THE NEW LARNED HISTORY FOR READY REFERENCE READING AND RESEARCH VOLUME I Original Edition — s '"olumes .... 18QJ-4 Seconti Edilion — original edition revised, with supplemental volume igol Third Edition — as second, with scroiid supplc- mcn'al volume igio Complete Revision — 12 volumes .... ig22 r H F NEW L .-L f V HISTORY OR READY R iES( READING AND R' A COMPLETE SYSTl TO ALL COUN'TRlEh TT-J ir t-;Fi •'WiffiTtc^io^h/^H/ i^A-oiiiwii a( dmcn iJKnisfTcKfr. iii '.nowuT lo tSdv/riJioa asiini oft WltH A LARGE WPMBrR OP TEXt tL S, llANV Or THFL. '.TS, DJ DUOTONK, AND PKONTISWK • iiili^Mil. .,Ki, -..■. lORICAL AND OTa:» MA 1 s n. sn ! ;pT?i::ryiKt-n, mas? THE CASA GR.\NDE, ARIZONA One or the Most Fauoos Rdins or a Prehistoric Race in America The principal structure of a ruined pueblo on the south bank ol the Gila River, 8c miles northwest of Tucson. Its aboriginal name is Sitatu-Ki ^House of Sivano) Painlfd by Olio Kiirlh Fr.tn phdrtfTipk Copyrishlai hy Pubiiikm' Pholt Sertice THE NEW LARNED HISTORY FOR READY REFERENCE READING AND RESEARCH THE ACTUAL WORDS OF THE WORLD'S BEST HISTORIANS BIOGRAPHERS AND SPECIALISTS A COMPLETE SYSTEM OF HISTORY FOR ALL USES, EXTENDING TO ALL COUNTRIES AND SUBJECTS AND REPRESENTING THE BETTER AND NEWER LITERATURE OF HISTORY THE WORK of J. N. LARNED COMPLETELY REVISED. ENLARGED AND BROUGHT UP TO DATE UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF THE PUBLISHERS BY DONALD E. SMITH, Ph.D. EDITOR-IN-CHIEF CHARLES SEYMOUR, M.A., Ph.D., Litt.D. AUGUSTUS H. SHEARER, M.A., Ph.D. DANIEL C. KNOWLTON, Ph.D. ASSOCIATE EDITORS AND A LARGE CORPS OF SPECIALLY TRAINED HESEAHCHERS, CRITICAL READERS, INDEXERS, ETC. IN 12 VOLUMES VOL. I. — A TO BALK WITH A LARGE NUMBER OF TEXT ILLUSTRATIONS, MAPS AND CHARTS, MANY OF THEM PULL-PAGE INSERTS, IN DUOTONE, AND FRONTISPIECES IN COLOR; ALSO NUMEROUS DOUBLE AND SINGLE-PAGE HIS- TORICAL AND OTHER MAPS IN COLOR, FROM ORIGINAL STUDIES AND DRAWINGS BY ALAN C. REILEY AND OTHERS SPRINGFIELD, MASSACHUSETTS C. A. NICHOLS PUBLISHING COMPANY BUSINESS FOUNDED l8SI 1922 Copyright, 1804. 1901, 1910, By J N. LARNED Copyright. igi3, By S. J. LARNED (Above copyrights have been assigned to the publishers.) Copyright, 1922, By C. a. NICHOLS PUBL1SHL\G COMPANY AU rights reserved J. J. Little & Ives Coir.pany, New York City, U. S. A. Composition. Piatci. & Presswork J. F. Tapley Company. Long Island City, U. S. A, binding StacR D EDITORIAL ORGANIZATION EDITOR OF ORIGINAL EDITION AND INVENTOR OF THE SYSTEM J. N. LARNED Librarian, BufTalo Public Library C1877- 1897) President, American Library Association (1892-1804) Author of "History of England for Schools," "A History of the United States for Secondary Schools," "Seventy Centuries," etc. REVISION STAFF EDITOR-IN-CHIEF DONALD E. SMITH, A.B. (Cornell), Ph.D. (C.^LIFORNIA) Professor of History, Geojiraphy and Economics Formerly at Uni\-ersity of California, Toledo Univer'^ity, etc. Author of "Viceroy of New Spain in iSth Century," "Diary of the Portola Expedition" (with F. J. Teggart), "The Geographic Factor in English History" (in "English Leadership", with J. N. Earned, W. H. Taft, et al.) ASSOCIATE EDITORS CHARLES SEYMOUR, B.A., M. A. (Camrridgk, Eng.), Ph.D. (Yale), Litt.D. (Western Reserve) Professor of History at Yale University Chief of Ausfro Hungarian division of American Commission to Negotiate Peace Author of "Electoral Reform in England and Wales," "Diplomatic Background of the War," "How the World Votes" (with D. P. Fraryl, "What Really Happened at Paris" (with Col. E. M. House), "Woodrow Wilson and the World War," etc. AUGUSTUS H. SHEARER, A.B., A.M., Ph.D. (Harvard) Librarian, Grosvenor Library, Buffalo Lecturer, University of Buffalo Formerly Bibliographer, Newberry Library, Chicago, and Chairman, American Library .Association Committee on Manual of Historical Literature DANIEL C. KNOWLTON. A.B., Ph.D. (Cornell) Head of History and Civics, The Lincoln School of Teachers College, New York Member of Editorial Board of "The Historical Outlook" Author of many books on teaching of history and (with S. B. Howe) of " Essentials in Modern European History," and (with Professors Hazen and Webster) of a series of wall-charts on ancient, niedieval and modern history ASSISTANT EDITORS ALLEN L. CHURCHILL, A.B. (Bowdoin) On editorial staff of New International Encyclopicdia and associate editor. New International Year Book HENRI F. KLEIN (London) Formerly librarian "London Times," on editorial staff "London Standard" and contributing editor, "Encyclopedia Americana," etc. HELENA (DOUGHTY) PETERSON, A.B. (Vassar), A.M. (Wisconsin) Formerly high school teacher of history JAMES R. ROBERTSON, A.B. (Beloit), A.M. (Michigan), Ph.D. (California) Professor of History and Political Science, Berea College, Kentucky Formerly assistant curator, Bancroft Library of University of California FRED C. WHITE, A.B., A.M. (Alfred) First assistant in History. Morris High School, New York City V 2227770 EDITORIAL O^^A^NIZATION CRITICAL EDITORIAL READERS AND COMPILERS MARGARET ALSTON BUCKLEY (Church of Irel.\nd Teachers' College) WINTHROP A. HAMLIN, A.B. (H.\rv.«d) ELIZABETH HENDEE, A.B. (Iowa) MARJORIE B. GREENBIE, A.B. (Cornell) Ph.D. (Yale) WILLIAM JAFFE, A.M. (Columbl^) JOHN ALDEN KROUT, A.B. (Miciugan), A.M., Ph.D. (Coldubm) CIL\RLES F. ZIMMELE, Ph.B. (Lehigh) RESEARCHERS AND COMPILERS RUTH L. BENJAMIN, A.B. (Barnard) EDITH LACY JULIA V. BOLGER, A.B. (Barnard), A.M. DAVID LINDENAUER, B.Sc. (Columbia) M. M. LOURENS JAY B. BOTSFORD, A.B., Ph.D. (Columbia) LEAH L. LOWENSOHN, A.B., A.M. (Cornell) LOIS C.\SSIDY, A.B. (VVelle.sley), A.M. ROSE LOWENSOHN (Columbia) MERCEDES I. MORITZ, A.B. (B.^RN.\Rn) E. MAUD COLVIN, M.Mus. JAMES F. MORTON, Jr., A.B., A.M. (Harvard) HANA (GEFFEN) JOSEPHSON RICHARD P. READ, A.B. (Cornell) MARION (WARREN) FRY, A.B. (Barnard) VICTOR RIGHKTTI (Neuch.atel and Florence) ANNA COOK, A.B. (Mt. Holyoke) JANET H. ROBB, A.B. (Barnard) ISADOR GINSBURG, A.B. (Coi.raBi.-i) CORNELIA SHAW, A.B. (Welt.esley) PHILIP A. GREENBERG (University of Kiev) LUELL.\ (G.AFFNEY) SMITH FELICE H. JARECKY, A.B. (Barnard) eRNA (GUNTHER) SPIER. A.B. (Barn.\rd) A.M. LINA KAHN, A.m., Ph.D. (Columbia) (Columbia) ETHEL A. KOSSMAN, A.B. (Barn.^rd) JEAN WICK, A.B. (Barnard) PRESS EDITORS GRACE F. CALDWELL, A.B. (Minnesota) A.M. (California) (Until January, 1921) CHRISTINE CATREVAS, A.B. (Mt. Holyoke) ART EDITOR OTTO KURTH INDEXERS AND REFERENCERS ' MARJORIE FISHER (N. Y. Public Libr.\ry School) GRACE K. HAVILAND (Chicago University) KATHERINE KELJ.OGG, A.B. (California), (California State Library School) DORIS LITTMAN, A.B. (Western Reserve) . ROSE LOWENSOHN FRANCES MORTON, A.B. (Nebrask.\), (Iowa University Library Training) Note: It will be understood that in buildinc a work with the quoted words of the be.st authorities, it was a prerequisite that, in addition to other special qualifications, each member of the editorial organization should have specialized in the field of history and historical literature — the broadest interpretation being given to the term history. We gi\'e the full list of names, with selections from available data as to some, though all have taught, written or lectured on, or devoted years of study to. history, civics, government, economics, etc. etc. Each of the inde.xers had extended experience in library work also. See Publishers' Foreword and Edi- tors' Preface. The Publishers. VI PUBLISHERS' FOREWORD With confident expectation of a well-nigh universal welcome and approval, we are pleased to introduce THE NEW EARNED HISTORY FOR READY REFERENCE, READING AND RESEARCH. THE NEW EARNED HISTORY, as it will be familiarly called, is the culmination of long-cherished hopes and plans. For several years there has been an increasing demand from thousands of owners and users of the older Earned work, and others, for the later historical material — later, ir respect to modern scholarship, as well as chronology — not found in our publication or any other. And, in consequence, soon after the outbreak of the World War, we determined to meet the need in the most adequate way. First of all, and as a proper service to former patrons, a painstaking expert examination of the existing work was made to determine the practicability of adding a third "recent-history," sup- plemental volume. As the War continued, however, it became apparent that "recent history" was rapidly attaining such proportions that it would not be possible to present it in a single volume. Moreover, we were convinced that a mere supplemental volume, or volumes, bringing the work up to dale chronologically, would only partially solve the problem. There would still be lacking the indispensable neu^ historical knowledge needed to correct, amend, and supplement certain portions of the old Earned text. And, furthermore, we realized that a set with three supplemental volumes would involve four indexes to be con- sulted and would therefore not be in accord with the Earned ideal of "ready reference." Our conclusion therefore was that only through a complete revision and large extension of the old work, could we provide, for the benefit of old and new patrons, the following substantial additions and improvements: 1. Elimination of material which, though previously accepted as authorita- tive, had, as a result of modern research and interpretation, become obsolete, valueless and, in some cases, even harmful. 2. Addition of an important array of newly available and indispensable ma- terial of distinct value in portraying certain events and movements of history treated in the old work. 3. Inclusion of the most reliable records and descriptions of events and move- ments since 1910 — a period that may hereafter be considered the most important in all time. 4. Organization of, and welding together into one harmonious whole, all this world-history, by application of Larned's unique and unexcelled alpha- betical-chronological system of arrangement, with interwoven index, references and cross-references, citations, bibliographies, etc. [For fuller explanation of system, see page xxi.) 5. Illumination of the text by authentic and artistic Olustrations, charts, maps, etc. THE NEW EARNED HISTORY was begun in August, 1916, and besides the above named important objects, it was decided to increase still further the usefulness and value of the work by (a) Broadening its scope, through an interpretation of History as embracing practically everything that has affected the life of mankind since time began. {b) Adding thousands of new entries, for the purpose of defining historical words and terms and of locating places and people, historicaUy (not to provide substitutes for dictionaries, gazeteers, biographies). (c) Largely increasing the number of historical and other maps. (d) Providing frontispieces in color and numerous inserts in duotone, to illus- trate scenes, things and persons of distinct historical importance and interest. Further explanation of the reasons for, and scope of, the revision will be found in the Editors' preface. vii PUBLISHERS' FOREWORD To accomplish all these objects required historical, bibliographical, editorial and other knowledge and skill of a high order, and we sought the advice of some of the leading historical scholars and librarians before choosing our Editor-in-chief and his associates. We were contident that those selected possessed the necessary special qualifications and felt that we were fortunate in securing the advantages of the varied points of view of trained students and teachers of history in university, college and school, the experienced librarian, and the publicist. And, with the purpose of achieving results as nearly perfect as humanlv possible, we devised an elaborate system of research, compilation, critical reading, and review by each editor of all manuscripts, with amplification, modification or change in accord with the final concensus of editorial opinion. These processes, and the indexing, cross-referencing, proof-reading and arranging of bibliographies were entrusted to individuals who were well qualified by education and experience and who also enjoyed our own special training. We are pleased to record on page v the names of these valued coadjutors. The entire undertaking necessarily rested upon the cooperation of authors and pub- lishers, for we could not quote from their copyrighted works without permisson and did not purpose, without acquiescence, even to make extracts from books not so protected. The "golden rule" of observing all the rights of those concerned has been consistently obeyecf; we have been allowed to draw from a "golden fountain" of historical literature and' we value among our most prized possessions the hundreds of letters most generously and cor- dially granting us the desired permissions. These permissions are quite exceptional and We are confident the owners and users of THE NEW LARNED HISTORY will be fully ap^- preciative and will join us in grateful acknowledgment of the great service thus rendered by our brother publishers and authors of the English-speaking world and elsewhere. More detailed acknowledgments will be found on page xiii. Perhaps it is needless to say that our procedure in this respect has been in strict accord with the Earned practice, as stated in the preface to the original edition, written by Earned himself, from which we quote as follows: — "But the extensive borrowing which the work represents has not been done in an unlicensed way. I have felt warranted, by common custom, in using moderate extracts without permit. But for everything beyond these, in my selections from books now in print and on sale, whether under copyright or deprived of copyright, I have sought the consent of those, authors or publishers, or both, to whom the right of consent or denial appears to belong. . . . The authors of books have other rights beyond their rights of property, to which respect has been paid. No liberties have been taken with the text of their writings. ... In the matter of difTerent spellings, it has been more difficult to preserve for each writer his own. As a rule this is done, in names, and in the divergencies between English and American orthography; but, since much of the matter quoted has been taken from American editions of English books, and since both copyists and printers have worked under the habit of American spellings, the rule may not have governed with strict consistency throughout." The dimensions of the new work considerably exceed those of its predecessor, which had 5600 pages. Roughly speaking, seventy percent of the old has been retained in the new work, which totals about 10,000 pages, approximating 12,000,000 words. Thus sixty percent of the new work comprises additional material supplied by the present editorial organization. The entire work is new mechanically. The plates are made from linotype composition. The format and type faces were'specially designed to insure readability, attractive appearance and, withal, economy. THE NEW LARNED HISTORY, to an even greater degree than the old work, offers to the casual reader the opportunity of discovering quickly and easily the established facts concerning an}' historical e\ent or movement: to the scholar it constitutes a technical guide, providing him at once with the conclusions of the most eminent historians, and an indication as to where further information ma)' be obtained. In addition to its encyclopedic and bibliographical uses the work serves as a compendium of the best historical literature, since the more important historical articles are not, as in the case of some historical dictionaries and encyclopedias, the work of so-called hack writers, but are composed of careful selections from the writings of the world's leading historians. They include some of the finest passages from Herodotus, Froissart, Machiavelli, Voltaire, Gibbon, JNIacaulay, Ranke, Treitschke, Stubbs, Renan, Lavisse, Aulard, Ferrero, Breasted, Parkman, Rhodes, and a host of other famous writers. The student will thus find in the revised Earned work, not merely the most authoritative statement of facts, but also unlimited examples of the best historical writing. Those of us who were privileged to plan the undertaking and to observe at close range the labors of the Editors and their assistants, can testify to the difficulties of the task. It demanded broad vision and the most delicate sense of proportion. The high degree of suc- viii PUBLISHERS' FOREWORD cess achieved by the earlier edition, while it supplied a stimulus, did not remove the necessity of gathering a vast collection of new material, some of it to describe the events of the past three decades, much to supplant material in the unrevised edition which might fairly be regarded as out of date. There was necessary the meticulous weighing of the merits of different accounts of the same subject; a close acquaintance with the sources and materials of history in all generations, and the scrupulous investigation of the most recent and most authoritative output of historical literature. Finally, it required a sense of imagination, unusually acute, which would enable the Editors to place themselves in the positions of people in various walks of life so as to visualize the sort of information these people were likely to seek. Only thus, indeed, could the work possibly justify itself and supply the incomparable Lamed service to all who would apply to it for aid. The extent to which those demands have been met and the success with which the accompanying difficulties have been overcome will be demonstrated in the actual experience of those who use the work, and theirs will be the final words of appreciation. As constant observers and critics, we confidently promise that THE NEW EARNED HISTORY will be for this generation what the "Old Earned" was for the past — than which there can be no higher praise.. The familiarity with history, histories and historians, resulting from use of these volumes, should prove a constant stimulus to the acquisition and reading of some of the older standard books and many of the worth)' new books as they are published. In this connection our carefully prepared bibliographies and lists of books, selections from which have been made, will prove a valuable guide, especially when supplemented by our established "Editorial Service" which may be freely called upon at all times. Finally, it is our earnest hope and expectation, as publishers for more than seventy years and as producers of the former editions and supplemental volumes of the Earned work, that the further knowledge and understanding of world-history made available in THE NEW EARNED HISTORY FOR READY REFERENCE, READING AND RESEARCH will constitute a genuine public service and contribute appreciably towards the raising of the standard of citizenship and government in our own country and elsewhere. For, as Burke said: "In History a great volume is unrolled for our instruction, drawing the materials of future wisdom from the past errors and infirmities of mankind." And, when mortals thus turn their errors into stepping stones leading to the Divine Way of Life, they will share what Cervantes evidently visioned when he wrote: "History is like sacred writing because Truth is essential to it, and where Truth is, there God himself is." C. A. NICHOLS PUBLISHING COMPANY F. C. H. Gibbons, Managing Director. IX EDITORS' PREFACE The problem of writing a history of the world which will be at once fully satisfactory to scholars and to the general reader has never been fully solved. Nevertheless, the initial publication of LARNED'S HISTORY FOR READY REFERENCE was undoubtedly the nearest approach to a solution. For nearly thirty years, that work has held a detinitely marked position in the field of historical studies and has been the standard work of historical reference for both casual student and professional scholar. It was the purpose of the author to present a coherent narrative of thehistory of mankind which would be not merely authentic, instructive and interesting, but would also permit the reader to have actually before him, the words of the great masters of historical writing. Perhaps we can do no better than to state the aims of Earned, in his own words, quoted from the preface to the original edition: 'This work has two aims: to represent and exhibit the better Literature of Historj' in the Enghsh language, and to give it an organized body — a system - — adapted to the greatest convenience in any use, whether for reference, or for reading, for teacher, student, or casual inquirer. The entire contents of the work, with slight exceptions readily distinguished, have been carefully culled from some thousands of books, — embracing the whole range (in the English language) of standard historical writing, both general and special: the bi- ography, the institutional and constitutional studies, the social investigations, the archaeo- logical researches, the ecclesiastical and religious discussions, and all other important tribu- taries to the great and swelling main stream of historical knowledge. It has been culled as one might pick choice fruits, careful to choose the perfect and the ripe, where such are found, and careful to keep their flavor unimpaired. The flavor of the Literature of History, in its best examples, and the ripe quality of its latest and best thought, are faith- fully preserved in what aims to be the garner of a fair selection from its fruits. History as written by those, on one hand, who have depicted its scenes most vividly,' and by those, on the other hand, who have searched its facts, weighed its evidences, and pondered its meanings most critically and deeply, is given in their own words. If com- moner narratives are sometimes quoted, their use enters but slightly into the construction of the work. The whole matter is presented under an arrangement which imparts distinctness to its topics, while showing them in their sequence and in aU their large relations, both national and international. For every subject, a history more complete, I think, in the broad meaning of 'History,' is supplied by this mode than could possibly be produced on the plan of dry synopsis which is common to encyclopedic works. It holds the charm and interest of many styles of excellence in writing, and it is read in a clear light which shines directly from the pens that have made History luminous by their interpretations." That Earned achieved his purpose has been abundantly attested by the most exacting critics of all shades of opinion, and of the most diverse points of view. However, as has been so truly said, "Each generation must write its own history," and the time came to acknowledge the need of thorough revision. During the past thirty years historical scholars have been active as never before, in both research and interpretation. Much that our fathers knew is now recognized to be not in accord with the historical record, or of doubtful value. New light has been thrown on the events of the past; conclusions which had to be couched in tentative form may now be stated definitely, while other conclusions must be revised. The whole horizon of historical knowledge has been widened, while the general progress of science has given new significance to what was formerly thought unimportant or irrelevant. History, whether it be a science or an art, or something of both, is never static; it must always be regarded in the light of the present, and the present is always changing. Moreover, as the point of view of the generation has changed, the term "History" has broadened in its connotation. It is no longer merely what Professor Freeman called "past politics," but now embraces an infinite variety of subjects — literary, economic, social and scientific in character. A general work of historical reference must now include fully elaborated articles on such topics as education, chemistry, money and banking, philology and archaeology, which formerly would not have appeared to be within its scope. Finally, and if for no other reason, the need for revision would have been occasioned by the speed with which actual history has been made since the appearance of the former editions of the EDITORS' PREFACE Lamed work. In a sense, every age is one of transition, but the one in which we have been living seems to have been fraught with events of the utmost importance as affecting the progress of human civilization. Historical scholarship cannot refuse to deal with this most difiScult recent period, merely because of the difficulties arising from the lack of a proper historical perspective. The rapid development of applied science, the changing character of industrial organization, the internationalization of trade, the crises in international politics which culminated in the World War, and its aftermath; all these historical facts are of such weight and complexity that the student may justly demand an adequate guide to their comprehension. Furthermore, it has been recognized that in the writing of history methods change. Even where sources of information were open to the older historians, they often, because obsessed by political and diplomatic history, disregarded what now appear to be facts of fundamental importance. This was already recognized by the generation to which Lamed belonged, yet even he, in practice, encountered well-nigh insuperable obstacles in setting forth in orderly narrative the proper blending of these subjects with the social and economic facts of human existence. Larned recognized the need of a more adequate treatment of non-political history and met the difficulty by the creation of separate articles dealing with commerce, tariff-legislation, railroads and the like. In the present edition an even greater emphasis has been placed upon the facts of our industrial life. Such articles in the original work have been much enlarged, while many new articles, such as the industrial revolution, have been added. Likewise the former editions have been enriched by many new or fuller articles on subjects vital to the history of civilization such as architecture, sculpture, paint- ing, costume, drama, science, literature and religion. Popular interest in the best sense has also been aroused concerning many countries and parts of the earth which were regarded, only a quarter a century ago, as of interest only to specialists. The history of Latin America now subtends a much larger angle of the world's intellectual interest than in the nineteenth century. Questions relating to Africa and the Far East have taken on in recent years a new importance, while all phases of international relationships have come to occupy the foreground of our thought. All this has been taken into consideration in the preparation of the new work and constitutes, if not a departure from, at least a further development of the original Larned idea. The same is true of the two principal auxiliaries of history, namely, geography and political science or government to which extended treatment has been given. The necessity of knowing the location of historic places has led to the introduction of what may be termed a gazetteer feature, by which cities and places mentioned in the regular narrative are entered in their proper alphabetical place and their location briefly indicated, with necessary cross-references. In order to afford a quick and easy way of visualizing these places, the changes in boundaries and many other facts, a large number of specially prepared historical maps has been provided. These maps, if bound together, would constitute a complete historical atlas, such as is now used in our principal universities and colleges. Also, the claims of geography are met by the use of actual geographical description where, as so often is the case, a knowledge of the terrain and of the physical environment is essential to the understanding of history. The amplification of the material dealing with government or civics, in contradistinction to politics and political history, is likewise in response to a pressing need. Problems of municipal government and suffrage are not matters of mere abstract political theory, and they, and many cognate subjects, are treated as most important parts of the life of mankind. In order to understand better the broad political structure of a nation, the constitution of that nation is placed immediately with the article, and usually accompanied by explanations which will render it intelligible to the general reader. More than a rearrangement or a simple expansion of material in the former editions, is the use of illustrations. Often a picture can convey to the mind more than pages of descrip- tion. The hundreds of illustrations which are introduced into the new edition are intended primarily to be a part of the exposition of human development rather than ornamentation, and constitute, together with the maps and plans, a powerful visual help to the compre- hension of the drama of human progress. The two concluding volumes of the work are taken up principally with the history of the World War. It will of course be many years before all the evidence is in and the verdict of history rendered on all the extremely complex issues raised by this struggle. But in the meantime, we can know a great deal, and the most intense human interest must attach to that knowledge. The editors and publishers have spared no effort to bring together, after a most careful sifting and winnowing, a complete, authoritative, and impartial treatment of xi EDITORS' PREFACE the war, in all its phases, and with due regard to every point of view. The diplomacy, national policies, strategy and tactics, economics, international law, devastation and relief, and various other aspects of the great conflict of nations and interests, are set forth with informing amplicity and fidelity to truth. It is a well-known fact that the orthodox historians do not like to deal with these most recent events, which thev are tempted to call "present politics' or "historv in the making." In the presence of this difficulty, the compilers of THE NEW LARNEI) HISTORY are forced to draw more heavily upon documents, or the primary material for history, than for the periods in the more remote past. So far as practicable the material used for the history of these later years is taken from ofiicial sources; that is from statements of fact that are made with official responsibility, in despatches, reports, diplomatic correspondence and other state papers published with governmental sanction. Important documents connected with greater events of the times, such as treaties, international agreements, new national constitutions and legislative acts are given generally in full from officially printed texts. The aim has thus been to prepare for students and inquirers a compilation of recent history as nearly authentic in its sources as can be gathered thus immediately after the events, and to organize it for "ready reference" in the form that has had approval in the older work. The editors would be sadly remiss if they did not acknowledge their deep and constant obligations to the publishers and to the editorial office staff for their unwearied cooperation in carrying through the work to successful completion. Thanks are also due to the authori- ties of the New York Public Library and its Hamilton Grange branch for their kind coopera- tion in meeting our somewhat unusual demands upon their facilities; to the Russell Sage Foundation for the generous placing of its library resources at our service, and to the City Library Association of Springfield, Massachusetts, for help on bibliographical questions. DONALD E. SMITH CIL\RLES SEYMOUR DANIEL C. KNOWLTON AUGUSTUS H. SHEARER Xll ACKNOWLEDGMENTS In the Publishers' Foreword we have acknowledged in general terms the courtesy and liberality of authors and publishers, by whose permission we have used much of the matter quoted in this work. Follow- ing the example of the original editor. J. N. Larned, we wish now to make the acknowledgment more specific, by naming those persons and publishing houses whose cooperation has been so large a factor in maintaining the authorit.\- of the work, as well as its timeliness. Since many of the names in the original list are those of persons and firms no longer existent, we have thought it proper to retain that list with its original classifica- tions, as a separate item, omitting only the few whose contributions have been deleted, because later discov- eries, or later and more authentic information, have provided better material in replacement. The old list will be followed by a list of those authors and publishers who have contributed to the revision, and though some dupUcate names will be found in both, the fact may be easily accounted for. The two lists suggest two significant points of comparison, namely, the greater number of authors' names in the older list, and the noticeable increase in the American publishers' names in the present list. With regard to the first, we may say that most of the writers quoted in the revised portions of the old work and the addi- tions thereto, have authorized their publishers to represent them. And we may add that, although in some cases conditions have been imposed, neither from authors nor pubUshers have we met with refusal. With regard to the second point, it may be said to be an indication of the growth in historical scholarship and in publishing enterprise in this country. And, finally, with our acknowledgment, it is a very great pleasure to mention the helpful goodwill of rep- resentatives in America of English houses, which in not a few instances has strengthened the understanding and cooperation of such firms. The evidences of an Anglo-American community of interest, high purpose, and fraternal spirit, are also extremely gratifying. THE ORIGINAL LIST Evelyn Abbott, M.A.; President Charles Kendall Adams; Trof. Herbert B. Adams; Prof. Joseph H. Allen; Sir William Anson, Bart.; Rev. Henry M. Baird; Mr. Hubert Howe Bancroft; Hon. S. G. W. Benjamin; Sir Walter Besant; Prof. Albert S. Belles; John G. Bourinot, F..S S.; Henry Bradley, M.A.; Rev. James Franck Bright, D.D.; Daniel G. Brinton, M.D.; Prof. William Hand Browne; Prof. George Bryce; Rt. Hon. James Bryce, M.P.; Prof. J. B. Bury; Mr. Lucien Carr; Gen. Henry B. Carrington; Mr. John D. Champlin, Jr.; Mr. Charles Carleton Coffin; Hon. Thomas M. Cooley; Prof. Henry Coppee; Rev. Sir George W. Cox, Bart.; Gen. Jacob Dolson Cox; Mrs. Cox (for "Three Dec- ades of Federal Legislation." by the late Hon. Samuel S. Cox); Prof. Thomas F. Crane; Rt. Rev. Mandell Creighton, Bishop of Peterborough; Hon. J. L. M. Curry; Hon. George Ticknor Curtis; Prof. Robert K. Douglas; J. A. Doyle, M.A.; Mr. Samuel Adams Drake; Sir Mountstuart E. Grant-Duff ; Hon. Sir Charles Gavan Duffy ; Mr. Charles Henry Eden; Mr. Henry Sutherland Edwards; Orrin LesUe Elliott, Ph.D.: Mr. Loyall Farragut ; The Ven. Frederic William Farrar, Archdeacon of Westminster; Prof. George Park Fisher; Prof. John Fiske; Mr. Wm. E. Foster; William Warde Fowler, M.A.; Prof. Edward A. Freeman; Prof. James Anthony Froude: Mr. James Gairdner; Arthur Gilman, M..'\.; Mr. Parke Godwin; Rev. .Sabine Baring-Gould; Mr. Ulysses S. Grant. Jr. (for the "Personal Memoirs" of the late Gen. Grant); Mrs. John Richard Green (for her own writings and for those of the late John Richard CJreen); William Gres- well, M.B.; Maj. Arthur Griffiths; Frederic Harrison, M..'\.; Prof. Albert Bushnell Hart; Mr. William Heaton; Col. Thomas Wentworth Higginson; Prof. B. A. Hinsdale; Miss Margaret L. Hooper (for the writings of the late Mr. George Hooper); Rev. Robert F. Horton; Prof. James K. Hosmer; Col. Henry M. Hozier; Rev. William Hunt; Sir William Wilson Hunter; Mr. Rossiter Johnson; Mr. John Foster Kirk; The Ver>- Rev. George William Kitchin, Dean of Win- chester; Col. Thos. W. Knox; Mr. J. S. Landon; Hon. Emily Lawless; William E. H. Lecky. LL.D., D.C.L.; Mrs. Margaret Levi (for the "History of British Commerce," by the late Dr. Leone Levi); Prof. Charlton T. Lewis'; The Very Rev. Henry George Liddell, Dean of Christ Church, Oxford; Hon. Henry Cabot Lodge; Prof. Richard Lodge; Rev. W. J. Loftie; Mrs. Mary S. Long (for the "Life of General Robert E. r,ee," by the late Gen. A. L. Long); Mrs! Helen Lossing (for the writings of the late Benson J. Lossing); Charles Lowe, M.A.; Charles P. Lucas, B.A"; Justin McCarthy, M.P.; Prof. John Bach McMaster; Hon. Edward Mcl'herson; Prof. John P. Mahaify; Capt. Alfred T. Mahan. U.S.N. ; Col. George B. Malleson; Sir Clements R. Markham, F.R.S.; The Very Rev. Charles Merivale, Dean of Ely; Prof. John Henry Middleton; Mr. J. G. Cotton Minchin; Willi ,m R. MorfiU, M.A.; Rt. Hon. John Morley, M.P.; Mr. John T. Morse, Jr.; Sir William Muir; Mr. Harold Murdock; Rev. Arthur Howard Noll; Miss Kate Norgate; C. W. C. Oman, M.A.; Mr. John C. Palfrey (for "History of New England," by the late John Gor- ham Palfrey); Francis Parkman, LL.D.; Edward James Payne. M.A.; Charles Henry Pearson, M.A.; Mr. James Breck Perkins; Mrs. Mary E. Phelan (for the "History of Tennessee," by the late James Phelan); Col. George E. Pond; Reginald L. Poole, Ph.D.; Mr. Stanley Lane-Poole; William F. Poole, LL.D.; Maj. John W. Powell; Mr. John w! Probyn; Prof. John Clark Ridpath; Hon. Ellis H. Roberts; Hon. Theodore Roosevelt; Mr. John Codman Ropes; J. H. Rose, M. A.; I^rof. Josiah Royce; Rev. PhiHp Schaff; Jiunes Schouler, LL.D.; Hon. Carl Schurz; Mr. Eben Green- ough Scott; Sir J. R. Seeley; Prof. Nathaniel Southgate Shaler; Mr. Edward Morse Shepard; Col. M. V. Sheridan (for the "Personal Memoirs" of the late Gen. Sheridan); Mr. P. T. Sherman (for the "Memoirs" of the late Gen. Sher- xiii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS man); Samuel Smiles, LL.D.; Prof. Goldwin Smith; Prof. James Russell Soley; Mr. Edward Stanwood; Leslie Stephen, M.A.; Prof. H. Morse Stephens: Mr. Simon Sterne; Charles J. Stills, LL.D.; Sir John Strachey; Rt. Rev. William Stubbs, Bishop of Oxford; Prof. William draham Sumner; Prof. Frank William Taussig; Mr. William Roscoe Thayer; Prof. Robert H. Thurston; Mr. Telemachus T. Timayenis; Henry D. Traill, D.C.L.; Gen. R. de Trobriand; Mr. Bayard Tuckerman; Samuel Epes Turner, Ph.D.; Prof. Herbert Tuttle; Prof. Arminius Vambery; Mr. Henri Van Laun; Gen. Francis A. Walker; Sir D. Mackenzie Wallace; Spencer Walpole, LL.D.; Mr. J. Talboys Wheeler; Mr. Arthur Silva White; Sir Monier Monier-Williams; Justin Winsor, LL.D.; Rev. Frederick C. Woodhouse; John Yeats, LL.D.; Miss Charlotte M. Yonge. PUBLISHERS London: Messrs. W. H. Allen & Co.; Asher&Co.; George Bell & Sons; Richard Bentley & Son; Bickers & Sons; A. &C. Black; Cassell & Co.; Chapman & Hall; Chatto & Windus; Thos. De La Rue & Co.; H. Grevel & Co.; Grif- fith, Farran & Co.; W. Heinemann; Hodder & Stoughton; Longmans, Green & Co.; Sampson I.,ow, Marston & Co.; Macmillan & Co.; Methuen & Co.; John Murray; John C. Nimmo; Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co.; George Philip & Son; The Religious Tract Society ; Routledge & Sons; Seeley & Co.; Smith, Elder & Co.; Society for the Pro- motion of Christian Knowledge; Edward Stanford; Stevens & Haynes; Henry Stevens & Son; Elliot Stock; Swan Sonnenschein & Co.; The Times; T. Fisher Unwin; Ward, Lock, Bowden & Co.; Frederick Warne & Co.; Williams & Norgate. New York: Messrs. D. Appleton & Co.; Armstrong & Co.; A. S. Barnes & Co.; The Century Co.; T. Y. Crowell & Co.; Derby & Miller; Dodd, Mead & Co.; Harper & Brothers; Henry Holt & Co.; Townsend MacCoun; G. P. Putnam's Sons; Anson D. F. Randolph & Co.; D. J. Sadler & Co.; Charles Scribner's Sons; Charles L. Webster & Co. Edinburgh: Messrs. William Blackwood & Sons; W. & R. Chambers; David Douglas; Thomas Nelson & Sons; W. P. Nimmo. Philadelphia: Messrs. L. H. Everts & Co.; J. B. Lippincott Company; Porter & Coates. Boston: Messrs. Est es & Lauriat; Houghton, Mifflin & Co.; Little, Brown & Co.; D. Lothrop Company; Roberts Brothers. Dublin: Messrs. James Dufly & Co.; Hodges, Figgis & Co. Chicago: Messrs. Callaghan & Co.; A. C. McClurg & Co. Ciruinnati: Messrs. Robert Clarke & Co. Hartford, Conn.: Messrs. O. D. Case & Co.; S. S. Scranton & Co. Albany: Messrs. Joel Munsell's Sons. Cambridge, Eng.: The University Press. Norwich, Conn.: The Henry Bill Publishing Co. Oxford: The Clarendon Press. Providence, R. I.: Messrs. J. A. & R. A. Reid. THE ADDITIONAL LIST AUTHORS C. L. G. Anderson, M.D.; William Archer; Rev. James Baikie, F.R.A.S.; William D. Boyce; Robert Bruce; Mary Agnes Burton; Philip Cabot; George Agnew Chamberlain: Robert S. Cotterill; Dr. Dunshee de Abranches; Edward R. Dyer, D.D.; Logan Esary; John A. Fairlie, A.M., Ph.D.; Arthur T. Hadley, LL.D., Ph.D.; Lynn Haines; W. Haydon; G. K. Kaye; Helen E. Keep; Hon. Samuel W. McCall; Major Haldane Macfall; Sir Malcolm Mcllwraith, K.C.M.G.; J. A. R. Marriott, M.A.; David Hunter Miller, LL.M.; Floyd W. Parsons; Elia W. Peattie; M. M. Quaife, A.M., Ph.D.; James Harvey Robinson, A.M., Ph.D.; John Horace Round, M.A.; Robert Scott; Frank M. Sparks; D. J. Sweeney; William Jewett Tucker, D.D., LL.D.; Wilfred Mark Webb, F.L.S., F.R.M.S. PUBLISHERS Foreign: Messrs. W. H. Allen & Co., Ltd.; George Allen & Unwin, Ltd.; Balliere. Tindall & Cox; B. T. Batsford, Ltd.; G. Bell & Sons, Ltd.; A. and C. Black, Ltd.; Blackie & Son, Ltd.; The British Museum; James Brown & Son (The Nautical Press); Burns, Oates & Washbourne, Ltd.; Cambridge Antiquarian Society; Cassell & Co., Ltd.; Honors Champion; Chapman & Hall, Ltd.; Chatto & Windus; Clarendon Press; Wm. Collins Sons & Co., Ltd.; Commercial Press, Ltd.; Constable & Co.; The Contemporary Review; Cornish Brothers, Ltd.; J. M. Dent & Sons, Ltd.; Duck- worth & Co.; The Fortnightly Review; Alexander Gardner; The Hakluyt Society; George C. Harrap & Co., Ltd.; Harrison & Sons, Ltd.; Wm. Heinemann; His Majesty's .Stationery Office; Hodder & Stoughton; The Institute of Ja- maica; T. C. & E. C. Jack; P. S. King. & Son, Ltd.; T. Werner Laurie, Ltd.; The London Times; Luzac & Co.; Mac- Lehose, Jackson & Co.; Maunsel & Roberts, Ltd.; The Medici Society; .Andrew Melrose, Ltd.; Methuen & Co., Ltd.; John Murray; Thomas Nelson & Sons; Oxford University Press; Leonard Parsons, Ltd.; Keegan Paul Trench; George Philip & Son, Ltd.; Isaac Pitman & Sons; Probsthain & Co.; The Round Table; George Routledge & Sons, Ltd.; Samp- son Low, Marston & Co., Ltd.; Sands & Co.; Seeley, Service & Co., Ltd.; Sidgwick & Jackson, Ltd.; Simpkin, Mar- shall Hamilton, Kent & Co., Ltd.; Skeffington & Son, Ltd.; The Specialty Press; Edward Stanford, Ltd.; W. Thacker & Co.; T. Fisher Unwin; Watts & Co.; Wells, Gardner, Darton & Co., Ltd.; Williams & Norgate. American: Messrs. Abingdon Press; Academy of Political Science in the City of New York; Aeronautical Chamber of Comme.rce; Ally n & Bacon; H. Altemus Co. ; American Academy of Political and Social Science; .'Vmerican AssociatioD for International Conciliation; American Book Co.; The American City; American Civil Liberties Union; American Geographical Society; American Historical Review; American Humane Association; American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology; American Issue Publishing Co.; American Museum of Natural History; American Peace So- ciety; American Philosophical Society; American Political Science Review; American Review of Reviews; American Social Hygiene Association; American Society of International Law; American Tract Society; The W. H. Anderson Co.; The Anti-Saloon League of .\merica; Benjamin S. Appelstein, City Librarian, Baltimore (for the Baltimore Book); D. Appleton & Co.; Arkansas Historical Association; Art and Archaeology; Asia Publishing Co.; The Atlantic Monthly; Richard G. Badger; Edwin Swift Balch; Bankers Trust Co.; Banks & Co.; Banks Law Publishing Co.; G. Banta Pub- lishing Co.; The A. S. Barnes Co.; George Barrie's Sons; Matthew Bender & Co.; Edward Lyman Bill, Inc.; Bobbs- Merrill Co.; Boni & Liveright; Boston City Planning Board; R. R. Bowker Co.; The Bradley -Garretson Co., Ltd.; xiv Acknowledgments Brentano's; Nicholas L. Brown; The Burrows Brothers Co.; Callaghan & Co.; Canadian Official Publications; The Canadian Annual Review of Public Affairs; Carnegie Endowment for International Peace; Central Law Journal Co.; The Century Co.; The Century History Co.; Chamber of Commerce of the State ol New York; Charity Organization Society of the City of New York; The Christian Herald; The Christian Science Monitor; Citizens' Union of the City of New York; The Arthur H. Clark Co.; Columbia University Press: The Co-operative League of America; Crane & Co.; Thomas Y. Crowell Co.; Detroit Board of Commerce; Detroit Bureau of Governmental Research; Philip R. Dillon Publishing Co.; Dodd, Mead & Co.; Dodge Publishing Co.; M. A. Donohue & Co.; George H. Doran Co.; Double- day, Page & Co.; Dutton & Co.; The Elm Tree Press; Foreign Missions Conference of North America; Ginn & Co.; Glasgow, Brook & Co.; The Goodhue Co.; The H. W. Gray Co.; E. P. Greer; Harper & Brothers; Harvard Univer- sity Press; D. C. Heath & Co.; Norman W. Henley Publishing Co.; B. Herder Book Co.; Hinds, Hayden & Eldredge, Inc.; Historical Department of Iowa; Henry Holt & Co.; The Home Market Club; Houghton Mifflin Co.; B. W. Huebsch, Inc.; Illinois State Historical Library; The Independent; Industrial Management; International Journal of Ethics; International Trade Press; George W. Jacobs & Co.; Johns Hopkins Press; Journal of Education; Journal of Geography: Journal of International Relations; Joseph A. Judd Publishing Co.; P. J. Kenedy & Sons; Mitchell Ken- nerley; Charles H. Kerr & Co.; Alfred A. Knopf, Inc.; Korean National Association of America; John Lane Co.; La Salle E.xtension University; Lawyers' Cooperative Publishing Co.; Lewis Historical Publishing Co.; A. A. Lindsay Pub- lishing Co.; J. B. Lippincott Co.; Little Brown & Co.; The Living Age Co.; Longmans, Green & Co.; John W. Luce & Co.; Robert M. McBride & Co.; A. C. McClurg Co.; Thomas F. McGrath; The Macmillan Co.; A. M. Marton; Charles E- Merrill Co.; Methodist Book Concern; Methodist Episcopal Church, South, Publishing House of; Missis- sippi Historical Society; Moffat, Yard & Co.; Barry Mohun; Munn & Co. (The Scientific American); Munson Press Co.; Mnseum of Fine Arts (Boston); The Nation Press; National Housing Association; National Industrial Confer- ence Board; National Municipal League: Neale Publishing Co.; Nebraska State Historical Society; Thomas Nelson & Sons; The New Republic; New York Times Co.; Open Court Publishing Co.; The Outlook Co. ; The Page Co.; Paine Publishing Co.; Pan American Union; Park Institute of America; Pennsylvania Prison Society; The Philadelphia Museums; Le Roy Phillips; The Pilgrim Press; The Prang Co.; Princeton University Press; Protestant Episcopal Church, Educational Division, Department of Missions; G. P. Putnam's Sons; Rand McNally & Co.; Fleming H. Revell Co.; J. D. Rockefeller, Jr.; Rudder Publishing Co.; Russell Sage Foundation; G. Schirmer. Inc.; The Schulte Press; Scott, Foresman'& Co.; The A. A. Scranton Co.; Charles Scribner's Sons; Silver Burdett & Co.; Simmons- Boardman Publishing Co.; Small Maynard & Co.; United States National Museum; The State Co.; State Historical Society of Iowa; State Historical Society of Wisconsin; F, C. Stechert Co. Inc.; Stewart & Kidd Co.; Frederick A. Stokes Co.; Student Volunteer Movement for Foreign Missions; George Sully & Co.; The Survey Associates Inc.; Mrs. Charles F. Taylor (lor The Equity Series); The Torch Press; The Truth Seeker Co.; The Tuttle Morehouse & Taylor Co.; United States Government; United States Publishers Association; United Typothetae of America; Uni- versity of California; University of Chicago; University of Missouri; University of Southern California; D. Van Nos- trand Co.; James T. White & Co.; Williams & Wilkins Co.; The H. W. Wilson Co.; The John C. Winston Co.; Women's International League for Peace and Freedom; World Book Co.; World Peace Foundation; Yale Law Journal; Yale University Press. A full list of books quoted from will be found in the final volume. The Ust will include authors' and publishers' names. XV LTST OF MAPS IN VOLUME I 1. AFRICA, iqi4, political See Africa 2. AFRICA, mocleni railroad lines See Africa 3. AFRICA, political (colored) See Africa [Editor's Note: This map of the Dark Continent now has more definite and accurately determined frontiers than that of Asia, and it is possible to show the actual political subdivisions as they now stand. It will be noted that Abyssinia and Liberia arc the only remaining indejjendent states, and that all the rest of the continent has passed under the sovereignty or political control of the various European powers. However, the World War brought about several interesting changes in the i^olitical map of the continent. Togoland and the Kamerun (Cameroon) were di\'ided between France and England, the former country securing the greater part of both the former German colonies, German Southwest Africa was given to the Union of South Africa and German East Africa, renamed Tangamdka Territor\', to Great Britain. Tanganyika Territor.v, however, is not exactly coterminous with the former German East Africa because a district in the northwestern part was entrusted to Belgium. All these transfers of territory were made under the new system of mandates under the League of Nations. The reader shoidd also notice that the new name Kenya Territon,- is now ofhcially applied to the former British East African protectorate. The recent railroad development in .Africa and particularly the Cape to Cairo railway will be found on a special black and white map (see number 2 above).] 4. ALASKA, political (colored) • See Alaska 5. AMERICA, voyages of discover}', 1492-1611 (colored) See America [Editor's Note: A map drawn on the Mercator projection listing the voyages of discovery and exploration from 1492 to i6ii. The voyage of Magellan is omitted because it was only of incidental im- portance to America proper. In most cases routes as laid down are, in the nature of the case, only of approximate accuracy. The historical importance of the map is twofold. In the first place it reveals the progress of geographical knowledge of the western hemisphere as successive voyages of e.xploration changed the preconceived notions of Europe regarding the New World. In the second place, since dis- covery and exploration were generally acknowledged to be a proper basis for a claim to possession of ter- ritory under international law, this map reveals in a general way how the early partition of America among the European powers was effected. Particular attention is called to the voyage of Cabral, the Portuguese na\igator, whose accidental encountering of the eastern coast of South .\merica on his voyage to India by way of the (^ape of Good Hope, reinforced the Portuguese claim to the lands which were later known as Brazil.] 6. AMERICA, colonial grants (colored) ... A See America 7. ANTARCTIC REGIONS (colored) .'.... \ See Antarctic Explor.\tion 8. ARABIA (colored) See Arabia- [Editor's Note: No part of the world had its political geography changed more completely by the World War than Arabia. The independent Kingdom of Uejdx and the Zionist state in Palestine, under British mandate, no longer appear on the map as Turkish territory; while to the northeast the new Kingdom of Irak, with its capital at Bagdad, was organized by the British, acting as mandatory for Mesopotamia. The boundaries of Palestine and of Syria (under French mandate) were not entirely set- tled by the early part of 1922.] 9. ARCTIC REGIONS (colored) . . . ' Sec Arc:tic Exploration 10. ASIA, political (colored) See Asia [Editor's Note: A map representing the political divisions of the continent in the beginning of the year 1922. Many of the frontiers which were disturbed by the World War were still purely conjectural. Those of Armenia, although decided by President Wilson when they were referred to him by the League of Nations, have ne\'er l)een put into effect because of unsettled conditions in .Asia Minor. The same is true of the froiUiers of Syria and Mesopotamia, where the new kingdom of Irak has just been cstab- xvi LIST OF MAPS IN VOLUME I lished. The latest information available regarding the boundaries of these regions will be found in the map of Arabia. Even less clear is the situation in the Far East where the status of Mongolia has yet to be decided, and the territorial extension of the new Far Eastern republic in eastern Siberia has fluc- tuated from month to month. The boundaries of the Chinese republic are, therefore, left as they were at the time of its establishment in 191 2. No attempt has been made to show the expansion of Japanese influence in Manchuria and Inner Mongolia, because it lacks a definite territorial basis. The indefinite- ness of our information regarding Persia also justifies the reproduction of the map of that country as it was in igi4. except that the Russian and British spheres of influence given on the older maps have now disappeared.] 11. EGYPTIAN, ASSYRIAN, BABYLONIAN AND MEDIAN POWERS (colored) . . . See Assyria 12. ANCIENT ATHENS (colored) See Athens 13. AUSTR.'^LIA AND NEW ZEALAND, political (colored) See Australia 14. AUSTRIA, four de\e!opment maps (colored) See Austria 15. DISTRIBUTION OF NATIONALITIES IN SOUTHEASTERN EUROPE (colored) See Balkan States [Editor's Note: This ethnographic map of Southeastern Europe reveals the tangle of races in the former Austro-Hungarian monarchy, and in the Balkan Peninsula, which goes far to explain the causes of the Balkan Wars of 1912-1Q13 and the beginning of the World War in 1914. The extraordinary com- plexit)' of the Macedonian problem, which more than anything else produced the Balkan Wars, is obvious from what the map reveals of the racial intermixture in that former Turkish pro\-ince. It is also appar- ent how strong was the argument, based upon race, which induced the Peace Conference at Paris to fix the limits of the new Kingdom of the Serbs, Cro-ts, and Slovenes, excluding Italy from the greater part of the eastern Adriatic littoral. The claim of Rumania upon Transylvania is shown by the common color.) 16. BALKAN STATES, political and physical (colored) See Balkan States [Editor's Note: The boundaries of the Balkan States and Hungarj' were laid down by the treaties of St. Germain, Neuilly, Trianon, and Sevres.' These treaties superseded the settlements made at London and Bukarest, at the end of the Balkan Wars of 1912-1913, and represent an attempt to make poHtical frontiers conform with racial and natural boundaries. The greatest difficulty was encountered in deter- mining the territorial limits of Albania and the Turkish frontier in Thrace, which are admittedly of a provisional character. The partition of jMacedonia among Bulgaria, Greece, and Serbia followed lines of nationality only approximately.] XVll ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME I COLORED FRONTISPIECE The Casa Grande, Arizona INSERTS IN DUOTONE Court of the Lions in the Alhambra, Spain See Alhambra American Explorers See America Landing of the Pilgrims See America Noted American Writers See American Literature Indian Architecture See Architecture Types of Italian Architecture See Arciiitecture Examples of Modern American Architecture See Architecture Types of Aeroplanes See Aviation Life in Ancient Athens See Athens TEXT CUTS Fountains Abbey, England See Abbey: Architectural features Plan of Fountains Abbey See Abbey; Architectural features Abyssinian Councillors in Ceremonial Robes See Abyssinia: 1907-1920 The Throne-room at Cnossus See Aegean Civilization: Cretan area Arch^ological Findings See Aegean Civilization: Minoan Age: Characteristics Jamrud Fort at Khyber Pass See Afghanistan: 1838-1842 Dr. David Livingstone See Africa: 1855 Sir Henry M. Stanley See Africa: 1873-1875 Africa in 1914, Political See Africa: 1914: European Sovereignty Modern Railroad Lines in Africa See Africa: 1914-1920 Types of Early Agricultural Implements See Agriculture: Medieval Levelling a Far Eastern Rice-field for Sowing See Agriculture: Modem Combined Reaper and Thresher, Drawn by a Tractor See Agriculture: Modern Wallis Tractor Pulling Case Disc Plow and Harrow See Agriculture; Modern Irrigation Trenches in Southern California See Agriculture: Modern Types of Totem Poles, Alaska See Alaska Group of Modern Albanians See Albania: Medieval Examples of Early Alphabets See Alphabet Road over the St. Gotthakd Pass See Alps Cliff Dwellings in Mesa Verde National Park See America: Prehistoric Landing of Columbus See America: 1492 First Map Showing American Continent See America; 1499-1500 Henry Hudson and Son Cast Adrift See America; 1609 Movement of American Expeditionary Forces to Europe . See American E.xpeditionary Forces Abandoning the Sinking "Endurance" See Antarctic Exploration: 1901-1909 Shackleton, Amundsen, and Scott See Antarctic Exploration: 1910-1913 Amundsen Taking Observations at the South Pole . . . See Antarctic Exploration; 1911-1912 Compamson of Skeletons of Vertebrates See Anthropology: Evolutionary Theories xviii ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME I Ancient Roman Aqueduct, Segovia, Spain See Aqueducts Catskill Aqueduct, New York See Aqueducts Tomb of Eve at Djeddah (Hejaz) See Arabia: Fusion of Races Emir Feisal, King of Irak See Arabia: 1918 Removing Specimens Excavated from Thebes See Archjeology Excavations at Thebes, 1918-1919 See Archaeology Excavations in Ancient Babylon . See Archseology Stonehenge See Architecture: Prehistoric Tejiple or Luxor at Thebes See Architecture: Oriental: Egypt Temple of Heaven, Forbidden City, Peking See Architecture: Oriental: China The Parthenon See Architecture: Classic: Greek The Acropolis of Athens See Architecture: Classic: Greek Excavated Street in Pompeii See Architecture: Classic: Rome Interior of St. Sophia See Architecture: Classic: Byzantine Michael Angelo's Style of Renaissance See Architecture: Renaissance: Italy Peary, The "Roosevelt" and Stefansson See Arctic Exploration: 1886-1909 Members of Peary's Polar Expedition See Arctic Exploration: 1886-1909 Assyrian Palace, Nineveh See Assyria: Early History King Tiglath-Pileser in His Chariot See Assyria: Later Empire Palace of Sennacherib, King of Assyria, 705 b.c See Assyria: Later Empire Assur-Nazir-Pal on his Throne See Assyria: Archjeological remains Copernicus See Astronomy: 130-1609 Mount Wilson Solar Observatory See Astronomy: Photographic Telescope Tower, Pasadena, California See Astronomy: Measuring stars Porch of the Maidens See Athens: B.C. 461-431 Temple of the Olympian Zeus See Athens: b.c. 461-431 Temple of Nike (Victory) See Athens: b.c. 461-431 William Morris Hughes See Australia: 1916-1917 Rudolf I See Austria: 1 246-1 282 Maximilian I See Austria: 1471-1491 Charles V See Austria: 1519-1555 Maria Theresa See .Austria: 1740 (Oct.) Dissolution of Austria-Hungary See Austria-Hungary: 1918 Types of Early Attempts at F'lying Machines See Aviation: Balloons and Dirigibles Spherical Balloons See Aviation: Balloons and Dirigibles: 1890-1913 Turtle Observation Balloon See Aviation; Balloons and Dirigibles: 1896-1914 A Zeppelin in Flight. Count Zeppelin . ... See Aviation: Balloons and Dirigibles: 1896-1914 Otto Lilienthal in his Glider See Aviation: Airplanes and Air Service: 1889-1900 Orville and Wilbur Wright and Machine in First Long Flight See Aviation: Airplanes and Air Service: 1896-1910 First Aerial Crossing of the Channel See Aviation: Important Flights: 1909 NC4 AT Lisbon after Flight from Newfoundland . . See Aviation: Important Flights: 1919 May ViCKERS-ViMY Plane as it Landed at Clifden, Ireland See Aviation: Important Flights: 1919 June British Dirigible R34 at Mineola after Transatlantic Flight See Aviation: Important Flights: 1919 July Temple of the Sun and Jupiter . . Sec Baalbek Excavations at Babylon See Babylon: Excavations Bagdad Railroad See Bagdad Railway Balkan States after Treaty of Berlin and after Balkan Wars . . See Balkan States: 1913-1914 xix EXPLANATORY NOTES ON THE ARRANGEMENT OF MATERIAL AND METHOD OF USING THE EARNED SYSTEM Before beginning to examine or use the volumes, be sure to read through carefully the following notes. A few moments' attention will show that the unique combination of alphabetical and chronological ar- rangement, with thorough cross-reference, makes possible: (a) Instant accessibility of any specific topic; (6) Continuous reading of any nation's history; (c) Easy tracing of the inter-relations of history. A. Alphabeticai, Arrangement of Subject. — Filing Rules. — The primary arrangement is alpha- betical, the index being embodied in the work encyclopedic fashion. (This is the only respect in which there is a resemblance to any encyclopedia.) The latest library filing methods have been followed. For example: (a) Hyphenated words are considered as one word, thus, "ANTI-FEDERALISTS" follows "ANTIETAM"; but separated words are arranged by the first word, so that "NEW ZEALAND" precedes "NEWFOUNDLAND." (6) The rule of person, place and thing is observed, as (i) LONDON, Jack; (2) LONDON, a city; (3) LONDON, passenger steamer, (c) M' Mc or Mac are all arranged as if spelled Mac. (d) Proper names in order of rank, as follows: CHARLES, St.; CHARLES, pope; CHARLES, emperor; CHARLES, king; CHARLES, duke; CHARLES, John; CHARLES ALBERT; CHARLES OF BURGUNDY. For subject headings the American Library Association and Library of Congress practice has been the guide, with few exceptions. The texts, in full or in part, or summaries of national constitutions, will be found immediately following the national histories. For example, following the history of the United States of America, is "UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, Constitution of" under which heading is the text in full. Historical documents are usually placed with the history of the country or movement to which they belong and in their chronological places, but some of the outstanding documents are to be found under their own headings, such as "Berlin, 'Treaty of"; "Versailles, Treaty of". All of them are, of course, properly indexed. B. Chronological and Other Arrangement under Subjects.— Under most of the subjects the topics are arranged in chronological order, so that one may read continuously the entire history of any nation or movement. Each topic has a suitable heading in bold-face type which catches the eye instantly. For example under AUSTRIA one of the topic-headings is as follows: 1848-1849. — Revolutionary risings. — Bombard- ment of Prague and Vienna. — Abdication of the Emperor Ferdinand. — Accession of Francis Joseph. — The Hungarian struggle for independ- ence. There are some necessary exceptions to the strict chronological arrangement of the topics, as some subjects require alphabetical, topical or logical arrangement and in certain cases a combination of some or even all of these. As examples: ADRIATIC QUESTION has a topical arrangement of topic-headings, such as: Friction between Italy and Jugo-Slavia. Treaty of Rapallo, Nov. 12, 1920. Problem of Italy's new frontiers. Jugo-Slav contention. Torre-Trumbitch agreement. — Congress at Rome (April 8-10, 1918).— Pact of Rome. .£GEAN CIVILIZATION has three logical main divisions indicated by center column heads: EXCAVATIONS AND ANTIQUITIES NEOLITHIC AGE MINOAN AGE Under each of these divisions are topic-headings chronologically arranged, such as B. C. 3000-2200.— Early Minoan Age. B. C. 2200-1600.— Middle Minoan age. B. C. 1200-750. — Assimilation of Minoan cul- ture by people of Hellaa. AFRICA also has logical main divisions: GEOGRAPHIC DESCRIPTION RACES OF AFRICA ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL CIVILIZATION MODERN EUROPEAN OCCUPATION xxi EXPLANATORY NOTES Topic-headings are in logical order under some of these division heads and in chronological sequence under others. For illustration, under the third division appear: Development of Egyptian civilization. Carthaginian empire. Roman occupation. Arab occupation. Some topics require even further division, as for example under the same subject, AFRICA: Division-heading: MODERN EUROPEAN OCCUPATION Topic-heading: Later 19th century. — Partitioning of Africa among European powers. Sub-topic-heading: Congo Basin. HISTORY has several main divisions and these, as well as the topics under them, are arranged for the most part in logical order, but, owing to the difficulty of adhering to strict chronological order, the topic- headings are given numerals, as an aid to reference. Thus index entries arising from this subject will be found referring to such topics as: 1. Definitions 2. Philosophy of history 11. Development of chronology 16. Greek historians 32. Modern scientific historians 34. New orientation of history WORLD WAR is a subject which comprises considerably over a thousand pages and requires special treatment. While it was possible to construct a chronological table of war events (q.v.), the descriptive matter could not be arranged in that order. This was due not only to the great length of the article but to its complexity. A scheme of numerals and letters was devised, full explanation of which will be found at the beginning of the article. ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION, Industrial, naturally falls into alphabetical main di- visions by countries, with chronological topic-headings thereunder. C. Page-headings. — To facilitate reference, the page-headings throughout the work indicate dates wherever possible and, in italics, the principal topics on the pages. For example, the page-heading: AUSTRIA, 1798-1806 AusterlUz AUSTRIA, 1806 D. Rule for Reference. — Each specific topic treated under a larger subject appears in the general alphabetical index, where it is followed by explicit directions leading to the place where the treatment will be found. Thus to find the battle of Austerlitz, one does not turn to Austria and search through its fifty pages; he should turn alphabetically to .\usterlitz, where he will find AUSTERLITZ, Battle of. See .Austria: i7q8-i8o6. Turning then, as directed, to AUSTRIA, the dated page-headings guide him quickly to 1798-1806, as above, under which the required topic is instantly found. The simple rule for locating any desired topic will now be clear: Turn alphabetically to the specific topic. Either the required treatment, or specific directions leading to it will be found. E. Groxjping of subjects. — Many events are of such a character that the reader's interest is served by listing them in groups, in addition to the indexing of each separate item. In such cases they are brought together under the class title, as, for instance: .Abdications; Armistices; .Assassinations; Battles (famous); Cities (abandoned or destroyed) , Clubs; Coalitions and alliances; Codes; Congresses; Con- spiracies; Constitutions; Councils of the church; Documents; Executions (notable); Genealogical tables; Impeachments; Laws; Leagues; Massacres; Parties and factions; Religions; Treaties; Wars. F. Genealogical tables. — The lineage of each historic ruling family is to be found with the his- tory of the country with which it was most closely connected. For list and index of these tables, see Genealogical tables. G. Non-repetition. — Inter-relations of History. — Cross-references. — There is practically no rep- etition in the work. A topic that is part of the history of two or more countries is treated fully once only, where it most properly belongs and in the connection which shows its antecedents and consequences best. It is then cross-referenced to every other point where it is of interest and multiple index entries made. Economics of this character bring into the compass of twelve volumes a body of history that would need twice the number, at least, for equal fullness on the monographic plan of encyclopedic works. An illustra- ion will make clear the method and its unique exhibit of the Inter-relations of History. A very complete and interesting account of the dispute between Great Britain and the United States in Jefferson's administration, over the impressment of .American seamen, is given under the following sub- ject and topic headings: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 1804-1809.— Difficulties with Great Britain.— Neutral rights. — The right of search. — Impress- ment. — Blockade by orders in council and the Berlin and Milan decrees. Embargo and non- intercourse. 1808. — The efiect of the embargo. xxii EXPLANATORY NOTES It is cross-referenced from France and England and also from Admiralty law, International law, Neu- trality, etc., in the proper chronological places as follows: ENGLAND 1804-1809.— Difficulties with the United States. — Neutral rights. — Right of search and impress- ment. — The American embargo. See U. S. A.: 1804-1809; and 1808. FRANCE 1807-09. — The American embargo and non-in- tercourse laws. See U. S. A.: 1804-1809; and 1808. ADMIRALTY LAW 1804-1809.— United States and England differ over impressment. See U. S. A.: 1804-1809. INTERNATIONAL LAW 1804-09. — Right of blockade. — British impress- ment of United States seamen. See U. S. A.: 1804-1809. NEUTRALITY 1804-1809.— Relations of United States amd England. See U. S. A.: 1804-1809. It is separately indexed as follows: BERLIN DECREE. See France: 1806-1810 and U. S. A.: 1804-1809. BLOCKADE, Paper. See U. S. A.: 1804-1809. IMPRESSMENT OF AMERICAN SEA- MEN BY BRITISH NAVY. See V.S. A.: 1804- 1809; and 1812. MILAN DECREE. See France: 1806-18:0; also U. S. A.: 1804-1809. NON-INTERCOURSE BILL, United States. See U. S A.: 1804-1809; 1808-1810. ORDERS IN COUNCIL: Blockade by Brit- ish. See France: 1806-18:0; and U. S. A.: :8o4- i8og. RIGHT OF SEARCH. See U. S. A.: 1804- i8og; and :8:2. SEARCH, Right of. See U. S. A.: :8o4-:8o9; and :8:2. Cross-references are also inserted at the end of numberless subjects and topics, for the purpose of guiding the reader to further material related to the subject upon which he is reading. Thus, under AUSTRIA, at the end of the text on topic: 1291-1349. — Loss and recovery of imperialcrown appears: — See also Germany: :3:4-:347. Also, as an aid, wherever there is an allusion to a movement, or event, upon which information is available elsewhere in the work, a reference is inserted immediately after the allusion. Thus, under AUSTRIA: 1848-1849. — Revolutionary risings. — "News came of the flight of Louis Philippe from Paris [see France: :84:-:848; 1848]." In this way, through the index entries, cross-references and references, the entire text is tied together in one harmonious whole and nothing is buried. H. Spelung and Accents. — The style or system of accentuation adopted for the work is, in general, that in everyday use in English language books and periodicals. The essential French, Italian and Span- ish accents and the German umlaut are, of course, rigidly adhered to. In the transliteration of words and proper names taken from the Slavonic, Arabic, Turkish and other oriental languages, the style of the author quoted has been respected, though in editorial matter and headings a simpler and more representa- tive phonetic rendering for English language readers has occasionally been found desirable. Webster's New International Dictionary (Merriam series) has been the authority for ordinary orthography. In the non- use of capitals the modern library practice has been our guide. I. Citation of Sources. — Bibliographies. — All quoted matter is in quotation marks, and the source is invariably cited in full. Abridgment by omissions is indicated by the usual omission marks, and occa- sional editorial interpolations are inclosed in brackets. Abridgment by paraphrasing has been resorted to only when unavoidable and is shown by interruption of quotation marks. Bibliographies for topics, as xxiii EXPLANATORY NOTES well as for the larger subjects will be found in their proper connections. In addition, in the last volume of the work there is a carefully selected and classified bibliography, and a full list of books, from which selections have been made, giving names of publishers, full names of authors, and other useful informa- tion. J. What the Work Is Not. — The work is first and last, history, not science nor biography (except, as in the words of Carlyle, "History is the essence of innumerable biographies"). Yet the person who has been a maker of history, so to speak, has his record as such given and his name and brief facts and cross- references are entered in alphabetical place. K. Free Editorial Service. — Our established editorial service is always available to the subscribers to "THE NEW L.'VRN^D HISTORY FOR RE.\DY REFERENCE, RE.\DING .^ND RESEARCH,"— which we believe more than ever merits the description given in the earlier editions by many an owner, viz., "the greatest saver of time and money and labor in the whole realm of books." XXIV THE NEW LARNED HISTORY FOR READY REFERENCE, READING AND RESEARCH A A, the initial letter of the English and almost all other alphabets. In the Runic Futhark alpha- bet it occupies fourth place, while in the Ethiopic the arrangement differs again, "aleph" being thir- teenth. Since the English alphabet follows the Latin directly, which in turn is based on the Greek, the letter "a" agrees with the Greek letter "alpha." In the Semitic languages "aleph" is a consonant, although at times it loses completely its conso- nantal quality. This explains the adoption of the letter as a vowel by the Greeks, there being no corresponding sound in their language. The Phoe- nicians called the letter "aleph" seemingly because of the resemblance of the character to the head of an ox. Although nothing is known with any degree of certainty concerning the ultimate origin of this letter, in recent years, there has been strong advocacy of abandoning the assumption first pro- pounded in i8S9 by Vicomte Emanuel de Rouge, of immediate derivation of the Phojnician or North Semitic alphabet from Egyptian hieroglyphics, or from Babylonian cuneiform characters. On the other hand a marked tendency is in evidence to look for the solution of the problem to the later Cretan system of writing transferred to Syria as indicated by Sir Arthur Evans (Scripla Minoa, iqoq) or to linear pottery marks abundantly found in many Mediterranean countries, as has been sug- gested by Flinders Petrie (Formation of the alpha- bet, iQiz). Stucken (Das Alphabet und die Mond- stationen, 1913) traces the origin of the Semitic alphabet to the signs of the lunar zodiac. — See also Alphabet. A POSTERIORI LANGUAGES. See Inter- national language: Early history. A PRIORI LANGUAGES. See International language: Early history. AA, a common name for small rivers in Europe. Of the forty or more of this name, two of the best known are in Russia; two others, the Westphalian Aa and the Miinster Aa, are in Germany. AACHEN. See Ai.\-la-Chapelle. AAHMES. See Amasis. AALAND ISLANDS. See Aland Islands. AALI, Mehemet, Pasha (1815-1871), Turkish statesman. Five times grand vizier; in 1867 was appointed regent of Turkey, during the sultan's visit to Paris; strong advocate of a reform policy. AALST. See Alost. AARAU, an important military center and cap- ital of the Swiss canton of Aargau, situated on the right bank of the .^ar, at the foot of the Jura. The cantonal library contains many works relating to Swiss history, also manuscripts from the sup- pressed Argovian monasteries. The ancient for- tress of Aarau was taken by the Bernese in 141 5. In i7q8 it became for a short time the capital of the Helvetic Republic. Near by is the ruined castle of Hapsburg, the original home of the Hapsburg house. AARAU, Peace of (1712). See Switzerland: 1652-1789. AARGAU, one of the most northerly Swiss cantons. Up to 1415 this region was the center of Hapsburg power, and there is still to be seen, near Brugg, the ruined castle of the Hapsburgs as well as the old convent of Kbnigsfelden and remains of the ancient Roman settlement of Vin- donissa. The canton contains many old castles and former monasteries; the suppression of the latter in 1847 was one of the chief causes of the Sonderbund War. AARON, in biblical history, brother of Moses and his spokesman before Pharaoh. In company with Moses, leader of the Israelites during the Exodus. Founder of the Jewish priesthood, which became hereditary in his tribe. — See also Jews: Children of Israel in Egypt. AARSSENS, Francis Van (1572-1641), Dutch diplomat and statesman. Protege of Advocate Johan Van Oldenbarneveldt, who sent him as a diplomatic agent to the court of France, and later recalled him for giving offense to the French king; instrumental in condemning his aged bene- factor to death; ranked by Richelieu among the three greatest politicians of his time. AB, the fifth month of the Jewish ecclesiastical year, and the eleventh (in intercalary years the twelfth) of the Jewish civil year. It corresponds approximately to the period from July 15 to August 15. On the first day of Ab is kept a fast com- memorating the death of Aaron ; on the ninth, the Black Fast bewailing the destruction of the First Temple by Nebuchadnezzar (586 B.C.) and of the Second Temple by Titus (A.D. 70). The word was adopted by the Jews after the Babylonian captivity. ABABDA, a nomad African tribe of Hamitic stock, extending along the southern border of Egypt from the Nile to the Red sea. In Roman times they were known as Gebadei, in the Middle Ages, as Beja. They are noted as caravan guides and trade carriers. ABACAENUM, an ancient town of Sicily, lying west of Messana and north of Mt. Etna. It was one of the last Sicilian cities to give way to Greek influence. ABACUS, in the Greek Doric order a square stone slab that covers the capital of a column. In the Roman order, the abacus is crowned by a molding; in the Archaic-Greek Ionic it is rec- tangular in form in view of the greater width of the capital. Abacus is also the name of an instru- ment employed by ancient mathematicians for arithmetical calculations, and still used in China. ABAE, a city of Phocis, Greece, famous in ancient times for its oracle of Apollo. (See Ora- cles) It was exceedingly rich in treasures until pillaged by the Persians. Restoration of the city and the temple was attempted by the Emperor ABAFY ABBEY Hadrian. Traces of the polygonal walls of the acropolis have been preserved, including a gateway and part of the town walls, excavations of which were made in 1894 by the British School at Athens. ABAFY (Abaffi), Michael (1632-1690), ruler in Hungarv. See Hungary: 1660-1664. ABAILARDUS. See Abelard. ABANCOURT, Charles Xavier Joseph de Franqueville d' (1758-1702), French statesman; Louis XVI's last minister of war. Contrary to orders of the Legislative .Assembly, brought Swiss Guards to Paris for defense of Tuileries, .August 10; arrested for treason; murdered while awaiting trial. — See also France: 1702 (June-August). ABANTES, the most powerful tribe of ancient Eubcea, from whom in the Homeric age the island took its name .Abantis. ABATIS, a term in miUtary parlance for a field fortification formed of trees laid in a row with sharpened limbs pointing toward the enemy ; this obstacle is frequently used in connection with wire entanglements. ABATTOIR, a French word often used instead of the English "slaughter-house," a place where animals are killed for food. Public control of such places has in recent years become a matter of great concern. In the United States, abattoirs are recognized by the law as in their nature nui- sances and are regulated or prohibited by munici- pal ordinance. Though the meat industry is con- centrated in a few cities, there are very few municipal slaughter-houses, a fact in sharp con- trast with Continental Europe where they are very common, especially in Germany. In England leg- islation has, since 1388, been enacted for the regu- lation of abattoirs in cities. — See also Louisiana; I8q4-ig2i. Also in: J. A. and H. C. Joyce, Treatise on the law goveriihtg nuisances, pp. 167-171. — E. Freund, Police power, public policy and constitutional rights. ABBADIDES, a short-lived Mohammedan dy- nasty in Spain, c. 1023-1OQ1, succeeding the Western caliphate. It was characterized by extravagance and corruption, and was finally overthrown by the Almoravides, its last monarch dying in prison. See Spain: 1031-1086. ABBAS I (1813-1854), khedive of Egypt. Son of Tusun Pasha and grandson of Mehemet Ali, whom he succeeded in 1848. Was reactionary in policy. Murdered in 1854, and succeeded by his uncle, Sa'id Pasha. See Egypt: 1840-1869. Abbas II (.Abbas Hilmi Pasha, 1874- ). khedive of Egypt. Deposed by the British during the World War (December 17, IQ14), at which time a British protectorate was proclaimed and Hussein Kemal Pasha, an uncle of the khedive, installed as sultan; this action was taken in conse- quence of the defection of Abbas to Turkey, which was at the time at war with England. See Egypt: 1914; World War: 1014: IV'. Turkev: h. Abbas I (called the Great), shah of Persia, 1 586- 1 628; greatly extended the dominions of Persia. See Bagdad: 1393-1638; Persia: 1499- 1887; Turkey: 1623-1640. Abbas II, shah of Persia, 1641-1668. Suc- ceeded his father, Shah Safi I; regained Kandahar at the age of sixteen. Abbas III, shah of Persia, 1732-1736. A child ruler, son of Tahmasp II ; succeeded by the usurper Nadir Kuli. ABBAS EFFENDI (1844-1921), the late leader of the Bahais; better known by the name of Abdu'l Baha, which signifies "Servant of the (divine) Glory." Abdu'l Baha is styled "Center of the Covenant," and regarded by his followers as a divinely appointed teacher of spiritual truth — See also Bahaism: .Abdu'l Baha. ABBAS HILMI PASHA. See Abbas II, khedive of Egvpt. ABBAS MIRZA (C.17S3-1833), prince of Persia. He introduced reforms, especially in the army ; was leader in two unsuccessful wars with Russia, but held his own in a war with Turkey. ABBASIDS, the name usually given to the caliphs of Bagdad, constituting with the Omayyads, their predecessors, the two greatest dynasties of the Eastern caliphate. In opposition to the Omay- yads who traced their descent from Omayya, the Abbasids based their claim to the office of caliph, according to Mohammedan custom, upon their descent from Abbas (566-652), the eldest uncle of Mohammed. See Abul Abbas; Caliphate: 71S-750, 752-750, 756-1031, 763, 815-945, and 1262- 1543; B.\gdad: 762-763 and 1258; Jerusalem: 1144-1187. Conquest by Arabs. See Arabia: 1916. ABBAZIA, Agreement at (1921). See Italy: 1920-1921. ABBESS, a title given to the superior of a monastic establishment of twelve or more nuns. Her duties correspond very closely to those of an abbot (q.v.). See Monasticism: Women and monasticism; Women's rights: 300-1400, 1200- 1600 ABBEY, Edwin Austin (1852-1911), American mural painter. See Painting: .American; 19th century. ABBEY. — Organization and activities. — In its broader sense an abbey is a canonically erected monastery (or a religious organization under strictly prescribed rules of living), having not fewer than twelve religious monks or nuns, under the government of an abbot or abbess respectively ; in its narrower sense the word is synonymous with the church of a monastery. It is to be carefully distinguished from the priory, a term applied to smaller monastic establishments some of which were founded independently, others as cells or off- shoots from an abbey, remaining dependent on the parent house and having their priors chosen or removed by the abbot at will. Originally the term monastery designated, both in the East and in the West the dwelling of a solitary or hermit. In time, however, there grew up around the more famous of these solitaries settlements of enthusiastic disciples, necessitating an intricate and wide-spread system of organization. These establishments in turn developed into great centers of industry and culture assuming the characteristic features of the great abbeys of medieval times. "The abbeys, however . . . while containing great and wonderful buildings of cathedral-like proportion where wor- ship to which the public was admitted was con- ducted with solemn and beautiful ritual, were never intended to serve, and never did serve the purpose of parish churches. These abbeys were not made for the people, but for the monks who found therein a home. They were generally built in remote places, far from centers of population, and there maintained an entirely independent ex- istence. .As time went on and their wealth and membership steadily increased, this wealth and this membership constituted potential elements of power that forcibly appealed to ambitious men. tVnder this new impetus the abbeys became not only centers of wealth and art and luxury, but also of political power. During the period of their widest influence the greater abbeys were represented in the national councils, on a plane of political ABBEY Organization, Acfivifies Historical importance ABBEY equality with the great feudal lords. It was this combination of wealth and political influence which, arousing more and more the cupidity and the antagonism of secular rulers, ultimately re- sulted, during the sixteenth century, in the sup- pression of these great establishments and the confiscation of their estates.] In the very old days these abbeys were great and beautiful places that sheltered within their walls about all of culture and learning and peace that was to be found. . . . While the monks did not at first seek any part in controlling the life of the community, or indeed any share whatever therein, yet their position was of first importance to the people in that rude and early period. The very poor were in evidence in those days far more than they ever have been since, and on the long table of every monastic dining-room a basket always stood, receiving a large proportion of every kind of food as it was served, food that was afterwards dis- bursed as alms at the .^bbey gates. No physicians practised then, and the monks alone knew what there was to know of the healing art, and always were their services freely given to both rich and poor. There were no libraries outside the mon- astery's rolls, but here was collected as incentive to study and to thought the literature of the time. There were no schools save those the monks main- tained, and to them could come the children of the very poor, who, while they may not have learned much, yet were given an opportunity to find what learning meant, and some at least we know of who through these schools found opening a career of usefulness and distinction. There were no inns, but the traveler could always find a refuge at the monastery, where a great house was as much a part of the establishment as the chapel itself. Hundreds of monks found their homes in the great abbeys. ... It was a wonderful or- ganization that their necessities required and main- tained. Everything needed for daily life was produced here. Thousands of acres of adjoining land were under constant cultivation, and to such of the brethren as had a taste in that direction was committed the task of overseeing the laborers on this great farm. From their vineyards came the wines that filled the cellars. On their pastures were the sheep from whose wool were woven their garments. Beef and pork came from the cattle and swine that every monastery owned. And fruits and flowers grew in the gardens and orchards the older or infirm brothers had in charge. . . . First of all the day's real business was the meeting of the chapter, over which the abbot presided and heard reports of the progress of all the work in hand. Here too was received the news from other [abbeys], for the custom was to send forth on a parchment roll what might be termed a circular letter. It gave the information current in the abbey whence it started, and was entrusted to a monk who thence started on the rounds of other monasteries, a journey that sometimes occupied a year. After being read aloud in chapter there was added to it the news of that establishment, and so it went its way. At Durham there is yet preserved one of these rolls which is nearly forty feet in length. And here in this public gathering the monks confessed their faults, or had tales told on them if they didn't, and thereupon were soundly whipped precisely like naughty boys at school. Then they went to the day's task — some to teach, some to labor at the loom or in the field, and some in the cloisters to illumine those rare rolls or volumes, each according to the gift God had given him. And so they filled their days. At dinner one read while the others ate, and after- ward recreation, the telling of stories, perhaps the singing of songs, while some few walked along the sweet-smelUng garden paths in the lingering northern twilight, for very beautiful friendships sometimes grew up among these unworldly men." — A. B. Osborne, As it is in England, pp. 178-189. — See also Abbot; Monasticism ; Trappists. Medieval monastic libraries. See Libraries: Medieval: Monastic libraries. Abbeys in history. — .\n illustration of the importance of abbeys in the history of medieval Europe is to be found in the history of the Abbey of Saint-Denis, a few miles north of Paris. "St- Denis (Dionysius), the first Bishop of Paris, and his companions, martyred in 270, were buried here and the small chapel built over the spot be- came a famous place of pilgrimage during the fifth and sixth centuries. In 630 King Dagobert founded the abbey for Benedictine monks, replacing the original chapel by a large basilica, of which but little now remains. He and his successors enriched the new foundation with many gifts and privileges and, possessing as it did the shrine of St-Denis, it became one of the richest and most important abbeys in France. In 653 it was made exempt from episcopal jurisdiction. A new church was com- menced in 750 by Charlemagne, at the consecra- tion of which Christ, according to popular tradi- tion, was supposed to have assisted in person. . . . The present church of St-Denis was commenced about 1 140 and marks the beginning of the Gothic tendency in architecture and its transition from the Romanesque style. Further additions and al- terations under succeeding abbots resulted in pro- ducing one of the finest Gothic buildings in France. . . . The abbey figures prominently in the history of France and its abbots were for several cen- turies amongst the chief seigneurs of the kingdom. The 'Oriflamme,' originally the banner of the abbey, became the standard of the kings of France and was suspended above the high altar, whence it was only removed when the king took the field in person. Its last appearance was at the battle of Agincourt in 141 5. Joan of .\rc hung up her arms in the church of St-Denis in 1429. Many kings and princes and other noble persons were buried there and three of the Roman pontiffs stayed in the abbey at different times: . . . After the Council of Trent the Abbey of St-Denis became the head of a congregation of ten monasteries, and in 1633 it was united, with its dependent houses, to the new Congregation of St-Maur, when its conventual buildings were entirely reconstructed. In i6qi Louis XVI suppressed the abbacy and united the monastery with its revenues to the royal house of noble ladies at St-Cyr, founded by Madame de Maintenon. The abbey was finally dissolved at the revolution, when much damage was done to the church and tombs. It was subsequently re- stored, under Napoleon III, by Viollet-le-Duc. The relics of St-Denis, which had been trans- formed to the parish church of the town in 1795, were brought back again to the abbey in 1819. It is now a 'national monument' and one of the show-places of Paris. Many of the chartularies and other manuscripts relating to its history are now either in the Archives Nationales or the Bibliotheque Nationale." — Catholic encyclopedia, v. '.(, PP- 343-344- — See also Brittany: 992-1237. Architectural features. — "The arrangement of all these [abbeys] shows a thorough uniformity in their important features. On all sides of 3 rec- tangular court, which, as a rule, is square, sur- rounded by arcades (the cloisters, ambitus), are grouped the church, and the places appointed for the residence of the monks, which are comprised ABBEY Architectural Features ABBEY under the name of the clausures. It is the plan of the ancient villa urbana, which seems to have served as a pattern to the Benedictines. In the same way the out-houses exterior to the clausures, which are attached to them, follow the plan of the villa ruslica among the Romans. Of the plan of a Benedictine abbey of the ninth century, the Abbey of St. Gall (in Switzerland], designed about S20, is an excellent example. The whole plan in- cludes a space of from 300 to 430 feet square. The central point is the church, on the south side of which is the cloister, with the buildings be- longing to the dausure; and to the east of the cloister, contiguous to it, is the dwelling-house of the monks, with the general dormitory, the bath and wash-house; to the south the refeclorium (the dining-halU, with the church; and to the west the cellarage. The wing of Ihe cloister next to the church serves as the chapttr-housf. Near the round outhouses for the chickens and geese, the garden, and the burial-place. . . . Next to the Benedictines, the Cistercians, an order proceeding on the same discipline, have a great significance for the history of media;val ecclesiastical architecture. The strictness of this order immediately brought with it a simplifying of church building. While generally the apse was omitted, and the choir terminated as a rectangle, minor chapels, as a rule, were attached to both sides of the transept. . . . Besides, the Cistercian Order forbade the in- troduction of bell-towers, and instead of these, even in the largest churches, they contented them- selves with a small roof-turret in the middle of the transept. The towers of the church at Oliva, near Danzig, form an exception. Lastly, an ex- traordinary length of nave is common in Cistercian churches, the reason of which is so much more difficult to explain, as the cloister churches were FOUNTAhNS AliBEY, ENdLAND eastern choir of the church is, on the north side, the writing-room, with the Ubrary above, and on the south side the justice-chamber. On the east side of the church lie, separated by two chapels, the infirmary and the school for the novices, each with its small cloister in the centre To the north side of the infirmary stands the dwelling of the physician, with a special house for bleeding and purging. The dwelling of the abbot, the school- house, and the lodgings for illustrious strangers, with an out-house, are to be found on the north side of the church ; corresponding to this last on the south-western side are the lodgings for pil- grims and the poor. Attached to these important parts thus spread out are, on the western and southern sides, the house for servants, and the stalls for sheep, pigs, goats, cows, oxen, and horses, besides the workhouse, the malt-kiln, the brewery, and the bakehouse attached to the kitchen of the monastery, the stamping-mill and the corn-mill, the house of the various labourers, and the great barn. Lastly, at the south-eastern corner, are the little attended by laity, and their use completely forbidden to women The cloister arrangements of the Cistercians are in other things similar to those of the Benedictines. The cloister is here, as there, generally on the southern side, and seldom on the northern side of the church With the Cistercians there was generally, on the side of the cloister lying opposite the church, a polygonal or round well-house, in which the beard and the hair of the crown of the head (the tonsure) were shaven off. The chapter-hall for the meetings of the convent is generally on the east side of the cloister, and is sometimes provided with an altar apse. Important monasterial arrangements of the Cistercians arc still to be found at Ebrach, at .Altenberg near Cologne, at Riddagshausen and Maulbronn in Wiirtemberg. In the last place, even the fortified walls, with their towers, as well as the other details of mediasval arrangements, are all preserved. From the large entrance-hall, we enter the church, the nave of which is separated from the presbyterium by the screen On the north ABBEY ABBOT side of the church lie the cloisters with the well- house, the refectory and the chapter-hall with its altar apse. From this, a corridor leads us to the house of the abbot The space, at the north- eastern corner of the cloisters, seems to contain the discipline-chamber, to which adjoins the vault- ed cellar space. On the west side of the cloister is another vaulted cellar and an older refectory, which, used alternately with the above-mentioned space, may have served as the winter refectory; for we find in many monasteries, as for example at Bebenhausen, special refectories for winter and summer. The monasteries of the Premonstraten- sians have much resemblance in arrangement and c Ale of feel PLAN OF FOUNTAINS ABBEY I, Guest House. 14- Tower, 2. Infirmary. i.S. Chapels. ,?■ C'ellars. 1 6. Choir. 4- Refectory. 17. Chapel of Nine ,«;. Kitchen. Altars. 6. ( loister. 18. Passage. 7. Nave of Church. 19. Yard. «. Calefactory. 20. Store House. Q. Water Courts. 21. Great Hall. 10. Base Courts. 22. Abbot's House. 1 1. Chapter House 23. Kitchen. 12. Sacristy. 24- Chapel. 13. Transept. 25. Store House. execution to those of the Cistercians. The mon- asteries of the Madonna at Macdeburc and the Abbey Kappenberg in Westphalia, are examples of this kind, whose unassuming simplicity rivals the simplest arrangements of the Cistercians. If the Benedictines preferred to build in an open position at the back of a woody chain of moun- tains, and if the Cistercians sought separation from the world in the quiet woody glens, the Orders of Preachers and Mendicants, arising since the thirteenth century, of the Dominicans and Franciscans, or of the minor orders, established themselves in the populous towns. For if the generality of (he superior orders lived apart, with the view of devoting themselves to learned studies or artistic work, the popular orders undertook to work on the masses as curers of the soul by preaching and confession. They sought for a modest place in the towns, close to the walls or elsewhere, where they erected their monasterial arrangements, in fact, conformable to those of the older orders of monks. . . . Really differing from all these monasterial arran'zements are the great establishments of the Carthusians, who arose about the fourteenth century in Germany. Their mon- asteries are distinguished by this: that they possess, by the side of the church, and of the cloister in connexion with it, a second far larger cloister, generally on the east side of the church, which includes the burial ground, and is surrounded by the single dwellings of the monks, which are sep- arated from it by small gardens." — W. Liibke, Ecdesia^tical art in Germany, pp. 10.5-108 — In consequence of the fact that the various building.s of an establishment were erected at different periods, the greater abbeys were seldom archi- tecturally homogeneous; this multiplicity of styles affords, however, a pleasing variety which, added to the stately grandeur of nave and 'arch and tower, presents, even in their ruins, a picturesque- ness which appeals alike to artist and historian. There follows a list of the more important historic abbeys: Bangor, County Down, Ireland Bath, Somersetshire, England Battle, Sussex, Ent;land Beaulieu, Hampshire, England Bee, Normandy (q.v.) Bursfeld, near Gottingcn, Hanover, Prussia Bury St, Edmund's, Suffolk Co., England (q.v.) Canterbury, Kent, England Cluny, Burgundy, France Dryburgh, Scottish border Einsiedein, Canton of Schwyz, Switzerland Farfa, near Rome Fontenelle, Normandy Fountains, Yorskhire, England (q.v.) Furness, Lancashire, England (q.v.) Glastonbury, Somersetshire, England Hersfeld, Hesse-Nassau, Prussia Hirschau, near Stuttgart, Wiirlemberg Holy Cross, County Tipperary, Ireland (q.v.) Holyrood, Edinburgh, Scotland Jumieges, Normandy Mellifont, County Louth, Ireland Melrose, Roxburghshire, Scotland Monte Cassino, near Rome New, near Dumfries, Scotland Peterborou'j;h, Northamptonshire, England Premontre, Aisne, France Saint Albans, Hertfordshire, England Saint Denis, near Paris, France St. Gall, Canton of Gall, Switzerland Saint Mary, York, England Tavistock, Devonshire, England Tewkesbury, Gloucestershire, England Tintern, Monmouthshire, England Vendome, France Waltham, Essex, England VVearmoulh, Durham, England Westminster, London, England Whitby, Yorkshire, England. See Bible, Eng- lish: 7th-8th centuries. ABBOT, George (1562-1633), English divine, Took a leading part in preparing the authorized version of the New Testament; assisted in arrang- ABBOT ABBOT ing for the union of the churches of England and Scotland; for this he was rewarded by James I, who in 1610 made him Archbishop of Canterbury. ABBOT, a title given to the superior of a monastic establishment of twelve or more monks. The term is derived from the Hebrew word ab meaning father, originally used as a title of honor and respect. Carried over from the East to the West the word came to imply also the exercise of authority and hence was used to designate the head of an abbey or monastery. This usage was definitely fixed by the rule of St. Benedict at the beginning of the sixth century. "The ad- ministration of the monastery was vested pri- marily in the hands of the abbot or lather, in whose hands lay, theoretically, complete control over all the management of the house The vow of obedience was made to him, and without his consent the individual monk could not properly perform any act of life. It was his duty to see that the monks observed the rule in all its de- tails, and to punish infractions of it at his dis- cretion. He was the responsible manager of the temporal property of the community, must see that its accounts were properly kept and must be in readiness at specified times to render an account of his stewardship to the community as a whole. He occupies in the feudal hierarchy the same rank held by the bishop; he is the responsible person for the performance of the feudal dues to the overlord and stands for the monastery in all its efforts to keep the feudal hold upon its vassal tenants. It was as important to the monastery as it was to the bishopric that its head should be chosen freely, without the use of any of the lower motives which were almost certain to affect the choice. The electors are the monks, but, since the abbot is regularly to be confirmed both by the secular head of the territory and by the bishop of the diocese, it is clear that these larger interests would have to be considered, and in the case of the more important monasteries we find the same difficulties in getting 'pure' elections that we have spoken of in connection with episcopal elections The succession in a great monastery was often the occasion of violent conflicts between the complicated interests at stake." — E. Emerton, Median'ol Europe, pp. 572-573. The following list of famous abbots and ab- besses gives an idea of the variety of activity and influence possible to the office. The list is not, of course, exhaustive ; it is merely a citation of a few typical cases. Anselm of Canterbury (1033-noQ). — A scho- lastic philosopher and able churchman, who. as abbot of Canterbury, made the monastery a famous scat of medieval learning. His writings "Cur Deus Homo" and "De Concordia PrsscientiiE et Pripdestinationis" made an epoch in Christian philosophy, and inaugurated the work of the schoolmen. His conflicts with William Rufus and Henry I of England made him, in his time, a powerful political force. See Excland: 1087- 1I3S- Benedict of Nursia (c. 480-544), the founder of western monasticism. He first organized the scattered companies of the western monks into orders, and the humanity, moderation, and con- structive social character of the "Rule of St. Benedict" which he devised for these monasteries turned the ascetic impulses that were hitherto some- what sterile into a civilizing force of almost in- calculable value in the development of Europe. For the importance of this rule in the history of western monasticism, see Monasticism: 6th century. Bernard of Clairvaux (ioqo-1153), the first abbot of Clairvaux, and a leader in the reform of the monastic orders, and the chief center of the religious life of Europe, at the time when Christian fervor was reaching its height in the crusades and in the beginnings of Christian art It was his preaching which fired all Europe to undertake the lirst expedition to the Holy Land and his ardent, childlike, and inspiring personality interpenetrates all the life of the twelfth century. He was con- stantly called to act as peace-maker in the quarrels of emperor and pope, and pope and anti-pope, and to represent the purest conscience of the church in the highest councils of his time. See Crusades; 1147-1149- Bruno (1030-1 101), founder of the Carthusian order which was a union of the hermit and the communal types of monasticism. Unlike most of the great abbots, who were also commanding figures in the intellectual and political life of their time, he is notable chiefly for the personal and creative influence within the strict bounds of the monastic life which made him a saint of the church and the subject of several notable works of religious art. Hilda (614-680), foundress and abbess of Whitby, the famous double monastery which in- cluded among its members five future bishops as well as the poet Caedmon, and which was a powerful center of ecclesiastical and political in- fluence. Statesmen and churchmen from all over Christian England came to Hilda for advice, and she stands out in the scanty records of the seventh century, as one of the most vigorous personalities of the age. Hildegarde (ioo8-ii7q), a German abbess and mystic who from her convent near Bingen, carried on a voluminous and influential correspondence with the most notable figures of her time Among her correspondents were Pope Anastasius and Pope .■\drian IV, and the emperors Conrad III and Frederick I. Bernard of Clairvaux and the theo- logian Guibert of Gembloux were among those who sought her advice on theolo-'ical questions. While it was her supposed gift of prophecy which made her most famous in her own time, her writ- ings on natural science are now greatly respected by scholars as representing the highest point to which the scientific study of nature in medieval Europe had yet attained. Lanfranc (d. io8q), first abbot of St. Stephens at Caen and later archbishop of Canterbury. Trained in legal studies, and a pioneer in the revival of Roman law, and in education, he be- came the political counsellor of William, the Con- queror, and did much to consolidate the power of the Normans in England, and at the same time to procure honorable conditions for the native English As an abbot he elevated the clerical standards of discipline and education. Sugier, .^bbot of St. Denis (1081-1151), states- man and historian, and constant adviser of Louis VI and Louis VII of France During the absence of Louis VII on the Second Crusade, he was appointed regent of the kingdom, and was so successful in keeping the turbulent vassals in order and improving the administration, that the king, on his return, bestowed upon him the title of "Father of the Country." As a statesman he strerxgthened the royal power, improved agri- culture and commerce, and reformed the adminis- tration of justice. His chief literan,' works are historical accounts of his own stirring times. His work as an abbot had the same characteristics as his secular achievements, being a thorough- going and efficient administration and discipline of ABBREVIATION Roman System ABBREVIATION the convent. — See also Abbey: Organization and activities; Monast:cism: iith-i.^th centuries. ABBREVIATION.— The representation of a word or phrase by the initial letter or letters or by some other standard shorter form. This practice was employed extensively by both ancient and medieval manuscript writers, with whom abbre- viation was of considerable importance as a labor- saving and space-saving device. The saving of space was especially necessary as the material for writing (parchment, or, in Roman times, wax tab- lets) was extremely limited and very expensive. Greek and Latin manuscripts, especially those which have been on technical subjects, made very great use of abbreviations, so that a certain Roman is said to have made a collection of 5000 abbreviations used in his time. .\ form of abbrevi- ation was invented by Tiro, a slave of Cicero, who took down every word of his master's speech in specially devised shorthand symbols; these were known as Tironian notes, after the name of their inventor. In the earliest transcriptions of the Bible, no abbreviations were used, but from being employed in notes and maruinal glosses, they soon began to appear in the texts. The universality of Latin as a language for scholars during the Middle Ages made the application of abbreviations a very simple matter, as the usage could become stand- ardized without much difficulty or confusion. The reform in handwriting effected by the Caro- lingian schools in the Middle Ages did not dis- courage the use of abbreviations and contractions; on the contrary, it was under their influence that the fullest development was accomplished, letters from the middle as well as the end of words being omitted. ."Ml western Europe used common forms of contraction, with the exception of Spain, where slightly different meanings were attached to the various marks. In early English and Irish manuscripts certain arbitrary shorthand symbols were used to indicate common or special words. These were adaptations of the Tironian notes of Cicero's time. The use of abbreviations continued to increase until the thirteenth century, when the practice reached its height. From that time on three things caused its decline: first, the invention of the printing press, which obviated the necessity for the copying of manuscript by hand; second, the introduction of cheap paper for printing; and third, the widesyiread use of vernacular tongues, in which abbreviations were very much more difficult because of the peculiarities of grammar. In modern times some Latin abbreviations and contractions are still in use. Membership in cer- tain orders or academies, university degrees, titles of address, or of office, and the names of certain very well-known organizations are indicated by abbreviations, usually consisting of the first letter or letters of each word in the phrase denoted. In addition practically every science has its own sys- tem of abbreviations and symbols known to stu- dents and specialists in its field. Although ab- breviations are no longer generally employed in books or other printed matter, commercial letter writing has given rise to more or less complicated systems of shorthand which, with phonetics as a basis, are comprehensive of all languages, indi- cating sounds or groups of sounds by standard straight and curved .symbols. In the United States the best known systems are the Pitman and the Gregg. Abbreviations in Babylonian writing. See Education: Ancient: B.C. 35th-6th centuries: Babylonia and Assyria. Roman System. — Use in the Middle Ages. — "The first mention of an abbreviated system is in connection with the Roman poet Quintus En- nius, 200 B.C., who used a scheme of eleven hun- dred signs that he devised for the purpose of writing more swiftly than was possible by the ordinary alphabet. Doubtless some method of abbreviating words was used by the Hebrews, and also by the Persians, several hundred years before Christ, though there is no evidence that shorthand characters or other special symbols were employed. The first definite and indisputable evi- dence of the use of shorthand is recorded by Plutarch, who mentions that in the debate on the Catilinian conspiracy in the Roman Senate in 63 B.C. the famous oration of Cicero was reported in shorthand. The method of shorthand used was invented by Tiro, who was a freedman of Marcus Tullius Cicero. Like many of the slaves of that time, captives of other nations, he was highly educated, and on receiving his freedom from Cicero he adopted two thirds of his master's name and became Marcus Tullius Tiro. He then became Cicero's secretary and confidant. When one re- members that the shorthand-writers of those days were without paper, pen, pencil, or ink, and pos- sessed only a crude method of shorthand-writing, it is almost incredible that they could report anything. The writing was done on tablets that were covered with a layer of wax. The ed cs of the wax tablets were raised in order to allow their being closed without injury to the writing. These tablets were fastened together at the corners by wire, thus forming a kind of book. As many as twenty tablets could be so fastened. When the book consisted of two tablets only it was called a diploma, and the official appointments conferring public office were in that form ; hence our word 'diploma.' The instrument used for writing was a stylus, which was about the size of an ordinary pencil, the point being of ivory or steel, with the other end flattened for the purpose of smoothing the wax after a record had been made, in order that the tablet could be used again. It was with such instruments that Cssar was stabbed to death. Tiro must have possessed unusual skill as a short - hand-writer, for Cicero, in writing to a friend when Tiro was absent, complained that his work was delayed because, while he could dictate to Tiro in 'periods,' he had to dictate to others in 'syllables.' Cicero himself was a shorthand-writer, but evidently not a skilful one, as he writes to Atticus, 'You did not understand what I wrote you concerning the ten deputies, I suppose, because I wrote you in shorthand.' In reporting the Roman Senate, it is said that Tiro stationed about forty shorthand-writers in different parts of the Curia, who wrote down on their tablets what they could. The transcripts were afterward pieced together into connected discourse. Even to-day, in the reporting in our own Congress, a somewhat similar method is used, except that the writers take notes in relays. It is stated that some of the Roman stenographers were trained to take down the first parts of sentences and others the closi:ig words. The world is indebted to Tiro and his followers for the transmission to posterity of some of the finest bits of literature and some of the most effec- tive orations of Roman civilization. By the grace of shorthand, we possess the opinions on the im- mortality of the soul of two of the famous men who lived before the Christian era. When we remember that in the days of Cicero and Czesar the sayings of the famous intellectuals were passed on almost entirely by word of mouth, and were handed down in the same manner, the part that shorthand played in the preservation of thought was enormous. A knowledge of the Tironian ABBREVIATION Roman Sysfem Modern Development ABBREVIATION notes became a much-prized possession in Horace, Livy, Ovid, Martial, Pliny, Tacitus, and Suetonius. Julius Caesar was a writer of shorthand, and the poet Ovid, in speaking of this, records, 'By these marks secrets were borne over land and sea.' . . . With the rise of the early Christian Church and the demand for a record of the exact words of the religious leaders of the day, the teaching and practice of the shorthand of Tiro received a new impetus. Pope Clement, in A.D. 196, divided Rome into seven districts and appointed a shorthand- writer for each. Cyprian, the famous bishop of Carthage, devoted much of his time to the elabora- tion of several thousand abbreviations to supple- ment the Tironian notes. These abbreviations were devoted for the main part to scriptural and proper names and to current phrases peculiar to the early Christians, thereby rendering the work 'much more useful to the faithful,' as he expressed it, but at the same time making the learning of shorthand much more difficult. . . . The famous preacher Origen (A.D. 185-253) has left on record the state- ment that he prepared his addresses in shorthand. He did not, however, permit the addresses to be reported until after he was sixty years of age, when he had acquired such skill as an orator that he could be certain that his orations were given in the form he wished. St. Augustine employed ten stenographers. Basil the Great (.\.D. 32g-379) wrote: 'Words have wings, therefore we use signs so that we can attain in writing the swiftness of speech.' . . . Pope Gregory the Great (.\.D. sqo- 604). in the dedication to his famous 'Homilies,' mentions that he had revised them from the stenographic reports. St. Jerome had ten stenogra- phers, four of whom took down his dictation, while six were transcribers who wrote out what the others had taken from dictation. . . . Bearing in mind the fact that the Tironian notes consisted of thousands of arbitrary signs for words and phrases, that the famous orator Seneca developed the Tironian notes by five thousand additional signs of his own invention, and that Bishop Cyprian added many thousands of abbreviations for scrip- tural terms, one may have some idea of the diffi- culties with which the students of shorthand in ancient times had to contend. Perhaps these Ion:: lists of arbitraries were responsible for the sad fate of Cassianus when teaching shorthand. Cassi- anus had been a bishop of Brescia, and when he was expelled from his see, he established an acad- emy at Imola, in the Province of Bologna, in which he taught shorthand. It is recorded that his exasperated pupils suddenly surrounded him and stabbed him to death with their styli. . . . Then there is the sad case of the stenographer to a great ecclesiastic who, finding his stenographer dozing when he should have been transcribing his notes, dealt him such a vigorous 'blow on the ear that the stenographer died from the effects of it, and the churchman had to leave the city in order to avoid trial for manslaughter. With the crude form of shorthand that then prevailed, shorthand- writers had enough to worry about; but we find that the Emperor Severus, in the third century, decreed that a shorthand-writer who made a mis- take in reporting a case should be banished and have the nerves of his fingers cut so that he could never write again. In 1903 archa=olo.:ists discov- ered, one hundred miles south of Cairo, a great many ancient documents on papyri. Among them was a contract with a shorthand-writer, dated .\.D. 137, whereby a boy was to be taught shorthand for the sum of 120 drachms (about $24.00) ; 40 drachmae to be paid in advance, 40 drachmae on satisfactory evidence of the progress of the boy in the acquirement of the art, and a final 40 drachmae when he had become a proficient writer. Remem- ber that, this was 137 years after the birth of Christ. Shorthand was so much in demand in those days that there may have been some profiteer- ing among the teachers of it, because we find that in A.D. 301 the Emperor Diocletian issued an edict fixing tuition fees at seventy-five denares per month for each pupil, about a dollar and a half a month. Evidently the high cost of living did not vex teachers in those days. St. .Augustine records the fact that the stenographers of Rome went on strike on one occasion and succeeded in securing their demands. . . . Peocopius, who was a stenographer to the Emperor Constantine II, be- came a count. He attempted to seize Julius's crown, but, vacillating at the critical moment, was betrayed by his generals and put to death. A teacher of oratory, Fabius Quintilian (.AD. 35-95). in publishing his 'Guide to the Art of Oratory,' complained that his lectures, published by others under his name, had injured him because they had been reported by 'greedy shorthand-writers who had taken them down, and circulated them.' It is stated that the early Christians bribed the judicial shorthand-writers to take down the say- ings of the Christian on trial. These were pre- served in the archives and read at the martyrs' anniversaries in order to encourage the faithful With the decline and dissolution of the Roman Empire, shorthand, like all other arts, lost favor. It was no longer regarded as a great, fashionable art. The Emperor Justinian, in the sixth century, forbade his records being kept by the 'catches and short-cut riddles of signs' Later, Frederick II ordered the destruction of all shorthand-characters as being 'necromantic and diabolical.' As the Holy Roman Empire then covered almost the en- tire known world, the edict of Frederick II ren- dered sharthand one of the lost arts. Then came the Dark .Ages, and for nearly a thousand years the arts and sciences, among them shorthand, were banished from the world." — J. R. Gregg, Juliut CiFsar's stenographer {Century Magazine, May, 1921). Modern development. — "The first evidence of the revival of shorthand that we have in the Renaissance is in the fact that the orations of the reformer Savonarola (1452-1498) were reported in some form of abbreviated writing by Lorenzo di Jacopo ^'iola. There are many omissions or incomplete sentences in these reports, and in paren- thesis there is this quaint explanation by the re- porter. 'Here I was unable to proceed because of weeping.' Was the reporter merely camouflaging his own inability to keep pace with the fiery tongue of the orator? . . . The first system of short- hand published in modern times was that of Dr. Timothy Bright, whose system of 'characterie' was published in London in 1588. Dr. Bright, in the introduction to his book, said that he was inspired to devise his system through reading Plutarch's reference to the reporting of the Catili- nian conspiracy. The full title of Dr. Bright's book was, 'Characterie. .An .Arte of Shorte, Swifte and Secrete Writing by Character.' The system was dedicated to Queen Elizabeth, and letters patent were issued to the author by the crown, dated July 13. 1588, giving him the exclusive right to the publication and use of shorthand . . . 'Characterie' did not meet with favor, and it was superseded by branchy jraphy, tachygraphy, stenog- raphy, and many other names. It is a curious thing that the first mention of the word 'short- hand,' by which the art is now generally known, is in an epitaph which is still to be seen in the 8 ABBREVIATION ABC CONFERENCE cloisters of Westminster Abbey. It is to William Laurence, who died December 28, 1661, and reads: 'Shorthand he wrot, his flowre in prime did fade, And hasty death shorthand of him hath made.' Dr. Bright was a man of rare attainments. He was a distinguished physician and an author of several books of importance. In 1580 one of his books was called 'A Treatise on Melancholy,' and it is beUeved that it suggested to Shakspere many of the pranks of mad people as set forth in his plays, and especially, 'Hamlet.' Shakspere was twenty-four years of age when Bright's book was published, and no doubt he was familiar with it, as it created a stir at the time; indeed, the word 'characterie' is used in two of his plays. Bright's 'Treatise on Melancholy' was published in 1586, and therefore long preceded 'Hamlet.' Recent in- vestigators have found that several expressions in 'Hamlet,' which were heretofore believed to have been original with Shakspere, are to be found in Bright's book ; such as 'discourse of reason.' Bright's system was arbitrary and had not an alphabet that could be connected; it was simply a list of signs to be used for words. The first system with an alphabet was that of John Willis, pub- lished in 1602, and from that time on there was a steady stream of systems or modifications of sys- tems. In the next century and a half more than two hundred systems were published. There was great interest in shorthand at this time. The people were eagerly desirous of preserving in per- manent form the utterances of their beloved re- ligious leaders. All textbooks of that time reflect this, because they are full of abbreviations for biblical phrases. John and Charles Wesley, the founders of the Methodist Church, were short- hand-writers. The Wesleys used the celebrated system of Dr. John Byrom. Dr. Philip Doddridge, in his famous theological college, insisted that all students preparing for the ministry should learn shorthand first in order that they might easily take down his lectures. In 1628 Bishop Earle de- nounced certain 'graceless' persons who did not scruple to report sermons in stenography and then palm them off later as their own. But shorthand was used for other purposes. The most famous diary ever published was that of Samuel Pepys, which was written in the Shelton system. In this diary Pepys gives a vivid account of the Great Plague and the Great Fire of London, with many intimate accounts of the court of King Charles II. Pepys was an expert shorthand-writer, because he mentions in his diary that in April, 1680, he at- tended the king, by command, at Newmarket, and there 'took down in shorthand from his own mouth the narrative of his escape from the battle of Worcester.' It is interesting to recall that Thomas Jefferson, in a letter to his friend Page, dated January 23, 1764, proposed that they should master Shelton's system, the one used by Pepys, so that they might have something which was unintelligible to any one else. He said, 'I will send you some of these days Shelton's Tachygraph- ical Alphabet and directions. ' There is evidence that the art of shorthand was in use in this country within half a dozen years of the landing of the Pilgrims. In the library at Springfield, Massachusetts, there is preserved the shorthand note-books of Major John Pynchon, the son of the founder of Springlield, containing reports of the sermons of the first pastor of Springfield, the Rev. George Moxon. These sermons are dated from 1637 to 1639, seventeen years after the coming of the Mayflower. A majority of the writers of shorthand in New England in the early colonial days were men of distinction. Roger Williams, the founder of Rhode Island, was a very accomplished shorthand-writer. An Indian Bible belonging to him in which are annotations in shorthand is still preserved in one of the historical societies. It is not, however, generally known that many years before coming to this country Roger Williams, at nineteen years of age, was em- ployed by the famous lawyer Sir Edward Coke to report the proceedings of the Star Chamber in 1618. John Winthrop, Jr., the son of the first governor of Massachusetts, and who was himself afterward governor of Connecticut, was an ac- complished shorthand-writer. When he arrived in Boston in 1631 he proceeded to superintend the settlement of the town of Ipswich, Massachusetts, while his wife Martha remained in Boston. They corresponded in shorthand, and many of these shorthand letters, which were written in 1633, are preserved by the Winthrop families under the date of that year. I mention this particularly because Martha Winthrop is the first American shorthand- writer of the gentler sex of whom we have record. As early as 1650 Sir Ralph Verney spoke of the 'multitudes of women practicing shorthand in church.' A discourse published in 1700 was de- scribed as 'taken down in characters from the pulpit by a young maiden.' In his autobio.;raphy Benjamin Franklin says: 'My uncle Benjamin had formed a shorthand of his own, which he taught me. He was very pious and a very great attender of the best preachers which he took down in short- hand, and he had many volumes of them. My father intended to devote me to the service of the Church. My uncle offered to give me his collec- tion of sermons as a sort of stock in trade with which to start.' In 1837 Isaac Pitman published a system called 'Stenographic Sound-Hand,' which was revived in 1840 and published as 'Phonog- raphy.' So great was the interest displayed in the study of the art that enormous classes were or- ganized, and in order to avail themselves of the teaching of Pitman, many of these met at six o'clock in the morning, and others continued their work until ten in the evening. ... It was not until the invention of a simpler shorthand that there came the present growing interest in it as an art that should be mastered by everybody, whether they wish to make use of it professionally or otherwise." — Ibid. Ciphers of Roger Bacon. See Science: Middle Ages and the Renaissance. ABC ALLIANCE: Origin and nature of. See Latin America: 1012-1015; 1018. ABC CONFERENCE, a meeting held at Niagara, May-June, 1Q14, of representatives chosen by the ABC powers, Argentina, Brazil and Chile, which had as its object the peaceful settlement of the differences which had arisen between the United States and Mexico in 1Q14. "President Wilson had a very disagreeable situation to face when he assumed control of affairs at Washington. He refused to recognize Huerta whose authority was contested by insurrectionary chiefs in various parts of the country. It was claimed by the critics of the administration that the refusal to recognize Huerta was a direct violation of the well known American policy of recognizing de jacto govern- ments without undertaking to pass upon the rights involved. It is perfectly true that the United States has consistently followed the policy of recognizing de jacto governments as soon as it is evident in each case that the new government rests on popular approval and is likely to be permanent. This doctrine of recognition is distinctively an ABC CONFERENCE ABDICATION American doctrine. It was first laid down by Thomas Jefferson when he was Secretary of State as an offset to the European doctrine of divine right, and it was the natural outgrowth of that other Jeflersonian doctrine that all governments derive their just powers from the consent of the governed. Huerta could lay no claim to authority derived from a majority or anything like a majority of the Me.xican people. He was a self- constituted dictator, whose authority rested solely on military force. President Wilson and Secretary Bryan were fully justified in refusing to recognize his u.surpation of power, though they probably made a mistake in announcing that they would never recognize him and in demanding his elim- ination from the presidential contest. This an- nouncement made him deaf to advice from Wash- ington and utterly indifferent to the destruction of American life and property. The ne.xt step in the President's course with reference to Mexico was the occupation of Vera Cruz. On April 20, 1Q14, the President asked Congress for authority to employ the armed forces of the United States in demanding redress for the arbitrary arrest of .American marines at Vera Cruz, and the next day -Admiral Fletcher was ordered to seize the custom house at that port. This he did after a sharp fight with Huerta's troops in which nineteen Amer- icans were killed and seventy wounded. The Amer- ican charge d'affaires, Nelson O'Shaughnessy, was at once handed his passports, and all diplomatic relations between the United States and Mexico were severed. .\ few days later the representatives of the so-called ABC powers, Argentina, Brazil, and Chile, tendered their good offices for a peaceful settlement of the conflict and President Wilson promptly accepted their mediation." — J. H. Latane, United Stales and Latin America, pp. 308-310. Mediation agreement: Protocol. — The first for- mal session of the mediation conference was held at Niagara Falls on May 20, 1014. The United States was represented by .Associate Justice Joseph R. Lamar and Frederick W. Lehmann, former So- licitor-General, -Argentina, Brazil and Chile by their Plenipotentiaries, and Gen. Huerta by .Augustin Rodriguez, Emilio Rabasa, and Luis Elguero. After five weeks of difficult labor during which the conference was several times on the brink of failure, the delegates issued a protocol which was signed on June 24 by all the mediators. It read as follows: "Article I. — The provisional government referred to in protocol No. 3 shall be constituted by agreement of the delegates representing the parties between which the internal struggle in Mexico is taking place. Article 11. — (a) Upon the constitution of the provisional government in the City of Mexico, the Government of the United States of America will recognize it immediately, and thereupon diplomatic relations between the two countries will be restored, (ft) The Government of the United States also will not in any form whatsoever claim a war indemnity or other in- ternational satisfaction, (c) The provisional gov- ernment will proclaim an absolute amnesty to all foreigners for any and all political offenses com- mitted during the period of Civil War in Mexico, (rf) The provisional government will negotiate for the constitution of international commissions for the settlement of the claims of foreigners on ac- count of damages sustained during the period of Civil War as a consequence of military acts or the acts of the national authorities. -Article III. — The Three mediating Governments agree on their part to recognize the provisional government or- ganized as provided in section 1 of this protocol." — American year book, iqi4, p. 76.— .Although this protocol was not made operative in any par- ticular, Huerta voluntarily resigned July 15th "On August :o, General Venustiano Carranza, head of one of the revolutionary factions, assumed con- trol of affairs at the capital, but his authority was disputed by General Francisco Villa, another in- surrectionary chief. On Carranza's promise to re- spect the lives and property of American citizens the United States forces were withdrawn from Vera Cruz in November, 1914. In .August, 1Q15, at the request ef President Wilson the six ranking representatives of Latin -America at Washington made an unsuccessful effort to reconcile the con- tending factions of Mexico. On their advice, how- ever. President Wilson decided in October to recognize the government of Carranza, who now controlled three-fourths of the territory of Mexico." — Ibid., p. 310. — See also U.S..A.: 1014 (.April). ABD-AL-BAHA IBN BAHA ALLAH. See Abbas Effendi. ABDALLAH, Mohammedan missionary in Af- rica, nth centurv. See .Almoravides. ABDALLAH IBN ZOBAIR (022-692), caliph of -Mecca. See Caliphate: 715-750. ABDALLEE, Ahmed (Ahmad Shah Durani), shah of .Afghanistan, 1747-1773. See Ixdta: 1747- 1761. ABD-AR-RAHMAN (I-V), a succession of members of the Ommayyad family, whose founder. -Abd-ar-rahman I, escaped from the destruction of his house by the -Abbasids, and ultimately founded in Spain the Ommayyad caliphate of Cordova. His reign began in 756, and his family continued to rule until 1031. See Caliphate: 756-1031. ABD-EL-AZIZ IV (1880- ), sultan of Mo- rocco, iQoo-igo8. Proposed the conference at Al- geciras in igo6; regarded by his people as a weak ruler and in 1907-1908 was supplanted by his brother Mulai el Hafid. See Morocco: 1903, and 1907-1909. ABD-EL-KADER (c.1807-1883), amir of Mas- cara. The i-'reat leader of the .Algerian tribes against France, 1830-1847; yielded in 1847 and spent his last years in Damascus; celebrated throughout the Barbary States and highly es- teemed by the French. See Barb.ary States: 1830- 1846. ABD-EL-MUMIN EL KUMI (1130-1163), caliph and Commander of the Faithful. See Al- MOHADEs; .Africa: -Ancient and medieval civiliza- tion: .Arab occupation: Relations with Europe: Effects of Arab influence. ABDERA, an ancient maritime town on the southern coast of Spain, bordering on the Mediter- ranean sea. The Carthaginians founded the town to be used as a trading station. It was subse- quently taken over by the Romans. Abdera is the birthplace of the philosopher Democritus, of the historian Hecataus and other distinguished men. ABDERHALDEN'S ENZYME REACTION. See Medical science: Modern: 20th century: Ex- perimental method. ABDICATION, the renunciation, formally or otherwise, of an office, power or right. The term is used chiefly with reference to rulers. An ab- solute monarch may abdicate at will ; in some constitutional monarchies the consent of the par- liament is required. In England, action of both Houses of Parliament is necessary to validate an abdication. In the case of King James II it was decided by Parliament that the king's desertion of his official duties, followed by his flight from the realm, constituted an abdication of his royal po- sition. History records a number of voluntary ab- dications, as well as numerous occasions on which 10 ABDICATION ABELARD the ruler was compelled by insurrection to renounce his throne. The following list of abdications, forced and voluntary, is by no means exhaustive, but includes those which have special interest or importance. Wholesale abdications, such as occurred in the minor German states immediately after the World War, may be found under the names of the sep- arate states. Ptolemy I of E^ypt (B.C. 285). See Mace- donia: B.C. 2g7-28o. Diocletian, Roman Emperor (A.D. May, 305). See Rome: 284-305. Edward II of England (1327) See England: 1327- Richard II of England (ijqq). See England: I3qg-i47i. Charles V, Emperor (Sept., 1558). See Ger- many: 1552-1561; Netherlands: i5.';s. Christina of Sweden (July, 1(154). See Sweden: 1644-1607. Charles IV of Spain (May, 1808). See Spain: 1807-1808. Ferdinand VII of Spain (May, 1808). See Spain: 1807-1808. Louis Bonaparte of Holland (July, 1810). See Netherlands: 1806-1810. Napoleon I (April, 1814; June, 1815). See France: 1814 (March-April) ; 1815, ( June-.Aug.). Victor Emmanuel I (March, 1821). See Italy: 1820-1821. Charles X of France (July, 1830). See France: 1815-1830. Pedro I of Brazil (1831). See Brazil: 1825-1865. Pedro IV of Portugal (.^pril, 1831). See Portugal: 1824-1800; Brazil: 1825- 1865. Christina of Spain (Oct., 1840). See Sp.«n: 1833-1846. William I of Holland (Oct., 1840). See Nether- lands: 1840-1840. Ferdinand of Austria (Dec, 1848). See Aus- tria: 1848-1840; Hungary: 1847-1840. Louis Philippe of France (Feb., 1848). See France: 1841-1848. Charles Albert of Sardinia (March, 1840). See Italy: 1848-1840. Isabella II of Spain (June, 1870). See Spain: 1868-1873. Amadeus I of Spain (Feb. 11, 1873). See Spain: 1868-1873. Alexander I of Bulgaria (Sept., 1886). See Bul- garia: 1885-1886. Milan of Serbia (March, i88q). See Serbia: 1885-1003. Pedro II of Brazil (t88o). See Brazil: i 880-1 8qi. Yl Hiong, Emperor of Korea (July, 1Q07). See Korea: 1005-1000. Abd-ul-Hamid II of Turkey (April 27, igog). See Turkey: igoq. Mohammed Ali of Persia (July, igog). See Persia: iqo8-igog. Hsuan Tung (Pu Yi) of China (Feb., 1012). See China: 1012 (Jan.). Nicholas II of Russia (March, igi7). See Europe: Modern period; Russia in the igth cen- tury; Russia: March, igi7 (March 8-15); World War: igi7: HI. Russia and the Eastern front: h. Michael, grand duke of Russia (March, igi7). See Russia: 1017 (March, 16-20). Constantine I of Greece (June, 1Q17). See Greece: igi6; World War: igi?: V. Balkan the- atre: a, 1. Charles I of Austria (Nov., igi8). See Austria- Hungary: igi8. Grand duke of Baden (igi8). See Baden: igi8. Ferdinand I of Bulgaria (Oct., igi8). See Bul- garia: 1018; World War; 1918: V. Balkan the- atre: c, 11. William II of Germany (Nov., 1918). See Europe: Nov., igi8; Germany: Nov., 1918. Marie Adelaide, grand duchess of Luxemburg (iq2o). See Lu.vemburg: igig-ig2i. ABDUL AZIZ, sultan of Turkey, 1861-1876. By imperial lirman of 1866 he conceded to Ismail Pasha and his descendants, the hereditary right to the office of khedive of Egypt. Largely re.sponsible for the Bulgarian massacres of 1875. Popular dis- content at his misgovernment led to his deposition, May 30, 1876. He was found dead in his apart- ments four days later. See Turkey: 1861-1870. Islamic teachings of. See Wahhabis. ABDU'L BAHA. See Abbas Effendi. ABDUL HAMID I, sultan of Turkey, 1773- 17S0. Involved in a series of unsuccessful wars with Catherine II of Russia, as a result of which Turkey lost the Crimea and adjacent territories. See Turkey: 1774 and 1776-1792. Abdul Hamid II (1842- 1018), sultan of Tur- key, 1876-igog. Came to power in trying times, suppressed the attempted Parliamentary reforms of the Young Turks and inaugurated an ab- solutist regime; responsible for the Armenian outrages of 1805 and i8g6. Political conflicts caused by the SHCcess of the Young Turks enabled Austria-Hungary formally to annex the occupied provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina (igo8). De- posed (igog) by the Youiv4 Turks. — See also Tur- key: 1861-1876; 1877 io igog. Supporter of Fan-Islamic movement. See Pan-Islanhsm. ABDUL MEJID, sultan of Turkey, 1830-1861. In spite of sincere attempts at reform, his reign was a failure because of the practical loss of Egypt through his defeat by Mehcmet Ali, and the ex- haustion of Turkey in consequence of the Crimean war. — See also Turkey: 1830. ABDULLAH, Mohammed, Somali mullah, leader of the rebellion in igo2. See Somaliland. ABDULLAH IBN SEYYID MOHAMMED (c. 1846-1800), the khalifa, ruler of Egyptian Su- dan. See Egypt: 1885-1806. ABDUR RAHMAN (d. 666), Saracen generaL See Caliphate: 715-7^2. ABDUR RAHMAN KHAN, amir of Afghanis- tan, 1880-iqoi. See Afghanistan: i86g-i88i and I001-iqo6. ABEKEN, Heinrich (i8oq-i872), chaplain to the Prussian embassy at Rome in 1834. Was in high favor with Bismarck, whose official dispatches he was employed to write, and with King William, whom he accompanied on several campaigns and diplomatic missions during the Franco-German War. Composed the famous Ems dispatch, which, as edited by Bismarck, precipitated the Franco- German War. — See also France: 1870 (June-July). ABEL, Sir Frederick Augustus (1827-1002), English chemist. Expert in the science of ex- plosives; consulting chemist to the British war department, 1854-1 888; prepared guncotton in a form which increased its usefulness ; with James Dewar invented cordite, the standard explosive of the British army — See also Che\ustry: Practical application: Explosives: Gunpowder. ABELARD, Peter (1070-1142), scholastic philosopher, teacher and theologian. He was a bold and original thinker with an irrepressible thirst for knowledge, and his overthrow of reahsm was the precursor of the Aristotelian ascendancy in the Middle Ages. He created enemies among the teachers who were lecturing in France by de- feating them in debate, and by his remarkable II ABENAQUES ABNAKIS work "Yea and Nay" he introduced the fashion of discussing the tenets of Christianity. Cruelly persecuted both for his doctrines, and for his love for Heloise, he lied from monastery to monastery. While on his way to Rome to suffer imprisonment by the church, he died at Cluny. The founding of the University of Paris was in great part due to his influence. — See also Eoucation': Medieval: Qth-i5th centuries: Scholasticism, Schoolmen; and iith-i2th centuries: Universities, Their rise; also U^^VEKSITlKs .and colleges: 1201-167Q. Also in: C. de Remusat, Abelard (1845). — J. McCabe, Peler Abelard. — H. Morton, Love letters of Abilard and Heloise. ABENAQUES. See .'Vbnakis, Abenaques or Taranteens. ABENCERRAGES, a powerful family in the Moorish kingdom of Granada. The name became famous in Spanish romance through feuds between the Abencerrages and their rivals, the Zegris. Toward the close of Moorish rule the family is said to have been massacred in the .Mhambra by King Abu Hassan. See Spain: 12,^8-1273 and 1470- 1402. ABENCERRAGES, Hall of. See Alhambra. ABENSBERG, a small town in lower Bavaria, Germany, on the Abens, eighteen miles southwest of Ratisbon. It gained prominence in the .•\ustrian offensive of iSoq. Here, on the 20th of April, i8oq. Napoleon pained a signal victory over the Austrian army under the .'\rchduke Charles and General Hiller. This opened the way to the vic- tory of Eckmiihl, and the retirement of the .Aus- trians. See Germany: i8oq ( Januarv-June) . ABERCROMBIE, James (1706-1781), com- mander-in-chief of British and Colonial forces in .'\merica, 1757; his defeat following his attack on Ticonderoga led to his removal ir 1759. See Can- aua: 1758. ABERCROMBIE, Lascellea (1881- ), Eng- lish poet. See English literature: 1880-1920. ABERCROMBY, Sir Ralph (1734-1S01), dis- tinguished soldier of Great Britain. Served in the Seven Years' War; fell in battle with the French near Ale.xandria. — See also France: 1S01-1S02. ABERDARE, Henry Austin Bruce, 1st Baron of (1815-1805), English statesman; entered parlia- ment, 1862; home secretary under Gladstone, i8oq; responsible for Licensing Act of 1872 ; made lord president of the council and raised to the peerage 1873; political life closed with the defeat of the Liberal government in 1874. His last years were devoted to social and educational activities. ABERDEEN, George Hamilton Gordon, 4th Earl of (1784-iSbo), English statesman and schol- ar. Signed the treaty of Teplitz at \'ienna (1813) for Great Britain; represented his country at the Congress of Chatillon-sur-Seine (1814). Secretary of state for foreign affairs under'Peel, 1841-1846; prime minister, 1852-1855. See England: 1851- 1852, and 1855. ABERDEEN, a seaport and fourth largest city in Scotland, situated on a bay of the .North Sea between the rivers Don and Dee; scat of the Uni- versity of .Aberdeen, which was formed b.v the incorporation (i860) of King's College (founded in 1404) and Marischal College (1500 ABERDEEN AND TEMAIR, Ishbel Maria (Marjoribanks), Marchioness of (1857- ), Brit- ish social worker and writer. Founded the On- ward and LIpward .Assoc!;' Uon to promote coop- eration among women of different stations of life; the Irish Industries Association; the Canadi:in Na- tional Council of Women ; and the Victorian Order of Nurses. President of the International Council of Women, 1893 1800; reelected in 1904 ABERDEEN AND TEMAIR, John Campbell Gordon, 1st Marquess of (1847- ), English Liberal. Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, 1886; Gov- ernor-General of Canada, 1893 -1898; upon the formation of the Liberal ministry under Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, again Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, 1905-1915. ABGEORDNETEN HAUS (Chamber of Deputies), Austria. See Austria: 1907. ABHORRERS, the name given to those who were opposed to the signers of a petition in 1079 urging King Charles II to assemble parliament. During this controversy, it is said, the terms Whig and Tory were first applied to the two English factions. See also Petitioners and Abiiorrers. ABILITY TESTS FOR CHILDREN. See Education: Modern developments: Experiments: Intelligence tests. ABIPONES. See Pamp.« tribes. A6IR, or A. B. I. R. Company. See Belgian Congo: 1903-1905. ABJURATION, Act of. See Netherlands: 1577-1581. ABLAINCOURT, France, stormed by the French. See World War: 1910: II. Western front: c, 3. ABLAIN-ST. NAZAIRE, France, taken by the French. See World War: 1915: II. Western front: a, 5. ABLAINZEVELLE, France, taken by the Germans. See World War: 1918: II. Western Iront: c, 26. ABNAKIS, or Abenaques, or Taranteens.— "The Abnakis I Indians] were called Taranteens by the English, and Owenagungas by the New Yorkers. . . . We must admit that a large portion of the North .American Indians were called .Vbnakis, if not by themselves, at least by others. This wont .Abnaki is found spelt .Abenaques, .Abenaki, Wapa- nachki, and Wabenakics by different writers of var- ious nations, each adopting the manner of spelling according to the rules of pronunciation of their respective native languages. . .,. The word gen- erally received is spelled thus, .Abnaki, but it should be 'Wanbanaghi,' from the Indian word 'wanbanban,' designating the people of Ihe .Aurora Borealis, or in general, of the place where the sky commences to appear white at the breaking of the day. ... It has been difficult for different writers to determine the number of nations or tribes com- prehended under this word .Abnaki. It being a general word, by itself designates the people of the east or northeast. . . . We find that the word Ab- naki was applied in general, more or less, to all the Indians of the East, by persons who were not much acquainted with the aborigines of the coun- try. On the contrary, the early writers and other- well acquainted with the natives of New France and Acadia, and the Indians themselves, by Ab- nakis always pointed out a particular nation ex- isting north-west and south of the Keimebec river, and they never designated any other people of. the .Atlantic shore, from Cape Hatteras to Newfound- land. . . . The .Abnakis had five great villages, tw.i amongst the French colonies, which must be the village of St. Joseph or Sillery, and that of St. Francis de Sales, both in Canada, three on the head waters, or along three rivers, between .Acadia and New England. These three rivers are Ihe Kenne- bec, the Androscoggin, and the Saco. . . . The na- tion of the .Abnakis bear evident marks of having been an original people in their name, manners, and language. They show a kind of civilization which must be the effect of antiquity, and of a past flourishing age."— E Vetromile, Abnaki In- dians (Maine Historical Soc. Coll., v. 6) — See also 12 ABNORMAL CHILDREN ABSENTEEISM Algonquian Fahuly; Indians, American: Cul- tural areas in North America: Eastern Woodlands Area.- — For some account of the wars of the Ab- nakis, with the New England colonics, see Canada (New France): 1689-1690, 1692-1697; New Eng- land: 1675 (July-September); 1702-1710, 1711- i7n; Nova Scotia: I7i,vi7.50- ABNORMAL CHILDREN. See Child Wel- fare. ABNORMAL CLASSES, Education for. See Education: Modern developments: Education for the_ deaf, the blind and the feeble-minded. ABO, Peace of (1743). See Russia: 1740-1762. ABOLITION, ABOLITIONISTS. See Illi- nois: 1831-1837; Slavery: 1828-1832 and 1840- 1847; U. S. A.: 1807, 1S29-1S32, 1831-1836, 1835, 1837-1840, 18.S0 (March), (April-September); ViR- GiNnA: 1776-1S15. Abolitionism In literature. See American lit- erature: 1830-1890. ABOMINATIONS, Bill of. See Tariff: 1828. ABORIGINES, American. See Indians, Amer- ican. ABORIGINES, Exchange among. See Com- merce: Prehistoric and primitive. ABOUKIR, a village in northern Egypt on the bay of Aboukir, thirteen miles northeast of Alex- andria. In the bay was fought the battle of the Nile (1798) [see France: 1798-1799: Au^ust-.^u- gust] in which the English under Lord Nelson defeated the French fleet under Brueys. Near the village a year later, Napoleon defeated the Turks. ■In 1801 the town was captured by the English under Sir Ralph Abercromby. See France: 1801- 1802; World War: 1914: IX. Naval operations: b. ABOUKIR, British cruiser, sunk on September 22, 1914, together with the Hague and the Cressy, by Otto von Weddigen, commander of a German submarine. See World War: 1914: IX. Naval operations. ABRAHAM, biblical and traditional patriarch, founder of the Hebrew nation. His name has be- come synonymous with absolute faith in God and implicit obedience to the divine will. In the Ko- ran, he is represented as being from early child- hood the solitary exponent of monotheism and vio- lently persecuted by the polytheistic idolators on account of his fearless proclamation of the oneness of God. It is on the strength of the divine promise to Abraham that the Bible represents the jews as a chosen people. — See also Jews: Early Hebrew history; Jews: Children of Israel in Egypt. ABRAHAM, Plains of, that part of the high plateau of Quebec on which the memorable victory of Wolfe was won, September 13, 1759. The plain was so called "from Abraham Martin, a pilot known as Maitrc .Abraham, who had owned a piece of land here in the early times of the colony." — F. Parkman, Montcalm and iVolfe, v. 2, p. 289. — For an account of the battle which gave distinction to the Plains of .Abraham, see Canada: 1759 (July- September). ABRAMS VERSUS UNITED STATES.— Supreme Court decisions. Sec Supreme Court: 1917-1921. ABRANTES, Duke of. See Tunot, Andoche. ABRANTES, a town of Portugal in Estrema- dura, on the Tagus. Captured on the 24th of No- vember, 1807, by the French General Junot (Due d' Abrantes), who made it the starting-point of his march on Lisbon and the conquest of Portugal. ABRUZZI, Prince Luigi Amedeo, Duke of the (1873- ), Arctic explorer. See Arctic explora- tion: 1917-1918; Chronological record: 1899-1900, 1901 ; and Map of Arctic Regions. ABSALON (II28-I20I), Danish archbishop, statesman and soldier. In 1168 succeeded in forc- ing the Wends to accept the Christian religion and Danish sovereignty. ABSAROKAS. See Siouan Family. ABSENCE, Ascertaining legality of death. Sec Common Law: 1604. ABSENTEE OWNERSHIP. See Absentee- ism. ABSENTEE VOTING. See Suffrage: Elec- tions. ABSENTEEISM.— "An absentee may be vari- ously defined (i) as a landed proprietor who re- sides away from his estate, or (2) from his country; or more generally (3) any unproductive consumer who lives out of the country from which he derives his income. Examples of these species are (i) a seigneur under the ancien regime living in Paris at a distance from his estates; (2) an Irish landlord resident abroad; an Anglo-Indian ex-official resident in England and drawing a pen- .sion from India. ' — R. H. I. Palgrave, Dictionary of political economy. — "Those who live in another country contribute nothing, by their consumption, towards the support of the government of that country in which is situated the source of their revenue. If in this latter country there should be no land tax, nor any considerable duty upon the transference either of moveable or immoveable property, as is the case in Ireland, such absentees may derive a great revenue from the protection of a government to the support of which they do not contribute a single shilling. This inequality is likely to be greatest in a country of which the government is in some respects subordinate and dependent upon that of some other. The people who possess the most extensive property in the dependent, will in this case generally choose to live in the governing country. Ireland is pre- cisely in this situation, and we cannot therefor wonder that the proposal of a tax upon absentees should be so very popular in that country." — A. Smith, Wealth of nations (1776). — "Absen- teeism is an old evil, and in very early times re- ceived attention from the government. . . . . Some of the disadvantages to the community aris- ing from the absence of the more wealthy and in- telligent classes are apparent to every one. Unless the landlord is utterly poverty-stricken or very unenterprising, 'there is a great deal more going on' when he is in the country. ... I am con- vinced that absenteeism is a great disadvantage to the country and the people. . . . It is too much to attribute to it all the evils that have been set down to its charge. It is, however, an important consideration that the people regard it as a grievance; and think the twenty-five or thirty millions of dollars paid every year to these land- lords, who are rarely or never in Ireland, is a tax grievous to be borne." — D. B. King, Irish question (1882), pp. S-ii. "The Irish system of landholding was exceed- ingly bad, for it contained many vicious features with scarcely any redeeming ones. . . . The ownership of the soil was vested, not in those who tilled it. but in those whose ancestors had profited from the confiscations in former years. These Irish landlords, mainly of English origin, regarded their estates merely as sources of revenue and cared little about the condition of the tenants, whom they greatly despised. Many of them were 'absentee landlords' living in England ; their prop- erties were managed by agents, who, in order to 13 ABSENTEEISM ABSENTEEISM please their employers, would raise the rents of the tenants on every possible pretext. Improve- ments on the farm had to be made by the peasant. If he drained a marsh, built a fence, or improved his cottage, his rent was immediately raised by the landlord; if he refused to pay it, he was promptly evicted and the improvements, as well as the farm, became the landlord's prop- erty without compensation to the tenant. From 1849 to 1882 no fewer than 363,000 peasant fam- ilies were evicted from their homes. Often the fear of losing the money invested in the improve- ments compelled the peasant to suffer the greatest privations in order to satisfy the greed of the landlord. In this way the latter used as a means of coercion the very value created by the peasant. Owners refused to improve their properties, and the tenants were naturally slow to invest labor and money for the benefit of the former ; hence the land was wretchedly cultivated. This system of 'rack-renting,' as it was called, became notorious the world over and excited the greatest sympathy for the Irish peasants." — J. S. Schapiro, Modern and contemporary European history, pp. 388-389. — See also Agriculture; Ireland: 1O07-1611. France was in somewhat the same position be- fore the Revolution, which effected a great reform in land ownership. A French authority thus de- scribes the situation; "Set aside in public mat- ters, freed from taxation, the seignior remains isolated and a stranger among his vassals; his extinct authority with his unimpaired privileges form for him an existence apart. When he emerges from it, it is to forcibly add to the pub- lic misery. On this soil, ruined by the fisc [the crown rights to an estate], he takes a portion of its product, so much in sheaves of wheat and so many measures of wine. His pigeons and his game eat up the crops. People are obliged to grind in his mill, and to leave with him a six- teenth of the flour. . . . The spectacle be- comes still more gloomy, on passing from the estates on which the seigniors reside to those on which they are non-residents. Noble or en- nobled, lay and ecclesiastic, the latter are priv- ileged among the privileged and form an aris- tocracy inside of an aristocracy. Almost all the powerful and accredited families belong to it whatever may be their origin and their date. Through their habitual or frequent residence near the court, through their alliances or mutual visits, through their habits and their luxuries, through the influence which they exercise and the enmities which they provoke, they form a group apart, and are those who possess the most extensive estates, the leading suzerainties, and the com- pletest and most comprehensive jurisdictions. Of the court nobility and of the higher clergy, they number, perhaps, a thousand in each order, while their small number only brings out in higher re- lief the enormity of their advantages. ... It is evident, that, with such revenues, coupled with the feudal rights, police, justiciary and adminis- trative, which accompany them, an ecclesiastic or lay grand seignior is, in fact, a sort of prince in his district; that he bears too close a resem- blance to the ancient sovereign to be entitled to live as an ordinary individual ; that his private advantages impose on him a public character; that his rank, and his enormons profits, make it in- cumbent on him to perform proportionate services, and that, even under the sway of the intendant, he owes to his vassals, to his tenants, to his feudatories the support of his mediation, of his patronage and of his gains. This requires a home residence, but, generally, he is an absentee. For a hundred and fifty years a kind of all-powerful attraction diverts the grandees from the provinces and impels them towards the capital; and the movement is irresistible for it is the effect of two forces, the greatest and most universal that in- fluence mankind, one, a social position, and the other the national character. A tree is not to be severed from its roots with impunity. .'Xn aris- tocracy organized to rule becomes detached from the soil when it no longer rules; and it ceases to rule the moment when, through increasing and constant encroachments, almost the entire justi- ciary, the entire administration, the entire police, each detail of the local or general government, the power of initiating, of collaboration, of con- trol regarding taxation, elections, roads, public works and charities, passes over into the hands of the intendant or of the sub-delegate, under the supreme direction of the comptroller-general or of the king's council. Clerks, gentry 'of the robe and the quill,' plebeians enjoying no considera- tion, perform the work; there is no way to pre- vent it. . . . 'The great proprietors,' says another contemporary, ['De I'etat religieux,' by the abbes de Bonnefoi et Bernard, 1784] 'attracted to and kept in our cities by luxurious enjoyments know nothing of their estates,' save 'of their agents whom they harass for the support of a ruinous ostentation. How can ameliorations be looked for from those who even refuse to keep things up and make indispensable repairs?' A sure proof that their absence is the cause of the evil is found in the visible difference between the domain worked under an absent abbe-commenda- tory and a domain superintended by monks living on the spot. 'The intelligent traveller recognizes it' at first sight by the state of cultivation. 'If he finds fields well enclosed by ditches, carefully planted, and covered with rich crops, these fields, he says to himself, belong to the monks. Almost always, alongside of these fertile plains, is an area of ground badly tilled and almost barren, presenting a painful contrast; and yet the soil is the same, being two portions of the same domain ; he sees that the latter is the portion of the abbe- commendatop.'.' 'The abbatial manse,' said Le- franc de Pompignan, 'frequently looks like the patrimony of a dissipator; the monastic manse is like a patrimony whereon nothing is neglected for its amelioration,' to such an extent that 'the two- thirds' which the abbe enjoys bring him less than the third reserved by his monks. The ruin or impoverishment of agriculture is, again, one of the effects of absenteeism ; there was, perhaps, one- third of the soil in France, which, deserted as in Ireland, was as badly tilled, as little productive as in Ireland in the hands of the rich absentees, the English bishops, deans and nobles. Doing nothing for the soil how could they do anything for men? Now and then, undoubtedly, especially with farms that pay no rent, the steward writes a letter, alleging the misery of the farmer. There is no doubt, also, and especially for thirty years back, they desire to be humane; they descant among themselves about the rights of man ; the sight of the pale face of a hungry peasant would give them pain. But they never see him; does it ever occur to them to fancy what it is like under the awkward and complimentary phrases of their agent? Moreover, do they know what hunger is? Who amongst them has had any rural expe- riences? And how could they picture to them- selves the misery of this forlorn being ? They are too remote from him to do that, too ignorant 14 ABSOLUTE MUSIC ABSOLUTISM of his mode of life. The portrait they conceive of him is imaginary ; never was there a falser representation of the peasant; accordingly the awakening is to be terrible. They view him as the amiable swain, gentle, humble and grateful, simple- hearted and right-minded, easily led, being con- ceived according to Rousseau and the idyls per- formed at this very epoch in all private drawing- rooms Lacking a knowledge of him they over- look him ; they read the steward's letter and im- mediately the whirl of high life again seizes them and, after a sigh bestowed on the distress of the poor, they make up their minds that their in- come for the year will be short. A disposition of this kind is not favorable to charity. Ac- cordingly, complaints arise, not against the resi- dents but against the absentees. ... 'I have in my parish," says a curate of Berry, 'six .simple benefices of which the titularies are always ab- sent, and they enjoy together an income of nine thousand livres; I sent them in writing the most urgent entreaties during the calamity of the past year; I received from one of them two louis only, and most of them did not even answer me.' Stronger is the reason for a conviction that in ordinary times they will make no remission of their dues Moreover, these dues, the censives [quit- rent], the lods el ventes [lord's dues], tithes, and the like, are in the hands of a steward, and he is a good steward who returns a large amount of money He has no right to be generous at his master's expense, and he is tempted to turn the subjects of his master to his own profit. In vain might the soft seignorial hand be disposed to be easy or paternal ; the hard hand of the proxy bears down on the peasants with all its weight, and the cautiousness of a chief gives place to the exactions of a clerk How is it then when, instead of a clerk on the domain, a fermier [farmer] is found, an adjudicator who, for an annual sum purchases of the seignior the man- agement and product of his dues? In the election of Mayenne, and certainly also in many others, the principal domains are rented in this way. Moreover there are a number of dues, like the tolls, the market-place tax, that on the flock apart, the monopoly of the oven and of the mill which can scarcely be managed otherwise; the seignior must necessarily employ an adjudicator who spares him the disputes and the trouble of collecting In this case, so frequent, the pressure and the rapacity of the contractor, who is de- termined to gain or, at least, not to lose, falls on the peasantry: 'He is a ravenous wolf,' says Renauldon, 'let loose on the estate, who draws upon it to the last sou, who crushes the subjects, reduces them to beggary, forces the cultivators to desert, and renders odious the master who finds himself obliged to tolerate his exactions as to be able to profit by them"— H. A Taine, Ancient regime (tr by J. Durand), pp. 40-52. Also in: J. S. Mill, Political economy.^]. R. McCulloch, article Absenteeism, in Treatises and essays on mnnev.—A. de Tocquevillc, Old regime. ABSOLUTE MUSIC, a term used to express the type of music that derives none of its in- terest from external things, therefore being in the greatest contrast to program music. It appeals directly to the emotions without reference to the intellect. The term arose about the middle of the nineteenth century when the new school of pro- gram music came into being. See Music: Later iqth century: Brahms. ABSOLUTISM, in the stricter sense, a form of government in which the sovereign wields supreme power based directly upon force and unchecked by laws or political tradition; in the more usual sense, a term applied to the political system of any state which has not achieved representative government. With the exception of two brief periods, those of the Athenian democracy and the Roman republic. It was almost the only form known to the ancient world, and in Oriental countries has prevailed even down to recent years. In Western Europe, in consequence of the barbarian invasions, absolute monarchy gave way to feudalism, a system in which, though the king was recognized as the nominal sovereign, supreme power was in reality in the hands of the greater nobles. During the middle ages the greater part of Central and Western Europe was divided into a number of states, the most important rulers of which were called kings. Most of these kings possessed very little power and were constantly thwarted in what they regarded as the perform- ance of their regal functions by a turbulent and intractable nobility. To be sure under the feudal system all their nobles owed and sometimes ren- dered various services to their over-lord or suzerain, but upon their own estates the nobles were practically supreme. During the fifteenth century a variety of forces combined to exalt the power of the kings and the bourgeoisie of the cities, at the expense of the nobility. By the end of the century powerful centralized monarchies had emerged in France, Spain and Portugal, while the Wars of the Roses in England paved the way for the domineering house of Tudor. (See Eng- land: 1471-1485, 1485-1603.) In France and Spain this process of centralizing all poHtical authority in the crown made those countries absolute monarchies in reality. (See Spain: Machinery of absolutism.) Louis XIV of France converted the great nobles into courtiers and the lesser ones into officers of his military and diplomatic service. The rise to power and prosperity of the middle class was at the expense of the nobility, and despotic rulers like Philip II of Spain and John the Perfect of Portugal employed men not of the noble caste in important positions in the government. "The period which preceded the French Revolu- tion and the era of war, from the troubles of which modern Europe was to be born, may be characterised as that of the benevolent despots. The State was everything; the nation nothing. The ruler was supreme, but his supremacy rested on the assumption that he ruled his subjects for their good. This conception of the Aufgeklarte Despotismus [enlightened despotism] was devel- oped to its highest degree by Frederick the Great of Prussia. 'I am but the first servant of the nation,' he wrote, a phrase which irresistibly re- calls the definition of the position of Louis XVI. by the first leaders of the French Revolution. This attitude was defended by great thinkers like Diderot, and is the keynote to the internal policy of the monarchs of the latter half of the eighteenth century towards their people. The Em- press Catherine of Russia, Gustavus III. of Swe- den, Charles III. of Spain, the Archduke Leopold of Tuscany, and, above all, the Emperor Joseph II. defended their absolutism on the ground that they exercised their power for the good of their subjects. Never was more earnest zeal displayed in promoting the material well-being of all classes, never did monarchs labour so hard to justify their existence, or effect such important civil reforms, as on the eve of the French Revolution, which was to herald the overthrow of the doctrine of 15 ABSOLUTISM ABUD absolute monarchy. The intrinsic weakness of the position of the benevolent despots was that they could not ensure the permanence of their reforms, or vivify the rotten fabric of the administrative edifices, which had grown up in the feudal mon- archies. Great ministers, such as Tanucci and Aranda, could do much to help their masters to carry out their benevolent ideas, but they could not form or nominate their successors, or create a perfect body of unselfish administrators. When Frederick the Great's master hand was withdrawn, Prussia speedily exhibited a condition of adminis- trative decay, and since this was the case in Prussia, which had been for more than forty years under the rule of the greatest and wisest of the benevolent despots, the falling-off was likely to be even more marked in other countries. The conception of benevolent despots ruling for their people's good was eventually superseded, as was certain to be the case, owing to the impos- sibility of their ensuring its permanence, by the modern idea of the people ruhng themselves." — H. M. Stephens. Revolutionary Europe, pp. 4-5. "The government of nearly every European country at the end of the eighteenth century was monarchical, and everywhere the monarch was absolute, except in England, which had established a parliamentary system. Feudalism on its politi- cal side had disappeared, and the once haughty noble was transformed into the fawning courtier. Only in Germany did political feudalism still main- tain itself; there, the lord continued to govern and to judge as he had done in medieval times. The explanation given for absolute monarchy was known as 'divine right,' which asserted that the King's right to govern came from God, to whom alone he was responsible for his acts. Was a king good, just, and wise? Then the people were fortunate. Was he wicked, cruel, and stupid? Then they were unfortunate. In no case were they to revolt, for disobedience was not only a crime to be punished on earth, but likewise a sin to be punished in the hereafter. In case a bad king reigned, the people were to bear his rule patiently and meekly, and to pray to God to soften his heart. This doctrine of 'divine right' was insistently preached by the loyal followers of the monarch. Lutheran Prussia subscribed to it as heartily as Catholic Spain. In medieval times, the largest part of the taxes came from land. But the commercial expansion of the seven- teenth and eighteenth centuries increased the scope of government, and taxes had to be in- creased correspondingly in order to pay the ex- penses of a rapidly developing bureaucracy. While the kings of the ancien regime still gathered around them the territorial lords who, in former days, had been their bitter opponents, they now looked more and more to the middle classes for the maintenance of the State. But their traditions and sympathies, however, remained with the landed aristocracy; and the latter were conse- quently exempt in large measure from the ever in- creasing burden of taxation, as is revealed by the legislation of the eighteenth century. . . . Many of the changes inaugurated by the French Revolu- tion and by Napoleon could not be abolished with- out a violent wrench of the entire social system, and so were allowed to remain. The Holy Roman Empire was gone, feudalism was gone, and gone was the old authority of the Church. If absolute monarchy did return, it should do so without pop- ular endorsement, for the doctrine of 'divine right' was now being prearhed to unwilling ears. The generation that had seen so many kings hurled from their thrones during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic periods found it difficult to believe in a divine sanction of governments that could be so easily overturned. Absolute monarchy, feared for ages as all-powerful, had but to show its weakness to become ridiculous. Although Napo- leon had preached 'divine right,' he did more to discredit the doctrine than even the French Revo- lution. For the first time, mankind saw in the bright light of the nineteenth century how kings were made and unmade by force of arms. And now that its moral authority was gone, abso- lutism could maintain itself only by resorting to brute force. Sullen obedience had succeeded loyal devotion among the masses of Europe." — J. S. Schapiro, Modern and contemporary European history, pp. 2-3, 24. — The nineteenth century- marks the desperate efforts of the monarchs of Europe to reestablish the absolutism that had been shaken to its foundations by the French revolution. The inspiring genius of this reaction- ary policy was Metternick, the crafty Austrian chancellor, who dominated Europe from 1815 to 1S48, and whose cynical doctrines continued in force despite the democratic outbreaks of 1848. (See Austrla: 1815-1846; 1849-1850.) From the apotheosis of absolutism expressed in Louis XIV's "L'etat c'est moi" ("I am the state") less than three centuries have sufficed to bring about its downfall in every civilized country of the Old World and the New. The overthrow of the shogunate and the establishment of parliamentary government in Japan in 1880 {See JAP.^^■: 1868-1894), the revo- lution of the Young Turks in IQ08, the downfall of Nicholas II of Russia, and the overthrow of the militaristic power in Germany mark the final victory of popular government over the theory of absolutism and divine right of kings. — See also MoN.^RCHY. In Russia. See Russu: 1916. ABT, Franz (1819-1885), German composer of popular songs and conductor of the court orchestra at Brunswick, 1852-1882. Wrote over 3,000 songs, among them "When the swallows homeward fly." ABU BAKR (fl. nth century), Almoravide chief. See .■\lmor.h\ides. ABU BEKR (573-634), first of the Mohamme- dan caliphs and successor of the prophet, 632-634. The name. .\bu Bekr (meaning "Father of the Virgin"), was adopted in place of his original name. .^bd-el-Ka'ba, after the marriage of his daughter to Mohammed. On his accession, he successfully put down the formidable opposition led by the imposter Mosailima ; had the record of the sayings of the prophet preserved in written form and this furnished most of the material out of which the Koran was prepared. His zeal in the propagation of Mohammedan doctrines was largely responsible for the success and spread of the faith of Islam. See C.'vliphate, also 632-639; MOHAXrMEn.^MSM. ABU GHARAIB.— 1918.— Region of British attack. See World War: 1018: \'I. Turkish the- ABU HAMED, Sudan, captured by the British in 1807. See Egypt: 1807-1808. ABU IRGEIG.— Occupied by the British (1917). See World War: 1917: VI. Turkish thea- ter: c, 2, iii. ABU KLEA, Battle of (1885). See Egypt: 1884-188';. ABU TELLUL: Held by British (1918). See World War: 1918: VI. Turkish theater: c, 3. ABUD.— 1918.— Held by British. See World War; 1918: VI. Turkish theater: c, 2. 16 ABUKIR ABYSSINIA ABUKIR. See Aboukir. ABU'L ABBAS (also called Abdullah), caliph, 7S°-754- His father was great-grandson of the uncle of the prophet; upon this relation the Ab- basids based their claim to the caliphate. ABUMIR. See Pyramid. ABUNA. See Abyssinian church. ABUNA (Salama) OF ABYSSINIA.— "Since the days of Frumentius [who introduced Chris- tianity into Abyssinia in the fourth century] every orthodox Primate of Abyssinia has been con- secrated by the Coptic patriarch of the Church of Alexandria, and has borne the title of 'Abuna' — or 'Abuna Salama' — 'Father of Peace.' " — H. M. Hozier, Britisk expedition to Abyssinia, p. 4. ABURY. See Avebury. ABYDENOS. See History; 14. ABYDOS, an ancient city of Asia Minor, near the Hellespont, mentioned in the Iliad as one of the towns that were in alliance with the Trojans. Originally Thracian, as is supposed, it became a colony of Miletus, and passed at different times under Persian, Athenian, Lacedecmonian and Mace- donian rule. Its site was at the narrowest point of the Hellespont — the scene of the ancient ro- mantic story of Hero and Leander — nearly oppo- site to the town of Sestos. It was in the near neighborhood of Abydos that Xerxes built his bridge of boats (480 B.C.). The town is also famed for its stubborn resistance to Philip V of Macedon {200 B. C). See Greece; B. C. 411-407; and Map of Ancient Greece. ABYDOS, Egypt.— "There was a city in Egypt called by the Greeks Abydos. This is an example of popular etymology or rather popular trans- cription. Its Egyptian name was 'About,' which through resemblance of sound recalled the distant well-known Grecian city of Abydos on the Helles- pont, made famous by the passage of the army of Xerxes, and led to caUing the Egyptian city by that name. It played no part in the political world, but became famous chiefly as a place for the worship of Osiris; one could almost call it a Mecca of pilgrims. Osiris, the most human god of the Egyptian pantheon, had been cut into pieces by his rival. Set, or Typhon; but his son Horus had brought him back to life by reconstructing his body. His tomb, however, was at Abydos, though we do not know whether it contained the body of the god, or as Greek writers say, only his head. On account of the sanctity of the place, the Egyp- tians liked to be buried there, and very few locali- ties contained cemeteries so rich, belonging to all epochs from the neolithic age down to the Roman Empire. Kings had there built temples most of which, excepting two, have been destroyed, though one in particular, built by Seti I, of the nineteenth dynasty, the father of Rameses II, has remained almost in its entirety. It was unearthed by Mari- ette. It is a large temple which was completed by Rameses. In the part built by Seti there are some of the most beautiful sculptures in Egypt, but from father to son the style changed com- pletely, the work of Rameses being hastily done with the carelessness characterizing so many of his monuments. The temple of Seti is what is called a memnonium, that is, an edifice in connec- tion with a tomb and in which they rendered services to the dead. Since it is dedicated to Osiris, it seemed probable that the tomb of this god might be in this vicinity. For several years [W. Flinders] Petrie had attracted attention to what he called the Osireion. He had discovered a pas- sageway leading to a room ornamented with funeral paintings showing a scene of worship ren- dered to Osiris. In this passageway was a side door before which Petrie was stopped and which he shows upon his map to be a passage leading to the temple of Seti, situated about eighty meters from this door. . . . Between the doorway with enormous lintels and the temple of Seti is a large edifice evidently built at the time of the pyra- mids, that is, belonging to the first dynasties. It is very much ruined, but it was constructed of massive materials, the largest that have been found in Egypt in like quantity. It is an edifice unique among those numerous temples and tombs that one finds in the valley of the Nile. . . . There is no longer any doubt, then, that we have discov- ered what Strabo calls the well or the fountain of Abydos. He spoke of it as being near the temple, at a great depth, and remarkable for some corri- dors whose ceilings were formed of enormous monolithic blocks. That is exactly what we have found." — E Naville, Excavations at Abydos {Smithsonian report, 1014, pp. S7q-58i). ABYDOS, Tablet of, one of the most valuable records of Egyptian history, found in the ruins ot Abydos and now preserved in the British Museum "It gives a list of kings whom Rameses II selected from among his ancestors to pay homage to. The tablet was much mutilated when found, but an- other copy more perfect has been unearthed by M. Mariette, which supplies nearly all the names lacking on the first." — F. Lenormant, Manual of ancient historv oj the East, v. i, bk. 3. ABYSSINIA (officially Ethiopia), an inland empire in northeast Africa, surrounded by the possessions of Britain, Italy and France. The area is about 350,000 square miles and the population in ig2o about 8,000,000. Both the character of the land itself and that of the people are reflected in the history of Abyssinia. The country consists of elevated plateaus and rugged mountain ranges, which as in the case of Switzerland are favorable to the development of a hardy race capable of maintaining its independence. As Miss Semple has pointed out, the stronger the natural location the more strongly marked is likely to De the national character The Abyssinians, who furnish a rather unusual example of a civilized people wholly cen- tral in location, "have used the fortress character of their land to resist conquest, and have preferred independence to the commercial advantages to be gained only by affiliation with their peripheral neighbors. . . . [But] even the most pronounced land barriers have their passways and favored spots for short summer habitation, where the people from the opposite slopes meet and mingle for a season. Sandy wastes are hospitable at times. When the spring rains on the mountains of Abyssinia start a wave of moisture lapping over the edges of the Nubian desert, it is imme- diately followed by a tide of .^rabs with their camels and herds, who make a wide zone of tem- porary occupation spread over the newly created grassland, but who retire in a few weeks before the desiccating heat of summer." — E. C. Sempic, Influences of geographic environment, pp. 141, 215. — In consequence of such intermingling the people are of mixed Hamitic and Semitic origin with a negroid element. Though the people still call themselves Ethiopians, the name Abyssinians (de- rived from the Portuguese form of the Arabic Habesh, meaning mi.xture or composite race) is the one by which they are known outside their own country. A race of warriors and traders, they have long felt a marked national consciousness which in recent years has resulted in vigorous efforts to establish and maintain political inde- 17 BYSSINIA, ANCIENT ABYSSINIA, 15TH-19TH CENTURIES pendence. See also Africa: Races of Africa: Mod- ern people; and Map Embraced in ancient Ethiopia. — In ancient times Abyssinia, or at least the northern part of it was known as Ethiopia, of which the northern- most limit at one tirrte reached nearly to Syene, Between Ethiopia and Egypt interchange of cul- ture was facilitated by the fact that both countries were occasionally under the same ruler. Inter- course with the Jews, at first merely commercial, was extended after the visit of the Queen of Sheba to the court of Solomon. Their son Mene- lek is claimed as the ancestor of the kings of Abyssinia; and more intimate relations of language and traditions were secured by the settling of many Jews in .Abyssinia during the captivity. Greek colonization, begun after the invasion of Ptolemy Eucrgctes (247-221 B.C.), succeeded in estabUshing the kingdom of Axum. This included nearly all of modern .Abyssinia and was most vigorous between the first and the seventh centu- ries A. D. B.C. 2nd century. In Axum. See Arabia; The Sabaeans. A. D. 4th century. — Converted to Christianity. — "Whatever may have been the effect produced in his native country by the convecsion of Queen Candace's treasurer, recorded in the .\cts of the Apostles it would appear to have been transitory ; and the Ethiopian or Abyssinian church owes its origin to an expedition made early in the fourth century by Meropius, a philosopher of Tyre, for the purpose of scientific inquiry. On his voyage homewards, he and his companions were attacked at a place where they had landed in search of water, and all were massacred e.xcept two youths, -IJdesius and Frumentius, the relatives and pupils of Meropius. These were carried to the king of the country, who advanced ^desius to be his cup- bearer, and Frumentius to be his secretary and treasurer. On the death of the king, who left a boy as his heir, the two strangers, at the request of the widowed queen, acted as regents of the kingdom until the prince came of age. ^^desius then returned to Tyre, where he became a pres- byter. Frumentius, who, with the help of such Christian traders as visited the country, had al- ready introduced the Christian doctrine and wor- ship into Abyssinia, repaired to Alexandria, re- lated his story to .\thanasius, and . . . .Athanasius . . . consecrated him to the bishoprick of Axum [the capital of the Abyssinian kingdom!. The church thus founded continues to this day subject to the see of Alexandria." — J. C. Robertson, His- tory of the Christian church, hk. 2, ch. 6. 6th to 16th centuries. — Wars in Arabia. — Struggle with the Mohammedans. — Isolation from the Christian world. — "The fate of the Christian church among the Homeritcs in Arabia Felix afforded an opportunity for the .Abyssin- ians, under the reigns of the Emperors Justin and Justinian, to show their zeal in behalf of the cause of the Christians. The prince of that .Ara- bian population, Dunaan, or Dsunovas, was a zealous adherent of Judaism; and. under pretext of avenging the oppressions which his fellow-be- lievers were obliged to suffer in the Roman em- pire, he caused the Christian merchants who came from that quarter and visited Arabia for the pur- poses of trade, or passed through the country to Abyssinia, to be murdered. Elesbaan for Caleb], the Christian king of Abyssinia, made this a cause for declaring war on the .\rabian prince. He conquered Dsunovas. deprived him of the gov- ernment, and set up a Christian, by the name of .\braham, as king in his stead. But at the death of the latter, which happened soon after, Dsunovas again made himself master of the throne; and it was a natural consequence of what he had suf- fered, that he now became a fiercer and more cruel persecutor than he was before. . . . Upon this, Elesbaan interfered once more, under the reign of the Emperor Justinian, who stimulated him to the undertaking. He made a second expedition to Arabia Felix, and was again victorious. Dsunovas lost his life in the war ; the ."Vbyssinian prince put an end to the ancient, independent empire of the Homerites, and established a new government fav- ourable to the Christians." — J. A. W. Neander, General history of the Christian religion and church, second period, sect. i. — "In the year 592, as nearly as can be calculated from the dates given by the native writers, the Persians, whose power seems to have kept pace with the decline of the Roman empire, sent a great force against the Abyssinians, possessed themselves once more of Arabia, acquired a naval superiority in the gulf, and secured the principal ports on either side of it. It is uncertain how long these conquerors re- tained their acquisition ; but, in all probability their ascendancy gave way to the rising greatness of the Mahometan power; which soon afterwards overwhelmed all the nations contiguous to .Arabia, spread to the remotest parts of the East, and even penetrated the African deserts from Egypt to the Congo. Meanwhile Abyssinia, though within two hundred miles of the walls of Mecca, remained unconquered and true to the Christian faith; pre- senting a mortifying and galling object to the more zealous followers of the Prophet. On this account, implacable and incessant wars ravaged her territories. . . . She lost her commerce, saw her consequence annihilated, her capital threat- ened, and the richest of her provinces laid waste. . There is reason to apprehend that she must shortly have sunk under the pressure of repeated invasions, had not the Portuguese arrived [in the 16th century] at a seasonable moment to aid her endeavours against the Moslem chiefs." — M. Rus- sell, Nubia and Abyssinia, ch. 3. — "When Nubia, which intervenes between Egypt and Abyssinia, ceased to be a Christian country, owing to the de- struction of its church by the Mahometans, the .Abyssinian church was cut off from communica- tion with the rest of Christendom. . . . They [the .\byssinians] remain an almost unique specimen of a semi-barbarous Christian people. Their wor- ship is strangely mixed with Jewish customs." — H. F. Tozer. Church and the eastern empire, ch. 5. — See also .\bvssimax Church. 15th to 19th centuries. — European attempts at intercourse. — Intrusion of the Gallas. — Intestine conflicts. — "About the middle of the 15th century, .Abyssinia came in contact with Western Europe. .\n .Abyssinian convent was endowed at Rome, and legates were sent from the .Abyssinian convent at Jerusalem to the council of Florence. These ad- hered to the Greek schism. But from that time the Church of Rome made an impress upon Ethiopia. . . . Prince Henry of Portugal . . . next opened up communication with Europe. He hoped to open up a route from the West to the East coast of Africa [see Portugal: 1415-1460], by which the East Indies might be reached without touching Mahometan territory. During his efforts to discover such a passage to India, and to destroy the revenues derived by the Moors from the spice trade, he sent an ambassador named Covillan to the Court of Shoa. Covillan was not suffered to return bv .Alexander, the then Ncgoos [or Negus, 18 ABYSSINIA, 15TH-19TH CENTURIES ABYSSINIA, 1854-1889 or Nagash — the title of the Abyssinian sovereign]. He married nobly, and acquired rich possessions in the country. He kept up correspondence with Portugal, and urged Prince Henry to diligently continue his efforts to discover the Southern pas- sage to the East. In 1498 the Portuguese effected the circuit of Africa. The Turks shortly after- wards extended their conquests towards India, where they were baulked by the Portuguese, but they established a post and a toll at Zeyla, on the African coast. From here they hampered and threatened to destroy the trade of Abyssinia," and soon, in alliance with the Mahometan tribes of the coast, invaded the country. "They were de- feated by the Ncgoos David, and at the same time the Turkish town of Zeyla was stormed and burned by a Portuguese fleet." Considerable inti- macy of friendly relations was maintained for some time between the Abyssinians and the Portu- guese, who assisted in defending them against the Turks. "In the middle of the i6th century . . . a migration of Gallas came from the South and swept up to and over the confines of Abyssinia. Men of lighter complexion and fairer skin than most Africans, they were Pagan in religion and savages in customs. Notwithstapding frequent efforts to dislodge them, they have firmly estab- lished themselves. A large colony has planted itself on the banks of the Upper Takkazie, the Jidda and the Bashilo. Since their establishment here they have for the most part embraced the creed of Mahomet. The province of Shoa is but an outlier of Christian Abyssinia, separated com- pletely from co-religionist districts by these Galla bands. About the same time the Turks took a firm hold of Massowah and of the lowland by the coast, which had hitherto been ruled by the Abyssinian Bahar Nagash. Islamism and hea- thenism surrounded Abyssinia, where the lamp of Christianity faintly glimmered amidst dark su- perstition in the deep recesses of rugged valleys." In 1558 a Jesuit mission arrived in the country and established itself at Fremona. "For nearly a century Fremona existed, and its superiors were the trusted advisors of the Ethiopian throne. . . . But the same fate which fell upon the company of Jesus in more civilized lands, pursued it in the wilds of Africa. The Jesuit missionaries were uni- versally popular with the Negoos, but the preju- dice of the people refused to recognize the benefits which flowed from Fremona." Persecution befell the fathers, and two of them won the crown of martyrdom. The Negoos, Facilidas, "sent for a Coptic Abuna [ecclesiastical primate] from Alex- andria, and concluded a treaty with the Turkish governors of Massowah and Souakin to prevent the passage of Europeans into his dominions. Some Capuchin preachers, who attempted to evade this treaty and enter Abyssinia, met with cruel deaths. Facilidas thus completed the work of the Turks and the Gallas, and shut Abyssinia out from European influence and civilization. . . . After the expulsion of the Jesuits, Abyssinia was torn by internal feuds and constantly harassed by the en- croachments of and wars with the Gallas. An- archy and confusion ruled supreme. Towns and villages were burnt down, and the inhabitants sold into slavery. . . . Towards the middle of the i8th century the Gallas appear to have increased con- siderably in power. In the intestine quarrels of Abyssinia their alliance was courted by each side, and in their country political refugees obtained a secure asylum." During the early years of the nineteenth century, campaigns in Egypt attracted English attention to the Red sea. "In 1804 Lord Valentia, the Viceroy of India, sent his Secretary, Mr. Salt, into Abyssinia;" but Mr. Salt was un- able to penetrate beyond Tigre. In 18 10 he at- tempted a second mission and again failed. It was not until 1848 that English attempts to open diplo- matic and commercial relations with Abyssinia be- came successful. "Mr. Plowden was appointed consular agent, and negotiated a treaty of com- merce with Ras Ali, the ruling Galla chief." — J. J. Holland and H. M. Hozier, Expedition to Abyssinia, Introduction. 1854-1889.— Advent of King Theodore.— His English captives and the expedition which re- leased them. — "Consul Plowden had been residing six years at Massowah when he heard that . the Prince to whom he had been accredited, Ras AU, had been defeated and dethroned by an adven- turer, whose name, a few years before, had been unknown outside the boundaries of his native province. This was Lij Kasa, better known by his adopted name of Theodore. He was born of an old family, in the mountainous region of Kwara, where the land begins to slope downwards towards the Blue Nile, and educated in a convent, where he learned to read, and acquired a considerable knowledge of the Scriptures. Kasa's convent life was suddenly put an end to, when one of those marauding Galla bands, whose ravages are the curse of Abyssinia, attacked and plundered the monastery. From that time he himself took to the life of a freebooter. . . . Adventurers flocked to his standard ; his power continually increased ; and in 1854 he defeated Ras Ali in a pitched battle, and made himself master of central Abys- sinia." In 1855 he overthrew the ruler of Tigre. "He now resolved to assume a title commensurate with the wide extent of his dominion. In the church of Derezgye he had himself crowned by the Abuna as King of the Kings of Ethiopia, tak- ing the name of Theodore, because an ancient tra- dition declared that a great monarch would some day arise in Abyssinia." Mr. Plowden now visited the new monarch, was impressed with admiration of his talents and character, and became his coun- sellor and friend. But in i860 the English consul lost his life, while on a journey, and Theodore, embittered by several misfortunes, began to give rein to a savage temper. "The British Govern- ment, on hearing of the death of Plowden, im- mediately replaced him at Massowah by the ap- pointment of Captain Cameron." The new Con- sul was well received, and was entrusted by the Abyssinian King with a letter addressed to the Queen of England, soliciting her friendship. The letter, duly despatched to its destination, was pigeon-holed in the Foreign Office at London, and no reply to it was ever made. Insulted and en- raged by this treatment, and by other evidences of the indifference of the British Government to his overtures. King Theodore, in January, 1864, seized and imprisoned Consul Cameron with all his suite. About the same time he was still further offended by certain passages in a book on .Abyssinia that had been published by a mission- ary named Stern. Stern and a fellow missionary, Rosenthal with the laftcr's wife, were lodged in prison, and subjected to flogging and torture. The first step taken by the British Government, when news of Consul Cameron's imprisonment reached England, was to send out a regular mission to Abyssinia, bearing a letter signed by the Queen, demanding the release of the captives. The mis- sion, headed by a Syrian named Rassam, made its way to the King's presence in January, 1866. Theodore seemed to be placated by the Queen's 19 ABYSSINIA, 1854-1889 ABYSSINIA, 1906 epistle and promised freedom to his prisoners. But soon his moody mind became tilled with sus- picions as to the genuineness of Rassam's cre- dentials from the Queen, and as to the designs and intentions of all the foreigners who were in his power. He was drinking heavily at the time, .ind the result of his "drunken cogitations was a determination to detain the mission — at any rate until by their means he should have obtained a supply of skilled artisans and machinery from England." Mr. Rassam and his companions were accordingly put into confmement, as Captain Cameron had been. But they were allowed to send a messenger to England, making their situa- tion known, and conveying the demand of King Theodore that a man be sent to him "who can make cannons and muskets." The demand was actually complied with. Six skilled artisans and a civil engineer were sent out. together with a quantity of machinery and other presents, in the hope that they would procure the release of the unfortunate captives at Magdala. .Mmost a j'car was wasted in these futile proceedings, and it was not until September, 1S67, that an expedition con- sisting of 4,000 British and S,ooo native troops, under General Sir Robert Napier, was sent from India to bring the insensate barbarian to terms. It landed in .\nnesley Bay, and, overcoming enor- mous difficulties with regard to water, food-sup- plies and transportation, was ready, about the middle of January, 1S68, to start upon its march to the fortress of Magdala, where Theodore's pris- oners were confined. The distance was 400 miles, and several high ranges of mountains had to be passed to reach the interior table-land. The in- vading army met with no resistance until it reached the Valley of the Beshilo, when it was attacked (.^pril 10) on the plain of Aroge or .^rogi, by the whole force which Theodore was able to muster, numbering a few thousands, only, of poorly armed men. The battle was simply a rapid slaughtering of the barbaric assailants, and when they tied, leaving 700 or See dead and 1,500 wounded on the field, the .\byssinian King had no power of resis- tance left. He offered at once to make peace, surrendering all the captives in his hands; but Sir Robert Napier required an unconditional submis- sion, with a view to displacing him from the throne, in accordance with the wish and expecta- tion which he had found to be general in the coun- try. Theodore refu.sed these terms, and when (April 13) Magdala was bombarded and stormed by the British troops — slight resistance being made — he shot himself at the moment of their entrance to the place. The sovereignty he had successfully concentrated in himself for a time was again divided. Between .April and June the Eng- lish army was entirely withdrawn, and "Abyssinia was sealed up again from intercourse with the outer world." — Cassell's illmtrnled liislory of Eng- land, v. q, cli. 28. — "The task of permanently unit- ing .\by.ssinia, in which Theodore failed, proved equally impracticable to John, who came to the front, in the first instance, as an ally of the British, and afterwards succeeded to the sov- ereignty. By his fall (loth March, 18S0) in the unhappy war against the Dervishes Tsce Egypt: 1885-1806! or Moslem zealots of the Soudan, the path was cleared for Menilek of Shoa, who en- joyed the support of Italy. The establishment of the Italians on the Red Sea littoral . . . promises a new era for .Abyssinia." — T. Noldeke, Sketches from eastern liistory, ch. 0. — See also .Africa: Mod- ern European occupation: 1884-1889; and Eritrea. 1895-1896.— War with Italy. See Italy: 1870- iqoi, i8o5-iSot>. 1896-1897. — Convention between Italy and Abyssinia. — Treaty with Great Britain. — By the convention of Adis Ababa of October ;6, t8oO, between Italy and King Mcnelek, the independence of Abyssinia was recognized. This was followed, in May, 1807, by another treaty between Meneiek and the British government, giving to British sub- jects the privileges of the most favored nations in trade, and opening the port of Zaila to Abyssinian importations. The treaty also defined the bound- ary of the British Somali Protectorate, and pledged .Abyssiania's hostility to the Mahdists. 1902. — The French in favor. — Their railway building and plans. — Treaty with Great Britain. — "Through .Abyssinia the French hope to estab- lish a line of trade acro.ss Africa from east to west in opposition to our Cape to Cairo railway from north to south. In this they have already achieved some success. They have settled themselves along the Gulf of Tadjoura, on the south of which they hold the ma,gnificent Bay of Djibouti, while on the north their flag waves over the small port of Obok. But their real triumph in these regions has been the establishment of a lasting friendship with .Abyssinia by judicious consignments of arms and ammunition — which were used against Italy in the war of i8q6. Finally, they are now in the act of building a French railway from Djibouti to Addis Abeba, the capital of .Abyssinia. This rail- way will completely cut out the British port of Zeila, for in the concession granted by Menclik it is stipulated that no company is to be permitted to construct a railroad on Abyssinian territory that shall enter into competition with that of M. Ilg and M. Chefneux."— G. F. H. Berkeley, Abys- sinian question and its history (Nineteenth Cen- tury, Jan., iqo3). — A treaty between Great Britain and the Emperor Meneiek, of the kingdom of Ethi- opia (Abyssinia), signed on the isth of May, IQ02, defines the boundaries between the Soudan and Ethiopia, and contains the following important provisions: "Article HI. His Majesty the Emperor Mene- iek II., King of Kings of Ethiopia, engages him- self towards the Government of his Britannic Ma- jesty not to construct, or allow to be constructed, any work across the Blue Nile, I.ake Tsana, or the Sobat, which would arrest the flow of their waters into the Nile, except in acrecnient with his Britannic Majesty's Government and the Govern- ment of the Soudan. Article IV. The Emperor Meneiek engages himself to allow his Britannic Majesty's Government ;nid the Government of the Soudan to select in the neighborhood of Itang, on the Baro River, a block of territory having a river frontace of not more than 2000 metres, in area not exceeding 400 hectares, which shall be leased to the Government of the Soudan, to be administered and occupied as a commercial station, so long as the Soudan is under the Anglo-Egyptian Government. It is agreed between the two high contracting parties that the territory so leased shall not be used for any political or military purpose. Article V. The Emperor Meneiek grants his Britannic M.ajesty's Government and the Government of the Soudan the right to construct a railway through Abyssinian territory to connect the Soudan with Uganda. A route for the railway will be selected by mutual agreement between the two high con- tracting parties." 1906. — Agreement guaranteeing Abyssinia's integrity. — In December, 1006, Great Britain, France and Italy agreed by treaty to respect and 20 ABYSSINIA, 1907-1920 ABYSSINIA, 1913-1920 preserve the independence and territorial integrity of Abyssinia. The tiiree Powers specifically under- took to secure no industrial concessions which would injure the other Powers and not to inter- fere in the internal affairs of the country. It was further agreed that no one of these Powers was to attempt independently to strengthen its position in the territories bordering Abyssinia, but they were to act together in promoting the construc- tion of railways and telegraph lines, and the de- velopment of trade for their common benefit. 1907-1920. — Menelek's reforms. — Political in- stitutions and government. — Internal develop- ment.^In 1Q07, Menelek issued a decree consti- tuting a cabinet on the European model, and ap- pointed ministers for the various departments. Politically Abyssinia has been and still is, a back- ward state with what may be called feudal insti- tutions. The negus [king or emperor] has a sort of a Council of State to advise the crown and keep a watch over the governors and other ad- ministrative officials of the provinces and their but small quantities. A wild coffee plant thrives in the forests and is the chief export. Cattle, sheep, goats and particularly mules are numerous. Manufacturing industry is, however, in a back- ward state, for Abyssinia has not yet made the most of her abundant resources in trees, rubber, iron and coal as well as numerous other mineral products. Means of transportation are also poor. Roads are mere tracks across sandy wastes and transportation is mainly by mules, pack-horses, donkeys and in some places, camels. There is, however, a railway from the port of Jibuti in French Somaliland to Dire Dawa in the south- eastern part of Abyssinia. Some time ago a com- pany undertook to extend the line to Adis Ababa. This undertaking was completed in igiy when the line reached the capital. In consequence of the rapid development of transportation, business methods are being modernized to some extent. At Adis Ababa is located the bank of Abyssinia with an authorized capital of .$2,500,000 and a paid up capital ij[ .S(jJ5,ooo. The bank i> contrnlled, how- ?: 1 IN m l:».%^a^.& -.:%ll 41 }:''^if^^^^''^' ' - :'^ II-: *- Wml 1 * %J L % '•M ^B«Hi V' ' W .^^L^t Y;,_ WS;'T— v^ ^^■Wfesp VBI^^K-tn 1 \\ '' ^I^^^^^^B^^^mI L ^^i^^l .ABVSSINIAN I mi.\< U.l.dKN li\ e I.KK .\llj.\ l.A 1. KCJiihS subdivisions. It was not till July, iqoS, that a cabinet or Council of Ministers was actually or- ganized, the various state departments being simi- lar to those of civilized nations. The legal system of the country has its basis in the Code of Jus- tinian but the relationship is scarcely recognizable. The Emperor is the fountain of justice and is the final court of appeal. In the same year (1Q07) Menelek also enjoined free compulsory education for all boys up to twelve; but the decree could not be very widely and effectively enforced ; for in spite of the edict, education in the modern sense is still unpopular. In Adis Ababa there is a school under the direction of Coptic teachers; this, the only Abyssinian school in the country has over one hundred pupils, but attendance is still irregular. The lack of modern educational methods is due not so much to native hostility, as to the rivalry existing between various prosely- ting religions. Although most of the land of Abyssinia would probably permit of an extensive agriculture, this industry is, nevertheless, backward, due perhaps to the absence of the idea of landed property. Cot- ton, sugar-cane, and date-palm are produced in ever, from Cairo; there its governing body sits, and the governor of the National Bank of Egypt is its president. A new coinage has recently been put in circulation with the Menelek dollar as the standard coin. Outside the immediate radius of foreign influence, exchange is si ill very primitive, various articles, such as bars of salt, cartridges, etc., being used as barter. This in turn is but one indication of the primitive customs which prevail in many backward regions, 1913-1920.— Anarchy following the death of Menelek. — Revolution of 1916. — Reign of Em- press Zauditu. — "Just at the time of his ambi- tious projects, Menelik had a stroke, and he grad- ually became paralyzed. Frequent to the point of becoming a joke were the newspaper reports, gen- erally from Italy, during the period of 1907 to IQ13, announcing the death of Menelik. Each time they were contradicted, and when he finally passed away in December, 1Q13, many newspapers refused to publish once more the familiar biog- raphy. Menelik's long illness was a great misfor- tune to -Abyssinia, and it is still too soon to esti- mate the injury done, by the anarchy of the regency, to the Kingdom surrounded by land- 21 ABYSSINIA, 1913-1920 ABYSSINIA, 1913-1920 hungry neighbors. In 1909, Lidj Yeassu, Mene- lik's grandson, who was thirteen, and the hus- band of the seven-year-old Princess Romanie, granddaughter of the old Emperor Johannes, was chosen as the successor. He, by his own blood and that of his wife, would reconcile the rival factions of the Imperial family. Notwithstanding the heralded harmony, civil war broke out, and dragged on, with varying fortunes, lor several years. Italy feared the breaking away from au- thority of the tribes on her Eritrean frontier, es- pecially after the Tripolitan War began [iqii], and there was some apprehension of raiding in the Sudan. The anarchy caused no particular difference in the Sonialiland situation, because Great Britain already had her hands full there, and the responsibility for the Mullah could in no way be chargeable to Abyssinian unrest. The troubles in Abyssinia seem to have been confined to the rival court factions: for the country as a whole remained quiet throughout the years of Menelik's illness. However, there was apprehension in Adis .Abeba just before the outbreak of the European War over the sudden and inexplicable strengthen- ing of Italian forces in Eritrea." — H. A. Gibbons, New map of Africa, pp. 102-104. "The recent [1916] coup d'etat in Ethiopia, as Abyssinia is properly called, when the Powers act- ing on their Treaty of 1Q06 helped the .Abyssinian nobles and the people to dethrone their young king and his Turko-Teuton clique, once more calls at- tention to the remarkable signs of vitality that Mohammedanism is showing in that historically Christian kingdom. It is not the lirst time that the great aggressive Asiatic religion has precipi- tated a revolution in Abyssinia ; but the persist- ence with which it has survived oppression, as one strong Ethiopian ruler after another rose at the psychological hour to stamp it out, is merely in- dicative of the remarkable progress it has made throughout the Darkest Continent as far south as the Zambesi. . . . The late Emperor Menelek of Abyssinia died without an heir to the throne, but before his death he appointed as his successor Prince Lidj Jeassu, the son of one of his daugh- ters. The young king had reigned three years when it became apparent that his father, a power- ful chief, Negus Mikael, was a fanatical Moslem, and was cooperating with the Turko-Teuton emis- saries in a Pan-Islamic movement. Not only was this conspiracy planning to deliver Abyssinia to Islam and secure its entrance into the war on the side of the Central Powers, but Abyssinia was being made a center for plots against the Islamic colonies of the French, Italians and British in the adjacent territories of Somaliland, Eritrea, Brit- ish East Africa and the Sudan. The young ruler had become a Moslem, and was a pliant tool in the hands of the Central Powers and Turkey. The .AlUes accordingly took the part of the Christian .Abysslnians. In the revolution that followed, iqi6, Lidj Jeassu was deposed [Sept. 27], his Moslem father, Negus Mikael, was defeated by the Abys- sinian army after a temporary success, and on Feb- ruary II, the n^w 0"Mn [Empress Waizeru Zau- ditu, another daughter of Menelek], was crowned at the capital Adis Abeba, a not unprecedented event — .Abyssinia already having known one able oueen in her history, while her rulers trace the roval lineage back to the Queen of Sheba and Solomon. "But missionaries and travelers have unani- mously testified to the great inroads that Moham- medanism has made in this historically Christian country Whole tribes professing Islam may be found today still retaining their Christian Ethi- opian names. All northern Abyssinia will soon be unitedly Moslem, and the encroachments are con- tinuing in various parts of the kingdom. The reasons for this growth are to be found in the lax and superstitious brand of Christianity of mod- ern Ethiopia. .A strong Christian ruler, in the spirit and mould of the late Menelek, may yei appear to save the countp.- and its faith, which dates back to the fourth century when Athanasius of .Alexandria was installed the first Bishop of Ethiopia. In .Abyssinia the Powers have a senti- mental interest, as an ancient outpost of Chris- tianity in the Dark Continent, and its political in- tegrity was guaranteed in the Treaty of iQOb with Menelek, by Great Britain, Italy and France, whose colonies are adjacent. Despite the fact that Menelek frequently thrashed the Italians when they encroached on his territory, yet he and the previous rulers of Ethiopia ha> e cherished their bond of Christianity with Eu'ope, and have favored western civilization. When the British stormed Magdala, the fortress of King Theodore, in 1S08, to release British prisoners, and found the king a suicide, according to his wishes they took his eighteen-year-old heir to be educated in Eng- land. The boy was sent to Rugby school, but died shortly after. .At Queen Victoria's request the body of the Ethiopian prince was buried in St. George's, the Chapel-Royal at Windsor. The Moslem evangelist has always been attracted to thb historically Christian country of Abyssinia, not only because of its proximity to Mecca and the land that cradled the Founder and his Faith, but because of the early intimate associations between the Christian kingdom and Mohammed. In the sixth century the .Abyssinians invaded Arabia, cap- tured the rich province of Yemen, which alone gives to desert .Arabia the paradoxical title of .Arabia Felix, and for fifty years controlled the important land and sea routes East and West. It was the rise of Mohammed and his new faith in the seventh century that put an end to the power of .Abyssinia, and which, from that time down to the sixteenth centur>% when the King asked aid of the Portuguese, effectually isolated this lone Christian country in the Dark Conti- nent from the rest of the world. When Mo- hammed began his career, northern Arabia held Christian colonies due to the influence of Byzan- tium, and at the same time in the south, neigh- boring to Mecca, there were Syrian and Ethiopian Christians. . . . The Prophet, during the persecu- tion of his new faith at the hands of the pagan Meccans, at the suggestion of an .Abyssinian dis- ciple found a haven for his followers in Abys- sinia. Mohammed sent a delegation under his famous general. '.Amr ibn al-.Ass, later conqueror of Egypt, to the Christian kingdom asking refuge and support, which the Ethiopian king readily gave. Unfortunately there are no .Abyssinian records surviving to show how intimate this rela- tionship was; but when Mohammed, at the height of his power, sent letters to the kings ol the earth calling on them to accept his new creed, one was sent to Byzantium and another to Ethio- pia. By the end of the twelfth century an Arab dynasty had won the coast lands, and with the fifteenth century began that long contest between Islam and Christianity which lasted to the recent revolution and dethronement of Menelek's grand- son, and which has swept inwards to include the pagan tribes of the great Dark Continent. . . . While Moslems are now alarmed at the obvious signs of disintegration elsewhere, they must view 22 ABYSSINIA, 1913-1920 ACADEMIC FREEDOM with satisfaction the comparatively robust condi- tion of the Faith in Africa, where it is progress- ing with something of the old traditions that once prevailed when it swept into the fold in early times the pagan tribes of Arabia. The failure of the proclamation of the famous jihad, or holy war, in the Mohammedan world, and the Secession of important Arab states like the Hejaz and Koweit whose chiefs and imams are renouncing allegiance to the Sultan of Turkey as Caliph, thus precipi- tating the all-important question of the Caliphate, have brought this historic Asiatic religion to a critical point in its great career. . . . Will Islam so change its fundamental traditionalism to suit the needs of its twentieth century adherents, and save itself from the disintegration with which political and economic conditions now threaten it? Since the Turkish Caliph has deliberately used the Faith as a catspav/ for Germany, a kafir, or un- believer nation, and since the purity of the Young Turk brand of Mohammedanism has long been suspect in the fanatical world of Islam, it is evi- dent that the loyal supporters of Islam have at last realised that the future of the Faith is in jeopardy. But while there is a crying need for reorganization in enlightened communities like the Moslem worlds of India and Egypt, yet, true to its medieval energy, it has made enormous gains in Africa during these last few decades of apparent stagnation, extending from pseudo-Chris- tian Abyssinia to the pagan tribes north of Zambesi. ... It is not strange, therefore, that the Turko-Teuton regime seized upon the Moslem idea of jihad as a vehicle for galvanizing the warHke spirit of Islam. It failed for two reasons: psycho- logically, because they forgot to what degree eco- nomic conditions throughout the East have modi- fied the old fanatical cohesions of Islam. In India and China, in the Dutch East and in French Africa, Moslems have come to recognize the ad- vantages accruing under a stable and just rule of centralized European government. The annual pilgrimage to Mecca cannot have failed "to im- press the multitudes with the system of petty graft and tyranny, of over-taxation and economic stagnation, that has always characterized the greatest Islamic state, and the rule of their nomi- nal Caliph, the Sultan of Turkey. Moslems were averse to losing these advantages for a shadowy substitute promised by a Pan-Islamic empire. The Turko-Teuton regime failed dogmatically, because every intelligent Moslem knows that the express purpose of a jihad, or holy war, in Islamic polity, is to free their co-religionists in duress. While Moslems had long been oppressed by the Turkish Caliph, their co-religionists under British, Dutch, French and Russian rule had made no appeal against the tyranny of their respective suzerains. Moreover, a jiliad must be led by the Caliph; many .schismatics in Arabia and Africa (the Senussei were antagonistic until bribed by Enver Pasha), and the sultans of Morocco, have vari- ously disputed the claim of the Turkish Sultan to the Caliphate. As a result the spectacle was fur- nished Islam of British, French, Belgian, and Russian Moslem troops fighting loyally under their respective flags. Finally, Islamic law ex- pressly forbids the waging of a jihad against co- members of the Faith. It is this pragmatic and economic aspect of modern Islam that is now con- cerning its leaders and thinkers. The war with its racial confusion has merely accentuated the need for a widespread reform, at least so far as Asia is involved." — W. G. Tinckom-Fernandez, Asia in Africa (Asia, Nov., 1Q17). — See also Africa: Mod- ern European occupation; 1914; Moslem occupa- tion. Also in; A. B. Wylde, Modern Abyssinia {Geographical Journal, v. XV, igoo). — E. Hertslet, Map oj Africa by treaty, 2nd ed. — H. H. Johnston, History of the colonization of Africa by alien races, id ed.—T. L. Gilmour, Abyssinia: the Ethio- pian railway and the powers. — H. Vivian, .Abys- sinia. — H. A. Stern, Captive missionary. — H. M. Stanley, Coomassie and Magdata, pt. 2. ABYSSINIAN CHURCH.— Christianity, ac- cording to the chronicle of Axum, was first in- troduced into Abyssinia by Frumentius in the fourth century. [See Abyssinia: 4th century.] The Abyssinians, refusing the decrees of the Council of Chalcedon (451), remained monophysites. Their close bond with the Coptic church of Egypt, which had been maintained from the beginning, was not affected by the Arab conquest. Further than this, little is known of their ecclesiastical history until that eastern bond was broken by the period of the Jesuit rule (about 1500 to 1633). In the six- teenth century, the Roman Catholic church at- tempted to establish sway over the Abyssinian church through the missionary work of Portugal, whose interest lay, not in religion, but in trade routes through the Red Sea to India. The rule of the western church was formally recognized by the king in 1604, but in 1633 the king was mur- dered, the Jesuits expelled, and allegiance once more given to Alexandria [see also Abyssinia; 6tb- i6th centuries]. The Abyssinian church agrees, in general, with the Coptic in matters of dogma. Though graven images are forbidden, saints and angels are held in great reverence. The clergy must marry once, but only once ; and their power is greatly increased by the strict enforcement of confession and absolution. Pilgrimage to Jeru- salem constitutes atonement for many sins "This ancient, strange and barbaric church has the true Semitic instinct of regarding God as Majesty rather than as Love This explains its monophy- site tendency which almost completely swallows up Christ's humanity. . . The church has now but one bishop, the Abuna, always sent from Alexan- dria or (Tairo. [He is always a Copt, but his influence is controlled by the Echegheh, a native ecclesiastical dignitary, who presides over the spirituality, numbering about 100,000 ecclesiastics.] The abbots also, as in the Roman church, have great authority. The cloisters are the principal seats of education which is chiefly scholastic and cultivates wonderful dialectical keenness. The parochial clergy often know little except how to repeat the liturgy [in Geez] now obsolete in lan- guage. The worship is a rude copy of that of the Greek church. Saints and above all the Virgin are plentifully invoked Transubstantiation, how- ever, is unknown Ordination is so carelessly per- formed that Rome has some hesitation in acknowl- edging it. Popular morals are very corrupt and barbarous and the priesthood is not a mirror of virtue although it enjoys very profound respect among the people." — B E. Pastor, Christianity in .Abyssinia (Missionary Review of the World, April, iqo2 ) . ABYSSINIAN EAST AFRICA. See Somali- I.AND. A. C. (Ante Christum), used sometimes instead of the more familiar abbreviation, B.C. (Before Christ.) ACADAMUS. See Academy. ACADEMIC FREEDOM.— "The question of freedom of instruction — Lehrfreiheit — is at bottom a question as to the relation of institutions of 23 ACADEMIC FREEDOM Relation to the Church ACADEMIC FREEDOM education to other institutions with which they have to do. It is to be noted that educational cstabhshments have for the most part been set up at first to serve other than purely educational purposes. The training which they have offered has been regarded as a means to some end beyond itself ; and this ultimate end has been found em- bodied in some other institution, to which the school has been made tributary. Each of the great capital institutions oF human society may be re- garded as having an educational aspect. This is true of the family, of the Church, of civil govern- ment, of industrial societies. And it is a fact of no small significance that an appreciation of the need and value of education has commonly arisen in connection with one or another of these insti- tutions. The ideas which they severally embody are the ideas which have been uppermost in the educational systems which they have severally fostered. ... It has been commonly noted that public education in Europe during the Middle Age was carried on almost exclusively by the Church. Leaving out of account the system of apprentice- ship fostered by the trade guilds and the training for the profession of arms which arose with chiv- alry, this is a fair statement of the case. The higher s[>iritual interests of the medieval peoples were represented in the Church. She embraced, as Geffcken has remarked, 'many spheres of life which as yet were incapable of independent development: she united in her bosom those elements of spiritual culture which were destined to occupy in the future each a distinct and prominent position. Her schools were the sole avenues to knowledge.' It should be added that the schools found their place, as a matter of course, in the general admin- istrative system of the Church, and were accord- ingly in the main under episcopal control. By the twelfth century, education I.ad come into sufficient prominence to receive special recognition in the episcopal system. Under the bishop, the super- vision of the schools was exercised sometimes by the chancellor, sometimes by the precentor, and sometimes by a dignitary designated for that par- ticular service, and variously known as magister scholarum, scholasticns, or sclwlaster. It became the prerogative of this official to license teachers who sought to open schools within his jurisdic- tion. This may have been at first a mere means of preserving his monopoly of education. But in 1170 the Third Council of Lateran decreed that the license should issue to every qualified applicant, and that without the exaction of a fee. . . . While there appear occasional signs of real academic in- dependence, the medieval universities were in the main faithful subjects of the Church of Rome. And when they sided with the civil as against the ecclesiastical authorities, their course was so often marked with extreme servility that it can call forth but little whole souled commendation. The first freshness of intellectual life which marked their beginnings soon gave way to a dreary and spirit- less following of their own traditions. A deeper and more pervasive interest in education appeared with the Revival of Learning ... It is charged by Catholic writers that the main educational out- come of the Protestant movement was the control of education by the state There is a large meas- ure of truth in this charee. Yet it is not to be supposed that modern school systems came at once into being upon the change of the states of north- ern Europe from the Catholic to the Protestant faith The new organization grew out of the old. . . . The relations of church and state in Prussia during the nineteenth century have been full of interest ; and they have reacted powerfully upon the educational system. It was, in fact, a ques- tion relating to the schools which precipitated the Kulturkampj in the early seventies; and one of the most notable results of that struggle was the as- sumption by the state of the local supervision of the schools, which up to that time had been a recognized prerogative of the church authorities. ... By the code of 17Q4, the teachers in the gymnasiums and higher schools were declared to be officers of the state. In the higher institutions, and particularly in the universities, the eighteenth century had seen the upgrowth of a demand that instructors should be free to teach what they conceived to be the truth, without interference from the authorities. Under Frederick William I., this freedom was ruthlessly invaded, on grounds that were fully as much ecclesiastical as poUtical. Frederick the Great would hear nothing of such interference, at least so far as questions of reli- gious controversy were concerned. Under succeed- ing reigns the universities were by no means secure from interference on political grounds. The ardent participation in political movements on the part of university professors and students during the first half of the present century brought the ques- tion of academic freedom sharply to the front. If the universities were to be freed from ecclesiastical supervision only to be brought under a kind of bondage to the government the real extent of their gain was problematical. When at last, in 1850, the long-sought-for written constitution was se- cured, it contained the liberal provision that 'Science and the teaching of science are free.' This was not the end of controversy ; but it marked one of the great educational gains of the nineteenth century. ... As Lutheran Prussia led the nations of Europe In the matter of state provision for public education, so Calvinistic Massachusetts was the leader of our American commonwealths. Un- der the quasi-theocracy of early colonial times, the people proceeded zealously in the establishment of educational institutions under public patronage and control. The General Court of the Colony appropriated moneys for the founding of a col- lege. A little later, each town in the Colony having sufficient population was required by law to establish an elementary school ; and with a somewhat larger population, a Latin school capa- ble of preparing students for the university, The purpose of these provisions was to circumvent the devices of Satan and to prevent learning from be- ing 'buried in the graves of our forefathers.' Dur- ing the .seventeenth century these provisions were rigorously enforced. The eighteenth saw consider- able relaxation of this strenuousness. . . . But New England democracy survived the decay of its ecclesiastical sponsors. And the doctrine that public education of secondary as well as of ele- mentary grade should be carried on under public control and with public support passed over to the modern state, when the theocracy which had nourished it was dead and gone." — E. E. Brown, Academic freedom {Educational Review, Mar., looo) , pp. 200-218. "The ecclesiastical and educational history of England has been far different. . . . The episcopal control of English education was continued after the Tudor Reformation, and was expressly con- firmed by the Canons of 1604. For a century and a half the Church of England claimed a mo- nopoly of public education on the basis of these canons, and of the immemorial us.age which they confirmed. The Act of Uniformity, of 1662, dis- allowed all orders save those conferred by bishops. ACADEMIC FREEDOM Relation to the State ACADEMIC FREEDOM The same act required schoolmasters as well as clergymen to subscribe not only to a declaration of their assent to the prayer-book, but also to a pledge that they would seek to make no change in church or state. Under this act, some of the most learned men at both universities were driven from their posts; and instruction thruout Eng- land was made absolutely subservient to the Es- tablished Church. . . . The e.xample of the Roman Empire had shown that education was a possible field for state agency. The long history of ecclesiastical control down to the time of the Reformation greatly obscured this fact. Many sincerely believed that schools could be managed and maintained only by the church. If men had not come to serious theological differences, the me- dijeval system would probably have continued to the present time. . . . Some of the most significant contributions to modern thought on the institu- tional relations of education were made by French writers of the latter half of the eighteenth cen- tury. When we remember the influence which France exercised over German thought at that period, we are ready to look for French elements even in the remarkable development of academic freedom in the Prussian universities under the leadership of Halle. The trend of French thought at the time takes two noteworthy directions. On the one hand, a vigorous group of writers called for education by the state for the purposes of the state. One of the most influential of these was La Chalotais. Protesting against a too exclusively ecclesiastical training, he declared, 'I dare claim for the nation an education which depends only on the state, because it belongs essentially to the state ; because every state has an inalienable and indefeasible right to instruct its members; because, finally, the children of the state ought to be edu- cated by the members of the state.' Voltaire called education a 'government undertaking.' . . . The contention of these writers seems to be, in substance, that education shall change its ecclesias- tical master for a governmental master. The other direction is represented by Rousseau and his fol- lowers. Here appears the demand that early edu- cation shall be cut off from all connection with in- stitutional life. It is to be universal, in that the ends which it seeks are to be such as will be of equal value to Christian, Jew, and pagan, and to those of any nation and any occupation in life. Here we have a universalism more abstract than any that the Renaissance produced. Children are to be brought up not even for participation in the ideal life of ancient Greece and Rome, nor for citizenship in a supramundane Kingdom of Heaven ; but rather for ideal perfection as indi- viduals. Education, according to this scheme, is not to change masters, but rather to free itself from masters altogether. It is to become free by cutting itself loose, in some quixotic manner, from all connection with any other institution what- soever. . . Freedom of instruction, in the proper sense of the words, implies instruction which puts the learner in possession of universal standards of excellence, or at least of standards as nearly uni- versal as he can at any given stage of his develop- ment really make his own ; but which also puts him in the way of employing these standards in the discharge of the duties of real life. Something like this seems to be implied in the demand that educational questions shall be determined solely on educational grounds; and in that demand is briefly summed up the whole question of academic free- dom. It will be observed that in this discussion the case of the lower schools has been considered along with that of the higher, as if the question of freedom of instruction affected them all alike. This has been done advisedly, in the belief that educa- tion is one concern from the lowest grades to the highest. A state which undertakes to determine the questions of higher education on purely edu- cational grounds, while it determines questions re- lating to primary schools on narrowly govern- mental grounds, is preparing the different classes of its people to misunderstand one another. Such a condition can only promote a 'severance for the time between the thinking classes and the general bulk of the nation' — to u.se a happy expression of Mr. John Richard Green's. It can hardly continue permanently in any modern society. . . . The first half-century of our own Republic saw the begin- nings of a remarkable movement toward public control of education in all of its grades. Particu- larly in secondary and higher instruction the change of sentiment within that period was highly significant. At the outset, institutions of learning were very generally controlled by self-perpetuatmg boards of trustees, acting under charters granted or confirmed by the several States. Not infre- quently state aid was granted in considerable amounts to these institutions and no condition of state control was added to such grants. For a time such institutions increased rapidly in numbers. Finally there arose an insistent demand that instil tutions of learning be under public direction and control ; a demand which found expression in the Dartmouth College case, in the establishment of the University of Virginia, and in the beginnings of the high-school movement. For the past three- quarters of a century, we have seen schools of secondary and higher education growing up under systems of public administration, alongside of other schools which, however public in other respects, are under one form or another of private con- trol. . . . The demand for public control, as it appeared in the early part of this century, was in part a protest against ecclesiastical influence; but it was perhaps quite as much an expression of the purpose to make public schools directly responsible to the public to which they ministered. But, as we have seen, an increase of responsibility is an ap- proach toward real freedom; it being impossible that an irresponsible institution, if such a thing exists, should be really free. ... On the whole it seems fair to say that the movement toward public control in this country as in others is a step in the direction of academic freedom — of academic free- dom which is one with academic responsibility. The importance of this movement to our national life can hardly be overestimated. But schools and universities under private control cannot be dis- pensed with. If such did not exist, the public wel- fare would demand their establishment; for times will inevit,ably appear in our national life when the immediate pressure of governmental control will unduly restrain our State institutions. Nor can we suppose that the schools of the churches, where these exist, will not have their call, now and again, to take up the theme and speak some free word of instruction which other institutions at the time fail to utter. John Stuart Mill was clearly justified in the contention that there .should be no monopoly in education, whether of the govern- ment, of the clergy, or of philosophers. This ques- tion of academic freedom is intimately bound up with the question of freedom of the press, of the .sciences, of the arts. In our university organiza- tion of the future, these several interests may be found more and more incorporated in the system of educational administration. Here we find some 25 ACADEMIC FREEDOM Relation to Educational insfilulions ACADEMIC FREEDOM of (he highest concerns of the state which cannot be compressed into mere governments in a kind of independence which makes possible the best sort of co-operation. . . . After all is said and done, academic freedom cannot be expressed in formulas nor secured by mere systems of administration. It belongs to men who deserve it for pre-eminent worth and command it by the courage of well- reasoned conviction. No sort of freedom is worth having which can be marked out by fixed lines or maintained by inferior men without a struggle. It is a part of the mission of educational institu- tions to take their place and play their part in the conflicts which are necessary to the life of the peo- ples; and when their part assumes the form of a struggle for the right to teach the truth as they find it, the conflict itself may prove their best means of persuading men that truth is worth fight- ing for." — E. E. Brown, Academic freedom (Edu- cational Review, Mar., iqoo, pp. 219-231). "The term 'academic freedom' has traditionally had two applications — to the freedom of the teacher and to that of the student. It need scarcely be pointed out that the freedom which is the subject of this report is that of the teacher. Academic freedom in this sense comprises three elements: freedom of inquiry and research; free- dom of teaching within the university or college; and freedom of extra-mural utterance and action. The first of these is almost everywhere so safe- guarded that the dangers of its infringement are slight. It may therefore be disregarded in this report. The second and third phases of academic freedom are closely related, and are often not dis- tinguished. The third, however, has an importance of its own, since of late it has perhaps more fre- quently been the occasion of difficulties and con- troversies than has the question of freedom of intra-academic teaching. All five of the cases which have recently been investigated by commit- tees of this Association have involved, at least as one factor, the right of university teachers to ex- press their opinions freely outside the university or to engage in political activities in their capacity as citizens. . . . The simplest case is that of a pro- prietary school or college designed for the propaga- tion of specific doctrines prescribed by those who have furnished its endowment. It is evident that in such cases the trustees are bound by the deed of gift, and, whatever be their own views, are obligated to carry out the terms of the trust. . . . Their purpose is not to advance knowledge by the unrestricted research and unfettered discussion of impartial investigators, but rather to subsidize the promotion of the opinions held by the persons, usually not of the scholar's calling, who provide the funds for their maintenance. Leaving aside, then, the small number of institutions of the pro- prietary type, what is the nature of the trust re- posed in the governing boards of the ordinary institutions of learning? . . . They cannot be per- mitted to assume the proprietary attitude and pri\-ilege. if they are appealing to the general pub- lic for support. Trustees of such universities or colleges have no moral right to bind the reason or the conscience of any professor. .All claim to such right is waived by the appeal to the general public for contributions and for moral support in the maintenance, not of a propaganda, but of a non- partisan institution of learning. . . . The function [of professors] is to deal at first hand, after pro- longed and specialized technical training, with the sources of knowledge; and to impart the results of their own and of their fellow-specialists' investiga- tions and reflection, both to students and to the general public, without fear or favor. The proper discharge of this function requires (among other things) that the university teacher shall be exempt from any pecuniary motive or inducement to hold, or to express, any conclusion which is not the genuine and uncolored product of his own study or that of fellow-specialists. . . . "The importance of academic freedom is most clearly perceived in the light of the purposes for which universities exist. These are three in num- ber; {.