sweden: 1720- 1792, Haase, Hugo. See Haase. Habibullah Khan, Amir. See Afghanistan: 1919. Harrison, Mayor of Chicago (1893). Henry of Guise. See France: 1584-1589. Henry III of France. See France: 1584-1589. Henry IV of France. See France: 1599-1610. Heureaux, President. See Santo Domingo: 1899. Hipparchus. See Athen: B.C. 560-510. Humbert, King. See Italy; 1870-1901; and 1899-1900; Rome: Modern City. — 1871-1907. Ignatiev, Alexei, Count, in Russia (1906). Ito, Prince of Japan (October, 1909). 561 ASSASSINATIONS ASSASSINS James I. See Scotland: 1437. Jaures, Jean. See France: 1914 (August- September). John, Duke of Burgundy. See France: 1415- 1419. Karpofi, Colonel, in Russia (December, looq). Kleber, General. See France: 1800 (January- June). Kotzebue. See Germany: 1817-1820. Liebknecht, Karl. See Germany: 1919 (Jan- uary). Lamberg. See Hungary: 1847-1849. Latour, Hungarian Minister. See Hungary: 1847-1849. Lincoln, President. See U. S. A.: i85i (Febru- ary-March) ; and 1S6S (April 14). Luxemburg, Rosa. See Germany: 1919 (January). McKinley, President. See McKinley, Wil- liam: iQOi; and U.S. A.: 1901 (September). Madero, President. See Mexico: 1910-1913. Marat. See France: 1793 (July). Mayo, Lord. See India; 1864-1893. Michael, prince of Serbia. See Seicia: 181 7- 1875- Mihaileano, Professor. See Balkan States: 1899-1901. Min, General, in Russia (August, 1906). Mirbach, Count von, of Germany (1918). Murray, Earl of, Regent of Scotland (1570). See Scotland: 1561-1508. Nasr-ed-din, shah of Persia. See Persia: 1896. Nicholas II, ex-tsar of Russia. See Russia: 1918. Omar, Caliph. See Caliphate: 661. Omar II, Caliph. See Caliphate: 644. Paes, President. See Portugal: 19x9. Paul, Czar of Russia. See Russia: 1801. Pavlov, General, in Russia (1907). Perceval, Spencer. See England: 1806-1812. Peter III. See Russia: 1761-1762. Philip of Macedon. See Greece: B. C. 357-336. Plehve, V. K. See Russla: 1902-1904. Potocki, Polish Count. See Poland: 1867- 1910; Ukraine: 1S40-1914. Prim, General (1870). See Sp.ain: 1868-1873. Rasputin. See Russia: 1916-1917. Rizzio. See Scotland: 1561-1568. Rossi, Count. See Italy: 1848-1849. Sakharov, General. See Russia: 1909-1911. Shuvalov. See Russia: 1905 (.\pr.-Nov.). Sergius, Grand Duke. See Russia: 1905 (January). Shevket Pasha. See Turkey: 1914: Turkey at the outbreak of the World War. Sipiaguin (Sipiaghin). See Russia: 1900-1901. Stambulov. See Bulgaria: 189S-1S96. Steunenburg, ex-governor of Idaho. See Labor: Organization: U. S. A.: 1899-1907. Stevens, D. W., in Korea. Stilicho, Flavins. See B.\rbarian invasions: 395-408. Stolypin, Premier. See Russia: 1909-1911. Stiirgkh, Count, Premier. See Austrh-Hun- Gary: 191 6: Legislative standstill; World War: 1916: XII. PoUtical conditions in the belligerent countries: g. Sung Chias-jeu, Revolutionary leader. See China: 1913. Tisza, Count. See .Austria-Hungary: 1918, and Hungary: 1918 (November). Wallenstein (1634) See Germany: 1632-1634. William the Silent. See Netherlands: 1581- 1584- Witt, John, and Cornelius de. See Nether- lands: 1672-1674. ASSASSINS, a secret order developed from one of the Islamic sects, but ultimately rejecting the Koran and all Mohammedan teachings. It was founded about 1090 by Hassan Sabbah, a discontented politician, in the fortress of Alamut, Persia, and lor more than 150 years terrorized surrounding peoples by its system ot secret murder. (See also CARiiATiiiANS.) It vifas practically de- stroyed in 1255 by a Mongol army, led by Hulagu, though some fragments are said to be in existence. The name was derived from hashishin, or hemp- eaters, referring to the practice of stupefying the members of the order with a drug derived from hemp, the intoxicating fumes of which created fantastic dreams, which were explained as a fore- taste of the paradisal joys awaiting those who obeyed blindly the commands of the heads of the order. "I must speak ... of that wonderful brotherhood of the Assassins, which during the 12th and 13th centuries spread such terror through all Asia, Mussulman and Christian. Their deeds should be studied in \on Hammer's history of their order, of which however there is an excel- lent analysis in Taylor's History of Moham- medanism. The word Assassin, it must be re- membered, in its ordinary signification, is de- rived from this order, and not the reverse. The Assassins were not so called because they were murderers, but murderers are called assassins be- cause the Assassins were murderers. The origin of the word .Assassin has been much disputed by oriental scholars; but its application is suffi- ciently written upon the Asiatic history of the 12th century. The Assassins were not, strictly speaking, a dynasty, but rather an order, like the Templars; only the office of Gr.ind-Mastcr, like the Caliphate, became hereditary. They were originally a branch of the Egyptian Ishmaelites [see Caliphate: 908-1171] and at first professed the principles of that sect. But there can be no doubt that their inner doctrine became at last a mere negation of all religion and all mor- ality. 'To believe nothing and to dare every- thing' was the summary of their teaching. Their esoteric principle, addressed to the non-initiated members of the order, was simple blind obedience to the will of their superiors. If the -Assassin was ordered to take off a Caliph or a Sultan by the dagger or the bowl, the deed was done; if he was ordered to throw himself from the rampants, the deed was done likewise. . . . Their founder was Hassan Sabah, who, in 1090, shortly before the death of Malek Shah, seized the castle of Alaraout — the Vulture's nest — in northern Per- sia, whence they extended their possessions over a whole chain of mountain fortresses in that coun- try and in Syria. The Grand-Master was the Sheikh-al-Jebal, the famous Old Man of the Mountain, at whose name Europe and Asia shuddered." — E, A. Freeman, History and con- quests of the Saracens, lect. 4. — "In the Fatimide Khalif of Egypt, they [the .Assassins, or Ismailiens of Syria and Persia] beheld an incarnate deity. To kill his enemies, in whatever way they best could, was an action, the merit of which could not be disputed, and the reward for which was certain." Hassan Sabbah, the founder of the Order, died at Alamut 11 24. "From the day he en- tered Alamut until that of his death — a period of thirty-five years — he never emerged, but upon two occasions, from the seclusion of bis house. Pitiless and inscrutable as Destiny, he watched the troubled world of Oriental politics, himself invisible, and whenever he perceived a formida- ble foe, caused a dagger to be driven into his heart." It was not until more than a century after the death of its founder that the fearful 562 ASSAYE ASSIZES organization of the Assassins was extinguished (1257) by the same flood of IVIongol invasion which swept Bagdad and the Caliphate out of existence.— R. D. Osborn, Isham under the Khalifs of Bagdad, pt. 3, ch. 3.— W. C. Taylor, History of Mohammedanism and its sects, ch. 9. — The Assassins were rooted out from all their strong- holds in Kuhistan and the neighboring region, and were practically exterminated, in 1257, by the Mongols under Hulagu or Khulagu, or Houla- gou, brother of Mongu. Khan, the great sovereign of the Mongol empire, then reigning. Alamut, the Vulture's Nest, was demolished.— H. H. Howorth, History o'f the Mongols, part i, p. 193; and part 3, pp. 31-108. See Bagdad: 1258. ASSAYE, a small village in southern India, in 1803 the scene of the victory of Major-General Wellesley (later the Duke of Wellington) over a large Indian force. See India: 1798-1805. ASSEMBLY: Athenian. See Athens: B.C. 461-431; Periclean democracy; Suffrage, Man- hood: B.,C. 5th century. Early English. See Suffrage, Manhood: British Empire: 500-1295. German tribal. — Voting. See Suffrage, Man- hood: A, D. I St century. Irish (Dail Eireann). See Ireland: 1919. Northmen. See Thing-Thingvalla-Althing. ASSEMBLY GOVERNMENT, China. See China: 1909 (Oct. -Nov.). ASSEMBLY OF NOTABLES, France. See France: 1774-1788; and 1787-1789. ASSEMBLY OF THE WISE. See Witenage- MOT. ASSENISIPIA, Proposed state. See North- WESff TERRITORY OF UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: 1784. ASSER, Tobias Michael Carel. (1838-1913), Dutch statesman. See Nobel prizes: Peace: 1911. ASSESSMENT (derived from the Latin assessare, to judge), a term signifying a valua- tion of property determined for the purpose of taxation, or the amount of the tax so deter- mined by means of the valuation. — See also Tax- ation. ASSESSORE. See Adelantado. ASSHUR, ancient name of Kileh-Sherghat. See Assyria; Land. ASSHUR-BANI-PAL, king of Assyria. See ASSUR-BANI-PAL. ASSHUR-EMID-ILIN, king of Ninevah. See EssARBADDON, king of Ninevah. ASSHUR-NAZIR-PAL, king of Assyria. See ASSUR-NAZIR-PAL. ASSIDEANS. (from the Hebrew Hasidim or Chasidim) meaning "the pious," the name of a group among, the Jews of the second century before Christ, who resisted the encroachments of Greek customs-; believed to have been the descend- ants of the Essenes. See Chasidim. ASSIENTO. See Asiento. ASSIGNATS. See France: 1789-1791: 1794. I79S (July-April) ; also Money and banking: 1789-1796. ASSINARUS, river in Sicily; scene of Athenian defeat in B. C. 414. See Syracuse: 415-413 B. C. ASSINIBOIA. See Northwest Territories OP Canada. Absorbed in the province of Saskatchewan. See Canada: 1905. ASSINIBOIN INDIANS. See Indians, Amer- ican: Cultairal areas in North America: Plains area; SiouAN Family. ASSIOUT, or Assiut, Nile barrage at. See Egypt: 1898-1901. ASSISI, a town of central Italy, the birthplace of St. Francis and the cradle of the Franciscan order. The cathedral and several other churches, notably the Portiuncula, possess great artistic and historical interest. ASSISTANCE, Writs of. See Massachusetts: 1761; and U. S. A.: 1761. ASSIUT DAM. See Egypt: 1898-1901. ASSIZES. — "The formal edicts known under the name of Assizes, the Assizes of Clarendon and Northampton, the Assize of Arms, the Assize of the Forest, and the Assizes of Measures, are the only relics of the legislative work of the period [reign of Henry II in England]. These edicts are chiefly composed of new regulations for the enforcement of royal justice. ... In this respect they strongly resemble the capitularies of the Frank Kings, or, to go farther back, the edicts of the Roman prjetors. . . . The term As- size, which comes into use in this meaning about the middle of the twelfth century, both on the continent and in England, appears to be the proper Norman name for such edicts. ... In the 'Assize of Jerusalem' it simply means a law; and the same in Henry's legislation. Secondarily, it means a form of trial established by the particular law, as the Great Assize, the Assize of Mort d'Ancester; and thirdly the court held to hold such trials, in which sense it is commonly used at the present day." — W. Stubbs, Constitutional history of England, ch. 13. — See also England: 1170-1189. Development of assize courts. See Criminal law: 1066-1272. Trial by assize. See Common law: 1164-1176. Assize of arms. See England: 1170-1189; Longbow. Bloody assize. See England: 1685 (Septem- ber). Assizes to the borough. See Birmingham, England: 1884. Assize of bread and ale. — The assize of bread and ale was an English ordinance or enactment, dating back to the time of Henry III in the thirteenth century, which fixed the price of those commodities by a scale regulated according to the market prices of wheat, barley and oats, "The Assize of bread was re-enacted zo lately as the beginning of the last century and was only abol- ished in London and its neighbourhood about thirty years ago" — that is, early in the nineteenth century. — G. L. Craik, History of British com- merce, V. I, p. 137. Assize of Clarendon. See England: 1162-1170. Assize of Jerusalem. — "No'sooner had Godfrey of Bouillon [who was elected king of Jerusalem, after the taking of the Holy City by the Cru- saders, 1099] accepted the office of supreme mag- istrate than he solicited the public and private advice of the Latin pilgrims who were the best skilled in the statutes and customs of Europe. From these materials, with the counsel and ap- probation of the Patriarch and barons, of the clergy and laity, Godfrey composed the Assize of Jerusalem, a precious monument of feudal j'urisprudence. The new code, attested by the seals of the King, the Patriarch, and the Viscount of Jerusalem, was deposited in the holy sepulchre, enriched with the improvements of succeeding times, and respectfully consulted as often as any doubtful question arose in the tribunals of Pales- tine. With the kingdom and city all was lost; the fragments of the written law were preserved by jealous tradition and variable practice till the middle of the thirteenth century. The code was restored by the pen of John d'Ibelin, Count of Jaffa, one of the principal feudatories; and the final revision was accomplished in the year thirteen hundred and sixty-nine, for the use of the Latin kingdom of Cyprus." — E. Gibbon, His- 563 ASSOCIATED PRESS ASSYRIA tory of the decline and fall of the Roman empire, ch. s8. — See also Jerusalem: iioo. ASSOCIATED PRESS: Its origin.— Compe- tition. — Legality established. See Printing and THE press: 1805-1917. ASSOCIATION INTERNATIONALE DU CONGO. See Belgian Congo. ASSOCIATION OF EASTERN MARCHES: Its organization. See Poland: 1872-1910. ASSOCIATIONS, French Law of.— .\ new era in agricultural and industrial organization in France was launched with "the repeal, by a law of March 23, 1884, of the restrictions on pro- fessional associations which had been imposed by the Constituent Assembly and later had been incorporated in the Napoleonic Penal Code. It had been required that no association of any sort comprising more than twenty members should be formed except with the consent of the govern- ment. Now, by the law of 1S84, it was stipulated that associations having exclusively for their ob- iect 'the study and defence of commercial and agricultural economic interests,' might be formed and maintained without special authorisation, and that such organisations should be accorded full legal rights, including those of owning property and appearing in the courts." — F. A. Ogg, Economic development of modern Europe, pp. 196-197. — The growth of French syndicalism — in the theory of political thinkers like Sorel and Lagardelle — and in the concrete organization of syndicats in France — dates from the repeal of this law. In 1901 Parliament again passed an Associations Law mainly designed to limit reactionary Cath- olic education by requiring authorization for all orders of monks or nuns. This was one of the first radical measures embodying state opposi- tion to the Church, which was finally entirely separated from the state in 1905. See France: 1900-1904. ASSUAN, or Aswan, town and capital of a province of the same name in upper Egypt; situ- ated on the east bank of the Nile; popular health resort and stopping-place for tourists. (For origin of word, see Egypt: Position and nature of the country.) The .Assuan Dam, which stretches across the Nile three miles above the town proper, is a great feat of engineering, completed at the close of 1902. The capacity of the reservoir was at first 1,065,000.000 cubic meters, but later the level of the dam was raised and the present ca- pacity is 2,423,000.000 cubic meters. .\ regrettable fact, incident to this improvement, was the flood- ing of the island of Philae. — See also Egypt: 1898- 1901 ; and 1002 (December). ASSUAN, Treaty of. See Abyssinia: 190J. ASSUMPSIT, Action of, in equity law. See Equity law: 1567-1632. In common law. See Common law: 1841-1505; 1623; 1750; 1778. ASSUMPTIONIST FATHERS, Dissolution of the Society of the. See France: 1899-1900 (August-January). ASSUR. See .Assyria: People, religion and early history; Babylonia: Creation myths; Religion: B. C. 2000-200. ASSUR-BANI-PAL, king of Assyria 668-626 B.C.; last of the great kings of the Sargonide dynasty; suppressed coalition of Babylonia, Arabia, Ethiopia, Phanicia, and Palestine which revolted against him; captured and destroyed Susa (646- 640 B.C.); under his protection and promotion, Assyrian art attained its highest development ; [see also Education: Ancient: B.C. 35th-6th centuries: Babylonia and .\ssyria] caused the re- editing of the whole cuneiform literature then in existence, from which we to-day get our knowl- edge of Assyrian history and civilization; largely responsible for the creation of the great Nineveh library.— See also Assyria; People, religion and early history ; Later Assyrian Empire, and Libraries: .'\ncient: Babylonia and Assyria, ASSUR-NAZIR-PAL, king of .\ssyria, 884- 860 B.C.; one of the greatest and most war- hke of Assyrian kings; most important of his nu- merous campaigns were those against Nairi and Syria and those which culminated in a westward extension of his boundaries, rebuilt Colah, his capital, adorning it with a magnificent palace and temple of Adar. — See also Assyria: Later Assyrian Empire. ASSYRIA: The Land.— "There is, on care- fully drawn maps of Mesopotamia, a pale un- dulating line (considerably to the north of the city of .\ccad (q. v.) or Agad), which cuts across the valley of the two rivers, from Is or Hit on the Euphrates, — the place famous for its in- exhaustible bitumen pits, — to Samarah on the Tigris. This line marks the beginning of the alluvium, i.e., of the rich, moist alluvial land formed by the rivers, and at the same time the natural boundary of Northern Babylonia Be- yond it the land, though still a plain, is not only higher, rising till it meets the transversal lime- stone ridge of the Sinjar Hills, but of an entirely different character and formation. It is distress- ingly dry and bare, scarcely differing in this re- spect from the contiguous Syrian Desert, and nothing but the most laborious irrigation could ever have made it productive, except in the im- mediate vicinity of the rivers. What the country has become through centuries of neglect and mis- rule, we have seen. It must have been much in the same condition before a highly developed civilization reclaimed it from its natural barren- ness and covered it with towns and farms. It is probable that for many centuries a vast tract of land south of the alluvium line, as well as all that lay north of it, was virtually unoccupied; the resort of nameless and unclassed nomadic tribes, for .\gade is the most northern of im- portant Accadian cities we hear of. Yet some pioneers must have pushed northward at a pretty early time, followed at intervals by a steadier stream of emigrants, possibly driven from their populous homes in Accad by the discomfort and oppression consequent on the great Elamite invasion and conquest. At least there are, near the present hamlet of Kileh-Sherghat, on the right bank o! the Tigris, the ruins of a city, whose most ancient name is Accadian — Aushar — and appears to mean, 'well-watered plain,' but was afterwards changed into Asshur, and which was governed by king-priests — palesis — after the manner of the ancient Caldean cities. There are temple-ruins there, of which the bricks bear the names of Ishmi-Dagan and his son, Shamash- Raman, who are mentioned by a later king in a way to show that they lived very close on 1800 B. C. The colony which settled here and quickly grew, spreading further north, appropriat- ing and peopling the small but fertile region be- tween the Tigris, its several tributary streams and the tirst hills ot the Zagros highlands, wa; Semitic ; their first city's name was extended to all the land they occupied, and they also called themselves by it. They were the 'people of As- shur'; their land was 'the land of Asshur'; and not many centuries elapsed before all their neigh- bors, far and wide, had good reason to know and dread the name. This sheltered nook, nar- rowly circumscribed, but exceptionally well situ- ated as regards both defence and natural ad- vantages, may well be called the cradle of the 564 ASSYRIA Land, People and Ri'li^ian ASSYRIA great Assyrian Empire, where the young nation built its first cities, the stronghold in which, during many years, it gathered strength and in- dependence, gradually working out its peculiarly vigorous and aggressive character, and finding its military training in petty but constant conflicts with the surrounding roving tribes of the hill and the plain. Accordingly, it is this small district of a few square miles, — with its three great cities, Kalah, Nineveh, and Arbela, and a fourth, Dur- Sharrukin. added much later, — which has been known to the ancients as Asuria or Assyria proper, and to which the passage in the tenth chapter of Genesis (11-12) alludes. At the period of its greatest expansion, however, the name of 'As- syrian' — 'land of Asshur' — covered a far greater territory, more than filling the space between the two rivers, from the mountains of Armenia to the alluvial line. This gives a length of 350 But the kinship goes deeper than that, and asserts itself in certain spiritual tendencies, which find their expression in the national religion, or, more correctly, in the one essential modification in- troduced by the Assyrians into the Babylonian religion, which they otherwise adopted wholesale, just as they brought it from their Southern home. [For ancient mythology, see Babylonia: Creation myths.] Like their Hebrew brethren, they arrived at the perception of the Divine Unity; but while the wise men of the Hebrews took their stand uncompromisingly on monotheism and im- posed it on their reluctant followers with a fervor and energy that no resistance or backsliding could abate, the Assyrian priests thought to recon- cile the truth, wnich they but imperfectly grasped, with the old traditions and the established re- ligious system. They retained the entire Babylo- nian pantheon, with all its theory of successive ASSYRIAN PALACE, NINEVEH Kecoiistrdcted by Layard miles by a breadth, between the Euphrates and the Zagros, varying from above 300 to 170 miles. The area was probably not less than 75,000 square miles, which is beyond that of the German provinces of Prussia or Austria, more than double that of Portugal, and not much below that of Great Britain. Assyria would thus, from her mere size, be calculated to play an important part in history ; and the more so, as, during the period of her greatness, scarcely any nation with which she came in contact possessed nearly so extensive a territory." — Z. A. Ragozin, Story of Assyria, pp. 1-4. — See also Adiabenne; Asia; His- tory: 14; and Mesopotamia. People, religion and early history. — "That the nation of Asshur, which the biblical table of nations places second among Shem's own children, was of purely Semitic race, has never been doubted. The striking likeness of the Assyrian to the Hebrew type of face would almost alone have sufficed to establish the relationship, even were not the two languages so very nearly akin. emanations, its two great triads, its five planetary deities, and the host of inferior divinities, but, at the head of them all, and above them all, they placed the one God and Master whom they rec- ognized as supreme. They did not leave him wrapped in uncertainty and lost in misty re- moteness, but gave him a very distinct individu- ality and a personal name: they called him Asshur; and whether the city was named after the god or the god after the city, and then the land and people after both, — a matter of dispute among scholars, — one fact remains, and that the all-im- portant one: that the Assyrians identified them- selves with their own national god, called them- selves 'his people,' believed themselves to be under his especial protection and leadership in peace and war. [See also Religion: B. C. 2000- 200.1 ■ • • Whether Assyria in its infancy was a mere dependency of the mother country, ruled, may be, by governors sent from Baby- lon, or whether it was from the first an inde- pendent colony (as the young bee-swarm when .S65 ASSYRIA Early History ASSYRIA it has flown from the old hive), has never yet been ascertained. There have been no means of doing so ... as there is no narrative monu- mental inscription earlier than iico B.C. Still, all things considered, the latter supposition ap- pears the more probable one. The Semitic emi- grants who retired to the distant northern settle- ment of Aushar, possibly before the Elamitic con- querors, took their departure at a time when the mother country was too distracted by wars and the patriotic struggle against the hated foreigners to exercise much control or supervision over its borders; and they will have e.xperienced as little of both as did their brethren of Ur, when they wandered forth into the steppes of Canaan. The bond must have been merely a moral one, that of community in culture, language, and religion — a bond that could not prevent rivalry as soon as the young country's increasing strength allowed it, and, as a consequence, a frequently hostile attitude. At all events, border feuds must have begun early and proved troublesome, from the indefiniteness of the natural boundary, if the slight elevation of the alluvial line may be so termed, and the first positive record we have of Assyria as a political power is one which shows us a king of Assyria and a king of Kar-Dunyash (Babylon) making a treaty in order to determine the boundaries of the two countries, and giving each other pledges for the observance thereof ; this happened about 1450 B. C, and the succes- sors of the two kings renewed the treaty about 1400 B. C." — Ibid., pp. 5, iQ-20. — "With the pos- sible exception of the Huns, or the wild hordes of Tamerlane, there has probably never existed in the history of the world a power so purely and solely destructive, so utterly devoid of the slightest desire to make any real contribution to the welfare of the human race, as Assyria. But the Huns and the hordes of Tamerlane were un- taught savages. In the case of Assyria you have a highly organized and civilized people, skilled to an astounding degree in the arts, with all the power to do great things for humanity, but abso- lutely deficient in the will. If you can imagine a man with no small amount of learning, with all the externals of civilLzatlon, with a fine taste in certain aspects of art, and a tremendous aptitude for organization and discipline, and then im- agine such a man imbued with the ruthless spirit of a Red Indian brave and an absolute delight in witnessing the most ghastly forms of human suffering, you will have a fairly accurate concep- tion of the ordinary Assyrian, king or commoner; the outside, a splendid specimen of highly de- veloped humanity — the inside a mere ravening tiger. There have been other great conquering races which could be cruel enough on occasion, but at least they contributed something to the sum of human knowledge or achievement. The Roman Empire, for instance, ruthless as were its methods often, was actually a great boon to the world. Assyria made no such contribution to human Ufe. Totally lacking In originality, she took her art, her language, her literature, and her science from the elder Babylonian race upon which she waged such constant war. She created noth- ing; she existed simply to destroy; and when she ceased to destroy, she was destroyed. In a word, she was the scourge of God, or, as Isaiah put it, with his vivid insight, her function in the world was just to be God's ax and saw to do the rough hewing that Providence needed for the shaping of the race. Early in their history the Babylonians seem to have sent a colony north- westward up the rivers into the land of Mesopo- tamia. There the colonists founded a city which they called Assur, after their god Ashur. In the time of Hammurabi, Assur was still merely a colony of Babylonia and subject to the empire." — J. Baikie. Lands and peoples of the Bible, pp. 97-98. "When and why the Semites first occupied Assyria is not clear; but the conquest certainly preceded the time of Hammurabi, who held As- syria as a garrisoned province ; and it may very well have been part of either or both of the first two Semitic movements. It is still less clear what the conquerors found there. Probably it was a simple upland culture like that of early Elam, only little removed from the neolithic phase. What the Semites brought with them was knowl- edge and organization. With experience won in Babylonia, they practised extensive irrigation; they exploited metals and timber in the hills, rapidly dominated the moister upper valley, civilized its Kurdish occupants, and completely interbred them." — J. L. Myres. Dawn of history, p. 126. — See also Seiotes: Primitive Babylonia. — "During the thousand years which go roughly from 1600 to 600 B.C. the centre of power is no longer in Shinar (Babylonia), but with the kindred Semitic people farther up the Tigris — the Assyrians. Babylon sees itself outshone by its rivals Asshur or Nineveh. The Assyrian kingdom presents the aspect of a strongly organized monarchy with a restless appetite for conquest. Its culture, its writing, its art, its religion, are still those of Shinar, but it is animated by a new aggressive spirit. And yet for Assyria to maintain its posi- tion required a continued effort, and it could not but be that its periods of supremacy should alternate with periods when its arm failed against the pressure from outside. For on its eastern and northern frontiers Assyria adjoined a mountain country whose races were not easily held under, and were always ready to attack the conqueror; and if it strove to extend its power across Meso- potamia to the west, it again came into con- tact with the peoples of Northern Syria and of the mountains which separate Northern Syria from Asia Minor. It was part of the ambition of the kings of Assyria to dominate the land of Shinar. The old cities and temples of that land, the cradle of their culture, had for their imagina- tion a prestige, which, with all their military pre- dominance, they must bow. And, besides, the riches of the alluvial country continued to make it in one way the centre of the world. In Shinar, since the days of Hammurabi, the city of Babylon held its place as the capital city, and the cities lower down, which had been great before Babylon was heard of, decayed or fell to a subordinate grade. And the kings of Babylon did not readily submit to the supremacy of the kings of Assyria. The history of these thousand years arc, there- fore, full of wars between the Assyrians and their Babylonian cousins. Sometimes the king of .\s- syria succeeded in combining with his title of 'King of .Assyria' the title of 'King of Sumer and Akkad'; sometimes the kings of Babylon were able to drive back the Assyrian armies and assert their independence. The first expansion of the Assyrian power took place in the twelfth century. King Tiglath-pileser I . . . conquered on thi; west the Moschians and the Commagenians in the hill- country of the Upper Euphrates between Mesopo- tamia and Asia Minor, marched victoriously cast- wards into the mountains of Kurdistan, pene- trated into what Is now .Armenia to the north. subjugated the petty kingdoms of Northern Syria, crossed over Lebanon to the Phoenician coast, and looked upon the Mediterranean Sea. The king 01 Egypt, alarmed at his approach, sent him pres- 566 ASSYRIA Later Empire ASSYRIA ents, amongst them crocodiles and hippopotami for the royal menagerie on the Tigris. Tiglath- pileser on another campaign marched down the Tigris and subjugated the land of Shinar, but here the king of Babylon succeeded in inflicting bloody reverses upon the Assyrian armies and driving them back to their own land. The son of Tigiath- pileser took revenge and we hear of Baghdad (not yet of great importance among the towns of Shinar) being captured by the Assyrians. But within a few reigns the empire of Tiglath-pileser had broken up, and the peoples of Syria and Palestine did not know again the Assyrian ter- ror for many generations to come." — E. Bevan, Land of the two rivers, pp. 3S-42.— See also Babylonia: Earliest inhabitants. Xater Assyrian empire. — "According to all appearance it was the Egyptian conquest about sixteen centuries B. C, that led to the partition tury her revolts were always suppressed, and the Assyrian supremacy re-established after more or less desperate conflicts. During nearly half a cen- tury, from about 1060 to io;o B. C, Babylon seems to have recovered the upper hand. The victories of her princes put an end to what is called the First Assyrian Empire. But after one or two senerations a new family mounted the northern throne, and toiling energetically for a century or so to establish the grandeur of the monarchy, founded the Second Assyrian Empire. The upper country regained its ascendancy by the help of military institutions whose details now escape us, although their results may be traced throughout the later history of Assyria. From the tenth century onwards the effects of these m- stitutions become visible in expeditions made by the armies of Assyria, now to the shores of the Persian Gulf or the Caspian, and now through KING TIGLATH-PILESER IN HIS CHARIOT From a wall-frieze found at Nineveh of Mesopotamia [see Egypt: About B.C. 1500- 1400.] Vassals of Thothmes and Rameses, called by Berosus the 'Arab kings,' sat upon the throne of Babylon. The tribes of Upper Mesopotamia were farther from Egypt, and their chiefs found it easier to preserve their independence. At first each city had its own prince, but in time cne cf these petty kingdoms absorbed the rest, and Nineveh became the capital of an united Assyria. As the years passf-d away the frontiers of the nation thus constituted were pushed gradually southwards until all Mesopotamia was brought un- der one sceptre. This consummation appears to have been complete by the end of the fourteenth century, at which period Egypt, enfeebled and rolled back upon herself, ceased to make her in- fluence felt upon the Euphrates. Even then Babylon kept her own kings, but they had sunk to be little more than hereditary satraps re- ceiving investiture from Nineveh. Over and over again Babylon attempted to shake off the yoke of her neighbour; but down to the seventh cen- the mountains of Armenia into the plains of Cap- padocia, or across the Syrian desert to the Leba- non and the coast cities of Phcenicia. [See also Samaria: Samaritans: Repopulation of city and district by Assyrian conqueror.] The first princes whose figured monuments — in contradistinction to mere inscriptions — have come down to us, belonged to those days. The oldest of all was Assurnazirpal, whose residence was at Calach (Nimroud) . The bas-reliefs with which his palace was decorated are now in the Louvre and the British Museum, most of them in the latter. ... To Assumazlrpal's son Shalmaneser III. belongs the obelisk of basalt which also stands in the British Museum. . . . Shalmaneser was an intrepid man of war. The inscriptions on his obelisk recall the events of thirty-one campaigns waged against the neigh- bouring peoples under the leadership of the king himself. . . . Under the immediate successors of Shalmaneser the Assyrian prestige was maintained at a high level by dint of the same lavish blood- shed and truculent energy; but towards the eighth 567 ASSYRIA Later Empire ASSYRIA cpntury it began to decline. There was then a period of languor and decadence, some echo of which, and of its accompanying disasters, seems to have been embodied by the Greeks in the ro- mantic tale of Sardanapalus. No shadow of con- firmation for the story of a first destruction of Nineveh is to he found in the inscriptions, and, in the middle of the same century, we again find the Assyrian arms triumphant under the leader- ship of Tiglath Pileser II., a king modelled after the great warriors of the earlier days. This prince seems to have carried his victorious arms as far east as the Indus, and west as the frontiers of Egypt. And yet it was only under his second successor, Saryoukin, or, to give him his popular name, Sargon. the founder of a new dynasty, that Syria, with the exception of Tyre, was brought into complete submission after a great victory over the Egyptians (721-704). . . . His son Sen- nacherib equalled him both as a soldier and as a builder. [See also Jerusalem: B. C. 1400-700.] rebel king, Assur-dain-pal, who reigned B.C. 827- 820, and whose name and history fit the talel, pushed the adventures and conquests of the As- syrian arms =till farther. They subdued the whole north of Arabia, and invaded Egypt more than once. [See also Egypt: B.C. 670-525.] . . . There was a moment when the great Semitic Empire founded by the Sargonides touched even the /Egiean, for Cyges, king of Lydia, finding him- self menaced by the Cimmerians, did homage to Assurbanipal, and sued for help against those foes to all civilization."— G. Perrot and C. Chipiez. History of art in Chaldcca and Assyria, v. i, ch. I, sect. 5. — See also Svrh: B. C. 700-500. — "The power of Assurbanipal was equal to the task of holding under control the subjects of Assyria at all points. He boasts of having com- pelled the king of Tyre to drink sea-water to quench his thirst. The greatest opposition he met with was in Elam, but this too he was able to suppress. . . . Assurbanipal says that he in- PALA'CE OF SENNACHERIB, KING OF ASSYRIA, 70s B. C. Restoration He began by crushing the rebels of El.im and Chaldjea with unflinching severity; in his anger he almost exterminated the inhabitants of Baby- lon, the perennial seat of revolt; but, on the other hand, he repaired and restored Nineveh: Most of his predecessors had been absentees from the capital, and had neglected its buildings. . . . He chose a site well within the city for the mag- nificent palace which Mr. Layard h'is been the means of restoring to the world. This building is now known a? Kouyoundjik, from the name of the village perched upon the mound within which the buildings of Sennacherib were hidden. Sennacherib rebuilt the walls, the towers and the quays of Nineveh at the same time, so that the capital, which had never ceased to be the strongest and most populous city of the empire, again became the residence of the king — a dis- tinction which it was to preserve until the fast approaching date of its final destruction. The son of Sennacherib. Esarhaddon, and his grand- son, Assurbanipal [long identified with the Sar- danapalus of the Greeks; but Prof. Sayce now finds the Sardanapalus of Greek romance in a creased the tributes, but that his action was op- posed by his own brother, whom he had formerly maintained by force of arms in Babylon. This brother now seduced a great number of other nations and princes from their allegiance. . . . The king of Babylon placed himself, so to speak, at their head. . . . The danger was immensely increased when the king set up by Assurbanipal in Elam joined the movement. It was necessary to put an end to this revolt, and this was effected for once without much difficulty. . . . There- upon the rebellious brother in Babylon has to give way. The gods who go before Assurbani- pal have, as he says, thrust the king of Babylon into a consuming fire and put an end to his life. His adherents . . . are horribly punished. . . . The provinces which joined them are subjected to the laws of the Assyrian gods. Even the Arabs, who have sided with the rebels, bow before the king, whilst of his power in Egypt it is said that it extended to the sources of the Nile. His dominion reached even to Asia Minor. . . . As- syria is the first conquering power which we en- counter in the history of the world. The mcBt 568 o =+-! aj o a^ til a 4J _o u w re D D- •m* 'TS 0^ ^ C8 a ^ 3 ASSYRIA Fall of Die Empire Art and Archaeology ASSYRIA effective means which she brought to bear in consolidating her conquests consisted in the trans- portation of the principal inhabitants from the subjugated districts to Assyria, and the settle- ment of Assyrians in the newly acquired provinces. . . . The most important result of the action of Assyria upon the world was perhaps that she limited or broke up the petty sovereignties and the local religions of Western Asia. ... It was ... an event which convulsed the world when this power, in the full current of its life and progress, suddenly ceased to exist. Since the loth century every event of importance had originated in Assyria; in the middle of the 7th she sud- denly collapsed. ... Of the manner in which the ruin of Nineveh was brought about we have no- where any authentic record. . . . Apart from their miraculous accessories, the one circumstance in which . . . [most of the accounts given] agree, is that .Assyria was overthrown by the combination of the Medes and Babylonians. Everything else that is said on the subject verges on the fabulous; and even the fact of the alliance is doubtful, since Herodotus, who lived nearest to the period we are treating of, knows nothing of it, and ascribes the conquest simply to the Medes." — L. von Ranke, Universal history: Oldest historical group of nations, ch. 3. — See also Babylonia: Map; Phcenicians: B. C. 850-538. Fall of the empire. — The story, briefly told, of the alliance by which the Assyrian monarchy is said to have been overthrown, is as follows; About bid or 625 B. C, a new revolt broke out in Babylonia, and the Assyrian king sent a gen- eral named Nabu-pal-usur or Nabopolassar to quell it. Nabu-pal-usur succeeded in his under- taking, and seems to have been rewarded by be- ing made governor of Babylon. But his ambi- tion aimed higher, and he mounted the ancient Babylonian throne, casting off his allegiance to Assyria and joining her enemies. "He was wise enough to see that Assyria ' could not be com- pletely crushed by one nation, and he therefore made a league with Pharaoh Necho, of Egypt, and asked the Median king, Cyaxares, to give his daughter, .^mytes, to Nebuchadnezzar, his son, to wife. Thus a league was made, and about B. C. 6oq the kings marched against Assyria. They suffered various defeats, but eventually the Assyrian army was defeated, and Shalman, the brother of the king of Assyria, slain. The united kings then besieged Nineveh. During the siege the river Tigris rose and carried away the greater part of the city wall. The Assyrian king [Sar- danapalus of legend] gathered together his wives and property in the palace, and setting fire to it, all perished in the flames. The enemies went into the city and utterly destroyed all they could lay their hands upon. With the fall of Nineveh, Assyria as a power practically ceased to exist." — E. A. W. Budge, Babylonian life and history, ch. 5. — See also .'\kkad; Babylonia; Chaldea; and SUMER. Art and archaeological remains. — "The archi- tecture of the Assyrians is the brickwork of Baby- lonia, faced heavily with sculptured stone, the doorways guarded by monstrous human-headed bulls; everywhere are scenes and long cuneifoim inscriptions glorifying Asshur and the king. .Their art, Babylonian at bottom, gains in technical skill, but forfeits originality to the sombre realism of the national temper. Only in its last days does it borrow, perhaps from the far west, a new grace, and joy in the natural beauty of land- scape, horses, hounds, and hunted lions, which strike us as almost modern." — J. L. Myres, Dawn of history, p. 128. — See Architecture: Oriental: Mesopotamian ; and Temples: Stage of culture rep- resented by temple architecture. — "M. Botta, who was appointed French consul at Mosul in 1842, was the first to commence excavations on the sites of the buried cities of Assyria, and to him is due the honour of the first discovery of her long lost palaces. M. Botta coijimenced his la- bours at Kouyunjik, the large mound opposite Mosul, but he found here very little to com- pensate for his labours. New at the time to excavations, he does not appear to have worked in the best manner; M. Botta at Kouyunjik con- tented himself with sinking pits in the mound, and on these proving unproductive abandoning them. While M. Botta was excavating at Kouyunjik, his attention was called to the mounds of Khorsabad by a native of the village on that site; and he sent a party of workmen to the spot to com- mence excavation. In a few days his perseverance was rewarded by the discovery of some sculp- tures, after which, abandoning the work at Kou- yunjik, he transferred his establishment to Khorsa- bad and thoroughly explored that site. . . . The palace which M. Botta had discovered ... is one of the most perfect Assyrian buildings yet ex- plored, and forms an excellent example of Assyrian architecture. Besides the palace on the mound of Khorsabad, M. Botta also opened the re- mains of a temple, and a grand porch decorated by six winged bulls. . . . The operations of M. Botta were brought to a close in 1S45, and a splendid collection of sculptures and other an- tiquities, the fruits of his labours, arrived in Paris in 1846 and was deposited in the Louvre. Afterwards the French Government appointed M. Place consul at Mosul, and he continued some of the excavations of his predecessor. . . . Mr. Layard, whose attention was early turned in this direction, visited the country in 1840, and after- wards tooks a great interest in the excavations of M. Botta. At length, in 1845, Layard was en- abled through the assistance of Sir Stratford Can- ning to commence excavations in Assyria himself. On the 8th of November he started from Mosul, and descended the Tigris to Nimroud. . . . Mr. Layard has described in his works with great minuteness his successive excavations, and the re- markable and interesting discoveries he made. . . . After making these discoveries in Assyria, Mr. Layard visited Babylonia, and opened trenches in several of the mounds there. On the return of Mr. Layard to England, excavations were continued ' in the Euphrates valley under the superintendence of Colonel (now Sir Henry) Rawlinson. Under his directions, Mr. Hormuzd Rassam, Mr. Loftus, and Mr. Taylor excavated various sites and made numerous discoveries, the British Museum re- ceiving the best of the monuments. The materials collected in the national museums of France and England, and the numerous inscriptions published, attracted the attention of the learned, and very soon considerable light was thrown on the history, language, manners, and customs of ancient As- syria and Babylonia." — G. Smith, Assyrian dis- coveries, ch. I. — "One of the most importint re- sults of Sir A. H. Layard's explorations at Nineveh was the discovery of the ruined library of the ancient city, now buried under the mounds of Kouyunjik. The broken clay tablets belonging to this library not only furnished the student with an immense mass of literary matter, but also with direct aids towards a knowledge of the Assyrian syllabary and language. Among the literature represented in the library of Kou- yunjik were lists of characters, with their various phonetic and ideographic meanings, tables of synonyms, and catalogues of the names of plants 569 ASSYRIA and animals. This, however, was not all. [See aUo Libraries: Ancient: Babylonia and Assyria.] The inventors of the cuneiform system of wntinp; had been a people who preceded the Semites m the occupation of Babvlonia, and who spoke an asglutinative language utterly different from that of their Semitic successors. These Accadians, as thev are usually termed, left behind them a con- siderable amount of literature, which was highly prized by the Semitic Babylonians and Assyrians. A large 'portion of the Ninevite tablets, accord- ASSYRIA, EPONYM CANON OF later ones by Mr. Hormuzd Rassam, have added lar-'elv to the stock of tablets from Kouyunjik orilinallv acquired for the British Museum by Sir A H Layard, and have also brought to light a few- other tablets from the libraries ot Baby- lonia "—A H. Sayce, Fresli light from the an- cient monuments, ch. i.— See also Education: Ancient: B.C. .?sth-6th centuries: Babylonia and Assyria. „ ,, « ■ . Development of music. See Music: Ancient: B.C. 3000- 7th century. ASSURNAZIR-PAL ON HIS THRONE, WITH ATTENDANT CARRYING THE ROYAL ARMS Bas-relief found at Nimroud, now in the BriJsh Museum ingly, consists of interlinear or parallel transla- tions from Accadian into Assyrian, as well as of reading books, dictionaries, and grammars, in which the .\ccadian original is placed by the side of its Assyrian equivalent. . . . The bilingual texts have not only enabled scholars to recover the long-forgotten Accadian language; they have also been of the greatest possible assistance to them in their reconstruction of the Assyrian dic- tionary itself. The three expeditions conducted by Mr. George Smith [1873-1870], as well as (he Ethics. See Ethics; Babylonia and Assyria. Monetary system. See Money and banking: Ancient Egypt and Babylonia. ASSYRIA, Eponym canon of.— "Just as there were archons at Athens and consuls at Rome who were elected annually, so among the Assyrians there was a custom of electing one man to be over the year, whom they called 'limu,' or 'eponym.' . . . Babylonia and Assyrian documents were more generally dated by the names of these cponyms than by that of the reigning King. . . . 570 ASSYRO-CHALDEANS ASTOR In 1862 Sir Henry Rawlinson discovered the frag- ment of the cponym canon of Assyria. It was one of the grandest and most important discoveries ever made, for it has decided definitely a great many points which otherwise could never have been cleared up. Fragments of seven copies of this canon were found, and from these the chronology of Assyria has been definitely settled from B. C. 1330 to about B. C. 620."— E. A. W. Budge, Babylonian life and Iiistorv, ch. 3. ASSYRO-CHALDEANS. —'This interesting little people, the last surviving fragment of two great empires, adopted Christianity at an early date and have maintained it against every persecu- tion, under the Nestorian Patriarchate. See Chris- tianity: A. D. 33-52; 35-60. In World War. — The following is a brief sum- mary of the part which was played by the Assyro- Chaldeans during the war — as put forward by their two official delegates to the Peace Con- ference. "On 18 September, 1914, at the in- stigation of Mr. Vedeniski, Russian Consul at Urmia, and of his military attache, Colonel Andreviski, who had been officially instructed by their Government and its Allies to treat with our nation, the Assyro-Chaldeans, after a long discus- sion decided to reject the overtures made by representatives of the Central Powers and to join the ranks of the Allies. This action was to assure our autonomy at the end of the war. Our declaration of war was followed by an enthusi- astic demonstration. Thousands of our future soldiers paraded the streets of Urmia, carrying Allied flags, before the French, Russian and Ameri- can agencies. There exist photographs taken on this occasion by the heads of these agencies. The Russian authorities provided our men with 3,000 rifles of the Burdenka model. On the same day the German flag was pulled down and the flagstaff smashed. During the. first three years of war, till the collapse of Russia, these men fought side by side with the Russians, under Cernizohov, Andreviski and Simonov, in many fierce combats. Meanwhile in Turkey the Assyro- Chaldeans of the mountain district of Hakkiari enjoyed a real autonomy. When war broke cut, we realised that it was being waged by the great western democracies for the cause of civilisation and the liberty of oppressed peoples. Moreover, our brothers of Persia had already ranged them- selves on the side of the Entente, despite all the pressure and promises of the Turks and Ger- mans. Early in igi5, then, our nation in Turkey also threw in its lot with the Allies. Kurdish tribes, urged on by the Turkish Government, at- tacked us, but were driven off during May, 1915. . . . The Turks then sent regular troops to the aid of the Kurds; but, aided by our kinsmen in neighbouring districts, we were able to hold at bay, first the Governor of Mosul, Haider Cey, and then a second army of mixed regular and Kurdish bands, commanded by Djevdet Bey, Gov- ernor of Van (brother-in-law of the notorious Enver Pasha), advancing from the north. Out- numbered by ten to one, our forces withdrew in good order towards the Persian frontier, and, fusing with their kinsmen on the Russian front, continued the struggle. At the beginning of the Bolshevik revolution, a British General, and soon after Colonel Chardigny of the French Army, reached Urmia. They encouraged the Assyro-Chal- deans to continue the war against the Turks, re- placing the Russians on the Turco-Persian frontier. The Russian troops were retiring homewards in disorder, leaving the whole front (extending from Serai through Bashkala, Deza, Oashnou to Saoutchboulak) to our sole defence. At the end of 191 7, Captain Gracey, as special envoy of the British Government, took part at Urmia in a meeting between the civil and religious chiefs of the Assyro-Chaldeans and representatives of the greater Allies. Among them were the Rus- sian Consul, the American Vice-Consul, Colonel Caujol of the French Army, the Apostolic Dele- gate Monsignor Lentak, and several Russian gen- erals and other French and Russian officers. Cap- tain Gracey encouraged the Assyro-Chaldeans and confirmed the engagements made to him by Mr. Vedeniski regarding the autonomy which they would receive from the Allies if they continued the struggle. He further declared that the Allies were ready to accord them moral and material sup- port, and to supply arms, munitions, money and officers. These guarantees were confirmed by the representatives of France, America and Russia. They were unanimously accepted by the Assembly, which decided to reorganise the Assyro-Chaldean army, with a view to replacing the Russian." — Nedjib and Namik (New Europe, April 15, 1920, pp. 21-22). — See also World War: 191S: VI. Turk- ish theater: a, 9. ASTELL, Mary (1668-1731), English author and educator. Proposed plan for a college for women. See Women's rights: 1673-1800. ASTOLF, or Aistulf, king of the Lombards, 749-756. — Laid siege in 756 to Rome, which was relieved by Pepin. See Italy: 568-800; Lombards: 754-774- ASTON, Sir George (Grey) (1861- ), British general; served as brigadier general on the general staff in South Africa (1908-1912); commandant Royal Marine Artillery (1914-1917) ; led an expedition to Ostend (1914) ; in the sec- retariat of the war cabinet (1018-1919). ASTOR, John Jacob (1763-1848), American merchant. In an attempt to establish the fur trade from the Great Lakes to the Pacific and thence to China and India, he founded Astoria on the Columbia river in 1811, which was later seized by the English. (See Oregon: 1808-1826; St. Louis: 1819; Wisconsin: 1812-1825.) Erected many buildings in New York City and founded the Astor Library, since 1895 part of the New York public library. — See also Libraries: Modern: U. S. A.: New York Public Library; Gifts and bequests. Also in: J. Parton, Life of John Jacob Astor. ASTOR, John Jacob (1864-1912), American capitalist, inventor, and soldier, fourth of the name. Devoted himself to the management of his vast interests in New York; in 1898 commissioned lieutenant-colonel of the United States. Volun- teered and served as a staff officer in the Santiago campaign; presented to the Government fully equipped mountain battery which did useful work before Manila. He invented some useful devices, notably bicycle brake, a pneumatic road improver, and a marine turbine. (See also Inventions: 19th century: Piano.) He was drowned at sea at the sinking of the Titanic. See Titanic. ASTOR, Nancy Langhorne, Lady. Elected to House of Commons, 1919, on the Unionist ticket, being the first woman to serve in the British Parliament. ASTOR, William Backhouse (1792-1875), son of John Jacob Astor. Gift to Astor library. See Gifts and bequests. ASTOR, William Waldorf, 1st Viscount of Hever (1848-1919). Served in the legislature of New York state 1877-1881; United States min- ister to Italy, 1882-1885; moved to England, 1800, and in 1899 was naturalized. Created a peer, 1916; encountered much criticism in both his native and his adopted country. 571 ASTOR ASTROLOGY ASTOK, Lenox and Tilden foundation. See Libraries: Modern; U. S.: New York Public Library. ASTOR OF HEVER, 1st viscount. See As- TOR, William Waldorf. ASTORIA, a city and county seat of Clatsop County, Oregon, situated on the Columbia river, 100 miles northwest of Portland; was founded by John Jacob Astor in iSii, although the Lewis and Clark expedition established Fort Clatsop there in iSos. See Oregon; 1808-1826; Washington state: 1811-1846. ASTRAKHAN, the khanate. See Mongolia: 1238-1391; Russia: Map of Russian and border states. 1569. — Russian repulse of the Turks. See Russia: 1560-1571. 1918. — In union with Soviet Russia. See World War; 1018: \'I. Turkish theater: b, 1. ASTROLABE, an instrument used for the pur- pose of determining stellar, solar and lunar alti- tudes and consequently the latitude of the ob- server. The instrument was considerably improved by the astronomer Tycho, whose astrolabes ("armillae") resembled the modern equatorial. The mariner's astrolabe, the same instrument used by Columbus, which is modeled after those of the astronomers', was first constructed by Martin Behaim (1480), but later (1731) superseded by John Hadley's quadrant. ASTROLOGY: Origin and history. — "The first inhabitants of the world were compelled to accommodate their acts to the daily and annual alternations of light and darkness and of heat and cold, as much as to the irregular changes of weather, attacks of disease, and the i'ortune of war. They soon came to regard the influence of the sun, in connection with light and heat, as a cause. This led to a search for other signs in the heavens. If the appearance of a comet was sometimes noted simultaneously with the death of a great ruler, or an eclipse with a scourge of plague, these might well be looked upon as causes in the same sense that the veering or backing of the wind is regarded as a cause of fine or foul weather. For these reasons we find that the earnest men of all ages have recorded the oc- currence of comets, eclipses, new stars, meteor showers, and remarkable conjunctions of the plan- ets, as well as plagues and famines, floods and droughts, wars and the deaths of great rulers. Sometimes they thought they could trace connec- tions which might lead them to say that a comet presaged famine, or an eclipse war." — G. Forbes, History of astronomy, p. 2. — "The oldest work which has come down to our day upon astrology is the Telrabiblos, or Quadripartite of Claudius Ptolemy, which was written about A. D. 133 ; in- deed, this work, as an eminent writer remarks, 'is the entire groundwork of those stupendous tomes in folio and quarto on the same subject which were produced in myriads during the sixteenth and sev- enteenth centuries.' Ptolemy, however, does not claim to have invented, or rather discovered, the principles of astral influence, but to have com- pleted, as he says, 'the rules of the ancients, whose observations were founded in nature.' It is quite probable, however, that the science took its rise in Egypt. Sir Isaac Newton says that astrology was studied in Babylon seven hundred and fifty years before Christ. The science flourished in Persia in the time of Zoroaster, who was himself a star-wor- shipper; and to this day it is held in great repute in that country, as high as six million livres being paid to astrologers annually by the Persian kings. According to Pliny, who himself believed in stellar influences, Anaximander, the friend and disciple of Thalcs. by the rules of astrology 'foretold the earthquake which overthrew Lacedemon.' This was in Greece, nearly six hundred years before Christ. .\naxagoras, a famous philosopher of Greece, and preceptor of Socrates, is said to have devoted his whole life to astrology. Pythagoras, Plato, Porphyry, .\ristotle, and the great Hippo- crates, the Father of Medicine, were all supporters of the doctrines of this ancient science. In Rome the science was equally popular at an early day among the most cultivated and enlightened. .•\mong others who speak in its favor may be men- tioned Virgil, Cicero, and especially Horace. Ma- crobius wrote a poem on astrology. The name of the most learned proctor of Rome, Nigidius Figu- lus, should not be omitted, as he was a most gifted philosopher and astrologer. In .'\rabia, China, In- dia, and among the Buddhists, astrology was first established centuries before the Christian era; and even in Mexico traces of this ancient science are found on the ruins of massive temples and crum- bling pyramids built by a race long since extinct." — E. H. Bennett, Astrology, pp. 2-3. — During the 14th, 15th and i6th centuries astrology had a strong hold on many minds, both of scientific thinkers such as Tycho Brahe and Kepler and of the common people. Its mode of thought was curiously interwoven with that of more recognized sciences and its influence is still recorded in mod- ern language. But the acceptance of the Copern; can theory did much to discredit astrology and in England Dean Swift's famous satire. Prediction for the year lyoS, by Isaac Bickerstaff, Esq., was largely effective in turning popular opinion away from it. — See also Astronomy: Ptolemaic and Copernican theories; Chaldea; Wise men of the East; Medical science: Medieval: 12th century; China: Origin of the people. Theory and methods. — "It would be impossible to give even a brjef history of astrology without mentioning the basis of the entire science — the zo- diac. The zodiac is composed of twelve constella- tions, or star-groups, through which the sun ap- parently pas-ses in his so-called path around the earth. The fact that this ecliptic is formed by the motion of the earth, rather than that of the sun, was known to the Egyptians, to Pythagoras in 700 B.C. and to Plato in 400 B.C., though in 317 A. D. Lactantius, the preceptor of Crispus Cssar, son of the Emperor Constantine, taught his pupil that the earth was a plane surrounded by sky, and warned the lad against accepting the 'wicked heresy of a round world.' . . . Planets are worlds revolving around the sun, they shine principally by the solar light which they receive and reflect into space. Their visible luminosity as compared with that of either the sun or the moon is incon- siderable and this fact has long been one of the strongest scientific arguments against astrology. The recently discovered knowledge that the most powerful vibrations are invisible has to a great extent rehabilitated the ancient science. The plan- ets being comparatively near the earth mav be brought within range of observation by the tele- scope, but this instrument has no apparent effect upon oui knowledge of the stars, which are suns in infinitude and at such vast distances that draw- ing them a few thousand times nearer our world does not make them appreciably clearer to our vision. Astrology teaches that each planet possess- es its own specific vibration, and students learn the effect of the positions, relations and distinctive forces emanating from each body or group of bod- ies in the solar system, and recognize their influ- ence upon the moral, mental and physical nature of mankind." — K. T. Craig, Stars of destiny, pp. 10, 65-66. — "The alphabet of astrology is simple. 572 ASTRONOMIA NOVA ASTRONOMY It consists of the twelve signs of the zodiac and the nine planets, Neptune, Herschel [Uranus], Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the Sun, Venus, Mercury, and the Moon. The rules to be observed are few. Each sign contains 30 degrees, and thus there are 360 degrees in the zodiac. Mars is most powerful in Aries and Scorpio, Venus in Taurus and Libra, Mercury in Gemini and Virgo, the Moon in Can- cer, the Sun in Leo, Jupiter in Sagittarius and Pis- ces, Saturn in Capricorn, and Herschel in Aquarius. Neptune seems to delight in Pisces, but no sign has yet been accorded to him. When the planets are in the signs opposite to those in which they are powerful, they are very weak and unfortunate. ... A horoscope, or map of the heavens, contains twelve houses, of which the first, or ascendant, rules the personal appearance and temperament ; the second wealth ; the third brothers and sisters and short journeys; the fourth the father, property and condition at close of life; the fifth children, speculation and pleasures; the sixth servants and health, the seventh marriage, lawsuits and public enemies; the eighth death legacies, the ninth re- ligion and lofig journeys chiefly by water, the tenth the mother and the trade or profession, the eleventh friends, hopes and wishes, and the twelfth private enemies, sorrow, and imprisonment. The position of the signs and planets as regards these houses at the time of any one's birth will show conclusively the good and evil fortune and the causes thereof that will befall him or her during life. The strongest houses are the first, tenth, eleventh, and seventh, and the weakest are the fifth, sixth and eighth. ... A map or figure of the heavens is erected as follows: First learn where and when the person for whom the horo- scope is desired was born, and then after you have drawn the map with its twelve houses, find in an almanac or ephemeris for the year required the sidereal time for the exact moment of birth. Next place the signs and planets in the proper places, as shown by the ephemeris, always remembering to observe the correct latitude. The aspects can then be calculated and predictions made." — J. Kingston, Gospe! of the stars, pp. 38-42. ASTRONOMIA NOVA: Kepler's great work on astronomy. See Astronomy: Ptolemaic and Copernican theories. ASTRONOMY: Early history of. — "The astronomy of Egyptians, Babylonians, and Assyri- ans is known to us mainly through the Greek his- torians, and for information about the Chinese we rely upon the researches of travellers and mission- aries in comparatively recent times. The testimony of the Greek writers has fortunately been con- firmed, and we now have in addition a mass of facts translated from the original sculptures, papyri, and inscribed bricks, dating back thousands of years. In attempting to appraise the efforts of the beginners we must remember that it was natural to look upon the earth (as all the first astrono- mers did) as a circular plane, surrounded and bounded by the heaven, which was a solid vault, or hemisphere, with its concavity turned down- wards. The stars seemed to be fixed on this vault ; the moon, and later the planets, were seen to crawl over it. . . . Probably the greatest step ever made in astronomical theory was the placing of the sun, moon, and planets at different distances from the earth instead of having them stuck on the vault of heaven. It was a transition from 'flatland' to a space of three dimensions. . . . The Chaldaeans, being the most ancient Babylonians, held the same station and dignity in the State as did the priests in Egypt, and spent all their time in the study of philosophy and astronomy, and the arts of divination and astrology. They held that the world of which we have a conception is an eternal world without any beginning or end- ing, in which all things are ordered by rules sup- ported by a divine providence, and that the heav- enly bodies do not move by chance, nor by their own will, but by the determinate will and ap- pointment of the gods. They recorded these movements, but mainly in the hope of tracing the will of the gods in mundane affairs. Ptolemy (about 130 A. D.) made use of Babylonian eclipses in the eighth century B. C. for improving his solar and lunar tables. [See Astrolocy.] Frag- ments of a library at Agade have been preserved at Nineveh, from which we learn that the star- charts were even then divided into constellations, which were known by the names which they bear to this day, and that the signs of the zodiac were used for determining the courses of the sun, moon, and the five planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupi- ter, and Saturn. We have records of observations carried on under Asshurbanapal, who sent as- tronomers to different parts to study celestial phenomena. . . . The Phoenicians are supposed to have used the stars for navigation, but there are no records. The Egyptian priests tried to keep such astronomical knowledge as they possessed to themselves. It is probable that they had arbi- trary rules for predicting eclipses. "^G. Forbes, History of astronomy, pp. 6-15. — "While their ori- ental predecessors had confined themselves chiefly to astronomical observations, the earlier Greek philosophers appear to have made next to no ob- servations of importance, and to have been far more interested in inquiring into causes of phe- nomena. Thales, the founder of the Ionian school, was credited by later writers with the introduc- tion of Egyptian astronomy into Greece, at about the end of the 7th century' B. C; but both Thales and the majority of his immediate successors ap- pear to have added little or nothing to astronomy, e.vcept some rather vague speculations as to the form of the earth and its relation to the rest of the world. On the other hand, some real prog- ress seems to have been made by Pythagoras and his followers. Pythagoras taught that the earth, in common with the heavenly bodies, is a sphere, and that it rests without requiring support in the middle of the universe." — A. Berry, Short history of astronomy, p. 24. — See also Chaldea: Wise men of the East; Hellenism: Science and Invention; and Science: Ancient: Egyptian and Babylonian, also Greek, Arabian; Chronology: Solar chrono- logical scheme of the Egyptians; Babylonian meth- od; Basis of Hindu calendar; Use of astronomical constants. B.C. 4th century. — Aristotelian astronomy. — "Only the second of the four books on the Heav- ens is devoted to atronomy. He considers the universe to be spherical, the sphere being the most perfect among solid bodies, and the only body which can revolve in its own space. ... He holds that the stars are spherical in form, that they have no individual motion, being merely carried all to- gether by their one sphere. " 'Furthermore, since the stars are spherical, as others maintain and we also grant, because we let the stars be produced from that body, and since there are two motions of a spherical body, rolling along and whirling, then the stars, if they had a motion of their own, ought to move in one of these ways. But it appears that they move in neither of these ways. For if they whirled (rotated), they would remain [in] the same spot and not alter their position, and yet they mani- festly do so. . . . It would also be reasonable that all should [move! in the same motion, and yet among the stars the sun only seems to do so at 573 ASTRONOMY Aristotelian, Piolmaic and Copernican Theories ASTRONOMY its rising or setting. . . . The planets are so near that the eyesight reaches them in its full power, but when turned to the fixed stars it shakes on account of the distance, . . . now its shaking makes the motion seem to belong to the star, for it makes no difference whether . . . the sight or the seen object be in motion. But that the stars have not a rolling motion is evident ; for what- ever is rolling must of necessity be turning. — Dreyer. "Aristotle adopts the system of spheres of Eudoxus and Calippus, but seems to suppose these spheres to be concrete, and not a merely geometri- cal device for interpreting the phenomena or de- termining the positions. In order however to se- cure what he conceives to be the necessary rela- tion between the motions of the spheres, he is obliged to increa.^e their total number from 33 to not less than 55. The earth is tixed at the centre of the universe. That the earth is a sphere is shown logically, and is also evident to the senses. During eclipses of the moon, namely, the boundary hne, which shows the shadow of the earth, is always curved. ... If we travel even a short distance south or north, the stars over our heads show a great change, some being visible in Egypt, but not in more northern lands, and stars are seen to set in the south which never do so in the north. It seems therefore not incredible that the vicinity of the pillars of Hercules is connected with that of India, and that there is thus but one ocean. The bulk of the earth he considers to be 'not large in comparison with the size of the other stars.' The estimated circumference of 400,000 stadia — about 30,000 miles — is the earliest known estimate of the size of the earth, and is of unknown origin, but may quite likely be due to Eudoxus. While the heavens proper are characterized by fixed order and circular motion, the space below the moon's sphere is subject to continual change, and motions within it are in general rectilinear — a theory destined long to block progress in me- chanics. Of the four elements, earth is nearest the centre, water comes next, lire and air form the atmosphere, fire predominating in the upper part, air in the lower. In this region of fire are gen- erated shooting stars, auroras, and comets, the lat- ter consisting of ignited vapors, such as constitute the Milky Way. Against any orbital motion of the earth Aristotle urges the absence of any ap- parent displacement of the stars. Reviewing his astronomical theories, Dreyer says: — " 'His careful and critical examination of the opinions of previous philosophers makes us regret all the more that his search for the causes of phe- nomena was often a mere search among words, a series of vague and loose attempts to find what was according to nature and what was not; and even though he professed to found his speculations on facts, he failed to free his discussion of these from purely metaphysical and preconceived no- tions. It is, however, easy to understand the great veneration in which his voluminous writings on natural science were held for so many centuries, for they were the first, and for many centuries the only, attempt to systematize the whole amount of knowledge of nature accessible to mankind ; while the tendency to seek the principles of natural philosophy by considering the meaning of the words ordinarily used to describe the phenomena of nature, which to us is his great defect, appealed strongly to the mediaeval mind, and, unfortunately, finally helped to retard the development of science in the days of Copernicus and Galileo.' "At times Aristotle shows consciousness that his theones are based on inadequate knowledge of facts. 'The phenomena are not yet sufficiently in- vestigated. When they once shall be, then one must trust more to observation than to specula- tion, and to the latter no farther than it agrees with the phenomena.' . . . 'An astronomer,' he says, 'must be the wisest of men; his mind must be duly disciplined in youth ; especially is mathemati- cal study necessary; both an acquaintance with the doctrine of number, and also with that other branch of mathematics, which, closely connected as it is with the science of the heavens, we very absurdly call geometrv, the measurement of the earth.' "— W. T. Sedgwick and H. W. Tyler, Short history oj science, pp. &1-S2. A. D. 130-1609. — Ptolemaic and Copernican theories. — Popular ideas regarding astronomy in the Middle Ages. — Great discoveries of Johann Kepler. — "Ptolemy (130 .\. D.) wrote the Suntaxis [Syntaxis] or Almagest, which includes a cyclopaedia of astronomy, containing a summary of knowledge at that date. We have no evidence beyond his own statement that he was a practical observer. He theorised on the planetary motions, and held that the earth is fixecl in the centre of the universe. He ado|ited the exceniric and equant of Hipparchus to explain the unequal motions of the sun and moon. He adopted the epicycles and deferents which had been used by .\pollonius and others to explain the retrograde motions of the planets. We. who know that the earth revolves round the sun once a year, can understand that the apparent motion of a planet is only its mo- tion relative to the earth. If, then, we suppose the earth fixed and the sun to revolve round it once a year, and the planets each in its own period, it is only necessary to impose upon each of these an additional annual motion to enable us to rep- resent truly the apparent motions. . . . The cum- brous system advocated by Ptolemy answered its purpose, enabling him to predict astronomical events approximately. He improved the lunar theory considerably, and discovered minor inequal- ities which could be allowed for by the addition of new epicycles. We may look upon these epi- cycles of .ApoUonius, and the excentric of Hip- parchus, as the responses of these astronomers to the demand of Plato for uniform circular motions. Their use became more and more confirmed, until the seventeenth century, when the accurate obser- vations of Tycho Brahe enabled Kepler to abolish these purely geometrical makeshifts, and to sub- stitute a system in which the sun became physic- ally its controller." — G. Forbes, History of astron- omy, pp. 27-20. "In the early Church, in view of the doctrine so prominent in the New Testament, that the earth was soon to be destroyed, and that there were to be 'new heavens and a new earth,' astronomy, like other branches of science, was generally looked upon as futile. Why study the old heavens and the old earth, when they were so soon to be re- placed with somelhing infinitely better? This feel- ing appears in St. .Augustine's famous utterance, 'What concern is it to me whether the heavens as a sphere inclose the earth in the middle of the world or overhang it on either side?' As to the heavenly bodies, theologians looked on them as at best only objects of pious speculation. Regarding their nature the fathers of the Church were di- vided. Origen, and others with him. thoucht them living beings possessed of souls, and this belief was mainly based upon the scriptural vision of the morning stars singing together, and upon the beau- tiful appeal to the 'stars and light' in the song of the three children — the Benedicite- — which the An- glican communion has so wisely retained in its Liturgy. Other fathers thought the stars abiding- places of the angels, and that stars were moved by 574 ASTRONOMY Middle Ages Popular Ideas ASTRONOMY angels. The Gnostics thought the stars spiritual beings governed by angels, and appointed not to cause earthly events but to indicate them. "As to the heavens in general, the prevailing view in the Church was based upon the scriptural dec- larations that a soUd vault — a 'firmament' — was extended above the earth, and that the heavenly bodies were simply lights hung within it. This was for a time held very tenaciously. St. Philas- trius, in his famous treatise on heresies, pronounced it a heresy to deny that the stars are brought out by God from his treasure-house and hung in {he sky every evening ; any other view he declared 'false to the Catholic faith.' This view also sur- vived in the sacred theory established so firmly by Cosmas in the sixth century. Having estab- lished his plan of the universe upon various texts in the Old and New Testaments, and having made it a vast oblong box, covered by the solid 'firma- ment,' he brought in additional texts from Scrip- ture to account for the planetary movements, and developed at length the theory that the sun and planets are moved and the 'windows of heaven' opened and shut by angels appointed for that pur- pose. How intensely real this way of looking at the universe was, we find in the writings of St. Isidore, the greatest leader of orthodox thought in the seventh century. He affirms that since the fall of man, and on account of it, the sun and moon shine with a feebler light; but he proves from a text in Isaiah that when the world shall be fully redeemed these 'great lights' will shine again in all their early splendour. But, despite these authorities and their theological finalities, the evolution of scientific thought continued, its main germ being the geocentric doctrine — the doctrine that the earth is the centre, and that the sun and planets revolve about it. This doctrine was of the highest respectability: it had been developed at a very early period, and had been elaborated until it accounted well for the apparent movements of the heavenly bodies; its final name, 'Ptolemaic theory,' carried weight; and, having thus come from antiquity into the Christian world, St. Clem- ent of Alexandria demonstrated that the altar in the Jewish tabernacle was 'a symbol of the earth placed in the middle of the universe': nothing more was needed; the geocentric theory was fully adopted by the Church and universally held to agree with the letter and spirit of Scripture. Wrought into this foundation, and based upon it, there was developed in the Middle Ages, mainly out of fragments of Chaldean and other early theories preserved in the Hebrew Scriptures, a new sacred system of astronomy, which became one of the great treasures of the universal Church — the last word of revelation. Three great men mainly reared this structure. First was the un- known who gave to the world the treatises ascribed to Dionysius the Areopagite. "It was unhesitatingly believed that these were the work of St. Paul's Athenian convert, and there- fore virtually of St. Paul himself. Though now known to be spurious, they were then considered a treasure of inspiration, and an emperor of the East sent them to an emperor of the West as the most worthy of gifts. In the ninth century they were widely circulated in western Europe, and became a fruitul source of thought, especially on the whole celestial hierarchy. Thus thj old ideas of astronomy were vastly developed, and the heav- enly hosts were classed and named in accordance with indications scattered through the sacred Scriptures. "The next of these three great theologians was Peter Lombard, professor at the University of Paris. About the middle of the twelfth century he gave forth his collection of Sentences, or State- ments by the Fathers, and this remained until the end of the Middle Ages the universal manual of theology. In it was especially developed the theo- logical view of man's relation to the universe. The author tells the world: 'Just as man is made for the sake of God — that is, that he may serve Him, — so the universe is made for the sake of man — that is, that it may serve him; therefore is man placed at the middle point of the universe, that he may both serve and be served.' The vast sig- niticance of this view, and its power in resisting any real astronomical science, we shall see, es- pecially in the time of Galileo. The great triad of thinkers culminated in St. Thomas Aquinas — the sainted theologian, the glory of the mediaeval Church, the 'Angelic Doctor,' the most marvellous intellect between Aristotle and Newton; he to whom it was believed that an image of the Cruci- fied had spoken words praising his writings.' . . . With great power and clearness he brought the whole vast system, material and spiritual, into its relations to God and man. Thus was the vast sys- tem developed by these three leaders of mediaeval thought; and now came the man who wrought it yet more deeply into European belief, the poet divinely inspired who made the system part of the world's life. Pictured by Dante, the empyrean and the concentric heavens, paradise, purgatory, and hell, were seen of all men; the God Triune, seated on his throne upon the circle of the heavens, as real as the Pope seated in the chair of St. Peter; the seraphim, cherubim, and thrones, surrounding the Almighty, as real as the cardinals surrounding the Pope; the three great orders of angels in heaven, as real as the three great orders, bishops, priests, and deacons, on earth; and the whole system of spheres, each revolving within the one above it, and all moving about the earth, subject to the primum mobile, as real as the feudal sys- tem of western Europe, subject to the Emperor. ... Its first feature shows a development out of earlier theological ideas. The earth is no longer a flat plain inclosed by four walls and solidly vaulted above, as theologians of previous centuries had believed it, under the inspiration of Cosmas; it is no longer a mere flat disk, with sun, moon, and stars hung up to give it light, as the earlier cathe- dral sculptors had figured it; it has become a globe at the centre of the universe. Encompassing it are successive transparent spheres, rotated by angels about the earth, and each carrying one or more of the heavenly bodies with it: that nearest the earth carrying the moon; the next. Mercury; the next, Venus; the next, the sun; the next three. Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn ; the eighth carrying the fixed stars. The ninth was the primum mobile, and inclosing all was the tenth heaven — the Empy- rean. This was immovable — the boundary between creation and the great outer void ; and here, in a light which no one can enter, the Triune God sat enthroned, the 'music of the spheres' rising to Him as they moved. Thus was the old heathen doctrine of the spheres made Christian. ... All this vast scheme had been so riveted into the Ptolemaic view by the use of biblical texts and theological reasonings that the resultant system of the universe was considered impregnable and final. To attack it was blasphemy. It stood for centu- ries. Great theological men of science, like Vin- cent of Beauvais and Cardinal d'Ailly, devoted themselves to showing not only that it was sup- ported by Scripture, but that it supported Scrip- ture. Thus was the geocentric theory embedded in the beliefs and aspirations, in the hopes and fears, of Christendom down to the middle of the sixteenth century. . . . But, on the other hand, 575 ASTRONOMY Copernicus Opposition of the Church ASTRONOMY there had been planted, long before, the gerins of a heliocentric theory. In the sixth century before our era, Pythagoras, and after him Philolaus, had suggested the movement of the earth and planets about a central fire; and, three centuries later, Aristarchus had restated the main truth with strik- ing precision. Here comes in a proof that the antagonism between theological and scientific meth- ods is not confined to Christianity; for this state- ment brought upon Aristarchus the charge of blasphemy, and drew after it a cloud of preju- dice which hid the truth for six hundred years. Not until the fifth century of our era did it tim- idly appear in the thoughts of Martinus Capella; then it was again lost to sight for a thousand years, until in the fifteenth century, distorted and imperfect, it appeared in the writings of Cardinal Nicholas de Cusa. . . . Copernicus had been a pro- fessor at Rome, and even as early as 1500 had an- nounced his doctrine there, but more in the way of a scientific curiosity or paradox, as it had been COPERNICUS previously held by Cardinal de Cusa, than as the statement of a system representing a great fact in Nature, .\bout thirty years later one of his dis- ciples, Widmanstadt, had explained it to Clement VII ; but it still remained a mere hypothesis, and soon, like so many others, disappeared from the public view. But to Copernicus, steadily study- ing the subject, it became more and more a real- ity and as this truth grew within him he seemed to feel that at Rome he was no longer safe. To announce his discovery there as a theory or a paradox might amuse the papal court, but to an- nounce it as a truth — as the truth — was a far dif- ferent matter. He therefore returned to his little town in Poland. To publish his thought as it had now developed was evidently dangerous, even there, and for more than thirty years it lay slum- bering in the mind of Copernicus and of the friends to whom he had privately intrusted it. At last he prepared his great work on the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies, and dedicated it to the Pope himself. He next sought a place of publication. He dared not send it to Rome, for there were the rulers of the older Church ready to seize it ; he dared not send it to Wittenberg, for there were the leaders of Protestantism no less hostile ; he therefore intrusted it to Osiander, at Nuremberg. . . . But Osiander's courage failed him: he dared not launch the new thought boldly. He wrote a grovelling preface, endeavouring to excuse Coper- nicus for his novel idea, and in this he inserted the apologetic lie that Copernicus had propounded the doctrine of the earth's movement not as a fact, but as a hypothesis. He declared that it was lawful for an astronomer to indulge his imagina- tion, and that this was what Copernicus had done. Thus was the greatest and most ennobling, perhaps, of scientific truths — a truth not less ennobling to religion than to science — forced, in coming before the world, to sneak and crawl. On the 24th of May, IS43, the newly printed book arrived at the house of Copernicus. It was put into his hands; but he was on his deathbed. A few hours later he was beyond the reach of the conscientious men who would have blotted his reputation and perhaps have destroyed his life. . . . The preface of Osiander, pretending that the book of Copernicus suggested a hypothesis in- stead of announcing a truth, served its purpose well. During nearly seventy years the Church authorities evidently thought it best not to stir the matter, and in some cases professors like Calganini were allowed to present the new view purely as a hypothesis. There were, indeed, mutterings from time to time on the theological side, but there was no great demonstration against the system until 1616. Then, when the Copernican doctrine was upheld by Galileo as a truth, and proved to be a truth by his telescope, the book was taken in hand by the Roman curia. The statements of Coper- nicus were condemned, 'until they should be cor- rected'; and the corrections required were simply such as would substitute for his conclusions the old Ptolemaic theory. . . . Doubtless many will exclaim against the Roman Catholic Church for thus; but the simple truth is that Protestantism was no less zealous against the new scientific doc- trine. All branches of the Protestant Church — Lutheran, Calvinist, Anglican — vied with each other in denouncing the Copernican doctrine as contrary to Scripture ; and, at a later period, the Puritans showed the same tendency. Said Martin Luther: 'People gave ear to an upstart astrologer who strove to show that the earth revolves, not the heavens or the firmament, the sun and the moon. Whoever wishes to appear clever must de- vise some new system, which of all systems is of course the very best. This fool wishes to reverse the entire science of astronomy; but sacred Scrip- ture tells us that Joshua commanded the sun to stand still, and not the earth.' Melanchthon, mild as he was, was not behind Luther in condemning Copernicus. In his treatise on the Elements of Physrrs, published six years after Copernicus's death, he says: 'The eyes are witnesses that the heavens revolve in the space of twenty-four hours. But certain men, either from the love of novelty, or to make a display of ingenuity, have concluded that the earth moves; and they maintain that neither the eighth sphere nor the sun revolves. . . . Now, it is a want of honesty and decency to as- sert such notions publicly, and the example is pernicious. It is the part of a good mind to ac- cept the truth as revealed by God and to acquiesce in it.' Melanchthon then cites the passages in the Psalms and Ecclesiastes, which he declared assert positively and clearly that the earth stands fast and that the sun moves around it, and adds eight other proofs of his proposition that 'the earth can be nowhere if not in the centre of the uni- verse.' So earnest does this mildest of the Re- formers become, that he suggests severe measures 576 ASTRONOMY Telescope of Galileo Discoveries of Kepler ASTRONOMY to restrain such impious teachings as those of Copernicus. "While Lutheranism was thus condemning the theory of the earth's movement, other branches of the Protestant Church did not remain behind. Calvin took the lead, in his Commentary on Gen- esis, by condemning all who asserted that the earth is not at (he centre of the universe. He clinched the matter by the usual reference to the first verse of the ninety-third Psalm, and asked, 'Who will venture to place the authority of Copernicus above that of the Holy Spirit?' Turretin, Calvin's famous successor, even after Kepler and Newton had virtually completed the theory of Copernicus and Galileo, put forth his compendium of the- ology, in which he proved, from a multitude of scriptural texts, that the heavens, sun, and moon move about the earth, which stands still in the centre. . . . But the new truth could not be con- cealed; it could neither be laughed down nor frowned down. Many minds had received it, but within the hearing of the papacy only one tongue appears to have dared to utter ft clearly. This new warrior was that strange mortal, Giordano Bruno. He was hunted from land to land, until at last he turned on his pursuers with fearful invectives. For this he was entrapped at Venice, imprisoned .during six years in the dungeons of the Inquisition at Rome, then burned alive, and his ashes scat- tered to the winds. Still, the new truth lived on. Ten years after the martyrdom of Bruno the truth ,.qf Copernicus's doctrine was established by the -l^elescope of Galileo. Herein was fulfilled one of •tbe most touching of prophecies. Years before, '.the opponents of Copernicus had said to him, 'If yovT doctrines were true, Venus would show phases like the moon.' Copernicus answered; 'You are right; I know not what to say; but God is good, and will in time find an answer to this objection.' The God-given answer came when, in 1611, the rude telescope of Galileo showed the phases of Venus. . . . The war on the Copernican theory, which up to that time had been carried on quietly, now flamed forth. It was declared that the doc- trine was proved false by the standing still of the sun for Joshua, by the declarations that 'the foun- .dations of the earth are fixed so firm that they can not be moved,' and that the sun 'runneth about from one end of the heavens to the other.' But the little telescope of Galileo still swept the heav- ens, and another revelation was announced— the mountains and valleys in the moon. This brought on another attack. It was declared that this, and the statement that the moon shines by light re- flected from the sun, directly contradict the state- ment in Genesis that the moon is 'a great light.' . . . Still another struggle was aroused when the hated telescope revealed spots upon the sun, and their motion indicating the sun's rotation. Mon- signor Elci, head of the University of Pisa, for- bade the astronomer Castelli to mention these spots to his students. Father Busaeus, at the Univer- sity of Innspruck, forbade the astronomer Scheine"-, who had also discovered the spots and proposed a safe explanation of them, to allow the new dis- covery to be known there. At the College of Douay and the University of Louvain this dis- covery was expressly placed under the ban, and this became the general rule among the Catholic universities and colleges of Europe. The Spanish universities were especially intolerant of this and similar ideas, and up to a recent period their pres- entation was strictly forbidden in the most im- portant university of all^that of Salamanca." — A. D. White, History of the warfare of science with theology, pp. 114-118, 120-124, 126-127, 129- 130, 132-133. "New champions pressed on. Campanella, full of vagaries as he was, wrote his Apology for Galileo, though for that and other heresies, relig- ious and political, he seven times underwent tor- ture. And Kepler comes: he leads science on to greater victories. Copernicus, great as he was, could not disentangle scientific reasoning entirely from the theological bias: the doctrines of Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas as to the necessary superior- ity of the circle had vitiated the minor features of his system, and left breaches in it through which the enemy was not slow to enter ; but Kepler sees these errors, and by wonderful genius and vigour he gives to the world the three laws which bear his name, and this fortress of science is complete. He thinks and speaks as one inspired. His battle is severe. He is solemnly warned by the Protestant Consistory of Stuttgart 'not to throw Christ's king- dom into confusion with his silly fancies.' and as solemnly ordered to 'bring his theory of the world into harmony with Scripture': he is sometimes abused, sometimes ridiculed, sometimes imprisoned. Protestants in Styria and Wiirtemberg, Catholics in Austria and Bohemia, press upon him; but New- ton, Halley, Bradley, and other great astronomers follow, and to science remains the victory. Yet this did not end the war. During the seventeenth century, in France, after all. the splendid proofs added by Kepler, no one dared openly teach the Copernican theory, and Cassini, the great astrono- mer, never declared for it. In 1672 the Jesuit Father Riccioli declared that there were precisely forty-nine arguments for the Copernican theory and seventy-seven against it. Even after the be- ginning of the eighteenth century — long after the demonstrations of Sir Isaac Newton — Bossuet, the great Bishop of Meaux, the foremost theologian that France has ever produced, declared it con- trary to Scripture." — Ibid., pp. 153-154. "It is still well under four hundred years since the modern, or Copernican, theory of the universe supplanted the Ptolemaic, which had held sway during so many centuries. In this new theory, propounded towards the middle of the sixteenth century by Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543), a Prussian [Polish] astronomer, the earth was de- throned from its central position and considered merely as one of a number of planetary bodies which revolve around the sun. As it is not a part of our purpose to follow in detail the history of the science, it seems advisable to begin by stating in a broad fashion the conception of the universe as accepted and believed in to-day. The Sun, the most important of the celestial bodies so far as we are concerned, occupies the central posi- tion ; not, however, in the whole universe, but only in that limited portion which is known as the Solar System. Around it, in the following order outwards, circle the planets Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Nep- tune. At an immense distance beyond the solar system, and scattered irregularly through the depth of space, lie the stars. The two first-men- tioned members of the solar system. Mercury and Venus, are known as the Inferior Planets ; and in their courses about the sun, they always keep well inside the path along which our earth moves, f !)e remaining members (exclusive of the earth) 3re called Superior Planets, and their paths lie all outside that of the earth." — C. G. Dolmage, As- tronomy of to-day, pp. 20-22. "Johann Kepler is the name of the man whose place, as is generally agreed, would have been the most difficult to fill among all those who have con- tributed to the advance of astronomical knowl- edge. . . . Kepler's first great discovery was that the planes of all the orbits pass through the sun; 577 ASTRONOMY Heavenly Bodies ASTRONOMY his second was that the line of apses of each plan- et passes through the sun; both were contradictory to the Copernican theory. He proceeds cautiously with his propositions until he arrives at his great laws, and he concludes his book by comparing ob- servations of Mars, of all dates, with his theory. His first law states that the planets describe ellipses with the sun at a focus of each ellipse. His second law (a far more difficult one to prove) states that a line drawn from a planet to the sun sweeps over equal areas in equal times. These two laws were published in his great work, Astronomia Nova, seu Physica Coelestis Tradila Commentariis de Motibus Stellce Martis, Prague, 1609. It took him nine years more to discover his third law, that the squares of the periodic times are propor- tional to the cubes of the mean distances from the sun. These three laws contain implicitly the law of universal gravitation. They are simply an alternative way of expressing that law in dealing with planets, not particles. Only, the power of the greatest human intellect is so utterly feeble that the meaning of the words in Kepler's three laws could not be understood until expounded by the logic of Newton's dynamics." — G. Forbes, His- tory of astronomy, pp. 48-53. — See also Scienxe: Middle Ages and the Renaissance. 1781-1846. — Planets and Asteroids. — Constel- lations, comets and meteors. — "The five planets, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, have been known from all antiquity. Nothing then can bring home to us more strongly the immense ad- vance which has taken place in astronomy during modern times than the fact that it is only 127 years since observation of the skies first added a planet to that time-honoured number. It was indeed on the 13th of March, 1781, while engaged in observ- ing the constellation of the Twins, that the justly famous Sir William Herschel caught sight of an object which he did not recognise as havine met with before. He at first took it for a comet, but observations of its movements during a few days showed it to be a planet. This body, which the power of the telescope alone had thus shown to belong to the solar family, has since become known to science under the name of Uranus. By its dis- covery the hitherto accepted limits of the solar system were at once pushed out to twice their former extent, and the hope naturally arose that other planets would quickly reveal themselves in the immensities beyond. For a number of years prior to Herschel's great discovery, it had been noticed that the distances at which the then known planets circulated appeared to be arranged in a somewhat orderly progression outwards from the sun. This seeming plan, known to astronomers by the name of Bode's Law, was closely confirmed by the distance of the new planet Uranus. There still lay, however, a broad gap batween the planets Mars and Jupiter. Had another planet indeed circulated there, the solar system w'ould have pre- sented an appearance of almost perfect order. But the void between Mars and Jupiter was unfilled; the space in which one would reasonably expect to find another planet circling was unaccountably empty. On the first day of the nineteenth century the mystery was however explained, a body being discovered which revolved in the space that had hitherto been considered planetless. But it was a tiny globe hardly worthy of the name of planet. In the following vear a second body was dis- covered revolving in the same space; but it was even smaller in size than the first. During the ensuing five years two more of these little planets were discovered. Then came a pause, no more such bodies being added to the system until half- way through the century, when suddenly the dis- covery of these so called 'minor planets' began anew. Since then additions to this portion of our system have rained thick and fast. The small bodies have received the name of Asteroids or Planetoids; and up to the present time some six hundred of them are known to exist, all revolving in the previously unfilled space between Mars and Jupiter. "In the year 1S46 the outer boundary of the solar system was again extended by the discovery that a great planet circulated beyond Uranus. The new body, which received the name of Nep- tune, was brought to light as the result of calcula- tions made at the same time, though quite inde- pendently, by the Cambridge mathematician Adams, and the French astronomer Le Verrier. The discovery of Neptune differed, however, from that of Uranus in the following respect. Uranus was found merely in the course of ordinary tele- scopic survey of the heavens. The position of Neptune, on the other hand, was predicted as the result of rigorous mathematical investigations un- dertaken with the object of fixing the position of an unseen and still more distant body, the attrac- tion of which, in passing by, was disturbing the position of Uranus in its revolution around the sun. Adams actually completed his investigation first; but a delay at Cambridge in examining that portion of the sky, where he announced that the body ought just then to be, allowed France to snatch the honour of discovery, and the new planet was found by the observer Galle at Berlin, very near the place in the heavens which Le Ver- rier had mathematically predicted for it." — C. G. Dolmage, Astronomy of to-day, pp. 22-24. — "The most careless observer of the sky has noticed that the stars are not uniformly spread over it. Al- most everyone is familiar with the Big Dipper and the Pleiades, otherwise known as the Little Dip- per. These natural groups of stars were given names in antiquity by early observers and are called constellations. Their names often strike us as being most fantastic and far-fetched. Many of them are the names of wild animals. For example, we have the Great Bear, the Lesser Bear, the Lion, the Eagle, the Leopard, etc. . . . Comets are wan- dering bodies which pass around the sun, usually in sensibly parabolic orbits. If their orbits are exactly parabolas it means they have come in from the sun from an infinite distance, and will go out again to an infinite distance, never to re- turn. . . . While the statement is true that the great majority of comets move in sensibly para- bolic orbits, and that it is not certain that they move in exactly parabolic orbits, there are cer- tainly some which move in elliptical orbits. These comets come in from finite, through in some cases great distances and go out again to the same dis- tances. They return to the sun time after time, their periods of revolution depending upon the lengths of their orbits. There are a very few cases in which it seems that comets move in hyperbolic orbits, though there is some room for doubt re- garding the conclusion. ... If the comets, as a whole, move in parabolic orbits they can not be considered as permanent members of the solar system. On the other hand, if their orbits, instead of being parabolas, are very elongated ellipses they are permanent members of the system. The opin- ion seems to be growing among astronomers that the comets are actually in this sense permanent members of the solar system, though no rigorous proof of the statement is at present at hand. It has been seen that the orbits of the planets are all nearly in the same plane and that the planets re- volve around the sun in the same direction. In the case of comets it is quite different. Their or- 578 ASTRONOMY Laplacian and Planetesimal Theories ASTRONOMY bits lie in every plane and they revolve in all di- rections. There is no uniformity in their distribu- tion. The only thing that can be said is that there is a tendency for the perihelia of comet orbits to cluster on the side of the sun which is ahead in its motion through space. . . . Comets consist of a head containing in it, usually, a small bright nucleus, and a long tail streaming out in the direc- tion opposite to the sun. The head may vary anywhere from 10,000 miles up to more than 1,000,000 miles. The nucleus is generally a few hundred, and at the most a few thousand, miles in diameter. The tails are in length from a few millions up to more than 100,000,000 miles," — F. R. Moulton, Descriptive astronomy, pp. 660, 185-186. "Occasionally, on a clear night, a long trail of light flashes for a moment across the sky. This is the well-known phenomenon of the 'falling'- or 'shooting-star.' Sometimes, in a tremendous blaze and with a great rushing sound, often almost explosive, a mass of stone or metal hurls from the sky to the Earth, is found, and called a meteorite, an aerolite, a bolide, or half a dozen other tech- nical names. They are really all one and the same thing — a meteor. The meteors are particles of matter of various sizes and compositions, revolv- ing through the Solar System in regular orbits, usually very elliptical. Most of them travel in swarms, and it is when the Earth meets such that we have the 'shower of shooting stars.' The orbits of most of these swarms are well-known. The visibility of a meteor depends entirely upon its collision with the atmosphere of the Earth at very high speed — up to 40 miles a second. This, by the great friction, generates a terrific heat, and the meteor (i) is either dissipated in fine dust, (which is often found on the Arctic ice) or, (2) if it be a large one, reaches the surface of the Earth as a much pitted and scarred mass of stone or metal, or, (3) only grazing the atmosphere, passes out before being entirely consumed. The Earth is undergoing a constant meteoric bombardment, and were it not for our protective atmospheric shield, we undoubtedly should suffer greatly." — E. W. Putnam, Essence of astronomy, pp. loo-ioi. 1796-1921. — Laplacian and planetesimal hy- potheses of the origin of the solar system. — Nebulse. — Sun. — Moon. — "In outline the theory of Laplace [1749-1S27] is that originally the solar atmosphere was a nebulous envelope in an in- tensely heated condition, and that it extended out beyond the orbit of the farthest planet. He sup- posed the whole mass rotated as a solid, in the direction in which the planets now revolve. It was supposed in this theory that the dimensions of the system were maintained by gaseous expan- sions the same as the dimensions of the sun or the earth's atmosphere are at present. This great nebulous mass would lose heat by radiation into space and consequently would contract. ... If a mass rotates faster, the tendency for the material at its equalor to fly off because of the centrifugal acceleration continually increases. Laplace said that it seemed reasonable that the contracting solar mass would reach such a state that this tendency of the particles at its equator to fly out would exactly balance their tendency to go in because of the attraction of the mass interior to it. When this state was reached he supposed a ring would be left off. . . . Unless the ring were perfectly circular and uniform, and subject to no disturbing influences, it would have a tendency to break, Laplace thought, at some place and to concentrate on the place in it where there was the greatest mass. That is, if there were a nucleus unit at any point, this excess of matter would gradually draw to it all the rest of the whole ring, while it would continue to revolve around the sun in the same period as the ring did at the time it was aban- doned. . . . Laplace then supposed the system of planets grew up from a system of rings abandoned successively by the sun, beginning with the outer- most and ending with the innermost. The rings concentrating would give rise to large, globular masses revolving around the sun at their respective distances from it. These globular masses might in turn be rotating so rapidly that they would abandon rings which in a similar manner would give rise to satellites. He supposed that perhaps Saturn's rings were examples of this process in which the satellites were not yet formed. . . . The solar system exists and is in the midst of an evo- lution ; the problem is to trace out the mode of this evolution. The Laplacian theory has been seen to have fatal weaknesses and to be no longer ten- able. We shall now outline a theory which has been developed by Professor Chamberlin and the author to take its place. "Instead of supposing that the solar system started from a vast gaseous mass in equilibrium under the law of gravitation and the laws of gas- eous expansion, the Planetesimal Hypothesis postu- lates that the matter of which the sun and clanets are composed was at a previous stage of its evolu- tion in the form of a great spiral swarm of sep- arate particles whose positions and motions were dependent upon their mutual gravitation and their velocities. Gaseous expansion preserved the di- mensions of the Laplacian nebula but had no sen- sible influence in the spiral. Because of the fact that every particule according to this theory is considered as being an essentially independent unit it is called the planetesimal theory. Before con- sidering in detail the planetesimal hypothesis . . . attention should be called to the fact that there is not in all the heavens a single example known of a nebula of the Laplacian type. On the other hand, recent discoveries, particularly those made at the Lick Observatory, show that the spiral nebu- la is not only a common form but is, indeed, the dominant type. There are within range of our instruments at least ten times as many of them as of all other types combined, and they range in extent and brightness from the great Andromeda nebula down to small faint masses which are barely distinguishable with long exposure photograph; taken with the most powerful instruments." — F. R. Moulton, Descriptive astronomy, pp. 23Q- 244. "In the star-catalogs of the early writers [before the eighteenth century] we find mentioned a class of 'nebulous or cloudy stars.' The telescope proved that the very great majority of these are merely clusters of stars so apparently close together that they shine, except under fairly high magnification, as a blur of misty light. With the improvement of the telescope, however, many other 'patches of light' were found, some of which could be resolved into separate stars, while others could not. The former of these were called star-clusters, and the latter nebulae. There are many thousands of these nebula;; but only about ten thousand of them have been cataloged, and only two are visible to the naked eyes, the great nebula in Andromeda, and the great Orion nebula. For many years (until the end of the eighteenth century], the ne- bula; were considered as anomalies in the cosmic system. Now, however, they are believed to be a regular and usual step in stellar evolution. It is considered that they are stellar systems in embryo." ■ — E, W, Putnam, Essence of astronomy, pp. 128- 129, "The sun is the chief member of our system. It 579 ASTRONOMY Solar system ASTRONOMY controls the motions of the planets by its im- mense gravitative power. Besides this it is the most important body in the entire universe, so far as we are concerned; for it pours out con- tinually that flood of light and heat, without which life, as we know it, would quickly become extinct upon our globe. ... It is extremely difficult to arrive at a precise notion of the temperature of the body of the sun. However, it is far in e.xcess of any temperature which we can obtain here, even in the most powerful electric furnace. A rough idea of the solar heat may be gathered from the calculation that if the sun's surface were coated all over with a layer of ice 4000 feet thick, it would melt through this completely in one hour. The sun cannot be a hot body merely cooling; for the rate at which it is at present giving off heat could not in such circumstances be kept up, ac- cording to Professor Moullon (1914), for more than jooo years. Further, it is not a mere burn- ing mass, like a coal fire, for instance; as in that case about a thousand years would show a certain drop in temperature. Xo perceptible diminution of solar heat having taken place within historic experience, so far as can be ascertained, we are driven to seek some more abstruse explanation. The theory which seems to have received most ac- ceptance is that put forward by Helmholtz in 1S54. His idea was that gravitation produces continual contraction, or falling in of the outer parts of the sun; and that this falling in, in its turn, generates enough heat to compensate for what is being given off. The calculations of Helmholtz showed that a contraction of about 100 feet a year from the surface towards the centre would suffice for the purpose. In recent years, however, this estimate has been extended to about iSo feet. Nevertheless, even with this increased figure, the shrinkage re- quired is so slight in comparison with the im- mense girth of the sun, that it would take a con- tinual contraction at this rate for about 6000 years, to show even in our finest telescope that any change in the size of that body was taking place at all. Upon this assumption of continuous con- traction, a time should, however, eventually be reached when the sun will have shrunk to such a degree of solidity, that it will not be able to shrink any further. Then, the loss of heat not being made up for any longer, the body of the sun should begin to grow cold. But we need not be d'.stressed on this account ; for it will take some 10.000,000 years, according to the above theory, before the solar orb becomes too cold to support life upon our earth." — C. G. Dolmage, Astronomy of to-day, pp. I27-I2q. "The Moon is the only visible satellite of the Earth, and revolves about it. . . . The diameter of the Moon is 2,162 miles; like Venus and Mercury it shows no polar flattening. Its surface contains about 15,000,000 square miles, about one thirteenth that of the Earth. Its volume is about one fiftieth that of the Earth. ... Its mean distance from the Earth is nearly 230000 miles. Its orbit, like all celestial orbits, is more or less elliptical and its distance may van.' between slightly more than 221,000 miles and 253,000 miles. Its usual varia- tion is such, however, that in one revolution it amounts to a difference in distance from us of about 25,000 miles. It revolves around the Earth in 27 days 7 hours 43 minutes and 11.5 seconds. It rotates upon its axis in the same time, and, in consequence, always keeps the same side turned to the Earth, as do Mercury and Venus to the Sun. ... It has no atmosphere, or at least, if any, but the veriest ghost of one. It is for this reason that the details of the lunar surface are so clear-cut when viewed through a telescope, and that the shadows are so intensely black. . . . The surface of the moon is broken into great mountain ranges, enormous 'craters,' wide and deep cracks or 'clefts,' and innumerable smaller cracks or rills. The whole of its visible surface has been mapped and measured more carefully and accurately than that of the Earth, and over 30.000 craters have been counted on the Earthw'ard hemisphere. . . . The height of the mountains is enormous in proportion to the size of the Moon, several being over 18,000 feet high. The craters vary in size from tiny pits to vast cavities over 100 miles in diameter. Many of the larger craters have great central mountain peaks rising from their floors, and many others show smaller craters within their boundaries." — E. W. Putnam, Essence of astronomy, pp. 38-45. Photographic astronomy. — "If we speak of the progress of astronomy in the past fifty years, we must constantly refer to photography, for without it the progress would have been relatively small. Photography as it was when the Dearborn Ob- servatory was young could never have done much for astronomy. It has passed through two periods, the wet and dry processes. It was in the earlier period at that time, where the plate must remain wet throughout the process of making the nega- tive, and was relatively very slow in its action. .\s the plate must remain wet, long exposures could not be given to overcome the want of sensitive- ness. At that time, in the hands of Rutherford, it had pictured the surface of the Moon and had recorded the spots on the Sun. In both these cases there was plenty of light. It had had a try at the Stars but with little success. It had at- tempted to show the great comet of 1858 but had made a failure of it. \o one had even hoped that it could register the forms of the fainter nebulae. It had made no promise to the spectroscope, which itself was just beginning to awaken to the marvels of astronomy. In the application of photography to almost every branch of astronomy the Harvard College Observatory, under the administration of Prof. E. C. Pickering, has attained to the very highest importance. In the case of the discovery of a nova, its early history and the actual time of its appearance within close limits are always found on the plates of this one observatory. The entire history of a variable star can be traced back al- most from day to day for many years and in some cases for over a quarter of a century. Though no new worlds, in the ordinar>' sense, have been discovered there have been added to the known worlds at least eight new moons, five to the planet Jupiter, one to Saturn, and two to Mars. Five of these are due to the sensitiveness of the photographic plate. At least two of them have not yet been seen with the human eye. The known asteroids or small planets, which lie in a zone between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, have increased rapidly until not far from a thousand are now known. The discovery of these small bodies since i8g2, when Dr. Max Wolf first found one by the new process, has been almost wholly due to photography. New ones are constantly being found. Sometimes as many as five or six are shown on one plate. Our knowledge of the Sun has increased tremendously in recent years. This has been due almost entirely to the spectro- scope and to its applications to the spectro helio- graph. The spectroscope has introduced to us a new class of double stars, whose periods in many cases are only a few hours or a few days, and which will never be seen separately with any tele- scope — E. E. Barnard, A few astronomical events of the past fifty years (Scientific American Supple- ment, Dec. 16, iqi6). — See also .^stfol.^be. "The discovery of double and multiple stars 580 ASTRONOMY Photography in Modern Research ASTRONOMY from the effects of the gravitational attraction on their luminous components is known as the 'As- tronomy of the Invisible.' It was first suggested by the illustrious Bessel about 1840. . . . The greatest extension of the Astronomy of the Invisible has been made by Professor Campbell, of the Lick Observatory. In the course of the regular work on the motion of stars in the line of sight, carried out with a powerful spectroscopic apparatus pre- sented to the Observatory by Hon. D. O. Mills, of New York, he has investigated . . . the motion of several hundred of the brighter stars of the northern heavens. . . . With such unprecedented telescopic power and a degree of precision in the spectrograph which can be safely depended upon, it is not unnatural that some new and striking phenomena should be disclosed. These consisted of a large number of spectra with double lines, which undergo a periodic displacement, showing "The development of planetary astronomy has not been in keeping with the rapid progress of the science in almost all other directions. This has been due mainly to the fact that, as in the case with the double stars, the magnifying power of the telescopic eyepiece is a necessary factor in the work. The direct image formed by the object glass must be magnified before the components of a close double star can be seen — and the close double stars in general are the most interesting. In the same way the unmagnified image of a planet is so small even in the largest telescopes that the surface features either cannot be seen or are so crowded together that they become one on the photograph. To overcome this difficulty the direct image of a planet must be magnified before it falls on the sensitive plate. Much progress has been made in this direction by the use of a sec- ondary enlarging lens which projects an enlarged MOUNT WILSON SOLAR OBSERVATORY that the stars in question were in reality double, made up of two components, moving in opposite directions, — one approaching, the other receding from the Earth. There were thus disclosed spec- troscopic binary stars, systems with components so close together that they could not be separated in any existing telescope, yet known to be real binary stars by the periodic behaviour of the lines of the spectra so faithfully registered on different days. . . . "Campbell's work at the Lick Observatory de- rives increased importance from its systematic character, which enables us to draw some general conclusions of the greatest interest. He has thus far made known the results of his study of the spectra of two hundred and eighty of the brighter stars of the northern heavens. Out of this num- ber he finds thirty-one spectroscopic binaries, or one ninth of th? whole number of objects studied." — T. J. J. See, Recent progress in astronomy {At- lantic Jltonthly, January, IQ02). image of the planet directly on the plate. This process was first used with considerable success by Prof. W. H. Pickering at the temporary station of Harvard University on Mount Wilson in 1889. He secured fairly good enlarged images of Saturn and excellent ones of Jupiter at that time with the thirteen inch Boyden telescope and a positive eyepiece to enlarge the image. The real advance in planetary photography, however, is due to Lampland at the Lowell Observatory, who has succeeded in making excellent photographs of the planets — especially of Mars. Similar work has also been carried out at Mount Wilson bv Prof. Hale and at the Yerkes Observatory. Astrono- mers with usual telescopes are greatly indebted to color-filter photography, as adapted by Richey at the Yerkes Observatory to ordinary refractors, which from their nature were not intended for photography. The splendid photographs of the Moon and of the star clusters made by him with the forty-inch telescope were a great advance over 581 ASTRONOMY Measuring the Stars ASTRONOMY earlier work with regular photographic telescopes. This simple application of the color-filter ami the isochromatic plate has made the forty-inch tele- scope one of the most important instruments for the determination of the distances of the fixed stars. Photographic parallax work was first done with it by Dr. Frank Schlesinger, who showed the remarkable accuracy that could be obtained by this method. Van Moanen has shown that par- allax determinations made with the five-foot re- flector of the Solar Observatory at Mount Wilson (a regular photographic telescope) are of the very highest accuracy. Astronomers now know quite accurately the distances of a large number of the fixed stars. In this way we find that it is not always the brightest stars that are nearest to us. A considerable percentage of the nearest stars are not visible to the naked eye. There are perhaps (if we leave out the work of the spectroscope) no astronomical subjects that have been so vastly benefitted by photography as the nebulcE and the comets — the comets and the nebulfc, which at times look so much alike and at other times are so wonderfully different, and which have no relation- ship in reality. The ordinary photographic plate is sensitive to a region of the spectrum to which the eye is almost blind. Many of the nebula; shine mostly with this light and thus the photograph has a great advantage over the eye, for though seen but dimly they are bright to the photographic plate. Faint ncbulasities whose light could never affect the eye, are finally shown as a clear and accurate picture which can be preserved and stud- ied afterwards for the detection of changes in these bodies." In 1908 appeared Morehouse's comet "which in the telescope was a rather in- significant affair, and which was only feebly visible to the naked eye for almost one day. This object has given us a greater knowledge of the physical conditions of these bodies than all other comets that have appeared. The photographic plate was especially sensitive to its light, while the eye was not. A bewildering amount of structure was shown in its tail, which was frequently twisted and dis- torted in its rapid changes. Several times the tail was discarded and new ones formed within a few hours' time. All of these remarkable peculiarities would have been wholly unknown were it not been for the photographic plate. Through the informa- tion thus gained from this comet and others that preceded it we have learned that though comets are dependent on the Sun for most of their ac- tivity, they really take a larger part in the forma- tion of the tail and the direction of the streamers than we had previously given them credit for. These photographs show that perhaps electrical conditions have much to do with the phenomena of a comet's tail. They also suggest that other forces are at w-ork in the interplanetary spaces than gravity alone. The investigations of Kapteyn on the star streams of the sky gives us an insight into the makeup of our stellar universe that is new, impressive, and of the utmost importance." — E. E. Barnard, A few nstronomical events of the past fifty years (Scientific American Supplement, Dec. 16, 1916). — In 1Q14, the ninth satellite of Jup- iter was discovered, in a photographic search con- ducted by Nicholson at the Lick Observatory in California. The satellite accomplishes its revolu- tion in three years, and is the most distant of the satellites. Like the eighth, it has a retrograde motion. In iqis, from perturbations in the orbit of Uranus, Professor Percival Lowell calculated that a trans-Neptunian planet exists with an orbit about 12,000,000,000 miles in diameter. Measuring star distances. — Parallax method. — The parallax of a star is its apparent dbplace- ment in the sky due to the change in the earth's position in its orbit. It is the angle that 93,- 000,000 miles, the distance from the earth to the sun, subtends at the star. Viewed from the vast majority of the stars this base-line shrinks to an immeasurable point. The direct measurement of the parallax of the stars by the triangulation method, by which the star's displacement at dif- ferent times of year is determined either pho- tographically or visually with reference to faint stars so distant as to have zero parallax, is pos- sible only for a few stars near the solar system. The distances of nearly a thousand stars have been determined with more or less accuracy by this method. Since to express the distance of the stars in miles would be as cumbersome and mean- ingless as to express the distance from the earth to the moon or neighboring planets in inches, a new unit for the measurement of stellar dis- tances has been found in the velocity of light. In one second light travels 186,000 miles, in one year it travels nearly six trillion miles. The dis- tance light travels in one year is spoken of as the light year. The triangulation method is long and tedious and care must be taken to avoid sys- tematic as well as accidental errors. The finally determined parallax is usually the result of a large number of independent measurements. At a meeting of the Royal Society on November 6, igiOi its president. Sir J. J. Thompson, is reported to have stated that the Einstein theory was the greatest discovery in connection with gravitation since Newton enunciated that principle. "The Einstein theory may be said to have its origin in an effort to explain the experiment on the so-called ether-drift, made by Professors Michelson and Morely somewhat more than thirty years ago (1S99) at the Western Reserve University. Michel- son suggested that the negative result of the experiment could be accounted for by supposing that the apparatus underwent a shortening in the direction of the line of motion. Later Pro- fessor Lorenz, the Dutch physicist, assumed that everything gets shortened as it moves through space; that the 8.000 miles of the earth diameter is shortened up by three or four inches, an amount sufficient io provide a scientific explanation for the failure of the Michelson and Mofely attempt to detect that the earth was moving through the elher. Then Einstein proposed his generalization that it is impossible to detect the effects of motion, except when it is relative to another material body, or that it is impossible to detect the absolute velocity of any body moving through space." — Principle of relativity and the deflection of light by gravitation {Scientific Monthly, December, 1919, pp. 586-587). — Since the exposition of this theory, photographic plates, taken during the solar eclipse of May 29, igig, show a deflection of the rays of light from the .stars in their passage past the sun that accords with the theoretical degree, 1.7 second of arc, predicted by the relativity theory of Einstein. It has also been confirmed by observation of the motion of the planet Mercury which is in accord with the theory of relativity, but cannot be ac- counted for on the exact assumptions of New- ton's law of gravitation. Measuring the size of stars. — Michelson's dis- coveries. — Measuring of Betelgeuse. — "Pro- fessor Albert A. Michelson of the University _ of Chicago, speaking before the .American Association for the Advancement of Science, on Dec. 29 [1920], told of his achievement in measuring the sizes of stars, and of the astounding results shown by his measurement of Betelgeuse (Alpha Orionis), the dull red star in the upper shoulder of Orion. 582 ASTRONOMY ASTURIAS The distances of stars have long been measured by means of the parallax, the angle between lines made by viewing a star from two different TELESCOPE TOWER, PASADENA, CALIFORNIA A tower built within a tower, to prevent wind vibration points; but until the perfection of Professor Michelson's 'interferometer' [1887] there had been no known means of direct measurement of a star's size. He had been using this instrument for some years in spectroscopic analysis, and even in de- termining the diameter of Jupiter's satellites; but its chief triumph came last Summer at the Mount Wilson Observatory in Southern Cahfornia, when he succeeded in measuring Betelgeuse, "If the professor's instrument is correct — and he believes it is — the diameter of Betelgeuse is 260,- 000,000 miles, «r 300 times the diameter of our sun, making its volume 27,000,000 times that of the sun. In other words, if Betelgeuse were placed where our sun now is, its solid sphere would extend far beyond the whole ■ orbit in which the earth swings, out almost to the orbit of Mars. "Professor Michelson used the eight-foot reflect- ing telescope of the observatory, with the mirror of the telescope obscured by an opaque cap, in which were two slits adjustable in width and dis- tance apart. Thus, when the telescope was focused on a star, it showed, instead of an image of the star, a series of interference bands arranged at equal distances apart and parallel to the two slits. He separated the sUts to a distance at which the fringes disappeared. Then, by a simple formula, he obtained the angle subtended by the star. The distance of the star had been obtained long before by the parallax method, and, having both the distance and the angle, he readily cal- culated the star's diameter, approximately. In its perfected form the interferometer attachment to the telescope has two adjustable mirrors instead of the slits. The great service of the inter- ferometer is that it obviates the atmospheric tremor which has been the chief obstacle in the way of measurements. Heretofore star diameters have been calculated, but have never been actu- ally measured. "This achievement by Professor Michelson is the crowning one among many in his long years of experimentation in the phenomena of light. It was the Michelson-Morely light experiment which raised the problem out of which grew the famous Einstein theory of relativity." — New York Times Current History, March, 1021. — For further dis- cussion see Astrology; and Science: Modern: 20th century: Astronomy. International societies for I'esearch. See In- ternational ORGANIZATION OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH. ASTROWNO, Battle of. See Austria: 1809- 1814. ASTRUC, Jean (1684-1766), distinguishes Elo- hist and Jahwish records in Genesis. See History: 14. ASTURIAS, Princes of.— In 1388 the heir of Juan I, Prince Henry, was married to the English duke of Lancaster's daughter. "Thus was the conflict of Pedro I and Henry II [rivals for the crown of Castile, 1363-1369] resolved. Their descendants, though tainted with illegitimacy in both cases, had joined to form the royal family Df Spain. The young prince and his consort took the titles of Prince and Princess of Asturias, which have been used ever since by the heirs to the Spanish throne." — C. E. Chapman, History of Spain, p. 121. ASTURIAS, ASTURIANS.— "It has usually been held, although the matter is in dispute, that the Visigoths resisted the invaders continuously at only one point in Spain, — in Asturias. In the moun- tains of Asturias there gathered various nobles , of the centre and south of Spain, a number of bishops, and the remains of the defeated Chris- tian armies, and, aided perhaps by the natives of that land, they prepared to make a stand against the Moslems. . . . Since the invaders re- spected the religion and customs of the conquered, 583 ASTURIAS ASYLUM the war of the Christian kingdom of Asturias against them did not at first have a religious or even a racial character. It was a war of the nobles and clergy for the reconquest of their landed estates and of the king for the restora- tion of his royal authority over the peninsula. The little Asturian kingdom was like the old Visigothic state in miniature; for example, there were the struggles between the nohility and the crown for precisely the same objects as formerly. For a century the history of Asturias reduced itself primarily to these quarrels. Nevertheless, the Moslem frontier tended to withdraw from the far northwest, not that the Moslems were forced out by the Christians, but possibly be- cause their own civil wars drew them together in the centre and south, or because their num- bers were not great enough to make them seek the less desirable lands in the northwest. The frontier became fixed south of the Douro along a line running through Coimbra, Coria, Talavera, Toledo, Guadalajara, and Pamplona, although the last-named place was not long retained. It can- not be said that the Christians took a conscious offensive until the eleventh century. In this period, despite the internal dissension of the Moslem state, the Christian frontier did not pass the Guadarrama Mountains e%'en at the most favorable moments, leaving Aragon and central and southern Spain in the enemy's hands. The line of the Douro was far from being held con- sistently, — as witness the conquests of Abd-er- Rahman III and Almansor. The only notable kings of Asturias in the century following the death of Pelayo (737) were Alfonso I 'the Cath- olic' (73g-7S7) and Alfonso II 'the Chaste' (701- 842). Both made successful campaigns against the Moslems, although their principal importance was that they brought back many Mozarabes [as the Christians living under Moslem rule were called] from the temporarily conquered regions, and these helped to populate the north. [See also Spain: 713-QSo.] To assure his power Alfonso II sought an alliance with the Holy Roman Em- peror, Charlemagne, and with his son, Louis the Pious. It is this which gave rise to the legend of Bernardo del Carpio, who is said to have compelled the king to forbear making treaties with foreign rulers which lowered the dignity of the Spanish people. Some writers have found in this supposed incident (for the figure of Bernardo Is a later invention) an awakening sense of na- tionalism, but it seems rather to reflect the tradi- tional attitude of the nobility lest the king be- come too strong for them, for real patriotism did not exist. The two Alfonsos did much to reorganize their kingdom internally, and .Mfonso the Chaste moved the capital to Oviedo. In his reign, too, there occurred a religious event of great importance, — the finding of what was believed to be the tomb and body of the apostle Santiago (Saint James) in northwestern Galicia. The site was made the seat of a bishopric, and a village grew up there, named Santiago de Com- postela. Compostela became a leading political and industrial factor in the Christian northwest, but was far more important as a holy place of the first grade, ranking with Jerusalem, Rome and Loreto. Thenceforth, bands of pilgrims not only from Spain but also from all parts of the Christian world came to visit the site, and, .through them, important outside influences began *o filter into Spain. More noteworthy still was the use of the story of the miraculous discovery to fire the Christian warriors with enthusiasm in their battles against the Moslems, especially at a later period, when the war entered upon more of a crusading phase." — C. E. Chapman, History of Spain, pp. 54-55- — See also Canta- BRIANS AND AsTURIANS. 1833. — The Province of Asturias received the name of Oviedo, the capital; total area, 4,205 square miles; population (1018), 715,476. ASTURIAS, a British hospital ship attacked on February i; 1915, by a German submarine. This act was declared by the German ambassador at Washington to have resulted from an error.— See also World War: Miscellaneous auxiliary serv- ices; X. Alleged atrocities and violations of inter- national law: e. ASTY, or Astu. — The ancient city of Athens proper, as distinguished from its connected har- bors, was called the Asty, or Astu. — J. A. St. John, Hellenes, bk. i, ch. 4. Also in: W. M. Leake, Topography of Athens, sect. 10. ASTYAGES, king of the Median empire, 584- 549 B.C.; defeated and dethroned the following year by Cyrus the Great, who, according to Herodotus was his (Astyages") grandson. With Media annexed to Persia Cyrus restored Astyages to favor and appointed him satrap of Hyrcania. — See also Persia: B.C. 54Q-521. ASTYNOMI, certain police officials in ancient Athens, ten in number. "They were charged with all that belongs to street supervision, e. g., the cleansing of the streets, for which purpose the coprologi, or street-sweepers, were under their orders ; the securing of morality and decent be- haviour in the streets," — G. F. Schomann, An- tiquities of Greece: The State, pt. 3, ch. 3. ASUNCION, Nuestra Seiiora de la, the capital of Paraguay, situated on the Paraguay river; founded in 1536 and served as center of Spanish dominion for the following one hundred years. The city is an important commercial cen- ter being connected with Buenos Aires and Monte- video by a number of river steamship lines. See Latin America: Map; Par.^guay: 1515-1557; and 1Q02-IQ15. ASUNDEN, Battle of (1520). See Scandi- na\ian States; 1307-1522. ASURIA. See Assyria: The Land. ASYLUM, Right of.— The ancient Greeks held that all temples and altars were inviolable, and that the curse of the gods would rest upon him who took a suppliant from an altar or temple by force. This curse would be transmitted to the descendants of the one who did violence to a suppliant. The curse rested upon the descend- ants of Megacles, archon of Athens, for fully two centuries. .'Vbuses of this right of sanctuary led to the limiting of the number of temples that gave perfect security to the refugee. When Greece came under Roman rule the number of such temples was further reduced. Under the Roman Empire the eagles of the legions and the statues of the emperors gave similar protection. The right of asylum or sanctuary was attached to Christian churches and churchyards. Immunity from arrest when asylum is sought on board vessels of war. — "Under the general rule of international law and courtesy it is con- sidered wrong to offer or afford an asylum to a criminal or to a person charged solely with a crime against the state in whose friendly waters a vessel of war happens to be for the time. If, however, a criminal of any kind succeeds in get- ting on board a foreign vessel of war, he can- not be apprehended or followed on board by the police or local authorities. The commanding officer has a right to judge for himself whether the crime charged as non-political is so or is only used as a pretext to prevent asylum being 584 ASYLUM Vessels of War Legations and Embassies ASYLUM granted lO' a person in flight for his life on ac- count of his political acts. The regulations of the United States navy read as follows upon this subject: 'The right of asylum for political or other refugees has no foundation in international law. In countries, however, where frequent in- surrections occur and constant instability of gov- ernment exists, usage sanctions the granting of asylum; but even in the waters of such coun- tries, officers should refuse all applications for asylum except when required by the interests of humanity in extreme or exceptional cases, such as the pursuit of a refugee by a mob. Officers must not, directly or indirectly, invite refugees to accept asylum.' It is hardly necessary to add that a rigid impartiality should prevail in all such cases between political parties, and that refugees granted asylum should not be allowed to open nor maintain communication with the shore for political or any other purpose. In for- mer times, when slavery existed in countries that were classed as enlightened, it was customary to surrender fugitive slaves who had sought refuge on board vessels of war. This was urged as a policy of the United States in the earlier days of the republic. Since slavery is now practically abolished by all members of the family of nations, the right of such slaves to refuge and freedom has become the usage. By Article 28 of the general act of the Brussels conference relative to the African slave trade, signed July 2, i8qo, and ratified by the United States and most of the civilized states, it is agreed that any slave who may have taken refuge on board a ship of war flying the flag of one of the signatory powers shall be immediately and definitely freed. Such freedom, however, shall not withdraw him from the competent jurisdiction if he has committed a crime or offence at common law. Before clos- ing this portion of the subject which deals with the conduct and privileges and obligations of the officers and men of a man-of-war in foreign ports, it is well to give an article of the United States Navy Regulations upon the subject of their deal- ings with foreigners when in foreign ports. The <:ommander-in-chief of a fleet, or in his absence Ihe commanding officer, is directed to 'impress upon all officers and men that when in foreign ports it is their duty to avoid all possible causes .of offence to the authorities or inhabitants; that due deference must be shown by them to the local laws, customs, ceremonies, and regulations; Ihat in all dealings with foreigners moderation and courtesy should be displayed, and that a feeling of good-will and mutual respect should be cul- tivated.' No officer or man can be allowed to violate the jurisdiction on shore by arresting or attempting to arrest a deserter or straggler from his vessel. If any officer or member of the crew while on shore commits an offence against the laws of the country, the local author- ities have jurisdiction over such persons while they are on shore and may cause them to be arrested while there and to be tried and punished in accordance with the laws of the foreign state. The commanding officer of the vessel, or the ad- miral if he should be present, should be at once informed of the arrest and the causes which led to it, so that either he or the diplomatic or consular agents of his government may procure the return of the person accused to his vessel or be enabled to observe the manner of treat- ment and trial. If the offender, however, escapes to his vessel he cannot be apprehended by the local authorities; but the commanding officer can, if he sees fit, without loss of dignity or prestige, surrender the offender for trial and punishment by the local courts, or the matter can be left to the usual diplomatic channels, as mentioned above." — C, H. Stockton, Outlines of international law, pp. 163-164. Right of asylum in legations and embaSsiei. — "The privileges of immunity from local juris- diction do not embrace the right of asylums for persons outside of a representative's diplo- matic or personal household. In regard to the right of asylum Bynkershoek states very strongly 'that, whether common sense, the reason of the thing, or the end and object of embassies be considered, there is not even that faint color of reason which the most absurd pretensions can generally put forth to be alleged in favor of such a custom.' Spain seems to be the only na- tion in Europe in which the right of asylum for political refugees is sanctioned or tolerated in later years. In the revolutionary period of 1865- 75, which in respect of disorder and violence re- produced the decade of 1840-50, the practice was resumed. In 1873, after the abdication of Amadeus, Marshal Serrano, who had taken an active part in placing that prince on the throne, was hunted by a mob. He fled from house to house, but at last repaired to the abode of the British min- ister, Mr. Layard, who subsequently disguised him and accompanied him by rail to Santander, where he embarked for St. Jean de Luz. Secre- tary Fish in a letter to Mr. Caleb Gushing, our minister to Spain in 1875, says: 'The frequency of resort in Spain to the legations for refuge and the fact mentioned by you that nobody there disputes the claim of asylum but that it has become, as it were, the common law of the land may be accounted for by the prevalence of 'con- spiracy as a means of changing a cabinet or a government,' and the continued tolerance of the usage is an encouragement of this tendency to conspiracy. It is an annoyance and embarrass- ment probably to the ministers whose legations are thus used but certainly to the governments of those ministers, and, as facilitating and encourag- ing chronic conspiracy and rebellion, it is wrong to the government and to the people where it is practised — a wrong to the people, even though the ministry of the time may not remonstrate, looking to the possibility of finding a convenient shelter when their own day of reckoning and of flight may come.' To a limited extent the practice of asylum still exists in certain Spanish- American countries. In these countries, where fre- quent insurrections occur and consequent instability of government exists, the practice of seeking asylum has become so firmly established that it is often invoked by unsuccessful insurgents and is practically recognized by the local government. 'The government of the United States does not sanction the usage and enjoins upon its repre- sentatives in such countries the avoidance of all pretexts for its e.xercfse. While mdisposed to direct its representatives to deny temporary shel- ter to any person whose life may be threatened by mob violence, it deems it proper to mstruct them that it will not countenance them in any attempt knowingly to harbor offenders against the laws from the pursuit of the legitimate agents of jus- tice.' " — C. H. Stockton, Outlines of international law, pp. 210-211. — See also Exterritoriality: Ap- plication to diplomatic agents. Arrest of Mason and Slldell. See U. S. A.: 1861 (November). Right of asylum on merchant ships. — "Apart from acts affecting their internal order and disci- pline and not disturbing the peace of the port, merchant vessels, as a rule, enjoy no exemption from local jurisdiction. It is, therefore, generally 585 ASYLUM On Merchant Ships ASYLUM laid down that they cannot grant asylum. Cer- tain cases in which opposite ground was taken, especially as to passengers in transit, are here- with mentioned as matters of interest and in- formation. The case of Sotelo is one of interest and is given by Moore as follows: 'In 1840 the French packet-boat L'Ocean, which made regular voyages between Marseilles and the coast of Spain and Gibraltar, received on board, at her anchor- age at Valencia, M. Sotelo, a Spanish ex-min- ister who was under prosecution for political offences. The vessel, having put to sea without knowledge of the number and personality of the passengers who had embarked, entered the port of Alicante, where, during the customs and police inspection, M. Sotelo was recognized, seized, taken ashore, and imprisoned. The captain of L'Ocean protested against what he described as a viola- tion of his flag and in vain demanded that his passenger be set at liberty, invoking at the same time the right of asylum and the principle of extraterritoriality. Diplomatic communications on the subject which were exchanged between the governments of France and Spain established it in the clearest manner that the conduct of the authorities at Alicante was above reproach; that no injury was done to the flag, since the acts in question pertained to an ordinary merchant ship and to a high measure of police power ex- ecuted inside the port; that M. Sotelo, sur- reptitiously embarked at Valencia, a Spanish port, could have been regularly seized and arrested on L'Ocean at another port of the same country; and, finally, that the fact that she had been on the high seas a certain time before entering Alicante could not alter the nature of the act done at the place of departure and proved at the place of arrival, under the dominion of the same laws and of the same territorial legisla- tion.' "The case of Gamez [1885] was that of a political fugitive from Nicaragua who voluntarily took passage at San Jose de Guatemala for Punta Arenas, Costa Rica, on board the Pacific mail steamship Honduras, knowing that the vessel would enter en route the port of San Juan del Sur, Nicaragua. Upon learning the fact of his being on board this steamer, the government of Nicaragua ordered the commandant of the port of San Juan del Sur, Nicaragua, to arrest Gamez upon the' arrival of the Honduras. When the Honduras reached San Juan the authorities of that port requested the captain of the steamer to deliver up Mr. Gamez, which he declined to do, and set sail without proper clearance papers. Of this case Mr. Bayard, the secretary of state, says: 'It is clear that Mr. Gamez voluntarily entered the jurisdiction of a country whose laws he had violated.' Under the. circumstances, it was plainly the duty of the captain of the Hon- duras to deliver him up to the local authorities upon their request. It may be safely affirmed that when a merchant vessel of any country visits the ports of another for the purposes of trade it owes temporary allegiance and is amen- able to the jurisdiction of that country and is subject to the laws which govern the port it visits so long as it remains, unless it is otherwise provided by treaty. Any exemption or immunity from local jurisdiction must be derived from the consent of that country. No such exemption is made in the treaty of commerce and navigation concluded between this country and Nicaragua, on the 2ist day of June, 1867.' In the Bar- rundia case [1800] the facts were as follows: General Barrundia, an ex-minister of war of Guatemala, had been attempting for some time to incite an insurrection in Guatemala from his temporary residence within the Mexican border, Guatemala being at war with Salvador at the time. When, upon complaint of Guatemala, the government of Mexico required Barrundia to leave the borders of Guatemala, he proceeded with two of his followers to Acapulco, a Mexican port, and embarked on board an American mail- steamer ostensibly for Panama, but with reasonable certainty for Salvador, to join the Salvadoran forces against Guatemala. Upon reaching a Guatemalan port, Champerico, his arrest was de- termined upon by the Guatemalan authorities, but the master of the mail-steamer declined to give him up without the written authority of the American minister resident in Guatemala City. Upon arrival at San Jose, the second Guatemalan port of call, the letter of the minister was brought on board by the arresting force, which advised the master to give Barrundia up to the Guatemalan officials, stating that the government had promised that his life would be spared. The arrest was then permitted, but Barrundia, resist- ing arrest with firearms, was killed on board the steamer by the officials attempting arrest. The American minister was removed by the govern- ment of the United States for authorizing the arrest, and the senior naval officer of the United States in port, commanding the U.S.S. Ranger, was relieved from his command for not offering an unsolicited asylum to Barrundia on board of his vessel. The Guatemalan Government desired the arrest of Barrundia both for common crimes and as an enemy of the country within its borders. The arrest was desired as a matter of self-preserva- tion, as Barrundia was on his way to wage war from the southern border, as he already had attempted to do upon the northern border. It can hardly be claimed that Barrundia possessed immunity from arrest because he was on board of a merchant vessel carrying the American flag, as there is no foundation in international law for this position. As to offering an unsolicited asylum on board the Ranger, it is needless to say that the position of both the State and Navy Departments is in opposition to such voluntary action. The reason given for claiming immunity from arrest under the circumstances is that an exceptional rule should be adopted or usage acknowledged to exist in Spanish-American states which is in viola- tion of their rights as sovereign states. Secre- tary Grcsham's letter of December 30, 1803, must be conceded to give the final and authoritative statement of our policy in the matter. In the paragraph that is applicable to the Barrundia case he states as follows: 'The so-called doc- trine of asylum having no recognized application to merchant vessels in port, it follows that a ship-master can found no exercise of his discre- tion on the character of the offence charged. There can be no analogy to proceedings in ex- tradition when he permits a passenger to be ar- rested by the arm of the law. He is not com- petent to determine whether the offence is one justifying surrender or whether the evidence in the case is sufficient to warrant arrest and commit- ment for trial or to impose conditions upon the arrest. His function is passive merely, being confined to permitting the regular agents of the law, on exhibition of lawful warrant, to make the arrest. The diplomatic and consular repre- sentatives of the United States in the country making the demand are as incompetent to order surrender by way of 9«a.«'-extradition as the ship- master is to actively deliver the accused. This was established in the celebrated Barrundia case by the disavowal and rebuke of Minister Mizner's 586 ASYUT DAM ATHAPASCAN FAMILY action in giving lo tlie Guatemalan autliorities an order for the surrender of the accused. If it were generally understood that the masters of American merchantmen are to permit the orderly operations of the law in ports of call, as re- gards persons on board accused of crime com- mitted in the country to which the port per- tains it is probable, on the one hand, that oc- casions of arrest would be less often invited by the act of the accused in taking passage with a view to securing supposed asylum and, on the other hand, that the regular resort to justice would replace the reckless and offensive resort to arbitrary force against an unarmed ship which, when'threatened or committed, has in more than one instance constrained urgent remonstrance on the part of this government.' " — C. H. Stockton, Outlines of international law, pp. 169-173. — See also Hague conference: 1007. ASYUT (Assiut) DAM. See Egypt: i8g8- 1901. ATABEGS, Attabegs, or Attabecks.— "From the decline of the dynasty of Seljook to the con- quest of Persia by Hulakoo Khan, the son of Chenghis, a period of more than a century, that country was distracted by the contests of petty princes, or governors, called Attabegs, who, tak- ing advantage of the v/eakness of the last Sel- jookian monarchs, and of the distractions which followed their final extinction, established their authority over some of the finest provinces of the Empire. Many of these petty dynasties acquired such a local fame as, to this day, gives an importance to their memory with the inhabi- tants of the countries over which they ruled The word Attabeg is Turkish: it is a compound word of 'atta,' master, or tutor, and 'beg,' lord; and signifies a governor, or tutor, of a lord or prince." — J. Malcolm, History of Persia, v. i, cli. 9. — "It is true that the Atabeks appear but a short space as actors on the stage of Eastern history; but these 'tutors of princes' occupy a position neither insignificant nor unimportant in the course of events which occurred in Syria and Persia at the time they flourished." — W. H. Morley, Preface to Mirkhond's history of the Atabeks. — See also Saladin", Empire of. ATACAMA: Taken from Bolivia by Peru, Dispute over. See Chile: 1804-1900. ATAHUALPA, son of the Peruvian sovereign, Huayna Capac, at whose death (1527) he be- came ruler of Quito while his brother, Huascar, succeeded his father. War broke out between the two brothers and Atahualpa, 'the last of the Incas,' succeeded in capturing his brother and threw him into prison Pizarro tri. J to force the Inca to accept the Roman Catholic faith, give up his kingdom to Spanish rule and pay tribute to Charles V. Atahualpa refused Pizarro's con- ditions, was seized and was condemned to death for plotting against the Spaniards. He. however, accepted the Christian faith and received bap- tism. For this his sentence was commuted from death at the stake to strangulation. — See also Peru: 15.^1-1533. ATAKPAME, a town in southern Togoland on the coast of Guinea, Africa, captured by the British in 1914. See World War: 1914: VI. Af- rica: a. ATAMAN, or Hetman (title). See Cossacks, ATAULF, AtawuU, or Ataulphus (d. 415), king of the West Goths. Evacuated Italy 412; conquered Aquitaine; went to Spain to subdue the Vandals and Suevi. See Barbarian invasions: 408- 423- ATAULPHUS. See Ataulf, or Atawulf or Ataulphus (d. 415). ATBARA, a river in the Sudan. See StniAN: 1014. Battle of (1808). See Egypt: 1897-1898. ATCHIN. See Achin. ATCHINSON, David Rice (1807-1886), Amer- ican politician. Strong agitator for the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska act, which would involve the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. See U. S. A.: 1853-1854. ATELIERS NATIONAUX, Paris (1848). See France: 184S; and 1848 (April-December). ATH, a town southwest of Brussels in the prov- ince of Hainaut, Belgium. 1597. — Captured by French. See France: 169s- 1696. 1706. — Taken by Marlborough. See Nether- lands: 1706-1707. ATHABASCA, a region of the Canadian Northwest (covering 251,300 square miles), for- nierly a distinct political division, but in 1905 divided between Alberta and the new province of Saskatchewan; in 1912 the east part was included in Manitoba. The western territory, now in Alberta, is highly fertile; wheat, potatoes, and the hardier cereals are raised in abundance. Athabasca also gives name to a river and a lake. — See also Canada: 1905. ATHALARIC (516-534), king of the Ostro- goths. ATHALAYAS. See Sardinia, The Island: Name and early historv. ATHALIAH: Worship of Baal. See Jerusa- lem: B.C. 1400-700. ATHANAGILD (d. 547), king of the Visi- goths in Spain. ATHANARIC (d. 381), ruler of the Visigoths, with the title of jud e. ATHANASIAN CREED. See Ahianism; NiC.EA. AT,HANASIUS, Saint (293-373), bishop of Alexandria. Chief opponent of Arianism at the Council of Nicsa (Nice) in 325. See Arianism; Monasticism: Primitive forms; Nic.ea. ATHAPASCAN FAMILY: Chippewyans.— Tinneh. — Sarcees. — "This name [Athapascans or Athabascans] has been applied to a class of tribes who are situated north of the great Churchill river, and north of the source of the fork of the Saskatchawine, extending westward till within about 150 miles of the Pacific Ocean. . . . The name is derived, arbitrarily, from Lake Athabasca, which is now more generally called the Lake of the Hills. Surrounding this lake extends the tribe of the Chippewyans, a people so-called by the Kenis- tenos and Chippewas, because they were found to be clothed, in some primary encounter, in the scanty garb of the fisher's skin. ... We are in- formed by Mackenzie that the territory occupied by the Chippewyans extends between the parallels of 60° and 65° north and longitudes from 100° to no west." — H. R. Schoolcraft, Information re- specting the Indian tribes, pt. $, p. 172. — "The Tinneh may be divided into four great families of nations; namely, the Chippewyans, or Athabascas, living between Hudson Bay and the Rocky Moun- tains; the Tacullies, or Carriers, of New (Taledonia or North-western British America; the Kutchins, occupying both banks of the Upper Yukon and its tributaries, from near its mouth to the Mackenzie River, and the Kenai, inhabiting the interior from the lower Yukon to Copper River." — H. H. Ban- croft, Native races of the Pacific states, ch. 2. — "The Indian tribes of Alaska and the adjacent re- gion may be divided into two groups . . . : i. Tin- neh — Chippewyans of authors. . . . Father Petitot discusses the terms Athabaskans, Chippewayans, 587 ATHARVAVEDA ATHEISM Montagnais, and Tinneh as applied to this group of Indians. . . . This great family includes a large number of American tribes extending from near the mouth of the Mackenzie south to the borders of Mexico. The Apaches and Navajos belong to it, and the family seems to intersect the continent of North America in a northerly and southerly direc- tion, principally along the flanks of the Rocky Mountains. . . . The designation [Tinneh] pro- posed by Messrs. Ross and Gibbs has been accepted by most modern ethnologists. ... 2. T'Unkets," which family includes the Yakutats and other groups.— W. H. Dall, Tribes of the extreme North- west (Contributions to A'. .4m. Ethnology, v. i). — "Wherever found, the members of this group pre- sent a certain family resemblance. In appearance they are tall and strong, the forehead low with prominent superciliary ridges, the eyes slightly ob- lique, the nose prominent but wide toward the base, the mouth large, the hands and feet small. Their strength and endurance are often phenome- nal, but in the North, at least, their longevity is slight, few living beyond fifty. Intellectually they rank below most of their neighbors, and nowhere do they appear as fosterers of the germs of civiliza- tion. Where, as among the Navajos, we find them having some repute for the mechanical arts, it turns out that this is owing to havini; captured and adopted the members of m.ore gifted tribes. . . . Agriculture was not practised either in the north or south, the only exception being the Navajos, and with them the inspiration came from other stocks. . . . The most cultured of their bands were the Navajos, whose name is said to signify 'large corn- fields,' from their extensive agriculture. When the Spaniards first met them in 1541 they were tillers of the soil, erected large granaries for their crops, irrigated their fields by artificial water courses or acequias, and Hved in substantial dwellings, partly underground; but they had not then learned the art of weaving the celebrated 'Navajo blankets,' that being a later acquisition of their artisans." — D. G. Brinton, American race, pp. 60-72. — See also Apache croup; Blackfeet; Indians, American: Cultural areas in North America: North Pacific coast area; also Southwest area; and Linguistic characteristics. ATHARVAVEDA. See Mythology: India: Unparalleled length of life. ATHEISM, a mode of thought resting on total disbelief in the existence of a God. It should not be confounded with agnosticism (q. v.), which is a profession of ignorance on the subject of a possible deity, nor with deism, which admits a God of nature, unrevealed except in his works. Unlike the different systems of pantheism, poly- theism and non-Christian theism, as well as the several distinct religions based on a belief in some form of immediate revelation, atheism con- tains no body of doctrine, and is consistent with many widely differing views of the universe. In the case of many modern scientists and philoso- phers, it consists simply in the tacit omission of God from their conception of the universe and in the formation of hypotheses to account for the existence and development of the cosmos with- out any interposition cA deity. Atheism has been improperly used as a term of reproach against dissenters from prevailing religious doc- trine. Thus, Socrates was condemned to death as an atheist, although the exponent of a pure belief in God. A like reproach was brought by the polytheistic world against the early Chris- tians. Spinoza, whose philosophy posited God as the one reality, was nevertheless branded as an atheist, as in modem times have been Thomas Paine, the deist, and Colonel Robert G. Inger- soll, the eloquent champion of agnosticism. The most notable atheists of antiquity were Deraocritus and Leucippus in Greece and Lucretius in Rome. Among its strongest partisans in later times may be cited d'Holbach and Feuerbach in the eighteenth and Charles Bradlaugh in the nine- teenth century. At the present time, the more radical wing of the Freethought and various anti- clerical movements which are organized and active in various countries denominates itself as atheistic. "In 1674 Hume, at a dinner in Paris, hap- pened to say that he had never chanced to meet an atheist. 'You have been somewhat unfor- tunate,' said his host; 'but at the present moment you are sitting at table with seventeen of them.' Indeed, it is altogether probable that in no other age has the great mass of intelligent per- sons so uniformly endeavored to fulfill the law of atheistic philosophy and rid themselves of 'the fear of invisible powers.' Horace Walpole, who would scarcely be classed among radical Christians, writes with fine sarcasm from France in 1765, 'They think me quite profane for hav- ing any belief left.' Yet it is possible that as in so many aspects of French life a reaction had set in by 1780, for the more atheistic philosophy of Diderot had quite given way to the teachings of Rousseau, in which the idea of God played no small logical part. The philosophical opin- ions contained in the Encyclopedia itself are by no means conservative, as its history may very well suggest, but it gave its name to the group of scholars and philosophers most intimately con- cerned in its production, and the philosophical and political opinions expressed in other works of these Encyclopedists were radical in the extreme. In religion they did not stop with the deism of \'o;taire, plead with them though he might, but they attacked not only Christianity, but immor- tality and God as well. If, according to Voltaire, God wound up the universe like a clock, and then from unknown space watched it go, accord- ing to Diderot, D'Alembert, Helvetius, Holbach, and their confreres there never was any God, and the universe wound up itself. In politics they were quite as extreme .^s for morality, Diderot will have none of such conventions as marriage, and champions the most extreme of free-love doctrines. He finds in the 'natural,' the uncivilized man the ideal being, and believes thit he continues to live in every person. To give this 'natural man' free scope was the ideal of the Encyclopedist school. Government was 'a mere handful of knaves' who impose their yoke upon men. 'We see.' they said, 'on the face of the globe only incapable, unjust sovereigns, en- ervated by luxury, corrupted by flattery, de- praved through unpunished license, and without talent, morals, or good qualities.' And all this philosophical madness was set forth with such a wealth of learning and such a delightful self- assurance that the philosophers of France and the brilliant talkers of the salons were soon atheists and anarchists of the most fashionable sort. When these enthusiasts went further and preached doctrines of natural rights to the masses, results could not fail to be revolutionary. In truth the theorists of the eighteenth century were summoning a dangerous genius when they under- took to inspire restless, ignorant^ ill-regulated minds with dreams of liberty. Voltaire put the matter to the Encyclopedists distinctly: 'Phi- losophize between yourselves as much as you please. I fancy I hear dilettanti giving for their own pleasure a refined music ; but take good care not to perform this concert before the ignorant, the brutal, the vulgar; they might break youi 588 ATHEISM ATHENS instruments over your heads. ' It was this same sense of the danger attending the destructive philos- ophy of the day that led to Voltaire's other re- mark: 'Atheism and fanaticism are two mon- sters which may tear society to pieces. ' But neither the Encyclopedists nor these philanthropic enemies of the privileges upon which they de- pended for their incomes saw the wisdom of the observation, and the ferment was ever the greater." — S. Mathews, French revolution, pp. 48, 62-63, 85-86. — "Men who cherished the opin- ions of Voltaire and the Encyclopedists confused their contempt of Catholicism with love of coun- try. The [French Revolutionary] Convention [elected 1792] gave countenance to this feeling by adopting a new calendar and by substituting for the Christian era a new republican era. In the same anti-Christian spirit they welcomed deputations which offered at the bar of the Con- vention the spoils of parish churches. . . . The radicals of the Commune concluded that they were in the presence of a great popular movement which would lift to supreme influence those who man- aged to appear as its leaders. They forced Gobel, metropolitan bishop of Paris, and his vicars, to proceed to the Convention and renounce their offices. Three days later, on November 10, they organized a festival of liberty in the cathedral of Notre Dame, transformed for the occasion into a 'Temple of Reason.' In the municipal council they ventured still further, voting to close all churches in Paris and to place the priests under surveillance. The Convention was at first in- timidated by the Parisian phase of the movement, and many of the ecclesiastics among its members renounced their functions or abjured their faith. A few, led by Bishop Gregoire, stood firm. The most influential men in the Convention and in the Committee of Public Safety realized that such a movement would compromise the cause of the Republic abroad, foment civil strife at home, and jeopardize the national defense. Robespierre be- came the spokesman of this feeling and denounced the leaders of the movement as ill-disguised emis- saries of the invader. The Convention solemnly reaffirmed the liberty of worship, but threw so many qualifications about the act that in most cases the decree remained a dead letter Notre Dame was still called the Temple of Reason, and the movement spread from Paris to other large towns, sometimes supported by the 'deputies on mission,' occasionally restrained by them. . . . Be- fore the anti-Christian movement ran its course it led to violent factional struggles within the Jacobin party and was responsible for a long list of proscriptions. The faction which had or- ganized the festival of liberty and the Worship of Reason was called Ilebertist because its lead- ing member was Hebert, assistant city solicitor and editor of the Pere Duchesne." — H. E. Bourne, Rev- olutionary period in Europe, pp. 210-212. — See also Deism ; TimsM. ATHEL, ATHELING, ATHELBONDE. See ATHELBY. See Adel, Adeling; ^ihel. ATHELNEY, a small district in the county of Somerset, England, at one time an island, famous as the retreat of Alfred the Great in 878-879, where he planned the overthrow of the Danes. ATHELSTANE, or Aethelstan (895-940), king of the West Saxons. Defeated the Danes and Celts at Brunanburgh 937. By marriages, brought England into close touch with the continent. See England: 03S. ATHENA, also called by the Greeks Pallas Athene, and by the Romans Minerva, the god- dess of knowledge, arts, sciences and righteous wars. She, together with Zeus and Apollo con- stituted a triad, regarded as the embodiment of all divine power. To her as the patron deity of Athens, the Acropolis was dedicated and the Parthenon erected. (See also Athens: B.C. 461- 431: General aspect of Periclean Athens.) Many other temples were built in her honor, notably at /Egine, Assus, and Syracuse. (See also Temples: Stage of culture represented by temple architecture.) Among the most famous of the ancient representations of her were the colossal bronze statue on the Acropolis, known as Athena the Defender, and the ivory and gold statue In the Parthenon. ATHENIAN CONSTITUTION. See Athens: B.C. 650-594- ATHENIAN CONTINENTAL LEAGUE, Fall of. See Athens: B. C. 447. ATHENIAN EMPIRE: Formed after revolts of Allies. See Athens: B.C. 466-461; and Eu- rope: .Ancient: Greek civilization: Political develop- ment. ATHENIAN FAMILY FESTIVAL. See Apaturia. ATHENRY, Battle of.— The most desperate battle fought by the Irish in resisting the Eng- lish conquest of Ireland. They were terribly slaughtered and the chivalry of Connaught was crushed. The battle occurred Aug. 10, 13 16. — M. Haverty, History of Ireland, p. 282.— See also Ireland: 1314-1318. ATHENS B. C. 1000-700. — Attica in the Mycenaean Age. — Unification of Attica with Athens the metrop- olis. — "When recorded history begins, the story of Athens is the story of Attica, the inhabitants of Attica are Athenians. But Attica, like its neighbour Boeotia and other countries of Greece, was once occupied by a number of independent states" (J. B. Bury, History of Greece, p. 163), "each having its own court-house . . . and mag- istrates . . . and uniting only under a central gov- ernment in times of some pressing national danger. At times there was even war between these com- munes, as between the Eleusinians under Eumolpus and the Athenians under Erectheus; and, since some of the small independent states of early Greece subdued one another, a part of the unity of Attica may have been the result of conquest. But the main bond of union seems to have been religion." — A. H. J. Greenidge, Handbook of Greek constitutional history, p. 125. — See also Attica. — "Of all the lordships between Mount Cithaeron and Cape Sunium the two most important were those of Eleusis and Athens, severed from one another by the hill-chain of Aegaleos. It was upon Athens, the stronghold in the midst of the Cephisian plain, five miles from the sea, that ' destiny devolved the task of working out the unity of Attica. . . . The first Greeks who won the Pelasgic acropolis were probably the Cecropes, and, though their name was forgotten as the name of an independent people, it survived in another form. For the later Athenians were always ready to describe themselves as the sons of Cecrops. This Cecrops was numbered among the imaginary pre-historic kings of Athens; he was nothing more than the fabulous ancestor of the Cecropes. 589 ATHENS, B. C. 753-650 Aristocracy Timocracy ATHENS, B. C. 650-594 But the time came when other Greek dwellers in Attica won the upper hand over the Cecropes, and brought with them the worship of Athena, It was a momentous day in the history of the land when the goddess, whose cult was already established in many other Attic places, took pos- session of the hill which was to be pre-eminently, and for all time, associated with her name. . . . In the course of time the feeling of unity in Attica became so strong that all the smaller lordships, which formed parts of the large state, but still retained their separate political organisa- tions, could be induced to surrender their home governments and merge themselves in a single community with a government centralised in the city of the Cephisian plain. . . . From this time forward she is no longer merely the supreme city of Attica. She is neither the head of a league of partly independent states, nor is she a despotic mistress of subject-communities. . . . She is the central city of an united state; and to the people of every village in Attica belong the same political rights as to the people of Athens herself. The man of Marathon or the man of Thoricus is no longer an Attic, he is an Athenian. It is gen- erally supposed that the synoecism was the work of one of the kings [legend attributed it to Theseus]. It was undoubtedly the work of one man; but it is possible that it belongs to the period immediately succeeding the abolition of the royal power." — J. B. Bury, History of Greece, 163-166. — See also Dorians .^nd Ionians; Greece: Migrations of Hellenic tribes. B. C. 753-650. — Transition from monarchy to aristocracy. — Magistrates and assembly. — "The transition from monarchy to aristocracy was grad- ual; and though no ancient writer informs us we may be sure that it was brought about by the council of nobles, who alone benefited by the change. [See also Aristocracy.] It must therefore have been this body which, about the middle of the eighth century, reduced the tenure of the royal office to a single decade. Although the incumbent was still termed king, the monarchy in fact ceased, the supreme power passing to the council. At this point accordingly dates the be- ginning of the aristocracy (753). As the decen- nial kings proved incapable of efficient military leadership, the office of 'polemarch' — war archon — was instituted, probably to lead the army in the conflict with Eleusis. No long time after- ward the Medontidae fa royal family] were deposed, and the royal office thrown open to all the nobles. Then, about 700, the office of archon was instituted with the function of caring for widows and orphans and their estates. As the decennial magistrates proved too strong and in- dependent to serve the interests of the ruling power, all offices were made annual in 683-2 ; and at the same time the archon supelseded the king as head of the state. In this way the govern- ment became in form as well as in fact a re- public. In this year or shortly afterward were instituted the six Ihesmothetac, 'that they might record the customary laws and keep them for the trial of offenders.' (.Arist. Const. Ath. .?.) In the time of Solon the archon, king, polemarch and fhesmothetae were brought together under the* name of archons. [See Archon.] The aris- tocracy was now at the summit of its power. The assembly of citizens, which had never been really important, fell into practical desuetude. The elective power resided in the Council, who 'called up men and on its own judgment assigned them according to their qualifications to the several offices for the year.' (Arist. Const. .\th. 8.) It supervised their administration, and watched rig- orously over the lives of the citiEens, with power to punish for immoral as well as for lawless con- duct. The members of this body were pow- erful lords, recruited annually from those who had worthily filled the nine magistracies des- cribed above." — G. W. Botsford, Hellenic history, ch. 6. B. C. 700-565. — Beginnings of Athenian ex- pansion. — Anne.xation of Eleusis (700) and the conquest of Salamis (570-565). — One important achievement of the aristocracy was the conquest of the little Eleusinian kingdom, bound in by Athens on one side and Megara on the other (700 B.C.) Before the middle of the sixth cen- tury Megara hjd developed into a formidable rival to Athens. .'Mmost equidistant between these two states lay an island, Salamis, whose pos- session must decide the future history of both states. Therefore, "The Athenians sought to occupy Salamis, but all their efforts to gain a permanent footing failed, and they abandoned the attempt in despair. Years passed away. At length Solon saw that the favourable hour had come. . . . An intimate friend of Solon took part in the enterprise, — Pisistratus, son of Hippocrates, whose home and estates were near Brauron. . . . He helped the expedition to a successful issue. Not only was the disputed island wrested from Megara, but he captured the port of Nisaea over against the island. . . . But Salamis now became permanently annexed to Attica. The island was afterwards divided in lots among Athenian citi- zens, who were called cleriichs or 'lot-holders.' Salamis, unlike Eleusis, was not incorporated in .■\ttica, though it was nearer Athens. . . . The conquest of Salamis was a decisive event for Athens. Her territory was now rounded off ; she had complete command of the landlocked Eleu- .inian bay ; it was she who now threatened Meg- ara." — J. B. Bury, History of Greece, 100-102. — See also Megara. B. C. 650-594. — Timocracy of the heavy infan- try. — Constitution. — Threatened by foreign con- quest the ."Mhenian nobles found it necessary to adopt the Spartan phalanx. Since their number was small they were compelled to take into the ranks of the phalanx all the commoners who were •vealthy enough to provide a complete military equipment. With a view to determine who could afford to supply the necessary equipment, a general census was taken. The result was that these newly recruited men of wealth immediately began to take part in the government, and since political privi- leges were based on property, the government be- came a timocracy ("rule of the wealthy"). This occurred about 650 B. C, and after this date it became customary to divide the citizens into four census classes according to the productive value of their land. [See also Liturgies.] It was not, how- aver, until a later period of the history of Athens that the census classes became important. The chief features of the .'\thenian Constitution were as follows: I. II. "III. Territorial Divisions of Attica The four tribes and forty-eight townships (naucraries) for the local administration. The Four Census Classes For determining the public burdens and privileges of the citizens; not known in detail for this period. The Principal Magistrates I. The Archon (a) Chief executive. (b) Judge in cases affecting family rights. (c) Head of the board of 'nine archons.' 590 ATHENS, B. C. 624-621 2. The King (a) A priest. (b) Judge in murder cases. 3. The Polemarch (a) Commander of the army. (b) Judge in cases affecting alien resi- dents. 4. The six Tresmothetae, 'legislators' (a) Keepers of the laws and public docu- ments. (b) Judges in certain civil cases. "These nine magistrates sometimes acted as a board under the presidency of the Archon. "IV. The Councils 1. The Council (Boule) of the Areopagus (a) Composed of retired archons; mem- bership lifelong. (b) As highest authority in the state it supervised the magistrates and the conduct of the citizens. (c) As a court it tried wilful murder. 2. The Council (Boule) of Four Hundred and One Representing the tribes and townships (a) Assisted the magistrates in the gov- ernment. (b) Prepared decrees for presentation to the assembly. " V. The Assembly — Ecclesia 1. Composed of all those who could fur- nish a complete military equipment. 2. It elected magistrates and voted on ques- tions brought before it by the Four Hundred and One. " VI. Form of Governnient As political rights were graded according to property assessments, the government was a timocracy. "The above is an outline of the Athenian Con- stitution. Occasionally parts of it were changed and new features added, but It was never dis- placed by a new constitution. In brief Athens had but one constitution." — G. W. Botsford, His- tory of the ancient world, p. 127. B. C. 624-621. — Draco, the law-giver, and his reforms. — Among the common people "one chief cause of complaint was that they alone (the nobles) knew the law and administered it ac- cording to their own will. Hence, the demand arose for the publication of the law. It was se- cured in a truly Greek fashion. One man was chosen, the best man in the state, to whom all power was given that he might prepare, publish, and administer a code of law which should be binding upon the people. Thus, almost every Greek state of the time had its law-giver, or in later times traced its law-code back to some great man who was thought to be its author." — G. S. Goodspeed, History of the ancient world, p. 104-105. — "The Athenians accordingly appointed Draco as their law-giver (about 624). "His leg- islation gave Athens written provisions for set- tHng business and other disputes, thus limiting the power of magistrates in recognizing cases, con- ducting trials and imposing penalties. The most durable of these drew a noteworthy distinction between the penalty for different sorts of mur- der. Heretofore, all killing had been murder and its penalty death at the hands of the relatives of the dead man. Now, accidental or justifiable homicide was distinguished in its punishment from wilful murder. As Draco's laws were chiefly a collection of the old customs of the land, they seemed to the later Athenians exceedingly severe and were said to have been 'written in blood.'" — Ibid., p. 117. — "Draco's laws were very Draco Solon ATHENS, B.C. 594 harsh, death being the punishment for many minor offences such as stealing, and enslavement being the punishment of a person who got in debt and could not pay the debt when due. Although the people had made some progress in obtaining a written law, they found that they were not much better off, because the laws were so severe." — R. L. Ashley, Anci-ent civilization, p. 116. B. C. 612-595. — Conspiracy of Cylon. — Banish- ment of the Alcmzeonidce. — The first attempt at Athens to overturn the oligarchical government and establish a personal tyranny was made, 6i2 B.C., by Cylon (Kylon), a patrician, son-in-law of the tyrant of Megara, who was encouraged and helped in his undertaking by the latter. The conspiracy failed miserably. The partisans of Cylon, blockaded in the acropolis, were forced to surrender; but they placed themselves under the protection of the goddess Minerva and were promised their lives. More effectually to retain the protection of the goddess until their escape was effected, they attached a cord to her altar and held it in their hands as they passed olit through the midst of their enemies. Unhappily the cord broke, and the archon Megacles at once declared that the safeguard of Minerva was withdrawn from them, whereupon they were massacred with- out mercy, even though they fled to the neighbor- ing altars and clung to them. The treachery and bad faith of this cruel deed does not seem to have disturbed the Athenian people, but the sacrilege involved in it caused horror and fear when they had had time to reflect upon it. Megacles and his whole family — the Alcmaionidae as they were called, from the name of one of their ancestors — were held accountable for the affront to the gods and were considered polluted and accursed. Every public calamity was ascribed to their sin, and at length, after a solemn trial, they were banished from the city (about 596 or 5g5 B.C.), while the dead of the family were disinterred and cast out. The agitations of this affair exercised an important influence on the course of events, which opened the way for Solon and his con- stitutional reforms. — C. Thirlwall, History of Greece, ch. 11. — See also Delphi. Also in; G. Grote, History of Greece, pt. 2, ch. 10. B. C. 600-300. — Seclusion of women. See Women's rights: B. C. 600-300. B. 0. 6th century. — Relations with Argos. See Argos, Argolis, Argives. B. C. 594. — Constitution and reforms of Solon. — "The necessity for drastic reform was as great as before and in 504 or 593 B.C., Solon was ap- pointed law-maker, with full power to relieve the social distress and revise the constitution. His social reforms cancelled debts and thus cleared the land from mortgages and set free debtors from selfdom ; others, who had been sold as slaves, he ransomed from abroad, and he enacted that for the future no one should be allowed to pledge his liberty." — L, Whibley, ed.. Companion to Greek studies, p. 355. — See also Debt, Laws concerning: Ancient Greek. — "He fixed a limit for the measure of land which could be owned by a single person, so as to prevent the growth of dangerously large es- tates. And he forbade the exportations of Attic products, except oil. For it had been found that so much corn was carried to foreign mar- kets, where the prices were higher, that an in- sufficient supply remained for the population of Attica. It is to be observed that at this time the Athenians had not yet begun to import Pontic corn." — J. B. Bury, History of Greece, p. 182. — "Solon then repealed the laws of Draco and pro-. 591 ATHENS, B. C. 560-510 Pisisiraius Quarrel with Sparta ATHENS, B. C. 509-506 ceeded to reconstruct the constitution. He di- vided the citizens into four property classes, based on the produce of corn, oil, or wine from their land. . . . Only members of the first three classes were eligible for offices of state, only mem- bers of the first class for the highest offices." — L. Whibley, ed., Compatiion to Greek studies, p. 3SS- — "He laid the foundation of the future Athenian democracy by extending the franchise to the Thetes (literally, 'hirelings') the lowest of the four classes, by instituting the Heliaea (q. v.), or popular courts of justice, in which every citi- zen in turn could take his place among the dicasts (judges or jurymen), and by introducing election by lot. Moreover, he formed a new council (Boule) of 400 members chosen from the whole people except the Thetes, and trans- ferred to this council from the Areopagus the work of preparing measures to be submitted to the Ecclesia." — H. B. Cotterill, Ancient Greece, pp. 139-140. — "The Assembly had the decision of war and peace, and perhaps of some other im- portant questions. Solon introduced the right of appeal from the sentence of the judicial magis- trates to the law court, and this was regarded as his most important democratic institution. . . . The Council of the Areopagus (q. v.) was left in possession of its extensive power to watch over the laws and the constitution, to supervise the administration and to exercise a censorship over the citizens." — L. Whibley, ed.. Companion to Greek studies, p. 355. — "Solon's laws were writ- ten or inscribed on tablets or pillars, which re- volved on a pivot, and were first kept in the Acropolis, but later, by the advice of Ephialtes, were placed in the Agora." '[Compare Constitu- tion of the Timocracy: Athens, 650-594 B.C.]. — H. B. Cotterill, History of Greece, p. 140.— -See also Prytanes. B.C. 560-510.— The tyranny.— Reforms and public works under Pisistratus and his sons. — "When Solon had made his laws he went abroad for ten years, so as to give his constitution a fair run. When he returned he found that everything was once more in confusion. As usual the trouble was economic. . . . The village population was unhappy and restless. The peasants had been put back on their holdings and plied with good advice as to how to manage their vines and olive trees; but they had no capital to go on with and of course they could not borrow. The craftsmen and small traders, whose interests were bound up with theirs, were equally clamorous. Dis- content grew more and more fierce, till finally the state was openly divided into three hostile parties, each prepared to fight for its own eco- nomic and territorial interests. There were the men of the plain, with their city interests. There were the men of the shore, that' is, the popula- tion Hving in the country villages and small ports of South-Eastern Attica, from the settle- ments behind Hymettus down to Sunium. Thirdly, there were the men of the mountains, the poorer peasants and shepherds and woodcutters and char- coal-burners from the rough region of northern Attica. It seemed for a moment as if Theseus had attempted too much in trying to make a united nation out of a territory larger than that of any other Greek City State. But fortunately for Athens 'a man arose in Israel.' The Moun- taineers had at their head a leader, Pisistratus, who was not only a friend of the poor but also a noted soldier and a man of large private means and influential connections He succeeded, after some vicissitudes, in making his party supreme in the State, as he had already made himself su- preme in his party. . . . But Pisistratus's most durable achievement was his settlement of the economic difficulties. He solved them once and for all by advancing capital out of his private fortune to the poorer landowners, largely of course his own political supporters. Once they had margin enough to keep them through lean years, or while their trees were growing to maturity, their troubles were at an end. There is no more land question in Attica till the Spartans came and ruined the cultivation one hundred and fifty years later." — A. E. Zimmern, Greek common- wealth, pp. 183-184. — "It is difficult to estimate his services to Athens, for later generations did their utmost to deny and conceal them, giving some of his achievements to Solon and some to Theseus, and some even to Erechtheus. He [Pisistratus] founded an early Athenian empire. He won the island of Salamis from Megara, and until she possessed Salamis, Athens had no open road to the sea. [See also Megara.] Later Athenians ascribed this feat to Solon. He regained Sigeum, on the Troad, after a war with Mytilene. He established the elder Miltiades as tyrant of the Thracian Chersonese. In these movements his policy was obviously to open up trade with the Black Sea, the granary of Greece. He extended olive-culture in Attica. He probably began to work the silver mines at Laurium, which were thenceforth the principal source of Athenian rev- enue. He made the unfree tillers of the soil into peasant proprietors by confiscating the es- tates of his noble opponents. He was allied with Sparta and Argos, Thebes and Thessaly and Naxos. He introduced a police armed with bows into the city of Athens. He probably did much of what Theseus is supposed to have done in synoecising Athens — that is, transforming Attica from a number of villages with a capital into a city-state with surrounding territory. We know that he sent judges on circuit round the country demes. The other indications are that Pisistratus pulled down the city wall in order that she might be able to expand, that he constructed a proper water-supply, and that he fostered the worship of the Olympian or city deities. At the same time he fostered agriculture, and tried to get the poor of Athens back to the land." — J. C. Stobart, Glory that was Greece, pp. iio-iii. — See also Ceram- icus. — "Tyranny lasted, with two interruptions, until 510. After his second restoration Pisistratus established his power and ruled with a wise mod- eration. The constitution was not changed, but the tyrant took care that the chief offices should be held by his friends. He relied on the support of poets for his dynasty, and extended the power of .Athens in the Aegean. Hippias succeeded his father in 527, and after the assassination of Hip- parchus became a harsh and suspicious despot, until the Alcmaeonids, who had been exiled by Pisistratus, gained the support of Sparta and overthrew the tyranny." — L. Whibley, ed., Com- panion to Creek studies, p. 356. B. C. 509-506. — ^^Hostile undertakings of Cleo- menes and Sparta. — Help solicited from the Persian king. — Subjection refused. — Failure of Spartan schemes to restore tyranny. — Protest of the Corinthians. — Successful war with Thebes and Chalcis. — "With Sparta it was obvi- ous that the Athenians now had a deadly quarrel, and on the other side they knew that Hippias was seeking to precipitate on them the power of the Persian king. It seemed therefore to be a matter of stern necessity to anticipate the in- trigues of their banished tyrant; and the Athenians accordingly sent ambassadors to Sardeis to make an independent alliance with the Persian despot. The envoys, on being brought into the presence of 592 02 1 "^ H w ;£. H g- u -«i :^ 1^ H « SS ^ . Ml s,S W £ «n^ l-H U s. 12; "• W <1) '^ J P5 <i A J Ph T3 JH C8 <u c« -d h 4^ U •M Ih ■»H O -r) ^H w t^ « 1 .d es 4^ o Mh 1) n a. i/j C -r! o (U 4-1 (1 rt 11 u 2 -c Oh M 03 ATHENS, B. C.508 Cleisfhenes Ostracism ATHENS, B. C.SOe Artaphernes, the Satrap of Lydia, *ere told that Dareios would admit them to an alliance if they would give him earth and water, — in other words, if they would acknowledge themselves his slaves. To this demand of absolute subjection the en- voys gave an assent which was indignantly re- pudiated by the whole body of Athenian citizens. . . . Foiled for the time in his efforts, Kleo- menes was not cast down. Regarding the Kleis- thenian constitution as a personal insult to him- self, he was resolved that Isagoras should be despot of Athens. Summoning the allies of Sparta [including the Boeotian League headed by Thebes, and the people of Chalcis in Eubcea], he led them as far as Eleusis, 12 miles only from Athens, without informing them of the purpose of the campaign. He had no sooner confessed it than the Corinthians, declaring that they had been brought away from home on an unrighteous er- rand, went back, followed by the other Spartan King, Demaratos, the son of Ariston ; and this conflict of opinion broke up the rest of the array. This discomfiture of their enemy seemed to in- spire fresh strength into the Athenians, who won a series of victories over the Boeotians and Euboeans" — completely overthrowing the latter — the Chalci- dians — taking possession of their city, and making it a peculiar colony and dependency of Athens. [See Cleruchs.] The anger of Cleomenes "on being discomfited at Eleusis by the defection of his own allies was heightened by indignation at the discovery that in driving out his friend Hip- pias he had been simply the tool of Kleisthenes and of the Delphian priestess whom Kleisthenes had bribed. It was now clear to him and to his countrymen that the Athenians would not ac- quiesce in the predominance of Sparta, and that if they retained their freedom, the power of Athens would soon be equal to their ovn. Their only safety lay, therefore, in providing the Athenians with a tyrant. An invitation was, therefore, sent to Hippias at Sigeion, to attend a congress of the allies at Sparta, who were summoned to meet on the arrival of the exiled despot." The ap- pointed congress was held, and the Spartans be- sought their allies to aid them in humbling the Athenian Democracy, with the object of restoring Hippias to power. But again the Corinthians protested, bluntly suggesting that if the Spartans thought tyranny a good thing they might first try it for themselves. Hippias, speaking in his own behalf, attempted to convince them that the time was coming "in which they would find the Athenians a thorn in their side. For the present his exhortations were thrown away. The allies protested unanimously against all attempts to interfere with the internal administration of any Hellenic city ; and the banished tyrant went back disappointed to Sigeion." — G. W. Cox. Greeks and the Persians, ch. 4. Also in: G. Grote, History 0; Greece, pt. 2, ch. 31 {v. 4). B. C. 508. — Reforms of Cleisthenes. — Ostra- cism. — Beginnings of democracy. — "In the con- fusion which ensued Cleisthenes, the Alcmaeonid, adopted the cause of democracy, triumphed over hb rivals, and in 508 or 507 B.C. was given authority to revise the constitution. The tyranny had broken the power of the nobles and thus prepared the way for democracy, but the laws of Solon had in great part fallen into disuse. The aim of Cleisthenes was to give free play to the democratic elements in the constitution of Solon, to prevent the domination of the nobles or the usurpation of tyrants. To effect this end, he took measures to abolish the political importance of the old divisions . . . based upon birth, and to substitute new artificial divisions, so arranged as to obviate the possibility of local factions. He enrolled the citizens in ten new tribes, which superseded the four Ionic tribes for political and administrative purposes. Further the whole of Attica was divided into thirty [demes or districts) ... , ten of which included the city and its neighbourhood, ten the coast and ten the interior. Each tribe was composed of three [demes] . . , chosen one from each of these sections. Each [deme] . . . contained a number of townships. . . . Both tribes and demes had their own officers and administered their own affairs. The tribes served for military purposes, each furnishing contingents of infantry and cavalry ; and in the administration of the State, magistrates, appointed in general to form boards of ten, were appointed one from each tribe or one for each tribe. Solon's Council of Four Hundred was increased to Five Hundred, and fifty members were chosen from each tribe. The election of archons, Cleisthenes seems to have given to the assembly." — L. Whibley, ed., Companion to Greek studies, pp. 356-357. — "Not content with fostering the tendencies that might make for democracy in the existing members of the state, Cleistenes infused into Athens a fresh strain of plebeian blood and sentiment by con- ferring civil rights on a large number of in- dividuals of foreign birth, or of the lowest origin. These were metoeci [metics] — either stranger resi- dents or enfranchised slaves, doubtless engaged in mercantile callings and therefore of advanced and liberal views — whom he enrolled in his new tribes." — A. H. J. Greenidge, Greek constitutional his- tory, p. 158. — "Ostracism (see Ostracism) was introduced to guard against tyranny (though within a few years it was employed to remove politicians who had no designs against the con- stitution)." — L. Whibley, ed.. Companion to Greek studifs, p. 357. — See also Democracy: During classical period. — "Cleisthenes introduced into the constitution no new principle, but brought into far greater prominence the democratic elements al- ready existing in it. This he did chiefly by equaliz- ing the ranks, as above described, and by slighting the power of the Areopagus. The government was democratic, strictly speaking, only in po- tentiality. In its practical working it was a timocracy of the milder class, while the state was still a clan-state, and remained such through the whole period of its freedom. Yet the adoption of the Cleisthenean constitution, exhibiting greatly strengthened democratic tendencies, may be justly regarded as the beginning of a new petiod, — the fifth in the history of the government. The yoke of the tyranny was broken, and the Solonian con- stitiition, as lately modified and improved, became, for the first time, a living, political organism. This constitution, by conferring large benefits upon the people, and by opening to them new and attractive spheres of activity, inspired them with a patriotism hitherto unknown. A great tide of public enthusiasm and public energy, arising at this point, surged onward through the Persian wars, carrying the Athenians victoriously through those crises in the history of their country and the world, liberating the Ionic Greeks, founding a great maritime empire, gaining in height and strength, with each political advance, till it reached its climax in the marvelous activity of the Peridean age." — G. W. Botsford, Development of the Athenian constitution, pp. 207-208. Bibliography: Athens from monarchy to democracy: G. W. Botsford, Athenian constitu- tion, ch. vii-xi.— J. B. Bury, History of Greece, ch. iv, V. — G. Busolt, Griechische geschiohte, v. II, pp. 1-449. — E. Curtius, History of Greece, v. II, ch. 593 ATHENS, B. C. 500-493 Persian Wars Aristides and Themistocles ATHENS, B. C. 479-476 ii. — A. L. D'Ooge, Acropolis of Athens. — Fowler and Wheeler, Handbook oj Greek archceology .■ — • E. A. Gardner, Handbook oj Greek scidpture and ancient Alliens. — G. Gilbert, Constitutional antiqui- ties oj Sparta and .ithens. — A. H. J. Greenidge, Greek constitutional history, pp. 124-162, 342, 389. — G. Grote. History oj Greece. — A. Haussoullier, La vie municipaie en .iltique.- — A. Holm, History oj Greece, v. I, ch. xxvi-xxviii. — H. B. Walters, His- tory oj Greek pottery. — C. H. Weller, Athens and iUs monuments. — A. E. Zimmern, Greek com- monwealth. B. C. 500-493. — Aid to lonians against Persia. See Greece: B.C. 500-493: Rising of lonians of .'\sia Minor against Persians; Persia; B.C. 521-493. B. C. 492-479. — War between the Greeks and Persia. — Athens' share in the victory. — Sum- mary of the war. — (1) 'After the conquest of Ionia, the Persians attempted to subdue Greece. (2) The first expedition was led by Mardonius through Thrace into Macedon. Its failure was owing to the wreck of the fleet and attacks upon his army by the natives. (3) The second ex- pedition crossed the Aegean Sea, captured Eretria, and landed at Marathon. There the Persian army met defeat at the hands of the Athenians (490). [See also Persm; B.C. 521-493.] The event en- couraged the Greeks to hope for success in the war. While the Persians were preparing for another invasion, (4) the .Athenians built a navy and (s) the Peloponnesian League was expanded into a union of all the loyal Creek states. (6) Xerxes in person led his great army in the third expedition. (7) It annihilated a Spartan force at Thermopylae (4S0), and destroyed .■\then5. (8) But the Persian fleet suffered an overwhelming defeat at Salamis; and in the following year (9) the Greeks defeated the Persians decisively at Plataea and at Mycale. (10) Meanwhile a Car- thaginian army which invaded Sicily was over- thrown at Himera (480)." — G. W. Botsford, His- tory 0} the ancient world, p. 180. — "When the great attack from the East was visibly impend- ing over that collection of small states that we call Greece, all was confusion and disorder. The jealousies of Argos and Sparta, of Thebes and Athens, and other similar jealousies elsewhere, made resistance by united Greece impossible. If the oracle at Delphi had boldly championed the national defence, the effect upon the wars and upon its own future influence could not have failed to be great. But the oracle gave answers sometimes ambiguous, sometimes directly counsel- Hng submission and despair. In this crisis, put- ting aside for the present the vices and follies of the Persians, Greece was saved by two influ- ences. In the first place, at this crisis .Athens displayed an absence of petty vanity, and a Pan- hellenic patriotism, rarely met with in any Greek state, along with an activity and clearsighted- ness of the most remarkable kind. It was the supremacy of Sparta which gave to Greece the very moderate amount of unity that she .-howed during the contest ; but in every instance it was from Athens that the ablest leaders and the best ideas came. And thus Greece weathered the storm, .■\thens had borne the brunt of the first attack in 400, and alone, save for the not very important help rendered by Plataea, had fought the battle of Marathon. [See also Greece: B.C. 490.] In 480 and 479, through .Argos, Thebes, Thessaly, and others stood sullenly aloof, most of the Greek states followed the leadership of Sparta, and were represented in the glorious struggles of Thermopylje, Salamis (480) [See Greece: B.C. 480: Persian wars: Salamis], Plataea, and Mycale (479). With these last bat- tles Greece emerged victoriously from the con- test." — .\. J. Grant, Greece in the .Age oj Pericles, PP- 93-94- — See also Greece: B. C. 481-479. For separate battles see Greece: B. C. 480: Persian wars; Persw: B. C. 486-405. B.C. 490-485. — Athenian politics. — Struggle between Aristides and Themistocles. — "Aristides insisted upon laying the foundation of Athenian military power in the heavy-armed as most con- ductive to the stability of private and public character, while he 'regarded the navy as the seed-bed of novelty and change.' .Athens, engaged at this time in a war with .\egina, was meeting with ill-success owing to her weakness by sea. But Themistocles must have looked beyond the present, to the defense of his country against a more formidable enemy, already far advanced in its preparations for overwhelming Europe with a flood of barbarians. Nor was his view most probably confined to this horizon, but included all the future greatness of .Athens, her walls and Peiraeus, her hegemony and empire. For these were the results of his decree. Aristeides was ostracised and an obstacle to the furtherance of the Themistoclean naval policy thus removed. It was probably in the following year that Themis- tocles held the office of archon, and began his great work of fortifying the Peiiaeus. . . . Thus the fortifications of the Peiraeus was but a nat- ural continuation of his naval policy. The build- ing of triremes went on. . . . The fear of the Persian invaders brought about a reconciliation of political opponents, the ostracised were re- called, and all united in loyal service to their country in its supreme peril." — G. W. Botsfoid, Development of the .Athenian constitution, p. 200. B. C. 479. — Significance of the Greek victory over Persia. — "Persian domination, had it been possible, would certainly have checked the growth of Greek civilization in Europe, just as it did in .Asia Minor. Europe might have become for centuries a part of Asia. It would be idle to speculate at length on what might have been; but certainly the victory saved Europe from even the possibility of such a misfortune. It left the continent free to advance along the lines marked out for it by Greek genius. From these considera- tions it is clear that the Greco-Persian war was one of the most important events in the world's history." — G. W. Botsford, History oj the ancient world, p. 180. — "The former terror of the Per- sian arms passed into contempt, and though be- tween East and West there was constant friction until the time when, a hundred and fifty years later, .Alexander the Great broke up the Persian Empire, never again did Persia seem at all likely to overwhelm Greek civilization. The Persian wars, by their result, allowed the Greek world freely to bequeath its inheritance of art, science, and thought to later centuries. That is the great significance of the struggle." — A. J. Grant, Greece in the .Ige of Pericles, p. 94. B. C. 479-476. — Fortification of Athens and of Peiraeus. — Athens the first state of Hellas. — "Immediately after the danger of Persian in- vasion was removed, .Athens set about to rebuild her city and its defences. To this latter project several Greek states, including; Sparta, objected By skilfully delaying discussion on this subject with Sparta, Themistocles afforded .Athenian build- ers sufficient time in which to complete this work. Of even greater importance perhaps was the fortification of Peiraeus. This town, the sea- port of Athens, Themistocles proceeded to sur- round with a massive wall seven miles in circuit. It was due in large measure to the farsighted- ness and energy of Themistocles that Peiraeus 594 ATHENS, B.C. 478 Naval Leadership Delian Confederacy ATHENS, B.C. 477 became a famous mart of industry and trade, and for centuries remained one of the most flourish- ing commercial cities of the ancient world. [See also Commerce: .-Vncient: B.C. 1000-200.] Athens lay now right in the centre of the Greek world, and before long city and harbour were linked by strong walls and made into a twin fortress impregnable by land. And if she did not own the wheat- growing regions, she controlled the trade in grain. The cornfields of Southern Russia had only one outlet — by the Hellespont, and Athens held it — held it in virtue of her fleet of warships. Mean- while, from the days of Solon and Pisistratus foreigners with trades had been settling in the city. Solon was one of the greatest economists of antiquity and Pisistratus one of the shrewdest of rulers; and they meant to have an Athens eco- nomically strong and prosperous. Industries grew, free labour moved in from the country, and slave labour was imported from abroad. And then the slave began to encroach on the freeman's labour market, and the freeman took to another and a greater trade — the greatest of all. Empire-ruling; and that too brought wealth to Athens. Mines were opened up, and Laurium (q. v.) still con- tinued to yield silver, while on Thasos and in Thrace Athenian valour and enterprise made Athenians masters of gold production. The hor- rible condition of the slaves in the silver mines of Attica is sometimes noticed by .incient writers, but there is no indication that it troubled the capitalists or the public conscience. Mining and manufacture, grain and the carrying trade of the world, brought wealth and brought with it new standards — a new scale for the measurement of riches and of poverty — new tastes in food, and perhaps a new sense of hunger." — T. R. Glover, From Pericles to Philip, pp. 44-55. Also in: [Period of the war heroes, 479- 461 B. C] — (o) Political and economic bibliogra- phy: J. B. Bury, History oj Greece, ch. viii. — A Holm, History oj Greece, II, chs. vii-ix. — E. Cur- tius. History of Greece, III, ch. ii. — G. Grote, History of Greece, V, chs. xliv-xlv. — E. Meyer, Forschmigen zitr alten Geschithte, HI, pp. 45Q- 570. — J. Beloch, Griechische Geschichte, II, i, chs. iii, iv. — G. Busolt, Griechische Geschichte, III, pp. 1-295. — E. A. Freeman, History of Sicily, II, chs. vi. vii. Cavaignac, Histoire de Vantiquite, II, 1-54. — Grant, Greece in the Age of Pericles. — L. W. Hopkinson, Greek leaders. — (b) Society and culture: J. Beloch, loc-cil., II, i, pp. 74-122. — E. Meyer, loc. cit.. Ill, pp. 418-459. — A. Holm, loc. cil. 11, ch. xii. — H. N. Fowler and Wheeler, Hand- book of Greek archaeology, pp. 96-144, 317-229. — E. A. Gardner, Handbook of Greek sculpture and ancient .-llhens, pp. 241-279. — C. H. Weller, Athens and its monuments. — M. L. D'Ooge, Acropolis of Athens. — E. Abbott, Hellenica, pp. 1-32.— L. Whib- ley, ed., Companion to Greek studies, 105-111, 479- 561. — W. C. Wright, Greek literature, pp. 119-125, 185-215. — E. Capps, Homer to Theocritus, pp. 168- '214. — A. and M. Croiset, Histoire de la litterature Grecque, II, ch. vii. III, chs. ii-v. — 6. G. Sihler, Testimonium Animce, viii. B. C. 478.— Transfer of naval leadership from Sparta to Athens. — "The first task which awaited the victors was to drive the Persians from the coasts of the /Egean Sea and deliver the Asiatic Greeks from Persian domination. The Greek fleet under the Spartan king Pausanias undertook this task. That, as things were, it must prove; too great an undertaking for a state like Sparta with not more than four thousand citizens, who, more- over, lacked money, ships and maritime experience, and had, besides, to stand on guard at home against a serf population of sixty thousand males, was foreseen by both Pausanias and the authorities at home ; but whereas the latter were loath to con- duct naval operations in far distant Asia, the over-ambitious victor of Plataea was set on keep- ing his own country at the head of all Greek en- terprises, even though to do so he must secure the assistance of Persia. He accordingly offered his services to the Great King as satrap of Greece and conducted himself as the master and not as the leader of the forces serving under his com- mand. His arrogance together with the indiffer- ence of the ruling powers at Sparta, however, provoked a prompt reaction which resulted in the transference of the leadership to the Athenians under Aristides. They had by far the largest num- ber of ships and hence an irresistible claim to naval command. The work was brilliantly ac- complished. With the exception of a few isolated cities, the Greek settlements on the entire ^li^gean coast and in the eastern Mediterranean as far as Cyprus were made free." — G. S. Goodsped, History of the ancient world, pp. 144-145. B. C. 478-477. — Reduction of Byzantium. — Asiatic Greeks. See Greece; B.C. 478-477. B. C. 477. — Organization of the Delian Con- federacy and its aims. — This league was the outgrowth of the Panhellenic union brought about by the Persian war, with Athens, by right of her character and past achievements, as its logical head. "The arrangement of the Delian League had been largely the work of Aristides. His reputa- tion for fairness had given the allies full confidence in the justice of his assessments. ... It had been formed to carry on the war against Persia, and to give to its members security in their lately won Hberties. To this end an army and a navy, a fund of money and a recognised leader, were necessary, (i) Athens was of course the leader. No other state in the alliance could possibly command the same amount of obedience. She was at first by no means a despot city. Representatives from the various states met year by year in the island of Delos, there to deliberate on matters concerning the whole confederacy, and especially on the mili- tary and naval operations of the year. That every state had a vote is certain. But of the procedure of the synod we know almost nothing. Yet both the future history of the league and analogous cases in Greek history go to show that Athens would not be merely the executive officer of the decrees of the league. Her power and prestige would give her from th first a commanding posi- tion. (2) The contributions to the common fund were arranged by Aristides. That we know ; and we know also that these contributions amounted at first to 460 talents. ... (3) .'Vt the head of every expedition, naval or military, stood an Athenian commander. ... (4) The centre of the whole league during its early and independent period was Delos. That small and barren island had been once the great religious centre of the Ionian race. Its glory had declined, but still there was the great temple of Apollo. The place was full of venerable legends and memories of the past. This then was naturally chosen as the centre of the revival of the Ionian race, for as such the Delian league must have been regarded. Here the yearly meetings of the synod were held ; here was the treasury of the contributions of the allies. The general aims of the league must com- mend themselves to every modem observer. That some check should be given to the state-inde- pendence of Greece; that some union should be created in which each separate state should rec- ognize something higher than her own personal interests; that some broad political basis should be formed capable of insuring stability,— some- 595 ATHENS, B.C. 477-461 Fall of Themistocles ATHENS, B.C. 465-454 thing of this sort was quite essential if Greece was to remain independent. But it may be doubted wiiether it was possible to make the Dclian League strong enough for the task that it would have to face. The league was the same sort of organisation that the supporters of Imperial [Brit- ish] Federation propose to create: a confederacy of independent states with a common origin, and supposed common interests for common purposes. But in Greece the instinct for state-independence was so deeply rooted that even the slack bonds of the league proved too tight. No single state in its internal government showed cohesion or a sufficient discipline; and it was little likely, there- fore, that their union should display these quali- ties. There was no power except that of physical force that would in the long run be able to hold the various states together. Panhellenic patriot- ism was hardly felt; the god Apollo was losing his power; Athens was unable to inspire the states with sufficient personal veneration for herself, nor did she try to keep the league together by con- ciliation and kindness." — A. J. Grant, Greece in the Age of Pericles, pp. 132-135. — See also Greece: B.C. 478-477- Also in: J. B. Bury, History of Greece, pp. 346-367, 382-385. — A. Holm, History of Greece, II, chs. xiv, xvii-xix.^G. Grote, History of Greece, chs. xlv (latter part), xlvi. — J. Beloch, History of Greece, II, chs. v, vi. — G. Busolt, History of Greece, III, pp. 296-438, 518-540. — Meyer, For- schungen zur altenen Geschichte, III, pp. 574-624, IV, 3-84. — E. A. Freeman, History of Sicily III, ch. viii. — Abbott, Pericles and the Golden Age of Athens. — A. J. Grant, Greece in the Age of Per- icles. — Greenidge, Handbook of Greek constitu- tional history. — Gilbert, Greek constitutional an- tiquities, pp. 416-435. — Ferguson, Greek imperial- ism, pp. 65-78. — P. Gardner, Earliest coins of Greece proper. B. C. 477-461. — Rise of Athenian empire. See Greece: B.C. 477-461. B. C. 472. — Ostracism of Themistocles. — Esti- mate of his genius. — "The boldness of Themis- tocles in opposing Spartan interests at every turn, added to envy of a greatness which eclipsed all his contemporary politicians, stirred against him a formidable combination headed by Cimon, which forced his ostracism (472 B.C.)." — G. W. Bots- ford, Hellenic history, ch. xii. — He finally died an exile in Asia Minor, but not until he had been accused by his enemies of the ridiculous charge of seeking to regain his former power through the help of the Persian king. "Of the genius of The- mistocles it is needless to speak. It is attested by the victory which he won, and the career of the great city, to which he gave, as it were, a second foundation. In defence of his honesty, we may say that there is no reason to suppose that he cherished treasonable designs against his country before the moment when it was no longer possible for him to remain safely in it; and when the com- bination of his enemies in Sparta and Athens drove him out of Hellas, there was no place but Persia to which he could retire. It is extremely doubt- ful whether there was any real ground for the charge of medism upon which he was hunted out of Greece. The evidence comes to us from a very suspicious source — from the Spartans, who knew that Themistocles was their enemy, and who had at the time very urgent reasons for securing his expulsion from the Peloponnesus. Unhappily, the enemies of Themistocles at .\thens were only too ready to join in the work. They had succeeded in banishing him from the city, but they knew that while he was in Greece he might return and find some means of revenging himself upon them. It did not occur to their minds that the honour of their city was bound up with that of her greatest citizen. In the malice of party spirit they forgot what they owed to the world and posterity." — E. Abbott, Pericles, p. 63. B. C. 472-462. — Aristides and the growth of democracy. — Political parties at Athens and their attitude toward Sparta. — "While Athens was thus entering upon an imperial policy, she was encaged in making her own government more democratic. The patriotic and efficient conduct of the .\reopagites in supervising the exodus of the inhabitants in the face of Xerxes' invasion had given them an ascendancy in public life which they had scarcely known since the time of Solon; but their authority was rapidly undermined by the admission of the nine ex-archons appointed by lot, and hence of mediocre talent, and even more by the genuine advance of democracy. [See , also Areopagus. 1 In the opinion of .Aristotle, Aristeides was chiefly responsible for this develop- ment. . . . (He) introduced pay for military ser- vice and to some extent for official duty, thus making it possible for any Athenian, however poor, to take part in public affairs. He more than any other, therefore, was the founder of the radi- cal democracy. The double object was to furnish subsistence to the populace and to gain a more thorough control of the alliance. . . . While there was among the leading statesmen of Athens no difference of opinion as to the treatment of the confederacy, a sharp line of cleavage was drawn through the group in relation to home politics. Those who favored the popularization of the con- stitution were led by .'\risteides ; the conservatives, by Cimon. Inevitably the latter party clung close to the Peloponnesian league, and looked to Sparta as an example and a moral support; whereas the democrats, understanding the incompatibility of the two states, were ready to break with the Peloponnesian league. Their hands were strength- ened by the fact that Sparta gave secret encour- agement to rebellion within the Confederacy, and stood forth as the champion of particularism — of the complete independence and isolation of the city states — in opposition to the Athenian efforts at political aggregation." — G. W. Botsford, Hellenic history, ch. xii. B. C. 466-454.— Revolt of Allies and begin- ning of the Athenian empire. — Completion of the change from confederacy to empire. — Indi- vidual treaties. — Duties of the allies to Athens. — Imperial funds. — In the confederacy "only the Chians, Lesbians, and Samians were allowed to retain their constitutions, that they might, in re- turn for assured freedom, aid in maintaining the empire. Undoubtedly .Athens was forced to this policy by the character of the lonians, their indis- position to long-continued personal military ser- vice, and their desire to shake off the burden of taxation, when once the danger from the Persians had been removed from their doors. To most of the other allies Athens permitted the substitution of money payments for military or naval service. With the danger of Persian aggression removed [see Greece: B.C. 480; Persia: B.C. 486-405], however, even the payment of this tribute soon became irksome. In 466 Naxos revolted, but was reduced by siege and deprived of its autonomy by the Athenians. Soon after, the example set by Naxos was followed by Thasos. The Thasians were encouraged in their revolt by the Spartans, who, however, failed to give the promised aid be- cause of troubles at home. Thasos fell, apparently in 463, after a siege of two years. .Mhens now deprived the seceding states of their autonomy, and although still legally allies, in actual fact the de- 596 ATHENS, B.C. 466-554 Empire Spread of Culture ATHENS, B. C. 466-431 pendent states formed an Athenian empire. One by one the remaining states were brought into subjection until, in the Age of Pericles, the entire confederacy became an empire. The majority of its citizens were well pleased with this change, for they retained complete freedom of local gov- ernment. In another sense, however, the coercion of a free state was in direct opposition to the ideals of the Greeks, many of whom came to look upon Athens more and more as a tyrant city." — G. W. Botsford, Hellenic history, cli. xii. — "But no efforts could be made to stay the development of the confederacy into an empire, which was finally attained in the year 454, when the com- mon treasury was transferred from Delos to Athens, and the first-fruits of the tribute (one- sixtieth of each state's assessment), which had formerly been paid to Apollo of Delos, were now presented to Athene of the Athenians. At this time the only states whose autonomy was guar- anteed by the supply of ships in place of tribute were apparently Samos, Lesbos, Chios, and the Eubcean towns; and it is probable that tributary states had now been excluded from all direct in- fluence in the league — that, in fact, the votes of the great congress had dwindled down to the votes of these four islands and the city of Athens. After the defection of the greater part of Lesbos and its reduction in 427, one of its towns, Methymna, still shared with Chios the honour of remaining a tree city; while Samos for good service to the democ- racy regained its autonomy in 412. These autono- mous allies were strictly speaking not under the dominion of Athens at all, and their independence was defined as consisting in control of their own courts and of their own finances. They brought neither suits nor tribute to Athens, and were per- haps bound only by the prescriptions of the old Delian league, but they were by no means free from the practical interference of the leading state, which stopped any procedure likely to lead to their revolt. The charter of Erythrae gives that state a constitution, and is a remarkable and no doubt exceptional instance of the detailed reorganisation of a city which, when it passed into the power of Athens, possessed no regular form of polity. The constitution is closely modelled on that of Athens. The general duties of the allies to Athens maj' be easily gathered from these two charters. They consist in a promise of fealty, a promise to pay the required tribute and to furnish active as- sistance in case Athens required it, and, further, in an agreement to give up some of their autono- mous rights, the chief of these rights surrendered being that of jurisdiction in exceptional cases, such as those of treason to the central state and to the empire. The return that Athens made for all this was her protection. She is irresponsible, a 'tyrant city,' and in the position of one who commands. If she makes concessions, they are in the nature of privileges. She might impose limits to her own irresponsible power, and she sometimes grants special favours — such as immunity to in- dividuals or practical exemption from tribute to whole states, which she allows to pay only the sixtieth, as first-fruits to the goddess. But these are acts of grace, and the exemption granted to states was perhaps as much intended to promote differences of interests as to cultivate the loyalty of important outposts. The chief burden was the tribute, but its variations show it to have been always on a moderate scale. The amount imposed at the formation of the league in 478 is said by Thucydides to have amounted to four hundred and sixty talents. By the beginning of the Peloponne- sian War in 431 it had risen to only six hundred talents. . . . The moderation of the tribute is shown by the fact that this commutation could be made with the hope of increasing the total; but the tribute list, when the assessment is at its highest, tells the same tale." — A. H. J. Greenidge, Handbook of Greek constitutional history, pp. 192-194. B. C. 466-445. — Colonization. — Material bene- fits of empire. — Thurii, a model town. — "But the surplus was employed by Athens for public build- ings and for the theoric fund, and land was an- ne.xed in the conquered districts for the establish- ment of cleruchies. The primary object of these settlements was to provide land for the poorer citizens of Athens; they seem usually to have been settled on territory that had become the prize of war, and their advent came to be dreaded rather as a sign of military coercion than because they in- terfered with the rights of peaceful members of the league. For their strategic came to outweigh their social importance, and one of their main functions was to inspire fear into the allies and to serve as a guard against intended revolt. They assumed the form of organized communities, and as such mark the last stage in the history of state- directed colonisation. The settlement was de- creed by the people and the settlers chosen from the poorer citizens by lot. The cleruchs remained Athenian citizens; collectively they were but a fragment of the demos settled in a distant outpost, individually they still bore the designations which marked them as members of the Attic tribes. These settlements present rather the theory of an extended local government than that of the pos- session of a twofold citizenship by the same in- dividuals. In some respects they resembled the states of the empire, and their jurisdiction was limited by the provision that all important cases had to be brought to Athens. Their structure was that of the typical democracy, and decrees were voted by their council and assembly. But they paid no tribute, and, unlike the allied cities, re- ceived magistrates from Athens." — A. H. J. Green- idge, Handbook of Greek constitutional history, p. 199. — "It was not a mere collection of houses, like the Grecian cities, where old and new jostled each other in gay confusion, but a town con- structed with a view to convnience, health, and protection. It is from these points of view that Thurii becomes the ideal colony of the Periclean era; other cities were of far more use to Athens by supporting her citizens, or holding places of strategical value; but none reflects so much of the mind of Pericles as the Hellenic town by the waters of the Crathis [river Crati] — where Herod- otus, the most Hellenic of Greek historians, was wont to talk and meditate." — E. Abbott, Pericles, pp. 148-149. B. C. 466-431. — Spread of Athenian culture and influence. — "Athens has thus become recognized as a model state ; and Greece was in the mood to adopt or imitate her ways in small things as in great. We can see this in the rapid spread of Athenian weights and measures and the Athenian coinage, or of systems arranged so as to work in with them. Athens was standardizing Greek coin- age as she was unifying Greek law. She did not, of course, compel her allies to use only Attic money, or money coined on the Attic standard. But she naturally preferred that contributions should be paid in it ; and there were indirect ways by which she could encourage it. It was only decent to pay Apollo and later Athena, in the coinage they preferred to see. And as Athenian coins could always be relied upon for good weight, and as the device upon them, the famous owl, was so conveniently uncouth that you could tell it at a glance, there was really no need for a compul- 597 ATHENS, B. C. 462-461 Periclean Democracy ATHENS, B.C. 461-431 sion which would have been against the principle of free exchange. Example was better than pre- cept. Attic silver began to be known and used not only in the Confederacy but all over^ Greece and among distant barbarians. When Gylippus after Aegospotami kept back some of the Spartan State booty, and hid it under his roof tiles, the man who denounced him merely said that there were 'owls in the potters' quarter.' In fact, much as the Spartans hated strangers, and Athenians above all, there were a great many such owls' nests all over their city. Athenian influence was thus spreading, as Pericles realized, far beyond the /Egean and the confines of the Empire. Her trad- ers were moving East and West, finding their way into every land and every sea, fetching goods and paying for them in owls and pottery, from the iron mines of Elba or the caravans at Gaza and Cyrene. For this also was part of the imperial inission — to mix freely with all mankind and to give of their best to men and nations. Friend- ships were knit and alliances made with Greek, and even with barbarian, powers without a thought of the Persians or the original object of the league. . . We must imagine houses without drains, beds without sheets or springs, rooms as cold, or as hot as the open air, only draughtier, meah that began and ended with pudding, and cities that could boast neither gentry nor millionaires. We must learn to tell the time without watches, to cross rivers without bridges, and seas without a compass; to fasten our clothes (or rather our two pieces of cloth) with two pins instead of rows of buttons, to wear our shoes or sandals without stockings, to warm ourselves over a pot of ashes. to judge open-air plays or law suits on a cold winter's morning, to study poetn,' without books, geography without maps, and politics without newspapers. In a word we must learn how to be civilized without being comfortable . . . for it was the doom of Athens that Poverty and Impossibility dwelt in her midst from first to last. It is to the immortal glory of her citizens that, though they were too clear-eyed not to behold them, they bravely refused to submit, either in mind or in body, to the squalid tyranny which they have im- posed upon the great mass of humankind." — \. E. Zimmern, Greek commonwealth, pp. iqo-iqi. — See also Edttcation: Ancient: B.C. 7th-.\.D. 3rd cen- turies: Greece; and Libraries: Ancient: Greece. B. C. 462-461. — Withdrawal of Athens from the Peloponnesian League following her break with Sparta. — Ostracism of Cimon. — "During the absence of Cimon the popular party, led by Ephialtes, held complete control of the govern- ment, and proceeded to make it more democratic than it had ever been before. Meanwhile the Athenian troops at Ithome were unsuccessful (see Greece: B.C. 477-461); and the Lacedaemonian authorities, suspecting them of treachery, inso- lently dismissed them. Cimon returned to .\thens an unpopular man. In trying to check the rising tide of democracy, he was met with taunts of over-fondness for Sparta. Athens abandoned his policy, broke loose from Sparta, and began to form an alliance of her own, wholly independent of the Peloponnesian League. Cimon's resistance to these new movements caused his ostracism in 461 B.C. For fifteen years (476-461 B.C.) he had been leading the Athenian fleets to victory or up- holding the principles of old .Mhens against what he believed to be the dangerous tendencies of demagogues, such as Themistocles and Ephi.altes; during this time his influence maintained friend- ship between his city and Sparta and harmony among the states of Greece. Under his patron- age Athens advanced beyond all other Hellenic cities in civilization. But with his ostracism the political leadership of his state passed into other hands." — G. W. Botsford, History of the ancient world, p. iSg. B. C. 461-431. — Periclean democracy. — Ideal of equality at its zenith. — Law courts. — Assem- bly. — Magistrates. — "Seldom, indeed, has 'equality' been pushed to so extreme a point as it was, politically at least, in ancient Athens. The class of slaves, it is true, existed there as in every other state ; but among the free citizens, who in- cluded persons of every rank, no political distinc- tion at all was drawn. All of them, from the lowest to the highest, had the right to speak and vote in the great assembly of the people which was the ultimate authority ; all were eligible to every administrative post; all sat in turn as jurors in the law-courts. The disabilities of poverty were minimized by payment for attendance in the assembly and the courts. And, what is more ex- traordinary, even distinctions of ability were levelled by the practice of filling all offices, ex- cept the highest, by lot. [See also Lot, Use of, in election: .