\) To promote inquiry and advance the sum of human knowledge. (B) To provide gen- eral instruction to the students. (C) To develop experts for various branches of the public service. Let us consider each of these. In the earlier stages of a nation's intellectual development, the chief concern of educational institutions is to train the growing generation and to diffuse the already accepted knowledge. It is only slowly that there comes to be provided in the highest institutions of learning the opportunity for the gradual wresting from nature of her intimate secrets. The modern university is becoming more and more the home of scientific research. There are three fields of human inquiry in which the race is only at the be- ginning: natural science, social science, and philos- ophy and religion, dealing with the relations of man to outer nature, to his fellow men, and to the ultimate realities and values. The second function — which for a long time was the only function — of the American college or university is to provide in- struction for students. It is scarcely open to ques- tion that freedom of utterance is as important to the teacher as it ts to the investigator. No man can be a successful teacher unless he enjoys the respect of his students, and their confidence in his intellectual integrity. It is clear, however, that this confidence will be impaired if there is suspi- cion on the part of the student that the teacher is not expressing himself fully or frankly, or that college and university teachers in general are a repressed and intimidated class who dare not speak with that candor and courage which youth always demands in those whom it is to esteem. . . . The third function of the modern university is to de- velop experts for the use of the community. If there is one thing that distinguishes the more recent developments of democracy, it is the recog- nition by legislators of the inherent complexities of economic, social, and political life, and the diffi- culty of solving problems of technical adjustment without technical knowledge. ... It is obvious that here again the scholar must be absolutely free not only to pursue his investigations but to declare the results of his researches, no matter where they may lead him or to what extent they may come into conflict with accepted opinion. To be of use to the legislator or the administrator, he must enjoy their complete confidence in the disinterest- edness of his conclusions It is clear, then, that the university cannot perform its threefold func- tion without accepting and enforcing to the fullest extent the principle of academic freedom. The re- sponsibility of the university as a whole is to the community at large, and any restriction upon the freedom of the instructor is bound to react inju- riously upon the efficiency and the morale of the institution, and therefore ultimately upon the in- tere.sts of the community. "The special dangers to freedom of teaching in the domain of the social sciences are evidently two. The one which is the more likely to affect the privately endowed colleges and universities is the danger of restrictions upon the expression of opinions which point towards extensive social in- 26 ACADEMIC FREEDOM Various opinions ACADEMIC FREEDOM novations, or call in question the moral legitimacy or social expediency of economic conditions or commercial practices in which large vested inter- ests are involved. In the political, social, and eco- nomic field almost every question, no matter how large and general it at first appears, is more or less affected with private or class interests ; and, as the governing body of a university is naturally made up of men who through their standing and ability are personally interested in great private enterprises, the points of possible conflict are num- berless. When to this is added the consideration that benefactors, as well as most of the parents who send their children to privately endowed in- stitutions, themselves belong to the more prosper- ous and therefore usually to the more conservative classes, it is apparent that, so long as effectual safe- guards for academic freedom are not established, there is a real danger that piessure from vested in- terests may, sometimes deliberately and sometimes unconsciously, sometimes openly and sometimes subtly and in obscure ways, be brought to bear upon academic authorities. On the other hand, in our state universities the danger may be the re- verse. Where the university is dependent for funds upon legislative favor, it has sometimes happened that the conduct of the institution has been af- fected by political considerations; and where there is a definite governmental policy or a strong public feeling on economic, social, or political questions, the menace to academic freedom may consist in the repression of opinions that in the particular po- litical situation are deemed ultra-conservative rather than ultra-radical. The essential point, however, is not so much that the opinion is of one or another shade, as that it differs from the views entertained by the authorities. The question resolves itself into one of departure from accepted standards; whether the departure is in the one direction or the other is immaterial. This brings us to the mo3t serious difficulty of this problem; namely, the dangers connected with the existence in a democracy of an overwhelming and concen- trated public opinion. The tendency of modern democracy is for men to think alike, feel alike, and to speak alike. ... In a democracy there is politi- cal freedom, but there is likely to be a tyranny of political opinion. An inviolable refuge from such tyranny should be found in the university. ... It is, in short, not the absolute freedom of utterance of the individual scholar, but the absolute freedom of thought, of inquiry, of discussion and of teach- ing, of the academic profession, that is asserted by this declaration of principles." — American Associa- tion of University Professors, Generai report of the committee on academic freedom and academic tenure (American Political Science Review, May, 1916). Opinion of President Barrows of the Univer- sity of California. — "Finally, we come to that special freedom to which the term 'academic free- dom' is sometimes confined — freedom of teaching and of thought and utterance associated with it. This is undoubtedly the most crucial point of our inquiry. Is a professor in a university, and above all in a state university, to be permitted to express himself without restraint? I am not sure that I represent the unanimous academic view, but as a practical answer I would say, 'yes, once a man is called to be a professor.' The earlier grades of academic advancement are necessarily probation- ary, but once the professorial status is conferred the scholar can not thereafter successfully be laid under restraint. ... I appreciate that there are times which are exceptional; when men neither in a university nor in civil society generally may use their privilege of speech and criticism. War is such a season. . . . War is a highly abnormal ex- perience in which thousands and millions of men, at utmost danger to their lives, forego all freedom, surrender all liberty to the necessary requirements of militaPi' discipline. And this being the situation of the men who fight, some measure of restraint is justifiable over the entire nation, that the army may suffer no increased hazard. And there may also be other crises in a state so acute, so disturb- ing, so painful to large numbers, as to necessitate a temporary suppression of free utterance, but normally the rule of academic freedom holds. The university is not an open forum. Its platforms are not free to the uninstructed or to those without repute. It is not a place where any sort of doc- trine may be expounded by any sort of person. There is a public attitude that sometimes questions the right, particularly of a state university, to ex- clude any from public utterance in university halls. But just as the permanent members of a univer- sity are selected with great care and for reasons of confidence in their knowledge, so those who arc invited to speak incidentally or occasionally must be judged with comparable considerations." — D. P. Barrows, Academic freedom (School and Society, Apr. 17, iQ2o). Opinion of President Lowell of Harvard Uni- versity. — "The teaching by the professor in his class-room on the subjects within the scope of his chair ought to be absolutely free. He must teach the truth as he has found it and sees it. This is the primary condition of academic freedom, and any violation of it endangers intellectual progress. In order to make it secure it is essential that the teaching in the class-room should be confidential. This does not mean that it is secret, but that what is said there should not be published. If the re- marks of the instructor were repeated by the pupils in the public press, he would be subjected to con- stant criticism by people, not familiar with the subject, who misunderstood his teaching ; and, what is more important, he would certainly be misquoted, because his remarks would be reported by the student without their context or the quali- fications that give them their accuracy. Moreover, if the rule that remarks in the class-room shall not be reported for publication elsewhere is to be maintained, the professor himself must not report them. . . . That does not mean a denial of the right to publish them in a book, or their substance in a learned periodical. On the contrary the object of institutions of learning is not only the acquisi- tion but also the diffusion of knowledge. ... In troublous times much more serious difficulty, and much more confusion of thought, arises from the other half of our subject, the right of a professor to express his views without restraint on matters lying outside the sphere of his professorship. . . . The fact that a man fills a chair of astronomy, for example, confers on him no special knowledge of, and no peculiar right to speak upon, the protective tariff. His right to speak about a subject on which he is not an authority is simply the right of any other man, and the question is simply whether the university or college by employing him as a pro- fessor acquires a right to restrict his freedom as a citizen. ... On their [the students'] side they have a right not to be compelled to listen to re- marks offensive or injurious to them on subjects of which the instructor is not a master, — a right which the teacher is bound to respect. . . . The gravest questions, and the strongest feelings, arise from action by a professor beyond his chosen field 27 ACADEMIC FREEDOM ACADEMY, FRENCH and outside his class-room. Here he speaks only as a citizen. By appointment to a professorship he acquires no rights that he did not possess before; but there is a real difference of opinion to-day on the question whether he loses any rights that he would otherwise enjoy. ... In the first place, to impose upon the teacher in a university restrictions to which the members of other professions, law- yers, physicians, engineers, and so forth, are not subjected, would produce a sense of irritation and humiliation. In accepting a chair under such con- ditions a man woulcl surrender a part of his lib- erty; what he might say would be submitted to the censorship of a board of trustees, and he would cease to be a free citiien. . . . Such a policy would tend seriously to discourage some of the best men from taking up the scholar's Ufe. ... If a univer- sity or college censors what its professors may say, if it restrains them from uttering something that it does not approve, it thereby assumes responsibil- ity for that which it permits them to say. This is logical and inevitable, but it is a responsibility which an institution of learning would be very un- wise in assuming. . . . Surely abuse of speech, abuse of authority and arbitrary restraint and friction would be reduced if men kept in mind the distinction between the privilege of academic free- dom and the common right of personal liberty as a citizen, between what may properly be said in (he class-room and what in pubUc. But it must not be forgotten that all liberty and every privilege implies responsibilities. Professors should speak in public soberly and seriously, not for notoriety or self advertisement, under a deep sense of responsi- bility for the good name of the institution and the dignity of their profession. They should take care that they are understood to speak personally, not officially. When they so speak, and governing boards respect their freedom to express their sin- cere opinions as other citizens may do, there will be little danger that liberty of speech will be either misused or curtailed." — A. L. Lowell, Annual report to the board oj overseers, 1916-1917 (£1- cerpts as quoted in Harvard Graduates' Magazine, Mar., 1018). Opiiuon of President Hadley of Yale Univer- sity. — "The problem of the liberty of teaching con- nects itself with other problems of civil liberty; and all these problems together reach back into past history, and can be properly analyzed only by historical study. Only by placing them all in their proper relations to one another can we under- stand either the reasons or the limitations of our system' of academic freedom as it e.xists at the present day. To the modern observer liberty in its various manifestations is neither an abstract right to be assumed, as Rousseau would have assumed it, nor a pernicious phantom to Jse condemned and exorcised, as Carlyle or Ruskin would have con- demned it, but an essential element in orderly progress; not without its dangers and not without its limitations, yet justified on the whole because the necessar>' combination of progress and order can be better secured by a high degree of indi- vidual liberty than in any other fashion. . . ." — A. T. Hadley, Academic freedom in theory and in practice (.Atlantic Monthh, Feb., IQ03, pp. 152- 153)- Opinion of President Butler of Columbia Uni- versity. — "You will enter here into an atmosphere of complete intellectual freedom. Each member of this university, teacher and taught alike, is under two limitations, and only two, in matters of speech and of conduct. The first of these is the limitation put upon us all by the laws of the land, which are enforced by the properly constituted authorities The second is the limitation in speech and in conduct which an American gentleman puts upon himself. . . . The gravest, and indeed the only, university offence that one can commit is to be guilty of conduct unbecoming a gentleman."— N. M. Butler, from address quoted in New York Sun, Oct. 22, IQ17. ACADEMIE DES SCIENCES. See Acad- ElvrV OF SCTENXES. ACADEMIE FRANCAISE. See Academy, French. ACADEMIES, International Union of. See International Union of .'\cadeiiies. ACADEMY, takes its name from the "Aca- demia" on the Cephissus, a sacred precinct of Athens, which spot probably belonged to Acada- mus, a hero of Atticus. In time it became a pub- lic park; later, a gymnasium was built here where Plato held his first lectures in philosophy. The masters of the great schools of philosophy at Athens "chose for their lectures and discussions the public buildings which were called gymnasia, of which there were several in different quarters of the city. They could only use them by the suffer- ance of the State, which had built them chiefly for bodily exercises and athletic feats. . . . Before long several of the schools drew themselves apart in special buildings, and even took their most fa- miliar names, such as the Lyceum and the .Acad- emy, from the gymnasia in which they made them- selves at home. Gradually we find the traces of some material provisions, which helped to define and to perpetuate the different sects. Plato had a little garden, close by the sacred Eleusinian Way, in the shady groves of the Academy. . . . Aris- totle, as we know, in later life had taught in the Lyceum, in the rich grounds near the llissus. ' — W. W. Capes. University life in ancient Athens, pp. 31-33. — Academy in its modern sense, is a corpora- tion or society organized to encourage the disin- terested pursuit of art or science, or both. It is now used to refer to learned organizations of all kinds. It is usually endowed by the state or other- wise publicly recognized. A list of the more im- portant academies, with the date of founding is appended: .\cademie francaise (1620-1635); Acad- emic des inscriptions et belles-lettres or "Petite academic" (1663); Academic des sciences (1666); Academic des beaux arts (Berne. 1677); Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin (formerly Societas Regia Scientiarum, 1700) ; Academic Imperiale des sciences de Saint-Petersbourg (Imperatorskaya Akademiya naiik, 1725); Royal Academy of Arts (London, 1768); American ,\cademy of Arts and Sciences (1780); National .Academy of Design (New York, 1826) ; National Academy of Sciences (U. S. A.. 1S63) ; American Academy in Rome (1865); British Academy (iqo2). Separate arti- cles on the more important academies will be found under their own headings. — See also Educa- tion: .Ancient: B.C. 7th-.\. D. 3rd centuries: Greece, Socrates and the philosophical schools; Gymnasia: Greek. ACADEMY, American. See American Acad- emy in Ro.vie. ACADEMY, French.— Founded by Cardinal Richelieu, in 1635, for the refining of the language and the literary taste of France. [See also French literature: 1608-1715.] Its forty members are styled "les Quarante Immortels" (the Forty Im- mortals). Election to a seat among them is a high object of ambition among French writers. The seals are numbered from one to forty, and the records of members are kept under the numbers of their respective chairs. — "The literary movement of the Renaissance ended in Europe about the mid- 28 ACADEMY, FRENCH ACADEMY, FRENCH die of the seventeenth century. There appeared no more great writers in Spain, nor in Italy, nor in Germany. France, only, was for a century the country of learning. The writers of that period had a totally different conception of the art of writing from those of the time of the Renaissance. They neither wrote for the learned nor for the common people; they wrote for society; for those whom they called well-bred people, and it was the well-bred company gathered in the salons which decided upon the value of the works. The salons were set up in France during the reign of Louis XIII.; manners and language had been rude at first; the nobles brought with them the customs of the soldier; little by little the ladies brought about a change in the general tone, and introduced the custom of speaking politely, and in choice terms. The Marquise de Rambouillet (q. v.) set the example, by holding in her own mansion regu- lar reunions where questions of literature and morals were discussed. The employment of trivial expressions was forbidden ; the ladies called them- selves 'Precieuses.' They sought to purify the lan- guage, and were aided in their work by the gram- marians, and by the Academy. The French lan- guage at that time was composed of many words and turns of phrase, which had their origin in the French of the Middle Ages; others had been drawn from the Greek or Latm by the men of the Renaissance. The grammarians and the 'Pre- cieuses' proscribed a great many expressions on account of their coarseness, or their provincialism and many new words taken from the Latin, be- cause they were too pedantic. They endeavored to 'follow good usage,' that is, to employ only such words as were used in the best circles in Paris. 'It is far better,' said Vaugelas, 'to consult the women, and those who have not studied, than to counsel with those who are learned in Greek and Latin.' The French language thus purilied, be- came the language of the court, and of the salon, which every one must speak if one wished to be considered educated, and well-bred. 'One word amiss is sufficient to make one scorned in society.' 'To speak well is one of the forms required by good breeding.' In order to fix rules for the lan- guage, Richelieu founded the French Academy; to edit a dictionary of the French language is its especial charge. 'This small band called good so- ciety is the flower of the human race,' said Vol- taire. 'It is for them that the greatest men have labored.' 'It is the taste of the court that should be studied,' said Moliere. 'There is no place where decisions can be more just.' This taste which was imposed on all writers, is called the classic taste It consists in expressing only ideas that can be easily understood, and expressing them in terms clear, precise, and elegant, setting them forth in perfect order, taking care to employ no popular expression, neither a term of science, trade, or of the household ; in one word, sparing the reader everything which may demand an effort of the mind, or which may shock the proprieties. Litera- ture became the art of making fine discourses; it was oratorical rather than poetic. Its dominant quality was perfection." — C. Seignobos, History oj mediaeval and oj modern civilization, pp. 424-426. — ■ During the revolutionary period the Academy was suspected of monarchical sentiments and accused of constituting an intellectual aristocracy. It was accordingly suppressed August 8, 1703, by a de- cree of the Convention and incorporated, in I7gs, into the Institut National, under the name of "La classe de la langue et litterature frangaises" The Restoration replaced the .Academy to its origi- nal status The first edition of its dictionnaire was issued in 1694; the sixth edition appeared in 183S, since augmented by supplements and revised. The selection of members for the Academy has long been a matter of bitter controversy. While a goodly number of great names in French history and literature appear on its roll, it is true that many others, equally great, are conspicuous by their absence. Among the more prominent of the latter category may be mentioned Diderot, RoUin, Rousseau, Beaumarchais, Helvetius, Condillac, Benjamin Constant, J. de Maistre, Prudhon, Beranger, Conte, Balzac, Gautier, Stendhal, Flau- bert, Uaudet, Zola, Flaubert, de Maupassant, etc. None of these became an "imaiurtal." The fol- lowing are some of the celebrated Frenchmen who held seats in the Academy: Racine (1672); Seguier (1635) ; Boileau-Despreaux (1084) ; Vol- taire (1746) ; Corneille (1647) ; Bougainville (17S4); D'Alembert (1754); Cardinal Dubois (1722) ; Cardinal de Rohan (1704) ; Bossuet (1071); Montesquieu (172S); Nicolas Bourdon, first occupant of seat No. i (1637) ; Scribe {1834) , O. Feuillet (i85i); Buffon (1753); Guizot (183O) ; Hugo (1841); Sainte Beuve (1844); Ampere (1S47) ; De Tocqueville (1841) ; Lacordaire (pere, 1859); Ph. de Segur (1830); A. Thiers (1833); Merimee (1844); Chateaubriand (1811); Lamar- tine (1829) ; Condorcet (17S2) ; Jules Favrc C1867) ; Tissot (1833) ; A. de Vigny (1845) ; A. de Musset (1852); Montalembert (1851); Laplace (i8ib); Cuvier (1818) and Royer-Collard (1S27), 1919. — Calling of International conference for union. See under International union of acau- EMIES. The membership of the Academy in 1920 in the order of election with the name of the predece.^sor in each case, was as follows: Comte d'Haussonville, Gabriel Paul Othenin de Cleron (Caro) de Freycinet, Claude Louis de Saulces (Augier, Emile) Loti-Viaud, Pierre Louis Marie Julien (Feuillet, Octave) Lavisse, Ernest (de la Graviere, Jurien) Bourget, Paul (du Camp, Max) France, Anatole Jacques Thibault (de Lesseps) Hanotaux, Gabriel (Challerael-Lacour) Lavedan, Henri (Meilhac, Henry) Deschanel, Paul Eugene Louis (Herve, Flori- mond Ronge) Masson, Louis Claude Frederic (Paris) Bazin, Rene Fran<;ois Nicolas (Legouve) Ribot, Alexandre (due d'.^udiffret-Pasquier) Barres, Maurice (de Heredia, J. M) Donnay, Maurice (Sorel, Albert) Richepin, Jean (Theuriet, Andre) Poincare, Raymond (Gebhart) Brieux, Eugene (Halevy) Aicard, Jean (Coppee, Francois) Prevost, Marcel (Sardou, Victorien) Doumic, Rene (Boissier) Mgr. Duchesne, Louis Marie Olivier (Card. Mathieu) Vte. de Regnier, Henri (Comte de Vogiie) Baron Cochin, Henrv Denys Benoit Marie (Vandal) General Lyautey, Herbert (Houssaye, Henri) Boutroux, Etienne Emile Maiie (General Lang- lois) Capus, Alfred Vincent Marie (Poincare, H.) de la Gorce, Pierre (Thureau-Dangin) Bergson, Henri Louis (Olivier, Emile) Marechal Joffre, Joseph Jacques Cesaire (Clare- tie, Jules) Barthou, Louis (Roujon, Henri) 29 ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ACCIDENT INSURANCE Mgr. Baudrillart, Henri Marie Alfred (Comte de Mun, Albert) Boylesve, Rene (Mezieres) de Curel, Fran<;ois (Hervieu, Paul) Cambon, Jules (Charmes, Francis) Clemenceau, Georges (Faguet, Emile) Marechal Foch, Ferdinand (Marquis de Vogiie) Bordeaux, Henry (Lemaitre, Jules) de Flers, Robert (Marquis de Segur) Bedier, Joseph (Rostand, Edmond) Chevrillon, Andre (Lamy, Ktienne) The above list was furnished by courtesy of the French government, in December, lyio. ACADEMY OF SCIENCES (lAcademie des sciences), an institution founded at Paris in ibbd by Colbert and approved by Louis XIV in 1699; suppressed by the National Convention during the French Revolution and in 1816 reconstituted as a branch of the Institut de France (founded 1795)- At first it served as an experimental laboratory and observatory ; its purpose is to promote scientific research. It numbers sixty-eight members, ten honorary academicians, eight foreign associates, and one hundred corresponding members. ACADIA. See Canada: iboj-ioos, 1O10-1013, 1692-1097. Origin of the name. See Nova Scotia: 1604. Capture of. See U. S. A.: 1690. Given to Great Britain at Treaty of Utrecht. See NtwFouNDLAND, Dominion of: 1713. In Nova Scotia. See Nova Scoiia; 1713-1730. Boundary dispute with England. See Nova Scoiia: 1749-1755. Exile of inhabitants. See Nova Scotia: 1755. ACANTHUS, a plant found in great abundance in ancient Greece. Because of its attractive form it was reproduced on metals and sub.sequently carved in stone, particularly by the Greeks. The succeeding styles of architecture employed the de- sign especially in the Corinthian capital. ACAPULCO, a seaport of Mexico, on the Pa- cific, in the state of Guerrero, with a very fine landlocked harbor, the chief port of call for steam- ships plying between San Francisco and South American ports. In the eighteenth century it was the port used for the Philippine trade.^See also Mexico: 1810-1819. ACARNANIA, a land in the western part of Greece, south of Epirus (see Greece: Map of ancient Greece), whose people first emerged from obscurity at the beginning of the Pelo- ponnesian War (431-404 B.C.). The Acarna- nians formed "a hnk of transition" between the ancient Greeks and their barbarous or non- Hellenic neighbours in the Epirus and beyond. "They occupied the territory between the river Achelous, the Ionian sea and the Ambrakian gulf ; they were Greeks and admitted as such to contend at the Pan-Hellenic games, yet they were also closely connected with the Amphilochi and Agrcei, who were not Greeks. In manners, sentiments and intelligence, they were half-Hellenic and half- Epirotic, — like the ^tolians and the Ozolian Lokrians. Even down to the time of Thucydides, these nations were subdivided into numerous petty communities, lived in unfortified villages, were frequently in the habit of plundering each other, and never permitted themselves to be unarmed. . . . Notwithstanding this state of disunion and insecurity, however, the Akarnanians maintained a loose political league among themselves. . . . The Akarnanians appear to have produced many prophets. They traced up their mythical ancestry, as well as that of their neighbours the Amphilo- chians, to the most renowned prophetic family among the Grecian heroes, — Amphiaraus, with his sons Alkmson and Ampilocbus: Akarnan, the eponymous hero of the nation, and other epony- mous heroes of the separate towns, were supposed to be the sons of Alkmseon. They are spoken of, together with the .-Etolians, as mere rude shep- herds, by the lyric poet Alkman, and so they seem to have continued with little alteration until the beginning of the Peloponnesian war, when we hear of them, for the first time, as allies of Athens and as bitter enemies of the Corinthian colonies on their coast. The contact of those colonies, how- ever, and the large spread of Akarnanian accessible coast, could not fail to produce some effect in so- cializing and improving the people. And it is probable that this effect would have been more sensibly felt, had not the Akarnanians been kept back by the fatal neighbourhood, of the .■Etolians, with whom they were in perpetual feud,— a people the most unprincipled and unimprovable of all who bore the Hellenic name, and whose habitual faithlessness stood in marked contrast with the rectitude and steadfastness of the Akarnanian rectitude and steadfastness of the Akarnanian char- acter." — G. Grote, History of Greece, pt. 2, cli. 24. ACARNANIAN LEAGUE.— "Of the .Akar- nanian League, formed by one of the least im- portant, but at the same time one of the most estimable peoples in Greece . . . our knowledge is only fragmentary. The boundaries of .'\karnania fluctuated, but we always find the people spoken of as a political whole. . . . Thucydides speaks, by impHcation at least, of the Akarnanian League as an institution of old standing in his time. The Akarnanians had, in early times, occupied the hill of Olpai as a place for judicial proceedings com- mon to the whole nation. Thus the supreme court of the Akarnanian Union held its sittings, not in a town, but in a mountain fortress. But in Thucydides' own time Stratos had attained its position as the greatest city of -Akarnania, and probably the federal assemblies were already held there. ... Of the constitution of the League we know but little. Ambassadors were sent by the federal body, and probably, just as in the Achaian League, it would have been held to be a breach of the federal tie if any single city had entered on diplomatic intercourse v/ith other powers. As in Achaia, too, there stood at the head of the League a General with high authority. . . . The existence of coins bearing the name of the whole Akarnanian nation shows that there was unity enough to admit of a federal coinage, though coins of particular cities also occur." — E. A. Free- man, History oj federal government, ch. 4, sect. i. — See also Athens: B.C. 336-332. ACAWOIOS. See Cakibs: Their kindred. ACCA LARENTIA, the wife of Faustulus, who reared the Roman twins, Romulus and Remus. ACCAD: Ancient civilization. See Baby- lonia: Earliest inhabitants; Semites: Primitive Babylonia. Language and literature. See Assyria: Art and archa;ological remains; Education: Ancient: B.C. 35th-6th centuries: Babylonia and Assyria. ACCEPTANTS. See Convulsionists. ACCIDENT INSURANCE, Industrial See Insurance: Industrial insurance; Social insur- ance: Accident and sickness insurance. France. See Social insurance: Details for vari- ous countries: France: 1919- Germany. See Social Insurance: Origin and early development. Great Britain. See Social insurance: Details for various countries: Great Britain: 1833-1911. Holland. See Social insukance: Details for various countries: Holland: 1894-1901. 30 ACCOLADE New Zealand. See Social insurance: Details for various countries: New Zealand: igoo-igi2. Norway. See Social insurance: Details for various countries. 1885-1910. Portugal. See Social insurance: Details for various countries: 1919. United States. See Social insurance: Details for various countries: 1893-1018. ACCOLADE.— "The concluding sign of being dubbting out the social and economic reforms begun 46 by Stein. . . . But before the reform could be completed Hardenberg died (in 1S22) and a reac- tion immediately set in. The great landholders, whose privileges had been seriously diminished by what had been accomplished, came forward and managed to persuade the king to grant them cer- tain powers in the domain of purely local govern- ment. Local legislatures were formed in which the landholders had almost complete control; and the attempt was made later to form out of delegates from these local legislatures a national parliament. This attempt was frustrated by the revolution of 1848, which was largely a protest by the commer- cial and industrial classes against the monopoly of governing which the landholders were beginning to claim. The result of the revolution was t-he for- mation of a constitution in which the suffrage was made to depend not upon the ownership of land but upon the ownership of any kind of property. M first the legislature which was formed on this basis contained a liberal majority which set to work to curtail the powers of the landowners. This led to another reaction, viz.. the conservative reaction of 1850-60, during which the entire power of the administration was prostituted in the inter- est of the Conservative party and the landholders. This preying of one class upon another, which is so characteristic of the internal history of Prussia from 1S22 and 1S60, was largely the result of the weakness of the monarchy during that period and of the introduction of the principle of the parlia- mentary responsibility of the ministry into a coun- try in which the people had not as yet learned how to govern themselves. It was only natural therefore that, when the monarchy became stronger by the accession of the late King William I. who repudiated the principle of the parliamentary re- sponsibility of his ministers, this class tyranny should cease. The great constitutional conflict in Prussia which followed his accession to the throne (1860-4) showed the Prussian people that they had found their master, and that the Crown in a mon- archical country is the natural arbiter between conflicting social classes and should protect the weak against the aggressions of the strong. ... It was seen that important changes must be made in the system of local government in order to accus- tom the people to exercise their powers with mod- eration and with a regard for the interests of the minority. The necessary concrete measures were sketched by Dr. Gnei.<;t of the University of Berlin, and one of the greatest of modern public lawyers, in his little book entitled Dif Kreisordnnng. In this work Dr. Gncist referred, as had Stein before him, to the English system of local administration which they both knew so well and admired so much. .After a long discussion the plans advocated by Gneist were for the most part incorporated into the law of Dec. 13. 1872, commonly known as the Kreisordnnng. The adoption of these plans was largely due to Prince Bismarck, who believed .strongly in local autonomy and self-administration, and who supported the ideas advocated by Gnei.st in the face of the opposition of the general public and of that of his colleagues in the ministry and the greater part of the government officials who were loth to give up any of the powers which they possessed in the organization founded by Harden- berg. In addition to the Krrisprdnung several other laws were passed in the course of the next ten years, all either carrying the reform further, or modifying details which experience had shown to be faulty. The definite ends which this reform has had in view are: First. The extension of the sphere of local autonomv Second The introduc- tion of a judicial control over the actions of ad- ADMINISTRATIVE LAW Prussia England ADMINISTRATIVE LAW ministrative officers in the hope of preventing a recurrence of the prostitution of the powers of the administration in the interest of party or social faction. Third. The introduction of a non-pro- fessional or lay element into the administration of central as well as of local matters in the hope of Micreasing the political capacity of the people. . . . "In accordance with continental ideas as to the territorial distribution of administrative functions two spheres of administrative action are recognized by the law: the one, central; the other, local. For the purposes of the central administration which needs attention in the localities, the country is divided into administrative circumscriptions called provinces, government districts, circles, etc., in which are officers under the control of the heads of the various executive departments at Berlin. For the purposes of local government certain mu- nicipal or public corporations have grown up which have their own officers and their own property separate and apart from that of the central gov- ernment. At the time of the reform in many in- stances the boundaries of the administrative cir- cumscriptions for the purposes of central admin- istration were not identical with those of the vari- ous public corporations, e. g., the boundaries of the administrative provinces were not the same as those of the public corporations bearing the same name. In most cases, further, the authorities for the purposes of central administration were not the same as those of the public corporations. The re- form of 1872 has endeavored to simplify matters. It has in the first place adopted the old divisions, vis., the provinces, districts, and circles, but it has added a new division, viz., the justice of the peace division (..imlsbezirk) ; in the second place it has in almost all instances insisted upon the coincidence of the boundaries of the corresponding areas. Thus at the present time in almost all cases the area of the administrative province is the same as that of the provincial corporation. In the third place the central and local authorities within the same area have in most cases been consolidated. In the province, however, the attempts at such consoli- dation were unsuccessful. ... As in the French, so in the Prussian system of local government, the interference of the central legislature in local af- fairs is infinitesimal if it exists at all. Enough of the old feudal ideas of local autonomy have re- mained to permit of the development of the prin- ciple that there is a sphere of administrative action which must be left almost entirely to the localities; that within this sphere the legislature should not interfere at all; that any central interference or control that may be required over this local ad- ministration should come from the administration and in the main from the lay authorities of the administration, and should be confined simply to preventing the localities from incurring too great financial burdens. Therefore the law does not, as in the United States and as it does to a certain extent in England, enumerate the powers and duties of the localities, but says simply that the local affairs of particular districts shall be governed ^v the decisions of local authorities in the nature of local legislatures, and that in those cases only in which the law has expressly given it the power, may the central administration step in to protect the localities from their own unwise action. This system is one of general grants of local power with the necessity in certain cases of central ad- ministrative—not legislative — approval or control. The benefits of such a" system cannot be over- estimated Through its adoption all the evils of local anrl special legislation are avoided. In place of an irresponsible legislative control, which in the United States has shown itself so incapable of pre- venting the exPravagance of localities that in many cases the power of the legislature to permit local action has been curtailed by the constitutions, is to be found a control exercised by responsible au- thorities — authorities which have a certain perma- nence and are well able to judge whether a given action will be really hurtful to a locality or not. .\t the same time the greater freedom from central interference guaranteed to the localities by this sys- tem is well calculated to encourage the growth of local pride and responsibiUty." — F. J. Goodnow, Comparative administrative law, v. i, pp. 295-302, 33<'-337. Administrative law in England. — "The Eng- lish administrative jurisdiction, whose main prin- ciples have been adopted in the United States, is simply an outgrowth of the original system of ad- ministrative control. The Norman political system made no distinction between governmental authori- ties. .'\ll powers of government were consolidated in the hands of the Crown. First to be differen- tiated was the legislative authority, the Parliament. But for a long time after the differentiation of Parliament there was almost no legal distinction between the position of the officers for the admin- istration of justice and that of the officers for the administration of government. Indeed most im- portant officers ciischarged functions in both branches and all alike were regarded as merely the servants of the Crown. Some, it is true, were en- gaged mainly in the application of the private law, others were engaged mainly in the application of the public and administrative law. But all were officers of the Crown, which directly or indirectly could remove them all from office and could dic- tate to them what should be the decision of the cases which were brought before them. To the officers of one of the courts, viz., the court of king's bench, which was regarded as occupying a superior position because the Crown by a fiction of the law was supposed always to be present in it, was given a supervisory power over all other authorities. If anyone was aggrieved by an act of a subordinate officer of the Crown he had the right to appeal to the Crown, who was the foun- tain of justice, and such an appeal went to the court of king's bench. At first it seems to have gone to the Curia Regis or King's Council before the development of the court of king's bench. In- deed, after the development of the king's bench, when with the usual habits of judges the members of this court became very technical in their appli- cation of the law, appeals went in many cases directly to the Crown and were attended to gener- ally by the chancellor or the council. For the King at the time of the formation of the court of king's bench especially reserved to himself the de- cision of particularly difficult cases. From these reserved judicial powers grew up the court of chancery as well as other courts. In answer to such appeals the court of king's bench issued in the name of the Crown certain writs directed to the officer whose decision was complained of, and so formed as to afford the desired relief. Though these writs were originally issued from the office of the chancellor, the court soon obtained the right to issue them directly. These writs were named from the most prominent words in them — words which largely expressed the purpose of the writ. Thus, if anyone appealed to the Crown to force a recalcitrant officer to do something which the law of the land commanded the officer to do. the writ which was issued in an.swer to the appeal was called the writ of mandamus. But at the .same time that the court of king's bench was developing 47 ADMINISTRATIVE LAW England ADMINISTRATIVE LAW these special remedies, which became known as extraordinar>' legal remedies or prerogative writs, the chancellor, the keeper of the King's conscience, was, through the exercise of the reserved judicial powers of the King, also developing a series of special remedies called equitable remedies, the most important of which, from the point of view of administrative law, was the bill of injunction. Originally, however, the injunction does not seem to have been made use of commonly against offi- cers. While most of the writs issued by the royal courts were issued to litigants upon proper demand de ctirsu, and were known as writs ex dehito jtis- litiae, the writs by means of which the court of King's bench exercised its supervisory powers over the other authorities do not seem to have become, in early times at any rate, writs of right, writs ex debilo jtistitiw, but were issued only in extraor- dinary cases when some gross injustice was done. They were known, therefore, as 'prerogative writs. ' The same was practically true of the equitable remedies, and particularly of the bill of injunction. Further on the return to these writs, generally only questions of law were considered. They were made use of simply to keep the lower authorities within the bounds of the law, and could not be used, after the practice in regard to them became crys- tallized, to review any question of fact or expe- diency. It therefore became necessary to develop some further remedy, unless the lower authorities were to be permitted to decide such questions free from all control. Such a method was found in the power which was granted to the individual to ap- peal to the Privy Council. Such appeals the coun- cil might hear as a result of the fact that the King granted to a division of it, 37:., the star chamber, a portion of his reserved judicial powers. This body acted as the administrative superior of the royal authorities in the localities, and on appeal to it questions of fact and expediency, as well as of law, could be considered. Formed in the time of Henry VII to control the nobility, who had grown turbulent during the wars of the Roses, it served at first to protect the weaker classes of the commu- nity against the arbitrariness of the administrative authorities, which were largely chosen from the nobility; but it was later, viz., under the Stuarts, used in such a way that it was abolished on the occasion of the revolution in 1640. In order to offer an appeal similar to the one which disap- peared on the occasion of its abolition, it was provided in a series of statutes that the court of quarter sessions of the justices of the peace, which had been theretofore mainly an administrative au- thority for the purpose of county administration, could hear and decide appeals from those decisions of the justices of the peace, acting singly or in petty and special sessions, which affected property and the richt of personal liberty. There was thus formed for the deci.sion of questions of fact and expediency, as well as of law, an administrative court in each county, which came finally to have a very wide power of control over the acts of sub- ordinate administrative officers. Its members fur- ther would certainly have special knowledge of the law they had to apply and of the conditions of administrative action, since they were engaged in other capacities as administrative officers. Fur- ther the commission of the justices of the peace enjoined upon them in difficult cases to take the advice of the royal courts. This came finally to be done by 'stating a case' which was agreed upon by the justices and the parties before them, and which was then submitted to the royal courts, and finally decided by them. In consequence of these facts, one of the writs which were originally issued by the court of king's bench, viz., the certiorari, lost much of its earlier importance in England; and we find that statute after statute was passed which prohibited its use as a means of appealing from the acts of administrative officers. But up to the coming to the throne of the Orange-Stuarts in i68g, all officers, whether judges or administrative officers, held their office at the will of the Crown. There was no judicial tenure as there was at the time in both France and Germany. In this fact, and in the existence in the Crown of reserved judicial powers, are probably to be found the rea- sons why the Crown permitted such a control over the administration to be given to the courts. For the Crown could exercise at any time a strong personal influence over the judges of the courts; and if it was found that the administration of the law was becoming so technical as to hamper the action of the administration, the Crown could at any time exercise its reserved powers and transfer any matter to a newly created and more pliable authority. In 1701, however, all this was changed. The act of settlement made the judges independent of the royal power, and the whole tendency of English development was to make the justices of the peace actually, though not legally independent of the Crown, .^n attempt by Lord Somers during the reign of William III to coerce, through the power of dismissal from office, numerous justices of the peace raised such a storm of opposition that no later ministry has dared to make use of such a power. At the same time that the tenure of the judges and the justices became independent of the Crown their administrative jurisdiction remained essentially the same, with the result that the con- trol which might before have been regarded as merely a part of the administrative control became absolutely judicial in character, ;'. p., was exercised by authorities independent of the administration which was to be controlled. "Such was the condition of the English adminis- trative jurisdiction at the time the American colonies were founded. At first, indeed, the Ameri- can judges, like the English judges of the same period, were both in tenure and action under the control of the executive which they were to con- trol, but soon their tenure was assured both against the executive and the legislature, so that from a very early time the higher courts exercised a really judicial control over the actions of the administra- tion. The justices of the peace did not, however, at first become independent of the administration in tenure. .And this was probably the reason why our courts of quarter sessions were not able to develop any very large administrative jurisdiction. The appointment early in our history of other officers for purely administrative purposes relegated the justices to the position of inferior judicial offi- cers who have a police jurisdiction and a minor civil private law jurisdiction. They were left very few administrative duties to perform. Notwith- standing the fact that the justices of the peace in the United States later on obtained a tenure inde- pendent of the administration, in that they became generally elected by the people for a fixed term of office, they never got anything like the same ad- ministrative jurisdiction that was given to their English brothers. It is true that in special in- stances we find appeals from the decisions of ad- ministrative officers allowed to the courts of the justices or their successors, the county courts Especially is this true in^ some of the southern commonwealths and in Pennsylvania. But it may safely be said that there has never been, and is not now in the United States any at all important administrative jurisdiction except such as is to be 48 ADMIRAL ADMIRALTY found in the writs which the higher courts, as a result of their being the heirs of the Enghsh court of king's bench, have the right to issue. We have lost an important part of the English administra- tive jurisdiction — particularly important because by its means a host of questions of fact and of expe- diency could be reviewed on appeal. With us such questions are decided finally by the administration, with the result that a most precious means of pro- tecting individual rights has been lost." — F. J. Goodnow, Comparative administrative law, v. 2, pp. 192-1Q9. ADMIRAL. — Origin of name. — Duties. See Naval law: Origin. ADMIRALTY.— Constitution of the British Admiralty. — "The Navy, as every one knows, is ruled by the .'\dmiralty, and the Admiralty is one of the oldest organs of administration in this coun- try [England]. It is also quite unique in its con- stitution and characteristics. . . . The Admiralty, indeed, has no iixcd constitution. There are cer- tain documents which seem to define its duties, functions, and responsibilities, but the inner spirit of its working is not to be found in them. That is embodied in a whole mass of usages, precedents, prescriptions, and informal understandings, many of which have come down from time immemorial, none of which possesses the fixity of a constitu- tional text, while all are endowed with a flexibility which enables them to conform without stress or friction to circumstances as they arise in any emergency. Sir James Graham, a former First Lord of the Admiralty who had closely studied its constitution and who himself took a leading part in one of its most memorable reorganizations, de- clared in 1861 to a Committee of the House of Commons, 'The more I have investigated the mat- ter the more I am satisfied that, like the common law in aid of the Statute Law, the power exercised by the Board of .Admiralty and the different mem- bers of it rests more upon usage than upon the Patents, uninterrupted usage from a very early period.' Mention is here made of 'the Patents.' Each successive Board of Admiralty derives its formal authority from a Patent issued by the Crown, a new Patent being required whenever any change is made in the personnel of the Board. But these successive Patents are, and have been for more than two centuries, issued in substantially the same form. The Patent issued by Queen Anne vesting in Commissioners — now officially known as 'My Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty' — all the powers previously exercised by her husband. Prince George of Denmark, as Lord High Admiral, is, save for certain small alterations, omissions, and additions, textually identical with that issued to the present Board of Admiralty by King George V. From it is nominally derived all the authority ex- ercised by the Board of Admiralty over the whole naval service and over the civil departments sub- ject to its control, though in reality much of that authority is of much earlier origin and date. The Patent of Queen Anne is only one of a long series, though it derives its special importance, on the one hand, from the fact that it marks a break in that series, and on the other from the fact that it has survived to our own days. The essential thing to bear in mind is that the Board of .'\dmiralty as we know it is a body of Commissioners appointed by the Crown to execute the office of Lord High Admiral. Now the office of Lord High Admiral goes back to the beginning of the fifteenth century, its incumbent receiving a Patent of office just as the Board of Admiraltv receives a similar Patent to-day The powers conferred on successive Lords High Admiral varied from time to time and were gradually enlarged. As early as the reign of Henry VI. the Patent had received a form and scope not greatly differing from those of the Patent issued by Queen Anne and her successors. We need not, however, trace the office of Lord High Admiral through its expansion in the time of Henry VIII into an Office of Admiralty on the one hand and a Navy Board on the other, or through its vicissi- tudes in Stuart and Commonwealth times down to its final abeyance on the death of Prince George of Denmark. It was, it is true, revived for a short period early in the last century in favour of the Duke of Clarence, afterwards King William IV, but the revival proved so disastrous to the welfare and good government of the Navy that it soon came to an end, and for all practical purposes it may be said that the office of Lord High Admiral has been in commission since Prince George of Denmark died in 1709. But its spirit survives not merely in the Patent of Queen Anne but in an earlier declaratory Act passed in i6qo under Wil- liam and Mary to define the powers of a Board of Admiralty appointed at a time when the office of Lord High Admiral was in temporary abeyance. That Statute recited that 'all and singular authori- ties, jurisdictions and powers which, by Act of Parliament or otherwise," had been lawfully vested in the Lord High ."Kdmiral of England, haci always appertained and should appertain to the Commis- sioners for executing the office for the time being 'to all intents and purposes as if the said Com- missioners were Lord High Admiral of England.' Whatever, therefore, the Lord High Admiral, in the height and plenitude of his power, might law- fully do, that the Board of Admiralty may also lawfully do. Its power and authority extend far beyond the Patent and the Statute of William and Mary because both those instruments confirm the powers of the Lord High Admiral without at- tempting to define them." — C. Beresford, Book of the Navy, pp. 120-132. "We have dwelt upon this peculiar history be- cause it affords an instructive insight into those inestimable qualities of flexibility of administration and ready adaptability to circumstances which have made the Admiralty what it is. We have seen that both an Office of Admiralty — constitut- ing as it were the Staff of the Lord High Admiral — and a Navy Board existed as early as the reign of Henry VIII. The latter administered the civil departments connected with the Navy in greater or less subordination to the former, which in its turn performed many of the directive and execu- tive duties pertaining to the Lord High .\dmiral himself. This was no very logical distribution of the administrative work to be done, and those who are familiar with the history of naval administra- tion in the eighteenth century are well aware that there was constant friction between the Navy Board and the Admiralty and that the former became in the course of time a very hotbed of inefficiency and even corruption — vices, however, from which the Admiralty itself was not entirely free. Still, the system survived through the great wars of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centu- ries and provided a Navy which, thanks mainly to the zeal and devotion of the officers who served in it, was generally equal to the work it had to do. It was abolished in 1832, when Sir James Graham in a series of far-reaching reforms put an end to what was regarded as a mischievous dual control. The Navy Board, alwavs subordinate to the Ad- miralty, was then finally incorporated with the latter. . . . We must pass over the various forms which the Board of Admiralty has assumed since the Patent of Queen Anne finally settled such writ- 49 ADMIRALTY Functions ADMIRALTY ten constitution as it has, and come at once to its structure and organization at the present day The pivot and centre of the whole is the First Lord of the Admiralty. In the eighteenth century it was not uncommon for a naval officer of high rank and repute, such as Anson, Hawke, St. Vincent, Barham, and others, to hold the office of First Lord. But in more modern times the First Lord of the Admiralty has always been a civilian, and a politician with a seat in the Cabinet. The professional element so necessary to the govern- ment and control of a great fighting service is to be found in the naval members of the Board — Sea Lords as they are officially designated — and not in the statesman who presides over them. The pow- ers, functions, and responsibilities of the First Lord have never been very precisely determined. He is not a Lord High Admiral, since he is only the chief of a body of Commissioners for executing the office of that functionary, and the powers con- ferred by the Patent are conferred not on any indi- vidual but on 'any two or more of you.' Nor can he as a Minister representing his Department in the Cabinet and in Parliament act wholly inde- pendently of his colleagues on the Board. Theo- retically he could, perhaps, and there may in past times have been a few exceptional cases in which a First Lord has so acted. But in these days a First Lord who took important decisions in oppo- sition to the judgment of his professional colleagues would very soon find his position untenable. As a rule, then, the First Lord is the intermediary between the Cabinet and the Board, and the repre- sentative of his Department in Parliament, deriving immense authority and influence from the fact that — under the Cabinet which can always overrule him — he is directly responsible to Parliament and the country for the efficiency and sufficiency of the Fleet, the other members of the Board being in like manner directly responsible to him. . . . The Board of Admiralty as now constituted consists of the First Lord, who presides over it, of the First, Second, Third, and Fourth Sea Lords, of the Civil Lord, of the additional Civil Lord — who holds an office which formerly existed for a short time and was revived for special purposes by Mr. Churchill in January, 1Q12 — of the Parliamentary Secretary, and of the Permanent Secretary. The whole of the business of the Admiralty is distributed among these several members of the Board according to a standing scheme known as the 'Distribution of Business.' This scheme is modified from time to time and revised according to circumstances, but as it stands for the time being it clearly defines the sphere of administration for which each member of the Board is responsible. Thus, according to the scheme at present in force, the First Lord is responsible for the 'general direction of all busi- ness' — a comprehensive range of responsibility which of itself invests the First Lord with a large measure of authority over each and all of his col- leagues. The First Sea Lord is responsible for 'organization for war and distribution of the Fleet' and for all executive and administrative questions relating thereto. In particular he is charged with the supervision of the War Staff, about which we shall have more to say hereafter. The Second Sea Lord is responsible for all ques- tions relating to 'Personnel' and the Third Sea Lord for all questions relating to 'Materiel ' The Fourth Sea Lord is responsible for all questions relating to 'Stores and Transport,' The Civil Lord is respon- sible for all questions relating to 'Works, Build- ings, and Oreenwich Hospital.' and the .Additional Civil Lord for all questions relating to 'Contracts and Dockyard Business.' The Parliamentary Sec- retary is at the head of the department of 'Finance' and the Permanent Secretary superin- tends all '.Admiralty Business.' He controls the internal administration of the Department, and all communications from 'My Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty' pass through his office and are signed by him. . . . Thus all the master threads of a vast network of administration, affecting every branch of naval policy, naval preparation, naval construction, and naval finance, pass in due order into the Board Room, thence, after due delibera- tion and decision, to issue in the form of execu- tive orders and directions. This is the paramount function of the Board, a function which immemo- rial usage and that flexibility of adaptation which is native to the sea service enable it to discharge with rare efficiency and, on occasion, with unex- ampled celerity and dispatch, all Statutes, Patents, and Orders in Council notwithstanding. As Lord George Hamilton, a former First Lord of great experience, told a Royal Commission in 1887, 'It has this advantage, that you have all departments represented round a table, and that if it is neces- sary to take quick action, you can do in a few minutes that which it would take hours under any other system to do.' Lastly, there is one vital organ of naval administration which has already been mentioned above, but which will well repay some further consideration. This is the War Staff. In its present form the War Staff is a newly-con- stituted department — the country owes it to the initiative of the present First Lord — though its constituent elements, imperfectly articulated and co-ordinated, have existed at the Admiralty for many years past. .\ Foreign Intelligence Branch was first established in 1883. This developed in a few years into the Naval Intelligence Department, its development in that direction having been greatly advanced by that gallant and zealous offi- cer Admiral Lord Charles Beresford, who as Fourth Sea Lord of the Admiralty from 1886 to 1888 strenuously insisted on its vital importance, and is believed to have resigned in the latter year be- cause he could not overcome the apathy of his colleagues on the subject. The Naval Intelligence Department has now in its turn been absorb.cd into a fully constituted War Staff, of which the best description is to be found in the following extracts from a Memorandum drawn up by the present First Lord [Winston S. Churchill] and issued by the Admiralty on January i, 1Q12: — "'. . . Naval war is at once more simple and more intense than war on land. The executive ac- tion and control of fleet and squadron commanders is direct and personal in a far stronger degree than that of generals in the field, especially under mod- ern conditions. The art of handling a great fleet on important occasions with deft and sure judg- ment is the supreme gift of the admiral, and prac- tical seamanship must never be displaced from its position as the first qualification of every sailor. The formation of a War Staff does not mean the setting up of new standards of professional merit of the opening of a road of advancement to a dif- ferent class of officers. The War Staff is to be the means of preparing and training those officers who arrive, or are likely to arrive by the excellence of Iheir sea service, at stations of high responsibility for dealing with the more extended problems which await them there. It is to be the means of sifting, developing, and applying the results of history and experience, and of preserving them as a general stork of reasoned opinion available as an aid and as a guide for all who are called upon to determine, in peace or war, the naval policy of the country. . . . 50 ADMIRALTY ADMIRALTY ISLANDS " 'It should not be supposed that these functions find no place in Admiralty organization at the present time. On the contrary, during the course of years, all or nearly all the elements of a War Staff at the Admiralty have been successively evolved in the practical working of every-day af- fairs, and have been developing since the organiza- tion of the Foreign Intelligence Branch in 18S3. The time has now come to combine these elements into an harmonious and effective organization, to invest that new body with a significance and influ- ence it has not hitherto possessed, and to place it in its proper relation to existing power. " 'Since, however, under the distribution of Ad- miralty business on the Board, the First Sea Lord occupies for certain purposes, especially the daily distribution of the Fleet, on which the safety of the country depends, the position of a Com- mander-in-Chief of the Navy, with the First Lord immediately over him, as the delegate of the Crown in exercising supreme executive power, it follows that the War Staff must work at all times directly under the First Sea Lord. His position is different in important respects from that of the senior member of the .'\rmy Council as constituted. The First Sea Lord is an executive officer in active control of daily Fleet movements, who requires, like a General in the field, to have at his disposal a Chief of the Staff, but who is not the Chief of the Staff himself. " 'A proper staff, whether naval or military, should comprise three main branches — namely, a branch to acquire the information on which action may be taken; a branch to deliberate on the facts so obtained in relation to the policy of the State, and to report thereupon; and, thirdly, a branch to enable the final decision of superior authority to be put into actual effect. The War Staff at the Admiralty will, in pursuance of this principle, be organized from the existing elements in three divi- sions — the Intelligence Division, the Operations Di- vision, and the Mobilization Division. These may be shortly described as dealing with war informa- tion, war plans, and war arrangements respectively. The divisions will be equal in status, and each will be under a director, who will usually be a Captain of standin.'. The three divisions will be combined together under a Chief of the Staff. " 'The Chief of the Staff will be a Flag Officer. He will be primarily responsible to the First Sea Lord, and will work under him as his principal as- sistant and agent. He will not, however, be the sole channel of communication between the First Sea Lord and the Staff; and the First Lord and the First Sea Lord will, whenever convenient, con- sult the Directors of the various Divisions or other officers if necessary. . . . The Chief of the War Staff will guide and co-ordinate the work of the Staff in all its branches. He will, when de- sired, accompany the First Lord and the First Sea Lord to the Committee of Imperial Defence. . . . " 'The functions of the W'ar Staff will be advi- sory. The Chief of the Staff, when decision has been taken upon any proposal, will be jointly re- sponsible with the Secretary for the precise form in which the necessary orders to the Fleet are is- sued, but the Staff will possess no executive au- thority. It will discharge no administrative duties. Its responsibilities will end with the tendering of advice and with the accuracy of the facts on which that advice is based. " 'Decision as to accepting or rejecting the ad- vice of the Staff wholly or in part rests with the First Sea lord, who, in the name of the Board of Admiralty, discharges the duties assigned to him by the Minister. In the absence of the First Sea Lord for any cause the Second Sea Lord would act for him. . . . " 'The selection and training of the officers to compose a Staff of the nature described as impor- tant Hitherto no special qualifications have been regarded as essential for the officers employed in the Intelligence and Mobilization Departments, because the ordinary sea training of naval officers was supposed to supply all that was required. This training, however, although admirable on its practical side, affords no instruction in the broader questions of strategy and policy, which be- come increasingly important year by year, A change in this respect is therefore considered ad- visable, and a special course of training at the War College will form an essential part of the new arrangements. The President of the College will be entrusted with this important duty, and in order that it may be carried out to the best effect, he will at all times be in close touch and associa- tion with the Chief of the Staff. In course of time the appointment will be held by a Flag Offi- cer who has been a Staff Officer himself. Candi- dates for the Staff will be selected from volunteers among lieutenants of suitable seniority as well as officers of other branches throughout the Service irrespective .of their previous qualifications as specialist officers or otherwise, and those who pass the necessary examinations at the end of or during the War College course will be eligible to receive appointments either at the Admiralty or on the Staff of Flag Officers afloat as they fall vacant. In all cases, however, regular periods of sea-going executive duty will alternate with the other duties of Staff Officers of all ranks, in order that they may be kept up to the necessary standard as prac- tical sea officers. .'\ll appointments on sea-going staffs will in the course of time be filled by these officers, and form the proper avenue to eventual employment in the highest Staff positions at the ■Admiralty. . . ." — Ibid., 1,^3-137, 130-144. 1912-1920. — Reorganizations. — There have been two important reorganizations of the Admiralty in recent years, the first being part of Winston Churchill's naval schemes, the second made neces- sary by the increased responsibilities of the World War, In igi2, the various members of the board of Admiralty were made responsible for special functions: — the First Lord, general direction of business; First Sea Lord, organization for war and distribution of the fleet; Second Sea Lord, per- sonnel; Third Sea Lord, stores and transport; Civil Lord, works, buildings, and hospital; Additional Civil Lord, contracts and dockyard business; Par- liamentary Secretary, finance; Permanent Secre- tary, admiralty business. The reorganization of iqi7 took place on May 14, the principal feature being that a Naval Staff was embodied in the Board. At present fio::] the duties of the Ad- miralty are divided into the two departments of operations and maintenance. The first division has as its functions naval policy and the general direc- tion of operations, war operations in home waters and elsewhere, trade protection and anti-submarine operations. The officers in charge are the First Sea Lord and Chief of the Naval Staff, and the Deputy and .Assistant Chiefs of the Naval Staff. The maintenance division is in charge of the Sec- ond. Third, and Fourth Sea Lords, and the Civil Lord, and is concerned with personnel, finance, supplies and transport. ADMIRALTY ISLANDS, a small group of tropical islands, off the northeastern coast of New Guinea, forming a part of the Bismarck Archipel- ago. Became a German protectorate in 1884. The 51 ADMIRALTY LAW ADMIRALTY LAW principal island is Taui, or Manus. On September 12, igi4, they were occupied by an Australian force and were awarded to Australia as mandatory in igig. — See also Bismarck archipelago; Melane- sia. ADMIRALTY LAW, the system of law and procedure referring to maritime transactions. The term originated in England from the fact that this branch of law was originally administered by the Lord High Admiral. At present, the Court of Admiralty in that country forms a separate part of the High Court of Justice, being grouped with the Probate and Divorce Courts in a special division. Its jurisdiction includes actions to recover posses- sion of a ship, to recover damages for injuries to shipping, to recover seamen's wages, for necessaries furnished to a ship, for bottomry [a loan on the ship], respondentia |a loan on the goods in the ship] and mortgage, for pilotage and towage, for salvage, for restoration of goods taken by pirates, for assaults and batteries on the high seas and all actions of similar scope. In the United States, the federal judiciary possesses exclusive jurisdiction in all maritime cases. This includes all cases arising on the high seas or Great Lakes, and most of those on navigable rivers and canals within the territory of the United States. In this country there is no special Admiralty Court. .^dmiralty cases are heard in the first instance in the United States District Courts, from which they may be appealed to the Circuit Court of Appeals and finally to the United States Supreme Court. — See also Naval law: Court of Admiralty. 1183. — Law as to shipwrecks. — "The Emperor Constantine, or Antonine (for there is some doubt as to which it was), had the honour of being the first to renounce the claim to shipwrecked property in favor of the rightful owner. But the inhuman customs on this subject were too deeply rooted to be eradicated by the wisdom and vigilance of the Roman law givers. The legislation in favor of the unfortunate was disregarded by succeeding em- perors, and when the empire itself was overturned by the northern barbarians, the laws of humanity were swept away in the tempest, and the continual depredations of the Saxons and Normans induced the inhabitants of the western coasts of Europe to treat all navigators who were thrown by the perils of the sea upon their shores as pirates, and to punish them as such, without inquiry or discrim- ination. The Emperor Andronicus Comncnus, who reigned at Constantinople in 1183, made great efforts to repress this inhuman practice. His edict was worthy of the highest praise, but it cea.sed to be put in execution after his death. . . . VaUn says, it was reserved to the ordinances of Lewis XIV. to put the finishing stroke towards the ex- tinction of this species of piracy,- by declaring that shipwrecked persons and property were placed un- der the special protection and safe guard of the crown, and the punishment of death without hope of pardon, was pronounced against the guilty." — J. Kent, hilrrnntiPiHi! Ia-d\ p. 31. 1537. — Jurisdiction.— The act of 28 Henry VIII, c. T?, granted jurisdiction to the lord high admiral of England. 1575. — Jurisdiction.— "The request of the Judge of the Admiralty, to the Lord Chief Justice of her Majesty's bench and his colleagues, and the Judges' .Agreement 7th May 157,=;, "^by which the long controversy between these courts as to their rela- tive jurisdiction was terminated, will be found in full in E. C. Benedict, American Admiralty, 4lh ed., p 7,0. 1664. — Tide-mark. — The space between high and low water mark is to be taken as part of the sea, when the tide is in.— E. C. Benedict, American Admiralty, 4th ed., p. a. 1789. — United States Judiciary Act. — The Act of I78g declared admiralty jurisdiction to extend to all cases "where the seizures are made on waters which are navigable from the sea by vessels of ten or more tons burthen." — Judiciary Act, U. S. stat- utes at large, v. 1, p. 76. — See also Supreme Court: I78g-i835. 1798. — Lord Stowell and admiralty law. — "Lord Mansfield, at a very early period of his judicial life, introduced to the notice of the Eng- lish bar the Rhodian laws, the Consolato del Mare, the laws of Oleron, the treatises of Roccus, the laws of Wisbuy, and, above all, the marine ordi- nances of Louis XIV, and the commentary 'f Valin. These authorities were cited by him in Luke V. Lyde (2 Burr. 882), and from that time a new direction was given to English studies, and new vigor, and more liberal and enlarged views, communicated to forensic investigations." — J. Kent, Commentaries, pi. 5, lecture 42. — The old maritime codes brought before the English bar at this time were among the most important in the develop- ment of maritime law. The Rhodian laws dating back possibly to the third century stated that "if cargo is thrown overboard to lighten a ship all must contribute to make good the loss incurred for the benefit of all." The laws of Oleron, compiled in the twelfth century by order of Eleanor of Aquitaine were made up of the judgments of the court of Oleron, an important shipping center, and of the usages of the sea having force among the mariners of that island. The Consolato del Mare, compiled in the fourteenth century by the Catalans of Barcelona, was made up of the settled uses of trade and navigation of the maritime provinces of the Mediterranean. The laws of Wisby were the mercantile customs and regulations from Wisby, Sweden, compiled in the last years of the thirteenth century, and in force throughout the Baltic sea. They were the basis of the maritime regulations of the Hanseatic League. In 1681, Louis XIV had collected and systematised the whole law of ship- ping, navigation, marine insurance, bottomry, etc. — "Since the year 1708, the decisions of Sir William Scott (now Lord Stowell) on the admiralty side of Westminster Hall, have been read and admired in every region of the republic of letters, as models of the most cultivated and the most enlightened human reason. . . . The doctrines are there rea- soned out at large, and practically applied. The arguments at the bar, and the opinions from the bench, are intermingled with the greatest reflec- tions, . . the soundest policy, and a thorough acquaintance with all the various topics which concern the great social interests of mankind." — Ibid. 1803-1809 — Impressment of American seamen by British navy. See U S ,\ : 1803: Report on British impressment; 1804-1800. 1841-1842. — Jurisdiction. — The act 3 and 4 Vic, c b^, restored to the English .Xdmiralty some juris- diction of which it had been deprived by the Com- mon Law Courts. — E. C. Benedict, American Ad- miralty, p. .s6 1845. — Extension of admiralty jurisdiction. — "It took the Supreme Court of the United States more than fifty years to reject the antiquated doc- trine of the English courts, that admiralty juris- diction was confined to salt water, or water where the tide ebbed and flowed. Congress in 184S passed an act extending the admiralty jurisdiction of the Federal courts to certain cases upon the great lakes, and the navigable waters connecting the same. The constitutionality of this act was 52 ADMIRALTY LAW ADRIA seriously questioned, and it was not till. 1851 that the Supreme Court, by a divided court, in the case of the Genesee Chief, which collided with another vessel on Lake Ontario, sustained the constitu- tionality of the act, and repudiated the absurd doctrine that tides had anything to do with the admiralty jurisdiction conferred by the constitution upon Federal courts." — L. Trumbull, Precedent ver- sus justice {American Law Review, v. 27, p. 324). Also in: Act of 1845,5 U.S. Statutes at large, 726. 1873. — Division of loss in case of collision settled by Judicature Act. — "The rule that where both ships are at fault for a collision each shall recover half his loss from the other, contradicts the old rule of the common law that a plaintiff who is guilty of contributory negligence can re- cover nothing. This conflict between the common law and the law of the Admiralty was put an end to in 1873 by the Judicature Act of that year, which (s. 25, subs, g) provides that 'if both ships shall be found to have been in fault' the Ad- miralty rule shall prevail. . . . There can be no doubt that in some instances it works positive in- justice; as where it prevents the innocent cargo- owner from recovering more than half his loss from one of the two wrong-doing shipowners. And recent cases show that it works in an arbi- trary and uncertain manner when combined with the enactments limiting the shipowner's liability for damage done by his ship. The fact, however, remains, that it has been in operation with the approval of the shipping community for at least two centuries, and probably for a much longer period; and an attempt to abolish it at the time of the passing of the Judicature Acts met with no success. The true reason of its very general acceptance is probably this — that it gives effect to the principle of distributing losses at sea, which is widely prevalent in maritime affairs. Insurance, limitation of shipowner's liability, and general average contribution are all connected, more or less directly, with this principle." — R. G. Marsden, Two points of admiralty law (Law Quarterly Review, v. 2, pp. 357-362). An enumeration of the various maritime codes with their dates may be found in E. C. Benedict, American admiralty, pp. 88-Qq, 4tli ed. — G. B, Davis, Outlines of international law, pp. 5-6. 1917-1921.— Effect of Supreme Court de- cisions. See Supreme Court: 1017-1021. 1920. — American principle in admiralty pro- cedure. — Federal jurisdiction. — Federal and state regulations. — "The wisdom of our ancestors, in laying the foundations of the Republic, is in nothing more evident than in our organic regula- tions in relation to commerce. For all commercial purposes we must be one people; no different rules must be applied in our maritime commerce in the ports of different states; perfect freedom and equal- ity of trade and navigation amon,' ourselves is con- stitutionally secure. If it had not been so, long be- fore this time we should have been divided, weak and antagonistic sections, the fragments of our orig- inal Union. How easy it is to perceive that our har- mony might be interrupted, and our strength im- paired, if each state might adopt and enforce, on its half of a river, its section of a lake, its short stretch of coast, in its own ports and harbors and local waters, to which all states have a common right of use, a system of commercial and maritime law, repealing, or conflicting with that great sys- tem of commercial law which is known as the Admiralty and Maritime Law, and which alone can secure those equal state rights which it was one great object of the Constitution to protect." — E. C. Benedict, American admiralty, 4tli ed., p. 112 The Constitution of the United States pro- vides (Art. 3, Sect. 2) that the judicial power of the United States should extend to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction. Art. i, Sec- tion 8 gives Congress power to make all laws neces- sary to carry into execution the powers vested in the Federal government. The Federal Constitution adopted and established, as part of the laws of the United States, approved rules of the general maritime law, and empowered Congress to legislate in respect of them and other matters within the admiralty and maritime juris- diction. Moreover, it took from the states all power, by legislation or judicial decision, to con- travene the essential purposes of, or to work ma- terial injury to, characteristic features of such law, or to interfere with its proper harmony and uni- formity in its international and interstate relations. (Knickerbocker Ice Co. vs. Stewart, 1920), 253 U. S. 149). See also Armed merch.^ntmen ; Asylum, right of; Continuous voyage; Freedom of the seas: 1650-1815; Hague conference: IQ07; London, Declaration of; Navigation laws; Paris, Dec- laration of. ADOLPH of NASSAU (1255-1298), German king, son of Walram, count of Nassau, chosen king to succeed Rudolph I, on May 5, 1292, being crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle on July i. To strengthen his position in 1204 he allied himself with Edward I of England, against France, but failed to aid him. Was deposed in 1298 as a re- sult of the conspiracy against him by Albert I of Austria and VVenceslaus II of Bohemia, Albert suc- ceeding him. See Austria: 1291-1349. ADOLPHUS FREDERICK (1710-1771), king of Sweden. After being bishop of Liibeck, was in 1743 chosen as heir to the Swedish throne; became king in 1751 and reigned until 1771. Due to the wrangling in the Riksdag which was composed of the two political cliques, the Caps and the Hats, his position was without real power. See Sweden: 1720-1792. ADONIJAH, son of David; attempted to gain throne from Solomon. See Jews: Kingdoms of Israel and Judah. ADOPTION, Roman. See Roman FAinLv. ADOPTIONISM, a doctrine, condemned as heretical in the eighth century, which taught that "Christ, as to his human nature, was not truly the Son of God, but only His son by adoption." The dogma is also known as the Felician heresy, from a Spanish bishop, Felix, who was prominent among its supporters. Charlemagne took active measures to suppress the heresy. — J. I. Mombert, History of Charles the Great, bk. 2, ch. 12. ADOR, Gustave, (1845- ), president of Switzerland during igiq and during the World War was president of International Committee of the Red Cross. See Switzerland: Swiss Red Cross and the World War. ADORNI FACTION: Genoa. See Genoa: 1458-1464. ADOWA, Battle of. See Italy: 1895-1896. ADRAR, an oasis in the western part of the Sahara, on the caravan route of Morocco; by the agreement of 1892 a part of French Sahara. ADRENALINE, Isolation and development of. See Chemistry: Practical application: Drugs. ADRIA, a town and episcopal see in the prov- ince of Rovigo, Italy, the ancient Atria (the form Hadria is less correct) . About 30 miles southwest of Venice; was originally an island, and in the time of the Romans, a naval station and flourish- ing port but is now far inland; has numerous antiquities, having been successively an Illyrian, a 53 ADRIAN ADRIATIC QUESTION Greek, and a Roman town; population {1Q20) about 17,000. ADRIAN, or Hadrian (Lat. Hadrianus), the name of six popes. Adrian I, pope from 772 to 795; found it neces- sary to call upon Charlemangne to drive out Desi- derius, King of the Lombards, from the territory bestowed on the popes by King Pepin. .Adrian was faithful to the Prankish alliance throughout his reign. Charlemagne wrote the epitaph upon Adrian's death which may be seen to this day on the door of the Vatican basilica. Adrian 11, pope from 867-872, assuming his duties at an advanced age. He spent his last years in a vain effort to mediate between the quarrels of the Prankish princes. Adrian II was forced to sub- mit to Emperor Louis II in numerous temporal disputes. Adrian III, pope, succeeding Marinus I in 884. Died the following year while journeying to Worms. Adrian IV (Nicholas Breakspeare), pope from 1 1 54 to 1150, the only Englishman who has oc- cupied the papal chair; born at Langjey in Hert- fordshire before 1100; served as legate in Scan- dinavia from 1 1 52 to 1 1 54; placed Rome under the interdict because of the murder of one of the cardinals. Adrian I\' bestowed the soverei nty of Ireland on Henry H of England. In 11 55 he used drastic measures in putting down the democratic aspirations of the Roman people under Arnold of Brescia whom he succeeded in having executed. He virtually began the bitter struggle between the papal power and the House of Hohenstaufen and died just as he was about to march at the head of the Italian forces against Emperor Frederick I. Adrian V (Ottobuono de Fieschi), became pope July II, 127b, succeeding pope Innocent I\'; lived but five weeks following his election to the papal chair, dying at \iterbo on .August 18. Adrian VI (Adrian Dedel, 1450-1523), pope, 1522-1523; appointed tutor by the Emperor Max- imilian to his seven-year-old grandson, Charles, who later became Charles V. Adrian's former pupil made him regent of Spain in 1520, under which regency a serious revolt broke out. As pope, Adrian sought to correct many ecclesiastical abuses. Because of his brief occujiancy of the papal throne, however, his efforts as reformer were hardly effective. — See also Pap.^cy: 1522-1525; Sfain: 1518-1522. ADRIANOPLE (Hadrianople), a city in Thrace founded by the Emperor Hadrian and designated by hi? name. It was the scene of Con- stantine's victory over Licinius in 323 (see Rome: 305-323), and of the defeat and death of Valens in battle with the Goths (see Goths: Visigoths: 37Q-382; Rome: 363-370). In-1361 it became for some years the capital of the 'Turks in Europe. It was occu[)ied by the Russians in 1820, and again in 1878, and gave its name to (he treaty negotiated in 1820 between Russia and the Porte. In the first Balk:in War it was captured and annexed by Bulgaria; in the second, Bulgaria being at war with Greece. Serbia, Montenegro and Rumania, the Turks were able to recapture their ancient capital (1013). fSee Balkan States: 1878; 1Q12-1Q13; Turkey: 1012-1013.) .As a result of the World War, it is now included in the posses- sions of Greece — See also Balkan States: Map ADRIANOPLE, Treaty of, the treaty estab- lishing Greek invere inviolable. See Civil law: B.C. 471 ; Rome: B. C. 404-402; 133. /EDILES PLEBIS. See Suffrage, Manhood: B C. 3d century. .^DUI. — "The two most powerful nations in Gallia were the .-I'^dui lor Hsdui] and the Arverni. The /Edui occupied that part which lies between the upper valley of the Loire and the Saone, which river was part of the boundary between ihem and the Sequani. The Loire separated the /Edui from the Bituriges, whose chief town was Avaricum on the site of Bourges. At this time [121 B. C] the Arverni, the rivals of the .-Edui, were seeking the supremacy in Gallia. The Arverni occupied the mountainous country of Auvergne in the centre of France and the fertile valley of the Elaver (Allier) nearly as far as the junction of the Allier and the Loire, . . . They were on friendly terms with the Allobroges, a powerful nation east of the Rhone, who occupied the country between the Rhone and the Isara (Isere). ... In order to break the for- midable combination of the Arverni and the Allo- broges, the Romans made use of the ^dui, who were the enemies both of the Allobroges and the Arverni. ... A treaty was made eit,her at this time or somewhat earlier between the ,4idui and the Roman senate, who conferred on their new Gallic friends the honourable title of brothers and kinsmen. This fraternizing was a piece of political cant which »he Romans practiced when it was use- ful." — G. Long, Decline of the Roman republic, v. I, ch. 21. — Later the Sequani, neighbors with whom the .'Edui were continually at odds, invaded them. The .'Edui appealed to the Roman senate for help; but it was not forthcoming until Caesar's arrival in Gaul (58 B. C), when he restored their inde- pendence. — See also Gaul; Csesar's description. A. E. F. Popular abbreviation for the American Expeditionary Forces in the World War. See Amer- ican Expeditionary Forces. .SGATIAN ISLES, Naval battle of (241 B C) See Punic War, First. .ffiGEALEA, .SGEALEANS. — The original name of the northern coast of Peloponnesus, and its inhabitants. See Greece: Migrations. .SGEAN, that part of the Mediterranean sea lying between Greece and Asia Minor, connected by the Dardanelles with the Sea of Marmora and the Black sea. It washes the shores of a large number of islands known as the Grecian archi- fielago. Before the World War groups of these islands, including the Cyclades, the Northern Sporades, Euboea and a few others belonged to Greece, the Dodecanese to Italy, and most of the others to Turkey. After the war all of the islands belonging to Turkey, except Imbros, Tenedos, and Castelorizo, and all the Dodecanese except Rhodes, were ceded to Greece. The rocky elevations 01 these islands, many of which are of volcanic forma- tion, though they lend a most picturesque appear- ance to the .^-^^gean, nevertheless render navigation by large modern vessels especially hazardous. Some of the larger islands contain well watered and fertile valleys in which are raised the usual liroducts of Mediterranean lands. The inhabitants arc of the vigorous Greek type. 60 -ffiGEAN CIVILIZATION ^GEAN CIVILIZATION -ffiXJEAN CIVILIZATION The ancient culture of the eastern Mediterranean basin, covering the period up to 1200 B. C, and including Greece, the islands of the .^i^gean sea, Crete and parts of North Africa, has been vari- ously designated Mycenx'an, Minoan, and ^gean. The terra Mycensan, however, has in recent years been to a great extent displaced by the other two. "Whether the word Minoan was the best one to substitute is of course another matter. It is argued by some German archaeologists, such as Dr. Dorpfeld and Professor Reisch, that it is absurd to describe periods that stretch over thousands of years by a name that was presumably given to one particular historical personage. For the plea which they put in for the time-honoured word Mycenaean, consecrated by Schliemann's epoch- making discoveries, we have much sympathy, and there is no doubt that the ambiguity that now involves the term Mycena;an, used sometimes in its old generic and sometimes in its new specific sense, will, for a long time to come, lead to confusion. On the other hand the argument that the term is inapplicable to the early periods that are almost unrepresented at or near Mycens is unanswer- able. . . . 'yEgean,' on the other hand, which Pro- fessor Reisch supports, will possibly prove ulti- mately the best generic word for the civilization as a whole, while Mycenaean and Minoan will fit into it, as representing certain stages of its devel- opment in different localities. . . ." — R. M. Bur- rows, Discoveries in Crete, pp. 41-42. "Till recently historians have begun their account of Greek affairs with the eighth century B. C, some of them precisely with the year 776; and for the first century and a half they have given hardly more than a few bare dates. But all this has been changed by explorations in the .-Egean area. The pioneer in the work was Heinrich Schliemann. In his boyhood he learned the stories told by the Hellenic poet Homer of the deeds of mighty heroes during the Trojan war; and thinking them real history, he believed the ancient city of Troy might be found buried beneath the earth. To achieve this task became the inspiration of his life. After amassing a fortune in business, in 1870 he began digging on the hilltop where, from Homer's description, he concluded Troy must have stood. This hill is in northwestern Asia Minor, not far from the sea. The result more than justified his hopes. On this spot he and his successor in the work unearthed the ruins of nine settlements, built above one another and belonging to different ages. It is calculated that the lowest settlement, a rude village, was inhabited about 3500 B. C, and that the sixth, which shows a highly developed civiliza- tion, flourished isooriooo. Afterward Schliemann excavated Tiryns and Mycenae in Argolis, Greece. They were contemporary with the sixth city at Troy. Mycenae showed such signs of wealth and culture that he believed it to have been the centre of the civilization which flourished at that time on the shores of Greece and in Troy. Hence he called the civilization Mycenican." — G. W. Botsford, His- tory of ancient world, p. 68. EXCAVATIONS AND ANTIQUITIES Mycenaean area: Researches at Troy, My- cenae, Tiryns and Vaphio. — "In 1882 Schliemann went to Troy again, and resumed his excavations in company with a German architect, Dr Dorp- feld, whose help was of the greatest value. Schlie- 61 mann himself was no architect, and was not even a scientifically-trained observer ... he was often too downright in his methods, and might at times be accused of vandalism in the pursuit of his end —the discovery of the Heroic civilization of Greece. He cut through everything ruthlessly. . . . Dorpfeld was a guarantee of more scientific methods, necessary in a site like Troy, with its su- perimposed strata of different ages of settlement, very different from the simple grave-clearing at Mycenae. The result of the renewed work was eventually the discovery of the 'Mycenaean' city of Troy."— H. R. Hall, /Egean archaotogy, p. 8.— "Dr. Dorpfeld finished in 1804 the exploration which he had begun in i8q3 on the site of the excavations of Schliemann at Hissarlik (Troia). It appears to be established that Schliemann, carried away by his zeal, had overlooked the very end which he wished to attain, and that the burnt city, which he thought to be the real Troia, is a more ancient foundation going back beyond the year 2000 B. C. M. Dorpfeld discerned, in one of the layers of ruins (discovered but disregarded by Schliemann), a city which must be the Ilios of Priam contem- poraneous with the Mykenai of Agamemnon: he removed the surrounding walls, the towers, and some of the houses that filled it. It is to be under- stood that this little acropolis, analoous to that of Tiryns, is not the whole of the city but simply its citadel, which Homer called 'Pergamos.' It was surrounded, lower down, by a city reserved for the habitation of the common people, some traces of which also have been found." — American Joiir- iiai of Archceology, iSoo. — "There was no doubt as to the position of Mycens, as there had been about that of Troy. The Lion Gate was there, marking the ancient site which since 456 B.C. had been desolate. Schliemann passed through and struck spade into the earth beyond it in the year 1878 A. D. Immediately beyond the gate was a circular space enclosed by weather-worn and lichen-covered stone slabs. Within this stone circle Schliemann dug and discovered what he hoped to find: the graves of the heroes of Mycenae men- tioned by Pausanias. . . . Pausanias says there were six graves. Schliemann found five, and then stopped. After he left, a sixth was found. . . . Outside the grave-precinct was found amid house- ruins a stone chamber possibly a cellar, into which had been placed a remarkable treasure of gold, consisting of solid drinking-cups, and some fine signet-rings which are famous on account of the curious religious scenes engraved upon them. . . . Looking out over the ravine are the two great 'beehive tombs' or tholoi, known as the 'Treasuries of .'\treus and Klytaimnestra.' . . . Atreus's Treas- ur>- has indeed lost the two great pilasters of grey-green stone that seemed to support the heavy architrave of its entrance-door. . . . The interior, though but 50 feet in height, is more impressive than anything Egypt has to show. . . . The great explorer interrupted his Trojan work in 1884 to go to Tiryns. "The result of the excavations of 1884 and 1885 was the discovery of the ground plan of a palace within the walls, placed on the top of the long rock, sixty feet above the plain. Its entrance gate, with doorposts and threshold of breccia is as huge as are the casemates. The plan of the palace itself shews that it was a building of later date than the wall-framework, and quite lately renewed excava- tions have brought to light the remains of a much JEGEAN CIVILIZATION Cretan Area iEGEAN CIVILIZATION earlier palace. At Tiryns Schliemann found the famous kyanos-frieze, the remains of a carved ala- baster slab-decoration inlaid with hard blue glass, which at once was identified as the Homeric kyanos. Here, too, were found fragments of wall- painting which gave a foretaste of what was to come at Knossos. ... In i8Sq our knowledge of prehistoric Greek art took a great step in advance when the 'beehive tomb' at Vaphio in Laconia was e.xcavated b.\ Mr. Tsountas for the Greek Ar- chslogical Society, and the famous 'Vaphio Cups' were found. . . . Later finds in Crete have shown us that they could make better things than the Vaphio Cups; but in iSSq these two little golden vases with their repousse designs of men captur- ing bulls were regarded as extraordinary. It is not too much to say that the X'aphio Cups re- called the flagging attention of the world of artists and archsologists to the work of excava- tion in Greece. Big discoveries were now looked 1300 B. C.) is certain from the distinctive Myce- nasan pottery that was found in it : Schliemann, however, with his rough-and-ready methods, had not identified it. This distinction was reserved for Dbrpfeld, and was the result of his more sci- entific operations. The discovery was announced in 1803. • • ■ Schliemann intended to follow up his work, but difficulties ensued with the Turkish authorities in the island with regard to the ac- c|uisition of the site, and death carried him off before he could get to work. We may — with all respect to Schliemann's memory be it said — be not altogether sorry that his somewhat summary methods were not allowed by fate to be exercised on Knossos, and that it was written that not he, but the Englishman Evans, was to excavate the palace of Minos and the Italian Halbherr to dis- inter the companion palace at Phaistos. Both were, when they began their work trained scholars and archaeologists, and the excavation of these two THE THRONE ROOM AT CNOSSUS Showing tbrniie and fresco of hemldic gnardiaii Hon for. They did not come at once, but when they did the promise of the V'aphio Cups was more than fulfilled. In iSqo and. i8qi the 'beehive tombs' at Thorikos in Attica and at Kampos in Messenia were excavated by Tsountas, and in the last-named was found the well-known leaden statuette of a man making an offering which has figured in so many books as a good illustration of Mycensan male costume "The next important event after the discovery of the \'aphio Cups was the identification of the Sixth Trojan City as Mycensan, or affected by Mycensan influence. ... It is the Sixth City, however, which succeeded the second after its total destruction by burning (after an interval filled by three small village settlements in suc- cession) that is undoubtedly the Troy of legend, round which gathered the traditions of the great siege. It was the only important settlement after the Second City, the succeeding settlements being unimportant and unjustified. Its date (circa 1400- splendid monuments of the older civilization of Greece could not have fallen into more capable hands than theirs." — H. R. Hall, Aigean arcltce- ology. pp. Q-27. Cretan area.— Results c»f extraordinary im- portance have been already obtained from explo- rations in Crete, carried on during i8qo and 1900 by the British School at .Athens, under the direc- tion of Mr. D. G. Hogarth, and by Mr. .\rthur J. Evans, of the .Ashmolean Museum, working with the aid of a small Cretan Exploration Fund, raised in England. The excavations of both par- ties were carried on at Knossos. but the latter was the most fortunate, having opened the site of a prehistoric palace which is yielding remarkable revelations of the legendary age in Crete. In a communication to the London Timfs of October 31, iQoo, Mr. Evans gave the following account of the results so far as then obtained: "The discoveries made at Knossos throw into the shade all the other exploratory campaigns of 62 ^GEAN CIVILIZATION Cnossus ^GEAN CIVILIZATION last season in the Eastern Mediterranean, by whatever nationality conducted. It is not too much to say that the materials already gathered have revolutionized our knowledge of prehistoric tireece, and that to find even an approach to the results obtained we must go back to Schliemann's great discovery of the Royal tombs at Mycenae. The prehistoric site, of which some two acres have now been uncovered at Knossos, proves to con- tain a palace beside which those of Tiryns and Mycenae sink into insignificance. By an un- hoped-for piece of good fortune the site, though in the immediate neighbourhood of the greatest civic centres of the island in ancient, medieval, and modern times, had remained practically un- touched for over 3,000 years. At but a very slight depth below the surface of the ground the spade has uncovered great courts and corridors, propy- laea, a long succession of magazines containing gigantic store jars that might have hidden the I'orty Thieves, and a multiplicity of chambers, [ire-eminent among which is the actual throne- nium and council-chamber of Homeric kings. The throne itself, on which (if so much faith be jiermitted to us) Minos may have declared the law, is carved out of alabaster, once brilliant with coloured designs and relieved with curious tracery and crocketed arcading which is wholly unique in ancient art and exhibits a strange anticipation of i.^th century Gothic. In the throne-room, the western entrance gallery, and elsewhere, partly still adhering to the walls, partly in detached |)ieces on the floors, was a series of fresco paint- ings, excelling any known examples of the art in Mycenaean (!reece. A beautiful life-size paint- ing of a youth, with a European and almost clas- ■-ically Greek profile, gives us the first real knowl- edge of the race who produced this mysterious early civilization. Other frescoes introduce us to .t lively and hitherto unknown miniature style, representing, among other subjects, groups of women engaged in animated conversation in the courts and on the balconies of the Palace. The monuments of the sculptor's art are eciually strik- ing. It may be sufficient to mention here a mar- ble fountain in the shape of a lioness's head with enamelled eyes, fragments of a frieze with beauti- fully cut rosettes, superior in its kind to anything known from Mycenae ; an alabaster vase natu- ralistically copied from a Triton shell ; a porphyry lamp with graceful foliation supported on an Egyptianising lotus column. The head and parts of the body of a magnificent painted relief of a bull in gesso duro are unsurpassed for vitality and strength. "It is impossible here to refer more than inci- dentally to the new evidence of intercourse be- tween Crete and Egypt at a very remote period supplied by the Palace finds of Knossos. It may be mentioned, however, as showing the extreme antiquity of the earlier elements of the building that in the great Eastern Court was found an Egyptian seated figure of diorite, breken above, which can be approximately dated about 2000 B. C. Below this again extends a vast Stone Age settlement which forms a deposit in some places 24 ft. in thickness. "Neither is it possible here to dwell on the new indications supplied by some of the discoveries in the 'House of Minos' as to the cult and religious beliefs of its occupants. It must be sufficient to observe that one of the miniature frescoes found represents the facade of a Mycenaean shrine and that the Palace itself seems to have been a sanc- tuary of the Cretan God of the Double Axe, as well as a dwelling place of prehistoric kings. 63 There can be little remaining doubt that this huge building with its maze of corridors and tortuous passages, its medley of small chambers, its long succession of magazines with their blind endings, was in fact the Labyrinth of later tradition which supplied a local habitation for the Minotaur of grisly fame. The great figures of bulls in fresco and relief that adorned the walls, the harem scenes of some of the frescoes, the corner stones and pillars marked with the labrys or double axe — the emblem of the Cretan Zeus, explaining the derivation of the name 'Labyrinth' itself — are so many details which all conspire to bear out this identification. In the Palace-shrine of Knossos there stands at last revealed to us the spacious structure which the skill of Daedalus is said to have imitated from the great Egyptian building on the shore of Lake Moeris, and with it some part at least of his fabled masterpieces still cling- ing to the walls." — Up to iqo6 Sir Arthur Evans attracted the attention of archseologists to his excavations at Cnossus, where he recovered nu- merous valuable specimens of ancient art, which were deposited in the museum at Candia. Par- ticular interest attaches to the architecture of the palace, disclosing among its wonders a remarkable grand staircase with decorated walls, and a series of sunken rooms which presumably were baths. Much, no doubt, still remains to be brought to light in this region ; various circumstances have combined since 1Q06 to arrest the progress of the work. In the early 'sixties of last century the site of Phaestus, or Phaistos, was discovered by a British naval officer. A famous city in the legen- dary history of ancient Crete, Phaestus boasted a palace outranking even that of Cnossus. This building, together with a similar one on a lesser scale of magnificence and situated to the east of it, was uncovered by Italians. Among the treasures recovered were some fine specimens of gilt stone cups, imitations of the Vaphio, of c. 1600 B.C. A pottery sarcophagus, representing scenes from funeral ceremonials, was discovered in iqoS. At Phaestus the British school discovered several in- scriptions dating from the sixth century B.C. The characters seem to be (Jreek but the language it is impossible to read. Scholars believe that it is related to the non-Aryan tongues which were spoken in its near neighborhood. Its chief inter- est to us lies in the fact that it is undoubtedly the speech of the Bronze Age Cretans with their pictographs and hieroglyphics. To the east at Palaikastro the work of the British school was crowned with complete success. Here they dis- covered a complete town with shaft graves and cups corresponding in style and age to those at Mycenae. Nearby Professor Myres discovered some interesting pottery showing the dress and costumes of the Minoan of the Middle Ages. A little further south Mr. Hogarth excavated a site of the best period with many fine vases and clay impressions of seals, which emphasized the bizarre side of Cretan art. — See also Greece: ,1£gean or Minoan civilization. Upon the advice of Dr. Evans, two Americans, Miss Harriet Boyd and Mr. R. B. Seager, discov- ered in iqo3 a complete little town of the Bronze age called Gournia. This town like Pompeii now stands with its streets and houses opened to the sky. Its surprisingly narrow streets, the rough- walled chambers of its houses and its more pros- perous market places give us a good idea of how the ordinary people of the Bronze age lived. Nearby at Pseira Mr. Seager found some objects of art which compared favorably in workman- ship and beauty with the best products of the JEGEAN CIVILIZATION Significance of Cretan Discoveries ^CEAN CIVILIZATION Japanese. On the small island nearby, Mochlos, Mr. Seager discovered several tombs in which were found furniture of thin gold and beautiful little vases of stone. These objects are contemporary with the second city of Troy. — Brilliant as are the illustrations thus recovered of the high civili- zation of Crete and of the substantial truth of early tradition, they are almost thrown into the shade by a discovery which carries back the ex- istence of written documents in the Hellenic lands some seven centuries beyond the first known monuments of the historic Greek writing. In the chambers and magazines of the Palace [of Cnos- sus] there came to light a series of deposits of clay tablets, in form somewhat analogous to the Baby- lonian, but inscribed with characters in two dis- tinct types of indigenous prehistoric script — one hieroglyphic or quasi-pictorial, the other linear. The existence of a hieroglyphic script in the island had been already the theme of some earlier re- searches by the explorer of the Palace, based on the more limited material supplied by groups of signs on a class of Cretan seal-stones, and the ample corroboration of the conclusions arrived at was, therefore, the more satisfactory. These Cretan hieroglyphics will be found to have a spe- cial importance in their bearing on the origin of the Phoenician alphabet. "But the great bulk of the tablets belonged to the linear class, exhibiting an elegant and much more highly-developed form of script, with let- ters of an upright and singularly European aspect. The inscriptions, over i,ooo of which were col- lected, were originally contained in coffers of clay, wood, and gypsum, which had been in turn se- cured by clay seals impressed with finely-engraved signets and counter-marked and counter-signed by controlling officials in the same script while the clay was still wet. The clay documents them- selves are, beyond doubt, the Palace archives. Many relate to accounts concerning the Royal Arsenal, stores, and treasures. Others, perhaps, like the contemporary cuneiform tablets, refer to contracts or correspondence. The problems at- taching to the decipherment of these clay records are of enthralling interest, and we have here locked up for us materials which may some day enlarge the bounds of history." — London Times, Oct. 31, 1000. In an earlier communication to The Times (Sep- tember 15), Mr. Evans had explained more dis- tinctly the importance of the clay tablets found at Cnossus, as throwing light on the origin of the alphabet: "In my excavation of the prehistoric Palace at Knossos," he wrote, "I came upon a series of deposits of clay tablets, representing the Royal archives, the inscriptions on which belong to two distinct systems of writing — one hiero- glyphic and quasi-pictorial ; the other for the most part linear and much more highly developed. Of these the hieroglyphic class especially presents a series of forms answering to what, according to the names of the Phoenician letters, we must suppose to have been the original pictorial designs from which these, too, were derived. A series of con- jectural reconstructions of the originals of the Phoenician letters on this line were in fact drawn out by my father. Sir John Evans, for a lecture on the origin of the alphabet given at the Royal Institution in 1872, and it may be said that two- thirds of these resemble almost line for line actual forms of Cretan hieroglyphics. The oxhead (Aleph), the house (Bethi, the window (He), the peg (Van), the fence (Cheth), the hand (Yod) seen sideways, and the open palm (Kaph), the fish (Nun), the post or trunk (Samekh), the eye (Ain), the month (Pe), the teeth (Shin), the cross- sign (Tau), not to speak of several other prob- able examples, are all literally reproduced. The analogy thus supplied is indeed overwhelming. It is impossible to believe that, while on one side of the East Mediterranean basin these alphabetic prototypes were naturally evolving themselves, the people of the opposite shore were arriving at the same result by a complicated process of selec- tion and transformation of a series of hieratic Egyptian signs derived from quite different ob- jects. The analogy with the Cretan hieroglyphic forms certainly weighs strongly in favour of the simple and natural explanation of the origin of the Phoenician letters which was held from the time of Gesenius onwards, and was only disturbed by the extremely ingenious, though over-elaborate, theory of De Rouge." At the annual meeting of the subscribers to the British School at Athens, held in London, Octo- ber 30, 1000, Mr Hogarth, the Director, spoke with great enthusiasm of the significance of the Cretan discoveries already made, and of the prom- ise of enlarged knowledge which they gave. He said: "The discovery made 25 years ago [by Schliemann] that no barbarians, but possessors of a very high and individual culture, preceded the Hellenic period in Greece — a culture which could not but have affected the Hellenic — had been de- veloped in various ways since. It had been es- tablished that this culture had had a very long existence and development; it covered completely a large geographical area; it developed various local characteristics in art production which seemed to be gathered again into one by the typi- cal art of Mycenae. But the most important his- torical points remained obscure. Where was the original home of this new civilization; what fam- ily did the race or races belong to ; of what speech were they and what religions; what was the his- tory of their societies and art during their domi- nance, and what became of them after? Neither mainland Greece nor the Aegean islands answered these. But there were two unknown quantities, Crete and .^ste Minor, with Rhodes. One of these we have now attacked. Crete by its great size and natural wealth, its position, and its mythologic fame was bound to inform us of much. It is too early to say that the questions will all be answered by Crete, but already we have much light. The , discovery of written documents and of shrines has told us more than any other evidence of the origin and family. The Knossos frescoes show us the racial type ; the Dictaean Cave, and Knossos houses illuminate the religion. New arts have been discovered, and the relation to Egypt and Asia are already far better understood. It remains now to find the early tombs, and clear the lower stratum of the Palace ruins at Knossos, to know more of the earliest Cretan race, to explore the east or 'Eteocretan' end of the island, to obtain light on the language and relations to Egypt and Asia, and »to investigate the 'Geometric' period, which is the transition to the Hellenic." Commenting in another place on the discoveries in Crete, Mr. Hogarth has pointed out their effect in modifying the ideas heretofore entertained of the importance of Phoenician influence in the rise of European civilization. "For many years now," he writes, "we have had before our eyes two standing protests against the traditional claim of Phoenicia to originate European civilization, and those protests come from two regions which Phoe- nician influence, travelling west, ought first to have affected, namely, Cyprus and Asia Minor. In both these regions exist remains of early systems 64 ^GEAN CIVILIZATION Northern Greece and Islands ^GEAN CIVILIZATION of writing which are clearly not of Phoenician descent. Both the Cypriote syllabic script and the 'Hittite' symbols must have been firmly rooted in their homes before ever the convenient alphabet of Sidon and Tyre was known there. And now, since Mr. Evans has demonstrated the existence of two non-Phoenician systems of writing in Crete also, the use of one of which has been proved to extend to the Cyclades and the mainland of Greece, it has become evident that we have to deal in south-eastern Europe, as well as in Cyprus or Asia Minor, with a non-Phoenician influence of civilization which, since it could originate that greatest of achievements, a local script, was quite powerful enough to account by itself also for the local art. Those who continue to advocate the Phoenician claim do not seem sufficiently to real- ize that nowadays they have to take account neither only of the Homeric age nor only of even half a millennium before Homer, but of an almost geologic antiquity. Far into the third millennium B. C. at the very least, and more probably much eailier still, there was a civilization in the Aegean and on the Greek mainland which, while it con- tracted many debts to the East and to Egypt, was able to assimilate all that it borrowed, and to re- issue it in an individual form, expressed in prod- ucts which are not of the same character with those of any Eastern civilization that we know." — D. G. Hogarth, Authority and archaeology sacred and profane, pt. 2, pp. 237-238. — "During the past season, Evans, discoverer of the now famous early Cretan systems of writing, Halbherr and other Italians, as well as the French, have been proving what was already foreshadowed, that in Crete we find in its purest form and in all its historic and racial phases that Mediterranean civilization, — Pelasgic and Achaean. — that culminated in Tiryns and Mykenae. We now see that Homer sings of the closing years of a Culture that dates back of the 'Trojan War' at least for fifteen hundred years. Crete is found to be covered with ruined Pelasgic cities, surrounded by gigantic polygonal walls, crowned by acropoli, adorned with royal palaces, defended by forts, connected by artificial highways, and with necropoli of vaulted tombs like those discovered by Schliemann at Mykenae. Already the royal palaces and libraries are being unearthed at Cnossos and 'Goulas' with sculptures and decoration of the most novel description and early date. A literature in an unknown tongue and in undeciphered scripts is being found, to puzzle scholars as much perhaps as the Hittite and Etruscan languages. Some day these 'Pelasgic' documents will disclose the secrets of a neglected civilization and fill up the gap between early Eastern and Hellenic cultures." — A. L. Frothing- ham, Jr., Archaeological progress {International Monthly, Dec, iqoo). — See also Crete: Effect of position and physical features upon Cretan civili- zation. Northern Greece and the islands. — It seems strange that the Germans did not follow out the work of Schliemann at Troy and Mycenje ; on the other hand they have made brilliant finds at Olympia. Semi-elliptical stone houses of primitive type and shaft graves of the Mycensan type to- gether with fine vases in imitation of the Cretan originals were discovered. It is possible that these vases were actually imported from Crete The wall paintings found here present an interesting modification of Cretan art. "Finally, we come to the latest and in some ways the most startling of all the discoveries. This is the fact, established by excavations in Boeotia, Phokis, and Thessaly, that down to the latest period of the ^gean Bronze Age, North Greece still remained in the Chalcohthic period. Excava- tions by M. Tsountas at Sesklo and Dimini in Thessaly, and by M. Sotiriadis at Chaironeia in Bceotia, had revealed a Stone Age culture with re- markable painted handmade pottery, resembling that from the neolithic sites of Southern Russia. The date of this was naturally assumed to be alto- gether earlier than the Bronze Age in Greece, and was equated with that of the neolithic strata of Troy and Crete. But it is always unsafe to as- sume absolute contemporaneity of Stone Age with Stone Age and Bronze Age with Bronze Age, even in the same quarter of the world, especially when, as in this case, the neolithic products of the one country in no way resemble those of the other. Cyprus never seems to have had a Stone Age at all, properly speaking, but we cannot suppose that the island was uninhabited when Crete was using stone weapons and tools. In fact it is a mistake to suppose an universal Age of Stone all over one portion of the earth's surface coming to an end everywhere at the same time, and succeeded by a Copper and then a Bronze Age which equally came to their conclusions everywhere at the same time. Troy seems never to have had a Copper Age at all, but passed straight from the Stone period to that of Bronze; Cyprus and the Cyclades had a Copper Age ; Egypt only reached the true Bronze Age — after long centuries of simple copper- using (though she knew both bronze and iron and occasionally used them) — not very long before she began commonly to use iron, and that was not long before iron began to be used even in Greece. The works of man's hands do not develop evenly everywhere, and an invention of the highest mo- ment may be disregarded by one people for hun- dreds of years after it has been adopted by a neighbour. So it seems to have been in Greece. The adoption of metal in the /Egean lands and in Southern Greece, which brought about the whole magnificent development of /Egean civili- zation, was not imitated in the north, and the men of Thessaly continued to use their stone weapons and their peculiar native pottery until the Bronze Age culture of the South had reached its deca- dence, and the time for the introduction of iron from the North had almost arrived." — H. R. Hall, Aigean archceology, pp. 40-41. To the imagination and energy of Schliemann who was a pioneer in this field the world owes a real debt of gratitude. It is only fair to state, however, that his work paled into insignificance before the discoveries of Sir Arthur Evans. His patience, his energy and self-sacrifice, shown in particular at Cnossus, have resulted in discov- eries which revolutionized our knowledge of early Greece. Moreover, his explorations opened to archteologists a vast new field for future endeavor. The cost of this work and the extent of the field have made it impossible for individuals to under- take this work at their own expense. Fortunately private munificence has made it possible for na- tional societies to follow up this work. Scientists of each country have decided upon their own territory, and while there has been a keen sense of rivalry there have also been encouraging in- stances of cooperation. Also in: H. Boyd, Transactions of the depart- ment of arckwology. — R. B. Seager, Exploration in the Island of Mochlos; Excavations on the Island of Pseira. — T. D. Atkinson, Excavations at Philakopi in Melos.-rA. J. B. Wace and M. S. Thompson, Prehistoric Thessaly.— E. H. Hall, Excavations in eastern Crete. — A. Evans, Atlas of Cnossian antiquities. 65 iEGEAN CIVILIZATION Neolithic Age -AEGEAN CIVILIZATION NEOLITHIC AGE B. C. 12000-3000.— Evolution of pottery.— Pol- ished stone implements. — Dress. — "The first nine epochs designated as Minoan immediately suc- ceed the Neolithic Age. Its deposit reaches to a depth of 17 feet below the surface of the soil, while below it the Neolithic remains are found, at one testing-point to a farther depth of nearly 2 1 feet, at another to one of 26 feet. Mr. Evans seeks to fix its date by certain connections that its remains show with those of early Egypt. If we thus allow about 3 feet of deposit for every millennium, we get a great age for the NeoUthic strata that are below. Progress moves slowly in the dim early periods, and we need not shrink from the dates of 10,000 or 12,000 B.C. which are thus given to the first settlement of man upon the hill at Knossos. The black hand-burnished ware, or 'Bucchero' that it had inherited from Neo- lithic times is not what is most characteristic of Early Minoan. ... It was the achievement of the Early Minoan Age to produce, by painting on the flat, the geometric effects that hitherto had been produced by the white filling, and it is possible that the very pigment used was the same white gypsum treated differently. The invention once made, there were rapid developments. A lustrous black glaze was spread as a slip over the surface, so that the lustreless white patterns over it gave the effect of the best old incrusted ware; and the black glaze, once discovered, was seen itself to have possibilities as decoration, and was in other vases laid on in black bands on the natural light buff of the clay." — R. M, Burrows, Discoveries in Crete, pp. 44-48- "Except in the case of Egypt pottery is our only guide in the study of neolith'c civilisation. The objects of wood and leather and the clothing have all disappeared in the destruction caused by damp and weather and the lapse of time. Only the im- plements of bone and stone and the terra cotta vases have remained. The walls are very rare and without mortar, and even bricks are late in ap- pearing. Modeling and design had their first expression in pottery, and by means of this we can follow the progress of the people in their first steps towards civilisation. X plastic material like clay is not alone sufficient for pottery, for it loses moisture in drying and contracts. It is necessary to add something to the clay to prevent the vase from breaking after it is made. The firing ol pottery presents another difficulty, for if the clay is very greasy and tenacious, it does not keep its shape, but cracks in the furnace. Some substance had to be mixed with the earth to render it porous, so that the vapour from the water could escape easily. The potters of the neolithic age had discovered that by adding powdered carbon to the clay this effect was obtained. Hencefor- ward black pottery was not a caprice of fashion but a technical necessity. . . . Mitr having learnt to polish the surface of the vases by burnishing with the bone or smooth stone spatula, the potters observed that when these black vases were placed in the flame or upon hot coals they became red in the parts where the fire was hottest ; to avoid producing these red. yellow, or drab marks, which were the effect of firing by an open fire, they dis- covered how to bake fine pottery so that it was bright and black as ebony. "In the neolithic soil of Phaestos were found the three stone axes. They are oval-shaped flints, sharpened on one side to giVe a cutting edge, and with the other end left rough where it would be fixed on the handle. . . . Among the ruins of the primitive palace of Phaestos we had proof of the skill of the Cretans of the neolithic age in working stone, and in piercing the axes in order to fasten them to the handle, besides making double axes. In a niche we found some pieces of polished stone, fragments of broken a.xes; and amongst these a round piece of very hard green stone, about the size of a common cork. To make a hole in an axe they used a cane and some sand and water. The cane was spun round quickly and the stone was pierced by it with the help of the sand, and a circular hole was made. When half through, the stone was turned and the drilling recommenced on the opposite side. . . . When the first palace of Phaestos was built, the age of bronze was reached, the age of copper was past, and prob- ably no flint weapons had been made for centuries. The sight of these useless fragments collected in a niche of the early palace convinced me that the tradition of the neolithic age was not spent and that the cult of the ancestor was still alive. One of the most important things (in my opinion) which came to light in my excavations beneath the foundations of the palaces of Phaestos was the discovery that even in the' neolithic age the Cre- tans had learnt the art of giving colour to their pottery by a decoration of red and brown lines. From the pile dw'ellings beyond the .Alps, in Sicily and the Balkan Peninsula, from Greece to Troy, from France to Spain, female figures, decorated in the same manner, represent the rst traces of female costume in the stone age. The linen in which the neolithic bodies in Egypt are wrapped is so fine as to allow us to believe that semi-trans- parent robes may have been made at that period, as was the case under the early dynasties. The neolithic linen of Egypt is like canvas, so far apart are the threads of the web, and it was woven in so thin a texture that with the embroideries it might have a similar effect to this figure. Th,- woman who is pouring out the liquid has a soit of white skirt made from the ,*kin of an animal, as have also the men who bear offerings. The torso is not bare but covered by a bodice with sleeves which end above the elbow. Broad blue bands pass round the neck and down the sleeve; the girdle, too, is formed by a strip of blue, and a band of the same colour probably crosses on the breast, for another priestess, turned to the right, has the same kind of sash The next figure, a woman with two pails hung from her shoulders, wears a long blue dress with the lower edge adorned by flounces. The neck and sleeves are edged by a band of three colours, and this woman also has a red sash edged with two black lines passing obliquely across the chest We know that from the time of the first dynasties in Egypt the priests wore panther's skins at the religious func- tions, and here, too, the priestesses also wear a skin tight to the waist, with an appendage like a tail." — .K. Mosso, Dawn of Mediterranean civi- lisation, pp. 79-iQS. — See also Europe: Prehis- toric period. MINOAN AGE B. C. 3000-1200. — Chronology.— "The 'Minoan Age,' as defined by Sir .Arthur Evans, includes the whole of the bronze age. It is classified in three principal periods, early, middle, and late: and each of these similarly into three sub-divisions, forming a ninefold series in which each phase is sufficiently distineuished bv changing stvles of potterv and other manufactures, sufficiently re- flected in the analogous products of Melos, Thera, and other sites, to provide a standard series for 66 JEGEAN CIVILIZATION Minoan Ages ^GEAN CIVILIZATION the whole Aegean area. Objects of foreign, and particularly of Egyptian make, and of known date, are found at sufficiently numerous points in this series, to permit us to regard the Early- Minoan period as contemporary with Dynasties I-VI in Egypt; the many-coloured pottery of the Middle-Minoan is found on Egyptian sites ac- curately dated to Dynasty XII; and at Cnossus the deposits classed as Middle-Minoan-3 yield an Egyptian statuette of Dynasty XIII and an in- scription of the Shepherd-King Khyan, between 1900 and 1600. The Late-Minoan period is more precisely dated still. Its first two pha.ses, 'L. M. i and 2' are contemporary with Dynasty XVIII, and datable to iboo-1400; they serve in turn to date the royal tombs at Mycenae, and the Va- phio tomb in Laconia with its magnificent em- bossed gold-cups." There was sudden destruction of the Cnossian Palace, to which last phase be- long the third city at Phylakopi, the later graves at Mycenae and lalysus, the 'Sixth City' at Troy, and the large Minoan settlements in Cyprus and Sicily. "Rather later than these, but still within the Late-Minoan period, comes the attempt . . . to occupy Thessaly: and the first contact with the west coast of Asia Minor. "Then, with the cessation of intercourse with Egypt, Palestine, and Cyprus, and the simulta- neous, though gradual, introduction of iron, first for tools, then for weapons — it had been known as a 'precious metal' in the /Ei^ean since 'L. M. 3' or even 'L. M. 3'; of a new sort of costume which required safety-pins (fibula) ; of a new type of decorative art, non-representative, with a limited stock of stiff geometrical designs based on basketwork and incised ornament; and of the practice of cremation — wholly new in the ^^gean, but long familiar in the forest-clad north, begins a new period, the Early Iron Age, with a new distribution of settlements, and centers of power and industry, and almost total extinction of the Late Minoan culture, which was still relatively high, though already far gone in decadence, by the eleventh century." — J. L. Myres, Dawn of his- tory, pp. I73-I7.';. B. C. 3000-2200. — Early Minoan age.— .\t the opening of this period potters discovered a black glaze for coating the wares on which they painted white or red bands or sometimes stripes. Natu- rally as time went on, the shapes of these vases became more regular. From this fact we must conclude the invention of the potters' wheel. Vase decoration, too, became more varied when potters began to depict the human body. At first this work was done in the geometric style — that is, with straight lines alone. We must remember that at this time the chief centre of culture was Melos rather than Crete. LTndoubtedly this was due to the fact that here were available large quantities of hard stone from which could be fashioned all manner of sharp or pointed instruments such as knives and razors, as well as weapons. These wares were exported to the nearby Cyclades, to Troy and to the mainland of Greece. Unfortu- nately, we know little of the life and customs of these early people. They usually lived in rec- tangular stone houses with one or more rooms according to the wealth of the owner. Many of the chieftains built palaces of which the ones at Troy and Tiryns are best known. Rough walls of Cyclopean masonry were constructed about these palaces to prevent raids from neighbouring chieftains or even from foreign invaders. It is interesting to note that due to their geographic isolation the palaces of Crete remained unpro- tected. The most important families built sub- terranean dome-shaped tombs modelled after those in which they lived. Here they placed articles of daily use for the disembodied spirit. — R. M. Bur- rows, Discoveries in Crete, ch. 3. — A. Mosso, Dawn oj Mediterranean civilisation, ch. 6. — C. Tsountas and I. Manatt, Mycencean age, pp. 44-55. — "The great innovation of the age was the introduction of copper most probably from Egypt and Cyprus. Silver and gold became known in the same period. For a long time, however, stone maintained its place in the useful arts. Equally important was the adoption of the system of picture writing, pictographs. They are found in Crete on seals of ivory, stone, and other material, in the form of cylinders, buttons, and prisms. Their near re- semblance to Egyptian types proves a close inter- course between these two countries." — G. W. Bots- ford, Hellenic history, ch. 2. B. C. 2200-1600.— Middle Minoan Age.— "Dur- ing this period the chief seats of culture were Cnossus and Phaestus in central Crete, where we find Minoan civilization at its most brilliant height. By this time pottery had become really a fine art of which the specimens of the Kamares type are the most beautiful. In the egg-shell thin- ness of their walls they may be compared with the best Haviland china of today. At first art- ists paid little attention to a realistic represen- tation of nature but aimed to create a brilliant harmony of colors. Gradually, however, the color scheme became more simple and artists attempted to depict natural objects as they really existed. This was also a period of the great Palace of Cnossus. By the end of this age pictographs gave way to linear writing in pen and ink." — A. Evans, Scripta Minoa, i. 19/. — C. H. and H. Hawes, Crete, the joreninner oj Greece, pp. 136-139. — "Hiero- glyphic writing is at its best, and the first kind of linear signs. Class A, though apparently only just come into fashion, had made rapid progress. They could indeed be used so flexibly that we find inside two cups of the period an inscription written in ink, in a cursive hand. If we are to judge too from the fact that the lines of the letters show a tendency to divide, it was written with a reed pen. What the medium was on which such pen and ink were ordinarily used, -we can- not tell; imported papyrus, or palm-leaves, per- haps, or even parchment. The invention, we may be sure, once made, was not confined to the inside of pottery. The king who built the stately Tomb to rest in at Isopata, between the harbour and the town, on the hill that overlooked the sea, may have had his deeds recorded, not on clay tablets, but on something more worthy of a literature." — R. M. Burrows, Discoveries in Crete, pp, 64-65, B. C. 1600-1200. — Late Minoan or Mycenaean age. — "Before the end of the Middle Minoan .\ge, the inventive spirit of Crete had achieved its ut- most and had begun to stagnate, no longer creat- ing new forms but satisfying itself with stereo- typed conventions. For a time, however, we find a political advance. Power, concentrating in Cnossus involved the downfall of country towns. The palace attained the acme of its grandeur (about 1500). To this period belong most of the frescoes still preserved as well as a remarkably realistic style of reliefs. In vase ornamentation the characteristic development was the 'palace' style, which sacrificed the natural to a desire for decorative unity. The age attained great skill in bronze work and in inlaying metals. In writing, linear script superseded the pictographs, and a new and improved linear stvle usurped the place of the old. Before this age has far advanced the interest shifts, from Crete to Troy, and still more 67 iEGEAN CIVILIZATION ./lirtoan Age C/uiracteristics ^GEAN CIVILIZATION to the Greek Continent, where Archomenus, Tiryns, and Mycenae were entering upon an era of artistic and political splendor." — 0. VV. Bots- ford, Hellenic history, ch. 2. — "The language of the script is not yet deciphered, but from the form of the written documents, which Arthur Evans has found in very large numbers in the palace archives of Cnossus, and other explorers in smaller quan- tity at Phaestos and Agia Triadha, it is possible to learn something ol Minoan government and organization. Most of the tablets are inven- tories of treasure and stores, and receipts for chariots, armour, metal vessels, ingots of copper such as have been found in store at .^gia Triadha, and singly in Cyprus and Sardinia; and smaller quantities of unworked gold by weight. Other tablets contain lists of persons, male and female ; perhaps tribute paid in slaves, or in person, as in the Greelc legend of the Minotaur. Clearly we have to do with the details of a va.^t and exact administration, far more extensive than Cnossus itself would justify ; and the comparative insignif- icance of other Cretan towns during the great 'Palace Period' ('Late-Minoan 2'), the temporary extinction of some of them, and the traces of a system of highly engineered roads and forts over the mountain passes, confirra the impression that the later Greeks were right in the main, in regard- ing Minos of Cnossus as a monarch who ruled the seas and terrorized the land, absolute and ruth- less, if only because inflexibly just." — J. L. Myres, Dawn of history, pp. i83-iS4.-"Minoan religion cannot be fully studied until the Cretan writing is deciphered. It is evident, however, from the ar- tistic remains that the chief figure in the cult of the island was a goddess. She is represented in many ways, from Neolithic nude figures in the form of an excessively fat woman (many primi- tive races have regarded obesity as an element of feminine beauty) to the goddess with a flounced skirt, tight-fitting waist, and bare breast, of the Late Minoan period, who holds serpents in her hands. The serpents apparently typify her con- nection with the earth. Doves and lions were often associated with her. She was, then, god- dess of the air and of wild animals. The bull was sacred to her. He was most often offered in sacrifice, his horns adorned her altars and temples, and ritual ve.ssels were made in his form. The goddess was served by priestesses and wor- shiped at times in wild dances. As in other countries that worshiped goddesses, she was thought to have a son. Later Greek myths traced the birth of Zeus to the Dictean cave in Crete, or to Mount Ida, where Rhea, his mother, secretly brought him forth. . . . The son was thus identified in later time with the Greek Zeus. Cyprus shared in the /Egeari civilization, but Semitic colonies were also established there, and the ^gean goddess was blended with the Semitic. When Minoan civilization was dominant in Greece in the Mycenaian age, the cult of the goddess was firmly established in many parts of the land. She became Rhea, mother of Zeus, Poseidon, and other deities. She became Hera, goddess of Argos, Athena in Attica, and Artemis in .'\ttica and .^r- cada. .\t Corinth, where formative influences may have come from Cyprus, she became Aphro- dite." — G. .\. Barton, Religious oj the world, pp. 247-248. — "The dwellings of the dead passed through many changes of fashion during the Mi- noan Agp, and it has been reasonably argued from this that we may be dealing with more than one set of beliefs, perhaps held and put in practice h*' peoples of different origin .\11 .^Jgean rituals, however, agree in this, that the dead are biiried, not burned, and that they are provided with copious equipment for their other life. The lux- ury of the rich late graves, and even of some of the earlier, is comparable with that of Egypt itself. The earliest tombs are 'contracted burials,' in cist-graves like those of pre-dynastic Egypt, and of most other parts of the Mediterranean world, as well as of the western regions which have been reached by Mediterranean man. As in Egypt, also, some localities, in early periods, practised secondary burial; the body was interred provi- sionally until it was well decayed, and then the bones were transferred to the common charnel- house, as in a modern Greek churchyard. Later, families of distinction practised coffin-burial in larger and larger chambers, constructed under- ground or in hillsides, and (on the mainland) with domed masonry linings. The coffins are of- ten of clay, richly painledi or frescoed as at Agia Triadha with funerary scenes. In the latest phases, such chambers on a smaller scale, with flat roofs, became common and superseded the old 'cist -graves'; but the royal tombs at Mycenae still preserve, on a glorified plan, and with bodies at full length, the form of the primitive 'cist- grave.' Among other originalities, Minoan dresa and armour deserve brief mention, if only for their contrast with that of the .'Egean in Hellenic times. The men's dress was of the simplest; long hair-plaits without other head-dress, strong top- boots (as in modern Crete) for scrubland walk- ing, and a loin-cloth or kilt, plain or fringed, and upheld by a wasp-waisted belt: elders and officials indulged in ample cloaks, and quilted sleeveless capes, like a crinoline hung from the shoulders. Women wore shaped and flounced skirts, richly embroidered, with 'zouave' jackets, low in front, puff-sleeved, with a standing collar or a peak be- hind the neck; they were tight-laced, and the skirts were belted like the men's? Gay curls and shady hats with ribbons and rosettes completed the costume, which resembles more than anything the peasant-girls' full dress in a Swiss valley, and may be 'alpine' too. Armour was simple; for attack, a long spear, and dagger-like sword with two straight hollow-ground edges; on the head a conical helmet of leather, strengthened with metal plates or boar's tusks in rows: and for other pro- tection, the ordinary high boots, and a flexible shield of leather, oblong or oval, with metal rim, but no handle or central boss. It was slung over the left shoulder by a strap, and became distorted by its own weight to a quaint S-shape ; however, it wholly enveloped the wearer from ankles to chin, and could be bent so as to enclose him on each side. The horse was in use, and was brought from oversea; it was driven, not ridden, appar- ently; and light chariots were used both for hunt- ing and in war." — J. L. Myres, Dawn oj history, pp. 186-188. B. C. 1600-1200. — Laborers and artisans of the Minoan Age. — "Many laborers busied them- selves with tilling the soil and with rearing cattle, sheep, goats, and swine. They ground their barley or wheat in querns or crushed it in stone mortars still preserved. .'Vmong their fruits were the fig and the olive, whose oil entered into the preparation of food. Trades were specialized as in the Orient. Among the craftsmen were potters, brickmakers, and carpenters, whose bronze saws, axes, files, and other tools resemble in pattern those of today. Naturally in an age of bronze the workers in that metal filled a large place. Stone, while still serving the le.sser arts, had be- come the essential architecture, and throughout all histon' wood has furnished a convenient ma- 68 ^^T^f^TTy^"' 'jv^-y^/'^^^ ^"^ "y*'''*^ "^ "-^ '7^ Courteay of the Metropolitan Museum of Art ARCH.^OLOGICAL FINDINGS FROM .?5:GEAN AREA I, The golden Vaphio cups (Laconia). 2, Inlaid daggers (Mycenae, 1600-1100 B.C.). 3, Mndel? of house facades (Crete, 1500-1350 B.C.). 4. Statu tte of a snake goddess (Cnossus, 1800-1500 B.C.), 5, Fresco of flying-fish (Phylakopi, Melos, 1600-15 >> B.C.). 69 ^GEAN CIVILIZATION Minoan Decline JEGEAN CIVILIZATION terial for building and for a great variety of furniture. Among the most remarkable of skilled industries was the cutting and engraving of pre- cious stones, which included practically all known to the moderns excepting the diamond. On these gems the engraver skillfully wrought varied scenes from nature and human life. The highest de- velopment of art is found in the work of the goldsmith — an achievement of the painstaking ex- perience of centuries. This metal was more com- mon than silver. Among his products were beads adorned with scenes in intaglio and rings with similarly decorated bezels used as seals. He could inlay gold, as well as ivory and other material, on bodies of different substance, so as to produce a polychrome effect. He wrought bracelets, di- verse artistic patterns repousse on thin plate and graceful drinking cups. Famed for l>eauty are the two gold cups from a beehive tomb at X'aphio, Laconia. The scenes which adorn them are bold, spiritual, and lifelike." — G. W Botsford, Hellenic history, ch. 2. Natural conditions had favored the growth of just such a Minoan world: "easy livelihood from small secluded corn-lands, and abundant culture of fruit-bearing trees; supplemented by upland pasturage, and the harvest of the sea. Lasy in- tercourse with many similar lands, or coast plains of the same land, identical in natural economy, almost infinitely various in mineral resources and in artistic and industrial dialect. Intercourse less easy, but within the power of moderate seaman- ship in the sailing season, with a venerable centre of art and luxury, like Egypt, .^bove all, a land- scape of exceptional beauty, of brilliant atmos- phere; grandly contrasted profile of ridge and promontory ; infinitely various form and colour- ing of spring flowers and sponge-diver's trophies, seaweed, shells, and sea-anemones. It is not sur- prising, then, that it is here that man first achieved an artistic style which was naturalist and idealist in one ; acutely observant of the form and habit of living things, sensitive to the qualities and potentialities of raw material, wonderfully skilled in the art of the potter, painter, gem-en- graver, and goldsmith ; and above all, able to draw inspiration from other styles and methods, with- out losing the sureness of its own touch, or the power to impress its own strong character on its works of art." — J. L. Myres, Daivn of history, pp. 180-181. B. C. 1600-1200. — Minoan architecture. — Pri- vate Dwellings. — The Palace. — "Private dwellings of the wealthy were surprisingly modern They were built on no fixed plan, but followed the necessity of the site and the taste of the owner. Some were three or four stories high and comprised a multitude of rooms The owners furnished them comfortably and developed cooking to a high de- gree of perfection." — G. W. Botsford, Hellenic history, ih. 2. — "Private houses were constructed of mixed timber and stone with stuccoed fronts, many windows, and flat roofs. They crowded one another along narrow tortuous alleys on un- even ground, more stair than street ; and the gen- eral effect of a Minoan town must have been very like what is still to be seen in the Cretan vil- lages. The palace architecture gives the impres- sion of great luxury based on abundant wealth of oil and other produce ; supplemented by skill in applied science, mechanical, hydraulic, sani- tary, which is unparalleled till modern times. On to a central court, entered by an elaborate gate- way, opened halls of reception, with deep porti- coes and antechambers. Others, more secluded, opened on to terraces and bastioned platforms down the slope Between and behind these prin- cipal suites, winding corridors gave access to mag- azines and smaller living rooms. Staircases led to upper stories, with two or even three floors in some places. Practical convenience laid greater stress on inner planning, and room-decoration by fresco and line stone panelling, than on external design. Only the plinths of a few original walls, facing on to the great courts, show any promise of a fine faqade; and there was in any case so much rcbuildinc and patchwork addition, that the general effect must have been that of a crowded village rather than a single residence." — J. L. Myres, Dav:n of history, pp. i84-i8s.^"Naturally the palace was incomparably larger and more magnificent than the richest private dwellings. The residence of the King at Cnossus occupied more than five acres and stood at least four stories high. Its irregularity of plan may be due to ad- ditions and modifications by successive rulers. It comprised an immense central court, smaller courts, long corridors, a theatral space, audience rooms, sanctuaries, an industrial quarter, and 'a system of drainage not equalled in Europe be- tween that day and the nineteenth century.' We may notice more particularl.\ the room in which the throne of gypsum stands against the wall and is fianked on both sides with long benches of the same material. Here in the midst of his noble councillors sat the king on the 'oldest throne in Europe,' presumably to receive embassies and to transact business with his subjects. The indus- trial quarter swarmed with artists and artisan,^ whose labors extended over a wide range of ac- tivities from the preparation and storage of wine and olive oil in huge earthenware jars to the finest gold work and elaborate mural frescoes. One chamber, fitted up with benches and 'a seat for the master,' is thought to be a school room, in which the young learned to mould clay into little tablets and to inscribe them with linear writing Elsewhere were the archives in which those tablets were stored by the thousands. Al- though the script has not yet been deciphered, the inscriptions thus far discovered seem to be accounts of stores and of receipts and dues. \ larger tablet, a case shrine has the appearance of a list of rings. If the Cretans possessed a litera- ture of songs, epics and chronicles, as is not un- likely, it must have been written on perishable material, for nothing of the kind has been dis- covered " — G W. Botsford. Hellenic hist., ch. 2. B. C. 1400-1200.— Decline and fall of Minoan culture. — "In the main, the .-Egean was at peace in the Minoan .^ge, a striking contrast with the wear-and-tear of the Hellespontine bridge, as suc- cessive 'cities' reveal it at Troy. In the south, on the contrary, it is difficult to trace any non- .^igean enemy either in Crete or even in the islands, down to the fall of Cnossus; and it re- mains obscure whether this last catastrophe was not due to internal discord; the circumference, as has been recently suggested, turning against the centre, and terminating its tyranny. Cretan tradition told also, later, how a lord of Cnossus went on a Sicilian expedition, with all his force, and never came back. But at this point in the story, Egyptian records come to our aid where Cretan archives are still dumb. They know of a change in the name and behaviour of the 'people from over-sea' ; and they give a clue to the decline and fall of the Cretan culture." — J. L. Myres, Da-ii'n of Itislory, pp. t88-iSq. — See also Greece: /Egean or Minoan civilization. "These conditions were suddenly brought to an end by the destruction of the palace The black- 70 ^GEAN CIVILIZATION Assimilation by Hellas ^GEAN CIVILIZATION ened walls, the charred ends of beams, the al- most complete absence of gold and bronze seem to proclaim the sack and burning of the city. As the same thing happened at Phaestus and Hagia Triada no long time afterward we conclude that the catastrophe was this time due to no accident or dynastic revolution or uprising of the masses. We can explain the event best by supposing it to have been the work of raiders, who swept over the wealthy cities of the island in their career of plunder, whose object was not colonization but booty. This event occurred about 1400 B. C. It came as a premonition of an upheaval of <^igean populations whose waves of migration were to reach the shores of Syria and Egypt." Among them were peoples whose names sound like Sar- dinians, Sicilians, Achaeans, Lycians and Tyrsen- ians (Etruscans), ".Although we may not with certainty identify all these peoples, we may be sure there were among them vEgean and European tribes." — G. W. Botsford, Hellenic history, ch. 2. B. C. 1200-750. — Assimilation of Minoan cul- ture by the peoples of Hellas. — "It was reserved for British archaeologists, Messrs. Wace, Droop, and Thompson, to prove by their excavations of the magoulas or village-mounds of Thessaly and Phokis that it was not till the 'Mycenaean' period that the ,^Jgean culture, with its bronze, reached Northern Greece, and that before then there had existed no proper Bronze Age in the North. The remarkable remains of the northern stone-using culture are, then, not all contemporary with the Stone Age in the South; only the earliest of them are. The Cretan Stone Age never developed very highly; it was early supplanted by the introduc- tion of copper from Cyprus. But the Northern- ers, without metal, developed their primitive cul- ture more highly, especially in the ceramic art, and almost reached the height which was attained by the stone-users of South Russia, whose culture seems to have died out before metal could reach it." It was, however, impossible that the North- erners should be entirely without knowledge of the great civiHzation and art almost at their doors ; "^gean pottery must have reached them before the general civilization of the .4i;gean im- posed itself upon them in the 'Mycenaean' or Late Bronze Age. And that it did and left traces upon their pottery even in the earlier Bronze Age we see not only from M. Sotiriadis's find, but from traces of spirals, the most charactenistic form of /Egean decorations, in the Neolithic decoration scheme, which was severely geometrical, thus dif- fering in tola from that of the South. . . . But this would not account for the finds in Phokis and Bcpotia, and the ^^Cgeans were from the be- ginning seafarers who could easily reach the Pagasaean Gulf. The facts are very difficult of explanation. A large number of sites of this Northern neolithic culture and its succeeding Chal- colitic development, which lasted down to the time of the Third Late Minoan period of the South, have been excavated from Chaironeia, Schiste, and Drakhmani in Phokis through Liano- kladhi in the Spercheios Valley to Rakhmani in Northern and Tsani Magoula in West-central Thessaly. Besides those mentioned, the chief sites are Dimini, Sesklo, Zerelia, and Tsangli, all in Thessaly." — H. R. Hall, Mgean archceology, pp. 41-42. The period beginning about 1200 B. C, when the Minoan decorative style has yielded to the geometric, and extending to about the middle of the eighth century, when written documents be- gin, "resembles the European Middle Ages in that both followed the inroads of barbarians and that -i both were marked by a vast decline and an incipi- ent recovery of culture. ... In this period the colonial movement from the Greek peninsula east- ward to the Anatolian coast, begun in the preced- ing age, was completed. The chief feature, how- ever, was the blending of the northern invaders with the native Minoans, and through it the for- mation of the Hellenic race and Hellenic culture. We discover the process of assimilation at various stages. In Crete were communities of diverse speech existing side by side ; in Ionia the mingling of peoples was under way, whereas in Attica and in Laconia we come upon the completed blend. Within the .^gean area the Minoan civilization had been most intense from Crete and Laconia northward to Attica and the Cyclades, in other words the region which in the Middle Age came to be occupied by the Dorians and the lonians. A map of Hellas in the Middle Age accordingly will show this area fundamentally Minoan, though necessarily modified by external and internal forces. . . . For example, there prevailed through- out the area a nearly uniform social structure, in which the great lord commanded the labor of a multitude of serfs, whose rights and duties were clearly defined by customary law. The mnoitae of Crete, the Laconian helots, the hectemori of Attica, and the gergiths of Ionia seem to be remnants of Minoan serfdom. In Ionia, too, as in Crete and Laconia, the citizens ate at public tables. The leadership in the fine arts at first belonged to Crete but soon passed to Ionia The Phoenicians were also heirs of Minoan culture. Their chief contribution to civilization was neither in art nor in navigation, but in the transmission of writing from the Minoans to the Hellenes of the Middle Age In the view now most probable the Minoan linear script through wearing and selection gradually grew simpler, the Cypriote syllabary being a stage in the process. A further simplification took place in northern Syria when the number of characters was reduced to twenty- two. This system the lonians adopted and by further changes made phonetic. . . . Perhaps no external feature of life so characterizes the classical Greeks as their loose, graceful dress. From this point of view their ancestors of the Middle Age seem foreign. Among the laborers the Minoan waist-cloth continued far down into historical times. An innovation, however, was the chiton, probably of Oriental origin. Its tightness is reminiscent of Minoan conditions. Woman's dress was more conservative. Doubtless the grand lady, like Artemis Orthia of Sparta, wore a low-cut waist with shoulder straps, a belt, and a tight skirt of strongly Minoan aspect. The introduc- tion of the fibula, however, was bringing about a revolution in dress This method of fastening was used in the peplos, which gradually prevailed over other styles and became the Doric gown of the historical age. Garments of both sexes were elaborately adorned with inwoven or embroid- ered patterns of the prevailing geometric style. The hair of women and men alike grew long, and hung down in several heavy strands on both sides of the face, and was held in order by a band en- circling the head. Although these styles of dress began to appear early in the Mycenaean .\ge (about 1500 B. C), it was not till the Middle Age that they displaced the Minoan patterns. One of the most important constructive elements in the new civilization which gradually emerged from the decadence of the old was the rise of an iron in- dustry. The controversy over the place of its origin is now definitely settled by documentary evidence in favor of the Hittite country in eastern 71 ^GEAN CIVILIZATION MGINA Asia Minor (Mitteilungen der V orderasiatischen Gesellschaft, XVIII. 6i, «. I). This industr>', in- cluding the process of hardening to steel, must have flourished as early as the fourteenth century. In the thirteenth it made its way to Crete, whence it passed more slowly over the disturbed ^gean region to Laconia, Attica, Thessaly, and their colonies. While the metal was still scarce in La- conia, it began to be used as money. It is un- necessary here to dilate on the increased efficiency brought by the use of iron and steel to every walk of life. No human activity felt the impetus more lieenly than warfare, which at the same time was affected by new economic and political causes. The clumsy chariot was consigned to the archseo- logical junk-heap and horse-back riding was sub- stituted for it. Meanwhile the extension of pros- perity, involving military and political aspirations, to a w'idcr circle of the population brought into existence a body of troops which we may de- scribe as heavy-armed, though their shields were lighter than the Minoan. It was mainly the in- troduction of steel swords and lance-points that compelled the strengthening of the defensive ar- mor. The round or oval targe, reinforced by a central boss, became the normal shield. ... In religion, too, great changes took place. Among the Minoans the burial of the unburned body, involving a worship of the dead, prevailed with but the slightest trace of cremation. The custom of burning the dead, now introduced by the Northerners, doubtless weakened the belief in the power of ghosts and in the need of ancestor wor- ship. Gradually, however, inhumation reasserted itself; and henceforth the two forms existed side by side, yet with inhumation more common than burning. It is a curious fact that within this sphere of thought and usage historical Greece pre- served more than half of its Minoan heritage. The work of analyzing the greater gods of Hellas into their Minoan and Indo-European elements has scarcely begun, and yet enough has been done to warrant the assumption that in all probabil- ity no single historical deity of Greece is in char- acter and attributes wholly Indo-European or wholly M,inoan. . . . Identifying their own sky- deity Zeus with the god of the double axe, they converted the shrines and sacred domains of the Carian deity to their own service. No less than six altars to Zeus Labraundios accordingly have been found in Miletus. In like manner their .\rtemis usurped the property and various attri- butes of the .\natolian Great Mother. The char- acter and functions of ."Vpollo, especially his heal- ings, purifications, and oracles, seem to be in con- siderable part Minoan. These are but suggestions of a vast and intricate amalgamation which can- not as yet be analyzed in detail. • The prevailing tendency to-day is to assign to the invading people the sunnier aspects of religion, while leaving to the natives the gloomy features, including magic, the worship of ghosts, the doctrine of sin, and its purification by washing in blood. This con- trast seems justified but should not be pushed to extremes. The great deities were mainly god- desses as in the Minoan past; and correspondingly women occupied a high place in society. . . . This is but a hasty view of the Ionian-Dorian civiliza- tion during the Middle Age. With due apprecia- tion of the danger of attributing too much to the brilliant Cretans the present writer cannot escape the conviction that the life of this area in the period under consideration was more Minoan than Indo-European." — G. W. Botsford, Construc- tion of a chapter on the Greek Middle Age {American Historical Review, Jan., 1918, pp. 351- V 72 353). — It is safe to conclude that "'Mycenaean' culture had dominated all the southern ^gean in the later bronze age, and most of mainland Greece, as far north as South Thessaly, and as far west as Cephallenia ; that it was probably of indigenous growth; that its intercourse with Egypt was ex- tensive ; and that, whatever its origin or precise date, it was wholly prior to that of historic Greece, and separated from it by a violent ca- tastrophe, in which cities were sacked and deserted, palaces and tombs looted, and the whole distribu- tion not only of political power, but of economic vigour, was fundamentally changed, in a 'dark age' of tumult and barbarism." — J. L. My res, Dawn of history, p. 168. — See also Europe: His- toric period: Greek civilization: Cretan and .-Egean. Also in: C. H. and H. Hawcs, Crete, the forerunner of Greece (a clear summary). — J. Baikie, Sea-kings of Crete (popular). — A. Mosso. Dawn of Mediterranean civilization; Palaces of Crete (useful for special topics). — C. Tsountas and I. Manatt, Mycenaean age (brilliant but in need of revision). — H. R. Hall, /Egean archaeology; Ancient history of the Near East. — E. H. Hall, Decorative art of Greece in Bronze age (pottery, the alphabet of archeology well treated here). — R. M. Burrows, Discoveries in Crete (problems). G. W. Botsford and E. G. Sihler, Hellenic civiliza- tion: literary sources and their interpretation. — .■\. Evans, Nine Minoan periods (summary) ; Atlas of Cnossian antiquities, -with explanatory text. .ffiOEAN ISLANDS. See Asw Minor: Earlier kingdoms and people; Cvcladf.s. B. C. 416. — Siege and conquest of Males by Athenians. — Massacre of inhabitants. See Greece: B. C. 416. B. C. 8th century. — Migrations to. See Greece: Migrations to .^sia Minor and islands of the --Egean. A. D. 1146. — Ravage of islands by Roger of Sicily. See Bvzantinx empire: 114b. 1204-1567. — Medieval dukedom of Naxos. See Naxos: 1204-1567. 1821-1829. — In Greek war for independence against Turks. See Greece: 1821-1820. 1912. — Temporary Italian occupation and final evacuation. See Turkey: iqii-igi2. .ffiOIDIUS, king of the Franks (457-464). See G.wl: 417-486. iEGIKOREIS. See Phyl.c: Phratiae: Gentes. .ffiOINA, a small rocky island in the Saronic gulf, between .'\ttica and .-Vrgolis. First colonized by Achsans it was afterwards occupied by Dori- ans (see Greece: Migrations) and was unfriendly to Athens. During the sixth century B. C. it rose to great power and commercial importance, and became for a time the most brilliant center of Greek art. .\t the period of the Persian war, /Egina was "the first maritime power in Greece." But the .-Eginetans were at that time engaged in war with .Athens, as the allies of Thebes, and rather than forego their enmity, they offered sub- mission to the Persian king. The .Athenians there- upon appealed to Sparta, as the head of Greece, to interfere, and the ^Eginetans were compelled to give hostages to .Athens for their fidelity to the Hellenic cause. (See Greece: B. C. 492-491.) They purged themselves to a great extent of their intended treason by the extraordinary valor with which they fought at Salamis. — C. Thirlwall, His- tory of Greece, v. i, ch. 14. — See abo Athens: B. C. 490-485. B. C. 458-456. — Alliance with Corinth in war with Athens and Megara. — Defeat and subju- gation. See Athens: B. C. 457-456; Greece, B. C. 458-456. B. C. 431. — Expulsion of the .Sginetans from iEGIRA COHANS theii island by the Athenians. — Their settlement at Thyrea. B. C. 210.— Desolation by the Romans.— The first appearance of the Romans in Greece, when they entered the country as the allies of the ..^tolians, was signalized by the barbarous de- struction of /Egina. The city having been taken, B. C. 210, its entire population was reduced to slavery by the Romans and the land and build- ings of the city were sold to Attalus, king of Per- gamus. — E. A. Freeman, History oj federal gov- ernment, ch. 8, sect. 2. .£GIRA, a town of Achsa, Greece, near the Corinthian Gulf. iEGITIUM, Battle of (B. C. 426).— A reverse experienced by the Athenian General, Demos- thenes, in his invasion of .-Etolia, during the Pelo- ponnesian War. — Thucydides, History, bk. 3, sect. 97- JEGON, ruling house of Argos. See Greece: B. C. 8th Century. iEGOSPOTAMI (goat streams), a small creek in the Thracian Chersonesus (modern Gallipoli), flowing into the ilellespont or Dardanelles, where the Spartans destroyed the last remaining naval force of Athens, thus leading to the end of the Peloponnesian War (405 B. C). See Greece: B. C. 405. .SHRENTHAL, Alois von, Count Lexa (1854- igi2), Austro-Hungarian statesman; appointed minister to Rumania, 1S88; ambassador to Russia, 1889; premier and minister of foreign affairs, 1Q06; brought about the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 1908. — Sec also World War: Diplo- matic background: 8. Opinion on Friedjung forgeries. See Aus- tria-Hungary: iqoS-iqog. Plans in Novi Bazar. See Novi Bazar. A. E. I. O. U. — "The famous device of Aus- tria, A. E. I. O. U., was first used by Frederic III [1440-1493], who adopted it on his plate, books, and buildings. These initials stand for 'Austriae Est Imperare Orbi Univcrso'; of, in German, 'Alles Erdreich ist Osterreich Unterthan'; a bold assump- tion for a man who was not safe in an inch of his dominions." — H. Hallam, Middle Ages, i>. 2, p. 8q, foot-note. — See also Austria; 1477-1495. iELFRED. See Alfred. .SLFRIC (c. 950-1021), writer in early English prose. See English Literature: 6th-iith cen- turies. JELIA CAPITOLINA, the new name given to Jerusalem bv Hadrian. See Jews: 130-134. .ffiLIAN AND FUFIAN LAWS.— "The JE\mn and Fufian laws (leges /Elia and Fufia) the age of which unfortunately we cannot accurately de- termine . . . enacted that a popular assembly [at Rome] might be dissolved, or, in other words, the acceptance of any proposed law prevented, if a magistrate announced to the president of the assembly that it was his intention to choose the same time for watching the heavens. Such an announcement (obnuntiatio) was held to be a sufficient cause for interrupting an assembly." — W. Ihne, History of Rome, bk. 6, ch. 16. .ffiLIUS, Pons, a Roman bridge and military station on the Tyne, where Newcastle is now situated. .£LLE, leader of the South Saxons. See Ella. .ffiMILIA, or Fulvia, secular basilica in Rome, built in 167 B. C. and later rebuilt by Paulus i^milius in 50 B. C. It is remarkable for its monolithic columns of pavonazetto marble. iEMILIAN WAY.— "M. .^milius Lepidus, Con- sul for the year 180 B. C. . . c»nstructed the great road which bore his name. The .'Emilian Way led from Ariminum through the new colony of Bononia to Placentia, being a continuation of the Flaminian Way, or great north road, made by C. Flaminius in 220 B. C. from Rome to Ariminum. .^t the same epoch, Flaminius the son, being the colleague of Lepidus, made a branch road from Bononia across the Appenines to Arretium."— H. G. Liddell, History of Rome, bk. 5, cit. 41. .a;MILIANUS, Roman emperor, A. D. 253. See Rome: 192-284. .ffiMILIANUS, P. Cornelius Scipio, Roman consul. See Rome: B. C. 149-146. .ffiMILIUS GENS.— One of the most famous ancient patrician houses at Rome, The first mem- ber to obtain the consulship was L. .Emilius Mamercus in 484 B. C; family names are Bar- hula, Buca, Lepidus, Mamercus, Papus, Paulus, Regillus, and Scaurus. .ffiMILIUS PAULUS, Roman consul (217-216 B. C.) ; defeated at Cannae by Hannibal. See Rome: B.C. 218-202; Punic Wars: Second. .ffiNEAS.— "When the Greeks had taken Troy by means of the wooden horse and were slaying the inhabitants, -^neas escaped by sea together with many followers. And though angry Junu threatened him with storms and beset his path with trials and dangers, his goddess mother, Venus, guided him safely through every peril, and brought him after many wanderings to a haven on the west coast of Italy. There he landed and began to build a city. Trojans and natives lived together in peace, all taking the name of Latins, A son of i^neas founded Alba Longa." — G. W. Botsford, History of the ancient world, p. 324. — Roman myth further tells us that ^neas was the ancestor of Romulus, the founder of Rome. .ffiOLIANS.— "The collective stock of Greek nationalities falls, according to the view of those ancient writers who laboured most to obtain an exact knowledge of ethnographic relationships, into three main divisions, .Cohans, Dorians and loni- ans. . . . All the other inhabitants of Greece [not Dorians and lonians] and of the islands included in it, are comprised under the common name of /Eolians — a name unknown as yet to Homer, and which was incontestably applied to a great diver- sity of peoples, among which it is certain that no such homogeneity of race is to be assumed as existed among the lonians and Dorians. Among the two latter races, though even these were scarcely in any quarter completely unmixed, there was incontestably to be found a single original stock, to which others had merely been attached, and as it were engrafted, whereas, among the peoples assigned to the /Eolians, no such original stock is recognizable, but on the contrary, as great a difference is found between the several members of this race as between Dorians and lonians, and of the so-called Cohans, some stood nearer to the former, others to the latter. ... A thorough and careful investigation might well lead to the con- clusion that the Greek people was divided not into three, but into two main races, one of which we may call Ionian, the other Dorian, while of the so-called .-Eolians some, and probably the greater number, belonged to the former, the rest to the latter." — G. F. Schbman, Antiquity of Greece: The state, pi. i, ch. 2, — In Greek myth- ology, i^olus, the fancied progenitor of the Eolians, appears as one of the three sons of Hellen, "^olus is represented as having -eigned in Thessaly: his seven sons were Kre- theus, Sisyphus, Athamas, Salmoneus, Deion, Mag- nes and Perieres: his five daughters, Canace, Al- cyone, Peisidike, Calyce and Permede. The fables 73 a;olis ^SCLEPIADAE of this race seem to be distinguished by a con- stant introduction of the God Poseidon, as well as by an unusual prevalence of haughty and pre- sumptuous attributes among the .-Eolid heroes, leading them to affront the gods by pretences of equality, and sometimes even by defiance." — G. Grote, History oj Greece, pt. i, ch. 6. — See also Achaea; .^ioLis; Asia Minor: Greek colonies; Thessaly, Dorians and Ionians. ^OLIS (^olia), an ancient district of West- ern Asia Minor, extending along the .-Egean coast from the river Hermus to the promontory of Lec- tum; settled by the so-called ^olian Greeks, who before looo B. C. had founded Cyme and several other cities both on the mainland and on the island of Mytilene. — See also Romans. iEOLOPELE, device showing power of steam. See Steam and Gas Engines: Development up to Watt's time. ^OLUS. See ^olians. ^OUI (^quians), an ancient tribe of Italy who occupied the territory called Latium, a sec- tion east of Rome ; frequently fought with Rome but were not subdued until the lifth century B. C. See Rome: B. C. 45S; 300-347. ^OUINOCTIA, the name given by E. C. Abendanon to an old Paleozoic continent, now sunk below the sea. From observations, he draws the following conclusions regarding this ancient continent: "The gneiss, the mica schists, the phyllites, and the real 'old' schists, must be Ar- chean and pre-Cambrian rocks. They once built up an old Paleozoic continent, which extended at least over an area of 45° in latitude, between the tropics, from the southeast of Asia to the east of Australia. Its development from the southwest to northeast is unknown, owing to the presence of the Indian and Pacific oceans, but at all events this continent must have included most of Sumatra and the Philippine Islands, as in those countries also there has not yet been found any fossil of the Old Paleozoic. To the west, it may have stretched out as far as Madagascar. In the cen- tral part, north and south of the equator, moun- tain ranges of an almost east-west direction must have played an important part in this very old continent ."^E. C. Abendanon, Mquinoctia (Jour- nal oj Geology, Oil.. 1010, pp. 562-578). ^RARII, .ffirarians, a class of Roman cit- izens who were subjected to a poll-tax by the censor, usually placed upon inhabitants of con- quered towns. Full Roman citizens were some- times punished for certain dishonorable acts in private life by being placed among this class. See Censors: Roman. ^RARIUM, the name given by the ancient Romans to the public treasury containing the ac- counts and moneys of the state,- the standards of the legions, engraved public laws and other official registers and papers. The aerarium was virtual'y under the administration of the Roman emperors although the latter had separate exchequers, called fiscus. In time the emperors were privileged with an aerarium privatum, apart from the fiscus, an- other allotment which they could use either for their personal purposes or to the interest of the empire. — See also Fisci^s. AERIAL ARMAMENT. See World War: Miscellaneous auxiliarv services: IV. Aviation: a, 3. AERIAL DERBY FLIGHT. See Aviation: Important flights since 1000: 1014. AERIAL FOREST PATROL. See Aviation: Development of airplanes and air service iqi8- iq2i: Mr service after World War. AERIAL LAW. See Aviation: Development of airplanes and air service: I9i8-ig2i: Aerial law. AERIAL LEAGUE OF THE WORLD: Its aims. See Aviation: Development of airplanes and air service; 1918-192 1: Aerial law. AERIAL MAIL. See .Aviation: Development of airplanes and air service: 1918-1921: ."Vir service after World War. AERIAL NAVIGATION, Provisions regard- ing, in treaty of Versailles. See Versailles, Treaty of: Part XI AERIAL NAVIGATION LAWS. See .\via- tion: Development of airplanes and air service: 1918-1921: .\erial law. AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY, in city planning. See City planning: .Aeroplane in city planning; World War: Miscellaneous auxiliary services: IV. .Aviation: a, 1. AERIAL POSTAL SERVICE. See Avution: 1021: .American aerial mail service AERIAL TRANSPORTATION. See Avia- tion. AERIAL WARFARE. See World War: 1915: 1916: IQ17 and 19 18: .Aerial operations. AERODROMES, Floating. See Aviation: Development of airplanes and air service: 1910- 1920. AERODROMES, Langley's. See .A«ation: Development of airplanes and air service: 1889- 1900: .Aerial law AERODROMES, Laws concerning. See .Aviation: Development of airplanes and air serv-- ice: 1918-IQ21: .Aerial law. AERONAUTIC MAPS. See Aviation: Devel- opment of airplanes and air service: 1908-1920. AERONAUTICS. See Aviation. AEROPLANE IN CITY PLANNING. See City planntxg: .Aeroplane in city planning. AEROPLANES. See Avlation. AERSCHOT, or Aarschot, a town of Bel- gium, province of Brabant. Scene of the first acts of terrorism by the Germans in their invasion of Belgium, .August, 1914. See Belciu.m: 1914; World War: 1014: I. Western front: c, 1 and e; also 1916: X. German rule in northern France and Bel- gium: b, 3; also Miscellaneous auxiliary services: X. .Alleged atrocities and violations of international law: a, 7. .ffiSCHINES (389-314 B. C), celebrated Athenian statesman and orator. Sent as a mem- ber of the embassy to Philip of Macedon, 347 B. C. From that time he actively favored Philip and became the leader of the peace party at Athens as against Demosthenes. In 330 B. C. /Eschines unsuccessfully attacked Ctesiphon's ef- forts to reward Demosthenes with a golden crown for his services to the state. .As a result of this defeat he went into voluntary exile at Rhodes. vEschines' most famous contributions to oratory, the three speeches referred to as "The Three Graces," rank close to those of Demosthenes. — See also .Athens: 336-322 B. C. .ESCHINES (5th century B; C), an .Athenian philosopher and friend of Socrates; held in con- tempt by Plato and .Aristotle. He was one of the most gifted orators of his time. His work is con- sidered as the standard of the pure .Attic stvle. .ffiSCHYLUS (525-456 B. C ), first of the'three great Greek tragedians. Fought at Marathon and Salamis. His ninety plays,, grouped in threes, ex- tend over a period of forty years, during which time he won the first prize thirteen times. His plays, of which seven are extant, show the charac- ters gradually displacing the chorus as protagonist. — See also Drama: Origin: Greek tragedy: Rise and development .ffiSCLEPIADAE. See Medical science: .Ancient Greece 74 ^SCULAPIUS ^THELWULF ^SCULAPIUS, Greek god of medicine. See Medical science: Ancient Greece. .ffiSOPUS INDIANS. See Algonquian fam- ily. .ESTHETICS: Croce. See Art: Croce's Aes- thetic. .ffiSTII, or .ffistyi.— "At this point [beyond the SuionesJ the Suevic Sea [the Baltic], on its eastern shore, washes the tribes of the .-Estii, whose rites and fashions and styles of dress are those of the Suevi, while their language is more like the British. They worship the mother of the gods and wear as a religious symbol the device of a wild boar. . . . They often use clubs, iron weap- ons but seldom. They are more patient in cul- tivating corn and other produce than might be expected from the general indolence of the Ger- mans. But they also search the deep and are the only people who gather amber, which they call glesum." — "The .-Estii occupied that part of Prussia which is to the north-east of the Vistula. . . . The name still survives in the form Estonia." — Tacitus, Germany, tr. by Church and Brodribb, with nole. .ffiSYMNET.^;.— Among the Greeks, an ex- pedient "which seems to have been tried not un- frequently in early times, for preserving or re- storing tranquillity, was to invest an individual with absolute power, under a peculiar title, which soon became obsolete: that of aesymnets. At Cuma, indeed, and in other cities, this was the title of an ordinary magistracy, probably of that which succeeded the hereditary monarchy; but when applied to an extraordinary office, it was equivalent to the title of protector or dictator." — C. Thirlwall, History of Greece, ch. lo .ffiTHEL, .aiTHELINGS. — .-Etheling, an Anglo-Saxon word compounded of "aethele" or "ethel," meaning "noble," and "ing," belonging; akin to the modern German words "adel," "no- bility" and "adelig," "noble," was used to denote members of a royal family. "The sons and broth- ers of the king [of the English] were distinguished by the title of Aethelings. The word .-Etheling, like eorl, originally denoted noble birth simply ; but as the royal house of Wessex rose to pre-emi- nence and the other royal houses and the nobles generally were thereby reduced to a relatively lower grade, it became restricted to the near kindred of the national king." — T. P. Taswell-Langmead, Eng. Const. Hist., p 2q. — "It has been sometimes held that the only nobility of blood recognized in Eng- land before the Norman Conquest was that of the king's kin. The statement may be regarded as de- ficient in authority, and as the result of a too hasty generalization from the fact that only the sons and brothers of the kings bear the name of aetheling. On the other hand must be alleged the existence of a noble (edhiling) class among the continental Saxons who had no kings at all. . . . The laws of Ethelbert prove the existence of a class bearing the name of eorl of which no other interpretation can be given. That these, curls and aethel, were the descendants of the primitive nobles of the first settlement, who, on the institution of royalty, sank one step in dignity from the ancient state of rude independence, in which they had elect- ed their own chiefs and ruled their own dependents, may be very reasonably conjectured. . . . The ancient name of eorl, like that of aetheling, changed its application, and, under the influence, perhaps, of Danish association, was given like that of jarl to the official ealdorman. Henceforth the thegn takes the place of the aethel, and the class of thegns probably embraces all the remaining families of noble blood. The change may have been very gradual; the 'north people's law' of the tenth or early eleventh century still distinguishes the eorl and aetheling with a wergild nearly double that of the ealdorman and seven times that of the thegn; but the north people's law was penetrated with Danish influence, and the eorl probably rep- resents the jarl rather than the ealdorman, the great eorl of the fourth part of England as it was divided by Canute. . . . The word eorl is said to be the same as the Norse jarl and another form of ealdor {?); whilst the ceorl answers to the Norse Karl; the original meaning of the two being old man and young man."— W. Stubbs, Constitutional History of England, ch. 6, sect. 64, and note. -ffiTHELBALD, one of the most powerful kings of Mercia, controlling all of Britain up to the Humber; invaded Wessex in 733 and North- umbria in 740; slain by his guards in 757 at Seck- ington, Warwickshire. .ffiTHELBALD, king of Wessex; defeated the Danes (851) with the help of his father, ^thel- wulf. ^thelbald married his father's widow in 858 and ruled until his death in 860 .ffiTHELBERHT OF KENT, Saint (SS2{?)- 616), king of Kent, 560 to 616. Established his supremacy over all the English south of the Hum- ber in 593, after the death of Ceowlin, king of the West Saxons; married the daughter of Chari- bert, king of the Franks, agreeing to permit her to practice her own (Christian) religion ; was him- self converted by St. Augustine in 597 and founded the bishopric of Rochester and erected the church of St. Paul in London; is author of first written Saxon laws. .ffiTHELBERHT, king of the West Saxons; younger brother of .^thelbald, king of Wessex whom he succeeded upon the latter's death in 860. The Danes made two attacks upon his kingdom; in one of these (860) destroyed Winchester. Died in 865. — See also England: 855-880. .ffiTHELFLED, daughter of King Alfred. See Education: Medieval: 871-900: England: King Alfred. .ffiXHELFRITH, king of Northumberland, 593-617 .ffiTHELRED, king of Mercia from 675 to 704. From 704 till his death in 716 he was abbot of Bardnev. .ffiTHELRED, king of Wessex, A. D. 866-871. .SITHELRED II (968-1016), surnamed "The Unready"; in 991 instituted the payment of "danegeld" as a price of peace with the Danes; or- dered a general massacre of the Danes in 1002 which caused more ravages of England by the Danes under King Sweyn, who marched upon London and deposed .^thclred whom the people deserted; was restored to the throne in 1014. — See also England: 979-1016. .ffiTHELSTAN (c. 894-940) succeeded his father. King Edward the Elder, as king of the Saxons (924). Thirteen years later he had es- tablished himself as sovereign over the whole of England and Scotland. .ffiXHELSWISTHA, son of King Alfred. See Education: Medieval: 871-900: England: King Alfred. .ffiXHELWEARD, Anglo-Saxon historian; au- thor of a Latin Chronicle extending to 975; in 991 was associated with Archbishop Sigeric in the conclusion of a peace with the Danes. .ffiXHELWERD, son of King Alfred. See Education: Medieval: 871-900: England: King Alfred. .ffiXHELWULF, king of Wessex, 839-858. Viking invasions. See Scandinavian States: 8th-9th centuries. 75 -ETIUS AFGHANISTAN ^TIUS (d. 4S4), Roman general under Val- entinian III ; won many notable \'ictories in twenty years of warfare in Gaul, thereby delay- ing the collapse of the Roman empire; won a great victory over Attila and the Huns at Chalons- sur-Marne (September 20, 451). ^-Etius, in 454, formally asked \ alentinian to give his daughter in marriage to his son Gaudentius. Suspecting de- signs upon his power, the emperor assassinated his general. — See also Barbarian invasions: 4-3-455; Huns; 451. JETIUS, founder of an extreme sect of Arians; surnamed "the Atheist"; banished from Alexan- dria in 356 b\- Constantius for preaching Arian- ism; was a favorite with the emperor Julian who recalled him and presented him with an estate; died at Constantinople in 367. ^TNA INSURANCE COMPANY. See In- surance: Fire insurance: Development in United States. JETOLIA, a district of central Greece, directly south of Thessaly and Epirus, bordering on the gulfs of Calydon and Corinth. In ancient times the inhabitants of this district were known as a backward and barbarous people. As late as the fifth century they were still bands or tribes under the leadership of plunderers who styled them- selves "kings." The rise of .^itolia as a distinct power may be ascribed to the formation of the .•Etolian League, which was originally intended to meet any invasion by the Macedonian regents, Antipater and Craterus. The confederacy, the members of which were the districts of .-Etolia, F;iis, Locris, Phocis, Bu;otia, CEtsa and Phthio- tis, continued to extend its influence to the north- ern sections of central Greece (2Q0 B. C). The .-Etolian League reached the zenith of its power between the years 245-240 B. C, when the naval power of the .E^tolians extended to the .Egian islands and to the Hellespont. .M this time all central Greece was under the control of the league. .\n inscription recently unearthed, indicates the extent of the .■Etolian League's influence upon the other states of central Greece. "This inscription, discovered at Avaritza in Southern Thessaly, on the site of the ancient Melitea, records a decision of arbitrators appointed by the .E^tolian League in a dispute between the city-state of Melitea and the neighboring settlement of Perea. The two were, at the time, politically united into one com- munity, but the Pereans evidently were dissatis- fied and desired the right of seceding if they should choose to do so. This the decision granted to them, and it also provided for the subsequent relations between the two communities, besides defining the boundar\- line, in the event of a sep- aration. The inscription not only shows the pre- ponderant influence of the .-Etolian League in dis- putes between its member states, but also gives an interesting hint regarding the basis of repre- sentation in the federal council. The date is the last quarter of the third century B. C, when the power of the League extended into Southern Thes- saly."— G. W. Botsford, and E. G Sihler, Hellenic civUizalion, p. 622. — Towards the close of the third century B. C. the /Etolians became greatly alarmed at the growing power of the Macedonians and in order to check the inroads of the Macedo- nian king. Demetrius (230-220 B. C), they joined forces with their former rivals, the .\chcEans. But this did not save their rapidly waning power, for in 228 their .Arcadian po.ssessions were aban- doned to Sparta and in 224 B. C. B(Colia and Phocis were lost to .\ntigonus Doson, son of Demetrius. New enemies began to arise in all directions. The Illyrian pirates, who far sur- passed the .iEtolians in unscrupulous barbarity, raided numerous towns. Subsequent raids into Achsan territory by .Eltolian chiefs brought about a coalition between Achaea and Philip V of Mace- don. The combined forces attacked the .E)tolians, drove them out of the Peloponnesus, marched into .-Etolia and there sacked the capital, Thermon. Peace was finally purchased in 217 B. C. with the loss of .\carnania. Thereupon the .-Etolians con- cluded an arrangement with Rome which helped to support its rapidly declining influence. The combined forces of Rome and the .Etolians in- flicted severe punishment upon the Macedonian troops under Philip V at the battle of Cynoceph- als (iQ7 B. C). Central Greece was again restored to the .-Etolian League. The withholding of the League's former Thessalian possessions by the Romans, however, excited the .-Etolians to such resentment that they concmded a compact wUh .Antiochus III of Syria and war with Rome followed. But in 191 15. C. the .Etolians gave very poor support to Antiochus. Their failure to defend Thermopylse forced him to leave Greece .Alone on the field against the greatest power in the Mediterranean, the .-Etolians- vainly pleaded for some compromise. Their surrender in 189 practically brought the league to an end. The .•Etolian League's constitution, which the .\chian league used as a model for their own, provided for the yearly convocation of a general assembly, which elected officials and usually shaped the league's policies. Although these general as- semblies were open to all freemen they were usually controlled by .E)tolian chiefs. The strait- ens (general) who had complete control in the field, presided over the assembly. Outlying de- pendencies, which were usually considered as pro- tectorates, were rarely represented in the general law making body. .Although the /Etolian troops were reputed to be ruthless and lawless, the re- sponsibility for which rested with their generals and chiefs who enjoyed unlimited powers, .Etolia and the league contributed invaluable aid to the defence of Greece against foreign aggression. In 1205 .-Etolia became part of the old Greek Em- pire. In the fifteenth century it fell under the con- trol of Scanderbeg, and was in turn under the Venetians and the Turks. — See also Gaul: B. C. 280-270. . JETOLIAN LEAGUE. See ^tolm; Federal GOVEKNMF.NT : Greek federations. AFAR PEOPLE. See Eritrea. AFER, Domitius (d. -A. D. 60), a Roman ora- tor who accused Claudia Pulcra, cousin of .Agrip- pina (.A. D. 26) of having designs .against the emperor. AFFONSO. See .Alfonso. AFGHANA, founder of the Afghan race. See .Afghanisian: The name. AFGHANISTAN.— The Name.— The People. — "The name .Afghanistan was invented in the six- teenth century and seventeenth century, as a con- venient term by the Mochul government of India, and since then it has become current in the mouths of foreigners. The .Afghans speak of their country as Wilayat and less commonly as Khurassan IKhorasanl, although .Afghanistan covers less than a third of that ancient Division of .Asia." — G. P. Tate, Kingdom of Afgliani^tan. — -Although a na- tion of anti Semites, the .Afghans take great pride in their supposed Hebrew lineage. They call them- selves Beni-lsrael (Children of Israel), and claim descent from King Saul, through .Afghana, son of Jeremiah, son of Saul, from whose country they were forced to migrate by Nebuchadnezzar. This claim is not substantiated bv obtainable historical 76 AFGHANISTAN, B.C. 330 AFGHANISTAN, 1803-1838 Jata, but the unmistakable Hebrew cast of the Afghan countenance, as well as the opinions of Europeans resident in Afghanistan, put it within (he range of possibility. Nine years after Mo- hammed's announcement of his mission, the "dc- scendents of Afghana" heard of the new prophet and sent to Medina a deputation headed by Kais, to make inquiry. These, won over to the new belief, on their return converted their counlry- men, and from Kais and his three sons the whole body of genuine Afghans claim descent. Geographic description. — "Between the Rus- sian Dominions in .Asia and the Indian Empire of Great Britain, Afghanistan is placed, like a nut between the levers of a cracker. The rivalry be- tween the great powers which are the neighbors of Afghanistan has led to the careful demarcation of the boundaries of that State with the excep- tion of a short and unimportant length on the west and east. The generally accepted area of 243,000 sq. miles, therefore, may be regarded as correct. While, however, a fairly accurate general knowledge exists with regard to Ihc geography of Afghanistan, very little is known as to the num- ber of inhabitants the country supports. From observations made in Seistan, in IQ04, there is reason to believe that an average density of 50 souls to a square mile, is not an excessive estimate or (say) 12,000,000 souls for the population of the country. The richer lands in the wider val- ley drained by the principal rivers of the country carry the densest population. In the more ele- vated and poorer districts, there are fewer inhabi- tants, and they are to a certain extent migratory. Those who arc able to avoid the rigorous winter, descend to the lower levels on the approach of that season. Above these districts again, are others to which shepherds resort in the spring, and in which during the summer, a considerable population is to be found. These tracts are vacated as winter draws on. The flocks are driven down to warmer districts, where fodder is pro- curable and in which during the early spring (the lambing season) the climate is not too severe for the young stock. . . . The great range of the Hin- du-Kush divides Afghanistan into two unequal parts, about a third part lying to the north of the watershed. The country generally consists of nar- row valleys sheltered by giant spurs, and ridges of inferior elevation, which descend from the parent range. The Heri-Rud, the River of Herat, drains )he western end of this trough. Within the pres- ent limits of .Afghanistan, permanent snow covers only the loftier summits of the range or collects at the head of the mo.st elevated valleys, which descend on either side, but the heavy snowfall of winter, on the whole range, and rain which falls at cerfain seasons replenish the rivers which rise high up on the slopes of the mountains. The southern ridge of the Hindu-Kush is pierced by the beds of the principal rivers of Afghanistan, and the northern ridge is broken by torrential streams which descend toward the Oxus; but only the more important of these actually join that river. The beds of these streams and rivers are followed by the routes which cross the lofty sad- dles of the range, and the lowest of these passes is the Khawak, considerably over 11,000 feet above sea-level. The two ridges culminate in the vicinity of the mass of Tirish Mir, close to the eastern boundary of Afghanistan, the highest peak of which attains to an altitude of 25,426 feet above the sea. . . . There is no part of Afghanistan where snow never falls. The rainfall is very small, and except on irrigated lands there is an absence of moisture and the climate of the country is very unfavorable to human existence. About 43,000 square miles of unproductive desert exists in the extreme southern portion of Afghanistan. . . . Ten per cent, of the whole area of Afghanistan may perhaps represent the area which might be culti- vated. . . . The mineral resources of the country arc as yet unexplored, and as it is a task which can be successfully carried out only by foreign experts, progress in this [direction] must be slow." — G. P. Tate, Kingdom of Afghnnislan, pp. i-ii. B. C. 330-A. D. 1747.— Under foreign rulers.— The territory now embraced in Afghanistan has fre- quently changed hands. It was a part of Alexan- der's empire, of the Bagdad Caliphate, of the empire of theSamanids, of the territories of the Ghaznevid dynasty, of the Mongol Empire, the empire of Timur, and of the Mogul Empire. The invasion of Persia in 1722 by the Afghan chieftain Mahmud resulted a few years later in an expedition under Nadir Kuli, who drove the Afghans out of Persia and made the last great conquest of Afghanistan. Nadir Shah was assassinated in 1747, and was succeeded by Ahmed Shah, one of his own officers, who established the Durani dynasty in Afghanistan and the independent status of the country. Ahmed made considerable conquests in India, but none of a permanent nature. B. C. 330.— Conquest by Alexander the Great. —Founding of Herat and Kandahar. See MACEno.MA: B. C. 330-323. B. C. 301-246.— In the Syrian empire. See Macedonia: B. C. 310-301 ; Seleucidae. 13th century. — Conquest by Jenghiz Khan. See India: 077-1200. 1380-1386.— Conquest by Timur. See Timur. 1722. — Mahmoud's conquest of Persia. See Persia: 1490-1887. 1732-1800.— Conquest by Nadir Kuli. See Persia: 1400-1887. 1755-1761. — War against Mahrattas. See In- dia: 1747-1761. 1803-1838. — Shah Shuja and Dost Mohammed. — English interference. — "Shah Soojah-ool Moolk, a grandson of the illustrious .Ahmed Shah, reigned in Afghanistan from 1S03 till iSoo. His youth had been full of trouble and vicissitude. He had been a wanderer, on the verge of starvation, a pedler, and a bandit, who raised money by plun- dering caravans. His courage was lightly reputed, and it was as a mere creature of circumstance that he reached the throne. His reign was perturbed, and in i8oq he was a fugitive and an exiled Runjeet Singh, the Sikh ruler of the Punjaub, defrauded him of the famous Koh-i-noor, which is now the most precious of the crown jewels of England, and plundered and imprisoned the fallen man. Sh.ih Sonjah at 'length escaped from La- hore. After further misfortunes he at length reached the British frontier station of Loodianah, and in 1816 became a pensioner of the East India Company. After the downfall of Shah Soojah, Afghanistan for many years was a prey to an- archy. At length in 1826, Dost Mahomed suc- ceeded in making himself supreme at Cabul, and this masterful man thenceforward held sway until his death in 1865, uninterruptedly save during the three years of the British occupation. Dost Ma- homed was neither kith nor kin to the legitimate dynasty which he displaced. His father Poyndah khan was an able statesman and gallant soldier. He left twenty-one sons, of whom Futteh Khan was the eldest, and 'Dost Mahomed one of the youngest. . . . Throughout his long reign Dost Mahomed was a strong and wise ruler. His youth had been neglected and dissolute. His education was defective, and he had been addicted to wine. 77 AFGHANISTAN, 1803-1838 AFGHANISTAN, 1838-1S42 Once seated on the throne, the reformation of our Henr>- V. was not more thorough than was that of Dost Mahomed. He taught himself to read and write, studied the Koran, became scrupulously abstemious, assiduous in affairs, no longer trucu- lent, but courteous. . . . There was a fine rugged honesty in his nature, and a streak of genuine chivalry ; notwithstanding what he suffered at our hands, he had a real regard for the English, and his loyalty to us was broken only by his armed support of the Sikhs in the second Punjaub war. The fallen Shah Soojah, from his asylum in Loodianah, was continually intriguing for his restoration. His schemes were long inoperative, and it was not until 1832 that certain arrange- ments were entered into between him and the Maharaja Runjeet Singh. To an application on Shah Soojah's part for countenance and pecuniary aid, the Anglo-Indian Government replied that to afford him assistance would be inconsistent with the policy of neutrality which the Government had imposed on itself ; but it unwisely contributed financially toward his undertaking by granting him four months' pension in advance. Sixteen thousand rupees formed a scant war fund with which to attempt the recovery of a throne, but the Shah started on his errand in February, 1833. After a successful contest with the Ameers of Scinde, he marched on Candahar, and besieged that fortress. Candahar was in extremity when Dost Mahomed, hurrying from Cabul, relieved it, and joining forces with its defenders, he defeated and routed Shah Soojah, who fled precipitately, leaving behind him his artillery and camp equi- page. During the Dost's absence in the south, Run- jeet Singh's troops crossed the Attock, occupied the Afghan province of Peshawur, and drove the Afghans into the Khyber Pass. No subsequent efforts on Dost Mahomed's part availed to expel the Sikhs from Peshawur, and suspicious of British connivance with Runjeet Singh's successful aggres- sion, he took into consideration the policy of for- tifying himself by a counter alliance with Persia. As for Shah Soojah, he had crept back to his refuge at Loodianah. Lord Auckland succeeded Lord W'ilUam Bentinck as Governor-General of India in March, 1836. In reply to Dost Ma- homed's letter of congratulation, his lordship wrote: 'You are aware that it is not the practice of the British Government to interfere with the affairs of other independent States;' an abstention which Lord Auckland was soon to violate. He had brought from England the feeling of dis- quietude in regard to the designs of Persia and Russia which the communications of our envoy in Persia had fostered in the Home Government, but it would appear that he was wholly undecided what line of action to pursue. 'Swayed,' says Dur- and, 'by the vague apprehensions of a remote dan- ger entertained by others rather than himself,' he despatched to Afghanistan Captain Burnes on a nominally commercial mission, which, in fact, was one of political discovery, but without definite in- structions. Burnes, an able but rash and ambitious man, reached Cabul in September, 1837, two months before the Persian army began the siege of Herat. . . . The Dost made no concealment to Burnes of his approaches to Persia and Russia, in despair of British good offices, and being hungry for assistance from any source to meet the en- croachments of the Sikhs, he professed himself ready to abandon his negotiations with the west- ern powers if he were given reason to expect countenance and assistance at the hands of the Anglo-Indian Government. . . The situation of Burnes in relation to the Dost was presently com- plicated by the arrival at Cabul of a Russian of- ficer claiming to be an envoy from the Czar, whose credentials, however, were regarded as dubious, and who, if that circumstance has the least weight, was on his return to Russia utterly repudiated by Count Nesselrode. The Dost took small account of this emissary, continuing to assure Burnes that he cared for no connection except with the Eng- lish, and Burnes professed to his Government his fullest confidence in the sincerity of those declara- tions. But the tone of Lord Auckland's reply, addressed to the Dost, was so dictatorial and supercilious as to indicate the writer's intention that it should give offence. It had that effect, and Burnes' mission at once became hopeless. . . . The Russian envoy, who was profuse in his prom- ises of everything which the Dost was most anx- ious to obtain, was received into favour and treated with distinction, and on his return jour- ney he effected a treaty with the Candahar chiefs which was presently ratified by the Russian min- ister at the Persian Court. Burnes, fallen into discredit at Cabul, quitted that place in August 1838. He had not been discreet, but it was not his indiscretion that brought about the failure of his mission. A nefarious transaction, which Kaye denounces with the passion of a just indignation, connects itself with Burnes' negotiations with the Dost ; his official correspondence was unscrupu- lously mutilated and garbled in the published Blue Book with deliberate purpose to deceive the British public. Burnes had failed because, since he had quitted India for Cabul, Lord Auckland's policy had gradually altered. Lord Auckland had landed in India in the character of a man of peace. That, so late as .^pril 1837, he had no design of obstructing the existing situation in Afghanistan is proved by his written statement of that date, that 'the British Government had resolved decidedly to discourage the prosecution by the ex-king Shah Soojah-ool-Moolk, so long as he may remain under our protection, of further schemes of hostility against the chiefs now in' power in Cabul and Candahar.' Vet, in the fol- lowing June, he concluded a treaty which sent Shah Soojah to Cabul, escorted by British bayo- nets. Of this inconsistency no explanation pre- sents itself. It was a far cry from our frontier on the Sutlej ,to Herat in the confines of Central Asia — a distance of more than 1,200 miles, over some of the most arduous marching ground in the known world. . . . Lord William Bentinck, Lord Auckland's predecessor, denounced the project as an act of incredible folly. Marquis Wellesley re- garded 'this wild expedition into a distant region of rocks and deserts, of sands and ice and snow,' as an act of infatuation. The Duke of Welling- ton pronounced with prophetic sagacity, that the consequence of once crossing the Indus to settle a government in Afghanistan would be a perennial march into that country." — A. Forbes, Afghan ■wars, ch. i. Also in: J. P. Ferrier, History of the Afghans, ch. TO-20. — Mohan Lai, Life of Amir Dost Mo- hammed Khan. x\ 1 1808-1810. — Border wars. See India: 1805-1816. 1837. — War with British in India. See India: I 836- I 84 5 1838-1842. — English invasion, and restoration of Shuja Dowlah. — Revolt at Cabul. — Horrors of the British retreat. — Destruction of the entire army, save one man, only. — Sale's defence of Jellalabad. — "To approach Afghanistan it was necessary to secure the friendship of the Sikhs, who were, indeed, ready enough to join against their old enemies; and a threefold treaty was con- 78 AFGHANISTAN, 1838-1842 AFGHANISTAN, 1838-1842 traded between Runjeet Singh, the English, and Shah Soojah for the restoration of the banished house. The expedition — which according to the original intention was to have been carried out chiefly by means of troops in the pay of Shah Soojah and the Sikhs — rapidly grew into an Eng- lish invasion of Afghanistan. A considerable force was gathered on the Sikh frontier from Bengal; a second army, under General Keane, was to come up from Kurrachee through Sindh. Both of these armies, and the troops of Shah Soojah, were to enter the highlands of Afghanistan by the Bolan Pass. As the Sikhs would not willingly allow the free passage of our troops through their country, an additional burden was laid upon the armies, — the independent Ameers of Sindh had to be coerced. At length, with much trouble from the difficulties of the country and the loss of the com- missariat animals, the forces were all collected under the command of Keane beyond the passes. The want of food permitted of no delay; the army pushed on to Candahar. Shah Soojah was declared Monarch of the southern Principality. Thence the troops moved rapidly onwards towards the more important and difficult conquest of Ca- bal. Ghuznee, a fortress of great strength, lay in the way. In their hasty movements the English had left their battering train behind, but the gates of the fortress were blown in with gunpowder, and by a brilliant feat of arms the fortress was stormed. Nor did the English army encounter any important resistance subsequently. Dost Mohamed found his followers deserting him, and withdrew northwards into the mountains of the Hindoo Koosh. With all the splendour that could be collected. Shah Soojah was brought back to his throne in the Bala Hissar, the fortress Palace of Cabul. . . . For the moment the policy seemed thoroughly successful. The English Ministry could feel that a fresh check had been placed upon its Russian rival, and no one dreamt of the terrible retribution that was in store for the unjust vio- lence done to the feelings of a people. . . . Dost Mohamed thought it prudent to surrender him- self to the English envoy. Sir William Macnagh- ten, and to withdraw with his family to the Eng- lish provinces of Hindostan [November, 1840]. He was there well received and treated with liber- ality; for, as both the Governor-General and his chief adviser Macnaghten felt, he had not in fact in any way offended us, but had fallen a victim to our policy. It was in the full belief that their pohcy in India had been crowned with perma- nent success that the Whig Ministers withdrew from office, leaving their successors to encounter the terrible results to which it led. For while the English officials were blindlv congratulating them- selves upon the happy completion of their enter- prise, to an observant eye signs of approaching difficulty were on all sides visible. . . . The re- moval of the strong rule of the Barrukzyes opened a door for undefined hopes to many of the other families and tribes. The whole country was full of intrigues and of diplomatic bargaining, carried on by the English political agents with the various chiefs and leaders. But they soon found that the hopes excited by these negotiations were illusory. The allowances for which they had bargained were reduced, for the English envoy began to be dis- quieted at the vast expenses of the Government. They did not find that they derived any advan- tages from the establishment of the new puppet King, Soojah Dowlah ; and every Mahomedan, even the very king himself, felt disgraced at the predominance of the English infidels. But as no actual insurrection broke out, Macnaghten, a man of sanguine temperament and anxious to believe what he wished, in spite of unmistakable warn- ings as to the real feeling of the people, clung with almost angry vehemence to the persuasion that all was going well, and that the new King had a real hold upon the people's affection. So completely had he deceived himself on this point, that he had decided to send back a portion of the English army, under General Sale, into Hindostan. He even intended to accompany it himself to enjoy the peaceful post of Governor of Bombay, with which his successful policy had been rewarded. His place was to be taken by Sir Alexander Burnes, whose view of the troubled condition of the country underlying the comparative calm of the surface was much truer than that of Mac- naghten, but who, perhaps from that very fact, was far less popular among the chiefs. The army which was to remain at Candahar was under the command of General Nott, an able and decided if somewhat irascible man. But General Elphin- stone, the commander of the troops at Cabul, was of quite a different stamp. He was much respected and liked for his honourable character and social qualities, but was advanced in years, a confirmed invalid, and wholly wanting in the vigour and decision which his critical position was likely to require. The fool's paradise with which the Eng- lish Envoy had surrounded himself was rudely destroyed. He had persuaded himself that the frequently recurring disturbances, and especially the insurrection of the Ghilzyes between Cabul and Jellalabad, were mere local outbreaks. But in fact a great conspiracy was on foot in which the chiefs of nearly every important tribe in the country were implicated. On the evening of the ist of November [1841] a meeting of the chiefs was held, and it was decided that an immediate attack should be made on the house of Sir Alex- ander Burnes. The following morning an angry crowd of assailants stormed the houses of Sir Alexander Burnes and Captain Johnson, murder- ing the inmates, and rifling the treasure-chests be- longing to Soojah Dowlah's army. Soon the whole city was in wild insurrection. The evidence is nearly irresistible that a little decision and rapidity of action on the .part of the military would have at once crushed the outbreak. But although the attack on Burnes's house was known, no troops were sent to his assistance. Indeed, that unbroken course of folly and mismanagement which marked the conduct of our military affairs throughout this crisis had already begun. Instead of occupying the fortress of the Bala Hissar, where the army would have been in comparative security, Elphin- stone had placed his troops in cantonments far too extensive to be properly defended, surrounded by an entrenchment of the most insignificant char- acter, commanded on almost all sides by higher ground. To complete the unfitness of the position, the commissariat supplies were not stored within the cantonments, but were placed in an isolated fort at some Httle distance. All ill-sustained and futile assault was made upon the town on the 3d of November, but from that time onwards the British troops lay with incomprehensible supine- ness awaiting their fate in their defenceless posi- tion. The commissariat fort soon fell into the hands of the enemy and rendered their situation still more deplorable. Some flashes of bravery now and then lighted up the sombre scene of helpless misfortune, and served to show that de- struction might even yet have been averted by a little firmness. . . . But the commander had al- ready begun to despair, and before many days had passed he was thinking of making terms with 79 AFGHANISTAN, 1838-1842 AFGHANISTAN, 1838-1842 the enemy. Macnaghten had no course open to him under such circumstances but to adopt the suggestion of the general, and attempt as well as he could by bribes, cajolery, and intrigue, to di- vide the chiefs and secure a safe retreat for the EngUsh. Akbar Khan, the son of Dost Mohamed, though not present at the beginning of the in- surrection, had arrived from the northern moun- tains, and at once asserted a predominant influ- ence in the insurgent councils. With him and with the other insurgent chiefs Macnaghten entered into an arrangement by which he promised to withdraw the English entirely from the country if a safe passage were secured for the army through the passes. . . . The horrors of the retreat form one of the darkest passages in English military history. In bitter cold and snow, which took all life out of the wretched Sepoys, without proper clothing or shelter, and hampered by a disorderly mass of thousands of camp-followers, the array en- tered the terrible defiles which lie between Cabul and Jellalabad. Whether .Akbar Khan could, had he wished it, have restrained his fanatical followers is uncertain. As a fact the retiring crowd — it can reached Jellalabad to tell fhc tale. Literally one man, Dr. Brydon, came to Jellalabad [January 13] out of a moving host which had numbered in all some 16,000 when it set out on its march. The curious eye will search through history or fiction in vain for any picture more thrilling with the suggestions of an awful catastrophe than that of this solitary survivor, faint and reeling on his jaded horse, as he appeared under the walls of Jellalabad, to bear the tidings of our Thermopylae of pain and shame. This is the crisis of the story. With this at least the worst of the pain and. shame were destined to end. The rest is all, so far as we are concerned, reaction and recovery. Our successes are common enough ; we may tell their tale briefly in this instance.. The garrison at Jella- labad had received before Dr. Brydon's arrival an intimation that they were to go out and march toward India in accordance with the terms of the treaty extorted from Elphinstone at Cabul. They very properly declined to be bound by a treaty which, as General Sale rightly conjectured, had been "forced from our envoy and military com- mander with the knives at their throats.' General ■ ■S*:->,:»iik ^ JAMRLU) FOKT .\T KNTRANCE OF FAMOUS KHYBER PASS scarcely be called an army — was a mere unresist- ing prey to the assaults of the mountaineers. Con- stant communication was kept up with Akbar; on the third day all the ladies and children with the married men were placed in his hands, and finally even the two generals gave themselves up as host- ages, always in the hope that the remnant of the army might be allowed to escape." — J. F. Bright, History of England, v. 4, pp. 61-66. — "Then the march of the army, without a general, went on again. Soon it became the story of a general without an army ; before very long there was neither general nor army. It is idle to lengthen a tale of mere horrors. The straggling remnant of an army entered the Jugdulluk Pass — a dark, steep, narrow, ascending path between crags. The miserable toilers found that the fanatical, impla- cable tribes had barricaded the pass. All was over. The army of Cabul was finally extineuished in that barricaded pass. It was a trap; the British were taken in it. A few mere fugitives escaped from the scene of actual slaughter, and were on the road to Jellalabad, where Sale and his little army were holding their own. When they were within sixteen miles of Jellalabad the number was reduced to six. Of these six fix^e were killed by straggling marauders on the way. One man alone Sale's determination was clear and simple. 'I pro- pose to hold this place on the part of Govern- ment until I receive its order to the contrary ' This resolve of Sale's was really the turning point of the history. Sale held Jellalabad; Nott was at Candahar. Akbar Khan besie.:ed Jellalabad. Nature seemed to have declared herself emphat- ically on his side, for a succession of earthquake shocks shattered the walls of the place, and pro- duced more terrible destruction than the most formidable guns of modern warfare could have done. But the garrison held out fearlessly ; they restored the parapets, re-established every battery, retrenched the whole of the gates and built up all the breaches. They resisted every attempt of Akbar Khan to advance upon their works, and at length, when it became certain that General Pollock was forcing the Khyber Pass to come to their relief, they determined to attack Akbar Khan's army; they issued boldly out of their forts, forced a battle on the Afghan chief, and completely defeated him. Before Pollock, having gallantly fought his way through the Khyber Pass, had reached Jellalabad [.April 16] the beleaguer- ing army had been entirely defeated and dis- persed. . . . Meanwhile the unfortunate Shah Soo- jah, whom we had restored with so much pomp 80 AFGHANISTAN, 1842-1869 AFGHANISTAN, 1869-1881 of announcement to the throne of his ancestors, was dead. He was assassinated in Cabul, soon after the departure of the British, . . . and his body, stripped of its royal robes and its many jewels, was flunf; into a ditch." — J. McCarthy, History of our own times, v. i, cli. ii. Also in: J. W. Kaye, History of the war in Afghanistan. — G. R. Gleig, Sale's Brigade in Afghanistan. — Lady Sale, Journal of the disasters in Afghanistan.— Mohan Lai, Life of Dost Mo- hammed, eh. 15-18 (v. 2). 1842-1869. — British return to Cabul. — Restora- tion of Dost Mahommed. — It was not till Septem- ber that General Pollock "could obtain permis- sion from the Governor-General, Lord Ellenbor- ough, to advance against Cabul, though both he and Nott were burning to do so. When Pollock did advance, he found the enemy posted at Jug- duUuck, the scene of the massacre. 'Here,' says one writer, 'the skeletons lay so thick that they had to be cleared away to allow the guns to pass. The savage grandeur of the scene rendered it a fitting place for the deed of blood which had been enacted under its horrid shade, never yet pierced in some places by sunlight. The road was strewn for two miles with mouldering skeletons like a charnel house.' Now the enemy found they had to deal with other men, under other leaders, for, putting their whole energy into the work, the British troops scaled the heights and steep as- cents, and defeated the enemy in their strongholds on all sides. After one more severe fight with Akbar Khan, and all the force he could collect, the enemy were beaten, and driven from their mountains, and the force marched quietly into Cabul. Nott, on his side, started from Candahar on the 7th of .\ugust, and, after fighting several small battles with the enemy, he captured Ghuzni, where Palmer and his garrison had been destroyed. From Ghuzni General Nott brought away, by command of Lord Elienborough, the gates of Somnauth [said to have been taken from the Hindu temple of Somnauth by Mahmoud of Ghazni. the first Mohammedan invader of India, in 1024], which formed the subject of the cele- brated 'Proclamation of the Gates,' as it was called. . . . These celebrated gates, which are be- lieved to be imitations of the original gates, are now lying neglected and worm-eaten, in the back part of a small museum at Agra. But to return. General Nott, having captured Ghuzni and de- feated Sultan Jan, pushed on to Cabul, where he arrived on the 17th of September, and met Pol- lock. The English prisoners (amongst whom were Brigadier Sheltnn and Lady Sale), who had been captured at the time of the massacre, were brought, or found their own way, to General Pol- lock's camp. General Elphinstone had died during his captivity. It was not now considered neces- sary to take any further steps; the bazaar in Cabul was destroyed, and on the 12th of October Pol- lock and Nott turned their faces southwards, and began their march into India by the Khyber route. The Afghans in captivity were sent back, and the Governor-General received the troops at Feroze- poor. Thus ended the Afghan war of 1838-42. . . . The war being over, we withdrew our forces into India, leaving the son of Shah Soojah, Fathi Jung, who had escaped from Cabul when his father was murdered, as king of the country, a position that he was unable to maintain long, being very shortly afterwards assassinated. In 1842 Dost Mahomed, the ruler whom we had de- posed, and who had been living at our expense in India, returned to Cabul and resumed his former position as king of the country, still bearing ill- 81 will towards us, which he showed on several oc- casions, notably during the Sikh war, when he sent a body of his horsemen to fight for the Sikhs, and he himself marched an army through the Khyber to Peshawur to assist our enemies. However, the occupation of the Punjab forced upon Dost Mahomed the necessity of being on friendly terms with his powerful neighbour; he therefore concluded a friendly treaty with us in 1854, hoping thereby that our power would be used to prevent the intrigues of Persia against his kingdom. This hope was shortly after realized, for in 1856 we declared war against Persia, an event which was greatly to the advantage of Dost Mahomed, as it prevented Persian encroachments upon his territory. This war lasted but a short time, for early in 1857 an agreement was signed between England and Persia, by which the latter renounced all claims over Herat and Afghanistan. Herat, however, still remained independent of Afghanistan, until 1863, when Dost Mahomed at- tacked and took the town, thus uniting the whole kingdom, including Candahar and Afghan Turke- stan, under his rule. This was almost the last act of the Ameers life, for a few days after tak- ing Herat he died. By his will he directed that Shere Ali, one of his sons, should succeed him as Ameer of Afghanistan. The new Ameer imme- diately wrote to the Governor-General of India, Lord Elgin, in a friendly tone, asking that his succession might be acknowledged. Lord Elgin, however, as the commencement of the Liberal policy of 'masterly inactivity' neglected to answer the letter, a neglect which cannot but be deeply regretted, as Shere Ali was at all events the de facto ruler of the country, and even had he been beaten by any other rival for the throne, it would have been time enough to acknowledge that rival as soon as he was really ruler of the country. When six months later a cold acknowledgement of the letter was given by Sir William Denison, and when a rcciuest that the Ameer made for 6,000 muskets had been refused by Lord Lawrence, the Ameer concluded that the disposition of England towards him was not that of a friend; particu- larly as, when later on, two of his brothers re- volted against him, each of them was told by the Government that he would be acknowledged for that part of the countrj- which he brought under his power. However, after various changes in fortune, in i86q Shere Ali finally defeated his two brothers Afzool and Azim, together with Afzool's son, Abdurrahman." — P. F. Walker, Afghanistan, PP- 45-Si- Also in: J. W. Kaye, History of the war in Afghanistan. — G. B. Malleson, History of .ifghan- islan, eh. il. 1869-1881. — Second war with the English and its causes. — The period of disturbance in Afghan- istan, during the struggle of Shere Ali with his brothers, coincided with the vice royalty of Lord Lawrence in India. The policy of Lord Lawrence, "sometimes slightingly spoken of as masterly in- activity, consisted in holding entirely aloof from the dynastic quarrels of the Afghans . . . and in attempting to cultivate the friendship of the Ameer by gifts of money and arms, while carefully avoid- ing topics of offence. . . . Lord Lawrence was himself unable to meet the Ameer, but his suc- cessor. Lord Mayo, had an interview with him at Umballah in i86q. . . . Lord Mayo adhered to the policy of his predecessor. He refused to enter into any close alliance, he refused to pledge him- self to support any dynasty. But on the other hand he promised that he would not press for the admission of any English officers as Residents AFGHANISTAN, 1869-1881 AFGHANISTAN, 1869-1881 in Afghanistan. The return expected by England for this attitude of friendly non-interference was that every other foreign state, and especially Rus- sia, should be forbidden to mix either directly or indirectly with the affairs of the country in which our interests were so closely involved. . . . But a different view was held by another school of In- dian politicians, and was supported by men of such eminence as Sir Bartle Frere and Sir Henry Rawlinson, Their view was known as the Sindh Policy as contrasted with that of the Punjab. It appeared to theni desirable that English agents should be established at Quetta, Candahar, and Herat, if not at Cabul itself, to keep the Indian Government completely informed of the affairs of Afghanistan and to maintain English influence in the country. In 1874, upon the accession of the Conservative Ministry, Sir Bartle Frere pro- duced a memorandum in which this policy was ably maintained. ... A \ iceroy whose views were more in accordance with those of the Govern- ment, and who was likely to be a more ready in- strument in lits] hands, was found in Lord Lyt- ton, who went to India intrusted with the duty of giving effect to the new policy. He was instructed ... to continue payments of money, to recog- nise the permanence of the e.xisting dynasty, and to give a pledge of material support in case of unprovoked foreign aggression, but to insist on the acceptance of an English Resident at certain places in Afghanistan in exchange for these ad- vantages. . . . Lord Lawrence and those who thought with him in England prophesied from the first the disastrous results which would arise from the alienation of the Afghans. . . . The suggestion of Lord Lytton that an English Commission should go to Cabul to discuss matters of common inter- est to the two Governments, was calculated . . . to excite feelings already somewhat unfriendly to England. He (Sherc .\\i] rejected the mission, and formulated his grievances. . . . Lord Lytton waived for a time the despatch of the mission, and consented to a meeting between the Minister of the Ameer and Sir Lewis Pelly at Peshawur. . . . The English Commissioner was instructed to de- clare that the one indispensable condition of the Treaty was the admission of an English represen- tative within the limits of .Afghanistan. The al- most piteous request on the part of the Afghans for the relaxation of this demand proved unavail- ing, and the sudden death of the Ameer's envoy formed a good excuse for breaking off the nego- tiation. Lord Lytton treated the .\meer as in- corrigible, gave him to understand that the Eng- lish would proceed to secure their frontier without further reference to him. and withdrew his native agent from Cabul While the relations between the two countries were in this uncomfortable con- dition, information reached India that a Russian mission had been received at Cabul. It was just at this time that the action of the Home Govern- ment seemed to be tending rapidly towards a war with Russia. ... As the despatch of a mission from Russia was contrary to the engagements of that country, and its reception under existing cir- cumstances wore an unfriendly aspect. Lord Lyt- ton saw his way with some plausible justification to demand the reception at Cabul of an English embassy. He notified his intention to ' s, recognizing a right of preemp- tion on the part of the latter, with regard to the Congo State, in case Belgium should at any time renounce the sovereignty which King Leopold transferred to it. 1895. — Several Bechuana chiefs visited England to urge that their country should not be absorbed by Cape Colony or the British South .\frica com- pany. An agreement was made with them which reserved certain territories to each, but yielded the remainder to the administration of the British South .Africa company. 1895. — The territories previously administered by the Imperial British East Africa company (except- ing the Uganda protectorate, which had been trans- ferred in 1804) were finally transferred to the British government on July i. At the same time, the dominion of the sultan of Zanzibar on the mainland came under the administrative control of the British consul-general at Zanzibar. 1895. — Proceedings for the annexation of British Bechuanaland to Cape Colony were adopted by the Cape parliament in August. 1895. — In June, M. Chaudie was appointed gov- ernor-general of French West Africa, his jurisdic- tion extending over Senegal, the Sudan possessions of France, French Guinea, Dahomey, and other French possessions in the gulf of Benin. 1895. — A resolution making overtures for a fed- eral union with the Transvaal was passed by the Volksraad of the Orange Free State in June. 1895. — By a proclamation in February, the Transvaal government assumed the administration of Swaziland and installed King Buna as para- mount chief. 1895. — A strip of territory west of Amatonga- land, along the Pondoland river to the Maputa was formally added to Zululand in May, the South .African republic protesting. 1895-1896. — The Portuguese were involved in war with Gungunhana, king of Gazaland, which lasted from September, 1805, until the following spring, when Gungunhana was captured and car- ried a prisoner, with his wives and son, to Lisbon. 1895-1897.— Creation of British East Africa. See British East Africa: 1805-1897. 1896. — British protectorate over Sierra Leone; hut tax; insurrection of natives. See Sierra Leone: 1896. 1896. — On the sudden death (supposed to be from poison) of the sultan of Zanzibar, .August 25, his cousin. Said Khalid, seized the palace and proclaimed himself sultan. Zanzibar being an acknowledged protectorate of Great Britain, the usurper was summoned by the British consul to surrender. He refused, and the palace was bom- barded by war vessels in the harbor, with such effect that the palace was speedily destroyed and about 500 of its inmates killed. Khalid fled to the German consul, who protected him and had him conveyed to German territory. A new sultan. Said Hamud-bin-Mahomed, was at once pro- claimed. 1897. — The Congo troops of an expedition led by Baron Dhanis mutinied and murdered a num- ber of Belgian officers. Subsequently they were attacked in the neighborhood of lake .Albert Ed- ward Nyanza and mostly destroyed. 1897. — By a convention concluded in July be- tween Germany and France, the boundary between German possessions in Togoland and those of France in Dahomey and the Sudan was defined. 1897. — In January and February, the forces of the Royal Niger company successfully invaded the strong Fula states of Nupe and Ilorin, from which slave raiding in the territor*' under British pro- tection was carried on. Bida, the Nupe capital, was entered on January 27, after a battle in which 800 Hausa troops, led by European officers, and using heavy artillery, drove from the field an army of cavalry and foot estimated at 30,000 in num- ber. The emir of Nupe was deposed, another set up in his place, and a treaty signed which es- tablished British rule. The emir of Ilorin sub- mitted after his town had been bombarded, and bowed himself to British authority in his govern- ment. .At the <;ame time, a treaty settled the Lagos frontier. Later in the year, the stronghold at Kifti of another slave-raider, Arku, was stormed and burned TOO AFRICA, lf)TH CENTURY European Possessions AFRICA, 19T11 CENTURY 1897. — Under pressure from the British govern- ment, the sultan of Zanzibar issued a decree, on April 6, i8g7, terminating the legal status of slav- ery, with compensation to be awarded on proof of consequent loss. 1897. — By act of the Natal parliament in De- cember, i8q7, Zululand (with Amatongaland al- ready joined to it) was annexed to Natal Colony, and Dinizulu, son of the last Zulu king, was brought from captivity in St. Helena and rein- stated. 1899-1902.— Boer War. 1901. — British control over Somaliland. See British East .'\frica: iqoo-iqoi. 1904. — Anglo-French agreement concerning Egypt and Morocco. 1905. — Railroads. See Cape to Cairo railway. 1906. — Algeciras conference. 1909. — Establishment of the Union of South Africa. See Sou"th Africa, Union of. 1911. — Franco-German agreement concerning Morocco. 1911. — Accjuisition of part of French Congo. See Germany: igii: Acquisition of part of French Congo. 1911. — Italian occupation of Tripoli. See Italy: IQII. 1913. — German colonies. — Anglo-German agree- ments. See World War: Diplomatic background: 71, xii. 1918. — Campaigns in East Africa during World War. See World War: igiS: VII. East African theater: a. 1919. — Repartition of Africa in consequence of the World War. Nationalist movements in Egypt and Union of South Africa. See Egypt: igig; and South Africa, Union or: igig. 1920. — Organization of German East Africa un- der British rule. See Tanganyika territory. 1921. — British East Africa re-named Kenya ter- ritory (q. v.) Cape-to-Cairo aerial mail route es- tablished. See Aviation: 1021. Early 19th century: European possessions In Africa. — In the year 1815 "the eleven and one- half million square miles of Africa formed no part of the great world settlement after the Napoleonic wars. The European State had scarcely pene- trated anywhere into the Continent. On the whole northern coast Europe had no footing at all, for Turkey is not a part of Europe. The whole of the west coast was 'independent' except for the following minute European claims or encroach- ments: I, France possessed the Senegal coast from Cape Blanco to the Gambia, but had nowhere penetrated inland except for a short distance along the Senegal River; 2, Britain had possession of small patches of territory on the Gambia, and the Gold Coast and in Sierra Leone; 3, Portugal claimed territory stretching from what is now the southern boundary of French Congo down to Cape Frio, but she actually occupied only a few places on the coast in what is now Angola. She also possessed the Cape Verde Islands and a small extent of territory in Portuguese Guinea ; 4, Spain held Fernando Po, and Denmark and Holland a few stations on the coast. "In the whole of the rest of Africa there were only two places where the European State had set foot. In the south Britain occupied 120,000 square miles of territory in her Cape Colony, and on the east coast Portugal had an undefined claim to a strip of the coast between Lourenqo Marques and Cape Delgado. Thus in 1815 Europe's claims to African territory amounted to considerably less than 500,000 square miles. . . . But we must re- turn to the period 1815-80. The increase in the territory dominated by the European State was due entirely to the French conquest of Algeria in the north, and to the extension of the British colony in the south. There was no change upon the western and eastern coasts of Africa." — L. Woolf, Empire and commerce in Ajrica, pp. 55-Sg. Later 19th century: Partitioning of Africa among European powers. — "For centuries, col- onisation in Africa was confined to the coast. Though the Portuguese traversed the continent from Angola and Mozambique, their occupation of the interior was never effective, and even on the coast their claims were ill-defined. Africa possessed few attractions. It had been drawn into the life of Europe only because it offered har- bours on the route to India, a source of supply for the rough labour needed in tropical colonies, and a scanty trade in such commodities as palm- oil and gold-dust. During the middle years of the nineteenth century, France was active and ambi- tious in Africa. She established her power in Al- geria, and, extending her influence also along the Senegal to the source of the Niger, planned the union of these dependencies in a great West Afri- can empire. In South Africa England had strong colonies; but, with a dominion vaster than public sentiment approved, she refused to extend her dominion northwards where Dutch exiles were planting new States. In her West African settle- ments she took little interest. . . . Gambia, Sierra Leone, the Gold Coast, and Lagos, which was acquired in 1861, formed the group; from all of which, save Sierra Leone, England trusted ulti- mately to withdraw. But destiny was too strong for her. First the Danes (1850), and then the Dutch (1871), handed over their forts, and thus left her for the time the only Power established on the historic Guinea coast. As the trade in tropical commodities increased, the English de- veloped commercial interests on the Niger mouth, in the Cameroons, and in Zanzibar, which in- terests German merchants came to share. [See also British empire: Expansion: igth century: Africa.] "Meanwhile, a generation of great explorers was opening the way for the rapid occupation of Af- rica. When Livingstone died in 1873, the chief problems of African geography were near to their solution. Stanley, De Brazza, Thomson, and other bold travellers, completed the work. The courses of the Niger, the Nile, and the Congo were made known, and the commercial value of the interior regions of a neglected continent was revealed. Signs of a new period dawning followed each other quickly. The English changed their policy in South Africa; the French increased their ac- tivity in West Africa. In i87g. King Leopold of Belgium formed the Brussels International Asso- ciation for the exploration of Central Africa. This body divided itself into national committees, of which the Belgian concentrated itself on the Congo and prepared the way for the Congo State. In 1882 England commenced that fateful inter- vention in Egypt which led on to a protectorate, to the conquest of the Egyptian Sudan, and the control of the upper waters of the Nile. Most significant of all was the entrance of Germany into the colonial field. ... In 1878 the German African Society, and in 1882 the German Colonial Society, were formed. The arguments of mer- chants with substantial interests in Africa, the commercial needs of a great empire, the course of events in Africa, at last convinced Bismarck that the time had come for action. In Damara- land and N'amaqualand German missionaries had taught, and German merchants traded, for forty lOI AFRICA, lO.'.Il CliNTUKT European Possessions AFRICA, I'Jl'H CENTURY years; and, since Great Britain hesitated to under- take the responsibihties of government outside of Walfisch Bay, a German protectorate was in 18S4 proclaimed over the remainder of the coast. To- goland and the Cameroons also were immediately afterwards annexed; and Great Britain, thus antic- ipated in several quarters, now hastened to ex- tend her sovereignty over the mouths of the Niger and the Oil rivers. It was in these circumstances that in 1SS4 an international Conference assembled at Berlin to con.sider certain African questions. The main interest was concentrated on the Congo. The State which King Leopold had created re- ceived recognition, and the Congo basin was de- clared open to the trade and navigation of all nations. All the Powers concerned bound them- selves to suppress the slave trade. They declared occupation of territory to be valid only when effective, and they defined a 'sphere of influence' as an area within which some one Power possessed a priority of claim. This preliminary agreement facilitated very much the peaceful settlement of the subsequent territorial controversies. "Africa is not divided into very clearly marked geographical areas, but the problems of partition have had certain defniite centres and are capable of being grouped. West Africa, the western Sudan, and the Niger basin formed one sphere of opera- tions; the Congo Basin another; the upper Nile and the region of the great lakes a third; Africa south of the Congo and the lakes a fourth. Out- side of these there remain Morocco, the Mediter- ranean littoral, Abyssinia, Somaliland, and the surrounding islands." — Cambridge modern history, V. 12, pp. 257-25g. — See also Slavery: Negro; South Africa, Union or; Sudan. West Africa, western Sudan and Niger basin. — "In West Africa, the French, extending along the Senegal to the upper waters of the Niger, broke the power of the independent native states, once part of a great Moslem empire in Central .■\frira which barred the way, and in 1S81 estab- lished a protectorate over the left bank of the upper Niger. They occupied points on the coast between the existing settlements of the English and Portuguese, which they linked up with their acquisitions in the interior. They overthrew the kingdom of Dahomey in 1892-4, and in 1803 en- tered Timbuktu. Tlius, by their earlier and su- perior energy, they secured the upper Niger and much of the country within its great bend; while closing the door on the expansion of the English and Portuguese settlements, whose natural hin- terland this would have been. On the lower Niger the course of events was different. The English merchants established there united in 1879 to form a single company, which, after a severe struggle, defeated and bought out a rivah French institution. By Treaties with the Sultans of Sokoto and Gando (1885), it secured access to the Benuo and Lake Chad, which the Germans, operating from the Cameroons, were preparing to close. In 1886 it received a charter of incorporation as the Royal Niger Company, and untlertook the task of pene- trating and administering an immense country. A triple contest had now begun for the trade of the central Sudan. The French from the west, the English up the Niger and Benuc, the Germans from the Cameroons, all pressed towards Lake Chad, where they met, and, by a series of agree- ments between i886 and igo6, divided their spheres of influence. England left to Germany the area between the Cameroons and British East Africa, which Germany divided with Fraace, re- signing to her the territory east of the Shari and making her England's neighbour in Darfur and Bahr-el-Gazal. France (hus gained the oppor- tunity of extending her North African empire to the Nile and the Congo; but, while she linked up the French Congo with her other possessions, her advance to the Nile was frustrated by the simul- taneous approach of the English southwards from Egypt. "Thus has North-western Africa been divided up [1919]. In the northern corner lies the un- tamed empire of Morocco whose trade and sea- ports have proved a dangerous cause of dispute amongst the Powers. Then Spain holds Tiris, and the English the river Gambia, though its trade is now largely in French hands; while, between Cape Roxo and the river Cajet, Portugal retains a last foothold on the coast which her navigators first explored. Save for these two places, the French hold all the coast from Cape Blanco to the English colony of Sierra Leone, now an important commercial emporium through which much trade with the interior passes. Liberia, a Negro republic, adjoins it, while on the historic Ivory Coast the French again are established. The Gold Coast retains its ancient name, though it has added a considerable hinterland. It still yields gold with other more valuable products, but suffers from want of means of communication. In Togoland, as in the Cameroons, the Germans have made con- siderable progress. To the east lies the territory subjugaterl by the French in 1892-4, and east of that the colony of Lagos, now included in Nigeria. In iQoo, the Royal Niger Company, after con- quering the Sultan of Nupe in 1897, surrendered its political privileges to the Crown; and the vast areas which it had governed, together with Lagos and the Oil rivers, were formed into the two pro- tectorates of Northern and Southern Nigeria. Shortlived as it was, it takes a place amongst the great commercial companies which have extended and upheld imperial as well as trading interests in distant and difficult lands, in the face of severe rivalries and great financial difficulties. Envelop- ing Nigeria and the Cameroons as well as the older and smaller settlements, and stretching from the Mediterranean in the north and the Atlantic in the west to Darfur and the Congo east and south, sweeps the great dominion of the French, to whom has fallen the interior, immense in area though often of little value. In igo2, it was divided into five administrative territories, with a Governor-General resident at Dakar." — Cam- bridge modern history, v. 12. Upper Nile and region of tue great lakes. — "Between the Portuguese settlement of Mozam- bique in the south and Somaliland in the north, the Sultan of Zanzibar ruled, having control of the coast and vague claims over the interior. The commerce of his kingdom was largely in the hands of English and Indian merchants, and its administration was in 1878, and again in 1881, offered to the British Government. In the par- tition of Africa, his territories have been divided between England and Germany. Though England and France had agreed in 1862 to recognise the in- dependence of Zanzibar, German emissaries in 1884, taking advantage of the weakness of the Sultan's position in the interior, negotiated trea- ties with some of the inland tribes, and, in 1885, a German East Africa Company was formed to develop the territop.- thus acquired. About the same time a British East Africa Company was formed, and the two associations were soon in competition. An Anglo-German agreement in 1886 made the first delimitation of their respective spheres, and confined the Sultan's territory to a narrow strip of coast ... on parts of which both 102 AFRICA, 1884-1899 European Agreements AFRICA, 1884-1899 Powers speedily obtained leases, lasting for two years (1888-9)." The result was the supersession of the company by the Imperial German Gov- ernment and the purchase from the sultan of the leased territory (1890). "The claims which the Germans had acquired on various parts of the coast and in the interior placed them in a posi- tion to circumvent the English on the north and west, and to gain access to the upper Nile. ' By an important agreement in iSgo, which settled many difficulties, their sphere was more expressly delimited. They surrendered their claims on the coast between VVitu and the river Jub. The northern boundary of their territory was carried from the Victoria Nyanza to the Congo State, excluding them from the upper Nile ; and a Hne was drawn on the south from Lake Nyasa to Lake Tanganyika dividing their possessions from British Central Africa. The British Government declared a protectorate over the islands of Pemba and Zanzibar, and the dominions of the Sultan were thus finally partitioned. While Germany thus withdrew from the contest for the upper Nile, France and the Congo State remained as rivals of Great Britain. In 1890, the British East Africa Company, which had received a charter in 1888, asserted its authority in Uganda — a country di- vided at the time by fierce feuds of a mixed re- ligious and political character. The resources of the Company proved unequal to the task, and two years later it withdrew; but its action resulted in the proclamation of a British protectorate in 1894. In the following year, the Company, which had remained in control of the coast, sold its assets to the State, and the British East Africa Protectorate was formed. To this Company the British owe their position in East Africa, for, though it never prospered, it carried British in- fluence into the interior, and, when it failed, stronger hands took up its work. England thus secured her position on the upper Nile, and, by leasing the Lado enclave to King Leopold, en- abled him also to attain an end which he had sought since 1SS4. But the arrangement which had been made by the two Powers in 1S94 — that King Leopold should have the Bahr-el-Gazal basin and Great Britain a strip of territory be- tween the Albert Nyanza and Tanganyika, link- ing up her East and Central African possessions — was rescinded, in consequence of the opposition of France and Germany. The attempt of the French to reach the Nile at Fashoda was foiled by the English conquest of the Sudan (1898). Experience has shown that East Africa is of more commercial value than Uganda, and, owing to its altitude, capable in part of European settlement. In 189S, the construction of a railway was begun from Mombasa to the Victoria Nyanza, which it reached in 1902. The possession of Uganda is of great political importance, since it both secures the command of the upper Nile and offers to the spread of Islamic movements the barrier of a Christian native State." — Cambridge modern his- tory, V. 12. Congo basin. — "In the Congo basin, an inter- national . . . undertaking issued in the formation of an independent State, which, in the process of time, has become a Belgian dependency. The labours of English and American explorers pre- pared the way for its foundation ; but the State itself was organised by King Leopold, who?e posi- tion as its sovereign was recognised by the Berlin Conference and the Great Powers. By successful war and more successful diplomacy, he enlarged its territories and raised its status. . . . The Congo State was in 1908 transferred to Belgium, and its rulers have thus become responsible to the public opinion of a nation." — Cambridge modern history, V. 12. Southern Africa. — "Africa south of the Congo State and the great lakes has been divided be- tween the Portuguese operating from their his- toric settlements, the English advancing north- wards from Cape Colony, and the Germans. The ambition which the Portuguese cnerished to unite Angola and Mozambique in a transcontinental do- minion was frustrated by the activity of the Eng- lish in Central Africa. Since 1878, English mis- sionaries and traders had established interests in the region between Lakes Nyassa, Tanganyika, and Bangweolo. This region the Portuguese en- deavored to secure, and an important expedition was dispatched under Major Serpa Pinto to extend their claims in the Zambesi basin (1889). In 1S91, an Anglo-Portuguese agreement divided the disputed territory. Mashonaland was secured to the British South Africa Company, and a British protectorate was formed in Central Africa, a large part of which was in 1894 added to the Com- pany's sphere of operations. The share which Portugal has thus obtained in the partition of Africa, though not commensurate with her his- torical place in its occupation, has been more than commensurate with her capacity to develop its resources. . . . The Anglo-German agreements of 1885 and 1890, and a German-Portuguese agree- ment in 1 886, fixed its boundaries, bringing it at one point to the Zambesi. But the colony has proved expensive and disappointing. Namaqualand is dry and barren, though Damaraland is capable of development and, possibly, of European settle- ment. In 1904 a serious revolt of the Hottentots and Hereros arrested their progress, and has only recently been suppressed." — Cambridge modern his- tory, V. 12. Eastern area. — "In the eastern horn of Africa Italy marked out for herself a sphere of expan- sion. Occupying first the bay of Assab in 1870, she secured her hold in 18S2, and extended her influence along the Red Sea coast to Obok, where the French had established themselves in 1862. The dependency of Eretrea thus created proved expensive; but the Italians intended to use it as a base from which to penetrate Abyssinia. That mountain kingdom lay aloof and independent. In 1868 it had been involved in war with England. When the proud warrior king, Theodore, offended by the action of the British Government, threw the British consul and other European residents into prison, Abyssinia was invaded and Magdala stormed; but no lasting intervention followed. Italy was less happy. Near Adowah, in 1896, her forces suffered a disastrous defeat and her inten- tion was foiled. Meanwhile, on the other side of the horn she established a protectorate over a large part of Somaliland, where she found a rival in Great Britain, with whom the country was divided. The prosperity of British Somali- land was disturbed by a destructive war, which broke out in zqoi"— Cambridge modern history, I, 12. — For European occupation of the Mediter- ranean area, see Morocco; Algeria; Tunis; Libya; Egypt. 1884-1899. — Agreements among European powers on the partitioning of the interior. — "The partition of .\irica may be said to date from the Beriin Conference of 1884-85. Prior to that Conference the question of inland boundaries was scarcely considered. . . . The founding of the Congo Independent State was probably the most important result of the Conference. . . . Two months after the Conference had concluded its 103 AFRICA, 1884-1899 European Agreements AFRICA, 1884-1899 labours, Great Britain and Germany had a serious dispute in regard to their respective spheres of in- fluence on the Gulf of Guinea. . . . The com- promise . . . arrived at placed the Mission Sta- tion of Victoria within the German sphere of in- fluence." The frontier between the two spheres of ijifluence on the Bight of Biafra was subse- quently defined by a line drawn, in iS86, from the coast to Yola, on the Benue. The Royal Niger Company, constituted by a royal charter, "was given administrative powers over territories cov- ered by its treaties. The regions thereby placed under British protection . . . apart from the Oil Rivers District, which is directly administered by the Crown, embrace the coastal lands between Lagos and the northern frontier of Camarons, the Lower Niger (including territories of Sokoto, Gandu and Borgo), and the Benue from Yola to its confluence." By a protocol signed December 24, 1S85, Germany and France "defined their re- spective spheres of influence and action on the Bight of Biafra, and also on the Slave Coast and in Senegambia." This "fi.xed the inland exten- sion of the German sphere of influence (Camarons) at is° E. longitude, Greenwich. ... At present it allows the French Congo territories to expand along the western bank of the M'bangi . . . pro- vided no other tributary of the M'bangi-Congo is found to the west, in which case, according to the Berlin Treaty of 1884-85, the conventional basin of the Congo would gain an extension." On May 12, 1880, France and Portugal signed a convention by which France "secured the ex- clusive control of both banks of the Casaraanza (in Senegambia), and the Portuguese frontier in the south was advanced approximately to the southern limit of the basin of the Casini. On the Congo, Portugal retained the Massabi district, to which France had laid claim, but both banks of the Loango were left to France." In 1884 three representatives of the Society for German Coloni- zation — Dr. Peters, Dr. Jiihlke, and Count Pfeil — quietly concluded treaties with the chiefs of Use- guha, Ukami, Nguru, and Usagara, by which those territories were conveyed to the society in ques- tion. "Dr. Peters . . . armed with his treaties, returned to Berlin in February, 1885. On the 27th February, the day following the signature of the General Act of the Berlin Conference [See Berlin .^ct], an Imperial Schutzbrief, or Charter of Protection, secured to the Society for German Colonization the territories . . . acquired for them through Dr. Peters' treaties: in other words, a German Protectorate was proclaimed. When it became known that Germany had seized upon the Zanzibar mainland, the indignation in colonial circles knew no bounds. . . . Prior to 1S84, the continental lands facinc Zanzibar were almost ex- clusively under British influence. The principal traders were British subjects, and the Sultan's Gov- ernment was administered under the advice of the British Resident. The entire region between the Coast and the Lakes was regarded as being under the nominal suzerainty of the Sultan. . . . Still, Great Britain had no territorial claims on the dominions of the Sultan." The sultan formally protested and Great Britain championed his cause; but to no effect. In the end the sultan of Zan- zibar yielded the German protectorate over the four inland provinces and over Witu, and the British and German Governments arranged ques- tions between them, provisionally, by the .■\nglo- German Convention of 1886, which was after- wards superseded by the more definite Convention of July 1800, which will be spoken of below. In April 1887, the rights of the Society for Ger- man Colonization were transferred to the Ger- man East Africa Association, with Dr. Peters at its head. The British East Africa Company took over concessions that had been granted by the sultan of Zanzibar to Sir WiUiam Mackinnon, and received a royal charter in September 1888. In South-west .Africa, "an enterprising Bremen merchant, Herr Liideritz, and subsequently the German Consul-General, Dr. Nachtigal, concluded a series of political and commercial treaties with native chiefs, whereby a claim was instituted over Angra Pequeiia, and over vast districts in the In- terior between the Orange River and Cape Frio. ' ... It was useless for the Cape colonists to pro- test. On the 13th October 1884 Germany for- mally notified to the Powers her Protectorate over South-VVest Africa. ... On 3rd August 1885 the German Colonial Company for South-West Africa was founded, and . . . received the Imperial sanc- tion for its incorporation. But in August 1886 a new Association was formed — the German West- Africa Company — and the administration of its territories was placed under an Imperial Commis- sioner. . . . The intrusion of Germany into South- west Africa acted as a check upon, no less than a spur to, the extension of British influence north- wards to the Zambezi. Another obstacle to this extension arose from the Boer insurrection." The Transvaal, with increased independence had adopted the title of South African Republic. "Zulu-land, having lost its independence, was par- titioned; a third of its territories, over which a republic had been proclaimed, was absorbed (Oc- tober 1SS7) by the Transvaal; the remainder was added (14th May 1887) to the British possessions Amatonga-land was in 1888 also taken under British protection. By a convention with the South African republic, Britain acquired in 1884 the Crown colony of Bechuana-land; and in the early part of 1885 a British Protectorate was pro- claimed over the remaining portion of Bechuana- land." Furthermore, "a British Protectorate was instituted [1885] over the country bounded by the Zambezi in the north, the British possessions in the south, 'the Portuguese province of Sofala' in the east, and the 20th degree of east longitude in the west. It was at this juncture that Mr. Cecil Rhodes came forward, and, having obtained cer- tain concessions from Lobengula, founded the British South Africa Company. ... On the 2Qth October i8Sg, the British South Africa Company was granted a royal charter. It was declared in this charter that 'the principal field of the opera- tions of the British South African Company shall be the region of South Africa lying immediately to the north of British Bechuanaland, and to the north and west of the South African Republic, and to the west Of the Portuguese dominions.' " No northern limit was given, and the other bound- aries were vaguely defined. The position of Swaziland was definitely settled in 1800 by an arrangement between Great Britain and the South African repubUc, which provides for the continued independence of Swaziland and a joint control over the white settlers. .\ British Protectorate was proclaimed over Nyasa-land and the Shire High- lands in i88g-QO. To return now to the proceed- ings of other Powers in Africa: "Italy took formal possession, in July 1882, of the bay and territory of Assab. The Italian coast-line on the Red Sea was extended from Ras Kasar (18° 2' N. Lat.) to the southern boundary of Raheita, towards Obok. During i8Sq, shortly after the death of King Johannes, Keren and Asmara were occupied by Italian troops. Menelik of Shoa, who suc- ceeded to the throne of Abyssinia after subjugat- 104 AFRICA, 1884-1899 European Agreements AFRICA, 1884-1899 ing all the Abyssinian provinces, except Tigre, dis- patclied an embassy to King Humbert, the result of which was that the new Negus acknowledged (2gth September, 1889) the Protectorate of Italy over Abyssinia, and its sovereignty over the ter- ritories of Massawa, Keren and Asmara." By the protocols of March 24 and April 15, i8gi, Italy and Great Britain define their respective spheres of influence in East Africa. "But since then Italy has practically withdrawn from her position. She has absolutely no hold over Abyssinia. . . . Italy has also succeeded in establishing herself on the Somal Coast." By treaties concluded in iS8g, "the coastal lands between Cape Warsheikh (about 2° 30' N. lat.), and Cape Bedwin (8 3' N. lat.) — a distance of 450 miles — were placed under Itahan protection. Italy subsequently extended (1890) her Protectorate over the Somal Coast to the Jub river. . . . The British Protectorate on the Somal Coast facing Aden, now extends from the Italian frontier at Ras Hafiin to Ras Jibute (43° 15' E. long.). . . . The activity of France in her Sene- gambian province, . . . during the last hundred years . . . has finally resulted in a considerable expansion of her territory. . . . The French have established a claim over the country intervening between our Gold Coast Colony and Liberia. A more precise delimitation of the frontier between Sierra Leone and Liberia resulted from the treaties signed at Monrovia on the nth November 1887. In 1888 Portugal withdrew all rights over Da- home. . . . Recently, a French sphere of in- fluence has been instituted over the whole of the Saharan regions between Algeria and Senegambia. . . . Declarations were exchanged (sth August 1890) [between France and Great Britain! with the following results: France became a consenting party to the Anglo-German Convention of ist July i8qo. (2) Great Britain recognised a French sphere of influence over Madagascar. . . . And (3) Great Britain recognised the sphere of in- fluence of France to the south of her Mediter- ranean possessions, up to a line from Say on the Niger to Barrua on Lake Tsad, drawn in such a manner as to comprise in the sphere of action of the British Niger Company all that fairly be- longs to the kingdom of Sokoto." The Anglo- German convention of July, 1890, already referred to, established by its main provisions the following definitions of territory: "(i.) The Anglo-German frontier in East Africa, which, by the Convention of 1886, ended at a point on the eastern shore of the Victoria Nyanza was continued on the same latitude across the lake to the confines of the Congo Independent State ; but, on the western side of the lake, this frontier was, if necessary, to be deflected to the south, in order to include Mount M'fumbiro within the British sphere. . . . Treaties in that district were made on behalf of the British East Africa Company by Mr. Stanley, on his return (May i88q) from the relief of Emin Pasha. . . . (2.) The southern boundary of the German sphere of influence in East Africa was recognised as that originally drawn to a point on the eastern shore of Lake Nyassa, whence it was continued by the eastern, northern, and western shores of the lake to the northern bank of the mouth of the River Songwe. From this point the Anglo-German frontier was continued to Lake Tanganika, in such a manner as to leave the Stevenson Road within the British sphere. (3.) The Northern frontier of British East Africa was defined by the Jub River and the conterminous boundary of the Italian sphere of influence in Galla-land and Abyssinia up to the confines of Egypt; in the west, by the Congo State and the Congo-Nile watershed. (4.) Germany withdrew, in favor of Britain, her Protectorate over Vitu and her claims to all territories on the mainland to the north of the River Tana, as also over the islands of Patta and Manda. (5.) In South-West Africa, the Anglo-German frontier, originally fixed up to 22 south latitude, was confirmed; but from this point the boundary-line was drawn in such a manner eastward and northward as to give Ger- many free access to the Zambezi by the Chobe River. (6.) The Anglo-German frontier between Togo and Gold Coast Colony was fixed, and that between the Camarons and the British Niger Ter- ritories was provisionally adjusted. (7.) The Free- trade zone, defined by the Act of Berlin (1885) was recognised as applicable to the present ar- rangement between Britain and Germany. (8.) A British Protectorate was recognised over the do- minions of the Sultan of Zanzibar within the British coastal zone and over the islands of Zan- zibar and Pemba. Britain, however, undertook to use her influence to secure (what have since been acquired) corresponding advantages for Ger- many within the German coastal zone and over the island of Mafia. Finally (9.), the island of Heligoland, in the North Sea, was ceded by Britain to Germany." By a treaty concluded in June, 1891, between Great Britain and Portugal, "Great Britain acquired a broad central sphere of in- fluence for the expansion of her possessions In South Africa northward to and beyond the Zam- bezi, along a path which provides for the unin- terrupted passage of British goods and British enterprise, up to the confines of the Congo Inde- pendent State and German East Africa. . . . Por- tugal, on the East Coast secured the Lower Zam- bezi from Zumbo, and the Lower Shire from the Ruo Confluence, the entire Hinterland of Mosam- bique up to Lake Nyasa and the Hinterland of Sofala to the confines of the South African Re- public and the Matabele kingdom. On the West Coast, Portugal received the entire Hinterland be- hind her provinces in Lower Guinea, up to the confines of the Congo Independent State, and the upper course of the Zambezi. ... On May 25th 1891 a Convention was signed at Lisbon, which has put an end to the dispute between Portugal and the Congo Independent State as to the pos- session of Lunda. Roughly speaking, the coun- try was equally divided between the disputants. . . . Lord Salisbury, in his negotiations with Ger- many and Portugal, very wisely upheld the prin- ciple of free-trade which was laid down by the Act of Berlin, 1885, in regard to the free transit of goods through territories in which two or more powers are indirectly interested. Thus, by the Anglo-German compact, the contracting powers reserved for their respective subjects a 'right of way,' so to speak, along the main channels or routes of communication. Through the applica- tion of the same principle in the recent Anglo- Portuguese Convention, Portugal obtains not only a 'right of way' across the British Zambesi zone, but also the privilege of constructing railways and telegraphs. She thereby secures free and unin- terrupted connection between her possessions on the East Coast and those on the West Coast. A similar concession is made to Britain in the Zam- besi basin, within the Portuguese sphere. Finally, the Zambesi itself has been declared free to the flags of all nations. Britain has stipulated for the right of preemption in the event of Por- tugal wishing to dispose of territories south of the Zambesi."— A. S. White, Development of Africa, 2d. e(f.— See also Delagoa bay arbitra- tion. 105 AFRICA, 1890-1906 Distribution of European Sovereignty AFRICA, 1914 1890-1906. — Agreements among European powers on the regulation of the slave trade and the liquor traffic. — On July 2, 1S90, a convention relative to the .African slave trade was framed at a conference of the representatives of European, .\merican, African, and .\siatic states, at Brussels. The treaty, known as the General .\ct of Brussels, was signed July 2, iSgo, but did not come into force until .^pril 2, 1804. The text of it may be found in (U. S.) House Doc. No. 2-0, sbth Con- gress, 3d Sess. It put an end to the slave trade (See Slavery: 1860-1803) and either forbade en- tirely or greatly restricted traffic in arms or liquors in specified regions. Without interfering with European settlements in the North and South, the .■\ct was designed to protect the native races. In June, iSqo, representatives of the governments of Great Britain, Germany, Belgium, Spain, the Congo State, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Por- tugal, Russia, Sweden and Norway, and Turkey, assembled at Brussels, with due authorization, and there concluded an international convention resf)ecting the liquor traffic in Africa. Subse- quently the governments of Austria-Hungary, the United States of .\merica, Liberia and Persia, gave their adhesion to the convention, and ratifications were deposited at Brussels in June, 1900. The convention was, in a measure, supplemental to the General Act of Brussels. It provided; "Article I. From the coming into force of the present Convention, the import duty on spirituous liquors, as that duty is regulated by the General Act of Brussels, shall be raised throughout the zone where there does not exist the system of total prohibition provided by Article XCI. of the said General Act, to the rate of 70 fr. the hectolitre at 50 degrees centigrade, for a period of six years. It may, ex- ceptionally, be at the rate of 60 fr. only the hectolitre at 50 degrees centigrade in the Colony of Togo and in that of Dahomey. The import duty shall be augmented proportionally for each degree above 50 degrees centigrade ; it may be diminished proportionally for each degree below 50 degrees centigrade. .\t the end of the above- mentioned period of six years, the import duty shall be submitted to revision, taking as a basis the results produced by the preceding rate. The Powers retain the right of maintaining and increas- ing the duty beyond the minimum fixed by the present Article in the regions where they now possess that right. .Article II. In accordance with .Article XCIII. of the General .Kat of Brussels, distilled drinks made in the regions mentioned in Article XCII. of the said General .\ct. and intended for consumption, shall pay an excise duty. This excise duty, the collection of which the Powers undertake to insure as far as possible, shall not be lower than the minimum import duty fixed by Article I. of the present Convention. Article III. It is understood that the Powers who signed the General Act of Brussels, or who have acceded to it, and who are not represented at the present Conference, preserve the right of acceding to the present Convention." — Great Britain, Parliamen- tarv publications {Papers by command: Treaty series, no. 13, iqoo). — A later conference at Brus- sels in iqo6 again increased the duties on liquors, and as we shall see below, the World War settle- ments secured still greater protection for the African native. 1890-1914. — Extension of e.^isting European possessions. — "The period 1800-1014 again shows a change in the nature of Europe's penetration into Africa. On the east and west coasts the claims of po,sterify had been fully pegged out by the different States. The increase in territory ap- propriated was therefore caused by extension of existing possessions on the coast into the hinter- lands. In fact in these regions the States were occupied not in acquiring new possessions, but in rounding off their previous conquests, and in con- verting spheres of interest into full colonial do- minion. .\nd, since in tropical Africa there was nothing left for Europe to do but attempt to di- gest what she had swallowed, those who still had cravings for 'expansion' and for economic imperi- alism had to turn once more to the only remain- ing places where it was possible to expand, the north and the south. Consequently the history of our last period, 1890-1014, reverts to that of our first, 1S15-80, the penetration of France into the north by the acquisition of Tunis and Morocco, and the penetration of the south by Britain through the conquest or absorption of Rhodesia, the Transvaal, and the Orange Free State." — L. Woolf, Empire and commerce in Africa (1915), pp. 58-50. 1914. — Distribution of European sovereignty in Africa. — "The following European Powers pos- sessed sovereign rights in .Africa before the war: — Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, Portugal, Italy, and Spain. In addition, and as the result of the Boer War, the various British Colonies in South Africa had been welded together and formed, with the newly-annexed Boer Republics, a self-governing British Dominion, a State in .\frica controlled by, and in part composed of, men of European blood, but .\frican-born, known as The Union of South Africa, and stretching from Capetown to the Zambesi. The only part of Africa enjoying its own native government was .\byssinia. For although a certain area on the Kru Coast, together with its hinterland, known as Liberia, supposedly constitutes a 'government' . . . and is recognised as an Independent State, its 'government' consists of a few thousand de- scendants of repatriated .American blacks, who en- joy no authority outside the confines of their set- tlements on the coast line. Egypt was virtually, although not then nominally, a British dependency. I give below the African dependencies of the various European government? with their area and population, ... as they existed at the outbreak of the war. BRITISH AFRICA {.\: Controlled by the Colonial Office) .Area in Square Miles Population Nigeria 336,080 1 7,100,000 British East .Africa 246,822 4,038,000 Uganda 121,437 2,803,494 Sierra Leone 31.000 1,400,000 Nyasaland 39,801 i ,000,000 Gold Coast 24.33s 853,766 .Ashanti 24,800 287,814 Northern Territories .... 31.100 361,806 Basutoland 11.716 405.Q1.? Somaliland 68,000 310,000 Gambia 4.S00 146,100 Bechuanaland 275,000 125,35° Swaziland 6.536 9P.«59 (B: Controlled by the British South Africa Company) .Area in Square Miles Population Rhodesia 4.^8.575 i.772,S" 106 AFRICA, IQH (C: Set j -governing Dominion) Distribution of European Sovereignty AFRICA, 1914 Area in Square Miles Population The Union of South Africa comprising the prov- inces of the Cape, Natal, Transvaal, and Oranse Free State 473, loo 5.073.394 To this list must now be added as definiti'ly British: — Area in Square Miles Population Egypt 400,000 11,287,300 The Sudan 984,520 3,000,000 "The total of British Africa covers, therefore (exclusive of German African territory conquered since the war) an area of 3,517,322 square miles with an estimated population of 51,055,407. Of this total population about I'/j millions are Euro- [jeans or half-breeds; and of the i^-j millions, more than i'^ millions reside in the territories of riie South African Union. This leaves 250,000 Europeans for the remainder of the gigantic area affected, and Egypt accounts for more than half of these. It will be well to bear this fact care- fully in mind when, later on, we pass to a con- sideration of the African problem in its funda- mental aspects. FKENCII AFRICA -Area in Square Miles Population Ateeria 343.500 S.563,828 Tunis 50,000 1,780,527 West Africa 1,478,000 10,465,072 French Congo 669,280 9,000,000 Saharan region 1,544,000 800,000 Somali Coast 5. 790 208,000 Madagascar 228,000 3,104,881 Morocco 219,000 5,000,000 "The total of French Africa embracefl, there- fore, before the war an area of 4,537,570 square miles with an estimated population of 35,922,308. -'Mgeria is looked upon as an extension of France. The total European population — chiefly French, AFRICA IN 1914 107 AFRICA, 1914 Summary of Eufopcan Occupation AFRICA, 1914 Italian and Spanish — in igii was 752,043. The census of igii showed a European and mixed European population in Tunis of 126,265, of whom 46,044 were French (exclusive of the army of occupation) ; in Madagascar 12,000, of whom some 10,000 were French; in West Africa 7,104, of whom 6,377 were French. Before the war there were a considerable number of French troops and French colored troops in Morocco, and a few hundred French and other European residents. In 1Q14 the European population of French Af- rica, apart from the white troops in Algeria, Morocco, and Tunis, was slightly in excess of a million. GERMAN AFRICA "When the war broke out Germany possessed three considerable dependencies in .Africa, and one small dependency. These were: Area in Square Miles Population Karaerun (the Came- roons) 281,950 3,720,000 German East .Africa 384,000 7,651,106 German South-Wtst Af- rica 322'.450 94,386 Togo 33,700 1,031,078 ".\ total of 1,022,100 square miles with a popu- lation of 12,497,470. 'The European population, mostly German, numbered under 20,000. BELGIAN AFRICA "In October, 1008, Belgium annexed the Congo Free State founded, under Treaty stipulations, by King Leopold 11 in 1S84-5, and thereby became an .\frican Power. The area of the Belgian Congo is just under one million square miles with a native population enormously reduced from the Stanleyan period. In igoS the British Consular staff, basing its calculations on the taxable returns, estimated the population at some eight millions. There were 4,000 Europeans in the territory, a little over one- half of this number being Belgians. PORTUGUESE AFRICA Area in Square Miles Population Angola (and Kabinda)... 480,000 5,000.000 Portuguese East .Africa... 300.000 3,200,000 Portuguese Guinea 13.Q40 820,000 The Cocoa Islands (San Thome and Principe).. 442 45,ooo ITALIAN AFRICA Area in Square Miles Population Tripoli 406,000 523,176 Italian Somaliland 130,430 400,000 Eritrea 45,800 450,000 SPANISH AFRICA -Area in Square Miles Population Rio de Oro 73,000 12.000 Spanish Guinea 12,000 200,000 Various enclaves north of the Congo and the Is- land of Fernando Po.. 814 23,844 A narrow strip of territory on the Mediterranen coastline of Morocco and a small 'Enclave' on the .Atlantic coast-line of Morocco." — E. D. Morel, Africa and the peace of Europe, pp. 11-15. Summary of European occupation. — "Such, in brief outline, is the process by which Africa has been conquered and partitioned. Africa has been an eas>- prey because of its divisions, its military weakness, and its low civilisations. Though no one of the incoming Powers has established its position without a struggle, only in Morocco and Abyssinia has the native opposition proved really formidable. More serious difficulties have been encountered in the settlement of rival claims. England and Portugal came to the brink of war over Central Africa in 1891, as did England and France over the Sudan in 1898, and France and Germany over Morocco in 1904. The wide field of enterprise which has given scope to the ambi- tions of every colonising Power, a spirit of reason- ableness, and the definite principles previously agreed upon for the decision of doubtful questions, have made it possible hitherto to reach a peace- ful settlement of all disputes. The political di- visions have not been formed according to geo- graphical divisions — no one of the great river basins belongs exclusively to a single Power — but exhibit a strange diversity, being, in each sphere, a resultant of the forces which historic position and, later, energy and foresight, gave to the competing Powers. England owes much to the happy possession of points of access to the interior from south and north, much also to the energy of private persons acting singly or through Compa- nies, and to the far-reaching conceptions of a few great leaders ; as usual, she owes least of any Power to the direct intervention of Government France, too, has expanded her rule from historic settlements, and owes her great dominion to the imagination which outlined, and the steadfastness which pursued, a vast ambition. The pertinacity with which the Germans discovered weak points in existing claims, the swiftness of their action, their unyielding diplomacy, . . . enabled them, while starting without advantages, to secure ex- tensive possessions. [See also Germany; 1906- 1907.] Belgium owes her share to the activity of her late sovereign, who by benevolent profession rescued a mighty domain from the international scramble to transform it into an estate for private gain. The Portuguese hold, much diminished, the heritage bequeathed them from a distant past. . . . The work of conquest and poUtical organiza- tion is too recent for us to estimate its effects on the peoples of .Africa, and that of economic organi- zation is but beginning. One general end the Pow- ers have had in view — the suppression of the slave trade at its sources — now practically achieved after a century of effort. Domestic slavery — an ancient African institution — is a different problem, but it has been discouraged in lands under direct British government. Tribal life continues and is deliberately preserved. The transformation of the native economy has not been attempted. Whether desirable or not, it is beyond the strength of any Government yet established in tropical Africa. Economic development in most cases proceeds but slowly. Governments are poor, for their subject? are poor; and the problem of adapting taxation to the organization of primitive peoples, though varying in difficulty, has nowhere been found easy. The immense task of associating the native in the development of the country on European lines requires so considerable a change in his ideas and life that it may take a long time to carry out, save where it is attempted by methods of 108 AFRICA, 1914-1920 Obstacles: Climate AFRICA, 1914-1920 compulsion which public opinion more and more decisively condemns. Yet, without the aid of the native, the value of these tropical regions to their European conquerors is much diminished. In Europe, the occupation of Africa has increased wealth and trade, and cheapened some of the comforts of life ; what it will mean for Africa can- not yet be judged." — E. A. Bcnians, European colonies {Cambridge modern history, pp. 057-666). 1914-1920. — Obstacles to European occupa- tion. — There are many obstacles to the white race from Europe overrunning and colonizing the conti- nent of Africa as it has overrun and colonized the two .'\mcricas and Australasia. One is the insalu- brity of the well-watered regions and the unin- habitability of the desert tracts, that is, the cli- matic conditions. Another is the opposition of strong indigenous races influenced by successful Moslem occupation and proselytizing. A third ob- stacle is the lack of adequate railway communica- tion, although, as we shall see, efforts have been made to build many new lines. Another obstacle is the labor problem, and still another is a body of adverse public opinion at home, based largely on the fact that many of the colonies are not self-supporting, but a source of expense. (i) Climatic conditions and topographical FEATURES. — "Deserts, to be made habitable and cul- tivable, only need irrigation, and apparently there is a subterranean water supply underlying most African deserts which can be tapped by artesian wells. The extreme unhealthiness of the well- watered parts of Africa is due not so much to climate as to the presence of malaria in the sys- tems of the Negro inhabitants. This malaria is conveyed from the black man to the white man by certain gnats of the genus .Anopheles — possibly by other agencies. But the draining of marshes and the sterilisation of pools, together with other measures, may gradually bring about the extinc- tion of the mosquito ; while, on the other hand, it seems as though the drug (Cassia Beareana) ob- tained from the roots of a cassia bush may act as a complete cure for malarial fever. . . . "For practical purposes the only areas south of the Sahara Desert which at the present time are favourable to white colonisation arc the fol- lowing. In West Africa there can be no while colonisation under existing conditions; the white man can only remain there for a portion of his working life as an educator and administrator. ... In North-East Africa, .^byssinia and Eritrea will suggest themselves as white man's countries — presenting, that is to say, some of the conditions favourable to European colonisation. The actual coast of Eritrea is extremely hot, almost the hot- test country in the world, but it is not necessarily very unhealthy The heat, however, apart from the existence of a fairly abundant native popula- tion, almost precludes the idea of a European set- tlement. But on the mountains of the hinterland which are still within Italian territory there are said to be a few small areas suited at any rate to settlement by Italians, who, by-the-by, seem to be getting on very well with the natives in that part of Africa. But a European colonisation of Abyssinia, possible as it might be climatically, is out of the question in view of the relatively abun- dant and warlike population indigenous to the Ethiopian Empire. . . . "Then comes Central Africa, which may be taken to range from the northern limits of the Congo basin and the Great Lakes on the north to the Cunene River and the Zambesi on the south. British East Africa and Uganda offer probably the largest continuous area of white man's countn,' in the central section of the continent. The Ankole country in the southwest of the Uganda Protectorate and the highlands north of Tangan- yika, together with the slopes of the Ruwenzori range, offer small tracts of land thoroughly suited to occupation by a white race so far as climate and fertility are concerned; but these countries have already been occupied, to a great extent, by some of the earliest forerunners of the Caucasian (the Bahima), as well as by sturdy Negro tribes who have become inured to the cold. To the northeast of the Victoria Nyanza, however, there is an area which has as its outposts the southwest coast of Lake Rudolf, the great mountains of Debasien and Elgon, and the snow-clad extinct volcanoes of Kenia and Kilimanjaro. This land of plateaux and rift valleys is not far short of 70,000 square miles in extent, and so far as climate and other physical conditions are concerned is as well suited for occupation by British settlers as Queensland or New South Wales. But nearly 50,000 square miles of this East African territory is more or less in the occupation of sturdy Negro or Negroid races whom it would be neither just nor easy to expel. ... "The only portion of German East Africa which is at all suited to European settlement lies along the edge of the Nyasa-Tanganyika Plateau. Here is a district of a little more than a thousand square miles which is not only elevated and healthy, but very sparsely populated by Negroes. A lew patches in the Katanga district and the extreme southern part of the Congo Free State offer simi- lar conditions. "In British Central Africa we have perhaps 6,000 square miles of elevated, sparsely populated, fer- tile country to the northwest of Lake Nyasa and along the road to Tanganyika. There is also land of this description in the North-East Rhodesian province of British Central Africa, in Manikaland, and along the water-parting between the Congo and the Zambesi systems. Then in the southern- most prolongation of British Central .\lnc3. are the celebrated Shire Highlands, which, together with a few outlying mountain districts to the southwest of Lake Nyasa, may offer a total area of about 5,000 square miles suitable to European colonisation. A small portiorf of the Mozambique province, in the interior of the .\ngoche coast, might answer to the same description. Then again, far away to the west, under the same lati- tudes, we have, at the back of Mossamedes and Benguela, other patches of white man's country in the mountains of Bailundo and Sheila. "In South Africa, beyond the latitudes of the Zambesi, we come to lands which are increasingly suited to the white man's occupation the further we proceed south. Nearly all German South- west Africa is arid desert, but inland there arc plateaux and mountains which sometimes exceed 8,000 feet in altitude, and which have a sufficient rainfall to make European agriculture possible. . . . About two-thirds of the Transvaal, a third of Rhodesia, a small portion of southern Bechuana- land, two-thirds of the Orange River Colony, four- fifths of Cape Colony, and a third of Natal sum up the areas attributed to the white man in South Africa. The remainder of this part of the con- tinent must be considered mainly as a reserve for the black man, and to a much smaller degree (in South-East Africa) as a field for Asiatic colo- nisation, preferentially on the part of British In- dians. "Counting the white-skinned Berbers and Arabs of North Africa, and the more or less pure- blooded, light-skinned Egyptians, as white men. 109 AFRICA, 1914-1920 Obstacles: Moslem Occupation AFRICA, 1914-1920 and the land tlicy occupy as part of the white man's share of the Dark Continent, we may then by a rough calculation arrive (by adding to white North Africa the other areas enumerated in the rest of the continent) at the following estimate: that about 070,000 square miles of the whole Af- rican continent may be attributed to the while man as his legitimate share. If, however, we are merely to consider the territory that lies open to European colonisation, then we must considerably reduce our North African estimate." — H. H. John- ston, White man's place in Africa (Nineteenth Century, June, 1904). "What is Europe going to do with Africa? It seems to me there are three courses to be pursued, corresponding with the three classes of territory into which Africa falls when considered geographi- cally. There is, to begin with, that much restricted . . . area, lying outside the tropics (or in very rare cases, at great altitudes inside the tropics), where the climate is healthy and Europeans can not only support existence under much the same conditions as in their own lands and freely rear children to form in time a native European race, but where at the same time there- is no dense native popula- tion to dispute by force or by an appeal to com- mon .fairness the possession of the soil. Such lands as these are of relatively small extent com- pared to the mass of Africa. They are confined to the districts south of the Zambezi (with the exception of the neighborhood of the Zambezi and the eastern coast-belt) ; a few square miles on the mountain plateaux of North and South Nyasa- land; the northern half of Tunisia, a few dis- tricts of North-east and North-west Algeria and the Cyrenaica (northern projection of Barka) ; perhaps also the northernmost portion of Morocco. The second category consists of countries like much of Morocco, .Mgeria, Tunis, and Tripoli; Barka, Egypt, .\byssinia and parts of Somaliland; where climatic conditions and soil are not wholly opposed to the healthful settlement of Europeans, but where the competition or numerical strength or martial spirit of the natives already in posses- sion are factors opposed to the substitution of a large European population for the present own- ers of the soil. The third category consists of all that is left of .\frisa, mainly tropical, where the climatic conditions make it impossible for Euro- peans to cultivate the soil with their own hands, to settle for many years, or to bring up healthy families. Countries lying under the first category I should characterize as being suitable for Euro- pean colonies, a conclusion somewhat belated, since they have nearly all become such. The second description of territory I should qualify as 'tribu- tary states,' countries where good and settled government cannot be maintained by the natives without the control of a European power, the European power retaining in return for the ex- pense and trouble of such control the gratification of performing a good and interesting work, and a field of employment for a few of her choicer sons and daughters. The third category consists of 'plantation colonies' — vast territories to be gov- erned as India is governed, despotically but wisely, and with the first aim of securing good govern- ment and a reasonable degree of civilization to a large population of races inferior to the European." Here, however, the Europeans may come in small numbers with their capital, their energy, and their knowledge to develop a most lucrative commerce, and obtain products necessary to the use of their advanced civilization. — H. H. Johnston, Coloniza- tion of Africa, pp. 278-279. (2) Moslem occupation. — Another great obsta- cle in the way of European colonization is the op- position offered to Christian nations by the rapid spread af the Moslem faith. "The reasons for the great strides that Moham- medanism has made among the primitive, pagan tribes of Africa are not far to seek. Before an aggressive, coordinating faith like Islam, the in- ferior civilization of the negro kingdoms and states in the interior practising polytheism and fetichism, continually at war with each other and thus in a perpetual state of trade stagnation, must inevit- ably give way." Through the ubiquitous Arab traders, all of whom are potential missionaries, the new, simple, quasi-political doctrine is pecu- liarly attractive. "And it has progressed in the same ratio as European nations have penetrated to the interior, and pushed their hinterlands against the savage negro societies, leaving them exposed to the fierce light of civilization. Thus, in Islam, these kingdoms and principalities of back- ward races are finding a ready and effective method of centralization and government. Pagan tribes like the Gallas and Shoans of Ethiopia, un- der centuries of fierce and perpetual persecution from their Abyssinian rulers, successfully resisted Christianity ; yet they have easily fallen under the sway of Islam. Even so in the interior of .'Xfrica and along the coast, wherever Christian mission- aries have . . . [come in] contact with them, the savage tribes have proved impervious to all Chris- tian advances, but have readily turned to Islam, in spite of the fact that for centuries they were cruelly exploited by the Moslem Arab slave- dealers, before the European nations stamped out the trade. The virtue of such wholesale conver- sions lies in the ease with which Islam, like Hin- duism in India, has adopted the customs and tra- ditions of its rude adherents. The community life of these savages is allowed to continue. Rigid though Islam is on the subject of liquor, yet many of these tribes still retain their native habits of intemperance: likewise it must be said that those tribes on the coast that have suffered from the early European drink traffic, being of a higher order of intelligence and orthodoxy, have re- nounced liquor with their conversion to Islam The cannibalism of British Ashantee, of French Dahomey, the fetichism and idolatry of the rest of Africa, have passed away in the wake of Islam, degenerating though the new influences may be in the eyes of the orthodox Islamic pundits of .-M- .\zhar in Cairo. Too much, however, cannot be made of the reforming influence of Islam among the savage Africans. . . . The .•\siatic, and like- wise the African, finds himself forlorn and isolated in Christianity, and no amount of official protec- tion can save him from the social and economic tyranny to which all such converts are subjected In Africa, the pagan negro races find themselves welcome in Islam with all their native customs. They are allowed to practise their polygamy, and their family or home unit is emphasized — a factor of prime importance in .Asiatic psychology from China to Turkey. On the other hand, too much must not be made of the fact that Islam encour- ages lust and easy divorce. Accurate observers report that this offers no particular attraction to savage converts, especially when such vices have long been endemic among African, and some .\siatic tribes. Not the least picturesque feature of the conversions to Islam in Asia and Africa is the important part played by women, particularly when we consider that the Prophet degraded women and barred them from the rewards of a future [life]. In an unconscious way, Islam has spread through their efforts. Among the raiding no AFRICA, 1914-1920 Obstacles: Lack of Railroads AFRICA, 1914-1920 nations of Asia, like the Mongols, and in India, under the early dynasties and later under the Mughals, the propagation of Islam went apace. When a raid was made into Moslem territory the women were carried off and helped to convert the pagan tribe, or when a mercenary Moslem army lent aid to a foreign kingdom, as in the case of China, and was invited to settle, the Mohamme- dans took to wife the women of the country, and thus formed another outpost of Islam. "In India the Mughal consorts founded mad- rasahs or endowed schools, which, together with libraries, were attached to their tombs and mosques. In the course of the many ruthless in- vasions that have swept India, when devastation was invariably practised, these scmi-religiou? foun- dations have alone survived as examples of their culture, and they must have exerted an enormous influence from decade to decade. In Africa the fanatical Scnussei sect opened schools for girls in the region north of Lake Chad. This form of feminine proselytism has also been most active in Africa, especially on the east coast. In the Sudan, Islam has spread through the Egyptian army — every fellah recruit being circumcised at enlist- ment and given a rudimentary education. On the expiration of his term of service, he goes back to his pagan village to be an ardent proselytiser through his wife. In German East Africa the negroes recruited from railway and plantation work form temporary unions with the Moslem women, and since these women insist upon the Moslem rite of circumcision, the men are thus converted to Islam, and eventually take the new creed back to their villages. Perhaps the strong- est reason for the success and appeal of Islam throughout the Orient and Africa is the . . . insti- tution of concubinage and marriage. A Moslem will cherish a son by his negro wife or slave, while he readily offers his daughter in marriage to a Moslem negro. Many a sultan and pasha, many an imam and saint, has not considered it a dis- grace to acknowledge the negro blood in his veins. Thus, in Africa, the lack of any social dis- crimination or ostracism, together with a com- pensating social rise, makes admission into the Islamic brotherhood attractive. "Another appeal lies in the chance the religion gives warlike tribes to continue in the profession of arms, since the Faith countenances conversion through conquest. Wherever such races in Asia or Africa have been prevented by twentieth cen- tury laws and order, by the press of western in- fluence or domination, from indulging in their hereditary pursuit (excepting a few military Hindu tribes like the Sikhs, Gurkhas and Rajputs in India) they will be found to flourish under the semi-military caste of Islam. It is not strange, therefore, that the Turko-Teuton regime seized upon the Moslem idea of jihad as a vehicle for galvanizing the warlike spirit of Islam. . . . "In Africa, as I have endeavored to show, Islam is rapidly expanding in its pristine eighth-cen- tury character, appealing to the dark world of witchcraft and cannibalism that has for centuries made the African a problem to civilization. Writ- ing in 1887 Bosworth Smith said: 'It is hardly too much to say that half of the whole of Africa is already dominated by Islam, while, of the re- maining half, a quarter is leavened and another threatened by it.' In this great Asiatic religion the African negro is finding a facile medium of com- munication and expression ; and the future of Africa's destiny would seem to lie with Islam." — W. G. Tinckom-Fernandez, Asia in Africa (.Asia, Nov., igi7.) — See also Wahhabis. (3) Lack of railway and industrial develop- ment IN Africa. — Negotiations for the Cape-to- Cairo railway. — A third obstacle to European col- onization lies in the lack of adequate railway facilities. "Africa is a big continent — about as large as the United States of America, Mexico, Australia, and the Continent of Europe put to- gether — and as late as 1876 the whole of this vast area possessed less than 400 miles of railway. It has been the last of the great areas of this world to become civilized, and as Livingstone — greatest and best and wisest of all explorers — ■ predicted, Africa's salvation is coming through its industrial development. When I first sailed for Africa in 1881 the railway had only been extended to Beaufort West, joo miles north of Cape Town, where I took the coach to Kimberley. In 1885 the railway reached Kimberley. The main line was next pushed north to the Rand — the greatest goldfield in the world — and the shorter 'economic' lines were built to connect with Delagoa Bay and Natal. The Rand was discovered by the British, and the people of this country put millions into its development. It was not long, however, be- fore financiers of German extraction became to a large extent masters of the Rand, as they had become of Kimberley. "Rhodesia was the next big mineral develop- ment, and therefore the next of Africa's milestones on the road to civilization. At that date, iSgo, the terminus of the main line was at Vryburg, and it reached Bulawayo in 1807. Rhodes wanted me to report on the mineral prospects of Rhodesia. I started in March, 1891, and reported to Rhodes that the minerals were there all right, but that he must have a shorter economic railway from Beira to make them pay. That line was com- pleted to Bulawajo in 1Q02. Rhodes had a des- perate strug'j;le with the finance of the Rhodesian railways. He had asked the British Government to guarantee the interest, and . . . that Govern- ment refused. . . . Rhodes's friend Pauling, the fa- mous railway contractor, and the Messrs. Erianger,' bankers of this city, came to the rescue — they, too, greatly aided the development of the British Em- pire, for they raised about £10,000,000 sterling to finance African railways. . . . The next great min- eral milestone stands 1,000 miles further north, in the very heart of Africa, namely, Katanga. In 1805 Rhodes was anxious to find mineral wealth in Northern Rhodesia, and I sent up one or two of my best men with instructions to examine an area several hundred miles south of Katanga, where gold had been reported to exist. As my men found nothing of value. I stopped operations there and did nothing further until iSqS, when, once again at Rhodes's request, I agreed to make another effort, as Rhodes was most anxious to find minerals that would help his railway forward. But as my services at that time were exclusively bound to the Zambesia Exploring Company, Rhodes granted certain rights in which that com- pany should have a large interest. This grant included the right to locate a 2,000 square mile mineral area anywhere in Northern Rhodesia, to- gether with a township and pier at the bottom uid of Lake Tanganyika which was intended to be the terminus in Chartered Territory of the Cape-to-Cairo Railway. I organized a prospect- ing expedition, and appointed the late Mr. George Grey (Viscount Grey's brother) as leader, with instructions to search for minerals as close up to the Congo State frontier as possible. He and his party discovered the Kansanshi copper mine in Rhodesia, 12 miles south of the Belgian Congo frontier. Ill AFRICA, 1914-1920 Obstacles: Lack of Railroads AFRICA, 1914-1920 "Meantime, I approached King Leopold, and succeeded in making an agreement with him which gave the Tanganyika Company the sole pros- pecting rights for minerals over 60,000 square miles of the Katanga district of the Congo State, adjoining Northern Rhodesia. The King did not believe I should prove mineral wealth to exist in his country, as Professor Cornet, the well-known Belgian geologist, had been sent out by him to examine certain old native workings which had been the subject of comment by Livingstone, Cameron, Stanley, and others. The report by Professor Cornet (which had never been published) had been so unfavourable that the Belgians made no further effort for eight years. George Grey and his staff, in a very short time located these mines, probablj' the greatest in all the world, extending over about 250 miles of country — in short, a copper Rand — and many other deposits, including gold, tin, and diamonds. Katanga is now giving tangible proof of its mineral resources. The smelting works there have already yielded a total value of over £6,000,000 sterling, although they only started to produce on a small scale in 1 91 2. They are at the present moment produc- ing at the rate of 30,000 tons of copper per an- num, of a value of about £4,000,000, and this output will go on increasing steadily year by year. The railway developments which have also re- sulted from the opening up of this latest mineral zone will, when completed, be probably the great- est in all Africa. Railways are now coming from the north, south, east, and west towards this great mineral and future industrial centre. Thus are minerals once again proving themselves verit- able milestones in the progress of African civiliza- tion. "At the date when these discoveries were made, it was Rhodes's intention to take his Cape-to- Cairo Railway to the southern end of Lake Tanganyika, and to utilize the 400-mile waterway as part of the route towards the north. But Ger- many thwarted his scheme by refusing to recog- nize the cession of the strip of Congo territory between Lake Tanganyika and Kivu, granted by King Leopold to JEngland to enable Rhodes to carry forward this railway. The reason we all now know. Germany had already fixed her eyes on the Congo. Rhodes would have liked to run his line through the Congo State, and he tried to negotiate this with King Leopold, but had failed, and he suggested I should approach the King with a view to securing the right to build the Cape-to-Cairo Railway through the Congo State to the Nile. . . . The scheme fell through. I saw I was stone-walled, and I therefore studied the map of Africa to find an alternative route. I saw that the shortest route to the sea was along the same great divide between the Congo and Zam- besi Rivers, as that on which we had discovered the minerals. It led from Katanga in an almost straight line westward to the old Portuguese town of Benguella. I saw instinctively that the eco- nomic route from Katanga to the coast lay along the old slave-road, and moreover that this route, with Lobito Bay as its terminus, was nearer by about 3,000 miles to England. I pointed this out to King Leopold, and. having got his approval and promise of cooperation. I went to Lisbon and without the knowledge of the British Govern- ment secured from the Portuguese Government the right to construct the Benguella Railway. But Germany had already grasped the value of this route; had already seen the future agricultural and trade prospects of Angola, and realized the mag- nificent advantages of the natural harbour of Lobito Bay, how valuable it would be as the Western port to her Central African Empire. Four years before Portugal granted me the Ben- guella Railway Concession Germany had induced the British Government to enter into a secret agreement, under which our Government had pledged itself not to interfere with Germany's political efforts in Angola — the very country in which I had secured the right to build a trunk railway." "Mr. Williams' continued efforts to .^iecure British backing for the completion of the Cape-to-Caifo railway were also futile. He went to London to ask Mr. Joseph Chamberlain about obtaining the support of the Government, but Mr. Chamber- lain's interest in the project was not of a mate- rial nature and the Government was unwilling to guarantee the interest on a loan to the railway. "I again met King Leopold, and we resolved upon a great cooperative railway scheme, comprising over 3,000 miles of railway. We agreed to build the Katanga Railway jointly, in order to link up the Rhodesian Railway with the navigable Congo River at Bukama. The King undertook to con- struct a railway from Leopoldville to Bukama; also the section that would connect the Benguella Railway with the Katanga Railway and the cop- per belt, and the earnings of all these railways were to be 'pooled.' "The last link in this international chain of railways proved the most difficult of all to pro- vide for, although it was only 132 miles in length and lay in British territory. It was the little bit between Broken Hill in Rhodesia and the Congo frontier. There the railway stood literally dying for want of traffic, unwilling to extend itself to serve British or Belgium interests. I saw that if it was to be done, I must do it myself, and I wrote to Dr. Jameson telling him I would arrange the finance for the Rhodesian section on certain conditions, with which I need not trouble you. Suffice it to say, that with the assistance of Mr. George Pauling, the great Af- rican railway contractor, and the Messrs. Erlangef, bankers of this city, I surmounted the difficulty. The Cape-to-Cairo Railway was arranged for at last."^R. Williams, Railway developments in Cen- tral Africa (The Times [London] May 11, igi?)- — See also R.\ilro.\ds: 1805. "Railroad development in Africa has been rapid in the past few years and seems but the beginning of a great system which must contribute to the rapid development, civilization, and enlightenment of the Dark Continent. .Already [in i8qo] rail- roads run northwardly from Cape Colony about 1,400 miles, and southwardly from Cairo about 1,100 miles, thus making 2,500 miles of the 'Cape- to-Cairo' railroad complete, while the interme- diate distance is about 3,000 miles. ... .A line has already been constructed from Natal on the southeast coast; another from Louren(;o Mar- quez in Portuguese territory and the gold and dia- mond fields; another from Beira, also in Portu- guese territory, but considerably farther north, and destined to extend to Salisbury in Rhodesia; . . . still another is projected from Zanzibar to Lake Victoria Nyanza, to connect, probably, at Tabora, with the transcontinental line; another line is under actual construction westward from Pan- gani just north of Zanzibar, both of these being in German East Africa; another line is being con- structed northwestwardly from Mombasa, in Brit- ish territory, toward Lake Victoria Nyanza, and is completed more than half the distance, while at the entrance to the Red Sea a road is projected westwardly into .\byssinia, and is expected to 112 AFRICA, 1914-1920 Obstacles: Lack of Railroads AFRICA, 1914-1920 pass farther toward the west and connect with the main Une. At Suakim, fronting on the Red Sea, a road is projected to Berber, the present terminus of the line running southwardly from Cairo. On the west of Africa lines have begun to penetrate inward, a short line in the French Sudan running from the head of navigation on the Sene- gal eastwardly toward the head of navigation on the Niger, with the ultimate purpose of connecting navigation on these two streams. In the Kongo Free State a railway connects the Upper Kongo with the Lower Kongo around Livingstone Falls; in Portuguese Angola a road extends eastwardly these branches connecting it with either coast. Another magnificent railway project, which was some years ago suggested by M. Leroy Beaulieu, has been recently revived, being no less than an cast and west transcontinental line through the Sudan region, connecting the Senegal and Niger countries on the west with the Nile Valley and Red Sea on the east and penetrating a densely populated and extremely productive region of which less is now known, perhaps, than of any other part of Africa. At the north numerous lines skirt the Mediterranean coast, especially in the French territory of Algeria and in Tunis, where the MODERN RAILROAD LINES IN AFRICA from Loanda, the capital, a considerable distance, and others are projected from Benguela and Mos- samedes with the ultimate purpose of connecting with the 'Cape-to-Cairo' road and joining with the lines from Portuguese East Africa, which also touch that road, thus making a transcontinental line from east to west, with Portuguese territory at either terminus. Farther south on the west- ern coast the Germans have projected a road from Walfisch Bay to Windhoek, the capital of German Southwest Africa, and this will probably be extended eastwardly until it connects with the great transcontinental line from 'Cape-to-Cairo,' which is to form the great nerve center of the system, to be contributed to and supported by length of railway is, in round numbers, 2,250 miles while the Egyptian railroads are, including those now under construction, about i,soo miles in length. Those of Cape Colony and Natal are near- ly 3,000 miles, and those of Portuguese East Africa and the South African Republic another thousand. Taking into consideration all of the roads now constructed, or under actual construction, their total length reaches nearly 10,000 miles, while there seems every reason to believe that the great through system connecting the rapidly develop- ing mining regions of South Africa with the north of the continent and with Europe will soon be pushed to completion. A large proportion of the railways thus far constructed are owned by the 113 AFRICA, 1914-1920 Obstacles: Labor Problems AFRICA, 1914-1920 several colonics or States which they traverse, about 2,000 miles of the Cape Colony system belonging to the Government, while nearly all that of Egypt is owned and operated by the State." — U. S. Bureau of Statistics, Monthly summary, August, 1899. — See also Cape-to-Cairo railway. No transcontinental line has as yet (1921) been completed, but in the years preceding the World War much of the abov-e mentioned mileage was constructed. The Cape was connected with the navigable Congo at Bukama. When fmances per- mit, it is intended to construct the main line northward through Tanganyika Territory (for- merly German East Africa) to connect with the Egyptian system, thus realizing the plan of Cecil Rhodes. From Dakar at Cape Verde, connection was made with the upper Niger. On the east the road from Jibuti, French Somalilaiid, was extended to the Abyssinian capital. .Algerian lines were carried farther. No early day, however, can be set for the completion of a through East and West road, a trans-Sahara route or even a Cape- to-Cairo Railway. (4) Labor problems. — A fourth obstacle to European colonization and the most difficult "problem of trade facing the administration in Africa is that of labour. The question is com- plicated by the absence of certain factors which minimise the difficulty of the labour problem in the West. Machinery has not been extensively introduced. This is largely due to the absence 01 railways, a fact which also influences the problem when the difficulty of transporting native labour has to be considered. White labour, whether skilled or unskilled, can be obtained only in very small quantities. The vast mining concerns of South Africa, the great rubber and cocoa planta- tions of West Africa, the growing cotton indus- try of Uganda, together with the palm-oil trade which spreads right across the continent, are de- pendent upon native labour, or, failing that, upon some substitute which will be equally cheap. The problem of the industrial companies of .Africa is to obtain cheap labour. White labour is too highly paid to make possible any large demand for white labourers in those classes of work where muscle rather than brain is required. Cheap la- bour may be bad labour, but white labour is often impossible where a considerable margin of profit is essential. In course of time it may be possible to secure better labour by the payment of higher wages. But the wages offered can never be so high as those demanded by white men in tropical and subtropical countries. Therefore the bulk of the labour demand will continue to be supplied by natives. The increase in wages will be met by better production Therein lies another difficulty which should only be transient! The native, at present, is only capable of performing work of a certain low standard. Higher wages will not im- mediately, and ipso facto, coax from him better work. He is incapable of it until education, civi- lisation and Christianity have removed certain deficiencies from his character. At the present time the .\frican native is too unstable, too apt to abandon his work under slight provocation, too thriftless in the use to which he puts his money, and consequently thriftless of his efficiency as a worker, to make it desirable, or even profitable, to pay him higher wages. These deficiencies sometimes arise from the conditions of his work, and from the treatment meted out to him by over- seers and paymasters, though more frequently they are due to weaknesses inherent in the native char- acter. But — it is a fact to be emphasised — the development of the natives, in many individual cases, proves that he is capable of overcoming these faults, and promises a time when he will justifiably demand a higher wage, and when the increased return made by his work will enable the employer to meet the demand. The Kibour prob- lem in Africa is most acute on the Rand. It is said that the white man cannot work on the deep levels in the subtropical climate of South Africa. But Cornish miners are able to work on the deep levels of the Comstock mine in Nevada. . . . The real objection lies in the fact that the white man is ashamed to work in the presence of black men. He becomes an autocrat of the worst type. He shirks work because physical exertion 'looks bad.' But apart from these considerations, two insurmountable difficulties lie in the way of employing white labour for unskilled work in the mines: the white population is small; it is not possible to pay wages sufficiently high to attract men in large numbers from the West. The prob- lem has not been completely solved by resorting to black labour. Fresh difficulties have been created, while some of those attached to the sup- ply of white labour have not been overcome. Black labour in South .Africa is not sufficient to meet the requirements of the mines. It has been estimated that only fifty per cent, of the demand can be supplied by the native races which dwell south of the Zambesi, in spite of large sums of money spent in recruiting. "While the native races of South Africa have long since abandoned those warlike and migratory habits which made concentration upon settled labour an impossibility, they have not yet become wearied by the habits of an agricultural and pastoral life, nor have their numbers increased .sufficiently to necessitate a periodical movement towards the centres of urban industry, such as takes place in the older agricultural communities of the West. Provided they can obtain a satis- factor\' settlement on the land, together with the ownership of a certain number of cattle, they have little spontaneous inducement to send them to the mines. The wants of the native are few. They are easily satisfied by a slight cultivation of the soil, and by the cattle which he allows to roam at random over the veldt. Moreover, these wants are supplied by a ver>- limited amount of per- sonal activity. His occupations on the . . . veldt afford him an easy means of livelihood at the cost of a small amount of labour. It is a simple, though not an idle life, suited to his somewhat indolent and unenterprising habits. The South .African native is now a home-loving creature. His social insticts are largely developed. Like the Jew. his great ambition is to found a family. Until the time arrives when, by the process of 'labola,' he is able to make an arrangement with the father of his selected wife, he is content to remain in close touch with his own father's kraal. Since the cessation of intertribal w'ars, the native has swung over to an opposite extreme so far as his migratory habits are concerned. He fears lone journeys, especially when the goal will bring him into a sphere of activity unknown to his past and present experience. Moreover, when the allure- ments of the labour agent, supported by his own desire to hasten the day when he may be .ible to take to himself a wife, have .it last brought him to the mines, he does not often remain at work for any length of time. From three to six months is the average period during which the native stays on the Rand, with the result that the whole labour personnel of the mines changes every two years. His temperament is too uncertain, his moods too changeable, he is too prone to take 114 AFRICA, 1914-1320 Obstacles: Adverse Opinion AFRICA, 1914-1920 offence under slight provocation, to make possible a sojourn at the mines which would be more profitable to production. To these causes, which belong to the native himself, and which can only be removed by the processes of civilisation, others have to be added. They are created by the ad- ministration of labour, and are, therefore, a matter for the attention of the white man. The treat- ment offered to the natives in the mines is not always equitable. It is sometimes even harsh. The white overseers arc often impatient of at- tempting to understand the native mind and the difficulties which new work under strange condi- tions presents. . . . Labour agents and paymasters have not always fulfilled the promises made to the native recruit. Pay has been held back or dimin- ished by the compulsory purchase of goods, sold by interested persons on or near the mine com- pounds. The accommodation offered has some- times afforded a poor substitute for the kraals on the open veldt. Overcrowded quarters, in- sanitar>' conditions, surrounded by moral tempta- tions, have impaired his physical fitness, so that the arduous labour of the mines has become in itself a cause of discontent. At the end of his contract the native labourer often finds himself at a loss to know how to return to his kraal. Little advice is forthcoming from railway officials. If any of the proceeds of his labour remain to him, he is tempted to dispose of them in an un- worthy manner, and at once becomes a member of the community of low-class blacks and whites who surround the mining towns, or attempts to reach his own country by vagrant methods. Perhaps the chief influences which make the native' a bad labourer are not due to the na- tive himself, or to his upbringing. They are due to the aforementioned causes, or to others of a similar nature. That is to say, they arc the con- cern of the white man and his organisation. . . . Men of varied experience in different parts of Africa have testified to the efficiency and assiduity of the native labourer when adequate supervision and fair treatment are meted out to him. The whole procedure, from the action of the labour agent to the attitude of the repatriation officials, needs to be revised. The recruiting of native la- bour should be transferred from the control of monopolist labour associations, which are con- nected with the mining syndicates, to the native affairs department, every care being taken that it does not come within the duties of any revenue official. The native should be transported to the mines without being subjected to annoyance from railway or mining ofticials, and, if necessary, his ticket should be advanced and debited to the first instalment of his wages. Such a system has been introduced into the organisation of contract la- bour in Portuguese West .Africa. "Under the Portuguese regulations of January 20, iqo3, powers were conferred upon a central committee for labour and emigration to appoint and control labour agents, or their substitutes, for the purpose of recruiting native labour. Funds were to be supplied to the agents by applicants for labour, and these payments were to be charge- able upon the wages of the natives. The agents were to co-operate with native chieftains in secur- ing labourers. The native recruits were to be conveyed to the centres of industry by the prin- cipal railroads in the colony. They were to be accompanied by the recruiting agents, who were to supply them with proper food during the jour- ney, whether by road or rail. During halts on the journey the natives were to be lodged by the agents In suitable depots where the sanitary con- ditions were free from objection. When the la- bourer had reached the centre of industry, he v/ould be handed over to the master to whom he had been assigned, and who was responsible for the regular payment of his wages in coin. The native labourers were to be suitably housed by the masters in accommodations which resembled , as nearly as possible tfie native huts. Proper food and clothing, with adequate medical treatment, was also to be supplied by the masters. The regu- lations insisted that every master employing over fifty labourers should maintain a separate in- firmary for members of either sex. On planta- tions where one thousand or more labourers were employed, the doctors were required to pay a visit every day ; where the number employed was less than a thousand, but not less than six hundred, the doctor must visit twice a week; in all other cases once a week. The doctors were to be men qualified at Lisbon, Oporto, or Coimbra. Simi- lar regulations for the care of women and chil- dren, especially in maternity cases, were drawn up. At the close of the period of contract, the labourers were to be returned to their own vil- lages by the repatriation agents at the expense of the masters. But they were free to engage for a further contract. On the return journey simi- lar care was to be taken with regard to accommo- dation and food. The royal regulations of Janu- ary 29, 1903, were revised by the Provisional Republican Government on May 13, 1911. In principle they remained the same. The whole scheme received the congratulation of the British Foreign Office and colonial officials. But later on heavy criticism was directed against the Portu- guese Government to the effect that the regula- tions were not loyally carried out in West Africa, and in particular [that] the option given to the native to re-engage was abused by methods which made re-engagement almost compulsory. The im- portant lesson to be drawn from the Portuguese regulations is the method employed in attempting to secure that the recruiting, payment, accommo- dation, and repatriation of native labour should be conducted by responsible authority. The his- tory of the Congo, and of the more recent Put- umayo atrocities in South America, apart from the past record of some British trading concerns in West Africa, prove that trading companies are not capable of restraining commercial enterprise in the interest of the native, even where moral and physical claims are clearly manifest. But where these matters are placed in the hands of an authority which has no commercial or even administrative interest, some of the difficulties which make native labour on the Rand, and else- where, so wasteful and inefficient will be removed. Recommendations similar to the regulations of the Portuguese Government, but only general in char- acter, were made by the South African Commis- sion of 1003-5, and also by the Natal Commis- sion of 1906-7. The practicability of reforms of this nature is made apparent by the fact that for some considerable time the housing, sanitation, and medical treatment of the native labourers at Cape Town, Kimberley, and Johannesburg have been organised along these lines. The Commission of IQ03-S drew attention to the conditions in these towns. But there is need for extension and room for improvement." — A. J. MacDonald, Trade politics and Christianity in Africa and the East pp. 11-20. (5) Growth of adverse opinion. — Another ob- stacle to European colonisation is the rapid growth in recent years of a markedly adverse public opin- ion. Owing to the fact that many of the African 115 AFRICA, 1914-1916 Effects of World War AFRICA, 1918-1920 colonies at present cost more to administer than their trade Ls worth, there is in each European countrj- owning them a considerable group indif- ferent or opposed to colonial undertakings. "Not all the expectations of the enthusiastic advocates of expansion were realized. The colonial trade of Germany was insignificant, though the expense of maintaining the colonies was very great. France has been more successful ; but she, too, has had to make u[> annually a large colonial deficit. England has more to justify her imperialism than any other country, for she has a large and grow- ing colonial trade; but her important customers are Germany, France, and the United States, and not Canada, Australia, or South Africa. The colonies have not proved successful in drawing off the surplus population of the mother countries. Because they were not attractive to white settle- ment, very few Germans went to the German colonies But many went to the British posses- sions and to the United States. French colonies, although near the mother country, contain few Frenchmen besides military and civil officials. The migration of Italians to Libya has hardly justified Italy's 'war for a desert.' Even Great Britain, with a large surplus population and colo- nies in every climate, has failed to people the Empire with her children. During 1870-1905, a generation which saw the high tide of imperial- ism, six and a half million emigrated from the United Kingdom; of these, only two million set- tled in the colonies, whereas four miUion went to America and half a million to other places. So reluctant are the English masses to go to the colonies that societies have been organized to encourage them to emigrate there." — J. S. Scha- piro, Modern and contemporary European history, p. 682. 1914-1916. — Part played by German colonies, Seuthwest Africa, and East Africa in the World War. See World War: 1914: VI. Africa; loi,?; VIII. Africa; 1016: VII. African theatre: a. 1918-1920.— Effects of the World War upon European occupation. — While it is as yet too early to be certain of the results of the World War on Africa, this much may be confidently asserted. (1) A firmer hold upon their African possessions has been secured by Great Britain, France and Italy. (2) Africa seems destined to be for a long time to come less and less a field for European rivalry and conflict. (3) Under the new mandatary system there is a recognition before the world of a stewardship of the Great Powers for their .\frican territories. (4) The ex- cellent service of the Negro as a worker behind the lines and as a soldier on the battlefields of France has not only been accorded grateful rec- ognition but has doubtless deepened the black man's self-respect and consciousness of his rights as a human being. One of the manifestations of this new attitude on the part of both white and black races is to be seen in the recent (iqiq) Con- vention of the Powers regarding the liquor traffic in Africa. The British government has made public (Treaty series loio. No. lo) a parliamen- t3r>' paper disclosing that on September iq, loio, the United States and .\ssociated Powers entered into a convention intended to safeguard .^frican races from alcohol and displacing for that purpose the Brussels Convention This convention super- sedes, recodifies and amplifies "former interna- tional conventions" dealing with the same sub- ject. Thus come to an end the old liquor clauses of the Brussels General .»\ct (1800I which with their general revisions at periodical conferences of the Powers (1890-1006) have regulated the 1 Central African spirit traffic. The area of the present convention is almost identical with that of the Brussels Act, though political areas are substituted for arbitrary geographical boundaries. Thus .\lgiers, Tunis, Morocco, Libya, Egypt and the Union of South .Africa are excepted from the agreement, and the islands lying within 100 nau- tical miles of the coast are included in it. The objects of the convention as set forth in the pre- amble are to prohibit "the importation, distribu- tion, sale and possession of trade spirits, absinthe," and of other "distilled beverages" containing es- sential oils or chemical products which are rec- ognized as injurious to the health. Other forms of spirits are to be subjected to a minimum duty of 800 francs per hectolitre of pure alcohol, which amounts to about 36 francs per gallon of pure alcohol. By a further provision it is understood that the existing areas of prohibition of all spirits for the natives of these areas will be maintained. This is the only mention of any race distinction except in the preamble already quoted, reliance being placed upon the exclusion of all cheap and specially noxious distilled liquors. Exceptions are allowed for distillation for scientific or pharmaceu- tical purposes, or of industrial alcohol, but other- wise distillation is not allowed. Italy is the only one of the signatory powers which has claimed any concession on certain of the conditions of the convention. There is to be a Central Interna- tional Office, in connection with the League of Nations, for recording the statistics and regula- tions put in force by each of the contracting par- ties and the adhesion to the convention of the other states exercising authority over the terri- tories of the African continent will be Sought. The convention is to come into force "for each signatory power from the date of the deposit of its ratifications," which ratifications will be de- posited in the archives of the French government. Signatories: — The United States of America, Bel- gium, Great Britain, Canada, Australia, South .Africa, France, Italy, Japan, Portugal. TeRRITORIAI, ACQUISITION'S OF FRANCE AND GREAT Britain. — Under the mandate provisions of the Treaty of Versailles, in effect January to, 1920, German Southwest .Africa and German East .Af- rica became practically British possessions. A dis- trict in the extreme northwest of the latter colony was assigned to the Belgian Congo. Cameroon and Togo, the other two former German colonies in .Africa, were divided between Great Britain and France. The latter country received the entire coast and rather more than half of Togo and about nine-tenths of Cameroon, incidentally regaining the large districts which France had ceded to Ger- many in 191 1 as a result of the .Agadir crisis in Morocco. -A strip of varying width along the northwest boundary of Cameroon was given to Great Britain and added to the British colony of Nigeria This strip includes the great Cameroon Mountain near the sea, and adds to the Bornu district near Lake Chad the part of that ancient sultanate formerly held by Germany. The port of Duala and the main routes to the interior are in the hands of the French. Italy's territorial .\couisitions. — In accordance with provisions included in the Treaty of London, which was followed by Italy's entrance into the World War, negotiations were begun early in 1920 to carry out the promises made Italy by Great Britain and France in 1915, by adding generously to Italy's possessions in Africa. The provision in question, article XIII, stipulated that, in the event that France and England should increase their colonial possessions in Africa as a result of the 16 AFRICA, BRITISH CENTRAL AFRICAN SQUADRON World War, Italy too must be compensated in an equitable manner, particularly in the extension of the frontiers of her colonies of Eritrea, Ital- ian Somaliland and Tripoli (Libia Italiana). France offered to cede the territory lying east of the line running north and south between the oases Ghadames and Ghat. This offer the Italian government was ready to accept but is still mak- ing efforts to have the Tibesti and Borku oases, south of the Libyan desert, included in the grant. The British government offered to cede Italy the Egyptian oasis of Jarabub. This has been prac- tically accepted by the Italian government. Great Britain also offered to cede to Italian Somaliland extensive territory along the Juba river. This would give Italy the port of Kismayu, which has a better harbor than any port along the 1,200 mile coast line of Somaliland. Mindful of the value of this accession Italy accepted Great Britain's offer, which greatly increases the value of Italian Somaliland. The border with British Somaliland at the north has also been rectified in Italy's favor. Italy further sought to obtain part of the Anglo- Egyptian Sudan bordering on her colony of Eritrea. The concessions secured by Italy a.ssure her of better facilities for developing her large colonies ill Africa. Africa under the League of Nations. — "In addition to these territories which are to be emancipated under the protection of stronger states, there are the former colonies of Germany, some of which are to be administered by a man- datary under a separate form of government and others to be administered as integral portions of the territory of the mandatary. In both cases provision is made in the covenant and in the body of the treaty that the administration shall be con- ' ducted under conditions approved by the league, by which equal opportunity for trade will be al- lowed to all members of the league, and certain abuses, such as the trade in slaves, arms, and liquor, will be prohibited; and the requirement is laid down that the mandatary shall render to the council of the league an annual report in reference to the territory committed to its charge. The value of these provisions, if it is not too much to assume their observance, lies not only in the fact that they attempt to protect the backward peoples of Africa against possible exploitation, but that they introduce a new principle of interna- tional responsibility into the relations of nations, in that they recognize that the development of such peoples forms 'a sacred trust of civilization.' If the league can secure the fulfillment of the promises thus made, a strong impetus will be given to the further development of international administrative law. At the present moment the functions of the permanent mandates commission, which is to receive the reports of the several mandataries, have been outlined and the person- nel of the commission is about to be appointed." — American Political Science Review, Aug., ig20, p. 487. AFRICA, British Central. See Nyasaland PROTECTORATE. AFRICA, East. See Ken'\'A colony. AFRICA, East Central. See Darfur. AFRICA, Masonic societies in. See Masonic societies: Africa. AFRICA, Northwest. See Nigeria protectorate. AFRICA, Portuguese East. See Portugitese East Africa. AFRICA, South. See South Africa, Union of. AFRICA, West. See Dahomey. AFRICAN ASSOCIATION IN ENGLAND, Formation of (1788). See Africa: Modern Euro- pean occupation: Chronology of European explor- ation. AFRICAN METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH. See Methodists; Colored. AFRICAN SQUADRON.— Although the Con- gress (United States) in 1808 passed an act pro- hibiting the importation of slaves, a good many were smuggled in. The rather unsuccessful at- tempt to suppress this illicit trade is shown in the following articles of the Webster-Ashburton Treats , 1842: "Art. VIIL— The parties [United States and Great Britain] mutually stipulate that each shall prepare, equip, and maintain in service on the coast of Africa a sufficient and adequate squadron or naval force of vessels of suitable numbers and descriptions, to carry in all not less than eighty guns, to enforce, separately and respectively, the laws, rights, and obligations of each of the two countries for the suppression of the slave-trade, the said squadrons to be independent of each other, but the two Governments stipulating, nevertheless, to give such orders to the officers commanding their respective forces as shall enable them most effectually to act in concert and co- operation, upon mutual consultation, as exigencies may arise, for the attainment of the true object of this article, copies of all such orders to be communicated by each Government to the other, respectively. ",^rt. IX. — Whereas, notwithstanding all ef- forts which may be made on the coast of Africa for suppressing the slave-trade, the facilities for carrying on that traffic and avoiding the vigilance of cruisers, by the fraudulent use of flags and other means, are so great, and the temptations for pursuing it, while a market can be found for slaves, so strong, that the desired result may be long delayed unless all markets be shut against the purchase of African negroes, the parties to this treaty agree that they will unite in all be- coming representations and remonstrances with any and all Powers within whose dominions such markets are allowed to exist, and that they will urge upon all such Powers the propriety and .duty of closing such markets effectually, at once and forever." — W. Macdonald, Select documents illus- trative of history of United States, pp. 341-342. "By the cruising convention clause [of the Web- ster-Ashburton Treaty], which the President him- self bore a conspicuous part in arranging, the deli- cate point of 'right of search' was avoided; for instead of trusting Great Britain as the police of other nations for suppressing the African slave- trade, each nation bound itself to do its full duty by keeping up a sufficient squadron on the Afri- can coast. It so happened that Great Britain, by softening the old phrase 'right of search' into 'right of visitation,' had been inducing other na- tions to guarantee this police inspection of sus- pected slave vessels. In December, 1841, am- bassadors of the five great European powers ar- ranged in London a quintuple league of this char- acter. But France, hesitating to confirm such an arrangement, rejected that league when the Ash- burton treaty was promulgated, and hastened to negotiate in its place a cruising convention simi- lar to ours on the slave-trade suppression; nor was the right of search, against which America had fought in the war of 1812, ever again invoked, even as a mutual principle, until by 1S62 the United States had grown as sincere as Great Brit- ain herself in wishing to crush out the last remnant of the .African traffic. This cruising convention, however, left the abstract question of search un- touched, and in that light Sir Robert Peel de- 117 AFRIDIS AGER PUBLICUS fended himself in Parliament." — Schouler, History of the United States, v. iv, pp. 401-402. AFRIDIS, a powerful warlike Afghan or Pathan tribe inhabiting the mountains of the Peshawar border of the north-west frontier of India; are said to have Israelite blood in their veins, and a Semitic cast of features. AFRIKANDER BUND. See South Africa, Union- of: 1877-1870; 1881-1888; 1898; i8q8 (March-October). AFRIKANDER CONGRESS. See South .•Xfrica, Union of: 1900 (December). AFRIKANDERS: Relations with the Boers. See South .\frica, Union of: 1S99 (October- November) and 1000 (May). AFZELIUS, Adam (1750-1837), Swedish bot- anist. He founded the Linnaean Institute at Up- sala, 1S02, and subseijuently wrote the standard biography of Linnaeus, 1823. AGA, or Agha, a word supposedly of Tartar origin, meaning lord or excellency, applied in Turkey to military commanders and other high officials; also used as a general term of respect in addressing person? of the wealthv leisure class. AGA KHAN I, His Highness the (1800-1881), the title accorded to Hasan .'\ii Shah by the Brit- ish government. Was governor of Kerman for Persia until, incurring the displeasure of the ruler, he fled to Bombay ; assisted his protectors in deal- ing with the natives over whom he held religious sway as leader of the Ismailiah sect of Moham- medans. AGA KHAN III, Aga Sultan Mohammed Shah (1S77- ). In 1885, succeeded his father, .\ga Khan II, to the leadership of the Ismailiah Mohammedans. In World War he brought his support to the side of the .'\llies. See Arabu: 1916. AGADE. See .^kk.^d. AGADIR, a small seaport on the south-western coast of Morocco, formerly of some commercial importance. .Acquired international fame in 1911 when the German gunboat Pantlur entered the harbor to maintain imperial economic interests. This, event, known as the ".■\gadir incident" pre- cipitated the second and most acute Moroccan crisis. — See also Fr.\ncf.: 1910-1014; Italy: ioii. AGAGIA, Egypt: defeat of Senussi (1916). See World War: iqi6: VI. Turkish theater: b, 1. AGAMEMNON, a Greek hero of the Homeric age; son of .Atreus and brother of Menelaus. Ruled at Mycenae; leader of the Greeks in the Trojan War. AGAMEMNON, British warship at the Dar- danelles^ See World War: 1915: VI. Turkey: a, 1. AGANA, a fortified town, on the western side of the .American inland of Guam, formerly the Spanish capital of the Ladrone 'Islands. It has several schools, convents, and government build- ings. Sec Guam: i 900-1 921 ; U. S. .A.: 1S9S (June). AGAPETUS I, pope S35-536; collaborated with Cassiodorus in founding a library of ecclesiastical authors at Rome; in 536 was sent by King Theodahad on an embassy to Constan- tinople and there deposed Anthimus from the patriarchal see of Con.stantinople. He died there. Agapetus II, pope 946-955, a Roman by birth; established political rule over the churches of the Empire; also invoked aid of Otto I against Ber- enger II. king of Italy, who proved troublesome to the pontifical state, AGAS. Outer and inner. See Sublimf Porte. AGASSIZ, Alexander Emanuel (1835-igio), American scientist. Only son of Louis .Agassiz; specialized in marine ichthyology ; acquired a for- tune in mining, es[)ecially from the famous Cal- umet and Hecla copper mine, Michigan; gave large sums and much time to biological research. AGASSIZ, Jean Louis Rodolphe (1S07-1873), American scientist. Born in Switzerland, coming to America in 1846; Harvard professor and an enthusiastic and effective teacher; made extensive researches in ichthyology and palaeontology ; en- joyed a world-wide reputation as a biologist, writer and lecturer. AGATHO, pope 678-781, one of the most cour- ageous pontifls who ever occupied the papal chair; compelled St. Wilfrid to restore the bishopric at York (679) and established a precedent by refus- ing to pay tribute on election to the emperor at Constantinople. AGATHOCLES (361-289 B. C), the son of a potter who became tyrant of Syracuse. .After putting thousands of his enemies to death .Agathocles succeeded in taking Syracuse, which he subsequently lost. He ruled over Sicily towards the close of his life. See Syracuse: B. C 317-289 AGATHYRSI, a people of Thracian origin who once occupied the plain of Moris in the region of Transylvania ; had luxurious habits, tattooed their bodies, had wives in common, and like Gallic Druids, recited their laws in sing-song to prevent their being forgotten ; were later driven further north and were unknown to the Romans in their original home. AGBATANA. See Ecbatana. AGE OF STONE, AGE OF BRONZE, etc. See /tcEAN civiLiz.\TioN; .Africa: Races of Africa: Prehistoric peoples; Europe: Prehistoric period; Stone age. AGED, Care of. See Charities. AGELA. — The youths and young men of an- cient Crete were publicly trained and disciplined in divisions or companies, each of which was called an .Agela, and its leader or director the .Agelatas. AGELATAS. See Acela. AGEMA, the royal escort of .Alexander the Great. AGENAIS, or Agenois, a former province of France in what is now the department of Lot-et- Garonne. The district was purchased in 1038 by the dukes of .Aquitaine. Thus, with the mar- riage of Eleanor of .Aquitaine to Henry Plantag- enet (1152) the province was brought under Eng- lish control. Subsequently, it was returned to French rule (1271) with the marriage of Richard Coeur-de-Lion's sister to Raymund VI, count of Toulouse, but restored once more to England in 1279. During the wars between the French and English (fourteenth fifteenth centuries), the prov- ince again passed through a number of similar changes. With the retreat of the English in 1453 -Agenais linally found itself peaceably pos- sessed by the French. AGENDICUM, or Agedincum. See Senones. AGER PUBLICUS.— "Rome was always mak- ing fresh acquisitions of territory in her tarly history. . . . Large tracts of country became Ro- man land, the property of the Roman state, or public domain (ager publicus), as the Romans called it. The condition of this land, the use to which it was applied, and the disputes which it caused between the two orders at Rome, are among the most curious and perplexing questions in Roman history. . . . That part of newly-ac- quired territory which was neither sold nor given remained public property, and it was occupied, according to the Roman term, by private persons, in whose hands it was a Possessio. Hyginus and Siculus Flaccus represent this occupation as being made without any order. Every Roman took what he could, and more than he could use profit- 118 AGER ROMANUS AGNOSTICISM ably. . . . We should be more inclined to believe that this public land was occupied under some regulations, in order to prevent disputes; but if such regulations existed we know nothing about them. There was no survey made of the public land which was from time to time acquired, but there were certainly general boundaries fixed for the purpose of determining what had become pub- lic property. The lands which were sold and given were of necessity surveyed and fixed by boundaries. . . . There is no direct evidence that any payments to the state were originally made by the Possessors. It is certain, however, that at some early time such payments were made, or, at least, were due to the state." — G, Long, De- cline oj the Roman republic, ch. ii. — See also AcF.ARiAN laws; Land titles: Roman titles; Rome: Republic: P.. C. 133-121. AGER ROMANUS. See Land titles: Roman colonial titles. AGESILAUS II, king of Sparta, 401-361 B. C; helped the ."Xsiatic Greeks when attacked by the Persians (306 B. C), defeating the Satraps, Tis- saphernes and Pharnabazus. When recalled to Greece to defend Sparta against the combined forces of Athens, Thebes, Corinth and Argos, Ages- ilaus defeated the allied armies indecisively at the battle of Coronea, Boeotia (304). Various small expeditions followed. Agesilaus spent the last two years of his life in Egypt trying to raise sufficient money to bring Sparta to her former supremacy and died on his way home {361) at the age of 84. — See also Greece: B. C. 4th century, 399-387- AGGER. See Castra. AGHA MOHAMMED KHAN, Shah of Per- sia, 1705-1707. AGHLABITE DYNASTY. See Caliphate: 715-750; Sicily: S27-878. AGHRIM, or Aughrim, Battle of (i6qi). See Ireland; i68o-i6qi. AGHYL BAIR.— Attacked by British (iqi5). See World War: 1015: VI. Turkey: a, 4, x.xvii. AGHYL DERE.— Attacked by British (1015). .See World War: 1015: VI. Turkev: a, 4, xxvi. AGILULPHUS, King of the Lombards, soo- 616. AGINCOURT (Azincourt), a village of north- ern France in the department of Pas de Calais, twenty-nine miles southeast of Boulogne; made famous by the victory of Henry V of England over the French under Constable d'.'Vlbret, October 25, 1415. See France: 141 5. AGIS I, king of Sparta about 1032 B. C. Tra- dition says the maritime city of Helos fell under his attack. Agis II, king of the Spartans about 427 B. C; led his forces to victory at Mantineia (41S B. C.) and helped to blockade Athens (405 B. C). Agis III, king of Sparta, 338-331 B, C; re- volted against Macedonia (333 B. C.) with the aid of the Persians but failed; slain in the de- ciding battle (331 B. C). Agis IV, succeeded his father, Eudamidas II, as king of Sparta at the age of twenty. .\ note- worthy figure in Spartan history who tried to stay the ruin of the state. AGITATORS, Council of, the name given to a body of representatives elected in 1647 by regi- ments of the English Parliamentary army. They prevented the disbanding of the army in April and again in June, 1647. A council composed of officers and agitators refused the offers of Par- liament and demanded a march on London. See England: 1647 (April-August). AGLIPAY, Gregorio (i860- ), Roman Catholic archbishop; seceded 1902; founded the sect of the Independent Catholics. See Philippine Islands: 1002. AGNADELLO, Battle of (1500). See Venice: 1508-1500. AGNATI. See Gens: Gentes: Gentiles. AGNES, Saint, the patron saint of voung girls. Martyred in Rome by order of Diocletian at the age of thirteen. Her feast day is January 21, and her svmbol the lamb. AGNES OF MERAN (d. 1201), queen of France, daughter of Bertold IV, duke of Meran, Tyrol. In iig6 became second wife of Philip II, after his repudiation of his first queen. Papal opposition, culminating in an interdict, forced a separation in 1200. AGNES OF POITIERS (i025?-i077), em- press of Germany, daughter of William V of Aquitaine. In 1043 became second wife of Henry III of Germany. Regent for her son, Henry IV, 1056-1062; her weak rule was finally overthrown by powerful nobles and she fled to Italy. AGNIERS. — Among several names which the Mohawks (sec Iroquois) bore in early colonial his- tory was that of the Agniers. — F. Parkman, Con- spiracy of Pontiac, v. i, p. o, foot-note. AGNOSTICISM, the doctrine that there is no certain knowledge as to the existence of God, a future life or the essential nature of things. Con- trary to Atheism (q.v.), .^gnosticism makes no de- nials, and affirms nothing but present ignorance with reference to ultimate realities. It does not even assert that knowledge may not at some fu- ture time become possible. The term was coined in i86q by Professor Huxley; but the doctrine is extremely old, being essentially contained in the teaching of Protagoras, Pyrrho and the entire skeptical school of Greek philosophers. (See Christianity: 100-300: Church in Alexandria. The majority of modern Freethinkers may properly be classed as .^Kgnostics, rather than Atheists. The late Col. Robert G. Ingcrsoll was perhaps the most notable among the aggressive champions of .^gnosticism, although Charles Darwin, Herbert Spencer, Thomas Huxley, and other prominent scientists and men of letters in England and .'\merica may be cited as adherents of this doctrine, .Agnosticism was, therefore, historically in vogue in the latter decades of the nineteenth century, when it denoted (a) a form of the philosophic revolt against the prevalent mid-Victorian theology, and (b) more broadly a form of philosophic doubt in the minds particularly of "Darwinian" scientists arid the "sensationalist" school of thinkers as to accepting the reality of many current forms of human knowledge in general. In fact they de- nied the validity of any transcendental or extra- empirical tenets. The term "agnostic," invented by Huxley, is unfortunately correlative to the term "Gnostics" of early Christian history. Ag- nostics were engaged in combating latter-day church-men and others in their bigoted opposi- tion to the tenets of modern "Darwinian" science and pushed them hard from many prevalent "Christian" notions. But unfortunately for ag- nosticism intellectual people — whether churchmen or not — cannot rest in suspension of judgment, still less be content with assertions of unknow- ableness. Not merely idealists, but pracmatists and neo-realists "carry on" and agnosticism is simply outgrown. "What Strabo said nineteen centuries ago still holds true. 'It is impossible,' said the old Greek, 'to conduct women and the gross multitude, and to render them holv, pious, and upright by the precepts of reason and phi- losophy ; superstition or the fear of the gods 119 AGNOSTICISM AGNOSTICISM must be called in aid, the influence of which is founded on fiction or prodigies. For the thunder of Jupiter, the aegis of Minerva, the trident of Neptune, the torches and snakes of the Furies, the spears of the gods adorned with ivy, and the whole ancient theology are all fables which the legislators who formed the political constitution of states employ as bugbears to overawe the credulous and simple." — J. Burroughs, LiglU of day, pp. iob-107. — "The name .\gnostic, originally coined by Professor Huxley about i86g, has gained general acceptance." It is sometimes used to indicate the philosophical theory which Mr. Herbert Spencer, as he tells us, developed from the doctrine of Hamilton and Mansel. Upon that theory I express no opinion. I take the word in a vaguer sense, and am glad to believe that its use indicates an advance in the courtesies of con- troversy. The old theological phrase for an in- tellectual opponent was Atheist — a name which still retains a certain flavour as of the stake in this world and hell-fire in the next, and which, moreover, implies an inaccuracy of some impor- tance. Dogmatic Atheism — the doctrine that there is no God, whatever may be meant by God — is, to say the least, a rare phase of opinion. The word Agnosticism, on the other hand, seems to imply a fairly accurate appreciation of a form of creed already common and daily spreading. The Agnostic is one who asserts — what no one denies — that there are limits to the sphere of human intelligence. He asserts, further, what many theo- logians have e.xpressly maintained, that those limits are such as to exclude at least what Lewes called 'metempirical' knowledge. But he goes further, and asserts, in opposition to theologians, that theology lies within this forbidden sphere. This last assertion raises the important issue; and, though I have no pretension to invent an opposi- tion nick-name, I may venture, for the purposes of this article, to describe the rival school as Gnostics. The Gnostic holds that our reason can, in some sense, transcend the narrow limits of ex- perience. He holds that we can attain truths not capable of verification, and not needing veri- fication, by actual experiment or observation. He holds, further, that a knowledge of those truths is essential to the highest interests of mankind, and enables us in some sort of way to solve the dark riddle of the universe. A complete solution, as everyone admits, is beyond our power. But some answer may be given to the doubts which harass and perplex us when we try to frame any adequate conception of the vast order of which we form an insignificant portion. We cannot say why this or that arrangement is what it is ; we can say, though obscurely, that some answer exists, and would be satisfactory, if we could only find it. Overpowered, as every honest and serious thinker is at times overpowered, by the sight of pain, folly, and helplessness, by the jarring discords which run through the vast harmony of the uni- verse, we are yet enabled to hear at times a whis- per that all is well, to trust to it as coming from the most authentic source, and to know that only the temporary bars of sense prevent us from rec- ognising with certainty that the harmony beneath the discords is a reality and not a dream. This knowledge is embodied in the central dogma of theology. God is the name of the harmony; and God is knowable. Who would not be happy in accepting this belief, if he could accept it honestly? Who would not be glad if he could sav with con- fidence, the evil is transitory, the good eternal: our doubts are due to limitations destined to be abolished, and the world is really an embodiment of love and wisdom, however dark it may appear to our faculties? And yet, if the so-called knowl- edge be illusory, are we not bound by the most sacred obligations to recognise the facts? Our brief path is dark enough on any hypothesis. We cannot afford to turn aside after every ignis jatuus without asking whether it leads to sounder footing or to hopeless quagmires. Dreams may be pleas- anter for the moment than realities; but happiness must be won by adapting our lives to the reali- ties. And who, that has felt the burden of ex- istence, and suffered under well-meant efforts at consolation, will deny that such consolations are the bitterest of mockeries? Pain is not an evil; death is not a separation; sickness is but a bless- ing in disguise. Have the gloomiest speculations of avowed pessimists ever tortured sufferers hke those kindly platitudes? Is there a more cutting piece of satire in the language than the reference in our funeral service to the 'sure and certain hope of a blessed resurrection'? To dispel genuine hopes might be painful, however salutary. To suppress these spasmodic eftorts to fly in the face of facts would be some comfort, even in the distress which they are meant to alleviate. Besides the impor- tant question whether the Gnostic can prove his dogmas, there is, therefore, the further question whether the dogmas, if granted, have any mean- ing. Do they answer our doubts, or mock us with the appearance of an answer? The Gnostics rejoice in their knowledge. Have they anything to tell us? They rebuke what they call the 'pride of reason' in the name of a still more exalted pride. The scientific reasoner is arrogant because he sets limits to the faculty in which he trusts, and denies the existence of any other faculty. They are humble because they dare to tread in the regions which he declares to be inaccessible. But without bandying such accusations, or ask- ing which pride is the greatest, the Gnostics are at least bound to show some ostensible justifi- cation for their complacency. Have they discov- ered a firm resting-place from which they are entitled to look down in compassion or contempt upon those who hold it to be a mere edifice of moonshine? If they have diminished by a scruple the weight of one passing doubt, we should be grateful: perhaps we should be converts. If not, why condemn Agnosticism? I have said that our knowledge is in any case limited. I may add that, on any showing, there is a danger in failing to recognise the limits of possible knowledge. The word Gnostic has some awkward associations. It once described certain heretics who got into trouble from fancying that men could frame theories of the Divine mode of existence. The sects have been dead for many centuries. Their fundamental assumptions can hardly be quite ex- tinct. . . ." — L. Stephen, An agnostic's apology and other essays, pp. 1-5. — " 'The great uncertainty I found in metaphysical reasonings,' writes Ben- jamin Franklin, referring to his youthful specula- tions, 'disgusted me, and I quitted that kind of reading and study for others more satisfactory.' Are we to conclude from this that the future statesman, once having ceased applying himself to metaphysics, was thenceforth emancipated from the intellectual attitude which had previously ac- counted for the practice? .Apparently yes. but in reality no; for to the end of his long life — albeit he was not primarily a metaphysicist — Franklin remained, in spite of himself, indelibly stamped with a metaphysical cast of mind The mental experience of the celebrated American philosopher, far from bemg unique or even markedly out of the ordinary, might be paralleled in the lives of 120 AGODE AGRAM TRIALS countless other thinkers, both professional and amateur. Whether or not the phenomenon be traceable to temperamental factors of a basic and ineradicable nature, it cannot be denied that cer- tain persons, once blessed or cursed — let the reader take his choice — with the desire to probe the cos- mos to its very bottom, persist therein even after they have become convinced of the utter futility of such investigation. Like Tantalus of the myth, they must needs make the effort to drink time and time again, though time and time again they fail to quench (heir thirst. Can it be that they are, after all, never qiiile convinced that the quest of ultimate truth is a barren one? Can it be that in an ever-recurring doubt must be sought the reason for the constant renewal of a search which th". mind repeatedly renounces as hopeless? It is not the search for deity with which I am here concerned: I as.sume that the majority of us are agreed in rejecting such doctrines as posit or pro- fess to demonstrate the existence of a personal God, and in maintaining a defmitely Agnostic at- titude with regard to other more or less attenuated phases of Theism. What I have reference to is the fact that many thinking men and women, in- cluding not a few whose Negativism and Agnos- ticism in the realm of theology are unequivocal, seem to fmd it possible to take a positive mental stand as respects the field of general metaphysics — to give assent, that is, to what sometimes is aptly designated as a 'philosophical creed.' Yet there can be no more justification, intellectually speak- ing, for assuming a positive position in the one case than in the other, since in both spheres the natural limitations of the human mind are equally pronounced. . . . \nA what Sir Leslie Stephen, in An Agnostic's Apology, asserts of natural theology is applicable to the entire field of metaphysics — namely, that 'there is not a single proof ... of which the negative has not been maintained as vigorously as the affirmative.' " — A. Kadeson, Through agnostic spectacles, pp. 16-IQ. — "Science deals entirely with phenomena, and has nothing to say as to the nature of the ultimate reality which may lie behind phenomena. There are four possible attitudes to this ultimate reality. There is the attitude of the metaphysician and theolo- gian, who are convinced not only that it exists but that it can be at least partly known. There is the attitude of the man who denies that it exists; but he must be also a metaphysician, for its existence can only be disproved by metaphysi- cal arguments. Then there are those who assert that it exists but deny that we can know anything about it. And finally there are those who say that we cannot know whether it exists or not. These last are 'agnostics' in the strict sense of the term, men who profess not to know. The third class go beyond phenomena in so far as they assert that there is an ultimate though unknow- able reality beneath phenomena. But agnostic is commonly used in a wide sense so as to include the third as well as the fourth class — those who assume an unknowable, as well as those who do not know whether there is an unknowable or not. Comte and Spencer, for instance, who be- lieved in an unknowable, are counted as agnos- tics." — J. B. Bury, History of the freedom of thought, pp. 213-214. AGODE. See Babylonia: Early Chaldean mon- archy. AGOGE, the public discipline enforced in an- cient Sparta ; the ordinances attributed to Lycur- gus, for the training of the young and for the regulating of the lives of citizens. — G. Schomann, Antiquity of Greece: the Stale, pi. 3, ch. i. AGOMAH.— Burned by the British (1916). See World War: igi6: V. Balkan theater: b, 2, ii. AGONCILLA, F., foreign agent and high commissioner of Philippines. Suggested negotia- tions with United States, but his proposition was refused. See U. S. A.: 1897 (November). AGORA.— The market-place of an ancient Greek city was, also, the center of its political life. "Like the gymnasium, and even earlier than this, it grew into architectural splendor with the increasing culture .of the Greeks. In maritime cities it generally lay near the sea; in inland places at the foot of the hill which carried the old feudal castle. Being the oldest part of the city, it natur- ally became the focus not only of commercial, but also of religious and political life. Here even in Homer's time the citizens assembled in consul- tation, for which purpose it was supplied with seats; here were the oldest sanctuaries; here were celebrated the first festive games; here centred the roads on which the intercommunication, both re- ligious and commercial, with neighbouring cities and states was carried on ; from here started the processions which continually passed between holy places of kindred origin, though locally separated. Although originally all public transactions were carried on in these market-places, special local ar- rangements for contracting public business soon became necessary in large cities. At Athens, for instance, the gently rising ground of the Philo- pappos hill, called Pnyx, touching the Agora, was used for political consultations, while most likely, about the time of the Pisistratides, the market of Kerameikos, the oldest seat of Attic industry (ly- ing between the foot of the Akropolis, the Areopa- gos and (he hill of Theseus), became the agora proper, i. e., the centre of Athenian commerce. . . . The description by Vitruvius of an agora evi- dently refers to the splendid structures of post- Ale.xandrine times. According to him it was quad- rangular in size [ ? shape] and surrounded by wide double colonades. The numerous columns carried architraves of common stone or of marble, and on the roofs of the porticoes were galleries for walk- ing purposes. This, of course, does not apply to all market-places, even of later date; but, upon the whole, the remaining specimens agree with the description of Vitruvius." — E. Guhl and W. Koner, Life of the Greeks and Romans, pt. i, sect. 26. — In the Homeric time, the general assembly of freemen was called the Agora. — G. Grote, His- tory of Greece, pt. i, ch. 20. — See also Athens: B.C. .161-431: General aspect of Periclean Athens AGORANOMI, magistrates in the Greek re- publics, similar to the aediles in Rome. They maintained order in the markets, settled disputes, collected harbor dues, and inspected goods offered for sale. AGRA, an ancient city of northern India, cap- ital of a district and of a division of the same name in the United Provinces; principally famous for the Taj Mahal, the supremely beautiful mau- soleum built in 1632 by the Mogul emperor Shah Jahan, for the remains of his favorite wife; also noted for the Pearl Mosque and other fine speci- mens of architecture; at one time capital of the Mogul empire; under British rule since 1803, and today a prosperous railroad, manufacturing and commercial center. — See also India: 1798-1805, and Map. AGRAM, in Slavic, ZSgrSb, capital of Croatia and Slavonia, an old but thoroughly modernized town, with handsome public buildings, churches, and monuments, higher colleges and academies. AGRAM TRIALS. See Austria-Hungary: 1 908- 1 909. T2I AGRARIAN LAWS AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES AGRARIAN LAWS (of ancient Rome) (Lat. ager, land), laws which dealt with the disposi- tion of the public land, since it was unconstitu- tional to gratuitously dispose of the state's prop- erty without the consent of the people. Such land was the property of the Roman state by virtue of the conquests, and was used by the Republic as a means of defrayinR in part the expenses of administration, cither throueh a direct sale, or through the leasing of it to private citi- zens. Often another object was achieved by means of this propcrt\' — the satisfaction of the poorer citizens. In such cases, contrary to instances when property was leased out, the state henceforth ceased to have any right in the land. The state availed itself of still another method of disposing of its surplus properties, that is through a gratui- tous assignment to an organization a colony, or a settlement. In such cases the ownership passed entirely into the hands of the assignee. In 232 B. C, C. Flaminius enacted a law by means of which tracts of land held by large landowners were redistributed in smaller allotments to the poorer people. Still a third method for providing land for unpropertied people was attempted. In 63 B. C. Servilius Rullus tried to have a law en- acted which would have allowed the sale of foreign lands gained through conquests and the purchase of land in Italy with that money, and finally the allotment of this land to the citizens. Cicero's opposition to the bill caused its withdrawal. — "Great mistakes formerly prevailed on the nature of the Roman laws familiarly termed .Agrarian. It was supposed that by these laws all land w'as declared common property, and that at certain intervals of time the state resumed possession and made a fresh distribution to all citizens, rich and poor. It is needless to make any remarks on the nature and consequences of such a law; sufficient it will be to say. what is now known to all, that at Rome such laws never existed, never were thought of. The lands which were to be distrib- uted by Agrarian laws were not private property, but the property of the state. They were, origi- nally, those public lands which had been the do- main of the kings, and which were increased whenever any city or people was conquered by the Romans; because it was an Italian practice to confiscate the lands of the conquered, in whole or in part." — H. G. Liddell. History of Rome, bk. 2, ch. 8. — ^Sec also Rome: Republic: B C. 133-121; .V.RicuLxrRF.: Modern period: United States: 1833- 1860; Ireland: 1858-1860; Russu: iqoq (April) and 1Q16: Condition of peasantry; Yucatan: igii- IQlS. AGRARIAN LEAGUE. See German\-: 1890- 1804: i8o!;-i8q8. AGRARIAN MOVEMENT. See AcRictn.- TURE. AGRARIAN PARTY. Sec .\x'Stria: 1006- 1000; Finland: iq20. AGRARIAN REFORM: Rumania. See Ru- MANU: Break up of large estates. AGREEMENTS, International: Copyrights, Extradition, etc. See .American republics, Ixter- national union of: iqoi-1002; .Arbitration, In- ternational; also under specific articles AGRI DECUMATES.— "Between the Rhine and the Upper Danube there intervenes a triangu- lar tract of land, the apex of which touches the confines of Switzerland at Basel ; thus separating, as with an enormous wedge, the provinces of Gaul and Vindelicia, and presenting at its base no nat- ural line of defence from one river to the other This tract w-as. however, occupied, for the most part, by forests, and if it broke the line of the Roman defences, it might at least be considered impenetrable to an enemy. Abandoned by the warlike and predatory tribes of Germany,, it was seized by wandering immigrants from Gaul, many of them Roman adventurers, before whom the original inhabitants, the Marcomanni, or men of the frontier, seem to have retreated eastward be- yond the Hercynian forest. The intruders claimed or solicited Roman protection, and offered in re- turn a tribute from the produce of the soil, whence the district itself came to be known by the title of the -Agri Decumates, or Tithed Land. It was not, however, officially connected with any prov- ince of the Empire, nor was any attempt madt- to provide for its permanent security, till a period much later than that on which we are now en- gaged [the period of .Augustus]." — C. Merivale, History of the Romans under the empire, ch. 36. — "Wurtcmburg, Baden and Hohenzollern coincide with the .Agri Decumates of the Roman writers. ' — R. G. Latham, Ethnology of Europe, ch. 8. AGRICOLA, Georg (1400-155.0, founder of modern metallurgy. See Science: Middle Ages and the Renaissance. AGRICOLA, Gnaeus Julius (AD. 37-92), Roman general and statesman; held various posts; commanded a legion in Britain, 70-73; governor of .Aquitania, 74-7S; of Britain, 78-85; built a wall from the Frith of Forth, to the Frith of Clyde. See Britain: A.D. 7S-S4, AGRICULTURAL AGENCIES, need of co- operation. See .Agriculture: Modern period: United States: Rural policv. AGRICULTURAL BANKS. See Rur.al credit. AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. See Chemistry. .Agricultltral. AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES. See Educa- tion. .ACRlrULTl'RAL. AGRICULTURAL COOPERATION. See Cooperation: Belgium. AGRICULTURAL CREDIT. See Rural CREDIT AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. See Edu- cation, .AGRICl'LTURiL. AGRICULTURAL EXPANSION IN UNITED STATES. See Agriculture: Modern period: United States: 1860-18S8: Expansion after the Civil War. AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STA- TIONS. See Education, .Agricultural: United States. AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION WORK. See Education, .Agricultural: United States: Sta- tistics of agricultural colleges. AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS, Im provement of. See .AcRicirLTURE : Modern period: United States: i860- 1888: Expansion after the Civil War. AGRICULTURAL LAND BILL. See Eng- land: iSofi. AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS. See Educa- tion, .AC.RICULTUR.\L. AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES, associations for the promotion of agricultural science and knowledge, composed of farmers and other inter- ested persons. .Agricultural associations were first formed in the middle of the eighteenth century, some of the most important now in existence dat- ing from that time. In recent years the tendency has been to form agricultural associations not only for purposes of education and research, but also in order to assist the farmer directly through co- operation. A list of the most important agricultural so- cieties is appended: 1 22 AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURE 1. Denmark: Royal Danish ARiicultiiral Society. 2. France: Society of Auricullurista of France. National Society of Agriculture. 3. Germany: German ."VRricultural Society. 4. United Kingdom: Bath and West of England Society (1774)- Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland (17S4). Roval Agricultural Socictv of ICngland Agricultural Organization Society, Eng- land and Wales — cooperative (igoi). Royal Dublin Society (1749). S- United States: Farmers' Alliance. Patrons of Husbandry (the Grange). Farmers' Educational and Cooperative Union. AGRICULTURAL SYSTEM: Relation to slavery. See .\griculture: .\ncient period: De- velopment of the servile system among the Ro- mans; Sl.werv; United States. AGRICULTURE "So bountiful has been the earth and so se- curely have we drawn from it our substance, that wc have taken it all for granted as if it were only a gift, and with little care or conscious thought of the consequences of our use of it; nor have we very much considered the essential relation that we bear to it as living parts in the vast creation. Wc may distinguish three stages in our relation to the planet, — the collecting stage, the mining stage, and the producing stage. These overlap and perhaps are nowhere distinct, and yet it serves a purpose to contrast them. At first man sweeps the earth to see what he may gather, — game, wood, fruits, fish, fur, feathers, shells on the shore. A certain social and moral life arises out of this relation, seen well in the woodsmen and the fish- ers — in whom it best persists to Vai present day — strong, dogmatic, superstitious folk. Then man begins to go beneath the surface to see what he can fmd, — iron and precious stones, the gold of Ophir, coal, and many curious treasures. This develops the exploiting faculties, and leads men into the uttermost parts. In both these stages the elements of waste and disregard have been heavy. Finally, we begin to enter the productive stage, whereby we secure supplies by controlling the conditions under which they grow, wasting little, harming not. Farming has been very much a mining process, the utilizing of fertility easily at hand and the moving-on to lands unspoiled of quick potash and nitrogen. Now it begins to be really productive and constructive, with a range of responsible and permanent morals. . . . Neces- sarily, the proportion of farmers will decrease. Not so many arc needed, relatively, to produce the requisite supplies from the earth. Agriculture makes a great contribution to human progress by releasing men for the manufactures and the trades. In proportion as the ratio of farmers decreases it is important that wc provide them the best of opportunities and encouragement: they must be better and better men. .And if we are to secure our moral connection with the planet to a large e.xtent through them, we can see that they bear a relation to society in general that we have over- looked. ... If the older stages were strongly ex- pressed in the character of the people, so will this new stage be expressed ; and so it is that we are escaping the primitive and should be coming into a new character. We shall find our rootage in the soil." — L. H. Bailey, Holy earth, pp. 22-24.— See also Europe: Stone h%c. "The history of our Domestic Animals and Cul- tivated Plants is a subject of absorbing interest to the educated man, and (if he knew it) to the un- educated man too. It forms no small part of the history of Man himself and his slow advance to civilization. . . . .\nd who can state the sum of our obliguliuub to the shccii, the pig, the camel, the dog, and even poor mou.sing Puss? Or why should Chanticleer and his family, with other bipeds of the poultry-yard, be forgotten? .And much the same may be said of Cultivated Plants —the grains, the potherbs, garden-flowers, fruit- trees, timber, and even ornamental trees. Now the history of the Plants and .\nimal5 of Europe— of their reclamation from a wild state to the service of man, and their distribution in their present locale— is susceptible of two or three dif- ferent methods of investigation, which sometimes clash, and lead to opposite conclusions. It is certain that some of them are not natives of the countries where we find them; that they have been imported from abroad. But which of them? whence, and along what route? how early, and by whom? Our answers to these questions will be different, accordingly as wc lean chiefly on Natural Science, or on Ancient History, Literature, and even Language. . . . That the animal and vege- table worlds— that is to say, the whole physiog- nomy of life, labour, and landscape in a country — may, in the course of centuries, be changed under the hand of Man is an ex-perimental fact that, especially since the discovery of America, cannot be contradicted. During the last three centuries — in a purely historical period, since the invention of printing, and in full view of the civilized world— the native animals and plants in newly discovered islands and in the colonized countries of the Western Hemisphere have been supplanted b>- tho.se of Europe, or by a flora and fauna collected from all parts of the globe." — V. Hehn, Citllivated plants and domestic ani- mals, pp. vii-viii, 17. ANCIENT PERIOD Beginnings of plant cultivation. — "In the progress of civilization the beginnings are usually feeble, obscure, and limited. There are reasons why this should be the case with the first attempts at agriculture and horticulture. Between the cus- tom of gathering wild fruits, grain, and roots and that of the regular cultivation of the plants v.-hich produce them there are several steps. . . . Cer- tain trees may exist near a dwelling without our knowing whether they were planted, or whether the hut was built beside them in order to profit by them. War and the chase often interrupt at- tempts at cultivation. Rivalry and mistrust cause the imitation of one tribe by another to make but slow progress. If some great personage command the cultivation of a plant, and institute some cere- mony to show its utility, it is probably because obscure and unknown men have previously spoken of it, and that successful experiments have already 123 AGRICULTURE, ANCIENT Plant CuUivation AGRICULTURE, ANCIENT been made. A longer or shorter succession of local and short-lived ejiperiments must have occurred before such a display, which is calculated to im- press an already numerous public. It is easy to understand that there must have been determin- ing causes to excite these attempts, to renew them, to make them successful. The first cause is that such or such a plant, offering some of those ad- vantages which all men seek, must be within reach. The lowest savages know the plants of their country ; but the example of the Austra- lians and Patagonians shows that if they do not consider them productive and easy to rear, they do not entertain the idea of cultivating them. Other conditions are sufficiently evident: a not too rigorous climate ; in hot countries, the moder- ate duration of drought ; some degree of security and settlement; lastly, a pressing necessity, due to insufficient resources in fishing, hunting, or in the production of indigenous and nutritious plants, such as the chestnut, the datepalm, the banana, or the bread fruit tree. When men can live with- out work it is what they like best. Besides, the element of hazard in hunting and fishing attracts primitive, and sometimes civilized, man more than the rude and regular labor of cultivation. . . . The various causes which favor or obstruct the begin- nings of .agriculture explain why certain regions have been for thousands of years peopled by hus- bandmen, while others are still inhabited by no- madic tribes. It is clear that, owing to their well- known qualities and to the favorable conditions of climate, it was at an early period found easy to cultivate rice and several leguminous plants in Southern Asia, barley and wheat in Mesopotamia and in Egypt, several species of Panicum [millet and other grains] in Africa, maize, the potato, the sweet potato, and manioc in America. Centers were thus formed whence the most useful species were diffused. In the north of Asia, of Europe, and of America the climate is unfavorable and the indigenous plants are unproductive ; but as hunting and fishing offered their resources, agri- culture must have been introduced there late, and it was possible to dispense with the good species of the south without great suffering. It was differ- ent in .Australia, Patagonia, and even in the south of .Africa. They were out of reach of the plants of the temperate region in our hemisphere, and the indigenous species were very poor. It is not merely the want of intelligence or security that has prevented the inhabitants from cultivating them. Europeans established in these countries for a hundred years have cultivated only a single species, and that an insignificant green vegetable. "The ancient Egyptians and the Phtrnicians propagated many plants in the region of the Medi- terranean, and the .'\ryan nations,' whose migrations toward Europe began about 2500, or at latest 2000 B. C, carried with them several species al- ready cultivated in Western Asia. Some plants were probably cultivated in Europe and in the north of -Africa prior to the .Aryan migration. This is shown by names in languages more ancient than the .Aryan tongues; for instance, Finn, Ba.sque, Berber, and the speech of the Guanches of the Canary Isles. However, the remains, called kitchen middens, of ancient Danish dwellings have hitherto furnished no proof of cultivation or any indication of the possession of metal. This ab- sence of metals does not in these northern coun- tries argue a greater antiquity than the age of Pericles, or even the palmy days of the Roman republic Later, when bronze was known in Swe- den — a region far removed from the then civilized countries — agriculture had at length been intro- duced. .Among the remains of that epoch was found a carving of a cart drawn by two oxen and driven by a man. The ancient inhabitants of Eastern Switzerland, at a time when they pos- sessed instruments of polished stone and no metals, cultivated several plants, some of which were of .Asiatic origin. The remains of the Lake-dwellers of .Austria prove likewise a completely primitive agriculture: no cereals have been found at Laibach and only a single grain of wheat at the Mondsce. The backward condition of agriculture in this east- ern part of Europe is contrary to the hypothesis, based on a few words used by ancient historians, that the .\ryans sojourned first in the region of the Danube. In spite of this example, agriculture ap- pears in general to have been more ancient in the temperate parts of Europe than we should be inclined to believe from the Greeks, who were dis- posed to attribute the origin of all progress 10 their own nation. "In .\merica agriculture is perhaps not quite so ancient as in .Asia and Egypt, if we are to judge from the civilization of jlexico and Peru, which does not date even from the first centuries of the Christian era. [See Peru: Empire of the Incas; 1200-1527.] However, the widespread cultiva- tion of certain plants, such as maize, tobacco, and the sweet potato, argues a considerable an- tiquity, perhaps two thousand years or there- abouts. History is at fault in this matter and we can only Jiope to be enlightened by the discov- eries of archseology and geology. Men have not discovered and cultivated within the last two thousand years a single species which can rival maize, rice, the sweet potato, the potato, the breadfruit, the date, cereals, millets, sorghums, the banana, soy. These date from three, four, or five thousand years, perhaps even in some cases six thousand years. The species first cultivated dur- ing the Grsco-Roman civilization and later . . nearly all answer to more varied or more refined needs. \ great dispersion of the ancient species from one country to another took place, and at the same time a selection of the best varieties de- veloped in each species. . . . The peoples of South- ern and Western .^sia innovated in a certain de- gree by cultivating the buckwheats, several cu- curbitacea? [cucumbers, melons, etc.], a few al- liums [garlic, chives, leek], etc. In Europe, the Romans and several peoples in the Middle Ages introduced the cultivation of a few vegetables and fruits, and that of several fodders. In .Africa, a few species were then first cultivated separately. .After the voyages of Vasco da Gama and of Columbus a rapid diffusion took place of the species already cultivated in either hemisphere. These transports continued during three centuries without any introduction of new species into cul- tivation. We must come to the middle of the present [10] century t^ find new cultures of any value from the utilit.-.rian point of view, such as the Eiicalyplus globulus of .Australia and the Cin- chonas of South .America." — .A. P. De Candolle. Beginnings of plant cjiUivation (E. G. Nourse, Agricultural economics, pp. 2,^-27). Tree and vine culture. — "WTierever the cultiva- tion of the three . . . plants— the vine, the fii;, and the olive — was prosecuted on a large scale, there the face of the country and the habits and manners of the people were of necessity changed. Tree-culture was one step more on the path to settled habitations; with and by it men first be- came permanently domiciled. The transition from a nomadic to a settled life has nowhere been sud- den ; it was always accomplished in many inter- mediate stages, at each one of which the shepherd 124 AGRICULTURE, ANCIENT £,ome//if "imma/s AGRICULTURE, ANCIENT hastily sows a piece of ground, from which he as hastily gathers the ensuing harvest ; next spring he chooses another and iresh piece, which is no sooner stripped ol its spoils than he neglects it in turn. When a tribe has settled on some es- pecially fertile spot, building fragile huts, there too the soil is exhausted in a few years; the tribe breaks up its quarters, loads its animals and wag- gons with its movable goods, and goes on to new ground. Even when such a settlement has be- come more permanent, the idea of individual right to the ground is not yet realized. The cultivated land, of which there is an abundance in compari- son to the scanty population, is common prop- erty like the pastures, and is divided anew among the people every year. Such was the condition of the Germans in the time of Tacitus, and this is the plain meaning of that historian's words, which have been carefully explained in a contrary and more welcome sense by patriotic commentators. The communistic, half-nomadic form of civiliza- tion, which was closely connected with ancient patriarchal life, still prevails in many parts of Russia, among the Tartars, Bedouins, and other races. During this first stage of agriculture, cattle- breeding is still the principal occupation, milk and flesh are the staple food, roving and plunder the ruling passion. The huts or houses are lightly built of wood, and easily take lire; the plough is nothing but a pointed branch guided by slaves taken in war, and only slightly scratches the ground ; the foresight of the community is very short, extending only from spring to autumn. The sowing of seed in winter is a considerable ad- vance, but the decisive step is taken when the Culture of Trees commences. Then only arises the feeling of a settled home and the idea of property. For a tree requires nursing and watering for many years before it will bear fruit, after which it yields a harvest every year, while the covenant with the annual 'grass' which Demeter taught men to sow is at an end the moment the grain is gathered. A hedge, the sign of complete possession, is raised to protect the vineyard or the orchard; for the mere husbandman a boundary stone had been suf- ficient. The sown field must wait for dew and rain, but the tree-planter teaches the mountain rivulet to wind round his orchards, and in so doing gets involved in questions of law and property with his neighbours — questions that can only be solved by a fixed political organization. One of the oldest political documents with which we are acquainted, the treaty sworn to by the Delphic Amphictyons, contains a decree that 'running water shall not be cut off from any of the allied cities either in peace or in war.' " — V. Hehn, Cultivated plants and domestic animals. Domestic animals. — "In the East and around the Mediterranean, wherever the summers are rain- less, vegetation was threatened with destruction by drought during the three or four hot months of every year. In these countries, therefore, from the earliest times, the art of irrigation, the banking and diverting of streams, their horizontal distribu- tion, the digging of canals, the making of dams and bores, of water-wheels and wells, were prac- tised. So necessary was all this labour under the sunny skies, that it was continued from generation to generation until it became a second nature and innate skill. And as the art of irrigation was originally a sign of awakening reason, it also be- came a powerful stimulant to further mental de- velopment. It bound man to man, not by the stupid natural gregariousness common to beasts, but by free reciprocity, the first germ of all com- munities and states. . . . When the great Aryan Migration brought the first inhabitants of a higher race, that we are historically acquainted with, into the two peninsulas which afterwards became the scene of classic culture, those lands (we may imagine) were covered with thick, impenetrable forests of dark firs and evergreen ilexes, or decidu- ous oaks . . . interspersed in the river valleys with more open stretches of meadow land, grazed by the herds of the newcomers, and with many a naked or grass-grown precipice, climbed by the nibbling sheep, from whose summits here and there could be seen the waste, unfruitful sea. The swine found plenteous nourishment in the abun- dant acorns, the dog guarded the flocks, wild honey-combs furnished wax and honey, wild apple, pear, and sloe trees afforded a hard, sour fruit; at the stag and boar, wild ox and ravening wolf the arrow sped from the bow, or the sharp, stone- tipped spear was hurled. Game and domestic ani- mals furnished all that was needed: skins for clothing, horns for drinking vessels, sinews and entrails for bow-strings, bones for tools and their handles. Raw hides were the principal material, and needles of bone or horn served to stitch them together. The osier boat was covered with hide, and the leathern coat was sewed together with the sinews of bulls. . , . From the bark of trees, es- pecially of the lime tree, and from the fibres of the stalks of many plants, principally of the nettle kind, the women plaited (plaiting is a very an- cient art, the forerunner of weaving, which it nearly resembles) mats and web-like stuffs, hunt- ing and fishing nets. Milk and flesh were the staple food, and salt a favourite condiment, but difficult to procure, and sought for on the sea- shore and in the ashes of plants. The farther south the easier it became to winter the cattle, which up in the north found but scanty nourish- ment beneath the snow, and in severe seasons must have perished wholesale ; for the sheltering of cattle and the storing of dried grass against the winter are inventions of later origin, that followed in the wake of a somewhat advanced husbandry. The domestic animals were of poor breed. The pig, for example, was the small so-called peat- pig (torf-swine), far inferior to the animal now improved by cultivation and commerce. In winter the human dwelling-place was a hole in the ground, artificially dug, and roofed over with turf or dung; in summ&r it was the waggon itself, or, in the woods, a light tent-like hut, made of branches and wicker work. . . . The noble horse, the darling and companion of the hero, the de- light of poets (witness the splendid descriptions in the Book of Job and in Homer's Iliad) — that glossy, proud, aristocratic, quivering, nervous ani- mal, with its rhythmic action — has his home never- theless in one of the wildest and most inhospitable regions of the world — the steppes and pasture- lands of Central Asia, the realm of storms. There, we are assured, the wild horse still roams under the name of Tarpan, which tarpan cannot always be distinguished from the only half-wild Musin, or fugitive from tame or half-tame herds. It grazes in troops, under a wary leader, always moving against the wind, nostrils and ears alert to every danger, and not seldom struck by a wild panic which drives it full speed across the im- measurable plain. During the terrible winter of the steppes, it scrapes the snow away with its hoofs, and scantily feeds on the dead grasses and leaves which it finds beneath. It has a thick, flowing mane and bushy tail, and when the winter cold commences, the hair all over its body grows into a kind of thin fur. And in this very region lived the first equestrian races of whom we have 125 AGRICULTURE, ANCIENT Domestic Animals AGRICULTURE, ANCIENT any knowledge — in the east the Mongols, in the west the Turks; taking those names in their wid- est sense. . . . That the horse in its original wild- ness also roamed westward of Turkestan, over the steppes of the present South-eastern and Southern Russia, and to the foot of the Carpathi- ans, seems likely enough; not so likely that even the forest region of Central Europe once abounded in troops of that animal. .\nd yet much his- torical testimony seems to put the fact beyond a doubt. Varro speaks of Spanish wild horses; and Strabo writes, 'In Iberia there are many deer and wild horses.' Wild horses as well as wild bulls lived among the Alps, as we learn again from Strabo ; and Pliny tells us, not only in the Alps but in the north generally. Nor are ihe Middle Ages wanting in proofs of the existence ul wild horses in Germany and the countries east of Germany. At the time of Venantius Fortunatus the onager — under which name may be understood the wild horse — was hunted in the Ardennes, as well as bears, stags, and wild boars. In Italy wild horses were seen for the first time during the rule of the Longobards, under King Agilulf. ... If wild horses were thus found in the culti- vated west and south of Germany, they must have existed still longer in the wild country on the Baltic, in Poland and Russia. In fact, we find innumerable proofs of this down to modern times. At the time of Bishop Otto of Bamberg, in the first half of the twelfth century, Pomerania was rich in all kinds of game, including wild oxen and horses. At the same period wild horses are men- tioned as extant in Silesia, whence Duke Sobeslaus in 1 132 'carried away many captives, and herds of wild marcs not a few.' It is known, and is confirmed by many literary allusions, that till the time of the Reformation, and even later, the woods of Prussia were inhabited by wild horses. . . . Turning from the European chase to the steppes of Asia, the true home of the wild horse, we meet with the important fact, that the farther a country lies from this point of departure, the later is the appearance of the horse and its his- torical mention in that country, and the more clearly are the modes of breeding the animal seen to be derived from neighbouring nations to the east and north-east of it. In Egypt, to begin with the remotest member, no figure of a horse or of a war-chariot has ever been found under the so- called 'old kingdom.' It is only when the period of the Shepherd Kings is over, and the eighteenth dynasty with its campaigns has commenced (about 1800 B. C), that we find both pictorial repre- sentations and the first mention in the papyri (so far as they have been deciphered) of the horse and of war-chariots equipped in, Asiatic fashion. ... As to the time when the horse became known to the Semites of Western .'Vsia, we are limited to the evidence of the Old Testament — the Penta- teuch, the Book of Joshua, etc.; but when were these books written? There is not a i)iece in this collection that does not consist of different parts, or that has not passed through the hands of suc- cessive revisers. . . . Descriptions of the horse are not wanting in the so-called books of Moses, nor in the historical books. . . . But in these descrip- tions the horse is never mentioned as a domesti- cated animal; it has nn share in the wanderings and battles of the Children of Israel ; it is the war- like .servant of their neichbours and enemies, prancing and stamping before the war-chariot or beneath the rider As a war-horse, and as such only, it is also celebrated in the fitic description in the Book of Job. In the household its place is taken by the ass. 'Thou shalt not covet,' says the Decalogue, the commands of which were de- rived from a relatively very ancient period, 'thy neighbour's wife, . . . nor his ox, nor his ass, nor anything that is his.' The horse, the chief ob- ject of rapine among mounted nomads, is here, very signihcantly, never mentioned. . . . We are told later that King Josiah abolished, among other heathen abominations, the horses and chariots that were sacred to the sun — this was a feature of the Iranian worship of the sun introduced from Media. . . . Nowhere in the Old Testament do we find horses accompanying the shepherds of the Ara- bian desert ; those people travel only with camels and asses, and the mode of warfare in the despotic kingdoms from the Tigris to the Nile is unknown to them. Quite in agreement with the above is the fact that the Arabs in the army of Xerxes rode only on camels. Herodotus writes, 'The .\rabs were all mounted on camels, which yielded not to horses in swiftness.' And Strabo informs us that in Arabia FelLx there were neither horses nor mules: 'There is a superfluity of domestic ani- mals and herds, with the exception of horses, mules, and swine.' " — V. Hehn, Cultivated plants and domestic animals, pp. 26, 30-32, 35, 37-38, 40-42. "If we take all the above data together, we find that nowhere in Europe, neither among the classic nations of the south, nor the North-Euro- pean nations from the (relts in the west to the Slavs in the east, is the high antiquity of the horse and of its subjugation to man betrayed by any clear traces or undoubted evidence. Many facts, indeed, seem positively to exclude any acquaint- ance with the animal in early times; for instance, the fact of the Homeric Greeks not riding, as they must have dune had they possessed the animal from the first, but only driving, as they had seen the .Asiatics do. We have therefore no ground for imagining the Indo-Germans (.\ryans) in their earliest migrations as a horse-riding people, gal- loping over Europe with loose rein, and catching men and animals with horse-hair lasso. But if the horse did not then accompany them on their great march through the world, it must have been the Iranian branch, which remained near the original point of departure, that learnt the art of riding later; and from whom did they learn it if not from Ihe Turks, who dwell next behind them, and in course of time' drew nearer and nearer? Contemporaneous with the adoption of the novel culture, because closely connected with it, were the introduction of the Ass, the breeding of .Kfutes, and the propagation of the Goat. The patient, hardworking, and intelligent Ass, which obediently fulfilled many domestic duties — driving the mill and the draw-well; carrying baskets full of earth to the hills ; and accompanying its master to market and feast, loaded with the produce of the soil — had no need of fat meadows, shady trees, and ample space like the ox ; it was content with what c.'une first, the way-side herb, the refuse of the table, with straw, twigs, thistles, and brambles. That the ass came to Greece from Semitic .'\sia Minor and Syria^though its original home may have been .•\frica, where its relations still live — is taught us by the history of language, and con- firmed by the oldest known conditions of nations and culture. In the epic time, when cattle-breed- ing and agriculture were the chief occupations, the ass had not yet become a common domestic ani- mal; it is only mentioned cure in the lli:id. and that only in a simile invented and inserted by a poet who was prejuilked against the S dam'nians and .Athenians; the simile is paradoxical and awk- wardly paired with the one preceding. In the 126 AGRICULTURE, ANCIENT Domesfic Animals AGRICULTURE, ANCIENT Odyssey, the second part of which afforded plenty of opportunity for noticing such an animal, the ass is never named at all ; nor is it spoken of by Hesiod. As the Latin word asinus has an archaic form which seems to reach back to a period pre- ceding the Greek colonization, the animal must have come into Italy overland through the lUyrian tribes; or must we suppose that the people of Cumas, wher) they founded their first city on the present Isle of Ischia, still said asiiosr' Later on, in Italy the ass, besides being valued for the do- mestic duties he performed, was of great use in facilitating import and export in the mountainous parts of the peninsula. Oil and wine and even corn were carried on donkey-back from the in- terior to the sea ; Varro tells us that merchants kept herds of asses expressly for that purpose. The ass, and with it its name, accompanied the progress of the culture of the vine and olive to the north, not crossing the limits of that culture. In proportion as the ure-ox, the bison, and the elk died out, the long-eared foreign beast became domesticated in Gaul, receiving various names, and living in the customs, jokes, proverbs, and fables of the people. Germany, however, proved too cold for the animal. The Mule, already fre- quently mentioned by Homer, came from Pontic Asia Minor, or, as Homer expressly says, from the Henetians, a Paphlagonian people. "The Mulus, or mule, was brought to Italy, as the name proves, from Greece. The Latin name was afterwards used by all the nations which adopted the animal. In V'arro's time, just as now, cars were drawn along the high-roads by mules, which were not only strong, but pleased the eye by their handsome appearance. The Greeks were equally delighted with the animal, and Nausicaa's car is drawn to the sea-shore and back by mules. The Goat was used as a domestic animal in the mountainous districts of the south, where culti- vation more resembled that of gardens than of fields. It feeds on the spicy herbs that grow on sun-heated cliffs, is content with tough shrubs, and yields aromatic milk. Stony Attica, which was rich in figs and olives, also nourished in- numerable goats; and one of the four old Attic phylae was named after the goat. Even if the animal came into Europe with the first Aryan immigrants,, and accordingly the Hellenes and Ital- ians had not to make its acquaintance after reach- ing their new home, yet it was only there, and under the Semitic mode of cultivation there adopted, that it found its proper place and true use. It is obvious, too, that the keeping of Bees could only have been adopted after the rise of tree-culture. The man who planted his owrt olives, for the fruit of which he had to wait for years, could easily keep beehives within his en- closed ground, nursing the bees through the winter, increasing their number by colonies derived from the parent-stock, and in due season receiving the reward of his exertions in the shape of honey and wax. Aristasus, the inventor of oil, also in- vented apiculture, and Autuchos, i, e., the self- possessing, is named as his brother. Homer knows nothing of beehives; the simile of the Achaeans gathering together 'like bees flying out of a cleft in the rock.' is derived from the swarming of wild bees. We first meet with an artificial bee- hive in a not very old passage in Hesiod's The- ogony ; in it the working-bees are distinguished from the drones, which latter are compared to women I In those days the shepherd robbed the wild honeycombs which he found in the forest, and if the spoil was abundant be made mead of the honey ; the husbandman fermented his flour into a kind of raw beer; the vintner often mixed the honey from his hives with his wine, which he then called muhum, and believed that the enjoy- ment of this beverage would lengthen his days. . . . The domestic joid made its appearance in Western .'Vsia and in Europe much later than one would imagine. The civilized Semitic races can- not have been acquainted with the fowl, for it is nowhere mentioned in the Old Testament. It is never seen on Egyptian monuments otherwise so lull of the details of ancient housekeeping on the Nile. There we see tlocks of tame geese being driven home from the pasture, we see them and their eggs being carefully counted, but nowhere cocks and henS; and when Aristotle and Diodorus say that eggs were artificially hatched in Egypt by burying them in dung, they must mean the eggs of geese and ducks, or refer to a period later than the Persian conquest, which Diodorus seems to hint, for lie commences his account of the tiatcliing ovens with the words: 'The Egyptians inherited many customs relating to the breeding and rearing of animals from their fore-fathers, but other things they have invented, among which the most wonderful is the artificial hatching ot eggs.' The domestic fowl is aboriginal in India, where its supposed parent species, the Bankiva fowl, still exists from Further India and the Indian islands to Cashmere. The domestic fowl first migrated to the West with the Medo-Per- sian invaders. In a work on the Temple of the Samian Hera, Herodotus says that as the cock spread from Persis, so the sacred pe.icuck spread from the Temple of Hera to the surrounding dis- tricts. In the religion of Zoroaster the dog and the cock were sacred animals; the first as the faithful guardian of house and flocks, the second as the herald of dawn and the symbol of light and the sun, , . , Soon after the appearance of cocks and hens in Greece, whole families of these fowls must have been transported to Sicily and South Italy, and there, as in Greece, spread from house to house. That the Sybarites would suffer no cocks near them for fear of being disturbed in their sleep is one of those late-invented anecdotes by which people proved their wit. Sybaris was destroyed in 510 B, C., when the cock was un- known in Italy, or only just introduced. The figure of a cock may be seen on coins of Himera in Sicily, and sometimes the figure of a hen on the reverse side, perhaps as an attribute of .'\sk- lepios, the genius of the healing springs of the lilace. The oldest representations of the cock on coins and vases in Greece, Sicily, and Italy, never go beyond the date we have given, namely, the second half of the sixth century B, C, The Romans, to whom the bird was brought either directly or indirectly from one of these Greek towns, made use of it with truly Roman religious craft as a means of prophecy in war. . . . There is no direct historical testimony as to the manner in which domestic fowls were introduced into Central and Southern Europe. They may have come straight from Asia to the kindred nations of the South Russian steppes and the eastern slopes of the Carpathian mountains, whose religion agreed with that of the other Iranian races, and some of whom already practised agriculture in the time of Herodotus; or by way of the Greek colonies on the Black Sea, the influence of which, as is well known, spread far and wide; or from Thrace to the tribes on the Danube; or from Italy by way of the ancient commercial roads across the Alps; or through Massilia to the regions of the Rhone and Rhine; or, finally, by several of these ways at once. The more a people of 127 AGRICULTURE, ANCIENT %7men/plZd" AGRICULTURE, ANCIENT nomadic habits accustomed themselves to a set- tled mode of life, the. more easily would the do- mestic fowl find shelter and acceptance among them. In the middle of the first century B. C. Caesar found fowls among the Britons, though perhaps only among those who tilled the ground near the south coast and had adopted the cul- ture of the Gauls. . . . While the number of mam- malia that man has tamed and made companions of has only slightly increased in historical times, the farms and settlements of men have become en- riched, at a comparatively late period, with va- rious tame birds, among which the domestic fowl is the most important. Bird and cattle-breeding are to a certain extent opposed to one another. It is not where wide plains fertilized by copious droppings stretch in immeasurable corn-fields and green meadows, and are bordered by thick forests, but in the sunny districts of more restricted horti- culture, where farm stands close to farm, and hedge succeeds to hedge — it is here that the winged tribe peck and flutter about the human habita- tion, forming a not-to-be-undervalued source of sustenance and income in the system of the house- hold. Thus in Europe the Romance nations are, in accordance with tfieir habitat and tradition, the bird-breeding, bird-eating peoples: the Germans, on the contrary, feed principally on the flesh and milk of their cattle. France, at a moderate cal- culation, possesses above a hundred million fowls, and exports to England yearly above four hun- dred million eggs. In southern countries the only meat that the traveller tastes, often for months together, and that the native peasant regales him- self with on feast-days, is a fowl roasted or boiled with polenta. The taming of the Goose and the Dtick is far more ancient than that of the birds hitherto mentioned; and, what is more, they were not introduced from Asia, but have been re- claimed from the wild native species. ... By the Greeks the goose was considered a graceful bird, admired for its beauty, and an elegant present for favoured friends. In the Odyssey, Penelope has a little flock of twenty geese, in which she takes much pleasure, as we learn from the beautiful passage in which she relates her dream to her dis- guised husband. Here the geese appear as do- mestic animals, kept more for the pleasure the sight of them affords than for any profit they might bring. So, in the Edda, Gudrun keeps geese, which scream when their mistress laments over the corpse of Sigurd. At the same time, the Greeks valued geese as careful guardians of the house ; on the grave of a good housewife was placed the figure of a goose as a tender tribute to her quality of — vigilance ! Among the Romans perfectly white geese were carefully selected and used for breeding, so that in course of time a white and lamer species was produced, which differed considerably from the grey wild goose and its direct descendants. In ancient as in modern Italy the goose was not so commonly found on small farms as in the North, partly because the necessary water was scarce, and partly because of the damage she caused to the young vegeta- tion. But numerous flocks of this bird cackled in the huge goose-pens of breeders and proprietors of villas; there the enormous liver that made the mouth of the gourmand water was produced by forced fattening — an artificial disease which was poor thanks for their saving of the Capitol. The use of goose feathers for stuffing beds or cushions was foreign to early antiquity ; the later Romans first learned the practice from the Celts and Ger- mans. . . . "It was also in consequence of the Migration of I Nations that the Bos family — that first friend of man when emerging out of barbarism — was en- riched by the addition of a kinsman from the South, endowed with tremendous pulling power, the black and scowling Buffalo. He now lives in the moist, hot malaria plains of Italy, enjoying their slime, and defying their venomous vapours; the maremmas of Tuscany, the bottomlands about the Tiber's mouth, the Pontine marshes, the swamps of Psstum, the Basilicata; also in the landes of Gascony, in many parts of Hungary, etc. The Pontine buffaloes wallow like immense swine in the high reeds of the swamps, standing still at the sound of a carriage on the high road, and stupidly staring at the traveller; or, when teased by gad-flies, hiding up to the muzzle in the water. The buffalo is employed, like the ox, in dragging the heavy plough, or the loaded har- vest waggon; its milk is made into highly valued cheese (called in Naples muzzarello), and, after death, its thick, heavy skin forms the strongest leather. . . . While progressive culture has almost exterminated those savage, obstinate, and kingly inhabitants of the European forests, the ure-ox and the bison, the buffalo was brought by immi- grating nations from the borders of India to the southern coasts of Italy. Aristotle describes a wild ox living in Arachosia, near modern Kabool, which can be no other than our present buffalo. During the succeeding centuries that animal must have migrated farther west. It was first seen in Italy about the year 600 A. D., in the reign of the Longobardian king, Agilulf — Paul. Diac. 4, 11: 'Then for the first time wild horses and buf- faloes were brought to Italy, and regarded as wonders by the Italian people.' We must be grateful to the Longobardian monk for this re- port, for how seldom do the historians, who have enough to do with questions of war and govern- ment, throw us a crumb of what relates to cul- ture; but we should have liked something still more exact." — V. Hehn, Cultivated plants and do- mestic animals, pp. 59, et seg. Pastoral life of the Homeric period. — The early Greeks, "as they come before us in the Homeric poems, are rather a pastoral than an agricultural race. It is in their herds of cattle, sheep, and swine, rather than in the produce of their lands, that the wealth of the heroic kings consisted. It was cattle which furnished them with a measure of value; and cattle, together with slaves, were the most valuable spoil which they secured in their military and piratical expedi- tions. Thucydides traces the same lines as Homer. In early times, he tells us, the insecurity of prop- erty was too great to allow of the planting of trees, which would of course lie at the mercy of an invading enemy. .And although men tilled the ground, the harvest would very often fall to the foe, whereas cattle could on an alarm be driven to a place of safety. "^ — P. Gardner and F. B. Jones, .igricultural development of ancient na- tions (E. G. Nourse, .igricultural economics, pp. 20-30) . — "Cattle raising seems to have been more important in the Homeric age than afterwards, when the needs of the population could not be satisfied by the home growth, and importation of foreign cattle from the Black Sea and from Africa was necessary. The small number of herds of cattle was probably due to the fact that in Greek antiquity very little cow's milk was drunk, but, chiefly goat's milk. Sheep-rearing, however, was very general, and brought to great perfection, since they not only used the flesh and milk of the sheep for food, but in particular required their skin and wool for clothing. . . . Excellent quali- 28 AGRICULTURE, ANCIENT Homeric Period Roman System AGRICULTURE, ANCIENT ties [of sheep's wool] were produced by Hellas proper, as well as by the Greek colonies in Asia Minor and Lower Italy, and a great deal of it was exported to foreign countries. . . . The goat's hair was woven into stuff, not in Greece itself, but probably in Northern Africa and Cilicia, where a kind of coarse cloth was manufactured of it, which, however, was not often used for clothing. The facility of goat-rearing, which re- quired no special care, and could be carried on even on rocky ground, where but little grass grew, enabled it to become very extensive, and we find it, in fact, throughout almost the whole of Greece in ancient times. The labor of slaves being very cheap and ineffective, shepherds and goatherds were very numerous in proportion to the number of animals they tended, — at least one to every hundred, more often one to fifty. Swine-rearing, on the other hand, played a very small part, for it was not sufficiently remuner- ative. Although the flesh was used for food, yet in the historic period it was not so popular a dish as in the age of Homer, and they did not understand how to draw a profit in other ways from swine. "In its technical aspects, ancient agriculture remained in much the same state throughout the whole of antiquity as it occupied in the heroic age, and probably this was the com- mon inheritance of the Indo-Germanic race. In Homer, we find the custom, which always pre- vailed afterwards, of alternating only between har- vest and fallow; even the succeeding ages seem to have known nothing of the rotation of crops. The implements used for necessary farming occu- pations were of the simplest kind, in particular the primitive plough, which was not sufficient to tear up the earth, so that they had to use the mattock in addition ; they had no harrow or .scythe, in place of which they used the sickle, and their threshing arrangements were most un- satisfactory, since they simply drove oxen, horses, or mules over the threshing floor, and beat out the ears with their hoofs, by which means a great part of the harvest was lost. It was only the large number of labourers at the disposal of the farmers (in consequence of the numerous slaves, to which at times, when there was a press of work, they added hired labourers), and the great care taken in manuring and improving the ground, etc., that enabled them to earn a living at all. Great wealth was never attained in ancient Greece by agriculture, certainly not by growing corn; vines and olives supplied better profits, though here too the instruments used were of the sim- plest, but the ground was especially favourable to their cultivation. Oil in particular, could be sup- plied by Greece to foreign countries, but corn did not grow in a quantity sufficient to provide their own population, and consequently they had to import a great deal from foreign countries, es- pecially from the Black Sea, and afterwards too from Egypt." — A. E. Zimmern, Home life of the ancient Greeks, pp. 4Q.';-4q7. — "It is probable that the downfall of the Achaean race was followed by a time of greater simplicity, when the aristocracy of the Greek tribes lived on their estates in the midst of slaves and retainers, as did the wealthy inhabitants of Elis even in the time of the Acheean League. But Greek civic life began to develop with irresistible attraction. The rich thronged into cities, and left the work of their farms to bailiffs and slaves. There were in par- ticular two states wherein the country life fell into the background — Athens and Sparta. But even at Athens, although the witty and luxurious citizens ridiculed the yeoman as a lout, they could not deny his solid virtues. As a whole, Greece is a country by no means favorable to agriculture. The country is mostly rocky, barren, and uneven, especially unsuited for large farms. The system of farming was that adapted to peasant proprie- tors or yeomen. There can be no doubt that ag- riculture in Attica suffered more and more as time went on, though to a less degree than that of Italy in imperial times, from the competition of richer soils. Great cargoes of corn from Egypt and Sicily and the Black Sea constantly arrived in the Piraeus, and the people of Athens learned the fatal lesson that it was easier to buy agri- cultural produce with money wrung from the allies or extracted from the mines of Laurium than to grow it on the rugged soil around Athens." — P. Gardner and F. B. Jevons, Agriailtttral de- velopment of ancient nations (E. G. Nourse, Agri- cultural economics, pp. 29-31). Development of the servile system among the Romans. — The spread of slavery among ancient peoples was accompanied by a corresponding change in agrarian organization. In the early days of the Roman Republic, "the farm was the only ■place where slaves were employed. The fact that most of the Romans were farmers and that they and their free laborers were constantly called from the fields to fight the battles of their coun- try led to a gradual increase in the number of slaves, until they were far more numerous than the free laborers who worked for hire. ... In the last century of the Republic all manual labor, almost all trades, and certain of what we now call professions were in the hands of slaves. . . . The small farms were gradually absorbed in the vast estates of the rich, the sturdy yeomanry of Rome disappeared, and by the time of Augustus the freeborn citizens of Italy who were not soldiers were either slave holders themselves or the idle proletariate of the cities. . . . The slaves that were employed upon the vast estates were known as familia rustica; that very name implies that the estate was no longer the only home of the master. He had become a landlord, living in the capital and visiting his lands only occasionally for pleas- ure or for business. The estates may, therfore, be divided into two classes: country seats for pleasure and farms or ranches for profit. The former were selected with great care, the pur- chaser having regard to their proximity to the city or other resorts of fashion, their healthful- ness, and the natural beauty of their scenery. They were maintained upon the most extravagant scale. There were villas and pleasure grounds, parks, game preserves, fish ponds and artificial lakes, everything that ministered to open air lux- ury. Great numbers of slaves were required to keep these places in order, and many of them were slaves of the highest class: landscape garden- ers, experts in the culture of fruits and flowers, experts even in the breeding and keeping of the birds, game, and fish, of which the Romans were inordinately fond. These had under them assist- ants and laborers of every sort, and all were sub- ject to the authority of a supermtendent or stew- ard (.vilicus), who had been put in charge of the estate by the master. But the name familia rus- tica is more characteristically used of the drudges upon the farms, because the slaves employed upon the country seats were more directly in the per- sonal .service of the master and can hardly be said to have been kept for profit. The raising of grain for the market had long ceased to be profit- able, but various industries had taken its place upon the farms. Wine and oil had become the most important products of the soil, and vineyards 129 AGRICULTURE, ANCIENT Roman System Fall of Empire AGRICULTURE, ANCIENT and olive orchards were found wherever climate and other conditions were favorable. Cattle and swine were raised in countless numbers, the for- mer more for draft purposes and the products of the dairy than for beef. Sheep were kept for the wool, and woolen garments were worn by the rich and poor alike. Cheese was made in large quan- tities, all the larger because butter was unknown. The keeping of bees was an important industry, because honey served, so far as it could, the pur- poses for which sugar is used in modern times. Besides these things that we are even now accus- tomed to associate with farming, there were others that are now looked upon as distinct and separate businesses. Of these the most important, perhaps, as it was undoubtedly the most laborious, was the quarrying of stone; another was the cutting of timber and working it up into rough lumber, and finally the preparing of sand for the use of the builder. This last was of much greater importance relatively then than now, on account of the ex- tensive use of concrete at Rome. In some of these tasks intelligence and skill were required as they are to-day, but in many of them the most necessary qualifications were strength and endur- ance, as the slaves took the place of much of the machinery of modern times. This was especially true of the men employed in the quarries, who were usually of the rudest and most ungovernable class, and were worked in chains by day and housed in dungeons by night, as convicts have been housed and worked in much later times. The management of such an estate was also intrusted to a vilicus, who was proverbially a hard task- master, simply because his hopes of freedom de- pended upon the amount of profits he could turn into his master's coffers at the end of the year. His task was no easy one. Besides planning for and overseeing the gangs of slaves already men- tioned, he had under his charge another body of slaves only less numerous, employed in providing for the wants of the others. Everything neces- sary for the farm was produced or manufactured on the farm. Enough grain was raised for food, and this grain was ground in the farm mills and baked in the farm ovens by millers and bakers who were slaves on the farm. The task of turn- ing the mill was usually given to a horse or mule, but slaves were often made to do the grinding as a punishment. Wool was carded, spun, and woven into cloth, and this cloth was made into clothes by the female slaves under the eye of the steward's consort, the vilka. Buildings were erected, and the tools and implements necessary for the work of the farm were made and repaired. These things required a number of carpenters, smiths, and masons, though they were not riecessarily work- men of the highest class. It was the touchstone of a good vilicus to keep his men always busy, and it is to be understood that the slaves were alternately plowmen and reapers, vinedressers and treaders of the grapes, perhaps even quarrymen and lumbermen, according to the season of the year and the place of their toiling." — H. W. John- ston, Private life of the Romans, pp. 87, 05-08. "Meanwhile out in the country we can perceive the farm, with its hedges of quick-set, its stone walls, or its bank and ditch. The rather primi- tive plough — though not always so primitive as it was a generation or so ago in Italy — is being drawn by oxen, while, for the rest, there are in use nearly all the implements which were em- ployed before the quite modern invention of ma- chinery. It may be remarked at this point that the rotation of crops was well understood and regularly practised. Then there are the pasture- lands, on the plains in the winter, but in summer on the hills, to which the herdsmen drive their cattle along certain drove-roads till they reach the unfenced domains belonging to the state. . . . It is probable, doubtless, that the greater propor- tion of the slave body were employed as domestic servants. But many others tilled the lands of the larger proprietors. Others laboured under the contractors who constructed the public works. Others were used as assistants in shops and fac- tories. It is obvious that such competition re- duced the field of free labour, when it did not close it entirely, and the free labour must have been unduly cheapened. But to suppose that all the Roman work, whether in town or country, was done by slaves is to be grossly in the wrong. Romans were to be found acting as ploughmen and herdsmen, workers in vineyards, carpenters, masons, potters, shoemakers, tanners, bakers, butchers, fullers, metalworkers, glass-workers, clothiers, greengrocers, shopkeepers of all kinds. There were Roman porters, carters, and wharf- labourers, as well as Roman confectioners and sausage-sellers. To these private occupations must be added many positions in the lower public or civil service. There was, for example, abundant call for attendants of the magistrates, criers, mes- sengers, and clerks. Unfortunately our informa- tion concerning all this class is very inadequate. The Roman writers — historians, philosophers, rhet- oricians, and poets — have extremely little to say about the humble persons who apparently did nothing to make history or thought " — T. li. Tucker, Life in the Roman ivorld of Nero and St. Patil, pp. 246-247, 252-253. Discouragement of agriculture in Europe after the fall of the Roman empire. — "The state of Europe during and alter the period of the bar- barian invasions was not conducive to the best cultivation of either urban or rural lands. The confusion was not so great, however, as to blinil the invading chieftains to the value of the terri- tory under their dominion, and it was not long before all the land occupied by these people was gathered together under the proprietorship of a small number of the barbarian leaders. The huge estates so created escaped division, first, by the establishment of the law of primogeniture, and second, by the introduction of entails. From these great proprietors nothing could be expected in the way of improved methods of agriculture. Prima- rily fighting men, these landowners at first had no time, and later no taste for devotion to agricul- tural pursuits, a profession that requires great care, a certain amount of frugality, and an exact consideration of small advantages to be gained from plodding work. If little improvement was to be expected from such great proprietors, still less was to be hoped for from those who occupied the land under them. In the ancient state of Europe, the occupiers of land were all tenants at will. They were all, or almost all, slaves, but their slavery was of a milder kind than that known among the ancient Greeks and Romans, or even in our West Indian colonies. They were supposed to belong more directly to the land than to their master. . » . Whatever cultivation and improvement could be carried on by means of such slaves was properly carried on by their ma.ster. It was at his expense The seed, the cattle, and the instruments of husbandry were all his. It was for his benefit. Such slaves could acquire nothing but their daily maintenance. It was properly the proprietor himself, therefore, that occupied his own lands and cultivated them by his own bondmen 130 AGRICULTURE, MEDIEVAL Manorial Syatem AGRICULTURE, MEDIEVAL "The experience of all ages and nations, I be- lieve, demonstrates that the work done by slaves, though it appears to cost only their maintenance, is in the end the dearest of any. . , , Under all these discouragements, little improvement could be expected from the occupiers of land. The ancient policy of Europe was, over and above all this, unfavourable to the improvement and cultivation of land, whether carried on by the proprietor or by the farmer; first, by the general prohibition of the exportation of corn, without a special license, which seems to have been a very universal regu- lation; and, secondly, by the restraints that were laid upon the inland commerce, not only of corn, but of almost every other part of the produce of the farm, by the absurd laws against engrossers, forestallers, and regraters, and by the privileges of fairs and markets." — T. N. Carver, Middle Ages (E. G. Nourse, Agricultural economics, pp. 36-38). Bibliography: Of contemporary works on an- cient agriculture, Hesiod, Works and days, will serve for Greek rural life; while Cato, De re rus- lica, and Varro, Rerum rusticarum, are the stand- ard works on Roman agriculture. However, a great many distinguished men of letters in Rome took up farming as a hobby, with the result that whole volumes, as well as many less direct and comprehensive discussions of farming are to be found among the works of such men as Pliny, Vergil and Cicero. Some recent treatments of the subject are contained in Glover's From Pericles to Philip, cli. 9-11, Charles Daubeny, Lectures on Roman husbandry, and in Vladimir G. Simk- hovitch's Rome's jail reconsidered {Polilical Science Quarterly, June, 1916). Ancient and prim- itive agriculture in other parts of the world is handled — for China and Japan, by Franklin H. King, Farmers of forty centuries (Madison, Wis., iQii); in Peru, by O. F. Cook, Staircase farms of tile ancients (Sational Geographic Magazine, May, 1Q16) ; in the tropics, by J. C. Willis, Agriculture in the tropics, ch. viii; and in France, by .'\lbert Babeau, La vie rurale dans Vancienne France. Other material on primitive agriculture may be found in the Scientific .American for March 16, IQ18: Masterpieces of primitive engineering; Max Ringelmann, Essai sur I'histoire du genie rural {.Annates de I'Institule Rationale Agronomique, deuxieme serie, v. ii-i.x), and Le travail dans Vantiquite, by Rene Menard and Claude Sauva- geot, MEDIEVAL PERIOD Manorial system. — "The history of agrarian or- ganisation in western Europe since the opening of the Christian era falls into three great stages, which may be designated the servile, the manorial, and the contractual. Exact chronological delimitation is impossible, for even within the bounds of a single country these stages overlap by very wide margins. Speaking broadly, however, the servile stage comprises the era of the Roman Empire and is marked by a rural economy involving own- ership of the soil by great proprietors and culti- vation mainly by slaves; the manorial stage in- cludes large portions of the Middle .Ages and is distinguished by a quasi-feudal type of agrarian organisation, involving ownership by feudal lords and cultivation by persons neither slave nor free but of status varying widely between the two conditions TSee also Slavery: 6oo-gool ; and the contractual stage comprises the modern era, char- acterised in a degree by the increased number of proprietors but mainly by the full establishment of agrarian relationships upon the basis of volun- tary contract. [See also Feudalism.] [The first of these three stages, the servile, has already been described in the preceding section.] The methods of agriculture and the conditions of the agricul- tural population in all western countries at the present day have been determined fundamentally by the changes involved in the transition from the second to the third of these stages, i. e.., by the break-up of the manorial system. . . . The manor, which was the economic unit and the social cell of the Middle Ages, was an estate owned by a lord and occupied by a community of dependent cul- tivators. The proprietorship of the lord was ac- quired by feudal grant, by purchase, by usurpa- tion, by commendation, or in some other way ; while the tenants were the descendants of owners or occupiers of lands drawn under the lord's con- trol, of persons who had become permanently in- debted to the lord, or of settlers who had sought the lord's favour and protection. Throughout the Middle Ages practically all lands belonged to some manor, and until after commerce, industry, and town life had acquired fresh importance in the 1 2th and 13th centuries, almost the whole of the population was manorial. [See Manors.] Speaking broadly, the cardinal features of the manor were everywhere and at all times the same. The inhabitants dwelt, not apart in isolated farm- houses, but in a 'nucleated' village, consisting of huts grouped about the parish church and the manor-house of the proprietor. Attached to the manor-house, which might be occupied by the pro- prietor himself or by a steward, was usually a courtyard, surrounded by buildings for brewing, cooking, and general farm purposes; and at some distance, situated if possible on a stream, was a mill. The houses of the tenants were likely to be thatch-roofed, one-roomed, cheerless, and closely adjoined by stables and granaries. From the village stretched in all directions the open fields, the cultivated portions lying nearest, with the mead- ows and waste-land beyond. The most charac- teristic feature of agriculture in the Middle .^ges, and one which persisted in some regions until the nineteenth century, was the open-field system. Not only were the holdings of different persons on the manor not fenced off one from another; there were no durable enclosures at all. Growing crops were protected by rudely constructed barriers, as were the meadows during the weeks while the hay was maturing. But after harvest the hedges were removed, the cattle were turned in to graze, and the arable land was treated as common waste or pasture. In the lack of scientific schemes of crop rotation and of fertilisation it was not feasible to cultivate a piece of ground uninterruptedly year after year. Hence there had been devised, very early, the 'two-field' and the 'three-field' systems. Under the two-field system the arable land of the manor was divided into two large tracts, each to be cultivated in alternate years. Under the three-field system the arable land was divided into three parts, two being cultivated and one lying fallow every year. Of the cultivated fields under the latter arrangement, one was planted ordi- narily with wheat, rye, or other crops sowed in the fall and harvested the next summer and the other with oats, barley, peas, or other crops planted in the spring and harvested in the fall. By rotating the three fields, each was given an opportunity every third year to recuperate. Al- though not so widely prevalent as at one time was supposed, the three-field system was probably the more common, A further important feature of the open-field system was the division of the 131 AGRICULTURE, MEDIEVAL Manorial Syatern AGRICULTURE, MEDIEVAL cultivated plots into strips lor assignment to the tenants. To every land-holding inhabitant of the manor was assigned a number of the strips, not contiguous, but lying in different fields, and fre- quently in different parts of the same field. . . . The origins of this practice are obscure, and sev- eral conflicting theories . respecting them have been advanced. There is no need to assume that they were everywhere the same. The basis of the strip system seems very generally to have been, how- ever, the desire to ensure equity uf allotment. Fields were likely not to be uniform in fertility and ease tem was universal. An arable lield was thus made up of any number of blocks of strips set at right angles or inclined one to another, presenting the checkered and variegated appearance of a patchwork quilt. On every manor were meadows sufficient to produce the supply of hay required for the sustenance of the live-stock through the winter months. Sometimes these lay in a block; sometimes they comprised two or more tracts in- terspersed with the cultivated fields." — F. A. Ogg, Economic drvelopmenl of modirn Europe, pp. 18-22. — See also Fertilisers: Origin. Ir'low used hy Ancient ancient Husba-ndnnen CH E^yptia.fL Plow Plov^ o/^ Ancient Greece TKe New plow o 1797^ Ea.rly 6erma.n. plow 16"^!:! CenlviFy ^S^xon. TYPKS OK EARLY AGKICULTUUAI, IMI'LKMEXTS of cultivation, and their minute division into strips was calculated to prevent the more desirable areas from being monopolised by favoured or fortunate persons. In large portions of England the strips were arranged to be forty rods, or a furlong (i. e., a 'furrow-long,' or the normal length of a fur- row), in length and four rods in width, giving an area of one acre. Strips two rods wide contained a half-acre and one rod wide a 'rood,' or quarter- acre. The strips were separated by narrow belts of unploughed turf, or simply by little ridges, which might be marked also with stones. The ridged surface of the fields in many districts to-day bears testimony to the employment of these primi- tive division lines, or 'balks' On the continent arrangements varied in detail, bnl (lie strip sys- "VV'hile the manorial type of rural organization as a method of land tenure was undoubtedly a great advance upon the servile system, farm im- plements and methods of tillage on the other hand showed but little improvement upon those in use in the days of the Roman Empire. Plough- ing was still done by oxen, usually three times a year, in the autumn, in April and in midsummer; the furrows were a foot apart and the plough went no more than two inches deep. Seed was still scattered by hand, grain harvested by sickle and threshed by flail or oxen. Crops were conse- quently not only uncertain and uneven, but piti- fully small. "The amount of wheat, rye, beans, and peas usually sown to the acre was only two bushels; and of oats and, strangely enough, of 13-2 AGRICULTURE, MEDIEVAL Manorial System AGRICULTURE, MEDIEVAL barley, four bushels. The yield of wheat rarely exceeded fivefold, or ten bushels to the acre ; that of leguminous crops ranged from three to sixfold, or from six to twelve bushels to the acre; that of oats and barley varied from three to fourfold, or from twelve to sixteen bushels to the acre. Con- siderable care was exercised in the choice and change of the seed-corn, which was often one of the produce-rents of the tenants. Wheat rarely followed a spring grain crop. The most important crops of the farm were the corn, crops of wheat, rye, and barley, which were raised for human food and drink. For such ready money as he needed, the lord looked mainly to the produce of his live stock. For their consumption were grown the remaining crops — the hay, beans, peas, and oats; though oats were not only used for human food, but in some districts were brewed into in- ferior beer. Horse-farms appear in some estate accounts; but they probably supplied the 'great horse' used for military purposes. As a rule, oxen were preferred to horses for farm work. Though horses worked more quickly when the ploughman allowed them to do so, they pulled less steadily, and sudden strams severely tested the primitive ploughgcar. On hard ground they did less work, and only when the land was stony had they any advantage. Economical reasons further explain the preference for oxen. . . . The winter-keep of horses was about four times that of oxen. In addition to this, the more delicate construction of horses required careful attendance and greater expense than did the stolid and less susceptible oxen. Then again the ox, when no longer available for work, made excellent food, while the horse at that time was only worth his hide. Lack of feeding stuff for live stock made fresh butchers' meat a rarity, as the common pasturage ground supplied no more food for the cattle than was sufficient to keep the animals ali^e, never enough to fatten them. . . . The dairy pro- duce was a greater source of money revenue, though the home consumption of cheese must have been very large. But the management was necessarily controlled, like the management of the stock, by the winter scarcity. The yield of a cow during the twenty-four weeks from the middle of April to Michaelmas was estimated at four- fifths of her total annual yield. Sheep were the sheet anchor of farming. But it was not for their mutton, or their milk, or even for their skins, that they were chiefly valued. Already the me- diaival agriculturist took his scat on the wool-sack. .■Xs a marketable commodity, both at home and abroad, English long wool always commanded a price. It was less perishable than corn, and more easily transported even on the worst of roads. From Martinmas to Easter sheep were kept in houses, or in movable folds of wooden hurdles, thatched at the sides and tops. During these months they were fed on coarse hay or peas- haulm, mixed with whcaten or oaten straw. For the rest of the year they browsed on the land for fallows, in woodland pastures, or on the sheep- commons. Diseases made sheep-farming, in spite of its profits, a risky venture. Swine were the almost universal live stock of rich and poor. As consumers of refuse and scavengers of the vil- lage, they would, on sanitarv grounds, have re- paid their keepers. But mediaeval pigs profited their owners much, and cost them little. A pig was more profitable than a cow. For the greater part of the year pigs were expected to pick up their own living. When the wastes and woodlands of a manor were extensive, they were, except dur- ing three months of the year, self-supporting. They developed the qualities necessary for taking care of themselves. The ordinary pigs of (be Middle Ages were long, fiat-sided, coarse-boned, lop-eared, omniverous animals, whose agility was more valuable than their early maturity. . . ,. [The keeping of poultry, too, was at the time uni- versal, so much so that, when sold, they were almost absurdly cheap. The keeping of fowls, ducks, and geese must, however, have materially helped the peasant in eking out his food supply, or in paying that portion of his rent which was paid in kind.] On the outskirts of the arable fields nearest to -the village lay one or more 'hams' or stinted pastures, in which a regulated number of live stock might graze, and which therefore supplied superior feed. Besides the open arable fields, the meadows, and the stinted hams, there were the common pastures, fringed by the untilled wastes which were left in their native wildness. These wastes provided fern and heather for litter, bedding, or thatching; small wood for hurdles; tree-loppings for winter browse of live stock ; furze and turves for fuel ; large timber for fencing, implements, and building; mast, acorns, and other food for the swine. Most of these smaller rights were made the subject of fixed an- nual payments to the manorial lord; but the right of cutting fuel was generally attached to the occupation, not only of arable land, but of cot- tages. The most important part of these lands were the common pastures, which were often the only grass that farmers could command for their live stock. They therefore formed an integral and essential part of the village farm. No rights were exercised upon them by the general public. On the contrary, the commons were most jealously guarded by the privileged commoners against the intrusion or encroachments of strangers." — R. E. Prothero, Manorial husbandry (E. G. Nourse, Agricultural economics, pp. 38-43). The medieval manor was thus from one point of view "a compactly organized, economically self- sufficing, and socially independent unit. Defects, however, are obvious. The acquisition of land by small proprietors was rendered difficult. The deal- ings of the lord, or of his steward or bailiff, with the tenants were likely to be arbitrary and harsh. The scattered character of the holdings involved waste of the cultivator's time and effort. The lack of permanent fences tempted to trespassing and produced much quarrelling. The rotation of crops, the time of ploughing and sowing, the use of meadow and pasture, the erection and removal of hedges, and the maintenance of roads and paths were determined entirely by the community, on the basis usually of rigid custom, and the individ- ual enjoyed little or no freedom or initiative. Experimentation was almost impossible. In con- sequence, largely, of the restraints which have been mentioned, agriculture continued throughout the Middle Ages to be extremely crude. It is doubtful, indeed, whether prior to the eighteenth century the soil was cultivated again in any con- siderable portions of Europe with either the science or the practical skill which were common in rural husbandry in the best days of the Roman Empire." — F. A. Ogg, Economic development of modern Europe, pp. 24-25. 14th-17th centuries. — Displacement of serfdom by free tenantry. — Growth of enclosures for pasturage. — Beginnings of the contractual sys- tem. — By the middle of the thirteenth century in England, a remarkable change had begun to affect the condition of the serfs or villeins under the manorial system, a change not effected on the Continent till three centuries later, "by which the 133 AGRICULTURE, MEDIEVAL 14th-nth Centuries AGRICULTURE, MODERN villeins became free tenants, subject to a fixed money rent for their holdings. This rent was rapidly becoming a payment in money and not in labour, for the lords of the manors were frequently in want of cash, and were ready to sell many of their privileges. The change was at first gradual, but by the time of the Great Plague (1348) [see also England: 1348-1349: Black Death], money rents were becoming the rule rather than the ex- ception, and though labour rents were not at all obsolete, it was the ill-advised attempt to insist upon them unduly that was the prime cause of Wat Tyler's insurrection (1381). [See also Eng- land: 1381: Wat Tyler's Insurrection.] Before the Plague, in fact, villeinage in the old sense was becoming almost extinct, and the peasants, both great and small, had achieved a large measure of freedom. The richer villeins had developed into small farmers, while the poorer villeins, and es- pecially the cottars, had formed a separate class of agricultural labourers, not indeed entirely with- out land, but depending for their livelihood upon being paid for helping to cultivate the land of others. . . . .^t the end of the thirteenth century we can trace three classes of tenants — (i) Those who had entirely commuted their services for a fixed money rent; (2) those who gave services or paid money according as their lord preferred; and (3) those who still paid entirely, or almost entirely, in services. Throughout the whole of this period the yast majority of the population were continuously engaged in agricultural pursuits, and this was rendered necessary owing to the very low rate of production consequent upon the primi- tive methods of agriculture. [In England the displacement of serfdom by free tenantr>' bore a very close relation to the great increase of sheep- farming which took place after the Great Plague (1348)]. This from two causes. The rapid in- crease of woolen manufacturers, promoted by Edward III, rendered wool-growing more profit- able, while at the same time the scarcity of la- bour, occasioned by the ravages of the Black Death and the consequent higher wages demanded, naturally attracted the farmer to an industry which was at once very profitable, and required but little paid labour. So, after the Plague, we find a tendency among large agriculturists to turn ploughed fields into permanent pasture . . . , instead of turning portions of the 'waste' into arable land. Consequently from the beginning of the fifteenth century we notice that the agricul- tural population decreases in proportion as sheep- farming increases. . . . One consequence of this more extensive sheep-farming was the great in- crease in enclosures made by the landlords in the sixteenth century. So great were those encroach- ments and enclosures in north-east England, that they led, in 154Q, to a rebellion against the en- closing system, headed by Ket ; but though more marked perhaps in Henry VIII's reign, the prac- tice of sheep-farming had been growing steadily in the previous century. ... In fact, it is very clear that at this time a great change was passing over English agriculture, and the old agricultural system was becoming seriously disorganised."^ H. De B. Gibbins, Industry in England, pp. iii- 110. — The second great stage in western European agriculture, the medieval manorial system, was fast giving way before the encroachments of its successor, the modern contractual type of agrarian organization. "During the changes that had been taking place the villein had finally disappeared He was now in many cases a copyholder, and like his neighbour, the yeoman, held his own estate of from JO to ISC acres, and in the smaller farms worked it mainly by the help of his family. The yeomanry, who formed something like one-sixth of the population, found in the seventeenth cen- tury their golden age. Their estates varied con- siderably in size and importance ; the best of them were scarcely inferior in status to the country gentry. To be counted a yeoman, a man had to possess an income of at least forty shillings a year derived from his own freehold land. An act of Parliament of 1430 had made this the quali- fication for the parliamentary vote in the county areas, and the yeomen were proud of this privi- lege and showed their independence in the e.xer- cise of it. The tenant farmers were also pros- perous and occupied a good position, though their social status was inferior to that of the yeomanry. As for the labourers, if they were poorly paid they were in most cases well fed, and, as we have already pointed out, they still had domestic in- dustries and small holdings of land to help them. Unmarried servants of both sexes lived in the houses of the farms on which they worked, and shared in the food of the household. Married labourers supplemented their wages by domestic industries, and could obtain a postion of their food from the little plots of five or six acres at- tached to many cottages, and from the possession of a cow which they could graze upon the com- mon lands. Their wives and children shared in this work and also in agricultural work generally. One of the worst hindrances of the labourer was the Act of Settlement of ib62. This prevented his movement from one district to another in search of higher wages and better employment, and might mean his having to journey a consider- able distance to his work owing to the action of landlords who kept out the undesirable poor by forbidding the erection of cottages upon their estates." — F. W. Tickner, Social and industrial history of England, pp. 336-330. During this period from the fourteenth century to the seventeenth, as wc have seen, there hafi begun in England a gradual disintegration of the manorial system which was destined to be com pleted only throuKh the tremendous forces of the agricultural revolution of the later eighteenth century. In the meantime, however, two oppos- ing tendencies were noticeable: on the one hand the displacement of serfdom by free tenantry with its accompanying development of small hold- ings and a self-sufficing yeomanry ; on the other the transformation of arable manor land and com- mons into sheep-farms for the production of raw wool for continental markets The growth of en closures for pasturage reached its climax, how- ever, during the sixteenth century, while the num- ber of small holdincs continued to increase dur- ing the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, when new methods and new forces introduced the modern period of agricultural development. MODERN PERIOD General survey. — .Agricultural progress in modern times has been profoundly affected by the great revolutions which have occurred in the last two hundred years, particularly those in science, mechanical devices, and transportation .Mthough, unlike the European and .\merican countries, Asia has maintained the use of rude implements, her agriculture has not been untouched by the deep- rooted changes of modern times During the seven- teenth and eighteenth centuries economic forces were at work both in England and on the Con- tinent which were destined to change the entire system of agrarian organization as it had existed 134 AGRICULTURE, MODERN General Survey AGRICULTURE, MODERN during the Middle Ages. It was in England that these forces first became apparent, and there, too, that the resultng changes were soonest effected; but the movement spread rapidly during the early nineteenth century to France, Prussia and other continental nations, and while it presented in each country slightly differing phases due to local eco- nomic and social conditions, the directing forces and the changes wrought, with some noteworthy exceptions, parallel very closely those to be ob- served in England. "A principle woven deeply into the American national system at its beginning is that of full and free industrial opportunity. For an Ameri- can, therefore, it is difficult to conceive how com- pletely the agriculture, the manufactures, and the trade of France, Germany, and other continental European countries were shacliled but four or five generations ago by status, by custom, and by con- tractual arrangements. The guild, the manor, the state, and even the Church, imposed each its pe- culiar restrictions, and the industrial status and prospect of the individual were determined quite as largely by agencies beyond his power to con- trol as by his own habits of enterprise and thrift. It is only within decades comparatively recent that the mass of men in Europe have acquired substan- tial freedom of industrial initiative and achieve- ment. If the key-note of the economic history of the United States since 1780 has been expan- sion, that of the economic development of con- tinental Europe during the same period has been liberation. Speaking broadly, one may say that the first great advance in the direction of libera- tion was accomplished by the Revolution in France in 1789-1704 [see P'ood rf.gulatio.n": 1793- 1794]; that a second was realized under Na- poleon, though accompanied by a certain amount of retrogression; that the period 1815-1845 wit- nessed small progress, except on the side of in- dustrial technique; but that after 1S45-1850 the triumph of the liberalizing principle was rapid and thoroughgoing. The transformations by means of which liberation has been wrought took place within all of the three principal tields of eco- nomic activity, — agriculture, manufacturing, and trade; and in any attempt to measure the pro- gress of the average man during the period in hand the nature and extent of the changes in these three fields must continually be taken into ac- count. "Since 1789 the acreage of land cultivated in most continental countries has been enormously extended and new appliances and methods have been introduced, with the result of an increase that is remarkable in the yield both of foodstuffs and of materials for manufacture. Even more im- portant, however, has been the sweeping read- justment of the position occupied by the tillers of the soil themselves. Emancipated from oppres- sive dues and services to landlord and state, and enabled to acquire land of their own, the rural inhabitants of almost every continental country have been brought up to a status vastly superior to that which their ancestors occupied a century and a half ago. The first nation within which the agricultural liberation took place was France. As has been indicated, one of the earliest decisive achievements of the Revolution in France was the abolition of all survivals of feudalism and serf- dom; and this reform was accompanied by the conversion of numerous tenants, dependent cul- tivators, and ordinary laborers into independent, self-sustaining landholders. It used to be supposed that the multiplicity of little proprietorships which lends distinction to France to-day was wholly a consequence of the Revolution. Research has shown that this is not true — that, in fact, the breaking up of the agricultural lands of France into petty holdings was already under way long before 1789. Some students of the subject have gone so far as to maintain, indeed, that the num- ber of landed proprietorships in France was scarcely smaller prior to 1789 than it is to-day. There can be no question, however, that during the Revolution the growth of little holdings was greatly accelerated, notably through the sale of es- tates confiscated from the crown, the nobility, and the Church; nor that the general effect of the Rev- olution was to enhance the agricultural prosperity of France. . . . Throughout modern times France has been preeminently an agricultural country, and to this day the nation's enormous wealth is derived principally from the products of the soil rather than from manufactures and trade. Nearly one-half of the population of the republic to-day is employed upon the land, whereas in England and Wales the proportion is but one-tenth. No bu.siness has come to be better understood than husbandry, and the nation not only is entirely .self-supporting in the matter of foodstuffs, such as cereals, meat, and dairy produce, but exports these articles heavily to other portions of the world. The great mass of cultivators are pro- prietors of little estates ranging in area from five to fifty acres. Three million proprietors occupy holdings of less than twenty-five acres apiece. Of waste land very little remains. "In considerable portions of Germany agricul- tural advance in the earlier nineteenth century fol- lowed a course roughly analogous to that observed in France, although the remarkable expansion in Germany since 187 1 of industry and of trade has brought that nation into an economic position fundamentally unlike that which France now occupies. At the beginning of the Hast] century Germany was even more purely agricultural than was France. In 1804, 73 per cent of the popula- tion of Pru.ssia was rural, and throughout Ger- many as a whole the proportion of the popula- tion engaged in agriculture was not less than 80 per cent. The natural resources of the country were then, as they are now, less favorable for ag- riculture than those of France, and agricultural methods were very poorly developed, with the con- sequence that the product was inferior and agri- cultural wealth meagre. Advance in technique, even past the middle of the nineteenth century, was distinctly slower than in France, but the changes wrought in the status of the agricultural laborer were in no small measure the same. The Napoleonic era became in Prussia a period of economic transformation, involving the abolition of serfdom Throughout other portions of Ger- many serfdom had all but disappeared prior to the close of the eighteenth century, the serfs having obtained their freedom in some instances by pur- chase, but more frequently through the simple evaporation by imperceptible degrees of the tradi- tional seigncurial rights. The non-existence of serfdom was recognized In all of the states, by 1820. In Germany, as in France, the beginnings of petty peasant holdings antedate the nineteenth century, but by the rise of the agricultural popu- lation from dependency to freedom the tendency toward the multiplication of these holdings was greatly accentuated. Just as in France, however, the small-holding idea did not work out every- where alike, so that the holdings of the northwest became, on the average, considerably larger than those of the .south, so in Germany the principle was very variously applied, and, in truth, in some 13s AGRICULTURE, MODERN Auslralia British Isles AGRICULTURE, MODERN important portion of the countr>- was not applied at all. In the northeast, beyond the Elbe, the same thing happened that happened in the England of the eighteenth century, namely, the concentra- tion of land in estates even larger than those which had prevailed in earlier 'days. But in both the northwest and southwest the number of hold- ings was increased and their average size decreased, the principal difference being that in the north the holdings were as a rule larger than in the south. In the northeast, especially in Mecklen- burg and Silesia, such small holders as there were fell pretty generally, by 1S50, to the status of landless agricultural laborers, and their holdings were absorbed in the large estates, the consequence being that sharp diffentiation of landlords and rural wage-earners which to the present day has comprised one of the principal problems of the east Prussian provinces. Agricultural development in Germany during the course of the nineteenth century was notably inferior to that which took place in France, and the state of German agricul- ture to-day is by no means wholly satisfactory. Between 1816 and 18S7 the acreage under tillage was increased from 23,000,000 to 44,000,000, and in the same period the production of grain was more than doubled. The three decades from 1840 to 1870 were, on the whole, an era of rural pros- perity, marked by an increased price of products and a decreased cost of production, arising prin- cipally from the introduction of agricultural ma- chinery and of scientific methods of cultivation. About 1874-75, however, there set in, as at the same time in England, a pronounced agricultural depression, from which there has never as yet been any considerable recovery. The fundamental cause of depression, as also largely in England, was the decline in the price of agricultural prod- ucts arising from the competition of American grains and meats. Despite tariffs designed to counteract competition, the price of wheat and of rye fell between 1876 and iSq8 by 14 per cent and that of barley by 11. Other contributing causes, however, have been the scarcity and irregularity of labor, the necessity of paying increased wages, the heavy mortgages which to-day encumber half of the agricultural land of the country, and the unbusinesslike methods which long operated to impede the conduct of agricultural operations. Through the spread of education among the agra- rian classes and the estaWishment of cooperative societies, the state of agriculture is tending some- what to be improved, but it is still by no means favorable. In iqoo only 47.6 per cent of the area of the country was under cultivation, as com- pared with upwards of 80 per cent in France. In respect to foodstuffs the nation is not self-sufficing, and there is every reason to suppose that its de- pendence upon supplies obtained from the out- lying world will tend steadily to be increased. Since 1000 the importation of cereals alone has averaged from 4,500,000 to 6,000.000 tons a year." — F. A. Ogg, Social progress in contemporary Europe, pp. 08-106. Australia. See Australia: Agriculture; New South Wales: 1855-1803 ; South Australia: i8q6. Baltic Provinces. See B.\ltic provinces: 1020. Belgium: 1918. — Reconstruction. See World War: Miscellaneous auxiliar.- services: XII. Recon- struction, b, 1. Bosnia-Herzegovina: Land tenure. See Bos- nia-Herzegovina: 1878-1008. British Isles: 16th-18th centuries. — Capitalis- tic enterprises. See Capitalism: i6th-i8th cen- turies: .^!Irirulfure in Enclish capitalism. British Isles: 17th-18th centuries. — Adoption of root crops and improved methods of farming. — Growth of the domestic system of industry. — Its effects upon agrarian organization. — Dur- ing the seventeenth century in En-'land "several improvements were made under the influence of foreign refugees. . . . The inhabitants of the Low Countries . . . now introduced into England the cultivation of winter roots. . . . The introduc- tion of hops also was of great importance. . . . As the use of winter roots had been the special feature of the seventeenth century, so the feature of the eighteenth was the extension of artificial pasture and the increased use of clover, sainfoin, and rye-grass; not of course, that these had been hitherto unknown, but now their seeds were regu- larly bought and used by any farmer who knew his business. At first, like all other processes of agriculture, the development was ver>- slow and gradual, but it went on steadily nevertheless." — H. De B. Gibbins, Industry in England, pp. 206- 270. — "Many new crops were introduced from Holland, where the advantages of turnips and such artificial grasses as clover, sainfoin, and lucerne were well known. Potatoes, too, began to be an important field crop after the middle of the sev- enteenth century, though they had not become a common food but remained rather a delicacy even at its close. . . . Attention was also paid to the implements employed, and the older crude and clumsy tools began to be replaced by better ones. The plough was improved, and drills for sowing began to be employed. The Dutch also taught the importance of the use of the spade. . . . Im- provements were also effected in the use of ma- nures. Liming and marling were renewed, and new forms of manuring were adopted. The use of sand, seaweed, oyster shells, and fish as manures was now known, and these were employed wher- ever the situation of the land made their use possible. The newly formed Royal Society paid much attention to the question of agriculture, and made many useful and profitable suggestions. But the greatest difficulty in the way of improve- ment was the innate conservatism of the farmers, who objected to new crops and new methods and tried to retain the customs of their forefathers. Where the land was still open-field progress was well-nigh impossible; on the enclosed farms there were enlightened agriculturists who were leading the way along better lines." — F. W. Tickner, So- cial and industrial history of England, pp. 337- 3iS. — "The pioneers of this improved agriculture came from Xorlolk, among the first being Lord Townshend and Mr. Coke, the descendant of the great Chief Justice. The former introduced into Norfolk the growth of turnips and artificial grasses, and was laughed at by his contemporaries as Turnip Townshend; the latter was the prac- tical exponent of .\rthur Voung's theories as to the advantages to be derived from large farms and capitalist farmers. With improvements in culti- vation, and the increase both of assiduity and skill, came a corresponding improvement in the live stock. The general adoption of root crops in place of bare fallows, and the extended cultiva- tion of artificial grasses, supplied the farmer with a great increase of winter feed, the quality and nutritive powers of which were greatly improved. Hence with abundance of fodder came abundance of stock, while at the same time great improve- ments took place in breeding. This was mainly due to Bakewell (1760-1785), who has been aptly described as 'the founder of the graziers' art.' 'He was the first scientific breeder of sheep and cattle, and the methods which he adopted with his Leicester sheep and longhorns applied through- 136 AGRICULTURE, MODERN British Isles lSth-19th Centuries AGRICULTURE, MODERN out the country by other breeders to their own animals.' The growth of population also caused a new impetus to be given to the careful rearing and breeding of cattle for the sake of food, while the sheep especially became even more useful than before, since, in addition to the value of its fleece, its carcase now was more in demand than ever for meat. In various ways, therefore, the improve- ments in agriculture mark a very important ad- vance, and the close of the eighteenth century witnessed changes in the field as great in their way as those in the factory." — H. De B. Gib- bins, Industry in England, pp. 429-430. "In order to understand the nature and extent of the changes wrought by the agricultural-in- dustrial revolution [of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries] it is necessary to bear in mind certain facts regarding the economic situa- tion in England before the transformation came about. In the first place, England was still pre- dominantly an agricultural country. Not until 1792 did the production. of British grain fall below the volume of home consumption, so that it began to be necessary for the nation to rely regularly in some degree upon imported foodstuffs. Long past the middle of the eighteenth century the till- ing of the soil was the standard occupation of the laboring masses. Cities were few and small, and city life played a minor part in the economy of the nation. In the second place, it is to be noted that the conditions of land tenure were still largely mediaeval. In portions, of the country where the manorial system had never been estab- lished, land was possessed outright by individual proprietors, but in more than half of the kingdom at the close of the eighteenth century the forms of tenure were governed by survivals of the man- orial regime. ... It was the proprietor who owned the land ; the tenants were owners only of certain 'rights' and 'interests' which the proprietor vested in them. On the manors generally the an- cient methods of administration . . . still pre- vailed. The third point of importance is the inseparable association in the eighteenth century of the cultivation of land and the domestic sys- tem of industry. The ordinary rural family de- rived its support at the same time from agricul- ture and manufacture. The industrial output of England in the earlier eighteenth century was large, but it was the output, not of factories, but of the numerous and widely scattered 'little in- dustries' of the kingdom. And these little indus- tries were, in the main, not urban, but rural. . . . In days when the processes of manufacture in- volved simple handicraft, not the use of com- plicated and costly machines, this was perfectly practicable. One of the most widespread forms of domestic industry was the making of woolen cloth. In the manufacture of this commodity virtually every process involved could be, and was, carried on under the roof of the humblest cottager. . . . Woolen fabrics commanded a ready sale, usually at a good price, and the petty agri- culturist who would have found it difficult enough to support his family solely from the product of his bits of ground had in the woolen and other industries a welcome opportunity to supplement his scant means of livelihood. ... In his 'Tour through Great Britain,' written at the end of the first quarter of the eighteenth century, Daniel Defoe affords an interesting gUmpse of domestic manufacturing as he found it in the region of Halifax, in Yorkshire. 'The land,' he says, 'was divided into small enclosures from two acres to six or seven each, seldom more, every three or four pieces of land having a house belonging to them; hardly a house standing out of speaking distance with another. At every considerable house there was a manufactory. Every clothier keeps one horse at least to carry his manufactures to the market; and every one generally keeps a cow or two, or more, for his family. By this means the small pieces of enclosed land about each house are occupied for they scarce sow corn enough to feed their poultry. The houses are full of lusty fellows, some at [the] dye-vat, some at the looms, others dressing the cloths, the women and children carding or spinning ; being all em- ployed, from the youngest to the oldest.' "It is but fair to observe that the conditions of domestic manufacture varied widely in different regions. . . . Even where the measure of indus- trial independence was largest, the domestic sys- tem operated unquestionably in the eighteenth century to the deterioration at some points of the working population. Competition grew keener; wages fell ; child labor became more common ; workmen were led to dispose of their lands be- cause they had ceased to be able to find time to cultivate them." — F. A. Ogg, Social progress in contemporary Europe, pp. 63-67, British Isles: Late 18th to early 19th cen- turies. — Agricultural revolution.— "During the later eighteenth century and the earlier nineteenth England underwent a social and economic read- justment . , , essentially industrial and social. For present purposes . . . [these changes] may be grouped with convenience under two heads: (i) the transformation of agriculture, and (2) the revolu- tion in industry. . . . Properly considered, the in- dustrial revolution was the transformation which came about in the process and conditions of manu- facture in consequence of the invention of ma- chinery, especially machinery which involved the application of steam-power. , , . The 'agricultural revolution' meant different things in different parts of Europe, , , , What it meant in England was, in brief, the concentration of the ownership and control of land in the hands of a decreasing body of proprietors, the enclosure of the common lands upon the use of which the cottager class had been largely dependent, the reduction of many men to the status of wage-earning agricultural laborers, and the driving of many from agricultural em- ployment altogether. It began toward the close of the eighteenth century and had run its course practically by 1845," — F, A, Ogg, Social Progress in contemporary Europe, pp. 62-63. — See also In- dustrial revolution: France; Industrial revolu- tion: Germany; Industrial revolution: United States. "The formative period of the factory system was the period also in England of the beginnings of the revolutionizing of agriculture. Of the two things each served in part both as cause and as effect. The rise of the factory was facilitated by the dislodgement of large numbers of people who had been accustomed to live by agriculture and domestic manufacturing conjointly. Conversely, the alteration of agricultural economy was stimu- lated by the drawing off to the towns of the sur- plus rural population and by the greatly increased demand for foodstuffs for the support of the in- dustrial and trading classes. . . . The revolution in agriculture worked itself out in a variety of di- rections, but the principal elements in it were (i) a marked improvement in the technique of hus- bandry; (2) a greatly increased application of capital to agricultural operations; (3) the concen- tration of land in great estates owned by a small body of aristocratic proprietors and operated un- der the immediate direction of capitalistic entre- 137 AGRICULTURE, MODERN British Isles lSth-19tli Centuries AGRICULTURE, MODERN preneurs known technically as 'farmers'; and (4) the virtual disappearance of the cottager class by which formerly the tilling of the soil had been carried on in connection with domestic industry. The stimulus came originally from the steady rise after 1760 in the price of agricultural produce, occasioned by the increase of population and of wealth derived from manufactures and commerce. With the growth, especially alter 1775, of the fac- tory system great industrial centres appeared, whence came ever increasing demand fur food, and it was in no small measure to meet this de- mand that farms, instead of continuing small self- sufficing holdings, were enlarged and converted into manufactories of grain and meat. Within the domain of agriculture, as in that of industry, science and skill were brought to bear, to the end that the product might be greater and the cost of production less. Rational schemes of crop- ping replaced antiquated ones, the art of cattle- breeding was given fresh attention, and agricul- tural machinery, which called for considerable ini- tial outlays, was widely introduced. The hus- bandry of the new type involved the employment of capital and the carrying on of farming opera- tions upon a large scale. The average English husbandman of the eighteenth century, however, possessed no capital and had very little land. With the capitalistic agriculturists of the later decades he found it more and more difficult to compete, and the consequence was that gradually but inevitably he was forced into an entirely novel economic position. Through the revival of enclosures he lost his rights in the common lands of his parish ; the land which he had owned or held individually he was compelled to sell or other- wise alienate; while he himself either went off to become a workman in a factory town or sank to the status of a wage-earning agricultural laborer. "Gradually from the readjustment emerged the three great classes of men concerned in the Eng- lish agriculture of later times, and of to-day: (i) the landed proprietors, who let out their land in large quantities to farmers in return for as con- siderable a rental as they can obtain; (2) the farmers, who, possessing no proprietary interest in the soil and no direct community of interest with either landlords or laborers, carry on agricultural operations upon these rented lands as capitalistic, profit-making enterprises; (3) the agricultural la- borers who neither own land nor manage it, but simply work under orders for weekly wages, as do the operatives in the factories. It is in conse- quence of this great transformation that it has been brought about that among western European nations to-day it is Great Britain which has the largest average holding, the smallest projjortion of cultivators who own their holdings, and the small- est acreage owned by its cultivators. In 1876 there was published in England a body of land statistics commonly designated the New Domesday Book. By this return it was shown that the ag- gregate number of landowners in England (out- side London) was q66,:75, of which number only 262,886 possessed more than one acre, .^t the same time France, with a population only a third larger, had some 5.600,000 landed proprietors, and Belgium, with a population of but 7,000.000, had as many as 1,000,000. From the return it further appeared that 28 English dukes held estates ag- gregating nearly 4,000,000 acres; ,^3 marquises i,Soo,ooo acres; 104 earls, 5,862.000 acres; and 270 viscounts and barons, 3,785,000 acres. Nearly one-half of the enclosed land of England and Wales was owned by 2250 persons; while at the same time nine-tenths of Scotland was owned bv 1700, and two-thirds of Ireland by 1942. The divorce of the agricultural laborer from proprie- tary interest in the soil, which was the outcome of the capitalistic, concentrating transformation of agriculture between 1775 and 1850, is above all other things the distinctive feature of British ag- ricultural economy in the last two generations. "By the break-up of the domestic system of in- dustry, occasioned by the development of large- scale manufacturing and of factory methods, the position of the small-farming population must in any case have been altered profoundly for the worse. The process was vastly accelerated, how- ever, by the widespread revival in the later eight- eenth and earlier nineteenth centuries of the en- closure of common lands. To 'enclose' a parish meant to redistribute its open fields, its waste- land, and its meadows among all those who pos- sessed land rights within the parish in such man- ner that each of these persons should obtain one continuous and enclosed holding which would be equivalent to his former scattered holdings in the open fields plus the rights in meadow and waste appurtenant to these holdings. The processes by which enclosure was effected were various. Where it was possible to secure the unanimous consent of the holders of rights and interests of all kinds within the parish, the change might be carried through by the authorities of the parish them- selves. Unanimous consent, however, was not likely to be obtained and in practice the process was pretty certain to involve two stages — first, the procuring of the assent of the possessors of four-fifths of the aggregate value of the land in- volved and, second, the passage of a special act by Parliament authorizing the enclosure and com- pelling the dissenting minority to acquiesce. .\s a rule enclosure measures, in which were stipu- lated the necessary arrangements for surveys, com- pensation, and redistribution, were actually drawn by the large landholders and other persons of in- fluence in the parishes concerned. In 1801 a statute was enacted to make easier the passage of private bills for enclosure. An act of 1836 went further and made it possible, with the consent of two-thirds of the persons interested to enclose certain kinds of common lands 'without specific authorization of Parliament. .And a general en- closure act of 1845 created a board of Enclosure Commissioners authorized to decide upon the ex- pediency of projected enclosures and to carry them into execution if approved. "The number of enclosure acts passed by Par- liament* between 1700 and 1S50 and the approxi- mate area of the lands enclosed were as follows: No. of En- Acres closure .^cts Enclosed 1700-sq 244 337,877 1760-60 385 704,550 1770-70 660 1,207,800 1780-81) 246 450,180 1700-00 46Q 858,270 i8oo-oq 847 1,550,010 1810-19 853 1,560,000 i820-2g 20s 375.150 1830-39 136 248,880 1840-49 66 394,747 "During the period 1760-1S30 enclosures were especially numerous, and after 1850 little open land remained. The lands enclosed, unlike those enclosed in the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries, were intended for cultivation, and care was taken, as a rule, furthermore, that every possessor be compensated, either in land or in money, for all of the common rights of which he 138 AGRICULTURE, MODERN British Isles 1815-1875 AGRICULTURE, MODERN was deprived. None the less, the effects of en- closure upon the average small holder were likely to be disadvantageous. Heretofore the tenant had been accustomed to utilize his own allotments of land entirely for the growing of crops. His cow, his donkey, his flock of geese, found such sus- tenance as they could on the common lands of the parish. Now the common lands disappeared and the cottager must not only grow loudstuffs for his family upon his bit of ground, but must ulso provide upon it pasturage and meadow for his live stock. To share in the use of an open com- mon might be, and generally was, more desirable than to occupy exclusively a petty enclosed hold- ing. Not infrequently the compensation which the individual cottager obtained for the common rights which he yielder], took the form of money. Such sums, however, were easily expended, and the cottager was apt to find himself without anything to show for the valuable rights which once he had possessed. To his difficulties was added the fact that the application of capital to agriculture on the part of the large landholders, and the intro- duction of methods of cultivation which were fur him impracticable, placed him at a distinct disad- vantage in the growing of marketable produce " — • F. A. Ogg, Social progress in conlempurary Eu- rope, pp. 62-63, 70-78. "That the changes induced by the new system have been beneficial to agriculture no one will at- tempt to deny, just as no one can dispute the benefits conferred upon industry by the use of ma- chinery ; but, at the same time, one cannot be bhnd to the fact that these great industrial changes, both in manufactures and agriculture, brought a great amount of misery with them, both to the smaller employers and the mass of the em- ployed. The change in agriculture brought with it a new agricultural and social crisis more severe than that of the Tudor period. The jeighteenth] century closed with the miseries that resulted from enclosures, consolidation of holdings, and the re- duction of thousands of small farmers to the ranks of wage-dependent labourers. The result of the crisis was to consolidate large estates, ex- tinguish the yeomanry and peasant proprietary, to turn the small farmers into hired labourers, and to sever the connection of the labourer from the soil. In a comparatively short time the face of rural England was completely changed; the com- mon fields, those quaint relics of primitive times, were almost entirely swept away, and the large enclosed fields of to-day, with their neat hedge- rows and clearly-marked limits, had taken their places. The improvements in agriculture, the en- closures, the consolidation of small into large farms, and the appearance of the capitalist farm- er are, then, the chief signs of the Agricultural Revolution. They form an almost exact parallel to the inventions of machinery, the bringing to- gether of workers in factories, the consolidation of small by-occupations into larger and more defi- nite trades, and the appearance of the capitalist millowner in the realm of manufacturing indus- try." — H. De B. Gibbins, Lidustry in England, pp. 431-432. — See also Absenteeism. British Isles: 1815-1875.— Prosperity.