\thens.] Had the citizens been a class apart, as was the case in Sparta, had they been subjected from the cradle to a similar discipline and training, forbidden to engage in any trade or business, and consecrated to the service of the state, there would have been nothing surprising in this uncompromising assertion of equality. But in .\thens the citizenship was extended to every rank and calling; the poor man jostled the rich, the shopman the aristocrat, in the Assembly; cob- blers, carpenters, smiths, farmers, merchants, and retail traders met together with the ancient landed gentry, to debate and conclude on national affairs; and it was from such varied elements as these that the lot impartially chose the officials ol the law, the revenue, the police, the highways, the markets, the ports, as well as the jurors at whose mercy stood reputation, fortune, and life. The conse- quence was that in .Athens, at least in the later period of her history, the middle and lower classes tended to monopolize political power. Of the popular leaders, Cleon, the most notorious, was a tanner; another was a baker, another a cattle- dealer. Influence belonged to those who had the gift of leading the mass; and in that competition the man of tongue, of energy, and of resource, was more than a match for the aristocrat of birth and intellect. In Athens, as in every Greek state, the greater part of the population was unfree; and the government which was a democracy from the point of view of the freeman, was an oligarchy from the point of view of the slave. For the slaves, by the nature of their position, had no political rights; and they were more than half of the population. It is noticeable, however, that the freedom and individuality which were character- istic of the Athenian citizen, appear to have reacted favourably on the position of the slaves. Not only had they, to a certain extent, the protection of the law against the worst excesses of their masters, but they were allowed a license of bearing and costume which would not have been tolerated in any other state." — .-X. E. Zimmern, Greek cotn- monweailh. — See also Diobalv. — "Several thou- sands of the citizens— men over thirty years of age— spent their time in deciding the differences which arose between .Athenians or between Athe- nians and foreigners. All offences except murder, arson, and one or two more, which were left to the cognisance of the Areopagus, were decideci in these courts, which without any direct participa- tion in politics exercised by this means a great influence on the policy of the Athenians. . . . K was through the law-courts that Athens, in the 598 ATHENS, B. C. 461-431 Periclean Democracy ATHENS, B. C. 461-431 days of Pericles, maintained her authority over the executive of the government, an authority en- forced by the severest penalties and extending to the most minute details. It was through them that she controlled the trade of her great empire. And from the decision of these courts there was no appeal. The public Assembly often referred mat- ters to the decision of the court, but the converse process was unknown. Nor was any decision of a law-court ever cancelled or revised. The jurors were exempt from all responsibility — a privilege which they shared with the public Assembly and with that only. They were also the only power capable of enacting laws. . . . The Assembly was competent to change the whole constitution of Athens; it could decide whether the laws of Solon should be maintained or superseded by a new code; it could close the law-courts; it could give permission for new laws to be passed, or withhold it, but it had not the power, by a mere resolution, to add to the statute-book." — E. Abbott, Pericles, pp. 259-261. — "The administrative offices held by individuals were particularly large in number, and were at least doubled when Athens became an im- perial state and a new Athens grew up in the cleruchies and colonies beyond the sea. ... It is sufficient to observe that the Constitution of Athens, in an attempt to estimate the numbers of the bureaucracy for the middle of the fifth cen- tury, makes the total reach the alarming propor- tions of fourteen hundred, of which half were 'home' and half 'foreign' offices. As appointment to most of these was made by lot, the Athenian citizen was unfortunate who did not once in his lifetime get his share of individual rule. . . . Few states have ever been more completely under the sway of great personalities. ... It is a phase of national life which, on general grounds, should not create the least surprise ; for it is one of the old- est lessons in history that, while oligarchy is the true leveller of merit, a democracy brings with it a hero-worship generally of an extravagant kind, and that the masses attain sufficient union for the exercise of power only through the worship of a supposed intellectual king. The first (and most important) office which attracts attention is that of the generals, who formed, as we saw, a college of ten based on the ten Cleisthenean tribes. Their most distinctive right was that of procuring special meetings of the ecclesia, debate in which seems to have been strictly limited to proposals put before them by the general. . . . The stralegoi were thus ministers of finance for foreign affairs, and con- trolled the details of expenditure in their own departments, all the funds voted from the treas- uries for military purposes passing through their hands. Amongst their special military duties we may reckon, besides their actual leadership in war, the general command of the home forces and con- trol of the home defences. They possessed juris- diction in military matters, for the appeal against the levy was m.ade to them, and they had the di- rection of the court in all offences against martial law, which they either undertook in person or remitted to the taxiarchs; while in the field they had the right of punishing summarily with death the most serious offences; such as treasonable negotiations with the enemy. One of their chief responsibilities at home was the care of the corn supply of Athens. In the details of foreign ad- ministration their influence must also have been very great. It was they who introduced most of such business to the assembly and brought for- ward questions arising from treaties or from ne- gotiations with foreign states. They officiated in treaties and were responsible for their formal execution, seeing that the oath was taken and that the proper sacrifices were then offered on the occasion. The existence of the Athenian Empire added to the sphere of their powers. They were the commanders-in-chief of the garrisons and of the captains of the guard whom we find in the subject states. They saw to the exaction of the tribute when it was in arrears by commanding the 'tribute-collecting ships,' and probably had the levying of the contingents from the allies both in ships and men. It will be seen from this enumer- ation of their functions that the Athenian gener- als were at once leaders in war, ministers of war, foreign ministers, and to a great extent ministers of finance." — A. H. J. Greenidge, Handbook of Greek constitutional history, pp. 178-181. Also in: A. Holm, History of Greece, II, ch. xvi. — G. Grote. History of Greece, clis. xlvi, xlvii. — E. Meyer, Forscliurigen ziir aiten Geschichte, III, PP- 570-583.— A, H. J. Greenidge, Greek constitu- © Publishers* Photo Co. PORCH OF THE MAIDENS Portico on the- Erechtheum, Acropolis tional history, pp. 166-189. — Gilbert, Constitutional antiquities, pp. 170-416. — A. E. Zimmern, Greek comnionweaith. — G. W. Botsford, Development of Athenian constitution. — W. S. Ferguson, Greek im- perialism, pp. 38-65.— M. H. E. Meier and G. F. Schbmann, Der attiscbe Process. — Whibley, Com- panion to Greek Studies, pp. 383-402. — Francotte, Les finances des cites grecques. B. C. 5th century. — Voting. — Primitive theory of suffrage. See Suffrage, Manhood: B.C. sth century. B. C. 461-431. — General aspect of Periclean Athens. — Public works and art under Pericles. — The Pnyx, Theseum and the Acropolis. — "Some years after the Persian Wars, Peiraeus was laid out by the Milesian architect Hippodamus in rectangular blocks, but Athens itself, like most an- cient and, indeed, most modern cit'es until recent times, grew up after no comprehensive plan. A few wide avenues led from the principal gates in 599 ATHENS, B.C. 461-431 Periclean Age Plan of the City ATHENS, B. C. 461-431 the city wall. The broadest was the street leading from the Dipylurn to the Agora, which was lined with colonnades on both sides. At the eastern end of the Acropolis was the impressive street of the Tripods, a favorite promenade. South of the Areopagus a considerable stretch of the famous road along which the Panathenaic procession passed, has been uncovered, but this is found to be only thirteen to eighteen feet wide, and shut in closely on either side by blank walls of pre- cincts and dwellings. The streets debouching on these main arteries were narrow, in great part like alleys. Few of the streets were paved, and side- walks were unknown. We have little information about the private houses of the city and must de- pend chiefly for our knowledge upon those ex- cavated at such places as Priene and Deles. The Along the more frequented streets the lower front rooms seem often to have been used as shops, either by owners or tenants, as at Pompeii. The erection, in a niche or a vestibule before the house, of a pillar altar of .\pollo of the Streets, or a herm, or a hecateum, or all three, was a general custom. Herms were also set up at street cross- ings. The location of a house was rarely or never designated by streets, the names of which, in fact, were usually without marked significance, but by some well-known building or site near which it stood. The traces of dwellings in Coele [Coela], between the extremities of the Long Walls on the western slopes of the Pnyx hills, deserve mention. The exposed rock of this dictrict is scarred by hundreds of cuttings where once stood the simple habitations of a considerable population. At one (C^ Publithcrt' I'LoXo Co. TEMPLE OF THE OLYMPIAN ZEUS, ATHENS The .Acropolis is seen in the distance houses were built about central courts, which af- forded light and air, and most of them were but one story in height. The front wall, built on the edge of the street, was pierced only by an- occa- sional window and by the door, the latter some- times set back in a vestibule. .\ traveler of the Hellenistic period remarks (P.-Dicaarchus i, i): 'The majority of the houses are cheap, but there are a few good ones; strangers who come upon them unexpectedly could hardly be made to be- lieve that this is the celebrated city of the Atheni- ans.' This statem^t. however, has a bearing only upon the general appearance of the exterior, for the interiors of many houses must have been fairly ornate. Alcibiades is said to have had his walls decorated by a painter, and after his time some houses must have been still more sumptuous. In the fourth century B.C. .we find Demosthenes complaining that 'some have built private houses more magnificent than the public buildings.' point, possibly an open meeting place, seven rude seats are hewn in the native rock. Another deep cutting, with three adjacent rock-hewn chambers (now closed by iron gratings), has long been called the Prison of Socrates, with whom it has nothing to do; it was doubtless the site of an unusually pretentious dwelling. The patriotic Athenian spent most of his time in the open, and the glory of his city was the public buildings. The center of .Athenian life was the -Agora, situated on the lower ground north of the Areopagus. It was entered from the northwest by the brilliant avenue leading from the Dipylum gate, and was flanked on all sides by works of architecture, sculpture, and painting. [See Painting: Greek] To mention only the objects of chiefest note, the entering visitor, if he turned to the right, saw the Royal Stoa, or Colonnade, the Stoa of Zeus Savior, and the temple of Paternal .Apollo. The ridge behind these bore the temple of Hephaestus and 600 ,"ii:??7K!l'/«5r:.-;'« LIFE IN ANCIENT ATHENS An incident in the life of a lady of ancient Greece ATHENS, B.C. 461-431 Public Buildings ATHENS, B. C. 461-431 the shrine of the hero Eurysaces. Against the slope of the Areopagus stood the sanctuary of the Mother of the Gods, where were the public ar- chives; in her precinct, too, were the senate house and the circular Tholus. Not far away were the Orchestra, with the revered images of the Tyran- nicides, the temple of Ares, and the statues of the Namesake Heroes of the tribes. On the left stood the Painted Porch and the Trcseum. Back of these rose the imposing Stoa of Attains, and near it the Ptolemaeum, Still farther on stood the spacious Stoa of Hadrian and the great Market of Cjesar and Augustus; in the rear of these the octagonal Tower of the Winds. Then, among and within all the buildings and precincts we must im- agine almost countless images of gods and heroes and distinguished men ; while everywhere graceful and brightly appareled men and women, not a few of whom are known and dear to us, round out the brilliant picture with warmth and life. Following the road from the Prytaneum about the east end of the Acropolis, our traveler came upon another famous quarter in southeast Athens. Here the huge temple of Olympian Zeus and, across the river, the Stadium, stood out conspicuously ; while not far away were the famous Gardens and the shaded parks of the Lyceum [see Education: An- cient; B.C. 7th-A. D. 3rd centuries: University of Athens] and Cynosarges. Or, following the street of Tripods at the east foot of the Acropolis, he passed the Music Hall of Pericles to the great theater of Dionysus and the two temples hard by ; then continuing westward he came to the shrine of Asclepius and Health, or walked through the long colonnade of Eumenes to the lofty Music Hall of Herodes, with its spreading roof of cedar. To crown all, the visitor ascended the Acropolis, past the delicate temple of Wingless Victory, be- tween the exquisite columns and through the open doors of the Propylaea, into the middle of the sacred area. All about him were scores of statues, masterpieces in marble and bronze [see Sculp- ture: Greek sculpture: 5lh century] ; on every side great works of architecture; the whole a marvelous harmony of brightness and color. Fore- most among the buildings, the graceful Erechtheum and the stately Parthenon ; and in the Parthenon, towering on its pedestal the awe-compelling statue, in gold and ivory, of Athena, the city's guardian." — C. H. Weller, Athens and its monuments, pp. 21- 26. — See also Acropolis at Athens. "Athens reached the zenith of her majesty under the administration of Pericles, during approximate- ly the third quarter of the fifth century B. C. The administrative center of the Delian Confederacy, which was formed after the war, in order to resist Persia, was, in 454 B.C., transferred from Delos to Athens, and Pericles found a way to make its funds available for beautifying the new capital. The defensive poHcy of Themistocles and Cimon was approved and continued. The harbor of Peiraeus was supplied with an elaborate and costly system of shipsheds, and the seaport town itself was laid out regularly by Hippodamus of Miletus. The long Walls connecting Peiraeus with Athens were finally completed, a new South Wall, par- allel with the North Wall being erected in place of the less direct Phaleric Wall. The earliest of the splendid buildings of this period seems to have been the Odeum, or Music Hall, of Pericles, on the southeast slope of the Acropolis. Its conical roof is said to have been made of masts from the ruined ships of Xerxes. The gymnasium of the Lyceum was also constructed, and numerous other buildings in the lower city, to say nothing of scores of statues and paintings, of which we have only scanty knowledge, or have even lost the names. But the buildings of the Acropolis are the glory of the age. Whether or not at the outset Pericles had conceived a systematic plan for adorning the sacred hill, is still a moot question. At about the middle oL the century, perhaps after the battle of Oenophyta, in 457 B. C., when Athens first tri- umphed over her old rival, Sparta, a decree waa passed providing for the construction of the little temple of Athena Victory on the high bastion be- side the entrance to the sacred inclosure. Some- doubt has been entertained as to its immediate erection, but this seems most likely. The Parthe- non, as a worthy home of the city's protectress^ Athena, was probably begun in 447 B. C. on the site of the building destroyed by the Persians. Iw 438 B. C. the temple was ready for the great gold and ivory statue of Athena, by Pheidias, and five or six years later it was completed. Built en- tirely of white Pentelic marble, like the majority of the buildings of this age, it was executed throughout with extraordinary painstaking, and was richly decorated with sculptures, as it would seem by several of the leading artists of the day. On the south the wall of the Acropolis was in- creased in height to support the terrace, which, was thus brought to a level with the rock on the iiortt © Underwood & Underwood, N. Y. TEMPLE OF NIKE (VICTORY) ACROrOLIS side and afforded a wide promenade about the temple." — Ibid., pp. 36-37. "The Pnyx, as we now have it, consists of an irregularly semi-circular space nearly 400 feet in its longitudinal diameter and about 230 feet wide. The ground here by nature slopes toward the north, and the area was raised on its curved side by a supporting wall of carefully joined stones, some of them of enormous size, ... In the ob- tuse angle at the middle of the south side lies the bema, or orators' platform. The rock has been hewn down vertically along this side of the area, a portion at the east corner never having been removed, and the bema with its steps is cut from a projection of the solid rock. Niches for votive offerings are cut in the scarped rock at one side of the bema, and inscriptions referring to Most High Zeus indicate that a sanctuary of Zeus was at some time located here. Above and behind the bema are seats, probably seats of honor, cut from the rock and facing the assembly, while back of these are remains of an altar and various bases belonging to some shrine." — Ibid., pp. 111-113. — See also Pnyx. "The name 'Theseum' was first applied to this building in the Middle Ages, probably hecause on 601 ATHENS, B.C. 461-431 Parthenon Sophists ATHENS, B. C. 461-431 some of its metopes and a part of its frieze deeds tion given by professional teachers — the Sophists, of Theseus are depicted. But inference from the The last half of the fifth century is often called sculptural decoration of a temple has been shown with good reason the '.^ge of the Sophists.' . . . to be hazardous. . . . The claim of Heahasstus The Sophists of the fifth century neither formed seems most conclusive, though complete agreement a philosophic school nor were they charlatans. of scholars has not been reached. The temple The most prominent among them was Protagoras measures 104 by 45 feet. ... It is built of Pen- telic and Parian marble, save the lowest of the three steps, which is of poros. . . . The temple was richly decorated with sculptures. Of the pedi- mental groups only the traces remain, unfortun- ately not enough to indicate clearly their motive. A plausible argument has been offered to show that the east pediment represented the birth of Erichthonius, the west, Hephaestus with Thetis and Eurynorae." — Ibid., pp. 117-11Q. The Parthenon — "It is a noble building by mere size; 228 feet measure its side, loi feet at its front. Forty-six majestic Doric columns surround it; they average thirty-four feet in height, and six feet three inches at the base. All these facts, however, do not give the soul of the Parthenon. Walk around it slowly, tenderly, lovingly. Study the elaborate stories told by the pediments, — on the east front the birth of Athena, on the west the strife of Athena and Poseidon for the posses- sion of Athens. Trace down the innumerable lesser sculptures on the 'metopes' under the cor- nice, — showing the battles of the Giants, Centaurs, Amazons, and of the Greeks before Troy ; finally follow around, on the whole inner circuit of the body of the temple, the frieze, showing in bas- relief the Panathenaic procession, with the beauty, nobility, and youth of .\thens marching in glad fes- tival; comprehend that these sculptures will never be surpassed in the twenty-four succeeding cen- turies; that here are supreme examples for the artists of all time, — and then, in the face of this final creation, we can realize that the Parthenon will justify its claim to immortality. One thing more. There are hardly any straight lines in the Parthenon. To the eye, the members and the steps of the substructure may seem perfectly level; but the measuring rod betrays marvelously subtle curves. As nature abhors right angles in her crea- tions of beauty, so did these Greeks, Rigidity, un- naturalness, have been banished. The Parthenon stands, not merely embellished with inimitable sculptures, but perfectly adjusted to the natural world surrounding." — VV. S. Davis, Day in old Athens, pp. 2i8-2ig. — See also Parthenon; and Arcuitecture: Classic: Greek Doric and Ionic. Also in: Bury, History of Greece, pp. 367-378. —Holm, History of Greece, II, ch. xx. — Beloch, History of Greece, II, i, pp. 155-164, 203-218. — Busolt, History of Greece, III, pp. 451-490, 560- 582. — .A.bbott, Pericles and the Golden Age of Greece, chs. xvii, xviii. — Zimmern, Greek common- wealth. — Guiraud, Etudes economiques sur V an- tiquite. — Francotte, L'industrie dins la Grece an- cienne. — Glover, From Pericles to Philip, ch. ii. — Judeich, Topographic von Athen. — Fowler and Wheeler, Handbook of Greek archceology, pp. 144- 158, 229-251. — Gardner, Handbook of Greek sculp- ture, pp. 279-326. — Whibley, Companion to Greek studies, pp. 213-224, 237-245, 416-421, 518-534.— Stobart, Glory that ivas Greece, ch. iv.— Meyer, Die vjirtschafiliche entwickelung der aniiken Welt; also, Sklaverei in Altertum, in Kleine Schriften. B. C. 461-431. — Age of rationalism and scep- ticism. — Sophists and Protagoras. — "The intel- lectual spirit of the age was stimulated to inquiry and to scepticism. Herodotus is wholly sceptical, and the agnostic tendency of the time is shown by the entire lack of mythology and superstition dis- played by Thucydides. .•X further stimulus was furnished' by the development of a higher educa- 602 of Abdera whose ability and character is shown by the fact that Pericles selected him to draw up the laws for Thurii in 444-43 B.C.... These Sophists were simply men devoted to the pursuit of wisdom, frequently professional teachers who undertook to give a general culture, to train their pupils to take part in society and the state For the old training which had been gained by ob- servation they substituted a formal discipline ; they offered instruction in rhetoric, politics, music, in short in all the higher branches, as we should call them. But they had no unity of doctrine. By the close of the fifth century they had fallen some- what into disrepute and were under suspicion, since in the ."Mhenian state all the youths who could afford to pay the fees which these profes- sional teachers charged belonged to the aristocratic class, which frequently voted against the democ- racy. The Sophists ow'ed their great influence to the fact that they met an actual need in the small society of .-Vthens which included an unusual num- ber of men with eager alert minds and great in- tellectual curiosity. . . . Furthermore the Sophists were sceptical as to the possibility of acquiring absolute knowledge about anything. . . . Prota- goras maintained that all knowledge was relative, since the only way in which a man can know anything is through his senses; through them he perceives that an object is hot or cold, round or square, sweet or bitter. He pointed out, also, that the same object will not always appear thi same even to the same individual ; hence he de- clared that there is no such thing as absolute truth, but that whatever seems true to you or to me at the moment is the truth for you or for me, and that it is not at all necessary that you and I should hold the sam.e thing to be true at one and the same time. Whatever seems to the individual true is true, according to him. From this came his fa- mous dictum that man, that is the individual, is the measure of all things. It is clear that this doctrine when applied to politics, morals, or religion was upsetting. So long as men studied nature, they were concerned with discovering the inflexible laws which govern the world. But when they turned their attention from nature to society or government, they realized that human institutions seemed to be the result on the whole of conven- tions agreed upon and adopted by mankind The Sophists held in general that the form of the state, the current moral and religious beliefs and social customs had no absolute validity ; that they were the results of convention; and that their only warrant was that they worked well in practice, that they were profitable to the individual and to society. This pragmatic view of institutions fell in welt with the temper of the last half of the fifth century, both in the period of .Athens' im- perial supremacy and in the time of her trial dur- ing the Peloponnesian War, when in passion or despair the people disregarded law and, as in the case of the Melians, all that humanity had counted sacred. It was an age when many held that might and right were identical, and for this view the Sophists, even though unwittingly, furnished argu- ments; for if the test of an institution or act is that it works well when put into practice, suc- cess proves validity. The Sophists, too, taught that virtue was nothing else than what we call today efficiency. It is not strange that the con- servative .Athenians came to look on them with ATHENS, B. C. 461-431 Sophocles Pericles ATHENS, B.C. 461-431 suspicion. With regard to the gods Protagoras was naturally agnostic. He began his 'Treatise on the Gods' with the words: 'So far as the gods are concerned, I cannot know whether they exist or do not exist ; or what their nature is. Many things prevent our knowing. The matter is obscure and life is short.' One may be curious to know what large matter Protagoras found for his discussion when he began with this frank' confession of ig- norance; but it should be observed that in this ^ confession there is nothing necessarily antagonistic to the popular theology of his day. It only shows what the words plainly declare, that a belief in the gods cannot depend upon knowledge. Another Sophist, Prodicus, maintained that the divinities were nothmg but the kindly powers of nature which man had deified; and the 'Gentle Critias,' one of the worst of the Thirty Tyrants, and a ready pupil of the earlier Sophists, is said to have set forth in a satyric drama the theory that the gods were the clever invention of some- one who wished to scare men out of their desire to do evil. The effect of such scepticism and agnosticism we can easily imagine. [See also AcNosnciSM.] Many things had been wrongly laid at the door of the Sophists, but it is small wonder that the conservative Athenian citizens came to look with distrust and alarm on these new-fangled subversive notions; tha;: they ban- ished Protagoras and burned his books in the market place; or finally that they should have put Socrates to death." — C. H. Moore, Religious thought of the Creeks, from Homer to the trinmph of Christianity, pp. 124-129. B. C. 461-431. — Development of Greek drama. — Sophocles. — "Sophocles was born at Colonus, a village about a mile northwest of Athens, in 497 B. C, twenty-eight years after the birth of ^-Eschy- lus. His father, Sophilus, was wealthy, though not of noble descent. The boy Sophocles was care- fully educated, receiving instruction in music from Lamprus, a well-known teacher of the time. He excelled in personal beauty, in dancing, and in music, so that when a chorus of boys was to chant the pjean of victory after the battle of Salamis he was chosen to be the leader. The first appear- ance of Sophocles as a tragic poet was in 46S B. C, wlicn he was twenty-eight years old. . . . More than one hundred plays are ascribed to him, and with these he won eighteen victories at the city Dionysia, besides others at the Lenaca. . . . For over sixty years he composed a tetralogy every second year, showing no falling off in invention, imagination, dramatic skill, or poetic diction. He died in 405 B. C, more than ninety years of age, and his latest tragedy, the Qi^dipus at Colonus, was brought out after his death by his grandson. Several innovations in the dramatic art are as- cribed to Sophocles. The most important of these is the introduction 01 the third actor, which made the dialogue henceforth more important than the choral songs, though the latter continued to occupy nearly half the time of the performance. The second innovation consisted in enlarging the chorus from twelve to fifteen members, which doubtless occasioned some changes in its arrange- ment and movements. Sophocles also ceased to compose tetralogies of four plays on connected subjects, but competed at the festivals with sep- arate plays — three tragedies and a satyr drama, to be sure, but not dealing with one myth. This, with the reduction of the length of the lyric por- tions of his plays, made it possible for him to make his plots less simple than those of ^schylus and to introduce more dramatic situations. It is also said that Sophocles was the first to use painted scenery to any great extenf, and several minor changes in the costume of the chorus as well as in the music employed are attributed to him. [See also Drama: Origin] All these things show that he was interested in the practical side of his pro- fession as well as in the writing of tragedies. He even wrote a book in prose. On the Chorus, de- fending his innovations. In his early days he was himself an actor in his plays, but his weak voice compelled him to give up acting. Sophocles is justly regarded as the greatest of the great Greek tragic poets. He found the drama already de- veloped by the genius of ^schylus to a high de- gree of beauty and power, and he carried it fur- ther ... by refining the language employed, by giving more variety to the plot, which he enriched with many fine details, and by perfecting the por- trayal of character." — H. N. Fowler, History of ancient Greek literature, pp. 205, 218. B. C. 461-431. — Pericles: Estimate of his char- acter. — -"But though Greece hated him, and Athens spoke of him with mingled feelings, the debt which the world owes to Pericles is immense. Without him and his personal government ; with- out the money which he lavished on shows and spectacles, on temples and statutes; with- out the sophists and philosophers whom he shel- tered, we should have been the poorer by the loss of half our intellectual life. And in his political aims, however unfortunate the results, we can trace the outlines of a purpose which must always be the guiding light of the greatest statesmen: the wish to give to every citizen in and through the state, not only the blessings of peace and pros- perity, but the still greater blessing of unimpeded action in all noble aspirations; to awaken in him such a devotion to his state as shall prove an unerring guide in conduct; to train his intellectual and moral powers, not with the lessons of a school, but by the experience of life; to develop an equal balance between the individual and the citizen; to make duty a delight, and service an honour; to remove the sting from poverty and the charm from wealth ; and to recognise benefits to the com- munity as the only ground of civic distinction. Such a purpose was perhaps a distant ideal, even at .Athens, and it is far more distant now; but near or far away, it is from such ideals that the spark is sent which kindles the flame of our highest efforts. A few details have come down to us of the personal appearance and manners of Pericles. . . . His head, which was of unusual size and shape, was a common theme of merriment with the comedians: they compared it to a kind of bean, called Schinus, and exercised their wits in all kinds of allusions to the heavy head of the new Olympian. To conceal the defect, Pericles was accustomed, when in public, to wear a helmet, a practice which, as we have said, provoked Cra- tinus into declaring that he went 'about with the Odeum on his head.' The suspicions which his appearance excited were not diminished by his education and manners. His tutor in 'music,' which at Athens included most of the intellectual part of education, as opposed to the physical, was Damon, the 'friend of tyrants' and a 'consummate sophist,' who, under cover of his art, was thought to cherish designs against the democracy. Whether this view was correct or not, Damon was ostra- cised from Athens. Another teacher was Zeno, from whom Pericles learned the art of disputation as it was practised in the Eleatic School. More important still was his connexion with Anaxa- goras. In the society of this eminent man he not only acquired a knowledge and an elevation of thought which raised him above the superstitions of his time, but the influence extended to his language and demeanor. As an orator, Pericles 603 ATHENS, B.C. 461-431 Estimate of the Periclean Age ATHENS, B.C. 461-431 was stately and dignified, carefully avoiding any- thing familiar or common in his language; calm and quiet in his delivery, and by these very qualities producing a deep impression on his audi- ence. His movements were at all times sedate; his dress was careful and becoming ; he was rarely seen to smile, and nothing could provoke him to anger. . . . His power was far greater than that of any other man of his time. Yet he never abused it for mean or malicious purposes. In his last utterance ... he declared that no Athenian had ever put on mourning owing to any act of his. ... In graciousness and clemency, in the for- bearance and patience with which they endured the attacks of foolish and ignorant enemies, the Roman and the Grecian were fairly matched. But not less admirable than his clemency was the loftiness of spirit which prompted Pericles to utter that last noble speech, giving the foremost place among his triumphs to the self-restraint which had governed his exercise of suorcme au- thority." — E. Abbott, Pericles, pp. 363-366. B.C. 461-431. — Appreciation of the age of Pericles and summary of its achievements. — "Thus far we have been considering Periclean Athens chiefly as the most perfect example of Greek civic life; as an imperial city, in which the fullest individual freedom was enjoyed without prejudice to the strength of the State; as a great seat of industry and a focus of commerce. The memorials of all these things have well-nigh van- ished; but the modern world still possesses monu- ments of the literature, and at least fragments of the art, which proclaim Athens to have been, above all, the great intellectual centre of that age. The influence of Periclean Athens is deeply impressed on the History of Herodotus, and moulded the still greater work of Thucydides; Athens was the home of the philosopher Anaxagoras, and the as- tronomer Meton [inventor of the Metonyc Cycle] ; it was at Athens that prose composition, which had hitherto been either colloquial or poetical, was first matured; at Athens, too, oratory first became the effective ally of statesmanship; both tragedy and comedy were perfected ; the frescoes of Polyg- notus, the architecture of Ictinus, the sculpture of Phidias, combined to adorn the city ; and when we think of these great writers and artists, we must remember that they are only some of the more eminent out of a larger number who were all living at Athens within the same period of thirty years. How far can this wonderful fact be directly connected with the influence of the politi- cal work done by Pericles, or with the personal influence of the man? We must beware of ex- aggerating such influences. Statesmanship may encourage men of genius, but it cannot make them. When we look back on that age, we seem to rec- ognize in its abounding and versatile brilliancy rather the golden time of a marvelously gifted race, than merely the attraction which a city of unique opportunities exercised over the rest of the world. The great national victory over Persia had raised the vital energy of the Greek spirit to the highest. But we must also recollect that, owing to the very nature of Greek literature and art, such a city as the Athens of Pericles could do more for it than any modern city could do for modern art or literature. Greek literature was essentially spontaneous, the free voice of life, re- strained in its freedom only by a sense of mea- sure which was part of the Greek nature; the Greek poet, or historian, or philosopher, was not merely a man of letters in the narrower modern meaning of the term; he was first, and before all things, a citizen, in close sympathy, usually in active contact, with the public life of the city. For a Greek, therefore, as a poet or historian or philosopher, nothing could be more directly im- portant than that this public life should be a: noble as possible; since, the nobler it was, the higher and the more invigorating was the source from which he drew his inspiration. Among the great literary men who belonged to the age ol Pericles, there are especially two who may be regarded as representative of it — its chief historian and its most characteristic poet — Thucydides and Sophocles. The mind of Thucydides had been moulded by the ideas of Pericles, and probably " in large measure by personal intercourse with him. We recognize that Periclean stamp in the clearness with which Thucydides perceives that the vital thing for a state is the spirit in which it is governed; and that, apart from this spirit, there is no certain efficacy in the form of a con- stitution, no sovereign spell in the name. In Soph- ocles, again, we feel the Periclean influence work- ing with the same general tendency as in the plastic arts; he holds with the ancient traditions of piety, but invests them with a more spiritual and more intellectual meaning. With regard to the fine arts, it was the resolve of Pericles that they should find their supreme and concentrated mani- festation in the embellishment of Athens. Thucy- dides, with all his reticence as to art, is doubtless a faithful interpreter of the spirit in which that work was done, when he makes Pericles speak of the abiding monuments w-hich will attest to all posterity the achievements of that age. This feel- ing was not prompted merely by Athenian patriot- ism; Athens was the city which the Persian in- vader, bent on avenging Cardis, had twice laid in ruins. The fact that .Athens should have risen from its ashes in unrivaled strength and grace was, as Pericles might well feel, the most impres- sive of all testimonies to the victory of Hellene over barbarian. It is well to remember that the story of Greece was not closed when the Greek genius reached the brief term of its creative ac- tivity. It is well to follow the work of the Greek mind through later periods also; but those quali- ties which were distinctive of its greatness can best be studied when the Greek mind was at its best. That period was unquestionably the Fifth Century before Christ — the Age of Pericles." — S. R, Jebb, Age oj Pericles (L. Cooper, Greek genius and its influence, pp. 73-75). — ".Accepting this (the will to be good) as a concise description of the Hellenic ideal, we find that the period during which it was most fully realized was that which we are accus- tomed to call the age of Pericles. The period so named may be roughly defined as extending from 460 to 430 B. C. Within those thirty years the political power of .'\thens culminated; the Atheni- ans developed that civic life which, as sketched in the great oration attributed to Pericles by Thucy- dides, made .Athens, as the orator says, the school of Greece, and, as we moderns might add, the teacher of posterity; within those thirty years were created works of art, in literature, in archi- tecture, and in sculpture, which the world has ever since regarded as unapproachable master- pieces. This period, so relatively short and yet so prolific in varied excellence, followed closely on the war in which united Greece repelled the Per- sian invasion. It immediately preceded the war of the two leading Greek cities against each other, in which Sparta ultimately humbled Athens. Athens, as it appears in the national struggle against Persia, is not yet the acknowledged head of Hellas. The formal leadership belongs, by com- mon consent, to Sparta; and though Athens is al- ready pre-eminent in moral qualities — in unselfish devotion to the national cause, and in a spirit 604 ATHENS, B. C. 460-455 Defeat in Egypt Long Walls ATHENS, B. C. 457-456 which no reverses can break, — these qualities ap- pear as they are embodied in a few chosen men, in a Themistocles and an Aristides ; the mass of Athenians whom they lead is still a comparatively rude multitude, not yet quickened into the full energy of conscious citizenship. If, on the other hand, we look to the close of the age of Pericles — if we pass to the opening years of the Peloponne- sian war — we find that the Athenian democracy already bears within it the seeds of decay. The process of degeneration has already begun, though a century is still to elapse before Philip of Mace- don shall overthrow the liberties of Greece at Chseronea." — Ibid, pp. 63-64. B. C. 460-455. — The disastrous expedition to Egypt. — Attacks on the Peloponneaian coast. ■ — Defeat at Tanagra. — "Inarus, king of some of the Libyan tribes on the western border of Egypt, had excited an insurrection there against the Per- sians [about 460 B.C.], and his authority was acknowledged throughout the greater part of the country. Artaxerxes sent his brother Achjemenes with a great army to quell this rebellion. An Athenian armament of 200 galleys was lying at the time off Cyprus, and Inarus sent to obtain its assistance. The Athenian commanders, whether following their own discretion, or alter orders re- ceived from home, quitted Cyprus, and having joined with the insurgents, enabled them to defeat Achaemenes, who fell in the battle by the band of Inarus. They then sailed up the Nile to Mem- phis, where a body of Persians, and some Egyp- tians, who still adhered to their cause, were in possession of one quarter of the city, called White Castle. The rest was subject to Inarus, and there the Athenians stationed themselves, and besieged the Persians. . . . Artaxerxes sent a Persian, named Megabazus, to Sparta, with a sum of money, to be employed in bribing the principal Spartans to use their influence, so as to engage their country- men in an expedition against Attica. Megabazus did not find the leading Spartans unwilUng to re- ceive his money ; but they seem to have been un- able to render him the service for which it was offered. Ithome still held out: and Sparta had probably not yet sufficiently either recovered her strength or restored internal tranquility, to ven- ture on the proposed invasion. Some rumours of this negotiation may have reached Athens, and have quickened the energy with which Pericles now urged the completion of the long walls. . . . But among his opponents there was a faction who viewed the progress of this great work in a dif- ferent light from Cimon, and saw in it, not the means of securing the independence of Athens, but a bulwark of the hated commonalty. They too would have gladly seen an invading army in Attica, which might assist them in destroying the work and its authors." — C. Thirlwall, History of Greece, v. 3, ch. 17. — This party was accused of sympathy with the Spartan expedition which came to the help of Doris against the Phocians in 457 B. C, and which defeated the Athenians at Tan- agra (See also Greece: B.C. 458-456). In 455, "the Spartans were reminded that they were also liable to be attacked at home. An Athenian arma- ment of so galleys, and, if we may trust Diodorus, with 4,000 heavy armed troops on board, sailed round Peloponnesus under Tolmides, burnt the Spartan arsenal at Gythium, took a town named Chalcis belonging to the Corinthians, and defeated the Sicyonians, who attempted to oppose the land- ing of the troops. But the most important ad- vantage gained in the expedition was the capture of Naupactus, which belonged to the Ozolian Locri- ans, and now fell into the hands of the Athe- nians at very seasonable juncture. The third Mes- senian war had just come to a close. The brave defender., of Ithome had obtained honourable terms. . . . The besieged were permitted to quit Peloponnesus with their families, on condition of being detained in slavery if they ever returned. Tolmides now settled the homeless wanderers in Naupactus. . . . But these successes were counter- balanced by a reverse which befell the arms of Athens this same year in another quarter. After the defeat of Achsmens, Artaxerxes, disappointed in his hopes of assistance from Sparta, . . . raised a great army, which he placed under the com- mand of an abler general, Megabyzus, son of Zopyrus. Megabyzus defeated the insurgents and their allies, and forced the Greeks to evacuate Memphis, and to take refuge in an island of the Nile, named Prosopitis, which contained a town called Byblus, where he besieged them for 18 months. At length he resorted to the contrivance of turning the stream. . . . The Greek galleys were all left aground, and were fired by the Athenians themselves, that they might not fall into the enemy's hands. The Persians then marched into the island over the dry bed of the river: the Egyptians in dismay abandoned their allies, whO' were overpowered by numbers and almost all de- stroyed. . . . Inarus himself was betrayed into the hands of the Persians and put to death. . . . Egypt . . . was again reduced under the Persian yoke, except a part of the Delta, where another pre- tender, named Amyrtaeus, who assumed the title of king . . . maintained himself for several years against the power of the Persian monarchy. But the misfortune of the Athenians did not end with the destruction of the great fleet and army which had been first employed in the war. They had sent a squadron of 50 galleys to the relief of their countrymen, which, arriving before the news of the recent disaster had reached them, entered the Mendesian branch of the Nile. They were here surprised by a combined attack of the Persian land force and a Phoenician fleet, and but few escaped to bear the mournful tidings to Athens. Yet even after this calamity we find the Athenians, not suing for peace, but bent on extending their power, and annoying their enemies." — G. Grote,, History of Greece, v. $, pt. 2, ch. 45. B. C. 458. — Athens' triumph over Corinth. — Long walls. — Now that her break with Sparta was complete, Athens proceeded to conclude an alliance with Megara, and that meant war with Corinth, the ally of Sparta (462-461 B.C.). Simi- lar alliances were concluded with Argos and Thes- saly, while Corinth won the aid of ^^gina. In 458 B.C., the Athenians administered a crushing de- feat to the allied fleets of the enemy at Cecry- phalea. At the same time they drove back in disorder the Corinthian army, which they finally annihilated. Meanwhile the Athenians were tak- ing steps to render their own position impregnable. Themistocles had been the first to insist that the real strength of Athens lay in the wooden walls of her ships. Carrying out this policy, the Athenians proceeded to join Athens to the Peiraeus and the sea by lines of fortified walls. To un- derstand the magnitude of the task, we h^ve only to remember that it meant the construction of nine miles of wall impregnable to the siege ap- paratus of the time. Upon the advice of Pericles this work was begun.— See also Long walls. B. C. 457-456.— Battle of Oenophyta.— New Athenian alliances. — Fall of .Sgina. — "Sixty-two days after the battle of Tanagra an Athenian force, under Myronides, entered Bceotia, and in a great battle at Oenophyta (4'6), of which we know nothing but the fact and the result, en- tirely overthrew the Theban army. The smaller 60s ATHENS, B.C. 456 Cimon Thirty Years' War ATHENS, B. C. 446-445 cities were freed from the supremacy of Thebes, and the oligarchies overthrown. Even in Thebes the defeat brought about a political change and the establishment of a democracy. The cities of BcEOtia became members of the Athenian Al- liance and furnished troops. And soon afterwards Phocis, already hostile to Sparta for her recent raid into their territory, joined Athens also. Soon afterward the long blockade of .ligina came to a successful conclusion; the fortifications were de- stroyed, the ships of war surrendered, the obliga- tion to pay tribute for the future recognized. And meanwhile the long walls that connected Athens with the sea were completed." — A. J. Grant, Greece in the Age of Perides, p. 123. B. C. 456. — Height of Athenian power on land. — "The year 456 gave new evidence of the unapproachable power of .\thens at sea. Her ad- miral Tolmides sailed round the Peloponnese. He burnt the Spartan dock-yard at Gythium, and nowhere met with any resistance at sea. Corinth found herself hemmed in on all sides by the dependencies of Athens. On the west, Megara, .(Egina, and Troezen closed her round. On the east, at the very narrowest part of the Corinthian Gulf, the Athenians had captured the important station of Naupactus, and when, in 45=;. the Helots on Mount Ithome surrendered on condi- tion that they should be allowed to depart freely, they were planted in Naupactus by Athens. The bitter enemies of Sparta, and therefore of Corinth, they held the gate of the western waters against her. It was by her commerce that Corinth lived and now she could only carry on her commercial enterprises with the permission of .Athens. For the jealousy which she then created she was to pay dearly at the time of the Peloponnesian war. .Athens had reached the highest point of her material power. The .^igean Sea w-as hers, and hers was the centre of Greece. No power on earth could cope with her on the waters ; on land Sparta could boast no assured superiority. The extent of territory that she controlled was greater than any that in historical times had belonged to any state of Greece. Her revenues were for the age, immense. .\nd her intellectual supremacy, though doubtless to contemporaries not so important as her material greatness, helped to increase her splendour in the eyes of Greece. But this increase in dominion was too sudden a growth to last. Such extraordinary energy was feverish, and could not be permanent. She could not hope to win many victories with those who were too old or young for regular service. Side by side with her conquests went the development of the democracy, and we shall see shortly how quite unsuitable were the institutions of the democracy for the management of an empire. -And so the might of .Athens from this point changes only to decrease." — K. J. Grant, Greece in the Age of Pericles, pp. 124-125 — See also B.^lance of power: .Ancient Greece and Rome. B. C. 454 or 453. — Return of Cimon. B. C. 449-446. — Cimon's expedition. — Peace with Persia. — ".And during these years the contest with Persia was renewed by Cimon with con- spicuous success. The war is of importance, and it would be interesting to watch in detail the last struggle between the great combatants. But our authorities here are meagre, and, except for the main features, contradictory ; nor does the war in the East bear directly upon the development of .Athenian power in Central Greece. It is enough then to say that in 440 Cimon at the head of the .Athenian armament was engaged in the attempt to reduce Cyprus, when he was at- tacked by the Persian fleet. He died before the engagement, but his spirit animated his troops. .And off Salamis, in Cyprus, the Persians were entirely defeated on the same day, both by sea and land. The defeat was an exceedingly severe one. and now the Persian king acquiesced in an arrangement whereby the status quo was accepted and all hostilities terminated. It is forty years before there is any further collision between Greeks and Persians. Meanwhile the fleet returned with Cimon's body. .Athens never again produced a commander of such distinction." — A. J. Grant, Greece in the Age of Pericles, pp. 126-127. — For second Lacred war, see S.acred war. Seco.nd. B. C. 447.— Battle of Coronea.— Fall of Athenian Continental League. — "The first blow came from Boeotia. There by a sudden revolu- tion the democracies were overthrown, and sev- eral of the cities of Ba-otia declared against the .Athenian supremacy. It was clear that the move- ment must be suppressed at once. . . . The Athe- nian forces were surprised at Coronea (447) and entirely defeated. Tolmides and many were slain; the rest were taken prisoners. The Egyptian catastrophe had already depleted .Athens; she could ill afford to spare any more citizens. To get back those who had been taken prisoners, she consented to abandon Bccotia. The oligarchs at once came back ; again Boeotia was organized under the supremacy of Thebes ; and .Athens had upon the north a jealous and victorious rival, embittered by the memory of a recent humiliation. The loss of Boeotia was followed by blows still more danger- ous. First, in the summer of 445 the cities of the great and most important island of Eubcea revolted from .Athens. Eubcea had been from the first a member of the Delian League; her position and her wealth made her friendship or her hostility of the first importance to Athens. Pericles with all the available forces marched to repress the revolt. But no sooner was his back turned than the storm broke from the west. . . . Bceotia, Eub(Ea, Megara, Sparta — attacked by these formidable foes and taken by surprise, it seemed impossible for .Athens to survive. Pericles turned hastily back from Eubcea. But Pleistoanax made no attack on .Athens herself. The Spartan army got as far as the plain of Eleusis, within fifteen miles of .Athens, and then turned back and retired over the Isthmus to Sparta. ... So the greatest danger of all had rolled away. Megara could not be retaken: it was doubtless held by a Spartan garrison. But from this day forth .Athens hated Megara as she hated no state in Greece, though she hated many. But the Spartans could not get at Eubcea. and thither Pericles marched. We hear of no resistance, and quickly the island became a portion of the .Athenian power once more. But not on the old terms; Euboea was no longer a free member of the con- federacy. She was now strictly subject to .Athens. Everywhere the oligarchical constitutions were de- stroyed and democracies were set up. All ad- herents of the old system were expjelled and not allowed to return. .And the new democracies were not free to govern themselves as they liked. They were free only as long as they freely chose to be subjects of .Athens." — .A. J. Grant, Greece in the Age of Pericles, pp. 127-129.— See also Greece: B. C. 478-477. 440-445. B. C. 446-445. — Thirty years' peace. — "Pericles and his colleagues saw- clearly the exhaustion of their state. The disaster in Egypt, the substantial failure of the great expedition to Cyprus, the heavy loss in men from the domestic wars, and the vast expense of all these undertakings had overstrained the ability of .Athens and had neces- sitated a breathing time. In 445, accordingly, after 606 ATHENS, B.C. 440-437 Peloponnesian War ATHENS, B.C. 431-429 the Euboic campaign, the Athenians agreed with the Peloponnesians to a Thirty Years' Peace on the basis of the status quo. Athens gave up all her recently acquired continental allies, re- taining only Plataea and Naupactus. On the other hand, she received an acknowledgment of her maritime empire. Neither party was to in- terfere with the allies of the other but each re- mained free to make treaties with neutral states. The principle of the 'open door' was established for their commercial relations; and it was agreed that disputes should be settled by arbitration. The lack of a clear understanding as to the means and method of arbitration, however, rendered the last-mentioned article inoperative. However faulty the terms, both parties to the treaty, freed from the heavy burden of the conflict, rejoiced in the advantages of neutral commerce, of internal re- cuperation, and improvement promised them by the truce." — G. W. Botsford, Hellenic history, cit. xiv. — See also Greece: B.C. 449-445. B. C. 440-437. — New settlements of Cleruchies. See Cleruciis. B. C. 438-284. — Relations with kingdom of Bosporus. See Bosporus; City and kingdom. B.C. 431. — Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.): Causes of the war. — Conflict of eco- nomic interests. — Athenian designs upon Me- gara. — Athenian interests in Corcyra. — Trouble with Corinth. — Athenian menace to Pelopon- nese. — Political parties as a cause. — Spartan fear and Corinthian jealousy of Athens. — "The Thirty Years' Peace put an end to open hostilities between .Athens and Sparta, but it failed to settle the fundamental and vexing questions of rivalry and to remove the mutual bad feeling and distrust. The balance was too delicate. To avoid giving Sparta any occasion for opposition, Pericles de- parted from his earlier aggressive policy to one of conservation and consolidation. The first step in the direction of aggrandizement was certain to be challenged. Events and exigencies of Athenian trade and industry forced the leaders of Athens into such a step and trouble followed. The Megarian decrees formed the first piece of re- newed aggression on the part of Athens. A small, over-populated state, once of great commercial importance, Megara had sunk to the position of a second-rate industrial city. However, her farmers furnished vegetables and meat to the Athenian markets, and her wares, which were good, made her merchants strong competitors of the Athenian merchants and manufacturers. In response to local demands for protection the Athenian assembly passed a decree excluding the Megarians from the markets of the empire. The Athenians had resented the withdrawal of Megara from their federation and probably hoped to force the Megarians into subjection that they might regain the favorable position on the Gulf of Corinth. This decree meant financial ruin and starvation to the Megarians and served as a warning to any other state of the Spartan al- liance which might block the Athenians. It aroused much apprehension on the part of other commercial states, particularly in Corinth. The Corcyreean episode added another element to Corinthian unrest at the increasing power of Athens. Corcyra, a colony of Corinth, but one of the few remaining independent naval powers, finding herself at war with Corinth, appealed to Athens for aid. They had cogent arguments — their navy, which would be a valuable addition to the Athenian fleet, and the control which they were able to exercise over the trade route to Sicily. In vain did the Corinthians argue that the true path of expediency is the path of right. Athenian refusal of the Corcyrsean offer meant the strengthening of the only important naval rival of Athens and a loss of prestige to Athens itself if it yielded to the desires of Corinth. To avoid any infraction of the peace the Athenians con- cluded a defensive alliance with Corcyra. In the resulting war the Corinthians were worsted. The enmity thus aroused between Athens and Corinth was increased by a minor difficulty at Potidaea. The crisis in Hellenic affairs and the test of the Thirty Years' Peace came when the Corinthians, fully aroused, invited the envoys of the Peloponnesian League to meet at Sparta to consider the situation. The grievances were sub- mitted to the Spartan assembly. Thucydides made use of the situation to draw a comparison be- tween the Spartans, conservative, reluctant to as- sume the aggressive and willing to take defensive action only when absolutely necessary, and the Athenians, revolutionary, always on the alert to seize the advantage, ready to risk all to gain their ends. They were born, said the Corinthian am- bassadors, neither to have peace themselves nor to allow it to other men. The Corinthians made the veiled threat that if their plea met with no success they would turn elsewhere for aid. Sparta was in this way forced into action. Athenians present endeavored to prevent such a result. They recounted the glorious deeds of Athens in the past. They explained the establishment of their empire and justified it on the ground of necessity. They pointed out the risks involved in war and called upon the Spartans to submit the disputes to arbitration according to the treaty. Archidamus, the conservative king of Sparta, counseled delay. He supported the Athenian demand for arbitration, pointing out the absence of a real cause, the su- periority of the Athenians in the materials of war and in money, and the uncertainty of the issue. The war party, however, was the stronger. They realized that the basic issue was not the immediate charges against Athens but the ex- istence of the Athenian empire itself, which was not a debatable question. ... It was voted then that the Athenians were guilty of an infraction of the treaty. At the assembly of the league which followed at Sparta the keynote of the war was sounded. Athens was a menace to all. Some states she already ruled. If from a love of peace and ease the Peloponnesians failed to make war upon her, she would soon dominate the rest. . . . The league voted for war. A series of minor de- mands were made upon Athens, followed by a peremptory order for the dissolution of the em- pire. The Athenians refused to yield. The least concession would be a confession of wrong-doing or of weakness. Pericles regarded the war as inevitable and felt that Athens was ready. Act- ing on his advice they made counter-propositions to Sparta, put the onus of blame for the begin- ning of the war upon that city by offering arbitra- tion 'upon fair terms according to the treaty, well aware that war was at hand, anxious for peace, but ready and willing to defend themselves.' (Thucydides, i, 140). . . . When the issue came it was found to be unarbitrable. The existence of the Athenian empire was not a debatable ques- tion. Spartan fear and Corinthian jealousy of Athenian expansion could not be submitted to a tribunal. Considerations of individual expediency founded on fear or ambition were more powerful than the most binding of sacred oaths." — W. E. Caldwell, Hellenic conceptions of peace, pp. 87-Qi. — See also Greece; B.C. 435-432; B.C. 432 and B.C. 432-4,V. B. C. 431-429.— Attitude of Hellas toward war. — Spartan preparations (431). — Gathering 607 ATHENS, B. C. 429-427 Peloponnesian War ATHENS, B.C. 421 of Athenian population into the city. — Plague (43D).— Death of Pericles (429).— "•-■Ml Hellas was excited by the corning conflict. Prodigies and prophecies abounded. Enthusiasm was manifest on both sides. Outside of the .Athenian empire the war was extremelv popular and the Spartans were hailed as the liberators of Hellas. The Spartan youth were eager for the e.xcitement of war. Nor was this feeling confined to Sparta. The Athenian young men gladly exchanged soft cloaks and snow- white slippers, flowing ringlets, baths and oil, for the breastplate and the greaves, and dropped the games of the banquet for the greater game of war, to fight for gods and country as their fathers had fought before them. In the defence tof the city all parties were united. In the spring of 431 the Spartan king Archidamus pre- pared his forces for an invasion of .Attica. Pericles countered by bringing all the Athenians within the jLong Walls (q. v.) and thus avoided a decisive tattle on land, while the fleet was ravaging the Peloponnesian coasts. The suffering among the Athenians, most of whom were small farmers un- used to city life, was great, and their enmity to- ward Sparta was increased by the destruction of their crops and their olive orchards. The plague •which ravaged .Athens added to the general dis- comfort and brought the peace party tem- porarily into power. Pericles triumphed over their attacks, but the following year himself died of the disease. His place as leader of the people was taken by a new type of men, products of the people, like Cleon, the tanner, and Hyperbolus, the lamp-maker."— \V. E. Caldwell, Hellenic con- ceptions of peace, p. 02. B. C. 429-427.— Siege and destruction of Pla- tjea.' See Greece: B.C. 4^9-427: Peloponnesian war. B. C. 428-427. — Revolt of Lesbos. — Invasion of Attica. — Longing for peace.— "In the year .after Cleon had come to the front, the oligarchs oT Lesbos induced Mytilene and nearly all the other cities of the island to revolt. There was danger that all the maritime cities would fol- low this example. But the Peloponnesians were too slow in sending the promised aid, and the Athenians made desperate efforts to conquer the island. As a last resort (427 B.C.) the oligarchs of Mytilene armed the commons; but the latter promptly surrendered the city to the Athenian commander. Thereupon he sent the oligarchs, who alone were guilty of revolt, to Athens for trial. The Athenians were angry because the Lesbians had revolted without cause; they feared, too, for the safety of their empire, and indeed for their own lives. With no great difficulty, therefore, Cleon persuaded them to condemn and put to death all the captive oligarchs. Cleon's idea was to make an example of them that other com- munities might fear to revolt. The punishment, decreed under excitement, was too severe, and out of keeping with the humane character of the Athenians. In putting down this revolt, they passed the dangerous crisis, and were again un- disputed masters of the .^gean Sea." — G. W. Bots- ford. History of the ancient world, p. 222. — The invasion of Attica in the year J27 B.C. Thucydides regarded as unusually severe. As a result the peace party gained new courage. The wealthier noble class had suffered particularly. They hail lost their fair estates in the country, with all their houses and rich furniture; their pleasures were restricted in the city ; the exigencies of war hud led to the imposition of a property tax, which fell upon them with heavy weiaht; and they were bitterly opposed to the new developments of the democracy. The center of their op|)Osition was in the oligarchic clubs. The small farmer, through his hatred of Sparta was so strong that he refused to support any movement for peace and demanded revenge for the destruction of his vineyards and orchards, had grown weary of the cramped and confused life in the city and was longing for the end of the war. B. C. 426-422. — War-weariness. — Barbarous war practices. — Battle of Pylos (425). — Peace proposals. — Athenian defeats. — Battle of Am- phipolis. — "All of Hellas was in confusion as a result of the war. In most of the cities factions had arisen. The democratic leaders were endeavor- ing to establish or to assure their power by ap- pealing to the Athenians, and the leaders of the oligarchs to the Lacedemonians. Party strife brought many terrible calamities; anarchy and violence, crime and perfidy were rife ; religion and oaths were forgotten. The practices of war were hardened by the intensity of feeling. Sailors who fell into Spartan hands were killed forthwith and the -Athenians retaliated in kind. W'hen Plataea fell the Spartans put to death all the men who remained and sold the women and children into slavery with no softening of the ancient custom. After the defeat of the oligarchic revolt in Mytilene the .Athenians on the motion of Cleon, voted to put all male citizens to death. They re- considered this action, and on the ground of bet- ter policy killed only the most guilty. Against the general policy of Cleon towards the allies as exemplified in this affair, and in a later in- crease of the tribute, the comic poets protested. . . . The capture of the Spartans at Pylos in 425 furnished an opportunity for peace. The Spartans offered peace, alliance and friendly relations. 'Let us be reconciled and, choosing peace instead cf war ourselves, let us give relief and rest to all the Hellenes.' The credit for the peace would go to Athens. The peace party were hopeful, but the imperialistic element among the democracy, led by Cleon, had gained new hopes and the Spartan offer was rejected. .Athenian forces were defeated in the following years at Delium and by Brasidas, the ablest of the Spartan generals, in the Chal- cidice. The .Athenians then attempted to secure peace, but without success. In the final battle of Amphipoiis both Cleon and Brasidas were killed. The two chief obstacles to the making of terms were thus removed. The conservatives on both sides came into control and peace was .igreed upon. The Spartan allies were dissatisfied, but they were overruled. The treaty, which is known as the Peace of Xjcias, after the .Athenian com- mander, provided for mutual restoration and peace for fifty years." — W. E. Caldwell, Hellenic concep- tions of peace, pp. 05-96. — See also Greece: B.C. 425. B. C. 421. — Peace of Nicias. — Joys of peace. — Return to the farms. — "The Peace, of which Nicias and Pleistoanax were the chief authors, was fixed for a term of fifty years. .Athens under- took to restore all the posts which she had oc- cupied during the war against the Peloponnesians. ... All captives on both sides were to be lib- erated. [See also Greece: B. C. 424-421.] It ap- peared immediately that the situation was not fa- vorable to a durable peace; for, when the terms were considered at Sparta by a meeting of deputies of the Peloponnesian allies, they were emphatically denounced as unjust by three important states, Cor- inth, Boeotia, and Megara. . . . But since the deep- est cause of the war lay in the commercial com- petition between .Athens and Corinth, and since the interests of Sparta were not at stake, the treaty might seem at least to have the merit of simplifying the situation." — J. B. Bury, History of 608 ATHENS, B. C. 419-416 Petoponnesian War ATHENS, B. C. 413-411 Greece, pp. 455-456. — "Aristophanes burst forth into jubilations in a play called The Peace. He represented the farmers as rejoicing in the advent of peace. One Trygsus has scaled Olympus to find the goddess Peace, only to be told by Hermes that the gods, disgusted with Hc'.las because of its failure to end the war, had buried Peace and determined to grind the cities to pieces in a huge mortar. With the death of Cleon and of Brasidas their pestles had been lost, however. Trygius hails, this as a glorious opportunity and calls upon all Hellenes, farmers, merchants, artisans, craftsmen, aliens, islanders and all, to unite with him in the task of digging up Peace. The whole Hellenic nation throws away its ranks and squadrons to engage in the task, midst laughter and dancing. Only the Megarians, the dissatisfied ones, the Argives who have been gaining from both sides, the professional soldier who desires a commission, and the merchant who sells spears and shields, stand aside. Hermes must be bribed to keep quiet. After an effort Peace is brought into view. The cities are reconciled. The crest-maker and the sword-cutter and the spear-burnisher may despair, but the pitchfork- maker and the manufacturer of sickles rejoice. The farmers lay aside their arms and return to their fig trees and their farms. Peace smells of 'harvests, banquets, festivals, flutes, thrushes, plays, the odes of Sophocles, Euripidean wordlets . . . the bleating lambs, the ivy-leaf, the vat, full- bosomed matrons . . . the tipsy maid, the drained and empty flask, and many another blessing.' (Aristophanes, Peace, 204^)." — W. E. Caldwell, Hellenic conceptions of peace, pp. Qfi-gy. B. C. 419-416. — Rise of Alcibiades. — Renewal of hostilities. — Slaughter of the Melians. — "Edu- cated by his kinsman Pericles in democratic tradi- tions, he was endowed by nature with extraordi- nary beauty and talents, by fortune with the in- heritance of wealth which enabled him to in- dulge an inordinate taste of ostentation. He had shocked his kinsfolk and outraged the city, not by his dissoluteness, but by the incredible in- solence which accompanied it. . . . Alcibiades in- deed had not in him the stuff of which true statesmen are made; he had not the purpose, the perseverance, or the self-control. An extremely able and dexterous politician he certainly was; but he wanted that balance which a politician, whether scrupulous or unscrupulous, must have in order to be a great statesman. Nor had Alcibiades any sincere belief in the democratic institutions of his country, still less any genuine sympathy with the advanced democratic party whose cause he espoused. . . . The accession of Alcibiades was particularly welcome to the radical party, not so much on account of his family connexions, his diplomatic and rhetorical talents, but because he had a military training and could perform the func- tions of strategos. Unfitness for the post of strategos was, as we have seen, the weak point in the position of men like Hyperbolus and Cleon. When Alcibiades was elected a strategos and Nicias was not re-elected, the prospects of the radical party looked brighter. The change was immedi- ately felt. Athens entered into an alliance with Argos, and her allies Elis and Mantinea, for a hundred years; and the treaty was sealed by a joint expedition against Epidaurus. Sparta as- sisted Epidaurus, and then the Athenians de- clared that the Lacedaemonians had broken the Peace." — J. B. Bury, History of Greece, pp. 459- 460. — "The armies of these two unions met in battle at Mantinea in 418 B.C. The Lacedaemoni- ans, who still had the best organization and disci- pline in Greece, were victorious. This success wiped out the disgrace which had lately come upon them, and enabled them to regain much of their former influence in Peloponnese. Argos and Mantinea now made peace with Lacedaemon apart from Athens." — G. W. Botsford, History of the ancient world, p. 224. — See also Greece: B.C. 421-418. — "The island of Melos had hitherto re- mained outside the sea-lordship of the Athenians, and Athens, under the influence of Alcibiades, now attacked her. The town of Melos was in- vested in the summer by land and sea, and sur- rendered at discretion in the following winter. All the men of military age were put to death, the other inhabitants were enslaved, and the island was colonised by Athenians." — J. B. Bury, History of Greece, p. 462. — See also Greece: B.C. 416. B. C. 415-413. — Disastrous Athenian expedi- tion against Syracuse. — Alcibiades a fugitive in Sparta. — His enmity for Athens. See Syracuse: B.C. 415-413- B. C. 413-412. — Consequence of Sicilian expe- dition. — Spartan alliance with Persians. — Plot- ting of Alcibiades. — Decelian War. — Revolt of Chios, Miletus, Lesbos and Rhodes from Athens. — Revolution of Samos. See Greece: B.C. 413-412, and B.C. 413. B.C. 413-411. — Democracy curbed. — New sys- tem of taxation. — Probuli. — Intrigues of Alci- biades. — Conspiracy against the constitution. — The Four Hundred and the Five Thousand. — "The Sicilian expedition was part of the general aggressive policy of Athens which made her un- popular in Greece. ... If there were ever an en- terprise of which the wisdom cannot be judged by the result, it is the enterprise against Syra- cuse. All the chances were in its favour. . . . The necessity of a counterweight to Corinthian in- fluence in Sicily and Italy had long ago been recognised; some attempts had been made to meet it; and when peace with Sparta set Athenian forces free from service outside Greece and the ^gean, it was natural that the opportunity should be taken to act effectively in the west. . . . And after the disaster . . . there was a feeling that some change must be made in the administra- tion. . . . The treasury was at a low ebb, and there were no men to replace those who were lost in Sicily. It was felt that the committees of the Council of Five Hundred were hardly competent to conduct the city through such a crisis; a smaller and more permanent body was required; and the chief direction of affairs was entrusted to a board of Ten, named Probuli [q.v.], which practically superseded the Council for the time being. A very important change in the system of taxation was made at the same time. The tribute, already as high as it could be put with impunity, was abolished; and was replaced by a tax of 5 per cent on all imports and exports carried by sea to or from the harbours of the Confederacy. It was calculated that this duty would produce a larger income than the tribute, and it would save the friction which gen- erally occurred in the business of collecting the tribute and caused more than anything else the unpopularity of Athens. But further, the change had a great political significance. The duty was collected in the Peirxus as well as elsewhere, and thus fell on Athens herself. This might prove a step towards equalising Athens with her allies, and converting the Confederacy or dominion into a national state." — J. B. Bury, History of Greece, pp. 4S5-486.— See also Apodect.e. — Immediately after the dreadful calamity at Syracuse became known, "extraordinary measures were adopted by the people; a number of citizens of advanced 609 ATHENS. B.C. 413-411 Peloponnesian War ATHENS, B.C. 404 age were formed into a deliberative and executive body under the name of Probuli, and empowered to iit out a fleet. Whether this laid the founda- tion for oligarchical machinations or not, those aged men were unable to bring back men's minds to their former course ; the prosecution of the Hermocopidae had been most mischievous in its results; various secret associations had sprung up and conspired to reap advantage to themselves from the distress and embarrassment of the state ; the indignation caused by the infuriated excesses of the people during that trial, possibly here, as frequently happened in other Grecian states, de- termined the more respectable members of the community to guard against the recurrence of similar scenes in future, by the establishment of an aristocracy. Lastly, the watchful malice of Alcibiades, who was the implacable enemy of that populace, to whose blind fury he had been sac- rificed, baffled all attempts to restore confidence and tranquillity, and there is no doubt that, whilst he kept up a correspondence with his partisans at home, he did everything in his power to in- crease the perplexity and distress of his native city from without, in order that he might be re- called to provide for its safety and defence. A favourable opportunity for the execution of his plans presented itself in the fifth year of his exile, 01. 82, i; 411 B.C.; as he had incurred the suspicion of the Spartans, and stood high in the favour of Tissaphernes, the .\thenians thought that his intercession might enable them to obtain as- sistance from the Persian king. The people in .Athens were headed by one of his most In- veterate enemies, Androcles ; and he well knew that all attempts to effect his return would be fruitless, until this man and the other dema- gogues were removed. Hence .Alcibiades entered into negotiations with the commanders of the Atheniaii fleet at Samos, respecting the establishment of an oligarchical constitution, not from any attach- ment to that form of government in itself, but solely with the view of promoting his own ends. Phrynichus and Pisander were equally insincere in their co-operation with .-Mcibiades. . . . Their plan was that the latter should reconcile the peo- ple to the change in the constitution which he wished to effect, by promising to obtain them the assistance of the great king; but they alone re- solved to reap the benefit of his exertions. Pisander took upon himself to manage the Athe- nian populace. It was in truth no slight under- taking to attempt to overthrow a democracy of a hundred and twenty years' standing, and of intense development; but most of the able bodied citizens were absent with the fleet, whilst such as were still in the city were confounded by the imminence of the danger from without; on the other hand, the prospect of succour from the Persian king doubtless had some weight with them, and they possibly felt some symptoms of return- ing affection for their former favourite Alcibiades. Nevertheless, Pisander and his accomplices em- ployed craft and perfidy to accomplish their de- signs; the people were not persuaded or con- vinced, but entrapped into compliance with their measures. Pisander gained over to his purpose the above named clubs, and induced the people to send him with ten plenipotentiaries to the navy at Samos. In the mean time the rest of the conspirators prosecuted the work of remodel- ing the constitution." — W. Wachsmuth, Historical antiquities of the Greeks, v. 2, pp. 252-255. — The people, or an assembly cleverly made up and manipulated to represent the people, were induced to vote all the powers of government into the hands of a council of Four Hundred, of which council the citizens appointed only five members. Those five chose ninety-five more, to make one hundred, and each of that hundred then chose three colleagues. The conspirators thus easily made up the Four Hundred to their liking, from their own ranks. This council was to convene an assembly of Five Thousand citizens, whenever it saw fit to do so. But when news of this con- stitutional change reached the army at Samos, where the Athenian headquarters for the Ionian war were fixed, the citizen soldiers refused to sub- mit to it — repudiated it altogether — and organized themselves as an independent state. The ruling spirit among them was Thrasybulus, and his in- fluence brought about a reconcihation with Alci- biades, then an exile sheltered at the Persian court. Alcibiades was recalled by the army and placed at its head. Presently a reaction at Athens ensued, after the oligarchical party had given signs of treasonable communication with Sparta, and in June the people assembled in the Pnyx and reasserted their sovereignty. "The Council was def)osed, and the supreme sovereignty of the state restored to the people — not, however, to the entire multitude; for the principle was re- tained of reserving full civic rights to a commit- tee of men of a certain amount of property ; and, as the lists of the Five Thousand had never been drawn up, it was decreed, in order that the desired end might be speedily reached, to follow the precedent of similar institutions in other ' states and to constitute all ."Mhenians able to furnish themselves with a complete military equip- ment from their own resources, full citizens with the rights of voting and participating in the government. Thus the name of the Five Thou- sand had now become a very inaccurate designa- tion; but it was retained, because men had in the last few months become habituated to it. At the same time, the abolition of pay for civic offices and functions was decreed, not merely as a temporary measure, but as a fundamental princi- ple of the new commonwealth, which the citi- zens were bound by a solemn oath to maintain. This reform was, upon the whole, a wise com- bination of aristocracy and democracy; and, ac- cording to the opinion of Thucydides, the best constitution which the Athenians had hitherto possessed. On the motion of Critias, the recall of .Alcibiades was decreed about the same time; and a deputation was despatched to Samos, to accomplish the union between army and city." — E. Curtius, History of Greece, bk. 4, cli. 5. — Most of the leaders of the Four Hundred fled to the Spartan camp at Decelea. Two were taken, tried and executed. — Thucydides, History of the Pelo- ponnesian War, bk. 8, sect. 48-49. — See also Greece: B.C. 41.3-412. Also ix; V. Duruy, Historw oi Greece, ch. 26 (v. ?.)■ B.C. 411-407. — Victories at Cynossema and Abydos. — Exploits of Alcibiades. — His trium- phal return. — His appointment to command. — His second deposition and e.xile. See Greece: 411-407 B.C. B.C. 406. — Peloponnesian War: Battle and victory of Arginusse. — Condemnation and execu- tion of the generals. See Greece: 406 B.C. B. C. 405. — Peloponnesian War. — Decisive'de- feat at .Sgospotami. See Greece: 405 B.C B. C. 404 — Surrender to Lysander. — After the battle of j^igospotami (.August, 405 B.C.), which destroyed their navy, and cut off nearly all supplies to the city by sea, as the Spartans at Decelea had long cut off supplies upon the land side, the Athenians had no hope. They waited in terror and despair for their enemies to close 610 ATHENS, B. C. 404-403 Rule of the Thirty ATHENS, B.C. 378-357 in upon them. The latter were in no haste, lor they were sure of their prey. Lysander, the vic- tor at yEgospotami, came leisurely from the Hellespont, receiving on his way the surrender of the cities subject or allied to Athens, and plac- ing Spartan harmosts and garrisons in them, with the local oligarchs established uniformly in power. About November he reached the Saronic gulf and blockaded the Athenian harbor of Peiraeus, while an overwhelming Peloponnesian land force, under the Lacedsmonian king Pausanias, arrived simultaneously in Attica and encamped at the gates of the city. The Athenians had no longer any power except the power to endure, and that they e.xercised for more than three months, mainly resisting the demand that their Long Walls — the walls which protected the connection of the city with its harbors — should be thrown down. But when famine had thinned the ranks of the citi- zens and broken the spirit of the survivors, they gave up. "There was still a high-spirited minority who entered their protest and preferred death by famine to such insupportable disgrace. The large majority, however, accepted them [the terms] and the acceptance was made known to Lysander. It was on the i6th day of the Attic month Munychion, — about the middle or end of March, — that this victorious commander sailed into the Peiraeus, twenty-seven years, almost exactly, after the surprise of Plataea by the Thebans, which opened the Peloponnesian War. Along with him came the Athenian exiles, several of whom ap- pear to have been serving with his army and assisting him with their counsel." — G. Grote, His- tory of Greece, pt. 2, ch. 65 (v, 8). — The Long Walls and the fortifications of Peiraeus were demolished, and then followed the organiza- tion of an oligarchical government at Athens, re- sulting in the reign of terror under "The Thirty." — E. Curtius, History of Greece, bk. 4, cli. $■ Also in; Xenophon, Hellenica, bk. 2, ch. 2. — Plutarch, Lysander. B. C. 404-403.— Tyranny of the Thirty.— Year of anarchy. — In the summer of 404 B. C, follow- ing the siege and surrender of Athens, and the humiliating close of the long Peloponnesian War, the returned leaders of the oligarchical party, who had been in exile, succeeded with the help of their Spartan friends, in overthrowing the demo- cratic constitution of the city and establishing themselves in power. The revolution was accom- plished at a public assembly of citizens, in the presence of Lysander, the victorious Lacedaemonian adiTiiral, whose fleet in the Peiraeus lay ready to support his demands. "In this assembly, Dracontides, a scoundrel upon whom repeated sen- tences had been passed, brought forward a mo- tion, proposing the transfer of the government into the hands of Thirty persons; and Theramenes supported this proposal which he declared to express the wishes of Sparta. Even now, these speeches produced a storm of indignation ; after all the acts of violence which Athens had under- gone, she yet contained men outspoken enough to venture to defend the constitution, and to appeal to the fact that the capitulation sanctioned by both parties contained no provision as to the internal affairs of Athens. But, hereupon, Ly- sander himself came forward and spoke to the citizens without reserve, like one who was their absolute master. ... By such means the motion of Dracontides was passed; but only a small num- ber of unpatriotic and cowardly citizens raised their hands in token of assent. All better patriots contrived to avoid participation in this vote. Next, ten members of the government were chosen by Critias and his colleagues [the Critias of Plato's Dialogues, pupil of Socrates, and now the violent and blood-thirsty leader of the anti-demo- cratic revolution], ten by Theramenes, the con- fidential friend of Lysander, and finally ten out of the assembled multitude, probably by a free vote; and this board of Thirty was hereupon established as the supreme government authority by a resolu- tion of the assembly present. Most of the mem- bers of the new government had formerly been among the Four Hundred, and had therefore long pursued a common course of action." The Thirty Tyrants so placed in power were masters of Athens for eight months, and executed their will without conscience or mercy, having a garrison of Spartan soldiers in the Acropolis to support them. They were also sustained by a picked body of citizens, "the Three Thousand," who bore arms while other citizens were stripped of every weapon. Large numbers of the more patriotic and high-spirited Athenians had escaped from their unfortunate city and had taken refuge, chiefly at Thebes, the old enemy of Athens, but now sympathetic in her distress. At Thebes these exiles organized themselves under Thrasybulus and Anytus, and determined to expel the tyrants and to recover their homes. They first seized a strong post at Phyle, in Attica, where they gained in numbers rapidly, and from which point they were able in a few weeks to advance and occupy the Peiraeus. When the troops of The Thirty came out to attack them, they drew back to the adjacent height of Munychia and there fought a battle which delivered their city from the Tyrants. Critias, the master-spirit of the usurpation, was slain ; the more violent of his col- leagues took refuge at Eleusis, and Athens, for a time, remained under the government of a new oligarchical Board of Ten ; while Thrasybulus and the democratic liberators maintained their head- quarters at Munychia. All parties waited the action of Sparta. Lysander, the Spartan general, marched an army into Attica to restore the tyranny which was of his own creating; but one of the two Spartan kings, Pausanias, inter- vened, assumed the command in his own person, and applied his efforts to the arranging of peace between the Athenian parties. The result was a restoration of the democratic constitution of the Attic state, with some important reforms. Sev- eral of The Thirty were put to death, — treacher- ously, it was said, — but an amnesty was extended to all their partisans. The year in which they and The Ten controlled affairs was termed in the official annals of the city the Year of Anarchy, and its magistrates were not recognized. — E, Curtius, History of Greece, bk. 4, ch. 5, and bk. 5, ch. I. — See also Greece: B.C. 404-350. .^Lso in: Xenophon, Hellenica, bk. 2, ch. 3-4. — C. Sankey, Spartan and Theban supremacies, ch. 2-3. B. C. 395-387. — Confederacy against Sparta. — Alliance with Persia. — Corinthian War. — Conon's rebuilding of the Long Walls. — Athenian independence restored. — Peace of Antalcidas, See Greece: B. C. 3Qg-387. B. C. 378-371.— Brief alliance with Thebes against Sparta. See Greece: B C. 370-371 B. C. 378-357. — New confederacy and the Social War. — Upon the liberation of Thebes and the signs that began to appear of the decline of Spartan power — during the year of the archon- ship of Nausinicus, 378-377 B. C, which was made memorable at Athens by various movements of political rcgeneration.^the organization of a new confederacy was undertaken, analagous to the confederacy of Delos, formed a century before Athens was to be, "not the ruling capital, but only the directing city in possession of the pri- 611 ATHENS, B.C. 370-362 Philip of Macedon ATHENS, B. C. 359-338 macy, the seat of the federal council. . . . Calli- stratus was in a sense the Aristides of the new confederation and doubtless did much to bring about an agreement ; it was likewise his work that, in place of the 'tributes' of odious memory, the payments necessary to the existence of the confederation were introduced under the gentler name of 'contributions.' . . . Amicable relations were resumed with the Cyclades, Rhodes and Perinthus; in other words, the ancient union of navies was at once renewed upon a large scale and in a wide extent. Even such states joined it as had hitherto never stood in confederate re- lations with Athens, above all Thebes." — E. Cur- tius. History of Greece, bk. 6, ch. i. — See also Greece: B. C. 4th century. — This second con- federacy renewed much of the prosperity and influence of Athens for a brief period of about twenty years. But in 357 B.C., four important members of the confederacy, namely, Chios, Cos, Rhodes, and Byzantium leagued themselves in revolt, with the aid of Mausolus, prince of Caria, and an inglorious war ensued, known as the Social War, which lasted three years, .■\thens was forced at last to assent to the secession of the four revolted cities and to recognize their independence, which greatly impaired her prestige and power, just at the time when she was called upon to resist the encroachments of Philip of Macedonia. — C. Thirlwall, History oj Greece, ch. 42. B. C. 370-362.— Alliance with Sparta against Thebes. — Battle of Mantineia. See Greece: B.C. 371-362. B. C. 359-338. — Collision with Philip of Mace- don. — Policy of Demosthenes and policy of Phocion. — "A new period opens with the growth of the Macedonian power under Philip (35g- 336 B.C.). We are here chiefly concerned to notice the effect on the City-State [of Athens], not only of the strength and policy of this new power, but also of the efforts of the Greeks themselves to counteract it. At the time of Philip's accession the so-called Theban supremacy had just practically ended with the death of Epaminondas. There was now a kind of balance of power between the three leading States, Sparta, Athens, and Thebes, no one of which was greatly stronger than the others; and such a balance could easily be worked upon by any great power from without. Thus when Macedon came into the range of Greek politics, under a man of great diplomatic as well as military capacity, who, like a Czar of to-day [i8q3], wished to secure a firm footing on the sea-board of the /Egean [see Greece: B.C. 359-358], she found her work comparatively easy. The strong im- perial policy of Philip found no real antagonist except at Athens. Weak as she was, and straitened by the break-up of her new con- federacy, Athens could still produce men of great talent and energy ; but she was hampered by divided counsels. Two Athenians of this period seem to represent the currents of Greek political thought, now running in two different direc- tions. Demosthenes represents the cause of the City-State in this age, of a union, that is, of perfectly free Hellenic cities against the common enemy. Phocion represents the feeling, which seems to have been long growing up among thinking men at Athens, that the City-State was no longer what it had been, and could no longer stand by itself; that what was needed was a general Hellenic peace, and possibly even an arbiter from without, an arbiter who not wholly un-Hellenic like the Persian, yet one who might succeed in stilling the fatal jealousies of the lead- 61: ing States. . . . The efforts of Demosthenes to check Philip fall into two periods divided by the peace of Philocrates in 346 B. C. In the first of these he is acting chiefly with Athens alone; Philip is to him not so much the common enemy of Greece as the dangerous rival of Athens in the north. His whole mind was given to the internal reform of Athens so as to strengthen her against Philip. In her relation to other Greek States he perhaps hardly saw beyond a balance of power. . . . After 346 his Athenian feeling seems to become more dis- tinctly Hellenic. But what could even such a man as Demosthenes do with the Hellas of that day ? He could not force on the Greeks a real and permanent union ; he could but urge new al- liances. His strength was spent in embassies with this object, embassies too often futile. No alli- ance could save Greece from the Macedonian power, as subsequent events plainly showed. What was needed was a real federal union between the leading States, with a strong central controlling force ; and Demosthenes' policy was hopeless just because Athens could never be the centre of such a union, nor could any other city. Demosthenes is thus the last, and in some respects the most heroic champion of the old Greek instinct for autonomy. He is the true child of the City- State, but the child of its old age and decrepitude. He still believes in Athens, and it is on Athens that all his hopes are based. He looks on Philip as one who must inevitably be the foe alike of Athens and of Greece. He seems to think that he can be beaten off as Xerxes was, and to forget that even Xer.xes almost triumphed over the divisions of the Greek States, and that Philip is a nearer, a more prominent, and a far less barbarian foe. / . . Phocion was the some- what odd exponent of the practical side of a school of thought which had been gaining strength in Greece for some time past. This school was now brought into prominence by the rise of Macedon, and came to have a marked influence on the history of the City-State. It began with the philosophers, and with the idea that the philosopher may belong to the world as well as to a particular city. . . . Athens was far more open to criticism now than in the days of Pericles; and a cynical dislike betrays itself in the Re- public for the politicians of the day and their tricks, and a longing for a strong government of reason. . . . Aristotle took the facts of city life as they were and showed how they might be made the most of. . . . To him Macedon was assuredly not wholly barbarian; and war to the death with her kings could not have been to him as natural or desirable as it seemed to Demos- thenes. And though he has nothing to tell us of Macedon, we can hardly avoid the conclusion that his desire was for peace and internal re- form, even if it were under the guarantee of the northern power. ... Of this philosophical view of Greek politics Phocion was in a manner the political exponent. But his poHcy was too much a negative one ; it might almost be called one of indifferentism, like the feeling of Lessing and Goethe in Germany's most momentous period. So far as we know, Phocion never proposed an alliance of a durable kind, either Athenian or Hellenic, with Macedon ; he was content to be a purely restraining influence. Athens had been constantly at war since 432 ; her own resources were of the weakest ; there was little military skill to be found in her, no reserve force, much talk, but little solid courage. Athens was vulnerable at various points, and could not possibly defend more than one at a time, therefore Phocion de- ATHENS, B. C. 351-348 Death of Demosthenes ATHENS, B. C. 336-322 spaired of war, and the event proved him right. The faithfulness of the Athenians towards him is a proof that they also instinctively felt thrt he was right. But he was wanting on the practical and creative side, and never really dominated either Athens, Greece, or Philip. ... A policy of resistance found the City-State too weak to defend itself; a policy of inaction would land it in a Macedonian empire which would still further weaken its remaining vitality. The first policy, that of Demosthenes, did actually result in dis- aster and the presence of Macedonian garrisons in Greek cities. The second policy then took its place, and initiated a new era for Greece. After the fatal battle of Cha;ronea (338 B.C.) Philip assumed the position of leader of the Greek cities."— W. W. Fowler, City Stale of the Greeks and Romans, ch. 10. — See also Greece: B.C. 357-336. B. C. 351-348.— In league with Olynthus. See Greece: B. C. 351-34S. B. C. 340. — Alliance with Byzantium against Philip of Macedon. See Greece: B. C. 340. B. C. 336-322.— End of the struggle with the Macedonians. — Fall of democracy. — Death of Demosthenes. — Athenian decline. — "An unex- pected incident changes the whole aspect of things. Philip falls the victim of assassination ; and a youth, who as yet is but little known, is his suc- cessor. Immediately Demosthenes institutes a sec- ond alliance of the Greeks; but Alexander sud- denly appears before Thebes; the terrible vengeance which he here takes, instantly destroys the league; Demosthenes, Lycurgus, and several of their sup- porters, are required to be delivered up; but Demades is at that time able to settle the diffi- culty and to appease the king. His strength was therefore enfeebled as Alexander departed for Asia ; he begins to raise his head once more when Sparta attempts to throw off the yoke; but under Antipater he is overpowered. Yet it was about this very time that by the most celebrated of his discourses he gained the victory over the most eloquent of his adversaries; and ^schines was forced to depart from Athens. But this seems only to have the more embittered his enemies, the leaders of the Macedonian party ; and they soon found an opportunity of prepar- ing his downfall. When Harpalus, a fugitive from the army of Alexander, came with his treasures to Athens, and the question arose, whether he could be permitted to remain there, Demosthenes was accused of having been corrupted by his money, at least to be silent. This was sufficient to procure the imposition of a fine; and as this was not paid, he was thrown into prison. From thence he succeeded in escaping; but to the man who lived only for his country, exile was no less an evil than imprisonment. He resided for the most part in /F.gina and at Troezen, from whence he looked with moist eyes toward the neigh- bouring Attica. Suddenly and unexpectedly a new ray of light broke through the clouds. Tid- ings were brought, that Alexander was dead. The moment of deliverance seemed at hand; the ex- citement pervaded every Grecian state; the am- bassadors of the Athenians passed through the cities; Demosthenes joined himself to the nurnber and exerted all his eloquence and power to unite them against Macedonia. In requital for such services, the people decreed his return; and years of sufferings were at last followed by a day of exalted compensation. A galley was sent to /Egina to bring back the advocate of liberty. ... It was a momentary glimpse of the sun, which still darker clouds were soon to conceal. Antipater and Craterus were victorious; and with them the Macedonian party in Athens; Demosthenes and his friends were numbered among the accused, and at the instigation of Demades were con- demned to die. . . . Demosthenes had escaped to the island of Calauria in the vicinity of Troezen ; and took refuge in the temple of Neptune. It was to no purpose that Archias, the satellite of Antipater, urged him to surrender himself un- der promise of pardon. He pretended he wished to write something; bit the quill, and swallowed the poison contained in it." — A. H. L. Heeren, Reflections on the politics of ancient Greece, trans, by G. Bancroft, pp. 278-280. — See also Macedonia: B. C. 345-336 and also, on the "Lamian War," the suppression of democracy at Athens, and the expulsion of poor citizens, Greece: B.C. 323-322. — "With the decline of political in- dependence, . . . the mental powers of the nation received a fatal blow. No longer knit together by a powerful esprit de corps, the Greeks lost the habit of working for the common weal; and, for the most part, gave themselves up to the petty interests of home life and their own personal troubles. Even the better disposed were too much occupied in opposing the low tone and corruption of the times, to be able to devote themselves, in their moments of relaxation, to a free and speculative consideration of things. What could be expected in such an age, but that philosophy would take a decidedly practical turn, if indeed it were studied at all? And yet such were the political antecedents of the Stoic and Epicurean systems of philosophy. . . . Stoic apathy. Epicurean self-satisfaction, and Sceptic im- perturbability, were the doctrines which re- sponded to the political helplessness of the age. They were the doctrines, too, which met with the most general acceptance. The same political helplessness produced the sinking of national dis- tinctions in the feeling of a common humanity, and the separation of morals from politics which characterise the philosophy of the Alexandrian and Roman period. The barriers between nations, together with national independence, had been swept away. East and West, Greeks and bar- barians, were united in large empires, being thus thrown together, and brought into close contact on every possible point. Philosophy might teach that all men were of one blood, that all were equally citizens of one empire, that morality rested on the relation of man to his fellow men, inde- pendently of nationalities and of social ranks; but in so doing she was only explicitly stating truths which had been already realised in part, and which were in part corollaries from the existing state of society." — E. Zeller, Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics, pp. 16-18, — "What we have said con- cerning the evidence of comedy about the age of the first Diadochi amounts to this: Menander and his successors — they lasted barely two gen- erations — printed in a few stereotypes a small and very worthless society at Athens. There was no doubt a similar set of people at Corinth, at Thebes, possibly even in the city of Lycurgus. These people, idle, for the most part rich, and in good society, spent their earlier years in debauchery, and their later in sentimental reflections and re- grets. They had no serious object in life, and regarded the complications of a love affair as more interesting than the rise and fall of king- doms or the gain and loss of a nation's liberty. They were like the people of our day who spend all their time reading novels from the libraries, and who can tolerate these eternal variations in twaddle not only without disgust but with in- terest. They were surrounded with slaves, on the whole more intelligent and interesting, for 613 ATHENS, B.C. 336-322 Decline ATHENS, B. C. 336-322 in the first place slaves were bound to exercise their brains, and in the second they had a great object — liberty — to give them a keen pursuit in life. The relations of the sexes in this set or portion of society were bad, owing to the want of education in the women, and the want of earnestness in the men. As a natural conse- quence a class was found, apart from household slaves, who took advantage of these defects, and. bringing culture to fascinate unprincipled men, established those relations which brought estrange- ments, if not ruin, into the home life of the day." — J. P. Mahaffy, Greek life and thought from death of Alexander to Rome. pp. 123-124. — "The amount of Persian wealth poured into Greece by the accidents of the conquest, not by its own industries, must have produced a revolution in prices not since equalled except by the influx of the gold of the .•Vztecs and Incas into Spain. I have already pointed out how this change must have pressed upon poor people in Greece who did not share in the plunder. The price of even necessary and simple things must have often risen beyond their means. For the adventurers brought home large fortunes, and the traders and pur- veyors of the armies made them ; and with these Eastern fortunes must have come in the taste for all the superior comforts and luxuries which they found among the Persian grandees. Not only the appointments of the table, in the way of plate and pottery, but the very tastes and flavours of Greek cookery must have profited by com- parison with the knowledge of the East. So also the furniture, especially in carpets and hang- ings, must have copied Persian fashion, just as we still affect oriental stuffs and designs. It was not to be expected that the example of so many regal courts and so much royal ceremony should not affect those in contact with them. These intluences were not only shown in the vulgar 'braggart captain,' who came to show off his sudden wealth in impudent extravagance among his old townspeople, but in the ordinary life of rich young men. So I imagine the personal appointments of .\lcibiades, which were the talk of Greece in his day, would have appeared poor and mean beside those of Aratus, or of the gen- eration which preceded him. Pictures and statues began to adorn private houses, and not temples and public buildings only — a change beginning to show itself in Demosthencs's day, but coming in like a torrent with the opening of Greece to the Eastern world. It was noticed that Phocion's house at .'\thens was modest in size and furniture, but even this was relieved from shabbiness by the quaint wall decoration of shin- ing plates of bronze — a fashion dating from pre- historic times, but still admired for its very antiquity." — J. P Mahaffy. Greek life and llwiight. pp. 105-106. — "The modern historians of Greece are much divided on the question where a his- tory of Hellas ought to end. Curtius stops with the battle of Chseroneia and the prostration of .\thens before the advancing power of Maccdon Grote narrates the campaigns of Alexander, but stops short at the conclusion of the Lamian War, when Greece had in vain tried to shake off the supremacy of his generals. Thirlwall brings his narrative down to the time of Mummius. the melancholy sack of Corinth and the con- stitution of .^chaia as a Roman province. Of these divergent views we regard that of the Ger- man historian as the most correct. . . . The his- toric sense of Grote did not exclude prejudices, and in this case he was probably led astray by political bias. .\t the close of his ninety-sixth chapter, after mentioning the embassies sent by 6 the degenerate .Athenians to King Ptolemy, King Lysimachus, and .\ntipater, he throws down his pen in disgust, 'and with sadness and humiliation brings his narrative to a close.' Athens was no longer free and no longer dignified, and so Mr. Grote will have done with Greece at the very moment when the new Comedy was at its height, when the Museum was founded at .Alexandria, when the plays of Euripides were acted at Baby- lon and Cabul, and every Greek soldier of for- tune carried a diadem in his baggage. Surely the historian of Greece ought either to have stopped when the iron hand of Philip of Macedon put an end to the liberties and the political wranglings of Hellas, or else persevered to the time when Rome and Parthia crushed Greek power between them, like a ship between two icebergs. No doubt his reply would be, that he declined to regard the triumph abroad of Mace- donian arms as a continuation of the history of Hellas. . . . The truth is, that the history of Greece consists of two parts, in every respect contrasted one with the other. The first recounts the stories of the Persian and Peloponnesian wars, and ends with the destruction of Thebes and the subjugation of .\thens and Sparta. The Hellas of which it speaks is a cluster of autonomous cities in the Peloponnesus, the Islands, and Northern Greece, together with their colonies scattered over the coasts of Italy, Sicily, Thrace, the Black Sea, Asia Minor, and -Africa. These cities care only to be independent, or at most to lord it over one another. Their political institutions, their religious ceremonies, their customs, are civic and local. Language, commerce, a common Pantheon, and a common art and poetry- are the ties that bind them together. In its second phase, Greek his- tory begins with the expedition of .Alexander. It reveals to us the Greek as everywhere lord of the barbarian, as founding kingdoms and federal systems, as the instructor of all mankind in art and science, and the spreader of civil and civilized life over the known world. In the first period of her history Greece is forming herself, in her second she is educating the world. We will venture to borrow from the Germans a convenient expression, and call the history of independent Greece the history of Hellas, that of imperial Greece the history of Hellenism. , . . The .Athens of Pericles was dictator among the cities which joined her alliance. Corinth, Sparta, Thebes, were each the political head of a group of towns, but none of the three admitted these latter to an equal share in their councils, or adopted their political views. Even in the Olynthian League, the city of Olynthus occupied a position quite su- perior to that of the other cities. But the Greek cities had not tried the experiment of an al- liance on equal terms. This was now attempted by some of the leading cities of the Peloponnese, and the result was the .Achaean League, whose history sheds a lustre on the last days of in- dependent Greece, and whose generals will bear comparison with the statesmen of any Greek Republic [see Greece: B.C. 280-146]. . . . On the field of Sellasia the glorious hopes of Cleomenes were wrecked, and the recently reformed Sparta was handed over to a succession of bloodthirsty tyrants, never again to emerge from obscurity. But to the .Achjeans themselves the interference of Macedon was little less fatal. Henceforth a Macedonian garrison occupied Corinth, which had been one of the chief cities of the League; and King .Antigonus Doson was the recognized arbiter in all disputes of the Peloponnesian Greeks. . . . In Northern Greece a strange contrast presented it- self. The historic races of the .Athenians and 14 ATHENS, B.C. 336-322 Decline ATHENS, B.C. 200 Boeotians languished in peace, obscurity, and lux- ury. With them every day saw something added to enjoyments and elegancies of life, and every day politics drifted more and more into the background. On the other hand, the rude semi- Greeks of the West, .45tolians, Acarnanians, and Epirotes, to whose manhood the repulse of the Gauls was mainly due, came to the front and showed the bold spirit of Greeks divorced from the liner faculties of the race. The Acarnanians formed a league somewhat on the plan of the Acha5an. But they were overshadowed by their neighbors the .-Etolians, whose union was of a different character. It was the first time that there had been formed in Hellas a state framed in order to prey upon its neighbours. ... In the course of the Peloponnesian War Greek religion began to lose its hold on the Greeks. This was partly the work of the sophists and philosophers, who sought more lofty and moral views of Deity than were furnished by the tales of popular mythology. Still more it resulted from growing materialism among the people, who saw more and more of their immediate and physical needs, and less and less of the underlying spiritual elements in life. But though philosophy and materialism had made the religion of Hellas paler and feebler, they had not altered its nature or expanded it. It still remained essentially na- fior?l, almost tribal. When, therefore, Greeks and Macedonians suddenly found themselves mas- ters of the nations of the East, and in close con- tact with a hundred forms of religion, an ex- traordinary and rapid change took place in their religious ideas. In religion, as in othc matters, Egypt set to the world the example of prompt fusion of the ideas of Greeks and natives. . . . Into Greece proper, in return (or her population which flowed out, there flowed in a crowd of foreign deities. Isis was especially welcomed at Athens, where she found many votaries. In every cult the more mysterious elements were made more of, and the brighter and more materialistic side passed by. Old statues which had fallen somewhat into contempt in the days of Pheidias and Praxiteles were restored to their places and received extreme veneration, not as beautiful, but as old and strange. On the coins of the previous period the representations of deities had been always the best that the die-cutter could frame, taking as his models the finest contemporary sculp- ture; but henceforth we often find them strange, uncouth figures, remnants of a period of strug- gling early art, like the Apollo at .'Kmyclse, or the Hera of Samos. ... In the intellectual life of Athens there was still left vitality enough to formulate the two most complete expressions of the ethical ideas of the times, the doctrines of the Stoics and the Epicureans, towards one or the other of which all educated minds from that day to this have been drawn. No doubt our knowledge of these doctrines, being largely drawn from the Latin writers and their Greek con- temporaries, is somewhat coloured and unjust. With the Romans a system of philosophy was considered mainly in its bearing upon conduct, whence the ethical elements in Stoicism and Epi- cureanism have been by their Roman adherents so thrust into the foreground, that we have almost lost sight of the intellectual elements, which can have had little less importance in the eyes of the Greeks. Notwithstanding, the rise of the two philosophies must be held to mark a new era in the history of thought, an era when the importance of conduct was for the first time rec- ognized by the Greeks. It is often observed that the ancient Greeks were more modern than our own ancestors of the Middle Ages. But it is less generally recognized how far more modern than the Greeks of Pericles were the Greeks of Aratus. In very many respects the age of Hellenism and our own age present remarkable similarity. In both there appears a sudden increase in the power over material nature, arising alike from the greater accessibility of all parts of the world and from the rapid developments of the sciences which act upon the physical forces of the world. In both this spread of science and power acts upon religion with a dissolving and, if we may so speak, centrifugal force, driving some men to take refuge in the most conservative forms of faith, some to fly to new creeds and superstitions, some to drift into unmeasured scepticism. In both the facility of moving from place to place, and finding a distant home, tends to dissolve the closeness of civic and family life, and to make the individual rather than the family or the city the unit of social life. And in the family re- lations, in the character of individuals, in the state of morality, in the condition of art, we find at both periods similar results from the similar causes we have mentioned." — P. Gardner, New chapters in Greek history, eh. 15. B. C. 317-316.— Siege by Polyperchon.— De- mocracy restored. — Execution of Phocion. — De- metrius of Phaleron at the head of the govern- ment. See Greece; B. C. 321-312. B. C. 307-197. — Under Demetrius Poliorcetes and the Antigonids. See Greece; B. C. 307-197. B. C. 288-263. — Twenty years of independence. — Siege and subjugation by Antigonus Gonatas. — When Demetrius Poliorcetes lost the Macedonian throne, 288 B. C, his fickle Athenian subjects and late worshippers rose against his authority, drove his garrisons from the Museum and the Peirsus and abolished the priesthood they had consecrated to him. Demetrius gathered an army from some quarter and laid siege to the city, but without success. The Athenians went so far as to invite Pyrrhus, the warrior king of Epirus, to assist them against him. Pyrrhus came and Demetrius retired. The dangerous ally contented himself with a visit to the Acropolis as a wor- shipper, and left Athens in possession, undisturbed, of her freshly gained freedom. It was enjoyed after a fashion for twenty years, at the end of which period, 268 B. C, Antigonus Gonatas, the son of Demetrius, having regained the Macedonian crown, reasserted his claim on Athens, and the city was once more besieged. The Lacedaemonians and Ptolemy of Egypt both gave some ineffectual aid to the Athenians, and the siege, interrupted on several occasions, was prolonged until 263 B. C, when Antigonus took possession of the Acropolis, the fortified Museum and the Peiraeus as a master (see Macedonw: B.C. 277-244). This was sometimes called the Chremonidean War, from the name of a patriotic Athenian who took the most prominent part in the long defence of his city. — C. Thirlwall, History of Greece, ch. 61. B. C. 229. — Liberation by the Achaean league. See Greece; B.C. 280-146. B. C. 200. — Vandalism of the second Mace- donian Philip. — In the year 200 B. C. the Mace- donian king, Philip, made an attempt to surprise Athens and failed. "He then encamped in the outskirts, and proceeded to wreak his vengeance on the .■\thenians, as he had indulged it at Thermus and Pergamus. He destroyed or de- faced all the monuments of religion and of art, all the sacred and pleasant places which adorned the suburbs. The Academy, the Lyceum, and Cynosarges, with their temples, schools, groves and gardens, were all wasted with fire. Not even 615 ATHENS, B.C. 197- A. D. 138 Roman Rule ATHENS, A. D. 54 the sepulchres were spared." — C. Thirlwall, History of Greece, ch. 64. B. C. 197-A. D. 138.— Under Roman rule.— "Athens . . . affords the disheartening picture of a commonwealth pampered by the supreme power, and financially as well as morally ruined. By rights it ought to have found itself in a flourish- ing condition. ... No city of antiquity elsewhere possessed a domain of its own, such as was Attica, of about 700 square miles. . . . But even beyond Attica they retained what they possessed, as well after the Mithridatic War, by favour of Sulla, as after the Pharsalian battle, in which they had taken the side of Pompeius, by the favour of Caesar ; — he asked them only how often they would still ruin themselves and trust to be saved by the renown of their ancestors. To the city there still belonged not merely the territory, for- merly possessed by Haliartus, in Boeotia, but also on their own coait Salamis, the old starting-point of their dominion of the sea, and in the Thracian Sea the lucrative islands Scyros, Demnos, and Imbros, as w-ell as Delos in the .^igean. ... Of the further grants, which they had the skill to draw by flattery from .Antoninus, Augustus, against whom they had taken part, took from them certainly .^igina and Eretria in Euboea, but they were allowed to retain the smaller islands of the Thracian Sea. . . . Hadrian, moreover, gave to them the best part of the great island of Cephal- lenia in the Ionian Sea. It was only by the Emperor Severus, who bore them no good will, that a portion of these extraneous possessions was withdrawn from them. Hadrian further granted to the Athenians the delivery of a certain quan- tity' of grain at the e.-^pense of the empire, and by the extension of this privilege, hitherto re- served for the capital, acknowledged .•\thens, as it were, as another metropolis. Not less was the blissful institute of alimentary endowments, which Italy had enjoyed since Trajan's time, extended by Hadrian to .Athens, and the capital requisite for this purpose certainly presented to the .Mhe- nians from his purse. . . . Yet the community was in constant distress."— T. Mommsen, History of Rome, bk. 8, ch. 7. — See also Greece: B. C. 146- A. D. 180. Also in: J. P. Mahaffy, Greek world under Roman s'd'ay. B. C. 87-86. — Siege and capture by Sulla. — Massacre of citizens. — Pillage and depopulation. — Lasting injuries. — The early successes of Mith- radates of Pontus, in his savage war with the Romans, included a general rising in his favor among the Greeks [see MiTHRADAnc Wars], sup- ported by the fleets of the Pontic king and by a strong invading army. .Mhens and the Peiraeus were the strongholds of the Greek revolt, and at Athens an adventurer named Aristion, bringing from Mithradates a body-guard of 2,000 soldiers, made himself tyrant of the city. A year passed before Rome, distracted by the beginnings of civil war, could effectively interfere. Then Sulla came (B.C. 87) and laid siege to the Peirseus, where the principal Pontic force was lodged, while he shut up Athens by blockade. In the following March, Athens was starved to such weakness that the Romans entered almost unopposed and killed and plundered with no mercy ; but the buildings of the city suffered little harm at their hands. The siege of the Peinus was carried on for some weeks longer, until Sulla had driven the Pontic forces from every part except Munychia. and that they evacuated in no long time. — W'. Ihne, His- tory of Rome, bk. 7, ch. 17.— ".Mhens was . . . taken by assault. . . . The majority of the citi- zens was slain; the carnage was so fearfully great 61 as to become memorable even in that age of bloodshed ; ihe private movable property was seized by the soldier>', and Sylla assumed some merit to himself for not committing the rifled houses to the flames. . . . The fate of the Peiraeus, which he utterly destroyed, was more severe than that of .\thens. From Sylla's campaign in Greece the commencement of the ruin and depopulation of the country is to be dated. The destruction of property caused by his ravages in .\ttica was so great that Athens from that time lost its commercial as well as its political importance. The race of .Athenian citizens was almost extirpated, and a new population, composed of a heterogene- ous mass of settlers, received the right of citizen- ship." — G. Finlay, Greece under the Romans, ch. i. A. D. 54 (?).-TVisit of St. Paul.— Planting of Christianity. — "When the Jews of Thessalonica had knowledge that the word of God was pro- claimed of Paul at Berea also, they came thither likewise, stirring up and troubling the multitude. And then immediately the brethren sent forth Paul to go as far as to the sea: and Silas and Timotheus abode there still. But they that con- ducted Paul brought him as far as .Athens; and receiving a commandment unto Silas and Timotheus that they should come to him w-ith all speed, they departed. Now while Paul waited for them at Athens, his spirit was provoked within him, as he beheld the city full of idols. So he reasoned in the synagogue with the Jews, and the devout persons, and in the market place every day with them that met with him. And certain also of the Epicureans and Stoic philosophers encountered him. And some said, what would this Ijabbler say ? other some, He seemeth to be a setter forth of strange gods: because he preached Jesus and the resurrection. And they took hold of him, and brought him unto the .Areopagus, saying. May we know what this new teaching is which is spoken by thee ? For thou bringest certain strange things to our ears: w'e would know therefore what these things mean. (Now all the .Athenians and the strangers sojourning there spent their time in noth- ing else, but either to tell or to hear some new thing.) And Paul stood in the midst of the .Areo- pagus, and said. Ye men of .Athens, in all things I perceive that ye are somewhat superstitious. For as I passed along and observed the objects of your worship, I found also an altar with this in- scription. 'To an Unknown God.' What there- fore ye worship in ignorance, this set I forth unto you. . . . Now when they heard of the resurrec- tion of the dead, some mocked ; but others said, We will hear thee concerning this yet again. Thus Paul went out from among them. Howbeit certain men clave unto him, and believed: among whom also was Dionysius the Areopagite, and a woman named Damaris, and others with them." — Acts of the Apostles, Revised Version, ch. 17. — "Consider the difficulties which must have beset the planting of the Church in Athens. If the burning zeal of the great Apostle ever permitted him to feel diffidence in addressing an assembly, he may well have felt it when he addressed on Mars' Hill for the first time an .Athenian crowd. No doubt the Athens of his time was in her decay, inferior in opulence and grandeur to many younger cities. Yet even to a Jew, provided he had received some educational impressions beyond the fanatical shibboleths of Pharisaism, there was much in that wonderful centre of intelligence to shake his most inveterate prejudices and inspire him with unwilling respect. Shorn indeed of her political greatness, deprived even of her philo- sophical supremacy, she still shone with a bril- liant afterglow of esthetic and intellectual pres- ATHENS, A. D. 54 Planting of Christianity ATHENS, 1205-1308 tige. Her monument flashed on the visitor mem- ories recent enough to dazzle his imagination. Her schools claimed and obtained even from Emperors the homage due to her unique past. Recognis- ing her as the true nurse of Hellenism and the chief missionary of human reftnement, the best spirits of the age held her worthy of admiring love not unmixed with awe. As the seat of the most brilliant and popular university, young men of talent and position flocked to her from every quarter, studied for a time within her colonnades, and carried thence the recollection of a culture which was not always deep, not always erudite, but was always and genuinely Attic. To sub- ject to the criticism of this people of doctrine professing to come direct from God, a religion and not a philosophy, depending not on argu- ment but on revelation, was a task of which the difficulties might seem insuperable. When we consider what the Athenian character was, this language will not seem exaggerated. Keen, subtle, capricious, satirical, sated with ideas, eager for novelty, yet with the eagerness of amused frivolity, not of the truth-seeker: critical by instinct, ex- quisitely sensitive to the ridiculous or the absurd, disputatious, ready to listen, yet impatient of all that was not wit, satisfied with everything in life except its shortness, and therefore hiding all references to this unwelcome fact under a veil of complacent euphemism — where could a more un- congenial soil be found for the seed of the Gospel? ... To an Athenian the Jew was not so much an object of hatred (as to the Roman), nor even of contempt (as to the rest of mankind), as of absolute indifference. He was simply ignored. To the eclectic philosophy which now dominated the schools of Athens, Judaism alone among all hu- man opinions was as if non-existent. That Athe- nians should be convinced by the philosophy of a Jew would be a proposition expressible in words but wholly destitute of meaning. On the other hand, the Jew was not altogether uninfluenced by Greek thought. Wide apart as the two minds were, the Hebraic proved not insensible to the charm of the Hellenic ; witness the Epistle to the Hebrews, witness Philo, witness the intrusion of Greek methods of interpretation even into the text-books of Rabbinism. And it was Athens, as the quintessence of Hellas, Athens as repre- sented by Socrates, and still more by Plato, which had gained this subtle power. And just as Judaea alone among all the Jewish communities retained its e.xclusiveness wholly unimpaired by Hellen- ism, so Athens, more than any Pagan capital, was likely to ignore or repel a faith coming in the garb of Judaism. And yet within less- than a century we find this faith so well established there as to yield to the Church the good fruits of martyrdom in the person of its bishop, and of able defences in the person of three of its teachers. The early and the later fortunes of the Athenian Church are buried in oblivion ; it comes but for a brief period before the scene of history. But the undying interest of that one dramatic moment when Paul proclaimed a bodily resurrection to the authors of the conception of a spiritual im- mortality, will always cause us to linger with a strange sympathy over every relic of the Chris- tianity of Athens." — C. T. Cruttwell, Literary his- tory of early Christianity, v. i, bk. 3, ch. 4. — See Jso Christianity: A. D. 35-60. Also in: W. J. Conybeare and J. S Howson, Life and letters of St. Paul, v. i, ck. to. — F. C. Baur, Paul, v. i, pt. i, ch. 7. — On the inscrip- tion, see E. de Pressense, Early years of Cliris- tianity: Apostolic era, bk. 2, ch. i. 125-134.— Works of Hadrian.— The Emperor 61 Hadrian interested himself greatly in the vener- able decaying capital of the Greeks, which he visited, or resided in, for considerable periods, sev- eral times, between 125 and 134. These visits were made important to the city by the great works of rebuilding which he undertook and supervised. Large parts of the city are thought to have been reconstructed by him, "in the open and luxurious style of Antioch and Ephesus." One quarter came to be called "Hadrianapolis," as though he had created it. Several new temples were erected at his command; but the greatest of the works of Hadrian at Athens was the complet- ing of the vast national temple, the Olympieum, the beginning of which dated back to the age of Pisistratus, and which Augustus had put his hand to without finishing. — C. Merivale, History of the Romans under the Empire, ch. 66. 267. — Captured by the Goths. See Goths: 258- 267. 395. — Surrender to Alaric and the Goths. — When the Goths under Alaric invaded and ravaged Greece, 395, Athens was surrendered to them, on terms which saved the city from being plundered. "The fact that the depredations of Alaric hardly exceeded the ordinary license of a rebellious gen- eral, is . . . perfectly established. The public buildings and monuments of ancient splendour suf- fered no wanton destruction from his visit; but there can be no doubt that Alaric and his troops levied heavy contributions on the city and its in- habitants." — G. Finlay, Greece under the Romans, ch. 2, sect. 8. — See also Goths: A. D. 3qs: Alaric's invasion of Greece. Also in: E. Gibbon, Decline and fall of the Roman Empire, ch. 30. A. D. 529. — Suppression of the schools by Justinian. — -"The Attic schools of rhetoric and philosophy maintained their superior reputation from the Peloponnesian War to the reign of Jus- tinian. Athens, though situate in a barren soil, possessed a pure air, a free navigation, and the monuments of ancient art. That sacred retire- ment was seldom disturbed by the business of trade or government ; and the last of the Athenians were distinguished by their lively wit, the purity of their taste and language, their social manners, and some traces, at least in discourse, of the mag- nanimity of their fathers. In the suburbs of the city, the Academy of the Platonists, the Lycaeum of the Peripatetics, the Portico of the Stoics and the Garden of the Epicureans were planted with trees and decorated with statues; and the philosophers, instead of being immured in a cloister, delivered their instructions in spacious and pleasant walks, which, at different hours, were consecrated to the exercises of the mind and body. The genius of the founders still lived in those venerable seats. . . . The schools of Athens were protected by the wisest and most virtuous of the Roman princes. . . . Some vestige of royal bounty may be found under the successors of Constantine. . . . The golden chain, as it was fondly styled, of the Platonic suc- cession, continued ... to the edict of Justinian [520] which imposed a perpetual silence on the schools of Athens, and excited the grief and indig- nation of the few remaining votaries of Greek science and superstition." — E. Gibbon, Decline and fall of the Roman Empire, ch. 40. 6th-llth centuries. — Between the sixth and eleventh centuries Athens practically disappeared from history. Here in 1018 Basil H celebrated his victory over the Bulgarians. Michael Akominatus became metropolitan of Athens in 1260 and from his writings we get a desolate picture of the state into which the city had fallen. 1205-1308. — Founding of the Latin dukedom. 7 ATHENS, 1205-1308 Founding of Latin Dukedom ATHENS, 1205-1308 — Otto de la Roche takes title of "Lord of Athens." — Guy de la Roche created "Duke of Athens." — Prosperity of Athens under Guy II. — "The portion of Greece lying to the south of the kingdom of Saloniki was divided by the Crusaders [after their conquest of Constantinople, 1204 — see Byzantine Empire: 1203-1204] among several great feudatories of the Empire of Romania. . . . The lords of Boudonitza, Salona, Negropont, and Athens are alone mentioned as existing to the north of the isthmus of Corinth, and the history of the petty sovereigns of .-Kthens can alone be traced in any detail. . . . Though the Byzantine aristoc- racy and dignified clergy were severe sufferers by the transference of the government into the hands of the Franks, the middle classes long enjoyed peace and security. . . . The social civilization of the inhabitants, and their ample command of the necessaries and many of the luxuries of life, were in those days as much superior to the condition of the citizens of Paris and London as they are now inferior. . . . The city was large and wealthy, the country thickly covered with villages, of which the ruins may still be traced in spots affording no indications of Hellenic sites. . . . The trade of .Athens was considerable, and the luxury of the Athenian ducal court was celebrated in all the regions of the West where chivalry flourished." — G. Finlay, History of Greece from its conquest by the Crusaders, cli. 7. — "Boniface [king-marquis of Montferrat] having settled a dispute with the Em- peror Baldwin I. which threatened to undermine the Latin dominion in the Levant at the outset, marched into Greece at the head of an army of Crusaders in order to assert his claim to that country, which had been included, although it was still unconquered, in his share. M the moment of the Latin expedition against Constantinople the two themes of Hellas and the Peloponnesos had been a prey to anarchy. Instead of combining in the presence of the common danger which menaced the existence of the Byzantine Empire, the wealthy families thought only of advancing their own in- terests even at the expense of the Government. Of these archontes, by far the ablest and most am- bitious was Leon Sgouros of Nauplia, who was Bent upon carving out for himself an independent principality in the Peloponnesos and Central Greece. His first step was to obtain possession of Argos; Corinth was his next acquisition. ... He then traversed the Isthmus, and invested Athens by land and sea. The city, whose walls had fallen into decay, succumbed without a struggle; but the Akropolis was defended by a second Dexippos, the noble Archbishop Akominatos, who appealed to the patriotism of the .Athenians, with such success that Sgouros had to content himself with burning the unprotected houses before the eyes of the gar- rison. ... .At Larissa Sgouros met the fugitive Emperor .Alexios III., and received from him the hand of his daughter in marriage. But the ad- vance of Boniface's army cut short the further success of the bold adventurer. . . . Boniface's march now became a royal progress. He first secured the Pass of Thermopylae by bestow- ing the ueighbouring position of Boudonitza as a fief on Guido Pallavicini, and then proceeded southward. The inhabitants of the towns, which had so lately felt the tyranny of Sgouros, welcomed the foreigner as a deliverer. Without disturbing those municipal institutions which the Greeks have always specially prized, the King of Salonica lost no time in distributing the classic lands of Greece as feudal fiefs among his trusty followers. . . . Attica and Bceotia were bestowed upon Otto de la Roche, a Burgundian noble, who had distinguished himself at the siege of Constantinople and had 6 successfully mediated in the dispute between Bald- win I. and Boniface. Athens made no opposition to the Franks, for this time even the heroic Arch- bishop saw that resistance would be in vain. It was with a bitter pang that he beheld his cathe- dral, the venerable Parthenon, robbed of its relics by men who were hostile to the orthodox religion and ignorant of classic learning. For the first time since the days of Sulla a Latin army was in possession of .Athens; yet the Roman conqueror had been kinder to the ancient seat of culture than the Christian Franks. Leaving his beloved church in the occupation of Latin monks, Akominatos left with a heavy heart the city where he had lived so long. .After wandering from one plaCe to another in search of rest, he finally settled in the island of Kea, from which he could still .-ee the .Attic coast. .Akominatos had once been disap- pointed with .Athens; but he had learned to love it as his second home, and now, in his island cell, he lamented the loss of his books and wrote of .Attica as 'a second garden of Eden.' Once, in secret, he ventured over to .Athens; but he could not endure the galling spectacle of a Roman Catho- lic archbishop officiating in what had once been his own cathedral. .At length he died in exile, the last of a long line of heroes whose names are as- sociated with the story of the violet-crowned city. Central Greece was now in the possession of the Franks. . . . Otto de la Roche . . . had time to instal himself in his dominions, which included, besides Attica and Boeotia, the ancient Megarid, with its coasts on the Saronic and Corinthian Gulfs, and the former land of the Opuntian Loc- rians to the north. His first care was to select a title, and he chose that of Sire d'Athenes, or 'Lord of Athens,' which was magnified by the Greeks into that of Megas Kyr .... or 'Great Lord.' He then proceeded to organize his State on the feu- dal system, just as Guy of Lusignan had done in Cyprus, reserving Athens and Thebes as his private domains, and assigning the lands cf the former Greek proprietors to his own followers. No op- position was offered to these confiscatory meas- ures, which scarcely affected the peasants at all. . . . The Church question was far more difficult, for the difference between the two religions formed an insuperable barrier between the two races. .A Frenchman named Berard was appointed first Latin .Archbishop of .Athens, and was duly con- firmed by Pope Innocent III. as successor of Ako- minatos in the cathedral on the Akropolis. An army of monks followed in the steps of the sol- diers. The Franciscans founded numerous mon- asteries, and the famous Convent of Daphne, be- tween Athens and Eleusis, was bestowed on a body of Cistercians from the Burgundian home of the Lord of .Athens. But Otto soon incurred the cen- sure of the Latin clergy by his refusal to allow donations of land to the Church, and by his ap- propriation of Greek ecclesiastical property. He felt that it was essential to his position as a con- queror in a foreign country that only those who could render him military service should be en- titled to receive estates. Events in the Kingdom of Salonica caused Otto de la Roche to transfer his allegiance from the King to the Emperor of Romania. . . . Otto extended his dominions by the acquisition of Sgouros's old possessions, Argos and Nauplia, which X'illehardouin gave him as fiefs in return for his valuable assistance in the conquest of those cities. . . . Otto thus owed feu- dal service to Villehardouin for fiefs; and this re- lationship was extended by another Prince of .Achaia to a claim of overlordship over .Athens .ind Thebes. . . . Otto was a firm ally of Villehardouin, and numbers of his relatives flocked from distant 18 ATHENS, 1205-1308 Guv de la Roche ATHENS, 1203-1308 Burgundy to settle in the El Dorado which he ruled. Yet twenty years of state in Athens and Thebes were enough for the 'Great Lord.' In 1225 he departed for Burgundy with his wife and sonf, leaving his Greek dominions to his nephew, Guy de la Roche. Guy I. resided during the greater part of his reign of nearly forty years at Thebes, then the most flourishing town which owned his sway; . . . while the continuance of the silk manufacture there had attracted colonies of Jews and Genoese, to the latter of whom Guy I. gave special privileges both in Thebes and in Athens. . . . Villehardouin now aimed at an ex- tension of his sway beyond the Isthmus, and this led to the first civil war between the Franks in Greece. The occasion of the war was the State of Euboea, or Negroponte as the Franks called it. That island, after its conquest by Jacques d'Aves- nfs, had been divided by Boniface of Salonica into three fiefs, which were bestowed upon the Vero- nese family of Dalle Carceri, and gave them the title of Terzieri, or 'the three lords.' But the Vene- tians, to whom the north and south of the island had been assigned by the partition treaty, soon established a factory there and acquired authority over the three barons. Villehardouin, who had married into the Dalle Carceri family, demanded his wife's third of the island and claimed the over- lordship of the whole. The claim was resisted, and Villehardouin summoned all his vassals to as- sist him in the conflict. Among others he called upon Guy of Athens, as holder of the liefs of Nauplia and Argos, and that energetic ruler promptly repudiated the idea that he was bound to render military service to the Prince of Achaia, whose manifest aim was to establish his supreme authority over all the Frank States in the East. In fact, it was pretended that Boniface of Salonica had placed Athens under the suzerainty of the first Prince of Achaia. War at once began be- tween the allied forces of Venice, the lords of Euboea, and Guy on the one hand, and Villehar- douin on the other. Defeated in Euboea, the Prince of Achaia marshalled his forces at Nikli, near the site of Tegea, and then marched against Guy. A battle between them was fought at the pass of Karidi, on the road from Megara to Thebes; the Athenian troops were routed, and Villehardouin was only induced by the prayers of the Archbishop to spare the Theban residence of his enemy. The nobles in Villehardouin's army pleaded for peace between old comrades in arms; Guy submitted, and promised to perform any penance which should be imposed upon him by the high court of the barons of Achaia. The court met at Nikli, and the penitent Guy was arraigned before it. But its members, when the moment for pronouncmg sen- tence arrived, decided to refer the question to Louis IX. of France, the most chivalrous and saintly monarch of that age. Guy set out {or Paris, where Louis received him graciously and the matter was satisfactorily settled. Louis con- sidered that his journey was more than sufficient punishment for any breach of the feudal law which Guy might have committed, and asked him what favour he could grant him. Guy replied that he would prize above all else the title of 'Duke of Athens,' which was accordingly conferred upon him in 1260. The title has become famous in literature, as well as in history, from its bestowal, by a pardonable anachronism, upon Theseus by Dante, Boccaccio, Chaucer, and Shakespeare, who transferred to the legendary founder of .Athens the style of its mediaeval Dukes. When the Duke of Athens returned to Greece, he found his late con- queror a captive himself. Villehardouin had re- cently married a daughter of Michael II , despot 6 of Epiros, the rival of Michael VIII., Emperor of Nice, for the succession to the tottering throne of Constantinople. The Prince of Achaia had be- come involved in the dispute through this matri- monial alliance, and had assisted his father-in-law with Peloponnesian and Athenian troops in the war which had broken out between the two Michaels. On the Plain of Pelagonia, in Mace- donia, Villehardouin and his ally were defeated, and the Prince of Achaia was subsequi>nllv taken prisoner. At this juncture Guy landed in the Morea, and was invited by the barons of Achaia to assume the regency of the principality during the captivity of their sovereign. Guy at once ac- cepted the honourable task, and was negotiating for the release of his former enemy, when sud- denly another and yet more startling message ar- rived, that the Latin Empire of Romania had fallen, and that the last Latin Emperor, Baldwin II., was a fugitive. For the second time, but as a suppliant, not as a ruler, a Latin emperor visited Thebes and Athens, where his former vassals gathered round him on the old Akropolis. Few scenes in the long history of that venerable rock are so pathetic as this, the last in the brief drama of the Latin Empire of Constantinople. Then Bald- win left Athens for the West, there to play' the sorry part of an emperor in exile. The capture of Constantinople by the Greeks of Nice in 1261 had naturally strengthened the hold of Michael VIII. upon his captive. After a long struggle, Villehardouin realised that he had no option but to accept the Greek Emperor's terms — to cede to him the important fortresses of Maina, Misithra, Geraki, and Monemvasia, and to pay him homage for the rest of the Morea which he was allowed to keep. These terms had, however, to be submitted to the high court of the barons of Achaia at Nikli — the same spot where, a few years before, Guy, who now convened the court, had been summoned to appear before it. The composition of the Par- liament had changed no less than the circumstances of its meeting. Many of the Achaian barons were dead or in captivity, and, as the Salic law did not obtain in the Morea, their widows or wives ap- peared in their place. The Duke of Athens ad- dressed the Court in a dignified and generous tone; but while he offered to pledge his person and Duchy for the release of the Prince, he strongly opposed the cession of the fortresses to the Greek Emperor. 'It were better,' he said in Scriptural language, 'that one man should die for the people — better that the Prince should perish than that we should admit the Greeks into the Morea.' Guy spoke as a statesman, but he had to yield to the feelings of the feminine assembly, moved by senti- ment rather than by policy. Two noble dames were sent to Constantinople as hostages, Villehar- douin was released after doing homage to the Greek Emperor, and the Byzantine troops occupied in 1262 the ceded fortresses. From that moment Misithra became the centre of Greek intrigues in the Morea, and the decline of the Frank Principal- ity of Achaia began. Guy laid down the regency, which he had so loyally conducted, and soon after- wards died, in 1264, leaving his son John to reign over his .Athenian Duchy. We have little informa- tion about the internal state of Athens, or Setines, as it now began to be vulgarly called, at this peri- od, beyond the fact that the neighbouring mon- astery of Daphne was then a flourishing Catholic institution. But we hear much about the vigorous foreign policy of the new Duke, who did not scruple to practise piracy in the classic waters of the ^T.gean. . . . Not long afterwards John died. His brother William, who succeeded him, began his reign by formally admitting the claim to the 19 ATHENS, 1205-1308 Guy II Turks in Possession ATHENS, 1687-1688 overlordship of the Athenian Duchy which Charles of Anjou had advanced in virtue of the Treaty of Viterbo. He onlv begged to be excused from going in person to Naples to render homage, and he was always ready to assist in fightmg agamst the Greeks in the Morea, although this policy ex- posed his own territory to the reprisals of the Byzantine forces under the traitor Licario bo friendly were his relations with the house of An- jou that, on the death of Villehardouin, he was appointed bv the suzerain Regent of Achaia dur- ing the min'oritv of ViUehardouin's daughter Isa- bella Both there, as well as at Athens, his gov- ernment was successful, and his premature death was deeply regretted, especially as his son, Ouy 11., was a minor at the time. During Guy s infancy Athens was at first governed by his mother, Helena Angela, the daughter of the Thessalian Prmce so that the ancient Greek city was once more under the influence of a Greek. But the fair widow soon married her brother-in-law, Hugh de Brienne, a member of a famous family from Champagne, which had already produced a King of Jerusalem and Emperor of Romania. Hugh, who was Count of Lecce, in Southern Italy, thus became regent for his stepson until the latter came of age. . . . From Thebes Guv hastened to seek the hand ot Isabella ViUehardouin's five-year-old daughter, Ma- tilda and thus bv a matrimonial alliance to end the vexed question of the feudal dependence of Athens upon Achaia, which had lately been revived by Charles II. of Aniou. Before he had been long on the throne Guv was able to extend his influence in another direction. Ever since the days of Duke John there had been a close friendship between the Courts of Athens and Neopatras, the seat ol the Thessalian princes. Accordingly, when the Prince died, he left Guy guardian of, and regent for, his infant son; so that Thessaly, already Latinised through the marriage connection between its reigning dvnastv and that of Athens, came yet more under Prankish control. But this connec- tion involved Guy in war with the ambitious widow of the despot of Epiros, who seized the opportunitv to attack the Thessalian Principality. The Duke 'of Athens at once levied a considerable army— which shows how strong he was at that period— and led it from Domoko, . . . into Epiros. The warlike zeal of his opponent at once sub- sided, and Guy accepted a favourable peace A few years later he was appointed Regent oi Achaia, where he already possessed the Villehardoums 1am- ily fief of Kalamata bv virtue of his marriage. But his career suddenlv closed; he died m 1308, and was buried in the Cistercian monastery of Daphne . . . Under his rule the Duchy had reached a high degree of culture and prosperity Muntaner remarked that at the Ducal Court, which was usuallv held at Thebes, 'just as good French was spoken as in Paris itself; even in Thessa y we hear of French-speaking nobles, and, owing to the difference of religion, which usually interposed a barrier to marriage between the Franks and the Greeks, the barons of Athens imported their wives from France. Guy II., as the son of a Greek princess spoke Greek as well, and doubtless looked on Greece as his native land. But everywhere the Franks had introduced their own mode of life. Thus the Duke took part in a magnificent tourna- ment on the classic soil of the Isthmus at which all the Prankish aristocracy of Greece was pres- ent Under the house of la Roche the Duchy had acquired a renown and a prosperity such as the kingdom of Greece under its first sovereign might have envied The Duke of Athens, apart from the vexed question of suzeramty, to which we have alluded, was far more of an absolute monarch than his neighbour in the Morea. At the time of the conquest there had been no promi- nent local families in Attica, nor did any great French houses grow up to dispute the supremacy of the Duke. . . . The last Duke of the house of la Roche died. His first-cousin and successor, Walter of Brienne, Count of Lecce, was not in Greece at the time of Guy's death; but he met with no opposition from rival competitors to the throne. The dangers which beset him, and which were destined to cut short his career and that of many another Frankish noble, arose from a very different quarter— that of the dreaded Catalans, who now assumed a decisive part in the history of the Duchy."— W. Miller, Athens under the Franks (.Gentleman's Magazine, v. 2q6, Jan., 1904, pp. 23- Also in: C. C. Felton, Greece, ancient and modern; ^th course, led. g. 1311-1456.— Under the Catalans and the Flor- entines. See C\^M■.\s Gr.axd Comp.^xy. 1456. — Turks in possession. — Athens was not occupied bv the Turks until three years after the conquest of Constantinople (see CoNST.«nNOPLE: 1453). In the meantime the reign of the Floren- tine dukes of the house of Acciajuoli came to a tragical close. The last of the dukes, Maurice .■\cciajuoli died, leaving a young son and a young widow, the latter renowned for her beauty and her talents. The duchess, whom the will of her hus- band had made regent, married a comely Venetian named Palmerio, who was said to have poisoned his wife in order to be free to accept her hand. Thereupon a nephew of the late duke, named Franco, stirred up insurrections at .Athens and fled to Constantinople to complain to the sultan, Mohammed II. "The sultan, glad of all pretexts that coloured his armed intervention in the affairs of these principalities, ordered Omar, son of Tour- akhan, chief of the permanent army of the Pelo- ponnesus, to take possession of .Athens, to de- throne the duchess and to confine her son in his prison of the citadel of Megara." This was done; but Palmerio, the duchess's husband, made his way to the sultan and interceded in her behalf. "Ma- homet, bv the advice of his viziers, feigned to listen equallv to the complaints of Palmerio, and to march to' reestablish the legitimate sovereignty. But already Franco, entering Megara under the auspices of the Ottomans, had strangled both ibe duchess and her son. Mahomet, advancing in turn to punish him for his vengeance, expelled Franco from .Athens on entering it. and gave him, in com- pensation, the inferior and dependent principahty of Thebes, in Bceotia. The sultan, as lettered a; he was warlike, evinced no less pride and admira- tion than SvUa at the sight of the monurnents of Athens 'What gratitude,' exclaimed he before the 'Parthenon and the temple of Theseus, 'do not re- ligion and the Empire owe to the son of Toura- khan who has made them a present of these spoils of the genius of the Greeks.'"— .A. Lamartine, History oj Turkey, bk. 13, sect. io-:2. 1466.— Capture and plundering by the Vene- tians. See Greece: 1454-1470- 1687-1688.— Siege, bombardment and capture by the Venetians.— Destructive explosion in the Parthenon.— "The campaign of 1687 [ol the Vene- tians against the Turks! is memorable in the his- tory of Europe for the destruction of the Parthe- non of Athens, the most wonderful combination of architecture and sculpture, and perhaps the most perfect work of art, which has yet been executed. Morosini [Venetian commander-in-chiet] now "[iii' August] proposed to attack Negrepont, as it was the key of continental Greece, and its cap- 620 ATtfENS, 1687-1688 Venetian Campaign against Turks ATHENS, 1687-1688 ture would have rendered the republic master of the whole country south of Thermopylae. His plan was opposed by the generals of the land forces, who all agreed in thinkins; that the season was too far advanced for an operation of such magnitude; and after much deliberation, it was determined to attack Athens, where it was thought that the army would find good winter-quarters. ... On the 2ist of September the Venetians en- tered the Piraeus, and Koenigsmark [in command of the land forces] encamped the same evening in the olive-grove near the sacred way to Eleusis. The army consisted of nearly ten thousand men, including eight hundred and seventy cavalry. The town of Athens was immediately occupied, and the siege of the Acropolis commenced. The at- tack was directed against the Propylaca, before which the Turks had constructed strong batteries. The Parthenon, and the temple of Minerva Polias, with its beautiful porticoes, were then nearly per- fect, as far as regarded their external architecture. Even the sculpture was so little injured by time, that it displayed much of its inimitable excellence. Two batteries were erected, one at the foot of the Museum, and the other near the Pnyx. Mortars were planted under cover of the Areopagus, but their fire proving uncertain, two more were placed under cover of the buildings of the town, near the north-east corner of (he rock, which threw their shells at a high angle, with a low charge, into the Acropolis. In the mean time the Othoman troops descended into the plain from Thebes and Negre- pont ; and Koenigsmark as had been the case at the siege of Coron, Navarin, and Nauplia, was compelled to divide his army to meet them. On the 25th of September a Venetian bomb blew up a small powder-magazine in the Propylaea, and on the following evening another fell in the Parthe- non, where the Turks had deposited all their most valuable effects, with a considerable quantity of powder and inflammable materials. A ter- rific explosion took place; the centre columns of the peristyle, the walls of the cella, and the im- mense architraves and cornices they supported, were scattered around the remains of the temple. Much of the unrivalled sculpture was defaced, and a part utterly destroyed. The materials heaped up in the building also took fire, and the flames, mounting high over the Acropolis, announced the calamity to the besiegers, and scathed many of the statues which still remained in their original positions. Though two hundred persons perished by this explosion, the Turks persisted in defend- ing the place until they saw the seraskier defeated in his attempt to relieve them on the 2Sth of Sep- tember. They then capitulated on being allowed to embark with their families for Smyrna in ves- sels hired at their own expense. On the 4th of October, two thousand five hundred persons of all ages, including five hundred men of the gar- rison, moved down to embark at the Piraeus. . . . Count Tomeo Pompei was the first Venetian com- mandant of the Acropolis. Athens was now a Venetian possession. The German troops remained in the town. One of the mosques near the ba- zaar was converted into a Lutheran church, and this first Protestant place of worship in Greece was opened on the iqth of October, 1687, by the regimental chaplain Bcithman. Another mosque in the lower part of the town, towards the temple of Theseus, was given to the Catholics, who pos- sessed also a monastery at the eastern end of the town, containing the choragic m.onument of Lysic- rates. ... A short time convinced the Venetian leaders that it would be impossible to retain pos- session of Athens. The plague, which was making great ravages in the Morea, showed itself in the 62 array. The seraskier kept two thousand cavalry at Thebes, and, by a judicious employment of his force, retained all Attica, with the exception of the plain of Athens, under his orders. The Venetians found it necessary to fortify the road to the Piraeus with three redoubts, in order to secure the communications of the garrison in Athens with the ships in the port. The departure of the Hanove- rians weakened the army, and in a council of war held on the 31st of December, it was resolved to evacuate Athens at the end of the winter, in order to concentrate all the troops for an attack on Negrepont. Lines were thrown across the isthmus of Munychia, to cover the evacuation and protect the naval camp, which could be distinctly traced until they were effaced by the construction of the new town of the Piraeus. It was also debated whether the walls of the Acropolis were to be destroyed; and perhaps their preservation, and that of the antiquities they enclose, is to be as- cribed to the circumstance that the whole atten- tion of the army was occupied by the increased duties imposed upon it by the sanitary measures requisite to prevent the ravages of the plague, and the difficulties created by the emigration of the Greek population of Athens. Between four and five thousand Athenians were compelled to abandon their native city and seek new homes in the Morea. Some were established at Vivares and Port Tolon, on the coast of Argolis, as colonists; the poorest were settled at Corinth, and others were dispersed in Aegina, Tinos, and Naupha. About five hundred Albanians, chiefiy collected among the peasantry of Corinth and Attica, were formed into a corps by the Venetians, but no Greeks could be induced to enter the army. The last act of Morosini at Athens was to carry away some monuments of ancient sculpture as trophies of his victory. An attempt was made to remove the statue of Neptune and the Chariot of Victory, which adorned the western pediment of the Parthe- non, but, in consequence of an oversight of the workmen employed, and perhaps partly in conse- quence of a flaw or crack in the marble, caused by the recent explosion, which destroyed a con- siderable part of the building, the whole mass of marble was precipitated to the ground, and so shivered to pieces by the fall that the fragments were not deemed worthy of transport. This mis- fortune to art occurred on the iqth of March, 1688. Instead of these magnificent figures from the hand of Phidias, Morosini was obliged to con- tent himself with four lions, which still adorn the entrance of the arsenal at Venice. One of these, taken from the Piraeus, is remarkable for its co- lossal size, its severe style, and two long in- scriptions, in runic characters, winding over its shoulders. The complete evacuation of Attica was at length effected. Six hundred and sixty-two families quitted their native city, and on the gth of .^pril the Venetians sailed to Poros. These records of the ruin of so much that interests the whole civilized world, awaken our curiosity to know something of the character and feelings of the modern Athenians, Greeks and Albanians, who then dwelt under the shadow of the Acropolis. Neither Morosini nor his German auxiliaries, though they joined in lamenting the destruction of the ancient marbles, seemed to think the modern Greeks deserving of much attention, merely be- cause they pretended to represent the countrymen of Pericles and still spoke Greek. Venetian states- men perceived the same degeneracy in their national character as German philologians discovered in their language. The Greek population, from its unwarlike disposition, was only an object of hu- manity; the Albanian peasantry, though a hardier ATHENS, 1896 ATLANTA and more courageous race, was not sufficiently numerous in the immediate vicinity of the city to be of much military importance. Yet, to a Hes- sian officer, Athens appeared a large and populous town, with its ten thousand inhabitants, and the Athenians were found to be a respectable and well-disposed people. But they were so com- pletely destitute of moral energy, that they were unable to take any part in the public events of which their city was the theatre. They had no voice to give utterance to their feelings, though Europe would have listened with attention to their words. Perhaps they had no feelings de- serving of utterance. Greece was thus the scene of important events, in which every nation in Europe acted a more prominent part than the Greeks." — G. Finlay, History of Greece, v. 5, pp. 182-189. — See also Turkey: 1684-1696. 1821-1829. — Greek revolution and war of in- dependence. — Capture by the Turks. See Greece: 1821-1829. 1835. — Modern capital. — Athens was made the capital of the new kingdom and from that date begins the history of the modern city. 1896. — Revival of Olympic games. — As the re- sult of a movement instituted in France by the Baron de Coubertin, an interesting attempt to give athletic sports the spirit and semblance of the ancient Olympic games was made at Athens in the spring of 1S96. A number of wealthy Greeks in different parts of the world joined gen- erously in the undertaking, one gentleman es- pecially, M. Averoff, of Alexandria, bearing the cost of a restoration in marble of the stadium at Athens, for the occasion. The games were held in April, from the 6th to the isth, ,ind were wit- nessed by a great number of people. Besides Greek competitors, there were forty-two from Germany, twenty-three from England, twenty-one from America, fifteen from France. The great event of the occasion was the long foot-race from Marathon to Athens, which was won by a young Greek. The United States consul at Athens, writing of the reconstruction of the ancient stadium for the games, described the work as follows: "The stadium may be described as an immense open air amphitheater constructed in a natural ravine, artificially filled in at the end. It is in the shape of an elongated horseshoe. The spectators, seated upon the sloping sides of the ravine, look down into the arena below, which is a little over 600 feet in length and about 100 feet wide at the widest part. . . . The stadium, as rebuilt for the games, will consist of (i) the arena, bounded by a marble curbing, surmounted by an iron railing adorned with Athenian owls; (2) a walk between this curbing and the first row of seats; (3) a low retaining wall of marble on which rests the first row of seals, the entire row bemg of marble; {4) the seats; (5) the underground tunnel. In addi- tion to these features there will be an imposing entrance, a surrounding wall at the top of the hill, and two supporting walls at the entrance. As far as possible, in the reconstruction of the stadium, the old portions will be used, where these are in a sufficient state of preservation, and an effort will be made to reproduce, as nearly as practicable, the ancient structure. The seats at present will not all be made of pentelic marble, as there is neither time nor money for such an undertaking. At the closed end of the arena, sev- enteen rows will be made of pentelic marble, as well as the first row all the way around. The remaining rows up to the first aisle are being con- structed of Piraeus stone. These will accommo- date 25,000 seated spectators. From this aisle to the top will be placed wooden benches for 30,000 seated spectators. Add to these standing room for 5,000, and we have the holding capacity of the stadium 60,000 without crowding." — United States consular reports, March, i8q6, pp. 353-354. Later history of Athens. See Greece: 1897 to 1920; also City planning: Greece. ATHERTON COMPANY. See Rhode Island: 1 660- 1 663. ATHERTON GAG. See U. S. A.: 1836: Ather- ton gag. ATHIES, a village northeast of Arras, France, captured by the British in 1917. See World War: 1917: II. Western front: c, 5. ATHIR. See Arabia: 1919: King of Hejaz. ATHLETICS: Ancient Greek teaching. See Education: Ancient: B.C. 7th-A. D. 3rd centuries: Greece. Ancient Persian training. See Education: An- cient: B. C. 7th-6th centuries: Persia. — See also Recreation. ATHLONE, Lord (Godart van Ginkel) (1630- 1703), Dutch soldier in the service of Marlborough. See Netherlands: i 702-1 704. ATHLONE, Siege of (1691). See Ireland: 1680 and Historical map. ATHOLL, earls and dukes of, a Scotch title which passed to the Murray line in 1O29. Atholl, John Stewart, 4t'h earl of (d. 1579). \ staunch Catholic, he opposed the Reformation in 1560, and was a supporter of Queen Mary in her attempts to reinstate Catholicism; com- bined with Argyll to gain influence at King James' court. Atholl, John Murray, 2nd earl and 1st mar- quess of (1631-1703). Supported Charles II, under whom he held office in Scotland; led the invasion of Scotland in 1684. Atholl, John Murray, 2nd marquess and 1st duke of (1660-1724). Supported the Revolution of 1688; opposed the Union 1705-1707. ATHOS, steamship torpedoed on February 17, 191 7, while carrying Chinese coolies and Senegalese troops, many of whom met death with exceptional bravery. ATHOS, Mount. See Chalcidice; Greece: B. C. 492-491. ATHRAVAS. See Macians. ATIMIA. — The penalty of Atimia, under ancient Athenian law, was the loss of civic rights. — G. F. Schomann, .Antiquities of Greece: The State, pt. 3, ch. 3. ATIMUCA INDIANS. See Timiquanan fam- ily: Tequestas. ATJEH. See Achin. ATKINSON, Sir Harry Albert (1831-1892), Premier of New Zealand. See New Zealand: 1876- 1890. ATLANTA, largest city and capital of the state of Georgia. A center of munition manufacture and supply depot during the Civil War. 1864 (May-September). — Sherman's advance to the city. — Its siege and capture. See U. S. A.: 1S64: (May-September; Georgia); (September-Oc- tober: Georgia). 1864 (September-November). — Removal of inhabitants. — Destruction of the city. See U. S. A.: 1864 {September-October: Georgia) ; (November-December: Georgia) . 1895. — Cotton states and International Expo- sition. — An important exposition, named as above, was held with great success at .Atlanta, Georgia, from the i8th of September until the end of the year 1895. The exhibits from Mexico and many of the Central and South .\merican states were exten- sive and interesting ; but the main interest and value of the exposition were in its showing of the industrial resources of the Southern states of the 622 ATLANTIC ATLANTIC OCEAN American Union, and of the recent progress made in developing them. 1921. — Organization of the Ku KIux Klan. See Ku Klux Klan: 192 i. ATLANTIC AND PACIFIC RAILROAD. See Arizona: 1864-1883. ATLANTIC CABLE: Laying of. See Elec- trical discovery: Telegraphy and telephony: Mod- ern telegraphy. ATLANTIC COAST LINE RAILWAY. Plan for consolidation. See R^vilroads: 1921: Twenty rail systems proposed. ATLANTIC FLEET, U. S. N., in World War. See World War: 1918: IX. Naval opera- tions: c. ATLANTIC OCEAN.— "Much as the Old World corresponds to the Pacific, so the two Ameri- cas correspond to the two basins of the Atlantic, and the Antarctic Sea to the Antarctic land. In the coast lines of the continents other points of correspondence reveal themselves. . . . The At- lantic shores . . . are low and shelving, except where they pass round the margins of high pla- teaux, or cut across mountain chains, of which the directions are rarely parallel to the shores. The islands are few and irregularly scattered instead of being hung in festoons. Moreover, both At- lantic shore lines follow the same course, as if moulded by the same influences; thus the Gulf of Guinea occurs opposite the projection of Brazil; the Mediterranean offset on the east corresponds to the Caribbean on the west ; the eastward reces- sion of Europe is followed by the eastward ad- vance of America." — H. R. Mill, International geography. — The Challenger expedition determined the area of the Atlantic Ocean to .be 24,536,000 square miles, and the greatest depthiti7,366 feet, at a point north of Porto Rico. The gt'eatest breadth is 4,500 miles; the mean depth of the North At- lantic is 2,047 fathoms, and that of the South Atlantic 2,067 fathoms. Ancient geography of the Atlantic. — "The Greeks as a whole before the Hellenistic age knew little of the Atlantic. For a long time their knowledge ceased absolutely at Gibraltar or, as the Greeks named it, the Pillars of Heracles. The name itself suggests that the early Greeks had only seen Gibraltar from the East: for the long ridge of the Rock, throwing out a tongue, or, as the Greeks called it elsewhere, a Dog's Tail, into the strait, looks anything but a pillar to seamen ap- proaching from the West. Then stray traders were blown by the Levanter through the funnel of the straits, past Trafalgar, into the bay of Cadiz, and discovered the 'virgin market' of Tarshish on the Guadalquivir. But beyond Cape St. Vincent they knew nothing at all; even Heracles got no further than Geryon's island in Cadiz Bay ; 'man cannot sail into the darkness West of Cadiz; turn back the ship to the land of Europe,' says Pindar, as one of his many ways of breaking off a long tale. Herodotus had heard stories of tin being brought from the Tin Islands, but he could find out noth- ing definite. Moreover it is signilicant that he tells us of two different pioneering companies who found their way to Tartessus — the Phocaeans and the Samian Coleaus. This is probably not because, as with the North Pole, there was a competition for the honour of discovery, but because the route was so hazardous that communications had not been properly kept up. It was, however, not only the difficulty 01* the Gibraltar passage but the competition of Carthage which kept Greeks out of the Atlantic. The Carthaginians traded all along the nearer coasts of the Atlantic, both in Spain and Africa. They had rounded the Cape of Good Hope and sailed far into the Northern sea for the tin of Cornwall and the Scillies. A Carthaginian account of the West African route is extant fn Greek — the so-called Itinerary of Hanno. It was of course to the interest of the Carthaginians, as of all pioneer sea powers, to keep their voyages secret and to exaggerate their danger. It was a long time before their next rivals, the Romans, found their way to the British tin mines. The geographer Strabo has an interesting passage about this British trade and how its monopoly was safe- guarded: — "The Tin Islands," he says, 'are ten in number. . . . One of them is desert, but the others are inhabited by men in black cloaks, clad in tunics reaching to the feet, girt about the breast and walking with sticks, like Furies in a tragedy. They subsist by their cattle, leading for the most part a wandering life. Of the metals they have tin and lead, which with skins they barter with the merchants for earthenware, salt, and brazen vessels. Formerly the Phoenicians alone carried on this traffic from Gades, concealing the passage from every one; and when the Romans followed a certain skipper in order to discover the market for themselves, the skipper purposely ran his ves- sel on to a shoal, luring the Romans to the same fate. He himself escaped on a piece of wreckage and received from the State the value of the cargo he had lost. Nevertheless the Romans persevered until they discovered the passage.' " — Zimmern, Greek commonwealth, pp. 21-22. — "Nor is it likely that the Atlantic Ocean is divided into two seas of narrow isthmuses so placed as to prevent cir- cumnavigation ; how much more probable that it is confluent and uninterrupted ! Those who have returned from an attempt to circumnavigate the earth, do not say they have been prevented from continuing their voyage by an opposing continent, for the sea remained perfectly open, but through want of resolution, and the scarcity of provision." — Strabo. — "In one of his digressions Herodotus has communicated to us his conception of the gen- eral features of the world. ... He considered that the ocean extended continuously from the coast of India to that of Spain ; this he regarded as suf- ficiently proved by two expeditions, which had accomplished between them the entire circum- navigation of the intervening continent. One of these was the voyage of Seylax of Caryanda. . . . The other was the expedition which was des- patched by Necho from Egypt to explore the coast of Africa, and had succeeded in reaching the Pillars of Hercules by the southern route. The first part of this sea to the eastward of Africa, which we now call the Indian Ocean, was known to him as the Erythraean Sea, while that to the west he names the Atlantic — an appellation which here occurs for the first time, though he implies that it was already in familiar use." — H. F. Tozer, History of ancient geography, p. 80. — See also Commerce: Era of geographic expansion. Transatlantic steamers, cables, airplanes. — The first steamer to cross the Atlantic was the Savannah, which made the trip in May and June of i8iq. The first successful transatlantic cable was laid in August, 1857. The second was laid in June, 1858. but proved a failure. The first mes- sages passed on August 5, 1858, between President Buchanan and Queen Victoria. "On May 17 [igig] the United States flying-boats N. C. i, 3, and 4 . . . started from Trepassey, Newfoundland, for the Azores. . . . Only one, the N. C. 4, reached the Azores, at Horta. . . . The R. 34 (a British rigid airship of the Zeppelin type) . . . left East For- tune (Scotland) on July 2 [iqiq]. . . . She crossed the Atlantic . . . and landed at Mineola. . . . On July 10 she started for home, and . . . returned to Pulham, Norfolk." — New Hazell's Annual and Al- 623 ATLANTIS ATTELBURG manack, ig2o, p. 766. — See also AviAnoN: Impor- tant flights since igoo: ipio; 1919. ATLANTIS, a fabled island in the Atlantic Ocean, mentioned in the "Timaeus" of Plato. He describes it as having been a large and powerful kingdom some nine thousand years before the birth of Solon ; the entire land was supposed to have since been overwhelmed by the sea. Plato in the Critias gives a history of this reputed ideal com- monwealth. From ancient until modern times many similar legends have been current in West- ern Europe, and some writers have believed them to have a basis of fact. ATLAS MOUNTAINS. See Africa; Geo- graphic description. ATOKA AGREEMENT. See Indians, Amer- ican: 1893-1809. ATOMIC THEORY. See Chejustrv: Mod- ern: Lavoisier; Science: 20th century: Physics. Disintegration theory. See Chemistry: Radio- activity: Thorium. ATRANI. See Amalfi. ATREBATES.— This name was borne by a tribe in ancient Belgic Gaul, which occupied mod- ern Artois and part of French Flanders, and, also. by a tribe or group of tribes in Britain, which dwelt in a region between the Thames and the Severn. The latter was probably a colony from the former. See Belg.e; also Britain: Celtic tribes. ATRIA. See Adria. ATRIUM, in Roman houses an entrance court open to the sky, but surrounded by a covered ambulatory or walk. In early Christian architec- ture, a similar entrance court in front of churches. Noted examples may be found in the churches of St. Ambrogio of Milan, St. Peter's and St. Sophia. — C. H. Caf&n, How to study architecture, p. 480. ATROCITIES: In World War. See Belgium: 1914-igiS; World War: 1916: X. German rule in northern France and Belgium: a; miscellaneous auxiliary services: X. Alleged atrocities and viola- tions of international law; also e; XI. Devasta- tion: c. ATROPATENE, MEDIA ATROPATENE. — "Atropatene, as a name for the .Alpine land in the northwest of Iran (now .-^derbeijan), came into use in the time of the Greek Empire [.•\lex- ander's] ; at any rate we cannot trace it earlier. 'Athrapaiti' means 'lord of fire;' 'Athrapata,' 'one protected by fire;' in the remote mountains of this district the old fire-worship was preserved with peculiar zeal under the Seleucids." — M. Duncker, History of antiquity, bk. 7, ch. 4. — .\tropatene "comprises the entire basin of Lake Urumiyeh, together with the country intervening between that basin and the high mountain chain which curves round the southwestern corner of the Caspian." — G. Rawlinson, Five great monarchies : Media, ch. I. — Atropatene was "named in honour of the satrap Atropates, who had declared himself king after Alexander's death." — J. P. Mahaffy, Story of Alexander's empire, ch. 13. ATSINA INDIANS. See Blackfeet or Sik- SIEAS. AT-TABARI, Arabic historian. See History: 21. ATTABEGS. See Atabegs. ATTACAPAN FAMILY.— "DerivaUon: From a Choctaw word meaning 'man cater.' Little is known of the tribe, the language of which forms the basis of the present family. The sole knowl- edge possessed by Gallatin was derived from a vocabulary and some scanty information furnished by Dr. John Sibley, who collected his material in the year 1805. Gallatin states that the tribe was reduced to 50 men Mr. Gatschet collected some 2,000 words and a considerable body of text. His vocabulary differs considerably from the one furnished by Dr. Sibley and published by Galla- tin. . . . The above material seems to show that the .Attacapa language is distinct from all others, except possibly the Chitimachan." — J. W. Powell, Seventh annual report, Bureau of ethnology, p. 57. — See also Indians, .American: Cultural areas in North America: Southeastern area. ATTACOTTI. See Britain; Celtic tribes. ATTAINDER, BILL OF ATTAINDER.— "An attainder ('attinctura') is a degradation or pub- lic dishonouring, which draws after it corruption of blood. It is the consequence of any condemna- tion to death, and induces the disherison of the heirs of the condemned person, which can only be removed by means of parliament. A bill of at- tainder, or of pains and penalties, inflicts the con- sequences of a penal sentence on any state criminal. ... By the instrumentality of such bill the penalties of high treason are generally imposed. Penalties may, however, be imposed at pleasure, either in accordance with, or in contravention of, the common law. No other court of law can protect a person condemned in such manner. The first bill of the kind occurred under Edward IV., when the commons had to confirm the statute con- demning Clarence to death. This convenient meth- od of getting rid of disagreeable opponents was in high favour during the reign of Henry VIII. . . . What had been an instrument of kingly des- potism, under Tudor sway, was converted, under the Stuarts, into a parliamentary engine against the crown. The points of indictment against Straf- ford were so. weak that the lords were for ac- quitting hinj ■ Thereupon, Sir Arthur Haselrig introduced a bill of attainder in the commons. The staunch friends of freedom, such as Pym and Hampden, did not support this measure. A bill of attainder may refer simply to a concrete case, and contrive penalties for acts which are not spe- cially punishable by statute, whereas an impeach- ment applies to some violation of recognized legal principles, and is a solemn indictment preferred by the commons to the house of lords." — E. Fischel, English constitution, bk. 7, ch. g. — "By the 33 &. 34 Vict. c. 23, forfeiture and attainder for treason or felony have been abolished." — T. P. Taswell- Langmead. English constitutional history, from the Teutonic conquest to the present time, ch. 10, id ed., p. 393, foot-note. — By the constitution of the United States both Congress and the states are prohibited from passing a bill of attainder. Con- gress is given power to punish treason, but it is provided that "no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood." The bill of attainder is ob- jectionable in that legislative bodies are likely to be moved by popular clamor, whereas in regular court procedure a decision is reached on the basis of evidence submitted. ATTALUS, the name of several kings of Per- gamum. See Pergamum. Attalus I (269-197 B.C.). Made himself mas- ter of Asia Minor west of Mt. Taurus, ally of Philip V of Macedon against Rome. Attalus II (220-138 B.C.). Sent as ambassa- dor to Rome before becoming king ; founded Phila- delphia and Attalia. Attalus III (171-133 B.C.), a patron of art and literature; his will made the Roman people his heirs. ATTAMAN, or Hetman. See Cossacks. ATTECOTTI. See Ottadint; also, Britain: Celtic tribes. ATTELBURG, early Hungarian city. See Hungary- : 896. 624 ATTHIS ATTORNEY-GENERAL ATTHIS, an historical work by Hellanicus of Mytilene. See History: 16. ATTIAD.^, the first dynasty of the Icings of Lydia, claimed to be sprung from Attis, son of the god Manes. — M. Dunclcer, History oj antiquity, bk. 4, ch. 17. ATTIC SALT.— Thyme was a favorite con- diment among the ancient Greeks, "which throve nowhere else so well as in Attica. Even salt was seasoned with thyme. Attic salt, however, is famed rather in the figurative than in the literal sense, and did not form an article of trade." — G. F. Schomann, Antiquities oj Greece: The State, pt. 3, ch. 3. ATTIC TALENT. See Talent. ATTIC TRIBES. See Phylae; Phratriae; Gentes. ATTIC WAR. See Ten Years' War; also Athens: B. C. 421. ATTICA. — "It forms a rocky peninsula, sepa- rated from the mainland by trackless mountains, and jutting so far out into the Eastern Sea that it lay out of the path of the tribes moving from north to south. Hence the migratory passages which agitated the whole of Hellas left Attica un- touched, and for this reason Attic history is not divided into such marked epochs as that of Pelo- ponnesus; it possesses a superior unity, and pre- sents an uninterrupted development of conditions of life native in their origin to the land. . . . On the other hand Attica was perfectly adapted by nature for receiving immigrants from the sea. For the whole country, as its name indicates, consists of coast-land; and the coast abounds in harbours, and on account of the depth of water in the roads is everywhere accessible; while the best of its plains open towards the coast. . . . Into the centre of the entire p'lin advances from the direction of Hymettus a group of rocky heights, among them an entirely separate and mighty block which, with the exception of a narrow access from the west, offers on all sides vertically precipitous walls, sur- mounted by a broad level sufficiently roomy to afford space for the sanctuaries of the national gods and the habitations of the national rulers. It seems as if nature had designedly placed this rock in this position as the ruling castle and the centre of the national history. This is the Acropolis of Athens. ... So far from being sufficiently luxuri- ant to allow even the idle to find easy means of sustenance, the Attic soil was stony, devoid of a sufficient supply of water, and for the most part only adapted to the cultivation of barley ; every- where . . . labour and a regulated industry were needed. But this labour was not unremunerative. Whatever orchard and garden fruits prospered were peculiarly delicate and agreeable to the taste ; the mountain-herbs were nowhere more odorous than on Hymettus; and the sea abounded with fish. The mountains not only by the beauty of their form invest the whole scenery with a certain no- bility, but in their depths lay an abundance of the most excellent building-stone and silver ore; in the lowlands was to be found the best kind of clay for purposes of manufacture. The materials existed for all arts and handicrafts; and finally Attica rejoiced in what the ancients were wise enough to recognize as a special favour of Heaven, a dry and transparent atmosphere. . . . The im- migrants who domesticated themselves in Attica were . . . chiefly families of superior eminence, so that Attica gained not only in numbers of popula- tion, but also in materials of culture of every de- scription." — E. Curtius, History oj Greece, bk. 2, ch. 2. — See also Athens: B.C. 1000-700; Greece: Map of ancient Greece. Also in: J. I. Lockhart, Attica and Athens. B.C. 429-427. — Peloponnesian War. See Greece: B.C. 431-429; 429-427; 413. B.C. 427. — Invasion by Athens. See Athens: B.C. 428-427. 1205-1308,— Rule by Otto de la Roche. See Athens: 1205-1308. 1688. — Evacuated by Venetians. See Athens: 1687-1688. ATTICO-ARGIVE ALLIANCE. See Greece: B.C. 458-456. ATTILA (d. 4S3), king of the Huns, called "the scourge of God." Invaded Gaul in 451, was stopped by the Visigoths under Theodoric at the battle of Chalons; in the next year invaded Italy, driving many people into the lagoons of the Adri- atic, where they founded Venice; was persuaded to turn back by Pope Leo I.— See also Balkan States: Races existing r Barbarian invasions: 423- 455; Europe: Ethnology: Migrations: Map show- ing Barbaric migrations ; Huns: 433-453 to 453 ; Venice: 452. ATTIWANDARONKS. See Iroquois con- federacy. ATTORNEY-GENERAL, chief law officer of the state. — "Of all the great offices established in 17S9 [United States], that of the Attorney-Gen- eral was in some respects the least satisfactory in its organization. . . . The office was an innova- tion in connection with that government. But the incumbent, recognized as legal adviser to the President and the heads of departments, was in- evitably brought within the range of executive control, and became, like the Secretaries, a min- isterial officer. When, in 1790, Edmund Randolph, first of the Attorneys-General, wrote of himself as 'a sort of mongrel between the State and U. S.; called an officer of some rank under the latter, and yet thrust out to get a hvelihood in the for- mer,' he cast no doubtful reflection on the status and relation of his position. He knew that he was head of no department. Moreover, his salary of fifteen hundred dollars was so small that prob- ably he could not have been expected to support himself by it. He was obliged to trust to legal practice to eke out a living. There is no evidence to indicate that he was even expected to remain at the seat of government, although he was obliged to keep in touch with the President, at least by occasional correspondence. And, should the fed- eral business warrant it, the President might sum- mon him to a conference with the Secretaries. He was certainly reckoned an adviser in legal mat- ters by Washington from the start. The place and functions of the Attorney-General remained for many years after 1789 subjects of reflection on the part of thoughtful men. Several Presidents, beginning with James Madison, urged reform In the office, although apparently having no clear no- tions at first as to what measures of reform were needed. The Attorneys-General themselves were helpful in the solution of the problem, none more so than William Wirt and Caleb Gushing. The problem became clearer under the stress of num- erous circumstances in the growth and require- ments of federal administration. By the close of the Civil War it was forced into the foreground ; and Congress, acting in 1870 after long delibera- tion, established the office on a new footing, giving the Attorney-General a place as head of the de- partment of justice. The act of 1870, it should be added, made no change in law as to the duty of the Attorney-General in giving official opinions and advice. 'The Attorney-General,' said Monroe, 'has been always, since the adoption of our Gov- ernment, a member of the executive council, or cabinet. For that reason as well as for a better discharge of his other official duties, it is proper 625 ATTORNEY-GENERAL AUBAINE that he should reside at the seat of Government. . . . His duties in attending the cabinet delibera- tions are equal to those of any other member. . . . Being at the Seat of Government throughout the year,' Monroe continued, 'his labors are increased by giving opinions to the different Departments and public officers. . . . Being on the spot, it may be supposed that he will often be resorted to ver- bally in the progress of current business. Such is the fact.' Then turning to another aspect of the theme. Monroe declared: 'The present Attorney- General (Richard Rush) has not embarked in the practice of the local courts of the city of Wash- ington. The practice is, in itself, of little moment ; to engage in it upon a scale to make it, in any degree, worth his attention, would be incompatible with the calls to which he is liable from the Ex- ecutive, and the investigations due to other official engagements.' Monroe knew that the office had been shabbily treated at the hands of Congress, for after calling attention to the facts that it had no apartment for business, no clerk, and not even a messenger, he added that it had had neither stationery nor fuel. 'These have been supplied,' he concluded, 'by the officer himself, at his own e.xpense.' Monroe's letter is an extraordinarily in- teresting and authoritative commentary on the primitive conditions that surrounded an officer of some rank in the national government of 1817. It came from the most experienced and tried ad- ministrative official serving Madison, for Monroe had held both the office of Secretary of State and that of Secretary of War, sometimes sustaining them together for brief periods during the six years preceding. It revealed a man thoroughly prepared to appreciate the need of a capable oc- cupant of the office. Although it took Monroe some time to select his Attorney-General, he had good reason, as we shall presently see, to feel by the close of his administration as President great satisfaction over his choice. William Wirt of Vir- ginia accepted the post of Attorney-General of- fered him by President Monroe late in October, 1817, with a clear understanding that there was nothing in the duties of his office to prevent him from carrying on general practice in Washington, where he took up his residence, or from attending occasional calls to Baltimore, Philadelphia or else- where, if time allowed. He knew, however, that his first obligation was to Monroe and to the regular duties of his new position. Wirt began with an examination of the Judiciary Act of Sep- tember 24, 178Q. There tbe duties of the At- torney-General were briefly set forth. They had not been more clearly elaborated in any later enactment. Wirt next sought for the records of opinions as given by his predecessors in the office — for letter-books, official correspondence and documentary evidence, but could not find a trace of these. .■Vccordingly he concluded that there could have been neither consistency in the opinions nor uniformity in the practices of the Attorneys- General. He indicated that in various ways he had discovered that his forerunners had been called on for opinions from many sources — committees of Congress, district attorneys, collectors of cus- toms and of public taxes, marshals, and even courts-martial. Clearly these practices went far beyond the provisions of law. Resting on cour- tesy merely, they impress Wirt as dangerous. It was his opinion that 'from the connection of the Attorney-General with the executive branch of the government ... his advice and opinions, given as Attorney-General, will have an official influence, beyond, and independent of, whatever intrinsic merit they may possess; and whether it be sound policy to permit thb officer or any other under the government, even on the application of others, to extend the influence of his office beyond the pale of law, and to cause it to be felt, where the laws have not contemplated that it should be felt, is the point which I beg leave to submit.' The con- clusions which Wirt drew may be summarized. First, and above all things, provision should be made in law for keeping the records and preserv- ing the documents of the office. This would make for consistency of opinions and uniformity of prac- tices. Second, there should be a depository in the office of the Attorney-General for the statutes of the various States, statutes which might be needed at short notice for aid in solving legal problems. In this matter Wirt was asking simply for a special library to facilitate his work. Finally, he sug- gested that legal restrictions be placed on the duties of the officer for the obvious reason that one man could not find time to perform the work if he were obliged to attend to such miscellaneous calls as had been made upon the time and energy of his predecessors. There is good reason to be- lieve that Caleb Gushing was the first Attorney- General of the United States who held himself strictly to the residence obligation — an ideal, as we have seen, that had been gaining ground since 1814 — and refrained from the general practice of the law during his term as a federal officer. At any rate, many of Cushing's suggestions for a bet- ter organization of the work of the Attorney- General were enacted into the laws between March, 1854 — 'he date of his 'Opinion' — and June, 1870. when the Attorney-General was named in the law as head of the Department of Justice. The act of 1870 brought the solicitors in the various depart- ments under the ultimate control of the Attorney- General. Whatever official opinions these solicitors might be called upon to give, must henceforth be recorded in the office of the Attorney-General There, before they could become the executive law for the guidance of inferior officials, these opinions were stamped with the .Attorney-General's final approval. 'It is,' asserted Representative Jenckes, 'for the purpose of having a unity of decision, a unity of jurisprudence, if I may use that ex- pression, in the executive law of the United States, that this bill proposes that all the law officers therein provided for shall be subordinate to one head.' The act made provision for the creation of one new law officer of large importance — the So- licitor-General of the United States. It was pro- posed to have in this new position 'a man of suf- ficient learning, ability and experience that he can be sent to New Orleans or to New York, or into any court wherever the Government has any in- terest in litigation, and there present the case of the United States as it should be presented.' The express language of the law required him to be 'learned in the law' — a requirement that had or- iginally, in the law of 1789, been exacted of the Attorney-General, but for some unknown reason was omitted in the law of 1870, so far as the latter officer was concerned. By an act approved on January iq, 1886, the Attorney-General was defi- nitely reckoned as fourth in the line of possible succession to the Presidency in case of the re- moval, death, resignation or disability of Presi- dent and \'ice-Prcsident." — H. B. Learned, PreH- drnt's cabinet, pp. 150-100. — The salaries of the attorney-general and of the solicitor-general are $12,000 and $10,000 respectively. — See also Jus- tice, Department of. — The salary of the attor- ney-general in England is £7,000 ($35,000). His office is one of great authority and dignity, and as chief law officer of the Crown he is nominal head of the bar. AUBAINE, Right of.— ".A prerogative by 626 AUBE AUDIENCIAS which the Kings of France claimed the property of foreigners who died in their kingdom without being naturahzed." It was suppressed by Colbert, in the reign of Louis XIV. — J. A. Blanqui, History of political economy in Europe, p. 285. AUBE, Hyacinthe Laurent Th6ophile (1826- 1890), French admiral, an advocate of a torpedo system. See Submarines: 1914-1918. AUBER, Daniel Franjois Esprit (1783-1871), French operatic composer. In 1842 he succeeded Cherubini as head of the Conservatoire and in 1857 was imperial choir master to Napoleon III. He is often spoken of as the last of the masters of the old opera comique. See Music; Modern: 1730- i8i6. AUBERIVE, a village on the Suippe river, southeast of Rheims. It was captured by the French during World War. See World War: 1915: II. Western front: i, 8; also 1917: II. Western front: b, 1. AUBERS, a village in northern France, south- west of Lille. It was captured by the Allies 1914. See World War: 1914: I. Western front: w, 2. AUBIGNE, Theodore Agrippa d' (1550-1630), French Huguenot poet. See French literature: 1552-1610. AUBIGNY, Robert Stuart (d. 1544), French general under Louis XII. See Italy: 1499-1500; 1501-1504. AUBIGNY, a village of northern France, north- west of .\rras. It was taken by the Germans in 1918. See World War: 1918: II. Western front: c, 11. AUBRIOT, Hughes (d. 1382), Provost of Pans. See Bastille. AUBURN PRISON, New York. See Prison reform: Results of prison reform movement. A. U. C, or U. C. (Ab urbe condita), from the founding of the city ; or "Anno urbis conditje," the year from the founding of the city of Rome, 753 B. C. — See also Chronolocy: Era of the foundation of Rome. AUCH: Origin of the name. Sse Aquitaine: Ancient tribes. AUCHMUTY, Sir Samuel (1756-1822), Brit- ish general ; served as loyalist in the War of the American Revolution ; served in India, Egypt and in the disastrous Buenos Aires expedition in 1806- 1807; in command at Madras, 1810, and of the Java expedition in 1811, when he practically con- quered the island. AUCKLAND, George Eden, earl of (1784- 1849), an English statesman; took his seat in House of Lords, 1814; appointed governor-gen- eral of India, 1835, and in 1846 first lord of the admiralty. Auckland, New Zealand, was named after him. — See also Afghanistan; India: 1836- 1845- Auckland, city and former capital of New Zealand (until 1865) ; on Waitemate Inlet, a beau- tiful and commodious harbor; settled in 1840, now chief port of the Dominion. It has a college, form- ing part of the University of New Zealand, and there is a large freight and passenger traffic with England, Australia and the United States. See .Australia: Map; Labor strikes and boycotts: 1906-1913; New Zealand: Land; and 1850- i85S- AUDENARDE. See Oudenarde. AUDIENCIAS.— "For more than two cen- turies and a half the whole of South America, ex- cept Brazil, settled down under the colonial gov- ernment of Spain, and during the greater part of that time this vast territory was under the rule of the Viceroys of Peru residing at Lima. The im- possibility of conducting an efficient administra- tion from such a centre ... at once became ap- parent. Courts of justice called Audiencias were, therefore, established in the distant provinces, and their presidents, sometimes with the title of cap- tains-general, had charge of the executive under the orders of the Viceroys. The Audiencia of Charcas (the modern Bolivia) was established in ISS9- [See Bolivia: 1533-1809.] Chile was ruled by captains-general, and an Audiencia was estab- lished at Santiago in 1568. [See Chile: 1568.] In New Grenada the president of the Audiencia, created in 1564, was also captain-general. The Audiencia of Quito, also with its president as cap- tain-general, dated from 1542; and Venezuela was under a captain-general."— C. R. Markham, Co- lonial history of South America (Narrative and Critical History of America, v. 8, p. 295). — "It was during the great Christian conquests of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, that a definite judiciary culminating in a royal audiencia was perfected. This was a period of royal consolidation and centralization. The nobles conceded the majority of their governmental prerogatives to the increas- ing royal authority, and the ecclesiastical jurisdic- tion was confined, in theory at least, to spiritual matters. The municipalities developed a system by which they regularly elected their regidores (councillors) and their alcaldes, (q.v.), with ju- dicial, legislative, and executive attributes, sub- mitting at the same time to the inspection of the King's visitor. It is clear, therefore, that the royal jurisdiction was recognized during this period, with the king at the head of the judicial and administrative system. This tribunal was called an audiencia because the king gave audi- ence therein, and from it and around it developed the centralized system which was later to ad- minister justice in Spain and in the colonies. It first exercised jurisdiction in Castile and Leon, and later in Andalusia. The king gave three days a week of his personal attention to this tribunal at first. It was the royal audiencia. The time soon arrived, however, when he could not devote so much of his time to matters of individual jus- tice, and in proportion as this was the case did the powers and importance of the judges who composed this court increase. Ferdinand VI. and Alfonso XI. were able to give one day a week to the audiencia, in 1307 and 1329 re- spectively. The creation and growth of judicial and administrative institutions in Catalonia were parallel with those of Castile. The eleventh cen- tury saw audiencias, municipalities, and above all, a powerful nobility, but this province was inde- pendent of Castile during a period of four cen- turies. The audiencias of Catalonia were com- posed of ecclesiastical and secular judges appointed by the counts of Barcelona, and authorized by them to render sentence. Without going into further detail with regard to matters of provincial administration, in Spain, it is sufficient to say that certain institutions of justice and administration developed in common throughout the Peninsula, and that by the end of the thirteenth century po- litical and judicial administration had come to be controlled by a central authority whether in Castile or in Catalonia. In the Ordinance of Toro, in 1369, we find mention of four grades or in- stances for the administration of justice in Spain. The lowest category was occupied by the alcaldes ordinarios of the municipalities. W'e have noted already that these were local judges, with origi- nal jurisdiction, and dependent on the municipal councils. The merinos exercised royal and origi- nal jurisdiction in certain feudal districts and provinces where there were no municipalities. The adelantados (q.v.) heard appeals from the marines and alcaldes mayores.. These officials, it must be 627 AUDIENCIAS AUGURS remembered, exercised administrative functions as well as judicial authority, and for the latter work they were accompanied by asesores, or legal assis- tants. The next step in the hierarchy of justice and administration was occupied by the adelan- lados mayores who stood between the adelantados, on the one hand, and the king's tribunal on the other. The king and royal audieiicia constituted the final court of appeal."— C. H. Cunningham, In- stitutional background of Spanish-American his- tory, pp. 28-31. "The perfectly normal and obvious thing to do, when it is desired to tie the hands of a gov- ernor or viceroy, is to impose upon that official a body of responsible colleagues, which English- speaking people call a council. Such a body was imposed upon the viceroy of New Spain (Mexico) early in the sixteenth century, under the name of an audiencia, and in order to guar- antee the independence of this body it was al- lowed to correspond directly with the home gov- ernment without the viceroy as an intermediary. As a further means of holding the viceroy to his duty, the well-known method of taking official account of his administration was accomplished through the institution known as a residencia. This was in substance a trial conducted by the crown with the intent of bringing to light any malpractices of which the retiring viceroy might have been guilty during his official term. It was not only a means of setting right any wrongdoing or injustice which could be remedied after such a lapse of time, but it was also regarded as giv- ing a significant warning to possible future violators of the law. This combination of the audiencia and the residencia constituted the ap- proved method of keeping the viceroy well in hand; but it had broken down utterly by the middle of the eighteenth century, when the re- forms inaugurated by Galvez brought about a com- plete readjustment of the relations of the viceroy to his superiors in Madrid and to his colleagues and subordinates in Mexico." — D. E. Smith, Viceroy of New Spain, v. I, pp. 108-109. — For re-establishment in Philippines, see Philippine Islands: 1581. — See aiso Adelantados; Alcales; Peru: 1550-1816. AUDIFFRET-PASOUIER, Edm6 Armand Gaston, due d' (1823-1005), French statesman. In 1873 became president of the right centei in the National Assembly; directed negotiations among the royalists to re-establish the kingdom, but failed; president of the Senate 1876-1879; tried to dissuade MacMahon from following ad- vice of the extreme royalists. AUDION, in wireless telegraphy. See Elec- trical discovery: Telephony and telegraphy: Dr. Pupin's revolutionarv improvement. AUDRAN, Gerard, or Girard (1640-1703), the most celebrated French engraver. "Constantine's battle with Maxentius," the "Triumph" and the "Stoning of Stephen" are among his most noted works. AUDUBON, John James (1785-1851;, Ameri- can naturalist. Studied drawing under the French painter, David; settled in Philadelphia and later in Kentucky and Louisiana, devoting himself to collecting and sketching birds; in London, in 1827, he published Birds of America, a very beautiful set of colored plates in eighty-seven parts. AUERSTADT, Battle of. See Germany: 1806 (October). AUFFENBERG, Moritz von (1852- ), Aus- trian commander of the armies in central and east- ern Galicia at the beginning of the World War. After his defeat at Lemberg (September 1-3, 1914) and at Rawa Ruska (September 10) the whole Aus- tro-Hungarian offensive collapsed. See World War: 1914: II. Eastern front: b; d, 1. AUGEREAU, Pierre Frangois Charles (1757- 1S16), duke of Castiglione, marshal of the Empire. One of Napoleon's most skillful generals, especially during the years 1797-1807. See France: 1797 (September); Germany: 1806 (October); Spain: 1809 (February-June); and Russia: 1812 (June -September) . AUGHRIM, or Aghrim, Battle of (1691). See Ireland: 1689-1691. AUGIER, Emile (1820-1889), French dramatist See French literature: 1850-1921. AUGSBURG, Bavarian town situated on the junction of Wertach and Lech riveis, and capital of the districts of Swabia and Neuberg. It was founded in 14 B. C. and reached the height of its power at the close of the 14th century. Al the time of the Reformation it was the com- mercial center between north and south Europe, but the change in the trade routes, resulting from the discoveries of the 15th and i6th centuries, and the devastations of the Thirty Years war, de- stroyed its prosperity. — See also Augusta Vindeli- corum; Hansa towns. 955. — Great defeat of the Hungarians. Sec Hungarians: 934-955- 16th century. — Art center. See Painting: Ger- man. 1530. — Sitting of the Diet. — Signing and read- ing of the Protestant Confession of Faith. — See Lutheran Church; Lutherans in America; and Papacy, 1530-1531. 1530. — Imperial decree condemning the Prot- estants. See Papacy: 1530-1532. 1555. — Religious peace concluded. See Ger- many: 1552-1561. 1646. — Unsuccessful siege by Swedes and French. See Germany: 1646-1648. 1686-1697. — League and the War of the League. See Germany: 1686; and France: 1689- 1690 to 1695-1606. 1703. — Taken by the French. See Germany: 1703. 1801-1803. — One of six free cities which sur- vived the Peace of Luneville. See Cities, Im- perial and free, of Germany; Germany: 1801- 1803. 1806. — Loss of municipal freedom. — Absorp- tion in the kingdom of Bavaria. See Germany. 1805-1806. AUGSBURG INTERIM. See Germany: 1546- 1552. AUGURS, PONTIFICES, FETIALES.— "There was . . . enough of priesthood and of priests in Rome. Those, however, who had busi- ness with a god resorted to the god, and not to the priest. Every suppliant and inquirer ad- dressed himself directly to the divinity . . . ; no intervention of a priest was allowed to conceal or to obscure this original and simple relation. But it was no easy matter to hold converse with a god. The god had his own way of speaking, which was intelligible only to those acquainted with it; but one who did rightly understand it knew not only how to ascertain, but also how to manage, the will of the god, and even in case of need to overreach or to constrain him. It was natural, therefore, that the worshipper of the god should regularly consult such men of skill and listen to their advice; and thence arose the corporations or colleges of men specially skilled in religious lore, a thoroughly national Italian institution, which had a far more, im- portant influence on political development than the individual priests or priesthoods. These col- leges have been often, but erroneously, confounded with the priesthoods. The priesthoods were charged 628 AUGUSTA AUGUSTUS with the worship of a specific divinity. . . . Un- der the Roman constitution and that of the Latin communities in general there were originally but two such colleges: that of the augurs and that of the pontifices. The six augurs were skilled in interpreting the language of the gods from the flight of birds; an art which was prosecuted with great earnestness and reduced to a quasi- scientific system. The five 'bridge builders' (pontifices) derived their name from their social function, as sacred as it was politically impor- tant, of conducting the building and demolition of the bridge over the Tiber. They were the Roman engineers, who understood the mystery of measures and numbers; whence there developed upon them also the duties of managing the cal- endar of the state, of proclaiming to the people the time of new and full moon and the days of festivals, and of seeing that every religious and every judicial act took place on the right day. . . . Thus they acquired (although not probably to the full extent till after the abolition of the monarchy) the general oversight of Roman wor- ship and of whatever was connected with it. [The president of their college was called the Pontifex Maximus.] . . . They themselves described the sum of their knowledge as 'the science of things divine and human.' ... By the side of these two oldest and most eminent corporations of men versed in spiritual lore may be to some extent ranked the college of the twenty state-heralds (fetiales, of uncertain derivation) destined as a living repository to preserve traditionally the re- membrance of the treaties concluded with neigh- boring communities, to pronounce as authoritative opinion on alleged infractions of treaty rights, and in case of need to demand satisfaction and de- clare war." — T. Mommsen, History of Rome, bk. I, ch. 12. — See also Annals: Roman annals; Aus- pices; Fetiales; and Haruspices. Also in: E. Guhl and W. Koner, Life of the Greeks and Romans, sect. 103. AUGUSTA, Roman. See London: 4th century: Roman Augusta and its walls. AUGUSTA SUESSIONUM. See Soissons. AUGUSTA TREVIRORUM. See Treves, Origin of. AUGUSTA VEROMANDUORUM: Modern St. Quentin. See Belct,. AUGUSTA VICTORIA FREDERICA FEO- DORA JENNY (i8s8-ig2i), empress of Ger- many. — See also Germany: 1921: Death of Em- press. AUGUSTA VINDELICORUM. — "Augusta Vindelicorum is the modern Augsburg, founded, it may be supposed, about the year 740 [B.C. 14] after the conquest of Rhaetia by Drusus. . . . The Itineraries represent it as the centre of the roads from Verona, Sirmium, and Treviri." — C. Merivale, Historv of the Romans, ch, 36, note, AUGUSTAL: Origin of the word. See Monev AND banking: Medieval: Coinage and banking in Middle Ages. AUGUSTIN I, Title of Iturbide as Em- peror of Mexico. See Mexico: 1820-1826. AUGUSTINE, Saint (354-430), the greatest of the four Church fathers; became a Christian in 387; ordained 391; in 395 became bishop of Hippo in Africa. "Trained in the best culture of the day, he devoted his powerful mind to the defence and upbuilding of orthodox Chris- tianity. He wrote innumerable books, the great- est of which was 'The City of God.' This book was inspired by the capture of Rome by Alaric (410), and compared the splendid city of the Empire, now fallen, with the true spiritual capital of mankind, the Christian Church. Its eloquence and its logic, its splendid survey of the past, and its prophetic insight into the future have given this work a place among the classics of all time." — G. S. Goodspeed, History of the ancient world, p. 439. — "The City of God" is the first contribu- tion to the philosophy of history. See Chris- tianity: 337-476; also Austin canons; History: 18. AUGUSTINE (d.c. 613), first Archbishop of Canterbury. Sent to England from Rome by Pope Gregory I, where he converted the king and established the Christian religion. See Chris- tianity: SS3-800; 507-Soo; and England: 597-685. AUGUSTODUNUM.— The emperor Augustus changed the name of Bibracte in Gaul to Augus- todunum, which time has corrupted, since to Autun. AUGUSTONEMETUM. See Gergovia of the Arverni. AUGUSTOWO, a town and forest northwest of Grodno, on the borders of East Prussia, where, after the battle of Tannenberg, General Rennen- kampf claimed to have inflicted losses upon Hin- denberg's forces amounting to over 60,000 men. See World War: 1914: II. Eastern front: d, 1; 1915: III. Eastern front: h. AUGUSTUS, the name by which the Romans used to distinguish the most venerated in the state, was conferred upon Gaius Julius Cssar Octavianus (63 B.C.-A.D. 14) by the Roman Senate, 27 B.C. Upon the death of Julius Caesar he found that his uncle had made him his heir. He adroitly contrived to gain popular support, particularly among the troops. In the year 42 B.C. Octavianus and Antoninus (Mark Antony), with whom the future Augustus aligned himself to overcome his enemies, defeated the forces of Brutus and Cassius at Philippi. Antony's re- lations with Cleopatra of whom he had become enamored, and his repudiation of his wife, Octav- ianus' sister, brought about a declaration of war, seemingly against Cleopatra who was reputed to have an ambition to form a Greco-Oriental em- pire. Antony's fleet was completely 'destroyed at Actium (31 B.C.) and the following year saw the capture of Alexander by Octavianus. See Rome: Republic: B.C. 31. — "In estimating the position finally held by Augustus, let us notice that his military authority was the same as that of the President of the United States; his civil authority was far less. All the old republican magistrates still existed, and continued to exer- cise the same functions as before. Constitutionally, Augustus was on a level with the Consuls. In honor and in personal influence, however, he over- shadowed all the other officials. He was always consulted on the suitability of candidates for the various offices and on every other matter; and his policy was usually carried out. It is clear that most of his power was exercised, not as a Magistrate but as a political 'boss'." — G. W. Bots- ford. History of ancient world, p. 452. — Augustus spent many years in war against the Germans, tribes of Pannonia and in the conquest of the Parthian empire. — "Octavius [See Rome: Republic: B.C. 31-14] had warily declined any of the recog- nized designations of sovereign rule. Antonius had abolished the dictatorship ; his successor respected the acclamations with which the people had greeted this decree. The voices which had saluted Caesar with the title of king were peremptorily commanded to be dumb. Yet Octavius was fully aware of the influence which attached to distinc- tive titles of honour. While he scrupulously re- nounced the names upon which the breath of hu- man jealousy had blown, he conceived the subtler policy of creating another for himself, which bor- 629 AUGUSTUS AURUM TOLOSANUM rowing its original splendour from his own char- acter, should reflect upon him an untarnished lustre. . . . The epithet Augustus , . . had never been borne by any man before. . . . But the adjunct, though never given to a man, had been applied to things most noble, most venerable and most divine The rites of the gods were called august, the temples were august; the word itself was derived from the holy auguries by which the divine will was revealed ; it was connected with the favour and authority of Jove himself. . . . The illustrious title was bestowed upon the heir ol the Caesarian Empire in the middle of the month of January, 727 [B.C. 27], and thence- forth it is by the name of Augustus that he is recognized in Roman history." — C. Merivale, His- tory of the Romans, ch. 30. — "When Octavianus had firmly established his power and was now left without a rival, the Senate, being desirous of distinguishing him by some peculiar and em- phatic title, decreed, in B.C. 27, that he should be styled .Augustus, an epithet properly applicable to some object demanding respect and venera- tion beyond what is bestowed upon human things. . . . This being an honorary appellation ... it would, as a matter of course, have been trans- mitted by inheritance to his immediate descend- ants. . . . Claudius, although he could not be re- garded as a descendant of Octavianus, assumed on his accession the title of Augustus, and his example was followed by all succeeding rulers . . who communicated the title of Augusta to their consorts." — W. Ramsay, Manual of Roman antiquities, ch. 5. — See also Religion: B.C. 750- A. D. 30; Rome: Empire: B.C. 31-A. D. 14; and Sevastos. Augustus I (1526-1586), became elector of Sax- ony at the death of his brother Maurice (1553); encouraged the Flemish people to immigrate and settle the country ; was an enlightened although sometimes cruel ruler. Augustus II (1670-1733), king of Poland, and, under the .name Frederick .\ugu5tus I, elector of Saxony. See Sweden: 1707-1718; 1710-1721. Augustus III (1696-1763), king of Poland, and, as Frederick August II, elector of Saxony. See Pol.^nd: 1732-1733. AULA, (i) an open yard, or court; (2) Trinity Hall, Cambridge University, founded by Bishop Bateman in 1330, referred to as "aula," de- noting the building inhabited by the scholars. AULA REGIA, ancient court of England. See CuRi.\ Regis of the Norman kings; Eovity law: 1330. AULARD, Franjois Victor Alphonse (1840- ), French historian. He is regarded as one of the greatest authorities on the history of the French Revolution, of which subject he was appointed professor at the Sorbonne. His long and fruitful researches are embodied in his "Political history of the French Revolution." See History: 32. AULDEARN, Battle of (1645). See Scot- land: 1644-1645. AULERCI. — The .\ulerci were an extensive na- tion in ancient Gaul which occupied the country from the lower course of the Seine to the Ma- yenne. It was subdivided into three great tribes — the Aulerci Cenomanni, Aulerci Diablintes and Aulerci Eburovices. — Napoleon III, History of C(esar, bk. 3, ch. 2. — See also Veneti of western Gaul. AULETES, or Ptolemy XIII of Egypt. See EcvPt: B. C. 80-48 AULIATA, Turkestan, Fall of (1864). See Russia: 1859-1876. AULIC COUNCIL, a judicial and to a slight extent executive body of the Holy Roman empire from 1407 to 1806. It consisted of about twenty members, held its meetings at Vienna and was under the influence of the emperor. See France: 1700 (August-December) ; and Germany: 1493- iSig. AULICE, Commodore, Hungarian officer who carried on negotiations with Japan. See Japan: 1797-1854. AUMALE, Henri Eugene Philippe Louis d'Orleans, duo d' (1822-1807), French prince and statesman. Distinguished himself in the campaign in Algeria 1843; governor of that colony 1S47. After the Franco-Prussian War was elected dep- uty ; presided over the military council that con- demned Marshal Bazaine for the surrender of Metz. — See also Barbarv States: 1830-1846. AUMALE, Battle of (1S91). See France: i50i-i,S93- AUMETZ, town in the northwestern part of Lorraine; occupied by Americans after armistice See World War: 1918: XI. End of the war: c. AUMONT, the name of an important French family. One Jean, sire d' .^umonl, accompanied Louis IX on a crusade. Fought for the dukes of Burgundy, later returning to the support of the crown. Jean d'Aumont (d. 1505), marshal of France, fought against the Huguenots, but rec- ognized Henry IV and was made governor of Champagne and Brittany. Louis Marie Celeste d' Aumont, due de Piennes, emigrated during the Revolution. During the Hundred Days captured Baveux and Caen. AUNEAU, Battle of (1387). See Fr.^nce: 1584- 1589. AURANGZEB (1618-1707), one of the greatest and most unscrupulous of the Mogul emperors; im- prisoned his father. Shah Jahan, and disposed of his brothers by means of assassination in order to gain the throne, which he ascended in 1658. See India: 1605-1658; 1662-1748. AURAY, Battle of (1365). See Brittany: 1341-1365. AURELIAN (Lucius Domitius Aurelianus) (c. 212-275), a soldier emperor of Rome. Made vigorous war on the invading barbarians (see Alemanni: 270; Chalons. Battle at (271)) ; began the construction of the fortified walls around Rome; overcame Zenobia, queen of Palmyra (see Palmyra: Rise and fall) ; instituted strict disci- pline and reforms in Rome. See Rome: Empire: IQ2-284. AURELIAN ROAD, one of the great Roman roads of antiquity, which ran from Rome to Pisa and Luna. — T. Mommsen, History of Rome, bk. 4. ch. II. AURELIANUS. See Aurelian. AUREOLUS (d. 268), leader of the Roman army of the Upper Danube and rival claimant for the Imperial throne; sought refuge in Milan after revolt against Gallienus. See Milan: 268. AURELIUS, Marcus. See Antonius, Marcus Aureltus. AURELLE de Paladines, Louis Jean Bap- tiste d' (1804-1877), French general. Served in .Algeria and in the Crimean War; commanded the army of the Loire in the Franco-Prussian War ; member of the National .Assembly, assisted in the peace negotiations. As life senator, sup- ported the monarchial majority of 1876. See France: 1870-1871 ; 1871 (March-Mav). AURICULAR CONFESSION. See Confes- sion. AURIGNACIANS: Ancient tribe.— Industry and art. See Europe: Prehistoric period: Stone age; and Painting: Pre-classical. AURUM TOLOSANUM. See Toulouse. 630 AURUNCI AUSTRALASIA AURUNCI, Auruncans or Ausones, a tribe of the ancient Volscians, who dwelt in the lower valley of the Liris, and who are said to have been exterminated by the Romans, B. C. 314. — W. Ihne, History of Rome, bk. 3, ch. 10. — See also OscANS. AUS, Southwest Africa, taken by British. See World War: 1915: VIII. Africa: a, 1. AUSCI. See Aquitaine: Ancient tribes. AUSGLEICH (agreement), the written state- ment by which Austria and Hungary united their governments and formed the dual monarchy in 1867. (See Austria: 1866-1867.) The Em- peror Francis Joseph assumed the title of Em- peror of Austria and King of Hungaria, although the two autonomous divisions were to manage all their local affairs. Questions of common in- terest were to be managed by a joint ministry, and a joint parliament made up of an Austrian legislature and an Hungarian legislature, termed "Delegations" which were to meet alternately in Vienna and Budapest. See Austria-Hungary: 1866; Hungary: 1856-1868; also Austria-Hun- gary: iQoo-igo3; and 1907. AUSHAR, ancient name of Kileh-Sherghat. See Assyria: The land. AUSPICES, Taking the.— "The Romans, in the earlier ages of their history, never entered upon any important business whatsoever, whether pub- lic or private, without endeavouring, by means of divination, to ascertain the will of the gods in reference to the undertaking. . . . This opera- tion was termed 'sumere auspicia;' and if the omens proved unfavourable the business was abandoned or deferred. . . . No meeting of the Comitia Curiata nor of the Comitia Centuriata could be held unless the auspices had been pre- viously taken ... As far as public proceed- ings were concerned, no private individual, even among the patricians, had the right of taking auspices. This duty devolved upon the supreme magistrate alone. ... In an army this power be- longed exclusively to the commander-in-chief ; and hence all achievements were said to be performed under his auspices, even although he were not present. . . . The objects observed in taking these auspices were birds, the class of animals from which the word is derived ('Auspicium ab ave spicienda') . Of these, some were believed to give indications by their flight . . . others by their notes or cries . . . while a third class consisted of chickens Cpulli') kept in cages. When it was desired to obtain an omen from these last, food was placed before them, and the manner in which they comported themselves was closely watched. . . . The manner of taking the auspices previous to the Comitia was as follows: — The mag- istrate who was to preside at the assembly arose immediately after midnight on the day for which it had been summoned, and called upon an augur to assist him. . . . With his aid a region of the sky and a space of ground, within which the auspices were observed, were marked out by the divining staff Clituus') of the augur. . . . This operation was performed with the greatest care. ... In making the necessary observations, the president was guided entirely by the augur, who reported to him the result." — W. Ramsay, Manual of Roman antiquities, ch. 4. — See also Augur. Atso in: W. Ihne, History of Rome, bk. 6, ch. 13. AUSTEN, Jane (1775-1817), English novelist. Her pictures, in an ironic vein, of provincial so- ciety in the upper middle class went far to establish the realistic novel. Her best-known works are "Pride and Prejudice" (1796, pub- lished 1813), "Sense and Sensibility" (1797-1798), "Emma" (i8i6), and "Northanger Abbey" (1818). — See also English literature: 1660-1780. AUSTERLITZ, a town in Moravia in what was formerly Austrian territory but now forms part of Czecho-Slovakia; situated some fifteen miles east of Briinn; the scene of the great bat- tle of Austerlitz (Dec. 2, 1805), where Napoleon decisively defeated the Austrian and Russian forces. — See also Austria: 1798-1806; and France: 1805. AUSTIN, Stephen Fuller (1703-1836), Ameri- can pioneer. Upon a grant obtained by his father, Moses Austin, he colonized Texas, and as- sisted in establishing the republic in 1835 ; was defeated in its lirst presidential election. See Texas: 1819-1835; 1824-1835. AUSTIN CANONS, or Canons of St. Au- gustine. — ".\bout the middle of the nth cen- tury an attempt had been made to redress the balance between the regular and secular clergy, and restore to the latter the influence and con- sideration in spiritual matters which they had, partly by their own fault, already to a great extent lost. Some earnest and thoughtful spirits, distressed at once by the abuse of monastic priv- ileges and by the general decay of ecclesiastical order, sought to effect a reform by the establish- ment of a stricter and better organized discipline in those cathedral and other churches which were served by colleges of secular priests. . . . To- wards the beginning of the twelfth century the attempts at canonical reform issued in the form of what was virtually a new religious order, that of the Augustinians, or Canons Regular of the order of S. Augustine. Like the monks and un- like the secular canons, from whom they were carefully distinguished, they had not only their table and dwelling but all things in common, and were bound by vow to the observance of their rule, grounded upon a passage in one of the letters of that great father of the Latin Church from whom they took their name. Their scheme was a compromise between the old-fashioned sys- tem of canons and that of the monastic confra- ternities; but a compromise leaning strongly to- wards the monastic side. . . . The Austin canons, as they were commonly called, made their way across the channel in Henry's reign." — K. Nor- gate, England under the Angevin kings, v. i, ch. 1. — See also Monasticism: iith-i3th centuries. Also in: E. L. Cutts, Scenes and characters of the middle ages, ch. 3. AUSTIN FRIARS. See Austin canons. AUSTRAL ISLANDS: Annexation to France. — The Austral or Tubuai islands were for- mally annexed to France by the governor of Tahiti, on August 21, igoo. AUSTRALASIA, a term applied by English geographers to all Oceanic, but usually taken to include only .Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea, Tasmania and nearby islands. Some restrict the name to Australia, Tasmania and New Zealand. Baptists. — Growth in nineteenth century. See Baptists: Development in Europe, Canada and Australasia. Charities, History of. See Charities: Aus- tralasia. Exploration of. See Antarctic e.xploration. French colonies. See France: Colonial em- pire. Masonic societies. See Masonic societies: Australasia. Missionary work. See Missions, Christian: Islands of the Pacific. 631 AUSTRALIA AUSTRALIA AUSTRALIA Location and physical features. — Population and area. — .-Vustralia is the island continent lying southeast of .\sia and the East Indies and is the only continent entirely south of the equator. Its area is approximately 2,946,691 square miles; its coast line is about 8,850 miles, giving it a smaller pro- portion of coast line than that of any other con- tinent. The estimated population in 1919 was 5,247,019. The commonwealth of .Australia includes the original states of New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania (island) (see also British empire: Extent; New Ze.^l,\xd; T.asm.^nia). "From a physical point of view, the appear- ance of Australia is disappointing to any one familiar with the variety of scenery to be found in Great Britain and Ireland. Here and there, in the settled parts of the countrjs are moun- tainous districts, covered with luxurious vegeta- tion, and watered by beautiful streams. But the general aspect of the temperate parts of the con- tinent is one of mild undulation or absolute flatness, covered with somewhat monotonous vege- tation, or (in the summer months) bare and parched; while there is neither the artificial beauty of high cultivation nor the natural beauty of primitive wildness. Except in the tropical north, there are practically no navigable rivers on the mainland ; even the Murray and the Darling are apt to become impassable in the summer. The scarcity of water is, indeed, one of the most disastrous natural features of .•\us'tralia ; and. unless artificial means can be used to correct it, vast tracts of country must for ever remain unsettled. Tas- mania, however, is a country of noble rivers and striking scener>', though the painful monotony of Australian forest or 'bush' is to be met with there also. On the other hand the climate, in the temperate regions, is, perhaps, one of the finest in the world. Except in the mountainous districts there is no severe cold, frost and snow being unknown; and. though in the summer the temperature rises very high, the air is, as a rule, so dry, that neither lassitude nor other ill ef- fects follow, and cases of sunstroke are extremely rare. A man may be prostrated by a temperature of 80° Fahr. in London, and yet feel quite brisk in experiencing 100° in Melbourne. The soil, too, in spite of the scarcity of water, is in many parts exceedingly fertile, both for pasture and agriculture; and these conditions of climate and soil must be regarded as important factors in the history of the colonies. It is, however, in its productive aspect, that Australia occupies such an unique position. Though possessing native fauna and flora of great extent and variety, it is almost barren of native products in any way useful for the prime necessities of life. The native animals and birds are curious rather than valuable. With few exceptions, they can be used neither for food nor service. The same remark applies to the native vegetable life. The universal gum tree is now becoming famous for its sanitary qualities; but early colonists cannot live on medicine, and the gum forests of .\ustralia furnished but little timber for building houses and making furniture, nor did her uncultivated plains yield edible roots or grain. On the other hand, the soil of .Aus- tralia has shown a remarkable capacity for fos- tering and developing imported animal and plant life. The consequence has been that the eco- nomic side of Australian life has been almost purely European, It is simply a reproduction of British economy, slightly modified to suit new con- ditions. This feature has been intensified by the absence of competition. The aborigines of .Australia (the word 'native' is now always re- served for those of European descent) have had no influence on .Australian history. Absolutely barbarous and unskilled in the arts of life, dragging out, according to the accounts of all travellers, a wretched and precarious existence even before the arrival of European settlers, they could offer no resistance to the invaders, and they have, in fact, been entirely ignored (e.xcept as objects of charity or aversion) in the settlement of the countrj'. Probably always few in num- bers, they are now, at the highest estimate, considerably less than one hundred thousand. In Tasmania they have entirely disappeared; and though in the barren interior of the main- land they may prolong their existence for genera- tions, there seems to be no hope that they will improve their lot. Most of the colonies have passed laws intended to protect them from per- sonal cruelty and fraud ; but these laws serve only still more to separate thtm from civilized life. The one pursuit in which they have hitherto been regarded as useful is that of tracking criminals or missing travellers; but white settlers in the 'bush' are rapidly becoming more expert than the aborigines in such matters, and the 'black trackers' are falling into discredit." — E. M. A. Jenks, History of the Australasian colonies, pp. 15- 17- Agriculture. — Efiect of drought. — Main crops. — Cultivated area. — Artesian water supply. — Pastoral industry. — "Though much has been said and written about the recurrence and the evil ef- fects of droughts in .Australia in past years, when the agriculturists suffered loss chiefly in consequence of their having been too speculative and not suf- ficiently provident, the beneficial influences of the droughts have been to a large extent overlooked. In nearly all countries in the Northern Hemisphere the har\'esting of crops for fodder has to be under- taken every year, so that the stock may be fed during the winter months, when the soil is resting and regaining its fertility and chemical constituents. In .Australia the droughts will probably recur, but, with reasonable care and the proper conservation of water and fodder by the experienced agricultur- ist in the years when there is a superabundance of rain and herbage, they will be looked upon in future as by no means an unmixed evil, but rather as one of the provisions by which nature enables the soil to regain those properties which have been ex- hausted during a succession of bountiful seasons. The beneficial effect of resting the soil in times of drought is shewn by the very rapid recovery, by the increased fertility, and by the abundance of the harvests, in the seasons immediately following the droughts. . . . Wheat is the main crop in the Com- monwealth, the cereal occupying over 63 per cent, of the total cultivated area in 1913-14. . . . [In 1875 the acreage under wheat was 1,422,614 with a pro- duction of 18,712,051 bushels, while in 1913-14 the acreage had increased to 9,295,256 and a production of 103,517,725 bushels.] Despite the checks to progress due to the vagaries of the season, . . . [there is] evidence of solid advancement. . . . Ac- cording to the returns for 1913-14, the yield was equivalent to over 21 bushels per head of popula- tion. The estimated value of the Commonwealth wheat crop in that year was over $92,464,716. For some years [prior to 1913-1914] Australia [was] in a position to export a fair quantity of wheat and flour to other countries. . . . Other ce- 632 AUSTRALIA Agriculture Early Exploration AUSTRALIA real crops grown to fair extent in Australia are oats, barley, and maize. . . . Oats and barley are grown througiiout [tiie Commonwealtii] although Queens- land grows very little oats, and only 8826 and 7723 acres were under barley in the States of Queens- land and Tasmania and respectively during the latest season under review." — Australian Common- wealth, its resources and production {Common- wealth bureau of census and statistics, Melbourne, 191S, pp. 23, 27-2S, 36).