— "In the history of agriculture in the British Isles during the past hundred years there are to be distinguished two general stages. The first, extending from the close of the Napoleonic wars to about 1875, was a period of intermittent, but on the whole sub- stantial, prosperity. The second, extending from 1875 or 1880 to the present day, has been an epoch of almost unrelieved depression. The prin- cipal facts concerning the first of these periods T can be stated briefly. At the outset it is to be borne in mind that there went on steadily, from beginning to end, and without longer occasioning much comment, the extension of the large farm system which had set in during the preceding century. The enclosing of waste and other com- mon land continued, the number of enclosure acts passed between 1815 and 1845 being 244 and the area enclosed being 199,300 acres; and wherever small farms were given up they were practically certain to be added to larger holdings. Consoli- dation proceeded with equal rapidity in arable and grazing districts. The first half of the period, furthermore, witnessed the almost tt)tal disappear- ance of the yeomanry. The greater part of this once important element in the country's popula- tion had vanished prior to 1815. Between that date and the middle of the century the remainder largely succumbed, and to-day the class is rep- resented by only scant survivors in Westmoreland, Somersetshire, and a few other remoter counties. In legislation of i8iq and 1832 attempt was made to offset the tendencies of the time by provisions under which local authorities should acquire land and allot it to poor and industrious persons; but the effect was negligible. Whereas in i8n the agricultural population comprised thirty-four per cent, of the whole, in 182 1 it comprised but thirty- two per cent.; in 1831, twenty-eight per cent.; in 1841, twenty-two per cent.; in 1851, sixteen per cent.; and in 1861, ten per cent. The social dis- tress occasioned by this continued readjustment was at times scarcely less severe than in earlier decades. To such elements as were in a position to profit from the new conditions, however, the period brought a large measure of prosperity. Pri- marily these were, of course, the greater land- owners. In the first place, the prices of agricul- tural products, while subject to much fluctuation, •continued as a rule to be high. Prior to 1846 they were supported, or were supposed to be, by the Corn Laws; although, contrary to all expecta- tion, the repeal of those measures was followed by no serious fall in the price of wheat and other grains during a period of thirty years. Until the last quarter of the century, the British producers held their own against the vast grain-yielding areas of Russia, America, Egypt, and India, and it was only when, through the improvement and extension of steamship and railway lines, the trans- portation of bulky commodities to great dis- tances had been made convenient, speedy, and cheap that the force of foreign competition became sufficient to involve the British corn-growers in disaster. Until that time production did not decline, and home-grown grain was only supple- mented, not displaced, by the imported com- modity. Between 1853 and 1873 the seasons, with (miy two or three exceptions, were favourable, and it is commonly regarded that for the agricultural interests these decades were the most prosperous of the century. Throughout the whole of the second and the third quarters of the century, moreover, agricultural technique was undergoing steady improvement. The studied application of science to agriculture really began in the nineteenth century, when the chemical composition of soils was first determined carefully, and the means of its restoration made a matter of common knowl- edge and use. Nitrate of soda and guano were employed from about 1835 on; and superphos- phate of lime, first recommended by the German chemist Litbig, was introduced into England by Sir J. B. Lawes, who obtained this by dissolving bone-dust in sulphuric acid The gradual intro- duction of phosphates and ammoniacal manures, AGRICULTURE, MOHERN British Isles 1875-19UU AGRICULTURE, MODERN the increased attention paid to the cultivation of artificial grasses and the selection of seeds, the use of superior machines for agricultural purposes — the sub-soil plough, Meilde's threshing-machine, drilling and reaping machines — all these operated to increase the prosperity of the agricultural classes. "The list of field crops was extended by the addition of Italian rye-grass, winter beans, Belgian carrots, and alsike clover. Stock-breeding was given increased attention, and the better breeds were disseminated more widely through the country. An interest in agricultural science was promoted by the establishment of the Royal Ag- ricultural Socie^ in 1838 and of the Royal Agri- cultural College at Cirencester and the Agricul- tural Chemistry -Association in 1842. In 1S04 the government began the systematic collection and publication of agricultural statistics. Finally may be mentioned the fact that, whereas throughout most of the period arable farming strongly pre- dominated, after about 1865 there was a notable extension of pasture-farming, so that the two were carried on more generally together, and with in- creased profit." — F. A. Ogg, Economic development of modern Europe, pp. 159-161. — See also Tarut: 1815-1828. British Isles: 1875-1900. — Decline. — "As a great department of economic activity, agriculture had long since been eclipsed, in point of numbers and of value of output, by manufacturing. Under con- ditions thus fundamentally altered, however, the agriculture of the middle portion of the nineteenth century was prosperous, and its well-being was prolonged almost unimpaired until the immediate eve of the great era of depression. ... In 1876 and 1877 poor harvests, cattle-plague, and sheep- rot involved the agricultural classes in dire dis- aster. In 18S2 a government commission testified mournfully to the 'great extent and intensity of the distress which has fallen upon the agricultural community.' And as time went on it began to appear that, far from being merely ephemeral, the adverse conditions which had arisen were perma- nent and perhaps largely irremediable. In point of fact, the depression which had thus settled upon the agrarian portion of the country has continued with only a modicum of relief to the present day. The statistics of the decline of agricultural pros-' perity are easier to ascertain than are the causes involved; and the causes are less difficult to de- termine than are the remedies. The first matter to be observed is the sharp reduction since 1875 of the amount of land under cultivation and the con- siderable increase of the amount utilized for graz- ing. . . .The total area devoted to wheat fell from about 3,700,000 acres in 1870 to 3,100,000 acres in 1880; 2,500.000 in iSoo,' and 1,700,000 in iQoo. In iQii it was about 1,900,000 acres. The decline in acreage has been heaviest in the case of wheat ; but it has appeared in some measure in all corn crops grown in the United Kingdom except oats. Taking corn crops as a whole, the area cultivated was diminished by three million acres, or almost forty per cent., in the three dec- ades 1876-1006. TDuring the Great War there was a marked increase. The acreage of wheat was 2,221,000 in iQiq.J From these facts it follows that there has been a large falling off in the out- put of agricultural product. The production of wheat in the United Kingdom, which in the years 1841-1845 was sufficient for 24,000,000 persons, or almost ninety per cent, of the population, has declined until home-grown wheat in 1006 fed but 4,500,000 persons, or 10.6 per cent, of the popula- tion. The area under grass increased by almost one-third in 1876-IQ06; yet the quantity of meat produced from home-fed stock was increased by only five per cent. From this situation it arises that the British people have become dependent in a fairly astounding degree upon foodstuffs im- ported from abroad. In 1S75 ^^^ value of im- ported food supplies of all kinds was £124,000,000; in IQ05 it was £205,000,000. On their face these figures, however, convey no adequate impression of the magnitude of the change. . . . This factor taken into consideration, it appears that the volume of food imports was increased during the period by 130 per cent., or almost four times the increase in population." — Ibid., pp. 101-162. British Isles: 20ih century. — Development. — 1 "Speaking generally the British Isles are inten- sively cultivated, the amount of land available being small and the agricultural population high- ly skilled in their industry. .\t the same time the proximity of valuable industries with a high rate of wages has drawn the agricultural popula- tion off all land that does not yield a high return to the cultivator, and in consequence there are in the British Isles many comparatively large areas which can hardly be said to be farmed at all, though they pay a trifling return per acre on an inconsiderable expenditure for labour. The den- sity of the agricultural population in England averages about 125 per square mile, in Ireland about iqo, both very high figures as compared with America and other new countries, but far below those which prevail in India, China, and Japan. They are also exceeded on the continent of Europe in Belgium, Holland, and Denmark, though not to any marked degree. The average yield per acre is only exceeded in Belgium, Hol- land, and Denmark. . . . "The most characteristic feature of the agricul- ture of Great Britain is [that] the greater part of the land is farmed by comparatively large tenant farmers holding from 200 to 500 acres of land and possessed of both a considerable amount of capital and a high standard of cultivation. On less than 12 per cent, of the land are the occu- piers owners, and the occupier-owners have stead- ily decreased of late years. . . . The British sys- tem of land tenure with its comparatively large holdings is in the main the ' outcome of the enclosures of the old common fields which took place most markedly towards the end of the eighteenth century. In a few districts the land has not been enclosed but is still held in narrow strips of one-acre and half-acre pieces. ... In the British system of tenant farming the owner not only provides the land and buildings but is also responsible for all the permanent improvements upon the farm, and continues to supply material for gates, fences, drains, and repairs to the fabric. He thus becomes a very considerable partner in the farming enterprise, and it has been shown that on many of the large estates the rent does not represent a commercial interest on the capital that has been expended on the land during the last century, without allowing any value to the land itself. The development of British farming and the comparatively advan.ced stage it has reached have been due to the manner in which the tenant's capital has thus been free for the purposes of his business; he has been tempted to embark his capital freely by possessing a prac- tical security of tenure and yet no obligation to remain if the business became unprofitable. The majority of the farms in Great Britain are held on yearly tenure, long leases being very uncom- mon The effectiveness of the system may be judged not only from the comparatively high \ields per acre but also from the improvement 140 AGRICULTURE, MODERN British Isles 20ih Century AGRICULTURE, MODERN that has been effected in the breeds of live stock, chiefly by tenant farmers. The conscious forma- tion of specific breeds of live stock began in Eng- land in the latter part of the eighteenth century, and in no other country has attained to such a degree of perfection. As a consequence the newer countries which have been so largely opened up during the nineteenth century have been peopled almost exclusively with British breeds of live stock. The great cattle ranches of America, Ar- gentina, and Austraha are exclusively occupied by British stock, chiefly Shorthorns and Herefords, and certain British races of sheep have an equally wide distribution ; in fact the only continental races that have been developed out of their own districts are the Holstein-Friesian dairy cattle and the Merino sheep. At the present time Great Brit- ain is still resorted to by the breeders of all coun- tries for sires whereby to improve their country stock and a valuable export trade in pedigree ani- mals is carried on. One of the most marked fea- tures of English farming is the number of sheep that are carried . . . and though the British num- bers are exceeded in Australia, . . . Argentina . . . and the United States ... the density of the sheep in Great Britain is far greater than in any other country. In England also the sheep are almost as abundant on arable land as on the grass, because of the practice prevailing on all the lighter soils of consuming turnips and other green crops by sheep folded on the arable land. ... It is difficult to trace any general causes at work in the distribution of large or small holdings. Poor land that is still fit for arable farming is generally divided into extensive farms, as for example, the land lying on the chalk, where the holdings are very often of 800 acres and upwards. On the other hand, the poorest land in the country is often cut up into comparatively small farms be- cause it has never been sufficiently tempting to the large capitalist farmer. . . . Light soils in the neighbourhood of good markets arc generally oc- cupied by small holders engaged in market-garden- ing, milk production and other intensive forms of agriculture demanding a good deal of labour. . . . In Ireland, in Wales, and in Scotland away from the rich arable land in the eastern straths, we find the land divided into small grazing farms occu- pied by comparatively poor men employing little or no additional labour and content to work for a small pecuniary return. Finally, on the extreme western seaboard of Scotland and Ireland where both the land and the climate are unfavourable to agriculture we have a population of crofters tilling very small areas for a bare subsistence, far below the usual economic level prevailing in the British Isles. [For statistics of production see England: iqoi.] "The cultivated land in Scotland is confined to the fringe of lowlands on the eastern coast, the broad river valleys and straths and the western seaboard of the lowland counties below the eleva- tion of 600 feet or so. Of the cultivated land the greater proportion is under arable cultivation, but a large proportion of this is occupied by tempo- rary grass which is left down for two or three years before coming into crop again. . . . Scot- tish farming generally is distinguished by a very high level of skill, culminating in the Lothians, where the most highly developed arable farming in the world may be seen. The statistics of pro- duction bear evidence of the general excellence of Scottish agriculture. [See ScoTL.xNn: T75o-ig2i.] . . . The holdings in Wales are . . . small, and be- cause of the elevnted . . country and the high rainfall only a small proportion of the land is un- der arable cultivation, except on some of the allu- vial soils in the valleys and in Anglesey. The up- lands are chiefly occupied by sheep, of which two races may be distinguished — the true mountain sheep and the forest sheep, which more properly belong to the march countries, Radnor and Mont- gomery. From the latter stock one or two distinct breeds have been segregated; indeed the widely distributed Shropshire breed has originated from it through a certain infusion of South Down blood. . . . Speaking generally Welsh farms are small and the land not rich, but even in the favourable dis- tricts, as in the island of .Anglesey, the agriculture is backward and undeveloped. "In many respects it is difficult to compare the farming of Ireland with that of the rest of Great Britain, so entirely different has been the sys- tem of land tenure. In Ireland the landlord has never carried out the improvements, but merely allowed his tenants the use of the land. [See also Absenteeism.] The absence of any compet- ing industries, to draw the sons of the farmers off. the land, also resulted in continued subdivision, until the average size of the holding has become very small — 28 acres, as compared with 63 acres in Great Britain. Having to such an extent made their farms, the tenants acquired, first by custom and then by law, a tenant-right in their improve- ments, which within the last few years has de- veloped into a system of State-aided purchase, which will eventually make the tenants owners of their own farms. Owing to the comparatively high rainfall, the indifferent drainage of the river valleys in the central plain, and the equable tem- perature, Ireland as a whole is a country more suited to the growth of grass than to corn, and over a large part of the country very little arable farming is to be found. By temperament also the Irishman seems to be rather a grazier than a farmer. . . . With this restriction of arable farm- ing to the better lands, and the equable climate and rainfall, the yields per acre of corn and es- pecially of roots in Ireland are comparatively high. The area under tillage, however, is only just beginning to show signs of increase, though it is difficult to see how holdings of the Irish size can be economically profitable, except under intensive arable cultivation. The most strongly- marked farming district in Ireland lies in the east- ern side of Ulster and comprises County Down and other counties abutting on Lough Neagh. These are arable counties, except where the eleva- tion is too great or the land too boggy ; the land is mostly divided into small farms, not exceeding 50 acres, occupied by men of Scottish origin. Very fine farming is to be found in Ulster; par- ticularly the crops of potatoes and roots are often very large. Little wheat is grown, but on the coast of County Down, especially in the Ards peninsula, barley becomes an important crop; everywhere else oats form the chief and almost only cereal. Flax-growing forms an important feature in the Ulster farming; except on a small recently revived area in Cork, flax is now confined to Ulster, where the acreage undergoes rapid fluc- tuations from year to year according to the de- mand for fibre. Another characteristic crop of the district is grass seed. Cattle are extensively bred, there being a number of pedigree Shorthorn herds in the neighbourhood of Lough Neagh ; but sheep are unimportant. This district has an export trade in oats, potatoes, and hay with Glasgow and Liverpool. Going southivard the arable land does not extend much past Dundalk, but in the South of Louth, Meath, and northern Kildare passes into a great area of rich grassland — a thinly populated 141 AGRICULTURE, MODERN British Isles 20ih Centurv AGRICULTURE, MODERN country given over to the summer grazing of bul- locks and commanding lor that purpose excep- tional rents up to £3 an acre or more. These fa- mous Meath grazings are largely let on terms of eleven months only, so as to prevent the occupier acquiring any tenant-right by a continuous ten- ancy. Below the central grazing district will be found a few areas of arable farming in south Kil- dare, Queen's County, Tipperary, and Kilkenny; similar areas occur in Wexford and again in Cork, though the farming in the centre and south of Ireland rarely reaches the general high pitch of Ulster. The Shannon counties, and particularly Limerick, form the great dairying district of Ire- land, and here also are raised the store cattle British Isles: Ireland. — Wyndham Act. Sec Ireland: 1903. Also in: Journals of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries and the Royal Agricultural Society (London). — Journal of Agricultural Science, igo5 seq. — C. E. Green and D. Young, Encyclopedia of agriculture. — Sir H. R. Haggard, Rural England. — F. G. Heath, British rural life and labour. — R Wallace, Farm live stock of Great Britain. — R. Wallace and E. Brown, British breeds of live slock.— Sir A. Fitzherbert, Boke of husbandrie (1523). — J. Tull, Horse-shoring husbandry (1733). ■ — A. Young, Annals of agriculture. — Vinogradoff, Growth of the manor. — R. M. Gamier, History of the English landed interest. — W. Hasbach, History LEVELLING A FAR-EASTERN RICE FIELD FOR SOWING Rice is one of the most important cereal foods in the world © Elmendorf Frniu E. Galloway which cross the Channel in such large numbers to be fattened by the English graziers. Lastly, on the western seaboard in Clare, Galway, Mayo, and Donegal come the congested districts, where an impoverished population wring a bare suste- nance out of entirely inadequate patches of land that have been reclaimed from the mountain and bog.— A. D. Hall. Oxford survey of the British empire, pp. 148- 171. —See also Conservation or NATURAL resources: Great Britain; Ireland: 1881- 1882. British Isles: Ireland. — Land Act. See Ire- land: 1870; 1882. British Isles: Ireland. — Land Commission. See Ireland: 1885-1Q03. British Isles: Ireland. — Land League. See Ireland: 1873-1870. British Isles: Ireland. — Land Purchase Acts. See Ireland: 1000-1911. of the English agricultural laborer. — W. MacDon- ald. Makers of modern agriculture. — H. Bradley, Enclosures in England. — VV. Somerville, Agricul- tural progress in the nineteenth century (Journal of the Bath and West and Southern Counties So- ciety, 1001-1002). — W. H. R. Curtlcr, Short history of English agriculture. — M. Fordham, Short his- tory of English rural life. — R. E. Prothero, Eng- lish farming past and present. — J. E. T. Rogers. His- tory of agriculture and prices. — Traill, Social Eng- land. — W. Cunningham, Growth of English indus- try and commerce during the Middle Ages; Growth of English industry and commerce in modern times. Canada. See Canada: .^griculture. China. See China: .Agriculture France: Development since the Revolution. — Small holdings. — "The continental country in which the liberation of agriculture first took place upon a considerable scale was France. There, as 142 AGRICULTURE, MODERN France AGRICULTURE, MODERN elsewhere, the development presents three prin- cipal phases: (i) the emancipation of the rural labourer in respect to his person; (2) the release of agricultural technique from the fetters imposed by law and custom; and (3) the liberation of the land, similarly, from ancient legal and customary fetters, and the opening of it to the possession of large numbers of people. One of the capital achievements of the Revolution was the aboHtion of all survivals of feudalism and serfdom. The number of serfs remaining to be set free in 178Q was not large. None the less, the liberation of such as there were, together with the cancellation of an intricate mass of surviving feudal and mano- rial obligations, was a step necessary to be taken before the French agricultural classes could be put in the way of the largest prosperity. By it the French people were guaranteed for the first time a universal status of personal legal freedom. The liberation of technique, involving especially the abandonment of the threc-tield system and the introduction of machinery and of new methods of cultivation, came gradually and did not reach full fruition before the second half of the nine- teenth century. In some of its aspects, at least, it was promoted, as well as accompanied, by a development which must be considered much the most important of all, i. c., the conversion of tenants, dependent cultivators, and ordinary la- bourers into independent, self-sustaining landhold- ers; and attention must first be directed in some detail to this fundamental matter. Formerly it was supposed that the multiplicity of small pro- prietorships which is the distinguishing feature of rural France to-day was wholly a consequence of the Revolution. Research has shown that this is not true — that, on the contrary, the breaking up of the agricultural lands of France into little hold- ings was already under way long before 1789. . . . Throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth cen- turies impoverished seigneurs in increasing num- bers had been obliged to sell land to their tenants; while the number of small holdings had been in- creased steadily by the redemption of waste land and by the enclosure and division of common land. No reliable statistics of French landholding prior to 1789 exist. Arthur Young, however, says that in 1787 a third of the land was tilled by peasant owners; and it has been estimated that at the out- break of the Revolution the total number of pro- prietors was about three millions, of whom three- fifths would be classified to-day as small proprie- tors. . . . After full allowance has been made for the growth of small holdings before the Revolu- tion, the fact remains that the development was much accelerated by the Revolution itself. In the first place, the improvement of the conditions of landholding, through the suppression of manorial obligations, stimulated the desire of larger num- bers of men to become proprietors. In the second place, the Revolution emphasised the principle — and Napoleon sought to enforce it in the Code — of egalitarian inheritance, in accordance with which the bulk of a testator's property was re- quired to he divided equally among all of his children, without distinction of age or sex. . . . More important than these influences, however, was the extensive sale of lands confiscated from the crown, from the emigres, and from the Church. Through the years 1790-1705 large areas were placed upon the market. Prices were low, payment was spread over a period of twelve or more years, a clear title was given, and no com- plicating obligations were imposed. The law of May 14, 1700. specifically enjoined that the lands should be sold in small portions, the large estates being broken up for the purpose, to the end that the number of 'happy proprietors' might be in- creased. Until 1793, when the practice was pro- hibited, peasants frequently combined to purchase large tracts which they forthwith divided among themselves." — F. A. Ogg, Economic development of modern Europe, pp. 188-190. France: Land tenure in recent times.^ — "From the Revolution to the present day France has re- mained a land of numerous and small holdings. The law of partible inheritance has been, however, the theme of heated controversy. . . . Statistics* prepared in 1862 showed that in that year 56.29 per cent, of all holdings in the country had an area of five hectares {a little less than twelve and one-half acres) or less; 30.47 per cent., an area of between five and twenty hectares; 8.47 per cent., an area of between twenty and forty hectares; and only 4.77 per cent., an area of more than forty hectares. . . . "At the present day there are somewhat more than three million proprietors whose holdings are under ten hectares in extent, and these holdings aggregate upwards of twenty per cent, of the total arable area of the country. The remainder is owned by some 750,000 proprietors — half of it by 150,000 whose holdings exceed one hundred and sixty hectares, the other half by 600,000 whose holdings fall between ten and one hundred and sixty hectares. About eighty per cent, of all hold- ings to-day are cultivated by their owners. Of the remainder, thirteen per cent, are leased and seven per cent, are worked under the system known as metayage, involving the division of the produce, on some designated percentage basis. between proprietor and cultivator. The number of small holders continues to increase. . . . The French peasant still displays a deep attachment for the soil. The ground is not so rich or well- favoured that hard work is not required for its tillage, but it repays the husbandmen's effort to his reasonable satisfaction." — F. A. Ogg, Economic development of modern Europe, pp. 190-194. France: Century of agricultural development. — "While Great Britain was becoming distinctly an industrial and commercial nation and Ger- many, at a later period, was tending strongly in the same direction, France remained a predomi- nantly agricultural country. And such she still is. . . . Throughout the past hundred years ag- ricultural progress has been more steady and sub- stantial than in any [other] country of Europe, with the possible exception of Belgium and Den- mark. In the Napoleonic period Flemish and English systems of crop rotation were introduced and the cultivation of many products — dyes, chic- ory, flax, hemp, and beet-root — was begun or extended; although it must be added that after the restoration of normal trade relations in 1814- 15 some of the newer forms of cultivation (c g., that of beet-root) which had been undertaken as a means of providing substitutes for commodities cut off by the war languished. The period 181S- 47 was, in general, a time of rapid agricultural advance and of great rural prosperity. The coun- try was at peace externally, and the people, al- though at times agitated by political questions, were in the main profitably employed and con- tented. After 1848 advance was somewhat re- tarded. The political unsettlement incident to the overthrow of the Orleanist monarchy and the es- tablishment of the Second Empire, the Crimean War and the war with Austria in 1859. outbreaks of the cholera, and the poor har\'ests of 1853 and r855 operated, along with other circumstances, to withdraw men from the land and to jeopardize 143 AGRICULTURE, MODERN United States Beginnings AGRICULTURE, MODERN agriculture interests. At no time during the second half of the century did these interests quite re- gain their former prosperity. After i860, how- ever, the reclamation of waste land set in upon a large scale, and likewise the introduction of agricultural machinery. . . . Scientific methods of rotation, soil-preparation, and fertilization were introduced, and between 1818 and i88q the aver- age yield of wheat per acre was raised from eleven to seventeen and one-half bushels, and between 1S25 and 1S75 that of barley was increased by •eight bushels, ajid that of oats by ten bushels. ... In the matter of foodstuffs France today is practically self-supporting, and her exports of ag- ricultural products are extensive. A main char- acteristic of the agriculture of the country is the diversity of its products. Wheat and wine are the staples, but there is a heavy output of rye, barley, buckwheat, oats, maize, fruits and dairy produce. Almost one-third of the cultivated land is devoted to cereals. ... Of a total of 105,000 square miles of arable land, 171,000 square miles, or eighty-eight per cent., are steadily under cul- tivation." — F. A. Ogg, Economic development of modern Europe, pp. i88-iq4. "The agricultural interests in France receive the assistance of the government mainly through the imposition of duties on imported agricultural commodities, a policy which reached its culmina- tion in the decade 1881-1800 and has been en- forced to this day bj' successive tariff legislation. The Ministry of Agriculture maintained by the state is a thoroughly modern and well-equipped institution, with an advisory council of politicians and agricultural experts, and a body of inspectors who travel ov-er the country and indicate direc- tions for state assistance to the farmer. One of the most important respects in which agriculture has been liberated by the state is the freedom of association, which was not granted in France until 1884. Before that time, agricultural societies were mainly of a scientific nature, although quite among the best of their kind in Europe. The great need for and impulse toward association is shown by the rapid growth of agricultural so- cieties, of which there were 648 in 1800, with 234,234 members, and 6,178 in IQ13, with q76,i57 members. Membership is limited by region and by class, but there are small unions of the various local societies as well as the Union Centrale des Syndicats Agricoles, an association of about 2500 of the local societies. The purpose of these or- ganizations is to promote the interests of the ag- ricultural class through governmental interposi- tion, through instruction of the farmer in the bet- terment of his own situation, and through secur- ing the benefits of cooperation.":— /hjrf. — See also AcRictiLnTRF.: Modern period: General survey; Cooperation: France. France: 1914-1918. — Damages from war. See World War: Miscellaneous auxiliary services: XI. Devastation, b, 2. France: 1918. — Reconstruction work follow- ing war. See World War: Miscellaneous auxiliary services: XII. Reconstruction, a, 4. Germany: 19th-20th centuries. — Agricultural development. See above under General survey. Germany: Food policy during the World War. See Food reguxation: iqi4-iqi8: German food policy. Germany: Illicit trade during World War. See Food regulation: iqi4-iqi8: Rationing. India. See India: Agriculture. Japan. See Japan: Agriculture. Korea. See Korea: Agriculture. Mexico. See Latin- America: Agriculture. Poland. See Poland: iq2i. Russia. See Russia: igoq; 1916: Condition of peasantry; 1917-1920; Land distribution by the Bolsheviki. — See also Baltic provinces: 1920. Siam. See Siam; Agriculture. South America. See Latin- America : Agricul- ture. Spain: Canal irrigation. See Spain: 1759-1788. United States: Beginnings of American ag- riculture. — "The agricultural as well as the polit- ical history of the United States is divided into two eras. The first is the colonial era, lasting from 1607 to 1770. The second is the era of national development, lasting from 1776 to the present time. This era of national development, ho%vever, is divisible into four distinct periods; first, from 1776 to 1833; second, from 1833 to 1864; third, from 1864 to 1888; fourth, from 1888 to the present time. The first era, being con- temporaneous with the colonial era of our politi- cal history, may be called the era of establish- ment. It was the time during which the colonists transplanted European methods of agriculture to American soil and readaptcd them to the new con- ditions. This readaptation consisted in learning how to live a wilderness life, and to clear wild land of trees, stumps, and stones. It consisted also in learning by experiment what crops were adapted to the soil and climate, and what methods of cultivation were best calculated to insure satis- factory returns. The first European settlers in America . . . learned many of their first and, as it proved, most valuable lessons directly from the Indians. . . . They taught our ancestors how to grow two crops which were destined to play a large part in our national economy. The.se crops were tobacco and Indian corn, or maize. The former was the most important money crop in the southern colonies during the entire colonial period, and remained in the lead until 1801, when it was outstripped by cotton. During our entire history corn has been the leading agricultural prod- uct of the country as a whole, and still retains that position with no other crop even, a close second. The history of land tenure in colonial times was one that was natural to the circum- stances of a new country, sparsely settled under conditions of great hardship. In the first place, all titles were derived ultimately from the British Crown, which made grants to various companies, which in turn made grants to individuals. This was true of Virginia, after a period of unsuccess- ful communal ownership, but in New England the system was somewhat different. There grants were made to groups of individuals for the purpose of establishing a settlement or town. The middle colonies had several forms of land tenure — New York under the Dutch having the semi-feudal patroon system, while Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Delaware were under the proprietary system, upon which their government was based. It was not many years after settlement that speculation, which has been a characteristic of American ex- pansion westward almost up to our own time, became a common practice. In colonial times it took this form: — that an individual or a group of persons would obtatin a grant for a large tract of land, organize settlers on part of it, and hold the remainder of the tract until a high price could be demanded for it. While the early colonists learned their first lessons in successful agriculture from the Indians, and began growing corn or to- bacco after the manner of their teachers, they were naturally unwilling to follow the Indian type of agriculture exclusively. Accordingly a great many experiments were tried. In Virginia especi- 144 AGRICULTURE, MODERN United States 1776-1833 AGRICULTURE, MODERN ally these experiments were numerous. An at- tempt was made to develop the silk industry be- cause mulberry trees were found growing wild, and to develop grape culture and wine making be- cause wild grapes were found; and attempts were also made to grow the fig, the olive, and other semi-tropical fruits. . . . But after all their ex- perimenting the Southern colonists fell back upon corn and tobacco as their leading field crops, though European grains, vegetables, and fruits were also introduced. Indigo and rice also be- came important crops in South Carolina and Georgia. In the middle colonies wheat became the staple crop, though corn was always grown, and European fruits and vegetables were cultivated in considerable quantities. There grew up a consider- able export trade in wheat to the West Indies. In New England there were no great staple crops produced for export. Farming was of a more general sort, and products were grown mainly for the local markets. "One of the most interesting phases of our colonial agricultural history is the live stock in- dustry. All the domestic animals and fowls now grown in the United States, except the turkey, were first brought from Europe. Everywhere the hog flourished, running half wild in the woods, living upon mast and roots, and multiplying rap- idly in spite of the depredations of wolves, bears and marauding Indians. Early in our colonial era Virginia hams and bacon acquired high reputa- tion. Goats flourished also, being better able than sheep to protect themselves against wolves. Later, however, as the country became more settled, sheep displaced goats as a form of live stock. Sheep were grown in all the colonies where condi- tions were sufficiently settled to furnish protec- tion from wolves. Cattle were naturally better fitted than sheep to defend themselves against the savage denizens of the woods, and have been bred in considerable numbers on the frontier ever since the earliest settlement. In Virginia and the Caro- linas a flourishing cattle business, resembling mod- ern cattle ranching, grew up. . . . The first [Euro- pean animals] to reach the New World were brought by Columbus to the West Indies on his second voyage in 1403. Horses, cattle, hogs, goats, sheep, asses, chickens, ducks, and geese were known to have been brought at that time. During the colonial period there was considerable trade be- tween our own colonies and the West Indies, and it is not improbable that specimens of all these Spanish varieties may have found their way to our shore. This is known to have been the case with horses, cattle, hogs, and sheep. Dutch cattle were brought to New York and Danish cattle to New Hampshire. In general, however, our farm animals came from the British Isles." — T. N Carver, Principles of rural economics, pp. 63-72. United States: 1776-1833. — National develop- ment. — Public land policy. — Cotton industry. — Westward migration. — Live stock. — "The War of Independence marks an era in our agricul- tural as well as in our political history. Shortly after this event a series of epoch-making changes began in agriculture. In the first place, the fron- tier moved rapidly westward into the great in- terior valley. The life of the pioneers on our frontier, wherever that frontier may happen to have been, has always retained certain of the essential features which it possessed in the colonial era. The next great epoch-making event was the establishment of the public-land policy of the federal government. At the close of the Revolu- tion the land was all regarded as the property of the various states. By a series of acts the greater part of the unoccupied or unsold lands were ceded to the central government, which then began to devise plans for their sale to private individuals. No other poUcy than that of turning the public domain as rapidly as possible into private prop- erty for individual farmers ever seems to have been seriously considered. At first the policy was to sell the lands for the benefit of the national Treasury and the extinction of the national debt. By a scries of changes the financial motive was abandoned altogether, and a policy was adopted which aimed to put the land in the hands of ac- tual settlers without any direct profit to the national Treasury whatever. . . . "The next epochal change in the agricultural history of this period was the rise of cotton to the first place among Southern products. During the colonial era, and down to 1803, tobacco held first place, but at this date cotton began to out- strip it and soon left it far behind. This rise of cotton to a position of predominance came about as a result of several factors working together. During the latter half of the eighteenth century there had been a remarkable series of inventions, mainly in England, for the manufacture of cloth. These had greatly increased the demand for cotton on the markets of the world. In 1786 the long-staple or sea-island cotton was introduced and proved to be well adapted to the low lands of South Carolina and Georgia. But more im- portant than all other factors was the invention of the saw gin in 1703. This was the first suc- cessful device for separating the seed from the short-staple or upland cotton. This is the kind of cotton from which the great bulk of the cotton fabrics of the world are manufactured, and the saw gin made its production profitable in this country where labor was scarce and land abun- dant. One of the unpleasant results of this rise of the cotton industry, however, was to give slav- ery a new lease of life. . . . The almost complete exclusion of white labor from cotton growing was by far the most importont effect of slavery upon .American agriculture. Three other effects are commonly attributed to it. First, it is held re- sponsible for the process of 'land killing,' by which is meant the practice of growing a few crops from a piece of land until its original virgin fertility was partially exhausted and then aban- doning it for a new and unexhausted tract. It is doubtful, however, whether this practice was due more to slavery than to the presence of indefinite supplies of new land. . . . Second, slavery tended to concentrate cotton growing in large plantations worked by gangs of slaves under supervision. . . . Third, the tools and implements used in Southern agriculture remained crude and heavy long after improvements had been introduced in the North. Tobacco, live stock, and general farming con- tinued in the northern belt of slave states, that is, in Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Ken- tucky, Tennessee, and Missouri; but through the institution of slavery these found their interests to be with the cotton states to the south of them rather than with the free states of the North. The cotton states furnished a market for slaves and also for the horses, mules, cattle, hogs, hay, and grain produced by these border states. . . . [See Maryland: 1660-1776.] "The opening up of the Northwest Territory under the ordinances of 1785 and 1787 stimulated a rapid migration westward to this new territory. Inasmuch as the government at this period sold land to speculators as well as to settlers, this westward migration was made up of very diverse elements, though then, as well as later, the home 145 AGRICULTURE, MODERN United States 1833-1860 AGRICULTURE, MODERN seeker predominated. The land sought during this early period all lay in the continuous stretch of forest which extended westward from the coast to the present state of Indiana. Therefore the pioneering of this period differed, in some re- spects, from that which we have known later in the prairie states, though resembling that of the colonial period on the Atlantic seaboard. After locating his land and building a shelter, the first task of the settler was to clear his land of timber. The work of destroying the forest was prosecuted with such vigor and ingenuity as have probably never been equaled in the history of the world. "There were few changes in agricultural imple- ments until after 1833. The plow and harrow were almost the only tools not driven by human muscle. The wooden plow with an iron share was still in use, through sometimes the wooden mold- board was protected b.\- .strips of iron. In 1798 Thomas Jefferson wrote a treatise on the proper form of a moldboard of a plow. A year earlier Charles Newbold of New Jersey had invented a cast-iron plow having the share, moldboard, and land side all in one piece. It did not come into general use at once because some one invented the absurd doctrine, which farmers seem to have be- lieved, that the cast-iron plow poisoned the land so that crops would not grow. Jethro Wood of New York, a correspondent of Jefferson, took out patents for cast-iron plows in 1814 and 1810. He had designed a moldboard resembling some- what those now in use. Though there were few significant inventionsi of agricultural implements during the period from 1776 to 1833, there was the beginning of an interest in agricultural im- provement which promised well for the future. Agricultural societies were founded in South Caro- lina in 1784, in Pennsylvania in 1785, in New York in 1701, in Massachusetts in 1792. In 18 10 an exhibition of agricultural products was held in Georgetown, D. C, and another in Pittsfield, Massachusetts. In 1816 a somewhat larger ex- hibition was held in Brighton, Massachusetts. These were the forerunners of the agricultural fairs which have since had such a large development. During this period there were new importations of improved live stock, particularly Shorthorn and Hereford cattle, Kentucky, Massachusetts, and New York taking the lead. . . . One of the most interesting chapters in the history of .Ameri- can husbandry relates to the general introduction of the Merino sheep. The first animals of this breed were imported in 1773, but the industry was not yet in a flourishing condition. With the restrictions upon trade growing out of the Na- poleonic disturbances in Europe, there grew up a necessity for a domestic supply of wool. At the same time the Peninsular War created such con- ditions in Spain that the herds of Merinos, which up to that time had been guarded as a quasi- national monopoly, were broken up and offered for sale. Enterprising American farmers began buying them, and by iSoo there were said to be 5000 in the country. The price of Merino wool soared, and the prices of sheep soared still higher. There grew up a speculative craze in Merinos, and some fabulous prices were paid. Hogs have always been an important agricultural product in the United States. The earliest settlers in all the co-'l^tTO.had found hogs very adaptable, multi- plyflur'Tapidly and flourishing on the food found in the forest. . . . During the period we are now studying, Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky, and Tennessee were the principal hog-growing states, and Cin- cinnati, the center of this region, soon became famous as the center of a large pork-packing in- dustry, a position which she held until surpassed by Chicago many years later. In 1805 fat cattle began to be driven across the .Alleghcnies to the eastern seaport cities, but a good part of the produce of the Ohio valley found its way south- ward, first to New Orleans and later to supply the cotton states. In 1825 the Erie Canal, con- necting the Great Lakes with the .\tlantic, was opened. This marked the beginning of a new out- let for the products of the great interior, es- pecially the northern belt of that interior. Wheat became the leading export from the Northwest, but corn, beef, and pork remained the leading products of the Ohio River region." — T. N. Car- ver, Principles of rural ecomimics, pp. 74-84. United States: 1833-1860.— Transformation.— Cattle raising. — "Beginning with 1833; there oc- curred on American soil during the next lhirt\' years one of the most remarkable agricultural transformations ever known in the history of the world. In 1S33 practically all the work of the farm e.xcept plowing and harrowing was done by hand. Though there had been minor improve- ments in hand tools, and considerable improve- ment in livestock and crops, particularly in Europe, yet it is safe to say that so far as the general character of the work actually performed by the farmer was concerned, there had been practically no change for 4000 years. Small grain was still sown broadcast, and reaped either with a cradle or the still more primitive sickle. The cradle, however, was a relatively new invention, being a modification of the scythe, which had been used for centuries in mowing grass. The addition of the frame and 'fingers' to the old-fashioned scythe, together with a few changes in the handle to restore the balance, made it into a so-called cradle and adapted it to the reaping of grain But the sickle or reaping hook had been in use for thousands of years. ... It is still in use in oriental countries and in some parts of Europe Grain was still threshed with a flail in 1833, or trodden out by horses and oxen, as it had been in ancient Egypt or Babylonia. Hay was mown with a scythe and raked and pitched by hand. Corn was planted and covered b_\' hand and cultivated with a hoe. By 1806 every one of these opera- tions U'as done by macliinery driven by horse power, except in the more backward sections of the country. The increased use of farm machin- ery also helped the horse to displace the ox as a draft animal, the former being much better suited than the latter to the drawing of these improved implements. . . . The transformation which took place in the agriculture of the North was due to several causes, any one of which might be called epoch making. The first was the railroad. At the beginning of this period there were none. By i860 there were 30,000 miles in operation and they had penetrated every state east of the Mis- souri River. While the markets of the world were brought nearer to the Western farms by the build- ing of the railroads, the markets themselves were growing larger. The building of the factory towns of New England called for larger supplies of food. In 1846 the English Corn Laws were repealed, though the repeal did not go into effect until 1840, when American foodstuffs began to be ad- mitted to that country free of duty. The great Irish potato famine began in 1846. The continent of Europe was disturbed by the revolutions of 1848 and by the Crimean War of 1854, . . . An- other set of causes was at work in the form of a more liberal land policv. . . . Another factor of great importance was the development of prairie farming. At the beginning of this period the van- 146 AGRICULTURE, MODERN Unifed States 1833-1860 AGRICULTURE, MODERN guard of the westward-movinR army of settlers was just emerging from the great primeval forest, which covered the entire eastern third of the con- tinent, and was beginning to settle in the great natural meadows of the upper Mississippi Valley. In this new region the settler was saved the enor- mous task of clearing his land of timber. . . . But the most important factor of all was the series of inventions of agricultural machinery by means of which horse power was substituted for human muscles as a motor force. In 1831 William Man- ning of New Jersey was granted a patent for a mowing machine. In 1833 and 1S34 Obed Hussey of Baltimore and Cyrus McCormick were each granted patents for reaping machines. After 1840, when these machines had been improved and their practicability demonstrated, they began to come into general use. About the same time the thresh- ing machine began to be widely used, and very soon displaced the old primitive methods. It was not, however, until about 1850 that the 'thresher' and the 'separator,' that is, the machine for beat- ing out the grain and the machine for separating it only those sections suitable for dairying, stock raising, and market gardening continued to pros- per. The competition of the Eastern farmer with the farmer of the Western prairies might have been foreseen to be a helpless one. . . . Sometimes it was not even necessary to plow the prairie land before the crop could be raised. Furrows were plowed across the sod and the corn was planted in the bottom of these and covered with a hoe. The soil was so very rich and there were so few pests that a fair crop could be grown the first year with practically no cultivation. Another method of growing the tirst crop, however, was to plow the land and plant the corn in the up- turned sod by means of an ax or mattock. ... It was the smoothness of this prairie land as much as anything else which led to the rapid develop- ment of farm machinery during this period when the prairie states were being settled. When these states began to be cultivated by means of ef- fective modern machinery, and when the railroads began to transport the products of these states to the eastern seaboard, it became impossible for the COMBINED RKAPER ANO THRESHER. DRAWN BV A TR^VCTOR from the straw and chaff, were combined. These machines were usually run by horse power, though a steam thresher was beginning to be used before 1864. John Deere made his first steel plow from an old saw blade in 1837. Scarcely less important than the mower, the reaper, and the thresher were the corn planter and the two-horse cultivator, which came into use during this period. (See also Inventions: igth century: Reapers.] . . . Every part of the work of growing corn, except that of husking the crop, was done by horse power be- fore 1864, e.xcept in certain sections where corn is a minor crop. In view of the fact that corn is and always has been our principal crop, it is doubtful whether the grain-harvesting machinery effected a greater saving of labor than did these improvements in the implements for corn produc- tion, by means of which horse power was sub- stituted for man power. ... It was during this period also, and as a result of the changes already described, that the agricultural decHne in New England began. As early as 1S40 the abandon- ment of the hill farms began to attract attention. General farming on these rocky hills in compe- tition with the prairie farms and machine culti- vation of the West was no longer possible, and farmer on the hilly lands of the Appalachian slopes to hold his own in competition with them." — T. N. Carver, Principles of rural economics, pp. 84-00. "During the period now under discussion the cattle industry in the Far West underwent a most interesting and spectacular development. Cattle ranching has always been associated with our fron- tier life, particularly in Virginia and the Carolinas. After the acquisition of Texas the American cattle- man who had already penetrated that Territory took over the ranching business and reorganized it. The descendants of the Spanish cattle brought over by Cortes and his followers had multiplied rapidly in the mild climate of Mc^iico, which then included Texas, where they had run wild for more than two hundred years. . . . Under American dominion, however, American cattlemen made vari- ous attempts to open up a market for Texas beef. As early as 1857 a few Texas cattle were driven to the cornfields of Illinois, but they did not become popular. During the Civil War the outlet for Texas cattle was cut off and yet the cattle con- tinued to multiply. Consequently the ranges were ready to swarm in the late sixties. The quality of the grass in the northern plains is somewhat better than that in the Texas ranges, and it was dis- 147 AGRICULTURE, MODERN United States 1860-1888 AGRICULTURE, MODERN covered that the Texas cattle gained in weight more rapidly in the north than on their native ground. . . . From 1870 to the close of the period we are now considering, the great cattle trail was pretty well marked as the route over which vast num- bers of cattle drifted north from the great breed- ing grounds of Texas. The migrating cattle were mainly young steers, besides some heifers taken north for the stocking of the northern ranges. Inasmuch as cattle seemed to multiply more rap- idly in Texas, because apparently cows were more prolific in the milder climate of that state, and inasmuch as young cattle grew more rapidly after being moved north, a territorial division of labor grew up. The ranches of the south supplied the young and immature cattle, and those of the north matured them and prepared them for beef. . . . After 1885 the importance of the great cattle trail began to decline. The westward advance of the line of settlements tended to cut off this line of march, but the chief factor of the decline was the competition of the railroads, which were built into the heart of the cattle country and which trans- row and planting the corn in the bottom by means of an automatic seeder. . . . This method of planting . . . has certain advantages, chief of which is that the deeper planting of the seed en- ables the crop to withstand drouth somewhat more successfully than does the shallower planting prac- ticed farther east. Though the expansion of agri- culture during the period immediately preceding the Civil War had been marvelously rapid, it was even more rapid during the period immediately following. The Civil War scarcely imposed even a temporary check upon the development of agri- culture in the North, though it completely dis- organized the cotton industry of the South and involved it in temporary ruin. [See also North Carolina; 1870-1892.] During the preceding period agriculture had . . . passed into the com- mercial stage, where farmers were living upon the profits of farming rather than on the products of the farm itself, and it was now ready to respond to the new opportunities . . . created by the railroads, the inventions of farm machinery, the opening of the prairie states, and the development of the VVALLli. 1K.'VC1\)K rl l.LliNl, (.ASK DISC I'LOW A.M) HARROW ported the cattle more quickly and almost as cheaply as they could be driven overland." — T. N. Carver, Principles of rural economics, pp. 101-104. United States: 1860-1888.^Expansion after the Civil War. — "The invention of the twine binder, by increasin.; the amount which a farmer could harvest, increased . . . the quantity which he could profitably grow. In other words, it was the twine binder more than any other single ma- chine or implement that enabled the country to increase its production of grain, especially wheat, during this period. . . . Among the improved articles of machinery used in growing corn was the 'check rower.' This device attached to a corn planter enabled one man to do work which had formerly required two. It automatically drops the seed in rows running across the field at right angles to the direction in which the planter is being driven, thus planting the rows in two directions and permitting of cross cultivation. In the somewhat drier regions west of the Missouri corn came to be planted by means of the 'lister,' — a double-moldboard plow, throwing a deep fur- county fairs There followed, therefore, such an expansion of agricultural enterprise as the world had never seen before, so far as we have any record, and such as it may never see again. The chief factors in stimulating this remarkable expension were the Homestead Laws of 1862 and 1864, the disbanding of the armies, the invention of the twine binder, the roller process of manufacturing flour, the building of the transcontinental rail- roads, the permeation of every nook and corner of the Mississippi \allcy by the so-called 'granger roads,' and the development of the immense cattle ranches of the Far West. [See U, S. A : 1866-1877.] While this tremendous expansion was going on in the North and West the cotton industry was under- going a complete transformation in the South and getting ready for the expansion ... to come later. This transformation . . . was made necessary by the abolition of slavery. Durine the next decade, however, that is, from 1870 to 1880, over 207,000 square miles, a territory equal in extent to Great Britain and France combined, were added to the cultivated area of the United States. This in- crease in the cultivated area was due partly to 148 AGRICULTURE, MODERN United States 1880-1916 AGRICULTURE, MODERN the increased effectiveness of labor when it was equipped with the improved machinery which had come into use, partly to the westward migration of our native population, and partly to the enor- mous immigration of that decade. . . . "The following figures from the United States census will show the increase in the principal grain crops since the census of 1840. Corn Wheat Oats (bushels) (bushels) (bushels) iSsQ 377,531,875 84,823,272 123,071,341 1849 592,071,104 100,485,944 146,584,179 1859 838,792,742 173,104,924 172,643,185 1869 760,944,549 287,745,626 282,107,157 1879 i,7S4,59i,676 459.483,137 407.858,999 1889 2,122,327,547 468,373,968 809,250,666 1899 2,666,440,279 658,534,252 943,389,375 I9I9* 2,900,000,000 918,000,000 1,220,000,000 * In round numbers. [Last figures obtained. — Ed.] heaviest work, such as breaking the sod, the latter seem to have been preferred. Since this time oxen have continued to be used in small numbers and in backward sections, but this date may be fixed upon as the turning point in the transition from the ox to the horse as the typical draft animal. . . . Among the more important inventions of agricultural machinery during this period the twine binder stands preeminent." — T. N. Carver, Principtts oj rural economics, pp. 92-95. See also Black Belt; U. S. A.: 1919. United States: 1880-1916.— New problems. — "Thirty years ago this country was in ... a period of agricultural depression ; those were 'hard times' for farmers. . . . Railroads were being built into the West ; population was advancing rapidly upon the new, rich soil ; crops increased faster than the demand for the products; prices were low and falling lower. Before the year 1900, a new era of prosperity for farmers began, which we still enjoy. The supply of land ready for cultivation approached exhaustion, and immigration poured IkRICATION TRENCHES IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA "One result of this enormous increase in our agri- cultural productivity was the increase in the ex- portation of breadstuffs. This did not begin on a large scale until after 1S60, but after that date it increased by leaps and bounds until within twenty years, that is, by 1880, this country had become the world's greatest exporter of wheat. Only a small fraction of the corn crop has ever been ex- ported in the form of corn, a greater part being fed to live stock; our exports of corn, therefore, have been mostly in the form of animals and animal products. . . . Before this period [1860-1888! both horses and o.\en were used, but for much of the in from foreign countries; hence population caught up with the production of foods, causing the prices of agricultural products to advance. . . . In the decade 1900-1910, the population of cities increased three times as fast as rural population. The effect of these new conditions is also seen in the increased value of farm land, which more than doubled the same years. In 1900 the aver- age value of a farm was $3,563. In 1910 this value had increased to $6,444. These figures in- clude not only the land itself, but also the build- ings, machinery, improvements, and stock. Mr. James Wilson, who was Secretary of Agriculture 149 AGRICULTURE, MODERN United States JS86-19J0 AGRICULTURE, MODERN from 1891-1913, called attention to the remark- able agricultural advance of the country during that time. When Mr. Wilson took office, the farm products of each year were worth $4,000,- 000,000. When he retired they were worth more than double that amount, $0,500,000,000 being the figure for 1012. Only a part of this increase is accounted for by larger crops, since there has also been a great increase in the prices ol farm products. Besides increased crops and greater values, many other changes have come about in our agriculture. . . . One of the greatest of these is seen in the increased use of mixed farm- ing. . . . Where once were seen wheat fields, em- bracing thousands of acres, there now are seen much smaller fields producing a variety of grains; and these are interspersed with orchards, pastures, and crops of clover and alfalfa. (See South D.4- kota: 1913.] Where once a crop failure meant ruin, we now find the farmers secure from such disaster, because their capital is invested in a dozen crops instead of one. The growth of stock and dairy interests is adding still greater security to intelligent farming. For those who wish to continue the old methods of extensive farming, with single crops and speculation in land values, the door to western Canada is wide open, and thousands of farmers from the Middle States have gone there. . . . Fruit growing (see also Califor- nia: 1900) is a phase of agriculture that de- serves treatment by itself. The spread of this industry has been made possible, not only by scientific discoveries, but also by improvements in transportation and by the use of refrigeration. Refrigeration in the shipment of perishable crops was first tried about the year 1866, the fruit being packed with ice in chests. Soon afterwards the idea of refrigerator cars was worked out, and by 1872 this method had proved successful. Refrig- eration made possible the rapid development of truck farming — one of the remarkable features of recent agriculture. Truck farming on a large scale had its beginnings in the decade between 1840 and 1850, in the region about Norfolk, \'ir- ginia. ... At present, -many special districts in the South have been developed, where particular crops are raised, such as watermelons in Georgia, and sweet potatoes in eastern Maryland. In ad- dition, all the common vegetables and small fruits are produced in immense quantities throughout the year for Northern markets. Consequently, dwellers in cities and the larger towns may enjoy fresh fruits and vegetables all through the winter months. This means much for the general health of the people. "With the changes in this great era of pros- perity there have come many problems. . . . One of these is the question of tenantry. To-day, more than one-third of our six million farmers rent their farms instead of owning them. In 1880, but one-fourth were tenants; so the num- ber of tenants is increasing faster than the num- ber of farmers. One reason for this condition is found in the great rise of land values within re- cent years. A laborer now must have consider- able capital before he can buy a farm ; so he is often obliged to become a tenant, if he would be a farmer at all. In the Middle West, a- great many farmers whose lands have become valuable move to town and live upon the income received from renting their farms. Besides, the increase in land values has caused many city dwellers to purchase farms, hoping to sell later at a profit : in the meantime thev rent their farms to tenants. ... A more serious problem faces the .American farmer to-day -that of the scarcity of labor This is one reason why many farmers have preferred to rent their farms, and why others have sold out and moved to town. It is not a new problem, for back in colonial times it was impossible to keep farm hands; they went off to get land for themselves, and only those who were in compul- sory service (indentured servants and slaves) could be held for any considerable time. But in recent years the problem has become more acute. The growth of cities has emphasised the differences between rural and urban life. The farm has come to seem relatively less attractive; the growth of manufactures has enticed laborers from the farms by offers of higher wages. These are not necessaril>' bad signs, for the>' may represent the striving of individuals for a higher standard of living. The conclusion follows that, in order to obtain a supply of the best farm laborers^ farm- ers must offer inducements that equal those of city life. In recent years farm wages have risen; but this is not a complete remedy. Social life on the farm must be made more attractive if the laborers are to be held The increased use ol machinery and the keeping of fine stock call for a type of skilled laborers for farm work. This demand will best be met when homes are pro- vided on farms where married men may live com- fortably as hired workers. This is the condition under which workmen prove to be most satisfac- tory in city employments — why not on the farm?" — .\. H. Sanford, Story oj agriculture in the United Slates, pp. .378-3S3. United States: 1886-1910. — Dry farming in the West. — The Campbell system. — For twenty consecutive years, in scores of places from the James river to the .Arkansas, H. W. Campbell, of Lincoln, Nebraska, the pioneer "dry farmer" of arid ■America, "has been uniformly successful in pro- ducing without irrigation the same results that are expected with irrigation, with comparatively little additional expense, but not without a great deal more watchfulness and labor. UTiat Western people have become accustomed to calling the 'Campbell system of dry farming' consists simply in the exercise of intelligence, care, patience, and tireless industry. It differs in details from the 'good-farming' methods practised and taught at the various agricultural experiment stations; but the underlying principles are the same. "These principles are two in number. First to keep the surface of the land under cultivation loose and finely pulverized. This forms a soil mulch that permits the rains and melting snows to percolate readily through to the compacted soil beneath; and that at the same time prevents the moisture stored in the ground from being brought to the surface by capillary attraction, to be absorbed by the hot, dry air. The second is to keep the sub-soil finely pulverized firmly com- pacted, increasing its water-holding capacity and its capillary attraction and placing it in the best possible physical condition for the germination of seed and the development of plant roots. The 'dry farmer' thus stores water not in dams and artificial reservoirs, but right where it can be reached by the roots of growing crops. "Through these principles, a rainfall of twelve inches can be conserved so effectively that it will produce better results than :>re usually expected of an annual precipitation of twenty-four inches in humid .America. The aiscoverer and demon- strator of the.se principles deserves to rank among the greatest of national benefactors." — John L. Cowan, Dry jarming, the hope oj the West (Cen- tury Magazine. July. looft! — "Just as the sheep- men, by determination and plodding methods, 150 AGRICULTURE, MODERN United States World War AGRICULTURE, MODERN have all but driven the cattlemen from the range — those that remain are dying hard — another in- dustry is slowly arising, which appears destined, within ten years, to put an end to the sheepman as he conducts his business to-day. This menace to the free and open range is the dry farmer. Within the past two years thousands of soil tillers have settled upon the prairies of Wyoming and Montana. Agriculturalists are beginning to learn that farm produce will grow, luxuriantly, profit- ably, in these high areas where the annual [rain] precipitation is fifteen inches and less, if a man knows how to cultivate. The state of Wyoming has taken official cognizance of dry farming, and is doing all that can be done to encourage it. An expert. Dr. V. T. Cooke, of Oregon, has been em- ployed at a salary of $2,000 a year to show farm- ers how to succeed without irrigation. The office (if state dry farmer was created two years ago, at which time an appropriation barely sufficient to pay Dr. Cooke was grudgingly made. The legis- lature of iQOQ, convinced and enlightened by the success of the several experimental farms, made an appropriation of .$10,000 to carry on this work. The State .Agricultural College of Wyoming also is doing a great deal along this lead, issuing bulle- tins of information to farmers, encouraging the movement in every way. It is well known that increased cultivation will be followed by increased rainfall. This has been demonstrated in the great wheat belt of Kansas, once almost as arid as the plateaus of the West. But there is no quarrel between the farmer and the sheepman. Home- steading the range means smaller flocks, the sheep- men admit, and [will put] an end to promiscuous grazing. It will necessitate, however, the feeding of flocks in winter, at once disposing of the farm- er's output and saving the percentage of loss now suffered through starvation. Dr. Cooke, Wyo- ming's expert at dry farming, speaking of the in- dustry, said: 'Dry farming is already established in the semi-arid West. Some parts of California, with an annual precipitation of ten inches, have been dry farming for over forty years, eastern Oregon and eastern Washington for over twenty- five years, with an annual precipitation as low as eight inches, and Utah, Idaho, and Montana have been dry farming for years. Colorado, Wyoming, and western Nebraska have also been dry farm- ing for several years, but only in the last two or three years has it been brought intelligently to the front. Many early settlers failed — and will continue to do so — principally through ignorance of how to do their work properly, through mis- information, and through having too good an opinion of what they know. A man must be ready to take the advice of those that know in this business. The effect of dry farming in Wyo- ming to the stockmen will be that instead of losing vast numbers of sheep and cattle during the winter and early spring through neglect of providing feed for them, they will be able to buy feed from the farmer and save the stock from starvation. The ranges have been over- stocked. The government has made stockmen take their fences from immense areas of public land, thereby preventing them from holding pastures for the winter. The average stockman never has pretended to feed his stock at all, so, the range being overstocked, with no fenced winter pastures, it is easy to understand that the dry farmer is really a necessity, a benefit, rather than an ill, as some of the stockmen believed at first.' Dr. Cooke says that most of the grains, except corn, will grow in Wyoming under the dry method, and that the secret of dry farming is 'the use of brains and muscle, deep plowing, cultivation at the proper time, the use of labor-saving machin- ery and seeds that are adapted to the climate.' So a few more years will see this last romantic phase of Western range life pass away. The sheep- herder will go as the cowboy has gone, the flock- master will turn his attention to the soil, and where immense flocks now roam in the owner- ship of one man scores of smaller bands will feed in comfort upon the new farms of the semi-arid West. With the old order of romance and pic- luresqueness will vanish the hardship and cruelty to flocks and herders alike; and the West, under Ihe coming conditions, will yield more and better sheep than in the past." — G. W. Ogden, Dry farm- ing in Wyoming (Evervbod\'s, Sept., igio). United States: Effects of the World War. — War gardens. — Relation of agriculture to cost of living. — Farmers' associations. — County agents. — "In nearly all important respects with regard to foodstuffs .America has been not only substantially self-sufficing but a country of sur- plus. This has been true for many years, both before and during the war. Incidentally we were dependent upon our neighbors for certain com- mercial fertilizers, and the difficulties attendant upon getting along without them or getting them elsewhere are very great. However, America has been and is a land of surplus food. While this is true beyond all controversy, it is just as true and nu doubt a good deal more astonishing to notice that the amount of the surplus has for some years been steadily on the decline. The occasion for this lessening surplus is not mysterious. Of course if all the land in use were to be used to its fullest extent by the entire population, that is, if the country produced the minimum amount of other goods and utilities, devoting itself exclusively or mainly to agriculture, there would be an enormous surplus of food products. But since the normal course is to produce that which society wants most rather than that for which it will pay relatively little, we have no cause for complaint on account of the failure to make the land produce to its physical and biological maximum. Farmers, both consciously and unconsciously, limit their efforts in accordance with economic returns, instead of in accordance with the limits set by the laws of physics and biology. ... In 1880 the population of the country was 70.5 per cent rural. In iqio it was s,v7 per cent rural. Thus the proportion of producers to eaters has been undergoing a rapid change. Actually on farms the proportion is by no means S,v7 per cent, since in this classification there were included in rural population all villages and towns of less than 2,500 inhabitants. The farm population therefore was in loio, as nearly as can well be estimated, about one-third of the entire population of the country. This is a rapidly decreasing proportion, yet it is still in marked contrast to the very small proportion of the popu- lation of England and Wales engaged in agricul- ture, where there are but 8 per cent so reported. On the other hand it coincides rather closely with the German situation where 20,000,000 people out of 70,000,000 are getting their living by, or im- mediately out of, agriculture. . . . "In normal times Great Britain, France and Italy import about 313,000,000 bushels of wheat. This supply comes largely, but by no means ex- clusively, from the United States and Canada. Under the conditions existing since the beginning of the war in 1Q14 the supply has come more and more from these two sources. Ordinarily the United States and Canada furnish for export about two-thirds as much wheat as the three European 151 AGRICULTURE, MODERN Uniied States World War AGRICULTURE, MODERN Allies import. Under war conditions the produc- tion of wheat by the Allies has been greatly re- duced, notwithstanding the slight increase in Great Britain. On account of bad weather the supply of American wheat has been hardly above the amount required at home for normal con- sumption during the two years igi6 and igi?- The United States wheat crop of 1014 was the heaviest ever known and constituted almost one- fourth of the world's crop. Following as it did rather heavy crops for the two years preceding, the amount of wheat on hand at the outbreak of the war was by far greater than normal. . . . [See Food regul.^tion: 1SS5-1Q14.] "From the standpoint of world production the United States occupies the predominating position with respect to corn, producing from two-thirds to three-fourths of the world supply. In 1914 the world production was, according to the reports, 3,878,000,000 bushels, of which the United States produced 2,673,000 bushels or 6q per cent. The production of oats in the United States, in terms of bushels, ranks next to corn. In value oats rank normally below wheat. The acreage of oats has increased more, relatively, during the past forty years than have the acreages of either corn or wheat. In 1014 the world crop was 4035,- 000,000 bushels, of which the United States pro- duced 1,141,000,000 bushels, or 28 per cent. The importance of the oat crop is largely indirect so far as food is concerned since no considerable part is eaten. However, as a war commodity oats play an important role as feed for horses. . . . None of the other cereals enter greatly either directly or indirectly, into the food supply of the United States. As a barley producing nation the United States ranks second only to Russia, but even so the production in this country is normally under 200,000,000 bushels per year, or only about a quarter that of wheat, and not a tenth that of corn. Barley does not enter greatly into the food of the people of the United States nor of the European Allies. One of the most important food crops other than the cereals is the potato. The normal potato crop of the countn,' ranges from 300,000,000 to 400,000,000 bushels, it being a crop which varies widely according to weather condi- tion. To this may be added the sweet potato crop of 60,000,000 to 75,000,000 bushels. . . . Compared with that of other countries the potato crop of the United States is not large. The world crop is over 5,000.000,000 bushels, of which the United States produces but about 7 per cent. . . . No doubt the most important crop other than the cereals is sugar. The United States, including island possessions, produces from two to two and a half million tons, or four to fi\'e billion pounds, annually This is about half of the amount con- sumed, the additional amount coming mainly from Cuba. . . . With the European supply mainly cut off the Allies are obliged to get their sugar in large part from Cuba, which is also the source of the .American importations. In this roundabout man- ner the supply of sugar for .American use is seri- ously reduced. . . . The production of beet sugar was begun in earnest about 1800. In 1006 the beet sugar production exceeded the cane sugar pro- duction [See also Loutsian.^: 1014-1016.! . . . The cotton crop is sometimes second and sometimes third in value of all crops, it being exceeded uni- formly by corn and part of the time by hay. Cotton is the most important commercial crop of the countn.', outranking corn in this respect be- cause of the fact that substantially all cotton is sold as such by the producer, while corn has many uses, and is turned into other products without leaving the farm. Three-fifths of the world's supply of cotton is grown in the United States. The yield ranges from 10,000,000 to 16,- 000,000 bales per year varying greatly with weather conditions. . . . While there is almost without fail a reduction in the cotton acreage fol- lowing an unusually heavy yield with its attendant lower price it so happened that for the two years preceding the war the acreage and yield were both above normal, with the result that an unprece- dented supply of cotton was on hand when hos- tilities began in Europe in IQ14. . . . An idea of the growth of the Cotton industry may be had from the fact that the acreage increased from 13,000,000 in 18S0 to 37,000,000 in 1913. And the importance of the supply on hand in 1914 may be gathered from the figures showing an average yield from iqo6 to igog of 11,000,000 bales per year, while from loio to 1014 this aver- age was 14,000,000 bales."— B. H. Hibbard, Effects of the war upon agriculture (Department of Agri- culture Yearbook, pp. 3-12). It has been conservatively estimated that the gardens throughout the countr>' trebled in area in IQ17 when a concerted effort was made to in- crease the food supply in the United States. In practically every city, suburb and village home gardens were enlarged. Many thousands of acres of idle land, which heretofore had been wastefuUy neglected, were utilized during the World War, by individuals, municipalities and corporations, in the production of such staples as corn, potatoes, cabbage, turnips, onions, etc., as well as other perishable vegetables. Factors which gave in- valuable aid to the spirit of utilizing gardens for food production were the extension services of the United States Department of Agriculture, as well as of the various State departments, the ag- ricultural and the general press. All these agen- cies actively cooperated in furnishing assistance and information dealing both with the culture and consecvation of vegetables. Where no garden space was available, the practice in the homes was to can and dry large quantities of vegetables. Although the season was unfavorable for suc- cessful cultivation in many localities, especially in cases of amateur gardening, the net result was an important addition to the countr\''s supply of fresh, dried and canned vegetables, which brought about the release of a considerable amount of food td the soldiers and sailors of our army and nav>' and those of our allies. "It is customar>' to attribute the high cost of living to lessened production due to a supposed de- cline of agriculture, and to advise, therefore, that more persons engaiie in farming for the purpose of increasing the product. This position is met by an editorial of the Nexv York Tribune, which holds that intermediary trading combinations are respon- sible: 'It is true that the raising of cattle for the market has almost ceased in the East and that agri- culture generally has not kept pace with the demand for food products. Yet it is hard to believe that agriculture in any part of the Union would steadily decline in the face of an enormous ap- preciation of the cost to the consumer of all farm products, were there not some powerful disturb- ing factor operating to deny the farmer the bene- fits of that appreciation. If the Eastern farmer could have reaped a legitimate share of the in- crease in the price of farm produce which has taken place in the last twenty years, he would cer- tainly be in a position to command all the labor he needs and to develop resources now neglected because it does not pay to develop them. 'Yet economic law has not operated to stimulate agri- 152 AGRICULTURE, MODERN United States Rural Policy AGRICULTURE, MODERN culture, because the returns from steadily mount- ing prices have not really reached the producer. Thirty years ago the fattening of steers for the local markets was common in the East. But when the vast Western ranges were opened, and the great packing houses were established, the cheap- ness of range beef, refrigerated and delivered in Eastern cities, was used as a weapon to kill off the cattle industry of the East. When the Eastern cattleman was driven out of business, the price of beef rose, but virtually all the increase has gone to the packing combinations, which fix their own price to the Western range man and their own price to the consumer and artificially control the supply so as to discourage increased production in the West and to prevent a revival of produc- tion in the East. The country is growing in popu- lation at the rate of twenty to twenty-five per cent each decade. But Secretary Wilson has shown that the supply of food animals is not being maintained in proportion to population. In the last decade cattle have remained about sta- tionary in numbers, swine are actually decreasing, and, while more sheep are available, the supply has diminished relatively to population.' " — L. H. Bailey, Country-li^e movement in the United States, pp. 153-155. — See also Conservation of j^ATURAL resources: United States. Two associations of farmers have recently been formed and are at work in the United States to improve the conditions of farming and of farm- ers. One, the American Farm Bureau Federation, had been encouraging cooperative action on the part of farmers in order to lessen the profits of middlemen; while the other, the National Board of Farmers' Organizations was formed during the war to unify the agricultural interests and bring their cause before the people. Its activities con- tinued after the war, and recently it announced the intention of building a "temple of agriculture" at Washington to act as headquarters for the or- ganized farmers of the United States. Another agency for improving agricultural conditions has been employed in some of the States, notably in New York, namely, the farm county agents. On July I, igiS, there were over 6,200 farm county agents employed in this country. Farmers are coming to demand a larger share in the adminis- tration of the government, claiming that theirs is the largest single industry in America and repre- sents the largest investment. The presidential candidates of both great parties in iq20 acknowl- edged the justice of these claims and pledged to the farmers more representation on government boards. (See U. S. A.: 1020: Democratic platform. Republican platform). The junior agricultural movement in the country schools has developed rapidly in recent years, and the accomplishments of children in the schools along these lines form a prominent feature of the exhibits at country fairs. (See U. S. Bovs working re.serve.) The bitterest feelings have been engendered in the rural districts by the attempt to prolong the daylight saving laws and the farmers were mainly instrumental in effecting their repeal. — See also Agricultural education ; Agricultural societies; California: 1917 (Breed bill) ; Day- light SAVING movement: 1Q19; Food regulation: 1920. United States: Rural policy. — Information. — "A policy may be simply that which actually hap- pens through a series of years, but a policy for the New Day, a real policy, implies adequate knowledge, definite plans, correlation of effort. So in our governmental affairs, whatever is done or advo- cated by departments, boards or bureaus, should be the result of a well-founded and well-rounded policy. Probably there is in these agencies no lack of definite knowledge, and it should be easy for them to make plans. But it is more difficult to secure their cooperation. Within the state, for example, how may we adjust the administrative functions of a department of agriculture and the educational functions of a college of agriculture? We find in Washington half a dozen or more bureaus or boards dealing with matters of agricul- tural education. If these cannot be consolidated, at least they ought to be forced to cooperate in- timately and freely and unreservedly. Perhaps an agricultural development committee in each state and in Washington might be a means of grace in this connection. The British .Agricultural Develop- ment Committee is virtually an advisory commit- tee to Parliament. It has no direct authority, but its recommendations as to appropriations and as to the work of the different governmental agencies, both national and local, carry far in Parliament. [See Food regulation: 1914-iqiS: Legislative enactments in Great Britain] Some such group authorized by law, and composed of representatives of the public agencies involved, with additional members appointed by the President and in the state by governors, might be able to secure the necessary cooperation of governmental agencies. It is not too strong a statement to say that we are on the verge of chaos with reference to the inter- relationships of public boards, departments and bureaus. It is a serious situation and there is only one way out. There must be cooperation, if not voluntary, then compulsory. "Whatever our conclusions as to the place of the government dealing with agricultural matters, there is clearly one task that it can perform better than any other agency and which is evidently its duty. That is the task of discovering and disseminating information. This function embraces the necessity for accurate in- vestigations, for wise and clear interpretation of these investigations, for well planned and numer- ous demonstrations of the applicability of the principles worked out as the result of investiga- tion, and for widespread publicity that will reach the masses of farmers with understandable expert advice. Government, both state and national, should gather and distribute the fullest possible information on all of the different aspects of the rural problem. Its duty does not stop with information about production, but in- cludes the field of distribution of farm products and the welfare or country life phase of the farm- ers' interests. This information should not only be made available to all the farmers, but they must be all but compelled to listen if they arc unresponsive." — K. L. Buttcrfield, Farmer and the new day, pp. 193-195. — See also Agriculture, Department of (United States). United States: Railroad problem. — The prog- ress of agriculture and the welfare of the farmer have been continuously bound up with the railroad question, and many states have seriously under- taken to bring closer cooperation between agricul- tural interests and the railroads. — See also Minne- sota: 1916; North Dakota: 1880-1916; 1892-1896. See also Alaska: 1919-1920; Indians, American: 1920: Review of agricultural development; Philip- pine Islands: 1917-1918; U. S. A.:: Economic map. Also in: Annah of the American Academy of Political and Socio} Science, March, 1912. — J. M. Gillette, Conditions and needs of country life. — K. L. Buttcrfield, Rural sociology as a college dis- cipline. — F. B. Mumford, Education for agricul- ture. — T. N. Carver, Economic significance of 153 AGRICULTURE, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, INSTITUTE OF changes in country population. — L. C. Gray, South- ern agriculture. — G. F. Wells, Rural church. — H, W. Fought, Country school. — S. G. Dixon, Rural home. — J. Hamilton, Influences exerted by agri- cultural fairs. — R, B. Watrous, Civic arts and country lije. — J. C. Marquis, Social significance of the agriciilturai press. — M. T. Scudder, Rural rec- creation, a socializing factor. — Cyclopedia of American agriculture, 4 v., edited by L. H. Bailey, New York, 1917. — K. L. Butterlield, Chapters in rural progress, Chicago, igoS. — G. W. James, Re- claiming the arid West. — Scientific American, .\pril 27, IQ18. — .igricultural revolution in the South. — C. Turnor, Land probletns and national welfare. — J. Wilson and H. Wallace, .igricultural conditions in Great Britain and Ireland. AGRICULTURE, Biology as applied to. See BioLOGv ; Applications. AGRICULTURE, Department of (United States), had its origin in one of Ihc early duties of the Patent Bureau, that of the distribution of seeds and plants to farmers. In 1802 a bureau of agriculture was created and in i8Sg it w»s raised to the dignity of an executive department, with a secretary having a seat in the cabinet. The weather bureau has charge of weather forecasts, including warnings of storms, cold waves, frosts and floods; it also reports temperature and rain- fall conditions for agricultural staples. The bureau of animal industry conducts the inspection of ani- mals slaujhtercd for food. The bureau of plant industry takes charge of the scientilic investiga- tion of plant life and the distribution, through members of Congress, of flower and garden seeds. The bureau of statistics prepares crop reports. The bureau of chemistry takes charge of the en- forcement of the Pure Food and Drug Act. The forest service has charge of the national forest re- serves and cooperates with state governments and private owners of forests. The bureau of ento- mology investigates injurious insects affecting crops, fruits and forests. The bureau of biological sur- vey enforces federal laws for the protection of birds and game, has charge of the bison range and the protection of migratory birds. The bureau of soils, the division of publications, the office of experiment stations and the office of public roads have duties such as their titles suggest. The work of the department as a whole "is cov- ered in three general classes: (i) Research work, which includes the scientific study of the funda- mental problems of agriculture. (2) Educational or extension work, which aims to make available to the rural population the results of the depart- ment's experiments and discoveries. (3) Regulatory work which includes the enforcement of statues re- lating to meat inspection, animal and plant quar- antine, foods and drugs, game -and migratory birds, seed adulteration, insecticides and fungicides, the manufacture of vaccines and viruses, and the ad- ministration of the national forests. There stands to the credit of the Department of Agriculture the eradication of the cattle tick from 204,000 square miles of territory in ten years, the suppression of the foot-and-mouth disease in all the country from Massachusetts to Montana, the saving of the citrus industry of California, and a score of other in- valuable services protecting the orchards and fields and forests from destruction by insect and fungus pests. In addition, new farm products to the value of $270,000,000 have been promoted by the introduction and development of new crops, and one-third of the total area of the United States has been covered by the soil surveys conducted by this Department." — J. C. Hemphill, ,4 great farmer, David Franklin Houston (North American Review, June, 1917). — "The federal and state gov- ernments at present do little directly to aid in preserving and improving the fertility of the soil ; but the experiments in advanced methods of cul- tivation carried on by the Department of Agricul- ture, the Experiment Stations, and state agricul- tural colleges, are doing much to show the farm- ers how to make the best use of their land and at the same time to conserve it for the use of posterity. Science will become the servant of agriculture as well as of industry." — C. A. Beard, .\merican government and politics, p. 408. — See also Food regulation: 1917-1918: Food control in the United States. AGRICULTURE, International Institute of. — The idea of an international organization for systematizmg the agricultural production of the world and regulating the markets of food prod- ucts, by constant and authentic knowledge ol crops and conditions, was conceived some years ago by Mr. David Lubin, of California. It was first expressed by him publicly at Budapest in i8gft, but was the growth of thirteen years of thought preceding that date. As the result of Mr. Lubin's efforts to interest governments and peoples in the project. King Victor Emmanuel III, of Italy, be- came its hearty patron in 1903, and took the initial step toward effecting an organization as wide as the civilized world, by inviting all nations to take part in a convention of delegates for the purpose, at Rome, in May, 1905. The invitation, as ad dressed to the Government of the United States by the Italian ambassador at Washington, on Feb- ruary 26, igos, was in these words: "By order of my government, I have the honor to inform your excellency that His Majesty the King, my august sovereign, has taken the initiative in the formation of an international institute of agricul- ture to be composed of representatives of the great agricultural societies of the various countries and of delegates from the several governments. This institute, being devoid of any political intent, should tend to brinff about a community of inter- ests among agriculturists and to protect these in- terests in the markets of the world. It will study agricultural conditions in the different countries, periodically indicating the supply and the quality of products with accuracy and care, so as to pro- portion production to demand, increase and dis- tribute the various crops according to the rate of consumption, render the commerce of agricultural products less costly and more expeditious, and suit- ably determine the prices thereof. Acting in unison with the various national bureaus already existing, it will furnish accurate information on conditions regarding agricultural labor in various localities, and will regulate and direct the cur- rents of emigration It will favor the institution of agricultural exchanges and labor bureaus. It will protect both producers and consumers against the excesses of transportation and forestalling syn- dicates, keeping a watch on middlemen, pointing out their abuses, and acquainting the public with the true conditions of the market. It will foster agreements for common defense against the dis- eases of plants and live stock, against which in- dividual defense is less effectual. It will help to develop rural cooperation, agricultural insurance, and agrarian credit. It will study and propose measures of general interest, preparing interna- tional agreements for the benefit of agriculture and the agriculturil classes Carrving out the in- tention of His Majesty, the Italian Government appeals to all friendly nations, each of which ought to have its own representatives in the in- stitute, appointed to act as the exponents of their 154 AGRICULTURE, INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURE, INSTITUTE OF respective governments, as organs of mutual rela- tions, and as mediums of reciprocal influence and information. It accordingly now invites them to participate through their delegates in the lirst con- vention, which is to be held at Rome next May for the purpose of preparing rules for the new institute. The king's government trusts that the United States will be vrtlling to cooperate in the enterprise, the first inspiration of which is due an American citizen, and that, accepting the invi- tation to the conference at Rome, it will send thither a delegation commensurate with its im- portance as the foremost agricultural nation in the world." 1905. — Conference at Rome. — Gratifying re- sponses to the invitation were made by most, if not all, of the governments addressed, and a royal proclamation was issued calling an international conference at Rome to which thirty-eight powers responded. It concluded its sessions on June 7, iQOS, by adopting a final act embodying the reso- lutions upon which they had agreed. The text of the act follows: "Article i. There is hereby created a perma- nent international institute of agriculture, having its seat at Rome. "Article 2. The international institute of agri- culture is to be a government institution, in which each adhering power shall be represented by dele- gates of its choice. The institute shall be com- posed of a general assembly and a permanent com- mittee, the composition and duties of which arc defined in the ensuing articles. "Article 3. The general assembly of the insti- tute shall be composed of the representatives of the adhering governments. Each nation, what- ever be the number of its delegates shall be en- titled to a number of votes in the assembly which shall be determined according to the group to which it belongs, and to which reference will be made in article 10. "Article 4. The general assembly shall elect for each session from among its members a president and two vice-presidents. The sessions shall take place on dates fixed by the last general assembly and according to a programme proposed by the permanent committee and adopted by the adher- ing governments. "Article .$. The general assembly shall exercise supreme control over the international institute of agriculture. It shall approve the 'projects prepared by the permanent committee regarding the or- ganization and internal workings of the institute. It shall fix the total amount of expenditures and audit and approve the accounts. It shall submit to the approval of the adhering governments modi- fications of any nature involving an increase in expenditure or an enlargement of the functions of the institute. It shall set the date for holding the sessions. It shall prepare its regulations. The presence at the general assemblies of delegates rep- resenting two-thirds of the adhering nations shall be required in order to render the deliberations valid. "Article 6. The executive power of the insti- tute is intrusted to the permanent committee, which, under the direction and control of the gen- eral assembly, shall carry out the decisions of the latter and prepare propositions to submit to it. "Article 7. The permanent committee shall be composed of members designated by the respective governments. Each adhering nation shall be rep- resented in the permanent committee by one mem- ber. However, the representation of one nation may be intrusted to a delegate of another adher- ing nation, provided that the actual number of members shall not be less than fifteen. The con- ditions of voting in the permanent committee shall be the same as those indicated in article 3 for the general assemblies. ".Article 8. The permanent committee shall elect from among its members for a period of three years a president and a vice-president, who may be reelected. It shall prepare its internal regula- tions, vote the budget of the institute within the limits of the funds placed at its disposal by the general assembly, and appoint and remove the of- ficials and employees of its office. The general secretary of the permanent committee shall act as secretary of the assembly. ".Article 0. The institute, confining its opera- tions within an international sphere, shall — "(a) Collect, study, and publish as promptly as possible statistical, technical, or economic informa- tion concerning farming, both vegetable and ani- mal products, the commerce in agricultural prod- ucts, and th£ prices prevailing in the various markets; "(h) Communicate to parties interested, also as promptly as possible, all the information just re- ferred to ; "(c) Indicate the wages paid for farm work; "(d)Mdkc known the new diseases of vegetables which may appear in any part of the world, showing the territories infected, the progress of the disease, and, if possible, the remedies which are effective in combating them ; "(e) Study questions concerning agricultural cooperation, insurance, and credit in all their as- pects; collect and publish information which might be useful in the various countries in the organiza- tion of works connected with agricultural coop- eration, insurance, and credit ; "(/) Submit to the approval of the govern- ments, if there is occasion for it, measures for the protection of the common interests of farmers and for the improvement of their condition, after hav- ing utilized all the necessary sources of informa- tion, such as the wishes expressed by international or other agricultural congresses or congresses of sciences applied to agriculture, agricultural socie- ties, academies, learned bodies, etc. "All questions concerning the economic inter- ests, the legislation, and the administration of a particular nation shall be excluded from the con- sideration of the institute. "Article 10. The nations adhering to the insti- tute shall be classed in five groups, according to the place which each of them thinks it ought to occupy. The number of votes which each nation shall have and the number of units of assessment shall be established according to the following gradations: Groups of nations Numbers of votes Units of assessment I II Ill s 4 3 16 8 4 2 I IV V 2 I "In any event the contribution due per unit of assessment shall never exceed a maximum of 2,500 ■ francs. As a temporary provision the assessment for the first two years shall not exceed 1,500 francs per unit. Colonies may, at the request of the nations to which they belong, be admitted to form part of the institute on the same condi- tions as the independent nations. 155 AGRIGENTUM AHMAD SHAH "Article ii. The present convention shall be ratified and the ratifications shall be exchanged as soon as possible by depositing them with the Ital- ian Government." On March 27, iqo6, the Italian ambassador at Washington was able to announce that "the States which were represented at the conference of last year at Rome . . . have now all sanctioned by the signature of their plenipotentiaries, the Conven- tion drafted at that Conference," As appears from a copy transmitted, the convention had been signed by the plenipotentiaries of forty nations, includ- ing twelve .\merican republics besides the United States. At the second general meeting of the in- stitute at Rome, Dec. 12, iqog, at which more than one hundred foreign delegates were present, Victor Emmanuel III of Italy bestowed upon it a yearly allowance of 300,000 lire. This generous grant was used in the construction of a palace, which the institute now occupies. The organiza- tion carried on its work throughout the duration of the World War, supplying the data upon which all food commissions based their plans for con- servation. Today (1021) fifty-eight nations are members of the institute and until his recent death David Lubin had a goodly share in its fine work. Upon learning that Belgium, Germany and Italy were far better organized for farm credit than the United States, he urged the United States to ap- point a commission to study cooperation in rural credit and finance. This they did, and partly as a result of the work of this commission we have the establishment of the Federal Farm Loan banks in 1Q16. AGRIGENTUM (Acragas), one of the young- est of the Greek colonies in Sicily, founded about 582 B. C. by the older colony of Gela, became in the fifth century B. C. one of the largest and most splendid cities of the age, as is testified by its ruins. It was the scene of the notorious tyranny of Phalaris, as well as that of Theron. Agrigentum was destroyed by the Carthaginians, 405 B. C, and rebuilt by Timoleon, but never recovered its former importance and grandeur. — E. Curtius, History oj Greece, bk. 4, cli. 3. See Sicily: B.C. 400-405. — It was the scene of a great defeat of the Carthaginians by the Romans, in 262 B. C. See Punic W.\rs: First. AGRIPPA, Baths of. Among the principal Ro- man baths said to have been built 21 B. C. im- mediately behind the Pantheon. See Baths. AGRIPPA, Herod, I. (c. B C. lo-A. D. 44), king of Judea, the grandson of Herod the Great; was a great favorite with Gains fCaUgula) who gave him jurisdiction over Batansa and Tracho- nitis, later adding the tetrarchy of Herod Anti- pas (A. D. 39), whose, banishment he procured. — See also Jews: B. C. 40-A. D. 44; Christianity: .'\. D. ^■^-^o. AGRIPPA, Herod, II (A.D. 27-100), the last of the descendants of Herod the Great; king of Judea, following his father Agrippa I; deprived of the tetrarchy of Chalcis by Claudius in A. D. 53. — See also Jews: B. C. 40-.^. D. 44. AGRIPPA, Marcus Vipsanius (63-12 B. C), Roman general and statesman ; advisor to the em- peror Augustus who succeeded Julius Caesar (44 B. C.) ; carried on successful expeditions against the Aquitanians and the Germans 38 B. C; was made consul in 37 B. C; defeated Pompeius at Mylae, 36 B. C, and was responsible for the vic- tory at .Actium (^i B. C). AGRIPPINA,' the "younger" (A. D. 16-50), daughter of Agrippina the elder and sister of Gaius fCaligula). She was (he mother of Nero whom she placed upon the throne through intrigue. Nero had her put to death. — See also Rome: A. D. 47- '54: and A. D. 54-64. AGUESSEAU, Henri Francois d' (166S- 1751), illustrious chancellor of France; at twenty- one was appointed advocate-general to the Parlia- ment of Paris and procurator-general in 1700. AGUILA, Don Juan de: Commander of Span- ish fleet sent to aid Ulster. See Ulster: 1585-1608. AGUILAR Y CORREA, Antonio, Marques de la \'ega de .^rmijo (1824-1000), Spanish states- man. Associated with the Union Liberal party, 1855-1866; in 1873 became ambassador to France; played a prominent part in frustrating the plans of the Carlists. Held many ministerial positions in Spain, among others, minister of state. AGUINALDO, Emilio (1S70- ), a Filipino mestizo of Chinese and Tagolog parentage, and the leader first of the revolt against Spain, and then of the insurrection against the United States He was educated at the College of San Juan de Letran and at the University of St, Thomas in Manila. He became mayor of Cavite Viejo. While still a very young man, he became inter- ested in the liberal movement in the Philippines. When the insurrection of i8q6 was suppressed, he was the chief of the revolutionary leaders exiled by Spain to Hongkong. (See Philippine Islands: 1806-1808). With Hongkong as a center, Agui- naldo contrived to continue his machinations against Spain until they culminated in the insur- rections of i8q8, when he returned to Manila to aid the United States against Spain. (See U. S. A.: i8q8 (April-May): Philippines). Aguinaldo ar- rived in Manila May lo, iSgS, and proceeded to organize the insurgent forces. Although Aguinal- do's first attitude towards the United States in the Philippines was one of welcome and cooperation, he gradually became antagonistic toward the Ameri- can army, and with him also many of the more notable Filipinos. (See U. S. A.: 1898 (July- August): Philippines). When the manifesto es- tablishing a protectorate over the Philippines was issued, Aguinaldo, who had proclaimed himself president of the Philippine Republic (see U. S. A.: i8qS (July-September)), met it with a counter- proclamation asserting the independence of the islands, saying, "The United States did not take me out of Hongkong to make war for their own benefit." (See Philippint; Islands: i8q8-i8qq: December-January). This manifesto he followed with an armed insurrection against the llnited States forces. After three years' fighting Aguinaldo was forced to flee to the mountains of Luzon. (Sec Pun^iPPiNE Islanos: i8qq: Armed opposition to establishment of American government.) He was finally captured in iqoi by Brigadier-General Fun- ston at Palawan, Luzon, and capitulated with some grace by issuing an address to his countrymen ask- ing them to acknowledge the sovereignty of the United States. (See Philippine Islands: iqoi: Es- tablishment of civil government). He retired from public life. A. H. (Anno hejirae). See Chronology: Era of the hcgira. AHENOBARBUS ("brazen-bearded"), a ple- beian family of Rome, the name being derived from the peculiar fact that most of the members of the family had red hair or beards. Some of the mem- bers of this family were: Gnaeus Domitius Aheno- barbus, tribune (104 B. C), Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, consul in 54 B. C, and Gnsus Domitius Ahenobarbus, son of the above, consul in the year 32 B. C. and supporter of Octavius against .\ntnnv. AHMAD SHAH (1724-1773'. the founder of the Durani dynasty in Afghanistan ; led a revolt of 156 AHMADIYA AIRCRAFT the Afghanistan tribes in 1747 and was crowned sovereign in October of that year. He was the possessor cA the famous Koh-i-noor diamond; gained control of the Punjab in 1751, subdued Kashmir the following year and pillaged Delhi in 1756. Ahmad inflicted a serious defeat upon the Mahrattas who essayed to take possession of the Punjab (1758), which he later lost to the Sikhs. — See also India: 1747-1761; Afghanistan; 330- 1747- AHMADIYA. — "A sect which claims to have 500,000 members in various parts of India is the Ahmadiya. It was founded in iSSq by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, who was born at Quadian near Batala about fifty years earlier. He claimed to be the promised Mahdi of the Moslems, the Mes- siah of the Christians, and the Avatar of the Hindus; and taught that Mohammed revealed the same great truths as are contained in other re- ligions and embodied them in the Koran. Mr. O'Malley writes of the cult in the Census Re- port : " 'One significant feature of the cult is its op- position to Christianity. According to Mussalman belief, when the end of the world approaches^ Dajjal (Anti-Christ) will rule, and the powers of evil will reign till Christ reappears, and, with the help of Mahdi, overthrows Dajjal and converts the whole world to Islam. The Ahmadiya re- jects this doctrine and identifies Dajjal with the teachings of the Christian Church, such as the atonement and the divinity of Jesus Christ. In fact, he holds that the prophecy of the advent of Dajjal has been fulfilled by the spread of Christian missionaries.' " — S. M. Zwemer, Disin- tegration, of Islam, p. loi. AHMAR, Mahomet Ibn-Al (Mohammed I, of Granada) : Founder of the Alhambra. See SrAiN: 1238-1273. , AHMED I (158Q-1617), Turkish sultan. Ahmed II (1643-1605), Turkish sultan. Ahmed III. (1637-1736), Turkish sultan. Shel- tered Charles XII of Sweden, after the battle of Poltava. Fought a successful war with Russia, but was defeated in other contests. Deposed by the Janissaries, and died in prison. Struggle with Hungarians. See Hungary: i6Qg-i7i8. AHMED (Al Mostanser Billah), last caliph of Bagdad. See Bagdad: 12 58. AHMED ARABI (Arabi Pasha) (c. 183Q- ), Egyptian revolutionary leader. See Egypt: 1875- 1882. AHMED MIRZA (i8q8- ), shah of Persia, succeeding his deposed father in igoq, in the midst of unsettled conditions. See Persia: igoS-igog. AHMED VEFIK, Pasha (1819-1801), Turkish statesman and man of letters. Furthered the spread of French culture by translations; editor of the first official annual of his country ; am- bassador to Persia, 1851-1855; president of the Turkish parliament in 1877; prime minister in 1878 and 1S82. As vali of Brusa (1878-1882) in- augurated many internal reforms. AHMEDABAD, British India, scene of a re- beUion in iqiS. See Indi^: igig. AHMEDNAGAR, or Ahmadnagar, city and district of British India in the central division of Bombay. The city, founded 1494, was the seat of a monarchy until 1636; in 1803 captured by the British (see India: 1708-1805), who obtained possession of it bv the Treaty of Poona, 181 7. AHTENA INDIANS. See Indians, Ameri- can: Mackenzie .^rea. AHURAMAZDA, Zoroastrian deity. See ZoRO- ASTKiANs: Magians: Parsees. AHVAZ, Persia.— 1914.— Held by Turks. See World War: igi4: IV. Turkey: i. 1915. — Turks driven from it. See World War: igiS: VI. Turkey: c, 1. AIBAK, ruler in India. See India: 977-i2go. AIDAN, or Aedan (d. 651), first bishop of Lindisfarne (about 634) ; helped in the restoration of Christianity in Northumbria See Christian- ity: 5g7-8oo: Lindisfarne: 635-664. AIDIN, a town in the former Turkish vilayet of the same name, situated near the river Men- dere, about seventy miles southeast of Smyrna, the capital. It is near the ruins of ancient Tralles and contains numerous fine bazaars, Greek relig- ious edifices and several Turkish mosques. In i8gg the town was greatly damaged by an earthquake. After the World War the greater part of the vila- yet, including the city of Smyrna, was placed under the mandate of Greece. AIGINA. See ^gina. AIGUILLON, Emmanuel Armand de Wigne- rod du Plessis de Richelieu, Due d' (1720-1782), French statesman and nephew of the Marechal de Richelieu ; took part in the campaign against Italy and in the War of the Austrian Succession; ap- pointed governor of Brittany, 1753. AIGUILLON, Siege of, a notable siege in the Hundred Years' War, 1346. An English garrison under the famous knight, Sir Walter Manny, held the great fortress of Aiguillon, near the confluence of the Garonne and the Lot, against a formidable French army. — J. Froissart, Chronicles, v. i, bk. 1, ell. 120. AILETTE, a river in France, flowing into the Oise; south of St. Gobain forest and north of the Chemin des Dames; was the scene of severe, fight- ing in the World War, especially in 1017 and igi8. — See also World War: 1017: II. Western front: b, 2, i; igi8: II. Western front: g, 1, g, 6. AILLES, taken by the French (1017). See World War: 1Q17: II. Western front: f, 3. AIN KOHLEH, Palestine.— 1917.— British ob- jective. See World War: 1917: VI. Turkish theater: c, 2, iii. AINCREVILLE, French town, north-west of Verdun, taken by the Allies in igiS. See World War: igi8: II. Western front: x, 4. AINOS, aborigines of Japan. See Japan: In- habitants and their origins. AINTAB, Syrian town in the vilayet of Aleppo with a large population of Armenians and Greek Christians. It is the site of the Central Turkey College, founded by the American Board of For- eign Missions, and in March, igog, was included in the Adana massacres, during which 15,000 Ar- menians were killed in three days. — See also Tur- key: igog. Siege of Aintab. — French forced to evacuate (ig2o). See Syria: igo8-ig2i. AIR BRAKE: Various forms. See Inven- tions: igth century: Railroad air brake. AIR NAVIGATION, Commission on. See Aviation: Development of airplanes and air ser- vice: igi8-ig2i: Aerial law. AIR RAIDS. See England: igi4 (Dec. 16, 24); Londos: igi5-igi7; Paris: igi4; World War: igis: X. War in the air; 1918: VIII. Avia- tion. AIR ROUTES, Africa, England, France, Ger- many, Italy, U. S. See Aviation: Development of airplanes and air service: igi8-io2i: Air service after World War; also Cape-to-Cairo railway: Air route established. ;; AIR SERVICE, American. See Aviation: De- velopment of airplanes and air service: igi4-igi8. AIRCRAFT. See Aviation. 157 AIRCRAFT AIRCRAFT: Military. See Aviation: 1896- 'loio- 1014: Aviation in war. AIRCRAFT PRODUCTION, Bureau of. See ^A^IRCRAFT PRODUCTION INVESTIGA- "ATR-E.'^Fr^nfe:^Ca'p\u^re by Marlborough ^^i'^iRr ^n™cTld'^r-^'navigation CANAL. See Canals: Principal European canals: British Isles. , „ „a ^ AIREY, Richard Airey, Baron {1803-1881), Bn^ish general. Served in the Cnn.ea governor of Gibraltar, 1865 1870; presided over the cele brated Airev commission on army relorms. AIRPLANE. See Aviation: Development ot airplanes and air service: 1809-1874; 18S9-1Q00; '^AIRSHIPS: Invention. See Aviation: Devel- opment of balloons and dirigibles: 1884-1SP7. AIRY Sir George Biddell (i8oi-i8gi), Eng- lish astronomer. Conducted the astronomical ob- servations preliminary to the boundary survey be- tween the United States and Canada, and mvented a device to correct the compass variations on war ships. See Astronomy. . ^ ,• u >i; AISLABIE, John (1670-1742), English poli- tician In 1 7 18 became chancellor ol the ex- chequer; supported the P'^P^'^f f'^' ^^"'^„ ^he Company to pay the national debt and on he collapse of that company w.as expelled from the TlSNE a French river flowing through Soissons, tributarv 'to the Gise. Tlie Germans occupied strong positions north of the A.sne after their retreat from the Marne, September 12-28 iqi4- The Allied forces succeeded in partially dislodg- ing the Germans from these positions and some of the most bitter fighting of igi" and iqi8 took place in this vicinity. The valley ol the A.sne with its chief affluents, the Aire and the Vesle, constitutes one of the natural highways from the Belgian frontier to the neighborhood of Faris. AISNE, Department of: 1600.— Cession to France. See France: 1599-1610. Topography of area. See World War: 1Q14: I. Western front: s, 1. 1914.— Scene of fighting. See World War. IQ14: I. Western front: p; p, 3; and r 1914.— First battle of. See World War: 1914: I Western front: s, and 3, 4. ,. , c 1914 —Weakening of German attacks, bee World War: 1Q14: I- Western front: s, 3. 1914.— Troyon. See World War: 1914: 1- West- ern front: s, 5. .^, » j \.„ 1917— Gained by French.— Threatened by Germans.- Offensive by French. See World War: igi7: H Western front: b, 1; b, 1, 1; and b, 2, iii. „ . ca. 1917— Chemin des Dames offensive. bee World W.^r: IQ17: " Western front: b, 1, 11. 1917._Second battle of. See World War. IQI7- II Western front: f, and f, 3. 1918.— Third battle of. See World War: 1918: n. Western front: a, 3. 1918— Aisne River reached and crossed by Germans. See World War: igiS: II. Western front: f, 1, and g, 1. 1918— Region of fighting. €ee World War^ igi8: II. Western front: d, 19; g, 6; g, 9, iv; and ' Devastation by the Germans. See World War: Miscellaneous auxiliary services: XI. Devas- tation: C. , , , -A T„ AISTULF, king of the Lombards, 749-756. in 751 seized Ravenna and soon after threatened I AIX-LA-CHAPELtE * Rome The pope secured the aid of Pepin, who defeated Aistulf at Pavia and forced him to return the Exarchate of Ravenna to the papacy, bee Italy- 568-800; Lombards: 754-774- AITKEN, Major-General John James (b. 1878), Campaign against Tanga. See World War: 1914: VI. .\frica: c, 1. , „ 1, a., AIX, a city in the department of Bouches-du- Rhone, France, known to the Romans as Aqus Sextia? It was founded as a military colony in ,21 B C. In the vear 102 B. C. not far from the city Marius defeated the Teutones and their allies. It was later the capital of Provence and a liter- arv center Before the French Revolution it was the seat of one of the chief provincial parle- ments. . r AIX, a small island off the western coast of France between the mouth of the Charente and the Island of Oleron. The roadstead near the Wand affords the best anchoras-.e between the mouths of the rivers Loire and tlironde. It was here in 181S that Napoleon went aboard the -Bellerophon," which took him to England, whence he was sent to St. Helena. ^ .^ , ^ AIX-LA-CHAPELLE: The Capital of Charlemagne.— The favorite residence and one ot the two capitals of Charlemagne was the city which the Germans call Aachen and the French have named Aix-la-Chapelle. "He ravished the ruins of the ancient world to restore the monu- mental arts. A new Rome arose in the depths ol the forests of Austrasia— palaces, gates, bridges, baths, galleries, threatres, churches,— for the erec- tion of which the mosaics and marbles ot Italy were laid under tribute, and workmen summoned from all parts of Europe. It was there that an extensive library was gathered, there that the schoo of the palace was made permanent, there that foreign envovs were pompously welcomed, there that the monarch perfected his plans lor the in- troduction of Roman letters and the improvement of music."— P; Godwin, History of France: .in- dent Gaul, bk. 4, ch. 17. Cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle.-A famous cathedral founded by Charlemagne, the plan ol which bears resemblance to San Vitale and simi- lar Italian buildings. It consists of a polygonal structure built in 796 and a fourteenth century pointed choir. Treaty of 803. See Venice: 697-810- . Modern city.-The city lies forty-four miles west of Cologne on the great railway trunk line Berlin— Brussels— Paris. Previous to 1914 Aix-la- Chapelle (Aachen) was made a place of great miUtary importance by means of a network ol strategic railwavs. With the outbreak of the World War it became with Metz the prmcipal detraining station for the German arniies and therefore the principal gateway trough which thev poured, for the invasion ol Belgium and northern France.-See also Germany: Map. Congresses of Aix-la-Chapelle.-Three con- gresses have been held by the European Powers at Aix-la-Chapelle, a city in Prussia, the lirst in 1668, the second in 1748 and the third m 1818. ■ (I) The Treaty of .\ix-l.^-Chapelte, May 2, 1668 put an end to the W'lr of Revo u tion and closed the Treaty of St. Ger- ml which was signed April 15 of that year by representatives of France and the nations m he Triple Alliance France gained '"^''"';''l>' '^\»'^! orovisions of the treaty, being permitted to hold all heTerritorv she conquered in Flanders durmg ?he campaign of i667.-See also Netherlands: '^^2) The Congress and Treaty which ended 58 AIX-LA-CHAPELLE Congress of 174S Congress of 1818 AIX-LA-CHAPELLE THE War of the Austrian Succession (1748). — The War of the Austrian Succession, which raged in Europe, on the ocean, and in India and America, from 1740 to 1748 (see Austria: 1718-1738, 1740- 1741, and after), was brought to an end in the latter year by a congress of all the belligerents which met at Aix-la-Chapelle, in April, and which concluded its labors on October 18 following. "The influence of England and Holland . . . forced the peace upon Austria and Sardinia, though both were bitterly aggrieved by its conditions. France agreed to restore every conquest she had made during the war, to abandon the cause of the Stuarts, and expel the Pretender from her soil ; to demolish, in accordance with earlier treaties, the fortifications of Dunkirk on the side of the sea, while retaining those on the side of the land, and to retire from the conquest without acquiring any fresh territory or any pecuniary compensation. England in like manner restored the few conquests she had made [see England: 1754-1755!, and sub- mitted to the somewhat humiliating condition of sending hostages to Paris as a security for the restoration of Cape Breton. . . . The disputed boundary between Canada and Nova Scotia, which had been a source of constant difficulty with France, was left altogether undefined. [See also New England: 1745-1748.I The Assiento treaty for trade with the Spanish colonies was confirmed for the four years it had still to run ; but no real compensation was obtained for a war expenditure which is said to have exceeded sixty-four millions, and which had raised the funded and unfunded debt to more than seventy-eight millions. Of the other Powers, Holland, Genoa, and the little state of Modena retained their territory as before the war, and Genoa remained mistress of the Duchy of Finale, which had been ceded to the king of Sar- dinia by the Treaty of Worms, and which it had been a main object of his later policy to secure. Austria obtained a recognition of the election of the Emperor, a general guarantee of the Pragmatic Sanction, and the restoration of everything she hud lost in the Netherlands, but she gained no addi- tional territory. She was compelled to confirm the cession of Silesia and Glatz to Prussia, to abandon her Italian conquests, and even to cede a consid- erable part of her former Italian dominions. To the bitter indignation of Maria Theresa, the Duch- ies of Parma, Placentia and Guastella passed to Don Philip of Spain, to revert, however, to their former possessors if Don Philip mounted the Spanish throne, or died without male issue. The King of Sardinia also obtained from Austria the territorial cessions enumerated in the Treaty of Worms [see Italy: 1743; also 1740-1752], with the important excejitions of Placentia, which passed to Don Philip, and of Finale, which re- mained with the Genoese. For the loss of these he obtained no cnm]wnsation. Frederick [the Great, of Prussia] obtained a general guarantee for the possession of his newly acquired territory, and a long list of old treaties was formally con- firmed. Thus small were the changes effected in Europe by so much bloodshed and treachery, by nearly nine years of wasteful and desolating war. The design of the dismemberment of Austria had failed, but no vexed questions had been set at rest. ... Of all the ambitious projects that had been conceived during the war, that of Frederick alone was substantially realized." — W. E. H. Lecky, England in the iS(/i century, ch. 3. — "Thus ended the War of the .Austrian succession. In its origin and its motives one of the most wicked of all the many conflicts which ambition and per- fidy have provoked in Europe, it excites a pecul- iarly mournful interest by the gross inequality in the rewards and penalties which fortune assigned to the leading actors. Prussia, Spain and Sardinia were all endowed out of the estates of the house of Hapsburg. But the electoral house of Bavaria, the most sincere and the most deserving of all the claimants to that vast inheritance, not only re- ceived no increase of territory, but even nearly lost its own patrimonial possessions. . . . The most trying problem is still that offered by the mis- fortunes of the Queen of Hungary [Maria The- resa]. . . . The verdict of history, as expressed by the public opinion, and by the vast majority of writers, in every country except Prussia, upholds the justice of the queen's cause and condemns the coalition that was formed against her." — H. Tuttle, History oj Prussia, 1745-1756, ch. 2. (3) Conference of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818). — The negotiations carried on in 1818 at Aix-la-Cha- pelle and the subsequent treaty had to deal with problems so akin to those confronting the delegates to the Versailles Conference in iqiq that it has been thought best to treat them quite fully, "The great problem that confronted the statesmen of the Res- toration was how to prevent the order estab- lished by the Congress of Vienna from being de- stroyed by revolutionary outbreaks. France, es- pecially, as the home of revolution, needed care- ful watching. A coalition of great powers known as the Quadruple Alliance, composed of Russia, .'\ustria, Prussia, and England, was organized, in 1815, for the purpose of preserving the 'tranquillity of Europe.' It was to meet every year to hold a sort of political inquest on the state of Europe, to suppress rebellions, and to advise on the best means of preventing the spread of democratic ideas. The moving spirit of this league to en- force autocracy was the Austrian Prince Metter- nich who was firmly convinced that the only way to fight revolutionary movements which, owing to the French Revolution, had become international, was by a compact of the despots pledged to sup- port one another in case of an uprising. If revo- lution was to be international, so would be re- pression. Because of this Metternich developed his theory of 'intervention'; namely, that Europe was a social and political unit with a uniform sys- tem of government and society ; hence an attack on any part of it would be fatal to the whole unless defended by the whole. International con- gresses were held at .Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818, at Troppau in 1820, and at Laibach in 1821, where the principle of 'intervention' was adopted by the Powers." — J. S. Schapiro, Modern and contem- porary European history, pp. 20-21. "The Conference of Aix-la-Chapelle, of which the first session was held on September 30th, was attended by the Emperor Alexander of Russia, the Emperor Francis of Austria, and King Frederick William of Prussia in person, while Cireat Britain uas represented by Wellington and Castlereagh. The ministers of the other Powers were Capo d'Istria and Nesselrode for Russia. Richelieu, though not admitted to the conferences, was pres- ent on behalf of France. The first question dis- cussed was that of the withdrawal of the Allied army of occupation, and on this there was com- plete unanimity. At the second session, on Oc- tober ist, the four Powers signed a protocol agree- ing to the principle of the evacuation of France at the end of the third year, or earlier if possible, subject to satisfactory arrangements being made for the payment of the instalments of the indem- nity still due, which amounted to 265,000,000 francs. In regard to this latter, Wellington had been empowered to make an arrangement with the 159 ;>IX-LA-CHAPELLE Congress of 1818 AIX-LA-CHAPELLE financial houses of Hope, of Amsterdam, and Bar- ing, by which these agreed to take over the debt on certain terms, thus converting it into an ordinary pubhc obligation, which, to use the language of a draft memorandum laid before the Cabinet, could not be repudiated by the French Government with- out an act of violent bankruptcy. The details of the negotiation outstanding on September 30th were soon settled, and on October qth a treaty was signed by which the Allies agreed to withdraw their troops from French soil by November 30th. ... In coming to this decision there was complete harmony among the Powers; there was, however, no such harmony on the question of what further consequences were to follow on it. The Due de Richelieu argued that the same reasoning which had induced the Powers to put an end to the armed occupation should lead them, as a logical consequence, to admit France to the Alliance on equal terms. This was, however, far from repre- senting the mind of the .Allies, whose policy of evacuation had not been inspired by any confi- dence in the improved temper of the French people. The autocratic Powers especially were seriously alarmed by what they considered the weak attitude of the French Government towards the Liberal Revival, to which recent elections had borne disquieting evidence. . . . On the question of admitting France to the Alliance on the basis of the Treaty of Chaumont the British Cabinet was at one with the other Allies, for Castlereagh and his colleagues had a strong sense of the pre- carious tenure of the restored monarchy in France, and believed that the maintenance of the Quad- ruple Alliance was essential to the peace of Europe; they realized, too, the paradox involved in making France a party to a treaty which was primarily directed against herself. On the other hand, were she to be altogether excluded, she would inevitably become the nucleus of a separate alliance, and everything that had been gained by the European Concert would be placed in jeopardy. . . . The problem of the future relation of France to the Alliance thus opened up at .'\ix-la-Chapelle the whole broader question of the future form of the 'Confederation of Europe.' As to this, much of course depended upon the attitude of the Em- peror Alexander. His first care on arriving at Aix had been to place beyond doubt his own ab- solute loyalty to the European .Alliance. In an interview with Metternich on September 20th he indignantly repudiated the truth of the rumours that he had been meditating a breach with the Alliance and a separate understanding with France. ... In subsequent interviews with Wellington and Castlereagh he used the same language, insisting that his army was the army of Europe, and that he could not admit that it would be otherwise employed than with Europe, to repress any at- tempt that might be made to shake the system of which his empire formed only a part. . . . Mean- while, Castlereagh had laid before the Powers the proposal of the British Government . . . which Metternich at once approved, while Hardenberg and Bernstorff gave it a friendly but more re- served reception. This formed the basis of the negotiations that followed, and in a couple of days Castlereagh reported home that the probable result of the Conference would be (i) to adhere strictly to the treaties, especially those of Chau- mont and Paris, which constituted the Quadruple Alliance; (2) not to admit France to them, not to replace them by a Quintuple Alliance; (3) to invite France to join in the deliberations of the Powers under Article VI of the Treaty of .Alliance of November 2oth, which, as this article is the I only one that survived the war or that would be operative so long as France kept quiet, would in effect place her in a line with the other Powers so long as the state of peace subsisted; (4) in order to calm the alarm of the other Powers, to issue a declaration to the effect that, by these regular assemblies the Powers had no intention of arrogating to themselves any supremacy, or of interfering in the politics of other states in any way not warranted by the law of nations. . . . These proposals, however, did not go far enough for the P^mperor Alexander. On the one hand, he was eager to publish to all the world the renewal of the disciplinary Alliance of Chaumont, which the others were anxious to keep effective, but in the background. On the other hand, he was bent on using this opportunity of realizing his political ideal of a confederated Europe. The outcome of this religious fervour was the presentation to the other -Allies on October Sth of a confidential mem- orandum of the Russian cabinet drafted by Pozzo di Borgo, stating the Tsar's views on the measures to be adopted in order to ])reserve Europe from a return of revolutions and of the principle that might is right. Europe, it is said, had been restored in 181 5 and served till now by the .Alliance of the great states, unalterable in principle, but extending its sphere according to circumstances, and becom- ing thus the Alliance of all the states. The re- sults thus far achieved had been due, less to the uncertain combinations of men than to that Su- preme Intelligence to which the sovereigns had done homage by the act of September 20, 1815. The woes of humanity had been caused by egoism and partial combinations in politics, and the proof of this was the good derived from the empire of Christian morality and of the Rights of Man which had given Europe peace. The system of Europe was a general association, which had for founda- tion the Treaties of Vienna and Paris, for con- servative principle the fraternal union of the Al- lied Powers, for aim the guaranteed best interests of the great European family ; and it was the work not of any man but of Providence. Its moral support lay in the Quadruple .Alhance and the Holy .Alliance, its material support in the armed occupation of France. . . . The Emperor then proposed: (i) That the Quadruple .Alliance should be preserved as against danger from France; (2) that a general Alliance should be formed, con- sisting of all the signatories of the Treaties of Vienna, having as its object the guarantee of the state of territorial possession and of sovereignty al> antiquo. The first of these objects was to be established by a protocol defining the casus jcederis and the military measures to be taken should this arise, and arranging for future meet- ings. The second was to be accomplished by a declaration of the Great Powers announcing to Europe the results of their deliberations at .Aix, to which declaration, since the (Quadruple .Alliance was not a partial combination but the basis of the General Alliance, all the states which had signed the acts of 1S15 should be invited to subscribe. The Quadruple Alliance, the memorandum e.x- plained, was held together as yet only by the sentiment of the parties to it ; but if it formed part of a wide European association no Power could break away from it without being at once isolated. The Quadruple and General .Alliance would be proclaimed as a single and indivisible system by the signatures of the Powers to the declaration. Such a svstem would guarantee the security of Governments by putting the rights of nations under a guarantee analogous to that which protects individuals The Governments, for their 60 AIX-LA-CHAPELLE Congresa of 18IS AIX-LA-CHAPELLE parts, being relieved from fear of revolutions could offer to their peoples Constitutions of a similar type ... so that the liberties of peoples, wisely regulated, would arise without effort from this state of affairs once recognized and publicly avowed. . . . "So far as the European Concert was concerned, then, the outcome of the Conference of Aix-la- Chapelle was a compromise, embodied in two in- struments signed on November 15th. The first, in the form of a secret protocol, renewed the Quad- ruple Alliance for the purpose of watching over France in case of fresh revolutionary outbreaks menacing the peace of Europe ; this was com- municated in confidence to Richelieu. The second, to which France was invited to adhere, was a dec- laration, which ran as follows: 'The Convention of October 9, 1818, which definitely regulated the execution of the engagements agreed to in the Treaty of Peace of November 20, 1815, is consid- ered by the sovereigns who concurred therein as the accomplishment of the work of peace, and as the completion of the political system destined to secure its soHdity. The intimate union established among the monarchs, who are joint-parties to this system, by their own principles, no less than by the interests of their people, offers to Europe the most sacred pledge of its future tranquillity. The object of the union is as simple as it is great and salutary. It does not tend to any new political combinations — to any change in the relations sanc- tioned by existing treaties ; calm and consistent in its proceedings, it has no other object than the maintenance of peace, and the guarantee of those transactions on which the peace was founded and consolidated. The sovereigns, in forming this august union, have regarded as its fundamental basis their invariable resolution never to depart, either among themselves or in their relations with other states, from the strictest observation of the principles of the rights of nations: principles, which, in their application to a state of perma- nent peace, can alone effectually guarantee the independence of each Government, and the stabil- ity of the general association. Faithful to these principles, the sovereigns will maintain them equally in those meetings at which they may be personally present, or in those which shall take place among their ministers; whether they be for the purpose of discussing in common their own interests, or whether they shall relate to questions in which other Governments shall formally claim their interference. The same spirit which will direct their councils and reign in their diplomatic . communications will preside also at these meet- ings; and the repose of the world will be con- stantly their motive and their end. It is with these sentiments that the sovereigns have consum- mated the work to which they were calle(,i. They will not cease to labour for its confirmation and perfection. They solemnly acknowledge that their duties towards God and the people whom they govern make it peremptory on them to give to the world, as far as it is in their power, an example of justice, of concord, and of moderation ; happy in the power of consecrating, from henceforth, all their efforts to protect the arts of peace, to in- crease the internal prosperity of their states, and to awaken those sentiments of religion and mo- rality whose influence has been but too much en- feebled by the misfortunes of the times.' . . . These debates, however, by no means occupied the whole time of the Conference, It had been decided to use the occasion of its meeting to settle if pos- sible a number of questions of common interest, of which the most important were defined in the memorandum of the British Cabinet already quoted. These were: (i) The effective suppres- sion of the Slave Trade, which had been abolished in principle at Vienna; (2) the suppression of the Barbary pirates; (3) the refusal of the King of Sweden to carry out the provisions of the Treaty of Kiel; and (4 J— the most fateful of all — the proposed general mediation between Spain and her revolted American colonies. "It is clear that at this period the Alliance was looked upon even by British statesmen as some- thing more than a mere union of the Great Pow- ers for preserving peace on the basis of the trea- ties; and in effect, during its short session the Con- ference acted, not only as a European representa- tive body, but as a sort of European Supreme Court, which heard appeals and received peti- tions of all kinds from sovereigns and their sub- jects alike. The German mediatized princes in- voked the aid of the Powers against the tyranny of their new overlords, and received satisfaction. The Elector of Hesse begged to be allowed to ex- change his now meaningless title for that of king; a request which was refused because it was judged inexpedient to make the royal style too common. The mother of Napoleon, in a pathetic letter, pe- titioned for the release of her son, pleading that he was now too ill ever again to be a menace to Europe, a petition refused on the ostensible ground that there was proof that the letter was a pohtical move and had been concocted under Napoleon's own direction. The people of Monaco presented a list of grievances against their prince. Questions as various as the settlement of the ranks of diplo- matic agents, the rival claims of Bavaria and the Hochberg line to the succession in Baden, a quarrel between the Duke of Oldenburg and Count Ben- tinck about the lordship of Kniphaussen, the situa- tion of the Jews in Austria and Prussia, were brought under discussion, settled or postponed. In general, on these minor matters it was possible to come to an agreement. It is, however, significant that on the greater issues discussed there was no such edifying harmony. The Powers had already agreed in principle to the suppression of the Slave Trade; jealousy of British sea-power prevented their accepting that mutual 'right of search' by which alone it could have been suppressed. The Barbary pirates were the scourge of the whole continental sea-board; they held up trading ves- sels at the mouth of the Elbe, and in the Medi- terranean no vessel was safe that did not sail under the British or the Ottoman flag; yet it was found impossible to concert measures against them because of British jealousy of Russian intervention in the Mediterranean. The struggle between Spain and her colonies was regarded as a serious menace to the peace of Europe ; the Powers were agreed as to the principle of mediation, but could not agree as to its form. They did agree in calling the King of Sweden to order. He obeyed, but at the same time protested against the 'dictatorship' arrogated to themselves by the Great Powers, a protest reinforced by an indignant letter from the King of VViirttemberg. ... Of the more important questions thus discussed and left unsettled at Aix- la-Chapelle, the most interesting, from our pres- ent point of view, was that of the Spanish colo- nies, the debates on which opened up the whole question of the relations of the Old World and the New, and even foreshadowed the idea of that world-alliance which has been imperfectly realized in the Hague Conventions." — W. .\. Phillips, Con- federation of Europe, pp. 163-191. — See also France: 1815-1830. Also in W. Russell, History of modern Europe, 161 AIX-LES-BAINS pt 2, letter 30.-W. Coxe, History of the House of •""Afx'LES-1irNS;a watering place in the de- panme^t ot Sivoie, France. Celebrated m Roman trr^efunder the name of Aqux Grat.an* he s.te o, numerous ancient «.™-'"^ ^ ^ P°P"^;;'"'^ "" '-A^-^l^^yrt^e's^Ldrfcrs'trstatesman of Mvste Indi:^ promoted internal improvement, Ld^'purt'^he^tate La sound Jinanaal footmg^ AIZNADIN, Battle of (034) ■ ^^e lalipha. ''a?AN, ancient name by which the northeast ^"llclS^a'fo^tS Xe"of Arabia on the PMf nf Akabah It was formerly the seat of the ^'iKARNAmANtEAGUE. See Acak^aku. '''^a'^karNANIANS. See Acarnanians. IkBAR Jelfaladin Mahomn.ed (i542-x6o5) AK-HVNATON See Amenophis iv. ^^St AT Battle at See Turkey: 1063-1073- iKlNDJALliTaken by the British (1916). Se^ WoRLO War: 1Q16: V. Balkan theater: b, ^'AkKAD-"The beginnings of the history of BaSfa^are shrouded in darkness and un«r- tainty P-'-'-lJ-^'rdisUnct'^ra-'ce's occupying ?riand S^m'iUc and Sumerian. The SemUes oc- cupied the northern part of the land, called Akkad Td'the other ^^ ^^^ ttS^ Scholars =>f^«=?_''?at neither pe p ^^^^,^^. iTa^e^^rVVv net- it'is'htghTp^obable that vallev is not known. —A. 1. >.-iay, /*" > rule 'the four quarters (of ^e wor.a ^^ ^.^ still earlier kmg Lugal-zaggisi in authority in Sumer, adopted the it ^^^ a pardonable one 1- vv .^ ^^ a«d Akkad, pp. 14-15— • ■ • •^°'*"^ -5"" ALABAMA calculated, King Sargon of Akkad carried his "fns beyond the limits of Shinar east and west and north and south. . . . He ^ad conquered almost the whole world known to the men «' Sh"^'' ^^^''""^'^ there was onlv barbarian darkness-except, 01 course \n the Nile Valley, whose kings, about the same ime as the conquests of Sargon, were an- ne™ng pTlestine and Pha-nicia, and must have had dpomatic relations with the King «' ^kkad^ Sargon was now "lord of the lour quarters o he earth" for the men of Shinar did not think ol the barbarian^ darkness beyond 'he ran«e o| th knowledge as worth reckoning Th s 7 'd t^a Sargon conquered in the middle of the third mil Sum before Christ is to^ay a l^W for the operations of armies come in part from the lana orCia, far beyond the hills of Elam on the east"-E Bevan, Land oj the two rivers pp. ffe 27-See also Babylonia: Earliest inhabitants; Jews: Early Semitic migrations; Religion: B.C. 2000-200; Semites. i,a.,f,\ See AKKERMAN, Convention of (1826). see AKOMINATOS, Michael, metropolitan ot Attnfu'bo), in defence of Athens. See Athens: 120^-1308. aKRAGAS See .\crigentum. AKROKERAUNIAN PROMONTORY. See ^AKRON, Ohio.-Housing problem. See »?.7r BA^RADAlI-'leader of Jacobite Church. '"a^TaDSHrTtTI (d. 1007), Spanish mathe- -IrrBAMl-Onrof the Southern States of the United States, bordering on the Gulf ol Mexico kjpp TI S ■K • Economic map. Aboriginal inhabitants. See Cherokees, MusKiioGEAN or Maskoki t.amily. il29.-Embraced in the Carolina grant to Sir Pnhprt Heath. See Ameuica: 1620. 1663.-Emb;aced in the Carolina grant to Monk, Shaftesbury, and others. See North Car- " m2 im -French occupation and first set- tlement!-Founding of Mobile.-See Louisiana. "'?7i2'r810-Early settlement by Americans.- "In th^ eadv davs territorial Alabama was made up\ftorLricts, based on the riv.rs>.tems^^^^^^ "rnded by the French and later developed by th English -d Sp..,.r<^s^ Th- . Tbe and a;:^und Mobile in Uat is "ow Baldwin MobUe and Washington Counties, even before aU this had become American territory. In 7Q-. afer M6bile itself, the most PoP"'""* ."f thes« ttUements was that upon the Tensas River. It carried on pack horses. ^^"^ ,, •* t,,,„,,^:„i,„» River the American settlements on he Tomb^^eR..^^ I'^h'the' CmbiVe This -- -de -n I7,7jnd i, believed to be one of «»^'^..';^'^ ^^^ The set- ;i:;^t^:or:::^r,r;hljMI^^eek country 62 ALABAMA, 1779-1781 ALABAMA, 1848 from Georgia. . . . From the time that the claims of Georgia to the Mississippi territory were ex- tinguished (1804), immigrants began to flock into what is now Alabama. One party left North Caro- lina, scaled the Blue Ridge with their wagons, and descended into the valley of the Tennessee. At Knoxville they built flatboats and floated down the river to the Muscle Shoals, where they disem- barked their goods, placed them on pack horses, which had been brought overland from Knoxville, and from the Muscle Shoals as a new basis, de- parted overland for the English settlements on the Tombigbee, about St. Stephens, in southern Ala- bama, thus traversing in a journey of 120 days from North Carolina nearly the whole length of the state from north to south. "The northern section of Alabama, the Tennessee valley region, was settled mainly from Tennessee, as early as 1787, and in the earlier period filled up more rapidly than some of the other sections. These immigrants came overland from the Cum- berland settlements or floated down the river in flatboats from the settlements farther east. The fourth district was that along the Alabama River, with centers near Claiborne, in Monroe county, and along the Alabama River from the confluence of the Coosa and the Tallapoosa rivers down to and including the present city of Montgomery. This section was settled mainly by Georgians and Carolinians, who came in over the government road. From these four centers population grew and extended to the intervening sections." — S. B. Weeks, United States Bureau of Education {Bulle- tin 12, 1915, pp. 11-12). 1779-1781.— Reconquest of West Florida by the Spaniards. See Fi.orid.a: 1770-1781. 1783. — Mostly covered by the English cession Jo the United States. See U. S. A.: 1783 (Sep- tember) . 1783-1787. — Partly in dispute with Spain. See Florida: 1783-1787. 1798-1804.— All but the West Florida district embraced in Mississippi territory. See Mis- sissippi: 1708-1804. 1803. — Portion acquired by the Louisiana pur- chase. See Louisiana: 1798-1803. 1804. — Embraced in Mississippi Territory. See Mississippi: 1708-1804. 1813-1814.— Creek War. See U. S. A.: 1813- 1814 (August- — April). 1817. — Detached from Mississippi and made territory of Alabama. Sec Mississippi: 181 7. 1817-1819. — Organized as a territory. — Con- stituted a state, and admitted to the Union. — "By an act of Congress dated March i, 1817, Mis- sissippi Territory was divided. Another act, bear- ing the date March 3, thereafter, organized the eastern portion into a Territory, to be known as Alabama, and with the boundaries as they now exist. ... By an act approved March 2, i8ig, congress authorized the inhabitants of the Terri- tory of Alabama to form a state constitution, 'and that said Territory, when formed into a State, shall be admitted into the Union upon the same footing as the original States.' . . . The joint resolution of congress admitting Alabama into the Union was approved by President Monroe, De- cember 14, 1810." — W. Brewer, Alabama, ch. 5. 1830-1833. — Alabama's first railroads. — The Tuscumbia Railway Company, incorporated Jan. 26, 1830, completed a track of two and one-eighth miles and celebrated the event by the firing of cannon, and the giving of a dinner and ball on June 12, 1832. This was the first railway track laid west of the Alleghany mountains. By the 4,th of July, 1833, the Tuscumbia, Courtland and Decatur Railroad Company (inc. 1832) had con- structed eight and seven-tenths miles of road from Tuscumbia toward Decatur. Among the pro- moters of these railroad enterprises were the lead- ing citizens and business men of the Tennessee valley. The General Assembly was now called on at each session to incorporate one or more rail- road companies. 1835-1838.— Removal of the Indians.— "And now came the end of the Indian question in Ala- bama. All but a few of the Creeks departed for their new lands in the west. The stronger race had driven out the weaker; but none of us who now possess the ancient home of the Muscogees can fail to respect the courage with which they battled against their fate. Only the Cherokees re- mained, and the final treaty for their removal was already concluded. It was dated December 29, 1835, and its provisions resembled those of the final treaty with the Creeks. New homes in the west and a large sum of money were given to the Cherokees, and in return they gave up all their lands east of the Mississippi. But among them also, as among the Creeks, there was a strong party that opposed the treaty, and threatened to make trouble. However, a large force of volun- teers was assembled, including some fifteen hun- dred Alabamians, and the Cherokees were removed in 1838 without an outbreak. There were left in Alabama only a few scattered families of Indians, who for many years used to peddle bows and arrows and blow-guns to the children of their con- querors."- — W. G. Brown, History oj Alabama, p. 170. 1848. — Alabama platform. — Before 1832 the Democratic party ruled the state of Alabama with- out a rival for its power. However, about that time the question of nullification caused a split in the ranks, some adhering to the Jacksonian prin- ciple, and others to the State's Rights, Calhoun, principle. William L. Yancey, leader of the State's Rights men, the minority party, neverthe- less was active and able enough to impose upon the whole Democratic party in the state the most radical views of his faction, which he embodied in a series of resolutions proposed to the Demo- cratic state convention of 1848. "The resolutions, in principle, were the same the committee had reported, except that they included in their condemnation of unconstitutional political propositions, the new doctrine of squatter sov- ereignty ; and, in this, they were in advance of the Democratic party. They became the historic .Alabama Platform bearing no less important rela- tion to the great events of 1861, in the United States, than the resolutions of Patrick Henry bore to the crisis of 1776. " 'Whereas, Opinions have been expressed by eminent members of the Democratic party and by a convention of the party assembled in New York to appoint deleeates to the Baltimore Con- vention, that the municipal laws of the Mexican territory, ceded to the United States, should not be changed and that slavery could not be re-es- tablished except by authority of the United States or of the Territorial government, therefore, to the end that no doubt should be allowed to exist upon a subject so important and at the same time so exciting. Be it ... : " '9. Resolved, That the treaty of cession should contain a clause securing an entry into those Territories to all citizens of the United States together with their property of every description and that the same should remain protected by the United States while the Territories are under its authority. . . . 163 ALABAMA, 1860 ALABAMA, 1861 "'ii. Resolved, That the opinion advanced or maintained by some that the people of a Terri- tory acquired by the common toil, suffering, blood and treasure of the people of all the States, can, in other event than the forming of a State Con- stitution preparatory to admittance as a State into the Union, lawfully or constitutionally prevent any citizen of any such States from removing to or settling in such Territory with his property, be it slave property or other, is a restriction as inde- fensible in principle as if such restriction were imposed by Congress. "'i2. Resolved, That the Democratic party is, and should be, co-extensive with the Union; and that while we disclaim all intention to interfere in the local divisions and controversies in any of our sister States, we deem it a solemn duty, which we owe to the Constitution, to ourselves and to that party, to declare our unalterable determina- tion, neither to recognize as Democrats or to hold fellowship or communion with those who attempt to denationalize the South and its institutions, calculated to array one section in feeling and senti- ment against the other; and we hold the same to be alike treason to party faith and to the per- petuity of the Union of these States. " '13. Resolved, That this convention pledge itself to the country, and the members pledge themselves to each other under no political neces- sity whatever to support for the offices of Presi- dent and vice-President of the United States, any persons who shall not be openly and unequivocally opposed to either of the forms of excluding slav- ery from the Territories of the United States, men- tioned in these resolutions, as being alike in viola- tion of the Constitution and of the just and equal rights of the citizens of the slaveholding States. "'14. Resolved, That these resolutions be con- sidered as instructions to our delegates to the Baltimore Convention to guide them in their votes in that body ; and that they vote for no men for President and vice-President who will not un- equivocally avow themselves to be opposed to either of the forms of restricting slavery which are described in these resolutions.' "The Alabama Legislature endorsed the Alabama Platform by special resolutions; the Legislature of Georgia endorsed it. The press of the party throughout the South repeated the praises of Yancey, confessing him to be the leader of the first organized effort to resist revolution." — J. C. DuBose, Lije and times of William L. Yancey. — See also U. S. A.; 1850 (June). I860.— Occupation of Fort Mobile. See U. S. A.: i860 (December-February). 1861. — Attitude of North Alabama toward secession. — Proposed state of Nickajack. — "To the convention of 1861 forty-four members from north Alabama were elected as cooperationists, that is, in favor of a union of the southern states, within the old Union, for the purpose of securing their rights under the Constitution or of securing safe secession. They professed to be afraid of separate state secession as likely to lead to disintegration and war. Thirty-one of these cooperationists voted against the ordinance of secession, and twenty-four of them (mostly members from the northern hill counties) refused lo sign the ordinance, though all expressed the in- tention to submit to the will 'of the majority, and to give the state their heartiest support. When war came all espoused the Confederate cause The cooperafionist party as a whole supported the Confederacy faithfully, though nearly always in a more or less disapproving spirit toward the ad- ministration, both state and Confederate. North Alabama differed from other portions of the state in many ways. There was no railroad connect- ing the country north of the mountains with the southern part of the state, and from the northern counties it was a journey of several days to reach the towns in central and south Alabama. Hence there was little intercourse between the people of the two sections, though the seat of government was in the central part of the state; even to-day the intimacy is not close. For years it had been a favorite scheme of Alabama statesmen to build railroads and highways to connect more closely the two sections. Geographically, this northern section of the state belonged to Tennessee. The people were felt to be slightly different in char- acter and sympathies from those of central and south Alabama, and whatever one section favored in public matters was usually opposed by the other. Even in the northern section the population was more or less divided. The people of the val- ley more closely resembled the west Tennesseeans, the great majority of them being planters, having little in common with the small farmers of the hill and mountain country, who were like the east Tennesseeans. Of the latter the extreme ele- ment was the class commonly known as 'moun- tain whites' or 'sand-mountain' people. These were the people who gave so much trouble during the war, as 'Tories' and from whom the loyal southerners of north Alabama suffered greatly when the country was stripped of its men for the armies. Yet it can hardly be said that they ex- ercised much influence on politics before the war. Their only representative in the convention of 1861 was Charles Christopher Sheets, who did not speak on the floor of the convention during the entire session. On the part of all in the northern counties there was a strong desire for delay in secession, and they were angered at the action of the convention in not submitting the ordinance to a popular vote for ratification or rejection. Many thought the course taken indicated a sus- picion of them or fear of their action, and this they resented. Their leaders in the convention expressed the belief that the ordinance would have easily obtained a majority if submitted to the popular vote. Much of the opposition to the or- dinance of secession was due to the vague sec- tional dislike between the twi parts of the state. It was felt that the ordinance was a south Ala- bama measure, and this was sufficient reason for opposition by the northern section. Throughout the entire session a local sectional spirit dictated a course of obstruction. In January and February of 1861 there was some talk among the discon- tented people of seceding from secession, of with- drawing the northern counties of Alabama and uniting with the counties of east Tennessee to form a new state, which should be called Nick- a-Jack, an Indian name common in East Tennes- see. Geographically this proceeding would have been correct, since these two parts of the country are closely connected, the people were alike in character and sentiment, and the means of inter- course were better. The people of the valley and many others, however, had no sympathy with this scheme. Lacking the support of the politicians and no leaders appearing, the plan was abandoned after the proclamation of Lincoln, April 10, 1861. Had the war been deferred a few months, it is almost certain that the discontented element of the population would have taken positive steps to em- barrass the administration; many believed that reconstruction would take place. Only after four years of war was there after this any appreciable number of the jjeople willing to listen again to 164 ALABAMA, 1861-1865 ALABAMA, 1866 such a proposition." — W. L. Fleming, Civil war and reconstruction in Alabama, pp. loq-iii. 1861-1865. — Agriculture in the Black Belt. See Black belt. 1861 (January). — Secession from the Union. See U. S. A.: iS6i (January-February). 1861 (February). — Convention of Confederate states at Montgomery. See U. S. A.: i86i (Feb- ruary) : Adoption of a constitution for "The Con- federate States of America." 1862. — General Mitchell's expedition. See U. S. A.: 1862 (April-May: Alabama). 1864 (August). — The battle of Mobile bay. — Capture of Confederate forts and fleet. See U. S. A.: 1804 (.August; Alabama). 1865 (March— April).— The fall of Mobile.— Wilson's raid. — End of the rebellion. See U. S. A.: 1805 (April-May). 1865. — Losses from the Civil War.— "The num- ber of soldiers furnished by Alabama to the Confed- erate service will never be known. The estimates range from 60,000, the number given by Col. M. V. Morre, in the Louisville Evening Post of May 30th, iQoo, to 122,000 claimed by Governor Par- sons in his proclamation of July, 1865. Like- wise the number of Alabama soldiers who lost their lives on the battlefield and from wounds, or from disease directly traceable to exposure in the army during the Confederate war will never be known. We only know that Alabama soldiers were buried in every battle-field of importance east of the Mississippi, near every large hospital through the same extent of country, in all cemeteries of the war prisons of the North, and in every grave- yard in this State. . . . The property losses of the people of Alabama during the war were tre- mendous. We can form no just conception of them, except by comparing some items of the cen- sus of T860 with those of 1870. . . . Nearly all the manufacturing industries of Alabama were burnt by the Federals. Most of the engines, cars, steam-boats, warehouses and depots were de- stroyed, a number of railroad bridges and trestles were burnt and most of the rails, which were made of iron, were worn out, 50 that the transporta- tion property of the State was worth many mil- lions of dollars less in 1S65 than in i860. An- other heavy loss, which cannot be estimated, was the complete destruction of State and Confederate scrip and bonds, and railroad bonds and stocks, and all banking capital and securities. The mer- chandise in the stores, usually amounting to many millions of dollars, was all gone at the close of the war. Town property had depreciated in value. In the Tennessee valley hundreds of thousands of dollars' worth of private residences and public buildings were burnt, and the people stripped of nearly everything that they could not carry off or hide successfully. The property losses of the people of Alabama could not have been less than $300,000,000, besides the loss of 435,000 slaves, which were worth $500 each in gold or a total of $217,000,000, making the total property losses not less than $500,000,000 in Alabama." — L. D. Miller, History of Alabama, p. 233. — See also U. S. A.: r86s: Civil War losses. 1865 (December). — Ratification of 13th amend- ment. — On December 2, 1865, the thirteenth amendment to the Constitution of the United States was ratified. Also in: Owen, Annals of Alabama, ch. 6. 1865-1868. — Reconstruction. See Black and TAN conventions; U. S. a : 1865 (May — July), to 1868-1870: Reconstructiim complete. 1866. — Rejection of 14th amendment. — "In the fall of 1866 the proposed Fourteenth Amendment was submitted to the legislature. There was no longer any belief that further yielding would do any good ; the more the people gave the more was asked. State Senator E. A. Powell wrote to John W. Forney that the people would do nothing about the Fourteenth Amendment because they were con- vinced that any action would be useless. Condi- tion after condition had been imposed and had been absolved ; slavery had been abolished, seces- sion acknowledged a failure, and the war debt repudiated by the convention ; the legislature had ratified the Thirteenth Amendment, had secured the negro in all the rights of property and person ; and after all the state was no nearer to restoration. This was the view of nearly all the newspapers of the state, and in this they represented popular opinion. They were intensely irritated by the fact that, although they had made so many concessions, still they were excluded from representation in Congress, and were heavily and unjustly taxed. Moreover, they were opposed to the amendment because it branded their best men as traitors. One newspaper, alone, advocated adoption of the amendment as the least of evils. ... By most persons the question of negro political rights was considered to belong to the state and was not a matter for the Federal government to regulate. 'Loyalists' as well as 'rebels' were afraid to leave negro affairs to the regulation of Congress. In his annual message to the legislature, in November 1866, Governor Patton advised the legislature not to ratify the Fourteenth Amendment, on the ground that it could do no good and might do harm. It involved the creation of a penalty after the act. On this point, he said that it was an ex post facto law, and contrary to the whole spirit of modern civilization ; that such a mode of deal- ing with citizens charged with offences against government belonged only to despotic tyrants; that it might accomplish revengeful purposes, but that was not the proper mode of administering justice, that adoption would vacate nearly all offices in most of the unrepresented states — gov- ernors, judges, legislators, sheriffs, justices of peace, constables — and the state governments would be completely broken up and reduced to utter and hopeless anarchy; that the disabilities imposed by the test oath were seriously detrimental to the interests of the government ; that ratification of the Amendment could not accomplish any good to the country and might bring upon it irretrievable disaster. Under the circumstances, the legislature refused to consider the Amendment. But the gov- ernor during the next few weeks was induced by various considerations to recommend the ratifica- tion, and on December 7, 1866, he sent a special message stating that there was a purpo.se on the part of those who controlled the national legisla- tion to enforce their own terms of restoration at all hazards; and that their measures would im- measurably augment the distress already existing and inaugurate endless confusion. The cardinal principle of restoration seemed to be, he said, fav- orable action on the Fourteenth Amendment. Upon principle he was opposed to it. Yet neces- sity must rule. So now he recommended recon- sideration. If they should ratify and restoration should follow, they might trust to time and their representatives to mitigate its harshness. If they should ratify and admission should be delayed, it would serve as a warning to other states and thus prevent the necessary number for ratificalion." W. L. Fleming, Cii'i! war and reconstruction in Alabama, p. 304. — ^See also Suffrage, Manhood: U. S. A.: 1864-102 1. — In spite of the governor's ur- gent recommendation, the legislature refused to 165 ALABAMA, 1867 ALABAMA, 1886-1907 ratify the amendment, and Alabama, together with nine other southern states, prevented the fourteenth amendment from becoming a Federal law As a result, Alabama was put under military government by the Reconstruction Act of 1S67 and the state came under the sway of the negro and the "carpet- bagger." 1867 (November).— Meeting of the constitu- tional convention. — In the fall of 1867 a con- stitution was framed for .Alabama in accordance with the principles of the Reconstruction .Act and the fourteenth amendment. 1868 (February). — Constitution ratified. — When the constitution received a bare majority of the vote cast, but not a majority of the registered vote. Congress declared the constitution in effect by hurriedly changing the law which necessitated a state constitution receiving a majority of the registered vote. 1868 (June). — Ratification of 14th amendment. — Readmission to the union. — In the spring of 1868 the fourteenth amendment was adopted and Alabama was admitted to the union, June 25, iSbS. 1868 (July 14). — Cessation of military rule.— Military rule ceased on this date and .-Mabama took up her own administration. 1870 (November 16).— Ratification of 15th amendment. 1874. — Whites regain control of the govern- ment. — "By 1874, the State had become bankrupt; its credit was gone; city and county indebtedness had grown, with few betterments to show for the expenditures; and 'more intolerable were the tur- moil and strife between whites and blacks kept alive' for political hold on the Negro vote. Every office was to be filled at a general election in November. .As early as April 2Qth the Demo- cratic and Conservative convention was organized in Montgomery. George Houston, the old 'Bald Eagle of the Mountains' from north .Alabama, was chosen by acclamation for Governor. Houston, many years a member of Congress, and personally opposed to secession, had taken no part in the war. He was neither a full-fledged Confederate nor an offensive Unionist. Of the more important planks in the platform, the first averred 'that the radical and dominant faction of the Republican Party in this state persistently and by fraudulent representations have inflamed the passions and prejudices of the Negroes as a race against the white people, and have thereby made it necessary for the white people to unite and act together in self-defense and for the preservation of white civi- lization.' The third plank denounced the so-called 'Civil Rights Bill' then pending in Congress, and the fifth plank advocated economy. The Republi- cans renominated David P. Lewis for Governor, and in section 5 of their platform declared: 'We only ask equal advantages in matters of public and common right. This we consider to be all that is embraced in the Civil Rights Bill, and in order that we may be understood, and no_ false charges made against us, we hereby declare that the Republican Party does not desire mixed schools or mixed accommodations — we want no social equality enforced by law.' . , . On October igth the Committee issued an appeal to the voters urging them to close their 'several places of busi- ness on the third day of November,' and to dedi- cate 'their individual 'and collective exertion to the redemption of Alabama.' ... As the end of the canvass approached the forces making for good government were in line as never before in the history^ of the state. Every precaution was taken to have the polls guarded on Nov. 3. Every highway leading into the state was watched to prevent the importation of voters. Railroad com- panies for days Jjcfore the election reported every negro that came in and the station where he de- barked. Victory was so important to our future that thousands were prepared to leave the state and seek homes where the Negro did not control, in case the election went against us — as many thousands had already done since March, 1868. ... At the election there wa? rioting in Mobile, at Belmont, and at Gainesville, and one Negro was killed at each of these places. At Eufaula oc- curred the most serious riot of the Reconstruction period. Both whites and blacks were armed. While the whites were trying to protect from a mob a colored Democrat who was offering to vote a Negro fired a shot. Four Negroes were killed and sixty wounded. Ten whites were wounded. The whole Democratic State ticket was elected by majorities ranging more than 10,000 and the Su- preme Court and both Houses of the Legislature were ours. Alabama was redeemed," — H. A. Her- bert, How we redeemed Alabama {Century, v. 85, pp. 850-862). 1875 (September-October). — Constitutional convention. — The convention was held from Sep- tember to October 2. A new constitution was adopted, omitting the guaranty of the "carpet- baggers' " constitution that no one should be denied suffrage on account of race, color, or previous con- dition of servitude. It also forbade the state to engage in internal improvements. 1883 (February). — Establishment of a rail- road commission. — A railroad commission was established in .Alabama February 26, 1883. 1886-1887. — Farmers' Alliance. — The Farmers' .Alliance of .Alabama was incorporated by the ses- sion of the legislature of 1886-1887, and was then a strictly non-partisan agricultural organization. It was the forerunner of the Populist party, which was destined to play an important part in the politics of Alabama. 1886-1907. — Child labor legislation. — "Alabama began agitation against the child labor system in 1886. On page ninety of the .Acts of the Legisla- ture, 1886-7, will be found the law passed in this state against the employment of children and women in factories and manufacturing establish- ments, except as therein provided. The act was crude and carried no provisions for enforcement. It showed, however, that the public mind of the state had been aroused to the necessity of pro- tecting those in need of protection. The act of 1886 remained on the statute books until the ses- sion of the legislature in 1804-5, when it was re- pealed through the efforts oi a lobby sent to Montgomery by the cotton mills, headed by a superintendent of one of the New England mills which had lately been established in the state. There was no more child labor legislation until 1903, when mainly through the earnest and zeal- ous work of Edgar Gardner Murphy, the second child labor law for Alabama was enacted. The law of 1Q03 was by no means satisfactory to those who had been contending for an effective child labor law. The provisions of this law made the age limit twelve years, but orphans and chil- dren of dependent families were exempt. No child under ten years of age was permitted to work under any circumstances. No child under thirteen years of age could be employed at night work, and none under twelve was allowed to work more than thirty-six hours per week. In IQ07 a more acceptable law was enacted. The age limit was placed at twelve, without exception, and night work was permitted only by children of six- teen years of age and over. Provision was also 166 ALABAMA, 1897-1898 ALABAMA, 1916 made for inspection, the state inspector of prisons and almshouses being empowered to inspect cot- ton mills and factories. There was general dis- appointment over the practical failure of the in- spection feature of the law of 1007. Governor O'Neal has recommended in a message to the leg- islature raising the age limit of children working in cotton mills to fourteen years. He has also pointed out a defect in our present law which has greatly weakened the statute, namely the pro- vision that the employer must 'knowingly violate' the law before any punishment can be imposed for its violation." — Dr. B. J. Baldwin (Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, July, iQii, pp. 111-113). — A law was passed by the Alabama legislature which went into effect Sept. I, 191S, providing that no children under thirteen should be permitted to work and a year afterward no children under fourteen. 1897-1898. — Period of great industrial depres- sion. — During this period the price of cotton dropped to 4V2 cents per pound. 1898. — Part played in Spanish-American War. — Like every other state, Alabama responded loy- ally to the call for troops in the war with Spain. Members of the national guard and many other citizens joined the colors, and Alabama had her due representation in the regular army and navy. After the Civil War General Joseph Wheeler of the Confederate army settled in Alabama, where he lived as farmer, merchant and lawyer. He was in 1882 elected to Congress, in which he served continuously for eighteen years. In 1898, Presi- dent McKinley appointed him a major-general of volunteers, and he served with distinction in the Santiago campaign. In the navy, the most con- spicuous enterprise of daring was led by a native of Alabama, Richmond Pearson Hobson. With seven men he attempted to block the channel of Santiago harbor and "bottle up" the fleet of Ad- miral Cervera. He took the collier Merrimac into the narrow passage and sunk her, but the ship did not completely obstruct the channel. Although under heavy fire, the men escaped in- jury, and were taken prisoners. Hobson after- wards represented his state in Congress. 1899. — Dispensary laws. — Acts applying the South Carolina "dispensary" system of regula- tion for the liquor traffic (see South Carolina: 1892-1890) to seventeen counties, but not to the state at large, were passed by the legislature. 1901. — Alabama's new constitution. — "The new Constitution in Alabama was adopted by a re- ported majority of nearly thirty thousand. The important provisions of the new Constitution are as follows: (i) Disfranchisement for crime or for failure to pay a voluntary poll tax of $1.50 a year eight months before the election. This ap- plies to whites and blacks alike. (2) Disfranchise- ment for illiteracy, unless the illiterate has been a soldier or is descended from a soldier, or is thought by the registrars of election to be of good char- acter and to understand the duties of citizenship. The enfranchised illiterate must be enrolled as a voter before 1903. After that date the illiteracy disqualification applies to new voters of both races alike. (3) But after January i, 1903, every male of age, white or black, literate or illiterate, may register and vote on his proving ownership, in his own or his wife's right, of property of tax- able value of $300. (4) Four-year terms for Governor and Legislature, the legislative session to last only fifty days. (5) A State tax of three mills for school purposes, with permission to lo- calities to levy an additional tax of one mill. The State tax, together with the poll taxes and other 167 funds, insures a school revenue of $1,100,000 a year, or one-fifth more than the revenue last year." — Outlook, Nov. 23, 1901, p. 571. "In Alabama — where a little more than 14 per cent of the adult male whites of American par- entage are reported as illiterate, while 59.5 per cent of the male negroes of voting age are illiter- ate, — it is declared that the new constitution was adopted by popular vote on November 11, and under the operation of the clauses relating to the franchise this entire mass of negro illiteracy will be at once excluded from the voting privilege. Most of the white illiterates will probably be able, under exceptional clauses, to place their names on the registration books. But after a limited period the system will work with prac- tical equality, and every man of whatever race who knows enough to be morally entitled to exer- cise poHtical privileges will be allowed to register and vote. These Southern franchise systems, — viewed broadly in their main features rather than narrowly in their minor details, — bid fair to be of advantage to both races. They supply the most powerful incentive to education and personal im- provement. They create at once a bold and sweeping division between the enfranchised and the disenfranchised, but they do not erect an ar- bitrary or difficult barrier. An object-lesson in the disadvantages of illiteracy will be constantly before the eyes of the rising generation of both races. The children of native-born Americans will be impelled to follow the example of the Ameri- can-born children of foreign parents and acquire the rudiments of an ordinary education." — .Ameri- can Review of Reviews, Dec, iqoi, p. 650. — See also Suffrage: Manhood: United States: 1804-1921. Also in: A. E. McKinley, Constitution of Ala- bama {Political Science Quarterly, Sept., 1903). 1903. — Law against boycott. See Boycott: Re- cent judicial decisions. 1909. — Sixteenth Federal amendment ratified. — The income tax amendment to the Federal con- stitution was ratified .\ugust 17, 1909. 1911. — Case of Alonzo Bailey in United States Supreme Court. — This decision grew out of the case of a Negro, .Alonzo Bailey, who had been hired as a plantation hand. His wage was set at .$12 a month and he was paid in advance .$15. Before the month was over he left and according to the existing law was considered guilty of fraud- ulent intention, in not returning the money ad- vanced. He was obliged to prove his innocence which was not easy to do, since he could not testify as to his intentions. He could therefore according to the state law be convicted and forced to work without remuneration. The decision was rendered by Justice Hughes who held that the state law was contrary to the constitution. 1911. — Arbitration board created. See Arbi- tration AND CONCILIATION, INDUSTRIAL: United States: 1886-1920. 1912. — Internal improvements. — By the char- tering of the Interstate Power Company a large plan of internal improvements was begun, to cost in the neighborhood of $50,000,000 before com- pleted. A dam and lock on the Coosa river was the first piece of construction and by this electric power was created for Birmingham, Montgomery, .\nniston, Gadsden and Huntsville. 1916. — Educational revival. — Constitution amended. — "Alabama, as she herself fully admits, is down close to the bottom on the Hst of States made up according to literacy tests. Until re- cently Alabama raised most of her school funds by the State tax of three mills on the dollar. This gave her about $1,813,000 to spend on her public ALABAMA ALABAMA CLAIMS schools each year. The Legislature sometimes supplemented this fund by special appropriations averaging about $283,000 yearly. In addition, some of the counties voted a one-mill local tax for their respective schools, one mill being the limit established by the State Constitution to which any county could tax itself for public edu- cation. As a result of this constitutional limi- tation Alabama has had no free school system to speak of except in the cities. The rural dis- tricts, the sources of production and wealth, have been miserably provided with schools. The little one-teacher school has been open seventy-five or eighty, or possibly a hundred, days in the year. Ten per cent of the children were, according to recent statistics, illiterate. The total number of illiterates in the State, was 360,000. Of these 93,000 were white, many of them men and women of middle age. This was the situation that Mr. William F. Feagin, State Superintendent of Educa- tion, determined to alter, if possible, during the recent Presidential campaign. His idea was to carry an amendment to the State Constitution that would give each county and also each school district the right to tax itself for long-term con- solidated schools. By a preliminary campaign he succeeded in having placed on the ballots a con- stitutional amendment enabling each county to tax itself three mills on the dollar for its own schools, and in addition enabling each district to tax itself three mills — a tax right of six mills in all. . . . Even those who supported Mr. Feagin's plan supposed that the people were in no mood to consider additional taxation, and, generally speaking, they are always against constitutional amendments. But, nothing daunted. Superintend- ent Feagin plunged in to organize the entire State, county by county. The people of .Alabama were waked up. They were expecting an un- eventful election, with the usual Democratic ma- jority for the President and Congressmen. But they found themselves in the midst of a regular old-time enthusiastic campaign, and for educa- tion per se. . . . When the votes were counted it was found that the amendment had been carried by more than 20,000 majority. The campaign and amendment have given public education an im- petus in Alabama which will be very far-reaching in its effects." — L. McClurg, Educational revival in Alabama (Outlook, Feb. 28, iqi?). 1917-1918.— Part played in the World War.— The state furnished in all 67,000 soldiers, and es- tablished two National Guard camps; Camp Mc- Clelland at Anniston and Camp Sheridan at Mont- gomery. 1919. — Industrial development resulting from the World War. — The effect of the war was to stimulate the industrial development of the state. The United States Steel Corporation, through the Tennessee Iron and Railroad Company initiated important enterprises. Plate mills were opened at Birmingham and a ship-building plant was estab- lished at Mobile. The federal government also opened a nitrocen plant at Sheffield to extract nitrogen from the air. 1919 (January). — Eighteenth Federal amend- ment ratified. — The prohibition amendment to the federal constitution was ratified on January 14, igiq. 1919 (September 2). — Nineteenth amendment defeated (woman suffrage). ALABAMA (Confederate cruiser). See Ala- bama claims: 1862-1864. ALABAMA CLAIMS: 1861-1862.— Origin.— Earlier confederate cruisers. — Precursors of the Alabama. — The commissioning of privateers, and of more officially commanded cruisers, in the .American Civil War, by the government of the Southern Confederacy, was begun early in the progress of the movement of rebellion, pursuant to a proclamation issued by Jefferson Davis on .April 17, 1S61. "Before the close of July, i86i, more than 20 of those depredators were afloat, and had captured millions of property belonging to .American citizens. The most formidable and notorious of the sea-going ships of this character, were the Nashville, Captain R. B. Pegram, a Vir- ginian, who had abandoned his flag, and the Sum- ter [a regularly commissioned war vessel], Cap- tain Raphael Semmes. The former was a side- wheel steamer, carried a crew of eighty men, and was armed with two long 12-pounder rifled can- non. Her career was short, but cjuite successful. She was finally destroyed by the Montauk, Cap- tain Worden, in the Ogeechee River. The career of the Sumter, which had been a New Orleans and Havana packet steamer named Marquis de Ha- bana, was also short, but much more active and destructive. She had a crew of sixty-five men and twenty-five marines, and was heavily armed. She ran the blockade at the mouth of the Missis- sippi River on the 30th of June, and was pursued some distance by the Brooklyn. She ran among the West India islands and on the Spanish Main, and soon made prizes of many vessels bearing the American flag. She was everywhere received in British Colonial ports with great favor, and was afforded every facility for her piratical operations. She became the terror of the American merchant service, and everywhere eluded National vessels of war sent out in pursuit of her. At length she crossed the ocean, and at the close of 1861 was compelled to seek shelter under British guns at Gibraltar, where she was watched by the Tus- carora. Early in the year 1862 she was sold, and thus ended her piratical career. Encouraged by the practical friendship of the British evinced for these corsairs, and the substantial aid they were receiving from British subjects in various ways, especially through blockade-runners, the conspira- tors determined to procure from those friends some powerful piratical craft, and made arrangements for the purchase and construction of vessels for that purpose. Mr. Laird, a ship-builder at Liver- pool and member of the British Parliament, was the largest contractor in the business, and, in de- fiance of every obstacle, succeeded in getting pirate ships to sea. The first of these ships that went to sea was the Oreto, ostensibly built for a house in Palermo, Sicily. Mr. Adams, the .American min- ister in London, was so well satisfied from infor- mation received that she was designed for the Confederates, that he called the attention of the British government to the matter as early as the i8th of February, 1862. But nothing effective was done, and she was completed and allowed to de- part from British waters. She went first to Nas- sau, and on the 4th of September suddenly ap- peared off Mobile harbor, flying the British flag and pennants. The blockading squadron there was in charge of Commander George H. Preble, who had been specially instructed not to give of- fense to foreign nations while enforcing the block- ade. He believed the Oreto to be a British vessel, and while deliberating a few minutes as to what he should do, she passed out of range of his guns, and entered the harbor with a rich freight. For his seeming remissness Commander Preble was summarily dismissed from the service without a hearing — an act which subsequent events seemed to show was cruel injustice. Late in December, the Oreto escaped from Mobile, fully armed for a 68 ALABAMA CLAIMS ALABAMA CLAIMS piratical cruise, under the command of John New- land Maffit. . . . The name of the Oreto was changed to that of Florida," — B. J. Lossing, Pic- torial field book of the Civil War, v. 2, cli. 21. Also in: J. Davis, Rise and fall of the confed- erate government, v. 2, ch. 30-31. 1862-1864. — The Alabama, her career and her fate. — "The Alabama (the second cruiser built in England for the Confederates] ... is thus de- scribed by Semmes, her commander: 'She was of about goo tons burden, 230 feet in length, 32 feet in breadth, 20 feet in depth, and drew, when provisioned and coaled for cruise, 15 feet of water. She was barkentine-rigged, with long lower masts, which enabled her to carry large fore and aft sails, as jibs and try-sails. . . . Her engine was of 300 horse-power, and she had attached an apparatus for condensing from the vapor of sea-water all the fresh water that her crew might require. . . . Her armament consisted of eight guns.' . . . The Ala- bama was built and, from the outset, was 'in- tended for a Confederate vessel of war.' The contract for her construction was 'signed by Cap- tain Bullock on the one part and Messrs. Laird on the other.' ... On the 15th of May [1862] she was launched under the name of the 2qo. Her officers were in England awaiting her completion, and were paid their salaries 'monthly, about the first of the month, at Eraser, Trenholm & Co.'s office in Liverpool.' The purpose for which this vessel was being constructed was notorious in Liverpool. Before she was launched she became an object of suspicion with the Consul of the United States at that port, and she was the sub- ject of constant correspondence on his part with his Government and with Mr. Adams. . . . Early in the history of this cruiser the point was taken by the British authorities — a point main- tained throughout the struggle — that they would originate nothing themselves for the maintenance and performance of their international duties, and that they would listen to no representations from the officials of the United States which did not furnish technical evidence for a criminal prosecu- tion under the Foreign Enlistment .Act. ... At last Mr. Dudley [the Consul of the United States at Liverpool] succeeded in finding the desired proof. On the 21st day of July, he laid it in the form of affidavits before the Collector at Liver- pool in compliance with the intimations which Mr. Adams had received from Earl Russell. These affidavits were on the same day transmitted by the Collector to the Board of Customs at London, with a request for instructions by telegraph, as the ship appeared to be ready for sea and might leave any hour. . . . It . . . appears that not- withstanding this official information from the Col- lector, the papers were not considered by the law advisers until the 28th, and that the case appeared to them to be so clear that they gave their advice upon it that evening. Under these circumstances, the delay of eight days after the 21st in the order for the detention of the vessel was, in the opinion of the United States, gross negligence on the part of Her Majesty's Government, On the 2Qth the Secretary of the Commission of the Customs re- ceived a telegram from Liverpool saying that 'the vessel 2qo came out of dock last night, and left the port this morning.' . . . After leaving the dock she 'proceeded slowly down the Mersey.' Both the Lairds were on board, and also Bullock. . . . The 2go slowly steamed on to Moelfra Bay, on the coast of Anglesey, where she remained 'all that night, all the next day, and the next night ' No effort was made to seize her. . . . When the Ala- bama left Moelfra Bay her crew numbered about 90 men. She ran part way down the Irish Chan- nel, then round the north coast of Ireland, only stopping near the Giant's Causeway. She then made for Terceira, one of the Azores, which she reached on the loth of August. On i8th of August, while she was at Terceira, a sail was observed mak- ing for the anchorage. It proved to be the 'Agrip- pina of London, Captain McQueen, having on board six guns, with ammunition, coals, stores, etc., for the Alabama.' Preparations were immediately made to transfer this important cargo. On the afternoon of the 20th, while employed discharging the bark, the screw-steamer Bahama, Captain Tessier (the same that had taken the armament to the Florida, whose insurgent ownership and character were well known in Liverpool), arrived, 'having on board Commander Raphael Semmes and officers of the Confederate States steamer Sum- ter.' There were also taken from this steamer two 32-pounders and some stores, which occupied all the remainder of that day and a part of the next. The 22d and 23d of August were taken up in transferring coal from the Agrippina to the Ala- bama. It was not until Sunday (the 24th) that the insurgents' flag was hoisted. Bullock and those who were not going in the 2qo went back to the Bahama, and the Alabama, now first known under that name, went off with '26 officers and 8s men.' "—Case of the United States before the tribunal of arbitration at Geneva (42^ Congress, 2d Session, Senate Executive Document, No. 31, 146-171). — The Alabama "arrived at Porto Praya on the 10th August. Shortly thereafter Capt. Raphael Semmes assumed command. Hoisting the Confederate flag, she cruised and captured several vessels in the vicinity of Flores. Cruising to the westward, and making several captures, she ap- proached within 200 miles of New York; thence going southward, arrived, on the iSth November, at Port Royal, Martinique. On the night of the igth she escaped from the harbour and the Fed- eral steamer San Jacinto, and on the 20th Novem- ber was at Blanquilla. On the 7th December she captured the steamer Ariel in the passage between Cuba and St. Domingo. On January 11, 1863, she sunk the Federal gunboat Hatteras off Gal- veston, and on the joth arrived at Jamaica. Cruising to the eastward, and making many cap- tures, she arrived on the loth April, at Fernando de Noronha, and on the nth May at Bahia, where, on the 13th, she was joined by the Confederate steamer Georgia. Cruising near the line, thence southward towards the Cape of Good Hope, numerous captures were made. On the 2gth July she anchored in Saldanha Bay, South Africa, and near there on the sth August, was joined by the Confederate bark Tuscaloosa, Commander Low. In September, 1863, she was at St. Simon's Bay, and in October was in the Straits of Sunda, and up to January 20, 1864, cruised in the Bay of Bengal and vicinity, visiting Singapore, and mak- ing a number of very valuable captures, including the Highlander, Sonora, etc. From this point she cruised on her homeward track via Cape of Good Hope, capturing the bark Tycoon and ship Rock- ingham, and arrived at Cherbourg, France, in June, 1864, where she repaired. A Federal steamer, the Kearsarge, was lying off the harbour. Capt. Semmes might easily have evaded this enemy; the business of his vessel was that of a privateer; and her value to the Confederacy was out of all comparison with a single vessel of the enemy. , . . But Capt, Semmes had been twitted with the name of 'pirate;' and he was easily persuaded to at- tempt an eclat for the Southern Confederacy by a naval fight within sight of the French coast, 169 ALABAMA CLAIMS ALABAMA CLAIMS which contest, it was calculated would prove the sibly to revive '•°'' 4" ju g^r^t motives Paris and London. These ^"<=J°f p"^ Semmes of the gratuitous fight with wh.chCapt^ Semmes ned four broad. me 3 H ,^ ^^^^ thus mie 28-pound rifle , ^l^^ ,^;° ^.^nt ■ and their ,bout equal ■"-l'^^;;^^?!^ A Pollard, /--t tonnage was a^outhse^.^^^^^^^^^^^^.^ anise, p. 549- }■ >^„^^ i:par-;aree in a report to United States f,;^;"" ,,*r^^; ttl^'on the afternoon the Secretary of he Na> w^" Alabama, June "' 'iLfU- ' hav the honor to inform the Snrcr^n i.r. »«■ — -s.-™;;; sail was made 0," ^" ^^hen the object was again «ach>ng Cherbourg^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ apparent he ^"rsarge was ^^^^^^^ nf the Alabama lor a raKiug "i^^, tt_^p. «Sil 53"js ^i^'S TheKearsarge; whom we were tr>-in. to m We s ^"■"Ihrthe DeSu^d Xarmovi^g^r I could me that tne uceniuunu vessel prevent it, but continued to k^eP "ur boaU jj ro-s^yXf^tm^:raU:n%TD"erhlp m| ^-C^^ro^-^totr^^^ !!7n;f ^i.r later report Captain VV nslow gav. I'jtlioSTl sta^d shi'discrarged ..o or more she 1 and shot, was not of serious damage to the STan/:^.^ih:u,:n;ro^^1S H^^^sSinJten-o^:ir,^ fire of the Kearsarge, although only i73 projectile. knocked down."-«ebc/;;o« record, v. 9, PP- 221 "Lso in: J. R. Soley, B/oc^oj/. a«.-R- «-,fX, 5 .Xf i/.^" "/ ''- confederate states ^n Europe, "■iRfi2''l865 -Other Confederate cruisers.-''A s'73np» '£::-;*""— which made 10 The Florida was captured in the Bwrnrnm iSU'rJS . i.,. tail, in Bri.1.1, .bipy.rf.'- "id 'oncb.,. .».il »d" b„ ».« »»- ; K;.,'if 'i. 't S-iribiS'-K-dS-ved . s;;:„s^t.r.b=*r.b:?;s3t';;; \ii ^,f 'KioQoooo and considering that it oc Tred 'tr'months after the Confederacy had •n'ally passed out of existence >t -V ^^^ /^^ ^ acterized as the most ^^^^^^'i "^he e'pta'" °^ he had news o. th^ « ^ ' ^f ^o thrBritish govern- i^tent-^w^hl^hlliv^redTel 1^ the United States.- 70 ALABAMA CLAIMS ALABAMA CLAIMS J. R. Soley, Conjederate cruisers (Battles and leaders, v. 4) . For statistics of the total losses inflicted by the eleven Confederate cruisers for which Great Britain was held responsible, see U. S. A.: 1865 (May). 1862-1869. — Definition of the indemnity claims of the United States against Great Britain. — First stages of the negotiation. — Rejected John- son-Clarendon treaty. — "A review of the history of the negotiations between the two Governments prior to the correspondence between Sir Edward Thornton and Mr. Fish, will show . . . what was intended by these words, 'generically known as the Alabama Claims,' used on each side in that cor- respondence. The correspondence between the two Governments was opened by Mr. Adams on the 20th of November, 1862 (less than four months after the escape of the Alabama), in a note to Earl Russell, written under instructions from the Government of the United States. In this note Mr. Adams submitted evidence of the acts of the Alabama, and stated: 'I have the honor to inform Your Lordship of the directions which I have re- ceived from my Government to solicit redress for the national and private injuries thus sustained.' . . . Lord Russell met this notice on the igth of December, 1862, by a denial of any liability for any injuries growing out of the acts of the Ala- bama. . . » As new losses from time to time were suffered by individuals during the war, they were brought to the notice of Her Majesty's Govern- ment, and were lodged with the national and in- dividual claims already preferred ; but argumen- tative discussion on the issues involved was by common consent deferred. . . . The fact that the first claim preferred grew out of the acts of the Alabama explains how it was that all the claims growing out of the acts of all the vessels came to be 'generically known as the Alabama claims.' On the 7th of April, 1865, the war being virtually over, Mr. Adams renewed the discussion. He transmitted to Earl Russell an official report show- ing the number and tonnage of American vessels transferred to the British flag during the war. He said: 'The United States commerce is rapidly van- ishing from the face of the ocean, and that of Great Britain is multiplying in nearly the same ratio.' 'This process is going on by reason of the action of British subjects in cooperation with emis- saries of the insurgents, who have supplied from the ports of Her Majesty's Kingdom all the ma- terials, such as vessels, armament, supplies, and men, indispensable to the effective prosecution of this result on the ocean.' ... He stated that he 'was under the painful necessity of announcing that his Government cannot avoid entailing upon the Government of Great Britain the responsibility for this damage.' Lord Russell . . . said in reply, 'I can never admit that the duties of Great Britain toward the United States are to be measured by the losses which the trade and commerce of the United States have sustained. . . . Referring to the offer of arbitration, made on the 26th day of October, 1863, Lord Russell, in the same note, said: 'Her Majesty's Government must decline either to make reparation and compensation for the captures made by the Alabama, or to refer the question to any foreign State.' This termi- nated the first stage of the negotiations between the two Governments. ... In the summer of 1866 a change of Ministry took place in England, and Lord Stanley became Secretary of State for For- eign Affairs in the place of Lord Clarendon. He took an early opportunity to give an intimation in the House of Commons that, should the rejected claims be revived, the new Cabinet was not pre- pared to say what answer might be given them; in other words, that, should an opportunity be of- fered. Lord Russell's refusal might possibly be re- considered. Mr. Seward met these overtures by instructing Mr. Adams, on the 27th of August, 1S66, 'to call Lord Stanley's attention in a respect- ful but earnest manner,' to 'a summary of claims of citizens of the United States, for damages which were suffered by them during the period of the civil war,' and to say that the Government of the United States, while it thus insists upon these particular claims, is neither desirous nor willing to assume an attitude unkind and unconciliatory toward Great Britain. . . . Lord Stanley met this overture by a communication to Sir Frederick Bruce, in which he denied the liability of Great Britain, and assented to a reference, 'provided that a fitting Arbitrator can be found, and that an agreement can be come to as to the points to which the arbitration shall apply.' ... As the first result of these negotiations, a convention known as the Stanley-Johnson convention was signed at London on the loth of November, 1868. It proved to be unacceptable to the Government of the United States. Negotiations were at once resumed, and resulted on the 14th of January, i86q, in the Treaty known as the Johnson-Clarendon conven- tion [having been negotiated by Mr. Reverdy Johnson, who had succeeded Mr. Adams as United States Minister to Great Britain]. This latter convention provided for the organization of a mixed commission with jurisdiction over "all claims on the part of citizens of the United States upon the Government of Her Britannic Majesty, including the so-called Alabama claims, and all claims on the part of subjects of Her Britannic Majesty upon the Government of the United States which may have been presented to either govern- ment for its interposition with the other since the 26th July, 1853, and which yet remain unsettled.' " — Argument of the United States delivered to the tribunal of arbitration at Geneva, June 15, 1872, Division 13, sect, 2. "It came up there [in the Senate] April 13, when Andrew Johnson was no longer president, and was defeated by a vote of 54 to i. Sumner alone spoke against it. As chairman of the sen- ate's foreign committee he felt it his duty to sum up the case for the United States, and his speech was printed for the information of the people. Through his bold handling, our case against Eng- land became far-reaching. He demanded satis- faction, first for all the losses of Americans through England's recognition of belligerency for the Con- federacy, secondly for losses due to the activity of the Alabama and other ships which England's negligence suffered to take the sea, and thirdly for the expenses of prolonging the war through the hope of the South that England would assist her. From the first class, he said, the losses amounted to $100,000,000, from the second to .fi5,ooo,ooo, and from the third the inference was — although he wo'uld name no figure — a loss of $2,000,000,000. Mr. Rhodes pronounces Sumner's claim 'outra- geous.' It is evident that Sumner himself did not expect England to pay the amounts specified, but stated them in this way so that England and the world migh't realize the vast wrong done us. But it was an unwise utterance. It raised too high the expectation of the American people, and if it were insisted upon by the government, it made impos- sible further negotiation by England. John Bright, one of our best friends in England, said that either Sumner was a fool or thought the English people were fools. No immediate action, however, fol- lowed the speech, and after a time the passions it 171 ALABAMA CLAIMS ALABAMA CLAIMS raised were cooled by sober thought. It was for the skillful hand of Hamilton Fish, Grant's secre- tary of state, to reopen the question in a more reasonable spirit and carry it to successful -solu- tion." — J. S. Bassett, Short history of the United States, p. 671. 1869-1871. — Renewed negotiations. — Appoint- ment and meeting of the joint high commission. — The action of the Senate in rejectinf; Ihc John- son-Clarendon treaty was taken in April, iSoo, a few weeks after President Grant entered upon his office. At this time "the condition of Europe was such as to induce the British Ministers to take into consideration the foreign relations of Great Britain; and, as Lord Granville, the British Min- ister of Foreign Affairs, has himself stated in the House of Lords, they saw cause to look with solici- tude on the uneasy relations of the British Govern- ment with the United States, and the inconvenience thereof in case of possible complications in Europe. Thus impelled, the Government dispatched to Washington a gentleman who enjoyed the con- fidence of both Cabinets, Sir John Rose, to ascer- tain wTiether overtures for reopening negotiations would be received by the President in spirit and terms acceptable to Great Britain. ... Sir John Rose found the United States disposed to meet with perfect correspondence of good-will the ad- vances of the British Government. Accordingly, on the 26th of January, 1871, the British Govern- ment, through Sir Edward Thornton, ftnally pro- posed to the American Government the appoint- ment of a joint High Commission to hold its ses- sions at Washington, and there devise means to settle the various pending questions between the two Governments affecting the British possessions in North America. To this overture Mr. Fish replied that the President would with pleasure ap- point, as invited. Commissioners on the part of the United States, provided the deliberations of the Commissioners should be extended to other dif- ferences, — that is to say, to include the differ- ences growing out of incidents of the late Civil War. . . . The British Government promptly ac- cepted this proposal for enlarging the sphere of the negotiation." The joint high commission was speedily constituted, as proposed, by appointment of the two governments, and the promptitude of proceeding was such that the British commission- ers landed at New York in twenty-seven days after Sir Edward Thornton's suggestion of January 26 was made. They sailed without waiting for their commissions, which were forwarded to them by special messenger. The high commission was made up as follows; "On the part of the United States were five persons, — Hamilton Fish, Robert C. Schenck, Samuel Nelson, Ebenezer Ruckwood Hoar, and George H. Williams, — eminently fit rep- resentatives of the diplomacy, the bench, the bar, and the legislature of the United States: on the part of Great Britain, Earl De Grey and Ripon, President of the Queen's Council; Sir Stafford Northcote, Ex-Minister and actual Member of the House of Commons; Sir Edward Thornton, the universally respected British Minister at Washing- ton; Sir John [A.] Macdonald, the able and elo- quent Premier of the Canadian Dominion; and, in revival of the good old time, when learning was equal to any other title of public honor, the Uni- versities in the person of Professor Montague Ber- nard. ... In the face of many difficulties, the Commissioners, on the 8th of May, 187 r. com- pleted a treaty [known as the Treaty of Washing- ton], which received the prompt approval of their respective Governments." — C. Cushing, Treaty of Washington, pp. 18-20 and ii-i.s. Also in: A. Lang, Life, letters, and diaries of Sir Stafford Northcote, first earl of Iddesleigh, v. 2 ch. 12. — \. Badeau, Grant in peace, ch. 25. 1871.— Treaty of Washington.— The treaty signed at Washington on May 8, 187 1, and the ratifications of which were exchanged at London on June 17 following set forth its principal agree- ment in the first two articles as follows: "Whereas ilifferences have arisen between the Government of the United States and the Government of Her Britannic Majesty, and still exist, growing out of the acts committed by the several vessels which have given rise to the claims generically known as the 'Alabama Claims;' and whereas Her Bri- tannic Majesty has authorized Her High Com- missioners and Plenipotentiaries to express in a friendly spirit, the regret felt by Her Majesty's Government for the escape, under whatever cir- cumstances, of the Alabama and other vessels from British ports, and for the depredations committed by those vessels: Now, in order to remove and adjust all complaints and claims on the part of the United States and to provide for the speedy settlement of such claims which are not admitted by Her Britannic Majesty's Government, the high contracting parties agree that all the said claims, growing out of acts committed by the aforesaid vessels, and generically known as the 'Alabama Claims,' shall be referred to a tribunal, of arbi- tration to be composed of five Arbitrators, to be appointed in the following manner, that is to say: One shall be named by the President of the United States; one shall be named by Her Britannic Majesty ; His Majesty the King of Italy shall be requested to name one; the President of the Swiss Confederation shall be requested to name one; and His Majesty the Emperor of Brazil shall be re- quested to name one. . . . The Arbitrators shall meet at Geneva, in Switzerland, at the earliest convenient day after they shall have been named, and shall proceed impartially and carefully to ex- amine and decide all questions that shall be laid before them on the part of the Ciovernments of the Llnited States and Her Britannic Majesty re- spectively. .\\\ questions considered by the tribu- nal, including the final award, shall be decided by a majority of all the Arbitrators. Each of the high contracting parties shall also name one per- son to attend the tribunal as its .Agent to represent it generally in all matters connected with the arbi- tration." Articles 3, 4 and 5 of the treaty specify the mode in which each party shall submit its case. .■\rticle 6 declares that, "In deciding the matters submitted to the -Arbitrators, they shall be gov- erned by the following three rules, which are agreed upon by the high contracting parties as rules to be taken as applicable to the case, and by such principles of international law not incon- sistent therewith as the .Arbitrators shall determine to have been applicable to the case: A neutral Government is bound — First, to use due diligence to prevent the fitting out, arming, or equipping, within its jurisdiction, of any vessel which it has reasonable ground to believe is intended to cruise or to carry on war against a Power with which it is at peace; and also to use like diligence to prevent the departure from its jurisdiction of any vessel intended to cruise or carry on war as above, such vessel having been specially adapted, in whole or in part, within such jurisdiction, to warlike use. Secondly, not to permit or suffer either bel- ligerent to make use of its ports or waters as the base of naval operations against the other, or for the purpose of the renewal or augmentation of military supplies or arms, or the recruitment of men Thirdly, to exercise due diligence in its own 172 ALABAMA CLAIMS ALABAMA CLAIMS ports and waters, and, as to all persons within its jurisdiction, to prevent any violation of the foregoing obligations and duties. Her Britannic Majesty has commanded her High Commissioners and Plenipotentiaries to declare that Her Majesty's Government cannot assent to the foregoing rules as a statement of principles of international law which were in force at the time when the claims mentioned in Article i arose, but that Her Maj- esty's Government, in order to evince its desire of strengthening the friendly relations between the two countries and of making satisfactory provision for the future, agrees that in deciding the questions between the two countries arising out of those claims, the Arbitrators should assume that Her Majesty's Government had undertaken to act upon the principles set forth in these rules. And the high contracting parties agree to observe these rules as between themselves in future, and to bring them to the knowledge of other maritime powers, and to invite them to accede to them." Article 7 to 17, inclusive, relate to the procedure of the tribunal of arbitration, and provide for the de- termination of claims, by assessors and commis- sioners, in case the arbitrators should find any liability on the part of Great Britain and should not award a sum in gross to be paid in settlement thereof. Articles 18 to 25 relate to the Fisheries. By article 18 it is agreed that in addition to the liberty secured to American fishermen by the con- vention of 1S18, "of taking, curing and drying fish on certain coasts of the British North American colonies therein defined, the inhabitants of the United States shall have, in common with the sub- jects of Her Britannic Majesty, the liberty for [a period of ten years, and two years further after notice given by either party of its wish to ter- minate the arrangement] ... to take fish of every kind, except shell fish, on the sea-coasts and shores, and in the bays, harbours and creeks, of the prov- inces of Quebec, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, and the colony of Prince Edward's Island, and of the several islands thereunto adjacent, without be- ing restricted to any distance from the shore, with permission to land upon the said coasts and shores and islands, and also upon the Magdalen Islands, for the purpose of drying their nets and curing their fish ; provided that, in so doing, they do not interfere with the rights of private property, or with British fishermen, in the peaceable use of any part of the said coasts in their occupancy for the same purpose. It is understood that the above- mentioned liberty applies solely to the sea-fishery, and that the salmon and shad fisheries, and all other fisheries in rivers and the mouths of rivers, are hereby reserved exclusively for British fisher- men." Article lo secures to British subjects the corresponding rights of fishing, &c., on the eastern sea-coasts and shores of the United States north of the 3gth parallel of north latitude. Article 20 re- serves from these stipulations the places that were reserved from the common right of fishing under the first article of the treaty of June 5, 1854. Article 21 provides for the reciprocal admission of fish and fish oil into each country from the other, free of duty (excepting fish of the inland lakes and fish preserved in oil). Article 22 pro- vides that, "Inasmuch as it is asserted by the Gov- ernment of Her Britannic Majesty that the privi- leges accorded to the citizens of the United States under Article XVIII of this treaty are of greater value than those accorded by Articles XIX and XXI of this treaty to the subjects of Her Bri- tannic Majesty, and this assertion is not admitted by the Government of the United States, it is further agreed that Commissioners shall be ap- pointed to determine ... the amount of any com- pensation which in their opinion, ought to be paid by the Government of the United States to the Government of Her Britannic Majesty." Article 23 provides for the appointment of such commis- sioners, one by the president of the United States, one by her Britannic majesty, and the third by the president and her majesty conjointly ; or, failing of agreement within three months, the third commissioner to be named by the Austrian Min- ister at London. The commissioners to meet at Halifax, and their procedure to be as prescribed and regulated by articles 24 and 25. Articles 26 to 31 define certain reciprocal privileges accorded by each government to the subjects of the other, including the navigation of the St. Lawrence, Yukon, Porcupine and Stikine rivers, lake Michi- gan, and the Welland, St. Lawrence and St. Clair Flats canals; and the transportation of goods in bond through the territory of one country into the other without payment of duties. Article 32 extends the provisions of articles 18 to 25 of the treaty to Newfoundland if all parties con- cerned enact the necessary laws, but not otherwise. Article 33 limits the duration of articles 18 to 25 and article 30, to ten years from the date of their going into effect, and "further until the expira- tion of two years after either of the two high contracting parties shall have given notice to the other of its wish to terminate the same." The remaining articles of the treaty provide for sub- mitting to the arbitration of the German Emperor the northwestern water-boundary question (in the channel between Vancouver Island and the conti- nent) — to complete the settlement of northwestern boundary disputes. — Treaties and conventions be- tween the United States and other Powers (ed. oj i88q), pp. 478-403. Also in: C. Cushing, Treaty oj Washington, app. 1871-1872. — Tribunal of arbitration at Geneva, and its award. — Summary of the controversy. — "The appointment of .Arbitrators took place in due course, and with the ready good-will of the three neutral governments. The United States ap- pointed Mr. Charles Francis Adams; Great Britain appointed Sii- .Alexander Cockburn ; the King of Italy named Count Frederic Sclopis; the President of the Swiss Confederation, Mr. Jacob Stsmpfli; and the Emperor of Brazil, the Baron d'ltajuba. Mr. J. C. Bancroft Davis was appointed Agent of the United States, and Lord Tentcrden of Great Britain. The Tribunal was organized for the re- ception of the case of each party, and held its first conference [at Geneva, Switzerland] on the 15th of December, 1871," Count Sclopis being chosen to preside. "The printed Case of the United States, with accompanying documents, was filed by Mr. Bancroft Davis, and the printed Case of Great Britain, with documents, by Lord Tenterden. The Tribunal made regulation for the filing of the respective Counter-Cases on or before the 15th day of April next ensuing, as required by the Treaty ; and for the convening of a special meeting of the Tribunal, if occasion should require; and then, at a second meeting, on the next day, they adjourned until the 15th of June next ensuing, subject to a prior call by the Secretary, if there should be oc- casion." The sessions of the tribunal were re- sumed on June 15, 1872. according to the adjourn- ment, and were continued until September 14 fol- lowing, when the decision and award were an- nounced, and were signed by all the arbitrators except the British representative. Sir Alexander Cockburn, who dissented. It was found by the tribunal that the British government had "failed to use due diligence in the performance of its 173 ALABAMA CLAIMS ALABAMA CLAIMS neutral obligations" with respect to the cruisers Alabama and Florida, and the several tenders of those vessels; and also with respect to the Shen- andoah after her departure from Melbourne, Feb. 18, 186S, but not before that date. With respect to the Georgia, the Sumter, the Nashville, the Tallahassee and the Chickamauga, it was the find- ing of the tribunal that Great Britain had not failed to perform the duties of a neutral power. So far as relates to the vessels called the Sallie, the Jef- ferson Davis, the Music, the Boston, and the V. H. Joy, it was the decision of the tribunal that they ought to be excluded from consideration for want of evidence. "So far as relates to the particulars of the indemnity claimed by the United States, the costs of pursuit of Confederate cruisers" are de- clared to be "not, in the judgment of the Tribunal, properly distinguishable from the general expenses of the war carried on by the United States," and "there is no ground for awarding to the United States any sum by way of indemnity under this head." A similar decision put aside the whole consideration of claims for "prospective earnings." Finally, the award was rendered in the following language; "Whereas, in order to arrive at an equitable compensation for the damages which have been sustained, it is necessary to set aside all double claims for the same losses, and all claims for 'gross freights' so far as they exceed 'net freights;' and whereas it is just and reasonable to allow interest at a reasonable rate; and whereas, in accordance with the spirit and letter of the Treaty of Washington, it is preferable to adopt the form of adjudication of a sum in gross, rather than to refer the subject of compensation for further discussion and deliberation to a Board of .\ssessors, as provided by .Article X of the said Treaty; The Tribunal, making use of the author- ity conferred upon it by .Article \'n of the said Treaty, by a majority of four voices to one, awards to the United States the sum of fifteen mil- lions five hundred thousand Dollars in gold as the indemnity to be paid by Great Britain to the United States for the satisfaction of all the claims referred to the consideration of the Tribunal, con- formably to the provisions contained in .\rticle VII of the aforesaid Treaty." It should be stated that the so-called "indirect claims" of the United States, for consequential losses and damages, growing out of the encouragement of the southern Rebellion, the prolongation of the war, &c., were -dropped from consideration at the outset of the session ot the tribunal, in June, the arbitrators agreeing then in a statement of opinion to the effect that "these claims do not constitute, upon the principles of international law applicable to such cases, good foundation for an award of compensation or com- putation of damages between nations." This declaration was accepted by the United States as decisive of the question, and the hearing pro- ceeded accordingly. — C. Gushing, Treaty of Waslt- ingtoi:. An excellent summary of the .Mabama contro- versy by Prof. W. .X Dunning makes clear the general background of public opinion in the United States and Great Britain. .After an account of the diplomatic preliminaries of the Treaty of Washing- ton. Prof. Dunning says; — "As to the .Uahama claims, the agreement embodied in the treaty sig- nified great concessions on both sides in the in- terest of an amicable settlement. Great Britain expressed regret 'for the escape, under whatever circumstances, of the Alabama and other vessels from British ports, and for the depredations com- mitted by those vessels' In addition to this soothing admission that something disagreeable had happened to the United States, the British Gov- ernment consented to arbitration in the fullest sense in reference to all the claims. [See Arbitra- tion, International; Modern Period; 1871-1872.] Three rules were laid down as to the duties of a neutral government, and the arbitral trib- unal was enjoined to base its judgment on these rules, though the British Government recognized them, not as a statement of principles of international law in force in 1861-65, but as principles that ought in the future to be adopted by maritime powers, and that Great Britain had, in fact, sought to live up to during the .American War. The three rules defined the duty of a neu- tral government, in respect to the fitting out and supplying of war-ships, in such terms as to make it morally certain that judgment would be adverse to Great Britain on the case of the Alabama, if not as to other of the Confederate cruisers. The British Government, in short, not only assumed a somewhat apologetic attitude at the outset, but also submitted to be judged by principles that were not obligatory as rules of international con- duct at the time of the acts concerned, and that insured an unfavorable decision. A proud and powerful nation does not put itself in such a posi- tion without potent motives. One such was ob- vious and unconcealed: the general adoption of rigorous rules of neutral duty would be very ad- vantageous to Great Britain whenever she should become a belligerent. More influential than this selfish interest, however, was the desire, in no small measure purely sentimental, to be on friendly terms with the United States. The American democracy had proved in the severest of tests its fitness to survive, and the homage of a people and a generation in whom Darwinism was taking deep root was generously bestowed on the people who so opportunely illustrated the dogma of science Not all the concession in the Treaty of Washing- ton was on the part of the British. One point that had been strenuously insisted on as the origi- nal grievance of them all by Secretary Seward and Mr. Sumner was allowed by Secretary Fish to recede quietly into the background. This was the premature recognition of the Confederacy as a belligerent. Fish took the position that this action of the British Government was evidence of an unfriendly spirit, but could in no sense be the ground of a claim for compensation. This admission was regarded as having a bearing on the general question of the national or indirect claims These were not the subject of any reference or allusion in the treaty, and it was understood by the British negotiators that the .American Govern- ment had definitely abandoned them, as it was known to have ignored the demand of Sumner that a withdrawal of the British flag from the Western Hemisphere should be a preliminary condition to any settlement whatever. .As a matter of fact, the .Americans had no desire to urge the extravagant claims that Sumner had made so conspicuous. The British commissioners, on their side, were with- out authority to consider them. Yet bccau.se pop- ular feeling was so sensitive about them on both sides of the water the negotiators avoided all ref- erence to them, and by this very excess of caution left room for a dangerous misunderstanding. The tribunal of arbitration met and organized at Geneva. Switzerland, in the middle of December, 1871. It consisted of five arbitrators, appointed respectively by the governments of the United States, Great Britain. Italy. Switzerland, and Brazil. The cases of the two contending govern- ments were at once presented in printed form That of the United States was found to include, 174 ALABAMA CLAIMS ALAND ISLANDS in addition to thf claims for losses due to the de- struction of vessels by the cruisers and to the pur- suit of the cruisers, claims also for the loss in- volved in the transfer of the merchant marine to the British flag, the increased cost of insurance, and the prolongation of the war. That is, the in- direct or national claims were laid before the tribunal along with the rest. Protests arose at once from every organ of opinion in Great Britain. To admit responsibility for that kind and degree of loss would mean, it was declared, national hu- miliation and financial ruin. The government and the negotiators contended that the wording of the treaty excluded the indirect claims from submission to the tribunal, and that such exclusion had been agreed to in conference by the American negotia- tors. The latter denied any such agreement or in- terpretation. Great Britain stood firm in her con- tention, however, and her agent was directed to withdraw from the arbitration in case considera- tion of the indirect claims should be persisted in. After many months of tension and of deep distress among the friends of peace and amity, a way out of the impasse was found that was acceptable to both parties. The tribunal itself declared that it did not consider itself authorized, under inter- national law, to award money compensation for such losses as those involved in the indirect claims. The American agent thereupon refrained from demands upon the arbiters for further attention to these claims. This happy outcome of the dis- pute was quite as pleasing to the American as to the British Government. Fish and his coadjutors had no expectation or desire that Great Britain should be mulcted in consequential damages. Sum- ner's speech had created a surprisingly strong senti- ment in support of such mulcting, and it was problematical whether the administration could afford, in the year of a presidential election, to run counter to this sentiment. Animosity toward the Southerners was at this time a strong factor in the politics of the Republican party, and it fell in well with this feeling to disparage the South by con- tending that the remarkable prolongation of its resistance to the North was due solely to the aid it received from Great Britain. The rejection of the indirect claims by the tribunal of arbitra- tion itself relieved the administration of all re- sponsibility for abandoning them, and. passed without noteworthy effect on American public opinion. The judgment of the tribunal needs but casual mention. In respect to three of the Con- federate cruisers, the Alabama, the Florida, and the Shenandoah* Great Britain was found to have contravened the three rules of neutral conduct laid down by the treaty, and the damages due to the United States on account of the dereliction were assessed at .$15,500,000. Sir Alexander Cock- burn, the British arbitrator, dissented from the judgment of the tribunal on all but a single point, namely, that due diligence had not been used in ascertaining the character of the Alabama and pre- venting her departure from Liverpool. The dis- senting opinions of the Englishman were embodied in a very lengthy document, in which he expressed with unjudicial candor his contempt for the in- telligence of his fellow arbitrators and for the methods and attainments of those who conducted the American case. Corkburn's caustic criticism found some reflection in the Tory press, and there appeared more or less of the once familiar diatribe against the Yankees In general, however, the judgment was acquiesced in by British public opinion with good grace. Even Cockburn ended his offensive opinion with an expression of the hope and desire that the arbitration would prove a potent influence in maintaining amity between the two kindred peoples. In the United States the announcement of the actual award attracted little attention or comment. It came in the midst of a heated electoral campaign, and was little avail- able for partisan purposes. The Treaty of Wash- ington had afforded to the Americans their most substantial victory a year earlier, whei Great Brit- ain expressed her regret and agreed to arbitration. The carrying out of the treaty was followed with the somewhat languid interest of him who gathers up the trophies after the victory is won." — W. A. Dunning, British empire and the United Slate), pp. 251-257. Also in: J. K. Hosmer, Appeal to arms, pp. 315-317- — W. A. Dunning, Reconstruction, political and economic, pp. I5q-i63, 166-167, 16Q-170. — A. B. Hart, National ideals historically traced, p. 315. — J. F. Rhodes, History oj the United States V. 6, pp. 335-344. 349. 351. 354-361. 364, 376.— C. F. Adams, Jr., Life oj Charles Francis Adams, American Statesmen Series. — A. E. Conning, Ham- ilton Fish. — F. Wharton (Digest of International Laiv oj United Stales, v. 3, ch. 21). — J. B. Moore, Digest of international lar.K ALACAB, or Toloso, Battle of (1212). See Almohades. ALAMANCE, Battle of (1771). See North Carolin.a: 1766-1771. ALAMANNI. See .Alemanni. ALAMO, a Franciscan mission situated in San Antonio, Texas, so called from the grove of cotton- wood in which it stands; built about 1722; used occasionally after 1703 as a fort. Bought by the state in 1883 and maintained as a public monu- ment. For the massacre of the .Alamo (1836), see Te.xas: 1835-1S36. ALAMOOT, or Alamout, Castle of.— The stronghold of the "Old Man of the Mountain," or sheikh of the terrible order of the Assassins, in northern Persia. Its name signilies "the eagle's nest," or "the vulture's nest." See Assassins. ALAffD ISLANDS, an archipelago of about 300 islands situated in the Baltic sea, at the en- trance to the Gulf of Bothnia. The western part of the Baltic, which extends from the Iliig^ten lighthouse to that of the Lagskar and separates the Aland Islands from Sweden, is called the Aland sea. The sea to the eastward, separating Aland from the coast of Finland, is full of small islands and islets, eighty of which are inhabited. The rest are rocky islets, reefs and skerries. The largest island is that which gives its name to the group, Aland proper; its length is twenty-three miles and its greatest width twenty miles. The total area of the islands is about 550 square miles and the population numbers nearly 27,000, mostly of Swedish blood. The only town on the islands, which are sparsely populated, is Mariehamm, sit- uated on the south coast of .Mand. 12th century to World War. — In the 12th century the islands were occupied by Eric, the Saint; by the peace of Noteborg (1323) they were incorporated together with Finland in Sweden, after they had been a duchy since 1284. In the Union of Calmar, 1307-1523, the Danes had con- trol, but in 1634 'he islands were made part of the government of Finland by the Swedish con- stitution. Peter the Great conquered the islands in 1714, but restored them to Sweden in 1721. Part of Finland fell under Russian rule in 1 743 ; after the war between Russia and Sweden (1808), both Finland and the islands were ceded to Russia by the treaty of Frederikshamm. By the treaty of Paris, in 1856, Russia was prohibited from erect- ing fortifications on the islands, despite which some T75 ALAND ISLANDS defence works were constructed while in 1906 a Russian garrison was installed there. In the fol- fowSg v'ar Russia requested France and Grea BrilaSi to cancel the convention of 1856, aboui fh 'Tme time a secret treaty was cone udedbe^ tween Germany and Russia, by which the latter was promised a free hand with «g-/d 'o \he '^^ bnd- This agreement was first published to the world by Leon' Trotsky Bolshevis|^ore.gnmmis- ter, in December, 1917. I" the Baltic Treat> con eluded in iqo8 between Russia, Germans, Svseaen and Denmark, no specific mention was made o^ ?he Alands, but the memorandum appended taken ?he World War broke out, the Russians lost no ime in fortifying the islands, and in January, Z\ the assured Sweden that the fortifications ^^' „nlv temDorarv This assurance was re- pe'atedTn'w t?n^ in Vpi6 and confirmed by Brit- Fsh and French ministers. Great excitement was aroused fn Sweden, and military ineasures were openly advocated. The ebullition, however, died Hnwn in the greater turmoil of the war 1917-1919 -The Russian revolution mtroduced a new perfod in the history of inland and the question of the Aland islands, "« longer one merely of fortifications, became acute. On -^u Tust '-o 1Q17, a communal assembly was held in fh! inlands consider the question of reunvon ',lu Sweden A delegation was sent to Sweden o urge he execution of that P-I^Vh '"n the"!!' Decei^ber 25-29 a plebiscite was h'-'d m the «^ lands, at which 95 per cent, of the adult male and female population voted for reunion. A petition to that effect was sent to Stockholm and favor^ ably rec ived by the king. Meanwhile Sweden had addressed a note to Germany, Austria-Hun- gary and^Turkey requesting that the .^andques^ Uon should be considered at Brest-L.tovsk n nrder to safeguard vital interests of Sweden m hoL inlands." The Swedish governn^nt was urged bv the country to occupy the island., Dui "hfBolsheviki forestalled them by landing ;0°° trooDs together with a number of "Red Guards rom F nTami. Outrages were committed on the inhabitants, who appealed to Sweden for a>d . A Swedish military expedition arnved to protect their co-nationals, forced the Russians and R^ds to retire but were forced to evacuate their position by German troops, which occupied the islands on March 6 iQiS. The German force remained till Octol^r 19^8 By Article \T of the Brest-Litovsk ?r°a5 (March 3^ X9i8), Russia w.s obhgated o evacuate the islands and remove the f<" 'i^"""^^ as soon as possible. On December 31. i9iS. it was announced ^hat an agreement had been signed be_ tween Sweden, Finland and Germany with regard rthe postponed demolition of the Aland for ito^ tions, and that the agreement was to be ratified at once On March 24. i9io, a dispatch from Sweden announced that the new Aland expedition wouW leave Stockholm on March 31 t°."™™^"« The destruction of the fortifications. Finland, the other claimant, had meanwhUe not been .dle_ In March 1918, the Finnish government had issi^ed a decree declaring their intention of forming the islands into a separate province ""der a civil and militarv governor. Then came the islanders ap ^lafandTe Swedfeh and German occupations al- ALAND ISLANDS ^.- rpterred to In Februar%-, 1919, a deputation rte Afandert proceeded to Paris to Uy their rase before the Powers. On March 18, the t)wea sh government suggested that the Peace Conf«^ nee' should consider the Aland q"«"on^-Ba^d on Handbook Ac. 48. prepared under the d^ec "°" oV'%9i:-"I^n eSMto^^the'difpu't^dq"::- C^on ?the Aland I^"ands^.hich had been agitating both Finland and Sweden ever since the Russian Revolution, the Paris Peace Conference deeded That the islands should be neulralued under the 'guarantee of the League of Nations."-.4««<^ ^?j20-FiL''no-Swe''dish quarrek- Intervention of the' League of Nations.-The dispute between Finland and Sweden over the disposition of the \hnd Islands reached an acute ^tage. Sweden wthdrew her minister from the . Finnish capi 1 and a conflict loomed on the horizon The Brit ish government brought the matter to the atten ion of the secretariat of the League; the latter promptly intervened and induced the disputan^ to debate the case under the supervision of the League Council itself.— 4 H«»a/ Reg>ster, 1920, PP. mn-mi— See also Finland: 1920. I920-Problem submitted to arbitration of iurists -"The Swedes claimed that the Alanders debt of self-determination was an 'nternationa^ question. The Finns claimed that the probl m was one within the domestic Jurisdiction of Fin- Ind The Council of the League of Nations de- cked to submit this preliminary con ention to a mall committee of international jurists^ The fd- lowine three were chosen; Herr Huber (Swiss), M LLnaude (French), and Mynherr Steruyck n (Dutch) This Commission decided the initial iuestion in favor of the Swedes and A anders^ and Reported that the question was essentially an in ternational one. This, however, was onl> the pre Um"narv point, and although representatives of the LMgueof Nations proceeded to the Alands m the tutumn the Council of the League had reached no d^ci^ion up to the end of the year."-.4«««a/ ^t;f-S 'report of commission.-lsUnds awa ded to Finland.-League o* N*'?""" *^'^; tion -"Great excitement was manifested in all the Swedish press over the announcement from Ge bweais^ pre commission appointed ro'e'xamine the Question whether the Aland Islands n he Baltic should belong to Sweden or Finland had found for the latter country. Keen disap- pfmtment and indignation fr^ted the repor „,,.,. rViori. with expression of the hope mai hk S: wo'uld 'rdu:e'to adopt the recommendation, c^w., \, =anftion Ihe report, according to Tidmit- ™r SliSo m° t 'vooW del Ih. doathbloc to lid,.? cStoco In th, will ol tb. L..;n. »^ E.ff;oi;rnt:^5'ad:o;'-oZ^.r^ r'i'sfST,r^^s,^fr"H •, Tn the course of its 36,000-word report, the commiSion Vat^d that the Aland Islands fotrn a fbi; tZ f pfebSrfhe^rf^ouldrdolte^dfy afoV Swefen it is questionable whether any one hl,d the right to take them away from Finland The desire of the Alanders to join Sweden was ?ound to be mainly due to their anxiety to main- tabi their Swedish language and culture. As Fm- uITh fs readv to grant satisfactory guarantees to 1?." Afandert the commission urged that it would 176 ALAND ALARODIANS be unjust to deprive Finland of the islands. Fur- thermore, the Aland population is too small to stand alone, and the islands are in other ways hardly capable of survivinR as an independent State. Therefore, the commission recommends that the Alands remain under Finland, but that Fin- land grant certain linguistic, cultural and trade guarantees to the Swedish population of the archi- pelago. . . . The commission recommends that the Alanders should have the right tc present to the Finnish government a list of three candidates for Governor of the islands, and that the Governor be chosen from this list. The report ends the procedure begun in July, iq2o, when Swedo-Fin- nish relations over the Aland question became acute, and Earl Curzon referred the question to the League of Nations." — Neiv York Times Cur- rent History, June, 1021, pp. 543-544. — It may be added that this report w.ie based on investigations conducted by Mr. A. Elkus, former United States Ambassador to Constantinople; M. Calonder, former President of the Swiss Confederation, and Baron Beyens, former Belgian Minister to Ger- many. On June 24, iq2i, the Council of the League of Nations finally decided that the Alands should definitely be placed under the rule of Fin- land, but neutralized in regard to military af- fairs, while the guarantees recommended by the commission (see above, 1Q21), were also adopted. Also in: C. Hallendorf, La question d'Aland avant et pendant la guerre de Crimee (Stockholm, 1917). — E. Sjaestedt, La question des lies d'Aland (Paris, igig).