— In iqiS-igig, the total area under cultivation was 13,332,393 acres, which produced crops of a total value of £58,080,000. Wheat, the most important grain crop yielded in 1919-1920 45,753,298 bushels from a total acreage of 6,379,560. Production from pastoral activities, in 1918-1919 included a total of 657,911,710 lbs. of wool, valued at £42,490,000. 181,802,675 lbs. of butter, of which 41,114,800 lbs., valued at £3,193,086 were exported. In addition exports of tallow and sheepskins brought a return of £4,117,699, and frozen meat, a growing industry, was exported to the value of £4,471,942. '-'Praiseworthy efforts to overcome [the] handicap of unsuitable natural con- ditions mark the economic development of Aus- tralia. The scanty rainfall has been supplemented by a certain amount of water conservation, mainly tapping the vast reservoir of artesian water which underlies 576,000 square miles of the arid regions of New South Wales, Queensland and South Australia, where the pastoral industry is supreme. . . . Ad- verse conditions have called for improvement in the breed of sheep so as to fit them to their en- vironment. . . . This has been achieved. Merino sheep do best in New South Wales where they form 83 per cent of the whole. In order to suit other cli- mates, to obtain a hardier sheep which would be more useful for mixed farming, the merino has been crossed wi.h other sheep, without loss to its wool-bearing powers. The fleece cut from each sheep has risen [191S-1920] to an average of eight pounds at the present day. In addition, the quality of the wool has improved, and the weight of the original sheep nearly doubled. (3) The State has pursued a railway and land policy which has led to an increase of productivity. The large areas, as a result, are being replaced by small holdings. Vet all these efforts have not fully succeeded in putting the pastoral industry in a condition of continuous increase. The number of sheep in Australia has declined in recent years. The pastoral industry is limited, through climatic conditions, to about 28 per cent of the country, though an area embracing another 19J2 per cent would be available, if pro- vision could be made for the transport of stock to wetter areas in dry seasons. ... As in the case of the pastoral industry, the progress of agriculture has involved the overcoming of great difficulties. The land laws favored large estates, and thus re- stricted settlement. A scanty rainfall led men to consider large areas of land in New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia unsuitable for wheat growing. Scarcity of labour threatened to make the cost of production too high for the average yield of wheat to repay the farmer. Most of these obstacles are being overcome. Legislation has di- minished the number of large holdings, at the same time increasing the number of settlers. The use of scientific methods of cultivation has tended to over- come the other difficulties. . . . Ploughing is done by multiple ploughs, which throw six to eight fur- rows at one time. . . . Harvesting is done by the combined stripper and harvester, an Australian in- vention. As a result of this economy so low an average production as ten bushels of wheat per acre is profitable. Again, the [farmer] has had to guard against insufficient rainfall, and, as dry farming in its real sense has not yet been attempted, the precautions taken have been those of fallowing and a rotation of crops. The fallowing is so con- ducted as to conserve in the soil two winters' rain- fall and thus to obviate the evils of a dry harvest season." — C. H. Northcott, Australian social de- velopment (Studies in history, economics and pub- lic law, Columbia University, v. 81, No. 2, 1918, pp. 210-214). Mythology. See Mythology: Oceania: Austra- lian myths. 1601-1800. — Discovery and early exploration. — "Australia has had no Columbus. It is even doubtful if the first navigators who reached her shores set out with any idea of discovering a great south land. At all events, it would seem, their achievements were so little esteemed by themselves and their countrymen that no means were taken to preserve their names in connexion with their discoveries. Holland long had the credit of bringing to light the existence of that island continent, which until recent years was best known by her name. In 1861, however, Mr. Major, to whom we are indebted for more recent research upon the subject, produced evidence which ap- peared to demonstrate that the Portuguese had reached the shores of Australia in 1601, five years before the Dutch yacht Duyphen, or Dove, — the earliest vessel whose name has been handed down, — sighted, about March, 1606, what is be- lieved to have been the coast near Cape York. Mr. Major, in a learned paper read before the Society of Antiquaries in 1872, indicated the prob- ability that the first discovery was made 'in or before the year 1531.' The dates of two of the six maps from which Mr. Major derives his in- formation are 1531 and 1542. The latter clearly indicates Australia, which is called Jave la Grande. New Zealand is also marked." — F. P. Labilliere, Early history of the colony of Victoria, ch. i. — In 1606, De Quiros, a Spanisii navigator, sailing from Peru, across the Pacific, reached a shore which stretched so far that he took it to be a continent. "He called the place 'Tierra Australis de Espiritu Santo,' fhat is 'Southern Land of the Holy Spirit.' It is now known that this was not really a continent, but merely one of the New Hebrides Islands, and more than a thousand miles away from the mainland ... In after years, the name he had invented was divided into two parts; the island he had really discovered being called Espiritu Santo, while t'he continent he thought he had discovered was called Tierra Aus- tralis. This last name was shortened by another discoverer- — Flinders — to the present term Aus- tralia." — A. and G. Sutherland, History of Aus- tralia and New Zealand, ch. i. — "In 1611 Hendrik Brouwer, a commander of marked ability who sub- sequently became Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies, made a discovery. He found that if, after leaving the Cape, he steered due east for about three thousand miles, and fhen set a course north for J^va, he had the benefit of favourable winds, which enabled him to finish the voyage in much less time than the old route required. Brouwer wrote to the directors of the Dutch East India Company [see Netherlands: 1594-1620] pointing out that he had sailed from Holland to Java in seven months, and recom- mending that ships' captains should be instructed to take the same course in future. The di- rectors followed his advice ; and from the year 1613 all Dutch commanders were under instruc- tions to follow Brouwer's route. The bearing of this change on the discovery of the west coast of Australia will be immediately apparent to any one who glances at the map of the southern Indian Ocean. The distance from the Cape of 633 AUSTRALIA, 1601-1800 Early Exploration AUSTRALIA, 1601-1800 Good Hope to Cape Leeuwin is about 4,300 miles. A vessel running eastward with a free wind, and anxious to make the most of it before changing her course northward, would be very likely to sight the Australian coast. That is precisely what occurred to the ship Eendragt (i.e., Concord). Her captain. Dirk Hartog, ran farther eastward than Brouwcr had advised, reaching Shark's Bay and landing on the island which to this day bears his name. He erected there a post, and nailed to it a tin plate upon which was engraved the record that on October 25, 1616, the ship Een- dragt from .\msterdam had arrived there, and had sailed for Bantam on the 27th. Dirk Hartpg's plate was found by Captain Vlaming, of the Dutch ship Geelvin'k, eighty years later. The post had decayed, but the plate itself was 'un- affected by rain, air, or sun.' Vlaming sent it to .Amsterdam as an interesting memorial of discovery, and erected another post and plate in place of it; and Vlaming's plate in turn remained until 181 7. when Captain Louis de Freycinet, the commander of a French exploring expedition, took it away with him to Paris. Dirk Hartog's discovery was recognized by the seamen of his nation as one which conduced to safer naviga- tion. Brouwer's sailing direction had left it in- definite at what point the turn northward should be commenced. But now there was a landmark, and amended instructions were issued to Dutch mariners that they should sail from the Cape between the latitudes of thirty and forty degrees for about four thousand miles until the 'New Southland of the Eendragt' was sighted. 'The land of the Eendragt' — 'T'Llandt van de 'Een- dragt' — that was the first name given by the Dutch to this country ; and it so appears upon several early maps of the world published at Amsterdam. In this way the western coasts of Australia were brought within sight of the regular sailing track of vessels from Europe ; and as soon as that occurred the finding of other por- tions of the coast was only a matter of time. Of course all the captains did not reach the coast at the same spot. Violent winds would sometimes blow a vessel hundreds of miles out of her planned course. Both going to and coming from the East Indies ships would discover fresh pieces of coastline in quite a chance manner. Thus, De Wit sailing homeward from Batavia in 1628 in the Vyanen was by headwinds driven aground upon the north-west coast, and had to throw overboard a quantity of pepper and cop- per, 'upon which through God's mercy she got off again without further damage.' That bit of coast was named 'De Wit's Land.' " — E. Scott, Short history of Australia, pp. 18-10. — .\fter the visit to the .Australian coast of the small Dutch ship, the Dove, it was touched, during the next twenty years, by a number of vessels of the same na- tionality. "In 16:2 a Dutch ship, the Leeuwin, or Lioness, sailed along the southern coast, and its name was given to the south-west cape of .Aus- tralia. ... In 1628 General Carpenter sailed com- pletely round the large Gulf to the north, which has taken its name from this circumstance. Thus, by degrees, all the northern and western, together with part of the southern shores, came to be roughly explored, and the Dutch even had some idea of colonizing this continent. . . . During the next fourteen years we hear no more of voyages to Australia; but in 1642 Antony Van Diemen, the Governor of the Dutch possessions in the East Indies, sent out his friend .\bel Jansen Tas- man, with two ships, to make discoveries in the South Seas." Tasman discovered the island which he called Van Diemen's Land, but which has since been named in his own honor — Tasmania. "This he did not know to be an island ; he drew it on his maps as if it were a peninsula belonging to the mainland of Australia." In 1609, the famous buccaneer, William Dampier, was given the com- mand of a vessel sent out to the southern seas, and he explored about Qoo miles of the north- western coast of Australia ; but the description which he gave of the country did not encourage the adventurous to seek fortune in it. "We hear of no further explorations in this part of the world until nearly a century after; and, even then, no one thought of sending out ships specially for the purpose. But in the year 1770 a series of im- portant discoveries were indirectly brought about. The Royal Society of London, calculating that the planet Venus would cross the disc of the sun in 1769, persuaded the English Government to send out an expedition to the Pacific Ocean for the purpose of making observations on this event which would enable astronomers to calculate the distance of the earth from the sun. A small ves- sel, the Endeavour, was chosen ; astronomers with their instruments embarked, and the whole placed under the charge of" the renowned sailor, Captain James Cook. The astronomical purposes of the expedition were satisfactorily accomplished at Otaheite, and Captain Cook then proceeded to an exploration of the shores of New Zealand and .Australia. Having entered a fine bay on the south-eastern coast of -Australia, "he examined the country for a few miles inland, and two of his scientific friends — Sir Joseph Banks and Dr. Solander — made splendid collections of botanic.il specimens. From this circumstance the place was called Botany Bay, and its two head-lands re- ceived the names of Cape Banks and Cape Solander. It was here that Captain Cook . . . took pos- session of the country on behalf of His Britannic Majesty, giving it the name 'New South Wales,' on account of the resemblance of its coasts to the southern shores of Wales. [See also Australia: 1773; British empire: Expansion: i8th cen- tury! Shortly after they had set sail from Botany Bay they observed a small opening in the land, but Cook did not stay to examine it, merely marking it on his charts as Port Jackson, in honour of his friend Sir George Jackson. . . . The reports brought home by Captain Cook com- pletely changed the beliefs current in those days with regard to .Australia." In 1792 Captain Phillip, governor of the Botany bay settlement, broken in health, had resigned, and in 1795 he had been succeeded by Governor Hunter. "When Governor Hunter arrived, in 1795. he brought with him, on board his ship, the Reliance, a young surgeon, George Bass, and a midshipman called Matthew Flinders. They were young men of the most admirable character. . . . Within a month after their arrival they purchased a small boat about eight feet in length, which they christened the Tom Thumb. Its crew consisted of themselves and a boy to assist." In this small craft they began a survey of the coast, usefully charting many miles of it. Soon afterwards, George Bass, in an open whale-boat, pursued his explorations south- wards, to the region now called Victoria, and through the straits which bear his name, thus discovering the fact that Van Diemen's Land, or Tasmania, is an island, not a peninsula. In 1798, Bass and Flinders, again associated and furnished with a small sloop, sailed round and surveyed the entire coast of Van Diemen's Land. Bass now went to South .America and there disappeared. Flinders was commissioned by the British govern- ment in 1800 to make an extensive survey of the Australian coasts, and did so. Returning to 634 AUSTRALIA, 1787-1840 Penal Settlements AUSTRALIA, 1787-1840 England with his maps, he was taken prisoner on the way by the French and held in captivity for six years, while the fruits of his labor were stolen. He died a few years after being re- leased. — A. and G. Sutherland, History of Aus- tralia, ch. 1-3. — See also Antarctic exploration: 15x9-1819; Pacific Ocean: 1764-1850. Also in: G. W. Rusden, History of Australia, V. I, ch. 1-3. 1787-1840. — Penal settlements. — Beginning of the prosperity of New South Wales. — Introduc- tion of sheep-farming. — Founding of Victoria and South Australia. — "It so happened that, shortly after Cook's return, the English nation had to deal with a great difficulty in regard to its criminal population. In 1776 the United States declared their independence, and the English then found they could no longer send their convicts over to Virginia, as they had formerly done. In a short time the gaols of England were crowded with felons. It became necessary to select a new place of transportation; and, just as this difficulty arose, Captain Cook's voyages called at- tention to a land in every way suited for such a purpose, both by reason of its fertility and of its great distance. Viscount Sydney, therefore, de- termined to send out a party to Botany Bay, in order to found a convict settlement there ; and in May, 1787, a fleet was ready to sail." After a voyage of eight months the fleet arrived at Botany Bay, in January, 1788. The waters of the bay were found to be too shallow for a proper harbor, and Captain Phillip, the appointed gov- ernor of the settlement, set out, with three boats, to search for something better. "As he passed along the coast he turned to examine the open- ing which Captain Cook had called Port Jack- son, and soon found himself in a winding chan- nel of water, with great cliffs frowning overhead. All at once a magnificent prospect opened on his eyes. A harbour, which is, perhaps, the most beautiful and perfect in the world, stretched be- fore him far to the west, till it was lost on the distant horizon. It seemed a vast maze of wind- ing waters, dotted here and there with lovely islets. . . . Captain Phillip selected, as the place most suitable to the settlement, a small inlet, which, in honour of the Minister of State, he called Sydney Cove. It was so deep as to allow ves- sels to approach within a yard or two of the shore." — A. and G. Sutherland, History of Aus- tralia and New Zealand, ch. 1-3. — Great diffi- culties and sufferings attended the founding of the penal settlement, and many died of actual starvation as well as of disease; but in twelve years the population had risen to between 6,000 and 7,000 persons. Meantime a branch colony had been established on Norfolk island. "For twenty years and more no one at home gave a thought to New South Wales, or 'Botany Bay,' as it was still erroneously called, unless in vague horror and compassion for the poor creatures who lived there in exile and starvation. The only civilizing element in the place was the presence of a devoted clergyman named Johnson, who had voluntarily accompanied the first batch of con- victs. . . . Colonel Lachlan Macquarie entered on the office of governor in 1810, and ruled the settlement for twelve years. His administration was the first turning point in its history. . . . Macquarie saw that the best and cheapest way of ruling the convicts was to make them free- men as soon as possible. Before his time, the governors had looked on the convicts as slaves, to be worked for the profit of the government and of the free settlers. Macquarie did all he could to elevate the class of emancipists, and to 635 encourage the convicts to persevere in sober in- dustry in the hope of one day acquiring a re- spectable position. He began to discontinue the government farms, and to employ the convicts in road-making, so as to extend the colony m all directions. When he came to Sydney, the country more than a day's ride from the town was quite unknown. The growth of the settlement was stopped on the west by a range called the Blue Mountains, which before his time no one had succeeded in crossing. But in 1813, there came a drought upon the colony: the cattle, on which everything depended, were unable to find food. Macquarie surmised that there must be plenty of pasture on the plains above the Bhie Moun- tains: he sent an exploring party, telling them that a pass must be discovered. In a few months, not only was this task accomplished, and the vast and fertile pastures of Bathurst reached, but a road 130 miles long was made, connecting them with Sydney. The Lachlan and Macquarie rivers were traced out to the west of the Blue Mountains. Besides this, coal was found at the mouth of the Hunter river, and the settlement at Newcastle formed. . . . When it became known that the penal settlement was gradually becoming a free colony, and that Sydney and its population were rapidly changing their character, English and Scotch people soon bethought them of emigrating to the new country. Macquarie returned home in 1822, leaving New South Wales four times as populous, and twenty times as large as when he went out, and many years in advance of what it might have been under a less able and energetic governor. The discovery of the fine pastures beyond the Blue Mountains settled the destiny of the colony. The settlers came up thither with their flocks long before Macquarie's road was finished ; and it turned out that the downs of Australia were the best sheep-walks in the world. The sheep thrives better there, and produces finer and more abundant wool, than anywhere else. John Macarthur, a lieutenant in the New South Wales corps, had spent several years in studying the effect of the Australian climate upon the sheep; and he rightly surmised that the staple of the colony would be its fine wool. In 1803, he went to England and procured some pure Spanish merino sheep from the flock of George III. . . The Privy Council listened to his wool projects, and he received a large grant of land. Macarthur had found out the true way to Aus- tralian prosperity. When the great upland pas- tures were discovered, the merino breed was well established in the colony ; and the sheep- owners, without waiting for grants, spread with th^ir flocks over immense tracts of country. This was the beginning of what is called squatting. The squatters afterwards paid a quit-rent to the government and thus got their runs, as they call the great districts where they pastured their flocks, to a certain extent secured to them. . . . Hun- dreds upon hundreds of square miles of the great Australian downs were now explored and stocked with sheep for the English wool-market. ... It was in the time of Macquarie's successor. Sir Thomas Brisbane, that the prospects of New South Wales became generally known in England. Free emigrants, each bringing more or less capital with him, now poured in; and the demand for labour became enormous. At first the penal settlements were renewed as depots for the supply of labour, and it was even proposed that the convicts should be sold by auction on their arrival ; but in the end the influx of free labourers entirely altered the question. In Brisbane's time, and that of his successor, Sir Ralph Darling, wages fell and work. AUSTRALIA, 1787-1840 Scientific Colonization AUSTRALIA, 1810-1837 became scarce in England; and English working men now turned their attention to Australia. Hitherto the people had been either convicts or free settlers of more or less wealth, and between these classes there was great bitterness of feel- ing, each, naturally enough, thinking that the colony existed for their own exclusive benefit. The free labourers who now poured in greatly contributed in course of time to fusing the popula- tion into one. In Brisbane's time, trial by jury and a free press w^ere introduced. The finest pas- tures in Australia, the Darling Downs near More- ton Bay, were discovered and settled [1825]. The rivers which pour into Moreton Bay were explored: one of them was named the Brisbane, and a few miles from its mouth the town of the same name was founded. Brisbane is now the capital of the colony of Queensland: and other explorations in his time led to the foundation of a second independent colony. The Macquarie was traced beyond the marshes, in which it was sup- posed to lose itself, and named the Darling: and the Murray river was discovered [1820]. The tracing out of the Murray river by the adventur- ous traveller Sturt, led to a colony on the site which he named South Australia. In Darling's time, the Swan River Colony, now called West- ern Australia, was commenced. Darling . . . was the first to sell the land at a small fixed price, on the system adopted in America. . . . Darling re- turned to England in 1831; and the six-years' ad- ministration of his successor. Sir Richard Bourke, marks a fresh turning-point in Australian history. In his time the colony threw off two great off- shoots. Port Phillip, on which now stands the great city of Melbourne, had been discovered in 1802, and in the next year the government sent hither a convict colony. This did not prosper, and this fine site was neglected for thirty years. When the sudden rise of New South Wales began, the squatters began to settle to the west and north of Port Phillip; and the government at once sent an exploring party, who reported most favour- ably of the country around. In 1836, Governor Bourke founded a settlement in this new land, which had been called, from its rich promise, Australia Felix: and under his directions the site of a capital was laid out, to be called Melbourne, in honour of the English Prime Minister. This was in 1S37, so that the beginning of the colony corresponds nearly with that of Queen Victoria's reign ; a circumstance which afterwards led to its being named Victoria. Further west still, a second new colony arose about this time on the site discovered by Sturt in 1S29. This was called South Australia, and the first governor arrived there at the end of the year 1836. The intended capital was named Adelaide, in honour of the Queen of William IV." Owing to the institution of a system of scientific colonization into the two colonies, a sudden boom and an equally swift business and real estate depression visited South Australia. "The depression of South Australia, however, was but temporary. It contains the best corn land in the whole island: and hence it of course soon became the chief source of the food supply of the neighbouring colonies, besides ex- porting large quantities of corn to England. It contains rich mines of copper, and produces large quantities of wool." — E. J. Payne, History of Eu- ropean colonies, cit. 12. See New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia. Also in: G. W. Rusden, History of Australia. 1802. — Settlement of Tasmania. See Tasmanxx. 1810-1837. — Attempts at scientific colonization. — "In pursuance of their obiects the Colonization Society had in 1830 approached the Government, but they met with no success while the Duke of Wellington was in office. Sir George Murray, then Secretary of State for the Colonies, told them that the Government rather wished to dis- courage emigration. With a change of Ministry and the advent of Lord Goderich and Lord Howick to the Colonial Office at the end of 1830, their renewed representations had a more favour- able reception. They achieved their first public success when, in January, 1831, the Government determined to adopt some measure of the Wake- field theory by making a great change in the dis- posal of waste lands in New South Wales, Van Diemen's Land and Western Australia. In New South Wales land had been given away without regard to its existing or future value. . . . Up to 1810. the usual method had been to grant land to emancipated convicts or to free settlers, sub- ject to conditions as to quit-rents. These grants were made at the absolute discretion of the Gov- ernor, and during this period were large in [ex- tent] though not in number. . . . During this period, up to 1810, there had been granted in New South Wales 117,269 acres. During the next stage, 1810-1S22, while Governor Macquarie held office, the Home Government seems to have determined to' encourage capitalists to come to Aus- tralia. Anyone arriving there received, on condi- tions as to quit-rents and cultivation, a free grant of land in proportion to the capital which he could persuade the Governor that he possessed and was prepared to invest in the colony. Sometimes the capital was fictitious or was obligingly lent to the applicant by any accommodating friend. This system, though not the sole method of grant- ing land, lasted until 1830. . . . By 1828 the land alienated in New South Wales amounted to 2.006,346 acres. This very large increase was due, not only to the necessity of meeting the claims of an increasing population, but also to the fact that, in 1824, a large grant of about 1,000,000 acres in New South Wales had been made to the Australian Agricultural Company, on the usual con- ditions as to quit-rents. In Van Diemen's Land, in 1825, a similar grant of about 350,000 acres was made to the Van Diemen's Land Company. By the end of 1S30, no fewer than 3,344,030 acres had been alienated in New South Wales. . . . The first intimation nf a change in 183 1 was a despatch from Lord Goderich to Governor Darling on the gth January, announcing his intention to in- troduce, in the near future, a uniform system of sale in New South Wales, and instructing Darling, in the meantime, to discontinue all fur- ther grants except by way of sale. His inten- tion was realized in a despatch of the 14th Feb- ruary, 1831, containing Royal Instructions to Darling as to the disposal of waste lands, and enclosing the printed terms of the new regulations for intending settlers — afterwards well known as the Ripon Regulations. The Governor was in- structed that all lands not hitherto granted, and not appropriated for public purposes, were to be disposed of in no other way than by sale at auction at a minimum price of not less than five shillings per acre. A deposit of 10 per cent was required from the purchaser, and the remainder was to be paid within a month, or possession was not granted and the sale was void. Grants thus obtained were to be subject to no conditions whatever except a nominal quit -rent of a pepper- corn. The land was to be put up for sale in lots of not less than 640 acres, except in special circumstances when, on application to the Gov- ernor, the quantity might be reduced. With the Governor, however, rested the sole power of de- ciding what lands should be exposed for sale 636 AUSTRALIA, 1821-1845 Wakefield System AUSTRALIA, 1821-1845 and what lands withheld. Lands which were re- quired for grazing purposes were to be let on lease from year to year, but, if applied for by intend- ing purchasers, were to be sold at auction in the same way as other land. At the same time an- other reform was instituted by this despatch. Crown reserves for Church or School establish- ments were, in accordance with a recommendation of the Commissioners of Inquiry into Colonial Expenditure in 1830, abolished as a tax upon the industry and capital of the colonists. These changes applied both to New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land, and similar instructions and regulations were sent out a little later to the Governor of Western Australia. . . . The Ripon Regulations, then, were an attempt to put into practice the chief principle of the Wakefield theory. It was the first attempt in the nine- teenth century to proceed systematically in dis- posing of the waste lands of the Crown in the colonies." — R. C. Mills, Colonization of Australia, pp. 155-194. — See also New South Wales: 1821- 1831. 1821-1845.— Need for free labor.— WakeEeld system in South Australia. — "Not less important to a young colony than a good system of dis- posing of land, is immigration, which brings to the land the necessary complement of labour and capital. During the years 1821 to 1S30 inclusive, emigration from Great Britain to Australia was not a steady stream, but a mere trickle. On an average only 880 free settlers arrived each year, and this included those who went to form the new settle- ment at Swan River. Not until 1828 did the numbers amount to over one thousand in any one year. During the corresponding period the average annual number of convict emigrants to the penal colonies of New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land was 2,447. But by 1830 these colonies had come to be something more than mere overseas prisons. In 1828, when a census was taken in New South Wales, the free set- tlers (including emancipated convicts) numbered about 21,000, while the convicts numbered about 16,000. The time had gone by when Governor Macquarie could preach and practise the doctrine that a penal colony existed primarily for con- victs and ex-convicts. But, at the rate at which convicts were pouring in, something more than the trivial stream of free emigrants was required if the free population was definitely to predomi- nate in these colonies. The Home Government showed no sign of checking the supply of con- victs, much less of abandoning the system of transportation. Indeed from 1826 to 1830 the number of convict emigrants gradually increased. . . . Throughout the decade beginning with 1S30 complaints were common in all the Australian colonies of the scarcity of labour. Indeed, so great was the demand for labour that, in 1837, the Legislative Council of New South Wales en- tertained the proposal to introduce into the colony natives of India bound by indenture to work for a given period. In all the Australian colonies the system of indentured labour had failed. . . . Convict labour was still more unsatisfactory. . . . One particular drawback under which these colonies suffered, and which concerned both immigration and the scarcity of labour, was the extreme dis- proportion between the sexes. ... A supply of immigrants, then, selected on a system adapted to their needs, was the most urgent need of the penal colonies of Australia in 1830. Bad, in- deed, as was convict labour, the colonists clung to it as their only support. Labour of some description they needed, and free labour did not exist in any quantity. The reputation of the penal colonies was so unattractive to the ordinary emi- grant that, as the returns showed, there was at that time no voluntary emigration of labouring people to Australia. . . . Canada, and particularly the United States, made an equal demand for la- bour and were much easier to reach. What the Aus- tralian colonies needed was some means of over- coming the handicap of distance, and this they found in Wakefield's 'golden bridge' of an emi- gration fund produced as the result of land sales. The Home Government was not at first disposed to pay the whole of the passages of emigrants. . . . But circumstances compelled the Government to abandon this position. The attempt to base a system of emigration upon the repayment of ad- vances by the emigrant failed conclusively. . . . Step by step then the Home Government was forced, first to increase the amount of that por- tion of the passage money which was a gift to the emigrant, and finally to pay the whole of the fare. Soon after a commencement had been made with female emigration, of a fare of £17 the share paid by the Government was increased to ii2, £6 of which was paid on departure of the emigrant and £6 on her arrival in the colony. In 1834, a change was made whereby the Government paid the whole of the £17 and required the emigrant to repay £6. Finally, in 1835, the whole of the passage became a free gift to the emigrant. Similarly in regard to emigrant mechanics and agricultural la- bourers the amount advanced to them was con- siderably increased in 1836, and, in 1837, the sys- tem became one of free passages for all emi- grants selected by the Government. In both cases, too, the Home Government, despairing of the repayment of the advances, instructed the Governors of New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land in 1835 to remit these debts and to treat the loans as free gifts. In the selection of emi- grants to New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land the Home Government was conspicuously unsuccessful. ... In the Australian colonies there was inevitably a good deal of dissatisfaction with this kind of emigration. The reputation of the better class of emigrants was likely to be gauged by the character of the worst, and this adversely affected the popularity of emigration. ... In New South Wales in 1S35, they suggested that emigra- tion should in Britain be managed by those who had a personal interest in the colony. This sug- gestion was . . . approved by the Home Gov- ernment. Accordingly naval surgeons, who had been superintendents of convict ships and there- fore were famiUar both with the needs of the colonies and the management of emigrants during a long voyage, were appointed by the colonial government to proceed to Great Britain to manage emigration. There each surgeon was to select and bring out under his personal supervision a ship- load of emigrants. ... At the end of 1836, . . . the London Emigration Committee expressed a desire to relinquish their functions, . . . and had recommended that emigration should be managed by a central Board responsible to the Government or directly to Parliament. The resignation of the London Emigration Committee was accepted and Lord Glenelg, early in 1837, took the opportunity of . . . appointing as Agent-General for Emigra- tion Mr. T. F. Elliot, who had been secretary to the Emigration Commission of 1831-2. His duty was to exercise a general superintendence over emigration to aU colonies, and, in regard to Aus- tralia, to help in carrying on the system of Gov- ernment emigration which he found in force. Emi- gration . . . became at length a department of government administered by an officer responsible to the Colonial Office and therefore indirectly to ^37 AUSTRALIA, 1839-1855 Progress Discovery of Gold AUSTRALIA, 1839-1855 Parliament." — R. C. Mills, Colonization of Aus- tralia, pp. 155-104. The Wakefield system was employed to secure immigrants for both South Australia and Vic- toria. In the former of the two colonies the experiment had a fairer opportunity to show its value because of the greater independence and lack of prejudice of the Melbourne government. Wakefield's "notion was that the new colonies ought to be made 'fairly to represent English so- ciety.' His plan was to arrest the strong demo- cratic tendencies of the new community, and to reproduce in Australia the strong distinction of classes which was found in England. He wanted the land sold as dear as possible, so that labourers might not become land-owners; and the produce of the land was to be applied in tempting labourers to emigrate with the prospect of better wages than they got at home. A Company was easily formed to carry out these ideas in South Australia. . . . Like the settlement of Carolina as framed by Locke and Somers, it was really a plan for getting the advantages of the colony into the hands of the non-labouring classes: and by the natural laws of political economy, it failed everywhere. Ade- laide became the scene of an Australian 'bubble.' The land-jobbers and money-lenders made for- tunes: but the people who emigrated, mostly be- longing to the middle and upper classes, found the scheme to be a delusion. Land rapidly rose in value, and as rapidly sank ; and lots for which the emigrants had paid high prices became almost worthless. The labourers emigrated elsewhere, and so did those of the capitalists who had any- thing left." — E. J. Payne, History of European colonies, ch. 12. — See also South Australia: 1834- 1836. 1839-1855.— Progress of the Port Phillip dis- trict. — Its separation from New South Wales and erection into the colony of Victoria. — Dis- covery of gold. — Constitutional organization of the colony. — "In 1839 the population of Port Phillip amounted to nearly 6,000, and was being rapidly augmented from without. The sheep in the district exceeded half a million, and of cattle and horses the numbers were in proportion equally large. The place was daily growing in importance. The Home Government therefore decided to send an officer, with the title of Superintendent, to take charge of the district, but to act under the Gov- ernor of New South Wales. Charles Joseph La Trobe, Esq., was appointed to this office. ... He arrived at Melbourne on the 30th September, 1830. Soon after this all classes of the new com- munity appear to have become affected by a mania for speculation. ... As is always the case when speculation takes the place of steady indus- try, the necessaries of life became fabulously dear. Of money there was but little, in consideration of the amount of business done, and large transac- tions were effected by means of paper and credit. From highest to lowest, all lived extravagantly. . . . Such a state of things could not last for- ever. In 1842, by which time the population had increased to 24,000, the crash came. . . . From this depression the colony slowly recovered, and a sounder business system took the place of the speculative one. ... All this time, however, the colony was a dependency of New South Wales, and a strong feeling had gained ground that it suf- fered in consequence. ... A cry was raised for separation. The demand was, as a matter of course, resisted by New South Wales, but as the agitation was carried on with increased ac- tivity, it was at last yielded to by the Home authorities. The vessel bearing the intelligence arrived on the nth November, 1850. The news soon spread, and great was the satisfaction of the colonists. Raioicings were kept up in Mel- bourne for five consecutive days. . . . Before, however, the separation could be legally accom- plished, it was necessary that an Act should be passed in New South Wales to settle details. . . . The requisite forms were at length given effect to, and, on the ist July, 1851, a day which has ever since been scrupulously obser\'ed as a public holi- day, it was proclaimed that the Port Phillip dis- trict of New South Wales had been erected into a separate colony to be called Victoria, after the name of Her Most Gracious Majesty. At the same time the Superintendent, Mr. C. J. La Trobe, was raised to the rank of Lieutenant- Governor. At the commencement of the year of separation the population of Port Phillip num- bered 76,000, the sheep 6,000,000, the cattle 380,- 000. ... In a little more than a month after the establishment of Victoria as an independent colony, it became generally known that rich deposits of gold existed within its borders. . . . The discovery of gold ... in New South Wales, by Hargreaves, in February, 1851, caused numbers to emigrate to that colony. This being considered detrimental to the interests of Victoria, a public meeting was held in Melbourne on the qth of June, at which a 'gold-discovery committee' was appointed, which was authorized to offer rewards to any that should discover gold in remunerative quantities within the colony. The colonists were already on the alert. At the time this meeting was held, several parties were out searching for, and some had already found gold. The precious metal was first discovered at Clunes, then in the Yarra ranges at Anderson's Creek, soon after at Buninyong and Ballarat, shortly afterwards at Mount Alexander, and eventually at Bendigo. The deposits were found to be richer and to extend over a wider area than any which had been discovered in New South Wales Their fame soon spread to the adjacent colonies, and thousands hastened to the spot . . . When the news reached home, crowds of emigrants from the United Kingdom hurried to our shores. Inhabitants of other European countries quickly joined in the rush. Americans from the .Atlantic States were not long in follow- ing. Stalwart Californians left their own gold- yielding rocks and placers to try their fortunes at the Southern Eldorado. Last of all, swarms of Chinese arrived, eager to unite in the general scramble for wealth. . . . The important position which the Australian colonies had obtained in consequence of the discovery of gold, and the influx of population consequent thereon, was the occa- sion of the Imperial Government determining in the latter end of 1852 that each colony should be invited to frame such a Constitution for its government as its representatives might deem best suited to its own peculiar circumstances. The Constitution framed in Victoria, and afterwards approved by the British Parliament, was avowedly based upon that of the United Kingdom. It provided for the establishment of two Houses of Legislature, with power to make laws, subject to the assent of the Crown as represented generally by the Governor of the colony ; the Legislative Council, or Upper House, to consist of 30, and the Legislative Assembly, or Lower House, to consist of 60 members. Members of both Houses to be elective and to possess property qualifica- tions. Electors of both Houses to possess either property or professional qualifications [the prop- erty qualification of members and electors of the Lower House has since been abolished]. . . . The Upper House not to be dissolved, but five mem- bers to retire every two years, and to be eligible 638 AUSTRALIA, 1858 Proposed Federation AUSTRALIA, 1890 for re-election. The Lower House to be dis- solved every five years [since reduced to three], or oftener, at the discretion of the Governor. Cer- tain officers of the Government, four at least of whom should have seats in Parliament, to be deemed 'Responsible Ministers.' . . . This Constitu- tion was proclaimed in Victoria on the 23d Novem- ber, 1855." — H. H. Hayter, Notes on the colony oj Victoria, cb. 1. — See also New South Wales: 1831-1855. Also in: F. p. Labilliere, Early history of the colony oj Victoria, v. 2. — W. VVestgarlh, First twenty years of the colony of Victoria. 1858. — Torrens system of land registration. See Land titles: 1858-1022; South Australu: 1840-1862. 1859. — Separation of the Moreton bay district from New South Wales. — Its erection into the colony of Queensland. — "Until December, 1850, the north-west portion of the Fifth Continent was known as the Moreton Bay district, and be- longed to the colony of New South Wales; but at that date it had grown so large that it was erected into a separate and independent colony, under the name of Queensland. It lies between lat. 10° 43' S. and 20° S., and long. 138° and 153° E., bounded on the north by Torres Straits; on the north-east by the Coral Sea; on the east by the South Pacific; on the south by New South Wales and South Australia; on the west by South Australia and the Northern Territory ; and on the north-west by the Gulf of Carpentaria. It covers an area . . . twenty times as large as Ireland, twenty-three times as large as Scotland, and eleven times the extent of England. . . . Numer- ous good harb jurs are found, many of which forn? the outlets of navigable rivers. The principal of these [is] Moreton Bay, at the head of which stands Brisbane, the capital of the colony. . . . The mineral wealth of Queensland is very great, and every year sees it more fully developed. . . . Until the year 1867, when the Gympie field was discovered, gold mining as an industry was hardly known." — C. H. Eden, Fifth continent, ch. 10. 1866. — Tariff legislation of Victoria and New South Wales. See Tariff: 1862-1802. 1885-1892. — Proposed federation of the colo- nies. — "It has been a common saying in Australia that our fellow countrymen in that part of the world did not recognise the term 'Australian;' each recognised only his own colony and the empire. But the advocates of combination for certain common purposes achieved a great step, forward in the formation of a 'Federal Council' in 1885. It was to be only a 'Council,' its de- cisions having no force over any colony unless accepted afterwards by the colonial Legislature. Victoria, Queensland, Tasmania and West Aus- tralia joined. New South Wales, South Aus- tralia, and New Zealand standing out, and, so constituted, it met twice. The results of the de- liberations were not unsatisfactory, and the opin- ion that the move was in the right direction rapidly grew. In February of i8qo a Federation Con- ference, not private but representative of the different Governments, was called at Melbourne. It adopted an address to the Queen declaring the opinion of the conference to be that the best interests of the Australian colonies require the early formation of a union under the Crown into one Government, both legislative and executive. Events proceed quickly in Colonial History. In the course of i8qo the hesitation of New South Wales was finally overcome: powerful factors being the weakening of the Free Trade position at the election of i8qo, the report of General Edwards on the Defences, and the difficulties about Chinese immigration. A Convention accordingly assembled at Sydney in March, i8gi, which agreed upon a Constitution to be recommended to the several Colonies." — A. Caldecott, English coloniza- tion and empire, ch. 7, sect. 2. — "On Monday, March 2nd, i8gi, the National Australasian Con- vention met at the Parliament House, Sydney, New South Wales, and was attended by seven representatives from each Colony, except New Zealand, which only sent three. Sir Henry Parkes (New South Wales) was elected President of the Convention, and Sir Samuel Griffith (Queensland), \'ice-President. A series of resolutions, moved by Sir Henry Parkes, occupied the attention of the Convention for several days. These resolu- tions set forth the principles upon which the Federal Government should be established, which were to the effect that the powers and privileges of existing Colonies should be kept intact, ex- cept in cases where surrender would be necessary in order to form a Federal Government; that intercolonial trade and intercourse should be free; that power to impose Customs duties should rest with the Federal Government and Parliament ; and that the naval and military defence of Aus- tralia should be entrusted to the Federal Forces under one command. The resolutions then went on to approve of a Federal Constitutioh which should establish a Federal Parliament to consist of a Senate and a House of Representatives; that a Judiciary, to consist of a Federal Supreme Court, to be a High Court of Appeal for Australia, should be established; and that a Federal Ex- ecutive, consisting of a Governor-General, with responsible advisers, should be constituted. These resolutions were discussed at great length, and eventually were adopted. The resolutions were then referred to three Committees chosen from the delegates, one to consider Constitutional Ma- chinery and the distribution of powers and func- tions; one to deal with matters relating to Finance, Taxation, and Trade Regulations; and the other to consider the question of the establishment of a Federal Judiciary. A draft Bill, to constitute the 'Commonwealth of Australia,' was brought up by the first mentioned of these Committees, and after full consideration was adopted by the Con- vention, and it was agreed that the Bill should be presented to each of the Australian Parlia- ments for approval and adoption. On Thursday, .April qth, the Convention closed its proceedings. The Bill to provide for the Federation of the Australasian colonies entitled W Bill to constitute a Commonwealth of Australia,' which was drafted by the National Australasian Convention, has been introduced into the' Parliaments of most of the colonies of the group, and is still (October, 1802), under consideration. In Victoria it has passed the Lower House with some amendments." — States- man's year-book, 1803, p. 308. 1890.— New South Wales and Victoria. — Prog- ress in these separated colonies. — New South Wales most important of the Australian col- onies. — "New South Wales bears to Victoria a cer- tain statistical resemblance. The two colonies have [1800] about the same population, and, roughly speaking, about the same revenues, expenditure, debt and trade. In each, a great capital collects in one neighbourhood more than a third of the total popu- lation. . . . But . . . considerable differences lie be- hind and are likely to develop in the future. New South Wales, in the opinion of her enemies, is less enterprising than Victoria, and has less of the go-ahead spirit which distinguishes the Mel- bourne people. On the other hand she possesses a larger territory, abundant supplies of coal, and will have probably, in consequence, a greater fu- 639 AUSTRALIA, 1890 New South Wales and Victoria AUSTRALIA, 1894-1895 ture. Although New South Wales is three and a half times as large as Victoria, and has the area of the German Empire and Italy combined, she is of course much smaller than the three other but as yet less important colonies of the Aus- tralian continent [see Queensland, South Aus- tralia and Western Australia.] As the country was in a large degree settled by assisted emigrants, of whom something like half altogether have been Irish, while the English section was largely com- posed of Chartists, ... the legislation of New South Wales h.as naturally shown signs of its origin. Manhood suffrage was carried in 1858; the abolition of primogeniture in 1S62; safe and easy transfer of land through the machinery of the Torrens Act in the same year; and also the aboli- tion of state aid to religion. A public system of education was introduced, with other measures of democratic legislation. . . . Public education, which in Victoria is free, is stUl paid for by fees in New South Wales, though children going to or returning from school are allowed to travel free by railway. In general it may be said that New South Wales legislation in recent times has not been so bold as the legislation of Victoria. . . . The land of New South Wales has to a large extent come into the hands of wealthy per- sons who' are becoming a territorial aristocracy. This has been the effect firstly of grants and of squatting legislation, then of the perversion of the Act of 1861 [for 'Free Selection before Sur- vey'] to the use of those against whom it had been aimed, and finally of natural causes — soil, climate and the lack, of water. . . . The traces of the convict element in New South Wales have become very slight in the national character. The prevailing cheerfulness, running into fickle- ness and frivolity, with a great deal mote vivacity than exists in England, does not suggest in the least the intermixture of convict blood. It is a natural creation of the climate, and of the full and varied life led by colonists in a young coun- try. ... A population of an excellent type has swallowed up not only the convict element, but also the unstable and thriftless element shipped by friends in Britain to Sydney or to Melbourne. The ne'-er-do-weeb were either somewhat above the average in brains, as was often the case with those who recovered themselves and started life afresh, or people who drank themselves to death and left no descendants. The convicts were also of various classes; some of them were men in whom crime was the outcome of restless energy, as, for instance, in many of those transported for treason and for manslaughter; while some were people of average morality ruined through com- panions, wives, or sudden temptation, and some persons of an essentially depraved and criminal life. The better classes of convicts, in a new coun- try, away from their old companions and old temptations, turned over a new leaf, and their abilities and their strong vitality, which in some cases had wrought their ruin in the old world, found healthful scope in subduing to man a new one. Crime m their cases was an accident, and would not be transmitted to the children they left behind them. On the other hand, the genuine criminals, and also the drunken ne'er-do-weels, left no children. Drink and vice among the 'assigned servants' class of convicts, and an ab- sence of all facilities for marriage, worked them off the face of the earth, and those who had not been killed before the gold discovery generally drank themselves to death upon the diggings." — Sir C. W. Dilke, Problems of greater Britain, pi. 2, ch. 2. 1890-1891. — Great strike. — Its failure and aid to the Labor party. — As the result of a down- ward movement in prices, numerous employers attempted to reduce wages. This intensified a growing labor unrest and what is known as the great strike followed, with its center in Sydney. Shearers, miners and other trades stopped work in September and October, 1S90, at the height of the wool season, to such an extent that the maritime and pastoral industries of practically all of Australia were injuriously affected. The strike ended, however, in November, 1800, in favor of the employers. The failure of the great strike gave effective impetus to the growth of the Labor party in New South Wales, where in the election of iSqi the party won thirty-five seats out of one hundred and twenty-five. — See also Labor parties: i8S6-iqo6; New South W.ales: i8gi. 1891-1913. — Industrial arbitration in Australia and New Zealand. See Arbitration and con- ciliation, In'dustri.\l: Australia: 1891-1912; and New Zealand: 1802-1Q13. 1893. — Woman suffrage in New Zealand. See Suffrage, Woman: New Zealand. 1893-1895. — Labor settlements in South Aus- tralia. See South .\ustr.\lia: 1893-1895. 1894-1895.— New South Wales.— Defeat of the protectionist policy. — Adoption of a liberal tariff. — .\t the general elections of July, 1S94, in New South Wales, the tariff issue was sharply de- fined. " 'Protection' was inscribed on the banners of the ministerial party, led by the then Premier, Sir George Dibbs, while the aggressive opposition, led by Mr. Reid, . . . fought under the banner of 'free trade.' The Free Traders won the battle in that election, as there were 63 Free Traders, 40 Protectionists, and 22 labor members, mostly with free-trade leanings, returned. On the reassembling of Parliament, Sir George Dibbs was confronted with a large majority, and Mr, George H. Reid was called to form a government on the lines suggested by the issues of the campaign. The Council or 'upper house,' consisting of Crown nominees for life, rejected the measures suggested by Mr. Reid and passed by the .Assembly by an overwhelming majority, and Mr. Reid dissolved Parliament on July 6, 1895, and appealed to the country. The election was held on July 24, and again the issues, as set forth in the measures, were fought out vig- orously. The great leader of protection. Sir George Dibbs, with several of his ablest followers, w'as defeated, and the so-called Free Trade party came back, much stronger than before. Thus, it was claimed that the mandate of the people, declaring for free trade and direct taxation, had been re- affirmed, and on the reassembling of Parliament, on August 13, the same measure, as passed by the .\ssembly and rejected by the Council, was again presented and passed by the .Assembly by a ma- jority of so to 26, and again went to the upper house. Again it was met with great hostility, but the Government party in that chamber, having been augmented by ten new appointments, the temper of the house was softened and the bill was passed with some two hundred and fifty amend- ments. As the .Assembly could only accept some eighty of these without yielding material points ... a conference was suggested, which, after sev- eral days of discussion, agreed to a modified mea- sure, embracing the principle of free trade, as in- terpreted in this colony, and direct taxation, and the new law goes into effect as above stated, on January i, 1896. — It may be well here to remark that there are a few articles, notably raw sugar, glucose, molasses, and treacle, upon which the duty will be removed gradually, so as not to wantonly disturb vested interests, but, with these exceptions, the change is a very sweeping one." — 640 AUSTRALIA, 1895 Federation Accomplished AUSTRALIA, 1900 United States considar reports, June, 1896, p. 299. 1895. — Judicial Committee Amendment Act amends Privy Council. See Briiish empire: Co- lonial federation: Privy council as supreme court. 1897. — Conference of colonial premiers with the British colonial secretary. See British em- pire: Colonial and imperial conferences: 1897. 1900. — Federation of the Australian colonies. — Steps by which the union was accomplished. — Passage of the "Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act" by the imperial Parliament. — "The first indication of a plan for united action among the colonies is to be found in a proposal of Earl Grey in 1850. The main object of the proposal was to bring about uniformity in colonial tariffs; but, though partially adopted, it came to nothing. From 1850 to i860 the project of federa- tion was discussed from time to time in several of the colonial legislatures, and committees on the subject were appointed. But there seems to have been little general interest in the question, and up to i860 all efforts in the direction of federation met with complete failure. Shortly after, how- ever, a new form of united action, less ambitious but more likely of success, was suggested and adopted. From 1863 to 1S83 conferences of colo- nial ministers were held at various times to discuss certain specified topics, with a view to introducing identical proposals in the separate colonial legis- latures. Si.x of these conferences were held at Mel- bourne and three at Sydney ; and one also was held at Hobart in 1895, though the period of the real activity of the conference scheme practically closed in 1883. The scheme proved a failure, be- cause it was found impossible to carry out the measures concerted in the conferences. But ma- terial events were doing more than could any public agitation to draw attention to the advan- tages of closer union. The colonies were growing in population and wealth, railroads were building and commerce was extending. The inconveniences of border customs duties suggested attempts at something like commercial reciprocity between two or more colonies. New political problems also helped to arouse public interest. Heretofore there had been little fear of foreign aggression and, hence, no feeling of the need of united action for com- mon defense ; nor had there been any thought of the extension of Australian power and interests be- yond the immediate boundaries of the different colonies. But the period from 1880 to 1890 wit- nessed a change in this respect. It was during this period that much feeling was aroused against the influx of French criminals, escaped from the penal settlements in New Caledonia. The diffi- culties in regard to New Guinea belong also to this decade. Suspicion of the designs of Germany upon that part of the island of New Guinea near- est the Dutch boundary led to the annexation of its eastern portion by the Queensland government. This action was disavowed by the British govern- ment under Gladstone, and the fears of the colo- nists were ridiculed; but almost immediately after the northern half of New Guinea was forcibly taken possession of by Germany. The indignation of Australians was extreme, and the opinion was freely expressed that the colonies would have to unite to protect their own interests. Finally, this was the time of the French designs on the New Hebrides Islands and of German movements with reference to Samoa. These conditions, economic and political, affected all the colonies more or less intimately and resulted in the first real, though loose, form of federal union. At the instigation of the Honorable James Service, premier of Vic- toria, a convention met at Sydney, November, 1883, composed of delegates from all the colonial governments. This convention adopted a bUI pro- viding for the establishment of a Federal Council, with power to deal with certain specified subjects and with such other matters as might be referred to it by two or more colonies. . . . New South Wales and New Zealand refused to agree to the bill, but it was adopted by the other colonies; and the Imperial Parliament, in 1885, passed an act permitting such a Council to be called into ex- istence at the request of any three colonies, to be joined by other colonies as they saw fit. Meet- ings of the Council took place in 1886, 1888, 1889 and 1891, but very little was accomplished. That the Federal Council was a very weak affair is obvious. . . . Meanwhile, interest in a more ade- quate form of federation was growing. In 1890 Sir Henry Parkes proposed a plan for federal union of a real and vigorous sort. At his suggestion, a conference met at Melbourne, February 6, 1890, to decide on the best method of getting the question into definite shape for consideration. . . . Provision was made ... for the calling of a convention to draw up a constitution. ... In accordance with the decision of the conference, delegates from the several colonies convened at Sydney, March 2, 1891 ; and with the work of this convention began the third and final stage in the federation move- ment. The Sydney convention formulated a bill, embodying a draft of a federal constitution, and then resolved that provision should be made by the several parliaments to submit it to the people in much manner as each colony should see fit. . . . But there was not sufficient external pressure to bring about an immediate discussion and an early settlement. . . . The result was that nothing was done. . . . Meanwhile, federation leagues had been organized in different colonies, and in 1893 dele- gates from a number of these leagues met at Ben- digo, Victoria. . . . After adopting the bill of 1891 as a basis of discussion, the Bendigo conference resolved to urge the colonial governments to pass uniform enabling acts for a new convention — its members to be elected by popular vote — to frame a constitution which should be submitted to the people for approval. This proposal met with gen- eral favor and resulted in the calling of a meeting of the premiers of all the colonies at Hobart in January, 1895. There an enabling bill was drafted which five premiers agreed to lay before their re- spective parliaments. ... It took two years to get this machinery into working order. At length, however, the requisite authority was granted by five colonies: New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania, Queensland and New Zealand declining to partici- pate. On March 22, 1897, the second constitutional convention assembled at Adelaide. This convention drew up a new federal constitution, based upon the draft of 1801. Between May 5 and September 2 the constitution was discussed in each of the par- liaments. When the convention reassembled at Sydney on March 2, as many as 75 amendments were reported as suggested by the different colo- nies. Many were of an insignificant character and many were practically identical. The consti- tution and proposed amendments were discussed in two sessions of the convention, which finally ad- journed March 16, 1898, its work then being ready to submit to the people. In June a popular vote resulted in the acceptance of the constitution by Victoria, Tasmania, and South Australia; but the failure of the parent colony. New South Wales, to adopt it blocked all hope of federal union for the moment. [Later] at a conference of colonial pre- miers certain amendments demanded by New South Wales were agreed to in part, and upon a second 641 AUSTRALIA, 1900 ConstUation AUSTRALIA, 1900 ' Act vote the constitution, as amended, was accepted by constitute the Commonwealth of Australia," as that colony." — W. G. Beach, Australian federal may be seen by reference to the text. See Aus- constUution (Political Science Quarterly, Dec, tralia; Constitution of; also British empire: iSgq). — in August, iSqg, the draft of a constitu- Colonial federation: Authority of imperial Parlia- tion thus agreed upon was transmitted to England, ment. with addresses from the provincial legislatures, 1900. — Question of the federal capital. — By praying that it be passed into law by the Imperial the constitution of the commonwealth, it is re- Parliament. Early in the following year delegates quired that the seat of government "shall be de- from the several colonies were sent to England to termined by the Parliament, and shall be within discuss with the colonial office certain questions territory which shall have been granted to or ac- that had arisen, and to assist in procuring the pas- quired by the Commonwealth, and shall be vested sage by Parliament of the necessary act. Looked in and belong to the Commonwealth, and shall be at from the ijnperial standpoint, a number of ob- in the State of New South Wales, and be distant jections to the draft constitution were found, but not less than one hundred miles from Sydney;" all of them were finally waived excepting one. and "such territory shall contain an area of not That one related to a provision touching appeals less than one hundred square miles." "New South from the high court of the .Australian common- Wales," says a correspondent, writing from Sydney, wealth to the queen in council. As framed arid "is naturally anxious to get the question decided as adopted in Australia, the provision in question was quickly as possible ; but Victoria will equally be as follows: "74. No appeal shall be permitted to inclined to procrastinate, and the new Parliament the Queen in Council in any matter involving the — which cannot be more comfortable than it will interpretation of this Constitution or of the Con- be at Melbourne — will not be in a hurry to shift, stitution of a State, unless the public interests of The necessity for a new and artificial capital arises some part of Her Majesty's Dominions, other than entirely out of our provincial jealousies, and it the Commonwealth or a State, are involved. Ex- would have been a great saving of initial expense cept as provided in this section, this Constitution and a great diminution of inconvenience if we shall not impair any right which the Queen may could have used one of the old capitals for a be pleased to exercise, by virtue of Her Royal quarter of a century." To remove preliminary Prerogative, to grant special leave of appeal from difficulties and ayoid delay, the government of the High Court to Her Majesty in Council. But New South Wales appointed a commissioner to The Parliament may make laws limiting the mat- visit and report on the most likely places. The ters in which such leave may be asked." This was report of this commissioner, made early in Octo- objected to on several grounds, but mainly for ber, "reduces the possible positions to three — one the reasons thus stated by Mr. Chamberlain: near Bombala in the south-east corner of the "Proposals are under consideration for securing a colony at the foot of the .Australian Alps, one permanent and effective representation of the great near Yass on the line of the railway between Colonies on the Judicial Committee, and for amal- Sydney and Melbourne, and one near Orange on gamating the Judicial Committee with the House our western line. On the whole he gives the pref- of Lords, so as to constitute a Court of Appeal erence to the first named." from the whoje British Empire. It would be very 1900 (August). — Vote of West Australia to unfortunate if Australia should choose this mo- join the commonwealth. — The question of union ment to take from the Imperial Tribunal the cog- with the other colonies in the commonwealth, from nizance of the class of cases of greatest importance, which the West .Australians had previously held and often of greatest difficulty. Article 74 pro- aloof, was submitted to them in August (women poses to withdraw from the Queen in Council mat- voting for the first time), and decided affirmatively ters involving the interpretation of the Constitu- by 44,704 against iq,6gi (see also Western Aus- tion. It is precisely on questions of this kind that tralia: 1900). .Adding the West Australian totals the Queen in Council has been able to render most to the aggregate vote at the decisive referendum in valuable service to the administration of law in the each of the other federating colonies, the following Colonies, and questions of this kind, which may is the reported result: sometimes involve a good deal of local feeling, are the last that should be withdrawn from a Tribunal For federation 422,647 of appeal with regard to which there could not be Against federation 161,024 even a suspicion of prepossession. Questions as to the constitution of the Commonwealth or of a Majority 261 ,623 State may be such as to raise a great deal of public excitement as to the definition of the boundaries 1900 (September — December). — Queen's proc- between the powers of the Commonwealth Parlia- lamation of the Australian commonwealth.^ ment and the powers of the State Parliaments. It Contemplated visit of the duke and duchess of can hardly be satisfactory to the people of Aus- York to open the first session of the federal tralia that in such cases, however important and parliament. — Appointment of Lord Hopetoun to far-reaching in their consequences, the decision of be governor-general. — First federal cabinet. — the High Court should be absolutely final. Before On September 17, the following proclamation of long the necessity for altering the Constitution in the .Australian commonwealth was issued by the this respect would be felt, and it is better that queen: "Whereas by an .Act of Parliament passed the Constitution should be enacted in such a form in the sixty-third and sixty-fourth years of Our as to render unnecessary the somewhat elaborate reign, intituled '.An Act to constitute the Common- proceedings which would be required to amend it." wealth of Australia,' it is enacted that it shall be — Great Britain, Parliamentary publications (Pa- lawful for the Queen, with the advice of the Privy pers by Command, April and May, 1900, Austra- Council, to declare by Proclamation that, on and lia — Cd. 124 and 158). — In reply, the Australian after a day therein appointed, not being later than delegates maintained that they had no authority one year after the passing of this Act, the people to amend, in any particular, the instrument which of New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, the people of the several colonies had ratified by Queensland, and Tasmania, and also, if Her Ma- their votes; but the imperial authorities were in- jesty is satisfied that the people of W^estern Aus- flexible, and the article 74 was modified in the tralia have agreed thereto, of Western .Australia, act which passed Parliament, on July 7, 1900, "to shall be united in a Federal Commonwealth, under 642 AUSTRALIA, 1900 Proclamation of Commonwealth AUSTRALIA, 1901 the name of the Commonwealth of Australia. And whereas We are satisfied that the people of Western Australia have agreed thereto accordingly. We therefore, by and with the advice of Our Privy Council, have thought fit to issue this Our Royal Proclamation, and We do hereby declare that on and after the first day of January, one thousand nine hundred and one, the people of New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Queensland, Tasmania, and Western Australia shall be united in a Federal Commonwealth under the name of the Commonwealth of Australia. Given at Our Court at Balmoral, this seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand nine hundred, and in the sixty-fourth year of Our Reign. God save the Queen." At the same time, the following announcement, which caused extreme delight in Australia, was published officially from the colonial office: "Her Majesty the Queen has been graciously pleased to assent, on the recommendation of the Marquis of Salisbury, to the visit of their Royal Highnesses the Duke and Duchess of York to the colonies of Australasia in the spring of next year. His Royal Highness the Duke of York will be commissioned by her Maj- esty to open the first Session of the Parliament of the .Australian Commonwealth in her name. Al- though the Queen naturally shrinks from parting with her grandson for so long a period, her Maj- esty fully recognizes the greatness of the occasion which will bring her colonies of Australia into federal union, and desires to give this special proof of her interest in all that concerns the wel- fare of her Australian subjects. Her Majesty at the same time wishes to signify her sense of the loyalty and devotion which have prompted the spontaneous aid so liberally offered by all the colonies in the South African war, and of the splendid gallantry of her colonial troops. Her Majesty's assent to this visit is, of course, given on the assumption that at the time fixed for the Duke of York's departure the circumstances are as generally favourable as at present and that no national interests call for his Royal Highness's presence in this country." To manifest still further the interest taken by the British government in the event, it was made known in October that "when the Duke of York opens the new Common- wealth Parliament, the guard of honour, it is di- rected, shall be so made up as to be representative of every arm of the British Army, including the Volunteers. To the Victoria and St. George's Rifles has fallen the honour of being selected to represent the entire Volunteer force of the country. A detachment of the regiment, between 50 and 60 strong, will accordingly leave for Australia in about a month and will be absent three or four months." The honor of the appointment to be the first governor-general of the new common- wealth fell to a Scottish nobleman, John Adrian Louis Hope, seventh early of Hopetoun, vvfho had been governor of Victoria from iSSq to 1805, and had held high offices at home, including that of lord chamberlain in the household of the queen. Lord Hopetoun landed at Sydney on December 15 and received a great welcome. On the 30th, his cabinet was formed, and announced, as follows: Mr. Barton, prime minister and minister for ex- ternal affairs; Mr. Deakin, attorney-general; Sir William Lyne, minister for home affairs; Sir George Turner, treasurer; Mr. Kingston, minister of trade and commerce; Mr. Dickson, minister of defence; Sir John Forrest, postmaster-general. 1901. — Control of New Guinea. See New Guinea or PiPU.4: igoi ; and Pacific ocean: 1800- 1914. 1901 (January). — Inauguration of the federal 643 government. — The government of the common- wealth was inaugurated with splendid ceremonies on the first day of the new year and the new cen- tury, when the governor-general and the members of the federal cabinet were sworn and assumed office. Two messages from the British secretary of state for the colonies were read, as follows: "The Queen commands me to express through you to the people of Australia her Majesty's heart- felt interest in the inauguration of the Common- wealth, and her earnest wish that, under divine Providence, it may ensure the increased pros- perity and well-being of her loyal and beloved subjects in Australia." "Her Majesty's Government send cordial greet- ings to the Commonwealth of Australia. They welcome her to her place among the nations united under her Majesty's sovereignty, and confidently anticipate for the new Federation a future of ever-increasing prosperity and influence. They recognize in the long-desired consummation of the hopes of patriotic Australians a further step in the direction of the permanent unity of the Brit- ish Empire, and they are satisfied that the wider powers and responsibilities henceforth secured by Australia will give fresh opportunity for the display of that generous loyalty and devotion to the Throne and Empire which has always characterized the action in the past of its several States." — See also Federal government: Australia. 1901 (May). — Opening of the first parliament of the commonwealth by the heir to the British crown. — Program of the federal government. — The duke of Cornwall and York, heir to the Brit- ish crown (but not yet created Prince of Wales), sailed, with his wife, from England in March, to be present at the opening of the first Parliament of the federated commonwealth of Australia, which was arranged to take place early in May. He made the voyage in royal state, on a steamer specially fitted and converted for the occasion into a royal yacht, with an escort of two cruisers. Pre- liminary to the election and meeting of Parlia- ment, the new federal government had much or- ganizing work to do, and much preparation of measures for Parliament to discuss. The premier, Mr. Barton, in a speech made on January 17, an- nounced that the customs were taken over from the several states on January i, and the defences and post-offices would be transferred as soon as possible. "Probably the railways would be ac- quired by the Commonwealth at an early date. Whether the debts of the several States would be taken over before the railways was a matter which had to be decided, and was now engaging the at- tention of the Treasurer. The Ministry would not consider the appointment of a Chief Justice of the High Court until Parliament had established that tribunal." In the same speech, the main features of the programme and policy of the federal gov- ernment were indicated. "The Commonwealth," said the premier, "would have the exclusive power of imposing Customs and excise duties, and it would, therefore, be necessary to preserve the States' power of direct taxation. There must be no direct taxation by the Commonwealth except un- der very great pressure. Free trade under the Constitution was practically impossible; there must be a very large Customs revenue. . . . The policy of the Government would be protective, not pro- hibitive, because it must be revenue-producing. No one colony could lay claim to the adoption of its tariff, whether high or low. The first tariff of Australia ought to be considerate of existing in- dustries. The policy of the Government could be summed up in a dozen words. It would give Aus- tralia a tariff that would be Australian. Regard- AUSTRALIA, 1901-1902 Tariff "State Rights" AUSTRALIA, 1902 ing a preferential duty on British goods, he would be glad to reciprocate where possible, but the ques- tion would have to receive very serious consider- ation before final action could be taken. Among the legislation to be introduced at an early date, Mr. Barton continued, were a Conciliation and Arbitration Bill in labour disputes, and a Bill for a transcontinental railway, which would be of great value from the defence point of view. He was in favour of womanhood suffrage. Legisla- tion to exclude Asiatics would be taken in hand as a matter of course." 1901-1902. — Tariff question in the first parlia- ment of the commonwealth. — Issue between the senate and the representative chamber. — ■The tariff originally proposed by the government was framed on lines of extreme protection, with special reference to the languishing industries of Victoria; it was inevitable that the opposition, mainly rep- resenting New South Wales, should fight tooth and nail to prevent its becoming law. The result of the struggle, which lasted almost without a serious interruption for nine months, has been a com- promise which leaves the tariff of the common- wealth neither one thing nor the other. There can be little doubt that in debating power and political generalship the victory lay generally with the op- position ; but after all the result, so far as it was a victory for the party of free trade, was due to the action of the Senate. To many, and appar- ently not least to the cabinet, the prompt and ef- fective interference of the Senate in a question of taxation, which was generally supposed to be prac- tically placed by the constitution almost as much beyond their control as custom has placed it be- yond that of the House of Lords in England, was a great surprise, and as the first test of the re- spective powers of the two chambers of the legis- lature it can hardly fail to be of great political importance. It was provided by the constitution not only that all bills involving the taxation of the people, directly or indirectly, should, as in this country, originate in the representative chamber of the legislature, but further that such bills should not be altered or amended in their passage through the Senate. As a concession to the less populous states, it was agreed when the constitution was framed that while only the chamber, elected on a strict basis of population, should impose or control taxation, the Senate, in which all the states enjoy, as in America, equal representation, should have the right to suggest, for the considera- tion of the other chamber, any amendments it thought desirable in any money bill sent on for its assent. This provision, mild and inoffensive as it was supposed to be, has now been used in a way to upset the policy of the government, and practically to compel the assent of the representa- tive chamber to the views of a Senate majority. The tariff bill as passed by the government ma- jority was subjected to an exhaustive criticism by the Senate, and finally fully fifty items of the schedule imposing duties were referred back to the representative chamber, with a request for their reconsideration and reduction or excision. The government attempted to meet the difficulty by agreeing to a few trifling amendments on the lines suggested, and got the chamber peremptorily to reject all the others, sending the bill back in effect as it was. To this the Senate replied by calmly adhering to the views it had already expressed, and sending the bill back again for further con- sideration, allowing it to be pretty plainly under- stood that, in the event of their views being ig- nored, they would place their reasons on record and reject the bill altogether, thus preventing any uniform tariff being established during the session. Face to face with so grave a difficulty the cabinet gave way, and agreed to a compromise which they would not have dreamed of doing but for the ac- tion of the Senate, with its free-trade majority of two votes. The immediate result of the long strug- gle has been the passing of a tariff act which pleases neither party, but will apparently raise the required revenue of $40,000,000, needed to meet the wants of the federal and state governments." — H. H. Lusk, First parliament of Australia (Ameri- can Review of Reviews, March 1903). 1901-1911.— Child labor legislation. See Child WELF.ARE LECISL.4TI0N; lOOI-IQIl. 1902. — "States rights" temper. — Question of constitutional relations between commonwealth and states in external affairs, as raised by South Australia. — Decision of the imperial govern- ment. — "State-rights" questions and the provin- cialistic spirit behind them made a prompt ap- pearance in the Australian commonwealth after its federation was accomplished. One of the first wrangles to occur between the general govern- ment and that of a state was appealed necessarily to the imperial government at London, because it arose out of a call from the latter, in September, 1902, for information about an incident which concerned a Dutch ship. The request for informa- tion went from London to the commonwealth gov- ernment, and from the latter to the government of South Australia, where the incident in ques- tion occurred, involving some act of its officials. The South .Australian ministry declined to pass the desired information through the channel of the commonwealth ministry, but would give it to the British colonial office, direct. A long triangular argumentative correspondence ensued, in the eourse of which much that seems like a repetition of the early history of the United States of America ap- pears. Such as this, for example, in one of the letters of the acting premier of South Australia to the lieutenant-governor of that state: "The importance to the States, especially to the smaller States, of strictly maintaining the lines of demar- cation between Commonwealth and State power is manifest. Already a movement has begun to de- stroy the Federal element in the Constitution, A remarkable indication of this may be gathered from a speech made by Sir William Lyne, the Com- monwealth Minister for Home .\ffairs, at Kal- goorlie, in Western .Australia, on the 2nd day of the present month. Speaking of the Constitution, Sir William Lyne said; 'If the population increased in the States as he expected, he did not think three of the larger States would still consent to be gov- erned by four of the smaller ones. He hoped that when the time came there would not be bloodshed, but that tilings would settle themselves in a man- ner worthy of the records of the first Parliament.' Believing, as Ministers do, that the peaceful and successful working of the Constitution depends upon the strict maintenance of the lines of de- marcation between the powers of the Common- wealth and those of the States, and that that line is drawn clearly in the Constitution, they cannot agree to the opinions of the Right Honourable the Secretary of State for the Colonies, which in- crease, by implication, the power of the Common- wealth, and which seem to Ministers to tend to Unification, and to a sacrifice of the Federal to the National principle." This communication, transmitted to London, drew from the then colo- nial secretary, Mr. Chamberlain, a reply addressed to the lieutenant-governor and dated April 15, 1903, in part as follows: "Your Ministers contend 'that the grant of power to the Commonwealth, notwith- standing the general terms of Section 3 of the Acl, is strictly limited to the Departments transferred, 644 AUSTRALIA, 1902 Naval Act Federal elections AUSTRALIA, 1903-1904 and to matters upon which the Commonwealth Parliament has power to make laws and has made laws,' and that 'in the distribution of legislative and consequently of executive power, made by the Constitution, all powers not specifically ceded to the Commonwealth remain in the_5tates.' They are unable to agree 'with the contention that there does not appear to be anything in the Constitu- tion to justify this limitation,' and argue that the validity of any claim of the Commonwealth to any particular power, should be tested by enquir- ing: — Does the Constitution specifically confer the power? The view of the Act which I take is that it is a Constitution Act, and creates a new political community. It expressly declares that 'the people of New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Queensland, and Tasmania, and also, if Her Majesty is satisfied that the people of Western Australia have agreed thereto, of Western Australia, shall be united in a Federal Commonwealth under the name of the Coinmonwealth of Australia.' The object and scope of the Act is defined and declared by the preamble to be to give effect to the agree- ment of the people of New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Queensland, and Tasmania 'to unite in one indissoluble Federal Commonwealth under the Crown of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and under the Constitution hereby established." The whole Act must be read in the light of this declaration and the provisions of Section 3. So far as other communities in the Empire or foreign nations are concerned, the people of Australia form one political community for which the Government of the Commonwealth alone can speak, and for everything affecting ex- ternal states or communities, which takes place within its boundaries, that Government is respon- sible. The distribution of powers between the Federal and State Authorities is a matter of purely internal concern of which no external country or community can take any cognizance. It is to the Commonwealth and the Commonwealth alone that, through the Imperial Government, they must look, for remedy or relief for any action affecting them done witfiin the bounds of the Commonwealth, whether it is the act of a private individual, of a State official, or of a State government. The Com- monwealth is, through His Majesty's Government, just as responsible for any action of South Aus- tralia affecting an external community as the United States of America are for the action of Louisiana or any other State of the Union. The Crown undoubtedly remains part of the constitu- tion of the State of South Australia and, in mat- ters affecting it in that capacity, the proper channel of communication is between the Secretary of State and the State Governor. But in matters affecting the Crown in its capacity as the central authority of the Empire, the Secretary of State can, since the people of Australia have become one political community, look only to the Governor-General, as the representative of the Crown in that com- munity." The published correspondence ends with this, and it is to be assumed that South Australia had no more to say. — Correspondriice rcspertiiig the constitutional relations of the Australian com- monwealth and states in regard to external affairs (Parliamentary papers, Cd. i.=;87). 1902. — British colonial conference at London. See British empire: Colonial and imperial confer- ences: 1902. 1902. — Governor-generalship. — Lord Hopetoun resigned as governor-general in the summer, and was succeeded by Lord Tennyson. 1902-1909. — Undertakings of irrigation and forestry. See Conservation of natural re- sources: Australia. 1903. — Governor-generalship. — In August, Lord Northcote, previously governor of the presidency of Bombay, was appointed governor-general of .\uslralia, succeeding Lord Tennyson. 1903-1913. — The Naval Agreement Act. — The Naval Agreement Act of 1903 provided that the naval force at the Australian naval headquarters at Sydney was to consist of not less than one first class armoured cruiser, two second class and four third class cruisers, four sloops and a Royal Naval Reserve of 700 seamen and stokers and twenty five officers. It was also stipulated that the base of the force should be the ports of Australia and New Zealand and the field of operation be in the waters of Australia, China and the East Indian stations. Another provision stated that one ship be held in reserve and that three others, partly manned, be used for the training of the Royal Naval Reserve. Special rates were paid to Aus- tralians and new Zealandcrs who manned the training ships, which were under the command of officers of the Royal Navy and Royal Naval Re- serve. The act expired in 1013. 1903-1904. — Resignation of Premier Barton. — Deakin ministry. — Four months of power for the Labor party. — Its influence in the common- wealth. — Sir Edmund Barton, who had been the prime minister of the Australian commonwealth since its union in 1000, resigned in 1003 to accept a place on the bench of the high federal court, and was succeeded by Mr. Alfred Deakin, previously attorney-general in the federal cabinet. The most important occurrence of the year in the common- wealth was the election of a new house of repre- sentatives in the federal Parliament and of one third of its senate. These were the first federal elections occurring since those of 1000 which con- stituted the original Parliament, opened in May, iqoi, and the first in which women went to the polls. The main issue in the elections was between the Labor party and its opponents, and the rising power of the former was shown by its gain of six seats in each house, four from the ministry and two from the opposition in the senate, and all six from the ministry in the lower house. This threw the balance of power into its hands in both branches of Parliament. Naturally, in these cir- cumstances, labor questions became dominant in Australian politics, with Socialistic tendencies very strong. The Deakin ministry was defeated in April 1QO4, on an industrial arbitration bill which excluded state railway employes and other civil servants from its provisions, contrary to the de- mands of the Labor party. The adverse ma- jority was made up of twenty-three Labor repre- sentatives, thirteen opponents of the protectionist policy of the government, and four from the ranks of its own ordinary supporters. The ministry re- signed, and the leader of the Labor party, Mr. J. C. Watson, a young compositor by trade, was called to form a government, which he did, drawing all but its law officer from the Labor party. It is creditable to the capability of this Labor ministry that, with so precarious a backing in the house, it should have held the management of government, with apparently good satisfaction to the public, for about four months. It was defeated in Au- gust on another labor question, and gave way to a coalition ministry of Free Traders and Moderate Protectionists, formed under Mr. George Houston Reid. An account of the Labor ministry and its leader, from which the following facts are taken, was given by Review of Reviews for Australasia at the time of its ascendancy: The average age of the members was only forty-three years, while in England sixty is the average age at which cor- responding rank is attained. The nationalities of 645 AUSTRALIA, 1903-1904 Labor Party AUSTRALIA, 1905-1906 the members were as follows: One, the prime minister, was a New Zealander, two were Aus- tralian-born, two were Irish, two were Scotch, and one was Welsh. There was not one who had been born in England. Mr. John Christian Wat- son, the premier, was but thirty-seven years of age. He was born in Valparaiso, where his par- ents were on a visit, but was only a few months old when they returned to New Zealand. At an early age he began his apprenticeship as a com- positor, joining the typographical union. When nineteen, he came to Sydney and joined the com- posing staff of the Star. Then he became presi- dent of the Sydney Trades and Labor Council, and president of the Political Labor League of New South Wales. In 1894, he was returned to a New South Wales Parliament, and took the leading place among the Labor members. In 1901,- he was re- turned to the first federal Parliament. He was selected to lead the Labor party in the federal house. The situation developed in this period is described by an Artierican writer, whose sympa- thies were with the Labor party, as follows; "Pro- tectionists and Free Traders (so called) were so divided in the Australian Parliament that neither could gain a majority without the Labor Party. A succession of governments bowled over by labor votes drove this hard fact into the political intel- ligence. The Labor Party was then invited to take the government. For five months men that had been carpenters, bricklayers, and painters ad- ministered the nation's affairs. No convulsion of nature followed, no upheavals and no disasters. It is even admitted that the government of these men was conspicuously wise, able, and successful. But having a minority party, their way was neces- sarily precarious, and on the chance blow of an adverse vote they resigned. Some scene shifting followed, but in the end the present arrangement was reached, by which the government is in the hands of the Protectionists that follow Mr, Deakin, and the ministry is supported by the Labor Party on condition that the Government adopt certain legislation. .\nd that is the extent of the 'absolute rule of the Labor gang.' The Deakin Government does not greatly care for the Labor Party, nor for the Labor Party's ideas, but it rules by reason of the Labor Party's support, and in return therefor has passed certain moderate and well-intentioned measures of reform. Indeed the sura-total of the 'revolutionary, radical, and socialistic laws' passed by the Labor Party, directly or by bargaining with the Deakin or other ministries, indicates an ex- ceedingly gentle order of revolution. It has done much in New South Wales and elsewhere to miti- gate the great estate evil by enacting graduated land taxes; it has passed humane and reasonable laws regulating employers' liability for accidents to workmen and laws greatly bettering the hard conditions of labor in mines and factories. It has passed a law to exclude trusts from Australian soil. It has stood for equal rights for men and women. In New South Wales it has enormously bettered conditions for toilers by regulating hours of employment even in department and other stores and by instituting a weekly half-holiday the year around for everybody. It has tried with a defective Arbitration and Conciliation Act to abol- ish strikes. To guard .Australia against the sober- ing terrors of the race problem that confronts America, it has succeeded in keeping out colored aliens. It has agitated for a Henry George land tax and for the national ownership of public ser- vices and obvious monopolies. And with one ex- ception this is the full catalogue of its misdeeds." The "one exception" was the abolition of coolie labor. — C. E, Russell, Uprising of the many, ch. 24. 1903-1908. — Anti-Indian agitations. See R.ace problems: igoj-iqoS. 1905-1906, — Mr. Deakin's precarious ministry, — Power of the Labor party without responsi- bility, — Its principles and its "Fighting plat- form," — Important legislation of 1905, — Federal capital question, — General election of 1906, — Mr. Reid, the Free Trade premier, had taken office on an agreement with Mr. Deakin, the Protection- ist leader, that the tariff question should not be opened during the terra of the existing Parliament. But the truce became broken early in 1905, each party attributing the breach to the other, and the Reid ministry, beaten on an amendment to the address replying to the governor-general's speech, resigned. The Protectionists, in provisional al- liance with the Labor party, then came back to power, with Mr. Deakin at their head. Of the political situation in 1905 it was said by a writer in one of the English reviews; "The Labour Party can dictate terms to the Ministry, and ensure that its own policy is carried out by others. It is strongest whilst it sits on the cross benches. Dur- ing the few months it was in office it was at the mercy of Parliament; it left most of the planks of its platform severely alone, and it had, during that time, less real pow'er than it has had either before or since. It is not likely again to take office, unless it can command an absolute majority of its own members to give effect to its own ideas, and, indeed, it perhaps would be better for Aus- tralia that it had responsibility as well as power, rather than as at present power without responsi- bility. However, if not at the next general elec- tion, the party is bound ere long to get the clear Parliamentary majority it seeks. Under these cir- cumstances, great importance attaches to its aims and organisation. ... To quote from the official report of the decisions of the last Triennial Con- ference of the Political Labour organisations of the Commonwealth, which sat in Melbourne last July, the objective of the Federal Labour party is as follows: (a) The cultivation of an .Australian sentiment, based upon the maintenance of racial purity, and the development in .Australia of an enlightened and self-reliant community, (b) The security of the full results of their industry to all producers by the collective ownership of monop- olies, and the extension of the industrial and eco- nomic functions of the State and Municipality, The Labour party seek to achieve this objective by means of a policy that they invariably refer to as their platform. The planks of what is called the 'Fighting Platform' are as follows: (i) The maintenance of a white .Australia. (2) The na- tionahsation of monopolies. (3) Old age pensions. {4) A tariff referendum. (5) .\ progressive tax on unimproved land values. (6) The restriction of public borrowing. (7) Navigation laws. (8) A citizen defence force. (9) .Arbitration amend- ment." — J. U. Kirwan, Australian labour party (Xineteenth Century, Nov.. 1Q05.) .A strike in one of the coal mines of New South Wales during 1005 brought the arbitration act of that province to an unsatisfactory test. The dispute, concerning wages, went to the arbitra- tion court and was decided against the miners. They refused to accept the decision, abandoning work, and the court, when appealed to by the employers, found itself powerless to enforce the decision it had made. The judge resigned in con- sequence, and there was difficulty in finding another to take his seat. The Labor party secured the passage of an act which gives the trades-union label the force of a trade mark. Another impor- tant act of 1905 modified the immigration re- striction act, so far as to admit Asiatic and other 646 AUSTRALIA, 1906 Trans- Australian Railway AUSTRALIA, 1907-1920 alien students and merchants, whose stay in the countiy was not likely to be permanent, and, furthermore, permitted the introduction of white labor under the contract, subject to conditions that were expected to prevent any . lowering of stand- ard wages. The location of a federal capital became a subject of positive quarrel between the government of the commonwealth and that of New South Wales. By agreements which pre- ceded the federation, the commonwealth capital was to be in New South Wales, but not less than a hundred miles from Sydney. This hundred-mile avoidance of Sydney was considerably exceeded by the federal government when it chose a site, to be called Dalgety, about equidistant from Sydney and Melbourne. New South Wales ob- jected to the site and objected to the extent of territory demanded for it. Mr. Deakin proposed a survey of go square miles for the Federal Dis- trict. New South Wales saw no reason for fed- eral jurisdiction over more than loo square miles. Ultimately Dalgety was rejected and a site named Yass-Canberra, or Canberra, was agreed upon and the choice confirmed by legislation. It is in the Murray district, about 200 miles south- west of Sydney. A general election in the com- monwealth, near the close of 1906, gave the pro- tectionists a small increase of strength in Parlia- ment, and the Labor party gained one seat, raising its representation from twenty-five to twenty-six. The losers were the so-called Free Traders, or opponents of protective tariff-making. Their leader, Mr. Reid, in the canvass, dropped the tariff and made war on the state socialism of the Labor party. He held in the new Parliament a considerably larger following than the Protec- tionist premier, Mr. Deakin, could muster, but it contained more Protectionists than Free Traders. 1906. — Developing the v/^ater supply. See Con- servation OF Natural Resot-trces: .iVustralia. 1907. — "New protection," under the Tariff Ex- cise Act. See Labor Remuneration: "New Pro- tection." 1907. — Colonial conference at London. See British empire: Colonial and imperial confer- ences: 1907. 1907-1920. — Trans- Australian railway. — Trans- fer of Northern territory to the commonwealth. — "A question of vital interest to Western Australia was that of the construction of a railway con- necting Perth with the eastern States. Forrest was wont to say that the principal reason which led the western State to join the Commonwealth was that assurances were given to him that the railway would be built. The railway, he maintained, was the inducement offered to \Vestern .Australia, just as the possession of the federal capital within her territory was the inducement to New South Wales. But the Constitution imposed no obligation to construct the line, and nobody had any authority to pledge the Commonwealth in advance to do anything which the Constitution did not require to be done. The alleged compact may not have weighed with the Federal Parliament, but the un- desirableness of having a whole State cut off by a great distance from the rest of the Common- wealth, without railway connexion, certainly did. If only for military reasons, it was felt that the chain of steel should be forged. The project was promised in the programme of the Barton Govern- ment in iQoi, and had been part of the policy of every successive Ministry. The whole of the Western Australian members were continually in- sistent about it. At length, in 1007, an Act was passed providing money for the survey of the 1,063 miles of route between Port Augusta, at the head of Spencer's Gulf, and Kalgoorlie, in the western State, whence a railway already ran to Perth. The surveyors found, as was expected, that the coun- try to be traversed by the line is largely unfit for human habitation ; but they also found plenty of good grass land which in favourable seasons will be valuable. Acting on the surveyor's report, the Fisher Government, in igii, secured the passage of a measure to authorize the construction of the line, which was estimated to cost about four million pounds." — E. Scott, Short history of Australia, p. 323. — How to attract population to the Northern Territory has been a problem which invited many experiments since 1S63, when it was annexed by royal letters patent to South Australia. The pros- pects for the development of that region were brighter than ever at the end of 1920, chiefly owing to the approaching completion of the Trans- Australian railway which would permit of exten- sive migration, settlements and exploitation of the country's natural resources. The Northern Terri- tory entered the commonwealth as a part of the state of South Australia in 1901 upon the forma- tion of the federation. In accordance with a provision in the commonwealth constitution act of 1900 and a contract agreement entered into in 1907, the Northern Territory was transferred to' the commonwealth. This was formally approved in 1911 when the necessary legislation was passed by the two parliaments concerned. At the same time the commonwealth assumed all responsibility for the state loans contracted by South Australia in the interest of the territory. It also purchased the railway from Port Augusta to Oodnadatta, and began the arduous undertaking of constructing the Trans-.^ustralian railway system. A great deal of the development of the Northern Territory, which opened up large areas of unoccupied land to graziers and settlers from the southern parts of Australia, is chiefly due to the expert management of Dr. Gilruth, the administrator of the territory. As a result of his energetic work profitable settle- ments are springing up along the nearly completed lines. The whole situation is an improvement over the condition of the territory when controlled from Adelaide. When completed, the Trans-Australian railway will be linked with the Western Australian system 387 miles from the sea and with the South Australian railway system at about 260 miles from Adelaide. Considerable work still remains undone although the railway was officially opened in No- vember, 1917. Throughout the course of the con- struction work many difficult situations presented themselves. Frequent failures by contractors to meet the terms of the contracts delayed the im- mense undertaking. A lack of suitable water for locomotives, causing numerous delays and heavy unforeseen expenses, was another handicap of no slight importance. The sub-normal industrial con- ditions brought on by the Great War held up the construction of large sections of the road for fully a year and often longer. Lack of water ior loco- motives is still a very serious problem which must be solved, since there is no running stream through- out the length of the railway. In order to deter- mine whether possibilities for pastoral and mineral development existed in the section, and whether conditions were favorable to the construction of reservoirs, explorations were made in 1917-1918 ex- tending to seventy miles north of the line. The road runs almost entirely through unexplored ter- ritory. It opens up vast spaces in western and southern .Australia. It is expected that the mining fields along this line will be developed to the great advantage of this region. All along the route of the railway valuable clays, salt and barytes have been discovered. Gold, opal, copper, tin and gyp- sum mines are also in evidence. According to the 647 AUSTRALIA, 1908 Return of Deakin AUSTRALIA, 1909 South Australian government geologist, "there is ample justification for any opal miner going to Stuart Range to look forward to the discovery of valuable opal." — See also Railroads: iqo8-iQi8. 1908. — Population of the commonwealth. — Change of ministry. — Governor-generalship. — According to a letter to the London Times, from Sydney, "the population of .Australia on December 31, 1Q08, was estimated at 4,275,304 (exclusive of full-blooded blacks), showing an increase of 509,965, or of 13.5 per cent, in the eight years of federation. That," said the writer, "is not a sat- isfactory e.-spansion, and we should have fared better. New South Wales gained 231,367, or 17 per cent, and Western .\ustralia 87,143. or 48.4 per cent, but all the other States fared indiffer- ently. There is reason to hope that in the change of fashion, Australia will again grow into some favour with the emigrant from home." Late in the vear, the ministry of Mr. Deakin lost the pro- visional support of the Labor party, which had kept it in control of the government for nearly four years, and suffered a defeat in Parliament which threw it out. For the second time a short- lived Labor ministry was formed, under Mr. Andrew Fisher. After five years of service as governor-general. Lord Northcote returned to England in the fall of 1908 and was succeeded by Lord Dudlev. 1909.— Attitude of the people toward immi- gration.— Land-locking against settlement. See Immigration axd emigration: Australia: 1909-1921. 1909. — A Summary of sixty years of growth and progress.— Sir John Forrest, treasurer of the commonwealth of Australia, in his budget speech to the federal house of representatives, in .\ugust, 1909, surveyed the position of Australia as part of the British nation, — a continent, he observed, con- taining two billion acres, with a coast line of 12,000 miles, no other nation having right or title to any part of this splendid heritage of the southern hemisphere, which was another home for the British race. Sixty years ago, said Sir John, the population of Australia was 400.000 and there were no railways. Now the inhabitants numbered nearly four-and-a-half millions, of whom 96 per cent, were British. They had £112,000,000 de- posited in banks and deposits in savings banks to the amount of over £46.000.000, the depositors in these being one-third of the entire population. They had produced minerals to the value of £713,000,000. Ten million acres were under crop. During 1908 .Australia had produced 62,000.000 bushels of wheat. It had exported butter of the value of £2,387,000 and wool of the value of £23,000,000. .Australia had 90,000,000 sheep, 10,000,000 cattle, and 2,000,000 horses. The over- sea trade in 1908 represented £114,000,000. — See also Democracy: Progress in the early part of the 20th century. 1909 (May-June). — Opening of the session of Parliament. — Program of business proposed. — Political situation.— Coalition under Mr. Deakin against the ministry.— Its success. — Resignation of Premier Fisher and cabinet. — Return of Mr. Deakin to power. — His program. — The federal Parliament was opened at Melbourne on May 26. In the speech of the governor-general. Lord Dud- ley, as reported to the Enelish press, he stated that "notwithstanding a decrease in the Customs and postal revenue, arrangements had been made to pay old-age pensions from July i. Large financial obligations would be incurred in the near future and would demand careful attention. Parliarnent would be invited to consider the financial relations between the Commonwealth and the States, with a view to an equitable adjustment of them. Pro- posals would be submitted for the establishment of a Commonwealth silver and paper currency. The governor-general went on to refer to the coming Imperial Defence Conference and the establishment of a General Staff for the Empire. Engagements had, he said, been entered into for the building of three destroyers, and Parliament would be asked to approve a policy of naval construction including the building of similar vessels in .Australia and the training of the necessary crews. A meas- ure providing for an effective citizens' defence force would be introduced at an early stage. It being recognized that the effective defence of .Aus- tralia required a vast increase in the population, it was proposed to introduce a measure of pro- gressive taxation on unimproved land values, lead- ing to a subdivision of large estates, so as to offer immigrants the inducement necessary to attract them in large numbers. Proposals would be submitted for the amendment of the Constitution, so as to enable Parliament to protect the interests of the consumer while ensuring a fair and reason- able wage to every worker, to extend the jurisdic- tion of Parliament in regard to trusts and combina- tions, and to provide for the nationalization of monopolies." In an editorial article on the situation at this juncture in .Australia, which was, it remarked, "as interesting as it is obscure," the London Times rehearsed the main facts of it as follows: "It will be remembered that towards the close of last year the withdrawal of its support by the Labour party led somewhat unexpectedly to the defeat and resig- nation of Mr. Deakin's Cabinet. \ Labour Min- istry was subsequently formed, and was enabled by Mr. Deakin's refusal to combine with the Oppo- sition against it to prorogue Parliament and get into recess. It has since elaborated a programme, announced by Mr. Fisher, the Prime Minister, to his constituents at Gympie, a few weeks ago, and recapitulated yesterday in the Governor-General's speech, which strongly resembles in most particu- lars the national policy advocated by Mr. Deakin when in power, and includes besides one or two additional proposals, such as 'the nationalization of monopolies,' more exclusively the property of the Labour party itself. These latter aspirations are probably more pious than practical, and are certainly not the issues on which the Labour Min- istry is now to stand or fall. It will stand or fall by its proposals for the readjustment of the financial relations between the Commonwealth and the States, the establishment of a local flotilla designed for coastal defence, the creation of a citizen army based on universal training, and the imposition of a progressive land tax calculated to bring about the subdivision of large estates. This latter proposal is the only one in which the Labour party cannot claim to be carrying out the spirit, if not the letter, of Mr. Deakin's own pro- gramme; but, curiously enough, it does not seem to be the question on which Mr. Deakin has taken immediate issue with them. He is taking issue, we gather, first and foremost on the question of defence. The Labour Ministry is to be censured for refusing to make the offer of the .Australian Dreadnought in the name of the Commonwealth. In taking this line Mr. Deakin has already made it clear that he has not in any way modified his previous views on the necessity of providing imme- diately for the creation of an .Australian flotilla, but he considers that this necessity should in no way prevent .Australia from adding in emergency to the strength of the British fleet. Speaking at Sydney last month, he said: 'Our defence need? not only our own flotilla but a fleet on the high 648 AUSTRALIA, 190g Braddon Section of Constitution AUSTRALIA, 1910 seas as well. It is for us to recognize that by joinirg New Zealand and making our offer of a Dreadnought for the Imperial Navy ... the Com- monwealth must do its share to prove the reality of Australia's federal unity, to prove the unity of the Empire, to stand beside the stock from which we came.' On this point there is no obscurity. It presents a clear difference of view dividing Mr. Deakin and the two sections of the Opposition with which he has now coalesced from the policy of the Ministry in power. But while it provides a rallying ground from which the coalition may defeat the Ministry, it provides no subsequent line of united advance. The terms on which the coali- tion has been formed seem indeed to contemplate no definite policy at all." The coalition against- the ministry of Mr. Fisher, referred to above, accomplished its purpose on the day after the opening of Parliament, by carry- ing a vote of adjournment which the ministry accepted as a vote of want of confidence, and re- signed. The former premier, Mr. Deakin, then resumed the reins of government, with a following that does not seem to have been expected to hold together very long. On the reassembling of Parlia- ment, June 23, the prime minister made a state- ment of the business to be submitted to the house, including along with other measures the following: "A Bill would be introduced establish- ing an inter-State commission which, in addition to the powers conferred by the Constitution, would undertake many of the functions of the British Board of Trade. It would also undertake the duties of a Federal Labour Bureau, which would comprise the study of the question of un- employment and a scheme for insurance against unemployment. The commission would also assist in the supervision of the working of the existing Customs tariff An active policy of immigra- tion would be undertaken, it was hoped with the co-operation of all the States. . . . The appoint- ment of a High Commissioner in London with a well-equipped office was necessary to take charge of the financial interests of the Commonwealth, to supervise immigration, and to foster trade and commerce. . . . The Old Age Pensions Act was to be amended in the direction of simplifying the conditions for obtaining the pensions. . . . The policy of the Government in the matter of land defence would be founded on universal training, commencing in youth and continuing towards manhood. A military college, a school of mus- ketry, and probably a primary naval college would be established to train officers. The counsel of one of the most experienced commanders of the British Army would be sought for with regard to the general development and disposition of Aus- tralia's adult citizen soldiers. In view of the approaching termination of the ten-year period of the distribution of the Customs revenue provided for in the Constitution, a temporary arrangement was being prepared, pending a satisfactory per- manent settlement. of the financial relation between the State and the Commonwealth." 1909 (June). — Imperial Press Conference at London. See British empire: Colonial and im- perial conferences: iQoq (June). 1909 (June). — Federal high court decision on anti-trust law. See Trusts: Australia: Tqo6-ioio. 1909 (July-September). — Imperial Defense Conference. — Defense bill in Parliament. — Pro- posed compulsory military training. See War, Preparations for: iqoq: British Imperial defense conference. 1909 (September). — Coal miners strike in New South Wales. See Labor organization: Aus- tralia, iQos-iqog; Strikes and lockouts. 1909 (September). — Meeting at Sydney of em- pire congress of chambers of commerce. See British empire: iqog (September). 1910. — Statistics of trade unions. See Labor organization: iqio-iqig. 1910. — Last year of a troublesome constitu- tional requirement. — .Article 87 of the constitution of the commonwealth of AustraUa, reads as fol- lows: "During a period of ten years after the establishment of the Commonwealth, and there- after until the ParUament otherwise provides, of the net revenue of the Commonwealth from duties of custom and of excise not more than one fourth shall be applied annually by the Commenwealth towards its expenditure. The balance shall, in ac- cordance with this Constitution, be paid to the several States, or applied toward the payment of interest on debts of the several States taken over by the Commonwealth." This, which has been known as the Braddon section, has imposed a seri- ous handicap on the federal government. As its working was described recently by an English press correspondent, "it made the Commonwealth raise four pounds whenever it wanted to spend one. It made the States begrudge the Commonwealth every penny it spent, even out of its own quarter — for every penny saved out of that quarter was an extra penny for the States. And it prevented every State Treasurer from knowing, until the Federal Treasurer had delivered his Budget speech, how much money he was likely to get from Federal sources for his own spending." At the end of the year iqio the requirement of the article ceased to be obligatory, and the federal Parliament was free to make a different appropriation of the reve- nue from customs and excise. Meantime the subject was under discussion, and in August, igoq, it was announced that a conference of the state governments had come to an agreement — subject to ratification by the federal government — which provided for the annual per capita payment of 25s. in lieu of the three-fourths of the customs revenue which had hitherto been returned to them. Western Australia was to receive a special extra contribution of £250,000, decreasing by iio,ooo annually until it ceased. Until the arrangement became operative, the commonwealth rftght deduct from the statutory payments to the states i6oo,ooo annually towards the cost of old-age pensions. The readjustment of state shares in the customs reve- nue was said to involve an annual loss to New South Wales of £1,000,000. According to a Lon- don newspaper correspondent, "the main effects to the Commonwealth are the abolition of the book-keeping system between the States, the power to issue Australian stamps, telegrams, &c., and the securing of about £2,300,000 a year, or more, addi- tional revenue. The States lose revenue to a similar amount, but there is a transfer of old-age pensions to the amount of nearly £1,000,000, of which they are relieved. In three of the States, all of which suffer little by the change, the pen- sions are new, and a considerable boon to the people. But more than half the money sacrifice falls upon New South Wales, and it goes to relieve her less prosperous neighbours. Well, that is true Federation ! Naturally the Southern States would have nothing but a per capita distribution from the Commonwealth and in New South Wales Min- isters agreed to it with their eyes open. At present the Commonwealth Government secures the further revenue needed. But whether this agreement will so distinctly suit that Government as the State populations grow is another matter." A bill for the required amendment of the federal constitu- tion was introduced in the house of representatives by the prime minister, Mr. Deakin, on September .649 AUSTRALIA, 1910-1915 t'isher Labor Government AUSTRALIA, 1911-1913 8. On November 4, in opposition to the govern- ment, an amendment to the bill, limiting the dura- tion of the agreement, instead of giving it force in perpetuity, was carried in committee of the whole by the casting vote of the chairman. On Decem- ber I the bill had its third reading in the senate. 1910-1915. — Labor government under Fisher. — "At the general election held in April, 1910, the electors of the Commonwealth . . . showed them- selves adverse to the Ministry. The tide ran high and full for the Labour Party, and swept it back to Parliament with a majority in both the Senate and the House of Representatives. In the former House it captured every seat — that is, eighteen, for only half the members of the Senate retire at a general election — and counted 23 votes in a House of 36. In the House of Representatives it secured 42 seats for its own members, and had in addition the benevolent neutrality of two independents. Fisher was thus for the second time Prime Min- ister. His Government was chosen on this occasion by a method that was quite new in the history of constitutional government. The usual mode in Australia, as in England, was for the Governor- General — in England the Sovereign — to send for the political leader who was indicated by the de- bates and divisions to possess the confidence of the majority, to commission him to form a Min- istry, and for the Prime Minister so chosen to select his ministers. But the Federal Labour Party was differently organized from other political par- ties. Its members were pledged to a political programme drawn up by an annual Labour Con- ference. This Conference in 1905 had registered the decree that henceforth Labour Governments should not be chosen by the Prime Minister, but should be selected by the full body of the federal Labour members. Fisher, recognizing that his strength depended upon the widespread and very powerful organizations of the party in the country, initiated the observance of this rule. The mem- bers of the Government which held office from April, iQio, till the next general election in May, 1913, were therefore chosen by ballot by the party which supported them in Parliament. The election of 1913 witnessed the retirement from active poli- tics of DealSn, whose health had been shaken by the strain of so many years of official work and bitter conflict. Cook was chosen to head the Fusion party, and fortune turned a rather wry smile upon him at the polls. So wry was it that it was hardly a smile. The Labour Party lost some seats, and Cook was able to reenter the House of Representatives with a majority of one. That meant that when his supporters had elected a Speaker they had no majority at all. Moreover, the Labour Party still had an overwhelming pre- ponderance in the Senate. So that the new Cook Government could not carry a scrap of legislation without the grace of its opponents, who very soon showed their determination to exert their power to the full. The parliamentary machine was clearly unworkable under these conditions. Cook met the situation by a bold, deliberate challenge. He was pledged to two items of policy in regard to which the issue between his party and Fisher's was clearly drawn. These were, a measure to restore voting by post, which the Labour Party had abolished because of allegations of improper prac- tices in the use of it; and a measure to destroy the preferential treatment of trade unionists by the Arbitration Court. The two bills were forced through the House of Representatives after very tough fighting, and were promptly rejected by the Senate. Planning then to bring into use the machinery of the Constitution for the removal of deadlocks, the Government forced their bills thrcugh the House of Representatives again, ex- pressly to provoke the Senate to reject them a second time. This having been done, the Prime Minister advised the Governor-General to dissolve both Houses. A new Governor-General, Sir Ronald Munro-Ferguson, had only just assumed oftice, and the situation was a very perplexing one for him to handle. The Labour Party denied that there was justification for dissolving a Parliament not yet one year old. and in which only one politi- cal leader had been tried. There was no precedent for such a stroke in the history of constitutional Government. But there was no precedent for the situation which existed. Munro-Ferguson was himself a very experienced parliamentarian. He was no amateur amid the whirl and clang of party, for he had been a 'whip' in the House of Com- mons ; and he was endowed with a capacity for cool judgment and firm decision. Moreover, he knew what his own powers were under the Con- stitution. His reading of the position was that no satisfactory results could be expected from a Parliament such as the last election had provided. He therefore dissolved both Houses. Events jus- tified the discretion which he exercised. The Labour Party at the election of 1914 was returned with an ample majority in both Houses, and the third Fisher Government took office less than three months before the outbreak of the great European War. The difficulties they had to face then were not parliamentary, but imperial and international. Fisher resigned at the end of 1015 in order to take up the duties of High Commissioner in succession to Reid. The Prime Ministership then fell to his brilliant and energetic Attorney-General, William Morris Hughes." — E. Scott, Short history of Aus- tralia, pp. 317-310- 1911. — Explorations. See Antarctic Explora- tion-: 1Q11-1Q13. 1911. — Imperial conference at London. — Dis- cussion of naturalization laws, inter-communica- tion and social insurance. See British empire: Colonial and imperial conferences: 1911. 1911-1913. — Attempts to amend the constitu- tion. — "Very much of the energy, and a large ex- penditure of the passion, of political parties has been devoted to efforts to amend the Constitution. That instrument itself provides the machinery for its own alteration. A proposed law having amend- ment in view must first be passed by an absolute majority of each house of Parliament ; it must then he voted upon by the people; and if a ma- jority of the electors voting, in a majority of the States, signify their approval, the Constitution is altered accordingly. The Labour Party, after ex- periencing some failure to carry out its designs in reference to the scope of the Conciliation and Arbitration Act and the control of commercial trusts and monopolies, decided to ask the people to amend the Constitution in two aspects mainly. First, they desired to remove the limitation which confined the jurisdiction of the Federal Arbitration Court to industrial disputes extending beyond the limits of any one State. They wished to give power to the Court to act as to wages and con- ditions of labour and employment in any trade, industry, or calling, including disputes which might arise among the employees of state railways. Secondly, they wished to have power to make laws for the control of commercial corporations, for regulating trade and commerce within any State as well as Inter-State, and for 'nationalizing' any industry which Parliament might declare to be 'the subject of any monopoly.' These propositions were first submitted to the electors in 191 1, but were rejected by five States out of the six — W'estern Australia being the only State favourable 6.50 AUSTRALIA, 1912 Legislation World War AUSTRALIA, 1914-1915 to the enlargement of federal power. Regardless of this defeat, the Labour Party, considering that it could make little headway with its policy with- out the propored amendments of the Constitution, submitted them to a second referendum in 1013. They were then carried by three States, Western Australia, South Australia, and Queensland — but were rejected by the other three. Failing a majority in a majority of States, the attempt failed again. But the affirmative votes in 1913 showed a marked advance on those recorded in iqii. Then the Labour policy was rejected by majorities of over a quarter of a million. In IQ13, however, the difference between success and failure was very narrow — less than 50,000. Encouraged by the ad- vance, the party nailed its flag to the mast and announced that it would try again ; and there would have been a third referendum on the same questions at the end of 1915 but that the outbreak of the European War induced the dropping of schemes of constitutional alteration." — E. Scott, Short history of Australia, p. 324. 1912. — Maternity Allowances Act. — Other leg- islation for mothers and children. — "First among the methods of helping the mothers stands what is known as the Commonwealth Maternity Bonus, provided for by the Maternity Allowances Act, passed in October, igi2. An allowance of £5 is paid to the mother of a viable child •immediately on satisfactory proof of its birth. More than 95 per cent, of the mothers who have borne children since the passing of the act have applied for and received the allowance. These applications are in- variably made promptly within a fortnight after the birth of the child, and the bonus is used in payment for better medical and nursing attendance than could have been obtained otherwise. The mothers of the future are being helped towards the fulfilment of their function by lectures given ttf the senior girls in the public schools. As yet, the subject of sex instruction has not been introduced, but it is probable that lectures on sex hygiene will soon be added to those on allied topics already given. These cover the questions of the care of babies in health and disease, their feeding and clothing, sick nursing, home and per- sonal hygiene. The course is most highly ap- preciated both by the girls and the parents. There is a distinct demand for the most com- plete nursing facilities in the interests of mother- hood. Provision for a maternity annex to every hospital, for the free services of a thoroughly qualified and registered midwife where desired, with medical attendance under government con- tract, and for the full instructions of expectant mothers by clearly-written pamphlet literature, has been made in New South Wales and is in line with the Australian purpose of 'assisting mother- hood in her hour of trial.' . . . Care for the de- pendent child commences in New South Wales before its birth and is continued thenceforth in stages proportionate to the needs and develop- ment of the child. A Children's Protection Act (1002) compels the registration and supervision of all nursing homes and the registration of the custodianship of infants under three years of age. Every effort is made to rear every child born in these homes, and to do so by educating the mother, who is very often young and unmarried, in the responsibilities and possibilities of her po- sition. In infants' homes, provision is made for the girl-mothers to stay with their children for some months, while foster-mothers, who under- take guardianship, are required within the metro- politan area to take their infant wards to a chil- dren's hospital for consultation and advice every fortnight. By the Infants' Protection Act (1904) provision is made for the supervision of the maintenance, education and care of children, up to seven years of age, who have been placed in private homes or religious establishments apart from their parents. No private house may take more than five foster children, and these children are often those taken as babies under the Chil- dren's Protection Act. The children must be fed, clothed and educated to the satisfaction of com- petent inspectors who show themselves the friends and advisers of the dependent child. The prin- ciple of the intervention of the State as the over- parent is carried farther in the State Children's Relief Act of iqoi. This act provides for the boarding out of the dependent children with ap- proved guardians or with their own mothers, when the latter are deserving widows or deserted wives with children under twelve years for whom they cannot provide. By a later regulation the pay- ments made to mothers and foster-mothers are continued till the child is fourteen. In the year 1915 there were 12,391 of these wards boarded out amid the civilizing influences of home life. On their behalf the State spent a total sum of £156,631-65., equivalent to an actual cost to the State, after deducting parents' contributions, of £i7-os.-iid. per head for children boarded at home with the mother. Inspectors and honorary lady visitors keep in touch with the home and see that the children attend school regularly, and that their moral interests are being cared for." C. H. Northcott, Australian social development, pp. 171-172, 195-196. 1913.— Navigation Act. See Race Problems: 1904-1913. 1913. — Australia assumes the responsibility of building her own ships. — In 1013 the Naval Agree- ment Act of 1903 expired, and Australia began to build up a navy of her own. In 1911 the Aus- tralian Government had agreed to furnish its own navy as an .Australian unit of the Eastern fleet with the understanding that it would provide one cruiser of the Indefatigable class, three unarmoured cruisers of the Bristol class, six destroyers of the improved "River" class, and two submarines of the "E" class. This unit received the title "Royal Australian Navy" from King George. By 1921 the ships of this navy were the following: the bat- tle cruiser Australia, and the light cruisers, Adelaide, Melbourne, Sidney, Brisbane, and Encounter. Be- sides these Australia possessed a flotilla of destroy- ers and two submarines. In time of peace this navy (working in close cooperation with the China and East Indies Squadrons of the Royal Navy) is controlled by the Commonwealth government, but in time of war it is under imperial control. 1914. — Taking over of Norfolk island. — ^Nor- folk island, which has been a New South Wales dependency since 1788, was taken over by the commonwealth in 1014. 1914-1915.— Participation in the World War. — Destruction of German cruiser, Emden. — "Anzacs" at Gallipoli.— Although geographically far removed from the battlefields of the World War, .Australia, and the Dominion of New Zealand as well, played a notable part in the ulti- mate defeat of the Teuton nations. Both coun- tries, or, to be more inclusive, Australasia, gave freely, throughout the conflict, of their men, munitions, ships, etc. The valiant conduct of .Australian and New Zealand regiments on the European fronts was exemplary. At the outset of the war a New Zealand military force under Colonel Robert Logan descended upon German Samoa and captured it without any resistance. German New Guinea fell into the hands of an Aus- tralian naval and military force under Colonel 651 AUSTRALIA, 1914 Labor Party Conscription AUSTRALIA, 1916-1917 William Holmes shortly after. Acting under the British admiralty, the AustraHan navy, within the short period of two months, completely destroyed Germany's wireless chain in the Pacific ocean and seized its Pacific colonies. [See also New Guine.4, or Papua: IQ14.] By November 1014, Australia and New Zealand successfully dispatched 30,000 soldiers, including infantry, artillery and cavalry, to the Suez Canal without a mishap, a military feat which was unequaled throughout the war when it is considered that the transportation was over a distance of 6,750 sea miles. It was on this voyage that the .Australian cruiser Syd- ney, which was convoying the troopships, defeated and forced the German raiding cruiser Emden, un- der Captain Miiller, to surrender. The Emden, up to the time of its defeat, had sunk or captured twenty-one British merchantmen and caused other serious damage to the Allies, amounting to a loss of $125,000,000. The Sydney, which was manned chiefly by Australians, was commanded by British Captain Glossop. The courage and morale displayed by the Australian and New Zealand soldiers at Gallipoli was, however, the achieve- ment which has given to the -Australasian troops a high position in the history of the World War. Under General Sir Ian Hamilton and later under General Sir William Birdwood, the .Australian and New Zealand .Army Corps fought courageously at "Anzac Cove" and throughout the Gallipoli cam- paign. All through the unfortunate campaign Ihe .Anzacs characterized themselves by their dash- ing courage, tenacity and exceptional confidence under fire. Following the ill-fated campaign at Gallipoli, the greater part of .Australasia's fighting men were merged with the Allied armies on the western front. Their conduct was particularly con- spicuous at Monguet Farm, Bullecourt, Messines and Pozieres. They also took part in the opera- tions on the Sinai Peninsula and in Southern Pal- estine. — See also Axzacs; World War: 1914: VII. German Pacific Islands; and IQ15: VI. Turkey: a; a, 4, xx; a, 4, xxii. 1914. — Percentage of railways controlled by government. See Railroads: 1Q17-101Q. 1914-1918. — Coal strikes. — Incendiary fires in Sydney. — Unlawful Associations Act. See In- DirsTRiAL Workers of the World: Recent ten- dencies. 1914-1921. — Question of New Zealand federat- ing with Australia. See New Zealand: 1Q16-1021. 1915. — Program of the Labor party. — "The present Labour Government of the Common- wealth is pledged (i.e. in 1015), to the introduction of the 'initiative referendum' on the lines of the Swiss experiment. It might be thought that Lib- eralism is to support such reform in view of its dependence on the maxim, 'Trust the People.' A closer examination of the aims of Liberals will reveal that Parliament is considered something more than a machine for registering the commands of that vague and occasionally ambiguous abstrac- tion 'the voice of the people.' Apart from the absurdity of 'asking the electors to send along a picture postcard and tell us what they think about the Budget,' it must be remembered that Parliament is to be considered a responsible in- stitution and not a mere delegation. The move- ment for the 'initiative referendum' is not a very significant or powerful agitation, and only shows that a section of the people is dissatisfied with a particular party, or with the inadequacy of the party system; and for those two evils there are other remedies. By far the most important ques- tion Liberalism in Australia has now to solve is that of readjusting the powers of States and Commonwealth. In the absence of e.xternal or strong internal pressure, the Constitution naturally reserved a very important series of functions to the States, and we find that the Commonwealth Parliament of iqo6-:o, practically unanimous in its efforts to introduce the New Protection with Government regulation of the conditions in pro- tected industries, was thwarted at every step by the limitations which had been placed upon Fed- eral powers. The rejection of the Referendum of iQii proposing the granting of far larger powders was not tinal, and similar proposals were submitted by the Federal Labour party in 1913, and failed by the narrowest of majorities to pass. The significance of the latter fact has altered the attitude of many Conservatives, and, as has been pointed out, both Federal parties are now (i.e in 1915), pledged to extend the powers of the National Parliament. The Labour party claims to be the champion of the sentiment of 'Aus- tralia for the Australians,' and opposed to this is the intense local patriotism of the State Parlia- ments, supported enthusiastically by the great por- tion of the press. The opposition is not between Liberty and Nationalism, but between two forms of nationalism ; and the success of the defence scheme, with its appeals to a patriotism that transcends the State boundaries, combined with other factors, has immensely strengthened the ideal of .Australia as 'one and indivisible.' It might be thought that such a sentiment is opposed to that of British Imperialism, and to a certain extent it is, and has been encouraged by the English Liberals and discouraged by the English Unionists. But there is no real antagonism between the con- ceptions of Australian unity and Empire unity, and recent events have clearly shown this to be the case. It seems quite certain that the cry of 'State rights' will not be sufficient to prevent the Commonwealth Parliament receiving additional powers by the will of the people." — H. V. Evatt, Liberalism in Australia, pp. 70-71. 1916-1917. — Conscription twice defeated. — ".At the very outset of the war . . . there was con- siderable agitation throughout Australia for the enactment of a conscription law, although in but a short time more than 320,000 men had volun- teered for active service. But the Australian Gov- ernment was in the hands of the Labor Party, which found itself in an almost impossible situa- tion. The Labor Party was quite aware that its supporters were opposed to conscription, but the seriousness of the situation, which demanded that 16,000 fresh troops be sent monthly to the western front, forced them to hold a national referendum on the question. Every man and woman in Australia and every Australian soldier serving abroad were asked to vote for or against con- scription" on October 28, 1016. — Nation, Nov. q. IQ16, p. 438. — "Returns upon the referendum elec- tion in .Australia to determine the question of con- scription for European service leave [1917] no doubt of Premier Hughes's defeat. The result was close and mixed. While the latest figures show in the populous industrial State of New South Wales 264,000 for and 378,000 against, in \'ictoria they show 287,000 for and 275,000 against; while in the comparatively rural South Australia they show 65,000 for and qcooo against, in West .Australia they show 50,000 for and 25,000 against. But it is indicated that out of a vote of two millions the anti-conscriptionists will have a major- ity of 100,000 . . . The opposition undoubtedly found its chief strength in labor men whom the Premier could not drag with him, and in the women — though the latter's vote was thought doubtful lo the end. With the extreme radicals Hughes had already clashed over the refusal of the 652 AUSTRALIA, l-Jtb 1917 Pari in World War AUSTRALIA, 1919 Broken Hill miners last summer to accept arbitra- tion. But it was the disaffected moderates in labor ranks who proved his chief opponents. F. G. Tudor, Minister of Customs, early resigned to come out against him. There was wide fear that the country was bowing to militarism, and the men who have won in Australasia the most favor- able working conditions known responded to the sentiment that human life should not be at the disposal of arbitrary state mandate. Others were fearful that military conscription might pave the way to industrial conscription, and that future Governments might use this power to coerce labor when it was at odds with capital. ... It was argued that conscription would defame the patriotic reputation Australia had made at Gallip- nli and in France; that Australia, considering the demands for men at home in a new country, was WILLIAM MORRIS HUGHES Prime Minister of Australia since 1915 doing her share; and that the difference in the numbers brought out by the conscriptive and voluntary systems would be far too small to jus- tify such a departure from democratic principles. The defeat of conscription is the more eloquent in that Australia had already gone far on the road to it. It was Mr. Hughes, Senator Pearcc, and the e.\-Premier, Watson, who several years ago, aided by Roberts, converted a pacifist Labor party to the present system of universal training for home defence. Conscription for home defence was instituted a month before the election by Gov- erment action without a referendum. The cam- paign just waged was one of the hottest in Aus- trahan history. . . . With sentiment in Canada and South Africa what it is the Australian election adds to the general assurance that the great self- governed Dominions will not act as Prussianism would have them do. Australia's gravest political crisis in many years happily spent itself in the general election and referendum, which, if bitterly fought by both sides, and notwithstanding the number of accompanying riots, was. after all, a most hopeful indicator of the feasibility of the democratic principle of government by the peo- ple. To be sure. Englishmen in Australia as well as abroad were bitterly disappointed to see the Dominion refuse to conscript its citizens, taking such a refusal as indicating a want of the proper degree of patriotism." — Spectator, May 17, 1Q17, p. ,?.?6. — See also World War: 1017: XII, Political conditions in the belligerent countries: a. 1917. — Imperial war conference. See British Empire: Colonial and imperial conferences: 1917: Imperial war conference. 1917. — Coalition ministry. — Formation of the "nationalist party." — "This Ministry [Hughes's ministry] had been formed originally in February, 1Q17, by a coalition of that minority of the La- bour Party which supported Mr. Hughes' war- policy on the one hand and the Liberal Party on the other hand. After their union these two groups had taken the name of the 'Nationalist Party,' and the Coalition Government thus formed included such well-known politicians as Senator G. F. Pearce, Sir J. Forrest, and Mr. Cook. . . . And although at a General Election held in 1017 the Nationalists had been confirmed in office, they had obtained their majority partly owing to a pledge that they would not introduce conscription for Foreign Service without taking a direct poll of the people upon that question." — Annual Reg- ister, iqiq, p. 202. Troops in World War. — Actions near Gaza. See WoRi.ii War: 1Q17: VI. Turkish theater: c, 1, ii; c, 1, iii; c, 1, iv. 1917.— Battle of Arras.— Battle of Ypres.— At- tack along Menin road. See World War: igi?: II Western front: c, 7; d, )5; d, 20. 1918. — Troops in Mesopotamian campaign, — Battle of Bapaume. — Total casualities of World War. Sec World War: iqi8: VI. Turkish theater: c, 1; II. Western front: k, 1; and Miscellaneous auxiliary srr\iips: XIV. Cost of war: b, 3. 1913. — Contributions for war relief. Sec World War: Miscellaneous auxiliary services: XIV. Cost of war: b, 8, ii. 1918. — ^Imperia! war conference. — Decisions on question of industry and raw materials. See British kmi'irk: Colonial and imperial conferences: IQ18: Imperial war conference. 1918. — Discharged Soldiers' Settlement Act. See South .Xustralia: 1018. 1918.— Railway development. — Transconti- nental road constructed. See Railroads: igo8- 1918. 1918-1921. — Demands in Pacific. — Control of islands. See Pacific ocean: 1014-1918; iqi8-iQ2i. 1919 (July). — Seamen's strike. — The harbors of Melbourne and Sydney were virtually tied-up on July 1.5, iQio, when the seamen's strike, which originated a few months earlier in Queensland, extended to Victoria and New South Wales. The Queensland government applied for permission to charter cargo vessels in order to relieve the serious situation, but this was refused by Acting Prime Minister Watt. No other attempt was ventured to break the strike because it was evident that the central government of Australia was sympa- thetic to the seamen. 1919. — Premier Hughes at the Paris Peace Conference. — Question of the Pacific colonies. — Policy of a "White Australia." — Ratification of ihe treaty by the Australian parliament. — "At the beginning of the year [iqiq], Mr. W. M. Hughes was still at the head of the Common- wealth Government. . . , Throughout the earlier <J53 AUSTRALIA, 1919 Hughes and the Peace Conference AUSTRALIA, 1919-1920 part of the year, the Prime Minister was absent from Australia and was representing his country at the Paris Peace Conference. At the Con- ference Mr. Hughes playeci a preminent part; and the terms of the League of Nations covenant itself were not uninfluenced by the arguments brought forward by the AustraUan statesman. Mr. Hughes found himself on more than one occasion in conflict with the Japanese delegates. The ques- tion of the Pacific colonies of Germany was, of course, an important one for Australia; and the ultimate decision of the Conference was to give the mandate for the islands north of the Equator to Japan, and the mandates for the much more im- portant colonies south of the Equator to the two Australasian dominions. New Zealand was to have the mandate for German Samoa, whilst Australia herself was authorised to take over German New Guinea and the neighbouring islands. Even this arrangement did not wholly satisfy public opinion in Australia, as the southward ad- vance of the Japanese was viewed with some anxiety. The debates on the German colonies were not, however, the only occasion on which a differ- ence of opinion arose between the Japanese and Australian statesmen. Another question of even greater importance was that of the Japanese amendment to the League of Nations covenant asserting the so-called principle of racial equality. On this question opinion, both in Australia and in New Zealand, was very strong. The policy of a White Australia was the very foundation of the political creed of nearly all Australians, without distinction of party, and therefore any principle of so-called racial equality which might restrict the power of the Commonwealth Government to exclude coloured immigrants roused the deter- mined opposition of all .'\ustralians. Mr. Hughes urged this point with great force during the de- bates in Paris, and it was partly owing to his advocacy that the Japanese amendment, even in the milder form in which it was subsequently brought forward, was excluded entirely from the covenant. The stand which Mr. Hughes made on this point increased his reputation in Australia, and, as already stated, on this question he had the support of his political opponents. . . . Immedi- ately after the signing of the Treaty of Peace with Germany [iqiq], Mr. Hughes and Sir Joseph Cook (who had also been at the Peace Con- ference) left England for their return journey to Australia. Early in September the Commonwealth Parliament met to consider the ratification of the Treaty of Peace, and the House of Representatives was crowded on September lo when Mr. Hughes moved a resolution approving of the Treaty of Peace. The Prime Minister, who had landed at Perth three weeks earlier, and had made a pub- lic progress through Western 'Australia, South Australia, and Victoria, made a long and mem- orable speech in describing the Treaty. Mr. Hughes described at length the course of the ne- gotiations at Versailles, and in regard to the new project of a League of Nations. . . , He dealt at length with the general question of the Pacific Ocean, and the natural rights therein of the two Australasian States. He said that the Monroe doctrine, to which America still held, forbade the interference of European countries in the affairs of the two American continents. The question of the Pacific was, said Mr. Hughes, a parallel case; and the people of the United States should under- stand that they ought not to interfere there. Mr. Hughes went on to describe how he, with the support of Sir Joseph Cook, had foucHt in Paris for the principle of a White Australia ; but he declared that it was his hope that the Japanese would remain on friendly terms both with Great Britain and with .Australia. The Treaty of Peace was duly ratified by the Australian Parlia- ment." — Annual Register, igig, pp. 292-294. — See also Versailles, Conference or; 1919: Outline of work; Vers.ailles, Tre.^tv of: Conditions of peace. 1919. — Statistics of trade unions. See Labor organization: iqio-iqio. 1919-1920. — Conflict between the Nationalists and the Labor party. — Confusion of political is- sues.— General election (December, 1919). — New Tariff. — Lord Forster becomes governor- general. — ^'The Federal Parliament was dissolved before its full three years had expired, because, in the opinion of the Prime Minister, it had ex- hausted its mandate and had no authority to deal with post-war problems. The Nationalist coalition had been formed to enable Australia ef- fectively to cooperate with the Allies during the war, and there was no necessary agreement among its members on any other point. Mr. Watt, who, during Mr. Hughes's absence at the Peace Conference, had carried out the thankless duties of an acting Prime Minister with full respKjnsi- bility, but without liberty of action, had ex- pressed a somewhat different opinion. In view of the seamen's strike, the leaders of which had uttered threats of revolutionary action, and of many other expressions of contempt for the au- thority of Parliament and for the decree of the .Arbitration Court, he had urged that the Coalition should remain in existence for the defence of constitutional government. Mr. Hughes, however, on his return declared that he did not know which partly he belonged to, and was himself still a Labour man and a Socialist. He had left Eu- rope at a time of great industrial disturbance, much of which was attributable to the high cost of living and to the resentment aroused by dis- closures of extortionate profits. He realised that the same conditions of class hatred, uncertainty, and general apprehension existed in .Australia, and, before leaving, announced his policy as death to profiteers and Bolsheviks. Mr. Hughes appears to have sincerely believed that, with a policy stated in these general terms and on the strength of his achievements in Europe, he would be given the position of a National leader with full au- thority to cure the ills of the Commonwealth; but conferences with friends and colleagues appear to have convinced him that except as a member of the National Party there was no place for him in Australian politics, and he found the Nationalist Party by no means united. Some of its mem- bers, including members of the Government, were apprehensive of the effect on trade and industry of an indiscriminate campaign against the profi- teer; others resented his dictatorship and his tendency to ignore Parliament, and even his war Cabinet, in important transactions. There was no attempt to supersede Mr. Hughes in the leader- ship, but his followers, while admitting his strength of personality, were by no means confident that they would be able to accept all he might say or do. The Labour Party in Parliament was weak, both in numbers and in ability. ... In his speeches delivered before the opening of the campaign Mr. Hughes appealed for support on three main grounds. He claimed to have represented the true spirit of Australia during the war, and to have defended her interests successfully at the Peace Conference. He appealed to the returned sol- diers as the protector of their special interests. He prescribed a gospel of work and increased production, and he promised in equally vague terms to remove the legitimate causes of in- dustrial discontent. In order to fulfil this last 654 AUSTRALIA, 1919-1920 Nationalists vs. Labor Party AUSTRALIA, 1919-1920 promise he claimed that new powers should be conferred on the Commonwealth Parliament, so that it would be able to deal with trade and commerce within as well as between the States, and in particular that it should have power to regulate prices and control monopolies. Price- fixing during the war had been sustained by a decision of the High Court, which, somewhat un- pectedly, had treated it as an exercise of the power of defence. But it was claimed that unless the Constitution were amended the control of intra- state trade and commerce, including the right of price-fixing, would revert to the States. Here, however, Mr. Hughes had an experience of the difficulties of his position as a Nationalist leader. The party was agreed that the time had come for a general revision of the Constitution, and on the whole, that if prices or wages were to be regulated by law, the task should be carried out by an authority having jurisdiction over the whole of Australia. But it was as a whole opposed to so extensive and indefinite an increase of Com- monwealth power as had formerly been cham- pioned by Mr. Hughes; and in all the States but Queensland it had a majority in the State Parlia- ment. Mr. Hughes was compelled, therefore, to propose a bargain with the State Premiers in order to prevent a schism within the party. After negotiations with them which were not wholly successful, he proposed that the Commonwealth should be entrusted with authority to deal with what he described as the aftermath of the war, that a referendum should be held at the General Election by which the necessary additional powers should be secured for the Commonwealth, that these powers should be exercisable for a limited period only, and that before the end of 1920 a Convention should be held to prepare a general scheme of constitutional revision. This compromise was supported by the Nationalist members in the Federal Parliament, and was accepted by some Labour members as a step towards unification which could not be retraced without considerable difficulty. But it was never accepted by the Na- tionalists in the country, and it was opposed by the farmers, not on constitutional grounds, but because it foreshadowed the increase of govern- ment interference with trade and commerce. The Labour manifesto furnishes documentary evidence of the decline in political vision and in sense of responsibility which began in the party at the time of the first conscription referendum, and has not since been arrested. It contains a series of promises without suggestion of the means neces- sary for their redemption. Offers are made to invalids, old age pensioners and others involving new expenditure to the amount of some seventeen millions per annum. The Government is to take control of banking and insurance businesses to an unspecified amount. The compulsory system of naval and military training is to be abandoned in favour of a voluntary army on a more demo- cratic basis. This proposal is followed by a de- mand for the more complete self-determination of Australia, and for a change in her position as a member of the British family of nations. The campaign began with an incident which, unfor- tunately, can be regarded as to some extent char- acteristic of both leaders. Mr. Hughes, on his return, declared himself to be the friend of the soldiers, and promised to do for them whatever they asked. He was no doubt sincere, but the promise was stated in the same vague terms as his other proposals. Shortly afterwards the New Zealand Government made a promise to pay the members of the Expeditionary Force a gratuity of IS. 6d. per day. Thereupon the soldiers de- manded that Mr. Hughes should translate his promise into action and make a gift to them at the same rate. . . . Mr. Hughes . . . announced that the payment must be made, and stated that it would take the form of non-negotiable bonds, which would be taken at their face value for repatriation purposes. . . . Mr. Ryan, however, saw his chance, and announced that the Labour Party would pay the same amount in cash. . . . Thereupon began a competition between the two leaders in which the last thing considered was the interest of the community as a whole. Ulti- mately the Government made an arrangement by which bonds were to be taken at their face value by certain large employers, and the greater part were to be redeemed out of the first instalment of the German indemnity. ... It is due to the sol- diers to say that the greater number refused to take any part in what looked like an auction sale of their interest in the country to the highest bidder. This incident is also in one respect typical of the spirit in which the campaign was con- ducted between the two leaders. It became very largely a personal contest between Mr. Hughes and Mr. Ryan. Mr. Hughes insisted on his services as the defender of the White Australian poUcy at the Peace Conference and on Mr. Ryan's lack of loyalty or patriotism. Mr, Ryan's general answer was to say that Mr. Hughes had imposed unnecessary sacrifices on Australia, and that the Nationalist Government was incapable of dealing with profiteering through its association with large commercial businesses. The attention of the elec- tors was never seriously directed to the crying needs of the country, to its growing taxation, to its heavy burden of debt, to disclosures of extrava- gant expenditure, which have been made during the war by one commission after another, or to the steady decrease in production which has been caused mainly by the drought but partly by the attraction of loan expenditure in the big cities." — Round Table, March, 1920, pp. 432-436. — "The General Election [1919] was fought very largely on the Labour proposal for the unifica- tion of Australia. In the spring the Labour Organisations published a highly interesting pro- gramme on this important problem. It was ap- parently the intention of the Labour Party to advocate an entire change of the Australian Con- stitution, with the setting up of a Constitution more comparable to that of the Union of South Africa." — Annual Register, 1920, p. 301. — "As a result of elections held in Australia in December [igig] the Nationalists in the lower House con- trolled 39 seats, the Labor party, 26, and the Country party (anti-labor), 10. In the Senate the Nationalists had 35 seats and Labor i. In the new parliament, which met on February 26, Premier Hughes was severely criticised for his attempt to rid the country of strikes by use of the war power vested in him; his order prohibit- ing banks 'or any one else' from giving money or goods to strikers proved abortive. By its new tariff Australia provides three sets of rates: the British preferential, to be applied to imports from the United Kingdom; intermediate, to be granted upon the conclusion of reciprocity treaties; and general rates, to be applied to all countries not entitled to either of the other tariffs. While the new tariff will undoubtedly bind Australia more closely to the empire, its object as stated by the Premier is 'to protect industries born during the war and to encourage others that are desirable and will diversify and extend existing ones.' " — E. D. Grapcr and H. J. Carman, Record of politi- cal events (Political Science Quarterly, Supplement, Sept., 1920, p. 105), — See also Tarut: 1919-1920; 655 AUSTRALIA, 1920 AUSTRALIA, CONSTITUTION World wide tariff tendency. — In 1920 the term of the governor-general, Sir R. Munro-Ferguson ex- pired and he was succeeded by the Rt. Hon. Lord Forster. A list of the governors-general since the proclamation of the Commonwealth is as follows: Marquess Linlithgow, 1001-1903; Lord Tennyson, 1903-1904; Lord Northcote, 1004-1008; Earl of Dudley, 1908-1911; Lord Denman, igii-1914; Sir R. Munro-Ferguson, 1914-1920. 1920.— New Guinea (German) given as man- datory under League of Nations. See British empire: Treaties promoting expansion: 1920; New Guinea or P.^pu.\: 1920. 1920. — Press Conference at Ottawa. See Brit- ish ejipire: Colonial and imperial conferences: 1920 (August). 1921. — Australia's mandate published. — Pre- mier Hughes endorsed as representative to the coming Imperial Conference.— ".Australia's man- date for the former German islands in the Pacific south of the equator was published on Feb. 9 [1921] by the League of Nations Council. It also pub- lished Japan's waiver of the clause respecting equal trading opportunities, which, however, the declara- tion said, should not be considered acquiescence by Japan." — N. Y. Times Current History, March, 1921, p. 502. — "Premier Hughes was defeated in the Australian Parliament on April 14 by an ad- verse majority of two, which, however, was purely accidental. In a plea to the members, he [Premier Hughes] stated that the vote made his position impossible, and that he could not attend the com- ing British imperial conference unless there was a clear indication that the vote did not mean censure or an attempt to take the control of business out of the hands of the Government. He received an emphatic endorsement on April 20, when resolutions reiterating confidence in the Government and declaring in favor of Premier Hughes as .Australia's representative at the im- perial conference were passed by a vcic of 4b to 23. [Since then] debate on the Empire's foreign policy has occupied the attention of Parliament." — jV. Y. Times Current History, June. 1021, p. 510. 1921. — Imperial conference. — Question of Ang- lo-Japanese alliance. — Declaration of domin- ion rights. — Reparation receipts apportioned. See British empire: Colonial and imperial confer- ences: 1921 ; and 1021: Treaty of Versailles. 1921. — Electoral system. See Suffrage, Man- hood: British Empire: 192 1. 1921. — Unrest over Japanese in Pacific. See Japan: 1918-1921: As third of great World Powers. Charities. See Charities:. Australasia. Child welfare. See Child welfare legisla- tion: Australia. Conservation, irrigation and forestry. See Conservation of natural resour'ces: Australia. French colonies. See France: Colonial empire. Masonic societies. See Masonic societies: Australasia. Missions. See Missions, Christian: Islands of the Pacific. Mythology. See Mythology: Indonesian myth- ology: .Australian mythology. Race problems. — Reasons for dread of Asi- atic immigration. — Demand for white Australia. See Race problems: 1904-1913. Railroads, Trans-Australian. See Railroads: 1908-1918. Social legislation. See Socul insurance: New Zealand. Sufirage. See Australian ballot; and Suf- frage, Manhood: British Empire: 1921. Also in: A. W. Jose, History of Australasia. — E. Lewin, Commonweailh of Australia. — Gordon and Gotch, .Australian handbook (annual). — W. P. Reeves, State experiments in .Australia and New Zealand. — T. A. Coghlan, Labour and industry in Australia. — A. T. Clark, Labour movement in Aus- tralasia. — F. Johns, Australasia's prominent peo- ple. AUSTRALIA, Constitution of.— The following is the "Act to constitute the Commonwealth of Australia," as passed by the Imperial Parliament, July 9, 1900 (63 & 64 Vict. ch. 12) (see .Australia: iqoo). The text is from the official publication of the act: Whereas the people of New South Wales, Vic- toria, South Australia, Queensland, and Tasmania, humbly relying on the blessing of Almighty God, have agreed to unite in one indissoluble Federal Commonwealth under the Crown of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and under the Constitution hereby established: And whereas it is expedient to provide for the ad- mission into the Commonwealth of other Australa- sian Colonies and possessions of the Queen: Be it therefore enacted by the Queen's most Excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows: — 1. This .Act may be cited as the Commonwealth of .Australia Constitution Act. 2. The provisions of this .Act referring to the Queen shall extend to Her Majesty's heirs and suc- cessors in the sovereignty of the LInited King- dom. 3. It shall be lawful for the Queen, with the advice of the Privy Council, to declare by proc- lamation that, on and after a day therein ap- pointed, not being later than one year after the passing of this .Act. the people of New South Wales, Victoria, South .Australia. Queensland, and Tasmania, and also, if Her Majesty is satisfied that the people of Western .Australia have agreed thereto, of Western .Australia, shall be united in a Federal Commonwealth under the name of the Commonwealth of .Australia. But the Queen may, at any time after the proclamation, appoint a Governor-General for the Commonwealth. 4. The Commonwealth shall be established, and the Constitution of the Commonwealth shall take effect, on and after the day so appointed. But the Parliaments of the several colonies may at any time after the passing of this .Act make any such laws, to come into operation on the day so appointed, as they might have made if the Con- stitution had taken effect at the passing of thb Act. 5. This .Act, and all laws made by the ParHa- ment of the Commonwealth under the Constitution, shall be binding on the courts, judges, and people of every State and of every part of the Com- monwealth, notwith-standing anything in the laws of any State; and the laws of the Commonwealth shall be in force on all British ships, the Queen'i ships of war excepted, whose first port of clear- ance and whose port of destination are in the Commonwealth. 6. "The Commonwealth" shall mean the Com- monwealth of .Australia as established under this Act. "The States" shall mean such of the col- onies of New South Wales, New Zealand, Queens- land, Tasmania, Victoria, Western Australia, and South Australia, including the northern territory of South Australia, as for the time being are parts of the Commonwealth, and such colonies or terri- tories as may be admitted into or established by the Commonwealth as States; and each of such parts of the Commonwealth shall be called "a 656 Maps prepared specially for the NEW LARNED under direction of ihe editors and publishers. c AUSTRALIA, CONSTITUTION AUSTRALIA, CONSTITUTION Chapter I. Part I. Part II. Part III. Part IV. Part v.- Chapter II.- Chapter III- Chapter IV. Chapter V.- Chapter VI.- Chapter VII.- Chapter VIII.- The Schedule. state." "Original States" shall mean such States as are parts of the Commonwealth at its establish- ment. 7. The Federal Council of Australasia Act, 1885, is hereby repealed, but so as not to affect any laws passed by the Federal Council of Australasia and in force at the establishment of the Com- monwealth. Any such law may be repealed as to any State by the Parliament of the Commonwealth, or as to any colony not being a State by the Parliament thereof. 8. After the passing of this Act the Colonial Boundaries Act, i8g5, shall not apply to any colony which becomes a State of the Commonwealth; but the Commonwealth shall be taken to be a self-governing colony for the purposes of that Act. 0. The Constitution of the Commonwealth shall be as follows: — CONSTIIUTION Th;s Constitution is divided as follows: — — The Parliament: — General: — The Senate: — The House of Representatives: — Both Houses of the Parlia- ment: — Powers of the Parliament: —The Executive Government: —The Judicature: — Finance and Trade: —The States: —New States: —Miscellaneous: —Alteration of the Constitution. Chapter I. The Parliament: Part I. — Gen- eral 1. The legislative power of the Commonwealth shall be vested in a Federal Parliament, which shall consist of the Queen, a Senate, and a House of Representatives, and which is herein-after called "The Parliament," or "The Parliament of the Commonwealth." 2. A Governor-General appointed by the Queen shall be Her Majesty's representative in the Com- monwealth, and shall have and may exercise in the Commonwealth during the Queen's pleasure, but subject to this Constitution, such powers and functions of the Queen as Her Majesty may be pleased to assign to him. 3. There shall be payable to the Queen out of the Consolidated Revenue fund of the Common- wealth, for the salary of the Governor-General an annual sum which, until the Parliament other- wise provides, shall be ten thousand pounds. The salary of a Governor-General shall not be altered . during his continuance in office. 4. The provisions of this Constitution relating to the Governor-General extend and apply to the Governor-General for the time being, or such per- son as the Queen may appoint to administer the Government of the Commonwealth ; but no such person shall be entitled to receive any salary from the Commonwealth in respect of any other office during his administration of the Government of the Commonwealth. 5. The Governor-General may appoint such times for holding the sessions of the Parliament as he thinks fit, and may also from time to time, by Proclamation or otherwise, prorogue the Par- hament, and may in like manner dissolve the House of Representatives. After any general elec- tion, the ParHament shall be summoned to meet not later than thirty days after the day appointed for the return of the writs. The Parliament shall be summoned to meet not later than six months after the establishment of the Common- wealth. 6. There shall be a session of the Parliament once at least in every year, so that twelve months shall not intervene between the last sitting of the Parlia- ment in one session and its first sitting in the next session. Part II. — The Senate 7. The Senate shall be composed of senators for each State, directly chosen by the people of the State, voting, until the Parliament otherwise pro- vides, as one electorate. But until the Parliament of the Commonwealth otherwise provides, the Parliament of the State of Queensland, if that State be an Original State, may make laws dividing the State into divisions and determining the num- ber of senators to be chosen for each division, and in the absence of such provision the State shall be one electorate. Until the Parliament other- wise provides there shall be six senators for each Original State. The Parliament may make laws increasing or diminishing the number of senators for each State, but so that equal representation of the several Original States shall be maintained and that no Original State shall have less than six senators. The senators shall be chosen for a term of six years, and the names of the senators chosen for each State shall be certified by the Governor to the Governor-General. 8. The quahfication of electors of senators shall be in each State that which is prescribed by this Constitution, or by the Parliament, as the .quali- fication for electors of members of the House of Representatives; but in the choosing of senators each elector shall vote only once. Q. The Parliament of the Commonwealth may make laws prescribing the method of choosing sen- ators, but so that the method shall be uniform for all the States. Subject to any such law, the Parliament of each State may make laws prescrib- ing the method of choosing the senators for that State. The Parliament of a State may make laws for determining the times and places of elections of senators for the State. 10. Until the Parliament otherwise provides, but subject to this Constitution, the laws in force in each State, for the time being, relating to elec- tions for the more numerous House of the Parlia- ment of the State shall, as nearly as practicable, apply to elections of senators for the State. 11. The Senate may proceed to the despatch of business, notwithstanding the failure of any State to provide for its representation in the Senate. 12. The Governor of any State may cause writs to be issued for elections of senators for the State. In case of the dissolution of the Senate the writs shall be issued within ten days from the proclama- tion of such dissolution. 13. As soon as may be after the Senate first meets, and after each first meeting of the Senate following a dissolution thereof, the Senate shall divide the senators chosen for each State into two classes, as nearly equal in number as practicable; and the places of the senators of the first class shall become vacant at the expiration of the third year, and the places of those of the second class at the expiration of the sixth year, from the be- ginning of their term of service; and afterwards the places of senators shall become vacant at the expiration of six years from the beginning of their term of service. The election to fill vacant 657 AUSTRALIA, CONSTITUTION AUSTRALIA, CONSTITUTION places shall be made in the year at the expiration of which the places are to become vacant. For the purposes of this section the term of service of a senator shall be taken to begin on the first day of January following the day of his election, except in the cases of the first election ;ind of the election next after any dissolution of llie Senate, when it shall be taken to begin on the first day of January preceding the day of his election. 14. Whenever the number of senators for a State is increased or diminished, the Parliament of the Commonwealth may make such provision for the vacating of the places of senators for the State as it deems necessary to maintain regular- ity in the rotation. 15. If the place of a senator becomes vacant before the expiration of his term of service, the Houses of Parliament of the State for which he was chosen shall, sitting and voting together, choose a person to hold the place until the ex- piration of the term, or until the election of a successor as hereinafter provided, whichever first happens. But if the Houses of Parliament of the State are not in session at the time when the vacancy is notified, the Governor of the State, with the advice of the Executive Council thereof, may appoint a person to hold the place until the expiration of fourteen days after the beginning of the next se.ssion of the Parliament of the State, or until the election of a successor, which- ever first happens. At the next general election of members of the House of Representatives, or at the next election of senators for the State, whichever first happens, a successor shall, if the term has not then expired, be chosen to hold the place from the date of his election until the ex- piration of the term. The name of any senator so chosen or appointed shall be certified by the Governor of the State to the Governor-General. 16. The qualifications of a senator shall be the same as those of a member of the House of Rep- resentatives. 17. The Senate shall, before proceeding to the despatch of any other business, choose a senator to be the President of the Senate; and as often as the office of President becomes vacant the Senate shall again choose a senator to be the President. The President shall cease to hold his office if he ceases to be a senator. He may be removed from office by a vote of the Senate, or he may resign his office or his seat by writing addressed to the Governor-General. 18. Before or during any absence of the Presi- dent, the Senate may choose- a senator to perform his duties in his absence. ig. A Senator may, by writing addressed to the President, or to the Governor-General if there is no President or if the President is absent from the Commonwealth, resign his place, which there- upon shall become vacant. 20. The place of a senator shall become vacant if for two consecutive months of any session of the Parliament he, without the permission of the Senate, fails to attend the Senate. 21. VV'henever a vacancy happens in the Sen- ate, the President, or if there is no President or if the President is absent from the Commonwealth, the Governor-General shall notify the same to the Governor of the State in the representation of which the vacancy has happened. 22. Until the Parliament otherwise provides, the presence of at least one-third of the whole num- ber of the senators shall be necessary to constitute a meeting of the Senate for the exercise of its powers. 23. Questions arising in the Senate shall be de- termined by a majority of votes, and each senator shall have one vote. The President shall in all cases be entitled to a vote; and when the votes are equal the question shall pass in the negative. Part III. — The House of REPRESENTAnvES 24. The House of Representatives shall be com- posed of members directly chosen by the people of the Commonwealth, and the number of such members shall be, as nearly as practicable, twice the number of the senators. The number of members chosen in the several States shall be in proportion to the respective numbers of their peo- ple, and shall, until the Parliament otherwise provides, be determined, whenever necessary, in the following manner: — (i.) A quota shall be as- certained by dividing the number of the people of the Commonwealth, as shown by the latest sta- tistics of the Commonwealth, by twice the num- ber of the senators, (ii.) The number of members to be chosen in each State shall be determined by dividing the number of the people of the State, as shown by the latest statistics of the Common- wealth, by the quota; and if on such division there is a remainder greater than one-half of the quota, one more member shall be chosen in the State. But notwithstanding anything in this sec- tion, five members at least shall be chosen in each Original State. 25. For the purposes of the last section, if by the law of any State all persons of any race are disqualified from voting at elections for the more numerous House of the Parliament of the State, then, in reckoning the number of the people of the State or of the Commonwealth, persons of that race resident in that State shall not be counted.' 26. Notwithstanding anything in section twenty- four, the number of members to be chosen in each State at the first election shall be as follows: — New South Wales, twenty-three; Victoria, twenty; Queensland, eight; South Australia, six; Tasmania, five; provided that if Western .\ustralia is an Original State, the numbers shall be as follows: — New South Wales, twenty-six; Victoria, twenty- three; Queensland, nine; South .Australia, seven; Western .Australia, five; Tasmania, five. 27. Subject to this Constitution, the Parliament may make laws for increasing or diminishing the number of the members of the House of Repre- sentatives. 28. Every House of Representatives shall con- tinue for three years from the first meeting of the House, and no longer, but may be sooner dissolved by the Governor-General. 2q. Until the Parliament of the Commonwealth otherwise provides, the Parliament of any State may make laws for determining the divisions in each State for which members of the House of Representatives may be chosen, and the number of members to be chosen for each division. A division shall not be formed out of parts of dif- ferent States. In the absence of other provision, each State shall be one electorate. 30. Until the Parliament otherwise provides, the qualification of electors of members of the House of Representatives shall be in each State that which is prescribed by the law of the State as the qualification of electors of the more numerous House of Parliament of the State; but in the choos- ing of members each elector shall vote only once. 31. Until the Parliament otherwise provides, but subject to this Constitution, the laws in force in each State for the time being relating to elec- tions for the more numerous House of the Par- liament of the State shall, as nearly as practi- cable, apply to elections in the State of members of the House of Representatives. 658 AUSTRALIA, CONSTITUTION AUSTRALIA, CONSTITUTION 32. The Governor-General in Council may cause writs to be issued for general elections of mem- bers of the House of Representatives. After the first general election, the writs shall be issued within ten days from the expiry of a House of Representatives or from the proclamation of a dissolution thereof. 33. Whenever a vacancy happens in the House of Representatives, the Speaker shall issue his writ for the election of a new member, or if there is no Speaker or if he is absent from the Common- wealth the Governor-General in Council may issue the writ. 34. Until the Parliament otherwise provides, the qualifications of a member of the House of Rep- resentatives shall be as follows: — (i.) He must be of the full age of twenty-one years, and must be an elector entitled to vote at the election of mem- bers of the House of Representatives, or a person qualified to become such 'elector, and must have been for three years at least a resident within the limits of the Commonwealth as existing at the time when he is chosen: (ii.) He must be a subject of the Queen, either natural-born or for at least five years naturahzed under a law of the United Kingdom, or of a Colony which has be- come or becomes a State, or of the Commonwealth, or of a State. 35. The House of Representatives shall, before proceeding to the despatch of any other business, choose a member to be the Speaker of the House, and as often as the office of Speaker becomes vacant the House shall again choose a member to be the Speaker. The Speaker shall cease to hold his office if he ceases to be a member. He may be removed from office by a vote of the House, or he may resign his office or his seat by writing addressed to the Governor-Generai. 36. Before or during any absence of the Speaker, the House of Representatives may choose a mem- ber to perform his duties in his absence, 37. A member may by writing addressed to the Speaker, or to the Governor-General if there is no Speaker or if the Speaker is absent from the Commonwealth, resign his place, which thereupon shall become vacant. 38. The place of a member shall become vacant if for two consecutive months of any session of the Parliament he, without the permission of the House, fails to attend the House. 39. Until the Parliament otherwise provides, the presence of at least one-third of the whole num- ber of the members of the House of Representa- tives shall be necessary to constitute a meeting of the House for the exercise of its powers. 40. Questions arising in the House of Representa- tives shall be determined by a majority of votes other than that of the Speaker. The Speaker shall not vote unless the numbers are equal, and then he shall have a casting vote. Part IV. — Both Houses of the Parliament 41. No adult person who has or acquires a right to vote at elections for the more numerous House of the Parliament of a State shall, while the right continues, be prevented by any law of the Commonwealth from voting at elections for either House of the Parliament of the Common- wealth. 42. Every senator and every member of the House of Representatives shall before taking his seat make and subscribe before the Governor- General, or some person authorised by him, an oath or affirmation of allegiance in the form set forth in the schedule to this Constitution. 43. A member of either House of the Parliament shall be incapable of being chosen or of sitting as a member of the other House. 44. Any person who — (i.) Is under any acknowl- edgment of allegiance, obedience, or adherence to a foreign power, or is a subject or a citizen or entitled to the rights or privileges of a subject or a citizen of a foreign power: or (ii.) Is attainted of treason, or has been convicted and is under sentence, or subject to be sentenced, for any of- fence punishable under the law of the Common- wealth or of a State by imprisonment for one year or longer: or (iii.) Is an undischarged bank- rupt or insolvent: or (iv.) Holds any office of profit under the Crown, or any pension payable during the pleasure of the Crown out of any of the revenues of the Commonwealth: or (v.) Has any direct or indirect pecuniary interest in any agreement with the Public Service of the Com- monwealth otherwise than as a member and in common with the other members of an incorpo- rated company consisting of more than twenty- five persons: shall be incapable of being chosen or of sitting as a senator or a mdrnber of the House of Representatives. But sub-section iv. does not apply to the office of any of the Queen's Minis- ters of State for the Commonwealth, or of any of the Queen's Ministers for a State, or to the re- ceipt of pay, half pay, or a pension by any per- son as an officer or member of the Queen's navy or army, or to the receipt of pay as an officer or member of the naval or military forces of the Commonwealth by any person whose services are not wholly employed by the Commonwealth. 45. If a senator or member of the House of Representatives— -(i.) Becomes subject to any of the disabilities mentioned in the last preceding section: or (ii.) Takes the benefit, whether by assignment, composition, or otherwise, of any law relating to bankrupt or insolvent debtors: or (iii.) Directly or indirectly takes or agrees to take any fee or honorarium for services rendered to the Commonwealth, or for services rendered in the Parliament to any person or State: his place shall thereupon become vacant. 46. Until the Parliament otherwise provides, any person declared by this Constitution to be in- capable of sitting as a senator or as a member of the House of Representatives shall, for every day on which he so sits, be liable to pay the sum of one hundred pounds to any person who sues for it in any court of competent jurisdiction. 47. Until the Parliament otherwise provides, any question respecting the qualification of a senator or of a member of the House of Representatives, or respecting a vacancy in either House of the Parliament, and any question of a disputed elec- tion to either House, shall be determined by the House in which the question arises. 48. Until the Parliament otherwise provides, each senator and each member of the House of Rep- resentatives shall receive an allowance of four hundred pounds a year, to be reckoned from the day on which he takes his seat. 4g. The powers, privileges, and immunities of the Senate and of the House of Representatives, and of the members and the committees of each House, shall be such as are declared by the Par- liament, and until declared shall be those of the Commons House of Parliament of the United Kingdom, and of its members and committees, at the establishment of the Commonwealth. 50. Each House of the Parliament may make rules and orders with respect to — (i.) The mode in which its powers, privileges, and imm.unities may be e.xercised and upheld: (ii.) The order and conduct of its business and proceedings either separately or jointly with the other House, 659 AUSTRALIA, CONSTITUTION AUSTRALIA, CONSTITUTION Part V. — Powers of the Parliament 51. The Parliament shall, subject to this Con- stitution, have power to make laws for the peace, order, and good government of the Common- wealth with respect to: — (i.) Trade and com- merce with other countries, and among the Stales; (ii.) Taxation; but so as not to discriminate be- tween States or parts of States; (iii.) Bounties on the production or export of goods, but so that such bounties shall be uniform throughout the Commonwealth* (iv.) Borrowing money on the public credit of the Commonwealth; (v.) Postal, telegraphic, telephonic, and other like services: (vi.) The naval and militarj- defence of the Com- monwealth and of the several States, and the con- trol of the forces to execute and maintain the laws of the Commonwealth; (vii.) Lighthouses, lightships, beacons and buoys; (viii.) Astro- nomical and meteorological observations; (ix.) Quarantine: (x.) Fisheries in Australian waters beyond territorial limits; (xi.) Census and statis- tics: (xii.) Currency, coinage, and legal tender; (xiii.) Banking, other than -State banking; also State banking extending beyond the limits of the State concerned, the incorporation of banks, and the issue of paper money; (xiv.) Insurance, other than State insurance; also State insurance extending beyond the limits of the State con- cerned; (xv') Weights and measures; (xyi.) Bills of exchange and promissory notes: (xvii.) Bankruptcy and insolvency; (xviii.) Copyrights, patents of inventions and designs, and trade marks: (xix.) Naturalization and aliens; (xx.) Foreign corporations, and trading or financial corpora- tions formed within the limits of the Common- wealth: (xxi.) Marriage: (xxii.) Divorce and matri- monial causes; and in relation thereto, parental rights, and the custody and guardianship of in- fants: <xxiii.) Invalid and old-age pensions; (xxiv.) The service and execution throughout the Com- monwealth of the civil and criminal process and the judgments of the courts of the States; (xxv.) The recognition throughout the Commonwealth of the laws, the public Acts and records, and the judicial proceeding of the States: (xxvi.) The peo- ple of any race, other than the aboriginal race in any State, for whom it is deemed necessary to make special laws: (xxvii.) Immigration and emi- gration: (xxviii.) The influx of criminals; (xxix.) External affairs; (xxx.) The relations of the Com- monwealth with the islands of the Pacific: (xxxi.) The acquisition of property on just terms from any State or person for any purpose in respect of which the Parliament has power to make laws; (xxxii.) The control of railways with respect to transport for the naval and military purposes of the Commonwealth: (xxxiii.) The acquisition, with the consent of a State, of any railways of the State on terms arranged between the Commonwealth and the State: (xxxiv.) Railway construction and extension in any State with the consent of that State: (xxxv.) Conciliation and arbitration for the prevention and settlement of industrial dis- putes extending beyond the limits of any one State: (xxxvi.) Matters in respect of which this Con- stitution makes provision until the Parliament otherwise provides: (xxxvii.) Matters referred to the Parliament of the Commonwealth by the Par- liament or Parliaments of any State or States, but so that the law shall extend only to States by whose Parliaments the matter is referred, or which afterwards adopt the law: fxxxviii.) The exercise within the Commonwealth, at the request or with the concurrence of the Parliaments of all the States directly concerned, of any power which can at the estabiishment of this Constitution be ex- ercised only by the Parliament of the United Kingdom or by the Federal Council of Australasia; (xxxix.) Matters incidental to the execution of any power vested by this Constitution in the Parlia- ment or in either House thereof, or in the Gov- ernment of the Commonwealth, or in the Federal Judicature, or in any department or officer of the Commonwealth. 52. The Parliament shall, subject to this Con- stitution, have exclusive power to make laws for the peace, order, and good government of the Commonwealth with respect to — (i.) The seat of government of the Commonwealth, and all places acquired by the Commonwealth for public pur- poses: (ii.) Matters relating to any department of the public service the control of which is by this Constitution transferred to the Executive Government of the Commonwealth: (iii.) Other matters declared by this Constitution to be within the exclusive power of the Parliament. 5.V Proposed laws appropriating revenue or moneys, or imposing taxation, shall not originate in the Senate. But a proposed law shall not be taken to appropriate revenue or moneys, or to impose taxation, by reason only of its containing provisions for the imposition or appropriation of fines or other pecuniary penalties, or for the de- mand or payment or appropriation of fees for licences, or fees for services under the proposed law. The Senate may not amend proposed laws imposing taxation, or proposed laws appropri- ating revenue or moneys for the ordinary annual services of the Government. The Senate may not amend any proposed law so as to increase any proposed charge or burden on the people. The Senate may at any stage return to the House of Representatives any proposed law which the Senate may not amend, requesting, by message, the omission or amendment of any items or provisions therein. And the House of Representa- tives may, if it thinks fit, make any of such omissions or amendments, with or without modi- fications. Except as provided in this section, the Senate shall have equal power with the House of Representatives in respect of all proposed laws. 54. The proposed law which appropriates rev- enue or moneys for the ordinary annual services of the Government shall deal only with such ap- propriation. 55. Laws imposing taxation shall deal only with the imposition of taxation, and any provision therein dealing with any other matter shall be of no effect. Laws imposing taxation, except laws imposing duties of customs or of excise, shall deal with one subject of taxation only; but laws im- posing duties of customs shall deal with duties of customs only, and laws imposing duties of excise shall deal with duties of excise only. 56. A vote, resolution, or proposed law for the appropriation of revenue or moneys shall not be passed unless the purpose of the appropriation has in the same session been recommended by mes- sage of the Governor-General to the House in which the proposal originated. 57. If the House of Representatives passes any proposed law, and the Senate rejects or fails to pass it, or passes it with amendments to which the House of Representatives will not agree, and if after an interval of three months the House of Representatives, in the same or the next session, again passes the proposed law with or without any amendments which have been made, suggested, or agreed to by the Senate, and the Senate re- jects or fails to pass it, or passes it with amend- ments to which the House of Representatives will not agree, the Governor-General may dissolve the Senate and the House of Representatives simultane- 660 AUSTRALIA, CONSTITUTION AUSTRALIA, CONSTITUTION ously. But such dissolution shall not take place within six months before the date of the expiry of the House of Representatives by effluxion of time. If after such dissolution the House of Rep- resentatives again passes the proposed law, with or without any amendments which have been made, suggested, or agreed to by the Senate, and the Senate rejects or fails to pass it, or passes it with amendments to which the House of Represen- tatives will not agree, the Governor-General may convene a joint sitting of the members of the Senate and of the House of Representatives. The members present at the joint sitting may deliberate and shall vote together upon the propo.sed law as last proposed by the House of Representatives, and upon amendments, if any, which have been made therein by one House and not agreed to by the other, and any such amendments which are af- firmed by an absolute majority of the total number of the members of the Senate and House of Rep- resentatives shall be taken to have been carried, and if the proposed law, with the amendments, if any, so carried is affirmed by an absolute majority of the total number of the members of the Senate and House of Representatives, it shall be taken to have been duly passed by both Houses of the Parliament, and shall be presented to the Gov- ernor-General for the Queen's assent. 58. When a proposed law passed by both Houses of the Parliament is presented to the Governor- General for the Queen's assent, he shall declare, according to his discretion, but subject to this Constitution, that he assents in the Queen's name, or that he withholds assent, or that he reserves the law for the Queen's, pleasure. The Governor- General may return to the house in which it originated any proposed law so presented to him, and may transmit therewith any amendments which he may recommend, and the Houses may deal with the recommendation. SQ. The Queen may disallow any law within one year from the Governor-General's assent, and such disallowance on being made known by the Gov- ernor-General by speech or message to each of the Houses of the Parliament, or by Proclamation, shall annul the law from the day when the dis- allowance is so made known. 60. A proposed law reserved for the Queen's pleasure shall not have any force unless and until within two years from the day on which it was presented to the Governor-General for the Queen's assent the Governor-General makes known, by speech or message to each of the Houses of Par- liament, or by Proclamation, that it has received the Queen's assent. Chapter II. The Executive Government 61. The executive power of the Commonwealth is vested in the Queen and is e.xercisable by the Governor-General as the Queen's representative, and extends to the execution and maintenance of this Constitution, and of the laws of the Common- wealth. 62. There shall be a Federal Executive Council to advise the Governor-General in the govern- ment of the Commonwealth, and the members of the Council shall be chosen and summoned by the Governor-General and sworn as Executive Councillors, and shall hold office during his plea- sure. 63. The provisions of this Constitution referring to the Governor-General in Council shall be con- strued as referring to the Governor-General acting with the advice of the Federal Executive Council. 64. The Governor-General may appoint officers to administer such departments of State of the 66 Commonwealth as the Governor-General in Coun- cil may estabHsh. Such officers shall hold office during the pleasure of the Governor-General. They shall be members of the Federal Executive Council, and shall be the Queen's Ministers of State for the Commonwealth. After the first general election no Minister of State shall hold office for a longer period than three months unless he is or becomes a senator or a member of the House of Repre- sentatives. 65. Until the Parliament otherwise provides, the Ministers of State shall not exceed seven in num- ber, and shall hold such oflices as the Parliament prescribes, or, in the absence of provision, as the Governor-General directs. 66. There shall be payable to the Queen, out of the Consolidated Revenue Fund of the Com- monwealth, for the salaries of the Ministers of State, an annual sum which, until the Parliament otherwise provides, shall not exceed twelve thou- sand pounds a year. 67. Until the Parliament otherwise provides, the appointment and removal of all other officers of the Executive Government of the Commonwealth shall be vested in the Governor-General in Coun- cil, unless the appointment is delegated by the Governor-General in Council or by a law of the Commonwealth to some other authority. 68. The command in chief of the naval and mili- tary forces of the Commonwealth is vested in the Governor-General as the Queen's representative. 6q. On a date or dates to be proclaimed by the Governor-General after the establishment of the Commonwealth the following departments of the public service in each State shall become transferred to the Commonwealth: Posts, tele- graphs, and telephones: Naval and military de- fence: Lighthouses, lightships, beacons, and buoys: Quarantine. But the departments of customs and of excise in each State shall become transferred to the Commonwealth on its establishment. 70. In respect of matters which, under this Con- stitution, pass to the Executive Government of the Commonwealth, all powers and functions which at the establishment of the Commonwealth are vested in the Governor of a Colony, or in the Governor of a Colony with the advice of his Executive Council, or in any authority of a Colony, shall vest in the Governor-General, or in the Gov- ernor-General in Council, or in the authority ex- ercising similar powers under the Commonwealth, as the case requires. Chapter III. Judicature 71. The judicial power of the Commonwealth shall be vested in a Federal Supreme Court, to be called the High Court of Australia, and in such other federal courts as the Parliament creates, and in such other courts as it invests with fed- eral jurisdiction. The High Court shall consist of a Chief Justice, and so many other Jus- tices, not less than two, as the Parliament pre- scribes. 72. The Justices of the High Court and of the other courts created by the Parliament — (i.) Shall be appointed by the Governor-General in Council: (ii.) Shall not be removed except by the Governor- General in Council, on an address from both Houses of the Parliament in the same session, pray- ing for such removal on the ground of proved misbehaviour or incapacity: (iii.) Shall receive such remuneration as the Parliament may fix; but the remuneration shall not be diminished dur- ing their continuance in office. 73. The High Court shall have jurisdiction, with such exceptions and subject to such regulations I AUSTRALIA, CONSTITUTION AUSTRALIA, CONSTITUTION as the Parliament prescribes, to hear and deter- mine appeals from all judgments, decrees, orders, and sentences — (i.) Of any Justice or Justices ex- ercising the original jurisdiction of the High Court: (ii.) Of any other federal court, or court exercis- ing federal jurisdiction; or of the Supreme Court of any State, or of any other court of any State from which at the establishment of the Common- wealth an appeal lies to the Queen in Council: (iii.) Of the Inter-State Commission, but as to questions of law only: and the judgment of the High Court in all such cases shall be final and conclusive. But no exception or regulation pre- scribed by the Parliament shall prevent the High Court from hearing and determining any appeal from the Supreme Court of a State in any mat- ter in which at the establishment of the Common- wealth an appeal lies from such Supreme Court to the Queen in Council. Until the Parliament otherwise provides, the conditions of and re- strictions on appeals to the Queen in Council from the Supreme Courts of the several States shall be applicable to appeals from them to the High Court. 74. No appeal shall be permitted to the Queen in Council from a decision of the High Court upon any question, howsoever arising, as to the limits inter se of the Constitutional powers of the Commonwealth and those of any State or States, or as to the limits inter se of the Consti- tutional powers of any two or more States, unless the High Court shall certify that the ques- tion is one which ought to be determined by Her Majesty in Council. The High Court may so certify if satisfied that for any special reason the certificate should be granted, and thereupon an appeal shall lie to Her Majesty in Council on the question without further leave. Except as pro- vided in this section, this Constitution shall not impair any right which the Queen may be pleased to exercise by virtue of Her Royal prerogative to grant special leave of appeal from the High Court to Her Majesty in Council. The Parlia- ment may make laws limiting the matters in which such leave may be asked, but proposed laws con- taining any such limitation shall be reserved by the Governor-General for Her Majesty's pleasure. 75. In all matters — (i.) Arising under any treaty: (ii.) Affecting consuls or other representatives of other countries: (iii.) In which the Common- wealth, or a person suing or being sued on be- half of the Commonwealth, is a party: (iv.) Be- tween States, or between residents of different States, or between a State and a resident of an- other State: (v.) In wh:ch a writ of Mandamus or prohibition or an injunction is sought against an officer of the Commonwealth: the High Court shall have original jurisdiction. 76. The Parliament may make laws conferring original jurisdiction on the High Court in any matter — (i.) Arising under this Constitution, or involving its interpretation: (ii.) Arising under any laws made by the Parliament: (iii.) Of .Admiralty and maritime jurisdiction: (iv.) Relating to the same subject-matter claimed under the laws of different States. 77. With respect to any of the matters men- tioned in the last two sections the Parliament may make laws — (i.) Defining the jurisdiction of any federal court other than the High Court: (ii.) Defining the extent to which the jurisdic- tion of any federal court shall be exclusive of that which belongs to or is invested in the courts of the States: (iii.) Investing any court of a State with federal jurisdiction. 78. The Parliament may make laws conferring rights to proceed against the Commonwealth or a State in respect of matters within the limits of the judicial power. 79. The federal jurisdiction of any court may be exercised by such number of judges as the Parlia- ment prescribes. 80. The trial on indictment of any offence against any law of the Commonwealth shall be by jury, and every such trial shall be held in the State where the offence was committed, and if the offence was not committed within any State the trial shall be held at such place or places as the Parliament prescribes. Chaptek IV. Finance and Trade 81. All revenues or moneys raised or received by the Executive Government of the Common- wealth shall form one Consolidated Revenue Fund, to be appropriated lor the purposes of the Com- monwealth in the manner and subject to the charges and liabilities imposed by this Constitution. 82. The costs, charges, and expenses incident to the collection? management, and receipt of the Consolidated Revenue Fund shall form the first charge thereon; and the revenue of the Common- wealth shall in the first instance be applied to the payment of the expenditure of the Commonwealth. 83. No money shall be drawn from the Treas- ury of the Commonwealth except under appro- priation made by law. But until the expiration of one month after the first meeting of the Par- liament the Governor-General in Council may draw from the Treasury and expend such moneys as may be necessary for the maintenance of any department transferred to the Commonwealth and for the holding of the first elections lor the Par- liament. 84. When any department of the public service of a State becomes transferred to the Common- wealth, all officers of the department shall be- come subject to the control of the Executive Gov- ernment of the Commonwealth. Any such officer who is not detained in the service of the Com- monwealth shall, unless he is appointed to some other office of equal emolument in the public service of the State, be entitled to receive irom the State any pension, gratuity, or other com- pensation, payable under the law of the State on the abolition of his office. Any such ofiicer who is retained in the service of the Commonwealth shall preserve all his existing and accruing rights, and shall be entitled to retire from office at the time, and on the pension or retiring allowance, which would be permitted by the law of the State if his service with the Commonwealth were a continuation of his service with the State. Such pension or retiring allowance shall be paid to him by the Commonwealth; but the State shall pay to the Commonwealth a part thereof, to be calculated on the proportion which his term of service with the State bears to his whole term of service, and for the purpose of the calculation his salary shall be taken to be that paid to him by the State at the time of the transfer. Any officer who is, at the establishment of the Com- monwealth, in the public service of a State, and who is, by consent of the Governor of the State with the advice of the Executive Council thereof, transferred to the public service of the Com- monwealth, shall have the same rights as if he had been an officer of a department transferred to the Commonwealth and were retained in the ser- vice of the Commonwealth. 85. When any department of the public service of a State is transferred to the Commonwealth^ (i.) All property of the State of any kind, used exclusively in connexion with the department, shall 662 AUSTRALIA, CONSTITUTION AUSTRALIA, CONSTITUTION become vested in the Commonwealth; but, in the case of the departments controlling customs and excise and bounties, for such time only as the Governor-General in Council may declare to be necessary: (ii.) The Commonwealth may ac- quire any property of the State, of any kind used, but not exclusively used in connexion with the department: the value thereof shall, if no agreement can be inade, be ascertained in, as nearly as may be, the manner in which the value of land, or of an interest in land, taken by the State for public purposes is ascertained under the law of the State in force at the establishment of the Commonwealth: (ill.) The Commonwealth shall compensate the State for the value of any property passing to the Commonwealth under this section ; if no agreement can be made as to the mode of compensation, it shall be determined under laws to be made by the Parliament: (iv.) The Commonwealth shall, at the date of the transfer, assume the current obligations of the State in respect of the department transferred. 86. On the establishment of the Commonwealth, the collection and control of duties of customs and of excise, and the control of the payment of bounties, shall pass to the Executive Government of the Commonwealth. 87. During a period of ten years after the estab- lishment of the Commonwealth and thereafter until the Parliament otherwise provides, of the net revenue of the Commonwealth from duties of cus- toms and of excise not more than one-fourth shall be applied annually by the Commonwealth towards its expenditure. The balance shall, in accordance with this Constitution, be paid to the several States, or applied towards the payment of interest on debts of the several States taken over by the Commonwealth. 88. Uniform duties of customs shall be imposed within two years after the establishment of the Commonwealth. 8g. Until the imposition of uniform duties of customs — (i.) The Commonwealth shall credit to each State the revenues collected therein by the Commonwealth, (ii.) The Commonwealth shall debit to each State — (a) The expenditure therein of the Commonwealth incurred solely for the main- tenance or continuance, as at the time of trans- fer, of any department transferred from the State to the Commonwealth; (6) The proportion of the State, according to the number of its people, in the other expenditure of the Commonwealth, (iii.) The Commonwealth shall pay to each State month by month the balance (if any) in favour of the State. po. On the imposition of uniform duties of cus- toms the power of the ParHament to impose duties of customs and of excise, and to grant bounties on the production or export of goods, shall be- come exclusive. On the imposition of uniform duties of customs all laws of the several States imposing duties of customs or of excise, or offer- ing bounties on the production or export of goods, shall cease to have effect, but any grant of or agreement for any such bounty lawfully made by or under the authority of the Government of any State shall be taken to be good if made before the thirtieth day of June, one thou- sand eight hundred and ninety-eight, and not other- wise. 91. Nothing in this Constitution prohibits a State from granting any aid to or bounty on mining for gold, silver, or other metals, nor from granting, with the consent of both Houses of the Parliament of the Commonwealth expressed by resolution, any aid to or bounty on the pro- duction or export of goods. g2. On the imposition of uniform duties of cus- toms, trade, commerce, and intercourse among the States, whether by means of internal car- riage or ocean navigation, shall be absolutely free. But notwithstanding anything in this Con- stitution, goods imported before the imposition of uniform duties of customs into any State, or intp any Colony which, whilst the goods remain therein, becomes a State, shall, on thence passing into another State within two years after the im- position of such duties, be liable to any duty chargeable on the importation of such goods into the Commonwealth, less any duty paid in respect of the goods on their importation. Q3. During the first five years after the imposi- tion of uniform duties of customs, and thereafter until the Parliament otherwise provides — (i.) The duties of customs chargeable on goods imported into a State and afterwards passing into another State for consumption, and the duties of excise paid on goods produced or manufactured in a State and afterwards passing into another State for consumption, shall be taken to have been col- lected not in the former but in the latter State: (ii.) Subject to the last subsection, the Com- monwealth shall credit revenue, debit expenditure, and pay balances to the several States as pre- scribed for the period preceding the imposition of uniform duties of customs. 94. After five years from the imposition of uni- form duties of customs, the Parliament may pro- vide, on such basis as it deems fair, for the monthly payment to the several States of all surplus rev- enue of the Commonwealth. 05. Notwithstanding anything in this Constitu- tion, the Parliament of the State of Western Australia, if that State be an Original State, may, during the first five years after the imposition of uniform duties of customs, impose duties of customs on goods passing into that State and not originally imported from beyond the limits of the Commonwealth; and such duties shall be collected by the Commonwealth. But any duty so imposed on any goods shall not exceed during the first of such years the duty chargeable on the goods under the law of Western Australia in force at the imposition of uniform duties, and shall not e-xcecd during the second, third, fourth, and fifth of such years respectively, four-fifths, three-fifths, two-fifths, and one-fifth of such latter duty, and all duties imposed under this section shall cease at the expiration of the fifth year after the imposition of uniform duties. If at any time during the five years the duty on any goods under this section is higher than the duty im- posed by the Commonwealth on the importation of the like goods, then such higher duty shall be collected on the goods when imported into West- ern Australia from beyond the limits of the Com- monwealth. q6. During a period of ten years after the estab- lishment of the Commonwealth and thereafter until the Parliament otherwise provides, the Par- liament may grant financial assistance to any State on such terms and conditions as the Parliament thinks fit. 97. Until the Parliament otherwise provides, the laws in force in any Colony which has become or becomes a State with respect to the receipt of revenue and the expenditure of money on ac- count of the Government of the Colony, and the review and audit of such receipt and expenditure, shall apply to the receipt of revenue and the ex- penditure of money on account of the Common- wealth in the State in the same manner as if the Commonwealth, or the Government or an officer of the Commonwealth, were mentioned whenever 663 AUSTRALIA, CONSTITUTION AUSTRALIA, CONSTITUTION the Colony, or the Government or an officer of the Colony, is mentioned, qS. The power of the Parliament to make laws with respect to trade and commerce extends to navigation and shipping, and to railways the property of any State. QQ. The Commonwealth shall not, by any law or regulation of trade, commerce, or revenue, give preference to one State or any part thereof over another State or any part thereof. loo. The Commonwealth shall not, by any law or regulation of trade or commerce, abridge the right of a State or of the residents therein to the reasonable use of the waters of rivers for conser- vation or irrigation. loi. There shall be an Inter-State Commission, with such powers of adjudication and adminis- tration as the Parliament deems necessary for the execution and maintenance, within the Common- wealth, of the provisions of this Constitution re- lating to trade and commerce, and of all laws made thereunder. 102. The Parliament may by any law with re- spect to trade or commerce forbid, as to railways, any preference or discrimination by any State, or by any authority constituted under a State, if such preference or discrimination is undue and unreasonable, or unjust to any State ; due regard being had to the financial responsibilities incurred by any State in connexion with the construc- tion and maintenance of its railways. But no preference or discrimination shall, within the meaning of this section, be taken to be undue and unreasonable, or unjust to any State, unless so adjudged by the Inter-State Commission. 103. The members of the Inter-State Commis- sion — (i.) Shall be appointed by the Governor- General in Council: (ii.) Shall hold office for seven years, but may be removed within that time by the Governor-General in Council, on an address from both Houses of the Parliament in the same session praying for such removal on the ground of proved misbehaviour or incapacity: (iii.) Shall receive such remuneration as the Par- liament may fix ; but such remuneration shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. 104. Nothing in this Constitution shall render unlawful any rate for the carriage of goods upon a railway, the property of a State, if the rate is deemed by the Inter-State Commission to be nec- essary for the development of the territory of the State, and if the rate applies equally to goods within the State and to goods passing into the State from other States. 105. The Parliament may take over from the States their public debts as existing at the estab- lishment of the Commonwealth, or a proportion thereof according to the respective numbers of their peoples as shown by the latest statistics of the Commonwealth, and may convert, renew, or consolidate such debts, or any part thereof; and the States shall indemnify the Commonwealth in respect of the debts taken over, and thereafter the interest payable in respect of the debts sh:dl be deducted and retained from the portions of the surplus revenue of the Commonwealth payable to the several States, or if such surplus is insuf- ficient, or if there is no surplus, then the de- ficiency or the whole amount shall be paid by the several States. Chapter V. The States 106. The Constitution of each State of the Com- monwealth shall, subject to this Constitution, con- tinue as at the establishment of the Common- wealth, or as at the admission or establishment of the State, as the case may be, until altered in accordance with the Constitution of the State. 107. Every power of the Parliament of a Col- ony which has become or becomes a State, shall, unless it is by this Constitution exclusively vested in the Parliament of the Commonwealth or with- drawn from the Parliament of the State, continue as at the establishment of the Commonwealth, or as at the admission or establishment of the State, as the case may be. 108. Every law in force in a Colony which has become or becomes a State, and relating to any matter within the powers of the Parliament of the Commonwealth, shall, subject to this Consti tution, continue in force in the State; and, until provision is made in that behalf by the Parliament of the Commonwealth, the Parliament of the State shall have such powers of alteration and of re- peal in respect of any such law as the Parliament of the Colony had until the Colony became a State. 100. When a law of a State is inconsistent with a law of the Commonwealth, the latter shall pre- vail, and the former shall, to the extent of the inconsistency, be invalid. no. The provisions of this Constitution relat- ing to the Governor of a State extend and apply to the Governor for the time being of the State, or other chief executive officer or administrator of the government of the State. 111. The Parliament of a State may surrender any part of the State to the Commonwealth; and upon such surrender, and the acceptance thereof by the Commonwealth, such part of the State shall become subject to the exclusive jurisdiction of the Commonwealth. 112. After uniform duties of customs have been imposed, a State may levy on imports or exports, or on goods passing into or out of the State, such charges as may be necessary for executing the in- spection laws of the State; but the net produce of all charges so levied shall be for the use of the Commonwealth ; and any such inspection laws may be annulled by the Parliament of the Common- wealth 113. All fermented, distilled, or other intoxicat- ing liquids passing into any State or remaining therein for use, consumption, sale, or storage, shall be subject to the laws of the State as if such liquids had been produced in the State. 114. A State shall not, without the consent of the Parliament of the Commonwealth, raise or maintain any naval or military force, or impose any tax on property of any kind belonging to the Commonwealth, nor shall the Commonwealth impose any tax on property of any kind belong- ing to a State. 115. A State shall not coin money, nor make anything but gold and silver coin a legal tender in payment of debts. 116. The Commonwealth shall not make any law for establishing any religion, or for imposing any religious observance, or for prohibiting the free exercise of any religion, and no religious test shall be required as a qualification for any office or public trust under the Commonwealth. 117. A subject of the Queen, resident in any State, shall not be subject in any other State to any disability or discrimination which would not be equally applicable to him if he were a subject of the Queen resident in such other State. 118. Full faith and credit shall be given, through- out the Commonwealth to the laws, the public Acts and records, and the judicial proceedings of every State. iiQ. The Commonwealth shall protect every 664 AUSTRALIA, CONSTITUTION AUSTRALIAN BALLOT State against invasion and, on the application of the Executive Government of the State, against domestic violence. 120. Every State shall make provision for the detention in its prisons of persons accused or con- victed of offences against the laws of the Com- monwealth, and for the punishment of persons convicted of such offences, and the Parliament of the Commonwealth may make laws to give effect to this provision. Chapter VI. New States 121. The Parliament may admit to the Com- monwealth or establish new States, and may upon such admission or e.'^tablishment make or impose such terms and conditions, including the extent of representation in either House of the Parliament, as it thinks fit. 122. The Parliament may make laws for the government of any territory surrendered by any State to and accepted by the Commonwealth, or of any territory placed by the Queen under the authority of and accepted by the Commonwealth, or otherwise acquired by the Commonwealth, and may allow the representation of such territory in either House of the Parliament to the extent and on the terms which it thinks fit. 123. The Parliament of the Commonwealth may, with the consent of the Parliament of a State, and the approval of the majority of the electors of the State voting upon the question, increase, diminish, or otherwise alter the limits of the State, upon such terms and conditions as may be agreed on, and may, with the like consent, make provision respecting the effect and operation of any increase or diminution or alteration of territory in relation to any State affected. 124. A new State may be formed by separa- tion of territory from a State, but only with the consent of the Parliament thereof, and a new State may be formed by the union of two or more States or parts of States, but only with the con- sent of the Parliaments of the States affected. Chapter VII. Miscellaneous 125. The seat of Government of the Common- wealth shall be determined by the Parliament, and shall be within territory which shall have been granted to or acquired by the Commonwealth, and shall be vested in and belong to the Com- monwealth, and sTiall be in the State of New South Wales, and be distant not less than one hundred miles from Sydney. Such territory shall contain an area of not less than one hundred square miles, and such portion thereof as shall consist of Crown lands shall be granted to the Commonwealth with- out any payment therefor. The Parliament shall sit at Melbourne until it meet at the seat of Government. 126. The Queen may authorise the Governor- General to appoint any person, or any persons jointly or severally, to be his deputy or deputies within any part of the Commonwealth, and in that capacity to exercise during the pleasure of the Governor-General such powers and functions of the Governor-General as he thinks fit to assign to such deputy or deputies, subject to any limita- tions expressed or directions given by the Queen ; but the appointment of such deputy or deputies shall not affect the exercise by the Governor- General himself of any power or function. 127. In reckoning the numbers of the people of the Commonwealth, or of a Slate or other part of the Commonwealth, aboriginal natives shall not be counted. Chapter VIII. Alteration of the Constitution 128. This Constitution shall not be altered ex- cept in the following manner: — The proposed law for the alteration thereof must be passed by an absolute majority of each House of the Par- liament, and not less than two nor more than six months after its passage through both Houses the proposed law shall be submitted in each State to the electors qualified to vote for the election of members of the House of Representatives. But if either House passes any such proposed law by an absolute majority, and the other House rejects or fails to pass it or passes it with any amend- ment to which the first-mentioned House will not agree, and if after an interval of three months the first-mentioned House in the same or the next session again passes the proposed law by an abso- lute majority with or without any amendment which has been made or agreed to by the other House, and such other House rejects or fails to pass it or passes it with any amendment to which the first-mentioned House will not agree, the Governor-General may submit the proposed law as last proposed by the first-mentioned House, and either with or without any amendments sub- sequently agreed to by both Houses, to the elect- ors in each State qualified to vote for the election of the House of Representatives. When a pro- posed law is submitted to the electors the vote shall be taken in such manner as the Parliament prescribes. But until the qualification of electors of members of the House of Representatives be- comes uniform throughout the Commonwealth, only one-half the electors voting for and against the proposed law shall be counted in any State in which adult suffrage prevails. And if in a majority of the States a majority of the electors voting ap- prove the proposed law, and if a majority of all the electors voting also approve the proposed law, it shall be presented to the Governor-General for the Queen's assent. No alteration diminishing the pro- portionate representation of any State in either House of the Parliament, or the minimum number of representatives of a State in the House of Rep- resentatives, or increasing, diminishing, or other- wise altering the limits of the State, or in any manner affecting the provisions of the Constitu- tion in relation thereto, shall become law unless the majority of the electors voting in that State approve the proposed law. — See also British em- pire: Character of the British empire: Character- istics of self-governing colonies. Also in: Sir J. Quick and R. R. Garran, Anno- tated constitution of the AiistraJian Common- wealth. — A. T. Clark, Australian constitutional law. AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND ARMY CORPS. See Anzacs; and Australia: igi4-iqiS. AUSTRALIA FELIX. See Australia: 1787- 1840: Penal settlements. AUSTRALIAN BALLOT: Origin.— Adop- tion in England. — Under the Australian system the ballots are printed under government super- vision, at public expense, and contain the names of all candidates duly nominated. The ballots can be obtained by the voters only within the polling places, on election day, and are marked by them in entire secrecy. "As its name implies, this system originated in Australia. The population of this land in the first half of the nineteenth century in- cluded many gold-seekers, bent upon gain, and a large class of criminals. In this environment the vices of the viva voce method flourished even more than in England. Mr. Francis S. Dutton in his testimony before the Marquis of Hartington 665 AUSTRALIAN BALLOT England AUSTRALIAN BALLOT committee in 1869 said: 'Before the ballot was in operation our elections were exceedinply riotous. Of course our community had the rowdy elements as well as other countries, and on election days these troublesome elements came to the surface; and I have been in the balcony of an hotel during one of the city elections, when the raging mobs down in the street were so violent that I certainly would not have risked my life to have crossed the street.' Many men in Australia saw the dangers of open voting, and began to work to secure a rem- edy. The secret ballot was first proposed by Francis S. Dutton in the Legislative Council of South Australia in 1851. For several years no action was taken, but in 1857 Mr. Dutton became a member of the government, and made excellent use of his opportunity to advance his measure. A bill embodying this plan was introduced, and. after some modification in the House, became a law in 1857-58. In Victoria the- secret ballot was cham- pioned by Mr. William Nicholson, who, at the head of the government, secured the enactment of the law in 1856. The system spread very rapidly. It was adopted by Tasmania and New South Wales in 1858; New Zealand in 1870; Queensland in 1874; and West Australia in 1877. [See also Suf- frage, Manhood: British Empire: 1921.] In Eng- land, where the viva voce method was in use with all its attending vices, the secret ballot had been agitated continually since 1830. In that year it was proposed by O'Connell and received the sup- port of twenty-one members. The ballot formed a part of the reform bill as reported to the Cabinet by Lord John Russell, Sir James Graham, and others, but it was not included in the act as pre- sented to Parliament. During the next three years many petitions for the measures were presented to Parliament and debated. On April 23, 1833, George Grote brought forward a resolution af- firming the expediency of its adoption and until 1840 this was yearly presented and affirmed by Mr. Grote. After the retirement of Grote, Mr. Ward and later Mr. H. Berkley became the cham- pions of the measure. It was supported by such statesmen as Macaulay, Bright, Cobbett, Hume, and O'Connell, and was opposed by Lord Derby, the Duke of Wellington, and Lord Palmerston. Although this movement was retarded by the revo- lution of 1848 and the opposition of John Stuart Mill, the long period of agitation finally bore fruit. In the Queen's speech from the throne in 1868-60, a recommendation was made that the present mode of conducting elections be inquired into and fur- ther guarantees adopted for promoting their tran- quility, purity, and freedom. A committee of tv,'enty-three, with the Marquis of Hartington as chairman, was appointed. This committee not only examined the English situation, but ques- tioned witnesses from France, Italy, Greece, the United States, and Australia; and in 1870 it recom- mended that the secret ballot be adopted. The re- sult was the ballot act which became a law in 1872. With the prestige gained by its success in England, the principles of the Australian ballot were soon adopted in Canada, Belgium, Luxem- burg, and Italy." — E. C. Evans, History of the Australian ballot system in the United States, pp. 17-20. 1882-1916. — Australian ballot supersedes early methods of voting in the United States. — Evils of early methods. — Types of Australian ballots. — History of its spread in the United States. — "Although the departure from the English viva voce system of voting was begun in colonial times, it was not completed until late in the nineteenth century. Nine of the ten state constitutions framed between 1776 and 1780 required the secret ballot for the election of certain officials, but the majority were still chosen by oral vote. 'As the voter appeared, his name was called out in a loud voice. The judges inquired, "John Smith, for whom do you vote?" He replied by proclaiming the name of his favorite. Then the clerks en- rolled the vote, and the judges announced it as enrolled. The representative of the candidate for whom he voted arose, and bowed, and thanked him aloud; and his partisans often applauded.' In Kentucky, the last state to give up the system, the election for iheriff consisted in ranging the friends of one candidate on one side of the road, the backers of the other on the opposite side. As in an old-fashioned spelling bee, the longest line won. The classe which strongly advocated the open vote were in America, as elsewhere, the propertied classes. The system naturally continued longest in the South. The conservatives dreaded the effect of secrecy upon the honesty of elections. John Randolph of Virginia said in 1839: 'I scarcely believe that we have such a fool in all Virginia as even to mention the vote by ballot, and I do not hesitate to say that the adoption of the ballot would make any nation a nation of scoundrels, if it did not find them so.' The ballot had been in- troduced in all the seaboard states but one by iSoo. In that year it was adopted for the gov- ernment of the Northwest Territory, and has since been the rule in states organized jn the West. But Arkansas preserved the ancient viva voce sys- tem until 1S46, Missouri and Virginia until the sixties, and Kentucky abandoned it only in 1890. By the middle of the nineteenth century, however, some form of ballot was employed in most of the United States. The .Generic term was applied to a motley variety of voting papers, both written and printed. As there was no rule for the size and color of the ballot, each party sought to make its ticket recognizable by the ignorant voter by pe- culiar marks. One Republican ballot had a flam- ing pink border, with rays projecting towards the center, and letters half an inch high. Ballots of colored tissue paper were common in the South. Such pronounced differences made it easy to dis- tinguish a Republican from a Democratic paper, as far as it could be seen. The use of the ballot conformed to no rules. If he chose, the voter could make his own and bring it with him, usually in his vest-pocket, whence the name of 'vest-pocket tickets.' The labor involved in this led candidates generally before 1S25 to print their tickets to al- lure the indolent. When the party took over the ballot, usage varied widely as to how many names should be put on one paper; some states required a man to cast nine, ten, or more papers before he had voted for all the candidates. The ballot was entirely a party affair, gotten up, printed, and peddled on election day, by party workers, who hawked their wares so diligently as to be an un- mitigated nuisance. LInregulatcd political heelers were given virtually complete control of an essen- tial part of the electoral system. An unsystematic institution such as the above was prey to a multi- tude of abuses. Besides involving an enormous expense throush the duplication of effort, the money spent did not insure the public ... a cor- rect ballot. The voter relied upon his party organi- zation, and that often betrayed him. An irrespon- sible ring could 'unbunch' the party slate, remove a good candidate, and substitute one of its own, with little fear of penalty. The machines of two parties sometimes agreed to compromise by trad- ing certain -places on each other's ballots, unknown to the party members, who took what the peddlers gave them without inspection. If the politicians did not agree, a party got out counterfeit ballots 666 AUSTRALIAN BALLOT United Staies AUSTRALIAN BALLOT of the opposition with its own candidates on them, so skilfully contrived that detection was difficult even on close examination. Grosser frauds were practiced as well, because of the fact that the bal- lot was really hardly secret at all. This had two important results: bribery and intimidation. When a candidate had paid for a vote, he was naturally anxious to see that what he had bought was de- livered. A better system than the old-style ballot for stabilizing this traffic in votes could hardly be conceived. Watchers stationed at the polls could tell, even at a distance, what ticket a man voted. The tissue-paper ballot even made it possible to deliver double or triple the value of the bribe, by folding smaller ballots inside a blanket one, and shaking them out as the ballot was dropped into the urn. Intimidation was probably not so com- mon as in England, but it was carried on to far too large an extent. Men were transported to the polls in their employers' carriages. They were then given ballots and told to keep them in sight until the moment when they dropped them into the urn. If the voters stayed away from the polls or did not obey orders, they were thrown out of work, and, in mill-towns, out of the company's tenements as well. . . . [See also Corrupt and ILLEGAL PRACTICES AT ELECTIONS; United States.] The essential parts of the Australian system as employed in the United States are the printing and distribution of the ballot, the choosing of the names which shall appear upon it, and the regula- tion of the method in which it is cast. After its introduction the Australian ballot became the only one which the voter might cast. It is prepared by the state at public expense, so that in a sense the state guarantees the authenticity of the nomina- tions on it. As it is necessary to restrict the size, the law provides that only names proposed by parties of a certain numerical strength, or by peti- tion of a large number of electors, shall appear. In effect this is state recognition of parties, or of the party machine. The ballots are marked in a secret booth, from the neighborhood of which all but the voter are excluded. The system at- tempts to shield him from all outside influence from the moment he receives the ticket until he drops it into the ballot-box, and to keep his vote entirely from the knowledge ot any one but him- self. The Massachusetts ballot ... is the nearest approach to the [Australian ballot] system in its entirety. Upon this the names of the candidates are grouped in alphabetical order under the offices for which they stand, with the name of the party following that of the nominee. Such is the general style of the ballot in fourteen states. It has been urged against the Massachusetts ballot that the amount of marking required discourages the voter and leads to neglect of all but the leading offices on the ticket. On the other hand, it diminishes laxness in the shape of straight ticket voting by demanding separate consideration for each nominee. That the system does actually favor independent voting was shown in the election of 1004. ... It is claimed, however, that the arrangement of names on the ballot constitutes a literacy test, and some twenty-five states use the party-column type, the other main style of the Australian ballot. The entire ticket of each party is printed in a single column with the party emblem at its head to en- lighten ignorant voters. The artistic taste of the political parties is most diverse and catholic. The Socialists come nearest to uniformity, two hands clasped before a globe being their insignia in seven states. The Prohibitionists employ a hatchet in Alabama, a house and yard in Delaware, a phcenix in Kentucky, an armorial device in Michigan, an anchor in New Hampshire, a fountain in New York, a rose in Ohio, while the only picture on which two states agree is the sun rising over the water, used in Indiana and Kansas. These super- ficial differences merely reflect deeper variations on more important points. The size of the baUot varies from a huge blanket, four or five feet square, to a narrow strip three inches wide and thirty-one inches long, in Florida, or the note-paper size used in Oregon. Of more importance is the relative ease with which a man can vote a straight ticket or can exercise intelligence in picking the best candidate of several parties. A simple cross in the circle beneath the party emblem casts a straight ballot. In many states the independent voter is put to twenty times as much trouble even though he would vote for but one officer outside of his own party. Here is a serious matter for there is no doubting the American voter's procliv- ity to choose the easiest way in marking his ballot. The party column system often places a direct penalty on an effort to smash the weak spots in a party slate. To be sure the illiterate voter would be at sea without the party emblem; but it is a question whether haphazard or hidebound voting is the lesser evil. It would seem practicable to add the party symbol to the party name on the Massachusetts ballot and thus to avoid both Scylla and Charybdis. At any rate the problem deserves at least as diligent attention as our great corpora- tions give to the efficiency of their advertising. ... A partial remedy for the evils of the present ballot has been secured by the use of the voting machines, which combine relative simplicity with ease in splitting a party ticket. Absolute accuracy in counting the returns is assured. Their cost is perhaps the main obstacle in the way of their uni- versal adoption." — C. Seymour and D. P. Frary, How the world votes, v. i, pp. 246-254, — The New York state ballot in recent years has com- bined the party emblem and the Massachusetts ar- rangement by officers. This makes it as easy to vote a split ticket as a straight one and at the same time aids the illiterate voter. — "At first this new reform in Australia and England does not appear to have created much of an impression in this country. According to Mr. John S. Wig- more, it was first advocated by a member of the Philadelphia Civil Reform Association in 1882 in a pamphlet called English Elections. The follow- ing year Henry George in the North American- Review advocated the adoption of the English system as a cure for the vices arising from use of money in elections. The first attempt that the writer could discover to secure the passage of the reform was made in Michigan in 1885. A bill modeled on the Australian act was introduced into the lower house of the legislature by Mr. George W. Walthew, but it failed to pass. A bill similar to that of Mr. Walthew's, advocated by Mr. Jud- son Grenell, passed the House in 1887, but was lost in the Senate. In Wisconsin a compromise measure applying to cities of fifty thousand or over was adopted in 1887. Under this law the party organizations printed the ballots and the state distributed them. But the honor of enacting the first .Australian-ballot law belongs to Kentucky. This measure was introduced by Mr. A. M. Wal- lace, of Louisville, and was enacted February 24, 18S8. The act applied only to the city of Louis- ville, because the state constitution required viva voce voting at state elections. The ballots were printed by the mayor at the expense of the city. Candidates had to be nominated by fifty or more voters in order to have their names placed upon the ballot. The blanket form of the ballot was pro- vided, with the names of the candidates arranged in alphabetical order according to surnames, but 667 AUSTRALIAN BALLOT AUSTRASIA AND NEUSTRIA without party designations of any kind. The man- ner of obtaining and marliing the ballots was the same as the Massachusetts act. . . . The original centers of organized agitation for the reform were New York and Boston, and the two movements, while simultaneous, were independent. In Boston the earliest discussion and demand for ballot reform grew out of the discussions of public questions by the members of a club called the 'Dutch Treat.' Later the Boston City Council and the labor or- ganizations began to demand leforni. One of the members of the 'Dutch Treat,' Mr. H. H. Sprague, was elected to the state Senate and was made chair- man of a committee on election law. Encouraged by these favorable signs, the club drafted a bill which was presented by Mr. Sprague. Another bill was presented in the House by Mr. E. B Hayes, of Lynn, [Mass.] Mr. Hayes lent his support to the bill introduced by Mr. Sprague, a large number of petitions for the bill were re- ceived, and on May 20, 1888, the law was enacted. In New York a systematic discussion began in 1887 in the Commonwealth Club. After a thorough discussion of this reform, a committee was ap- pointed composed of some of the leading lawyers and men of legislative and administrative experi- ence, taken equally from the Republican and Democratic parties. This committee was subse- quently joined by a like committee from the City Reform Club; and after some months of study, it drafted an act which, after having been ap- proved by the Commonwealth Club, the City Re- form Club, and the Single Tax party, was presented in the .^ssembly of 1888 and was known as the 'Yates bill.' The bill was referred to the Com- mittee on Judiciary and was amended by certain provisions taken from similar bills introduced by Mr. Saxton and Mr. Hamilton. The measure was supported by the Republicans and passed both houses of the legislature, but was vetoed by Gov- ernor Hill. Agitation was started anew by its friends and a ballot league was formed. In the. session of the legislature of i88g the Saxton bill was amended and again introduced, the bill as amended having received the indorsement of a committee of the Young Men's Democratic Club of New York. The legislature again passed the Saxton bill and it was vetoed a second time by Governor Hill. In i8qo the Yates-Saxton bill with some modifications was again introduced, and a monster petition from New York City containing over one hundred thousand signatures was pre- sented to the legislature. Governor Hill saw that something had to be done, so he expressed a will- ingness to sign a bill looking to the improvement of the election laws, but declared that under no circumstance would he approve any bill following the Massachusetts or the Australian system. Cer- tain of the leaders, despairing of the adoption of their reform, decided to accept the governor's over- tures. The result was the unsatisfactor\- com- promise law of i8qo which provided for the so- called 'party and paster ballot." The rapidity of the spread of the .\ustralian ballot in the United States during the next few years was most gratify- ing to its friends, but its triumph was not secured without a hard struggle. The opposition came from two sources: the ultra-conservative members of the community, and the machine politicians who profited by the vices of the old system. The New York Herald, in an editorial, said: 'The only per- sons who can have an interest in elections as they are, are the leaders and managers, whose power depends upon their successes in manipulating the ballot so that the suffrage will express, not the will of the people, but the success of their schemes.' As Mr. Wigmore shows in his summary of party votes, the success of the measure in the country as a whole cannot be claimed by either of the two great political parties, and its enemies were also bipartisan. The movement for reform, which reaped its first fruits of victory in Louisville and Massachusetts, received great impetus by the un- precedented use of money in the election of 1888. The effect is easily seen in the record of legisla- tion of the next four years. In i88q seven states enacted reform laws based on the Australian bal- lot. In the legislative sessions of the following year five states and one territory placed this law on their statute books. Before the presidential election in i8q2 thirty-two states and two ter- ritories had provided for the .\ustralian ballot ; and by i8q6 seven other states were added to this list. In i8q7 Missouri abandoned in part the .Australian ballot, and adopted separate party ballots. This is the only state which has given up the blanket form of the ballot after once adopting it. By IQ16 Georgia and South Caro- lina remain the only states entirely unreformed North Carolina has [1Q16] only a local act applying to New Hanover County. New Mex- ico has a very unsatisfactory compromise law under which separate ballots are printed by the county recorders under the supervision of the chairmen of the county committees of each party; and the ballots are distributed by the parties in advance of the election. Tennessee has applied the Australian-ballot law only to counties having fifty thousand population or over, and to towns having a population of twenty-five hundred or ■ more. Missouri has all the features of the Australian ballot except that it has separate party ballots. Delaware has taken a very reactionary step by permitting an elector to obtain a ballot in ad- vance of the election from the chairmen of the various political organizations, and she has also introduced an element of danger by the use of envelopes." — E. C. Evans, History of the Aus- tralian ballot system in the United States, pp. 17-20. — See also Suffrage, Manhood: United States. Also in: C. A. Beard, American government and polities, pp. 675-685.— W. H. Glasson, Australian voting system (South Atlantic Quarterly, Apr., iqoo). 1902. — Secret ballot in Porto Rico. See Porto Rico: 1001-1005. 1913. — Secret ballot in France. — "The con- tinued efforts of the Chamber of Deputies to get the Senate to agree to a completely secret ballot resulted in 1Q13 in a law providing for voting under envelope, as in the elections to the German Reich- stag, and for secret voting booths. All ballots must be cast in a uniform, opaque envelope, pro- vided by the prefect, and bearing an official stamp. The voter goes into the isoloir. or booth, and in secrecy folds his ballot and puts it into the en- velope. He then deposits it in the urn himself, so that the president may have no chance to mark it surreptitiously. This reform will do away with intimidation, ballot stuffine, marking of ballots, and their identification by outsiders. It came slowly, and in the face of great opposition in the Senate during a whole decade." — C. Seymour and D. P Frarv. Ho;c the world votes, v. i, pp. 379- 380. AUSTRALIAN MAN. See Europe: Prehis- toric period: Earliest remains. AUSTRASIA and NEUSTRIA, or Neus- trasia. — "It is conjectured by Luden, with great probability, that the Ripuarians were originally called the 'Eastern' people to distinguish them from the Salian Franks who lived to the West. But when the old home of the conquerors on the 668 AUSTRASIA AND NEUSTRIA AUSTRIA right bank of the Rhine was united with their new settlements in Gaul, the latter, as it would seem, were called Neustria or Neustrasia (New Lands) ; while the term Austrasia came to denote the origi- nal seats of the Franks, on what we now call the German bank of the Rhine. The most important difference between them (a difference so great as to lead to their permanent separation into the kingdoms of France and Germany by the treaty of Verdun) was this: that in Neustria the Prankish element was quickly absorbed by the mass of Gallo- Romanism by which it was surrounded; while in Austrasia, which included the ancient seats of the Frankish conquerors, the German element was wholly predominant. The import of the word Aus- trasia (Austria, Austrifrancia) is very fluctuating. In its widest sense it was used to denote all the countries incorporated into the Frankish Empire, or even held in subjection to it, in which the Ger- man language and population prevailed; in this acceptation it included therefore the territory of the Alemanni, Bavarians. Thuringians, and even that of the Saxons and Frises. In its more com- mon and proper sense it meant that part of the territory of the Franks themselves which was not included in Neustria. It was subdivided into Upper Austrasia on the Moselle, and Lower Austrasia on the Rhine and Meuse. Neustria (or, in the fulness of the monkish Latinity, Neustrasia) was bounded on the north by the ocean, on the south by the Loire, and on the southwest [southeast?] towards Burgundy by a line which, beginning below Gien on the Loire, ran through the rivers Loing and Yonne, not far from their sources, and passing north of Auxerre and south of Troyes, joined the river Aube above Arcis." — W. C. Perry, The Franks, ch. 3. — "The northeastern part of Gaul, along the Rhine, together with a slice of ancient Germany, was already distinguished, as we have seen, by the name of the Eastern Kingdom, or Oster-rike, Latinized into Austrasia. It embraced the region lirst occupied by the Ripuarian Franks, and where they still lived the most compactly and in the greatest number. . . . This was, in the esti- mation of the Franks, the kingdom by eminence, while the rest of the north ul (Jaul was simply not it — 'ne-osterrike,' or Neustria. A line drawn from the mouth of the Scheldt to Cambrai, and thence across the Marne at Chateau-Thierry to the Aube of Bar-sur-Aube, would have separated the one from the other, Neustria comprising all the northwest of Gaul, between the Loire and the ocean, with the exception of Brittany. This had been the first possession of the Salian Franks in Gaul. ... To such an extent had they been ab- sorbed and influenced by the Roman elements of the population, that the Austrasians scarcely con- sidered them Franks, while they, in their turn, regarded the Austrasians as the merest untutored barbarians." — P. Godwin, Hiitory of France: An- cient Gaul, bk. 3, ck. 13, with note. — See also Franks (Merovingian empire): 511-752; Ger- many: 687-800; Scandinavian states: 8th-Qth cen- turies. Also in: E. A. Freeman, Historical geography uj Europe, ch. 5, sect. 5. AUSTRIA Introduction. — Singularity of Austrian his- tory. — A Power which was not a national power. — The peculiarities of Austrian and .Lus- tre-Hungarian history down to the outbreak of the World War are set forth in the following quotations: "The very first fact with which any student of .Austria-Hungary is confronted is that he is dealing with a slate and not with a na- tion. Nationalities are plentiful within the limits of the empire — more nationalities and more lan- guages than in any other European state except Russia — but there is no .Austro-Hungarian nation. When the emperor wishes to address a manifesto to his subjects it is not 'to my people' that he speaks, but 'to my peoples.' Nor have these nationalities anything in common except their government. Race, religion, all that tends to make nationalities different from one another are pres- ent. And so whether we apply to it the terms of one of its severe critics, 'a ramshackle empire,' or describe it, as its friends do, as an exceedingly hopeful experiment in racial federalization, we are necessarily brought back to the conclusion that the Austria of to-day is not a nation but a gov- ernment functioning over a group of struggling nationalities each differing from the other in race, religion and methods of life. Nor does the Aus- trian difficulty end there. In their struggle with each other the nationalities look not merely to their own strength for aid but also to their brothers outside the borders of Austria-Hungan,'. The Ger- man looks to Germany, the Slav to Serbia and Russia for assistance in their hopes of strengthen- ing their- position within the Dual Empire. The result is that this question has been too often re- garded by the Austrian statesmen as a question of foreign policy to be settled with these outside powers rather than an internal question to be settled within the empire. Moreover, the Austro- Hungarian Empire has been constantly endeavor- ing to expand either its territory or its influence, at first in Italy and Germany, and more lately in the Balkan peninsula. And these attempts at ex- pansion have brought it into acute conflict: in the first case with Italy, France and Prussia: in the second case with Russia. So the Dual Empire, whether on the defensive or offensive, has always made foreign policy its chief aim, and has given far too little attention to the pressing questions at home. There are some nations which suffer from too little attention to foreign policy ; Austria seems to have suffered from giving it too much. Finally the Austro-Hungarian Empire shares the fate of all empires on the borderland between two civiliza- tions. 'Asia,' says a Viennese proverb, 'begins on the Ringstrasse,' and there seems to be an element of truth in the saying. The traveller who goes from the Tyrol to Bosnia or to northwestern Hungary passes into a different world. One is European, the other is Oriental, and all the ef- forts of the rulers to Europeanize their subjects and to mitigate this difference have only partially succeeded. And this difference has increased still further the dissension within the Dual Empire and prevented the formation of a united nation. "This is Austria, a state, a foreign policy, an army, a ruler, but never a nation. How did such a state come to be formed? To answer this ques- tion we must go back into the late Middle Ages, to the period when the old Holy Roman Empire of the Germans was struggling with the non-C^er- man races on its borders, Slavs and Magyars. To provide for defence against these races was formed the so-called East March — the kernel of modern Austria. Originally purely German, it extended to the south to take in the Slavs along the northern Adriatic. But the genesis of modern Austria be- gins with a certain Ferdinand, brother of Charles 669 AUSTRIA Introduction AUSTRIA V, whom Luther faced at Worms in 152 1. By a fortunate marriage and by equally fortunate deaths he acquired Hungary and Bohemia. But he ac- quired something in addition to these territories, he acquired a Turkish war among his possessions in Hungary. And for the next two centuries Aus- tria waged almost unceasing war against the Turks. At first the struggle went rather against them; in i52g and again in 1683, the Turks nearly captured Vienna and settled the problem of Austria in a Turkish sense. But after 1683 the war went sicaci- ily in Austria's favor. She gradually e.xtended down the Danube and into the Balkans, taking under her dominion large numbers of Slavs who welcomed her armies as deliverers from the hatca oppression of the Turk. In IQ14 they were sing- ing in the streets of X'ienna a song commemorating the exploits of the great .Austrian general, Prince Eugene of Savoy, who had led the .Austrian armies during ope of the most successful periods of these wars. Formerly many a Slav has joined in this song because he realized that it was this Prince Eugene who had delivered his race from the Turk. But these voices have long been still. Because they have discovered that they have merely ex- changed one set of bonds for another, the cramp- ing rule of the Ottoman for the equally cramping rule of the German and the Magyar, they have ceased to celebrate these .Austrian victories over the Turk. All the opportunity that .Austria has enjoyed, all the tragedy of her failure to realize it, lies in this situation. And thus was formed a state which never was the expression of a nation, a mere machine, a thmg in which the breadth of national life has never really stirred. It was given the great opportunity to reconcile Slav and Mag- yar and German, East and West, and, on the whole, it has failed. Opportunities countless it has had; some it has utilized — enough to tantalize yet not to satisfy; but the great majority it has left unutilized. It has, at best, but partially ful- filled its destiny and now it comes for its ac- counting before the judgm.ent-bar of the nations." — W. S. Davis, Roots of the war, pp. 280-291. It is not easy "to tell the story of the various lands which have at different times come under the dominion of .Austrian princes, the story of each land by itself, and the story of them all in rela- tion to the common power. A continuous narra- tive is impossible. . . . Much mischief has been done by one small fashion of modern speech. It has within my memory become usual to personify nations and powers on the smallest occasions in a way which was formerly done only in language more or less solemn, rhetorical or poetical. We now talk every moment of England, France, Ger- many, Russia, Italy, as if they were persons. And as long as it is only England, France, Germany, Russia, or Italy of which we talk in this way, no practical harm is done; the thing is a mere ques- tion of style. For those are all national powers. . . . But when we go on to talk in this way of 'Austria,' or 'Turkey,' direct harm is done; thought is confused, and facts are misrepresented. ... I have seen the words '.Austrian national honour;' I have come across people who believed that 'Aus- tria' was one land inhabited by 'Austrians,' and that 'Austrians' spoke the '.Austrian' language. All such phrases are misapplied. It is to be presumed that in all of them '.Austria' means something more than the true .Austria, the archduchy ; what is com- monly meant by them is the whole dominions of the sovereign of Austria. People fancy that the inhabitants of those dominions have a common being, a common interest, like that of the people of England, France, or Italy. . . . There is no Austrian language, no Austrian nation; therefore there can be no such thing as 'Austrian national honour.' Nor can there be an 'Austrian policy' in the same sense in which there is an English or a French policy, that is, a policy in which the English or French government carries out the will of the English or French nation. . . . Such phrasei as 'Austrian interests,' '.Austrian policy,' and the like, do not mean the interests or the policy of any land or nation at all. They s mply mean the in- terests and policy of a particular ruling family, which may often be the same as the interests and wishes of particular parts of their dominions, but which can never represent any common interest or common w-sh on ihe part of the whole. . . . We muL=t ever remember that the dominions of the House of .Austria are simply a collection of kingdoms, duchies, etc., brought together by va- rious accidental causes, but which have nothing really in common, no common speech, no common feeling, no comm.on interest. In one case only, that of the Magyars in Hungary, does the House of Austria rule over a whole nation ; the other kingdoms, duchies, etc.. are only parts of nations, having no tic to one another, but having the closest ties to other parts of their several nations which lie close to them but which are under other governments. The only bond among them all is that a series of marriages, wars, treaties, and so forth, have given them a common sovereign. The same person is king of Hungary, .Archduke of .Austria, Count of Tyrol. Lord of Trieste, and a hundred other things. That is all. . . . The growth and the abiding dominion of the House of Austria is one of the most re- markable phenomena in European history. Pow- ers of the same kind have arisen twice before; but in both cases they were very short-lived, while the power of the House of Austria has lasted for several centuries. The power of the House of .Anjou in the twelfth century, the power of the House of Burgundy in the fifteenth century, were powers of exactly the same kind. They too were collections of scraps, with no natural connexion, brought together by the accidents of warfare, mar- riage, or diplomacy. Now why is it that both these powers broke in pieces almost at once, after the reigns of two princes in each case, while the power of the House of .Austria has lasted so long? Two causes suggest themselves. One is the long connexion between the House of .Austria and the Roman Empire and kingdom of Germany. So many Austrian princes were elected Emperors as to make the .Austrian House seem something great and imperial in itself. I believe that this cause has done a good deal towards the result; but I believe that another cause has done yet more. This is that, though the Austrian power is not a national power, there is, as has been already noticed, a nation within it. While it contains only scraps of other nations, it contains the whole of the Magyar nation. It thus gets something of the strength of a national power. . . . The kingdom of Hungary is an ancient kingdom, with known boundaries which have changed singularly little for several centuries; and its connexion with the archduchy of Austria and the kingdom of Bohemia is now of long standing. Anything beyond this is modern and shifting. The so-called 'empire of .Austria' dates only from the year 1804. This is one of the simplest matters in the world, but one which is constantly forgotten. ... A smaller point on which confusion also prevails is this. All the members of the House of Austria are commonly spoken of as archdukes and archduchesses. I feel sure that many people, if asked the meaning of the word archduke, would say that it was the title of the children of the 'Emperor of Austria,' 670 AUSTRIA Geography AUSTRIA as grandduke is used in Russia, and prince in most countries. In trutli, arclidulce is ths title of tiie sovereign of Austria. He lias not given it up; for he calls himself Archduke of Austria still, though he calls himself 'Emperor of Austria' as well. But by German custom, the children of a duke or count are all called dukes and counts for ever and ever. In this way the Prince of Wales is called 'Duke of Saxony,' and in the same way all the children of an Archduke of Austria are archdukes and archduchesses. Formally and historically then, the taking of an hereditary imperial title by the Archduke of Austria in 1804, and the keeping of it after the prince who took it had ceased in 1806 to be King of Germany and Roman Emperor-elect, was a sheer and shameless imposture. But it is an imposture which has thoroughly well served its ends." — E. A. Freeman, Preface to Leger's History of Aiistro-Hnugary. — "Medieval History is a his- tory of rights and wrongs; modern History as contrasted with medieval divides itself into two portions; the first a history of powers, forces, and dynasties ; the second, a history in which ideas take the place of both rights and forces. . . . Aus- tria may be regarded as representing the more ancient form of right. . . . The middle ages proper, the centuries from the year 1000 to the year 1500, from the Emperor Henry II. to the Emperor Maxi- milian, were ages of legal growth, ages in which the idea of right, as embodied in law, was the leading idea of statesmen, and the idea of rights justified or justifiable by the letter of law, was a profound influence with politicians. . . . The house of Austria . . . lays thus the foundation of that empire which is to be one of the great forces of the next age; not by fraud, not by violence, but here by a politic marriage, here by a well advocated inheritance, here by a claim on an imperial fief forfeited or escheated: honestly where the letter of the law is in her favour, by chicanery it may be here and there, but that a chicanery tliat wears a specious garb of right. The imperial idea was but a small influence compared with the superstructure of right, inheritance, and suzerainty, that legal instincts and a general acquiescence in legal forms had raised upon it."- — W. Stubbs, Seventeen lec- tures on the study of medieval and modern history, pp. 209-215. Geography. — Danube valley. — "The Danube plaj's a most important part in European history, greater even than the Rhine. . . . Heterogeneous as it is in the races and languages it includes [in 1907], and still more in constitutional machinery, the Austro-Hungarian monarchy is by no means an anomaly on the map. It comprises all the Danube region except the immediate upper basin of the great river itself, which after all is more clearly divided from the Inn than from the Main, down to where the Danube turns eastwards parallel to the Balkans. It includes Bohemia, which is as it were the converse of Bavaria, historically but not technically belonging to the Danube re- gion. In two places only, if we ignore details, does it pass beyond its natural boundaries: it pos- sesses the strip of Adriatic coast beyond the moun- tains — an acquisition vital to Austria and not ten- able by any other power — and Galicia beyond the Carpathians, which is a real anomaly and source of weakness. That there are various and mutually jealous races within the monarchy is a misfor- tune: that some of them have kindred outside the frontiers may prove a worse evil eventually. Meanwhile, Austria affords one more illustration of - the readiness with which peoples may overpass ra- tional dividing features that are not barriers. "The military history of the Danube region cor- responds, as is natural, with the geographical con- ditions. The great river flows through it from west and east,. and most of the aggressive move- ments, both migrations of peoples and organized invasions, are from the eastwards, or are driven back in the opposite direction. Moreover, the Danube down to Presburg runs near to the north- ern boundary, leaving a comparatively wide space on the south, traversed by a series of tributaries, being in this respect the exact converse of the Po. Accordingly, the great battle which checked the onward progress of the Hungarians was fought on the Lech: the less conspicuous but equally signifi- cant encounter which terminated the Mongol in- road of the thirteenth century took place near the eastern frontier of Austria proper. After the Hun- garians have become Christian, they are inevitably the foremost defence of Christendom against the Ottoman Turks. On the Hungarian plain, usually within no great distance of the Danube, were fought the battles which brought Ottoman con- quests up to the gates of Vienna, and drove them ultimately back to the Balkan peninsula. When the conditions have changed entirely, and aggres- sion in central Europe comes habitually from France, the first conflict is naturally for access to the head of the Danube valley. . . . Accordingly, campaigns which concerned the Danube region began by the French forcing their way through the Black Forest hills." — H. B. George, Relations of geography and' history, pp. 251, 257-259. Name. — "The name of Austria, Oesterreich — Os- trich as our forefathers wrote it — is, naturally enough, a common name for the eastern part of any kingdom. The Frankish kingdom of the Mer- wings had its Austria ; the Italian kingdom of the Lombards had its Austria also. We are half in- clined to wonder that the name was never given in our own island either to Essex or to East-Anglia. But, while the other Austrias have passed away, the Oesterreich, the Austria, the Eastern mark, of the German kingdom, its defence against the Mag- yar invader, has lived on to our own times. It has not only lived on, but it has become one of the chief European powers. And it has become so by a process to which it would be hard to find a parallel." — E. A. Freeman, Historical geography of Europe, v. i, ch. 8, p. 305. Birthplace. — "On the disputed frontier, in the zone of perpetual conflict, were formed and de- veloped the two states which, in turn, were to dominate over Germany, namely, Austria and Prussia. Both were born in the midst of the enemy. The cradle of Austria was the Eastern marcfi, established by Charlemagne on the Danube, beyond Bavaria, at the very gate through which have passed so many invaders from the Orient. . . . The cradle of Prussia was the march of Brandenburg, between the Elbe and the Oder, in the region of the exterminated Slavs." — E. Lavisse, General view of the political history of Europe, ch. 3, sect. 13. Races of Austria. — "The Austrian problem, then, is, at bottom, a problem of nationalities. . . . Roughly speaking, they are comprised in five grand divisions, the German, the Magyar, the Slav, the Roumanian and the Italian. Of Slavs there are numerous subdivisions, Czechs, Poles, Ruthenians, ' Slovaks, Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. But the fun- damental characteristics of them all are the same, and for introductory purposes we may group them together. . . . They settled mainly in the upper basin of the Danube along the north and west borders of Bohemia. There is also a little island of Teutondom in western Hungary formed from the descendants of sturdy German settlers sent during the Middle Ages to hold this region against the Slav, but today lost in the surrounding sea of 671 AUSTRIA, 805-1246 Babenberg Dynasty AUSTRIA, 805-1246 Hungarians and Roumanians. ... If you travel by the Danube steamer from Vienna to Budapest you pass, about half way, the citadel of Press- burg. This old frontier fortress of the Hungarian kingdom may be taken as the boundary where one passes from the land of the Germans into that of the Magyars. From that point on this race in- habits the great Hungarian plain, until, in its west- ern part, it gives way to the Roumanian. . . . From the two ruling nationalities, German and Magyar, we pass to the ruled nationalities, the Slav, the Roumanian and the Italian. To link together the Slavs as one nationality involves a certain stretching of the term, for, even yet, it is doubtful if the Czechs of Bohemia feel their kin- ship with the Croats or Serbs in Hungary, and in at least one case, that of the Poles and Ruthenians, the feeling is still decidedly antagonistic. . . . His- tory tells us but little, for they pushed into Europe unheralded and unsung in the centuries immediately following the fall of Rome. They were evidently of a low grade of civilization, hunters and fisher- men, wanderers on the face of the earth, with few if any political bonds to confine them, individualists by choice. They always seem to have lacked, to some extent, the ability to organize, although it may be said that this defect has been somewhat exaggerated by those who write concerning this race. . . . Geographically the Slavs form a fringe along the northern and southern borders of the empire, although they have pushed many outposts into the central position as well. Numerically they are the leading race in the empire, having a larger population than the two ruling races, German and Magyar, taken together. The majority are Roman Catholics. The eastern part of Hungary is oc- cupied, in the main, by Roumanians. They seeped in across the Carpathians some time during the later Middle .^ges, and ever since the thirteenth century seem to have made up the peasant class in this district, 'first as serfs, later as political helots' — to quote the characterization of Mr. Seton Watson. They claim to be the descendants of the Latin colonists left by Trajan in the Roman prov- ince of Dacia; actually they are probably a mixed race from many origins and their Roman antece- dents are much more certain as to their language than their blood. . . . Last among the nationali- ties come the Italians, who are almost entirely found in the coast cities along the northern and eastern shores of the Adriatic. Originally they came as colonists, sometimes under the control of Venice, sometimes independent, in order to trade with the people of the back country, and they brought with them an Italian culture that has never died out, even though the Italians today are a minority among the population. Traders and culture-bearers they are still, these lost chil- dren of Italy, living, for the most part, in the cities which are little Italian fortresses in the sur- rounding hosts of Slavdom." — W. S. Davis, Roots of the war, pp. 201-295. 805-1246. — Rise of the margraviate, and the creation of the duchy, under the Babenbergs. — Changing relations to Bavaria. — End of the Babenberg dynasty. — ".\ustria, as is well known, is but the Latin form of the German Oesterreich, the kingdom of the east [see .\ustrasia1. This celebrated historical name appears for the first time in qq6, in a document signed by the emperor Otto 111. ('in regione vulgari nomine Osterrichi') . The land to which it is there applied was created a march after the destruction of the Avar empire 1 805]. and was governed like all the other Ger- man marches. Politically it was divided into two margraviates; that of Friuli, including Friuli prop- erly so called, Lower Pannonia to the south of the Drave, Carinthia, Istria, and the interior of Dal- matia — the sea-coast having been ceded to the East- ern emperor ; — the eastern margraviate comprising Lower Pannonia to the north of the Drave, Upper Pannonia, and the Ostmark properly so called. The Ostmark included the Traungau to the east of the Enns, which was completely German, and the Grunzvittigau. . . . The early history of these countries lacks the unity of interest which the fate of a dynasty or a nation gives to those of the Magyar and the Chekh [Czech-Bohemian]. They form but a portion of the German kingdom, and have no strongly marked life of their own. The march, with its varying frontier, had not even a geographical unity. In S76, it was enlarged by the addition of Bavaria; in Sqo, it lost Pannonia. which was given to Bracislav, the Croat prince, in re- turn for his help against the Magyars, and in 937, it was destroyed and absorbed by the Mag- yars, who extended their frontier to the river Enns. After the battle of Lechfeld or .Augsburg (955), Germany and Italy being no longer exposed to Hungarian invasions, the march was re-constituted and granted to the margrave Burkhard, the brother- in-law of Henry of Bavaria. Leopold of Baben- berg succeeded him (073), and with him begins the dynasty of Babenberg, which ruled the country during the time of the Premyslides [in Bohemia] and the house of .\rpad [in Hungary]. The Ba- benbergs derived their name from the castle of Babenberg. built by Henry, margrave of Nordgau, in honor of his wife. Baba. sister of Henry the Fowler. It reappears in the name of the town of Bamberg, which now [1879] forms part of the kingdom of Bavaria. . . . Though not of right an hereditary office, the margraviate soon became so, and remained in the family of the Babenbergs; the march was so important a part of the empire that no doubt the emperor was glad to make the defence of this exposed district the especial inter- est of one family. . . . The marriages of the Ba- benbergs were fortunate; in 1138 the brother of Leopold [Fourth of that name in the Margraviate] Conrad of Hohenstaufen, Duke of Franconia, was made emperor. It was now that the struggle be- gan between the house of Hohenstaufen and the great house of Welf [or Guelf: See Guelfs and Ghibellixes] whose representative was Henry the Proud, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria. Henry was defeated in the unequal strife, and was placed under the ban of the Empire, while the duchy of Saxony was awarded to .Albert the Bear of Bran- denburg, and the duchy of Bavaria fell to the share of Leopold IV. (1 138). Henry the Proud died in the following year, leaving behind him a son under age, who was known later on as Henry the Lion. His uncle Welf would not submit to the forfeiture by his house of their old dominions, and marched against Leopold to reconquer Bavaria, but he was defeated by Conrad at the battle of VVeinsberg (1140). Leopold died shortly after this victory, and was succeeded both in the duchy of Bavaria and in the margraviate of .Austria by his brother, Henry II." Henry II endeavored to strengthen himself in Bavaria by marrying the widow of Henry the Proud, and by extorting from her son, Henry the Lion, a renunciation of the latter's rights. But Henry the Lion afterwards repudiated his renunciation, and in 1150 the German diet de- cided that Bavaria should be restored to him. Henry of .Austria was wisely persuaded to yield to the decision, and Bavaria was given up. "He . lost nothing by this unwilling act of disinterested- ness, for he secured from the emperor considerable compensation. From this time forward, .Austria, which had been largely increased by the addition of the greater part of the lands lying between the 672 Copyright. C. A. NiCHOLa Publishins Company • Maps prepared specially for the NEW LARNED under direction of the editors and publishers. c AUSTRIA, 805-1246 Rudolf of Hapsburg AUSTRIA, 1246-1282 Enns and the Inn, was removed from its almost nominal subjection to Bavaria and became a sep- arate duchy [Henry II being the first hereditary duke of Austria], [See also Germany: 1125- 1272] An imperial edict, dated the 21st of Sep- tember, 1156, declares the new duchy hereditary even in the female line, and authorizes the dukes to absent themselves from all diets except those which were held in Bavarian territory. It also permits them, in case of a threatened extinction of their dynasty, to propose a successor. . . . Henry II. was one of the founders of Vienna. He constructed a fortress there, and, in order to civi- lize the surrounding country, sent for some Scotch monks, of whom there were many at this time in Germany." In 11 77 Henry 11 w,as succeeded by Leopold V, called the Virtuous. "In his reign the duchy of Austria gained Styria [Steiermark], an important addition to its territory. This province was inhabited by Slovenes and Germans, and took its name from the castle of Steyer, built in q8o by Otokar III., count of the Trungau. In 1056, it was created a margraviate, and in 11 50 it was en- larged by the addition of the counties of Maribor (Marburg) and Cilly. In 1180, Otokar VI. of Styria (1164-1102) obtained the hereditary title of duke from the Emperor in return for his help against Henry the Lion." Dying without children, Otokar made Leopold of Austria his heir. "Styria was annexed to Austria in iiq2, and has remained so ever since. . . . Leopold V. is the first of the Austrian princes whose name is known in Western Europe. He joined the third crusade," and quar- relled with Richard Cceur de Lion at the siege of St. Jean d'.'Kcre. Afterwards, when Richard, re- turning home by the Adriatic, attempted to pass through Austrian territory incognito, Leopold re- venged himself by seizing and imprisoning the Eng- lish king, finally selling his royal captive to a still meaner emperor for 20,000 marks. Leopold VI, who succeeded to the .Austrian duchy in iiq8, did much for the commerce of his country. "He made Vienna the staple town, and lent a sum of 30,000 marks of silver to the city to enable it to increase its trade. He adorned it with many new buildings, among them the Neue Burg." His son, called Frederick the Fighter (1230-1246) was the last of the Babenberg dynasty. His hand was against all his neighbors, including the Emperor Frederick II, and their hands were against him. He perished in June, 1246, on the banks of the Leitha, while at war with the Hungarians. — L. Leger, History of Austro -Hungary, ck. q. Also in: E. F. Henderson, Select historical docu- ments of the Middle Ages, bk. 2, no. 7. 1246-1282.— Rudolf, or Rodolph, of Hapsburg and the acquisition of the duchy for his family. — "The House of Austria owes its origin and power to Rhodolph of Hapsburgh, son of Albert IV. count of Hapsburgh The Austrian genealogists, who have taken indefatigable but ineffectual pains to trace his illustrious descent from the Romans, carry it with great probability to Ethico, duke of Alsace, in the seventh century, and unquestionably to Guntram the Rich, count of Alsace and Bris- gau, who flourished in the tenth." A grandson of Guntram, Werner by name, "became bishop of Strasburgh, and on an eminence above Windisch, built the castle of Hapsburgh ['Habichtsburg' 'the castle of hawks'], which became the residence of the future counts, and gave a new title to the de- scendants of Guntram . . . The successors of Wer- ner increased their family inheritance by mar- riages, donations from the Emperors, and by be- coming prefects, advocates, or administrators of the neighbouring abbeys, towns, or districts, and his great grandson, Albert III., was possessor of no inconsiderable territories in Suabia, Alsace, and that part of Switzerland which is now called the Argau, and held the landgraviate of Upper Alsace. His son, Rhodolph, received from the Emperor, in addition to his paternal inheritance, the town and district of Lauffenburgh, an imperial city on the Rhine. He acquired also a considerable accession of territory by obtaining the advocacy of Uri, Schweitz, and Underwalden, whose natives laid the foundation of the Helvetic Confederacy, by their union against the oppressions of feudal tyr- anny." — W, Coxe, History of the house of Aus- tria, ch. I. — "On the death of Rodolph in 1232 his estates were divided between his sons Albert IV. and Rodolph II.; the former receiving the land- graviate of Upper Alsace, and the county of Haps- burg, together with the patrimonial castle; the latter, the counties Rheinfelden and Lauffenburg, and some other territories. Albert espoused Hed- wige, daughter of Ulric, count of Kyburg; and from this union sprang the great Rodolph who was RUDOLF I (12:8-1291) Founder of the House of Hapsburg born on the ist of May 1218, and was presented at the baptismal font by the Emperor Frederic II. On the death of his father Albert in 1240, Rodolph succeeded to his estates; but the greater portion of these were in the hands of his paternal uncle, Rodolph of Lauffenburg; and all he could call his own lay within sight of the great hall of his castle, . . . His disposition was wayward and restless, and drew him into repeated contests with his neigh- bours and relations . . In a quarrel with the Bishop of Basle. Rodolph led his troops against that city, and burnt a convent in the suburbs, for which he was excommunicated by Pope Innocent IV. He then entered the service of Ottocar II. King of Bohemia, under whom he served, in company with the Teutonic Knights, in his wars against the Prussian pagans; and afterwards against Bela IV King of Hungary." The surprising elec- tion, in 1272, of this little known count of Haps- burg, to be king of the Romans, with the substance if not the title of the imperial dignity which that election carried with it, was due to a singular friendship which he had acquired some fourteen ^7?, AUSTRIA, 1246-1282 Rudolf of Hapsburg AUSTRIA, 1291-1349 years before. When Archbishop Werner, elector of Mentz, was on his way to Rome in 1259, to receive the pallium, he "was escorted across the Alps by Rodolph of Hapsburg, and under his protection secured from the robbers who beset the passes. Charmed with the affability and frankness of his protector, the Archbishop conceived a strong regard for Rodolph;" and when, in 1272, after the great interregnum [see Germ.\xy: 1250-1272], the Ger- manic electors found difficulty in choosing an em- peror, the elector of Mentz recommended nis friend of Hapsburg as a candidate. "The Electors are described by a contemporary as desiring an Em- peror but detesting his power. The comparative lowliness of the Count of Hapsburg recommended him as one from whom their authority stood in little jeopardy; but the claims of the King of Bo- hemia were vigorously urged; and it was at length agreed to decide the election by the voice of the Duke of Bavaria. Lewis without hesitation nomi- nated Rodolph. . . . The early days of Rodolph's reign were disturbed by the contumacy of Ottocar, King of Bohemia. That Prince . . . persisted in refusing to acknowledge the Count of Hapsburg as his sovereign. Possessed of the duchies of Austria, Styria, Carniola and Carinthia, he might rely upon his own resources; and he was fortified in his resistance by the alliance of Henry, Duke of Lower Bavaria. But the very possession of these four great fiefs was sufficient to draw down the envy and distrust of the other German Princes. To all these territories, indeed, the title of Ottocar was sufficiently disputable. On the death of Fred- eric II. fifth duke of Austria [and last of the Ba- benberg dynasty] in 1246, that duchy, together with Styria and Carniola, was claimed by his niece Gertrude and his sister Margaret. By a marriage with the latter, and a victory over Bela IV. King of Hungar>', whose uncle married Gertrude, Ottocar obtained possession of Austria and Styria; and in virtue of a purchase from Ulric, Duke of Carinthia and Carniola, he possessed himself of those dutchies on Ulric's death in 126Q, in defiance of the claims of Philip, brother of the late Duke. Against so powerful a rival the Princes assembled at Augs- burg readily voted succour io Rodolph; and Otto- car having refused to surrender the .Austrian do- minions, and even hanged the heralds who were sent to pronounce the consequent sentence of pro- scription, Rodolph with his accustomed prompti- tude took the field [1276], and confounded his enemy by a rapid march upon Austria. On his way he surprised and vanquished the rebel Duke of Bavaria, whom he compelled to join his forces; he besieged and reduced to the last extremity the city of Vienna ; and had already prepared a bridge of boats to cross the Danube and invade Bohemia, when Ottocar arrested his progress by a message of submission. The terms agreed' upon were se- verely humiliating to the proud soul of Ottocar," and he was soon in revolt again, with the support of the duke of Bavaria Rodolph marched against him, and a desperate battle was fought at Marsch- feld, August 26, 1278, in which Ottocar, deserted at a critical moment by the Moravian troops, was defeated and slain. "The total loss of the Bo- hemians on that fatal day amounted to more than 14,000 men In the first moments of his triumph, Rodolph designed to appropriate the dominions of his deceased enemy. But his avidity was re- strained by the Princes of the Empire, who inter- posed on behalf of the son of Ottocar; and Wen- ceslaus was permitted to retain Bohemia and Moravia. The projected union of the two families was now renewed: Judith of Hapsburg was affi- anced to the young King of Bohemia ; whose sister Agnes was married to Rodolph, youngest son of the King of the Romans." In 1282, Rudolf, "after satisfying the several claimants to those ter- ritories by various cessions of lands . . . obtained the consent of a Diet held at Augsburg to the settlement of Austria, Styria, and Carniola, upon his two surviving sons; who were accordingly jointly invested with those dutchies with great pomp and solemnity; and they are at this hour en- joyed by the descendants of Rodolph of Hapsburg." — Sir R. Comyn, History of the western empire, ch. 14. Also in: J. Him and J. E. Wackernagel, eds., Quellen ui:d Forschungen zur Geschichte, Literatur und Sprache Oesterreichs und seiner Kroiildnder. — W. Coxe, History of the house of Austria. — J. Planta, History 'of the Helvetic confederacy, v. 1, bk. I, ch. 5. 1282-1315. — Relations of the house of Haps- burg to the Swiss forest cantons. — Wilhelm Tell legend. — Battle of Morgarten. See Switzer- land: Three forest cantons. 1290. — Beginning of Hapsburg designs upon the crown of Hungary. See Huxg.\rv: 1116-1301; 1301-1442. 1291-1349.— Loss and recovery of the imperial crown. — Liberation of Switzerland. — Conflict be- tween Frederick and Lewis of Bavaria. — Impe- rial crown lost once more. — Rudolf of Hapsburg desired the title of King of the Romans for his son. "But the electors already found that the new house of Austria was becoming too powerful, and they refused. On his death, in fact, in 1291, a prince from another family, poor and obscure, Adolf of Nassau, was elected after an interregnum of ten months. His reign of six years is marked by two events; he sold himself to Edward I. in 1294, against Philip the Fair, for loo.coo pounds sterl- ing, and used the money in an attempt to obtain in Thuringia a principality for his family as Ru- dolf had done in .\ustria. The electors were dis- pleased and chose .Albert of .Austria to succeed him, who conquered and killed his adversar>' at Gbll- heim, near Worms (1298). The ten years' reign of the new king of the Romans showed that he was very ambitious for his family, which he wished to establish on the throne of Bohemia, where the Slavonic dynasty had lately died out, and also in Thuringia and Meissen, where he lost a battle. He was also bent upon extending his rights, even unjustly — in Alsace and Switzerland — and it proved an unfortunate venture for him. For, on the one hand, he roused the three Swiss cantons of Uri, Schweitz, and Unterwalden to revolt; on the other hand, he roused the wrath of his nephew John of Swabia, whom he defrauded of his inheritance (domains in Switzerland, Swabia, and Alsace). As he was crossing the Reuss, John thrust him through with his sword (130S). The assassin escaped. One of Albert's daughters, Agnes, dowager queen of Hungary, had more than a thousand innocent people killed to avenge the death of her father. The greater part of the present Switzerland had been originally included in the Kingdom of Bur- gundy, and was ceded to the empire, together with that kingdom, in 1033. A feudal nobility, lay and ecclesiastic, had gained a firm footing there. Nevertheless, by the 12 th century the cities had risen to some importance. Zurich, Basel, Bern, and Freiburg had an extensive commerce and obtained municipal privileges. Three little cantons, far in the heart of the Swiss mountains, preserved more than all the others their indomitable spirit of in- dependence. When Albert of Austria became Em- peror [King?] he arrogantly tried to encroach upon their independence. Three heroic mountain- eers, Werner Stauffacher, Arnold of Melchthal, and Walter Furst, each with ten chosen friends, con- 674 AUSTRIA, 1291-1349 Conflict between Frederick and Lewis AUSTRIA, 1330-1364 spired together at Riitli, to throw off the yoke. The tyranny of the Austrian bailiff Gessler, and William Tell's well-aimed arrow, if tradition is to be believed, gave the signal for the insurrection [see Switzerland: three forest cantons]. Al- bert's violent death left to Leopold, his successor in the duchy of Austria, the care of repressing the rebellion. He failed and was completely defeated at Morgarten (1315)- That was Switzerland's field of IMarathon. . . . When Rudolf of Hapsburg was chosen by the electors, it was because of his poverty and weakness. At his death accordingly they did not give their votes for his son Albert. . . . Albert, however, succeeded in overthrowing his rival But on his death they were firm in their decision not to- give the crown for a third time to the new and ambitious house of Hapsburg. They likewise re- fused, for similar reasons, to accept Charles of Valois, brother of Philip the Fair, whom the latter tried to place on the imperial throne, in order that he might indirectly rule over Germajiy. They supported the Count of Luxemburg, who became Henry VII, By choosing emperors [kings?] who were poor, the electors placed them under the t' .iiptation of enriching themselves at the expense of the empire. Adolf failed, it is true, in Thuringia, but Rudolf gained Austria by victory; Henry suc- ceeded in Bohemia by means of marriage, and Bohemia was worth more than Austria at that time because, besides Moravia, it was made to cover Silesia and a part of Lusatia (Oberlausitz). Henry's son, John of Luxemburg, married the heiress to that royal crown. As for Henry himself he re- mained as poor as before. He had a vigorous, restless spirit, and went to try his fortunes on his own account beyond the Alps. ... He was seri- ously threatening Naples, when he died either from some sickness or from being poisoned by a Domin- ican in partaking of the host (1313). A year's interregnum followed; then two emperors [kings?] at once: Lewis of Bavaria and Frederick the Fair, son of the Emperor Albert. After eight years of war, Lewis gained his point by the victory of Miihldorf (1322), which delivered Frederick into his hands. He kept him in captivity for three years, and at the end of that time became recon- ciled with him, and they were on such good terms that both bore the title of King and governed in common. The fear inspired in Lewis by France and the Holy See dictated this singular agreement. Henry VII. had revived the policy of interference by the German emperors in the affairs of Italy, and had kindled again the quarrel with the Papacy which had long appeared extinguished. Lewis IV. did the same. . . . While Boniface VIII. was mak- ing war on Philip the Fair, .Mbert allied himself with him; when, on the other hand, the Papacy was reduced to the state of a servile auxiliary to France, the Emperor returned to his former hos- tility. When ex-communicated by Pope John XXII, , who wished to give the empire to the king of France, Charles IV., Lewis IV. made use of the same weapons. . . . Tired of a crown loaded with anxieties, Lewis of Bavaria was finally about to submit to the Pope and abdicate, when the electors perceived the necessity of supporting their Em- peror and of formally releasing the supreme power from foreign dependency which brought the whole nation to shame. That was the object of the Prag- matic Sanction of Frankfort, pronounced in 1338 by the Diet, on the report of the electors. . . . The king of France and Pope Clement VI., whose claims were directly affected by this declaration, set up against Lewis IV., Charles of Luxemburg, son of John the Blind, who became king of Bohemia in 1346, when his father had been killed fighting on the French side at the battle of Cr&y. Lewis died the following year. He had gained possession of Brandenburg and the Tyrol for his house, but it was unable to retain possession of them. The lat- ter county reverted to the house of Austria in 1363. The electors most hostile to the French party tried to put up, as a rival candidate to Charles of Luxemburg, Edward III., king of Eng- land, who refused the empire; then they offered it to a brave knight, Gunther of Schwarzburg, who died, perhaps poisoned, after a few months (1349). The king of Bohemia then became Emperor as Charles IV. by a second election." — V. Duruy, History oj the Middle Ages, bk. g, ch. 30.— See also Germany: 1314-1347. 1330-1364. — Forged charters of Duke Rudolf. — Privilegium majus. — His assumption of the archducal title. — Acquisition of Tyrol. — Treaties of inheritance with Bohemia and Hungary. — King John, of Bohemia, had married his second son, John Henry, at the age of eight, to the after- wards notable Margaret Maultasche (Pouch- mouth), daughter of the duke of Tyrol and Car- inthia, who was then twelve years old. He hoped by this means to reunite those provinces to Bo- hemia. To thwart this scheme, the emperor, Louis of Bavaria, and the two Austrian princes, Albert the Wise and Otto the Gay, came to an under- standing. "By the treaty of Hagenau (1330), it was arranged that on the death of duke Henry, who had no male heirs, Carinthia should become the property of Austria, Tyrol that of the em- peror. Henry died in 1335, whereupon the em- peror, Louis of Bavaria, declared that Margaret Maultasche had forfeited all rights of inheritance, and proceeded to assign the two provinces to the Austrian princes, with the exception of some por- tion of the Tyrol which devolved on the house of Wittelsbach. Carinthia alone, however, obeyed the Emperor ; the Tyrolese nobles declared for Mar- garet, and, with the help of John of Bohemia, this princess was able to keep possession of this part of her inheritance. . . . Carinthia also did not long remain in the undisputed possession of Austria. Margaret was soon divorced from her very youthful husband (1342), and shortly after married the son of the emperor, Louis of Bavaria, who hoped to be able to invest his son, not only with Tyrol, but also with Carinthia, and once more we find the houses of Hapsburg and Lux- emburg united by a common interest. . . . When . . . Charles IV. of Bohemia was chosen em- peror, he consented to leave Carinthia in the possession of Austria. Albert did homage for it. . . . According to the wish of their father, the four sons of Albert reigned after him; but the eldest, Rudolf IV., exercised executive authority in the name of the others [1358-1365]. ... He was only ip when he came to the throne, but he had already married one of the daughters of the Emperor Charles IV. Notwithstanding this fam- ily alliance, Charles had not given Austria such a place in the Golden Bull [see Germany: 1347- 1403] as seemed likely to secure either her ter- ritorial importance or a proper position for her princes. They had not been admitted into the electoral college of the Empire, and yet their scattered possessions stretched from the banks of the Leitha to the Rhine. . . . These grievances were enhanced by their feeling of envy towards Bo- hemia, which had attained great prosperity under Charles IV. It was at this time that, in order to increase the importance of his house, Rudolf, or his officers of state, had recourse to a measure which was often employed in that age by princes, religious bodies, and even by the Holy See. It was pretended that there were in existence s whole se- ries of charters which had been granted to the 675 AUSTRIA, 1330-1364 Hungarian Crown AUSTRIA, 1438-1493 bouse of Austria by various kings and emperors, and which secured to their princes a position entirely independent of both empire and Emperor. Ac- cording to these documents, and more especially the one called the 'privilegium majus,' the duke of Austria owed no kind of service to the empire, which was, however, bound to protect him; . . he wa^ to appear at the diets with the title of archdirtie, and was to have the first place among the electors. . . . Rudolf pretended that these docu- ments had just come to light, and demanded their confirmation from Charles IV., who refused it. Nevertheless on the strength of these lying char- ters, he took the title of palatine archduke, with- out waiting to ask the leave of Charles, and used th: roval insignia. Charles IV., who could not fail to be irritated by these pretensions, in his turn revived the claims which he had inherited from Premysl Otokar II. to the lands of Austria, Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola. These claims, however, were simply theoretical, and no attempt was made to enforce them, and the mediation of Louis the Great, King of Hungary, finally led to a treaty between the two princes, which satisfied the am- bition of the Habsburgs (1364). By this treaty, the houses of Habsburg in Austria and of Lux- emburg in Bohemia each guaranteed the inheri- tance of their lands to the other, in case of the extinction of either of the two families, and the estates of Bohemia and Austria ratified this agree- ment. A similar compact was concluded between Austria and Hungary, and thus the boundaries of the future Austrian state were for the first time marked out. Rudolf himself gained little by these long and intricate negotiations, Tyrol being all he added to his territory. Margaret Maultasche had married her son Meinhard to the daughter of Albert the Wise, at the same time de- claring that, in default of heirs male to her son, Tyrol should once more become the possession of Austria, and it did so in 1363. Rudolf immedi- ately set out for Botzen, and there received the homage of the Tyrolese nobles. . . . The acquisi- tion of Tyrol was most important to Austria. It united Austria Proper with the old possessions of the Habsburgs in Western Germany, and opened the way to Italy. Margaret Maultasche died at Vienna in 1360. The memory of this restless and dissolute princess still survives among the Tyrolese." — L. Leger, History of Austro-Huiigury, pp. 143- 148. — See also Hungary: 1301-1442. 1386-1388. — Defeats by the Swiss at Sempach and Naefels. See Switzerl.\nd: 1386-13S8. 15th century. — Sale of Alsace. See Alsace- Lorraine: 842-1477. 1419-1434. — Battles with Hussites. See Bohe- mia: 1410-1434. 1437-1516. — Contests for Hungary and Bohe- mia. — Right of succession to the Hungarian crown secured. — "Europe would have had nothing to fear from the Barbarians, if Hungary had been permanently united to Bohemia, and had held them in check. But Hungary interfered both with the independence an 1 the religion of Bohemia. In th's way they weakened each other, and in the isth centurv' wavered between the two Slavonic and German powers on their borders (Poland and Austria) [see Hungary: 1301-1442, and 144-- 1458]. United under a German prince from 1455 to 1458, separated for a time under national sovereigns (Bohemia until 1471, Hungary until 14Q0), they were once more united under Polish princes until 1526, at which period they passed definitely into the hands of .Austria. After the reign of Ladislas of Austria, who won so much glory by the exploits of John Hunniades, George Podiebrad obtained the crown of Bohemia, and Matthias Corvinus, the son of Hunniades, was elected King of Hungary (1458). These two princes opposed successfully the chimerical pre- tensions of the Emperor Frederick III. Podiebrad protected the Hussites and incurred the enmity of the Popes. Matthias victoriously encountered the Turks and obtained the favour of Paul II , who offered him the crown of Podiebrad, his father-in- law. The latter opposed to the hostility of Mat- thias the alliance of the King of Poland, whose eldest son, Ladislas, he designated as his successor. At the same time, Casimir, the brother of Ladislas, endeavoured to take from Matthias the crown of Hungary. Matthias, thus pressed on all sides, was obliged to renounce the conquest of Bohemia, and content himself with the provinces of Mora- via, Silesia, and Lusatia, which were to return to Ladislas if Matthias died first (1475-1478). The King of Hungary compensated himself at the expense of Austria. On the pretext that Frederick III. had refused to give him his daughter, he twice invaded his states and retained them in his possession [see Hungary: 1471-T4S7]. With this great prince Christendom lost its chief defender, Hungary her conquests and her political pre- ponderance (1400), The civilization which he had tried to introduce into his kingdom was deferred for many centuries. . . . Ladislas (of Poland), King of Bohemia, having been elected King of Hungary, was attacked by his brother John Albert, and by Maximilian of .Austria, who both pre- tended to that crown. He appeased his brother by the cession of Silesia (1401), and Maximilian by vesting in the House of .Austria the right of succession to the throne of Hungary, in case he himself should die without male issue. Under Ladislas, and under his son Louis II., who suc- ceeded him while still a child, in 1516 Hungary was ravaged with impunity by the Turks." — J. Michelet, Summary of modern history, ch. 4. — See also Bohemia: 1458-1471. 1438-1493. — Imperial crown lastingly regained. — Short reign of Albert II and the long reign of Frederick III. — ".After the death of Sigismund, the princes, in 1438, elected an emperor [king?] from the house of .Austria, which, with scarcely any intermission, has ever since occupied the an- cient throne of Germany. .Albert II. of Austria, who, as son-in-law of the late Emi^eror Sigismund, had become at the same time King of Hungary and Bohemia, was a well-meaning, distinguished prince, and would, without doubt, have proved of great benefit to the empire; but he died ... in the second year of his reign, after his return from an expedition against the Turks. ... In the year 1431, during the reign of Sigismund, a new coun- cil was assembled at Bfsle, in order to carry on the work of reforming the church as already com- menced at Constance. But this council soon be- came engaged in many perplexing controversies with Pope Eugene IV. . . . The Germans, for a time, took no part in the dispute; at length, how- ever, under the Emperor [King?! .Albert II., they formally adopted the chief decrees of the council of Basie, at a diet held at Mentz in the year 143Q. . . . .Amongst the resolutions then adopted were such as materially circumscribed the exist- ing privileges of the pope. , . . These and other decisions, calculated to give important privileges and considerable independence to the German church, were, in a great measure, annulled by Albert's cousin and successor, Duke Frederick of .Austria, who was elected by the princes after him in the year 1440, as Frederick HI. . . . Frederick, the emperor, was a prince who meant well but, at the same time, was of too quiet and easy a nature; his long reign presents but Uttle that was 676 AUSTRIA, 1438-1493 Frederick III Hungarian Invasion AUSTRIA, 1471-1491 calculated to distinguish Germany or add to its renown. From the east the empire was endangered by the approach of an enemy — the Turks, against whom no precautionary measures were adopted. They, on the 3oth of May, 1453, conquered Con- stantinople. . . . They then made their way to- wards the Danube, and very nearly succeeded also in taking Hungary [see Hungary: 1442-1458]. . . . The Hungarians, on the death of the son of the Emperor Albert II., Wladislas Posthumus, in the year 1457, without leaving an heir to the throne, chose Matthias, the son of John Cor- vinus, as king, being resolved not to elect one from amongst the Austrian princes. The Bohemians likewise selected a private nobleman for their king, George Padriabrad [or Podiebrad], and thus the Austrian house found itself for a time rejected from holding possession of either of these coun- tries. ... In Germany, meantime, there existed numberless contests and feuds; each party con- sidered only his own personal quarrels. . . . The emperor could not give any weight to public measures; scarcely could he maintain his dignity amongst his own subjects. The Austrian nobility were even bold enough to send challenges to their sovereign ; whilst the city of Vienna revolted, and his brother Albert, taking pleasure in this dis- order, was not backward in adding to it. Things even went to such an extremity, that, in 1462, the Emperor Frederick, together with his consort and son, Maximilian, then four years of age, was be- sieged by his subjects in his own castle of Vienna. A plebeian burgher, named Holzer, had placed himself at the head of the insurgents, and was made burgomaster, whilst Duke Albert came to Vienna personally to superintend the siege of the castle, which was intrenched and bombarded. . . . The German princes, however, could not wit- ness with indifference such disgraceful treatment of their emperor, and they assembled to liberate him. George Padriabrad, King of Bohemia, was the first who hastened to the spot with assistance, set the emperor at liberty, and effected a recon- ciliation between him and his brother. The em- peror, however, was obliged to resign to him, for eight years. Lower Austria and Vienna. Albert died in the following year. ... In the Germanic empire, the voice of the emperor was as little heeded as in his hereditary lands. . . . The feudal system raged under Frederick's reign to such an extent, that it was pursued even by the lower classes. Thus, in 1471, the shoeblacks in Leipsic sent a challenge to the university of that place; and the bakers of the Count Palatine Lewis, and those of the Margrave of Baden defied several imperial cities in Swabia. The most important transaction in the reign of Frederick, was the union which he formed with the house of Burgundy, and which laid the foundation for the greatness of Austria. ... In the year 1486, the whole of the assembled princes, influenced especially by the representations of the faithful and now venerable Albert, called the Achilles of Brandenburg, elected Maximilian, the emperor's son, King of Rome. Indeed, about this period a changed and im- proved spirit began to show itself in a remarkable degree in the minds of many throughout the empire, so that the profound contemplator of com- ing events might easily see the dawn of a new era. . . . These last years 'vere the best in the 1 hole life of the emperor, and yielded to hira in return for his many sufferings that tranquillity which was so well merited by his faithful, gener- ous disposition. He died on the 19th of August, 1403, after a reign of S4 years. The emperor lived long enough to obtain, in the year 14QO, the restoration of his hereditary estates by the death of King Matthias, by means of a compact made with Wladislas, his successor." — F. Kohl- rausch, History of Germany, ch. 14.— See also Germany: 1347-1493. 1468. — Invasion by George Podiebrad of Bo- hemia. — Crusade against him. See Bohemia: 1458-1471. 1471-1491. — Hungarian invasion and capture of Vienna. — Treaty of Pressburg. — Succession to the throne of Hungary secured. — "George, King of Bohemia, expired in 1471 ; and the claims of the Emperor and King of Hungary being equally disregarded, the crown was conferred on Wladislaus, son of Casimir IV. King of Poland, and grand- son of Albert II. To this election Frederic long persisted in withholding his assent; but at length he determined to crush the claim of Matthias by formally investing Wladislaus with the king- dom and electorate of Bohemia, and the office of imperial cup-bearer. In revenge for this af- front, Matthias marched into Austria: took pos- session of the fortresses of the Danube; and MAXIMILIAN I (I4S9-15I9) Ruler of the Austrian dominioDs and Holy Roman Empire compelled the Emperor to purchase a cessation of hostilities by undertaking to pay an hundred thousand golden florins, one-half of which was disbursed by the Austrian states at the appointed time. But as the King of Hungary still delayed to yield up the captured fortresses, Frederic re- fused all further payment; and the war was again renewed. Matthias invaded and ravaged Aus- tria ; and though he experienced formidable re- sistance from several towns, his arms were crowned with success, and he became master of Vienna and Neustadt. Driven from his capital the ter- rified Emperor was reduced to the utmost dis- tress, and wandered from town to town and from convent to convent, endeavouring to arouse the German States against the Hungarians. Yet even in this exigency his good fortune did not wholly forsake him ; and he availed himself of a Diet at Frankfort to procure the election of his son Maximilian as King of the Romans. To this Diet, however, the King of Bohemia received no summons, and therefore protested against the validity of the election. A full apology and ad- mission of his right easily satisfied Wladislaus, 677 AUSTRIA, 1477-1495 Burgundian Marriage AUSTRIA, 1477-1493 and he consented to remit the fine which the Golden Bull had fixed as the penalty of the omis- sion. The death of Matthias Corvinus in 1490, left the throne of Hungary vacant, and the Hun- garians, influenced by their widowed queen, con- ferred the crown upon the King of Bohemia, with- out Ustening to the pretensions of Maximilian. That valorous prince, however, sword in hand, re- covered his Austrian dominions; and the rival kings concluded a severe contest by the treaty of Pressburg, by which Hungary was for the present secured to Wladislaus; but on his death without heirs was to vest in the descendants of the Em- peror." — Sir R. Comyn, History of the -western empire, v. 2, ch. 28.^ee also Hungary: 1471- 1487, and 1487-1526. 1477-1495. — Marriage of Maximilian with Mary of Burgundy. — His splendid dominion. — His joyous character. — His vigorous powers. — His ambitions and aims. — "Maximilian, who was as active and enterprising as his father was indolent and timid, married at eighteen years of age, the only daughter of Charles the Bold, duke of Bur- gundy [see Netherl.^nds: 1477]. She brought him Flanders, Franche-Comte, and all the Low Countries. Louis XL, who disputed some of these territories, and who. on the death of the duke, had seized Burgundy, Picardy, Ponthieu, and Artois, as fiefs of France, which could not be possessed by a woman, was defeated by Maxi- milian at Guinegatte; and Charles VHL, who re- newed the same claims, was obliged to conclude a disadvantageous peace," Maximilian succeeded to the imperial throne on the death of his father in 1403, — W. Russell, History oj modern Europe, v. i, letter 49. — "Between the Alps and the Bohemian frontier, the mark Austria was first founded round and about the castles of Krems and Melk. Since then, beginning first in the valley towards Ba- varia and Hungary, and coming to the House of Habsburg, it had extended across the whole of the northern slope of the Alps until where the Slavish, ItaUan, and German tongues part, and over to Alsace ; thus becoming an archduchy from a mark. On all sides the Archdukes had claims; on the German side to Switzerland, on the Italian to the Venetian possessions, and on the Slavish to Bohemia and Hungary. To such a pitch of greatness had Maximilian by his mar- riage with Maria of Burgundy brought the herit- age received from Charles the Bold. True to the Netherlanders' greeting, in the inscription over their gates, 'Thou art our Duke, fight our battle for us,' war was from the first his handicraft. He adopted Charles the Hold's hostile attitude towards France; he saved the greater part of his inheritance from the schemes of Louis XI. Day and night it was his whole thought, to conquer it entirely. But after Maria of .Burgundy's pre- mature death, revolution followed revolution, and his father Frederick being too old to protect him- self, it came about that in the year 148S he was ousted from Austria by the Hungarians, whilst his son was kept a prisoner in Bruges by the citizens, and they had even to fear the estrange- ment of the Tyrol. Yet they did not lose courage. At this very time the father denoted with the vowels, A. E. I. O. U. ('AUes Erdreich ist Oester- reich unterthan' — All the earth is subject to Aus- tria), the extent of his hopes. In the same year, his son negotiated for a Spanish alliance. Their real strength lay in the imperial dignity of Maximilian, which they had from the German Empire. As soon as it began to bestir itself, Maximilian was set at liberty ; as soon as it sup- ported him in the persons of only a few princes of the Empire, he became lord in his Netherlands. . . . Since then his plans were directed against Hungary and Burgundy. In Hungary he could gain nothing except securing the succession to his house. But never, frequently as he concluded peace, did he give up his intentions upon Bur- gundy. . . . Now that he had allied himself with a Sforza, and had joined the Liga, noW that his father was dead, and the Empire was pledged to follow him across the mountains, and now, too, that the Italian complications were threatening Charles, he took fresh hope, and in this hope he summoned a Diet at Worms. Ma.ximilian was a prince of whom, although many portraits have been drawn, yet there is scarcely one that re- sembles another, so easily and entirely did he suit himself to circumstances. . . . His soul is full of motion, of joy in things, and of plans. There is scarcely anything that he is not capable of doing. In his mines he is a good screener, in his armoury the best plater, capable of instructing others in new inventions. With musket in hand, he defeats his best marksman, George Purkhard; with heavy cannon, which he has shown how to cast, and has placed on wheels, he comes as a rule nearest the mark. He commands seven captains in their seven several tongues; he himself chooses and mixes his food and medicines. In the open country, he feels himself happiest. . . . What really distinguishes his public life is that presentiment of the future greatness of his dynasty which he has inherited of his father, and the restless striving to attain all that devolved upon him from the House of Burgundy. All his policy and all his schemes were concentrated, not upon his Em- pire, for the real needs of w'hich he evinced little real care, and not immediately upon the wel- fare of his hereditary lands, but upon the realiza- tion of that sole idea. Of it all his letters and speeches are full. ... In March, 149S, Maximilian came to the Diet at Worms. ... At this Reichstag the King gained two momentous prospects. In Wurtemberg there had sprung of two lines two counts of quite opposite characters. . . . With the elder, Maximilian now entered into a compact. Wurtemberg was to be raised to a dukedom — an elevation which excluded the female line from the succession — and, in the event of the stock failing, was to be a 'widow's portion' of the realm to the use of the Imperial Chamber. Now as the sole hopes of this family centred in a weakling of a boy, this arrangement held out to Maximilian and his successors the prospect of acquiring a splendid country. Yet this was the smaller of his two successes. The greater was the espousal of his children, Philip and Margaret, with the two children of Ferdinand the Catholic, Juana and Juan, which was here settled. This opened to his house still greater expectations, — it brought him at once into the most intimate alliance with the Kings of Spain. These matters might pos- sibly, however, have been arranged elsewhere. What Maximilian really wanted in the Reichstag at Worms was the assistance of the Empire against the French with its world-renowned and much-envied soldiery. For at this time in all the wars of Europe, German auxiliaries were de- cisive. ... If Ma.ximilian had united the whole of this power in his hand, neither Europe nor Asia would have been able to withstand him. But God disposed that it should rather be em- ployed in the cause of freedom than oppression. What an Empire was that which in spite of its vast strength allowed its Emperor to be expelled from his heritage, and did not for a long time take steps to bring him back again? If we ex- amine the constitution of the Empire, not as we should picture it to ourselves in Henry III.'s time, 678 AUSTRIA, 1477-1495 Maximilian Charles V AUSTRIA, 1519-1555 but as it had at length become — the legal inde- pendence of the several estates, the emptiness of the imperial dignity, the electiveness of a head, that afterwards exercised certain rights over the electors, — we are led to inquire not so much into the causes of its disintegration, for this concerns us little, as into the way in which it was held to- gether. What welded it together, and preserved it, would (leaving tradition and the Pope out of the question) appear, before all else, to have been the rights of individuals, the unions of neighbours, and the social regulations which universally obtained. Such were those rights and privileges that not only protected the citizen, his guild, and his quarter of the town against his neighbours and more powerful men than himself, but which also en- dowed him with an inner independence. . . . Next, the unions of neighbours. These were not only leagues of cities and peasantries, expanded from ancient fraternities — for who can tell the origin of the Hansa, or the earliest treaty between Uri and Schwyz? — into large associations, or of knights, who strengthened a really insignificant power by confederations of neighbours, but also of the princes, who were bound together by joint in- heritances, mutual expectancies, and the ties of blood, which in some cases were very close. This ramification, dependent upon a supreme power and confirmed by it, bound neighbour to neigh- bour; and, whilst securing to each his privilege and his liberty, blended together all countries of Germany in legal bonds of union. But it is only in the social regulations that the unity was really perceivable. Only as long as the Empire was an actual reality, could the supreme power of the Electors, each with his own special rights, be maintained; only so long could dukes and princes, bishops and abbots hold their neighbours in due respect, and through court offices or hereditary services, through fiefs and the dignity of their independent position give their vassals a peculiar position to the whole. Only so long could the cities enjoying immediateness under the Empire, carefully divided into free and imperial cities, be not merely protected, but also assured of a partici- pation in the government of the whole. Under this sanctified and traditional system of suzerainty and vassalage all were happy and contented, and bore a love to it such as is cherished towards a native town or a father's house. For some time past, the House of Austria had enjoyed the fore- most position. It also had a union, and, more- over, a great faction on its side. The union was the Suabian League. Old Suabia was divided into three leagues — the league of the peasantry (the origin of Switzerland) ; the league of the knights in the Black Forest, on the Kocher, the Neckar, and the Danube; and the league of the cities. The peasantry were from the first hostile to Aus- tria. The Emperor Frederick brought it to pass that the cities and knights, that had from time out of mind lived in feud, bound themselves together with several princes, and formed, under his pro- tection, the league of the land of Suabia. But the party was scattered throughout the whole Em- pire." — L. von Ranke, History of the Latin and Teutonic nations, bk. i, ch. 3. 1493-1519. — Imperial reign of Maximilian. — Formation of the circle of Austria. — Aulic coun- cil. See Germany: i4Q3-r5ig. 1496-1499. — Swabian War with the Swiss Con- federacy and the Graubunden, or Grey Leagues (Grisons). — Practical independence of both ac- quired. See Switzerland: I396-I4gg. 1496-1526. — Extraordinary aggrandizement of the house of Austria by its marriages. — Herit- age of Charles V. — His cession of the German 679 inheritance to Ferdinand. — Division of the house into Spanish and German branches. — Acquisi- tion of Hungary and Bohemia. — In 1496, Philip the Fair, son of Maximilian, archduke and emperor, by his marriage with Mary of Burgundy, "espoused the Infanta of Spain, daughter of Ferdinand [of Aragon] and Isabella of Castile. They had two sons, Charles and Ferdinand, the former of whom, known in history by the name of Charles V., inherited the Low Countries in right of his father, Philip (1506). On the death of Ferdinand, his maternal grandfather (1516), he became heir to the whole Spanish succession, which comprehended the kingdoms of Spain, Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia, together with Spanish Amer- ica. To these vast possessions were added his patrimonial dominions in Austria, which were transmitted to him by his paternal grandfather, the Emperor Maximilian I. [See also Nether- lands: I494-I5r9.] About the same time (1519), the Imperial dignity was conferred on this prince by the electors [see GERiiANy; 1519] ; so that Eu- rope had not seen, since the time of Charlemagne, a monarchy so powerful as that of Charles V. This Emperor concluded a treaty with his brother Ferdinand; by which he ceded to him all his hereditary possessions in Germany. The two brothers thus became the founders of the two principal branches of the House of Austria, viz., that of Spain, which began with Charles V. (called Charles I. of Spain), and ended with Charles II. (1700) ; and that of Germany, of which Ferdinand I. was the ancestor, and which became extinct in the male line in the Emperor Charles VI. (1740), These two branches, closely allied to each other, acted in concert for the advancement of their reciprocal interests; moreover they gained each their own separate advantages by the marriage connexions which they formed. Ferdinand I. of the German line married Anne (1521), sister of Louis, King of Hungary and Bohemia, who having been slain by the Turks at the battle of Mohacs (1526), these two kingdoms devolved to Ferdinand of the House of Austria. Finally, the marriage which Charles V. contracted with the Infanta Isabella, daughter of Emmanuel, King of Portugal, pro- cured PhiHp 11. of Spain, the son of that mar- riage, the whole Portuguese monarchy, to which he succeeded on the death of Henry, called the Cardinal (1580). So vast an aggrandisement of power alarmed the Sovereigns of Europe." — C. W. Koch, Revolutions of Europe, period 6. Also in: W. Coxe, History of the House of Austria, ch. 25 and 27. — W. Robertson, History of the reign of Charles V., bk. 1. — See also Spain: 1496-1517. 1497. — Founding of Imperial library at Vi- enna. See Libraries: Modern: Austria: Imperial library. 1501-1506. — Treaties with France over Italian possessions. See Italy: 1501-1504; 1504-1506. 1519. — Death of Maximilian. — Election of Charles V, "Emperor of the Romans." See Germany: iSiq. 1519-1555. — Imperial reign of Charles V. — Objects of his policy. — His conflict with the Reformation and with France. — "Charles V. did not receive from nature all the gifts nor all the charms she can bestow, nor did experience give him every talent ; but he was equal to the part he had to play in the world. He was sufficiently great to keep his many-jewelled diadem. . . . His ambition was cold and wise. The scope of his ideas, which are not quite easy to divine, was vast enough to control a state composed of divers and distant portions, so as to make it always very difiicult to amalgamate his armies, and to supply AUSTRIA, 1519-1555 Charles V AUSTRIA, 1525-1527 them with food, or to procure money. Indeed its very existence would have been exposed to perma- nent danger from powerful coalitions, had Francis I. known how to place its most vulnerable points under a united pressure from the armies of France, of England, of Venice, and of the Ottoman Em- pire. Charles V. attained his first object when he prevented the French monarch from taking possession of the inheritance of the house of Anjou, at Naples, and of that of the Viscontis at Milan. He was more successful in stopping the march of Solyman into Austria than in checking the spread of the Reformation in Germany. . . . Charles V. had four objects very much at heart: he wished to be the master in Italy, to check the progress of the Ottoman power in the west of Europe, to conquer the King of France, and CHARLES V ( 1 500-1 558) Ruler of the Austrian dominions and Holy Roman Empire, King of Spain and the Netherlands to govern the Germanic body by dividing it, and by making the Reformation a religious pretext for oppressing the political defenders of that be- lief. In three out of four of these objects he suc- ceeded. Germany alone was not conquered; if she was beaten in battle, neither any political triumph nor any religious results ensued. In Ger- many, Charles V. began his work too late, and acted too slowly ; he undertook to subdue it at a time when the abettors of the Reformation had grown strong, when he himself was growing weaker. . . . Like many other brilliant careers, the career of Charles V. was more successful and more striking at the commencement and the mid- dle than at the end, of its course. At Madrid, at Cambrai. at Nice, he made his rival bow down his head. At Crepy he again forced him to obey his will, but as he had completely made up his mind to have peace, Charles dictated it, in some manner, to his own detriment. At Passau he had to yield to the terms of his enemy — of an enemy whom Charles V encountered in his old age, and when his powers had decayed. .Al- though it may be said that the extent and the power of the sovereignty which Charles V. left to his successor at his death were not diminished, still his armies were weakened, his finances were exhausted, and the country was weary of the tyranny of the imperial lieutenants. The su- premacy of the empire in Germany, for which he had struggled so much, was as little established at the end as at the beginning of his reign; re- ligious unity was solemnly destroyed by the 'Recess' of Augsburg. But that which marks the position of Charles V. as the representative man of his epoch, and as the founder of the policy of mod- em times, is that, wherever he was victorious, the effect of his success was to crush the last efforts of the spirit of the middle ages, and of the independence of nations. In Italy, in Spain, in Germany, and in the Low Countries, his tri- umphs were so much gain to the cause of abso- lute monarchy and so much loss to the liberty derived from the old state of society. Whatever was the character of liberty in the middle ages — whether it were contested or incomplete, or a mockery — it played a greater part than in the four succeeding centuries. Charles V. was assuredly one of those who contributed the most to found and consolidate the political system of modern governments. His history has an aspect of grandeur. Had Francis I. been as sagacious In the closet as he was bold in the field, by a vigor- ous alliance with England, with Protestant Ger- many, and with some of the republics of Italy, he might perhaps have balanced and controlled th" power of Charles V. But the French monarch did not possess the foresight and the solid under- standing necessary to pursue such a policy with success. His rival, therefore, occupies the first place in the historical picture of the epoch. Charles V. had the sentiment of his position and of the part he had to play." — J. Van Praet, Essays on the political liistory of the 15//;. ibth and I'ith centuries, pp. 100-104. — See also Germany: 1510 to 1552-1561, and Fra.\ce: 1520-1523, to 1547- issg. 1525-1527. — Successful contest for the Hun- garian and Bohemian crowns. — In Hungary, "un- der King Matthias the house of Zapolya, so called from a Slavonic village near Poschega, whence it originated, rose to peculiar eminence. To this house, in particular, King VVladislas had owed his accession to the throne; whence, however, it thought itself entitled to claim a share in the sovereign power, and even a sort of prospec- tive right to the throne. Its members were the wealthiest of all the magnates; they possessed seventy-two castles. ... It is said that a prophecy early promised the crown to the young John Zapolya. Possessed of all the power conferred by his rich inheritance. Count of Zips, and Voivode of Transylvania, he soon collected a strong party around him. It was he who mainly persuaded the Hungarians, in the year 1505, to exclude all foreigners from the throne by a formal decree; which, though they were not always able to maintain in force, they could never be induced absolutely to revoke In the year 1514 the Voivode succeeded in putting down an exceedingly formid- able insurrection of the peasants with his own forces; a service which the lesser nobility prized the more highly, because it enabled them to reduce the peasantry to a still harder state of servitude. His wish was. on the death of Wladislas, to become Gubernator of the kingdom, to marry the deceased king's daughter .Anne, and then to await the course of events But he was here en- countered by the policy of Maximilian. .Anne was married to the Archduke Ferdinand ; Zapolya 680 AUSTRIA, 1525-1527 Hungary and Bohemia AUSTRIA, 1525-1527 was excluded from the administration of the king- dom; even the vacant Palatinate was refused him and given to his old rival Stephen Bathory. He was highly incensed. . . . But it was not till the year 1525 that Zapolya got the upper hand at the Rakos. . . , No one entertained a doubt that he aimed at the throne. . . . But before anything was accomplished — on the contrary, just as these party conflicts had thrown the country into tht utmost confusion, the mighty enemy, Soliman, appeared on the frontiers of Hungary, determined to put an end to the anarchy. ... In his prison at Madrid, Francis I. had found means to en- treat the assistance of Soliman ; urging that it well beseemed a great emperor to succour the op- pressed. Plans were laid at Constantinople, ac- cording to which the two sovereigns were to attack Spain with a combined fleet, and to send armies to invade Hungary and the north of Italy. Soli- man, without any formal treaty, was by his posi- tion an ally of the Ligue, as the king of Hungary was, of the emperor. On the 23d of April, 1520, Soliman, after visiting the graves of his fore- fathers and of the old Moslem martyrs, marched out of Constantinople with a mighty host, con- sisting of about a hundred thousand men, and incessantly strengthened by fresh recruits on its road. . . . What power had Hungary, in the con- dition we have just described, of resisting such an attack? . . . The young king took the field with a following of not more than three thou- sand men. . . . He proceeded to the fatal plain of Mohacs, fully resolved with his small band to await in the open field the overwhelming force of the enemy. . . . Personal valour could avail nothing. The Hungarians were immediately thrown into disorder, their best men fell, the others took to flight. The young king was com- pelled to flee. It was not even granted him to die in the field of battle; a far more miserable end awaited him. Mounted behind a Silesian soldier, who served him as a guide, he had al- ready been carried across the dark waters that divide the plain ; his horse was already climbing the bank, when he slipped, fell back, and buried himself and his rider in the morass. This ren- dered the defeat decisive. . . . Soliman had gained one of those victories which decide the fate of nations during long epochs. . . . That two thrones, the succession to which was not entirely free from doubt, had thus been left vacant, was an event that necessarily caused a great agitation throughout Christendom. It was still a question whether such an European power as Austria would continue to exist ; — a question which it is only necessary to state, in order to be aware of its vast importance to the fate of mankind at large, and of Germany in particular. . . . The claims of Ferdinand to both crowns, unquestionable as they might be in reference to the treaties with the reigning houses, were opposed in the nations them- selves, by the right of election and the authority of considerable rivals. In Hungary, as soon as the Turks had retired, John Zapolya appeared with the fine army which he had kept back from the conflict ; the fall of the king was at the same time the fall of his adversaries. . . . Even in Tokay, however, John Zapolya was saluted as king. Meanwhile, the dukes of Bavaria conceived the design of getting possession of the throne of Bohemia. . . . Nor was it in the two kingdoms alone that these pretenders had a considerable party. The state of politics in Europe was such as to insure them powerful supporters abroad. In the first place, Francis I. was intimately con- nected with Zapolya; in a short time a delegate from the pope was at his side, and the Germans 68 in Rome maintained that Clement assisted the faction of the Voivode with money. Zapolya sent an agent to Venice with a direct request to be admitted a member of the Ligue of Cognac. In Bohemia, too, the French had long had de- voted partisans. . . . The consequences that must have resulted, had this scheme succeeded, are so incalculable, that it is not too much to say they would have completely changed the poHtical his- tory of Europe. The power of Bavaria would have outweighed that of Austria in both German and Slavonian countries, and Zapolya, thus supported, would have been able to maintain his station; the Ligue, and with it high ultra-montane opin- ions would have held the ascendency in eastern Europe. Never was there a project more pregnant with danger to the growing power of the house of Austria. Ferdinand behaved with all the pru- dence and energy which that house has so often displayed in difficult emergencies. For the pres- ent, the all-important object was the crown of Bohemia. ... All his measures were taken with such skill and prudence, that on the day of elec- tion, though the Bavarian agent had, up to the last moment, not the slightest doubt of the suc- cess of his negotiations, an overwhelming ma- jority in the three estates elected Ferdinand to the throne of Bohemia. This took place on the 23d October, 1526. ... On his brother's birth-day, the 24th of February, 1527, Ferdinand was crowned at Prague. . . . The affairs of Hungary were not so easily or so peacefully settled. ... At first, when Zapolya came forward, full armed and powerful out of the general desolation, he had the uncontested superiority. The capital of the king- dom sought his protection, after which he marched to Stuhlweissenburg, where his partisans bore down all attempts at opposition: he was elected and crowned (nth of November, 1526) ; in Croatia, too, he was acknowledged king at a diet; he filled all the numerous places, temporal and spiritual, left vacant by the disaster of Mohacs. with his friends. . . . [But] the Germans ad- vanced without interruption ; and as soon as it appeared possible that Ferdinand might be suc- cessful, Zapolya's followers began to desert him. . . , Never did the German troops display more bravery and constancy. They had often neither meat nor bread, and were obliged to live on such fruits as they found in the gardens: the inhabitants were wavering and uncertain — they submitted, and then revolted again to the enemy; Zapolya's troops, aided by their knowledge of the ground, made several very formidable attacks by night; but the Germans evinced, in the mo- ment of danger, the skill and determination of a Roman legion ; they showed, too, a noble con- stancy under difficulties and privations. At Tokay they defeated Zapolya and compelled him to quit Hungary. ... On the 3d November, 1527, Ferdinand was crowned in Stuhlweissenburg: only five of the magnates of the kingdom adhered to Zapolya. The victory appeared complete. Ferdi- nand, however, distinctly felt that this appearance was delusive. ... In Bohemia, too, his power was far from secure. His Bavarian neighbours had not relinquished the hope of driving him from the throne at file first general turn of affairs. The Ottomans, meanwhile, acting upon the persua- sion that every land In which the head of their chief had rested belonged of right to them, were preparing to return to Hungary ; either to take possession of it themselves, or at first, as was their custom, to bestow it on a native ruler — Zapolya, who now eagerly sought an alliance with them — as their vassal." — L. von Ranke, History of the reformation in Germany, v. 2, bk. 4, ck. I AUSTRIA, 1564-1618 Maximilian II Thirty Years' War AUSTRIA, 1618-1648 4. — See also Bohemia: 1516-1576; Hungary: 1526- 1567- 1564-1618. — Tolerance of Maximilian II. — Bigotry and tyranny of Rodolph and Ferdinand II.— Prelude to the Thirty Years' War.— "There is no period connected with these religious wars that deserves more to be studied than these reigns of Ferdinand I., Maximilian [the Second], and those of his successors who preceded the thirty years' war. We have no sovereign who exhibited that exercise of moderation and good sense which a philosopher would require, but Maximilian ; and he was immediately followed by princes of a different complexion. . . . Nothing could be more complete than the difficulty of toleration at the time when Maximilian reigned ; and if a mild policy could be attended with favourable effects in his age and nation, there can be little fear of the experiment at any other period. No party or person in the state was then disposed to tolerate his neighbour from any sense of the justice of such forbearance, but from motives of temporal poHcy alone. The Lutherans, it will be seen, could not bear that the Calvinists should have the same religious privileges with them- selves. The Calvinists were equally opinionated and unjust; and Maximilian himself was probably tolerant and wise, chiefly because he was in his real opinions a Lutheran, and in outward pro- fession, as the head of the empire, a Roman Catholic. For twelve years, the whole of his reign, he preserved the religious peace of the com- munity, without destroying the religious freedom of the human mind. He supported the Roman Catholics, as the predominant party, in all their rights, possessions, and privileges; but he pro- tected the Protestants in every exercise of their religion which was then practicable. In other words, he was as tolerant and just as the temper of society then admitted, and more so than the state of things would have suggested. . . . The merit of Maximilian was but too apparent the moment that his son Rodolph was called upon to supply his place. ... He had always left the education of his son and successor too much to the diseretion of his bigoted consort. Rodolph, his son, was therefore as ignorant and furious on his part as were the Protestants on theirs; he had immediate recourse to the usual expedients — force, and the execution of the laws to the very letter. . . . After Rodolph comes Matthias, and, unhappily for all Europe, Bohemia and the empire fell afterwards under the management of Ferdinand II. Of the different .Austrian princes, it is the reign of Ferdinand II. that is more particularly to be considered. Such was the arbi- trarv' nature of his government over his subjects in Bohemia, that they revolted. They elected for their king the young Elector Palatine, hoping thus to extricate themselves from the bigotry and tyranny of Ferdinand. This crown so offered was accepted; and, in the event, the cause of the Bohemians became the cause of the Ref- ormation in Germany, and the Elector Palatine the hero of that cause. It is this which gives the great interest to this reign of Ferdinand II., to these concerns of his subjects in Bohemia, and to the character of this Elector Palatine. For all these events and circumstances led to the thirty years' war." — W. Smyth, Lectures on modern his- tory, V. I, lect. 13. See Bohemia: 1611-1618; and Germany: 1618-1620. 1567-1660 — Struggles of the Hapsburg house in Hungary and Transylvania to establish rights of sovereignty. — Wars with the Turks. See Hungary: 1595-1606; 1606-1660; and Turkey: 1572-1573- 1586. — Desire for crown of Poland. See Po- land: 1574-1590. 1618-1648.— Thirty Years' War.— Peace of Westphalia. — "The thirty years' war made Ger- many the centre-point of European poUtics. . . . No one at its commencement could have foreseen the duration and extent. But the train of war was everywhere laid, and required only the match to set it going; more than one war was joined to it, and swallowed up in it ; and the melancholy truth, that war feeds itself, was never more clearly displayed. . . . Though the war, which first broke out in Bohemia, concerned only the house of Austria, yet by its originating in religious disputes, by its peculiar character as a religious war, and by the measures adopted both by the insurgents and the emperor, it acquired such an extent, that even the quelling of the insurrection was insufficient to put a stop to it. . . . Though the Bohemian war was apparently terminated, yet the flame had communicated to Germany and Hungary, and new fuel was added by the act of proscription promulgated against the elector Frederic and his adherents. From this the war derived that revolutionary character, which was henceforward peculiar to it; it was a step that could not but lead to further results, for the question of the relations between the emperor and his states, was in a fair way of being prac- tically considered. New and bolder projects were also formed in Vienna and Madrid, where it was resolved to renew the war with the Nether- lands. Under the present circumstances, the sup- pression of the Protestant religion and the over- throw of German and Dutch liberty appeared inseparable; while the success of the imperial arms, supported as they were by the league and the co-operation of the Spaniards, gave just grounds for hope. . . . By the carrying of the war into Lower Saxony, the principal seat of the Protes- tant religion in Germany (the states of which had appointed Christian iV. of Denmark, as duke of Holstein, head of their confederacy), the north- ern states had already, though without any bene- ficial result, been involved in the strife, and the Danish war had broken out. But the elevation of Albert of VVallenstein to the dignity of duke of Friedland and imperial general over the army raised by himself, was of considerably more im- portance, as it affected the whole course and char- acter of the war. From this time the war was completely and truly revolutionary. The peculiar situation of the general, the manner of the forma- tion as well as the maintenance of his army, could not fail to make it such. . . . The distinguished success of the imperial arms in the north of Ger- many unveiled the daring schemes of VVallenstein. He did not come forward as conqueror alone, but, by the investiture of Mecklenburg as a state of the empire, as a ruling prince. . . . But the elevation and conduct of this novus homo, e:!as- perated and annoyed the Catholic no less than the Protestant states, especially the league and its chief; all implored peace, and VVallenstcin's discharge. Thus, at the diet of the electors at .Augsburg, the emperor was reduced to the alternative of resigning him or his allies. He chose the former. Wallen- stein was dismissed, the majority of his army dis- banded, and Tilly nominated commander-in-chief of the forces of the emperor and the league. . . . On the side of the emperor sufficient care was taken to prolong the war. The refusal to restore the unfortunate Frederic, and even the sale of his upper Palatine to Bavaria, must with justice have excited the apprehensions of the other princes. But when the Jesuits finally succeeded, not only in extorting the edict of restitution, but also in 682 AUSTRIA, 1618-1648 Thirty Years' War AUSTRIA, 1568-1683 causing it to be enforced in the most odious man- ner, the Catholic states themselves saw with re- gret that peace could no longer exist. . . . The greater the success that attended the house of Aus- tria, the more actively foreign policy laboured to counteract it. England had taken an interest in the fate of Frederic V. from the first, though this interest was evinced by little beyond fruitless ne- gotiations. Denmark became engaged in the quar- rel mostly through the influence of this power and Holland. Richelieu, from the time he be- came prime minister of France, had exerted himself in opposing Austria and Spain. He found employ- ment for Spain in the contests respecting Velte- lin, and for Austria soon after, by the war of Mantua. Willingly would he have detached the German league from the interest of the emperor; and though he failed in this, he procured the fall of Wallenstein. . . . Much more important, how- ever, was Richelieu's influence on the war, by the essential share he had in gaining Gustavus Adol- phus' active participation in it. . . . The nine- teen years of his (Gustavus Adolphus'] reign which had already elapsed, together with the Polish war, which lasted nearly that time, had taught the world but little of the real worth of this great and talented hero. The decisive superi- ority of Protestantism in Germany, under his gufdance, soon created a more just knowledge, and at the same time showed the advantages which must result to a victorious supporter of that cause. . . The battle at Leipzig was decisive for Gustavus Adolphus and his party, almost be- yond expectation. The league fell asunder; and in a short time he was master of the countries from the Baltic to Bavaria, and from the Rhine to Bohemia. . . . But the misfortunes and death of Tilly brought Wallenstein again on the stage as absolute commander-in-chief, bent on plans not a whit less extensive than those he had before formed. No period of the war gave promise of Such great and rapid successes or reverses as the present, for both leaders were determined to effect them; but the victory of Liitzen, while it cost Gustavus his life, prepared the fall of Wallen- stein. . . . Though the fall of Gustavus Adolphus frustrated his own private views, it did not those of his party. . . . The school of Gustavus pro- duced a number of men, great in the cabinet and in the field; yet it was hard, even for an Oxen- stiern, to preserve the importance of Sweden un- impaired; and it was but partially done by the alliance of Heilbronn. ... If the forces of Sweden overrun almost every part of Germany in the following months, under the guidance of the pupils of the king, Bernard of Weimar and Gustavus Horn, we must apparently attribute it to Wallen- stein's intentional inactivity in Bohemia. The dis- trust of him increased in Vienna the more, as he took but little trouble to diminish it; and though his fall was not sufficient to atone for treachery, if proved, it was for his equivocal character and imprudence His death probably saved Germany from a catastrophe. ... A great change took place upon the death of Wallenstein; as a prince of the blood, Ferdinand, king of Hungary and Bohemia, obtained the command. Thus an end was put to plans of revolutions from this quarter. But in the same year the battle of Nbrdlingen gave to the imperial arms a sudden preponderance, such as it had never before acquired. The separate peace of Saxony with the emperor at Prague, and soon after an alliance, were its consequences; Sweden driven back to Pomerania, seemed unable of her- self, during the two following years, to maintain her ground in Germany: the victory of Wittstock turned the scale in her favour. . . . The war was 683 prolonged and greatly extended by the active share taken in it by France: first against Spain, and soon against Austria. . . . The German war, after the treaty with Bernhard of Weimar, was mainly carried on by France, by the arming of Germans against Germans. But the pupil of Gustavus Adolphus preferred to fight for him- self rather than others, and his early death was almost as much coveted by France as by Austria. The success of the Swedish arms revived under Baner. ... At the general diet, which was at last convened, the emperor yielded to a general amnesty, or at least what was so designated. But when at the meeting of the ambassadors of the leading powers at Hamburg, the preliminaries were signed, and the time and place of the con- gress of peace fixed, it was deferred after Riche- lieu's death (who was succeeded by Mazarin), by the war, which both parties contmued, in the hope of securing better conditions by victory. A new war broke out in the north between Sweden and Denmark, and when at last the congress of peace was opened at Munster and Osnabriick, the ne- gotiations dragged on for three years. . . . The German peace was negotiated at Miinster be- tween the emperor and France, and at Osnabriick between the emperor and Sweden; but both treaties, according to express agreement, Oct. 24, 1648, were to be considered as one, under the title of the Westphalian." — A. H. L. Heeren, Manual of the history of the political system of Europe and its colonies, pp. gi-gg. — "The Peace of Westphalia has met manifold hostile comments, not only in earlier, but also in later, times. German patriots complained that by it the unity of the Empire was rent; and indeed the connection of the States, which even before was loose, was relaxed to the extreme. This was, however, an evil which could not be avoided, and it had to be accepted in order to prevent the French and Swedes from using their opportunity for the further enslave- ment of the land. . . . The religious parties also made objections to the peace. The strict Catholics condemned it as a work of inexcusable and arbi- trary injustice. . . . The dissatisfaction of the Protestants was chiefly with the recognition of the Ecclesiastical Reservation. They complained also that their brethren in the faith were not allowed the free exercise of their religion in Austria. Their hostility was limited to theoretical discussions, which soon ceased when Louis XIV. took advan- tage of the preponderance which he had won to make outrageous assaults upon Germany, and even the Protestants were compelled to acknowledge the Emperor as the real defender of German in- dependence."— A. Gindely, History of the Thirty Years' War, v. 2, ch. 10, sect. 4. — See also Ger- many: 1618-1620, to 1648; France: 1624-1626; Germany: Map: At peace of Westphalia; Italy: 1627-1631; Poland: 1500-1648. 1621. — Formal establishment of the right of primogeniture in the archducal family. See Germany: 1636-1637. 1624-1626. — Hostile comhinations of Richelieu. — The Valtelline war in northern Italy. See France: 1624-1626. 1627-1631. — War with France over the succes- sion to the duchy of Mantua. See Italy: 1637- 1631. 1648-1715. — Relations with Germany and France. See Germany: 1648-1715. 1660-1664.— Renewed war with the Turks. See Hungary: 1660-1664. 1668-1683.— Increased oppression and religious persecution in Hungary.— Revolt of Prince Te- keli.— Turks again called in.— Mustapha's great invasion and siege of Vienna.— Deliverance of AUSTRIA, 1672-1714 Wars with Louis XIV AUSTRIA, 1672-1714 the city by John Sobieski. See Hungary: 1668- 1083. 1672-1714.— Wars with Louis XIV of France: War of the Grand Alliance.— Peace of Ryswick. —"The leading principle of the reign [in France] of Louis XrV. ... is the principle of war with the dynasty of Charles V— the elder branch of which reigned in Spain, while the descendants of the younger branch occupied the imperial throne of Germany. . . . .^t the death of Mazarin, or to speak more correctly, immediately after the death of Philip I\'., . . the early ambition of Louis XIV. sought to prevent the junior branch of the .-Austrian dynasty from succeeding to the inheri- tance of the elder branch. He had no desire to see reconstituted under the imperial sceptre of Ger- many the monarchy which Charles V. had at one time wished to transmit entire to his son, but which, worn out and weakened, he subsequently allowed without regret to be divided between his son and his brother. Before making war upon Austria, Louis XIV. cast his eyes upon a por- tion of the territory belonging to Spain, and the expedition against Holland, begun in 1672 Isee Netherl.^nds (Holland): 1672-1674, and 1674-1678], for the purpose of absorbing the Spanish provinces by overwhelming them, opened the series of his vast enterprises. His first great war was, historically speaking, his first great fault. He failed in his object: for at the end of six campaigns, during which the French armies ob- tained great and deserved success, Holland re- mained unconquered. Thus was Europe warned that the lust of conquest of a young monarch, who did not himself possess military genius, but who found in his generals the resources and ability in which he was himself deficient, would soon threaten her independence. Conde and Turenne. after having been rebellious subjects under the Regency, were about to become the first and the most illustrious lieutenants of Louis XIV. Europe, however, though warned, was not immediately ready to defend herself. It was from Austria, more directly exposed to the dangers of the great war now commencing, that the first systematic resistance ought to have come. But .\ustria was not prepared to play such a part ; and the Emperor Leopold possessed neither the genius nor the wish for it. He was, in fact, nothing more than the nominal head of Germany. . . . Such was the state of affairs in Europe when William of Orange first made his appearance on the stage. . . . The old question of supremacy, which Louis XrV. wished to fight out as a duel with the House of Austria, was now about to change its aspect, and, owing to the presence of an unexpected genius, to bring into the quarrel other powers besides the two original competitors. The foe of Louis XIV ought by rights to have been born on the banks of the Danube, and not on the shores of the North Sea. In fact, it was Austria that at that moment most needed a man of genius, either on the throne or at the head of affairs. The events of the century would, in this case, doubt- less have followed a different course: the war would have been less general, and the maritime nations would not have been involved in it to the same degree. . . . The treaties of peace would have been signed in some small place in France or Germany, and not in two towns and a village in Holland, such as Nimeguen, Ryswick, and Utrecht. . , . William of Orange found himself in a position soon to form the Triple Alliance which the very policy of Louis XIV. suggested For France to attack Holland, when her object was eventually to reach Austria, and keep her out of the Spanish succession, was to make enemies at one and the same time of Spain, of Austria, and of Holland But if it afterwards required con- siderable efforts on the part of William of Orange to maintain this alliance, it demanded still more energy to extend it. It formed part of the Stadt- holder's ulterior plans to combine the union be- tween himself and the two branches of the .\ustrian family, with the old .Anglo-Swedish Triple .Al- liance, which had just been dissolved under the strong pressure brought to bear on it by Louis XrV. . . . Louis XIV., whose finances were ex- hausted, was very soon anxious to make peace, even on the morrow of his most brilliant vic- tories; whilst William of Orange, beaten and re- treating, ardently desired the continuance of the war. . . . The Peace of Nimeguen was at last signed, and by it were secured to Louis XIV. Franche-Comtc, and some important places in the Spanish Low Countries on his northern frontier [see NiMEGUEX, Peace of]. This was the cul- minating point of the reign of Louis XIV. Al- though the coalition had prevented him from at- taining the full object of his designs against the House of Austria, which had been to absorb by conquest so much of the territory belonging to Spain as would secure him against the effect of a will preserving the whole inheritance intact in the family, yet fiis armies had been constantly suc- cessful, and many of his opponents were evidently tired of the struggle. . . . Some years passed thus, with the appearance of calm. Europe was con- quered; and when peace was broken, because, as was said, the Treaty of Nimeguen was not duly executed, the events of the war were for some time neither brilliant nor important, for several cam- paigns began and ended without any considerable result. ... At length Louis XIV. entered on the second half of his reign, which differed widely from the first. . . During this second period of more than thirty years, which begins after the Treaty of Nimeguen and lasts till the Peace of LTtrecht, events succeed each other in complete logical sequence, so that the reign presents itself as one continuous whole, with a regular move- ment of ascension and decline. . . . The leading principle of the reign remained the same; it was always the desire to weaken the House of Aus- tria, or to secure an advantageous partition of the Spanish succession. But the Emperor of Ger- many was protected by the coalition, and the King of Spain, whose death was considered imminent, would not make up his mind to die. . . . Dur- ing the first League, when the Prince of Orange was contending against Louis XIV. with the co- operation of the Emperor of Germany, of the King of Spain, and of the Electors on the Rhine, the religious element played only a secondary part in the war. But we shall see this element make its presence more manifest. . . . Thus the influence of Protestant England made itself more and more felt in the affairs of Europe, in pro- portion as the government of the Stuarts, from its volence, its unpopularity, and from the op- position offered to it, was approaching its end. . . . The second coalition was neither more united nor more firm than the first had been: but, after the expulsion of the Stuarts, the germs of dissolu- tion no longer threatened the same dangers. . . . The British nation now made itself felt in the balance of Europe, and William of Orange was for the first time in his life successful in war at the head of his English troops. . This was the most brilliant epoch of the life of William III. . , . He was now at the height of his glory, after a period of twenty years from his start in life, and his destiny was accomplished ; so that until the Treaty of Ryswick, which in i6q8 put an 684 AUSTRIA, 1672-1714 Peace of Ryswick AUSTRIA, 1718-1738 end to his hostilities with France, and brought about his recognition as King of England by Louis XIV., not much more was left for him to gain ; and he had the skill to lose nothing. . . . The negotiations for the Treaty of Ryswick were con- ducted with less ability and boldness, and concluded on less advantageous terms, than the Truce of Ratisbon or the Peace of Nimeguen. Nevertheless, this treaty, which secured to Louis the possession of Strasbourg, might, particularly as age was now creeping on him, have closed his military career without disgrace, if the eternal question, for the solution of which he had made so many sacri- fices, and which had always held the foremost place in his thoughts, had not remained as un- settled and as full of difficulty as on the day when he had mounted the throne. Charles II. of Spain was not dead, and the question of the Spanish succession, which had so actively em- ployed the armies of Louis XIV., and ta.xed his diplomacy, was as undecided as at the beginning of his reign. Louis XIV. saw two alternatives before him: a partition of the succession between the Emperor and himself (a solution proposed Ihirty years before as a means to avoid war), or else a will in favour of France, followed of course by a recommencement of general hostilities. . . . Louis XIV. proposed in succession two schemes, not, as thirty years before, to the Em- peror, but to the King of England, whose power and whose genius rendered him the arbiter of all the great affairs of Europe. ... In the first of the treaties of partition, Spain and the Low Coun- tries were to be given to the Prince of Bavaria ; in the second, to the Archduke Charles. In both, France obtained Naples and Sicily for the Dauphin. . . . Both these arrangements . . . suited both France and England as a pacific solution of the question. . . . But events, as we know, deranged all these calculations, and Charles II., who, by continuing to live, had disappointed so much im- patient expectation, by his last will provoked a general war, to be carried on against France by the union of England with the Empire and with Holland — a union which was much strengthened under the new dynasty, and which afterwards embraced the northern states of Germany. . . . William III. died at the age of fifty-two, on the oth of March, 1702, at the beginning of the War of Succession. After him, the part he was to have played was divided. Prince Eugene, Marlborough, and Heinsius (the Grand Pension- ary) had the conduct of political and especially of military affairs, and acted in concert. The dis- astrous consequences to France of that war, in which William had no part, are notorious. The battles of Blenheim, of Ramifies, and of Oude- narde brought the allied armies on the soil of France, and placed Louis XIV. on the verge of ruin." — J. Van Praet, Essays on the poHlical his- tory of the 15th, ibth, and lyth centuries, pp. 390-414 ai7d 441-455. See also Germany: r686; and France: i68q-iboo to 1607. Also in: H. Martin, History of France: Age of Louis XIV., V. 2. ch. 2 and 4-6. — T. H. Dyer, History of modern Europe, bk. 5, v. 3, ch. 5-6. — 1683-1687. — Merciless suppression of the Hun- garian revolt. — Crown of Hungary made hered- itary in the house of Hapsburg. See Hungary; 1683-1687. 1683-1699. — Expulsion of the Turks from Hun- gary. — Peace of Carlowitz. See Hungary: 1683- 1699. 1699-1711. — Suppression of the revolt under Rakoczy in Hungary. See Hungary: 1699- 1718. 1700. — Interest of the imperial house in the question of the Spanish succession. See Spain: 1&98-1700. 1701-1713. — War of the Spanish Succession. See German\~ 1702, to 1700-1711; Italy: 1701- 17 13; Spain: 1702, to 1707- 17 10, and Nether- lands: 1702-1704, to 1713-1715. 1709. — Barrier Treaty with England and Neth- erlands against France. See Barrier fortresses. 1703. — First bank established. See Money and banking: Modern: 1703-1915. 1711. — War of the Spanish Succession. — Its circumstances changed. — "The death of the Em- peror Joseph I., who expired April 17, 1711, at the age of thirty-two, changed the whole char- acter of the War of the Spanish Succession. As Joseph left no male heirs, the hereditary dominion., of the House of Austria devolved to his brother, the Archduke Charles; and though that prince had not been elected King of the Romans, and had therefore to become a candidate for the im- perial crown, yet there could be little doubt that he would attain that dignity. Hence, if Charles should also become sovereign of Spain and the Indies, the vast empire of Charles V. would be again united in one person ; and that very evil of an almost universal monarchy would be estab- ■ lished, the prevention of which had been the chief cause for taking up arms against Philip V. . . . After an interregnum of half a year, during which the affairs of the Empire had been conducted by the Elector Palatine and the Elector of Saxony, as imperial vicars for South and North Germany, the Archduke Charles w?s unanimously named Emperor by the Electoral College (Oct. 12th). . . . Charles . . . received the imperial crown at Frankfort, Dec. 22d, with the title of Charles VI." — T. H. Dver, History of modern Europe, bk. 5, v. 3. ch. 6. 1713-1714.— Ending of the War of the Spanish Succession. — Peace of Utrecht and the Treaty of Rastadt. — Acquisition of the Spanish Nether- lands, Naples and Milan. See Utrecht: 1712- 1714. 1713-1719. — Continued differences with Spain. — Triple Alliance. — Quadruple Alliance. See Spain: 1713-1725. 1714. — Desertion of the Catalans. See Spain: 1713-1714. 1714-1718. — Recovery of Belgrade and final ex- pulsion of the Turks from Hungary. See Hun- gary: 1699-1718; and Turkey: 1714-1718. 1718. — Control of Croatia. See Croatia: 1526- 1718. 1718-1738. — Question of the succession. — Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VI, and its guarantee by the powers.— "On the death [1711] of Joseph, the hopes of the house of Austria and the future destiny of Germany rested on Charles [then, as titular king of Spain, Charles III., in- effectually contesting the Spanish throne with the Bourbon heir, Philip V.; afterwards, as Emperor, Charles VI.] who was the only surviving male of his illustrious family. By that event the houses of Austria, Germany and Europe were placed in a new and critical situation. From a principle of mistaken policy the succession to the hereditary dominions had never been established according to an invariable rule; for it was not clearly ascer- tained whether males of the collateral branches should be preferred to females in lineal descent, an uncertainty which had frequently occasioned many vehement disputes. To obviate this evil, as well as to prevent future disputes, Leopold [father of Joseph and Charles] had arranged the order of succession: to Joseph he assigned Hungary and Bohemia, and the other hereditary dominions; and to Charles the crown of Spain, and all the terri- 685 AUSTRIA, 1718-1738 Pragmatic Sanction AUSTRIA, 1740 tories which belonged to the Spanish inheritance. Should Joseph die without issue male, the whole succession was to descend to Charles, and in case of his death, under similar circumstances, the Aus- trian dominions were to devolve on the daughters of Joseph in preference to those of Charles. This family compact was signed by the two brothers in the presence of Leopold. Joseph died without male issue; but left two daughters." He was succeeded by Charles in accordance with the com- pact. "On the 2nd of August, 1718, soon after the signature of the Quadruple AUiance, Charles promulgated a new law of succession for the in- heritance of the house of Austria, under the name of the Pragmatic Sanction. According to the fam- ily compact formed by Leopold, and confirmed by Joseph and Charles, the succession was entailed on the daughters of Joseph in preference to the daughters of Charles, should theyjjoth die with- out issue male. Charles, however, had scarcely ascended the throne, though at that time without children, than he reversed this compact, and settled the right of succession, in default of his male issue, first on his daughters, then on the daughters of Joseph, and afterwards on the queen of Portugal and the other daughters of Leopold. Since the promulgation of that decree, the Empress had borne a son who died in his infancy, and three daughters, Maria Theresa, Maria Anne and Maria Amelia. With a view to insure the succession of these daughters, and to obviate the dangers which might arise from the claims of the Josephine archduchesses, he published the Pragmatic Sanc- tion, and compelled his nieces to renounce their pretensions on their marriages with the electors of Saxony and Bavaria. Aware, however, that the strongest renunciations are disregarded, he ob- tained from the different states of his extensive dominions the acknowledgment of the Pragmatic Sanction, and made it the great object of his reign, to which he sacrificed every other considera- tion, to procure the guaranty of the European powers." This guaranty was obtained in treaties with the several powers, as follows: Spain in 1725; Russia, 1726, renewed in 1733; Prussia, 1728; England and Holland, 1731; France, 1738; the Empire, 1732. The inheritance which Charles thus endeavored to secure to his daughter was vast and imposing. "He was by election Em- peror of Germany, by hereditary right sovereign of Hungary, Transylvania, Bohemia, Austria, Styria, Carinthia and Carniola, the Tyrol, and the Brisgau [Breisgau] and he had recently obtained Naples and Sicily, the Milanese and the Nether- lands." — W. Coxe, History of the House of Austria, V. 3, ch. 80, pp. 84-85. — "The Pragmatic Sanction, though framed to legalize the accession of Maria Theresa, excludes the present Emperor's daughters and his grandchild by postponing the succession of females to that of males in the family of Charles VI." — J. D. Bourchier, Heritage of tlie Hapsburgs (Fortnightly Revitw, Mar., 1889). Also i.n: H. Tuttle, History of Prussia, 1740- 174S, ch. 2. — S. A. Dunham, History of the Ger- manic empire, v. 3, bk. 3, ch. 3. 1719. — Sardinia ceded to the duke of Savoy in exchange for Sicily. See Spain: 1713-1725; and Italy: 1715-1735- 1731. — Second Treaty of Vienna with England and Holland. See Spain: 1726-1731. 1732-1733. — Interference in the election of the king of Poland. See Poland: 1732-1733. 1733-1735. — War of the Polish Succession. — Cession of Naples and Sicily to Spain, and Lor- raine and bar to France. See France: 1733-173S1 and Italy: 1715-173,';. 1737-1739.— Unfortunate war with the Turks, 686 in alliance with Russia. — Humiliating peace of Belgrade. — Surrender of Belgrade, with Servia, and part of Bosnia. See Russia: 1734-1740. 1740-1756.— Relations with Germany during War of the Succession. See Germany: 1740- 1756. 1740 (October). — Treachery among the guar- antors of the Pragmatic Sanction. — Inheritance of Maria Theresa disputed. — "The Emperor Charles V. . . . died on the 20th of October, 1740. His daughter Maria Theresa, the heiress of his dominions with the title of Queen of Hungary, was but twenty-three years of age, without ex- perience or knowledge of business; and her hus- band Francis, the titular Duke of Lorraine and reigning Grand Duke of Tuscany, deserved the praise of amiable qualities rather than of com- manding talents. Her Ministers were timorous, irresolute, and useless: 'I saw them in despair,' writes Mr. Robinson, the British envoy, 'but that very despair was not capable of rendering them MARIA THERESA (1717-1780) Empress of Austria bravely desperate.' The treasury was exhausted, the army dispersed, and no general risen to re- place Eugene. The succession of Maria Theresa was, indeed, cheerfully acknowledged by her sub- jects, and seemed to be secured amongst foreign powers by their guarantee of the Pragmatic Sanc- tion ; but it soon appeared that such guarantees are mere worthless parchments where there is strong temptation to break and only a feeble army to support them. The principal claimant to the suc- cession was the Elector of Bavaria, who maintained that the will of the Emperor Ferdinand the First devised the .Austrian states to his daughter, from whom the Elector descended, on failure of male lineage. It appeared that the original will in the archives at Vienna referred to the failure, not of the male but of the legitimate issue of his sons; but this document, though ostentatiously dis- played to all the Ministers of state and foreign ambassadors, was very far from inducing the Elector to desist from his pretensions. As to the Great Powers — the Court of France, the old ally AUSTRIA, 1740 War of the Succession AUSTRIA, 1740-1741 of the Bavarian family, and mindful of its injuries from the House of Austria, was eager to exalt the first by the depression of the latter. The Bourbons in Spain followed the direction of the Bourbons in France. The King of Poland and the Empress of Russia were more friendly in their expressions than in their designs. An opposite spirit pervaded England and Holland, where mo- tives of honour and of policy combined to sup- port the rights of Maria Theresa. In Germany itself the Elector of Cologne, the Bavarian's brother, warmly espoused his cause; and 'the re- maining Electors,' says Chesterfield, 'like electors with us, thought it a proper opportunity of mak- ing the most of their votes, — and all at the ex- pense of the helpless and abandoned House of Austria!' The first blow, however, came from Prussia, where the King Frederick William had died a few months before, and been succeeded by his son Frederick the Second, a Prince surnamed the Great by poets." — Lord Mahon (Earl Stan- hope), History of England, 1713-1783, v. 3, ch. 23. — "The elector of Bavaria acted in a prompt, honest, and consistent manner. He at once lodged a protest against any disposition of the hereditary estates to the prejudice of his own rights; insisted on the will of Ferdinand I.; and demanded the production of the original text. It was promptly produced. But it was found to convey the suc- cession to the heirs of his daughter, the ancestress of the elector, not, as he contended, on the failure of male heirs, but in the absence of mor; direct heirs born in wedlock. Maria Theresa could, how- ever, trace her descent through nearer male heirs, and had, therefore, a superior title. Charles Albert was in any event only one of several claimants. The King of Spain, a Bourbon, presented him- self as the heir of the Hapsburg emperor Charles V. The King of Sardinia alleged an ancient mar- riage contract, from which he derived a right to the duchy of Milan. Even August of Saxony claimed territory by virtue of an antiquated title, which, it was pretended, the renunciation of his wife could not affect. AH these were, however, mere vultures compared to the eagle [Frederick of Prussia] which was soon to descend upon its prey." — H. Tuttle, History of Prussia, 1740-1745, ch. 2. 1740 (October-November). — War of the suc- cession — Conduct of Frederick the Great as ex- plained by himself. — -"This Pragmatic Sanction had been guaranteed by France, England, Holland, Sardinia, Saxony, and the Roman empire; nay by the late King Frederic William [of Prussia] also, on condition that the court of Vienna would secure to him the succession of Julich and Berg. The emperor promised him the eventual succession, and did not fulfil his engagements; by which the King of Prussia, his successor, was freed from this guarantee, to which his father, the late king, had pledged himself, conditionally. . . . Frederic I., when he erected Prussia into a kingdom, had, by that vain grandeur, planted the seed of- ambition in the bosom of his posterity; which, soon or late, must fructify. The monarchy he had left to his descendants was, if I may be permitted the ex- pression, a kind of hermaphrodite, which was rather more an electorate than a kingdom. Fame was to be acquired by determining the nature of this being: and this sensation certainly was one of those which strengthened so many motives, conspiring to engage the king in grand enterprises. If the acquisition of the duchy of Berg had not even met with almost insurmountable impedi- ments, it was in itself so small that the possession would add little grandeur to the house of Bran- denburg. These reflections occasioned the king to turn his views toward the house of Austria, the succession of which would become matter of litigation, at the death of the emperor, when the throne of the Ceesars should be vacant. That event must be favourable to the distinguished part which the king had to act in Germany, by the various claims of the houses of Saxony and Bavaria to these states; by the number of candi- dates which might canvass for the Imperial crown; and by the projects of the court of Versailles, which, on such an occasion must naturally profit by the troubles that the death of Charles VI could not fail to excite. This accident did not long keep the world in expectation. The em- peror ended his days at the palace La Favorite, on the 26th [20th] day of October, 1740. The news arrived at Rheinsberg when the king was ill of a fever. ... He immediately resolved to reclaim the principalities of Silesia ; the rights of his house to which [long dormant, the claim dating back to a certain covenant of heritage-brotherhood with the duke of Liegnitz, in 1537, which the emperor of that day caused to be annulled by the states of Bohemia] were incontestable: and he prepared, at the same time, to support these pre- tensions, if necessary, by arms. This project ac- complished all his political views; it afforded the means of acquiring reputation, of augmenting the power of the state, and of terminating what re- lated to the litigious succession of the duchy of Berg. . . . The state of the court of Vienna, after the death of the emperor, was deplorable. The finances were in disorder; the army was ruined and discouraged by ill success in its wars with the Turks ; the ministry disunited, and a youthful un- experienced princess at the head of the govern- ment, who was to defend the succession from all claimants. The result was that the government could not appear formidable. It was besides im- possible that the king [Frederick of Prussia] should be destitute of allies. . . . The war which he might undertake in Silesia was the only of- fensive war that could be favoured by the situa- tion of his states, for it would be carried on upon his frontiers, and the Oder would always furnish him with a sure communication. . . . Add to these reasons, an army fit to march, a treasury ready prepared, and, perhaps, the ambition of acquir- ing renown. Such were the causes of the war which the king declared against Maria Theresa of Austria, queen of Hungary and Bohemia." — Frederick II. (Frederick the Great), History of my oivn times: posthumous works (translated by Holcroft), V. I, ch. 1-2. 1740-1741. — War of the Succession. — Fathless- ness of the king of Prussia. — Macaulay verdict. — "From no quarter did the young queen of Hun- gary receive stronger assurances of friendship and support than from the King of Prussia. Yet the King of Prussia, the 'Anti-Machiavel,' had al- ready fully determined to commit the great crime of violating his plighted faith, of robbing the ally whom he was bound to defend, and of plunging all Europe into a long, bloody, and desolating war, and all this for no end whatever except that he might extend his dominions and see his name in the gazettes. He determined to assemble a great array with speed and secrecy, to invade Silesia before Maria Theresa should be apprized of his design, and to add that rich province to his king- dom. . . . Without any declaration of war, with- out any demand for reparation, in the very act of pouring forth compliments and assurances of good will, Frederic commenced hostilities. Many thou- sands of his troops were actually in Silesia before the Queen of Hungary knew that he had set up any claim to any part of her territories. At 687 AUSTRIA, 1740-1741 War of the Succession AUSTRIA, 1741 length he sent her a message which could be re- garded only as an insult. If she would but let him have Silesia, he would, be said, stand by her against any power which should try to deprive her of her other dominions: as if he was not al- ready bound to stand by her, or as if his new promise could be of more value than the old one. It was the depth of winter. The cold was severe, and the roads deep in mire. But the Prussians pressed on. Resistance was impossible. The Aus- trian army was then neither numerous nor efficient. The small portion of that army which lay in Si- lesia was unprepared for hostilities. Glogau was blockaded; Breslau opened its gates; Ohlau was evacuated. A few scattered garrisons still held out; but the whole open country was subjugated: no enemy ventured to encounter the king in the field; and, before the end of January, 1741, he re- turned to receive the congratulations of his sub- jects at Berlin. Had the Silesian question been merely a question between Frederic and Maria Theresa it w^ould be impossible to acquit the Prus- sian king of gross perfidy. But when we consider the effects which his policy produced, and could not fail to produce, on the whole community of civilized nations, we are compelled to pronounce a condemnation still more severe. . . . The selfish rapacity of the king of Prussia gave the signal to his neighbours. . . . The evils produced by this wickedness were felt in lands where the name of Prussia was unknown ; and, in order that he might rob a neighbour whom he had promised to defend, black men fought on the coast of Coromandel, and red men scalped each other by the great lakes of North America. Silesia had been occupied with- out a battle ; but the Austrian troops were ad- vancing to the relief of the fortresses which still held out. In the spring Frederic rejoined his array. He had seen little of w-ar, and had never com- manded any great body of men in the field. . . . Frederic's first battle was fought at Mollwitz [April 10, 1741], and never did the career of a great com- mander open in a more inauspicious manner. His army was victorious. Not only, however, did he not establish his title to the character of an able general, but he was so unfortunate as to make It doubtful whether he possessed the vulgar courage of a soldier. The cavalry, which he commanded in person, was put to flight. Unaccustomed to the tumult and carnage of a field of battle, he lost his self-possession, and listened too readily to those who urged hira to save himself. His English gray carried him many miles from the field, while Schwerin, though wounded in two places, manfully upheld the day. The skill of the old Field-Marshal and the steadiness of the Prussian battalions pre- vailed, and the Austrian army was driven from the field with the loss of 8,000 men. The news was carried late at night to a mill in' which the king had taken shelter. It gave him a bitter pang. He was successful; but he owed his success to dis- positions which others had made, and to the valour of men who had fought while he was flying. So unpromising was the first appearance of the great- est warrior of that age." — Lord Macaulay, Frederic the Great (Essays, i'. 4), 1741 (April-May). — War of the succession. — French responsibility. — Carlyle verdict. — "The battle of Mollwitz went off like a signal shot among the Nations; intimating that they were one and all, to go battling. Which they did, with a vengeance ; making a terrible thing of it, over all the world, for above seven years to come. . . . Not that Mollwitz kindled Europe ; Europe was already kindled for some two years past; — especially since the late Kaiser died, and his PrScmatic Sanction was superadded to the other troubles afoot. But ever since that image of Jenkins's Ear had at last blazed-up in the slow English brain, like a fiery constellation or Sign in the Heavens, symbolic of such injustices and unendurabilities, and had lighted the Spanish-English War [see England: 1739- 1741], Europe was slowly but pretty surely taking fire. France 'could not see Spain humbled,' she said: England (in its own dim feeling, and also in the fact of things), could not do at all without considerably humbling Spain. France, endlessly in- terested in that Spanish-English matter, was al- ready sending out fleets, firing shots, — almost, or altogether, putting her hand in it. 'In which case, will not, must not, Austria help us?' thought Eng- land, — and was asking, daily, at Vienna . . . when the late Kaiser died. . . . But if not as cause, then as signal, or as signal and cause together (which it properly was), the Battle of Mollwitz gave the finishing stroke and set all in motion. . . . For directly on the back of Mollwitz, there ensued, first, an explosion of Diplomatic activity, such as was never seen before ; Excellencies from the four winds taking wing towards Friedrich ; and talking and insinuating, and fencing and fugling, after their sort, in that Silesian camp of his. the centre being there. A universal rookery of Diplomatists, whose loud cackle is now as if gone mad to us; their work wholly fallen putrescent and avoidable, dead to all creatures. And secondly, in the train of that, there ensued a universal European War, the French and the English being chief parties in it; which abounds in battles and feats of arms, spirited but delirious, and cannot be got stilled for seven or eight years to come ; and in which Friedrich and his War swim only as an intermittent Episode henceforth. . . . The first point to be noted is. Where did it originate ? To which the answer mainly is . . . with Monseigneur. the Marechal de Belle-Isle principally; with the ambitious cupidi- ties and baseless vanities of the French Court and Nation, as represented by Belle-Isle. . . . The English-Spanish War had a basis to stand on in this Universe. The Uke had the Prussian-. \us- trian one; so all men now admit. If Friedrich had not business there, what man ever had in an enterprise he ventured on? Friedrich, after such trial and proof as has seldom been, got his claims on Schlesien [Silesia] allowed by the Destinies. . . Friedrich had business in this War; and Maria Theresa versus Friedrich had likewise cause to ap- pear in Court, and do her utmost pleading against him. But if we ask, What Belle-Isle or France and Louis XV. had to do there? the answer is rigor- ously Nothing. Their own windy vanities, am- bitions, sanctioned not by fact and the .Mmighty Powers, but by Phantasm and the babble of Ver- sailles; transcendent self-conceit, intrinsically in- sane ; pretensions over their fellow-creatures which were without basis anywhere in Nature, except in the French brain ; it was this that brought Belle- Isle and France into a German War. And Belle- Isle and France having gone into an Anti-Prag- matic W.ar, the unlucky George and his England were dragged into a Pragmatic one, — quitting their own business, on the Spanish Main, and hurrying to Germany. — in terror as at Doomsday, and zeal to save the Keystone of Nature there. That is the notable point in regard to this War: That France is to be called the author of it, who. alone of all the parties, had no business there whatever." — T. Carlyle, History of Friedrich II., bk. 12, ch. 11 (v. 4). — See also France: 1733. 1741 (May-June). — Mission of Belle-Isle. — Thickening of the plot.— "The defeat of Maria Theresa's only army [at Mollwitz! swept away all the doubts and scruples of France. The fiery Belle-Isle had alreadv set out upon his mission to 688 AUSTRIA, 1741 Maria Theresa in Hungary AUSTRIA, 1741 the various German courts, armed with powers which were reluctantly granted by the cardinal [Fleury, the French minister], and were promptly enlarged by the ambassador to suit his own more ambitious views of the situation. He travelled in oriental state. . . . The almost royal pomp with which he strode into the presence of princes of the blood, the copious eloquence with which he pleaded his cause, . . . were only the outward decorations of one of the most iniquitous schemes ever devised by an unscrupulous diplomacy. The scheme, when stripped of all its details, did not indeed at first appear absolutely revolting. It proposed simply to secure the election of Charles Albert of Bavaria as emperor, an honor to which he had a perfect right to aspire. But it was difficult to obtain the votes of certain electors without offering them the prospect of territorial gains, and impossible for Charles Albert to support the imperial dignity without greater revenues than those of Bavaria. It was proposed, therefore, that provinces should be taken from Maria Theresa herself, first to pur- chase votes against her own husband, and then to swell the income of the successful rival candidate. The three episcopal electors were first visited, and subjected to various forms of persuasion, — bribes, flattery, threats, — until the effects of the treatment began to appear; the count palatine was devoted to France; and these four with Bavaria made a majority of one. But that was too small a mar- gin for Belle-Isle's aspirations, or even for the safety of his project. The four remaining votes belonged to the most powerful of the German states, Prussia, Hanover, .Saxony and Bohemia. . . . Bohemia, if it voted at all, would of course vote for the grand-duke Francis [husband of Maria Theresa]. Saxony and Hanover were already ne- gotiating with Maria Theresa ; and it was well un- derstood that Austria could have Frederick's sup- port by paying his price." Austria refused to pay the price, and Frederick signed a treaty with the king of France at Brcslau on June 4, 1741. "The essence of it was contained in four secret articles. In these the king of Prussia renounced his claim to Jiilich-Berg in behalf of the house of Sulzbach, and agreed to give his vote to the elector of Bavaria for emperor. The king of France engaged to guarantee Prussia in the possession of Lower Silesia, to send within two months an army to the support of Bavaria, and to provoke an imme- diate rupture between Sweden and Russia." — H. Tuttle, History of Prussia, 1740-1745, ch. 4. Also in: W. Coxe, History of the house of Aus- tria, V. 3, ch. qg. 1741 (June-September). — Maria Theresa and the Hungarians. — "During these anxious summer months Maria Theresa and the Austrian court had resided mainly at Pressburg, in Hungary. Here she had been occupied in the solution of domestic as well as international problems. The Magyars, as a manly and chivalrous race, had been touched by the perilous situation of the young queen; but, while ardently protesting their loyalty, insisted not the less on the recognition of their own in- alienable rights. The.i^e had been inadequately ob- served in recent years, and in consequence no little disaffection prevailed in Hungary. The magnates resolved, therefore, as they had resolved at the beginning of previous reigns, to demand the res- toration of all their rights and privileges. But it does not appear that they wished to take any ungenerous advantage of the sex or the necessities of Maria Theresa. They were argumentative and stubborn, yet not in a bargaining, mercenary spirit. They accepted in June a qualified compliance with their demands; and when on the 25th of that month the queen appeared before the diet to receive the crown of St. Stephen, and, according to cus- tom, waved the great sword of the kingdom toward the four points of the compass, toward the north and the south, the east antl the west, challenging all enemies to dispute her right, the assembly was carried away by enthusiasm, and it seemed as if an end had forever been put to constitutional technicalities. Such was, however, not the case. After the excitement caused by the dramatic coro- nation had in a measure subsided, the old conten- tions revived, as bitter and vexatious as before. These concerned especially the manner in which the administration of Hungary should be adjusted to meet the new state of things. Should the chief political offices be filled by native Hungarians, as the diet demanded? Could the co-regency of the grand-duke, which was ardently desired by the queen, be accepted by the Magyars? For two months the dispute over these problems raged at Pressburg, until finally Maria Theresa herself found a bold, ingenious, and patriotic solution. The news of the Franco-Bavarian alliance and the fall of Passau determined her to throw herself completely upon the gallantry and devotion of the Magyars. It had long been the policy of the court of Vienna not to entrust the Hungarians with arms. . . . But Maria Theresa had not been robbed, in spite of her experience with France and Prussia, of all her faith in human nature. She took the responsibility of her decision, and the result proved that her insight was correct. On the nth of September she summoned tiie members of fhe diet before her, and, seated on the throne, explained to them the perilous situation of her dominions. The danger, she said, threatened herself, and all that was dear to her. Abandoned by all her allies, she took refuge in fhe fidelity and the ancient valor of the Hungarians, to whom she entrusted herself, her children, and her empire. Here she broke into tears, and covered her face with her handkerchief. The diet responded to this appeal by proclaim- ing the 'insurrection' or the equipment of a large popular force for the defence of the queen. So great was the cnthusiasnf that it nearly swept away even the original aversion of the Hungarians to the grand-duke Francis, who, to the queen's de- light, was finally, though not without some mur- murs, accepted as co-regent. . . . This uprising was organized not an hour too early, for dan- gers were pressing upon the queen from every side." — H. "Tuttle, History of Prussia, 1 740-1 74S, ch. 4. Also in; Due de Broglie, Frederick the Great and Maria TIteresa, v. 2, ch. 4. 1741 (August-November). — French-Bavarian onset. — "France now began to act with energy. In the month of August [1741] two French armies crossed the Rhine, each about 40,000 strong. The first marched into Westphalia, and frightened George II. into concluding a treaty of neutrality for Hanover, and promising his vote to the Elector of Bavaria. The second advanced through South Germany on Passau, the frontier city of Bavaria and .Austria. As soon as it arrived on German soil, the French officers assumed the blue and white cockade of Bavaria, for it was the cue of France to appear only as an auxiliary, and the nominal command of her army was vested in the Elector. From Passau the French and Bavarians passed into Upper Austria, and on Sept. 11 entered its capital, Linz, where the Elector assumed the title of Arch- duke. Five days later Saxony joined the allies. Sweden had already declared war on Russia. Spain trumped up an old claim and attacked the Aus- trian dominions in Italy. It seemed as if Belle- Isle's schemes were about to be crowned with com- plete success. Had the allies pushed forward, 689 AUSTRIA, 1741 Frederick Battle of Chotusitz AUSTRIA, 1742 Vienna must have fallen into their hands. But the French did not wish to be too victorious, lest they should make the Elector too powerful, and so independent of them. Therefore, after six weeks' delay, they turned aside to the conquest of Bohemia." — F. VV. Longman, Frederick the Great and the Seven Years' War, ch. 4, sect. 4. — "While ... a portion of the French troops, under the command of the Count de Scgiir, was left in Upper Austria, the remainder of the allied army turned towards Bohemia; where they were joined by a body of Saxons, under the command of Count Rutowsky. They took Prague by assault, on the night of the 25th of November, while the Grand Duke of Tuscany, the husband of JVIaria Theresa, was marching to its relief. In Prague, 3,000 pris- oners were taken. The elector of Bavaria hastened there, upon hearing of the success of his arms, was crowned King of Bohemia, during the month of December, and received the oath of fidelity from the constituted authorities. But while he was thus employed, the Austrian general, Khevenhiiller, had driven the Count de Secur out of Austria, and had himself entered Bavaria; which obliged the Bavarian army to abandon Bohemia and hasten to the defence of their own country." — ^Lord Dover, Life of Frederick II., hk. 2, v. i, ch. 2. Also ix: Frederick II., History of my own times (.Posthumous works, i'. i, ch. 5). 1741 (October). — Secret treaty with Frederick. — Lower Silesia conceded to him. — Austrian success. — "By October, 1741. the fortunes of Ma- ria Theresa had sunk to the lowest ebb, but a great revulsion speedily set in. The martial enthusiasm of the Hungarians, the subsidy from England, and the brilliant militarj' talents of General Kheven- hiiller, restored her armies. Vienna was put in a state of defence, and at the same time jealousies and suspicions made their w'ay among the con- federates. The Electors of Bavaria and Saxony were already in some degree divided ; and the Ger- mans, and especially Frederick, were alarmed by the growing ascendency, and irritated by the haughty demeanour of the French. In the moment of her extreme depression, the Queen consented to a concession which England had vainly urged upon her before, and which laid the foundation of her fu- ture success. In October, 1741, she entered into a secret convention with Frederick [called the con- vention of Ober-Schnellendorf], by w'hich that as- tute sovereign agreed to desert his allies, and de- sist from hostilities, on condition of ultimately obtaining Lower Silesia, with Breslau and Neisse. Every precaution was taken to ensure secrecy. It was arranged that Frederick should continue to besiege Neisse, that the town should ultimately be surrendered to him, and that his troops should then retire into winter quarters, and take no further part in the war. .\s the sacrifice of a few more lives was perfectly indifferent to the con- tracting parties, and in order that no one should suspect the treachery that was contemplated, Neisse, after the arrangement had been made for its surrender, was subjected for four days and four nights to the horrors of bombardment. Fred- erick, at the same time, talked, with his usual cynical frankness, to the English ambassador about the best way of attacking his allies the French ; and observed, that if the Queen of Hungar\' pros- pered, he would perhaps support her, if not — everyone must look out for himself. He only as- sented verbally to this convention, and, no doubt, resolved to await the course of events, in order to decide which Power it was his interest finally to betray; but in the meantime the .^ustrians obtained a respite, which enabled them to throw their whole forces upon their other enemies. Two brilliant campaigns followed. The greater part of Bohemia was recovered by an army under the Duke of Lorraine, and the French were hemmed in at Prague; while another army, under General Khev- enhiiller. invaded Upper .Austria, drove 10,000 French soldiers within the walls of Linz, block- aded them, defeated a body of Bohemians who were sent to the rescue, compelled the whole French army to surrender, and then, crossing the frontier, poured in a resistless torrent over Bavaria. The fairest plains of that beautiful land were deso- lated by hosts of irregular troops from Hungary, Croatia, and the Tyrol; and on the 12th of Feb- ruary the Austrians marched in triumph into Munich. On that very day the Elector of Ba- varia was crowned Emperor of Germany, at Frankfort, under the title of Charles VII., and the imperial crown was thus, for the first time, for many generations, separated from the House of Austria." — W. E. H. Lecky, History of England, i&tit century, v. i, ch. 3. Also i.v: F. von Raumer, Contributions to modern history: Fred'k II. and his times, ch. 13- 14. 1741-1743. — Successes in Italy. See Italy; 1741-1743- 1742 (January-May). — Frederick breaks faith again. — Battle of Chotusitz. — "The Queen of Hungary had assembled in the beginning of the year two considerable armies in Moravia and Bo- hemia, the one under Prince Lobkowitz, to defend the former province, and the other commanded by Prince Charles of Lorraine, her brother-in-law. This young Prince possessed as much bravery and activity as Frederick, and had equally with him the talent of inspiring attachment and confidence. . . . Frederick, alarmed at these preparations and the progress of the Austrians in Bavaria, abruptly broke off the convention of Ober-Schnellendorf, and recommenced hostilities. . . . The King of Prussia became apprehensive that the Queen of Hungary would again turn her arms to recover Silesia. He therefore dispatched Marshal Schwerin to seize Oimiitz and lay siege to Glatz, which sur- rendered after a desperate resistance on the 9th of January. Soon after this event, the King re- joined his army, and endeavoured to drive the Austrians from their advantageous position in the southern parts of Bohemia, which would have de- livered the French troops in the neighbourhood and checked the progress of Khevenhiiller in Bavaria. The king advanced to Iglau, on the frontiers of Bohemia, and, occupying the banks of the Thaya, made irruptions into L'pper Austria, his hussars spreading terror even to the gates of Vienna. The .\ustrians drew from Bavaria a corps of 10,000 men to cover the capital, while Prince Charles of Lorraine, at the head of 50.000 men. threatened the Prussian magazines in L'pper Silesia, and by this movement compelled Frederick to detach a con- siderable force for their protection, and to evacu- ate Moravia, which he had invaded. Broglie, who commanded the French forces in that country, must now have fallen a sacrifice, had not the ever-active King of Prussia brought up 30,000 men, which, under the Prince of Anhalt-Dessau. entering Bohemia, came up with Prince Charles at Czaslau, about thirty-five miles from Prague, be- fore he could form a junction with Prince Lob- kowitz. Upon this ensued fMay 17, 1742] what is known in history as the battle of Czaslau [also, and more commonly, called the battle of Chotu- sitz]. . . . The numbers in the two armies were nearly equal, and the action was warmly contested on both sides. . . . The Prussians remained mas- ters of the field, with 18 cannon, two pairs of col- ours and 1,200 prisoners; but they indeed paid 690 AUSTRIA, 1742 Expulsion of French from Bohemia AUSTRIA, 1743 dearly for the honour, for it was computed that their loss was equal to that of their enemy, which amounted to 7,000 men on either side; while the Prussian cavalry . . . was nearly ruined. . . . Al- though in this battle the victory was, without doubt, on the side of the Prussians, yet the im- mediate consequences were highly favourable to the Queen of Hungary. The King was disappointed of his expected advantages, and conceived a dis- gust to the war. He now lowered his demands and made overtures of accommodation, which, on the nth of June, resulted in a treaty of peace between the two crowns, which was signed at Breslau under the mediation of the British Am- bassador." — Sir E. Cust, Annals of the wars of the i8th century, v. 2, p. 19. Also in: T. Carlyle, History of Friedrich II. of Prussia, bk. 13, v. 5, ch. 13. 1742 (June). — Treaty of Breslau with the king of Prussia. — "The following arc the preliminary articles which were signed at Breslau: i. The queen of Hungary ceded to the king of Prussia, Upper and Lower Silesia, with the principality of Glatz; except the towns of Troppau, Jaegerndorf and the high mountains situated beyond the Oppa. 2. The Prussians undertook to repay the English 1,700,000 crowns; which sum was a mortgage loan on Silesia. The remaining articles related to a suspension of arms, an exchange of prisoners, and the freedom of religion and trade. Thus was Si- lesia united to the Prussian States. Two years were sufficient for the conquest of that important province. The treasures which the late king had left were almost expended; but provinces that do not cost more than seven or eight millions are cheaply purchased." — Frederick II., History of my own limes (Posthumous works, v. i, ch. 6). 1742 (June-December). — Expulsion of the French from Bohemia. — Belle-Isle's retreat from Prague. — "The Austrian arms began now to be successful in all quarters. Just before the sig- nature of the preliminaries. Prince Lobkowitz, who was stationed at Budweiss with 10,000 men, made an attack on Frauenberg ; Broglie and Belle-Isle advanced from Piseck to relieve the town, and a combat took place at Sahay, in which the Aus- trians were repulsed with the loss of 500 men. This trifling affair was magnified into a decisive victory. . . . Marshal Broglie, elated with this advantage, and relying on the immediate junction of the King of Prussia, remained at Frauenberg in perfect security. But his expectations were dis- appointed; Frederic had already commenced his secret negotiations, and Prince Charles was en- abled to turn his forces against the French. Being joined by Prince Lobkowitz, they attacked Broglie, and compelled him to quit Frauenberg with such precipitation that his baggage fell into the hands of the light troops, and the French retreated towards Braunau, harassed by the Croats and other irregulars. . . . The Austrians, pursuing their suc- cess against the French, drove Broglie from Brau- nau, and followed him to the walls of Prague, where he found Belle-Isle. . . . After several con- sultations, the two generals called in their posts, and secured their army partly within the walls and partly within a peninsula of the Moldau. . . . Soon afterwards the duke of Lorraine joined the army [of Prince Charles], which now amounted to 70,000 men, and the arrival of the heavy ar- tillery enabled the Austrians to commence the siege." — W. Coxe, History of the house of Austria, V. 3, ch. 102. — "To relieve the French at Prague, Marshal Maillebois was directed to advance with his army from Westphalia. At these tidings Prince Charles changed the siege of Prague to a block- ade, and marching against his new opponents, checked their progress on the Bohemian frontier; the French, however, still occupying the town of Eger. It was under these circumstances that Belle- Isle made his masterly and renowned retreat from Prague. In the night of the i6th of December, he secretly left the city at the head of 11,000 foot and 3,000 horse, having deceived the Austrians' vigilance by the feint of a general forage in the opposite quarter; and pushed for Eger through a hostile country, destitute of resources and sur- rounded by superior enemies. His soldiers, with no other food than frozen bread, and compelled to sleep without covering on the snow and ice, perished in great numbers; but the gallant spirit of Belle-Isle triumphed over every obstacle; he struck through morasses almost untrodden before, offered battle to Prince Lobkowitz, who, however, de- clined engaging, and at length succeeded in reaching the other French army with the flower of his own. The remnant left at Prague, and amounting only to 6,000 men, seemed an easy prey; yet their threat of firing the city, and perishing beneath its ruins, and the recent proof of what despair can do, ob- tained for them honourable terms, and the permis- sion of rejoining their comrades at Eger. But in spite of all this skill and courage in the French invaders, the final result to them was failure; nor had they attained a single permanent advantage beyond their own safety in retreat. Maillebois and De Broglie took up winter quarters in Bavaria, while Belle-Isle led back his division across the Rhine; and it was computed that, of the 35,000 men whom he had first conducted into Germany, not more than 8,000 returned beneath his banner." — Lord Mahon (Earl Stanhope), History of Eng- land, 1713-1783, V. 3, ch. 24. — "Thus, at the termi- nation of the campaign, all Bohemia was regained, except Eger; and on the 12th of May, 1743, Maria Theresa was soon afterwards crowned at Prague, to the recovery of which, says her great rival, her firmness had' more contributed than the force of her arms. The only reverse which the Austrians experienced in the midst of their successes was the temporary loss of Bavaria, which, on the retreat of Kevenhiiller, was occupied by Marshal Secken- dorf; and the [German] Emperor [Charles VII.] made his entry into Munich on the 2d of October." — W. Coxe, History of the House of Austria, v. 3, ch. 103. 1743. — England drawn into the conflict. — Pragmatic army. — Battle of Dettingen. — "The cause of Maria Theresa had begun to excite a re- markable enthusiasm in England. . . . The con- vention of neutrality entered into by George II. in September 1741, and the extortion of his vote for the Elector of Bavaria, properly concerned that prince only as Elector of Hanover; yet, as he was also King of England, they were felt as a disgrace by the English people. The elections of that year went against Walpole, and in February 1742 he found himself compelled to resign. He was succeeded in the administration by Pulteney, Earl of Bath, though Lord Carteret was virtually prime minister. Carteret was an ardent supporter of the cause of Maria Theresa. His accession to office was immediately followed by a large increase of the army and navy; five millions were voted for carrying on the war, and a subsidy of £500,000 for the Queen of Hungary. The Earl of Stair, with an army of 16,000 men, afterwards reinforced by a large body of Hanoverians and Hessians in British pay, was despatched into the Netherlands to cooperate with the Dutch. But though the States-General, at the instance of the British Cabi- net, voted Maria Theresa a subsidy, they were not yet prepared to take an active part in a war which might ultimately involve them in hostilities 691 AUSTRIA, 1743 Deitingen Prague AUSTRIA, 1743-17'14 with France. The exertions of the English min- istry in favour of the Queen of Hungary had therefore been confined during the year 1742 to diplomacy, and they had helped to bring about the Peace of Breslau. In 1743 they were able to do more." In April, 1743. 'be Emperor, Charles VII , regained possession of Bavaria and returned to Munich, but onlv to be driven out again by the Aunrians in June. The Bavarians were badly beaten at Simbach (May o), and Munich was taken (June 12) after a short bombardment^ "Charles VII. was now again obliged to fly, and look refuge at Augsburg. At his command, Seck- cndorf [his general] made a convention with the Austrians at the village of Niederschonfeld, by which he agreed to abandon to them Bavaria, on condition that Charles's troops should be allowed to occupy unmolested quarters between Franconia and Suabia. Maria Theresa seemed at first indis- posed to ratify even terms so humiliating to the Emperor. She had become perhaps a little too much exalted bv the rapid turn of fortune. She had caused herself to be crowned in Prague. She had received the homage of the Austrians, and entered Vienna in a sort of triumph She now dreamt of nothing less than conquering Lorraine for herself, .\l5ace for the Empire; of hurling Charles VII. from the Imperial throne, and placing on it her own consort." She was persuaded, how- ever, to consent at length to the terms of the Niederschonfeld convention. "Meanwhile the al- lied army of English and Germans, under the Earl of Stair, nearly 40,000 strong, which, from its destined object', had assumed the name of the 'Pragmatic Army.' had crossed the Meuse and the Rhine in March and .\pril, with a view to cut off the army of Bavaria from France. George II. had not concealed his intention of breaking the Treaty of Hanover of 1741. alleging as a ground that the duration of the neutrality stipulated in it had not been determined; and on June lothhe had joined the army in person. He found it in a most critical position' Lord Stair, who had never distinguished himself as a general, and was now falling into dntage, had led it into a narrow valley near .\schaffenburg. bet\veen Mount Spessart and the river Main; while Marshal Xoailles [commanding the French], who had crossed the Rhine towards the end of .April, by seizing the principal fords of the Main, both above and below the British posi- tion, had cut him off both from his magazines at Hanau. and from the supplies which he had ex- pected to procure in Franconia. Nothing remained but for him to fight his way back to Hanau." In the battle of Dettingen which followed (June 27). all the advantaees of the French in position were thrown away by the ignorant impetuosity of the king's nephew, the duke of Grammont, who com- manded one division, and they ■ suffered a severe defeat. "The French are said to have lost 6,000 men and the British half that number. It is the last action in which a king of England had fought in person. But George II.. or rather Lord Stair, did nnt know hinv to profit by his victory. M thouch thr Pracmatic .Army was joined after the battle of Dettincen by 15,000 Dutch troops, under Prince Maurice of Nassau, nothing of importance was done during the remainder of the campaign." T. H. Dyer, History of modern Europe, bk. 6, V. 3. ch. 4. Also in: W. Coxe, History of the house of Aus- tria, V. 3, ch. 104. — Sir E. Cust. Annals of the wars of the i8(/i century, v. 2, pp. 30-36.— Lord Mahon (Earl Stanhope), History of England, 1713- 1783, V. 3. eh. 25. 1743. — Treaty of Worms with Sardinia and England. See Italy: 1743. 1743 (October). — Second Bourbon family com- pact. See France: 1743 (October). 1743-1744. — Prussian king strikes in again. — Union of Frankfort. — Siege and capture of Prague. — "Everywhere .Austria was successful, and Frederick had reason to fear for himself unless the tide of conquest could be stayed. He explains in the 'Histoire de Mon Temps' that he feared lest France should abandon the cause of the Emperor, which would mean that the Austrians, who now boldly spoke of compensation for the war, would turn their arms against himself. . . . France was trembling, not for her conquests, but for her own territory^ After the battle of Dettingen, the vic- torious Anglo-Hanoverian force was to cross the Rhine above Maycnce and march into .Alsace, while Prince Charles of Lorraine, with a strong .Austrian army, was to pass near Basle and occupy Lorraine, taking up his winter quarters in Burgundy and Champagne. The English crossed without any check and moved on to Worms, but the .Austrians failed in their attempt Worms became a centre of intrigue, which Frederick afterwards called •Cette abyme [abime] de mauvaise foi.' The Dutch were persuaded by Lord Carteret to join the Eng- lish, and they did at last send 14,000 men, who were never of the least use. Lord Carteret also detached Charles Emanuel, King of Sardinia, from his French leanings, and persuaded him to enter into the .Austro-English alliance [by the treaty of Worms, September 13, 1743, which conceded to the king of Sardinia Finale, the city of Placentia, with some other small districts and gave him com- mand of the allied forces in Italy]. It was clear that action could not be long postponed, and Fred- erick began to recognize the necessity of a new ■ war. His first anxiety was to guard himself against interference from his northern and eastern neigh- bours. He secured, as he hoped, the neutrality of Russia by marrying the young princess of .Anhalt- Zerbst, afterwards the notorious Empress Cather- ine, with the Grand-Duke Peter of Russia, nephew and heir to the reigniiig Empress Elizabeth. . . . Thus strengthened, as he hoped, in his rear and flank, and having made the commencement of a German league called the Union of Frankfurt, by which Hesse and the Palatinate agreed to join Frederick and the Kaiser, he concluded on the 5th of June, 1744, a treaty which brought France also into this alliance It was secretly agreed that Frederick was to invade Bohemia, conquer it for the Kaiser, and have the districts of Koniggratz, Bunzlau, and Leitmeritz to repay him for his trouble and costs; while France, which was all this time at war with .Aust'ria and England, should send an army against Prince Charles and the Eng- lish. . . . The first stroke of the coming war was delivered by France. Louis XV. sent a large army into the Netherlands under two good leaders, Noailles and Maurice de Saxe, Urged by his mis- tress, the Duchesse de Chateau-roux, he joined it himself early, and took the nominal command early in June. . . . The towns [Menin, Vpres, Fort Knoque, Fumes] rapidly fell before him, and Mar- shal Wade, with the .Anglo-Dutch-Hanoverian army, sat still and looked at the success of the French. But on the night of the 30th June — ist July, Prince Charles crossed the Rhine by an op- eration which is worth the study of military stu- dents, and invaded .Alsace, the French army of ob- servation falling back before him. Louis XV. hurried back to interpose between the Austrians and Paris. . . . Maurice de Saxe was left in the Netherlands with 45.000 men. Thus the French army was paralysed, and the Austrian army in its turn was actually invading France. At this time Frederick struck in. He sent word to the King 692 AUSTRIA, 1744-1745 House of Hapsburg- Lorraine AUSTRIA, 1744-1745 that, though all the terms of their arrangement had not yet been fulfilled, he would at once invade Bohemia, and deliver a stroke against Prague which would certainly cause the retreat of Prince Charles with his 70,000 men. If the French army would follow Prince Charles in his retreat, Fred- erick would attack him, and between France and Prussia the Austrian army would certainly be crushed, ^nd Vienna be at their mercy. This was no doubt an excellent plan of campaign, but, like the previous operations concerted with Broglie, it depended for success upon the good faith of the French, and this turned out to be a broken reed. On the 7th of August the Prussian ambassador at Vienna gave notice of the Union of Frankfurt and withdrew from the court of Austria; and on the 15th the Prussian army was put in march upon Prague [opening what is called the Second Silesian War]. Frederick's forces moved in three columns, the total strength being over 8o,ooo.' . . . Maria Theresa was now again in great danger, but as usual retained her high courage, and once more called forth the enthusiasm of her Hungarian sub- jects, who sent swarms of wild troops, horse and foot, to the seat of war. ... On the ist of Sep- tember the three columns met before Prague, which had better defences than in the last campaign, and a garrison of some 16,000 men. . . . During the night of the gth the bombardment commenced . . . and en the i6th the garrison surrendered. Thus, one month after the commencement of the march Prague was captured, and the campaign opened with a brilliant feat of arms." — Col. C. B. Brack- enbury, Frederick the Great, ch. 7. Also iU: W. Russell, History 0] modern Europe, pt. 2, letter 28. — F. von Raumer, Contributions to modern history: Fredk. II. and his times, ch. 17-19. 1744-1745. — Frederick's retreat and fresh triumph. — Austria recovers the imperial crown. — Saxony subdued. — Peace of Dresden. — After the reduction of Prague, Frederick, "in deference to the opinion of Marshal Belle-Isle, but against his own judgment, advanced into the south of Bo- hemia with the view of threatening Vienna. He thus exposed himself to the risk of being cut off from Prague. Yet even so he would probably have been able to maintain himself if the French had fulfilled their engagements. But while he was conquering the districts of the Upper Moldau, the Austrian army returned unimpaired from Alsace. The French had allowed it to cross the Rhine un- mohsted, and had not made the slightest attempt to harass its retreat [but applied themselves to the siege and capture of Freiburg]. They were only too glad to get rid of it themselves. In the en- suing operations Frederick was completely out- manoeuvred. Traun [the Austrian general], with- out risking a battle, forced him back towards the Silesian frontier. He had to choose between aban- doning Prague and abandoning his communications with Silesia, and as the Saxons had cut off his retreat through the Electorate, there was really no choice in the matter. So he fell back on Silesia, abandoning Prague and his heavy artillery. The retreat was attended with considerable loss. Fred- erick was much struck with the skill displayed by Traun, and says, in his 'Histoire de mon Temps,' that he regarded this campaign as his school in the art of war and M. de Traun as his teacher. The campaign may have been an excellent lesson in the art of war, but in other respects it was very disastrous to Frederick. He had drawn upon him- self the whole power of Austria, and had learnt how little the French were to be depended upon. His prestige was dimmed by failure, and even in his own army doubts were entertained of his capacity. But, bad as his position already was, it became far worse when the unhappy Emperor died [Jan. 20, 1745], worn out with disease and calam- ity. This event put an end to the Union of Frank- fort. Frederick could no longer claim to be acting in defence of his oppressed sovereign ; the ground was cut from under his feet. Nor was there any longer much hope of preventing the Imperial Crown from reverting to Austria. The new Elector of Bavaria was a mere boy. In this altered state of affairs he sought to make peace. But Maria Theresa would not let him off so easily. In order that she might use all her forces against him, she granted peace to Bavaria, and gave back to the young elector his hereditary dominions, 011 condi- tion of his resigning all claim to hers and prom- ising to vote for her husband as Emperor. While Frederick thus lost a friend in Bavaria, Saxony threw herself completely into the arms of his enemy, and united with Austria in a treaty [May 18] which had for its object, not the reconquest of Silesia merely, but the partition of Prussia and the reduction of the king to his ancient limits as Margrave of Brandenburg. Saxony was then much larger than it is now, but it was not only the number of troops it could send into the field that made its hostility dangerous. It was partly the geographical position of the country, which made it an excellent base for operations against Prussia, but still more the alliance that was known to subsist between the Elector (King Augustus III. of Poland) and the Russian Court. It was prob- able that a Prussian invasion of Saxony would be followed by a Russian invasion of Prussia. Towards the end of May, the Austrian and Saxon army, 75,000 strong, crossed the Giant Moun- tains and descended upon Silesia. The Austrians were again commanded by Prince Charles, but the wise head of Traun was no longer there to guide him. . . . The encounter took place at Hohenfried- berg [June 5], and resulted in a complete victory for Prussia. The Austrians and Saxons lost 9,000 killed and wounded, and 7,000 prisoners, besides 66 cannons and 73 flags and standards. Four days after the battle they were back again in Bohemia. Frederick followed, not with the intention of at- tacking them again, but in order to eat the country bare, so that it might afford no sustenance to the enemy during the winter. For his own part he was really anxious for peace. His resources were all but exhausted, while Austria was fed by a constant stream of English subsidies. As in the former war, England interposed with her good offices, but without effect ; Maria Theresa was by no means disheartened by her defeat, and refused to hear of peace till she had tried the chances of battle once more. On Sept. 13 her husband was elected Emperor by seven votes out of nine, the dissentients being the King of Prussia and the Elector Palatine. This event raised the spirits of the Empress-Queen, as Maria Theresa was hence- forward called, and opened a wider field for her ambition. She sent peremptory orders to Prince Charles to attack Frederick before he retired from Bohemili. A battle was accordingly fought at Sohr [Sept. 30], and again victory rested with the Prussians. The season was now far advanced, and Frederick returned home expecting that there would be no more fighting till after the winter. Such, however, was far from being the intention of his enemies." A plan for the invasion of Bran- denburg by three Austrian and Saxon armies, si- multaneously, was secretly concerted ; but Fred- erick had timely warning of it and it was frustrated by his activity and energy. On the 23d of Novem- ber he surprised and defeated Prince Charles at Hennersdorf. "Some three weeks afterwards [Dec. 693 AUSTRIA, 1744 foseph II AUSTRIA, 1777-1779 is] the Prince of Dessau defeated a second Saxon and Austrian army at Kesselsdorf , a few miles from Dresden, This victory completed the subjugation of Saxony and put an end to the war. Three days after Kesselsdorf, Frederick entered Dresden, and astonished every one by the graciousness of his behaviour and by the moderation of his terras. From Saxony he exacted no cession of territory, but merely a contribution of 1,000,000 thalers (£150,000) towards the expenses of the war. From Austria he demanded a guarantee of the treaty of Breslau, in return for which he agreed to recognize Francis as Emperor. Peace was signed [at Dres- den] on Christmas Day." — F. \V. Longman, Frederick the Great and the Seven Years War, ch. s. Also in: T. Carlyle, History of Frederick 11., bk. 15, V. 4, ck. 3-15. — Lord Dover, Lije of Frederick II., bk. 2, V. I, ch. 3-S. 1744. — War with Sardinia in Italy. See Italy: 1744- 1745. — Overwhelming disasters in Italy. See Italy: 1745. 1745 (May). — Reverses in the Netherlands. — Battle of Fontenoy. See Belgium: 1745. 1745 (September-October). — Consort of Maria Theresa elected and crowned emperor. — Rise of the new House of Hapsburg-Lorraine. — Francis of Lorraine, grand duke of Tuscany and husband of Maria Theresa, was elected emperor, at Frank- fort, Sept. 13, 174s, and crowned Oct. i, with the title of Francis I. "Thus the Empire returned to the New House of Austria, that of Hapsburg- Lorraine, and France had missed the principal ob- ject for which she had gone to w'ar." By the treaties signed at Dresden, Dec. 25, between Prus- sia, ."Xustria and Saxony, Frederick, as elector of Brandenburg, assented to and recognized the elec- tion of Francis, against which he and the elector palatine had previously protested. — T. H. Dyer, History of modern Europe, bk. 6, v. 3, ch. 4. 1746-1747. — Further French conquests in the Netherlands. — Lombardy recovered. — Genoa won and lost. See Belgium: 1746-1747; and Italy: 1746-1747. 1748 (October). — Termination and results of the War of the Succession. See Aix-la-Cha- PELLE, The Congress of. 1755-1763.— Seven Years' War. See Germany: 1755-1756. to 1763; also Seven Years' War. 1765-1790. — Joseph II, the enlightened despot. — "The prince who best sums up the spirit of the centur>' is not Frederic [the Great, of Prussia], it is Joseph II. [the emperor]. Frederic was born a master, Joseph II. a disciple, and it is by disciples that we judge schools. The king of Prussia dammed up the waters, directed their flow, made use of the current; the emperor cast himself upon them and permitted himself to be carried. With Frederic the statesman always dominates, it is he who proposes and finally decides; the philosopher is subordinate. . . . With Joseph II. rational con- ception precedes political calculation and governs it. He had breadth of mind, but his mind was superficial; ideas slipped from it. He had a taste for generosity, a passion for grandeur; but there was nothing profound in him but ambition, and it was all counter-stroke and reflection. He wished to surpass Frederic ; his entire conduct was but an awkward, imprudent and ill-advised imitation of this prince whom he had made his hero, whom his- tory made his rival and whom he copied while detesting him. The political genius of Frederic was born of pood sense and moderation: there was nothing in Joseph II. but the immoderate. He was a man of systems: he had only great velleities. His education w'as mediocre, and, as to methods, entirely Jesuitical. Into this contracted mould he cast confusedly notions hastily borrowed from the philosophers of France, from the economists es- pecially. He thus formed a very vague ideal of political aspirations and an exaggerated sense of the power at his disposition to realize them. 'Since I ascended the throne and have worn the first crown of the world,' wrote he in 1781, 'I have made Philosophy the lawmaker of my empite. Her logical applications are going to transform Austria.' He undertakes reforms in ever>' direction at once. History is null for him, traditions do not count, nor do facts acquired. There is no race, nor period, nor surrounding circumstances: there is the State which is everything and can do every- thing. He writes in 17S3, to the bishop of Stras- bourg: 'In a kingdom governed conformably to ray principles, prejudice, fanaticism, bondage of mind must disappear, and each of my subjects must be reinstated in the possession of his natural rights.' He must have unity, and, as a first con- dition, the rejection of all previous ideas. Chance makes him operate on a soil the most heteroge- neous, the most incoherent, the most cut up, par- celed out and traversed by barriers, that there b in Europe. Nothing in common among his sub- jects, neither language, nor traditions, nor interests. It is from this, according to him, that the defect of monarchy arises. 'The German language is the universal language of my empire. I am the em- peror of Germany, the states which I possess are provinces which form but one body with the State of which I am the head. If the kingdom of Hungary were the most important of my posses- sions, I should not hesitate to impose its tongue on the other countries.' So he imposes the German language on the Hungarians, the Croats, the Tcheques tCzechs], the Poles, on all the Slavs. He suppresses the ancient territorial divisions; they recall the successive agglomerations, the ir- regular alluvions which had formed the monarchy ; he establishes thirteen governments and divides them into circles. The diets disappear ; the gov- ernment passes into the hands of intendants ac- cording to the French formula. In the cities the burgomaster appointed by the government becomes a functionary. The nobles lose the part, already much curtailed, that they still had, here and there, in the government He taxes them, he taxes the ecclesiastics; he meditates establishing a tax pro- portional to incomes and reaching all classes. He protects the peasants, alleviates serfdom, dimin- ishes the corvees, builds hospitals, schools above all, in which the state will form pupils to obey her. His ideal would be the equality of his sub- jects under the uniform sway of his government. He unifies the laws; he institutes courts of appeal with a supreme court for the entire empire. He makes regulations for manufactures, binds com- merce to the most rigorous protective system. Fi- nally he puts a high hand on the church and de- crees tolerance. . . . This immense revolution was accomplished by means of decrees, in less than five years. If we compare the state of cohesion which the Bourbon government had brought about in France in 1780, with the incoherence of the Aus- trian monarchy on the death of Maria Theresa in 1780, it will be seen that the revolution which caused the Constituent Assembly was a small mat- ter compared with that which Joseph II. intended to effect."- — A. Sorel, L'Europe et la revolution franfaise (trans, from the French), pt. 1, pp. iig- 122. 1772-1773.— First partition of Poland. See Po- land: 1763-1700. 1777-1779. — Question of the Bavarian succes- sion. See Bav.\rla: i 777-1 779. 694 AUSTRIA, 1780 Wars with France AUSTRIA, 1798-1806 1780. — Armed Neutrality League. See Armed Neutrality. • 1780-1794. — Contention for control of Luxem- burg. See Luxemburg: 17S0-1914.. 1782-1790.— Conflict with Pope. See Rome: Modern City: 1782-1790. 1782-1811.— Abolition of serfdom. See Slav- ery: 1000-1862. 1783. — Removal of barriers with Netherlands. See Netherlands: 1747-1795. 1787-1791.— War with the Turks.— Treaty of Sistova. — Slight acquisitions of territory. See Turkey: 17 76- 1792. 1790-1797.— Death of Joseph II and Leopold II. — Accession of Francis II. — Coalition against and war with revolutionary France, to the peace of Campo Formio. — "It is a mistake to imagine that the European Powers attacked the Revolution in France. It was the Revolution which attacked them. The diplomatists of the i8th century viewed at first with cynical indiffer- ence the meeting of the States-General at Ver- sailles. . . . The two points which occupied the attention of Europe in 1789 were the condition of Poland and the troubles in the East, The ambi- tious designs of Catherine and the assistance lent to them by Joseph threatened the existence of the Turkish Empire, irritated the Prussian Court, and awakened English apprehensions, always sensitive about the safety of Stamboul. Poland, the battle- field of cynical diplomacy, torn by long dissensions and ruined by a miserable constitution, was vainly endeavouring, under the jealous eyes of her great neighbours, to avert the doom impending, and to reassert her ancient claim to a place among the nations of the world. But Russia had long since determined that Poland must be a vassal State to her or cease to be a State at all, while Prussia, driven to face a hard necessity, realised that a strong Poland and a strong Prussia could not exist together, and that if Poland ever rose again to power, Prussia must bid good-bye to unity and greatness. These two questions to the States in- volved seemed to be of far more moment than any political reform in France, and engrossed the diplomatists of Europe until the summer of 1791. In February, 1790, a new influence was introduced into European politics by the death of the Em- peror Joseph and the accession of his brother, Leopold II, Leopold was a man of remarkable ability, no enthusiast and no dreamer, thoroughly versed in the selfish traditions of Austrian policy and in some of the subtleties of Italian statecraft, discerning, temperate, resolute and clear-headed, quietly determined to have his own way, and gen- erally skilful enough to secure it. Leopold found his new dominions in a state of the utmost con- fusion, with war and rebellion threatening him on every side. He speedily set about restoring order. He repealed the unpopular decrees of Joseph. He conciliated or repressed his discontented subjects. He gradually re-established the authority of the Crown. . . . Accordingly, the first eighteen months of Leopold's reign were occupied with his own im- mediate interests, and at the end of that time his success was marked. Catherine's vast schemes in Turkey had been checked. War had been averted. Poland had been strengthened by internal changes. Prussia had been conciliated and outmanoeuvred, and her influence had been impaired. At last, at the end of August, 1791, the Emperor was free to face the French problem, and he set out for the Castle of Pillnitz to meet the King of Prussia and the Emigrant leaders at the Saxon Elector's Court. For some time past the restlessness of the French Emigrants had been causing great perplexity in Europe. Received with open arms by the ecclesi- 695 astical princes of the Rhine, by the Electors of Mayence and Treves, they proceeded to agitate busily for their own restoration. . . . The object of the Emigrants was to bring pressure to bear at the European Courts, with the view of inducing the Powers to intervene actively in their behalf. . . . After his escape from France in June, 1790, the Comte de Provence established his Court at Coblentz, where he was joined by his brother the Comte d'Artois, and where, on the plea that Louis was a prisoner, he claimed the title of Regent, and assumed the authority of King. The Court of the two French princes at Coblentz represented faith- fully the faults and follies of the Emigrant party. But a more satisfactory spectacle was offered by the camp at Worms, where Conde was bravely trying to organise an army to fight against the Revolution in France. To Conde's standard flocked the more patriotic Emigrants. . . , But the German Princes in the neighbourhood looked with dis- favour on the Emigrant army. [See also Germany: 1791-1792.] It caused confusion in their dominions, and it drew down on them the hostility of the French Government. The Emperor joined them in protesting against it. In February, 1792, Conde's army was compelled to abandon its camp at Worms, and to retire further into Germany. The Emperor was well aware of the reckless self- ishness of the Emigrant princes. He had as little sympathy with them as his sister. He did not intend to listen to their demands. If he interfered in France at all, it would only be in a cautious and tentative manner, and in order to save Marie Antoinette and her husband. Certainly he would not undertake a war for the restoration of the Ancien Regime. . . . AccordinElv. the interviews at Pillnitz came to nothing. [See also Pillnitz, Declaration of.] ... Early in March, 1792, Leo- pold suddenly died. His heir Francis, unrestrained by his father's tact and moderation, assumed a different tone and showed less patience. The chances of any efl'cctive pressure from the Powers declined, as the prospect of war rose on the hori- zon. Francis' language was sufficiently sharp to give the Assembly the pretext which it longed for, and on the 20th April, Louis, amid general en- thusiasm, came down to the Assembly and de- clared war against Austria.^ J'he effects of that momentous step no comment can exaggerate. It ruined the best hopes of the Revolution, and pre- pared the way for a military despotism in the future." — C. E. Mallet, French Revolution, ch. 7. See France: 1790-1791; 1791 (July-December); 1791-1792; 1792 (April-July), and (September- December); 1792-1793 (December-February); 1793 (February-.A.pril), (March-September), and (July-December); 1794 (March-July); 1794-1795 (October-May); 1795 (June-December); 1796 (April-October); and 1796-1797 (October-April); 1797 (.^pril-May). 1791. — Emperor Leopold's manifesto of Pad- ua. See Padua, Declaration of. 1794-1796.— Third partition of Poland.— Austrian share of the spoils. See Poland: 1793- 1796. 1795. — Galicia becomes a crown land of Aus- tria. See Galicia. 1797 (October).— Treaty of Campo-Formio with France.— Cession of the Netherlands and Lombard provinces. — Acquisition of Venice and Venetian territories. See France: 1797 (May- October). 1798-1806.— Congress of Rastadt.— Second co- alition against France.— Peace of Lun^ville.— Third coalition.— Ulm and Austerlitz.— Peace of Pressburg.- Extinction of the Holy Roman em- pire.— Birth of the empire of Austria.— "When AUSTRIA, 1798-1806 Wars with Napoleon AUSTRIA, 1798-1806 Bonaparte sailed for Egypt he had left a congress at Rastadt discussing means for the execution of certain articles in the treaty of Campo Formio which were to establish peace between France and the Empire. . . . Though openiy undertaking to invite the Germans to a congress in order to settle a general peace on the basis oi the integrity '^f the Empire, the Emperor agreed in secret articles to use his influence to procure for the Republic the left bank of the Rhine with the exception of the Prussian provinces, to join with France in ob- taining compensation in Germany for those in- jured by this change, and to contribute no more than his' necessary contingent if the war were pro- longed. The ratification of these secret provisions had been extorted from the Congress by threats before Bonaparte had left; but the question of indemnification had progressed no farther than a decisioi) to secularise the ecclesiastical states for the purpose, when extravagant demands from the French deputies brought negotiation to a dead- lock. Meanwhile, another coalition war had been brewing. Paul I. of Russia had regarded with little pleasure the doings of the Revolution, ancl when his proteges, the knights of St. John of Jerusalem, had been deprived of Malta by Bona- parte on his way to Egypt, when the Directory es- tablished by force of arms a Helvetic republic in Switzerland', when it found occasion to carry off the Pope into exile and erect a Roman republic, he abandoned the cautious and self-seeking policy of Catherine, and cordially responded to Pitt's advances for an alliance. At the same time Tur- key was compelled by the invitation of Egypt to ally itself for once with Russia. Austria, convinced that the French did not intend to pay a fair price for the treaty of Campo Formio, also determined to renew hostilities; and Naples, exasperated by the sacrilege of a republic at Rome, and alarmed by French aggressiveness, enrolled itself in the league. The Neapolitan king, indeed, opened the war with some success, before he could receive support from his allies; but he was soon van- quished by the French, and his dominions were converted into a Parthenopean republic. Austria, on the contrary, awaited the arrival of the Rus- sian forces ; and the general campaign began early in 1709. The French, fighting against such gener- als as the Archduke Charles and the Russian Su- varoff, without the supervision of Carnot or the strategy and enterprise of Bonaparte, suffered se- vere reverses and great privations. Towards the end the Russian army endured much hardship on account of the selfishness of the Austrian cabinet ; and this caused the Tsar, who thought he had other reasons for discontent, to withdraw his troops from the field. When Bonaparte was made First Consul the military position of France was, never- theless, very precarious. . . . The Roman and Cisalpine republics had fallen. The very congress at Rastadt had been dispersed by the approach of the Austrians; and the French emissaries had been sabred by Austrian troopers, though how their insolence came to be thus foully punished has never been clearly explained, .^t this crisis France was rescued from foreign foes and domestic dis- orders by its most successful general. ... In the campaign which followed, France obtained signal satisfaction for its chagrin. Leaving Moreau to carry the war into Germany, Bonapaite suddenly crossed the Alps, and defeated the Austrians on the plain of Marengo. The Austrians, though com- pletely cowed, refrained from concluding a definite peace out of respect for their engagements with England; and armistices, expiring into desultory warfare, prolonged the contest till Moreau laid the way open to Vienna, by winning a splendid triumph at Hohenlinden.. A treaty of peace was finally concluded at Luneville, when Francis II. pledged the Empire to its provisions on the ground of the consents already given at Rastadt. In con- formity with the treaty of Campo Formio, Austria retained the boundary of the Adige in Italy ; France kept Belgium and the left bank of the Rhine; and the princes, dispossessed by the cessions, were promised compensation in Germany ; while Tus- cany was given to France to sell to Spain at the price of Parma, Louisiana, six ships of the Hne, and a sum of money. Shortly afterwards peace was extended to Naples on easy terms. . . . The time was now come for the Revolution to complete the ruin of the Holy Roman Empire. Pursuant to the treaty of Luneville, the German Diet met at Ragensburg to discuss a scheme of compensation for the dispossessed rulers. Virtually the meeting was a renewal of the congress of Rastadt. ... At Rastadt the incoherence and disintegration of the vensrable Empire had become painfully apparent. . . . When it was known that the head of the na- tion, who had guaranteed the integrity of the Em- pire jn the preliminaries of Leoben, and had re- newed the assurance when he convoked the as- sembly, had in truth betrayed to the stranger nearly all the left bank of the Rhine — the German rulers greedily hastened to secure every possible trifle in the scramble of redistribution. The slow and wearisome debates were supplemented by in- trigues of the most degraded nature. Conscious that the French Consul could give a casting vote on any disputed question, the princes found no indignity too shameful, no trick too base, to ob- tain his favour. . . . The First Consul, on his side, prosecuted with a duplicity and address, heretofore unequalled, the traditional policy of France in Ger- man affairs. . . . Feigning to take into his coun- sels the young Tsar, whose convenient friendship was thus easily obtained on account of his family connections with the German courts, he drew up a scheme of indemnification and presented it to the Diet for endorsement. In due time a servile assent was given to even,' point which concerned the two autocrats. By this settlement, .Austria and Prussia were more equally balanced against one another, the former being deprived of influence In Western Germany, and the latter finding in more convenient situations a rich recompense for its ces- sions on the Rhine ; while the middle states, Ba- varia, Baden, and Wiirtemberg, received very con- siderable accessions of territory. But if Bonaparte dislocated yet further the political structure of Germany, lie was at least instrumental in remov- ing the worst of the anachronisms which stifled the development of improved institutions among a large division of its people. The same measure which brought German separatism to a climax, also extinguished the ecclesiastical sovereignties and nearly all the free cities. That these strongholds of priestly obscurantism and bourgeois apathy would some day be invaded by their more ambi- tious and active neighbours, had long been appar- ent. . . .\nd war was declared when thousands of British subjects visiting France had already been ensnared and imprisoned . . . Pitt had taken the conduct of the war out of the hands of .^dding- ton's feeble ministry. Possessing the confidence of the powers, he rapidly concluded offensive alliances with Russia, Sweden, and .Austria, though Prus- sia obstinately remained neutral. Thus, by 1805, Napoleon had put to hazard all his lately won power in a conflict with the greater part of Europe. The battle of Cape Trafalgar [1805] crushed for good his maritime power, and rendered England safe from direct attack. The campaign on land, however, made him master of central Europe. 696 AUSTRIA, 1800-1819 Wars with Napoleon AUSTRIA, 1809-1814 Bringing the Austrian army in Germany to an inglorious capitulation at Ulm, he marched through Vienna, and, with inferior forces won in his best style the battle of Austerlitz against the troops of Francis and Alexander. The action was decisive. The allies thought not of renewing the war with the relays of troops which were hurrying up from North and South. Russian and Austrian alike wished to be rid of their ill-fated connection. The Emperior Alexander silently returned home, pur- sued only by Napoleon's flattering tokens of es- teem; the Emperor Francis accepted the peace of Pressburg, which deprived his house of the ill- gotten Venetian States, Tyrol, and its more dis- tant possessions in Western Germany ; the King of Prussia, who had been on the point of joining the coalition with a large army if his mediation were unsuccessful, was committed to an alliance with the conqueror by his terrified negotiator. And well did Napoleon appear to make the fruits of victory compensate France for its exertions. The empire was not made more unwieldy in bulk, but its dependents. Bavaria, VVUrtemberg. and Baden, received considerable accessions of territory, and the two first were raised to the rank of kingdoms; while the Emperor's Italian principality, which he had already turned into a kingdom of Italy to the great disgust of Austria, was increased by the ad- ditioi. of the ceded Venetian lands. But the full depth of Europe's humiliation was not experienced till the two following years. In i8o6 an Act of Federation was signed by the kings of Bavaria and Wiirtemberg, the Elector of Baden, and thirteen minor princes, which united them into a league under the protection of the French Emperor. The objects of this confederacy, known as the Rhein- bund were defence against foreign aggression and the exercise of complete autonomy at home. . . . Already the consequences of the Peace of Luneville had induced the ruling Hapsburg to assure his equality with the sovereigns of France and Russia by taking the imperial title in his own right ; and before the Confederation of the Rhine was made public he formally renounced his office of elective Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire and released from allegiance to him all the states and princes of the Reich. The triumph of the German policy of the Consulate was complete." — A. Weir, Historical basis of modern Europe, ch. 4. — See also France: i798-i7qQ, to 1805; and Germany: 1801-1803, to 1805-1806. 1800-1819. — Development of suffrage. — Badeni law. See Suffrage, Manhood: Austria. 1809-1814. — Second struggle with Napoleon and the second defeat. — Marriage alliance. — Germanic War of Liberation. — Final alliance and the overthrow of Napoleon. — "On the i2tb of July, 1806, fourteen princes of the south and west of Germany united themselves into the con- federation of the Rhine, and recognised Napoleon as their protector. On the ist of August, they signified to the diet of Ratisbon their separation from the Germanic body. The Empire of Germany ceased to exist, and Francis 11. abdicated the title by proclamation. By a convention signed at Vienna, on the isth of December, Prussia ex- changed the territories of Anspach, Cleves and Neufchatel for the electorate of Hanover. Napo- leon had all the west under his power. Absolute master of France and Italy, as emperor and king, he was also master of Spain, by the dependence of that court; of Naples and Holland, by his two brothers; of Switzerland, by the act of mediation; and in Germany he had at his disposal the kings of Bavaria and Wiirtemberg, and the confedera- tion of the Rhine against Austria and Prussia. . . . This encroaching progress gave rise to the fourth coalition. Prussia, neutral since the peace of Bale, had, in the last campaign, been on the point of joining the Austro-Russian coalition. The rapid- ity of the emperor's victories had alone restrained her; but now, alarmed at the aggrandizement of the empire, and encouraged by the line condi- tion of her troops, she leagued with Russia to drive the French from Germany. . . . The cam- paign opened early in October. Napoleon, as usual, overwhelmed the coalition by the prompti- tude of his marches and the vigour of his meas- ures. On the 14th of October, he destroyed at Jena the military monarchy of Prussia by a de- cisive victory. . . . The campaign in Poland was less rapid, but as briUiant as that of Prussia. Russia, for the third time, measured its strength with France. Conquered at Zurich and Auster- litz, it was also defeated at Eylau and Friedland. After these memorable battles, the emperor Alex- ander entered into a negotiation, and concluded at Tilsit, on the 21st of June, 1807, an armistice which was followed by a definitive treaty on the 7th of July. The peace of Tilsit extended the French domination on the continent. Prussia was reduced to half its extent. In the south of Ger- many, Napoleon had instituted the two kingdoms of Bavaria and Wiirtemberg against Austria; fur- ther to the north, he created the two feudatory kingdoms of Saxony and Westphalia against Prus- sia. ... In order to obtain universal and uncon- tested supremacy, he made use of arms against the continent, and the cessation of commerce against England. But in forbidding to the con- tinental states all communication with England, he was preparing new difficulties for himself, and soon added to the animosity of opinion excited by his despotism, and the hatred of states pro- duced by his conquering domination, the ex- asperation of private interests and commercial suf- fering occasioned by the blockade. . . . The ex- pedition of Portugal in 1807, and the invasion of Spain in 1808, began for him and for Europe a new order of events. . . . The reaction mani- fested itself in three countries, hitherto allies of France, and it brought on the fifth coalition. The court of Rome was dissatisfied; the peninsula was wounded in its national pride by having imposed upon it a foreign king; in its usages, by the suppression of convents, of the Inquisition, and of the grandees; Holland suffered in its com- merce from the blockade, and Austria supported impatiently its losses and subordinate condition. England, watching for an opportunity to revive the struggle on the continent, excited the re- sistance of Rome, the peninsula, and the cabinet of Vienna. . . . Austria . . . made a powerful ef- fort, and raised 550,000 men, comprising the Land- wehr, and took the field in the spring of i8og. The Tyrol rose, and King Jerome was driven from his capital by the Westphalians; Italy wavered ; and Prussia only waited till Napoleon met with a reverse, to take arms; but the em- peror was still at the height of his power and prosperity. He hastened from Madrid in the beginning of February, and directed the members of the confederation to keep their contingents in readiness. On the 12 th of April he left Paris, passed the Rhine, plunged into Germany, gained the victories of Eckmiihl and Essling, occupied Vienna a second time on the 15th of May, and overthrew this new coalition by the battle of Wag- ram, after a campaign of four months. . . . The peace of Vienna, of the nth of October, 1809, de- prived the house of Austria of several more provinces, and compelled it again to adopt the continental system. . . . Napoleon, who seemed to follow a rash but inflexible policy, deviated from 697 AUSTRIA, 1809-1814 Overthrow of Napoleon AUSTRIA, 1815-1835 his course about this time by a second marriage. He divorced Josephine that he might give an heir to the empire, and married, on the ist of April, iSio, Marie-Louise, arch-duchess of Aus- tria. This was a decided error. He quitted his position and his post as a parvenu and revolution- ary monarch, opposing in France the ancient courts as the republic had opposed the ancient govern- ments. He placed himself in a false situation with respect to Austria, which he ought either to have crushed after the victory of Wagram, or to have reinstated in its possessions after his mar- riage with the arch-duchess. . . . The birth, on the 2oth of March, 1811, of a son, who re- ceived the title of king of Rome, seemed to con- solidate the power of Napoleon, by securing to him a successor. The war in Spain was prose- cuted with vigour during the years 1810 and 181 1. . . . While the war was proceeding in the peninsula with advantage, but without any de- cided success, a new campaign was preparing in the north. Russia perceived the empire of Na- poleon approaching its territories. . . . About the close of 1810, it increased its armies, renewed its commercial relations with Great Britain, and did not seem indisposed to a rupture. The year 1811 was spent in negotiations which led to nothing, and preparations for war were made on both sides. ... On the gth of March, Napoleon left Paris. . . . During several months he fixed his court' at Dresden, where the emperor of Austria, the king of Prussia, and all the sovereigns of Germany, came to bow before his high fortune. On the 22nd of June, war was declared against Russia. . . . Napoleon, who, according to his cus- tom, wished to finish all in one campaign, ad- vanced at once into the heart of Russia, instead of prudently organizing the Polish barrier against it. His army amounted to about 500,000 men. He passed the Niemen on the 24th of June; took Wilna, and VVitepsk, defeated the Russians at Astrowno, Polotsk, Mohilow Smolensko, at the Moskowa, and on the 14th of September, made his entry into Moscow. . . . Moscow was burned by its governor. . . . The emperor ought to have seen that this war would not terminate as the others had done; yet, conqueror of the foe, and master of his capital, he conceived hopes of peace which the Russians skilfully encouraged. Winter was approaching, and Napoleon prolonged his stay at Moscow for six weeks. He delayed his move- ments on account of the deceptive negotiations of the Russians; and did not decide on a re- treat till the I gth of October. This retreat was disastrous, and began the downfall of the empire. . . . The cabinet of Berlin began the defections. On the ist of March, 1S13, it joined Russia and England, W'hich were forming the si.xth coalition. Sweden acceded to it soon after ; .yet the emperor, whom the confederate power thought prostrated by the last disaster, opened the campaign with new victories. The battle of Lutzen, won by con- scripts, on the 2nd of May, the occupation of Dresden ; the victory of Bautzen, and the war carried to the Elbe, astonished the coalition. Aus- tria, which, since 1810, had been on a footing of peace, was resuming arms, and already meditating a change of alliance. She now propored herself as a mediatri.x between the emperor and the con- federates. Her mediation was accepted; an armis- tice was concluded at Pleswitz, on the 4th of June, and a congress assembled at Prague to negotiate peace. It was impossible to come to terms. . . . Austria joined the coalition, and war, the only means of settling this great contest, was resumed. The emperor had only 280,000 men agamst 520,000. . . . Victory seemed, at first, to second him. At Dresden he defeated the com- bined forces; but the defeats of his lieutenants deranged his plans. . . . The princes of the con- federation of the Rhine chose this moment to desert the cause of the empire. .^ vast engagement having taken place at Leipsic between the two armies, the Saxons and Wiirterabergers passed over to the enemy on the field of battle. This de- fection to the strength of the coalesced povjers, who had learned a more compact and skilful mode of warfare, obliged Napoleon to retreat, after a struggle of three days. . . . The empire was in- vaded in all directions. The Austrians entered Italy; the English, having made themselves mas- ters of the peninsula during the last two years, had passed the Bidassoa, under General Welling- ton, and appeared on the Pyrenees. Three armies pressed on France to the east and north. . . . Napoleon was . . . obliged to submit to the con- ditions of the allied powers; their pretensions in- creased w'th their power. ... On the nth of April, 1S14, he renounced for himself and children the thrones of France and Italy, and received in exchange for his vast sovereignty, the limits of which had extended from Cadiz to the Baltic Sea, the little island of Elba." — F. .A.. Mignet, His- tory of the French revolution, ch. 15. See Ger- many: i8oq (January-June), to 1813; Russia: 1812; and Fr.^nxe; 1810-1812 to 1S14. 1812. — Extent of empire in Europe. — Region of Napoleon's campaign. See Europe: Modern: Map of Central Europe in 1812. 1814. — Restored rule in northern Italy. See Italy: 1814; 1814-1815. 1814-1815. — Occupation of Lyons. See Lyons: 19th century. 1814-1815. — Treaties of Paris and Congress of Vienna. — Readjustment of French boundaries. — Recovery of the Tyrol from Bavaria and Lom- bardy in Italy. — Acquisition of the Venetian states. See Fr.\nce; 1S14 (April-June), and 1815 (June-August) ; also Viex.va, Tue Congress of. 1814-1820. — Formation of the Germanic con- federation. See Germany: 1814-1820; Vienna, Congress of. 1815. — Holy Alliance. See Holy Allunce. 1815. — Return of Napoleon from Elba. — Quad- ruple Alliance. — Waterloo campaign and its re- sults.— War against Murat in Naples. See Aix- la-Chapelle: Conference of Aix-la-Chapelle ; and France: 1804-1815; 1815 (June); It.\ly: (South- ern): 1815. 1815 (January 3).— Secret treaty with France and England in defense of Paris. See Vienna, Co.VGRESS OF. 1815-1835. — Emperor Francis, Prince Metter- nich, and "the system." — "After the treaty of Vienna in 1809, and still more conspicuously after the pacification of Europe, the political wisdom of the rulers of Austria inclined them ever more and more to the maintenance of that state of things which was known to friends and foes as the Systern. But what was the System? It was the organisation of do-nothing. It cannot even be said to have been reactionary: it was simply inactionary. . . . 'Mark time in place' was the word of command in ever>' government office. The bureaucracy was engaged from morning to night in making work, but nothing ever came of it. Not even were the liberal innovations which had lasted through the reign of Leopold got rid of. Everything went on in the confused, unfinished, and ineffective state in which the great war had found it. Such was the famous System which was venerated by the ultra-Tories of every land, and most venerated where it was least understood. Two men dominate the history of Austria during 698 AUSTRIA, 1815-1835 "System" of Metternich AUSTRIA, 1815-1846 this unhappy time — men who, though utterly un- like in character and intellect, were nevertheless admirably fitted to work together, and whose names will be long united in an unenviable notoriety. These were the Emperor Francis and Prince Metternich. The first was the evil genius of internal politics; the second exercised a hardly less baneful influence over foreign affairs. . . . For the external policy of Prince Metternich, the first and most necessary condition was, that Austria should give to Europe the impression of fixed adherence to the most extreme Conservative views. So for many years they worked together, Prince Metternich always declaring that he was a mere tool in the hands of his master, but in reality far more absolute in the direction of his own department than the emperor was in his. . . . Prince Metternich had the power of making the meet of all he knew, and 'constantly left upon persons of real merit the impression that he was a man of lofty aspirations and liberal views, who forced himself to repress such tendencies in others because he thought that their repression was a sine qua non for Austria. The men of ability, who knew him intimately, thought less well of him. To them he appeared vain and superficial, with much that recalled the French noblesse of the old regime in his way of looking at things, and emphatically wanting in every element of great- ness. With the outbreak of the Greek insurrec- tion in 1S21, began a period of difficulty and com- plications for the statesmen of Austria. There were two things of which they were mortally afraid — Russia and the revolution. Now, if they assisted the Greeks, they would be playing into the hands of the second; and if they opposed the Greeks, they would be likely to embroil them- selves with the first. The whole art of Prince Metternich was therefore exerted to keep things quiet in the Eastern Peninsula, and to postpone the intolerable 'question d' Orient.' Many were the shifts he tried, and sometimes, as just after the accession of Nicholas, his hopes rose very high. All was, however, in vain. England and Russia settled matters behind his back ; and al- though the tone which the publicists in his pay adopted towards the Greeks became more favour- able in 1826-7, the battle of Navarino was a sad surprise and mortification to the wily chancellor. Not less annoying was the commencement of hos- tilities on the Danube between Russia and the Porte. The reverses with which the great neigh- bour met in his first campaign cannot have been otherwise than pleasing at Vienna. But the unfor- tunate success which attended his arms in the second campaign soon turned ill-dissembled joy into ill-concealed sorrow, and the treaty of Adrian- ople at once lowered Austria's prestige in the East, and deposed Metternich from the command- ing position which he had occupied in the coun- cils of the Holy Allies. It became, indeed, ever more and more evident in the next few years that the age of Congress politics, during which he had been the observed of all observers, was past and gone, that the diplomatic period had van- ished away, and that the miUtary period had be- gun. The very form in which the highest inter- national questions were debated was utterly changed. At Vienna, in 1814, the diplomatists had been really the primary, the sovereigns only secondary personages; while at the interview of Mijnchengriitz, between Nicholas and the Em- peror Francis, in 1833, the great autocrat ap- peared to look upon Prince Metternich as hardly more than a confidential clerk. The dull monotony of servitude which oppressed nearly the whole of the empire was varied by the agitations of one of its component parts. When the Hungarian Diet was dissolved in 1812, the emperor had solemnly promised that it should be called together again within three years. Up to 1815, accordingly, the nation went on giving extraordinary levies and supplies without much opposition. When, how- ever, the appointed time was fulfilled, it began to murmur. . . . Year by year the agitation went on increasing, till at last the breaking out of the Greek revolution, and the threatening appearance of Eastern politics, induced Prince Metternich to join his entreaties to those of many other coun- sellors, who could not be suspected of the slightest leaning to constitutional views. At length the emperor yielded, and in 1825 Pressburg was once more filled with the best blood and most active spirits of the land, assembled in parliament. Long and stormy were the debates which ensued. Bitter was, from time to time, the vexation of the em- peror, and great was the excitement throughout Hungary. In the end, however, the court of Vienna triumphed. Hardly any grievances were redressed, while its demands were fully conceded. The Diet of 1825 was, however, not without fruit. The discussion which took place advanced the political education of the people, who were brought back to the point where they stood at the death of Joseph II. — that is, before the long wars with France had come to distract their at- tention from their own affairs. . . . The slumbers of Austria were not yet over. The System ■ dragged its slow length along. Little or nothing was done for the improvement of the country. Klebelsberg administered the finances in an easy and careless manner. Conspiracies and risings in Italy were easily checked, and batches of prisoners sent off from time to time to Mantua or Spielberg. Austrian influence rose ever higher and higher in all the petty courts of the Peninsula. ... In other regions Russia or England might be will- ing to thwart him, but in Italy Prince Metter- nich might proudly reflect that Austria was in- deed a 'great power.' The French Revolution of 1S30 was at first alarming; but when it resulted in the enthronement of a dynasty which called to its aid a 'cabinet of repression,' all fears were stilled. The Emperor Francis continued to say, when any change was proposed, 'We must sleep upon it,' and died in 1835 in 'the abundance of peace.'"- — M. E. Grant Duff, Studies in European politics, pp. 140-149. — See also Germany: 1819- 1847. 