- — S. Tunberg, Les lies d'Aland dans I'histoire {Paris, iqig). — Sir E. Hertslet, Map of Europe hv treaty 4 v., iSyq-iSqi. ALANO.—igis.— Stormed by Italians. See World War: iqi8: IV. Austro-Italian theater: c, 5. ALANS, or Alani. — "The Alani are first mentioned by Dionysius the geographer (B. C. 30-10) who joins them with the Daci and the Tauri, and again places them between the latter and the Agathyrsi. A similar position (in the south of Russia in Europe, the modern Ukraine) is assigned to them by Pliny and Josephus. Seneca places them further west upon the Ister. Ptolemy has two bodies of Alani, one in the position above described, the other in Scythia within the Imaus, north and partly east of the Caspian. It must have been from these last, the successors, and, according to some, the descendants of the ancient Massagetje, that the Alani came who attacked Pacorus and Tiridates [in Media and Armenia, A. D. 75]. . . . The result seems to have been that the invaders, after ravaging and harrying Media and Armenia at their pleasure, carried off a vast number of prisoners and an enormous booty into their own country." — G. Rawlinson, Sixth great oriental monarchy, ch. 17. — E. H. Bunbury, His- tory of ancient geography, ch. 6, note H. — "The first of this [the Tartar] race known to the Ro- mans were the Alani. In the fourth century they pitched their tents in the country between the Volga and the Tanais. — J. C. L. Sismondi, Fall 0} the Roman empire, -ch. 3. See also Europe: Eth- nology: Migrations: Map showing barbaric migra- tions. 406-409. — Final invasion of Gaul. See Galtls: 406 -4og. 409. — Invasion of Cartagena. See Cartagena: 409-713; Spain: 400-414. 429. — With the Vandals in Africa. See Van- dals: 429-439. 451.— At the Battle of Chalons. See Huns: 451- ALARCON, Hernando de (fl. 16th century), a Spanish navigator sent in 1540 to assist Coronado in New Mexico. Entered the gulf of California, explored, and made an excellent map of that ter- ritory; dispelled the popular belief that California was an island; explored Colorado river to point above Fort Yuma. ALARCOS, Battle of (1195). See Almohades. ALARIC I (Gothic, Ala-reiks, "all ruler") (370-410), renowned chieftain of the Visigoths. In 395 he was chosen by the Visigoths to be their leader. "The very year of the death of Theodo- sius (A. D. 395), the Visigoths rose under Alaric, their chieftain, and marched into Greece. [See -Athens: 395.] Seven years later they attacked Italy. Stilicho, the general of Honorius, success- fully resisted them, until, out of jealousy and fear, he was murdered by his royal master. Then Alaric was able to overrun Italy and even to cap- ture Rome (A. D. 410). It was ... in this crisis that the Roman legions departed from Britain, leaving it exposed to the attacks of the Picts and Scots." — G. Goodspeed, History of the Ancient World, pp. 427-428. — "For the first time in 800 years, foreign soldiers were marched into the Forum and encamped in the streets of Rome. For three days and nights Alaric gave up the city to plunder. Then he gathered his forces together and started for southern Italy."— A. M. Wolfson, An- cient civilization, p. 106. While preparing to invade Sicily and Africa, Alaric died and was buried with a vast treasure in the bed of the river Busento. The Visigoths then left Italy and moved into Spain, where they established a kingdom (412) which lasted for three hundred years. — See also Barbarian inva- sions: 395-408, 408-410; Goths: 395, 400-403; Roip: 394-39S, 408-410; Europe: Ethnology; Mi- grations: Map showing barbaric migrations. Alaric II (d. 507), King of Visigoths. See Goths: 507-500. ALARODIANS, IBERIANS, COLCHIANS. — "The Alarodians of Heroditus, joined with the Sapeires ... are almost certainly the inhabitants of Armenia, whose Semitic name was Urarda, or Ararat. 'Alarud,' indeed, is a mere variant form of 'Ararud,' the 1 and r being undis- tinguishable in the old Persian, and 'Ararud' serves determinately to connect the Ararat of Scripture with the Urarda, or Urartha of the Inscriptions. . . . The name of Ararat is constantly used in Scripture, but always to denote a country rather than a particular mountain. . , , The connexion ... of Urarda with the Babylonian tribe of Akkad is proved by the application in the inscrip- tions of the ethnic title of Burbur (?) to the Ar- menian king , . . ; but there is nothing to prove whether the Burbur or Akkad of Babylonia de- scended in a very remote age from the mountains to colonize the plains, or whether the Urardians were refugees of a later period driven northward by the growing power of the Semites. The former supposition, however, is most in conformity with Scripture, and incidentally with the tenor of the inscriptions." — H. C. Rawlinson, History of Herod- otus, bk. 7, app. 3. — "The broad and rich valley of the Kur, which corresponds closely with the modern Russian province of Georgia, was [an- ciently] in the possession of a people called by Herodotus Saspeires or Sapeires, whom we may identify with the Iberians of later writers. Ad- joining upon them towards the south, probably in the country about Erivan, and so in the neigh- bourhood of Ararat, were the Alarodians, whose name must be connected with that of the great mountain. On the other side of the Sapeirian country, in the tracts now known as Mingrelia and Imeritia, regions of a wonderful beauty and fer- 177 ALARUD ALASKA tility, were the Colchians, — dependents, but not exactly subjects, of Persia." — G. Rawlinson, Five great monarchies: Persia, cli. i. ALARUD. See Alarodians; Iberians; Col- chians. ALASHEHR. See Philadelphia, Asia Minor. Battle of (1920). See Greece; 1920. ALASKA, a territory of the United States, situated at the extreme northwestern extremity of North .■\merica. Until 1867 it was known as Russian America. The name .Maska was given by William H. Seward, and is derived from the Aleut word alak' sliak or al-ay' ek-sa, meaning "a great country." The range of climate is great with wider extremes than from Maine to Florida. Only the northern third of the territory has a really .Arctic climate, and the warm waters and winds of the Pacific make the southern seaboard com- paratively temperate. .-Maska has an area of 500,- 884 square miles Not all of this is well-known — the density of population is a little more than I person per 10 square miles — but the general characteristics are a matter of common knowledge and the resources have been roughly estimated. ,;■.■!..-».: TYPES OF TOTEM POLES, AL.ASKA Exploration has been going on from its acquisi- tion right up to the present, so continually, that a statement of the most recent knowledge is soon superseded by later discoveries. Natives. — The natives of the interior include two races, the Indian and the Esquimo. The valley of the Yukon is inhabited by the Indians, down to three or four hundred miles of its mouth, while its lower valley, as well as those of the Kus- kokwim and the rivers that drain into the Arctic Ocean west and north are occupied by the Es- quimos. (See also Indians. .American: Cultural areas in North .America: Eskimo area.) "The Indians of the interior of .Alaska are a gentle, . . . kindly . . . tractable people. They have old traditions of bloody tribal warfare that have grown in ferocity, one supposes, with the lapse of time. for it is . . . difficult for one who knows them to believe that so mild a race could ever have been pugnacious or bloodthirsty. ... It is true that . . . murders . . . have been committed — murders of white men . . . ; but in the sixty years from the Nulato massacre of 1851, over the whole vast interior, these crimes can be counted on the fintiers of one hand. They are not a revengeful people. . . . The Indian is ... in most cases eager to learn and eager that his children may learn. . . . The government has undertaken the education of the Indian, and has set up a bureau charged with the establishment and conduct of native schools. There are five such schools on the Yukon between Eagle and Tanana, including these two points, amongst Indians all of whom belong to the Epis- copal Church, and five more between Tanana and .Anvik, amongst natives divided in allegiance be- tween the Episcopal and the Roman Catholic Churches. When, somewhat late in the day, the government set its hand to the education of the natives, mission schools had been conducted for many years at the five stations of the Episcopal Church above Tanana and at the various mission stations below that point. . . . That the Indian race of interior .Alaska is threatened with extinc- tion, there is unhappily little room to doubt. . . . .At most places where vital statistics are kept the death-rate exceeds the birth-rate, though it is sometimes very difficult to secure accurate sta- tistics. . . . Certain diseases that have played havoc in the past are not much feared now. ... In the last few years there have been no serious epi- demics; but epidemic disease does not constitute the chief danger that threatens the native. That chief danger looms from two things; tuberculosis and whiskey. Whether tuberculosis is a disease indigenous to these parts, or whether it was intro- duced with the white man, has been disputed and would be difficult of determination. Probably it was always present amongst the natives; the old ones declare that it was; but the changed condi- tions of their lives have certainly . , . aggravated it. They lived much more in the open when they had no tree-felling tool but a stone-axe and did not build cabins. Perhaps as great a cause of the spread of tuberculosis is the change in clothing. The original native was clad in skins, which are the warmest clothing in the world. The Indian usually sells all his furs and then . . . buys manu- factured clothing from the trader at a fancy price. That clothing is almost always cotton and shoddy. . . . But far , . . beyond any other cause of the native decline stands the curse of the country, whiskey. Recognising by its long Indian experi- ence the consequences of . . . liquor-drinking habits amongst the natives, the government has forbidden under penalty the giving or selling of any intoxicants to them. A few years ago a new law [was] passed making such giving or selling a felony. The Indian is the only settled inhabitant of interior .Alaska to-day ; for the prospectors and miners, who constitute the bulk of the white pop- ulation, are not often very long in one place. Many of them might rightly be classed as perma- nent, but very few as settled inhabitants. It is the commonest thing to meet men a thousand miles away from the place where one met them last. It is unquestionable that the best natives in the country are those that have had the least inti- macy with the white man. and it follows that the most hopeful and promising mission stations are those far up the tributarv- streams, away from min- ing camps and off the routes of travel, difficult of access, winter or summer, never seen hy tourists at all : seen only by those who seek them with 178 ALASKA, 1741-1787 ALASKA, 1787-1867 cost and trouble At such stations the improve- ment of the Indian is manifest and the popula- tion increases." — H. Stuck, Ten thousand miles with a dog sled, pp. 349-368. — See also Athapascan family: Chippewyans: Tinneh: Sarcees; EsKi- MAUAN FAiULY. Also in: H. Stuck, Voyages on the Yukon and Us tributaries, 1917. — G. B. Gordon, In the Alas- kan wilderness, 1918. — E. Higginson, Alaska, the gieat country, 1909. — J. J. Underwood, Alaska, an empire in the making, 1913. 1741-1787. — Early Russian exploration in Alaska. — Attitude of Peter the Great towards the new-found territory. — Catherine II refuses to colonize Alaska. — Establishment of Russian supremacy through private enterprise. — "Unlike other European powers Russia came into posses- sion of territory in America by accident and not by design. Bering was sent to determine the re- lation between the old and the new worlds. Peter the Great had in mind scientific discovery and not Ihe acquisition of new lands. When it was re- ported that Bering had located the northwest coast of America, the government took no steps to hold it. Who cared far a distant land inhabited by savages? Until the time of Cook the e.xact geo- graphic situation of the islands and their relation to the mainland were matters of speculation. The statesmen in St. Petersburg had their faces turned towards the Near East and not the Far East. Had it not been for fur-traders, who, regardless of the neglect of the government, exploited one island after another, the term Russian-America would not have appeared on the maps. Catherine had not been on the throne very long before the newly discovered islands were called to her attention in various ways. The profitable trade attracted many adventurers, and the wealthier traders came to the capital to ask for special privileges, and to bring charges against their competitors. To gain their point they painted in bright colors the new pos- sessions, the limitless territory for expansion, — the great future empire. In addition to these Russian promoters there were others of foreign counties who offered to lead expeditions of discovery and to extend Russia's commerce and empire in the Indies and Am.erica. It should be remembered that this was the last part of the eighteenth century, when the atmosphere of Europe was full of such projects, the voyages of Cook and La Perouse being evidence enough on that point. Here was a serious and thoughtful problem for Catherine to decide. Catherine understood that in order to hold dominions out in the ocean and far from the me- tropolis a nation must have an over-flowing popu- lation, a strong navy, and a merchant marine. Russia had none of these. In order then to un- derstand Russia's problem in Alaska, one should constantly keep in mind these factors — the need of population and of a navy. After thinking the subject over the Empress decided on a line of action. In a letter to her minister, Panin, written in 1769, in answer to various projects of foreign adventurers, she said: 'It is for traders to traffic where they please. I will furnish neither men, nor ships, nor money, and I renounce forever all lands and possessions in the East Indies and in America.' That was a clear statement of policy and could not be misunderstood. ... In 1787, two Siberian merchant adventurers laid before the Empress a petition in which they undertook, in exchange for special commercial privileges in Alaska, to colo- nize that land and to extend the limits of the Russian Empire in America. Catherine drew up a paper in reply covering the questions of coloniza- tion and expansion in the North Pacific. In the first place she declared that the proposition was an impracticable one because the population for the proposed colonies would have to be drawn from Siberia, and that country had none to spare; one hundred people in Siberia, were equal to a thousand in Europe. . . . Russia would not benefit from expansion in the Pacific; to claim a territory and trade in a colony was one thing, to hold and govern it was another."— F. A. Colder in Pacific ocean in history, pp. 269-273.— In spite of the lack of encouragement on the part of the government, numerous voyages were made to Alaska by private adventurers and considerable wealth was accumu- lated by them. In 1767 "the merchants Polo- ponissof and Popof also sent out a ship, the Joann Predtecha, which returned after an absence of five years with 60 sea-otters, 6,300 fur-seals, and 1,280 blue foxes. This ends the list of private enter- prises prior to the resumption of exploration by the imperial government. . . . The gradual es- tablishment of Russian supremacy in north-west- ermost America upon a permanent basis had not escaped the attention of Spanish statesmen. . . . Alarmed by tidings of numerous and important discoveries along the extension of her own South Sea coast line, Spain ordered an expedition for exploring and seizing the coast to the northward of California in 1773." — H. H. Bancroft, History of jilaska (Works of H. H. Bancroft, v. 33), pp. 156, 194. — In 1786 French and English ships were cruising the coasts of Alaska and reporting on the fur-trade. 1787-1867. — Formation of United American Company. — Name changed to Russian American Company and first charter granted, 1799. — Sec- ond charter, 1821. — Company in the favor of the imperial government. — Third charter, 1841. Re- fusal to grant fourth charter. — Growth of friendly relations between Russia and United States and desire of Russia to sell Alaska. — In 1787 "the idea of a subsidized monopoly of trade and industry, to embrace all Russian discoveries and colonies on the shores of the north Pacific, first arose in the fertile brain of Grigor Shelikof. ... In pursuance of this report an imperial oukaz was issued September 28, 1788, granting the company exclusive control over the region actually occupied by them. ... It was at first feared that the de- cease of Catherine II. would be a death-blow to the ambitious schemes of the Shelikof party, for it was known that her successor, Paul I., was opposed to them. But ... on the nth of August, 1790, the act of consolidation of the United American Com- pany was confirmed by imperial oukaz, and the association then received the name of the Rus- sian American Company. 'By the same oukaz,' continues the report, 'the company was granted full privileges, for a period of twenty years, on the coast of northwestern America. . . . [The chief manager of the company under this charter was Baranof.] Baranof's complaints of foreign en- croachment appear to have been well grounded. . . . 'The Americans,' writes the chief manager, 'have been acquainted with these tribes for two or three years, and have sent from six to eight ships each year. ... At the end of the twenty years for which the exclusive privileges of the Russian American Company were granted, we find this powerful monopoly firmly established in the favor of the imperial government, many nobles of high rank and several members of the royal family being among the shareholders. The com- pany already occupied nearly all that portion of the American continent and the adjacent islands south of the Yukon River now comprised in the territory of Alaska. . . . While the company's 179 ALASKA, 1787-1867 ALASKA, 1787-1867 business was thus progressing satisfactorily, a deud arose in the diplomatic horizon, which at one time threatened the very existence of the colonies. [In 1 82 1 the Tsar of Russia issued a ukase forbidding the vessels of any other nation to approach within 100 rniles of the coast of Alaska above the tifty- first parallel.] As soon as the arbitrary measure of Russia became known to English and .American northwest traders, protestations and complaints were forwarded to their respective governments. The matter was discussed with some heat in the United States congress, causing voluminous diplo- matic correspondence. [This attitude of Russia towards her colonial territories was backed by the Holy Alliance whose pledge to restore the power and possession of all the 'legitimate thrones' was causing diplomatic complications.) In the mean- time some traffic was carried on under protest, and the matter was finally settled by the .Anglo- Russian and Russo-.American treaties of 1824 and 1825. . . . [From 1S20 to 1825 the Russian gov- ernment prohibited foreign trade to such an extent that the company was on the brink of financial ruin. Foreign intercourse was necessary to supply the needs of the colony and develop its re- sources.] The expense of supporting the colonies, apart from the sums required for the home office, taxes, and other items, increased from about 676,- 000 roubles, scrip, in 1821, to over i,2iq,ooo roubles in 1841, and amounted for the whole period to nearly 18,000.000 roubles. ... At the request of the directors, and after a careful investigation into the condition of the colonies, the imperial council at St. Petersburg decided, on the sth of March, 1841, to renew the charter of the Rus- sian American Company for a further period of twenty years.'' — Ibid., pp. 305-566. — "From 1S20 to i860 .\laska became more and more a burden on the Empire. The fur-bearing animals were being killed off, the natives were dying out. and it was difficult to persuade Russians to engage for service in Alaska when Siberia and the .Amur of- fered so many better opportunities. The men who did come were in large part worthless. New in- ternational problems were coming up. The Cri- mean War demonstrated that Russia was not in a position to defend the colonies from an enemy unless she possessed a navy. If some agreement had not been reached as to the neutralization of .Alaska. England would have captured it without any difficulty in 1854. There was also the finan- cial question. The government stood back of the company and had to protect its credit by advanc- ing loans to pay its bills. These were some of the considerations the Russian statesmen had to take into account when a request was made for a fourth charter. Before this was granted a committee was ordered to .Alaska to make a report, which report did not promise much for the future of the ter- ritory. [In the meantime exposure of abuses in the company's affairs caused the government to refuse to renew the charter except on such terms as the company was unwilling to accept and in 1862 an officer of the imperial government was sent to take charge of the company's affairs] The gov- ernment realized that the only sensible thing to do with its .American possession was to get rid of it. Even before i86o it was proposed to sell it to the United States, but the war interfered. .As soon as peace was declared the proposition was taken up again and successfully carried through. In a letter to the minister of finance written by Stoeckl. the Russian minister in Washington, a number of reasons are given why the sale was necessary, i. With the exception of England every European nation, that at one time or other had I acquired colcnies in America, has lost them. Eng- land still retains Canada but it is only a matter of years before that territory will become inde- pendent. If all these nations could not hold their colonies, it is not likely that Russia will be able to keep Alaska indefinitely. 2, In case of war Russia is in no position to defend her American territory. To be obliged to protect the large stretch of American coast would be a source of weakness. 3, The ports of .Alaska are closed to American shipping If the government of the United States should retaliate by closing the Pa- cific coast markets to Russian vessels the Alas- kan trade would be badly affected. Should .Alas- ka be thrown open to the Yankees they would soon exhaust it. If they close their ports to us we are lost; if we open ours to them we are equally lost. 4. The .American people believe that it is their 'manifest destiny' to expand on the Pacific coast . . . By handing the territory to the United States we bind that nation in friendship to us. Russia, too. has her manifest destiny, but it is on the other side of the Pacific, along the .Amur. Our men and resources are needed there and should not be wasted in .America. 5. From the very begin- ning .Alaska- has brought nothing but embarrass- ment, diplomatic complications, financial sacrifices and loss in men. If Russia should keep it there would be more trouble and additional sacrifices Is .Alaska worth the price? Looking at the matter from the point of view of the good of Russia we mu.st answer in the negative." — F. A. Colder. Pa- cific ocean in history, pp. 260-273. — ".As early as 1861. the executive governments of the two coun- tries came to an understanding to act in concert with a view to the establishment of a connection between San Francisco and St Petersburg, by an interoceanic telegraph line across Behring's Straits .At a subsequent day Congress sanctioned and gave its co-operation to that policy. On the 2tith ol December. 1864. the Secretary of State, by direc- tion of the President, invited the Emperor of Russia to send his principal advisor, the Grand Duke Constantine. upon a visit to the United States, intimating an opinion that such a visit would be beneficial to the United States, and by no means unprofitable to Russia, and giving the assurance that the Grand Duke, coming as a na- tional guest, would receive a cordial and most demonstrative welcome by the government and people of the United States. The condition of domestic affairs in Russia fat that time] prevented the acceptance of this invitation. . . . The me- morial of the legislature of Washington Territory to the President, received in February, 1866, was made an occasion, in general terms, for communi- cating to Mr. de Stoeckl the importance of some early and comprehensive arrangement between the two countries, to prevent the growth of difficul- ties arising out of the fisheries in the Russian pos- sessions. In the spring of 1866, Mr. Fox, late .Assistant Secretary of the Na\'y. was made the bearer of the expressions of national .sympathy with the Emperor, arising out of the attempt at his assassination. He was especially charged to express the most friendly feelings towards the gov- ernment and people of Russia. In the month of October, 1866, Mr. de Stoeckl. who had long been the Russian minister here, and enjoyed in a high degree the confidence of the government of the United States, went home on a leave of absence, promising his best exertions to facilitate the es- tablishment of good relations upon a permanent basis. He returned to Washington early in the month of March last. The treaty for the cession of Russian .American to the United States was 80 ALASKA, 1867 ALASKA, 1884-1912 concluded and signed on the 30th day of March [1867]." — Papers relating to the cession and trans- fer of Alaska to the United States in 1867, p. 324. 1867. — Purchase by the United States. — In March, 1867, definite negotiations on the subject were opened by the Russian minister at Washing- ton, and on the 23d of that month he received from Secretary Seward an offer, subject to the presi- dent's approval, of $7,200,000, on condition that the cession be "free and unencumbered by any reservations, privileges, franchises, grants, or pos- sessions by any associated companies, whether cor- porate or incorporate, Russian, or any other. Two days later an answer was returned, stating that the minister believed himself authorized to accept these terms. On the 20th final instructions were received by cable from St. Petersburg. On the same day a note was addressed by the minister to the secretary of state, informing him that the tsar consented to the cession of Russian America for the stipulated sum of $7,200,000 in gold. At four o'clock the next morning the treaty was signed by the two parties without further phrase or nego- tiation. In May the treaty was ratified, and on June 20, 1867, the usual proclamation was issued by the president of the United States." On Oc- tober 18, 1867, the formal transfer of the terri- tory was made, at Sitka, General Rousseau taking possession in the name of the Government of the United States.— H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pa- cific states, V. 28, ch. 28. Also in: W. H. Dall, Alaska and its resources, pt. 2, ch. 2. — W. A. Dunning, Paying for Alaska (Political Science Quarterly, Sept., iqi2). 1867-1883. — Lack of government in Alaska. — Geodetic surveys. — Obstacles in the establish- ment of civil government. — The only govern- ment in Alaska between 1867 and 1877 was that of more or less formal military authority. Dur- ing these years considerable work was done in charting the coast, locating new harbors and ex- ploring the sources of the Yukon. From 1877 to 1884, Alaska was almost entirely without gov- ernment, both as to laws and officers. "The main obstacle in the establishment of some form of civil government for Alaska appears to have been the difficulty in reconciling the conflicting claims of the several sections, separated as they are by a vast extent of territory, and having few interests in common, ... In 1883 Alaska was but a cus- toms district, with a collector and a few deputies. For laws, the territory had the regulations made by the secretary of the treasury ; and for protec- tion, the presence of a single war-vessel, the crew of which was sometimes employed as a police force among the settlements of the .Alexander Archipelago." — H. H. Bancroft, History of Alaska, (Works of H. H. Bancroft, v. 33) p. 627. 1884-1912. — Civil government. — First estab- lishment and development. — Defects. — Civil gov- ernment was first established in Alaska in May, 1884. Better provision was made by an act which passed Congress after much debate and was ap- proved by the President on June 6, iqoo. It con- stituted Alaska a civil and judicial district, with a governor invested with the duties and powers that pertain to the governor of a territory, and a district court of general jurisdiction, civil and criminal, and in equity and admiralty, the court being in three divisions, each with a district judge. The act also provided a civil code for the district. The Civil Government Act of iqi2, approved by President Taft on August 24, altered the status of Alaska to that of an organized territory, with a capital at Juneau. (Previously for many years the government headquarters were at Sitka.) A 18 legislature, consisting of a senate and a house of representatives was created. Constitutional hmits set to the powers of the legislature preclude the authority to grant divorces, special privileges and private charters; its fiscal policy is prescribed in regard to taxation, while its borrowing powers are limited to administrative expenditure, "The development of Alaska is held up by the laws governing it. Alaska's government is a motley affair. Franklin K. Lane, Secretary of the Inte- rior [died May, 192 1], who understands the situ- ation admirably, calls it a patchwork. Many of the laws that govern it are passed by Congress. There is a territorial government, but here again Congress holds the controlling power, for their are many federal restrictions and all laws passed by the home legislature must be transmitted to Congress and if disapproved by the legislative body at Washington they are void. To be sure, Alaska has a delegate at the national capital, but he has no vote. . . . Thus, in its practical working out, Alaska is largely governed from Washington. . . . This distant lawmaking, inefficient as it is, is not all of the maladministration of -'Vlaskan affairs. Many departments and bureaus have the carrying out of the laws passed. This results in almost in- extricable confusion. There is a government for certain public lands and forests, another for other lands and forests. There is one procedure for making homesteads, mineral and other land entries within the national forests; another procedure for making such entries in land outside the forest re- serves. Certain islands along the southern coast of Alaska may be leased for fox farming by the De- partment of Commerce; adjoining unreserved islands may not be leased, but may be acquired under the general land laws from the Department of the Interior. Still other islands are reserved for special purposes under the control of the De- partment of Agriculture. Vast areas in the for- est reserves are entirely untimbered, but are held under the regulations of the Forest Service, while timbered lands in other sections are unprotected. Some of the timbered islands off the coast are in- cluded within the forest reserves. Other islands equally well timbered are not. Homesteads within the forest reserves are surveyed by the Forest Service without cost to the entry man. Homestead- ers on unsurveyed lands outside the Forest Re- serves must pay for their own surveys. It has happened that three separate investigations of mineral claims have been made by field officers of the Forest Service Land Office and Geological Survey. Roads and trails within the Forest Re- serves are built by the Forest Service Roads and trails outside these reserves are built by a com- mission of army officers. Still a third depart- ment having charge of road building has now been established by the Territorial Legislature. . . . Nor is this interlocking and overlapping of many governmental bureaus the only cause of confu- sion. In the individual department there is much distraction. The Land Office, one of the most vital to the fullest development of Alaska, is a fair sample. The administration of laws here is not plain and simple. They need many construc- tions to arrive at their meaning. And the regu- lations and reservation orders are many, ambigu- ous, and not known to the settler. . . . The legis- lative power of the Territory itself is vested in a Territorial Legislature consisting of a Senate and a House of Representatives, The Senate consists of eight members, two from each of the four judicial divisions into which Alaska is now di- vided. The House of Representatives consists of sixteen members, four from each of the four ju- I ALASKA, 1884-1922 ALASKA, 1898-1899 dicial divisions. The term of each member of the Senate is four years, one member from each judi- cial division being elected ever>- two years. The term of each member of the House of Representa- tives is two years. The legislature convenes bi- annually at Juneau on the first Monday of March in odd years, and the length of the session is limited to sixty days, but the governor is em- powered to call an extra session. The executive power is vested in the governor, who is appointed by the President for a term of four years by and with the advice of the United States Senate." — A. k. Hurr, Alaska, pp. 401-412. 1884-1922. — Governors of Alaska. — "After the purchase of the territory of -■Vlaska in 1867, Lovell H. Rousseau was appointed a special commissioner to formally take possession of the region, but aside from that, .-Maska practically remained without civil government until May 17, 1884, when, by act of congress, it was created a 'civil and judicial district,' with executive officers appointed by the president for four years, but without representa- tive institutions (until 1Q12]. — J. H. Kinkead, ex- governor of Nevada, was appointed first governor by Pres. .Arthur in 1884, but he resigned the following year upon the inauguration of Pres. Cleveland, and Mr. [.Alfred P.] Swineford suc- ceeded to the office [May 0, 18S5I and served for four years. He was deeply interested in the de- velopment of the territory and repeatedly urged its organization. . . . On .Apr. 20, 1880, . . . I Lyman E. Knapp] was appointed governor of .■\laska, serving until .Aug. 20, 1803. During his administration the development of the material industries, mines, fisheries and other resources of the territory marked an important era. The or- ganization of the Indian police, the local militia, a territorial historical society and library, improve- ment in the public buildings and methods of con- ducting the public business, the more rapid prog- ress in civilization by the natives, and improve- ments in the laws concerning town sites and pre- emption of lands occupied his attention. Nearly the whole of the seal fisheries controversy occurred during his administration and he was called upon to aid in the investigations made by both .Ameri- can and English Government vessels. [See U. S. A.: i88q-i8q2.} He earnestly labored for better mail service in the territory and succeeded in se- curing an extension of more than sixteen hundred miles of the established mail routes. He published many reports, official and unofficial, on .Alaska and discussions of important public questions, among them 'The Legal and Political Status of the Na- tives of Alaska,' in the '.American Law Register,' May, i8qi. [See Territories and dependencies of THE United St.\tes.1 ... [In 18Q3 James Sheak- ley became fourth governor of .Alaska] ... In 1887 Pres. Cleveland appointed him as one of the U. S. commissioners of Alaska, while the educa- tional department made him superintendent of schools for southeast .\laska. Upon the expiration of his term as U. S. commissioner in 1802, he re- signed the superintendency of the schools. . . . He was appointed governor of .Alaska by Pres. Cleve- land, June 28, 1803, entered upon his official duties .Aug. 2q, and served in that position four years. Gov. Sheakley gave every encouragement to the cause of education, assisted the missionaries of all denominations, and did what he could to protect, improve, and civilize the native Indians. The rich placer mines of British Columbia were discovered, and the great rush to the Klondike mining region began during his administration. In the fall of 1807 the San Francisco chamber of commerce sent him East, for the purpose of giving the public correct information in regard to the Klondike mines. . . . [In 1897 John G. Brady was appointed fifth governor of .Alaska]. In 1878 Mr. Brady went to .Alaska as a missionary, with Dr. Sheldon Jack- son, and later became manager of the Sitka 'Trad- ing Co. On June 16, 1807, he was appointed to succeed James Sheakley as governor of .Alaska. Under his administration there has been marked progress in the development of its resources, the expansion of trade and increase of population. On July I, i8gq, a new code of criminal procedure went into effect, and it has been of the greatest advantage to the territory. .A territorial conven- tion met in Juneau in October the same year, and submitted a memorial to congress petitioning for various reforms and for a delegate to that body. Gov. Brady in his annual reports ha? supported many of the measures asked for in the petition and has especially urged the extension of the land laws, the adoption of a code of civil procedure and the necessity for roads, telegraphs, and the erection of lighthouses upon dangerous points of the coast. His administration was so successful that on June 6, iqoo, he was reappointed governor, his second term expiring in 1Q04." — Xalional cyclo- pedia of American biography, pp. 355-356. — Gov- ernor Brady was again reappointed in 1904 an- is estimated to be 36,000, in addition to about 25,000 natives, some of whom are civilized. The industrial population of the Territory exceeds 40,000. The loss in popu- lation during the period of the war was due to ( I ) men entering the militan,' service, estimated to number 3,000, (2) high wages in the States. (3) the decrease in number of men employed in mining. In 1015 about 0,600 men wpre employed in the .Alaska mining industry as compared with about 4,500 in IQIQ." — Ibid., p. 104. ALASKA BOUNDARY QUESTION.— 1867- 1903.— Basis of dispute.— Failure of Anglo- American joint commission to settle question in 1898._Modus Vivendi.— Hay-Herbert Conven- tion, 1903.— "When Alaska was acquired from Russia bv purchase in 1867, the boundary-line separating that territory from the British pos- sessions had never been marked or even accurately surveved, though the treaty between Great Brit- ain and Russia, on which the controversy turned, had been made as far back as 1S25. The language of this treaty seemed to exclude Great Britain al- together from the coast north of 54 degrees and 40 minutes. . . . But owing mainly to the expenses of a survey in that deserted region the matter was indefinitely deferred by both government? There had never been any difference of opinion expressed I as to the general interpretation to be given to the treaty, and the question of marking the boundary was regarded merely as a surveying problem to be settled by commissioners appointed in the usual way and with the usual powers. The discovery of gold in the Klondike district, on the upper tributaries of the Yukon, in Canadian territory, in 1807, put a very different aspect on the matter. The short- est and quickest route to the gold-bearing region was by the trails leading up from Dyca and Skag- way on the headwaters of Lynn Canal — Skagway being about 11 15 miles from Seattle and less than boo miles from Dawson. The Yukon, or all-water route, was much easier but slower — the distance from Seattle to St. Michael by ocean steamer being 2700 miles and from that point to Dawson by river steamer 1300 miles. Dyea and Skagway soon became important places, and the population rapidly increased. The Canadians now laid claim to these ports on Lynn Canal, and pushed their outposts down in that direction. Serious difficul- ties threatened from the conflict of authority over the collection of customs. The general question of the boundary was, therefore, referred to the .Anglo-.American joint high commission, which met at Quebec in the summer of 1808 for the purpose of adjusting matters relating to commercial reci- procity and fisheries. The commission not only failed to reach an agreement on this question, but it developed here for the first time that the Canadi- ans had set up an entirely new theory as to the interpretation to be given to the treaty of 1825, so as greatly to narrow the American coast strip and throw the boundary line across the heads of inlets and channels in such a way as to give the Canadians access to several deep-water harbors. . . . The United Slates commissioners naturally did not feel authorized to trade off .American ter- ritory in this way. When this interpretation was set up, it became at once evident that the perma- nent adjustment of the boundary was a matter that would require long diplomatic negotiation. Meanwhile there was a steady movement of men and supplies to the Klondike by way of Dyea and Skagway; and the situation of the headwaters of Lynn Canal, where both United States and Cana- dian officials claimed jurisdiction, was growing serious. Under these circumstances the L'nited States agreed upon a modus viveiidi with Great Britain, fixing a provisional line at certain points, and accordingly notes were exchanged October 20, i8oq; the line thus established gave the Canadians temporary possession of several points which had always been regarded as within .American juris- diction. The main question was left for future adjustment, it being specifically provided that this provisional line was fixed 'without prejudice to the claims of either party in the permanent ad- justment of the international boundan,'.' Finally, on January 24, 1003, Mr. Hay signed a convention with Sir Alichael Herbert, agreeing to submit the question to a limited sort of arbitration: the tribu- nal was to consist of three .Americans and three British members. ... .As the tribunal was finally constituted, no decision could be reached unless at least one commissioner failed to sustain the con- tention of his own government and upheld that of the other. The American members were Elihu Root, at that time secretary of war; Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, of Massachusetts; and ex- Senator George Turner of Washington. The Brit- ish members were Lord Alverstone, lord chief justice of England; Sir Louis .Amable Jette, lieu- tenant-governor of the province of Quebec; and .Allen B. Aylesworth, of Toronto. ... It was evi- dent from the first that the trial was really before 86 ALASKA BOUNDARY QUESTION ALASKA BOUNDARY QUESTION Lord Alverstone, the chief justice of England; in case he sustained the American contention, there would be an end of the controversy; in case he sus- tained the Canadian view, there would be an even division, and matters would stand as they stood be- fore the trial began, except that a great deal more feeling would have been engendered, and the United States might have had to make good its claim by force. . . . After a good deal of diplomatic sparring over points connected with the presenia- tion of the cases, the members of the tribunal met m London September 3, iQo.i." — J. H. Latane, Amerka as a world power, pp. 102-203 1903. — Disputed treaty clauses. — Contentions of both sides. — Decision and award of arbitra- tors, Oct. 20, 1903. — As stated above the contro- versy arose over the ambiguous language of the Anglo-Russian treaty of 1825, Articles ill and IV of which had been mcorporated in the treaty of cession of the territory to the United States in 1867. These articles read as follows: "III. The line of demarcation between the possessions of the High Contracting Parties upon the Coasts of the Continent and the Islands of America to the North-West, shall be drawn in the following man- ner: Commencing from the southernmost point of the Island called Prince of Wales Island, which point lies in the parallel of 54 degrees 40 minutes, North Latitude, and between the 131st and 133d Degree of West Longitude (Meridian of Green- wich), the said line shall ascend to the North along the Channel called Portland Channel, as far as the Point of the Continent where it strikes the 56th Degree of North Latitude; from this last mentioned Point the line of demarcation shall fol- low the summit of the mountains situated parallel to the coast, as far as the point of intersection of the 141st Degree of West llongitude (of the same meridian), and, finally, from the said point of in- tersection, the said Meridian Line of the 141st Degree, in its prolongation as far as the Frozen Ocean, shall form the limit between the Russian and British Possessions on the Continent of Amer- ica to the North-West. "IV. With reference to the line of demarca- tion laid down in the preceding Article, it is un- derstood: ist. That the Island called Prince of Wales Island shall belong wholly to Russia. 2d. That wherever the summit of the mountains which extend in a direction parallel to the Coast, from the S6th Degree of North Latitude to the point of intersection of the 141st Degree of West Longitude, shall prove to be at the distance of more than ten marine leagues from the Ocean, the limit between the British Possessions and the line of Coast which is to belong to Russia, as above mentioned, shall be formed f)y a line parallel to the windings of the Coast, and which shall never exceed the distance of ten marine leagues therefrom. "This language was indefinite in several particu- lars. In the first part of the boundary described — that is, from the southernmost point of Prince of Wales Island along Portland Channel to the 56th degree, there was room for doubt as to the side of the line on which the islands at the mouth of Portland Channel should fall ; and there was the further difficulty that Portland Channel does not extend as far north as the 56th degree. In the second part of the line described — that is, from the 56th degree of north latitude to the 141st de- gree of west longitude (Mount St. Elias approxi- mately) — there is no dominant range of moun- tains parallel to the coast corresponding to the language of the treaty, though such a range was prominently marked on the maps of Vancouver of 1798, and on the maps of other cartographers prior to 1825. In 1893 a joint international sur- vey of the coast between Portland Channel and Lynn Channel was undertaken by the United States and Great Britain, and in their report the American commissioners testified 'that throughout the lisiere the mountains are composed of numer- ous isolated peaks and short ridges running in different directions, and that within ten leagues of tidewater there is no defined and continuous range such as appears upon the early maps and charts following the sinuosites of the coast.' As to the third section of the line — that is, from Mount St. Elias to the Arctic Ocean^there has never been any dispute. A number of specific questions were submitted to the tribunal for decision. The most important of these was number five: 'Was it the intention and meaning of said convention of 1825 that there should remain in the exclusive posses- sion of Russia a continuous fringe or strip of coast on the mainland, not exceeding ten marine leagues in width, separating the British possessions from the bays, ports, inlets, havens, and waters of the ocean?' If this question should be answered in the negative, the tribunal was to tell how the li- siere was to be measured, whether from the line of the general direction of the mainland coast, or from the line separating the territorial waters from the waters of the ocean or from the heads of inlets and bays. The English contention was that the line should follow certain peaks along the coast and run parallel with the general direction of the mainland coast, cutting through inlets, bays, and headlands. This interpretation ignored the meaning of the word sinuosities, and failed to construe the plain intent of the negotiators. The United States claimed: (i) that the treaty of 1825 confirmed in full sovereignty to Russia a strip of territory along the continental shore from the head of Portland Canal to Mount St. Elias, ten marine leagues in width measured from the heads of all gulfs, bays, inlets, and arms of the sea — that is, from tidewater — unless within that distance from tidewater there was a range of mountains lying parallel to the sinuosities of the coast, in which case the summit of such range was to form the boundary; (2) that the acts of Great Britain sub- sequent to this treaty, and the universal inter- pretation given it by governments, geographers, cartographers, and historians, agreed with and con- firmed the intention and meaning as above stated; (3) that the United States purchased Alaska, en- tered into possession of and occupied the lisiere above described, and exercised sovereign rights therein, and remained in possession for thirty years without any notice from Great Britain that she claimed any portion of the territory ceded by Russia; (4) that there being no continuous range of mountains between Portland Channel and Mount St. Elias parallel with the sinuosities of the coast, the width of the lisiere above described was limited by the agreed distance of ten marine leagues from tidewater. In support of its claims the United States showed from the records of the negotiations leading up to the treaty of 1S25 that Sir Charles Bagot, the English negotiator, made effort after effort to secure an outlet to deep water through the lisiere, and was finally forced to yield the point. The most interesting feature of the case was the overwhelming array of maps presented by the United States, including British, and Canadian, showing the boundary line claimed by Russia and the United States. It was also shown that both the Canadian and British authori- ties had, by repeated acts, recognized our title to the strip in dispute. The decision of the tribu- nal was rendered October 20, igo3. On all the 187 ALASKA BOUNDARY QUESTION ALBA important points the vote stood four to two, Lord Alverstone, Root, Lodge, and Turner concurring in the decision ; and the two Canadian members dissenting. The decision sustained in the main the American claim, holding that it was the intention of the treaty of 1S25 to shut England out from access to tidewater through the lisiere. Wales and Pearse islands, at the entrance of Portland Chan- nel, were awarded to England, and the line from the head of Portland Channel to Mount St. Elias was slightly drawn in, though it ran well around the heads of all inlets. The tribunal designated certain mountain peaks as the mountains referred to as parallel to the coast, except between the Stikine and Taku rivers. From the greater part of the distance between these rivers the tribunal declared that 'in the absence of further survey the evidence is not sufficient to enable the Tribunal to say which are mountains parallel to the coast within the meaning of the treaty.' The commis- sioners appointed later to complete this part of the boundary agreed on what is practically a straight line, and this was accepted by both gov- ernments as final. The decision was, of course, a disappointment to the Canadians, but it did not justify the charge that I^ord Alverstone had sacri- ficed their interests in order to further the British policy of friendly relations with the United States." — J. H. Latane, /4merjra as a world power, pp. 103- 203. — See also Arbitration, International: 1003; U. S. A.: 1892: Settlement of Alaskan boundary. 1906-1914. — Convention to provide for final establishment of the boundary line. — Surveys. — Boundary line completed. — Final proceedings for establishing the boundary line of Alaska were pro- vided for in a convention between the United States and Great Britain, signed April 21, igo6. Tlie need and object of the convention were set forth in its preamble as follows: "Whereas by a treaty between the United States of America and His Majesty the Emperor of all the Russias, for the cession of the Russian possessions in North America to the United States, concluded March 30, 1867, the most northerly part of the boundary line between the said Russian possessions and those of His Britannic Majesty, as established by the prior convention between Russia and Great Britain, of February 2S-16, 182,1;, is defined as following the 141st degree of longi- tude west from Greenwich, beginning at the point of intersection of the said 141st degree of west longitude with a certain line drawn parallel with the coast, and thence continuing from the said point of intersection, upon the said meridian of the 141st degree in its prolongation as far as the Frozen Ocean, "And whereas, the location of said meridian of the 141st degree of west longitude between the terminal points thereof defined in said treaty is dependent upon the scientific ascertainment of con- venient points along the said meridian and the survey of the country intermediate between such points, involving no question of interpretation of the aforesaid treaties but merely the determination of such points and their connecting lines by the ordinary processes of observation and survey con- ducted by competent astronomers, engineers and surveyors ; "And whereas such determination has not hith- . erto been made by a joint survey as is requisite in order to give complete effect to said treaties." To make such determination it was agreed that each Government should "appoint one Commis- .sioner, with whom may be associated such sur- veyors, astronomers and other assistants as each Government may elect." The work of surveying continued year by year, and at its completion, in igi4, a well-defined boundary line lay between Alaska and Canada. — See also Alaska: Map. Also in: Message of President Roosevelt, Dec. 7, 1Q03. — British Parliamentary Papers by com- mand (U. S., So. I, 1004) Cd. 1877. — Alaskan Boundary Tribunal: cases, counter-cases, argu- ments, aliases oj United States and Great Britain (Washington, 1003). — T. W. Balch, Alaska-Can- ada frontier. ALASKA-YUKON-PACIFIC EXPOSITION. Sec Skattle: iooq. ALASKAN ENGINEERING COMMIS- SION, Duties of. See Interior, Department of THE. ALATOONA, Battle of. See U. S. A.: 1864 (September-October: Georgia). ALA-UD-DIN, founder of the Bahmani dy- naslv in the Deccan in 1347. ALA-UD-DIN KHILJI (d. c. 1316), sultan of Delhi after assassinating Feroz II, his uncle; subjected the Deccan and Gujarat to the rule of Islam. See India: 1200-1308. ALAUNG PAYA or Alompra. Sec Alompra, Aloii.vg Houra. ALAVA, Miguel Ricardo de (1771-1843), Spanish soldier and diplomat. Fought under Wel- lington in the Peninsular campaign; opposed Don Carlos; ambassador to England, 1834, and to France, 1835. ALAVA, province in Spain. See Basque prov- inces; Basques. ALBA, Celtic form for Caledonia. See Scot- land: The name. ALBA. — Alban Mount.— "Cantons . . . having their rendezvous in some stronghold, and including a certain number of clanships, form the primitive political unities with which Italian history begins At what period, and to what extent, such cantons were formed in Latium, cannot be determined with precision ; nor is it a matter of special historical interest. The isolated Alban range, that natural stronghold of Latium, which offered to settlers the most wholesome air, the freshest springs, and the most secure position, would doubtless be first oc- cupied by the new comers. Here accordingly, along the narrow plateau above Palazzuola, between the .\lban lake (Lago di Castello) and the .'Vlban mount (Monte Cavo) extended the town of Alba, which was universally regarded as the primitive .seat of the Latin stock, and the mother-city of Rome, as well as of all the other Old Latin com- munities. Here, too, on the slopes lay the very ancient Latin canton-centres of Lanuvium, Aricia, and Tusculum. ... All these cantons were in primitive times politically sovereign, and each of them was governed by its prince with the co-oper- ation of the council of elders and the assembly of warriors. Nevertheless the feeling of fellowship based on community of descent and of language not only pervaded the whole of them, but mani- fested itself in an important religious and political institution — the perpetual league of the collective Latin cantons. The presidency belonged originally, according to the universal Italian as well as Hel- lenic usage, to that canton within whose bounds lay the piecting-place of the league; in this case it was the canton of .Mba. . . . The communities entitled to participate in the league were in the beginning thirty. . . . The rendezvous of this union was, like the Pambceotia and the Panionia among the similar confederacies of the Greeks, the 'Latin festival' (feria- Latinae) at which, on the Mount of .\lba, upon a day annually appointed by the chief magistrate for the purpose, an ox was offered in sacrifice by the assembled Latin stock 188 ALBA DE TORMES ALBANIA, ANCIENT to the 'Latin god' {Jupiter Latiaris)." — T. Moram- sen, History of Rome, bk. i, ch. 3. Also in: W. Gell, Topograph^/ of Rome, v. i. ALBA DE TORMES, Battle of. See Spain: 1809 (Aui;ust-\ovcmber.) ALBA GR^CA, ancient name. See Belgrade. ALBAIAS. See Pampas tribes. ALBAN, Kingdom of. See Albion; Scotland: 8th-oth centuries. ALBANIA, tlie name given in ancient geography to a portion of the eastern Caucasus and a region west of the Caspian sea. The inhabitants, known as Albani, were spread over an extensive region to the northwest and up in the Caucasus mountains. They were described by Strabo as a people of line physique and excellent character, but in a primi- tive stage of culture. Although they were a nomad people their form of government was a monarchy. In the wars between the Romans and Mithradates (King of Pontus) they came to the attention of Porapey, who subjected them to a formal recog- nition of Roman authority. At the time of the barbarian invasion in the second century A. D., Albania was invaded by the Alani. These were afterwards driven into Armenia by the Khazars. Still later the country was conquered by Persia under its Sassanid rulers. The successive inva- sions of the Huns, Mongols, and other barbarians effaced Albania from the map. This .Albania must not be confused with the modern state of that name on the Adriatic coast of the Balkan Penin- sula, (q, v.) ALBANIA. — Name and people. — Lack of po- litical organization. — Population. — Religion. — Language. — In a modern geographical sense Albania is a name applied to a region on the western shores of the .'\driatic north of Greece, west of Macedonia and south of Serbia. It con- stituted part of what the Romans called Illyriu, but has no easily defmed natural boundaries. The entire region is extremely rough and mountainous, being traversed from northwest to southwest by a number of parallel mountain chains. Although the climate is salubrious and bracing and much of the soil fertile, the country as a whole has no in- dustrial development and appears to have always been extremely poor. The people are famed for their mixed primitive virtues of honesty, lawless- ness and courage, but do not seem to lend them- selves to high political organization. "The Al- banian people . . . are liqisl not a unit in race, language, religion or any other vital interest. They have refused to accept the political unity of the state, and have not progressed in thought beyond the stage of clan-organization. But they are a unit in not being related to any one else in the peninsula. When the invading swarms of Slavs, Bulgars and the like swept over the Peninsula, they swept the earlier inhabitants before them and in the almost inaccessible mountain fastnesses of the extreme south-west those who refused to be conquered or absorbed found a refuge. So in the Pyrenees and the Caucasus we Imd remnants of earlier races which the immigrant hosts have crowded out of their path and left as a glacier leaves its terminal or lateral moraines." — 11. H. Powers, Things men fought for. — "The .Mbanian population may be reckoned at about two and a half million souls, the large majority of whom in- habit the southwestern portion of the Balkan Peninsula. The Albanians belong to three relig- ions: the Roman Catholic Chur(h, the Greek Or- thodox Church, and to Islam, The Mohammedans exceed in number both the Catholics and Ortho- dox put together. The members of these three faiths all live together, but the Catholics are more numerous in the north and the Orthodox in the south. The Mohammedans are found every- where, but form compact masses in the center of the country. . . . The language is one and the same. It is, moreover, one of the oldest languages in Europe, and our people have clung to it tena- ciously in the face of much enemy opposition." — M. B. Konitza, Albanian question (International Conciliation, May, 1919). — See also Balkan states: Races existing; and Maps; Europe: Mod- ern: Political map of Europe. Early history. — Rule of Pyrrhus. — Entrance of Christianity. — Under the Roman empire. — Invasion of Slavs. — "We first hear of our ances- tors from classical authors who describe and give the names of many of the independent clans who inhabited the Balkan Peninsula when its history dawns. All authorities agree that they are not Greek. The Greeks, in fact, designated them 'bar- barians.' The main groups formed by these clans were known as Macedonia, Illyria, and Epirus. The inhabitants of all three, so Strabo informs us, spoke the same tongue and had similar cus- toms. The very name of Macedonia, formerly known as 'Emathia,' derives in all probability from the Albanian word E Madhia (the great). As for Illyria, 'liria' in Albanian means 'freedom,' and we Albanians' mterpret it as 'land of the free.' [Throughout their history the Albanians obstinately resisted subjugation from invading foes and were in the main successful. They were under the rule of Pyrrhus, however, from 296-272 B. C] Christianity arrived early in Illyria. 'Round about Illyria,' says St. Paul, 'have I fully preached the Gospel of Christ.' The Albanians claim hira as the first missionary among them. Illyria formed part of the Patriarchate of Rome at an early date, and a large number of the North Albanians (Ghegs) are faithful to Rome to this day. Scutari and Antivari have been bishoprics since the fourth century. The Roman Empire in the East was repeatedly invaded by hordes of barbarians from beyond the Danube. [Fourth and fifth centuries.] The Avars devastated wide tracts, and after them came the Slavs [640]. These, the ancestors of the Serbs, Montenegrins, and Bosniaks, swarmed in in overpowering numbers. They settled first in some districts depopulated by the Avars, and by the seventh century were widely spread in the Peninsula. They were a tribal and a pastoral people, and, taking possession of the rich plains for their flocks, they drove Roman civilization to the coast of the Adriatic, where it has never com- pletely died out. (From 640-1360 with some in- terruptions the .Albanians were under Serbian rule.l Of the native Illyrian population, that of the north disappeared. But southward the Illyrians defended themselves in the mountains of modern .Albania, and there they preserved their language and customs uninterruptedly, up to the present day, against all comers." — Ibid. Medieval period. — Bulgarian kingdom in Albania. — Byzantine, Norman and Sicilian con- quests. — Rise of the Serbian kingdom of Rashia. — Reign of Stefan Dushan. — "From the settle- ment of the Servian Sclavonians within the bounds of the empire [during the reign of Heraclius, first half of the seventh century], we may . . . venture to date the earliest encroachments of the Illyrian or .Albanian race on the Hellenic popula- tion. The Albanians or .Arnauts, who are now called by themselves Skiptars, are supposed to be remains of the great Thracian race which, under various names, and more particularly as Paion- ians, Epirots and Macedonians, take an important part in early Grecian history. No distinct trace 189 ALBANIA, MEDIEVAL ALBANIA, MEDIEVAL of the period at which they began to be co-pro- prietors of Greece with the Hellenic race can be found in history. ... It seems very difficult to trace back the history of the Greek nation with- out suspecting that the germs of their modern condition, like those of their neighbours, are to be sought in the singular events which occurred in the reign of Heraclius." — G. Finlay, Greece un- der the Romans, cli. 4, sect. 6. — "The most un- changed people in the [ Balkan 1 peninsula must be the Albanians, called by themselves Skipelar, the representatives of the old Illyrians. . . . Before the end of the twelfth century the other primi- tive nations of the peninsula . . . began to show themselves more distinctly alongside of the Greeks. We now first hear of Albanians and Vlaclis by those names." — E. A. Freeman, Historical grog- united Bulgar force. In the twelfth century they united under the rule of the remarkable line of Xemanya princes, and established the Kingdom of Rashia and extended it rapidly. Rashia, in Al- banian, means plain. It is possible, therefore, that Rashia was the original Illyrian name of the plains of Kosovo. The Serbs were, in fact, known by the name of Rashians even into the eighteenth century. Each of the Ncmanya kings extended his realm by conquest. They spread over North Al- bania and seized Scutari. Scutari, the capital of North .Albania, is one of the oldest capitals in Europe. It is first mentioned under its native name of Scodra in 004 B. C. And as Shkodra it is known still to all Albanians. The name of Scutari was given to it by the Venetians in the thirteenth century. That the Albanians were, GkOl r OF .MODEliN AI.B.\NI.\NS In thr ancient MohammetJan dre.ss still worn raphy of Europe. — In 861 the Bulgars conquered the southern portion of .Albania and gradually extended their sway northward. This Bulgarian kingdom was brought to a close by the victory of Basil II in 1014. Albania continued under Byzantine rule until 1204, but not without numer- ous revolts. In loSi the Normans seized Durazzo, returning to Italy in iioo. In iiSo the Serbians established an independent kingdom in upper .Al- bania. From 1204 to 13 18 Epirus was held by Comnenus, a member of the imperial family at Constantinople who was forced to flee when the capitol was taken by the Crusaders, but Durazzo was under Sicilian kings of the house of .Anjou (1271-1368). In the meantime the Serbian king- dom in the north was rising in importance. "Not till the fall of the . . . Bulgar Empire did the Serbs play an important part in Balkan affairs. .\ tribal people, they had been weak before the when conquered by the Serbs, Roman Catholic, is evident from contemporary accounts. In 1321 they appealed to Charles of Anjou and to Filippo of Taranto to force the Serb King Milutin to respect their religious rights. [In 1331 the greatest of the Nemanya kings, Stefan Dushan ascended the throne. His rule lasted until 135S. He in- cluded all of .Albania in his kingdom and ruled under the title "Imperator Romaniae, Slavoniae et Albaniae."] In 1332 the French friar, Pere Bro- chard, describes the land and people. 'It is in- habited,' he says, 'by two peoples, the Albanians and the Latins, who both belong to the Church of Rome. The .Albanians have a language quite other than Latin. . . . They have four Bishops under the Archbishop of Antivari. . . . Both these peoples are oppressed under the very hard servi- tude of the most hateful and abominable lord ship of the Slavs ' That the friar did not exag- 190 ALBANIA, 1338-1443 ALBANIA, 1478-1880 gerate is shown by the extremely severe laws en- acted against the [Roman] Catholics by the great Czar Stefan Dushan in 1349 in his celebrated canon. Here we find that those of the Latin heresy who refuse to be converted are punishable by death, as are also Latin priests who attempt to convert anyone to the Latin faith." — M. B. Konitza, Albanian question (International Con- ciliation, May, 1919). 1358-1443. — Growth of native rule after the fall of the Serbian kingdom. — Despotat of Epirus under the house of Thopia. — Venetian, Greek and Turkish invasions. — "On the break-up of that power [the Serbian] came a time oi utter confusion and endless shiftings, which has, how- ever, one marked feature. The Albanian race now comes fully to the front. Albanian settlers press into all the southern lands, and Albanian princi- palities stand forth on a level with those held by Greek and Latin lords. The chief Albanian power which arose within the bounds of the despotat [of Epirus] was the house of Thopia in northern Epeiros. They called themselves Kings oj Al- bania; they won Durazzo from the Angevins, and their power lasted [1359-1392] till that duchy passed to Venice. ... In Epeiros the Servian and Albanian despots had both to yield to Italian princes. . . . Early in the fifteenth century the Turk won all Albania, except the Venetian posts. [The Turkish advance began with the capture of lannina in 1431] Seventeen years later came a revolt and a successful defence of the country, whose later stages are ennobled by the name of George Kastriota of Croja, the famous Scander- beg." — E. A. Freeman, Historical geography oj Europe, pp. 423-425. — During this period of native rule from the middle of the fourteenth century to the early fifteenth, part of upper Albania was ruled by the Balsha dynasty (1366- 142 1) and a southern section by the Musaki (1368-1476). Towards the close of the century Albanian prin- cipalities fell by degrees under Venetians and Greeks. 1443-1467. — Scanderbeg's war with the Turks. — "John Castriot, Lord of Emalthia (the modern district of Moghlene) [in Epirus or Al- bania] had submitted, like the other petty despots of those regions, to Amurath early in his reign, and had placed his four sons in the Sultan's hands as hostages for his fidelity. Three of them died young. The fourth, whose name was George, pleased the Sultan by his beauty, strength and intelligence. Amurath caused him to be brought up in the Mahometan creed; and, when he was only eighteen, conferred on him the government of one of the Sanjaks of the empire. The young Albanian proved his courage and skill in many exploits under Amurath's eye, and received from him the name of Iskanderbeg, the lord Alexander. When John Castriot died, Amurath took posses- sion of his principalities and kept the son con- stantly employed in distant wars. Scanderbeg brooded over this injury ; and when the Turkish armies were routed by Hunyades in the campaign of 1443, Scanderbeg determined to escape from their side and assume forcible possession of his patrimony. He suddenly entered the tent of the Sultan's chief secretary, and forced that function- ary, with the poniard at his throat, to write and seal a formal order to the Turkish commander of the strong city of Croia, in Albania, to deliver that place and the adjacent territory to Scanderbeg, as the Sultan's viceroy. He then stabbed the secretary and hastened to Croia, where his strate- gem gained him instant admittance and submis- sion. He now publicly abjured the Mahometan faith, and declared his intention of defending the creed of his forefathers, and restoring the indepen- dence of his native land. The Christian popula- tion, flocked readily to his banner and the Turks were massacred without mercy. For nearly twen- ty-five years Scanderbeg contended against all the power of the Ottomans, though directed by the skill of Amurath and his successor Mahomet, the conqueror of Con.stantinople." — E. S. Creasy, His- tory oj the Ottoman Turks, ch. 4. — "Scanderbeg died a fugitive at Lissus on the Venetian territory I1467]. His sepulchre was soon violated by the Turkish conquerors ; but the janizaries, who wore his bones enchased in a bracelet, declared by this superstitious amulet their involuntary reverence for his valour . . . His infant son was saved from the national shipwreck; the Castriots were invested with a Neapolitan dukedom, and their blood con- tinues to flow in the noblest families of the realm." — E. Gibbon, History oj the decline and jail oj the Roman empire, ch. 67. Also in: A. Lamartine, History oj Turkey, bk. II, sect. 1 1-25. 1478-1880.— Albania under Turkish rule.— Struggles for independence. — Effect of the Treaty of Berlin. — Struggle for education. — Between 1478 to 1502 the most important Vene- tian strongholds in Albania were captured by the Turks, including Scutari and Durazzo (see Greece: 1454-1479) and by 1571 the Turks were masters of Albania. The Christians either emigrated or fled to the mountains, but the Turks were never able fully to convert Albania to Islam and the country was torn by endless strife between the mountainers and the Turks, the Christians and the Mohammedan converts. When the Turkish power began to wane towards the end of the 17th century, anarchy and confusion were abundant (See TuRKEv: 1684-1696). "There was nothing for it but to accept Turkish rule. From the be- ginning the Albanians had contrived to retail local autonomy. In the seventeenth century many be- gan to go over to Islam. But, as above stated, unlike the other Balkan peoples, when Moham- medanized they retained their strong sense of nationality. No sooner did the Moslem Albanian chiefs rise to power than they began to work for independence. The Albanians, both Moslem and Christian, descended from the mountains and be- gan a struggle to retake the plains from which their forefathers had been driven by the conquer- ing Serbs. Bit by bit they regained territory and settled upon it. Attacked by the Albanians on the one side, and oppressed on the other by the Turk- ish government, and oppressed also by the Greek Church — which strove ever to replace the Serb and Bulgar churches by Greek ones throughout Turkey in Europe — the Serbs of Kosovo, led by the Patriarch of Ipek, decided to emigrate and moved in vast masses into Austria, where they were given land in the Banat by the Emperor. The Albanians speedily resettled the vacated lands, occupying the whole of the Kosovo district as far as Mitrovitza and northeast as far as Nish and Uskub Eastward they spread as far as Mon- astir, and the greater part of the Moslem villages of Macedonia are Albanian. In truth, they thus retook a great part of their ancient Illyria and Macedonia. Christian and Moslem united to pre- serve and maintain their customs, rights, and language, and brooked but little Turkish inter- ference. [In the latter half of the eighteenth cen- tury, Moslem chieftans set up independent prin- cipalities, but failed to maintain their sovereignty against the Porte except for short periods. The last of these, the dynasty of Scutari, came to aa 191 ALBANIA, 1478-1880 ALBANIA, 1908-1914 end in 1831 with the surrender of its head to the Grand Vizier Reshid Pasha.] The beginning of the nineteenth century was a time of great stress and struggle in the Balkan Peninsula. Repeated attacks by the Russians and Austrians, who each pretended they were animated by a desire to free the Christians from Turkish rule, and were in truth aiming only at territorial gains, had greatly weakened Turkish power and roused, too, the hopes of the subject peoples. Serbia rose first and, with the aid of both Austria and Russia, at- tained autonomy. Greece rose shortly afterward and, also with European help, obtained her free- dom. "The Greeks were greatly helped, too, by the Al- banians of the south, of whose valor Lord Byron tells. In return for this help they hoped that Greece would aid them, too, when their time came. . . . Far from aiding Albania to gain free- dom, Greece has had but one object, and that is to obtain more and more of Albanian territory. . . . In 1880 an International Commission, called the Eastern Roumelian Commission, was appointed to regulate the affairs of Turkey. Great Britain was ably represented by Lord Edmund Fitzmau- rice, who recognized the important fact that if peace were to be permanent in the Balkan the rights of each nationality must be considered. Convinced, after careful examination, that the Al- banians had been treated with great injustice, he made strong representations on the subject, and recommended the immediate formation of a large and autonomous Albania, which should become independent on the break-up of the Turkish Em- pire in Europe. Having caused inquiries to be made about the population of the various vilayets, he recommended that the state of Albania should consist of the whole of the vilayets of Scutari and Janina, the larger part of the vilayet of Kosovo, and a large part of the vilayet of Monastir. In this scheme he was strongly supported by [the British] Ambassador at Constantinople, Lord Goschen. The formation, however, of an inde- pendent Albania did not suit the ambitious plans either of Austria or of Russia. And, unfortunately for Europe, nothing was done save to recommend certain reforms to the Turks. [See B.^lkan states: 1878] The Albanian question remained and re- mains unsolved. . . . Though by means of the Al- banian League a certain amount of Albanian terri- tory was saved, yet the Treaty of Berlin resulted disastrously for Albania." — M. B. Konitza, Albanian question (International Conciliation, May, iqig). — The Albanian League was formed to resist the concessions granted by the Treaty of Berlin (July 13, 1878) to Austria-Hungary, Servia and Monte- negro, but in spite of the efforts of the league, the independence of Montenegro and Serbia were guar- anteed with portions of Albanian territory. — "Al- bania's struggle to obtain national education in the face of difficulties merits a chapter in the history of education. . . . Books and papers printed in London, Brussels, and Bucharest were smuggled into the country at great risk and eagerly studied, in spite of the fact that anyone found in posses- sion of such works was liable to even fifteen years' imprisonment. Many people, both Moslem and Christian, studied their own language from the Gospels and the Book of Genesis which were published in Albanian by the British and Foreign Bible Society and circulated with great difficulty. Schoolmasters found guilty of teaching .\lbanian were severely punished^in some cases the extreme sentence of fifteen years being inflicted. But the Albanians did not relax their efforts. In South Albania the Americans, to whom Albania is deeply indebted, opened a Girls' School at Koritza which was protected by the great Republic. This was a center of national enthusiasm. The girls taught their brothers to write their mother tongue. In the north education was better provided for. Both Italy and Austria, being anxious to obtain in- fluence there, opened schools for boys, girls, and infants in Scutari and Durazzo. And the Abbott of the Mirdites started a school in his mountains." —Ibid. 1908-1914. — Young Turk revolution. — Balkan wars. — Temporary monarchy under Prince William of Wied. — Independence granted by the powers under an International Council of Control. — Revolt of Essad Pasha. — "Such was the situation of Albania when the Young Turk revolution took place in 190S. To this the Al- banians at first lent their hearty support, believ- ing that it meant equal opportunities for all races. They were soon undeceived. The Young Turks began a policy of forcible Ottomanization and the Albanians rose against it. [See also Turkey: igoS.] This most useful and loyal corner of the sultan's dominions was turned into a country of perennial revolutions, which started soon after the inauguration of the constitutional regime. In the winter of igii-1912, when the group of Albanian deputies in the Ottoman ParUa- ment saw their demands for reforms rejected by the cabinet, and even the right of dis- cussion of their complaints refused on the floor of Parliament, the Albanians north and south, Ro- man Catholics and Moslems, united in resistance to the Turkish authorities that extended to Uskub and Monastir. After the spring elections of igu, the resistance became a formidable revolt. (See also Turkey: igio-igii.) For the Young Turks had rashly maneuvered the balloting with more than Tammany skill. The Albanians were left without representatives in Parliament. Former deputies, such as Ismail Kemal Bey, and chiefs such as Isa Boletinatz, Idris Sefer, and Ali Riza joined in a determination to demand autonomy by force of arms. When, in July, the cabinet decided to move an army against the Albanians, there were wholesale desertions from the garrison at Monastir, and of Albanian officers from all parts of Euro- pean Turkey. Mahmud Shevket Pasha was com- pelled to resign the ministry of war, and was fol- lowed by Said Pasha and the whole cabinet. The Albanians demanded as a sine qua non the disso- lution of Parliament. The Mukhtar cabinet agreed to the dissolution, and accepted almost all the de- mands of the rebels in a conference at Pristina." — M. B. Konitza, Albanian question (International Conciliation, May, igig). The situation was still further complicated by a split in the Albanian provisional government, Es- sad Pasha, minister of the interior and lately de- fender of Scutari, having refused to recognize Av- lona as the seat of government, and having started a government of his own at Durazzo, apparently with the object of having himself elected Prince of Albania, as he possessed great influence in that part of the country where his extensive estates were situated. Meanwhile Serbia marched her troops into Albania as a counter-attack to the .Albanian raid, but she withdrew them a week after in response to a peremptory summons to do so from the Austro-Hungarian government. On November 23, igi3, Prince William of Wied, nephew of the queen of Rumania, an officer in the Prussian army, regarded as a well-informed and capable soldier, was selected by the powers as the future sovereign of Albania. (See Serbia: 1909- 1913) 192 ALBANIA, 1908-1914 ALBANIA, 1915-1917 "The principle of the erection of Albania into an independent State was, of course, adopted by what used to be known as the Concert of Europe some years before the decision to liberate the small peoples who had long lived under the alien domi- nation became the most widely advertised object of the Associated Powers in the present [world] war. When, after the first Balkan War, the Powers attempted to elaborate a settlement of the Balkan question, they decided that the moment had arrived to grant Albania its independence, and, following a series of difficult and long-drawn-out negotiations, the representatives of the six great European States, united under the presidency of Sir Edward Grey, created an independent, autono- mous, and hereditary principality of Albania. The reasons which motived that decision still exist, and have been strengthened rather than weakened by the international changes which have taken place in the meantime. But Albania had been so neg- lected by Turkey that she could not reasonably be expected to work out her own salvation single- handed, and, in order to assist her organization, the Powers accorded her assistance in the form of an International Council of Control. From its very inauguration this Council produced excellent results; the statute elaborated by it was admirably suited to a country such as mine, and it is in many ways unfortunate that the world war put an end to its mandate." — Essad Pasha, My policy for Al- bania (Balkan Review, London, June, igig, pp. 329-330). "Prince William of Wied . . . arrived at Du- razzo, which he constituted his capital, on March 7, 1914. The fact that his regime was a total failure is due in part to the international conditions then prevailing and in part to the role he person- ally played. On the international side trouble arose from the fact that Albania had been con- stituted largely in order to relieve European ten- sion and some of the ever-recurring difficulties be- tween the Great Powers. [See Balkan states: 1912-1913.] Moreover, whilst Europe had nomi- nally fixed the northern and southern frontiers, she took no effective measures to hand over to the prince territory which was his. In the south, the Greeks remained in (jossession of large areas of Albania until the end of March, 1914. Most, if not all, of these districts were then officially evacuated. But, instead of the Greek regular army, there came the Epirote insurgents and the Epirote independent government, who, secretly supported from Athens, maintained a reign of ter- ror in an area actually alloted to Albania. Thus throughout the stay of the 'Mpret,' as the Alba- nians called their ruler, the European concert, if concert it can be called, ignored the necessity for taking the measures essential for the protection of the country and looked on passively whilst the Greeks infringed the frontiers already delimited in the south and whilst the insurgents threatened and practically besieged Durazzo in a manner which finally confined the powers of the prince almost to the very precincts of his palace. Thus enormous difficulties must have beset any ruler of Albania. His Royal Highness, whose shortcom- ings were apparent from the first, made little en- deavor to overcome them. To say nothing of his attitude towards the southern frontier question, concerning which he should have made some stipu- lation with the Great Powers before he ever en- tered upon his new task, the prince made at least two fundamental mistakes. By arriving at Durazzo, instead of entering his new country by way of Sku- tari, which was still in the hands of the interna- tional forces which occupied it in the first Balkan War, and which was therefore more or less neutral country, the new ruler seemed to show his par- tiality towards Essad Pasha and thus offended all the enemies of a man, who, if then powerful in the center of the country, was certainly not be- loved beyond the confines of his own particular district. [Essad Pasha soon led a rebellion against him and had himself proclaimed president.] Sub- sequently, instead of trying to take the people into his confidence before it was too late, and of en- deavoring to travel among them, the prince ap- peared to think that he could maintain his author- ity by encouraging one section of the community to support him against the other and that he could succeed in Albania without any display of cour- age. Thus on May 24, a few days after the ban- ishment of Essad Pasha, at a time when Durazzo was threatened by the insurgents, the prince and his family took refuge on an Italian warship — an act which was enough to seal his fate in a country where cowardice is not one of the faults of the people. [Before Albania had time even to organize gendarmerie, the Greeks attacked and oc- cupied a large part of south Albania, and the com- mission looked on and did nothing.] As time wore on things went from bad to worse until the outbreak of the war, immediately before which the international contingent vacated Skutari and im- mediately after which [Sept. 3] the prince and the International Commission of Control left Durazzo."— H. C. Woods, Albania and the Alba- nians (Geographical Review, April, 1918, pp. 257- 273). — During the early months of the war Essad Pasha made an effort to have his title of president confirmed by the Powers. As soon as Italy en- tered the war he went to Rome to persuade Gen- eral Porro to attack Austria-Hungary by way of the Balkans, but he was unsuccessful in both un- dertakings. — See also World War: 1914: III. Bal- kans: e. 1915. — Agreement of Allies and Italy over Al- bania, by Treaty of London. See London, Treaty OR Pact of. 1915-1917.— Effect of Serbian debacle.— Italian advance. — Independence proclaimed, July 3, 1917. — "The Montenegrins, though ostensibly engaged in opposing Austria, poured their troops into de- fenseless Scutari and remained there. No protest was made by the Powers for this unprovoked vio- lation of the decision made by them in 1913 when they unanimously declared Scutari to be Alba- nian territory. The Serbs also entered Albania for a short time, but withdrew again. Then came the debacle of the Serbs and their flight across the Albanian mountains into Scutari. This was fatal for Albania. The Austrian and Bulgarian forces poured into Albania in pursuit of them. All mem- bers of the Entente departed, and Albania was left to her fate. The Bulgars withdrew, but three- quarters of Albanian territory have been mili- tarily occupied by Austria until the last few weeks. Meanwhile, Italy had advanced in the south and occupied Tepelen and Argyrokastro. The Greek troops of King Constantine had poured into South Albania and were using Koritza as a center through which Austrian and German couri- ers could pass to or from Athens. They exported the foodstuffs, and the Albanian population was reduced to great straits. The French reached Koritza in December, 1916, evicting Greek troops; and at the request of the inhabitants of the whole district hoisted the Albanian flag at Koritza and proclaimed it an Albanian Republic. The Italians extended their occupation, and on July 3, 191 7, General Ferrero at Argyrokastro proclaimed the independence of the whole of Albania under the 193 ALBANIA, 1918 ALBANIA, 1919 protection of Italy. We must now consider the question of Italy with regard to Albania, [See also Italy: igi2-iQi4.] Albania's independence was proclaimed in 1912. But before she had time to organize or establish herself she was at once caught up by the whirlwind of opposing interests — those of Italy and Austria. [See World War: Diplomatic background; 71, iv.] Not only did the two currents paralyze Albania, but they encouraged the neighbor states to make existence impossible to her. Today [igig] the situation is altogether changed. Austria has broken up completely, and on the frontier Albania will see arising in her place a large Slav State which is frankly hostile to her. To guard against possible danger, Albania must seek a support, and this time she will have no difficulty of choice. But if Albania needs the support of Italy, Italy, too, needs the support of Albania. For to Italy this state is of vital im- portance." — M. B. Konitza, Albanian question {International Conciliation, May, igig).^ — "I am often asked if Albania can ever become a self- supporting state. History, I am convinced, will reply to that question in the affirmative. Few countries have been subjected to so many changes and to so many dominations. But just as from ancient times she has been condernned to alien rule, so from ancient times she has fought for her independence. She has never been subjected. Even though a great part of the population adhered to the Moslem faith, and though the land remained under the nominal sovereignty of the Ottomans for centuries, she never submitted to Turkish rule, and her people rejected all attempts to 'Ottoman- ize' them. Even the Turks admitted this fact. When, in 1913, the Great Powers proposed that the Porte should maintain its sovereignty over Albania, Mahmud Shevket Pasha, the Grand Vi- zier, categorically declined the proposition, recall- ing to the London Conference that five hundred years of such sovereignty had merely involved his country in frequent, expensive, and disastrous campaigns. Albania has passed through a variety of crises without the character of her people hav- ing been subjected to the slightest alteration — a fact due to her social organization and the oral transmission of her laws and customs from gener- ation to generation from the early days of history. The code which governs the conduct of the people and the administration of justice is that of the 'Law of Lek Dukaghin,' in whom some of us recognize the personality of the Duke Jean D'Anjou. Despite all the political changes that have taken place, the language has remained as it was in early days, and its persistence is all the more remarkable in that this is exclusively the re- sult of the will of the people, for neither alphabet nor grammar have existed to perpetuate any par- ticular system. There is not only every reason to believe that Albania can be formed into a self- supporting State, but it is obvious, even from the facts I have cited above, that any decision to throw the country back under foreign domination will conflict with the aspirations of the people, possibly with unhappy results for the peace of the Balkan Peninsula." — Essad Pasha, My policy for Albania (Balkan Review, London, June, 1919, pp. 320-331). — See also World War: 1916: IV. Austro- Italian front: d; V. Balkan theater: a. 1918. — Campaign of Italians and French. See World War: iqi8: V. Balkan theater: a. 1918. — Property loss due to war. See World War: Miscellaneous auxiliary services: XIV. Cost of war: b, 4. 1919. — Italy's strategic claims. — Albanian problem at the Peace Conference. — "The position of Albania at the Peace Conference has been seri- ously compromised by the attempt of certain Al- banians, who do not represent the people and whose only claim to notoriety would seem to con- sist in their former relations with the States with whom Britain, France, and America are now at war, to put themselves forward as the spokesmen of our people." — Essad Pasha, My policy for Al- bania (Balkan Review, London, June, igig, /i. 331). — "Much of the business which occupied the at- tention of the (Peace) Council was formal in character. The smaller states, excluded from its deliberations, demanded at least the opportunity to present to it their claims, and many hearings were granted to their representatives. . . . Every one recognized the extravagance and unreality of many of the nationalist demands. . . . [By the Italian representatives] control over all Albania, instead of the portion tentatively assigned to Italy by the Treaty of London, was asked. The Italian representatives felt that Italy was entitled to in- creased compensation partly because the war had lasted longer than anticipated, and partly because the collapse of Russia had thrown a heavier bur- den upon Italy than was foreseen when the Treaty of London was negotiated. ... It could not be forgotten that one of the potent causes of unrest in the Balkans had long been the mistaken policy of blocking Serbia's effors to obtain 'free and se- cure access to the sea.' The possible political con- sequence of sanctioning Italy's desire to obtain a solid foothold in the Balkans through control of Albania and the annexation of Slavonic territories, against the bitter protests of both peoples con- cerned, appeared most grave. The people who were rejoicing over the elimination of Austrian interference in Balkan affairs were evidently equally hostile to anything which might savor of Italian interference. I'nder these conditions it was believed that to grant Italy's claims to the eastern islands and main-land must be to sow the seeds of a new Balkan conflict. When examined from the standpoint of strategic geography the three main areas along the eastern Adriatic coast claimed by Italy were seen to possess tremendous military value. It was the manifest duty of the American specialists, without in the least degree questioning the motives actuating the Italian claims, to study the inevitable consequences which must necessarily follow upon granting them. [See Balkan states: ig2i: .Albania.] It seemed ob- vious that the Fiume region and adjacent terri- tory at the head of the .Adriatic, by dominating the great northwestern gateway into the Balkans . . . and Albania with Valona, by commanding the most important southern routes into the Balkans and blocking access to and egress from the .Adriatic Sea, did in effect constitute three extremely strong and admirably strong military bridge-heads, as- suring to Italy the possibility of moving across the .Adriatic and advancing them into the Balkans, should occasion require. . . . Every direct access to the sea possessed by the Jugo-Slav lands would be blocked, and the power of resistance to an Italian advance enormously curtailed." — E. M. House and C. Seymour, What really happened at Paris, pp. 127-130. "In Albania Italy had always maintained a lively interest, more particularly because of the magni- ficent harbour of Valona, situated on the eastern shore of the Strait of Otranto, and less than fifty miles from the Italian coast. The first object of her policy was to prevent the port from falling directly or indirectly into the hands of Austria, while the latter was equally concerned to prevent Italy from acquiring a position which would en- 194 ALBANIA, 1920 ALBANY PLAN OF UNION able her to bottle up the Adriatic. The two al- lies intrigued actively against each other with the Albanian tribes, planting rival schools in the country and seeking to extend their influence over the clan chiefs. The result was a stalemate which was recognized in the mutual self-denying ordi- nance of 1906, by which the two Powers agreed to abstain from any attempt to obtain political dominion over the coveted territory. For the rest this agreement was never whole-hearted, and merely registered the fact that the two States, unable to bring their plans to fruition at the mo- ment, were willing to hang the matter up till a more propitious moment for one or the other. Under pretext that the Turks had failed to fulfill the provisions of the Treaty of Lausanne, Italy had maintained her occupation of the Twelve Islands (the Dodecanese), but it was during the negotiations in London in the winter of 1912 that Italy first showed her hand openly in the matter of the Western Balkans. . . . [The Italian press] loudly proclaimed the necessity for a big Albania which should include Prizren and Pec in the north, as wel^ as Debar (Dibra) and other territories in the centre, and Northern Epirus in the south ; the two allies, in short, while jealous of each other, had no mind to tolerate the presence of a third competitor in the Adriatic." — A. H. E. Taylor, Italy and the Balkans, pp. 344-345. — See also Italy; 1914: Military coup in Albania. — "The Alban- ians number 1,000,000 people. Like the states about them, they have slowly gained political self- consciousness. Their homeland is a broken coun- try, and a large part of the population leads a pastoral life. Its coastal towns and lowland cities are intimately tied up with the commercial sys- tems of its neighbors, and its mountain popula- tion retains the primitive organization of the clan. Under these circumstances it is obvious that the Albanians should not have had a strong national programme or the means to advance it. . . . Had the terms of the secret Treaty of London of 1915 been carried out, Albania would have been di- vided. The central portion would have been an autonomous Mohammedan state under Italian pro- tection ; the northern part would have been under the protection of Jugo-Slavia, and the southern part was to have been divided between Greece and Italy. Koritsa would have become a Greek city, Valona an Italian stronghold and point of penetration; Scutari and the Drin valley would have become an outlet for Jugo-Slavia 's trade — and all of these points would have become places for military and political conflict, for the Alba- nians; though having no unity of sentiment regard- ing a national programme, are united in the be- lief that they can manage their affairs better than the people about them. The Italians have been driven from Valona by the efforts of the Albanians themselves, and Albanian independence has been recognized by the Council of the League of Na- tions." — E. M. House and C. Seymour, What really happened at Paris, pp. 174-175. 1920. — Admitted to the League of Nations. See League of nations: First meeting of the as- sembly. 1920 (June). — Murder of Essad Pasha.— On June 13, 1920, Essad Pasha was shot dead in the city of Paris by an Albanian student named Aveni Rustem. Also in: C. A. Chekrezi, Albania past and present (New York, 1919). — C. A. Dako, Albania, the master key to the Near East (Boston, 1919)- - .^I. J. Cassavetes, Question of Northern Epirus at the Peace Conference (Boston, 1919). — R- Puaux, Sorrows of Epirus (London, 1918). — I. D. Levine, Resurrected nations. — J. C. Powell, Italy in Albania (New Europe, Aug. 26, 1920). — M. E. Durham, Story of Essad Pasha (Contemporary Review, Aug., 1920).— J. S. Schapiro, Modern and contemporary European history.— E. M. House and C. Seymour, What really happened at Paris, Story of the Peace Conference — Memorandum submitted by the Albanian Delegation to the Peace Confer- ence (published by the Association for Interna- tional Conciliation, American Branch, New York, 1919). — C. H. Haskins and R. H. Lord, Some prob- lems of the Peace Conference. — C. Seymour, Diplo- matic background of the war, 1870-1914. ALBANIA, Latin form for Caledonia. See Scotlanu: The name. ALBANO, Elias Fernandez (d. 1910), vice- president of Chile. See Chile: 1910. ALBANY, N. Y.— The capital, since 1797, of New York state, claims to be the oldest perma- nently settled town of the original thirteen colo- nies. As far back as 1540 a French trading post stood near its present site, though its continuous history begins with its first settlement by some Dutch families about 1623. In 1614, the year after the first Dutch traders had established their opera- tions on Manhattan island, they built a trading house, which they called Fort Nassau, on Castle island, in the Hudson river, a little below where the city now stands. Three years later this small fort was washed away by a flood and the island abandoned. In 1623 Fort Orange, a more im- portant fortification was erected on the site after- wards covered by the business part of Albany, when the settlement took place. "As soon as the colonists had built themselves 'some huts of bark' around the fort, the Mahikanders or River Indians [Mohegans], the Mohawks, the Oneidas, the Onondagas, the Cayugas, and the Senecas, with the Mahawawa or Ottawawa Indians, 'came and made covenants of friendship . . . and desired that Ihey might come and have a constant free trade with them, which was concluded upon.' " — J. R. Brodhead, History of the state of New York, V. I, pp. 55, I5i- 1630.^Embraced in the land purchase of the Patroon Kiliaen Van Rensselaer. (See New York: 1621-1646.) The original name was the Fuyck, or "hoop-net;" afterwards it was known as Be- verwyck. 1664. — Occupied and named Albany by the English, in honor of the duke of York and Albany (James II). See New York: 1664. 1673. — Again occupied for a short time by the Dutch. See New York: 1673. 1686. — City charter received from Governor Dongan. 1777. — Encounters during revolution. See U. S. A., 1777 (July-October). 1866. — International Convention of Y. M. C. A. — International committee. See Young Men's Chkistian .Association: 1865-1870. ALBANY CONGRESS. See Albany plan of UNION. ALBANY PLAN OF UNION 1754.— For the purpose of securing a better treaty with the Six Nations, commissioners from the colonies of New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connect- icut, New York, Pennsylvania and Maryland met at Albany in the Iroquois country. The meeting was suggested by the Lords of Trade. Councils were held with the Iroquois chieftains and Indian affairs were discussed. The convention drew up a general plan of union which seems to have been mainly the work of Franklin. This plan proposed an act of Parliament creating "one general government" in America. 195 ALBANY REGENCY The sovereign of England was to appoint and pay a president-general. The assemblies of the colo- nies were to choose delegations to a colonial grand council, the number being in proportion to taxes paid, provided that no colony could have less than two nor more than seven. All acts of the council needed the assent of the governor-general. To- gether thev could control Indian affairs, regulate Indian trade, raise troops and levy taxes. Laws were to be submitted to the king and council and if not disapproved within three years were to remain in force. Neither the colonies nor the English government adopted the plan.— See also U. S. A.: 1754- ,„,.-• , ,, Also in' G E. Howard, Prehmmaries of the Revolution, pp. 13. i4, 226.— W. MacDonald, Select charters (1004), pp. 253-257. ALBANY REGENCY.— A group of clever politicians of New York state who manipulated the Democratic party machinery of that state from about 1820 to the middle of the nineteenth cen- tury. Martin Van Buren, Silas Wright, William L. Marcv and John A. Dix were among its lead- ers They maintained a strict party discipline by a strict svstem of rewards to the faithful, usually in the form of patronage, and by making offenders of the ring conscious of their displeasure. It derived its name from its position at the state capital. The steadfast support of one another as politicians, and friends, caused General Jackson to say, "I am no politician, but if I were one, I would be a New York politician."— See also New York: 1823. . , . Also in: W. Wilson, History of the American "^ALBATEGNIUS (c. 8so-92g), Arabian astron- omer See Scienx-e: Ancient: Arabian science. ALBATROS D-III AEROPLANE. See World W.\r; Miscellaneous auxiliary services: IV. .\viation. b. „ o . ALBEMARLE, Confederate ram. See U. S. A.: 1864 (.^pril-May: North Carolina) ; 1864 (October; North Carolina) ALBEMARLE, Earls and dukes of.— The name Albemarle, now the title held by the English familv of Keppel, is derived from the French Aumale (Latin, Alba Maria). Albemarle was "a town and territorv in the dukedom of Normandy" -ranted by William III to Arnold Joost van keppel in i6q6-i6g7. He was the first earl of \lbemarle and was born in 1670; he served with the English and Dutch troops, was a major-gen- eral in i6q7, and governor of Bois-le-Duc. He commanded at the siege of Aire in 17 10, led Marl- borough's second line in 1711, and was general of the Dutch forces in 171 2. He died on May 30, 1718, leaving a son William .\nne, who succeeded him as the second earl of Albemarle. Of the later earls, George Thomas Keppel (1700-1801), the sixth earl, is worthy of mention. He entered the army in 1S15 and rose to the rank of general. He trav- elled extensively and published several accounts of his journevs. From 1832-1S35 he was a member of Parhanient for East Norfolk. In t66o Charles II bestowed the title of Duke of Albemarle on the famous General George Monk; this dukedom be- came extinct in 1088 on the death of Christopher, the Second duke. The earldom of Albemarle sur- vives. ALBEMARLE, N. C— 1667-1669.— Settlement under Stephens. See North Carolin.^; 1663-1670. ALBERCA COURT. See Alil-vmbra. ALBERIC I (d 025), a Lombard adventurer, who, joininn forces with Berengar, became mar- grave of Camerino and later duke of Spoleto. Through marriage with Marozia he became the ALBERT most powerful noble in Rome. In 916 he assisted Pope John X in e.xpelling the Saracens from Italy. Alberic II (d. 954), son of Alberic I and Marozia. Rebelling against the authority of his mother, in 933 he overthrew her alien husband (second), Hugh, temporal ruler of Rome, and im- prisoned Pope John XI, her son; for this, he was made "prince and senator of all the Romans;" ruled Rome wisely and moderately until his death. — See also Rome; Q03-964. ALBERONI, Giulio, Cardinal (1664-1752), Spanish-Italian statesman. Consular agent for Parma to the court of Philip V of Spain. Prime minister of Spain in 1715 and cardinal in 1717; banished from Spain in 171Q. In 1724 he was proposed for the papal chair, receiving ten votes. Founded the Collegio .Mberoni, a school for train- ing poor boys for the priesthood. For details of his Spanish Ministry see Spain: 1713-1725; Italy: I7I5-173S- , , „ , . ALBERT I (187s- ), king of the Belgians. Succeeded his uncle, Leopold II, in iqoq; upheld the neutrality of Belgium in August, 1914, so dtlaying the Germans' advance as to defeat their plan for the quick capture of Paris; remained at the head of his little army to see final triumph and a re- stored Belgium.^ee also Belgium: 1909 (De- cember); Belgium; 1914: World War; World War; iqi8: II. Western front; b; XI. End of the war; d; and d, 1; 1919: Visit of royal family to United States. a Albert I, German king, 1 298-1308. .^s duke of .Austria contended for the German throne with .•Vdolph of Nassau, who was defeated and slain by Albert's army in 1298; at first antagonized and later cultivated Philip IV of France; recognized by Pope Boniface in 1303; tried unsuccessfully to extend his sway over Holland and Thuringia. — See also .Austria; 1291-1349; Germany: 1273- 1308. Albert II (1397-1439), German king, 1438- 1439. As duke of .Austria (with the title of Al- bert V) was successively chosen king of Hungary, king of Bohemia and German king; fought the disaffected Bohemians, also the Turks; showed ability in his short reign.— See also Austria; 143S- 1403. Hungary; 1301-1342. Albert, Hungarian king. See .Albert II, Ger- man king (1307-1430). Albert II, kin^ of Sweden, 1363-1389. Son of Albert I of Mecklenburg; held his throne with some difficullv and in 1389 was defeated and im- prisoned bv Queen Margaret of Denmark and Nor- wav. widow of King Haakon; released in 1305 he renounced the throne and returned to rule over Mecklenburg until his death in 1412. Albert (1819-1801), prince consort of Eng- land. -A member of the house of Saxe-Coburg- Gotha and first cousin of Queen Victoria of Eng- land, whom he married in 1840; by tact and abil- ity in affairs overcame earh prejudice against him; he was cut off in the prime of life by a sudden illness, to the overwhelming grief of the queen and the mourninn of the nation, which has since remembered him as Albert the Good.— See also England: 1840: Queen's marriage. Albert, (1848- ), prince of Monaco. Con- ductor of oceanographic research around Spits- bergen. See Spitsbergen: 1006-1921. Albert (1550- 1621), archduke of .Austria. He was sixth son of the emperor Maximilian II, arid was brought up at the Spanish court; was made cardinal in i577. archbishop of Toledo m 1584 and viceroy of Portugal in 1594; governor-general of the Netherlands; renounced his religious vows iq6 ALBERT ALBIGENSES in isqS and married the Infanta Isabella; engaged in constant warfare in the unsuccessful attempt to subdue, the rebellious Low Countries. — See also Netherlands; i5S8-i5g3 and 1594-1 bog. Albert I, duke of Austria. See Albert I, Ger- man king, 12Q8-1308. Albert V, duke of Austria. See Albert II, German king, I3g7-i43q. Albert (1490-1568), first duke of Prussia and grand master of the Teutonic Order. Third son of Frederick of Hohenzolk'rn; as grand master engaged in struggles and negotiations over East Prussia ; followed the advice of Martin Luther to marry and make Prussia an hereditary duchy; in- vested with the duchy in 1525 by Sigismund I, king of Poland ; founded the university of Kbnigs- berg. — See also Poland; 13.3,^-1572. Albert, duke of Wiirtemberg, commander of the fourth Germany army, directed against south- eastern Belgium at the opening of the World War. His army was the German center at the battle of the Marne. In October-November (1914) he opened the first drive to the Channel ports by an attack on Ypres and Dixmude (battle of the Yser), and in igi6 commanded the northern army group opposed to the Anglo-Belgian armies. Albert III, elector of Brandenburg, 1470-1486. Third son of Frederick I of Hohenzollern; early began a stormy career as a German prince, rul- ing over Ansbach, but failing in several attempts at wider power; inherited Bayrcuth from his brother John in 1464; six years later became elector of Brandenburg on the abdication of his other brother, Frederick II; acrjuircd Pnnierania and put down a revolt ; one of the most energetic and ambitious rulers of the fifteenth century.- — See also Brandenburg: 1417-1640. Albert, the Bear (1100-1170), margrave of Brandenburg. See Brandenburg; 1142-1152. Control of Lauenburg. See Saxony; 1180-1553. Albert, The Great. See Aleertus Mag- nus. ALBERT, Marcellin, leader of the wine-grow- ers revolt in France. See France; 1907 (May- July). ALBERT, a town of France in the department of the Somme, eighteen miles northeast of Amiens, situated on a small stream, the Ancre. During the battle of the Somme it was the "jumping-off place" of the British attacks in the direction of Bapaume. Was captured by the Germans in March of 1918 and recovered by the British in August of that same year. — See World War: 1918; II Western front; a, 1 ; c, 26; i; k, 1. ALBERT ACHILLES OF BRANDEN- BURG. See Albert III; Brandenburg, 1470- 1486. ALBERT CROSS OF WAR.— Its origin and pattern. See World War: Miscellaneous auxiliary services; VIII. War medals: a. ALBERT EDWARD, Prince of Wales. See Edward VII. ALBERTA, since 1905 a province of the Do- minion of Canada, east of British Columbia and north of western Montana. In 1S67, when the British North American Act was passed. Alberta was a part of the Northwest Territories. The prov- ince is governed by a uni-cameral legislature, the legislative assembly and a cabinet known as the executive council. The nominal head of the ex- ecutive department is a lieutenant-governor, ap- pointed by the Canadian government. Woman suffrage exists. Area 406,525 square miles. Ed- monton is the capital and Calgary the chief city. — See also Canada; 1905, also 1914-1918: War-time prohibition ; and Map of Dominion of Canada and Newfoundland; Northwest territory; Tele- graphs AND telephones; 1916; U. S. A.: Economic map. ALBERTINE LINE OF HOUSE OF SAX- ONY. See Sa.xony; 1180-1553 ALEERTUS MAGNUS (1193- or 1206- 12S0), Count of Bollstiidt, German scholastic phi- losopher. Distin;uished for his wide learning and his interest in the spread of knowledge, particu- larly the doctrines of Aristotle. Lectured at Paris, where he had as pupil Thomas Aquinas. Endeav- ored to reconcile philosoiihy and theology, using Aristotelian principles. Preached the eighth Cru- sade in Austria. Member of the Dominican order, and one of its ardent defenders. He was the most learned man of his time, and his writings dealt with philosophy and the Aristotelian sciences. — See also Universities and colleges: 1348-1826. ALBI, capital of the department of Tarn, France; gives its name to the Albigenses (q. v.). Site of the cathedral of St. Cecile, a fortress-church in unornamented Gothic style with slit-like win- dows. From the twelfth century, authority was usurped by the bishops of AIbi until, after the Albigensian War, the land passed to the crown of France. — See also Albigenses. ALBICI. — A Gallic tribe which occupied the hills above Massilia (Marseilles) and who are de- scribed as a savage people even in the time of Caesar, when they helped the Massiliots to defend their city against him. — G. Long, Decline of the Roman republic, v. 5, cit. 4. • ALBIGENSES. -"The Albigensians, so called from the town of AIbi in Languedoc, were a branch of a widely spread group of persons who could not be satisfied with the Christian theory of the universe and its government. While they differed very widely in details, all members of the group agreed in their fundamental notion that the only reasonable explanation of the existence of evil in the world was to give up, once for all, the idea of a single administration of the uni- verse. If there were only one God and that an all- powerful one, why had he not done his work better? Why haci he, the all-good, allowed so much evil to get into the world? Why had he, the all-wise, apparently made so many mistakes in his management of things? The ready answer to all this was, that there was not one God but two, ' one good, wise, perfect, absolute; the other evil, capable of errors, imperfect, limited. Such reason- ing has satisfied vast masses of men. For in- stance, it forms the basis of the great Persian re- ligion, which has been for centuries the religious inspiration of a race allied to our own by com- munity of descent. When, however, men came to apply it to Christianity, and especially to Chris- tianity as the outcome of Judaism, they found themselves involved in many difficulties. One of the first consequences of the dualistic theory was that the God of the Jews, as described in their writings, could never have been the good God, but must have been the lesser power, used by the greater as a convenient, though unconscious, agent in the creation of the world The dualists there- fore rejected the Old Testament as authority. An- other consequence was the drawing of a sharp line between the spiritual and the material. What- ever was material belonged in the domain of the lower deity and was essentially base in its char- acter. Man, therefore, in so far as he was a ma- terial being, was evil and his body was in a con- dition of hopeless conflict with his soul. The only way for the race of man to be redeemed was through a gradual process of spiritualization. . . . Then again the idea that the great God could have 197 ALBIGENSES First Crusade ALBIGENSES come down to earth and actually have become a man was beyond all conception to the dualist. The thing we call Christ was only an emanation from the deity and was not at all a man, excepting in the mere form. His life on earth was only a vision, intended to impress men with the truth of his teaching, but not essentially the life of a man. Hence followed naturally the rejection of the doc- trine of the Eucharist." — E. Emerton, Mediaeval Europe, pp. 33S-336. — "Nothing is more curious in in Christian history than the vitality of the Mani- chean opinions. That wild, half poetic, half ra- tionalistic theory of Christianity, . . . appears al- most suddenly in the 12th century, in living, al- most irresistible power, first in its intermediate settlement in Bulgaria, and on the borders of the Greek Empire, then in Italy, in France, in Ger- many, in the remoter West, at the foot of the Pyrenees. . . . The chief seat of these opinions was the south of France. Innocent III., on his accession, found not only these daring insurgents scattered in the cities of Italy, even, as it were, at his own gates (among his first acts was to sub- due the Paterines of Vitcrbo), he found a whole province, a realm, in some respects the richest and noblest of his spiritual domain, absolutely dis- severed from his Empire, in almost universal re- volt from Latin Christianity." — H. H Milman, Latin Christianity, bk. q, r/i. 8. — "Of the secta- ries who shared the errors of Gnosticism and Mani- chiism and opposed the Catholic Church and her hierarchy, the .Mbigenses were the most thorough and radical. Their errors were, indeed, partly Gnostic and partly Manichaean, but the latter was the more prominent and fully developed. . . . They are called Cathari and Patarini in the acts of the Council of Tours (1163), and in those of the third Lateran, Publiciani (i. e., Pauliciani). Like the Cathari, they also held that the evil spirit created all visible things."— J. Alzog, Manual of universal church history, periad 2, epoch 2, pt. 1, ch. 3, sect. 236. "It is not without significance that these ideas found their readiest acceptance in a population that was, probably, as keenly intelligent as any in Europe. The citizens of the great industrial towns of southern France caught at the teachings of the dualistic missionaries. . . . They did not proceed to any violence, but simply w'ithdrew themselves from the association of the dominant religion. Their secular rulers, especially the count Raymond V'l of Toulouse, finding nothing of- fensive to the public welfare in their doctrines, let them alone or even directly protected them from attack. Under these conditions they in- creased so rapidly that practically whole com- munities became converted, and the machinery of the church found itself for the moment inca- pable of dealing with so obstinate a resistance. . . . In addition to this all-sufficient religious motive for persecution there were not wanting others of a more practical sort. There was, first, the antag- onism of North and South, an opposition which, in spite of all efforts on the part of the French government, was still far from being overcome. The chief feudal prince in the South was Raymond of Toulouse, one of the leading feudatories of the crown. If he could be brought down by a com- bination of the crown with the papacy, the game was worth the candle. If his lands could be brought into the hands of more pliant subjects, it would be so much gain in the great effort of Philip Augustus to make himself king indeed of all France The tempting bait of the rich lands of Languedoc was enough to secure abundant fighting material and the dangers of this domestic crusade were as nothing compared with those of an ex- pedition to the East. The crusading ardor was at this moment decidedly on the wane. Jlhe re- sult of the fourth Crusade had been far from en- couraging to the purely religious interests con- cerned. It had ended in the capture of the friendly and Christian Constantinople by the crusading army under the lead of the clever traders of Ven- ice and in much negotiation, with mutual good- will, between the heathen and the Christian lead- ers. "The outlook in southern France seemed to offer to the ambition of Innocent III the compensation he needed. There is probably no doubt whatever as to the personal integrity of his purposes. . . . Certainly it cannot be said that Innocent resorted to the sword until he had exhausted all the re- sources of peaceful endeavor. Almost immedi- ately upon his accession he had sent two legates into the infected districts and had called upon the local clergy to assist them in converting or in punishing the heretics. The response was not en- couraging. It became evident that the . . . prin- ciple of toleration had made great progress in the land. The local clergy knew too intimately the quality of the persons they were called upon to discipline and it was clear that a foreign agent would be needed. This point is characteristic of the whole history of the persecution. Nowhere in Europe, probably, was there a population more loyal to itself. A series of foreign, i. e., French monastic clergymen, Arnold of Citeaux and Peter of Castelnau the most prominent, headed the work of peaceful exhortation. The inhabitants made no resistance, were in fact more than willing to set their own champions against the strongest debaters of the Roman church ; but this process did not succeed. The more the method of argument was tried, the more the heresy grew. . . . For nearly ten years the campaign of ideas went on ; then a crisis came at the murder of Castel- nau, possibly with the connivance of Count Ray- mond. "From that time on there was no hesitation on the part of the pope. All previous efforts to rouse the crusading temper had failed. Philip Augustus, the overlord of the land, had his hands full in the north and the great barons of France were not yet ready to act. The murder of the papal legate seemed to break all restraints. Innocent renewed his summons to all the faithful in Europe. . . . The response this time was unexpectedly gratifying. Philip of France took no action himself, fearing possibly lest the appearance of wanting the south- ern lands for the crown might alienate the loyalty of his nearer neighbors; but he placed no obstacles in the way of his barons. Recruits of every de- scription poured in from all over Europe, indi- viduals and groups drawn together by the curious combination of motives usual in all the crusading armies." — E. Emerton, Mediaeval Europe, pp. 337- 340 — Sec also Cathari; Paulicians. 1209. — First Crusade. — Pope "Innocent III., in organizing the persecution of the Catharians [or Catharistsl, the Patarins, and the Pauvres de Lyons, exercised a spirit, and displayed a geniu? similar to those which had already elevated him to almost universal dominion ; which had enabled him to dictate at once to Italy and to Germany ; to control the kings of France, of Spain, and of England ; to overthrow the Greek Empire, and to substitute in its stead a Latin dynasty at Constan- tinople. In the zeal of the Cistercian Order, and of their .^bbot. .■Vrnaud .^malric ; in the fiery and unwearied preaching of the first Inquisitor, the Spanish Missionary, Dominic; in the remorseless 198 ALBIGENSES Second Crusade ALBIGENSES activity of Foulquet, Bishop of Toulouse; and above all, in the strong and unpitying arm of Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester, Innocent found ready instruments for his purpose. Thus aided, he excommunicated Raymond of Toulouse [1207], as Chief of the Heretics, and he promised remission of sins, and all the privileges which had hitherto been exclusively conferred on adventurers in Palestine, to the champions who should enroll themselves as Crusaders in the far more easy en- terprise of a Holy War against the Albigenses. In the first invasion of his territories [1209], Ray- mond VI. gave way before the terrors excited by the 300,000 fanatics who precipitated themselves on Languedoc; and loudly declaring his personal freedom from heresy, he surrendered his chief castles, underwent a humiliating penance, and tooli the cross against his own subjects. The brave resistance of his nephew Raymond Roger, Viscount of Bezieres, deserved but did not obtain success. When the crusaders surrounded his capital, which was occupied by a mixed population of the two Religions, a question was raised how, in the ap- proaching sack, the Catholics should be distin- guished from the Heretics. 'Kill them all,' was the ferocious reply of Amalric; 'the Lord will easily know His own.' In compliance with this advice, not one human being within the walls was permit- ted to survive ; and the tale of slaughter has been variously estimated, by those who have perhaps exaggerated the numbers, at 60,000, but even in the extenuating despatch, which the Abbot him- self addressed to the Pope, at not fewer than 15,000. Raymond Roger was not included in this fearful massacre, and he repulsed two attacks upon Carcassonne, before a treacherous breach of faith placed him at the disposal of de Montfort, by whom he was poisoned after a short imprisonment. The removal of that young and gallant Prince was indeed most important to the ulterior project of his captor, who aimed at permanent establishment in the South. The family of de Montfort had ranked among the nobles of France for more than two centuries; and it is traced by some writers through an illegitimate channel even to the throne: but the possessions of Simon himself were scanty ; necessity had compelled him to sell the County of Evreux to Philippe Auguste; and the English Earl- dom of Leicester which he inherited maternally, and the Lordship of a Castle about ten leagues distant from Paris, formed the whole of his reve- nues." — E. Smedley, History of France, cli. 4. — See also Christianity: iith-i6th centuries. Also in J. C. L. de Sismondi, History of the crusades against the Albigenses, ch. i. — H. H. Mil- man, History of Latin Christianity, bk. g, ch. 8. — J. Alzog, Manual of universal church history, period 2, epoch 2, pt. i, ch. 3. 1210-1213. — Second Crusade.— "The conquest of the Viscounty of Beziers had rather inflamed than satiated the cupidity of De Montfort and the fanaticism of Amalric [legate of the Pope] and of the monks of Citeaux. Raymond, Count of Toulous, still possessed the fairest part of Langue- doc, and was still suspected or accused of afford- ing shelter, if not countenance, to his heretical sub- jects. . . . The unhappy Raymond was . . . again excommunicated from the Christian Church, and his dominions offered as a reward to the cham- pions who should execute her sentence against him. To earn that reward De Montfort, at the head of a new host of Crusaders, attracted by the promise of earthly spoils and of heavenly blessedness, once more marched through the devoted land [1210], and with him advanced .Amalric. At each succes- sive conquest, slaughter, rapine, and woes such as may not be described tracked and polluted their steps. Heretics, or those suspected of heresy, wherever they were found, were compelled by the legate to ascend vast piles of burning fagots. . . . At length the Crusaders reached and laid siege to the city of Toulouse. . . . Throwing himself into the place, Raymond . . . succeeded in repulsiog De Montfort and Amalric. It was, however, but a temporary respite, and the prelude to a fearful destruction. From beyond the Pyrenees, at the head of 1,000 knights, Pedro of Arragon had marched to the rescue of Raymond, his kinsman, and of the counts of Foix and of Comminges, and of the Viscount of Beam, his vassals; and their united forces came into communication with each other at Muret, a little town which is about three leagues distant from Toulouse. There, also, on the 12th of September [1213], at the head of the champions of the Cross, and attended by seven bishops, appeared Simon de Montfort in full mili- tary array. The battle which followed was fierce, short and decisive. . . . Don Pedro was numbered with the slain. His army, deprived of his com- mand, broke and dispersed, and the whole of the infantry of Raymond and his allies were either put to the sword, or swept away by the current of the Garonne. Toulouse immediately surren- dered, and the whole of the dominions of Raymond submitted to the conquerors. At a council subse- quently held at Montpellier, composed of five archbishops and twenty-eight bishops, De Mont- fort was unanimously acknowledged as prince of the fief and city of Toulouse, and of the other counties conquered by the Crusaders under his command." — Sir J. Stephen, Lectures on the history of France, led. 7. — See also Aragon. Also in: J. C. L. de Sismondi, History of crus- ades against the Albigenses, ch. 2. 1217-1229. — Renewed Crusades. — Dissolution of the county of Toulouse. — Pacification of Languedoc. — "The cruel spirit of De Montfort would not allow him to rest quiet in his new Em- pire. Violence and persecution marked his rule ; he sought to destroy the Proven(;al population by the sword or the stake, nor could he bring him- self to tolerate the liberties of the citizens of Tou- louse. In 12 17 the Toulousans again revolted, and war once more broke out betwixt Count Raymond and Simon de Montfort. The latter formed the siege of the capital, and was engaged in repelling a sally, when a stone from one of the walls struck him and put an end to his existence. . . . Amaury de Montfort, son of Simon, offered to cede to the king all his rights in Languedoc, which he was unable to defend against the old house of Tou- louse. Philip [."Vugustus] hesitated to accept the important cession, and left the rival houses to the continuance of a struggle carried feebly on by either side." King Philip died in 1223 and was succeeded by a son; Louis VIII, who had none of his father's reluctance to join in the grasping per- secution of the unfortunate people of the south. Amaury de Montfort had been fairly driven out of old Simon de Montfort's conquests, and he now sold them to King Louis for the office of constable of France. "A new crusade was preached against the Albigenses; and Louis marched towards Lan- guedoc at the head of a formidable army in the spring of the year 1226. The town of Avignon had proferred to the crusaders the facilities of cross- ing the Rhone under her walls, but refuged entry within them to such a host. Louis having arrived at Avignon, insisted on passing through the town: the Avignonais shut their gates, and defied the monarch, who instantly formed the siege. One of the rich municipalities of the south was almost 199 ALBIGENSES ALBION a match for the king of France. He was kept three months under its walls ; his array a prey to fam- ine, to disease and to the assaults of a brave gar- rison. The crusaders lost 20,000 men. The people of Avignon at length submitted, but on no dis- honourable terms. This was the only resistance that Louis experienced in Languedoc. . . . All sub- mitted. Louis retired from his facile conquest; he himself, and the chiefs of his army stricken by an epidemic which had prevailed in the con- quered regions. The monarch's feeble frame could not resist it; he expired at Montpensier, in Au- vergne, in November, 1226.'' Louis \III was suc- ceeded by his young son, Louis IX (St. Louis), then a boy, under the regency of his energetic and capable mother, Blanche of Castile. "The termi- nation of the war with the Albigenses, and the pacification, or it might be called the acquisition, of Languedoc, was the chief act of Queen Blanche's regency. Louis VIII had overrun the country without resistance in his last campaign; still, at his departure, Raymond VI. again ap- peared, collected soldiers and continued to struggle against the royal lieutenant. For upward of two years he maintained himself; the attention of Blanche being occupied by the league of the barons against her. The successes of Raymond VII., ac- companied by cruelties, awakened the vindictive zeal of the pope. Languedoc was threatened with another crusade; Raymond was willing to treat, and make considerable cessions, in order to avoid such extremities. In April, I2 2q, a treaty was signed: in it the rights of De Montfort w'ere passed over. About two-thirds of the domains of the count of Toulouse were ceded to the king of France; the remainder was to fall, after Raymond's death, to his daughter Jeanne, who by the same treaty was to marry one of the royal princes: heirs failing them, it was to revert to the crown [which it did in 1271]. On these terms, with the humiliating addition of a public penance, Ray- mond VII. once more was allowed peaceable pos- session of Toulouse, and of the part of his do- mains reserved to him. Alphonse, brother of Louis IX., married Jeanne of Toulouse soon after, and took the title of count of Pointiers; that pro- vince being ceded to him in apanage. Robert, an other brother, was made count of Artois at the same time. Louis himself married Margaret, the eldest daughter of Raymond Berenger, count of Province." — E. E. Crowe, History of France, v. i, eft. 2-3- Results of the Crusades. — "The struggle ended in a vast increase of the power of the French crown, at the expense alike of the house of Tou- louse and of the house of Aragon. The domin- ions of the count of Toulouse- were divided. A number of fiefs, Beziers, Narbonne, Nimes, Albi, and some other districts were at once annexed to the crown. The capital itself and its county passed to the crown fifty years later. ... The name of Toulouse, except as the name of the city itself, now passed away, and the new acquisitions of France came in the end to be known by the name of the tongue which was common to them with Aquitaine and Imperial Burgundy [Provence]. Under the name of Languedoc they became one of the greatest and most valuable provinces of the French kingdom." — E. A. Freeman, Historical geography of Europe, ch. q. — "So far as the ap- parent purpose of the crusade, the purifying of the land from heretical thought was concerned, the papacy might well congratulate itself. It had dis- tinctly established the principle that, if political allies could be found, divergence from its system might successfully be met with the sword. Its most important result was the permanent estab- lishment of the Holy Tribunal of the Inquisition. The proceedings against the heretics of 'Toulouse had shown how utterly useless it was to entrust the pursuit of heresy to the local episcopal author- ity. Not only was the episcopate very largely con- taminated by wordliness in every f onn ; it was bound up with local interests in too many ways to make it a safe instrument of persecution. The next recourse had been to papal legates, specially created for this purpose, but this had only been able to call forth a lukewarm assistance from the existing local authorities. The only effective method was to create a new tribunal which should be composed of men who had no other interests. Such men were provided by the new mendicant orders and within a few years after the death of Innocent, we find the formal recognition by the papacy of the Domincans as the regular organ for the searching out of heresy and its trial. From about 1230 on, it is fair to speak of the Inquisi- tion as permanently established. . . . The politi- cal result of the crusade was the definite breaking- up of the overgrown power of the counts of Tou- louse. ... In this way the French monarchy gained the south of France, and perhaps its suc- cess there w'ould have been long postponed if the religious troubles had not offered it this entering wedge." — E. Emerton, Mediaeval Europe, pp. 341- 342. — "The Church of the Albigenses had been drowned in blood. These supposed heretics had been swept away from the soil of France. The rest of the Langucdocian people had been over- whelmed with calamity, slaughter, and devasta- tion. The estimates transmitted to us of the num- bers of the invaders and of the slain are such as almost surpass belief. We can neither verify nor correct them ; but we certainly know that, during a long succession of years, Languedoc had been in- vaded by armies more numerous than had ever before been brought together in European warfare since the fall of the Roman empire. [We know that these hosts were composed of men inflamed by bigotry and unrestrained by discipline; that they had neither military pay nor magazines; that they provided for all their wants by the sword, living at the expense of the country, and seizing at their pleasure both the harvests of the peasants and the merchandise of the citizens.] More than three- fourths of the landed proprietors had been de- spoiled of their fiefs and castles. In hundreds of villages, every inhabitant had been massacred. . . . Since the sack of Rome by the Vandals, the Euro- pean world had never mourned over a national disaster so wide in its extent or so fearful in its character." — J. Stephen, Lectures on the history of France, led. 7. Albigenses in Bosnia. See Bosnia: 12th cen- turv. ALBIGEOIS. See Albigenses. ALBINUS, Clodius' (d. iq? A. D.), Roman commander. Governor of Gaul and Britain; in 104 was made Cssar by Septimius Severus. ALBION, ancient name for the island of Great Britain ; generally confined to England. "The most ancient name known to have been given to this island [Britain] is that of Albion. . . . There is, however, another allusion to Britain which seems to carry us much further back, though it has usu- ally been ill understood. It occurs in the story of the labours of Hercules, who, after securing the cows of Geryon, comes from Spain to Liguria, where he is attacked by two giants, whom he kills before making his way to Italy. Now, according to Pomponius Mela, the names of the giants were .Mbiona and Bergyon, which one may, without 200 ALBIS ALCANTARA much hesitation, restore to the forms of Albion and Iberion, representing, undoubtedly, Britain and Ireland, the position of which in the sea is most appropriately symbolized by the story mak- ing them sons of Neptune or the sea-god. . , . Even in the time of Pliny, Albion, as the name of the island, had fallen out of use with Latin au- thors; but not so with the Greeks, or with the Celts themselves, at any rate those of the Goidelic branch ; for they are probably right who suppose that we have put the same word in the Irish and Scotch Gslic Alba, genitive Alban, the kingdom of Alban or Scotland beyond the Forth. Albion would be a form of the name according to the Brythonic pronunciation of it. . . . It would thus appear that the name Albion is one that has re- treated to a corner of the island, to the whole of which it once applied." — J. Rhys, Celtic Britain, ch. b. — See also Britannia; Scotland; Sth-gth cen- turies. Also in: E. Guest, Origines Celticae, ch. i. ALBIS, the ancient name of the river Elbe. ALBIZZI, Rinaldo de (d. 1452), Florentine statesman who opposed Medici. See Florence: 1433-1464. ALBOIN (d. c. 573), king of the Lombards, son of Audoin, whom he succeeded. He destroyed the kingdom of the Gepidae and married Rosamund, daughter of the slain king Cunimund. In 568 he invaded and conquered a large portion of Italy. At ,the instigation of his queen he was assassinated by his chamberlain Peredeo, in revenge for having forced her to drink wine from a cup formed from her father's skull. — See also Lombards: 568- 573. ALBORNOZ, Gil Alvarez de (c. 1310-1367), Spanish cardinal. Fought in the battles of Tarifa (1340) and Algeciras (1344), sent to Italy as papal legate and paved the way for the return of Urban V to Rome; founder of the college of St. Clement at Bologna and author of a work on the constitu- tion of the Roman church. — See also Papacy: 1352- 1378 ALBRET, Lordship of, in the Landes, France, gave its name to a powerful feudal family, whose members distinguished themselves in local wars; during the fourteenth century supported first the English cause and later the French. By the ac- cession of Henry IV whose mother was Jeanne d'Albret the dukedom came under the crown ; in 165 1, was granted to the family of La Tour d'Auvergne. Jean d'Albret, belonging to a younger branch, was employed by Francis I in his intrigues to become emperor. — See also Navarre: 1528- 1563. ALBRIGHT, Jacob (1759-1808), founder of the Evangelical Association (q.v.). ALBRIGHT ART GALLERY. — "Incorpor- ated 1862. Occupies magnificent gallery of white marble in Delaware Park [Buffalo, N. Y.l built and endowed by John J. Albright in IQ05. Collec- tions comprise 2S6 modern oil paintings by Ameri- can, English, Scottish, German, French, Dutch, Austrian, Italian, Spanish and Scandinavian art- ists; 7g6 engravings, including a historical collec- tion of the masters of engraving and an almost complete collection of the works of Sir Seymour Haden; Arundel prints, cartoons, drawings, sculp- tures and casts and various art objects — a total of over 1,300 exhibits. Maintains an art school attended by some 300 students and publishes a quarterly art magazine, 'Academy Notes.' The commission for two caryatid-porticos in white marble, for the north and south wings of the art building, was given to Augustus St. Gaudens, and the eight beautiful statues were his last work." — Year's art, 1920, p. 238. ALBU, Celtic form for Caledonia. See Scot- land: The name. ALBUERA, or Albuhera, La, a small village in Spain in the province of Badajoz, celebrated for the victory of the British, Portuguese and Spaniards over the French in the Peninsular War, May, 1811. ALBUM (Latin, albus, white), a board chalked or painted white, on which decrees, edicts, and other public notices were inscribed in black, in ancient Rome. In medieval and modern times album denotes a book of blank pages in which verses, autographs, sketches and the like are col- lected. In law, the word is the English equivalent of "mailles blanches," for rent paid in silver ("white") money. ALBUMAZAR (805-885), Arabian astrologer. Author of over fifty works which contained some serious errors, but several of which were never- theless translated into Latin. ALBUQUERQUE, Affonso d', surnamed "the Great" and "the Portuguese Mars" (1453-1515), was a celebrated Portuguese navigator and con- queror, being the founder of the Portuguese em- pire in the east; made his first expedition to India in 1503; conquered Goa, the whole of Malabar, Ceylon, the Sunda Islands, the peninsula of Ma- lacca and the island of Ormuz. — See also Com- merce: Era of geographic expansion: I5th-i7th centuries: Leadership of the Portuguese. 'ALBUQUERQUE, the largest city of New Mexico and the capital of Bernalillo county ; situ- ated on the Rio Grande, 60 miles southwest of Sante Fe. Due to its climate, which is especially adapted for the treatment of tuberculosis, it has become a famous health resort. It was founded in 1706, and named in honor of the duke of Al- buquerque, viceroy from Spain 1702-1710. Dur- ing the Civil War it was occupied by Confederate troops under General Henry Hopkins Sibley. The modern city really dates from the completion of the first railway to Albuquerque in 1880. ALCALA DE HENARES, a town of Spain, in New Castile, the birthplace of Cervantes, 1547; its once famous university founded by Cardinal Jimenez in 1510 was removed to Madrid in 1836. The city is supposed to be on the site of the Ro- man Complulnm, hence the name Compluteiisian Polyglot which was given to the famous edition of the Bible prepared here between 1514 and 1517. ALCALA UNIVERSITY. — 1510. — Founded by Ximenes. — Constitution. See Universities AND COLLEGES: I240-Ii;iO. ALCALDE, ALGUAZIL, CORREGIDOR.— "The word alcalde is from the Arabic 'al cadi,' the judge or governor. . . . Alcalde mayor signifies a judge, learned in the law, who exercises [in Spain] ordinary jurisdiction, civil and criminal, in a town or district." In the Spanish colonies the alcalde mayor was the chief judge. "Irving (Columbus, ii. 331) writes erroneously alguazil mayor, evi- dently confounding the two ofiices. ... An al- guacil mayor, was a chief constable or high sher- iff." "Corregidor, a magistrate having civil and criminal jurisdiction in the first instance ('nisi prius') and gubernatorial inspection in the political and economical government in all the towns of the district assigned to him." — H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific states, v. i, pp. 207 and 250, foot- notes. — See also Audiencias; Holy Brotherhood or Herman'dad. ALCANTARA, town of western Spain on the Tagus, seven miles from the Portuguese frontier. The town was famous as the stronghold of the 201 ALCANTARA ALDEN kjiightly order of Alcantara ; and also for the bridge over the Tagus built by Trajan in A. D., lOS and still in a tine state of preservation. From Arabic, al Kantara, "the bridge." For the bat- tle of Alcantara (1580). See Portugal: 157Q- 1580. ALCANTARA, Knights of. See Alcantara, Order of. ALCANTARA, Order of.— "Towards the close of Alfonso's reign [Alfonso VIII of Castile and Leon, who called himself 'the Emperor,' 1126- 1157], may be assigned the origin of the military order of Alcantara. Two cavaliers of Salamanca, don Suero and don Gomez, left that city with the design of choosing and fortifying some strong natural frontier, whence they could not only arrest the continual incursions of the Moors, but make hostile irruptions themselves into the territories of the misbelievers. Proceeding along the banks pf the Coales, they fell in with a hermit, Araando by name, who encouraged them in their patriotic de- sign and recommended the neighbouring hermitage of St. Julian as an excellent site for a fortress. Having examined and approved the situation, they applied to the bishop of Salamanca for permission to occupy the place: that permission was readily granted: with his assistance, and that of the her- mit Amando, the two cavaliers erected a castle around the hermitage. They were now joined by other nobles and by more adventurers, all eager to acquire fame and wealth in this life, glory in the ne.xt. Hence the foundation of an order which, under the name, first, of St. Julian, and subse- quently of Alcantara, rendered good ser\'ice alike to king and church." — S. A. Dunham, History of Spain and Portugal, bk. 3, sect. 2, ch. i, div. 2. ALCAZAR, or "The Three Kings," Battle of (1578 or 1570). See Morocco: 647-1860; Portu- gal: 1579-1580. ALCEDO, United States patrol boat sunk by a German submarine during the World War. See World War: 1Q17: IX. Naval operations: c, 4. ALCESTER, Frederick Beauchamp Paget Seymour, Baron (1821-1895), British admiral. Commanded the naval brigade in New Zealand during the Maori War; commanded the squadron sent to Albania in 1880 to compel the Porte to cede Dulcigno to Montenegro; commander of the British fleet at the bombardment of Alexandria, 1882. ALCHEMY.— "The term 'alchemy,' or, as it was spelt until the nineteenth century, alchymy, derived from the Arabic, is said to have come originally from a Greek word (chyma) signifying things melted and poured out. It is more probably derived from Kliem, 'the land of Egypt,' which was so named from the dark colour of its soil, composed of crumbling syenite. Alchemy, accord- ing to this derivation, is the 'art of the black country,' the Black Art. In Egypt it was carried to a high degree of development, and consequently this theory of the origin of the name receives sup- port from the philological character of the deriva- tives — al, the .Arabic definite article, and Khem, dark — because the term first came into use when the Arabian Mohammedans dominated Egypt, learned the secrets of the temple laboratories, and spread throughout the civilized parts of Western Europe the knowledge they had thus acquired. The application of the term has frequently, but wrongfully, been restricted to the pretended arts of making gold and silver, and the more profitable arts of adulterating and of imitating gold. It had, however, a wider application, and ought to be regarded as including all the arts known in an- cient times, which dealt with things now compre- hended in the science of chemistry." — J. C. Brown, History of chemistry, p. 2. — See also Chemistry, Practiced by Arabs. See Science: .\ncient: Arabian Science. ALCHUINE. See Alcuin, ALCIBIADES (c, 450-404 B.C.), Athenian politician and general. Commander of the Athe- nians in the enterprise against Syracuse. To escape trial for mutilation of statues, lied to Sparta where he arranged an alliance with Persia and an Ionian revolt against .Athens; later assisted the .Athenians by defeating the Lacedsmonians and returned to his native city in triumph. — See also Athens: B.C. 413-411; Greece; B. C. 421-418; 419-416; 413-412; 411-407; Syracuse: B.C. 415-413. ALCLYDE. — Rhydderch, a Cumbrian prince of the sixth century who was the victor in a civil conflict, "fixed his headquarters on a rock in the Clyde, called in the Welsh Alclud [previously a Roman town known as Theodosia], whence it was known to the EnglLsh for a time as Alclyde ; but the Goidels called it Dunbrettan, or the fortress of the Brythons, which has prevailed in the slightly modified form of Dumbarton. . . . Alclyde was more than once destroyed by the Northmen." — J. Rhvs, Celtic Britain, ch. 4. — See also Cumbria. ALCMAEONIDAE, a distinguished family in Athens. The family was banished about 596 B. C, for the slaying of Cylon by Archon Megacles ; re- turned in 510 through the aid of Sparta. To this family belonged Clisthenes, Pericles and ."Mcibiades. — See also .\thens: B.C. 612-595; Greece; B, C, Sth-5th centuries. ALCOCK, Captain Sir John William, mem- ber of the Royal .Mr Force, decorated in IQ19 for first crossing the .Atlantic in an airplane, from Newfoundland to Clifden, Ireland. [See Avia- tion: Important flights since igoo: 1919 (June).] Alcock was created knight in 1919. He died Dec. 1 8 of the same vear. ALCOCK, Sir Rutherford (1809-1897), Eng- lish diplomat. Consul to China, 1844-1846; con- sul-general in Japan, 1846-1865, where he stayed through the period of feudal anarchy. Served as minister plenipotentiary to Peking until 1871. Brought the art of Japan to the world's no- tice. ALCOHOL PROBLEM. See Liquor problem. ALCOLEA, Battle of (1868). See Spain: 1868-1873. ALCORTA, Jos§ Figueroa, President of Ar- gentine republic, 1906-1910. See Acre disputes. ALCUIN, or Albinus Flaccus (735-804), cele- brated English prelate and scholar at the time of Charlemagne; active in ecclesiastical and literary movements on the Continent ; writer of many learned treatises on grammar, rhetoric, theology and philosophy; at Troyes from 78 j to 790; his school conducted for Charlemagne and his en- tourage, was instrumental in introducing Latin cul- ture (see School of the palace, Charlemagne's) ; spent last years as abbot at Tours; a facile writer of prose and verse, and the leading intellectual figure of the Carolingian Renaissance. — See also Annals: French, German, Italian and Spanish an- nals; Christianity: 597-800: English church; Edu- cation: Medieval: 724-814; Charlemagne and Alcuin, ALDBOROUGH, England, called by the Ro- mans Isurium Brigantum. See Isurium, ALDEN, Ichabod (1739-1778), .\merican officer. See U. S. .\: 1778 (June-November). ALDEN, John (1599-1687), one of the Pilgrim Fathers, who emigrated to .America in the May- flower in 1620. One of the first settlers of Dux- bury. Of great assistance in the government of 202 ALDERNEY ISLAND the colony, and the last male survivor of the origi- nal group. The romance of his marriage to Pris- cilla Mullens was the theme of Longfellow's poem "The Courtship of Miles Standish " ALDERNEY ISLAND. See Channel islands ALDERSHOT COMMAND, the body of troops stationed at the great military camp estab- lished in 1855 at Aldershot, Hampshire, England. The permanent force is made up of troops avail- able for service with the first army corps ALDERSON, Sir Edwin Alfred Herrey (1859- ), British Lieutenant-general. See World War: igis: II. Western front: c, 11. ALDIE, Battle of. See U. S. A.: 1863 (June- July: Pennsylvania ) . ALDINE PRESS. See Printinc and the Press: 1460-1515. ALDOBRANDINI, Florentine family. See Rome: 1600-1656. ALDRED, or Ealdred (d. 1069), English arch- bishop. In 1046 led an unsuccessful expedition against the Welsh, supported the cause of Edgar the ^theling, but later submitted to William the Conqueror, and crowned the Norman king ALDRICH, Nelson Wilmarth (1841-1915), Republican member of the United States Senate from Rhode Island for thirty years; previously in the House of Representatives, 187S-1S80. He evi- denced an unusual skill in parliamentary organiza- tion as leader of the conservative faction in the Seriate; chiefly responsible for the Payne-.'^ldrich tariff act, which was received with keen disappoint- ment by tariff reformers; responsible for the en- actment of the Aldrich-Vreeland currency law. (q. V.) As chairman of the National Monetary Commission, he recommended revision of the bank- ing laws, which furnished the basis for the Federal Reserve act of 1913. See Tariff: 1909; U. S. A.: 1910 (March-June). ALDRICH-VREELAND ACT (1908), Ameri- can monetary act. "The Aldrich-Vreeland act, 1908, undertook to supply the need [of a more elastic currency] by allowing banks to issue additional notes on depositing approved state, country, or municipal bonds and by forming as- sociations with joint responsibility to issue notes secured by commercial paper. ... In the Aldrich- Vreeland act was a provision for a monetary com- mission. Senator Aldrich becoming chairman." — J. S. Bassett, Short history of the United States, p. 850. See Money and banking: Modern period: 1912-1913: Federal reserve system. ALDRINGER, Johann, Count von (1588- 1634), general in the imperial German army during the Thirty Years' War. Served under Wallenstein and Tilly, on the death of the latter (1632) suc- ceeding to his command ; fought against the Swedes on the Danube. ALEANDRO, Cirolamo (Hieronymus Alex- ander, 1480-1542), Italian ecclesiastic (cardinal) and scholar; author of a "Lexicon grjeco-latinum" (1512), etc.; was several times papal legate to Germany, and an ardent opponent of the Reforma- tion. ALEICHEM, Sholem (1859-1916), pseud, of Solomon J. Rabinowitz, Jewish author. See Jews: Language and literature. ALEMAN, Louis (c. 1390-1450), French cardinal ; member of the council of Basel where he maintained the supremacy of a council over the pope. In 1440 proclaimed the deposition of Pope Eugenius IV, elevating the antipope Felix V. ALEMANNI, or Alamanni. — 213. — Origin and first appearance. — "Under Antoninus, the Son of Severus, a new and more severe war once more (213) broke out in Raetia This also was ALEMANNI waged against the Chatti; but by their side a second people is named, which we here meet for the first time— the Alamanni. Whence they came, we know not. According to a Roman writing a little later, they were a conflux of mixed elements; the appellation also seems to point to a league of communities, as well as the fact that, afterwards, the different tribes comprehended under this name stand forth— more than is the case among the other great Germanic peoples— in their separate character, and the Juthungi, the Lentienses, and other Alamannic peoples not seldom act independ- ently. But that it is not the Germans of this region who here emerge, allied under the new name and strengthened by the alliance, is shown as well by the naming of the Alamanni along side of the Chatti, as by the mention of the unwonted skil- fulness of the Alamanni in equestrian combat. On the contrary, it was certainly, in the main, hordes coming on from the East that lent new strength to the almost extinguished German resistance on the Rhine; it is not improbable that the powerful Sem- nones, in earlier times dwelling on the middle Elbe, of whom there is no further mention after the end of the second centurv, furnished a strong contingent to the Alamanni."— T. Mommsen, His- tory of Rome, bk. 8, ch. 4.— "The standard quota- tion^respecting the derivation of the name from 'al' — 'all' and 'm-n' = 'man,' so that the word (somewhat exceptionably) denotes 'men of all sorts,' is from .'\gathias, who quotes Asinius Quadratus. . . . Notwithstanding this, I think it is an open ques- tion, whether the name may not have been applied by the truer and more unequivocal Germans of Suabia and Franconia, to certain less deiinitely Germanic allies from Wurtemberg and Baden, — parts of the Decumates Agri — parts which may have supplied a Gallic, a Gallo-Roman, or even a Slavonic element to the confederacy ; in which case, a name.so German as to have given the pres- ent French and Italian name for Germany, may, originally, have applied to a population other than Germanic. . . . The locality of the Alemanni was the parts about the Limes Romanus, a bound- ary which, in the time of Alexander Severus, Nie- buhr thinks they first broke through. Hence they were the Marchmen of the frontier, whoever those Marchmen were. Other such Marchmen were the Suevi; unless, indeed, we consider the two names as synonymous. Zeuss admits that, between the Suevi of Suabia, and the Alemanni, no tangible difference can be found." — R. G. Lathan, Germania of Tacitus; EpUegomena, sect. 11. — See also Ger- many: 3d century. Also in: T. Smith, Arminiiis, pt. 2, cli. i. 259. — Invasion of Gaul and Italy.— The Ale- manni, "hovering on the frontiers of the Empire . . . increased the general disorder that ensued after the death of Decius. They inflicted severe wounds on the rich provinces of Gaul ; they were the first who removed the veil that covered the feeble majesty of Italy. A numerous body of the .•Memanni penetrated across the Danube and through the Rhaetian Alps into the plains of Lom- bardy, advanced as far as Ravenna and displayed the victorious banners of barbarians almost in sight of Rome [259]. The insult and the danger rekindled in the senate some sparks of their ancient virtue. Both the Emperors were engaged in far distant wars — Valerian in the East and Galienus on the Rhine" The senators, however, succeeded in confronting the audacious invaders with a force which checked their advance, and they "retired into Germany laden with spoil" — E. Gibbon, His- tory of the decline and fail of the Roman empire, ch. 10. 203 ALEMANNI ALENgON 270. — Invasion of Italy. — Italy was invaded by the Alemanni, for the second time, in the reign of Aurelian, 270. They ravaged the provinces from the Danube to the Po, and were retreating, laden with spoils, when the vigorous Emperor intercepted them, on the banks of the former river. Half the host was permitted to cross the Danube ; the other half was surprised and surrounded. But these last, unable to regain their own country, broke through the Roman lines at their rear and sped into Italy again, spreading havoc as they went. It was only after three great battles, — one near Placenlia, in which the Romans were almost beaten, another on the Metaurus (where Hasdrubal was defeated), and a third near Pavia, — that the Germanic invad- ers were destroyed. — E. Gibbon, History 0) the decline and fall of the Ro"nan empire, ch. 11. — See also Barbaria.\ i.vv.hsio.ns: 3d century. 355-361.— Repulse by Julian. See Gaul: 35s- 361. 365-367.— Invasion of Gaul.— The Alemanni invaded Gaul in 305, committing widespread rav- ages and carrying away into the forests of Ger- many great spoil and many captives. The ne.vt winter they crossed the Rhine, again, in still greater numbers, defeated the Roman forces and captured the standards of the Herulian and Ba- tavian auxiliaries. But \ alentinian was now Emperor, and he adopted energetic measures. His lieutenant Jovinus overcame the invaders in a great battle fought near Chalons and drove them back to their own side of the river boundary. Two years later, the Emperor, himself, passed the Rhine and inflicted a memorable chastisement on the Alemanni. At the same time he strengthened the frontier defences, and, by diplomatic arts, fo- mented quarrels between the .Aiemanni and their neighbors, the Burgundiuns, which weak- ened both. — E. Gibbon, History of the decline and fall of the Roman empire, ch. 25. 378. — Defeat by Gratian. — On learning that the young Emperor Gratian was preparing to lead the military force of Gaul and the West to the help of his uncle and colleague, X'alens, against the Goths, the Alemanni swarmed across the Rhine into Gaul. Gratian instantly recalled the legions that were marching to Pannonia and en- countered the German invaders in a great battle fought near Argentaria (modern Colmar) in the month of May, .\. D. 378. The .Memanni were routed with such slaughter that no more than S.ooo out of 40,000 to 70,000, are said to have escaped. Gratian afterwards crossed the Rhine and humbled his troublesome neighbors in their own country. — E. Gibbon, History of the decline and fall of the Roman empire, ch. 26. 496-504. — Overthrow by the" Franks. — "In the year 4g6 the Salians ISalian Franks 1 began that career of conquest which they followed up with scarcely any intermission until the death of their warrior king. The Alemanni, extending them- selves from their original seats on the right bank of the Rhine, between the Main and the Danube, had pushed forward into Germanica Prima, where they came into collision with the prankish sub- jects of King Sigebert of Cologne. Clovis flew to the assistance of his kinsman and defeated the Alemanni in a great battle in the neighbourhood of Ziilpich [called, commonly, the battle of Tol- biac]. He then established a considerable number of his Franks in the territory of the Alemanni. the traces of whose residence are found in the names of Franconia and Frankfort." — W. C. Perry, The Franks, ch. 2. — "Clovis had been in- tending to cross the Rhine, but the hosts of the Alamanni came upon him, as it seems, unexpvct- 204 edly and forced a battle on the left bank of the river. He seemed to be overmatched, and the horror of an impending defeat overshadowed the Frankish king. Then, in his despair, he bethought himself of the God of Clotiiaa [his queen, a Bur- gundian Christian princess, of the orthodox or Catholic faith]. Raising his eyes to heaven, he said: 'Oh Jesus Christ, whom Clotilda declares to be the Son of the living God, who art said to give help to those who are in trouble and who trust in Thee, I humbly beseech Thy succor ! I have called on my gods and they are far from my help. If Thou wilt deliver me from mine ene- mies, I will believe in Thee, and be baptised in Thy name.' At this moment, a sudden change was seen in the fortunes of the Franks. The .Ala- manni began to waver, they turned, they fled. Their king, according to one account was slain; and the nation seems to have accepted Clovis as its over-lord." The following Christmas day Clo- vis was baptised at Reims and 3,000 of his war- riors followed the royal example. "In the early years of the new century, probably about 503 or 504, Clovis was again at war with his old ene- mies, the .Alamanni. . . . Clovis moved his army into their territories and won a victory mucli more decisive, though less famous than that of 406. This time the angry king would make no such easy terms as he had done before. From their pleasant dwellings by the Main and the Neckar, from all the valley of the Middle Rhine, the terrified .Alamanni were forced to flee. Their place was taken by Frankish settlers, from whom all this district received in the Middle .Ages the name of the Duchy of Francia, or, at a rather later date, that of the Circle of Franconia. The .Ala- manni, with their wives and children, a broken and dispirited host, moved southward to the shores of the Lake of Constance and entered the old Roman province of Rhastia. Here they were on what was held to be, in a sense, Italian ground; and the arm of Theodoric, as ruler of Italy, as successor to the Emperors of the West, was stretched forth to protect them. . . . Eastern Switzerland, Western Tyrol. Southern Baden and WiJrtemberg and Southwestern Bavaria probably formed this new .Alamannia, which will figure in later history as the 'Ducatus Alamanniae.' or the Circle of Swabia." — T. Hodgkin, Italy and her in- vaders, bk. 4, ch. p. — See also Suevi: 460-500; F'ranks: 4S1-511; SwiTZERtAND: Celtic inhabitants; ist-3d centuries; Europe: Ethnology: Migrations: Map showing Barbaric migrations. 528-729. — Struggles against the Frank domin- ion. See Ger.manv: 4S1-768. 547. — Final subjection to the Franks. See Bavaria: 547. .Also in: P. Godwin, History of France: Ancient Gaul, bk. 3, ch. 11. ALEMANNIA: Mediaeval duchy. See Ger- many: 843-002. ALEN^ON, Counts and dukes of.— First line founded by Yves, lord of Belesmc, who fortified the town of .AIen(;on in tenth century. All his successors were involved in the wars of the kings of England, in Normandy. Mabille, countess of .AIeni;on and heiress of this family, married Roger de Montgomery, and thus a second house of Alen- i;on was started, which became extinct with the death of Robert IV. Established in a third house in the person of Charles of Valois, it was raised to a peerage in 1367 and into a dukedom in 1414. John, first duke of .Alen(;on, was killed at Agin- court on October 25, 141 s, after having killed the duke of York. The dukedom reverted back to the crown in 1524, was given to Catherine de ALEPPO ALEXANDER Medici in 1559, and as an appanage to her son Francis in 1566. Henry IV pawned it to the duke of Wiirtembcrg, and, by grant of Louis XIII, it passed to Gaston, duke of Orleans. ALEPPO (Haleb), a vilayet of the former Turkish empire including northern Syria and northwestern Mesopotamia. The city of the same name is the junction point of the Bagdad and Hejaz railways, and with the surrounding ter- ritory was captured by General Allenby in igi8. Location. See Arabu: Map; Turkey: Map of Asia Minor. 637. — Surrender to Moslems. See Caliphate: 632-639. 638-969. — Taken by the Arab followers of Mo- hammed in 638, this city was recovered by the Byzantines in 969. See Byzantine empire; 963- 1025. 1260. — Destruction by the Mongols. — The Mongols, under Khulagu, or Houlagou, brother of Mangu Khan, having overrun Mesopotamia nnd extinguished the caliphate at Bagdad, crossed the Euphrates in the spring of 1260 and advanced to Aleppo. The city was taken after a siege of seven days and given up for five days to pillage and slaughter. "When the carnage ceased, the streets were cumbered with corpses. ... It is said that 100,000 women and children were sold as slaves. The walls of Aleppo were razed, its mosques destroyed, and its gardens ravaged." Damascus submitted and was spared. Khulagu was meditating, it is said, the conquest of Jeru- salem, when news of the death of the Great Khan called him to the east. — H. H. Howorth, History of the Mongols, pp. 200-211. 1401. — Sack and massacre by Timur. See TiMUR. 16th-18th centuries. — Conquest by the Otto- mans. — Revival of trade. — Under the strong rule of the Ottomans, who took possession of Aleppo in 1517, its trade with the East revived and in- creased. In the reign of James I one of the first provincial factories and consulates of the British Turkey Company was established there. It was long the eastern outpost of the company's opera- tions, and was connected by private postal serv- ice with the western outpost of the East India Company in Bagdad. Aleppo's importance in trade was first diminished by the discovery of the Cape route to India; the opening of a land route through Egypt to the Red sea lessened it further; and the making of the Suez canal struck the final blow. 1916 (May). — Declared independent with French and English spheres of influence. See Syria: 1908-1921. 1918. — Captured and occupied by British. See World War: 1918: VI. Turkish theater: c, 13 and 24. ALERIA, Naval battle of (537 B.C.). See Rome: Ancient kingdom: B.C. 753-510. ALESIA, ancient name for a hill in central France now Alise-Ste.-Reine, where in 52 B. C. Ciesar besieged Vercingctorix, forced him to sur- render and completed the conquest of Gaul. Ex- cavations of the siege works were made by Napo- leon III. See Gaul: B.C. 58-51. ALESSANDRI, Arturo, president of Chile, 1920. As the result of a disputed election in 1920, a court of honor was appointed, and after careful examination, Seiior Alessandri was declared elected. The result was accepted by the people. — See also Chile: 1920 (June). ALESSANDRIA: Creation of the city (1168). See Italy: i 174- it 83. ALEUTIAN ISLANDS, a chain of islands ex- tending westward from the coast of Alaska into the Pacific ocean. See Alaska: Map. Inhabitants. Sec Eskimauan family. 1741.— Bering's exploration.— Russian claims. See Oregon: 1741-1836. ALEXANDER I, pope (A. D. 106-115). Alexander II, pope, 1061-1073 coadjutor of Hildebrand in suppressing simony ; was threat- ened by the pretentions of the German anti-pope Honorarius II, who was soon deposed. Alexander III, pope, 1159-1181; opposed Fred- erick Barbarossa who withheld recognition of him as pope until 1177. Held the third Lateran Synod; humbled Henry II of England in the Thomas Becket affair; confirmed the kingship of Alphonso I of Portugal; excommunicated William the Lion of Scotland and laid the interdict on that coun- try. — See also Italy: 1154-1162 to 1174-1183; Papacy: 1122-1250; Venice: 1177. Alexander IV, pope, 1254-1261 ; opposed the Hohenstaufens under Conradin and Manfred ; tried to unite the Greek and Latin churches; es- tablished the Inquisition in France; attempted to organize a Crusade against the Tatars. See Ve- rona: 1236-1259. Alexander V, pope, 1409-1410; promoted the council of Pisa, which elected him to supersede the two rival claimants to the papal succession in order to effect a solution of the Great Schism; conferred investiture of the kingdom of Sicily on Louis II of Anjou. — See also Papacy: 1377- 1417. Alexander VI, pope, 1492- 1503, lived a purely secular life, using all his power to gain wealth and station for his children. Intervened in the Franco-Spanish quarrels over the possession of Naples; attempted the conquest of central Italy. Crushed the power of several of the great fami- lies of Italy; patron of Italian art. — See also Papacy: 1471-1513; America: 1492; 1493; Flor- ence: 1490-1498. Alexander VII, pope, 1655-1667, patron of literature and art; favored the Jesuits; carried on protracted controversies with France and Portu- gal. — See also Papacy: 1644-1667; Port Royal and THE Jansenists: 1602-1700. Alexander VIII, pope, 1689-1691, condemned the proclamation of the liberties of the Galilean church made in 1682; indulged in nepotism; con- demned the Jesuit doctrine of philosophic sin. Alexander, of Battenberg (1857-1893). Made prince of Bulgaria in 1879 through the influence of the Russian tsar. In 1881 assumed absolute power, but restored the constitution in 1883; as- sumed the government of the revolted East Rume- lia in 1885, causing a war with Serbia which' he closed successfully ; was forced by Russian influ- ence to abdicate in 1886. — See also Bulgaria: 1885-1886; 1879. Alexander III, the Great (356-323 B.C.), king of Macedon. Was ambitious to establish a Pan- hellenic empire; subdued Greece, the greater part of Asia Minor, and Egypt, where he founded the city that bears his name. Completely routed the Persians under Darius, and extended his empire to India. Attempted to fuse Oriental and Greek civilizations. — Sec also Asia: B.C. 334-A. D. 1498; Athens: B. C. 336-322 ; Egypt: B. C. 332 ; 332-322 ; Gaza: B.C. 332; Gordian knot; Greece: B.C. 336-335; India: B.C. 327-312; Macedonia: B.C. 334-330; B.C. 330-323; Persepolis: B.C. 330; Rhodes, Island of: B.C. 332; Samaria: Change of population by Alexander the Great; Sidon; Tyre: B.C. 332. Alexander (1893-1920), king of Greece, second son of king Constantine, whom he succeeded on 20: ALEXANDER ALEXANDRIA, B.C. 332 his abdication, June, igt?. Died, October, 1920. See Greece: 1916; 1920-1021; World War: iqi7: V: Balkan theatre: a, 1; a, 5; a, 7. Alexander (1461-1506), IcinK of Poland, 1501- 1507. The parsimony of the Polish nobles, who controlled the mint, forced him to sue for peace with Russia, and assisted Prussia and Moldavia in their efforts to secure their freedom. See Po- land: 1333-1572 Alexander I (Aleksander Pavlovich) (1777- 1825), tsar of Russia, 1801-1825. Posed as a re- former, but did little; made war on Napoleon, but became his ally at Tilsit. Took Finland from the Swedes (1809). After Napoleon's downfall, formed the Holy Alliance; was patron of liberal government in Europe until 1818 when Metter- nich gained influence over him ; refused aid to the Greeks, but later threatened war upon Turkey. — See also Austrl\: 1809-1814 ; Holy Alliance; Russia; 1801 ; 1807-1820. Alexander II (1818-1881), tsar of Russia. Came to the throne 1855. In 1861 emancipated the serfs, retaining the communal system ; organized the army and navy ; drew up a new judicial ad- ministration, a new penal code, a system of rural government. Made war on Turkey 1877 to pro- tect Christians in the east, but lost much of his gain at the Congress of Berlin. Assassinated, March 13, 1881. See Europe: Modern period: Russia in the 19th century; Russia: 1879-1881. Alexander III (1845-1894), tsar of Russia. A firm believer in autocracy and an ardent Slavo- phil. Annulled his father's reforms in local gov- ernment, centralizing the imperial administration. He was the father of the last Russian tsar, Nich- olas II. — See also Europe: Modern period: Russia in the loth century; Russu: 1881-1894; 1894. Alexander I (1078-1124) king of Scotland, son of Malcolm Canmore and Margaret, sister of Edgar the .-Etheling ; brother of Edgar whom he succeeded to the Scottish throne in 1107. He married Sibylla, daughter of Henry I of England. Gained the title of "the Fierce" by his ruthless suppression of an insurrection in his northern dominion. Alexander II (1198-1240), king of Scotland, son of William the Lion, whom he succeeded in 1214; surnamed "the Peaceful." Led an army into England to support the English barons against John in their struggle for Magna Carta. Alexander III (i 241 -1285), king of Scotland, son of Alexander II, whom he succeeded in 1249 Mar- ried Princess Margaret, eldest daughter of Henry III of England in 1251; defeated the Norwegians in their attempt at invasion in 1263. Alexander (il, 323 B.C.), Greek painter. See Painting: Greek. ALEXANDER, The Great. See .Alexander UI (356-323 B.C.). ALEXANDER, Sir James Edward (1S03- 1885), British soldier, traveler and author. Served in the war against Burma (1825); conducted an exploring expedition into .Africa 1836-18^7. ALEXANDER, Joshua Willis (1S52- ), appointed secretary of commerce. See \J. S. A: 1919-1920. ALEXANDER, Sir William (1567-1640) See America; Map of early colonial grants; New Eng- land: 1621-1631; Nova Scotia: 1621-1668. ALEXANDER OF HALES (d. 1245). English theologian Received a doctor's degree at Paris where he was a celebrated teacher Hi? work, the "Summa Theologiae," formulates a system of edu- cation and is the first philosophical contribution of the Franciscan order, which Alexander had entered in 1222. ALEXANDER JANNAEUS (d. 76 B.C.), king of the Jews. See Gaza: B. C. 100 ALEXANDER KARAGEORGEVICH, prince- regent of Serbia and successor of Peter I, as king of the United Kingdom of Jugo-Slavia (1888- ); distinguished himself in the national struggle against .'\ustria and Bulgaria, 1914-1918. ALEXANDER NEVSKY, Saint (1220-1263), grand duke of Vladimir. Fought against Germans, Swedes and Lithuanians, who attacked Russia after the Tatar invasions, in 1262, to prevent a revolt, induced the Tatars to lighten the yearly tribute and abolish military service rendered by the Russians to the Tatars. ALEXANDER OBRENOVICH (1876-1903), king of Serbia, 1889-1903; in 1893 overthrew the regency and took authority into his own hands Restored the conservative constitution of i86g To appease the people's anger at his marriage to a lady of the court, granted a bi-cameral legisla- ture; was assassinated with his consort by revo- lutionists, June II, 1903. See Serbia: 1885-190^ ALEXANDER SEVERUS (AD. 209-235). Roman emperor. Defeated .\rtaxerxes, king of Persia; defended his borders from the German in- vaders; killed in an insurrection in the army; though a pagan, reverenced the teachings of Christianity. See Rome: 192-284. ALEXANDER-SINCLAIR, Sir Edwyn Sin- clair (1867- ), Rear-admiral served in battle of Jutland. See World War: igi6: IX. Naval opera- tions: a. ALEXANDERSON. Ernst Fredrik 'Werner (1878- ). See Electrical discovery: Telegra- phy and telephony: Alexanderson alternator. ALEXANDRA FEODOROVNA, Princess .Mix of Hesse (1872-1918), last empress of Russia through marriage to Tsar Nicholas II in 1894; was a grand daughter of Queen Victoria ; was made prisoner by the Soviet government, and put to death with her husband and children. See Rus- sia: 1916: Opposition of Duma to cabinet. ALEXANDRETTA, or Iskanderun, a town of North Syria, the key to Beisan Pass; scene of the victory of Ibrahim Pasha in 1832 which opened Cilicia to his advance. 1920. — Recognized as of international interest by treaty of Sevres. See Sevres, Treaty of: 1020: Contents of treaty: Part XI. Ports, water- ways and railways 1921. — French administration. See Sevres, Treaty of: 1921: Secret pact of France with Turkey ALEXANDRIA.— B. C. 332.— Founding of the city. — "When Alexander reached the Egyptian military station at the little town or village of Rhakotis, he saw with the quick eye of a great commander how to turn this petty settlement into a great city, and to make its roadstead, out of which ships could be blown by a change of wind, into a double harbour roomy enough to shelter the navies of the world. .Ml that was needed was to join the island by a mole to the continent The site was admirably secure and convenient, a narrow strip of land between the Mediterranean and the great inland Lake Mareotis. The whole northern side faced the two harbours, which were bounded east and west by the mole, and beyond by the long, narrow rocky island of Pharos, stretching parallel with the coast On the south was the inland port of Lake Mareotis The length of the city was more than three miles, the breadth more than three-quarters of a mile; the mole w^ above thref-quarters of a mile long and six hundred feet broad; its breadth is now doubled, owing to the silting up of the sand. Modern Alexandria until lately only occupied the mole, 206 ALEXANDRIA, B.C. 304 ALEXANDRIA, B.C. 282-246 and was a great town in a corner of the space which Alexander, with large provision for the future, measured out. The form of the new city was ruled by that of the site, but the fancy of Alexander designed it in the shape of a Mace- donian cloak or chlamys, such as a national hero wears on the coins of the kings of Maccdon, his ancestors The situation is excellent for commerce. .Alexandria, with the best Egyptian harbour on the Mediterranean, and the inland port connected with the Nile streams and canals, was the natural emporium of the Indian trade. Port Said is supe- rior now, because of its grand artificial port and the advantage for steamships of an unbroken sea- route." — R S. Poole, Cities oj Egypt, ch. 12. — See also Macedonia, &c.: B. C. 334-330; and Egypt: B. C. ir- B. C. 304. — Antigonus and Demetrius make war on Ptolemy. — Rhodes sends fleet to aid Egyptian king. See Rhodes, Island of: B. C. 304. B.C. 282-246.— Reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus. — Greatness and splendor of the city. — Com- merce. — Libraries. — Museum. — Schools. — Ptolemy Philadelphus, son of Ptolemy Soter, suc- ceeded to the throne of Egypt in 282 B. C. when his father retired from it in his favor, and reigned until 246 B. C. "Alexandria, founded by the great conqueror, increased and beautified by Ptolemy Soter, was now far the greatest city of Alexan- der's Empire. It was the first of those new foun- dations which are a marked feature in Hellenism; there were many others of great size and impor- tance — above all, Antioch, then Seleucia on the Tigris, then Nicomedia, Nica^a, Apamea, which lasted; besides such as Lysimacheia, Antigoneia, and others, which early disappeared, . . . Alexan- dria was the model for all the rest. The inter- section of two great principal thoroughfares, adorned with colonnades for the footways, formed the centre point, the omphalos of the city. The other streets were at right angles with these thoroughfares, so that the whole place was quite regular. Counting its old part, Rhakotis, which was still the habitation of native Egyptians, Alex- andria had five quarters, one at least devoted to Jews who had originally settled there in great numbers. The mixed population there of Mace- donians, Greeks, Jews, and Egyptians gave a pe- luliarly complex and variable character to the population. Let us not forget the vast number of strangers from all parts of the world whom trade and politics brought there It was the great mart where the wealth of Europe and of Asia changed hands. .Alexander had opened the sea- way by exploring the coasts of Media and Persia Caravans from the head of the Persian Gulf, and ships on the Red Sea, brought all the wonders of Ceylon and China, as well as of Further India, to .Alexandria. There, too, the wealth of Spain and Gaul, the produce of Italy and Macedonia, the amber of the Baltic and the salt fish of Pontus, the silver of Spain and the copper of Cyprus, the timber of Macedonia and Crete, the pottery and oil of Greece — a thousand imports from all the Mediterranean — came to be exchanged for the spices of Arabia, the splendid birds and embroider- ies of India and Ceylon, the gold and ivory of Africa, the antelopes, the apes, the leopards, the elephants of tropical climes. Hence the enormous wealth of the Lagidje, for in addition to the mar- vellous fertility and great population — it is said to have been seven millions — of Egypt, they made all the profits of this enormous carrying trade. We gain a good idea of what the splendours of the capital were by the very full account preserved to us by Athenaeus of the great feast which inaugu- rated the reign of Philadelphuf. ... All this seems idle pomp, and the doing of an idle syba- rite. Philadelphus was anything but that. ... It was he who opened up the Egyptian trade with Italy, and made Puteoli the great port for ships from Alexandria, which it remained for centuries. It was he who explored Ethiopia and the southern parts of Africa, and brought back not only the curious fauna to his zoological gardens, but the first knowledge of the Troglodytes for men of science. The cultivation of science and of letters too was so remarkably one of his pursuits that the progress of the Alexandria of his day forms an epoch jn the world's history, and we must sepa- jate his University and its professors from this summary, and devote to them a separate section. . . . The history of the organization of the Uni- versity and its staff is covered with almost im- penetrable mist. For the Museum and Library were in the strictest sense what we should now call an University, and one, too, of the Oxford type, where learned men were invited to take Fellowships, and spend their learned leisure close to observatories in science, and a great library of books. Like the mediaeval universities, this en- dowment of research naturally turned into an engine for teaching, as all who desired knowledge flocked to such a centre, and persuaded the Fel- low to become a Tutor. The model came from Athens. There the schools, beginning with the .Academy of Plato, had a fixed property — a home with its surrounding garden, and in order to make this foundation sure, it was made a shrine where the Muses were worshipped, and where the head of the school, or a priest appointed, performed stated sacrifices. This, then, being held in trust by the successors of the donor, who bequeathed it to them, was a property which it would have been sacrilegious to invade, and so the title Museum arose for a school of learning. Demetrius the Phalerean, the friend and protector of Theophras- tus, brought this idea with him to Alexandria, when his namesake drove him into exile and it was no doubt his advice to the first Ptolemy which originated the great foundation, though Philadel- phus, who again exiled Demetrius, gets the credit of it. The pupil of Aristotle moreover impressed on the king the necessity of storing up in one central repository all that the world knew or could produce, in order to ascertain the laws of things from a proper analysis of detail. Hence was founded not only the great library, which in those days had a thousand times the value a great library has now, but also observatories, zoologi- cal gardens, collections of exotic plants, and of other new and strange things brought by exploring expeditions from the furthest regions of Arabia and Africa. This library and museum proved indeed a home for the Muses, and about it a most brilliant group of students in literature and science was formed. The successive librarians were Zcnodotus, the grammarian or critic; Callimachus, to whose poems we shall presently return ; Eratosthenes, the astronomer, who originated the process by which the size of the earth is determined to-day ; .Appol- lonius the Rhodian, disciple and enemy of Calli- machus; Aristophanes of Byzantium, founder of a school of philological criticism; and Aristarchus of Samos, reputed to have been the greatest critic of ancient times. The study of the text of Homer was the chief labour of Zenodotus, Aristophanes, and Aristarchus, and it was Aristarchus who mainly fixed the form in which the Iliad and Odyssey remain to this day. . . The vast collec- tions of the library and museum actually deter- mined the whole character of the literature of 207 ALEXANDRIA, B.C. 282-246 ALEXANDRIA, B.C. 48-47 Alexandria. One word sums it all up — erudition, whether in philosophy, in criticism, in science, even in poetry. Strange to say, they neglected not only oratory, for which there was no scope, but history, and this we may attribute to the fact that history before .Alexander had no charms for Hel- lenism. Mythical lore, on the oth;r hand, strange uses and curious words, were departments of re- search dear to them. In science they did great things, so did they in geography. . . . But weie they original in nothing? Did they add nothmg of their own to the splendid record of Greek litera- ture? In the next generation came the art of criticism, which .Aristarchus developed into a real science, and of that we may speak in its* place; but even in this generation we may claim for them the credit of three original, or nearly original, de- velopments in literature — the pastoral idyll, as we have it in Theocritus; the elegy, as we have it in the Roman imitators of Philetas and Callimachus; and the romance, or love story, the parent of our modern novels. .'\ll these had early prototypes in the folk songs of Sicily, in the love songs of Mim- nermus and of .^ntimachus, in the tales of Miletus, but still the revival was fairly to be called origi- nal. Of these the pastoral idyll was far the most remarkable, and laid hold upon the world for ever." — J. P. Mahaffy, Story of Alexavder's em- pire, ch. 13-14. — "Tbere were two Libraries of Alexandria under the Ptolemies, the larger one in the quarter called the Bruchium, and the smaller one, named 'the daughter,' in the Serapeum. which was situated in the quarter called Rhacotis. The former was totally destroyed in the conflagration of the Bruchium during Cssar's Alexandrian War fsee below: 48-47 B. C] ; but the latter, which was of great vahie, remained uninjured (see J. Mat- ter, Essai Itistorique siir I'Ecole d'Alexandric, v. i, p. 133 seg., 237 seq.). It is not stated by any ancient writer where the collection of Pcrgamus was placed, which Antony gave to Cleopatra (Plutarch, Anton., c. 58) ; but it is most probable that it was deposited in the Bruchium, as that quarter of the city was now without a library, and the queen was anxious to repair the ravage; occa- sioned by the civil war. If this supposition is cor- rect, two Alexandrian libraries continued to exist after the time of Cfesar, and this is rendered still more probable by the fact that during the first three centuries of the Christian era the Bruchium was still the literary quarter of .Alexandria. But a great change took place in the time of .■\ureli3n. This Emperor, in suppressing the revolt of Firmus in Egypt, A.D. 273 [see below: 273I is said to have destroyed the Bruchium : and though this statement is hardly to be taken literally, the Bruchium ceased from this time to be included within the walls of .Mexandria, and was regarded only as a suburb of the city. Whether the great library in the Bruchium with the museum and its other literary establishments, perished at this time, we do not know; but the Scrapcum for the next century takes its place as the literary quarter of Alexandria, and becomes the chief library in the city. Hence later writers erroneously speak of the Serapeum as if it had been from the beginning the great Alexanddan library. . . . Gibbon seems to think that the whole of the Serapeum was de- stroyed [38q, by order of the Emperor Theodo- sius — see below! ; but this was not the case. It would appear that it was only 'M'l sanctuarv of the god that was levelled with the ground, and that the library, the halls and other buildings in the consecrated ground remained standing long afterwards." — E. Gibbon, History of the decline and fall of the Ronian empire, ch. 2S. Notes by Dr. William Smith.- — Concerning the reputed final destruction of the library by the Moslems, see below; A.D. 641-646. — See also Education: An- cient: .Alexandria; Europe; Historic period; Spread of Hellenism; Hellenism: Hellenism and Alexan- dria; iNVExnoNs: Greek; Libraries: Ancient Alex- andria; Painting: Greek. .Also in: O. Delepierre, Historical difficulties and contested events, ch. 3. — S. Sharpe, History of l^Sypty <"''• 7' 8 and 12. "If we consider in its large features what the early Hellenistic period has done for us in litera- ture, we may divide its action into the care and preservation of Hellenic masterpieces, and the pro- duction of works of its own. .As regards the former, there can be no douiit that the creation of the great cosmopolitan library at .Alexandria, and the great trade in books which came thence, were the greatest acts of protection ever done for the greatest literature the world has seen. And not only were all the masterpieces of the Golden .Age sought out and catalogued, but the chief librarian made it his business to publish critical studies on the purity of the texts, and to see that the .Alex- andrian text represented the best and soundest tra- dition. ... So there was collected at this wonder- ful library all that was rare and precious, ordered and catalogued by competent scholars. I go a step farther, and say that, though we have no explicit record telling us the fact, there must have been some regular permission to copv books in the library, and, multiplying them by slave hands, to disperse them by way of trade all over the Greek- speaking world." — See also Greece, Literature of: Development of philosophical Ulerature. — "We have from Alexandria, Theocritus, and we have the love- novel. I will here add a word upon two more of these poets. . . . The first is Aratus, who was in- deed a Hellenistic, but not an .Alexandrian, poet, whose didactic work on the astronomy of use for navigation, and on the signs of the weather of use for farming, has survived to us complete. . . . Wc still possess the Argonautics of ApoUonius the Rhodian — a pedant-poet of the same generation. In the midst of pages of tedious prolixity, which have forever damned the popularity of the work, occurs the great episode of the meeting and love at first sight of Medea and Jason. The treat- ment of this world-w'ide, but never world-worn, theme is so wholly fresh, so wholly un-Hellenic, that it requires no subtle criticism to see in it the broad light of the oriental love-novel which had first dawned in the East upon the companions of .Alexander. It is no longer the physical, but the sentimental side of that passion which interests the poet and his readers. The actual marriage of the lovers is but an episode, in which the surrounding anxieties and the unhappy omens take the foremost place." — J. P. Mahaffy, Story of Alexander's em- pire, p. 100. B.C. 48-47. — Caesar and Cleopatra. — Rising against the Romans. — Siege. — Destruction of the great library. — Roman victory. — From the battle field of Pharsalia Pompey fled to .Alexandria tn Egypt, and was treacherously murdered as he stepped on shore. C- for their own protection and for the safety of the United States. ' Restrictions in United States.— These were prescribed by the President in his proclamations of April 6 and' November 16, 1017, by virtue of au- thority conferred upon him by paragraphs 4067- 4070 of the Revised Statutes. By the earlier proc lamation alien enemies were forbidden to have in their possession any firearms, ammunition, explo- sives, wireless apparatus or parts thereof; or to approach within one-half mile of any fort, camp, 16 © E. M. Newman COURT OF THE LIONS IN THE ALHAMBRA, GRANADA, SPAIN ALIEN IMMIGRATION LAWS ALLEGHANS arsenal, aircraft station, navel vessel, navy yard, or munitions factory; or to write, print, or publish any attack upon the Government of the United States, Congress, or any person in the service of the United States, or upon any measure of the Government ; or to abet any hostile acts against the United States, or to give its enemies informa- tion or aid and comfort. Alien enemies transgress- ing those restrictions were liable to summary ar- rest and to removal to any place designated by the President. Finally, no alien enemy could either leave or enter the United States except under restrictions to be prescribed by the President. The supplementary proclamation of November i6 for- bade alien enemies to "enter or be found within" the District of Columbia or the Panama Canal Zone; or within loo yards of any canal, wharf, pier, dry dock, warehouse, elevator, railroad ter- minal, etc.; or to be found on the waters within i miles of the shore line of the United States, or on any of the Great Lakes, except on public fer- ries; or to ascend in any airplane, balloon, etc. It also provided for the registration and issuance of registration cards to all alien enemies, with pro- hibition of change of abode or travel except on permission ; and for monthly, weekly, or other periodical report to Federal, State, or local au- thorities as might be specified. Subsequent in- structions to water-front operators provided for cooperation with United States troops in guard- ing docks, piers, warehouses, etc. — Sec also World War: 1Q17: VIII. United States and the war: e; also Alien property custodian; U. S. A.: igi7 (October) : Trading with the Enemv Act. ALIEN IMMIGRATION LAWS: Canada. See Immigration and emigration: Canada: ig20. ALIEN LAND LAWS.— In many countries laws exist limiting or prohibiting the ownership of real estate by aliens. At common law it was not allowed, but in England and in most of the States in this country the disability has been removed since 1870. Various countries for obvious military reasons prohibit alien land ownership in frontier districts. Japan prohibits the owning of land by foreigners, but seeks for her nationals a continuance of the privilege of holding land in California. In view of the referendum of 1020, by which the people of California voted in favor of prohibitmg alien land ownership, a controversy developed with Japan. There arose from this the question of the validity of state law if in seeming conflict with a national treaty. — See also California: iqoo-iq20. ALIEN LAW: Venezuela. See Venezuela: iqiQ. In Australia. See Immigration and emigra- tion: Australia: 1Q00-1021. ALIEN PROPERTY CUSTODIAN, United States, an official created during the World War by the Trading with the Enemy Act, with power to require, at his discretion, any property held within the United States for, or on behalf of, an "enemy" or "ally of enemy," to be transferred to him, and to hold the same as trustee till the end of the war. The primary purpose of the measure was to prevent the property of the enemy from being used in the service of the enemy and to safeguard well-dis- posed enemy aliens from having their property thus abused. It also put it in the power of the government to requisition easily such property when it might require the same for the prosecu- tion of the war, or even to confiscate it should Germany confiscate the property of Americans held in Germany. The provisions of the act applied to patents, debts, and readv money, and the latter was expected to be invested in Liberty Bonds. It should be added that German subjects and the subjects of her allies, resident in the United States, did not, from the mere fact of their nationality, fall within the operation of the act.— See also U. S. A.: 1917 (Oct.): Trading with the Enemy Act. .ALIENATION, Right of. See Common law: i2qo. ALIENS ACT: England. See Immigration and emigration: England: iqos-igoq. ALIGARH, district and city of British India. The city contains Fort Aligarh, which was stormed by the British in 1803, and the Mohammedan An- glo-Oriental College. See India: i7o8-i."- 7 vflz Ozf tii ^- O *■■ to I §5 -Its. -1 -1 >- u INSCRIPTION AT JERUSALEM l%7CENT'y B.C. UJ a: Ui I ALPHA < A A A ;\ >i CC \, •^l ^ BETA ^ B W B B a h B *7 n GAMMA -1 r C C C A c r A :i DELTA A A t> 6 ;• d A "f ^ EP5ILON <\ E E E e V e e iT TT DI6AMMA V [F] F F L r •) ^ ZETA ^ z (G) 9 K s 7. 7 T ETA N H B H 7? U h H TT rr THETA ^ e ^ XQ IOTA ^ 1 1 1 r i 1 T *> s KAPPA f K K K 1 K :7 :d LAMBDA C A U U i; 1 I A u ^ MU ^ M r^ /A /n U m M i Ji) rsiu y N K N NT 1 n N J :) (X.) $ — :7^ rl .Y > )D OMICRON o O o o <1 y ^ PI -^ n r P P t p n CJ B lv [^] :$' V COPPA ^ Q Q q d) q P P RHO ^ P p R A -J r P -7 ^ SIGMA w Z 5 S 5 e r» c V »? TAU X T T T T A T T Jl i^ UPSILOfN Y V V LC ll PHI * -1- X ^r^ CHI X X PSI y OMEGA -r\_ VY EXAMPLES OF EARLY ALPHABETS 222 ALPHABET Deciphering Hieroglyphs ALPHABET were striving toward in the sixteenth century A. D., various Oriental nations had attained at least five or six thousand years earlier. In Egypt at the time of the pyramid-builders, and in Babylonia at the same epoch, the people had developed sys- tems of writing that enabled them not merely to present a Hmited range of ideas pictorially, but to express in full elaboration and with finer shades of meaning all the ideas that pertain to highly cultured existence. The man of that time made records of military achievements, recorded the transactions of every-day business life, and gave expression to his moral and spiritual aspirations in a way strangely comparable to the manner of our own time. He had perfected highly elaborate systems of writing. Of the two ancient systems of writing just referred to as being in vogue at the so-called dawning of history, the more picturesque and suggestive was the hieroglyphic system of the Egyptians. This is a curiously conglomerate sys- tem of writing, made up in part of symbols rem- iniscent of the crudest stages of picture-writing, in part of symbols having the phonetic value of syllables, and in part of true alphabetical letters. In a word, the Egyptian writing represents in itself the elements of the various stages through which the art of writing has developed. We must con- ceive that new features were from time to time ad- ded to it. while the old features, 'curiously enough, were not given up. Here, for example, in the midst of unintelligible lines and pothooks, are various pictures that are instantly recognizable as repre- sentations of hawks, lions, ibises, and the like. It can hardly be questioned that when these pictures were first used calligraphically they were meant to represent the idea of a bird or animal. In other words, the first stage of picture-writing did not go beyond the mere representation of an eagle by the picture of an eagle. But this, obviously, would confine the presentation of ideas within very nar- row limits. In due course some inventive genius conceived the thought of syombolizing a picture To him the outUne of an eagle might represent not merely an actual bird, but the thought of strength, of courage, or of swift progress. [See also Aztec AND Maya picture writing.] Such a use of sym- Dols obviously extends the range of utility of a nascent art of writing. Then in due course some wonderful psychologist — or perhaps the joint ef- forts of many generations of psychologists — made the astounding discovery that the human voice, which seems to flow on in an unbroken stream of endlessly varied modulations and intonations, may really be analyzed into a comparatively limited number of component sounds — into a few hun- dreds of syllables. That wonderful idea conceived, it was only a matter of time until it would occur to some other enterprising genius that by selecting an arbitrary symbol to represent each one of these elementary sounds it would be possible to make a written record of the words of human speech which could be reproduced — rephonated — by some one who had never heard the words and did not know in advance what this written record con- tained. This, of course, is what every child learns to do now in the primer class, but we may feel assured that such an idea never occurred to any human being until the peculiar forms of picto- graphic writing just referred to had been practised for many centuries. Yet, as we have said, some genius of prehistoric Egypt conceived the idea and put it into practical execution, and the hierogly- phic writing of which the Egyptians were in full possession at the very beginning of what we term the historical period made use of this phonetic system along with the ideographic system already described." — H. S. Williams, History of the Al- phabet (Harper's Magazine, v. loS, pp. 534-535). Deciphering the hieroglyphs. — "Of all the splendid achievements of archaeological research during the present century, there are none of more universal interest and importance than those which are revealing the origin and history of letters. . . . .\t the beginning of the present [igj century the great mass of testimony now laid open before us was an apparently impenetrable mystery. Egyp- tian hieroglyphics and cuneiform inscriptions yet remained, for the most part, but confusion of or- nament and meaningless signs. Some little ad- vance, it is true, had been reached during the latter part of the eighteenth century, as to the signification of certain hieroglyphic characters, but these were as yet but conjecture; a groping in the dark, with no means to verify, uncertain, unas- sured. [See also Cuneiform writing.] With the opening of the present century two events occurred which were to place in the hands of scholars the keys to these mysteries. The first in date of these discoveries, through not in results, was the finding of the Rosetta Stone in 1799. This was an outcome of the French scien- tific expedition to Egypt under the first Napoleon. At this date, a French artillery officer, named Boussard, while digging among some ruins at Fort St. Julian, near Rosetta, discovered a large stone, of black basalt, covered with inscriptions. This tablet, now known as 'The Rosetta Stone,' was of irregular shape, portions having been broken from the top and sides. The inscriptions were in three kinds of writing ; the upper text in hieroglyphic characters, the second in a later form of Egyptian writing, called enchorial or demotic, and the third was in Greek. No one of these had been entirely preserved. Of the hieroglyphic text, a considerable portion was lacking; perhaps thir- teen or fourteen lines at the beginning. From the demotic, the ends of about half the lines were lost, while the Greek text was nearly perfect, with the e.xception of a few words at the end. The im- mediate inferences were that these three inscrip- tions were but different forms of the same decree, and that in the Greek would be found some clew for the decipherment of the others. It was first presented to the French Institute at Cairo where it was destined not long to remain. The sur- render of Alexandria to the British, in 1801, placed the Rosetta Stone, by the terms of the treaty, in the hands of the British commissioner. This gen- tleman, himself a zealous scholar and keenly alive to the importance of the treasure, at once dis- patched it to England, where it was presented by George III to the British Museum. A fac-simile of the inscriptions was made in 1802, by the So- ciety of Antiquaries, of London, and copies were soon distributed among the scholars of Europe. When the Greek inscription was read, it was found to be a decree by the priests of Memphis in honor of King Ptolemy Epiphanes, B. C. iqS: That, in acknowledgment of many and great benefits con- ferred upon them by this king, they had ordered this decree should be engraved upon a tablet of hard stone in hieroglyphic, enchorial and Greek characters; the first, the writing sacred to the priests; the second, the language or script of the people, and the third that of the Greeks, their rulers. Also, that this decree, so engraved, should be set up in the temples of the first, second and third orders, near the image of the ever living King. It might be supposed that with this clew the work of decipherment would be readily ac- complished. On the contrary, many of the most distinguished scholars of Europe tried, during the 223 ALPHABET Theories of Origin ALPHABET twenty following years, without success. The chief obstacle in the way was the prevailing opinion that the pictorial forms of Egyptian hieroglyphs were mainly ideographic symbols of things. In consequence, the absurd conceptions read into these characters, led all who attempted the decipher- ment of these far away from the truth. It is true that Zoega, a Danish archaeologist, and Thomas Young, an English scholar, each inde- pendently, about 1787, had made the discovery that the hieroglyphs in the ovals represented royal names, and were perhaps alphabetic ; but the sig- nification of these characters were never fully com- prehended by either of these great scholars. The claim made by the friends of Mr. Young as the first discoverer of the true methods of decipher- ment, rests upon the fact that he gave the true phonetic values to five of these characters in the spelling of the names of certain royal personages, and in 1819 published an article announcing this discovery. He seems, however, to have had so little confidence in this conception that he went no farther with it, and still later, in 1823, lost the prestige he might have gained, by the publication as his belief, that the Egyptians never made use of signs to express sound until the time of the Roman and Greek invasions of Egypt. The real work of decipherment was reserved for Champol- lion, who, born at Grenoble, in 1700, was but nine years old when the famous stone was discovered which later on was to yield to him the long lost language of the hieroglyphs. Among the characters on the Rosetta Stone, in the hieroglyphic text, were to be found certain pictorial forms enclosed in an oval. It had hitherto been suggested that these ovals contained characters signifying royal names. Were these symbolic signs, or how were they to be interpreted? Champgllion concluded that some of these signs expressed sound and were alphabetic in character. Thus, if the signs in the cartouche supposed to signify Ptolemy, could be found to be identical, letter for letter, with the Ptolemaioi of the Greek inscription, an important proof would be obtained. It so happened that on an obelisk found at Phila; there was a hieroglyphic inscription, which, according to a Greek text on the same shaft should be that of Cleopatra. If, then, the signs for P, t and / in Ptolemaios cor- responded with the signs for p, t and / in Cleo- patra, the identity of these as alphabetic signs would be confirmed. The comparison fully justi- fied his theory, and further confirmation was sup- plied by further comparisons, until he finally came into possession of hieroglyphic signs for all the consonants."— F. D. Jermain, hi the path of the alphabet, pp. q-14. Theories of origin and • development. — "At first .sight the diversity of alphabets seems as little connected as the diversity of languages. But as the labours of the philologist have gradually traced the various relations of the better-known languages one to the other, so likewise the epigraphist has dealt with the varieties of the Greek and Roman alphabets which are the more familiar, v/hilc the archaologist has yet to trace and connect the al- phabets of the less-known races, many of which were used for languages which are still unread. The more obvious questions of the origins and connections of the better-known alphabets of var- ious countries seemed to have been fairly settled and put to rest a generation ago; the more remote alphabets and the more ancient signary had not then been brought to light to complicate the sub- ject. The old traditional view of the derivation of the western alphabets from the Phoenician fitted well enough to most of the facts then known, and was readily accepted in general. Further, De Rouge's theory of the derivation of the Phcenician from the Egyptian hieratic writing of the xiith dynasty was plausible enough to content most en- quirers, though only two out of twenty-two let- ters were satisfactorily accounted for. In 1883 Isaac Taylor could safely claim that he had 'sum- marised and criticised all previous discoveries and researches as to the origin and development of alphabets' by his general outline in his work on The Alphabet: in that book a sound general basis seemed to have been reached, and only minor questions needed further discussion and adjust- ment. Yet the voice of caution was heard even then. Dr. Peile, in 1SS5, when judicially report- ing on Isaac Taylor's work, and while agreeing that 'his book deserves to be, and doubtless will be, the standard book in England on the history of the alphabet,' yet saw that other solutions might arise. He added: 'But no proof of the affilia- tion of the Phcenician alphabet can be complete without evidence from writing to fill up the long gap between the period of the Papyrus Prisse and that of the Baal Lebanon and Moabite inscriptions. In default of this it must always be possible that the Phoenician alphabet is descended from some utterly lost, non-Egyptian system of writing, traces of which may some day turn up as unex- pectedly as the- so-called Hittite hieroglyphs.' Within a generation later this possibility clearly appears to be the forecase of the real history." — W. M. Flinders Petrie, Formation of the alpliabet, pp. 1-2. "The investigation of the origin of our alphabet, always a subject of great interest, has been stimu- lated in recent years by the discovery of writing in Crete, and by the claim of Sir .Arthur Evans that this .Aegean writing was the source of the so- called Phoenician alphabet. In the midst of the present writer's work on the subject, in all too brief intervals snatched from other pressing duties, the trend of his own results has meantime received unexpected confirmation from the remarkable es- say of Dr. .\lan H. Gardiner revealing the exis- tence of a hitherto unknown script of Egyptian origin in Sinai, which may have been a form of the Proto-Semitic script, posited by Praetorius as the probable ancestor of both the Phoenician and South Semitic alphabets, .\t the same time the thoughtful remarks of Schaefer, in a discussion of the reasons for the vowelless character of the Phoenician alphabet, have likewise lent further support to the author's conviction that the old and now widely rejected hypothesis of an Egyp- tian origin of the alphabet commonly called Phoe- nician must be carefully re-examined. One of the neglected aspects of the entire problem has been its connection with the related question of the physical process and material equipment of writ- ing in the Near East. This subject has bearing, and important bearing, on the whole question of the influence of any given system of writing in the eastern Mediterranean. ... An examination of the civilizations of the Near East shows clearly that (excluding monumental documents) there were two physical processes of writing in the east- ern Mediterranean world. One, which grew up < the Nile, consisted in applying a colored fluid to a vegetable membrane ; the other, which arose in the Tigris-Euphrates world, incised or impressed its signs on a yielding or plastic surface which later hardened. Both of these methods reached the classical world: in the wax tablet for the Greek or Roman gentleman's memoranda, and in the pen, ink, and paper (papyrus) which have descended to our own day. "The early geographical line to 224 ALPHABET Theories of Origin ALPHABET be drawn between these two methods of writing may be indicated in the shortest terms by saying that the practice of incision on a plastic surface was Asiatic; the process employing pen, ink, and vegetable paper was Egyptian. ... If anyone has a lingering doubt about the Egyptian character of the writing equipment of these Aramean scribes in the Assyrian reliefs, such doubt will I am sure disappear on examination of a relief of the Ara- mean king of Samal, discovered at Senjirli by von Luschan. . . . The king is seated on his throne at the left, while before him stands his secretary, with an object under his left arm, which looks surpris- ingly like a book, but as this is impossible it may perhaps be a roll partly unrolled. In his left hand, however, he carries an unmistakable Egyptian writing outfit. . . . This Egyptian writing outfit, carried by the Aramean secretary of Samal, of course contained reed pens with a soft brush point like those we have found in Egypt. If this official were to begin taking down his lord's dictation, he would spread his papyrus paper on his left hand, as we have seen the Egyptian scribe doing, and after him the Aramean scribes on the Assyrian re- liefs. The pen would make the same broad strokes produced by the Egyptian scribe, and to settle the matter once for all it is important to notice at this point that the Aramaic ostraca found at Samaria, perhaps reaching back into the ninth century B. C, clearly show that the soft-pointed Egyptian brush pen was employed in writing them. Finally we know exactly how these Aramean docu- ments of Western Asia looked, since we have been able to hold in our hands the Elephantine papyri. The system of writing which employed pen, ink, and paper was the only one which possessed an alphabet, and which wrote that alphabet without vowels. It is evident that the pen-ink-and-paper method of writing came from Egypt into Asia and spread there at the very time when the alphabet also was appearing and coming into common use in the same region. It follows therefore that the Egyptian system of writing was in most intimate contact with the whole scribal situation in West- ern Asia, and it is highly unlikely that we can entirely dissociate the physical process and material equipment contributed by Egypt to Asia at this time from the alphabet which Asia Hkewise gained at the same time." — J. H. Breasted, Physical pro- cesses of writing in the early Orient and their re- lation to the origin of the alphabet (American Journal of Semitic Languages, July, igi6, pp. 230- 248). — See also ^gean civii-ization: Minoan age: B. C. 1200-750. "The vexed question of the origin of our alpha- bet has given rise to a long series of controversies and theories, but of recent years the matter ap- pears to have been comfortably settled among philologists. A recent discovery of great impor- tance has caused us, however, to reconsider our ideas and to push back farther into the mists of antiquity. It is, of course, a matter of common knowledge that our English alphabet is taken di- rectly from that of the ancient Greeks, who in their turn received it from the Phoenicians. It is indeed true that not later than 1,000 years before the Christian era a perfect alphabet of twenty-two consonants, but without vowels, was used upon Phoenician soil, and it is clear that Greece adopted most of the letters of this script, although possibly in an earlier stage of development than that in which we first encounter it. Some of the Greek letters, however, seem to have a closer affinity with those of another Semitic alphabet, akin to Phoenician, but used In slightly varying forms in South Arabia and Abyssinia, and generally known as South Semitic, the North Semitic being Phoeni- cian proper. The mutual relations of the North and South alphabets seem to postulate a common parent which came into existence at least anterior to 1000 B. C, and which may be called Original Semitic. Opinions differ considerably as to the origin of this hypothetical script, and a cluster of divergent theories ascribe its origin respectively to Babylonian cuneiform, Egyptian hieratic, the lately discovered Cretan, and finally a number of marks and other symbols found on Egyptian pot- tery, but certainly not Egyptian in origin. All these derivations present diificulties, and a different solution of the problem has been presented by Dr. Alan H. Gardiner, who has studied the subject exhaustively and whose researches have already been propounded by Mr. T. E. Peet. Our data are the early forms of the letters, and their names, which can be shown with great probability to be as old as the letters themselves. The signs were originally chosen on the acrophonic principle; thus, in order to represent the sound B, a com- mon object, whose name began with B — namely, BET, 'a house' — was chosen. The sign was hence called BET, which has survived in the Greek BETA. Can we see this process in its early stages? In the peninsula of Sinai, on a plateau called Serabit-el-Khadim, anciently frequented by the Egyptians for the purpose of turquoise-mining, stood a temple dedicated to the goddess Hathor, really called 'the Lady of the Turquoise.' In this temple the expedition sent by the Egypt Explora- tion Fund in 1905 discovered various monuments bearing inscriptions in an unknown script, and near the turquoise mines in the same district were found seven further inscriptions in the same writ- ing. Careful copies were made of these documents, but it was not until 1Q14 that their true significance was realized, when Dr. Alan H. Gardiner, submit- ted them to a long and minute study. It soon became manifest to Dr. Gardiner that, though the language was not Egyptian, many of the characters were taken from Egyptian hieroglyphs, but this borrowing was confined merely to the forms of the sign and not to their Egyptian values. As Semites are known from other evidence to have accompanied the Egyptian expeditions to Sinai, Dr. Gardiner argued that the new script might well be Semitic, and he proceeded to fix the values of the signs on the acrophonic principle already al- luded to. These signs being only thirty-two in number could scarcely be other than alphabetic. Having thus determined the values of fifteen signs, with their help a group of four signs which recurs in several of the texts was found to read BA'ALAT — the Semitic word for Lady, or Goddess — the evi- dent equivalent of the Hathor of the purely Egyp- tian inscriptions of this site. Dr. Gardiner and other scholars have added new readings for other groups of signs, but none of these are quite as convincing as the instance just quoted. Here, then, in Sinai, we have at a date probably earlier than 1500 B. C. a Semitic people apparently in the very act of borrowing signs from the Egyptian hieroglyphic script, in order to form on the acro- phonic principle a true alphabet which would suf- fice to write their own speech. For B they bor- rowed the Egyptian sign for 'house' because their own word BET began with the b-sound, and so on. From the very crude alphabet which these in- scriptions reveal, it is possible to trace many of the letters of the Phoenician alphabet, and thus to show that they are conventionalized forms of ob- jects selected originally from the Egyptian hiero- glyphs on the acrophonic principle. If we have not here the actual origin of the Phoenician — and 225 ALPHEUS ALPS hence of our own — alphabet, we have at least a striking example of the process to which both are due." — W. R. Dawson, Egyptian origin of the al- phabet (Asiatic Review, Jan., 1920, pp. i24-i2b). — See also Arabia: The Sabaeans; Runes; Semitic LITERATURE. Origin of the English alphabet. — "The printed letters or sound-signs which compose our alphabet are about two thousand five hundred years old. 'Roman type' we call them, and rightly so, since from Italy they came. They vary only in slight degree from the founts of the famous printers of the fifteenth century, these being imitations of the beautiful 'minuscule' (so called as being of smaller size) manuscripts of four hundred years earlier. Minuscule letters are cursive (i.e. running) forms of the curved letters about an inch long called 'uncials' (from Latin uncia, 'an inch,' or from uncus, 'crooked'), which were themselves derived from the Roman letters of the Augustan age. These Roman capitals, to which those in modern use among us correspond, are practically identical with the letters employed at Rome in the third century B. C; such, for instance, as are seen in the well-known inscriptions on the tombs of the Scipios, now among the treasures of the Vatican. These, again, do not differ very materially from forms used in the earliest existing specimens of Latin writing, which may probably be referred to the end of the fifth century B. C. Thus it appears that our English alphabet is a member of that great Latin family of alphabets, whose geographical extension was originally conterminous, or nearly so, with the limits of the Western Empire, and afterwards with the ancient obedience to the Ro- man." — E. Clodd, Story oj the alphabet, pp. 34-35. Slavonic alphabet. — Invented by Cyril and Methodius. See Russian literature: gth-i4th centuries. Russian alphabet first used by Peter the Great. See Russian literature: 1680-1752. ALPHEUS, the principal river of the Pelopon- nesus, the modern Morea. The Modern Ruphia, which rises near Asea, is for the most part a shal- low, rapid stream. It flows into the Ionian Sea. For a short space the stream flows beneath the ground, hence, the fable that it passed underneath the sea and rose in Svracuse, Sicily. ALPHONSO. See Alfonso. ALPINI: On Grappa front. See World W.\r: 1Q17: IV. Austro-Italian front: e, 5. ALPS. — The name Alps has been given to the crescent-shaped mountain system of Europe, ex- tending from Savona, Italy to Vienna, Austria. The system covers part of Italy, France, Switzer- land, Bavaria and Austria. The length of the chain along the main line is 660 miles, and the area of the surface covered by the entire range is said to be 80,000 square miles. In the main the range is a continued chain of towering mountains, with sharp, abrupt peaks. Among the rivers which flow from the slopes of the Alps are the Rhine, Rhone, Danube and Po. The loftiest and most famous summits of the Alps are. Mount Blanc (15,782 ft.); Monte Rosa (15,215 ft,); Weisshorn (14,804 ft.); Breithorn (13,685 ft.) and Matter- horn (14,780 ft.). .Metsch is the name of the larg- est glacier in the .'Mps system, being thirteen miles long. The origin of the word Alps is uncertain, writers differing between a derivation from the Celtic root "alb" (height), and the Latin adjective "albus," white. The word Alps should not be con- fused with Alp, which is the name given to the summer mountain pastures by the natives of the Alpine valleys (See .Alp ) .Among the first men who did extensive exploration work in the ice and snow regions were Horace Benedict de Saus- sure (1740-179Q), and Placidus a Spescha (1752- 1833), the Benedictine monk of Disentis. The first known English .\lpine climber was Colonel Mark Beaufoy (1764-1S27). The higher Alps are per- petually covered with snow, offering, with their picturesque glaciers, cascades and forests, scenery which is famous throughout the world for grand- eur and magnificence. Several important moun- tain groups, although they might be considered in- dependent ranges, are arranged in such a manner as to appear connected with the main system. It is therefore incorrect to suppose that the .\lps form strictly a single range. It may be said, more ac- curately, that the main chain or group is flanked on either side by other important ranges, which, however, are not comparable with the main group, in point of height, grandeur or picturesqueness. Concerning the early inhabitants of the Alps we know little more than what has come down to us from the Roman and Greek historians. Other than that a number of Alpine tribes were conquered by .Ai^'ustu3, we are in ignorance of the history of the Alpine dwellers previous to the early part of the eleventh century, when the Carolingian em- pire was finally dismembered. In 1349 Dauphine became France's prize, following a prolonged struggle for the Alpine region between the feudal lords of Savoy, Dauphine and Provence. The county of Nice, which was formerly part of Pro- vence, fell to the feudal house of Savoy in 1388, as did Piedmont and other lands on the Italian side of the .Alps. France began to drive back the house of Savoy across the range, however, even- tually forcing it to limit its power solely to Italy. (See also Venice: 1508-1509.) In i860 this rivalry came to an end when the rest of the county of Nice and Savoy were given over to France, making the latter a definite power in the Alpine region. This reversal of power is significant of the marked historical influence which the physical aspect of the .Alpine ranges has exerted upon the Central European countries, particularly upon Italy. As barriers. — Importance of passes. — It is to be noted that the .Alps have had a great influ- ence upon history. Passable only at a few points and there not leadily, they have made it hard for the invadei of Italy. Hannibal's failure to crush Rome in 218 B. C. was undoubtedly due to the hardships suffered by his army in crossing the bleak Alpine passes. As a result of the World War, Italy's northeastern frontier has been ex- tended to the crest of the eastern Alps, making the country easier to defend on that side. "The vast majority of these [passes] are natu- rally of no practical importance. Armies cannot use them: traffic over them is impossible. ... At the utmost some of them may serve, as in the Pyrenees, for a smuggling trade, but even this dis- appears when the profits of smuggling cease to be great. There are, however, an appreciable number of gaps in the chain, by which there was never any difficulty for travellers on foot or with laden animals, over which in modern limes good car- riage roads have been made. These gaps occur at fairly long intervals, and in all parts of the Alps." — H. B. George, Relations oj geography and liis- tory, p. 202. — The natives of the Alpine regions were probably the first to use these passes, al- though the outside world first learned of their existence when they were crossed by the Romans during military expeditions. It is more than likely that the inhabitants themselves pointed out these convenient paths to the Romans. Cisar makes no mention of the .Alps beyond that he has crossed them; when scmie of the mountain tribes try to 226 ALPS Passes ALPS block the passage of Roman merchants or armies, they become important enough to be conquered. It was not till after the Cimbri in 102 B, C. in- vaded Italy by the Brenner route that the Romans realized the value of Rhaetia (Tyrol) as a thor- oughfare from Italy to Germany, and began its conquest in 36 B. C. We know for certain that the Romans availed themselves of the Mont Ge- nevre Pass, later used by Charles VIII in 1404 in his invasion of Italy ; in the Central Alps the Ro- mans used the Spliigen and Septimer routes, as well as the Great St. Bernard, farther west, subse- quently so advantageously made use of by Napo- leon in his conquest of Italy. [See also Com- merce: Ancient: 200-600.) "The Alps long retarded Roman expansion into central Europe, just as they delayed and obstructed the southward advance of the northern barbarians. Only through the partial breaches in the wall Provincia. . . . Mountains folded into a succes- sion of parallel ranges are greater obstructions than a single range like the Erz, Black Forest, and Vosges, or a narrow, compact system like the West- ern Alps, which can be crossed by a single pass. Owing to this simple structure the Western Alps were traversed by four established routes in the days of the Roman Empire. These were: I. The Via Aiirelia between the Maritime Alps and the sea, where now runs the Cornice Road. II. The Alons Malrona (Mont Genevre Pass, 6080 ft. or 1854 meters) between the headstream of the Dora Riparia and that of the Durance, which was the best highway for armies. III. The Little St. Ber- nard (7075 ft. or 2157 meters), from Aosta on the Dora Baltea over to the Isere and down to Lug- dunum (Lyons). IV. The Great St. Bernard (8ioq ft. or 2472 meters) route, which led northward from Aosta over the Pennine Alps to Octodurus at ALL'S Roaii over the St. (nittliarcl Pass known as passes did the .Alps admit small, divided bodies of the invaders, like the Cimbri and Teu- tons, who arrived, therefore, with weakened power and at intervals, so that the Roman forces had time to gather their strength between successive attacks, and thus prolonged the life of the declin- ing empire. So in the Middle Ages, the Alpine barrier facilitated the resistance of Italy to the German emperors, trying to enforce their claim upon this ancient seat of the Holy Roman Em- pire. The northern expansion of the Romans, re- buffed by the high double wall of the Central Alps, was bent to the westward over the Maritime, Cot- tine and Savoy Alps, where the barrier offered the shortest and easiest transmontane routes. Hence Germany received the elements of Mediter- ranean culture indirectly through Gaul, second- hand and late. The ancient Helvetians, moving southward from northern Switzerland into Gaul, took a route skirting the western base of the .'Mps by the gap at Geneva, and thus threatened Roman 2 the elbow of the upper Rhone, where Martigny now stands. Across the broad double rampart of the central Alps the Roman used chiefly the Bren- ner route, which by a low saddle unites the deep reijntrant valleys of the Adige and Inn rivers, and thus surmounts the barrier by a single pass. How- ever, a short cut northward over the Chalk Alps by the Fern Pass made closer connection with Augusta Vindelicorum (.Augsburg). The Romans seem to have been ignorant of the St. Gotthard, which, though high, is the summit of an unbroken ascent from Lake Maggiore up the valley of the Ticino on one side, and from Lake Lucerne up the Reuss on the other. . . . Mountains are seldom equally accessible from all sides. Rarely does the crest of a system divide it symmetrically. This means a steep, diflicult approach to the summit from one direction, and a longer, more gradual, and hence easier ascent from the other. It mean-; also in general a wide zone of habitation and food supply on the gentler slope, a better commissary 227 ALPS Roman Period Medieval Times ALPS and transport base whence to make the final as- cent, whether in conquest, trade or ethnic growth. Its boundary along the crest of the Alps from Mont Blanc to the Mediterranean brings over two- thirds of the upheaved area within the domain of France, and gives to that country great advantages of approach to the Alpine passes at the expense of Italy. With the exception of the ill-matched con- flict between the civilized Romans and the barba- rian Gauls, it is a matter of hi,story that from the days of Hannibal to Napoleon III, the campaigns over the Alps from the north have succeeded, while those from the steep-rimmed Po Valley have miscarried. The Brenner route favored alike the Cimbri hordes in 102 B. C. and later the medieval German Emperors invading Italy from the upper Danube. The drop from the Brenner Pass to Munich is «8oo ft.; to Rovereto, an equally dis- tant point on the Italian side, the road descends 3770 ft. . . . The strategic importance of pass peoples tends early to assume a poUtical aspect. The mountain state learns to exploit this one ad- vantage of its ill-favored geographical location. The cradle of the old Savoyard power in the late Middle Ages lay in the Alpine lands between Lake Geneva and the western tributaries of the Po River. This location controlling several great mountain routes between France and Italy gave the Savoyard princes their first importance. The autonomy of Switzerland can be traced not less to the citadel character of the country and the native independence of its people, than to their po- litical exploitation of their strategic position." — E. C. Semple, Infiuences of geographic environ- ment, pp. 4, 532-554. — See also Brenner P.ass. The formation of the Swiss Confederation, be- tween 1281 and 181S, marked a consolidation of the smaller and weaker cantons on the northern side of the Central Alpine chain. This unification of the smaller states, made possible by their strate- gic advantages, successfully achieved the desired re- sult of maintaining a combined defen.se against foreign aggression. That the policy of the Swiss Federation has been exemplary has been borne out during the Great War when Switzerland insisted on maintaining strict neutral relations with all the warring nations unless an act of aggres.'iion were made against it. In consequence of this policy Switzerland was the only European country which held strictly to its neutrality although completely surrounded by neighbors warring against each other in a life-and-death struggle, Roman period. — Hannibal's crossing of the Alps. — Medieval times.— "The position of the territories once occupied by the Etruscans, Tus- cany and much of the Po basin, seems to imply that they [the Greeks] followed- the Latins rather than preceded them, and traces of them are sup- posed to show that they came in from the north, through what are called the Rhaetian ."Mps. More confidently it can be affirmed that the Gallic tribes, who by the end of the fifth century B.C. had spread over the whole plain of the Po, came over the western .^Ips, though it is of course im- possible to guess by what routes. They continued to form the bulk of the population north of the Apennines, even after Rome had in some sense conquered them in the interval between the first and second Punic wars, and were no small sup- port to Hannibal, after he had crossed from the land of their kindred beyond the .-Mps info Cisal- pine Gaul — the name of Italy was not yet extended to the plain of the Po. "The most remarkable historical event connected with the passes of the .\lps is certainly the passage of Hannibal ; and much critical energy has been expended in trying to determine his route, with- out further success than showing that he must certainly have crossed by some pass south of Mont Blanc. . . . Hannibal, coming from distant Car- thage, had of course to rely upon guidance from the Gauls: he obviously knew before starting that the Alps were passable, but there is no indication that he had any knowledge either of the difficulties of the task, or that there was any choice of routes. . . . All that he knew himself was doubtless that his guides undertook to take him across into Cisalpine Gaul. The conduct of Scipio, the Roman general commanding against Hannibal, also tends to show that Roman knowledge of the Alpine passes was slight. Scipio, when he found that the Carthaginians had marched up the Rhone, took for granted that they were going to cross the Alps, and removed his army by sea to Italy, in order toi meet the enemy in the plain of the Po. Scipio was not wanting in capacity, as this prompt ac- tion shows. It is no unfair conjecture that if he had possessed any definite knowledge of the Al- pine valleys, he would have landed at Genoa, and posted himself at Turin, in order to encounter Hannibal before he could reach the open plains, where the famous .African cavalry would have free scope. If, however, he knew that there were various routes, but had only confused and imperfect in- formation about them, the course which he adopted, of waiting on the Ticino, was obviously right. "The historical importance of Hannibal's feat is not however concerned with the determination of his exact route. It was a revelation to the world that an army, as distinguished from a mere horde — that an army with all its impedimenta could be conveyed across a great mountain range. Nor was it long before his example was followed. His brother Hasdrubal led an army into Italy ten years later, apparently by one of the passes from the Isere, with unexpected ease and speed. .\ cen- tury afterwards occurred another invasion of Italy, which illustrates the difficulty of defending a mountain frontier such as the .\lps. The Romans were by that time effectively masters of the whole Po basin, as well as of Provence; geographical Italy was also now politically united under one government. They were aware that the hordes of barbarians, known to history as the Cimbri and Teutones, were on the move for Italy. These formidable enemies had either trampled over, or won to their side, the tribes beyond the .Alps, both in the Rhone-land and in the modern Switzerland. They apparently formed a scheme, highly advanced for their stage of civilization, of entering Italy by two widely distant entrances, and joining forces on the Po. The Romans were informed of their purpose, and sent one consul to Provence, while the other waited on the .Adige. Unfortunately our authorities are so brief that they give no hint as to the route by which the Cimbri entered Italy; all we know is that the consul Catulus failed to stop them, and that they moved westwards up the north bank of the Po to meet their kindred. For- tunately Marius had destroyed the Teutones in Provence, and was in time to join his colleague, and cru'^h the Cimbri also, not far from the Ti- cino. One may conjecture that the St. Gotthard pass was unknown at the time, or the Cimbri, who were guided by their Helvetian allies, would not have gone so far to the eastwards as they did; though whether they crossed from the head of the Rhine, or made the still longer circuit by the Inn and .\dige, we cannot even guess. ".As the Roman empire extended to its ultimate limits in Europe, the .Alps became no longer a frontier. Naturallv therefore centuries elapsed be- 28 ALPS ALSACE-LORRAINE fore they again figured in history. In the convul- sions which followed the death of Nero, two can- didates for the imperial throne successively en- tered north Italy, one from the west, the other from the east. Each in turn defeated the rival in possession on the Lombard plain, and as it hap- pened on the same battlefield, but in neither case was there any defence of the mountain passes. In the break up of the Western empire, the Teuton tribes seem to have entered Italy as they pleased: the Alps might as well not have existed. Through- out the Middle Ages, the regions on both sides of the Alps were divided up into so many small states (if the word can be reasonably applied), all virtually independent, and all formally included in the Empire, that the mountains continued to be of little political importance. If the Emperor had to expect opposition on one route, he could take another; practically his communications with Italy lay chiefly over the Brenner and its varia- tions. From western Europe the usual routes were, as has been said, the Great St. Betnard and the Mont Cenis; but nothing historically turned on this fact, travel over the Alps being substantially that of private persons, largely on business con- nected with the Church." — H, B. George, Relations oj geography and history, pp. 211-212, 213-215. Aerial flight over the Alps (igio). Sec Avia- tion; Important flights since 1900: igio. Factor in World War. See World War: iqi6: IV. Austro-Italian front: a; b, 2; b, 4; and c; 1917: I. Summary: b, 8; 1918: IV. Austro-Italian theater: c, 3; c, 12. Frontiers of Italy. — Peace Conference claims. — "Now if there is one country in Europe of which nature has made a geographic unity it is Italy. In all epochs, geographers have seen in the Alps the natural frontiers of that peninsula des- tined to be the first hearth of civilization in Eu- rope. It can easily be understood, therefore, how Italy came [at the Peace Conference] to include among her war ambitions, the aim of gathering to herself the northern and eastern crests of the Alps, that is to say, the frontiers which Augustus had assigned to Italy, but which were held in 1Q14, by the Austrian Empire. By advancing to that line, and by annexing the Trenlino and Istria, Italy would achieve, at one and the same time, both her geographical and her national unity. She would be, in Europe, the almost perfect model of the nation which, should a desire for war seize upon her, must face the greatest difficulties in attacking others, possessing, the while, the best facilities of defense in case she were attacked by others." — G. Ferrero, National aspirations of Italy (in Le Fi- garo, quoted in Tlie Living Age, April 26, 1919). —See also Italy: IQ15: Treaty of London. Also in: J. Ball, Alpine guide. — T. G. Bonney, Alpine regions of Switzerland and the neighbour- ing countries. — Sir M. Conway, The Alps, and Alps from end to end. — G. Allais, Le Alpi occidentali nell' antichila. — E. Oehlmann, Die Alpenpdsse im Mittelalter.^A. Smith, Story of Mont Blanc. — A. B. Edwards, Untrodden peaks and unfrequented valleys. — A. F. Mummery, My climbs in the Alps. — Sir L. Stephen, Playground of Europe. — E. Whymper, Scrambles amongst the Alps.— P. J. de Bourcet, Memoires militaires sur les frontieres de la France, du Piemont, et de la Savoie (1801). AL-RUNAS. See Huns: Gothic account of. ALSACE. — Name. See Alemanni: 213. 1648. — Ceded to France by peace of West- phalia. See Alsace-Lorraine: 1552-1789; West- phalia, Peace of. 1672-1714.— Frederick William's attempted re- covery. See Austria: 1672-17x4. ALSACE-LORRAINE.— Its history as af- fected by its position. — The history of Lorraine up to modern times will be found under Lorraine. The French geographer and historian Vidal de la Blache has characterized Alsace-Lorraine as "France of the east," a region between the Rhine, the Meuse, and the Ardennes. This territory has always been historically a frontier country lying at the junction of France, Belgium, Germany and Switzerland, and without such natural frontiers as might mark it off definitely from these neigh- boring countries. To be sure, Alsace is bounded on the east by the Rhine, but Lorraine has always had entirely artificial boundaries. The fate of Al- sace-Lorraine has been complicated by the fact that it has been a meeting-place of two powerful aggressive peoples, the French and the German, and also because it lay on the cross-roads between the Rhine and the Danube valleys as well as the historic routes leading through the Alps from the Po valley and from the Rhone valley through the gap at Belfort. It may be said then, that this region has no geographic unity. Until very recent times Lorraine was closer to France than it was to Alsace, while Alsace itself is divided into a number of natural regions having little intricate indications. Although it was as late as 1648 when France secured possession of the greater part of Alsace [see also Germany: 1648] and not until more than one hundred years later that she ac- quired Lorraine, the process of assimilation was completed over a century ago. It was the French Revolution that made Alsace-Lorraine an integral part of the French nation. The development of communications, particularly canals and railroads, connected this territory with France and with the Rhine, so that by 1S71 an economic unity with France was achieved. Early history. — Romans, Gauls and Huns. — "But the Roman conquest was accomplished at last in Belgium and in the rest of Celtic land, and then was extended over the Rhine until the bar- barian tribes were so interwoven with the Roman legions that it was hard to distinguish between them. Ruins of monuments planned by Romans and constructed by barbarian labour are scattered over Western Europe to tell the tale of who built, who saw, and who destroyed. In .Msace, the earliest ruins are not, however, these. There are still traces of preceding occupation. Parts of a great wall, the so-called Heidenmauer, are to be seen on the Odilienburg, showing how primitive people of the Vosges highlands tried to protect themselves against assault. Then there are many Druid remains, some near the sites of the Roman temples which are found in considerable numbers. Of Latin theatres, arches, aqueducts, such as blos- somed in many parts of Gaul, there are no ex- amples in Alsace. Fortifications and highways, however, remain to prove that the Romans did not neglect the Vosges region. Argentoratum, followed by Strasburg, was one of the Roman strongholds which has never ceased to be a fortified place. The splendid military roads show the best work of the Romans in this section of their domain. . . . Some of the most important ran from Besani;on (to use modern terms) to Strasburg, on to May- ence, to Ell, Breisach, and on to the Rhine, from Brumath to Saverne and Metz, from .