1815-1846. — Gains of the Hapsburg monarchy. — Its aggressive absolutism. — Death of Fran- cis I. — Accession of Ferdinand I. — Suppression of revolt in Galicia. — Extinction and annexation of the republic of Cracow. — -"In the new partition of Europe, arranged in the Congress of Vienna [see Vienna, The Congress of], Austria received Lombardy and Venice under the title of a Lom- bardo-Venetian kingdom, the lUyrian provinces also as a kingdom, Venetian Dalmatia, the Tirol, Vorarlberg, Salzburg, the Innviertel and Hausrucks- viertel, and the part of Galicia ceded by her at an earlier period. Thus, after three and twenty years of war, the monarchy had gained a considerable accession of strength, having ob- tained, in lieu of its remote and unprofitable pos- sessions in the Netherlands, territories which con- solidated its power in Italy, and made it as great in extent as it had been in the days of Charles VI., and far more compact and defensible. The grand duchies of Modena, Parma, and Placentia, were moreover restored to the collateral branches of the house of Hapsburg. . . . After the last fall of Napoleon . . . the great powers of the con- tinent . . . constituted themselves the champions 699 AUSTRIA, 1815-1846 Absolutism AUSTRIA, 1815-1849 of the principle of absolute monarchy. The maintenance of that principle ultimately became the chief object of the so-called Holy Alliance established in 1816 between Russia. Austria and Prussia, and was pursued with remarkable stead- fastness by the Emperor Francis and his min- ister. Prince Metternich [see Holv Alliance]. . . . Thenceforth it became the avowed policy of the chief sovereigns of Germany to maintain the rights of dynasties in an adverse sense to those of their subjects. The people, on the other hand, deeply resented the breach of those promises which had been so lavishly made to them on the gen- eral summons to the war of liberation. Disaffec- tion took the place of that enthusiastic loyalty with which they had bled and suffered for their native princes; the secret societies, formed with the concurrence of their rulers, for the purpose of throwing off the yoke of the foreigner, be- came ready instruments of sedition. ... In the winter of iSiq, a German federative congress as- sembled at Vienna. In May of the following year it published an act containing closer definitions of the Federative Act. having for their essential objects the exclusion of the various provincial Diets from all positive interference in the general affairs of Germany, and an increase of the power of the princes over their respective Diets, by a guarantee of aid on the part of the confederates" (see Germany: 1814-1820). During the next three ' years, the powers of the Holy .Mliance, under the lead of Austria, and acting under a concert established at the successive congresses of Trop- pau, Laibach and X'erona (see Verona, Congress of), interfered to put down popular risings against the tyranny of government in Italy and Spain, while they discouraged the revolt of the Greeks (see Italy: 1820-1821; and Spain: 1814-1827). "The commotions that pervaded Europe after the French Revolution of 1830 affected ,\ustria only in her Italian dominions, and there but indirectly, for the imperial authority remained undisputed in the Lombardo-\'enetian kingdom. But the duke of Modena and the archduke of Parma were obliged to quit those states, and a formidable in- surrection broke out in the territory of the Church An .Austrian army of 18.000 men quickly put down the insurgents, who rose again, however, as soon as it was withdrawn. The pope again invoked the aid of .Austria, whose troops entered Bologna in January, 1832. and established themselves there in garrison. Upon this, the French immediately sent a force to occupy Ancona, and for a while a renewal of the oft-repeated conflict between .Aus- tria and France on Italian ground seemed in- evitable; but it soon appeared that France was not prepared to support the revolutionary party in the pope's dominions, and that danger passed away. The French remained for some years in Ancona, and the .Austrians in Bologna and other towns of Romagna. This was the last important incident in the foreign affairs of .Austria previous to the death of the Emperor Francis I. on the 2nd of March. 183S, after a reign of 43 years. . . The Emperor Francis was succeeded by his son. Ferdinand I., whose accession occasioned no change in the political or administrative system of the empire. Incapacitated, by physical and mental infirmity, from labouring as his father had done in the business of the state, the new monarch left to Prince Metternich a much more unrestricted power than that minister had wielded in the pre- ceding reign. . . . The province of Galicia began early in the new reign to occasion uneasiness to the government. The Congress of Vienna had con- stituted the city of Cracow an independent re- public — a futile representative of that Polish na- tionality which had once extended from the Baltic to the Black Sea. After the failure of the Polish insurrection of 1831 against Russia, Cracow be- came the focus of fresh conspiracies, to put an end to which the city was occupied by a mixed force of Russians, Prussians, and .Austrians ; the two former were soon withdrawn, but the latter re- mained until 1840. When they also had retired, the Polish propaganda was renewed with consid- erable effect. .An insurrection broke out in Galicia in 1846. when the scantiness of the .Austrian mill tary JForce in the province seemed to promise it success. It failed, however, as all previous el- forts of the Polish patriots had failed, because it rested on no basis of popular sympathy. The nationality for which they contended had ever been of an oligarchical pattern, hostile to the free dom of the middle and lower classes. The Ga lician peasants had no mind to exchange the yoke of .Austria, which pressed lightly upon them, for the feudal oppression of the Polish nobles. They turned upon the insurgents and slew or took them prisoners, the police inciting them to the work by publicly offering a reward of five florins for every suspected person delivered up by them, alive or dead. Thus the agents of a civilized gov- ernment became the avowed instigators of an inhuman 'jacquerie ' The houses of the landed proprietors were sacked by the peasants, their in- mates were tortured and murdered, and bloody an. archy raged throughout the land in the prostituted name of loyalty. The .Austrian troops at last re- stored order; but Szela. the leader of the sanguinar\' marauders, was thanked and highly rewarded in the name of his sovereign. In the same year the three protecting powers, .Austria. Russia, and Prussia, took possession of Cracow, and, ignoring the right of the other parties to the treaty of X'ienna to concern themselves about the fate of the republic, they announced that its independence was annulled, and that the city and territory of Cracow were annexed to. and forever incorporated with, the .Austrian monarchy. From this time forth the political atmosphere of Europe became more and more loaded with the presages of the storm that burst in 1848." — W K. Kelly. Continua- lion of Core's history of the House of Austria, cli 5-6. See Germany: Map; .After the Congress of Vienna. 1815-1849. — Arrangements in Italy of the Con- gress of Vienna. — Heaviness of the Austrian yoke. — Italian risings. — "By the treaty of Xienna (1815). the . . . entire kingdom of \'enetian-Lom- bardy was handed over to the .Austrians; the duchies of Modena, Reggio. with Massa and Car- rara, given to .Austrian princes; Parma. Piacenza. and Guastalla to Napoleon's queen. Marie Luisa. because she was an .Austrian princess; the grand- duchy of Tuscany to Ferdinand III of Austria; the duchy of Lucca to a Bourbon. Rome and the Roman states were restored to the new Pope. Pius \'II.; Sicily was united to Naples under the Bourbons, and later deprived of her constitution, despite the promised protection of England; the Canton Ticino. though strictly Italian, anne.ited to the Swiss Confederation; the little republic of San Marino left intact, even as the principality of Monaco. England retained Malta ; (Corsica was left to France. Italy, so Metternich and Europe fondly hoped, was reduced to a geographical ex- pression. Unjust, brutal, and treacherous as was that partition, at least it taught the Italians that 'who would be free himself must strike the blow.' It united them into one common hatred of Austria and .Austrian satellites. By .substitut- ing papal. .Austrian, and Bourbon despotism for the free institutions, codes, and constitutions of / 00 AUSTRIA, 1816 Revolt of Frankfort Assembly AUSTRIA, 1848-1849 the Napoleonic era, it taught them the difference between rule and misrule. Hence the demand of the Neapolitans during their first revolution (1820) was for a constitution; that of the Pied- montese and Lombards (1821) for a constitution and war against Austria. The Bourbon swore and foreswore, and the Austrians 'restored order' in Naples, The Piedmontese, who had not con- certed their movement until Naples was crushed — after the abdication of Victor Emmanuel I., the granting of the constitution by the regent Charles .Albert, and its abrogation by the new king Charles Fcli.x — saw the .Austrians enter Piedmont, while I he leaders of the revolution went out into exile I see Italy: 1820-1821]. But those revolutions and those failures were the beginning of the end. The will to be independent of all foreigners, the thirst for freedom, was universal; the very name of empire or of emperor, was rendered ridiculous, re- duced to a parody — in the person of Ferdinand of Austria. But one illusion remained — in the liberat- ing virtues of France and the French ; this had to be dispelled by bitter experience, and for it sub- stituted the new idea of one Italy for the Italians, a nation united, independent, free, governed by a president or by a king chosen by the sovereign people. The apostle of this idea, to which for fifty years victims and martyrs were sacrificed by thousands, was Joseph Mazzini; its champion, Joseph Garibaldi. By the genius of the former, the prowess of the latter, the abnegation, the con- stancy, the tenacity, the iron will of both, all the populations of Italy were subjugated by that idea: philosophers demonstrated it, poets sung it, pious Christian priests proclaimed it, statesmen found it confronting their negotiations, baffling their half- measures." — J. W. V. Mario, Introduction to auto- biography of Garibaldi. See Italy: 1830-1832, and 1848-1849; World War: Causes; Indirect: b, 1. 1816. — National bank established. See Money AND Banking: i7th-ioth centuries. 1821. — Troops moved into Naples and Sicily. — Restoration of Ferdinand. See Verona, Con- gress OE. 1835. — Accession of the Emperor Ferdinand I. 1839-1840. — Turko-Egyptian question and its settlement. — Quadruple Alliance. See Turkey: 183 1 -1840. 1848. — Germanic revolutionary rising. — Na- tional Assembly at Frankfort. — Archduke John elected administrator of Germany. — "When the third French Revolution broke out, its influence was immediately felt in Germany. The popular movement this time was very different from any the Governments had hitherto had to contend with. The people were evidently in earnest, and resolved to obtain, at whatever cost, their chief demands. , . . The Revolution was most serious in the two great German States, Prussia and Aus- tria. ... It was generally hoped that union as well as freedom was now to be achieved by Ger- many; but, as Prussia and Austria were in too much disorder to do anything, about 500 Germans from the various States met at Frankfurt, and on March 21 constituted themselves a provisional Par- liament. An extreme party wished the assembly to declare itself permanent ; but to this the ma- jority would not agree. It was decided that a National Assembly should be elected forthwith by the German people. The Confederate Diet, knowing that the provisional Parliament was ap- proved by the nation, recognized its authority. Through the Diet the various Governments were communicated with, and all of them agreed to make arrangements for the elections. . . . The Na- tional Assembly was opened in Frankfurt on May 18, 1848. It elected the Archduke John of Austria as the head of a new provisional central Gov- ernment, The choice was a happy one. The Archduke was at once acknowledged by the dif- ferent governments, and on July 12 the President of the Confederate Diet formally made over to him the authority which had hitherto belonged to the Diet. The Diet then ceased to exist. The .Archduke chose from the Assembly seven mem- bers, who formed a responsible ministry. The .Assembly was divided into two parties, the Right and the Left. These again were broken up into various sections. Much time was lost in useless discussions, and it was soon suspected that the Assembly would not in the end prove equal to the great task it had undertaken." — J. Sime, His- tory of Germany, cit. 10, sects. 8-11. See Ger- many: 1848 (March-September). 1848 (December). — Accession of the emperor Francis Joseph I. 1848-1849. — Revolutionary risings. — Bombard- ment of Prague and Vienna. — Abdication of the Emperor Ferdinand. — Accession of Francis Jo- seph. — The Hungarian struggle for indepen- dence. — "The rise of national feeling among the Hungarian, Slavonic, and Italian subjects of the House of Hapsburg was not the only difficulty of the Emperor Ferdinand I. Vienna was then the gayest and the dearest centre of fashion and luxury in Europe, but side by side with wealth there seethed a mass of wretched poverty ; and the pro- tective trade system of Austria so increased the price of the necessaries of life that bread-riots were frequent. . . . The university students were foremost in the demand for a constitution and for the removal of the rigid censorship of the press and of all books. So, when the news came of the flight of Louis Philippe from Paris [see France: 1841-1848, and 1848] the students as well as the artisans of Vienna rose in revolt (March 13, 1848), the latter breaking machinery and attacking the houses of unpopular employers. A deputation of citizens clamoured for the resignation of the hated Metternich; his house was burnt down, and he fled to England. .A second outbreak of the excited populace (May 15, 1848), sent the Emperor Ferdinand in helpless flight to Innsbruck in Tyrol; but he returned when they avowed their loyalty to his person, though they detested the old bureau- cratic system. Far more complicated, however, were the race jealousies of the Empire. The Slavj of Bohemia . . . had demanded of Ferdinand the union of Bohemia, Moravia, and Austrian Silesia in Estates for those provinces, and that the Slavs should enjoy equal privileges with the Germans. After an unsatisfactory answer had been received, they convoked a Slavonic Congress at Prague. . . . But while this Babel of tongues was seeking for a means of fusion. Prince Windischgratz was as- sembling Austrian troops around the Bohemian capital. Fights in the streets led to a bombard- ment of the city, which Windischgratz soon en- tered in triumph. This has left a bitterness be- tween the Tsechs or Bohemians and the Germans which still divides Bohemia socially and politically. . . . The exciting news of the spring of 1848 had made the hot Asiatic blood of the Magyars boil; yet even Kossuth and the democrats at first only demanded the abolition of Metternich's system in favour of a representative government. . . . Un- fortunately Kossuth claimed that the Magyar laws and language must now be supreme, not only in Hungary proper, but also in the Hungarian 'crown lands' of Dalmatia, Croatia, and Slavonia, and the enthusiastic Magyars wished also to absorb the ancient principality of Transylvania ; but this again was stoutly resisted by the Roumanians, Slavs, and 701 AUSTRIA, 1848-1849 Hungarian Struggle for Independence AUSTRIA, 1848-1850 Saxons of that little known corner of Europe, and their discontent was fanned by the court of \'ienna. Jellachich, the Ban or Governor of Croatia, headed this movement, which aimed at making Agram the capital of the southern Slavs. Their revolt against the Hungarian ministry of Batthyany was at first disavowed in June, 1848, but in October was encouraged, by the perfidious government of Vienna. A conference between Batthyany and Jellachich ended with words of defiance: 'Then we must meet on the Drave,' said the Hungarian. 'No, on the Danube,' re- torted the champion of the Slavs. The vacil- lating Ferdinand annulled his acceptance of the new Hungarian constitution and declared Jellachich dictator of Hungary. His tool was unfortunate. After crossing the Drave, the Slavs were defeated by the brave Hungarian 'honveds' (defenders) ; and as many as q.ooo were made prisoners. Un- able to subdue Hungary, Jellachich turned aside towards V'ienna to crush the popular party there. For the democrats, exasperated by the perfidious policy of the government, had, on October 6, 184S, risen a third time: the war-minister, Latour, had been hanged on a lamp-post, and the emperor again fled from his turbulent capital to the ever- faithful Tyrolese. But now Jellachich and Windischgratz bombarded the rebellious capital. It was on the point of surrendering when the Hungarians appeared to aid the city ; but the levies raised by the exertions of Kossuth were this time outmanoeuvred [and defeated] by the im- perialists at Schwechat (October 30, 1848), and on the next day Vienna surrendered. Blum, a delegate from Saxony [to the German Parliament of Frankfort, who had come on a mission of mediation to Vienna, but who had taken a part in the fighting], and some other democrats, were shot. By this clever but unscrupulous use of race jealousy the Viennese Government seemed to have overcome Bohemians, Italians, Hungarians, and the citizens of its own capital in turn ; while it had diverted the southern Slavonians from hostility to actual service on its side. . . . The weak health and vacillating spirit of Ferdinand did not satisfy the knot of courtiers of Vienna, who now, flushed by success, sought to concentrate all power in the Viennese Cabinet. Worn out by the excitements of the year and by the demands of these men, Ferdinand, on December 2, 1848, yielded up the crown, not to hi.s rightful successor, his brother, but to his nephew, Francis Joseph. He, a youth of eighteen, ascended the throne so rudely shaken, and ... in spite of almost uniform disaster in war, [ruled till 1916] over an empire larger and more powerful than he found it in 1848. The Hungarians refused to recognise the young sovereign thus forced upon them; and the fact that he was not crowned at Pressburg with' the sacred iron crown of St. Stephen showed that he did not intend to recognise the Hungarian constitution. Austrian troops under Windischgratz entered Buda- Pesth, but the Hungarian patriots withdrew from their capital to organise a national resistance; and when the Austrian Government proclaimed the Hungarian constitution abolished and the complete absorption of Hungary in the Austrian Empire, Kossuth and his colleagues retorted by a Declara- tion of Independence (.\pril 24, 1840). The House of Hapsburg was declared banished from Hungary, which was to be a republic. Kossuth, the first governor of the new republic, and Gorgei, its general, raised armies which soon showed their prowess." The first important battle of the war had been fou.ght at Kapolna, on the .right bank of the Theiss, on February 26, 1840, Gorgei and Dembinski commanding the Hungarians and Windischgratz leading the Austrians. The latter won the victory, and the Hungarians retreated to- ward the Theiss. About the middle of March, Gorgei resumed the offensive, advancing toward Pesth, and encountered the Austrians at Isaszeg, where he defeated them in a hard-fought battle, — or rather in two battles which are sometimes called by dift'erent names: viz., that of . . . Bieske . . . and that of Godbllo [in April]. It was now the turn of the .Austrians to fall back, and they concentrated behind the Rakos, to cover Pesth. The Hungarian general passed round their left, carried Waitzen by storm, forced them to evacute Pesth and to retreat- to Pressburg, abandon- ing the whole of Hungary with the exception of a few fortresses, which they held. The most important of these fortresses, that of Buda, the "twin-city," opposite Pesth on the Danube, was besieged by the Hungarians and carried by storm on May 21. "In Transylvania, too, the Hun- garians, under the talented Polish general Bern, overcame the Austrians, Slavonians, and Roumani- ans in many brilliant encounters. But the proc- lamation of a republic had alienated those Hun- garians who had only striven for their old constitutional rights, so quarrels arose between Gorgei and the ardent democrat, Kossuth. Worse still, the Czar Nicholas, dreading the formation of a republic near his Polish provinces sent the military aid which Francis Joseph in May 1849 implored. Soon 80,000 Russians under Paskie- witch poured over the northern Carpathians to help the beaten Austrians, while others overpowered the gallant Bem in Transylvania. Jellachich with his Croats again invaded South Hungary, and Haynau, the scourge of Lombardy, marched on the strongest Hungarian fortress, Komorn, on the Danube." The Hungarians, overpowered by the combination of Austrians and Russians against them, were defeated at Pered, June 21; at Acs, July 3; at Komorn, July 11; at Waitzen, July 16; at Samobor, July 20; at Segesvar, July 31; at Debreczin, August 2; at Szegedin, August 4; at Temesvar, August 10. "In despair Kossuth handed over his dictatorship to his rival Gorgei, who soon surrendered at Vilagos with all his forces to the Russians (.August 13, 1S40). About 5,000 men with Kossuth, Bem, and other leaders, escaped to Turkey. Even there Russia and Austria sought to drive them forth ; but the Porte, upheld by the Western Powers, maintained its right to give sanctuary according to the Koran. Kossuth and many of his fellow-exiles finally sailed to Eng- land [and afterw'ards to America], where his majestic eloquence aroused deep sympathy for the afflicted country. Many Hungarian patriots suffered death. .All rebels had their property con- fiscated, and the country was for years ruled by armed force, and its old rights were abolished." — J. H. Rose, Century of continental history, ch. 31. — See also Hung.«y: 1847-1840. Also in: Sir A. Alison, History of Europe, 181S-1852, ck. SS-— A. Gorgei, My life and acts in Hungary. — General Klapka, Memoirs of the War of Independence in Hungary. — Count Hartig, Genesis of the revolution in Austria. — W. H. Stiles, Austria in 1S4S-40. 1848-1849. — Revolt in Lombardy and Venetia. — War with Sardinia. — Victories of Radetzky. — Italy vanquished again. See It.alv: 1848-1849; World W.\r: Causes: Indirect: b; b, 3. 1848-1850.— Failure of the movement for Ger- manic national unity. — End of the Frankfort assembly. — "Frankfort had become the centre of the movement. The helpless Diet had acknowl- edged the necessity of a German parliament, and had summoned twelve men of confidence charged 702 AUSTRIA, 1849-1859 Bureaucracy Triumphant AUSTRIA, 1856-1859 with drawing up a new imperial constitution. But it was unable to supply what was most wanted — a strong executive. . . . Instead of establishing before all a strong executive able to control and to realise its resolutions, the Assembly lost months in discussing the fundamental rights of the Ger- man people, and thus was overhauled by the events. In June, Prince Windischgratz crushed the insurrection at Prague; and in November the anarchy which had prevailed during the whole summer at Berlin was put down, when Count Brandenburg became first minister. . . . Schwar- zenberg [at Vienna] declared as soon as he had taken the reins, that his programme was to main- tain the unity of the Austrian empire, and de- manded that the whole of it should enter into the Germanic confederation. This was incompati- ble with the federal state as contemplated by the National Assembly, and therefore Gagern, who had become president of the imperial ministry [at Frankfort], answered Schwarzenberg's programme by declaring that the entering of the Austrian monarchy with a majority of non-German na- tionalities into the German federal state was an impossibility. Thus nothing was left but to place the king of Prussia at the head of the German state. But in order to win a majority for this plan Gagern found it necessary to make large concessions to the democratic party, amongst others universal suffrage. This was not calculated to make the offer of the imperial crown acceptable to Frederic William IV., but his principal reason for declining it was, that he would not exercise any pressure on the other German sovereigns, and that, notwithstanding Schwarzenberg's haughty demeanour, he could not make up his mind to exclude Austria from Germany. After the re- fusal of the crown by the king, the National Assembly was doomed; it had certainly committed great faults, but the decisive reason of its failure was the lack of a clear and resolute will in Prus- sia. History, however, teaches that great enter- prises, such as it was to unify an empire dis- membered for centuries, rarely succeed at the first attempt. The capital importance of the events of 1848 was that they had made the German unionist movement an historical fact; it could never be effaced from the annals, that all the German governments had publicly acknowledged that tendency as legitimate, the direction for the future was given, and even at the time of failure it was certain, as Stockmar said, that the necessity of circumstances would bring forward the man who, profiting by the experiences of 1S48, would fulfd the national aspirations." — F. H. Geffcken, Unity of Germany (English Historical Review, Apr., iSqi). See Germ.^ny: 1848-1S50. 1849-1859. — Return to pure absolutism. — Bureaucracy triumphant. — "The two great gains which the moral earthquake of 1848 iDrought to Austria were, that through wide provinces of the Empire, and more especially in Hungary, it swept away the sort of semi-vassalage in which the peasantry had been left by the Urbarium of Maria Theresa [an edict which gave to the peasants the right of moving from place to place, and the right of bringing up their children as they wished, while it established in certain courts the trial of all suits to which they were parties], and other reforms akin to or founded upon it, and intro- duced modern in the place of middle-age relations between the two extremes of society. Secondly, it overthrew the policy of do-nothing — a surer guarantee for the continuance of abuses than even the determination, which soon manifested itself at headquarters, to make the head of the state more absolute than ever. After the taking of Vienna by Windischgratz, the National Assembly had, on the 15th of November 1848, been removed from the capital to the small town of Kremsier, in Moravia. Here it prolonged an ineffective ex- istence till March 1849, when the court camarilla felt itself strong enough to put an end to an inconvenient censor, and in March 1849 it ceased to exist. A constitution was at the same time promulgated which contained many good pro- visions, but which was never heartily approved by the ruling powers, or vigorously carried into effect — the proclamation of a state of siege in many cities, and other expedients of authority in a revolutionary period, easily enabling it to be set at naught. The successes of the reaction in other parts of Europe, and, above all, the coup d'etat in Paris, emboldened Schwartzenberg to throw off the mask; and on the last day of 1851 Austria became once more a pure despotism. The young emperor had taken 'Viribus unitis' for his motto ; and his advisers interpreted those words to moan that Austria was henceforth to be a state as highly centralised as France — a state in which the minister at Vienna was absolutely to govern everything from Salzburg to the Iron Gate. The hand of authority had been severely felt in the prerevolutionary period, but now advantage was to be taken of the revolution to make it felt far more than ever. In Hungary, for example, . . . it was fondly imagined that there would be no more trouble. The old political division into counties was swept away; the whole land was divided into five provinces; and the courtiers might imagine that from henceforth the Magyars would be as easily led as the inhabitants of Upper Aus- tria. These delusions soon became general, but they owed their origin partly to the enthusiastic ignorance of those who were at the head of the army, and partly to two men" — Prince Schwart- zenberg and Alexander Bach. Of the latter, the "two leading ideas were to cover the whole em- pire with a German bureaucracy, and to draw closer the ties which connected the court of Vienna with that of Rome. ... If absolutism in Austria had a fair trial from the 31st of December 1851 to the Italian war, it is to Bach that it was owing; and if it utterly and ludicrously failed, it is he more than any other man who must bear the blame. Already, in 1840, the bureaucracy had been reorganised, but in 1852 new and stricter regulations were introduced. Everything was de- termined by precise rules — even the exact amount of hair which the employe was permitted to wear upon his face. Hardly any question was thought sufficiently insignificant to be decided upon the spot. The smallest matters had to be referred to Vienna. . . . We can hardly be surprised that the great ruin of the Italian war brought down with a crash the whole edifice of the reaction." — M. E. G. Duff, Studies in European politics, ch. 3. Also in: L. Leger, History of Austria-Hungary, ch. ii. 1850-1860. — Transfer of Galicia to Polish no- bles. — Sufferings of Ukrainians. See Ukraine: 1795-1860. 1853. — Commercial Treaty with the German ZoUverein. See Tariff: 1853-1870. 1853-1856.— Attitude in the Crimean War. See Russia: 1853-1854, to 1854-1856. 1856. — Relations to European Commission for navigation of Danube. See Danube: 1850-1916. 1856-1859. — War in Italy with Sardinia and France. — Reverses at Magenta and Solferino. — Peace of Villafranca. — Surrender of Lombardy. — "From the wars of 1848-9 the King of Sardinia was looked upon by the moderate party as the champion of Italian freedom. Charles Albert had 703 AUSTRIA, 1856-1859 War with Italy Seven Weeks' War AUSTRIA, 1862-1866 failed: yet his son would not, and indeed could not, go back, though, when he began his reign, there were many things against him. Great ef- forts were made to win him over to the Austrian party, but the King was neither cast down by defeat and distrust nor won over by soft words. He soon showed that, though he had been forced to make a treaty with Austria, yet he would not cast in his lot with the oppression of Italy. He made Massimo d'Azeglio his chief Minister, and Camillo Benso di Cavour his Minister of Com- merce. With the help of these two men he hon- estly carried out the reforms which had been granted bv his father, and set new ones on foot. . The ' quick progress of reform frightened Count Massimo d'Azeglio. He retired from office in 185^, and his place was taken by Count Cavour, who made a coalition with the democratic party in Piedmont headed by Urbano Rattazzi. The new chief Minister began to work not only for the good of Piedmont but for Italy at large. The Milanese still listened to the hopes which Mazzini held out, and could not quietly bear their sub- jection. Count Cavour indignantly remonstrated with Radetzky for his harsh government. . . . The division and slavery of Italy had shut her oiit from European politics. Cavour held that, if .she was once looked upon as an useful ally, then her deliverance might be hastened by foreign in- terference. The Sardinian army had been brought into good order by Alfonso della Marmora; and was ready for action. In 1855, Sardinia made al- liance with England and France, who were at war with Russia: for Cavour looked on that power as the great support of the system of despotism on the Continent, and held that it was necessary for Italian freedom that Russia should be humbled. The Sardinian army was therefore sent to the Crimea, under La Marmora, where it did good service in the battle of Tchernaya. . . . The next year the Congress of Paris was held to arrange terms of peace between the allies and Russia, and Cavour took the opportunity of laying before the representatives of the European powers thu un- happy state of his countrymen. ... In Decern- ber, 185 1, Louis Napoleon Buonaparte, the Presi- dent of the French Republic, seized the govern- ment, and the next year took the title of Emperor of the French. He was anxious to weaken the power of ."Xustria, and at the beginning of 1850 it became evident that war would soon break out. .As a sign of the friendly feeling of the French Emperor towards the Italian cause, his cousin. Napoleon Joseph, married Clotilda, the daughter of \'ictor Emmanuel. Count Cavour now declared that Sardinia would make war on Austria, unless a separate and national government was granted to Lombardy and V'enetia, and unless Austria promised to meddle no more with the rest of Italy. On the other hand, Austria demanded the disarmament of Sardinia. The King would not listen to this demand, and France and Sardinia declared war against Austria. The Emperor Na- poleon declared that he would free Italy from the .Alps to the .Adriatic. . . . The .Austrian army crossed the Ticino, but was defeated by the King and General Cialdini. The French victory of Magenta, on June 4lh forced the .Austrians to re- treat from Lombardy. ... On June 24th the Aus- trians, who had crossed the Mincio, were de- feated at Solferino by the allied armies of France and Sardinia. It seemed as though the French Emperor would keep his word. But he found that if he went further, Prussia would take up the cause of .Austria, and that he would have to fight on the Rhine as well as on the .Adige. When, therefore, the French army came before Verona, a meeting was arranged between the two Emperors. This took place at Villafranca, and there Buonaparte, without consulting his ally, agreed with Francis Joseph to favour the estab- lishment of an Italian Confederation. . . . Austria gave up to the King of Sardinia Lombardy to the west of Mincio. But the Grand Duke of Tus- cany and the Duke of Modena were to return 10 their States. The proposed Confederation was never made, for the people of Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and Romagna sent to the King to pray that they might be made part of his Kingdom, and Victor Emmanuel refused to enter on the scheme of the French Emperor. In return for allowing the Italians of Central Italy to shake off the yoke. Buonaparte asked for Savoy and Nizza, . . . The King . . . consented to give up the 'glorious cradle of his Monarchy' in exchange for Central Italy."— W. .A. Hunt, History of Italy, ch. 11. Also in: J. W. Probyn, Italy from 1815 to 1800, ck. Q-io. — C. de Mazade, Life of Count Cai'oiir, ch. 2-7. — See also Italy: 1856-185Q, and 1850-1S61. 1860. — Constitutional development, — "The di- ploma of October 20, i860, the price paid by the government for the disasters of the Ital'an war, was a turning point in .Austrian constitu- tional history. By it the number of provincial representatives in the Reichsrat was increased to one hundred, and that body was given a share in imperial legislation. The Patent of February 26, 1 86 1, completed the development of the Reichs- rat into a full-fledged, national Parliament, with an appointive House of Lords, and a Chamber of Deputies of 343 members, elected by the provincial Landtags. The government of .Austria-Hungary was no longer a feudal despotism, but a constitu- tional monarchy, at least in the Tory sense." — C. Sevmour and D. P. Frary, How the world votes, P- 56. 1862-1866. — Schleswig-Holstein question. — Quarrel with Prussia. — Humiliating Seven Weeks' War. — Conflict with Prussia grew out of the complicated Schleswig-Holstein question, re- opened in 1802 and provisionally settled by a delusive arrangement between Prussia and .Austria, into which the latter was artfully drawn by Prince Bismarck. (See Denmark: 1S4S-1862; and Ger- many: 1S61-1866). No sooner was the war with Denmark over, than "Prussia showed that it was her intention to annex the newly acquired duchies to herself. This .Austria could not endure, and accordingly, in 1866, war broke out between Aus- tria and Prussia. Prussia sought alliance with Italy, which she stirred up to attack .Austria in her Italian possessions. The .Austrian army de- feated the Italian at . . . [Custozza (see Italy: 1862-1866)]; but the fortunes of war were against them in Germany. .Allied with the .Austrians were the Saxons, the Bavarians, the WUrtembergers, Baden and Hesse, and Hanover The Prussians ad- vanced with their chief army into Bohemia with the utmost rapidity, dreading lest the Southern allies should march north to Hanover, and cut the kingdom in half, and push on to Berlin. The Prus-sians had three armies, which were to enter Bohemia and effect a junction. The Elbe army under the King, the first army under Prince Fred- erick Charles, and the second army under the Crown Prince. The Elbe army advanced across Saxony by Dresden. The first army was in Lusatia, at Reichenberg, and the second army in Silesia at Heisse. They were all to meet at Gitschin. The .Austrian army under General Benedek was at Kbniggriitz. in Eastern Bohemia. ... .As in the wars with Napoleon, so was it now; the .Austrian generals . . . never did the right thing at the right 704 AUSTRIA, 1866 Ausiro-Hungarian Empire AUSTRIA, 1866-1867 moment. Benedek did indeed march against the first army, but too late, and when he found it was already through the mountain door, he re- treated, and so gave time for the three armies to concentrate upon him.- The Elbe army and the first met at Miinchengratz, and defeated an Aus- trian army there, pushed on, and drove them back out of Gitschin on Koniggratz. . . . The Prussians pushed on, and now the Elbe army went to Smidar, and the first army to Horzitz, whilst the second army, under the Crown Prince, was pushing on, and had got to Gradlitz. The little river Bistritz is crossed by the righ road bo Koniggratz. It runs through swamp ground, and forms little marshy pools or lakes. To the north of Konig- gratz a little stream of much the same character dribbles through bogs into the Elbe. . . . But about Chlum, Nedelist and Lippa is terraced high ground, and there Benedek planted his cannon. The Prussians advanced from Smidar against the left wing of the Austrians, from Horzitz against the centre, and the Crown Prince was to attack the right wing. The battle began on the 3d of July, at 7 o'clock in the morning, by the simul- taneous advance of the Elbe and the first army upon the Bisitritz. At Sadowa is a wood, and there the batble raged most fiercely. . . . Two things were against the Austrians; first, the in- competence of their general, and, secondly, the in- feriority of their guns. The Prussians had what are called needle-guns, breach-loaders, which are fired by the prick of a needle, and for the rapidity with which they can be fired far surpassed the old-fashioned muzzle-loaders used by the Austrians. After this great battle, which is called by the French and English the battle of Sadowa (Sadowa, not Sadowa, as it is erroneously pronounced), but which the Germans call the battle of Koniggratz, the Prussians marched on Vienna, and reached the Marchfeld before the Emperor Francis Joseph would come to terms. At last, on the 23d of August, a peace which gave a crushing preponder- ance in Germany to Prussia, was concluded at Prague." — S. Baring-Gould, Sto-ry of Germany, pp. 390-304. See Germany: 1866. 1866. — War in Italy. — Loss of Venetia. See Italy: 1862-1S66. 1866-1867. — Concession of nationality to Hun- gary. — Formation of the dual Austro-Hungarian empire. — "For twelve years the name of Hungary, as a State, was erased from the map of Europe. Bureaucratic Absolutism ruled supreme in Austria, and did its best to obliterate all Hungar- ian institutions. Germanisation was the order of the day, the German tongue being declared the exclusive language of official hfe as well as of the higher schools. Government was carried on by means of foreign, German, and Czech officials. No vestige was left, not only of the national inde- pendence, but either of Home Rule or of self- government of any sort ; the country was divided into provinces without regard for historical tra- ditions; in short, an attempt was made to wipe out every trace denoting the existence of a sepa- rate Hungary. All ranks and classes opposed a sullen passive resistance to these attacks against the existence of the nation; even the sections of the nationalities which had rebelled against the enactments of 1848, at the instigation of the re- actionary Camarilla, were equally disaffected in consequence of the short-sighted policy of des- potical centralisation. . . . Finally, after the col- lapse of the system of Absolutism in consequence of financial disasters and of the misfortunes of the Italian War of 1859, the Hungarian Parliament was again convoked; and after protracted nego- tiations, broken off and resumed again, the im- practicability of a system of provincial Federal- ism having been proved in the meantime, and the defeat incurred in the Prussian War of 1866 hav- ing demonstrated the futility of any reconstruc- tion of the Empire of Austria in which the na- tional aspirations of Hungary were not taken into due consideration — an arrangement was concluded under the auspices of Francis Deak, Count An- drassy, and Count Beust, on the basis of the full acknowledgment of the separate national existence of Hungary, and of the continuity of its legal rights. The idea of a centralised Austrian Em- pire had to give way to the dual Austro-Hunga- rian monarchy. . . , [a] federation of two equal States, under the common rule of a single sov- ereign, the Emperor of Austria and King of Hun- gary, each of the States having a constitution, gov- ernment, and parliament of its own, Hungary es- pecially retaining, with slight modifications, its ancient institutions remodelled in 1848. The ad- ministration of the foreign policy, the management of the army, and the disbursement of the expendi- ture necessary for these purposes, were settled upon as common affairs of the entire monarchy, for the management of which common ministers were in- stituted, responsible to the two delegations, co- equal committees of the parliaments of Hungary and of the Cisleithanian (Austrian) provinces. Elaborate provisions were framed for the smooth working of these common institutions, for giving weight to the constitutional influence, even in mat- ters of common policy, of the separate Cisleithan- ian and Hungarian ministries, and for rendering their responsibility to the respective Parliaments an earnest and solid reality. The financial ques- tions pending in the two independent and equal States were settled by a compromise ; measures were taken for the equitable arrangement of all mat- ters which might arise in relation to interests touching both States, such as duties, commerce, and indirect taxation, all legislation on these sub- jects taking place by means of identical laws sep- arately enacted by the Parliament of each State. . . . Simultaneously with these arrangements the political differences between Hungary and Croatia were compromised by granting provincial Home Rule to the latter. . . . Thus the organisation of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy on the basis of dualism, and the compromise entered into be- tween the two halves composing it, whilst uniting for the purposes of defence the forces of two States of a moderate size and extent into those of a great empire, able to cope with the exigencies of an adequate position amongst the first-class Powers of Europe, restored also to Hungary its indepen- dence and its unfettered sovereignty in all internal matters." — A. Pulszky, Hungary (National Life and Thought, lecture 3). — "The Ausgleich (q.v.) or agreement with Hungary, was arranged by a committee of 67 members of the Hungarian diet, at the head of whom was the Franklin of Hungary, Francis Deak, the true patriot and inexorable le- gist, who had taken no part in the revolutions but who had never given up one of the smallest of the rights of his country. ... On the 8th of June [1867], the emperor Francis Joseph was crowned with great pomp at Pesth. On the 28th of the following June, he approved the decisions of the diet, which settled the position of Hungary with regard to the other countries belonging to his majesty, and modified some portions of the laws of 1848. . . . Since the Ausgleich the empire has consisted of two parts. . . . For the sake of clear- ness, political language has been increased by the invention of two new terms, Cisleithania and Transleithania, to describe the two groups, sep- arated a little below Vienna by a small affluent of 705 AUSTRIA, 1866-1877 Badeni's Language Decrees AUSTRIA, 1897 the Danube, called the Leitha— a stream which never expected to become so celebrated."— L. Leger, History of Aitstro-Hungary, ch. 35 —See also Hun- gary: '1856-1868. Also in: Francis Deak, A Memon, ch 26-31 — Count von Beust, Memoirs, v. 2. ch: 38— L. Felber- mann, Hungarv and its people, ch. 5. _ 1866-1877.— interest in Rumanian indepen- dence. See RuM.^Nn: 1866-IQ14. 1868.— Rule of Galicia.— Autonomy and lan- guage question. See Poland; 1867-1910. 1869-1883.— Parochial poor relief abolished. See Charities: .\ustria and Hungary: i783-i9oq_ 1873. — Government control of telegraphs. See Telegraphs and telephones: 1873: Austria-Hun- gary. 1878.— Occupation of Bosnia-Herzegovina.— Treaty of Berlin. See Bosnia-Herzegovina: 1878; and Turkey: 1878, 1881 —Attitude at international conference on bimetallism standard. See Money and banking: Modern: 1867-18Q3. . 1883.— Establishment of Postal Savings Bank. See Postal savings banks. 1884-1907.— Social legislation. See Social betterment: Austria; Charities; Austria. 1889 (January 30).— Tragedy of Myerling.— Death of the Archduke Rudolph, only son of the Emperor Francis Joseph.— Various conflicting reports have appeared during the past thirty years as to the manner in which the heir-apparent to the Austro-Hungarian thrones met his death m the hunting lodge at Meyerling, near Vienna. The official and generally accepted theory points to suicide; other accounts declare that the archduke and the young Baroness Vecsera (or Vetsera) were slain. Perhaps the most recent version is that published by H. Vivian, "Francis Joseph and his court" (iQi7)- 1893-1900. — Race jealousies and conflicts.— Curtailment of the power of the Germans in Austria.— Ministry of Badeni.— Enlarged fran- chise.— Count Badeni's language decrees for Bohemia.— Its effect on Austrian constitutional history.— "While the Monarch thus showed him- self alive to the importance of maintaining dy- nastic rights in Hungary, he succeeded in .\ustria in reducing the Germans to a position compara- tively commensurate with their numerical strength. The process of reduction naturally caused race friction, since almost every advantage obtained by the non-Germans implied some loss to vested German interests and to German predominance in the Bureaucracy. Taaffe, the Emperor's chief agent in the execution of this policy, fell in 1893 in an attempt to fulfil the Imperial wish that, as 3 means of curtailing the power of German cliques and corporations, a certain section of the Aus- trian Chamber should be elected by universal suf- frage. Three years later Badeni, a Pole, who suc- ceeded Taaffe,' actually introduced a universal suf- frage section, or Curia, of seventy-two deputies into the Austrian system of franchise— a proceed- ing which shows how tenaciously the Emperor, as head of the dynasty, clung to the idea of enfran- chising and using the masses for dynastic pur- poses. But Badeni, in his eagerness to strengthen the Slav position, imprudently issued ministerial ordinances to establish the administrative equality of the Czech language with German throughout Bo- hemia. [See also Bohemia: 1848-1897.] There- upon the Germans revolted and obstructed all par- liamentary business until the language ordinances were withdrawn. The Emperor, yielding to the pressure of a popular agitation in Vienna, hur- riedly dismissed Badeni, and, after German in- dignation had found vent in a pseudo-Protestant, anti-Hapsburg movement, known by its catch- word, 'Los von Rom!' ultimately sanctioned the withdrawal of the ordinances. The rapidity with which the Los von Rom!- movement subsided as soon as its Pan-German, anti-Hapsburg character became apparent, and the growth of a loyal Ger- man 'Christian Social' party under Lueger, speed- ily demonstrated the power of the dynasty even over iLs German subjects; but a not less important feature of the crisis was the gradual establishment of 'constitutional absolutism' by the abuse or elas- tic use of the Clause 14, the 'Emergency Para- graph' of the 1867 Constitution. Unspeakably tiresome as were the vicissitudes of the conflict arising out of Badeni's Language Ordinances, they marked a turning-point in Austrian Constitutional historv. Under the influence of parliamentary ob- struction, carried on by the Germans until the or- dinances were withdrawn and, after their with- drawal, bv the Slavs of Bohemia, the Government emploved with increasing frequency the 'Emer- gency Paragraph' for the despatch of public busi- ness. Austrian Parliamentarism was gradually turned into a svstcm under which, on the one hand, the divergent interests of races, groups and parties were exploited by the Government, and the necessities of the Government were, on the other hand, exploited by races, groups and parties at the expense of taxpayers; and the fact was clearly revealed that no Austrian race or party would hesitate to sell the Constitution at a price. Each partv in turn obstructed parliamentary busi- ness in order to extort concessions from a govern- ment composed mainly of officials. Had the .Aus- trian Constitution been imposed upon the Crown by popular will, the position of parliament might have been stronger, and the respect of political parties for the integrity of the Constitution might have been greater. Watchfulness would have been the more necessary in that the .Austrian Constitu- tion of 1867 is so framed as to facilitate an oc- casional return to absolutism. The 'Emergency Paragraph,' the widest of the doors through which the return could be made, runs:— 'Should, at a time when the Rcichsrath is not sitting, urgent necessity arise for enactments to which the assent of the' Reichsrath is constitutionally requisite, these enactments can be promulgated by Imperial ordinance on the responsibility of the whole Cabi- net provided such ordinances aim at effecting no change of the Constitutional Statute itself, at placing no permanent burden upon the Treasury, and concern no sale of State property. Such or- dinances possess provisionallv the force of law when thev are signed by all the Ministers and are prom'ulgated with express reference to this Clause of the Constitution. Their legal validity lapses if the government fails to submit them for approval to the next Reichsrath, and, in the first place, to the Chamber of Deputies within three weeks of its meeting; or if the ordinances fail to receive the assent of either of the two Houses of the Reichsrath. The Cabinet as a whole is re- sponsible for the immediate abrogation of such ordinances when thev have lost their provisional validity.' "— H. W. Steed, Hapsburg monarchy, pp. 1897 (October-December). — Scenes in the Austrian Reichsrath described by Mark Twain. "Here in Vienna in these closing days of 1897 one's blood gets no chance to stagnate. The at- mosphere is brimful of political electricity. All conversation is political ; every man is a battery, with brushes overworn, and gives out blue sparks when you set him going on the common topic. Things have happened here recently which 706 AUSTRIA, 1897 Scene in the Reichsrath AUSTRIA, 1897 would set any country but Austria on fire from end to end, and upset the government to a cer- tainty; but no one feels confident that such re- sults will follow here. Here, apparently, one must wait and see what will happen, then he will kno-.v, and not before; guessing is idle; guessing cannot help the matter. This is what the wise tell you ; they all say it ; they say it every day, and it is the sole detail upon which they all agree. There is some approach to agreement upon an- other point: that there will be no revolution, . . . Nearly every day some one explains to me that a revolution would not succeed here. 'It couldn't, you know. Broadly speaking, all the nations in the empire hate the government — but they all hate each other too, and with devoted and enthusiastic bitterness; no two of them can combine; the na- tion that rises must rise alone ; then the others would joyfully join the government against her, and she would have just a fly's chance against a combination of spiders. This government is en- tirely independent. It can go its own road, and do as it pleases; it has nothing to fear. In coun- tries like England and America, where there is one tongue and the public interests are common, the government must take account of public opinion; but in Austria-Hungary there are nineteen public opinions — one for each state. No — two or three for each state, since there are two or three nation- alities in each. \ government cannot satisfy all these public opinion? ; it can only go through the motions of trying. This government does that. It goes through the motions, and they do not suc- ceed; but that does not worry the government much.' . . . "The recent troubles have grown out of Count Badeni's necessities. He could not carry on his government without a majority vote in the House at his back, and in order to secure it he had to make a trade of some sort. He made it with the Czechs — the Bohemians. The terms were not easy for him: he must pass a bill making the Czech tongue the official language in Bohemia in place of the German. This created a storm. All the Germans in Austria were incensed. In numbers they form but a fourth part of the empire's popu- lation, but they urge that the country's public business should be conducted in one common tongue, and that tongue a world language — which German is. However, Badeni secured his ma- jority. The German element was apparently be- come helpless. The Czech deputies were exultant. Then the music began. Badeni's voyage, instead of being smooth, was disappointingly rough from the start. The government must get the Ausgleich through. It must not fail. Badeni's majority was ready to carry it through; but the minority was determined to obstruct it and delay it until the obnoxious Czech-language measure should be shelved. "The Ausgleich is an Adjustment, Arrangement, Settlement, which holds Austria and Hungary to- gether [see Austria: X866-1867I. It dates from 1867, and has to be renewed every ten years. It establishes the share which Hungary must pay toward the expenses of the imperial government. Hungary is a kingdom (the Emperor of Austria is its King), and has its own parliament and gov- ernmental machinery. But it has no foreign of- fice, and it has no army — at least its army is a part of the imperial army, is paid out of the im- perial treasury, and is under the control of the imperial war office. The ten-year rearrangement was due a year ago, but failed to connect. At least completely, A year's compromise was ar- ranged. A new arrangement must be effected be- fore the last day of this year Otherwise the two countries become separate entities. The Emperor would still be King of Hungary — that is. King of an independent foreign country. There would be Hungarian custom-houses on the Austrian frontier and there would be a Hungarian army and a Hun- garian foreign office. Both countries would be weakened by this, both would suffer damage. The Opposition in the House, although in the minority, had a good weapon to fight with in the pending Ausgleich. If it could delay the Ausgleich a few weeks, the government would doubtless have to withdraw the hated language bill or lo.^e Hungary. "The Opposition began its fight. Its arms were the Rules of the House, It was soon manifest that by applying these Rules ingeniously, it could make the majority helpless, and keep it so as long as it pleased. It could shut off business every now and then with a motion to adjourn. It could require the ayes and noes on the motion, and use up thirty minutes on that detail. It could call for the reading and verification of the minutes of the pieceding meeting, and use up half a day in that way. It could require that several of its members be entered upon the list of permitted sfjeakers previously to the opening of a sitting; and as there is no time limit, further delays could thus be accomplished. These were all lawful weapons, and the men of the Opposition (tech- nically called the Left) were within their rights in using them. They used them to such dire pur- pose that all parliamentary business was para- . lyzed. The Right (the government side) could accomplish nothing. Then it had a saving idea. This idea was a curious one. It was to have the President and the Vice-Presidents of the parlia- ment trample the Rules under foot upon occa- sion ! , , , "And now took place that memorable sitting of the House which broke two records. It lasted the best part of two days and a night, surpassing by half an hour the longest sitting known to the world's previous parliamentary history, and break- ing the long-speech record with Dr. Lecher's twelve-hour effort, the longest flow of unbroken talk that ever came out of one mouth since the world began. At 8.45, on the evening of the 28th of October, when the House had been sitting a few minutes short of ten hours. Dr. Lecher was granted the floor. . . . Then burst out such an- other wild and frantic and deafening clamor as has not been heard on this planet since the last time the Comanches surprised a white settlement at midnight. Yells from the Left, counter-yells from the Right, explosions of yells from all sides at once, and all the air sawed and pawed and clawed and cloven by a writhing confusion of gesturing arms and hands. Out of the midst of the thunder and turmoil and tempest rose Dr. Lecher, serene and collected, and the providential lengtl of him enabled his head to show out above it. He began his twelve-hour speech. At any rate, his lips could be seen to move, and that was evidence. O.i high sat the President imploring order, with his long hands put together as in prayer, and his lips visibly but not bearably speaking. At intervals he grasped his bell and swung it up and down with vigor, adding its keen clamor to the storm weltering there below. Dr, Lecher went on with his pantomime speech, con- tented, untroubled. , , , One of the interrupters who made himself heard was a young fellow of slight build and neat dress, who stood a little apart from the solid crowd and leaned negligently, with folded arms and feet crossed, against a desk. Trim and handsome; strong face and thin features; black hair roughed up; parsimonious mustache; resonant great voice, of good tone and pitch It 707 AUSTRIA, 1897 Scene in the Reichsraih AUSTRIA, 1897 is Wolf, capable and hospitable with sword and pistol. . . . Out of him came early this thunder- ing peal, audible above the storm: " 'I demand the floor. I wish to offer a mo- tion.' "In the sudden lull which followed, the President answered, 'Dr. Lecher has the floor.' "Wolf. 'I move the close of the sitting !' "P. "Representative Lecher has the floor.' [Stormy outburst from the Left — that is, the Op- position.] "Wolj. 'I demand the floor for the introduc- tion of a formal motion. [Pause. 1 Mr. President, are you going to grant it, or not? [Crash of ap- proval from the Left.] I will keep on demanding the floor till I get it.' "P. 'I call Representative Wolf to order. Dr. Lecher has the floor.' . . . "Which was true; and he was speaking, too, calmly, earnestly, and argumentatively ; and the official stenographers had left their places and were at his elbows taking down his words, he leaning and orating into their ears — a most curi- ous and interesting scene. ... At this point a new and most effective noisemaker was pressed into service. Each desk has an extension, consisting of a removable board eighteen inches long, six wide, and a half-inch thick, A member pulled one of these out and began to belabor the top of his desk with it. Instantly other members followed suit, and perhaps you can imagine the result. Of all conceivable rackets it is the most ear-splitting, intolerable, and altogether fiendish. . , . Wolf went on with his noise and with his demands that he be granted the floor, resting his board at in- tervals to discharge criticisms and epithets at the Chair. . . . By-and-by he struck the idea of beat- ing out a tune v\ith his board. Later he decided to stop asking for the floor, and to confer it upon himself. And so he and Dr. Lecher now spoke at the same time, and mingled their speeches with the other noises, and nobody heard either of them. Wolf rested himself now and then from speech- making by reading, in his clarion voice, from a pamphlet. "I will explain that Dr. Lecher was not making a twelve-hour speech for pastime, but for an im- portant purpose. It was the government's inten- tion to push the Ausgleich through its preliminary stages in this one sitting (for which it was the Order of the Day), and then by vote refer it to a select committee. It was the Majority's scheme — as charged by the Opposition — to drown debate upon the bill by pure noise — drown it out and stop it. The debate being thus ended, the vote upon the reference would follow — with victory for the government. But into the government's cal- culations had not entered the possibility of a single-barrelled speech which shoyld occupy the entire time-limit of the sitting, and also get itself delivered in spite of all the noise. ... In the English House an obstructionist has held the floor with Bible-readings and other outside matters; but Dr. Lecher could not have that restful and re- cuperative privilege — he must confine himself strictly to the subject before the House. More than once, when the President could not hear him because of the general tumult, he sent persons to listen and report as to whether the orator was speaking to the subject or not. "The subject was a peculiarly difficult one, and it would have troubled any other deputy to stick to it three hours without exhausting his ammuni- tion, because it required a vast and intimate knowledge — detailed and particularized knowledge — of the commercial, railroading, financial, and in- ternational banking relations existing between two great sovereignties, Hungary and the Empire. But Dr. Lecher is President of the Board of Trade of Jiis city of Briinn, and was master of the situation. ... He went steadily on with his speech ; and always it was strong, virile, felicitous, and to the point. He was earning applause, and this enabled his party to turn that fact to account. Now and then they applauded him a couple of minutes on a stretch, and during that time he could stop speaking and rest his voice without having the floor taken from him. . . . "The Minority staid loyally by their champion. Some distinguished deputies of the Majority staid by him too, compelled thereto by admiration of his great performance. When a man has been speaking eight hours, is it conceivable that he can still be interesting, still fascinating? When Dr. Lecher had been speaking eight hours he was still compactly surrounded by friends who would not leave him and by foes (of all parties) who could not ; and all hung enchanted and wondering upon his words, and all testified their admiration with constant and cordial outbursts of applause. Surely this was a triumph without precedent in his- tory. . . . "In consequence of Dr. Lecher's twe've-hour speech and the other obstructions furnished by the Minority, the famous thirty-three-hour sitting of the House accomphshed nothing. . . . Parlia- ment was adjourned for a week — to let the mem- bers cool off, perhaps — a sacrifice of precious time, for but two months remained in which to carry the all-important Ausgleich to a consumma- tion. . . . "During the whole of November things went from bad to worse. The all-important Ausgleich remained hard aground, and could not be sparred off. Badeni's government could not withdraw the Language Ordinance and keep its majority, and the Opposition could not be placated on easier terms. One night, while the customary pande- monium was crashing and thundering along at its best, a fight broke out. ... On Thanksgiving day the sitting was a history-making one. On that day the harried, bedeviled and despairing gov- ernment went insane. In order to free itself from the thraldom of the Opposition it committed this curiously juvenile crime: it moved an important change of the Rules of the House, forbade debate upon the motion, put it to a stand-up vote instead of ayes and noes, and then gravely claimed that it had been adopted. . . . The House was already standing up; had been standing for an hour; and before a third of it had found out what the Presi- dent had been saying, he had proclaimed the adoption of the motion ! And only a few heard that. In fact, when that House is legislating you can't tell it from artillery-practice. You will realize what a happy idea it was to sidetrack the lawful ayes and noes and substitute a stand-up vote by this fact: that a little later, when a depu- tation of deputies waited upon the President and asked him if he w\is actually willing to claim that that meacure had been passed, he answered. 'Yes — and unanimously.' . . . "The Lex Falkeithayn, thus strangely born, gave the President power to suspend for three days any deputy who should continue to be disorderly after being called to order twice, and it also placed at his disposal such force as might be necessary to make the suspension effective. So the House had a sergeant-at-arms at last, and a more formidable one, as to power," than any other legislature in Christendom had ever possessed. The Lex Fal- kenhayn also gave the House itself authority to suspend members for thirty days. On these terms the Ausgleich could be put through in an hour— 708 AUSTRIA, 1897 Constitutional Government Paralyzed AUSTRIA, 1898 apparently. The Opposition would have to sit meek and quiet, and stop obstructing, or be turned into the street, deputy after deputy, leaving the Majority an unvexed field for its work. "Certainly the thing looked well. . . . [But next day, when the President attempted to open the session, a band of the Socialist members made a sudden charge upon him, drove him and the Vice President from the House, took possession of the tribune, and brought even the semblance of legis- lative proceedings to an end. Then a body of sixty policemen was brought in to clear the House.] Some of the results of this wild freak followed in- stantly. The Badeni government came down with a crash; there was a popular outbreak or two in Vienna; there were three or four days of furious rioting in Prague, followed by the establishing there of martial law; the Jews and Germans were harried and plundered, and their houses destroyed; in other Bohemian towns there was rioting — in some cases the Germans being the rioters, in others the Czechs — and in all cases the Jew had to roast, no matter which side he was on. We are well along in December now ; the new Minister-Presi- dent has not been able to patch up a peace among the warring factions of the parliament, therefore there is no use in calling it together again for the present ; public opinion believes that parliamentary government and the Constitution are actually threatened with extinction, and that the perma- nency of the monarchy itself is a not absolutely certain thing ! "Yes, the Lex Falkenhayn was a great inven- tion, and did what was claimed for it — it got the government out of the frying-pan." — S. L. Clem- ens (Mark Twain), Stirring times in Austria (Harper's Magazine, Mar., 1898). 1397 (December). — Imperial action. — On the last day of the year the emperor closed the sit- tings of the Austrian Reichsrath by proclamation anci issued a rescript continuing the Ausgleich pro- visionally for six months. 1898. — Prolongation of factious disorders. — Paralysis of constitutional government. — Though scenes in the Austrian Chamber were not quite so violent, perhaps, as they had become near the close of iSq7, the state of factious disorder con- tinued much the same throughout the year, and legislation was completely stopped. The work of government could be carried on only by imperial decrees. The ministry of Baron von Gautsch, which had succeeded that of Count Badeni, at- tempted a compromise on the language question in Bohemia by dividing the country into three dis- tricts, according to the distrbution of the several races, in one of which German was to be the official tongue, in another Czech, while both lan- guages were to be used in the third. [See also Bohemia: 1848-1897.] But the Germans of the empire would accept no such compromise. In March, Baron von Gautsch retired, and Count Thun Hohenstein formed a ministry made up to represent the principal factions in the Reichsrath ; but the scheme brought no peace. Nor did ap- peals by Count Thun, "in the name of Austria," to the patriotism and the reason of all parties, to suspend their warfare long enough for a little of the necessary work of the state to be done, have any effect. The turbulence in the legislature in- fected the whole community, and especially, it would seem, the students in the schools, whose disorder caused many lectures to be stopped. In Hungary, too, there was an increase of violence in political agitation. A party, led by the son of Louis Kossuth, struggled to improve what seemed to be an opportunity for breaking the political union of Hungary with Austria, and realizing the old ambition for an independent Hungarian state. The ministry of Baron Banffy had this party against him, as well as that of the clericals, who resented the civil marriage laws, and legislation came to a deadlock nearly as complete in the Hun- garian as in the Austrian Parliament. There, as well as in Austria, the extension of the Ausgleich, provisionally for another year, had to be im- posed by imperial decree. "At the same time, the party regarded it as their obvious duty to emancipate themselves from Rome in a political but not religious sense — that is to say, to free themselves from the influence of the Roman Curia in affairs of state. This boycotted party and program now threatened to win the voluntary or enforced adherence of the advanced section of the other German groups which had hitherto declined to commit themselves to such an extreme policy. The most moderate of all the German parties, that of the constitutional landed proprietors, felt called upon to enter an energetic and indignant protest against the foregoing Pan- Germanic program. While they were convinced supporters of the Austro-German alliance, they unconditionally rejected aspirations which they held to be totally inconsistent with the tried and reliable basis of that agreement, and which would constitute an undignified sacrifice of the indepen- dence of the monarchy. They further declined to make their manifestations of loyalty to the sov- ereign dependent upon any condition ; and they strongly condemned the emancipation from Rome movement as a culpable confusion of the spheres of religion and politics, and an infringement of the liberty of conscience which was calculated to sow dissension among the German element in Aus- tria. The opening session of the newly elected Reichsrath was held January 31, and. the disor- derly temper in it was manifested upon a refer- ence by the president to the death of Queen Vic- toria, which called out cries of hostility to Eng- land from both Germans and Czechs. ... In the course of the proceedings some of the members of the extreme Czech faction warned the prime min- ister in threatening terms against introducing a single word hostile to the Czech nation in the coming speech from the throne. They also an- nounced their intention of squaring accounts with him as soon as the speech from the throne should be delivered. The whole sitting did not last an hour, but what happened sufficed tO' show that not only the Pan-CJermanic Union, but also the extreme section of the German People's party and a couple of radical Czechs, were ready at a mo- ment's notice to transform the Reichsrath into a bear garden. On February 4 the two houses of the Reichsrath were assembled at the palace and addressed by the emperor, in a speech from the throne of which the following is a partial report: "His Majesty referred to various features of leg- islation, including the budget, the revision of the customs tariff, the promotion of trade, industry, and navigation, the protection of the working classes and the regulation of the hours of labour, the government railway projects and the Bosnian lines, and bills for the regulation of emigration, the construction of dwellmgs for the lower classes, the repression of drunkenness, the development of the university system and other educational re- forms, and a revision of the press laws — in fact a whole inventory of the important legislative ar- rears consequent upon the breakdown of Parlia- ment. The following passage occurs in the further course of the speech: 'The constitution which I bestowed upon my dominions in the exercise of my free will ought to be an adequate guarantee for the development of my people. The finances 709 AUSTRIA, 1898 Clerical Conflicts AUSTRIA, 1100 of the state have been put in order in exemplary fashion and its credit has been raised to a high level The freedom of the subject reposes upon a firm foundation, and thanks to the scholastic organization and the extraordinary increase of educational establishments general culture has reached a gratifying standard, which has more es- pecially contributed to the efficiency and intelli- gence of my army. The provincial diets have been able to do much within the limits of their jurisdiction. The beneficial influence of the con- stitutional system has penetrated as far as the communal administrations. I am thus justified in saying that the fundamental laws of the state are a precious possession of my loyal people. Not- withstanding the autonomy enjoyed by certain kingdoms and provinces, they constitute for for- eigners the symbol of the strength and unity of the state. I was, therefore, all the more grieved that the last sessions of the legislature should have had no result, even if I am prepared to ac- knowledge that such business as affected the posi- tion of the monarchy was satisfactorily transacted by all parties.' "The emperor then expressed his regret that other matters of equal importance affecting the interests of Austria had not been disposed of. His majesty made an appeal to the representatives of the Reichsrath to devote their efforts to the necessary and urgent work awaiting them, and assured them that they might count upon the gov- ernment. All attempts at the moral and material development of the empire were, he said, stultified by the nationality strife. Experience had shown that the efforts of the government to bring about a settlement of the principal C|uestions involved therein had led to no result and that it was pref- erable to deal with the matter in the legislature. The government regarded a generally satisfactory solution of the pending language question as being both an act of justice and a necessity of state. Trusting in the good will manifested by all parties, the ministr>' would do its utmost to promote a settlement which would relieve the countp,- of its greatest evil. At the same time, the cabinet was under the obligation of maintaining intact the unity of language in certain departments of the ad- ministration, in which it constituted an old and well-tested institution. Success must never again be sought through paralysing the popular represen- tation. The hindrance of parliamentary work could only postpone or render quite impossible the realization of such aspirations as most deeply affected the public mind. The sovereign then re- ferred to the damage done to the interests of the empire by the obstacles placed in the way of the regular working of the constitution, and pointed to the indispensable necessity of the vigorous co- operation of Parliament in the a[)proaching settle- ment of the commercial relations between the two halves of the monarchy. The speech concluded with a warmly-worded appeal to the representa- tives to establish a peace which would correspond to the requirements of the time and to defend as their fathers had defended 'this venerable state which accords equal protection to all its peoples.' " For troubles with Hungary over budget, sec Hun- gary: 1807-1007. 1898. — Assassination of the Empress Elizabeth. See Austria-Hungary: i.Sq.S (September). 1899-1901. — Change in ministries. — Continued obstruction by German parties in Austria. — Se- cession of German Roman Catholics from their church. — Clerical parties. — Decline in the Reichsrath. — In September. tSqo, the .Austrian ministry of Count Thun ro-igned. and was suc- ceeded by one formed under Count Clary-Aldrin- gen. The new premier withdrew the language de- crees, which quieted the German obstructionists, but provoked the Czechs to take up the same role. Count Clary-Aldringen resigned in Decem- ber, and a provisional ministry was formed under Dr. Wittek, which lasted only until January 19, 1 000, when a new cabinet was formed by Dr. von Korber. In Hungary, Baron Banffy was driven from power in Februar,-, iSog, by a state of things m the Hungarian Parliament much like that in the Austrian. M. Koloman Szell, who succeeded him, effected a compromise with the opposition which enabled him to carry a measure extending the Ausgleich to 1007. This brought one serious difficulty of the situation to an end. During most of the year i8oq the German parties in the Aus- trian Reichsrath continued to make legislation impossible by disorderly obstruction, with the avowed purpose of compelling the government to withdraw the language decrees in Bohemia. A still more significant demonstration of German feeling and policy appeared, in a wide-spread and organized movement to detach German Roman Catholics from their church, partly, it would seem, as a proceeding of hostility to the Clerical party, and partly as a means of recommending the Ger- mans of the Austrian states to the sympathy of the German empire, and smoothing the approach to an ultimate union of some of those states with the Germanic federation. The agitation against the Catholic church is called "Los von Rom." — "The Church in Austria is less a State Church than an ecclesiastical department of the State, working lika the army, the bureaucracy, and the police in the interests of 'government.' The 'Los von Rom,' or rather 'Los von Habsburg' move- ment ... led to the formation of clerical so- cieties, notably the Societies of St. Boniface and St. Raphael, to combat anti-Catholic and anti- Hapsburg tendencies and to support a German race-movement on Catholic lines. The Heir-Ap- parent, Archduke Francis Ferdinand, accepted the protectorship of a Catholic Schulverein or Schools Association; Dr. Lueger and his Christian Social followers attacked the preponderance of anti- Clerical and Jewish influence in the Universities; and subsequently the Piusverein was founded to support the Catholic anti-Jewish press, several of whose organs gradually acquired considerable cir- culation and influence. . . . The 'Los von Rom' peril having been warded off, the Clerical organiza- tions engaged in a violent and sometimes thor- oughly unscrupulous campaign against Social De- mocracy, whose progress had inspired uneasiness in the highest quarters." — H. W. Steed, Hapsbiwg monarrliy. pp. 106-107, 116-117. — From the par- liamentary elections held in January the Clerical and anti-Semitic parties came back to the Reichs- rath shorn of about one-third of their strength. while the various radical factions, especially those among the Germans, appear to have made con- siderable gains. Even in the Tyrol, one of the strongest of the Clerical leaders, Baron Di Pauli, was defeated, and in Vienna the anti-Semitic ma- jority was cut to less than one-fourth of what it had been three years before. 1900 (February). — Attempted pacification of German and Czech parties by a conciliation board. — "On Monday last [February 5] the Ger- man and Czech Conciliation Board met for the first time in Vienna, under the presidency of the Austrian Premier, Dr. von Korber, and conferred for two hours. . . . Dr. von Korber is at the head of what may be called a 'business' Ministry, com- posed largely of those who had filled subordinate offices in previous Ministries. It was hoped, per- haps, that, since the leading politicians with a 710 AUSTRIA, 1900 Struggle for Suffrage AUSTRIA, 1906-1909 political 'past' could apparently do nothing to bring about a settlement, men with no past, but with a capacity for business, and in no way com- mitted on the racial question, might do better in effecting a working arrangement. The appoint- ment of this Conciliation Board seemed a prom- ising way of attempting such a settlement. Dr. von Korber opened Monday's proceedings with a strong appeal to both sides, saying; 'Gentlemen, the Empire looks to you to restore its happiness and tranquillity.' It cannot be said that the Em- pire is likely to find its wishes fulfilled, for when the Board came down to hard business, the old troubles instantly revealed themselves. The Pre- mier recommended a committee for Bohemia of twenty-two members, and one for Moravia of fifteen members, the two sitting in joint session in certain cases. Dr. Engel then set forth the historical claims of the Czechs, which immedi- ately called forth a demand from Dr. Funke, of the German party, that German should be de- clared the official language throughout Austria. Each speaker seems to have been supported by his own party, and so no progress was made, and matters remain in 'statu quo ante.' The sin- gularly deticicnt constitution of this Board makes against success, for it seems that the German Nationalists and Anti-Semites have only one dele- gate apiece, the Social Democrats were not invited at all, while the extreme Germans and extreme Czechs, apparently regarding the Board as a farce, declined to nominate delegates to its sittings. . . . There is unhappily Kttle reason for believing that the Board of Conciliation will effect what the Emperor himself has failed tn accomplish." — Spectator (London), Feb. lo, iqoo. 1900 (July 1). — Marriage of Archduke Francis Ferdinand. — Morganatic marriage of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand (heir to the throne) and the Countess Sophie Chotek took place in 1900. — See also Austria-Hungary: igoo. 1900 (September-December). — Economic de- cline. See Austria-Hungary: igoo (September- December) . 1900-1904. — Cessation of obstruction during the Koerber ministry. — Administration of public finance. — "The -Austrian Chamber has never re- vised or rejected an Imperial ordinance is- sued under the Emergency Paragraph It has never seriously called a blameworthy ministry to account for abuse of its powers; and when, under the Koerber Ministry of 1900-1004, obstruction ceased for a time and supply was normally voted, this result was obtained not by a revival of Con- stitutional feeling on the part of the Chamber of Deputies, but by the announcement of an enor- mous programme of railway and canal construc- tion, estimated to cost some £40,000,000 and cost- ing in reality as much again. All the chief parties then sank their differences for a time in order to feed at the Government manger. Not even the provision that the Emergency Paragraph may not be used 'to place any permanent burden on the Treasury' has been respected in practice. . . . Tez- ner rightly deplores the dangers to which the ad- ministration of public finance in .Austria is thus exposed, and points out that it would be difficult to find, even in the absolutist epochs of Austrian history, a parallel for the Imperial Ordinance of July 16, igo4, by which suits pending before the Imperial Tribunal against the Treasury, were simply quashed because previous decisions of the Tribunal in si:nilar cases had rendered a condem- nation of the Treasury probable. Though this denial of justice was committed by Imperial Or- dinance, the absolutist spirit from which it pro- ceeded was rather that of the bureaucracy than that of the Monarch. Between these two abso- lutisms the difference is considerable, and, of the two. Imperial absolutism is the less insidious." — H. W. Steed, Hapsburg monarchy, pp. 38, 39. 1901. — Dissatisfaction with the commercial Ausgleich. See .Austria-Hungary: 1QOO-1903. 1902-1908. — Strikes of Ukrainians in Galicia. — Assassination of Count Potocki by Ukrainian student. See Ukraine; 1840-1914. 1905-1906. — Attitude toward assimilation with Hungary. See .\ustria-Hungary: igos-igoo. 1905-1911. — Suppression of Socialist agitations for universal suffrage. — Press muzzled. — "In the autumn of 1905 a Socialist manifestation in fa- vour of universal suffrage was violently sup- pressed; blood was shed and arrests were made. But within a week the wind in the higher regions had changed, and the Government had veered round in favour of universal suffrage. A huge Socalist demonstration was organized in agreement with the police which was instructed by the Gov- ernment to evacuate the main thoroughfare of Vienna, the Ringsrasse, and to leave it for sev- eral hours entirely to the Socialists. The police guarded only the Hofburg or Imperial Palace. In the autumn of igii, a Socialist agitation of which the Government did not approve was directed against the Agrarians and the rise in the prices of food for which the Agrarians were held respon- sible. The police and the military suppressed it with vigour, a number of lives being lost. On this occasion the Courts inflicted severe sentences upon boys not out of their teens, and punished with long terms of imprisonment any culprit who confessed that he had thrown a stone. . . . The Austro-Hungarian press is almost entirely under official control when dealing with questions of foreign policy and that the public rarely gets an inkling of the merits of a situation that may in- volve the country in war. During the Morocco crisis of 1005-1906, .Austro-Hungarian ignorance of the position of affairs in Europe was complete. Not until after the Conference of Algeciras in .April 1906, did any Austrian journal lay before its readers an intelligible account of the origin and course of the crisis. The German Press Bureau conducted its campaign against France and Eng- land even more in Austro-Hungarian than in Ger- man journals. Even when, after the diplomatic defeat of Germany at Algeciras, the Xeue Freie. Presse allowed M. Georges Clemenceau to state in its columns the bare facts concerning the re- cent past — facts that gave the lie to the inventions which the Neue Freie Presse and its contempora- ries had previously foisted upon the public — it continued tranquilly its campaign of conscious untruthfulness and left its readers bewildered. Similarly, before and during the annexation crisis of igo8-igoo, Austrian journals, under the in- fluence of Count Aehrenthal's Press Bureau, rig- orously excluded from their columns all informa- tion contrary to the official thesis, and waged war, not only against Russia and Servia, but against the best interests of the Monarchy itself. Nemesis overtook the Press Bureau and its organs during the recent Balkan war. Events belied official and semi-official doctrine so rapidly and unmistakably that the public actually awoke to the situation and understood for a moment the deleterious ef- fects, moral and material, of Government control of the press and of the constant inoculation of the public mind with mendacious statement and mis- leading suggestion" — H. W. Steed, Hapsburg mon- arcliv, pp. 06, 110-200. 1906-1909. — Reformed electoral law of Austria. — "December 1006 saw the passing of the law which granted the franchise to every male Aus- 711 AUSTRIA, 1906-1909 Reformed Electoral Law AUSTRIA, 1906-1909 trian citizen over twenty-four years of age and resident for at least a year in tlie place of the election ; each elector had only one vote. The number of deputies was now increased from 425 to 516. It was a vast unprepared revolution, a new and unlooked-for freedom, described by some one as a leap in the dark. Conjectures as to its results seemed impossible, because with the aban- donment of the old electoral system of the curia a new army of millions of electors entered the field, and because, too, by the new arrangement established in the constituencies new conditions were created for the elections. The constituencies, which under the new system are divided into town and fountry districts, have not all — as in Ger- many — the same number of voters, but a varying quantity, ranging from 12,000 to 80,000; thus relatively the towns elect more deputies than the rural districts. The new Parliament had two great tasks before it: the final suppression of the nationalist wars and the introduction of an ac- tive and productiv,e popular social policy — in short, the complete cure of the two maladies which had destroyed and killed the old Chamber of Privileges. Every one hoped that it would ac- complish them. The General Election was an- nounced for May 1907. An obscure, interminable crowd rose up from the depths. In the last elec- tions of i8g7, under the old system 1,217,993 elect- ors recorded their votes; in 1907, 4,615,020 voters went to the poll. The people were animated by a new and lively spirit. Under the former regime the political life of the country and its Parliament had left the masses cold and indifferent; the av- erage percentage of voters in the fifth curia, which, as we have said, practically gave the franchise to every Austrian citizen, did not exceed 34 per cent. In 1907 the number of those voting was 82 per cent. ; in certain provinces it increased enormously — in Dalmatia from 4 to 48 per cent. ; in Galicia from 33 to 8s per cent.; in the Bukowina from 13 to 69 per cent. Under this formidable popular pressure the old political world broke up com- pletely. In the former system of the privileged classes there were only individuals — there was no definite party idea: a small group supported each individual who then represented its interests. With universal suffrage the modern principle of party politics became a necessity. The general party idea, expressed in a programme intelligible to every one, was the only thing which appealed to the bulk of the electors, who had no personal knowledge of the candidate for whom they voted. Again: in the open competition of universal suf- frage the real organizations would naturally tri- umph over the fluctuating electoral circles of the former parties. This explains the marvellous and unexpected triumph of the two new elements, really the only ones which formed a solid party: the Christian Socialists and the Socialists. Both of them commanded vast economic organizations, which now became powerful political forces. The representatives of the former in the Chamber rose from 27 to 66, those of the latter from 11 to 86. In 1907 no Parliament in Europe had a Socialist party so strong as the Austrian one. ... On the other hand, the old political ranks were decimated. Notwithstanding the addition of nearly a hundred seats in Parliament, only a third of the former members were returned. The three dominant groups of the old Chamber fell to pieces: of the 45 Young Czechs of former days only 4 were re- elected at the first count, of the 100 and more German Liberals only 60 survived, while the proud Polish nobility disappeared altogether. Even the very Ministers of the old Parliament, who had prepared the suffrage reform, fell before the rising tide of the new people. The Parliament of Universal Suffrage was divided into two great parties: the 'Red' or Socialist and the 'Black' or Christian Socialist (or Clerical). The 'Blue' rep- resented by the Agrarian nobility had disappeared. It was called the 'Small Man's Parliament,' and, in truth, rested entirely on the lower strata. The great majority of its electors belonged to the low- est categories as regards incomes, those ranging from a mere daily wage to an annual return of 3,000 crowns (£125). Politically, this was cer- tainly its weak point, but at the same time it might have become its strength socially. In all important European Parliaments, even those elected by a democratic suffrage, there is always a select minority, representing the rich and cultured classes, which directs the general policy and legislation. In the German Reichstag, side by side with the Socialists and the Clericals, there is still [1915] a Conservative party of Protestant Agrarians and a National Liberal party representing the interests of industry, trade, and circulating capital. In the new Austrian Parliament, on the other hand, the 'Blacks' and the 'Reds' were not longer opposed by another real cohesive group, but by little ghosts of parties. Above all, that intermediate element known as Liberal was lacking. Capital, industry, trade, and culture, represented principally by the old German Liberal middle classes, had been turned out. The host of small people, risen at one bound, was entirely new to politics and below the average level of education. Twenty-five of the deputies were professors in a university or in higher-grade schools, 106 were professional men, more than 40 were priests; the remainder were recruited from school-masters, artisans, and workingmen, many of whom, being editors of small technical news- papers, posed as journalists. Any valuable ele- ments that still remained were almost all a legacy from the old regime. Socially, the Austrian Par- liament of 1907 should have possessed a formi- dable new power; it was united and homogeneous on the economic and social side as it had! never been before. The two victorious parties, the Christian Socialists and the Socialists, at the op- posite poles in their political opinions, in their social spirit, on the other hand, seemed to meet and be at one. Both of them, springing from the working classes, the peasants, and the small trades- people, represented the poor. They stood for an economic Radicalism, surmounting racial antag- onisms, and they professed a political Radicalism in their programme. Had the policy of the new Parliament been directed on the basis of statis- tical data, on the relative strength of the differ- ent parties, it would have meant a complete change and renewal. In its composition the Chamber of Universal Suffrage seemed to possess all the con- ditions necessary for the great popular social re- forms that were expected from it. The speech from the Throne solemnly announced them; the people's hopes were raised. It was the dawn of freedom and progress, a thrilling historic moment for the new Austria. Time went by, however, and disillusionment commenced. The stuff the new Chamber was made of was quickly seen. The appointment of the first President, Weisskirchner — a man without individuality, drawn from that Christian Socialist party which has its stronghold in the Municipal Council of Vienna, and nomi- nated for the position by the Burgomaster Lueger, whose creature he was — denoted the complete sub- jection of the .Austrian Empire to the Municipal Council of the capital. The years passed, still the Parliament lived and discussed, the newspapers dedicated long reports to it, but the hoped-for reforms still tarried. At the end of four years 712 AUSTRIA, 1907 Renewed Language Quarrel AUSTRIA, 1909 the net result of its labours could be summed up in one word: Nothing. Beyond the compromise with Hungary, the Austrian Chamber had preved itself absolutely incapable of accomplishing any- thing new. A general and radical reform of the State and provincial finances was promised; they did not even attempt to discuss it; there was not even, one may say, a real general debate on the Budget. When money was needed recourse was had to small makeshift remedies to safeguard ftie fiscal interests alone, while new taxes and new debts were sanctioned. A promise had been given of a revision of administration and Justice, a re- modelling of the bureaucracy, of the civil and penal laws, survivals from other times, and of outworn laws relating to the Press and to Friendly Societies; but nothing got beyond commissions and subcommissions, if even so far as that. A new active social policy had been promised, a magnificent scheme of insurance for the working classes, for old age, and for sickness was proposed, and it was not passed nor even pushed forward for decision. The task of the Parliament of Uni- versal Suffrage reduced itself merely to dispatching day by day the immediately necessary business, with provisional legislation renewable at short notice. Meanwhile the old national struggles had begun afresh; the policy of obstruction was regu- larly practised by the Czechs, who once (Decem- ber iS-iQ, iQog) by their continuous lengthy speeches contrived that a session should last un- interruptedly for eighty-six hours. The old spirit remained unchanged. The Socialist party was un- able to defend the liberty of education, to break the all-powerful Clerical monopoly of the schools, or to save the mass of the town-dwellers from the tragic rise in the cost of living caused by the unbridled egoism of the Agrarian party. No Lib- eral party knew how to profit by the critical and decisive moments — when there was urgent need of money or of a reform of the army at enormous cost — to strengthen its constitutional rights against the superior powers. Even the popular impetus which should have flooded and inspired the whole of the new policy was lacking. Thirty years ago the Parliament of the Curias fiercely opposed the occupation of Bosnia, several times even provok- ing the intervention of the Crown; the new Peoples' Parliament meekly ratified the annexa- tion, costing some 500,000,000 crowns (about £20,- 800,000)." — V. Gayda, Modern Austria: Its racial and social problems, pp. 52-57. — See also Austria- Huncivry: igo5-igo6. 1907. — Effects of universal and equalized suf- frage in Austria. — Elections were held in Austria a few months after the passage of the law which introduced equal and universal male suffrage, and the character and disposition of the elected Reichs- rath, which met in June, 1907, afforded indications of some remarkable effects from the extension and equalizing of the franchise. It was expected, of course, to popularize the Reichsrath, and break the domination of the upper classes in that body; but, according to reports, it has done much more. Prior to iSq6, the members of the ahgeordneten or lower house of the Reichsrath, then number- ing 353, were all divided into four sections, elected by four classes of people. The new law swept away the whole system of a classified representa- tion, and the representative house was leveled to one footing, as a body of deputies from the people at large. The most conspicuous effect of this in the elections appears to have been a sudden break of the power which the German element in the much-mixed population of the Austrian dominion had been able to exercise hitherto. Hence, it must be the fact that the Germans held far more than their proportion of the property which the old system represented, and derived from that, for- merly, a weight in the Reichsrath which their numbers cannot give them on the equalized vote. Altogether, in the various Cisleithan states — the two Austrias proper, Bohemia, Moravia, Galicia, Silesia, Salzburg, Tyrol, Styria, Carinthia, Car- niola, Istria, Dalmatia — they formed a little more than one third of the total population, the other two thirds being mainly Slavonic, in many di- visions, principally Czech, Polish, and Slovene. — See also Suffrage, Manhood: Austria. 1907. — Final negotiations of a new financial Ausgleich. See Austria-Hungary: 1907. 1908-1909. — "Greater Serbia conspiracy." — Agram trials. — Friedjung trial. See Austria- Hungary: igoS-igog. 1909. — Language quarrel in Austria. — "Amid deafening uproar from the Czech Radicals, the Austrian premier has submitted to the Chamber [February 3, 1909] two bills for the regulation of the Bohemian language question. The bills, which in present circumstances appear to have little chance of becoming law, divicie Bohemia into 239 judicial and 20 administrative districts. Of the former, 95 are German, 138 Czech, and the re- mainder mixed, while of the administrative dis- tricts five are German, 10 Czech, and five mixed. In the German districts German is to be the pre- dominant language, and in the Czech districts Czech, while in the mixed districts, which include Prague, the two languages are placed on an equal footing. Provision is, however, made for the use of either language if necessary throughout the whole province." — A^. Y. Evening Post. A telegram to the same journal from Vienna, March 10, reported: "The Lower House of the Austrian Parliament, which closed on February 5, after a scene of extraordinary turbulence aris- ing from old racial ill-feeling between the Ger- mans and the Czechs, reopened to-day with every promise of a continuance of the disorders. The galleries of the House were crowded with partisans of the two factions, and as soon as the ministers appeared hostile shouts came from the Czech and radical benches, drowning the cheers of the mem- bers of the Left party and the Poles. "Premier von Bienerth, amid an incessant tu- mult, declared the nineteenth session opened, say- ing he hoped the work would be crowned with success and the proceedings not disturbed. His statement sounded ironical in face of the un- broken uproar." The following is a later press despatch, No- vember 2, from Vienna: "The Emperor has ac- cepted the resignations of the two Czech Min- isters in the Austrian Cabinet, and has sanctioned the laws adopted by the Diets of Upper and Lower Austria, Salzburg and Vorarlberg, to es- tablish the unilingual German character of those provinces. In the name of the Czech people the Czech National Council addressed yesterday a telegram to the Emperor begging that the laws might not be sanctioned, since, runs the telegram, they affect the honour of the Czech people and must cause constant racial strife both in the prov- inces and in Vienna, 'which is not only the capital of Lower Austria, but is also the capital of the whole empire and of all its races. These laws are a dangerous beginning of constitutional changes in your Majesty's glorious empire.' A copy of the telegram was sent to the Polish leader, Dr. Glom- binski, with an 'expression of the deepest regret that members of the Polish party should have supported as Ministers these anti-Slav laws.' " A revival of turbulent obstruction to legislative proceedings in the lower house of the Austrian 713 AUSTRIA, 1910 World War Republic Created AUSTRIA, 1919 Reichsrath led, at last, in December, to the enact- ment of rules which so enlarged the powers of the speaker as to enable him to suppress factious obstruction ?nd to suspend deputies whc cutiage the decencies of behavior in the Chamber. The measure was limited in its operation to a year, but was expected to be prolonged. 1910. — Statistics of trade unions. See Labor ORO.^N'IZ.'iTION: IQIO-IQig. 1913-1918. — Strife for territory in Galicia. See Galici.a: iqi3-iQiS. 1914. — Attitude of peoples in the Dual Mon- archy towards the World War. See .\ustria- Hu.N'GARv: 1014-1915. 1914. — Economic and political situation. See World War: Diplomatic background: 12. 1914-1915.— Pan-German plan. See Pan-Ger- hu.nism: Pan-German League and its branches. 1914-1917. — Attitude of Poland in war against Russia. See Poland: 1914-1017. 1914-1918. — Shipping, effect of World War. See Commerce: Commercial age: 1914-1921. 1915. — Adriatic question. See .\driatic ques- tion: Treaty of London. 1916 (November 21). — Death of the Emperor Francis Joseph. See .\ustria-Hungarv: 1916 (November 21). 1916-1917. — Accession of Charles I. — Great in- terest was centered on the appearance of Charles I (emperor of .Austria and king of Hungary), before the Reichsrath in the spring of 191 7. The youth- ful monarch (twenty-nine years old at the corona- tion) succeeded his great-uncle, Francis Joseph I (whose reign up to his death lasted for sixty-eight years), on November 21, 1916. With war raging for over two years on all the fronts of the em- pire, Emperor Charles' address vaguely held forth promises of giving recognition to the aspirations of the people in Galicia and the kingdom of Bo- hemia. He alluded to the new phase the Russian situation had taken and declared that .Austria- Hungary was always ready to extend a helping hand to its neighbor on the East, at the same time inferring that with another such loss to the .•\llies the "good end of the war will be achieved." — He also declared, "I shall always be a just, af- fectionate, and conscientious ruler of my dear peoples in the sense of the constitutional idea which we have taken over as a heritage from our forefathers, and in the spirit of that true democ- racy which during the storms of the world war has wonderfully stood the ordeal of fire in the achievements of the entire people at home and at the front." — See also .\ustria-Hungarv: 1916- 1917. 1917-1918. — Economic dependence on Hun- gary. See Hvng.^rv: 1917-1918. 1917-1918. — Disintegration of subject nation- alities. See .\ustrl\-Hvngarv: r9i7-i9i8. 1918. — Armistice with the Allies, November 3. See .■\rsTRn-HuNGARv; 1918: Military debacle; and Italy: iqiS. 1918-1919.— New political factions.— Abdica- tion of Charles I. — Karl Seitz elected president. — The signing of the armistice on November II, 1918, brought out four political groups striv- ing for ascendancy in German .\ustria. One of these was the German National Committee, of which a number of Socialists like Herr Seitz were members. .Another was the Viennese Democrats who were opposed to any union with Germany. The third group was chiefly made up of workmen who held extreme views, and lastly, a party headed by Cardinal Piffl, which was aiming, through un- derground methods, at the restoration nl the monarchy. This plot was soon discovered and Cardinal Piffl was placed under guard. .At the very outset German Austria voiced its desire to be annexed by Germany. Under Secretary of State Bauer at V'ienna, in a telegram to Commis- sioner Haase of Berlin, declared on November 15, 1918, "German .Austria has given expression to its will to be united again with the other parts of the German Nation from which it was forcibly separated fifty-two years ago." The telegram also urged that negotiations for such a union be entered into without delay. ".Austrian general elections were held on February 15, 1919, with four million men and women participating. The National Constituent .Assembly, thus chosen, con- vened on March 4, its membership comprising 70 Social Democrats, 04 Christian Socialists (Cleric- als), and 91 adherents of minor groups. Karl Seitz, leader of the Social Democrats, was elected president ; a coalition ministry of Social Democrat.^ and Christian Socialists was formed under Karl Renner as chancellor; and a republican constitu- tion for German .Austria was drafted and subse- quently adopted. [See below 1920 (October-De- cember)]. Ex-Emperor Charles [who had abdi- cated November 12] sought refuge in Switzerland in March, 1919 ' — C. J. H. Hayes, Brief history of the great -war, p. 35b. — See also .Austria-Hungary: iQiS: German Austria becomes a republic. 1919 (June). — Boundaries with Germany fixed at Peace Conference. — Independence recognized by Germany. See Versailles, Treaty of: Part II; Part III: Section VI. 1919. — Austrian settlement. — Treaty of St. Germain (Sept. 10, 1919). — "The preliminary draft of the .Austrian Treaty had been presented to the enemy delegates on June 2. The terms were regarded in Vienna as a 'death sentence,' and the government strove desperately to secure some ame- lioration. The remnant of the .Austrian Empire, however, which constituted the republic with which the .Allies were dealing was bankrupt. starving, and threatened w'ith revolution, and it was in no position to resist. [For reduced domin- ions, see Europe: Modern Period: New map ol Europe.] The attitude of the .Austrian negotiators was more conciliatory than that of the Germans had been, and as a result of the exchange of notes during July and August some concessions were made by the Allies. France, however, re- mained firm in refusing to permit a union with Germany. The .Allies pointed out to the .Aus- trian Germans their responsibility in forcing the war, and insisted that the plight in which they now found themselves was the natural and in- evitable outcome of their prolonged 'policy of ascendancy' within the old empire. With bitter- ness of spirit the .Austrian Assembly bowed to the inevitable, and voted to accept the Treaty, though they protested particularly at the detachment of the Germans of Bohemia and the Tyrol, and at the prohibition of union with Germany, which they asserted violated the terms of the armistice. They also declared that the reparation clauses were impossible of fulfilment. On September 10 the Treaty was signed at St. Germain. By join- ing in this act, China became a member of the League of Nations. Rumania refused at the time to sign the Treaty, because of its references to fu- ture agreements guaranteeing the rights of minori- ties. On December q, after considerable discus- sion, Rumania agreed to the wishes of the .Allies and the next day signed the Treaties with Austria and Bulgaria, and the special treaty dealing with minorities within Rumania. [See Rumania: 1919: Rumania's treatment at Paris. 1 The Jugo-Slavs also withheld their signature from the Treaty with .Austria" — .A. P. Scott, Introduction to the peace treaties, pp. 211, 223. — See al'^ci Si Gkrmain, 714 AUSTRIA, 1919 Economic Dixlress Party Conflicts AUSTRIA, 1920 Treaty of. — The treaty was signed on Sept. lo, 1919; it delimited the boundaries of German- speaking Austria to comprise the states of Upper and Lower Austria, Styria, Carinthia, Salzburg, Northern Tyrol and Vorarlberg. 1919. — Attitude on question of Fiume. — Dis- putes with Italy. See Fiume: 1919: Orlando's withdrawal from the Peace Conference. 1919 (September). — Protest against the treaty. — Economic distress. — "Confined within the nar- row boundaries of a few provinces, with a starv- ing, unemployed population dependent for food and coal upon none too friendly neighboring countries and subject to the ravages of disease, with trade completely paralyzed and a govern- ment drifting helplessly toward bankruptcy, the remnant of the former Austrian Empire has had a desperate struggle for e.xistence during the year under review. On September 6 the National As- sembly by a vote of 97 to 23 accepted under pro- test the Treaty of St. Germain . . . which was later ratified, the German party being a unit in op- position. Following the disposition of the treaty the cabinet was reorganized; Dr. Karl Renner, the Chancellor, became Minister of Foreign Affairs; Herr Jodok ^ink, Vice-Chancellor; Herr Eldersch, Interior; Dr. Rudolph Ramek, Justice; Dr. Julius Deutsch, Military Affairs; Dr. Richard Reisch, Finance; Herr Stockier, Agriculture; Herr Zerdik, Commerce; Herr Paul, Transportation; Herr Hanusch, Social Administration ; Dr. Johann Lowenfeld, Food Supplies; Professor Michael Mayr, Constitutional and Administrative Reforms. Despite this reorganization, conditions did not improve. During November it was reported that in Vienna alone 100,000 men were unemployed, 6,000 families homeless, 2,500,000 persons on the verge of starvation, and 80 per cent of the chil- dren suffering from rickets. ... A long-anticipated political upheaval came on June n, when the cabinet tendered its resignation. For some weeks before, the Left had felt that the Christian Social- ist or government party has steadily blocked legis- lation to which the former were pledged, but the crisis was hastened when at Epatz gendarmes fired into a crowd which was demonstrating against profiteering in food and many were killed. The government was accused of blocking an investi- gation and punishment of the soldiers. Reports of a strong movement in Tyrol, Salzburg and por- tions of Upper Austria to join Bavaria and create a Catholic kingdom under Prince Rupprecht con- tributed to the fall of the government. Anti- Semitic demonstrations as well as threatened mon- archist uprisings frequently occurred during the last months of the year." — E. D. Graper and H. J. Carman, Record of political events (Political Science Quarterly, Sept., 1020). 1919 (October). — Relief by Quakers. See In- ternational Relief: American friends. 1919. — Statistics of trade unions. See Labor organization: loio-iqip. 1919-1920. — Post-war tariff changes. See Tariff: 1919-1920: Germany. 1919-1921. — Unemployment insurance. See Social Insurance: Recent developments: 1Q19- iQ2i: Later unemployment insurance legislation. 1920. — Resignation of Chancellor Renner. — Mediation of President Seitz. — The long drawn out struggle within the coalition between the So- cial Democrats and the Christian Socialists came to a climax when Chancellor Renner and his So- cial Democratic colleagues resigned from the cabi- net on June 11. The resignation was a direct re- sult of the attack made on the minister of war, Herr Deutsch, in the National Assembly, because of the latter's new Armv decree, which was ve- hemently denounced, both by the Christian So- cialists and the Pan-Germans, who were bitterly opposed to the provision making the soldiers' coun- cils of the new army immune from all super- vision of officers. The Pan-Germans and the Christian Socialists charged that the purpose of the provision was evidently to destroy discipline and to bolshevize the army. Rather than give in to the Social Democrats the Christian Socialists threatened to resign from the cabinet. This step was, however, anticipated by the Social Democrats who themselves withdrew from the cabinet. In order to understand the underlying causes of the break in the coalition government, the fundamental differences in the program of the two important groups of the coalition must be remembered. The Social Democrats are primarily advocates of a con- stitutional settlement of the federalization of the important industries along centralistic lines. The Christian Socialists also avowed a policy for fed- eralization, but demanded on the other hand, that provinces be given autonomy in the matter. Then, too, while the Social Democrats looked toward a union with Germany the Christian Socialists strict- ly opposed that scheme. A faction of the latter group openly demanded that a new Austro-Ba- varian monarchy be formed, with a Hapsburg on the throne. Dr. Heim, leader of the Bavarian Catholic Peasant party and acting as dictator of Bavaria, supported this plan, it being favored particularly by the agricultural people of Tyrol and Salzburg. The Social Democrats, charged that the Christian Socialists were deliberately obstruct- ing the work of the National Assembly and that they are also scheming jointly with the reaction- aries of Hungary and Bavaria. The split which brought about Chancellor Renner's withdrawal from the cabinet was hastened also by the boycott declared against Hungary by international labor. While the Social Democrats supported the block- ade in every possible way, the Christian Socialists bitterly opposed it. In order to solve the crisis a proposal was made to the effect that a bourgeois block be formed in which the Christian Socialists, the Pan-Germans and other less important anti- Socialist factions should form their own cabinet. Another suggestion called for the dissolution of the assembly and a new general election. Both proposals were welcomed by the Social Demo- crats, particularly the first one, since they argued that the bourgeois coalition would soon find itself helpless and thus leave the field open for a clear working class government. In the interim, how- ever, the president of the republic, Herr Seitz, took matters in hand by acting as mediator in negotiations between the two opposing factions. The negotiations, which closed on July 4 with a compromise, provided for a so-called "concen- trated cabinet." This new cabinet was to be made up of representatives of all parties and propor- tionally to each party's strength in the assembly. Thereupon Chancellor Renner was urged to 're- tain his former post, and, in addition, the port- folio of foreign affairs. Renner consented to re- sume his work and the crisis was averted. 1920. — Intentions in Albania. — Admitted to League of Nations. See Italy: iq20 (June) ; and League of Nations: First meeting of the as- sembly. 1926. — New ministry. — Census statistics. — Treaty with Rumania. — The second cabinet of the Austrian republic was formed under the lead- ership of the Christian Socialist. Dr. Mayr. An innovation was introduced in the process of se- lecting the candidates, who were elected by their respective parties on the basis of proportional representation in the Assembly, instead of, as 7I.S AUSTRIA AUSTRIA-HUNGARY heretofore, being appointed by the president. This departure was the outcome of the compromise ef- fected by President Seitz between the Christian So- cialists and the Social Democrats. The head of the cabinet holds the portfolio of constitutional reform and does not bear the title of chancellor. A census of the republic taken on Jan. 31, iq.;o, revealed a population of 6,067430 — a decrease in the same territorial limits of 227,209 since the previous (igio) census. The population of Vien- na, the capital, was 1,842,000, against 2,149,800 just before the outbreak of the war in 1914. A commercial treaty with Rumania, to hold for one year, was concluded. Among the provisions for commercial exchange Rumania agreed to fur- nish Austria with oil, cereals, and raw material, receiving railroad supplies, manufactured products and agricultural machinen,- in return. 1920 (October-December). — Constitution adopted. — President Hainisch elected. — On Oct. I, 1920, a constitution was adopted for the Aus- trian republic which provided for a president chosen by the two houses (Natioiialrat and Bundesrat) for a term of four years. In accordance with this provision President Michael Hainisch was elected to office on Dec. 9, 1920. Dr. Michael Mayr was appointed State Chancellor and Minister of Foreign Affairs. 1921 (August 23). — Treaty of Peace with United States. See U. S. A.: 1921 (July-August): Peace with Germany and Austria. 1921. — Incorporation of provinces in Jugo- slavia. See B.ALK.Ax states: 1921: Jugo-Slavia. AUSTRIA, Constitution of.— Principal pro- visions. — The new constitution of the Austrian re- public was framed in a series of legal enactments during 1919 and 1920. Austria was declared a fedr eral democratic republic comprising eight states, namely, seven provinces and the city of Vienna. The basic law established the federal legislature to consist of two chambers, the National Council or Diet (Nationalrat), to be elected by universal suf- frage on the basis of proportional representation, and the Federal Council (liundesrat), to be chosen by the Landtags of the states. The National Coun- cil serves four years and its enactments are sub- ject to a strictly hmited veto power of the Federal Council, which consists of forty-six delegates, ap- portioned as follows: Lower Austria (Niederoester- reich), twenty-two — city of Vienna twelve and the province ten; Upper Austria and Styria (Oberoes- terreich und Steiermark), six each; Carinthia (Karnthen), Salzburg, Tyrol and Vorarlberg, three each. The German portion of Western Hungary, named Burgenland, awarded to .'Vustria by the Treaty of Saint-Germain (q. v.) was still unrepre- senteci in the National Council at the close of 192 1. The two councils in joint assembly constitute the Federal Assembly, whose sole functions are to elect the president and to declare war. The president's term is four years, and he may be re-elected only once. The cabinet is chosen by the National Coun- cil, to which it is responsible. Each province has a Provincial Assembly (Landesversammlung) con- sisting of a single chamber also elected by universal suffrage. Local government — education, agriculture, charities, ecclesiastical affairs, pubUc works, etc., fall within the scope of the Provincial .Assemblies, each of which is headed by a committee or Landesaus- schuss. Each commune is represented by a council to manage its affairs and to select the BUrgermeister (mayor) from its members. Also in: H. Kelsen, Verfassungsgesetze der Re- public Oesterrekh. — A. Merkl, Verjassung der Re- public Oeslerreich. AUSTRIA, House of. See Hapsburg dynasty. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY Introduction. — The defeat of Austria by Prussia in 1866 awoke the Empire to the necessity of recon- structing its political organization so as to grant Hungary national existence, which had been denied that country for twelve years. Consequently an arrangement was concluded by Francis Deak, Count Andrassy and Count Beust which transformed the centralized Austrian Empire into the dual Austro- Hungarian Monarchy. 1866. — Austro-Hungarian monarchy. — Its new national life. — Its difficulties and promises. — Its ambitions and aims in southeastern Europe. — "Peace politicians may say that a vjar always does more harm than good to the nations which engage in it. Perhaps it always does, at any rate, morally speaking, to the victors: but that it does not to the vanquished, Austria stands as a living evidence. Finally excluded from Italy and Ger- many by the campaign of 1S66, she has cast aside her dreams of foreign domination, and has set herself manfully to the task of making a nation out of the various conflicting nationalities over which she presides. It does not require much in- sight to perceive that as long as she held her position in Germany this fusion was hopeless. The overwhelming preponderance of the German element made any approach to a reciprocity of interests impossible. The Germans always were regarded as sovereigns, the remaining nationalities as subjects; it was for these to command, for those to obey. In like manner, it was impossible for the Austrian Government to establish a mutual understanding with a population which felt it- self attracted — alike by the ties of race, language, and geographical position — to another poUtical union. Nay more, as long as the occupation of the Italian provinces remained as a blot on the Im- perial escutcheon, it was impossible for the Gov- ernment to command any genuine sympathy from any of its subjects. But with the close of the war with Prussia these two difficulties — the relations with Germany and the relations with Italy — were swept away. From this time forward Austria could appear before the world as a Power binding together for the interests of all, a number of petty nationalities, each of which was too feeble to maintain a separate existence. In short, from the year 1866 Austria had a raison d'etre, whereas before she had none. . . . Baron Beust, on the 7th of February, 1867, took office under Franz Joseph. His programme may be stated as follows. He saw that the day of centralism and imperial unity was gone past recall, and that the most lib- eral Constitution in the world would never recon- cile the nationalities to their present position, as provinces under the always detested and now de- spised Empire. But then came the question — Granted that a certain disintegration is inevitable, how far is this disintegration to go? Beust pro- posed to disarm the opposition of the leading na- tionality by the gift of an almost complete inde- pendence, and, resting on the support thus ob- tained, to gain time for conciliating the remaining provinces by building up a new system of free government. It would be out of place to give a detailed account of the well-known measure which converted the 'Austrian empire' into the 'Austro- Hungarian monarchy.' It will be necessary, how- 16 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1866 Political System AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1867 ever, to describe the additions made to it by the political machinery. The Hungarian Reichstag was constructed on the same principle as ttie Austrian Reichsrath. It was to meet in Pesth, as the Reichs- rath at Vienna, and was to have its own respon- sible ministers. From the members of the Reichs- rath and Reichstag respectively were to be chosen annually sixty delegates to represent Cisleithanian and sixty to represent Hungarian interests — twenty being taken in each case from the Upper, forty from the Lower House. These two 'Delegations,' whose votes were to be taken, when necessary, col- lectively, though each Delegation sat in a distinct chamber, owing to the difference of language, formed the Supreme Imperial Assembly, and met alternate years at Vienna and Pesth. They were competent in matters of foreign policy, in mili- tary administration, and in Imperial finance. At their head stood three Imperial ministers — the Reichskanzler, who presided at the Foreign Of- fice, and was ex officio Prime Minister, the Min- ister of War, and the Minister of Finance. These three ministers were independent of the Reichsrath and Reichstag, and couM only be dismissed by a vote of want of confidence on the part of the Dele- gations. The 'Ausgleich' or scheme of federation with Hungary is, no doubt, much open to criti- cism, both as a whole and in its several parts. It must always be borne in mind that administra- tively and politically it was a retrogression. At a time in which all other European nations — notably North Germany — were simplifying and unifying their political systems, Austria was found doing the very reverse. . . . The true answer to these objections is, that the measure of 1867 was con- structed to meet a practical difficulty. Its end was not the formation of a symmetrical system of government, but the pacification of Hungary. . . . The internal history of the two halves of the em- pire flows in two different channels. Graf An- drassy, the Hungarian Premier, had a compara- tively easy task before him. There were several reasons for this. In the first place, the predomi- nance of the Magyars in Hungary was more as- sured than that of the Germans in Cisleithania. It is true that they numbered only 5,000,000 out of the i6,ooc,ooo inhabitants; but in these 5,000,000 were included almost all the rank, wealth, and intelUgence of the country. Hence they formed in the Reichstag a compact and homogeneous ma- jority, under which the remaining Slovaks and Croatians soon learnt to range themselves. In the second place, Hungary had the great advantage of starting in a certain degree afresh. Her govern- ment was not bound by the traditional policy of former Vienna ministries, and ... it had man- aged to keep its financial credit unimpaired. In the third place, as those who are acquainted with Hungarian history well know. Parliamentary in- stitutions had for a long time flourished in Hun- gary. Indeed the Magyars, who among their many virtues can hardly be credited with the virtue of humility, assert that the world is mistaken in ascribing to England the glory of having invented representative government, and claim this glory for themselves. Hence one of the main difficulties with which the Cisleithanian Government had to deal was already solved for Graf Andrassy and his colleagues." — Austria since Sadowa (Quarterly Re- view, V. 131, pp. 90-os). — See also Turkey: 1878: Excitement in England. 1867. — Description of the constitution. — Polit- ical system in the dual empire. — The Austro- Hungarian constitution is not a uniform state con- stitution in the same sense as the German imperial constitution. Its older stages are, in respect to the German Austrian crown lands, the same as those of the German empire. But the homogeneity of Austria-Hungary is expressed in principle in the Pragmatic Sanction of the emperor Charles V. in 1 7 13, wherein all the sectional possessions of the whole monarchy bound themselves to the same order of succession and thus to permanent asso- ciation. [See Austria: 171S-1738; 1740.] The unity of the state is from the outset monarchical. The title of emperor of Austria dates from 1804. "The constitution of the centralised State was legally formed by the Imperial Diploma of i860 and the Patent of 1861, depending on it. This constitution comprises a Landtag and Reichsrat with almost the same principle of division as in the German Imperial draft constitution of 184S, except that there is only the one sovereign in question throughout. A distinction is also made in this Act of the Constitution between the coun- tries belonging to the Hungarian Crown and those of the Austrian section, but the preponderating intention is centralization. . . . The legal inde- pendence and territorial integrity of Hungary and its neighbouring countries is solemnly declared by the oath of the sovereign. In this the older Hun- garian constitutions are recurred to, and especially the revolutionary legislation of 184S. By this act of separation two States, themselves divided sev- eral times, arose with foundation and superstruc- ture, each of which already has an imperial con- stitution superior to its provincial constitutions, but which have the same monarch, and hence carry on certain joint institutions either naturally or by means of a treaty. The principal concerns of the united State are: the joint Ministry for Foreign Affairs, the Imperial Ministry for War for all matters relating to the joint army and the navy (the Landwehr on both sides being still maintained), the joint Ministry for Finance for joint expenses, whilst the financial systems are separate, a joint ddministration for Bosnia and Herzegovina. The preliminary estimate for joint expenses is presented to a meeting of the Dele- gations for deliberation (and to be passed), which meeting consists of deputations from the parlia- ments of both sides. . . . The agreements at pres- ent [1917] valid between Austria and Hungary date from December, 1907, and last till December 31, IQ17. They include the determination of the contribution obligatory on both sides (Beitrags- p fitch t) and the customs and commercial treaty. There is a Court of Arbitration for disputed ques- tions. Bosnia and Herzegovina were taken into the joint customs union in 1879. In this respect nothing was altered by the declaration of the he- reditary sovereignty of the Imperial house in 1008. The administration there is inspected by Austria and by Hungary. Central European treaties are prepared by the joint Foreign Office, but must be passed by the separate national representative bodies. Hence it is true to say: we do not know exactly whether we have to deal with one or with two States." — F. Naumann, Central Europe, pp. 325-327. — "The study of politics in Austria-Hun- gary is complicated for the British or American reader by the fact that although he may be ac- quainted with the theory of parliamentary gov- ernment upon which the systems of the two coun- tries rest, he will not necessarily be able to under- stand the way in which it is worked. One of the Hungarian leaders recently took advantage of this circumstance to enlist the sympathies of Eng- lish people by postulating a case in which the scene was moved from Hungary to Great Britain. The defeat on vital questions of a great political party was described as being followed by the call- ing of the Opposition by the King, who, instead of instructing the putative Prime Minister to form 717 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1867 Foreign Policy AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1882 a government to carry out the mandate given to his party by the electors, asked him, certainly, to form a cabinet, but at the same time required him to carry out the desires of the sovereign, and not of the nation as expressed at the election. Natu- rally this presentation of the case is likely to win sympathy from the British public, and, moreover, it is in its broad features a true account of what happened after the final destruction of the Liberal party in Hungary in 1004. It is, however, at the same time utterly misleading, because the parlia- mentary systems of Austria and Hungary are quite different in their workings from that of Great Britain. It is, indeed, impossible to ap- preciate the political situation without a knowl- edge of history. ... Lit is therefore necessary to recapitulate the main points involved.! Every thing in Austro-Hungarian political life dates from 1867. At that time the King ratified the Hungari- an Constitution and bestowed a similar one on his Austrian lands. In doing so he entered, as Em- peror of Austria, into an arrangement with the independent allied kingdom of Hungary. His own constitutional position was defined in so doing. Hungarians accepted the arrangement, though a certain number of irrcconcilables refused to ac- knowledge it, and Louis Kossuth died abroad rather than do so. Like all constitutions, the Hungarian one is not in the form of a treaty or .single document but is the growth of centuries, partly founded on fundamental principles recog- nised by the rulers and partly on long-established custom. The position of a king in such a consti- tutional monarchy is affected more by precedent than by actual law. . . . The King of Hungary both reigns and governs, though he is bound to govern with the will of the people ; but conversely the people cannot govern without him. The King and Parliament are indivisible for this purpose. King Francis Joseph has successfully asserted hi? prerogatives, in that he has actually refused to sanction bills passed by both houses of parliament. Without his sanction they are of course invalid, as they would be in any constitutional mon- archy. . . . The relations of the Crown and the ministers, and of the ministers and the political parties, are quite foreign to anything within the ex- perience of parliamentary life in Britain. The ministers are the servants of the Crown rather than of parliament, and the political parties have to shape a programme which the Crown will sanc- tion before they arc likely to be asked to take office. In the event of a deadlock the Crown, which is bound to summon parliament at stated intervals, can exercise its prerogative and dismiss it on the same day. . . . Besides the Austrian par- liament and the Hungarian parliament, and the Austrian government and the Hungarian govern- ment, there is that debated land of Common .Af- fairs over which the Delegations hold sway. The Hungarian dislike of creating anything like a dual parliament led to the extraordinary device of these two bodies, debating separately and not allowed even to speak to each other, like two children whose mothers will not 'make friends.' They com- municate in writing and. if it is necessary to take a joint vote, they vote without debating! The position of the Emperor and King towards this amorphous creation was naturally defined by the compact of 1867 which gave rise to it. [See also Jugo-Slavia: 1848-1S67.] The ministers of com- mon affairs {Kaiserlicli and Koiiiglich) are also re- sponsFBle to the Emperor and King, a mutual responsibility complicated by the obligation to obtain a third ratification, from the Delegations, ■who in their turn are answerable to the parlia- ments of the two countries. The King on his 7 side is responsible also to the ministers and par- Uaments, with one extremely important reserva- tion. In the department of defence he is, as Com- mander-in-Chief, not responsible to anyone in the appointment of officers or the organisation of the army. The minister of war is not required to countersign acts dealing with these, though re- sponsible for such matters as commissariat, equip- ment, and the technical side, while the parlia- ments of the two countries, by the standing laws, retain the control of recruiting. The contingent of recruits is voted annually by each parliament, and in case either refuses to contribute their quota there is no possible means of coercion." — .\. R. and E. Colquhoun, Whirlpool of Europe, pp. 280-203. 1867. — Foreign policy before 1867. — Subse- quent change. — "In past times, when Austria had held France tight bound between Spain, Germany, and the Netherlands, she had aspired to a domi- nant position in Western Europe; and, so long as her eyes were turned in that direction, she natu- rally had every interest in preserving the Ottoman Empire intact, for she was thus guaranteed against all attacks from the south. But, after the loss of her Italian possessions in 1S05, and of part of Croatia in iSoo. after the disasters of 1840, i8sq and 1866. she thought more and more seriously of indemnifying herself at the expense of Turkey. It was moreover evident that, in order to paralyze the damaging power of Hungary, it was essentia! for her to assimilate the primitive and scattered peoples of Turkey, accustomed to centuries of complete submission and obedience, and form thus a kind of iron band which should encircle Hun- gary and effectually prevent her from rising. If, in fact, we glance back at the position of Austria in i860, and take the trouble carefully to study the change of ideas and interests which had then taken place in the policy of France and of Russia, the tendencies of the strongly constituted nations who were repugnant to the authority and influ- ence of .Austria, the basis of the power of that empire, and, finally, the internal ruin with which she was then threatened, we cannot but arrive at the conclusion that Austria, by the very instinct of self-preservation, was forced to turn eastwards and to consider how best she might devour some, at least, of the European provinces of Turkey. Austrian statesmen have been thoroughly con- vinced of this fact, and, impelled by the instinct above-mentioned, have not ceased carefully and consistently to prepare and follow out the policy here indicated." — V, Caillard, Bulgarian imbroglio (Fortnightly Revirw. Dec, 1885). — For policy in Balkans, see also Jugo-Slavia: 1867- 1014. 1868 (March). — Commercial treaty with Ger- many. See Tariff: 1S53-1870. 1868-1917. — Relations and conditions among Jugo-Slav peoples. See Jugo-Slavia: 1868-1017. 1869-1883. — Parochial poor relief abolished. See Cn.\RiTiEs: .Austria and Hungary: 1783-1Q00 1873. — Government control of telegraphs. See Telegraphs and telephones: 1873: .Austria-Hun- gary. 1878. — Treaty of Berlin. — Secret treaty with English. — Acquisition of Bosnia and Herzego- vina. See Berlin, Congress of; Bosnia-Herze- govina: 1878; TvRKEv: 1878; and World War: Causes: Indirect: d, 2. 1878-1914.— Friendship for Turkey.— Desire for influence in Bosporus. See Bosporus: 1878-1014. 1879. — Austro-German Alliance. See Dual Alliance; Triple .Alliance: Austro-German al- liance of 1870; World Wak: Causes: Indirect: c. 1880-1914. — Red Cross and relief work. See Red Cross: 1864-1014. 1882. — Triple Alliance. See Italy: 1870-1901 ; 18 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1887 Attitude of AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1900-1903 Hungary ' Triple Alliance: Predicament of Italy: 1870-1882; Content of the treaties; Success of. 1887 (February 20). — Triple Alliance renewed. — Hostility to France. See Triple Alliance: Content of the treaties. 1891. — Special commercial treaty with Ger- many. — Triple Alliance renewed. See Tariff: 1870-1900; Triple Alliance: Content of the treaties. 1897. — Rescript continuing the Ausgleich. See Austria: 1897 (December). 1898 (April). — Withdrawal from the blockade of Crete and the "Concert of Europe." See Tur- key: 1897-1899. 1898 (June). — Sugar conference at Brussels. See Sugar Bounties. 1898 (Sept.). — Assassination of the empress. — On Sept. 10, Elizabeth, empress of Austria and queen of Hungary, was assassinated at Geneva by an Italian anarchist, Luigi Luccheni, who stabbed her with a small stiletto, exceedingly thin and narrow in the blade. The murderer rushed upon her and struck her, as she was walking, with a single attendant, on the quay, towards a lake steamer on which she intended to travel to Mon- treux. She fell, but arose, with some assistance, and walked forward to the steamer, evidently un- aware that she had suffered worse than a blow. On the steamer, however, she lost consciousness, and then, for the first time, 'the wound was dis- covered. It had been made by so fine a weapon that it showed httle external sign, and it is prob- able that the empress felt little pain. She lived nearly half an hour after the blow was struck. The assassin attempted to escape, but was caught. .\s Swiss law forbids capital punishment, he could be only condemned to solitary confinement for life. This terrible tragedy came soon after the festivities in .Austria which had celebrated the jubilee year of the emperor Francis Joseph's reign. 1899 (May-July). — Representation in the Peace Conference at The Hague. See Hague CONFERENCES. 1899-1901. — Attitude towards impending re- volt in Macedonia. — Anarchism in Balkan States. See Turkey: 1899-1901; and Balkan States: 1899-1901. 1900 (June-December). — Cooperation with the powers in China. See Ciuna: 1899-1900 (Sep- tember-February). 1900. — Archduke Francis Ferdinand renounces the right of his children to succeed to the thrones. — Since the tragically mysterious death in 1889 of the emperor's only son, Rudolph, the heir presumptive to the several Hapsburg crowns had been the Archduke Francis Ferdinand, son of the emperor Francis Joseph's brother, the late .'\rchduke Karl Ludwig. In order to contract a morganatic marriage in 1900 he renounced the right of his children to the imp>erial and regal succession. — See also Austria: iqoo. 1900-1903. — Attitude of Hungary toward the Dual Monarchy. — Clerical interference in poli- tics. — Elections of 1901. — Austrian-German dis- satisfaction with the' commercial Ausgleich. — Promises of electoral reform. — Its effect on the various nationalities of the Austro-Hungarian empire. — On Sept. 25, iqoo, the Times correspond- ent summarized an important speech by the Hunga- rian statesman. Count Apponyi, to his constituents, in which the same forecast of a political catas- trophe in Austria was intimated. Count Apponyi, — "after dwelling upon the importance of main- taining the Ausgleich, remarked that affairs in Austria might take a turn which would render its revision indispensable owing either to a complete suspension of the constitutional system in Austria, the maintenance of which was one of the condi- tions of the arrangement of 1867, or such modifi- cations thereof as would make the existing form of union between the two countries technically untenable or politically questionable. In either case the revision could only confirm the inde- pendence of Hungary. But even then Count Ap- ponyi believed that by following the traditions of Francis Deak it would be possible to harmo- nize the necessary revision with the fundamental principles of the Dual Monarchy. It would, how- ever, be a great mistake to raise that question un- less forced to do so by circumstances. Count Apponyi went on to say that the importance ot Hungary, not only in the Monarchy but through- out the civilized world, was enormously increased by the fact that it secured the maintenance of Austria-Hungary, threatened by the destructive influence of the Austrian chaos, and thus consti- tuted one of the principal guarantees of European tranquillity. The peace-abiding nations recognized that this .service to the dynasty, the Monarchy, and the European State system was only possible while the constitutional independence and national unity of Hungary was maintained. It was clear to every unprejudiced mind that Hungarian na- tional independence and unity was the backbone of the Dual Monarchy and one of the most im- portant guarantees of European peace. But the imposing position attained by Hungary through the European sanction of her national ideal would be imperilled -if they were of their own initiative to raise the question of the union of the two countries and thus convert the Austrian crisis into one affecting the whole Monarchy." In Novem- ber a significant speech in the Reichsrath at Buda- Pesth, by the very able Hungarian prime minister, M. Szcll, was reported. "He foreshadowed the possibility of a situation in which Austria would not be able to fulfil the conditions prescribed in the Ausgleich Act of 1867 with regard to the manner of deaUng with the affairs common to both halves of the Monarchy. He himself had, however, made up his mind on the subject, and was convinced that even in those circumstances the Hungarians would by means of provisional measures regulate the common affairs and interests of the two States, 'while specially asserting the rights of Hungary and its independence.' An- other version of this somewhat o acular statement runs as follows: — 'Hungary, without infringing the Ausgleich law, will find ways and means of regu- lating those affairs which, in virtue of the Prag- matic sanction, are common to both States, while at the same time protecting her own interests and giving greater emphasis to her independence.' M. Szell added: — 'When the right time comes I shall explain my views, and eventually submit pro- posals to the House. Meanwhile, let us husband our strength and keep our powder dry.' The self- confident and almost defiant tone of this forecast, coming from a responsible statesman accustomed to display such prudence and moderation of lan- guage as M. Szell, has made a profound impres- sion in Austria. It assumes the breakdown of the Austrian Parliamentary system to be a certainty, and anticipates the adoption by Hungary of one- sided measures which, according to M. Szell, will afford more effective protection to its interests and confirm its independence. This seems to be in- terpreted in Vienna as an indication that the Hun- garian Premier has a cut and dried scheme ready for the revision of the Ausgleich in a direction which bodes ill for Austria. An article in the A^etie Frrie Presse. of Vienna, on the hostility of the Vatican to .\ustria and Hungary was partially communicated in a despatch of October ii. The 719 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1900-1903 Tis2a's Ministry AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1903-1905 Vienna journal ascribes this iiostility in part to resentment engendered by the alliance of Catholic Austria with Italy, and in part to the Hungarian ecclesiastical laws. It remarked: "Never has clericalism been so influential in the legislation and administration of this Empire. The most power- ful party is the one that takes its 'mot d'ordre' from the Papal Nunciature. It guides the feudal nobiUty, it is the thorn in the flesh of the Ger- man population, it has provoked a 20 years' re- action in Austria, and, unhindered and protected, it scatters in Hungary that seed which has thriven so well in this half of the Monarchy that nothing is done in Austria without first considering what will be said about it in Rome." A day or two later some evidence of a growing resentment in Austria at the interference of the clergy in politics was adduced: "Thus the Czech organ, inspired by the well-known leader of the party. Dr. Stransky, states that a deputation of tradespeople called on the editor and expressed great indigna- tion at the unprecedented manner in which the priests were joining in electoral agitation. They added that they 'could no longer remain mem- bers of a Church whose clergy took advantage of religious sentiment for political purposes.' The Peasants' Electoral Association for Upper .Austria has just issued a manifesto in which the following occurs: — 'V\'e have for more than 20 years in- variably elected the candidates proposed by the Clerical party. What has been done during that long period for us peasants and small tradespeople? What have the Clerical party and the Clerical members of Parliament done for us? How have they rewarded our long fidelity? By treason. . . . We have been imposed upon long enough. It is due to our self-respect and honour to eman- cipate ourselves thoroughly from the mamelukes put forward by the Clerical wire pullers. We must show that we can get on without Clerical lead- ingstrings.' "In the year iqoo the Emperor called a fresh ministry, with Korber at its head, which at first seemed likely to get along peacefully. In a short time, however, the Czechs began to reiterate their demands, and after more stormy scenes the Reichs- rath was again dissolved. At the elections of 1901 the Clericals lost heavily and the Extreme Left increased its numbers, the Schoenerer group of Pan- German Radicals now numbering twenty-one. A feature of this period was the increasing enmity between these parties and the Church. In 1902 the German Popular Party separated from the more moderate sections. The relationship with Hungary came up for debate on the question of the renewal of the commercial compromise. A number of .Austrian-Germans were entirely dis- satisfied with the basis of the arrangement, and still more with the way in which' it was always worked by Hungary, which is able, by political solidarity in the Delegations, to get the whip hand. Korber went so far as to declare that without more favourable terms for Austria he would not sanction a fresh commercial Ausgleich, and the difficulties reached such an acute stage that he \vanted to resign, but was persuaded to remain in office to avoid the chaos which other- wise must ensue. The new army bills were a great bone of contention, and the action of Hun- gary in refusing to ratify them led to a similar policy of obstruction on the part of the Czechs and Croats. In 1905 Gautsch took office again, an appointment which was made by the Crown in much the same spirit as that which, shortly after, dictated the calling of Fejervar>- to form a Hun- garian cabinet. The Emperor and King, faced with irreconcilable opposition in each countiy. 720 was making a desperate attempt to obtain a ma- jority for the policy he favoured by means of com- promises, but the unsuccess of these tactics ulti- mately led to a fresh phase (described more fully later on) in which the question of electoral reform was used to disarm the opposition in both coun- tries. The expedient of giving his sanction to universal suffrage was not dictated by any demand for that reform in the Austrian Parhament, though a measure of electoral reform had )ong been pressed for. On the whole, all the Slav nationalist parties are favourable to the scheme, except the Poles, who naturally oppose bitterly any measure which would put power in the hands of the Ruthe- nian peasants. 'The German Liberals are some- what divided in their opinions, but the Clerical Party are not opposed to it, except that portion closely allied with the old Conservatives. The Socialists are naturally delighted, and the Gov- ernment is now devoting itself to a considera- tion of the best basis for' the reform. In this rapid survey of the course of Austrian parliamen- tary history since the .\usgleich too little has, per- haps, been said of the Hungarian question in Austria — that is the ever-recurring problem of the relations of the two halves of the monarchy. If all internal questions between Germans, Czechs, Poles, Slovenes, Clericals and Anti-Clericals, Na- tionalists and Federalists could by some miracle have disappeared there would still have remained this perennial source of discontent. The German party particularly, although in its old form re- sponsible for the Ausgleich, is now far from united in approving the basis on which the two countries are joined together, and is practically unanimous in declaring that, whatever the changes made, they must not be in favour of Hungary, which al- ready has much the best of the bargain." — A. R. and E. Colquhoun, iVIiirlpool of Europe, pp. 302- 30s. 1900-1913. — Desire for expansion in Near East. See NovT Bazar. 1902. — New commercial treaty with Germany. See T.-vriff: 1902-1Q06. 1902. — Triple Alliance renewed. See Triple Allianxe: Content of the treaties. 1902 (June). — Sugar Bounty Conference. See SuG.AR Bounty Coxferenxe. 1903-1904. — Concert with Russia in submitting the Miirzsteg program of reform in Macedonia to Turkey. See Macedonia: 20th century; and Turkey: 1903-1908. 1903-1905. — Language struggle.— Count Tisza's ministry. — Rise of new parties. — "In 1903 began the agitation over the new army bills, and the 'language of command' question became a promi- nent feature in the Nationalist propaganda. A campaign of obstruction ensued, which led to the most violent scenes both in and out of the cham- ber. Count Stephen Tisza, son of the old Liberal Premier and heir to the Liberal traditions, tried in vain to form a Cabinet. He and his party are upholders of the .iXusgleich, and although identified with the name Liberal in Hungary are rather the Tory Moderate Party. Baron Hedervary, the suc- cessful autocratic Ban of Croatia, was asked to form a Cabinet, and did so by dropping the army bills for the time, but King Francis Joseph was by no means in favour of these concessions, and announced his intention of maintaining all his pre- rogatives as regards 'my army.' He flung down the gauntlet to the Independents, and summoned Hedervary again, but in 1903 this minister was succeeded by one who was expected to be more successful in obtaining a genuine support from parliament, and Count Stephen Tisza took office. For two years he held things together with a AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1903-1905 -,A°'w,!n'Lr„ AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1905-1906 with Hungary strong hand, but despite his high character, his autocratic temper made him enemies, and private jealousies, aided by his lack of tact and organis- ing power, eventually caused his downfall. When he saw the opposition gathering force he tried to put through a coup d'etat to smash the obstruc- tion. An alteration in the standing orders was carried, but the most violent scenes followed, and after a struggle Tisza was forced to resign. The break up of the once great Liberal Party and the final defeat of Count Stephen Tisza took place in 1905, and by this time the second great reorganisa- tion of parties in Hungary was accomplished. With Tisza's fall the old Liberal Party melted as if by magic, nor are there any signs at present of its revival. The defeat of the Liberals was effected by a coalition of four groups which have been formed out of the Extreme Right and Ex- treme Left of earlier days. These were the Clerical Independents, the Independence party under Kos- suth and Apponyi, the Clerical People's party, and the Liberal Dissentients or Andrassy group. The Clerical Independents have been fused with the Independence Party, which for various reasons is now [1907] the most prominent in the state and the one whose leaders make most noise in the world. In 1905 this party represented the old Irreconcilables or Extreme Nationalists, who seemed at one time to have almost disappeared, merged in the Liberals. They desired the aboli- tion of the compromise of 1867 so that Hungary might return to the status of 184S, when for a short time she was an entirely separate kingdom. The connection of the son of Louis Kossuth with this group gives it a fictitious resemblance to the Patriotic Party of 1848, and with him is associated the picturesque figure of Albert Apponyi, the Magyar orator, whose fine periods and impressive appearance have made him the effective representa- tive of his country in England and America. The two Clerical parties are united in their desire to increase the influence of the church, to check the growing power of the Jews, and to repeal the civil marriage and divorce lav/s, but, while the Clerical Independents join with Kossuth's party, the Clerical Populists desire the maintenance of the Ausgleich with a progressively separatist in- terpretation. The Andrassy group, whose leader belonged to the Liberals by tradition and was originally the close friend of Tisza, has consid- erable influence through his great historic name and family. He was left somewhat stranded by the events of rooj and maintained a sort of bal- ance between Tisza and the Opposition, but finally threw his weight against the former, influenced, it is said, by personal feelings, which had much to do with the fall of the Liberal premier. Like his father, Count Tisza, a man of high attainments and sterling character, was lacking in the tact and suppleness essential for the difficult task be- fore him. Besides the four main groups there was one other, composed of the personal supporters of ex-Premier Banffy, and these five bodies, all tak- ing such different points of view, were in 1903 bound together by a solemn pact for the over- throw of the Liberal party and government." — A, R. and E. Colquhoun, Whirlpool of Europe, pp. 309-311. 1904-1909. — Effects of the Russo-Japanese War in Europe and on the Triple Alliance. See Triple Alliance. 1905. — Action with other powers in forcing financial reforms in Macedonia on Turkey. See Turkey: 1903-1908. 1905-1906. — Count Tisza's resignation. — Fejer- v4ry ministry. — Hungarian demands. — Deadlock between the king and parliament. — Forceable dissolution of parliament. — Final agreement be- tween the king and the coalition party. — Wekerle cabinet. — Universal male suffrage adopted. — "One of the last acts of Count Tisza was to put through the commercial treaties with Germany, to which reference has been made, his desire being to checkmate the Independence party by presenting them with the accomplished fact, so that the commercial compromise must be renewed. The King wished Tisza to continue to hold office, but that minister was neither able nor willing to continue to govern without parliamentary support. The King therefore called on Baron Fejervary, an old soldier, whose personal devotion to his sov- ereign did not permit him to refuse, and who had been Minister of National Defence for a quarter of a century. With some difficulty Fejervary got a cabinet together, but, despite his high character and personal popularity, it was impossible not to realise that he was appointed against the sense of the parliamentary majority and represented the sovereign but not the people. He was, in fact, defeated at once in the House, but was instructed by his sovereign to remain in office and try to come to terms with the Coalition." — A. R. and E. Colquhoun, Whirpool oj Europe, pp. 312-313, — In the August number (1905) of The American Re- view oj Reviews, Count Albert Apponyi, leader of one of the parties united more or less in the Hungarian apposition, gave the Hungarian side of the political issues with Austria. In part, he wrote: "The writer had the honor of delivering at St. Louis, at the Arts and Science Congress of last year, a short historical account of our re- lation with the Austrian dynasty. There are to be found the chief facts, which show: (i) That our forefathers called that dynasty to the Hun- garian throne' not in order to get Hungary ab- sorbed into an Austrian or any other sort of em- pire, but, on the contrary, under the express con- dition of keeping the independence and the con- stitution of the Hungarian kingdom unimpaired; (2) that this condition has been accepted and sworn to by all those members of the dynasty (Joseph II. alone excepted) who ascended the Hungarian throne; (3) that, nevertheless, practical encroachments on our independence, followed by conflicts and reconciliations, have been at all epochs frequent; (4) but that a judicial fact never occurred which could be construed into a modifi- cation of that fundamental condition of the dy- nasty's title to Hungary. . . . The physical per- son of the ruler is, in truth, the same in both countries, but the juridical personality of the King of Hungary is distinct and, as to the contents of its prerogative, widely different from the judicial personality of the Emperor of Austria. Hungary is the oldest constitutional country on the European Continent. The royal prefogative in her case is an emanation of the constitution, — not prior to it, — and consists in such rights as the nation has thought fit to vest in her king. In Austria, on the other hand, the existing constitution is a free gift of the Emperor, and has conferred on the people of Austria such rights as the Emperor has thought fit to grant to them. The title of 'Emperor of Austria-Hungary' . . . [sometimes used] is sim- ply nonsense. The time-hallowed old Hungarian crown has not been melted into the brand-new Austrian imperial diadem. That imperial title docs not contain, to any extent, the Hungarian royal title. The Emperor of Austria, as such, has just as much legal power in Hungary as the President of the United States has. He is, jurid- ically speaking, a foreign potentate to us. On these fundamental truths, no Hungarian — to what- ever party he may belong — admits discussion. . . . 721 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1905-1906 fi°"J^"^*t AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1905-1906 The Liberal party, vanquished at the last elec- tions, does not in the least differ from the victo- rious opposition as to the principles laid down in these pages; it only advocated a greater amount of forbearance against the petty encroachments which practically obscured them. That policy of forbearance became gradually distasteful to the country ; seeing it shaken in the public mind, the recent prime minister, Count Tisza, formed the unhappy idea of gaining a new lease of power on its behalf by a parliamentary coup d'etat. The rules of the House were broken, in order to pre- vent future obstruction, chiefly against miUtary bills. This brought matters to an acute crisis. The parliament in which that breach of the rules had taken place became unfit for work of any sort, the country had to be consulted, and down went the Liberal party and the half-hearted policy it represented with no hope for revival. "The army question, with its ever-recurring dif- ficulties, is a highly characteristic feature of the chronic latent conflict between the Austrian and the Hungarian mentality. It amounts to this, that, as we are a nation, we mean to have an armed force corresponding to our national individuality, commanded in our language, and serving under our flags and emblems. It would be unnatural for any nation, and would be, in fact, an ab- dication of the title of 'nation,' to renounce such a national claim. The Austrians, on the other hand, — and, unhappily, their influence is still prev- alent in this question, — not yet having abandoned the idea of a pan-.^ustrian empire, uncompro- misingly adhere to the present military organiza- tion, which makes the German language and the imperial emblems prevalent throughout the whole army, its Hungarian portion included. The lat- ter [the coalition] had now crystalHsed their joint ambitions into a demand for the use of Hun- garian as the language of command, a plank in the nationalist platform which is discussed on its own merits in Chapter X. The suggestion of minor concessions, as we have seen, was rejected by the Coalition, and with frank cynicism some of the party allowed that the language question was not the end but the beginning of their de- mands. The new Minister of the Interior, a young t-iberal, Mr. Kristoffy, now had the idea that the only way to break up the Coalition was to raise some question on which they were fundamentally divided, and accordingly he proposed a scheme of universal suffrage. The opposition of the Crown to such a revolutionary proposal delayed its sanc- tion for some time, and gave the Coalition time to consider its position and to organise resistance on new lines. The quondam leader of the Liberal government. Count Tisza, came forward as a bitter opponent of the proposal, which is indeed far from palatable to a .large majority of the con- servative and liberal landowners, who have the old aristocratic prejudices against popular govern- ment and who are also afraid that the vote given to the Slav and Roumanian population will shake the dominant position of the Magyars. This suf- frage question must be touched on again, as it is undoubtedly one of the most crucial in the his- tory of modern Hungary. Meanwhile, because of the condition of deadlock caused by the dis- agreement between the Kinc and Parliament, af- fairs throughout the country were in a state of ex lex. Taxes could not be collected, officials re- signed rather than be identified with an un- popular government, and it was with the greatest difficulty that a cabinet could be kept together. Fejervary. a hich-souled and high-principled Mag- yar, was placed in a most painful position, but the debt of gratitude he owed to his sovereign (who had saved his life during a severe illness by sending to Berlin for the necessary surgical help and paying all expenses himself) did not allow the old soldier to waver in his fidelity. The Coali- tion were offered office on terms, but these they would not entertain, and Fejervary had to remain at the post of duty as the target of the Opposi- tion. The Pariiametit had, by law, to be sum- moned at intervals every year, but the Crown has the power to dissolve it at once, and this was done by the King in June, September, October, and December, 1905, and again in February, 1906. In view of the opposition shown to the commissary who, in February, was charged to enter the House and read the Royal rescript, Francis Joseph promptly backed his prerogatives with force and sent a colonel and soldiers with drawn swords to carry out his orders. The Coalition leaders, being advised that their legal position did not allow them to resist this order, submitted for the time, but signed a declaration that, on March ist, 1906, when by law the Parliament must again be summoned, they would refuse to be dissolved and would re- main sitting. Such procedure would be flat re- bellion. The most dramatic situation which, in modern times, has occurred in any State or Par- liament was thus created. . . . The Coalition, it must be mentioned, had at first tried to make terms with the Crown, but their tactics had se- verely angered Francis Joseph, because, while their representatives avowed t'iiat all they wanted was the dismissal of the Fejervary-Kristoffy Cabinet, the leaders openly declared that they would only make peace on terms of substantial concession. After this the old monarch refused to negotiate, and, summoning the Coalition to his presence, read them his list of conditions and curtly dis- missed them. Up to the end of the first week in April nothing was done and chaos reigned. Fe- jervary, it is said, urged his master to avoid the crisis by not summoning the parliament at all, but Francis Joseph was firm in his determination that he would fulfil the letter of the constitution and let the first breach (if made) come from the other side. On Monday, .April gth. the summons for the new Parliament had to go out. On Sat- urday the miracle happened. .At the eleventh hour the Coalition and the Crown came to terms, which were actually arranged on the last day of grace, and by these terms the Coalition took office. . . . The vital questions of the language of command, economic independence, and, practi- cally, of the continuance of the Dual Monarchy, are thus postponed. . . . .And the transition gov- ernment contains practically all the leaders of any note except, of course. Count Tisza, who has re- tired into private life on his estate. There Is Francis Kossuth, leader of the Independence party and heir to the prestige and popularity, as well as the rather inflated eloquence of his father, but not to the mental and physical stamina of that remarkable man. That the son of Louis Kossuth, who died in exile rather than recognise the hated Habsburg as King of Hungary, should now be a minister of that same Habsburg is one of time's revenges. The younger Kossuth is more pliable than his father, but he and his party still stand [1007! for the idea of complete separation and the repudiation of the Ausgleich. With him is Count Andrassy, one of the party who wrought the work of '67, the inheritor of the Deak tra- dition, if there is such a thing as political con- sistencv. Dr. Wekerle, who introduced the anti- clerical laws, and Count Zichy, a Catholic, arc colleagues, and towering over all is that handsome, specious, frothy politician who. beginning life as a Don Quixote, now gives one the impression of 722 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1906 Agram Trials AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1908-1909 an American demagogue — the great Hungarian nobleman, Count Albert Apponyi. [The king re- quested Wekerle to foim a cabinet including in it Kossuth, Apponyi, Andrassy and Zichy. At the election held shortly afterward the Independence party won about 250 out of 400 seats. The new parliament was opened on May 22, igo6.] . . . By Autumn, 1906, a new crisis arose, with refer- ence to the levy of recruits for the common army, which the King desired and the Hungarian gov- ernment refused. A secret pact with the Coalition gave the King the right to demand recruits in case of 'unavoidable necessity,' and the European situa- tion seemed to him to fulfil those conditions. The Hungarians, however, saw only an opportunity for wringing from him fresh concessions." — A. R. and E. Colquhoun, The whirlpool of Europe, pp. 313-316, 316, 316-317, 317-— In Austria, the grand event of iqo6 was the franchise reform, which ex- tinguished the whole system of class representation and established a representative Parliament on the broad basis of a manhood vote. "Every male citizen who had completed his twenty-fourth year and was not under any legal disability was en- titled to be registered as a voter after one year's residence. Every male, including members of the Upper House, who had possessecl Austrian citizen- ship for at least three years and had completed his thirtieth year, was eligible for election as a deputy ; but members of the Upper House elected to the Lower could not sit in both at once. Voting was to be direct in all provinces. In Galicia, how- ever, every constituency would return two depu- ties, each voter having one vote, so as to permit of the representation of racial minorities, the popu- lation being composed of Poles and Ruthenians. Voting was to be obligatory under penalty of a fine wherever a provincial Diet should so decide. This Bill was passed, in the face of the opposi- tion of the Conservative and aristocratic members of both Houses and of the extreme representatives of the various nationalities, mainly through the influence of the Emperor. He regarded it as the only way to get rid of Parliamentary obstruction, and the best means of stimulating loyalty to the dynasty." Two changes of ministry occurred in Austria during iqo6. Baron Gautsch. as premier, giving way to Prince Hohenlohe in April, and the latter resigning in June, to be succeeded by Baron Beck. Count Goluchowski, who had been Austro-Hun- garian minister of foreign affairs since 1895, re- signed in October, because of ill-feeling against him in Hungary, and was succeeded by Baron Aehrenthal, 1906 (January-April). — At the Algeciras Con- ference on the Morocco question. See Al- geciras; France: 1904-1906; and Germany: 1905- 1906. 1906. — Triple Alliance renewed. See Triple Alliance: Content of the treaties. 1907. — Final negotiation of a new financial Ausgleich. — Adjustment of the vexed questions of tariff, joint debt, and revenue quotas. — The long struggle toward a readjustment of the Aus- gleich or agreement of 1867 between Austria and Hungary, on its financial side, was brought to a close on October 8, 1907, by the signing of a new agreement that day. Tt continued the common customs arrangement until 1917. and provided that commercial treaties concluded with foreign powers must be signed by the representatives of both Austria and Hungary — a concession by Austria to Hungary. Hitherto the Austrian minister of foreign affairs had conducted such negotiations. On its part, Hungary made the minor concession of conforming its stock exchange laws to those of Austria. Previously, excise duties had been com- mon to both states; henceforth they were to be left to each state to be determined and levied. In the joint fiscal burden, Hungary's contribution was increased from 34.4 per cent to 36,4 per cent. Provision was made for a court of arbitration, com- posed of four Austrian and four Hungarian mem- bers, who must chose a ninth member as chair- man. 1908. — Acquisition of submarines in navy. See Submarines: 1900-1918. 1908-1909. — "Greater Serbia Conspiracy." — Agram trials. — Friedjung trial. — Among the state- ments made to defend the annexation of Bosnia- Herzegovina [see Turkey: 1008J was one by Dr. Friedjung, the Austrian historian, who asserted that the Southern Slavs were planning a conspiracy against Austria-Hungary. As a result a long prose- cution was conducted at Agram which excited wide attention throughout Europe. After a trial lasting seven months (from April to October) sentences were handed down in the cases of fifty- two school teachers, priests, and other' persons charged with connection with what was known as the "Greater Serbia conspiracy." The prisoners were accused of h^h treason in participating in a movement for the union of Croatia, Slavonia, and Bosnia to Serbia, even carrying the propaganda among the troops of the .Austro-Hungarian army. Thirty of the accused were condemned to terms of rigorous imprisonment varying from four to twelve years, and twenty-two were acquitted. The persons condemned gave notification of appeal. In the meantime attacks were being made on the authenticity of Dr. Friedjung's statement. "Dr. Friedjung, then an intimate friend and adviser ol Baron von Aehrenthal, stated in the Neue Frcie Presse of March 25, 1900 — the famous article that led to the Friedjung trial of December 1909 . . . Early in 1909 when war, or, as the Austrian ex- pression ran, a 'punitive expedition' against Ser- via was believed to be imminent, a selection of these 'proofs' [of a conspiracy] was placed at the disposal of Dr. Friedjung, who based upon them a series of articles intended to be a war blast. . Dr. Friedjung accused M. Supilo, the Serbo-Croa- tian leader, and several other prominent Serbs and Croatians of the Monarchy, of corrupt and trea- sonable intercourse with the Servian government. The publication led to the trial, in which the 'proofs' were demonstra'ted to be clumsy forgeries; and to the disclosure made by Professor Masaryk in the Delegations of 19 10 that the forgeries had been largely the work of a man named Vasitch who had been employed for the purpose of forging them by Captain von Svientochowski of the Aus- tro-Hungarian Legation at Belgrade. During the Friedjung trial. Count Aehrenthal informed a foreign visitor that he had never believed in the authenticity of the 'proofs' of the conspiracy; and he hastened, as soon as their veritable character was revealed, to disavow them in his official or- gan, the Fremdenblalt. He appeared insensible to the discredit which the exposure of his methods had cast upon the Monarchy. His principles that all is fair in diplomacy and that 'accomplished facts are the most conclusive proofs,' doubtless explain his conduct ; and but for the withdrawal of Russian support from Scrvia after the inter- vention of the German .Embassador at St. Peters- burg on March 24. 1900 — the day before the pub- lication of the Friedjung article — .Aehrenthal's methods might have been placed beyond possibil- ity of detection by an Austro-Hungarian invasion of Servia and by the execution, under martial law, of the Serbo-Croatians whom the forgeries charged with high treason. But, according to a homely 723 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1908-1909 Balkan Wars AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 19H Italian proverb, 'II diavo'.o fa le pcntole ma non i copcrchi.' " — H. W. Steed, Hapsburg monarchy, pp. 24s, 259-260. — On December 31 it was an- nounced from Vienna that all but two of the condemned had been set at liberty pending their appeal, this being consequent on the revelations of forgery in the documents on which they were con- victed. 1908-1909. — Arbitrary annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. — Violence to the Treaty of Berlin. — European disturbance and its settle- ment. See Bosni.\-Herzegown"a: rgoS; Bulgaria: 1Q08-1909; D.^lj.l\tia: 1861-1914; and Turkey: 1 90S; World War: Causes: Indirect: e. 1908-1914. — Need of German friendship. See World War: Diplomatic background: 71, vi. 1909. — Program for naval construction. See War, Prep.^ratiox for: 1909: Italian and Austrian program. 1909 (December). — Alleged plan of a feder- ated triple monarchy. — "There has been circulated in Paris a curious document, full of figures, sup- posed to be based on authentic information. This document relates to the plan attributed to Prince Lentur and Count d'Aehrenthal to change the dual monarchy of .\u5tria-Hungary into a triple mon- archy. Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Dalma- tia, according to the scheme, would be united into an independent and constitutional kingdom, cor- responding to the old Illyria. The double state, Austria-Hungary, would be changed into a three- fold Austria-Hungary-Illyria. A Slav nation would thus stand side by side with the Teutonic nation of Austria and the Magyar nation of Hun- gary. Its extent would be a good deal smaller, a little more than one-third, of the other two, and its population about a quarter of the Hungarian and one-sixth of the .Austrian. According to this document, which is declared to have strong claims to be considered authentic, this change would no doubt be followed by a further one. Bohemia and Moravia would also want home rule. The mon- archy would thus become a kind of Federal state. Hungary alone would remain standing strong and united as the centre and leader of this federation." — N. Y. Evening Post, Dec. 29, 1909. 1911. — Support of Germany in Morocco crisis. — In this crisis Austria-Hungary played an unim- portant part, supporting Germany in her diplo- matic contest with France.^See also Morocco: I9ir-i9i4. 1911-1912.— Attitude toward Italy in the Turko-Italian War. — The Italian government was warned by .Austria-Hungary that military op- erations were not to be directed against Eurof>ean Turkey, as .Austria-Hungary did not want to have the Balkan question opened at that time. — See also Balkan states: 1912: First Balkan War. 1911-1913. — Increase in army.' See Was, Prep- aration* FOR: 1911-1913. 1912. — Berchtold proposition. See Balkan States: 1912: Balkan league. 1912 (December). — Triple Alliance renewed. — Balkan situation. See Italy: 1912-1914; Triple .Alliance: Content of the treaties. 1913. — Austria-Hungary and the Albanian question. — It was mainly at the insistence of Austria that the powers intervened to prevent the partition of Albania among the Balkan allies. The question was settled temporarily by the London conference under the presidency of Sir Edward Grey by the creation of Albania as an independent state. — ^See also Albania: 1913 ; Balkan States: 1912-1913- 1913. — Interest in Second Balkan War. — Re- lations with Rumania. See B.\lkan St.\tes: 1913 ; and Rumania: 1912-1913. 1914. — Control of railways. See Railroads: 1917-1919. 1914. — Austro-Hungarian foreign policy. — Rivalry between Russia and Austria-Hungary. — Growth of hostility between Serbia and Aus- tria-Hungary. — "The foreign policy of Austria- Hungary . . . had to do mostly with ambitions in the Balkans and attempts to extend to the south. With the new German Empire cordial relations were established. With respect to Italy the old ambitions were completely given over. In the latter part of the nineteenth century, while other European powers were making themselves greater by colonial expansion the Dual Monarchy hoped to reach southward along the eastern shore of the Adriatic and down through the Balkans to an out- let, perhaps at Salonica. As early as the War for Greek Independence it was evident that Austria and Russia were suspicious of each other in ri- valry about the Balkans. This was more apparent in 1877, when the Russo-Turkish War began. In the ne.xt year, at the Congress of Berlin, when Russia was forced to let a great part of what she had accomplished be undone, .Austria-Hungary was given the administration of the two Turkish provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, peopled with South Slavs, and conveniently adjoining her own Slavic provinces of Dalmatia and Croatia- Slavonia. In the following year she joined the German Empire in alliance, from which she got added protection against Russia, though Germany was not yet disposed to forfeit the friendship of Russia. Year by year the rivalry of Austria-Hun- gary and Russia for greater power and influence in the Balkans increased." — E. R. Turner, Europe, p. 444. — ".Austria came more and more to be Russia's principal opponent in the Balkans, dread- ing the extension of Russian power southward. During much of this time either Russia or Austria would gladly have got the Ottoman provinces, but failing that, each was resolved that no other power should get them." — Ibid., p. 449. — "Not only did Austria-Hungary desire to expand south- ward through the Balkans, but her great river, the Danube, emptied into the Black Sea, and much of her commerce went out past Constantinople. That is to say, if Russia succeeded in her ambi- tion, then Austria-Hungary could be largely closed in and at Russia's mercy, while if .Austria got what she desired, then Russia would be largely at her mercy in like manner." — Ibid., p. 516. — In this matter Hungary was quite as hostile as Austria to the aggrandizement of Russia and the ambi- tions of Rumania and Serbia. In their foreign policy, therefore, the two members of the dual monarchy presented a united front to the world and were both equally anxious to \)uild up a powerful army and navy. "In 1908 Austria-Hun- gary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina, in spite of a general European treaty, and in direct defiance of Russia. By the Treaty of BcrHn the two Turk- ish provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina had been put under the control of Austria-Hungary, though sovereignty continued to be vested in Turkey. Actual connection with Turkey ceased, however, and the government of the Dual Monarchy set to work to bring order to the districts and make them thoroughly subservient to its rule. The people were largely debarred from professional and government positions and treated as inferior to Hunaarians or Germans, but considerable material prosperity was brought about, and in many re- spects the condition of the South Slavs in these provinces was better than that of those who ruled themselves in Servia and Montenegro. As time went on therefore, .Austria-Hungary came to regard them as part of her dominion, and Turkish own- 724 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1914 World War AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1914-1915 ership as a fiction. Thus things continued until IQOS. In that year occurred the so-called Young Turk revolution in the Ottoman Empire. Ignor- ing the Austrian possession of Bosnia and Herze- govina, the Young Turks invited the population of the provinces to send representatives to an assembly in Constantinople. This seemed an at- tempt to prepare for Turkish possession of the country again later on. But complete mastery of the district was now necessary for the Teutonic scheme of controlling the way down to Turkey and the greater domain across the straits. Under no circumstances would either Germany or Austria see the loss of Bosnia and Herzegovina threatened, and so Austria acted at once. October 3d, the Dual Monarchy cast aside the Treaty of Berlin, without consulting the other parties to the treaty, and announced that the provinces were annexed. A dangerous crisis ensued. Turkey, most directly aggrieved, strongly protested, but could do nothing, and after a while accepted pecuniary compensation. Great Britain and France, who had signed the Treaty of Berlin, protested. To Russia — also a signatory, and much more greatly interested be- cause of her position and ambition in the Bal- kans — the affront was far greater and she insisted that the matter be laid before a European con- gress. Most furious of all was Servia, the neigh- boring South Slavic state, who had long hoped that, on the breaking up of European Turkey, Bosnia and Herzegovina would be hers. If now the provinces were finally incorporated into Aus- tria-Hungary, then the dream of future Servian greatness would never be realized. Accordingly, while Russia was prepared to oppose the action as strongly as she could, Servia was resolved to fight to the death, and could with difficulty be restrained from attacking her powerful neighbor." — Ibid., pp. 500-501. — See also Bosnia-Herzego- vina: 1908 — and Turkey: 1908. — "But in igi3> after the Second Balkan War, not only was the strength of Turkey as a European power so weak- ened that she counted for little more than pos- sessor of the incomparable site of Constantinople and territories in Asia, but Servia, the bitter enemy of Austria, had come out of both wars with increased power and territory -and greatly increased prestige. . . . Altogether, the position of Germany and Austria-Hungary was much less good with respect to the Balkans than before. Austria greatly desired to settle at once her ac- count with Servia, and reduce her permanently to a position in which she could never again be a source of apprehension. It was learned afterward that in August 1913 Austria-Hungary tried to get her partners in the Triple Alliance to join her in proceeding against Servia. But the Italian gov- ernment refused to give sanction, and the matter was dropped until the next year." — Ibid, pp. 510- 511. — See also Balkan States: 1914; and Italy: 1913: Austrian plan to attack Serbia. — The aspira- tion of Austro-Hungarian capitalists to finance rail- ways and exploit in general the whole of the Bal- kan peninsula to Greece — an aspiration which had largely influenced the annexation of Bosnia-Herze- govina — was seriously checked by the wars of 1912- 1913, and was the direct cause of the World War. — See also World War: Diplomatic background: 5; 8; 69. 1914 (June). — Assassination of the archduke Francis Ferdinand. — On Sunday morning, June 28, the archduke Francis Ferdinand, nephew of the emperor Francis Joseph and heir to the Hapsburg throne, was assassinated by a Pan-Serbian agitator named Gavrilo Princip, who fired several shots from a Browning pistol. Both the archduke and his morganatic wife, the duchess of Hohenberg, who accompanied him, were fatally wounded. "He was just the man, in a word, that the decrepit monarchy needed to be set up once more. All that, however, the Servian plotters cared little about. The circumstance that signed his death warrant in Belgrade was that Francis Ferdinand stood committed to the Trias idea. The Trias in lieu of the Dual Monarchy. The Ausghich had reached, according to him, the end of its usefulness, and in place of it was to come a Triple Monarchy, a confederation of three distinct political entities; each part was to tie in- dependent of the others, save in a few reserved points. These reserved points were to be con- fined to absolute essentials — the field of foreign re- lations, political and economic treaties, army and navy — in the main, then, those provided for in the Austrian compromise with Hungary of 1867. . . . Francis Ferdinand, though of purely Teuton stock himself, was known as a Slavophil. He not only had mastered Czech completely, but had writ- ten much in that difficult tongue. He had like- wise possessed himself of a familiar knowledge of the other Slav tongues in Austria-Hungary, and the Serbo-Croatian language he spoke perfectly." — W. von Schierbrand, Austria-Hungary: The Polyglot empire, pp. loi, 102, 103. — See Serbia: 1914; Serajevo: 1914; World War: Causes: Direct. 1914 (July). — Decision for war. — Ministerial councils. — Ultimatum presented to Serbia (July 23). — Mobilization of troops. — Aircraft strength. — Bethmann-Hollweg's review of events preced- ing war. See World War: Diplomatic background: 13; 14; 15; 16; 25; 26; 31; 33; 73, ii; 77; Prep- aration for war: a; 1914: X. War in the air: a. 1914 (July 28). — Declaration of war on Serbia. — Version of Austro-Serbian quarrel by Francis Joseph. See World War: Diplomatic background: 28; 29; 31; Causes: Indirect: k. 1914 (July 30-Septemher 10). — Invasion of Serbia. — Siege of Belgrade. See World War: 1914: III. Balkans: a, 1. 1914 (August). — Violations of Triple Alliance. — Relations with Italy over war. See Italy: 1914: Position of Italy; World War: 1915: IV. Italy: a. 1914 (August 6). — War declared on Russia. See World War: Diplomatic background: 67. 1914 (August 27-September 3). — Invasion of Galicia by Russians. — Capture of Lemberg. See World War: 1914: II. Eastern front: d, 1. 1914 (October). — Investment of Przemysl by Russians. — Summary. See World War: 1914: II. Eastern front: d, 4; d, 5. 1914. — Desire to control policy in Rumania. — Italy's attitude. See World War: Diplomatic background: 9; 11; 1916: V. Balkan Theater: c; c, 4; Italy: 1914; Austro-Serbian crisis; Baron Sonnino's diplomatic duel. 1914 (November-December). — Second attack and defeat in Serbia. See World War; 1914: HI. Balkans: a, 2; a, 3. 1914-1915. — Attitude of the peoples in the Dual Monarchy towards the war. — Hungarian enthusiasm. — "From the very beginning of the Austro-Serbian crisis, those natural pillars of the empire, the nobility, the army, the bureaucracy, and the Church, together with the German and Magyar populations, rallied enthusiastically round the Government and the Hapsburg throne. The almost passionate phraseology of the Austrian ul- timatum to Serbia, so unusual in a diplomatic document of this nature, was an accurate reflection of the popular mood. The Viennese press unani- mously demanded decisive measures. 'The situa- tion between our Government and that of King 725 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1914-1915 World War AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1914-1915 Peter has become intolerable,' asserted the Neue Freie Presse. 'Our ultimatum has been the natural result.' The Reichspost urged the Government to take decisive measures against the Serbian foe, 'who is as implacable and relentless as he is das- tardly.' The formal outbreak of hostilities was hailed with jubilation 'When we consider the provocations of which Serbia has been guilty for so many years,' exclaimed the Tageblatt, 'the sol- emn pledges made and broken, the defiance which we have put up with from an unscrupulous neigh- bor whom no kindness can appease, we experience a sense of relief on this outburst of war.' Hun- garian sentiment was even more enthusiastic. 'The whole nation joyfully hastens to follow the call of his Majesty to the flag,' cried Premier Tisza amid the frantic cheers of the Hungarian deputies. 'If we had stood these conditions any longer,' ex- claimed Count .Albert Apponyi, head of the Opposi- tion, 'we would have reached the point where Europe would have called us her second "Sick Man." ' 'It is peace and not war that we want ; but a peace which leads to life, not to death,' asserted the .\rchbishop of Esztergom, Roman Catholic primate of Hungary. 'There are sit- uations in political life,' said Count Julius -Andrassy, 'that can be likened only to the en- circling of Sedan, which demoralizes and van- quishes the surrounded foe before the first shot is fired. Such would have been our fate if, after the continued vexations of years, after the expendi- ture of many millions, caused by Serbia, we should have continued to submit to the invidious attacks of Russian-protected Serbia. . . . Had we waited longer, our self-esteem, our self-trust, would have been torn to shreds, and so would our power of resistance, our inner unity, our integrity.' The Magyar press displayed a decidedly bitter tone against the enemy. That leading Budapest paper, the Pester Lloyd, wrote. 'The Serbian Government will be shown up as a nest of pestilential rats which come from their territory over our border to spread death and destruction.' The broadening of the conflict into a war with Russia caused no surprise, since Serbia had from the first been con- sidered merely the catspaw of Russian imperial- ism. 'The true cause of the war,' asserted Count Julius Andrassy, 'is the Eastern ambition [of hegemony in the Balkans] of Russia, which is as old as her position as a great Power, and which has long been hanging over us like a sword of Damocles.' Dr. Dumba, Austro-Hungarian am- bassador to the United States, undoubtedly voiced the prevailing Austrian opinion when he wrote in the North American Review for September, igi4: 'The war between Austria-Hungary and Russia may well be said to be the outcome of conflicting civilizations and conflicting aims. The controversy between the Dual Monarchy and the Serbian Kingdom is only an incident in the greater struggle between German civilization as repre- sented by Austria-Hungary, and the Russian out- post on the southern frontier of the Dual Monarchy . . . The Serbian Kingdom is the torpedo which Russia has launched at the body of Austria.' Hungarian opinion tended to give the war an even broader interpretation. 'Pan-Russianism, that is the word!' exclaimed the Revue de Uangrie (Budapest). 'No! The present war is not, as certain persons assert, a war of Slavism against Germanism. It is a war of a great part of civil- ized Europe against Russian autocracy and Serb terrorism. ... If the Triple Entente (in which the empire of the Tsars holds a preponderant place), should win in this war, it would mean the European sluice-gates open to Muscovite autoc- racy, to Cossack militarism, to all sorts of politi- cal and religious heresies. The dyke once broken, it would be the end of European civilization.' "Such was the temper of the governing classes and of the German and Magyar populations. . . . Unquestionably there was much disloyalty among certain racial groups. The Serb element of the Yugo-Slavs, in particular, appears to have been honeycombed with secessionism, and even among the Croats many malcontents were discovered. Some of these escaped abroad, notably the Croat deputy, Hinkovitch, and these exiles presently founded the 'South Slav Committee' in London, to influence Entente public opinion . . . The Croats, though desirous of Yugo-Slav unity, gen- erally wished it in the '.\ustrian' sense; i. e., the supremacy of the Croat over the Serb element in any future Yugo-Slav state. . . . Croat mobs marched through the streets crying, 'Death to the Serbs!' Serb shops were sacked and Serb lead- ers roughly handled. The Croat deputy. Dr. Sus- tersics, voiced the feelings of the great majority of his people when he declared; '. . . Francis Fer- dinand was bound to come to this end, especially as he was the friend of the southern Slavs. Im- perialistic Serbia saw with alarm the rise of this potent personality, this knight "without fear and without reproach," who showed both the will and the power to promote peaceful relations between the southern Slavs and the Hapsburg dynasty.' The Croats thus entered the war against their Ser- bian kindred in a far more loyal frame of mind than would have been possible under any other circumstances. . . . The Czechs displayed neither the indignant loyalty nor the bitter secessionism of the Yugo-Slav populations. . . . The fierce struggles which had long raged in Bohemia be- tween the Czechs and the large German minority constantly protected by Vienna had engendered widespread Czech resentment against the Austrian Government. Russian propaganda had of course made the most of this golden opportunity, and for some years previous to the war a genuine secessionist party had existed among the Czechs, with the erection of a Czech-Slovak national state under Russian protection as its goal. But these extremists were comparatively few in number, and drastic government measures at the outbreak of war quickly broke up their party organization. Some of their leaders, like Professor Masaryk, es- caped abroad; others, such as Dr. Kramar, were imprisoned. A few were shot for high treason. The most serious result of Czech discontent was the poor spirit shown by Czech troops, whole regiments surrendering to the enemy with prac- tically no resistance. On the other hand, there existed a fairly strong loyalist minority which dis- liked the thought of ."Austrian disruption and feared the results of Russian victory. Typical of Czech loyalist press comment are the words of the HIas Naroda (Prague): 'The crime of Serajevo revealed, as by a lightning flash, the monarchy's deplorable situation. . . . But, at one stroke, all dis-sension disappeared. In vain did the enemy make advances to the non-German nationalities' 'We are all glad to assert the close union of nation- alities. ... All the nationalities are defending the throne and the empire,' declared the HIasyz Hane of Prossnitz. 'We belong voluntarily to the .Aus- tro-Hungarian Monarchy,' said the Cesky Dennin of Pilsen, 'that monarchy beneath whose protec- tion the Czech people has arrived at its present maturity.' [See also Czecho-Slovakia; and JtiGo- Slavia.) The attitude of . . . the Poles was not left for a moment in doubt. .Almost without ex- ception, the .Austrian Poles proved loyalist to the core For many years the Poles of Galicia had enjoyed complete local self-government and full 726 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1914-1915 World War AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1914-1915 cultural liberty — a situation doubly appreciated by contrast to the depressed condition of their kinsmen under Russian and Prussian rule, Galicia was full of Polish refugees from Russian persecu- tion. The Austrian Poles, therefore, hailed the war as a crusade for the liberation of their race from Russian domination. The exiles at once raised several Polish legions, 20,000 strong, which, under their gifted leader, Josef Pilsudski, fought with fanatical bravery against the Russian troops. The attitude of the Austrian Poles comes out strongly in the manifesto of the National Polish Committee issued at the beginning of the war: Should Russia keep Russian Poland, and add Galicia and Posen thereto, Europe would be ex- posed to the infiltration of Russian despotism and Byzantinism. If, on the other hand, Poland is torn from Russia, it will mean a guarantee for the progressive expansion of Western civilization toward eastern Europe, as well as protection against the introduction of Cossack principles into modern life. . . . Let no one accuse the Poles now fight- ing in the legions side by side with the Austrian armies of being unfaithful to their historic tradi- tions. Russian was Poland's arch-enemy in the past, and will be in the future. It is precisely their part in Western civilization and the national in- dividuality of their country that the Poles are now defendmg against the Russians, contemners of the one and persecutors of the other.' In an appeal addressed to Poles throughout the world, the noted Polish poet, George Zulawski, wrote: We stand to-day by Austria, and do not doubt (or a moment her goodwill. Let the Grand Duke Nicholas juggle with promises never meant to be kept ; we know how we are treated here. After having lost our liberty we have found in this monarchy, the most liberal in Europe, shelter and protection. We are full-fledged citizens; we en- joy here the liberty of autonomy and of our na- tional advance. . . . To-day, God had entrusted the honor of the Polish nation to us Polish vol- unteers, and we will return it into the hands of God alone.' 'The historic mission of the Poles throughout the whole course of Polish history,' wrote Professor Josef Buzek in the Oesterreicbische Rundschau of September, 1914, 'consists in the protection they have afforded as foreposts of the Occident to the Western civilization founded upon the principles of the Catholic Church, against at- tack by the Byzantine Orient. ... In the pres- ent world-war the Poles will take up once more their historic mission in closest union with Austria- Hungary. Their struggle will concern the driv- ing of the hereditary Russian foe from Polish ground.' So strong was Polish fear and hatred of Russia that the outbreak of war and the example of their Galician kinsmen swept even the Prussian Poles into the stream, notwithstanding the bad relations which had existed between Poles and Germans for many years. Accordingly, most of the Prussian Polish leaders endorsed the pastoral letter of Monsignor Likowski. archbishop of (inesen and primate of Poland, issued August q, iqi4, which accused Russia of being the provoker nf the war and the persecutor of the Catholic Church, and exhorted the Poles to fight valiantly for the king of Prussia — 'for it is he who will free from the yoke our oppressed brethren be- yond the frontier.' [See Poland: 1014-1917.] .Almost identical was the attitude of . . . the Ruthenians. For many years the Ruthenians of Eastern Galicia had regarded their province as a 'Piedmont'— the nucleus of a future Ukrainian national state carved out of South Russia ; much as the Serbs had regarded Serbia as the nucleus for a future Yugo-Slav state carved out of South- west Austria-Hungary. To the Ruthenians, there- fore, the war appeared as a golden opportunity, the words of the proclamation issued by the Ukrainian National Committee, composed both of Ruthenians and exiles from the Russian Ukraine. 'Unless the Ukrainian provinces are separated from Russia,' runs this manifesto, 'even the most crush- ing defeat for that country will be but a feeble blow, from which Czarism would recover in a few years, to take up again its ancient role of a disturber of the peace of Europe. Only a free Ukraine, which would be supported by the Triple Alliance (i. e., the Central Powers), could form, with its extensive domain, reaching from the Car- pathians to the Don and to the Black Sea, the necessary protective wall between Europe and Russia, a bulwark that would defeat forever the greed for expansion on the part of Czarism, and free the Slavic world from the baneful influence of Pan-Muscovitism.' "Such optimistic notes were, however, quickly stilled by the crushing series of disasters that now overtook the Hapsburg Monarchy. The failures in Serbia, the Russian conquest of Ekistern Ga- licia, and the destructive Cossack raids into North- ern Hungary, spread consternation and alarm throughout the empire. The disloyal rejoiced, and only the severest military repression prevented seditious disturbances among the Serbo-Croats of the south and in Bohemia. The Entente press was full of rumors that Austria-Hungary meditated a separate peace, but such rumors seem to have been without serious foundation. Undoubtedly the empire was pessimistic, but it was a pessimism of desperate resolution, not of abject despair. The Magyars, to whom rumor had assigned the leading peace role, breathed, as a matter of fact, only defiant fury. At the end of 1914, the Pester Lloyd exclaimed hotly, 'Let our opponents under- stand once and for all: We are going to hold out to the end, and we have not for a single moment meditated a separate peace with any one.' . . . At first sight, one might have thought that Italy's declaration of war upon the empire in May, 1915, would have greatly accentuated the prevailing gloom. As a matter of fact, it did more than anything else to solidify patriotic feeling and rouse Austria to fresh exertions. The whole em- pire quivered with furious wrath and scornful contempt for Italy, the 'traitor' nation. Emperor Franz-Joseph's proclamation to his people, with its stinging words — 'Perfidy whose like history does not know' — was an accurate reflection of the popu- lar emotion. 'If war be indeed only a con- tinuation of political policy with different means,' wrote that leading Austrian publicist, Freiherr von Chlumecky, in the Oesterreicliische Rundschau, 'then Italy can point to the fact that, free from all scruples of political faith and morality, she has consistently pursued a course in the world war which she followed in peace for many years. To be at once .Austria's ally and her most ma- lignant foe — that has for decades been Italy's policy. . . . Italy dares the war, not so much for territorial aggrandizement as for the realization of the aim she pursued in peace as well with all the means at her command — to hurl Austria from her position of a great power. . . . Against this design, however, the whole Empire will rise to defend itself as one man. Austrian blood is not easily stirred, but now when we are threatened by cowardly brigands with a dagger thrust in the back, now will our wrath rise to a mighty flame, and all Austria echo the cry, "Down with the traitors!" . . . Revenge for a breach of faith unexampled in history — that will continue to be the watchword; and we shall not rest, nor our 727 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1914-1915 World War AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1915 children, or children's children, if that be neces- sary, until a people devoid of all political and moral loyalty shall have paid a heavy penalty for the crime committed against our sovereign and our country!' Hungarian opinion equaled Aus- trian in its fury. 'We are persuaded,' exclaimed the Revue de Hongrie of June, iqi5, 'that the Italian Government's breach of plighted faith will be stigmatized by posterity, and that without distinction of nations. But, in awaiting this, we Hungarians, who formerly fought for Italian in- dependence under Garibaldi, will take care that the infamy of Salandra and his ilk, who seek to revive the epoch of the Borgias, shall not pass unavenged. We shall not wait for history to punish them ; we shall charge ourselves with that duty.' Much more significant, however, was the attitude of the Slavs. Italy's avowed intention to seize, not only Italian-speaking Trentino and Trieste, but also large tracts of territory in- habited by a Serbo-Croat population, roused all the Austrian Slavs to wrathful indignation. Even the Czech press warmed to unwonted interest and loyalty. 'The peoples of .Austria-Hungary,' as- serted the Hlas Naroda of Prague, 'prefer war with Italy to a boughten peace, precarious and uncertain,' 'Because of the perfidy of Italian policy,' wrote the Cecil (Prague), bitterly, 'a war to-day breaks out which is just another raid of the brigands of the Abruzzi.' .And the Proudy of Olmiitz exclaimed defiantly, 'One more or less; what does it matter!' "It was, however, the Serbo-Croats of the South who manifested the hottest indignation. 'Not an inch of Austro-Hungarian territory to these perfidi- ous "Allies" !' exclaimed the Hrvalska of Agram. 'The solid fists of the Croats and Slovenes will be plenty strong enough to smash any Italian attempt to grab our littoral.' . . . 'We pray with all our heart for the crushing of Italy and the complete failure of its vile speculations,' wrote the Hrvaiski Pokret (.Agram), 'and we are convinced that our Croatian and Slovene soldiers will have a good big share in bringing this about.' "Very interesting was the attitude of the -Aus- trian Italians. These people, numbering about 800,000, are divided into three geographically separate groups: the Trentino district of South Tyrol: the Istrian region at the head of the Adriatic, centering about the city of Trieste; and the isolated colonies of the islands and port towns of the Dalmatian coast. The longing of Italian 'Irredentists' to 'redeem' these race brethren by incorporating them into the kingdom of Italy was undoubtedly shared by a majority of the Austrian Italians, and the Austrian militarj' authorities had to take sharp measures to check disloyalty. Nevertheless, the loyalist minority was larger than is generally supposed, and on this occasion did not fail to express their sentimenls. In Trentino, loyalist addresses were signed by leading notables, including five Italian members of the Tyrolese Provincial Diet, while the Risveglio of Trent as- serted: 'No one has ever solicited Italy's in- tervention. This war serves particular interests which are absolutely opposed to the interests of Italian Tyrol.' . . .'in Dalmatia, // Dalmata of Zara wrote: 'The Dalmatians of Italian speech declare in this solemn hour that they will make every sacrifice asked of them. . . . Dalmatian fidelitv is traditional. We have inherited it from our fathers, and we will give a new proof of it by attesting our loyalty both to Emperor Francis Joseph and to the institutions of the Austro-Hun- garian state.' [See also .AnRiATic ouestion: Re- lations between Italy and Jugo-Slavia.] . . . After the fall of Warsaw, the A'oxca Rejorma. of Cracow wrote: 'That which to-day fills Polish hearts is something far beyond the bounds of ordinary hu- man delight. Entire generations of Poles have not been permitted to experience this sentiment, which only a Pole can understand. The solid walls of our prison have crumbled into dust. They have been cast down by the mighty breath of civilization.' The C::ar said: 'Russia to-day suf- fers a hard and merited chastisement. The loss of Warsaw is the first step in her downfall.' The Ruthenian press joined in this chorus of jubila- tion, which was further swelled by the voices of the loyalist Czechs. The Hlas Naroda of Brunn wrote: 'All the peoples of our monarchy are to- day filled wuth enthusiasm. The Czech nation turns grateful eyes upon its valorous sons who, with the other .Austro-Hungarian nations, bring liberty to the Polish nation. Not, be it noted, the liberty promised by the false friends of Slavism at Petersburg, nor the liberty of the Chinovniks of Moscow, but a liberty based upon civilization, moraUty, and conscience. The Russian despotism reaps the first-fruits of the seeds which it has sown.' The Lidone Noviny remarked: 'Under Russian rule, the Poles knew only servitude. Equally lamentable is the fate of the Ukrainians. Under the pretext of liberating the Balkan states, the empire of the Tsars wished only to engulf them in its tyranny. It even allies itself with the Italians — those declared adversaries of Slavism — in order jointly to enslave the Slovenes and Croats.' " — T. L. Stoddard, Present-day Europe, pp. 123-137. — See also World War: Diplomatic background: 12; 75. 1914-1916. — Serbian deportations. — Treatment of the Serbs. See World War: Miscellaneous auxiliary services: X. .Alleged atrocities and viola- tions of international law: b, 1. 1915. — Political changes. — Rupture with Italy. — Count Berchtold. the foreign minister, "the man who started the war," resigned in January and was succeeded by Baron Burian, a Hungarian of Slovak descent. The dominating influence of Count Tisza, Hungarian premier, gradually eclipsed that of the Austrian premier. Count Stiirgkh, so that the war policy of the Dual Monarchy was directed with increasing energy from Budapest rather than Vienna. The outstanding events of the year were the critical negotiations with Italy — a diplomatic duel between Baron Burian and the Italian foreign minister, Baron Sonnino, as- sisted by the persuasive intervention of Prince BUlow as German representative in Rome. The negotiations fell through and on May 23 Italy broke away from the Triple .Alliance and declared war on Austria-Hungary. The German emperor visited \'ienna in November, and shortly afterwards the .Austrian cabinet underwent several changes in ministerial posts. — See also Italy: iqoi-igiS; 1915: Italy declares war; Triple alll\xce: Break up of Triple .Alliance. 1915. — Conquest and rule of Lithuania, Vol- hynia, Poland and Podolia by Central Powers. See PoLANT): 191S-191S. 1915. — Summary of successes on Eastern front. See World W.ar: 1915: II. Eastern front: b. 1915. — Fight to control Carpathian mountain passes. — Surrender of Przemysl (March 22). See World War: 1915: II. Eastern front: d; e; f. 1915 (May-June). — Attacks on Italy. See World W.ar: 1915: IV. Italy: d. 1915 (Jime). — Protest against United States trade with Allies. — United States reply. See U. S. .A.: 1915 (June) : Protests by Central Powers. 1915 (September). — Recall of Ambassador Dumba from United States. See U. S. -A.: 1915 (September). 728 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1915 World War AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1916-1917 1915 (November 7). — Sinking of the Ancona. — Apology. See U. S. A.: igis (December). 1916. — Language and alphabet forced on Serbs. See World War: Miscellaneous auxiliar>' services: X. Alleged atrocities and violations of international law: b, 2. 1916 (January-February). — Attacks in Albania and Montenegro. See World War: igib; V. Bal- kan theater: a. 1916 (May-June). — Offensive against Italy. — Failure. See World War: 1916: I. Military situ- ation: d, 2. 1916 (August 27). — Rumania's declaration of war.^Reasons. See World War: 1916: V. Bal- kan theater: c, 5. 1916. — Legislative standstill. — Racial dissen- sions. — Assassination of the premier. — Except in Hungary, all parliamentary and legislative activity had ceased since the outbreak of war. The Reichsrath and nearly a score of provincial legis- latures had ceased to function. Racial riots and antagonisms were sternly suppressed. On Octo- ber 21 the Austrian premier, Count Stiirgkh, was shot dead in a restaurant by Dr. Friedrich Adler, a journahst, who was subsequently acquitted of the charge of murder. Dr. Enist von Koerber suc- ceeded as premier and formed a new cabinet. 1916 (November 21). — Death of Francis Jo- seph. — A tragic figure was removed from world his- tory by the death, on November 21, of the Emperor Francis Joseph. Born on August 18, 1S30, he as- cended the throne in his nineteenth year. The nu- merous political crises that harrassed his long reign were overshadowed by a remarkable series of do- mestic tragedies. His brother, Maximilian of Mex- ico, was executed; the latter's widow, living in 1921, lost her reason over fifty years ago ; his wife, the Empress Elizabeth, fell under the dagger of an assassin ; his only son and heir committed sui- cide or was murdered ; his nephew and heir-pre- sumptive was murdered with his consort in the streets of Serajevo — an event that formed the pre- lude to the World War. The venerable monarch himself lived to see his realm gradually being shattered in the greatest crisis of its checkered history, and died in the shadow of defeat. Within two years later, the unwieldy empire which he had so laboriously held together lay crushed, bleeding and bankrupt, while his successor on the throne was a refugee in a foreign land. "He was in his eighty-sixth year — the oldest sovereign in the world. He had reigned for sixty-eight years, having begun his active political life just after the fall of Mettcrnich. He had fought many wars, and had always been beaten ; he had had to yield time and again his most cherished con- victions; he had suffered the deepest public and private sorrows; and in the end he had come to be regarded as one of the permanent things in Europe from his sheer length of life and te- nacity in suffering. He was the last believer in the old theory of the divine right of monarchs . . . and this passionate faith gave him strength and constancy. To this creed everything was sac- rificed — ease, family affection, private honour, the well-being of individuals and of nations — until he became an inhuman monarchical machine, grinding out decisions like an automaton. His age and his afflictions persuaded the world to judge him kindly, and indeed the tragic loneliness of his life made the predominant feeling one of pity." — J. Buchan, Nelson's history of the war, v. 18, p. 124. 1916 (December 12). — Peace note of Central Powers to the neutral powers and Vatican for Entente Allies. See World War: 1916: XI. Peace proposals: a; a, 3. 1916. — Ships sunk by Italy in the Adriatic. See World War: 191 7: IX. Naval operations: b, 2. 1916-1917.— Accession of Charles (Karl) I.— Ministerial changes. — Domestic disorder. — Mo- rale. — Francis Joseph's "successor on the throne was his great-nephew, the Archduke Charles Francis Joseph, the son of that Archduke Otto who was the younger brother of the murdered Francis Ferdinand. He was in his thirtieth year, and had for some months been commander in chief on the southern section of the Eastern front. ... He was known as a good sportsman and a young man of frank and engaging manners; but he had scarcely the education to fit him to sit on the most difficult throne in Europe. . . . He wished to safeguard the remains of his sovereignty, and it was believed that he might show a certain independence in policy." — J. Buchan, Nelson's his- tory of the war, v. 18, p. 125. — Immediately an attempt was made to clean house, which led to the inference that the young ruler was opposed to the war policy of Germany and was working for peace. — "Koerber [the premier] was an hon- est and fairly liberal bureaucrat," wrote J. Buchan; "strongly pro-Austrian, and he was not disposed to listen readily to Pan-German extrem- ism. His task was threefold — to agree with Ger- many on the future of Poland, to carry a new Ausgleith with Hungary, and to strength the non- Slav elements in the Austrian Parliament by the grant of a larger autonomy to Galicia. All three tasks raised the question of relations with Ger- many. ... It was clear that Koerber was in- clined to prove refractory to German guidance on all points, and the pro-German faction in Austria took alarm. ... On 13th December he found himself compelled to resign." — Ibid., p. 123. — Koerber's administration had lasted only two months when Dr. Spitzmiiller was called to the helm. He "was entrusted with the forma- tion of a fresh Ministry, whose immediate busi- ness was to carry the new Ausgleich. But Spitz- miiller found it impossible to proceed without summoning Parliament, and such a step would raise other controversial matters which he wished to keep slumbering. By 20th December [1916] he had failed to make any headway, and a Bohemian noble, Count Clam-Martinitz, was called to the task. At first sight this appeared to mark the dawn of a new policy. . . . Baron Burian, the faithful disciple of Tisza . . . was replaced by a Czech, Count Ottokar Czernin, who had been noted in the past for his anti^Magyar leanings. ... On the whole the new Ministry had a federalist com- plexion. The more reactionary of the Court of- ficials and the permanent civil servants disap- peared. ... It looked as if the Emperor Charles intended to make a stand against the tyranny alike of Berlin and Budapest. But the appearance was illusory. . . . The Dual Monarchy depended for its very existence upon Germany, and so long as it remained so long would Germany dominate its attitude. The Austrian Germans would re- fuse, as in 1870, to permit any anti-German tendency in Austria's foreign policy, and they would insist upon their own domination in the Austrian Government. The Magyar minority in Hungary would never admit any interference with their political supremacy or allow an acre of soil within the boundaries of Hungary to be removed from their authority. Their attitude had remained the same since 1848, and the ideas of Andrassy the Elder and Koloman Tisza were the ideas of their sons. As long as the Dual Monarchy continued, there must be German domination in Austria and Magyar domination in Hungary, in- tense dissatisfaction among the subject races, and 729 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1917 World War AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1917-1918 irredentist claims by the border states. While this lasted the Hapsburg power must be in a condition of unstable equilibrium, and be com- pelled to look outside for support. That support could come only from Germany." — Ibid., pp. 120- 127, 132. — Clam-Martinitz failed in his domestic policy as well as in an attempt to make terms with Russia. He reconvoked the Reichsrath, which assembled on May 30, IQ17. Racial antagonism broke out afresh ; the Poles opposed the budget, and the premier resigned. He was succeeded by a stop-gap ministry under Dr. Seidler on June 24. The all-powerful Tisza fell in Hungary dur- ing May, though he still retained much of his pro-German influence. His successor. Count Esterhazy, was a former O.xford student. The col- lapse of Russia gave Austria-Hungary a breathing- space and enabled the ministry to concentrate its efforts on the Italian front. — Austria "had long ago lost heart in the war, and was faced with the unpleasing alternatives of defeat — which meant disruption — and victory, which involved a phan- tom existence under German tutelage. In either case her bankruptcy was assured. Count Czernin . . . courted popularity, and showed an amiable weakness for the rhetoric as opposed to the sub- stance of democracy. At a public dinner at Buda- pest early in October he gave his own views of peace, forecasting a general disarmament and a League of Nations, now that Central Europe had shown that it could not be subdued by force of arms." — J. Buchan, v. 21, p. 206. — See also World War: 1017: XII. Political conditions in the bellig- erent countries: g. 1917. — Relations with China in war. See Chin.a: 1Q17. 1917. — Conquest of Rumania by Central Pow- ers. See World W.ar: 191 7: V. Balkan theater: d, 1. 1917. — Attacks in Trentino. — Battles in Piave Region. — Battle of the Isonzo. See World War: 1Q17: IV'. .•\ustro-Italian front: a; a, 3; b; d; d, 4; d, 5; e. 1917. — Political conditions. — Report of Count Czernin. — Attitude on U-boat warfare. See World War: 1017: XII. Political conditions in the belligerent countries: b. 1917 (April 6). — Relations severed with United States. See U. S. A.: iqi? (.^pril): War declared against Germany. 1917 (August-September). — Note of the Pope to all belligerents asking for the termination of war. — Their reply. See World W.^r: 191 7: XI. Efforts toward peace: c; g; j. 1917 (December 4). — United States Congress passes war resolution. See U. S. A.: 1917 (De- cember). 1917 (December 15). — Armistice with Russia. — Text. See World War: 1917: III. Russia and the Eastern front: q, 6; also Miscellaneous and auxiliary services: I. .Armistices: a. 1917-1918.— Breakdown of the Dual Mon- archy. — Opposition of subject-nationalities. — "Lone before the surrender of Bulgaria and Turkey, long before the German defeat on the Western Front, the Dual Monarchy faced dis- aster. Unlike her confederates, .\ustria-Hungary suffered less from foreign prowess than from in- ternal weakness. Ever since the Russian Revolu- tion, in March, lor?, the task of dominating a majority of Slavs by a minority of Magyars and German-.Austrians, under any theory of democracy or national self-determination, had become utterly hopeless. .At first each of the subject nationalities, — Czechoslovaks, Jugoslavs. Poles. Ruthenians (Ukrainians), and Rumans. — clamored for auton- omy within the Dual Monarchy, but as time went on they all demanded complete separation from German .Austria and from Hungary. Each of the subject nationalities developed remarkable solidar- ity, the clergy and the university professors vying as a rule with the business-men, the peasants, and the artisans, in the furtherance of national inter- ests. Separatist propaganda was carried on in the open and by stealth. Loyalty to the Haps- burgs was undermined. In such cities as Prague, .\gram, Laibach, Cracow, and Lemberg there were increasingly frequent riots and demonstrations. Mu- tinies in the Austro-Hungarian army were everyday occurrences; and many Czechoslovak. Jugoslav, and Polish troops deserted to the Allies and served the .Allied cause in Russia or on the Western Front or in Italy. 'National Councils' of the 'several subject nationalities were organized in Paris, or London, or Rome, or Washington; and these 'provisional governments' not only fanned the flame of sedition within Austria-Hungary but strove to secure active Allied assistance in their efforts to disintegrate the Dual Monarchy." — C. J. H. Hayes, Brief history of the great war, pp. 348-349. — See also Brest-Litovsk treaties: 1918. "In iqi7 'disloyal' agitation had been less prevalent among Poles than among Czechoslovaks and Jugoslavs. The Poles of Galicia had always been treated rather liberally by the Habsburgs, and the erection of a kingdom of Poland by Aus- tro-German decree of November 5, 1910, had temporarily appeased the .Austrian Poles and en- abled Premier von Seidler to control a majority of votes in the .Austrian Reichsrat. But in the winter of 1917-191S Austria lost the support of her Poles, for she was obliged to agree to Ger- many's policy respecting Poland, and Germany's policy was to strengthen Ukrainia at Poland's ex- pense. Thus the Polish province of Cholm was incorporated into the new Ukrainian state, despite the vehement protests of the German-appointed Polish Regency at Warsaw (February 14, 1918) and the bitter imprecations of the .Austrian Poles In Galicia. Thenceforth the Poles, as well as the Jugoslavs and the Czechoslovaks, were openly hos- tile to the Dual Monarchy. General Joseph Pil- sudskl. a great national hero and formerly quite pro-.Austrian, directed such an agitation in Poland against the Teutons that for the safety of Mittel- Europa he was arrested and deported to Ger- many. Joseph Haller, a colonel in the Austrian army, deserted after the treaty of Brest-Litovsk, with his Polish regiment, and, after joining the Czecho5lo%'aks in Russia, made his way to Paris, where he assumed supreme command of a Polish army fighting for the Allies in France. And when the Polish deputies in the Austrian Reichsrat united with the already numerous opposition of Czech and Jugoslav deputies, parliamentary government in Austria became impossible. The only session of the Reichsrat during the Great War was closed abruptly by Emperor Charles and Premier von Seidler on May 4, 1918. "The majority of the population of the Dual Monarchy were at last becoming articulate, and, what was far more significant, they were uniting in common opposition to the continuance of the Habsburg Empire. This was the burden of the Pan-Slavic Congress held at Prague on January 6, 1918, of a second Congress held at .Agram on March 2, and of a third held at Laibach in July. But greater freedom of speech naturally prevailed outside of .Austria-Hungary than within; and con- sequently the clearest statement of the aims of the subject peoples of the Dual Monarchy was made at the famous Congress of Oppressed .Aus- trian Nationalities convened at Rome under the auspices of the Italian Government on April 10, 730 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1917-1918 Military Debacle AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1918 1918. This Congress, which included leading repre- sentatives of the Czechoslovaks, Jugoslavs, Rumans, and Poles, unanimously adopted the following reso- lutions: (i) Every people proclaims it to be its right to determine its own nationality and to secure national unity and complete independence; (2) Every people knows that the Austro-Hun- garian Monarchy is an instrument of German domination and a fundamental obstacle to the realization of its free development and self-govern- ment ; (3) The Congress recognizes the necessity of lighting against the common oppressors. "That the Congress at Rome faithfully re- flected the sentiments of the subject nationalities in Austria-Hungary was amply demonstrated three days later by a noteworthy assembly at Prague. On this occasion the Reichsrat deputies of the Czech nation and those of the Jugoslav nation, the latter speaking in the name of the Croats, Slovenes, and Serbs, met and made a joint agree- ment, through an oath worthy of everlasting re- membrance, lo suffer and struggle relentlessly to free their peoples from the foreign yoke and bring down into the dust the old imperialistic Empire, covered, as they said, with the maledictions of mankind. To the appeals of the oppressed Aus- trian nationalities the Allies did not turn deaf ears .Already, in 1Q17, France had authorized the or- ganization of Polish and Czechoslovak armies on the Western Front and had recognized them as belligerent units; and now, on April 21, igi8, llal.\' recognized the Czechoslovak National Coun- cil as a de facto government and placed a Czecho- slovak legion beside her own troops on the Piave Front. On May 2q Secretary Lansing, in be- half of the United States, declared 'that the na- tionalistic aspirations of the Czechoslovaks and the Jugoslavs for freedom have the earnest sympathy of this Government'; and a week later the sixth session of the Supreme War Council, meeting at Versailles and attended by the prime ministers of France, Great Britain, and Italy, adopted reso- lutions that 'the creation of a united, independent Polish state, with free access to the sea, con- stitutes one of the conditions of a solid and just peace and the rule of right in Europe,' and that 'the Allies have noted with satisfaction the declara- tion of the American Secretary of State, to which they adhere, expressing the greatest sympathy with the national aspirations of the Czechs and Jugo- slavs for freedom.' [Sec also Jugo-Slavia; rqi8 (April-October) .1 Of the complete independence of Czechoslovakia, formal recognition was ac- corded by France on June 30, by Great Britain on August 13, by the United States on Septem- ber 2, and by Japan on September g. No other course could honorably be taken by the Allies toward a country whose soldiers at the time were waging war against the Central Empires in France, in Italy, and most thrillingly in Russia. Under the circumstances the Habsburg officials at Vienna and Budapest bent all their energies to the task of preserving some semblance of order in their dominions until such time as the Germans should have won the war and come to their assistance. They proclaimed martial law in Bohemia and in Croatia. They imprisoned 'seditious' persons and endeavored to suppress 'revolutionary' publica- tions. They kept a fairly large army on the Italian Front, though they discovered to their chagrin that it was no longer fit for any offensive operations. They sent some artillery and a few regiments of infantry to aid Ludendorff in his su- preme effort on the Western Front. Most of all, for the success of the great German offensive in France they prayed ceaselessly and imploringly. There was little else that they could do. There was no other hope for them. German defeat would mean for Germany simply defeat ; for the Dual Monarchy, it would signify dissolution." — C. J. H. Hayes, Brief history of the great war, pp. 349-352. — See also Adriatic question: Torre- Trumbic agreement. 1918. — Treaty of Bucharest signed, March 26. See Bucharest, Treaty of. 1918. — Operations on Austro-Italian front. — Offensive against Italians. — Battle of Vittorio Veneti. See World War: iqi8: IV. Austro-Italian theater; a; b; c; c, 2. 1918. — British propaganda. See World War: Miscellaneous auxiliary services: III. Reports and censorship: d, 2. 1918 (January). — Count Czernin's reply to Wilson's fourteen points. Sec World War: iqi8: X. Statement of war aims: c. 1918 (February). — Correspondence in reply to Wilson's four additional bases of peace. See U. S. A.: 1918 (February). 1918 (July). — Count Burian's answer to Wil- son's speech on war aims. See World War: 1918: X. Statement of war aims: i. 1918 (September-October). — Peace proposal to belligerent states.— Reply of Wilson.— -Note to him regarding peace terms. See World War: igi8: X. Statement .of war aims: k; 1; n; a; U. S. A.: 1918 (September-November). 1918. — Military debacle. — Dissolution of the monarchy. — In the late summer of iqiS it had become evident to the Hungarians and German- Austrians that the great German offensive in France was a failure, and that the continued suc- cess of the allied armies in the Balkans under Gen- eral Franchet d'Esperey, who by October ha<l actually reached Hungarian territory in the valley of the Danube, made it manifest that utter de- feat menaced the Central Powers. The actual ruin of the Austro-Hungarian military machine, however, did not come till the last week of Octo- ber. [See also Hung.\ky: 1918: End of world war.l It was on the 24th of this month that the Italian commander General Diaz began his great offensive from the mouth of the Piave river on the south to the Trentino on the north. The Italian army was keyed up to the highest point of efficiency and had been reinforced by French and British troops as well as considerable artil- lery to replace what they had lost the year before at Carporctto. Throughout these last days of October the battle raged over the same ground that had seen the mighty struggle of the preced- ing months. The Italians themselves captured Monte Grappa with over 30,000 prisoners, while the French stormed Monte Seiscmol on the Asiago plateau. The advance of the Allied forces cut the Austro-Hungarian army in two, thrusting the northern half back into the mountains in utter confusion while the southern half was driven eastward across the Venetian plains with the heaviest losses in men and material. Already by November 3 the cities of Trent and Trieste had been recovered for Italy and all semblance of even defensive power had gone from the beaten enemy. The political repercussions of this series of de- feats were even more interesting. By October 20, the foreign ministry of Austria-Hungary, Count Julius Andrassy, had communicated to President Wilson his willingness to make peace independent of Germany. On November 3 the fateful armistice involving as it did the unconditional surrender of the Hapsburg State was signed. This military col- lapse on the Italian front involved a similar collapse of the Hapsburg political system and Pro- fessor Lammasch, who represented the anti-mili- taristic elements of the monarchy, became the head 73^ AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1918 Dissolution AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1918 of the transition government. — See also World War: 1918: IV. Austro-Italian theater: c, 9; c, 15; d; XI. End of the war: a, 5; Miscellaneous auxil- iary services: I. Armistices: e. 1918. — Total casualties and property loss due to the World War. See World War: Miscella- neous auxiliar\' services: XIV. Cost of war: a; b, 3 ; b, 4. 1918. — Independence of C2echo-Slovakia. — The first of the submerged peoples of Austria-Hun- gary to emerge into their new independence was that of the Czechs and Slovaks. Already at Paris on the i8th of October, the independence of Czecho- slovakia had been proclaimed, and on October 29, Dr. Kramarcz announced the existence of the new republic. During the next few days representatives of the Czechs and Slovaks drafted a constitution Charles relinquishes power. — Count Tisza as- sassinated. — There now remained, out of all the heterogeneous elements which had formerly constituted the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, only the German-speaking territories of Austria proper and the Tyrol, and the purely Magyar districts of central Hungary. In Vienna a popu- lar revolution broke out on October 30 and eventually an Austrian Republic composed of the old Archduchy of .\ustria and Tyrol was created, with the Hapsburgs left out. The formal proclama- tion of this fact was made at Vienna by the National Assembly on November 13. In Hungary the slumbering fires of national independence burst out into flame. The people had never forgotten the events of 1848-1849, nor renounced entirely a certain fierce spirit of nationalism. On Octo- A fN D 8UKHA(?ESI_ BOUNDARY OFfiUSTRIA- \ ^ »••* 0ouNOMRy oF/iuiTnmi^ii TCRR/TORV LOST TO /^UST/f/ft DISSOLUTION OF AUSTRI.VHUXGARY for their state along the lines of the constitu- tion of the United States. Professor Masaryk was chosen president a few days later. 1918. — Independence of Jugo-Slavia, Transyl- vania, Temesvar and Galicia. — Cession of Dal- matia and Carniola. — What took place in Bohe- mia, Moravia, and Slovakia was duplicated among the south Slavs of Croatia, Slavonia and Bosnia- Herzegovina. The independence of these provinces and a desire to be united with Serbia and Monte- negro was proclaimed October 29. At Agram. on November 24, "the Unitary Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes" was established by a con- vention made up of representatives of all these different peoples. By the Peace Treaty this king- dom was increased by the cession of Dalmatia and Carniola. 1918. — Freedom of Poland. See Poland: 1018. 1918. — German Austria becomes a republic (November 13). — Hungary a republic. — Emperor ber 28, a popular tumult in Budapest began the new revolution. By November 16, Hungary was a republic and the .Austrian connection was at an end. Count Michael Karolyi, long known for his advocacy of independence for Hungary and his antipathy to the house of Hapsburg, became the head of the new government. Emperor Charles, the last of the Hapsburgs, on November 11, 1918, the date of the German armistice, addressed his people as follows, "Since my accession, I have incessantly tried to rescue my peoples from this tremendous war. I have not delayed the re- establishment of constitutional rights or the open- ing of a way for the people to substantial national betterment. Filled with an unalterable love for my people, I will not, with my person, be a hindrance to their free development. I acknowl- edge the decision taken by German Austria to form a separate state. The people have by their deputies taken charge of the government. I 732 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, CONSTITUTION AUSTRO-GERMAN ALLIANCE relinquish all participation in the administration of the state. Likewise I have released the mem- bers of the Austrian government from their of- fices. May the German Austrian people realize harmony from the new adjustment. The happi- ness of my people was my aim from the be- ginning. My warmest wishes are that an in- terval of peace will avail to heal the wounds of this war." "The Great War began in July, igi4, with the attack of the Dual Monarchy of Austria- Hungary upon the little Slav state of Serbia. By the autumn of 1918, however, Serbia {q. v.) was free and amply avenged. Within the former confines of the Dual Monarchy were now the three independent republics of Czecho-Slovakia, German Austria, and Hungary, while large por- tions of its erstwhile territories were added to Poland, to Italy, to Rumania, and to Serbia. The Habsburg Empire was destroyed; it had taken the sword, and by the sword it had perished." — C. J. H. Hayes, Briej history oj the great war, p. 356. — On November i Count Stephen Tisza, "the strong man of Hungary," was assassinated. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, Constitution of, Prin- cipal provisions. — For a general account of the Ausgleich, or agreement, under which the duality of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire was ar- ranged in 1867, see Austria: 1866-1867, and Aus- tria-Hungary: 1867. The following describes the principal features of the constitutional organization under which the empire existed from 1S67 to igi8: "The emperor has an absolute veto on all measures in all of the three parliaments after named. He can also dissolve any of them. The legislative and administrative assemblies of the empire are four in number, viz.: (i). The Delegationen, which is the imperial parliament. (2). The Reichsrath and the Reichstag, which are the parliaments for Aus- tria proper and Hungary respectively. (3). The Landtag, which is the parliament for the provinces of the empire of Austria. (4). The Gemeinderath or the Gemeindeausschuss, which are the councils of the communes, but they have no legislative func- tions proper." The Delegationen, or imperial parha- ment of the dual empire, "acts as one House, but meets in two chambers or bodies, one for Austria and one for Hungary. Each chamber has 60 mem- bers, composed of 20 members elected from the upper house of each part of the united empire, and 40 from the lower. It is elected for one year only. The chambers of the imperial parliament meet at the same time and in the same place, alternately in Austria and Hungary, and, as a rule, in the cities of Vienna and Buda-Pesth. They legislate for the united empire on (i) its foreign policy, (2) its finances, (3) its army and navy, and (4) for the affairs of Bosnia and Herzegovina, as they have no Landtag of their own. A minister of state for each of the first three of these matters controls its de- partments, while the fourth is under the manage- ment of the common finance minister. The minis- ters are appointed by the emperor after consulta- tion with leaders of parties. The presidents of the Delegationen, as also the vice-presidents, must be members of the chambers, but they receive no spe- cial salary. They are elected by the members. Each chamber meets separately, and discusses the meas- ures and bills submitted to it by the ministers of state, or by any six of its members. If both cham- bers agree upon the matter submitted to them, the emperor's sanction is obtained to it, and it becomes law. If the chambers cannot agree, after each of them has discussed the matter three times, upon written communication from the other, a session of both chambers is convened, and the question is decided by a majority of those present. Two thirds of the members of the house must, however, in this case be in attendance. In the ordinary case the quorum of each chamber is 30 members. The sit- tings of the chambers are public, but they may be private on the proposition of the president or of five members, and voted upon. The chambers are convened by the writ of the emperor. . . . Each chamber appoints 24 judges to hear and determine any cases which may be brought against the min- isters of the crown for breach of power. . . . Two per cent, being first paid by Hungary, the balance of the imperial expenditure is borne in the propor- tion of 70 per cent, by Austria and 30 per cent, by Hungary, the former being the wealthier coun- try. . . . The Reichsrath [the Austrian parliament] . . . consists of two houses — one called the Herren House, or Upper House; the other called the Ab- geordneten House, i. e. the House of Deputies, or the Lower House. It is elected for six years. The Herren House is composed of (i) Princes of the imperial house, who are majors. (2) Chiefs of noble houses, owning large estates, nominated by the emperor, who, being once nominated, are mem- bers for life, and their successors after them, and so this class, to some extent, is one of hereditary legislators. (3) Archbishops and bishops with the dignity of prince. (4) Men who have distinguished themselves in science, art, commerce, law, or med- icine, who are nominated by the emperor for hfe, on the advice of the ministers of state. The num- ber of members of the Upper House is not fixed, but it is about 200. . . . The Lower or Abge- ordneten House is that of the deputies, elected by the people, and consists of 353 members. It is elected for six years. The people vote for its mem- bers in four classes in their various provinces. The first class are the owners of large estates, who elect 8S members. . . . The second class are those who pay five florins of direct taxation in towns, and includes all doctors of the universities, whether they pay taxes or not. The towns are grouped so as to give one member for each group. The groups need not be of equal size. This class elects 115 mem- bers. The third class is the chambers of commerce and industry, which elect 22 members. . . . The fourth class are the members of the country com- munes who pay five florins of direct taxation. They elect 131 members. The communes for this pur- pose are divided into groups of 500 voters, and a certain number of communes make an electoral dis- trict. . . . The elections are not all held on one day, and each class votes by itself in each province on a particular day. The communes vote first, then the citizens, then the chambers, and then the land- owners, all on different days. The election takes place in a public hall, where the voters gather; and their names being called over, if present, they go up to the presiding officer, and vote orally, or by a card placed by them in a box. If not present when called upon, they can attend and vote later on." — J. P. Coldstream, Institutions of Austria, ch. 2. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: Masonic societies. See Masonic societies: Austria-Hungarv. AUSTRIAN LANGUAGE DECREES. See Austria: 1803-1000; iqoq. AUSTRIAN REICHSRATH. See Austria: 1803-1000; i8q7 (October-December); 1898; and 1 800- 1 00 1. AUSTRIAN SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS. See EcoNOivncs: Forerunners of the historical school. AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION, War of the. See Austria: 1740 (October-November) to 1743- 1744; Belgium: 174s; 1746-1747; Enciand: 1739- 1741; I74!;-I747; Italy: 1741-1743 to 1746-1747. AUSTRO-ENGLISH ALLIANCE: Treaty of Worms (1743). See Austria: 1743-1744. AUSTRO-GERMAN ALLIANCE (1870). See 733 AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN BANK AUTOMOBIbES Dual alliance; Tmple alliance: Austro-Ger- man alliance of 1870. AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN BANK. See Money AND banking: Modern; 1703-iqis. AUSTRO-ITALIAN WAR. See Italy: 1S62- 1806. AUSTRO-RUSSIAN ALLIANCE (1848). See Hungary: 1847-1849. AUSTRO-SARDINIAN WAR. See Austria: 1856-1S59. AUSTRO-SERBIAN QUARREL. See World War: Diplomatic background: 8. AUSTRO - SPANISH CONFLICT. See Italy: i7i.^-i735- AUTERI. See Irel.\nd: Tribes of early Celtic inhabitants. AUTHARIS ("the Longhaired") (d. 591), Lombard king. Resists barbarian invasions of Italy. See Lombards, or Lanoobardi: 573-754. AUTHOR, steamer sunk by Mowe. See World War: 1016: IX. Naval operation: c. AUTHORS: Laws protecting. See Copyright. AUTOCRACY. See .Absolutism. In Russia. See Russia: 1894; 1909-1911. AUTO-DA-FE, the ceremony during which the sentences of the Spanish Inquisition (q. v.) were read. It was often regarded as an interesting spectacle, and became one of the formative elements in the development of the Spanish drama. "The auto da je represented, as the words implr, merely the decision in the given case, and not the imposition of the penalty as has often been stated. The general rule was for the executions to- take place on holidays, which in Spain are indeed 'holy days,' or days in celebration of events in. church history. .A procession was held, in which the functionaries of the Inquisition took part. .A public announcement of the decisions was made, and those who were condemned to death were turned over to the civil authorities, who carried out the execution in the customary place." — C. E. Chapman, History of Spain, p. 234. — See also Mexico: 1535-1822. AUTOMATIC GUNS. See Riples and re- volvers: World War; Ordnance: 20th centurv. AUTOMOBILE RACES, Early. See .Auto- mobiles: 1804-1806. AUTOMOBILES: 1678-1803.— Early experi- ments in France and England. — ".Although in- ternal combustion to drive a piston in a cylinder was produced with gunpowder in 1678 by .Abbe D'Hautefeuille, and a carriage to be driven without the horse was a chaise propelled by human foot work, first conceived by John Vevers of England in 1760, there is no record that the two ideas were combined until it was done in France somewhere between 1760 and 1770. The first automobile ever made was that produced by Nicholas Joseph Cug- not, a Frenchman, and it is today on exhibition in the Conservatory of Arts and Trades in Paris. There is no record of how Cugnot came to conceive the idea of his invention, but it is surmised that he had read about James Watt, in England, having discovered the principle of steam as motive power. This was about 1755. . . . The visible expression of this idea which we can see in the Paris Con- servatory is in the form of a tractor for a field gun, Cugnot having been a captain in the engineering corps of the French army. "The tractor has a single drive wheel actuated by two single acting brass cylinders, connected by an iron steam pipe with a round boiler of copper con- taining fire pot and chimneys. .Attached to this first motor-driven road vehicle is a wagon, on which it was Cugnot's idea to have a field gun mounted. On either side of the single drive wheel of this cUimsv contrivance are located ratchet wheels Pis- tons acting alternately on these ratchet wheels re- volved the drive wheel in quarter revolutions. For the copper boiler of this first motor car, additional water was needed after the machine had travelled a few feet, the exhaust of steam quickly leaving the boiler dry. The speed attained was very slow, by reason of the mechanical complications in trans- mitting power to the drive wheel. .As for running smoothly, the machine wobbled, and bumped, and strained, and groaned, and finally ran into a wall. This was because it was overbalanced by its boiler and engine and had no steering gear." — H. L, Bar- ber, Story of the automobile, pp. 50-52. — ".About the time that Cugnot ran his machine into a wall, William Murdock, a mechanic, was w-orking for Watt, the English inventor of steam. Whether he knew of Cugnat's automobile attempt or not, there is no evidence extant. . . . Despite Watt and his mournful views of the impossibility of building an engine-run road carriage that would advance over English roads, Murdock went ahead and built a model of an engine-run road carriage; but. when he had it finished, Watt's discouraging views pre- vailed, and Murdock did not attempt to enlarge his model to a full sited form. He stopped with the model, which is at the present day in the British Museum. Murdock's invention was tested, and the tests showed that an advance in efficiency over the creation of Cugnot had been made. The model was driven by a single cylinder of three-inch bore. It had a one-and-a-half-inch stroke> .A crank con- verted the reciprocating motion of the steam en- gine into rotary motion, the service performed in the Cugnot invention by the quarter revolution ratchet drive. Murdock's idea was patented by a man named Pickard, in 1780. The first automo- bile known to have been constructed and put on the road was built by Richard Trevithick at Cam- borne, England, in 1801. It was in the form of a stagecoach, accommodating six or seven persons. The engine, boiler and firebox were at the rear. The engine was one of the first high pressure en- gines. A single cylinder motor was employed, and spur gear and crank axle were used to transmit the motion of the piston rod to the drive wheels. With this coach Trevithick carried six or seven men over hills for a mile the first day of the trial. The second day it made six miles. Even with these performances, the invention'.^ impracticability must have been decreed, because it was not continued in operation. Trevithick himself felt, no doubt, that it must be improved upon, for, in 1S03, he built another contrivance driven by a horizontal single cylinder with s'/l-inch bore and a 30-inch stroke. But the driving wheels were ten feet in diameter. Fatal were these great clumsy wheels to popular approval of the invention, and no further advance was made. Trevithick had made one further step, and there the matter rested. He had developed the high pressure steam engine, and he had really made the first automobile, if such it could be called." — Ibid., pp. 54-57- 1780-1824. — America's early efforts in automo- bile making. — English water tube boiler. — "Ju.st as the English, represented by Murdock and Trev- ithick, were laboring on the steam propulsion idea, and France, in the person of Cugnot, was ex- perimenting with it, so .America was groping to fiml the solution. Cugnot's activities began about 1760 and ended with his death in 1804. Trevithick's period was from 1780 to 1803. The .American experiments started about 1784. The man whom records show to have been the pioneer in practical excursions into the realm of carriages driven by steam, was Oliver Evans, born in Delaware but liv- ing in Philadelphia. He developed the high pres- sure, non-condensing engine although his only 734 AUTOMOBILES First Motor Coaches Development of Trucks AUTOMOBILES knowledge of steam was derived from reading wiiat little was then printed about it, and his own dis- coveries. ... In 1787, four years before Trevithick built his steam coach at Camborne, England, Evans secured a patent from the State of Maryland, giv- ing him the exclusive right to make and use, within its borders, carriages propelled by steam. That he immediately built a steam carriage in pursuance ol this authority is doubtful. The only authentic record of an attempt is of one that he constructed in Philadelphia seven years later." — H. L. Barber, Story of the automobile, pp. 57-58, — "In 1824, W. H. James [in England) who had patented a water tube boiler for locomotives, built a pas- senger coach, of which each drive wheel was re- volved by two cylinders receiving steam by means of a pipe from a boiler. A pressure of 200 pounds of steam to the inch was maintained. The equiva- lent of differential action was supplied by indepen- dent application of power to the two drive wheels. The coach accommodated twenty persons. The contrivance ran satisfactorily on trials, and James secured financial backing and built another coach weighing 6,000 pounds which ran 12 to 15 miles an hour. But the higher the rate of speed, the worse off the early automobile builder was. Al- though James equipped his coach with laminated steel springs, the road shocks and vibration stopped it every few miles. Steam joints and connections were broken as fast as they could be put together. The great need was a method of shock absorption, and either no one knew that this was the key to the problem, or, if it was realized, no one knew the remedy. . . ." — Ibid., pp. 61-62. 1826-1895. — Later American, French and Eng- lish attempts. — Principle of the "differential." — First application for motor patent. — "A year after James built his first motor-coach in England — in 1825 — Thomas Blanchard of Springfield, Mass., re- vived the horseless carriage subject which, in .\merica, had been last experimented with by Oli- ver Evans in 1804. Blanchard built a road vehicle that was one of the best produced up to that time It was easy of manipulation and climbed hills suc- cessfully. Blanchard took out a patent on it, but when he started to find people who would buy a completed carriage he could discover none. ... At the time James was building his two coaches, and after Blanchard had given up trying to interest Americans in his invention, a Frenchman named Pecqueur was experimenting on phases of the auto- carriage. He discovered the principle of the 'dif- ferential,' the balance mechanism which enables one wheel to revolve faster than the other in turn- ing corners. He invented a planet gearing in this connection, which was the origin of the idea of the differential, and apphed it to a steam wagon which he built in 1828. The differential of today is based on the principle discovered by Pecqueur. While Pacqueur was evolving this invention, Goldsworthy Gurney in England made a car which was a prac- tical failure in about everything except that it dem- onstrated that sufficient friction between the drive wheels and the roadbed could be created to pro- duce propulsion. A trip of almost 200 miles from London and return was made in 1823 by Gurney in the second vehicle he built, in which the engine was concealed in the rear. His car made 12 miles an hour for part of the trip. From this time — 1828 to 1840 — the automobile really had a vogue in England. A number of them were made and run as passenger carriers. For four months a motor carriage made the nine mile trip from Gloucester to Cheltenham four times a day. The 'Infant' built tv Walter Hancock made trips between London and Stratford. The 'Era,' also made by Hancock, ran from London to Greenwich. To such an extent did the auto-bus business develop, that speed of 30 miles an hour was claimed, and one conveyance in 1834 ran over 1,700 miles without repairs or read- justment. At least, that was the claim made, and as a claim it has a familiar sound. . . . But there was one feature about these early English motor busses that was their undoing. They weighed three tons and over, and the wheel rims were metal. The diameter of the wheels was six feet. The rubber tire was unthought of. The effect on roads of run- ning a 3-ton, metal rimmed vehicle, carrying eleven to twenty passengers, was disastrous, and parlia- ment, incited by horse owners and others, legis- Tated them out of existence by making the toll charges prohibitive. ... In 1878 Bollee built a steam omnibus which ran between Paris and Vienna, making 22 miles an hour. In this car was reached the highest efficiency the art had attained up to that time. Practically an identical car was built in 1880 by Bollee, which was entered by him 15 years later and won honors in the Paris-Bordeaux race. ... In i87q an American did a thing which has had much to do with giving the United States its long delayed start in the automobile industry. This man was George B. Selden of Rochester, N. Y. He applied for the first patent for the gasoline motor, as the driving force of a road vehicle. This was before any automobile had been equipped with an internal combustion hydro-carbon motor. This motor had, however, been in use for some time in running stationary engines. . . . Selden built a gasoline motor under the specifications contained in his application for a patent, and it performed satisfactorily in experiments. But he did not build an automobile containing the gasoline motor. He did not secure his patent until 1895, 16 years after he had made apphcation for it. . . . In iqoo Sel- den disposed of it to the Electric Vehicle Company of New Jersey." — H. L. Barber, Story of the auto- mobile, pp. 65-68. 1858-1919. — Origin and development of motor transport. — Steam wagons. — Electric trucks. — Traction enterprise in America. — Caterpillar tractor in war uses. — "Although in a commercial sense the truck industry is still in its infancy, it is not so young in its engineering development. In- quirers are often surprised to learn that it really antedates the pleasure automobile. The earliest in- ventors of the self-propelled road vehicle had their thoughts influenced in that respect by the commer- cial possibilities of the steam stage coach and trac- tion engine. For illustration, the Cugnot steam wagon built in France in 1760-70 was designed to haul heavy artillery ; the Hancock, the Gurney and the Russell steam vehicles built in England in the period from 1820 to 1840 were stage coaches that were actually operated in service as paying passenger conveyances. The earliest recorded road vehicle in the United States was a combined boat and road wagon built in 1804 by or for Oliver Evans, who obtained privileges to operate road wagons in Pennsylvania and Maryland. The first power road vehicle that is known to have operated on its own power of which there is authentic knowl- edge was a huge steam traction engine built in New York City in 1858 to be used for hauling merchan- dise from the Mississippi River to Colorado. The idea originated with Major General Joseph R. Brown, an Indian agent in Minnesota. The engine was designed and built by J. A. Reed, of New York, and after being driven under its own power through the streets of the city up to Twenty-third Street and back to the Christopher Street Ferry, was shipped by rail and river steamer to Nebraska City. The populace gave it a great reception there, and a string of about a dozen wagons filled with people was hauled through the city, preparatory to driv- 735 AUTOMOBILES Development of Trucks AUTOMOBILES ing the engine to Denver under its own power. About 7 miles out of Nebraska City, a crank was broken and the machine was stored in Arbor Lodge, owned by J. Sterling Morton. The Civil War and the beginnmg of construction of the Union Pacific Railroad prevented the making of repairs and ended the venture, which had cost thousands of dollars. Eventually the machine was sold for $200 and the boiler and engine removed for use in a mill. . . . The earliest experiments with steam road engines had very little if any influence, however, on the development of the commercial vehicle either in Europe or America. Besides the Reed steam trac- tion engine referred to already, other early Amer- ican self-propelled vehicles belonged to the class of commercial or utility vehicles. A steam fire engine driven by its own power was built in 1840 by Cap- tain Ericsson. How successful it was is not known, but in 1867-70 the Amoskeag Corporation, in Man- chester, N. H., built several self-propelled steamers, one of which, after being hurriedly sent to Boston during the great Boston fire in 1872, and perform- ing efficient service, was purchased by the city of Boston. In 1876 the city of Hartford bought a self-driven steamer, which was named Jumbo, and was kept in ser\'ice for many years. Development of the modern commercial vehicle was practically contemporaneous with that of the pleasure car. As early as 1895, in the pioneering days of Duryea, Winton, Haynes & Apperson, Woods, Riker, Olds, Morris & Salom and others, when the Horseless Age was started and the Times-Herald road race in Chi- cago on Thanksgiving Day inaugurated the auto- mobile contest era in this countn.', the possibilities of the motor vehicle for industrial and commercial purposes were foreseen by many constructors, A gasoline delivery wagon, built by the Langert Com- pany of Philadelphia, was entered in the Cosmopol- itan race. Charles E. Woods, a Chicago carriage builder, had constructed one or more electric de- livery wagons and C. S, Fairfield, of Portland, Ore- gon, had built a sightseeing stage seating eighteen to twenty passengers which was driven by a kero- sene engine. To Woods seems to belong the credit for being the first .American manufacturer to pro- duce business vehicles commercially. The delivery wagons built by the Woods Motor Vehicle Co. in the early go's were driven by two 1200-watt elec- tric motors giving 3^ horsepower output for five hours with a 32 cell battery. The running gear had carriage wheels and the front wheels were steered by a vertical rod on the left side fitted with a streetcar brake handle. Charles E. Woods, of the C. E. Woods Co., well known electrical engineer of Chicago and New York, made a long and very careful study of the motor vehicle from an engi- neering and practical standpoint in the early ex- perimental days in .America and reached the con- clusion that the first demand of the public would be for light delivery wagons, then for public con- veyances, next for liveries and finally for heavy private trucks. ... In i8q6 a horse van was con- verted into a steam wagon to haul furniture for the Shepard & Co. department store of Providence, R. I., by the Cruickshank Engineering Works of the same city. The design was by L. F. N. Bald- win and showed a boiler and 6-horsepower engine mounted under the wagon bed, with side chain drive. That the truck industr>' as well as the passenger car industry abroad was considerably fur- ther advanced than in America at this period is shown by the fact that the first heavy vehicle trials were held in France from August 5 to 11, i8q7, by the .Automobile Club of France. Ten vehicles competed, including four omnibuses, two tractors, one waconette, one freight or merchandise truck and one brake. It will be seen how the pas- senger-carrying vehicle predominated. The steam vehicles showed superiority in hill-climbing and hauling loads exceeding one ton, but the Panhard gasoline omnibus was highly commended for clean- liness, fuel economy and management. The Winton delivery wagon, brought out in iSqS, was the first gasoline commercial vehicle to be produced on a commercial scale in the United States. Eight of these vehicles were under construction in October of that year. The panel body was mounted on the regular Winton pleasure chassis, which was driven by a 6-horsepower s by 6 inch single-cylin- der horizontal engine suspended under the body with a planetary change-speed gear mounted on an extension of the crank-shaft. The running gear had tubular axles and reaches and final drive was by a single chain to the differential gear on the rear axle. The machine was steered by a tiller and the wheels were of the wire spoke suspension type. In the same year the Dursea Motor Wagon Co., of Springfield, Mass., brought out a Ught deliver>' model having a panel body mounted on the three- wheel passenger car chassis designed by Charles E. Duryea; and S. Messinger, of Newark, N. J., pro- duced a gasoline delivery wagon weighing 1000 pounds and driven by a 6-horsepower 4 by 6-inch engine. A. L. Riker, pioneer American experi- menter with electricity as a motive power for tri- cycles and pleasure cars, had produced an electric delivery wagon model, and one of these machines, built for B. Altman & Co., dr>- goods merchants in New York, was placed on exhibition in the elec- trical show held in Madison Square Garden in May, 1898. It had a rated capacity of 500 pounds and weighed 2000 pounds. The battery alone weighed icoo pounds. The vehicle was mounted on wire wheels fitted with 3-inch pneumatic tires and had a radius of action of 30 miles at a speed of 10 miles an hour. Mr. Riker, who was born in New York City in 1868 and graduated from the Columbia College Law School, began experimenting with elec- trically driven vehicles and in 1895 built a self- propelled quadricycle made of two bicycles placed side by side for experimental purposes. In the go's he produced designs for large electric 4-wheeled passenser and delivery vehicles. He had already formed the Riker Electric Motor Co. of Brooklyn, of which he was president. This was succeeded in 1 901 by the Electric Vehicle Co. of Hartford, which continued the manufacture of electric vehicles un- der the name Columbia, acquired from the Pope Manufacturing Co. ... A crude oil tractor built in 1898 by the Best Manufacturing Co., of San Leandro, Cal., was probably the first .American in- ternal combustion tractor for hauling merchandise. It is interesting to note that it was driven by a 75- horsepower 4-cylinder motor and was designed to haul a gross weight of 120,000 pounds on two trailer wagons at a speed of 4 to 8 miles an hour. The first Waverley electric wagon announced made its appearance the same year in Indianapolis as the product of the American Electric Vehicle Co. Its chief characteristics were a tubular frame, ball- bearing wood wheels fitted with cushion tires, sin- gle 3 '/<> -horsepower motor supported longitudinally on the frame with enclosed direct drive from the armature shaft to the rear axle differential; a 44- cell battery concealed in the body bed and tiller steer. . . . Now came a brief period, in 1898-Q, when the struggling young industr>' was burdened by the flotation of many heavily capitalized stock companies to exploit public service electric cab and compressed air trucking services. Anticipating big profits in such undertakings or believing the public anticipated them and was ready to invest heavily, the Whitney-Widcner-Elkins syndicate, of Philadel- phia and New York, secured control of the patents 736 AUTOMOBILES War Uses of the Tractor AUTOMOBILES owned by the Pope Manufacturing Co. for the construction of motor vehicles and those owned by the Electric Storage Battery Co. for the manufac- ture of vehicle batteries and formed the Columbia Automobile Co. This company then united these patents with those owned by the Electric Vehicle Co. under the ownership of a third company or- ganized as the Columbia & Electric Vehicle Co., whose stock was taken equally by the Columbia Automobile Co. and the Electric Vehicle Co. The new company purchased the entire plant of the Columbia Automobile Co. in Hartford and soon afterward acquired the stock and plant of the New Haven Carriage Co. at New Haven. About the same time the Electric Vehicle Co. bought up the Seamans & Halske Electric Co. of America for the production of motors and other electric equip- ment. With this combination of manufacturing plants, having facilities for the production of about Scoo vehicles a year, the Electric Vehicle Co. began organizing transportation companies in leading cities as an outlet for the product. The first four formed were the New York, the New England and the Illinois Electric Vehicle Transportation com- panies, each capitalized at $25,000,000, and the Pennsylvania Electric Vehicle Co., capitahzed at $6,000,000." — J. R. Doolittle, ed., Romance of the automobile industry, pp. 351-356. — See also below ig20. "An innovation in this war [World War], devel- opment of which in the future promises to be even more important, was the increased use of motor transportation. As applied to the artillery, this meant the use of caterpillar tractors to haul the big guns, especially over rough ground. When we entered the war no suitable designs existed for caterpillar tractors of size appropriate for the medium heavy artillery. But new S-ton and lo-ton types were perfected in this country, put into pro- duction, and 1,100 shipped overseas before Novem- ber I [1Q18]. About 300 larger tractors were also shipped and 350 more secured from the French and British. The tank was an even more important application of the caterpillar tractor to war uses. In the case of the small 6-ton tanks, the efforts of this country were largely concentrated on improve- ment of design and on development of large scale production for the igip campaign. Up to the time of the armistice 64 had been produced in this coun- try, and the rate at which production was getting under way is shown by the fact that in spite of the armistice the total completed to March 31, igio, was 778. The burden of active service in France was borne by 227 of these tanks received from the French. The efforts of this country in the case of heavy 30-ton tanks were concentrated on a cooperative plan, by which this country was to furnish Liberty motors and the rest of the driving mechanism, and the British the armor plate for 1,500 tanks for the iqiq campaign. It has been estimated that about one-half the work on the American components for this project had been completed before November 11 [igiS], and the work of assembly of the initial units was well un- der way. For immediate use in France, this coun- try received 64 heavy tanks from the British." — The War with Germany: United Slates official sta- tistical summary, p. 80. — During the war, "motor trucks to the number of 47,018 went forward, and when fighting ceased were being shipped at the rate of 10,000 a month. . . . Beyond the range of the narrow-gauge railway [in the war zones] came the motor truck. The truck could go over roads that were under shell fire. It could retire with the Army or push forward with advancing troops. Trucks were used on a larger scale in this war than was ever before thought possible. The American Infan- try division on the march with the trucks, wagons, and ambulances of its supply, ammunition, and sanitary trains stretches for a distance of 30 miles along the road. The 650 trucks which the tables of organization of the division provide are a large factor in this train. The need for trucks increased moreover during the latter months of the war as trench warfare gave place to a war of movement. As the forces moved forward on the offensive away from their railway bases, more and more trucks were demanded. The Army overseas never had all the trucks it needed during the period of hostilities. . . . The supply was least adequate during the last four months of the war, when the shipment of trucks fell behind the accelerated troop movement. The difficulty was almost entirely a shortage of ships. At practically all times there were quantities of trucks at the ports of embarkation, but trucks take enormous amounts of cargo space on ships. It is slow and difficult work to load them, and time after time embarkation officials were forced to leave the trucks standing at the ports and load their ships rapidly with supplies needed still more urgently overseas. In October and November [igi?] more ships were pulled out of the trades and the trucks were shipped even at the expense of other essential supplies. The shipment kept pace with the troop movement, but the initial shortage could not be overcome until February. The number of trucks sent overseas prior to the armistice was 40,000 and of these 33,000 had been received in France. The trucks ranged in size from three-quarters of a ton to 5 tons." — Ibid., pp. 46, 54-55. 1885-1894. — Benz and Daimler gasoline mo- tors. — "In 1885, Benz, a German, built the first road vehicle to be run by the internal-combustion, hydro- carbon motor. It was a tricycle, and its motor was single-cylindered, four-cycled, after the type of an engine developed in 1876, in Germany, by Otto, and water cooled. It had electric ignition and a mechanical carburetor. Benz secured a patent in 1886 on his invention and it ran successfully, mak- ing ten miles an hour. Benz was limited to the use of certain streets in Mannheim, Germany, for run- ning his machine, out of deference to the tendency to nerves of horses and their drivers or riders. This tricycle by Benz was the forerunner of the Benz automobile. This is one of the most successful and popular cars in Germany — and before the war, in all Europe. The first automobile imported to the United States was a Benz car brought to the Chi- cago World's Fair in i8g3. Up to igi? the Benz car was an entrant in most automobile speed con- tests. While Benz was perfecting the gasohne motor in its attachment to the tricycle, Gottlieb Daimler, another German, was producing, in 1885, the motor- cycle. Daimler had devoted himself sedulously to the problem of reducing the weight and increasing the power of the gas engine, in order to adapt it to high efficiency road vehicles. He invented the hot tube ignition to take the place of ignition by flame. By regulation of the heat of the tube, the compressed charge of hydro-carbon vapor could be fired automatically at a specific point in the cycle. Through the increased speed thus produced the size and weight of the motor could be reduced." — H. L. Barber, Story of the automobile, pp. 6g-7o, — "Daimler got into touch with M. Levassor, who was so impressed with the patrol boat and a quadricycle shown at the Paris Exhibition in i88q that he set to work to build a complete motor-car. After many failures he succeeded, and one of the most extraordinary things in connection with his success is the fact that the form of construction adopted by him — in fact, one may say invented by him — is the form adopted even to this present day. His first car had the engine in front, a sliding change- 737 AUTOMOBILES American Progress Electric and Gasoline Cars AUTOMOBILES speed gear arranged for various speeds, a counter- shaft carrying a differential gear, and sprockets for a chain-drive on to the back wheels, and was sim- ilar in a number of other points." — C. Jarrott, Ten years of motoring and motor racing, p. i6. — "The Daimler motor was a big step in advance, as was proved by the supremacy which the German and French automobile makers at once attained. The French secured rights to the Daimler motor and operated under them with such success that from i88g to i8g4, before the United States had really waked up to motor car making, they were beginning to put out gasoline automobiles success- fully." — H. L. Barber, Story of the automobile, p. 70. 1889-1905. — America builds steam and electric cars. — First American gasoline car. — French im- provements. — "At this time, we, in this country, were following the steam and storage battery fetishes. The first steam car in the United States that might be called modern was built by S. H. Roper of Massachusetts, in 1889. In iqoo, steam car building in America gave promise of disputing the gasoline car records then being made in France, but by 1905 the gasoline car manufacturers had taken the cue from the European gasoline suc- cesses, and this form of motor came to the front. Contemporaneously with the activities in steam car building in the United States, was the pioneer electric car construction era. The first electric auto- mobile was built in i8qi, and made its first ex- hibit on appearance in the streets of Chicago in September, 1892. The builder of this, the first electric driven vehicle, was William Morrison of Des Moines, Iowa. It was brought by J. B. McDonald, president of the American Battery Com- pany, Chicago. . . . The date of the building of the first American gasoline automobile that ran was 1892. The man who performed the feat was Charles E. Duryea. He had the assistance of his brother, Frank Duryea, but what was more, he had the benefit of knowledge of what had been accomplished in Europe in the gasoline motor field. Panhard, Levassor, Peugeot, De Dion, Bouton, and SerpoUet were Frenchmen who had done things with gasoHne cars, all (except SerpoUet and Levassor) principally through the manufacture of finished cars. Levassor conceived the idea of a central frame to carry the power plant, and thus solved the problem of road shock. SerpoUet had done more. He had invented the flash boiler, reviving an art the English had previously discovered, which made the use of dry or superheated steam possible. Higher pressure could be used, water economies effected and weight reduced. When Duryea and others, about 1892, gave concentrated thought to gasoline propulsion, all the problems of automobile making had found solution, except two: . . . a method of cushioning wheel , rims, and some method by which the motor could be so placed that it would be immune from shocks and vibra- tions. So, when Duryea, in 1892, built the first -American gasoline car that would run successfully, he merely 'assembled' the ideas that had then ac- cumulated. Duryea built his first car in 1802. Henry Ford built his in 1893. Elwood Haynes built his in 1804. There were but four gasoline cars in the United States in i8g6 — Duryea, Ford, Haynes, and Benz, the last being the German car which was imported. With the accomplishments of the builders of steam, electric and gasoline motored vehicles at this time — 1895 — the practical success of horseless carriages had been definitely settled. Prac- tically all fundamental problems had been solved. To make them finally an accepted addition to the world's methods of transportation in general use, two things only were needed. One was the devel- opment of perfecting devices, such as rubber tires, the production of which began about 1889; and the other was the general acceptance of automobiles by the people — a cordial, popular approval, mani- fested by their purchase and use. . . . The first American made gasoline automobile sold in the United States was disposed of March 24, i8q8. The sale of steamers and electrics had been going on for several years before, but not very extensively." — Ibid., pp. 70-75. 1892-1916.— Rise of Henry Ford. — Standard- ization. — "The real 'fathers' of the automobile are Gottlieb Daimler, the German who made the first successful gasoline engine, and Charles Goodyear, the American who discovered the secret of vul- canized rubber. Without this engine to form the motive power and the pneumatic tire to give it four air cushions to run on, the automobile would never have progressed beyond the steam carriage stage. It is true that Charles Baldwin Selden, of Rochester, has been pictured as the 'inventor of the modern automobile' because, as long ago as 1879, he applied for a patent on the idea of using a gaso- line engine as motive power, securing this basic patent in 1895, but this, it must be admitted, forms a flimsy basis for such a pretentious claim. The French apparently led all nations in the manufac- ture of motor vehicles, and in the early nineties their products began to make occasional appear- ances on American roads. The type of American who owned this imported machine was the same that owned steam yachts and a box at the opera. Hardly any new development has aroused greater hostility. It not only frightened horses, and so disturbed the popular traffic of the time, but its speed, its glamour, its arrogance, and the haughty behavior of its proprietor, had apparently trans- formed it into a new badge of social cleavage. It thus immediately took its place as a new gewgaw of the rich ; that it had any purpose to serve had occurred to few people. Yet the French and Eng- lish machines created an entirely different reaction in the mind of an imaginative mechanic in Detroit. Probably American annals contain no finer story than that of this simple American workman. Vet from the beginning it seemed inevitable that Henry Ford should play this appointed part in the world Born in Michigan in 1S63, the son of an English farmer who had emigrated to Michigan and a Dutch mother. Ford had always demonstrated an interest in things far removed from his farm. Only mechanical devices interested him. . . . Henry Ford at the age of sixteen ran away to get a job in a machine shop. Here one anomaly immediately impressed him. No two machines were made ex- actly alike; each was regarded as a separate job. With his savings from his weekly wage of $2.50, young Ford purchased a three dollar watch, and immediately dissected it. If several thousand of these watches could be made, each one exactly , alike, they would cost only thirty-seven cents a- piece. 'Then,' said Ford to himself, 'everybody could have one.' He had fairly elaborated his plans to start a factory on this basis when his father's illness called him back to the farm. This was about 1880; Ford's next conspicuous appear- ance in Detroit was about 1892. This appearance was not only conspicuous; it was exceedingly noisy. Detroit now knew him as the pilot of a queer affair that whirled and lurched through her thor- oughfares, making as much disturbance as a freight train. In reading his technical journals Ford had met many descriptions of horseless carriages, the consequence was that he had again broken away from the farm, taken a job at $45 a month in a Detroit machine shop, and devoted his evenings to the production of a gasoline engine. His young 738 AUTOMOBILES American Progress Paris-Rouen Race AUTOMOBILES wife was exceedingly concerned about his health; the neighbors' snap judgment was that he was insane. Only two other Americans, Charles B. Duryea and Elwood Haynes, were attempting to construct an automobile at that time. Long before Ford was ready with his machine . . . foreign makes began to appear in considerable numbers. But the Detroit mechanic had a more comprehen- sive inspiration. He was not working to make one of the finely upholstered and beautifully painted vehicles that came from overseas, '.\nything that isn't good for everybody is no good at all,' he said. Precisely as it was V'ail's ambition to make every American a user of the telephone and McCormick's to make every farmer a user of his harvester, so it was Ford's determination that every family should have an automobile. He was apparently the only man in those times who saw that this new machine was not primarily a luxury but a convenience. Yet all manufacturers, here and in Europe, laughed at his idea. Why not give every poor man a Fifth Avenue house ? Frenchmen and Englishmen scouted the idea that any one could make a cheap automobile. Its machinery was particularly refined and called for the highest grade of steel ; the clever Americans might use their labor-saving devices on many products, but only skillful handwork could turn out a motor car. European manufacturers regarded each car as a .separate problem; they indi- vidualized its manufacture almost as scrupulously as a painter paints his portrait or a poet writes his poem. The result was that only a man with sev- eral thousand dollars could purchase one. But Henry Ford — and afterward other American makers — had quite a different conception. . . . [About IQ02] Ford had built a machine which he entered in the Grosse Point races that year. It was a hideous-looking affair, but it ran like the wind and outdistanced all competitors. From that day Ford's career has been an uninterrupted triumph. But he rejected the earliest offers of capital because the millionaires would not agree to his terms. They were looking for high prices and quick profits, while Ford's plans were for low prices, large sales, and u.se of profits to extend the business and reduce the cost of his machine. Henry Ford's greatness as a manufacturer consists in the tenacity with which he has clung to this conception. Contrary to general belief in the automobile industry he maintained that a high sale price was not necessan,- tor large profits ; indeed he declared that the lower the price, the larger the net earnings would be. Nor did he believe that low wages meant pros- perity. The most efficient labor, no matter what the nominal cost might be, was the most econom-' ical. The secret of success was the rapid produc- tion of a serviceable article in large quantities." — — B. J. Hendrick, Age of big business, pp. 174-180. — See also Detroit: 1812-1Q16. — "Thus Henry Ford did not invent standardization ; he merely applied this great American idea to a product to which, because of the delicate labor required, it seemed at first unadapted. He soon found that it was cheaper to ship the parts of ten cars to a central point than to ship ten completed cars. There would therefore be large savings in making his parts in particular factories and shipping them to assembling estab- lishments. In this way the completed cars would always be near their markets. Large production would mean that he could purchase his raw ma- terials at very low prices; high wages meant that he could get the efficient labor which was demanded by his rapid fire method of campaign. It was necessary to plan the making of every part to the minutest detail, to have each part machined to its exact size, and to have every screw, bolt, and bar precisely interchangeable. About the year 1007 the Ford factory was systematized on this basis. In that twelvemonth it produced 10,000 machines, each one the absolute counterpart of the other qggg. American manufacturers until then had been content with a few hundred a year! From that date the Ford production has rapidly increased ; until, in iqib, there were nearly 4,000,000 auto- mobiles in the United States — more than in all the rest of the world put together — of which one-sixth were the output of the Ford factories. Many other .'\merican manufacturers followed the Ford plan, with the result that .American automobiles are du- plicating the story of American bicycles; because of their cheapness and serviceability, they are rap- idly dominating the markets of the world. In the Great War American machines have surpassed all in the work done under particularly exacting cir- cumstances." — Ibid,, pp. 182-183. — "A few years ago an English manufacturer, seeking the explana- tion of America's ability to produce an excellent car so cheaply, made an interesting experiment. He obtained three American automobiles, all of the same 'standardized' make, and gave them a long and racking tour over English highways. Work- men then took apart the three cars and threw the disjointed remains into a promiscuous heap. Every bolt, bar, gas tank, motor, wheel, and tire was taken from its accustomed place and piled up, a hideous mass of rubbish. Workmen then pains- takingly put together three cars from these dis- ordered elements. Three chauffeurs jumped on these cars, and they immediately started down the road and made a long journey just as acceptably as before. The Englishman had learned the secret of American success with automobiles. The one word 'standardization' explained the mystery." — Ibid., p. 173. 1894-1896. — Prevailing conditions in early automobile races. — Paris-Rouen race. — First races in America and England. — Variety of cars. — "What were the conditions prevailing at the time of those good old days — the days of Paris-Berlin, Paris-Bordeaux, and Paris-Vienna races? Obvi- ously the competitive element existed between the various manufacturers of cars taking part; the\ entered for a race in the hope that they could successfully beat their rivals; but the general idea underlying the whole event was the desire to prove to the world that motor-cars would go, and that they were capable of travelling long distances in a reliable and speedy manner. The events were looked upon as educational both to the public and to the manufacturer, in the evolution of vehicles, which were something more than mere pieces of machinery made for sale and barter. And lessons were learned, experience and knowledge gained, and that side of the sport which was influenced by the financial aspect of the event was satisfied in these rewards, and the extermination of all op- position to each individual interest was not thought of The men who drove were also dominated by this idea. Dozens of them were independent, racing their own cars; others were racing, if not on their own cars, at any rate at their own expense; and none but were so enamoured of the sport as a sport, as to make the mere question of money subservient to the keen desire to drive a racing-car and to race. To race against one's friends, against one's compatriots, and against one's foreign rivals; to drive one's car faster and reach the distant goal sooner than somebody else in the event. And good fellowship and good sportsmanship prevailed amongst all, to add pleasure and enjoyment to the actual racing itself. And then the conditions of actual racing were so different. In the rapid march of progress new cars were built for each event. Months saw extraordinary progress, and working 739 AUTOMOBILES Races Companies Founded AUTOMOBILES as the makers were in order to get their machines out for the event, they invariably failed to do so until the very last minute. They were not partic- ularly handicapped in consequence because every maker was in the same plight, and consequently in each event a long line of practically untried new motor-cars formed up, their capabilities to be tested and their merits discovered over hundreds of miles of unknown road. And much of the charm of the sport lay in its glorious uncertainty. Where a re- sult is bound to happen there is no real sport, and never were results more obscure than the results of those races. The fact of travelling successfully three-parts of the distance proved nothing, because probably some part would break and trouble ensue which placed one hopelessly liors de combat, and we all struggled on, making the best of our trou- bles, sympathizing with each other's misfortunes, and doing our best to arrive at the finish. In addi- tion to the excitement of driving a new and prac- tically untried machine, you had also the fact that you were driving a much faster machine than you had ever driven before, because the power of the motors was increased for each event, and with all these glorious elements of uncertainty, a feeling that you were perhaps driving faster than any one had ever driven before, and there was a lack of that grimness and ferocity which marks latter-day motor-racing. To secure real and exciting sport obviously the spice of danger was an added inter- est, because since we were not then accustomed to the speeds, this sense of danger always existed." — • C. Jarrott, Ten years of motors and motor racing, pp. qt-qS. — "Levassor's experiments [see above 18S5-18Q4] and successes were copied, and eventu- ally sufficient vehicles were in existence to warrant the holding of a race — or rather a trial — in [July] 1804, from Paris to Rouen. [Forty-six cars were en- tered of which twelve only were steam cars.] The first to arrive was a steam vehicle, built by De Dion et Bouton, but the success of the petrol vehicles was sufficiently pronounced to establish it as a fact be- yond all question that they were practical and suc- cessful. The excitement in France in connection with this race was very great, the new road vehicles being welcomed by the French populace with open arms. Although the first arrival was the De Dion Bouton steamer, nevertheless the Panhard and Peugeot cars were given the first prize, a De Dion steamer gaining the second, and a Serpollet steam car being awarded the third. A movement was soon after started for the holding of another race for the following year, in which the Count De Dion and the Baron de Zuylen took an active part. It was eventually decided that a race should be run from Paris to Bordeaux and back, without stoppages of any kind. M. Levassor built a special car for the event, having a small ^Yj h. p. motor, and a number of other cars were also turned out' by the various firms interested to take part. The race was held on II June, 1895, the start being from Versailles, and twenty-three vehicles presented themselves at the starting-point. Of these, nine completed the journey, eight of them being petrol-driven carriages and one steam. M. Levassor won the event, by accomplishing the journey in forty-eight hours on his little car — a magnificent performance, consider- ing the stage of development to w-hich the motor vehicles had attained at that time." — It'id., pp. 6-7. — On "Thanksgiving Day, 1805, the first American automobile race was run from Chicago to VVauke- gan. The organizer and patron was a newspaper — the Chicago Times-Herald. Of two entrants, the 'Buggyaut' of Charles E. Duryea was one." — H. L. Barber, .S(ory of the aniomobile, p. 73. — "Novem- ber 14, i8q6. A foggy, dull, wet. typical November morning found me making my way along Holborn to the Central Hall. This had been engaged for the purposes of a garage for the use of the intrepid people who were on that morning to make a run, involving much danger and personal risk, from London to Brighton [32 miles]. For the first time in English history legal restrictions in regard to the use of motor-cars on the public highways, except when preceded by a man with a red flag, had been removed, and we were to be allowed to drive a car on the road at a speed not exceeding twelve miles an hour. The run from London to Brighton had been arranged to celebrate this important event. . . . Leon Bollee was there, with a small fleet of those extraordinary little machines invented by him which always, to my mind, resembled land torpedoes more than anything else. The Panhard and Levas- sor machines, which had previously taken part in the great Paris-Marseilles race, were also there ; and a dozen other notabilities in what was then the somewhat limited automobile world. . . . Most of the cars were historical, in view of the fact that they had, even then, accomplished great deeds. In the first, driven by M. Meyer, was seated Mr. H. J. Lawson, President of the Motor-Car Club, the car itself being the identical Panhard-Levassor on which M. Levassor had achieved his great victory of the previous year in the Paris-Bordeaux race. Xo. 2 was a German Daimler landaulette, which had the previous week occupied a prominent posi- tion in the Lord Mayor's Show, and contained, amongst other distinguished personages, Herr Gott- lieb Daimler himself. No. 3 was a Panhard-Levas- sor car, which had won the Paris-Marseilles race. No. 4 belonged to the Hon. Evelyn Ellis. McRobie Turrell . . . was also driving a Panhard-Levassor car, whilst Leon and .\medee Bollee and H. O. Duncan were all handling Bollee tandem machines. -Another machine of great interest was driven by Mr. E. J. Pennington, who, at that time, was claim- ing great things for the motor invented by him. .And an .American-made machine, in the shape of the Duryea, also figured prominently. Another bold person, in the shape of Mr. Gorton, junior, rode a fearful and wonderful tricycle, which started off with many kicks and jumps, much to the alarm of the crowd." — C. Jarrott, Ten years of molars and motor racing, pp. 1-3. 1898-1916. — Foundation of automobile com- panies. — Diversity of types. — "The year of the Spanish-.American war — iSqS — saw the beginning of a veritable rain of automobile manufacturers in the United States. In that year the Stanley, Stearns, Thomas, Matheson, Winton, and the Waverley Company entered the field. In iSqo, there ap- peared the Locomobile Company, Olds, Baker-Elec- tric and Pierce-Racine (later absorbed by J. I. Case and now the Case car). In looo, Packard, Peer- less, Glide, National Electric, Lambert, Elmore, Babcock, Jackson, Knox and Lane were entrants in the lists. In looi, Acme, Gaeth, Pierce-.Arrow, White, Royal Tourist, Stevens-Duryea, Waltham- Orient, Pope-Toledo, Welrh, Pullman and Rambler. In IQ02, Cadillac, Franklin, Pope, Studebaker, Sul- tan, Okey, Walter and Schacht. In 1903, Ford, Auburn, Overland, Molinc, Premier, Corbin, Berg- dall, Holsman, Columbus and Chadwick. In 1Q04, Buick, Cleveland, .American Napier, Stoddard-Day- ton, Marmon, Mitchell, Jewel, Mclntyre, Pitts- burgh Electric, Ranch & Lang and Simplex. In iqo5, .Alco, .American, Dorris, Johnson, Jonz, Kis- selcar, Maxwell, Monarch, Reo, Studebaker, Gar- ford and .American Mors. In iqo6, .Anderson, A. B.C., Cartercar, Brunn, Thomas-Detroit, Kearns, Sterling, Mora, Moon. Pennsylvania, Palmer & Singer and Stavcr. In 1007, .Albany, .Atlas, Brush, Bertolet, Byridcr, Carter, Chalmers, Coppock, De Luxe, Oakland, Regal, Selden, Speedwell, Interstate, 740 AUTOMOBILES Mechanical Progress Growth of Industry AUTOMOBILES Lozier and Great Western. In igoS, Sharp-Arrow, Pittsburgh 6, Crown Midland, Rider-Lewis, Paige- Detroit, Velie, Cole, E.M.F. and Hupmobile. In igoQ, Hudson, Advance, Cunningham, Coates- Goshen, Ohio and Abbott. Since igog to date new cars put on the market include: Stutz (1911), Chevrolet (igi2). Grand, Chandler, Saxon and Scripps-Booth (1913), Dodge and Dort (1914), Owen Magnetic (1915), Drexel and Elgin (iqi6). Other automobiles in the field are the Maibohm, Allen, Ben-Hur, Crow-Elkhart, Harroun, Lexington and Madison. . . . The earlier manufacturers of motor cars included many who had been engaged in manufacturing bicycles, and following them was a group that had successfully manufactured wagons and carriages. Still another set of manufacturers were machinery men. In the list of names of auto- mobile companies which have been organized dur- ing the period of the industry's development, there are some which have gone out of business; but not many. The industry, generally speaking, has had comparatively few complete failures. Mortality has been lower with it than with many other business enterprises. This is chiefly due to the intelligence which the manufacturers brought to the busine.ss, plus the demand which sprang up for the automo- bile as soon as the people, instructed with great and liberal space by the press, reahzed it was the vehicle that could give what they wanted. Never was the value of a concerted campaign of education better demonstrated. That unusually intelligent study of the subject of suiting the popular desire was given by manufacturers is evidenced in many ways, but in none that is so typical as was the standardization of motor cars. At one stage of the industry its very life was threatened by a lack of uniformity in the mechanical construction of the various types of the automobile. The big idea that has made Henry Ford's millions was a combination one. It was the building of a motor and car com- bined which could be constructed at a cost that would command large quantity production. This conception by Ford, alone, simple though it was, proclaims him the genius he undoubtedly is. The purchase of cars between i8g8, when sales first be- gan to be made, and 1903, when Ford put out his car, was practically confined to people of wealth and leisure. It required both to own and operate an automobile. Men bought them at a cost of $3,000 to .$12,000 each. Purchasers were exhilarated by auto-intoxication — with little thought of the practical uses the invention could be put to. Snob- bishness, social impression and display of superior wealth were back of many purchases." — H. L. Bar- ber, Story of the automobile, pp. QS-g8. 1900-1920. — Fuel problem. — Starting devices. — "It seems amusing to us, today, to turn back to igio-i2 and read that the vast increase in the use of the automobile had caused such a demand for gasoline that the quality had gone down to a point that constituted a problem. We will understand this better if we realize that the cars of igoo and igos, burning the high-grade gasoline then on the market, were expected to start, under all conditions and without priming, on a half or even a quarter turn of the crank. When the fuel became of such sort that this was not feasible, there was a universal consensus that some sort of starting motor would have to be devised. A great many sorts were put forward, but those that worked pneumatically or through springs or by introducing a preliminary charge of acetylene or some other violent explosive and touching it off with the spark went overboard when it was shown clearly that a wet battery could be built that would not be damaged by such rough- ing as it would get from riding in a car, and that a generator could be installed that would keep it charged to the necessary voltage for starting. The development of the electric starter began in 1910, and by 1013 was complete, all the better cars being by that time so equipped. But if a battery must be carried for this purpose, economy demands that it be used also for lighting and ignition, relieving the car of weight and installation expense repre- sented by oil lamps and magneto. So we find at this time the very general reversion to battery igni- tion, referred to above. The magneto, however, has not submitted tamely to this. Admitting that at the slow engine-speeds of cranking whether man- ually or by motor, the battery gives a better spark than the magneto, the advocates of the latter point out that its spark increases in intensity with engine speed and that it ought therefore to be better after the car gets under way. Opinion here is still in a point of flux; and it is difficult to say whether the present vogue of dual ignition represents really an effort to get the best of both systems, or merely a desire to sidestop the question of choosing between them." — Rise of the automobile (Scientific Amer- ican, Oct. 2, 1920, p. 358). 1902-1915. — Development of engines. — Cooling devices. — Steering gear. — "In 1907 the first six- cylinder model appeared in England, the work of Napier, and the precedent was quickly followed, until by, say, igio, it might have been said that the two-cylinder car of igo2 had become a four, and the four a six. At the same time Hewitt produced an eight, but this precedent was ignored for nearly a decade; the earliest of the existing eights appears to be the Cadillac, of 1914. The tendency toward sixes, and later eights, continued; and finally, in 1915, the Packard, almost the last car to give up the single cylinder, was the first to set the mark at twelve. A change of importance that ought to be mentioned is that from chain drive, universal in the early models, to the propeller shaft with bevel gears. If a date were to be set at which this be- came first effective, it would be somewhere in the vicinity of 1905. The early designers surrounded the single cylinder with a water jacket, but made no definite provision for water economy. Perhaps they did not expect their cars to run far enough, on one stretch, to require fresh water. But by 1900 the cruising radius had gone up, and radiators recognizable as such made their appearance, though as late as 1902 they were universally low with sloping fronts. The higher, vertically up-standing type appeared in 1904-05, and swept the field clean within two years at the most. Circulation was by pump, until the Renault designers incorporated the thcrmo-syphon, which spread to a few other models after igo?. But it must be emphasized that air- cooling is not a recent development ; the Franklin, which would be the Wilkinson if named after its creator, dates back continuously to 1902-03, and the Knox and Marmon, among others, were air- cooled for a time. The dividing line between horse- less carriage and automobile may perhaps be drawn from the point where the motor was transferred to the front and the conservative upright steering post with horizontal rod replaced by the more sporty wheel. Among the names that lived, the Knox, Duryea, Haynes, Oldsmobile, Stearns and Pierce were all handled through rods in 1902; the vogue of the wheel appears to have become definitely established not earlier than 1904. And Levassor's example in putting the engine where it belongs was still defied in 1902 by the Stearns, Pierce, Packard, Oldsmobile and others, but had become universal two years later. So perhaps we might say that the period before 1900 was that of the horseless car- riage, and that after four years of transition we come to the automobile." — Ibid., p. 358. 1909-1916. — Growth of production. — Reduced 741 AUTOMOBILES AVA prices. — "The average price of all motor vehicles, combining pleasure cars and trucks, was, in 1916, $636. The preponderance of passenger cars at the lower prices brought the average down, since the average price of motor trucks alone was about !!!i,8oo. For every motor truck sold, eighteen pas- senger cars were disposed of in 1016. With stand- ardization and the consequent lowering of cost, the automobile industry acquired a momentum that has carried production forward on a constantly ascend- ing scale, as witness these figures of passenger cars alone: No. of Year cars made iqog So.ooo igio 185,000 iQii 200,000 Year No. of cars made 1912 250,000 iqis 842,249 1916 1,617,708 The manufacture of motor trucks almost doubled in one year. The number produced in 1015 was 50^500. In 1910 the number made was 92,130. The above table, showing the rate of increase in passenger cars made in seven years, makes it clear that the greatest growth in the passenger car busi- ness has been since and including the year 1911. That was the year in which the largest number of medium and low priced standardiEed cars with re- finement of detail and added equipments, selling from ?i,500 down to $500, was first put on the market." Ford almost doubled his output in that year. The next years, 1912 and 1913, also he more than doubled each year his output of the previous year. .And in loib he made nearly one-thi-d of all the passenger cars produced in the entire United States in that year. Could anything demonstrate more conclusively than these facts, that if you have an article within the price of the mass of the peo- ple, it will sell, if the people want it ? The one idea of Henry Ford — quantity sales — saved to the United States the premiership in automobile mak- ing. For other manufacturers adopted it, some radically, others in a modified form. Its influence was unquestioned in putting the price of motor cars at a figure at which a person happening to have less than the income of a millionaire could afford to buy one, so that when every one of the many values and benefits of the existence of the modern automobile is scheduled, let us, in giving credit for them, place the name of Ford at the head of the list. When we have arrived at our destination, or have attained an object much desired, our satis- faction is such that we are in a forgiving mind and prone to forget the sacrifices we had to make, the difficulties we had to overcome, the strenuous work we had to do. The end justified the means, and we don't think long about the hardships in the means. Preeminence of the United States in the motor field has not been gained without hardships, sacrifices and disappointments by those engaged in it, nor was it reached by the immediate and unin- terrupted success of all companies organized to com- mercialize the invention." — H. L. Barber, Slory of the automobUr, pp. 100-102. 1920. — Immense spread of automotive industry and traffic. — "The present survey may well be con- cluded with a word about the position held today in the world's economy by the automotive indus- tries. It is in a way hardly necessary to dilate upon this, yet one or two concrete statements may help to a true realization of the vital importance of the automobile to our way of doing things. For one thing, we are told that while all the railroads of the United States in the course of a year yield about 45 billion passenger-miles, the automobiles of the entire nation are responsible for 70 billion of these units of transportation, .\gain, with the 3,700 passenger cars manufactured in 1809, the first year for which records exist, and with the 411 trucks of 1904, we may compare the present normal production of some two million passenger cars and three hundred thousand, plus, trucks. Finally, we have the fact that there are something like seven million automotive vehicles of all sorts in opera- tion in this country today. Figures are given for the United States for the very simple reason that, alike in manufacture and use, this is the land of the automobile. Under the head of general remarks about the role of the automobile in twentieth cen- tury economy the difficulty is wholly that of find- ing a brief statement that shall do the subject jus- tice. In every single thing that we do today the automobile or the truck or the tractor occupies a position of importance. Perhaps the most illumi- nating statement that could be made would have to do with the manner in which all distances up to fifty, seventy-five, or even a hundred miles are made to vanish into nothing by the magic influence of the motor. The isolation of farm life is a thing of the past, for the farmer cannot possibly be more than an hour from a town that gives him access to high-class schools and stores and amusements. City congestion, serious as it is, would be vastly worse were it not for the manner in which the automobile extends the suburbs and the area of food supply far beyond the remotest possibilities of twenty years ago. Trucks carry freight from New York to Phil- adelphia in less time than it would take to get it to the freight yards and loaded on a train. In a word, the automobile — taking this term to include all gasoline-driven vehicles — is with little question the greatest ameliorating influence in modern life." — Rise oj the automobile (Scientific American, Oct. 2, 1920, p. 360). AUTONOMY, self-government; administrative independence of a city or state. The term was applied to the states of ancient Greece where every city or small community claimed sovereign power. In modern hiztory it is used to describe the condition of a country which has complete control of its own affairs while nominally under the power of another state. AUTUN, Origin of. See Gaul: The people. 287 A. D. — Sacked by the Bagauds. See Ba- GAUDS. AUVERGNE, an ancient government of France which came under the French crown in 1S32; inhabited by the .Arverni in Cjesar's time, Vcr- cingetorix at one time leading them against the Romans. See .-Edui; Burgundy: 1364; Gaul: The people; France: 1665; also Maps of medieval peri- od: 1154-1360. AUVERGNE, School of.— "The school of Au- vergne arose in a region where the worship of Mercur}' had been popular in the days of the Roman Empire, where many Gallo-Roraan statues and reliefs existed. From such remains of an- tiquity the early medieval sculptors seem to have derived their inspiration. They produced works in high relief, often with a good deal of under- cutting. ... In choice of subjects this school shows a preference for allegorical figures, especially for the conflict of the Virtues with the Vices: among these the punishment of .Avarice is most popular. . . . The capitals of the church of Notre Dame du Pont, at Clermont, of the early part of the twelfth century, are good examples of the work of this school." — H. N. Fowler, History of sculpture, p. 107-108. AUXILIUM, old English tax. See Tallage. AVA, a town and former capital of the em- pire of Burma; situated on the Irrawaddy river, six miles south of Mandalay, the present capital. See Burma: Early history; India: 1823-1833. 742 AVALAKITESVARA AVARS AVALAKITESVARA, Buddhism. See Myth- OLOCv: Eastern Asia: Indian and Chinese influ- ences. AVALON, Lord Baltimore's name for his prov- ince of Newfoundland. Sec Newfoundland: i6io- 1655- AVARICUM. See Bourges, Origin of. AVARS. — The true Avars are represented to have been a powerful Turanian people who ex- ercised in the sixth century a wide dominion in Central Asia. Among the tribes subject to them was one called the Ogors, or Ouigours, or Ouiars, or Ouar Khouni, or Varchonitcs (these diverse names have been given to the nation) which is supposed to have belonged to the national family of the Huns. Some time in the early half of the sixth century, the Turks, then a people who dwelt in the very center of Asia, at the foot of the Altai mountains, making their first appearance in his- tory as conquerors, crushed and almost annihilated the Avars, thereby becoming the lords of the Oui- gours, or Ouar Khouni. But the latter found an opportunity to escape from the Turkish yoke. "Gathering together their wives and their chil- dren, their flocks and their herds, they turned their waggons towards the Setting Sun. This immense exodus comprised upwards of 200,000 persons. The terror which inspired their flight rendered them resistless in the onset ; for the avenging Turk was behind their track. They overturned every- thing before them, even the Hunnic tribes of kindred origin, who had long hovered on the north-east frontiers of the Empire, and, driving out or enslaving the inhabitants, established them- selves in the wide plains which stretch between the Volga and the Don. In that age of imperfect information they were naturally enough con- founded with the greatest and most formidable tribe of the Turanian stock known to the nations of the West. The report that the Avars had broken loose from Asia, and were coming in ir- resistible force to overrun Europe, spread itself all along both banks of the Danube and penetrated to the Byzantine court. [See Byzantine empire: Part in history.] With true barbaric cunning, the Ouar Khouni availed themselves of the mistake, and by calling themselves Avars largely increased the terrors of their name and their chances of conquest." The pretended Avars were taken into the pay of the empire by Justinian and employed against the Hun tribes north and cast of the Black sea. They presently acquired a firm foot- ing on both banks of the Danube, and turned their arms against the empire. The important city of Sirmium was taken by them after an obstinate siege and its inhabitants put to the sword. Their ravages extended over central Europe to the Elbe, where they were beaten back by the warlike Franks, and, southwards, through Moesia, Illyria, Thrace, Macedonia and Greece, even to the Peloponnesus. Constantinople itself was threatened more than once, and in the summer of 626, it was desperately attacked by Avars and Persians in conjunction (see Rome: 565-628), with disastrous results to the assailants. But the seat of their empire was the Dacian country — modern Rumania, Transylvania and part of Hungary — in which the .'\vars had helped the Lombards to crush and extinguish the Gepids. [See Rumania: B.C. Sth century to A. D. 1241.] The Slavic tribes which, by this time, had moved in great num- bers into central and south-eastern Europe, were largely in subjection to the Avars and did their bidding in war and peace. "These unfortunate creatures, of apparently an imperfect, or, at any rate, imperfectly cultivated intelligence, endured such frightful tyranny from their Avar conquerors, that their very name has passed into a synonyme for the most degraded servitude." — J. G. Shep- pard. Fall of Rome, led. 4. — See also Albania: Name and people; Balkan States: Races exist- ing; and Europe: Introduction to historic period: Migrations. Also in: E. Gibbon, History oj the decline and fall of the Roman empire, ch. 42. 7th century. — Slavic revolt. — The empire of the Avars was shaken and much diminished in the seventh century by an extensive rising of their oppressed Slavic subjects, roused and led, it is said, by a Frank merchant, or adventurer, named Samo, who became their king. [See Bulgaria: /th century] The first to throw off the yoke were a tribe called the Vcndes, or Wendes, or Venedi, in Bohemia, who were reputed to be half- castes, resulting from intercourse between the Avar warriors and the women of their Slavic vassals. Under the lead of Samo, the Wendes and Slovenes or Slavonians drove the Avars to the east and north ; and it seems to have been in connection with this revolution that the em- peror Heraclius induced the Serbs or Servians and Croats — Slavic tribes of the same race and religion — to settle in depopulated Dalmatia. " 'From the year 630 A. D.,' writes M. Thierry, 'the Avar peo- ple are no longer mentioned in the annals of the East ; the successors of Attila no longer figure beside the successors of Constantine. It required new wars in the West to bring upon the stage of history the khan and his people.' In these wars [of Pepin and Charlemagne] they were finally swept off from the roll of European nations." — J. G. Sheppard, Fall of Rome, lecture 4. 626. — Attack on Constantinople with Persians. See Rome: Medieval City: 565-628. 640. — Devastation of Albania. Sec Albania: Early history. 791-805. — Conquest by Charlemagne. — "Hun- gary, now so called, was possessed by the Avars, who, joining with themselves a multitude of Hun- rish tribes, accumulated the immense spoils which both they themselves and their equally barbarous predecessors had torn from the other nations of Europe. . . . They extended their limits towards Lombardy, and touched upon the ' very verge of Bavaria. . . . Much of their eastern frontier was now lost, almost without a struggle on their part, by the rise of other barbarous nations, especially the various tribes of Bulgarians." This was the position of the Avars at the time of Charlemagne, whom they provoked by forming an alliance with the ambitious duke of Bavaria, Tassilo, — most obstinate of all who resisted the Frank king's imperious and imperial rule. In a series of vigor- ous campaigns, between 701 and 707 Charlemagne crushed the power of the Avars and took pos- session of their country. The royal "ring" or stronghold — believed to have been situated in the neighborhood of Tatar, between the Danube and the Theiss — was penetrated, and the vast treasure stored there was seized. Charlemagne distributed it with a generous hand to churches, to monasteries and to the poor, as well as to his own nobles, servants and soldiers, who arc said to have been made rich. There were sub- sequent risings of the Avars and wars, until 805, when the remnant of that almost annihilated peo- ple obtained permission to .settle on a tract of land between Sarwar and Haimburg, on the right bank of the Danube, where they would be pro- tected from their Slavonian enemies. This was the end of the Avar nation. — G. P. R. James, History of Charlemagne, bks. q and 1 1 . Also in: J. I. Mombert, History of Charles the Great, bk. 2, ch. 7. 743 AVARS, RINGS OF AVEZZANO AVARS, Rings of the.— The fortifications of the Avars were of a peculiar and effective construc- tion and were called Hrings, or Rings. "They seem to have been a series of eight or nine gigantic ramparts, constructed in concentric circles, the inner one of all being called the royal circle or camp, where was deposited all the valuable plunder which the warriors had collected in their expeditions. The method of constructing these ramparts was somewhat singular. Two parallel rows of gigantic piles were driven into the ground some twenty feet apart. The intervening space was filled with stones, or a species of chalk, so compacted as to become a solid mass. The sides and summit were covered with soil, upon which were planted trees and shrubs, whose interlacing branches formed an impenetrable hedge." — J. G. Sheppard, Fall of Rome, lecture 9. AVEBURY, a village of Wiltshire, England. It is the site of the ruins of an ancient monu- ment, similar to Stonehenge but more primitive. "The numerous circles of stone or of earth in Britain and Ireland, varying in diameter from 30 or 40 feet up to 1,200, are to be viewed as temples standing in the closest possible relations to the burial-places of the dead. The most imposing group of remains of this kind in this country [England] is that of Avebury [.\bury], near Devizes, in Wilt- shire, referred by Sir John Lubbock to a late stage in the Neolithic or to the beginning of the bronze period. It consists of a large circle of unworked upright stones 1,200 feet in diameter, surrounded by a fosse, which in turn is also surrounded by a rampart of earth. Inside are the remains of two concentric circles of stone, and from the two en- trances in the rampart proceeded long avenues flanked by stones, one leading to Beckhampton, and the other to West Kennett, where it formerly ended in another double circle. Between them rises Silbun.' Hill, the largest artificial mound in Great Britain, no less than 130 feet in height. This group of remains was at one time second to none, 'but unfortunately for us [says Sir John Lubbock] the pretty little village of Avebury [Abury], like some beautiful parasite, has grown up at the expense and in the midst of the ancient temple, and out of 650 great stones, not above twenty are still stand- ing. In spite of this it is still to be classed among the finest ruins in Europe.' " — W. B. Dawkins, Early man in Britain, ch. 10. — See also Stone- henge. AVEIN, Battle of (1635). See Netherlands: 1635-1638. AVENGERS, or Vendicatori, a secret clan formed in Sicily toward the close of the twelfth century for the purpose of avenging so called "popular wrongs." The organization came to an end with the persecution of its leaders by William II, the Norman king. AVENTINE. See Seven Hills of Rome. AVENTINUS, Johann Turmair (1477-1534), historian in Renaissance. See History: 22. AVERNUS, LaV-e and cavern.— A gloomy lake called Avernus. which filled the crater of an ex- tinct volcano, situated a little to the north of the Bay of Naples, was the object of many super- stitious imaginations among the ancients. "There was a place near Lake Avernus called the prophetic cavern. Persons were in attendance there who called up ghosts. Anv one desiring it came thither, and. having killed a victim and poured out libations, summoned whatever ghost he wanted. The ghost came, very faint and doubtful to the sight." — Maximus Tyrius, quoted by C. C. Fel- ton, Greece, ancient and modern, c. 2, lecture 9. — See also Cumx and Bal.«. AVERROES (Abul-Walid Muhammad ibn- Ahmad Ibn-Muhammad ibn-Rushd) (1126-1198), Arabian philosopher. See Averroism. AVERROISM.— "The works of the Arab free- thinker Averroes (twelfth century) which were based on .Aristotle's philosophy, propagated a small wave of rationalism in Christian countries. Aver- roes held the eternity of matter and denied the immortality of the soul ; his general- view may be described as pantheism. But he sought to avoid difficulties with the orthodox authorities of Islam by laying down the doctrine of double truth, that is the coexistence of two independent and contradictory truths, the one philosophical, and the other religious. This did not save him from being banished from the court of the Spanish caliph. In the University of Paris his teaching produced a school of freethinkers who held that the Creation, the resurrection of the body, and other essential dogmas, might be true from the standpoint of religion but are false from the stand- point of reason. . . . This dangerous movement was crushed, and the saving principle of double truth condemned, by Pope John XXI. The spread of Averroistic and similar speculations called forth the Theology of Thomas, of Aquino in South Italy (died 1274), a most subtle thinker, whose mind had a natural turn for scepticism. He enlisted -Aristotle, hitherto the guide of in- fidelity, on the side of orthodoxy, and construct- ed an ingenious Christian philosophy which is still authoritative in the Roman Church." — J. B. Bury, Historv of freedom of thought, pp. 68- 69. AVERY, Samuel P. (1822-1904), American connoisseur and art dealer. .\ founder and long a trustee of Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City. Gift of architectural library for Colum- bia Universitv. See Gifts and Bequests. AVERYSBORO, Battle of. See U. S. A. 1865 (February-March): The Carolinas. AVESNES, a railroad town of France, thirty miles east of Cambrai, overrun by the Germans in August, 1914, and recovered by the British, November 8, 1918. See World War: 1918: II. Western front: w, 2; x, 3. AVESTA, or Zend-Avesta, sacred writings of the Parsees ascribed by them to Zoroaster and his immediate disciples. The present collection which exists in Pahlavi is only a fragment of the original Zoroastrian scriptures. The name "Zend-.Avesta" came into use in Europe about 1771 W'hen .Anquetil Duperron translated the remnants of the .Avesta. Although Hyde, an Oxford scholar, had written on the subject at an earlier date, he failed to create the interest that Duperron aroused. A century later Spiegel made a noteworthy translation, inter- preting the Parsee documents from a viewpoint entirely different from that of Duperron. In fact the interpretation of the .A vesta is a matter of such philological difficulty that no agreement has been reached even on the most important points. It was from these translations of the Pahlavi books where the text and translation are spoken of as "Avesta and Zend" that the misnomer Zend-.\vesta arose. The book is not contained in a single manu- script, but in a collection of writings as the Old Testament is. Although these do not measure up to the Old Testament, nevertheless, as the basis of the Zoroastrian faith, and as the only literary leg- acy of the ancient Iran, they hold a place of unique importance in the world's literature. — See also Magmns; P.arsees; Persian literatxtre; ZOROASTRHNS. AVEZZANO, Italy. Earthquake of 1915. See Italy: 1915: Severe earthquakes. 744 AVIATION AVIATION AVIATION DEVELOPMENT OF BALLOONS AND DIRIGIBLES Early history. — Inception of the balloon. — It is not improbable that when primitive man iirst began to think he instinctively felt a desire to emulate the flight of birds as his eyes followed their inexplicable progress through the air. Dur- ing later ages, as records show, he has philoso- phized, schemed and experimented to conquer the about the time of the founding of Rome, caused to be built an apparatus with which he sailed in the air above the chief city of Trinovantes, but that losing his balance he fell upon a temple and was killed. ... A better authenticated legend seems to be that of Simon the Magician, who in the thirteenth year of the reign of the Emperor Nero (about 67 A. D.) undertook to rise toward heaven like a bird in the presence of everybody. The legend relates that 'the people assembled to S>ketcK 0/ F/yina Ma.chine S^ Leonardo da. Yinci Ed.-r7^ f 6^ Century Design foy a.n /Airship Pi ir ship Mode/ 6ui/i in 1785 jBa.lloon hui/t by Cha^rles 7n/80'9- TYPES OF EARLY ATTEMPTS AT FLYING-MACHINES air, only to be thrown back upon the conclusion — apparently definite and final — that he had not, and could not hope to attain the necessary power to operate a pair of wings of sufficient spread to carry him through the air. A famous pioneer of aviation. Octave Chanute, has traced the prob- able inception of these ambitious projects to the beginning of the Roman era. In i8g4 he published a book "Progress in flying machines," in which he fixes "the earliest legend of an ex- periment which we may fairly suppose to have been tried with an aeroplane ... in the some- what fabulous chronicles of Britain, wherein it is related that King Bladud, the father of King Lear, who is supposed to have reigned in Britain view so extraordinary a phenomenon, and Simon rose into the air through the assistance of the demons in the presence of an enormous crowd, but that St. Peter having offered up a prayer, the action of the demons ceased and the magician was crushed in the fall and perished instantly.' It seems, therefore, certain from this tale, which has come down to us without any material altera- tion, that even in that barbarous age a man suc- ceeded in rising into the air from the earth by some means which have unfortunately remained unknown. . . . There is a tradition of the eleventh century concerning Oliver of Malmesbury who, in some of the accounts, is styled 'Elmerus de Malemeria,' and who was an English Benedictine 745 AVIATION Balloons AVIATION monk, said to have been a deep student ol mathe- matics and of astrology, thereby earning the repu- tation ol a wizard. The legend relates that hav- ing manufactured some wings, modeled after the description that Ovid has given of those of Daedalus, and having fastened them to his hands, he sprang from the top of a tower against the wind. He succeeded in sailing a distance of 125 paces, but either through the impetuosity or whirl- ing of the wind, or through nervousness resulting from his audacious enterprise, he fell to the earth and broke his legs. . . . .\ more explicit tradition 01 the same kind comes from Constantinople where, under the reign of the Emperor Manuel Com- menus, probably about the year 11 78, a Saracen (reported to be a magician, of course), whose name is not given, undertook to sail into the air from the top of the tower of the Hippodrome in the presence of the Emperor. . . . 'The Saracen kept extending his arms to fetch the wind. At SPHERICAL BALLOONS Start of a balloon race last when he deemed it favorable, he rose into the air like a bird, but his flight was as unfor- tunate as that of Icarus, for the weight nf his body having more power to draw him down than his artificial wings had to sustain' him, he fell and broke his bones.' . . . One of the most celebrated traditions of partial success with a flying ma- chine refers to J. B. Dante, an Italian mathe- matician of Perugia, who, toward the end of the fourteenth century, seems to have succeeded in constructing a set of artificial wings with which he sailed over the neighboring lake of Trasimene. We have no description of the apparatus, but this was presumably an aeroplane, soaring upon the wind, for we have seen abundantly that all experi- ments have failed with flapping wings, man not having the strength required to vibrate with suf- ficient rapidity a surface sufficient to carry his weight in the air." — O. Chanutc. Progress in flying machines, pp. 76-78, 80, 8t. 13th century. — Roger Bacon (1214-1202) sug- gested a plan of flotation of a large hollow sphere of ver\' thin copper, to be filled with "etherial air or liquid fire," which he conceived would navigate the air as a ship does the water. There is no definite record that he submitted his theories to a practical test. 14th century. — Bishop .\lbert of Halberstadt be- lieved it would be possible to enclose hot air in a sphere and raise the same into the air. 17th century. — .-V Portuguese Jesuit, Francis Mendoza, and Caspar Schott, a German Jesuit, respectively evolved different theories to make hollow spheres float in the air by lire and "etherial fluid." A more impractical suggestion was that of an Italian Jesuit, Francesco Lana (1631-1687), who proposed four thin copper balls each of twenty or twenty-five feet diameter, entirely ex- hausted of air. One of these balls or balloons was to be attached to the corners of a square basket or car, which latter was to carry a mast and sail. The fallacy underlying his theory consisted in the physical condition that the envelopes would be too thin to withstand at- mospheric pressure. Vet it was upon this princi- pal that the modern balloon was subsequently evolved. 1783-1784. — The earliest practical experiments in ballooning were made in this year, during which, it may be said, a new science was born. Until the eighteenth century, aeronautics still appeared to be an impracticable idea. In 17S3. however, the brothers Joseph and Etienne Montgolfier at .■\nnonay, France, invented the free balloon which proved the simplest method of overcoming gravity. The heated air used in the Montgolfier balloon was soon replaced with hydrogen, an important advance, since this gas lifts about sixty-eight pounds per 1,000 cubic feet as against some ten pounds for the highest temperature that is prac- tical for a hot-air balloon. The largest of this type ever built was Le Flesselles, which was launched at Lyons, France, in 1784 and measured 100 feet in diameter and 130 feet in height. Its \olume is given as 5qo,qqq cubic feet. The im- portant events of these two years are summarized as follows: Sept. 10. 17S3. — Joseph Montgolfier sent up a balloon charged with hot air, carrying a cage con- taining a sheep, a cock and a duck, these being, so far as we know with any degree of certainty, the first living creatures to ascend into the air by means of a human invention; height, about 1,500 feet. Oct. 15. — Jean Franqois Pilatre de Rozier (1756- 1785) ascended in a Montgolfier captive balloon — the first human air passenger. Nov. 21. — Pilatre de Rozier and the marquis d'Arlandes ascended in a free fire balloon from the Bois de Boulogne to about 500 feet. They traveled about five miles within twenty-five min- utes and descended in safety. November. — The first balloon ascended from British soil, without any passenger. It was made by an Italian, the Conte Zambeccari. and inflated with hydrogen gas. The balloon, which rose in London, traveled forty-eight miles in two hours and a half. Dec. I. — Jacques Alexandre Cesar Charles (1746- 1823), a French mathematician and physicist, was the first to inflate a balloon with hydrogen gas. He made an ascent from Paris in company with one of the brothers Robert, who had manufactured the balloon They rose to about 2,000 feet and sailed twenty-seven miles, when they came to earth and Robert left the car. Charles con- tinued the trip alone. The lightened balloon shot up to a height of two miles The device of suspending the car from a hoop attached to the netting and also the valve on top of the balloon. 746 / AVIATION Balloons Parac/iittes AVIATION both of which are still in use to-day, were in- troduced by Charles. Feb. 22, 1784. — First balloon across the chan- nel. — A balloon, without a passenger, flew from Kent to Warneton, French Flanders, seventy-five miles. Aug. 27. — The first human being to ascend from British soil is believed to have been J. Tytler, He went up in a balloon of his own make at Edinburgh and traveled hall a mile. Sept. 15. — Vincente Lunardi, attached to the Neapolitan embassy in London, ascended in a bal- loon, accompanied by a pigeon, a dog and a cat. 1821. — Coal gas for inflation of balloons first used by George Green, an English aeronaut. 1844. — John Wise, America's pioneer balloonist, invented the rip panel, a ribbon covering a vertical seam on the upper half of the balloon, which on landing, can promptly be pulled off to allow instant deflation and thus prevent dragging by the wind. 1862 (May 24).— In .iVmerican Civil War, Gen- eral Stoneman ascended in a captive balloon and directed his artillery fire. 1870-1913. — Balloon developments. — Kite-bal- loons. — Parachutes. — Remarkable flights. — The modtrn free ballodii varies in size to contain from g.ooo to 80,000 cubic feet. Larger balloons have been constructed and successfully operated. During the siege of Paris in the Franco-Prussian War (1870- 1871), some 164 passengers were carried out of Paris, together with valuable documents and 3,000,000 despatches. Out of sixty-six balloons, only five were captured by the Germans be- sieging the city, and two were lost in the At- lantic. One balloon, carrying two passengers, was driven by wind storms from Paris to Norway, where it fell into a snow drift. So great was the moral and material success of this enterprise that Bismarck threatened to shoot every aeronaut as a spy, while Krupp produced the first anti- aircraft gun. In i8qj, the defects of the cap- tive balloon were overcome by two German offi- cers. Captains Parseval and Siegsfeld, who de- vised the so-called kite balloon. This consists of an elongated gas-bag divided into two unequal portions, the larger of which (comprising about four-fifths of the total volume) is filled with hydrogen, the remaining one-fifth constituting the ballonet or air-cell, which is automatically in- flated by the wind through a convenient aperture. In the World War the kite balloon was used by practically all the belligerents; on the Western front alone hundreds of them were to be seen behind both Allied and German lines. Since the occupants of these kite balloons have no means of defending themselves against airplane attacks, they are provided with parachutes which enable them to jump from the fired balloon and descend in safety. In balloons men have risen higher than any airplane has mounted yet. Coxwell and Glaisher were once credited, upon their own re- port, of having reached an altitude of .^7,000 feet, about seven miles, in a balloon which ascended at Wolverhampton, England, on Sept. 5, 1862. One of the aeronauts lost consciousness at five and a half miles; the other, though dazed and frozen numb, retained his wits and managed to bring the balloon safely to earth. It is doubted now if they even reached a height of six miles. On July II, 1807, Salomon A. .\ndree, Swedish engineer and aeronaut, started from Danes island, Spitsbergen, in a balloon with two companions, Strindberg and Fankel, in an attempt to reach the North Pole They were never heard of again, and nothing is known of their fate, though sev- eral relief expeditions were sent to search for them between 1897 and i8qg. Two days after their departure they had released a carrier pigeon bearing a message indicating that the balloon was at the time about 145 miles northeast of the start- ing point. In a very large balloon, the Preussen (.Prussia), Professor Berson and Dr. Suring as- cended near Berlin on July 31, iqoi, to a height of 34,430 feet, which has been accepted as a record. On May 28, 1013, three Frenchmen, MM. Bienaime. Schneider and Lenorique, in the Icare, provided with oxygen respiration apparatus, rose to 33,074 feet and were almost frozen. Two com- panions of (Jaston Tissandier succumbed to the cold at 28,160 feet in the balloon Zenith on April 15, 1875, but apparently these aeronauts carried no oxygen outfit. In relation to aviation, bal- loon records are pertinent only as indicating the peril to vitality at very high altitudes. Piloting an airplane is different from sitting in the car . of a balloon. Once the pilot's limbs are benumbed "TURTLE" OBSERVATION BALLOON there is danger that he will lose control of his machine, and this danger naturally increases the higher he goes. 1884-1897. — Transition from balloon to diri- gible. — Flight of La France. — By a process of natural sequence, the free balloon led to the dirigi- ble. The former cannot be guided, and is at all times at the mercy of the winds: the balloon must travel in whatever direction the wind blows. Combine a power plant with a suitable free balloon and the result is an airship. Whereas the spherical shape is the only one for free balloons, quite a variety of forms have been constructed and pro- posed for airships, or, as they may be called, motor-balloons. Roze, a Frenchman, placed two separate balloons side by side ; another attempt was made with an elliptical cross-section form, to resist the influence of the wind in landing But the great majority of constructors adopt the more or less oblong and rounded shapes. One of the earlier theories in vogue some twenty years ago with regard to the shape best adapted for air- 747 AVIATION Dirigibles Zeppelin's Achievements AVIATION ships was that cone-shaped bodies fly better than cylindrical ones. The swiftest fliers, swallows and seagulls, have a tapered form, rounded in front the same as a drop of water, which, in a sense, has the property of assuming the most favorable form for cleaving the air during its fall. E.xperi- ments with models, such as are made before a marine vessel is built, yield no useful results in the case of large airships, on account of the elasticity of the air and its capacity to accept in- stantly a high rate of speed. Little success at- tended experiments with a lish-like form of bal- loon, severely tapered, because this shape de- mands a larger resisting cross-section, from which no advantage accrues. Fishes, therefore, cannot be taken as models for aerial craft, seeing that the rigidity of the airship body excludes the possibility of propulsion with or from its rear end, as in the case of fishes. All this applies only to air- ships whose lengths do not exceed from six to eight times their diameter. The longer types are better oblong, with pointed ends, as adopted by Count Zeppelin. The tapered form is the best for shorter airships, but of no value for long vessels. There are three main classes of dirigibles, the rigid, semi-rigid, and non-rigid. The rigid system is that in which the carrying body is firmly built. This type can only be constructed on a very large scale, as the skeleton alone requires from 25 to 33 per cent, of the total lifting power. Such a vessel, however, is much safer in the air than one of the limp or semi-rigid type, but dangerous when standing on the ground; although there is less necessity for frequent descents in order to re- plenish the gas, it runs considerable risk in descend- ing during rough weather, and is liable to de- struction if it does not land near a garage. Still more dangerous would be a descent upon the sea, as the waves and wind would speedily destroy the whole vessel. The rigid framework is covered with fabric, which encloses a number of druni- shaped gas bags. In the semi-rigid type the carry- ing body is made of limp material like an ordi- nary balloon, but fixed upon a metal or wooden frame, which supports the balloon underneath, re- taining at least its longitudinal form, though not the shape of the gas bag. The third system re- nounces the solidity of the first as well as the supporting frame of the second, and is therefore styled the non-rigid limp system. The forms of all these bodies vary: some are more or less tapered at the ends, others are cylindrical in shape. The covers are made of waterproof cotton, silk, gold-beaters' skin or sheet metal. In most cases the propellers are attached to the front or at both sides, as near the center of resistance as possible. The cars are attached to the balloon bodies either rigidly or non-rigidly; that is to say, loosely suspended. In the rigid Zeppelm type, the gas is regulated after the manner of free balloons; in the semi-rigid and non-rigid systems, this is done by inflating ballonets or airbags, which may aptly be described as "lung ballonets." The elevating and descending appliances are either mov- able planes or sliding weights, by which the cen- ter of gravity is shifted. The dirigible repre- sents the collaboration of almost countless in- ventors. No one man can be accorded credit for the dirigible as we know it to-day. Three men were the founders of the science of airship con- struction, namely, General Meusnier of the French army, who in 17S4 laid down the fundamental principles of the non-rigid airship; Renard and Krebs, also French officers, who designed and built in 1884 the first airship. La France, which conclusively demonstrated its ability — and conse- quently the possibility — to navigate the air in any desired direction; and finally, the late Count Zepplin, a Germ:m cavalry general, who began the construction of a rigid airship in 1897, which in its trial flight in June, 1900, made eighteen miles an hour. Renard and Krebs had been drawn to the "conquest of the air" from the re- sults previously achieved by Henri Giffard in 1S55, who sought to propel a gas-inflated vessel through the air by means of a steam engme ; the experiments of Dupuy de Lome in 1870-1782; and the results achieved by Albert and Gas- ton Tissandier in 1SS3. "Dupuy de Lome at- tempted to solve this vexatious problem, which had been occupying the minds of men — brilliant and otherwise — for centuries, and the knowledge which he accumulated from his experiments pro- vided the foundation upon which Captains Renard and Krebs pursued their studies. Dupuy de Lome conceived his idea from the German in- vestiture of the city of Paris. On February 2nd, 1872, a vessel was built according to his designs, and despite the indifferent propelling resources available, he succeeded in imparting a speed of about five miles an hour to his craft in calm air. In 1SS3 the brothers Tissandier attacked the issue because by this time an alternative means of pro- pelling an airship had been devised. Gramme had given the world the electric dynamo, and it was thought that thereby aerial navigation might be solved. . . . Several experiments . . . were car- ried out, but the first decisive flight was not made until September, 1884, — after the maiden trip of La France — when the vessel made a two hours' sojourn in the air during which it attained a speed of thirteen and a half feet per second and performed various evolutions But it was La France and the work of Renard and Krebs which really constituted the starting-point of aerial navigation." — F A. Talbot, All about in- ventions and discoveries, pp. 239-240. 1896-1914. — Count von Zeppelin's achieve- ments. — Forlanini's dirigible. — Progress in con- struction. — The blimp. — "The Zeppelin has al- ways aroused the world's attention, although this interest has fluctuated. Regarded at first as a wonderful achievement of genius, afterwards as a freak, then as the ready butt for universal ridi- cule, and finally with awe, if not with absolute terror — such in brief is the history of this craft of the air. Count von Zeppelin [1838-1917] de- veloped his line of study and thought for one rea- son only. As an old campaigner and a student of military affairs he realised the shortcomings of the existing methods of scouting and reconnoiter- ing. He appreciated more than any other man of the day perhaps, that if the commander-in-chief of an army were provided with facilities for gaz- ing down upon the scene of operations, and were able to take advantage of all the information accruing to the man above who sees all, he would hold a superior position, and be able to dispose his forces and to arrange his plan of campaign to the most decisive advantage In other words, Zeppelin conceived and developed his airship for one field of application and that alone — military operations. ... As is well known, Zeppelin evolved what may be termed an individual line of thought in connec- tion with his airship activities. ... He clung te- naciously to his pet scheme [of a rigid airship] and to such effect that in 1896 a German Engineer- ing Society advanced him some funds to con- tinue his researches This support sufficed to keep things going for another two years, during which time a full-sized vessel "was built. The grand idea began to cn,'stallise rapidly, with the result that when a public company was formed 748 AVIATION Dirigibles Zeppelin's Achievements AVIATION in i8gS, sufficient funds were rendered available to enable the first craft to be constructed. It aroused considerable attention, as well it might, seeing that it eclipsed anything which had previously been attempted in connection with dirigibles. . . . The vessel was of great scientific interest, owing to the ingenuity of its design and construction. . . . The construction of the vessel subsequently proved to be the easiest and most straightforward part of the whole undertaking. There were other and more serious problems to be solved. How would such a monster craft come to earth? How could she be manipulated upon the ground? How could she be docked? Upon these three points previous experience was silent. One German in- ventor [Dr. 'VVdlfert] who likewise had dreamed big things, and had carried them into execution, paid for his temerity and ambitions with his life [1897], while his craft was reduced to a mass of twisted and torn metal. [Dr. Wblfert was experimenting with a dirigible balloon driven by certain influential Teuton aeronautical experts who had previously ridiculed Zeppelin's idea had made a perfect volte-jace. They became staunch ad- mirers of the system, while other meteorological savants participated in the trials for the express purpose of ascertaining just what the ship could do. As a result of elaborate trigonometrical cal- culations it was ascertained that the airship at- tained an independent speed of 30 feet per second, which exceeded anything previously achieved. The craft proved to be perfectly manageable in the air, and answered her helm, thus complying with the terms of dirigibility. The creator was flushed with his triumph, but at the same time was doomed to experience misfbrtune. In its descent the airship came to "earth" with such a shock that it was extensively damaged. The cost of re- pairing the vessel was so heavy that the company declined to shoulder the liability, and as the Count was unable to defray the expense the wreck was abandoned. Although a certain meed of success lli|ll)lj;iJ|MI II A ZEPl'ELIN IN FLIGHT COUNT ZEPPELIN a gasoline motor which exploded during flight. In the same year an aluminum dirigible operated by a Daimler motor was wrecked.] Under these cir- cumstances Count Zeppelin decided to carry out his flights over the waters of the Bodensee [Lake Constance] and to house his craft within a floating dock. In this manner two uncertain factors might be effectively subjugated. . . . The first ascent was made on July 2nd, iqoo, but was disappointing, several breakdowns of the mechanism occurring while the vessel was in mid-air, which rendered it unmanageable, although a short flight was made which sufficed to show that an independent speed of thirteen feet per second could be attained. The vessel descended and was made fast in her dock, the descent being effected safely, while manoeuvring into dock was successful. At least three points about which the inventor had been in doubt ap- peared to be solved — his airship could be driven through the air and could be steered; it could be brought to earth safely ; and it could be docked. ... On October 17th and 21st of the same year further flights were made. By this time had been achieved the outlook seemed very llack for the inventor. No one had any faith in his idea. He made imploring appeals for further money, embarked upon lecturing campaigns, wrote aviation articles for the Press, and canvassed pos- sible supporters in the effort to raise funds for his next enterprise. Two years passed, but the fruits of the propaganda were meagre. It was at this juncture, when everything appeared to be impossible, that Count Zeppelin discovered his greatest friend. The German Emperor, with an eye ever fi.xed upon new developments, had fol- lowed Zeppelin's uphill struggle, and at last, in iqo2, came to his aid by writing a letter which ran: — " 'Since your varied flights have been reported to me it is a great pleasure to me to express my acknowledgment of your patience and your labours, and the endurance with which you have pressed on through manifold hindrances till success was near. The advantages of your system have given your ship the greatest attainable speed and dirigi- bility, and the important results you have obtained 749 AVIATION Dirigibles Zeppelin's Achievements AVIATION have produced an epoch-making step forward in the construction of airships and have laid down a valuable basis for future experiments. ' "This Imperial appreciation of what had been accomplished proved to be the turning point in the inventor's fortunes. It stimulated financial support, and the second airship was taken in hand. But misfortune still pursued him. Acci- dents were of almost daily occurrence. Defects were revealed here and weaknesses somewhere else. So soon as one trouble was overcome another made itself manifest. The result was that the whole of the money collected by his hard work was expended before, the ship could take to the air. A further crash and blasting of cherished hopes appeared imminent, but at this moment an- other Royal personage came to the inventor's aid. The King ot W'iirtcmberg took a personal in- terest in his subject's uphill struggle, and the Wiirtemberg Government granted him the proceeds of a lottery. With this money, and with what he succeeded in raising by hook and by crook, and by mortgaging his remaining property, a round £20,000 [."Siocoool was obtained. With this capital a third ship was taken in hand, and in 1Q05 it was launched. It was a distinct improve- ment upon its predecessors. . . . The trials with this vessel commenced on November 30th [1905], but ill-luck had not been eluded. The airship was moored upon a raft which was to be towed out into the lake to enable the dirigible to ascend. But something went wrong with the arrangements. A strong wind caught the ungainly airship, she dipped her nose into the water, and as the motor was set going she was driven deeper into the lake, the vessel only being saved by hurried defla- tion. Six weeks were occupied in repairs, but an- other ascent was made on January 17th, 1906. The trials were fairly satisfactory, but inconclu- sive. . . . The vessel was brought down, and was to be anchored, but the Fates ruled otherwise. .\ strong wind caught her during the night and she was speedily reduced to indistinguishable scrap. Despite catastrophe the inventor wrestled gamely with his project. The lessons taught by one dis- aster were taken to heart, and arrangements to prevent the recurrence thereof incorporated in the succeeding craft. Unfortunately, however, as soon as one defect was remedied another asserted itself. It was this persistent revelation of the unexpected which caused another period of indifference to- wards his invention. Probably nothing more would have been heard of the Zeppelin after this last accident had it not been for the intervention of the Prussian Government at the direct instiga- tion of the Kaiser, who had now taken Count Zeppelin under his wing. A State Lottery was in- augurated, the proceeds of which were handed over to the indefatigable inventor, together with an assurance that if he could keep aloft 24 hours without coming to earth in the meantime, and could cover 450 miles within this period, the Government would repay the whole of the money he had lavished upon his idea, and liquidate all the debts he had incurred in connection therewith. ".Another craft was built, larger than its pre- decessors, and equipped with two motors develop- ing 170 horse-power . . . The crucial test was essayed on August 5th. 1908. . . . Victory ap- peared within measurable distance: the arduous toil of many patient years was about to be rewarded. The airship was within sight of home when it had to descend owing to the development of an- other motor fault But as it approached the ground, Nature, as if infuriated at the conquest, rose up in rebellion. .A sudden squall struck the unwieldy monster. Within a few moments it be- came unmanageable, and through some inscrutable cause, it caught fire, with the result that withm a few moments it was reduced to a tangled mass of metallic framework. It was a catastrophe that would have completely vanquished many an in- ventor, but the Count was saved the gall of de- feat. His flight, which was remarkable, inasmuch as he had covered 380 miles within 24 hours, in- cluding two unavoidable descents, struck the Teu- ton imagination. . . . The German nation sympa- thised with the indomitable inventor, appreciated his genius, and promptly poured forth a stream of subscriptions to enable him to build another ves- sel. The intimation that other Powers had ap- proached the Count for the acquisition of his idea became known far and wide, together with the cir- cumstance that he had unequivocally refused all offers. He was striving for the Fatherland, and his unselfish patriotism appealed to one and all. Such an attitude deserved hearty national appre- ciation, and the members of the great German public emptied their pockets to such a degree that within a few weeks a sum of £300,000 or $1,500,000 was voluntarily subscribed. .Ml financial embar- rassments and distresses were now completely re- moved from the Count's mind. He could forge ahead untrammelled by anxiety and worry. An- other Zeppelin was built and it created a world's record. It remained aloft for 38 hours, during which time, it covered 6qo miles, and, although it came to grief upon alighting, by colliding with a tree, the final incident passed unnoticed. Ger- many was in advance of the world. It had an airship which could go anywhere, irrespective of climatic conditions, and in true Teuton perspective the craft was viewed from the military standpoint. Here was a means of obtaining the mastery of the air: a formidable engine of invasion and aerial attack had been perfected. Consequently the Grand Idea must be supported with unbounded enthusiasm. The Count was hailed by his august master as 'The greatest German of the twentieth century.' and in this appreciation the populace whole-heartedly concurred." — F. A Talbot, Aero- planes and dirigibles of war, pp. 25, 29-30, 32-33, 35i 37- — "The disasters experienced by all early airships and most particularly by the Zeppelins were always seized upon by those who desired to convince the country what unstable craft they were, and however safe in the air they might be were always liable to be wrecked when landing in anything but fine weather. Tho.'^c who might have sunk their money in airship building thereupon patted themselves upon the back and rejoiced that they had been so far-seeing as to .avoid being en- gaged upon such a profitless industry." — G. Whale, British airships, pp. 191-192. — Besides turning out a large number of skillful and daring pilots, Italy has produced some remarkable innovations both in dirigibles, airplanes, machinery and appliances. Senator Enrico Forlanini holds as high a reputa- tion in airship construction as the late Count Zeppelin. The Italian inventor began his airship experimenting and dreaming many years before his German competitor. Forlanini's first airship, the Leonardo da Vinci, was begun in 1901 and completed in 1009. He had constructed a second and improved dirigible by 1912. called Cittn di Milano. The reliability of his construction be- came recognized by the Italian government, which ordered one for the navy, the F-i. From that time he turned out an airship almost every year, each one an improvement on its predecessors. These dirigibles are of the semi-rigid type, and thus differ considerably from the Zeppelin rigid form; they are lighter and can rise to great heights in less time. Another impwrtant point of difference /.SO AVIATION Dirigibles Zeppelins and Blimps AVIATION is that Forlanini builds his cars close to and into the rigid keel instead of suspending them under- neath. Like Zeppelin, he also has experienced disasters and aerial shipwrecks. "Count von Zep- pelin, despite anything which may be said to the contrary, may be regarded as the in- ventor, pioneer, and only successful exponent of the rigid type of airship. Imitators have striven to eclipse his achievements, but have only met with exasperating failure and disappointment." — F. A. Talbot, All about inventions and discoveries, Lon- don, IQ16, p. 246. — "As regards the future develop- ment of aircraft," said an expert addressing the Institution of Naval Architects in London on March 13, iqi3, "there is no visible Umit to the growth of the rigid airship. It is on the same footing in this respect as an ordinary [marine] ship. If we double their size they will lift eight times more and will have eight times the buoy- ancy, but they will require only four times the propelling power to move at the same speed." — By the time Zeppelin appeared among the air con- querors, "the high-speed internal combustion mo- tor, owing to its success in the world of mechani- cal propulsion over the highways, had become recognized as a suitable engine for aeronautical duty, while a great deal of knowledge concerning the comparatively new metal aluminum had been acquired. Zeppelin admittedly knew nothing about aeronautics, but he set out to build an air- ship which differed from all its prototypes in every sense, and particularly in one connection — its colossal dimensions. His first craft measured 420 feet in length by thirty-eight feet in diameter. Two cars were provided — near the bow and towards the stern respectively — in each of which was placed a sixteen horse-power motor, driving independent propellers. But it was the design of this monster craft which aroused the greatest in- terest, inasmuch as it differed entirely from any which had gone before. The outer shell was polyg- onal in section, and was built up of a metallic girder skeleton over which was stretched the fabric or skin. Instead of the envelope, as it may be called, being charged with gas in the usual manner — such as a balloon — the interior was subdivided into a number of compartments insulated from one another by a thin wall or diaphragm of fabric. Consequently, the interior of the skin became re- solved into a number of cells, and in each of these was placed a balloon inflated with hydrogen. The balloons themselves favoured the conventional spherical form, so that the whole of the cell was not occupied by the gas-bag. This arrangement was adopted because it left a space around the gas- bag through which the air was free to circulate. It was maintained that this arrangement would render the gas-bag less susceptible to the fluctua- tions of temperature, which cause the hydrogen to expand and to contract respectively, according to heat and cold." — Ibid . pp. 243-244. — It was the progressive efforts of Zeppelin that gave the great- est impetus to modern airship construction, while the various setbacks he encountered owing to the disasters which befell several of his creations, .served as useful object lessons not only for his own guidance, but for that of all airship builders and navigators. Zeppelin I taught that a movable weight, suspended from wires, was insufBcient to effect the necessary stability in straight sailing. Zeppelin II was wrecked in storm near Kiss- legg; Zeppelin III, completed in igoy, worked bet- ter than its predecessors and attained a speed of over thirty-three miles an hour. Zeppelin IV was burnt in August, iqo8, near Echterdingen. The Count had once driven this 440-foot balloon from Friedrichshafen, on Lake Constance, to Lu- cerne, 248 miles, within twelve hours. Starting once again from Friedrichshafen, intending a soo-mile trip, he made a landing at Oppenheim, 200 miles distant, returned thence to Stuttgart, and finally to Echterdingen, where a hurricane wrecked the airship. The cause of the disaster was said to be due to the ignition of detonating gas by atmospheric electricity. From the advent of Zeppelin the skill, ingenuity and efforts of many engineers of various nationalities have contributed to bring the airship to its present efficient stage of development. "In the early days of the {world] war an airship was constructed by Mr. Marshall Fox which is worthy of mention, although it never flew. It was claimed that this ship was a rigid airship, although from its construction it could only be looked upon as a non-rigid ship, having a wooden net-work around its envelope. The hull was composed of wooden transverse frames forbing a polygon of sixteen sides, with radial wiring iitted to each transverse frame. The longitudinal members were spiral in form and were built up of three-ply lathes. A keel of similar construction ran along the under side of the hull which carried the control position and compartments for two Green engines, one of 40 horse-power, the other of 80 horse-power, to- gether with the petrol, bombs, etc. In the hull were fitted fourteen gasbags giving a total ca- pacity of 100,000 cubic feet. The propeller drive was obtained by means of a wire rope. The gross lift of the ship was 4,276 lb., and the weight of the structure, complete with engines, exceeded this It became apparent that the ship could never fly, and work was suspended. She was afterwards used for carrying out certain experiments and at a later date was broken up." — G. Whale, British airships, pp. 68-60. "The diminutive airship . . . has the distinction of being the first commercial airship to be sold in the United States. It is known as Goodyear's Pony Blimp. The builders had in view the need for small, efficient, inexpensive airships, which might be used for commercial service or for pur- poses of sport. In the tests which have already been made, it has demonstrated its air-worthiness, showing a quick response to the propeller and the controls, and decided economy in operation. It is believed that aero clubs will take advantage of this opportunity to train their members in air- ship navigation so that they may become compe- tent pilots for larger dirigibles, particularly as the costs of operation are relatively low. This par- ticular ship has been sold to a western syndicate which announces that it will use it for the develop- ment of commercial service. The Blimp is 05 feet long, has a maximum diameter of 28 feet and a height of 40 feet. Its volume is 35,000 cubic feet. The car, which is 12 feet in length, can ac- commodate a crew of two people. Driven by its 40 horse-power engine, it has a maximum speed of 40 miles per hour and a range, at full speed, of 400 miles, with a ceiling at 6,000 feet This means that with two men aboard, and at an elevation of 6,000 feet, it can travel some 400 miles at a speed in still air of 40 miles per hour. Of course, by taking advantage of favorable winds, with the motor idle, the fuel may be conserved and the total range under such conditions may be increased considerably over 400 miles. For landing, the Blimp is equipped with mooring harness and an- chors which permit ground stops to be made when desired for the replenishment of gas and supplies." — Scientific American, Apr. 24, iq20, p. 459- 1897. — Attempt of balloon to reach North Pole. See Arctic exploration: 1917-1918: Chronological record: 1897. 751 AVIATION Airplanes Langley and Maxim AVIATION DEVELOPMENT OF AIRPLANES AND AIR SERVICE 1809-1874. — The airplane. — Beginnings. — The fundamental theor>' of the airplane was set forth by an Englishman, Sir George Cayley, as early as 1809, and actually furnished the basis upon which the modern "heavier-than-air" flying ma- chine was subsequently built. It was he who in- vented that well-known toy made of two screws of four feathers each, fixed horizontally one above the other, with a flexible attachment like a bow and cord between them. By winding the string of the bow around the axle of the two screws the bow is bent taut. On being thrown into the air, the bow relaxes, unwinds the cord and thus speed- ily revolves the screws, though in opposite direc- tions, which causes the apparatus to mount in the air. The date of this invention is 1796, and Cayley published an account of it in iSog. He calculated that if the area of the screws was en- larged to 200 feet, they would lift a man pro- vided the power to revolve them could be ap- plied. Other models were produced on the vertical screw or helicopter principle by J. Degen in i8i6 OTTO LILIENTHAL IN HIS GLIDER Stollen, Germany, 1896 and O. Sarti in 1823, while a steam model by W. Phillips appeared in 1842, which is said to have risen to a great height and traveled a considerable distance. The earliest attempt at aviation on a considerable scale was that of Henson, an Eng- lishman, who in 1S43 began to work on the plans of what became famous in aeronautical history as Henson's aerostat, a combination of aerial screws with supporting structures occupying a nearly hori- zontal position. According to records in the patent office. Henson's apparatus consisted of an airplane of canvas or oiled silk stretched upon a frame made rigid by trussing, both above and below. Under this was to have been attached a car in- tended to house the steam engine that was to gen- erate the motive power. Two rotating wheels were to propel the machine, acting upon the air after the manner of windmills. Stretched upon a tri- angular frame was a long tail, likewise covered with canvas or oiled silk, and which could be ex- panded or contracted, moved up or down, as de- sired for ascending or descending. Unfortunately, this ancestor of the airplane never reached the stage of actual construction — it remained a dream on paper. .Another Englishman, named Stringfel- low, who cooperated with Henson, built a success- ful flying model in 1847. With these two ex- amples before him, F. H. Wenham in 1866 invented an apparatus which he called "Wenham's aero- plane," and two years later Stringfellow came along with another model combining Wenham's ma- chine with Henson's aerial screws. Exhibited at the Crystal palace in London, this model won a $500 prize. In 1874 Thomas Moy devised an "aerial steamer," a light powerful skeleton frame resting on three wheels, a new type of light en- gine, two long, narrow, horizontal planes and large aerial screws. Moy's idea was to obtain initial velocity by a run on the ground, a theory that was justified many years later by the experi- ments of the Wright Brothers. 1889-1900. — Langley and Maxim experiments. — German and English gliding machines. — Oc- tave Chanute. — The old, yet still youthful,' science of aviation made long steps forward owing to the experiments and research of Professor Langley, secretary of the Smithsonian Institution in Wash- ington, and of Sir Hiram Maxim in England. Their investigations began in iSSq-iSgo. The former devised numerous small models and one large flying plane, to which he gave the name of "aerodromes." All were constructed on a common principle and were provided with extensive flying surfaces in the shape of rigid planes inclined at an upward angle applied somewhat after the pattern of Henson's idea. Langley flew his smaller models in the lecture room of the Smithsonian Institu- tion and the large one on the Potomac river below Washington. In 1803 he experimented with tteam- driven machines made of steel and aluminum. In 1896 one of his machines flew half a mile, the greatest achievement for a heavier-than-air ma- chine up to that time. Congress provided $50,000 for the construction of a Langley "aerodrome" of sufficient dimensions to carry passengers and to be used for military purposes. The machine was built, but failed to meet the stipulated require- ments. The valuable aerotcchnic work of Dr. S. P. Langley (1834-1906) may be briefly summa- rized as follows: — (i) His aerodynamic experiments were sufficiently complete to form a substantial basis for practical pioneer aviation. (2) He built and launched the first steam model airplane capa- ble of prolonged free flight and possessing good inherent stability. (3) He built the first internal- combustion motor suitable for a practical man- carrying airplane. {4) He developed and success- fully launched the first gasoline model airplane capable of sustained free flight. (5) He developed and built the first man-carrying airplane capable of free flight. A "Langley Day" was celebrated by the .Aero Club of Washington on May s, 1913, in the Smithsonian Institution for the unveiling of a tablet to commemorate the services performed by Langley in demonstrating the practicability of mechanical flight. In iqio a Handley-Page air- plane was named "Langley" in his memory, and an airway in the United States (Virginia) was named after him. Meanwhile, Maxim designed a machine consisting of a platform bearing a large water tube boiler and a number of concave-con- vex planes arranged in tiers. Two large vertical screws placed aft were propelled by steam engines. Like that of Langley, the apparatus of Maxim proved a failure in its trial during 1894. Yet these failures were not devoid of value; the errors and mistaken theories of all these pioneers became landmarks for their successors in the same field, who gathered the useful lesson of what to avoid — of what was practical or impossible. Simultane- ously, there were other earnest workers striving to solve the problems, namely, Chanute in America, Percy Pilcher in England and Lilienthal in Ger- many, each contributing valuable data to the stock 752 AVIATION Airplanes Chanute's Achievements AVIATION of common experience in aviation. Otto Lilienthal "built a machine comprising wings and rudder, wliicli might be described as a huge kite, with which he indulged in sailing flights. He ap- proached the problem from the severely scientific point of view, discovering new facts and data for himself. With this contrivance by starting from an artificial hill nearly one hundred feet in height he was able to sail over distances up to 1,000 feet. Flushed with the success thus achieved, he endeavored to propel himself through the air, for which purpose he installed a two-and-a-half horse-power motor, the idea being to move through the air in any direction. Unfortunately, his researches were brought to an abrupt conclu- sion. While testing a new steering contrivance which he had designed, he fell from a height of forty-five feet and broke his spine, from which accident he died on August loth, 1896." — F. A. Talbot, All about inventions and discoveries, p. 247. — In his early experiments Lilienthal "con- structed wings (14-ft. span), striving to mount the air as the bird does, by pushing against it the in- clined plans of his wings. ... It is pretty gen- erally admitted that the first airplane to have actually left the ground, carrying a man, was the bat-shaped machine, fitted with a twenty horse- power steam engine, with which M. C. Ader of France made several short flights from i8go- 1896." — Scientific American, Oct. 2, 1920. — "Con- temporaneously with these experiments in Ger- many, an English marine engineer, Mr. Percy S. Pilcher, was attacking the self-same problem and along almost identical lines. He contrived a gliding apparatus, the knowledge gained from the use of which was quite as, if not more, valuable than that advanced by Lilienthal. Pilcher selected the biplane form of gliding apparatus for his in- vestigations. Flushed with the measure of success which he achieved, he was also tempted to install a motor in his machine. Indeed, he contrived an aeroplane which may be said to be the father of those in use to-day. He built an oil motor de- veloping four horse-power, but although this ma- chine was constructed he never tested it. He resolved to carry out further experiments with his gliding apparatus before trusting himself to a motor-driven machine, and in October, 1899, while giving a demonstration in a park near Rugby, while he was sailing at a height of about thirty- two feet, a weak part of the machine broke. The accident threw Pilcher to the ground, and he died thirty-four hours later, at the early age of thirty- two years." — F. A. Talbot, All about inventions and discoveries, pp. 247-248.— "The dangerous character of the Lilienthal flying apparatus was brought home very convincingly by Mr. A. M. Herring while acting as assistant to Mr. Octave Chanute, of Chicago, Illinois, U. S. A. He built an exact copy of the German investigator's ap- paratus with which experiments were carried out a month after Lilienthal's untimely end. These trials served to prove how the German worker's fatal accident occurred, and although about one hundred successful glides therewith were made, it was discarded as being far too dangerous and fickle. Mr. Octave Chanute was deeply interested in the problem of human flight, and expended con- siderable time and money in a series of beautiful experiments, the information gleaned from which has played an important part in the contemporary flying era. He built several machines with which to test his theories. The first practical appliance had twelve wings, and the outstanding feature, which served to differentiate it from any which had gone before, was the incorporation of facili- ties whereby the wings might be moved in accord- ance with the desires of the operator, who stood upright within the machine. Hitherto the equilib- rium of gliding apparatuses depended upon the movement of the man in relation to the machine. That is to say, the man moved his body. Chanute reversed this practice. He caused the man to be rigid, and the wings to be movable. As events subsequently proved, this was the correct line of experiment. The multiple-winged machine com- pleted three hundred highly successful flights. Then Chanute decided to reduce the number of wings and built a double-decker, or, as we should term it to-day, a biplane, thereby virtually re- verting to Pilcher's apparatus. This machine made some seven hundred flights, or rather glides, and without a single accident. This machine was re- markable for the introduction of a rudder at the rear, which was the idea of Mr. Herring, and this rudder was of such design and operation that the relative wind, catching either its horizontal or vertical planes, altered the angle of incidence of the supporting planes to meet the conditions which arose. Consequently, stability and safety became accentuated. In view of the success which Cha- nute had achieved with his double-decker, the ques- tion arose as to whether the stage had not been reached at last when a motor might be intro- duced. . . . Chanute, however, maintained that the introduction of the motor was premature. . . . Forthwith he built another machine — a three- decker, or triplane, this time — which was subjected to many searching tests. In this machine the glider gripped the lower front upright members support- ing the planes, his legs dangling beneath. When flying and when approaching the ground the man doubled up his legs. This arrangement was adopted for the purpose of facilitating alighting. Chanute has been described as the father of the hcavier-than-air machine, or dynamic flight, and the distinction is well merited. . . . Certainly his work contributed such valuable results as to prompt other industrious and persevering experi- menters to embrace the problem, not only in the United States, but throughout Europe as well. There were, in particular, two men who, fasci- nated by Chanute's achievements, took up the sub- ject. They had a small cycle store in the eastern American city of Dayton, Ohio. They were also first-class mechanics, .and, in fact, built their own machines. In igoo these two bicycle makers, Wil- bur and Orville Wright, built a' gliding machine upon the broad lines favoured by Chanute, but with planes having quite twice the superfices of any which had been tested previously. They also abandoned the upright position for the flier in favor of one prone upon the bottom plane." —Ibid., pp. 247-251. — Not long after the ex- periments of Langley and Chanute the scientific students of the problem were pointed by the vet- eran inventor of the telephone. Dr. Alexander Gra- ham Bell. 1896-1910.— Wright brothers.— Bl^riot's cross- Channel flight. — French pioneers. — Prophecies of Newcomb and Edison. — In 1896 there came the two workers who advanced from empiricism to science in their undertaking, and who won the first great successes by a happy combination of the two. The brothers Orville and Wilbur Wright have told, in an article contributed to The Cen- tury Magazine, how they were stirred to serious interest in the aviation problem in 1896 and be- gan to read what Langley, Chanute, Mouillard and others had written on it. Entering, purely as a sport, on experiments in gliding flight, on Lilien- thal's lines, they became fascinated by the pur- suit. From the first they appear to have chosen what is known as the biplane structure for their 753 AVIATION Airplanes Wright Brothers AVIATION machines, the invention of which they credit to a previous inventor, VVenham. whose design of it had been improved by Stringfellow and Chanute. To this construction they steadfastly adhered. At the outlet of their experimenting the Wrights found a difficulty in the balancing of "flyers" which previous workers did not seem to have treated seriously enough, and they settled themselves to the conquest of it at once. This and other prob- lems soon carried them from empirical testing into scientific studies, which occupied several years. They found that the accepted measurements ot wind pressure, on given plane surfaces exposed at different angles, were unreliable, and they applied themselves to the making and tabulating of meas- urements of their own. It was not until this work had given them "accurate data for making cal- culations, and a system of balance effective in winds as well as in calms," as well as the neces- sary data for designing an effective screw pro- peller, that they felt themselves prepared "to build a successful power-flyer." So far, these thorough-going workers at the problems of aviation had been experimenting with a machine designed, as they said, "to be flown as a kite, with a man on board," or without the man, "operating the levers through cords from the chine in circles of flight ; and then, at the end of September, igos, they suspended experiments for more than two years, which they spent in busi- ness negotiations and in the construction of new machines. Their experimenting was not resumed until May. igoS (again at Kitty Hawk). .\t this time it was directed to the testing of the ability of their machine to meet the requirements of a contract with the United States government to furnish a flyer capable of carrying two men and sufficient fuel supplies for a flight of twenty-five miles, with a speed of forty miles an hour. Meantime, during the two years of suspended experimenting by the Wrights, other workers in Europe and .\merica had been approaching their successes, so far as to be competitors for the im- portant prizes now being offered for winning in the aviation field. M. Santos-Dumont, turning his attention from dirigible balloons to aeroplanes, had made, at Paris, the first public flight on that side of the ocean ; and though he covered no more than 2 20 yards, it was a long stride in practical success. Henri Farman, Louis Bleriot, M. -^cla- grange. in France, Glenn H. Curtiss and \. M. Herring, in the United States, were making ready to dispute honors with the Dayton aviators, of whose actual achievements the public knew little. ORVILLE WRIGHT WRIGHT MACHINE IN FIRST LONG FLIGHT WILBUR WRIGHT ground." Their active experimenting began in October, iqoo, at Kitty Hawk. North Carolina. In iQoi they made the acquaintance of Mr. Cha- nute. and he spent some weeks with them, observ- ing and encouraging their work. In September and October, they say, "nearly one thousand gliding flights were made, several of which covered dis- tances of over 600 feet. Some, made against a wind of thirty-six miles an hour, gave proof of the effectiveness of the devices for control." Late in iqo3 they had reached the point of testing a power-machine, and sailed into the air with it for the first time on December 17 in the presence of five lookers-on. "The first flight," they tell us, "lasted onh' twelve seconds ; a flight very modest compared with that of birds; but it was, never- theless, the first in the history of the world in which a machine carrying a man had raised itself by its own power into the air in free flight, had sailed forward on a level course, without reduc- tion of speed, and had finally landed without being wrecked. The second and third flights were a little longer, and the fourth lasted fifty-nine seconds, covering a distance of 852 feet over the ground against a twenty-mile wind." In the spring of rqo4 the experimenting of the Wright Brothers was transferred from Kitty Hawk. \. C . to a pr.iirie not far from their home, at Dayton. Ohio There they overcame final difficulties in the maintaining of equilibrium when turning their ma- as yet. On all sides there was readiness for sur- prising and astonishing the public in igoS. Far- man, at Paris, in March, exceeded a flight of two miles: Delagrange, at Milan, in June, covered ten miles. and more; Farman, in July, raised his record to eleven miles, and Dela- grange carried his to fifteen and a half in September. The Wrights had made flights that ranged from eleven to twenty-four miles in the fall of 1005 ; and now, in their renewed trials of ioo8. these distances were more than doubled. Wilbur Wright went abroad, to exhibit their ma- chine in France and elsewhere, while Orville. in September, submitted it to official tests at Fort Myer. near Washington There, on different days in that month, rounding circuits of the parade ground, he made time records of continuous flight that ran from fifty-six to seventy-four minutes, travelling estimated distances that stretched in one instance over fifty-one and a third miles. These trials at Fort Myer were interrupted sadly by an accident, from the breaking of a propeller- blade, which caused the machine to drop to the ground while in flight. Lieutenant T. E. Selfridge, U. S. A . who rode with Mr. Wright at the time, was killed, and Mr. Wright suffered a broken leg. W'ilbur Wright, meantime, was entering on great triumphs in France. M Le Mans, on Septem- ber :i. he traversed sixty-eight miles in a continu- ous flight of a little more than an hour and a half. 754 AVIATION Airplanes Wright Brothers AVIATION This achievement, which won him the Michelin prize, was far surpassed by him on December i8, when ninety-five miles were travelled in an hour and fifty-four minutes, and again, on December 31, when the stay in the air was pro- longed to two hours, nine minutes and some seconds, and the distance covered was Tb'/z miles These records of the Wrights for time of continu- ous flight were subsequently beaten by a number of European competitors. Otherwise, the records of I pop show no very marked advance beyond those of igo8; but the year had excitements in aviation, connected especially with attempted flights over the English channel. Hubert Latham, a re- cent French practitioner in aviation, was the first to venture this leap through the air from France to England. His machine was ark Antoinette monoplane, designed by M. Levasseur. He launched it from Calais in. the early morning of July ig, and traversed about six miles of the passage when his motor failed and he fell to the water, unhurt, and was rescued by an attendant steamer. Six days after Latham's failure, on July 25, Louis Bleriot, using another monoplane ma- chine, made the crossing with brilliant success, flying from Calais to- Dover, twenty-one miles, in twenty-three minutes, and winning the prize of £1000 which the London Daily Mail had offered for the performance of the feat. Latham then repeated his attempt and was unfortunate again, his motor giving out after it had carried him within two miles of the Dover shore. Orville Wright, at this time, July 27, was demonstrating at Fort Myer the ability of his aeroplane to carry two persons in a well-sustained flight. With Lieutenant Frank P. Lahm, of the Signal Corps, as a passenger, and having President Taft among his spectators, he made a flight of one hour, twelve minutes and forty seconds, accomplishing upwards oi fifty miles at an average speed of forty miles an hour A day or two afterwards he carried Lieu- tenant Benjamin D. Foulois over the ten-mile course from Fort Myer to- Alexandria at a speed of more than forty-two miles an hour. In the last week of August, iqoq, the first race meeting for heavier-than-air flying machines oc- curred at Rheims, France, and a dozen aviators from France, England and America competed for large prizes in long distance and duration flights. A number of new records was made, and new names acquired note. Louis Paulhan kept the air for two hours and forty-three minute? with a V'oisin biplane, covering 83 miles. Latham sur- passed this in distance and speed, making g6 miles in two hours and eighteen minutes; and this again was beaten by Henri Farman, who travelled 118 miles, remaining in the air over three hours. Mr. Glenn H. Curtiss won the prize for speed, doing 18 miles in twenty-five minutes and forty- five seconds. In IQOQ the Wright brothers delivered an air- plane to the United States government- which met the specifications dictated by the War department. The salient features demanded were: Parts to be assembled in one hour; capable of being trans- ported in army wagons, dis-assembled ; carry two persons weighing 350 pounds; speed, forty miles per hour; perfect control and equilibrium; steer- able in all directions; safety devices, etc. Orville Wright had now gone abroad and his brother had returned to America. The latter had established a flying school at Pau, in France, and trained a number of pupils. During iqoq he had also visited England and Italy. He had sold the French patent rights on his machine for .$100,000. Tn August and September Orville Wright gave exhibitions in Berlin, breaking some of his own records, carrying a passenger in his machine for an hour and thirty-five minutes, on September 18, and rising, on October i, to an unexampled height, believed to have exceeded 1000 feet. This, how- ever, was greatly exceeded in January, 1910, by Hubert Latham, at Mourmelon, France, who rose to 3,280 feet, and by Louis Paulhan, at Los Angeles, California, 4,165 feet. On October 3 the crown prince of Germany was Wright's companion in a short flight. Meantime Wilbur Wright, in America, had endeavored to supply one of the spectacles arranged for the Hudson-Fulton celebration at New York; but the intended program of aviation was spoiled by forbidding winds. He did, how- ever, make one astonishing flight, on October 4, from Governor's island, up the Hudson to Grant's tomb, and, on his return, passing over the British battle-ships then lying in the river. The distance travelled was about twenty miles and the time of the journey thirty-three minutes and a half. Un- fortunately it was unexpected, and was seen by a small part only of the millions who had been watching several days for a flight. On the next day Mr. Wright made the statement that no more public exhibitions would be given by his brother or himself. "Hereafter," he said, "we shall devote all our efforts to the commercial exploitation of our machines, and fly only as a matter of ex- periment, to test the value of whatever changes we decide to make in the construction." The following is by Dr. Simon Newcomb (d. iQoq), the distinguished astronomer: "It would seem that, at the present time, the public is more hopeful of the flying-machine than of the dirigible balloon. The idea that because such a machine has at last been constructed which will carry a man through the air, there is no limit to progress, is a natural one. But to judge of possibilities, we must advert to the distinction already pointed out between obstacles interposed by nature, which cannot be surmounted by any in- vention, and those which we may hope to over- come by possible mechanical appliances. The mathematical relations between speed, sustaining power, strength of material, efficiency of engine, and other elements of success are fixed and deter- minate, and cannot be changed except by new scientific discoveries, quite outside the power of the inventor to make. That the gravitation of matter can in any way be annulled seems out of the question. Should any combination of metals or other substances be discovered of many times the stiffness and tensile strength of the fabrics and alloys with which we are now acquainted, then might one element of success be at our com- mand. But, with the metals that we actually have, there is a limit to the weight of an engine with a given driving power, and it may be fairly assumed that this limit is nearly reached in the motors now in use. . . . Owing to the levity of the air, the supporting surface must have a wide area. We cannot set any exact limit to the neces- sary spread of sail, because the higher the speed the less the spread required. But, as we increase the speed, we also increase the resistance, and there- fore we must have a more powerful and necessarily heavier motor. . . . Bearing in mind that no limit is to be set to the possible discovery of new laws of nature or new combinations of the chemical ele- ments, it must be understood that I disclaim any positive prediction that men will never fly from place to place at will. The claim I make is that they will not do this until some epoch-making discovery is made of which we have now no con- ception, and that mere invention has nearly reached its limit. It is very natural to reason that men have done hundreds of things which formerly 755 AVIATION Airplanes Altitude Records, Safety Devices AVIATION seemed impossible, and therefore they may fly. But for ever>- one thing seemingly impossible that they have succeeded in doing there are ten which they would like to do but which no one believes that they can do. No one thinks of controlling wind or weather, of making the sun shine when we please, of building a railroad across the At- lantic, of changing the ocean level to suit the pur- poses of commerce, of building bridges of greater extent than engineers tell us is possible with the strength of the material that we have at com- mand, or of erecting buildings so high that they would be crushed by their own weight. Why are we hopeless as to all these achievements, and yet hopeful that the flying-machine may be the ve- hicle of the future, which shall transport us more rapidly than a railroad train now does? It is simply because we all have so clear a mental view of the obstacles in the way of reaching such ends as those just enumerated that we do not waste time in attempting to surmount them, and we are hopeful of the flying-machine only because we do not clearly see that the difficulties are of the same nature as those we should encounter in erecting a structure which would not be subject to the laws of mechanics. "I have said nothing of the possible success of the flying-machine for the purposes of military reconnaissance or any other operations requiring the observer to command a wide view of all that is on the landscape. This is a technical subject which, how great soever may be its national im- portance, does not affect our daily life." — S. Xew- comb. Prospect of aerial navigation {North Amer- ican Review, March, iqoS). More optimistic and prophetically accurate in parts was the following prognostication by Thomas A. Edison, the inventor: "In ten years flying machines will be used to carry mails. They will carry passengers, too, and they will go at a speed of loo miles an hour. There is no doubt of this." These were the words of Mr. Edison in an interview published in the New York Times, August I, IQOQ. But while sure that the "flying machine has got to come," he was not at all sure that it would come along the lines pursued in the experiments of that time. "The f3>'ing problem now consists of 75 per cent, machine and 25 per cent, man," he said, "while to be commercially successful the flying machine must leave little to the peculiar skill of the operator and must be able to go out in all weathers." He continued: "If I were to build a flying machine I would plan to sustain it by means of a number of rapidly re- volving inclined planes, the effect of which would be to raise the machine by compressing the air between the planes and the earth. Such a ma- chine would rise from the ground as a bird does. Then I would drive the machine ahead with a propeller." Mr. Edison believed it to be a question of power. "Is it not thinkable that a method will be discovered of wirelessly transmitting electrical energy from the earth to the motor of the ma- chine in mid-air?" He asked and answered his own question, saying: — "There is no reason to disbelieve that it can and will be done." He added, however, that there was great room for improvement in explosive engines. "Any day we are hkely to read that somebody has made picric acid or something else work— done some little thing that will transform the flying machine from a toy into a commercial success." And when it is per- fected, he said, the flying machine may end war by becoming a means of attack that cannot be resisted. 1908-1920. — Altitude records. — Aeronautic maps. — Number of pilots in different countries. — Safety record in airplane flight. — Qualiflca- tions for aviators. — Parachutes. — The remark- able progress made since 1908 in the construction and manipulation of flying craft may best be il- lustrated by the ever-rising barometer of altitude records achieved by daring aviators. Yet all the skill and physical courage required to perform these thrilling feats would be unavailing without the efficient machinery and reUable construction of the craft to which these men entrust their lives. In 1908 the record was 400 feet, which was more than quadrupled in the following year, when it rose to 1,640 feet. In 1910 it was 10,745 i^et; in 1911 it grew to 13,050; in 1912,. — 17,882; in 1913, — 19,600; in 1914, — 25,756. The next four years were devoted to the war, during which period com- petitive flying rested in abeyance, so far as ex- hibition "aerobatics" were concerned. More wonderful records were piled up in the grim busi- ness of war of which the outside world heard but little at the time. On Sept. 18, igi8. Major R. W. Schroeder, an .American army aviator, ascended 28,000 feet at Dayton, Ohio, which was beaten by Captain Lang, an .American, in England on Jan. 2, 1919, who rose to 30,500 feet. Roland Rohlfs broke the .American record on July 30, 1919, by making 30,700 feet in a 400 h.p. Curtiss triplane. Adjutant Casale and Lieutenant Romanet. French aviators, raised the record to 33,136 and 34,200 feet respectively, which was almost equalled by Rohlfs on Sept. 18, 1919, w'hen he attained 32,450 feet. Major Schroeder was reported to have broken all previous records on Feb. 27, 1920. He climbed 36,020 feet above the earth, over six miles. He lost consciousness due to the e.xhaustion of his oxygen supply, and fell more than five miles in two minutes, according to the instru- ments on his machine. When 2,000 feet from the ground he recovered sufficiently to right his plane and make a safe landing at McCook field. He was picked up temporarily bhnded and paralyzed by cold. He recovered a few days later and gave the following details of his experience: "The temperature at the peak of the climb was sixty-seven degrees below, Fahrenheit. The center section of my machine was coated an inch thick with ice. The exhaust from the motor sprayed fumes of carbon monoxide over me, and I was breathing this continually along with the oxygen. I had set out with three hours' supply of oxygen, and four hours' fuel supply. I was getting along rapidly. I knew by reading my instruments that I had broken the record; that I was flying higher than any man had ever flown before. I had an hour and one-half supply of fuel left and was quite elated. I was wondering just how far I could climb in that time when I found my reserve tank of oxygen emptied. I had discarded the original tank some minutes before, because it did not func- tion properly, and when I exhausted my reserve I turned back to it. It would not work. I had torn off my heavy goggles, because the motor ex- haust was crystallizing on them and interfered with my vision. I turned toward the instruments — then everything went blank and I fell into a flat nose dive. As far as I can remember, part of the fall was in a straight dive. The rest was a spin- ning nose dive. I believe I was really 34,000 feet high when I fell against the switchboard. My motor was on at the time I was trjing to turn off the switch as I nosed the plane head down. I must have turned the switch off. lost conscious- ness completely, but revived long enough to make a landing." — In certifying the record, however, the Aero Club of .America fixed the height at 33,113 feet. At the tenth International Geographical 756 AVIATION Airplanes Development of Types AVIATION Congress held in Rome durinK iqt^, an Italian naval officer, G. Roncagli, proposed the prepara- tion of an aeronautic map of the world, while an Austrian, T. Scheinpflug, suggested that photo- graphs of the earth taken from aeroplanes should be converted into topographical maps. Statistics collected in the summer of 1913 showed that France led the way with a supply of 600 trained pilots, Germany coming second with 300, Italy third with 17s, Great Britain fourth with 13S, Russia fifth with eighty, Japan sixth with twenty, United States seventh with nineteen, and Mexico eighth with five. The war made aviators by the tens of thousands. Until 1914, an aviator was a rare person ; it was a great distinction to hold a pilot's license ; few persons had gone aloft in air- planes. But with the call for fighting aviators, the various countries soon trained thousands of young men for flying duty. The Information Branch of the United States Au- Service in igiq prepared for the Manufac- turers' Aircraft Association a tabulation showing the comparative safety of fiying when reasonable precautions are observed. The conclusions were based on records kept at the various army train- ing fields, and tend to show that the «afety of the airplane is such as to warrant the mterest of the business world. Summed up, the army records show that there was only one fatality for every 2,919 hours of flight, or the equivalent of almost 235,000 miles of travel in the air. Even then, al- lowance must be made for the intensiveness with which the wartime training was carried on. An analysis of the accident report showed that the greater majority of the mishaps at the flying fields were the result of bad judgment or physical difficulty experienced by the student, and not through structural weakness in the plane or en- gine. A recapitulation of the reports apparently substantiates this view, as there were only 298 fatalities among 20,142 aviators. The increasing safety of the airplane received further corrobora- tion by experience gained in Great Britain during the first year after the war. During that year (1919) a total of 70,000 passengers were carried in 38,954 flights with but one fatal accident. The number of miles flown was 734,200 and the goods carried totaled 116,498 pounds. No fewer than 114 aerodromes were licensed and 519 machines registered during the year. Commenting on these figures, Major Gen. Sir F. H. Sykes, controller general of civil aviation, was quoted as saying: "We have conquered the air and our immediate task is to exploit our victory in the interest of commercial development." Of paramount impor- tance is the personal equation or temperamental composition of a successful aviator. A perfect knowledge of all the rules of the game of flying will not save a man who lacks confidence in him- self and is inclined to hesitate. A half-second of indecision may be fatal. Initiative, the sporting instinct and a certain irresponsibility, qualities in- herent in American youth, have been found of far greater value in the air than the logical, scientific, severely disciplined character of the Germans, and account for the superiority of the Allied aviators in general. The most eminent of British scien- tists have devoted special study to the psychologi- cal and physiological aspects of flying. One au- thority says that good eyesight, normal hearing, good "muscle sense," and equilibration are indis- pensable qualifications. But most important of all is the right temperament — not an easy thing for a medical board to examine. Of the types — the im- aginative and the unimaginative — the imaginative youth is said to make the better pilot if he can keep his imagination under control. He who has led an outdoor life and has played many games is most likely to pass the test, although, of course, there are exceptions. Splendid, powerfully built sportsmen have been known to fail altogether, and anaemic, frail-looking youths of the student type have blossomed into brilliant pilots. "It is excep- tionally interesting . . . that the natural desire of the flying man to diminish the boredom of aero- drome flying by the practice of 'stunting' was met by the French military authorities with precisely the same discouragement as was accorded to the corresponding enthusiasts by the British authori- ties in pre-war and early war days. The 'stunts' which in 1918 are dignified by the name of 'aero- batics,' and which eventually formed the basis of the tactics of military flying were . . . rigorously forbidden by the French, and military flyers were punished for having dived too steeply or turned too quickly. . . . We may also note that the noble art of looking with a blind eye upon a military order has saved British aeronautics from the ex- tinction which would have been its fate had our fliers suppressed with self-denying acquiescence their instinctive desire to acquire the art of rapid manoeuvring, looping, diving, spinning, fluttering, rolling and the like. In France the same seems to have taken place. Those who disobeyed the or- der acquired the art of manoeuvring, and those who acquired the art of manoeuvring survived. Thus even in so tightly organized an institution as the army can we detect the advantage of in- dividualist effort." — Future of aeronautics {Lon- don Times Literary Supplement, Jan. 9, 1919). — • "A considerable controversy raged in the press and elsewhere a few months before the cessation of hostilities [1918] on the subject of equipping the aeroplane with parachutes as a life-saving de- vice. In the airship service this had been done for two years. The best type of parachute available was selected, and these were fitted according to circumstances in each type of ship. The usual method is to insert the parachute, properly folded for use, in a containing case which is fastened either in the car or on the side of the envelope as is most convenient. In a small ship the crew are all the time attached to their parachutes and in the event of the ship catching fire have only to jump overboard and possess an excellent chance of being saved. In rigid airships where members of the crew have to move from one end of the ship to the other, the harness is worn and para- chutes are disposed in the keel and cars as are lifebuoys in seagoing vessels. Should an emer- gency arise, the nearest parachute can be attached to the harness by means of a spring hook, which is the work of a second, and a descent can be made. It is worthy of note that there has never been a fatal accident or any case of a parachute failing to open properly with a man attached." — G. Whale, British airships, past, present and fu- ture, pp. 31-32- 1910-1920. — Development of the seaplane. — All metal planes. — Liberty motor. — Airplane types. — Hangars and floating airdromes. — The first float seaplane that left the water under its own power and returned thereto was built by Henri Fabre, of France, the trials taking place on March 28, 1910, near Marseilles. Thence the de- velopment of the seaplane was chiefly due to the persistent efforts of Glenn H. Curtiss, of Ham- mondsport, N. Y., who produced the first prac- tical float-seaplane in 191 1 and developed the following year, simultaneously with M. Denhaut of France, the boat seaplane, or flying boat. The seaplane differs from the land machine, in having the car shaped like a boat, so that it can alight on the water, upon which it floats, and hydro- 757 AVIATION Airplanes Development of Types AVIATION planes permit it to arise without difficulty. In the United States and other navies, most large ships carry at least one seaplane, while special vessels carrying ten to twenty-five planes accompany large naval forces. "At first glance, the giant sea- plane of our Navy appears formidable while rest- ing on the water, and still more so when hauled up on the shore where its boat-like body lies fully uncovered to view. In flight it does not seem so large; indeed, it might well be mistaken for the smaller flying boats by the layman, since all air- craft are deceptive while in flight. But viewed close up there can be no mistake about size of this craft, with its iio-foot span, two Liberty motors developing from 400 to 500 horse-power each and driving propellers lo^j feet in diameter, and a body over 50 feet in length. The fact is that the body, or hull, is nothing short of a 50- foot yacht, but instead of velvet cushioned berths and other comforts its interior is given over to a tangle of braces, wires, steering and controlling devices, instruments, a wireless station, a six-sta- tion intercommunicating telephone system, fuel tanks and guns, all of which are the means of combating the U-boat and of carrying out long- distance patrols at sea. On the water the seaplane develops a speed up to 50 miles an hour, and the moment it slips off the surface and soars upwards the speed increases to lOO miles an hour. As in every other heavier-than-air machine, the naval aircraft engineers have had to secure strength in iheir structure while keeping a strict eye on the weight. Thus the required strength of every piece of material entering into the construction is de- termined by exhaustive tests; and in a hundred ways both wood and metal parts are thinned and lightened until this maximum of strength is pre- served and the minimum weight reached. A com- pleted wing, painted in battleship gray, looks like a solid steel armor plate ; but strip off the fabric which carries the paint and inside is seen a skele- ton frame of spruce webs and piano wire braces. The webs, or ribs, which form this frame are set between full length beams, these beams being re- duced to the smallest possible size consistent with the great strain to which they are subjected. . . . Every part is carefully varnished as if for dis- play and the whole covered by fabric stretched until it rings like a drum. The strength is there, to be sure, but the weight is not; so that a 40- foot wing, eight feet in width, which appears to weigh at least a ton, is readily lifted by one man. This same construction is followed in the entire seaplane. The keel is but little more than a strip of wood, but a perfect system of bracing makes it strong as a steel girder. . . . There is no hap- hazard work about the building of one of these boats. Every piece of wood or metal is given an individual part number. Each one is designed for a particular place and the use of jigs and dies makes possible a degree of standardization of wood and metal parts which is as near perfect as can be reached in aircraft production." — A. C. Les- raraboura (Scientific American, Dec. 14, iqi8, pp. 481, 486). "Canvas, wood and a maze of bracing wires have been the materials of the airplane builder ever since the Wrights flew their first machine over the sand dunes of Kitty Hawk. From time to time some one has come forth with the suggestion that metal be used instead of wood, but the sugges- tion has received little serious thought. The bracing wire? have been slowly reduced in number by improved designs; but the wood and canvas might have remained to the present day if German aircraft constructors had not departed from the time-honored idea and experimented with metal planes. During the closing months of the war German airmen appeared over the Allied lines flying marvelous all-metal machines. At the time these were considered freaks of little if any real value. Aeronautical men outside of Germany were only too hasty in their condemnation of the all- metal German machines. How, they asked, could one make a practical all-metal machine? Was not the weight of even the lightest aluminum alloy considerably heavier than wood, matching strength with strength? And so the German aircraft con- structors stole a long march on the aircraft con- structors of all other nations. With the ending of hostilities certain all-metal German machines came into the possession of the Allied experts, and then the advantage of this new form of construc- tion became known. Still, it was a much mooted question whether such construction was practical in any machine other than one intended for aerial combat, \Mherein engine power was almost unlimited since the main consideration was per- formance irrespective of expense. "Several weeks ago [June-July, 1020] an all- metal monoplane made a new .American record. This machine, the JL-6, is nothing more than a German Junkers' limousine six-seater — one of sev- eral machines of this type brought to these United States by an enterprizing business man who has the future of aviation at heart. The speed of the all-metal monoplane was surprizing. But most surprizing was the low fuel consumption. This seemingly heavy machine excelled by a good deal the efficiency of the relatively flimsy wood and canvas planes. Germany has scored a very de- cisive success in airplane construction. To deny that fact would be foolhardy It appears that Dr. Junkers of Germany has gone ahead along new lines, ignoring the old misconceptions about the heaviness of metals and the necessity of canvas for the wing surfaces. He has produced machines with thick, unbraced cantilever planes, corrugated aluminum alloy for the wing surfaces, and all- metal struts. At one stroke he has wiped out canvas, wood and the maze of wires, and in their stead he has introduced tremendous strength, un- approached wearing qualities, fireproof character- istics, and unrivalled efficiency. — The wood and canvas airplane — the airplane which we know so well — is a frail structure compared with this all- metal machine. The wood and canvas machine has a life of about a year or two with steady use; the all-metal airplane, with little to deteriorate from exposure to the elements, has a life of sev- eral years. The all-metal machine can withstand hard landings, which would cost the usual airplane smashed members. Germany is not confining the all-metal construction to small airplanes. .Already she has constructed several giant airplanes, one of the largest being the Zeppehn-Staaken mono- plane. This machine proved one of the greatest surprizes in store for the Allied officials who visited Germany right after the armistice. It is powered with four 260 horse power motors, mounted as tractors on the leading edge of the wings. The mechanics can actually get about inside the monoplane wings and repair and ad- just the engines while in the air. This giant ac- commodates eighteen passengers, or it can carry a one-ton load of useful cargo. All comforts are included for the passengers— easy chairs, large windows, pantry, lavatory, a luggage compartment, and a sleeping cabin which also serves as a col- lision buffer m a bad landing." — Independent, Sept. 4, 1020, p. 282. "When the war first broke out. airplanes were fitted with 100 horse-power engines. Very soon they were found to be insufficient and engines of 758 AVIATION Airplanes ■Development of Types AVIATION 12S horse-power were made. The engine power then gradually increased to 150, 175, 200, 250; and it was about in that neighborhood when Major Hall and Mr. [J. G.] Vincent were called upon to furnish the United States standard motor. It was felt that a motor should be designed so far ahead in power of anything else that had been produced that, by the time it could be turned out in quantity, it would still be well in the lead. .Ac- cordingly, a horse-power of between 350 and 400 was sought and the size of the cylinders was changed from 4 \ to 5 x 7. Because of the larger cylinders required in the new motor, the angle of the V was changed from 40 to 45 de- grees. The larger pistons and cylinders required slightly greater clearances. . . . These and other slight modifications were thoroughly discussed and decided upon by the two motor experts who worked unceasingly and arrived at the finished design in a conference lasting five days. They had a herculean task before them and deserve the highest praise for the successful outcome of their efforts. As soon as the conference was over, tele- graphic instructions were sent on to the Packard plant and work was started immediately upon the new motor. Even before blue prints arrived the wood model was prepared in the general form and essential features of the new motor. Work un the new engine was pushed at the highest speed possible, and on the third day of July, it was com- pleted and shipped to Washington. The next day it arrived there, on the Nation's birthday, and was christened the 'Liberty Motor.' "After the first experimental motor had been completed it was subjected to a great many try- ing tests, and was found to be exceedingly ef- ficient and very light. It developed a horse-power of considerably over 400 and its weight was but little over 800 pounds. Its weight per horse-power was therefore about two pounds, which is much lighter than the majority of airplane motors. On endurance tests it stood up wonderfully. It was tested at the summit of Pike's Peak in order to determine its action under conditions of rarified atmosphere — and proved very satisfactory. At the Bureau of Standards in Washington, a special room was set aside in which a partial vacuum was cre- ated equivalent to that which exists at the maxi- mum height to which an airplane engine has been carried. In this room the engine was found to operate perfectly. At one of its first altitude tests in a plane the American record for altitude was smashed. Not until September was the order to proceed with the manufacture of the Liberty Motor definitely given, and immediately work was started in the Packard plant. It is interesting to note that the first experimental motor was de- livered to the Government on the 4th day of July, and the first production motor was sent to Wash- ington on Thanksgiving Day. This, however, did not mean that the production problems had all been solved. . . . The motor which was delivered to the Government on Thanksgiving Day de- veloped a number of small troubles. One of these was the difficulty of lubrication, and eventually it was found necessary to change the scupper system to the original forced lubrication system. But the most important change was made in the produc- tion of the cylinders. In the first Liberty Motor, the cylinders had to be bored from the solid — an operation that was very costly in time and money. This, however, was a copy of the best foreign en- gineering practice, and was followed as a nec- essary detail by our engineers. It was at this juncture that the engineers of the Ford Motor Car Company made a notable contribution. They de- veloped a cylinder forged out of steel tubing, which enabled the manufacturers to turn out the cylinders at very low cost and in exceedingly large quan- tities. Seamless steel tubing is used, and this in but four operations under the forge press and bulldozer, is converted into a headed and flanged cylinder blank on which a minimum of machining need be done. The manufacture of these cylinders was not undertaken until the end of January and . . . [later were] turned out in very large quan- tity. One of the difficulties encountered in the Liberty Motor had to do with the form of igni- tion. In the original Packard motor, the 'Deico' system of ignition was used. This consists in generating current with a small electric generator geared to the engine shaft and then transmitting the current oy means of a pair of distributors to the spark plugs. Magneto ignition was tried, but it proved impossible to design a single magneto which would operate with the irregular timing re- quired in an engine in which the cylinders were set at the unusual angle of 45 degrees. A single magneto could not be used and so a battery of four magnetos had to be employed This added somewhat to the weight of the engine. Then fur- ther difficulties were encountered. Owing possibly to the vibration of the engine at high speed, the magnets of the magneto showed fatigue and grad- ually lost their muKnetic property. So thtt even- tually it was decided to return again to the original system of ignition. It is rather remarkable that in a number of very important features, it has been necessary to revert to the original design. . . . The efficiency of the Liberty Motor is not to be ques- tioned by anyone who has examined it thoroughly. It is far more powerful than any other airplane engine ever produced on a quantity production basis. It exceeds in power all but a few experi- mental machines. Although rated at 400 horse- power it has shown on test as high as 4S5 horse- power; and its weight is 820 pounds." — Scientific American, June i, 1918. pp. 500, 515. — "England, France, and Italy had reached the point where they could build airplanes much faster than they could build engines, when hostilities ceased. Both countries had accepted the Liberty motor as the best airplane engine, and both were building their planes to fit this American engine, when the order came to cease firing. How much faster we were building engines than were our European asso- ciates is indicated by the fact that the largest day's production of the engine most closely ap- proximating the Liberty in quality, the Rolls- Royce, was fifty-nine, while the Liberties were being turned out at the rate of 150 a day! In October, America's production of airplane engines was 5,603. This is more than the total produc- tion of France and England together for the ivhote four years of the war!" — World's Work, Feb., iqiq, p. 473. King and Leslie give the following classifica- tion of types of airplanes: Monoplane. Having one main lifting surface. Biplane. Having two main lifting surfaces mounted one above the other. Triplane. Having three main lifting surfaces mounted one above the other. Tractor. A tractor airplane is drawn forward by means of a propeller placed in front of the main lifting surfaces. Pusher, h pusher airplane is thrust forward by means of a propeller at the rear of the main lifting surfaces. .Aeroplane. .A land machine equipped with a landing gear with free running wheels, which en- able it to take off and land on the earth Hydro-aeroplane (or seaplane). A water ma- chine equipped with either single or double floats 759 AVIATION Airplanes Progress in World War AVIATION which enable it to take off and alight on water^ Flying boat. Equipped with a boat-shaped hull which takes the place of fuselage and pontoons of a hydro-aeroplane. The term hangar is applied to the structures in which flying machines are stored. There are many and varied types constructed to meet the needs of the various aircraft, those built to house airplanes necessarily being of different construction from those built to enclose the huge modern airships. During the World War, to meet the needs of the navy, floating carriers were constructed. These might practically be called floating air- dromes, since, besides carrying the airplanes, they also served as the field for their starting off and alighting. "The first one of these was merely a large commercial steamer equipped with a deck on which the airplanes could take off and land, with a hangar deck immediately below this in which the airplanes could be kept ready for flight, and with machine-shop facilities, spare parts for the airplanes, and all other accessories for keeping them in condition on the ship. The first carrier was the Argus, which had a deck 535 feet long and 68 feet broad. Her hangar held twenty air- planes, or practically a squadron. Her speed was only twenty knots. It was evident at once that any vessel having such a slow speed w-ould not only be a prey to other warships, but also to sub- marines — not to mention destruction by hostile air attack — and there were many other things about this carrier which were not satisfactory, as it was the first attempt in this direction. The next carrier to be built was a warship being constructed for a South American country, which was trans- formed into a carrier and renamed the Eagle. This ship is capable of carrying about forty air- planes in her hangars, or two squadrons. Still another carrier is the Hermes, with a speed of twenty-five knots; while more are being built. The British, however, recognized that these vessels could not operate far enough in advance of their fleets so as to go out and fight for control of the air, but would have to stay near the fleet and be protected, because their speed was not great enough to protect themselves. Consequently, they took the vessels that were most readily available, that had the required speed and at the same time fighting power to ward off other vessels — that is, their battle cruisers — and transformed them into a combination carrier and battle cruiser. They are now reported to have a division of battle cruis- ers, or four of these hieh-speed vessels, equipped with airplanes. They all have a speed of about thirty-five knots, or forty miles an hour; and have very heavy gun power — equal to that of any bat- tleship — and with the airplane carriers attached to them they have the power of concentrating the equivalent of one or more groups of pursuit avia- tion wherever they desire. ... It should be noted that the whole development for the use of air- craft over the water is not in air tactics, in types of airplanes particularly, or in the securing and training of air personnel; but is essentially a de- velopment of floating airdromes. It is, therefore, evident that floating airdromes must be made to suit the requirements of the airplanes first — that is, if we are going to fight and drive out of the air an opposing aviation, we must brine to bear against it airplanes that can do the work. \cxt. the airplane carriers must be able to defend them- selves against attack on the water. .\s to the first requirement, the airplane carriers should be capa- ble of accommodating a complete tactical unit, or one group of 100 pursuit airplanes; and in the second case, in order to be able to defend itself, and be capable of taking the offensive quickly, it should have a speed of at least forty knots, or around fifty miles an hour, which is entirely possible at this time. To answer these require- ments, the airplane carrier should be about 1000 feet in length, with a landing deck of this.size. Its width would be over 100 feet and it could be equipped with all the facilities for handling the airplanes quickly either by day or by night. Even one airplane carrier of this kind would give the side possessing it complete control over the water at the present time, and render an opposing fleet incapable of acting with' its observation aviation." — W. Mitchell, Avialion over the water {Ameri- can Review of Reviews, Oct., 1920, pp. 393-395). — For the aviator, the problem of the landing field is of vital importance, as, next to the actual trials of flight itself, the greatest dange' is in making the landing. To alight safely, a landing field must be properly constructed, and in recog- nition of this situation, municipal and private cor- porations are beginning to construct fields to meet the requirements of aviation. The word "hangar," which is French, signifies a shed, barn or outhouse. 1914-1918. — Great European progress during World War. — Growth of American air service. — Great progress was made in aviation during the World War. So thoroughly did the airplane prove its military worth on the battlefields of Europe, that all possible efforts and facilities were con- centrated on the development of the airplanes of the belligerents. The airplane was improved by leaps and bounds. Airplanes became "the eyes of the army and navy." "In the years before the war it had become the fashion to announce that the next European conflict would witness a phe- nomenal use of aircraft. Ingenious romancers had pictured an .Armageddon in the clouds, and lovers of peace had clung to the notion that the novelty and frightfulness of such a warfare would make the Powers of the world hesitate to draw the sword. The results have been both below and in excess of expectation. The air was a realm of pure guesswork, for in the Tripoli and Balkan wars there was no serious aerial service, though various adventurers experimented in the new arm. . . . France led the way in aerial experiment, and her government between 1909 and 1914 acquired the largest air fleet in the w'orld. Her aviators were brilliant performers, especially in long-dis- tance flights, but they were not thoroughly ab- sorbed into the military machine. They had less knowledge of the tactical use of aircraft than of their mechanical capabilities, and the organization of the French Air Corps was severely criticized by the Committee of the Senate just before the war. . . . There was no government standardized pat- tern, and hence supply of spare parts and acces- sories became a difficulty. The French airmen had brilliant technical skill and endless courage — men like Garros and Pegoud [the latter was the first to 'loop the loop'] had no rivals — but as a corps they were not so fully organized for war as their neighbours. [See also L.vf.^vette Eswdrille.] The Germans had preferred at first to interest themselves rather in airships than in aeroplanes, but their military advisers were well aware of the value of the latter, and had prepared a strong corps. The German aviator could not fly as well as the French; on the whole he had not as useful a machine; but he understood perfectly his place in the military plan. He was thoroughly trained to reconnaissance work, and especially to the task of range-finding for the field guns. The .Aus- trian air service was much inferior, though it con- tained some dashing pilots. The Russian had enormously improved, under the Grand Duke Alexander, but it sufferec from a shortage of ma- 760 TYPES OF AEROPLANES I, German Aviatik A-C; capacity, 25 passengers. 2, British Handley-Page passenger machine. 3, American Martin bomber. 4, French Farman plane; capacity, 27 passengers. 5, Caproni triplane, Italian. 6, All-metal Larsen monoplane. 7, United States "Owl" plane used by air mail service; 3 motors, 420 h.p. each. 8, German seaplane fitted with pontoons; type of plane carried on warships, 9. De HaviIand-4 plane used in London-Paris service. AVIATION Air Service Growth AVIATION chines and a chronic difficulty in rapid manufac- ture. It possessed, however, several giant bi- planes, useful for destructive purposes, for each could carry over a ton's weight of explosives. The British air service, the last to be started . . . had a good type of machine and enough of them, a number of highly qualified pilots and observers accustomed to go out in all weathers and under every condition of difficulty, and, above all, trained in tactical co-operation with other arms. . . . The British Royal Flying Corps contained a military and a naval wing. Each wing was di- vided into squadrons, consisting of twenty-tour aeroplanes and twenty-four pilots, under a ma- jor or commander." — J. Buchan, Nelson's History of the war, v. S, pp. 54-S6. — The World War broke out at a moment of unprecedented activity in aeronautical development. "It was a time of par- ticular interest to the student, the evolution of the larger sea-planes and of aeroplanes driven by two or more engines having begun under promis- ing conditions. Improvements in design and con- struction, that in various combinations were re- sponsible for these developments, also accounted for the making of new and important records in duration of flight and load-carrying during the first six months of 1Q13. . . . Perhaps the most important line of development in the aeroplane has been towards multiple-engine craft — i. e., ma- chines driven by two or more motors employable either together or independently — for this promises to solve the problem of reliability, and to obviate unpremeditated landings due to failure of driving power, hitherto the principal drawbacks to flying. . . . The principal multiple-engine aeroplane is of Russian design — the Sikorsky, a machine with a span of 120 feet and of great lifting capacity; it has carried seyenteen passengers into the air in a flight of eighteen minutes. The Curtiss flying boat, designed to fly across the .fMlantic, is driven by two motors. . . . The development of the high-speed biplane has continued, and the former association of the monoplane type with the highest speeds has been broken down. ... A great ad- vance in the armouring of aeroplanes has been made in France, and in many military machines the engine and the pilot are protected by thin nickel-steel plates capable of stopping a rifle bullet at 600 yards. ... In comparison with the over- land flying machine the seaplane is in an unde- veloped stage, and although Great Britain has made more progress than any other country, the machines hitherto built are not really seaworthy. . . . There is little to record under this head [of airships]. As regards military aircraft, the need for armament on top of the gas-container is now acknowledged, its object being to repel aeroplane attacks. Some of the German airships are so armed. ... As to arming semi-rigid and non- rigid airships on top, it appears to be almost im- possible."— C. C. Turner, Aviation in 1^14 iHazell's Annual, 1915, pp. 426-427). — See also Aces. The American Air Ser\'ice may be said to have started on March 3, iqn, which "deserves to be rnarked as a red-letter day in .\merican aviation history;" for on that day, "when aviators were in the air all over the world, and when France was asking for $x,ooo,ooo for aviation, the new science was formally recognized in the United States with an appropriation of $125,000." Offi- cers,_ however, did not come forward to the new service in any numbers, and up to December, 1913, only nineteen had qualified. The result was the introduction of a bill in Congress on August 23, IQ13, providing for an establishment within the Signal Corps of an aviation section with an in- 761 crease to sixty officers and 260 men, who were to receive prestige and extra rewards in this "extra- hazardous" service. This bill did not become law until July 18, 1914; so that on the outbreak of war America, although decidedly behind the great powers in Europe, had at last a definite line along which aviation might develop. During the period of American neutrality up to April, 191 7, aviation in Europe was being forced to remarkable devel- opments, which were to a great extent hidden from America. "This complete exclusion from scientific developments abroad, unavoidable though it was, was destined to have a most serious effect on America's later preparation." It appears that it was not so much the achievement of aircraft in Europe which spurred the American aviation program, but the lessons learned from the Persh- mg expedition into Mexico, which followed the raids across the Mexican border in March, 1916. This punitive expedition, with its "long tenuous line across the sands of Northern Mexic* afforded the first practical demonstration of the value of aircraft for reconnaissance in the history of tbe American Service, and showed as nothing else could the vital necessity of airplanes." On April 6, 1917, war was declared on Germany, and plans were made to "meet the aerial programme ap- proved by the General Staff as a balanced branch of a many sided military establishment." On May 26 a cablegram was received in Washington from the French premier, M. Ribot, at a time when the American air service possessed fewer than 300 airplanes. The message read as fol- lows: "It is desired that, in order to cooperate with the French aeronautics, the American Government should adopt the following programme: the for- mation of a flying corps of four thousand five hundred aeroplanes — personnel and material in- cluded—to be sent to the French front during the campaign in 1918. The total number of pilots, including reserve, should be five thousand, and fifty thousand mechanicians. Two thousand planes should be constructed each month, as well as four thousand engines, by the American factories. That is to say that during the first six months of 19 18 sixteen thousand five hundred planes {of the last type) and thirty thousand engines will have to be built. The French Government is anxious to know if the American Government accepts this proposi- tion, which will allow the Allies to win the su- premacy of the air." This cablegram was translated into a bill which was rushed through Committee and on June 13 reported unanimously with an amendment to the effect that .$640,000000 be appropriated. This enormous sum could not be asked for without a "very special preparation of the public mind." How that preparation was carried out forms a story of absorbing interest. Then on July "the great programme was launched with President Wil- son's signature of the Aviation Act." — Adapted from A. Sweetser, American air service. — See also Ordn.ince: 20th century; U. S. A.: 1918 (Febru- ary-October) ; World War: 1915: X. War in the air; 1917: It. Western front: c, 4; VIII. United States and the war: i, 9; X. War in the air: a; 1918: VI. Turkish theater: c; VIII. Aviation; IX. Naval operations: c, 5; also Miscellaneous aux- iliary services: IV. Aviation: a, 1; a, 2; a, 3; a, 6; b; VI. Military and naval equipment: c, 1; Sevres, Treaty of: 1920: Contents of treaty: Part V. Military clauses; Air clauses; and Part X. 1918-1921. — Air service after the World War. — British air routes. — Mail service opened in Great Britain and United States. — Forest patrol work. — Lawson air-liner. — Air routes in Italy. — AVIATION Air Service Routes AVIATION London-Paris air route. — Royal Dutch air serv- ice. — Commercial aeronautics. — Although passen- ger and mail service did not make great strides in most countries until after the World War, in Germany passenger air lines were in operation several years before. "The German airship pas- senger services continue their popularity, and again there was a complete freedom from mishaps. In 1013 the three vessels employed made 310 trips, covering an aggregate of 16,000 miles, and carry- ing 1,471 passengers, besides their crews." — C. C. Turner, Avialion in 1914 (Hazell's Annual, 191S, />. 427).— Between 1918 and 1921 air routes were opened up in rapid succession and air lines were established. "The -Mr Ministry has issued details of some of the aerial routes which will be de- clared open. The routes are to be regarded as provisional, since experience aloac can decide upon the arrangement of aerodromes which is most suit- able for carrying out the aerial business of the country. ... At the date of the armistice there were 337 aerodromes and landing grou.ids in the British Isles. About 100 will be required for the Royal Air Force, while 116 have already been relinquished for cultivation and other purposes. This leaves about 120 aerodromes, some with extensive ac- commodation, which will ultimately be available for civilian purposes. . . . The main routes at present outlined are summarised below, the Lon- don terminus being situated at Hounslow: — (i) London-Scotland; (2) London-Dublin; (3) Lon- don-Manchcster-Belfast ; (4) Continental route via Lympne; (5) Dutch route via Hadleigh; (6) Scandinavian route via New Holland; (7) Lon- don-Plymouth; and (8) London-Bristol. The various aerodromes along these routes arc clearly shown . . . and when any route has been de- clared open pilots using it will find petrol, accom- modation, and, where possible, mechanics to handle their machines at each of these aerodromes. Such pilots must, of course, comply with the regu- lations as regards licensing and inspection of ma- chines. The Government makes no promise of help to aviators who descend, whether by choice or by force of circumstances, at places other than the official 'a'r stations.' It has been decided to limit the overseas traffic for the present to four 'appointed' aerodromes. Three of these will be those named under routes (4), (5), and (6) of the above list, while the fourth will be at Houn- slow in order to facilitate direct communication between London and the Continent. . . . Rigid supcr\ision with regard to the construction and air-worthiness of machines intended for passenger services will be insisted upon, but progress will not be hampered by any inspection of inventions or of purely experimental machines." — Nature, May I, 1919, p. 171. — During May and June, 1918, aerial mail ser\'ice was established in .\merica and Europe. .\rmy aviators carried mail from N'ew York to Washington in three hours — twenty-two minutes, and on June 3 a mail service was estab- lished between New York, Boston and Montreal. .\erial mail service between London and Paris began on May 28. First mail airplane flew be- tween New York and Chicago on September 10. On July 31, loiQ, Senator Harry S. New of the Senate Committee on Military .Affairs, advocated the uniting of the army, navy, and postal air serv- ice under one administrative head. "The last re- port of the British Wx Ministry difclo.'^es to the world the fact that Great Britain has had the vision to comprehend not only the possibilities but the certainties of aeronautics and is determined to derive for England all the benefits that they afford. Of course it is known to those in the air 7 service of the Government and the comparatively small public which has kept informed that Eng- land, for instance, has appropriated $330,000,000 for aeronautical equipment and e.\perimentation for the next fiscal year. The people of our country as a class know nothing of it and I fear have no conception of the real meaning of this fact. I am more concerned with the commercial future of aeronautics than I am concerned with it as a purely military arm ; for it is in the commercial field that its greatest development is next to oc- cur. I believe that the next war will be brought to a very quick decision by that power which is best equipped with aeronautical devices. "The United States appropriated $25,000,000 for her navy and $25,000,000 for her army for the purpose of aviation, which includes expenditures of every kind and will really provide for very little in the way of equipment. As I have said, the great progress to be expected is in the near future along commercial lines. Great Britain is projecting mail and express routes all over the world, from London to the Continent, London to South .Africa, London to India, London to Brazil. Similar programs are planned for .Australia, New Zealand, and Canada. Many lines are being put into operation in Europe. France, England, Spain, and Germany. There is no longer any question that airships of various types will be employed to a very considerable extent in the transportation of mails, express, and passengers — to what an ex- tent, nobody can foresee, and only the future can determine. The only question now is: How far behind the other nations will the United States start ? Having created these agencies, shall she permit herself to be completely outclassed in their development and utilization." — American and Eu- ropean aerial activity contrasted (New York Times. Aug. 3, 1919.) — "Now that the war is over and the War Department finds itself with more airplanes than are likely to be needed for departmental purposes, it has been decided to try out the plan of patroling the national forests from the sky, and on June i the work will begin On the same day, under an arrangement between the forest service of the Department of Agriculture and the War Department, observations covering a large part of the .Angeles National Forest will be begun from a captive balloon stationed over the Army Balloon School near .Arcadia, Cal. Two routes of airplane patrol work will be operated from March Field, twelve miles southeast of Riv- erside. Cal. Two planes will be used on each route, each route will be approximately 100 miles long and will be covered twice a day. This will be the beginning of experimental work in which the adaptability of aircraft to forest patrol work is to be thoroughly tried out. If the tests prove successful it is expected that the airplane patrols will be extended before the end of the 1919 season, and that airplanes will become a permanent fea- ture of the ceaseless battle against fires in the na- tional forests. The airplane routes from March Field will afford an opportunity to 5ur\-ey about 2,000 square miles in the .Angeles and Cleveland National Forests The airplanes are not equipped with wireless telephone apparatus of such a na- ture that they can communicate with the ground without the installation of expensive ground m- strumcnts, .so warnings of fires will be transmitted by means of parachute messages dropped over a town, the finder to telephone them to the Forest Service ; by special landings made to report by telephone; and by returning to the base and re- porting from March Field direct to the forest supervisor. Fires will be located and reported by squares drawn on duplicate maps, one to be in 62 AVIATION Air Service Commercial Uses, Aerial Law AVIATION the possession of each airplane observer and an- other to be in the office of the forest supervisor." — iWew York Times, May 14, 1919. — During the same year (1919) the Lawson air-liner began op- erations. This airplane, operated as a passenger- carrying machine, made trips during the autumn, traveling between Milwaukee, Wis., New York and Washington. It carried twenty-six passengers in a comfortable cabin, and was specially designed for high speed and fuel economy. On December 26, 1919, the Cape-to-Cairo air route was declared open. During 1920 there was a strong upward movement in aerial activity in Italy, .\erial mail .■■ervices were established between the principal cities ; plans were in preparation for a regular .service to Athens and communications with the Italian colonies in Africa. In March, 1921, the Information Bureau of the Post Office Department announced that airplanes in the air mail service of the United States government, totaling twenty- one in all, had flown more than 1,500,000 miles and carried in the neighborhood of 49,000,000 letters. British aircraft reappeared on the London-Paris air route on March 19, 1921. "A working ar- rangement was come to between the Air Ministry and Messrs. Handley Page and Messrs. Instone, by which it has been possible to resume the daily air services to and from Paris. The single fare from London to Paris is six guineas [$31] and the return fare fi2 |$6ol. It was the adoption of this fare by the French air transport companies that drove the British machines off the service. . . . In addition to passengers, mails and goods will again be carried. The charge for goods will be one shilling [25 cents] per lb. for 100 lb. weight, and lod. [20 cents] for each lb. over that quan- tity. The contract with the French firms for the carriage of mails was a temporary one and no technical difficulties were met in handing the mails back to the British firms. . . . The Handley Page and Instone firms to maintain two services daily. ... All machines are fitted with Rolls-Royce en- gines." — London Times, March 21, 102 1. — In April, 1921, the Royal Dutch air service inaugurated a regular passenger service between London and Rotterdam-Amsterdam. From the last-named city airplane connections can be made for Paris, Brus- sels and Hamburg. — "There is being formed in the United States an organization of recognized me- chanical and financial strength to manufacture and operate a fleet of . . . gigantic airships for trans- continental air lines, to be employed in passenger, freight, express and mail traffic. Minor organiza- tions are now under way for operating with air- ships of the non-rigid or blimp type in this country, and from this country to neighboring ports in the Caribbean. One concern intends to operate between Key West and Havana, and along the coast from Key West to New York; also from New York to Chicago, with intermediate stops at Washington or Pittsburg, or the Lake Ports. An- other corporation is embarking on a lighter-than- air enterprise between Detroit and Cleveland. Other corporations arc either operating, or plan- ning to operate in the near future, heavier-than- air traffic lines between Key West and Havana, and along the .Atlantic Coast ; also across the con- tinent from New York to San Francisco, on the Great Lakes, and on the Atlantic Coast from New York to Boston, and one giant seaplane has re- cently flown from Key West to New York in less than fifteen hours. These are a few of the indi- cations that we are entering the era of commer- cial aeronautics." — C. A. Tinker, Commercial aero- nautics (North American Review, Apr., 1921, p. 452-453.)— The R-j6, the first British-built air- ship adapted for commercial purposes was com- pleted in March. It was built by Messrs. William Beardmore and Co., Ltd., and was designed three years before by the admiralty. Changes of policy placed it under the control of the civil side of the air ministry, along with other big dirigibles. The two principal characteristics of the R-j6 are its passenger accommodation and mooring gear. Her constructional features may be tabulated as fol- lows: Length: 672 ft., 30 ft. longer than R-34. Maximum diameter: 78 ft in. Cubic capacity: 2,100,000 ft. of hydrogen gas. Nominal lift: 63.8 tons. Maximum speed: 65 miles an hour. Normal cruising speed: 50 miles an hour. Range: Over 4,000 miles. The normal complement of the R-3ti is four of- ficers and twenty-four men. A full wireless equip- ment is carried, and all the engine-carrying cars arc in telephonic communication with the control- car. It is possible, also, to walk from any one part of the ship to any other. "It is not too much to say that at the present time there has been de- signed only one plane primarily for commercial use: that is, the Giant Caproni, of one hundred passenger capacity, now in a hangar in Italy. It has never been tested. The reason is that the mili- tary authorities controlling Italian aviation have never given permission for it to leave the ground because Caproni did not include certain features which would permit his plane to be converted to military use." — C. A. Tinker, Commercial aero- nautics (North American Review, Apr., 1921, p. 451). — See also Cape-to-Cairo railway: Air route established; City planning: Aeroplane in city plan- ning. 1918-1921. — Aerial law.— Control of naviga- tion. — Peace conference commission. — Aerial League of the World. — Air diplomats. — Aero- nautic schools. — Aeronautic nomenclature. — "A new branch of the law is being developed — the law of the air. The development is going on right before your eyes. -The present generation [1921] has seen the origin of this new branch of law and will see much of its development. . . . Nobody thinks of the airplane as a trespasser or as a nuisance, yet this is precisely what the craft of the air is; the law always follows the facts. The facts determine the fundamental conditions out of which the law springs, and the customs and habits which aircraft make necessary are already shaping the legal principles that will guide us in the future. When we watch an aviator soaring over the earth, we do not think of him as a violator of the law, yet, technically, that is what he is; for, through- out his journey, unless he be over the seas, he is flying over the land of others, and this flight is a trespass over the land. When we look into the old common law, we find that the theory of own- ership has always been this: A man who owns a piece of land owns not only the surface of the land and the immediate subsoil, but he owns straight downward as far as he may wish to go and he owns .straight upward into the sky. Unquestion- ably, in the view of the common law, every air- plane flying over the land of others is, no matter at what height, a trespasser. If we wish to be more technical and pursue this matter as a lawyer might follow it, we can turn to an ancient case that has a most interesting bearing upon the de- velopment of airplane law. The balloon offered the first situation out of which the development of air law may be said to have begun. In 181 5 mention is made for the first time of the rights of 763 AVIATION Air Service Regulation AVIATION a man m a balloon, in Pickering vs. Rudd, i Starkie, page 56, 4 Campb. 2ig, 16 Revised Rep. 777, and then as dictum. The plaintiff was ob- jecting because the defendant had climbed on a temporary platform above his ground and lopped off a troublesome Virginia creeper that overhung the defendant's close. Lord Ellenborough ob- served: 'I recollect a case where I held that firing a gun loaded with shot into a field was a breaking of the close. ... I never yet heard that firing in vacuo could be considered as a trespass. . . . Would trespass lie for passing through the air in a balloon over the land of another?' And here is an even more authoritative pronouncement. Pol- lock, the great English law writer on torts and other subjects, discusses the whole question in a brilliant manner. On page 433 of his work on 'Torts' he says: 'It has been doubted whether it is a trespass to pass over the land without touch- ing the soil, as one may in a balloon, or to cause a material object, as shot fired from a gun, to pass over it. . . . It docs not seem possible, on the principles of the common law, to assign any rea- son why an entrj* at any height above the surface should not also be a trespass. The improbability of actual damage may be an excellent practical reason for not suing a man who sails over one's land in a balloon ; but this appears irrelevant to the pure legal theory. . . . Then one can hardly doubt that it might be a nuisance, apart from any definite damage, to keep a balloon hovering over another man's land.' Before we leave the purely legal side of this subject there is another interesting principle which the aviator must keep in mind, especially if he be flying anywhere over the State of New York, and that principle, expressed in plain human terms, is this: If his plane makes an unexpected descent, and thereby attracts a crowd which swarms on to some person's property and destroys something, the aviator may be liable. It will be enough to quote the language of the Court in this case. The layman will enjoy it as much as the lawyer: 'I will not say that ascending in a balloon is an unlawful act, for it is not so ; but it is certain that the aeronaut has no control over its motion horizontally; he is at the sport of the winds and is to descend when and how he can; his reaching the earth is a matter of hazard. . . . Now-, if his descent under such circumstances would ordinarily and naturally draw a crowd of people about him, either from curiosity or for the pur- pose of rescuing him from a perilous situation, all this he ought to have foreseen and must be re- sponsible for.' This was the famous case of Guille vs. Swan, New York case, found at ig Johns, page 381. The balloonist in this case had to pay Sgo for potatoes, turnips, and flowers that were ruined by the onru=h of his admirers who tried to rescue him ; and the aviator who goes up must bear in mind that he may have to pay something for damages also." — W. C. Williams {OulTook, Sept. 22, ig20, pp. 144-145). "The year following the armistice witnessed many remarkable achievements in air navigation, demonstrating its future commercial value as a new means of intercommunication and transporta- tion. The crossing of the .Atlantic Ocean from the mainland of the United States to England, via the Azores and the European Continent, was closely followed by a continuous flight from Newfound- land to Ireland in about fifteen hours. The dis- tance between New York and San Francisco and return was traversed in slightly more than forty- eight hours. The use of aircraft for the regular transportation of mails and passengers increases day by day both here and abroad. An art thus expanding by leaps and bounds requires a wise system of legal regulation and control, both in its own interest and for the safety of the commu- nity. Aerial navigation, like the navigation of the seas, is international in scope, and its adequate regulation by law presupposes the cooperation of nations through international conventions. This has long been recognized both by scientific ex- perts and by jurists. It was also accepted as a basic principle by the official International Confer- ence upon Aerial Navigation held in Paris upon the call of the French Government in May, June and November, igio. and also by the unofficial conference for the Regulation of Aerial Locomo- tion held at Verona in June, igio. The Com- mission on Air Na\ngation \vas one of a number of commissions created under the authority of the Peace Conference [igi8] having nothing whatever to do with the adjustments of the war itself. Its labors, so far as they were connected with the work of the Peace Conference, consisted of the regulation of the new means of intercourse be- tween nations in such a manner as to promote friendly relations and to avoid friction. The Con- vention relating to International Air Navigation is reported to have been signed on October 13, igig, by all the Allied and Associated Powers, excepting Japan and the United States. The con- vention is restricted wholly to peace times and does not affect the freedom of action of the con- tracting states in time of war, either as belligerents or as neutrals. The convention recognizes that every state has complete and exclusive sovereignty in the air space above its territory' and territorial waters. But each state undertakes in time of peace to accord freedom of innocent passage to foreign aircraft without distinction as to national- ity, provided the conditions of the conventions are observed. . . . .^ny nation has the right to map out areas prohibited for military reasons or for public safety, but notice of such areas must be given to the central bureau and published. The fact that prohibited areas must apply alike to domestic as well as to foreign aircraft will serve as a counterbalance to any extreme view of mili- tary needs. The right of innocent passage is there- fore practically assured. The convention de- termines the nationality of aircraft according to rules similar to those established for seagoing vessels. . . . .\ircraft cannot be validly registered in more than one country at the same time. No nation may permit the flight above its territory of aircraft not possessing the nationality of one of the contracting states. This marks an important variance from the rule of maritime shipping be- cause vessels of all duly recognized countries are permitted to enter the territorial waters of other nations. . . . The issuance of certificates of air- worthiness and the competence of officers and crew are matters within the jurisdiction of the con- tracting states so long as they obser\'e the tech- nical minimum standards set forth in the an- nexes. A permanent International Commission for Air Navigation is established which may vary these standards from time to time. Certificates which are issued or rendered valid by the state of the aircraft's flag must be recognized in all other states. . . . The annexes also provide in detail for the marks and numbers w-hich aircraft must carry, also the lights and signals, rules of air\vay and markings of aerodromes. . . . The annexes pro- vide the details to be embodied in documents which aircraft must carry, which include the fol- lowing: (a) certificates of registration; (6) cer- tificate of air-worthiness; (c) certificate of mini- mum technical skill for commanding officer and pilot ; (d) licenses for pilots, navigators and en- gineers; (c) list of passengers; (/) bill of lading 764 AVIATION Air Service Aeronautic Schools AVIATION and manifest; (g) log book; (h) special license for wireless equipment. These requirements pre- suppose some coordination between the local and the national authorities, which federal regulation can alone provide. The convention provides for the organization of an international union for the administration of international air navigation and for the elaboration of legislation to be applicable to it from time to time. The organ of the union will be the International Ccmimission for Air Navi- gation. Its organization is to be under the con- trol of the League of Nations. Representation is measured somewhat after the principle adopted for the Assembly of the League. The five great Allies have each two representatives. All other con- tracting states have each one representative, the self-governing British Dominions and India count- ing for this purpose as states. The vote is taken according to states, but the five great Powers re- serve to themselves the majority of the votes by the provision that each shall have 'the least whole number of votes which, when multiplied by five, will give a product exceeding by at least one vote the total number of votes of all the other contract- ing states.' The greatly extended use of aircraft for commercial transportation which now seems impending will require entirely new methods of customs administration. The convention essays to lay down certain rules by which the states are to cooperate in administering customs and in the prevention of customs fraud. Aircraft must de- part from and alight only upon especially de- signated 'customs aerodromes.' Places for cross- ing a frontier are to be indicated on aeronautical maps. The inspection of documents is regulated ir a manner analogous to marine vessels; but the convention wisely allows a certain latitude for aircraft over which strict control at or near the frontier is not required. Any disagreement re- lating to the interpretation of the convention is to be referred to the Permanent Court of Inter- national Justice to be established by the League of Nations and, until its establishment, to arbitra- tion. But the International Commission for Air Navigation is competent to determine, by a ma- jority of votes, a dispute upon any of the tech- nical regulations." — A. K. Kuhn, International aerial navigation and the Peace Conference, igig {American Journal of International Law, Jtily, 1020, pp. 370-375, 378-370). — See also Interna- tional law; Versailles, Treaty of: Part XI. Plans for the foundation of an international aeronautic association, to be known as the Aerial League of the World, have been completed. It is planned to have affiliations in nearly every country of the world. Its purposes, as set forth in Flying (New York), are: "(i) To encourage the use of aircraft for all purposes throughout the world. (2) To promote safety in aerial navigation and in the construction of aircraft, aerodromes, accessories, etc. (3) To encourage and urge the establishing of suitable landing-places for aircraft all over the world and standardize said landing-places and equip them with standardized lighting and sig- naling devices and guiding lights to facilitate aerial navigation. (4) To cause and urge the establish- ing of recognized airways throughout the world to interconnect aerially all the world's commercial centers, and wherever aircraft can solve problems of transportation. (5) To provide a scientific and practical solution to the difficult problem of op- erating permanent aerial transportation lines at night and in fogs, over fixt routes, without danger of collision to aircraft flying in opposite direc- tions, by bringing about the adoption of airways eighty miles wide, which will permit aircraft, by keeping to the right, to avoid collision even if they should deviate from their course, owing to wind drift. (6) To establish a protective organization which will undertake to protect airmen legally in securing national and international legislation and the adoption of proper rules of the air and regula- tions to govern aerial navigation and to protect the interests of owners and users of aircraft against unjust and unreasonable legislation, and to main- tain the lawful right and privileges of owners and users of all forms of aircraft whenever and wherever such rights and privileges are menaced, as, for instance, in preventing the adoption of restrictive aerial laws, discouraging over-charging when airmen damage property, prosecuting per- sons for wilfully placing obstructions on aviation fields, or crowding aircraft landing-fields, ex- tinguishing guide lights, destroying landmarks, selling watered gasoline to aviators, selling in- ferior hydrogen and gas to balloonists, etc. (7) To standardize aircraft insurance rates and insur- ance adjusting. (8) To establish aeronautic in- formation bureaus throughout the world, (q) To study the possibility of air travel in different countries and prepare maps of airways. (10) To establish a clearing-house of aeronautic activities where people interested in aerial touring, commer- cial aerial transportation, and air travel can get practical information and assistance. (11) To or- ganize aerial exploration and surveying expeditions. (12) To cooperate with aerial leagues, aero clubs, and other organizations, aerial transportation com- panies, travel agencies, chambers of commerce, manufacturers, and other established organizations to carry out the above-mentioned purposes and advance the science and art of aerial navigation. . . . The president of the League is Maj. Charles J. Glidden, the founder of the Glidden Automobile Tours, a pioneer in aeronautics since 1905 and acting chairman of the contest committee of the Aero Club of America." — World-wide league to promote flying (Literary Digest, Oct. g, 1920, p. 82). — On Feb. iq, iqiq, the appointment of an air attache to the British embassy at Washington was announced. In the following year Italy also appointed air attaches to several of their em- bassies. "The University of Detroit has gone ahead with plans to establish a five-year course in aeronautics. The university is confident that Detroit will even- tually become an aircraft and aircraft-equipment center, and that the demand for men trained in aerial science will be greater than the visible supply here below. "The uninitiated may wonder what there is in aeronautics to require five years' training. The average man who has flown an airplane in war or peace is more likely to wonder if it is possible to cram all there is to know about aerial naviga- tion and aerial equipment into five years. Whether or not it is possible to do the subject justice in that length of time remains to be seen, but judged by present standards the University of Detroit can produce aeronautical engineers of a caliber su- perior to anything now known. Like medicine, law, chemistry, and a multitude of other sciences, theory in aeronautics is one thing; practise is quite another. "Lieut. Thomas F. Dunn, dean of the new de- partment of aeronautics at the University of De- troit, puts it this way: 'There are lots of engi- neers who can tell you all about aeronautics on the ground, but when they get up into the thin air their theory is like a ship without a rudder and no compass — very active, but with indefinite plans as to the future.' The impression that takes hold of us is that there are two ways of getting an aeronautical education. One is to go up In 7^5 AVIATION Nvw Vocuhulary Important flights AVIATION the air first and gather some experience, and if spared for future investigation, return to solid earth and tackle the theory. The other way is to tackle the theory first and then try it out on the air. "Some idea of the latitude of this subject is con- veyed by the following subjects to be taught: Higher mathematics, communication, mapping, as- tronomy, physics, meteorology, weather calcula- tions, theory of flight, balloons, aerodynamics, aerostatics, aircraft mechanics, testing drawing, ad- ministration, chemistry, electricity, engineering principles, metal-working, working design and con- struction, topography, wireless telephony and te- legraphy, safety devices, uses of instruments, some commercial law, and all there is or will be on aerial navigation laws, principles of law as it is or will be applied to the air, and aerial photog- raphy." — F. W. Hersey, in Michigan Manufacturer and Financial Record, quoted by Literary Digest, July i6, 1021. It is estimated that aviation has introduced over 200 new words into the English language, either original or taken over from other languages. Those words or phrases in common use on the flying fields or in aircraft plants are strangers to the average reader. For the benefit of those who are unacquainted with the meanings of such words as "fuselage," "nacelle," "drift," "aileron," and such phrases as "air pockets," "parasite resistance," "traihng edge," etc., the Manufacturers' .Aircraft .\ssociation issued in iqiq a "Flying dictionary" with the aid of a report compiled by the national advisory committee for aeronautics at Washington. Quite a number of books on aviation contain glos- saries with technical details, yet one of the handi- caps is the proper description of equipment so as to give the public — generally uninstructed — an accurate idea of the magnitude of current hap- penings. This difficulty has also been encountered in government aircraft activities and appears more ihan ever now that commercial aviation, with proper encouragement, promises to develop in the pear future. 1921. — New aircraft for U. S. Navy. — Early in the year the United States Navy Department was building, at its yard at League island, a giant flying boat intended to be the largest of its kind in the world, to tower above a three-story building in height and have a wing spread of nearly a Slew York city block. .As given in official figures, the dimensions were: height, 48 feet; wing spread, 150 feet; length. 67 feet; designation to be the G-B type On .'\pril 14 it was anounced that the great rigid airship ZR-2. then in its final stages of trial flights and equipment in England and purchased by the United States government, would make the trip to America late in July, iq2i, under command of Commander Maxfield, U. S. N. .American officers and enlisted men had been train- ing in England for nearly a year in anticipation of the transatlantic flight to bring the airship over. The cost of the airship — -the largest in the world — was stated to be about $2,500,000. Its original British name was the R-:}8; its length 600 feet; height, 03 feet ; diameter, 86 feet ; gas capacity, 2,724,000 cubic feet, and a useful weight-carrying capacity of forty-five tons. On .August 24, how- ever, just as it was completing satisfactorily its final trial cruise, the ZR-2 met with a tragic fate. .At 5 45 p.m , while traveling over the city of Hull, the monster aircraft "buckled"; flames in- stantly broke out and several explosions followed. It seemed to the horrified spectators on the ground that the vessel would fall upon the city, but the commander. Captain .A. A. Wann, steered it over the river Humber, into which it fell. Three mem- bers of the crew made successful parachute de- scents; two others, including Wann, were subse- quently taken off the wreck. These were the only survivors out of forty-nine — thirty-two British and seventeen .Americans. The disaster was attributed to structural weakness. IMPORTANT FLIGHTS SINCE 1900 1900.— First Zeppelin's trial flight. 1901 (Oct. ig). — .Alberto Santos-Dumont navi- gated a dirigible from St. Cloud to Paris, around the Eiffel tower and back to starting-point; time, thirty minutes. 1903 (Dec. 17). — "Wright Bros, fitted a biplane glider with a 16 H.P. motor, driving double screws behind the planes. Total weight of machine, 750 pounds. Flew at speed of 30-25 miles per hour for a period of twelve seconds. Tests made on the Kill-Devil dunes, N. C, ultimately sustained flight for a period of 59 seconds, covering 852 feet. First successful sustained flight in the world." — Aircraft year book, iqig, p. 311, Aeronautical Chamber of Commerce of America. 1904. — Pierre and Paul Lebaudy navigated a dirigible of their own construction, fitted with a 40 h.p. motor, a distance of twenty-five miles near Paris. 1907 (October). — .A British war dirigible Nulli Secundus sailed from Farnborough to London, circled St. Paul's cathedral and flew to the Crystal palace, about fifty miles; time, three hours thirty five minutes. 1909 (July 25). — French aviator Louis Bleriot made first flight across English channel, from Calais to Dover, in thirty-one minutes. 1910 (.April 20). — Roger Sommer, at Mourme- lon, France, went up with four passengers. May 21 — Count Jacques de Lesseps flew from Calais to Dover; the second cross-Channel flight. May 20. — Glenn Curtiss flew from .Albany to New York city, making two stops on the way ; distance — 145 miles. June 2.— (Tharles Stewart Rolls (of Rolls-Royce), an Englishman, made the first round-trip flight over the English channel, in a Wright biplane. June 13. — Charles K.. Hamilton, flying for the Sew York Times, made the first round-trip flight between New York and Philadelphia. July Q. — Rene Labouchere, at Reims, France, made a continuous non-stop flight of 211.27 miles, the world record at that time. July 10. — Jan Oliaslaegers, at Reims, broke La- bouchere's record, with a continuous flight of 244 miles in five hours, three minutes and fifty-one seconds. Aug. 7-17. — Alfred Leblanc flew over a circular course, Paris. Troyes, Nancy, Mezieres, Douai, .Amiens, and back. Total distance 485 miles. Aug. 7. — John B. Moisant made the first flight over the English channel with a passenger. Sept. 23. — Peruvian aviator Jorge Chavez-Dart- nell flew over the .Alps ; crossed Simplon pass at Dondo, flying towards Italy. He was killed a few days later by fall of his machine in Switzer- land. October. ^ — First dirigible attempt to cross At- lantic. In October, Walter Wellman, an .American explorer, and Melvin Vaniman made a courageous attempt to cross the .Atlantic ocean. The under- taking was all the greater when it is remembered that aviation was still an undeveloped science. These two pioneers set out from .Atlantic city in the rigid dirigible .America with a crew of four men, including two .Americans, one Englishman and an .Australian. Not possessing the machinery and other appliances of the necessary strength and 766 AVIATION Important ['lights AVIATION efficiency to dictate their route, the utmost they could hope for was to reach some point on the coast of Great Britain or France wherever the wind might carry them. The elements were against them; bad weather made it impossible to reach any European shore. The balloon was blown out of its course and soon came to grief ; it was finally picked up by a steamer midway between New York and Bermuda, 1,000 miles off Cape Hatteras. The crew were rescued but the dirigible had to be abandoned. Oct. 28. — Maurice Tabuteau, at Buc, France, broke the world record with a continuous flight of six hours and covered a distance of 28Q miles. Oct. II. — Archie Hoxsey, at St. Louis, took Colonel Theodore Roosevelt up as a passenger. 1911. — (Feb. i). — Captain C. Bellenger flew from Paris to Bordeaux, 330 miles, in eight hours and twenty-two minutes. Feb. 2. — Bellenger flew from Bordeaux to Pau, France, 140 miles. Bologna, Italy, over the Apennines, at an altitude of 4,500 feet. 1912. — (March 7). — Salmet, in a Bleriot machine, flew from London to Paris in three hours and six- teen minutes. April 16. — First cross-Channel flight by a woman. — Miss Harriet Quimby, a British aviatrix, piloted an airplane across the channel. April 28. — Hewitt flew from Holyhead to Dub- lin in one hour and fifteen minutes. May 25. — Fish flew from Chicago to Milwaukee in two hours and twenty minutes, June IS to July 10. — Andreadi flew from Se- bastopol to Petrograd, 1,670 miles. Ju[y 2. — During a test flight of a second dirigible (after the America) named the Akron, Melvin Vaniman and four of the crew were killed by an explosion of the hydrogen gas with which the balloon was inflated. Aug. 18-19. — Andemars made first Paris to Ber- lin flight, S41 miles, in two days. FIRST AERIAL CROSSING OF THE CHANNEL, 1909 Bleriot monoplane just before landing at Dover April 22. — P. Vedrines flew from Paris to Pau, a distance of 310 miles, in six hours and fifty-five minutes. June 28. — L. Beachey flew over Niagara Falls. June 30 to July 11.— Harry N. Atwood flew from Boston to Washington via New London, New York, Atlantic city, and Baltimore. July 24.— M. Vasselieff flew from St. Petersburg to Moscow. Aug. 14 to 25. — Atwood flew from St. Louis to New York via Chicago, Cleveland, and Buffalo. Air distance, 1,266 miles. Flying time, twenty- eight hours and fifty-three minutes: average daily flight, 105 miles. Average speed, fifty-one miles an hour Sept. Q — First aerial mail in United Kingdom inaugurated between Hendon (London) and Wind- sor. Sept. 17 to Dec. 10— G. P. Rodgers flew from New York to Long Beach, Cal., a distance of 4,231 miles. Time in air was three days ten hours and four minutes. Oct. 21. — De Hansey flew from Florence to Sept. 28. — Daucourt circled Paris seven times, 497 miles, in twelve hours and twenty-two min- utes. 1913. — (Jan. 25). — Brelovuccic flew over the Alps, fifty miles, in twenty-five minutes. March 28.— Lieutenant T. De W. Milling, U. S. A., with passenger, flew from Texas city to San .\ntonio, 240 miles, in three hours and twenty minutes. April 15.— Daucourt flew from Paris to Berlin in thirteen hours and thirty-nine minutes. April 17. — Hamel flew from Dover, England, to Cologne, Germany, 24'i miles, in four hours and eighteen minutes. May 17. — Rosillio flew from Florida to Cuba, 100 miles, in two hours and eight minutes. June I to July 2. — Brindejouc des Moulinais made the round trip from Paris to Warsaw via Stockholm, Petrograd, and the Hague, 3,002 miles. Aug. 25-27. — Hawker flew around the Brit- ish Isles, 1,043 miles, in two and one-half days. Sept. I— .\lphonse Pegoud, French aviator, made 767 AVIATION Important Flights AVIATION the first loop-the-loop maneuver in a Bleriot mono- plane. 1914. — One of the most noteworthy flights dur- ing the year occurred on Feb. ii, when the French pilot Agenor Parmelin flew from Geneva, Swit- zerland, over Mont Blanc in France, to Aosta in Italy, attaining an altitude of over 16,000 feet. This feat was rivalled in America by Silas Christ- offerson, who flew on June 25 over the peak, of Mount Whitney in California. This mountain is 14,898 ft. high and Christofferson attained an al- titude of 15,728 feet, about a thousand feet above the peak. In London, the American aviator W. L. Brock won the British Aerial Derby flight around London and the round flight London-Manchester, winning the Daily Mail gold cup and $2,000 of- fered by the Anglo-American Oil company. Against seven competitors on July 11, Brock also won the London to Paris and back race. The French aviator Gilbert, starting on June 6, flew 2,000 miles round France in two days; Lieut. Geyer flew 80s miles in a day in Germany ; Verrier won the Pommery cup with a flight from Buc to Genthin, Germany, a distance of 52° miles, in May; Adjutant Quennehen made a 625 miles' flight across country on June 12, without stopping, in thirteen hrs. forty min.; the German aviator Basser in four days, spending eighteen hrs. 12 min. in the air, flew with a passenger from Berlin to Constantinople, via Buda-Pesth and Bucharest; flights over the Alps were made by Parmelin, on Feb. II, from Geneva to Aosta over Mont Blanc; by Bider, from Berne to Brigues, by the Jung- frau, on April 23 ; and by Landini, over the Alps Apennines, on July 27; a number of flights through Asia Minor by French and Turkish avi- ators bound for Jerusalem and Cairo were made, the Turkish aviators suffering two double fatal accidents besides minor mishaps. — Hazell's Annual, IQ15, p. 431. — Sikorsky, with his "giant" airplane at Petrograd, remained in the air with ten pas- sengers for one hour and forty-si.x minutes, on June 18. — On July 4, H. Kantner circled New York city, forty-six miles, in forty-three minutes and twenty-six seconds. "A number of accidents to airships have oc- curred [during 1914]. Of these may be mentioned: April i8th, the City of Milan (Italian). During deflation after landing the gas was ignited by a smoker's match and about forty persons were injured in the resulting explosion, one fatally. June 20th, the Korting-Wimpassing (Austrian). This airship was run into by a Farman biplane and its gas exploded by a flame from the motors. The seven occupants of the airship and the two occu- pants of the biplane were all killed. June 14th, the Ersatz Zi (German Zeppelin), wrecked while landing in a storm at Diedenhofen ; no loss of life. June 24th, a Russian military airship, wrecked in a storm, the crew escaping with slight injuries." — C. C. Turner, Aviation in 1Q14 (Ha- zell's Annual, 1915, p. 427). 1915. — In this year the war in Europe completely put an end to aviation so far as competitive long- distance and cross-country flights were concerned. In Europe all airplanes were commandeered for military purposes and practically all aviators en- tered the service of their respective countries. 1916. — (April i). — S. McGordon flew from New- port News, V'a., to Washington and return, 300 miles; in four hours and twenty-nine minutes. April 30.— E. T. McCauley, at Newport News, flew eighty-eight miles with six passengers in one hour, ten minutes and live seconds. May 20. — Victor Carlstrom flew from Newport News, Virginia, to New York without a stop in four hours and one minute, covering between 350 and 400 miles, thereby making the longest and fast- est cross-country record in the United States. On Nov. 19 Miss Ruth Law broke that record by flying from Chicago to Hornell, N. Y., 668 miles, without a stop. May 24. — Victor Carlstrom flew from New York to Washington, 237 miles, in three hours and seven minutes. June 2o.^Lieut. A. Marchal, French Army, flew from west front in France to Poland, a continuous flight of 812 miles. Time not stated. Nov. 2-3. — Victor Carlstrom, flying for the New York Times, flew from Chicago to New York, with one stop, due to engine trouble. Distance 967 miles. Time in air, eight hours, twenty-eight minutes and thirty seconds. Nov. 19-20. — Miss Ruth Law flew from Chicago to New York, with one stop. Time in air, eight hours, fifty-five minutes and thirty-five seconds. 1917. — (.\ug. 29). — Captain G. Lauriati flew from Turin to Naples and return, 920 miles, in ten hours and thirty-three minutes. Sept. 24. — Captain Lauriati flew from Turin to London, 700 miles, in twelve hours and two minutes. Oct. 22. — Captain A. Silvio flew from Norfolk, Va., to Mineola, L. I., 330 miles, in four hours and twenty-five minutes. Oct. 22. — Lieutenant Baldioli flew from Norfolk to Mineola in two hours and fifty-five minutes. 1918 — German Zeppelin L-yg flew from Bulgaria to south of Khartum and back without landing en route, a distance of over 4,000 miles. First non-stop airplane flight from Chicago to New York city was made April 19 of this year by Captain E. F. While, an American Army aviator. He traveled 727 miles in a De Haviland-4 army reconnoissance plane at an average speed of about 106 miles an hour. April 26, the naval seaplane f-5, with Lieuten- ant Commander Grow and Ensign Thomas as pilots, broke all records for an endurance flight by remaining in the air a little over twenty hours for a flight of 1,250 miles. December. — For the first time, an aerial con- cert was performed over London. A big bomb- ing plane carried a band aloft, shut off the en- gines and had a concert while it glided to earth. Another powerful machine, a Handley-Page which was to have been used for dropping 600 pound bombs on Berlin had the war continued, was reg- ularly carrying forty persons at a time over Lon- don. 1919. — Captain E. F. White made the first non- stop flight from Chicago to New York, between breakfast and dinner, in six hours and fifty min- utes, a trifle more than one-third of the time required by the fastest express train. May. — Attempts to cross Atlantic. — Before the World War broke out the London Daily Mail offered a prize of £10,000 ($50,000) for the first crossing of the Atlantic. Directly after the war the capabilities of airplanes and airships, strenu- ously developed during that conflict, justified the belief that the crossing could be accomplished un- der favorable circumstances. Early in the year several entries were made for the prize. Inde- pendently of the competition, the United States naval air service prepared a flying-boat to cross via the Azores islands, and the British air min- istry announced that the rigid airship R-34 would attempt the double crossing of the ocean. — "One of the greatest adventures ever undertaken by men — the crossing of the Atlantic Ocean by aerial flight — was attempted both by .\merican and Brit- ish aviators in M.ay, 1910. Some of the Ameri- cans who dared the dangers of thisfcrossing knew 768 / AVIATION Important Flights Transatlantic AVIATION the joy of Columbus when he first spied the hazy outUne of the New World coast. . . . Two Brit- ish aviators [Hawker and Grieve], staking all on the desperate resolve to reach the other hemisphere by direct flight, disappeared from the world's knowledge for six days and were considered lost in midocean until news came that they had been rescued. Two others later achieved success and fame. Curiously enough, the project of trans- atlantic flight developed in America as a national, not a private, enterprise, and the pioneer airmen who reached Portugal from Newfoundland were enlisted men in the service of the United States Navy; the British attempt, on the other hand, was purely a private venture. Harry Hawker and Lieutenant Commander Grieve flew to fulfill the conditions of a $50,000 prize. . . . Captain Raynham, another British competitor for the same prize, met with disaster in 'hopping off' and had to give up the project for a time." — Nen' York Times Current History, July, 1919, p. qq. — See also Atlantic ocean: Trans-Atlantic steamers, cables, airplanes. May. — American seaplane first across Atlantic. — On Nov. 30, 1Q18, it was announced from Wash- ington that the navy's newest seaplane, the Giant NC-i, the largest seaplane in the world, had broken all records for the number of passengers carried in any airplane when it made a flight with fifty men on board on Wednesday, Nov. 27, at the naval air station at Rockaway, Long Island. This was the first American tri-motor seaplane and was propelled by three Liberty motors that de- veloped a maximum of 1,200 h.p., giving it a cruising speed of eighty miles an hour. — "The 'NC iiying boats — the 'N' for Navy and the 'C for Curtiss, these two combined letters indicat- ing the joint production of the United States Navy and the Curtiss Engineering Corporation — have an interesting history. This airplane type is not only of extraordinary size, but of unusual construction, and represents an original American development. According to a statement issued by Acting Secretary of the Navy Roosevelt, the de- sign was initiated in the Fall of 1917 by Rear Admiral D. W. Taylor, chief instructor in the navy, who had in mind the development of a seapiane of the maximum size, radius of action, and weight-carrying ability for use in putting down the submarine menace. ... It was the intention of the Navy Department to fly a fleet of these planes overseas, and if the war had continued this intention would have been fulfilled. . . . Plans for the flight were in process of making as early as March 22, iqig, when six officers of the navy and one of the Marine Corps were as- signed to the transatlantic section of the office of the Director of Naval Aviation for the prepara- tion of such plans. . . . Test trials at Rockaway Beach toward the end of March gave auspicious results, one of the NC boats leaving the water with 26,000 pounds gross load, as against the 22,000 believed at one time to be the limit of carrying capacity. This test demonstrated that these craft could carry sufficient gasoUne to cross from Newfoundland to the Azores Islands with- out alighting for fuel. These trial flights went on continuously from April 22. . . . Meanwhile it was announced by Commander John H. Towers . . . that the details of the destroyer and dreadnought patrols to be stationed along the entire course of the contemplated flight had been completed; the advance guard had already sailed, and others were scheduled to leave daily. Ultimately half a hundred destroyers, cruisers, and dreadnoughts took part in the work of patrolling the route. Each of tie crews of the three NC ships to at- 769 tempt the flight, as officially announced, included six members. . . . The seaplanes began the historic effort to cross the Atlantic through the air at q:Sq o'clock in the morning of May 8. . . . Two of the planes reached Halifax the same day at 8 o'clock (7 o'clock New York time). This first flight, S40 nautical miles, took exactly nine hours. The NC-4, however, was missing. ... (It had) dropped out of wireless touch and was not heard from until the following day. May g, when it was learned that this plane had been forced by en- gine trouble to come down at sea, and had pro- ceeded under its own power to Chatham Bar, on the Massachusetts coast. . . . Meantime the NC-i and NC-3, not waiting for the NC-4, took flight from Halifax in the morning of May 10, and reached Trepassey Harbor, N. F., at 4:14 and 7:50 A. M., respectively. . . . They had just completed an unsuccessful attempt to get away on Many 15, when the NC-4 arrived at Trepassey. . . . The three planes, thus reunited, went to their moorings, and began preparations for a common departure at the first favorable moment." — New York Times Current History, July, 1919, pp. 99-102. — "The AT I, 3, and 4 . . . left 'Trepas- sey Bay at 6:05 P.M. (Friday, May 16). It was a clear moonlight night, and as twenty-one United States destroyers were stationed along the route from North latitude 46-17 to 39-40, the airships were in communication with the fleet all the way over. Because of a thick fog which ob- tained near the Azores the NC-4 landed at Horta of the eastern group at q.20 A.M., just 15 hours and 18 minutes after starting. The NC-i landed at sea and sank, and the NC-3, which flew out of its course, landed at Ponta Delgada. The NC-4 in its flight from Trepassey to Lisbon cov- ered a distance of 2,150 nautical miles in 26.47 hours' actual flying, or at an average speed of 80.3 nautical miles." — E. J. David, .-Urcraft, its development in war and peace and its commercial future, pp. 250-260. — According to the report of Lieutenant-Commander Read, of the NC-4 as pub- lished in the World (New York), "The Three and Four together left Mistaken Point at 10. i6, and ten minutes later sighted the One, several miles to the rear, and flying higher. We were flying over icebergs, with the wind astern and the sea smooth Our average altitude was 800 feet. The NC-4 drew ahead at 10.50 (P.M.), but when over the first destroyer made a circle to allow the NC-3 to catch up. We then flew on together until 11.5s, when we lost sight of the NC-3, her running lights being too ciim to be discerned. From then on we proceeded as if alone. ... As it grew lighter the air became bumpy, and we climbed to 1,800 feet, but the air remained bumpy most of the night. ... At 5.45 we saw the first of dawn. As it grew lighter all our worries ap- peared to have passed. The power-plant and everything else was running perfectly. The radio was working marvellously well. ... At 8 o'clock we saw our first indications of trouble, running through light lumps of fog. It cleared at 8.12, but at q.27 we ran into more fog for a few min- utes. At 9.4s the fog became thicker and then dense. The sun disappeared and we lost all sense of direction. The compass spinning indicated a steep bank, and I had visions of a possible nose dive. Then the sun appeared and the blue sky once more, and we regained an even keel and put the plane on a course above the fog, flying between the fog and an upper layer of clouds. We caught occasional glimpses of the wa- ter, so we climbed to 3,200 feet, occasionally chang- ing the course and the altitude to dodge the clouds and fog. ... At 11.13 we sent a radio to the AVIATION Iiiiportaiil Flights Transatlantic AVIATION destroyer and could hear Corvo reply that the visibility was ten miles. Encouraged by this promise of better conditions farther on, we kept going. Suddenly, at 11.27, we saw through a rift what appeared to be a tide-rip on the water. Two minutes later we saw the outline of rocks. The tide-rip was a line of surf along the southern end of Flores Island. It was the most wel- come sight we had ever seen . . . The visibility then was about 12 miles. We had plenty of gasoline and oil, and decided to keep on to Ponta Delgada. Then it got thick and we missed the next destroyer, Xo. 2.5. The fog closed down. . . . .^t 1.04 we sighted the northern end of Fayal, and once more felt safe. We headed for the shore, the air clearing when we reached the beach We rounded the island and landed in a bicht we had mistaken for Horta." Meanwhile, A'C-,? was thrown out of her course by the high velocity of the upper winds. Com- (May iq]. Off the port we declined proffered aid by the destroyer Harding, which had been sent out to meet u:-, and "taxied' into port under our own power. During the two days' vigil of seeking land or rescue ships we tired all our distress signals, none of which apparently were seen Without informing the crew of the fear that I had that we would be lost, I packed our log in a waterproof cover, tied it to a life-belt, and was prepared to cast it adrift when the A'C-.? sank. The nervous s*rain was terrible while we were drifting, and the men smoked incessantly. This was the only thing that kept them awake." — E. J. David, Aircraft, pp. 270-272— The NC-i was less fortunate, as described in the following statement by Lieutenant Commander P. N. L. Bellinger: "... We proceeded on the course, be- ing guided by the smoke and searchlights from the destroyers, and the star shells they sent up ■After passing most of the station ships we did OBirial Phntoemph. I' ,■? Navy NC-4 AT LISBON AFTER FLIGHT FROM XEWFOUNDLAND mander Towers reported that "having run short of fuel and encountered a heavy fog, the .VC- ? came down at i o'clock Saturday afternoon in order that we might obtain our bearings. The. plane was dam- aged as it reached the water, and was unable to again rise. While we were drifting the 205 miles in the heavy storm the high seas washed over or pounded the plane, and the boat began to leak. So fast did the water enter the boat that the members of the crew took turns in bailing the hull with a small hand-pump, while others stood on the wings in order to keep the plane in balance. Meanwhile we were steering landward. . . . The clearing of the weather proved only temporar\;, for later a storm came up and continued for 4S hours With both lower wings wrecked, and pontoons lost, and the hull leaking, and the tail of the machine dam- aged, the plane was tossed about like a cork In order to conserve the remaining 470 gallons of fuel we decided to 'sail' landward, hoping to sight a destroyer on the way. But we dici not pass a single ship until we reached Ponta Delgada not meet with any trouble until we got into fog at 11:10 .\.M. Saturday, when we were near Station 18. .After being in the fog for some time we alighted on the water at 1:10 P. M Satur day. We kept to our course until we struck the fog, when we lost our bearings. We deemed it advisable to head into the winci, toward land, to get our bearings before proceeding. We were then flying about 3,000 fret up. We dropped to fifty feet in order to sight water, and found that the wind was in a different direction on the surface of the water than it v.'as above, and also that the fog was more dense at the lower altitude We made a good landing oi. the sea, which was rough and choppy with heavy swells. The strong wind continued until we were picked up. At 6 P M. (Greenwich tim'^')., we sighted the masts of the Ionia on its way to Fayal and Gibraltar above the horizon. We were unable to see the hull of the Ionia, and, as she did not have wireless, we w'"'e unable to communicate with her. We therelore started taxying toward 770 AVIATION Imporlant Flightx Transatlantic AVIATION her. About this time the loiiia sighted us, and lowered a boat which picked us up at 6:20 P.M. Our position when we were picked up was lati- tude 3g degrees 58 minutes north, longitude 30 degrees 15 minutes west. We tried to sal- vage the plane, but the towlings of the Ionia broke and we were forced to give up the at- tempt. We were rescued with difficulty because the small boat of the Ionia was tossed about like a cork. All of us were seasick, otherwise we did not suffer. We sent out SOS calls after landing, but the radio sending radius was only fifty miles on the surface of the water. While awaiting rescue we intercepted messages between destroyers. ... If the fog had not been so thick we could have continued to Ponta Delgada. Our days that the aviators were lost. From the destroyer to which Hawker and Grieve were transferred off the Scottish coast, the former sent this brief report to the Daily Mail: "My ma- chine stopped owing to the water filter in the feed pipe from the radiator to the water pump being blocked with refuse, such as solder and the like, shaking loose in the radiator. It was no fault of the Rolls-Royce motor, which ran abso- lutely perfect from start to finish, even when all the water had boiled away. We had no trouble in landing on the sea, where we were picked up by the tramp ship Mary, after being in the water for ninety minutes." It was officially announced by the admiralty that the aviators were picked up in latitude 50° 20', longitude 29° 30'. The VICKERSVIMY PLANE AS IT LANDED AT CLIFDEN, IRELAND. AFTER CROSSING FROM NEWFOUNDLAND Aviators, Alcock and Brown engines worked splendidy throughout. The average altitude of the flight was between 500 and 3,500 feet." — New York Times Current History, July, iqiq, pp. 103-104. May. — Hawker's attempted Atlantic flight. — On May 19, Harry Hawker and Lieut. -Commander Mackenzie Grieve, two British aviators, started from St. John's, Newfoundland, to make a direct flight to Ireland. They flew fourteen and a half hours, and although swept off their course they were able to lake their bearings when radiator trouble compelled them to make a descent. Shortly before this became imperative, they steered for the shipping route, over which they zigzagged and finally descended upon the water about two miles in front of the Danish ship Mary, which picked them up. ,'\s the Mary was not fitted with wireless apparatus na news of the rescue could be transmitted, and it was feared for some airplane, badly battered, was brought in a few days later by a vessel that had picked it up. On July 12, IQ2I, Hawker was killed at Hendon, when his machine crashed to earth and burst into flames. June. — First continous transatlantic flight. — "The great achievement of flying across the .Atlantic Ocean without a single stop was ac- complished for the first time June 14-15, iQio. by Captain John .Alcock and Lieutenant .Arthur W. Brown, one an Englishman, the other an American, when they covered the i,q8o miles be- tween Newfoundland and Ireland in 16 hours and ' 12 minutes at a speed of 120 miles an hour. The night of June 14-15 thus became a permanent landmark in the history of the conquest of the air." — New York Times Current History, .luly, iqio. — Describing the experiences of himself and Lieutenant Brown, Captain .Mcock, in a message 771 AVIATION importani Flights! Transatlantic AVIATION from Galway to the London Daily Mail, which awarded them the $50,000 prize fur making the first non-stop tlight across the Atlantic between Europe and America, said: "We had a terrible journey. The wonder is that we are here at all. We scarcely saw the sun or moon or stars. For hours we saw none of Ihem. The fog was dense, and at times we had to descend within 300 feet of the sea. For four hours our machine was covered with a sheet of ice carried by frozen sleet. At another time the fog was so dense that my speed indicator did not work, and for a few minutes it was alarming. We looped the loop, I do believe, and did a steep spiral. We did some comic stunt?, for I have had no sense of horizon. The winds were favorable all the way, northwest, and at times southwest. We said in Newfoundland that we could do the trip in six- teen hours, but we never thought we should. An hour and a half before we saw land we had no certain idea where we were, but we believed we were at Galway or thereabouts. Our delight 17, igig, when the airplane which he was driving crashed to earth at Cote d'Evrard, about twenty- live miles north of Rouen, France. He was twenty- seven years old. Julv.— f!>5( dirigible flight across Atlantic. — The British dirigible R-34, «'i'h thirty (plus a stowaway) on board, commanded by Major G. H. Scott, left East Fortune, near Edinburgh, Scot- land, at 2 A. M. on July 2, crossed the .Atlantic making deviations over Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, and landed at Mitieola, N. Y. at g A. M. on Sunday, July 6. The voyage took loS hours, twelve minutes; the distance covered was 3,521 miles. On July 10 the airship started on the return voyage, and after circling New York city recrossed the Atlantic and arrived safely at Pulham, Norfolk, in seventy-five hours, having maintained constant wireless communication with land en route, thus rounding out one of the greatest achievements in the history of transatlantic travel. Among those who made the first voyage was a representative of the United Stales naval air service and two IlRITISll DIRIGIBLE, R-.u At Mineola, Long Islaiul. N. Y., after its transatlantic flight In seeing Eastal Island and Tarbot Island, live miles west of Clifden, was great. The people did not know who we were, and thought we were scouts looking for .Alcock. We encountered no unforeseen conditions. We did not suffer from cold or exhaustion, except when looking over the side ; then the sleet chewed bits out of our faces. We drank coffee and ale, and ate sand- wiches and chocolate. Our flight has shown that ihe .Mlantic flight is practicable, but I think it -hould be done, not with an aeroplane or sea- plane, but with flyiii^'-boats. We had plenty of reserve fuel left, using only two-thirds of our supply. The only thing that upset me w.is to see the machine at the end get damaged. From above the bog looked like a lovely field, but the machine sank into it to the axle, and fell over un her side." — E. J. David, Aircraft, pp. 201-202. — The machine u.sed in this flight was a \ickers- Vimy biplane and the total time occupied for the voyage was sixteen hours and twelve minutes. The aviators received the $50,000 prize offered by the Daily Mail and both were knighted by the king. Sir John Mcork lived to enjoy his triumph for only six months, for he was killed on Dec officers representing the British air ministry.— "The R-34 and her sister dirigible, the R-33, were constructed by the British Government both for naval scouting and for bombing German cities. The R-34 is 672 feet long, and 79 feet in diameter at her greatest girth. From the top of the cigar- shaped bag to the lower point of her five gondolas she measures about go feel. But it is well to bear in mind at this point that the R-34 is by no means the largest dirigible in the world ; the Germans, at this moment, have larger Zeppelins in the air, and the British still larger rigid dirigibles pretty well under way. Under the cigar-shaped bag of the R-34 are suspended the four gondolas that carry the crew while on active duty, as well as the five engines. The forward gondola contains the navigating quarters, wireless station, and an engine The other engines are disposed in the following manner: One engine in each of Ihe gondolas amidship, and two in the gondola aft, a propeller being provided for each engine with the exception of the rear gondola, which has but one propeller for Ihe two engines. The engines are of the Sunbeam Maori type, each develop- ing 250-275 horse-power, and with a speed of 772 AVIATION Important Flights AVIATION 2,500 revolutions per minute, enabling the airship to make some 70 miles an hour under favorable conditions. However, under ordinary circumstances the engines are not operated at full speed, and the airship cruises along at about 50 miles an hour in fairly still air. . . . The lifting power of the R-J4 is obtained from 19 gas bags contained within the dur-alumin skeleton, which is covered with a taut fabric skin. Each gas bag is placed in a compartment and separated from its neighbors by netting, in order to prevent rubbing ; and a valve fastened to each gas bag and controlled by hand wheels or wires from the navigating quar- ters up forward permits gas to be released from any bag at will, in order to regulate the buoyancy and trim." — ■Scientific American, July iq, iqig, pp. 58-66. — "The story of the actual flight across the Atlantic, as told by the informal log kept by General Maitland and other officers, was not particularly eventful. The most difficult moment after departure was in crossing the hills of Scot- land; owing to the large quantity of petrol carried (almost 5,000 gallons, weighing 15.8 tons) the dirigible had to fly low, and at the same time pass over Northern Scotland, where the hills in places rise to a height of 3.000 feet. The wind here was broken up into violent currents and air pockets. The most disturbed conditions were met in the mouth of the Clyde, sxjuth of Loch Lomond, which, surrounded by high mountains, looked particularly beautiful in the gray dawn light. The islands at the mouth of the Firth of Clyde were quickly passed. The north coast of Ireland ap- peared for a time, and soon faded from view as the R-34 headed out into the Atlantic. Most of the day-by-day log following the description of this first stage of the journey was taken up by cloud observations, color effects, accounts of wire- less exchanges, and of sleeping and eating ar- rangements. Icebergs were sighted toward New- foundland. A message of congratulation from the Governor of Newfoundland was received. .\nxieties consequent on the serious depletion of the fuel supply marked the last stages of the journey. Immediately after the news [of arrival in America] had been officially received, Secretary Daniels sent this message of congratulation: 'Major G. H. Scott, Commanding the R-34: The .American Navy extends its greetings to you and the heroic crew of the R-34, and congratulates you on the success of your great flight across the ocean. The arrival in .America of the first lighter-than-air craft to cross the .Atlantic marks another decided advance in the navigation of the air. Coming so soon after the flights of Read, Alcock, and Hawker, it completes a remarkable series of achievements in aviation in which Brit- ish and Americans may take a just pride, and which have served to increase the cordial rela- tions and comradeship of the two navies which have prevailed throughout the war. .America joins with the British in honoring you and the service you represent. Josephus Daniels.' " — New York Times Current History, Atig. iqiq, p. 257. — "For more than 300 years after the crossinr' of the .Atlantic by Columbus, wind power remained the sole means for propelling ships across the ocean until in i8iq the Savannah, an .American steam- ship of 350 tons, with a length of 100 feet, crossed from Savannah, Georgia, to Liverpool in twenty- five days. The Savannah, however, was also pro- vided with sails. The first real steam transit was effected by the Sirius and the Great Western, both in April, 1838, in eighteen and fifteen days re- spectively. Just 100 years after the sailing of the Savannah three successful flights were made across the Atlantic, one by the American hydroplane NC-4, another by the British biplane of Alcock and Brown, the third by the giant British dirigible R-34. — New York Times Current History, Aug., igiq, p. 254. — In its seventy-fifth anniversary number, October 2, iq20, the Scientific American, p. 338, states: "The Burton family, encircling the fireside, read with unconcealed wonder the ac- count of a hollow globe of oiled-silk filled with hydrogen gas, thus giving it a sufficient buoyancy to travel through the air. And they marveled still more at the spindle-shaped saloon, suspended beneath the balloon, carrying 5,000 pounds of passengers and luggage. Twenty-five passengers in a balloon traveling at 100 miles per hour! What of it ? Nothing alarming or startling, in view of our present-day achievements. But the fore- going facts were being read in the Scientific Ameri- can of September i8th, 1845. . . . For (in igig) the R-34 in 108 hours traveled 6,300 air miles from East Fortune, Scotland to Mineola, Long Island, due to adverse winds. And on the pas- senger list were thirty officers and men, and a stowaway !" August. — A Caproni airplane was wrecked on Aug. 2, when all its fourteen occupants — princi- pally newspaper editors — were killed. The giant Caproni airplane is an Italian production. It was reported in igiq that Signor Caproni would be a competitor for the "blue ribbon" of trans- atlantic flight, and not a few American news- papers hailed with enthusiasm the prospect of an Italian making the first voyage by air to the new world which his compatriot Columbus had laboriously reached by water 427 years before. October. — American trans-continental race. — The War Department organized a reliability race across the continent, which opened on Oct. 8. Sixty-two army aviators started from New York or San Francisco on a round flight. The con- test was won by Lieut. B. W. Maynard, who covered 5,400 miles in net flying time of sixty- seven hours, three minutes, forty seconds. 1919-1920.— Capt. Ross Smith and Lieut. K. M. Smith, with three mechanics, flew a Vickers-Rolls- Royce two-engine airplane from London to Aus- tralia, starting on Nov. 12 and arriving at Mel- bourne on Feb. 25, rg2o. This feat won the $50,- 000 prize offered by the .Australian government for the first airplane flight from Great Britain to Australia. British airplane flight from London to Karachi, 5,200 miles. 1920 (January). — Lieutenants H. Parer and J. Mcintosh started from London on Jan. 8, 1920, and reached Port Darwin (Northern territory, Aus- tralia), after remarkable adventures on August 2. February. — Lieut.Col. P. Van Ryneveld and Flight-Lieut. C. J. Q. Brand, with two mechanics, started from Brooklands (near London) on Febru- ary 4 to fly to the Cape. Their machine was wrecked at Korosko, Egypt; they returned to Cairo, secured another machine, in which they reached Buluwayo, Rhodesia, where they were again smashed up. A third machine was secured, with which they reached the Cape on March 20. Captains Cockerell and Broome, pilots, accom- panied by Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell, the zoologist, and two mechanics, flew from England February 6 in an attempt to reach the Cape. The machine crashed at Tabora, in the Kenya Protectorate (former German East Africa). Two Italian airplanes, piloted by Lieutenants Masiero and Ferrari, ascended from Rome on Feb- ruary 12 and arrived at Tokyo on May 30. December 12. — Sadi Lecointe breaks world's speed record in France (Dec. 12, 1920), flying two- and-a-half miles in 46 seconds, or 198 miles an hour 1921 (March).— A United States naval balloon 77i AVICENNA AXELBORG BANK piloted by G. K. Wilkinson ot Houston, Tcxa?, accompanied by four student pilots, ascended from the Pensacola naval station on March 22. Two days later carrier pigeons released from the bal- loon brought messages saying that the balloon was sinking and drifting out into the Gulf of Mexico. Nothing further was learnt about the missing men, and on April 8 the balloon was picked up drifting in the gulf by a fishing boat, which brought the wreck to Panama city, Florida. No trace of the crew was found. Also in: H. Tumour, Astra Casira, experiments and adventures in the atmosphere (London. 1865). T. Forster, Annals of some remarkahle aerial and Alpine voyages (London. 1832).— J. Wise, System of aeronautics, comprehending its earliest htvesligaiians (Philadelphia. 1850). — W. de Fon- vielle, Histoire de la navigation aerienne (Paris, 1007). ^F. Walker. Aerial navigation (London, 1902). — O. Lilienthal, Der Vogelfliig als Grundlage der Fliege Ktinst (Berlin, 1880; Eng., 1911). — Santos Dumont, My airships (New York, 1Q04). —.\. Hildebrandt, iirships past and present (New York, IQ08). — C. C. Turner, Aerial navigation of to-day (London. lOop). — F. T. Bedell, Aeroplane characteristics (Ithaca. N. Y., 1Q18). — Capt. V. W. Page. A. B. C. of aviation (New York, iqig). — .\. Berget, Conquest of the air (igoq). — ".\vion," Aeroplanes and aero engines (1018). — H. D. Hazel- tine, Law of the air (iqii). — E. N. Pales, Learn- ing to fly in the U. S. army (igi?). — C. B. Hay- ward, Practical aviation ((Thicago, loio). — G. C. Loening, Military aeroplanes (Boston. iot6). — H. Woodhouse. Text book of military aeron-autics (igi8) ; Idem., Text book of naval aeronautics (1917). — Col. J. G. Vincent. Xext sirps in com- mercial aviation (Xew York Times Book Review, March 13, ig2i). .AxxuALS. — F. T. Jane. All the world's aircraft. — Flying Book (London). — Brassey's Saval An- nual.— .iircra ft Year Book.—Jl. B. Mathews, Avi- ation Pocket Book. — .innuario dcll'.ieronautica (Milan). AVICENNA (080-1037). .\rabian philosopher. See B.^cd.\d: 763-833. AVIGNON, French town, on the left bank of the Rhone, in the department of Vaucluse. During the Middle Ages it was part of the Burgundian kingdom. See Bt'RGUNnv: S43-g33. 1226. — Siege by Louis VIII. Sec .\lbigenses: 1217-1229. 1309-1348. — Made the scat of the papacy. — Purchase of the city by Clement V. See Christi.axity: Decline of papacy; and Pap.\cy: 1204-1348. 1367-1369. — Temporary return of Urban V to Rome. Sec Papacy: 1352-137S 1377-1417.— Return of Pope Gregory XI to Rome. — Residence of the anti-popes of the great schism. See Papacy: M77-1417. 1687-1689. — Taken and surrendered by French. See Pap.^cy: 1682-1603. 1790-1791. — Revolution and anarchy. — Atroci- ties committed. — Reunion with France decreed. See Franxe: 1700-1791. 1797. — Surrendered to France by the pope. See Ffanxe: 1706-1707 (October April) 1815. — Possession by France confirmed. See Vienna. Congress or. AVILA, Pedratias d' (Davila, Pedrarias) (c 1440-1530), Spanish agent in America. Sec Colombia: 1449-1536. AVILES, Pedro Men^ndez de (i5io-iS74)- Founding of St. .Augustine for Spain. See Florioa: 1564-156,5;; 1565. AVION, the French word for a military aeroplane. AVION ES. — "The .\vi0ne5 were a Suevic clan. They are mentioned by Tacitus in connexion with the Reudigni. .^ngli, Varini. Eudoses, Suardones and Nuithones. all Suevic clans. These tribes must have occupied Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Mecklen- burg-Strelitz and Sleswick-Holstein the Elbe being their Eastern boundary. It is, however, impossible to define their precise localities." —A. J. Church and W. J. Brodi'bb, Minor works of Tacitus, geographical notes to the Germany. AVIS, House of. See Portugal: 1383-1385- AVIS, Knights of.— This is a Portuguese mili- tary-religious order which originated about 1147 during the wars with the Moors, and which for- merly observed the monastic rule of St. Benedict. It became connected with the order of Calatrava in Spain and received from the latter its prop- erty in Portugal. Pope Paul III united the grand mastership to the crown of Portugal. — F. C. Wood- house, Military religious orders, pt. 4. — See also Portugal: 1095-1325. AVITUS, Marcus Mjecilius, Roman emperor (Western), 455-456; waged wars against the Huns and Vandals ; fourteen months after accession was deposed bv Ricimer. See Rome: Empire: 455- 476. AVKSENTIEV, Nicolai, Russian anti-Bol- shevik leader, head of a new .\1I-Russian g.;vern- mcnt set up at Ufa in 1017. See Russia: 1918- 1020. AVLONA, or Valona, a town and seaport in what was formerly the Turkish vilayet of Janina, .Albania ; played a prominent part in the struggle between the Normans and the Byzantines and also during the World War. when at the very outset, an Italian expedition crossed the Strait of Otranto and seized the town. ".\ more cer- tain territorial loss to .Mbania is that of the port of .Aviona, which Italy occupied in 1914, and which she assuredly will be allowed to keep. .After all, her posse sion of it is no more unnatural than England's position at Gibraltar or our own at Panama." — C. H. Haskins and R. H. Lord, Some problems of the Peace Conference, p. 281. — The town has since been definitely assigned to Italy, the remainder of .Mbania being independent. — See also World War: 1914: III. Balkans: e; also Balkan States: Map. AVOCOURT, a town in the department of Ihc Meusc. France, ten miles northwest of \'erdun ; was attacked durinc the World War by the Ger- mans in a drive against \'crdun (1916). The at- tack upon the town proved unavailing and this part of the French line before Verdun remained intact. — Sec also World War: 1917: II. Western front: f , 1 ; f. 2. AVOGADRO, Amedeo, Conte Di Quaregna (1776-1856). Italian physicist. Publbhed many important physical memoirs on electricity, specific heats, capillary attraction, atomic volumes, etc. He is known chiefly, however, through the hypothesis bearing his name (.Avogadro's hypothesis), that under like conditions of temperature and pressure, equal volumes of all gases contain the same num- ber of molecules. — See also Chemistry: Modem: Lavoisier. AVOLD, Battle of (1870). See France: 1870 (July-.August). AVRE, tributary of the Somme, southeast of Amiens, the region of fighting in iqi8. See World War: 1918: II. Western front: c, 29; d, 3. AVVIM, the original inhabitants of the south- west corner of Canaan, from which they were driven by the Philistines. — H. Ewald, History of Israel, hk. 1. sect. 4. AXELBORG BANK. See Housing: Denmark. 774 AXUM AZORES AXUM, kinKci(im of. Sec Abyssinia: Embraced ill ancient Ethiopia; and Arabia: Sabacans. AYACUCHO, a small plain in the valley of the Vcnda-Mayu streamlet, Peru, midway be- tween Lima and Cuzco, where on December g, 1824, a victory corresponding to the American victory at Yorktown, was won by the revolution- ary army of South America under General Sucre, thereby securing the independence of the Spanish- American colonies. — See also Bolivia: 1809-1825; Peru: 1820-1826. AYETTE, a village in France, south of Arras. It was seized by the Germans and recaptured by the British in 1918. See World War: iqi8: II. West- ern front: c, 26; c, 28. AYLESBURY ELECTION CASE. See Eng- land: 170^. AYLESFORD, Battle of (455).— The first bat- tle fought and won by the invading Jutes after their landing in Britain under Hengest and Horsa. It was fought at the lowest ford of the river Medwav. Sec England: 440-473. AYLJESWORTH, Allen Bristol {1854- ), Chief Justice of England. On Alaskan Boundary ques- tion, see Alaskan Boundary question: 1869-1908: Basis of dispute. AYLLON, Lucas Vasquez de (1475-1526), exploration bv. See .America: I5iq-i52i;. AYLMER, Sir Arthur Percy Fitzgerald (1858- ), British general. He was in immedi- ate command of the forces trying to relieve Gen- eral Townshend, who was besieged in Kut-el- Amara. See World War: iqi6: VI. Turkish the- ater: 9; a, 1; a, 1, iii. AYMARAS. See Peru: Paternal despotism of the Incas. AYMERICH, General, French commander in Cameroons. See World War: 1915: Vlll. Africa: c, 1; c, 3. AYOUBITE, or Ayyubite, dynasty. See Saladin, Empire of. 1192. — Its description. See Crusades: Mili- tary aspect of the crusades. AYUB KHAN (1855- ), Afghan prince, youngest son of Shcre All and brother of Yakub Khan. Besieged Kandahar in 1880; defeated by General Roberts; finally surrendered to the Brit- ish in 1887. AYUN KARA, a town of Palestine, south of Jaffa, occupied by the British (1917). See World War: 1917: VI. Turkish theater: c, 2, iv. AYUNTAMIENTO, a Spanish political in- stitution originating in the Middle Ages, resembling the board of aldermen or common council of an American city. The ayuntamientos were munic- ipal legislatures possessing somewhat different au- thority at different times and places. [See Cuba: TQOi (January).] In modern Spain, every com- mune has its elected ayuntamiento, which since January, iqi8, is charged with the entire munic- ipal government, including taxation. AYUR VEDA. See Medical science: Ancient: Hindu. AYUTHIA. See Siam: 1351-1782. AZEF, Evno (c. 1871- ), Russian political- police agent. See Russiq: 1905 (January) ; 1909- 1911. AZERBAIJAN, or Aderbaijan, a province of northwestern Persia (anciently called Atropatene), separated from Russia on the north by the Aras river (see Map of Russia and the new border states). The name is also applied to the adjoining part of Transcaucasia which in 1918 was proclaimed an independent republic with the great oil port of Baku on the Caspian as its capital. [See Baku.] Azerbaijan was recognized by some but not all of the Powers. Part of Persia was also claimed by this Mohammedan republic. In 1920 the Russian Soviet government gained control. 1050-1063. — Overrun by Turkish army. See Turkey: 1004-1063. 1604. — Under control of Abbas the Great of Persia. See Bagdad: 1393-1638. 1915. — Operations of Russia against Turks and Persians. See World War: 1915: VII. Persia and Germany. 1918-1920. — Republic formed. See C.mjcasus: 1918-1920. 1919-1920. — Relations with Georgian republic. See Georgia, Republic of: 1919-1920. 1920. — Free passage to Black sea granted. See Sevres, Treaty of: 1920: Part XI: Ports, water- ways and railways. 1921. — Extent of territory. See Europe: Mod- ern: Political map of Europe. AZEV. Sec Azov. AZINCOURT. See .\gincourt. AZIZIEH, or Aziziyeh, a village in Mesopo- tamia in the Tigris valley fifty miles above Kut-al- Amara. See World War: ioiS: VI. Turkey: c; 191 7: VI. Turkish theater: a, 1, iii. AZO DYES. See Chemistry: Practical ap- plication: Dves: Theoretical investigation. AZOF. See Azov. AZORES, an archipelago in the Atlantic ocean, an integral part of the republic of Portugal. The name (Portuguese Agores, hawks) comes from the numerous hawks or buzzards once common there. These islands are situated between the 37th and 40th degrees of north latitude. They comprise three groups rather widely separated. At the northwest are Corvo and Flores about 1000 miles southeast of Newfoundland. At the southeast are St. Michaels and St. Mary and the very small island of Formigas. Cape da Roca, Portugal, the nearest point on the continent, is over 800 miles distant, while the nearest part of the Afri- can mainland is over 000 miles away. The cen- tral group of islands consists of Fayal, Pico, St. George, Terceira and Graciosa. "There is no evidence that the Azores were known to the Greeks and Romans, but many Carthaginian coins have been found in Corvo. Arabian geographers of the 1 2th and 14th centuries describe islands in the Western Ocean beyond the Canaries. These seem to have been the Azores, for they are the same in number, have a similar climate and pos- sess many hawks. In a map of 1351 these islands fare shown], the western group bearing the name Brazil Island the southern group Goat Islands and the middle group Wind or Dove Islands. In that day the word Brazil meant any red dye stuff. [The Portuguese captain] Gonzalo Velho Cabral reached Santa Maria in 1432 and St. Michaels in 1434 land laid claim to the islands]. By 1457 the other islands had been found. {Between 1432- 1461 Portuguese] colonization was rather rapid. So many Flemish settlers came in the latter part of the 15th century that the islands became known as the Flemish Islands. The inhabitants of Santa Maria were the first Europeans to receive the news of the discovery of America by Columbus, for he stopped there on his return in 1493. After the discovery of Brazil trading vessels from .Amer- ica and from India frequently stopped in the Azores and many sea-fights for valuable cargoes took place there. During the Elizabethan period many such encounters occurred. One of these was the notable fight off Flores in 1591 between the English ship 'Revenge' commanded by Sir Richard Grenville and a Spanish fleet of over fifty vessels. In the i8th cenliirv the British government secured from the Barbary pirates an immunity which enabled her American colonies 775 AZOTUS AZTEC INDIANS to carry on a large trade in fish, lumber and pro- visions to the Azores, Madeira and the Mediter- ranean." — Annual report of the American his- torical association, 1908, v. i, p. 120. — These islands are in the earthquake belt and have had many severe shocks. The emigration from the Azores has been heavy. There are about 100,000 Azoreans in the United States. Many emigrants return to the Azores. Ponta Delgada on St. Michael's, the largest city, had 17,600 inhabitants in 1919. It was from this harbor that the NC-4 began the final leg of its epochal transatlantic flight [see Avi,\tion; Important flights since iqoo: iQig (May).] At one time Easter lilies were raised for the export trade. An agronomer's sta- tion is maintained by the government to examine all plants brought into St. Michael's. This is be- cause the lilies, orange trees and vineyards were once destroyed. Many pineapples are shipped to England and much wine is exported. Lobsters are exported, and dairy products are important. On Fayal there is considerable pottery and lace-mak- ing. The inhabitants of St. Michael's are ambitious to make their island a famous summer and winter resort. The Azores were a naval base in the World War. — See also America: Map showing voy- ages of discovery. Also in: C. W. Furlong, Two mid-Atlantic islands (Harper's Magazine, Nov., 1Q16). — A. T. Halberle, Azores (National Geographic Magazine, June, iqiq).— W. F. Brown, Azores (1886).-— A. S. Brown, Madeira and the Canary Islands 'trith the Azores (looi). AZOTUS. See Syria: B. C. 64-63. AZOV, a fortified town on the left bank of the river Don, si.x miles from the sea of .-Xzov. It is an important Russian sea port serving as the principal outlet for southeastern Russia. The population in 1013 was about 27,000. The Greek colony of Tanais located near the present site of Azov was a flourishing mart of trade. B. C. 115. — .Azov was conquered by Mithra- dates. A. D. 10th century. — It fell under the rule of successive Asiatic tribes until captured by Vladimir I of Russia in the tenth century. 13th century. — Captured by the Genoese. — During this period it was strongly fortified by the Genoese, and became a place of great im- portance as the commercial center of Indo-Chinese trade. 1395. — Timur captured and sacked it. 1471. — Turks took the town and by closing the trade routes to the East ruined its prosperitv. 1696.— Taken by the Russians. See Turkey: 1684-1606. 1699.— Controlled by Russia through Peace of Carlowitz. See Hungary: 1683-160Q. 1711.— Restoration of the Turks.' See Sweden: 1707-1718. 1736-1739.— Captured by the Russians.— Se- cured to them by the Treaty of Belgrade. See Russn: 1 734- 1 740. AZTEC, American vessel sunk April i, 1917, by German submarine. See U. S. A.: 1017 (Februarv- .Aprin. AZTEC AND MAYA PICTURE-WRITING. — "No nation ever reduced it ( pictography 1 more to a system. It was in constant use in the daily transactions of life. They [the Aztecsl manu- factured for writing purposes a thick coarse paper from the leaves of the agave plant by a process of maceration and pres,sure. An .\ztec book closely resembles one of our quarto volumes. It is made of a single sheet. 12 to i^ inches wide, and often 60 or 70 feet long, and is not rolled, but folded either in squares or zigzags in such a man- / ner that on opening there are two pages bk- posed to view. Thin wooden boards are fastened to each of the outer leaves, so that the whole presents as neat an appearance, remarks Peter Martyr, as if it had come from the shop of a skil- ful book-binder. They also covered buildings, ta[)estries and scrolls of parchment with these devices. . . . What is still more astonishing, there is reason to believe, in some instances, their figures were not painted, but actually printed with mov- able blocks of wood on which the symbols were carved in relief, though this was probably con- fined to those intended for ornament only. In these records we discern something higher than a mere symbolic notation. They contain the germ of a phonetic alphabet, and represent sounds of spoken language. The symbol is often not con- nected with the idea, but with the word. The mode in which this is done corresponds pre- cisely to that of the rebus. It is a simple method, readily suggesting itself. In the middle ages it was much in vogue in Europe for the same pur- pose for which it was chiefly employed in Mexico at the same time — the writing of proper names. For example, the English family Bolton was known in heraldry by a 'tun' transfixed by a 'bolt.' Precisely so the Mexican Emperor Ixcoatl is men- tioned in the Aztec manuscripts under the figure of a serpent, 'coati,' pierced by obsidian knives, 'ixtli.' ... As a syllable could be expressed by any object whose name commenced with it, as few words can be given the form of a rebus without some change, as the figures sometimes represent their full phonetic value, sometimes only that of their initial sound, and as universally the atten- tion of the artist was directed less to the sound than to the idea, the didactic painting of the Mexicans, whatever it might have been to them, is a sealed book to us, and must remain so in great part. . . . Immense masses of such docu- rnents were stored in the imperial archives of an- cient Mexico. Torquemada asserts that five cities alone yielded to the Spanish governor on one requisition no less than 16,000 volumes or scrolls! Every leaf was destroyed. Indeed, so thorough and wholesale was the destruction of these memorials, now so precious in our eyes, that hardly enough remain to whet the wits of antiquaries. In the libraries of Paris, Dresden, Pesth, and the Vatican are, however, a sufficient number to make us despair of deciphering them, had we for com- parison all which the Spaniards destroyed. Beyond all others the Mayas, resident on the peninsula of Yucatan, would seem to have approached near- est a true phonetic system. They had a regular and well understood alphabet of 27 elementary sounds, the letters of which arc totally different from those of any other nation, and evidently originated with themselves. But besides these they used a large number of purely conventional symbols, and moreover were accustomed constantly to employ the ancient pictographic method in ad- dition as a sort of commentary on the sound rep- resented. . . . With the aid of this alphabet, which has fortunately been preserved, we are enabled to spell out a few words on the Yucatan manu- scripts and faqades. but thus far with no posi- tive results. The loss of the ancient pronuncia- tion i.s especially in the way of such studies. In South America, also, there is said to have been a nation who cultivated the art of picture-writing, the Panos, on the river Ucayale." — D. G. Brinton, Myths of the new world, ch. i. — See also Alpha- bet: Early stages; Indians, .Amxrican: Cultural area in Mexico and Central .America: Mava area. AZTEC INDIANS, a group of semi-civilized tribes of central and southern Mexico. The prin- 76 AZTEC INDIANS BAALBEK dpal trible fixed their capital at Tenochtillan (Mexico City) and gradually conquered all of the south, founding the Mexican Empire. This flourished for about two centuries, until it was overthrown by Cortez in the i6th century. — See also America, Prehistoric; Indians, American: Cultural areas in Mexico and Central America; Aztec area ; and Mavas. Development of civilization. — Its similarity to Egyptian. See America: Theory of a land bridge. Religion. See Mythology: Latin-American mythology: Aztec gods. Writing. See Aztec and Maya picture writ- ing. Empire. — Wars against Cortez and final conquest. See Mexico: 1325-1502; 1519 (Feb- ruary-April); iSiQ (October); 1519-1520; 1520 (June-July); 1520-1521; 1521 (May-July); 1521 (-"Vugust) ; 1521-1524. AZUL, Party of the. See Paraguay: 1902- 1915- B BAAL, the supreme deity of the Canaanites. Was known by various names to other peoples; worshiped by some of the Jews in the time of ."Vhab. [See also Jerusalem: B.C. noo-700.] The name was originally a title, signifying lord. — See also Baalbek. BAALBAC— See Baalbek. BAALBEK, or Baalbac, "city of Baal," the sun-god; an ancient city in Syria, northwest of Damascus, famous for its ruins which date back to Roman times. During the period of the Seleucids the name was changed to the Greek Heliopolis. In its early history it was one of the most splendid of Syrian cities, while the little village now on its site had a population in 1914 of only 2000. "The disappointment experienced by some visitors on first approaching Ba'albek is partly owing to the vast proportions of the sur- rounding region. The valley of Ccelesyria, now called el Buka'a, extends to a great distance north- ward and southward, and is shut in by the long and lofty range of Lebanon on the north-west, and that of Anti-Lebanon on the south-east. Dur- ing the many hours of approach along its undulat- ing surface towards Ba'albek the eye grows familiar with such magnitudes as the extreme length of the plain, the great height of the mountains, and the profound depths of the valleys, and in com- © PubltsLera' I'hi.lo .-^ervioe. TEMPLE OF THE SUN AND JUPITER. BAALBECK 777 BAALBEK BABISM parison with them any structure of man's design- ing, no matter how imposing, is as nothing. . . . The modern traveller, however, does not linger amongst the remains of the old city, nor loiter about the narrow streets and crooked lanes of the present town. The main attractions of Ba'albek are the wonderful ruins of these temples, which surpass even those of Greece and Rome in the vastness and boldness of their design, their sym- metrical proportions, and the delicate execution of their elaborate decorations. It has been well said of them that 'these temples have been the wonder of past centuries, and they will con- tinue to be the wonder of future generations.' . . . .As Heliopolis, Ba'albek is mentioned by several writers during the first centuries of the Chris- tian era; but the principal notices of it are derived from the coins of the second and third centuries, which represent it as a Roman colony, styled Julia Augusta Felix. The coins of Sep- timius Severus show two temples, one a larger and another a smaller, and a coin of Valerian has two temples upon it. The oracle at Ba'albek, or Heliopolis, was consulted by the Emperor Trajan, in the second century, before he undertook his second expedition against the Parthians: but the earliest authentic record of these temples is found in the writings of John of Antioch, surnamed Malalas, about the seventh century. He men- tions that '.4?;iius Antoninus Pius erected at Heli- opolis, in Phoenicia of Lebanon, a great temple of Jupiter, one of the wonders of the world.' It is possible that the original design here at Ba'albek was to construct a platform surrounded by Cyclopean stones, and to erect upon it an altar consecrated to the worship of Baal. That design appeal:, never to have been fully accomplished, and the Phoenicians probably adopted this site for one of their temples. The Greeks and Romans, in their turn, may have adopted both the site and the ruins of the Phoenician temple for their own purposes; and .Antoninus Pius perhaps be- gan to build his temple out of the remains of one more ancient, and it was probably finished by Septimius Severus fifty years later. That may have been the smaller temple, and it was probably consecrated to Jupiter; the great, temple of Baal or the sun was apparently never finished. . . . The Canaanife and the Hebrew, the Assvrian and Egyptian, the Greek and the Roman, Saracen and Christian, Tartar and Turk— all have been here; and for centuries to come travellers from every nation will visit these ruins with wonder and admiration." — W. M. Thomson, Land and the book, pp. 318-321, ,340. .341. 632-639. — Capture by Arabs. See Cai.iph.ate: 632-63g. 890. — Pillaged by Carmathians. See Carma- THIANS. 1918.— Reached by British. See World W.-^r: iqrS: VI. Turkish theater: c, 23. BAASTARDS. See Griqua, Griqualand. "BAB." See Babism. 6ABAR (i483-r53o), founder of the Mogul dynasty in India. He became king of Ferghana in I4Q4 and king of Kabul in 1504. In 1526 and 1527 he conquered the Empire of Delhi and was Mogul Emperor or Padishah of India 1526- 15.30. — See also Ixdia: 1300-1605. BAB-EL-MANDEB (Gate' of Tears), the strait connecting the Red sea and Indian ocean. On the water route to India, this strategic chan- nel is dominated by the British fortified islands of Perim and more substantially by the Briti.^h out- post of .Aden BABENBERG dynasty. See Austria: 805-1246 BABEUF, Frangois Noel, pseudonym Caius Giacchus (1760-17Q7), a French revolutionary con- spirator and journalist, propounder of the first practical socialist policy (named from him, Bab- ouvisme), and father of the socialist movements of 1848 and 1871. He edited several papers, notably Le Tribiin du peuple, and, advancing his com- munist doctrines, organized a conspiracy against the Directory. In .April, 1707, he was arrested and guillotined. — See also Socialism: 1753-1707. BABINGTON'S plot. See Fngland: 1585- 1587- BABIS: Relations with Persia (i8g6). See Persia: i8q0. BABISM, from "Bab," the "gate" or "door," a title given to a young religious reformer, named Mirza Ali Mohammed, who appeared in Persia about 1844, claiming to bring a divine message later and higher than those for which Jesus and Mohammed were sent. — M. F. Wilson, Story of the Bab (Contemporary Review, Dec, 1885). — "Mirza -Ali Mohammed, known as The Bab, was born in October. iSiq. in the city of Shiraz, in southern Persia. ... On May 23d. 1S44, moved by the Spirit of God, Mirza Ali Mohammed gave His teachings to the w'orld. ... .At that time from various parts of Persia were gathered totiether in Shiraz eighteen prepared souls, men of wisdom to whom it had been given to understand spiritual realities, and to these chosen disciples Mirza Ali Mohammed revealed His mission. He was the door ('Bab') or forerunner of a great prophet and teacher soon to appear. He, The Bab, had been divinely sent as a herald to warn the peo- ple of the coming of The Promised One and to exhort them to purify themselves and prepare for His advent. One — whom He entitled 'He whom God shall manifest,' the Latter-Day Mes- siah, promised in all the revealed writings of the past — was soon to come and establish The Kingdom of God upon earth. . . . .Among the most prominent of The Bab's followers was Kurrat ul'Ayn, poet, orator and heroine of the cause, who, after an eventful career in which she stood forth as a powerful exponent of the new faith, suffered a martyr's death. As a woman many decades ahead of her time, her life and example are an inspiration to all, and especially to her sisters of the Orient who, through the cause for which she died, are now being lifted from their former con- dition of ignorance and oppression into one of knowledge and freedom. ... At length. His fol- lowing having attained to sreat proportions, the clergy became thoroughly alarmed and instigated a here.sy trial or public examination of His doc- trines. This investigation was held in Tabriz by the authority of the governor of the province, and before the tribunal The Bab was brought a prisoner. .All manner of insults and indignities were heaped upon Him, and finally He was flogged, one of the chief mullahs applying the rods with his own hands. .After this 'The Bab was returned to his former prison in the fortress of Chih-rik About this time becan the early persecutions and massacres of the Babis in Persia. .Aroused by their priests, the fanatical Moslems fell upon the be- lievers in many parts of the land, pillaging and burning their homes, and torturing and murder- ing men, women and children. . . . Islam is the state religion of Persia, therefore that which shakes its power produces a like effect in the workings of the government. .At length, seeing the cause to be steadily on the increase, the prime minister of the state ordered that The Bab be killed, hoping thus to put an end to the matter and to place himself in security with the clergy and the peo- ple. .Accordingly, The Bab was again removed 778 BABLl TALMUD BABYLON from the prison of Chih-rik and taken to Tabriz, the seat of the local government of the province. Here, on the gth of July, 1850, He suffered martyrdom. ... By night the body of The Bab was removed by some of the faithful, and after being swathed in silk it was disguised as a bale of merchandise and deposited in a place of safety. As conditions and wisdom demanded, from time to time this hiding place was changed, and linally, on the 2ist of March, iqoq, in the presence of a notable gathering of pilgrims from various parts of both the Orient and the Occident, the body of The Bab was laid to rest by Abdul-Bahak, in a sarcophagus, in the crypt of the shrine of The Bab in the Holy Land. . . . During the four years of The Bab's imprisonment His numerous letters and epistles were, with the greatest difficulty, smuggled out of the prison and sent to the fol- lowers in various parts of the country. These writings contain His injunctions to the believers for their guidance and protection until the coming of 'Him whom God shall manifest.' The Bab's ordinances were given for the people of His time only, and were commensurable with the needs and conditions of the believers during the interim be- tween His manifestation and the manifestation of the greater One to come. The Bab was the 'First Point' of this revelation, the precursor of the greater One. In His teachings He reiterated again and again that, when 'He whom God shall mani- fest' appeared, all should turn unto Him, and that He would reveal teachings and ordinances which would replace the Babi sacred literature." — C. M. Remey, Bahai movement, ch. 2. — See also Baiiaism. Relation of Babis with Persia (i8g6). See Persia: i8q6. BABLI (Babylonian) TALMUD. See Talmud. BABOEUF, a village of France, northeast of Paris near Noyon. It was taken by the British in IQ18. See World War: igi8: II. Western front: c, 20. BABOUVISM, the socialistic doctrines pro- pounded by Babeuf during the French Revolution, — namely, state communism or state ownership of property ; social equality in rank as well as prop- erty; criticism of the solution of the agrarian ques- tion. — See also Babeitf, Franqois NoiiL. BABU, a Hindu title of respect, but com- monly applied to a native clerk able to write English, with a disparaging implication of super- ficial education. BA-BUMANTSU. See Bushmen. BABUNA PASS, a locality near Prilep, Mace- donia, where the French army during the World War attempted (191 6) to give aid to the retreat- ing Serbian army which was forced to abandon its h'ne along the Vardar river. See World War: 1015: V. Balkans: b, 5. BABYLON: The city.— "The city stands on a broad plain, and is an exact square, a hundred and twenty furlongs flifteen miles] in length each way, so that the entire circuit is four hundred and eighty furlongs. While such is its size, in mag- nificence there is no other city that approaches it. [See also Babylonia: Position and importance of Babylon.] It is surrounded, in the first place, by a broad and deep moat, full of water, be- hind which rises a wall fifty royal cubits [a cubit was about 18 inches] in width and two hundred in height- ... On the top, along the edges of the wall, they constructed buildings of a single cham- ber facing one another, leaving between them room for a four-horse chariot to turn. In the circuit of the wall are a hundred gates, all of brass, with brazen lintels and side posts. The bitumen used in the work was brought to Babylon from the Is, a small stream which flows into the Euphrates at the point where the city of the same name stands, eight days' journey from Babylon. Lumps of bitumen are found in great abundance in this river. The city is divided into two portions by the river which runs through the midst of it. This river is the Euphrates. . . . The city wall is brought down on both sides to the edge of the stream; thence, from the corners of the wall, there is carried along each bank of the river a fence of burnt bricks. The houses are mostly three and four stories high; the streets all run in straight Hues; not only those parallel to the river, but also the cross streets which lead down to the water side. At the river end of these cross streets are low gates in the fence that skirts the stream, which are, like the great gates in the outer wall, of brass, and open on the water. The outer wall is the main defence of the city. There is, however, a second inner wall, of less thickness than the first, but very little in- ferior to it in strength. The centre of each di- vision of the town was occupied by a fortress. In the one stood the palace of the kings, sur- rounded by a wall of great strength and size: in the other was the sacred precinct of Jupiter Belus, a square enclosure, two furlongs each way, with gates of solid brass; which was also re- maining in my time. In the middle of the precinct there was a tower of solid masonry, a furlong in length and breadth, upon which was raised a second tower, and on that a third, and so on up to eight. The ascent to the top is on the outside, by a path which winds round all the towers. . . . On the topmost tower there is a spacious temple." — Herodotus, History (translated by G, Rawlinson), bk. I, ch. 17S-1S1. Origin and influence. — Added historical knowl- edge through excavations. — "The origin of the city of Babylon is veiled in impenetrable obscur- ity. The lirpt city built upon the site must have been founded fully four thousand years before Christ, and it may have been much earlier. The city is named in the Omen tablet of Sargon, and, though this is no procf that the city was actually in existence more than three thousand years be- fore Christ, it does prove that a later tradition assigned to it this great antiquity. At this early date, however, it seems not to have been a city of importance. During the long period of the rise of the kingdom of Sumer (q. v.) and Accad few kings in the south find Babylon worthy of mention, though Babylon must have been develop- ing into a city of influence during the later cen- turies of the dominion of Isin and Larsa. From about 2200 B. C. the influence of this city ex- tends almost without a break to the period of the Seleucides. [See also Seleucidae.] No capital in the world has ever been the center of so much power, wealth, and culture for a period so vast. It is indeed a brilliant cycle of centuries upon which we enter. The rife of Babylon to supremacy over the more ancient cities both of northern and of southern Babylonia, is associated with the development of a new strain of blood and life among the Semites. The Semites, who had poured in successive streams of migration from Arabia, had found homes in many and diverse places, and in each of these the originally homogeneous race had developed civilizations differing in some points from each other." — R. W. Rogers, History of Baby- lonia and Assyria, p. 75. — See also Semites: Primi- tive Babylonia. — During the past three years, name- ly from i8q8 to iQoi "a party of German ex- plorers has been busy excavating from two to five miles north of the village of Hillah, — about forty miles to the south of Bagdad. These mounds cover the remains of the famous city of Babylon, 779 BABYLON Excavations BABYLON so familiar to us all from its associations with Nebuchadnezzar, the destroyer of Jerusalem. While the work of the explorers is far from com- plete, they have already been fortunate enough to discover the exact site of the great palace begun by Nabopolassar, the father ol Nebuchad- nezzar, and completed by the latter. This edifice was famous throughout the ancient world. It is this palace to which the author of the Hook of Daniel refers in his story of the mystical handwrit- ing on the wall that foretold the downfall of the great city. In it Cyrus, on his conque.'t of Baby- lon, in the year 538 B.C. [see Persia: B.C. 549- 521], took up his official residence, and the same balustrade running round the tower to the top. It is probably this tower that the biblical writer in Genesis had in mind in narrating the curious tale of the dispersion of mankind. (See also Temples: Stage of culture represented by temple architecture.! The city that is thus being brought to light through the pick and spade is essentially the creation of Nebuchadnezzar, so that the words which the author of Daniel puts into the mouth of the King, 'Is not this great Babylon, which I have built for the royal dwelling place, by the might of my power and for the glory of my majesty ?', receive a significance through the ex- cavations of the twentieth century far greater and J^Xr.\VATIONS AT BAHYI.ON building two centuries kiter witnes.so(l ihr patlulic death scene of .Mcxaniler the (Ireat. Besides the palace the explorers have also discovered the ex- act site of one of the most important edifices in the entire history of Babylonia, the great temple of Marduk, or Bel. the head of the Babylonian pantheon. Although the beginning of this struc- ture goes back to a very ancient period, it was Nebuchadnezzar who restored and enlarged it be- yond its former proportions, and within the sacred precinct in which the temple stood he erected numerous shrines to various gods and godde.sses, who constituted, as it were, the court of the chief god. A feature of the precinct was a huge tower of eight stories in height, formed by a series of stages, one above the other, with a / more rialistic than was ever dreamed of." — M. Jaslrow, Piihue and temple of Sebtuhiidnezziur {Harper's Monthly Magazine, v. 104, pp. S0Q-810). Nebuchadrezzar and the wall of Babylon. — "In all Nebuchadrezzar's |or Nebuihadnezzar's] in- scriptions that have been found — and we have a great many — he especially glories in his construc- tions. He seems to have repaired almost every great temple in the land and built not a few new ones. . . . But what he did at Babylon not only surpasses all his other works, but eclipses those of all former kings, even those of Sargon at Dur Sharrukin, not so much in sjilendor as in the vastncss and originality of his conceptions, — an originality due probably to that besetting idea of coupling ;idornment with military requirements, cSo BABYLON Excavations Celebrated Wall BABYLON which consistently underlies most of the public works he undertook. In this, however, he ap- pears to have followed a line traced out first by his father. Of some of his greatest constructions, — such as the new palace, the great city walls, and the embankments of the Euphrates, — he es- pecially mentions that they were begun by Nab- opolassar, but left unfinished at his death. Baby- lon, sacked once by Sennacherib, then rebuilt by Esarhaddon, had gone through a conflagration when besieged and taken by Asshurbanipal, and must have been in a sad condition when the Chaldean usurper made it once more the scat of empire. Hence, perhaps, the thought of recon- structing it in such a manner as would make it a capital not only in size and magnificence, but in strength: it was to be at once the queen of cities and the most impregnable of fortresses. The last time that Babylon had been taken it had been reduced by famine. This was the first contingency to be guarded against. For this pur- pose the city was to be protected by a double enclosure of mighty walls, the inner one skirting its outlines narrowly, while the outer was moved to such a distance as to enfold a large portion of the land, which was to be cultivated so that the capital could raise enough grain and fodder for its own consumption. This vast space also would serve to shelter the population of the surrounding villages in case of an invasion. It has not been possible to trace the line of this outer wall, which received the name of Niraitti-Bel, nor consequently to determine how many square miles it protected, and the reports of ancient writers are somewhat conflicting, as none of them, of course, took exact scientific measurements after the manner of our modern surveyors. Herodotus gives the circum- ference as somewhat over fifty English miles. A large figure certainly. But it has been observed that it scarcely surpasses that yielded by the cir- cumvallation of Paris;. and besides the arable and pasture land, it must have embraced suburbs, not impossibly Borsip itself, which was also well fortified at the same time. This is the highest estimate. The lowest (and later) gives forty miles. The Nimitti-Bel rampart was protected on the out- side by a wide and deep moat, which at the same time had supplied the material for the wall. . . . The reports about the height and thickness of this celebrated wall vary still more considerably. Herodotus says it was 350 feet high (apparently including the height of the towers, which were built at regular intervals on the top of it), with a thickness of 75 feet. Now no effort of imagina- tion, even with the knowledge that the walls of Babylon were numbered among the 'Seven Won- ders of the World,' (q. v.) can well make us realize a city wall, nigh on fifty miles long, sur- passing in height the extreme height of St. Paul's of London. The estimates of various later writers range all the way between that exorbitant figure and that of 75 feet,^very possibly too moderate. For the fact remains undisputed that the Nimitti-Bel rampart was stupendous both in height and in thickness; that towers were built on the top of it, on the edges, two facing each other, and that there remained room between for a four-horse chariot to turn. .\nd the contem- porary Hebrew prophet, Jeremiah, speaks of Baby- lon as 'mounting up to heaven,' of 'the broad walls of Babylon' and her 'high gates.' Of these there were a hundred in the circuit of the wall, according to Herodotus, 'and they were all of brass, with brazen lintels and side-posts.' This outer wall Herodotus calls 'the main defence of the city,' The second or inner wall, named Imgur-Bel, he described as being 'of less thickness than the first, 78 but very little inferior to it in strength.' Then there were the walls which enclosed the two royal palaces, the old one on the right bank of the Euphrates, and the new one on the left, — and made of each a respectable fortress; for it was part of the plan of reconstruction that the city should be extended across the river, to gain a firmer seat and full control of this all-important thoroughfare; and an entire new quarter was built on the left bank around the new and mag- nificent palace. And as it was desirable, both for convenience and defence, that the two sides should be united by permanent means of communication, Nebuchadrezzar built [a I great bridge [across the river], but so that it could be kept open or shut off at will, as a further safeguard against surprises. This was effected by means of platforms made of beams and planks, which were laid from pier to pier in the daytime, and removed for the night. Of course one solitary bridge could not suffice for the traffic of a population which cannot have been under half a million, and the river was gay with hundreds of boats and barges darting with their load of passengers from bank to bank, or gliding down the current, or working against it. There were many landing-places, but no quays or broad paved walls bordered with handsome buildings, such as in our ideas appear as the necessary ac- companiment of a beautiful river in a great city. The Euphrates flowed along imprisoned between a double wall, of burnt brick like the others, which followed its course on either bank and close to the edge from end to end of the city. Only where the streets abutted on the river — and these were disposed at regular intervals, in straight lines and at right angles — there were low gates to allow pedestrians to descend to the landing-places. The general effect must have been peculiar and rather gloomy." — Z. A. Ragozin, Media, Babylon and Persia, pp. 227-232. — "The Babylon of Nebuchad- nezzar occupied a square of which each side was nearly fifteen miles in length, and was bisected by the Euphrates diagonally from northwest to southeast. . . . The great squares of the city were not all occupied by buildings. Many of them were used as gardens and even farms, and the great fertility of the soil, caused by irrigation, pro- ducing two and even three crops a year, supplied food sufficient for the inhabitants in case of siege. Babylon was a vast fortified province rather than a city. . . . There is a curious fact which I do not remember to have seen noticed, and of which I will not here venture to suggest the explana- tion. Babylon stands in the Book of Revelation as the emblem of all the abominations which are to be destroyed by the power of Christ. But Babylon is the one city known to history which could have served as a model for John's descrip- tion of the New Jerusalem: 'the city lying four square,' 'the walls great and high,' the river which flowed through the city, 'and in the midst of the street of it, and on cither side of the river the tree of life, bearing twelve manner of fruits;' 'the foundations of the wall of the city garnished with all manner of precious stones,' as the base of the walls inclosing the great palace were faced with glazed and enameled bricks of brilliant colors, and a broad space left that they might be seen, — these characteristics, and they are all unique, have been combined in no other city." — W. B. Wright, Ancient cities from the dawn to the day- light, pp. 41-44- Decline. — Use of ancient wall and buildings as a quarry. — "The policy he [Cyrus] inaugurated in the provinces of his empire was a complete reversal of Assyrian methods. For the nationality of each conquered race was respected, and it was en- I BABYLON Decline BABYLON couraged to retain its own religion and its laws and customs. Hence Babylon's commercial life and prosperity suffered no interruption in conse- quence of the change in her political status. Taxa- tion was not materially increased, and little was altered beyond the name and title of the reign- ing king in the dates upon commercial and legal documents. The sieges of Babylon by Darius mark the beginning of the city's decay. [See also Babylonia: Hammurabi: His character and achievements.] Her defences had not been seri- ously impaired by Cyrus, but they now suffered considerably. The city was again restless during Darius's closing years, and further damage was done to it in the reign of Xerxes, when the Babylonians made their last bids for independence. For Xer.xes is said not only to have dismantled the walls, but to have plundered and destroyed the great temple of Marduk itself [See Persia: B. C. 486-405.] Large areas in the city, which had been a wonder of the nations, now began to lie permanently in ruins. Babylon entered on a new phase in 331 B.C., when the long struggle be- tween Greece and Persia was ended by the de- feat of Darius HI. at Gaugamela. For Susa and Babylon submitted to Alexander, who on proclaiming himself King of Asia, took Baby- lon as his capital. We may picture him gazing on the city's great buildings, many of which now lay ruined and deserted. Like Cyrus before him, he sacrificed to Babylon's gods; and he is said to have wished to restore E-sagila, Marduk's great temple, but to have given up the idea, as it would have taken ten thousand men more than two months to remove the rubbish from the ruins. But he seems to have made some attempt in that direction, since a tablet has been found, dated in his sixth year, which records a payment of ten manehs of silver for 'clearing away the dust of E-sagila.' [For Alexander's conquest, see Mace- donia: B.C. 330-323] While the old buildings decayed, some new ones arose in their place, in- cluding a Greek theatre for the use of the large Greek colony. Many of the Babylonians them- selves adopted Greek names and fashions, but the more conservative elements, particularly among the priesthood, continued to retain their own separate life and customs. In the year 270 B.C. we have a record that .^ntiochus Soter restored the temples of Nabfl and Marduk at Babylon and Borsippa, and the recent diggings at Erech have shown that the old temple in that city retained its ancient cult under a new name. In the second century we know that in a corner of the great temple at Babylon, Marduk and the God of Heaven were worshiped as a two-fold deity under the name of Anna-Bel; and we hear of priests attached to one of Babylon's old shrines as late as the year 2q B. C. Services in honour of the later forms of the Babylonian gods were probably continued into the Christian era. [See Jews: 604-536 B.C. to 166-40 B. C] The life of the ancient city naturally flickered longest around the ruined temples and seats of worship. Or. the secular side, as a com- mercial centre, she was then but a ghost of her former self. Her real decay had set in when Seleucus, after securing the satrapy of Babylon on Alexander's death, had recognized the greater advantages offered by the Tigris«for maritime com- munication. On the foundation of Sclcucia, Baby- lon as a city began rapidly to decay. Deserted at first by the official classes, followed later by the merchants, she decreased in importance as her rival grew. Thus it was by a gradual and purely economic process, and through no sudden blow, that Babylon slowly bled to death."— L. W. King, History of Balyylon, from lite foundation of the monarchy to the Persian conquest, pp. 285-28S. —"From this time onward the burnt brick of the ancient royal buildings was re-used for all manner of secular buildings. The Greek theatre at Homera is built of such material. Thus the pillared build- ings of .\mran and houses at Merkes, that arc built of brick rubble, belong either to the Greek (331-130 B.C.) or the Parthian (13Q B.C. -226 A. D.) periods, but to which of them cannot be determined. At that time began the process of demolishing the city area, which perhaps was now only occupied by isolated dwellings, a process that certainly continued throughout the Sassanide pe- riod (226-636 A. D.). Amran alone was inhabited, and that only scantily, as is shown by the upper- most levels there, which reach down as late as the Arab middle age Uirca 1200 A.D.). When we gaze to-day over the wide area of ruins we are involuntarily reminded of the words of the prophet Jeremiah (L. 30): 'Therefore, the wild beasts of the desert, with the wild beases of the islands, shall dwell there, and the owls shall dwell therein: and it shall be no more inhabited for ever; neither shall it be dwelt in from generation to generation.' " — R. Koldewcy, Excavations at Babylon, pp. 313-314. — "The walls of Babylon were destined to serve still another purpose. The spread of Mohammedanism caused new cities to be built, and Babylon was the quarry for their building material. The walls of Babylon were transformed into the sacred cities of Kerbela and Nejef. In the eleventh century, on the site of the southern part of Babylon, the city of Hillah was built. Hillah might be called a child of Babylon, for it is almost entirely constructed with Nebuchadnezzar's bricks. The walls of the houses are built of them. The court-yards and streets are paved with them, and as you walk about the city the name of Nebuchadnezzar everywhere meets your eye. Many of the ten thousand f>eople living in Hillah still gain their livelihood by dig- ging the bricks from the ruins to sell to the mod- ern builders. The great irrigating dams across the Euphrates are constructed entirely of them. The people of Hillah, too, are a survival of Babylonian times. Some are Arabs of the same tribes which used to roam the desert in Nebuchadnezzar's days. Some are the children of the Hebrew exiles of old. Some, calling themselves Christians, are the de- scendants of Babylonians, perhaps of Nebuchad- nezzar himself. There among the ruins they still live in the same kind of houses, dressing the same, eating the same food as did their ancestors when Nebuchadnezzar built the walls of Babylon." — E. J. Banks, Seven wonders of the ancient world, p. 67. — See also B.\bvloni,\. Hanging Gardens of Babylon,—- The Hanging gardens of Babylon were considered by the Greeks to be one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. They consisted of trees and flowers apparently planted upon the roof of some building. The structure was one square terrace built upon an- other to about 150 feet in height and resting upon hollow pillars of burnt brick which were filled with earth. It was necessary to keep a force of men employed pumping up water from the Euphrates for irrigation. It is said that Nebuchadrezzar, aim- ing to please his Median Queen, had these gardens constructed so that they may recall to her mind the mountain scenery of her native land. — See also .\RCHiTEcrtiRE: Oriental: Mesopotamia. Also in: A. H. Layard, Nineveh and Babylon. — C. J. Fall, Records of the past.—C. J. Rich, Memoir on the ruins of Babylon. — F. H. Weiss- bach, Das Stadtbild von Babvlon BABYLON OF THE CRUSADERS. See Crusades: i24£-i254. 782 BABYLONIA BABYLONIA BABYLONIA Land and its characteristics.— "Babylonia is the joint delta of the Tigris and Euphrates, and owes its prosperity and ruin alike to man's use or abuse of the gifts of these two rivers. The Euphrates, like the Nile, passes through three dis- tinct phases in its course to the sea. Its two main sources lie deep in the Armenian highland, and carve out parallel courses of over 400 miles before their joint streams leave the mountains through a tremendous gorge. [See also Armenia: Physical features.] Then for 720 miles from Samsat to Hit the river crosses open treeless country, more level and barren as it recedes from the hills. From the west it receives only one important tributary, the Sajur, which comes in quite high up near Carchemish, and from the east only two, the Belikh and the Khabur, both in the middle third of this section. As far as the Sajur, both banks are habitable; and the east bank was formerly so as far as the Khabur, forming the district of Harran, and the ancient Kingdom of Mitanni. Beyond this the country is desert, both on the Arabian side and in the greater part of Mesopotamia, the region between the Two Rivers. The river itself flows with swift stream and intermittent rapids within a deep rock-walled bed. usually a few miles wide and capable of cultivation, but naturally a jungle of tamarisk and reeds, infested by wild pig. The few sedentary Arabs, who practise a primitive ir- rigation with water-wheels, pay blackmail to pow- erful nomad tribes of the desert. The palm re- places the olive about half way down. Above Hit the river has narrows and is full of islands; but at Hit itself solid ground ends in a reef of harder rocks with springs of sulphur, brine, and bitumen. The river here is about 250 yards in width, and still flows briskly through this last obstruction. The third section consists wholly of alluvial soil, and extends for 550 miles from Hit to the Persian Gulf. The river soon divides into two principal channels, and these into minor backwaters, the wreck of ancient canals. It first deposits copious silt, and then fine mud like that of the Nile. The thore line has therefore been advancing rapidly within historic time: Eridu, for example, which was a chief port of early Babylonia, lies now 125 miles from the sea. If the present rate of ad- vance, about a mile in thirty years, may be taken as an average — which is, however, not demon- strable yet — Eridu may have begun to be mud- bound about 1800 B.C. The course of the Tigris is geographically similar. Two chief sources, ris- ing near those of the Euphrates, drain the south- eastern ranges of Armenia. From their junction to Samarra. where the Tigris fairly enters the delta, is about 250 miles, first through rolling foothills, in an open valley which is the home- country of the Assyrians; then through steppe and desert. On the west bank there are now no tribu- taries, though there was formerly a flood-channel from the south-east of the Khabur basin. On the east bank, however, the copious drainage of the Median highlands, which lie nearly parallel with its course, is brought in by a number of streams, of which the most notable are the Greater and Lesser Zab. Consequently, the Tigris brings down eventually rather more water than the Euphrates: and also on its swifter current a good deal more silt. In the latitude of Bagdad, about 100 miles below Samarra, and consequently well within the alluvial area, Euphrates and Tigris approach within 3S miles of each other but soon diverge again to a distance of ico miles. It was a little above this point that the Euphrates was first divided in an- tiquity into two main branches, of which the eastern Saklawic canal is in part, at least, ar- tificial, designed to water a large district west of Bagdad, and also as an overflow, for in Upper Babylonia the Euphrates lies higher than the Tigris. Lower down, the levels are reversed, and the great Shatt-el-Hai canal, past the site of Lag- ash, relieves the Tigris, and at times overloads the Euphrates at Ur and below. In addition, the whole of the joint delta has been from very early times a network of canals designed both to dis- tribute irrigation water, and also to defend the cultivated lands against the desert. The most im- portant are the Shatt-Hindie, which diverges at Babylon, and follows the western edge of the delta, rejoining near ancient Erech; and the trans- verse Shatt-el-Hai already mentioned. The man- agement of these great canals needs some skill; the rivers rise rather irregularly, as the mountain snow melts, from March to May, and often carry away the soft earthen dams and embankments. They also carry down so much silt, that centuries of deposition and dredging have raised the main channels, and the country near them, above the general level. The two main streams, whose mouths were still a day's journey apart in Alex- ander's time, now unite [near] Basra, 300 miles below Bagdad. Their joint channel, the Shatt- el-Arab, is 1,000 yards wide, and navigable. A little further down again, it receives on the east side the main stream of the Karun River, from the highlands of ancient Elam. Under careful management, the whole alluvial region is of amaz- ing fertility. The date palm is indigenous, and wheat was anciently believed to be so. In an- cient times it raised two, or even three, crops of wheat a year, with a yield of 200 or 300 grains from one seed. The rice, which is now the prin- cipal grain crop, came in under the Arab regime. The present desolation is due, first to the Turkish nomads in the eleventh century; then to the reck- less behaviour of Mesopotamian Arabs. All through the summer, the principal streams arc navigable, or can easily be made so, and sailing boats ascend as far as Hit and Samarra; but by September the flood is over, and in November the rivers are at their lowest ; and natural shoals and the remains of old dams are grievous obstacles. "Such is Babylonia. But before we enquire what human enterprize was to make of it, we must note equally briefly the regions which en- close it. West of the Euphrates lies the great plain of Arabia (q. v.), rising gently towards the Jordan and the Red Sea. It is nearly- featureless, grass- land at best, and in great part utter desert now. Its nomad pastoral inhabitants, however, have ex- ercised, as we shall see, an influence on the fortunes both of Babylonia and all other regions which fringe it, which is one of the great facts of history. Eastward, beyond the Tigris, towers the highland zone, range upon range of massive limestone mountains, till the passes to the plateau be- hind them rise to 5,000 and 6,000 feet, and the peaks to over 11,000 feet. The nearer parts of the plateau vary in altitude fiom 3,000 to 1,500 feet. The width of the mountain belt averages about 300 miles, and its parallel ranges from five to ten in number. Between them lie valleys of varying size and elevation, all more or less habit- able, but secluded from each other and from the outer world on either side. A few have no outfall, but enclose considerable lakes, like Van and Urmia in the north, and Shiraz in the south; but the majority discharge the copious water which pours 783 BABYLONIA Geographical Features BABYLONIA from the snow-clad ridges, through great gorges into more westerly troughs, and so eventually into a few large rivers. Some of these, as we have seen, are tributary to the Tigris; others further south issue independently into the Persian Gulf, and form their own hot sodden deltas; while in a middle section three of the largest, Karun, Jarahi, and Tab, now join their mudflats with those of the Shatt-el-Arab, and have created an alluvial area nearly half as large as Babylonia 'be- tween the rivers'; more encumbered indeed by silt, but with lowlands almost as fertile under cultivation. Above these foreshores the hills be- tween Karun and Tigris, lying nearest to the ancient head of the gulf, rise gently at first, in a wide expanse of rolling country. Then, where the first mountains stand up, and catch the moisture from the winds, comes a long narrow belt of for- est, dense oak below, passing to cedar and pine; and extending from the Diyala River as far south as Shiraz. Access to this, in a region so timber- less otherwise, seems to have been one of the great objects of contention in ancient times. On the greater heights come more alpine conditions, with some moisture and hardy vegetation in deep valleys; but on the eastern slopes, prevalent drought, with aromatic scrubland locally, and some output of medicinal resins and gums. Then, interpersed with marginal oases, wherever a mountain stream runs out into the plain, begins a desolate and often salt-strewn plateau, the dead heart of Persia, ancient as well as modern. With this dead heart, however, and even with the fringe of oases — mediaeval and modem Persia — we are not now concerned; only with the sequence of alluvium, foothills, and forest belt, which make up the ancient region of Elam (q.v.), and with the intermont plains and upland valleys which sus- tained the old Medes and Persians, the first high- landers to play a part in universal history. "Pausing now for a moment to compare the situation in Mesopotamia with that on the Nile, we note first that through the difference in direc- tion of the two valleys the Nile has its sub-tropical region upstream, and its almost temperate delta in the north; the Euphrates has its delta in one of the hottest summer climates of the world. The Nile has its cataracts all far upstream, so that the fall of the valley is concentrated at a few points, and a sluggish navigable fairway is reserved from Assuan to the coast: far away beyond these rap- ids, moreover, the Nile has already deposited its obstructive silt, and bears down to Egypt only beneficial mud, which is invisibly fine, and causes little trouble in irrigation. The Euphrates, on the contrary, descends rapidly, for so large a river, all through its upper course; its last barrier is at Hit, which in the anatomy of this valley corre- sponds rather to Cairo than to Assuan ; it conse- quently enters the fcnland still laden with silt, and in all ages has industriously blocked one bed after another, and spread the disastrous floods of which memory was preserved by Babylonian legends of a deluge which flooded even the desert ; as we read in the best known version 'all the high hills that were under the whole heaven were covered: fifteen cubits upwards did the waters prevail'; and there are very few 'mountains' in alluvial Babylonia which would not be devastated by a flood of this moderate depth. Like the ordinary summer flood of the Euphrates which begins in April and May, and is highest in August, that del- uge lasted about twenty-one weeks; and in Sep- tember, 'the seventh month', it abated. Frob anxi- eties the Nile is free. In Egyptian religion it is the sun which is all-beneficent, or all-destroying, and therefore (in due course) chief god, and the 'power behind the throne.' His enemies are pow- ers of dark and cold, not of wet. In Babylonia, and still more in Assyria, which lies closer under the hills, men and the high gods were alike power- less when the storm-demons were out. The first victory of good was the binding of the dragon which broods in dark water; a fit emblem of the creeping silt-shoal which grows till it throttles the canal. For many reasons, therefore, it is in the delta, and not in the valley, that Babylonian civi- lization grows ; as it might indeed have grown in Egypt too, had not the valley culture ripened sooner. Consequently, again, the Babylonian centres — some dozen in all — lie in a cluster, not strung on one green thread for hundreds of miles. And as the Tigris and the Euphrates interweave their currents, first one receiving, and then the other, internal communication is abnormally com- plete; a striking contrast with the perils of cross- delta travel in Egypt. No one went up to Baby- Ion to go from Lagash to Ur, as train and boat alike go almost up to Cairo from Alexandria to Port Said; almost everywhere there was direct canal. The Euphrates, however, is barred to large navigation at Hit, and though the Tigris is navi- gable by steamers to Mosul, ancient traffic on it, and on the Euphrates, too, was exclusively down- stream; the rivers being over-rapid and unfit for towing; the upstream wind which overcomes the Nile quite absent; and the boats (or more often rafts) far more valuable for timber in so wood- less a country than for laborious haulage upstream. The best were, and are, made like coracles, of skins on a wooden frame, and returned, folded up, on donkey-back. "The basis of Babylonian culture was the intense fertility of the alluvial soil, wherever water could be applied to it in due amount. With excess of water it became noisome fen: in defect, it parched to a desert: and there are now large tracts of utter desert within the limits of irrigation. But the two valleys were there, nevertheless, and could bring goods in, if they could not convey them out. They flowed, moreover, as we have just seen, from regions of produce which Babylonia lacked; wine in particular, and olive oil; timber, too, and bitumen from Hit, for building and for water- proofing; and stone, above all. It is difficult for us now to conceive the limitations under which an architect worked, when a stone door-socket was a rich gift of a king to his god, and was rescued from one ruin after another, to be re-used and proudly redcdicated. Then again eastward, be- yond Tigris, there was trade through the foothills to a nearer timber-country, and beyond it to sun- burned lands of spices and drugs. Across the desert, too, you could reach another spice-country in the south ; and westward lay the Red Sea coast, for coral, copper, and other hard stones. In re- turn, what Babylonia had to offer was, first its inexhaustible surplus of foodstuff, corn, and dates; much wool, of finer quality, because better nour- ished, than that of the desert breeds; still richer cargoes of woven woollens, 'Babylonitish gar- ments,' and in due time other kinds of manufac- tures too. It became, also, needless to say, a supreme centre of exchange; a kind of ancient London, whither the world's produce converged into wholesale hands, and was retailed over vast distances by regular correspondents and branch houses. The beasts of burden were the ass and man; camel and horse alike belong to a far later age, the former introduced from Arabia, where it is native, the latter from the east beyond the hills." — J. L. Myres, Dawn of history, pp. 84-96. — See also Commerce: Ancient: B.C. 1500-1000. Historical sources. — "The sources for the his- 784 BABYLONIA Historical Sources Monumental Records BABYLONIA tory of the Babylonians and Assyrians may be grouped under four main heads: I. The monu- mental remains of the Assyrians and Babylonians themselves; II. The Egyptian hieroglyphic texts; III. The Old Testament; IV. The Greek and Latin writers. Of these four by far the most important in every particular arc the monumental remains of the Babylonians and Assyrians. . . . From the mounds that cover the ancient cities of Babylonia and Assyria there has come a vast store of tab- lets, which now number certainly not less than five hundred thousand in the various museums of the world. These tablets contain the literature of the two pieoples, a literature as varied in form and content as it is vast in extent. In the end all of this literature may be considered as sources lor history. Many business tablets are dated, and from these dates much may be learned for chro- nology, while even in the tablets themselves there is matter relating to the daily life of the people, all of which must ultimately be valuable in the reconstruction of the social history. So also are all religious texts, all omens and incantations, sources for the study of the history of religious development. But the primary sources are the so- called royal inscriptions, those, namely, that were written for kings, for their libraries and collec- tions or for their glorification. These divide, roughly, into two main classes; A. Legendary, and D. Historical and Chronological. The legends begin in mythological explanations of the mysteries of the physical universe and pass on slowly into stories of heroes with whom were mingled various threads of real history. A number of similar legends have been preserved for us in their original cuneiform, of which the myth of Adapa, the king of Kutha, and the legend of the birth of Sargon are excellent examples. From these and similar legends there may, in some instances, be extracted kernels of historic truth not to be overlooked by the serious investigator. The Babylonian historical inscriptions may be divided into two great per- iods: (a) Those belonging to the period before Hammurapi {circa 2000 B.C.), and (b) those from Hamraurapi to Nabonidus (555-539 B.C.). In the first period by far the larger portion of the texts are votive inscriptions, inscribed upon objects of beauty or of value dedicated to the deities, or describing such, or they are building inscriptions primarily given to the description of temples erected by kings or princes to the gods. . . . The only historical material of importance upon such documents as these consists in the names, titles, and more or less extended genealogi- cal connections of the kings. Some, however, of the earlier kings . . . give various details of polit- ical affairs useful in the reconstruction of events. By far the most important, as also the most ex- tended, inscriptions of this early period belong to Gudea, patesi of Lagash (circa 2450 B.C.), whose two great cylinders, the one containing about eight hundred lines of writing and the other about five hundred, give a marvellous picture of the com- mon life and thought and feeling, as well as some details of political life in that far distant age. . . . All these kings wrote in Sumerian. although signs of Semitic influence are not altogether wanting in them. . . . With Hammurapi begins the new period of historical writing, as there also began new political conditions after northern and south- ern Babylonia had been united under his skilful and beneficent sway. From this time onward the language is prevailingly Semitic, but the style and form of the Sumerian records is carefully followed as the norm. . . . From Hammurapi to Nabonidus, a period of about fifteen millenniums, the Baby- Ionian kings wrote always with a deep religious tone, and paying almost no heed to miltary glory, wrote ever of the building of temples and palaces, the digging of canals, or other great works of peace. The tone of all these texts is epic rather than historical, and their rhvthm and cadence poetical rather than prosaic. The texts of Ham- murapi are both numerous and lengthy, and from him come also a large number of letters and des- patches, valuable for social and institutional his- tory. No other king of the first Babylonian dy- nasty has left considerable documents except Sam- suiluna. From that time onward there are periods of bloom in historiography in the periods Kassites, the Tellel-Amarna letters (q.v.), and Nebuchad- rezzar I, after whom comes a great dearth of the longer texts. There is a renaissance of such liter- ature again in the days of Shamasshumikin (668- 648 B.C.), reaching its height in Nebuchadrezzar II (604-561 B.C.) and Nabonidus (556-540 B.C.). In addition to these historical sources the Babylon- ians and Assyrians have left a great mass of chron- ological material. ... In respect of their value as sources of knowledge these monumental re- mains can only be said to be as valuable r.s the records of other ancient peoples. They bear for the most part the stamp of reasonableness. Often, indeed, do they contain palpable exaggerations of kingly prowess, of victories, and of conquests. They therefore require sifting and rigid criticism. But in most cases it is possible to learn from the issue of the events the relative importance of them, and so be able to check the measure of ex- travagance in the narrative. . . . [See also His- tory: 14.] "Egyptian hieroglyphic texts are of very slight importance as direct sources of knowledge concerning the political history of Babylonia and Assyria, but they contain many places and per- sonal names useful in the elucidation of corre- sponding names in Assyrian texts. The gain of the Old Testament has been greater from Assyrian studies than the reverse, though the apologetic value of monumental testimony has often been greatly exaggerated. Nevertheless, it must not be forgotten that it was interest in the Old Testa- ment which inspired most of the early explorers and excavators and some of the earlier decipherers and interpreters, and that from the historical notices in the Old Testament came not a few points for the outworking of details in the newly discovered inscriptions. The historical portions of the Old Testament which are still of importance as sources for Assyrian and Babylonian history are especially 2 Kings, while of even greater impor- tance, in many instances, are the prophets Isaiah, Nahum, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel. It is to be noted that the Old Testament makes direct and valuable contributions as a historical source only from 745 B. C, the beginning of the reign of Tiglathpileser IV. The notices of the earlier periods are too vague, or too doubtful, as to the neriod of their origin to be more valuable than as confirmatory or supplementary to the original Babylonian or Assyrian texts. "As sources the Greek and Latin writers once held first place, but are now reduced to a very insignificant position by the native monumental records. Nevertheless, they still retain some im- portance, and need constantly to be used to check and control the native writers as well as to assist in the ordering of their more detailed materials. First in importance among all the classical writers stands Berossos, or Berosos, for so the name is also transliterated into Greek. He was a Babylon- ian by origin, and a priest of the great god Bel. The dates of his birth and of his death are equally unknown, but it is clear that he was living in the 785 BABYLONIA Historical Sources Greek Authorities BABYLONIA days of Alexander the Great (356-323 B.C.), and continued to live at least as late as Antiochus I Soter (280-261 B.C.). [See Seleucidae: B.C. 281-224 and B C. 224-187.] He wrote a great work on Babylonian history, the title of which was probably Babyloniaca. ■ ■ ■ Urthappily. the original work has perished, and all that remains is e.xcerpts which have come to us after much copying and many transfers from hand to hand . . . From Berossos but little is to be learned of direct value, but the support which we gain from these fragmentary remains for the general course of the history is very great. . . . The next Greek writer who comes before us as a possible source is Ktesias, a contemporary of Xenophon. He came ... as a prisoner of war to Persia, where he spent seventeen years at the court. ... In 3Qq be re- turned to his native city, and in the ease thus achieved proceeded to work up into historical form the materials he had collected. He wrote In twenty-three books a history of Persia in the Ionic dialect. The first six books treated the history of Assyria and Media. . . . His work was extensively used in the ancient world, and wherever quoted became at once the object of sharp controversy. He was accused of being untrustworthy and in- different to truth, and the charges and the con- troversy continue until today. . . . The first six books, relating to the early history of Assyria, are valueless. . . . The books themselves have per- ished. Only fragments of them survive in the quotations by Diodorus and Eusebius and others, and in an epitome by Pbotius. For our purpose they scarcely come into the question at all. Last of all among the classical writers we come to Herodotus, the father of history. Of the value of his works as a source very diverse opinions have been and are still held. From him surely much was expected. Born in Halicarnassus, in Caria, B. C. 484, he had associations with the greatest men of his time, and apparently planned his history with skill and care. He desired to tell of the famous events in the struggle between the Greek and the barbarian, and this led him to treat of the causes which led to the Persian war. In the very first book (chapters 1-5) he begins with the as- saults of the East upon the West by telling the story of the rape of Helen on the one side and the story of Europa and Media on the other. From this mythological foundation he is carried first to the Lydians, whose king, Croesus, made the first attack upon the Greeks of the .-Egean coast of Asia Minor. From these he passes to the Egyptians, the Babylonians, and the Scythians, who prepare the way for the Persians. . . . The work of Herodotus, as it has come down to ns, divides naturally into three main parts. The first is mainly concerned with Asia, including Egypt, and covers the reigns of Cyrus and Gambyses, with the accession of Darius ; the second deals with Europe, and the third with Hellas. . . . His posi- tion was very different from the modern historian, for he could learn very little from books. He seems, indeed, to have used the Logographi to a certain extent, and among them quite certainly Hecatsus, and probably Xaiillius. and Hcllanicuf. and possibly also Dionysius. From them he had to turn to see what might be learned from visits to the countries which he was to de.*cribe, and whose story he was to tell. His first long journey was probably to Pontus, and the interior of .^sia Minor, and this was probably undertaken before 44S, while he was still a subject of the Persian king. His next great journey was to Phoenicia and south- ern Syria From there he went southward, along the coast or always near it to Gaza and the very confines of Egypt at Pclusium, and from there he entered Egypt. Before this journey along the coast he had made the great voyage into the heart of ancient kingdoms, starting from Tyre, or from Poseidon on the coast farther north. From this he probably reached the Euphrates and went southward to Babylon upon its waters. So much seems reasonably certain. . . . Professor Sayce has attempted to prove, with much learning and great acuteness, that 'he never visited Assyria and Baby- lonia.' . . . That Professor Sayce has proved upon Herodotus a host of inaccuracies, some travelers' tales, and has effectually disposed of his claims to rank as an independent source of ancient history there can be no doubt. Yet that in this case, as m other similar modern judgments, there is an excess of skepticism is perhaps no less true. There is good reason for believing that Herodotus had really visited Babylon, for the topographical details which he gives bear frequently the stamp of an eyewit- ness. . . . He still remains, what Cicero called him, the father of history, though he also was able to recognize that his books contained material that could hardly be called historical. When this is granted quite freely, and the mistakes, inaccura- cies, and love of marvels have all been mentioned, we have gone far enough. It were better not to have doubted his essential vcracit\', nor to have despised his worth. After these there remain among classical writers few who deserve to be mentioned as sources." — R. W. Rogers, History of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 377-396. Earliest inhabitants. — "If we call up before us the land of Babylonia, and transport ourselves backward until we reach the period of more than four thousand years before Christ, we shall be able to discern here and there signs of life, society, and government in certain cities. Civilization has al- ready reached a high point, the arts of life are well advanced, nnd men are ab'e to write dov.n their thoughts and deeds in intelligible language and in permanent form. .Ml these presuppose a long period of development running back through millenniums of unrecorded time. At this period there are no great kingdoms, comprising many cities, with their laws and customs, with subject ter- ritory and tribute-paying 5tat?3. Over the entire land there are visible, as we look back upon it, only cities dissevered in government, and perhaps in intercourse, but yet the promise of kingdoms still unborn. In Babylonia we know of the ex- istence of the cities .■\gade. Babylon, Kutha, Kish, Umma, Shirpuria (afterward called Lagash), Guti, and yet others less famous. . . . Impelled by re- ligion, by hunger, and by ambition, the peoples of Babylonia, who have dwelt apart in separate cities, begin to add city to city, concentrating power in the hands of kings. Herein lies the origin of the great empire which must later dominate the whole earth, for these little kingdoms thus formed later united under the headship of one kingdom and the empire is founded. At the very earliest period whose written records have come down to us the land which we now call Babylonia was divided into two great parts, of which the southern was later called Sumcr (q.v.) and the northern .Accad (see .^kk.hd), the dividing line between them being approximately drawn from Samarra on the Tigris to Hit on the Euphrates. North of this line Accad is somewhat undulating in surface, and rises gradually to unite with the steppe-like lands of Mesopotamia on the north- western and Assyria on the northeastern slopes. South of this imaginary line lies the monotonously level and alluvial land of Sumer. The earliest Sumerian inhabitants known to us called the northern part of the country, later known as .Accad, by the strange and still unexplained name of Ki-uri 786 BABYLONIA Earliest Inhabitants BABYLONIA or Ki-urra. In later times the name of the city of Agade was extended by the Semites to cover the whole of the northern land, and was Semitized in the form Akkadu or Accad. The southern part of the country, in which the Sumerians were first settled, they called simply Kartag. ... At the earliest period of which we have knowledge the land of Sumer was inhabited by the rounded- headed, clean-shaven Sumerians, and the land of Accad by the long-headed and bearded Semites. Both of these races were dwelling in cities, with settled agricultural communities about them. The Sumerians were writing upon carefully prepared clay their own language, agglutinative in character, and in a script which they had either devised or at least perfected from an original picture writing. With their language there was early evident some intermixture with or borrowing of Semitic words, and there was presumably also a Semitic element in the population, and racial intermixture already in progress. At this same period Accad was in- habited by Semites who had taken over from their Sumerian neighbors the cumbrous and awk- ward cuneiform script, and were using it to write their own tongue — [see Cuneiform Inscriptions] a language inflected and not agglutinative, and quite unrelated in form and vocabulary to the Sumerian. They also borrowed Sumerian words and adapted them to their own modes of speech. . . . The early history of both Semites and Sumeri- ans is lost in a dim past from which no ray of light has penetrated to our time. The Semites . . . probably came originally from Arabia, but the course they followed is quite unknown. "^ — R. W. Rogers, History of Babylonia and Assyria, 1-4. — See Semites: Primitive Babylonia .^ — "We are now able to trace the history of the Euphrates Valley back to a period considerably beyond 3000 B.C. At that early date there were two distinct ethnic groups forming the main body of the population. As depicted on the monuments and works of art the one group is clean shaven, the other bearded, though not infrequently with the upper lip shaved. The former group is marked by obliquely set eyes and a long but not thick nose, and by thin lips and rather high cheek bones, the other has the fleshy nose and thick lips as well as other features characteristic of the Semitic race. The variation extends to the dress, a flounced garment hanging from the waist in the one case, a plaid thrown across the shoulder and draping the entire body in the other. The group with the racial character- istics of the Semites was known as the Akkadians; the other, a non-Semitic group, but whose pos- sible affinities with other races has not yet been determined, bore the name Sumerian. The centre of the Semitic settlements, at the time when the monumental material comes into view, was in the northern section of the Euphrates Valley, while the strongholds of the Sumerians were in the south. The Semites appear to have entered the valley from the northwest, coming down from the mountain regions of Syria, while the Sumerians — also a people of mountainous origin — probably came from the northwest, though this is still a mooted point. Which of the two groups came first is likewise a question to which as yet no defi- nite answer can be given, though there is much in favor of Eduard Meyer's view that the Semites or Akkadians were the first on the ground and that the Sumerians entered the land as conquerors, holding the Akkadians in subjection for many centuries, until, about 2500 B. C., the tide began to turn. At aliout 2100 B.C. we find the Akka- dians definitely in control in the entire Euphrates Valley and maintaining the suppremacy < ver the Sumerians, though not without some periods of temporary reaction especially in the extreme southern section where the Sumerians managed to retain a semblance of political independence. "More important than the question of the origi- nal settlement of the Valley is the rivalry between Sumerians and Akkadians which directly stimulated the intellectual qualities of both groups and led to the high order of culture for which the Euphra- tes Valley became distinguished. It will be found to be a general rule that civilizations of the first rank develop through the commingling of the two distinct races, entering into rivalry with each other. Such a commingling develops the best qualities in both. To distinguish in detail the elements contributed bv each as a task that lies beyond the scope of a survey of the religious views and practices unfolded in the Euphrates Valley. Obviously, the share of the Sumerians in the ear- lier periods was far greater. The cuneiform script developing from picture writing is of Sumerian origin. The oldest documents of all kinds are written in Sumerian. Later, when the Akkadians began to obtain control, the script was adapted to conveying thoughts, facts and data in Akkadian, while the Sumerian, though for a long time sur- viving in the cult, became archaic, and even be- fore this stage was reached, was modified by the introduction of Akkadian elements. In return many distinctly Sumerian features passed over into Akkadian, and externally in the use of hun- dreds of characters used ideographically, the ."Akkadian continued to show a Sumerian aspect. In the domain of architecture, one may see the result of the commingling of the two races in the two types of religious edifices that arose in the important centres of the Euphrates Valley, (i) the house as the dwelling of the deity modelled after the human habitation, and (2) the stage tower, a huge brick construction of considerable height with a winding ascent, clearly in imitation of a mountain with a road leading to the top, as the seat of the deity. The house-mot;/ for the temple is of Semitic origin, while the stage tower is the contribution of the Sumerians who, accustomed in their mountain homes to worship their deitie.i on mountain tops, endeavored to symbolize this belief by the imitation of & mountain when they came to a perfectly flat country like the Euphrates Valley." — M. Jastrow, Jr., Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 50-52. See Architecture: Ori- ental: Mesopotamia. — "Since Sumir, the Shinar of the Bible, was the first part of the country occu- pied by the invading Semites, while Accad long continued to be regarded as the seat of an alien race, the language' and population of primitive Chaldea have been named Accadian by the ma- jority of Assyrian scholars. The part played by these Accadians in the intellectual history of man- kind is highly important. They were the earliest civilizers of Western Asia, and it i.= to them that we have to trace the arts and sciences, the re- ligious traditions and the philosophy not only of the Assyrians, but also of the Phoenicians, the Ara- maeans, and even the Hebrews themselves. It was, too, from Chaldea that the germs of Greek art and of much of the Greek pantheon and mythology originally came. Columnar architecture reached its first and highest development in Babylonia; the lions that still guard the main entrance of My- kerne are distinctly Assyrian in character; and the Greek Heraklcs with his twelve labours finds his prototype in the hero of the great Chaldean eoic. It is difficult to say how much of our present cul- ture is not owed to the stunted, oblique-eyed people of ancient Babylonia ; Jerusalem and Athens are the sacred cities of our modern life; and both Jerusalem and Athens were profoundly influenced 787 BABYLONIA Inhabitants Religion BABYLONIA by the ideas which had their first starting-point in primival Accad. The Semite has ever been a trader and an intermediary, and his earhest work was the precious trade in spiritual and mental wares. Babylonia was the home and mother of Semitic culture and Semitic inspiration; the Phcenicians never forgot that they were a colony from the Persian Gulf, while the Israelite recounted that his father Abraham had been born in Ur of the Chaldees, Almost the whole of the .Assyrian literature was derived from Accad, and translated from the dead language of primitive Chaldea."— A. H. Sayce, Babylonian literature, pp. 6-7, and in his Ancient empires of the East, app. 2. — ''The place of China in the past and future is not that which it was long supposed to be. Recent re- searches have disclosed that its civilization, like ours, was variously derived from the same old focus of culture of south-western .Asia. ... It was my good fortune to be able to show, in an un- interrupted series of a score or so of papers in periodicals, of communications to the Royal Asi- atic Society and elsewhere, published and unpub- lished, and of contributions to several works since .April 1880, downwards, that the writing and some knowledge of arts, science and government of the early Chinese, more or less enumerated below, were derived from the old civilization of Babylonia, through the secondary focus of Susiana, and that this derivation was a social fact, resulting not from scientific teaching but from practical intercourse of some length between the Susian confederation and the future civilizers of the Chinese, the Bak tribes, w'ho, from their neighbouring settlements in the N., moved eastwards at the time of the great rising of the XXIII. century B.C. Coming again in the field. Dr. J. Edkins has joined me on the same line." — T. de Lacouperie, Babylonia and China (Academy, Aug. 7, 1880.) — "We could enumerate a long series of affinities between Chaldean culture and Chinese civilization, although the last was not borrowed directly. From what evidence we have, it seems highly probable that a certain number of families or of tribes, without any apparent generic namj, but among which the Kutta filled an important position, came to China about the year 2500 B.C. These tribes, which came from the West, 'vere obliged to quit the neighbourhood, probably noith of the Susiana, and were comprised in the feudal agglomeration of that region, where they must have been influenced by the .Akkado-Chaldean cul- ture." — T. de Lacouperie, Early history of Chinese civilization, p. 32. — See also China: Origin of the People. Religion. — From animism " to polytheism.— "The Babylonian-.Assyrian religion in its oldest form as revealed by the votive inscriptions of Sumcrian rulers and by specimens of literature that may with great probability be carried back to the earliest period, is long past the stage of primitive beliefs, though it shows traces that in its concep- tion of divine government of the universe it started from what is commonly termed animism. By this term is meant a view of nature ascribing life to all phenomena and ot the same order as th? vital force that manifest?, itself in human and animal activity. Under this view the gods worshipped by man are personifications cillicr of phenomena of nature or of objects in nature, primarilv the sun, the moon, the storm 'with its accompanim3nt of rain, thunder and lightning), the earth, water (including streams and wells), trees and rocks Religion being the partly emotional, partly intel- lectual response to an instinct, confirmed bv ex- perience, that man is not the .irbiter of his fate, it is natural for him to make the effort to sup- plement his inherent and self-evident weakness In the presence of nature by securing the aid of powers upon whose favor he is dependent. The storm destroys his handiwork, and therefore to avoid the catastrophe he seeks the favor of the power manifesting itself in the storm. The stream may sink his primitive craft and therefore, before trusting himself to the treacherous element, he endeavors to assure himself of the favor of the spirit or power residing in the water. When he advances to the agricultural stage, the earth and the sun are the two forces that in the main condi- tion his welfare; and as a consequence he personi- fies the earth as a mother in whose womb the seed has been placed, which with the cooperation of the sun is brought to fruition. Starting from this animistic conception of nature, the Sumerians and .Akkadians developed a pantheon, all the members of which take their rise as personified powers of nature. In thus grouping the gods into a more or less definite relationship — and that is involved in the creation of a pantheon — the religion passes be- yond the animistic stage. The gods in the larger centres become, primarily, the protectors of the place, and as the group enlarges its geographical boundaries, the jurisdiction and the attributes of a local god are correspondingly increased. He be- comes, irrespective of his original character, the protector of the fields, the guardian of the army; it is he who gives victory over the enemy and when misfortunes come, it is the god who sends the punishment because of anger that has been aroused in him. The combination of little groups into a powerful state brings about further changes, and as one state comes to exercise a sovereignty over other combinations of groups, the gods of the various localities are organized after the pat- tern of human society into a royal court with gradations in rank, corresponding to the class dis- tinctions that grow in complication as combina- tions of groups result in the formation of a po- litical unit. "Of the chief local gods which thus take on a larger character we may single out Enki, whom the Akkadians designated as Ea, and who from being the patron deity of Eridu, lying at the head of 'he Persian Gulf, becomes the god of waters in general. Another deity, Enlil, originally a storm- god and associated with the old Sumerian centre. Nippur, becomes the head of the Sumerian pan- theon because of the importance which Nippur ac- quired, in part political, in part due to the posi- tion of Nippur as a religious centre. .As such, Enlil acquires attributes originally foreign to his nature. He becomes an agricultural deity and is addressed in terms which show that he has ab- sorbed the power ascribed to the sun and water as well. .At Shirpuria, another Sumerian centre, the chief deity is Ningirsu [Ninib], a personifica- tion of the sun, who becomes a powerful warrior, with a mighty net in which he catches the soldiers of the enemy. In the later period Marduk, again a solar deit\', as the patron of the city of Baby- lon, becomes supreme over all the gods when Babylon rises to the position of the capital of the Babylonian empire. With this step, finally achieved by the great Hammurapi (2125-2081 B. C), the attributes of all the other great gods are bestowed on Marduk, and such tendencies toward a monotheistic conception of the universe as are to be noted in the course of the development of the Babylonian religion gather about his cult. The proximity of Borsippa to Babylon (lying almost opposite the latter) brought about a close asso- ciation between Marduk and the local deity of Borsippa, known as Nabu INebo], who may have been originally a personification of the watery element — perhaps the god of the Euphrates more 788 BABYLONIA Polytheism Creation Myths BABYLONIA particularly. The relationship between Marduk and Nabu i5 pictured as that of father to son, and to such an extent are the original traits of Nabu obscured that he becomes merely a somewhat pale reflection of Marduk — a junior Marduk by the side of a senior. In the same way we have in the many other iocahties of southern and northern Babylonia deities closely associated with a place as patron and guardian who are originally per- sonifications of the sun, moon, water, earth or the storm, but whose original character tends to be- come obscured through one circumstance or an- other, concomitant with changes in the political kaleidoscope and with advancing social conditions. "It thus happens that a widely diffused poly- theism continues to be the striking feature of the Babylonian-Assyrian religion, despite the counter endeavors to devise theological systems that aimed to reduce the many gods to a limited number of superior powers in actual control of the universe. Between these two tendencies, the one towards pro- viding a place for literally hundreds of deities, the other towards concentrating actual divine power in a limited number, the Babylonian-Assyrian reli- gion runs its course The former tendency leads further towards recognizing, besides hundreds of deities, a large number of minor divine beings, demons pictured in human or animal form to whom diseases and all kinds of mishaps are assigned. The latter tendency has its outcome in the division of divine government among three powers. There are several groups of such triads. Foremost stands a triad composed of Anu, to whom the control of the heavens is assigned; Enlil, who rules the earth and the atmosphere above it, and Ea, who rep- resents the watery element surrounding the earth, and on which the earth is supposed to float like a rubber ball. In the case of all three gods all local limitations have entirely disappeared, as have all traces of the specific power of nature originally personified by each of them. Less artificial in character and of more practical import is another triad frequently occurring in inscriptions and in- variably depicted by symbols on the boundary stones, consisting of Sin, the moon-god, Shamash, the sun-god, and Ishtar, the planet Venus, symbol- izing the great mother goddess, the source of life and fertility. These three gods represent the chief powers upon which man is dependent, sum- ming up, as it were, the chief protectors of human life and the chief guides of his being. In place of Ishtar, Adad, a general god of storm? who never appears to have had any specific local cult, is in- troduced, and not infrequently we have, instead of a triad, a group of four, — Sin, Shamash, Adad and Ishtar, in which combination the latter rep- resents the female element in general, essential as a complement to the male to produce the mani- festation of life in the universe. "The gods exist according to the Babylonian- Assyrian point of view in order to be worshiped. They feel lonely without temples, and in one of the accounts of creation the gods are represented as creating mankind in order to have temples and worshipers. In return, the gods act as protectors of humanity, although in the early period of pre- dominating local cults each god is interested only in those who dwell within his jurisdiction. Suc- cess in undertakings, good crops, business ventures, health, possessions, victory in arms — all come through the favor of the gods. The aim of the cult, therefore, is to secure and happily to retain the good-will of the gods. The gods must be kept in good humor. They crave homage, and woe to the ruler or people who neglect to pay the proper respect to the gods. By a natural corol- lary, all misfortunes are ascribed to the anger of the gods. Bad crops, defeat in battle, pestilence, destructive storms, mishaps of all kinds, including failure in business, are the punishments sent by offended gods. The theory was a convenient one, for it shifted the responsibility from one's own shoulders for ill-fortune and placed it on the gods, but on the other hand there was also some reason for the anger of the superior powers, albeit one was not always able to fathom it. This theory of the alternate favor and anger of the gods formed the basis of religious ethics as well ; it dominates the view taken of sin, for sin meant the commis- sion of an act or an omission of one, resulting in arousing the anger of some deity. Such an omission might consist in not bringing tribute of in not asking for his assistance in any undertaking, while the commission might be an error in pro- nouncing certain formulje or a mistake in the performance of some religious rite. By the side of such acts or misdeeds, not involving a breach of ethics from our point of view, there were also actual transgressions, such as lying, cheating, steal- ing, adultery, treachery, cruelty, failure to show proper consideration for one's parents or for one's fellows or neglect of other duties that would arouse the displeasure of a god. The genuine ethical element thus enters into the religion, but it is characteristic of the status of the religion that down to the latest period no distinction is made between an ethical misdeed and a purely ritualistic transgression or omission. The appeal to the gods was made by certain acts and rites, more or less symbolical, accompanied by the recital of certain formula supposed to have the power of making a direct appeal either for the manifestation of di- vine power or for the removal of a god's dis- pleasure. The aspects of the cult thus resulting may be grouped under two categories, (i) incan- tations, shading off into prayers and hymns, ac- companied by rites to symbolize the release of a sufferer from disease or from some other evil, and (2) divination methods to ascertain the disposi- tion and by implication the intention of a deity, and thus to forestall impending evil, or at all events to be prepared for the blow, if it was in- evitable." — M. Jastrow, Jr., Religion of Assyria and Babylonia, pp. 53-63. — See also Assyria: People, religion and early history; Religion: B.C. 2000-200. Creation myths. — "In Babylonia and Assyria various creation myths were developed. One of the oldest assumes the existence of the earth and narrates the building of cities and the develop- ment of agriculture. Another, which is known only through the broken tablet written about 2100 B. C, attributes the creation of the world to the triad Anu, Bel, and Ea, together with the goddess Ninkharsag, while Nintu or Ishtar created man- kind. The best known of these myths was in late Assyrian and Babylonian times developed into an epic in seven tablets or cantos. The essence of this story is that Tiamat, the great mother-dragon of the sea, determined to destroy the gods whom she had borne. They then chose one of their number, Marduk, to fight her; he overcame her, split her in two, and formed of one part of her the heavens and of the other the earth. This is evidence that in substance this myth is very old and that, in earlier forms of it, Enlil of Nippur and Ea of Eridu had stood in place of Marduk. In still another creation-myth the god Ashur is the chief actor. Such a myth was the natural product of lower Babylonia, where, on account of the annual overflow of the rivers, the sea seems to come and try to overwhelm the land. Other myths relate to various matters. Two are con- cerned with the acquisition of knowledge on the 789 BABYLONIA Civic Life Early Monarchy BABYLONIA part of man. According to one of these, pre- served to us by Berosos, Oannes (a late name for Ea) was a fish-god who lived in the water at night, but came up by day and taught men ag- riculture, horticulture, the art of building houses, and how to make laws. According to another, called the Adapa-myth, Ea feared lest man, who had become intelligent, should partake of the food of the gods and become immortal. At a time when Ea knew that other gods would offer Adapa such food he warned Adapa not to partake of it, lest it destroy him. Adapa obeyed Ea and thus missed immortality. These myths reflect the feel- ing that, whije the gods are willing to help man up to a certain point, they are jealous of his too great advancement." — G. A. Barton, Religions of the world, pp. 26-28. Social structure. — Temple as civic center. — "With manufactures and commerce standing so high in the economy of Babylonia, it is not to be wondered at if the social structure of the country developed some of the same features as begin to perplex our modern world. In particular, the right was fully recognized, to practise industry and skill and enjoy the fruits of them, irrespective of sex. Not only was the status of married women high (for their partnership was valued) and their freedom great, but a distinct industrial status had been found for unmarried women, in large co- operative societies under religious sanction, with vows of celibacy and strict attention to business. Unlike mediaeval nuns, however, members of these orders were free mistresses of their time and la- bour: they lived where they would and worked at what they liked, insured by their membership, so long as they kept their vows, and paid their dues. The only social distinctions were those be- tween slaves and freemen, and between landless (which practically meant industrial) persons, and land owners. The latter class included all public servants, because public services, as in medieval Europe, were rewarded, not by salaries, but by a grant of land sufficient to maintain the official and meet the expenses of his duty. Privilege entailed responsibility ; and offenders were punished more heavily if they belonged to the 'upper classes'; doctors' fees were graduated, too, according to the status of the patient. .\t the other end of the scale, slaves could save, hold property, and buy their freedom ; their state, as throughout the an- cient world, was at bottom a compulsory initiation into culture higher than their own. "Each Babylonian city centred round the temple of its patron god; and the antiquity of this whole system of society is nowhere better illustrated than in the overwhelming power of the temple authori- ties. It recalls more nearly the despotism of the priest-kings of the Twenty-first Dynasty than any earlier phase in the growth of society in Egypt. The chief priest of the temple was ruler of the city. When conquests took place, and Babylonian empires were built up, the conqueror provided all the viceroys he required, by appointing a man whom he could trust, to be chief priest in each place. This personal rule was well suited to the needs of such cities. In a close-knit industrial so- ciety, preeminent ability discovers itself, incompe- tence is found out: and as the patron god was at the same time largest landlord, chief employer, and master merchant, he had the largest interest of any one in the selection of an efficient minister. In this way a city got approximately the government it de.served. It is to the centralized personal re- sponsibility, which is the mainspring of these simple constitutions, that we owe a large part of our knowledge of their working, through the co- pious official correspondence which passed between over-lords like Hammurabi and his viceroys, or the natural pride of an administrator like Gudea of Tello, in recording his own efficiency. The temple formed a distinct quarter of the city, and had usually a distinctive name. It consisted of an artificial mound, high enough, like the 'Tower of Babel' itself, to out-top the severest inundation, with a platform large enough to contain the house of the god, which was exactly modelled on the palace of a king, just as his daily service was, on the routine of a royal household. The deity takes his meals, hears music, sleeps, walks in his garden or tends his pet animals, just like a human sov- ereign. If he is not there when you call upon him, it is because he is a-hunting, like Baal on Carmel. Below clustered the stores, workshops, and dwellings of the temple servants, who included masons, smiths, and other industrials: as well as the quarters of the lay population. Other im- portant buildings occupied similar platforms. Orig- inally perhaps these mounds were the normal ac- cumulation of ages of debris, more copious than ever when architecture was almost wholly in mud; but in later times they seem to have been faced with decorative brickwork and adapted as flood- platforms, like those of the temples. .\ny building in fact which was intended to last, had perforce to be defended so. in this home-country of the del- uge. But the ordinary houses were not worth preserving long. They were the merest hovels of mud-brick, little more than sleeping-rooms and shelters from the sun, with verandahs of shittim- wood from the fen poplar. Baked brick was in- deed in use, even in the earliest layers, but mainly for palaces and temples. In the absence of na- tive stone, sculpture was a rarity; and the Euphra- tes mud bakes to a dull brown, which defies decoration. Of all the great civilizations, Baby- lonia alone contributes nothing essential to the potter's art." — J. L. Myres, Damn of history, pp. q8-ioo. — See also Temples; Stage of culture rep- resented by temple architecture. Early (Chaldean) monarchy. — "Our earliest glimpse of the political condition of Chaldea shows us the country divided into numerous small states, each headed by a great city, made famous and powerful by the sanctuary or temple of some par- ticular deity, and ruled by a patesi. a title which is now thought to mean priest-king, i.e., priest and king in one. There can be little doubt that the beginning of the city was ever>vvhere the temple, with its college of ministering priests, and that the surrounding settlement was gradually formed by pilgrims and worshippers. That royalty developed out of the priesthood is also more than probable. . . . There comes a time when for the title of patesi ,s substituted that of king. ... It is notice- able that the distinction between the Semitic new- comers and the indigenous Shumiro-.Accadians con- tinues long to be traceable in the names of the royal temple-builders, even after the new Semitic idiom, which we call the .'\ssyrian, had entirely ousted the old language. . . . Furthermore, even superfical observation shows that the old language and the old names survive longest in Shumir, — the South. From this fact it is to be inferred with little chance of mistake that the North, — the land of Accad, — was earlier Semitized, that the Semitic immigrants established their first headquarters in that part of the country, that their power and influence thence spread to the South . Fully in ac- cordance with these indications, the first grand his- torical figure that meets us at the threshold of Chaldean history, dim with the mists of ages and fabulous traditions, yet unmistakably real, is that of the Semite Sharrukin, king of Accad, or Agade, as the great Northern city came to be called — more 790 BABYLONIA Position of Babylon First Empire BABYLONIA generally known in history under the corrupt mod- ern reading of Sargon, and called Sargon I., 'the First,' to distinguish him from a very famous Assyrian monarch of the same name who reigned many centuries later. As to the city of Agade, it is no other than the city of Accad mentioned in Genesis x, lo. It was situated close to the Euphra- tes on a wide canal just opposite Sippar, so that in time the two cities came to be considered as one double city, and the Hebrews always called it 'the two Sippars' — Sepharvaim, which is often spoken of in the Bible. . . . The tremendously an- cient date of 3800 B. C. is now generally accepted for Sargon of Agade — perhaps the remotest au- thentic date yet arrived at in history." — Z. A. Ragozin, Story oj Chaldea, cli. 4. — See also Akkad; Assyria; Chaldaea; Elam; Khassites; Sumer. Also in: G. Rawlinson, Five great monarchies: Chaldea, ch. 8. Position and importance of Babylon (q.v.).— "This continued preeminence of a single city is in striking contrast to the ephemeral authority of ear- lier capitals, and it can only be explained by some radical change in the general conditions of the country. One fact stands out clearly: Babylon's geographical position must have endowed her dur- ing this period with a strategical and commercial importance which enabled her to survive the rudest shocks to her material prosperity. A glance at the map will show that the city lay in the north of Babylonia, just below the confluence of the two great rivers in their lower course. Built originally on the left bank of the Euphrates, she was pro- tected by its stream from any sudden incursion of the desert tribes. At the same time she was in immediate contact with the broad expanse of al- luvial plain to the south-east, intersected by its network of canals. But the real strength of her position lay in her near neighbourhood to the trans-continental routes of traffic. When approach- ing Baghdad from the north the Mesopotamian plain contracts to a width of some thirty-live miles, and, although it has already begun to ex- pand again in the latitude of Babylon, that city was well within touch of both rivers. She consequently lay at the meeting-point of two great avenues of commerce. The Euphrates route linked Babylonia with Northern Syria and the Mediter- ranean, and was her natural line of contact with Egypt ; it also connected her with Cappadocia, by way to the Cilician Gates through the Taurus, along the track of the later Royal Road. Farther north the trunk-route through Anatolia from the west, reinforced by tributary routes from the Black Sea, turns at Sivas on the Upper Halys, and after crossing the Euphrates in the mountains, first strikes the Tigris at Diarbekr; then leaving that river for the easier plain, it rejoins the stream in the neighbourhood of Nineveh and so advances southward to Susa or to Babylon. A third great route thSt Babylon controlled was that to the east through the Gates of Zatros, the easiest point of penetration to the Iranian plateau and the natural outlet of commerce from Northern Elam. Babylon thus lay across the stream of the nations' traffic, and in the direct path of any invader advancing upon the southern plains. That she owed her importance to her strategic position, and not to any particular virtue on the part of her inhabitants, will be apparent from the later history of the country. It has indeed been pointed out that the geographical conditions render neces- sary the existence of a great urban centre near the confluence of the Mesopotamian rivers. And this fact is amply attested by the relative positions of the capital cities, which succeeded one another in that region after the supremacy had passed from Babylon. Seleucia, Ctesiphon and Baghdad are all clustered in the narrow neck of the Mesopo- tamian plain, and for only one short period, when normal conditions were suspended, has the centre of government been transferred to any southern city. The sole change has consisted in the per- manent selection of the Tigris for the site of each new capital, with a decided tendency to remove it to the left or eastern bank. That the Euphrates should have given place in this way to her sister river was natural enough in view of the latter's deeper channel and better water way, which gained in significance as soon as the possibility of mari- time communication was contemplated." — L. W. King, History of Babylon, pp. 4-5. — See also Mesopotamia. First Babylonian empire. — "The rise of Baby- lon to a position of preeminence among the war- ring dynasties of Sumer and Akkad may be re- garded as sealing the final triumph of the Semite over the Sumerian. His survival in the long ra- cial contest was due to the reinforcements he re- ceived from men of his own stock, whereas the Sumerian population, when once settled in the country, was never afterwards renewed. The great Semitic wave, under which the Sumerian sank and finally disappeared, reached the Euphrates from the coast-lands of the Eastern Mediterranean. But the Amurru, or Western Semites, like their predecessors in Northern Babylonia, had come orig- inally from Arabia. For it is now generally rec- ognized that the Arabian peninsula was the first home and cradle of the Semitic peoples. [See Semites: Primitive.] ' "There is no doubt that Sumu-la-ilum was the real founder of Babylon's greatness as a military power. We have the testimony of his later de- scendant Samsuiluna to the strategic importance of the fortresses he built to protect his country's extended frontier; and, though DQr-Zakar of Nip- pur is the only one the position of which can be approximately iSentified, we may assume that the majority of these lay along the east and south sides of Akkad, where the greatest danger of invasion was to be anticipated. It does not seem that Nippur itself passed at this time under more than a temporary control by Babylon, and we may as- sume that, after his successful raid, Sumu-la-ilum was content to remain within the limits of Akkad, which he strengthened with' his line of forts. In his late years he occupied the city of Barzi, anfl conducted some further military operations, de- tails of which we have not recovered; but those were the last efforts on Babylon's part for more than a generation. The pause in expansion gave Babylon the opportunity of husbanding her re- sources, after the first effort of conquest had been rendered permanent in its effect by Sumu-la-ilum. His two immediate successors, Zabum and Apil- Sin, occupied themselves with the internal admin- istration of their kingdom and confined their miU- tary activities to keeping the frontier intact. Za- bum indeed records a successful attack on Kazallu, no doubt necessitated by renewed aggression on that city's part ; but his other most notable achievements were the fortification of Kar-Sha- mash, and the construction of a canal or reservoir. Equally uneventful was the reign of Apil-Sin, for though Dur-muti, the wall of which he rebuilt, may have been acquired as the result of conquest, he too was mainly occupied with the consolidation and improvement of the territory already won. He strengthened the walls of Barzi and Babylon, cut two canals, and rebuilt some of the great temples. As a result of her peaceful development during this period the country was rendered capa- ble of a still greater struggle, which was to free 791 BABYLONIA Great Rulers Hammurabi BABYLONIA Sumer and Akkad from a foreign domination, and, by overcoming the invader, was to place Babylon for a time at the head of a more powerful and united empire than had yet been seen on the banks of the Euphrates. The country's new foe was her old rival, Elam, who more than once before had by successful invasion affected the course of Baby- lonian affairs. But on this occasion she did more than raid, harry, and return: she annexed the city of Larsa, and by using it as a centre of control, attempted to extend her influence over the whole of Sumer and Akkad. It was at the close of Apil- Sin's reign at Babylon that Kudur-Mabuk, the ruler of Western Elam, known at this period as the land of Emutbal, invaded Southern Babylonia and, after deposing Sili-Adad of Larsa, installed his own son Warad-Sin upon the throne. It is a testimony to the greatness of this achievement, that Larsa had for some time enjoyed over Nisin the position of leading city in Sumer. Nur-Adad, the successor of Sumu-la-ilum, had retained control of the neighbouring city of Ur, and, though Enlil- bani of Nisin had continued to lay claim to be King of Sumer and Akkad, this proud title was wrested from Zambia or his successor by Sin-idin- nam, Nur-Adad's son. Sin-idinnam, indeed, on bricks from Mukayyar in the British Museum makgs a reference to the military achievements by which he had won the position for his city. In the text his object is to record the rebuilding of the Moon-god's temple in Ur, but he relates that he carried out this work after he had made the foundation of the throne of Larsa secure and had smitten the whole of his enemies with the sword. It is probable that his three successors on tie throne, who reigned for less than ten years be- tween them, failed to maintain his level of achieve- ment, and that Sin-magir recovered the hegemony for Nisin. But Ur, no doubt, remained under Larsajs administration, and it was no mean nor inferior city that Kudur-Mabuk seized and oc- cupied. ... At first Kudur-Mabuk's footing in Sumer was confined to the city of Larsa, though even then he laid claim to the title Adda of Amurru, a reference to be explained perhaps by the suggested Amorite origin of the Larsa and Nisin dynasties, and reflecting a claim to the suze- rainty of the land from which his northern foes at any rate boasted their origin. Warad-Sin, on ascending the throne, assumed merely the title King of Larsa, but we soon find him becoming the patron of Ur, and building a great fortifica- tion-wall in that city. He then extended his au- thority to the south and east, Eridu, Lagash, and Girsu all falling before his arms or submitting to his suzerainty. During this period Babylon re- mained aloof in tjie north, and Sin-muballit is oc- cupied with cutting canals and fortifying cities, some of which he perhaps occupied for the first time. It was cnSy in his fourteenth year, after Warad-Sin had been succeeded at Larsa by his brother Rim-Sin, that we have evidence of Baby- lon taking an active part in opposing Elamite pre- tensions. In that year Sin-muballit records that he slew the army of Ur with a sword, and, since we know that Ur was at this time a vassal-city of Larsa, it is clear that the army referred to was one of those under Rim-Sin's command. Three years later he transferred his attention from Larsa to Nisin, then under the control of Damik-ilishu, the son and successor of Sin-magir. On that oc- casion Sin-muballit commemorates his conquest of Nisin, but it must have been little more than a victory in the field, for Damik-ilishu lost neither his city nor his independence. In the last year of his reign we find Sin-muballit fighting on the other front, and claiming to have slain the army of Larsa with the sword. It is clear that in these last seven years of his reign Babylon proved her- self capable of checking any encroachments to the north on the part of Larsa and the Elamites, and, by a continuance of the policy of fortifying her vassal-cities, she paved the way for a more vigor- ous offensive on the part of Hammurabi, Sin- muballit's son and successor. Meanwhile the un- fortunate city of Nisin was between two fires, though for a few years longer Damik-ilishu suc- ceeded in beating off both his opponents." — L. W. King, History of Babylon, pp. 119, 148- 160. Hammurabi. — His character and achievements. — "The military successes of Hammurabi fall within two clearly defined periods, the first during the five years which followed his sixth year of rule at Babylon, and a second period, of ten years' duration, beginning with the thirteenth of his reign. On his accession he appears to have in- augurated the reforms in the internal administra- tion of the country, which culminated towards the close of his life in the promulgation of his famous Code of Laws ; for he commemorated his second year as that in which he established right- eousness in the land. The following years were uneventful, the most important royal acts being the installatioii of the chief-priest in Kashbaran. the building of a wall for the Gagum, or great Cloister of Sippar, and of a temple to Nannar in Babylon. But with his seventh year we find his first reference to a tnilitary campaign in a claim to the capture of Erech and Nisin. This tem- porary success against Damik-ilishu of Nisin was doubtless a menace to the plans of Rim-Sin at Larsa, and it would appear that Kudur-Mabuk came to the assistance of his son by threatening Babylon's eastern border. At any rate Hammur- abi records a conflict with the land of Emutbal in his eighth year, and, though the attack appears to have been successfully repulsed with a gain of territory to Babylon, the diversion was suc- cessful. Rim-Sin took advantage of the respite thus secured to renew his attack with increased vigour upon Nisin, and in the following year, the seventeenth of his own reign, the famous city fell, and Larsa under her Elamite ruler se- cured the hegemony in the whole of Central and Southern Babylonia. Rim-Sin's victory must have been a severe blow to Babylon, and it would seem that she made no attempt at first to recover her position in the south, since Hammurabi occupied himself with a raid on MalgCim in the west and with the capture of the cities of Rabikum and Shalibi. But these were the last successes during his first military period, and for nineteen years afterwards Babylon achieved nothing of a similar nature to commemorate in her date-iormuLt For the most part the yeaKS are named after the dedi- cation of statues and the building and enrichment of temples. One canal was cut, and the process of fortification went on, Sippar especially beina put in a thorough state of defence. But the nega- tive evidence supplied by the formulae iot this period suggests that it was one in which Babylon completely failed in any attempt she may have made to hinder the growth of Larsa's power in the south. [See also Elam.1 It was not until nearly a generation had passed, after Rim-Sin's capture of Nisin, that Hammurabi made any head- way against the Elamit'C domination, which for so long had arrested afly increase in the power of Babylon. But his success, when it came, was com- plete and enduring. In his thirtieth year he re- cords that he defeated the army of Elam, and in the next campaign he followed up this vic- tory by invading the land of Emut'bal, inflicting 792 BABYLONIA Code of Hammurabi BABYLONIA a final defeat on the Elamites, and capturing and annexing Larsa. "An estimate of the extent of Hammurabi's em- pire may be formed from the very exhaustive record of his activities which he himself drew up as the Prologue to his Code. He there enu- merates the great cities of his kingdom and the benefits he has conferred upon each one of them. The list of cities is not drawn up with any ad- ministrative object, but from a purely religious standpoint, a recital of his treatment of each city being followed by a reference to what he has done for its temple and its city-god. . . . While Sumu-la-ilum may have laid the foundations of Babylon's military power, Hammurabi was the real founder of her greatness. To his military achievements he ad Jed a genius for administrative detail, and his letters and despatches, which have been recovered, reveal him as in active control of even subordinate officials stationed in distant cities of his empire That he should have super- intended matters of public importance is what might be naturally expected; but we also see him investigating quite trivial complaints and dis- putes among the humbler classes of his subjects, and often sending back a case for retrial or for further report. In fact, Hammurabi's fame will always rest on his achievements as a law-giver, and on the great legal code which he drew up for use throughout his empire. It is true that this elaborate system of laws, which deal in detail with every class of the population from the noble to the slave, was not the creative work of Ham- murabi himself. Like all other ancient legal codes it was governed strictly by precedent, and where it did not incorporate earlier collections of laws, it was based on careful consideration of established custom. Hammurabi's great achieve- ment was the codification of this mass of legal enactments and the rigid enforcement of the pro- visions of the resulting code throughout the whole territory of Babylonia. Its provisions reflect the king's own enthusiasm, of which his letters give in- dependent proof, in the cause of the humbler and the more oppressed classes of his subjects. Numerous legal and commercial documents also attest the manner in which its provisions were carried out, and we have evidence that the legislative system so established remained in practical force during subsequent periods." — L. W. King, History of Babylon, pp. 148-160. — "The great code closes with a long passage in which the king, who is 'a father to his subjects,' enjoins obedience to these upon all people and upon the kings who should rule after him 'forever and ever.' No king is to for- get them: 'The law of the land, which I have given, the decisions which I have pronounced he shall not alter, nor efface my image. If that man have wisdom, if he wish to keep his land in order, he shall take heed to the words which I have written upon my monument. The procedure, the administration, and the law of the land, which I have given, the decisions which I have pro- nounced, this monument will show unto him. He shall so rule his subjects, pronounce judgment, give decisions, drive the wicked and evildoers from the land, and promote his people's prosperity.' Hammurapi also displayed extraordinary care in the development of the resources of the land, and in thus increasing the wealth and comfort of the inhabitants. The chiefest of his great works is best described in his own ringing words — the words of a conqueror, a statesman, and a patriot: 'Hammurapi, the powerful king, king of Babylon, . . . when Anu and Bel gave unto me to rule the land of Sumer and Accad, and with their scepter filled my hands, I dug the canal Hammurapi, the abundance of the people, which bringeth abundance of water unto the land of Sumer and Accad. Its banks upon both sides I made arable land; much grain I garnered upon it. Lasting water I pro- vided for the land of Sumer and Accad. The land of Sumer and Accad, its separated peoples I united, with blessings and abundance I endowed them, in peaceful dwellings I made them to live.' This was no idle promise made to the people be- fore the union of Sumer and Accad under the hegemony of Babylon, but the actual accomplish- ment of a man who knew how to knit to himself and his royal house the hearts of the people of a conquered land. There is a world of wis- dom in the deeds of this old king. No work could possibly have been performed by him which would bring greater blessing than the building of a canal by which a nearly rainless land could be supplied with abundant water. After making the canal, Hammurapi followed the example of his predecessors in Babylonia and carried out ex- tensive building operations in various parts of the land. On all sides we find evidences of his efforts in this work. In Babylon itself he erected a great granary for the storing of wheat against times of famine — a work of mercy as well as of necessity, which would find prompt recognition among Oriental peoples then as now. The temples to the sun god in Larsa and in Sippar were re- built by him; the walls of the latter city were reconstructed 'like a great mountain' — to use his own phrase — and the city was enriched by the construction of a new canal. The great temples of E-sagila in Babylon and E-zida in the neigh- boring Borsippa showed in increased size and in beauty the influence of his labors. There is evi- dence, also, that he built for himself a palace at the site now marked by the ruin of Kalwadha, near Baghdad. But these buildings are only ex- ternal evidences of the great work wrought in this long reign for civilization. The best of the culture of the ancient Sumerians was brought into Babylon, and there carefully conserved. What this meant to the centuries that came after is shown clearly in the later inscriptions. To Babylon the later kings of Assyria look constantly as to the real center of culture and civilization. No Assyrian king is content with Nineveh and its glories, great though these were in later days; his greatest glory came when he could call himself king of Babylon, and perform the symbolic act of taking hold of the hands of Bel-Marduk. Nineveh was the center of a kingdom of warriors, Babylon the abode of scholars; and the wellspring of all this is to be found in the work of Hammurapi. But if the kings of Assyria looked to Babylon with longing eyes, yet more did later kings in the city of Babylon itself look back to the days of Hammurapi as the golden age of their his- tory. Nabopolassar and Nebuchadrezzar acknowl- edged his position in the most flattering way, for they imitated in their inscriptions the very words and phrases in which he had described his build- ing, and, not satisfied with this, even copied the exact form of his tablets and the style of their writing. In building his plans were followed, and in rule and administration his methods were imi- tated. His works and his words entitle him to rank as the real founder of Babylon." — R. W. Rogers, History of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 86-qo. — "The canal to which this king boasts of having given his name, the 'Nahar-Hammourabi,' was called in later days the royal canal, Nahar Malcha [Radhwaniya]. Herodotus saw and ad- mired it, its good condition was an object of care to the king himself, and we know that it was considerably repaired by Nebuchadnezzar. 793 BABYLONIA Later Empire Nahopolassar BABYLONIA When civilization makes up its mind to reenter upon that country, nothing more will be needed for the reawakening in it of life and reproductive enerRV, than the restoration of the great works undertaken by the contemporaries of Abraham and Jacob"— G. Perrot and C. Chipiez, HiUory oj art in Chaldxa and Assyria, v. i, P- 40--' After a reign of fifty-tivc years, Chammurabi lor Ham- murabi] bequeathed the crown of Babylon and the united kingdoms of Babylonia to his son Samsu-iluna (2200-2180 B.C.) This ^"1" J<=lg"- ing in the spirit of his father, developed still fur- ther the national system of canalization. . . . five kings after Chammurabi, till 2098 B C, complete the list of the eleven kings of this first dynasty, who reigned in all 304 years. The epoch made memorable bv the deeds and enterprise of Cham- murabi is followed by a period of 368 years, of the occurrences of which absolutely nothing is known, except the names and regnal years of an- other list of eleven kings reigning in the "ty ot Babylon. ... The foreign non-Scmitic race, which for nearly six centuries (c. 1730-1153). from this time onward, held a controlling place in the affairs of Babvlcnia, are referred to in the mscriptions by the 'name Kasse. These Kasshites came from the border country between Northern Elam and Media, and were in all probability of the same race as the Elamites. The references to them make them out to be both mountaineers and tent- dwellers. ... The political sway of the foreign masters was undisputed, but the genius of the government and the national type of culture and forms of activity were essentially unchanged. . . . Through centurv after century, ... the dominant genius of Babylonia remained the same. It con- quered all its 'conquerors, and moulded them to its own likeness bv the force of its manifold culture, by the appliances as well as the prestige of the arts of peace. ... The Babylonians were not able to maintain perpetually their political autonomv or integrity, not because they were not brave or patriotic," but because "they were not, first and foremost, a military people Their en- ergies were mainly spent in trade and manufacture, in science and art. ... The time which the native historiographers allow to the new [Kasshite] dynasty is 577 years. . . . This Kasshite conquest of Babylonia . . . prevented the consolidation of the eastern branch of the Semites, by alienating from Babylonia the Assyrian colonists. . . _ Henceforth there was almost perpetual rivalry and strife between Assvria and the parent country. Henceforth, also, it is Assyria that becomes the leading power in the West."— J F. McCurdy, His- tory, prophecy and the monuments, hk. 2. ch. 3, and bk. 4, c/i.'i. (v. t1., .4ssyr;a.— See also Akkad; Assyria; Codes: Hammurabi; Egypt: About B.C. 1500-1400; HiTTiTEs; Kassites; Women's rights: B.C. 2250-S3S- . u • . ri- ( Later empire.— "When Ashurbanipal [king ot Assyria, 668-626 B. CI died the time had come to make a fresh attempt for Chaldean independence of Assyria and Chaldean dominance over Baby- Ionia, 'immediately after the death of .\.5hurbani- pal we find Nahopolassar (Nabuapul-usur) king of Babylon. We do not know what his origin was. It has been supposed that he might be a son of Kandalanu; and this supposition would ex- plain the readiness and quickness with which he secured the throne. There is. however, not a shadow of evidence for the view. If it were the case, it would certainly seem natural for him to have spoken of his royal origin in one or the other of the few inscriptions which have come down to us. On the other hand, it is not possible to prove that he was cither of pure Babylonian or of Chaldean origin. The kingdom which he founded was, however, plainly Chaldean. Ihe king's supporters were Chaldeans, and as the years went on the Babylonian influence quite gave way to Chaldean, so that the Babylonians may be con- sidered as also losing their historic identity when Nineveh fell. The change of rulers from Ashur- banipal to Nabopolassar was momentous in con- sequences. With that change the headship ot Assyria over the Semitic peoples of Asia came to an end forever, and leadership among them passed to the Chaldeans, whose Semitic blood was probably almost, if not quite, as pure as that ot the Assyrians. They had apparently not suffered so great an intermixture with other peoples as had the Babylonians. With this change of rulers there was founded not merely a new dynasty, but also a new kingdom. It is indeed possible to consider this new monarchy as a reestablishment of the old Babylonian empire, but it is more in accordance with the facts to look on it as a new Chaldean empire succeeding to the wealtti and position of the ancient Babylonian empire. As the monarchy which he founded was so plainly Chaldean, it lies near to the other facts to con- sider Nabopolassar himself a Chaldean. — R. W. Rogers, Hhtorv oj Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 402-403.— "Having seated himself firmly upon the throne of the dual monarchy of Babylonia and Assyria, Nabopolassar proceeded to assure to him- self the western domains over which the Assyrian kings had held swav. To this end he set out to reestablish Babylonian power in Syria, where Sai- gon of Agade'had made his influence felt 2200 years earlier, and Hammurabi had warred as over- lord Unfortunately the Bible narrative does not help us here, and we are indebted to Berosus, as quoted by Josephus. for the history of this period After the division of the territory ot Assyria, of which Egypt formed a part, the east- ern allies began to quarrel among themselves, and the King of Babylon decided to act on his own account. Syria at that time was in reality a vassal of Egypt, Egypt having taken posses- sion of it on the fall of Assyria. Having re- ceived news that the governor whom he had set over Egypt, and over parts of Ccelc-Syria and Phcenicia, had revolted from him, he was not able to bear it any longer, and, conimitting certain parts of his armv to his son Nabuchod- onosor (Nabu-kudurri-usur or Nebuchadrezzar), who was then but young, he sent him against the rebel This is regarded as having taken place in 60s B.C. The governor attacked by the young Nebuchadrezzar was apparently Necho. who was completely defeated at Carchemish, and expelled from Syria."— T. G. Pinches, From world-domtmon to subjection {Journal oj the Victoria Institute, v. 4Q, pp. 113-114).— See also Egypt: B.C. 670-525; Chaldea: Chaldeans; Phceniciaks: B.C. 850-538. Nebuchadreizar.— "When Nebuchadrezzar stood at the borders of Egypt and a messenger advised him of his father's death in far-away Babylonia, a crisis had come in the history of a new empire. But for that death Nebuchadrezzar would almost certainly have added Egypt to his laurels, and that were a thrilling possibility. But a danger fully as stirring lav also before him. If he had failed to reach Babylonia before the discordant elements in the new world empire were able to gather unity and force, all that his father had built might' readily be destroyed. The day cried for a man of decision and of quick movement. Nebuchadrezzar reached Babylon from the borders of Egypt in season to prevent any outbreak in favor of a usurper, if any such were intended. He 794 BABYLONIA Later Empire Nebuchadrezzar BABYLONIA was received as king of Babylon without a sign of any trouble. So began one of the longest and most brilliant reigns (604-562 B.C.) of hu- man history. Nebuchadrezzar has not left the world without written witnesses of his great deeds. In his inscriptions, however, he follows the com- mon Babylonian custom of omitting all reference to wars, sieges, campaigns, and battles. Only in a very few instances is there a single reference to any of these. The great burden of all the inscriptions is building. In Babylon was cen- tered his chief pride, and of temples and palaces, and not of battles and sieges, were his boasts." — R. W. Rogers, History of Babylonia, and Assyria, p. 504. — "When Nebuchadrezzar came to the throne, he found himself king of a mighty nation, con- solidated by his father's talent, and he could boast of having had a hand himself in its enlargement and in measures for its greater security. Every- thing was, to all appearance, at peace, and the new king had no reason to fear either a pretender to the throne or attack from without. This sat- isfactory state of things, however, was not to 'last, for Jelioiakim, King of Judah, as related in 2 Kings xxiv, i ff., after paying tribute for three years, rebelled, but was again reduced to sub- jection (604-602 B.C.). Later, apparently owing to the promises of the King of Egypt, Jehoiachin, son of Jehoiakim, in his turn incurred the hostility of the King of Babylon, who sent an army to be- siege Jerusalem, and afterwards journeyed thither himself. The capture of the city followed, and the Jewish king, with his Court, were carried away to Babylon (sq8 B.C.). The number of cap- tives on this occasion exceeded 10,000, and the treasures of the palace and the Temple formed part of the spoil. The country was annexed, however, for Nebuchadrezzar made Mattaniah, King of Judah instead of Jehoiachin, changing his name to Zedekiah (Bab. form Sidqd. Sidqaa, or Sidqaya) . Passing years seemingly weakened any gratitude Zedekiah may have felt to the power which had raised him, and, encouraged by Pharaoh Hophra, he rebelled in the ninth year of his reign, the result being that Jerusalem was once more besieged. Pharaoh Hophra thereupon inarched with an army to the help of his ally; but this move gave the Jewish capital but little relief, for Nebuchadrezzar's army merely raised the siege of Jerusalem long enough to defeat the Egyptians. The city was taken at the end of a year and a half, notwithstanding a very courageous resistance (July, 586 B.C.) [see also Jerusalem: B.C. Q76-168]. Zedekiah, with his army, fled, but was pursued by the Chaldeans and captured near Jericho. Nebuchadrezzar was then at Riblah with his officers (2 Kings xxv, 6), and there judgment was at once pronounced against the faithless vas- sal, whose sons were slain before his eyes, his own sight destroyed, and he himself carried captive to Babylon. It was a barbarous sentence, but quite in accordance with the customs of the age, just as the legal formalities apparently conformed to Babylonian usage. The destruction of the Temple and all the principal houses in the city, by Neb- uzaradan (NabQ-zer-iddina), the captain of Nebuchadrezzar's guard, followed, and those re- maining in the city were carried captive. The lowest class of the people only remained, in order to carry on the cultivation of the land. Naturally a new governor was appointed — not. as might reasonably have been expected, a Babylonian, but a Jew — Gedaliah, son of Ahikam. His death at the hands of his own countrymen took place shortly afterwards, and with him disappeared the last vestige of Jewish rule in Palestine. "The turn of Tyre came next, and it is said that Nebuchadrezzar blockaded this maritime port no less than thirteen years (585-573 B.C.). From a fragment of a tablet in the British Museum, re- ferring to Nebuchadrezzar's thirty-seventh year (567 B.C.), we learn that he made an expedition against an Egyptian king, who seems, from the remains of his name, to have been Amasis. In this record a city — or, perhaps, a province — called Putu-yaman is referred to, and described, appar- ently, as being a distant district 'within the sea.' This idiom is used by Assur-bani-apli when speak- ing of Cyprus. [See also Persia: B.C. 549-521.] Notwithstanding the doubt which exists with re- gard to Tyre, it is certain that the Babylonian king ultimately became master of the city, for a contract exists dated there on the 20th of Tam- muz, in Nebuchadrezzar's fortieth year. ... In addition to these two rulers [Sennacherib and Esarhaddon], however, both his sons — Samas-sum- ukin or Saosduchinos and Assur-bani-apli, 'the great and noble Asnapper' — worked at restoring the temples. Nebuchadrezzar, in spite of this, doubtless found much to do there, and numerous records bearing his name deal at length with his architectural work. The great temple of Belus (Merodach), in Babylonia £-sagila, together with £-temen-ana-ki, 'the temple of the foundation of heaven and earth,' also called 'the tower of Baby- lon,' connected with it, were restored by him, as were likewise many, if not all, of the other fanes of the great city. His inscriptions also confirm what the classical authors say in record- ing that he made Babylon practically impregnable by means of high and massive walls and a well- constructed moat. To the above must be added the quays which he built along the banks of the Euphrates, which flowed through the city, and the augmentation of the great palace which Nabopolassar, his father, had built, by another just as extensive, which, he states (and this is confirmed by Herodotus), was erected in fifteen days! It is to be noted, however, that all the provisions for the defence of Babylon which he places to his own credit are attributed by Herodotus to Nitocris, who was probably one of Nebuchadrezzar's queens. The hanging gardens, [for description of, see Architecture: Oriental: Babylonia] said by Herodotus to have been built by Nebuchadrezzar for his 'Median' queen, Amuhia, were probably already in existence, as is impHed by one of the bas-reliefs in the Assyrian Salon of the British Museum; it was carved for Assur- bani-apli, the 'great and noble Asnapper.' It shows a slope, the highest portion of which is sup- ported on arches, and the whole is richly planted with trees and irrigated by streams of water — a real oasis in a land which, during the hot season, is simply a desert. The celebrated 'Istar-Gate,' discovered by the German explorers, is specially referred to by Nebuchadrezzar in the India House of Inscription. [See also Babylon: Nebuchad- rezzar and the walls of Babylon] Wise, war- like, energetic, and religious, the second Nebuchad- rezzar will always live in history as the type of an Eastern ruler of old who knew how to raise the nation which he governed to the highest pitch of its ancient glory and power. He was succeeded by his son, Awil-Maruduk (Evil-Mero- dach) in 561 B. C."— T. G. Pinches, From world- dominion to subjection (Journal of the Victoria Institute, v. 49, pp. 114-117). — See also Jews: B.C. 724-604 to B.C. S36-A.D. 50. Decline of the empire. — "Nebuchadnezzar's son, Amel-Marduk, was an unworthy successor to his father. During his short reign he was restrained neither by law nor decency, and it is not surpris- ing that in less than three years the priestly party 795 BABYLONIA Decline Invasion of Cyrus BABYLONIA should have secured his Assassination and have set Neriglissar, his brother-in-law, in his place, a man of far stronger character and a soldier. The son of a private Babylonian, Bel-shura-ishkun, Nerig- lissar had married a daughter of Nebuchadnezzar, and we may certainly identify him with Nergal- Sharezer, the Rab-mag or Babylonian general who was present at the siege of Jerusalem. Neriglissar's death, less than four years after his accession, must certainly have been the death-blow to any hopes his generals may have entertained of placing the country's military organization and defence upon a sound footing. For his son was little more than a child, and after nine months' reign the priestly party at the capital succeeded in de- posing him in favour of one of their own num- ber, Nabonidus, a man of priestly descent and thoroughly inbued with the traditions of the hierarchy. The new king carried on Nebuchad- nezzar's tradition of temple-reconstruction with enthusiasm, but he had none of his great predeces- sor's military aptitude. To his ow-n priestly de- tachment he added the unpractical character of the archsologist. loving to occupy himself in investi- gating the past history of the temples he rebuilt, in place of controlling his country's administration. The bent of his mind is well reflected in the account he has left us of the dedication of his daughter, Bel-shalti-Nannar, as head of the col- lege of votaries attached to the Moon-temple at Ur. It is clear that this act and the accompany- ing ceremonial interested him far more than the education of his son ; and any military aptitude Belshazzar may have des-eloped was certainly not fostered by his father or his father's friends. It was only when the enemy was at the frontier that the king must have realized his own fatuity. Thus with the accession of Nabonidus the close of Babylon's last period of greatness is in sight. But the empire did not crumble of its own accord, for in one of his foundation-records the king boasts that the whole of Mesopotamia and the West, as far as Gaza on the Egyptian border, continued to acknowledge his authority. It required pres- sure from without to shatter the decaying empire, which from the first must have owed its success in no small measure to the friendly and pro- tective attitude of Media. When that essential support was no longer forthcoming, it lay at the mercy of the new power before which Media herself had already gone down." — L. W. King, History of Babylon, pp. 280-282. Invasion by Cyrus the Persian. — "We next hear that in the seventeenth year of Nabonidus, Cyrus, who had already conquered the rest of Asia, marched upon Babylon [538 B.C. — see Per- sia: 549-521 B.C.I. The native forces met the Per- sians in battle, but were put to flight, with their king at their head, and took refuge behind the ramparts of Borsippa. Cyrus thereupon entered Babylon, we are told, and threw down her walls. . . . Herodotus states that the last king of Baby- lon was the son of the great Nebuchadnezzar — to give that monarch his true name — -for in so doing he bears out, so far as his testimony is of any value, the words of the Book of Daniel, which not only calls Belshazzar son of Nebuchad- nezzar, but also introduces the wife of the latter monarch as being the mother of the ill-fated prince who closed the long line of native rulers. Such being the only testimony of secular writers, there was no alternative but to identify Belshazzar with Nabonidus. . . . Yet the name Nabonidus stood in no sort of relation to that of Bel- shazzar; and the identification of the two per- sonages was. undoubtedly, both arbitrary and dif- ficult. The cuneiform inscriptions brought to Europe from the site of Babylon and other an- cient cities of Chaldaea soon changed the aspect of the problem. . . . Nabonidus, or, in the native form, Nabu naid, that is to say, "Nebo exalts,' is the name given to the last native king of Babylon in the contemporary records inscribed on clay. This monarch, however, was found to speak of his eldest son as bearing the very name preserved in the Book of Daniel, and hitherto known to us from that source alone. . . . 'Set the fear of thy great godhead in the heart of Bel- shazzar, my firstborn son, ray own offspring; and let him not commit sin, in order that he may en- joy the fulness of life.' . . . 'Belshazzar, my first- born son, . . . lengthen his days; let him not commit sin. . . .' These passages provide us, in an unexpected manner, with the name which had hitherto been known from the Book of Daniel, and from that document alone ; but we were still in the dark as to the reason which could have induced the author to represent Belshazzar as king of Babylon. ... In 1882 a cuneiform in- scription was for the first time interpreted and published by Mr. Pinches; it had been disinterred among the ruins of Babylon by Mr. Hormuzd Rassam. This document proved to contain the annals of the king whose fate we have just been discussing — namely, Nabonidus. Though mutilated in parts, it allowed us to learn some portions of his history, both before and during the invasion of Babylonia by Cyrus; and one of the most remarkable facts that it added to our knowledge was that of the regency — if that term may be used — of the king's son during the absence of the sovereign from the Court and army. Here, surely, the explanation of the Book of Daniel was found: Belshazzar was, at the time of the irruption of the Persians, acting as his father's representative; he was commanding the Babylonian army and pre- siding over the Babylonian Court. When Cyrus entered Babylon, doubtless the only resistance he met with was in the royal palace, and there it was probably slight. In the same night Bel- shazzar was taken and slain. "^B. T. A. Evetts, New tight OK the Bible and the Holy Land, ch. 11, pt. 2. — "In Xenophon's account of the taking of Babylon, the well-known story of the entering of the city through the river-bed whilst a festival was in progress is given. It was apprehended that the Babylonians might try to drive back the invaders by attacking them from the house-tops, but Cyrus pointed out that this could easily be stopped by setting fire to the porches, as the doors were of palm-wood, painted over with bitumen. The entry into the city was duly ef- fected, and by a ruse they got the people within the palace to open the gates. The King (Bel- shazzar) was found with his sword in his hand, surrounded by his friends, eager to defend him. Overpowered by numbers, he died fighting for his life and his throne; as for saving his country, that was past hoping for. The castles — that is, the palaces of Nahiopolassar and Nebuchadrezzar — having .been given up by their now demoralized defenders, the people were commanded to deliver up their arms, which they did. The Magi (evi- dently the Babylonian priesthood) were then or- dered to choose for the gods the first-fruits of certain lands owned by them, in accordance with the usage in conquered countries; and houses, palaces, and property were delivered to Cyrus's followers as rewards for their services. The Baby- lonians were then directed to cultivate their lands, pay their taxes, and serve those to whom they were severally given. Cyrus having let it be known that people might seek his presence, either to pay homage or to consult with him, they came 796 BABYLONIA BACCHUS in such disorderly multitudes that precautions against a renewal of this state of things had to be taken. The crowds who sought him seem to be referred to in the Babylonian Chronicle, but this record contains no mention of disturbances of any kind. The statements of the Chronicle, an official document, are probably to be preferred. When Cyrus entered the palace, he sacrificed to Vesta (doubtless one of the forms of Zerpanitu) and 'Regal Jove' (Bel-Merodach), with other deities whom the Magi (Babylonian priesthood) thought proper. Cyrus seems to have been of opinion that the common people of Babylonia entertained considerable enmity toward him, and he therefore surrounded himself with guards, those most closely attached to him being eunuchs. For the keeping of the city a Persian garrison was installed, for which the Babylonians had to pro- vide. A long speech is attributed to him, in which he tells his followers that according to the laws of war all the property of the conquered belonged to them, and they were entitled to take it if they so chose. Whether this was in any case actually done does not appear, but it may be regarded as hardly probable, as the Babylonians seem to have lived fairly contentedly under his rule — or, rather, under that of Cambyses and Gobryas the Mede, both of whom acted as governors-general in turn. Notwithstanding all possible defects that may have belonged to his nature, Cyrus showed considera- tion for the country, friendliness toward the peo- ple, but severity in matters which concerned his own safety and authority after having assumed the title 'King of Babylon.' In an age far more barbarous than our own he exhibited a modera- tion and a breadth of view which but few, in more civilized times, have shown ; and it may truly be said that if his dynasty did not last the fault was not his." — T. G. Pinches, From world-dominion to subjection (Journal of Victoria Institute, v. 49, pp. 123-124). Significance of the fall of Babylon. — "Baby- lon was now in the possession of an entirely new race of men. The Indo-Europeans, silent for centuries, had come at last to dominion. Nineveh, the greatest center for the pure Semitic stock, had fallen first; it was now Babylon's hour, and Babylon likewise was fallen. The fall of a city which had long wielded a power almost world-wide would at any period be a matter of great mo- ment. But this fall of Babylon was even more than this. Babylon was now the representative city not merely of a world-wide power, it was the representative of Semitic power. The Semites had built the first empire of commanding rank in the world when Hammurapi conquered Sumer and Accad and made Babylon capital of several kingdoms at once. Out of this center had gone the colonists who had built another and, after a time, a great empire at Nineveh. For centuries two Semitic centers of power bad vied with each other for the dominion of the world. Both had held it, each in his turn. For nearly a century Nineveh had been in the hands of another race, and the Semitic civilization had been supplanted there. Babylon had been made the center of a new world power by the Chaldean people, but they also were Semites. This branch of the Semitic people had had a short lease of power indeed. The power was now taken from them as the rep- resentatives of the Semitic race. Never from that hour until the age of Islam was a Semitic power to command a world-wide empire. The power of the Semite seemed hopelessly broken in that day, and that alone makes the peaceful fall of Babylon a momentous event. But Babylon stood for more than mere Semitic power. It stood in a large sense for Semitic civilization. . . . As- syria represented far more than Babylonia the prowess of the Semite upon fields of battle. Babylon had stood for Semitic civilization, largely intermixed with many elements, yet Semitic after all. Here were the great libraries of the Semitic race. Here were the scholars who copied so pains- takingly every little omen or legend that had come down to them out of the hoary past. Here were the men who calculated eclipses, watched the moon's changes, and looked nightly from ob- servatories upon the stately march of constella- tions over the sky. Here were the priests who preserved the knowledge of the ancient Sumerian language, that its sad plaints and solemn prayers might be kept for use in temple worship. Much of all this was worthy of preservation — if not for any large usefulness, certainly for its record of hu- man progress upward. All this was now fallen into alien hands. Would it be preserved? Would it be ruthlessly or carelessly destroyed? The great- est thoughts of the Semitic mind and the greatest emotions of its heart were not, indeed, Babylonian, and even if they were, they could not die. Not for many centuries would the Semite be able to found another such center. It was indeed a solemn hour of human history. The glory of Babylon is ended. The long procession of princes, priests, and kings has passed by. No city so vast had stood on the world before it. No city with a history so long has even yet appeared. From the beginnings of human history it had stood. It was in other hands now, and ii v/ould soon be a shape- less mass of ruins, standing alone in a sad, untilled desert."— R. W. Rogers, History of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 574-576.— See also Chronology: Baby- lonian method; Education: Ancient: B.C. 3Sth- 6th centuries: Babylonia and Assyria; Ethics: Babylonia and Assyria; Libraries: Ancient: Baby- lonia and Assyria; Medical science: Ancient Babylonia; Money and banking: Ancient Egypt and Babylonia; Music: Ancient: B.C. 3Cioo-7th century; Science: Ancient: Egyptian and Baby- lonian; Sculpture: Western Asia. Also in: M. Duncker, History of antiquity, bk. 4, ch. 15. — G. Maspero, Dawn of civilizalion. — H. Radau, Early Babylonian liistary. — A. H. Layard, Nineveh and Babylon. — H. V. Hilprecht, Babylon- ian expedition of the University of Pennsrvlitnia. BABYLONIAN TALENT.' See Talent. BABYLONIAN TALMUD. See Talmxid. "BABYLONISH CAPTIVITY" OF THE POPES. See Papacy: 1294-1348. BAC ST. MAUR, village of northern France on the river Lys. The region of fighting in iqi8. See World War: iqiS: II. Western front: d, 5. BACCALAOS, Bacalhas, or Bacalhao coun- try. See Newfoundland, Dominion of: 1501- 1578- BACCANALIA. See Bacchus. BACCHIAD.ff;. See Corinth. BACCHIC FESTIVALS. See Dionysia at Athens. BACCHUS (Roman), or Dionysus (Greek), god of the vine and of life. His worship was widespread and appeared in numerous forms but was always connected with vegetation and fruit- fulness generally. His chief attributes were the thyrsus, a rod ending in a pine cone and decorated with ivy, and the cantharus, a two-handled drink- ing cup. One form of his worship was the Attic Dionysia, a joyous and rather boistrous celebra- ton (see Dionysia at Athens), but another called the Triateric Dionysia took the form of a wild orgy. It was introduced into Rome in the 2nd century B C. and called the Bacchanalia. Bac- chus was the offspring of Zeus and Semele, the 797 BACCHYLIDES BACTRIA daughter of Cadmus. Through the jealousy of Hera, Semele was destroyed by a thunderbolt but her unborn child was saved by Zeus, and intrusted to Hemes who delivered it to the nymphs of Nysa to be reared. At Nysa (which has never been localized) Bacchus discovered the powers of the grape and became the leader of a band of nymphs and satvrs. BACCHYLIDES. See Greece: B. C. 8th-$th centuries. BACENIS. See Hercvnian forest. BACH, Alexander, Baron (1813-1893).— Bureaucratic ideas. See Austria: 1849-1859. BACH, John Sebastian (1685-1750), German composer, greatest master of the contrapuntal school of musical composition, whose works mark the culmination of the polyphonic style and at the same time reflect the new homophonic style ; equally great as composer, organist and harpsi- chord player. His enormous output includes organ sonatas, preludes and fugues, compositions for harpsichord and orchestra, passion-music, sacred cantatas, etc. They constitute the source of mod- ern music. — See also Music: Modern: 1650-1827. BACH, Karl Philipp Emanuel C1714-1788), German composer, third son of John Sebastian Bach; founder of the forms of instrumental com- position which mark the transition from his father's style to that of Haydn and Mozart. He wrote church music including many cantatas, pas- sions and oratorios. See Music: Modern: 1650- 1827. BACHI, or Bashee Islands (Philippines), American acquisition of. See U. S. A.: 1898 (July-December). BACHMAC, a village and railroad junction in the Ukraine in southwestern Russia, east of Kiev. The scene of a battle fought in 1918. See World W.^r: 1918: III. Russia: a, 1. BACILLI, Soil. See Fertilizers: Chemistry applied to soil cultivation. BACON, Augustus Octavius (1830-1Q14), American legislator. — Resolutions introduced January 11, 1899. — Address of January 18, 1899. See U. S..-\.: iSog (January-February). BACON, Francis (Baron Verulam, Viscount St. Albans) (1561-1620), English philosopher, statesman and essayist. "Made Lord Chancellor, in 1618, and created Viscount St. Albans, in 1621, he had, in spite of his unusual abilities, risen very slowly. At once a man of affairs and a man of letters, he wrote on many subjects, philos- ophy, scientific theory, literature, history, and law. ... He favored a strong monarchy resting on the support of the people and acting for the popular good, informed and advised by a loyal Parliament. . . . Always prone, however, to over- look practical difficulties, he failed to recognize that Parliament would no longer tolerate even a benevolent despot, and that, in any event. James was not the man to exercise such power." — .\. L. Cross, History of England and greater Britain, p. 296.- — Bacon was impeached by Parliament in 1621 on a charge of bribery. [See Enclaxd: 1625: Gains of Parliament.] The years following his impeachment he devoted to literature and sci- ence. "The significance o^ Lord Bacon's work lies not in the application of his method of reason- ing [see Europe: Middle Ages: Scholasticism fol- lowed by humanism], but rather in his insistence upon experimentation and observation of nature, instead of blind reliance upon a perverted logic and an unsubstantiated authority. . . . Bacon shows up the obstacles that lie in the path of human progress, — the ignorance and prejudice, traditional views and blind worship of authority which hold man slave to nature. . . . The great object of all science is to recover man's sovereignty over nature. ... He is the first to formulate the idea of modem progress through man's conscious ad- justment to and scientific control over the natural forces of the universe. . . . [See also Education: Modern: 1561-1626.] It is true that Bacon did not himself make any real contribution to sci- entific knowledge and that his fear of accepting improved hypotheses led him to reject the Copernican theory of the solar system, — led him also to underestimate and even disregard the work which was being done by some of his con- temporaries. . . But perhaps the most significant effect of Bacon's influence upon the progress of natural science . . . was the impetus given by his 'Xew Atlantis' to the organization of the Royal Society of London for the Advancement of Science, which took place in 1662." — G. F. Caldwell. Eng- lish contributions to scientific thought (English leadership, pp. 240-244). — .•\s for Bacon's literary career, he was undoubtedly the greatest man of his time. The so-called Baconian theory, which originated in the nineteenth century, holds that Bacon was the author of Shakespeare's plays. Among his greatest works are: "Novum organum," "New .■\tlantis," "The advancement of learning," and the celebrated series of "Essays." — See also English literature: 1530-1660. — For his part in the intellectual revolution of the time, see Europe: Modern Period: Revolutionary Period. BACON, Nathaniel (1647-1676), English col- onist. — E.xpedition against Indians. — Quarrel with Berkeley. — Death. See V'irci.via: 1660-1677. BACON, Robert, Secretary of State, United States. See I". S. .\.: 1905-1909. BACON, Roger (1214-1294), English scientist and philosopher. See Europe: Renaissance and reformation: Spirit of adventure; Science: Middle Ages and the Renaissance; Universities and col- leges: 012-127=;: England: Early Oxford. BACON'S REBELLION, an uprising directed originally against the murderous and predatory as- saults of the Indian population of Virginia upon the frontier people in the middle of the seventeenth century. It was headed by Nathaniel Bacon, who was impeded at every step in his defense of the white border population by the unwillingness of Governor Berkeley to assist his cause, and finally culminated in successive attacks by Bacon and his followers on the capital of Virginia. At the height of his success, Bacon died and the movement col- lapsed. — See also Virginia: 1660-1677. BACTERIOLOGY, Development of: Experi- ments with antitoxines. — Study of Malaria para- sites. See Medical science: Modern: 19th cen- tury; and I9th-20th centuries. BACTRIA, or Bactriana, the ancient name of a country in Asia situated north of the Hindu Kush range. "Where the edge [of the table- land of Iran] rises to the lofty Hindu Kush, there lies on its northern slope a favored district in the region of the Upper Oxus. ... On the banks of the river, which flows in a north-westerly direction, extend broad mountain pastures, where support is found in the fresh mountain air for numerous herds of horses and sheep, and beneath the wooded hills are blooming valleys. On these slopes of the Hindu Kush, the middle stage betw'een the table-land and the deep plain of the Cas- pian Sea, lay the Bactrians — the Bakhtri of the Achaemenids, the Bakhdhi of the Avesta. ... In ancient times the Bactrians were hardly dis- tinguished from nomads; but their land was ex- tensive and produced fruits of all kinds, with the exception of the vine. The fertility of the land enabled the Hellenic princes to make great conquests." — M. Duncker, History of antiquity, bk. 798 BADAJOS BADEN 6, ck. 2. — ^The Bactrians were among the people subjugated by Cyrus the Great and their coun- try formed part of the Persian empire until the latter was overthrown by Alexander (see Mace- donia, &c.: B.C. 330-323). In the division of the Macedonian conquests, after Alexander's death, Bactria, with all the farther east, fell to the share of Seleucus Nicator and formed part of what came to be called the kingdom of Syria. About 256 B. C. the Bactrian province, being then gov- erned by an ambitious Greek satrap named Diodo- tus, was led by him into revolt against the Syrian monarchy, and easily gained its independence, with Diodotus for its king (see Seleucid.^: 281-224 B.C.). "The authority of Diodotus was con- firmed and riveted on his subjects by an undis- turbed reign of eighteen years before a Syrian army even showed itself in his neighbourhood. . . . The Bactrian Kingdom was, at any rate at its commencement, as thoroughly Greek as that of the Seleucids." "From B.C. 206 to about B.C. i8s was the most flourishing period of the Bac- trian monarchy, which expanded during that space from a small kingdom to a considerable empire" — extending over the greater part of modern Af- ghanistan and across the Indus into the Punjab. But meantime the neighboring Parthians, who threw off the Seleucid yoke soon after the Bac- trians had done so, were growing in power and they soon passed from rivalry to mastery. The Bactrian kingdom was practically extinguished about 150 B. C. by the conquests of the Parthian Mithridates I., "although Greek monarchs of the Bactrian series continued masters of Cabul and Western India till about B. C. 126."— G. Rawlin- son, Sixth great oriental monarcliy, ch. 3-5. — Bactria now forms part of Afghanistan, border- ing on Bokhara. Since the World War the Rus- sian soviet govsrnment has acquired considerable influence in this whole region and conditions are unsettled. BADAJOS, Geographical congress (1524). See America; 151Q-1524: Voyage of Magellan. BADAKSHAN. See Turkestan. BADEN. — A German republic, formerly a grand duchy under the empire. Early Suevic population.^The original in- habitants of the territory which now constitutes Baden, were the Suevi, a wandering tribe which had spread throughout Germany, probably during the reign of Alexander Severus, about A. D. 235. See Suevi. 1112-1813.— Early history.— Charles Fred- erick. — Aggrandizement in Napoleonic wars. — Made an Electorate. — A Grand Duchy. — Member of the Confederation of the Rhine and later of the French alliance. — The history of Baden prac- tically begins with Hermann, the son of the mar- grave of Verona, who took the title of margrave of Baden in 1112. With his sons and grandsons originated the lines of Baden-Baden and Baden- Hochberg, and about a century later, Baden-Hoch- berg was divided into Baden-Hochberg and Baden- Sausenberg. After subsequent aggrandizement and subdivisions the territories of Baden-Baden and Baden-Hochberg were united under margrave Ber- nard I in 1307, and with the extinction of the Baden-Sausenberg line in 1503, the whole of Baden was united under Christopher. He divided it, however, again among his sons, who in 1535 founded the lines of Baden-Baden and Baden- Pforzheim, the latter called Baden-Durlach since 1565. After further strife and subdivision Baden became definitely united in 1771 under a single ruler. "The ruler at this time was the Margrave Charles Frederick, one of the noblest and most enlightened princes of his time; a man of learn- ing, and the patron of science and art; a true father to his people, who through hb exemplary administration rescued his land from imminent financial ruin ; and, favored by the fertility of its soil as well as by the natural intelligence and industry of the inhabitants, raised it again to prosperity; in 1767 he abolished torture, and in 1783 serfdom, thereby sacrificing 40,000 florins of yearly income." — M. Philippson, Age of Frederick the Great, v. 15 of History of all nations, p. 280. — Though greatly devastated in 1706 owing to its participation in the wars of the French Revolution, on the side of* Austria, its territories became en- larged during the Napoleonic wars. (See also Austria: 1708-1806.) After the treaty of Lune- ville, by which it acquired considerable territory (see Germany: 1801-1803), Charles Frederick took the title of elector, in 1803, and upon further aggrandizement by the Treaty of Pressburg, he took the title of grand-duke, in 1806. (See Ger- many: 1805-1806, and 1806: January-August.) The same year Baden joined the Confederation of the Rhine, but abandoned it in 1813 to join the Allies against Napoleon. (See France: 1814: January-March.) 1812. — Extent of territory. See Europe: Mod- ern: Map of Central Europe in 1812. 1815. — Embraced in Germanic confederation. See Vienna, Congress of. 1818-1831. — Constitution granted. — Leader of German states in constitutional movement. See Suffrage, Manhood: Germany: J800-1840; and 1840-1850. 1833. — Member of Zollverein. See Tariff: 1833- 1848. — During the German uprisings of 1848, Baden became the center of revolutionary ac- tivities, its fortress Rastadt serving as an en- trenched camp for the revolutionists. After sev- eral unsuccessful attempts the revolution was suppressed by Prussian troops and the leaders ex- ecuted. See Germany: 1848-1850. 1862-1866. — Allied with Austria in war against Prussia. See Austria: 1862-1866. 1866. — Seven weeks' war. — Indemnity and ter- ritorial cession to Prussia. See Germany: 1866. 1870-1871.— Member of North German confed- eration. — State of the German empire. — By a treaty of November 15, 1870, Baden became a mem- ber of the North German confederation, and with the transformation of the latter into the Ger- man empire in 1871, it became one of its states. — See also Germany: 1870 (September-Decem- ber), and 1871 (January). 1918. — Declared a republic. — Its constitution. — "November, 1918, the Grand Duke abdicated and a republic was declared. The Constitution calls for a cabinet of six members elected by the legislature, equal male and female suffrage for all over 20 years. The Initiative and Referendum are also part of the Constitution." — J. Moody, Moody's Analyses of investments (iqiq), p. 1172. 1919. — Economic reconstruction after the World War. — Trade provisions. — "The Baden Ministry of Home Affairs has created a Foreign Trade Office for the promotion of imports and exports, with business premises at Carlsruhe. An Advisory Council, on which the import and ex- port organization concerned will be represented, will be formed in conjunction with the Office There will be a representative also in Berlin. It is further intended to appoint a Baden representa- tive of Commerce in Switzerland." — Weltwirt- schaftszeilung. May 23, quoted by the Daily Re- view of the Foreign Press, Economic Supplement, June 25, iqiQ. 799 BADEN, TREATY BAGAUDS 1920. — General survey. — Physical conditions. — Resources and industries. — Area. — Population. — Cities. — Education. — Baden occupies a territory which belongs to the basin of the Rhine and is surrounded by Bavaria, Hesse-Darmstadt, Alsace- Lorraine, Switzerland, Wiirttemberg, and the Bavarian Palatinate, from which it is separated by the Rhine, extending along its whole length on the west. Eighty per cent of the area is cov- ered by the Schwarzwald and the less elevated ranges of the Odenwald, which slope down to- wards the Rhine valley, the only great plain in Baden. Besides the Rhine, its greatest rivers are the Main and the Neckar. The Danube also takes its rise here. Of its numerous lakes, the Bodensee is best known. It has also famous mineral springs. "The leading manufactures are tiles, machinery, chemicals, jewelry, and clocks. The chief agri- cultural products are cereals, potatoes, hay, to- bacco, hops, grapes, and vegetables. Salt and building stone are the only mineral products." — J. Moody, Moody's analyses of investments (igiq), p. 1172. — According to the latest census of iqig, its area is 5,817 square miles with a population of 2,208,503. The majority (1,271,015 in igio) are Catholics; the remainder are Protestants and Jews. The principal cities are Mannheim (an important river port), Karlsruhe (the capital), Freiburg, Pforzheim and Heidelberg. — See also Germany: Map. Also in: E. Rebmann, Das Grossherzogtum Baden in allgemeiner, wirtschaftlicher und staat- licher Hinsicht. Karlsruhe, iqi2. BADEN, or Rastadt, Treaty of (1714)- See Utrecht: 1712-1714. BADENFIELD, Battle of. See Saxons: 772- S04. BADENI, Casimir Felix, Count (1846-1009). Ministry in Austria. ■ See .Austria: 1803-1900. Connection with language decrees. See .Aus- tria: 1897 (October-December). Work on the franchise. See Suffrage, Man- hood: Austria. BADEN-POWELL, Agnes, Organizer of Girl guides. See Girl guides. BADEN-POWELL, Sir Robert Stephenson Smythe (1S57- ), British general and author, joined 13th Hussars, 1876, served with that regi- ment in India, Afghanistan and South .\frica (see South Africa, Union of: 1899; 1900 (March- May)); organized the African Constabulary. Founded the Boy Scouts in 1908. (See Boy Scouts.) Writer on miUtary and recreational topics. "BADGER STATE." See Wisconsin, BADR, or Bedr, Battle of. See Mohamme- danism. B.ffiCULA, Battles of (209, 206 B.C.). See Punic Wars, Second. B.SDA. See Bede. B.ffi;RS/ERK. See Berserker. BAESRODE, commune of Belgium in East Flanders, scene of German atrocities in 1914, See World War: Miscellaneous auxiliary services: X, .Alleged atrocities, etc.: a, 10. B.ffiTICA, ancient name of the province in Spain which afterwards took from the Vandals the name of Andalusia. See Sp.ain: B.C. 218-25; also Turdetani; and Vandals: 428. BiETIS, ancient name of the Guadalquivir river in Spain. BAEYER, Adolf von (1835-1917), German chemist awarded Nobel prize in 1905. See Nobel prizes: Chemistry: 1905. BAEZ, Buenaventura (1820-1884), President of Dominican republic. See Santo Domingo: 1868-1873. BAFFIN, William (?-i622), English navigator and explorer. His voyage in 1616, in search of a northwest passage to India, resulted in the dis- covery of the bay betv,'ee)i Greenland and Canada which he named Baffin's bay. His account of the trip was published by the Hakluyt Society, 1849. BAFFIN BAY, a great gulf in northeastern Canada, part of the strait separating Baffin Land from Greenland. It was named by William Baffin who discovered and explored it in 1615-1616. The bay is sheeted with ice in the winter, but is navi- gable through channels in the ice during the sum- mer. It communicates with the Atlantic ocean by Davis strait, and with the .Arctic ocean through Lancaster, Jones and Smith straits, also named by Baffin, It was explored in the early twentieth century. See Arctic E.xploration: 1910-1916, BAFFIN LAND, large island opposite Green- land. See .Arctic exploration: Map of Arctic regions. Extent of territory. See Canada: Map. BAGAMOYO, a seaport in Tanganyika terri- tory, formerly German East Africa, about fifty miles north of Dar-es-Salaam. In 1916, during the World War was taken from the Germans by the British. [See World War: 1916: VII. African the- ater: a, 11.] "North of Dar-es-Salaam the principal ports are Pagani and Bagamoyo. The latter is immediately opposite the island of Zanzibar and was at one time the most important port of the country, because, prior to the construction of the railroads, the development of towns, and the es- tablishment of regular and direct communication with Europe, the bulk of the trade of German East Africa was carried on through Zanzibar. Caravan routes from the interior centered at Bagamoyo and the products of the country were transported in sailing vessels to Zanzibar only 30 miles away. Similarly the imports were first brought into Zan- zibar and then distributed, largely by Indian mer- chants, to German East .Africa via Bagamoyo. The building of the Uganda Railway, which di- verted a large part of the trade of the north and northwestern sections to the route via Lake Vic- toria and Mombasa, the decline of the dhow traf- fic through the absorption of the trade by the German line of steamers, the building of the rail- roads to the interior from Dar-es-Salaam and Tanga, and the lack of a good harbor are the main factors that have contributed to the decline of Bagamoyo. A certain amount of trade still fol- lows the old route, but it is rapidly decreasing." — {'. .S. Consular report. 1014 BAGATELLE, a small village in the Argonne, northwest of Verdun. It was taken by the Ger- mans in 1915. See World War: 1915: II. Western front: g. BAGAUDS, Insurrection of the (AD. 287). — The peasants of Gaul, whose condition had be- come very wretched during the distractions and misgovernment of the third century, were pro- voked to an insurrection, .A. D. 287, which was general and alarming. It was a rising which seems to have been much like those that occurred in France and England eleven centuries later. The rebel peasants were called Bagauds, — a name which some writers derive from the Celtic word "bagad" or "bagat," signifying "tumultuous assemblage." They sacked and ruined several cities, — taking Autun after a siege of seven months, — and com- mitted many terrible atrocities. The Emperor Maximian — colleague of Diocletian, — succeeded, at last, in suppressing the general outbreak, but not in extinguishing it ever>where. There were traces of it surviving long afterwards. — P. Godwin, His- tory of France, v. i: Ancient Gaul, bk. 2, ch. 6. — See also Serfdom. 800 BAGDAD, 762-763 Abbasid Caliphs BAGDAD, 763-833 Also in: W. T. Arnold, Roman system of pro- vincial administration, ch. 4. BAGDAD, the principal city of Irak (Mesopo- tamia) ; capital and only important city of the vilayet of the same name, which was the largest province of the former Turkish Empire, including the greater part of ancient Babylonia. Captured by the Assyrians. See Assyria: People, religion and early history. Early commercial importance. See Commerce: Medieval: 5th-Sth centuries A. D. 762-763. — Founding of the new capital of the Caliphs. — "The history of Baghdad, as a metropo- lis, coincides with the history of the rise and fall of the Abbasid Caliphs [see also Caliphate: 715- 750; 763; and 815-945]; for in the East it would appear to be almost a necessity of the case that every new dynasty should found a new capital . . . The last Omayyad Caliph, Marwan II, was routed and slain in the year 132 (A. D. 750), and the first Abbasid Caliph well merited his name of Saffah — the 'Shedder of blood' — he having been con- stantly occupied, during the four years of his reign, in hunting down and putting to death every male descendant of the house of Omayyah, save one youth only who, escaping to Spain, ultimately ob- tained rule there, and founded the dynasty which afterwartls came to be known as the Caliphate of Cordova. [See also Caliphate: 756-1031.] In 136 (A. D. 754) Mansur succeeded his brother Saffah on the throne, and during the twenty-two years of his reign built Baghdad, and there or- ganized the government of the Abbasids, which first established in power, and then suffering a long decay, was destined to last for five centuries seated on the banks of the Tigris. . . During the last period of the Sassanian dynasty, Persian Bagh- dad, on the western side of the Tigris, had been a thriving place, and at the period of the Moslem Conquest a monthly market was held here. It became very famous in the early annals of Islam for the very successful raid of which it was the scene. During the Caliphate of Abu Bakr, Khalid, the general of the Arab army, after advancing some way into Mesopotamia, suddenly dispatched a body of troops against this Suk Baghdad, as the 'Market' held at the Sarat Point was then called; the raiders surprised the town 'and the Moslems filled their hands with gold and silver, obtaining also the wherewithal to carry away their booty,' for they promptly returned again to Anbar on the Euphrates, where Khalid lay encamped After this incident of the ycE'r 13 (A.D 634) Baghdad appears no more in history until Mansur, seeking out a site for the new capital, encamped here in the year 145 (A.D. 762). We are told that the spot was then occupied by several monasteries (Dayr), chiefly of Nestorian monks, and from them Mansur learned that among all the Tigris lands this district especially was celebrated for its freedom from the plague of mosquitoes, the nights here being cool and pleasant even in the height of summer. These lesser advantages, doubtless, had no inconsiderable influence with Mansur in the final choice of this as the place for the new capital of the Abbasids in Mesopotamia ; but the practical foresight shown by the Caliph has been amply confirmed by the subsequent history of Baghdad. This city, called into existence as by an enchanter's wand, was second only to Constantinople in size during the Middle Ages, and was unrivalled for splendour throughout Western Asia, becoming at once, and remaining for all subsequent centuries, the capital of Mesopotamia. Wars, sieges, the removal for a time by the Caliphs of the seat of government to Samarra (higher up the Tigris), even the almost entire destruction of the city by the Mongols in A. D. 1258, none of these have per- manently aftected the supremacy of Baghdad as capital of the Tigris and Euphrates country, and now after the lapse of over eleven centuries, the Turkish governor of Mesopotamia still resides in the city founded by the Caliph Mansiir." — G. Le Strange, Bagdad during the Abbasid Caliphate, pp. I -13. —See also Afghanistan. Also in: M. Sykes, Caliphs' last heritage, pp. 216-218. 763-833.— Seat of the Abbasid Caliphs.— Wealth and intellectual leadership. — "The rea- sons which had made the plain of Mesopotamia the site where, one after another, all the great empires of Western Asia had set up the centre of their power dictated the choice of the same region to the Caliphs. In the eighth century it was still one of the richest agricultural countries in the world, as it had been from immemorial time, and then, as for ages before, the chief commercial land routes between the East and the West passed through it. Basra and Kufa were too turbulent for the home of the Caliph, and El Mansur's first aim was to make the imperial residence secure. ... It was enclosed by three walls and a ditch. The outer wall was about four miles round, and between it and the second, or main, wall there was an open ring which could be patrolled. This prevented enemies or traitors outside from com- municating with their friends within. Between the second and the third wall lay the houses of the city. Inside the third wall was another open space, more than a mile across, and therefore large enough for troops to manoeuvre in. In the centre was the Caliph's palace, the 'Golden Gate.' Roads from the four city gates to the central space divided the four quarters of the city. These loads were flanked by barracks and lateral walls with side gates, so that in case of disturbance each quarter could be shut off from the others. It grew rapidly, and towards the close of the ninth cen- tury it is said to have covered 25 square miles. "It is impossible even to sketch the history of which it now became the centre. All the wealth, the learning, and the art of the East found their chief home in the city which claimed both the civil and religious allegiance of Islam from the Great Wall of China and the Indus to the shores of the .(Ktlantic, and from the Caucasus to the Sa- hara. Its wonderful system of irrigation canals, its mosques and palaces, its vast and luxuriant gar- dens, its flourishing colleges, famous wherever the Koran was read, its baths and its bazaars thronged by merchants from all the East, its looms, its cunning artificers, and its immense population made it the greatest and the most renowned city in the world. The revenue of the Caliphs has been estimated at from £72,000,000 to £96,000,000 of money at its present value, and they lavished it upon every form of Oriental luxury at their Court. The fellow-countrymen of Sindbad, whose home was Baghdad and his port Basra, and of Hasan, who sailed to the Islands of Wak, were daring seamen and observant travellers. They were mathematicians, geographers, astronomers, alchemists, physicians, and surgeons. Algebra and Arabic numerals, the names of many constellations, the gilding and silvering of pills, with its mystic relation to the influence of the planets, are faint memorials of their almost forgotten labours. Avicenna himself was the most famous of Arab physicians, and his works were still commented upon in the University of Montpellier — itself of Arab origin — well on into the nineteenth century. It was under Mamun (813-833) that an event in letters took place which still continues to influence the thought of the world. The Caliph, a noble 801 BAGDAD, 815-945 Under Mongol Rale BAGDAD, 1393-1638 patron of learning, directed that a number of Greek authors should be translated into Arabic. Amongst them was Aristotle, and it was from Latin renderings of this version and of the Arabic commentaries upon it that the medieval schoolmen derived their first acquaintance with fundamental portions of the Aristotelian system." — The Times (London), weekly edition, Mar. i6, 1917. — See also Barmecides; Caliphate: 763. Also in: Syed Ameer Ali, Short history of the Saracens, pp. 444-44Q. 815-945. — Decline of the Caliphate. See Cali- phate: 815-945. 1050.— In the hands of the Seljuk Turks. See Turkey: 1004-1063. 1132-1238. — Extent of territory. See Crusades: Map of Mediterranean lands after 1204. 1258. — The Fall of the Caliphate.— Destruc- tion of the city by the Mongols. — In 1252, on the accession of Mangu Khan, grandson of Jingis Khan, to the sovereignty of the Mongol Empire [see Mongols], a great Kuriltai or council was held, at which it was decided to send an expedi- tion into the West, for two purposes: (i), to ex- terminate the Ismaileans or Assassins, who still maintained their power in northern Persia; (2), to reduce the Caliph of Bagdad to submission to the Mongol supremacy. The command of the expedition was given to Mangu's brother Khulagu, or Houlagou, who performed his appointed tasks with thoroughness and unmerciful resolution. In 1257 he made an end of the Assassins, to the great relief of the whole eastern world, Mahometan and Christian. In 1258 he passed on to Bagdad, pre- ceded by an embassy which summoned the caliph to submit, to raze the walls of Bagdad, to give up his vain pretensions to the sovereignty of the Moslem world, and to acknowledge the Great Khan for his lord. The feeble caliph and his treacherous and incapable ministers neither sub- mitted nor made vigorous preparations for de- fence. As a consequence, Bagdad was taken after a siege which only excited the ferocity of the Mongols. They fired the city and slaughtered its people, excepting some Christains, who are said to have been spared through the influence of one of. Khulagu's wives, who was a Nestorian. The sack of Bagdad lasted seven days. The number of the dead, we are told by Raschid, was 800,000. The caliph, Mostasim, with all his family, was put to death.— H. H. Howorth, History of the Mongols, V. I, pp. 193-201. For a considerable period before this final ca- tastrophe, in the decline of the Seljuk Empire, the Caliphate at Bagdad had become once more "an independent temporal state, though, instead of rul- ing in the three quarters of the globe, the caliphs ruled only over the province of Irak .\rabi. Their position was not unlike that of the Popes in recent times, whom they also resembled in as- suming a new name, of a pious character, at their inauguration. Both the Christian and the Mos- lem pontiff was the real temporal sovereign of a small state; each claimed to be spiritual sovereign over the whole of the Faithful; each was recog- nized as such by a large body, but rejected by others. But in truth the spiritual recognition of the Abbaside caliphs was more nearly universal in their last age than it had ever been before." With the fall of Bagdad fell the caliphate as a temporal sovereignty; but it survived, or was resurrected, in its spiritual functions, to become merged, a little later, in the supremacy of the sultan of the Ottoman Turks. "A certain .Ahmed, a real or pretended \bbasside, fled [from Bagdad] to Egypt, where he was proclaimed cahph by the title of Al Mostanser Billah, under the protection of the then Sultan Bibars. He and his successors were deemed, in spiritual things, Commanders of the Faithful, and they were found to be a con- venient instrument both by the Mameluke sultans and by other Mahometan princes. From one of them, Bajazet the Thunderbolt received the title of Sultan; from another, Selim the Inflexible pro- cured the cession of his claims, and obtained the right to deem himself the shadow of God upon earth. Since then, the Ottoman Padishah has been held to inherit the rights of Omar and of Haroun, rights which if strictly pressed, might be terrible alike to enemies, neutrals, and allies." — E. A. Free- man, History and conquest of the Saracens, lec- ture, 4. Also in: Syed Ameer Ali, Short history of the Saracens, pp. 397-399. — M. Sykes, The Caliphs' last heritage, pp. 270, 271. 1393-1638. — Under Mongol rule. — Timur. — Persian and Turkish domination. — "Baghdad had ceased to be the spiritual centre of Islam. . . . Baghdad and Mesopotamia have been blasted for six centuries by the Mongol devastation. By ruin- ing the whole system of irrigation, Hulagu in a single year "destroyed the work of three hundred generations." The pagan empire of the II Khans which he founded presently became a feeble Shiah monarchy, and when the terrible Timur the Lame (Tamerlane) arose to imitate and to surpass the career of Chingiz, Baghdad opened its gates on his approach. Nine years later in 1401 it defied the conqueror and was taken by assault. [See Timur.] . . . Timur died in his splendid palace at Samar- cand in 1405, and Baghdad fell into the hands of the 'Black Sheep' and then of the 'White Sheep' Mongol dynasties. In the last year of the 15th century Shah Ismail founded the dynasty of the Safavis — the 'Sophys' of Shakespeare and Milton — who at once gained the loyalty of the Shiah Per- sians because the blood of Ali ran in their veins. Against Shah Ismail the Turks, led by Selim 'the Grim,' won the great battle of Chaldiran in 1514 and occupied Tabriz, but the Sultan was prevented from prosecuting his conquests by the mutinous temper of his troops. "In 1534 the greatest of the Ottoman Sultans, Suleiman 'the Law-giver,' 'the Magnificent,' the conqueror of Belgrade and of Rhodes, the victor of Mohacs, the besieger of Vienna, turned his arms against Persia. After he had recaptured Tabriz, Baghdad surrendered without a blow. . . . Suleiman's eastern conquests were not long re- tained. In 1604 Shah Abbas the Great, with whose troops Sir Robert Sherley charged, ut- terly defeated the Turks near Lake Urumiah. Baghdad and Mosul, the holy places Nejf and Kerbela, and the provinces of Azerbaijan and Kur- distan were the fruits of the victory. Baghdad seems to have again passed into the possession of the Turks soon after, for in November, 1623, it was betrayed to the Shah by the son of the Turkish commandant. . . . "Baghdad, however, was not long to remain in Persian hands. Two attempts to recapture it failed, apd ruined the Grand Vizers who made them. Hafiz Pasha vainly besieged it for nine months in 1625-6, and Khosru Pasha retired de- feated from its walls in 1630. But eight years later the bloodthirsty Murad IV., the last of the fighting Sultans, led a great army against it. The Persians made a valiant defence for 40 days and the Grand Vizier was killed in an assault. Then, as no relief came, the city surrendered on Christ- mas Day, 163S. Pretexts were found first for slaughtering the garrison and then for a wholesale butchery." — The Times (London), weekly edition. Mar. 16, 1917. — See also Turkey: 1623-1640. 802 BAGDAD BAGDAD RAILWAY 1638-1919. — Turkish rule. — From its recapture by the Turks, Bagdad remained a Turkish pos- session with a brief interval during the first half of the nineteenth century, when it became an inde- pendent pashalic. 1919-1921. — Strategic, economic and political center. — Objective in the World War.— Bag- dad controls much of the trade of Mesopotamia and Arabia, and is the strategic center for the re- gion between Constantinople and the Persian gulf. It is the terminus of a railroad from Constanti- nople projected before the war and hurried to completion since 1914. (See also Mesopotamia.) It was the objective of the Russian and British campaign of iQis-16 which was temporarily aban- doned after the fall of Kut-el-Amara in April, 1916. (See World War: 1916: VI, Turkish theater: d, 3.) In January, 1917, the British began a new advance up the Tigris and occupied Bagdad on March 11, 1917. The continuation of the ad- vance from the city caused a Turkish retreat into Mesopotamia, whither they were pursued by the Russians from Persia. A junction of the British and Russian forces on April 4 was followed by a British drive up the Bagdad railway to Samara, and the British occupation of the Euphrates val- ley. Operations in this theater were retarded by the Russian revolution. — See also Bagdad railway; Mesopotamia; World War: 1917: VI. Turkish theater: a, 1; a, 1, iv; a, 1, v; and I. Summary: b. By the peace treaty with Turkey, Mesopotamia was created an independent state and allotted un- der a mandate to Great Britain by the Supreme Council. See Sevres, Treaty of: 1920: Part III. Political clauses: Syria and Mesopotamia. BAGDAD, Babi community in. See Bahaism. BAGDAD RAILWAY: The Plan.— German designs. — "In 1888, a group of German financiers, backed by the Deutsche Bank, which was to have so powerful a future in Turkey, asked for the concession of a railway line from Ismidt to An- gora. The construction of this line was followed by concessions for extension from Angora to Caesarea and for a branch from the Ismldt-Angora line going south-west from Eski Sheir to Konia. The extension to Caesarea was never made. That was not the direction in which the Germans \vanted to go. The Eski-Sheir-Konia spur be- came the main line. The Berlin-Bagdad-Bassorah "all rail route" was born. The Germans began to dream of connecting the Baltic with the Persian Gulf. The Balkan Peninsula was to revert to Austria-Hungary, and Asia Minor and Mesopo- tamia to Germany. The south Slavs and the pop- ulations of the Ottoman Empire would be dis- possesed (the philosopher Haeckel actually prophe- sied this in a speech in 1905 before the Geographi- cal Society of Jena). Russia would be cut off from the Mediterranean, This was the Pan-Ger- manist conception of the Bagdadbahn. From the moment the first railway concession was granted to Germans in Asia Minor, which coincided with the year of his accession, Wilhelm II has been heart and soul with tiie development of German interests in the Ottoman Empire. His first move in foreign politics was to visit Sultan Abdul Hamid in 1889, when he was throwing off the yoke of Bismarck. In 1898, the Kaiser made his second voyage to Constantinople. This voyage was followed by the concession extending the railway from Konia to the Persian Gulf. It was the beginning of the Bagdadbahn in the official and narrower sense. After this visit of the Kaiser to Abdul Hamid, the pilgrimage was continued to the Holy Land. The great Protestant German Church, whose corner-stone was laid by his father in 1869, was solemnly inaugurated by the Kaiser. As solemnly, he handed over to Catholic Ger- mans the title to land for a hospital and religious establishment on the road to Bethlehem. Still solemnly, at a banquet in his honour in Damas- cus, he turned to the Turkish Vali, and declared: 'Say to the three hundred million Moslems of the world that I am their friend,' To prove his sincerity he went out to put a wreath upon the tomb of Saladin. Wilhelm II at Damascus is reminiscent of Napoleon at Ca'ro. Egypt and Syria and Mesopotamia have always cast a spell over men who have dreamed of world empires; and Islam, as a unifying force for conquest, has appealed to the imagination of others before the . . . [former] German Kaiser. The revelation of Germany's ambition by the granting of the conces- sion from Konia to the Persian Gulf, and the ap- plication of the German financiers for a firman constituting the Bagdad Railway Company, led to international intrigues and negotiations for a share in the construction of the line through Mesopo- tamia. It would be wearisome and ptofitleis to follow the various phases of the Bagdad question. Germany did not oppose international participation in the concession. The expense of crossing the Taurus and the dubious financial returns from the desert sections influenced the Germans to wel- come the financial support of others in an under- taking that they would have found great difficulty in financing entirely by their own capital. The Bagdadbahn concession was granted in 1899. The firman constituting the company followed in 1903. Russia did not realize the danger of German influence at Constantinople, and of the eventuali- ties of the German 'pacific penertations' in Asia Minor. She adjusted the Macedonian question with Emperor Franz Josef in order to have a free hand in Manchuria, and she made no opposition to the German ambitions. She needed the friendly neutrality of Germany in her approaching struggle with Japan, Once the struggle was begun, Rus- sia found herself actually dependent upon the goodwill of Germany. It was not the time for Petrograd to fish in the troubled waters of the Golden Horn, The situation was different with Great Britain, The menace of the German ap- proach to the Persian Gulf was brought to the British Foreign Office just long enough before the Boer crisis became acute for a decision to b? made, Germany had sent engineers along the pro- posed route of her railway. She had neglected to send diplomatic agents! The proposed — in fact the only feasible — terminus on the Persian Gulf was at Koweit. Like the Sultan of Muscat, the Sheik of Koweit was practically independent of Turkey. While showing deference to the Sultan as Khalif, Sheik Mobarek resisted every effort of the Vali of Bassorah to exercise even the semblance of authority over his small domain. In 1899, Colonel Meade, the British resident of the Per- sian Gulf, signed with Mobarek a secret conven- tion which assured to him 'special protection,' if he would make no cession of territory without the knowledge and consent of the British Govern- ment, The following year, a German mission, headed by the Kaiser's Consul General at Con- stantinople, arrived in Koweit to arrange the concession for the terminus of the Bagdadbahn. They were too late. The door to the Persian Gulf was shut in the face of Germany. Wilhelm II set into motion the Sultan, The Sublime Porte suddenly remembered that Koweit was Ottoman territory, and began to display great interest in forcing the Sheik to recognize the fact. A Turkish vessel appeared at Koweit in 1901, But British warships and British bluejackets upheld the inde- pendence of Koweit! Since the Constitution of 803 ¥» BAGDAD RAILWAY BAGDAD RAILWAY iqo8, all the efforts of the Young Turks at Koweit have been fruitless. Germany [=tood] blocked. British opposition to the German schemes was not limited to the prevention of an outlet of the Bag- dadbahn at Koweit. Since 1708, when the East India Company established a resident at Bagdad to spy upon and endeavour to frustrate the in- fluence of the French, just beginning to penetrate towards India through the ambition of Napoleon to inherit the empire of Alexander, British inter- ests have not failed to be well looked after in Lower Mesopotamia. After the Lynch Brothers in i860 obtained the right of navigating on the Euphrates, the development of their steamship lines gradually gave Great Britain the bulk of the com- merce of the whole region, in the Persian as well as the Ottoman hinterland of the Gulf. In 1805, German commerce in the port of Bushir was non- increased, if it passed by the Mediterranean lit- toral around the head of the Gulf of Alexandretta. Then the control of the railway would have been at the mercy of the British fleet. When the 're- vised' plans went from the Ministry of Public Works to the Ministry of War, it was not hard for the German agents to persuade the General Staff to restore the original route inland across the Amanus, following the old plan agreed upon in the time of Abdul Hamid. More than that, the Germans secured concessions for a branch line from .Aleppo to the Mediterranean at Alexandretta, and for the construction of a port of Alexan- dretta. The Bagdadbahn was to have a Mediter- ranean terminus at a fortified port, and Germany was to have her naval base in the north-east cor- ner of the Mediterranean, eight hours from Cy- prus and thirty-six hours from the Suez Canal! BAGDAD RAILROAD existent, while British commerce surpassed twelve million francs yearly. In igoj, the Hamburg- American line established a service to Bassorah. British merchants began to raise the cry that if the Bagdadbahn appeared the Germans would soon have not only the market of Mesopotamia but also that of Kermanshah ! The Lynch Company declared that the Bagdadbahn would ruin their river service, and their representations were listened to at London, despite the absurdity of their contention. The Lynches were negotiating with Berlin also. The mixture of politics and com- merce in Mesopotamia is a sordid story, which does not improve in the telling. Germany strength- ened her railway scheme, and her hold on the territories through which it was to pass, by the accord with Russia at Potsdam in igio. The last clever attack of British diplomacy on the Bagdadbahn was successfully met. In tracing the extension of the railway beyond .•\dana, it was suggested to the Department of Public Works that the cost of construction would be greatly reduced and the usefulness of the line [See also Mediterranean Sea.] This was the re- venge for Koweit. "In seeking for the causes of the present conflict [the World War], it is impossible to neglect Ger- many in the Ottoman Empire. .As one looks up at Pera from the Bosphoruf, the most imposing building on the hill is the German Embassy. It dominates Constantinople. There has been woven the web that has resulted in putting Germany In the place of Great Britain to prevent the Rus- sian advance to the Dardanelles, in putting Ger- many in the place of Russia to threaten the Brit- ish occupation of India and the trade route to India, and in putting Germany in the place of Great Britain as the stubborn opponent of the completion of the African Empire of France. The most conspicuous thread of the web Ls the Bag- dadbahn. In the intrigues of Constantinople, we see develop the political evolution of the past generation, and the series of events that made in- evitable the European war of 1914." — H. A. Gib- bons, New map of Europe, pp. 62-70. — See also Turkey: 1914. 