\lsace into Lorraine through the valley of Schirmeck, from Alsace into Lorraine through the valley of the Villi, and in many other directions. If the Peu- tinger map be rightly dated, many of these high- ways were later than 200 A. D. But on it can be seen three highways leading out of Strasburg, — Argentoratum. The end of the Gallo-Roman 229 ALSACE-LORRAINE Treaty of Verdun ALSACE-LORRAINE period came imperceptibly. Roman domination simply ceased to exist, and oflicials of northern races who had administered affairs in the name of Rome continued to hold sway without respect to trans- Alpine authority. German settlement, pre-emi- nently Prankish and Teutonic, in the V'osges tract westward of the Rhine was not the result of de- cisive conquest. It was merely gradual trans- Rhenish migration, not differing radically from the kind that had been inaugurated by Ariovistus and checked by Julius Caesar, except that it was less aggressive and in smaller numbers. The Celtic inhabitants were neither entirely dispossessed nor enslaved by the German colonists, to whom, more over, they did not remain antagonistic. This must be taken into account in attempting to arrive at any conclusion as to the ultimate racial status of the Alsatian tract. Whether in the course of the centuries before Soo A. D. the predominant ele- ment remained as essentially Gallo-Frankish, with the characteristics of activity, enterprise, energy, independence, irony, and badinage ascribed to the people of the French realm, as it finally took shape, or whether an inherent Teutonic quality continued to differentiate the Alsatians from their French neighbours on the other side of the Vosges, re- mains a moot question. ... As far as geographic nomenclature is concerned, it must be conceded that the dominant note in the formative period was Germanic. Strasburg, Breisach, Ebersheim, Rouffac, Seltz, Ell-Sass, itself, however spelled at different epochs, all tell one story, and they arc not names that have changed radically during the last phase of political affiliation. . . . Many of those that passed over Alsatian soil did not trouble themselves, indeed, to leave any constructive trace of themselv-es, though they left trace enough of the damage they wrought. After the Burgundians came Attila, who destroyed Argentoratum — where Strasburg later came to replace the Roman city — and various other settlements. That was in the middle of the fifth centun.', not long before the invaders were repulsed at Chalons (451 .\. D.) by Romans and Germans fishting as allies, .attila went on to Italy and gradually the .Msatians stole down to the plains from) the highlands where, like other Gauls, they had taken refuge, and took up their life again amidst the ruins of the Roman civilization, which had indeed retreated, but which had left a permanent impress upon the land be- tween the Rhine and mountains. There came a time when the Prankish sovereicns of Gaul rec- ognized .the individuality of the province so far as to create a duke of Alsace, and we hear of one Ettich or Attich as bearing that title before Chris- tian times. Legends have clustered about his daughter Odilia, who brought bitter disappoint- ment to her father at her birth, because she was not only a girl when he had desired a boy, but blind at that. The water of baptism finally gave her sight, and the Odilienberg, where she grew up, away from her father's unfriendly eyes, re- mains to bear witness to the miracle of her con- version to Christianity. The Bishop of Strasburg, too, comes upon the scene and .Msarc thus be- comes a duchy anrl has 3 bishopric, is Christian and provincial. . . . Had this title of duke not come into being there might never have been an AUace. but the name persisted even though the unit was fractured." — R. Putnam, Alsace and Lor- raine, pp. 15-21. 842-1477.— Strasburg Oath.— Treaty of Ver- dun. — Foundation of House of Hapsburg. — Treaty of St. Omer. — "The Treaty of Verdun, 84.1 A. D , between the three grandsons of Charles the Great (Charlemagne seems far more befitting that sovereign) gave to Charles the Bald the nu- cleus of prc^ent-day France, to Louis the German, trans-Rhine territory as far as the River Elbe, while to Lothaire, eldest son and Emperor, fell a middle realm between the two familiar divisions of modern Europe. It was Lotharii regniim, a realm which bequeathed to posterity one legacy in the name Lotliaringia, Lolhriiigen, Lorraine, and another in the phantom of an ideal kingdom. One bequest was permanent, though applied to units of different area, the other intermittent in vitality. Modern Lorraine, .Msace, Burgundy, Provence, and Italy, excepting the States of the Church, were all comprised within Lothaire's heritage, in addition to the imperial title. [See also Lorr.hine: S43-870.] But that allotment was of brief duration. Lothaire II. succeeded his father, indeed, but on his death, his uncle:-. Charles the Bald and Louis the German, took it upon themselves to make a fresh division of the Carolingian empire into only two parts as far as Europe north of the Alps was concerned The son of Lothaire II. was permitted to retain the Italian provinces alone of the paternal 'Mid- dle Kingdom,' while the remainder was parcelled out between his great-uncles, thus marking the confines of Prance, Germany, and Italy, or rather indicating those three geographical unities. More- over, not only did modern European boundary lines cast their shadows before at the crisis of these territorial division but an interesting evi- dence of the linguistic scission between the sub- jects of the Prankish sovereigns remains as one result of these fraternal bargains. This is the document containing the oaths sworn at Stras- burg, 842 A. D., as a prelude to the formal tri- angular convention at X'erdun, the following year The two younger brothers safe-guarded them- selves against their senior by interchanging pledges of mutual support. The occasion was a formal and solemn function. The brothers were accom- panied by their armies, who were taken into their confidence, each over-lord addressing his own sol- diers in their own vernacular, explaining the reasons for enmity towards Lothaire, and then proceeding to give the formal oath each to the adherents of his brother, Louis the German speak- ing in the lingua romana, the speech of Roman- ized Gaul, and Charles, sovereign of the same realm, using the lingua teudisca, spoken across the Rhine. The phrases that were comprehen- sible to these ninth-century French and Germans look like a very queer jumble of words. Their interest lies in the fact that both vernaculars were probably comprehensible to the bystander in Stras- burg, just as the two more polished languages have been in our day. It is probable that thu.s early the children of the borderland had their ears attuned to bi-lingual addresses. The words of Louis were: 'Pro Deo amur et pro christian poblo et nostro commun salvament, dist di in avant, in quant Deus savir et podir me dunat, si salvaraeio cist meon fradre Karlo et in adiudha et in cadhuna cosa, si cum om per dreit son fradra salvar dist, in n quid il mi allresi fazet ; et ab Ludhcr nul plaid numquam prindrai, qui meon vol cist meon fradre Karle in damno sit.' "The form of Charles' oath was: 'In Codes minna ind in thes christianes folches ind unser bedhero gealtnissi. fon thesemo dagc frammordes, so fram so mir Got gewizci indi madh furgibit, 50 haldih tesan minan bruodher, soso man mit rehtu sinan bruodhfr seal, in thiu, thaz er mig sosoma duo; indi mit Ludheren in nonheiniu thing ne gegango the minan willon imo ce scadhen werhen.' 230 ALSACE-LORRAIN E Hapsburg Dominion ALSACE-LORRAINE "[For the love of God, and for the sake as well of our peoples as of ourselves, I promise that from this day forth, as God shall grant me wisdom and strength, 1 will treat this my brother as one's brother ought to be treated, provided that he shall do the same by me. And with Lothair I will not willingly enter into any dealings which may injure this my brother." — E. Emerton, Medioeval Europe, p. 27.] "The actual division between Louis and Charles of Lothaire's 'Middle Kingdom' did not take place until many years after the Treaty of Ver- dun. It was not until about 870 that Louis the German entered into the possession of his share, which included Alsace as well as other of the Lotharingian parcels. Then the Vosgcs Moun- tains, instead of the Rhine River, became the boundary between the Germanic and Prankish kingdoms. . . . Germany counted her own birthday as the day when the Treaty of Verdun was signed. A thousand years of existence was celebrated in 1843. Into that thousand-year nationality, Alsace did not enter either at the beginning or the end. On both days her fate was linked to another sov- ereignty. . . . "Had the realm covered by the titular authority of Charles the Great remained intact, the Alsatian tract might have had a different history, for the great Carolingian made Colmar and Schlestadt his residence from time to time, and a mid-Euro- pean capital might have grown into importance, — a capital looking east and west over a wide im- perial domain. But after 870 A. D. the lot of Alsace as a border land on Germanized territory was practically decided, although confusing changes continued to make her ultimate political affiliations look very uncertain from time to time. [See also Lorraine: pii-q8o.l The trail of hazardous for- tune cannot be followed in detail. In the twelfth century her fealty was due to the great German King and Roman Emperor (1152), Frederick Bar- barossa, while her immediate control was in the hands of various lesser authorities. A new power was springing into being at that period, destined to affect European life more than was possible for the sovereign, seldom seen by the people at large. That was the free city, waxing into prowess by means of valuable privileges bought from em- perors who wished to obtain money for schemes of conquest or personal ambition, or bestowed by them voluntarily for the purpose of erecting burgher bulwarks against over-powerful nobles. In course of time, ten of these communes came into being in Alsace, while Strasburg besides being a city state continued to exert influence as a dominant episcopal see. Long before the two Pragmatic Sanctions of Frederick II (1220 and 1232) endowed bishops and nobles with supremacy in their own towns, — except when the Emperor was present in person, — this Alsatian bishopric had accjuired territorial independence and a high de- gree of temporal power. Once, indeed, when the city attempted to use influence in an imperial election, it suffered seriously at the hands of the successful candidate whom it had opposed to no purpose, but as a rule it managed to hold its own against any interference from without. By the third C|uarter of the fifteenth century, the state of Alsatian administration was as follows: First, it must be noted that after the episode of Duke Ettich — Eticho, Attich — the dukedom does not seem to have been revived as such. Without examining too curiously how it all happened, we find in existence two landgraviates, dividing Alsace into two gaueit, the Sundgau and the Nordgau, the latter. Lower Alsace, dependent on the see of Strasburg, the former, Upper Alsace, in the hands of the cadet branch of the House of Habs- hurg. . . . Financial embarrassments led to a curious commercial transaction in regard to the lands to which the Habsburgs had title. Sigis- mund of Austria mortgaged his rights to Charles of Burgundy and the report made to the latter by Jean Poinsot and Jean Pellot, June 13, 1471, gives a detailed account of the condition of Al- sace. Here is the story of what happened and what led to such happening. "The Habsburgs took the title by which they have so long been known from a castle built in the eleventh century by one bishop of Strasburg and his brother Radbod upon the Aar, in Swiss territory, not far from the border of Upper Alsace. Tradition has it that Radbod followed his hawk— Habicht — into an unknown region and was so much charmed with the beauty of the spot that he decided to build a castle there and, later, named the house Habichlsburg from the guide who had led him thither. The longer term con- tracted, naturally, by easy transition into Habsburg and has held its own to this day. Little by little, the family grew to be one of the foremost in the Empire, and in 1273 its reputation was en- hanced by the elevation of Rudolph, Count of Habsburg, to the imperial dignity, — the first of many sons of the race to hold that office, although it did not become the assured perquisite of the Habsburgs until later. [See also Austria: 124b- 1282.] It may be added that Radbod and his brother the bishop, Werner, who collaborated in the castle building on the heights of the Wulpelsberg, are alleged to be descendants of Duke Ettich of Alsace. Possibly the tradition originated to ac- count for the partition of the two gauen or dis- tricts of Alsace between the see of Strasburg and the count of Habsburg. After three centuries of fortunes, more or less fair, we find Frederick III, Emperor, and his cousin the Archduke Sigismund, of the cadet branch, in possession of the Habsburg lands in Tyrol in various other places, besides being Landgrave of the Sundgau and holding other estates in Alsace. Sigismund did not have a com- pact principality to administer from his capital, ' Innspruck, and perhaps that was the reason why he fell into serious difficulties in every direc- tion. . . . There was a group of princes in Europe at this epoch (1460), Louis XI. of France, Charles of Burgundy, Frederick III. and his son Maxi- milian, who spent their lives in trying to over- reach each other. Frederick could not help his cousin, so Sigismund applied to Louis XL for assistance, but fear of the Swiss made the King refuse. Then the Archduke went down to the Netherlands with his petition and found Charles more amenable. The reason was plain. Charles was most desirous of uniting his Netherland group of duchies, countships, and seigniories with his two Burgundies, and the territories offered to him by Sigismund lay so as to fill in part of the gap between. The Burgundian's hope of erecting a new edition of a 'Middle Kingdom' affected his policy in many respects and never more markedly than in this transaction with Sigismund. The bargain was made. Perhaps the fact that the applicant was pretty close to the Emperor, who alone could turn a duke into a real king, made Charles espe- cially willing to oblige his needy visitor. At St. Omer on May qth another of the long row of treaties was signed which, without the slightest concern for the will of the inhabitants, disposed of the political control of Alsatian soil. Charles agreed to pay Sigismund ten thousand florins im- mediately and forty thousand before Septembe- 231 ALSACE-LORRAINE French Ownership ALSACE-LORRAINE 24th in return for the cession of all Sigismund's seigniorial rights in the landgraviate of Alsace, the county of Ferrette, and in certain Rhine towns. If he found himself in possession of means to buy back his landgraviate, Sigismund was to be per- mitted so to do, provided that he could produce at Besani;on tlie whole sum at once, that aug- mented by all the outlays made by the Burgundian upon the property. ... No real gain came to Charles from the Treaty of St. Omer. The Aus- trian dukes had not been popular in Alsace, but their poverty had prevented them from being hard masters even where they retained the right to exert any local authority at all. . . . Before the death of Charles at Nancy in 1477, Sigismund had drawn back the Alsace estates to the Habsburgs. His friends rallied around him when they saw what Charles was about. Money was found for the Archduke, who was enabled to offer his creditor full redemption, with the required payment in one sum. Charles had refused to accept this and, as far as appears clearly, no money ever did return to the Burgundian treasury." — R. Putnam, Alsace and Lorraine, pp. 22-37. 843-870. — Included in the kingdom of Lor- raine. See Lorraine: 843-870. 10th century. — Joined to the Holy Roman em- pire. See Lorraine: qii-gSo. 13th century. — Origin of the house of Haps- burg. See Austria: 1246-1282. 1525. — Revolt of the peasants. See Germany: 1 524-1525. 1552-1774.— Medieval period.— Thirty Years' War. — Under Louis XIV, acquired by Louis XV. — "In the later Middle Ages Lorraine formed a duchy, within which lay a number of small and in some cases independent feudal states and the city of Metz, a free city of the Holy Roman Empire whose people spoke French. In 1552, on the petition of certain German Protestant princes, Metz was placed under the protection of the king of France, who took possession of the city and the surrounding territory subject to it. In 1613 the bishopric of Metz and its lands were taken over by the F'rench king, the whole being com- bined with Toul and Verdun into the three prov- inces of the Three Bishoprics (Trois Eveches), and the cession was confirmed by the Emperor in the treaty of Westphalia of 1648. [See also Ger- many: 1648.1 Further acquisitions made in the seventeenth century, notably Sierck and Saarlouis, gave France a strategic line of communication through Lorraine to Alsace. The duchy of Lor- raine, which had likewise been dependent on the Holy Roman Empire, was declared free by Emperor Charles V and was gradually drawn into the French sphere of influence. Relinquished by its Hapsburg duke in 1736, in 1738 by the treaty of Vienna it was handed over to a Polish duke, Stanislas Leszcynski, on condition that at his death it should pass to his son-in-law, Louis XV of France, by whom it was accordingly acquired in 1766. Certain small enclaves within Lorraine did not pass to France until the Revolution. Alsace, except the city of Miilhouse, was annexed to France in the course of the reign of Louis XIV. The Middle .\ges had broken the countr\- up into a great variety of feudal states and free cities; the Reformation divided it still further by re- ligious dissensions. In the Thirty Years' War France intervened on the side of the Protestant princes of Germany ; at its close France received considerable possessions in .Msace, in much the same way that Brandenburg (the future Prussia) then secured valuable additions in the north. The treaty of Westphalia (1648) assured to France 2y. certain lands and certain governmental rights pos- sessed by the Emperor in his imperial capacity and as head of the house of Hapsburg, but the pro- visions were, possibly with intention, left vague at certain points and became the occasion of pro- tracted legal and historical disputes. By a com- bination of undoubted grants, more or less justi- fied legal interpretations, and the direct seizure of the city of Strasburg, Louis XIV rounded out his possession of the whole of Alsace. [See also France: 1679-1681.] The sole exception, Miilhouse, allied with the Swiss Confederation, voluntarily offered itself to France in 1798." — C. H. Haskins and R. H. Lord, Some problems of the Peace Conference, pp. 77-79. 1621-1622. — Invasions by Mansfeld and his predatory army. See Germany: 1021-1623. 1636-1639. — Invasion and conquest by Duke Bernhard of Weimar. — Secured for France by Richelieu. See Germany: 1634-1639. 1659. — Renunciation of the claims of the king of Spain. See France: 1659-1661. 1674-1678. — Ravaged in the campaigns of Turenne and Cond£. See Netherlands; 1674- 1678. 1744. — Invasion by the Austrians. See Aus- tria: 1 743- 1 744. 1789-1794. — French revolution period. — Origin of the Marseillaise. — The abolition of feudal privileges was one of the first steps of the Revo- lution, which reverberated in Alsace, where Ger- man princes held feudal privileges. These being directly threatened, the rulers appealed to the emperor, .\cording to Maurice Leon, this attempt by a handful of German princes to force their feudal claims upon the country that first abol- ished them in Europe precipitated the war of monarchical Europe against revolutionary France and the consequent attempt to suppress repub- licanism in France. The Revolution, however, won the day ; the people of Alsace and Lorraine sent delegates to the Assembly, while the princes held aloof. The stirring strains of the "Marseillaise" were first sung in Strassburg in 1792, and breathe de- fiance to the German invaders from Prussia. — See also Music: Folk music and nationalism: France. 1871. — Cession to Germany. — "At the close of the Franco-Prussian war Germany required of France the cession of Alsace and Lorraine, with a boundary on the west which was defined by the treaty of Frankfort in 1871. In the next forty years Alsace-Lorraine passed through various stages of government, from military dictatorship through a certain amount of territorial indepen- dence to the definite constitution imposed by the Reichstag in 191 1. Those who had hoped for autonomy were disappointed in this instrument, which failed to elevate the Rcichsland to the posi- tion of a federated state of the empire, although an anomalous provision was made for its repre- sentation in the Bundesrat. Legally Alsace-Lor- raine was still a subject territory of the em- pire. . . . For more than half a century the prob- lem of Alsace-Lorraine has been debated back and forth with arguments which have had no effect on the opposite sides of the controversy. . . . To the French ."Msace and Lorraine had become and remained fundamentally French, having been assimilated gradually and without violence in the eighteenth century, French most of all by having entered fully into the spirit of the French Revolution and taken an active part therein. They begged to remain a part of France in 1871, as the unanimous protests of their representatives show, and they continued French at heart against the strongest pressure in the opposite direction. In ALSACE-LORRAINE German Rule ALSACE-LORRAINE spite of differences of language, sucli as exist in other parts of France, Alsace and Lorraine were Frencfi in social structure, in political ideals, and in the sympathies of the population Without these lost provinces France was a mutilated coun- try, not fully France. Furthermore, the posses- sion of Metz and the Vosges by a military power like Germany constituted a standing menace to a peaceful country like the French Republic; it also menaced the economic life of France and its de- fence by making possible, as in IQ14, immediate seizure of the richest part of its iron supply. France was robbed of these provinces by force in 187 1, and the wrong had to be righted, not only in the interest of France but for the sake of the inhabitants." — C. H. Haskins and R. H. Lord, Some problems of the Peace Conference, pp. 80-85. — "The French call their neighbour [Germany] Allemagne, after an unimportant Teuton people that settled in and about Alsace in the break-up of the Western empire. . . . Teutonic Alsace, Protestant and German-speaking, was conquered by France in the seventeenth century, the last stage of the conquest being marked by circumstances of exceptional treachery and wrong. Neverthe- less it became thoroughly French in sentiment, and strongly resented being re-transferred to Germany in 1871. On which side is the principle of nation- ality to be invoked in the case of Alsace — for or against the present [1907] state of things? There is nothing but sentiment to draw it towards France, nothing except sentiment to alienate it from Ger- many." — H. B. George, Relations of geography and history, pp. 58, 65-66. — "The last great cession of territory in Europe I1871] deprived France of its piece of territory bordering on the Rhine, and restored to Germany a district German in race and language." — Ibid., p. 30. — "The German con- quest of 1870 made the political frontier corre- spond much more nearly to the division of races and languages, though entirely against the wish of the people, who had in the interval been incor- porated in France. It is instructive to compare the fate of Lorraine with that of Savoy, that is to say with the composite state over which the dukes of Savoy ruled. Both were divided in language, and more or less in race: both were situated between two great and often hostile pow- ers: both were to a certain extent, in the person of their princes, attracted towards France. Yet Lorraine was, so to speak, squeezed to death be- tween France and Germany, while the house of Savoy throve on the vicissitudes of several cen- turies, and ultimately became sovereigns of united Italy. . . . But the main reason for the contrast between Lorraine and Savoy is geographical. It has been pointed out . . . how the Alps between Savoy and Piedmont helped the fortunes of those princes. Lorraine had no such backbone: it lay completely open to France, and Germany had no particular motive for defending it ; for it can hardly be said that Metz, in French hands, con- stituted a menace to Germany, however the case may be now that it has reverted to German hands [in 1871]. The acquisition of Alsace by France marks the end of the period of religious wars, as the seizure of the three bishoprics marks the beginning. It was a piece of sheer undis- guised'conquest, without any excuse of nationality or of a personal convention between any Alsatian ruler and France. Richelieu simply took advantage of the distractions of Germany to lay hands on a German province ... a province essentially German ever since the Allemanni invaded the Roman empire, and Protestant in addition. Louis XIV completed the robbery, and indeed improved on the method. During a period of general peace he seized Strassburg and other places — which, though situated within Alsace, were politically in- dependent of it — and the Empire was not strong enough to resent the outrage." — Ibid., pp. 237-238. — See also France: 1871 (January-May;. 1871-1879. — Organization of government as a German imperial province. See Germany: 1871- 1879. 1879-1894. — Manteuffel era of German rule. — Administration of Hohenlohe as Statthalter. — Policy of Alsatian minister Puttkammer. — "The 'Manleuliel Era,' as this period of Alsatian history is called, lasted six years, from 1879 to 1885. If anyone could have succeeded in the role he had mapped out Manteuffel could have. Believing correctly that no government is successful for any length of time that does not have the people on its side, Manteuffel sought first to know those among whom he had come to rule. He traveled much through the country, trying to impart his ideas to local officials and notabihties, municipal councilors, clergymen, and teachers, to say the happy and healing word to everyone. He told the people of Alsace and Lorraine that he understood and respected their sentiments, that he did not ask for an enthusiastic adhesion to the new order of things, but only a reasoned submission to the ineluctable fact. He warned them, however, that he would proceed d outrance against anyone who should conspire with the foreigner. He announced that as the Doge of Venice had solemnly wedded the Adriatic, so he wbhed to woo Alsace-Lorraine and obtain her liberties for her. ... In his per- sonal capacity he won general esteem. Accessible to all, receiving freely even workingmen who came to present their grievances, he exemplified the fine politeness of the Old Regime and was a more pop- ular figure than his predecessor or than any of his successors were to be. ... In his fundamental purpose Manteuffel could not succeed. Moreover, he did not have the support of his own officials whose conduct served more or less to nullify and insulate the Staathalter. All through his regency the bureaucrats of Alsace-Lorraine, big and little, carried on an incessant and perfidious campaign in the German press, seeking to undermine him. Harassed by the Germans who criticised his mod- eration and irritated by the Alsatians and Lor- rainers whose passive resistance to the one thing that counted revealed the essential superficiality of the 'pacification,' moreover compelled from time to time in the discharge of his obligations to the authorities in Berlin to adopt harsh and unpopular measures, such as the suppression of certain newspapers. . . . Manteuffel stood inse- curely upon treacherous sands. So strong was the opposition to his policy in Germany that he would have been recalled had it not been that the octo- genarian Emperor, William I, did not like to dis- miss old friends and advisers. . . . Manteuffel's programme, the only wise one, could only succeed if assured of length of years for its realization. And these were not to be vouchsafed the sagacious experiment. . . . Manteuffel's official days were numbered. But he was spared the crowning hu- miliation of recall because his earthly days were also numbered. He died on June 17, 18S5, and the policy for which he stood died with him. . . . As the Manteuffel regime had not, in the brief space of six years, reconciled Alsace to Germany, as the process of comparatively mild Germaniza- tion had made no appreciable advance, the Ger- man government now resorted to methods with which it was more familiar, and in which it had a more robust faith. Coercion, pure and simple, 233 ALSACE-LORRAINE Constitution ALSACE-LORRAINE coercion thorough and undisguised, applied at every point considered dangerous and applied without hesitation and without interruption, was hence- forth the programme of the government. To pre- side over the execution of this policy a new Statthalter, Prince Chlodwig von Hohenlohe- Schillingsfiirst was appointed. . . . The period of greatest tension since 1S71 now began and lasted for several years, indeed all through this regency, which ended only with the promotion of Hohen- lohe to the chancellorship of the Empire in 1804. It was a period of danger, replete with incidents that set Germany, France, and Alsace-Lorraine on edge. . . . Meanwhile Hohenlohe had tried to use the war scare in Alsace to secure from the voters the election of candidates favorable to the project of the Chancellor. He told the Alsatians that, if war came, their province would inevitably be the theater of hostilities and would be fear- fully harried by the contending armies. The re- sult of his intervention was quite unexpected. . . . Candidates patronized and supported by the Stat- thalter were decisively defeated. A solid delega- tion of fifteen 'protestataires' was sent to the Reichstag. Of 314,000 registered voters, the 'pro- testers' received 247,000 votes, that is 82,000 more than had been cast for them in 1884. So stiff- necked a f)eople needed emphatically to be tamed and tamed it should be. Bismarck went at the congenial task with determination, exceedingly ir- ritated by the overwhelming condemnation of his policy in Alsace at the time it was so overwhelm- ingly approved throughout the Empire. Extraor- dinary, exceptional measures now rained upon the devoted heads of this independent people. The leading Alsatian minister, Hoffman, considered too mild for the work, was recalled and Puttkammer, J, relative of Bismarck, was appointed in his place, and began at once a policy of punishment and repression. Puttkammer had declined even to accept his post, that of Secretary of State and President of the Ministry of .Msace-Lorraine, until Antoine, deputy from Metz . . . had been ex- pelled from the Reichstag. Accordingly the Reich- stag expelled him on March 31, 1887, an act en- tirely pleasing to those who did not care for par- liamentary immunities. Against another deputy from Alsace, Lalance of Mulhouse, a decree of expulsion was issued, then suspended, then re- placed by judicial prosecution and finally by a mere administrative measure, which forced the unwelcome deputy to depart. A vigorous attack was made forthwith on various Alsatian organiza- tions, art clubs, the medical society of Strasburg, botanical and zoological societies. Other organiza- tions which refused to admit the German immi- grants to their membership, such as gymnastic and choral and student clubs, were likewise dis- solved by administrative decree. ... A series of ' incidents also occurred, alarming and calculated to increase the irritation and tension of the times, such as the brutal arrest, on Alsatian soil, of Schnaebele, a French railway official at Pagny-sur- Moselle, by his German colleague of Noveant who had summoned him hither for the transaction of routine business, an incident that for several days caused all Europe to hold its breath (April 20, 1887). . . . This policy of intimidation received its appropriate coronation in a measure, which, in the opinion of the German government would completely subdue the recalcitrants, a new and drastic regulation prescribine the use of passports, a measure put into force June 1, 1888. Hence- forth certain categories of people were absolutely excluded from .Alsace-Lorraine, for instance, any- one connected with the French armv. Everv other person, not a German, who wished to enter Alsace-Lorraine, must get a passport viseed at the German embassy in Paris, and it was intended that this passport should be granted only in ex- ceptional cases." — C. D. Hazen, Alsace-Lorraine under German rule, pp. 125-134. 1911. — Constitution. — "The people of Alsace- Lorraine had for forty years been in absolute subjection to other wills than their own. Though allowed a Delegation or Landesausschuss, before which routine legislative proposals were laid, yet that body was elected not directly by the people but indirectly and largely by and from district and municipal councils, so that, by reason of its complicated and carefully controlled composition as well as because of the humble character of its powers, it could only be servile. It could at any moment be overruled by outside powers, by the local executive, appointed from Berlin, or by Ber- lin itself. There was in this form of government no satisfaction given to the legitimate desire of the Alsatians to manage their own affairs. . . . On March 15, iqio, the Chancellor of the Empire, Bethmann-Hollweg, announced in the Reichstag that the Emperor had agreed with the confeder- ated governments to grant a more autonomous constitution to Alsace-Lorraine. This announce- ment was received with lively satisfaction. But the people of the Rfichsland were soon to learn that the Greeks are not the only people to suspect when they come forward bearing gifts. When, on June 20, the members of the Landesausschuss ex- pressed the desire that the Landesausschuss should be consulted beforehand as to the constitutional changes under consideration in Berlin they were informed by the Alsatian ministry that the Im- perial Government did not recognize the right of the Landesausschuss to mix in questions which be- longed exclusively to the Bundersrath and the Reichstag. Indeed, the speech of the Chancellor ought to have checked any undue optimism on the part of the Alsations. Stating that it was neces- sary to grant 'a greater political independence to Alsace,' the Chancellor proceeded to lecture both the Pan-Germanists — for their opposition to any concessions — and those whom he called the 'Pan- French,' for their particularistic and Francophile agitation. The cry 'Alsace for the .\lsatiuns' had, he said, a seductive sound, but he added that this could never be realized as long as the leaders of the movement affected not to recognize the fun- damentally German character of the population and aimed at G'allicizing the country in the face of ethnography and history The cause of Alsace was thus really lost in advance. . . . The actual plan for reform was not laid before the Reichstag until December, igio. Its discussion dragged from the start. When the Landesausschuss expressed opposition to certain features of the plan its session was abruptly closed, May g, iqii, an action which naturally produced a bad impression upon the country. On May 26, ign, the new Constitution of Alsace-Lorraine was voted by the Reichstag. Violently opposed by the Pan- Germanists and betrayed by those so-called liberal parties in the Reichstag whose supposed princi- ples required that they support it. .Alsatian au- tonomy came out practically by the same door wherein it went. Only one change of any impor- tance was made. The Landesausschuss. or single- chambered body, was now to give way to a bi- cameral legislature which was henceforth to be the sole source of legislation for Alsace-Lorraine. The lower house was to be elected by secret and practically manhood suffrage, but this house was to be balanced by an upper house in which the 234 ALSACE-LORRAINE Constitution ALSACE-LORRAINE Government would always be assured of a major- ity. The control of the legislature over the budget, a vital test of its importance, was affirmed but was rendered illusory by the provision that if it should refuse to vote it, then the Government ahould be entirely free to levy taxes and incur expenses on the basis of the preceding budget, that is, to raise and spend as much money as ever. Moreover the legislature, in this respect like the other legislatures of Germany, would have no means of enforcing its wishes. The executive power remained concentrated, as before, in the hands of the Statthalter who would reside, it is true, in Strasburg, but whose inspiration and in- structions would come, as hitherto, from Berlin. The local ministry was to be, as hitherto, respon- ible not to the elected chamber, but to the Stat- thalter alone, and the Statthalter was responsible only to the Emperor. As the Statthalter and the ministry were to appoint and control the bureau- iiacy, or civil service, Alsace would remain, as ill the past, entirely subject to an oligarchy of lorcign officials, the detested immigrants from Germany, and to the daily vexations and irrita- cions of a despotic bureaucracy. Every individual in Alsace would be subjected as during the past lOrty years to the system of espionage which is one of the ubiquitous elements of modern Ger- man government. The Constitution of iqii pre- tended to raise Alsace-Lorraine to the rank of a German state, to place it on a plane of equality with the other twenty-five members of the con- federation. In practice it did nothing of the kind. It allowed her three votes in the Bundes- rath. She would thus, like all the other states, be represented in both the Bundesrath and the Reichstag. But the three delegates from Alsace- Lorraine were to receive their instructions from the Statthalter, were to vote in the Bundesrath as he might direct. But the Statthalter was not an independent sovereign like the King of Saxony or the Duke of Mecklenburg, ruling by his own right ; nor was he an elected republican head of the state. He was appointed by the Emperor, and was his representative, revocable at will and consequently not likely to do anything distasteful to him. The Constitution of iqii increased greatly the power of the Emperor; it did not in- crease the power of the people. In theory Alsace- Lorraine was given statehood; in practice, she was to be as tightly bound as ever. . . . The Alsatians were shown, in all this campaign of much talk about nothing, that nowhere in Ger- many did they have any friends in their desire for real self-government, not even in the Center and Socialist parties which decisively betrayed their allies in the Reichsland for the sake of the immediate political advantages which offered them- L^elves. The latter cooperated with the Conserva- tives and the Pan-Germanists in granting this mockery of autonomy. The trail of Pan-German- ism was everywhere to be seen in the annexed provinces during the few remaining years of peace. It was indeed provided by Article 28 that any further modification of the new Constitution should be made by the Reichstag and the Bundesrath. The people themselves of the new 'state' would not be able to change their fundamental law in any particular. Their Constitution of ion, like that of 187Q, now superseded, was blighted in the same way. . . . .\t any moment the legislative organs of the German Empire were at liberty to withdraw it or to alter it. Alsace-Lorraine re- mained what she had always been in theory and in fact, an Imperial Territory, a Reichsland, the property of the collective states of the confedera- tion. . . . The period from igii to igi4 was the last act in the long and ignoble history of op- pression which since 1870 has been the sign man- ual of German rule. The situation became stead- ily more and more critical for the Alsatians and Lorrainers. "After 1911 a species of terrorization was or- ganized in Alsace-Lorraine. Spies infested the country, denouncing every manifestation of oppo- sition or criticism. Even local officials like the Statthalter, Wedel, or the chief secretary, Zorn von Eulach, a native Alsatian who had long ago gone over to the German official side, were re- proached bitterly . . . with lukewarmness and in- difference to the welfare of the Fatherland. . . . During the three years preceding . . . [the World War] the cloven hoof appeared repeatedly. The public opinion of the provinces was exacerbated and alarmed by a series of irritating episodes which showed the people the humiliation of their posi- tion, the fragility, indeed the non-existence, of any guarantee of their liberties. Hansi (J. J. Waltz), a native Alsatian, was thrown into prison ... for having caricatured a Pan-German high school teacher, Herr Gneisse, and in 1Q14 he was . . . prosecuted for high treason in the federal court at Leipsic because of caricatures which in any self-governing country would pass current as the most ordinary satires upon the foibles and pretensions of the official class. Abbe Wetterle, editor of a newspaper in Colmar, and formerly a member of the Reichstag, was condemned to fine and imprisonment for protesting against the in- solence of the Pan-Germans. A merchant of Miil- house was expelled from Alsace for having asked a hotel orchestra to play the Marseillaise. During these years, also, the authorities proceeded against numerous Alsatian societies and clubs in a way that could only create widespread irritation and resentment, against choral unions, gymnastic clubs, and societies founded for the purpose of caring for the graves of Alsatians who died on Alsatian soil during the Franco-German war. In addition to military and political pressure, economic pressure was also used to further the programme of Ger- manization. Alsatian economic interests were re- peatedly sacrificed in the interest of neighboring states like Baden or of the powerful Rhenish- Westphalian steel-and-iron-mongers. Alsatian man- ufacturers or merchants were the victims of despic- able informers and all who were suspected of French sympathies were made to fee! the full displeasure of the government. The great locomo- tive corporation of Graffenstaden, on which the life of that town absolutely depended, was in- formed that there would be no more government contracts, unless it dismissed a manager whom the Pan-Germanists considered Francophile As the business would have been ruined without govern- ment orders, the corporation submitted. . . The reaction of all these incidents, grave or petty as the case might be, was exactly what might have been expected. The Alsatians and Lorrainers united as one man against this recrudescence of tyranny. Dropping their differences of opinion, ignoring party lines, they joined in indignant pro- test against a government which subjected them to continued maltreatment, which failed to assure them the most elementary rights of free men. The hollowness and the mockery of the boasted Constitution of loii were patent to all the world in the light of these events "—C. D. Hazen, .4/- sace-Lorrniiir under German rule. pp. 175-186. 1913.— Zabern (Saverne) affair.— "The Berlin government was harassed by the fear of treason- able arrangements between Alsace-Lorraine and 235 ALSACE-LORRAINE Returned to France ALSACE-LORRAINE Paris. That this fear was well grounded was made more than probable by the fact that with the declaration of martial law in the 'Imperial Land' after the war tocsin sounded at the begin- ning of August, 1914, several prominent Alsatians, including Wetterle fled across the border into France, and that others who were not so fortu- nate as to make their escape were arrested and found guilty of treasonable acts. As it was, how- ever, the threats against the constitution and the various pin pricks which the government was able to inflict effectively destroyed any national patri- otism which the granting of the constitution might have inspired. Popular irritation grew and showed itself in many ways, culminating in the incident at Zabern in December, 1013. In this busy Alsa- tian town of some ten thousand inhabitants a Prussian regiment of infantry was quartered. Sol- diers on duty at the barracks and at liberty in the town had been subjected to insults, and in sev- eral cases to rough treatment on the part of rude fellows of the baser sort among the populace. Their officers, filled with the Prussian tradition of military supremacy, ordered the privates to make forcible resistance, employing at the same time the rugged language of the barracks, which being faithfully reported in the town, added still further to the excitement. A crisic was reached in an encounter between civilians anJ a squad of soldiers led by a young lieutenant, in which the latter fearing, as he claimed, that he would be assaulted by a civilian of the lower class, with the consequent irreparable loss of honor according to the peculiar Prussian military tradi- tion, sabred a lame shoemaker. In the riot which resulted Colonel Reutter, in command at the bar- racks, took over the administration of public order, brusquely thrusting aside the civil officials and pacifying the city by the abrupt methods of the military. Instantly a shout of protest arose, not only from Alsace-Lorraine, but from all non-feudal circles in Germany as well. The rude supplant- ing of the civil power by the military \yas re- garded as a recession to the most autocratic days of Prussian history, and in the Reichstag loud calls went up for an authoritative statement from the Kaiser. The Imperial Diet recorded a vote of censure upon the Chancellor for a speech in which the majesty of the law was not vindicated. The whole matter went to the Emperor as supreme military authority and the net result was the trans- ferring of the regiment and the court-martialing of its officers. The latter were finally acquitted, and Colonel Reutter soon after was promoted by the Emperor. The feeling of the feudal classes was summed up in the words of the reactionary Police President of Berlin, Voii Jagow: 'Alsace- Lorraine is the enemy's country.' Non-feudal Ger- many accepted a technical statement from the ministry confirming the supremacy of the consti- tution over the military power, with a further promise from the government that a certain old Prussian cabinet order of 1S20 which might be interpreted to the contrary would be amended. Radical and Socialist were the more ready to still their attacks and hush the matter up, be- cause the French journals, always ready to foment discord in the lost provinces, had seized upon the situation."— R H. Fife, German empire between two wars. pp. 227-230. 1914-1918.— Part in the World War.— Alsace- Lorraine lay close to the scene of conflict, but was only occasionaliv the actual scene of severe fierht- ing except during the first two months of the war A little fringe of western Alsace was occu- pied uninterruptedly by the French throughout the great struggle and was also the scene of occa- sional local fighting.— See also World War: 1914'. I. Western front; h. 1915. — Department of Haut-Rhin formed. See Frj\nce; 1915 (January). 1918 (Nov.) — Germany forced to evacuate. See World War: Miscellaneous auxiliary services: I. Armistices: f, 1; and IQ18: XI. End of the war: c. 1918.— Political aspects of recovery by France. See France: igiS (November). 1918. — President Wilson's peace program.— Lloyd George's and President Wilson's declara- tion of war aims. — Count Hertling's attitude. See World War: igi8: X. Statement of war aims; b; and d. 1918-1920. — Reconstruction work. See World War; Miscellaneous auxiliary services: XII. Recon- struction; a, 3. 1919. — Peace Conference decision. — "Alsace- Lorraine took little of the time of the peace con- ference. This would have seemed strange at any time during the war or the generation which pre- ceded it, for .Msace-Lorraine was an open wound which, in President Wilson's phrase, 'had unset- tled the peace of the world for nearly fifty years.' It was not a direct cause of the war, but it be- came a burning issue as soon as the war broke forth, and it remained one of the chief obstacles to any peace of compromise. But the problem of .Msace-Lorraine was settled by the .Allied victory and evacuation required by the armistice, and these military acts were sealed by the enthusiastic reception of the French troops immediately there- after. There was no way of reopening the ques- tion at the conference, for the Germans had accepted President Wilson's eighth point requiring that the wrong done to France should be righted, and by their enforced evacuation they were no longer in a position to delay or to interfere. Nev- ertheless at \'ersailles Germany put up a last fight for the retention of these territories, tied up as they were with Germany's imperial tradition, with her strategic position, and with her supply of iron ore She demanded that there should be a popu- lar vote. For this there was no legal ground, the language of President Wilson speaking only of the wrong done to France, and the armistice having assimilated .Msace-Lorraine to other occu- pied territories. . . . Since the signing of the treaty the secret propaganda of the German Heimat- dienst [Home Service! has been active in Al- sace-Lorraine, keeping alive German feeling where it still exists and in particular fomenting a so- called Neutralist movement for the separation of this region as a neutralized state under the pro- tection of the League of Nations. . . . With the major question of the return of the lost provinces to France settled in advance, the Paris confer- ence had only to deal with matters of detail, such as naturallv arise in a retrocession from one coun- trv to another. The draft of such clauses was submitted bv the French and referred by the council of four to the special committee of three, Messrs Tardieu, Headlam-Moriey, and Haskins, which had already been at work on the Saar valley. . . The clauses respectine citizenship are particularlv complicated, and much depends upon the spirit of liberality with which these and the economic clauses are interpreted by the French administration"— E. M. House and C. Seymour, What really happened at Paris, story 0/ the Peace Conference, pp. 46-4S. "The treaty therefore restored the provmces with the frontiers of 187 r. Since Germany had refused to assume any share of the French debt in 236 ALSACE-LORRAINE ALTAR 1871, France now recovers the provinces free of obligations as to the German national debt. Simi- larly German state property including railroads is transferred without payment or credit on Ger- many's reparation account. Other articles fix the details as to customs, court proceedings, and the like. For five years products of Alsace-Lorraine are to enter Germany duty-free, up to the average amounts of 1911-1913. Germany also is to allow free export and re-import ot yarns and textile products. The French government has the right to exclude German capital from public utilities and mines, and it also reserves the right (0 retain and liquidate the property of German citizens in Alsace-Lorraine. An annex provides for the restor- ation to French citizenship of the old Alsace- Lorrainers and their descendants, with some ex- ceptions. Various others within a year may claim French nationality, thou.;h in individual cases the French may reject the claim. Germans born or domiciled in Alsace-Lorraine before the war must be naturalized, a period of three years from No- vember I, 1918, being required." — A. P. Scott, /«- troduction to the peace treaties, p. 16. — See also Versaii,les, Treaty of: Part III; Section V. "France had not provoked the war in order to regain Alsace-Lorraine ; but from the moment the war began, every Frenchman was determined that the old 'open wound' in the side of France must be healed. Although during the war there had been some talk among outside observers of a pos- sible division •of Alsace-Lorraine along the lines of the prevailing languages, and although Presi- dent Wilson had not specified just how 'the wrong done to France in 1871' was to be righted, there was not the slightest doubt after the armis- tice that Alsace-Lorraine should be restored entire to France. The Germans admitted that in spite of their historic and nationalistic claims, they had, according to present conceptions of right, done an injustice in 1871, when they had not consulted the»peoplc of Alsace-Lorraine. In acordance with the new principle of self-determination, however, they demanded a plebiscite, which should decide whether the region wished to join France or Ger- many or become a free state. This proposal was summarily rejected. It was felt that restoration to France was necessary to redress the injustice of 1871. The will of the inhabitants had been shown by their protests at that time, and later. Practically, a fair plebiscite would have been dif- ficult in view of the fact that many French sym- pathizers had left after 1871, that many Germans had come in since then, and that during the war the Germans had treated the territory as enemy country. The treaty therefore restored the prov- inces to France with the frontiers of 1871. . . . The restoration of Alsace-Lorraine is doubly sig- nificant. It has a moral and sentimental value, as marking the failure of that Prussian policy of blood and iron which seemed so triumphant in 1871. For France, the stronger frontier and the added population are additional safeguards. But still more important is the iron of Lorraine, the richest field in Europe. From it Germany drew nearly all her ore. With it Germany was able tn forge her industrial and military machine. Without it Germany will be helpless fo' aggression, and dependent for her industrial development on the cultivation of friendly economic relations with France." With the signing of the armistice, the transition period began. The French government by the de- cree of November 26, IQ18, took over the ad- ministration of the country and French troops displaced the Germans. On March 22, 1919, M. .Alexandre Millerand was appointed first governor- general. The task of submitting civil officials and courts for the administration of French law and of organization of the educational system along French lines, has been substantially achieved. Seri- ous difficulties were encountered due to French unfamiliarity with the country and the barrier of languages, for, in Alsace at least, the great ma- jority of the people speak a German dialect. The currency question also offered certain peculiar difficulties of its own. The franc was made to take the place of the mark. Altogether there was much confusion and disappointment over these various diftkultics in spite of the great popular acclaim with which the transfer of these last provinces from German to French sovereignty was received. "For France the reacquisition of the lost prov- inces brings not only renewed strength but per- plexing problems and responsibilities. Germany had signally failed to win the affection and loy- alty of Alsace-Lorraine. On the other hand, the German connection had brought much prosperity to the provinces, and by no means all — perhaps not even a majority — of the people were in 1914 anxious to return to France. In 1918, however, the French were welcomed with a heartiness which even the Germans had to admit. The problem of the complete reincorporation of the provinces in France is not a simple one. Great caution will have to be e.xercised in applying the French laws as to the separation of church and state, and limiting clerical control of education. If Alsace- Lorraine should prove less prosperous than under German rule, or if the anti-clericalism of France should offend the strong Catholic sentiment of the people, grave dissatisfaction may yet arise. It is to be hoped that as little occasion as possible will be given for the growth of a new irredentism, and that the historic wrong of 1871 may have found its final solution." — A. P. Scott, Introduction to the peace treaties, pp. nS-118. — See also France: 1918 (November). Also in: E. A. Vizetelly, True story of Alsace- Lorraine. — C. Phillipson, Alsace-Lorraine. — -G. W. Edwards, Alsace-Lorraine described and pictured (London, 1919). — B. Cerf, Alsace-Lorraine since 1870 (New York, 1919). — Marie Harrison, Stolen lands: Study on Alsace-Lorraine (London, iqi8). — C. Phillipson, Alsace-Lorraine, past, present, and future (London, 1918). — C. D. Hazen, .Alsace-Lor- raine under German rule (New York, 1917).— D. S. Jordan, Alsace-Lorraine (1916). ALSO? CLAIM. See Chile: 1909. ALSUA, Enrigue Dorn y de, Representative from Ecuador at the Peace Conference (loio). See Versailles, Treaty of: Conditions of peace. ALT AUTZ, Poland: Taken by the Germans (1915). See World War: 1915: III. Eastern front: g, 8. ALTA CALIFORNIA (Upper California). See California. ALTAMIRA, caves in northern Spain wherein notable examples of prehistoric paintings were found. See Painting: Pre-classical. ALTAMSH, or Altimsh (d. 1236), king of Delhi. See India: 977-1290. ALTAR, a raised place of earth, stone or other material, which forms the central point of worship in the sacred building or enclosure of any reli- gion. In the older religions it was upon the altar that sacrifices were made, libations poured, or gifts deposited. In the liturgical Christian churches the sacrament is administered from the altar. In the Protestant churches, the altar has disappeared, or has been replaced by the simple communion table. 2Z7 ALTDORFER AMALEKITES ALTDORFER, Albiccht ( ?i48o-i53S), Ger- man painter and engraver, called the "Giorgionc of the North." His engravings on wood and copper rank next to those of Albrecht Diirer. ALTEN, Sir Charles (1704-1S40), Hanoverian and British soldier. Participated in the cainpaign in the Low Countries, 1703-1705, in the Hano- verian expedition 1S05, was with Moore in the expedition to Spain, and commanded Wellington's third division at Waterloo. ALTENBURG: Its origin and dukedom. See Saxony: i 180- is ^3 ALTENHEIM, Battle of (1675). See Neth- erlands: 1674-1678. ALTGELD, John Peter (1847-1002), governor of Illinois, 1S03-1807; came to the United States from Germany at an early age. While governor he was severely criticized for his leniency in par- doning three anarchists, said to have been guilty of exploding a bomb in Chicago during a strike in 1886. He again showed that his sympathies were with the workers when he refused to call out the militia in 1804, during the Pullman strikes. President Cleveland sent federal troops over Alt- geld's protest on the ground that his action was necessary to protect the federal mills. He supported William J. Bryan in the iSq6 and iQoo presidential campaigns, in favor of "free silver," and was a strong advocate of prison reform. ALTHING. See Thing. ALTHING (General Diet): Denmark. See Denmark: 1S00-1S74. ALTINUM, an ancient town of Venitia, de- stroyed bv Attila in 452. Sec Venice: 452. ALTITUDE RECORDS. See Aviation: De- velopment of airplanes and air service: 1008-1020. ALTMAN, Benjamin (1840-1913), American art collector and merchant. See Gifts and be- quests. ALTOBELLI, Argentina (c. i860- ), Italian communist. In 1020 she was head of the union of peasants or land workers, and an influential agitator in the Italian industrial struggle. ALTON, a railroad town of Madison Co., 111., on the Mississippi, which is here spanned by a bridge, first settled in 1783. In 1837, during the anti-slavery agitation. Elijah P, Lovejoy, a prom- inent abolitionist, was killed in what was known as "the Alton riot." ALTON A, Schleswig-Holstein: 1713.— Burned by the Swedes. See Sweden: 1707-1718. ALTOPASCIO, Battle of (1325)- See Italy: 1313-1330. ALVA, or Alba, Fernando Alvarez de To- ledo, Duke of (1508-1583), famous Spanish gen- eral and statesman ; prime minister and general of the armies of Spain under Charles V and Philip II; fought in the campaigns of Charles V, and was important factor in the victory at Mijhlberg (1547) against Elector John Frederick of Saxony; was victorious against the combined French and Papal forces in the Italian campaign (1555); was sent to suppress Dutch revolt in Netherlands (1567) ; in 1580. conducted a campaign against Don Antonio of Portugal. — See also Netherlands: i,S67-iS73; 1573-1574; Rome: Modern city: 1537- 1621. ALVARADO, Pedro de (1405-1541), Spanish soldier appointed commander of a fleet for the conquest of Mexico. He later conquered Guate- mala, and in 1527 was appointed governor of the captured territory by Charles V. See Me-\ico: 1510-1520; i=;2i (Mav-Julv). ALVARADO, Salvador (1880- ), Mexican general and statesman; governor of the state of Yucatan (1015-1917) under socialistic system; gov- ernor of state of Tabasco for a short time; par- ticipated in revolution of 1920 which caused the downfall of Carranza ; special envoy to Washington for General Alvaro Obregon, leader of the revo- lution; made minister of finance under the Obre- gon government; sent on. mission to New York, Washington, and European capitals to discuss re- sumption of payments on Mexican foreign debt. — Sec also Y'ucatan: 1911-1918. ALVAREZ, Juan (1780-1897), President of Mexico. See Mexico: 1848-1861. ALVEAR, Carlos Maria (c. 1785-1850), aids Uruguay to establish its independence. See Uru- guay: 1821-1905. ALVERSTONE (Sir Richard Everard Web- ster), Baron (1842-1915), lord chief justice of England. Counsel for The Times in the Parnell inquiry ; in 1803 represented England in the Ber- ing sea arbitration; in 1903 a member of the .Maska boundary commission (q.v.). ALVES, Rodriquez, president of Brazil, 1918- 1922. Sec Brazil: 1918. ALWANIYAH See Dervishes. ALYATTES (609-500 B.C.), king of Lydia, founder of the Lydian empire. Fixed the Halys as the boundary between Media and Lydia; drove the Cimmcrii from .\sia, subdued the Carians. His tomb at Sardis was excavated in 1854. A.M. (Anno mundi), the Year of the World, or the year from the beginning of the world, accord- ing to the formerly accepted chronological reck- oning of .Archbishop Usher and others. Computed from biblical sources, the date of the creation was set at 4004 B. C, a theory no longer accepted bv scientists. AMADE, Albert d', French general. In 1914, with a newly-formed corps, delayed the attempted German drive between the British and French armies. See World War: 1914; Western front For operations in Morocco see Morocco: 1907- 1909; 1909. AMADEO, king of Spain, 1871-1873- See Amedeo Ferdinando Maria di Savoia. AMAHUACO. See Andesians. AMAL, the name of the leading family of the Ostrogoths, from which nearly all their kings, known as .Amalings, were chosen. AMALEKITES.— "The Amalekites were usu- ally regarded as a branch of the Edomites or 'Red-skins.' Amalek, like Kenaz, the father ol the Kenizzites or 'Hunters,' was the grandson of Esau (Gen. 36: 12, 16). He thus belonged to the group of nations, — Edomites, .Ammonites, and Moabites, — who stood in a relation of close kin- ship to Israel. But they had preceded the Israelites in dispossessing the older inhabitants of the land, and establishing themselves in their place. The Edomites had partly destroyed, partly amalgamated the Horites of Mount Seir (Deut. 2:12); the Moabites had done the same to the Emlin, a people great and many, and tall as the Anakim' (Deut. 2:10). while the .Ammonites had extirpated and succeeded to the Rephaim or 'Giants,' who in that part of the country were termed Zamzum- min (Deut. 2:20; Gen.' 14:5^ Edom however stood in a closer relation to Israel than its two more northerly neighbours. . . . Separate from the Edomites or .Amalekites were the Kenites or wandering 'smiths.' They formed an important Guild, in an age when the art of metallurgy was confined to a few. In the time of Saul we hear of them as camping among the Amalekites (I. Sam. 15:6.) . . . The Kenites . . did not con- stitute a race, or even a tribe. They were, at most, a caste. But they had originally come, ^38 AMALFI AMATONGALAND like Ihe Israelites or the Edomites, from those bar- ren regions of Northern Arabia which were peo- pled by the Menti of the Egyptian inscriptions. Racially, therefore, we may regard them as allied to the descendants of Abraham. While the Kenites and Amalckites were thus Semitic in their origin, the Hivites or 'Villagers' are specially associated with Amorites." — A. H. Sayce, Races of the Old Testament, cli. 6. — See also Jews; Israel under the Judges, and Kingdoms of Israel and Judah; Chris- tianity: Map of Sinaitic peninsula. Also in: H. Ewald, History of Israel, bk. i, sect. 4. AMALFI, a seaport town in Campania, south Italy. It is about twenty-two miles southeast of Naples, on the Gulf of Salerno. An interesting building is the old cathedral, with bronze doors cast in Constantinople in the nth century. A hotel now makes use of an old Capuchin monas- tery, which dates from the beginning of the 13th century. "It was the singular fate of this city to have filled up the interval between two periods of civilization, in neither of which she was destined to be distinguished. Scarcely known before the end of the sixth century, Amalfi ran a brilliant career, as a free and trading republic which was checked by the arms of a conqueror in the mid- dle of the twelfth. . . . There must be, I suspect, some exaggeration about the commerce and opu- lence of Amalfi, in the only age when she pos- sessed any at all." — H. Hallam, Europe during the Middle Ages, cit. g, pt. i, with note. — "Amalfi and Atrani lie close together in two . . . ravines, the mountains almost arching over them, and the sea washing their very house-walls. ... It is not easy to imagine the time when Amalfi and Atrani were one town, with docks and arsenals and har- bourage for their associated fleets, and when these little communities were second in importance to no naval power of Christian Europe The Byzan- tine Empire lost its hold on Italy during the eighth century; and after this time the history of Calabria is mainly concerned with the republic of Naples and .Amalfi, their conflict with the Lom- bard dukes of Benevento, their opposition to the Saracens, and their final subjugation by the Nor- man conquerors of Sicily. Between the year 83q when Amalfi freed itself from the control of Naples and the yoke of Benevento, and the year 1 13 1, when Roger of Hauteville incorporated the republic in his kingdom of the Two Sicilies, this city was the foremost naval and commercial port of Italy. The burghers of Amalfi elected their own doge ; founded the Hospital of Jerusalem, whence sprang the knightly order of S. John ; gave their name to the richest quarter in Palermo; and owned trading establishments or factories in all the chief cities of the Levant. Their gold coinage of 'tari' formed the standard of currency before the Florentines had stamped the lily and S. John upon the Tuscan florin. Their shipping regulations supplied Europe with a code of maritime laws. Their scholars, in the darkest depths of the dark ages, prized and conned a famous copy of the Pandects of Justinian, and their seamen deserved the fame of having first used, if they did not actually invent, the compass. . . . The republic had grown and flourished on the decay of the Greek Empire. When the hard-handed race of Hauteville absorbed the heritage of Greeks and Lombards and Saracens in Southern Italy these adventurers succeeded in annexing Amalfi. But it was not their interest to extinguish the state. On the contrary, they relied for assistance upon the navies and the armies of the little commonwealth. New powers had meanwhile arisen in the North of Italy, who were jealous of rivalry upon the open seas; and when the Neapolitans resisted King Roger in 1135, they called Pisa to their aid, and sent her fleet to destroy Amalfi. The ships of Amalfi were on guard with Roger's navy in the Bay of Naples. The armed citizens were, under Roger's orders, at Aversa. Meanwhile the home of the republic lay defenceless on its mountain- girdled seaboard. The Pisans sailed into the har- bour, sacked the city and carried off the famous Pandects of Justinian as a trophy. Two years later they returned, to complete the work of de- vastation. Amalfi never recovered from the in- juries and the humiliation." — J. A. Symonds, Sketches and studies in Italy, pp. 2-4. AMALFITAN TABLES'. See International law: Maritime codes. AMALGAMATED CLOTHING WORKERS STRIKE. See Arbitration and conciliation. In- dustrial: United States: loiS-ioiq. AMALGAMATED LABOR UNION. See American Federation of Labor: 1881-1886. AMALIKA. See Arabia: Ancient succession and fusion of races. AMALINGS, or Amals. — The royal race of the ancient Ostrogoths, as the Balthi or Balthings were of the Visigoths, both claiming a descent from the gods. AMALRIC I (113S-1174), king of Jerusalem. Reigned from 1162 till his death. Made several unsuccessful incursions into Egypt. See Jerusa- lem: 1144-1187. Amalric II (1144-1205), king of Jerusalem from 1 197 to his death. Merely nominal ruler, as Jerusalem remained in the hands of the Saracens throughout his reign; was also king of Cyprus, as Amalric I, from 1194. See Jerusalem: 1187- 1229. AMANA COMMUNIT"if, German religious communistic society of Iowa. See Socialism: 1843- 1874. AMANDO. See Alcantra, Knights of. AMANI (East Africa), Battle of. See World War: 1916: VII. African theater: a, 11. AMAPALA, Treaty of (1895). See Central America: 1895-1002. AMARA, Mesopotamia, Captured by British (1915). See World War: 1915: VI. Turkey: c, 2. AMARYNTHUS, (i), king of Eubrea; (2) a town under the rule of King Amarynthus, famed for its temple of Artemis. AMASIA, a small Turkish city in Asia Minor about 200 miles southwest of Trebizond, in an- cient times the capital of the kingdom of Pon- tus. Strabo, the father of geography, was born here. AMASIS I (c. 1700 B.C.), founder of the Eighteenth Dynasty in Egypt. Waged successful wars against the Hyksos princes. Amasis II, last great ruler of Egypt, 570-526 B. C; usurped the throne of King Apries; main- tained friendly relations with Greece. See Egypt: B. C. 670-525. AMATHUS, an ancient Phcenician city on the southern coast of Cyprus. It was involved in the successful revolt of Cyprus against Persian rule (500-494 B. C). Amathus refused to join the phil-Hellene league; that refusal brought on a siege of the city by Onesilas of Salamis, who was captured and executed when his attempt failed. AMATI, Nicolo (1596-1684), the most famous of the Amati family that founded the Cremona school of violin makers. Nicolo was the teacher of Andrea Guarnicri and Antonio Stradivari. AMATONGALAND, or Tongaland.— On the cast coast of South .Africa, north of Zululand, un- 239 AMAURY AMAZON RIVER der British protection since 1888. See Africa; Modern European occupation: 1884-1S89. AMAURY. See Aiialrk. AMAZIGH OF THE RIF, Characteristics of. See Africa: Races of Africa: Prehistoric peoples. AMAZON INDIANS. See India.ns, Amer- ican: Cultural areas in South America: Amazon area. AMAZON RIVER: Its course.— Madeira- Mamore railway. — The .\mazon is a river of South America, and is the longest and most ex- tensive inland waterway in the world. Its length is variously estimated at between 3,000 and 4,000 miles; with more than ;oo tributaries this great fluvial system drains an area of over 2,700,000 square miles. About 2.500 miles of its length courses through Brazil. Rising in the Peruvian Andes in two main arteries, the Maranon or Tingu- ragua and the Ucayali, also known as the Apuri- mac, the stream becomes united at Tabatinga on the borders of Peru and Brazil, abou. 5 south and flows eastward as the SoHmoens river to the Rio Negro confluence. From this point the Amazon proper, or lower course, winds through Brazil and empties itself into the .Atlantic directly on the equator. From Tabatinga the two sections of the main stream, together with most of their ramifying branches, are comprised within Brazil- ian territory ; the upper section, together with the upper valleys of some of the Solimoens affluents, belong entirely to Peru. Here rise and flow for hundreds of miles the Maraiion, the Huallaga, and the Ucayali, that is, the three farthest head- streams of the whole system with which the Paute, Pastaza, Tigre and Napo from Ecuador converge above Tabatinga to form the Solimoens. It is apparently owing to its westernmost position, far- thest from the ."Atlantic, that the Marafion is com- monly regarded as the true upper source of the Amazon. Judging by length and volume, however, this distinction should be awarded to the Ucayali, which is the largei; of the two at the confluence and has also a much longer course. "From Para to the Amazon proper much can be seen, but by far the greater interest lies in the pas- sage through the narrows; that is, the latter part of this stretch, and it can be enjoyed only by day- light, when the sometimes threatening closeness to the banks permits those on the deck of the steamer to catch the details within or about the small thatched huts (barracas) of the natives; to watch the children at their games, which are much the same as games of children in other parts of the world; and to study the endless variety of the crowded, impenetrable vegetation of the forest. Here the trees appear to be higher and greener, the sparse clearings, whether made by nature or man, farther apart; but the huts are numerous, and the traveler can fancy a certain degree of neighborhood life among the simple people. One seldom sees a patch along the water's edge be- tween any two huts, or settlements, but the water is always there, and it affords the only traveled highway for either sociability or commence. The main river to the novelty-seeking tourist may be somewhat disappointing. He who has seen the Rhine, the Thames, the Danube, or the Hudson is apt to come away with the fixed opinion that the Amazon is rather monotonous. The only reason upon which such an opinion can be based is the fact that the four or five days on the river to Man- aos present no striking views of constantly varying scenery, no great evidences of the struggles of nature when the earth was forming, and only here and there substantial traces of man's conquest of the land. The stream flows practically due east from the Andes with only a few turns in its course, although the channel alters from season to season. The numerous islands are in general indistinguishable from the mainland; the entrance of any one of the many important tributaries cre- ates little disturbance and seems not to increase at all the tremendous volume of water between the two banks. . . . Only three places really at- tract notice on the through voyage — Obidos, San- tarem, and Itacoatiara a few miles below the mouth of the Madeira River. The two former are historical, being early settlements grown into cities since the time of the Province and the Empire; the latter was originally an Indian vil- lage and once had the name of Serpa which is yet heard on the lips of experienced river men. Para is one of the oldest cities in Brazil, and offers for the tourist much that is interesting from any point of view. Manaos, on the contrary, is one of the newest cities in Brazil, and illustrates fairly well what Brazilians can do in civic foundation and improvement. ... To those who are travelers with a different purpose, however, the Amazon Valley is a wonderland, the richest in opportunity of any of the world's hitherto unoccupied spaces. For the botanist, for instance, an unlimited field for investigation is still open, and the studies of Bates, Spruce, or others have merely hewn a slight path through this most luxuriant of nature's gar- dens. For the biologist and zoologist, the amount of the unknown is fascinating, and the needed re- searches into the natural history of this region will furnish activity for inquiring minds during the greater part of the present century. The eth- nologist also must be fascinated by the chance here offered to discover man in an environment which, while leaving him essentially savage, has yet developed in him many of the better phases of human nature. In fact every student of what- ever degree or inclination should know that here is a theater that calls him most ardently to ac- tion now, and in which there need be not one moment of dullness or monotony. . . . One of the seven wonders of the first part of the twen- tieth century . . . [is] the Madeira-Mamore Rail- way. ... In a sentence, the Madeira-Mamore Railway is to Brazil and Bolivia what the Panama Canal is to Chile and Peru. . . . The Madeira- Mamore Railway is 363.4 kilometers long (202 miles). It extends in a direction almost due south, within the Brazilian State of Matto Grosso, be- tween the terminals Porto Velho at the north, on the Madeira River, to Guajara-Mirim at the south, on the Mamore River. . . . The Madeira-Mamore Railway was built to avoid the rapids and falls of the Madeira River, and it is evident, when passing over the line, that the result was most satisfactorily obtained." — H. Hale, Valley of the river Amazon. — Madeira-Mamore Railway Com- pany {Pan American Union, Dec., 1912). — See also Brazil: Geographic description; Latin America: Map of South America. Discovery and naming. — The mouth of the great river of South America was discovered in 1500 by Pinzon, or Pincon, who called it "Santa Maria dc la Mar Dulc" (Saint Mary of the fresh- water sea). "This was the first name given to the river, except that older and better one of the Indians, 'Parana,' the Sea; afterwards it was Maraiion and Rio das Amazonas, from the female warriors that were supposed to live near iti banks. . . . After Pinion's time, there were others who saw the fresh-water sea, but no one was hardy enough to venture into it. The honor of its real discovery was reserved for Francisco de Orellana; and he explored it, not from the east, 240 AMAZON RIVER AMAZON RIVER but from the west, in one of the most daring voyages that was ever recorded. It was accident rather than design that led him to it. After . . . Pizarro had conquered Peru, he sent his brother Gonzalo, with 340 Spanish soldiers, and 4,000 Indians, to explore the great forest east of Quito, 'where there were cinnamon trees.' The expe- dition started late in 1539, and it was two years before the starved and ragged survivors returned to Quito. In the course of their wanderings they had struck the river Coco; building here a brig- antine, they followed down the current, a part of them in the vessel, a part on shore. After a while they met some Indians, who told them of a rich country ten days' journey beyond — a country of gold, and with plenty of provisions. Gonzalo placed Orellana in command of the brigantine, and ordered him, with 50 soldiers, to go on to this gold- land, and return with a load of provisions. Orel- lana arrived at the mouth of the Coco in three days, but found no provisions; 'and he considered that if he should return with this news to Pizarro, he would not reach him in a year, on account of the strong current, and that if he remained where he was, he would be of no use to the one or to the other. Not knowing how long Gonzalo Pizarro would take to reach the place, without consulting any one he set sail and prosecuted his voyage on- ward, intending to ignore Gonzalo, to reach Spain, and obtain that government for himself.' Down the Napo and the Amazons, for seven months, these Spaniards floated to the Atlantic. At times they suffered terribly from hunger: 'There was nothing to eat but the skins which formed their girdles, and the leather of their shoes, boiled with a few herbs. ' When they did get food they were often obliged to fight hard for it; and again they were attacked by thousands of naked Indians, who came in canoes against the Spanish vessel. At some Indian villages, however, they were kindly received and well fed, so they could rest while building a new and stronger vessel. . . . On the 26th of August, 1541, Orellana and his men sailed out to the blue water 'without either pilot, com- pass, or anything useful for navigation ; nor did they know what direction they should take.' Fol- lowing the coast, they passed inside of the island of Trinidad, and so at length reached Cubagua in September. From the king of Spain Orellana re- ceived a grant of the land he had discovered; but he died while returning to it, and his company was dispersed. It was not a very reliable account of the river that was given by Orellana and his chronicler. Padre Carbajal. So Hcrrera tells their story of the warrior females, and very properly adds: 'Every reader may believe as much as he likes.' " — H. H. Smith, Bra::i!, the Amazons, and the coast, ch. i. — In chapter eighteen of this same work "The Amazon Myth" is discussed at length, with the reports and opinions of numerous travel- lers, both early and recent, concerning it. Mr. Southey had so much respect for the memory of Orellana that he made an effort to restore that bold but unprincipled discoverer's name to the great river. "He discarded Maranon, as having too much resemblance to Maranham, and Amazon, as being founded upon fiction and at the same time inconvenient. Accordingly, in his map, and in all his references to the great river he denominates it Orellana. This decision of the poet-laureate of Great Britain has not proved authoritative in Brazil. O Amazonas is the universal appellation of the great river among those who float upon its waters and who live upon its banks. . . . Para, the aboriginal name of this river, was more appro- priate than any other. It signifies 'the father of waters.' . . . The origin of the name and mystery concerning the female warriors, I think, has been solved within the last few years by the intrepid Mr. Wallace. . . . Mr. Wallace, I think, shows conclusively that Friar Gaspar [Carbajal] and his companions saw Indian male warriors who were attired in habiliments such as Europeans would attribute to women. ... I am strongly of the opinion that the story of the Amazons has arisen from these feminine-looking warriors encoun- tered by the early voyagers."— J. C. Fletcher and D. P. Kidder, Brazil and the Brazilians, ch. 27. Also in: A. R. Wallace, Travels on the Ama- zon and Rio Negro, ch. 17. — R. Southey, History of Brazil, v. i, ch. 4. Tributaries. — River of Doubt.— Development of river system.— The more important of the many tributaries of the Amazon are: Tocantins, Xingu, Tapajos, Purus, Jurua, Japura, Rio Negro and Ma- deira. One of the largest affluents of this great arm of the Amazon is the Rio Teodoro, which was named in honor of the discoverer, the late ex-president, Theodore Roosevelt, who led the Roosevelt-Ron- don exploration expedition through the Brazilian wilderness in 1914 "On February 27, 1914, shortly after midday, we started down the River of Doubt (Rio Teodoro) into ihe unknown. We were quite uncertain whether after a week we should find outselves in the Gy-Parana, or after six weeks in the Madeira, or after three months we knew not where. ... We put upon the map a river some fifteen hundred kilometres in length, of which the upper course was not merely utterly unknown to, but unguessed at by, anybody; while the lower course, although known for years to a few rubber-men, was utterly unknown to cartographers. It is the chief affluent of the Ma- deira, which is itself the chief affluent of the .Ama- zon. The source of this river is between the 12th and 13th parallels of latitude south and the ^gth and 60th degrees of longitude west from Green- wich ... we finally entered the wonderful Ama- zon itself, the mighty river which contains one- tenth of all the runnin; water of the globe. It was miles across, where we entered it; and indeed we could not tell whether the farther bank, which we saw, was that of the mainland or an island. . . . The mightiest river in the world is the Amazon. It runs from west to east, from the sunset to the sunrise, from the Andes to the At- lantic. The main stream flows almost along the equator, while the basin which contains its af- fluents extends many degrees north and south of the equator. This gigantic equatorial river basin is filled with an immense forest, the largest in the world, with which no other forests can be compared save those of western Africa and Ma- laysia." — T. Roosevelt, Through the Brazilian wil- derness. "So fertile is the soil of the Amazon that it is claimed that for every bushel of maize, rice, or beans planted over 800 bushels are harvested . . . '.Amazonia' is an agricultural El Dorado, and it is an amazing incongruity that food should ever have been imported into the valley, where enough rice, for instance, could be raised to feed the en- tire world ; yet until two or three years ago rice was imported, some of it from China." — J. F. Barry, Great possibilities of Amazonia (Pan Amer- ican Union, Mar., 1920).— The last ten years have brought great changes in the civilization and commercial life of the .Amazon and "Amazonia." Probably the most important factors in the de- velopment of this fabulously wealthy river system are the construction of the railroad line from Porto 241 AMAZON RUBBER COMPANY AMBROSIAN CHANT Velho to Guajara-Wirim, and the establishment of the Amazon iNavigation Company in 1912. The importance of the latter undertaking, to the hfe and progress 0! the Brazilians, can hardly be over- estimated. The Amazon Navigation Company, which operates under a federal charter, covers fif- teen routes and a total distance of 235,552 miles annually. The fleet consists of about 100 crafts, some of which have been taken from the old (Eng- lish) Amazon Navigation Company The steamers ply not only on the .Amazon but also on all of its more important affluents, such as the Tapajos, the ' Javory. the Madeira, the Rio Negro, the Purus and the lurua. AMAZON RUBBER COMPANY: Putumayo rubber atrocities. Sec Pkku: 1012-1013. AMAZONS. — "The .Vmazons, daughters of Ares and Harmonia, are both early creations, and fre- quent reproductions, of the ancient epic. ... A nation of courageous, hardy and indefatigable women, dwelling apart from men, permitting only a short temporary intercourse for the purpose of renovating their numbers, and burning out their right breast with a view of enabling themselves to draw the bow freely, — this was at once a general type stimulating to the fancy of the poet, and a theme eminently popular with his hearers. Nor was it at all repugnant to the faith of the latter — who had no recorded facts to guide them, and no other standard of credibility as to the past except such poetical narratives themselves — to conceive communities of .Amazons as having actually existed in anterior time. Accordingly we find these war- like females constantly reappearing in the ancient poems, and universally accepted as past realities In the Iliad, when Priam wishes to illustrate em- phatically the most numerous host in which he ever found himself included, he tells us that it was assembled in Phrygia, on the banks of the Sanga- rius, for the purpose of resisting the formidable Amazons When Bellerophon is to be employed on a deadly and perilous undertaking, by those who indirectly wish to procure his death, he is despatched against the Amazons. . . . The ."Xrgo- nautic heroes find the .Amazons on the river Ther- modon in their expedition along the southern coast of the Euxine. To the same spot Herakles goes to attack them, in the performance of the ninth la- bour imposed upon him by Eurystheus, for the purpose of procuring the girdle of the .\mazonian queen, Hippolyte; and we are told that they had not yet recovered from the losses sustained in this severe ag -rcssion when Theseus also assaulted and defeated them, carrying off their queen Antiope. This injury they avenged by invading .Attica . . . and penetrated even into Athens itself: where the final battle, hard-fought and at one time doubtful, by which Theseus crushed them, was fought — in the very heart of the city, .\ttic antiquaries con- fidently pointed out the exact position of the two contending armies. . . . No portion of the ante- historical epic appears to have been more deeply worked into the national mind of Greece than this invasion and defeat of the .^mazons. . . . Their proper territory was asserted to be the town and plain of Themiskyra, near the Grecian colony of Amisus, on the river Thermodon [northern Asia Minor], a region called after their name by Roman historians and geographers. . . . Some authors placed them in Libya or Ethiopia." — G. Grote, Hislorv of Greece, pt. i, ch. 11. AMA-ZULU. See Zululaxd. AMBACTI.— "The Celtic aristocracy [of Gaull . . . developed the .system of retainers, that is. the privilege of the nobility to surround themselves with a number of hired mounted servants — the am- bacti as they were called — and thereby to form a state within a state; and, resting on the support of these troops of their own, they defied the legal authorities and the common levy and practically broke up the commonwealth. . . . This remark- able word [ambacti] must have been in use as early as the sixth century of Rome among the Celts in the valley of the Po. ... It is not merely Celtic, however, but also German, the root of our 'Amt,' as indeed the retainer-system itself is com- mon to the Celts and the Germans. It would be of great historical importance to ascertain whether the word — and therefore the thing — came to the Celts from the Germans or to the Germans from the Celts. If, as is usually supposed, the word is originally German and primarily signified the servant standing in battle 'against the back' ('and' =against, 'bak'=back) of his ma.ster. this is not wholly irreconcilable with the singularly early oc- currence of the word among the Celts. ... It is . . . probable that the Celts, in Italy as in Gaul, employed Germans chiefly as those hired servants- at-arms. The 'Swiss guard' would therefore in that case be some thousands of years older than people suppose." — T. Mommsen. History of Rome, hk. 5, cli. 7. and foot-note. AMBAN, the title of two imperial Chinese resi- dents in Lhasa. Tibet, who supervised the man- agement of all secular affairs of the country by the four ministers of state. See Tibet: 1902 -1904; 1010-IQ14, AMBARRI, a small tribe in Gaul which occu pied anciently a district between the Saone. the Rhone and the Ain. AMBASSADOR SERVICE. See Diplomatic AND COXSULAR SERVICE. AMBASSADORS, Hall of. See Ai.hambra. AMBIANI. See Belg.t.. AMBIORIX, prince of the Eburones in Belgian Gaul. Fought unsuccessfullv against Cjesar in 54 B. C. See Eburones; Gaul: B. C. 58-51. AMBITUS. — Bribery at elections was termed ambitus among the Romans, and many unavail- ing laws were enacted to check it. — W. Ramsay, Manual of Roman antiquity, ch. g. AMBI'VARETI, a tribe in ancient Gaul which occupied the left bank of the Meuse, to the south of the marsh of Peel. AMBLEVE, Battle of (716). See Franks: 511-752 AMBOISE, Georges d' (1460-1510), French cardinal and prime minister in the reign of Louis XII. In 150^, made papal legate to France for life. AMBOISE, a town of central France, on the left bank of the Loire. It is noted for the chateau, overlooking the Loire from the eminence above the town. The Logis du Roi, the chief part, was built by Charles VIII. the other wing by Louis XII and Francis I. AMBOISE, Conspiracy or Tumult of. See France: ii;^Q-i=;6i. AMBOISE, Edict of. See France; 1560-1563. AMBOYNA, Massacre of. See India: 1600- 1702. AMBRACIA (Ambrakia). See Corcyra. AMBRONES, a Germanic tribe which joined the Tcutones against the Romans in 102 B. C. See CiMBRi AND Teutones: B.C. 113-101. AMBROSE, Saint (340-307), celebrated Father of the ancient church: unanimously elected bishop of Milan in 374; reputed author of the .^mbrosian ritual. See Milan: 374-307; Music: Ancient: B.C 4-A D. 307 AMBROSIAN CHANT, the ecclesiastical mode of saying and singing Divine service, organized by 242 AMBROSINl AMENDMENTS St. Ambrose about 3S4 for the cathedral of Milan. — See also Milan: 374-397; Music: Ancient: B.C. 4-A. D. 307, and 540-604. AMBROSINl, Bartolomeo (1588-1657), Ital- ian naturalist, director of the botanical garden at the university of Bologna, succeeding Aldrovandi, whose pupil he was. AMBROSIUS AURELIANUS, leader of the Britons against the Saxons in the fifth century; identified by some with Uther-Pendragon, father of King .\rthur. — See also .'Vrthurian legend. AMBULANCE CORPS, American. See American ambulance. AMEDEO FERDINANDO MARIA DI SA- VOIA (1845-1800), king of Spain, 1870-1873. Third son of Victor Emmanuel II of Italy; elected by the Cortes after disturbances following the revolution of 1868, by which Isabella II had been deposed; abdicated February 11, 1873, after which the Republic was proclaimed. See Spain: 1868- 1873. , AMEER. See .Amir. AMEIXIAL (Estremos), Battle of (1663). See Portugal: 1637-1668. AMELIA CASE.— The Amclin had sailed from Hamburg to Calcutta and on the return voyage was captured by the French, who held her about ten days, when she was captured by the Constitu- tion, commanded by Captain Silas Talbot, U. S. N. Talbot had brought suit in the New York district court that the Amelia be judged lawful prize, which the owners disputed, since Hamburg and the United States were not at war. Seeman appealed from the decision of the district court, and Tal- bot from that of the circuit court. The supreme court ordered the vessel to be sold and the costs to be paid from the proceeds of the sale; of the residue one-sixth was to go to the libellant, for commander and crew, the remainder to the own- ers of the vessel. This practically reaffirmed the decision of the circuit court. The decree was handed down in August, iSoi. Jared Ingersoll was principal counsel for plaintiff, .\lexander James Dal- las for defendant. — J. A. Bayard, Annual report of the American Historical Association, 1013, p. 123. AMELIUS (fl. 246-260), Greek philosopher. See Neoplatonism. AMEL-MARDUK, or Amil-Marduk, king of Babvlonia. See Babylonia: Decline of the Empire. AMENDMENTS TO CONSTITUTIONS: United States. — To the Federal constitution. — The framers of the Constitution of the United States seem to have felt that the sovereignty of the states would be best protected by the legislatures of the several states. They provided that Congress may propose amendments by a two-thirds vote of each house, but that such amendments must be ratified by three-fourths of the several states either through their legislatures or by conventions. The states themselves may take the initiative in proposing amendments and Congress is required to call a convention for this purpose on application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the states. One part of the Constitution is virtually unamendable because of the provision "that no State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate." Between 1780 and 1Q20, nineteen amendments were adopted. The first ten, however, were adopted at one time and comprise a Bill of Rights omitted from the original Constitution be- cause the framers of the Constitution took these rights for granted. (See also U. S. A.: 1701.) The eleventh amendment prevents the Federal Government from being party in law suits brought by citizens of any state against the government of another state. The twelfth amendment chanced the manner of voting in the electoral college. The thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth amendments were adopted after the Civil War. The thirteenth gives the slaves their freedom, [see also U. S. A.: 1865 (January)] the fourteenth gives civil rights to the freedman and defines citizens as "all persons born or naturalized in the United States and sub- ject to the jurisdiction thereof." It also forbids any state to abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United Stales" or to "deprive any person of life, liberty, or property without due process of law." [See also Suffrage, Manhood: United States: 1864-1921; U. S. A.: 1S66 (June), 1866-1867 (October-March), looi (January).] The fifteenth amendment provides that "the right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any stale on account of race, color, or previous conditions of servitude." [See also U. S. A.: i8b8- 1870: Process of reconstruction; also 1869-1870] ."Vmcndment sixteen empowers Congress to levy and collect taxes on incomes. [See U. S. A: igoo (July).] The seventeenth amendment provides for the election of United States senators by vote of » the people. [See also Arizona: 1912.] The eighteenth is as follows [Constitutional League of America, p. 31] :— "Section I.— After one vear from the ratification of this article the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors with- in, the importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the United States and all territory subject to the junsdicion thereof for beverage pur- poses is hereby prohibited. Section II.— The Con- gress and the several States shall have concurrent power to enforce this article by appropriate legis- lation. Section III. — This article shall be inoper- ative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the Legislatures of the several States, as provided in the Constitu- tion, within seven years from the date of the sub mission thereof to the States by the Congress." [See also Liquor problem: United States: 1913- 1919.] The nineteenth amendment forbids any state to deny suffrage to a citizen because of sex. [See Suffrage, Woman: United States: 1851-1920.] It will thus be seen that in this period of over a century and a quarter the Constitution has been amended at only eight different times. It requires a strong popular demand to get Congress to pass a proposed amendment. More than one-half of eighteen hundred propositions of this sort intro- duced into Congress in the first hundred years were "pigeon-holed" or killed in committees. — See also U. S. A.: Constitution. Court decisions covering amendments to Fed- eral constitution. — "In March, 1920, a United States District Court held that both the Amend- ment and the National Prohibition Act are valid; that there is nothing in the subject-matter of the .Amendment incompetent or improper to form part of the Constitution; that there is no usurpation of powers properly belonging to the States alone; that since an amendment of the Constitution pro- vides that future amendments shall be ratified by the Legislatures of the States, the objection urged as regards States which have a referendum law, namely, that the .Amendment should have been submitted to referendum, is of no force; that Con- gress had a right to define (as it has defined, by the 'half of one per cent.' provision in the Volstead Law) what intoxicating liquor is; and that the contention that the plaintiff's property has been destroyed without compensation, contrary to the Constitution, has no basis, because Congress has the right to determine whether compensation shall be made when the property (as here) is not taken 24 3 AMENDMENTS for public use. The discussion by Judge Rellstab orth'e meaning of the clause •concurrent power to enforce by appropriate legislation is i^ull ana '" erestng He rejects any dictionary fhrn ,on of the word 'concurrent' which would restrict the ac- tion of Congress and the Legislatures to agree- is"if^^^.^\^^io1SSet^ rei^^^:ci^^^^vr5^£ P^-T'har'merniS'Xh will carry out the in- tended pur^e of'congress should be given to this word The thing sought to be prohibited is the T^anufac lire of and commerce in intoxicating hq- ^ fnr heverige purposes, and the prohibition rndfthrrugS^he' United States aiid all ter ii:-^^u:j^oh^;^^r^bi:^rtti| slat ^e power, and this power is delegated to both Congres^nd the several States^ If Congressidha Sn to be effective is dependent upon each of ?he States joining with it in its enforcemen leg s- ation an absolute failure to effect such legis a- tion "s not merely possible but decidedly pM\e '""in another form the anti-nulhfying o-e of this decision is expressed in the words: When Con gress acts to enforce this Amendment its com mands extend throughout the Union This is cer- U nlv plain and direct doctrine It - — ^'f/^ by k reference to a statement of Chief-Justce Marshall, of the United States Supreme Court, manv vears ago. Justice Marshall said "•Should this collision [between an act of Con- gress and New York [legislation] exist, '» will be immaterial whether those laws were passed in vir- tue of a concurrent power 'to regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the several States, ; in virtue of a power to regulate their domestic trade and police. In one case and the other the acts of New York must yield to the law of Con- gress and the decision sustaining the privilege ?hev confer, against a right given by a law o the Union, must be erroneous. . . . The nullity ot anv act, inconsistent with the Constitution is pro- duced bv the declaration, that the Constitution is ''^'pSr JuTge Rellstab holds 'The prohibi- torv section of the Eighteenth Amendment is of national scope and operation and its efficacy de- pends upon its bein: nationally enforced. Us en- forcement section was nationally envisaged, as was he need of the co-operation of the several States secure general observance. To carry out such a concept Congress alone, of all the legislative bodies r^ust take the lead, and its leadership, when assumed, dominates."-OK//oofe, March 31, 1920- See also Supreme Court: 1882-1808; lOM^io^i^ The Supreme Court held, in the case of Hollings- worth tv. Virginia (3 Dallas 78) that the president had nothing to do with the proposing or adoptmg of amendments. <:„,„„ Amendment of state constitutions.-Referen- dum -There is as yet no uniform practice with regTrd to consulting the people before calling a constitutional convention In nearly th>ft> /'ates the legislature mav use its discretion as to the time of consulting the' people. In several ^t^'- New York among the number, the people must be con- sulted at stated intervals on the question of hold- ng a constitutional convention. Thomas Jefferson held that once in each generation a new constitu- AMENDMENTS but a few states leave these details entirely to leg- [J^ative discretion. In the states that have the d re t popular initiative the voters are 'nc^ependent of the legislatures in the matter of calling and organizing constitutional conventions These S number more than a third of the total There is no uniform practice in the matter 01 securing the approval of the electorate alter con- s Hut^^ns have been revised. New England New York and Virginia led the way in the practice of Securing popular approval to propose amendmen s and it is^ow general, though there has been m recent vears some departure f^<"",/^is custorn. For a discussion of these cases, consult W. F Dodd, Revlion and amcdment of stale conMuUons, (,-, (,-71 _See also Minnesota: iSqb. ^^Other methods of amending sta e constitu- tions.-"In the beginning there seems to have been no clear recognition of the necessity for a distinc- tion bctween'the revision and the amendment of state constitutions. In the original states the prac- tice varied Onlv three of the original state con- stitutions contained any special provisions for their amendment by legislative action. Delaware provided that certain parts of the constUution should not be subject to amendment at al , and hat 'no other part should be altered except with the consent of five out ot;^ the seven members o the legislative assembly and ^e^'e" ,?"' ° .'^^^ " "„'_ members of the legislative council. South Laro Una also established a distinction between the proc- ess of ordinary legislation and that of constitu- tional amendment by requiring an exceptional ma^ ioritv for the adoption of a measure of the latter ch-i!acter Marvland made a sharper distinction between constitutional amendments and prdinary statutes by requiring that the former, having been adopted bv the legislature, should be published at ea^r three months before the fction of he next lecislature, and then readopted by the latter, m order to become effective. The Maryland plan of action by two successive legislatures was accepted Sy South Carolina in 1790 and by Delaware m 1702 and grafted upon their own original devices^ This arrangement was generally considered at he time to give adequate popular control over the pro ess of' amendment, and was adopted in severa other states; but the only state which till clings ^0 dav to a process of amendment which makes no provision for a special popular vote upon each proposed amendment is Delaware. A somewhat more democratic practice was adopted m Alabama in ,8iQ. This consisted in the provision that an amend'„,ent proposed by the 'eP'^lature shouM be voted on directly by (he people, mstead of be ng merely published for their information but he nower to take final action was still vested in the xTsuc^ceeding legislature. This plan was never widelv copied, and exists to-day in only t^vo states South Carolina and Mississippi. A still more dem- nrratic practice was Inaugurated in Connecticut in 8 lns?eld of placing the popular vote between he two successive legislative actions the popular ote was placed after the second legislative action hi s giving to the electorate the final decision, and making Hs action definitive instead of mere V ad- v'ov The Connecticut plan was adopted in Mline in 1810 and simplified by the omission of ?Se requirement that a second legislature endo se proposed amendments, thus enabhng any legisla- 244 AMENEMHAT AMERICA ture to submit its proposals directly to the people. The Connecticut and Maine plans have since been widely copied, and popular control over the process of amendment through legislative initiative has been almost completely established. The final stage in the evolution of the amending process has been the adoption of the direct popular initiative, thus dispensing altogether with legislative intervention. This stage was first entered upon in Oregon in igo2, and is now established in twelve states." — A. N. Holcombe, Slate government in the United States, pp. 98-9Q. — See also Initiative and ref- erendum; South Dakota: 18S0-1012. The method of altering constitutions piece- meal by separate amendments seems to be yielding to the method of general overhauling by constitutional conventions. In none of the states is action by the governor necessary in amending the state constitution. The growing tendency to distrust the legislature and to make the state con- stitutions resemble a group of statutes has made it necessary to amend the fundamental law rather often. For further details of state constitutional amendments see various states as Arkansas: 1S85- IQ08; California: iqoo-iqoq: Constitutional changes; Immigration and emigration: United States: 1920-1021: Anti-Japanese law in California; Indiana: 1918; North Carolina: 1900. .^Lso in: F. N. Thorpe, Federal and state con- stitutions; colonial charters, and other organic taws of the state, territories, and colonies now or heretofore forming the United States of America, 7 I'., Washington, igog. For amendments to constitution in other countries, see country head, as Australia, Constitution. AMENEMHAT, or Amenemhe, I, King of Egypt (c. B. C. 2130), founder of the twelfth dyn- asty. See Moeris, Lake. Amenemhat II, King of Egypt (c. B. C. 2066- 2031). Amenemhat III, King of Egypt (c. B. C. 1986- 1942). See Moeris, Lake. Amenemhat IV, King of Egypt (c. B. C. 1941- 1932)- AMENHOTEP. See Amenophis. AMENOPHIS I, Egyptian pharaoh (c. B.C. 1778). See Egypt; About B.C. 1700-1300. Amenophis II, Egyptian pharaoh (c. B. C. 1687). See Egvpt: About B.C. 1700-1300. Amenophis III, King of Egypt (c. B.C. 1493). See Egypt: B. C. 1414-1379. Amenophis IV (died c. 1350 B.C.), one of the Pharoahs of the Eighteenth Dynasty in Egypt; endeavored to substitute exclusive worship of the sun for Egyptian polytheism and shifted his capital to the city of Tell-El-.Amarna. After his reign of about 18 years, his reforms were soon abolished. — See also Egypt: B. C. 1379. AMERICA Politico-geographical survey. — Arrival of the white man. — Influence of the discovery on European history. — Geography and climate: factors in settlement. — Natural resources. — Area. — "The history of America covers but a short period, and the political conditions have been peculiar. It furnishes very few instances, similar to those afforded in abundance by European his- tory, of the influence of geography on the political destinies of nations. Though the whole of South America, e.xcejbt the European settlements in Guiana, is now partitioned among independent na- tions, they are all of one type; and their turbu- lent annals record no events of the slightest in- terest from the geographical point of view. The same holds good of the southern portion of North America: the descendants of the Spanish conquer- ors have mingled with the natives, and have formed states like their southern neighbors, with a similar veneer of modern civiHzation largely due to immigrants from Europe, and a similar sub- stratum of comparative barbarism. The United States were saved by the triumph of the North in the war of secession from breaking up into separate nations, so that a single government rules the whole centre of the continent from ocean to ocean. Similarly the whole of America north of the United States is occupied by the single domin- ion of Canada, loyal to the British crown, but in other respects an independent nation. The fron- tier between the two is in most of its length ab- solutely conventional, but happily there have been only trifling wars upon it. The geography of North America to some extent accounts for the fact that two great nations now occupy the whole of it, north of the comparatively narrow portion which tapers down to the isthmus of Panama The Rocky mountains, which form the watershed be- tween the Atlantic and the Pacific, run close to the western side of the continent. East of them is one boundless plain, not of couri^e altogether flat, but containing no chain of mountains long or high enough to form a definite barrier. Even the Alleghanies are not hard to cross, and sink away into the plain at each end. Thus when the white men, having settled along the Atlantic coast, began to push their way westward, they encountered no geographical obstacles. The question as to which of the European peoples should dominate America was fought out before the great expansion began." — H. B. George, Relations of geography and his- tory, pp. 294-295. "Two great events happened within thirty years of each other, the discovery of the New World and the Reformation. These two events closely involved with two others, viz., the consolidation of the great European States and the closing of the East by the Turkish Conquest, caused the vast change which we know as the close of the Middle Ages and the opening of the modern period. But of the two leading events the one was of far more rapid operation than the other. The Reformation produced its effect at once and in the very front of the stage of history. . . . Meanwhile the occu- pation of the New World is going on in the back- ground, and does not force itself upon the atten- tion of the student who is contemplating Europe. The achievements of Cortez and Pizarro do not seem to have any reaction upon the European struggle. And perhaps it is not till near the end of the sixteenth century, when the raids of Francis Drake and his fellows upon the Spanish settle- ments in Central America mainly contributed to decide Spain to her great enterprise against Eng- land, perhaps it is not till the time of the Spanish Armada, that the New World begins in any per- ceptible degree to react upon the Old. But from this time forward European affairs begin to be controlled by two great causes at once, viz., the Reformation and the New World, and of these the Reformation acts with diminishing force, and the New World has more and more influence. . . . fin the eighteenth centuryl the religious question with all its grandeur has sunk to rest, and the colonial question, made up of worldly and material considerations, has taken its place Now the New 245 AMERICA Politico- geographical Survey AMERICA World, considered as a boundless territory open to settlement, would act in two ways upon the nations of Europe. In the first place it would have a purely political effect, that is, it would act upon their governments. For so much debatable territory would be a standing cause of war. It is this action of the New World that we have been considering hitherto, while we have observed how mainly the wars of the eighteenth century, and particularly the areat wars of England and France, were kindled by this cause. But the New World would also act upon the European com- munities themselves, modifying their occupations and ways of life, altering their industrial and eco- nomical character." — Sir J. Seeley, Expansion of England, pp. 7S-80. "For over one hundred years after the discovery of .America the Spanish and the Portuguese were permitted to select the sites of their colonies and occupy as much of the land of the new continent as they desired, undisturbed by any interference of the English or French. Fortunately for the future of Anglo-Sa.\on supremacy in North .Amer- ica, the Portuguese directed their efforts to South America, .Africa, and southeastern .Asia. The Span- iards followed in a general way the tracks of Columbus and concentrated their efforts upon the West Indies, and Central and South .America. The initial impulse which was given to exploration and settlement in this region was retjnforced by the finding of precious metals in Mexico and Peru. For generations afterwards, the energies of Spain were concentrated here, leaving the northern part of the .American continent to others. This was largely accident, although the winds and ocean currents had been the chief factors in tak- ing Columbus over the course which he sailed and bringing him to the particular portion of the newly discovered lands which he actually reached. "Similarly, the claims of the New World which were staked out by the English, French, and Dutch were determined in the first instance mainly by geographical considerations The North .Atlantic is relatively narrow between Newfoundland on the one side and Ireland and Brittany on the other. Knowledge that the Spaniards had already pre- empted the lands for the south also directed the later arrivals to the more northern portion of North America. All these influences combined to apportion in a rough way the newly discovered lands among the maritime powers. The new con- ditions of life which the English and French found awaiting them were arduous enough to discourage the timid and weed out the unfit, without abso- lutely discouraging immigration from Europe. The climate of our Atlantic seaboard is more rigorous than that of France and the British Isles but it is a white man's country and makes no impossible demands upon a European's powers of adaptation. South of Chesapeake Bay many districts suffered from malaria which, combined with the hot sum- mers, put a premium upon negro slavery. On the northern end of the habitable area, in the St. Lawrence region, agriculture was made difficult by severe winters and a thin soil. Physiography and climate, therefore, discouraged the growth of a dense population in what is now lower Canada and hampered the growth of the French settle- ments there, despite the profits in the fur trade. "The main outlines of the growth of the English colonies were also fixed fairly early by these same natural features The climate, the configuration of the land, the presence or absence of natural harbors, the fertility of the soil, and the fauna and flora directed industrs- into this or that chan- nel. The mountain wall of the Appalachians flanked by dense forest growths opposed a mighty barrier to westward migration, while the warlike aborigines assisted the mountains and forests in hemming in the English colonists close to the At- lantic shore-land." — D. E. Smith, in J. N. Lamed, Ed., English leadership, pp. 210-212. "The first Europeans in America were doomed to many a disappointment in the matter of climate The effects of the Gulf Stream, which carries the heat of the Gulf of Mexico away from North .America to warm the shores of western Europe, were at first not recognized by the newcomers. Their natural expectation was that in a given lati- tude the climate of America would approximate that of Europe. New England, from June to Sep- tember, did appear in the same latitude. A New England winter, on the other hand, resembled that of Norway or Sweden, while Labrador, which was only as far north as England, had a climate which in Europe was known only within the .Arctic Circle. . . . Low-lying shores, cut by numerous navigable streams, rendered the .Atlantic coast of .North .America more easy of access than was the Pacific coast. The majority of these Atlantic riv- ers were short and swift, and possessed of water power well suited to the manufacturing which was to spring up in later centuries. The interior of the continent could not easily be penetrated along these streams, for the reason that some few miles inland they were usually broken in their cour.=e by rapids and falls, which were difficult of pas- sage. Still farther inland they lost themselves in a mountain barrier, the .Appalachians, which ex- tended parallel to the seashore as far south as Georgia. The waters of the St. Lawrence cut this barrier in the north, but it v.as early found that this waterway, filled with rapids and frozen over for nearly half the year, was not all that could be desired as a key to the interior of the continent Nor was the Mississippi a much more satisfactory route inland, since hidden shoals rendered its as- cent so difficult that navigation of its waters could be easily accomplished only southward with the current. Confronted bv these conditions, the Eu- ropean settlers quite naturally contented themselves at first with the coast. They did nut explore the passes over the mountains to the west till almost a century after their first settlement, and they did not push through these barriers in any con- siderable numbers for another half century. . . . Fortunately the Europeans found the struggle for existence in .America comparatively easy. The .At- lantic Ocean, from Newfoundland to Cape Cod, contained an abundance of .sea food, particularly the valuable codfish and mackerel, which were highly esteemed as early as the days of Columbus and have constituted the basis of a valuable in- dustry down to the present time. On land the fertile soil responded quickly to the efforts of the husbandmen. .As has been well said, raising their own food has seldom been a serious problem for the settlers in virgin .America. Over and above its own needs, the country has usually been able to furnish a surplus for consumption abroad. Supplies of game, such as deer, elk. wild geese, and turkeys, abounded. The forests, extending as far west as the plains of the interior, furnished an abundance of lumber; and everywhere, in forests, streams, and plains, the beaver, otter, sable, badger, buffalo, deer, and other fur-bearing animals yielded rich returns to the fur trader. The vast mineral resources of gold, silver, copper, coal, iron, and petroleum, though not yielding up their treasure to the early settlers, have added immensely to the wealth of the countr\-, as fnmi time to lime 246 AMERICA Prehistoric Period AMERICA the secret of their existence has been wrested from nature. "The vastness of the new continent surprised the Europeans. Both North America, with 8,000,000 square miles, and South America, with 6,800,000 square miles, are larger than Europe, which totals only 3,700,000 square miles. Exclusive of the island possessions, the present area of the United States, 3,600,000 square miles, is almost as large as the whole of Europe." — E. D. Fife, History of the United Stales, pp. 26-28. Name. See below: 1500-1514. Aboriginal inhabitants. See Indians, A\rER- ican; Mythology: Primitive mytholoKy; also un- der the names of the tribes, and under countries, e.g., Mexico: Aboriginal inhabitants, etc. the theme of many an essay on the wonders of ancient civilization. The research of the past years has put this subject in a proper light. First, the annals of the Columbian epoch have been care- fully studied, and it is found that some of the mounds have been constructed in historical time, while early explorers and settlers found many ac- tually used by tribes of North American Indians; so we know that many of them were builders of mounds. Again, hundreds and thousands of these mourfds have been carefully examined, and the works of art found therein have been collected and assembled in museums. At the same time, the works of art of the Indian tribes, as they were produced before modilication by European culture, have been assembled in the same museums, and Photogrftph. Department at Interior CLIFF DVVF.r.LINGS IN MESA VFROE N.^TIO.N.M. P.VRK. COI.OK.\DO Oldest signs of human habitations in America Prehistoric. — "Widely scattered throughout the United States, from sea to sea, artificial mounds are discovered, which may be enumerated by the thousands or hundreds of thousands. They vary greatly in size; some are so small that a half- dozen laborers with shovels might construct one of them in a day, while others cover acres and are scores of feet in height. These mounds were observed by the earliest explorers and pioneers of the country. They did not attract great at- tention, however, until the science of archaeology demanded their investigation. Then they were as- sumed to furnish evidence of a race of people older than the Indian tribes. Pseud-archa^ologists descanted on the Mound-builders that once inhab- ited the land, and they told of swarming popula- tions who had reached a high condition of culture, erecting temples, practicing arts in the metals, and using hieroglyphs. So the Mound-builders formed the two classes of collections have been carefully compared. All this has been done with the great- est painstaking, and the Mound-builder's arts and the Indian's arts are found to be substantially identical. No fragment of evidence remains to support the figment of theory that there was an ancient race of Mound-builders superior in culture to the North American Indians. . . . That some of these mounds were built and used in modern times is proved in another way. They often con- tain articles manifestly made by white men, such as glass beads and copper ornaments. ... So it chances that to-day unskilled archa;ologists are collecting many beautiful things in copper, stone, and .shell which were made by white men and traded to the Indians. Nov,;, some of these things are found in (he mounds; and bird pipes, elephant pipes, banner stones, copper spear heads and knives, and machine-made wampum are collected 247 AMERICA Prehistoric Period Arvheological Research AMERICA in quantities and sold at high prices to wealthy amateurs. . . . The study of these mounds, his- torically and archaeologically, proves that they were used for a variety of purposes. Some were for sepulture, and such are the most common and widely scattered. Others were used as artilicial hills on which to build communal houses. . . . Some of the very large mounds were sites of large communal houses in which entire tribes dwelt. There is still a third class . . . constructed as places for public assembly. . . . But to explain the mounds and their uses would expand this article into a book. It is enough to say that the Mound- builders were the Indian tribes discovered by white men. It may well be that some of the mounds were erected by tribes extinct when Columbus first saw these shores, but they were kindred in cul- ture to the peoples that still existed. In the south- western portion of the United States, conditions of aridity prevail. Forests are few and are found only at great heights. . . . The tribes lived in the plains and valleys below, while the highlands were their hunting grounds. The arid lands below were often naked of vegetation ; and the ledges and cliffs that stand athwart the lands, and the canyon walls that inclose the streams, were everywhere quarries of loose rock, lying in blocks ready to the builder's hand. Hence these people learned to build their dwellings of stone; and they had large communal houses, even larger than the structures of wood made by the tribes of the east and north. Many of these stone pueblos are stiJl occupied, but the ruins are scattered wide over a region of country embracing a little of California and Ne- vada, much of Utah, most of Colorado, the whole of New Mexico and Arizona, and far southward toward the Isthmus. . . . No ruin has been dis- covered where evidences of a higher culture are found than exists in modern times at Zuni, Oraibi, or Laguna. The earliest may have been built thousands of years ago, but they were built by the ancestors of existing tribes and their congeners. .\ careful study of these ruins, made during the last twenty years, abundantly demonstrates that the pueblo culture began with rude structures of stone and brush, and gradually developed, until at the time of the exploration of the country by the Spaniards, beginning about 1540, it had reached its highest phase. Zuni [in New Mexico] has been built since, and it is among the largest and best villages ever established within the territory of the United States without the aid of ideas de- rived from civilized men." With regard to the ruins of dwellings found sheltered in the craters of extinct volcanoes, or on the shelves of cliffs, or otherwise contrived, the conclusion to which all recent archsological study tends -is the same "All the stone pueblo ruins, all the clay ruins, all the cliff dwelUngs, all the crater villages, all the cavate chambers, and all the tufa-block houses are fully accounted for without resort to hypothetical peoples inhabiting the country anterior to the Indian tribes. . . . Pre-Columbian culture was in- digenous; it began at the lowest stage of savag- ery and developed to the highest, and was in many places passing into barbarism when the good queen sold her jewels." — J. W. Powell, Prehistoric man in America (.Forum, Jan., iSgo). — "The writer believes . . . that the majority of American archaeolo- gists now sees no sufficient reason for supposing that any mysterious superior race has ever lived in any portion of our continent. They find no archzeological evidence proving that at the time of its discovery any tribe had reached a stage of culture that can properly be called civilization Fven if we accept the exaggerated statements of the Spanish conquerors, the most intelligent and advanced peoples found here were only semi-bar- barians, in the stage of transition from the stone to the bronze age, possessing no written language, or what can properly be styled an alphabet, and not yet having even learned the use of beasts of burden." — H. W. Haynes, Prehistoric archaeology of North America {Narrative and Critical History of America, v. i, ch. 6). — "It may be premised . . . that the Spanish adventurers who thronged to the New World after its discovery found the same race of Red Indians in the West India Islands, in Central and South America, in Florida and in Mexico. In their mode of life and means of sub- sistence, in their weapons, arts, usages and customs, in their institutions, and in their mental and physi- cal characteristics, they were the same people in different stages of advancement. . . . There was neither a political society, nor a state, nor any civiUzation in America when it was disco%'ered; and, excluding the Eskimos, but one race of In- dians, the Red Race." — L. H. Morgan, Houses and house-life of the American aborigines {Contribu- tions to North American Ethnology, v. 4, ch. 10). — "We have in this country the conclusive evi- dence of the existence of man before the time of the glaciers, and from the primitive conditions of that time, he has lived here and developed, through stages which correspond in many particulars to the Homeric age of Greece." — F. W. Putnam, Re- port Peabody Museum of Archaeology, 1886. "In recent years archeologists have uncovered a number of interesting ancient Indian villages in the southwestern part of the United States where the four states of Arizona, Utah, Colorado and New Mexico corner. It is a collection of remark- able ruins called Mummy Lake Village, so named from a mummy pit found there. It contains a strange three-story house 113 feet long and no feet wide; a large front court is inclosed with a stone wall. The house had more than 100 rooms. In one of these southwestern villages an ancient fire-place was found and a grinding mill with the grinding stones still in their original position. Aztec Spring City is another interesting place. It extends over 15 acres and the stone wall built into it is estimated to contain 2,000,000 cubic feet It seems queer that the stones had to be carried from a distance. This village has been dug into considerably by grave robbers. At Goodman Point Village there was a large building in the center, apparently a community house, and similar structures around it. \ community spring fur- nished water for the villagers. The National Geographic Society through the Yale University Expedition to Peru in 1915 resulted in making known to the world the marvelous civilization of the early Peruvian Indians. Megalithic or big stone people were probably the ancestors of the modern Quichuas, a tribe of the Incas whom the Spaniards conquered. It is clear that there were settled agri- cultural communities centuries before America was discovered by Columbus. These .Aborigines had tillage agriculture, used fertilizer, and irrigated arid regions. They also built terraces with large stones carefully fitted together behind which soil, brought from a distance, was placed for the growing of crops. River courses were straightened and this valley land was reclaimed for agriculture. The Peruvian Indians placed more importance on the raising of crops than on the tombs of the dead. Their agricultural terraces show finer workman- ship than their dwellings. Early Spanish historians tell us that they had special gardens for raising po- tatoes for the royal household. Among the crops of the ancient Peruvians were the sweet potato. 248 AMERICA Prehistoric Connections with Africa and Asia AMERICA I he potato, the tomato and Indian coin. When we think of the importance of the potato as an ar- ticle of food today we can see that the real treas- ure of the Incas was not their gold but their agriculture. In the masonry of these Staircase Farms are some joints so delicate as to be invisible to the naked eye, indicating the finest craftsman- ship." — O. F. Cook, Staircase farms of the ancients {National Geographic Magazine, May, iqi6). Also in: L. Carr, Mounds of the Mississippi Val- ley. — C. Thomas, Burial mounds of the northern sections of the United States: Annual report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1883-1884.— Marquis de Na- daillac, Prehistoric American. — J. Fiske, Discovery of America, ch. i. — J. W. Fewkes, Bureau of American Ethnology. Bulletin 51. — Indian mound groups and village sites about Madison (.American Antiquarian, v. 33, Oct., 240-241). — W. P» Lewis, Published facts relating to early man in North America (Archceological Bulletin 2, Sept., pp. 102-106). — K. Sumner, Cave and cliff -dwellings of the Southwest (Ameri<-ana, v. 6, .iug., pp. 738-743). — E. S. Curtis, North American Indian, VI, VII. — A. W. Ivins, Record keeping among the Aztecs (Utah General and Historical Magazine, v. 2, April, pp. go-92), — J. C. Morton, Vanishing race (Ohio Archwological and Historical Publication, v. 2, January, pp. 48-56). — C, Wissler, Research and exploration among the Indians of the northern plains (American Museum Journal, v. 11, April, pp. 126-127). Theory of a land bridge from Africa. — Read- ers conversant with various theories of the origin of the American Indians and their culture will recognize immediately the significance of the hy- pothesis of a land bridge between America and Africa in pre-historic times. The idea is not new but it has been given a new interest because its defense has been taken up recently by M. Joleaud. The existence of such a land bridge extending in recent geologic times from the West Indies to Morocco, would explain most of the heretofore inexplicable similarities between Aztec and Inca civilization on the one hand, and Egyptian civiliza- tion on the other. This theory has also been sponsored recently by Professor Leo Wiener of Harvard, in a work entitled Africa and the discov- ery of America. Professor Wiener induces the aid of philology and archaeology to prove that African negroes, mainly from the neighborhood of the river Niger, crossed the Atlantic and settled in America long before the arrival of Columbus. He claims that many Indian words quoted by Columbus are in reality of African origin ; and that the habit of smoking, and the cultivation of certain plants, were practiced by Africans before they were taken up by American Indians. Theory of a cultural wave across Asia. — An- other theory of the origin of ancient civilization in America was presented by Mr. G Elliot Smith in Science, August 11, iqi6. He holds that the dis- tinguishing characteristics of American cultures, such as the mummifying of the dead, the use of irrigation canals and pyramidal structures, come from the ancient civilization of Egypt through a 'great cultural wave.' He believes that this cul- tural wave passed from the valley of the Nile by way of Assyria into India, Korea, Siberia, the Pa- cific islands and America. He thinks it started about 900 B. C. He says: — "In the whole range of ethnological discussion perhaps no theme has evoked livelier controversies and excited more widespread interest than the problems involved in the mysteries of the wonderful civilization that re- vealed itself to the astonished Spaniards on their first arrival in America. During the last century, which can be regarded as covering the whole peri- od of scientific investigation in anthropology, the opinions of those who have devoted attention to such inquiries have undergone the strangest fluc- tuations. If one delves into the anthropological journals of forty or fifty years ago they will be found to abound in careful studies on the part of many of the leading ethnologists of the time, demonstrating, apparently in a convincing and un- questionable manner, the spread of curious cus- toms or beliefs from the Old World to the New. Then an element of doubt began to creep into the attitude of many ethnologists, which gradually stiffened until it set into the rigid dogma — there is no other term for it — that as the result of 'the similarity of the working of the human mind' similar needs and like circumstances will lead vari- ous isolated groups of men in a similar phase of culture independently one of the other to invent similar arts and crafts, and to evolve identical be- liefs. The modern generation of ethnologists has thoughtlessly seized hold of this creed and usefl it as a soporific drug against the need for mental exertion. For when any cultural resemblance is discovered there is no incentive on the part of those whose faculties have been so lulled to sleep to seek for an explanation ; all that is necessary is to murmur the incantation and bow the knee to a fetish certainly no less puerile and unsatisfy- ing than that of an African negro. It does not seem to occur to most modern ethnologists that the whole teaching of history is fatal to the idea of inventions being made independently. Origi- nality is one of the rarest manifestations of human faculty. . . . From Indonesia the whole eastern Asiatic littoral and all the neighboring islands were stirred by the new ideas; and civilizations bearing the distinctive marks of the culture-complex which I have traced from Egypt sprang up in Cochin- China, Corea, Japan and eventually in all the islands of the Pacific and the western coast of America. The proof of the reality of this great migration of culture is provided not merely by the identical geographical distribution of a very extensive series of curiously distinctive, and often utterly bizarre, customs and beliefs, the precise dates and circumstances of the origin of which are known in their parent countries; but the fact that these strange ingredients are compounded in a definite and highly complex manner to form an artificial cultural structure, which no theory of independent evolution can possibly explain, be- cause chance played so large a part in building it up in its original home. For instance, it is quite conceivable (though I believe utterly opposed to the evidence at our disposal) that different people might, independently the one of the other, have in- vented the practises of mummification, building megaUthic monuments, circumcision, tattooing and terraced irrigation ; evolved the stories of the petri- fication of human beings, the strange adventures of the dead in the underworld, and the divine ori- gin of kings; and adopted sun-worship. But why should the people of America and Egypt who built megalithic monuments build them in accord- ance with very definite plans compounded of Egyptian, Babylonian, Indian and East Asiatic models? And why should the same people who did so also have their wives' chins tattooed, their sons circumcised, their dead mummified? Or why should it be the same people who worshiped the sun and adopted the curiously artificial winged- sun-and-serpent symbolism, who practised terraced irrigation in precisely the same way, who made idols and held similai beliefs regarding them, who had identical stories of the wanderings of the dead 249 Prehistoric Connections AMERICA AMERICA ^jffj Africa and Asia cthnoRraphy of their country have called forth the adoration of all anthropologists, seriously to re- consider the significance of the data they are amass- '"objection was urged to this theory by Mr. Philip Ainsworth Means in Saaicc Oc( 13. ig'^ He says: "This theory is important. But there are several serious objections to 1 . (O " Mf Elliot Smith is right in thinking that the Ameri- can aborigines in Mexico, Peru, etc., "sed py- ramidal structures, numerous irrigation systems, and manv customs closely resembling those of the ancient Egyptians because their culture was really an offshoot of the Egyptian culture how can it be explained that in all pre-Columbian America there was no such thing as a wheeled vehicle i- Chariots of various sorts were much used in an- cient Egvpt, as well as in the intervening areas, vet there is not a shred of evidence to prove that the Indians of America ever knew anything even remotely resembling them. Had the founders o \merican culture come from an area where wheclecl vehicles were known, is it not inevitable that they would have made use of such vehicles during then- long journcv? Does it not seem that wheeled vehicles would be more useful to them than pyr- amids, and that therefore they would have been remembered first on the arrival of the wanderers in their new land? It is difficult to be leve that the American aborigines were the cultural descend- ants of a wheel-using people, for wheels, being essentially useful, would inevitably have Persisted as a feature of their material culture, had that been the case. (2.) In a like manner, one is puzzled bv a lack of any ships or vessels of ad- vanced type among the .\merican Indians. Even in Mexico, Yucatan and Peru, where civilization was. in other respects, of a well-advanced type, there were no really complicated vessels before th" coming of the Spaniards. On the coast of Ecuador there was found the most elaborate type of boa known to the Indian race. It consisted of a raft of light wood with a flimsy platform on which stood a rude shelter A simple sail, sometimes even two, was used. Large canoes with sails were also used in Yucatan Not one of these however is'worthv to be compared with even the earlies and simplest ships used in Egypt It is known, of course, that boat-building reached very early a high development in Babylonia, India and China, through all of which the 'cultural wave is said to have passed (3 ) Finally, the date B. C. Qoo is altogether too late for the beginning of the alleged migration of cultures If this migration took place at all, it must have left Egypt much earlier than this for we have the Tuxtla statuette (dated about B C 100) to prove that even before the conv mencement of our era the Maya calendar had already gone through its long preliminary stages and was already in existence in P^^etica lly its final form. No doubt every one will admit that fhe period B. C ooo-.oc is entirely too short for a 'great cultural wave' to roll from Egypt to America. The year B. C. 1500 is much more likely to be the date needed. In conclusion, the present writer admits that, despite the three ob- jections here noted (and several others , the e s a large amount of seemingly ^"""borative evi- dence that tends to support the views « M/ ^ ''^ Smith It will, however, be a long time before American anthropologists will be forced to accept thTse views as final, and many tests, based on physical anthropology, history, archeology, etc win have to be successfully applied be ore the Egyptian source of American civilization is finally proved" in the underworld? If any theory of evolution of customs and beliefs is adequate to explain the independent origin of each item in the extensive repertoire, either of the New Empire Egyptian o the Pre-Columbian American civilization (which 1 deny) it is utterly inconceivable that the fortui- tous combination of hundreds °\f'"^y Z.°7Zc ous and fantastic elements could possibly have happened twice. It is idle to deny the complete- n sTof the demonstration which the existence e such a civilization in America supplies of the fact that it was derived from the late New Empire Egyptian civilization, modified by Ethiopian, Mediterranean, West Asiatic, Indian mdone^^n. East Asiatic and Polynesian influences. The com Plate overthrow of all '^e objections a gen- eral nature to the recognition of the facts has already been ex|)lained. There is nothing to hinder one, therefore, 'from accepting the obvious signift- can^e of the evidence. Moreover every ink m this chain of connections is admitted by inycsAi- gators of localized areas along the great migra- ?ion route, even by those who most s renuous^ deny the more extensive migrations of evilturc^ Ihe connections of the New E-^P'^-:. •^•^V ""' w\th Soudan and with Syria and its relat ons with Babylonia; the intercourse betwxen the latter and India in the eighth and seventh centuries B. C , the migrations of culture from India to Indonesia and To the farthest limits of Polynesia-all these are well authenticated and generally admitted 111 that I claim, then, is that the mfluence o Egypt was handed on from place to place; that (he links which all ethnologists recognize as gen- uine bonds of union can with equal certamty be joined up into a cultural chain uniting Egypt to Cerica In almost every one of the ocal point along this great migration route the folk-lore ot ?o day has preserved legends of the culture^heroes who 'introduced some one or other of the ele- ments of this peculiarly distinctive civilization Those familiar with the literature of ethnology must be acquainted with hundreds of scraps of corroborative evidence testifying to the reality of the spread postulated. For I have mentioned only a small part of the extraordinary cargo of bizarre practises and beliefs with which these ancient mariners (carrying of course their characterise ideas of naval construction and craftsmanship) set out from the African coast more than twenty-tive centuries ago on the great expedition which e-en- tuallv led their successors some centuries later to the New World At every spot where they touched and tarried, whether on the coasts of Asia the islands of the Pacific or on the continent of Amer^ ica, the new culture took root and flourished in its own distinctive manner, as it was subjected to the influence of the aborigines or to that ot later comers of other ideas and traditions ; and each place became a fresh focus from which the new knowledge continued to radiate for long a;es after the primary inoculation. The first great cultural wave (or the series of waves of whicti it was composed) continued to flow for several centuries It must have begun some time after B C QOO because the initial equipment of the great wanderers included practises which were not in- vented in Egypt until that time. The last of the series of ripples in the creat wave set out from India just after the practise of cremation made its appearance there, for at the end of the series the custom of incinerating the dead made its ap- pearance in Indonesia, Polynesia,- Mexico and else- where . I wish especially to appeal to that band of American ethnolocists, whose devo ed labors in rescuini: the information concernmg the 250 AMERICA Discoveries of the Northmen AMERICA In a rejoinder to Mr. Means, Mr. Smith writes in Science, March g, 1917. — "It is signilkant that, when citing six memoirs relating to shippnig, some of them quite irrelevant, Mr. Means should have omitted all reference to the writings of Paris, Pitt- Rivers, Assmann and Friederici, where he will fmd the evidence he imagines to be non-existent. But does the argument from ships really help his case ? Where is the 'similarity of the workin.; of the human mind' if the highly civiUzed people of Peru and Mexico hadn't sufficient of what Dr. Goldcnweiser calls 'happy thoughts' to accomplish more in the way of ship-building? Is not this paucity of ship- ping merely a token of the remoteness of America from the home of its invention? The fact that the culture-bearers who first crossed the Pacific by the Polynesian route were searching for pearls and precious metals is surely a sufficient explana- tion of their desertion of the sea once they reached the American eldoradn. Another of Mr. Means's difficulties I fail to understand. Why was eight centuries too brief a time for a ship to have made its way from the Red Sea to America? Before the introduction of steam-ships what was to prevent a vessel doing the journey as quickly in the eighth century B. C. as in the eighth, or perhaps even the eighteenth, A. D.? There are reasons, given in de- tail by Aymonier and others, for believing that western culture had already made its influence felt in Cambodia before the close of the seventh cen- tury B. C. ; Indonesia and even Japan received the leaven at the same time; and it can hardly be in doubt that the ancient mariners did not limit their easterly wanderings to Indonesia, but pushed out into the Pacific, and soon afterwards crossed it to America. The remaining difficulty which is holding Mr. Means back is that the Pre-Columbian Americans did not use wheeled vehicles. Seeing that the whole of the migration, which I have described as extending from the Red Sea to Amer- ica, consisted of a series of maritime expeditions, it is not altogether clear what Mr. Means is re- ferring to when he asks; 'Is it not inevitable that they would have made use of such vehicles during their long journey?' .At the time the great cultural movement took place it is quite likely that none of the wanderers had ever seen, or even perhaps heard of, a wheeled vehicle. Even if, on some rare occasion of state, in Egypt or one of the Asiatic monarchies, they had seen the king drive in a chariot, was that an adequate reason why these sailors, when, after many years of adventure, they at last reached the American coast, teeming with the spoils they coveted, should have remembered the chariot, and at once set to work to build carts and train llamas to draw them? Surely the utter improbability of this whittles down Mr. Means's difficulty to the vanishing point. Or alternatively, if there is any substance in the 'psychic unity' hypothesis, why didn't the Americans get a 'happy thought' and invent 'so simpfe and obvious a de- vice' as a wheeled vehicle?" lOth-llth centuries. — Supposed discoveries by the Northmen. — "The fact that the Northmen knew of the existence of the Western Continent prior to the age of Columbus, was prominently brought before the people of this country in the year 18.^7, when the Royal Society of Northern Antiquaries at Copenhagen published their work on the Antiquities of North America, under the editorial supervision of the great Icelandic scholar. Professor Rafn. But we are not to suppose that the first general account of these voyages was then given, for it has always been known that the his- tory of certain early voyages to America by the Northmen were preserved in the libraries of Den- mark and Iceland. . . . Vet, owing to the fact that the Icelandic language, though simple in construc- tion and easy of acquisition, was a tongue not un- derstood by scholars, the subject has until recent years been suffered to lie in the background, and permitted, through a want of interest, to share in a measure the treatment meted out to vague and uncertain reports. ... It now remains to give the reader some general account of the contents of the narratives which relate more or less to the dis- covery of the western continent. . . . The first extracts given are very brief. They are taken from the 'Landanama Book,' and relate to the report in general circulation, which indicated one Guinni- born as the discoverer of Greenland, an event which has been fixed at the year 876. . . . The next narrative relates to the rediscovery of Green- land by the outlaw, Eric the Red, in qS.j, who there passed three jcars in exile, and afterwards returned to Icelanci. About the year q86, he brought out to Greenland a considerable colony of settlers, who fixed their abode at Brattahlid, in Ericsfiord. Then follow two versions of the voyage of Biarne Heriulfson, who, in the same year, q86, when sailing for Greenland, was driven away during a storm, and saw a new land at the southward, which he did not visit. Next is given three accounts of the voyage of Leif, son of Eric the Red, who in the year 1000 sailed from Brat- tahlid to find the land which Biarne saw. Two of these accounts are hardly more than notices of the voyage, but the third is of considerable length, and details the successes of Leif, who found and ex- plored this new land, where he spent the winter, returning to Greenland the following spring [hav- ing named different regions which he visited Hellu- land, Markland and Vinland, the latter name in- dicative of the finding of grapes.) After this follows the voyage of Thorvald Ericson, brother of Leif, who sailed to Vinland from Greenland, which was the point of departure in all these voyages. This expedition was begun in 100:, and it cost him his life, as an arrow from one of the natives pierced his side, causing death Thorstein, his brother, went to seek Vinland, with the inten- tion of bringing home his body, but failed in the attempt. The most distinguished explorer was Thorfinn Karlsefne, the Hopeful, an Icelander whose genealogy runs bark in the old Northern annals, through Danish, Swedish, and even Scotch and Irish ancestors, some of whom were of ro\al blood. In the year 1006 he went to Greenland, where ho met Gudrid, widow of Thorstein, whom he married. Accompanied by his wife, who urged him to the undertaking, he sailed to Vinland in the spring of 1007, with three vessels and 160 men, where he remained three years. Here his son Snorre was born. He afterwards became the founder of a great family in Iceland, which gave the island several of its first bishops. Thorfinn finally left Vinland because he found it difficult to sustain himself against the attacks of the na- tives. The next to undertake a voyage was a wicked woman named Freydis, a sister to Leif Ericson, who went to Vinland in ion, where she lived for a time with her two ships, in the same places occupied by Leif and Thorfinn. Before she returned, she caused the crew of one ship to be cruelly murdered, assisting in the butchery with her own hands. After this we have what are called the Minor Narratives, which are not essen- tial." — B. F. De Costa, Pre-Columbian discovery of America, general introduction. — "By those who accept fully the claims made for the Northmen, as discoverers of the .American continent in the voyages believed to be authentically narrated in ^Si AMERICA Search for Trade Routes AMERICA these sagas, the Helluland of Leif is commonly iden- tified with Newfoundland, Markland with Nova Scotia, and Vinland with various parts of New England. Massachusetts bay, Cape Cod, Nantucket island, Martha's Vineyard, Buzzards bay, Narra- gansett bay. Mount Hope bay. Long Island sound, and New York bay are among the localities sup- posed to be recognized in the Norse narratives, or marked by some traces of the presence of the Vi- king explorers. Prof. Gustav Storm, the most re- cent of the Scandinavian investigators of this sub- ject, finds the Helluland of the sagas in Labrador or Northern Newfoundland, Markland in New- foundland, and Vinland in Nova Scotia and Cape Breton island." — G. Storm, Studies of the Vine- land voyages. — "The only discredit which has been thrown upon the story of the Vinland voyages, in the eyes either of scholars or of the general public, has arisen from the eager credulity with which ingenious antiquarians have now and then tried to prove more than facts will warrant. . . . Arch^ological remains of the Northmen abound in Greenland, all the way from Imraartinek to near Cape Farewell; the existence of one such relic on the North .American continent has never yet been proved. Not a single vestige of the North- men's presence here, at all worthy of credence, has ever been found. . . . The most convincing proof that the Northmen never founded a colony in America, south of Davis Strait, is furnished by the total absence of horses, cattle and other domes- tic animals from the soil of North America until they were brouchf hither by the Spanish, French and English settlers" — J. Fiske, Discovery of America, ch. 2. — "What Leif and Karlsefne knew they experienced," writes Prof. Justin Winsor, "and what the sagas tell us they underwent, must have just the difference between a crisp narrative of personal adventure and the oft-repeated and embellished story of a fireside narrator, since the traditions of the Norse voyages were not put in the shape of records till about two centuries had elapsed, and we have no earlier manuscript of such a record than one made nearly two hundred years later still. ... .A blending of history and myth prompts Horn to say that 'some of the sagas were doubtless oricinally based on facts, but the telling and retelling have changed them into pure myths.' The un.sympathetic stranger sees this in stories that the patriotic Sandinavians are over-anxious t.j make appear as genuine chronicles. . . . The weight of probability is in favor of a Northman descent upon the coast of the American mainland at some point, or at several, somewhere to the south of Greenland; but the evidence is hardly that which attaches to well established historical records. . . . There is not a 'single item of all the evidence thus advanced from time to time which can be said to connect by archa>ological traces the presence of the Northmen on the soil of North .\merica south of Davis' Strait?" Of other imagined pre-Columban discoveries of .American, by the Welsh, by the .Arabs, by the Basques. &-c., the possibilities and probabilities are critically dis- cussed by Professor Winsor in the same connection. — J. Winsor, Narrative and critical history of America, v. i, cli. 2, and Critical notes to the same. — See also below: 1404. Also in: Bryant and Gay, Popular history of the United States, ch. 3.— E. F. Slafter. ed. Voy- ages of the Northmen to .America (Prince So- ciety, 1877). — E. F. Slafter, Discovery of America by the Northmen (New Hampshire Historical Society, t888). — N. L. Beamish, Discovery of America by the Northmen. — .A. J. Weise, Dis- coveries of America, ch, i. — O. Mossmiiller, Erik the Red, Leif the Lucky, and other pre-Columbian discoveries of America, translated Irom the German by P. Upton. — F. Nanscn, in northern mists; Arctic exploration in early times. — T. S. Lonergan, Was iit. Brendan .-Imerica's first discoverer f (Ameri- cana, V. 0, Oct., pp. 953-964). — B. L. Wick, Did the Norsemen erect the Newport round towerl — C. K. Adams, Recent discoveries concerning Columbus (Report American Historical Association gi, pp. 4, 89-99) ■ — W. E. Curtis, E.xisting autographs, v. 94, pp. 445-451. — J. B. Thacher, Christopher Colum- bus, his life, his work, his remains. — E. G. Bourne, Spain in .America. — J. Winsor, Christopher Colum- bus (1892).— R. H. Major, Select letters of Co- lumbus (2nd ed., 1890). — C. R. Markham, Life of Christopher Columbus. — H. Latane, America as a world power, p. 16. 15th century. — Need of new trade routes. — "During this period the city republics of Italy were losing their prosperity, their wealth, their enter- prise, and their vigor. This was due, as a matter of fact, to a variety of causes, internal and ex- ternal, political and economic; but the sufferings in the wars with the Turks and the adverse con- ditions of the Levant trade on which their prosper- ity primarily rested were far the most important causes of their decline. Thus the demand of European markets for Eastern luxuries could no longer be met satisfactorily by the old methods; yet that demand was no less than it had been, and the characteristic products of the East were still sought for in all the market-places of Eu- rope. Indeed, the demand was increasing. As Europe in the fifteenth century became more wealthy and more familiar with the products o' the whole world, as the nobles learned to demanc. more luxuries, and a wealthy merchant class grew up which was able to gratify the same tastes as the nobles, the demand of the West upon the East became more insistent than ever. Therefore, the men, the nation, the government that could find a new way to the East might claim a trade of indefinite extent and extreme profit. This is the explanation of that eager search for new routes to the Indies which lay .at the back of so many voyages of discovery of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Southward along the co.ast of .Africa, in the hope that that continent could be rounded to the southeast ; northward along the coast of Eu- rope in search of a northeast passage; westward relying on the sphericity of the earth, and hoping that the distance from the west coast of Europe to the east coast of Asia would prove not to be interminable ; after .America was reached, again northward and southward to round and pass be- yond that barrier, and thus reach .Asia — such was the progress of geographical exploration for a century and a half, during which men gradually became familiar with a great part of the earth's surface. .A study of the history of trade-routes corroborates the fact disclosed by many other lines of study — that the discovery of America was no isolated phenomenon: it was simply one step in the development of the world's history. Changes in the e.astern Mediterranean led men to turn their eyes in other directions looking for other sea routes to the East When they had done so, alone with much else that was new, .America was dis- closed to their vision . . . but the diversion of commercial interest was only a part: the restless energies of the Latin races of southern Europe turned into a new channel; search for trade led to discovery, discovery to exploration, explora- tion to permanent settlement : and settlement to the creation of a new centre of commercial and political interest, and eventually to the rise of 252 AMERICA, 1484-1492 First Voyage of Columbus AMERICA, 1492 a new nation." — E. P. Cheyney, European back- ground of American history, 1300-1600, pp. 38-40. — See also Commerce: Era of geographic expan- sion: 15th. 17th centuries: Spanish enterprise. 1484-1492. — Great project of Columbus, and the sources of its inspiration. — Seven years' suit at the Spanish court. — Departure from Palos. — ".\\\ attempts to diminish the glory of Columbus' Lichievement by proving a previous discovery whose results were known to him have signally failed. . . . Columbus originated no new theory respecting the earth's form or size, though a pop- ular idea has always prevailed, notwithstanding the statements of the best writers to the contrary, that he is entitled to the glory of the theory as well as to that of the execution of the project. He was not in advance of his age, entertained no new theories, believed no more than did Prince Henry, his predecessor, or Toscanclli, his contemporary; nor was he the first to conceive the possibility of reaching the east by sailing west. He was however the first to act in acordance with existing beliefs. The Northmen in their voyages had entertained no ideas of a New World, or of an Asia to the West. To knowledge of theoretical geography, Columbus added the skill of a practical navigator, and the iron will to overcome obstacles. He sailed west, reached Asia as he believed, and proved old theories correct. There seem to be two undecided points in that matter, neither of which can ever be settled. First, did his experience in the Portu- guese voyages, the perusal of some old author, or a hint from one of the few men acquainted with old traditions, first suggest to Columbus his proj- ect? .. . Second, to what extent did his voyage to the north [made in 1477, probably with an English merchantman from Bristol, in which voy- age he is believed to have visited Iceland] influ- ence his plan? There is no evidence, but a strong probability, that he heard in that voyage of the existence of land in the west. . . . Still, his visit to the north was in 1477, several years after the first formation of his plan, and any information gained at the time could only have been confirma- tory rather than suggestive." — H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific states, v. i, summary ap- pended to ch. I.— "Of the works of learned men, that which, according to Ferdinand Columbus, had most weight with his father, was the 'Cosmo- graphia' of Cardinal Aliaco. Columbus was also confirmed in his views of the existence of a west- ern passage to the Indies by Paulo Toscanelli, the Florentine philosopher, to whom much credit is due for the encouragement he afforded to the enter- prise. That the notices, however, of western lands were not such as to have much weight with other men, is sufficiently proved by the difficulty which Columbus had in contending with adverse geog- raphers and men of science in general, of whom he says he never was able to convince any one. .'\fter a new world had been discovered, many scattered indications v/ere then found to have foreshown it. One thing which cannot be denied to Columbus Is that he worked out his own idea himself. . . . He first applied himself to his countrymen, the Geno- ese, who would have nothing to say to his scheme. He then tried the Portuguese, who listened to what he had to say, but with bad faith sought to antici- pate him by sending out a caravel with instruc- tions founded upon his plan. . . . Columbus, dis- gusted at the treatment he had received from the Portuguese Court, quitted Lisbon, and. after visit- ing Genoa, as it appears, went to see wh.at favour he could meet with in Spain, arriving at Palos In the year 1485." The story of the long suit of Columbus at the court of Ferdinand and Isabella; of his discouragement and departure, with intent to go to France; of his recall by command of Queen Isabella; of the tedious hearings and negotiations that now took place; of the lofty demands ad- hered to by the confident Genoese, who required "to be made an admiral at once, to be appointed viceroy of the countries he should discover, and to have an eighth 01 the profits of the expedition;" of his second rebuff, his second departure for France, and second recall by Isabella, who finally put her heart into the enterprise and persuaded her more skeptical consort to assent to it — the story of those seven years of the struggle of Co- lumbus to obtain means for his voyage is familiar to all readers. "The agreement between Colum- bus and their Catholic highnesses was signed at Santa Fc on the 17th of April, 1492; and Colum- bus went to Palos to make preparation for his voyage, bearing with him an order that the two vessels which that city furnished annually to the crown for three months should be placed at his disposal. . . . The Pinzons, rich men and skilful mariners of Palos, joined in the undertaking, sub- scribing an eighth of the expenses; and thus, by these united exertions, three vessels were manned with 90 mariners, and provisioned for a year. At length all the preparations were complete, and on a Friday (not inauspicious in this case), the 3d of August, 1492, after they had all confessed and received the sacrament, they set sail from the bar of Saltes, making for the Canary Islands." — Sir A. Helps, Spanish conquest in America, bk. 2, ch. I. Also in: J. Winsor, Christopher Columbus, ch. 5-9, and 20. 1492. — First voyage of Columbus. — Discovery of the Bahamas, Cuba and Haiti. — The three vessels of Columbus were called the Santa Maria, the Pinta and the Nina. "All had forecastles and high poops, but the 'Santa Maria' was the only one that was decked amidships, and she was called a 'nao' or ship. The other two were caravelas, a class of small vessels built for speed. The 'Santa Maria,' as I gather from scattered notices in the letters of Columbus, was of 120 to 130 tons, like a modern coasting schooner, and she carried 70 men, much crowded. Her sails were a foresail and a foretop-sail, a sprit-sail, a main-sail with two bonnets, and maintop sail, a mizzen, and a boat's sail were occasionally hoisted on the poop. The 'Pinta' and 'Nifia' only had square sails on the foremast and lateen sails on the main and mizzen. The former was 50 tons, the latter 40 tons, with crews of 20 men each. On Friday, the 3d of August, the three little vessels left the haven of Palos, and this memorable voyage was commenced. . . . The expedition proceeded to the Canary Islands, where the rig of the 'Pinta' was altered. Her lateen sails were not adapted for running before the wind, and she was therefore fitted with square sails, like the 'Santa Maria.' Repairs were completed, the vessels were filled up with wood and water at Gomera, and the expedi- tion took its final departure from the island of Gomera, one of the Canaries, on September 6th, 1492. . . . Columbus had chosen his route most happily, and with that fortunate prevision which often waits upon genius. From Gomera, by a course a little south of west, he would run down the trades to the Bahama Islands. From the parallel of about 30'' N. nearly to the equator there is a zone of perpetual winds — namely, the north-east trade winds — always moving in the same direction, as steadily as the current of a river, except where they are turned aside by local causes, so that the ships of Columbus were 253 AMERICA, 1492 Second Voyage of Coliiml)H:i AMERICA, 1492 steadily carried to their destination by a law of nature which, in due time, revealed itself to that close observer of her secrets. The constancy of the wind was one cause of alarm among the crews, for they began to murmur that the pro- visions would all be exhausted if they had to beat against these unceasing winds on the return voyage. The next event which excited alarm among the pilot? was the discovery that the com- passes had more than a point of easterly varia- tion. . . . This was observed on the 17th of Sep- tember, and about 300 miles westward of the meridian of the Azores, when the ships had been eleven days at sea. Soon afterwards the voyagers found themselves surrounded by masses of sea- weed, in what is called the Sargasso Sea, and this again aroused their fears. They thought that the ships would get entangled in the beds of weed and was on the poop and saw a light. ... At two next morning, land was distinctly seen. . . . The island, called by the natives Guanahani, and by Columbus San Salvador, has now been ascer- tained to be VVatUng Island, one of the Bahamas, 14 miles long by 6 broad, with a brackish lake in the centre, 24° 10' 30" north latitude. . . . The difference of latitude between Gomera and VVat- ling Island is 235 miles. Course, W. s" S.; dis- tance 3,114 miles; average distance made good daily, 85'; voyage 35 days. . . . After discovering several smaller islands the fleet came in sight of Cuba on the 27th of October, and explored part of the northern coast. Columbus believed it to be Cipango, the island placed on the chart of Tos- canelli, between Europe and Asia. •. . . Crossing the channel between Cuba and St. Domingo [or Hayti], they anchored in the harbour of St. i..\\iiiN(; OF cm I'Mi'.i'S From the painting !»>■ \'anci<-rlyn become immovable, and that, the beds marked the limit of navigation. The cause of this accumu- lation is well known now. If bits of cork are put into a basin of water, and a circular motion given to it, all the corks will be found crowding to- gether towards the centre of the pool where there is the least motion. The .Atlantic Ocean is just such a basin, the Gulf Stream is the whirl, and the Sargasso Sea is in the centre. There Colum bus found it, and there it has remained to this day, moving up and down and changing its position ac- cording to seasons, storms and winds, but never altering its mean position. ... As day after day passed, and there was no sign of land, the crews became turbulent and mutinous. Columbus en- couraged them with hopes of reward, while he tnid them plainly that he had come to discover India, and that, with the help of God, he would [lersevere until he found it At length, on the nth of October, towards ten at night, Colimibus Nicholas Mole on December 4th. The natives came with presents and the country was enchanting. Columbus . . . named the island 'Espaiiola' lor Hispaniola] But with all this peaceful beauty around him he was on the eve of disaster." The Santa Maria was drifted by a strong current upon a sand bank and hopelessly wrecked. "It was now necessary to leave a small colony on the island. . . . .\ fort was built and named 'La Navi- dad,' 30 men remaining behind supplied with stores and provisions," and on Friday, Jan. 4, 1493, Columbus began his homeward voyage. Weather- ing a dangerous gale, which lasted several days, his little vessels reached the Azores Feb. 17. and arrived at Palos March 15, bearing their marvel- lous news. — C. R. Markham, Sea fathers, ch. 2. — The same. Life of Columbtta, ch. 5. — The state- ment above that the island of the Bahamas on which Columbus first landed, and which he called San Salvador, "has now been ascertained to be Wat- AMERICA, 1492 Papal Bnll AMERICA, 1493 ling Island" seems hardly justified. The question be- tween Watling island, San Salvador or Cat island, Samana, or Attwood's Cay, Mariguana, the Grand Turk, and others is still in dispute. Professor Justin Winsor says "the weight of modern testi- mony seems to favor Watling 's Island;" but at the same time he thinks it "probable that men will never quite agree which the Bahamas it was upon which these startled and exultant Europeans lirst stepped." — J. Winsor, CItrisloplier Colum- bus, ch. Q. — The same. Narrative and critical history of America, v. 2, ch. i, note B. — Professor John Fiske says: "All that can be positively asserted of Guanahani is that it was one of the Bahamas; there has been endless discussion as to which one, and the question is not easy to settle. Perhaps the theory of Captain Gustavus Fox, of the United States Navy, is on the whole best supported. Cap- tain Fox maintains that the true Guanahani was the little Island now known as Samana or Att- wood's Cay." — J. Fiske, Discovery of America, v. I, ch. S- Also in: U. S. Coast and geodetic survey, Rep., 1880, app. 18. 1492. — Discovery of the Virgin Islands. See Virgin Islands: Discovery and settlement. 1493. — Papal grant of the New World to Spain. — Demarcation of maritime and colonial domains of Spain and Portugal. — "Spain was at this time connected with the Pope about a most momentous matter. The Genoese, Cristoforo Co- lombo, arrived at the Spanish court in March, 1493, with the astounding news of the discovery of a new continent. . . . Ferdinand and Isabella thought it wise to secure a title to all that might ensue from their new discovery. The Pope, as Vicar of Christ, was held to have authority to dispose of lands inhabited by the heathen ; and by papal Bulls the discoveries of Portugal along the African coast had been secured. The Portu- guese showed signs of urging claims to the New World, as being already conveyed to them by the papal grants previously issued in their favour. To remove all cause of dispute, the Spanish mon- archs at once had recourse to Alexander VI., who issued two Bulls on May 4 and 5 [1493] to de- termine the respective rights of Spain and Portu- gal. In the first, the Pope granted to the Spanish monarchs and their heirs all lands discovered or hereafter to be discovered in the western ocean. In the second, he defined his grant to mean all lands that might be discovered west and south of an imaginary line, drawn from the North to the South Pole, at th^ distance of a hundred leagues westward of the Azores and Cape de Verd Islands. In the light of our present knowledge we are amazed at this simple means of disposing of a vast extent of the earth's surface." Under the Pope's stupendous patent, Spain was able to claim every part of the American Continent e.^cept the Brazilian coast. — M. Creighton, History of the Papacy: during the period of the Reformation, bk. 5, v. 3, ch. 6. "Perhaps there are, in the whole history of di- plomacy, no documents which have aroused more passionate discussions and given occasion to more divergent commentaries, than the bulls of Alexan- der VI. relating to the colonial expansion of Spain. Promulgated at a critical moment in the evolution of Europe, a moment marked by the rise of the modern states and a decline of the papacy, they belong to a period of political and religious transi- tion. If they have obtained so extraordinary a prominence, it is because of the mass of various and important events with which they were asso- ciated: the rapid enlargement of the geographical horizon, colonial expansion, religious propaganda, the foundation of international law, the trans- formation of the relations between Church and State. They have been published in the great diplomatic collections, and the chief of them (Inter caetera, May 4) is found in the Corpus of the Catholic canon law. It is nowise surprising that they have been considered from very different points of view: they have been of interest alike to geographers and to historians, to theologians, statesmen, and jurists, and the opinions expressed regarding them have varied with the different epochs, quite as much as with the different minds of those expressing them. To relate the history of the discussions occasioned by these documents would be to set forth comprehensively all the transformations of modern and contemporary his- toriography. Even to-day, despite the searching investigations to which these bulls have been sub- jected, despite the publication of a number of sources already considerable, opinions are much divided, and several problems, enigmas even, are still to be solved, with respect to their scope and meaning. In the first place what was the role of Alexander \'l. himself? Did he undertake a veri- table partition of the world? And did he do this in the capacity of an arbiter, of a supreme judge, of a guardian of the peace, or otherwise? Was he protecting the interests of the two leading colonial powers, or only those of one of them? What was, at the beginning, the importance of the line of demarcation, and who was its author? What force did the Spanish sovereigns and the princes of the period ascribe to the bulls in ques- tion ? The opinion which has long prevailed is that which regards Alexander VI. as an arbiter. This opinion was sustained especially by Hugo Grolius, and one of its principal upholders at the present time is L. Pastor. According to this au- thor, the pope, at the time of the conflict which arose between Spain and Portugal with respect to the lands discovered by Columbus, was in- vited to act as mediator; he decided in a peaceful manner a series of very thorny boundary ques- tions, and these decisions are to be regarded as one of the glories of the papacy. Another view, held by E. G. Bourne, S. E. Dawson, and H. Harrisse, is that Alexander VI. intervened in the conflict between Spain and Portugal, not as an arbiter, but as supreme judge of Christendom, or guardian of its peace. It is asserted that, at least in respect of certain dispositions appearing in the bulls, he took the initiative in order to prevent strife. Finally, an opinion completely differing from all the preceding has been expressed by E. Nys. He beHeves it possible to prove that the role of Alexander VI. was absolutely a nullity, his bulls containing neither an arbitral decision nor even an ascription of sovereignty. . . . ."Xt the moment when Columbus was undertaking the ex- ploration of the Atlantic, the Spanish sovereigns had renounced for the benefit of Portugal all colonial expansion 'beyond or on this side of the Canaries over against Guinea.' Sixtus IV. (1481) had confirmed this treaty as well as the bulls granted to the Portuguese by Nicholas V. and Calixtus III. The same pope had assured to the Portuguese the discoveries which should be made in Guinea and beyond in the direction of these 'southern regions,' sanctioning thus the bulls of his predecessors, notably that which Nicholas V. (1454) issued in consequence of the Portuguese discoveries 'in the Ocean Sea toward the regions lying southward and eastward ' Out in the At- lantic the maps of the period place the mysteri- ous island Antilia or Island of the Seven Cities. ^55 AMERICA, 1493 Papal Bull AMERICA, 1493 In 1475 and in i486 the King of Portugal had granted it, together with neighboring islands and lands, to F. Telles and to Dulrao respectively. He considered the 'Ocean Sea' as his domain, imagin- ing, as did all his contemporaries, that it lay chiefly in the equatorial zone. On the return from his first voyage Columbus, as is well known, landed in Port''gal. King John II., declaring that he had operated in 'the seas and limits of his lord- ship of Guinea,' had the discoverer brought be- fore him (about March 6, 1403) and Columbus declared to him that he was returning from 'Cy- pangu and Antilia,' islands which formed the ap- proaches to India. Shortly after, Peter Martyr, the Italian humanist, chaplain of Isabella, spoke of the 'western Antipodes' discovered by Chris- topher Columbus in contrast to the 'southern An- tipodes,' toward which the Portuguese navigators sailed. But it was believed that the chief trans- oceanic lands lay in the southern hemisphere, bal- ancing thus the Eurasian continent. Zurita, chron- icler of Aragon under Charles V. and Philip II., alludes to the fact that the ancients represented this southern world in the form of islands, large and small, separated by great distances. John II. went to Torres Vedras to pass Easter (.4pril 7). Two days before, he sent to the court of Spain the alcalde mayor of that town, Ruy de Sande, to ascertain whether Columbus intended to pur- sue his discoveries to the south, or would confine his enterprises to the west. But this envoy did not arrive till after the departure from Barcelona (April 22) of the Spanish ambassador charged to announce to the King of Portugal the discovery, on behalf of the Spanish sovereigns, of the islands and continents situated in the direction of the Indies. Ferdinand and Isabella had not waited till this time to obtain from the sovereign pontiff a monopoly of the discoveries and the right of commercial exploitation in the Oceanic Sea and in the islands of the Indies. As early as March 30, they had addressed their congratulations to Co- lumbus, 'Admiral of the Ocean Sea and viceroy and governor of the islands discovered in the In- dies.' They no doubt hastened to address to their agents or permanent ambassadors at the court of Rome the instructions necessary to enable the latter to assert title as soon as possible, over against the claims which would without question be asserted by the King of Portugal. The re- ception which the Curia would give to this de- mand could not fail to be most favorable. The many bonds which attached Alexander VI. to Spain during the first years of his pontificate are well known, as also the care with which he strove then to maintain them in spite of all sorts of dif- ficulties. Though he had not- lived long in his native country he had remained a true .Aragonese, and had constantly surrounded himself by compa- triots and by other Spaniards in the course of his cardinalate. ... An upholder of Spanish-Neapoli- tan policy during his cardinalate, Alexander VI. treated it with solicitude at the beginning of his pontificate, and was able to derive from his rela- tions with the Spanish sovereigns valuable ad- vantages for his family. As is well known, he sacrificed everything, both spiritual and temporal interests, to his children ; in the first place to Juan, whose 'fortunes and influence depended entirely upon the prosperity and strength of Spain. The death of Pedro Luis, duke of Gandia, had caused that duchy in 148S to pass to Juan, for whom the pope obtained the hand of Dona Maria En- riquez, fiancee of the deceased (August, 1403). Meanwhile, however, Alexander VI. allowed him- self to be drawn away by Cardinal .Ascanio, to whom he owed the tiara, toward the Milano-Ve- netian alliance, hostile to the King of Naples and favorable to France. Ascanio Sforza, brother of Ludovico il Moro, after becoming vice-chancellor exercised for some time a considerable ascendancy over the pope, and so caused him to attach him- self to that alliance, represented as intended to insure the peace of Italy (.'\piil 25). It was just at this time that the Spanish sovereigns requested the bull of donation of the islands recently dis- covered. To secure their pardon, so to speak, for his equivocal course, Alexander VI. took pains to give them satisfaction and at the same time to address to them a formal document attested by a notary {instrumenlum publicum), by which he declared that he 'desired that even his allies should preserve entire and inviolable the bond which united him to these sovereigns, and this under all circumstances whatever.' He also informed Ferdi- nand and Isabella of the conditions of the alliance which he had concluded with Milan and Venice, and made his excuses for not having offered his mediation between Spain and France by declaring that he had supposed peace to have been concluded by the restoration of Perpignan and Roussillon to the first of these powers. Finally, he sent them, by the hand of the same nuncio, the cor- respondence e.xchanged between the Emperor and the King of France relating to a plan of peace. The pope visibly exerts himself to please the mon- archs to whom he was soon about to grant the title of 'Catholic,' and informs them of his whole policy. The conclusion of the letter which Podo- catharus addressed in his name to the nuncio in Spain contains this interesting recommendation: 'Moreover tell them distinctly with what care we lay ourselves out to satisfy them in all things and to furnish to all the world proofs of the paternal affection we have for them.' Evidently then Alexander VI. could refuse nothing to Ferdi- nand and Isabella ; eager to give them evidences of his good-will he did not hesitate to comply entirely with their request relative to the discov- eries made by Columbus, without examining whether their claim menaced the rights of other sovereigns or not. He was to continue in this attitude of favor until the time when he came under the influence of his son, Caesar, that is to say, after the death of Juan, duke of Gandia (1407). The question has often been discussed, whether Ferdinand and Isabella needed a papal grant in order to acquire the sovereignty of lands discovered by one of their agents. This question directly depends upon that of the nature of the papal power, and opinions relating to the latter vary according to place and time. By the terms of the bull itself, the pope disposed, in favor of the Spanish monarchs, of the temporal sovereignty [dominium) of lands discovered or to be discov- ered in a certain region. While the Catholic sov- ereigns clearly held at that time that they had in temporal matters no superior within theif own dominions, including all lands of which they had made effective acquisition, the bulls in question were titles to future discoveries, and were de- signed to repeal bulls which previous popes had promulgated in favor of the kings of Portugal. Proof that Ferdinand and Isabella attached a great value to them is seen in their anxiety that the things which they desired should be incor- porated in them, and also in the revisions to which, as we shall see, they subsequently caused them to be subjected. Before the end of May, negotiations had begun between John II. and the Spanish monarchs. They were conducted with peaceful intentions on both sides. In the course 256 Euriipe It ikown at at Iht aecnUon nf Charten l', ISI3. - Tht dalt o//iiunilallun glveii a/ler Inwnnamti. Cvlmiitt anil dtprn(tttnflrt In ItiO, eclartit tl-iil- Jlnglish 1 I Frtncl. \ ' \ Maps preparcl specially for the NEW LARNED under direction of the editors aud publishers. c AMERICA, 1493 Papal Bull AMERICA, 1493 of them, Ferdinand and Isabella obtained a fuller knowledge of the extent of the claims made by the Portuguese king, and of his intention to re- serve to himself discoveries made toward the south and the Ocean Sea. Thereupon the dispositions made by the bull of May 3 became inadequate, for Columbus counted with certainty, as we have seen, upon making new expeditions, and first of all toward the south. He was urgent that this bull should be replaced by another, containing a new stipulation with respect to the maritime and colo- nial dominion of Spain. The Spanish monarchs desired to include in that dominion the whole Atlantic, as is proved by the confirmation of priv- ileges which was granted to Columbus on May 28. 'This sea,' they say, 'belongs to us to the west of a line passing through the Azores and the Cape Verde Islands, and extending from north to south, from pole to pole.' It is manifest with what insistence they claim the Ocean Sea in both hemispheres. Columbus however suggested that the line should be set further to the west, a hun- dred leagues from the Portuguese islands in ques- tion. That fact is explicitly shown in a letter which the sovereigns addressed to him later (Sep- tember 5) and which reports a rumor that had been spread of the existence of very rich lands between that line and the southern part of Africa, lands of which they feared that they might be deprived in virtue of the terms of the bull already amended. The text of the latter must have been drawn up during the month of June and sent then to the Spanish agents at the court of Rome. The determination of Columbus to operate in the south of the Ocean Sea as well as in the west gave rise to the repetition of the words 'toward the west and the south' which determined in so strange a fashion the position of the boundary in the ocean between the Spanish and the Portuguese dominions. It was, then, at the instance of Co- lumbus that the line of demarcation was mentioned in the papal document. Was he himself the author of that line, and if so on what basis did he select it? It does not appear to have been suggested to him by his sovereigns. The instruc- tions which they gave him at the beginning of September, 1403, and a little earlier, with a view to his second voyage, were merely that he should sail as far as possible from the Portuguese posses- sions. On the other hand, everything leads us to believe that both the papal chancery and the pope himself were entirely strangers to the establish- ment of this line. If they did not take the initia- tive in the case of any of the essential stipulations contained in the bulls in question, why should they have done so in precisely that one which con- cerns the delimitation of the two colonial domains, so advantageous to Spain? The supposition of Alexander von Humboldt attributing to Columbus the authorship of the line of demarcation appears accordingly very plausible, and in the present state of the sources, practically certain. Whether Co- lumbus, in establishing the line, was guided by facts of physical geography observed in the course of his first voyage — changes in the stars, the aspect of the sea, the temperature, the variation of the compass and the like — drawing inferences from these as to the beginning of the Orient and the end of the Occident, may be doubted, but it is no longer possible to deny him an essential part in the planning of the famous line of demarca- tion. . . . We do not enter now into the history of those diplomatic negotiations between Spain and Portugal, which, beginning on August 18, 1403, resulted in the treaty of Tordesillas (June 7, 1494). Early in the course of those negotiations the Span- ish sovereigns, in a letter of September S, ad- dressed to Columbus, asked his advice as to whether it was not necessary to modify the 'bull' — evidently that of May 4. His reply was no doubt affirmative. Such a modification might be brought about through a simple additional and amplifying bull. Columbus intended to pursue his discoveries to the very Orient itself, where the Portuguese hoped to arrive soon. He wished to plant the standard of Castile in the eastern as well as in the southern Indies and it was no doubt for this reason that he requested the papal ratifi- cation of the Spanish monopoly of conquests be- yond the sea, by way of the west, in all regions not occupied by Christians, especially in the Orient and in the Indies. The bull, dated Sep- tember 26, revoked, it will be recalled, all con- trary dispositions in previous bulls granted to kings, princes, infantes, or religious or military orders (this stipulation is evidently directed at Portugal), even when granted for motives of piety, the spread of the gospel, or the ransom of captives. It also gave expression to the principle that the posses- sion of territories, to be valid, must be effective; but its chief object was to secure to Spain access to the Orient, where it was customary to locate In- dia properly so called. The position of India is however not clearly defined in the papal document ; it names it at first in connection with the 'orien- tal regions,' and then after a mention of these regions. That the King of Portugal did not suc- ceed in preventing so considerable an extension of the sphere of influence of Spain must probably be attributed to the fact that at this time he was making it the chief objective of his policy to pro- cure that his natural son, Dom Jorge, should be recognized as his heir presumptive to the prej- udice of his brother Manoel, and to obtain for him the hand of a Spanish infanta. The decision of the Spanish and Portuguese ambassadors that the line of demarcation should be set at a point 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands dif- fering considerably from that set forth in the bull of May 4, 1493, the contracting parties agreed to insert in the treaty of Tordesillas a clause stipulating that the papal confirmation should be sought; but that no papal mot it propria should dispense either one of the two parties from ob- serving the convention. The maintenance of the treaties was thus guaranteed against the arbitrary action of the plenitudo poteslatis of the sovereign pontiff. The confirmation of the treaty was not obtained under the pontificate of Alexander VI., nor until January 24. 1506. The other European states bordering on the Atlantic, contrary to what has generally been believed, made no account of the bulls issued in favor of the first two colonial powers. . . . The kings of France, like those of England, whose line of conduct with respect to the pope they had imitated, did not recognize the supreme jurisdiction of the Holy See even in ecclesiastical matters; naturally they were still less disposed to recognize it in temporal affairs. To sum up, then, the bull of demarcation, like the other bulls delivered to Spain in 1403, con- stituted at first a grant exclusively Spanish; it was in large part, if not wholly, shaped by the chancery of Ferdinand and Isabella; the line of demarcation itself, which played so important a part in subsequent transactions, had been sug- gested and probably first devised by Christopher Columbus. Moreover, the different bulls of that year were but successive increments of the favors granted to the Spanish sovereigns, Alexander VI. being at that time but an instrument in their hands. Friction with Portugal was increased 257 AMERICA, 1493-1496 Second Voyage of Columbus AMERICA, 1494 rather than diminished by the granting of these bulls. Far from recognizing the prior rights of that country in the Atlantic, the Holy See re- stricted them more and more, in the interest of Spain. The difficulties between the two powers were smoothed away by their own diplomatic means and Portugal distinctly repudiated the incidental arbitration of the pope or of any other authority. If later she relied upon the bull of demarcation, it was because new circumstances brought her into that attitude, for the force of a diplomatic document arises less from the conditions under which it has been shaped than from the events with which it is subsequently associated, and which usually modify its range of application." — H. Van- der Linden, Alexander VI and the demarcation of the maritime and colonial domains of Spain and Portugal, 1403-1404 (American Historical Review, Oct., 1916, pp. 1-20). Also in: E. G. Bourne, Demarcation line of Pope .Alexander VI (Yale Review, May, 1920). — J. Fiske, Discovery of .imerica, v. i, ch. 6. — J. Gordon, Bulls distributing America (American Society of Church History, v. 4). 1493-1496. — Second voyage of Columbus. — Discovery of Jamaica and the Caribbees. — Sub- jugation of Hispaniola. — "The departure of Co- lumbus on his second voyage of discovery presented a brilliant contrast to his gloomy em- barkation at Palos. On the 25th of September [1493], at the dawn of day, the bay of Cadiz was whitened by his fleet. There were three large ships of heavy burden and fourteen caravals. . . . Before sunrise the whole fleet was under way." Arrived at the Canaries on the ist of October, Columbus purchased there calves, goats, sheep, hogs, and fowls, with which to stock the island of Hispaniola; also "seeds of oranges, lemons, bergamots, melons, and various orchard fruits, which were thus first introduced into the islands of the west from the Hesperiodes or Fortunate Islands of the Old World." It was not until the 13th of October that the fleet left the Canaries, and it arrived among the islands since called the Lesser Antilles or Caribbees, on the evening of Nov. 2. Sailing through this archipelago, dis- covering the larger island of Porto Rico on the way, Columbus reached the eastern extremity of Hispaniola or Haiti on the 2 2d of November, and arrived on the 27th at La Navidad, where he had left a garrison ten months before. He found nothing but ruin, silence and the marks of death, and learned, after much inquiry, that his unfortunate men, losing all discipline after his departure, had provoked the natives by rapac- ity and licentiousness until the latter rose against them and destroyed them. Abandoninc the scene of this disaster, Columbus found an excellent har- bor ten leagues east of Monte Christi and there he began the founding of a city which he named Isabella. "Isabella at the present day is quite overgrown with forests, in the midst of which are still to be seen, partly standing, the pillars of the church, some remains of the king's store- houses, and part of the residence of Columbus, all built of hewn stone." While the foundations of the new city were being laid, Columbus sent back part of his ships to Spain, and undertook an exploration of the interior of the island — the mountains of Cibao — where abundance of gold was promised. Some gold washings were found — far too scanty to satisfy the expectations of the Span- iards; and, as want and sickness soon made their appearance at Isabella, discontent was rife and mutiny afoot before the year had ended. In .\pril, :494, Columbus set sail with three caravels to revisit the coast of Cuba, for a more extended exploration than he had attempted on the first discovery. "He supposed it to be a continent, and the extreme end of Asia, and if so, by following its shores in the proposed direction he must even- tually arrive at Cathay and those other rich and commercial, though semi-barbarous countries, de- scribed by Mandeville and Marco Polo." Re- ports of gold led him southward from Cuba until he discovered the island which he called Santiago, but which has kept its native name, Jamaica, sig- nifying the Island of Springs. Disappointed in the search for gold, he soon returned from Jamaica to Cuba and sailed along its southern coast to very near the western extremity, confirming him- self and his followers in the belief that they skirted the shores of Asia and might follow them to the Red Sea, if their ships and stores were equal to so long a voyage. "Two or three days' further sail would have carried Columbus round the extremity of Cuba; would have dispelled his illusion, and might have given an entirely different course to his subsequent discoveries. In his present convic- tion he lived and died; believing to his last hour that Cuba was the extremity of the .Asiatic conti- nent." Returning eastward, he visited Jamaica again and purposed some further exploration of the Caribbee Islands, when his toils and anxieties overcome him. "He fell into a deep lethargy, re- sembling death itself. His crew, alarmed at this profound torpor, feared that death was really at hand. They abandoned, therefore, all further prosecution of the voyage ; and spreading their sails to the east wind so prevalent in those seas, bore Columbus back, in a state of complete insen- sibility, to the harbor of Isabella," Sept. 4. Re- covering consciousness, the admiral was rejoiced to find his brother Bartholomew, from whom he had been separated for years, and who had been sent out to him from Spain, in command of three ships. Otherwise there was little to give pleasure to Co- lumbus when he returned to Isabella. His follow- ers were again disorganized, again at war with the natives, whom they plu.idered and licentiously abused, and a mischief-making priest had gone back to Spain, along with certain intriguing of- ficers, to make complaints and set enmities astir at the court. Involved in war, Columbus prose- cuted it relentlessly, reduced the island to submis- sion and the natives to servitude and misery by heavy exactions. In March. 1496, he returned to Spain, to defend himself against the machinations of his enemies, transferring the government of His- paniola to his brother Bartholomew. — W. Irving, Life and voyages of Columbus, bk. 6-8, v. 1-2. .^Lso in: H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific states, v. I, ch. 2. — J. Winson, Christopher Co- lumbus, ch. 12-14. 1494. — Treaty of Tordesillas. — Amended par- tition of the New World between Spain and Portugal. — "When speaking or writing of the conquest of .America, it is generally believed that the only title upon which were based the con- quests of Spain and Portugal was the famous Papal Bull of partition of the Ocean, of 1403. Few modern authors take into consideration that this Bull was amended, upon the petition of the King of Portugal, by the [Treaty of Tordesillas], signed by both powers in 1494, augmenting the portion assigned to the Portuguese in the partition made between them of the Continent of America. The arc of meridian fixed by this treaty as a dividing line, which gave rise, owing to the ignorance of the .age, to so many diplomatic congresses and interminable controversies, may now be traced by anv student of elementary mathematics. This = 58 AMERICA, 1497 Cabot and Vespucci AMERICA, 1497-1498 line . . . runs along the meridian of 47° 32' 56" west of Greenwich. . . . Ihe name Brazil, or 'tierra del Brazil,' at that time [the middle of the i6th century] referred only to the part of the conti- nent producing the dye wood so-called. Nearly two centuries later the Portuguese advanced toward the South, and the name Brazil then covered the new possessions they were acquiring." — L. L. Dominguez, Introd. to "The conquest oj the River Plate" (Hakliiyt Society Publications, No. 81). 1497. — Discovery of the North American con- tinent by John Cabot. — "The achievement of Columbus, revealing the wonderful truth of which the germ may have existed in the imagination of every thoughtful mariner won [in England] the admiration which belonged to genius that seemed more divine than human; and 'there was great talk of it in all the court of Henry VII.' A feeling of disappointment remained, that a series of disasters had defeated the wish of the illustrious Genoese to make his voyage of essay under the flag of Eng- land. It was, therefore, not difficult for John Cabot, a denizen of Venice, residing at Bristol, to interest that politic king in plans for discovery. On the 5th of March, 1406, he obtained under the great seal a commission empowering himself and his three sons, or either of them, their heirs, or their deputies, to sail into the eastern, western, or northern sea with a fleet of five ships, at their own expense, in search of islands, provinces, or regions hitherto unseen by Christian people ; to affix the banners of England on city, island, or continent; and, as vassals of the English crown, to possess and occupy the territories that might be found. It was further stipulated in this 'most ancient American State paper of England,' that the patentees should be strictly bound, on every return, to land at the port of Bristol, and to pay to the king one-fifth part of their gains; while the exclusive right of frequenting all the countries that might be found was reserved to them and to their assigns, without limit of time. Under this patent, which, at the first direction of English enterprise toward America, embodied the worst fea- tures of monopoly and commercial restriction, John Cabot, taking with him his son Sebastian, em- barked in quest of new islands and a passage to Asia by the north-west. After sailing prosper- ously, as he reported, for 700 leagues, on the 24th day of June [1407] in the morning, almost four- teen months before Columbus on his third voyage came in sight of the main, and more than two years before Amerigo Vespucci sailed west of the Canaries, he discovered the western continent, prob- ably in the latitude of about 56° degrees, among the dismal cliffs of Labrador. He ran along the coast for many leagues, it is said even for 300, and landed on what he considered to be the territory of the Grand Cham, But he encountered no human being, although there were marks that the region was inhabited. He planted on the land a large cross with the flag of England, and, from affection for the republic of Venice, he added the banner of St. Mark, which had never been borne so far before. On his homeward voyage he saw on his right hand two islands, which for want of provisions he could not stop to explore. After an absence of three months the great discoverer re- entered Bristol harbor, where due honors awaited him. The king gave him money, and encouraged him to continue his career. The people called him the great admiral; he dressed in silk; and the English, and even Venetians who chanced to be at Bristol, ran after him with such zeal that he could enlist for a new voyage as manv as he pleased. ... On the third day of the month of February ne.xt after his return, 'John Kaboto, Venecian,' accordingly obtained a power to take up ships for another voyage, at the rates fixed for those employed in the service of the king, and once more to set sail with as many companions as would go with him of their own will. With this license every trace of John Cabot disappears. He may have died before the summer; but no one knows certainly the time or the place of his end, and it has not even been ascertained in what country this finder of a continent first saw the light."— G. Bancroft, History of the United States (Author's last Revision), pt. i, ch. i. — In his crit- ical work on the discovery of America, published in i8g2, Mr. Henry Harrisse states his conclusions as to the Cabot voyages, and on the question whether the American discoveries were made by John Cabot or his son Sebastian, as follows: . "i. — The discovery of the continent of North America and the first landing on its east coast were accomplished not by Sebastian Cabot, but by his father John, in I4g7, under the auspices of Kin; Henry VII. 2.— The first landfall was not Cape Breton Island, as is stated in the planisphere made by Sebastian Cabot in 1544, but eight or ten degrees further north, on the coast of Labrador; which was then' ranged by John Cabot, probably as far as Cape Chudley. 3. — This fact was tacitly acknowledged by all pilots and cosmographers throughout the first half of the i6th century; and the knowledge of it originated with Sebastian Cabot himself, whatever may have been after- wards his contrary statements in that respect. 4- — The voyage of 1408, also accomplished under the British flag, was likewise carried out by John Cabot personally. The landfall on that occasion must be placed south of the first; and the ex- ploration embraced the northeast coast of the present United States, as far as Florida. 5. — In the vicinity of the Floridian east coast, John Cabot, or one of his lieutenants, was detected by some Spanish vessel, in 1498 or T4Q9. 6. — The English continued in 1501, 1502, 15^,4, and afterwards, to send ships to Newfoundland, chiefly for the pur- pose of fisheries." — H. Harrisse, Discovery of North America', pt. i, bk. 8, ch. 5. Also in: Narrative and critical history of America, v. 3, ch. x. Critical essay (C. Deane). — R. Biddle, Memoir of Sebastian Cabot, ch. 1-8. — G. E. Winship, Cabot bibliography. — E. G. Bourne, Spain in America, p. 328. — C. R. Beazley, John and Sebastian Cabot (iSqS). — The principal Cabot documents are found in translation in Markham, Journal of Christopher Columbus (1803). 1497-1498. — First voyage of Vespucci. — Mis- understandings and disputes concerning it. — Vindication of the Florentine navigator. — His exploration of 4,000 miles of continental coasL. — "Our information concerning Americus Vespu- cius, from the early part of the year 1406 until after his return from the Portuguese to the Span- ish service in the latter part of 1504, rests primarily upon his two famous letters; the one addressed to his old patron Lorenzo di Pier Francesco de' Medici (a cousin of Lorenzo the Magnificent) and written in March or April, 1503, giving an ac- count of his third voyage; the other addressed to his old school-fellow Piero Sodcrini [then Gon- faloniere of Florence] and dated from Libson, September 4, 1504. giving a brief account of four voyages which he had made under various com- manders in the capacity of astronomer or pilot. These letters . . . became speedily popular, and many editions were published, more especially in France, Germany, and Italy. . . . The letter to Soderini gives an account of four voyages in wh:ch 259 AMERICA, 1497-1498 Explorations of Vespucci AMERICA, 1497-1498 the writer took part, the first two in the service of Spain, the other two in the service of Portu- gal. The first expedition sailed from Cadiz, May 10, 1497, and returned October 15, 1498, after having explored a coast so long as to seem un- questionably that of a continent. This voyage, as we shall see, was concerned with parts of .America not visited again until 1513 and 1517. It discovered nothing that was calculated to invest it with much importance in Spain, though it by no means passed without notice there, as has often been wrongly asserted. Outside of Spain it came to attract more attention, but in an unfortunate way, for a slight but very serious error in proof- reading or editing, in the most important of the Latin versions, caused it after a while to be prac- tically identified with the second voyage, made two years later. This confusion eventually led to most outrageous imputations upon the good name of Americus, which it has been left for the present century to remove. The second voyage of Ves- pucius was that in which he accompanied Alonso de Ojeda and Juan de la Costa, from May 20, 14QQ, to June, 1500. They explored the northern coast of South America from some point on what we would now call the north coast of Brazil, as far as the Pearl Coast visited by Columbus in the preceding year; and they went beyond, as far as the Gulf of Maracaibo. Here the squadron seems to have become divided, Ojeda going over to Hispaniola in September, while Vespucius re- mained cruising till February. ... It is certainly much to be regretted that in the narrative of his first expedition, Vespucius did not happen to men- tion the name of the chief commander. . . . How- ever ... he was writing not for us, but for his friend, and he told Soderini only what he thought would interest him. ... Of the letter to Soderini the version which has played the most important part in history is the Latin one first published at the press of the little college at Saint-Die in Lorraine, .April 25 (vij Kl' Maij), 1507. ... It was translated, not from an original text, but from an intermediate French version, which is lost. Of late years, however, we have detected, in an excessively rare Italian text, the origfnal from which the famous Lorraine version was ultimately derived. ... If now we compare this primitive text with the Latin of the Lorraine version of 1507, we observe that, in the latter, one proper name — the Indian name of a place visited by .Amer- icus on his first voyage — has been altered. In the original it is 'Lariab;' in the Latin it has be- come 'Parias.' This looks like an instance of in- judicious editing on the part of the Latin trans- lator, although, of course, it may be a case of careless proof-reading. Lariab is a queer-looking word. It is no wonder that a scholar in his study among the mountains of Lorraine could make noth- ing of it. If he had happened to be acquainted with the language of the Huastecas, who dwelt at that time about the river Panuco — fierce and dreaded enemies of their southern neighbours the Aztecs — he would have known that names of places in that region were apt to end in ab. . . . But as such facts were quite beyond our worthy translator's ken, we cannot much blame him if he felt that such a word as Lariab needed doctoring. Parias (Paria) was known to be the native name of a region on the western shores of the .Atlantic, and so Lariab became Parais. As the distance from the one place to the other is more than two thousand miles, this little emendation shifted the scene of the first voyage beyond all recognition, and cast the whole subject into an outer darkness where there has been much groaning and gnash- ing of teeth. .Another curious circumstance came in to confirm this error. On his first voyage, shortly before arriving at Lariab, Vespucius saw an Indian town built over the water, 'like Venice.' He counted 44 large wooden houses, 'like bar- racks,' supported on huge tree-trunks and com- municating with each other by bridges that could be drawn up in case of danger. This may well have been a village of communal houses of the Chontals on the coast of Tabasco; but such vil- lages were afterwards seen on the Gulf of Mara- caibo, and one of them was called Venezuela, or 'Little Venice,' a name since spread over a terri- tory nearly twice as large as France. So the amphibious town described by Vespucius was in- continently moved to Maracaibo, as if there could be only one such place, as if that style of de- fensive building had not been common enough in many ages and in many parts of the earth, from ancient Switzerland to modern Siam. . . . Thus in spite of the latitudes and longtitudes distinctly stated by Vespucius in his letter, did Lariab and the little wooden Venice get shifted from the Gulf of Mexico to the northern coast of South Amer- ica. . . . We are told that he falsely pretended to have visited Paria and Maracaibo in 1407, in order to claim priority over Columbus in the discovery of 'the continent.' What continent ? When Ves- pucius wrote that letter to Soderini, neither he nor anybody else suspected that what we now call .America had been discovered. The only continent of which there could be any question, so far as supplanting Columbus was concerned, was .Asia. But in 1504 Columbus was generally supposed to have discovered the continent of .Asia, by his new route, in 1402. ... It was M. Varnhagen who first turned inquiry on this subject in the right direction. . . . Having taken a correct start by simply following the words of Vespucius himself, from a primitive text, without reference to any preconceived theories or traditions, M. Varnhagen finds 'that .Americus in his first voyage made land on the northern coast of Honduras; that he sailed around Yucatan, and found his aquatic vil- lage of communal houses, his little wooden Venice, on the shore of Tabasco.' Thence, after a fight with the natives in which a few tawny prisoners were captured and carried on board the caravels, Vespucius seems to have taken a straight course to the Huasteca country by Tampico, without touching at points in the region subject or tribu- tary to the Aztec confederacy. This Tampico country was what Vespucius understood to be called Lariab. He again gives the latitude defi- nitely and correctly as 23° N., and he mentions a few interesting circumstances. He saw the na- tives roasting a 'dreadfully ugly animal,' of which he gives what seems to be 'an excellent descrip- tion of the iguana, the flesh of which i? to this day an important article of food in tropical .Amer- ica. . . . .After leaving this country of Lariab the ships kept still to the northwest for a short dis- tance, and then followed the windings of the coast for 870 leagues. , . . After traversing the 870 leagues of crooked coast, the ships found them- selves 'in the finest harbour in the world' [which M. Varnhagen supposed, at first, to have been in Chesapeake Bay, but afterwards reached con- clusions pointing to the neighbourhood of Cape Caiiaveral. on the Florida coast] . It was in June, 1408, thirteen months since they had started from Spain. . . . They spent seven-and-thirty days in this unrivalled harbour, preparing for the home voyage, and found the natives very hospitable. These red men courted the aid of the 'white strangers,' in an attack which they wished to 260 AMERICA, 1497-1498 Second Voyage of Cabot AMERICA, 1498 make upon a fierce race of cannibals, who inhab- ited certain islands some distance out to sea. The Spaniards agreed to the expedition, and sailed late in August, taking seven of the friendly Indians for guides, 'After a week's voyage they fell in with the islands, some peopled, others uninhabited, evidently the Bermudas, 600 miles from Cape Hatteras as the crow flies. The Span- iards landed on an island called Iti, and had a brisk fight,' " resulting in the capture of more than 200 prisoners. Seven of these were given to the Indian guides, who paddled home with them. " 'We also [wrote Vespucius] set sail for Spain, with 222 prisoners, slaves; and arrived in the port of Cadiz on the 15th day of October, 149S, where we were well received and sold our slaves.' . . . The obscurity in which this voyage has so long been enveloped is due chiefly to the fact that it was not followed up till many years had elapsed, and the reason for this neglect impresses upon us forcibly the impossibility of understanding the history of the Discovery of America unless we bear in mind all the attendant circumstances One might at first suppose that a voyage which re- vealed some 4,000 miles of the coast of North America would have attracted much at- tention 'in Spain and have become altogether too famous to be soon forgotten. Such an argument, however, loses sight of the fact that these early voyagers were not trying to 'discover America.' There was nothing to astonish them in the exis- tence of 4,000 miles of coast line on this side of the Atlantic. To their minds it was simply the coast of Asia, about which they knew nothing ex- cept from Marco Polo, and the natural effect of such a voyage as this would be simply to throw discredit upon that traveller." — J Fiske, Discov- ery oj America, v. 2, ch. 7. The arguments against this view are set forth by Mr. Clements R, Markham, in a paper read before the Royal Geographical Society, in 1802, as follows: "Vespucci was at Seville or San Lucar, as a provision merchant, from the middle of April, 1497, to the end of May, 1598, as is shown by the official records, examined by Muiioz, of expenses incurred in fitting out the ships for western ex- peditions. Moreover, no expedition for discovery was despatched by order of King Ferdinand in I4Q7; and there is no allusion to any such expedi- tion in any contempor.iry record The internal evi- dence against the truth of the story is even stronger. Vespucci says that he sailed W. S. W. for nearly 1000 leagues from Grand Canary. This would have taken him to the Gulf of Paria, which is rather more than ooo leagues W. S. W. from Grand Canary. ... No actual navigator would have made such a blunder. He evidently quoted the dead reckoning from Ojeda's voyage, and in- vented the latitude at random. . . . His statement that he went N. W. for 870 leagues (2,610 miles) from a position in latitude 23° N. is still more preposterous. Such a course and distance would have taken him right across the continent to some- where in British Columbia. The chief incidents in the voyage are those of the Ojeda voyage in 1409. There is the village built on piles called Little Venice. . . . There was the encounter with na- tives, in which one Spaniard was killed and 22 were wounded. These numbers are convincing evidence." — C. R. Markham, Columbus (Royal Geographical Society Proceedings, Sept., 1892). Also in: J. Winsor. Christopher Columbus, ch. IS- 1498. — Second voyage of John Cabot, some- times ascribed to his son Sebastian. — "Very soon after his return, John Cabot petitioned Henry 26 VII. for new letters patent, authorizing him to visit again the country which he had just discov- ered. The King granted his request on the 3rd of February, 1498. There is no ground whatever for the assertion, frequently repeated, that John Cabot did not command this second expedition, or that it was undertaken after his death. On the contrary, Pasqualigo and Soncino mention him by name exclusively as the party to whom Henry VII. intended to entrust the fleet. Besides, this time, John Cabot is the only grantee, and the new letters patent omit altogether the names of Sebas- tian and of his brothers. Moreover, John ex- plained in person to Soncino his plans for the second voyage ; and July 25, 1498, Puebia and Ayala announced officially to the Spanish Sov- ereigns that the vessels had actually sailed out 'con otro ginoves como Colon,' which description does not apply certainly to Sebastian, but to John Ca- bot, as we know from corroborative evidence al- ready stated. The fact is that the name of Se- bastian Cabot appears in connection with those voyages, for the first time, in Peter Martyr's ac- count, printed twenty years after the event, and taken from Sebastian's own lips; which ... is not a recommendation. In England, his name reveals itself as regards the discovery of the New World at a still later period, in John Stow's Chronicle, published in 1580. And, although both that historian and Hakluyt quote as their author- ity for the statement a manuscript copy of Robert Fabian's Chronicle, everything tends to show that the name of Sebastian Cabot is a sheer interpola- tion. . . . The expedition was composed of five vessels, fitted out at the expense of John Cabot, or of his friends: 'paying for theym and every of theym.' We have not the exact date when the fleet sailed. It was after April i, 1498, as on that day Henry VII. loaned £30 to Thomas Bradley and Louncelot Thirkill, 'going to the New Isle.' On the other hand, Pedro de Ayala already states, July 25, 1498, that news had been received of the expedition, which was obliged to leave behind, in Ireland, one of the ships, owing to a severe storm. The vessels therefore set out (from Bristol?) in May or June. Puebia states that they were ex- pected back in the month of September follow- ing: 'Dizen que seran venydos para el Sep- tiembre;' yet the vessels had taken supplies for one year: 'fueron proueydas por hun ano.' We possess no direct information concerning this voy- age, nor do we know when Cabot returned to England. It is important to note, however, that the expeditions of 1497 and 1408 are the only ones which in the fifteenth century sailed to the New World under the British flag, and comprise, therefore, all the transatlantic discoveries made by Cabot before the year 1500. Our only data concerning the north-west coast, which the Vene- tian navigator may have visited in the course of his second voyage, are to be found in the map drawn by Juan de la Cosa in the year 1500. . . . In that celebrated chart, there is. in the proximity and west of Cuba, an unbroken coast line, deline- ated like a continent, and extending northward to the extremity of the map. On the northern por- tion of that seaboard La Cosa has placed a con- tinuous line of British flags, commencing at the south with the inscription ; 'Mar descubierta por ingleses;' and terminating at the north with 'Cape of England: — Cauo de ynglaterra.' Unfortunately, those cartographical data are not sufficiently pre- cise to enable us to locate the landfalls with ade- quate exactness Nor is the kind of projection adopted, without explicit degrees of latitude, of such a character as to aid us much in determining I AMERICA, 1498-1505 Later Voyages of Columbus AMERICA, 1498-1505 positions. We are compelled, therefore, to resort to inferences. . . . Taking the distance from the equator to the extreme north in La Cosa's map as a criterion for measuring distances, and com- paring relatively the points named therein with points corresponding for the same latitude on mod- ern planispheres, the last English flagstaff in the southern direction seems to indicate a vicinity south of the Carolinas. . . . This hypothetical es- timate finds a sort of corollary in Sebastian Ca- bot's account, as reported by Peter Martyr. In describing his alleged north-western discoveries, Sebastian said that icebergs having compelled him to alter his course, he steered southwardly, and followed the coast until he reached about the lati- tude of Gibraltar. . . . Several years afterwards, Sebastian Cabot again mentioned the matter in his conversation with the Mantua gentleman; but this time he extended the exploration of the north- west coast five degrees further south, naming Flori- da as his terminus. . . . Twenty years after . . . Sebastian . . . declared, under oath before the Council of the.Indies, December 31, 1535, that he did not know whether the mainland continued northward or not from Florida to the Bacallaos region." — H. Harrisse, Discovery of America, pt. I, bk. 2. 1498-1505. — Third and fourth voyages of Columbus. — Discovery of Trinidad, the northern coast of South America, the shores of Central America and Panama. — When Columbus reached Spain, June, 1496, "Ferdinand and Isabella received him kindly, gave him new honors and promised him other outfits. Enthusiasm, however, had died out and delays took place. The reports of the re- turning ships did not correspond with the pictures of Marco Polo, and the new-found world was thought to be a very poor India after all. Most people were of this mind ; though Columbus was not disheartened, and the public treasury was read- ily opened for a third voyage. Coronel sailed early in 140S with two ships, and Columbus fol- lowed with six, embarking at San Lucas on the 30th of May. He now discovered Trinidad (July 31), which he named either from its three peaks, or from the Holy Trinity ; struck the northern coast of South America, and skirted what was later known as the Pearl coast, going as far as the Island of Margarita. He wondered at the roaring fresh waters which the Ch-onoco pours into the Gulf of Pearls, as he called it, and he h;ilf be- lieved that its exuberant tide came from the ter- restrial paradise. He touched the southern coast of Hayti on the 30th of August. Here already his coltjnists had established a fortified post, and founded the town of Santo Domingo. His brother Bartholomew had ruled ener.gftically during the Admiral's absence, but he had not prevented a re- volt, which was headed by Roldan. Columbus on his arrival found the insurgents still defiant, but he was able after a while to reconcile them, and he even succeeded in attaching Roldan warmly to his interests. Columbus' absence from Spain, however, left his good name without sponsors; and to satisfy detractors, a new commissioner was sent over with enlarged powers, even with author- ity to supersede Columbus in general command, if necessary. This emissary was Francisco de Bo- badilla, who arrived at Santo Domingo with two caravels on the 23d of .August, 1500, finding Diego in command, his brother, the Admiral, being ab- sent. An issue was at once made. Diego refused to accede to the commissioner's orders till Colum- bus returned to judge the case himself; so Boba- dilla assumed charge of the crown property vio- lently, took possession of the Admiral's house, and when Columbus returned, he with his brother was arrested and put in irons. In this condition the prisoners were placed on shipboard, and sailed for Spain. The captain of the ship offered to re- move the manacles; but Columbus would not per- mit it, being determined to land in Spain bound as he was; and so he did. The effect of his degra- dation was to his advantage; sovereigns and people were shocked at the sight ; and Ferdinand and Isabella hastened to make amends by receiving him with renewed favor. It was soon apparent that everything reasonable would be granted him by the monarchs, and that he couid have all he might wish short of receiving a new lease of power in the islands, which the sovereigns were determ- ined to see pacified at least before Columbus should again assume government of them. The Admiral had not forgotten his vow to wrest the Holy Sepulchre from the Infidel; but the monarchs did not accede to his wish to undertake it. Dis- appointed in this, he proposed a new voyage; and getting the royal countenance for this scheme, he was supplied with four vessels of from fifty to sev- enty tons each. ... He sailed from Cadiz, May 9, 1502, accompanied by his brother Bartholomew and his son Fernando. The vessels reached San Domingo June 29. Bobadilla, whose rule of a year and a half had been an unhappy one, had given place to Nicholas de Ovando; and the fleet which brought the new governor — with Maldo- nado. Las Casas and others — now lay in the har- bor waiting to receive Bobadilla for the return voyage. Columbus had been instructed to avoid Hispaniola; but now that one of his vessels leaked, and he needed to make repairs, he sent a boat ashore, asking permission to enter the harbor. He was refused, though a storm was impending. He sheltered his vessels as best he could, and rode out the gale. The fleet which had on board Bobadilla and Roldan, with their ill-gotten gains, was wrecked, and these enemies of Columbus were drowned. The Admiral found a small harbor where he could make his repairs; and then, July 14, sailed westward to find, as he supposed, the richer portions of India. ... A landing was made on the coast of Honduras, August 14. Three days later the explorers landed again fifteen leagues farther east, and took possession of the country for Spain. Still east tLey went; and, in gratitude for safety after a long storm, they named a cape which they rounded, Gracias a Dios — a name still preserved at the point where the coast of Honduras begins to trend southward. Columbus was now lying ill on his bed, placed on deck, and was half the time in revery. Still the vessels coasted south," along and beyond the shores of Costa Rica ; then turned with the bend of the coast to the northeast, until they reached Porto Bello, as we call it, where they found houses and orchards, and passed on "to the farthest spot of Bastidas' exploring, who had, in 1 501, saileci westward along the northern coast of South America." There turning back, Colum- bus attempted to found a colony at Veragua, on the Costa Rica coast, where signs of gold were tempting. But the gold proved scanty, the natives hostile, and, the Admiral, withdrawing his colony, sailed away. "He abandoned one worm-eaten caravel at Porto Bello, and, reaching Jamaica, beached two others. A year of disappointment, grief, and want followed. Columbus clung to his wrecked vessels. His crew alternately mutinied at his side, and roved about the island. Ovando, at Hispaniola, heard of his straits, but only tardily and scantily relieved him. The discontented were finally humbled : and some ships, despatched by the Admiral's agent in Santo Domingo, at last 62 AMERICA, 1499-1500 Second Voyage of Vespucci AMERICA, 1499-1500 reached him and brought him and his companions to that place, where Ovando received him with ostentatious kindness, lodging him in his house till Columbus departed for Spain, Sept. 12, 1504," Arriving in Spain in November, disheartened, broken with disease, neglected, it was not until the following May that he had strength enough to go to the court at Segovia, and then only to be coldly received by King Ferdinand — Isabella being dead. "While still hope was deferred, the infirmi- turers who accompanied Columbus on his second voyage (in 1493) was Alonzo de Ojeda, Ojeda quarrelled with the Admiral and returned to Spain in 1498. Soon afterwards, "he was provided by the Bishop Fonseca, Columbus' enemy, with a frag- ment of the map which the Admiral had sent to Ferdinand and Isabella, showing the discoveries which he had made in his last voyage. With this assistance Ojeda set sail for South America, accom- panied by the pilot, Juan de la Cosa, who had FIRST MAP SHOWING AMERICAN CONTINENT Sketch of map drawn by La Costa in 1500 ties of age and a life of hardships brought Colum- bus to his end; and on Ascension Day, the 20th of May, 1506, he died, with his son Diego and a few devoted friends by his bedside." — J. Winsor, Narratwe and critical history of America, v. 2, cli. I. — See also Venezuela: 1409-1550. Also in: H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific states, V. I, ch. 2 atjd 4. — W. Irving, Life and voyages of Cobimbtis. bk. 10-18, v. 2. 1499-1500. — Voyages and discoveries of Ojeda and Pinzon. — Second voyage of Vespucci. — One of the most daring and resolute of the adven- accompanied Columbus in his first great voyage in 1492, and of whom Columbus complained that, 'being a clever man, he went about saying that he knew more than he did,' and also by Amerigo Vespucci. They set sail on the 20th of May, 1499. with four vessels, and after a passage of 27 days came in sight of the continent, 200 leagues east of the Oronoco. At the end of June, they landed on the shores of Surinam, in six degrees of north lati- tude, and proceeding west saw the mouths of the Essequibo and Oronoco. Passing the Boca del Drago of Trinidad, they coasted westward till they 263 AMERICA, 1500 Third Voyage of Vespucci AMERICA, 1500-1514 reached the Capo de la Vela in Granada. It was in this voyage that was discovered the Gulf to which Ojeda gave the name of Venezuela, or Little Ven- ice, on account of the cabins built on piles over the water, a mode of life which brought to his mind the water-city of the Adriatic. From the American coast Ojeda went to the Caribbee Islands, and on the 5th of September reached Vaguimo, in Hispaniola, where he raised a revolt against the authority of Columbus. His plans, however, were frustrated by Roldan and Escobar, the delegates of Columbus, and he was compelled to withdraw from the island. On the sth of February, 1500, he re- turned, carrying with him to Cadiz an extraordi- nary number of slaves, from which he realized an enormous sum of money. At the beginning of December, 1400, the same year in which Ojeda set sail on his last voyage, another companion of Co- lumbus, in his first voyage, Vicente Yafiez Pinzon, sailed from Palos, was the first to cross the line on the American side of the Atlantic, and on the 20th of January, 1500, discovered Cape St. Augus- tine, to which he gave the name of Cabo Santa Maria de la Consoiacion, whence returning north- ward he followed the westerly trending coast, and so discovered the mouth of the Amazon, which he named Paricura. Without a month after his de- parture from Palos, he was followed from the same port and on the same route by Diego de Lepe, who was the first to discover, at the mouth of the Oronoco, by means of a closed vessel, which only opened when it reached the bottom of the water, that, at a depth of eight fathoms and a half, the two lowest fathoms were salt water, but all above was fresh. Lepe also made the observation that beyond Cape St. Augustine, which he doubled, as well as Pinzon, the coast of Brazil trended south- west." — R. H. Major, Life of Prince Henry of Portugal, ch. lo. Also in: W. Irving, Life and voyages of Colum- bus, I'. 3, ch. 1-3. 1500. — Voyages of the Cortereals to the far north and of Bastidas to the Isthmus of Darien. — "The Portuguese did not overlook the north while making their important discoveries to the south. Two vessels, probably in the spring of 1500, were sent out under Caspar Cortereal. No journal or chart of the voyage is now in existence, hence little is known of its object or results. Still more dim is a previous voyage ascribed by Cor- deiro to Joao Vaz Cortereal, father of Caspar. . . , Touching at the .Azores, Caspar Cortereal, possibly following Cabot's charts, struck the coast of New- foundland north of Cape Race, and sailing north discovered a land which he called Terra Verde, perhaps Greenland, but was stopped by ice at a river which he named Rio Nevado, whose loca- tion is unknown. Cortereal returned to Lisbon before the end of 1500. ... In October of this same year Rodrigo de Bastidas sailed from Cadiz with two vessels. Touching the shores of South America near Isla V'erde, which lies between Guad- alupe and the main land, he followed the coast westward to El Retrete, or perhaps Nombre de Dios, on the Isthmus of Darien, in about g" 30' north latitude. Returning he was wrecked on Es- panola toward the end of 1501, and reached Cadiz in September, 1502. This being the first authentic voyage by Europeans to the territory herein de- fined as the Pacific States, such incidents as are known will be given hereafter." — H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific states, v. i, p. 113 — "We have Las Casas's authority for saying that Bastidas was a humane man toward the Indians. Indeed, he afterwards lost his life by this humanity; for, when governor of Santa Martha, not consenting to harass the Indians, he so alienated his men that a conspiracy was formed against him, and he was murdered in his bed. The renowned Vasco Nunez [de Balboa] was in this expedition, and the knowl- edge he gained there had the greatest influence on the fortunes of his varied and eventful life." — Sir A. Helps, Spanish conquest of America, bk. 5, ch. I. — See also Newtoundland: 1501-1578. Also in: J. G. Kohl, History of the discovery of Maine, ch. S- — R. Biddle, Memoir of Sebastian Cabot, bk. 2, ch. 3-5. 1500-1514. — Voyage of Cabral. — Third voyage of Vespucci. — Exploration of the Brazilian coast for the king of Portugal. — Curious evolu- tion of the continental name "America."^ "Affairs now became curiously complicated. King Emanuel of Portugal intrusted to Pedro Alvarez de Cabral the command of a fleet for Hindustan, to follow up the work of Gama and established a Portuguese centre of trade on the Malabar coast. This fleet of 13 vessels, carrying about 1,200 men, sailed from Lisbon March 9, 1500. After passing the Cape V'erde Islands, March 22, for some reason not clearly known, whether driven by stormy weather or seeking to avoid the calms that were apt to be troublesome on the Guinea coast, Cabral took a somewhat more westerly course than he realized, and on April 22, after a weary progress averaging less than 60 miles per day, he found himself on the coast of Brazil not far beyond the limit reached by Lepe. . . . Approaching it in such a way Cabral felt sure that this coast must fall to the east of the papal meridian. Accordingly on May day, at Porto Seguro in latitude 16° 30' S., he took formal possession of the country for Portu- gal, and sent Caspar de Lemos in one of tis ships back to Lisbon with the news. On May 32 Cabral weighed anchor and stood for the Cape of Good Hope. . . . Cabral called the land he had found Vera Cruz, a name which presently became Santa Cruz; but when Lemos arrived in Lisbon with the news he had with ^im some gorgeous paro- quets, and among the earliest names on old maps of the Brazilian coast vve find 'Land of Paro- quets' and 'Land of the Holy Cross.' The land lay obviously so far to the east that Spain could not deny that at last there was something for Portugal out in the 'ocean sea.' Much interest "was felt at Lisbon. King Emanuel began to prepare an expedition for exploring this new coast, and wished to secure the services of some eminent pilot and cosmographer familiar with the western wa- ters. Overtures were made to Americus, a fact which proves that he had already won a high reputation. The overtures were accepted, for what reason we do not know, and soon after his return from the vovage with Ojeda, probably in the autumn of 1500, Americus passed from the service of Spain into that of Portugal. ... On May 14, 1 501, Vespucius, who was evidently prin- cipal |)ilot and guiding spirit in this voyage under unkown skies, set sail from Lisbon with three caravels. It is not quite clear who was chief cap- tain, but M. Varnhagen has found reasons for believing that it was a certain Don Nuno Manuel. The first halt was made on the African coast at Cape Verde, the first week in June. . . . After 67 days of 'the vilest weather ever seen by man' they reached the coast of Brazil in latitude about 5° S., on the evening of the i6th of .\ugust, the festival- day of San Roque, whose name was accordingly given to the cape before which they dropped an- chor. From this point .they slowly followed the coast to the southward, stopping now and then 10 examine the countrv'. ... It was not until All Saints day, the first of November, that they 264 AMERICA, 1500-1514 Evolution of the Name AMERICA, 1500-1514 reached the bay in latitude 13° S., which is still known by the name which they gave it, Bahia de Todos Santos, On New Year's day, 1502, they arrived at the noble bay where 54 years later the chief city of Brazil was founded. They would seem to have mistaken it for the mouth of an- other huge river, like some that had already been seen in this strange world; for they called it Rio de Janeiro (River of January). Thence by Feb- ruary 15 they had passed Cape Santa Maria, when they left the coast and took a southeasterly course out into the ocean. Americus gives no satisfactory reason for this change of direction. . . . Perhaps he may have looked into the mouth of the river La Plata, which is a bay more than a hundred miles wide ; and the sudden westward trend of the shore may have led him to suppose that he had reached the end of the continent. At any rate, he was now in longitude more than twenty de- grees west of the meridian of Cape San Roque, and therefore unquestionably out of Portuguese waters. Clearly there was no use in going on and discovering lands which could belong only to Spain. This may account, I think, for the change of direction." The voyage southeastwardly was pursued until the little fleet had reached the icy and rocky coast of the island of South Georgia, in latitude 54° S. It was then decided to turn homeward. "Vespucius . . . headed straight N. N. E. through the huge ocean, for Sierra Leone, and the distance of more than 4,000 miles was made — with wonderful accuracy, though Vespucius- says nothing about that — in 33 days. . . . Thence, af- ter some further delay, to Lisbon, where they ar- rived on the 7th of September, 1502. Among all the voyages made during that eventful period there was none that as a feat of navigation surpassed this third of Vespucius, and there was none, except the first of Columbus, that outranked it in his- torical importance. For it was not only a voyage into the remotest stretches of the Sea of Dark- ness, but it was preeminently an incursion into the antipodal world of the Southern hemisphere. . . . A coast of continental extent, beginning so near the meridian of the Cape Verde islands and run- ning southwesterly to latitude 35° S. and perhaps beyond, did not fit into anybody's scheme of things. ... It was land unknown to the ancients, and Vespucius was right in saying that he had beheld there things by the thousand which Pliny had never mentioned. It was not strange that he should call it a 'New World,' and in meeting with this phrase, on this first occasion in which it ap- pears in any document with reference to any part of what we now call America, the reader must be careful not to clothe it with the meaning which it wears in our modern eyes. In using the expression 'New World' Vespucius was not thinking of the Flor'da coast which he had visited on a former voyage, nor of the 'islands of India' dis- covered by Columbus, nor even of the Pearl Coast which he had followed after the Admiral in ex- ploring. The expression occurs in his letter to Lorenzo de' Medici, written from Lisbon in March or April 1503, relating solely to this third voyage The letter begins as follows: 'I have formerly written to you at sufficient length about my return from those new countries which in the ships and at the expense and command of the most gracious King of Portugal we have sought and found. It is proper to call them a new world.' Observe that it is only the new countries visited on this third voyage, the countries from Cape San Roque south- ward, that Vespucius thinks it proper to call a new world, and here is his reason for so calling them; 'Since among our ancestors there was no knowl- edge of them, and to all who hear of the affair it is most novel. For it transcends the ideas of the ancients, since most of them say that beyond the equator to the south there is no continent, but only the sea which they call the Atlantic, and if any of them asserted the existence of a continent there, they found many reasons for refusing to consider it a habitable country. But this last voy- age of mine has proved that this opinion of theirs was erroneous and in every way contrary to the facts.' . . . This expression 'Novus Mundus' [New World], thus occurring in a private letter, had a remarkable career. Early in June, 1503, about the time when Americus was starting on his fourth voyage, Lorenzo died. By the beginning of 1504, a Latin version of the letter [translated by Gio- vanni Giocondo] was printed and published, with the title 'Mundus Novus.' . . . The little four- leaved tract, 'Mundus Novus,' turned out to be the great literary success of the day. M. Harrisse has described at least eleven Latin editions prob- ably published in the course of 1504, and by 1506 not less than eight editions of German versions had been issued. Intense curiosity was aroused by this announcement of the existence of a populous land beyond the equator and unknown (could such a thing be possible) to the ancients," — who did know something, at least, about the eastern parts of the Asiatic continent which Columbus was sup- posed to have reached. The "Novus Mundus," so named, began soon to be represented on maps and globes, generally as a great island or quasi- continent lying on and below the equator. "Eu- rope, Asia and Africa were the three parts of the earth [previously known], and so this opposite re- gion, hitherto unknown, but mentioned by Mela and indicated by Ptolemy, was the Fourth Part. We can now begin to understand the intense and wildly absorbing interest with which people read the brief story of the third voyage of Vespucius, and we can see that in the nature of that interest there was nothing calculated to bring it into com- parison with the work of Columbus. The two navigators were not regarded as rivals in doing the same thing, but as men who had done two very different things ; and to give credit to one was by no means equivalent to withholding credit from the other." In 1507, Martin Waldseemiiller, pro- fessor of geo.;raphy at Saint-Die, published a small treatise entitled "Cosmographie Introductio," with that second of the two known letters of Vespucci — the one addressed to Soderini, of which an account is given above (1407-1498) — appended to it. "In this rare book occurs the first suggestion of the name America. After having treated of the di- vision of the earth's inhabited surface into three parts — Europe, Asia, and Africa — Waldseemiiller speaks of the discovery of a Fourth Part," and says: " 'Wherefore I do not see what is rightly to hinder us from calling it Amerige or America, i. e., the land of Americus, after its discoverer Americus, a man of sagacious mind, since both Europe and Asia have got their names from women.' . . . Such were the winged words but for which, as M. Harrisse reminds us, the western hem- isphere might have come to be known as Atlantis, or Hesperides, or Santa Cruz, or New India, or per- haps Columbia. ... In about a quarter of a cen- tury the first stage in the development of the nam- ing of America had been completed. The stage consisted of five distinct steps: i. Americus called the regions visited by him beyond the equator 'a new world' because they were unknown to the an- cients; 2. Giocondo made this striking phrase 'Mundus Novus' into a title for his translation of the letter. ... ; 3. the name Mundus Novus got ^6S AMERICA, 1502 Settlement at Darien AMERICA, 1509-1511 placed upon several maps as an equivalent for Terra Sanctae Crucis, or what we call Brazil; 4. the suggestion was made that Mundus Novus was the Fourth Part of the earth, and might properly be named America after its discoverer; 5. the name America thus got placed upon several maps I the first, so far as known, being a map ascribed to Leonardo da Vinco and published about 1514, and the second a globe made in 1515 by Johann Schbner, at Nuremberg] as an equivalent for what we call Brazil, and sometimes came to stand alone as an equivalent for what we call South America, but still signified only a part of the dry land be- yond the Atlantic to which Columbus had led the way. . . . This wider meaning [of South America] became all the more firmly established as its nar- rower meaning was usurped by the name Brazil. Three centuries before the time of Columbus the red dye-wood called brazil-wood was an article of commerce, under that same name, in Italy and Spain. It was one of the valuable things brought from the East, and when the Portuguese found the same dye-wood abundant in those tropical forests that had seemed so beautiful to X'espucius, the name Brazil soon became fastened upon the coun- try and helped to set free the name America from its local associations." When in time, and by slow degrees, the great fact was learned, that all the lands found beyond the Atlantic by Columbus and his successors, formed part of one continental sys- tem, and were all to be embraced in the concep- tion of a New World, the name which had become synonymous with New World was then naturally extended to the whole. The evolutionary process of the naming of the western hemisphere as a whole was thus made complete in 1541, by Mer- cator, who spread the name America in large let- ters upon a globe which he constructed that year, so that part of it appeared upon the northern and part upon the southern continent. — J. Fiske, Dis- covery of America, ch. 7, v. 2. Also in: W. B. Scaife, Americn: its geographi- cal history, section 4. — R. H. Major, Life 0/ Prince Henry 0/ Portugal, ch. ig. — J. Winsor, Narrative and critical history of America, v. 2, ch. 2, notes. — H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific states, v. ii PP- 9Q-II2, and 123-125. Complete bibliography of the Vespucci question and of the name America prepared by G. Fuma- galli for G. Uzielli's new edition of A. M. Ban- dini. Vita di Amerigo Vespucci (1893). A good modern critical discussion of the Vespucci ques- tion is that by Hugues, in Raccolta Columbiana. A good resume of the diffusion of the name Amer- ica is L. Hugues, La Vicende del yome "America" (i8q8). Also in H. Ludin, Naming of America, {Americana, v. 6, Dec, pp. 1174-1176). 