804 BAGDAD RAILWAY BAGDAD RAILWAY "But the Germans were attracted not so much by the commercial and industrial opportunities which the Bagdad Railway was to open to them, as by the political advantage which control of the Ottoman Empire would offer. If in the future there should arise a struggle with Great Britain for the control of the seas and colonial empire, German domina- tion in Mesopotamia would threaten the British Empire in two vital points: India and Egypt. This was the point of view adopted by Rohrbach, whose views on German policy were accepted as sound and who by no means belonged to the bel- ligerent party in Germany. 'One factor,' said he in igii, 'and one alone will determine the possi- bility of a successful issue for Germany in such a conflict: whether or not we succeed in placing England in a perilous position. A direct attack upon England across the North Sea is out of the question; the prospect of a German invasion of England is a fantastic dream. It is necessary to discover another combination in order to hit Eng- land in a vulnerable spot — and here we come to the point where the relationship of Germany and Turkey and the conditions prevailing in Turkey become of decisive importance for German foreign policy, based as it now is upon watchfulness in the direction of England. . . . England can be at- tacked and mortally wounded by land from Europe only in one place — Egypt.' The loss of Egypt would mean for England not only the end of her dominion over the Suez Canal, and of her con- nections with India and the Far East, but would probably entail the loss also of her possessions in Central and East Africa. The conquest of Egypt by a Mohammedan Power like Turkey would also imperil England's hold over her sixty million Mo- hammedan subjects in India, besides prejudicing her relations with Afghanistan and Persia. Turkey, however, can never dream of recovering Egypt until she is mistress of a developed railway sys- tem in Asia Minor and Syria, and until, through the progress of the Anatolian Railway to Bagdad, she is in a position to withstand an attack by England upon Mesopotamia. The Turkish army must he increased and improved, and progress must be made in her economic and financial posi- tion. . . . The stronger Turkey grows, the more dangerous does she become for England. . . . Egypt is a prize which for Turkey would be well worth the risk of taking sides with Germany in a war with England. The policy of protecting Turkey, which is now pursued by Germany, has no other object but the desire to effect an insur- mce against the danger of a war with England." — C. Seymour, Diplomatic background of the war, p. 205. Route. See Turkey: Map of Asia Minor. Importance to western world. — "The region of Asia Minor along the great highway leading from Constantinople to Bagdad has from the most ancient times determined the fate of the Near East. Its role in the distant past has ever been to threaten the existence of civilizations and powers that arose in the valley of the Euphrates, as in the intervening lands of Palestine and Arabia. . . . In our own days we are witnessing what promised to be the reopening of the old historic highway — the bridge uniting Europe to Asia — to Western control, through the project of a great railway stretching along a distance of nearly 2000 miles from a point opposite Constantinople to Bagdad, and thence to Basra and to the Persian Gulf. That project, which was well under way at the time of the outbreak of the war, is thus marked through its historical backgrouncl as one of the most momentous enterprises of our age — more momentous because of the issue involved than the opening up of the two other world highways, the Suez and Panama canals. The creation of a rail- way from Constantinople to Bagdad under Euro- pean control is at once a symptom of the dis- solution of the Turkish Empire which has become a mere shadow of its former wide extension, and a significant token of the new invasion of the East by the spirit of Western enterprise. Passing along a highway over which armies have marched for- ward and backward ever since the days of an- tiquity, the railway is also a link connecting the present with the remote past. . . . The modem world fights for this region as the ancient world did, with the railroad as the new symbol of a possession stronger and firmer than the garrisons and outposts of antiquity and the fortresses of the Roman and mediaeval periods. The importance of Constantinople lies in its position as the starting point of the great highway that has as its natural outlets the Bay of Alexandretta on the one hand, and the Persian Gulf on the other. The historical role of this highway gives to the Bagdad Railway a political import far transcending its aspect as one of the great commercial enterprises of our days. Backed as the project was by the German government, steadily growing in power and ag- gressiveness since the establishment of the united German Empire, it added to the already compli- cated Eastern Question an aggravating factor that contributed largely to the outbreak of the great war. The present struggle for supremacy among European powers resolves itself in its ultimate analysis into a rivalry for the control of the East as an adjunct to commercial expansion. The 'trend towards the East' did not originate with modern Germany. It began with Greece, was taken up by ancient Rome and has actuated every Western power with ambitions to extend its commerce and its sphere of influence — Spain, Holland, England and France, and in days nearer to us Russia and Germany, Austria and Italy. Through a curious combination of circumstances, superinduced by the gradual weakening of the once dominant Turk- ish Empire, the struggle has shaped itself into its present aspect for a control of the great highway that is the key to the East — the nearer and the farther East. . . . From the historical point of view there are thus two aspects to the Bagdad Rail- way. It represents, on the one hand, the last act in the process of reopening the direct way to the East which became closed to the West by the fall of Constantinople in 1453, and which began to be reopened with the loosening of Turkey's hold on one end of the historic highway stretching across Asia Minor. On the other hand, the conflict to which the railway gave rise illustrates' once more the crucial role that this "highway has always played in determining the fate of the Near East from the most ancient days down to our times. The opposition of the European powers to the Bagdad Railway, used as a political scheme for the aggrandizement of a particular country, registers the instinctive protest of the West against the domination of the East by any one power — no matter which. . . . The Bagdad Railway in the hands of Germany, stretching from Constantinople via Bagdad to the Persian Gulf, would have meant the practical closing of the highway to all other nations — as effectively as the taking of Constan- tinople accomplished this in 1453. The his- tory of Asia Minor gives the verdict that the highway must be kept open — if the world is to progress peaceably and if the nations of the West are to live in amicable rivalry, while once more passing through the period of an exchange between Orient and Occident — such as first took place in the days of Alexander the Great. This 805 BAGDAD RAILWAY BAGLIONI verdict suggests 'internationalization' of the high- way as the solution, and it also voices a warning to the West that the reopening of the highway must not be used for domination over the East but for co-operation with it, not for exploiting the East, but for a union with it."— M. Jastrow, War and the Bagdad raUway, pp. 26-30, 121.— "When the fertility of Irak has been restored, it must be put m communication by railway with Arabia's chief ports. (I) Bagdad has heretofore communicated with the Mediterranean by circuitous routes to the North- west, which cling to the tiny ribbon of moisture and vecetation deposited across the Northern sec- tion of the steppe by the Tigris and Euphrates, m their descent from the Armenian mountains towards the Gulf. The harvests of Irak, when they are reaped once more, will fully repay the construction of a railway from Bagdad to Damas- cus, which will cross Euphrates and run due West over the steppe. The distance is under five hun- dred miles, less by one-third than the course the German company" has surveyed from Bagdad to Iskanderun, and Damascus, lying on the inner rim of the Syrian retaining wall near the middle point of its extent, is the natural raiJway-centre of Arabia. Besides being the starting-point of the pilgrim-line to ISIedina. it is already connected by a full-gauge railway with Haifa, the harbour un- der Carmel's shadow, and by a narrow-gauge line over Lebanon with Beirut, the greatest port of the Syrian coast. (II) Immediately after it has put Euphrates behind it, this new Bagdad-Damas- cus railway will detach a branch to the South, which will pass through Kerbela, skirt the East- ern foot of the plateau parallel with the Euphrates' course, touch the Shatt-al-Arab at Basra, and find its terminus on the Persian Gulf at Koweit. (Ill) Direct connection between Bagdad and Europe will be established by a line followmg up the Right bank of the Tigris as far as Mosul. There it will change direction from North-West to West, and run across the head-waters of the Kha- bour, between the Sinjar and Tor-.\bdin hills. After passing through Harran, it will strike the Euphrates, cross it by a bridge at Jerabis, and continue in the same w'esterly direction through the hilly country between Aleppo and Aintab, up to the wall of Amanus, which it will have to penetrate by a tunnel before it can make a junc- tion with the Adana-Iskanderun line in Anatolian territory. A branch line between Jerabis and .\lep- po is already completed, and the last link in the chain, the direct connection between Aleppo and Damascus along the plateau East of Lebannon, has been in working order several years. (IV) Owing to the lack of any accessible port on the North Syrian coast, the cutting of the Amanus tunnel will probably bring a large area in >iorthern Ara- bia, as far as Mosul, within the commercial hin- terland of the favourably situated Anatolian ports, Mersina and Iskanderun. If this happens. Aleppo will forfeit to Adana much of its impoitance as an urban centre, unless it can find a new harbour of its own. At present its nearest outlet towards the South is Tarabolus, reached through a con- venient gap in Lebanon by a branch line that leaves the Aleppo-Damascus railway at Horns: un- less Aleppo can open up more direct communica- tion with the sea, and establish a port for itself either at the mouth of the Orontes or slightly further South at Latikia, its future will seriously be compromised." — A Toynbee, Nationality and the war, pp. 442-445. — See also Bosporus: 1878- igi4; and R.mlro.ws: iSoq-iQi6. BAGDAD RAILWAY TREATY. See Ger- iANv: 1913: Bagdad Railway Treaty; World War: Diplomatic background: 71, xvL BAGDADBAHN. See B.wd.ad railway: Plan. BAGENAL, Sir Henry (d. 1578), marshal of army in Ireland. Defeated at Yellow Ford by Hugh O'Neill. See Ulster: 1585-1608. BAGIMONT'S roll.— "Popes taxed the Church in Scotland to the extent of about three per cent., and in the end of the 13th century the Pope reestimated Scottish ecclesiastical property, which had immensely increased in value. The task was performed by Benemund ('Bagimund') [Boia- raund or sometimes Bajimont] de \'icci in 1275; the object was to collect a tenth of benefices for relief of the Holy Land. The clergy resisted and protested in favour of the old rating. The Pope was firm and 'Bagimond's Roll' was long the basis of taxation ecclesiastical." — .\. Lang, History of Scotland, z'. I, p. 154. BAGISTANA. See Behistun, Rock of. BAGLEY, David W., .American lieutenant-com- mander, author of a report on sinking of U. S. S. Jacob Jones. See World War: 1917: IX. Naval operations: c, 5. BAGLIONI.— "The Baglioni first came into notice during the wars they carried on with the Oddi of Perugia in the 14th and 15th centuries. This was one of those duels to the death, like that of the V'isconti w-ith the Torrensi of Milan, on which the fate of so many Italian cities of the middle ages hung. The nobles fought ; the towns- folk assisted like a Greek chorus, sharing the pas- sions of the actors, but contributing little to the catastrophe. The piazza was the theatre on which the tragedy was played. In this contest the Bag- lioni proved the stronger, and began to sway the state of Perugia after the irregular fashion of Italian despots. They had no legal right over the city, no hereditary magistracy, no title of princely authority. The Church was reckoned the supreme administrator of the Perugian commonwealth. But in reality no man could set foot on the Umbrian plain without permission from the Baglioni. They elected the officers of state. The lives and goods of the citizens were at their discretion. When a Papal legate showed his face, they made the town too hot to hold him. ... It was in vain that from time to time the people rose against them, mas- sacring Pandolfo Baglioni on the public square In 1393. and joining with Ridolfo and Braccio of the dominant house to assassinate another Pandolfo w-ith his son Niccolo in 1460. The more they were cut down, the more they flourished. The wealth they derived from their lordship in the duchy of Spoleto and the LTmbrian hill-cities, and the treasures they accumulated in the service of the Itahan repubUcs, made them omnipotent in their native town. . . . From father to son they were warriors, and we have records of few Italian houses, except perhaps the Malatesti of Rimini, who equalled them in hardihood and fierceness. Especially were they noted for the remorseless vendette which they carried on among themselves, cousin tracking cousin to death with the ferocity and craft of sleuth-hounds. Had they restrained these fratricidal passions, they might, perhaps, by following some common policy, like that of the Medici in Florence or the Bentivogli in Bologna, have successfully resisted the Papal authority, and secured dynastic sovereignty. It is not until 1495 that the history of the Baglioni becomes dramatic, possibly because till then they lacked the pen of Matarazzo. But from this year forward to their final extinction, every detail of their doings Bas a picturesque and awful interest. Domestic furies, like the revel descried by Cassandra above the palace of Mycenae, seem to take possession of the fated house; and the doom which has fallen on them is worked out with pitiless exactitude to the 806 BA60T BAHAISM last generation." — J. A. Symonds, Sketches in Italy and Greece, pp. 70-72. BAGOT, Sir Charles (1781-1843), governor- general of Canada. See Canada: 1838-1S43. BAGRATID.ffi, the name of an Armenian dy- nasty. See Armenia: I2th-i4th centuries. BAGRATION, Prince Peter (1765-1812), Russian general. Served with distinction in many parts of Europe during the Napoleonic wars, fight- ing with skill and bravery and receiving a mortal wound at Borodino, 1812. See Russia: 1812 (June-September) . BAGUIO, the summer capital of the Philip- pine islands. "About 132 miles in a straight line north of Manila, in the mountain region of Ben- guet, lies Baguio, the summer capital of the Philip- pine Islands. Before the American occupation, the country around Baguio was an inaccessible wilder- ness, inhabited almost exclusively by the heathen Igorot, but already its splendid, invigorating cli- mate had attracted the attention of the authorities. ■ The Spanish government, anxious to secure a place where its soldiers could recuperate from disease in a climate more favorable than that of the low- lands, appointed, shortly before the Spanish-Ameri- can war, a commission to investigate the climatic conditions of the Benguet region, looking towards the establishment of a military sanitarium. This commission, after an exhaustive investigation, recommended that the proposed sanitarium be es- tablished at Baguio, in the province of Benguet. Thus matters stood when the change of sovereignty took place. Upon the establishment of civil gov- ernment under the United States, the Philippine Commission took up the question of a health re- sort for government employees and others, and the committee appointed by that body . . . came prac- tically to the same conclusions as the Spanish commission. ... To make this region accessible, it was proposed to connect Baguio with Dagupan, the terminus of the Manila and Dagupan Railroad, by means of highways, the portion to be con- structed by the Insular Government beginning at Pozorrubio, in the Province of Pangasinan. As the construction of this road proceeded, numer- ous difficulties arose, and when it was finally com- pleted, it had cost the Government two million dollars. Another, much less expensive road was constructed to connect Baguio with San Fernando, a seaport in the Province of La Union. In igo2 the Insular Government began the construction of a civil sanitarium and of several cottages, and in May and June, 1903, the Commission held for the first time its sessions at Baguio. During the fol- lowing years the same course was adopted, and as transportation facilities continued to improve, a little town sprang up. The several religious de- nominations purchased land and built churches, mission schools and cottages; private parties and Manila firms bought lots and constructed cottages on them; two hotels opened their doors; a mili- tary post was established in the vicinity of Baguio; the Jesuits built a large observatory on Mount Mirador, and the Insular Government established several schools for the Igorot, a training school for officers of the Philippine Constabulary, and an agricultural experimental station and stock farm. A water system was established and roads and drives were" built, and before long the surrounding country was dotted with private residences. The gold mines in the vicinity of Baguio, which had been worked in a crude fashion by the native Igorot, also came in for a great deal of attention, and a number of them are now being worked by American syndicates. Several of the latter have imported modern plants, and all seem to be doing well. . . . Governor-General W. Cameron Forbes took a special interest in Baguio. At the very be- ginning of his administration, in the fall of 1909, he began to make active preparations to carry out his plan to transfer the entire Insular Gov- ernment to Baguio during the hot season. Sev- eral large buildings were erected for the accommo- dation of the offices of the Government, also a Mess Hall for the employees and some twenty cot- tages. A franchise was granted for the construc- tion and operation of an electric light plant; an automobile service was established between Baguio and Camp One, the terminus of the branch line of the Manila and Dagupan Railroad; the exist- ing roads were improved, and everything was done to convert Baguio into a modern city. At the end of February [19 10] . . . the general exodus of the government offices to Baguio began. Soon the place presented a lively aspect. A special session of the Philippine Legislature had been called by the Governor-General and was held from March 2Sth to April 19th, and the teachers held their annual vacation assembly in a huge camp in the woods near Baguio. Since the close of the special session of the Legislature and of the teachers' as- sembly, Baguio has ceased to be overcrowded, and its floating population will continue to diminish until, in July, Baguio will be once more a quiet mountain village, with the torrential tropical rain beating down on the deserted office buildings and cottages, and the few permanent residents con- fined to their homes." — L. Fischer (New Age, v. 13, pp. 407-413). BAHADUR SHAH II (d. 1862), Last Mogul 'of India, 1837-1857. See India: 1857 (June-Sep- tember). BAHAISM: Baha'u'llah.— Development from Babism to Bahaism. — "Among the most influ- ential Babis was Mirza Husain Ali Nuri, born at Nur, in Mazandaran, on November 12, 1817. His family was eminently noble, and had contributed viziers and councillors to the royal court. In the natural course of events, therefore, this child would have become a courtier and official, but from his early youth he turned toward his own spiritual development, and refused to enter upon a public career. He was imprisoned for four months dur- ing these persecutions, confined in a dungeon, heavily chained to five other Babis. When no po- litical conspiracy could be proved in his conduct or impelled in his religious convictions, his property was confiscated and he himself, with his family, banished to Baghdad, beyond the Persian border and under the jurisdiction of the Sultan of Turkey. A great number of Babis, feeling in him the in- telligence, sympathy, and courage necessary to guide them through such trying times, followed with their families in voluntary banishment. This took place in 1852. The condition of the Babi community on its arrival at Baghdad represented economic chaos, complicated by the various opin- ions, social positions, and temperaments of the individual members. Mirza Ali, however, arranged their lives and activities, constructing from these helpless but willing emigrants an efficient, happy settlement. As soon as the foundations had been laid for their order and prosperity, he withdrew to the mountains north of Sulaimanziah, where for two years he lived in solitude, continually medi- tating and drawing freely from the source of all human inspiration and power. His presence even there became known, and holy men from near and far visited the hermit to discuss spiritual problems and experience. After two years, the Babi com- munity at Baghdad urgently begged his return, as their circumstances had become difficult during his absence. Returning to Baghdad, Mirza Ali gradually created so prosperous a settlement that 807 BAHAISM BAHAISM Babis and others from all parts of Asia began to join themselves to the community. Their increas- ing numbers and influence frightened the clergy, and the Persian Government treated with the Sul- tan for the surrender of the religious leader. Pre- ferring to retain him on Turkish territor>', the Sultan summoned Mirza Mi to Constantinople. Outside Baghdad, on his way to Constantinople, he stopped his first day's journey at an estate called the 'Garden of Rizwan,' where he was joined by his followers, nearly all having preferred to attend him in his new exile. Twelve days were spent in the Garden of Rizwan, during which time Mirza Ali Nuri, by the authority of his own per- sonality, gave an eternal, world-wide significance to this religious movement, and transferred its scope from Persia and Mohammedanism to hu- manity and religion. In this garden he announced to his followers that he was the supreme mani- festation of God foretold by the Bab, and publicly assumed the name of 'Baha'o'Uah,' the Glory of God. He commanded t'le Babis to look no more to the Bab for their prophet, but to himself, whose revelation would fulfil the Bab's prophecy and dissolve their Mohammedan sect in the larger syn- thesis of Bahaism." — H. Holley, Modern social re- ligion, pt. 5, pp. 161-162. — See also B.\bism. — "At that time he and his followers, now known as Bahais, were removed to Constantinople and soon after to Adrianople, where they remained until 1868 A. D. when, under pressure from enemies, they were transported to the political prison of Acca in Syria. Acca is about twenty miles from Nazareth, the home of Jesus, and nine miles from Mt. Carmel, the scene of many scriptural events." — T. Chase, Bahai revelation, p. 55. — "During the latter years of His ministry, Baha'o'Uah was al- lowed to spend much time in the country in the vicinity of Akka [the modern Acre, on the coast of Syria], even visiting Haifa and Mt. Car- mel. ... He departed this life in the month of May, i8q2, after forty years of hardship, imprisonment, and exile, that the soul of the world might be quickened with the life of the spirit. The tomb of Baha'o'Uah, at Behje, is greatly venerated by the many pilgrims who yearly visit it from all parts of the world."— C. M. Re- mev, Bahai movement, ch. 3. Teachings of Baha'u'llah.— "Manifold 'tablets' and treatises of instruction fell from Baha'u'llah's pen. One Treatise, entitled The Book of Laws, contains text upon text of commandments invalu- able not to Bahais alone but to 'all the men of all the world.' In it he orders the sword to be set aside for ever, to be replaced by the Word. He inculcates the settlement of national differences by arbitration. He enjoins the acquirement of One Universal Language to be taught to all children in all schools so that 'the whole world may become one homeland.' Boys and girls are to be educated alike, and the education must be the best possible, participated in by the children of the poor as well as those of the wealthy. Progress is impossible while ignorance spreads its roots. So eager was he in this connection that he wrote: 'He who educates his own son or the son of another, it is as though he educated the Son of God.' That 'work is prayer' he taught decisively. The high- est act of prayer and worship consists in the ac- quirement of some profession or handicraft and using it thoroughly and conscientiously. By the advancement of art and science he set great store. Disapproving of celibacy, he advocated marriage. Objecting to asceticism, he advised his followers to mix freely with all people, and on all occasions to exhibit signs of a glad and joyous but prac- tically righteous life. Naturally, therefore, in- 808 temperance and gambling are forbidden, together with the use of opium. . . . "Practical charity, practical goodwill and kind- ness to all and sundry, including the lower ani- mal world, Baha'u'llah insisted upon. . . . "Baha'u'llah declared himself utterly opposed to priesthood. He built no church 'made with hands.' Teachers of his Gospel of The Light may not take fees or stipends for their teaching. The necessities of living must be earned by them, even as St. Paul wrought at sail-making for food. . . . "Distrust of fellow-men ; intemperance of speech or action; love of wealth; above all, disunion: these are strenuously disapproved of by Bahaism." — Splendour of God (Wisdom of the East series, pp. 34-38)- Abdul Baha. — "Before his departure in May, 1892, Baha'o'Uah appointed his son Abbas Effendi, Abdul-Baha, to be 'Center of the Covenant' of Light, Love and Peace which he founded in the Name of God. He commanded all to turn their faces to Abdul-Baha for understanding, thus mak-' ing him the authorized Interpreter of writings. The only claim that Abdul-Baha makes for him- self is this authority of interpretation and that he is Abdul-Baha — the Servant of God in this Rev- elation. Abdul-Baha .^bbas was born in Teheran, Persia, on the evening of May 23rd, 1844 A.D. At nine years of age he accompanied his father in the journey of exile to Baghdad, and from that time he shared every hardship, suffering and im- prisonment." — T. Chase. Bahai' revelation p. 5g. — "The name Abdul-Baha signifies the title of its bearer, "The Servant of God.' Abdul-Baha is an exile from his country and until the reestablish- ment of the Turkish Constitution in the summer of 1008, he was a religious prisoner, held in the fortress of Akka. With this political change, he — with many other prisoners and exiles — was freed and is no longer under military surveillance. Since his release Abdul-Baha has made but few changes in his daily Hfe. Now it is possible for many more of his followers to visit him than formerly, consequently his duties and labors are increased. . . . While imprisoned Abdul-Baha received a stipend from the Turidsh government. Now that he is freed, this no longer continues. He holds cultivated lands in the vicinity of Akka which render him an income. His personal needs and those of his family are few. In reality, that which he possesses is for the benefit of all, while he is but the guardian of it." — C. M. Remey, Bahai movement, ch. 4, pp. 27, 31. — For detailed account of .\bdul Baha's journey through Europe and the United States in 1911-1013, consult H. Holley, Modern social religion, pt. 5, pp. 173-178. Progress of the Bahai cause. — "Bahaism is now by no means confined to one personality or one region. . . . Persia itself . . . contains more than a million believers. Adherence to the cause nowhere else implies so much courage and stead- fastness. Though tolerating neither priesthood nor ecclcsiasticism, the Bahai revelation makes ample provision for social control of its teaching. For every city it defines a special organization to unite the followers, instruct them in practical social work, concentrate their activity, and renew their vision. . . . No order or precedence between per- sons or the sexes is observed, and the Bahai ser- vices resemble those of the Quakers more than any other religious gathering known to our environ- ment. The cause is propagated in the natural manner, by those who are moved to serve by their own impulse. . . . Such assemblies or centres, de- viating from type according to local circumstances, e.xist in great numbers throughout Persia, South- ern Russia, India, Burma, and Egypt, where their BAHAISM BAHAISM membership includes every class, people, and sect. In the West, Bahai centres have been established in Germany, France and England, with unor- ganized but increasing sentiment in Italy and Russia; while in America, as Ihe history of the development of religious freedom would have fore- told, Bahaism is especially strong. No other race has evolved so far from the deadening influence of dogma and orthodoxy, thanks to the westward im- pulse of popular liberty; yet, on the other hand, no people have so completely lost the clue to mysticism and personal religious vision. Oppor- tunity and need, therefore, meet in particularly close contact throughout the United States and Canada — the rapid spread of the .Bahai teaching proves its capacity to satisfy the Western hunger for the spiritual life. In the United States more than thirty cities possess assemblies, and a con- stant stream of liberalizing and invigorating thought circulates from city to city and from State to State. To summarize, we find that Ba- haism has taken active root from California east- ward to Japan, and from Edinburgh south to Cape Town." — H. Holley, Modern social religion, pi. %, pp. 181-182. "The Baha'i doctrines of universal brotherhood, mutual tolerance among rival creeds, patience un- der persecution, and the cultivation of the quietist virtues are accessible in a large number of publica- tions and cheap manuals published by the faithful or by sympathizers with the movement. But for a scientific account of their theology and their metaphysics, for the various modifications of doc- trinal teaching set forth by the different ex- ponents of it, and for a sober recital of the genesis of the movement and the historical development of its various sects, the wise student will turn to the works of Professor Edward G. Browne with a feeling of assurance that in them he will find a lucid and well-documented exposition. For the last thirty years Professor Browne has been making a profound and patient study of this religious movement; he has been in personal contact with its most authoritative teachers, such as Subh-i-Azal and Baha'u'llah, the heads of the two rival sec- tions into which the original community split, and with 'Abdul-Baha, the son and successor of the latter, and with many other prominent Babis and Baha'is. His own writings and h'S edition of Eabi texts have gained for him the reputation of being the greatest living authority on tbis subject in Eu- rope; his works are distinguished by sound and painstaking scholarship, and are free from the parti- sanship which detracts from the merit of several other American and European writings. . . . They range over a period of seventy years, from contem- porary documents relating to the judicial examina- tion of the Bab in 1S4S and an account of him. by a Dr. Cormick — who is the only European who is known to have ever seen and conversed with the Bab — to an account of the latest lucubration by Dr. Khayru'llah, published in 1917. Nearly a fourth of the volume is taken up with the mission of this Dr. Khayru'llah in America and the notable success he has achieved there. The extraordinary receptivity for Oriental theologies and theosophies of various kinds, and the unquestioning acceptance of hard doctrines propounded with insistent au- thority by such teachers as Swami Vivekananda, Swami Ram Tirath, and the Baha'i mission, are among the most remarkable features of the religious Hfe of America in the present generation, and have excited considerable disquietude among the Churches in that country. It might have been expected that after conducting a mission in America for twenty-five years Dr. Khayru'llah would have imbibed something of the ethical spirit of the American people. But his latest work, 'O Chris- tians! Why do ye not believe in Christ?' con- tains an outspoken defence of polygamy, and apologizes for the assassination of Azalis by Baha'is as 'proving the veracity of Baha'ism and Christianity.' Such teaching is hardly calculated to confirm the hopes centred on the Baha'i move- ment by the late Professor Cheyne in 'The Recon- ciliation of Races and Religions,' 1914 and others. . . . Such persons have failed to recognize how much the Baha'i teachings have retained of the source from which they sprang. The 'manifesta- tion' of the Bab came in response to the millennial expectations of those Shiahs who believed in the possibility of there being a follower of the Hidden Imam — a so-called Bab, or 'Gate,' in direct spirit- ual communication with the Imam; and Mirza 'All Muhammad' in 1844 announced himself as such exactly a thousand years after the last Imam had succeeded to that exalted office. Though cruelly persecuted by the ortho- dox Shiahs, the Babis retained many characteris- tically Shiah doctrines; but the breach with Islam became irremediable, when Baha'u'llah made his appeal to the whole world. The fact that his followers henceforth called themselves Baha'is rather than Babis was no mere change of no- menclature, but marked the transition from Persian sectarianism to the claim to a world-wide mis- sion. But, as Professor Browne with scholarly insight has pointed out, 'almost every single doc- trine held by the Babis and Baha'is was pre- viously held and elaborated by one or another of the earlier cognate sects grouped together under the general title of Ghuliit, whereof the Isma'ilis are the most notable representative. For these Ghulat, or extreme Shiahs of the Left, our sources of information are not abundant, and we are chieily dependent for our knowledge of their tenets on writers who were hostile to them. But we know the enthusiasm with which their doctrines were often received and the persecutions which the faithful heroically endured; along with a care- fully graduated series of initiation, suited to the capacity of the neophyte, went such an economy of truth as, it appears from the documents Pro- fessor Browne publishes, some of the Baha'i teach- ers still practice; and these modern representatives of the earlier sects make a similar demand for un- hesitating acceptance of the dogmatic utterances of their respective theophanies. 'These parallelisms are not worked out in detail by Professor Browne in his new volume; but he provides the student with the details for such an investigation, while, on the other hand, he gives a synopsis, from the work of a Persian Shiah, of the Baha'i doctrines which are considered to be deviations from the orthodox creed of Islam. Across the historical record set out in immense detail in f'his volume is drawn a trail of blood. Relentlessly persecuted by the Mahomedan Governments under which they have lived, neither Babis nor Baha'is have ex- emplified that dictum of Cardinal Manning's that the children of the martyrs cannot be persecutors. The early history of the Babis was marked by a succession of armed risings against the Persian Government. They took no pains to conceal their hatred of the Shah and were ready to condemn to death those who rejected the mission of the Bab. Since the death of the Bab, two great schisms have divided the faithful. On each occasion bloodshed has marked the struggle between the rival fac- tions. In this respect the Baha'is are strangely reminiscent of the earliest of the Ghulat who be- came known to Christian Europe — the Assassins who obeyed the Old Man of the Mountains." — Times Literary Supplement, June 14, 1918. 809 BAHAMA ISLANDS BAHIA BAHAMA ISLANDS, most northerly group of the British West Indies. The government is representative, with a gov- ernor and an executive council, a legislative coun- cil and an assembly composed of 29 members. Education is free, compulsory, and non-sectarian. The total area is 4,403 square miles, embracing twenty inhabited islands and some 3,000 islets and rocks; the population (1919) was 61,000, the ma- jority negroes; Nassau, on the island of New Providence, is the capital. 1492-1783.— "The landfall of Columbus on his first voyage to America was one of the Bahama Islands. [See America: 1492.] The question as to whether it was the present San Salvador or Watlings Island on which he first set foot is still a matter of controversy, and from evidence that has been brought to light it would seem that the dispute can never be definitely settled. But this coincidence, interesting though it is, iniluenced little the later history of the Bahamas. M the time of the discovery the Islands were inhabited by Indians who received the name of 'Lucayans.' [See also Caribs: their kindred.] Subsequently the Spaniards came and enticed them away, or forcibly deported them, to end their miserable lives in slavery in Spanish mines at Hispaniola and elsewhere. It is said that the Spaniards returned again and again to the Bahamas to kidnap the Indians until the Islands were completely de- populated of their native inhabitants, and left desolate. This may be too strong a statement of the case, but it is certain that there are no Lucayan Indians living in the Bahamas to-day, nor are there any traces of Lucayan blood to be seen in the present inhabitants. . . . The title to the Lucayan Islands, as the Bahamas were first called, which was given to the Spaniards by the Pope, was not left undisputed. English sea-rovers haunted the West Indies in order to prey on Span- ish commerce, and pirates who early resorted to these waters and rapidly increased in numbers, found among the keys of the Bahamas, havens of retreat where they could easily elude the clumsy Spanish galleons. ... On October 30, 1629, an- other grant including the Bahama Islands was made by the sovereign of Great Britain, this time to Sir Robert Heath, the Attorney-General. A few colonists were sent out under this patent and a settlement was formed on New Providence. This settlement was ill-fated, for the island was visited in 1641 by a force of Spanish seamen and the small band of Englishmen was captured and carried away. The place was then taken posses- sion of by the Spaniards and held for about twenty years. . . . The colony at New Providence did not attract a large number of settlers. It had a small force of defenders, generally less than fifty in number, and was consequently a prey for the spoiler [see also British Empire: Expansion: 17th century: West Indies: 1647.] . . . But the Span- ish were not long to enjoy the possession of New Providence. . . . Buccaneering was indulged in freely by the inhabitants of the place. For brief periods, to be sure, during the next thirty years attempts were made to preserve law and order, but without avail, as so large a number of the population was engaged in piracy or at least in sympathy with it, that it was not possible for the government with the force at its command to stamp it out [see Buccaneers]. . . . Piracy with this settlement as a base became such a menace to the commerce passing through these water? that merchants in Great Britain pressed upon George I to put a stop to it. The Lords Proprietors, who had so poorly succeeded in their enterprise, sur- rendered their control of the civil government to 8 the Crown, and in 1718 Captain Woodes Rogers, a hardy and fearless sea-man, became Governor of Nassau. He restored order, punished or drove out the buccaneers and made the place a respect- able one in which to live. He was supported with forces sufficient to establish his control, and with funds to make fortifications for security against invaders. The Colony prospered from this time, attracting numerous settlers, among whom was a company of German Protestants from the Palati- nate. More extensive fortifications were under- taken in 173S under the direction of Peter Henry Bruce, of the engineer corps of the Royal Navy. He has left an interesting account of his work here in his memoirs. . . . Upon the separation of the Thirteen Colonies on the continent from Great Britain many of their inhabitants preferred to remain British subjects rather than become citizens of the States. . . . For these and other reasons many emigrated from the States to ter- ritory that still remained British. This exodus was encouraged by the favorable conditions offered to those who wished to settle in the Bahamas. . . . The white population of the Bahamas was doubled by these immigrants, and the negro population was nearly trebled. Many of the new-comers were cotton planters. These set to work at once with their slaves clearing lands and planting crops, and soon brought the Colony to some importance as a producer of cotton." — J. M. Wright, Bahama Islands, pp. 420-425. — In 1781 the islands were surrendered to the Spaniards, but at the conclusion of the war they were restored by the Peace of Versailles in 17S3. The Turks and Caicos Islands, which geographically form part of the Bahamas chain, were separated in 1848 and formed into a distinct presidency. — See also Bermi'd.as: 1719- 1783- 1834-1900. — Economic decline. — Disestablish- ment of the church. — Period of quiet. — "Among the factors contributing to the economic weaken- ing of the Bahamas, perhaps the most important was the abolition of the slave-trade in 1834. In 1848 the separation of the Turks and Caicos Islands, which had never been contented under the Bahama Government, withdrew the most pro- ductive of the salt-producing islands from the group. From 1869 to 1875 legislation was passed for the disestablishment of the Anglican church. Opposition to the measures was at no time very strong, and the legislature was able to deal with the question in a Hberal and impartial spirit. During the latter half of the nineteenth century the people of the Bahamas have remained con- tented under British rule. The slavery question passed out of men's minds and the control of local affairs was taken into other hands than those of the radical, former slaveholders. The Colony now entered upon a period of internal quiet, which with a few temporar\' interruptions has continued to the present time."- — Ibid., p. 569. BAHAMED, or Ahmed bin Musa (d. 1900), Grand Vizier of Morocco. See Morocco: 1903. BAHARIA, an oasis in the Libyan desert, Egypt. It was the scene of fighting during the World War. See World War: 1916: VI. Turkish theater: b, 1; 1017: VI. Turkish theater: b, 2. BAHA'U'LLAH (1817-1892), the founder of the Bahai movement. — See also Bahaism: Teach- ings. BAHIA, a state of Brazil, on the Atlantic sea- board (see Latin America: Map of South .Amer- ica) ; has an area of 164,650 square miles and a population of about 3,372,900, including the largest negro population in the republic. Agriculture is the principal industry, while gold and diamonds are found in some parts. Bahia, the capital, also known 10 BAHIA HONDA BAJA CALIFORNIA as Sao Salvador, is a flourishing seaport, possesses a great harbor and is the metropolis of the Bra- zilian church. The bay (Portuguese bahia) on which the city is situated was discovered by Amer- igo Vespucci in 1503. Until 1763 the city was the capital of Brazil. — See also Brazil. 1831.— Revolts. See Brazll: 1825-1865. BAHIA HONDA.— Coaling and naval station leased to the United States. See Cuba: iqo3. BAHIMA, an African tribe of Hamitic type found in the region of Victoria Nyanza. BAHREIN ISLANDS, a group of islands in the Persian gulf, and the center of its pearl in- dustry; now under British protection. See Arabia: Map. BAHRITE SULTANS. See Egypt: 1250- BAI.£. — Baiae, in Campania, opposite Puteon on a small bay near Naples, was the favorite water- ing place of the ancient Romans. "As soon as the reviving heats of April gave token of advanc- ing summer, the noble and the rich hurried from Rome to this choice retreat; and here, till the rag- ing dogstar forbade the toils even of amusement, they disported themselves on shore or on sea, in the thick groves or on the placid lakes, in litters and chariots, in gilded boats with painted sails, lulled by day and night with the sweetest sym- phonies of song and music, or gazing indolently on the wanton measures of male and female danc- ers. The bath, elsewhere their relaxation, was here the business of the day ; . . . they turned the pools of Avernus and Lucrinus into tanks for swimming ; and in these pleasant waters both sexes met familiarly together, and conversed amidst the roses sprinkled lavishly on their surface." — C. Merivale, History of the Romans, ch. 40. B-AIBURT, an Armenian town in north- eastern Asia Minor, south of Trebizond (q.v.l on tke main hishway to Erzerum. Occupied by Gen- eVial Paskevich during the Russian invasion of 1829 and again captured by the Russians under General Vudenich during the World War, July 15, 1916. See WoFLD War: iqi6: VI. Turkish theater: d, 6. BAIF, Jean Antoine (1523-1589), French poet. See French literatur5 1549-1580. BAIKAL, the sixth largest lake in the world, situated in the western part of eastern Siberia. For some years it formed a break in the trans- Siberian railway, trains being ferried across or, in winter, temporary tracks being laid on the ice; eventually the road was carried through the rugged region around the southern end of the lake. — See also Trans-Siberian railway. BAILEE, one to whom goods are committed in trust. See Common Law: 1623. BAILEN, or Baylen, a town in the prov- ince of Jaen in southern Spain; the scene of the Roman victories against the Carthaginians (209 and 206 B.C.) and of the surrender of the French general Dupont's corps of 17,000 to the Span- iards under Castafios. This was the first serious Napoleonic reverse in Spain. Capitulation of. See Spain: 180S (May-Sep- tember) . BAILEY, Daniel Julian, English private who, together with Sir Roger Casement, stood trial (June 27-29, iqi6) on a charge of high treason. Unlike Casement he was found not guilty and acquitted. — See also Ireland: 1916 (June-August). BAILEY, Liberty Hyde (1858- ), author and educator; writer on botanical and horticul- tural subjects and on rural problems, chairman of the Roosevelt commission on country life 1008. Director of the college of agriculture, Cornell Uni- versity, 1903-1913. — See also U. S. A.: 1908-1909 (August-February) . BAILLEUL, a town northwest of Lille, France. Was the scene of hard fighting in the World War, changing hands in 1914 and again in 1018. See World War: 1914: I. Western front: t; w, 3; 1915: II. Western front: i, 3; 1918: II. Western front: d, 10; d, 12; k, 5. BAILLEUL, a village captured by the Allies at Vimy Ridge in 1917. See World War: 1917: II. Western front: c, 9. BAILLIE (Scotch for bailif{>, a superior officer or magistrate of a municipal corporation in Scot- land with judicial authority within the city or burgh. BAILLOUD, Maurice Camille, French general. See World War: 1915: V. Balkans: c, 3 (i); 1917: VI. Turkish theater: c, i (vi). BAILLY, Blanchard A.: At second Peace Conference. See Hague conferences: 1907. BAILLY, Jean Sylvain (i 736-1 793), French statesman. Conduct in demonstration in Champs de Mars. See France: 1791 (July-September). BAILMENTS, Law of. See Common law: 1689-1710. BAINBRIDGE, Sir Edmond Guy Tulloch (1867- ), Major-General in the British army. See World War: 191S: II. Western front: c, 8. BAINBRIDGE, Commodore William (1774- 1S33), American officer. In Tripolitan War. See Barbary States: 1803- 1S05. In War of 1812. See U. S. A.: 1812-1813: In- difference to the navy. BAINSIZZA PLATEAU, an elevated region north of Trieste. In 1917 during the World War the Italian general Cadorna captured these heights in his operation against Trieste, losing them later in the same year at the time of the Caporetto dis- aster. — See also World War: 1917: IV. Austro- Italian front: d, 1. BAIRD, David, Sir (1757-1829), British gen- eral who was in command at Corunna. See Spain: 1808-1809 (August-January). BAIREUTH. See Bavreuth. BAJA (or Vieja) CALIFORNIA, or Lower California, is a long narrow peninsula forming a territory of the republic of Mexico. (See also Mexico: Land.) "The great Californian penin- sula, or Lower California, as it is called, ... in area is a little larger than England and Wales, measuring 61,562 square miles. The frontier line with the United States begins on the Pacific sea- board, in a dreary and solitary desert in a place called Initial Point, a little south of the 33rd parallel and running eastwards towards the Gulf of California as far as Fort Yuma, at the junction of the Rio Gila with the Rio Colorado. The peninsula terminates southwards at Cape Palms . . . and Cape S. Lucas . . . whose sandy shoals, strewn with fragments of rock, serve as an excel- lent natural bed for shell fish of a choice quality. . . . Watered by two seas, one of which, reaching to the Pole, brings with it warm and cold breezes alternately, according as they blow from the north or from the equator, while the other, being almost completely land-locked, is retained at a high tem- perature. Lower California apparently combines all the conditions of a damp climate. Hence we may well wonder at its remarkable dryness and sterility." — H. W. Bates, Stanford compendium of geography and travel. Central and South America, pp. 41-42. — "Lower California, except the Cape region, is virtually a desert, though in places, es- pecially in favourable years, there is enough grass for a little stock-raising." — Handbook of Mexico (Prepared by the geographical section of the naval intelligence division, naval staff, admiralty). — "If Baja California is poor in species of organic 811 BAJAUR BALANCE OF POWER life, nature has compensated it in the mineral world, and that peninsula is considered one of the most hichly mineralized parts of the North Ameri- can continent. Copper, silver, and gold are among its most important products and quick-silver, opal, sulphur, and rock-salt exist. The famous Boleo copper mine is situated in this territory." — C. R. Knock, Mexico, pp. 207-208. Also in: P. F. Martin, Mexico, pp. S6-57- — J. Barret, Director General, Pan-American Union, Mexico. BAJAUR. See India: 189S (March-Septem- ber). BAJAZET I. See Bayezid I and II of Turkey. BAJER, M. F. Dane, awarded Nobel peace prize in looS. See Nobel prizes: Peace, 1908. BAJI RAO, Mahratta peshwa (prime minister), who led an insurrection against British rule. See India: 1816-1819. BAJURA, the standard of Mohammed. BAKAIRI. See Caries: their kindred. BAKER, Colonel Edward Dickinson (1811- 1861), killed at Ball's Bluff. See U. S. A.: 1S61 (October: Virginia). BAKER, Newton Diehl (1871- ), American lawyer, graduate of Johns Hopkins University; city' solicitor of Cleveland, 1902-1912; mayor of Cleveland, 1912-1914 and 1914-1916; secretary of war from March, 1016, to March, 1921. See U. S. A.: 1916-1917; and 1917 (February-May); World War: 1917: VIII. United States and the war: h. BAKER, Sir Samuel White (1821-1893).— Conquest of Central Africa. See Egypt: 1870- 1883. BAKER, Valentine (1827-1887), British sol- dier. Known as Baker Pasha. Served in Kaffir War 1852-1853; in 1S77 entered service of the sul- tan and was major-general unattached in Mehemet All's army in the Russo-Turkish War; in 1882 commander of Egyptian police. In 1885 was ap- pointed to General Wolseley's staff, but appoint- ment not ratified; returned to Egypt and in 1887 was killed in battle of El-Teb. BAKER'S ISLAND, a small uninhabited island, less than a square mile in area, situated in the Pacific southwest of Hawaii, It was discov- ered by Baker sailing under the United States flag in 1832, but the United States government did not take possession of it until 1859. It is useless as a coaling station, as it lacks facilities for anchorage and drinking water. It has valuable deposits of guano. BAKHCHI-SARAI, a town of the Crimea between Simferopol and Sevastopol. As the Tatar capital it was captured by the invading Russians in 1735. BAKHDHI. See B.-vctria. BAKHMETIEV, or Bakhmeteff, Boris Alex- androvich (1880- ), Russian Embassador to the United States for the Kerensky government. In Russia: professor of mechanics, hydraulics and hydraulic engineering at the Institute of Ways and Communication and at the Polytechnical Institute in Petrograd. Came to the United States in 1915 as representative of the Central War Industrial Committee of Russia, a war sup[)Iy committee for the Russian army, and in the summer of 1917 as ambassador and head of the Russian Extraor- dinary Mission, representing the Kerensky gov- ernment. BAKHMETIEV, Madame. — Her humane work in Macedonia. See Turkey: 1902-1903. BAKHMUT, town of Russia in Ekaterinoslav, captured by Bolsheviki in 1919. See Russia: 1918- 1919. BAKHTASHIYAH. See Dervishes. teAKHTIARI, political party in Persia. See Persia: 1008-1009. BAKHTIYAR KHILTI, conquered Bengal c. 1200. See Bengal. BAKHTRI. See Bactria. BAKSAR, or Baxar, or Buxar, Battle of (1764). See Ikdia: 1757-1772. BAKU, the capital of Azerbaijan, the center of the petroleum industry on the Caspian sea, and one of the great oil centers of the world ; was an integral part of Russia until October, 1917, when the people of Transcaucasia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Armenia joined to form a federation of re- publics. After the breakup of the federation in 1918, the Bolsheviki obtained control, March 17, but were driven out after a two months' siege. The British forces entered the port of Baku on November 17, 1918, by request of the Azerbaijan government and remained until the end of 1919. (See World War: 1918: VI. Turkish theater: a, 8; b, 2; b, 4; b, 9.) In April, 1920, the Bolshevist party overthrew the government and in May, Baku was recaptured. — See also Caucusus: 1902-1917. Destruction of oil industry, strikes. See Russia: 1904-1905: Outline of leading events in Revolution; 1905 (April-November). BAKUFU, Japan. See Japan: 1641-1779. BAKUNIN, Mikhail (1814-1876), Russian an- archist. In 1840 he joined younger Hegelians in Berlin; in 1844-1S47 met Proudhon in Paris. Stirred up popular insurrections in Bohemia and Saxony, 1848; arrested in 1849, condemned to death, spared by Russian intervention; 1857, sen- tenced to life exile in Siberia ; escaped to United States and went to France and Switzerland; es- tablished headquarters in Italy. In 1872 disagreed with Karl Marx and the Socialists and was ex- pelled from the International Workingmen's As- sociation, which he had joined in 1S69. See An- archism: 1861-1876; Socialism: 1860-1920. BALAKHOVITCH, General: His defeat. See Russia: 1020 (October-November). BALAKIREV, Mily Alexeivich (1836-igio), Russian composer; a pioneer member of the neo- Russian school which was consolidated by the idea of nationality in music in the middle of the nine- teenth century. Director of the Imperial chapel and conductor of the Imperial Russian Musical Society. Among his disciples were Cesar Cui, Borodin, Moussorgsky and Rimsky-Korsakov. — See Music: Folk music and nationalism: Russia. BALAKLAVA, Battle of. See Russu: 18S4- 18S6. BALANCE OF POWER: Definition.— "The joint resistance of several nations to Cssarism, or the domination of a single nation, is designated as the maintenance of the balance of power. This principle implies that no state shall be permitted to become so powerful as to menace the safety of other states; that no one nation shall be permitted to exalt itself above all other nations. This is the end and aim of the balance of power. It impels nations to protect the integrity, free- dom, and separate nationality of each other. . . . The balance of power is a negative check upon overgrown dominion. It -was known to antiquity as to modern times but is commonly supposed to have emanated from England. . . . 'You know as well as we do,' said the Athenians to the people of Melos, 'that, as the world goes, the question of right is only discussed between equals; while, among those who differ in power, the strong do what they can, the weak suffer what they must.' This is a fair statement of the struggle for existence between the nations of the ancient world. . . . When rightly understood, the balance of power docs not mean an exact equi- 812 BALANCE OF POWER Ancient Greece and Rome BALANCE OF POWER poise but rather an overwhelming weight against the aggKssor. the evil-doer. . . . An equipoise leads to exhfiisting wars; a preponderance of power gives assured peace. The Concert of Europe is a perfect example of the preponderance of power; the division of Europe into the Triple Alliance (q. V.) and the Triple Entente (q.v.) is a good example of an equipoise of power. The world will adopt peaceful habits only when the ag- gressor among nations is as certain to encounter overwhelming force as would an aggressor among the states of the American Union. The balance of power, if carried to its logical conclusion, would bind the states of the world into a league for mutual defence against all aggressors."^S. C. Vestal, Maintenance of peace, pp. 101-105. — See also Concert of Europe. Ancient Greece and Rome. — "It is a question, whether the idea of the balance of power be owing entirely to modern policy, or whether the phrase only has been invented in the later ages? It is certain that Xenophon, in his Institution of Cyrus, represents the combination 01 the Asiatic powers to have arisen from a jealousy of the increasing force of the Medes and Persians; and though that elegant composition should be sup- posed altogether a romance, this sentiment, ascribed by the author to the Eastern princes, is at least a proof of the prevailing notion of an- cient times. In all the politics of Greece, the anxiety with regard to the balance of power is apparent, and is expressly pointed out to us, even by the ancient historians. Thucydides represents the league which was formed against .Athens, and which produced the Peloponnesian war, as entirely owing to this principle. .And after the decline of Athens, when the Thebans and Lacedemonians disputed for sovereignty, we find that the Athe- nians (as well as many other republics) always threw themselves into the lighter scale, and en- deavoured to preserve the balance. They sup- ported Thebes against Sparta, till the great vic- tory gained by Epaminondas at Leuctra; after which they immediately went over to the con- quered, from generosity, as they pretended, but in reality from their jealousy of the conquerors. Whoever will read Demosthenes's oration for the Megalopolitans, may see the utmost refinements on this principle that ever entered into the head of a Venetian or English speculatist. And upon the first rise of the Macedonian power, this orator immediately discovered the danger, sounded the alarm throughout all Greece, and at last as- sembled that confederacy under the banners of Athens which fought the great and decisive bat- tle of Cha;ronea. It is true, the Grecian wars are regarded by historians as wars of emulation rather than of politics ; and each state seems to have had more in view the honour of leading the rest, than any well-grounded hopes of authority and dominion. If we consider, indeed, the small num- ber of inhabitants in any one republic, compared to the whole, the great difficulty of forming sieges in those times, ancl the extraordinary bravery and discipline of every freeman among that noble peo- ple; we shall conclude, that the balance of power was, of itself, sufficiently secured in Greece, and need not to have been guarded with that caution which may be requisite in other ages. But whether we ascribe the shifting of sides in all the Grecian republics to jealous emulation or cautious politics, the effects were alike, and every prevailing power was sure to meet with a confederacy against it, and that often composed of its former friends and allies. . . . The successors of Alexander showed great jealousy of the balance of power; a jealousy founded on true politics and prudence, 8 and which preserved distinct for several ages the partition made after the death of that famous conqueror. The fortune and ambition of An- tigonus threatened them anew with a universal monarchy; but their combination, and their vic- tory at Ipsus, saved them. And in subsequent times, we find, that, as the Eastern princes con- sidered the Greeks and Macedonians as the only real military force with whom they had any in- tercourse, they kept always a watchful eye over that part of the world. The Ptolemies, in par- ticular, supported first Aratus and the Achaeans, and then Cleomenes, king of Sparta, from no other view than as a counterbalance to the Mace- donian monarchs. For this is the account which Polybius gives of the Egyptian poHtics. The reason why it is supposed that the ancients were entirely ignorant of the balance of power, seems to be drawn from the Roman history more than the Grecian; and as the transactions of the former are generally more familiar to us, we have thence formed all our conclusions. It must be owned, that the Romans never met with any such gen- eral combination or confederacy against them, as might naturally have been e.xpected for their rapid conquests and declared ambition, but were al- lowed peaceably to subdue their neighbours, one after another, till they extended their dominion over the whole known world. Not to mention the fabulous history of the Italic wars, there was, upon Hannibal's invasion of the Roman state, a remarkable crisis, which ought to have called up the attention of all civilized nations. It appeared afterwards (nor was it difficult to be observed at the time) that this was a con- test for universal empire ; yet no prince or state seems to have been in the least alarmed about the event or issue of the quarrel. Philip of Macedon remained neuter, till he saw the victories of Hannibal: and then most imprudently formed an alliance with the conqueror, upon terms still more imprudent. He stipulated, that he was to assist the Carthaginian state in their conquest of Italy ; after which they engaged to send over forces into Greece, to assist him in subduing the Grecian commonwealth. The Rhodian and Achaean republics are much celebrated by ancient his- torians for their wisdom and sound policy ; yet both of them assisted the Romans in their wars against Philip and Antiochus. And what may be esteemed still a stronger proof, that this maxim was not generally known in those ages, no an- cient author has remarked the imprudence of these measures, nor has even blamed that absurd treaty above mentioned, made by Philip with the Carthaginians. Princes and statesmen, in all ages, may, beforehand, be blinded in their reasonings with regard to events, but it is somewhat ex- traordinary, that historians, afterwards, should not form a sounder judgment of them. . . . The only prince we meet with in the Roman history, who seems to have understood the balance of power, is Hiero, king of Syracuse. Though the ally of Rome, he sent assistance to the Carthaginians during the war of the auxiliaries; 'Esteeming it requisite,' says Polybius, 'both in order to re- tain his dominions in Sicily, and to preserve the Roman friendship, that Carthage should be safe; lest by its fall the remaining power should be able, without control or opposition, to execute every purpose and undertaking. And here he acted with great wisdom and prudence: For that is never, on any account, to be overlooked; nor ought such a force ever to be thrown into one hand, as to incapacitate the neighbouring states from defending their rights against it.' Here is the aim of modern politics pointed out in ex- 13 BALANCE OF POWER Modern Application BALANCE OF POWER press terms. In short the maxim of preserving the balance of power is founded so much on common sense and obvious reasoning, that it is impossible it could altogether have escaped an- tiquity, where we find, in other particulars, so many marks of deep penetration and discern- ment. If it was not so generally known and acknowledged as at present, it had at least an influence on all the wiser and more experienced princes and politicians. And indeed, even at pres- ent, however generally known and acknowledged among speculative reasoners, it has not, in prac- tice, an authority much more extensive among those who govern the world." — D. Hume, Essays and treaties, v. i (1S2S), pp. 331-336. Modern application. — Policy of Wolsey and Temple. — English position. — Division of Poland. — -"The idea of the balance of power and equi- librium of forces found its first modem applica- tion in the interstate relations of the leading Italian cities in the fifteenth century. ... In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries they [the leading powers of Europe] frequently combined to preserve the Balance of Power. . . . Endangered by Louis XIV, this system was revived by the Peace of Utrecht in 1713. [See Utrecht: 1712- 1714.] Temporarily destroyed by Napoleon it was restored at the Congress of Vienna in 1815. [See Vienna, Conoress of. 1815.] In the name of the so-called 'Holy Alliance', (q. v.) the Quadruple Alliance formed at Paris, November 20, 1814, undertook to prevent and to crush revolution in Italy and Spain and even threatened to extend its activities to the Western Hemisphere. It was mainly against the extension of this system of in- tervention to Latin America that the Monroe Doctrine was proclaimed in 1S23." — A. S. Hershey, Internaliotuil law and diplomacy of the Russo- Japanese war, p. 151. — Tv«'o names which are connected with the growth of the idea are Cardinal Wolsey and Sir William Temple. Henry VIII, influenced by Wolsey, shaped his foreign policy accordingly and gave either moral or real support to the weaker participant in any Euro- pean quarrel. Sir William Temple, in the reign of Charles II, upheld the doctrine in the case of England's relations with Spain, France, and the Netherlands. "A Nation which had the mastery of the Con- tinent could hardly allow Great Britain to main- tain an independent existence. . . . Our [the Eng- lish] position in Europe is secure and will remain secure only as long as the various powers or groups of powers in Europe are so nearly equal in strength that no power or group of powers is able to obtain that supremacy which earlier or later would cause it to attack Great Britain. . . . When Spain, France and Russia in turn tried to obtain the supremacy ip Europe by land and when Holland tried to obtain the supremacy in Europe on the sea each came into collision with . . . and was prevented by Great Britain from attaining that supremacy which would undoubtedly have endangered our [English] national ex- istence." — J. E. Barker, Great and Greater Brit- ain, p. 281. "If the division of Poland was the first event which an abuse of farm deranged the political balance of Europe, it was likewise one of the first which begot an apathy of spirit, and stupid insensibility to the general interest. The silence of France and England, the silence of all Europe, when a measure of so much importance was planned and executed, is almost as astonishing as the event itself. The weakness of the French cabinet toward the conclusion of the reign of Louis XV, throws some light upon the circum- stance, but does not sufficiently explain it. No effectual resistance could have been expected from England alone, and still less from the other powers after France decHned to interfere. But it will not escape the observation of the future historian, that the omission on that occasion of any public measure, of any energetic remon- strance, of any serious protest, nay, even of any expression of disapprobation, was an indubitable symptom of general debUity and relaxation. . . . It is impossible that the history of our time [written in 1806] should pass without producing some beneficial fruits for us and our posterity. Whether Buonaparte, in the recesses of his haughty and gloomy mind, has really conceived the idea of a universal monarchy ; under what form he has conceived it ; what progress he has made in forming the project, and when, and how he thinks of realizing it, all this futurity will cUsclose. But so much is clear and certain, that in the course of six frightful years he has been doing, without intermission, all that he must do on the very worst supposition, and that he has succeeded in things which seem very unequivocally to prog- nosticate the most pernicious and desperate issue. Were every thing here to close, were his career to be terminated, were our undertakings to be crowned with complete success, and his star to set for ever, is it possible that we could forget what sorrows, what bitterness, what disgrace, what troubles, what convulsions, what a grievous load of present evils, and what anguish for every coming day, was felt throughout the greatest and best part of Europe, from a bare attempt and beginning to effect such a project? And shall we not therefore adopt every expedient which wisdom can devise to prevent the return of these hard trials?" — F. Gentz, Fragments upon the bal- ance of power [1806], pp. 90, 108-109. Views of a publicist in the Napoleonic era. — "The balance of power among states has always been a chimera; in all times the weak have re- ceived laws from the strong; whether the law is pronounced by one individual, or twenty, is the same to him whose fortune it is to obey." . . . What is usually termed a balance of power, is that constitution subsisting among neighbouring states more or less connected with one another; by virtue of which no one among them can injure the independence or the essential rights of another, without meeting with effectual resistance on some side, and consequently exposing itself to danger. . . . The allusion in the term to cor- poreal objects has given occasion to various mis- conceptions. It has been represented that those who recognized the principles of a combination among states founded on an equal balance of power, had in view the most perfect possible equality or equalization of powers, and required that the different states composing a great pop\h- lation, riches, resources, and so forth, be exac^Y measured, squared and rounded by a cominon standard. Out of this false hypothesis, according as it has been applied by credulity or scepticism to the relations between states, have sprung liwo opposite errors, the one almost as hurtful' as the other. Those who adopted that imaginary prin- ciple in its full extent, were thereby led to be- lieve that in every case in which a state gains an accession of strength, either by external ac- quisitions, or by the development of its internal resources, the rest must oppose, and contend with it till they have either obtained an equivalent or reduced it to its former situation. ... A dif- ferent set justly persuaded of the impossibility of such a system have, on the other hand, declared the whole idea of a political balance to be a 814 BALANCE OF POWER Napoleonic Era BALANCE OF POWER chimera invented by dreamers, and artfully made use of by designing men as a pretext for dis- putes, injustice and violence. The former of these errors would banish peace from the earth; the latter would open the most desirable pros- pects to every state which, under the influence of ambition, aspired to universal dominion. . . . There was formed among the states of this quar- ter of the globe [Europe] an extensive social commonwealth, of which the characteristic object was the preservation and reciprocal guarantee of the rights of all its members. From the time that this respectable object came to be dis- tinctly and clearly recognized, the necessary eternal conditions, on which it was attainable, unfolded themselves by degrees. Men were soon aware that there were certain fundamental principles, arising out of the proportional power of each of the component parts to the whole, without the constant influence of which order could not be secured ; and the following maxims were gradually set down as a practical basis, which was not to be deviated from: "That if the states system of Europe is to exist and be maintained by common exertions, no one of its members must ever become so power- ful as to be able to coerce all the rest put to- gether; — "That if that system is not merely to exist, but to be maintained without constant perils and violent concussions; each member which infringes it must be in a condition to be coerced, not only by the collective strength of the other members, but by any majority of them, if not by one individual; — "But that to escape the alternate danger of an uninterrupted series of wars, or of an arbitrary op- pression of the weaker members in every short interval of peace; tlie fear of awakening common opposition, or of drawing down common vengeance, must of itself be sufficient to keep every one within the bounds of moderation ; — and "That if ever a European state attempted by unlawful enterprizes to attain to a degree of power, (or had in fact attained it.) which enabled it to defy the danger of a union of several of its neighbours, or even an alliance of the whole, such a state should be treated as a common enemy ; and that if, on the other hand, it had acquired that degree of force by an accidental concurrence of circumstances, and without any acts of violence, whenever it appeared upon the public theatre, no means which political wisdom could devise for the purpose of diminishing its power, should be neglected or untried. These maxims contain the only intelligible theory of a balance of power in the political world. (Note. — It perhaps would have been with more propriety called a system of counterpoise. For perhaps the highest of its results is not so much a perfect equipoise as a constant alternate vacillation in the scales of the balance, which, from the applica- tion of counterweights, is prevented from ever pass- ing certain limits.) "It is only when a state with open wantonness, or under fictitious pretences and titles artificially invented, proceeds to such enterprizes as immedi- ately, or in their unavoidable consequences, pre- pare the way for the subjugation of its weaker neighbours, and for perpetual danger to the stronger, that conformably to sound conceptions of the general interest of the commonwealth, a rupture of the balance is to be apprehended; it is only then that several should unite together to prevent the decided preponderance of one in- dividual power. By this system, which has been acted upon since the beginning of the sixteenth century, with more or less good fortune, but with great constancy, and often with uncommon pru- dence ; at lirst more in a practical way, and, as it were from political instinct, afterwards with clear, reflecting, and methodical constancy, two great results were obtained, in the midst of a tumultuous assemblage of the most decisive events. The one was, that no person succeeded in pre- scribing laws to Europe, and that, (till our times,) all apprehension, even of the return of a uni- versal dominion, was gradually banished from every mind. The other, that the political consti- tution, as it was framed in the sixteenth cen- tury, remained so entire in all its members till the end of the eighteenth (when all ancient ordinances were abolished), that none of the in- dependent powers, which originally belonged to the confederacy, had lost their political ex- istence. . . . "A system of political counterpoise has both in its structure and operations, a remarkable analogy with what, in the internal economy of states, is called a mixed constitution, or con- stitutional balance. When this, as in England for example, has attained to the highest pitch of perfection of which it is susceptible; when every thing is arranged and constituted in the wisest manner, when none of the different powers of which it is composed can surpass the bounds of their respective spheres, or in any way trans- gress their limits without encountering a repel- ling force, there is yet another danger which baf- fles all human skill to avoid. As the divided powers must necessarily act in concert for good and salutary purposes, they can also, in extraordi- nary cases, voluntarily combine for bad ones; and thus, what would have been impossible for any one singly to operate had the principle of mutual counteraction continued, may be effected by a fatal understanding between them, to the prejudice of the state, and the ruin of its constitution." — F. Gentz, Fragments upon the balance of power, xxii, 55, 60, 57, 60-65, 71-72- British foreign policy. — Its contribution to the fall of Napoleon. — " 'The Emperor [Alexander I of Russia] has the greatest merit, and must be held high,' [Lord Castlereagh] wrote on April 20 [1814] to Lord Liverpool, 'but he ought to be grouped, and not made the sole feature for admiration.' Here we have the key to the conti- nental policy of the British Government, as repre- sented by Castlereagh, during the following years. Its consistent aim was the traditional one of estab- Ushing and maintaining the balance of power. After the downfall of Napoleon this balance was seri- ously threatened by Russia alone, and to pre- serve it Great Britain — -as the secret treaty of Jan. 3, 1815, showed — would have used against Alexander the same weapons that had prevailed against Napoleon. Between Napoleon and Alex- ander, however, there was from the first this essential difference, namely, that Napoleon could never have been grouped, whereas Alexander could — was, indeed, an enthusiast for grouping, so long as he was allowed to pose in the centre of the picture."— W. A. Phillips, Confederation of Europe, p. 83. — "The constitution of the Con- gress [of Vienna] well illustrates the essential conditions of any international organization. . . . In theory all sovereign States are equal and should have an equal voice in the councils of the nations. But in practice their influence always has been, and always must be, in pro- portion to the force behind them; which means that, in the last resort, all important de- cisions will depend on an agreement between the Great Powers, with or without the consent of 815 BALANCE OF POWER Relation to International Law BALANCE OP POWER the lesser. The proceedings of the Congress of Vienna have also a permanent interest, from the same point of view, as showing the difftculty of arriving at such an agreement, when there is a fundamental conflict of views and interests be- tween the Powers, and the methods by which this difficulty is overcome. The method at Vienna was, as it always must be if one Power or group of Powers is not to dominate the rest, the applica- tion of the principle of the balance of power. This truth Castlereagh had from the first realized, and when in January 1S14 he entered the coun- cils of the Allies he announced the policy of Great Britain to be the restoration of a 'just equilibrium' in Europe. Napoleon was now over- thrown, but the equilibrium had not been thereby restored; for his overthrow had left the immense power of Russia without an effective counterpoise on the Continent. 'The drawback to Russia as an ally,' said Moltke, 'is that she arrives on the field very late and is then too strong.' In the struggle against Napoleon Russia had arrived late, and she was now present in Northern and Cen- tral Europe in alarming force." — Ibid., pp. loi- 102. — "Those federations which have survived have done so because, as in the case of the United States, they have developed a common sentiment far stronger than any which may divide their con- stituent States, a sentiment based on the con- sciousness of interests, traditions and ideals dis- tinguishing them from other political groups. They have survived, in short, because they have become nations. Seeing the world as it is, it is difficult to believe that any such powerful cement of sentiment could be found to bind together even the civilized peoples, not to mention the semi-civilized and the uncivilized. In the ab- sence of such a sentiment the stability of the League of Nations must depend on a system of checl^ and balances, and this in the long run is unlikely to prove any more effective in keeping the peace than were the expedients of the old diplomacy."— /fc;(/., pp. 300-301. See Concert of Europe; Europe: Modern period: New balance of power. Neutralization of states. — Dual and Triple Alliances. — "The reason why a state may de- sire to become neutraHzed is that it is weak, that its independence is guaranteed, that it has no desire or ability to participate in in- ternational affairs, in the usual struggles or com- petitions of states. The reason why the great powers have consented to the neutralization of such states have differed in different cases. But the chief reason has been connected with the ' theory of the balance of power, the desire to keep them as buffers between two or more neighbor- ing large state." — C. D. Hazen. Fifty years of Europe, 1S70-1Q10, p. 203. — See also Neutrality. — The "Dual Alliance (q. v.) [France and Russia] was the inevitable outcome of the existence and power of the Triple .Alliance, concluded between Germany, .'\ustria, and Italy in 1882. The Dual AlHance grew out of the need which both Rus- sia and France felt of outside support in the presence of so powerful a combination. If there was to be anything like a balance of power in Europe, Russia and France must combine. Both alliances were defensive. The action of Aus- tria against Serbia brought Russia upon the scene. Russia's action brought Germany forward. Ger- many's action necessitated action on the part of France. One state was free to act as it saw fit, its conduct not controlled by entangling alliance, England." — Ibid., p. 326. Aftermath of World War.— "The truth is that, though the Americans and British alike fought 8 [against Germany] for a principle, it was not be- cause of a principle that they entered the war, but because their honour and their vital interests left them no alternative. . . . After all, a nation is in its essence a group consciously separated from other groups by a vivid sense of its common and separate interests. The problem of preserving peace then remains, after I the World War] as before, the old one of holding the balance be- tween these groups ; and the problem of interna- tional organization is that of creating and keeping in order a mechanism by which this balance shall be kept steady. The task of the allied and as- sociated nations at the present time, that is to say, is the same as that which confronted the Congress of Vienna [1S14] and during the suc- ceeding years; and, though in many respects the conditions have changed, the problem remains es- sentially the same." — W. A. Phillips, Confederation of Europe, p. 16. Relation to principles of International Law. — "It is the task of history, not only to show how things have grown in the past, but also to extract a moral for the future out of the events of the past. Five morals can be said to be deduced from the history of the develop- ment of the Law of Nations: "(i) The first and principal moral is that a Law of Nations can exist only if there is an equilibrium, a balance of power, between the members of the Family of Nations. If the Powers cannot keep one another in check, no rules of law will have any force, since an over-power- ful State will naturally try to act according to dis- cretion and disobey the law. As there is not and never can be a central political authority above the Sovereign States that could enforce the rules of the Law of Nations, a balance of power must prevent any member of the Family of Nations from becoming omnipotent. The his- tory of the times of Louis XIV. and Napoleon I. shows clearly the soundness of this principle. ... As regards interventions for the purpose of self-preservation, it is obvious that, if any neces- sary violation committed in self-preservation of the International Personality of other States is, as shown above, excused, such violation must also be excused as is contained in an intervention. /\nd it matters not whether such an intervention exercised in self-preservation is provoked by an actual or imminent intervention on the part of a third State, or by some other incident. As re- gards intervention in the interest of the balance of power, it is likewise obvious that it must be excused. An equilibrium between the members of the Family of Nations is an indispensable con- dition of the very existence of International Law. If the States could not keep one another in check, all Law of Nations would soon disappear, as, naturally, an over-powerful State would tend to act according to discretion instead of accord- ing to law. Since the Westphalian Peace of 1648 the principle of balance of power has played a preponderant part in the history of Europe. It found express recognition in 1713 in the Treaty of Peace of LTtrecht [see Utrecht: 1712-1714], it was the guiding star at the Vienna Congress (q. V.) in 1S15 when the map of Europe was re-arranged, at the Congress of Paris in 1856, the Conference of London in 1867, and the Con- gress of Berlin (see Berlin, Coxgkess and Treaty oi') 1878. The States themselves and the ma- jority of writers agree upon the admissibility of intervention in the interest of balance of power. Most of the interventions exercised in the inter- est of the preservation of the Turkish Empire must, in so far as they are not based on treaty 16 BALANCE OF TRADE BALFOUR rights, be classified as interventions in the in- terest of balance oi power. Examples of this are supplied by collective interventions exercised by the Powers in i8S6 for the purpose of pre- venting the outbreak of war between Greece and Turkey, and in 1S97 during the war between Greece and Turkey with regard to the island of Crete. . . . Although subjugation is an original mode of acquiring territory and no third Power has as a rule a right of intervention, the con- queror ha? not in fact an unlimited possibility of annexation of the territory of the vanquished State. When the balance of power is endangered or when other vital interests are at stake, third Powers can and will intervene, and history records many instances of such interventions. But it must be emphasised that the validity of the title of the subjugator does not depend upon recogni- tion on the part of other Powers. And a mere protest of a third Power is of no legal weight either." — L. Oppenheim, International Law, v. i, Peace, pp. 73~74, 185-186, 292. — See also Con- cert OF Europe: History and meaning of term. BALANCE OF TRADE. See Commerce: Commercial age: 1914-1921; Tariff: 1689-1721; 17th and iSth centuries; iSth century; 1776. BALBOA, Vasco Nuiiez de (1475-1517), dis- coverer of the Pacific ocean. Sailed for America 1500; went to Darien, where he was elected alcalde 1510; caused the imprisonment of Governor En- cisco; received a commission to act as governor 1512; explored the country; discovered and took formal possession (1513) of the Southern sea (the name Pacific ocean was not applied until seven years later) in the name of the Spanish monarch; continued his explorations; retu,rned to Darien 1514. Upon complaints of former governor Encisco to the king of Spain, Pedro Arias de Avila was sent to replace Balboa. The new governor had him arrested on a charge of contemplated revolt and beheaded. See America: 1513-1517; and Map showing voyages of discovery; Colombia: 1499- 1536; Pacific ocean: 1513-1764. BALBRIGGAN, a town on the east-coast of Ireland north of Dublin; textile manufacturing center; the scene of reprisals by the Royal Irish Constabulary, September 21, 1920, which origi- nated in a quarrel between District Inspector Burke, his brother. Sergeant Burke, together with five or six other police and local Republican Volunteers, during which Inspector Burke was killed and his brother wounded. Later, the "Black and Tans" began a campaign of incendiarism, the outcome of which was the burning of many homes and the sho'oting' oi two civilians. Included among the razed buildings was the factory of Deeds, Templar and Company, which was com- pletely destroyed. BALCARCE, Antonio Gonzalez (1774-1819), South American soldier who served in the defence of Buenos Aires (1S07). Joined the revolution- ary movement ; went with an army into upper Peru; was defeated at Huaqui, iSii. BALCARCE, Juan Ramon (1773-1S33), Argentine general. Governor of Buenos Aires, iSiS and 1820; member of the constituent assembly, 1825; minister of war and marine, 1827; chosen governor of Buenos Aires, 1S32 ; driven out by Rosas, X833. BALCHITAS INDIANS. See Pamp.^s tribes. BALDER, sun-god of Norse mythology. He was loved by gods and men, and treacherously slain by the device of Loki, the fire-spirit and subtle enemy of the gods. BALDWIN I, Latin emperor of Constantinople (Romania), 1204-1205, previous to which, as Count 81 of Flanders and Hainut, participated in the cru- sades. See Byzantine empire: 1204- 1205; Cru- sades: 1201-1203. Baldwin II, last Latin emperor of Constan- tinople, 1237-1261. Baldwin I, Prince of Edessa (1098-1100), king of Jerusalem (iioo-iiiS). See Jerusalem: 1099-H31. Baldwin II (Baldwin du Bourg), Count of Edessa (1100-1118I. king of Jerusalem (1118- 1131). See Jerusalem: 1099-1131. Baldwin III, king of Jerusalem, 1143-1162. See Jerusalem: 1144-1187. Baldwin IV, king of Jerusalem, 1173-1183. See Jerusalem: 1144-1187. Baldwin I (d. 879), Count of Flanders. See Belgium: Ancient and medieval history; and Flanders: 863. Baldwin II (d. 918), Count of Flanders. Baldwin V (d. 1067), Count of Flanders. See Belgium: Ancient and medieval history. BALEARIC ISLANDS, a group of four large and eleven small islands in the Mediterranean sea, off the east coast of Spain. They form a province of Spain, with Palma as capital. The most im- portant islands are Minorca, Majorca and Iviza. — See also Minorca. 1235. — Controlled by Aragon. See Aragon. BALFE, Michael (1S08-1870), popular Irish composer of opera in English, Italian and French. In 1S35 he produced at Drury Lane his first English opera, "The Siege of Rochelle." His most famous opera "The Bohemian Girl" is still a popular favorite. The popular air "Killarney" is by Balfe. — See also Music: Modern: 1750- 1S70. BALFOUR, Arthur Jamea (1848- ), Brit- ish statesman and essayist. Memljer of Parlia- ment since 1874; member of Berlin Congress, 1S78, as private secretary to Lord Salisbury; chief sec- retaiy for Ireland, i887-'8oi (see Ireland: 1885- 1903) ; president of loca- '» -vernment board, 1885- 1886; created Congested Districts Board for Ire- land, i8go; leader of the house and first lord of the treasury, 1891-1892, 1895-1905 (see England: 1894-1895; and 1900); premier, 1902-1905 (see England: 1902 [July] ; 1903 [May-Sept.] ; and 1905-1Q06) ; first lord of admiralty in Asquith's co- alition cabinet ; secretary of state for foreign af- fairs in Lloyd George's cabinet, 1916-1919; Brit- ish representative at the peace conference, Paris, ioiq; chancellor of Cambridge University, 1919; lord president of the council, 1919. Chosen to act ns British official representative on the League of Nations, 1920. Chairman of league's committee on organization, 1020. Leader of British delegation to Washington Disarmament Conferenre, 1921. Has written several books on philosophical and other subjects. Negotiations for British control in China. See China: 1898 (.'^pril-.^ugust). "Dreadnaught" debate of 1909. See War, Preparation for: 1909-1 913. Attitude toward Land acts. See Ireland: 1900-IQ11. On American interests in British shipping line. See Trusts: International. Interest in Zionist movement. See Jews: Zionism: 1008-1021; and Palestine: 1920. Head of English mission to United States. — Address to House of Representaives. See U. S. A.: 1917 (.^pril-May). British representative at Paris formulating armistice terras. See World War: 191S: XI. End of the war: a 1. Representative at the peace conference. See Vers.4illes, Treaty of: Conditions of peace. 7 BALI BALKAN STATES Summary of report defining British commer- cial policy (Feb. 2, 1917). See Commerce: Com- mercial age: i 91 4-1 921. Speech for Imperial Federation (Dec. 15, 1919). See British EirPiRE: Colonial federation: Imperial federation proposals: 20th century. BALI, an island of the Dutch East Indies, the scene of a native uprising in 1894. See Dutch E.^ST Indies: 1804. BALIA OF FLORENCE.— The chief instru- ment employed by the Medici to establish their power in Florence was "the pernicious system of the Parlamento and Balia, by means of which the people, assembled from (ime to time in the public square, and intimidated by the reigning faction, entrusted full powers to a select com- mittee nominated in private by the chiefs cf the great house. . . . Segni says: 'The Parlamento is a meeting of the Florentine people on the Piazza of the Signory. When the Signory has taken its place to address the meeting, the piazza is guarded by armed men, and then the people are asked whether they wish to give absolute power (Balia) and authority to the citizens named, for their good. When the answer, yes, prompted partly by inclination and partly by compulsion, is returned, the Signory immediately retires into the palace. This is all that is meant by this par- lamento, which thus gives away the full power of effecting a change in the state." — J. A. Symonds, Renaissance in Italy: Age of the Despots, p. 180, and foot-note. — See also Florence: 1378-1427; 1433-1464; and 1458-1469. BALIKESRI, Fall of (1920). See Greece: 1920. BALIOL (or Balliol), Sir John de (d. about 1269), regent of Scotland during minority of .■\lex- ander III ; deprived of post on charge of treason 1255; about 1263 established several scholarships at Oxford and gave first lands for college which bears his name ; endowment increased by his will and gifts of his widow. BALIZE, or Belize, British Honduras. See HoxDUR.AS, British. BALKAN ALLIANCE, BALKAN LEAGUE. See B.\LK.AN St.ates: 1912: Balkan league; and Serbia: 1909-1913. Breakup of league. See Balkan States: 1913. BALKAN STATES Geographical position. — Physical aspects of the country. — The Balkan peninsula is the eastern- most of the three great southern peninsulas of Europe. The peninsula embraces the following ter- ritories and states: — .\lbania (q.v.), Bosnia (q.v.) and Herzegovina (q.v.), Bulgaria (q.v.), Croatia- Slavonia (see Czecho-Slovakl\), Dalmatia (q.v.), the Dobrudja (Rumania, (q.v.)), Greece (q.v.), Serbia (q.v.), Montenegro (q.v.), the former Sanjak of Novibazar (see No\tbAz.\r), or Novi Pazar, now a department of Serbia, Macedonia and Thrace. Rumania, though generally included in the list, is not, strictly speaking, a Ballian state. They occupy mainly the regions known in Roman times as Moesia, Dacia and Illyricum, to which names the reader is referred for some account of scanty incidents of their early history, (See Avars.) For full details of the Balkan states, see articles under the respective political divisions, under Eastern question and under World War. "We should begin our detailed study of the Balkan Peninsula with a realization of the broad outlines of its structure. A complex mass of up- land, roughly triangular in shape, composed of hard, resistant rocks, rests with its apex on the Danube at Belgrade, its base stretching from the Black Sea to the Aegean. Its southern end, once continuous with the central mass of Asia Minor, lies sunk beneath the Aegean, which is fringed with the inlets and peninsulas which mark its shattered margin. The two sides of the triangle are bordered by young folded mountains, in which limestones largely predominate. But, necessarily, there is no sudden transition between central mass and folded margin. Balkans and western moun- tains alike are separated from the Central Up- land by areas whose special feature is the pres- ence of fertile basins, which alternate with low ridges, rffering no great obstacle to through transit, and with mountain-tracts. Within these two belts lie the best lands of the peninsula, but they them- selves are the natural highways of traffic from north to south and from south to north, from north-west to south-east, from .^sia to Europe, from the .Aegean to the European plains. It has been remarked by an acute observer that in the Balkan Peninsula the villages, contrary' to the usual rule, tend to avoid the main road. 8 .^long that main road one may find a few large towns, but the smaller settlements, too well aware that the highway's main function throughout his- torical time has been to allow of the passage of armies, seek safety in the byways. But it has been the curse of the Balkan States that they could not, like small groups of individuals, thus avoid the main. lines of communication. To fly to the hills to starve there; to remain along the main route and be crushed by trampling feet; it is scarcely too much to say that these have been the main alternatives before the nations of that troubled land. We have said that the cen- tral mass of upland is roughly triangular in shape. In a quite general fashion we may say that the town of Belgrade is placed near the apex of the triangle, while Salonika and Constantinople oc- cupy approximately the ends of the base line and most of the more important towns of the peninsula are strung along the sides of the tri- angle, which are themselves the main lines of communication. To grasp these facts is to realize some of the essential difficulties which have re- tarded the political development of the peninsula. It results necessarily from what has been said that, not only is there no natural centre within the peninsula about which, as nucleus, a great state might form, but that rivalries are almost certain to develop between small states. The fact that the peninsula is so easy of access from without — a point to which we shall return in a moment — means that weak peoples within will surge upwards from the plains on the main routes to mountains and uplands for safety. The danger past, they tend to descend, and are then con- fronted with the problem of how to divide among themselves the fertile plains which fringe the temporarily deserted highway. As fresh incur- sions from without are always liable to occur be- fore internal adjustment has become possible, the problem is not one easily settled. We have already seen that incursion from the north is easy, be- cause, beyond the Save and the Danube, the peninsula lies open to the wide Hungarian plain ; but it may be well to emphasize the contrast here with the Italian and Iberian Peninsulas. Both of these are separated from continental Europe bv mountain-chains, not absolutely continuous 18' BALKAN STATES Geography Ethnography BALKAN STATES from sea to sea, not, as history has shown, giving perfect and easily drawn frontier lines, but still of great value as constituting in each case a north- ern belt of relatively scantily-peopled land, per- mitting of the development of more or less de- marcated nationalities respectively within and with- out the peninsular areas. In contrast with the Balkan region, it is worth note, the Iberian Peninsula is further remarkable in that it narrows where it is attached to the Continent — a fact which has helped to promote a distinction be- tween intra-peninsular and extra-peninsular na- tionalities. On the other hand, the Balkan Pen- insula is widest where it joins the Continent, no notable barrier to human progress separates the one region from the other, and, in association with this, many of the peoples of the peninsula have representatives, sometimes numerous repre- sentatives, beyond its largely artificial boundary lines. In other words, their interests are never wholly within the peninsula — are sometimes largely outside it. What are its boundary lines? As usually defined, the Balkan Peninsula is the land area to the south of a line drawn along the line of the Lower Danube, then of the Save and of its insignificant tributary, the Kulpa, and from the headwaters of this stream to the shore near Fiume. How artificial this 'geographical' frontier is may be realized from the fact that only along part of its course does it correspond to political boundaries, and from the other fact that few maps of the region go so far to the north-west. In reality, while the southern part of the Balkan region is a true peninsula, the northern quadri- lateral, separated from Asia Minor only by the narrow submerged river valleys which we call the Bosphorous and the Dardanelles respectively, is really continental, in climate as well as in many of its characters. Europe stops, not at Constantinople, but in the steppe region behind it, for the city itself has but little relation to the northern part of the peninsula on which it stands. If we bear in mind that the factors we have stressed — the absence of a natural centre, of isolation from surrounding regions, the ex- istence of broad, diverging highways leading through the heart of the land — have been in ac- tion for long centuries, then the welter of races and of creeds within the peninsula, the jealousies and quarrels, the short-lived triumphs of one race or another, will be readily understood. Here within a total area of some ioi,coo square miles — that is, considerably less than Spain — no less than six native races dwell, in addition to repre- sentatives of not a few others." — M. I. New- bigin. Geographical aspects of Balkan problems, pp. II, 14-15- Races existing. — Evolution from the past. — Migrations and activities from the year A. D. 117 to 1453. — "In no part of Western Europe do we find districts inhabited by men differing in speech and national feeling, lying in distinct patches here and there over a large country. A district like one of our larger counties in which one parish, perhaps one hundred, spoke Welsh, another Latin, another English, another Danish, another Old French, another the tongue of more modern settlers, Flemings, Huguenots or Pal- atines, is something which we find hard to conceive, and which, as applied to our own land or to any other Western land, sounds absurd on the face of it. When we pass into South-eastern Europe, this state of things, the very idea of which seems absurd in the West, is found to be perfectly real. All the races which we find dwelling there at the beginning of re- corded history, together with several races which have come in since, all remain, not as mere frag- ments or survivals, but as nations, each with its national language and national feelings, and each having its greater or less share of practical im- portance in the politics of the present moment, petting aside races which have simply passed through the country without occupying it, we may say that all the races which have ever set- tled in the country are there still as distinct races. And, though each race has its own par- ticular region where it forms the whole people or the great majority of the people, still there are large districts where different races really live side by side in the very way which seems so absurd when we try to conceive it in any West- ern country. We cannot conceive a Welsh, an English, and a Korman village side by side; but a Greek, a Bulgarian, and a Turkish village side by side is a thing which may be seen in many parts of Thrace. The oldest races in those lands, those which answer to Basques and Bretons in Western Europe, hold quite another position from that of Basques and Bretons in Western Europe. They form three living and vigorous nations, Greek, Albanian, and Rouman. They stand as nations alongside of the Slavs who came in later, and who answer roughly to the Teutons in the West, while all alike are [1S77] under the rule of the Turk, who has nothing answering to him in the West. . . . When the Romans conquered the South-eastern lands, they found there three great races, the Greek, the lUyrian, and the Thracian. Those three races are all there still. The Greeks speak for themselves. The Illyrians are represented by the modern Albanians. The Thracians are represented, there seems every rea- son to believe, by the modern Roumans. Now had the whole of the South-eastern lands been inhabited by Illyrians and' Thracians, those lands would doubtless have become as thoroughly Roman as the Western lands became. . . . But the position of the Greek nation, its long history and its high civilization, hindered this. The Greeks could not become Romans in any but the most purely political sense. Like other subjects of the Roman Empire, they gradually took the Roman name; but they kept their own language, litera- ture, and civilization. In short v/e may say that the Roman Empire in the East became Greek, and that the Greek nation became Roman. The Eastern Empire and the Greek-speaking lands became nearly coextensive. Greek became the one language of the Eastern Roman Empire, while those that spoke it still called themselves Romans. Till quite lately, that is till the modern ideas of nationality began to spread, the Greek-speak- ing subjects of the Turk called themselves by no name but that of Romans. . . . While the Greeks thus took the Roman name without adopt- ing the Latin language, another people in the Eastern peninsula adopted both name and lan- guage, exactly as the nations of the West did. If, as there is good reason to believe, the mod- ern Roumans represent the old Thracians, that na- tion came under the genera! law, exactly like the Western nations. The Thracians became thoroughly Roman in speech, as they haye ever since kept the Roman name. They form in fact one of the Romance nations, just as much as the people of Gaul or Spain. ... In short, the existence of a highly civilized people like the Greeks hindered in every way the influence of Rome from being so thorough in the East as it was in the West. The Greek nation lived on, and alongside of itself, it preserved the other two ancient nations of the peninsula. Thus all three have lived on to the present as distinct 819 BALKAN STATES Ethnography Early History BALKAN STATES nations. Two of them, the Greeks and the II- lyrians, still Iceep their own languages, while the third, the old Thracians, speak a Romance lan- guage and call themselves Roumans. . . . The Slavonic nations hold in the East a place answer- ing to that which is held by the Teutonic nations in the West. . . . But though the Slaves in the East thus answer in many ways to the Teutons in the West, their position with regard to the Eastern Empire was not quite the same as that of the Teutons towards the Western Empire. . . . They learned much from the half Roman, half Greek power with which they had to do; but they did not themselves become either Greek or Roman, in the way in which the Teutonic con- querors in the Western Empire became Roman. . . . Thus, while in the West everything except a few survivals of earlier nations, is either Roman or Teutonic, in the East, Greeks, Illyrians, Thra- cians or Roumans, and Slavs, all stood side by side as distinct nations when the next set of in- vaders came, and they remain as distinct nations still. . . . There came among them, in the form of the Ottoman Turk, a people with whom union was not only hard but impossible, a people who were kept distinct, not by special circumstances, but by the inherent nature of the case. Had the Turk been other than what he really was, he might simply have become a new nation alongside of the South-eastern nations. Being what he was the Turk could not do this. . . . The original Turks did not belong to the Aryan branch of mankind, and their original speech is not an Aryan speech. The Turks and their speech belong to altogether another class of nations and languages. . . . Long before the Turks came into Europe, the Magyars or Hungarians had come; and, before the Magyars came, the Bulgarians had come. Both the Magyars and the Bulgarians were in their origin Turanian nations, nations as foreign to the Aryan people of Europe as the Ottoman Turks themselves. But their history shows that a Turanian nation settling in Europe may either be assimilated with an existing Euro- pean nation or may sit down as an European na- tion alongside of others. The Bulgarians have done one of these things; the Magyars have done the other; the Ottoman Turks have done neither. So much has been heard lately of the Bulgarians as being in our times the special victims of the Turk that some people may find it strange to hear who the original Bulgarians were. They were a people more or less nearly akin to the Turks, and they came into Europe as barbarian con- querors who were as much dreaded by the nations of South-eastern Europe as the Turks themselves were afterwards. The old Bulgarians were a Turanian people, who settled in a large part of the South-eastern peninsula, in lancte which had been already occupied by Slaves. They came in as barbarian conquerors; but, exactly as hap- pened to so many conquerors in Western Europe, they were presently assimilated by their Slavonic subjects and neighbours. They learned the Slavonic speech; they gradually lost all traces of their foreign origin. Those whom we now call Bulgarians are a Slavonic people speaking a Slavonic tongue, and they have nothing Turanian about them except the name which they borrowed from their Turanian masters. . . . The Bulgarians entered the Empire in the seventh century [see Bulgaria: 7th century], and embraced Christianity in the ninth. They rose to great power in the South-eastern lands, and played a great part in their history. But all their later history, from a comparatively short time after the first Bul- garian conquest, has been that of a Slavonic and not that of a Turanian people. The history of the Bulgarians therefore shows that it is quite pos- sible, if circumstances are favourable, for a Tura- nian people to settle among the Aryans of Europe and to be thoroughly assimiliated by the Aryan nation among whom they settled." — E. A. Freeman, Ottoman power in Europe, ch. 2. — See also Vlakhs. Also in: R. G. Latham, Nationalities of Eu- rope. "After Trajan's death [117] these semi- Romanized Thracians could not longer be held in subjection; during his short reign of three years, Maximin, himself a Thraclan who had risen from the ranks to the purple, maintained a semblance of order among his kinsfolk, but to the natural restlessness of the people was now added a new cause of disturbance. The Goths had set- tled on the northern shore of the Euxine [Black Sea], the Vandals had boldly entered the province, and from the great plains further beyond was pouring out a flood of humanity which pressed hard upon both from behind, breaking through in places and emptying itself into the valley of the Danube. Hadrian was forced (270-275) to withdraw his troops to the right bank of that great river and rename the province Ripuarian Dacia. The left shore to the north was thus lost to the empire, but some of the Romans and much of the Romanized population continue to dwell there. These and the traders kept the preva- lent low Latin a living tongue. About the year 450 the Huns, and a century later the Avars, permeated the land, until finally there was a me- chanical mixture of races, peoples, and tongues in which the old order was utterly disintegrated and the way prepared for the latest inundation, that of the Slavs, whose very name. Slave, in- dicated the contempt in which they were long held. . . . Slowly the great horde of Goths on the north shore of the Euxine had differentiated it- self into two stocks, somewhat different in char- acter and widely different in their historical ca- reer; the west, or Visigoths, and the east, or Ostrogoths. The next important migration under Alaric, who actually settled in the central por- tion of it in 382, in 395 threatened Constanti- nople and pressed on into Epirus and Hellas. It is to the ruthless occupation of the mainland by barbarians that the islands of Hellas owe to this day their almost homogeneous Greek popu- lation, descendants of the Greeks who nearly fourteen centuries ago fled before this Germanic invasion. In time the Invaders were more or less Hellenized and established themselves in Epirus as vassals of the emperors at Constantinople. Rest- less and uncertain as was their temperament, they soon began to fear lest they should be fur- ther absorbed Into Byzantium, and at last with- drew across the Adriatic to their kindred in Italy. During the period of their settlement in that peninsula they destroyed the art treasures of the country most ruthlessly, and the process which they began was continued by the Huns, who poured their Mongolian flood along the same highway of nations. These in turn were followed by the Ostrogoths under Theodoric, who laid waste the Peloponnesus, and by the Vandals who perpetrated every form of theft and destruction along the Greek coast line; whatever was left after this devastating process substantially dis- appeared under the rule of the Bulgars, who In S17 ravaged Epirus and Thcssaly as far as Thermopyls. The Byzantine emperor Anastasius sought to protect his capital behind the wall stretching from Propontls to the Euxine, a line of defense so often mentioned in this latest period, 820 Maps prepared specially for the NEW LARNED under direction of the editors and publishers. JU C) BALKAN STATES Advent of Turks Nationalism BALKAN STATES and abandoned all his unhappy provinces to their fate. He and his successor, Justin, were utterly paralyzed when the Slavs, abiding their time on the south shore of the Danube, began a further advance and established many permanent colonies in the districts deserted by their former inhabitants. Justinian, however {527-565), was a man of different temper, and while he left the Slavic colonists already established in their new seats, yet he inaugurated a system of fortifica- tions on the Danube and in the interior of his empire which checked any further inroads. The last quarter of the sixth century is marked by the further invasion of the peninsula by the Avars, a people of extremely warlike nature. Coming from their previous home between the Caspian and the Sea of Azov, they had occupied the valley of the Theiss [Tisza], whence for two and a half centuries they terrorized all their neighbors. They now pushed forward into the east Roman empire and found their advantage sometimes in supporting the emperor, sometimes in strengthen- ing the Slavic invasion. They, too, succeeded in establishing settlements at various places in Greece, but, in the main, the result of all this confusion was the greater and greater preponderance of the Slav element. At the beginning of the sixth cen- tury there were more Avars to the north of the Danube than beyond it, and more Slavs to the south than on the other side. Pliny, in the first century of our era, makes mention of tlie Slavs, and in their legendary lore the emperor Trajan oc- cupies so important a position that many have thought there must have been some contact of a peaceful nature between him and the Slavic tribes. Inasmuch as Slavic folklore expresses nothing but kindness and admiration for the Roman powers, which were afterwards their bitterest enemies, their kindly relations may have continued to the end of the fourth century. Traces of prehistorical Slav migrations and settlements have been found clear across Europe as far as Hanover, but the Germans forced them back over the Elbe. Their primitive seat appears to have been the banks of the Dnieper River in what is known to-day as southern Russia. A prevailing hypothesis makes them descendants of, or close kin to, the Scythians, but so commingled with the race slocks just men- tioned that they appear to be a composite race. The Bulgars, whose seats had been on the lower Volga, were nearest in kin to the Turks. From the time of their earliest appearance they, too, assimilated themselves, and very closely, with the nomads about them, and it was Bulgarized Slavs who founded the empire which included the lands of the Danube, Wallachia, with a part of Hun- gary, as well as their own territory — a mighty em- pire which lasted for over three centuries (702- 1014). During their ascendancy three peoples of unknown descent — the Hungarians, a Ugrian-Tur- coman folk from Asia, and two Turkish stocks, the Patzinakians [Petchenegs] and Cumanians [Kumans] — entered the districts north of the Danube. It was into the very heart of the vast Slavic territory that the Hungarians drove them- selves like a wedge; and for generations the north- ern and southern groups lived in different en- vironments and under different conditions — a fact which created and perpetuated substantial varia- tions. In type, language, and even in basic institu- tions they are perhaps as much differentiated as the Spanish from the Portuguese, much less than the Italians and Spanish or any other two of the Romance peoples. It was the south Slavs who were first discernible in the Balkans during the sixth century. In the seventh they began to settle westward of the Bulgarians, occupying the Roman 82 province of Moesia, and it was there that they first received the contemptuous name which they still bear, that of Servians, Slaves. In the eighth century they accepted Christianity, and thence down to the eleventh century they were at best a protectorate, and more often a dependency of Byzantium. [See Christianity: Qth century; Bul- garian church]. Thereupon, separate stocks began successively and successfully to assert independence, and in 1165 they were united under a dynasty which in 1222 was recognized by both the Pope and by the emperor of Constantinople. They de- veloped a civilization which was quite remarkable; and under the Czar Stephen Dushan (1.530-1335) the empire embraced, in addition to its original domains, Macedonia, Albania, Thessaly, Bulgaria, and northern Greece. This great Servian con- queror reached the very gates of Constantinople with a summons to surrender, but there he died; and his lands, united only by his imperious will, fell apart, a prey to warring ambitions. It was in 1453 that Mahomet II, the great Osman Turk, mentioned in another connection, after capturing Constantinople, marched onward with his invin- cible horde and soon brought all the Balkans under Turkish sway, a grinding tyranny that lasted nearly four centuries. [See Turkey: 1360-13S9; 1402-1451; 1451-14S1.] With the appearance in the Balkan peninsula of the Turks, an outline of whose career has already been given, the long roll-call .of national and race elements in that dis- tracted portion of Europe is completed. Not one of these elements has remained entirely pure. Of those considered, four have admitted alien strains, and the same is true of their languages and insti- tutions; yet all survive, and all hold fast to their traditions, and all look forward to the restoration of their ancient dominion and glory. The situation is complicated by the strife of confession ; Islam with Christianity — alas I a divided Christianity — ■ the adherents of the Greek Church, at least among the masses, regarding those of the Roman con- fession as utter outcasts, and vice versa." — W. Sloane, Balkans — a laboratory of history, pp. 63- 68. lOth-llth centuries (Bulgaria). — Overthrow of kingdom by Basil II. See Achrida, Kingdom of; Bulgaria: loth-iith centuries; Constanti- nople: 007-1047. 12th century (Rumania). — Second Bulgarian or Wallachian kingdom. See Bulgaria: 12th century; Dacia: Trojan's conquest. 14th century (Bulgaria). — Subjection to Hungary. See Hungary: 1301-1442. 14th-19th centuries (Serbia and Bulgaria). See Bulgaria: 1258-1872; Russia: 1734-1740; Tur- key: 1360-1389; 1402-1451 ; 1451-14S1. 1389 (Bulgaria). — Conquest by Turks. See Bulgaria: 1258-1872; Turkey: 1360-1380. 1718 (Bosnia). — Part ceded to Austria. See Hungary: 1600-1718. 1739. — Restoration of Bosnia, Serbia, and Austrian Vallachia to Turkey. See Russia: 1734-1740. 19th century. — Nationalism. — Growth of de- mocracy. — Characteristics of the peoples. — "The nationality movement, which is the main historic tendency of the nineteenth century, is a phase of the acquisition of political power by the people, even as is the related movement for democratic popular government. Near Eastern nationalism is a re- sult of the same renascence that took among west- ern peoples the form of a movement for demo- cratic institutions. They are both movements for government of the people by the people to the exclusion of absolutism and autocracy. This move- ment caused wars among the Anglo-American and BALKAN STATES 19th Century Racial Characteristics BALKAN STATES Latin communities towards the end of the eight- eenth century in the regions bordering the At- lantic, and ever since has been steadily making its way through the people of Europe and Asia. After revitalizing the mid-European races, it has passed into Asia with the beginning of this twentieth century; its successive invasions of the Iberian, ItaHan, and Balkan peninsulas being specially in- structive. ... Its effect on the Balkan Peninsula was exceptionally erratic, for whereas the Greeks were reached by it even before many of the Latin races, the Turks were affected a full centur\' later. Thus it comes about that the arrival of the na- tionality movement among the Greeks and the War of Emancipation of the beginning of the nineteenth century is the first historical cause of the Balkan war; while its arrival among the Turks and the Ottoman revolution of a century later is the very last. It would be easy, though it would be too long, to explain this by the particular cir- cumstances and character of each place and people. It would be of the greatest interest to examine in detail the political or social conditions under which, for instance, Greece, which had so long a start of Bulgaria, has been overtaken within our generation; or why Servia as a national democ- racy is a higher political organism than auto- cratic Russia. But the geographical method of studying the movement makes such detailed in- quiries unnecessan.- ; for these irregularities, if traced to their source, are to be explained either by direct geographical circumstances such as the checks opposed by mountains and deserts or the channels offered by seas and rivers, or else by indirect geographical influences working on na- tional character. This brings us back again to the geographical origins of history. Balkan pol- itics can only be understood through a knowledge of the stage of development of the Balkan peoples. The Balkan peoples can only be understood by a knowledge of the configurations and characteris- tics of the peninsula. When, moreover, the main configurations and characteristics of the peninsula are observed it will be found that the character of the populations has a regional rather than a racial basis, and is indigenous to the locality rather than inherent in the stock. This can be illustrated in the case of even.' community in question. Greece is inhabited, and, so far.as investigation shows, always has been inhabited, by people of the Greek type of character in spite of renewals or even removals of its inhabitants by Cretans, Dorians, Slavs, Alba- nians, and such alien types. The assertion can be advanced beyond this, and it might even be said that records sucgest that the population of Boeo- tia, or of Sparta, or even of Athens, have main- tained through all vicissitudes each their distinct sub-species. Again, Montenegrins and certain Al- banian tribes are of very similar physical type; but their mental and moral character is distinct, and while one represents an essentially Slav cul- ture, Albanian civilization is peculiar to itself and long antedated the advent of the Slavs. Bulgars are of Finnish stock, have a Slav tongue, and a Moneol name ; but their national character is also peculiar to themselves, though it strongly resembles that of the Finland Finns. The Bulgar national type is evidently one which has had time to adapt itself perfectly to its surroundings, or, as suggested above, to have been perfectly assimilated by its surroundings, physical and political. Back through Byzantine history we find Bulgars playing the same political role and exhibiting the same peculiarities. Roumanians are also a composite race of Latins and Vlachs with some borrowings from Jews and Gypsies; but the dominant characteristics of their culture cannot be accounted for from any of these 82 sources. It will help to explain much that is as- tonishing in the development of the Balkan na- tionality movements if we can account for the very marked and matured national characteristics of these very youthful nations by peculiarities in the natural conditions and configuration of the countries they inhabit. For instance, the most marked characteristic of the peninsula of Greece is that it has a deeply indented coastline and that the mainland is cut up into valleys by difficult ranges. These valleys are even more independent of and isolated from each other than the islands of which a large portion of the Greek national territory consists. Greek civilization centres in and surrounds the Aegean just as Anglo-Saxon civilization surrounds the North Atlantic. The Hellenes, like the Anglo-Saxons, have in conse- quence always consisted of independent communi- ties of valley or island folk in a sea-faring, that is a foreign, relation to each other, united only by a common culture and civilization. The course of the early development of the small Greek democ- racies was by competition rather than by combi- nation. Consequently the natural characteristics of the Greeks in political and social relations are rather intellicence and independence than grega- riousness and generosity. This Greek 'separatism' was due also in part to disadvantages attending the development of maritime communities in those days from which our later maritime civilizations have been free. In primitive times the sea was more of a barrier than now; for while it was al- ready the high road for culture it was also the open road for piracy, and the pirate of that age was as important a factor in regulating and re- stricting the free growth of a community as the wolf which kept prehistoric man to the hilltops. But Greek national culture and character were due to more peculiar geographical advantages than an indented coastline and intersecting ranges. From its situation at the juncture of the three continents Greece became the first country in Europe to enjoy the stimulus of Egyptian culture and Phoenician commerce, and owing to its con- figuration it was especially well adapted for as- similating these advantages. Greece thus became a group of politically compact but socially com- plex urban communities. Compact because their political relationship to each other and to the out- side world was a foreign and frequently hostile one; complex socially because their situation de- manded independent municipal life and commercial pursuits tend to subdivide a community into so- cial strata. Such a collection of communities and such a category of classes Greece has remained to this day; for while the leading political feature of Greece nowadays is the all-dominating idea of national fraternity, yet this great motive principle of Greek public life has not levelled out the local feeling and local characteristics that differentiate the component Hellenic communities. So also, while the dominant social note is democratic equality, this again has not affected the essential classifications of Greek society. Again, the prin- cipal pride of the individual Greek is his liberty of thought, his independence of mind, but no man is more dependent on the opinions of others or on obtaining from abroad the raw material of culture for the industp,' of his intellect. In a word, the typical Greek is an islander, a towns- man, and a brainworker. The Greek is a cultivator of necessity, the Bulgar by choice; as appears in the fact that the Bulgars of Constantinople are market gardeners and market their produce through Greeks. The Greek village is a country town; the Bulgar village is a collection of farms. Greek nationalism may be described f>crhaps rather BALKAN STATES 19th Century Racial Characteristics BALKAN STATES as an imperial than a national consciousness. The Greeks of Crete and Corfu are one as the British of Montreal and Liverpool are one, hut not as the Serbs of Belgrade and Cettinje are one. As we go north frnm the islands of the Morea the val- leys widen into plains. First the Boeotian valley: then the broad vales or narrow plains of Thessaly and of Epirus; north of them the wider Macedo- nian valley, until, across the Balkans, Greek in- fluence dies away in the vast Danubian plains. The Greeks of these plain lands have throughout been the least Greek in character. This Boeotian temperament we all know from the Classics, and it is still the butt of the Kafeneion. The Thessa- lian temperament was the basis of Alexander's empire, which was as non-Greek in its constitution, its phalanx, and its inspiration as the empire of Napoleon was non-Latin. This national character explains why the Greek has had so much difficulty in retaining the interior of the Peninsula, although holding the coastline — contrary to th£ usual rule that who holds the coast holds the country. He has exploited the coasts of the Aegean and of the Black Sea, while the Bulgars, Slavs, Turks, and other plainsmen have exploited the plains. The Greek has found the process of recovering Thessaly and Epirus a long and laborious task; and Thes- saly is the northernmost plain country the ac- quisition of which can be justified as ethnological. If the Greek national character had allowed of the Greeks being plainsmen, there would have been no 'Eastern Question.' (q. v.) Their northern neighbours, the Bulgars and Serbs, offer very il- lustrative contrasts. The Serbs in their broken forest country have retained in their character many more of the mystic qualities of an earlier civilization. In their social structure may still be found relics of early social institutions, such as the 'zadruga' [family community ],.^ng lost else- where. Their main national occupations are that pastoral pursuit which reformed the prodigal son and the idyllic industry of making plum jam. Their national character is best explained by the fact that they are nearly all poets and pig deal- ers; and if their national policy seems sometimes to be more inspired by their trade than by their temperament, it is perhaps chiefly the fault of modern civilization, which has given them cause to seek a political rather than a poetical expres- sion of their woodland nature. Bulgar national- ism is as different in character from that of Greek or Serbs as the Buigar fertile plains and grassy downs differ from the wooded hills of Servia or the stony ranges of Greece ; and the Buigar plough- man and shepherd both have the true plainsman's character. Rural life on open plains and pastures develops character in its moral rather than in its mental or mystical capacities. It is a common mistake to assume that highlanders are more de- voted to liberty and more diligent in moral dis- cipline than lowlanders. Mountains have offered a refuge and a stronghold for temporary resistance against oppression, but it is in the plain that liberty, equality, and fraternity can best find the air, the soil, and the springs necessary for their growth. To their plains the Bulgarians owe the fraternity and equality — the ethical solidarity, and the economic socialism — which have made their moral and material renascence so surprising in its swiftness and smoothness. The moral qualities of the Buigar character are in a different sphere from that of the Greek mental qualities or from that of the mysticism of the Slav. If the political position of the British Isles in the sixteenth cen- tury were to be compared to that of the Balkan peninsula of to-day, we should call the Bulgars Lowland Scotch, the Serbs Irish, the Albanians Welsh, the Greeks English, and the Roumanians French. The analogy is of course very imperfect, but may be a help in placing these peoples po- litically. While the Balkans offer an especially favourable field for studying the effects of nature on nationality and of geographical con- ditions on the character of nations, the phenome- non is of course not peculiar to the Balkans. The same thing can be observed in any country of marked configuration and character. . . . Although attention has only lately^been directed to national consciousness as a moulding moral force, and to the possibility, of its possessing subliminal quali- ties, the effects of this force have long been ob- served by the democratic diplomatist ; and nowhere are they more remarkable than in the Balkans. In Balkan politics, such a subliminal national con- sciousness can alone explain events which other- wise would be extraordinary but not enlightening. Events such as the sudden emergence of nations like Bulgaria, fully equipped for, and expert in, the difficult functions of national democracy, from an inchoate mass of corruption and degradation such as was Roumelia in the nineteenth century. Events such as the course taken and the centre chosen by the Greek renascence, which developed through the Moreote peasants instead of through the national culture centre in the Phanar. Events such as the postponement of the renascence of Turkish democracy until it was too late to save the Turkish predominance. These and many other phenomena require something more than an ex- planation drawn from current politics. The strik- ing persistence in the Balkan peninsula of national character and national culture, both through long periods of submergence and through operations such as the substitution of a new race for the old, suggests that this power of endurance may stand in some relation to the period of duration of cul- ture before the submergence or the shock. We find encouragement in this theory when we note that the Balkan peninsula, with its two broken bridges thrust out towards Africa and Asia — one be- ing the Morea with Crete, the other Thrace with the Troad — must always have been the European port of entry and centre of production for supply- ing to Europe the culture products of Egypt, Phce- nicia, Mesopotamia, and Asia Minor. The Balkan valleys and plains were the channels and reser- voirs through which eastern culture flowed into and fertilized the desert of European raw human- ity. The prototypes of those national cultures which we call nowadays Greek or Latin can be dug out of the Aegean islands or Balkan plains even as we dig out the prototypes of our do- mestic animals. Still they are prototypes only; for Minoan 'nationality' is not Greek, any more than the tree-climbing hipparion is a race-horse. To these primitive prototypes of national char- acter may be assigned an intermediate place be- tween, on the one hand, unconscious habits and modes of expression common to all mankind, formed during whole geological epochs of pri- mcBval darkness, and, on the other, the conscious civic functions of the short noonday of civiliza- tion. It is the differences in subconscious habits of religious and political thought, and of artistic and literary expression, formed during the long dim dawn of our modern social civilization, that constitute the ineradicable and immutable atmos- phere of nationality and connect it indissolubly with the area in which it was born. Those who oppose a nationality movement from arbitrary policy, as do reactionaries, or from artificialities of reasoning, as do some revolutionaries, are only one degree less foolish than those who pervert the habits of man's body. Civilization has rendered 823 BALKAN STATES 19th Century Racial Characteristics BALKAN STATES our body Independent of the natural changes of sun, moon, and stars under which its habits de- veloped; but that does not permit us to ignore these habits. We can live now as conveniently by night as by day, but we must still have sleep and sunlight. Even so, political progress can civilize Russian or Bulgar serfdom into self-govern- ment and Russian or Turkish autocracy into a democracy, but did not and cannot civilize a Bul- gar into either a South Russian or a North Hel- lene, a 'Young Turk' or — shall we add — an 'Old Servian.' The Balkan peninsula contains those regions where early European culture existed long- est, where early European national civilizations were most completely extinguished, and where modern European national democracies have been most perfectly and speedily evolved. It is argued that there must be a relation between these facts; a gospel of national resurrection full of hope to the worn and weak among the nations. If this conjecture be permitted us, a corollary to it sug- gests itself which will carry us still further into an understanding of Balkan events. These early Balkan civilizations, some of which were more completely extinguished than others, seem to have revived with a completeness and quickness pro- portionate to the severity of their suppression. Bulgaria is by far the most perfect national de- mocracy in the Balkans, and in its case all tra- ditions of nationality and self-government were so completely wiped out that intelligent travellers, such as Kinglake in mid-nineteenth century, ig- nored even the existence of the Bulgar as a dis- tinct race stock. The Serb, the Rouman, the Greek, the Turk, take rank for perfection of national democracy in the order named, and that order also represents the degree of suppression suffered by their cultures and civilizations. On the reflux of the Turkish inundation the Bulgar reappeared a Bulgar, and all the more Bulgarian for having so long been a Greek rayah and an Ottoman subject ; the Serb reappeared as the most Slav of Slavs, and all the more Slavonic for hav- ing been a Turk, an Austrian, or a Hungarian, ac- cording to the vicissitudes of the time. It would seem as though the deeper the submergence and the more sweeping the inundation the more does anything atrophied or alien get purged out of the national character, leaving only the efficient and essential elements. The virtues of Balkan na- tionalities suggest the good qualities peculiar to the original national temperament, but deepened and broadened ; whereas their vices seem to be the general evil effects of their temporary subjec- tion. For this reason perhaps the vices of the Balkan nationalities are all the same sort of ser- vile vices, dissimilar only in the same respects that the national characters are different. Thus the Balkan races, like all subject races, are cruel to their inferiors with a cruelty somewhat different in each case. The cruelty of the Slav is the emo- tional cruelty of a certain class of poet or of pork butcher. That of the Greek is the logical cruelty of the student and the sweater. That of the Bul- gar is the moral cruelty of the diplomatist and the drover. The cruelty of the Turk, on the other hand, is that of a ruling class. The lovable Turk- ish kindness to inferiors — domestic animals or Christian rayahs — changes in a moment to the cruelty of a class fighting for its privileges. Even in an English landed estate or in an American fac- tory it is but a short step from this sort of kind- ness to that sort of cruelty. Thus also the Bal- kan races have all the servile vices of crookedness in dealing with superiors. But the Greeks will be tortuous from mere mental exuberance and the joy of running rings round a slow-witted adversary. The Serb will be crooked from natural incapacity, because he loses his way in the arbitrary moral conventions of a complicated and uncongenial civilization. The Bulgar will give the effect of crookedness from a love of working out for him- self the line of least moral resistance towards a goal he has chosen for and keeps to himself. Since we Anglo-Saxons are apt to adopt a moral standpoint in dealing with younger nations — as we do with our so-called social inferiors — the re- sult is that we find the Bulgars most worthy of our approbation. Indeed, whether the standards of modern morality by which they are tried are those of Nietzsche or of Kipling, under either the Bul- ■ gars will be almost in a class by themselves, as 'supermen' of energy and efficiency or as 'legion- aries of the law.' This, it is argued, is partly due to their original national character, but principally to the purgatory of oppression through which the the nation has passed. If. as must be admitted, a war may be a phase of progress towards the emer- gence of a nationality or the emancipation of a democracy, then, to go a step further back, a war which submerges a nationality and suppresses pop- ular rights may serve a social purpose under cer- tain conditions. This is a hard saying, but if nations that have sinned are to be saved, they perhaps can only be saved by fire. It does not follow that oppression is not an offence or that arbitrary alien rule is not an anomaly for which the penalty will be paid by the party responsible. The partition of Poland was a crime for which the penalty has been paid and is being paid both by the accomplices, at the price of a century of antagonisms and armaments, and by the civilization which permitted it, in the loss of the Polish na- tional contribution to the arts. But the Poland that succumbed as an aristocracy has been helped by its submergence to become, as it is now be- coming, a democracy. A people must be a de- mocracy before it can be a nation; though it can, as Bulgaria has done, combine in one effort the achievement of both grades. If the Bulgar, as he has evolved, is to the Anglo-Saxon the least an- tipathetic of the Balkan nations, the Serb, includ- ing the Montenegrin, has emerged so intensely a Slav that probably the Russian people alone are capable of properly appreciating his national quali- ties. This, quite as much as present-day political considerations, accounts for the Russo-Scrb rela- tionship which has been a ruling factor in the late Balkan war [of 1912-1013]. The Greek is most sympathetic to the Latin races. But the general mistake which western peoples are apt to make in judging the Balkan peoples is that of expecting from the latter the principles and point of view peculiar to the more advanced civilization of the West; and the further west the point of observation is placed, the more likely is this mis- take to be made. American or English public opinion is harder in its judgments of the Balkan peoples, even as it is warmer in its sympathies, than the public opinion of central Europe." — Lord G. Young, Nationalism and ztar in the Near East, pp. S-20. See Sebria: 1S04-1817. 1804. — Serbian insurrection. — Turks ex- pelled. 1807. — Serbs offered self-government by Tur- key. — Offer refused. — Serbia joined Russia in war on Turks. See Serbi.\: 1S04-1817. 1812. — Russia, attacked by Napoleon, made peace with Turkey. — Serbia left to face Turks alone. See Russia: 1812 (June-September). 1813. — Serbia reconquered by Turkey. See Serbia: 1804-1817. 1817. — Serbs win partial independence. See Serbia: 1804-1817. 824 BALKAN STATES, 1821 San Stefano Berlin Treaty BALKAN STATES, 1878-1891 1821. — Greek revolt. See Greece: 1821-1829. 1829. — Treaty of Adrianople. — Greece made independent monarchy. — Rumania won subst?.n- tial independence from Turkey. — Russia gained from Turkey sole rights over the Danube delta. See Adriatic question; Turkey: 1826-1820. 1856. — Treaty of Paris. — Rumanian privileges guaranteed. — Moldavia and Wallachia granted autonomy under Turkish suzerainty. See Rumania: 1856-1875; Russia: 1854-1856. 1858-1866. — Union of Wallachia and Moldavia. — Legislative union formed (1861). See Ru- mania: 1856-1875. Prince Charles of Hohenzollern succeeds Prince Couza. See Turkey: 1861-1877. 1864-1914. — Red Cross and relief work. See Red Cross: 1864-1914. 1867. — Compromise of 1867. See Jugo-Slavia: 1848-1S67. 1875-1878. — Bosnians revolt against Austrian rule. — Russo-Turkish war. — Bosnia and Herze- govina control by Austria. — Independence of Serbia. — War of Serbia and Bulgaria. See Bulgaria: 1875-1878; Jugo-Slavia: 1867-1917; Serbia: 1875-1878. 1876-1878. — Revolt in Bosnia-Herzegovina. — Bulgarian atrocities. — Powers demand reforms. — Serbian war with Turkey. — Constantinople conference. — Russian preparations for war. See Turkey: 1861-1877. 1877-1878. — Russo-Turkish war. — Siege of Plevna. — Serbian full independence. See Tur- key: 1877-1878. 1877-1914. — Austrian policy with Serbs. See Jugo-Slavia: 1867-1914. 1878.— Treaty of San Stefano. — Berlin Con- gress. — Turkish territorial losses. — "On March 3, 1878, the Treaty of San Stefano was concluded between Russia and Turkey, and its provisions revolutionised the whole situation in the Near East. The independence of Roumania and Serbia was definitely secured ; but while certain terri- torial concessions were made to Serbia and Mon- tenegro, Bessarabia was to be taken from Rou- mania, who only received the Dobrudja as a sorry exchange; and Bosnia-Herzegovina, instead of being united to their kinsmen on the East, were to receive an autonomy of their own. But the outstanding feature of the treaty was the creation of a Big Bulgaria, under the suzerainty of the Sultan, comprising the whole of Bulgaria proper, Eastern Roumelia with the town of Philippopolis and the whole cf Macedonia, to the very gates of Salonica, and extending westwards as far as the Sar Mountains, Dibra and Koritza, and even eat- ing right into the heart of Albania to the west of the Lake of Ohrida. The Treaty of San Stefano was an obsolutcly impossible arrangemenl tor two reasons. In the first place it was an essentially Slavonic settlement, which neglected or did grave injustice to the non-Slav races of the Peninsula, the Greeks, the Albanians and the Roumanians. In the second place it left Turkey with frontiers such as defied every law of geography, politics or common sense. Autonomous Bosnia was to retain its nominal connection with Turkey; but a nar- row, wholly indefensible, and absurdly unnatural corridor through the Sandjak of Novibazar was still to connect Bosnia with the plain of Kosovo and to separate Serbia from Montenegro — a cor- ridor infinitely less satisfactory and narrower by two-thirds than that which was actually created by the Treaty of Berlin. Salonica remained Turk- ish, but was entirely separated from its hinterland. Novibazar, Kosovo, Albania, Epirus and Thessaly were left in Turkish hands, as mere fragments, unworkable and disconnected. Adrianople and the valley of the Arta were retained by the Turks; but the whole connection between Adrianople and Con- stantinople was directly threatened by the as- signment to Bulgaria of an enclave of territory in- cluding Kirk Kilisse and extending south to within a few miles of the river Ergene, near Luleburgas. But if the settlement was unjust and fatal on gen- eral grounds, it is just upon Slavonic grounds that it had its most fatal effect. For it would have aggrandised Bulgaria at the expense of all her neighbours; and though it never became effective, its memory provided that tenacious race with a programme which struck deep root in the minds of its leaders, and has ever since been regarded by them as their excuse and justification for aim- ing at the hegemony of the Balkan Peninsula. Meanwhile this settlement displeased and alarmed the Great Powers on purely selfish grounds. Brit- ain still looked upon Russian control of Constan- tinople as a real danger, and with more reason regarded with disfavour the clauses which seemed to secure to Russia complete control of the new- Bulgarian administration and of the Prince's elec- tion. Public opinion in England was infiuenced by the sentimental appeals of Indian Moslems in favour of their Turkish co-religionists. Moreover, Austria-Hungary was determined to have Bosnia for herself and was highly displeased at an ar- rangement which would have placed Bulgaria across her own path to Salonica. The British Government took a strong line in demanding a revision of the Treaty, and was backed up by the mobilisation of Austria, and by protests from the Greeks and other rivals of Bulgaria. Russia was not prepared to risk an extension of the war and consented to the convocation of an European Con- gress, which in due course met in Berlin under the presidency of Bismarck as the 'honest broker' (June 13-July 13, 1878). The attitude and out- look of the Congress were at once revealed in its decision not to admit the Greek and Roumanian delegates to direct representation or to the vote, but merely to allow them to state their views. Thus the fate of the Balkan Peninsula for the next thirty years was decided by the Great Powers over the heads, and generally in defiance of the wishes, of the states and races concerned. If the settlement of San Stefano was unjust to all but the Slavs and did not draw a just line even be- tween those Slavs themselves, the settlement oi Berlin succeeded in being equally unjust to all. It was frankly based upon force, upon the inter- ests of the Great Powers, and upon the negation of the rights of small nations." — R. W. Seton- Wat.=on, Rise of nationality in the Balkans, pp. 107-ioq.— See also Turkey: 1878. — The actual re- sult of the war was by no means so disastrous to Turkey as might have been expected. The loss of the Balkan principalities had long been inevitable, but the Sultan was still permitted to retain his suzerainty over Eastern Rumelia. — See also World War: Causes: Indirect: d, 2. 1878. — Acquisition of Bosnia by Austria. — In- dependence of Serbia, Montenegro and Ru- mania. — Division and semi-independence of Bulgaria. See Turkey: 1878; World War: Causes: Indirect: d, 1. 1878-1891. — Proposed Balkan confederation and its aims. — "During the reaction against Russia which followed the great war of 1878, negotia- tions were actually set on foot with a view to forming a combination of the Balkan States for the purpose of resisting Russian aggression. . . . Prince Alexander always favoured the idea of a Balkan Confederation which was to include Tur- key; and even listened to' proposals on the part of Greece, defining the Bulgarian and Greek spheres 82s BALKAN STATES, 1878-1891 J'u''°J'°^^nu"rZ.., BALKAN STATES, 1899-1901 ' Chronic Disorders of influence in Macedonia. But the revolt of Eastern Roumelia, foUowed by the Servo-Bulgarian war and the chastisement of Greece by the Pow- ers, provoked so much bitterness of feelint; among the rival races that for many years nothing more was heard of a Balkan Confederation. The idea has lately been revived under different auspices and with somewhat different aims. During the past sU years the Triple AUiance, with England, has, despite the indifference of Prince Bismarck, protected the Balkan States in general, and Bul- garia in particular from the armed intervention of Russia. It has also acted the part of policeman in preserving the peace throughout the Peninsula, and in deterring the young nations from any dan- gerous indulgence in their angry passions. The most remarkable feature in the history of this period has been the extraordinary progress made by Bulgaria. Since the revolt of Eastern Rou- nielia, Bulgaria has been treated by Dame Europa as a naughty child. But the Bulgarians have been shrewd enough to see that the Centra! Powers and England have an interest in their national inde- pendence and consolidation; they have recognised the truth that fortune favours those who help themselves, and they have boldly taken their own course, while carefully avoiding any breach of the proprieties such as might again bring thera under the censure of the European Areopagus. They ventured, indeed, to elect a Prince of their own choosing without the sanction of that august con- clave; the wiseacres shook their heads, and prophe- sied that Prince Ferdinand's days in Bulgaria might, perhaps, be as many as Prince Alexander's years. Yet Prince Ferdinand remains on the throne, and is now engaged in celebrating the fourth anniversary of his accession; the internal development of the country proceeds apace, and the progress of the Bulgarian sentiment outside the country — in other words, the Macedonian propa- ganda — is not a whit behind. The Bulgarians have made their greatest strides in Macedonia since the fall of Prince Bismarck, who was always ready to humour Russia at the expense of Bulgaria. . . . What happened after the great war of 187S? A portion of the Bulgarian race was given a nomi- nal freedom which was never expected to be a reality; Russia pounced on Bessarabia. England on Cyprus, Austria on Bosnia and Herzegovina. France got something elsewhere, but that is an- other matter. The Bulgarians have never forgiven Lord Beaconsfield for the division of their race, and I have seen some bitter poems upon the great Israelite in the Bulgarian tongue which many Eng- lishmen would not care to hear translated. The Greeks have hated us since our occupation of Cyprus, and firmly believe that we mean to take Crete as well. The Servians have not forgotten how Russia, after instigating them to two disas- trous wars, dealt with their claims at 'San Stefano; they cannot forgive Austria for her occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and every Servian peas- ant, as he pays his heavy taxes, or reluctantly gives a big price for some worthless imported article, feels the galling yoke of her fiscal and commer- cial tyranny. Need it be said how outraged Bul- garia scowls at Russia, or how Roumania, who won Plevna for her heartless ally, weeps for her Bessarabian children, and will not be comforted? It is evident that the Balkan peoples have no reason to expect much benefit from the next great war, from the European Conference which will follow it, or from the sympathy of the Christian Powers. . . . What, t'hen, do the authors of the proposed Confederation suggest as its ultimate aim and object ? The Balkan States are to act in- dependently of the foreign Powers, and in concert with one another. The Sick Man's [Turkey's] in- heritance lies before them, and they are to take it when an opportunity presents itself. They must not wait for the great Armageddon, for then all may be lost. If the Central Powers come victo- rious out of the conflict, Austria, it is believed, will go to Salonika; if Russia conquers, she will plant her standard at Stamboul, and practically annex the Peninsula. In cither case the hopes of the young nations will be destroyed forever. It is, therefore, sought to extricate a portion at least of the Eastern Question from the tangled web of European politics, to isolate it, to deal with it as a matter which solely concerns the Sick Man and his immediate successors. It is hoped that the Sick Man may be induced by the determined attitude of his expectant heirs to make over to them their several portions in his lifetime; should he refuse, they must act in concert, and provide euthanasia for the moribund owner of Macedonia, Crete, and Thrace. In other words, it is beUeved that the Balkan States, if once they could come to an understanding as regards their claims to what is left of the Ottoman Empire in Europe, might conjointly, and without the aid of any foreign Power, bring such pressure to bear upon Turkey as to induce her to surrender peaceably her European possessions, and to content herself henceforth with the position of an Asiatic Power." — J. D. Bourchier, A Balkan Confederation {Fort- nightly Revieiv, Sept., 1891).— See also Bulgaria: 1885-1886. 1885. — In September Eastern Rumelia rose in revolt. Here the Sultan was anxious to intervene, but owing mainly to British diplomatic support of Prince Alexander of Bulgaria, Turkish action was stayed. Serbia declared war on Bulgaria in November, and by the Peace of Bucharest the real independence of the two Bulgarias was con- firmed. See Serbia; 1S75-187S. 1899-1901.— Condition of Balkan States.— "The States of the Balkan Peninsula, ever since the practical disruption of European Turkey after the war of 1877-78, have been in a condition of chronic restlessness. Those who desire the re- pose of Europe have hoped against hope that the new communities which were founded or extended on the ruins of the Ottoman dominion in Europe would be able and willing to keep the peace among themselves and to combine in resisting the intrusion of foreign influences. These expectations have been too frequently disappointed. The law- lessness of Bulgaria and the unsettled state of Servia. more especially, continue to constitute a periodical cause of anxiety to the diplomacy of Europe. The recent murder at Bukharest of Pro- fessor Mihaileano, a Macedonian by birth and a Rumanian by extraction, appears to be a shocking example of the teaching of a school of political conspirators who have their centre of operations at Sofia. These persons had already combined to blackmail and terrorise the leading Rumanian resi- dents in the capital of Bulgaria, where the most abominable outrages are stated to have been com- mitted with impunity. Apparently, they have now carried the war, with surprising audacity, into the Rumanian capital itself. Two persons marked out for vengeance by the terrorists of Sofia had previously been murdered in Bukharest, according to our Vienna Correspondent, but these were Bul- garians by birth. It is a further step in this mis- chievous propaganda that a Rumanian subject, the occupant of an official position at the seat of the Rumanian government, should be done to death by emissaries from the secret society at Sofia. His crime was that, born of Rumanian parents in Macedonia, be had the boldness to controvert in 826 BALKAN STATES, 1S99-1901 Balkan League BALKAN STATES, 1912 the Press the claims of the Bulgarians to obtain the upper hand in a Turkish province, where Greeks, Turks, Bulsarians, Albanians, and Serbs are inextricably mixed up. Professor Mihailcano had probably very Rood reasons for coming to the conclusion that, whatever may be the evils of Ot- toman rule, they are less than those which would follow a free fight in the Balkans, ending, it may be, in the ascendency of Bulgarian ruffianism. "It is for this offence that M. Mihaileano suf- fered the penalty of death by the decree of a secret tribunal, and at the hands of assassins sent out to do their deadly work by political intriguers who sit in safety at Sofia. The most serious as- pect of the matter, however, is the careless and almost contemptuous attitude of the Bulgarian Government. The reign of terror at Sofia and the too successful attempts to extend it to Ru- mania have provoked remonstrances not only from the government at Bukharest, but from some of the Great Powers, including Austria-Hungary, Ger- many, and Italy. . . . There is only too much rea- son to fear, even now, that both the Bulgarian Government and the ruler of the Principality are afraid to break with the terrorists of Sofia. Po- Utical assassination is unfortunately among the traditions of the Bulgarian State, but it has never been practised with such frequency and impunity as under the rule of Prince Ferdinand. . . . His own conduct as a ruler, coupled with the lamen- table decline of the spirit of Bulgarian indepen- dence, which seemed to be vigorous and unflinch- ing before the kidnapping of Prince Alexander, has steadily lowered his position. The Bulgarian agitation — to a large extent a sham one — for the 'redemption,' as it is called, of Macedonia is a safety-valve that relieves Prince Ferdinand and those who surround him from much unpleasant criticism. . . . "The situation in the Balkans is in many re- spects disquieting. The Bulgarian agitation for the absorption of Macedonia is not discouraged in high quarters. The hostility of the Sofia con- spirators to the Koutzo-Wallachs, the Rumanians of Macedonia, is due to the fact that the latter, being a small minority of the population, are ready to take their chance of equal treatment under Turkish rule, subject to the supervision of Europe, rather than to be swallowed up in an enlarged Bulgaria, dominated by the passions that now prevail in the Principality and that have been cultivated for obvious reasons. Russia, it is be- lieved, has no wish to see Bulgarian aspirations realized, and would miich rather keep the Prin- cipality in a state of expectant dependence. Ser- via and Greece would be as much embarrassed as Rumania by the success of the Bulgarian propa- ganda, and Austria-Hungary would regard it as a grave menace. Of course the Turkish govern- ment could not be expected to acquiesce in what would, in fact, be its knell of doom. ... In Greece, the insubordination in certain sections of the army is a symptom not very alarming in itself, but unpleasantly significant of latent discontent. In Turkey, of course, the recrudescence of the fanaticism which periodically breaks out in the massacres of the Armenians cannot be overlooked. A more unfortunate time could not be chosen for endeavouring to reopen the Eastern question by pressing forward the Bulgarian claim to Mace- donia. Nor could a more unfortunate method be adopted of presenting that claim than that of the terrorists who appear to be sheltered or screened at Sofia." — J. D. Bourchier {London Times, August bc, iqoo). — See also Bulgaria: 1875- 1878 to i8qs-i896; Montenegro: 1389-1868 to 1898; Rumania: 1856-1875; 1866-1914. 1903. — Turkish rule in Macedonia. — Murz- steg reform program. — Young Turk movement. See Macedonia: 20th century. 1903. — Alleged promotion of revolt in Mace- donia. See Turkey: 1Q02-1903. 1903. — Murder of King Alexander and Queen Draga of Serbia. See Serbia: 1885-1903. 1905. — Serbia-Croat coalition. — Serbo-Bulga- rian commercial treaty. See Jugo-Slavia: 1867- 1917. 19O8. — Serbian and Austro-Hungarian rela- tions. — Annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary. — Pan-Serbism. — Relations with Macedonians. — Turkish treatment. — Race struggle in Macedonia. See Austria-Hungary: igoS-1909; Jugo-Slavia: 1867-1917 and Serbia: 1903-1908; Turkey: 1908. 1908-1909. — Bulgarian independence recog- nized. See Bulgaria: 1908-1009. 1910. — Montenegro proclaimed a kingdom. 1910-1911. — Insurrection against Turks. See Turkey: 1910-1911. 1912. — Balkan League. — The idea of a Balkan confederation aimed at Turkish rule in the penin- sula, dates back to the later 'seventies of last cen- tury. Mutual distrust and jealousies had prevented the fruition of the idea, and it fell through from the sheer impossibility of securing the essential har- mony among the Balkan peoples themselves. Turkish rule was safe so long as the discord of centuries continued. How those differences were temporarily overcome and the league finally came into being; how it speedily and almost completely achieved its object only to fall apart again, forms one of the political romances of modern times. The prominent part played by James David Bourchier (died January, 1921), for many years Balkan correspondent of the London Times. Is thift told by Colonel Rankin of the British army: "Bourchier, with a knowledge of the conditions prevailing in Turkey and in the Balkans, on the one hand, and at the councils of the Great Powers on the other, superior to that of any other man living, saw that things must go from bad to worse. The end would be the extinction of the subject nationalities. All hope of the interven- tion of the Powers had gone shipwreck. Bourchier realised that the only remedy was a combination of the free nations, kinsmen of the oppressed peoples, either to bring such pressure, to bear on the Young Turks as to induce them to mitigate their rule, or, if they resisted, to put them out by force. He came to this conclusion at the end, I believe, of 1910. He did not want an immediate war; the first thing to be done was to apply pres- sure. But there was little probability that this would succeed. The Young Turks were elated by success and by the praise which their admirers in Western Europe had lavished on them. They had spent all the money which they could obtain from their financial friends or by taxation in creating a powerful army, and could snap their fingers at the little States; so the programme of pacific remonstrance seemed to end in a cul-de-sac. So Bourchier turned his attention to the other pos- sible solution of the problem. What forces could the four States of the Balkans — Bulgaria, Servia, Greece, and Montenegro — command for the pur- poses of bringing pressure, of one kind or an- other, to bear upon the oppressors of their co- religionists and kinsmen? The Bulgars were ready; their army was excellent, reorganised by Savoff, who had seen the evil effects on other armies of politics in cafes, and had inspired in his junior officers an enthusiasm for hard work which has borne its due fruit. The Bulgars could put 250,000 men in the field on the day of mobilisation. The 827 BALKAN STATES, 1912 '''Bal^aTuaZe'^ BALKAN STATES, 1912 Servian army had improved since the Bulgars hammered it; it could provide at least another 150,000. The Greek army had had latterly the advantage of the instruction of French officers, English officers had been reorganising the fleet, and their Averof was a bigger and better man-of- war than any the Turks possessed. Little Mon- tenegro could certainly put up a gallant fight. . . . Here was the germ of the Balkan League — the first cause of the war which drove the Turks out of Europe after nearly five hundred years of misrule — a calculation si;nmering in the brain of an unofficial Irishman who. for love of them, had given half his life to the service of the Balkan peoples. So it came about that during the winter of 1910-11 Bourchier had long talks with M. Venezelos, the Greek Prime Minister [who was the moving spirit of the plan], and the two men discussed the scheme of a defensive and eventually offensive alliance between the Balkan States against the Turk. ... At last, one day in May, igii, the decisive step was taken. . . . Venezelos told Bourchier that he had finally approved the draft treaty of an alliance with Bulgaria against Turkey. ... As before narrated, the Greek pro- posals were sent to Bulgaria in May, 1911. Some months later, Bourchier went to Sofia and put his arguments in favour of the alliance before King Ferdinand and M. Gueshoff. Just so, nearly a year before, he had persuaded Venezelos and King George [of Greece] to take the first step towards the formation of the Balkan League, so again in Sofia he persuaded the Bulgarian Gov- ernment to fall into line with Greece. In Febru- ary, 1912, he himself brought back to Athens from Sofia a reply favourable to Venezelos' proposal of a defensive alliance. Up to that moment only five people had an inkling of what was going on, namely, King George of Greece and M. Venezelos, King Ferdinand of Bulgaria and M. Gueshoff, and Bourchier. After Bourchier's return to Athens ne- gotations were put on a diplomatic basis, and the Greek Minister at Sofia was informed of the al- liance and instructed to conduct the negotiations at the Bulgarian capital. That made six people m the plot. February and March passed; the ne- gotiations went on in absolute secrecy ; in April a definitive treaty was signed between Greece and Bulgaria. Bourchier had not left Servia out of the hunt. At the end of December, iqii, he went to Belgrade, and broached his plan to M. Milo- vanovitch, the Foreign Minister. He urged on him the idea of a combination between the Bal- kan States — a defensive combination to protect and maintain the rights of the Christian nation- alities in Turkey. Milovanovitch was favourable in principle, but he pointed out the great risks that Servia would run — in the first place from Austria, if that Power got wind of the project, and in the second from Turkey herself, who could kill Servian commerce by closing the Salonika route. But M. Milovanovitch, who had already had a secret interview with M. Gueshoff, was sound on the question, and Bourchier left him, not doubting the ultimate issue, and went back to Bulgaria to inform his friends there how matters stood in Belgrade. In due course the Serbo-Bul- gar Treaty was signed a week or two before the Bulgar-Greek Treaty. Montenegro had no treaty with cither Bulgaria or Greece, but there was a definitive treaty between her and Servia. Bour- chier went back to England in July, 1912, and at that time the Balkan League was practically formed, although further details and military con- ventions were agreed on a little later. ... In the early autumn things got rapidly worse between the Turks and Bulgarians on the one hand, and 8 the Turks and the Servians and Montenegrins on the other. There was a frontier dispute, followed by a series of massacres which did nothing to al- leviate the situation. But matters did not come to a head till September, when the assembling of a large Turkish force at Adrianople caused the fear of invasion to spread throughout Bulgaria. At last, on September 30, the four States mobil- ised." — R. Rankin, Inner history of the Balkan war, pp. 11-15. — See also E.astefln question. — "What is known as the 'Berchtold Proposition' was an ambiguous appeal made to Europe in August 1912 (by the Power [.\ustria] that in igoS took from Turkey, Bosnia-Herzegovina) to assist the Ottoman Government in applying a policy of progressive decentralization in favour of the Mace- donian nationalities, and to urge upon the Balkan States a peace-policy. This proposal, made while the French Prime Minister, M. Poincare, was in Russia conferring with the Tsar's Government, aroused suspicion in Europe. It was generally regarded as an attempt to steal a march on Rus- sia and to checkmate the policy of the Triple En- tente. Yet the good faith of the Austro-Hunga- rian Government would seem to have been demon- strated by the subsequent course of events. Count Berchtold's initiative was perhaps one of the ef- ficient causes, it was not necessarily the final cause, of the Balkan Crusade. The Balkan States, crushed between the Young Turks and Austria- Hungary, fearing both the growth of Ottoman im- perialism and the descent of .'\ustria to Salonica, had — by 191 1 — achieved their miraculous union under the hegemony of the Bulgarian tsar. Mean- while the prolongation of the Turco-Italian war aroused their dormant ambition. . . . Count Berchtold formulated his famous proposal calcu- lated to forestall and avert just such irreparable action on the part of the Balkan League as took place in October 1912, when the four Balkan States declared war." — W. M. Fullerton, Problems of power, p. 327. — See also Bulgarw. 1912: Serbo- BuLCARUx p.icr; Concert of Europe: History and meaning of term; Italy: 1912-1914. 1912. — German interest in Balkans. — Opposi- tion of Balkan States to war. See Germany: 1912: Balkan and Asia Minor interests; and Inter- national: 1912; World War: Diplomatic back- ground: 71 (iv). 1912. — First Balkan war. — Bulgaria allied with Serbia, Greece and Montenegro declared war on Turkey. — "What was the occasion of the war between Turkey and the Balkan states in 1912? The most general answer that can oe given to that question is contained in the one word Macedonia. Geographically Macedonia lies between Greece, Servia, and Bulgaria. Ethno- graphically it is an extension of their races. And if, as Matthew Arnold declared, the primary im- pul.se both of individuals and of nations is the tendency to expansion, Macedonia both in virtue of its location and its population was fore-ordained to be a magnet to the emancipated Christian na- tions of the Balkans. Of course the expansion of Greeks and Slavs meant the expulsion of Turks. Hence the Macedonian question was the quintes- sence of the \ear Eastern Question. But apart altogether from the expansionist ambitions and the racial sympathies of their kindred in Bulgaria, Servia. and Greece, the population of Macedonia had the same right to emancipation from Turkish domination and oppression as their brethren in these neighboring states. The Moslems had for- feited their sovereign rights in Europe by their unutterable incapacity to govern their Christian subjects. Had the Treaty of Berlin sanctioned, in.stead of undoing the Treaty of San Stefano, 28 BALKAN STATES, 1912 First Balkan War BALKAN STATES, 1912-1913 the whole of Macedonia would have come under Bulgarian sovereignty ; and although Servia and especially Greece would have protested against the Bulgarian absorption of their Macedonian breth- ren (whom they had always hoped to bring under their own jurisdiction when the Turk was ex- pelled), the result would certainly have been bet- ter for all the Christian inhabitants of Macedonia as well as for the Mohammedans (who number 800,000 persons or nearly one third of the en- tire population of Macedonia). As it was these people were all doomed to a continuation of Turk- ish misgovernment, oppression, and slaughter. The Treaty of Berlin indeed provided for reforms, but the Porte through diplomacy and delay frus- trated all the efforts of Europe to have them put into effect. For fifteen years the people waited for the fulfillment of the European promise of an amelioration of their condition, enduring mean- while the scandalous misgovernment of Abdul Hamid II. But after 1893 revolutionary societies became active. The Internal Organization was a local body whose programme was 'Macedonia for the Macedonians.' But both in Bulgaria and Greece there, were organized societies which sent insurgent bands into Macedonia to maintain and assert their respective national interests. This was one of the causes of the war between Turkey and Greece in 1807, and the reverses of the Greeks in that war inured to the advantage of the Bulga- rian propaganda in Macedonia. Servian bands soon after began to appear on the scene. These hostile activities in Macedonia naturally produced reprisals at the hands of the Turkish authorities. In one district alone 100 villages were burned, over 8.000 houses destroyed, and 60,000 peasants left without homes at the beginning of winter. Meanwhile the Austrian and Russian governments intervened and drew up elaborate schemes of re- form, but their plans could not be adequately en- forced and the result was failure. The Austro- Russian entente came to an end in laoS, and in the same year England joined Russia in a project aiming at a better administration of justice and involving more effective European supervision. Scarcely had this programme been announced when the revolution under the Young Turk party broke out which promised to the world a regenera- tion of the Ottoman Empire. [See Turkey: IQ03-1907.] Hopeful of these constitutional re- formers of Turkey, Europe withdrew from Mace- donia and entrusted its destinies to its new master. Never was there a more bitter disappoint- ment. If autocratic Sultans had punished the poor Macedonians with whips, the Young Turks flayed them with scorpions. Sympathy, indigna- tion, and horror conspired with nationalistic as- pirations and territorial interests to arouse the kindred populations of the surrounding states. And in October, iqi2, war was declared against Turkey by Bulgaria, Servia, Montenegro, and Greece." — J. G. Schurman. Balkan wars (igi2- iQi,3), pp. 30-32. — See also TtrRKEv: 1012-1913. 1912.— War opened by Montenegro.— The smallest member of the Balkan Lcauue started the conflict on its own account, before the others were ready. — "On Wednesday, October o, the astound- ing news of Montenegro's declaration of war took every one aback, especially as the earlier press telegrams had announced Turkey's decision to in- troduce into Macedonia the reforms sanctioned by the law of 1880, which would at least afford a con- venient basis for negotiation. The diplomatic corps was furious and did not hesitate to term it an insult to the Great Powers. Relatively, how- ever, it created little excitement in the capital [Belgrade], although a few unscrupulous news- papers did a thriving business by selling extra editions which did not contain any additional news. . . . On the next day it became more and more apparent that the Montenegrin coup de force had created a serious flutter in diplomatic dove- cots, and no secret was made of the fact that every one suspected Russia of having egged on King Nicholas. The chief argument given as proof of Russian support was that Nicholas declared war with such indecent haste in order to prevent the Russian and Austrian ministers presenting the pacific advice of their governments in Cettigne, as they did on the same day in Sofia, Belgrade and Athens. . . . From October 11 events moved apace, and it became more and more apparent, even to the dullest, that any intervention of the Powers would now come too late. . . . The next step was the presentation to the Turkish Ministers in the four capitals of the allied States of a Note dic- tating the reforms which must be applied by the Sublime Porte to improve the conditions of the Christian population in the vilayets of Mace- donia and Adrianople." — Special correspondent, Balkan war drama, London, 1913, pp. 66-68. — "Nor was it, perhaps, unfitting that the Balkan country, over whose rude crags the Crescent had never flown, should be the champion to throw down the glove of defiance in that death-struggle which was to free the Balkans from the Turk. Pretexts for war were not wanting, for the nor- mal state of life upon the frontier between Mon- tenegro and Albania is one of disguised warfare. A Montenegrin post had been besieged by the Turks, and the apologies of the Turkish Minister at Cettigne were not accepted. Nothing further was needed to set alight the conflagration. War against Turkey was declared, and at once every Montenegrin sprang to arms." — R, Rankin, Inner history of the Balkan war, p. 160. — See also Mon- tenegro: 1912-1913. 1912-1913. — Entrance of Bulgaria, Serbia and Greece. — "Turkey was attacked on four sides at the same time, as the movements of the Allies were well coordinated. The Montenegrins in- vaded .'\lbania ; the Serbians, Northern Macedonia ; the Bulgarians, Thrace; and the Greeks, Southern Macedonia. General Savoff, with an army of three hundred thousand Bulgarians, captured Kirk-Kil- issch. He then engaged the enemy at the great Battle of Lule Burgas (October 27 to November 2), where a Turkish army of one hundred and fifty thousand was completely routed by the Bul- garians, who displayed great skill and courage. The Turks were driven to seek refuge behind the fortress of Tchatalja, which barred the way to Constantinople. [Behind the Tchatalja lines the Turks were strongly intrenched and in uninter- rupted communication with Constantinople.] The Serbians, too, won notable successes in the western field. They occupied Prishtina, Novi Bazaar, and Monastir; and on November 28 they captured the important seaport of Durazzo. The Greeks in- vaded Macedonia from the south; and, after a series of victories, they laid siege to Saloniki, which surrendered on November 8. The Greek navy did notable service by blockading Turkish ports and by capturing many islands in the JEgean." On November 14, 1912, simultaneous proposals with a view to mediation were made to the Balkan States by representatives of the Great Powers. At Sofia, Belgrade, and Athens the gov- ernments agreed to take the matter into considera- tion. At Cettigne the King's representative de- clared that Montenegro could not now consent to an armistice except subject to the unconditional surrender of Skutari. "At the instance of Sir Ed- ward Grey, the English Foreign Minister, an ar- 829 BALKAN STATES, 1912-1913 Second Balkan War BALKAN STATES, 1913 mistice preliminary to peace was signed in Lon- don on December 3, 1012. The armistice, how- ever, accomplished nothing, for Turkey refused to surrender Adrianople to Bulgaria and the .^i^gean Islands to Greece. HostiUties were resumed early in February of the following year. The Greeks captured Janina, and a combined army of Serbs and Bulgarians forced their way into Adrianople. Scutari, an important town in Albania, was in- vested by an army of Montenegrins, who con- tinued to besiege it even after a second armistice was made to negotiate a peace. It fell on April 23, igi3. Representatives of the belligerent na- tions met in London, where, on May 30, IQ13 they concluded peace. Turkey was practically ousted from Europe, as she was compelled to cede to the Allies all her European territory except Constan- tinople and the adjacent region, which lay be- tween the Sea of Marmora and the line connecting Midia on the Black Sea with Enos on the .^^^gean. Crete was given to Greece. The status of the islands in the ^gean and that of Albania were left for a later decision " — J. S Schapiro, Modern and contemporary European history, pp. 646-647. — "Kirk-Kilisse marks the end of an epoch, the Bismarckian, and the beginning of a new era, not merely of European, but of world history. Thirty- nine years before the discovery of America the Turks took Constantinople. Four hundred and fifty-nine years later Turkey virtually ceased to be a European power. Although, in consequence of Bulgarian treason to the cause of Balkan Unity, Turkey ultimately recovered Adrianople from which she had been driven, she has, in reality, been thrust back info Asia by a military coalition of the small Slav, States This is the first result of the Balkan War of tot 2. . . The VV'ar has put an end to the dream of Catherine II: the road to Byzantium is closed to Russia. At the same time the enforced concentration of the Turks in Asia will oblige Russia to exercise special vigilance in the region between the Black Sea and the Caspian, and particularly in her sphere of influence in Ar- menia. But while Russia has been arrested in her overland march to the Middle Sea. Austria has been arrested as well, and Germany also: a new Slav empire, a potential United States of Balkany. is taking the place left vacant by the Ottomans, closing the road to Salonica, and the Pan-German hopes of eventually making Trieste an integral part of the national patrimony of Greater Germany have thus been dissipated." — W M. Fullerton, Problems of power, pp. 333-334 (London, 1014). — See also Bulcarm: igi2: First Balkan War; Greece: IQ12 ; Serbu: 1909-1913; World W.^r: Causes: Indirect: d, 3. 1912-1913.— Effect of wars on England, Ger- many and Austria. — London conference. See World W.ar: Diplomatic background: 71 (viii); and (ix.) 1913. — Second Balkan war. — Serbo-Bulgarian quarrel. — Break-up of League. — Bulgarian de- feat and losses. — "By the Treaty of London, Bul- garia had gained not only the much-coveted terri- tories in Macedonia, but nearly the whole of Thrace, and it was to be left to the Powers to lay down the frontier between the extreme points of Enos and of Midia, which was to determine how near she was to be brought to Gallipoli, to the Sea of Marmora, and to Constantinople Servia, on the othi>r hand, had profited but little by the war. The jealousy of Austria and of Italy had excluded her from the .Adriatic, which she could only reach under conditions which made her in fact if not in name the humble servant of Mon- tenegro and of .Mbania; her gains in the Sanjak with its bleak pasture lands would have to be shared with Montenegro; whilst those in Kossovo and in old Servia neither gave her a direct access to the seaboard of the /Egean nor provided her with any compensation for the blood and treasure which she had expended for Bulgaria m Thrace. .... In short, by the Treaty of London the sole Power which had gained far more than could have been anticipated even by the wildest dreamers at the outbreak of the war. was Bulgaria, and those gains she had to a great e.xtent made with the help of her .Allies. Yet, of all the Allied Powers, Bulgaria was the only one which showed herself unreasonable. The Bulgarians ignored the sacrifices of their .'\llies, and held only to their ethnographical claims, real or pretended. . . . But Servia held, and probably rightly, that as she had been cut off from the .Adriatic, and as the war had been prolonged for four months so as to enable Bulgaria to acquire .Adrianople at the cost of Servian blood, she was entitled to a revision of these arrangements [as made in the Treaty of March 13. iqi;]. especially as much of the dis- puted territory, for instance, Prilip and Monastir, was already held by Ser\'ian troops. This revision Bulgaria refused to grant mainly upon the grounds that Servia had not been called upon to give her the military support in Western Thrace which had been provided for by the militarv" convention. . . . In both Servia and in Bulgaria the war fever was rising. . . . Greece, Montenegro, and Servia ac- cepted, moreover, without reserve, the invitation to the Conference of Prime Ministers at St. Peters- burg [Petrograd] ; Bulgaria alone held back on the pretext that she wished to submit the questions at issue to the arbitration of the six Great Pow- ers, and not to that of those of the Triple En- tente alone. . . . Servia, on June 22, rejected the Bulgarian proposals, and suggested that the origi- nal Treaty should be torn up and a newer and wider basis created for Russian arbitration. . . . In vain the Great Powers made representations both at Belgrade and Sofia to induce the disputants to submit to arbitration: the military element was too strong to be disregarded." — R. Rankin. Inner history of the Balkan war. pp. 524-526, 529. — "A second Balkan war broke out in July, igiSv this time between Bulgaria and her erstwhile al- lies. Hostile armies began to converge on Bul- garia from three directions, Serbians and Montenegrins from the west [see Monte- negro: 1912-1913], Greeks from the south [see Greece: 1913: Second Balkan War], and Ruma- nians from the south. Several battes were fought in which the Bulgarians were defeated Frightful atrocities were committed on both sides, who now hated each other more than they hated the Turks. The latter, taking advantage of the dissensions among their foe?, reopened hostilities and recap- tured .Adrianople from the Bulgarians. At the instance of .Austria the Second Balkan War was brought to a close by the Treaty of Bucharest. which was concluded on .August lo, 1913. Bul- garia was shorn of nearly all her conquests. . . . By the Treaty of Constantinople (Sept. 29, 1913) between Turkey and Bulgaria, the former doubled the European territorj- left to her by the Treaty of London, as Adrianople and Eastern Thrace were given back to the Sultan." — J. S Schapiro. Modern and contemporary European history, p. 648. — Rumania had remained neutral during the first Balkan war. When the Serbo-Bulcarian dispute became acute, a significant communication from Bucharest appeared in a Vienna journal stating that Rumania would not remain neutral in the event of another war: "Any government which should remain inactive during a new Balkan war would be swept away by the force of public opin- 830 BALKAN STATES, 1913 Aftermath of Balkan Wars BALKAN STATES, 1913-1914 ion." After the defeat of Bulgaria, Rumania took from that country a large strip of territory on the Black sea. — See also Bulgaria: 1913: Second Bal- kan war; Pan-Turanism. That the Balkan situation was fraught with danger for the peace of Europe was vividly re- vealed after the assassination of the King of the Hellenes on March iji. loij, who was struck down at Salonika, which he had won for Greece. — "But whilst the heirs to the Bulgarian and Servian thrones were kneeling in homage to a monarch, of whom even the Turkish press spoke with the courtesy due to a chivalrous foe, and whilst the funeral chants were sounding through the flower- decked Cathedral at Athens, the wranglings of the Great Powers continued till, suddenly, Europe started back appalled when an article in The Times and a speech by Sir Edward Grey raised the cur- . Balkan wars of 1912-1913 as the progenitors of the vastly greater struggle which followed a year later. The Eastern question, which involved the Balkan peninsula, was merely a peculiar and ag- gravated form of the European question — the tradition whereby nations regulated their affairs by dominance within and competition without. This was especially apparent in Central and East- ern Europe, where the three empires — Russia, Ger- many and Austria-Hungary — formed, as it were, a triangle of reaction. With the German-Austrian alliance of 1879 — "the policy of the Drang nofh Osten reached its full stature, and the breach with Russia steadily widened. Germany, working through Austria-Hungary, wished to drive a cor- ridor through the Balkans, hold Constantinople, and control Turkey. Russia, in the name of Pan- Slavism, and moved by mystic and idealistic rea- H U ISI G A R. V 5 ef> ( \ ■. V Russia H U M O A R. Y *"% 4- ] BALKAN STATES AFTER TREATY OF BERLIN AND AFTER BALKAN WARS tain which had concealed from her the fact that she had, all unconsciously, been standing on the very brink of war. The obstinacy of Montenegro and of Servia with regard to the delimitations of the northern and north-eastern frontiers of Al- bania . . . had all but brought the difficulties be- tween Russia and Austria to a head. . . . The dis- pute about these delectable possessions, with their joint population of 61,000 inhabitants, scarcely exceeding that of Bath, might well have brought into collision six great Empires, with a population amounting in all to at least a third of the total population of the globe. It may well be asked if diplomatic folly and atno7ir-ptopre could go fur- ther." — R. Rankin, Inner history of the Balkan war, pp. 206-207. — See also World War: Causes: Indirect: d, 3. 1913-1914. — Causes and results of Balkan wars. — According to a competent British observer,' the historic chain of events clearly marks the sons, wished to control the Balkans, possess Con- stantinople and the Straits, and turn the Black Sea into a Russian Lake. France and England appeared on the scene, first as the enemies of Rus- sia and the upholders of Turkey in the name of the balance of power, and then, by the same token, as the friends of Russia and the opponents of Ger- many. The net result of the play of intrigue and counter-intrigue was that the Balkan States were set by the ears, national hatreds inflamed, do- mestic reforms checked all over Europe, and the Turk allowed to harry his subjects at his own sweet will. [See also Concert of Europe: History and meaning of term.] In 1907 it looked as if Austria-Hungary would make a bold and wise re- form, raising herself from a dualistic to a triform state by giving the Slavs self-government. In- stead, came Count Aehrenthal's annexation of Bos- nia and Herzegovina, throwing Serbia into the arms of Russia. In 1912, under Russian auspices and 83^ BALKAN STATES, 1913-1914 Outbreak of World War BALKAN STATES, 1914 through the statesmanship of M. Venizelos, cam? the Balkan League and the war against Turkey. But by checking Serbia's access to the Adriatic and setting up an independent Albania, Austria suc- ceeded in causing strife among the Balkan Allies, and the League broke up in the Second Balkan War. A weakened and exasperated Serbia was at once an easy victim and a dangerous neighbor to Ihe Dual Monarchy, and so arose the machinations of the nationalist societies, the murder at Serajevo, and the great European war. Austria threatened Serbia. Russia backed her up; Germany supported Austria, France supported Russia, England sup- ported France; Austria attacked Serbia, and Europe entered upon the fiercest and most barbar- ous war that the world has ever seen.'' — N. Buxton, Austria-Hungary and the Balkans (Atlantic Monthly, March, 1918, p. 371).— The collapse of the Balkan League and the disastrous consequences to Bulgaria in. 1913 were directly responsible for Bulgaria's fatal resolve to cast in her lot with Ger- inany and Austria in the World War. — "The Allies could offer her freedom and cooperation, but could not satisfy Bulgaria's national aspirations, owing to the reluctance of Serbia, Roumania, and Greece to yield the necessary territory, in spite of the compensations offered elsewhere." Hence, "Bul- garia entered the camp of the Central Powers re- luctantly, deliberately accepting the bird in the hand after patient and vain waiting for the two in the bush. Her aims were perfectly definite. She wished to unite under her flag the territories in- habited by her nationals and allotted to her in Februr'v, 1912, by the treaty with Serbia, namely, the so-called uncontested zone in Northeast Mace- donia, which was taken by Serbia in the Second Balkan War; the great trade-route down the Struma Valley debouching at Kavala, taken by the Greeks, and the Southern Dobrudja, taken by the Roumanians, in the same war. In addition, the imponderabilia weighing tor her decision were her dislike of Russian imperalism and her dread of Russia at Constantinople." — Ibid., p. 373. — "In the secret treaty with Bulgaria just before the first Balkan War, Serbia agreed to the definition of a neutral strip running cast-northeast to Lake Ok- hrida, one hundred miles northwest of Saloniki, which was to be the subject of later negotiation between her and Bulgaria. The later negotiation never took place, for Bulgaria made unexpected gains in eastern Thrace, and the powers decided to form an independent Albania in the regions where Serbia had hoped to increase her territory. Serbia and Greece denounced the territorial terms of the alliance, Bulgaria insisted on them in spite of changed conditions, and the second Balkan War resulted. With the complete success of Ser- bia and Greece, as opposed to Bulgaria, they di- vided Macedonia between them, leaving only the Strumnitsa salient and the country immediately northeast and cast of it to Bulgaria ; and the Treaty of Neuilly [Nov. 27, iqiq], by taking awav the Strumnitsa salient, has shut the door on Bulgaria's expansion in this direction." — E. M. House and C. Seymour, What really happened at Paris, pp. 160-170. — "\i a result of the Balkan Wars, the German drans, nacb O.sten was summarily checked, and Austria called back westward. It has already been shown that the Balkan ambitions of Austria were the result of her disasters. Napoleon drove her out of Italy and Germany, and offered her Istria and Dalmatia. Bismarck, continuing the work of Napoleon, took from her Venice, prom- ised her Bosnia and Herzegovina, and. construct- ing a solid German bulwark at her back, launched her on her perilous voyage down the Danube. He gave her a free pass across Macedonia, and thereby lured her forth on her ambiguous destiny. Al- though .Austria is a Power essentially German, Bis- marck sought to make her Slav ; and she went on assimilating the territories of the Slavs until she became positively 'saturated' with them. 'Satur- ated' is, indeed, the very word employed by Comte d'.\chrenthal, the first of her public men to re- coil before the consequences of pursuing a German, rather than a purely Austrian policy. When Uskub and Ipek were captured by the Servians six million men of their blood in Austria-Hungary ap- plauded." — W. M. Fullerton, Problems of power, P- 335- — See also World War: Causes: Indirect: d, 3; Diplomatic background: 71 (iv); (viii); (ix). 1914. — Relations of Austria-Hungary with the Balkan States before the outbreak of the World War. — Hostility to Serbia. — Aehrenthal's for- eign policy in Austria. See World War: Diplo- matic background: 8. 1914. — Austrian plan for a new Balkan League. See World War: Diplomatic back- ground: 9. 1914. — Pan-German plan. See Pan-German- ism: Pan-German league and its branches. 1914. — Assassination of Austrian archduke in Bosnia. — Austrian attitude toward Serbia. See World War: Diplomatic backi;round: 5. 1914. — Approaching crisis between Serbia and Austria discussed at Vienna war council. See World War: Diplomatic background: 13. 1914. — Austro-Serbian question as stated by German foreign office. — Russia's interest in Ser- bia. See World War: Diplomatic background: 69. 1914-1916.— Balkans and the World War.— "In the autumn of 1914 .A.ustria-Hungary launched a terrific attack upon Serbia, and after four months of sanguinary fighting succeeded (Decem- ber 2) in capturing Belgrade. [See World War: 1914: Balkans.] But their triumph was short-lived. By an heroic effort the Serbians, three days later, recaptured their capital ; the Habsburg assault was repelled, and for the first half of igiS Serbia enjoyed a respite, from the attacks of external enemies. .\n epidemic of ty- phus fever in its most virulent form wrought ter- rible havoc, however, upon an exhausted, ill-fed. and, in certain parts, congested population. From this danger Serbia was rescued by the heroism of English doctors and English nurses, warmly sec- onded by .American and other volunteers. Had the methods of English diplomacy been as energetic and effective as those of the English Medical Service, Serbia might still have escaped the terrible fate in store for her. Judged by results, and as yet we have no other materials for judgment, nothing could have been more inept than the efforts of allied English diplomacy in the Balkans through- out the year IQ15. . . . [See also .fVusTRO-HLTN- cary: 1914-1015.] The Triple Entente needed all the friends they could muster in southeastern Europe. In February the world learnt that an English fleet, assisted by a French squadron, was bombarding the forts of the Dardenelles. and hieh hopes were entertained in the allied countries that the passage of the Straits would be quickly forced. Nothing would have done so much to frustrate German diplomacy in south-eastern Europe as a successful blow at Constantinople. But the hopes aroused by the initiation of the enterprise were not destined to fulfilment. It soon became evident that the navy alone could not achieve the task entrusted to it. Towards the end of April a large force of troops was landed on the Gallipoli Penin- sula; but the end of May came, and there was nothing to show for the loss of nearly 40,000 men. On August 6th a second army, consisting 832 BALKAN STATES, 1914-1916 cfrftZl^piwers BALKAN STATES, 1914-1916 largely of Australians, New Zealanders, and Eng- lish Territorials, was thrown onto the peninsula. The troops displayed superb courage, but the con- ditions were impossible; Sir Ian Hamilton, who had commanded, was succeeded by Sir C. C. Munro, to whom was assigned the difficult and ungrateful task of evacuating an untenable posi- tion. To the amazement and admiration of the world a feat, deemed almost impossible, was ac- complished before the end of December, without the loss of a single man. How far the expedition to the Dardanelles may have averted dangers in other directions it is impossible, as yet, tc> say ; but, as regards the accomplishment of its imme- diate aims, the enterprise was a ghastly though a gallant failure. [See Dardanelles.] The failure was apparent long before it was proclaimed by the abandonment of the attempt. Nor was that failure slow to react upon the situation in the Balkans. "On the outbreak of the European War Greece had proclaimed its neutrality, though the Premier, M. Venizelos, at the same time declared that Greece had treaty obligations in regard to Serbia, and that she intended to fulfil them. But in Greece, as elsewhere in the Near East, opinions if not sympathies were sharply divided. The Greek kingdom owed its existence to the Powers com- prising the Triple Entente; the dynasty owed its crown to their nomination; to them the people were tied by every bond of historical gratitude. No one realized this more clearly than M. Veni- zelos, and no one could have shown himself more determined to repay the debt with compound in- terest. Moreover, M. Venizelos believed that the dictates of policy were identical with those of gratitude. The creator of the Balkan League had not abandoned, despite the perfidious conduct of one of his partners, the hope of realizing the dream which had inspired his policy in IQ12. The one solution of a secular problem at once feasible in itself and compatible with the claims of nation- ality was and is a Balkan Federation. A German hegemony in the Balkans, an Ottoman Ehnpire de- pendent upon Berlin, would dissipate that dream for ever. To Greece, as to the other Balkan States, it was essential that Germany should not be per- mitted to establish herself permanently on the Besphorus. If that disaster was to be averted mutual concessions would have to be made, and Venizelos was statesman enough to make them. Early in IQ15 he tried to persuade his sovereign to offer Kavalla and a slice of 'Greek' Macedonia to Bulgaria. He was anxious also to co-operate in the attack upon the Dardanelles with allies who had offered to Greece a large territorial concession in the Smyrna district. To neither suggestion would King Constantine and his Hohenzollern con- sort listen. Venizelos consequently resigned. If Venizelos desired harmony among the Balkan States, so also, and not less ardently, did the al- lies. Macedonia still remained the crux of the situation. Hohenzollern-Habsburg diplomacy had, as we have seen, thrown oil upon the flames of inter-Balkan rivalries in that region. Bulgaria, the willing cat's-paw of the Central Empires, had in 1Q13 drawn down upon herself deserved disaster, but that she would permanently acquiesce in the terms imposed upori her by the Treaty of Bucharest was not to be expected. Venizelos was quick to recognize this truth. Had his advice been fol- lowed Bulgaria would have gained a better outlet to the Aegean than that afforded by Dedeagatch. Serbia possessed no statesman of the calibre of Venizelos. But the situation of Serbia was in the last degree hazardous, and under the pressure of grim necessity Serbia might have been expected to listen to the voice of prudence. How far that voice reached her ears in the early summer of igi.? we cannot yet know for certain. . . . "Not until August, igiS, was Serbia induced to offer such con- cessions in Macedonia to Bulgaria as might possibly have sufficed, in May, to keep Bulgaria out of the clutches of the Central Empires. In Bulgaria, as elsewhere, opinion was sharply divided. Both groups of Great Powers had their adherents at Sofia. Had the Russian advance been maintained in 1915; had the Dardenelles been forced; had pressure been put by the Entente upon Serbia and Greece to make reasonable concessions in Mace- donia, Bulgaria might not have yielded to the se- ductions of German gold and to the wiles of Ger- man diplomacy. But why should a German king of Bulgaria have thrown in his lot with Powers who were apparently heading for military disaster; whose diplomacy was as inept as their arms were feeble ? What more natural than that when the Ger- man avalanche descended upon Serbia in the au- tumn of iqis Bulgaria should have co-operated in the discomfiture of a detested rival? Yet the En- tente built their plans upon the hope, if not the ex- pectation, that Bulgaria might possibly be induced to enter the war on the side of the allies against Turkey. Serbia was anxious to attack Bulgaria in September, while her mobilization was still incomplete. It is generally believed that the allies intervened to restrain the Serbian attack; hoping against hope that a concordat between the Balkan States might still be arrived at. To that hope Serbia was sacrificed. A great Austro-German army, under the command of Field-Marshal von Mackensen, concentrated upon the Serbian fron- tier in September, and on the 7th of October it crossed the Danube. Two days later Belgrade sur- rendered, and for the next few weeks von Macken- sen, descending upon the devoted country in over- whelming strength, drove the Serbians before him, until the whole country was in the occupation of the Austro-German forces. The Bulgarians cap- tured Nish on November 5 and effected a junction with the army under von Mackensen ; Serbia was annihilated; a remnant of the Serbian army took refuge in the mountains of Montenegro and Al- bania, while numbers of deported civilians sought the hospitality of the allies. On November 28 Germany officially declared the Balkan campaign to be at an end. For the time being Serbia had ceased to exist as a Balkan State. [See World War: 1015: V. Balkans.] What had the Al- lies done to succour her? On September 28 Sir Edward Grey, from his place in the House of Commons, uttered a grave, though not un- friendly, warning to Bulgaria, and declared that Great Britain was determined, in concert with her aUies, to give to her friends in the Balkans all the support in her power in a manner that would be most welcome to them 'without reserve and without qualification.' How was this solemn prom- ise fulfilled? Russia was not, at the moment, in a position to afford any effective assistance, but on October 4 she dispatched an ultimatum to Bul- garia, and a few days later declared war upon her. On October s the advance guard of an Anglo- French force, under General Sarrail and Sir Bryan Mahon, began to disembark at Salonica. The force was miserably inadequate in numbers and equip- ment, and it came too late. Its arrival precipitated a crisis in Greece. As a result of an appeal to the country in June, King Constantine had been re- luctantly compelled to recall Venizelos to power in September. Venizelos was as determined as ever to respect the obligations of Greece towards Serbia, and to throw the weight of Greece into the scale of the allies. But despite his parliamentary ma- jority he was no longer master of the situation. 833 BALKAN STATES, 1914-1916 Balkan Campaigns BALKAN STATES, 1914-1918 The failure of the Dardanelles expedition, the re- treat of Russia, the impending intervention of Bulgaria on the Austro-German side, the ex- hortations and warnings which followed in rapid succession from Berlin, above all, the knowledge that von Mackensen was preparing to annihilate Serbia, had stiffened the back of King Constan- tine. Venizelos had asked England and France whether, in the event of a Bulgarian attack upon Serbia, the Western Powers would be prepared to send a force to Salonica to take the place of the Serbian contingent contemplated by the Greco-Serbian treaty. The landing of the Anglo- French force in October was the practical re- sponse of the allies to the 'invitation' of Venizelos. Technically, however, the landing looked like a violation of Greek neutrality, and Venizelos was compelled by his master to en- ter a formal protest against it. But the protest was followed by an announcement that Greece would respect her treaty with Serbia, and would march to her assistance, if she were attacked by Bulgaria. That announcement cost Venizelos his place. He was promptly dismissed by King Con- stantine, who, flouting the terms of the Con- stitution, effected what was virtually a monarchical coup d'etat. The king's violation of the Hellenic Constitution was the opportunity of the protecting Powers. They failed to seize it, and King Con- stantine remained master of the situation. From an attitude of neutrality professedly 'benevolent,' he passed rapidly to one of hostility almost openly avowed. That hostiUty deepened as the year igi6 advanced. On May 25, in accordance with the terms of an agreement secretly concluded be- tween Greece, Germany, and Bulgaria, King Con- stantine handed over to the Bulgarians Fort Rupel, an important position which commanded the flank of the French army in Salonica. A few weeks later a whole division of the Greek army was instructed to surrender to the Germans and Bul- garians at Kavalla. Kavalla itself was occupied by King Constantine's friends, who carried off the Greek division, with all its equipment, to Ger- many. Nearly the whole of Greek Macedonia was now in the hands of Germany and her allies, and the Greek patriots, led by Venizelos, were reduced to despair. In September a Greek Com- mittee of National Defence was set up at Sa- lonica, and in October Venizelos himself arrived there. "By this time, however, the Balkan sit- uation had been further compUcated by the mili- tary inter\'ention of Roumania on the side of the allies. In Roumania, as elsewhere, opinion was, on the outbreak of the war, sharply divided. The sympathies of King Carol were, not un- naturally, with his Hohenzollern kinsmen, and, had he not been, in the strict sense of the term, a constitutional sovereign, his country would have been committed to an Austro-German alliance. Nor was the choice of Roumania quite obviously di,.tated by her interests. If the coveted districts of Transylvania and the Bukovina were in the hands of the Habsburgs, Russia still kept her hold on Bessarabia. A 'Greater Roumania," cor- responding in area to the ethnographical distribu- tion of population, would involve the acquisition of all three provinces. Could Roumania hope, either by diplomacy or by war, to achieve the com- plete reunion of the Roumanian people? In Octo- ber, 1Q14, the two strongest pro-German forces in Roumania were removed almost simultaneously, by death: King Carol himself, and his old friend and confidant Demetrius Sturdza. Roumania had already declared her neutrality, and that neutrality was, for some time, scrupulously observed. The natural affinities of the Roumanians attract them . . . towards France and Italy, and it was antici- pated that Italy's entrance into the war would be speedily followed by that of Roumania. But not until .August, 1Q16, was the anticipation ful- filled. On August 27 Roumania declared war and flung a large force into Transylvania. The Aus- trian garrisons were overwhelmed, and in a few weeks a considerable part of Transylvania had passed into Roumanian hands. But the success, achieved in defiance of sound strategy, and also, it is said, in complete disregard of warnings ad- dressed to Roumania by her allies, was of brief duration. In September Mackensen invaded the Dobrudja from the south, entered Silistria on September 10, and. though checked for awhile on the Rasova-Tuzia line, renewed his advance in October and captured Constanza on the twenty- second. Meanwhile, a Germany army, under Gen- eral von Falkenhayn, advanced from the west, and on September 26 inflicted a severe defeat upon the Roumanians at the Rothen Thurm pass. The Roumanians, though they fought desperately, were steadily pressed back ; at the end of November Mackensen joined hands with Falkenhayn, and on December 6 the German armies occupied Bucharest. Thus another Balkan State was tem- porarily crushed. From Belgrade to Constanti- nople, from Bucharest to the valley of the V'ardar, the Centra! Empires are [.April, 191 7] in un- disputed command of the Balkan Peninsula. A corner of Greek Macedonia is still held by the Anglo-French force under General Sarrail, and to- w-ards the end of November a Serbian army, re- formed and re-equipped, had the gratification of reoccupying Monastir. But the German suc- cesses in the north-east of the peninsula naturally emboldened their friends in the south-west, and the increasing hostility of the Athenian Govern- ment rendered the position of the allies in Sa- lonica exceedingly precarious." — J. A. R. Marriott, Eastern question, pp. 432-44r. — See World War: 1916: V. Balkan theater; 1917: V. Balkan theater. "The fundamental reasons which have forced the Near East into prominence before and since the outbreak of the w-ar are in many ways identical. The real point is that the Balkan Peninsula and the waterways which it controls constitute the natural highw'ay, the natural means of communi- cation between the West and East on the one hand and the North and South on the other. While it is the former condition which makes the domi- nation of this area one of Germany's primary objects it is the latter which constitutes its real importance for Russia. Consequently, whereas by military penetration across the Balkans into south- ern Russia and Asiatic Turkey the Central Powers have temporarily greatly increased the strength of their military position, still more by the driving of a permanent wedge through the same areas would they have triumphed by endangering the safety of the Allies throughout the world. On the other hand, were good relations to be estab- lished between the Balkan states and were an anti-German barrier therefore to be established, what would amount to an Allied wedge would pre- vent the expansion of the Central Powers toward the East and at the same time assure to Russia her legitimate access to warm water. For years, therefore, the question of these wedges has con- stituted the real raison d'etre of the Near East in the world's politics — a raison d'ltre the im- portance and meaning of which has become more apparent to the everyday man since the outbreak of the war." — Geographical Review, July, 1918, p. 19- 1914-1918. — ^Jugo-Slav agitations in Austria- 834 BALKAN STATES, 1915 Reconstruction Albania BALKAN STATES, 1921 Hungary. — Union with other Slavs. — Declara- tion of Corfu. See Jugo-Slavia: 1867-1917. 1915. — Italy's desire to control South Slavs. See Italy: 1915: Treaty of London. 1918. — Summary of campaigns. See World War: iqiS: V. Balkan theater: a. 1918. — Von Hertling's answer to Lloyd George and President Wilson regarding settlement of claims. See World War: 1918: X. Statement of war aims: d. 1918. — Italian claims in Dalmatia and Fiume. See Italy: ipiS-igig. 1918. — Union of Serbia with states of Croatia, Slovakia and Dalmatia. See Jugo- slavia: 1918: Formation of the Serb Croat Slovene kingdom. 1919. — Loss of life from famine and starvation during the World War. See World War: Mis- cellaneous au.xiliary services: X\'I. Cost of war: b, 3. 1920. — Formation of the Little Entente. See Jugo-Sl.avla: 1920. 1921. — Results of World War. — Division of spoils. — Losses and gains. — Geographical griev- ances. — Settlement problems and complications. — Reconstruction. — The end of the World War and the resultant peace treaties had not the effect of spreading perfect peace and general satisfac- tion among the various Balkan states. In allocat- ing the spoils of a great war, losses and gains are inevitable. Territories are wrested from one na- tion and incorporated by another, giving rise to complaints of injustice and prognostications of fu- ture troubles. The following excerpts illustrate the situation as it stood in the peninsula during the first quarter of 192 1: Albania, an autonomous Adriatic state under the Mpret William of Wied as the result of the Peace of London (1913), was abandoned by its rulers in 1914 and became a prey to internal dissensions. The faction of Essad Pasha notably failed to establish a stable government and the Austrians invaded the country in 1916. Already in 1914 Italy had taken possession of the seaport of Valona and its fortress, and later proclaimed a pro- tectorate. At the Peace Conference, the Albanians claimed independence, but Italy maintained her position ; Greece demanded the southern part of Albania as a portion of Epirus, while the north- ern provinces were desired as an addition and compensation to Serbia. Moreover, France, hav- ing military occupation, was ready to turn Scutari and Koritza over to Serbia and Greece respectively. The partition of the country with the assent of the Peace Conference seemed thus almost a fait accompli. Appeals to the Great Powers to stop Serbian aggressions were made. — "How was . . . [a] complete change of policy toward Albania brought about? The answer is clear: It was effected through the instrumentality of the United States government. The American government in- tervened on behalf of Albania, and actually saved her from destruction and dismemberment. The first intervention took place after the Supreme Council had agreed on applying to Albania the provisions of the secret Treaty of London, which partitioned her territories among the Italians, Greeks and Serbians. President Wilson caused this decision to be reconsidered ; but immediately upon the departure of the American representatives from the Supreme Council the great European powers, left alone, reverted again to the policy of the dismemberment of .Albania. In the session of Jan. 14, 1920, Great Britain, France and Italy decreed anew the complete partition of Albania among the Italians, Serbs and Greeks. When all again seemed lost President Wilson came out in his Adriatic notes, and vigorously opposed the plan of partition. Thanks to the moral influence of .America alone, the plan of partition was definitely discarded. . . . What a strange contrast to this outlook is now presented by Albania I And what spectacular changes have taken place within a few months, altering the situation entirely! Somehow the Peace Conference — or its successor, the Supreme Council — has practically held its hands off from Albanian affairs, to the benefit of the little nation. More strange is the revulsion of feeling that must have taken place in high French circles, as evidenced by the action of the French military authorities in turning over to the Albanian government the vital Provinces of Scutari and Koritza, in May, 1920. . . . But the most spectacular event was the struggle with Italy, which began early in June last [1919], and con- tmued until about the end of July, with a com- plete triumph for Albania. Several weeks of fierce fighting between the Albanians and the Italians ended in the e.xpulsion of the latter from Albania to such an extent that even the powerful and modern fortress of Valona, which was held as a last resort by the Italians, was eventually turned over to the Albanian government. That government is now in possession of the terri- tories assgined to the Albanian state by the Lon- don Conference of 1912-1913. Italy, the very power that was fatally in the way of Albania's independence and national unity, not only has been compelled to give up all its claims, which the Peace Conference had recognized, such as the protectorate and the perpetual possession of Valona, but has now become, by the clauses of the Italian-Albanian agreement, signed at Tirana on Aug. 2, 1920, the guarantor of those two es- sential attributes of sovereignty over the young State, with the result that there exist now the most cordial relations between the two countries. Thus has Albania won recognition of her state- hood from the power that was most bitterly op- posed to it only a few months ago. The success- ful termination of the conflict with Italy had also the salutary effect of sobering the claims of the Serbs and the Greeks, to the extent that they were induced to find a modus vivendi with /.Ibania. In consequence, the conflicting claims between these two countries and Albania are no longer a cause for direct strife. . . . Not less striking is the internal transformation that has taken place in Albania within the last few months. The peo- ple, who had been distracted and disunited as H result of continuous foreign interference, have found an opportunity to unite and mold them- selves into a single national entity, with the transcendent aspiration to preserve the national in- dependence and territorial integrity of their coun- try at all costs. Regional and religious differ- ences, which were formerly played upon by for- eign powers, have disappeared to the extent that there is now but one authority over the whole people, the authority of the central government established by the representatives of the Albanian people assembled in parliament — a parliament to which the government is strictly responsible. This government, with its seat at Tirana, has been in undisturbed power for more than a year. It has not only won the confidence of the people, but has also established law and order through- out the Albanian territories, one might candidly say, for the first time since the impotent Turkish occupation made Albania a synonym for anarchy and lawlessness. . . . The Tirana Government has already set out to organize the nation. Schools are being opened in a country where teaching was deliberately prohibited by former conquering 835 BALKAN STATES, 1921 Bulgaria Greece BALKAN STATES, 1921 powers, such as the Turks, and negotiations are now being carried on for the establishment of an American university modeled on Robert College at Constantinople. But the chief attention of the Albanian governmer ■ is turned toward the develop- ment of the large resources of the countr.-, es- pecially its mineral resources, including iron, cop- per, oil, asphalt, coal, together with the splendid water power the country is provided with. How- ever, in order to make possible this development, the first essential is the construction of roads, rail- roads, tramways, and the government is already out in quest of capital, which the Albanian peo- ple want to have come from .\merica. Unfor- tunately, the fact that Albania has not been recognized by the United States acts as a bar to the employment of American capital in that country.'' — C. A. Chekrezi, Hoiv Albania ivon in- dependence (A'. Y. Times Current History, Dec, 1920, pp. 534-536). Bulgaria. — "It is a well-established fact tliat Bulgaria concluded an armistice with the Allies on September 30, 1918, because the people and army refused to go on with the war. As early as July of that year the soldiers, who in the absence of any military caste in Bulgaria really form a part of the people, declared in writing and orally to their officers that they would not fight be- yond the middle of September. This decision w-as reached, as the soldiers themselves declared, after the famous Fourteen Points of President Wilson became known to them. 'Why,' they said, 'should we go on fighting, if these points are to be the basis of the future settlement of ques- tions affecting Europe in general and the Bal- kan Peninsula in particular?' . . . The forced ab- dication of King Ferdinand was accomplished with- out any trouble, and the accession of his eldest son, Boris, to the throne was hailed with uni- versal approval. In the general political and social perturbation of Europe, Bulgaria also was threatened with a revolution by the extreme radi- cal elements; but the firmness and courage dis- played by the present Premier of Bulgaria, Mr. Stambolisky, the leader of the Farmers' party, in coping with the Bolshevist agitation, saved the country from Bolshevism and assured the reign of law and order. ... He has refused to be drawn into any wild political schemes, has frankly accepted the situation created by the Treaty of Neuilly, and, while protesting against its injustice, has promised to carry out loyally its terms." — T. Vladimiroff, Bulgaria's novel methods of reconstruction (N. Y. Times Current History, Nov., 1920, pp. 217-218). — Bulgaria, by the treaty of Xeuilly, November 27, 1919, lost to Serbia on the western frontier three small pieces of territory, besides the Strumnitza projection on the southwest about fifty miles north of Sa- lonika More important still, Bulgaria was not to possess any portion of the .Egean littoral which she had naturally coveted with its Greek and Turk population, though she was allowed com- mercial access to Dedeagatch, a small roadstead where goods may be transferred by lighters. — "That the Treaty of Neuilly has not settled the Balkan question justly and satisfactorily is in- disputable. On the contrary, it has aggravated the mistakes made forty-two years ago by the Berlin Congress, and if these mistakes are not cor- rected in the near future by the League of Na- tions or by an international court the Balkan peninsula will enjoy a temporary truce and not a lasting peace. ... It is too early yet to pre- dict what the relations of Bulgaria to her neigh- bors will be. She has been despoiled by them of territory that rightly belongs to her; she has been practically debarred from free and unre- stricted access to the /Egean sea. .\ progressive and enterprising people, as the Bulgarians have proved themselves to be during the forty years of their political existence, cannot allow their fu- ture commercial and economic development to be hampered by making it dependent upon the mercy or good-will of those who have invariably been their enemies. ... So long as Serbia and Rumania maintain their possession of Macedonia and Dobrudja [respectively] as a matter of conquest, so long as they treat the large Bulgarian ma- jority in these provinces as aliens whom by violent means and oppressive measures they seek to terrorize and denationalize, no real friendship can exist between them and Bulgaria." — Ibid., pp. 220-221.— "With Bulgaria a treaty was made which imposed upon her an indemnity, and took from her the territories which she had seized from Servia, Rumania, and Greece, during the war, while the disposition of the territory giving her access to the /Egean was to be decided by plebiscite of the local population. Bulgaria was left, therefore, the least important of the Balkan states, in the midst of rivals who haU grown great by the war." — E. R. Turner, Europe, p. 590. — "The financial burdens laid upon Bul- garia by the Treaty of Neuilly are undoubtedly very heavy. She is required to pay an in- demnity of 2,250,000,000 francs in gold or $450,- 000.000 at the normal rate of exchange. Her external pre-war debt [and debt] incurred during the war, the current state expenses, and the pay- ment of interest on the debts make it ver.- doubt- ful whether a small country containing about 35,000 square miles and 4,500,000 people can successfully meet its financial obligations. The low rate of exchange of the Bulgarian currency aggravates the situation. Probably this will not be remedied easily or soon, owing to the fact that Bulgaria is not an industrial country, and that her imports have always been in excess of her exports."— /6id, pp. 222-223. Greece. — By the treaty of Sevres, 1920, the great Western powers severed from Turkey the larger part of its European territor\' west of the famous Chataija defense lines in favor 01 Greece, and further gave to the latter the ..tgean littoral south of Bulgaria, at least Western Thrace which had been transferred to the Allies by the treaty of Neuilly, — thus extending peninsular Greece continuously to the Black sea; also Italy yielded to Greece the Dodecanese Islands in the .^Egean; and in Asia Minor the Greek govern- ment received Smyrna and adjacent territory (un- der Turkish suzerainty) for administration as mandatory of the League of Nations, and for decision by the League at the end of five years of the question of definitive incorporation in the kingdom of Greece. Mr. Venizelos, the Greek rep- resentative, engaged that Greek forces would un- dertake in cooperation with the Allies in Con- stantinople to drive back and suppress the Kemal- ists or Turkish Nationalists in Anatolia. This left the question of the disposal of Eastern Thrace undecided and when King Alexandros died Octo- ber, 1920, and the Greeks recalled Constantine to the throne, the Allies being opposed to the latter, it even jeopardized apparently some of the settle- ments of the Sevres treaty, which was already in process of revision. The new Greek admin- istration and both Turkish factions were sum- moned to send representatives- to the London conference to arrange their differences among them- selves and suppress hostilities in Asia Minor. The delegates convened in St. James's Palace on Feb- ruary 21, 1921, and sat until March 13. 836 M |5l;"ti--'-. /^ BALKAN STATES, 1921 Jugoslavia Macedonia BALKAN STATES, 1921 Jugo-Slavia. — "Jugo-Slavia is summed up in the reply of a deputation of Serbs to the question, 'What do you understand by a nation?' The question was put in 1848, when the Serbs were petitioning for recognition of their national lan- guage in the Magyar state, and they replied: 'A nation is a race which possesses its own language, customs, culture, and enough self-consciousness to preserve them.' According to this view, a single nation could exist divided among several political rulers. . . . Political organization came in those dark days of 1917, when the present kingdom's territory was altogether in the hands of the enemy, and the government had fled, with the remnants of the army, to the Greek island of Corfu. There on July 20, 1917, the so-called 'Declaration of Corfu' was signed by 'the Presi- dent of the Council, Minister of Foreign Af- fairs of the Kingdom of Serbia, Nikola Pashitch, and the President of the Jugo-Slav Committee, Dr. Anton Trumbic' This declaration, practically all of whose terms have since been put into effect, runs, in its most essential parts, as fol- lows: "(i) The state of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, who are also known by the name of Southern Slavs or Jugo-Slavs, will be a free and inde- pendent kingdom, with an indivisible territory and unity of power. This state will be a constitu- tional, democratic, and parliamentary monarchy, with the Karageorgewitch dynasty, which has al- ways shared the ideals and feelings of the nation in placing above everything else the national lib- erty and will, at its head. (2) The name of this state will be the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, and the title of the sovereign will be King of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. . . . (9) The territory of the Serbs, Croats and Slo- venes will comprise all the territory where our nation lives in compact masses and without dis- continuity. . . ." — New kingdom of Jugo-Slavia (Literary Digest, Jan. 8, 1921, pp. 10, 25-26). — "The official name of the country is the BLing- dom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, which is generally abbreviated in Europe to the King- dom of the S.H.S., these letters being the initials of the name in the native tongue — Srba, Hrvata i Slovenica. . . . This kingdom is made up of the old kingdoms of Serbia and Montenegro and the Austro-Hungarian provinces of Slovenia, Croatia, Slavonia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Dalmatia, and what is now known as the Voivodine, which includes the several small provinces north of the Danube be- tween Slavonia and the new Rumanian boundary. The population of the kingdom is practically all Slav, with a small admixture of Turks in south- ern Serbia, a few Italians in some of the cities along the Adriatic, and groups of Hungarians, Austrians and Germans in some of the other provinces. Aside from the Turks in southern Serbia and the Hungarians and Germans in the Voivodine, the non-Slav population is confined al- most entirely to the cities and towns. This is especially true along the Adriatic, where even the hinterland of Trieste, which has been given to the Italians, is almost entirely Slav, while the city itself has a large Italian majority." — W. G. Atwood, Jugoslavia's resotirces and beauty (N . Y. Times Current History, Feb., 1921, p. 278). — As the result of a plebiscite in its southern part, the en- tire district of Klagenfurt on the Austrian frontier remained Austrian, the Serb troops therein being withdrawn. "The question of the South Slavs pre- ' sented no fundamental difficulty. It was gen- erally agreed that the people of the provinces of Carniola, Croatia, Slavonia, Dalmatia, Bosnia, and Herzegovina should be given their freedom; and there was already a movement on foot to have them all unite with their kinsmen of Monte- negro and Servia in a large Jugo-Slavic state. It would undoubtedly be difficult to hold in one union these people, of the same race, indeed, but differing much in culture and religion. The im- mediate difficulty, however, was to reconcile con- flicting ambitions of Italians and South Slavs on the \driatic coast, and assure the new federation an outlet to the sea. . . . All down the Dalmatian coast, on the eastern side of the Adriatic, were old Italian towns and a fringe of Italian popu- lation, while the great mass of the people, in the country behind, were South Slavs. The islands and the seaport towns were, indeed, largely un- redeemed Italian land, but if they were all given to Italy then an outlying fringe of Italians would shut off from the sea a far greater number of Jugo-Slavs. As a matter of fact, because of the broad untracked Dinaric Alps, just back from the coast, the South Slavic people would be ef- fectually shut off from the sea if they were not given Fiume. . . ." — E. R. Turner, Europe, 1789- 1920, pp. 582-584. — By the Treaty of Rapallo, the independence of Fiume was recognized by both Italy and Jugoslavia; Zara and adjacent com- munes and the islands of Cherso, Lussin, Lagosta and Pelagosa were recognized as forming parts of the Kingdom of Italy. Macedonia, the apple or discord. — "In the Balkans, may be transformed into a fruit of con- tent and happiness if the vision of a greater Jugo-Slavia now looming should become realized. Thus it seems to a political correspondent of the Paris Temps at Sofia, who believes in the com- ing of this greater Jugo Slavia, which will unite all the southern Slavs, including the Macedonians and the Bulgarians. The first evidence of the solidification of the southern Slavs, he reminds us, was the formation of the kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes. ... In the new kingdoAi of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes . . . the spirit of fed- eralism will triumph, and in this frame of greater Jugo-Slavia, Macedonia might find sufficient in- dependence so that she would cease to be a bone of contention between the Serbians and the Bul- garians. . . . Macedonia is 'no longer an object of conquest by force of arms among the Bul- garians.' 'Two cruel experiences have cured them of this policy of expansion,' . . . and have made them understand that they must not mix up selfishly in Macedonian affairs. It is noted as a significant fact that the present Bulgarian Gov- ernment includes no Macedonians, altho all for- mer cabinets had one or even several Mace- donians. . . . 'Nevertheless, even if the principle of federation remain in abeyance, Jugo-Slavia is sol- emnly bound by the terms of the convention on the protection of minorities to confer the free- dom of cultural liberty under the protection of the League of Nations. If to this obligation be added the effect of parliamentary government and universal suffrage — for there is no doubt that young Jugo-Slavia is inspired with a spirit of broad liberalism— Belgrade and Sofia will gradually find in Macedonia, which formerly held them apart, the instrument of reconciliation. ... At present there are in Bulgaria more than 200,000 Macedonians who took refuge there during recent decades and are organized strongly in an association of Mace- donian fraternities. These are sixty-eight in num- ber and correspond to the different districts and cities of Macedonia from which their members have come. Once a month these societies send their delegates to Sofia, where they meet in a kind of Macedonian parliament, presided over by an executive committee. The parliament of 1920 con- 837 BALKAN STATES, 1921 Montenegro Rumania BALKAN STATES, 1921 vened in Sofia.' " — Vision of a happy Balkans (Literary Digest, Jan. 8, 1921, p. 26). Montenegro. — "Montenegro, included in the new state of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, in spite of some objections on the part of its former rulers, has lately inspired a resolution of pro- test signed by some fifty prominent members of the British parliament, including Viscounts Bryce and Gladstone and Earl Curzon. This protest, as reported by Current History (New York), reads: 'Having regard to the most gallant services ren- dered by Montenegro, the smallest of our Allies, and to the heavy cost she has sustained, her peo- ple have the clear right to determine their future form of government ; it is, therefore, necessary that a Parliament should be elected under the Montenegrin Constitution to decide this question, free voting being secured by the withdrawal of all the Serbian troops and officials at present oc- cupying the country.' " — New kingdom of Jugo- slavia (Literary Digest, Jan. 8, 1921, p. 26). "Two events occurred which have gone far to remove the Montenegrin question from being a thorn in the side of the Belgrade government, . . . — the death of the dethroned King Nicholas and the reports of the British commissioners, Roland Bryce and Major L. E. Otterley, in re- gard to the elections in Montenegro. As long as King Nicholas lived he could not help but have a following, particularly among the older Montenegrins, who had regarded him as the natural head of the Serbo-Montenegrin people. . . . Al- though he declared war on Austria-Hungary shortly after Vienna had declared war on Serbia, his negotiations for a separate peace with the enemy show that he believed the cause of the Allies to be lost. There are documents in ex- istence even betraying his lack of sincerity to- ward the Entente. Since the armistice he had been a pensioner of the French Government at Antibes, where he conducted a propaganda for the recovery of his throne until his death there, on March i. It is now expected that the Nationalist party in Montenegro, which has been campaign- ing for independence, but without a restoration, will gradually cease hostilities toward the estab- lished government, and that the Supreme Coun- cil will finally define the actual status of Montenegro as a part of the monarchy of the Croats, Serbs and Slovenes — Jugoslavia." — Jugo- slavia complains about Bulgaria (New York Times Current History, Apr., 1921, pp. 173-174). Rumania. — Rumania, "crushed almost as com- pletely as Serbia" in the war, triumphed in the peace arrangements, being more than "doubled in size by having taken Transylvania (Romania Irredenta) from the Magyars, and a portion of Bukovina, regaining Bessarabia from Russia, as well as retaining the Dobrudja on the south. . . . She became greater and more important than her neighbors, Austria, Bulgaria or any of the Bal- kan states. . . . The domestic history of the coun- try reveals steady development and increase in material prosperity. . , . Large estates were di- vided among the peasants and universal suffrage granted. . . . The people claim descent from Ro- man colonists of the time of Trajan, and their language is an offspring of the Latin, but most of the people are Slavic and ... of the Greek Orthodox church." — E. R. Turner, Europe, 17S9-1920, pp. 465-466. — Their treatment of the Jews has been harsh in spite of the guarantees for the protection of religious and racial minor- ities contained in the treaty which the Rumanians finally signed at Paris, December q, igiq. With- drawing at the same time their forces in Buda- pest and other parts of Hungary on the one hand and from Russia beyond the Bessarabian frontier on the other, Rumania is nevertheless compelled to maintain huge defensive forces against white and red foreign enemies, while struggling to repair the tremendous devastation of the war and to heal internal dissensions. — See also Albania; Bulgaria; Greece; Montenegro; Rumania; Ser- bia; Turkey, etc. Also in: E. Driault. La question d'Orient. — D. G. Hogarth, Nearer East.—H. C. Woods, Dan- ger zone of Europe. — N. Buxton and C. L. Leese, Balkan problems and European peace. — Agnes E. Conway, Ride through the Balkans. — Sir C. Eliot, Turkey in Europe. — N. Forbes and others. The Balkans. — F. Fox, Balkan peninsula. — G. Hano- taux. La Guerre des Balkans et VEurope. — A. von Huhn. Struggle of the Balkans for national in- dependence under Prince Alexander. — J. E. Gueshoff (Guechoff), Politics of the Balkan League. — W. Miller, Balkans. — W. S. Murray, Making of the Balkan State. — .'\. Muzet, Aux pays Balkaniques. — J. G Schurman, Balkan Wars, 1012-1013. — M. I. Newbigin, Geographical aspects of Balkan problems. — R. W. Seton-Watson, Rise of nationality in the Balkans. 838 D 000 047 338 9