1502. — Second voyage of Ojeda. — The first voyage of .Monzo de Ojeda, from which he re- turned to Spain in June 1500, was profitable to nothing but his reputation as a bold and enterpris- ing explorer. By way of reward, he was given "a grant of land in Hispaniola, and likewise the gov- ernment of Coquibacoa, which place he had dis- covered [and which he had called Venezuela]. He was authorized to fit out a number of ships at his own expense and to prosecute discoveries on the coast of Terra Firma. . . . With four ves- sels, Ojeda set sail for the Canaries, in 1502, and thence proceeded to the Gulf of Paria, from which locality he found his way to Coquibacoa. Not lik- ing this poor country, he sailed on to the Bay of Honda, where he determined to found his settle- ment, which was, however, destined to be of short duration. Provisions very soon became scarce; and one of his partners, who had been sent to procure supplies from Jamaica, failed to return until Ojeda's followers were almost in a state of mutiny. The result was that the whole colony set sail for Hispaniola, taking the governor with them in chains. All that Ojeda gained by his expedition was that he at length came off winner in a lawsuit, the costs of which, however, left him a ruined man." — R. G. Watson, Spanish and Por- tuguese Soulli America, bk. i, ch. i. , 1503-1504. — Fourth voyage of Vespucci. — First settlement in Brazil. — In June, 1503, ■■.\merigo sailed again from Lisbon, with six ships. The object of this voyage was to discovered a cer- tain island called Melcha, which was supposed to lie west of Calicut, and to be as famous a mart in the commerce of the Indian world as Cadiz was in Europe. They made the Cape de Verds, and then, contrary to the judgment of Vespucci and of all the fleet, the Commander persisted in standing for Serra Leoa." The Commander's ship was lost, and \'espucci, with one vessel, only, reached the coast of the New World, finding a port which is thought to have been Bahia. Here "they waited above two months in vain expectation of being joined by the rest of the squadron. Having lost all hope of this they coasted on for 260 leagues to the Southward, and there took port again in 18° S. 35 W. of the meridian of Lisbon. Here they remained five months, upon good terms with the natives, with whom some of the party penetrated forty leagues into the interior; and here they erected a fort, in which they left 24 men who had been saved from the Commander's ship. They gave them 12 guns, besides other arms, and provisions for six months; then loaded with brazil [w-ood], sailed homeward and returned in safety. . . . The honour, therefore, of having formed the first settlement in this coun- try is due to Amerigo Vespucci. It does not ap- pear that any further attention was at this time paid to it. . . . But the cargo of brazil which Ves- pucci had brought home tempted private adven- turers, who were content with peaceful gains, to trade thither for that valuable wood; and this trade became so well known, that in consequence the coast and the whole country obtained the name of Brazil, notwithstanding the holier appellation [Santa Cruz] which Cabral had given it."— R, Southey, History of Brazil, v. i, ch. i. 1509-1511. — Expeditions of Ojeda and Nlcuesa to the Isthmus. — Settlement at Darien.— ''For several years alter his ruinous, though successful lawsuit, we lose all traces of .\lonzo de Ojeda, ex- cepting that we are told he made another voyage to Coquibacoa [\'enezucla], in 1505. No record remains of this expedition, which seems to have been equally unprofitable with the preceding, for we find him, in 1508, in the island of Hispaniola as poor in purse, though as proud in spirit, as ever. . . . About this time the cupidity of King Ferdi- nand was preatly excited by the accounts by Co- lumbus of the gold mines of Veragua, in which the admiral fancied he had discovered the Aurea Cher- sonesus of the ancients, whence King Solomon pro- cured the gold used in building the temple of Jerusalem. Subsequent voyagers had corroborated the opinion of Columbus as to the general riches of the coast of Terra Firma ; King Ferdinand re- solved, therefore, to found regular colonies along that coast, and to place the whole under some capable commander." Ojeda was recommended for this post, but found a competitor in one of the gentlemen of the Spanish cotirt, Diego de Nicuesa. "King Ferdin^md avoided the dilemma by favoring both : not indeed by furnishing them with ships and money, but by granting patents and dignities, which cost nothing, and might bring rich returns. He 266 AMERICA, 1509-1511 Discovery of Florida AMERICA, 1512 divided that part of the continent which lies along the Isthmus of Darien into two provinces, the boundary line running through the Gulf of Uraba. The eastern part, extending to Cape de la Vela, was called New Andalusia, and the government of it given to Ojeda. The other to the west [called Castilla del Oro], including Veragua, and reaching to Cape Gracias a Dios, was assigned to Nicuesa. The island of Jamaica was given to the two gov- ernors in common, as a place whence to draw sup- plies of provisions." Slender means for the equip- ment of Ojeda's expedition were supplied by the veteran pilot, Juan de la Cosa, who accompanied him as his lieutenant. Nicuesa was more amply provided. The rival armaments arrived at San Domingo about the same time (in 1509), and much quarreling between the two commanders ensued. Ojeda found a notary in San Domingo, Martin Fer- nadez de Enciso, who had money which he con- sented to invest in the interprise, and who prom- ised to follow him with an additional ship-load of recruits and supplies. Under this arrangement Ojeda made ready to sail in advance of his com- petitor, embarking Nov. 10, 1509. Among those who sailed with him was Francisco Pizarro, the future conqueror of Peru. Ojeda, by his energy, gained time enough to nearly ruin his expedition before Nicuesa reached the scene ; for, having landed at Cartagena, he made war upon the na- tives, pursued them recklesslj' into the interior of the country, with 70 men, and was overwhelmed by the desperate savages, escaping with only one companion from their poisoned arrows. His faith- ful friend, the pilot, Juan de la Cosa, was among the slain, and Ojeda himself, hiding in the forest, was nearly dead of hunger and exposure when found and ref-cued by a searching party from his ships. At this juncture the fleet of Nicuesa made its appearance. Jealousies were forgotten in a common rage against the natives and the two ex- peditions were joined in a attack on the Indian villages which spared nothing. Nicuesa then pro- ceeded to Veragua, while Ojeda founded a town, which he called San Sebastian, at the east end of the Gulf of Uraba. Incessantly harassed by the natives, terrified by the effects of the poison which these used in their warfare, and threatened with starvation by the rapid exhaustion of its supplies, the settlement lost courage and hope. Enciso and his promised ship were waited for in vain. At length there came a vessel which certain piratical adventurers at Hispaniola had stolen, and which brought some welcome provisions, eagerly bought at an exorbitant price. Ojeda, half recovered from a poisoned wound, which he had treated heroically with red-hot plates of iron, engaged the pirates to convey him to Hispaniola, for the procuring of supplies. The voyage . was a disastrous one, re- sulting in shipwreck on the coast of Cuba and a month of desperate wandering in the morasses of the island. Ojeda survived all these perils and sufferings, made his way to Jamaica, and from Jamaica to San Domingo, found that his partner Enciso had sailed for the colony long before, with abundant supplies, but could learn nothing more. Nor could he obtain for himself any means of returning to San Sebastian, or of dispatching re- lief to the place. Sick, penniless and disheart- ened, he went into a convent and died. Meantime the despairing colonists at San Sebastian waited until death had made them few enough to be all taken on board of the two little brigantines which were left to them; then they sailed away, Pizarro in command. One of the brigantines soon went down in a squall; the other made its way to the harbor of Cartagena, where it found the tardy Enciso, searching for his colony. Enciso, under his commission, now took command, and insisted upon going to San Sebastian. There the old ex- periences were soon renewed, and even Enciso was ready to abandon the deadly place. The latter had brought with him a needy cavalier, Vasco Nufiez de Balboa — so needy that he smuggled him- self on board Enciso's ship in a cask to escape his creditors. Vasco Nuiiez who had coasted this region with Bastidas, in 1500, now advised a re- moval of the colony to Darien, on the opposite coast of the Gulf of Uraba. His advice, which was followed, proved good, and the hopes of the settlers were raised; but Enciso's modes of govern- ment proved irksome to them. Then Balboa called attention to the fact that, when they crossed the Gulf of Uraba, they passed out of the territory covered by the patent to Ojeda, under which Enciso was commissioned, and into that granted to Nicuesa. On this suggestion Enciso was promptly deposed and two alcaldes were elected, Balboa bemg one. While events in one corner of Nicuesa's domain were thus estab- lishing a colony for that ambitious governor, he himself, at the other extremity of it, was faring badly. He had suffered hardships, separation from most of his command and long abandonment on a desolate coast; had rejoined his followers af- ter great suffering, only to suffer yet more in their company, until less than one hundred remained of the 700 who sailed with him a few months before. The settlement at Veragua had been deserted, and another, named Nombre de Dios undertaken, with no improvement of circumstances. In this situa- tion he was rejoiced, at last, by the arrival of one of his lieutenants, Rodrigo de Colmenares, who came with supplies. Colmenares brought tidings, moreover, of the prosperous colony at Darien, which he had discovered on his way, with an in- vitation to Nicuesa to come and assume the gov- ernment of it. He accepted the invitation with delight; but, alas, the community at Darien had repented of it before he reached them, and they refused to receive him when he arrived. Permitted finally to land, he was seized by a treacherous party among the colonists — to whom Balboa is said to have opposed all the resistance in his power — was put on board of an old and crazy brigantine, with seventeen of his friends, and com- pelled to take an oath that he would sail straight to Spain. "The frail bark set sail on the first of March, 15 11, and steered across the Caribbean Sea for the island of Hispaniola, but was never seen or heard of more." — W. Irving, Life and voy- ages of Columbus and his companions, v. 3. Also in: H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific stales, V. I, ch. 6. 1510-1661. — Portuguese and Dutch in Brazil. See Brazil: 1510-1661. 1511. — Spanish conquest and occupation of Cuba. See Cuba: 1511. 1512. — Voyage of Ponce de Leon in quest of the fountain of youth, and his discovery of Florida. — "Whatever may have been the South- ernmost point reached by Cabot in coasting America on his return, it is certain that he did not land in Florida, and that the honour of first ex- ploring that country is due to Juan Ponce de Leon. This cavalier, who was governor of Puerto Rico, induced by the vague traditions circulated by the natives of the West Indies, that there was a country in the north possessing a fountain whose waters restored the aged to youth, made it an object of his ambition to be the first to discover this marvellous region. With this view, he re- signed the governorship, and set sail with three 267 AMERICA, 1513-1517 Discovery of the Pacific AMERICA, 1513-1517 caravels on the 3d of March 1512. Steering N. J4 N., he came upon a countr>' covered with flow- ers and verdure ; and as the day of his discovery happened to be Palm Sunday, called by the Span- iards 'Pasqua Florida,' he gave it the name of Florida from this circumstance. He landed on the 2d of April, and took possession of the country in the name of the king of Castile. The warlike people uf the coast of Cautio (a name given by the Indians to all the country lying between Cape Cafiaveral and the southern point of Florida) soon, however, compelled him to retreat, and he pursued his e.xploration of the coast as far as 30 8' north latitude, and on the 8th of May doubled Cape Caiiaveral. Then retracing his course to Puerto Rico, in the hope of finding the island of Bimini, which he believed to be the Land of Youth, and described by the Indians as opposite to Florida, he discovered the Bahamas, and some other islands, previously unkown. Bad weather compelling him to put into the isle of Guanima to repair dam- ages, he despatched one of his caravels, under the orders of Juan Perez de Ortubia and of the pilot Anton de Alaminos, to gain information respecting the desired land, which he had as yet been totally unable to discover. He returned to Puerto Rico on the 2ist of September; a few days afterwards, Ortubia arrived also with news of Bimini. He re- ported that he had explored the island, — which he described as large, well wooded, and watered by numerous streams, — but he had failed in discover- ing the fountain. Oviedo places Bimini at 40 leagues west of the island of Bahama. Thus all the advantages which Ponce de Leon promised himself from this voyage turned to the profit of geography: the title of 'Adelantado of Bimini and Florida,' which was conferred upon hira, was purely honorary ; but the route taken by him in order to return to Puerto Rico, showed the advantage of making the homeward voyage to Spain by the Bahama Channel." — W. B. Rye, Introduction to "Discovery and conquest of Terra Florida, by a gentleman oj Elvas" (Hakluyt Society, 1851). .\i.so i.v: G. R. Fairbanks. History of Florida. ch. I. — E. G. Bourne, Spain in America. — J. B Shea, Ancient Florida in Winsor, Narrative and critical history, 11. 1513-1517.— Discovery of the Pacific by Bal- boa. — Pedrarias Davila on the isthmus. — With Enciso deposed from authority and Nicuesa sent adrift, Vasco Nuiiez de Balboa seems to have easily held the lead in affairs at Darien, though not without much opposition ; for faction and turbu- lence were rife. Enciso was permitted to carry his grie%'ances and complaints to Spain, but Bal- boa's colleague, Zamudio, went with him, and an- other comrade proceeded to Hispaniola, both of them well-furnished with gold. For the quest of gold had succeeded at last. The Darien adven- turers had found considerable quantities in the possession of the surrounding natives, and were gathering it with greedy hands. Balboa had the prudence to establish friendly relations with one of the most important of the neisihhorirg caciques. whose comely daughter he wedded — according to the easy customs of the country — and whose ally he became in wars with the other caciques. By gift and tribute, therefore as well as by plunder. he harvested more gold than any before him had found since the ransacking of the new world be- gan. But what they obtained seemed little com- pared with the treasures reported to them as e^xist- ing beyond the near mountains and toward the south. One Indian youth, son of a friendly ca- cique, particularly excited their imaginations by the tale which he told of another great sea, not far to the west, on the southward-stretching shores of which were countries that teemed with every kind of wealth. He told them, however, that the/ would need a thousand men to fight their way to this Sea. Balboa gave such credence to the story that he sent envoys to Spain to solicit forces from the king for a adequate expedition across the moun- tains. They sailed in October, 151 2, but did not arrive in Spain until the following May. They found Balboa in much disfavor at the court. En- ciso and the friends of the unfortunate Nicuesa had unitedly ruined him by their complaints, and the king had caused criminal proceedings against him to be commenced. Meantime, some inkling of these hostilities had reached Balboa, himself, conveyed by a vessel which bore to him, at the same time, a commission as captain-general from the authorities in Hispaniola. He now resolved to become the discoverer of the ocean which his In- dian friends described, and of the rich lands bord- ering it, before his enemies could interfere with him. "Accordingly, early in September, 1513, he set out on his renowned expedition for finding 'the other sea,' accompanied by 190 men well armed, and by dogs, which were of more avail than men, and by Indian slaves to carry the burdens. He went by sea to the territory of his father-in-law. King Careta, by whom he was well received, and ac- companied by whose Indians he moved on into Poncha's territory." Quieting the fears of this cacique, he passed his country without fighting. The next chief encountered, named Quarequa, at- tempted resistance, but was routed, with a great slaughter of his people, and Balboa pushed on. "On the 25th of September, 1513, he came near to the top of a mountain from whence the South Sea was visible. The distance from Poncha's chief town to this point was forty leagues, reck- oned then six days' journey; but Vasco Xunez and his men took twenty-five days to accomplish it, as they suffered much from the roughness of the ways and from the want of provisions. A little before Vasco Nuiiez reached the height, Quarequa's Indians informed him of his near approach to the sea. It was a sight in beholding which, for the first time, any man would wish to be alone. Vasco Nufiez bade his men sit down while he ascended, and then, in solitude, looked down upon the vast Pacific — the first man of the Old World, so far as we know, who had done so. Falling on his knees, he gave thanks to God for the favour shown to him in his being permitted to discover the Sea of the South. Then with his hand he beckoned to his men to come up. When they had come, both he and they knelt down and poured forth their thanks to God. He then addressed them. . . . Having . . . addressed his men, Vasco Nunez proceeded to take formal possession, on behalf of the kings of Castile, of the sea and of all that was in it; and in order to make memorials of the event, he cut down trees, formed crosses, and heaped up stones. He also inscribed the names of the monarchs of Castile upon great trees in the vicinity." After- war Is, when he had descended the western slope and found the shore, "he entered the sea up to his thighs, having his sword on. and with his shield in his hand; then he called the by-standers to witness how he touched with his person and took possession of this sea for the kings of Castile, and declared that he would defend the possession ol it against all comers. .After this, Vasco Nunez made friends in the usual manner, first conquering and then npL'otiati'.-.g with" the several chiefs or caciques V hose territories came in his way. He explored the Gulf of San Miguel, finding much wealth of pearls in the region, and returned to Darien by a route 268 AMERICA, 1513-1517 Discovery of Mexico AMERICA, 1517-1518 which crossed the isthmus considerably farther to the north, reaching his colony on the 2Qth of Janu- ary, 1514, having been absent nearly five months. "His men at Darien received him with exultation, and he lost no time in sending his news, 'such sig- nal and new news,' ... to the King of Spain, ac- companying it with rich presents. His letter, which gave a detailed account of his journey, and which, for its length, was compared by Peter Martyr to the celebrated letter that came to the senate from Tiberius, contained in every page thanks to God that he had escaped from such great dangers and labours. Both the letter and the presents were intrusted to a man named Arbolanche, who de- parted from Darien about the beginning of March, 1514. . . . Vasco Nunez's messenger, Arbolanche, reached the court of Spain too late for his master's interests." The latter had already been superseded in the Governorship, and his successor was on the way to take his authority from him. The new governor was one Pedrarias De Avila, or Davila, as the name is sometimes written ; — an envious and malignant old man, under whose rule on the isth- mus the destructive energy of Spanish conquest rose to its meanest and most heartless and brain- less development. Conspicuously exposed as he was to the jealousy and hatred of Pedrarias, Vasco Nunez was probably doomed to ruin, in some form, from the first. At one time, in 1516, there seemed to be a promise for him of alliance with his all-powerful enemy, by a marriage with one of the governor's daughters, and he received the command of an expedition which again crossed the isthmus, carrying ships, and began the exploration of the Pacific. But circumstances soon arose which gave Pedrarias an opportunity to accuse the ex- plorer of treasonable designs and to accomplish his arrest — Francisco Pizarro being the officer fitly charged with the execution of the governor's war- rant. Brought in chains to Ada, Vasco Nunez was summarily tried, found guilty and led forth to swift death, laying his head upon the block (1517). "Thus perished Vasco Nuiiez de Balboa, in the forty-second year of his age, the man who, since the time of Columbus, had shown the most states- manlike and warriorlike powers in that part of the world, but whose career only too much re- sembles that of Ojeda, Nicuesa, and the other unfortunate commanders who devastated those beautiful regions of the earth." — Sir A. Helps, Spanish conquest in America, bk. 6, v. 1. — "If I have applied strong terms of denunciation to Pedrarias Davila, it is because he unquestionably deserves it. He is by far the worst man who came officially to the New World during its early gov- ment. In this all authorities agree. And all agree that Vasco Nunez was not deserving of death." — H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific states, v. I, ch. 8-12 [foot-note, p. 458). Also in: W. Irving, Life and voyages of Co- lumbus and his companions, v. 3. — E. G. Bourne, .Spain in America, pp. loS-iii, 331. — C. L. G. Anderson, Old Panama and Caslilla del Oro. 1515. — Discovery of La Plata by Juan de Soils. See PARAGUA^■: 7515-1557. 1517-1518. — Spaniards find Mexico. — "An hi- dalgo of Cuba, named Hernandez de Cordova, sailed with three vessels on an expedition to one of the neighbouring Bahama Islands, in quest of In- dian slaves (Feb. 8, 1517). He encountered a succession of heavy gales which drove him far out of his course, and at the end of three weeks he found himself on a strange and unknown coast. On landing and asking the name of the country, he was answered by the natives 'Tectelan,' mean- ing 'I do not understand you,' but which the Span- iards, misinterpreting into the name of the place, easily corrupted into Yucatan. Some writers give a different etymology. . . . Bernal Diaz says the word came from the vegetable 'yuca' and 'tale,' the name for a hillock in which it is planted. . . . M. Waldeck finds a much more plausible derivation in the Indian word 'Ouyouckatan,' 'listen to what they say.' . . . Cordova had landed on the north- eastern end of the peninsula, at Cape Catoche. He was astonished at the size and solid materials of the buildings constructed of stone and lime, so dif- ferent from the frail tenements of reeds and rushes which formed the habitations of the islanders. He was struck also, with the higher cultivation o£ the soil, and with the delicate texture of the cotton garments and gold ornaments of the natives. Everything indicated a civilization far superior to anything he had before witnessed in the New World. He saw the evidence of a different race, moreover, in the warlike spirit of the people. . . , Wherever they landed they were met with the most deadly hostility. Cordova himself, in one of his skirmishes with the Indians, received more than a dozen wounds, and one only of his party es- caped unhurt. At length, when he had coasted the peninsula as far as Compeachy, he returned to Cuba, which he reached after an absence of sev- eral months. . . . The reports he had brought back of the country, and, still more, the specimens of curiously wrought gold, convinced Velasquez [gov- ernor of Cuba] of the importance of this discov- ery, and he prepared with all despatch to avail himself of it. He accordingly fitted out a little squadron of four vessels for the newly discovered, lands, and placed it under the command of his nephew, Juan de Grijalva, a man on whose prob- ity, prudence, and attachment to himself he knew he could rely. The fleet left the port of St. Jago de Cuba, May i, 1518. . . . Grijalva soon passed over to the continent and coasted the pen- insula, touching at the same places as his prede- cessor. Everywhere he was struck, like him, with the evidences of a higher civilization, especially in the architecture ; as he well might be, since this was the region of those extraordinary remains which have become recently the subject of so much speculation. He was astonished, also, at the sight of large stone crosses, evidently objects of worship, which he met with in various places. Reminded by these circumstances of his own coun- try, he gave the peninsula the name New Spain, a name since appropriated to a much wider extent of territory. Wherever Grijalva landed, he experi- enced the same unfriendly reception as Cordova, though he suffered less, being better prepared to meet it." He succeeded, however, at last, in open- ing a friendly conference and traffic with one of the chiefs, on the Rio de Tabasco, and "had the satisfaction of receiving, for a few worthless toys and trinkets, a rich treasure of jewels, gold orna- ments and vessels, of the most fantastic forms and workmanship. Grijalva now thought that in this successful traffic — successful beyond his most san- guine expectations — he had accomplished the chief object of his mission." He therefore dispatched Alvarado, one of his captains, to Velasquez, with the treasure acquired, and continued his voyage along the coast, as far as the province of Panuco, returning to Cuba at the end of about six months from his departure. "On reaching the Island, he was surprised to learn that another and more for- midable armament had been fitted out to follow up his own discoveries, and to find orders at the same time from the governor, couched in no very cour- teous language, to repair at once to St. Jago. He was received by that personage, not merely with 269 AMERICA, 1519-1524 Voyage of Magellan AMERICA, 1519-1524 coldness, but with reproaches, for having neg- lected so far an opportunity of establishing a colony in the country he had visited.'' — W. H. Prescott, Conquest of Mexico, bk. 2, cli. i. Also in: C. St. J. Fancourt, History of Yuca- tan, ch. 1-2. — Bernal Diaz del Castillo, Memoirs, V. I, cb. 2-19. 1519-1524. — Spanish conquest of Mexico. See Mexico: 1519 C February- April) ; 1519-1520; 1520 (June-July); 1520-1521; 1521 (May-July) ; 1521 (July); 1521 (.\ugust) ; 1521-1524. 1519-1524. — Voyage of Magellan and Sebas- tian del Cano.— New World passed and the earth circumnavigated. — Congress at Badajoz. — Fernando Magellan, or Magalhaes, was "a disaf- fected Portuguese gentleman who had served his country for five years in the Indies under Albu- querque, and understood well the secrets of the Eastern trade. In 1517, conjointly with his geo- graphical and astronomical friend, Ruy Falerio, another unrequited Portuguese, he offered his ser- vices to the Spanish court. At the same time these two friends proposed, not only to prove that the Moluccas were within the Spanish lines of demar- cation, but to discover a passage thither different from that used by the Portuguese. Their schemes were listened to, adopted and carried out. The Straits of Magellan were discovered, the broad South £ea was crossed, the Ladrones and the Phillipines were inspected, the Moluccas were passed through, the Cape of Good Hope was doubled on the homeward voyage, and the globe was circumnavigated, all in less than three years, from i5ig to 1522. Magellan lost his life, and only one of his five ships returned [under Sebas- tian del Cano] to tell the marvelous story. The magnitude of the enterprise was equalled only by the magnitude of the results. The globe for the first time began to assume its true character and size in the minds of men, and the minds of men began soon to grasp and utilize the results of this circumnavigation for the enlargement of trade and commerce, and for the benefit of geography, as- tronomy, mathematics, and the other sciences. This wonderful story, is it not told in a thousand books? . . . The Portuguese in India and the Spiceries, as well as at home, now seeing the in- evitable conflict approaching, were thoroughly aroused to the importance of maintaining their rights. They openly asserted them, and pro- nounced this trade with the Moluccas by the Span- ish an encroachment on their prior discoveries and possession, as well as a violation of the Papal Compact of 1494, and prepared themselves en- ergetically for defense and offense. On the other hand, the Spaniards as openly declared that Magellan's fleet carried the first XThristians to the Moluccas and by friendly intercourse with the kings of those islands, reduced them to Chris- tian subjection and brought back letters and tribute to Caesar. Hence these kings and their people came under the protection of Charles V. Besides this, the Spaniards claimed that the Moluc- cas were within the Spanish half, and were there- fore doubly theirs. . . . Matters thus waxing hot. King John of Portugal begged Charles V. to delay dispatching his new fleet until the disputed points could be discussed and settled. Charles, who boasted that he had rather be right than rich, consented, and the ships were staid. These two Christian princes, who owned all the newly dis- covered and to be discovered parts of the whole world between them by deed of gift of the Pope, agreed to meet in Congress at Badajos by their representatives, to discuss and settle all matters in dispute about the division of their patrimony, and to define and stake out their lands and waters, both parties agreeing to abide by the decision of the Congress. Accordingly, in the early spring of 1524, up went to this little border town four- and-twenty wise men, or thereabouts, chosen by each prince. They comprised the first judges, lawyers, mathematicians, astronomers, cosmogra- phers, navigators and pilots of the land, among whose names were many honored now as then — such as Fernando Columbus, Sebastian Cabot, Estevan Gomez, Diego Ribero, etc. . . . The de- bates and proceedings of this Congress, as re- ported by Peter Martyr, Oviedo, and Gomara, are very amusing, but no regular joint decision could be reached, the Portuguese decUning to subscribe to the verdict of the Spaniards, inasmuch as It deprived them of the Moluccas. So each party published and proclaimed its own decision after the Congress broke up in confusion on the last day of May, 1524. It was, however, tacitly under- stood that the Moluccas fell to Spain, while Brazil, to the extent of two hundred leagues from Cape St. Augustine, fell to the Portuguese . . . How- ever, much good resulted from this first geograph- ical Congress. The extent and breadth of the Pacific were appreciated, and the influence of the Congress was soon after seen in the greatly improved maps, globes, and charts." — H. Stevens, Historical and geographical notes, 1453-1530. — • "For three months and twenty days he [Magellan] sailed on the Pacific and never saw inhabited land. He was compelled by famine to strip off the pieces of skin and leather wherewith his rigging was here and there bound, to soak them in the sea and then soften them with warm water, so as to make a wretched food; to eat the sweepings of the ship and other loathsome mat- ter; to drink water gone putrid by keeping; and yet he resolutely held on his course, though his men were dying daily. ... In the whole his- tory of human undertakings there is nothing that exceeds, if indeed there is anything that equals, this voyage of Magellan's. That of Columbus dwindles away in comparison. It is a display of superhuman courage, superhuman perseverance." — J. W. Draper, History of the intellectual de- velopment of Europe, ch. 19. — "The voyage [of Magellan] . . . was doubtless the greatest feat of navigation that has ever been performed, and nothing can be imagined that would surpass it except a journey to some other planet. It has not the unique historic position of the first voyage of Columbus, which brought together two streams of human life that had been disjoined since the Glacial Period. But as an achievement in ocean navigation that voyage of Columbus sinks into insignificance by the side of it, and when the earth was a second time encompassed by the greatest English sailor of his age, the advance in knowledge, as well as the different route chosen, had much reduced the difficulty of the performance. When we consider the frailness of the ships, the immeas- urable extent of the unknown, the mutinies that were prevented or quelled, and the hardships that were endured, we can have no hesitation in speaking of Magellan as the prince of navi- gators." — J. Fiske, Discovery of America, v. 2, ch. 7. .'\i-SO in: Lord Stanley of Alderley, First voyage round the world (Hakluyt Society. 1874). — R. Kerr, Collection of voyages, v. 10. — F. H. H. Guil- lemard, Life of Ferdinand Magellan and the first circumnavigation of the globe (1891). — E. G. Bourne, Spain in America. — C. R. Markham, Early Spanish voyage (Hakluyt Society, 2nd series, v. 38, 12). 270 AMERICA, 1519-1525 Voyages of V errazano AMERICA, 1523-1524 1519-1525. — Voyages of Garay and Ayllon. — Discovery of the mouth of the Mississippi. — Exploration of the Carolina coast. — In 1519, Francisco de Garay, governor of Jamaica, who liad been one of the companions of Columbus on his second voyage, having heard of the richness and beauty of Yucatan, "at his own charge sent •out four ships well equipped, and with good pilots, under the command of Alvarez Alonso de Pineda. His professed object was to search for some strait, west of Florida, which was not yet certainly known to form a part of the continent. The strait having been sought for in vain, his ships turned toward the west, attentively examining the ports, rivers, inhabitants, and everything else that seemed worthy of remark; and especially noticing the vast volume of water brought down by one very large stream. At last they came upon the track of Cortes near Vera Cruz. . . . The care- fully drawn map of the pilots showed distinctly the Mississippi, which, in this earliest authentic trace of its outlet, bears the name of the Espiritu Santo. . . . But Garay thought not of the Mis- sissippi and its valley: he coveted access to the wealth of Mexico; and, in 1523, lost fortune and life ingloriously in a dispute with Cortes for the government of the country on the river Panuco. A voyage for slaves brought the Spaniards in 1520 still farther to the north. A company of seven, of whom the most distinguished was Lucas Vasquez de Ayllon, fitted out two slave ships from St. Domingo, in quest of laborers for their plantations and mines. From the Bahama Islands they passed to the coast of South Carolina, which was called Chicora. The Combahee river re- ceived the name of Jordan ; the name of St. Helena, whose day is the iSth of August, was given to a cape, but now belongs to the sound." Luring a large number of the confiding natives on board their ships the adventurers treacherously set sail with them; but one of the vessels foundered at sea, and most of the captives on the other sick- ened and died. Vasquez de Ayllon was rewarded for his treacherous exploit by being authorized and appointed to make the conquest of Chicora "For this bolder enterprise the undertaker wasted his fortune in preparations; in 1525 his largest ship was stranded in the river Jordan ; many of his men were killed by the natives ; and he himself escaped only to suffer from the consciousness of having done nothing worthy of honor Yet it may be that ships, sailing under his authority, made the discovery of the Chesapeake and named it the bay of St. Mary; and perhaps even entered the bay of Delaware, which, in Spanish geography, was called St. Christopher's." — G Bancroft, History of the United States, pt. i, cli. 2. Also in: H, H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific states, V. 4, ch. 11, and v. J, ch. 6-7. — W. G Simms, History of South Carolina, bk. i, ch. i. 1523-1524. — Voyages of Verrazano. — First un- dertakings of France in the New World. — "It is constantly admitted in our history that our kings paid no attention to America before the year 1523 Then Francis I., wishing to excite the emu lation of his subjects in regard to navigation and commerce, as he had already so successfully in regard to the sciences and fine arts, ordered John Verazani, who was in his service, to go and ex- plore the New Lands, which began to be much talked of in France . . Verazani was accord- ingly sent, in i,';23, with four ships to discover North America ; Ijut our historians have not spoken of his first expedition, and we should be in igno- rance of it now, had not Ramusio preserved in his great collection a letter of Verazani himself ad- dressed to Francis I. and dated Dieppe, July 8, 1524. In it he supposes the king already informed of the success and details of the voyage, so that he contents himself with stating that he sailed from Dieppe in four vessels, which he had safely brought back to that port. In January, 1524, he sailed with two ships, the Dauphine and the Nor- mande, to cruise against the Spaniards. Towards the close of the same year, or early in the next, he again fitted out the Dauphine, on which, em- barking with 50 men and provisions for eight months, he first sailed to the island of Madeira." — Father Charlevoix, History of New France (trans- lated by J. G. Shea), bk. i.— "On the 17th of January, 1524, he [Verrazano] parted from the 'Islas desiertas,' a well-known little group of is- lands near Madeira, and sailed at first westward, running in 25 days 500 leagues, with a light and pleasant easterly breeze, along the northern bor- der of the trade winds, in about 30" N. His track was consequently nearly like that of Colum- bus on his first voyage. On the 14th of February he met 'with as violent a hurricane as any ship ever encountered.' But he weathered it, and pur- sued his voyage to the west, 'with a little deviation to the north;' when, after having sailed 24 days and 400 leagues, he decried a new country which, as he supposed, had never before been seen either by modern or ancient navigators. The country was very low. From the above descrip- tion it is evident that Verrazano came in sight of the east coast of the United States about the loth of March, 1524. He places his land-fall in 34° N., which is the latitude of Cape Fear." He first sailed southward, for about 50 leagues, he states, looking for a harbor and finding none. He then turned northward. "I infer that Verra- zano saw little of the coast of South Carolina and nothing of that of Georgia, and that in these regions he can, at most, be called the discoverer only of the coast of North Carolina. ... He rounded Cape Hatteras, and at a distance of about SO leagues came to another shore, where he an- chored and spent several days. . . . This was the second principal landing-place of Verrazano If we reckon 50 leagues from Cape Hatteras, it would fall somewhere upon the east coast of Delaware, in latitude 38° N., where, by some authors, it is thought to have been. But if, as appears most likely, Verrazano reckoned his dis- tance here, as he did in other cases, from his last anchoring, and not from Cape Hatteras, we must look for his second landing somewhere south of the entrance to Chesapeake Bay, and near the en- trance to Albemarle Sound. And this better agrees with the 'sail of 100 leagues' which Ver- razano says he made from his second to his third landing-place, in New York Bay. ... He found at this third landing station an excellent berth, where he came to anchor, well-protected from the winds, . . . and from which he ascended the river in his boat into the interior. He found the shores very thicklv settled, and as he passed up half a league further, he discovered a most beautiful lake ... of three leagues in circum- ference Here, more than 30 canoes came to him with a multitude of people, who seemed very friendly . . This description contains several ac- counts which make it still more clear that the Bay of New York was the scene of these occur- rences" — Verrazano's anchorage having been at Gravesend Bay, the river which he entered being the Narrows, and the lake he found being the Inner Harbor From New York Bay Verrazano sailed eastward, along the southern shore of Long Island, and following the New England coast, 271 AMERICA, 1524 Voyage of the Dauphine AMERICA, 1524 (ouching at or describing points which are iden- tified with Narragansett Bay and Newport, Blocli Island or Martha's Vineyard, and Portsmouth. His coasting voyage was pursued as far as 50' N., from which point he sailed homeward. "He en- tered the port of Dieppe early in July, 15:4. Hia whole exploring expedition, from Madeira and back, had accordingly lasted but five and a half months." — J. G. Kohl, History of the discovery of Maine (Maine Historical Society Collection, 2d Series, v. i, cli. 8) . 1524. — Verrazano's voyage along the Atlantic coast of North America. — Letter of Bernardo Carli to his father about Verrazano's voyage. — "So there being here news recently of the ar- rival of Captain Giovanni da Verrazano, our Florentine, at the port of Dieppe, in Normandy, with his ship, the Dauphine, with which he sailed from the Canary islands the end of last January, to go in search of new lands for this most serene crown of France in which he displayed very noble and great courage in undertaking such an unknown voyage with only one ship, which was a caraval of hardly tons, with only fifty men, with the intention, if possible, of discovering Cathay [China], taking a course through other climates than those the Portuguese use in reach- ing it by the way of Calicut [Calcutta], but going towards the northwest and north, entirely believing that, although Ptolemy, .-Aristotle and other cos- mographers affirm that no land is to be found to- wards such climates, he would find it there never- theless. And so God has vouchsafed him as he distinctly describes in a letter of his to this S.M.; of which, in this, there is a copy. And for want of provisions, after many months spent in navigating, he asserts he was forced to return from that hemisphere into this, and having been seven months on the voyage, to show a very great and rapid passage, and to have achieved a won- derful and most extraordinary feat according to those who understand the seamanship of the world. Of which at the commencement of his said voyage there was an unfavorable opinion formed, and many thought there would be no more news either of him or of his vessel, but that he 'might be lost on that side of Norway, in consequence of the great ice which is in that northern ocean; but the Great God, as the Moor said, in order to give us every day proofs of his infinite power and show us how admirable is this worldly ma- chine, has disclosed to him a breadth of land, as you will perceive, of such extent that according to good reasons, and the degrees of latitude and longtitude, he alleges and shows it greater than Europe, Africa and a part of Asia; ergo mundiis novus [Note. — Translation: 'therefore a new world.' Ed] : and this exclusive of what the Spaniards have discovered in several years in the west. . . . What this our captain has brought he does not state in this letter, except a very young man taken from those countries; but it is supposed he has brought a sample of gold which they do not value in those parts, and of drugs and other aromatic liquors for the purpose of conferring here with several merchants after he shall have been in the presence of the Most Serene Majesty. And at this hour he ought to be there, and from choice to come here shortly, as he is much desired in order to converse with him; the more so that he will find here the Majesty, the King, our Lord, who is expected here in three or four days. And we hope that S.M. will en- trust him again with half a dozen good vessels and that he will return to the voyage. And if our Francisco Carli be returned from Cairo, advise him to go, at a venture, on the said voyage with him; and I believe they were acquainted at Cairo where he has been several years; and not only in Egypt and Syria, but almost through all the known world, and thence by reason of his merit is esteemed another Amerigo Vespucci; an- other Fernando Magellan and even more; and we hope that being provided with other good ships and vessels, well built and properly victualled, he may discover some profitable traffic and matter; and will, our Lord God granting him life, do honor to our country, in acquiring immortal fame and memory." History of the Dauphine and its voyage. — Selections from a letter of the Navigator Giovanni da Verrazano to the King of France, Francis I, Patron and Director of the Explora- tion, about the Voyage which He Made along the Eastern Coast of the Present United States and during which He Entered the Harbor of the Present City of New York.) From Madeira to the New World. — Tempest ON the ocean. — "From the deserted rock near to the island of Madeira of the Most Serene King of Portugal a- (Note a — commencing 1524.) [Lettered notes are the annotations found in the manuscnpt Ed.j with the said Dau- phine, on the XVII of the month of January past, with fifty men, furnished with vic- tuals, arms and other instruments of war and naval munitions for eight months, we departed, sailing westward by an east-south-east wind blow- ing with sweet and gentle lenity. In XXV days we sailed eight hundred leagues. The XXIIII days of February ^ (Note a — perhaps 16 hours) we suffered a tempest as severe as ever a man who has navigated suffered. From which, with the divine aid and the goodness of the ship, adapted by its glorious name and fortunate destiny to support the violent waves of the sea, we were de- livered. We pursued our navigation continuously toward the west, holding somewhat to the north In XXV more days we sailed more than 400 leagues where there appeared to us a new land never be- more seen by anyone, ancient or modern." Land first seen in 34° North latitude. — "At first it appeared rather low; having approached to within a quarter of a league, we perceived it, by the great fires built on the shore of the sea, to be inhabited We saw that it ran toward the south ; following it, to find some port where we could anchor with the ship and investigate its nature, in the space of fifty leagues we did not find a port or any place where it was possible to stay with the ship. And having seen that it trended continually to the south^', (Note 6 — in order not to meet with the Spaniards) we de- cided to turn about to coast it toward the north, where we found the same place. (Note — ^That is, to the place where he first came in sight of land — about 34 degrees north latitude.) We an- chored by the coast, sending the small boat to land. We had seen many people who came to the shore of the sea and seeing us approach fled, sometimes halting, turning back, looking with great admiration. Reassuring them by various signs, some of them approached, showing great delight at seeing us, marvelling at our clothes, fig- ures and whiteness, making to us various signs where we could land more conveniently with the small boat, offering to us of their foods." First landing and the first indigenes. — "We were on land, and that which we were able to learn of their life and customs I will tell Your Majesty briefly: They go nude of everything except that . . . they wear some skins of little animals like 272 ^S8T?rr-r-.° M U D&OtsI CORTEZ AMERICAN EXPLORERS AMERICA, 1524 Voyage of the Dauphine AMERICA, 1524 martens, a girdle of fine grass woven with various tails of other animals which hang around the body as far as the knees; the rest nude; the head likewise. Some wear certain garlands of feathers of birds. They are of dark color not much un- like the Ethiopians, and hair black and thick, and not very long, which they tie together back on the head in the shape of a little tail. As for the symmetry of the men, they are well propor- tioned, of medium stature, and rather exceed us. In the breast they are broad, their arms well built, the legs and other parts of the body well put together. There is nothing else, except that they incline somewhat to broadness in the face ; but not all, for in more we saw the face clear- cut. The eyes black and large, the glance intent and quick. They are not of much strength, in craftiness acute, agile and the greatest runners. From what we were able to learn by experience, they resemble in the la.st two respects the Orien- tals, and mostly those of the farthest Sinarian regions. (Note — Ramusio's text has the 'regions of China.') We were not able to learn with par- ticularity of the life and customs of these people because of the shortness of the stay we made on land, on account there being few people and the ship anchored in the high sea." [Here follows a description of the country and the climate in the vicinity of the Carolinas.] Sailor among the indigenes. — "We left this place continually skirting the coast, which we found turned to the east. Seeing every- where great fires on account of the mul- titude of the inhabitants, anchoring there off the shore because it did not contain any port, on account of the need of water we sent the little boat to land with XXV men. Because of the very large waves which the sea cast up on the shore on account of the strand being open, it was not possible without danger of losing the boat for any one to land. We saw many people on shore making us various signs of friendship, motioning us ashore ; among whom I saw a magnificent deed, as Your Majesty will hear. Sending ashore by swimming one of our young sailors carrying to them some trinkets, such as little bells, mirrors, and other favors, and being approached within 4 fathoms of them, throwing the goods to them and wishing to turn back he was so tossed by the waves that almost half dead he was carried to the edge of the shore. Which having been seen, the people of the land ran immediately to him; taking him by the head, legs and arms, they carried him some distance away. Where, the youth, seeing himself carried in such way, stricken with terror, uttered very loud cries, which they did similarly in their language, showing him that he should not fear. After that, having placed him on the ground in the sun at the foot of a little hill, they performed great acts of admiration, re- garding the whiteness of his flesh, examining him from head to foot. Taking off his shirt and hose, leaving him nude, they made a very large fire near him, placing him near the heat. Which hav- ing been seen, the sailors who had remained in the small boat, full of fear, as is their custom in every new case, thought that they wanted to roast him for food His strength recovered, having remained with them awhile, he showed by signs that he desired to return to the ship; who, with the greatest kindness, holding him always close with various embraces, accompanied him as far as the sea, and in order to assure him more, extending themselves on a high hill, stood to watch him until he was in the boat. Which young man learned of this people that they are thus: of dark color like the others, the flesh more lustrous, of medium stature, the face more clear-cut, much more delicate of body and other members, of much less strength and even of intelligence. He saw nothing else." [Here follows an annota- tion on the names which Verrazano gave to various places in this locality.] Three days in 'Arcadia' (Note — Maryland or Delaware) : A boy stolen. — "Having departed thence, following always the shore which turned somewhat toward the north, we came in the space of fifty leagues to another land which appeared much more beautiful and full of the largest forests. Anchoring at which, XX men going about two leagues inland, we found the people through fear had fled to the woods. Seeking everywhere, we met with a very old woman and a damsel of from XVIII to XX years, who through fear had hidden themselves in the grass. The old one had two little girls whom she carried on the shoulders, and back on the neck a boy, all of eight years of age. The young woman had as many . . . but all girls. Hav- ing approached toward whom, they began to cry out, [and] the old woman to make signs to us that the men had fled to the woods. We gave them to eat of our viands, which she ac- cepted with great gusto; the young woman re- fused everything and with anger threw it to the ground. We took the boy from the old woman to carry to France, and wishing to take the young woman, who was of much beauty and of tall stature, it was not however possible, on account of the very great cries which she uttered, for us to conduct her to the sea. And having to pass through some woods, being far from the ship, we decided to release her, carrying only the boy." Textile plants and the grapes: the offering OF FIRE. — Here is given a description of the prod- ucts found in the vicinity of Maryland and Dela- ware] "Having remained in this place three days, anchored off the coast, we decided on account of the scarcity of ports to depart, always skirting the shore''- . (Note a — which we baptized Arcadia on account of the beauty of the trees.) In Arcadia we found a man who came to the shore to see what people we were ; who stood hesitating and ready for flight. Watching us, he did not permit himself to be approached. He was handsome, nude, with hair fastened back in a knot, of olive color. We were about XX [in number] ashore and coaxing him he approached to within about two fathoms, showing a burning stick as if to offer us fire. .\n6 we made fire with powder and flint-and-steel and he trembled all over with ter- ror and we fired a shot. He stopped as if as- tonished and prayed, worshipping like a monk, lift- ing his finger toward the sky, and pointing to the ship and the sea he appeared to bless us. [We sailed] toward the north and east, navigating by daylight and casting anchor at nights. (Note 6 — we followed a coast very green with forests but without ports, and with some charming promon- tories and small rivers. We baptized the coast 'di Lorenna' on account of the Cardinal; the first promontory 'Lanzone," the second 'Bonivetto,' the largest river 'Vandoma,' and a small mountain which stands by the sea 'di S. Polo' on account of the Count.)" Land of Angouleme, Bay Saint Margherita (New York), River Vendome (Hudson), Island OF Queen Louisa' (Block Island?). — "At the end of a hundred leagues we found a very agree- able situation located within two small promi- nent hills, in the midst of which flowed to the sea a very great river, which was deep within the 273 AMERICA, 1524 Voyage of the Dauphinc AMERICA, 1524 mouth; and iTom the sea to the hills of that [place] with the rising of the tides, which we found eight feet, any laden ship might have passed. On account of being anchored off the coast in good shelter, we did not wish to adventure in with- out knowledge of the entrances. We were with the small boat, entering the said river to the land, which we found much populated. The peo- ple, almost like the others, clothed with the feathers of birds of various colors, came toward us joyfully, uttering very great exclamations of admiration, showing us where we could land with the boat more safely. We entered said river, within the land, about half a league, where we saw it made a very beautiful lake with a circuit of about three leagues; through which they [the Indians] went, going from one and another part to the number of XXX of their little barges, with innumerable [jeoplc, who passed from one shore and the other in order to see us. In an instant, as is wont to happen in navigation, a gale of un- favorable wind blowing in from the sea, we were forced to return to the ship, leaving the said land with much regret because of its commodious- ness and beauty, thinking it was not without some properties of value, all of its hills showing indica- tions of minerals.'- (Note a — called Angoleme from the principality which thou attainedst in lesser fortune, and the bay which that land makes Santa Margherita from the name of the sister who vanquishes the other matrons of modesty and art.) The anchor raised, sailing toward the east, as thus the land turned, having traveled LXXX leagues always in sight of it, we discovered an island triangular in form, distant ten leagues from the continent, in size like the island of Rhodes, full of hills, covered with trees, much populated [judging] by the continuous fires along all the surrounding shore which we saw they made. W'e baptized it in the name of your most illustrious mother'" (Note 6 — Aloysia) ; not anchoring there on account of the unfavorableness of the weather." "Refugio," the very beautiful port (New- port), AND ITS TWO KINGS. — "We Came to another land, distant from the island XV leagues, where we found a very beautiful port, and before we entered it, we saw about XX barges of the people who came with various cries of wonder round about the ship. Not approaching nearer than fifty paces, they halted, looking at the edifice [that is, the ship], our figures and clothes; then altogether they uttered a loud shout, signifying that they were glad. Having reassured them somewhat, imitating their gestures, they came so near that we threw them some little bells and mirrors and many trinkets, having taken which, regarding them with laughter, they entered the ship con- fidently. There were among them two Kings, of as good stature and form as it would be possible to tell; the first of about XXXX years, the other a young man of XXIIII years, the clothing of whom was thus: the older had on his nude body a skin of a stag, artificially adorned like a damask with various embroideries; the head bare, the hair turned back with various bands, at the neck a broad chain ornamented with many stones of diverse colors. The young man w.as almost in the same style. This is the most beautiful people and the most civilized in customs that we have found in this navigation. They excel us in size; they are of bronze color, some inclining more to whiteness, others to tawnv color; the face sharply cut, the hair long and black, upon which they bestow the greatest study in adorning it ; the eyes black and alert, the bearing kind and gentle, imitating much the ancient [manner]. Of the other parts of the body I will not speak to Your Majesty, having all the proportions which belong to every well built man. Their women are of the same beauty and charm ; very graceful ; of comely mien and agreeable aspect; of habits and be- havior as much according to womanly custom as pertains to human nature; they go nude with only one skin of the stag embroidered like the men, and some wear on the arras very rich skins of the lynx; the head bare, with various arrangements of braids, composed of their own hair, which hang on one side and the other on the breast. Some use other hair-arrangements like the women of Egypt and of S\ ria use, and these are they who are advanced in age and are joined in wed- lock. They have in the ears various pendent trinkets as the orientals are accustomed to have, the men like the women, among which we saw many plates wrought from copper, by whom it is prized more than gold; which, on account of its color, they do not esteem; wherefore among all it is held by them more worthless ; on the other hand rating blue and red above any other. That which they were given by us which they most valued were little bells, blue crystals and other trinkets to place in the ears and on the neck. They did not prize cloth of silk and of gold nor even of other kind, nor did they care to have them; likewise with metals like steel and iron ; for many times showing them our arms they did not conceive admiration for them nor ask for them, only examining the workmanship. They did the same with the mirrors; suddenly looking at them, they refused them laughing. They are very liberal, so much so that all which they have they give away. We formed a great friend- ship with them, and one day, before we had ente''ed with the ship in the port, remaining on account of the unfavorable weather conditions anchored a league at sea, they came in great num- bers in their little barges to the ship, having painted and decked the face with various colors, showing to us it was evidence of good feeling, bringing to us of their food, signaling to us where for the safety of the ship we ought anchor in the port, continually accompanying us until we cast anchor there." Fifteen days among the indigenes of "Refu- gio." — "In which we remained XV days, supplying ourselves with many necessities; where every day the people came to see us at the ship, bringing their women, of whom they are very careful ; because, entering the ship themselves, remaining a long time, they made their women stay in the barges, and however many entreaties we made them, offering to give them various things, it was not possible that they would allow them to enter the ship. And one of the two Kings (Note — When Roger Williams went to this same country over a century later he found that they had two chief kings or sachems, Canonicus and Mianto- nomo) coming many times with the Queen and many attendants through their desire to see us, at first always stopped on a land distant from us two hundred paces, sending a boat to inform us of their coming, saying they wished to come to see the ship ; doing this for a kind of safety. \nA when they had the response from us, they came quickly, and having stood awhile to look, hearing the noisy clamor of the sailor crowd, sent the Queen with her damsels in a very light barge to stay on a little island distant from us a quarter of a league ; himself remaining a very long time, discoursing by signs and gestures of various fanci- ful ideas, examining all the equipments of the ship, asking especially their purpose, imitating 274 AMERICA, 1524 Discovery of Peru AMERICA, 1524-1528 our manners, tasting our foods, then parted from us benignantly. And one time, our people re- maining two or three days on a httle island near the ship for various necessities as is the custom of sailors, he came with seven or eight of his attendants, watching our operations, asking many times if we wished to remain there for a long time, offering us his every help. Then, shooting with the bow, running, he performed with his at- tendants various games to give us pleasure. . . ." [Here follows a description of the land and the products in the vicinity of Newport. This is followed by a description of the coasts of Cape Cod and those to the north of that cape. Then follows a description of the Indians living along those coasts.] The return. — "We departed, skirting the coast between east and north. . . . [Here follows a description of a coast with many islands, prob- ably the coast of Maine.] Navigating between east-south-east and north-north-east, in the space of CL leagues we came near the land which the Britons found in the past, which stands in fifty degrees, and having consumed all our naval stores and victuals, having discovered six hundred leagues and more of new land, furnishing ourselves with water and wood, we decided to turn toward France. . . ." Object of the voyage. — "My intention was in this navigation to reach Cathay and the extreme east of Asia, not expecting to find such an obstacle of new land as I found ; and if for some reason I expected to find it, I thought it to be not without some strait to penetrate to the Eastern Ocean. And this has been the opin- ion of all the ancients, believing certainly our Western Ocean to be one with the Eastern Ocean of India without interposition of land. This Aristotle affirms, arguing by many similitudes, which opinion is very contrary to the moderns and according to experience untrue. Because the land has been found by them unknown to the ancients, another world with respect to the one which was known to them, it manifestly shows itself to be larger than our Europe and Africa and almost Asia, if we estimate correctly its size; as briefly I will give Your Majesty a little ac- count of it." New lands form a great continent. — [Here are put some more mathematical calculations.] "On the other hand, we, in this navigation made by order of Your Majesty beyond Q2 degrees, etc., from said meridian toward the west to the land we first found in 34 degrees'^, (Note a — land near Temistitan) navigated 300 leagues between east and north and almost 400 leagues to the east uninterruptedly along the shore of the land, attaining to 54 degrees, leaving the land that the Lusitanians'' (Note b — that is, Bacalaia, so called from a fish) found a long time ago, which they followed farther north as far as the Arctic circle leaving the end unknown. Therefore the northern latitude joined with the southern, that is, 54 degrees with 66 degrees, make 120 degrees, more latitude than Africa and Europe contain, because joining the extremity of Europe which the limits of Norway form [and] which stand in 71 degrees with the extremity of Africa, which is the Promon- tory of Good Hope in 35 degrees, makes only 106 degrees, and if the terrestrial area of said land corresponds in extent to the seashore, there is no doubt it exceeds Asia in size. ... In such way we find the globe of the Earth much larger than the ancients have held and contrary to the Mathe- maticians who have considered that relatively to the water it [the land] was smaller, which we have found by experience to be the reverse. And as for the corporeal area of space, we judge there cannot be less land than water, as I hope on a better occasion by further reasoning to make clear and proven to Your Majesty." New World is isolated. — "All this land or New World which above I have described is con- nected together, not adjoining Asia nor Africa (which I know to a certainty) ; it may join Europe by Norway and Russia ; which would be false ac- cording to the ancients, who declare almost all the north from the promontory of the Cimbri to have been navigated to the east, going around as far as the Caspian Sea itself they affirm. It would therefore remain included between two seas, be- tween the Eastern and the Western, and that, ac- cordingly (secondo), shuts off one from the other; because beyond 54 degrees from the equator to- ward the south it [the new land] extends toward the east for a long distance, and from the north passing 66 degrees it continues, turning toward the east, reaching as far as 70 degrees. I hope we shall have better assurance of this, with the aid of Your Majesty, whom God Almighty prosper in everlasting glory, that we may see the perfect end of this our cosmography, and that the sacred word of the evangelist may be accomplished: 'Their sound has gone out into all the earth,' etc.— In the ship Dauphine, VIII of July, M. D. XXIIII. Humble servant, Janus Verazanus." Also in: G. Dexter, Corlereal, Verrazano, etc. (Narrative and Critical History of America, v. 4, cli. i), — Relation of Verrazano (New York His- torical Society Collection, v. i, and new series, v. I). — J. C. Brevoort, Verrazano the Navigator. — B. Suite, Verrazano et Cartier, Society geograph- ique Quebec Bulletin V, No. 6, Nov., 378-381. — J. Fiske, Dutch and Quaker colonies I, 58. — H. C. Murphy, Voyage of Verrazano. Good discussions of the Verrazano question are those of Hughes in the Raccolta Columbiana and Harrisse in the Discovery of North America. 1524-1528. — Explorations of Pizarro and dis- covery of Peru. — "The South Sea having been discovered, and the inhabitants of Tierra Firraa having been conquered and pacified, the Governor Pedrarias de Avila founded and settled the cities of Panama and of Nata, and the town of Nom- bre de Dios. At this time the Captain Francisco Pizarro, son of the Captain Gonzalo Pizarro, a knight of the city of Truxillo, was living in the city of Panama; possessing his house, his farm and his Indians, as one of the principal people of the land, which indeed he always was, having distinguished himself in the conquest and settling, and in the service of his Majesty. Being at rest and in repose, but full of zeal to continue his labours and to perform other more distinguished services for the royal crown, he sought permis- sion from Pedrarias to discover that coast of the South Sea to the eastward. He spent a large part of his fortune on a good ship which he built, and on necessary supplies for the voyage, and he set out from the city of Panama on the 14th day of the month of November, in the year 1.S24. He had 112 Spaniards in his company, besides some Indian servants. He commenced a voyage in which they suffered many hardships, the season being winter and unpropitious." From this un- successful voyage, during which many of his men died of hunger and disease, and in the course of which he found no country that tempted his cupidity or his ambition, Pizarro returned after some months to "the land of Panama, landing at an Indian village near the island of Pearls, called Chuchama. Thence he sent the ship to Panama, 275 AMERICA, 1524-1528 European Rivalry AMERICA, 1528-1648 for she had become unseaworthy by reason of the teredo; and all that had befallen was reported to Pedrarias, while the Captain remained behind to refresh himself and his companions. When the ship arrived at Panama it was found that, a few days before, the Captain Diego de Almagro had sailed in search of the Captain Pizarro, his com- panion, with another ship and 70 men." Almagro and his party followed the coast until they came to a great river, which they called San Juan [a few miles north of the port of Buenaventura, in New Granada]. . . . They there found signs of gold, but there being no traces of the Captain Pizarro, the Captain Almagro returned to Chu- chama, where he found his comrade. They agreed that the Captain Almagro should go to Panama, repair the ships, collect more men to continue the enterprise, and defray the expenses, which amounted to more than 10,000 castellanos. At Panama much obstruction was caused by Pedrarias and others, who said that the voyage should not be persisted in, and that his Majesty would not be served by it. The Captain .Almagro, with the authority given him by his comrade, was very constant in prosecuting the work he had com- menced, and . . . Pedrarias was forced to allow him to engage men. He set out from Panama with no men; and went to the place where Pizarro waited with another 50 of the first no who sailed with him, and of the 70 who accom- panied Almagro when he went in search. The other 130 were dead. The two captains, in their two ships, sailed with 160 men, and coasted along the land. When they thought they saw signs of habitations, they went on shore in three canoes they had with them, rowed by 60 men, and so they sought for provisions. They conlinued to sail in this way for three years, suffering great hardships from hunger and cold. The greater part of the crews died of hunger, insomuch that there were not 50 surviving, and during all those three years they discovered no good land. All was swamp and inundated country, without inhabitants. The good country they discovered was as far as the river San Juan, where the Captain Pizarro remained with the few survivors, sending a cap- tain with the smaller ship to discover some good land further along the coast. He sent the other ship, with the Captain Diego de Almagro to Panama to get more men." At the end of 70 days, the exploring ship came back with good reports, and with specimens of gold, silver and cloths, found in a country further south. "As soon as the Captain Almagro arrived from Panama with a ship laden with men and horses, the two .ships, with their commanders and all their people, set out from the river San Juan, to -go to that newly- discovered land. But the navigation was difficult; they were detained so long that the provisions were exhausted, and the people were obliged to go on shore in search of supplies. The ships reached the bay of San Mateo, and some villages to which the Spaniards gave the name of Santiago. Next they came to the villages of Tacamez fAta- cames, on the coast of modern Ecuador], on the sea coast further oi\. These villages were seen by the Christians to be large and well peo- pled: and when 00 Spaniards had advanced a league beyond the villages of Tacamez, more than 10,000 Indian warriors encountered them ; but see- ing that the Christians intended no evil, and did not wish to take their goods, but rather to treat them peacefully, with much love, the Indians desisted from war. In this land there were abun- dant supplies, and the people led well-ordered lives, the villages having their streets and squares. One village had more than 3,000 houses, and others were smaller. It seemed to the captains and to the other Spaniaids that nothing could be done in that land by reason of the smallness of their numbers, which rendered them unable to cope with the Indians. So they agreed to load the ships with the supplies to be found in the villages, and to return to an island called Gallo, where they would be safe until the ships arrived at Panama with the news of w-hat had been dis- covered, and to apply to the Governor for more men, in order that the Captains might be able to continue their undertaking, and conquer the land. Captain .•\lmagro went in the ships. Many per- sons had written to the Governor entreating him to order the crews to return to Panama, saying that it was impossible to endure more hardships than they had suffered during the last three years. The Governor ordered that all those who wished to go to Panama might do so, while those who desired to continue the discoveries were at liberty to remain. Sixteen men stayed with Pizarro, and all the rest went back in the ships to Panama. The Captain Pizarro was on that island for five months, when one of the ships returned, in which he continued the discoveries for a hundred leagues further down the coast. They found many vil- lages and great riches; and they brought away more specimens of gold, silver, and cloths than had been found before, which were presented by the natives. The Captain returned because the time granted by the governor had expired, and the last day of the period had been reached when he entered the port of Panama. The two Captains were so ruined that they could no longer prose- cute their undertaking. . . . The Captain Fran- cisco Pizarro was only able to borrow a little more than 1,000 castellanos among his friends, with which sum he went to Castile, and gave an ac- count to his Majesty of the great and signal services he had performed." — F. de Xeres (Secre- tary of Pizarro), Account of the province of Cuzco; tr. and ed. by C. R. Markham (Hakluyt society, 1872). Also in: W. H. Prescott, History of the conquest of Peru, v. i, bk. 2, ch. 2-4. — J. H. Campe, Francisco Pizarro, translated from the German by P. Upton (Life stories for young people) . 1525. — Voyage of Gomez. See Canada: The name. 1526-1531. — Voyage of Sebastian Cabot and attempted colonization of La Plata. See Para- guay: 1515-1557- 1528-1542. — Florida expeditions of Narvaez and Hernando de Soto. — Discovery of the Mis- sissippi. See Florida: 1528-1542. 1528-1648. — America and European diplomacy, to Treaty of MUnster. — "The history of the strug- gle of the European nations for participation in the profits of the American trade naturally falls into three periods. In the first, France was the most formidable opponent of the Spanish-Por tuguese monopoly. Jean Ango and his pilots led the attacking forces. This phase ended with the treaty concluded between France and Spain at Cateau-Cambresis in 15.^0. In the second period England took the place of France as the principal antagonist. Hawkins and Drake were the most conspicuous foes of Spain. This epoch extended to the treaty concluded between England and Spain at London in 1604. In the third period commercial maritime supremacy passed from Eng- land to the LTnited Provinces. The Dutch West India Co., organized within this epoch, played a role similar in many respects to that of the 276 AMERICA, 1528-1648 European Rivalry AMERICA, 1528-1648 French corsairs and English privateers; but in addition posessed great administrative powers. This period ended with the treaty concluded be- tween the United Provinces and Spain at Miinster in 1648. Jean Ango and his pilots, Hawkins and Drake, and the Dutch West India Co., each at- tacked the Spanish-Portuguese monopoly for the sake of pecuniary gain ; each represented a syndi- cate of capitalists, and had government support; and the profits of each were derived partly from trade and partly from booty. "Throughout the first period, to 1559, France and Portugal were at peace; while during a part of the same interval France and Spain were at war. As between France and Spain, Portugal posed as neutral. This, however, clid not suft^ce to protect her vast colonial trade and territory, which she was unable to defend. Jean Ango, like the directors of the Dutch West India Co., 'dreamed of an empire in Brazil.' But when his pilots reached Brazilian waters they met the crud- est of receptions ; and their sufferings caused them to undertake reprisals. The complaints arising from these reprisals, which Portugal, from 15 10 onward, repeatedly made to France, proved un- availing and Portugal endeavored to frighten off the intruders. In 1526 the King of Portugal or- dered his subjects under pain of death to run down all French vessels going to or returning from these distant territories. This and other instances of harshness on the part of Portugal and also of Spain toward interlopers were defended chiefly on the ground that thci intruders were pirates, and that treaties provided that pirates should be put to death. On this pretext Charles V refused for a time to send back to France the companions of Fleury (the captor of Montezuma's treasure), although the treaty of Cambray had provided for the mutual return of all prisoners of war. For the same reason Philip II refused to deliver over the survivors of the Florida massacre, although the French ambassador protested that their enter- prise was authorized by the Admiral of France. Under this name Hawkins, returning to England after a peaceful trading voyage, was denounced by the Spanish ambassador. Other instances might be cited. But whatever the excuse for Portugal's treatment of French corsairs, France could not tamely accept it. In 1528 Francis I affirmed the principle of freedom of trade 'as of all rights one of the most natural.' Following a practice then in use, he granted to Ango and to one of his associates letters of marque, giving them the right to reimburse themselves for the losses which they had suffered from the Portuguese. General letters of marque were also issued enjoining the French admirals to permit all their captains, wherever they should be, to run down the Portuguese, seize their persons, goods, or merchandise and bring them to France. In 1531 the King of Portugal complained that the French had captured 300 of his ships. Unable to defend himself by force, he employed gold, and by bribing the French admiral managed to have Ango's letters of marque revoked. In obtaining this revocation he v/as also helped by the intervention of the Emperor, Charles V, who in the matter of defending the oversea trade identified the interests of Portugal with his own. The reasons for this identification is not far to seek — the Portuguese Islands of Madeira and the Azores were situated on or near the routes of ocean commerce. The Spanish fleets returning from America put in at the Azores, hence Spain must always keep on the best terms with Portu- gal. Hence, also, the Emperor's displeasure when *in 1536 Portugal concluded a treaty with France which permitted the French to bring their prizes — i. e., Spanish ships — into all Portuguese havens and had the effect of making the harbors of the Azores and Madeira as well as of Portugal lurk- ing places from which the French preyed upon the ocean shipping of Spain. In return Francis I forbade his subjects to sail to Brazil and Guinea; but when a few years later Portugal's bribery of the French admiral was discovered this prohibi- tion was revoked. The activities of Ango's cap- tains were directed not only against their Portu- guese friends but also against their Spanish ene- mies. The sensational capture made by one of them of a part of Montezuma's treasure has al- ready been referred to. In 1523 and 1525 the Cortes of Castile complained of the frequent and intolerable depredations committed by the French at sea, and their feeling appears to be reflected in the treaty of Madrid in 1526. The question of admitting the French to the American trade seems to have been discussed in the negotiations for the Franco-Spanish truce of 1538, as it certainly was in connection with the treaty of 1544. In 1544 the Emperor had been greatly disturbed by Car- tier's plan to colonize in Canada. Despairing of keeping the French altogether away from the new world, Charles V was willing to come to terms with them. An article signed by the French com- missioners in 1544 contained the following stipula- tion: That the King of France, his successors and subjects, would leave the Emperor and the King of Portugal at peace in all that concerned the East and West Indies and would not attempt any discoveries or other enterprises there. French sub- jects might, for purposes of trade only, go to both the East and the West Indies, but if they com- mitted any acts of violence in going or returning they should be punished. This article was appar- ently acceptable to the Emperor and Prince Philip and to the president of the Council of the Indies. Other councilors believed that the permission to trade would lead to further trouble, because the French would not conduct it in accordance with regulations. The Council of the Indies urged that in this as in former treaties matters pertaining to the Indies should not be mentioned at all. If, however, the French were permitted to trade they should be held to the laws prohibiting the removal of gold and silver from territory subject to Cas- tile, even in exchange for merchandise, and their homeward-bound ships should be obliged to ti^uch at Cadiz or San Lucar. The King of Portugal also objected to the article, declaring that the French went in armed ships not only for the pur- pose of trading but in order to rob with more security. The article seems never to have been ratified. In the truce between France and Spain concluded in 1556 it was agreed that during the period of the truce the French should not sail to or trade in the Spanish Indies without license from the King of Spain. In a few months the truce was violated. The Venetian ambassador ascribed the rupture partly to the sending of French ships to the Indies 'to occupy some place and hinder the navigation.' The reference is to Villegagnon's colony in Brazil, which seemed a danger to Spain as well as to Portugal. In the negotiations for the treaty of Cateau-Cambresis, in 1550, the right of the French to go to the Spanish Indies was dis- cussed repeatedly and at length. [See also France; 1547-1550.1 The Spanish commissioners urged that Villegagnon .should be recalled. They based their claim to a monopoly of the western navigation on the bulls of Popes Alexander VI and Julius II, and on the fact that Spain alone had borne the labor and expense of discovery. The French depu- 277 AMERICA, 1528-1648 European Rivalry AMERICA, 1528-1648 ties argued that the sea was common. They would not consent to exclude Frenchmen from places dis- covered by them and not actually subject to the Kings of Portugal or Castile. On the other land, they would agree that the French should keep away from lands actually possessed by the aforesaid sovereigns ; or, as an alternative, that the Indies should not be mentioned, and if Frenchmen were found doing what they should not there, they might be chastised. King Philip did not approve of the former alternative. The Indies were there- fore not mentioned in the treaty, but an oral agreement was made, the precise wording of which is not known. . From accounts in Spanish and French documents it appears that it was to the effect that Spaniards and Frenchmen encountering one another west of the prime meridian might treat each other as enemies, without thereby giv- ing ground for complaint of the violation of exist- ing treaties. The location of the prime meridian remained a matter of dispute. In 1634 the King of France placed it at the island of Ferro, in the Canaries. Richelieu stated that Spain preferred to locate it farther west, in the Azores, because ships captured west of the prime meridian must be declared good prize. The rule that might would be the only right recognized between na- tions west of the prime meridian was the one permanent result of Spanish-French diplomacy re- garding America up to 1559, or indeed up to 1648. In the treaty of Vervins, in 1508, no better ar- rangement could be agreed on. [See also France: 1593-1508.] "During the wars of religion in France the mari- time strength of that nation fell to its lowest ebb. Leadership in maritime affairs, and hence in the effort to force an entrance into the American trade, passed to England — the second great an- tagonist of the Portuguese-Spanish monopoly. In 1553 3 joint-stock company was founded in Lon- don for the Guinea trade. This intrusion of the English into regions claimed by Portugal led to repeated complaints by the ambassador of Portu- gal, who was supported by the ambassador of Spain. Important negotiations relative to the com- merce with Portuguese colonies were in progress in 1555, 1561, 1562, and from 1569 to 1576. The treaty signed in 1576 permitted the English to trade in Madeira and the Azores, but did not men- tion Barbary, Guinea, or Brazil. Between 1562 and 1568 Hawkins made three slave-trading voy- ages to the West Indies. Subsequently English privateers played havoc with Spanish shipping there, and in 1580 Drake returned from his voyage around the globe with treasure e-timated at a mil- lion and a half sterling. The Spanish ambassador in London wrote that Drake was preparing for another voyage and that everybody wanted to have a share in the expedition. He therefore con- sidered it in the King of Spain's interest that or- ders be given that no foreign sh-'p should be spared in either the Spanish or the Portuguese In- dies, but that every one should be sent to the bot- tom. War followed in a few years. Peace nego- tiations took place in 1588, 1600, and 1604. The negotiations of 1588 were insincere, at least on the part of Spain, in whose ports the Armada was preparing. But they have an interest as indicating England's attitude. Of her two main grievances against Spain, one was the restrictions imposed by Spain upon English trade to the newly discovered lands. The instructions issued to Elizabeth's com- missioners also, in so far as they relate to the West Indies, are of interest. For they indicate that England based her claim to trade in the Indies lipon the ancient treaties concluded between Charles V and Henry VIII providing for reciprocal trade in all of her dominions. On this ground, in 1566, Cecil asserted a right to the Indian trade, and the claim seems to explain Philip II's reluc- tance to renew these treaties. The Spanish view was that the Indies were a new world, to which treaties between European powers did not apply unless the Indies were indubitably referring to them. "Not until after the death of Elizabeth could peace be made. After the accession of King James negotiations were again undertaken. Concerning trade to the East and West Indies an arrangement was then effected, though no real agreement was reached. The instructions of the English commis- sioners in this matter were identical with those for the negotiations of 1600. They sanctioned only one concession, that Englishmen should be pro- hibited from going to any places in the Indies where the Spaniards were actually 'planted' — a principle embodied in the charter granted to the English East India Co. on December 31, 1600. It was rejected by the Spaniards, who insisted that the English should be excluded from every part of the Indies, either expressly or by clear impli- cation; or else that the King of England should declare in writing that his subjects would trade in the Indies at their own peril. These demands the English refused. Cecil and Northampton alleged that an express prohibition to trade would wrong James's honor since Spain had not put it in the treaties made with France and other princes. Af- ter much debate it was resolved that intercourse should be permitted in those places 'in which there was commerce before the war, according to the observance and use of former treaties.' These words were differently interpreted by each party. Soon after the conclusion of the treaty Cecil wrote to the English Ambassador in France: 'If it be well observed how the (ninth) article is couched, you shall rather find it a pregnant affirmative for us than against us; for, sir, where it is written that we shall trade in all his dominions, that com- prehends the Indies; if you will say, secundum tractatus antiquos, no treaty excluded it.' When the Venetian ambassador wished to hear from his majesty's own lips how he read the clause about the India navigation, and said, 'Sire, your sub- jects may trade with Spain and Flanders, but not with the Indies.' 'What for no?' said the king. 'Because,' I replied, 'the clause is read in that sense.' 'They are making a great error whoever they are who hold this view,' said His Majesty; 'the meaning is quite clear.' The Spaniards, on the other hand, resolutely affirmed that the terms of the peace excluded the English from the Indies. However, as was remarked in the instructions, Spain was not able to bar out the English by force, and the latter not only continued their trade in the East, but in spite of Spanish opposi- tion proceeded to colonize Virginia under a char- ter which allotted to the grantees a portion of America 'not actually possessed by any Christian prince.' The memorable year of 1580, which saw Drake's return to England, witnessed also Spain's annexation of Portugal's vast empire and trade. The threat of Spnin's sudden aggrandizement brought France and England together; and toward the close of the century the United Provinces ioined the alliance against the common enemy. Several treaties pro-ided for joint naval opera- tions by England and the United Provinces against Spain. Early in the seventeenth century the Dutch outstripped Spain in the rare for commercial su- premacy The Dutch East India Co., founded in 1602, undermined the power of the Portuguese iif 278 AMERICA, 1528-1648 Treaty of Miinster AMERICA, 1528-1648 the East; and in Guiana, Brazil, Guinea, Cuba, and Hispaniola, the Dutch were also prosecuting an active trade. In 1607 peace negotiations between Spain and the United Provinces began. The hope of expelling the Dutch from the forbidden regions was believed by many to be the principal motive that induced Spain to treat. Another reason was the project of a Dutch West India Co. 'that should with a strong fleet carry at once both war and merchandize into America.' During the protracted negotiations one of the main points of dispute was the India trade. Both sides regarded the question as vital. The States brought forward three al- ternative means of accommodation ; peace, with free trade to those parts of the Indies not actually possessed by Spain; peace in Europe, and a truce in the Indies for a term of years with permission to trade during that period; trade to the Indies 'at their peril' after the example of the French and English. The Catholic deputies totally re- jected the first and third propositions, but would submit the second to Spain if it were acceptably modilied. They wished the States to declare ex- pressly that they would abstain from going to the West Indies, and that in the East Indies they would not visit the places held by the Portuguese. The Dutch, who meanwhile had tried to frighten their opponents by showing a renewed interest in the West India Co., finally drafted what was deemed an acceptable article, but Spain insisted on their prompt withdrawal from both the East and West Ind'es as one of the two indispensable con- ditions for her recognition of their independence. Peace was unattainable, and negotiations were broken off. The French ambassador, however, persuaded the States to revive negotiations for a truce and to employ the French and English am- bassadors as intermediaries. The principal point of difficulty was the India trade. The French am- bassador labored for the end desired by the Dutch not because France wished to strengthen them un- duly but because she was unwiUing to restore Spain to her former power or to play into the hands of the English, who were believed to desire the trade for themselves. An article was finally agreed on which was a concession of the India trade veiled by circumlocutions. Traffic was per- mitted in Spain's European lands and in any other of her possessions where her allies were permitted to trade. Outside these limits (i. e., in the Indies) subjects of the States could not traffic without ex- press permission from the King in places held by Spain, but in places not thus held they might trade upon permission of the natives without hindrance from the King or his officers. The agreement that Spain would not hinder the subjects of the States in their trade 'outside the limits' was also strength- ened by a special and secret treaty in which the name Indies was again avoided. The name, how- ever, appeared in an act signed by the French and English ambassadors, which certified that the archdukes' deputies had agreed that, just as the Dutch should not traffic in places held by the King of Spain in the Indies v/ithout his permission, so subjects of the King of Spain should not traffic in places held by the States in the Indies with- out their permission. In 162 1 the truce of 1609 expired and Spain declared war on the United Netherlands. Between 162 1 and 1625 the Dutch negotiated with Denmark, France, and England to secure their alliance against Spain. The States General earnestly desired that these nations should cooperate with the Dutch West India Co., char- tered by the States in 162 1 for the purpose of at- tacking Spain's American possessions and treasure fleets as well as for trade, but the Danes and French preferred rather to share in the East India commerce. In 1621 the Dutch and Danish com- missioners signed an agreement that in their jour- neys, trade, and nav'^ition in the East and West Indies, Africa, and Terra Australis subjects 01 either party should befriend subjects of the other. The treaty between the Dutch and French merely stipulated that the question of traffic to the East and West Indies should be treated later by the French ambassador. The offensive alliance with England in 1625 enjoined attacks by both parties on Spain's dominions on both sides of the line and especially on the treasure fleets, and one of the results of this treaty was the opening of trade between the Dutch and the English colonists in North America. [See also Commerce: Medieval: 8th-i6th (Centuries.] During the 20 years following 162 T there were repeated negotiations for peace between the United Provinces and Spain. The most important took place in 1632 and 1633. They failed chiefly because no agreement could be reached on colonial matters, particularly those in which the Dutch West India Co. was involved. Since this company had captured the port of Pemambuco, in Brazil, it looked forward to a rapid extension of its authority and trade in this region and to profits from raids undertaken thence against the Spanish treasure fleets, the West India Islands, and Central America, Having acquired a great fleet equipped for war, it opposed any peace or truce with Spain that should extend beyond the Line, unless, indeed, Spain would permit the Dutch to trade in both Indies. Since Spain refused these demands, negotiations ended fruitlessly. "The negotiations at Miinster from 1646 to 1648 were carried on under widely different circum- stances from those of 1632, 1633, just mentioned. In 1646 peace was essential to the Spanish Govern- ment, exhausted by its efforts against domestic and foreign foes. Moreover, the chief obstacle to peace had been removed by her loss of Brazil and other Portuguese colonies. On the other hand, the Dutch East and West India companies would willingly have continued the war. The West India Co. con- sidered that if the two companies should be united it would be more profitable to continue hostilities in both Indies anci Africa than to conclude any peace or truce with Spain. In case of a peace or truce the company desired freedom to trade in all places within the limits of its charter where the King of Spain had no castles, jurisdiction, or ter- ritory, and it further sought the exclusion of Span- iards from trade in all places similarly held by the company unless like privileges were granted to the company in places under the dominion of Spain. These stipulations were practically those agreed to in the truce of 1600. Somewhat modified they were finally included in the treaty of Miinster, a treaty in which for the first time Spain granted to another nation, as a permanent concession, in clear and explicit terms, and with mention of the Indies, the right to sail to, trade, and acquire ter- ritory in America. By treaties concluded in 1641 and 1642, Portugal, newly liberated from Spain, had legalized the trade which the Dutch and Eng- lish had previously established with the African coast, and recognized Dutch possession of a part of Brazil. Thus, in the fifth decade of the sev- enteenth century, the two Iberian powers, then bitterly estranged from each other, were both com- pelled to concede to certain European nations the right to occupation and trade in those oversea lands from which, since the period of discovery, they had endeavored to exclude them. But, as old walls were breached, new ones were erected. The Dutch, English, and French, having acquired much 279 AMERICA, 1531-154b Explorations by Cartier AMERICA, 1534-1535 oversea territory and commerce, each tried to use them for the exclusive profit of their respective peoples, or even oi certain of their own trading companies. Hence in 1648 the ideal of free ocean commerce and navigation, conceived long before by Grotius, remained unrealized." — F. G. Daven- port, American and European diplomacy to i64S (Annual Report American Historical Association, J915, pp. i53> 161). 1531-1548. — Pizarro's conquest of Peru. See Peru: i5:'S-i53i; 1531-1533; and 1533-1548. 1531-1641.— Republic of St. Paul in jrazU. — Jesuits. — Mamelukes in Brazil. See Brazil: 1531- 1041. 1533. — Spanish conquest of the kingdom of Ouito. See Ecuador: Aboriginal kingdom of Quito. . 1534-1535. — Exploration of the St. Lawrence to Montreal by Cartier. — ".At last, ten years after [the voyages of \'errazano], Philip Chabot, Ad- miral of France, induced the king [Francis I.] to resume the project of founding a French colony in the New World whence the Spaniards daily drew such great wealth ; and he presented to him a Captain of St. Malo, by name Jacques Cartier, whose merit he knew, and whom that prince ac- cepted. Cartier having received his instructions, left St. Malo the 2d of .April, 1534, with two ships of 60 tons and 122 men. He steered west, inclin- ing slightly north, and had such fair winds that, on the loth of May, he made Cape Bonavista, in Newfoundland, at 46" north. Cartier found the land there still covered with snow, and the shore fringed with ice, so that he could not or dared not stop. He ran down si.x degrees south-southeast, and entered a port to which he gave the name of St. Catharine. Thence he turned back north. . . . After making almost the circuit of Newfoundland, though without being able to satisfy himself that it was an island, he took a southerly course, crossed the gulf, approached the continent, and entered a very deep bay, where he suffered greatly from heat, whence he called it Chaleurs Bay. He was charmed with the beauty of the country, and well pleased with the Indians that he met and with whom he exchanged some goods for furs. . . . On leaving this bay, Cartier visited a good part of the coasts around the gulf, and took possession of the country in the name of the most Christian king, as \'erazani had done in all the places where he landed. He set sail again on the isth of -Au- gust to return to France, and reached St. Malo safely on the 5th of September. ... On the report which he made of his voyage, the court concluded that it would be useful to France to have a set- tlement in that part of America ; but no one took this affair more to heart than the Vice-.Admiral Charles de Mony, Sieur de la' Mailleraye. This noble obtained a new commission for Cartier, more ample than the first, and gave him three ships well equipped. This fleet was ready about the middle of May, and Cartier . . . embarked on Wednesday the loth. His three vessels were sep- arated by violent storms, but found one another, near the close of July, in the gulf which was their appointed place of rendezvous. 'On the ist of -August bad weather drove him to take refuge in the port of St. Nicholas, at the mouth of the river on the north. Here Cartier planted a cross, with the arms of France, and remained until the 7th This port is almost the only spot in Canada that has kept the name given by Cartier. ... On the loth the three vessels re-entered the gulf, and in honor of the saint whose feast is celebrated on that day, Cartier gave the gulf the name of St. Lawrence; or rather he gave it to a bay lying between Anticosti Island and the north shore, whence it e-xtended to the whole gulf of which this bay is part; and because the river, before that called River of Canada, empties into the same gulf, it insensibly acquired the name of St. Law- rence, which it still bears. . . . The three vessels . . . ascended the river, and on the ist of Septem- ber they entered the river Saguenay. Cartier merely reconnoitered the mouth of this river, and . . . hastened to seek a port where his vessels might winter in safety. Eight leagues above Isle aux Coudres he found another much larger and handsomer island, all covered with trees and vines. He called it Bacchus Island, but the name has been changed to Isle d'Orleans. The author of the re- lation to this voyage, printed under the name of Cartier, pretends that only here the country be- gins to be called Canada. But he is surely mis- taken ; for it is certain that from the earliest times the Indians gave this name to the whole country along the river on both sides, from its mouth to the Saguenay. From Bacchus Island, Cartier pro- ceeded to a little river which is ten leagues off, and comes from the north; he called it Riviere de Ste Croix, because he entered it on the 14th of September (Feast of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross) ; but it is now commonly called Riviere de Jacques Cartier. The day after his arrival he re- ceived a visit from an Indian chief named Donna- cona, whom the author of the relation of that voy- age styles Lord of Canada. Cartier treated with this cliief by names of two Indians whom he had taken to France the year before, and who knew a little French. They informed Donnacona that the strangers wished to go to Hochelaga, which seemed to trouble him. Hochelaga was a pretty large town, situated on an island now known under the name of Island of Montreal. Cartier had heard much of it, and was loth to return to France with- out seeing it. The reason why this voyage troubled Donnacona was that the people of Hochelaga were of a different nation from his, and that he wished to profit exclusively by the advantages which he hoped to derive from the stay of the French in his country.' Proceeding with one vessel to Lake St. Pierre, and thence in two boats, Cartier reached Hochelaga Oct. 2. 'The shape of the town was round, and three rows of palisades inclosed in it about so tunnel shaped cabins, each over 50 paces long and 14 or 15 wide. It was entered by a single gate, above which, as well as along the first palisade, ran a kind of gallery, reached by lad- ders, and well provided with pieces of rock and pebbles for the defence of the place. The inhabi- tants of the town spoke the Huron language. They received the French very well. . . . Cartier visited the mountain at the foot of which the town lay, and gave it the name of Mont Royal, which has become that of the whole Island [Montreal]. From it he discovered a great extent of country, the sight of which charmed him. ... He left Hochelaga on the 5th of October, and on the nth arrived at Sainte Croix.' Wintering at this place, where his crews suffered terribly from the cold and from scurvy, he returned to France the following spring. 'Some authors . . . pretend that Cartier, disgusted with Canada, dissuaded the king, his master, from further thoughts of it; and Cham- plain seems to have been of that opinion. But this does not agree with what Cartier himself says in his memoirs. . . . Cartier in vain extolled the country w-hich he had discovered. His small re- turns, and the wretched condition to which his men had been reduced by cold and scurvy, per- suaded most that it would never be of any use to France. Great stress was laid on the fact that he 280 AMERICA, 1535-1540 Coronado's Expedition AMERICA, 1540-1541 nowhere saw any appearance of mines; and then, even more than now, a strange land which pro- duced' 'neither gold nor silver was reckoned as nothing.' " — Father Charlevoix, History oj New France, bk. i. Also in: R. Kerr, General collection of voyages, pt. 2, bk. 2, cli. 12.— F. X. Garneau, History of Canada, v. i, cli. 2.— H. P. Biggar, Precursors of Jacques Cartier; Ottawa, Government printing bureau 213 (Publication of the Canadian Archives No. S). — H. B. Stephens, Jacques Cartier and his four voyages to Canada (Gives modern English translations). — J. Winsor, America, v. 4, pp. 62-68. — J. Winsor, Cartier to Frontenac. — H. P. Biggar, Early trading companies of New France. — For the question of Cartier's route consult W. F. Ganong, Royal Society of Canada's transactions, V., sect. 2, p. 121, and Bishop Howley, Ibid., XII, sect. 2, p. 151. — C. Channing, History of the United States, V. I. — R. G. Thwaitcs, France in America. — B. Suite, Vcrrazano et Cartier (Societe Geographique, Que- bec, Bulletin 5, no. 6, Nov., pp. 37S-381). 1535-1540. — Introduction of printing in Mex- ico. See Printing and the press: 1535-1709. 1535-1550. — Spanish conquests in Chile. See Chile: 1535-1724- 1536-1538. — Spanish conquests of New Gra- nada. See Colombia; 1536-1731. 1540-1541. — Coronado expedition. — "Its [De Soto's expedition] only parallel is the contemporary enterprise of Coronado, which did for the south- west what De Soto did for the eastern and central belt. If Cabeqa de V'aca's reports of the riches of Florida spurred on De Soto and his followers in Spain they were not less exciting in Mexico. There the ground had been in a measure prepared by the fusing of an Indian folk tale of seven caves with the old geographical myth of the Seven Cities; and the whole was made vivid by the stories told by an Indian of a visit when a child to these seven towns, which he compared to the city of Mexico. It seemed advisable to Mendoza, the viceroy of New Spain, to explore the region, and he chose a Franciscan, Friar Marcos, of Nizza, or Nice, who had been in Peru with Pizarro, and in Mexico had had some missionary experience in the frontier, to make a reconnoissance. He was now instructed to make careful observations of the country, its products and people, and to re- port them in detail to Mendoza. The negro Ste- phen, who had come with De Vaca, was given to him to serve as a guide, and he was also at- tended by some Christianized Pima Indians. Friar Marcos left Culiacan in the western frontier of Sinaloa a few weeks before De Soto landed in Florida. Following the coast as far as the Yaqui, he then went nearly due north, veering later towards the east, until he came within sight of the Zuni villages in western New Mexico. The negro Stephen had gone on ahead with a retinue of Indians, and Friar Marcos now learned that he had been killed by the Indians of Cibola, the first of the seven cities (which are now usually identi- fied with the Zuni pueblos) . From a distant point of view, the pueblo seemed to the friar in that magnifying atmosphere as large as the city of Mexico. The magic of the association with the legend of the 'Seven Cities' reinforced the im- pression made by the narrative of the friar, some of whose exaggerated reports may have arisen from imperfectly understanding his informants; and elaborate preparations were at once made to invade the new land of wonder, and to repeat, if possible, the history of the conquest of Mexico. The enterprise was placed in the charge of Fran- cisco de Coronado, the recently appointed gov- ernor of New Galicia, the northern frontier prov- ince of New Spain, and a personal friend of Men- doza. The vigor and energy ot Mendoza's gov- ernment as well as the resources of New Spain at that early date are strikingly displayed in the preparations for what is perhaps the most elabo- rate single enterprise of exploration in North .Amer- ican history. The land force under Coronado num- bered three hundred Spaniards and eight hundred Indians, and was accompanied by a large number of extra horses and droves of sheep and pigs. There was in addition a sea force of two ships under Hernando de Alarcon to cooperate with Coronado by following the coast of the Gulf of California and keeping in communication with the army and carrying some of its baggage. Alarcon discovered the mouth of the Colorado River, and August 26, 1540, started to explore it with boats. In the second of his two separate trips he ap- parently got as far as the lower end of the canon, about two hundred miles up, as he estimated it. Coronado himself set out in February, 1540, march- ing up the west coast of Mexico. At Culiacan he left the main force and went ahead with about fifty horsemen, some foot-soldiers, and most of the Indian allies. Passing across the southwestern sec- tion of .Arizona they verged to the eastward till they came to Cibola, which was captured. Here they were profoundly disappointed. However plausible Friar Marcos's comparison of the distant view of the pueblo with the city of Mexico may be made to seem in our time, there is no doubt that it completely misled the men of that day who knew Mexico. Coronado now sent back Melchior Diaz to order up the main force. Diaz did so, and then set out to explore the region at the head of the Gulf of California. He crossed the Colorado River and penetrated the country to the west. Another important side expedition during this sum- mer was that of Pedro de Tovar to the province of Tusayan, northwest of Cibola, which led to the discovery of the Grand Cafion of the Colorado by De Gardenas. As they looked into its depths it seemed as 'if the water was six feet across, al- though the Indians said it was half a league wide.' They tried to get down to the stream, but in vain. 'Those who stayed above had estimated that some huge rocks on the sides of the cliffs seemed to be about as tall as a man, but those who went down swore that when they reached these rocks they were bigger than the great tower of Seville.' When the main army reached Cibola, Coronado moved with it to about the middle of New Mexico, where he went into winter quarters at Tiguex, on the Rio Grande. Here the burden of requisitions for supplies and individual acts of outrage against the Indians of Tiguex provoked them to an attack on the Spaniards, which was successfully repelled. The cruelty of the reprisals inflicted on the Indian prisoners exceeded anything done by De Soto, and constitutes a dark stain on the expedition. In the spring of 1541, Coronado set out to reach Quivira, a town of which an In- dian prisoner had given a glowing description. It seems probable that the thirty-seven days' march took them northeasterly, but constantly verging to the right, across the plains until they reached the borders of the [former] Oklahoma Territory. A further advance with the main force now seemed inadvisable ; but to verify, if possible, the stories about Quivira, Coronado went on early in June with thirty horsemen to the northeast. After a ride of about six weeks the goal was reached, and proved to be nothing more than a village of semi- nomadic Indians in the centre of the present state of Kansas. A few hundred miles to the southeast 281 AMERICA, 1541 Voyages of Hawkins AMERICA, 1562-1567 De Soto at this same time was exploring Arkansas. An Indian woman who had run away from Cor- onado's army fell in with De Soto's nine days later. Fertile as was the soil of the western pra- ries, the region had nothing at that time adequate to reward settlement so far inland; and Coronado in the following spring returned to New Spain with all his force save two missionaries and a few others. The expedition, like De Soto's, failed of its immediate object, but it revealed the character of a large part of the southwest and of the trans- Mississippi plains; and the branch expeditions had proved that Lower California was a peninsula and not an island." — E. G. Bourne, Spain in America, pp. 16S-172. — In regard to the literature of south- western exploration, G. P. Winship, Bibliography of the Coronado Expedition, is a very valuable guide. It was appended to his edition of all the Coronado documents in English translation, in- cluding the original Spanish text, not previously ptinted, of Castaneda's narrative, published by the United States Bureau of EtLnoIogy, Fourteenth Annual Report (1896). The translations have been revised in G. P. Winship 's Journey of Coro- nado (1Q04). Also in: L. D. Scisco, Coronado's march across the high plains (Americana, VI, pp. 237-24S). — • C. F. Lummis, Spanish pioneers. — Coronado's ex- petition (Papers of the American Historical Asso- ciation, V. 3, pp. 168-171). — Report American his- torical association, p'p. 83-92, 94 (article by C. P. Winship). 1541. — Spanish settlement in Yucatan. See Yucat.'\n: Gaographical description. 1541-1603. — Cartier's last voyage. — Abortive attempts at French colonization in Canada.^ "Jean Francois de la Roque, lord of Roberval, a gentleman of Picardy, was the most earnest and energetic of those who desired to colonize the lands discovered by Jacques Carticr. . . . The title and authority of lieutenant-general was conferred upon him ; his rule to extend over Canada, Hochelaga, Saguenay, Newfoundland, Belle Isle, Carpon, Lab- rador, La Grand Baye, and Baccalaos. with the delegated rights and powers of the Crown. This patent was dated the 15th of January, iS40- Jacques Cartier was named second in command. . . . Jacques Cartier sailed on the 23d of May, 1 54 1, having provisioned his fleet for two years." He remained on the St. Lawrence until the follow- ing June, seeking vainly for the fabled wealth of the land of Saguenay, finding the Indians strongly inclined to a treacherous hostility, and suffering se- vere hardships during the winter. Entirely dis- couraged and disgusted, he abandoned his under- taking early in the summer of 1542, and sailed for home. On the road of St. John's, Newfound- land, Cartier met his tardy chief, Roberval, just coming to join him; but no persuasion could in- duce the disappointed explorer to turn back. "To avoid the chance of an open rupture with Rober- val, the lieutenant silently weighed anchor during the night, and made all sail for France. This in- glorious withdrawal from the enterprise paralyzed Roberval's power, and deferred the permanent set- tlement of Canada for generations then unborn. Jacques Cartier died soon after his return to Europe." Roberval proceeded to Canada, built a fort at Ste Croix, four leagues west of Orleans, sent back two of his three ships to France, and remained through the winter with his colony, hav- ing a troubled time. There is no certain account of the ending of the enterprise, but it ended in failure. For half a century afterwards there was little attempt made by the French to coloni:^e any part of New France, though the French fisheries on the Newfoundland Bank and in the Gulf of St. Lawrence were steadily growing in actiyity and importance. "When, after fifty years of civil strife, the strong and wise sway of Henry IV. restored rest to troubled France, the spirit of discovery again arose. The Marquis de La Roche, a Breton gentleman, obtained from the king, in 1598, a patent granting the same powers that Roberval had possessed." But La Roche's undertakmg proved more disastrous than Roberval's had been. Yet, there had been enough of successful fur- trading opened to stimulate enterprbe, despite these misfortunes. "Private adventurers, unpro- tected by any special privilege, began to barter for the rich peltries of the Canadian hunters. A wealthy merchant of St. Malo, named Pont- grave, was the boldest and most successful of these traders ; he made several voyages to Ta- dousac, at the mouth of the Saguenay, bringing back each time a rich cargo of rare and valuable furs." In 1600, Pontgrave effected a partner- ship with one Chauvin, a naval captain, w'ho obtained a patent from the king giving him a monopoly of the trade; but Chauvin died in 1602 without having succeeded in establishing even a trading post at Tadousac. De Chatte, or De Chastes, governor of Dieppe, succeeded to the privileges of Chauvin, and founded a company of merchants at Rouen [1603] to undertake the development of the resources of Canada. It was under the auspices of this company that Samuel Champlain, the founder of New France, came upon the scene. — E. Warburton, Conquest of Can- ada, V. I, ch. 2-3. — See also France: Colonial em- pire. Also in: F. Parkman, Pioneers of France in the Xew World: Champlain, ch. 1-2. 1542-1648. — Jesuit missionaries. See Jesuits: 1542-164S. 1562-1567. — Slave-trading voyages of Haw- kins. — Beginnings of English enterprise in the New World. — "The history of English America begins with the three slave-trading voyages of John Hawkins, made in the years 1562, 1564, and 1S67. Nothing that Englishmen had done in connection with .America, previously to those voyages, had any result worth recording. England had known the New World nearly seventy years, for John Cabot reached it shortly after its discovery by Columbus; and, as the tidings of the dis- covery spread, many English adventurers had crossed the Atlantic to the .\merican coast. But as years passed, and the excitement of novelty subsided, the English voyages to America had become fewer and fewer, and at length ceased altogether. It is easy to account for this. There was no opening for conquest or plunder, for the Tudors were at peace with the Spanish sovereigns: and there could be no territorial occupation, for the Papal title of Spain and Portugal to the whole of the new continent could not be disputed by Catholic England. No trade worth having existed with the natives: and Spain and Portugal kept the trade with their own settlers in their own hands. ... As the plantations in America grew and multiplied, the demand for negroes rapidly increased. The Span- iards had no .African settlements, but the Portu- guese had many, and, with the aid of French and English adventurers, they procured from these settlements slaves enough to supply both them- selves and the Spaniards. But the Brazilian plan- tations grew so fast, about the middle of the century, that they absorbed the entire supply, and the Spanish colonists knew not where to look for negroes. This penury of slaves in the Spanish 282 AMERICA, 1562-1567 Drake's Voyages AMERICA, 1572-1580 Indies became known to the English and French captains who fiequcntcd the Guinea coast; and John Hawkins, who had been engaged from boy- hood in the trade with Spain and the Canaries, resolved in 1502 to take a cargo of negro slaves to Hispaniola. The little squadron with which he executed this project was the first English squadron which navigated the Vv'est Indian seas. This voyage opened those seas to the English. England had not yet broken with Spain, and the law excluding English vessels from trading with the Spanish colonists was not strictly enlorced. The trade was profitable, and Hawkins found no difficulty in disposing of his cargo to great advan- tage. A meagre note . . . from the pen of Hak- luyt contains all that is known of the first Amer- ican voyage of Hawkins. In its details it must have closely resembled the second voyage. In the first voyage, however, Hawkins had no occasion to carry his wares further than three ports on the northern side of Hispaniola. These ports, far away from San Domingo, the capital, were already well known to the French smugglers. He did not venture into the Caribbean Sea; and having loaded his ships v>'ith their return cargo, he made the best of his way back. In his second voyage ... he entered the Caribbean Sea, still keeping, however, at a safe distance from San Domingo, and sold his slaves on the mainland. This voyage was on a much larger scale. . . . Having sold his slaves in the conti- nental ports [South American], and loaded his vessels with hides and other goods bought with the produce, Hawkins determined to strike out a new path and sail home with the Gulf-stream, which would carry him northwards past the shores of Florida. Sparke's narrative . . . proves that at every point in these expeditions the Englishman was following in the track of the French. He had French pilots and seamen on board, and there is httle doubt that one at least of these had already been with Laudonniere in Florida. The French seamen guided him to Laudonniere's settlement, where his arrival was most opportune. They then pointed him the way by the coast of North America, then uni- versally known in the mass as New France, to Newfoundland, and thence, with the prevailing westerly winds, to Europe. This was the pioneer voyage made by Englishmen along coasts after- wards famous in history through English colo- nization. . . . The extremely interesting narrative . . . given . . . from the pen of John Sparke, one of Hawluns' gentlemen companions . . . contains the first information concerning America and its natives which was published in England by an English eye-witness." Hawkins planned a third voyage in 1566, but the remonstrances of the Span- ish king caused him to be stopped by the English court. He sent out his ships, however, and they came home in due time richly freighted, — from what source is not known. "In another year's time the aspect of things had changed." England was venturing into war with Spain, "and Haw- kins was now able to execute his plans without restraint. He founded a permanent fortified fac- tory on the Guinea coast, where negroes might be collected all the year round. Thence he sailed for the West Indies a third time. Young Francis Drake sailed with him in command of the 'Judith,' a small vessel of fifty tons " The voyage had a prosperous beginning and a disastrous ending. After disposing of most of their slaves, they were driven by storms to take refuse in the Mexican port of Vera Cruz, and there they were attacked by a Spanish fleet. Drake in the Judi'l' and Hawkins in another small vessel escaped. But the latter was overcrowded with men and obliged to put half of them ashore on the Mexican coast I'he majority of those left on board, as well as a majority of Drake's crew, died on the voyage home, and it was a miserable remnant that landed in England, in January, 1569. — E. J. Payne, Voyages of Elizabethan seamen to America, ck. 1. Also in; Hawkins' voyages; ed. by C. R. Mark- ham (Hakluyl Society, No. 57). — R. Southey, Lives of the British admirals, v. 3. 1572-1580. — Piratical adventures of Drake and his encompassing of the world. — "Francis Drake, the first of the English Buccaneers, was one of the twelve children of Edward Drake of Tavistock, in Devonshire, a staunch Protestant, who had fled his native place to avoid persecution, and had then become a ship's chaplain. Drake, like Colum- bus, had been a seaman by profession from boy- hood; and . . . had served as a young man, in command of the Judith, under Hawkins. . . . Hawkins had confined himself to smuggling: Drake advanced from this to piracy. This practice was authorized by law in the middle ages for the pur- pose of recovering -debts or damages from the subjects of another nation. The English, espe- cially those of the west country, were the most formidable pirates in the world ; and the whole nation was by this time roused against Spain, in consequence of the ruthless war waged against Protestantism in the Netherlands by PhiUp II. Drake had accounts of his own to settle with the Spaniards. Though Elizabeth had not declared for the revolted States, and pursued a shifting policy, her interests and theirs were identical; and it was with a view of cutting off those supplies of gold and silver from America which enabled Philip to bribe politicians and pay soldiers, in pursuit of his policy of aggression, that the famous voy- age was authorized by English statesmen. Drake had recently made more than one successful voy- age of plunder to the American coast." In July, 1572, he surprised the Spanish town of Nombre de Dios, which was the shipping port on the northern side of the Isthmus for the treasures of Peru. His men made their way into the royal treasure-house, where they laid hands on a heap of bar-silver, 70 feet long, 10 wide, and 10 high; but Drake himself had received a wound which compelled the pirates to retreat with no very large part of the splendid booty. In the winter of 1573, with the help of the runaway slaves on the Isthmus, known as Cimarrones, he crossed the Isthmus, looked on the Pacific ocean, approached within sight of the city of Panama, and waylaid a transportation party conveying gold to Nombre de Dios; but was disappointed of his prey by the excited conduct of some of his men. When he saw, on this occasion, the great ocean beyond the Isth- mus, "Drake then and there resolved to be the pioneer of England in the Pacific; and on this resolution he solemnly besought the blessing of God. Nearly four years elapsed before it was exe- cuted; for it was not until November, 1577, that Drake embarked on his famous voyage, in the course of which he proposed to plunder Peru it- self. The Peruvian ports were unfortified. The Spaniards knew them to be by nature absolutely secured from attack on the north; and they never dreamed that the English pirates would be daring enough to pass the terrible straits of Magellan and attack them, from the south. Such was the plan of Drake; and it was executed with complete success." He sailed from Plymouth, Dec. 13, 1577, with a fleet of four vessels, and a pinnace, but lost one of the ships after he had entered the Pacific, 283 AMERICA, 1580 Guilberfs Expedition AMERICA, 1584-1586 in a storm which drove him southward, and which made him the discoverer of Cape Horn. Another of his ships, separated from the squadron, re- turned home, and a third, while attempting to do the same, was lost in the river Plate. Drake, in his own vessel, the Golden Hind, proceeded to the Peruvian coasts, where he cruised until he had taken and plundered a score of Spanish ships. "Laden with a rich booty of Peruvian treasure he deemed it unsafe to return by the way that he came. He therefore resolved to strike across the Pacific and for this purpose made the latitude in which this voyage was usually performed by the Spanish government vessels which sailed an- nually from Acapulco to the Philippines. Drake thus reached the coast of California, where the Indians, delighted beyond measure by presents of clothing and trinkets, invited him to remain and rule over them. Drake took possession of the country in the name of the Queen, and refitted his vessel in preparation for the unknown perils of the Pacific. The place where he landed must have been cither the great bay of San Francisco or the small bay of Bodega, which lies a few leagues further north. The great seaman had already coasted five degrees more to the northward before finding a suitable harbour. He believed himself to be the first European who had coasted these shores; but it is now well known that Spanish explorers had preceded him. Drake's circum- navigation of the globe was thus no deliberate feat of seamanship, but the necessary result of circumstances. The voyage made in more than one way a great epoch in English nautical history." Drake reached Plymouth on his return Sept. 26, 1580. — E. J. Payne, Voyages of the Elizabethan seamen to America, pp. 141-143. Also in: F. Fletcher, World encompassed by Sir Drake (Hakluyt Society, 1854). — J. Barrow, Life of Drake. — R. Southey, Lives of British ad- mirals, V. 3. — Nuno de Silva, Report on a part of Francis Drake's famous voyage of circumnavi- gation. — J. Corbett, Drake and the Tudor navy. — E. Channing, History of the United States, V. I, pp. 116, 133, 141. — L. G. Tyler, England in America, pp. 10, 13, 25. — Papers American Historical Association, v. 2, p. 168; v. 5, pp. 303, 950. — Reports American Historical Associa- tion. 1580. — Final founding of the city of Buenos Ay res. See .Argentina: i 580-1 777. 1583. — Expedition of Sir Humphrey Gilbert. — Formal possession taken of Newfoundland. — In 1578, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, an English gentleman, of Devonshire, whose younger half-brother was the more famous Sir Walter Raleigh, obtained from Queen Elizabeth a charter empo'wering him, for the next six years, to discover "such remote heathen and barbarous lands, not actually possessed by any Christian prince or people," as he might be shrewd or fortunate enough to find, and to occupy the same as their proprietor. Gilbert's 'rst expedi- tion was attempted the next year, with Sir Walter Raleigh associated in it; but misfortunes drove back the adventurers to port, and Spanish intrigue prevented their sailing again. "In June, 1583, Gilbert sailed from Cawsand Bay with five vessels, with the general intention of discovering and col- onizing the northern parts of .\merica. It was the first colonizing expedition which left the shores of Great Britain; and the narrative of the expe- dition by Hayes, who commanded one of Gil- bert's vessels, forms the first page in the history of English colonization. Gilbert did no more than go through the empty form of taking possession of the island of Newfoundland, to which the English name formerly applied to the continent in general . . . was now restricted. . . . Gilbert dallied here too long. When he set sail to cross the Gulf of St. Lawrence and take possession of Cape Breton and Nova Scotia the season was too far advanced; one of his largest ships went down with all on board, including the Hungarian scholar Parmenius, who had come out as the historian of the ex- pedition ; the stores were exhausted and the crews dispirited; and Gilbert resolved on sailing home, intending to return and prosecute his discoveries the next spring. On the home voyage the little ves.sel in which he was sailing foundered ; and the pioneer of English colonization found a watery grave. . . . Gilbert was a man of courage, piety, and learning. He was, however, an indifferent seaman, and quite incompetent for the task of colonization to which he had set his hand. The misfortunes of his expedition induced Amadas and Barlow, who followed in his steps, to abandon the northward voyage and sail to the shores intended to be occupied by the easier but more circuitous route of the Canaries and the West Indies." — E. J. Payne, Voyages of Elizabethan seamen to America, pp. 173-174. — "On Monday, the gth of Septem- ber, in the afternoon, the frigate [the 'Squirrel'] was near cast away, oppressed by waves, yet at that time recovered; and giving forth signs of joy, the general, sitting abaft with a book in his hand, cried out to us in the 'Hind' (so oft as we did approach within hearing), 'We are as near to heaven by sea as by land,' reiterating the same speech, well beseeming a soldier resolute in Jesus Christ, as I can testify he was. On the same Monday night, about twelve o'clock, or not long after, the frigate being ahead of us in the 'Golden Hind,' suddenly her lights were out, whereof as it were in a moment we lost the sight, and withal our watch cried the General was cast away, which was too true; for in that moment the frigate was de- voured and swallowed up by the sea. Yet still we looked out all that night and ever after, until we arrived upon the coast of England. ... In great torment of weather and peril of drowning it pleased God to send safe home the 'Golden Hind,' which arrived in Falmouth on the 2 2d of September, bein^ Sunday." — E. Haies, A report of the voyage by Sir Humphrey Gilbert (reprinted in Payne's Voy- ages) . Also in: E. Edwards, Life of Raleigh, v. i, ch. 5. — R. Hakluyt, Principal navigations; edited by E. Goldsmid, v. 12. — L. G Tyler, England in Amer- ica, pp. 13-21. — E. Channing, History of the United States, pp. 122-124. — Prince Society, Sir Humphrey Gylberte and his enterprise of colo- nization in .'imerica; edited by C. Slafter. — G. Pat- terson, Royal Society of Canada's transactions, second series, p. 113. — W. G. Gosling, Life of Sir Humphrey Gilbert (Calendar of State Papers, Col. 1.S74-1674. p. 17). 1584-1586. — Raleigh's first colonizing attempts and failures. — "The task in which Gilbert had failed was to be undertaken by one better qualified to carry it out. If any Englishman in that age seemed to be marked out as the founder of a colonial empire, it was Raleigh. Like Gilbert, he had studied books; like Drake he could rule men. . . . The associations of his youth, and the training of his early manhood, fitted him to sym- pathize with the aims of his half-brother Gilbert, and there is little reason to doubt that Raleigh had a share in his undertaking and his failure. In 1584 he obtained a patent precisely similar to Gilbert's. His first step showed the thoughtful and well-planned system on which he began his task. Two ships were sent out, not with any idea of 284 AMERICA, 1584-1586 Raleigh's Colonization AMERICA, 1584-1586 settlement, but to examine and report upon the country. Their commanders were Arthur Barlow and Philip Amidas. To the former we owe the extant record of the voyage: the name of the latter would suggest that he was a foreigner. Whether by chance or design, they took a more southerly course than any of their predecessors. On the 2d of July the presence of shallow water, and a smell of sweet flowers, warned them that land was near. The promise thus given was amply fullilled upon their approach. The sight before them was far different from that which had met the eyes of Hore and Gilbert. Instead of the bleak coast of Newfoundland, Barlow and Amidas looked upon a scene which might recall the soft- ness of the Mediterranean. . . . Coasting along for about 120 miles, the voyagers reached an inlet and with some difficulty entered. They then solemnly took possession of the land in the Queen's name, and then delivered it over to Raleigh ac- cording to his patent. They soon discovered that the land upon which they had touched was an island about 20 miles long, and not above six broad, named, as they afterwards learnt, Roanoke. Beyond, separating them from the mainland, lay an enclosed sea, studded with more than a hundred fertile and well-wooded islets." The Indians proved friendly, and were described by Barlow as being "most gentle, loving and faithful, void of all guile and treason, and such as live after the man- ner of the golden age." "The report which the voyagers took home spoke as favourably of the land itself as of its inhabitants. . . . With them they brought two of the savages, named Wanchese and Manteo. A probable tradition tells us that the queen herself named the country Virginia, and that Raleigh's knighthood was the reward and ac- knowledgment of his success. On the strength of this report Raleigh at once made preparations for a settlement. A fleet of seven ships was pro- vided for the conveyance of 108 settlers. The fleet was under the command of Sir Richard Gren- ville, who was to establish the settlement and leave it under the charge of Ralph Lane. . . . On the gth of April [1585] the emigrants set sail." For some reason not well explained, the fleet made a circuit to the West Indies, and loitered for five weeks at the island of St. John's and at Hispaniola, reaching Virginia in the last days of June. Quar- rels between the two commanders, Grenville and Lane, had already begun, and both seemed equally ready to provoke the enmity of the natives. In August, after exploring some sixty miles of the coast, Grenville returned to England, promising to come back the next spring with new colonists and stores. The settlement, thus left to the care of Lane, was established "at the north-east corner of the island of 'Roanoke, whence the settlers could command the strait. There, even now, choked by vines and underwood, and here and there broken by the crumbling remains of an earthen bastion, may be traced the outlines of the ditch which enclosed the camp, some forty yards square, the home of the first English settlers in the New World. Of the doings of the settlers during the winter nothing is recorded, but by the next spring their prospects looked gloomy. The Indians were no longer friends. . . . The settlers, unable to make fishing weirs, and without seed corn, were entirely dependent on the Indians for their daily food. Under these circumstances, one would have supposed that Lane would have best employed himself in guarding the settlement and improving its condition. He, however, thought otherwise, and applied himself to the task of ex- ploring the neighbouring territory." But a wide combination of hostile Indian tribes had been formed against the English, and their situation be- came from day to day more imperilled. At the beginning of June, 1586, Lane fought a bold bat- tle with the savages and routed them ; but no sign of Grenville appeared and the prospect looked hopeless. Just at this juncture, a great English fleet, sailing homewards from a piratical expedition to the Spanish Main, under the famous Captain Drake, came to anchor at Roanoke and offered succor to the disheartened colonists. With one voice they petitioned to be taken to England, and Drake received the whole party on board his ships. "The help of which the colonists had despaired was in reality close at hand. Scarcely had Drake's fleet left the coast when a ship well furnished by Raleigh with needful supplies, reached Virginia, and after searching for the departed settlers re- turned to England. About a fortnight later Gren- ville himself arrived with three ships. He spent some time in the country exploring, searching for the settlers, and at last, unwilling to lose possession of the country, landed fifteen men at Roanoke well supplied for two years, and then set sail for England, plundering the Azores, and doing much damage to the Spaniards." — J. A. Doyle, Engliili' in America: Virginia, &c., ch. 4. — "It seems to be generally admitted that, when Lane and his com- pany went back to England, they carried with them tobacco as one of {he products of the coun- try, which they presented to Raleigh, as the planter of the colony, and by him it was brought into use in England, and gradually in other Euro- pean countries. The authorities are not entirely agreed upon this point. Josselyn says: 'Tobacco first brought into England by Sir Tohn Hawkins, but first brought into use by Sir Walter Raleigh many years after.' Again he says: 'Now (say some) Tobacco was first brought into England by Mr. Ralph Lane, out of Virginia. Others will have Tobacco to be first brought into England from Peru, by Sir Francis Drake's Mariners.' Camden fixes its introduction into England by Ralph Lane and the men brought buck with him in the ships of Drake. He says: 'And these men which were brought back were the first that I know of, which brought into England that Indian plant which they call Tobacco and Nicotia, and use it against crudities, being taught it by the Indians.' Certainly from that time it began to be in great request, and to be sold at a high rate. . . . Among the 108 men left in the colony with Ralph Lane in 1585 was Mr. Thomas Harlot, a man of a strongly mathematical and scientific turn, whose services in this connection were greatly valued. He remained there an entire year, and went back to England in 1586. He wrote out a full account of his observations in the New World." — I. N. Tarbox, Sir Walter Raleigh and his colony iti Amer- ica (Prince Society, 1884). Also in: T. Hariot, Brief and true report (re- printed in above-named Prince Society Publica- tion). — F. L. Hawks, History of North Carolina, v I (containing reprints of Lane's Account, Harlot's Report, &c. — Original documents edited by E. E. Hale (Archa-ologia Americana, v. 4). — A. Brown Genesis of the United States, v. i, p. i8g. — E. C Breece, Lounging in the footprints of the pioneers (Harper's Magazine, v. 2, p. 730). — T. Williams Surroundings of Raleigh's colony (Papers of the American Historical Association, 1895, p. 17).— H. Macmillan, Sir Walter Raleigh's lost colony.— L. G. Tyler, England in America, pp. 15-3S1 56-— E. Channing, History of the United States, v. i. pp. 124-12Q, 141-142, 156. — E. Edwards, Life of Raleigh. 285 AMERICA, 1587-1590 Lost Colony of Roanoke AMERICA, 1602-1605 1587-1590. — Lost colony of Roanoke. — End of the Virginia undertakings of Raleigh. — 'Ra- leigh, undismayed by losses, determined to plant an agricultural state; to send emigrants with their wives and families, who should make their homes in the New World; and, that life and property might be secured, in January, 15S7, he granted a charter for the settlement, and a municipal gov- ernment for the city of 'Raleigh.' John White was appointed its governor; and to him, with eleven assistants, the administration of the colony was intrusted. Transport ships were prepared at the expense of the proprietary ; 'Queen Elizabeth, the godmother of Virginia,' declined contributing 'to its education.' Embarking in April, in July they arrived on the coast of North Carolina; they were saved from the dangers of Cape Fear; and, passing Cape Hatteras, they hastened to the isle of Roanoke, to search for the handful of men whom Grenville had left there as a garrison. They found the tenements deserted and overgrown with weeds; human bones lay scattered on the field where wild deer were reposing. The fort was in ruins. No vestige of surviving life appeared. The instructions of Raleigh had designated the place for the new settlement on the bay of Chesapeake. But Fernando, the naval officer, eager to renew a profitable traffic in the West Indies, refused his assistance in exploring the coast, and White was compelled to remain on Roanoke. ... It was there that in July the foundations ot the city of Raleigh were laid." But the colony was doomed to disaster from the beginning, being quickly involved in warfare with the surrounding natives. "With the returning ship White embarked for England, un- der the excuse of interceding for re-enforcements and supplies. Yet, on the iSth of .\ugust, nine days previous to his departure, his daughter Eleanor Dare, the wife of one of the assistants, gave birth to a female child, the first offspring of English parents on the soil of the United States. The infant was named from the place of its birth. The colony, now composed of 89 men, 17 women, and two children, whose names are all preserved, might reasonably hope for the speedy return of the gov- ernor, as he left with them his daughter and his grandchild, Virginia Dare. The farther history of this plantation is involved in gloomy uncer- tainty. The inhabitants of 'the city of Raleigh,' the emigrants from England and the first-born of America, awaited death in the land of their adop- tion. For, when White reached England, he found its attention absorbed by the threats of an invasion from Spain. . . . Yet Raleigh, whose patriotism did not diminish his generosity, found means, in .^pril 1588, to despatch White with supplies in two ves- sels. But the company, desiring a gainful voy- age rather than a safe one, ran in chase of prizes, till one of them fell in with men of war from Rochelle, and, after a bloody fight, was boarded and rifled. Both ships were compelled to return to England. The delay was fatal: the English kingdom and the Protestant reformation were in danger; nor could the poor colonists of Roanoke be again remembered till after the discomfiture of the Invincible Armada. Even then Sir Walter Raleigh, who had already incurred a fruitless ex- pense of £40,000, found his impaired fortune in- sufficient for further attempts at colonizing Virginia. He therefore used the privilege of his patent to endow a company of merchants and ad- venturers with large concessions. Among the men who thus obtained an assignment of the proprie- tary's rights in Virginia is found the name of Richard Hakluyt ; it connects the first efforts of England in North Carolina with the final coloniza- tion of Virginia. The colonists at Roanoke had emigrated with a charter; the instrument of March, 1589, was not an assignment of Raleigh's patent, but the extension of a grant, already held under its sanction by inci easing the number to whom the rights of that charter belonged. More th.in another \ear elapsed before White could return to search for his colony and his daughter; and then the island of Roanoke was a desert. An in- scription on the bark of a tree pointed to Croatan; but the season of the year and the dangers from storms were pleaded as an excuse for an immediate return. The conjecture has been hazarded that the deserted colony, neglected by their own country- men, were hospitably adopted into the tribe [the Croatans] of Hatteras Indians. Raleigh long cher- ished the hope of discovering some vestiges ol their existence, and sent at his own charge, and, it is said, at five several times, to search for his liege men. But im.agination received no help in its attempts to trace the fate of the colony of Roanoke." — G. Bancroft, History of the United Stales, pt. I, V. I, ch. 5. — "The Croatans of to-day claim descent from the lost colony. Their habits, disposition and mental characteristics show traces both of savage and civilized ancestors. Their lan- guage is the English of 300 years ago, and their names are in many cases the same as those borne by the original colonists. No other theory of their origin has been advanced." — S. B. Weeks, Lost col- ony of Roanoke (American Historical Association Papers, v. 5, pt. 4). — "The last expedition [of White, searching for his lost colony] was not de- spatched by Raleigh, but by his successors in the American patent. .And our history is now to take leave of that illustrious man, with whose schemes and enterprises it ceases to have any further con- nexion. The ardour of his mind was not exhausted, but diverted by a multiplicity of new and not lesa arduous undertakings. . . . Desirous, at the same time, that a project which he had carried so far should not be entirely abandoned, and hoping that the spirit of commerce would preserve an inter- course with Virginia that might terminate in a colonial establishment, he consented to assign his patent to Sir Thomas Smith, and a company of merchants in London, who undertook to estab- lish and maintain a traffic between England and Virginia ... It appeared very soon that. Raleigh had transferred his patent to hands very different from his own. . . . Satisfied with a paltry traffic carried on by a few small vessels, they made no at- tempt to take possession of the country: and at the period of Elizabeth's death, not a single Englishman was settled in .America.'' — J. Grahame, History of the rise and progress of the United States of North America, till 1688, ch. i. .Also in: W. Stith, History' of Virginia, bk. i. — F. L. Hawks, Hist, of Korth Carolina, v. i, Nos. 7-8. 17th century. — British settlements. See British empire: Expansion: 17th century: North .America. 17th century. — Colonial women in industry. See Woman's rights: 1644-1852. 1602-1605. — Voyages of Gosnold, Pring, and Weymouth. — First Englishmen in New Eng- land. — Batholomew Gosnold was a West-of-Eng- land mariner who had served in the expeditions of Sir Walter Raleigh to the Virginia coast. Un- der his command, in the spring of 1602, "with the consent of Sir Walter Raleigh, and at the cost, among others, of Henry Wriothesley, Earl of Southampton, the accomplished patron of Shakes- peare, a small vessel, called the Concord, was equipped for exploration in 'the north part of Vir- ginia,' with a view to the establishment of a colony. At this time, in the last year of the Tudor 286 AMERICA, 1602-1605 Gosnold, Pring and Weymouth AMERICA, 1609 dynasty, and nineteen years after the fatal ter- mination of Gilbert's enterprise, there was no Euro- pean inhabitant of North America, except those of Spanish birth in Florida, and some twenty or thirty French, the miserable relics of two frus- trated attempts to settle what the; called New France. Gosnold sailed from Falmouth with a company of thirty-two persons, of whom eight were seamen, and twenty were to become planters. Taking a straight course across the Atlantic, in- stead of the indirect course by the Canaries and the West Indies which had been hitherto pur- sued in voyages to Virginia, at the end of seven weeks he saw land in Massachusetts Bay, probably near what is now Salem Harbor. Here a boat came off, of Basque build, manned by eight na- tives, of whom two or three were dressed in Euro- pean clothes, indicating the presence of earlier for- eign voyagers in these waters. Next he stood to the southward, and his crew took great quantities of codfish by a head land, called by him for that reason Cape Cod, the name which it retains. Gosnold, Brereton, and three others, went on shore, the first Englishmen who are known to have set foot upon the soil of Massachusetts. . . . Sounding his way cautiously along, first in a southerly, and then in a westerly direction, and probably passing to the south of Nantucket, Gos- nold ne.ijt landed on a small island, now called No Man's Land. To this he gave the name of Martha's Vineyard, since transferred to the larger island further north. . . . South of Buzzard's Bay, and separated on the south by the Vineyard Sound from Martha's Vineyard, is scattered the group denoted on modem maps as the Elizabeth Islands. The southwesternmost of these, now known by the Indian name of Cuttyhunk, was denominated by Gosnold Elizabeth Island. . . . Here Gosnold found a pond two miles in cir- cumference, separated from the sea on one side by a beach thirty yards wide, and enclosing 'a rocky islet, containing near an acre of ground, full of wood and rubbish.' This islet was fixed upon for a settlement. In three weeks, while a part of the company were absent on a trading expedition to the mainland, the rest dug and stoned a cellar, prepared timber and built a house, which they fortified with palisades, and thatched with sedge. Proceeding to make an inventory of their provisions, they found that, after supplying the vessel, which was to take twelve men on the return voyage, there would be a sufficiency for only six weeks for the twenty men who would remain. A dispute arose upon the question whether the party to be left behind would receive a share in the proceeds of the cargo of cedar, sassafras, furs, and other commodities which had been collected. A small party, going out in quest of shell-fish, was attacked by some Indians. With men having al- ready, it is likely, little stomach for such cheer- less work, these circumstances easily led to the decision to abandon for the present the scheme of a settlement, and in the following month the adventurers sailed for England, and, after a voy- age of five weeks, arrived at Exmouth. . . . The expedition of Gosnold was pregnant with conse- quences, though their development was slow. The accounts of the hitherto unknown country, which were circulated by his company on their return, excited an earnest interest." The next year (.^pril, 1603), Martin Pring or Prynnc was sent out, by several merchants of Bristol, with two small ves- sels, seeking cargoes of sassafras, which had ac- quired a high value on account of supposed medic- inal virtues. Pring coasted from Maine to Mar- tha's Vineyard, secured his desired cargoes, and gave a good account of the country. Two years later (March, 1605), Lord Southampton and Lord Wardour sent a vessel commanded by George Wey- mouth to reconnoitre the same coast with an eye to settlements. Weymouth ascended either the Kennebec or the Penobscot river some 50 or bo miles and kidnapped five natives. "Except for this, and for some addition to the knowledge of the local geography, the voyage was fruitless." — J. G. Palfrey, Compendious history oj New England, v. i, ch. 2. Also in: Massachusetts Historical Society Col- lection, id series, v. 8 (1843), — J. McKeen, On the voyage of Geo. Weymouth (Maine Historical So- ciety Collection, v. s). — L. G. Tyler, England in America, pp. 34, 4.-!, 49, 51, 35, 39.— E. Channing, History of the United States, v. i, pp. 156, i6q, 170, 171, 1S7. — Report American Historical Associ- ation V. 95, p. 546. 1603-1608. — First French settlements in Arca- dia. See Canada; 1603-1605. 1607. — Land law. See Land titles: 1607. 1607. — Founding of the English colony of Virginia, and the failure in Maine. See British empire: Expansion: 17th century: North America; Virginia: 1606-1607, and after; M.aine: 1607-1608. 1607-1608. — First voyages of Henry Hudson. — "The first recorded voyage made by Henry Hud- son was undertaken . . . for the Muscovy or Rus- sia Company [of England]. Departing from Gravesenci the first of May, 1607, with the in- tention of sailing straight across the north pole, by the north of what is now called Greenland, Hud- son found that this land stretched further to the eastward than he had anticipated, and that a wall of ice, along which he coasted, extended from Greenland to Spitzbcrgen. Forced to relinquish the hope of finding a passage in the latter vicinity, he once more attempted the entrance of Davis' Straits by the north of Greeland. This design was also frustrated and he apparently renewed the attempt in a lower latitude and nearer Greenland on his homeward voyage. In this cruise Hudson attained a higher degree of latitude than any previous navi- gator. ... He reached England on his return on the 15th September of that year [1607]. ... On the 22d of April, 1608, Henry Hudson commenced his second recorded voyage for the Muscovy or Russia Company, with the desi.'n of 'finding a passage to the East Indies by the north-east.' ... On the 3d of June, 1608, Hudson had reached the most northern point of Norway, and on the nth was in latitude 75° 24', between Spitzbergen and Noza Zembla." Failing to pass to the north- east beyond Nova Zembla, he returned to England in August. — J. M. Read, Jr., Historical inquiry concerning Henry Hudson, pp. 133-138. Also is: G. M. Asher, Henry Hudson, the navi- gator (Hakluyt Society, i860). 1608-1616. — Champlain's explorations in the valley of the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes. See Canada: 1608-1611, also 1611-1616. 1609. — Hudson's voyage of discovery for the Dutch. — "Henry Hudson comes into the historian's notice in 1607, and he disappears in the ice and mist of Hudson Bay in 161 1. In this brief period he gained a 'farther north' than any other man for many a long year and made two memorable voyages which are commemorated in the names Hudson River and Hudson Bay. His antecedents are unknown, though conjectures have not been wanting; J. R. Read [Historical inquiry concern- ing Henry Hudson'] gives many facts about sundry Hudsons who lived in the reigns of Elizabeth and James I; but the links connecting these persons with the navigator are still lacking. The sources 287 AMERICA, 1609 Henry Hudson AMERICA, 1609 are given in the original and in translation in Asher's Henry Hudson, tlie navigator (Hakiuyt So- ciety Publications, i860). H. C. Murphy, to whom students of New York history are largely in- debted, printed the contract between the Dutch East India Company and Hudson in his Henry Hudson in Holland. For some inscrutable rea- son, he refused Asher a sight of the brochure, which was designed for private distribution, nor is there any certain information as to the reasons for his voyaging in the service of the Dutch East In- dia Company. Unquestionably he was an English- man, and as certainly he sailed, in i6og, in search of a new waterway to India and Cathay. His vessel was named the Half -Moon; she was a 'fly- boat,' or fast sailing vessel whose speed was secured by making her long in proportion to her beam ; she carried eighteen or twenty men. The Haif- Moon's crew was ill-assorted of Englishmen and "On the morning of the live-and-twentieth,' so the chronicler of the expedition informs us, 'we manned our scute with four muskets and sixe men and tooke one of their shallops and brought it abroad. Then we manned our boat and scute with twelve men and muskets and two stone pieces or mur- derers, and drave the savages from their houses, and tooke the spoyle of them, as they would have done of us,' — which was quite likely after the un- provoked seizure of their boat. Once again, the Halj-Moon steered to the south and, rounding Cape Cod, made the Virginia coast. After coast- ing southward for a time, Hudson turned to the north again and possibly entered Chesapeake Bay. [Asher's Hudson, 73, note ] He certainly sailed into Delaware Bay and, not liking the looks of the shoal water, soon ran out again, and, steer- ing northward, anchored inside of Sandy Hook. On the 4th of August, i6oq, a party went on HENRY HUDSON AND SON CAST ADRIFT IN HUDSON BAY BY MUTINOUS SAILORS, 161 1 Dutchmen and was soon discouraged by ice and storms. Hudson, therefore, abandoned his north- ward course through Arctic seas and steered west- ward for America, to which he was drawn by the knowledge of Weymouth's voyage and of the dis- coveries of the Virginia explorers. [Murphy's Hudson, pp. 47, 63, and .■\sher's Hudson, p. 148. The former is in many ways to be preferred.] It is not unlikely that this following up of the Eng- lish explorations was in the minds of Hudson and his Dutch employers before he sailed from the Texel. In her westward course across the At- lantic, the Half-Moon encountered gale after gale. In one of these her foremast was injured, but on she kept under such sail as she could carry. Off Newfoundland, Hudson sighted some French fish- ing vessels, and stopped long enough for his men to catch 'one hundred and eighteen great coddes. On the 17th of July, in the heat and fog of a Maine summer, he anchored in the vicinity of Penobscot Bay. While lying at his moorings the natives came to the ship in two 'French shallops.' shore, — tradition says on Coney Island, but the landing might have been at almost any other point. Carefully exploring the Narrows, Hudson navigated the Half-Moon into the upper bay, and then into the mouth of the river which now bears his name. The water was salt, and the tide ebbed and flowed with great force. Here, at last, seemed to be the long-looked-for passage to the Pacific Ocean. For eleven days, therefore, the Half-Moon drifted and sailed northwardly. The wonderful scenery of the Hudson — the Pali- sades, the Donderberg, West Point, and the Cat- skills — impressed the explorers. Above the site of the modern Albany the water became too shoal for the ship, but a boat party proceeded eight or nine leagues farther on. [Brodhead, in his New York (i, 31), identifies localities.] While the Half-Moon was at anchor in one of the north- ern reaches, Hudson invited a party of Indians into the cabin and 'gave them much wine and aqua- vitae, that they were all merrie. In the ende one of them was drunke.' As a requital for this hos- 288 S - £ ►4 S AMERICA, 1609-1755 Capf. John Smith Plymouth Colony AMERICA, 1620 pitality, the Indians the next day presented Hud- son with tobacco, wampum, and venison. These natives were Iroquois of the Mohawk tribe. A traditional account of a scene of revelry at the first coming of the whites was preserved among them until the American Revolution; it is generally regarded as descriptive of the coming of Hudson and his crew, but it may possibly refer to earlier French explorers. Two things, however, seem to be reasonably certain. The first is that the Iro- quois appreciated the attentions of the early Dutch navigators and fur traders, who supplied them with fire water and firearms. [See New York His- torical Society's Collections, New Series, i, 71, and Asher's Hudson, 173.] The other assured fact is that these Indians had had slight intercourse with white men, or they would not have been so friendly The natives of the lower Hudson showed their fa- miliarity with the whites by attacking the Half- Moon at every good opportunity. The future careers of the Half-Moon and her gallant captain were not fortunate; putting into Dartmouth, England, Henry Hudson was forbidden to remain longer in the service of the Dutch, and in April, 1610, he sailed from the Thames on his last voyage in quest of the Northwest Passage. Fourteen months later he was set adrift in a shallop in Hudson Bay by a panic-stricken mutinous crew, and no trace of him has since been found. As to the Half-Moon, she gained a Holland port early in 161 1, and four years later was wrecked on the shore of the island of Mauritius." — E. Chan- ning. History of the United States, v. i, pp. 439- 442. Also in: G. Bancroft, History of the United States, ch. 15 (or pt. 2, ch. 12 of "Author's last revision"). — H. R Cleveland, Life of Henry Hud- son, ch. 3-4. — R Juet, Journal of Hudson's voy- age (New York Historical Society Collection, second series, v. i), — J. V. N, Yates and J. W. Moulton, History of the State of New York, pt. i. 1609-1755. — Slavery in colonial New York. See Slavery: 1600-1755 1610-1614. — Dutch occupation of New Neth- erlands, and Block's coasting exploration. See New York State: 1610-1614. 1614-1615.— Voyages of Capt. John Smith to North Virginia. — Naming of the country New England. — "From the time of Capt Smith's de- parture from Virginia [see Virginia: 1607-1610], till the year 1614, there is a chasm in his bio- graphy. ... In 1614, probably by his advice and at his suggestion, an expedition was fitted out by some London merchants, in the expense of which he also shared, for the purposes of trade and dis- covery in New England, or, as it was then called North Virginia. ... In March, 1614, he set sail from London with two ships, one commanded by himself, and the other by Captain Thomas Hunt. They arrived, April 3olh, at the island of Man- hegin, on the coast of Maine, where they built seven boats The purposes for which they were sent were to capture whales and to search for mines of gold or copper, which were said to be there, and, if these failed, to make up a cargo of fish and furs. Of mines, they found no indi- cations, and they found whale-fishing a 'costly conclusion;' for, although they saw many, and chased them too, they succeeded in taking none They thus lost the best part of the fishing season ; but, after giving up their gigantic game, they diligently employed the months of July and Au- gust in taking and curing codfish, an humble, but more certain prey. While the crew were thus employed. Captain Smith, with eight men in a small boat, surveyed and examined the whole coast, from Penobscot to Cape Cod, trafficking with the Indians for furs, and twice fighting with them, and taking such observations of the prominent points as enabled him to construct a map of the country. He then sailed for England, where he arrived in August, within six months after his departure. He left Captain Hunt behind him, with orders to dispose of his cargo of fish in Spain. Unfortunately, Hunt was a sordid and unprinci- pled miscreant, who resolved to make his coun- trymen odious to the Indians, and thus prevent the establishment of a permanent colony, which would diminish the large gains he and a few others derived by monopolizing a lucrative traffic. For this purpose, having decoyed 24 of the natives on board his ship, he carried them off and sold them as slaves in the port of Malaga. . . . Cap- tain Smith, upon his return, presented his map of the country between Penobscot and Cape Cod to Prince Charles (afterwards Charles I.), with a re- quest that he would substitute others, instead of the 'barbarous names' which had been given to particular places. Smith himself gave to the coun- try the name of New England, as he expressly states, and not Prince Charles, as is commonly supposed. . . . The first port into which Captain Smith put on his return to England was Plymouth. There he related his adventures to some of his friends, 'who,' he says, 'as I supposed, were in- terested in the dead patent of this unregarded country.' The Plymouth Company of adven- turers to North Virginia, by flattering hopes and large promises, induced him to engage his services to them." Accordingly in March, 1615, he sailed from Plymouth, with two vessels under his com- mand, bearing sixteen settlers, besides their crew. A storm dismasted Smith's ship and drove her back to Plymouth. "His consort, commanded by Thomas Dermer, meanwhile proceeded on her voy- age, and returned with a profitable cargo in Au- gust ; but the object, which was to effect a per- manent settlement, was frustrated. Captain Smith's vessel was probably found to be so much shattered as to render it inexpedient to repair her; for we find that he set sail a second time from Plymouth on the 24th of June, in a small bark of 60 tons, manned by 30 men, and carry- ing with him the same 16 settlers he had taken be- fore. But an evil destiny seemed to hang over this enterprise, and to make the voyage a succes- sion of disasters and disappointments." It ended in Smith's capture by a piratical French fleet and his detention for some months, until he made a daring escape in a small boat. "While he had been detained on board the French pirate, in order, as he says, 'to keep my perplexed thoughts from too much meditation of my miserable estate,' he em- ployed himself in writing a narrative of his two voyages to New England, and an account of the country. This was published in a quarto form in June, 1616 . . . Captain Smith's work on New England was the first to recommend that country as a place of settlement." — G. S. Hillard, Life and adventures of Captain John Smith, ch. 14-1S. Also in: Captam John Smith, Description of New England. — L. G. Tyler, England in America, pp. 150-152. — Papers, American Historical Associa- tion, V. 4, p 395- 1619. — Introduction of negro slavery into Virginia. See Virginia: 1610. 1620. — Planting of the Pilgrim colony at Plymouth, and the chartering of the council for New England. See Massachusetts: 1620; New England: 1620-1623. 1620. — Formation of the government of Rio de La Plata. See Argentina: 1580-1777. 289 AMERICA, 1620-1660 Grants and C/iarters Buccaneers AMERICA, 1639-1700 1620-1660.— Puritans in New England. See Puritans: 1620-1660. 1621. — Conflicting claims of England and France on the north-eastern coast. — Naming and granting of Nova Scotia. See New Eng- land: 1621-1631. 1629.— Carolina grant to Sir Robert Heath.— "Sir Robert Heath, attorney-general to Charles I., . obtained a grant of the lands between the 38th [36th?] degree of north latitude to the river St Matheo. His charter bears date of October s, 1629. . . . The tenure is declared to be as ample as any bishop of Durham [Palatine], in the kingdom of England, ever held and enjoyed, or ought or could of right have held and enjoyed. Sir Rob- ert, his heirs and assigns, are constituted the true and absolute lords and proprietors, and the coun- try is erected into a province by the name of Carolina [or Carolana], and the islands are to be called the Carolina islands. Sir Robert conveyed his right some time after to the earl of Arundel. This nobleman, it is said, planted several parts of his acquisition, but his attempt to colonize was checked by the war with Scotland, and afterwards the civil war. Lord Maltravers, who soon after, on his father's death, became earl of -Arundel and Sussex . . . made no attempt to avail himself of the grant. ... Sir Robert Heath's grant of land, to the southward of Virginia, perhaps the most e-xtensive possession ever owned by an individual, remained for a long time almost absolutely waste and uncultivated. This vast extent of territory oc- cupied all the country between the 30th and 36th degrees of northern latitude, which embraces the present states of North and South Carolina, Georgia, [.Alabama], Tennessee, Mississippi, and, with very little exceptions, the whole state of Louisiana, and the territory of East and West Florida, a considerable part of the state of Mis- souri, the Mexican provinces of Texas, Chiuhaha, &c. The grantee had taken possession of the coun- try, soon after he had obtained his title, which he afterwards had conveyed to the earl of Arundel Henry Lord Maltravers appears to have obtained some aid from the province of Virginia in 1639, at the desire of Charles I., for the settlement of Carolana, and the country had since become the property of a Dr. Cox; yet, at this time, there were two points only in which incipient English settlements could be discerned; the one on the northern shore of .Albemarle Sound and the streams that flow into it. The population of it was very thin, and the greatest portion of it was on the north-east bank of Chowan river. The settlers had come from that part of Virginia now known as the County of Nansemond. , . . They had been joined by a number of Quakers and other sectaries, whom the spirit of intolerance had driven from New England, and some emigrants from Bermudas . . The other settlement of the English was at the mouth of Cape Fear river; . . those who composed it had come thither from New England in 1659. Their attention was confined to rearing cattle. It cannot now be ascertained whether the assignees of Carolana ever surrendered the charter under which it was held, nor whether it was con- .sidered as having become vacated or obsolete by non-user, or by any other means." — F. X Martin, History of North Carolina, v. i, ch. $ and 7. Also in: L. G. Tyler, England in America, p 120. — C. McL. .Andrews, Colonial self-government, pp. 130, 134. — Papers American Historical Associa- tion, V. 5, p. 443. — Reports American Historical Association, 190^, "'. i, p. 105, 1629. — Attempted settlement in the Bahama Islands. See Bahama Islands. 1629. — Royal charter to the governor and company of Massachusetts bay. See Massachu- setts: 1623-1020. 1629-1631. — Dutch occupation of the Dela- ware. Sec Delaware: 1029-1631. 1629-1632.— English conquest and brief occu- pation of New France. See Canada: 1628-1635 1632. — Charter to Lord Baltimore and the founding of Maryland. — Boundaries of original grant. See Marvlaxd: 1632. 1633-1637.— Charter to Cecil, Lord Baltimore and the planting of the colony at St. Mary's. — Catholicism. See Makvland: 1633-1637 1638. — Planting of a Swedish colony on the Delaware. See Delaware: 1638-1640. 1638-1781. — Slaves in Massachusetts. See Slavery: 163S-17S1. 1639-1663. — Pioneer and unorganized coloniza- tion in North Carolina. See North Carolina: 1639-1663. 1639-1700, — Buccaneers and their piratical warfare with Spain.— "The 17th century gave birth to a class ol rovers wholly distinct from any of their predecessors in the annals of the worici, differing as widely in their plans, organization and exploits as in the principles that governed their ac- tions , , . .After the native inhabitants of Haiti had been exterminated, and the Spaniards had sailed farther west, a few adventurous men from Normandy settled on the shores of the island, for the purpose of hunting the wild bulls and hogs which roamed at will through the forests. The small island of Tortugas was their market ; thither they repaired with their salted and smoked meat, their hides, &c., and disposed of them in exchange for powder, lead, and other necessaries The places where these semi-wild hunters prepared tLe slaugh- tered carcases were called 'boucans,' and they themselves became known as Buccaneers. Prob- ably the world has never before or since witnessed such an extraordinary association as theirs Un- burdened by women-folk or children, these men lived in couples, reciprocally rendering each other services, and having entire community of property — a condition termed by them niatelotage, from the word 'matelot,' by which they addressed one an- other. , , , A man on joining the fraternity com- pletely merged his identity Each member received a nickname, and no attempt was ever made to inquire into his antecedents. When one of their number married, he ceased to be a buccaneer, hav- ing forfeited his membership by so civilized a pro- ceeding He might continue to dwell on the coast, and to hunt cattle, but he was no longer a 'mate- lot' — as a Benedick he had degenerated to a 'colonist,' , , . L'ncouth and lawless though the buccaneers were, the sinister signification now at- taching to their name would never have been merited had it not been for the unreasoning jeal- ousy of the Spaniards. The hunters were actually a source of profit to that nation, yet from an in- sane antipathy to strangers the dominant race resolved on exterminating the settlers Attacked whilst dispersed in pursuance of their avocations, the latter fell easy victims ; many of them were wantonly massacred, others dragged into slavery. . . Breathing hatred and vengeance, 'the brethren of the coast' united their scattered forces, and a war of horrible reprisals commenced. Fresh troops arrived from Spain, whilst the ranks of the buccaneers were filled by adventurers of all nations, allured by love of plunder, and fired with indignation at the cruelties of the aggressors , . , The Spaniards, utterly failing to oust their oppo- nents, hit upon a new expedient, so short-.sighted that it reflects but little credit on their statesman- 290 .OS" ■S-SaSa © s -■SB I sls-s^;..*- • H as 5 i" AMERICA, 1639-1700 Buccaneers Colonial Conflicts AMERICA, 1720-1744 bhip. This was the extermination of the horned cattle, by which the buccaneers derived their means of subsistence; a general slaughter took place, and the breed was almost extirpated. . . . The puffed up arrogance of the Spaniard was curbed by no prudential consideration ; calling upon every saint in his calendar and raining curses on the heretical buccaneers, he deprived them of their legitimate occupation, and created wilfully a set of desper- ate enemies, who harassed the colonial trade of an empire already betraying signs of feebleness with the pertinacity of wolves, and who only de- sisted when her commerce had been reduced to in- significance. . . . Devoured by an undying hatred of their assailants, the buccaneers developed into a new association — the freebooters." — C. H. Eden, West Indies, ch. 3. — "The monarchs both of Eng- land and France, but especially the former, con- nived at and even encouraged the freebooters [a name which the pronunciation of French sailors transformed into 'hlibustiers,' while that corruption became Anglicized in its turn and produced the word filibusters], whose services could be obtained in time of war, and whose actions could be dis- avowed in time of peace. Thus buccaneer, fili- buster, and sea-rover, were for the most part at leisure to hunt wild cattle, and to pillage and massacre the Spaniards wherever they found an op- portunity. When not on some marauding expedi- tion, they followed the chase." The piratical buc- caneers were first organized under a leader in 1630, the islet of Tortuga being their favorite rendezvous. "So rapid was the growth of their settlements that in 1641 we find governors appointed, and at San Christobal a governor-general named De Poincy, in charge of the French filibusters in the Indies. During that year Tortuga was garrisoned by French troops, and the English were driven out, both from that islet and from Santo Domingo, se- curing harborage elsewhere in the islands. Never- theless corsairs of both nations often made common cause. ... In [1654] Tortuga was again recap- tured by the Spaniards, but in 1660 fell once more into the hands of the French; and in their con- quest of Jamaica in 1655 the British troops were reenforced by a large party of buccaneers." The first of the more famous buccaneers (and appar- ently the most ferocious among them all, was a Frenchman called Fran(;ois L'Olonnois, who be- tween 1600-1665 harried the coast of Central Amer- ica with six ships and 700 men. At the same time another buccaneer named Mansvelt, was rising in fame, and with him, as second in command, a Welshman, Henry Morgan, who became the most notorious of all. In i6b8, Morgan attacked and captured the strong town of Portobello, on the Isthmus, committing indescribable atrocities. In 1671 he crossed the Isthmus, defeated the Spaniards in battle and gained possession of the great and wealthy city of Panama — the largest and richest in the New World, containing at the time 30,000 in- habitants. The city was pillaged, fired and totally destroyed. The exploits of this ruffian and the stolen riches which he carried home to England soon afterward gained the honors of knighthood for him, from the worthy hands of Charles II. In 1680, the buccaneers under one Coxon again crossed the Isthmus, seized Panama, which had been considerably rebuilt, and captured there a Spanish fleet of four ships, in which thev launched themselves upon the Pacific. From that time their plundering operations were chieflv directed against the Pacific coast. Towards the close of the seventeenth century, the war between England arid France, and the Bourbon alliance of Spain with France, brought about the discouragement, the decUne and finally the extinction of the bucca. neer organization. — H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific states: Central America, v. 2, ch. 26-30. — See also Jamaica: 1655; 1655-1796. Also in; W. Thornbury, Tlie Buccaneers. — A.O. Exquemelin, History of the Buccaneers. — J. Bur- ney, History of the Buccaneers of .Imerica. 1655. — Submission of the Swedes on the Delaware to the Dutch. See Delaware: 1640- 1656. 1660-1776. — Production of tobacco in Mary- land. See M.\ryland: 1660-1776. 1663. — Grant of the Carolinas to Monk, Clarendon, Shaftesbury, and others. See North Carolina: 1663-1670. 1664. — English conquest of New Netherland. See New York: 1664. 1669-1693. — Failure of Locke's Fundamental Constitutions in America. See North Carolina: 1669-1693. 1673. — Dutch reconquest of New Netherland. See New York: 1673. 1673-1682. — Discovery and exploration of the Mississippi, by Marquette and La Salle. — Louisiana named and possessed by the French. See Canada: 1634-1673; 1669-1687. 1674. — Final surrender of New Netherland to the English. See Netherlands: 1674. 1681. — Proprietary grant to William Penn. See Pennsylvania: 1681. 1685. — Trade with Bristol. Sec Bristol: 1685. 1688-1780. — Beginning and growth of anti- slavery sentiment among the Quakers. — Eman- cipation in Pennsylvania. See Slavery: 1688- 17S0. 1689-1697. — First inter-colonial war: King William's War (the War of the League of Augsburg). See Canada: 1689-1690; 1692-1697; also Newfoundland: 1694-1697. 1690. — First colonial congress. See U. S. A.: 1690; also Canada: 16S0-1600. 1698-1712. — French colonization of Louisiana. — Broad claims of France to the whole valley of the Mississippi. See Louisiana: 1698-1712; 1699- 1763. 1698-1776. — English monopoly of supply of slaves to Spanish colonies. — Asiento contract. Sec Slavery: 1698- 1776. 1699-1763. — French and English trade with the Indians. See Louisiana: 1690- 1763. 1700-1735. — Spread of French occupation in the Mississippi valley and on the lakes. See Canada: 1700- 173 5 1702. — Union of the two Jerseys as a royal province. See New Jersey: 1688-1738. 1702-1713. — Second inter-colonial war; Queen Anne's War (the War of the Spanish Succes- sion). — Final acquisition of Nova Scotia by the English. See Canada: 1711-1713; New England: 1702-1710. 1704-1729. — Early newspapers in America. See Printing and the press: 1704-1729. 1713. — Division of territory between England and France by the Treaty of Utrecht. See Canada: 1713; Utrecht; 1712-1714. 1713-1776. — English crown opposes the aboli- tion of slavery in the colonies. See Slavery: 171,^1776. 1720-1744.— Relations of England with Span- ish America. — "The imperial policy, the English Government's plans and their execution are by no means of the same importance in the English colo- nies on the mainland, because these were self- sufficient and independent enough to work out their own development, and could easily confront imperial regulations by a passive resistance or by a 291 AMERICA, 1720-1744 England and Spanish- America AMERICA, 1720-1744 practical evasion. This method was more difficult in the West Indies; the islands had actually to be fed with Irish salt beef, Old English herrings, and New English com. They were continually subject to inspection by the British fleet, by Brit- ish mihtary officers, and by governors who were not in general liable to the same pressure from their assemblies as were those on the continent. Speaii- ing broadly, the continental colonies developed along their own lines, hampered but not checked permanently by restrictive commercial and politi- cal regulations. The West Indies grew up under the imperial shadow, and felt the influence of Burke's 'winged messengers of vengeance who car- ried (England's) bolts in their pounces to the re- motest verge of the sea.' During our period the West Indies were important to England on every ground, popular, parliamentary, strategic, and com- mercial. It was in the West Indies that Drake and Hawkins had reaped a golden harvest, and the popular imagination still regarded the isles as the outposts from which assaults could be made on the treasure houses of the Incas. Pious Protes- ant adventurers could be trusted to destroy the popish inquisition at the same time that they de- prived Spain of the gold of Eldorado. To the out- bursts of the mob and of popular feeling neither of England's two real rulers in this period were ever indifferent. To parUaraentary pressure W'al- pole and Newcastle were even more susceptible, and there were in the House of Commons not only mem'oers of the South Sea Company, but also West Indian landlords. The West Indian archipelago, unlike the American continent, was in large part settled and exploited by men who lived in England, and who employed agents or factors to manage their West Indian estates. Such men often found it convenient or commercially profitable to ob- tain seats in the Commons, and the young Glad- stone was perhaps the last man who represented the West Indian slavery interest in that body. It was as literally true to say that the West Indies were represented in British Parliament as it was absurd to assert that the American colonies were. Commercial considerations were the most impor- tant of all; in the early eighteenth century Eng- land judged colonies by the value of their trade even more than by their provision of materials — raw and human — for the British Navy. From the trade test the West Indies emerged triumph- antly. The English exports to the West Indies differed so amazingly from the imports that even contemporaries ceased to trust entirely to the bal- ance of trade as a measure of value. By the import test the West Indian trade was about equal during this period to that from the northern colo- nies, and it brought more direct gains to English pockets. Unlike the continental colonies the West Indies could not rival English manufactures, for coffee, cocoa, indigo, cotton, fruits, and sugar were all tropical products. The West Indies were also the center and clearing house of that traffic in negroes, which was so dear to the hearts and pockets of the merchants of Liverpool, Bristol, and London. But more important than all this, they were the subterranean channel which micht con- vey to England the whole measureless volume of Spanish trade, the silks and tea of the East, car- ried from .^capulco to Mexico and thence to Vera Cruz, the Peruvian gold piled high on the quays of Porto Bello, the galleons laden with jewels and plate which sailed from Cartagena and Havana. Bv the .^siento treaty England, and England alone of European powers, had the opportunity of tap- ping these boundless resources. This treaty gave England the sole contract for supplying negroes to Spanish America and also permission to un- lade in Spanish America the cargo of one large ship filled with English goods. Both these privi- leges could be used to open up the Spanish trade. The limited right of entry for English goods might well become an unlimited one under an easy-going Spanish governor. Even when he refused to wink at an illicit commerce, he was often quite unable to police the coast and suppress the smugglers. An enormous illicit trade with the Spanish islands and the mainland was thus promoted or permitted by the interest, the impotence, or the supineness of the Spanish governors themselves. Other coun- tries were not so fortunate in their attempts to smuggle goods into Spanish America. Newcastle admitted to Keene (England's ambassador to Spain) that the 'Dutch trade in the West Indies in general is much more confined than ours, and that which they carry on to the Spanish colo- nies is altogether an illicit one.' As their trade was altogether illicit the poor Dutch could not complain of confiscated goods, but by the .^siento it was hard to draw the line between the avowed English trade and the smuggling. Keene and Vil- larias (the Spanish foreign minister) both declared that the French Government had almost entirely stopped French illicit practices in the West Indies. Even if we do not altogether accept this state- ment it seems safe to assume that the English illicit trade with Spanish America was far larger than the French or the Dutch. It is at least worthy of note that in 1762 the French trade to Spanish America was reckoned at £1,250,000 and the English at ii, 090,000. This was 23 years after 1730, the year in which England's privileged monopoly practically ceased, and we must assume, therefore, that in the interval the destruction of English privilege enabled France to equalize mat- ters. In January, 1738, Horatio Walpole. not the most delightful of historical gossips but his uncle, the most learned and informed of contemporary English diplomatists, wrote a famous secret me- moir for the British Government. In it he re- viewed the whole subject of the English relations with Spanish .America, and his arguments formed the basis of all the diplomacy which led up to the war of 1739. He begins by surveying the treaties between Spain and England and admits that a beneficial construction of treaties had given a large amount of illicit trade to England until the end of the seventeenth century, 'which with- out doubt was by connivance and indulgence on the part of Spain, by treating us in a more fa- vorable manner than any other country whatso- ever.' Spain even extended their indulgence, with respect to navigation and trade, farther than we could pretend to claim by treaty.' When Spain ceased to be England's ally, beneficial construc- tions ceased also. But in 1713 came the peace of Utrecht (q.v.) and the Asiento, which increased the possibility of smuggling. From 1717 to 1710 and from 1726 to 1727 there was actual war be- tween the two countries. From 1734 to 1737 there was, however, again greater freedom of in- tercourse, but from 1737 onward a greater Span- ish severity than at any previous period in the eighteenth century. Walpole's general conclusion as to England issuing letters of reprisal on Spain in case of war is interesting. He avows that this is not a good plan, because the Spaniards have nothing worth taking even in the galleons; 'two- thirds or one-half at least of all these rich load- ings belonged to the French.' Reprisal mav, there- fore, embroil against us those nations 'that have a chief property in the galleons. ' On the other hand, England's rich and valuable West Indian 292 AMERICA, 1720-1744 Spanish- America American Colonies AMERICA, 1776 trade will be at the mercy of all pirates and in- terlopers, as well as privateers in case of reprisal. Accordingly he does not recommend action against Spain, but the conclusion of an agreement by which both nations should arrange to restrain by legislation illicit intercourse between their subjects in the West Indies. Hardwicke or Newcastle wrote a note on the margin of the memoir as follow: 'The trade to the Spanish West Indies, although illicit by treaties between sovereign and sovereign, is so very lucrative that the Parliament will never pass such a law, and the Enghsh merchant will run the hazard of carrying it on in spite of treaty.' This aristocratic Government was singularly defer- ential to the trader. Newcastle complains how he had to endure threats from deputations of mer- chants 'who used in times past to come cap in hand . . . now and the second word is . . . you shall hear of it in another place' (meaning the Commons), and the duke also approved of 'yield- ing to the times' (meaning not the newspaper but the London mob). It was quite clear that neither Newcastle nor Walpole could oppose the Commons or the capital too far, and in fact the main cause of the war of 1739 appears to have been an out- cry of Parliament and people, stimulated by com- mercial influence. If we survey the facts, we shall, I believe, find that during 173S-3Q, the ques- tion of Spanish-American trade dominated and subordinated to itself the w^hole domestic and colonial policy of England. There was in 1739 a popular clamor about Jenkins and his ear [see England i 739-1 741], about outrages on English- men by Spanish governors, and about the tortur- ing of Protestants by Jesuits. There was also a very strong commercial pressure on the Govern- ment to preserve the whole of the existing illicit trade with Spain and Spanish America. None the less it remains a striking fact that, at one point in the negotiations to preserve peace in 1738-30, Wal- pole and Newcastle were willing to suppress a large part of that illicit trade with Spain. They actually prepared and drafted articles for a treaty which would have suppressed the illicit trade of private adventurers to the Spanish Indies and mainland. They were not, however, prepared to suppress the illicit trade conducted by the South Sea Co. under the shadow of the .^siento. They were willing enough to put pressure on private ad- venturers and smugglers because these undercut the profits of the South Sea Co., but they abso- lutely refused to put any pressure on the company to force it to trade fairly. The reason I believe to be rather an interesting one. The English Gov- ernment was financially and officially committed to the support of the South Sea Co., which was an English venture and which had an important parliamentary interest. Private individuals who smuggled on the Spanish M^in were some of them perhaps English, more were West Indians, the ma- jority were from the continental colonies, espe- cially from. New England. The continental colo- nies possessed very little interest in Parliament, the West Indian smugglers had less than the South Sea Co. Hence, if there was to be a suppression of illicit trade that of private individuals must suffer. In a sense this action was a sacrifice of colonial interests to purely English ones. In a way it is a more serious instance of such sacrifice than Walpole's sugar act of 1733. He never at- tempted to enforce the prohibitions of that act, but he did seriously contemplate this other suppres- sion of illicit trade. Thus we see as far back as 1730, a growing difference of treatment and a pos- sible cause of irritation arising between mother- land and her continental colonies. When the wars were over, the separation of commercial interests between the two was soon to be revealed, and to set one fighting against the other. But as yet the difference was hidden in ministerial portofolios. W'hen war broke out in 1739 the New Englanders fitted out ships and spent money to aid the Old Englanders against the Spaniards, and side by side they shared the triumphs and treasure of Porto Bello and disease and defeat beneath the fever- haunted walls of Cartagena." — H. W. V. Temper- ley, Relations of England with Spanish America, 1 720-1 744 (American Historical Association, pp. 231-237). — See also Commerce: Era of geographic expansion: I7th-i8th centuries: North American colonies. 1729. — End of the proprietary government in North Carolina. See North Carolina: 1688- 1729. 1729-1730. — Founding of Baltimore. See Mary- land: I 72 Q- I 730. 1732. — Colonization of Georgia by General Oglethorpe. See Georgia: 1732-1739. 1744-1748. — Third inter-colonial war: King George's war (War of the Austrian Succes- sion). See New England: 1744; 1745; and 1745- 174S. 1748-1760. — Unsettled boundary disputes of England and France. — Fourth and last inter- colonial war, c.-illed the French and Indian War (Seven Years War of Europe) — English con- quest of Canada. See Canada: 1750-1753; 1756; 1759; 1760; Nova Scotia: 1749-1755; 1755; Ohio (Valley): i 748-1 754; 1754; 1755; Cape Breton Island: 1758-1760. 1749. — Introduction of negro slavery into Georgia. See Georgia: 1735-1749. 1750-17S3. — Dissensions among the English colonies on the eve of the great French war. See U. S. A.: 1750-1753. 1754. — Colonial congress at Albany. — Frank- lin's plan of union. See .'\lbany plan of union; U. S. A.: 1754. 1756. — Extent and distribution of slavery in the English colonies. Sec Slavery: 1756. 1762-1803. — Spanish rule in Louisiana. See Missouri: 1762-1803. 1763. — Peace of Paris. — Canada, Cape Breton, Newfoundland, and Louisiana east of the Mis- sissippi (except New Orleans) ceded by France to Great Britain. — West of the Mississippi an-d New Orleans to Spain. — Florida by Spain to Great Britain. See Seven Years War. 1763-1764. — Pontiac's War. See Pontiac's War. 1763-1765. — Growing discontent of the Eng- lish colonies. — Question of taxation. — Stamp Act and its repeal. See U. S. A.: 1760-1775, to 1766. 1766. — Russians on the northwestern coast of United States. See Oregon: 1741-1S36. 1766-1769. — Spanish occupation of New Or- leans and Western Louisiana, and the revolt against it. See Louisiana: i 766-1 768, and 1769. 1769-1785. — Abolition of slavery in Connect- icut and New Hampshire. See Slavery: 1769- 178S. 1774. — Rhode Island prohibits the introduction of slaves. See Sl.avery: 1774. 1775. — Committee of secret correspondence. See State Department, LT^jj^q States: 1774-1789. 1775-1783. — Independence of the English colo- nies achieved. See U. S. A.: 1775 (.'\pril) to 1783 (September) . 1776. — Political powers of Maryland vested in a convention. See Maryland: 1776. 1776. — Rhode Island declares its independence. See Rhode Island: 1776. 293 AMERICA, CENTRAL AMERICAN ASSOCIATION 1776.— Erection of the Spanish vice-royalty of Buenos Ayres. See Arcextina; 1580-1777. 1776-1784. — Maryland's influence on the founding of the western domain. See Mary- land: 1 776-1 784. 1776-1784.— Ordinance of 1784.— Confederation and attitude of Maryland. See M.\r\i.and: 1776- 1784. 1776-1808. — Anti-slavery sentiment in south- ern states. — Its disappearance. See Slavery: 1776-1808. 1792-1807. — Attempts to suppress the slave trade. See Slavery: 17Q2-1S07. 1803-1812. — Control of Louisiana by United States. See Missouri: 1803- 181 2. 1810-1816. — Revolt, independence and confed- eration of the Argentine provinces. See Argen- tina: 1806-1S20. 1815.— Declaration of the Powers against the slave trade. See Slavery: 1815. 1818. — Chilean independence achieved. See Chile: 1S10-181S. 1820-1821. — Independence acquired by Mex- ico and the Central American states. See Mexico: 1820-1826; and Central America: 1S21- 1871. 1823. — Enunciation of Monroe Doctrine. See Monroe Doctrine. 1824. — Peruvian independence won at Aya- cucho. See Perli; 1S20-1S26. 1835. — Russian and British claims in Oregon. — Compromise. See Oregox: 1741-1836. For the detailed development of the various countries in both North and South .America, sec Alaska; .\rgentina; Bolhia; Brazil; Canada; Central America; Colombia; Ecuador; Mexico; Paraguay; Peru; U. S. A.; Uruguay; Venezuela; also American republics, International Union of; Latin America; Railroads: U. S. A.: Inter- continental. AMERICA, Central. See Central America. AMERICAN ABORIGINES. See Indians, .\merican; also under the names of various tribes. AMERICAN ACADEMY IN ROME, an in- stitution for the cultivation of American talent in the field of art, founded in 1865 by a group of men among whom were Charles F. McKim, .Augus- tus Saint-Gaudens, Francis D. Millet, J. Pier- po'nt Morgan, and William K. Vanderbilt. "The Academy offers fellowships to men and women who have already had a preliminary education in the arts and have given evidence of being poten- tial creators of art of the hiehest order. It holds out to the gifted youth throughout the Union ex- actly the same privileges which the French Acad- emy offers to the geniuses of France. Fellows, or prize-holders, are given an opportunity of living in an artistic environment and meeting with great minds in their own and allied arts and letters. That the American .\cademy fills a long-felt want, and that the plan upon which it was founded is ideal, is attested by the fact that during the past quarter of a century it has produced, in the fine arts, such men as John Russell Pope, Harry Al- len Jacobs, Paul Manship, Herman A. MacNeil, George Breck and Eugene Savage. From its classi- cal studies fellowships, it has furnished our uni- versities and schools with nearly one hundred and fifty professors trained in the humanistic as op- posed to the pedantic spirit." — G. Rene du Bois, American Art (Arls and Decoration, Mar. 25, 1020.1 AMERICAN AIR SERVICE. See .\\x\tion: Development of airplanes and air service: 1914- 1918. AMERICAN ALLIANCE FOR LABOR AND DEMOCRACY. See American Federa- tion or Labor: 1017-1018. AMERICAN AMBULANCE. — "During the first eight months of the World War the .American .Ambulance continually hoped to extend its work to an .Ambulance Service delinitely connected with the armies in the field, but not until April, 1015, were these hopes delinitel\' realized. The history, however, of these lirst eight months is important ; its mistakes showed the way to suc- cess; its expectations brought gilts of cars, in- duced volunteers to come from .America, and laid the basis upon which the present service is founded. A gift of ten ambulances, whose bodies were made out of packing-boxes, enabled the .American Am- bulance, at the very outset of the war, to take part in the transportation service, and as more and more donations were made, small squads were formed in an attempt to enlarge the work. ... In .April, iqi5, . . . the French authorities made a place for American .Ambulance Sections at the front on trial. .A squad of ten ambulances was sent to V'osges, and this croup attracted the at- tention of their commanding officers, who asked that it be increased by ten cars so as to form it into an independent Sanitary Section. -As soon as this was done, the unit took its place in con- junction with a French Section in an important Sector on the front in .Alsace. With this initial success a new order of things began, and in the same month a second Section of twenty cars was formed and was stationed, again in conjunction with an cxistins French service, in the much-bom- barded town of Pont-a-Mousson. In the mean- time, two squads of five cars each had been work- ing at Dunkirk. These were now reenforced by ten more and the whole Section was then moved to the French front in Belgium, with the result that at the end of the month of .April, 1015, the Field Service of the American .Ambulance had really come into existence. It comprised three Sections of twenty ambulances, a staff car, and a supply car. . . . The story of the next year is one of real achievement, in which the three Sections emerged from the test with a record of having fulfilled the highest expectations of proving their utility to France. . . . The ambulances were manned chiefly by .American college men who agreed to serve not less than six months, and who brought to the work youth and intelligence, initia- tive and courage. ... In November, 1015, at the request of General Headquarters, a fourth Section, made possible through the continued aid of gen- erous friends in .America, took its place in the field ... In Feb:uary, loib. Section 2 was summoned to the vicinity of Verdun at the moment of the great battle, and in March definite arrangements for a fifth Section was completed." — H. S. Harri- son and S. Galatti, Friends of France, pp. 1-4. — By the end of the war, 47 companies had been or- ganized with a personnel of 4,760 men. After bringing the men together and instructing them in first-aid. the Red Cross turned them over to the .Army Medical Department and they were at once mustered into service. All of them were motor companies. Until 1Q16 the .Army had made no provision for such motorized companies, and ani- mal-drawn vehicles were used in all cases. AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE. See Ar- chitectire: Modern: .America. AMERICAN ART. See Painting: American; Sculpture: Modern: .American sculpture. AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR LABOR LEGISLATION, an organization affiliated with the International .Association for Labor Legisia- 294 AMERICAN ASSOCIATION AMERICAN COMMISSION tion; founded igo6; interests itself chiefly in la- bor problems and endeavors to influence legislation for the betterment of labor conditions throughout the country ; has been a great influence in the en- actment of federal and state workmen's compensa- tion and insurance laws. The association publishes a quarterly, American Labor Legislation Review. — See also Labok legislation: igo6-iQ2i. AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, the most important American scientific society ; was organ- ized in Boston in 1S47. It was an outgrowth of the Association of American Geologists and Natur- alists, The society is organized in sections, each of which holds its own convention at the time of the annual meeting of the association. These sec- tions include: A, mathematics and astronomy; B, physics; C, chemistry; D. mechanical science and engineering; E, geology and geography; F, zool- ogy; G, botany; H, anthropology and psychology; I, social and economic science; K, physiology and experimental medicine; L, education. Since igoi the journal Science has been the semi-official organ of the association. AMERICAN BLACKLIST. See Blacklist: American. AMERICAN CABINET. See Cabinet, Amer- ican. AMERICAN-CANADIAN FISHERIES CONFERENCE. See Alaska: 1914-1918. AMERICAN CIVIC ASSOCIATION.— "Or- ganized effort for the systematic makin-^ of a beau- tiful America did not manifest itself until within comparatively recent years. Prior to 1904 there had been various short-lived state associations, a few interstate societies and two national organizations, working with the same general objects in view. But at St. Louis, in 1Q04, the year of the great exposition, a merger of the two national organiza- tions brought forth the American Civic Association which, since that time, has carried on with increas- ing success and popular support the greatly needed work for a- 'More Beautiful America'; and since that time it has been recognized as the one great national agency for the furtherance of that work. With its purpose as staled in its constitution clearly before it, it has constantly widened the circle of its usefulness until recently they were grouped under fifteen general departments, each department headed by an expert in his or her particular spec- ialty. In classifying its varied activities, the As- sociation announces that it aims 'to make Ameri- can hving conditions clean, healthful, attractive; to extend the making of public parks; to promote the opening of gardens and playgrounds for chil- dren and recreation centers for adults; to abate public nuisances — including objectionable signs, un- necessary poles and wires, unpleasant and wasteful smoking factory chimneys ; to make the buildings and the surroundings of railway stations and fac- tories attractive; to extend the practical influence of schools; to protect existing trees and to en- courage intelligent tree planting ; to preserve great scenic wonders (such as Niagara Falls and the White Mountains) from commercial spoliation. So vigorously has it pursued these activities that it has seen some of them develop to such proportions that they were ready to swing off from the par- ent circle into spheres of their own. Such was the case with the playground movement, which for years was fostered most energetically by the .Ameri- can Civic Association until it grew into an inde- pendent organization known as the National Play- ground Association, and which is now an agency of splendid achievements in its one specialized func- tion." — B. Watrous, American Civic Association {American City, October, 1909). — During 1913 a group of the association's members visited various European countries to study the civic progress there and to see what methods of efficient adminis- tration might be adapted to American needs. From Oct. 13-15, 1920 the American Civic Association held its sixteenth annual convention at Amherst. — See also Civic beauty; City planning; Bill- boards: Efforts of women. AMERICAN CIVIL WAR. See U. S. A.: i860 (November-December) and after. AMERICAN COLONIES. See America; U. S. A.: 1607 and after. Development of agriculture. See Agricul- ture: Modern period: United States: Beginnings. AMERICAN COLONIZATION SOCIETY, an organization formed in 1816 for the purpose of returning negroes to Africa. It had strong support, especially in the South and was aided by some state governments and by federal appropriations. It formed a settlement called Liberia on the Af- rican coast to which it sent out some negroes. — See also Liberia; Early history. Also in: H. T. McPherson, History of Liberia — A. B. Hart, Slavery and abolition. AMERICAN COMMISSION FOR RELIEF IN BELGIUM. See Belgium; 1914. AMERICAN COMMISSION IN SYRIA. See International relief: Near East. AMERICAN COMMISSION TO NEGO- TIATE PEACE.— "The Paris Conference was opened in January [1919]. . . . The President of the United States, Dr. Woodrow Wilson, had ar- rived in Europe in the previous month; and the American representatives being present in Paris, no time was lost in making arrangements for the Con- ference. Dr. Wilson was accompanied by Mr. Robert Lansing (Secretary of State), and by Colo- nel E. M. House, Mr. Henry White, and General T. H. Bliss. The last-named delegate had previous- ly been the American representative on the Supreme War Council at Versailles, and hence he was, of course, well-known in Paris." — Annual Register for 1919, p. ISO. — The Commission was accompanied by a band of expert advisers. "As to personnel, the problem proved to be less difficult than at first it threatened to be. . . . Work of such de- tail could not be expected of statesmen and diplo- mats, nor would they have been competent for it. The need was for men expert in research. Con- sequently the staff was in the main recruited from strong universities and colleges but also from among former officials, lawyers, and business men. The studies that were made during the winter, spring and autumn of 1918 in the geography, his- tory, economic resources, political organization and affiliations, and ethnic and cultural characteristics of the peoples and territories in Europe, Africa, Asia, and the islands of the Pacific, served as tests for the selection and elimination of workers; the men making these studies and reporting thereon were under constant observation, and as a result the best fitted among them emerged and were put in charge of various subdivisions of the work and assigned groups of assistants. As a consequence, by the fall of 1918 The Inquiry was thus organ- ized: "Director, Dr. S. E. Mezes, College of the City of New York. "Chief Territorial Specialist, Dr. Isaiah Bowman, American Geographical Society. (Dr. Bowman was named executive officer in the summer of 1918, after Mr. Walter Lippmann resigned as sec- retary to undertake intelligence work for the army in France.) "Regional Specialiits: 295 AMERICAN DRAMA AMERICAN EXPEDITIONARY FORCES For the northwestern frontiers — Dr. Charles H. Haskins, Harvard University. For Poland and Russia — Dr. R. H. Lord, Har- vard University. For Austria-Hungary — Dr. Charles Seymour, Yale University. For Italian boundaries — Dr. W. E. Lunt, Hav- erford College. For the Balkans — Dr. Clive Day, Yale Univer- sity. For Western Asia — Dr. W. L. Westermann, Uni- versity of Wisconsin. For the Far East— Capt. S. K. Hornbeck, U. S. A. For Colonial Problems — Mr. George L. Beer, formerly of Columbia University. "Economic Specialist, Dr. A. A. Young, Cornell University "Librarian and Specialist in History, Dr. James T. Shotwell, Columbia University. "Specialist in Boundary Geography, Maj. Doug- las Johnson, Columbia University. "Chief Cartographer, Prof. Mark Jefferson, State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Michigan. "Besides The Inquiry proper, and affiliated with they would have on the spirits of the allied peoples, and the first division under Pershing was dis- patched. .'\t the same time steps were taken to raise a great army." — J. S. Bassett, Our u , \^^ j^v. fh";Xgg.e: "^^rLccessfu, in U, citie. be.^ fitting 47.IP7 ^^"^''"?!" ,,3,-,tm go^g on. It was strike for eight hours, and t w ^^^^ ^^ through trade umon activity, the A. !■. oi i> sistently demanded the shorter work-day loj^l'L r^Ti'^hfa^rTi:s.^t^:ithrre't^ tfe^'bu w't wholW dependent on the view- .nint nf the federal official having the power to point ol tne i"ierd. Congress enacted an being enforced. It also was soon found that th ■isb"'" w-"'" -""""■' '■'• meni Owing to the emergencies created by he ^:i:t wooing ^^^,,:if L^-„,^ri:w '^nTrcrarv- tt "SeV that ''all overtime hould be paid for at the rate of time and a haf^ TWs mainlined the ,eight-hour principle while meeting an emergency^ -/W.,PP^ i°-^ - of^S-7i"ghrrgrst°the'mT iuiance U ?'ade ut^ons 'see Labor strikes a.o bovcotts: '*?^«''°°Trouble over Buck stove and range boy?ou-'^s7e"tvc^^^ Recent judicia^^^^^^^^^^^ 1910.-Admi3sion of Negroes. See Race pbob "igTl-Union'with W. F. M. See Ikousxrial WORKERS OP THE WORUK R-ent tendencies. Wo^d-X-'AtearAuLncelor Labor and KcrYcy:-War,,.abor boards S,ppo^ states support the government but they caMmto existence [in 'be summei^ oj i i , -Pa^^^ ^^^„ ine weeiv " .,, , ^^ organized labor m served as Losalty \\eeK d> "6 pffectivelv to anti-American propaganda^ -F^L XV ar^ lif labor 298 AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR as they got into working order, the work of the Cominiliec on Labor of the Council of National Deleiisc became, relatively at least, less important. At the outset, however, the whole work of de- termining fiindcimEntal policies and of taking ac- tion to secure their adoption fell upon this body. The Committee was formally constituted on Feb- ruary 13, 1917. The first step taken by Mr. Gompers was to secure a general agreement on the part of organized labor as to the attitude it would take towards the war and the problems engen- dered by it. In his capacity as President of the American Federation of Labor he iirst called a preliminary conference of representatives of or- ganized labor on February 28, and a meeting of the Executive Committee of the Federation on March g. This was followed by a general con- ference in Washington on March 9, 1017, of the executive officers of all the leading labor organiza- tions of the United States. At this meeting, which was a very important gathering attended by more than ISO persons, there was adopted a formal dec- laration of principles setting forth the attitude of union labor towards the war. In this declaration organized labor pledged its unqualified support of the war and made known its demands. Among them were the demands that Government should take energetic steps to curb profiteering, and that labor should have adequate representation in all bodies created by the Government for the handling of industrial matters. This meeting of labor was followed by a general conference of representatives of labor, employers' organizations, and others prominent in the field of social reform at Wash- ington on April 2, 1917, called by Mr. Gompers as Chairman of the Committee on Labor of the Council of National Defense. The persons invited to participate in this conference, numbering from 180 to 200 persons, effected a permanent organiza- tion as the full Committee on Labor of the Coun- cil of National Defense. It thereupon organized itself into numerous subcommittees to deal with specific phases of the labor problem and provided for the creation of an Executive Committee of 11 members who should act for the whole Committee. This E.xecutive Committee on April 6, 1917, adopted a formal resolution, the most important provision of which was a recommendation that the Council of National Defense should issue a statement to employers and employees in all in- dustrial establishments and transportation sys- tems, advising that 'neither employers nor em- ployees shall endeavor to take advantage of the country's necessities to change existing standards.' " — W. F. Willoughby, Government organization in war time and after, pp. 207-210. — "For the pur- pose of formulating a national labor policy and for devising and providing a method of labor ad- justment which would be acceptable to employers and employes at least for the war emergency pe- riod, the Wilson administration created on Janu- ary 28, 1918, the War Labor Conference Board consisting of five representatives of employers, five representatives of employes, and two of the gen- eral public. . . . The five representatives of the employes were officials of national and interna- tional labor unions whose members were almost entirely engaged in war production. The mem- bers of the board were appointed by the Secretary of Labor upon nomination by the president of the National Industrial Conference Board, an or- ganization of employers, and the president of the American Federation of Labor, the latter repre- senting all the more important labor unions of the country with the exception of the four railway brotherhoods whose members were engaged in the operation of trains. Each of the two groups thus selected chose one of the two representatives of the public. This board presented a formulation of industrial principles which represented the Ad- ministration's labor policy and which were to govern the relations between workers and employ- ers in war industries for the duration of the war. These principles are [in part] as follows: There should be no strikes or lockouts during the war. The right of workers to organize in trade unions and to bargain collectively through chosen repre- sentatives is recognized and affirmed. [The ana- logous right of the employers was also recognized and affirmed.] . . . Employers should not dis- charge workers for membership in trade unions, nor for legitimate trade union activities. The workers, in the exercise of their right to organize, shall not use coercive measures of any kind to induce persons to join their organizations, nor to induce employers to bargain or deal therewith. In establishments where the union shop exists the same shall continue and the union standards as to wages, hours of labor, and other conditions of employment shall be maintained. . . . Established safeguards and regulations for the protection of the health and safety of workers shall not be re- laxed. If it shall become necessary to employ women on work ordinarily performed by men, they must be allowed equal pay for equal work and must not be allotted tasks disproportionate to their strength. The basic eight hour day is rec- ognized as applying in all cases in which existing law requires it. . . . The right of all workers, in- cluding common laborers, to a living wage is hereby declared." — F. J. Warne, Workers at war, pp. 84-87. — "Among the most important of these [agencies to control labor relations] is the Na- tional War Labor Board recommended by the War Labor Conference Board in its report of March 29 and created by Presidential Proclamation April 8, 1918. This board had jurisdiction over all mat- ters of labor controversies between employers and employes in all fields of industrial or other activ- ity affecting war production where there did not already exist by agreement or federal law a means of settlement. Even where such agencies were provided, jurisdiction was with the War Labor Board in case these agencies failed to secure ad- justment. . . . The War Labor Board consisted of the same members selected in the same manner and by the same agencies as the War Labor Con- ference Board." — Ibid., pp. 131-132. — "On Novem- ber g [1919] a specially called meeting of the ex- ecutive council of the American Federation of La- bor, representing 114 national and international unions and an individual membership of more than four miUion workers engaged in all the occupa- tions throughout the country, took up considera- tion in a most serious attitude of mind the coal miners' strike and the action of the Government in relation to it. . . . The attitude of organized labor as represented by this supreme advisory au- thority of the labor unions was expressed in an 'ap- peal to the public' containing among other things the following: . . . 'By all the facts in the case the miners' strike is justified. We indorse it. We are convinced of the justice of the miners' cause. We pledge the miners the full support of the .American Federation of Labor and appeal to the workers and the citizenship of our country to give like endorsement and aid to the men engaged in this momentous struggle." — Ibid., pp. 172-173. — See also Labor p.^rties: 1868-1019. 1919. — Thirty-ninth Annual Convention. — "The 30th annual convention of the American Federation of Labor was held in Atlantic City, N. J., from 299 AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR June 7 to June 24, 191Q. . . . Almost all official recommendations were upheld by an overwhelming vote, the only evidence of any dissenting opinion being the nature of some of the 211 resolutions introduced but always defeated when of a radical nature. . . . 'The conflict for industrial democracy is just beginning,' declared Samuel Gompers, presi- dent of the American Federation of Labor, in his openirfg address to the convention. . . . Previous to Gompers' address, which was the key-note speech of the convention and sounded the new in- ternational relationship of labor thiough the League of Nations, a cablegram was read from President Wilson, lauding Gompers for having es- tablished in international circles as well as at home, the reputation of the .'Vmerican Federation of La- bor for sane and helpful counsel.' . . . The after- noon of the first day was consumed with the read- ing of the report of the .'\merican Federation of Labor Delegation to the Peace Conference by James Duncan, first vice-president. . . . Miss Mar- garet Bonfield, fraternal delegate from the British Trades Union Congress, addressed the convention bringing the greetings of the organized wage earn- ers of Great Britain. . . . One of the most note- worthy [speeches was] an address by Glenn E. Plumb, counsel of the four railroad brotherhoods, advocating the railroad workers' plan for govern- ment ownership and democratic control of the rail- roads. The executive council of the Federation was later instructed to take necessary steps toward realizing this project. . . . The one successful at- tack on the administration was the overturn of the committee on resolutions' recommendation 'that the principle of self-determination of small nations applies to Ireland' for the stronger amend- ment from. the convention itself calling for recog- nition of the Irish republic and later providing in the indorsement of the League of Nations that this ?hould not exclude Irish independence. The Irish nationalists in the convention backed by the radi- cals anxious to score over the administration and demonstrate the imperialist character of the peace settlement forced the issue and defeated the com- mittee recommendation ... by a vote of 181 to 150 and adopted the amendment asking recogni- tiofi for Ireland by the Peace Conference. . . . This was the only revolt of the convention, the Irish being placated and assisting in the condem- nation of the Russian Soviet republic soon there- after. . . . John P. Frey, secretary of the resolu- tions committee, brought in a recommendation as a substitute [for three other resolutions] urging the Government to withdraw all troops from Rus- sia but refusing the endorsement of the Soviet Government or any other Russian government un- til a constituent assembly has been held to estab- lish 'a truly democratic form of government.' . . . Vigorous opposition . . . failed to change the re- sult and the recommendation of the committee was adopted. . . . One of the favorable results of the convention was the support obtained by the Negro workers from the e.\ecutive council and the con- vention, tending to break down the bars against admission of colored workers in the international unions. Nearly fifty of the international officials reported that they raised no barrier against the Negro, and the convention authorized the forma- tion of federal locals of all colored workers re- fused membership in any international union. . . . The most dramatic incident of the convention was the solitary stand made against the League of "Nations covenant and the labor charter contained in the peace treaty by Andrew Furuseth, the sea- men's leader. . . . The entire executive council of the American Federation of I^abor and its national officials were re-elected. . . . Samuel Gompers was appointed to represent the Federation at the meet- ing of the Trades Union International Congress in Amsterdam on July 25." — C. Laue, igig A. F. oj L. convention (American Labor Year Book, igig- ig20, pp. I4g-is5), — See also Labor parties; igiS- iQ2o; R.ULROADs: igig: Plumb plan. 1920. — Fortieth Annual Convention. — Statistics of the federation. — ^Gompers and the national election. — "The American Federation of Labor met in annual convention for the fortieth time at Montreal, Canada, on June 7, ig20. . . . The most contentious issue fought out on the floor of the convention during its 12 days' session was the ques- tion of Government ownership of the railroads. The resolution in favor of Government ownership and democratic operation, which was passed by a vote of 20,058 to 8,348, is as follows: "Resolved, That the Fortieth Annual Conven- tion of the American Federation of Labor go on record as indorsing the movement to bring about a return of the systems of transportation to Gov- ernment ownership and democratic operation; and be it further "Resolved, That the executive Council be, and are hereby, instructed to use every effort to have the transportation act of ig2o repealed and legis- lation enacted providing for Government owner- ship and democratic operation of the railroad sys- tems and the necessary inland waterways. . . . "The convention indorsed the covenant of the League of Nations without reservations. 'It is not a perfect document and perfection is not claimed for it. It provides the best machinery yet devised for the prevention of war. It places human rela- tions upon a new basis and endeavors to enthrone right and justice instead of strength and might as the arbiter of international destinies.' Other reso- lutions adopted by the convention may be sum- marized as follows: Compulsory military train- ing and military training in schools were con- demned as 'unnecessary, undesirable, and un- .American.' Public oflicers were urged to make all possible effort to release political prisoners. The Kansas court of industrial relations was condemned and its abolition urged. Four resolutions on this subject were referred to the executive council of the Federation for action in bringing about the repeal of the law involved. Congress was enjoined to enact immediately the legislation necessary to establish the United States Employment Service as a permanent bureau in the Department of Labor. The creation of a Federal compensation insurance fund for maritime workers, under the administra- tion of a Federal or State compensation commis- sion, was urged to offset the recent decision of the United States Supreme Court denying longshore- men the benefits of State workmen's compensation laws. Reclassification of the civil service was ad- vocated and the adoption of a wage scale com- mensurate with the 'skill, training, and responsi- bility involved in the work performed.' Enact- ment of legislation granting civil-service employees the right to a hearing and to an appeal from judg- ment in case of demotion or dismissal was also urged. The nonpartisan political campaign inau- gurated by the Federation at its .Atlantic City con- vention in igiq to defeat candidates for office 'hostile to the trade-union movement' and 'elect candidates who can be relied upon to support measures favorable to labor,' was indorsed. A fund of $20,545.42 was donated to the campaign committee by members of the Federation between February 24, 1020, and April 30, ig20. Repeal of the Lever law and of the espionage act and other wartime legislation was demanded. Legislation 300 AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR AMERICAN HISTORICAL against profiteering, in support of the Women's Bureau and of a Federal housing program was advocated, and the strengthening of the Depart- ment of Labor was urged. Continued organization of the steel industry and particular attention to organization of laundry workers and telephone op- erators were ordered. The Nolan minimum-wage bill (H. R. 5726), providing a minimum wage of $3 a day for Federal employees, was approved. The secession movement of the 'outlaw' railway unions was condemned. The convention adopted a resolution in favor of the independence of Ireland and voted against recognition of the Soviet Gov- ernment. Cooperation between labor unions and the farmers was advocated. A committee was ap- pointed to report upon the question of health in- surance to the IQ2I convention of the Federation. On the question of Asiatic immigration, the con- vention concurred in the resolution proposed by the Building Trades Council of California urging upon Congress: 'First, cancellation of the "gentle- men's agreement;" second, exclusion of "picture brides" by action of our Government; third, ab- solute exclusion of Japanese, with other Asiatics, as immigrants; fourth, confirmation and legaliza- tion of the principle that Asiatics shall be forever barred from American citizenship; fifth, amend- ment of section i of Article XIV of the Federal Constitution, providing that no child born in the United States of Asiatic or Oriental parents shall be eligible to American citizenship unless both parents are eligible for such citizenship.' The em- ployment of alien labor on the Panama Canal was protested. Fullest support was pledged to 'rees- tablish the rights of free speech, free press, and free assemblage,' wherever denied. A congressional investigation into conditions in the West Virginia coal fields was asked. Congress was urged to make adequate provision for World War veterans. Relief for the people of Austria, Serbia, Armenia, and neighboring countries was urged. . . . "Membership in the American Federation of Labor has passed the four million mark. In iqoo it was over half a million, in iqo2 over one million, in 1914 over two million, and in igig over three million. The paid-up and reported membership of affiliated unions for the year ending April 30, ig20, was 4,078,740. This number does not in- clude the 207,065 members of the national organ- izations at present suspended from the Federation, nor does it include the membership of those rail- way brotherhoods partially affiliated. The mem- bership of the Federation in iq2o represents an increase of 100.6 per cent over the membership in igiS, when it was 1,946,347 [having fallen slightly from igi4]. There are 36,741 local unions in the no national and international unions directly af- filiated with the Federation in addition to the 1,286 local trade and federal labor unions, which are similarly affiliated. The strike benefits paid by the Federation to local trade and federal unions for the year ending April 30, ig2o, totaled $67,- 9i2.gs. A total of $3,213,406.30 in death benefits, $937,2 ig. 25 in sick benefits, and $65,026.42 in un- employed benefits, was paid during the same period by affiUated international organizations. These figures do not include the benefits paid by local unions, many of which provide death, sick, and out-of-work benefits, and therefore represent but a small proportion of the aggregate sum paid by trade unions for these purposes." — Monthly Labor Review (Ihiiled Stales Bureau of Labor Statistics, August, 1920, pp. 168-171).- — In line with the fed- eration's political policy of "rewarding its friends and punishing its enemies," Mr. Gompers during the presidential campaign urged organized labor to vote for James Cox, the Democratic candidate; Cox received about seven million votes fewer than Harding. — See also Railroads; 1920: Esch-Cura- mins .-^ct. 1921. — Forty-first Annual Convention. — The federation held its forty-first annual convention at Denver, Colo., June 13 to 25, ig2i. One notable feature of the convention was the contesting of the election for the presidency. John L. .Lewis, president of the United Mine Workers of America, was the opposition candidate, but Samuel Gompers was reelected by a vote of 25,022 to 12,324; not voting, 1,984. This was Mr. Gompers' fortieth election to the presidency of the federation. At one of the opening sessions, J. H. Thomas, British fraternal delegate to the convention, warned the federation against encouraging any American in- tervention in the Irish question. This question aroused much discussion at various sessions; Irish sympathizers gradually divided into those who fav- ored a resolution calling for American recognition of Ireland as a republic and those who favored a resolution demanding a boycott of English- made goods. The resolution of the "recognition" was finally adopted. The convention defeated by a roll call vote of 21,742 to 14,530 a resolution proposing that the war-making power be taken from Congress and given to the people to be exer- cised through a referendum. The convention adopted a resolution favoring public ownership of the railroads, after a clause providing for govern- ment control of all basic industries had been stricken out. Definite action on the campaign for a six-hour day was postponed. A resolution offered by negro delegates asking the federation to take steps toward abolishing the Ku-Klux-Klan was opposed. The convention declined to interfere with the autonomy of international or national unions in regard to the membership of women or negroes. It endorsed the Sheppard-Towner bill (to aid in the establishment of maternity centers), called for federal control and development of na- tural resources, declared against universal military training and denounced the "growing abuse of in- junctions in labor disputes." 1921. — Unemployment statistics. See U. S. A.: 1921 (May); Unemployment figures. AMERICAN FICTION. See American lit- erature; 1790-1860. AMERICAN FUR TRADING COMPANY. See Oregon: 1808-1826; TJ'isconsin: 1812-1825; WYOi.nxG: 1S07-1833. AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. — Executive. See President; Cabinet members; also department heads under name of department as. Labor, De- partment or. Judicial. See Supreme court; Courts, etc. Legislative. See Congress of the United States; Federal government; Representative government. state. See State go\'ERNMENt. AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIA- TION, founded at Saratoga in 18S4. An Ameri- can Historical Society had been founded in Wash- ington in 1835 by Peter Force and others. It had had John Quincy Adams, Lewis Cass and Levi Woodbury as presidents and had published one vol- ume of transactions. The call for the meeting at which the American Historical Association was or- ganized was signed by John Eaton, President, and Frank B. Sanborn, Secretary of the Social Science Association, Charles Kendall Adams of Ann Arbor, Moses Coit Tyler of Ithaca and Herbert B. Adams. About forty responded to the call. A constitution was prepared by C. K. Adams, H. B. Adams, Clar- ence W. Bowen, Ephraim Emerton, M. C. Tyler 301 AMERICAN HISTORICAL REVIEW and William B. Weeden. The first paper was read by President Andrew D. White of Cornell On studies in general history and the history of civili- zation," Mr. White was the first and George Ban- croft the second president of the Association^ On January 4, iSSq, President Cleveland signed the act of incorporation of the Association in the Dis- trict of Columbia, "for the promotion of historica studies, the collection and preservation of historical manuscripts, and for kindred purposes in the in- terest of American history and of history in America." This act requires the Association to have its principal office in Washington and to re- port annually to the secretary of the Smithsonian Institution concerning its proceedings and the con- dition of historical study in America. The annual reports were to be published by the public printer. Prior to 188Q the publications were known as Papers of the American Historical Association. The connection with the government has brought some disadvantages, such as the barring from publica- tion in the annual reports of some discussions on reUgious questions and the papers of the Churcti History section. The Association has a Historical Manuscripts Commission which has done much to preserve valuable historical manuscnpt material. Members of the Association were prominent in the founding of the American Historical Review in 180'; [The issue of October, ig20, contains the history of its first 25 years.] At the meeting m i8q6 a Committee of Seven on the teachmg of his- tory in secondary schools was appointed at the in- stance of Professor Henry Morse Stephens. The report of this committee did much to improve the teaching of history in high schools and acadernics. Since i8q8 the Association has aided the Amencan Historical Review and distributed it to all the members. Standing committees on bibliography and publications and a Public Archives Cominis- .ion have done good work. The Association awards prizes for historical essays. In 1904 a Committee of Eight was appointed to prepare a re- port on the studv of history in elementary schools after the analogy of the Committee of Seven. "The Committee on History and Education lor citizenship in the Schools was constituted in 191 8, first by the National Board for Historical Service and later bv the Association, in order to consider those extensive modifications in the methods of historical teaching in the Schools which it was then felt, must be brought about as a result of the Great War, in order that history might do its full part in training the minds of the young for proper service to a new era."— Amencan Historical Revie-w. AprU. 1021, p. 410-During the World War the Association rendered valuable services for the Committee on Public Information and the National Board of Historical Service. AMERICAN HISTORICAL REVIEW.-A periodical, founded in 1895. See American his- torical ASSOCIATION. AMERICAN INDIANS. See Indians, Amer- ican; also under the names of various tribes^ AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF INTERNA- TIONAL AFFAIRS.— "Because these facts [in- creasing international relationships] are recognized, simultaneous efforts are being made [October, 1Q20I in several nations to build up institutes of inter- national affairs. Such organizations have already been established in the United States, in Great Britain and in Japan. The American branch is now in the process of reor ;anization and ot com- bination with the Council on Foreign Relations under the title of the American Institute of Inter- national Affairs. The undertaking, it is significant to note, arose out of the informal meeUngs which AMERICAN INSTITUTE were held by the experts of the American and British peace delegations at Paris. Lmdsay Russell, Chairman of the Council on Foreign Relations, is actively aiding the reorganization. Concerning the activities of the new body, he said . . . 'What is being attempted is to establish a national centre of international thought. ... The Amencan Insti- tute of which Whitney Shepardson is secretary, has established a nucleus for an international library and outlined the publication of monographs on international topics which concern us as a nation The first work of the American Insti- tute has been to co-operate with the British Insti- tute in causin; to be published a voluminous his- tory of the Peace Conference [in five volumes, edited bv H. W. V. Temperleyl. This has been distributed to libraries. It is important to note that the American Institute of International Attairs is designed to be a source and centre of informa- tion, but not of propaganda. .\s such, the institute can formulate no policies. ... The British were wilUng to undertake the first work, that of pre- paring the history of the treaty. The Americans among them Thomas W. Lamont, provided a part of the funds for the work."-W. L. Chenery, For amitv of nations (New York Times, October 31. AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF INTERNA- TIONAL LAW, "organized at Washington m October, 1912, is a body which is likely to have great influence in promoting the peace and wel- fare of this hemisphere. The Institute is compos°d of five representatives from the national society ot international law in each of the twenty-one Ameri- can republics. At the suggestion of Secretary Lansing the Institute at a session held in the city of Washington, January 6, 1Q16, adopted a Dec- laration of the rights and duties of Nations, which was as follows: I. Every nation has the right to exist and to protect and to conserve its existence , but this right neither implies the right nor jus- tifies the act of the state to protect itself or to con- >;erve its existence by the commission of unlawful acts against innocent and unoffending states. U. Every nation has the right to independence in the sense that it has a right to the pursuit of happiness and is free to develop itself without interference or control from other states, provided that in so doing it does not interfere with or violate the rights of other states. HI. Every nation is m law and before law the equal of every other na- tion belonging to the society of nations, and all na- tions have the right to claim and according to the Declaration of Independence of the United States, 'to assume, among the powers of '^e earth the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them^ IV. Everv nation has the right to territory within de- fined boundaries, and to exercise exclusive juris- diction over its territory, and all persons whether native or foreign found therein V Every na- tion entitled to a right by the law of nations is entitled to have that right respected and protected bv all other nations, for right and duty are corre- lative, and the right of one is the duty of all to observe VI. International law is at one and the same time both national a"fi i"t""'>'!°"^' ' , "f T tional in the sense that it is the law of the land and applicable as such to the decision of all ques- tions involving its P"nciples . international in the sense that it is the law of the society of nations and applicable as such to all questions bet;yeen and among the members of the society n^t'O"^. ^"- vTlving its principles.' This Declaration has been criticized as being too altruistic for a world n which diplomacy has been occupied with selfish 302 AMERICAN KNIGHTS AMERICAN LEGION aims." — J. H. Latane, United States and Latin America, pp. 304-306. — See also • Internationai. law: 1856-iQog. AMERICAN KNIGHTS, Order of. See Knights of the Golden Circle. AMERICAN KNIGHTS OF LABOR. See American Federation of Labor: 1881-1886; Knights of Labor. AMERICAN LABOR PARTY. See Labor parties: 1Q18-1920. AMERICAN LEAGUE OF ANTI-IMPERI- ALISTS. — Indianapolis declaration. See U.S.A.: 1900 (Mav-November) . AMERICAN LEGION, an organization of American veterans of the World War. "The pur- pose of the American Legion is . . . twofold: ser- vice to ex-service persons and service to the coun- try. The organization is exerting ... its influence and strength to the end that all ex-service men, es- pecially the disabled and their dependents, and the dependents of the those who [were killed, should] receive that just and fair treatment which they have reason to expect from a patriotic and Uberal country. In serving the country, the organization is endeavoring to keep alive that spirit of service which induced all to respond to the country's call in time of need. . . . The American Legion is not a military organization, nor does membership therein affect or increase liability for military or police service. It is absolutely non-political and is not to be used for the dissemination of partisan principles or for promoting the candidacy of any person seeking public office or preferment. The constitution of the American Legion provides for active membership only. There is no honorary membership in the Legion. The following are eligible to membership: i, Men and women who served honorably in any branch of the army, navy, or marine corps for any length of time between April 6, 1917, and November 11, 1918. 2, Men and women who served in the naval, military, or air forces of any nation associated with the United States in the war, provided that at the time of their entry into this service they were American citizens and that they have resumed their Ameri- can citizenship by the time they apply for mem- bership in the Legion, and received upon discharge an Honorable Discharge or its equivalent." — Facts about the American Legion (Publications of the A merifan Legion ) . Women's Auxiliary. — "The first National Con- vention, held at Minneapolis, provided for the formation of an Auxiliary Organization to be governed by the rules and regulations prescribed by the National Executive Committee, to be known as the Women's Auxiliary of the Ameri- can Legion. Those eligible to this auxiliary are the mothers, wives, daughters and sisters of the members of the American Legion; the mothers, wives, daughters and sisters of all men and women who were in the military or naval service of the United States at some time between April 6, 1017, and November 11, 1918, and died in line of duty or after honorable discharge and prior to Novem- ber II, 1920. Mothers, wives, sisters and daugh- ters by law have been ruled eligible to member- ship in this auxiliary organization, on the ground that any person related to any member of the Legion, either by birth or by law, under the above classification, is entitled to membership in this or- ganization." — Facts about the American Legion (Publications of the American Legion). Organization. — "Each state constitutes a de- partment of the ,\merican Legion and has direc- tion of all posts within its area. Each department has a department commander, a department adju- tant, and a department executive committee and such other officers as the department may deter- mine. Post officers are determined by the various state constitutions. The organization is thoroughly democratic. From the Sergeant-at-Arms of the smallest post to the national commander, every Legion official in the organization is chosen by ma- jority vote of the members or their duly elected representatives. Any fifteen ex-service persons eligible to membership can form a post on appli- cation to the Commander of the department in which the post is to be located. Any ex-service person desiring to enroll in the Legion who does not know of a post in his community should write the department commander. The National Con- vention is the law-making body, the administrative authority being vested in the National Executive Committee, between conventions. The National Convention elects the National commander, five National vice-commanders, and a National chap- lain. The National commander appoints the Na- tional adjutant. The Executive Committee ap- points the National treasurer and such officials and standing committees as may be necessary. The E.xecutive Committee is composed of the National commander and Vice-commanders in office, and one representative and one alternate from each de- partment, to be elected as such department shall determine. The American Legion is financed by membership dues, and from such other sources as may be approved by the National Executive Com- mittee, as provided by the Constitution. The Minneapolis convention last year fixed the annual dues for the fiscal year 1920, at one dollar a mem- ber, this to cover the cost of maintaining head- quarters and publishing the American Legion Weekly." — Facts about the American Legion (Pub- lications oj the American Legion). Policies. — "The American Legion assembled in convention at Minneapolis November 10, 11 and 12, 1919, went on record as follows: " 'Americanism. — That relief to civilian popula- tion of countries now or lately our enemies be ex- tended only through agencies incorporated by Con- gress. That all foreign language papers be re- quired to furnish a true and correct translation, properly sworn, to the Postmaster-General of the United States. That proper punishment be meted out to all slackers and to those who aided and abetted slackers. That any attempt at this time to resume relationship with German activities be condemned, as well as the resumption of German operas, instruction of German in the schools and public performances of German and Austrian per- formers. That all American Indians who served in the war be given the full rights of citizenship, provided they did not attempt to evade full and complete performance of such services. That the Government's Thrift, Savings and Investment Cam- paign be heartily supported. That the immigra- tion policy be revised along the lines of adaptabil- ity of alien races for American citizenship. That the so-called "Gentlemen's .'\greement ' with Japan be abrogated. That foreign-born Japanese be forever barred from American citizenship. That all other aliens advocating the overthrow of our Government by force and violence be tried and if possible convicted and deported. That a course in citizenship be made a part of the curriculum of every school in the country. That the Department of Justice be changed from a passive, evidence- collecting organization to a militant and active group of workers whose findings shall be forcefully acted upon. That all ahens who withdrew appli- cation for American citizenship because of Ameri- ca's participation in the war be deported. That 303 AMERICAN LEGION Policies Chronology AMERICAN LEGION a list of names of all persons granted exemption from the selective sen'ice laws on the grounds of alienage be compiled and published for the Bureau of Naturalization. That all aliens in the United States be required to learn the American language and that all instruction in the elementary, public and private schools be in the American language. That the War Department recall all honorable dis- charges granted to conscientious objectors and that legislation be enacted providing for their prompt punishment. [See also Americaniz.mion.] " 'Compensation. — That the Sweet Bill, provid- ing increased compensation for disabled men, pay- ment of insurance in a lump sum, or installments, covering three years, be passed. That war risk in- surance rates be revised to actual mortality costs. That the Government pay $75.00 a month to all ex-service persons disabled by tuberculosis, and a special payment of ?5o.oo a month to all other disabled men and women. That all disabled of- ficers and enlisted personnel be placed on the same basis as to retirement for disability whether they served in the Regular Army, National Guard, Na- tional Army or Reserve Corps. That all ex-service persons suffering from the recurrence of disease, or other disability, resulting from service, become automatically eligible to all provisions of the War Risk or Vocational Rehabilitation Act. That all unproductive lands be reclaimed by direct Gov- ernment operation for settlement by service men and women. That Government credit be extended for settlement of rural communities by service men and women. That no child born to parents in- eligible to citizenship be granted citizenship in this country. That every public and private school be required to devote at least ten minutes of each day to patriotic exercises and that the American flag be raised over each school during the day, weather permitting. That all aliens tried, convicted or in- terned as enemies of our Government be deported. That the Government lend money to service men and women for the purchase and development of farms, or for the purchase of city homes. That the obligation which the 'Government owes to all ser- vice men and women to relieve the financial dis- advantages incidental to their military service be left to Congress to discharge. " 'Employment. — That preference be given to ex- service men in all civil service appointments and to the widows of those who laid down their lives in service, absolute preference being given to those physically disabled. That only ex-service men be employed in the quartermasters' depots and navy commissary stores. " 'Memorial. — That the National Executive Com- mittee select a site for a memorial in France and organize a movement to raise a popular subscrip- tion fund for the erection of such a memorial. That the American Legion co-operate with the G. A. R. and Confederate Veterans in their memo- rial services. That the bodies of the American dead be not returned from France except where the parents or next of kin desire that the Government return them. That arrangements be made with the people of France to maintain as permanent memo- rials of America's unselfish service to humanity, the graves of those who made the supreme sacri- fice. " 'Miscellaneous. — That the achievements of the Boy Scouts be commended and the work of the organization aided by various Posts. [See Boy Scouts: Cooperation with American legion.] That nurses should have absolute rank, with opportunity of promotion. That the Articles of War and Court Martial laws be revised. That a program of social and community service be outlined. That the efficiency of the Finance Office be improved.' " — Facts about the American Legion {Publications oj the American Legion). — At the Minneapolis convention a committee of military policy was ap- pointed. The Legion favors military training in high schools and colleges, universal miUtary train- ing with safeguards for civilian control and pro- tection against a military caste. It favors measures to eradicate illiteracy and believes that "the only agitator that eventually need be feared is injus- tice." The Legion stands unreservedly for law and order. Persons who were not in active ser- vice during the war are not eligible to member- ship. Membership in the Students' army training corps is not sufficient for eligibility to membership in the Legion. Members of the Red Cross, Y. M. C. A. and similar welfare organizations are not eligible. Members of exemption boards and the public health service board are not eligible. Chronology. — "February 15, 1919, Paris. — Idea of a war veteran's organization crystalUzed at meet- ing of twenty members of the A. E. F. "March 15-17, igig, Paris. — A. E. F. Caucus, rep- resentatives of all divisions and S. O. S. sections, temporary constitution adopted and plans formu- lated to organize in the United States. Executive Committee of one hundred elected. Name chosen. "April 7, 1 91 9, Paris. — Executive Committee or- ganized and appointed committee of fifteen to work in the United States, and also arranged for exploitation of work in France. "May 8-9-10, 1019, St. Louis. — Caucus of dele- gates representing troops at home, temporary con- stitution adopted, general policies formulated and plans perfected for organizing the Legion prepara- tory to first national convention on November 10, II, 12, 1919. "May 23, 1 91 9, New York. — Amalgamation of Paris and St. Louis Executive Committee into Joint National Executive Committee responsible for organization of the American Legion on tem- porary basis preparatory to national convention. "June 9, 1919, New York. — Formal amalgama- tion of Paris and St. Louis sub-committees ef- fected at meeting of Joint Executive Committee of thirty-four. "September 16, igig^^Congressional Charter granted, incorporating the American Legion. "November 10-11-12, igig, Minneapolis. — First national convention of the American Legion, per- manent organization effected, permanent consti- tution adopted, policies projected. Franklin D'Olier elected National Commander. "November 24, 1919, Indianapolis. — Permanent National Headquarters established at Indianapolis pursuant to mandate of National Convention. "December 12, 1919. — Conference in Washington on Sweet Bill. "December 19-20, iqig, Indianapolis. — First meeting National Executive Committee. "January iq, 1920, Indianapolis. — First meeting of National Americanism Commission. "February 9. 1920, Indianapolis. — Meeting Mili- tary Policy Committee. "February 22, 1020. — Legionnaires throughout country as part of Washington's birthday cere- mony, bestowed French certificates on next of kin of those who died in the war. "March 22-23-24, 1920, Washington. — Special conference of Executive Committee and Depart- ment representatives to discuss adjusted compen- sation, and four-fold plan was adopted. ".April 22-23-24, IQ20, Indianapolis. — First con- ference of Department Adjutants." The preamble of the National Constitution of the American Legion is as follows: 304 AMERICAN LEGION Chronology AMERICAN LEGION "For God and Country, we associate ourselves together for the following purposes: To uphold and defend the Constitution of the United States of America ; to maintain law and order ; to foster and perpetuate a one-hundred-per-cent American- ism; to preserve the memories and incidents of our association in the Great War; to inculcate a sense of individual obligation to the community, state and nation; to combat the autocracy of both the classes and the masses; to make right the master of might ; to promote peace and good will on earth; to safeguard and transmit to posterity the principles of justice, freedom and democracy; to consecrate and sanctify our comradeship by our devotion to mutual helpfulness." — Facts about the American Legion (Publications of the Ameri- can Legion). — The American Legion's constitution is drafted on a non-partisan basis and prominent members from General Pershing down have stressed the importance of keeping it non-partisan. The forces likely to bring the American Legion to par- ticipation in political affairs have been thus pre- •sented: — "Can you picture the American soldier sitting idle in a crisis? Did he play a spectator's part at Chateau-Therry ? Then can you picture the new civilian taking no part in government at a time when it is so obvious that the most im- portant duty of an American is to see that chang- ing conditions are changed rightly ? It is too pessimistic a picture. Too large a part of the Nation is made up of returned soldiers. It is hard to see how they can hold aloof, for there are live millions of them with a similar point of view, and a body of men of that size would make its influ- ence felt if it were deaf and dumb. In the light of many discussions at sea, it is impossible to be- lieve that the soldier intends to neglect civil duties in which he showed such decided interest. He is too good an American. He feels too keenly that he has had an experience denied to most men, and is a better man for it. When the American Legion decides to stay out of politics, it must be because the former service man has decided that his ideal of government cannot be achieved by 'political' methods. Whatever power the American Legion is to exercise will be derived from the lessons learned in military life. In that, and in that, alone, the returned soldier differs from the rest of the popu- lation. . . . The man in service learned to work his utmost at his own job. He learned that re- sults were the only things which counted, and that two men doing one man's work was a clear waste, not of one man, but of two, for neither did it. He learned that the way to get things done was to take up the little things which were wrong one at a time and get them right, and not try to win the whole war by his lonesome. He learned chiefly to do his work and forget about promotion — to do his bit for the good of the service. He came back to this side and found that, as far as he could see, politicians were genuinely concerned with the triumph of the party at the next election. That he cannot stomach. .It is in some such way as this that the American Legion will manifest itself in politics. For its members had an opportunity to see at first hand the methods and the results of monarchy. They returned determined to take more interest in the affairs of the republic." — R. R. Perry, American Legion in politics (Outlook, Jan. 14, IQ20). September 27-28-25, 1Q20. — The annual con- vention of the American Legion was held in Cleveland, Ohio, September 27, 28 and 20, 1020. Eleven hundred delegates, representing a milUon members, took the following important action: "Pledged the American Legion to continued ser- vice to the country in accordance with the Pre- amble of its Constitution, Reaffirmed the cardinal principle that the Legion's first thought is for the sick and wounded, and Ln accordance with that principle recommended that a new cabinet officer be created to coordinate and direct the Bureau of War Risk Insurance, the United States Public Health Service, the Federal Board for Vocational Education and other Government agencies for the assistance of the sick and wounded. Reiterated the Legion's intention to work unremittingly for justice to all veterans by obtaining the enactment in Congress of the fourfold plan of beneficial legis- lation, based on adjusted compensation. Re- affirmed emphatically the Legion's policy of abso- lute political neutrahty. Confirmed the Legion's established stand for impartiality in disputes be- tween capital and labor, while pledged to the pres- ervation of law and order. Recorded its support of the new Army act of June 4, 1920, promising tc help upbuild under that Act the National Guard and Organized Reserve and anticipating the adop- tion of universal military service. Extended to the Legion's affiliated women's organization full opportunity and encouragement for independent development and management. Condemned the Government agencies responsible for neglecting to take proper steps for the deportation of alien slackers and for withholding the publication of lists of known draft dodgers and deserters. Voted for the continuance of the Legion's work in Ameri- canism to assist aliens to become good citizens and to foster the growth of patriotic devotion among all citizens. Designated that the 1921 Convention of the American Legion be held in Kansas City, Mo., October 31, November i and 2. Adopted the Shirley poppy as the official flower of the American Legion. . . . The convention declared with determination that the Legion should press ahead in its fight for justice to all veterans by continuing to champion before Congress the four- fold plan of beneficial legislation, embodying ad- justed compensation, which already has passed the House of Representatives and now awaits action by the Senate. By a vote practically unanimous the convention recorded itself in favor of all four of the provisions which this bill contains — for aid in buying homes or farms, for vocational training, for land settlement and for adjusted cash compensation based on length of service. . . . Some southern delegates opposed the adjusted cash compensation, or 'bonus,' on the ground that it would have a bad effect on the negro ex-service men, and that it would probably be spent un- wisely in many cases. . . . Several state delega- tions came instructed to secure some modification of the Legion's constitutional ban on political ac- tivities, and the Constitution Committee reported favorably what it called a clarifying resolution. The delegates, however, defeated the resolution by a vote of 06.^ to 142. The defeated resolution, after reaffirming the non-political and non-partisan char- acter of the Legion, nevertheless went on to say: 'Now therefore, be it resolved by the American Legion in National convention assembled that the Legion is not prohibited by its Constitution and charter from supporting and promoting those poli- cies and principles within the purposes enumerated in the preamble to its National Constitution, as interpreted by acts of its National conventions and rulings of its National Executive Committee; and be it further — Resolved, that the Legion through its organization has the right under its charter and constitution to ascertain, for the information of its members, the attitude of candidates for public office towards such policies and principles.' 305 AMERICAN LEGION AMERICAN LITERATURE The convention was unanimous in declaring the Legion's intention to give serious and continued support to the new Army plan provided for by the Army reorganization act of June 4, 1920. It expressed its belief that the success of the National Guard and Organized Reserve under that bill de- pends largely on the cooperation of the American Legion and pledged support for the recruiting and the maintenance of these forces at their proper standards. It also declared in favor of the policy of universal military training of young men and expressed the hope that this policy might later be legally adopted by a change in the new Army act. The creation of a new cabinet position to deal exclusively with the United States Air Service was advocated, and other recommendations were adopted favoring rules permitting Army enlisted men to retire on part pay after ib, 20 and 25 years of service and the extension of the war time system of family allowances for the benefit of the enlisted men of the Army in peace time. "The report of the Convention Committee on Americanism was adopted after a lively debate on a single feature — the recommendation dealing with Japanese immigration. The committee merely re- affirmed the resolution adopted at Minneapolis the previous year: 'That we go on record as being in favor of the cancellation of the so-called "gentle- men's agreement," exclusion of "picture brides," and the rigorous exclusion of Japanese as immi- grants,' and 'that we enter a vigorous protest against the demand of Japan that naturalization rights be granted to its nationals now located in the United States and that we earnestly request the State Department of the United States in its settlement of this question not to consider any proposition which will grant rights of naturaliza- tion to this unassimilable people.' . . . The other recommendations of the Committee were for the Americanization of the Territory of Hawaii, the continuance of the Legion's National .Americanism Commission and its removal to headquarters at Indianapolis, and for free education in English, .American history and civil government for foreign and native born illiterates." — American Legion Weekly, Oct. 15, 1920. October 31, November 1-2, 1921, Kansas City. — Third national convention of The American Legion decided; "'To support the \'eterans Bureau in every way to carry out the plans for hospitalization and handling of claims, insisting that the letter and spirit of the law be observed in decentralizing the agencies for the benefit of disabled ex-service men and that politics must not interfere with the bu- reau's work. To continue the Legion's stand for the .Adjusted Compensation Bill and to fight for its earliest possible enactment. To adopt the daisy as the official flower in place of the poppy. To con- tinue its opposition to immigration and naturaliza- tion of Orientals. To ask a suspension of all immi- gration for five years, and to ask the strictest examination of immigrants at ports of embarka- tion in the absence of a restriction law. To urge legal punishment for disloyalty in the schools. To oppose a pardon for Eugene V. Debs and to insist on the return and prosecution of Grover Cleveland Bergdoll. To support limitation of armaments, while insisting upon adequate military protection for the United States. To recognize officially La Societe des 40 Hommes et 8 Chevaux as the "Le- gion playground" and to consider the establishment of a Father's Auxiliary' The American Legion Auxiliary [the re-christened Women's .Auxiliary] came into being November 2nd at Kansas City — a perfected national organization . . . The name was selected by delegates of the Women's Auxiliary of The American Legion from every State but Ala- bama, Arkansas, Maryland, Tennessee, Utah, West Virginia and Wyoming, and these seven States had unofficial representatives without vote on the floor. The Territory of Hawaii was represented by a duly authorized delegate." — American Legion Weekly, Nov. 18, 1921. — Hanford MacNider of Mason City was chosen national commander of the American Legion. AMERICAN LIBRARY ASSOCIATION. See Libraries: Modern: United States: American library association. War service. See Libraries: Modern: United States: Effects of the World War; World War: Miscellaneous au.xiliary services: XIV. Cost of war: b, 8. AMERICAN LITERATURE: General Char- acteristics. — "American literature is a branch of English literature, as truly as are English books written in Scotland or South Africa. Our litera- ture lies almost entirely in the nineteenth century when the ideas and books of the western world were freely interchanged among the nations and. became accessible to an increasing number of readers. In literature nationality is determined by language rather than by blood or geography. M. Maeterlinck, born a subject of King Leopold, be- longs to French literature. Mr. Joseph Conrad, born in Poland, is already an English classic. Geography, much less important in the nineteenth century than before, was never, among modern European nations, so important as we sometimes are asked to believe. Of the ancestors of English literature 'Beowulf is scarcely more significant, and rather less graceful, than our tree-inhabiting forebears with prehensile toes; the true progeni- tors of English literature are Greek, Latin, Hebrew, Italian, and French. . . . "American literature is English literature made in this country. Its nineteenth-century character- istics are evident and can be analyzed and dis- cussed with some degree of certainty. Its 'Ameri- can' characteristics — no critic that I know has ever given a good account of them. You can define certain peculiarities of American politics, American agriculture, American public schools, even Ameri- can religion. But what is uniquely American in .American literature? Poe is just as .American as Mark Twain ; Lanier is just as American as Whit- tier. . . . The ideas at work among these English men of letters are world-encircling and fly between book and brain. The dominant power is on the British Islands, and the prevailing stream of in- fluence flows west across the .Atlantic. Sometimes it turns and runs the other way. Poe influenced Rossetti; Whitman influenced Henley. . . . For a century Cooper has been in command of the Brit- ish literary marine. . . . The catholicity of Eng- lish language and literature transcends the tem- poral boundaries of States. "What, then, of the 'provincialism' of the Ameri- can province of the empire of British literature? Is it an observable general characteristic, and is it a virtue or a vice? There is a sense in which .American literature is not provincial enough. . . . The welcome that we gave Whitman betrays the lack of an admirable kind of provincialism ; it shows us defective in local security of judgment. Some of us have been so anxiously abashed by high standards of European culture that we could not see a poet in our own back yard until Euro- pean poets and critics told us he was there. This is queerly contradictory to a disposition found in some .Americans to disregard world standards and proclaim a third rate poet as the Milton of Osh- kosh or the Shelley of San Francisco. ... Of pro- 306 AMERICAN LITERATURE Colonial AMERICAN LITERATURE vincialism of the narrowest type American writers, like other men of imagination, are not guilty to any reprehensible degree. It is a vice sometimes imputed to them by provincial critics who view literature from the office of a London weekly re- view or from the lecture rooms of American col- leges. Some American writers are parochial, for e.xample, Whittier. Others, like Mr. Henry James, are provincial in outlook, but cosmopolitan in experience, and reveal their provinciality by a self- conscious internationalism." — J. Macy, Spirit oj American literature, cli. i, 1607-1740. — Colonial literature. — "An instruc- tive impression of the character of Hterature in America during the seventeenth century may be derived from a glance at the titles recorded in Mr. Whitcomb's 'Chronological Outlines.' Speaking roughly, — and in considerations like this minute precision is of little importance, — we may say that out of about two hundred and fifteen of these titles one hundred and ten deal with matters which may unquestionably be described as religious, and that of these all but one name books produced in New England. The next most considerable class of writings includes matters which may be called historical or biographical, beginning with 'The True Relation' of Captain John Smith, — a work hardly to be included in any classification of American literature which should not equally in- clude M. de Tocqueville's study of our democracy and Mr. Bryce's of our contemporary common- wealth; this list also includes such biographies as those of Cotton Mather, whose main purpose was quite as religious as it was biographical. Out of fifty-five titles thus comprehensively grouped, thirty-seven are of New England origin ; the other eighteen, including the separate works of Captain John Smith, come either from Virginia or from the middle colonies. Twenty of Mr. Whitcomb's titles, including such things as 'The Freeman's Oath,' of 163Q, said to have been the first product of the press in the United States, may be called political ; only three of these twenty are not from New England. Of nineteen other titles, including almanacs and works of scientific character, which may best be classified with miscellanies, all but two originated in this same region. Finally there are nine titles to which the name of literature may properly be applied, if under the head of literature one include not only the poems of that tenth Muse, Mrs. Anne Bradstrect, but the 'Bay Psalm Book,' and so pervasively theological a poem as Michael Wigglesworth's 'Day of Doom,' and the first version of the 'New England Primer.' Of the nine books thus recorded only Sundays's translation of Ovid did not proceed directly from Itew England. Now, the men who founded the colonies of Virginia and of New England were on the one hand men of action, and on the other, men of God. It is precisely such matter as their Eliza- bethan prototypes left in books now remembered only as material for history that the fathers of America produced throughout the first century of our national inexperience." — B. Wendell, Literary history oj America, ch. 4., pp. 35-37. 1750-1861. — Development of American drama. — "It is possible to trace in the development of the drama in this country before the Civil War certain fairly distinct periods. The first ends with the closing of the theatres in 1774 and has as its principal event the production of The Prince oj Parthia in 1767. The second, from 1774 to 1787, includes the Revolutionary satirists and is a tran- sition period. The third begins with the produc- tion of The Contrast in 1787 and closes with the termination of Dunlap's first period of managership in 1805. It was a period of tentative effort, partly under the influence of German and French models. The fourth period from 1805 to 1825 is one of development, with considerable native effort, but still largely under foreign influence, both English and Continental. The fifth was a significant and creative period, from 1825 to the Civil War, with its climax in Francesca da Rimini in 1855. This development was interrupted naturally by the Civil War. What would have been its course had the war not occurred it is perhaps fruitless to speculate. There were signs of a quickening of dramatic in- terest in the late fifties under the encouragement of such managers as Lester Wallack and Laura Keene; but the domination of the stage by Dion Boucicault and John Brougham, while it resulted in some sig- nificant plays, especially in a later period, was not an unmixed blessing from the point of view of the production of American drama. The dram- atization of English and French novels with re- sultant long runs; indeed the very success of Bou- cicault's original dramas, made for conditions in which the work of new play-wrights became less in demand. The old days in which a manager was willing to put on a play for a few nights were going fast, and with them went our early drama. That its significance in the history of our litera- ture has never been appreciated is due largely per- haps to the fact that some of its most important monuments are still unprinted. But of its signifi- cance both in itself and for the later drama there is no shadow of doubt." — W. P. Trent, History oj American literature, p. 231 ct seg. 1775-1789. — Revolutionary period. — "A wide reader of Colonial literature notes two general characteristics: its narrowness and its isolation. Almost every writer dwells apart from the world; his book is as a voice crying in the wilderness; and life seems to him only a pilgrimage, a brief day of preparation for eternity. Hence poetry, history and biography are all alike theological, that is, they interpret the human in terms of the divine life. In Revolutionary literature there is no isola- tion, but rather a splendid sense of comradeship, strong and loyal. When the Colonies draw near together, after the Stamp Act, they find themselves one in spirit. Otis and Henry voice the thought and feeling of a multitude; Hamilton and Jeffer- son appeal not only to the new nation but to the men of every land who have pondered the problems of democracy. Even in the satires of Freneau, in the ballads of Hopkinson against the Tories, and of Odell against the Patriots, there is no sense of solitariness; for each writer is but the voice of a great party which cherishes the same ideals and follows the same leader. As American literature thus emerges from its isolation, we note instantly that it has become more practical, more worldly, more intent on solving the problems of the present than of the future life. In nearly all books of the period the center of interest shifts from heaven to earth; theology gives way to politics; and the spiritual yearnings of an earlier age, which reached a climax in Jonathan Edwards, are replaced by the shrewd, practical 'philosophy of common sense,' with Benjamin Franklin as its chief apostle. Not only the spirit but the form also of literature is changed in the Revolutionary period. The great social movement which we have outlined gave rise to numerous newspapers and magazines, with their poems, satires, essays, stories, — a bright and varied array compared with the Colonial product. More significant of the new social life are the crude plays of Royall Tyler and William Dunlap, which were immensely popular in the new play- houses, and the romances of Charles Brockden 307 AMERICAN LITERATURE The Novel AMERICAN LITERATURE Brown, which at the close of this period mark the beginning of the American novel. Just as the new social life brought forth this ephemeral writ- ing — a kind of literature of amusement, to be en- joyed to-day and forgotten to-morrow — so the various political movements had each its distinctive form of literary expression. The years following the obnoxious Stamp .^ct saw the beginning of that brilliant oratory which was, and still is, one of the great molding influences in American Ufe and literature. The strife of Whigs and Tories is mir- rored in a host of ballads, songs and satires in verse; and the struggle between Federalists and Anti-Federalists over the Constitution produced, in the writings of John Adams, Washington, Madi- son, Jay, Hamilton, Jefferson, and many others, a new form of political writing, the first true litera- ture of Democracy, which had influence far beyond the borders of the American nation. "If the lonely Colonial writers impress us as voices crying in the wilderness, the Revolutionary authors seem like men speaking in a great as- sembly ; and their words have power because they voice the thought and aspiration of a multitude. For a new problem has been suddenly thrust upon the Colonies by the Revolution. It is the problem of forming one union out of many states, of mak- ing one government out of many factions, of bringing a multitude of all sorts and conditions of men into national peace and harmony. Hence the orators and prose writers, if they are to help solve that mighty problem, must appeal to the love of freedom and the sense of justice which lie deep in the hearts of men ; they must emphasize ideals which are acknowledged by rich and poor, wise and ignorant, and, like Bradford, they must have an eye single to the truth in all things. That they felt their responsibility, that they used voice and pen nobly in the service of the nation, is evident enough to one who reads even a part of the prose literature appearing between Henry's impassioned 'Liberty or Death' speech and Washington's calm and noble 'Farewell Address' to his people. Clear- ness, force, restraint ; here a touch of humor, when the crowd must be coaxed; there a sudden exalta- tion of soul, when the old Saxon ideal of liberty is presented, — all the elements of a fine prose style are manifest; but it is not so much the form as the substance that appeals to us, and especially the greatheartedness of the Revolutionary writers. They gave the world the first example of what has been well called 'citizen literature,' that is, the expression of the ideals of a whole commonwealth, and to this day their work remains unrivaled in its own political field. This Revolutionary prose belongs largely to the 'literature of knowledge' and is seldom found in literary .textbooks; but it is well to remember two things concerning it: that it began with our national Ufe ; and that it re- flects a strong, original and creative impulse of the American mind. It was as if Democracy, si- lent for untold ages, had at last found a voice, and the voice spoke, not doubtfully, fearfully, but in trumpet tones of prophecy. It gave the startled old world something new and vital to think about; and it is quite as remarkable in its way as are the forest and sea romances of Cooper, which sur- prised and delighted all Europe a half century later." — W. J. Long, American literature, p. 92-qg. — "Springing from a common stock, the two branches of eighteenth-century English literature showed many similarities. The charge of imita- tion and even of plagiarism has been brought against the American writers of that period; but it seems in no way unsafe to point to the single origin as the probable cause of the same character- istics appearing in the literature produced here, and that produced in the mother-country. No one can deny, of course, that not a few of our au- thors went to school to Englishmen, but the asser- tion that America until recently has produced nothing but pinchbeck literature is as false as it is absurd. That like produces like may be a trite saying, but its frequent repetition does not impair its truth. The English mind, whether expressing itself at home or in the colonies, naturally put forth the same kind of shoots: that their develop- ment was not in all respects equally rapid, that in time they became so much unlike as to appear unrelated, can be traced, no doubt, to the un- sheltered fortune of the American scion in early days, and to the complete removal of the slip from the parent stem in after-years. With this thought in mind, the most thorough-going Ameri- can may admit, without apologetic reserve, that the essayists of eighteenth-century England have counterparts in Irving and certain of his contem- poraries, and that those of a slightly later date have much in common with Emerson and Thoreau. Should one feel, however, that excusable pride is to be taken only in those authors who exhibit qualities indigenous to America, one may trium- phantly mention Warner, and Lowell, and Mar- garet Fuller; for, although these essayists show the racial instinct of English writers, they are none the less emphatically American in thought, tone, and expression." — F. Stanton, ed., Manual of American literature, p. 321. 1790-1860. — New tendencies. — Cooper and the novel. — Bryant and the new poetry. — Poe, Haw- thorne and the short atory. — -"Aside from oratory and politics, in spite of the early literary superiority of the Puritan, the foundations of our really na- tional literature were laid in the Middle States. Poetry really found its voice, not in the pretentious efforts of the New En^landers, Barlow, Trumbull, or Dwight, but in the verse of the Philadelphian William Clifton, or yet more indubitably in a few lyrics of the New Jersey poet Philip Freneau. In romance, through the stories of Charles Brockden Brown, the Middle States were not only in advance of the rest of the country, but were practically without a rival. In the first quarter of the century the leadership of the middle region of the country became even more marked, and in that great sec- tion New York succeeded Philadelphia as a literary center. . . . From the literary advent of Irving in 1807 to the decisive entrance of Longfellow and Emerson about 1S36, the work of our greatest men of letters was centered in New York. Two of our then most famous authors, Irving and Cooper, were sons of the Middle States; the third, Bryant, chose New York city as the sphere of his literary career. Besides the greater lights, there were many others of lesser magnitude. Althou h our literature thus had, for the time, its center in New York, it must not be inferred that other parts of the country were en- tirely unproductive. While New England could boast of no writers comparable to those in the Middle States, we note the signs of the great litei^ ary awakening of New England which was near at hand. ... A new spirit, the realization of the beautiful, was softening the crude but intense and vigorous intellect of the Puritan." — H. S. Pancoast, Introduction to American literature, pt. Ill, ch. i. "After the Revolution the novel-reading habit grew, fostered by American publishers and cried out against by many moralists whose cries appeared in magazines side by side with moral tales. Nearly every grade of sophistication applied itself to the problem. It was contested that novels were lies; that they served no virtuous purpose ; that they 308 AMERICAN LITERATURE New Poetry Bryant AMERICAN LITERATURE melted rigorous minds; that they crowded out bet- ter books; that they painted adventure too roman- tic and love too vehement, and so unfitted readers for solid reality ; that, dealing with European man- ners, they tended to confuse and dissatisfy republi- can youth. In the face of such censure, native nov- elists appeared late and apologetically, armed for the most part with the triple plea that the tale was true, the tendency heavenward, and the scene devoutly American. Before 1800 the sweeping philippic of the older school had been forced to share the field of criticism with occasional efforts to distinguish good novels from bad. No critical game was more frequently played than that which compared Field- ing and Richardson. Fielding got some robust preference, Smollett had his imitators, and Sterne fathered much 'sensibility,' but until Scott had definitely set a new mode for the world, the potent influence in American fiction was Richardson. . . . The amiable ladies who produced most of these early novels commonly held, like Mrs. Rowson, that their knowledge of life had been 'simply gleaned from pure nature,' because they dealt with facts which had come under their own observation, but like other amateurs they saw in nature what art had assured them would be there. Nature and Richardson they found the same. Whatever bias they gave this Richardsonian universe was due to a pervading consciousness of the sex which read their novels. The result was a highly domestic world, limited in 'outlook, where the talk was of careless husbands, grief for dead children, the peril of many childbirths, the sentiment and the religion which enabled women to endure their sex's des- tiny. Over all hangs the furious menace of the seducer, who appears in such multitudes that one can defend the age only by blaming its brutality less than the pathetic example of Clarissa Harlowe. Thus early did the American novel acquire the permanent background of neutral domestic fiction against which the notable figures stand out." — Cam- bridge history of American literature, p. 284, et seq. —"In 1820, American literature, so far as it has survived, consisted of the novels of Brockden Brown then ten years dead, and of Irving's Sketch Book, which had begun to appear the year before. Apart from these works, what had been produced in this country was so obviously imitative as to ex- press only a sense on the part of our numerous writ- ers that they ought to copy the eminent authors of England. In 1S20 appeared the first work of a new novelist, soon to attain not only permanent reputation in America, but also European recogni- tion. This was James Fenimore Cooper (lySg- 1851). His first novel was Precaution, his second The Spy, published the following year. When The Spy was published, the novels of Brockden Brown were already almost forgotten; and Irving had produced only the Knickerbocker History and the admirable essays of his Sketch Book. The Spy is an historical novel of the American Revo- lution. ... In The Pilot . . . instead of laying the scene on American soil. Cooper lays it for the first time in literature on board an American ship. . . . The Last of the Mohicans, published in 1826, is probably the best [of the Leatherstocking sto- ries]. . . . These are, in their order as successive chapters in the life of their hero: The Deer slayer (1841); The Last of the Mohicans (1826); The Pathfinder (1840); The Pioneers (1823); The Prairie (1827). . . . "The three writers . . . Brockden Brown, Ir- ving, and Cooper — were the only Americans who between 1708 and 1832 achieved lasting names in prose. Though they form no school, though they are very different from one another, two or three things may be said of them in common. They all developed in the Middle States, the names of all are associated with the chief city of that region, New York. The most significant work of all as- sumes a form which in the general history of litera- ture comes not early but late, — prose fiction. . . . This prose . . . was the most important literature produced in New York, or indeed in America, dur- ing the period. . . ." — B. Wendell and C. N. Green- ough. History of literature in America, pp. 148, 151- 152, 156-157- "By 1851 there were, or had been, many hovel- ists whose names could find place only in .an ex- tended account of American fiction: writers of adventure stories more sensational than Simms's or of moral stories more obvious than Miss Sedg- wick's and Mrs. Childs's, authors for children, authors preaching causes, authors celebrating fash- ionable or Bohemian life in New York. Not only regular novels and romances but briefer tales mul- tiplied. The period which could boast in Cooper but one novelist of first rank could show three such tale-tellers as Irving, Hawthorne, and Poe. The annuals and maga^^ines met the demand for such amusement and fostered it, but the novel was en- couraged more than it was hurt by the new type. Prose fiction, in fact, though somewhat late in starting, had firmly established itself in the United States by the middle of the century, and Cooper, followed in Great Britain by the nautical romancers, and on the Continent by such writers about wild life as Karl Anton Postl ('Charles Sealsfield'), Fried- rich Gerstacker, and Gustave Aimard, and every- where read, had become a world figure." — Cam- bridge history of American literature, p. 284, el seq. "Our earlier poets, that is, [those who came] im- mediately after the Revolution, but a.'ain, and especially, after the War of 181 2, had confirmed our sense of national solidarity, are much given to the utterance of their patriotism. . . . Key's 'Star-Spangled Banner' (1814), conceived at the close of the second war, antedates 'The American Flag' (1819) of Drake by but five years; these two, with Hopkinson's 'Hail Columbia' (i7g8), and 'America' (1832), the well-known hymn by S. F. Smith, whatever their relative or obsolute merits as literature, remain our most cherished national poems," — L. Cooper, Poets, in T. Stanton, Manual of American literature, pp. 244-245. "William Cullen Bryant is designated by Eng- jiishmen as the first American poet, and the Americans are not disinclined to subscribe to that judgment. And since the poem Thanatopsis, upon which this judgment is based, appeared in 1S17, that year is straightway designated as the natal year of American poetry. This sort of criticism and literary history presupposes iron-bound rules of literary jesthetics. For the present, such r"o not exist for us. One cannot, therefore, go so far as to annihilate at a stroke the whole of the some- what ample body of poetry before Bryant." Among poets of this period should be mentioned Philip Freneau (1752-1832), John Trumbull (1752-1831), J. H. Payne (1791-1852) author of "Home Sweet Home," Fitz-Green Halleck (1700-1867), Nathaniel Parker Willis (1806-1867), and Joseph Rodman Drake (1705-1820). William Cullen Bryant (1704- 1878) was "by far the most eminent man of let- ters in our chief city [New York]. . . . His first published work — a very precocious one . . . — had appeared before Brockden Brown died. . . . Inci- dentally, Bryant was for a full half-century at the head of the New York Evening Post ... a news- paper in which from beginning to end the editor could feel honest pride. As a journalist, indeed. . Bryant belongs to [a later time]. ... As a poet,- 309 AMERICAN LITERATURE p^^ ^^°'''^j°'^>^^^^g AMERICAN LITERATURE however, — and it is as a poet that we are consid- ering him here, — he belongs to the earliest period of American letters." — B. Wendell and C. N. Green- ough, History oj literature in America, p. 159. — "When 'Thanatopsis' was submitted by the poet's father to The North American Review (in 1817), people would hardly believe that such an exalted strain had been conceived outside of Eng- land. . . . 'To a waterfowl' was published with several other poems, including 'Thanatopsis,' in 1821. , . . By 1S32 he was ready to publish an- other edition of his 'Poems,' adding more than eighty pieces that were new — notably, the 'Forest Hymn,' the 'Song of Marion's Men,' and 'The Death of the Flowers.' At intervals of a few years . . . other editions or volumes followed. . . . The achievement of Bryant's declining years was his translation of Homer." — L. Cooper, Poets, in T. Stanton, Manual oj American literature, pp. 257- 260. — "His work was really the first which proved to England what native American poetry might be. The old world was looking for some wild mani- festation of this new, hardly apprehended, western democracy. Instead, what it found in Bryant, the one poetic contemporary of Irving and Cooper whose writings have lasted, was fastidious over- refinement, tender sentimentality, and pervasive luminosity. ... In its beginning the .American lit- erature of the nineteenth century was marked rather by delicacy than by strength, by palpable consciousness of personal distinction rather than by any such outburst of previously unphrased emotion as on general principles democracy might have been e.xpected to excite." — B. Wendell, Lit- erary history oj America, p. 203. — "After Bryant it is convenient to speak of a few poets, very different from him, and for the most part from each other, whose contemporaneous presence in New York is almost the only thing that con- nects them." Among these are John G. Saxe (1816-1887), Herman Melville (i8ig-i8gi), Alice Cary (1820-1871), and her sister Phcebe (1824- 1871). "We turn to a number of writers whose careers are to be more closely identified with New England. Many of these, like Rich- ard Henry Dana, senior (1787-1870), of Boston were only poets secondarily. Dana was a jour- nalist and a politician." Others are Sprague, Hill- house, Pierpont, Warren. "The same genera- tion produced several women of note, whose poetry demands some attention ; in particular, Lydia Huntley Sigoumey (1701-1865)." — L. Cooper, Poets, in T. Stanton, Manual oj Ameri- can literature, pp. 262-265. — Edgar Allan Poe (1809-1840) figures in American literature both as poet and prose-writer. He it was who developed the short story to its highest perfection. "Born fifteen years later than Bryant and dead twenty- nine years earlier, Poe . . . seems to belong to an earlier period of our letters; but really, as we have seen, Bryant's principal work was done before 1832." — B. Wendell and C. N. Greenough, History oj literature in .imerica, p. 171. — "In Bos- ton in 1827 he had published a thin little book called 'Tamerlane and Other Poems. . . . Two years later in Baltimore he had published what was really an enlargement of this first venture. . . . He began to write short-stories; and one of these, a tale of striking vigor and novelty, the 'MS. found in a Bottle,' won him a . . . prize. . . . At last in 1835, one of [his! friends got him the post of assistant editor of the Southern Literary Messenger. . . . Poe printed in it his own poems and short-stories, and thus began to make himself known as an imaginative writer of strange orig- inality and power. As a critic also he revealed unexpected strength. . . . After leaving Richmond Poe published, in 1S38, the 'Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym, and ... in 1840 . . . the 'Tales of the Grotesque and the Arabesque,' the most origi- nal collections of short-stories written by any American author. ... As a writer his reputation steadily rose." The "Murders in the Rue Morgue," the "(iold Bug," and other stories, as well as the "Raven" and other poems, added to his in- creasing fame. "By long study he had made himself a master of the tcchnic of verse, and he combined with extraordinary skill all the effects to be derived from lilting rhythm, intricate rhyme, artful repetition, and an aptly chosen refrain. He bent words to do his bidding, and he made his verse so melodious that it had almost the charm of music." — B. Matthews, Introduction to American literature, pp. 85-86, 00-03. — In 1S37 Nathanial Hawthorne published his "Twice-Told Tales." "Af- ter the publication of this collection of short- stories, Hawthorne ceased to be what he once called himself, 'the obscurest man of letters in ■America.' ... It was five years before his next book was published. ... In 1846 [he published] 'Mosses from an Old Manse.' . . . [HeJ was forty- six when he sent forth the 'Scarlet Letter' in 1850. With the striking exception of 'Uncle Tom's Cabin,' no American work of fiction has had the quick and lasting popularity of the 'Scarlet Letter.' . . . The 'House of Seven Gables' was published in 1851." — Ibid., pp. 1 15-119. — Other books appeared in following years, the "Marble Faun," the last to be published during his life-time, appearing in i860. 1830-1845. — Period of New England leader- ship. — Oratory. — Humanitarian movements. — "From about 1830-40 New England entered upon a long period of literary supremacy. The in- tellectual awakening which preceded and accom- panied this literary period began in Boston and its vicinity, and Boston rapidly distanced New York as a literary center, as New York had distanced Philadelphia. Between 1826 and 1S40 nearly all of the great New England writers of this period had definitely begun their work. Longfellow published his first collection of poems in 1826. Holmes began his work in 1827, and Hawthorne in 1828. Emerson, Prescott, Lowell, Whittier, and Motley all followed between 1830 and 1840. The expression of the New England mind in the works of this group of writers constitutes, as a whole, our most memorable contribution to literature; it is one of the greatest and most lasting achieve- ments of our American civilization." — H. H. Pan- coast, Introduction to .American literature, p. 160. • — "During her years of intellectual leadership New England led the country in oratory also, and the work of her succession of great orators belongs, at least in part, to literature. We have said that in the Revolutionary period and during the early days of the Republic the supremacy in ora- tory lay with the South. But as the present cen- tury advanced and the country passed into the shadow of those anxious years when sla- very threatened the very existence of the Union, it was New England that gave America, in Daniel Webster (1782-1852), her greatest orator. It was New England also that gave us Edward Everett (1704-1865), the master of a finished and scholarly eloquence; Wendell Phil- lips (1811-1884), and Charles Sumner (1811- 1874), the orators of the Abolitionists. ... As we look back upon the work of these great ora- tors of New England as a whole, from Web- ster to Sumner and Phillips, as we recall its ster- ling quality and its incaluable effects upon our na- tional history, we see that it was by no means the 310 AMERICAN LITERATURE Humanitarians AMERICAN LITERATURE least important part of New England's service to the country at large. To all that the Puritan gave us we add this also. We appreciate that in those years of her full strength New England not only wrote our greatest poetry, our best histories, and our keenest political satire ; that she not only charmed us with her humor, and led the way in scholarship, but that, besides all this, she gave us men who, in a time of national uncertainty and peril, could lead opinions and control events by their genius for speech." — Ibid., pi. lll,cli. 2. p. 230. "There has been but one movement in the his- tory of the American mind which has given to literature a group of writers having coherence enough to merit the name of a school. This was the great humanitarian movement, or series of movements, in New England, which, beginning in the Unitarianism of Channing, ran through its later phase in transcendentalism, and spent its last strength in the anti-slavery agitation and the en- thusiasms of the Civil War. The second stage of this intellectual and social revolt was tran- scendentalism . . . Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803- 82) was the prophet of the sect, and Concord was its Mecca; but the influence of the new ideas was not confined to the little group of professed tran- scendentalists ; it extended to all the young writ- ers within reach, who struck their roots deeper into the soil that it had loosened and freshened. We owe to it in great measure, not merely Emer- son, [A. B.] Alcott, Margaret Fuller, and Thoreau, but Hawthorne, Lowell, Whittier, and Holmes. In its strictest sense transcendentalism was a restate- ment of the idealistic philosophy, and an applica- tion of its beliefs to religion, nature, and life. But in a looser sense, and as including the more outward manifestations which drew popular at- tention the most strongly, it was the name given to that spirit of dissent and protest, of universal inquiry and experiment, which marked the third and fourth decades of this century in America, and especially in New England." — H. A. Beers, Short hist, of Eng. and Amer. literature, pp. gS-gb. — "In 1836, he [Emerson] put forth his first book, 'Na- ture,' and the next year he delivered an oration on 'The American Scholar,' Hitherto little had hap- pened to him except the commonplaces of exist- ence; thereafter, though his life remained tran- quil, he was known to the world at large. He was greeted as are all who declare a new doctrine ; welcomed by some, abused by many, misunder- stood by most. Proclaiming the value of self-re- liance, Emerson denounced man's slavery to his own worldly prosperity, and set forth at once the duty and the pleasure of the plain living which permits high thinking. ... He never put himself forward; and yet from that time on there was no denying his leadership of the intellectual ad- vance of the United States. The most enlight- ened spirits of New England gathered about him; and he found himself in the center of the vague movement known as 'Transcendentalism.' ... He edited for a while the Dial, a magazine for which the Transcendentalists wrote, and which existed from 1840 to 1844. But he took no part in an experiment of communal life undertaken by a group of Transcendentalists at Brook Farm 1841 to 1847. ... In 1841 Emerson published his first volume of his 'Essays'; and he sent forth a second series in 1844. In his hands the essay returns almost to the form of Montaigne and Bacon; it is weighty and witty; but it is not so light at it was with Addison and Steele, with Goldsmith and Ir- ving. He indulged in fancies sometimes, and he strove to take his readers by surprise, to startle them, and so to arouse them to the true view of life. Nearly all his essays had been lectures, and every paragraph had been tested by its effect upon an audience. Thus the weak phrases were dis- carded one by one, until at last every sentence, polished by wear, rounded to a perfect sphere, went to the mark with unerring certainty. . . . Emerson's first volume of 'Poems' was published in 1846. Ten years before he had written the hymn sung at the completion of the monument com- memorating the Concord fight. . . . This is one of the best, and one of the best known, of the poems of American patriotism. But Emerson cared too lit- tle for form often to write so perfect a poem. . . . Following Bryant, Emerson put into his verse na- ture as he saw it about him — the life of American woods and fields. . . . One of Emerson's poems most richly laden with emotion and experience is the 'Threnody,' which he wrote after the death of his first-born. . . . Certain of the lectures prepared for delivery in England supplied the material for his next book — 'Representative Men' — published in 1S50. Only two of Emerson's books have any singleness of scheme, and this is one of them." — ■ B. Matthews, Introduction to the study of Ameri- can literature, pp. 96, 100-103, 106. "While several of those who composed the group of Transcendental thinkers in the Concord circle became more or less noted either for eccentricity or utterance, the most remarkable among them all, after Emerson, was Henry David Thoreau [1817- 1862]. A genuine lover of nature — a naturalist first of all — he was also a philosopher and a poet, too, although a crude one. . . . His acquaintance with Emerson began early. ... In 1845 Thoreau built for himself a cabin on the shore of Walden Pond, and here for two years he lived. ... It is this experience in his life with its subsequent record which has more than anything else aroused interest in the personality of Thoreau. . . . Walden, or Life in the Woods, contains the stor>' and the thought of these two years ; it reveals Thoreau at his best and has long since become an American classic. . . . An earlier volume [1840] . . . was . . . A Week on the Concord and Merrimac Rivers. His journal was . . . drawn up by others after his death . . . and published. . . . Various articles by Thoreau were published in The Dial and, through the friend- ship and assistance of Horace Greeley, in the New York magazines as well as in the Tribune itself." — W. E. Simonds, Student's history of American lit- erature, pp. 177-180, 1S2. " 'The Autocrat of the Breakfast-Table' [by Oli- ver Wendell Holmes] has already given evidence that it will outlast 'Elsie Venner' and 'The Guar- dian Angel'; yet if the miscellanies of Dr. Holmes (1809-04) possess more vitality than his novels, this is in some measure due to the 'Autocrat's' oc- casional employment of verse. In the 'Breakfast- Table' series appeared 'The Chambered Nautilus' and 'The Wonderful "One-Hoss Shay," ' which, with his youthful 'Old Ironsides,' and 'The Broom- stick Train,' have retained the firmest hold on the popular memory. Holmes was pleased to trace his ancestry back to Anne Bradstreet, the first Ameri- can poetess. His own poetry commenced with a schoolboy rendering into heroic couplets from Vir- gil, and hardly ended with his tribute to the mem- ory of Whittier in 1S02. In the standard edition of his works his poems occupy three volumes. Many of them, corresponding to his turn for the novel, are narrative; for story-telling he had a knack amounting to a high degree of talent. His sense of order and proportion is stronger than that of other members of the New England school, and he has a command of at least formal structure. One may not unreasonably attribute this com- 311 AMERICAN LITERATURE Anti-slavery Movement AMERICAN LITERATURE mand in part to his studies in human anatomy. At the same time Holmes is beset with the temptation to value manner and brilliancy rather than sub- stance, and he will go out of his way for a fanci- ful conceit or a striking expression. In the use of odds and ends of recondite lore his cleverness Is amazing. He had a tenacious memory and a habit of rapid association, so that as a punster he is al- most without a match. However, his glance is not deeply penetrating ; he sees fantastic resem- blances between things that are really far removed from one another, not so often the fundamental similarities in things whether near or apart. . . . A constructive criticism, however, will lay stress, not on his inheritance of New England provin- cialism or his slight tendency to be flippant, but on his kindliness, his inexhaustible good humour, his quick and darting intellectual curiosity, and on the appeal which his sprightly moralising makes to the young. It is not a little thing to say of a wit and a power of epigram like this that they were ever genial, and ever on the side of some- thing better than a merely conventional morality." — T. Stanton, Manual of American literature, pp. 294-295; 207. 1830-1890. — Antislavery movement and Civil War.— "Uncle Tom's Cabin."— Lincoln.— Whit- tier. — Whitman. — Longfellow. — Lowell. — Many of the early "antislavery men did some of their chief work when the cause they advocated seemed far from public favor. We come to a book pro- duced by the antislavery movement, which sud- denly proved that movement popular. This was Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe's (1S12-1896) Uncle Tom's Cabin, published in 1852, the year after Sumner had entered the Senate from Massachusetts, and two years after Webster's Seventh of March speech. ... At first little noticed, this book rap- idly attracted popular attention. During the next five years above half a million copies were sold in the United States alone; and it is hardly excessive to say that wherever Uncle Tom's Cabin went, public conscience was aroused. Written carelessly, and full of crudities, Uncle Tom's Cabin remains a remarkable piece of fiction. The truth is, that al- most unawares Mrs. Stowe had in her the stuff of which good novelists are made. . . . Should any one doubt Mrs. Stowe's power as a writer, re- membering only that in Uncle Tom's Cabin she achieved a great popular success, partly caused by the changing public opinion of her day, we need only glance at some of her later work to make sure that she had in her a power which, if circum- stances had permitted its development, might have given her a distinguished place in English fiction. Her best book is probably Oldtown Folks (1S69). . . . Mrs. Stowe differed from most American novelists in possessing a spark of 'genius. Had this genius pervaded her work, she might have been a figure of lasting literary importance. Even as it was, she had power enough to make Uncle Tom's Cabin the most potent literary force of the anti- slavery days. "Uncle 'Tom's Cabin was published in 1852. To its unprecedented popularity may perhaps be traced the final turn of the public tide. [See also U. S. A.: 1852: Appearance of "Uncle Tom's Cabin."] With- in ten years the conflict between the slave States and the free reached the inevitable point of civil war. The ist of January, 1863, saw [thel final proclamation of emancipation. . . . We can hardly speak of the Emancipation Proclamation without touching for a moment upon the great name in .American history of the nineteenth centur\'. .Abra- ham Lincoln (1800-1865) proved himself in the Lincoln-Douglas campaign such a master of debate. and in his inaugural addresses and m the famous Gettysburg speech such a master of simple and powerfully eloquent Enghsh, that, aside from his great political services, any account of American oratory or of antislavery would be incomplete with out some mention of him. But Lincoln s historical importance is so great that any discussion of him would lead us far afield. . . . Among the anti- slavery leaders of Massachusetts was one who, with the passing of time, seems more and more distin- guished as a man of letters. John Greenleaf Whit- tier {1807- 1892), born at Haverhill, Massachusetts, came of sound country stock, remarkable only be- cause for several generations the family had been Quakers. . . . Though Whittier was precocious, and his Hterary career extended over more than sixty-five years, he was not prolific. He never wrote much at a time, and he never wrote anything long. . . . His masterpiece, if the word be not excessive, is 'Snowbound,' written when he was about fifty years old. . . . Such vividness as distinguishes the descriptive passages of 'Snow- Bound' appears throughout Whittier's descriptive verse, ... for example, [in] . . . the 'Prelude' which take [s] one to the very heart of our drowsy New England summers. ... In general, of course, the most popular literature is narrative. So Whit- tier's Yankee ballads often seem his most obvious works, — 'Skipper Ireson's Ride,' for example, ot that artlessly sentimental 'Maud Muller.' " — B. Wendell, and C. N. Greenough, History of litera- ture in America, pp. 284-294.^"At heart Whittier was no more stirred than were the other anti- slavery leaders, nor was he gifted with such literary power as sometimes revealed itself in the speeches of Parker or of Phillips, or as enlivened Mrs. Stowe's novel with its gleams of creative genius. But Whittier surpassed all the rest in the impreg- nable simplicity of his inborn temper, derived from his Quaker ancestry and nurtured by the guile- lessness of his personal life." — B. Wendell, Literary history of .America, pp. 366-367. "Walt VV'hitman {1819-1892) was almost exactly contemporary with Lowell. No two lives could have been much more different. . . . The contrast between Whitman and Whittier, however, is al- most as marked as that between Whitman and Lowell. . . . The first edition of Whitman's Leaves of Grass appeared in 1855, the year which pro- duced the Knickerbocker Gallery. During the Civil War he served devotedly as an army nurse, .^fter the war, until 1S73, he held some small Govern- ment clerkships at Washington. In i87'3 a paralytic stroke brought his active life to an end; for his last twenty years he lived an invalid at Camden, New Jersey. Until 1855, when the first edition of Leaves of Grass appeared in a thin folio, some of which he set up with his own hands. Whitman had not declared himself as a man of letters. From that time to the end he was constantly pub- lishing verse, which from time to time he collected in increasing bulk under the old title. He pub- lished, too, some stray volumes of prose, — Demo- cratic Vistas (1S71), Specimen Days and Colled (1882-83), and the like. Prose and poetry alike seem full of a conviction that he had a mission to express and to extend the spirit of democracy, which he believed characteristic of his country. Few men have ever cherished a purpose more lit- erally popular. Yet it is doubtful whether any man of letters in this country ever appealed less to the masses. . . . Sometimes, of course, he was more articulate. The Civil War stirred him to his depths; and he d'-ew from it such noble verses as 'My Captain,' his poem on the death of Lin- coln, or such little pictures as 'Ethiopia Saluting 312 AMERICAN LITERATURE Realism AMERICAN LITERATURE the Colors.' Even in bits like these, however, which come so much nearer forra than is usual with Whitman, one feels his perverse rudeness of style. Such eccentricity of manner is bound to affect different people in different ways. One kind of reader, naturally eager for individuality and fresh glimpses of truth, is disposed to identify odd- ity and originality. Another kind of reader in- stinctively distrusts literary eccentricity. In both of these opinions there is an element of truth. . . . In one aspect he is thoroughly American. The spirit of his work is that of world-old anarchy ; his style has all the perverse oddity of paralytic decadence; but the substance of which his poems are made — their imagery as distinguished from their form or their spirit — comes wholly from his native country. In this aspect, then, though prob- ably in no other, he may, after all, l^hrow light on the future of literature in America." — B. Wendell and C. N. Greenough, History of literature in Amer- ica, pp. 371-378. "Henry Wadsworth Longfellow . . .was born in Portland, Maine, February 27, 1807. ... At the age of thirteen, Longfellow printed four stanzas, 'The Battle of Lovell's Pond,' in a corner of The Portland Gazette. Within the next six years he wrote a considerable number of poems for The United States Literary Gazette By 1S33, in ad- dition to text-boo.ks for his classes, he had, in vari- ous magazines, published original articles, stories, and several reviews; among them an important estimate, of poetry, especially the poetry of Amer- ica, in a notice of 'Sidney's Defense of Poesy' contributed to The North American Revieiv; as well as translations from the Spanish of Manrique and others, with an 'Introductory Essay on the Moral and Devotional Poetry of Spain' (1833). 'Outre-Mer,' first published as a series of sketches, appeared in book form in 1835, 'Hyperion' in 1830, and 'Voices of the Night' in the same year as 'Hyperion.' 'Voices of the Night' made Long- fellow's reputation as a poet ; the edition was im- mediately exhausted. 'Hyperion,' which eventu- ally EoM well, though at present it is not often enough read, was at first unfortunate, the pub- lisher failing before this book had a fair start. Of Longfellow's better known works, published during the latter half of his lifetime, his 'Ballads and Other Poems' appeared in 1841, 'The Spanish Student.' in 1843, 'Evangeline' in 1847, 'Kavanagh,' another prose romance, in 1840, 'Hiawatha' in 1855, 'The Courtship of Miles Standish' in 1858, 'The Golden Legend' in 1872, and 'Aftermath' in 1873. The 'Tales of a Wayside Inn' came out in 1863, 1872, and 1S73, the First Day separately, the Second and Third Day in company with other writ- ings. . . . Longfellow was the most popular poet ever brought forth on this continent. . . . "By gen- eral consent, Longfellow is our American poet, par excellence, Emerson our philosopher, James Russell Lowe!! our man of letters. . . . No one, however, when his initial talents are considered, has pro- duced so much poetry as Longfellow; no one in the realm of philosophic thought has been so pa- tiently influential as Emerson; and no one, not even Irving, had fared well in so many avenues of literature and popular scholarship as Lowell. He was poet, critic, professor, editor, diplomat, patriot, humanist; and withal he was a man and a friend. ... It is well-nigh impossible to char- acterise Lowell briefly. An attempt to sum up a personality that chose so many avenues of expres- sion, and that at bottom was not thoroughly uni- fied, can hardly do justice to the component parts. The most striking thing about the man was his fertiUty, if not in great constructive ideas, at all events in separate thoughts. What he writes is full of meat. His redundancy is not in the way of useless verbiage; he wants to use all the materials that offer. A less obvious thing in Lowell is what we may term his lack of complete spiritual or- ganization. He lived in an age of dissolving beliefs and intellectual unrest. Though he was not tor- mented, as were others, by fierce internal doubts, he yet failed ever to be quite clear with himself on fundamental questions of philosophy and re- ligion. He was never quite at one with himself. As a writer, his serious and his humorous moods were continually interrupting each other. Partly on ..his account, he did not possess an assured style. . . . The fact is that he wrote mainly for his own time, and was bound to have but a tempo- rary reward. This is not saying that the reward was not worth while. His interpretations of Spen- cer, of Dante, of Milton, of the elder dramatists, sent to those poets many a reader who would not otherwise have gone; for America, he opened the road in the study of Chaucer; and his own 'Vision of Sir Launfal' has unlocked many a hard heart to divine influences. When he wrote in dialect, as in the 'Biglow Papers,' he was manifestly writing for a time; but in their time the second series did more to justify the Northern cause than almost any other publication that could be mentioned, Whittier's poems not excepted It may be thought that his wonderful command of dialect, contrasted with a less perfect and less instinctive success in any higher medium, marks him as above all else a satiric poet When he was once sitting for his portrait, he so denominated himself, speaking gener- ally — 'a bored satiric poet.' Yet were we to name Lowell the greatest of all American satirists, his urgent poems of patrioitism — 'The Washers of the Shroud,' the 'Commemoration Ode' — his 'Vision of Sir Launfal,' and 'The Cathedral' would imme- diately proclaim him something greater than any satiric poet could be Last of all, nobler than the sum of his writings was the work which he effected in bringing together his native land and the mother country, England, in a bond of sympathy unknown smce their separation." — T. Stanton, Manual of American literature, pp. 275-290. 1865-1900.— Literature after the Civil War.— Realistic school. — American humor. — "Following the lead of certain great contemporary novelists in Russia, France, and Spain, many of our later fic- tion-writers have aimed to reproduce, with an un- relieved and unswerving truth and minuteness, just those every-day. aspects of .American society which their great predecessors instinctively idealized or ignored. A so-calied 'realistic' school of fiction has consequently risen up among us, which, according to one definition, 'aims at em.bodying in art the com- mon landscape, common figures, and common hopes and loves and ambitions of our common life.' In nearly every great section of our huge country keen-eyed observers have been recording in fiction one or another of the almost innumerable phases of American society. Taken together, these studies give to the careful reader a fairly accurate notion of our composite national life. But life in this country is as yet such a roughly-pieced patch- work of local differences, that the novelist who aims at a faithful reproduction of it often gets no further than a study of some particular locality, which he paints over and over again up to the extreme limits of endurance. The last thirty years has given us a long procession of these local studies; it has produced writers who are practically specialists on some particular and often narrow plot of ground. We have had experts on the old lady of the New England village, on the Tennes- 3^3 AMERICAN LITERATURE Humor AMERICAN LITERATURE see mountaineer and the plantation negro ; or, among the novelists who have taken a somewhat wider outlook, we have had elaborate studies of society life in Boston, Washington, Newport, Phila- delphia, or New York. . . . New England has not lacked some notable writers in recent years, some of wh»m have been clearly leaders in the especial line to which they have devoted themselves. In fiction. New England life, particularly in the coun- try districts and the smaller towns, has been por- trayed with minuteness and fidelity by such writers as Elizabeth Stuart Phelps, Harriet Prescott Spof- ford, Sarah Orne Jewett, and Mary E. Wilkins. John Fiske has become widely known as a scien- tist and philosophical thinker, and more recently as one of our ablest writers on American history. The labors of a group of writers in this Last-named field — Justin Winsor (1831-1807), the author of a scholarly and elaborate history of America ; Henry Adams, Henry Cabot Lodge, and others — are too important to be passed over. Indeed it may be said here that outside of New England as well as within its limits an increasing attention to our country's history and institutions has been one of the distinctions of these later years. In the South the labors of Professor Herbert B. Adams, of Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, have been instrumental in raising up a school of capable stu- dents and historians of our institutions and our past. The Middle States have given us the ad- mirable works of Professor [President] Woodrow Wilson, [formerly] of Princeton University and of John Bach McMaster, Professor of .American History at the LTniversity of Pennsylvania. . . . One characteristic feature of our recent literature — its humor — we have reserved for a separate men- tion. Probably no other element in our literature is so distinctly and exclusively American. Imita- tive as much of our serious work may be, our humor is unmistakably a genuinely national pro- duction. Even the English, while their perception of the American joke is apt to be delayed and un- certain, admit that our humor is ours alone. They may call it 'vulgar.' or 'rudimentary,' or 'middle- class,' but they acknowledge that we are at least entitled to say of it, 'a poor thing, sir, but mine own.' A leading English critic and essayist, for in- stance, writes: 'The Americans are of our own stock, yet in their treatment of the ludicrous how unlike us they are ! As far as fun goes, the race has certainly become differentiated.' In fact, humor is a charactertistic clement in the American people. Neither our poetry nor our scholarship rests on such a broad basis of popular apprecia- tion Our sense of the ludicrous is not the pos- session of a limited class; it is a national trait. It declares itself in the funny columns of count- less newspapers, in our popular songs, our min- strels, our theatres, our slang: it is stamped on thousands of funny stories that, handed on from one to another, traverse the whole country with wonderful swiftness. No wonder, then, that when some of this popular sense of humor gets into liter- ature we recognize in it marks of a national trait." — H. S Pancoast, Introduction to American liter- ature, pt. Ill, ch. S- "Samuel Langhorne Clemens, 'Mark Twain,' (1835-1010), after an apprenticeship to a printer, became a pilot on the Mississipi River in 1851. Later he tried mining, and still later journalism in California. Thence he removed to Hawaii, and finally to Hartford, Connecticut. ... In 1884 he founded the publishing firm of C. L. Webster S: Company; he lost heavily by its failure His sub- sequent labor to pay its debts suggests the similarly heroic efforts of Sir Walter Scott. His first book. Tli€ Jumping Frog and Other Skelcltes, came out in 1867, Innocents Abroad in 1869, Adventures of Tom Sau^yer in 1876, Life on the Mississippi in 1883, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn in 1885, Pudd'n-head Wilson in 1894, snd Personal Recol- lections of Joan of Arc in 1805-1896. The earlier work of Mark Twain seemed broadly comic — only another manifestation of that rollicking sort of journalistic fun which is generally ephemeral. As the years . . . passed, however, he . . . slowly dis- tinguished himself more and more from anyone else. No other . . writer, for one thing, so completely exemplifies the kind of humor which is most char- acteristically .\merican — a shrewd sense of fact ex- pressing itself in an inextricable confusion of literal statement and wild extravagance, uttered with no lapse from what seems unmoved gravity of man- ner." — B. Wendell and C. N. Grcenough, History of literature in America, pp. 421-422. "I suppose that Mark Twain transcends all other .American humorists in the universal qualities. He deals very little with the pathetic, which he never- theless knows very well how to manage, . . . but there is a poetic lift in his work, even when he per- mits you to recognize it only as something satirized. There is always the touch of nature, the presence of a sincere and frank manliness in what he says, the companionship of a spirit which is at once de- lightfully open and deliciously shrewd . . . His humor is at its best the foamy break of the strong tide of earnestness in him But it would be limiting him unjustly to describe him as a satirist; and it is hardly practicable to establish him in people's minds as a moralist ; he has made them laugh too long. ... I prefer to speak of Mr. Clemens's ar- tistic qualities because it is to these that his humor will owe its perpetuity. ... He portrays and inter- prets real types, not only with exquisite apprecia- tion and sympathy, but with a force and truth of drawing that makes them permanent. . . . One of the characteristics I observe in him is his sinle- minded use of words. ... He writes English as if it were a primitive and not a derivative language. . . . The result is the Enghsh in which the most vital works of English literature are cast. . . . What you will have in him is a style which is as personal, as biographical as the style of any one who has written, and expresses a civilization whose courage of the chances, the preferences, the duties, is not the measure of its essential modesty. It has a thing to say, and it says it in the word that may be the first or second or third choice, but will not be the in- strument of the most fastidious car, the most del- icate and exacting sense, though it will be the word that surely and strongly conveys intention from the author's mind to the reader's. It is the .^bra- ham Lincolnian word, ... it is American, West- ern." — W. D Howells, My Mark Twain, pp. 140- 141, 143, 169-170. "Among the representatives of the 'New South,' Sidney Lanier (1842-81), musician, poet, teacher of English, is easily foremost . . . The poor recep- tion given to his 'Tiger Lilies' (1867), a novel based on experiences in the army, did not dis- hearten him. In 1875 he definitely announced him- self by his poem entitled 'Corn,' published in Lip- pincolt's Magazine, a vision of the South restored through agriculture. This brought him the oppor- tunity of writing the 'Centennial Cantata' for the Philadelphia Exposition, where he expressed the faith he now had in the future of the reunited na- tion. The Cantata finished, he immediately be- gan a much longer centennial ode, his 'Psalm of the West' (1876), which appeared in Lippincott's Magazine, and which, with 'Corn' and 'The Sym- phony,' made part of a small volume published in .^14 AMERICAN LITERATURE English Influence AMERICAN LITERATURE the autumn of 1876 Lanier's important critical works were the product of the years between 1876 and his death. Some three years after he died, his poems were collected and edited by his wife If we had to rely upon one poem to keep alive the fame of Lanier, thinks his biographer, Mr. Edwin Mims, we 'could single out "The Marshes of Glynn" with assurance that there is something so individual and original about it, and that, at the same time, there is such a roll and range of verse in it, that it will surely live not only in American poetry but in English. He is the poet of the marshes as surely as Bryant is of the forests.' " — T. Stanton, Manual oj American literature, pp. 272-274. 1894-1915. — Significant phases. — Howells and James. — "The death of Holmes in the fall of 1894, following fast upon the deaths of Whittier and of Parkman and of Lowell, marked the close of an epoch. The leaders of the great New England group of authors had gone; and the period of American literature which they had made illustri- ous was completed In the first half of the nine- teenth century the literary center of the United States had been in New York, where were Irving and Cooper, Bryant, Halleck, and Drake. Toward the middle of the century the literary center had shifted to Boston, in which city or in its imme- diate vicinity were the homes of Emerson, Long- fellow, Whittier, Holmes, Parkman, Lowell, and Thoreau. When these had departed they left no successors there of the same relative influence. The nation has been spreading so fast and the men of letters are so scattered, that there is in the last years of the nineteenth century no single group of authors whose position at the head of American literature is beyond question. . . The example .set by Irving has been followed by writers who happened to have special knowledge of this or that portion of the country, until there is now hardly a corner of the United States which has not served as the scene of a story of some sort Many of these local fictions are short stories, but some of them are long novels. As was natural, New England is the portion which has been most carefully explored. But of late the young writers of the South and of the West have been almost more successful in this department of literature than the writers of New England and of New York In story and in sketch we have had made known to us the Southern gentleman of the old school, the old negro body-servant, the field hand, and the poor white. In like manner we have had faithfully observed and honestly presented to us the more marked types of Western character. What gives its real value to these studies of life in the South and in the West is that they are studies of life, that they have the note of sincerity and of real- ity, that they are not vain imaginings merely, but the result of an earnest effort to see life as it is and to tell the truth about it — the whole truth, and nothing but the truth. Many of these Southern and Western tales, even more than the New York and New England tales on which they are modeled, abound in humor, which sometimes refines itself into delicate character-drawing, and which some- times breaks out into more hearty fun. Franklin was perhaps the earliest of .American humorists; after him came Irving, and then Lowell ; and they have to-day many followers not unworthy of them. "The earlier American historians, Prescott and Motley and Parkman, have also many not un- worthy followers, working to-day as loyally as did their great predecessors. At no time since the United States became an independent nation has there been greater interest in historical study. At no time have more able writers been devoting themselves to the history of our own country. Although we have now no essayist of the stipulat- ing force of Emerson, and no critic with the in- sight and the equipment of Lowell, yet there is no lack of delightful essayists and of accomplished critics Indeed the general level of American criti- cism has been immensely raised since the days of Poe. American critics are far more self-reliant at the end of the nineteenth century than they were at the beginning They hare lost the colonial at- titude, for they no longer look for light across the Atlantic to England only. They know now that American literature has to grow in its own way and of its own accord Yet they are not so narrow as they were, and they are ready to apply far higher standards. An American poet or novelist or historian is not now either unduly praised or unduly condemned merely because he is an Ameri- can. He is judged on his own merits, and he is compared with the leading contemporary, writers of England and of France, of Germany, of Italy. and of Spain. It is by the loftiest standards of the rest of the world that .'\merican literature must hereafter be measured " — B. Matthews, In- trodiKlion to the study oj American literature, p. 229-233. "One who compares American literature of the last fifty years with that of the preceding half century will be struck first of all by the scarcity of great writers, the very large number of minor au- thors, and the high average of talent shown, espe- cially in prose. This literary talent is well dis- tributed. New England and the Middle States hav- ing lost the preeminence they once had The lack of a literary metropolis deprives .American authors of a valuable stimulus and hinders an all-Ameri- can point of view ; yet the fact that our men of letters work alone, or in literary centres far apart in space and widely different in temper and tradi- tions, encourages originality and the use of varied material ; and if we ever have a more unitary and national literature, these pictures of local condi- tions in North, South, and West will prove to have been of much value as preliminary studies. Largely because of such studies there has emerged another marked feature of the new literature, its .Americanism in subject and spirit. While Ameri- can writers are more cosmopolitan than ever be- fore in the sense of being open to the cultures of the world, foreign influence as a whole is rela- tively less apparent than formerly, and American literature is much more the product of American soil This is due in part to the Civil War, which brought the country to a new sense of its power and even of its fundamental unity, for during thai struggle the men of the East and the West and the South came to know one another better, recog- nizing in comrades and foes alike a common .Amer- icanism. The fading away of the Old South as a result of the war, and the disappearance of the most picturesque features of the West in the re- cent rapid expansion of population and wealth, gave a heightened value to these aspects of .Ameri- can life in the eyes of writers and readers. To these causes has been added of late a growing feel- ing of independence, the natural result of greater maturity and power. The present generation cares less than did its forefathers for the censure or the approval of Europe, and is rather amused than ir- ritated by Old World misunderstanding and con- descension, feeling that if it has much to learn it has also much to teach" — W. C. Bronson, Short history of American literature, p. 282-283 "It is in accordance with the spirit of the time that recent tendencies in novel writings are in the direction of realism and character analysis. There 315 AMERICAN LITERATURE Howells and James AMERICAN LITERATURE have been occasional violent reactions in the direc- tion of ultra-romanticism, and about the close of the century the country suffered from an epidemic of hastily written historical novels. The two most distinguished [contemporary] American novelists, William Dean Howells [d. 1920] and Henry James [d. 1916] stand, however, for the study and por- trayal of things as they are. In the recent develop- ment of the short story as a distinct literary form America has done its full share, and more; and perhaps American writers of short stories are rela- tively more distinguished than American authors in any other field of literature. The increasing number of magazines offers opportunities for the publication of short stories, and short stories in turn help to make the magazines possible and popu- lar. Many young persons with literary interests have found time to attempt the briefer form when circumstances would have prevented them from writing an old-fashioned two volume novel; and though this has led to the production of an im- mense amount of experimental and mediocre work, it has developed a few writers who might not otherwise have been discovered The valuable achievement of the last quarter-century in poetry has been small. The best work has been done by writers who made their reputation before 1883. The fashion has set toward short and epigrammatic lyrics, and few poems on an ambitious scale have been attempted. The Americans who have had most influence on their latest successors are Em- erson and Whitman. There are many experiments in the manner of European poets and of other times, but there is little that seems a high and genuine expression of to-day. An increasing num- ber of younger men have been tempted to the writing of plays, and some of them have produced work admirably suited to effective presentation by the complex art of the modern stage. There have, however, been no dramas of the first literary rank, and few of the second. The perpetual demand for sensational plays has been filled by melodramas which stage-craft is able to make more lurid than ever before; but the tendency in the drama, as in prose fiction, is toward realism. It may be partly as a result of that tendency that the sucessful ac- tion plays written within the last few years have been almost all in prose. Within recent years there have been many writers of good prose essays, but none of preeminent distinction. The sharp dif- ferentiation of the short story from the essay has modified the latter, and no recent writings are of the same order as some of the most charming work of Addison, Lamb, and Irving. Essays on various aspects of nature-study haye become popu- lar, and discussions of literary and artistic matters are more widely read than ever before. In the better newspapers lighter discussions of social questions and of evils of the day have been more refined and more truly humorous than formerly. Though these can hardly be classed as literature their improvement indicates better popular taste. With the development of modern ideals of scholar- ship the writings of scholars take less and less rank as literature. Thoroughness of investigation and impartiality of statement are the chief mer- its of the monograph or treatise; and many in- vestigators seem to fear that literary graces are to be shunned lest they seduce the writer from accuracy in the presentation of facts." — W. B. Cairns, History of American literature, pp. 463- 465. "The first thing which it occurs to me to note is that the relation between American and British lit- erature has become closer. I say 'British,' not for the sake of including more categorically Scottish 3 and Irish, but because American literature is neces- sarily 'English' in the larger, which is also the truer, sense of the term. All that is written in English, wherever it is written, is English litera- ture because it descends eans of that nationality than with the other citizens of the American Republic. The men who do not be- come Americans and nothing else are hyphenated Americans; and there ought to be no room for them in this country. The man who calls him- self an American citizen and who yet shows by his actions that he is primarily the citizen of a foreign land, plays a thoroughly mischievous part in the life of our body politic. He has no place here: and the sooner he returns to the land to which he feels his real heart-allegiance, the better it will be for every good American. There is no such thing as a hyphenated American who is a good American. The only man who is a good American is the man who is an American and nothing else."— -T. Roosevelt, Fear God and take your oicn part, pp. ,^6r-,^63. Program and methods. — Foreign-born peoples should be Americanized "by calling upon the fine things that are within them; by appreciating what they have to offer us, and by revealing to them what we have to offer them. The best test of whether or not we are Americans will come when we, all together, recognize that there are defects in our land and lacks in our system; that our pro- grams are not perfect; that our institutions can be bettered; but look forward constantly by co- operation, to making this a land in which there will be a minimum of fear and a maximum of hope." — F. K. Lane, (World Outlook, Nov., 1919). — "Americanization is the uniting of new with native-born Americans in fuller common under- standing and appreciation to secure by means of self-government the highest welfare of all. Such Americanization should produce no unchangeable political, domestic and economic regime delivered once for all to the fathers, but a growing and broadening national life, inclusive of the best wher- ever found. With all our rich heritages Ameri- canism will develop best through a mutual giv- ing and taking of contributions from both newer and older Americans in the interest of the com- mon weal." — Evening schools of New I'ork City {School and Society, Jan. 12, 1918). — "The prob- lems of Americanization usually are conceived as questions of assimilation of the European alien. . . . But it should be borne in mind that America of today has taken over also the assimilation of the Negro, the Indian, the Creole, the Filipino, the Porto Rican, the natives of Alaska, of Haiti, of San Domingo, of the Virgin Islands, and of Hawaii, as well as large numbers of Mexican peons, and a few hundred thousand Chinese, Nip- ponese and other Asiatic immigrants. [See also Race problems.] It is well to remind ourselves that we have not yet really set ourselves to work in earnest at Americanizing some of our native-born, for example the isolated mountain whites of Kentucky and West Virginia, the dwell- ers in the flatlands of the Mississippi Valley, the decadents and defectives of the New England Hinterland, the absentee director in industry, and the insulated devotee to wealth and class." — W. Talbot, Americanization, p. 74. — The necessity for Americanization work has been summarized as follows by Howard C. Hill, of the School of Education, University of Chicago: "(i) There are 13,000,000 persons of foreign birth and 33.000,000 of foreign origin living in the United States. (2) Over 100 different foreign languages and dialects are spoken in the United States. (3) Over 1,300 foreign-language newspapers are published in the United States, having a circulation estimated at 10,000,000. (4) Of the persons in the United States 5,000,000 are unable to speak English. (5) Of these persons 2,000,000 are illiterate. (6) Of the unnaturalized persons 3,000,000 are of mili- tary age. (7) In iqio, 34 per cent of alien males of draft age were unable to speak English; that is, about half a million of the registered alien males between twenty-one and thirty-one years of age were unable to understand military orders given in English. ... (0) Only about 13 per cent of adult non-English-speaking aliens are reached by the schools. (10) Many large schools in American cities have been spending more for teaching Ger- man to .American children than for teaching Eng- lish and civics to aliens." — H. C Hill, Americaniza- tion movement (American Journal of Sociology, May, iqio, pp. 600-642). — According to Henry Pratt Fairchild, Americanization is simply "assimi- lation into America." He sounds a warning against our assuming that the Melting-pot is melting be- cause of the "readiness with which the immigrants adopt American clothes, the eagerness with which 326 AMERICANIZATION Problems AMERICANIZATION they attend the night schools, the enthusiasm with which they sing The Star-Spangled Banner, and the fluency with which their children use American swear words." He says that "Americanization to a foreigner may mean locating him within a cer- tain area, or mingling him with a certain group of people, or conferring naturalization upon him, or imbuing him with a certain set of ideas and ideals. It needs merely the statement to make plain that it is the last of these four possibilities which constitutes the only Americanization worth talking about." — H. P. Fairchild, Americanizing the immigrant (Yale Review, July, 1916, pp. 731-740). Problems of language and segregation. — Theodore Roosevelt in his last public message, writ- ten just before his death, expressed as follows his conception of the Americanization problem; "There must be no discrimination because of creed or birth- place or origin in the case of any American who be- comes an American and nothing but an American. But if he tries to keep segregated with men of his own origin and separated from the rest of Amer- ica then he isn't an American. There can be no divided allegiance here. Any man who says he is an American, but something else also, isn't an American at all. We have room for but one flag, the American flag, and this excludes the red flag, which symbolizes all wars against liberty and civilization, just as much as it excludes any foreign flag of a nation to which we are hostile. We have room for but one language here, and that is the English language, for we intend to see that the crucible turns our people out as Americans, of American nationality, and not as dwellers in a polyglot boarding-house; and we have room for but one soul — loyalty, and that is loyalty to the American people." Some students of Americaniza- tion do not share Mr. Roosevelt's opposition to a foreign language. For example: "The persistent confusion exists in the popular mind that no one can be an American who does not readily under- stand, read and speak the English language. Sen- ator Kenyon's bill (S. 3315 — entitled 'Americaniza- tion of Aliens') provides for the expenditure of $6,500,000 annually after June 30, 1920, for 'com- pulsory teaching of English to illiterates and those unable to speak, read or write the English lan- guage.' Secretary Lane in his report to the Presi- dent says: 'Twenty-five per cent of the 1,600,000 men between 21 and 31 years of age who were first drafted into the Army could not read nor write our language, and tens of thousands could not speak it nor understand it. To them the daily paper telling what Von Hindenburg was doing was a blur. To them the appeals of Hoover came by word of mouth, if at all. To them the messages of their commander-in-chief were as so much blank paper. To them the word of mother or sweetheart came filtering in through other eyes that had to read their letters ' While the Secre- tary's pity for some of the foreign-born may not be amiss, it certainly cannot apply to those who could speak, read, or write some other language than English. It is absurd to suppose that be- cause many of the men were ignorant of English, 'the daily paper telling what Von Hindenburg was doing was a blur.' Thousands of those men were diligently reading in another tongue every move made in the theater of war. They knew, moreover, the very territory over which the Armies were moving and had a more vital interest in the suc- cess of the Allied Armies than many of the native- born in this country could ever conjure up. Else why did tens of thousands of Czechs, Slovaks, Poles, Jugoslavs (Croatians, Slovakes, Serbians), Italians and others enlist in the United States Army and not wait for the draft?"— S. P. Hrb- kova, Bunk in Americanization (Forum, April, 1920). — See also American Legion: Policies. — Several state legislatures, however, took ac- tion designated to suppress the foreign language newspaper and the teaching of foreign languages in the schools. Early in 1919 Nebraska passed the Siman law which wiped out temporarily instruc- tion in every language except English. Oregon by an act of January, 1920, made it unlawful to print, publish, circulate, display, sell or offer for sale any newspaper or periodical in any language other than the English, unless the same contain a hteral translation thereof in the English language of the same type and as conspicuously displayed, and providing a penalty therefor of imprisonment in the county jail not to exceed six months or by fine not exceeding five hundred dollars, or by both such imprisonment and fine. "The measure of [the foreigners'] value as po- tential members of American citizenship is some- times sought in the rapidity with which such po- tential citizens give up their methods of life, their language, their religion, their dress, their leisure- time predilections. The foreigner who changes his whole mode of Hfe with the ease and carelessness with which he takes off his coat is erroneously considered a good prospective American. This standard of measuring assimilation is as dangerous as it is unfair to those who preserve a certain loy- alty to their traditions and customs, etc., and change them only as they become convinced that the new is better than the old. 'In Rome do as the Romans do' is not assimilation but simulation. . . . The Americanization movement should not only tolerate these exotic manifestations of creative thought and creative functioning, but it should con- sider the conservation of these creative instincts as a means of accelerating progress and of increas- ing the variability and creative powers of the na- tion. Native music, native Uterature, native arts and crafts, the native dance, philosophic thought, political idealism, etc., are all to be found among the foreign people. These represent potentially their contribution toward native creative genius, they are capable of new interpretations for their own perfecting, and they may interpret America from new angles and with benefit to all. They constitute an aspect of Americanization that will save this country from the decadence that has overcome Spain and the stifling rigidity of the Pan-Germanic chamber of horrors. . . . The open- ing of adequate schools for the teaching of English, the proper subsidy of all institutions of learning which undertake the teaching of English to both adults and children, and similar friendly efforts are the only effective means of achieving this end. Love of country requires no special language, but it does require a spirit of loyalty and service and devotion beyond the bounds of any known tongue. . . . The evidence seems to lead to the conclusion that in so far as illiteracy or the learning of the English language is concerned there has been no serious difficulty created by the immigrants them- selves. The main difficulties, however, are to be found in the lack of facilities for learning English, the low grade of teachers provided, the hours and conditions under which teaching must be done, the failure to employ teachers with experience in handling foreign adults, and above all the fact that most adult foreigners during their first years in the United States must earn their living in ill paid and exhausting occupations which leave them physically unfit for any mental effort. With about three million persons still to be trained in the use of the English language, the federal, state, 327 AMERICANIZATION Problems AMERICANIZATION and local governments should develop well-trained teachers and proper conditions of teaching during hours when mental effort is least difficult. Per- haps there is no nation in the world that is so non-linguistic as are the natives of this country, and they should have a sympathetic understanding of the difficulties of learning a new language, par- ticularly by people with a limited education or al- together without education. While language is the common denominator of all social and political ed- ucation among the people already assimilated, it must be recognized that the most important period of political and social education in the life of the immigrant is during the first twelve months or two years in this country. It is then that the im- pressions are strongest and count the most in the future adjustments to the new environment. It is obvious, therefore, that a prohibition of the use of a foreign language in public meetings, and par- ticularly the abolition of the foreign press in this country, would be nothing short of a calamity. They are the channels through which the foreigner can keep in touch with conditions, and all leader- ship of the foreigners is impossible unless it is ex- pressed in the native tongue. To assume that any foreigner can acquire a knowledge of English so as to listen to or read intelligently during a period of less than two years is to expect a great deal more than many intelligent American travelers have been able to achieve in their sojourns in foreign lands. . . . We need the music of Italy, the clear thinking of France, the industry and thoroughness of Germany, the truthfulness and art of Russia. . . . The din of the reiterated panacea that the distribution of immigrants would solve the Ameri- canization problem is in everyone's ears. Take the foreigner out of the congested cities, place him in small communities or on the farm, isolate him from his fellow-countrymen, surround him by Americans and compel him to speak nothing but Enghsh and you have solved the whole problem. This method sounds so simple and practical that it is bound to be impractical and inconsistent with the experience of society. It is clear to anyone familiar with immigrant hfe that congestion, poor sanitation, low standards of living, are not the reasons why the immigrants prefer the cities with all their attending evils. These conditions are merely the commodities as they find them when they reach these shores, and their control depends not upon the new arrival who has no voice in government and whose economic position is too precarious to afford a choice, but upon the already assimilated people participating in the conduct and control of our social and political institutions. The Irish and the German immigrants were the fore- runners of the Italian and the Polish, and their transition into Americanism took place through slums that were even worse than what we now find on the lower east side of New York, or in the stockyard district of Chicago. When we an- alyze the causes of congestion among the immi- grants we find that they are fundamentally eco- nomic. A large proportion of our immigrants are unskilled workers or tradesmen with skill and training which require new adjustments to indus- tries in which the division of tasks, the trade pro- cesses, and the conditions of labor are essentially different from those found in the same industries in the old country. Unskilled trades and the semi- skilled trades employ large numbers of workers and these are largely open to the immigrant. Without a knowledge of the language and igno- rant of American methods of work and employ- ment he must depend upon the people of his own race or nationality for guidance and assistance. 3 In learning a new trade he must be able to under- stand instructions, and in looking for a job he must be able to speak and read the language of his employer or his agent. If he desires to go out on the farm the only choice he has is day labor, a very precarious occupation with all the attending evils of seasonal employment, ignorance of the newer methods of cultivation and complete isola- tion from those who in time of need can under- stand and help meet difficulties. To become a farm owner requires capital and a knowledge of Ameri- can methods of cultivation, marketing, and busi- ness. For these reasons the immigrant remains in his colony. He also has certain social needs which he cannot get in an American environment. The church, the lodge, the social center, cannot exist except when there are present in the community or neighborhood large enough groups of the same nationality or race to justify their presence and guarantee their maintenance. All these institutions if conducted in English are of no value to the im- migrant for at least the first two or three years of his stay in the United States. Even evening schools for foreigners for the purpose of teaching them the English language cannot be maintained with any degree of efficiency without having a certain amount of segregation. The very work of Ameri- canization cannot function unless it can deal with groups instead of individuals. To endeavor Ameri- canization by scattering individual immigrants in American communities is to attempt Americani- zation by a process of gradual social and eco- nomic suffocation." Aronovici holds that environ- ment is an important socializing factor in Ameri- canization ; that the workers for social insurance and the abolishment of child labor have done more toward Americanizing the immigrant than all the special leagues, societies, and commissions organ- ized for Americanization work. Concerning the American overseas army he says: "A polyglot army with differing traditions, born in every cor- ner of the accessible areas of the globe, with re- ligious beliefs representing every creed and de- nomination known to the civilized world, fought for democracy in the trenches of Europe They were Yanks in spirit and in aspiration, those mil- lions who went overseas prepared for the supreme sacrifice, but in their veins flowed the blood of all nations and in their hearts were hidden treasures of tradition and culture that have not been and will not be discovered and developed until the Americanization movement realizes that a new na- tionalism must be created out of the old." — C. Aronovici, Americanization: its meaning and Junc- tion (American Journal of Sociology, May, iq2o). — Another student stresses the following principles of Americanization work: "(i) .Americanization cannot be defined as simply learning the language. It is exceedingly broad in its scope, and the learn- ing process continues throughout the life of the individual. (2) Americanization work should not be confined to persons of non-.\merican extraction. Many people born in the United States need to be brought into sympathy with the non-American just as much as he needs to be brought into sympathy with them (3) The learning of the language pro- vides only the tools of contact to the individual, so that he may be enabled to develop an intelligent appreciation of .American conduct and ideals. (4) The menace of the non-English-speaking alien is so great to his community and to himself that we ought to consider carefully the desirability of in- sisting upon his learning the language if he is to remain in the country (5) Those undertaking Americanization work should be absolutely sincere in their purpose, as any scheme which bears even 28 AMERICANIZATION Libraries and Schools AMERICANIZATION the faintest taint of exploitation will react harm- fully upon the worker and upon the cause of Americanization. (6) It must be constantly borne in mind that no element of condescension can safely be introduced into Americanization work. There is much that the new American can teach us if we are in the right attitude of mind, and we can teach him very little if we are not. (7) Above all things avoid paternalism. (8) The final pur- pose of all Americanization work is to develop self- acting progressive Americans, (g) Education is primarily a public function and the industry should take the initiative only where the community has failed. It should always be ready to cooperate. (10) Above all things it should be borne in mind that 'Americanism' is a state of the heart as much as it is a state of the mind. It is a feeling as much as it is a thought." — C. H. Paull, Aims and stand- ards in industrial Americanization (Industrial Man- agement, Feb., iQiQ, pp. 148-151). — The view of a naturalized American may be seen in these extracts from an address by Edward A. Steiner, Professor of Applied Christianity, Grinnell College, Iowa: "I am not sure that we can, or that we ought, to accelerate Americanization. Thus far it has been a contagion with no artificial stimulus. When we shall say 'Go to, we will Americanize you,' there will be organized efforts to resist us, and the re- sistance will grow with our insistence. We have, I am sure, lost many opportunities to interpret America to the immigrant, especially to the adult. He does not come in contact with any of our na- tional institutions except the saloon and the police court. If he does become a citizen he usually at- tains to that high and holy privilege through the venal politician. The whole process of naturaliza- tion, which has received some attention in these later years, needs to be further revised and im- proved ; especially by dignifying it and by making the applicant realize that it is a privilege which he may forfeit if he does not perform its duties conscientiously. I am not sure that the attempt to accelerate naturalization, by making the process easier, may not end in cheapening it still further. I believe that every man who wishes to become a citizen ought to be willing to take pains and make sacrifices, if necessary to gain that end. Citizen- ship is too valuable a possession to be thrown at people, and it is a mistaken notion to believe that because a man has taken out his naturalization papers he is necessarily a patriot. In fact, we know that the two are not identical, and I can easily imagine myself loving this country and being ready to sacrifice myself for it, even had I not the sometimes doubtful privilege of voting. .We should apply a test more searching than the mere an- swering of a few questions which may be learned by rote. No man should be allowed to become a citizen unless his conduct, during five years' resi- dence in this country, has proved that he is already an American in spirit ; that he knows the meaning of liberty and has not abused it; and that he is capable of cooperating with others in realizing that freedom. He ought to be able to prove that he has left behind him Europe's racial, religious and national animosities and prejudices. He ought not to become a child of this democracy, and, as often happens, an added care, until he has proved that he knows its meaning and has lived up to it. ... A rigid insistence upon economic and social justice, and the assurance that the state looks upon them as something more than animated machines, to be used and abused at the owners' will, would bind these millions in gratitude to the country of which they know Httle or nothing except when they are punished for breaking its laws. I have strongly urged, but thus far in vain, that every ship which carries in immigrants should have on board a United States officer who would use the time of transit to instruct the people coming to us. They should be told of their privileges and their duties, the nature of our government and the part they may ultimately have in it. I have often acted voluntarily in such a capacity, and have found that by the aid of immigrants who are returning to us, such instruction can be effec- tively given. Much of the preliminary work of inspection could thus be done. I know there are difficulties in the way, but they are not insur- mountable. The immigrant-receiving station should, not be merely a heartless machine for this sifting of human material. The government ought to do something more for these people than put a chalk mark upon their coats, or open the gate of a strange and new country without a word of ad- vice or warning. Consider the attitude of the average American toward the government of his city or country, the low tone of our discussion of public issues, the ridicule* which we heap upon our officials, from which even the chief magis- trate is not spared; the personal and partisan sel- fishness so strongly in evidence even in this most critical moment of our national life. Need we then wonder if every hyphenated citizen does not manifest the gracious unselfishness of a George Washington or the sacrificial devotion of an Abra- ham Lincoln?" — E. A. Steiner, Confession of a hyphenated American, pp. 51-63. Cooperation by the libraries. — Mr. George B. Utley, secretary of the American Library Asso- ciation, has summarized as follows what the libra- ries have done to promote good citizenship: "(i) They have gained the adult foreigner's confidence and good will. (2) They have educated themselves in his needs, prejudices, racial characteristics and native responses. (3) They have afforded him democratic, hospitable places — libraries — in which the usefulness and the recreational quality of books, magazines and newspapers have been discovered by him and to him. (4) They have cooperated with established organizations, local, state and fed- eral, for his education, (s) They have instituted new ways of procedure in helping him, such as the use of the foreign-language press as a medium of instruction; of foreign-language lectures for teaching citizenship, English language and home- making. (6) They have given or promoted home- lands exhibits and municipal parties at which re- spect and admiration have been shown for his handiwork and customs with an increase of his own self-respect." — Statement furnished for Ameri- canization (Handbook Series, p. 344) . Cooperation by the public schools. — In the public schools of many large cities* more atten- tion has recently been given to the teaching of government. In the City of New York a required course of not less than four periods a week for one half year aims to acquaint freshmen high school pupils with the government of their city and its state and federal relations. The following are among the topics taught. — The city's water supply, The part of the citizen in government. Parties and elections, etc.. Protecting the health of the people, Protecting the food of the people, Disposal of city's wastes. Regulation of buildings. Lighting, Heating, etc.. Communication and transportation, Safeguarding life and property. Public regulation of work. Clothing, Public provision for recreation, City planning, and Civic beauty. Care of the city's wards (Public welfare). Care of the city's wards (Correction), Public education, Making the laws, Carrying out the laws. Judicial action and Paying 329 AMERICANIZATION AMIDA, SIEGES OF the city's bills. In the great work of making our population American in spirit, we can probably do nothing better than to strengthen the agencies al- ready at work and furnish them adequate financial support, particularly the public schools, the libra- ries, the churches, the social settlements, the com- munity centers, the immigrant protective leagues and the legal aid societies. Various agencies. — Due to the present univer- sahty of the work, only a few of the leading agen- cies are enumerated under each heading. Federal agencies. — Department of the Interior: Bureau of Education; Department of Labor: Bureau of Naturalization; Bureau of Immigration (controls immigration of entire country) ; Immi- gration stations. Slate agencies. — Councils of national defense; immigrant commissions; industrial departments; state boards of education. Municipal agencies. — City boards of education; community councils; official municipal agencies [Americanization committees, research bureaus, etc.] Universities and colleges. — [Surveys, Americani- zation training courses, etc. Among these are] University of State of New York (maintains di- rector of immigrant education, with a staff; makes surveys, . . . conducts institutes for teach- ers in Americanization, methods of teaching Eng- lish to foreigners, etc.) ; Columbia University (maintains Columbia House ... for centralization of American activities . . . ) ; University of Wis- consin (first university to establish a chair of Americanization; [and others]. Special immigrant organizations. — Immigrants' Protective League; North American Civic League for Immigrants; Immigration Restriction League; National Liberal Immigration League; Immigrant Education Society; Baron de Hirsch fund (estab- lished for the benefit of Galician, Russian and Roumanian Jews); Council of Jewish Women; Y. W. C. A.; Y. M. C. A.; Y. M. H. A.; National Committee for Constructive Immigration Legisla- tion; World Alliance for International Friendship (specially concerned with adjustmert of relations with the Orient); Hebrew Sheltering and Immi- grant Aid Society of America; Jewish Agricultural and Industrial Aid Society. Religious organizations. — Church home mission work, port work, recreation, etc. Foreign organizations. — League of Foreign-born Citizens (first organization instituted for the pur- pose of helping the 'foreign-born to become Ameri- can citizen and appreciate American institutions) ; American Waldensian Aid Society; Armenian Colonial Association; Ukrainian National Alliance; Ukrainian Federation of the United States;' Greek- American National Union ; Czecho-Slovak National Alliance; Czecho-Slovak Sokel Organizations; Am- erican Lettish Baptist Literary Society; Slavonic Immigrant Society; Syrian-American Club; Slo- vak League of America; Polish Falcon's Alliance in America. Private organizations. — Sons of the American Revolution; Daughters of the American Revolu- tion; Educational Alliance (Hebrew); Carnegie Corporation; Conference of Social Work; General Federation of Women's Clubs. Women's Committees.— [C\v\c and municipal; conduct classes, clubs, lectures, etc.] Miscellaneous. — Chambers of commerce; clubs; industries; libraries; settlements; parent-teacher as- sociations. — From list compiled by division for for- eign-bom women. National Y. W. C. A., July 1919. Also in: C. S. Cooper, American jieo/j.— Royal Dixon, Americanization. — H. P. Fairchild, Immi- gration: A world movement and its American significance. — E. A. Steiner, Nationalizing America. — F. V. Thompson, Schooling of the immigrant. AMERIGO VESPUCCI. See Vespucci, Amer- igo. AMERONGEN, a village in Holland, to which the deposed German Emperor fled in November, 1918, after the collapse of his army. He found asylum in the chateau of Count Bentinck. AMERVAL. See World War: 1918: II. West- ern front: s, 1. AMES, Fisher (1758-1808), orator, political writer and statesman, graduate of Harvard, mem- ber of the Massachusetts legislature, conspicuous in the Massachusetts convention of 1788 to ratify the Federal Constitution; a Federalist leader in Congress 1789-1797; made an able defense of the Jay treaty ; prominent member of the Essex Junto (q.v.). Complete edition of his works published by his son, Seth Ames, 1854. AMES, Oakes (1804-1873), manufacturer; Re- publican member of Congress from Massachusetts, 1862-1873; censured by House" of Representatives for his connection with the Credit Mobilier (q. v.) and later vindicated by Massachusetts legislature. See Credit Mobilier scandal. AMETER. See Electrical discoveries: Meas- uring instruments. AMHERST, Jeffrey Amherst, Baron (1717- 1797), British soldier; in War of Austrian Suc- cession and Seven Years' War; commanded expe- dition against Louisburg 1758; made Commander- in-chief of English forces in America 1759; cap- tured Ticonderoga and Crown Point and later Montreal; made Governor-general of British North America; unsuccessful in war against Pontiac ; re- fused to serve against .American colonists in the Revolution ; aided in suppressing Gordon Riots, 1780. The city of Amhei'st, Mass., was named in his honor by Governor Pownall in 1759. — See also Canada: 1758; 1759 (July-August); 1763-1774; South Carolina: i 750-1 761. Also in: G. O. Trevelyan, American Revolution, V. 2, pp. 208-218. AMHERST, William Pitt, Earl (i773-i857). a British diplomat; Governor-general of India 1823- 1828; created earl in 1826, in recognition of his services in the' first Burmese war in 1824, which resulted in the cession of .\rakan and Jenasserim to Great Britain. — See also India: 1823-1833. AMHERST COLLEGE, Founding of. See Education, Modern: U. S. A.: 1821 (Massa- chusetts); UNrVERSITIES AND COLLEGES: 1818-182I. AMICALES". See France: 1919-1920. AMICITI.S;. See Guilds of Flanders. AMIDA, Sieges of. — The ancient city of Amida, now Diarbekr, on the right bank of the Upper Tigris was thrice taken by the Persians from the Romans, in the course of the long wars between the two nations. In the first instance, A. D. 359, it fell after a terrible siege of seventy-three days, conducted by the Persian king Sapor in person, and was given up to pillage and slaughter, the Roman commanders crucified and the few surviv- ing inhabitants dragged to Persia as slaves. The town was then abandoned by the Persians, repeo- pled by the Romans and recovered its prosperity and strength, only to pass through a similar ex- perience again in 502, when it was besieged for eighty days by the Persian king Kobadh, carried by storm, and most of its inhabitants slaughtered or enslaved. A century later, in 60S, Chosroes took Amide once more, but with less violence. — G. Rawlinson, Seventh great oriental monarchy, ch. 9, ig and 24. — See also Persia: (A. D.) 226-627. 330 AMIDEI FAMILY AMORIAN DYNASTY AMIDEI FAMILY, Florence: Rise of Guelf and Ghibelline strife. See Italy: 1215. AMIENS, a city in northern France 81 miles from Paris, situated on the river Somme, a textile manufacturing center ; surprised by the Spaniards in 15Q7 and recovered same year by Henry IX (see France; I5g3-I5Q8) ; gavv; its name to the treaty of 1802 between Great Britain, France, Spain and Holland [see England: 1801-1806; France: 1801- 1802]; captured by the Germans in 1870 (see France: 1870-1871) and again in 1914, when they held it for a time in the first advance on Paris, later withdrawing ; was the objective of some of the greatest German onslaughts in 1918, but was held by the Allies. (See World War; 1915: X. War in the air; 1918; II. Western front: c, 27; c, 32; j.) For origin of name, see Belgae. AMIENS, Cathedral of, the largest cathedral of France, begun in 1220 by Robert de Luzarches and continued by Thomas de Cormont and his son Renault. The plan of the building is typical of French Gothic architecture. The groin rib and pointed arch have taken the place of the sex- partite plan and the bays are oblong. While the area of Amiens is smaller than the Hypostyle Hall at Karnak the height of its nave is 140 feet as compared with 80 at Karnak. As in all French cathedrals the west front is a special feature of the exterior. The Romanesque twin towers are con- nected by an arcade and there is a rose or wheel window above the central recessed door. Speak- ing of its interior as an example of Gothic archi- tecture, Charles H. Caffin says: "It is as if some power had pulled the older form upward into a slenderer, more elastic fabric ; less massive, possi- bly less stately, but also less inert, infinitely alive in its inspiring growth, with grace of movement as well as dignity." — C. H. Caffin, How to study architecture, p. 284, AMIENS, Treaty of (1527), negotiated by Cardinal Wolsey, between Henry VIII of England and Francis I of France, establishing an alliance against the emperor, Charles V. The treaty was sealed and sworn to in the cathedral church at Amiens, Aug. 18, 1527.— J. S. Brewer, Reign of Henry VIII, v. 2, ch. 26 and 28. — See also Italy: 1527-1529. AMIENS, Treaty of (1802). See France: 1801- 1802. As affecting Knights of the Order of St. John, see Hospitallers of St. John of Jeru- salem: 1565-1870. AMIN AL, Caliph, 809-813, son and successor of Harun al-Rashid. After a troublous reign, which was due to his own misgovernment, he was de- feated by a revolting faction, captured and put to death, AMINULLAH KHAN, Amir. See Afghanis- tan; igig. AMIR, also written Ameer and Emir, Moham- medan title of nobility, especially used to refer to the rulers of Afghanistan and Scinde. AMIR TOMAN, Persian army officer. See World War; 1915; VII. Persia and Germany. AMIRANTES. See Mascarene Islands. AMISTAD, Case of.— The Amistad was a Spanish vessel bound from Havana to Puerto Principe with a cargo of slaves in 1839. The slaves killed the whites and took possession of the ship. A United States war vessel seized the Amistad off Long Island and took it into New London harbor. The United States district court of Connecticut held that the slaves were "prop- erty rescued from pirates" and that they should be returned to their Spanish owners according to the treaty between the United States and Spain. This decision was reversed by the Supreme court of the United States. According to this tribunal the ne- groes were free men, having been kidnapped from a foreign country. — See also Slavery: Negro: 19th Century. AMISUS, Siege of.— The siege of Amisus by Lucullus was one of the important operations of the third Mithridatic war. The city was on the coast of the Black sea, between the rivers Halys and Lycus; it is represented in site by the modern town of Samsun. Amisus, which was besieged in 73 B. C, held out until the following year. Tyran- nion the grammarian was among the prisoners taken and sent to Rome. — G. Long, Decline of the Roman republic, v. 3, ch. 1 and 2. AMITABHA. See Mythology: Eastern Asia: Indian and Chinese influences. AMMAN, Palestine.— Captured by British (1918). See World War: 1918: VI. Turkish the- ater: c, 5; c, 13; c, 20. AMMANATI, Bartolomeo (1511-1592), Flor- entine architect and sculptor; designed many buildings in Rome, Lucca and Florence, an addi- tion to the Pitti Place being one of his most cele- brated works. — See also Sculpture: High Renais- sance. AMMANN, title of the mayor, or president of the Swiss Communal Council or Gcmeinderat. See Switzerland; 1848-1890. AMMISM. See Mythology: Greek mythology: Anthropomorphic character of Greek myth. AMMON, a god of Egypt.— Power of his priests. See Egypt; B.C. 1379. AMMON, Temple and Oracle of.— The Am- monium or Oasis of .^mmon, in the Libyan desert, which was visited by Alexander the Great, has been identified with the oasis now known as the Oasis of Siwah. "The Oasis of Siwah was first visited and described by Browne in 1792; and its identity with that of Amnion fully established by Major Rennell (Geography of Herodotus, pp. 577- 591). . . . The site of the celebrated temple and oracle of Ammon was first discoveted by Mr. Ham- ilton in 1853. Its famous oracle was frequently visited by Greeks from Cyrene, as well as from other parts of the Hellenic world, and it vied in reputation with those of Delphi and Dodona." — E. H. Bunbury, History of ancient geography, ch. 8, sect. I, and ch. 12, sect, i and note E. — An ex- pedition of 50,000 men sent by Cambyses to Am- mon, B.C. 525, is said to have perished in the desert, to the last man. See Egypt: B.C. 525- 332- AMMONITES. — According to the ■ narrative in Genesis xix: 30-39, the Ammonites were descended from Ben-Ammi, son of Lot's second daughter, as the Moabites came from Moab, the eldest daugh- ter's son. The two people are much associated in Biblical history. "It is hard to avoid the conclu- sion that, while Moab was the settled and civilized half of the nation of Lot, the Bene Ammon formed its predatory and Bedouin section." — G. Grove, Dictionary of the Bible. — See also Amalekites; Jews; Conquest of Canaan, and Israel under the Judges; Moabites; Christianity: Map of Sinaitic peninsula. AMMONITI, political party. See Florence: 1358. AMMONIUS SACCAS, Greek philosopher. See Neoplatonism. AMNAS: Occupied by the British. See World War; 1917: VI. Turkish theater; c, 2, vi. AMNESTY PROCLAMATION. See U. S. A.: 1863 (December). AMOOR. See Amur. AMORIAN DYNASTY. See Byzantine em- pire: 820-1057. 331 AMORIAN WAR AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL AMORIAN WAR.— The Byzantine emperor, Theophilus, in war with the Saracens, took and de- stroyed, with peculiar animosity, the town of Zapetra or Sozopetra, in Syria, which happened to be the birthplace of the reigning caliph, Motassem, son of Harun al-Rashid. The caUph had conde- scended to intercede for the place, and his enemy's conduct was personally insulting to him, as well as atrociously inhumane. To avenge the outrage he invaded Asia Minor, A. D. S3S, at the head of an enormous army, with the special purpose of de- stroying the birthplace of Theophilus. The unfor- tunate town which suffered that distinction was Amorium in Phrygia, — whence the ensuing war was called the .■\morian War. Attempting to de- fend .\morium in the field, the Byzantines were hopelessly defeated, and the doomed city was left to its fate. It made an heroic resistance for fifty- five days, and the siege is said to have cost the caliph 70,000 men. But he entered the place at last with a merciless sword, and left a heap of ruins for the monument of his revenge. — E. Gibbon, His- torv oj the decline and fall of the Roman empire, ch.'s--. AMORITES.— "The Hittites and Amorites were . . . mingled together in the mountains of Pales- tine like the two races which ethnologists tell us go to form the modern Kelt. But the Egyptian monuments teach us that they were of very dif- ferent origin and character. The Hittites were a people with yellow skins and 'Mongoloid' features, whose receding foreheads, oblique eyes, and pro- truding upper jaws, are represented as faithfully on their own monuments as they are on those of Egypt, so that we cannot accuse the Egyptian art- ists of caricaturing their enemies. If the Egyp- tians have made the Hittites ugly, it was because they were so in reality. The Amorites, on the contrary, were a tall and handsome people. They are depicted with white skins, blue eyes, and red- dish hair, all the characteristics, in fact, of the white race. Mr. Petrie points out their resem- blance to the Dardanians of .\sia Minor, who form an intermediate link between the white-skinned tribes of the Greek seas and the fair-complexioned Libyans of Northern Africa. The latter are still found in large numbers in the mountainous regions which stretch eastward from Morocco, and are usually known among the French under the name of Kabyles. The traveller who first meets with them in Algeria cannot fail to be struck by their likeness to a certain part of the population in the British Isles. Their clear-white freckled skins, their blue eyes, their golden-red hair and tall stature, remind him of the fair Kelts of an Irish village; and when we find that their skulls, which are of the so-called dolichocephalic or 'long-headed' type, are the same as the skulls discovered in the prehistoric cromlechs of the country they still in- habit, we may conclude that they represent the modern descendants of the white-skinned Libyans of the Egyptian monuments. In Pale=tine also we still come across representatives of a falr-com- plexioned blue-eyed race, in w'hom we may see the descendants of the ancient .Amorites, just a? we see in the Kabyles the descendants of the ancient Libyans. We know that the .^morite type con- tinued to exist in Judah long after the Israelit- ish conquest of Canaan The captives taken from the southern cities of Judah by Shishak in the time of Rehoboam, and depicted by him upon the walls of the great temple of Karnak, are people of Amorite origin. Their 'regular profile of sub- aquiline cast,' as Mr, Tomkins describes it. their high cheek-bones and martial expression, are the features of the .Amorites, and not of the Jews. Tallness of stature has always been a distinguish- ing characteristic of the white race. Hence it was that the Anakim, the Amorite inhabitants of He- bron, seemed to the Hebrew spies to be as giants, while they themselves were but 'as grasshoppers' by the side of them (Num. xiii: a). After the Israelitish invasion remnants of the Anakim were left in Gaza and Gath and Ashkelon (Josh xi. 22), and in the time of David, Goliath of Gath and his gigantic family were objects of dread to their neighbors (2 Sam. xxi: 15-22). It is clear, then, that the Amorites of Canaan belonged to the same white race as the Libyans of Northern Africa, and like them preferred the mountains to the hot plains and valleys below. The Libyans themselves be- longer to a race which can be traced through the peninsula of Spain and the western side of France into the British Isles. Now it is curious that wher- ever this particular branch of the white race has extended it has been accompanied by a particular form of cromlech, or sepulchral chamber built of large uncut stones, ... It has been necessary to enter at this length into what has been discovered concerning the Amorites by recent research, in or- der to show how carefully they should be dis- tinguished from the Hittites with whom they af- terwards intermingled. They must have been in possession of Palestine long before the Hittites ar- rived there. They extended over a much wider area." — \. H. Sayce, Hittites, ch. i, — -See also Ca- naan; Jews: Israel under the Judges, AMORTIZATION. See Rural credit: Amor- tization, AMOS, Hebrew prophet. See Jews: Religion and the prophets, AMO'Y, Chinese seaport on the south-eastern coast. See China: 1839-1842; Map. AMPERE, Andre Marie (1775-1836), a French physicist, famous for his service to science in es- tablishing the relation between electricity and mag- netism. The unit of measurement of the intensity of electric currents is named "ampere" after him. — See also Electrical discovery: 1784-1800. AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL, AMPHICTY- ONY. — ".An .Amphiktyonic, or, more correctly, an .■\mphiktionic, body was an assembly of the tribes who dwelt around any famous temple, gathered together to manage the affairs of that temple. There were other Amphiktyonic Assemblies in Greece [besides that of Delphi], amongst which that of the isle of Kalaureia, off the coast of Argolis, was a body of some celebrity. The Am- phiktyons of Delphi obtained greater importance than any other .Amphiktyons only because of the greater importance of the Delphic sanctuary, and because it incidentally happened that the greater part of the Greek nation had some kind of repre- sentation among them. But that body could not be looked upon as a perfect representation of the Greek nation which, to postpone other objections to its constitution, found no place for so large a fraction of the Hellenic body as the Arkadians Still the .\mphiktyons of Delphi undoubtedly came nearer than any other existing body to the char- acter of a general representation of all Greece. It is therefore easy to understand how the relig- ious functions of such a body might incidentally assume a political character. . . . Once or twice then, in the course of Grecian history, we do find the .Amphiktyonic body acting with real dignity in the name of united Greece. . . , Thouch the list of members of the Council is eiven with some slight variations bv different authors, all agree in making the constituent members of the union tribes and not cities. The representatives of the Ionic and Doric races sat and voted as single mem ii^ AMPHILOCHIANS AMSTERDAM bers, side by side with the representatives of petty peoples like the Magnesians and Phthiotic Achaians, When the Council was first formed, Dorians and lonians were doubtless mere tribes of northern Greece, and the prodigious development of the Doric and Ionic races in after times made no difference in its constitution. . . . The Amphi- ktyonic Council was not exactly a diplomatic con- gress, but it was much more like a diplomatic con- gress than it was like the governing assembly of any commonwealth, kingdom, or federation. The Pylagoroi and Hieromncmo were not exactly Ambassadors, but they were much more like mem- bers of a British Parliament or even an American Congress. . . . The nearest approach to the Am- phiktyonic Council in modern times would be if the College of Cardinals were to consist of mem- bers chosen by the several Roman Catholic nations of Europe and America." — E. A. Freeman, History of federal government, v. i, cli. 3. — See also Greece: B. C. 8th and 6th centuries: Economic con- ditions; and B.C. 357-336; Ionic (Pan-Ionic) Am- PHICTYONY. AMPHILOCHIANS. See Acarnanians. AMPHIPOLIS.— This town in Macedonia, oc- cupying an important situation on the eastern bank of the river Strymon, just below a small lake into which it widens near its mouth, was originally called "The Nine Ways," and was the scene of a horrible human sacrifice made by Xerxes on his march into Greece. — Thirlwall, History of Greece, ch. 15. — It was subsequently taken by the Athe- nians, B. C. 437, and made a capital city by them, dominating the surrounding district, its name be- ing changed to Amphipolis. During the Pelopon- nesian war B. C. 424, the able Lacedsmonian general, Brasidas, led a small army into Macedonia and succeeded in capturing Amphipolis, which caused great dismay and discouragement at Athens. (See Athens: B.C. 426-422) Thucydides, the his- torian, was one of the generals held responsible for the disaster and he was driven as a conse- quence into the fortunate exile which produced the composition of his history. Two years later the .Athenian demagogue-leader, Cleon, took com- mand of an expedition sent to recover .Amphipolis and other points in Macedonia and Thrace. It was disastrously beaten and Cleon was killed, but Brasidas fell likewise in the battle. Whether Athens suffered more from her defeat than Sparta from her victory is a question. — Thucydides, His- tory, bk. 4, sect. 102-135, bk. 5, sect. i-ii. — Am- phipolis was taken by Philip of Macedon, B.C. 358. See Greece: 350-358; Map of ancient Greece. AMPHISSA, Seige and capture by Philip of Macedon (B.C. 339-338). See Greece: B.C. 357- 336. AMPHITHEATER, in Roman antiquity, a building much hke a double theater, circular in plan, with the seats of the spectators surround- ing the place of exhibition. Wooden theaters seem to have been numerous, but the first stone one, the Coliseum (q.v.), was built in the reign of Augustus. Amphitheaters were later erected in almost all of the large cities, the finest being at Verona, Capua, Pozzuoli and Nimes. "There was hardly a town in the [Romanl empire which had not an amphitheatre large enough to contain vast multitudes of spectators. The savage excitement of gladiatorial combats seems to have been almost necessary to the Roman legionaries in their short intervals of inaction, and was the first recreation for which they provided in the places where they were stationed. . . . Gladiatorial combats were held from early times in the Forum, and wild beasts hunted in the Circus; but until Curio built his celebrated double theatre of wood, which could be made into an amphitheatre by turning the two semi-circular portions face to face, we have no record of any special building in the peculiar form afterwards adopted. It may have been, therefore, that Curio's mechanical contrivance first suggested the elliptical shape. ... As specimens of architec- ture, the amphitheatres are more remarkable for the mechanical skill and admirable adaptation to their purpose displayed in them, than for any beauty of shape or decoration. The hugest of all, the Coliseum, was ill-proportioned and un- pleasing in its lines when entire." — R. Burn, Rome and the campagna, introduction. — See also Arena; Coliseum. AMPHORA, MODIUS.— "The [Roman] unit of capacity was the Amphora or Quadrantal, which contained a cubic foot . . . equal to 5.687 imperial gallons, or 5 gallons, 2 quarts, i pint, 2 gills, nearly. The Amphora was the unit for both liquid and dry measures, but the latter was gen- erally referred to the Modius, which contained one- third of an Amphora. . . . The Culeus was equal to 20 Amphora." — W. Ramsay, Manual of Roman antiquities cli. 13. AMPTHILL, Ode William Leopold Russell, 1st baron (1829-1884), British diplomat. Held various diplomatic positions in Vienna, Paris, Con- stantinople, Florence and Rome and was British ambassador to Berlin from 1871 until his death. — • See also Masonic societies: England: Ideals of Freemasonry. AMPUDIA, Pedro de, Mexican general. See Mexico: 1846-1847. AMR-IBN-EL-ASS, or Amru (d. 664), a dis- tinguished Arabian general under Mohammed and his immediate successors. The conquest of Syria and Egypt and the final triumph of the Omayyads over the followers of AH were due largely to him. See Cai^ii'iiate: 640-646. AMRITSAR, a city of British India, in the Punjab; long celebrated as a holy place of the Sikhs (q. v.) ; while the place is one of the rich- e;;t trading bazars of India, the most remarkable feature is the great fortress built by Runjit Singh in 1809. In 1919 there were riots and disturb- ances which were quickly subdued by the British military under General Dyer, who was removed from his command and censured for his severity. — See also I.n'dia: 1919; Map. AMRU, Mosque of, one of the oldest mosques in Cairo, Egypt, a splendid example of Moham- medan architecture. It was founded immediately after the conquest of the country in 643, and con- siderably enlarged in the succeeding periods. Its distinguishing features are "a square open court, surrounded by arcades, set at right angles to the mihrab and supported by columns taken from Byzantine and Roman buildings." — C. H. Caffin, Hoiv to study architecture, p. 223. AMSTERDAM, the "most important city of Holland, situated in the province of North Hol- land, on the Y river, an arm of thcZuider Zee. Amsterdam, or the "dyke of the Amste'l," is named after the Amstel, the canalized river passing through the city to the Y. The city has a population of almost 640,000. Between the years 1640-1656, the famous portrait painter Rembrandt lived in the Jewish center of Amsterdam, which also boasts of the birth of the philosopher Spinoza (1632). The city was virtually founded by Giesebrecht II and III of Amstel. The former, in 1204, found .Amsterdam but a fishing hamlet, and constructed a castle in the vicinity. The latter, the son of the builder of the castle, constructed a dam in 1240 to keep the sea out. The place passed out 333 AMSTERDAM, BANK OF ANABAPTISTS OF MUNSTER of the control of the house of Amstel in i2q6 when Giesebrecht IV was found to have taken part in the murder of Count Floris V of Holland. The fief passed into the hands of Guy of Hainaut who gave the town its first charter (1300). "The town was early admitted to the fellowship of the Hansa League; and, in 1342, having outgrown its primary limits, required to be enlarged. For this an expensive process, that of driving piles into the swampy plain, was necessary ; and to this circum- stance, no doubt, it is owing that the date of each successive enlargement has been so accurately recorded." — \V. T. McCullagh, Industrial history of free nations, v. 2, ch. g. — The walls about the town were built in 1482. The city began to de- velop and prosper most rapidly. With the be- ginning of the i6th century the signing of the treaty of Westphalia in 1648 proved most favor- able to the city inasmuch as, by one of its pro- visions, the Scheldt was closed, thereby bringing ruin upon Antwerp, Amsterdam's commercial rival. Holland's chief commercial center was oc- cupied successively by the Prussians in 1787 and the French, under Pichegru, in 1705. — See also Netherlands: Map of the Netherlands and Bel- gium. 1813. — Revolt against the French. See Neth- erlands: 1 81 3. 1904. — Congress of, International. See Inter- national: 1Q04. 1907. — Meeting of International Woman Suf- frage Alliance. See Suffrage, Women. AMSTERDAM, Bank of. See Bank of Am- sterdam. AMSTERDAM, New. See New York (State): 1634; 1653; 1664. AMSTERDAM CANAL. See Canals: Princi- pal European canals: Holland. AMULIUS, legendary king of Alba Longa, Italy, in the seventh century B.C.; usurped the throne of his younger brother Numitor, whose grandchildren, Romulus and Remus, set adrift in the river Tiber by Amulius, survived to slay the usurper and to found Rome. AMUNDSEN, Roald (1872- ), Norwegian arctic explorer; made magnetic survey of North Pole regions in IQ03; achieved Northwest Passage in IQ05; discovered South Pole in Dec. 14, 1911. See Antarctic explorations: igii-iqia; Map of .Antarctic regions; Arctic explorations: 1901- iQoo; Spitsbergen: 1906-1921. AMUR, or Amoor, river and district of East Siberia. See Siberia: Land; World War: igiS: III. Russia: e, 1; China: Map. AMURATH. See Murad. AMYCL.S;, chief city of Laconia while that district of Peloponnesus was occupied 1 . the .•VchcEans, before the Doric invasion and before the rise of Sparta. It maintained its independence against the Doric Spartans for a long period, but succumbed at length under circumstances which gave rise to a proverbial saying among the Greeks concerning "the silence of Amycls." "The peace of .Amyclae, we are told, had been so often dis- turbed by false alarms of the enemy's approach, that .at length a law was passed forbidding such reports, and the silent citv was taken bv surprise." — C. Thirlwall, History ' of Greece, eh. 7.— This sforv is also told of a city of the same name in Latium. Ttnlv. AMYNTAS I, king of Macedonia c. S40-408 B. C. Submitted to the Persians about 513 B. C. See Macedonia: B.C. 700-3^9. Amyntas II (or III) , king of Macedonia c. 394- 369 B.C. See Macedonia: B.C. 700-359. AN, City of. See On. ANABAPTISTS.— "None of the sects which sprang up in the wake of the Reformation pro- duced so great a ferment as the Anabaptists. The name, which signifies rebaptizers, was affixed to them by their adversaries for the reason that they rejected infant baptism and baptised anew all of their number who had received the sacrament in infancy. The Anabaptists were the radicals of the Reformation. They considered that the Reformers had left their work half done. . . . The Church, they insisted, must be composed exclusively of the regenerate, and religion is not a matter to be regu- lated and managed by civil rulers. Under the name of Anabaptists are included different types of doctrine and of Christian life. It is a gross in- justice to impute to them all the wild and de- structive fanaticism with which a portion of them are chargeable. This fanatical class are first heard of in Germany, under Thomas Miinzer, as a leader, who ... in the Peasants' War in 1525 sought to establish his revolutionary doctrines. These in- volved the abolition of all existine authorities in Church and State, and the substitution of a king- dom of the saints, in which he was to be the chief. . . . Very different from the disciples of Miinzer, however, were Grebel and other Anabaptists who organized themselves at Zurich. . . . They were en- thusiasts but not fanatics. They were peaceful in their spirit, and, as it would appear, were sin- cerely devout. These traits, however did not pro- tect them from harsh and unwarrantable treat- ment. . . . Some of them were put to death. . . . They went no farther, however, than to maintain that no Christian could be a magistrate, or take part in the infliction of capital punishment. . . . in the third and fourth decades of the sixteenth century 'Anabaptism spread like a burning fever through all Germany ; from Swabia and Switzer- land, along the Rhine to Holland and Friesland. from Bavaria, Middle Germany, Westphalia, and Saxony, as far as Holstein.' In the Netherlands, in the time of Charles V., Anabaptists were guilty of offences against decency and morality which were repaid with savage penalties. Afterwards, v/e find that a numerous body who were stigmatized by the same name but were of a totally different spirit were organized under the guidance of Menno Simonis, a religious and conscientious man. . . . English Brownists, or Independents, who came over to Holland, were brought into connection with the Mennonites. . . . After 1535 many Anabaptists crossed over to England and formed congrega- tions. . . . They were reinforced by certain Brown- ists who had espoused .Anabaptist opinions in Hol- land." — G. P. Fisher, History of the Christian Church, pp. 424-426. — See also .A.vabapiists of Mi'NSTER ; Baptists; Mennonites. ANABAPTISTS OF MUNSTER.— "Munster is a town in Westphalia, the seat of a bishop, walled round, with a noble cathedral and many churches; but there is one peculiarity about Miin- ster that distinguishes it from all other old Ger- man towns; it has not one old church spire in it. Once it had a great many. How comes it that it now has none? In Miinster lived a draper, Knipperdolling by name, who was much excited over the doctrines of Luther, and he gathered many people in his house, and spoke to them bit- ter words against the Pope, the bishops, and the clergy. The bishop at this time was Francis of Waldeck, a man much inclined himself to Lu- theranism; indeed, later, he proposed to suppress Catholicism in the diocese, as he wanted to seize on it and appropriate it as a possession to his family. Moreover, in IS44> he joined the Protest- ant princes in a league against the Catholics; but 334 ANABAPTISTS OF MUNSTER ANESTHETICS he did not want things to move too fast, lest he should not be able to secure the wealthy See as personal property. Knipperdolling got a young priest, named Rottmann, to preach in one of the churches against the errors of Catholicism, and he was a man of such fiery eloquence that he stirred up a mob which rushed through the town, wrecking the churches. The mob became daily more daring and threatening. They drove the priests out of the town, and some of the wealthy citizens tied, not knowing what would follow. The bishop would have yielded to all the religious innovations if the rioters had not threatened his temporal position and revenue. In 1532 the pas- tor, Rottmann, began to preach against the bap- tism of infants. Luther wrote to him remonstrat- ing, but in vain. The bishop was not in the town; he was at Minden, of which See he was bishop as well. Finding that the town was in the hands of Knipperdolling and Rottman, who were con- fiscating the goods of the churches, and exclud- ing those who would not agree with their opin- ions, the bishop advanced to the place at the head of some soldiers. Miinster closed its gates against him. Negotiations were entered into ; the Landgrave of Hesse was called in as pacificator, and articles of agreement were drawn up and signed. Some of the churches were given to the Lutherans, but the Cathedral was reserved for the Cathohcs, and the Lutherans were forbidden to molest the latter, and disturb their religious serv- ices. The news of the conversion of the city of Miinster to the gospel spread, and strangers came to it from all parts. Among these was a tailor of Leyden, called John Bockelson. Rottman now threw up his Lutheranism and proclaimed him- self opposed to many of the doctrines which Luther still retained. Amongst other things he re- jected was infant baptism. This created a spHt among the reformed in Miinster, and the disorders broke out afresh. The mob now fell on the ca- thedral and drove the Catholics from it, and would not permit them to worship in it. They also invaded the Lutheran churches, and filled them with uproar. On the evening of January 28, 1534, the Anabaptists stretched chains across the streets, assembled in armed bands, closed the gates and placed sentinels in all directions. When day dawned there appeared suddenly two men dressed Hke Prophets, with long ragged beards and flowing mantles, staff in hand, who paced through the streets solemnly in the midst of the crowd, who bowed before them and saluted them as Enoch artd Elias. These men were John Bockelson, the tailor, and one John Mattheson, head of the Anabaptists of Holland. Knipperdolling at once associated himself with them, and shortly the place was a scene of the wildest ecstacies. Men and women ran about the streets screaming and leaping, and crying out that they saw visions of angels with swords drawn urging them on to the extermination of Lutherans and Catholics alike. ... A great number of citizens were driven out, on a bitter day, when the land was covered with snow. Those who lagged were beaten ; those who were sick were carried to the market-place and re- baptized by Rottman. . . . This was too much to be borne. The bishop raised an army and marched against the city. Thus began to siege which was to last sixteen months, during which a multitude of untrained fanatics, commanded by a Dutch tailor, held out against a numerous and well-armed force. Thenceforth the city was ruled by divine revelations, or rather, by the crazes of the dis- eased brains of the prophets. One day they de- clared that all the officers and magistrates were to be turned out of their offices, and men nominated by themselves were to take their places; another day Mattheson said it was revealed to him that every book in the town except the Bible was to be destroyed; accordingly all the archives and li- braries were collected in the market-place and burnt. Then it was revealed to him that all the spires were to be pulled down; so the church towers were reduced to stumps, from which the enemy could be watched and whence cannon could play on them. One day he declared he had been ordered by Heaven to go forth, with promise of victory, against the besiegers. He dashed forth at the head of a large band, but was surrounded and he and his band slain. The death of Mattheson struck dismay into the hearts of the Anabaptists, but John Bockelson took advantage of the mo- ment to establish himself as head. He declared that it was revealed by him that Mattheson had been killed because he had disobeyed the heavenly command, which was to go forth with fe.w. In- stead of that he had gone with many. Bockelson said he had been ordered in vision to marry Mat- theson's widow and assume his place. It was fur- ther revealed to him that Miinster was to be the heavenly Zion, the capital of the earth, and he was to be king over it. . . . Then he had another revelation that every man was to have as many wives as he liked, and he gave himself sixteen wives. This was too outrageous for some to en- dure, and a plot was formed against him by a blacksmith and about 200 of the more respectable citizens, but it was frustrated and led to the seizure of the conspirators and the execution of a number of them. ... At last, on midsummer eve, 1536, after a siege of sixteen months, the city was taken. Several of the citizens, unable longer to endure the tyranny, cruelty and abominations committed by the king, helped the soldiers of the prince- bishop to cUmb the walls, open the gates, and sur- prise the city. A desperate hand-to-hand fight ensued; the streets ran with blood. John Bockel- son, instead of leading his people, hid himself, but was caught. So was Knipperdolling. When the place was in his hands the prince-bishop en- tered. John of Leyden and Knipperdolling were cruelly tortured, their flesh plucked off with red- hot pincers, and then a dagger was thrust into their hearts. Finally, their bodies were hung in iron cages to the tower of a church in Miinster. Thus ended this hideous drama, which produced an indescribable effect throughout Germany. Miinster, after this, in spite of the desire of the prince-bishop to establish Lutheranism, reverted to Catholicism, and remains Catholicto this day." — S. Baring-Gould, Slory of Germany, ch. 36. Also in: L. von Ranke, History of the Reforma- tion in. Germany, bk. 6, ch. 9, v. 3. — C. Beard, Re- formation, (Hibbert Lectures, 1883). ANABASIS, the name given by Xenophon to his account of the retreat of the 10,000 Greeks after the battle of Cunaxa (401 B.C.). See Persia: B.C. 401-400; also History: 16. ANABASIS OF ALEXANDER. See Arrian. ANACLETUS (d. 1138), anti-pope from 1130 till his death, maintaining his rule in Rome against Innocent II. ANACONDA COPPER MINE (Montana). See Montana: 1Q07-1917. ANACTORIUM. See Corcyra. ANAESTHESIA: In the Middle Ages. See Medical science: Ancient: loth century. AN.a;STHETICS, Discovery of. See Medicai. science: Modern: 19th century: Discovery of an- aesthetics; Chuvhstry: Practical application: Drugs. 335 ANAFARTA ANARCHISM ANAFARTA: Object of British attack. See World War; 1915: \'I. Turkey: a, 4, xxxviii. ANAH: Occupied by the British. See World War: 191S: VI. Turkish, theater: a, 1. ANAHUAC— "The word Anahuac signifies 'near the water.' It was, probably, first applied to the country around the lakes in the Mexican Valley, and gradually extended to the remoter re- gions occupied by the Aztecs, and the other semi- civilized races. Or, possibly, the name may have been intended, as Veytia suggests (Historical An- tiquities, lib. I, cap. i), to denote the land be- tween the waters of the .\tlantic and Pacific." — W. H. Prescott, Conquest of Mexico, bk. i, ch. i, note II. See Mexico: Aboriginal inhabitants; also 1325-1502. ANAKIM. See Amorites. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY. See Chem- istry: Analytical. ANAM. See .^nnam. ANAPA, Russia. Frontier town originally built by the Turks for defense purposes. Finally taken by the Russians in 1828 and ceded to them in the treaty of Adrianople in 1829. See Turkey: 1826- 1829. ANARCHISM.— Definition and theory.— An- cient theories. — "Anarchism, as its derivation in- dicates, is the theory which is opposed to every kind of forcible government. It is opposed to the State as the embodiment of the force employed in the government of the community. Such gov- ernment as Anarchism can tolerate must be free government, not merely in the sense that it is that of a majority, but in the sense that it is that as- sented to by all. Anarchists object to such insti- tutions as the police and the criminal law, by means of which the will of one part of the com- munity is forced upon another part. In their view, the democratic form of government is not very enormously preferable to other forms so long as minorities are compelled by force or its poten- tiality to submit to the will of majorities. Lib- erty is the supreme good in the Anarchist creed, and liberty is sought by the direct road of abolish- ing all forcible control over the individual of the community. Anarchism, in this sense, is no new doctrine. It is set forth admirably by Chuang Tzu, a Chinese philosopher, who lived about the year 300 B. C. . . . Ancient Greece also had its anarchistic philosophers, of whom the most im- portant was Zeno {342-267 B.C.). Zeno denied omnipotence such as Plato desired, to the state, and pled for the elevation of individual moral law in the place of organized police power as wielded by the state. The modern Anarchism, in the sense in which we shall be concerned with it, is associated with belief in the communal own- ership of land and capital, and is thus in an im- portant respect akin to Socialism. The doctrine is properly called .'\narchist Communism, but as it embraces practically all modern Anarchism, we may ignore individualist Anarchism altogether and concentrate attention upon the communistic form. Socialism and .Anarchist Communism alike have arisen from the perception that private capital is a source of tyranny by certain individuals over others. Orthodox Socialism believes that the in- dividual will become free if the State becomes the sole capitalist. Anarchism, on the contrary, fears that in that case the State might merely inherit the tyrannical propensities of the private capitalist. Accordingly, it see"ks for a means of reconciling communal ownership with the utmost possible diminution in the powers of the State, and indeed ultimately with the complete abolition of the State. It has arisen mainly within the Socialist move- ment as its extreme left wing. " — B. Russell, Pro- posed roads to freedom, p. 33. — See also Socialism: Definition of terms. "In the popular mind an anarchist is identified with one who desires to destroy existing govern- ment through the use of the bomb and other vio- lent means. It is quite true that many adherents to this school do advocate the use of violence in achieving their ends. It is important to bear in mind, however, that we are here dealing only with means, not the end itself. The really important thing, at least from the standpoint of political science, is the end or the principle which the users of these means seek to make prevail. The anar- chistic school represents the extreme school of in- dividual rights. There are many persons who be- long to this school who do not approve of the use of violence. They constitute what are known as scientific anarchists. Prince Kropotkin [died 192 1] is probably the most distinguished representative of this class, and in his writings one can find the best exposition of the philosophy of this school. It is the belief of this school, not only that the principles for which they stand are theoretically sound, but are susceptible of successful applica- tion in practice. It is their belief that common action for the general welfare should rest upon voluntary association rather than state compulsion. They point to the fact that great branches of ac- tivities are now conducted in this way. Men form all sorts of associations for common action in which the principle of compulsion is absent. Especially is the great success achieved in the field of dis- tributive cooperation in England and Europe gen- erally referred to as an example of what can be done through purely voluntary association. In boards of trade, chambers of commerce, trade unions, and like organizations, are found other illustrations." — W. F. Willoughby, Governments of modern states, p. 170. 1578-1652. — Anarchy in Poland. See Poland: 1578-1652. 1793. — Godwin's theory. — William Godwin, an Englishman (1756-1836), published his famous "Enquiry Concerning Political Justice, and Its In- fluence on General Virtue and Happiness," in 1793. It contained the first modern formulation of the principles of anarchism. He based his theory on the doctrine of natural rights and demanded the abolition of all laws and government as being false and unnecessary. Small, self-governing com- munities, he held, made up the most equitable so- ciety. From the conviction that "monarchy was a species of government unavoidably corrupt," he ar- rived at the conclusion that "government by its very nature counteracts the improvement of orig- inal mind." Despite its importance in the do- main of political literature, however, Godwin's essay bore little fruit, and the history of anarchism proper begins with Pierre Joseph Proudhon (1809- 186S). 1839-1894. — Proudhcn and his doctrines. — Max Stirner and the individualistic school of an- archists.— "Of the Socialistic thinkers who serve as a kind of link between the Utopists and the school of Socialism of historical evolution, or scientific Socialists, by far the most noteworthy figure is Proudhon, who was born at Besanqon in 1809. By birth he belonged to the working class, his father being a brewer's cooper, and he himself as a youth followed the occupation of cow- herding. In 1838, however, he published an es- say on general grammar, and in 1839 he gained a scholarship to be held for three years, a gift of one Madame Suard to his native town. The result of his advantage was his most important though 33^ ANARCHISM, 1839-1894 ANARCHISM, 1839-1894 far from his most voluminous work, published the same year as the essay which Madame Suard's scholars were bound to write: it bore the title of 'What is Property?' {Qu' est-ce que la propriete?) his answer being Property is Robbery (La propriete est le vol). As may be imagined, this remarkable essay caused much stir and indigna- tion, and Proudhon was censured by the Besangon Academy for its production, narrowly escaping a prosecution. In 1841 he was tried at Besan(;on for a letter he wrote to Victor Considerant, the Fourierist, but was acquitted. In 1846 he wrote his 'Philosophie de la Misere' (Philosophy of Poverty), which received an elaborate reply and refutation from Karl Marx. In 1847 he went to Paris. In the Revolution of 1848 he showed him- self a vigorous controversialist, and was elected Deputy for the Seine. . . . After the failure of the revolution of '48, Proudhon was imprisoned for three years, during which time he married a young woman of the working class. In 1858 he fully developed his system of 'Mutualism' in his last work, entitled 'Justice in the Revolution and the Church.' In consequence of the publication of this book he had to retire to Brussels, but was amnestied in i860, came back to France and died at Passy in 1865."— W. Morris and E. B. Bax, Socialism, its growth and outcome, ch. 18. — "In anarchism we have the extreme antithesis of so- cialism and communism. The socialist desires so to extend the sphere of the state that it shall em- brace all the more important concerns of life. The communist, at least of the older school, would make the sway of authority and the routine which follows therefrom universal. The anarchist, on the other hand, would banish all forms of authority and have only a system of the most perfect lib- erty. The anarchist is an extreme individualist. . . . Anarchism, as a social theory, was first elabo- rately formulated by Proudhon. In the first part of his work, 'What is Property?' he briefly stated the doctrine and gave it the name 'anarchy,' ab- sence of a master or sovereign. In that connec- tion he said: 'In a given society the authority of man over man is inversely proportional to the stage of intellectual development which that so- ciety has reached. . . . Property and royalty have been crumbling to pieces ever since the world be- gan. As man seeks justice in equality, so society seeks order in anarchy.' About twelve years be- fore Proudhon published his views Josiah War- ren reached similar conclusions in America. But as the Frenchman possessed the originality neces- sary to the construction of a social philosophy, we must regard him as altogether the chief authority upon scientific anarchism. . . . Proudhon's social ideal was that of perfect individual liberty. Those who have thought him a communist or socialist have wholly mistaken his meaning. . . . Proudhon believed that if, the state in all its departments were abolished, if authority were eradicated from society, and if the principle of laissez faire were made universal in its operation, every form of so- cial ill would disappear. According to his views men are wicked and ignorant because, either di- rectly or indirectly, they have been forced to be so: it is because they have been subjected to the will of another, or are able to transfer the evil results of their acts to another. If the individual, after reaching the age of discretion, could be freed from repression and compulsion in every form and know that he alone is responsible for his acts and must bear their consequences, he would become thrifty, prudent, energetic; in short he would al- ways see and follow his highest interests. He would always respect the rights of others; that is, act justly. Such individuals could carry on all the great industrial enterprises of to-day either separately or by voluntary association. No com- pulsion, however, could be used to force one to ful- fil a contract or remain in an association longer than his interest dictated. Thus we should have a perfectly free play of enlightened self-interests: equitable competition, the only natural form of social organization. . . . Proudhon's theory is the sum and substance of scientific anarchism. "Opposed to the communist anarchism of God- win and Proudhon is revolutionary individualist anarchism, of which Max Stirner (pseudonym for Kaspar Schmidt) was the ablest exponent. Stirner's main thesis was the fullest development of the individual, the highest elevation of the ego — not of the majority of men, but of the bet- ter endowed,^and the aboUtion of morals in con- nection with 'the association of the egotists.' [See also Individualistic school. 1 . . . How closely have the American anarchists adhered to the teach- ings of their master? One group, with its centre at Boston and with branch associations in a few other cities, is composed of faithful disciples of Proud- hon. They believe that he is the leading thinker among those who have found the source of evil in society and the remedy therefor. They accept his analysis of social phenomena and follow his lead generally, though not implicitly. They call themselves Individualistic Anarchists, and claim to be the only class who are entitled to that name. They do not attempt to organize very much, but rely upon 'active individuals, working here and there all over the country.' It is supposed that they may number in all some five thousand ad- herents in the United States. . . . They, like Proudhon, consider the government of the United States to be as oppressive and worthless as any of the European monarchies. Liberty prevails here no more than there. In some respects the system of majority rule is more obnoxious than that of monarchy. It is quite as tyrannical, and in a republic it is more difficult to reach the source of the despotism and remove it. They regard the entire machinery of elections as worthless and a hindrance to prosperity. They are opposed to po- litical machines of all kinds. They never vote or perform the duties of citizens in any way, if it can be avoided. . . . Concerning the. family rela- tion, the anarchists believe that civil marriage should be abolished and 'autonomistic' marriage substituted. This means that the contracting par- ties should agree to live together as long as it seems best to do so, and that the partnership should be dissolved whenever either one desires it. Still, they would give the freest possible play to love and honor as restraining motives. . . . [Probably the most influential American anarchist was Benjamin R. Tucker, who was an admirer and follower of the economic doctrines of Proud- hon, several of whose works he translated. Lib- erty, a leading anarchist journal, was established by him in 1881.] "The Individualistic Anarchists . . . profess to have very little in common with the Internationalists. The latter are Communistic .Anarchists. They borrow their analysis of exist- ing social conditions from Marx, or more accurately from the 'communistic manifesto' written by Marx and Engels in 1847. In the old International Workingman's association they constituted the left wing, which, with its leader, Bakunine, was ex- pelled in 1872. Later the followers of Marx, the socialists proper, disbanded, and since 1883 the In- ternational in this country has been controlled wholly by the anarchists. Their views and meth- ods are similar to those which Bakunine wished to 337 ANARCHISM, 1861-1876 ANARCHISM, 1872-1912 carry out by means of his Universal Alliance, and which exist more or less definitely in the niinds of [the former] Russian Nihilists. [See also Nihilism.] Like Bakunine, they desire to organ- ize an international revolutionary movement of the laboring classes, to maintain it by means of conspiracy and, as soon as possible, to bring about a general insurrection. In this way, with the help of explosives, poisons and murderous weapons of all kinds, they hope to destroy all existing insti- tutions, ecclesiastical, civil and economic. Upon the smoking ruins they will erect the new and perfect society. Only a few weeks or months will be necessary to make the transition. During that time the laborers will take possession of all lands, buildings, instruments of production and distribu- tion. With these in their possession, and without the interposition of government, they will organize into associations or groups for the purpose of car- rying on the work of society." — H. L. Osgood, Scientific anarchism {Political Science Quarterly, March, i88g). Also in: F. Dubois, Anarchist peril. 1861-1876. — Bakunin and the International. — "In the same sense in which Marx may be re- garded as the founder of modern Socialism, Ba- kunin may be regarded as the founder of Anarch- ist Communism. . . . Michael Bakunin was born in 1814 of a Russian aristocratic family. ... In 1857, after eight years of captivity, he was sent to Siberia. From there, in 1861, he succeeded in escaping to Japan, and thence through America to London. From this time onward, he devoted him- self to spreading the spirit of Anarchist revolt, without, however, having to suffer any further term of imprisonment. For some years he lived in Italy, where he founded in 1S64 an 'International Fraternity' or '.\Uiance of Socialist Revolutionaries.' This contained men of many countries, but ap- parently no Germans. It devoted itself largely to combating Mazzini's nationalism. In 1867 he moved to Switzerland, where the following year he helped to found the 'International Alliance of Socialist Democracy,' of which he drew up the pro- gram. This program gives a good succinct resum6 of his opinions: 'The .Alliance declares itself atheist ; it desires the definitive and entire abolition of classes and the political equality and social equalization of individuals of both sexes. It de- sires that the earth, the instrument of labor, like all other capital, becoming the collective property of society as a whole, shall be no longer able to be utilized except by the workers, that is to say, by agricultural and industrial associations. It recog- nizes that all actually existing political and au- thoritarian States, reducing themselves more and more to the mere administrative' functions of the public services in their respective countries, must disappear in the universal union of free associa- tions, both agricultural and industrial.' The In- ternational Alliance of Socialist Democracy desired to become a branch of the International Working Men's Association, but was refused admission on the ground that branches must be local and could not themselves be international. The Geneva group of the Alliance, however, was admitted later, in July, i86q. The International Working Men's Association had been founded in London in 1864, and its statutes and prograth were drawn up by Marx. Bakunin at first did not expect it to prove a success and refused to join it. But it spread with remarkable rapidity in many countries and soon became a great power for the propagation of Socialist ideas. Originally it was by no means wholly Socialist, but in successive Congresses Marx won it over more and more to his views. At its third Congress, in Brussels in September, 1868, it became definitely Socialist. Meanwhile Bakunin, regretting his earlier abstention, had decided to join it, and he brought with him a considerable following in French-Switzerland, France, Spain and Italy. At the fourth Congress, held at Basle in September, 1869, two currents were strongly marked. The Germans and English followed Marx in his belief in the State as it was to become after the abolition of private property; they followed him also in his desire to found Labor Parties in the various countries, and to utilize the machinery of democracy for the election of representatives of Labor to Parliaments. On the other hand, the Latin nations in the main followed Bakunin in opposing the State and disbelieving in the ma- chinery of representative government. The con- flict between these two groups grew more and more bitter, and each accused the other of various offences. The statement that Bakunin was a spy was repeated, but was withdrawn after investiga- tion. Marx wrote in a confidential communication to his German friends that Bakunin was an agent of the Pan-Slavist party and received from them 25,000 francs a year. Meanwhile, Bakunin be- came for a time interested in the attempt to stir up an agrarian revolt in Russia, and this led him to neglect the contest in the International at a crucial moment. During the Franco-Prussian war Bakunin passionately took the side of France, es- pecially after the fall of Napoleon III. He en- deavored to rouse the people to revolutionary re- sistance like that of 1793, and became involved in an abortive attempt at revolt in Lyons. The French Government accused him of being a paid agent of Prussia, and it was with difficulty that he escaped to Switzerland. The dispute with Marx and his followers had become exacerbated by the national dispute. Bakunin, like Kropotkin after him, regarded the new power of Germany as the greatest menace to liberty in the world. He hated the Germans with a bitter hatred, partly, no doubt, on account of Bismarck, but probably still more on account of Marx. To this day. Anarchism has remained confined almost exclusively to the Latin countries, and has been associated with a hatred of Germany, growing out of the contests between Marx and Bakunin in the International. The final suppression of Bakunin's faction occurred at the General Congress of the International at the Hague in 1872. The meeting-place was chosen by the Gen- eral Council (in which Marx was unopposed), with a view — so Bakunin's friends contend — to making access impossible for Bakunin (on account of the hostility of the French and German governments) and difficult for his friends. Bakunin was expelled from the International as the result of a report accusing him inter alia of theft backed up by in- timidation. The orthodoxy of the International was saved, but at the cost of its vitality. From this time onward, it ceased to be itself a power, but both sections continued to work in their vari- ous groups, and the Socialist groups in particular grew rapidly. Ultimately a new International was formed (1880) which continued down to the out- break of the [World] War. By this time Baku- nin's health was broken, and except for a few brief intervals, he lived in retirement until his death in i8y6." — B. Russell, Proposed roads to jreedom, P- 36. 1872-1912. — Kropotkin's system. — Scientific anarchism. — "We do not find in Bakunin's works a clear picture of the society at which he aimed, or anv argument to prove that such a society could be stable. If we wish to understand An- archbm we must turn to his followers, and espe- 338 ANARCHISM, 1878 ANARCHISM, 1898-1900 daily to Kropotkin [died igJi], like him, a Rus- sian aristocrat familiar with the prisons of Europe, and, like him, an Anarchist who, in spite of his in- ternationalism, is imbued with a fiery hatred of the Germans. Kropotkin has devoted much of his writ- ing to technical questions of production. In 'Fields, Factories and Workshops' and 'The Conquest of Bread' he has set himself to prove that, if produc- tion were more scientific and better organized, a comparatively small amount of quite agreeable work would suffice to keep the whole population in comfort. Even assuming, as we probably must, that he somewhat exaggerates what is possible with our present scientific knowledge, it must never- theless be conceded that his contentions contain a very large measure of truth. In attacking the subject of production he has shown that he knows what is the really crucial question. If civilization and progress are to be compatible with equality, it is necessary that equality should not involve long hours of painful toil for httle more than the necessaries of life, since, where there is no leisure, art and science will die and all progress will be- come impossible. The objection which some feel to Socialism and Anarchism alike on this ground cannot be upheld in view of the possible produc- tivity of labor. The system at which Kropotkin aims, whether or not it be possible, is certainly one which demands a very great improvement in the methods of production above what is common at present. He desires to abolish wholly the system of wages, not only, as most Socialists do, in the sense that a man is to be paid rather for his willing- ness to work than for the actual work demanded of him, but in a more fundamental sense: there is to be no obligation to work, and all things are to be shared in equal proportions among the whole population. Kropotkin relies upon the possibility of making work pleasant: he holds that, in such a community as he foresees, practically everyone will prefer work to idleness, because work will not involve overwork pr slavery, or that excessive specialization that industrialism has brought about, but will be merely a pleasant activity for certain hours of the day, giving a man an outlet for his spontaneous constructive impulses. There is to be no compulsion, no law, no government exercising force; there will still be acts of the community, but these are to spring from universal consent, not from any enforced submission of even the smallest minority." — B. Russell, Proposed roads to freedom, p. 51. 1878. — Anarchist attempt to assassinate King Humbert of Italy. Two attempts on William I, German emperor. 1878-1879. — Two anarchist attempts on life of King Alfonso XII of Spain. 1883. — Repudiated by Socialists. See Social- ism: 1874-1901. 1885. — Anarchists expelled from Switzerland. 1886. — Chicago Haymarket bomb explosions by anarchists. See Chicago: 1886-1887. 1892. — Bomb explosions by anarchists in Italy and Spain. 1892-1894.— Anarchist terrorism.— "We should be doing more than justice to Anarchism if we did not say something of its darker side, the side which has brought it into conflict with the police and made it a word of terror to ordinary citizens. In its general doctrines there is nothing essentially involving violent methods or a virulent hatred of the rich and many who adopt these general doc- trines are personally gentle and temperamentally averse from violence. But the general tone of the Anarchist press and public is bitter to a degree thai seems scarcely sane. One of the most curious features of popular anarchism is its martyrology, aping Christian forms, with the guillotine (in France) in place of the cross. Many who have suf- fered death at the hands of the authorities on ac- count of acts of violence were no doubt genuine sufferers for their belief in a cause, but others, equally honored, are more questionable. One of the most curious examples of this outlet for the repressed religious impulse is the cult of Ravachol, who was guillotined in 1S92 on account of various dynamite outrages. As was natural, the leading Anarchists took no part in the canonization of his memory ; nevertheless it proceeded, with the most amazing extravagances. It would be wholly un- fair to judge Anarchist doctrine, or the views of its leading exponents, by such phenomena ; but it remains a fact that Anarchism attracts to itself much that lies on the borderland of insanity and common crime. This must be remembered in exculpation of the authorities and the thoughtless public, who often confound in a common detesta- tion the parasites of the movement and the truly heroic and high-minded men who have elaborated its theories and sacrificed comfort and success to their propagation. The terrorist campaign in which such men as Ravachol were active prac- tically came to an end in 1894. After that time, under the influence of Pelloutier, the better sort of Anarchists found a less harmful outlet by advocating Revolutionary Syndicalism in the Trade Unions and Bourses du Travail. [See also Labor organization: 1867-1912.] The economic organization of society, as conceived by Anarchist Communists, does not differ greatly from that which is sought by Socialists. Their difference from Socialists is in the matter of government: they demand that government shall require the con- sent of all the governed, and not only of a major- ity."— /Wd., pp. 51-52. 1893 (February).^Bomb explosions in Rome. 1893 (Sept. 23). — At Barcelona, a bomb, thrown among a party of officers at a military review by an anarchist, killed Captain-General Martinez Campos and a guard. For this crime Codina and five accomplices were shot on May 21, 1894. 1893 (Dec. 9). — Vaillant, an anarchist of Ger- man descent (real name, Konigstein), threw a bomb from the gallery in the Chamber of Deputies in Paris. A woman caught his arm and the bomb, striking a chandelier, exploded without fatal re- sults. A law was passed making attempts of this nature a capital crime, even if no deaths ensued, and Konigstein was guillotined. A week after the execution another anarchist, Emile Henry, threw a bomb in the cafe of the Hotel Terminus, Paris, for which he suffered the death penalty. 1894 (June 24). — French President, Marie F. Sadi Carnot, stabbed to death by an Italian an- archist named Caserio at a banquet in Lyons. The same year French government issued an "an- archist album" containing portraits of about 500 anarchists. — See also France: 1804-1895. 1894 (Nov. 7). — Bomb thrown by an anarchist in a Barcelona theater killed thirty people and wounded eighty. The perpetrator was executed. 1897 (Aug. 8). — Assassination of CAnovas del Castillo, Spanish premier. See Spain: 1897 (Aug.-Oct.). 1898 (Sept. 10). — Assassination of the Em- press Elizabeth of Austria. See Austwa-Hun- cary: 1808 (September). 1398 (Nov. 24-Dec. 21). — International anti- anarchist conference (in camera) held in Rome. See Rome: Modern city: 1871-1007. 1898-1900. — Anarchy in Italy. See Italy: 1898; I 899- I 900. 339 ANARCHISM, 1900 ANARCHISM, 1919 1900 (July 29). — Assassination of King Hum- bert of Italy at Monza. See Italy: 1899- 1900; 1900 (July-September) ; Rome: Modem city: 1871- 1907. 1901 (Sept. 6). — Assassination of President McKinley. See McKixlev, William; 1901. 1906 (April 17).— Death of Johann Most, Ger- man-American anarchist editor. 1906 (May 31).— Attempt to assassinate king and queen of Spain on their wedding day. See Spain: 1900. 1909. — Barcelona riots. — Accusation of Fran- cisco Ferrer of anarchistic propaganda. — His execution (Oct. 12). See Spain: 1909. 1909. — Assassination of Colonel Falcon. See Argentina; 1909; Assassination of Colonel Falcon. 1910. — Emma Goldman's definition. — "The phi- losophy of a new social order based on liberty un- restricted by man-made law; the theory that all forms of government rest on violence, and are therefore wrong and harmful, as well as unneces- sary. The new social order rests, of course, on the materialistic basis of life; but while all An- archists agree that the main evil today is an eco- nomic one, they maintain that the solution of that evil can be brought about only through the con- sideration of every phase of life, — individual, as well as the collective; the internal, as well as the external phases. A thorough perusal of the his- tory of human development will disclose two ele- ments in bitter conflict with each other; elements that are only now beginning to be understood, not as foreign to each other, but as closely related and truly harmonious, if only placed in proper environ- ment: the individual and social instincts. The in- dividual and society have waged a relentless and bloody battle for ages, each striving for supremacy, because each was blind to the value and importance of the other. The individual and social instincts, — the one a most potent factor for individual en- deavor, for growth, aspiration, self-realization ; the other an equally potent factor for mutual helpful- ness and social well-being. The explanation of the storm raging within the individual, and be- tween him and his surroundings, is not far to seek. The primitive man, unable to understand his being, much less the unity of all life, felt him- self absolutely dependent on blind, hidden forces ever ready to mock and taunt him. Out of that attitude grew the religious concepts of man as a mere speck of dust dependent on superior powers on high, who can only be appeased by complete surrender. .\l\ the early sages rest on that idea, which continues to be the leit-motif of the biblical tales dealing with the relation of man to God, to the State, to society, .■^gain and again the same motif, man is nothing, the powers- are everything. Thus Jehovah would only endure man on condi- tion of complete surrender. Man can have all the glories of the earth, but he must not become con- scious of himself. The State, society, and moral laws all sing the same refrain: Man can have all the glories of the earth, but he must not be- come conscious of himself Anarchism is the only philosophy which brings to man the consciousness of himself: which maintains that God, the State, and society arc non-existent, that their promises arc null and void, since they can be fulfilled only through man's subordination. .Anarchism is there- fore the teacher of the unity of life: not merely in nature, but in man. There is no conflict between the individual and the social instincts, any more than there is between the heart and the lungs: the one the receptacle of a precious life essence, the other the repo5itor\' of the element that keeps the essence pure and strong. The individual is the heart of society, conserving the essence of social life; society is the lungs which are distributing the element to keep the life essence — that is, the individual — pure and strong. .Anarchism is the great liberator of man from the phantoms that have held him captive; it is the arbiter and paci- fier of the two forces for individual and social harmony. To accomplish that unity, .Anarchism has declared war on the pernicious influences which have so far prevented the harmonious blending of individual and social instincts, the individual and society. Religion, the dominion of the human mind; Property, the dominion of human needs; and Government, the dominion of human conduct, represent the stronghold of man's enslavement and all the horrors it entails." — Emma Goldman, An- archism. 1912. — Assassination of Spanish premier Can- alejas. See Sp.«n; 1Q12. 1913. — Assassination of George I, king of the Hellenes, by an anarchist. See Greece: 1913- 1919. — Compatability with American citizen- ship. — "Michael Stuppiello, an Italian by birth, a cobbler by trade and an anarchist by profession, after residing in the United States for a period of fifteen years, became a naturalized citizen. In his declaration of intention and petition for naturaliza- tion he stated that he was not an anarchist nor opposed to organized government. Later he was arrested charged with being an anarchist, which, upon his examination, he admitted, but. being a citizen, he was released from custody. The Gov- ernment subsequently brought an action in the Federal District Court for the Western District of New York to cancel his naturalization certificate, and the decree was in its favor. Judge Hazel, who wrote the opinion of the court, which is published in United States vs. Stuppiello, 260 Federal Re- porter, 4S3, in discussing the case, said in part: " '.At the trial the defendant frankly admitted that he was an anarchist, coupling his admission with the statement that he did not believe in the use of force or violence for the overthrow of the Government, but simply believed in philosophical anarchy — anarchy tantamount to that entertained by political philosophers — or, as he puts it. in "evolution by education, in order to reach a state of education of mind that it won't be necessary to have a Government." He limited his definition of an anarchist to a person who believed in violence or the destruction of the Government by force of arms. .Although he testified before the Bureau of Immigration that he did not believe in the form of government of the United States, he now modi- fies such testimony by stating that he believes it necessary to have a Government as society is at present organized. He was uncertain as to whether or not he entertained such views at the time of his naturalization, but finally admitted having them for about five, six or seven years. If the de- fendant had declared on the hearing of his ap- plication for citizenship that he was a philosophical anarchist, as distinguished from a dynamic or ni- hilistic anarchist, or one who believes in destroying the Government by violence, and a disbeliever in organized Government as now constructed, it is inconceivable that his application would have been granted. " 'In a popular sense, it is true, an anarchist is regaided as one who seeks to overturn by violence all constituted forms of society and government, including all law and order and all rights of prop- erty, without intending to establish any other sys- tem of order in place of that destroyed. — Century Dictionary. Yft the word is also defined as one who advocates the absence of government as a 340 ANASTASIS ANCRUM MOOR political ideal — a believer in an anarchic theory of society. In using the word "anarchist" without qualification Congress intended to include all aliens who had in mind a theory of anarchy, or the absence of all direct government, in opposition to that of organized government. The former is diametrically opposed to the latter, and the philo- sophical anarchist who exploits and expounds his views is none the less dangerous to the welfare of the country than the anarchist who believes in overthrowing or destroying the Government by force or violence. The means of accomplishing the end, though different, are both destructive ; one consisting of insidious propaganda to arouse senti- ment in opposition to the Government, and the other to incite violence and disorder. Both are designed to discredit constituted authority.' " — New York Times. — See also Naturalization. 1920. — Legislation against alien anarchists in United States. See U. S. A.: 1920 (June). 1921. — Anarchism in Spain. See Spain; 1921: Political outlook in Spain. Also in: P. Kropotkin, Anarchist communism: its basis and principles. — P. Eltzbacher, Anarchism. — G. B. Shaw, Impossibilities of anarchism. — B. R. Tucker, Instead of a book: a fragmentary exposi- tion of phiiosophical anarchism. — Also the writings of Bakunin, Proudhon, Tolstoi, Zenker, Max Stirner, Staatenlose Oekonomie. ANASTASIS, sacred building of Jerusalem con- taining the Holv Sepulcher. See Holy Land. ANASTASltlS I, pope, 399-401. Anastasius II, pope, 4961-498. Anastasius III, pope, 911-913. Anastasius IV, pope, 1153-1154. Anastasius I, Roman emperor (Eastern), 491- 518. See Rome: 400-518. Anastasius II, Roman emperor (Eastern), 713-716. ANATOLIA, name for Asia Minor. See Asia Minor; also Turkey: Land, and 1915-1916; Map of Asia Minor. ANATOLIA RAILROAD. See Railroads: 1899-1916. ANATOMY. See Medical science: Ancient: 2nd century; Ancient: Hindu; Modern; i8th cen- tury: Work of John Hunter in surgery and anatomy, also Physiological views of Bichat; Science; Mid- dle Ages and the Renaissance: i6th centurv. ANAXAGORAS (c. 500-428 B.C.), Greek phi- losopher, ■ whose advanced teachings on scientific subjects led to his arrest and banishment from Athens. See Evolution: Historical evolution of the idea. ANAXIMANDER, Greek philosopher. See Evolution; Historical evolution of the idea; Miletus: ico-1920. A. N. C. (ante navitatem Christi), an abbrevi- ation occasionally used in place of A. C or B. C. ANCA INDIANS. See Pampas tribes. ANCALITES, a tribe of ancient Britons whose home was near the Thames, ANCASTER, England, Origin of. See Cau- senn.»;. ANCEANS, Manners and customs. See Af- rica: Races of .Africa: Prehistoric peoples. ANCESTOR WORSHIP. See Church and state: Totemism. Africa. See Mythology: Latin American myth- ology: African mythology. Aryans. See Religion: B.C. 1000. China. See China: Religion of the people. Japan. See Mythology: Japan: Characteristics of Japanese Kami or gods, ANCHORITES, HERMITS. — "The fertile and peaceable lowlands of England . . . offered few spots sufficiently wild and lonely for the habi- tation of a hermit ; those, therefore, who wished to retire from the world into a more strict and solitary life than that which the monastery af- forded were in the habit of immuring themselves, as anchorites, or in old English 'Ankers,' in little cells of stone, built usually against the wall of a church. There is nothing new under the sun; and similar anchorites might have been seen in Egypt, 500 years before the time of St. Antony, immured in cells in the temples of Isis or Serapis. It is only recently that antiquaries have discovered how common this practice was in England, and how frequently the traces of these cells are to be found about our parish churches." — C. Kingsley, Hermits, p. 329. — The term anchorites is applied, generally, to all religious ascetics who lived in solitary cells. — J. Bingham, Antiquities of the Christian church, bk. 7, ch. i, sect. 4. — "The es- sential difference between an anker or anchorite and a hermit appears to have been that, whereas the former passed his whole life shut up in a cell, the latter, although leading indeed a solitary life, wandered about at liberty." — R. R. Sharpe, Introduction to "Calendar of wills in the court of busting, London," v. 2, p. 21.— See also Chris- tianity: 312-337; Church and the Empire. ANCIEN REGIME.— The political and social system in France that was destroyed by the Revo- lution of 1789 is commonly referred to as the "ancien regime." Some writers translate this in the Uteral English form — "the ancient regime"; others render it more appropriately, perhaps, the "old regime." Its special application is to the state of things described under France: 1789. ANCIENTS, Council of the, governing body provided for by the Constitution of the year III. See France: 1795 (June-September); 1797 (Sep- tember); 1799 (November). ANCON, Treaty of. See Chile; 1894-1900. AN CON A, Italian city and seaport on the western coast of the Adriatic. The place played a minor part in the World War as the chief Ital- ian naval base for operations a,'ainst Austria. — See also Adriatic question. 1814. — Surrender to Murat. See Italy: 1814. 1832. — Occupied by France. See Austria: 1815-1846. 1914. — Revolutionary riots. See Italy: 191 2- 1914; Labor strikes and boycotts: 19x4. 1915. — Bombarded by Austrians. See World War; 1915: IX. Naval operations: b, 2. ANCONA, an Italian steamship, which while sailing from Genoa with Americans on board, was shelled and torpedoed by an Austro-Hungarian submarine in November, 1Q15, before the crew and passengers had been put in a place of safety or even given suflicient time to leave the vessel. After two protests by the American Secretary of State Lansing, the Austro-Hungarian government acknowledged "that hostile private ships, in so far as they do not flee or offer resistance, may not be destroyed without the persons on board having been placed in safety," and agreed to in- demnify the American sufferers. — See also U. S. A.: 1915 (December). ANCRE, the name of a region and river of France, the scene of intense fighting during the World War See World War; 1916: II. Western front: c, 1 ; c, 4; d, 3; d, 16; d, 17; e; e, 1; e, 4; 1917: II. Western front; a; 1918: II. Western front; c, 18; k, 1. ANCRUM MOOR, Battle of.— A success ob- tained by the Scots over an English force making an incursion into the border districts of their 341 ANGUS MARCIUS ANDESIANS country in 1545.— J. H. Burton, History of Scot- land, ch. 35, V. 3. ANGUS MARGIUS (640-616 B.C.), fourth legendary king of Rome; conquered the Latins, fortified the Janiculum, founded the port of Ostia. As builder of a bridge across the Tiber, he may be a priestly duplicate of Numa, and his second name is Numa Marcius. — See also Rome: Ancient king- dom: 753-5IO- ANCYRA. See Angora. ANDALUSIA: Name.— "The Vandals, . . . though they passed altogether out of Spain, have left their name to this day in its southern part, under the form of Andalusia, a name which, under the Saracen conquerors, spread itself over the whole peninsula." — E. A. Freeman, Historical geog- rapky of Europe, ch. 4, sect. 3. — See also Baltica; Vandals: 428. — Roughly speaking, Andalusia rep- resents the country known to the ancients, first as Tartessus, and later as Turdetania. 1702. — Resistance to English and Dutch dur- ing the sacking of Gadiz. See Cadiz: 1702. ANDALUSIAN SCHOOL.— A Spanish school of painting, "came into existence about the middle of the sixteenth century. Its chief centre was at Seville, and its chief patron the church rather than the king. Vergas (1502-1568) was probably the real founder of the school, though De Castro and others preceded him." — J. C. Van Dyke, Text-book of the history of painting, p. 180. — Other promi- nent members of this school were Cespedes, Roe- las, Pacheco, Herrera the Elder, Zurbaran, Cano, and Murillo. ANDAMAN ISLANDS, a group of islands in the Bay of Bengal, in number 204, mentioned by Marco Polo. The British government established a penal colony there in 1858. See India: Inhabi- tants, Aboriginal. ANDASTES. See Iroquois confederacy; Shawanese; Susquehannas. ANDEGAVI, the ancient name of the city of Angers, France, and of the tribe which occupied that region. ANDEGHY, town of France south-east of Amiens. See World War: 1915: II. Western front: j, 6; 1918: II Western front: c, 22. ANDERIDA, or Anderida Sylva, or An- dredsweald. — A ^reat forest which anciently stretched across Surrey, Sussex and into Kent (southeastern England) was c::lled Anderida Sylva by the Romans and .^ndredsweald by the Saxons. It coincided nearly with the tract of country called in modern times the Weald of Kent, to which it gave its name of the Wald or Weald. On the southern coast-border of the Anderida Sylva the Romans established the important fortress and port of Anderida, which has been identified with modern Pevensey. Here the Romano-Britons made an obstinate stand against the Saxons, in the fifth century, and Anderida was only taken by Ella after a long siege. In the words of the Chronicle, the Saxons "slew all that were therein, nor was there henceforth one Briton left." — J. R. Green, Making of England, ch. 1. hiso in: T. Wright, Celt, Roman, and Saxon, ch. 5. ANDERSON, Judge Albert Barnes (1857- ). — Acquittal of the Standard Oil Company. See Tri'sts: U. S. a. 1Q04-1000. ANDERSON, John (1833-iqoo). — Scottish scientist. Professor of comparative anatomy at Calcutta Medical College 1S64-1886. ANDERSON, Robert (1805-1871), defender of Fort Sumter at the outbreak of the Civil War. See U S A : i860 (December) ; 1861 (March- AprU); 186S (February: South Carolina) ANDERSON, General Thomas M. McArthur (1836-1917). — Correspondence with Aguinaldo. See U. S. A.: 1898 (April-July) ; 1898 (July- August : Philippines) . ANDERSON v. UNITED STATES (1869- 1870). See U. S. A.: 1869-1872. ANDERSONVILLE PRISON-PENS. See Prisons and prison-pens. Confederate. ANDES, or Andi, or Andecavi. See Veneh of WESTERN CAUL. ANDESIANS.— "The term Andesians or An- tesians, is used with geographical rather than eth- nological Umits, and embraces a number of tribes. First of these are the Cofan in Equador, east of Chimborazo. They fought valiantly against the Spaniards, and in times past killed many of the missionaries sent among them. Now they are greatly reduced and have become more gentle. The Huamaboya are their near neighbors. The Jivara, west of the river Pastaca, are a warlike tribe, who, possibly through a mixture of Spanish blood, have a European cast of countenance and a beard. The half Christian Napo or Quijo and their peaceful neighbors, the Zaporo, live on the Rio Napo. The Yamco, living on the lower Chambiva and cross- ing the Maraiion, wandering as far as Saryacu,have a clearer complexion. The Pacamora and the Yu- guarzongo live on the Maraiion, where it leaves its northerly course and bends toward the east. The Cochiquima live on the lower Yavari; the Mayo- runa, or Barbudo, on the middle Ucayali beside the Campo and Cochibo, the most terrible of South American Indians ; they dwell in the woods between the Tapiche and the Maraiion, and like the Jivaro have a beard. The Pano, who formerly dwelt in the territory of Lalaguna, but who now live in villages on the upper Ucayali, are Christians. . . . Their language is the principal one on the river, and it is shared by seven other tribes called col- lectively by the missionaries Manioto or May- no. .. . Within the woods on the ri.-ht bank live the Amahuaca and Shacaya. On the north they join the Remo, a powerful tribe who are dis- tinguished from all the others by the custom of tattooing. Outside this Pano linguistic group stand the Campa, Campo, 0/ Antis on the east slope of the Peruvian Cordillera at the source of the Rio Beni and its tributaries. The Chontaquiros, or Piru, now occupy almost entirely the bank of the Ucayali below the Pachilia. The Mojos or Moxos live in the Bolivian province of Moxos with the small tribes of the Baure, Itonama, Pacaguara. A number of smaller tribes belonging to the Antesian group need not be enumerated. The late Pro- fessor James Orton described the Indian tribes of the territory between Quito and the river Amazon. The Napo approach the type of the Quichua. . . . Among all the Indians of the Provincia del Oriente, the tribe of Jivaro is one of the largest. These people are divided into a great number of sub- tribes. All of these speak the clear musical Jivaro language. They are muscular, active men. . . . The Morona are cannibals in the full sense of the word. . . . The Campo, still very little known, is perhaps the largest Indian tribe in Eastern Peru, and, according to some, is related to the Inca race, or at least with their successors. They are said to be cannibals, though James Orton does not think this possible. . . . The nearest neighbors of the Campo are the Chontakiro, or Chontaquiro, or Chonquiro, called also Piru, who, according to Paul Marcoy, are said to be of the same origin with the Campo; but the language is wholly different. . . . .Among the Pano people are the wild Conibo ; they are the most interesting, but are passing into ex- tinction " — Standard natural history (J. S. Kings- ley, ed.), V. 6, pp. 227-331. 342 ANDEVANNE ANGARIA ANDEVANNE: 1918.— Taken by allies. See World War: iqiS: II. Western front: v, 10; x, 4. ANDORRA, a little semi-republic in the Span- ish Pyrenees. Enjoying a certain self-government since the French Revolution, it is practically a part of Spain. The inhabitants are exempt, however, from Spanish conscription. ANDOVER, a town and borough of Hamp- shire, England. Site of several Roman villas and early earthworks, and of the traditional meeting between /Ethelrcd and Olaf the Dane; meeting place of the Witenagemot. ANDRADA E SYLVA, Bonifacio Joze d' { 1 765-1838), Brazilian statesman. Was made min- ister of the interior and of foreign affairs when the independence of Brazil was declared in 1822, but was banished to France in 1823 because of his democratic principles and lived there in exile till i82g. ANDRASSY, Count Julius (1823-1800), fa- mous Hungarian statesman. Prominent adherent of the revolution of 1S4S; member of the Diet, 1861 ; prime minister after reconstruction of Aus- tria and Hungary on a dual basis, 1867 ; minister of foreign affairs, 1871 ; with Bismarck drew up the famous "Andrassy note," 1S76; chief representa- tive of .\ustria-Hungary at the Congress of Ber- lin, 1878; largely responsible for the making of the Hungarian state and constitution. — See also Austria: 1866-1867; Berlin, Congress of; Hun- gary: 1856-1868; Triple Alliance: Austro-Ger- man Alliance of 1879. ANDRASSY, Count Julius (i860- ), Hun- garian political leader, son of the foregoing Count Andrassy. Minister of interior, iQo6-igoq, in Wekerle cabinet; as Austrian delegate tried to pre- vent Balkan War, 1Q12; opposition leader, igi2- igi8. — See also Austria-Hungary: i903-igo5; igos-igo6; igi4-igis; Hungary: 1918 (Novem- ber). ANDRE, John (1751-1780), British soldier. Negotiated with Benedict Arnold in 1780 for the betrayal of West Point; taken prisoner by the Americans and hanged as a spy October 2, 1780. —See also U. S. A.: 1780 (August-September). ANDREA, Johann Valentin (1586-1654), Ger- man theologian. See Rosicrucians: Illuminati. ANDREA DEL SARTO (1487-1531), Floren- tine pamter of the Renaissance. The Last Supper, Madonna de Sacco, and the Apparition of the An- gel to Zaeliarias are among his most celebrated \yorks. See Painting: Italian: Early Renaissance. ANDREANI, Andrea (c. 1540-1023), Italian engraver on wood, in chiaroscuro. Among others the most remarkable of his works are Mercury and Ignorance, the Deluge, and Pharaoh's host drowned in the Red Sea. ANDREDSWEALD. See Anderida, Anber- IDA Sylva. a ndredsweald. ANDR^E, Solomon August (1854-1807), Swedish engineer and aeronaut. See Aviation: Development of balloons and dirigibles: i87o-igi3. ANDREEV, Leonid (Andreieff, Leonid Niko- laevich'), Russian writer. See Russian literature: i883-igo5. ANDREW I, king of Hungary, 1046-1060. Andrew II (1175-1235), king of Hungary, 1205-1235; participated in the fifth Crusade in 1217; forced by Hungarian barons to sign the Golden Bull, the Magna Carta of Hungary, in 1222. See Crusades: I2i6-i22g; Hungary: 1116- 1301. Andrew III, king of Hungary, i2go-i30i. See Hungary: 1116-1301. Andrew, prince of Hungary, murder of. See Italy (Southern) : 1343-1389. ANDREW, John Albion (1818-1867), Amer- ican statesman ; prominent as the Republican war governor of Massachusetts (1861-1866) ; was one of the first northern governors to send troops to the war; organized the first colored regiment (1863). ANDREWS, Thomas (1813-1885), Irish chem- ist and physicist. Studied medicine and the physi- cal sciences at Glasgow, Paris, Edinburgh, and Dublin ; professor of chemistry in Queens Col- lege, Belfast, i845-i87g; made important discov- eries on the liquefaction of gases. See Chemistry; Physical. ANDRONICUS 1 (Comnenus) (c. 1110-1185), Roman emperor in the East, 1183-1185. See By- zantine empire: 1203-1204. Andronicus II (Palseologus (1260-1332), Roman emperor in the East, 1282-1328. Andronicus III (1296-1341), Roman emperor in the East, 1328-1341. ANDRONICUS OF CYRRHUS, Greek archi- tect and astronomer. Lived in the first century B. C. He erected at Athens the so-called Tower of the Winds on which was a turning figure of Triton with his spear, the prototype of the later weathercock. ANDROPHAGI ("man-eaters"), a race of northern cannibals mentioned by Herodotus. It is supposed that they were related to the Finns. ANDROS, Sir Edmund (1637-1714), English colonial governor in America. Served in the army of Prince Henry of Nassau, appointed governor of New York and the Jerseys, 1674; capable but unpopular governor. Recalled 1681. Knighted, 1678; governor of the "Dominion of New Eng- land," i686-i68g (see also Connecticut: 1685- 1687) ; deposed by the colonists after the over- throw of James II; governor of Maryland, i6g3- i6g4; governor of Guernsey, 1704-1706. — See also Massachusetts: i686-i68g; New York: 1688; U. S. A.: 1678-1780; 1686-1689. ANDROS, the largest of the Cyclades, situated in the /Egean sea southeast of Euboea. The island supplies ships to Xerxes in 480 B.C. In 408 B.C. the inhabitants of Andros successfully withstood an Athenian attack. Subsequently it became, in turn, the possession of Athens, Macedon, Pergamus and Rome. ANECDOTE, Early use of. See Arabic lit- erature, ANEGADA ISLAND. See Virgin islands. ANERIO, Felice (1560-1630?), Italian com- poser of the Roman school. A boy soprano in the papal choir (1575-1579); upon the death of Pal- estrina succeeded him as composer to the choir in 1504. ANFU CLUB, the name of a political faction prominent in the affairs of northern China, during the troublous times following the overthrow of the Manchu dynasty in iqi2. The name is made up of the first syllables of the names of the provinces Anhwei and Fukien, and was meant to symbolize the combination of the leaders controlling the Chi- nese army and navy. The idea back of this union is similar to that which in Japan brou ht about the famous Sat-Cho combination. Traditionally, the Japanese army is controlled by the Satsuma clan, and the navy, by the clan of Choshu. Hence, the Anfu Club has been regarded as typifying a military clique, dominating the country by force. — See also China: 1920. ANGA, Bengal. See Bengal. ANGARIA, a relay system of mounted couriers for the transmission of intelligence, adopted under the Roman empire from the example of the an- cient Persians. 343 ANGARY, RIGHT OF ANGLES ANGARY, Right of (Lat, jus angarice), the right of a belligerent to commandeer and seize any sort of enemy or neutral property on belliger- ent territory if needed for military use. This right has been exercised from the earliest times, and is recognized by articles 53 and 54 of the Hague regulations of i8gg, which further state that at the conclusion of peace the property must be re- stored and indemnity paid for its use. The seiz- ure of Dutch merchantmen in IQ18 by the United States was defended as being in conformity with the right of angary. ANGAS, George Fife (i78g-i879), a founder of South Australia, who devised a system of land settlement. See South .Australia: 1834-1836. ANGELES, Felipe, Mexican revolutionary gen- eral. Executed, 1520. ANGELICO, Fra (1387-1455), Italian painter. Entered Dominican order in 1408. Angelico's art is essentially pietistic. Two of the subjects he most frequently painted were the Last Judgment and the Annunciation.— See also Painting: ItaUan: Early Renaissance. ANG^LIQUE (Arnauld, Jacqueline Marie Angelique) (1591-iobi), abbess at Port Royal. See Port Royal and the Jansenists: 1002-1700. ANGELL, George Thorndike (1823-1909), American educator and philanthropist. Founded Massachusetts Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals and American Humane Education So- ciety. ANGELL, James Burrill (1829-1916), Ameri- can educator and diplomat, professor of modern languages of Brown University, 1853-1860; editor of Providence Journal, 1860-1866; president of the University of Vermont, 1866-1871, and of Univer- sity of Michigan, 1871-1909; United States minister to China, 1880-1SS1 and to Turkey, 1897-1898; made president emeritus of University of Michigan in 1909. ANGELL, James Rowland (1869- ), psy- chologist and educator, son of James Burrill Angell ; professor of psychology at University of Chicago, 190S; dean of the university faculties, 1911; acting president, 191S-1919; president of Yale, 1921. ANGELL, Norman, pseud. See Lane, Ralph Norman Angell. ANGELO, Michael. See Michelangelo. ANGELUS, Isaac, emperor in the East. See Byzantine empire: 1203-1204. ANGERS, Origin of. See Veneti of Western Gaul. ANGEVIN KINGS AND ANGEVIN EM- PIRE. — The Angevin kings of England were so- called since their family, the Plantagenets, came from .■\njou in France. (See England: 1154-11S9.) About the middle of the thirteenth century Anjou was bestowed on Charles, son of Louis VIII of France, who became the founder of the Angevin kings in Naples and Sicily in 1266. See Anjou: 1206-1442. Defeat of the Angevins in Naples. See Italy (Southern): 1386-1414. Defeat of the Angevins by Alphonao. See Italy: 1412-1447. ANGHIARI, Battle of (1425). See Italy: 1412-1447. ANGKOR, a group of ruins in Cambodia, relics of the ancient Khmer civilization. They include remains of the town of ,\ngkor-Thom and the temple of Angkor- Vat. The ornamentation con- sists of reliefs of men, gods and animals displayed on every flat surface ; the stones are cut in huge blocks carefully fitted together without the use of cement. ANGLES.— The mention of the Angles by Tac- itus is in the following passage: "Next [to the Langobardi] come the Reudigni, the Aviones, the Anglii, the Varini, the Eudoses, the Suardones, and Nuithones, who are fenced in by rivers or forests. None of these tribes have any noteworthy fea- ture, except their common worship of Ertha, or mother-Earth, and their belief that she interposes in human affairs, and visits the nations in her car. In an island of the ocean there is a sacred grove, and within it a consecrated chariot, covered over with a garment. Only one priest is permitted to touch it. He can perceive the presence of the god- dess in this sacred recess, and walks by her side with the utmost reverence as she is drawn along by heifers. It is a season of rejoicing, and fes- tivity reigns wherever she deigns to go and be re- ceived. They do not go to battle or wear arms; every weapon is under lock; peace and quiet are welcomed only at these times, till the goddess, weary of human intercourse, is at length restored by the same priest to her temple. Afterwards the car, the vestments, and, if you like to believe it, the divinity herself, are purified in a secret lake. Slaves perform the rite, who are instantly swal- lowed up by its waters. Hence arises a mysteri- ous terror and a pious ignorance concerning the nature of that which is seen only by men doomed to die. This branch indeed of the Suevi stretches into the remoter regions of Germany." — Tacitus, Germany; translated by Church and Brodribb, ch. 40. — "In close neighbourhood with the Saxons in the middle of the fourth century were the Angli, a tribe whose origin is more uncertain and the application of whose name is still more a mat- ter of question. If the name belongs, in the pages of the several geographers, to the same nation, it was situated in the time of Tacitus east of the Elbe; in the time of Ptolemy it was found on the middle Elbe, between the Thuringians to the south and the Varini to the north; and at a later period it was forced, perhaps by the growth of the Thu- ringian power, into the neck of the Cimbric penin- sula. It may, however, be reasonably doubted whether this hypothesis is sound, and it is by no means clear whether, if it be so, the Angli were not connected more closely with the Thuringians than with the Saxons. To the north of the Angli, after they had reached their Schleswig home, were the Jutes, of whose early history we know nothing, except their claims to be regarded as kinsmen of the Goths and the close similarity between their descendants and the neighbour Frisians." — W. Stubbs, Constitutional history of England, v. i, ch. 3. — "Important as are the Angles, it is not too much to say that they are only known through their relations to us of England, their descendants; indeed, without this paramount fact, they would be liable to be confused with the Frisians, with the Old Saxons, and with even Slavonians. This is chiefly because there is no satisfactory trace or fragment of the Angles of Germany within Ger- many ; whilst the notices of the other writers of antiquity tell us as little as the one we find in Tacitus. And this notice is not only brief but complicated. ... I still think that the Angli of Tacitus were — i: The Angles of England; 2: Oc- cupants of the northern parts of Hanover; 3: At least in the time of Tacitus; 4: .\nd that to the exclusion of any territory in Holstein, which was Frisian to the west, and Slavonic to the east. Still the question is one of great magnitude and numerous complications." — R. G. Latham, Ger- many of Tacitus; Epilegomena. sect. 49. — See also Aviones; Saxons. — The conquests and settlements of the Jutes and the Angles in Britain are de- 344 ANGLESEY ANGLO-JAPANESE ALLIANCE scribed under Barbarian invasions: 5th-6th cen- turies; England: 547-633; see also Europe: Eth- nology: Migrations: Map. Anglic kingdom of Bernicia. See Scotland: 7th century. Also in: J. M. Lappenberg, History of England under the Anglo-Saxon kings, v. i, pp. 89-95. ANGLESEY, Arthur Annesley, 1st earl of, (1014-1686); English statesman, member of Crom- well's parliament of 1658; president of council of state 1660, and aided in restoration of Charles II; lord privy seal 1672-1682. ANGLESEY, Henry William Paget, 1st mar- quess of (1768-1854), English field-marshal and statesman; served in Spain and in the Low Coun- tries 1 808- 1 809, and commanded British cavalry at Waterloo; lord-lieutenant of Ireland, 1828-1829 and 1830-1833. ANGLESEY, Ancient. See Normans: 8th-9th Centuries. ANGLI. See Aviones. ANGLICAN CHURCH. See Church or England. Orders of. — Declared invalid by Pope Leo XIII. See Papacy: 1896 (September). ANGLO-ABYSSINIAN TREATY. See Abyssinia: 1896-1897. ANGLO-BELGIAN CONVERSATIONS. See World War: Diplomatic background: 35. ANGLO-DUTCH WAR: 1652-1654. See Eng- land: 1652-1654. ANGLO-EGYPTIAN CONDOMINIUM. See Sudan or Soudan: 1899. ANGLO-FRENCH AGREEMENT: 1890. See Madagascar. 1904. See Entente Cordiale; Nigeria, protec- torate of: 1901-1913. ANGLO-FRENCH MILITARY CONSUL- TATIONS. See World War: Diplomatic back- ground: 56. ANGLO-FRENCH RELATIONS: Entente Cordiale (1904). See England: 1912. ANGLO-FRENCH WARS: 1294-1297. See France: 1285-1314. 1337-1453. See France: 1337-1360; 1360-1380; 1415; 1417-1422; 1429-1431; 1431-1453. 1491-1492. — Henry VII engaged in a war with France because Charles VIII annexed Brittany. The Peace of Estaples ended the war 1495. — Edward IV invaded France in league with the duke of Burgundy, and laid claim to the French crown. War was ended without a battle by the Peace of Pequigny (1475). 1512-1515. See France: 1513-1515. 1557-1558. See France: 1547-1559. 1626-1630. See France: 1627-1628. 1689-1697. See England: 1690; 1692; Canada: 1689-1690; 1692-1697; France: 1689-1690; 1689- 1691; 1692; 1693; 1694; 1695-1696; 1697; New- foundland: 1694-1697. 1740-1748. See France: 173 8- 17 70; Austria: 1740. 1755-1763. See Canada; 1755; (June-Sept.); 1756-1757; 1758; 1759; 1760; Ohio: 1755; Mi- norca: 1756; Germany: 1757 (July-Dec); 1759 (April-August); 1760; 1761; 1762; Cape Breton Island: 1758-1760; India: 1758-1761; England: I7S4-I75S; 1757-1760; 1758; 1759. 1778-1783. See U. S. A.: 1778; 1780; 1782 ; 1783. 1793-1802. See France: 1792-1793; 1794 (March- July); 1794-1795 (October-May); 1796 (Septem- ber); 1798 ( May- August ) ; 1798-1799; 1799; 1800; 1801-1802. 1803-1814. See France: 1802-1803; 1805; 1806- 1810; 1814-1815; Spain: 1809-1810; 1810-1812; 1812; 1812-1814. 1815. See France: 1815. ANGLO-GERMAN CONVENTION (1890). See Africa: Modern European occupation: 1884- 1889. ANGLO-GERMAN RELATIONS. See Eng- land: 1912; 1912-1914; World War: Diplomatic background: 71 x. ANGLO-JAPANESE ALLIANCE.— "Great Britain was the first to welcome Japan into ttie ranks of the Great Powers. In 1902 a treaty of friendship had been signed by the two island na- tions [see Japan; 1895-1902; 1894-1Q14]; in 1905 this compact was greatly strengthened by a treaty of alliance [see Japan: 1902-1905]. The latter provided for (1) the preservation of peace in Eastern Asia and India; (2) the maintenance of the integrity of China and of the principle of the 'open door'; and (3) the defense of the territorial rights of each party in Eastern Asia and India. This treaty, which was renewed in 1911, gave Japan a free hand in the Far East, so far as England was concerned, in return for Japan's prom- ise to safeguard British rule in India." — J. S. Schapiro, Modern and contemporary European history, pp. 670-671. The text of the 1911 treaty between England and Japan continuing the alliance for a ten-year period, is as follows: "Preamble. — The Government of Great Britain and the Government of Japan, having in view the important changes which have taken place in the situation since the conclusion of the Anglo-Japa- nese Agreement of the 12th August, 1905, and be- lieving that a revision of that Agreement respond- ing to such changes would contribute to general stability and repose, have agreed upon the follow- ing stipulations to replace the Agreement above mentioned, such stipulations having the same ob- ject as the said Agreement, namely: — (a) The con- solidation and maintenance of the general peace in the regions of Eastern Asia and of India; (b) The preservation of the common interests of all Powers in China by insuring the independence and integrity of the Chinese Empire and the principle of equal opportunities for the commerce and in- dustry of all nations in China; (c) The mainte- nance of the territorial rights of the High Con- tracting Parties in the regions of Eastern Asia and of India, and the defence of their special interests in the said regions. Article I. It is agreed that whenever, in the opinion of either Great Britain or Japan, any of the rights and interests referred to in the preamble of this Agreement are in jeop- ardy, the two Governments will communicate with one another fully and frankly, and will consider in common the measures which should be taken to safeguard those menaced rights or interests. Article II. If by reason of unprovoked attack or aggressive action, wherever arising, on the part of any Power or Powers, either High Contracting Party should be involved in war in defence of its territorial rights or special interests mentioned in the preamble of this Agreement, the other High Contracting Party will at once come to the as- sistance of its ally, and will conduct the war in common, and make peace in mutual agreement with it. Article III. The High Contracting Par- ties agree that neither of them will, without con- sulting the other, enter into separate arrange- ments with another Power to the prejudice of the objects described in the preamble of this Agree- ment. .Article IV. Should either High Contract- ing Party conclude a treaty of general arbitration with a third Power, it is agreed that nothing in this Agreement shall entail upon such Contract- ing Party an obligation to go to war with the 345 ANGLO-JAPANESE TREATY Power with whom such treaty of arbitration is in force. Article V. The conditions under which armed assistance shaU be afforded by either Power to the other in the circumstances mentioned in the present Agreement, and the means by w^J'^^ such assistance is to be made available, will be ar- ranged by the Naval and MiUtary ^"'h^"^'" °^ the High Contracting Parties, who «';ll/'^°°i .^""^ to time consult one another fully and freely upon all questions of mutual interest. Article \ I. ihe nresenl Agreement shall come into effect immedi- ^[ely after the date of its ^-^^-^'r^' ^T iT^s. in force for ten years from that date I" "se Neither the High Contracting Parties should Save notified twelve months before the expira ion of the said ten years the intention of termmating it it shall remain binding until the expiration of CM year from the day on which either of the High Contracting Parties shall have denounced it. But if when the date fixed for its expiration ar- rives either allv is actually engaged in war, the alliailce shall, ipso f'^to, continue until peace is concluded. lli faith whereof the Undersigned, duly authorized by their respective Governments have signed this Agreement, and have affixed thereto their Seals Done in dupUcate at London, the 13th dS of Juy-'9ii."-E.C.Stowell,D,/-/«m«o' of the 7ar il\,PP. S4i-542.-See also PAcmc "cea^. iqi8-iQ:!i ; U. S. A.: 1Q19-1921 ; World War. 1914- V Tapan; b; Washington Conference 1921 -Question of its renewal. See British EMPIRE- Colonial and Imperial conferences: 1921. ANGLO-JAPANESE TREATY. See Anglo- JTNGL0^'PA1L1STINE COMPANY, Ltd. See Tews- Zionism; 20th century. ANGLO-PERSIAN TREATY, an agreement concluded between Great Britain and Persia on August Q, 1919. In this treaty the British govern- ment agreed to respect the independence and m- tegrity of Persia ; to supply expert advisers tor tne various civil departments and the army; to grant a substantial loan; to aid in rai vyay and road building and in tariff revLsion. Although Great Britain denied any intention of absorbing Persia, many foreign observers regarded the treaty as amounting to a protectorate. However, on Feb. 27 1 92 1, the treaty was abrogated.— See also Persia. '7nGLO-PORTUGUESE CONVENTION (1891). See Africa: Modern European occupa- ''°ANGLO-RUSSIAN AGREEMENT OF 1895. 'InGLoTuSSiInAGREEMENT of 1907. —Convention between Great Britain and Rus- sia, containing arrangements on the subject of Persia, Afghanistan, and Tibet.-Parallel with the Agreements-thc "Entente Cordide —of 1904 between England and France, in its purpose and in its importance to Europe, was the Conven- tion between England and Russia in 1007, which harmonized the interests and the policy of the two nations in matters relating to Persia, Afghanis- tan and Tibet. In each case the dictating motive looked not so much to a settlement of the particu- lar questions involved, as to a general cxtingmsh- ment of possible causes of contention which might at some time disturb the peaceful or fnendlv- rela- tions of the peoples concerned. Taken together, he two formallv expressed understandings, Anglo- French and Anglo-Russian, added to the Franco- Russian Alliance of '^o? . '^'=<=, Fx*^^"'^- '^''S) constituted, not a new Triple Alliance, set over against that of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, but an amicable conjunction which bore sug- ANGLO-RUSSIAN AGREEMENTS eestions of alliance, and which introduced a coun- terweight in European politics that made undoubt- edly for peace. The Anglo-Russian Convention, signed August 31, i907. contained three distinct "Arrangements," under a common preamble, as follows: "His Majesty the King of the United Km:dom of Great Britain and Ireland and of the British Dominions beyond the Seas, Emperor ol India, and His Majesty the Emperor of AH the Russias animated by the sincere desire to settle by mutual agreement different questions concerning the inter- ests of their States on the Continent of Asia, have determined to conclude Agreements destined to nrevent all cause of misunderstanding between Great Britain and Russia in regard to the questions referred to, and have nominated for this purpose their respective Plenipotentiaries. . . Who, hav- ing communicated to each other their full powers, found in good and due form, have agreed on the following: "ARRANGEilENT CONCERNING PERSIA "The Governments of Great Britain and Russia having mutually enga-.ed to respect the mtegrity and independence of Persia, and smcerely desurmg 'he preservation of order throughout that country and its peaceful development, as weU as the per- manent establishment of equal advantages for the trade and industry of all other nations; "Considering that each of them has, for geo- graphical and economic reasons, a special mterest in the maintenance of peace and order m certam provinces of Persia adjoining, or in the neighbour- hood of, the Russian frontier on the one hand, and the frontiers of Afghanistan and Baluchistan on the other hand; and being desirous avoiding all cause of conflict between their .'^'^^P^t^t,'"!": esls in the above-mentioned Provinces of Persia, "Have agreed on the following terms: "I Great Britain engages not to seek for hersell, and not to support in favour of British subjects or in favour of the subjects of third Powers any Concessions of a political or commercial nature— Sih as Concessions for railways, banks, telegraphs roads transport, insurance, &c.-beyond a Ime tart^g fror^ K^sr-i-Shirin, passing through Isfa- han, Yezd, Kakhk and ending at ^^ P"""' °" ^= Persian frontier at the intersection of the Russian and Afghan frontiers, and not to oppose, directly or indirectly, demands for ^iniUar Concessions in this region which are ^"PP-'^^f ,^^ '^1 '^.boTe Government. It is understood .^^l'^^^^^^ mentioned places are •"^'"'^'^'i. '" '^1 \he Con" which Great Britain engages not to seek tne «-on "^^irRliSron'her part, engages not to s«k for mmmm telegraphs, roads^transport^nsurance,^&c^ J^ ^^ a line going from the A'snan ^^^^ Gazik, Birjand, ^"'"^"; /"I'uy or indirectly. Abbas, and not to "PP^^^'^f^^f ''m^'tlns region demands for similar Concession ^^^^^^„t which are ="PP-^^^^ ^^^'^/bo,.' mentioned places It s understood that tne auu „ : engages are included in the region in wh^h Russia engag British subjects in the regions of Persia situatea 346 ANGLO-RUSSIAN AGREEMENTS ANGLO-RUSSIAN AGREEMENTS between the lines mentioned in Articles I and II. Great Britain undertakes a similar engagement as regards the grant of Concessions to Russian sub- jects in the same regions of Persia. All Conces- sions existing at present in the regions indicated in Articles I and II are maintained. "IV. It is understood that the revenues of all the Persian customs, with the exception of those of Farsistan and of the Persian Gulf, revenues guaranteeing the amortization and the interest of the loans concluded by the Government of the Shah with the 'Banque d'Escompte et des Prets de Perse' up to the date of the signature of the pres- ent Arrangement, shall be devoted to the same pur- pose as in the past. It is equally understood that the revenues of the Persian customs of Farsistan and of the Persian Gulf, as well as those of the fisheries on the Persian shore of the Caspian Sea and those of the Posts and Telegraphs, shall be devoted, as in the past, to the service of the loans concluded by the Government of the Shah with the Imperial Bank of Persia up to the date of the signature of the present Arrangement. "V. In the event of irregularities occurring in the amortization or the payment of the interest of the Persian loans concluded with the 'Banque d'Escompte et des Prets de Perse' and with the Imperial Bank of Persia up to the date of the signature of the present Arrangement, and in the event of the necessity arising for Russia to estab- lish control over the sources of revenue guarantee- ing the regular service of the loans concluded with the first-named bank, and situated in the region mentioned in Article II of the present Arrange- ment, or for Great Britain to establish control over the sources of revenue guaranteeing the regular service of the loans concluded with the second- named bank, and situated in the region mentioned in Article I of the present Arrangement, the British and Russian Governments undertake to enter be- forehand into a friendly exchange of ideas with a view to determine, in agreement with each other, the measures of control in question and to avoid all interference which would not be in conformity with the principles governing the present Arrange- ment. "Convention Concerning Aeghanistan "The High Contracting Parties, in order to ensure perfect security on their respective frontiers in Central Asia and to maintain in these regions a solid and lasting peace, have concluded the follow- ing Convention: "Article I. His Britannic Majesty's Govern- ment declare that they have no intention of chang- ing the political status of Afghanistan. His Britannic Majesty's Government further engage to exercise their influence in Afghanistan only in a pacific sense, and they will not themselves take, nor encourage Afghanistan to take, any measures threatening Russia. The Russian Government, on their part, declare that they recognize Afghanistan «s outside the sphere of Russian influence, and they engage that all their political relations with Afghan- istan shall be conducted through the intermediary of His Britannic Majesty's Government; they fur- ther engage not to send any Agents into Afghan- istan. "Article II. The Government of His Britannic Majesty having declared in the Treaty signed at Kabul on the 21st March, 1905, that they recog- nize the Agreement and the engagements concluded with the late Ameer Abdur Rahman, and that they have no intention of interfering in the internal government of Afghan territory. Great Britain en- gages neither to annex nor to occupy in contra- vention of that Treaty any portion of Afghanistan or to interfere in the internal administration of the country, provided that the Ameer fulfils the en- gagements already contracted by him towards His Britannic Majesty's Government under the above- mentioned Treaty. "Article III. The Russian and Afghan author- ities, specially designated for the purpose on the frontier or in the frontier provinces, may establish direct relations with each other for the settlement of local questions of a non-political character. "Article IV. His Britannic Majesty's Govern- ment and the Russian Government affirm their adherence to the principle of equality of commer- cial opportunity in Afghanistan, and they agree that any facilities which may have been, or shall be hereafter obtained for British and British-Indian trade and traders, shall be equally enjoyed by Rus- sian trade and traders. Should the progress of trade establish the necessity for Commercial Agents, the two Governments will agree as to what meas- ures shall be taken, due regard, of course, being had to the Ameer's sovereign rights. "Article V. The present Arrangements will only come into force when His Britannic Majesty's Government shall have notified to the Russian Gov- ernment the consent of the Ameer to the terms stipulated above. "Arrangement Concerning Tibet "The Governments of Great Britain and Russia recognizing the suzerain rights of China in Thibet, and considering the fact that Great Britain, by reason of her geographical position, has a special interest in the maintenance of the status quo in the external relations of Thibet, have made the follow- ing Arrangement: — "Article I. The two High Contracting Parties engage to respect the territorial integrity of Thibet and to abstain from all interference in its internal administration. "Article II. In conformity with the admitted principle of the suzerainty of China over Thibet, Great Britain and Russia engage not to enter into negotiations with Thibet except through the inter- mediary of the Chinese Government. This engage- ment does not exclude the direct relations between British Commercial Agents and the Thibetan au- thorities provided for in Article V of the Con- vention between Great Britain and Thibet of the 7th September, 1Q04, and confirmed by the Convention between Great Britain and China of the 27th April, iqo6; nor does it mod- ify the engagements entered into by Great Britain and China in Article I of the said Convention of 1906. "It is clearly understood that Buddhists, subjects of Great Britain or of Russia, may enter into chrect relations on strictly religious matters with the Dalai Lama and the other representatives of Buddhism in Thibet; the Governments of Great Britain and Russia engage, as far as they are concerned, not to allow those relations to infringe the stipulations of the present Arrangement. "Article III. The British and Russian Govern- ments respectively engage not to send Representa- tives to Lhassa. "Article IV. The two High Contractini? Parties engage neither to seek nor to obtain, whether for themselves or their subjects, any Concessions for railways, roads, telegraphs, and mines, or other rights in Thibet. "Article V. The two Governments agree that no part of the revenues of Thibet, whether in kind or in cash, shall be pledged or assiirned to Great Britain or Russia or to any of their subjects. 347 ANGLO-RUSSIAN AGREEMENTS ANGOLA "Annex to the Arrangement between Great Britain and Russia Concerning Tibet "Great Britain reaffirms the Declaration, signed by his Excellency the Viceroy and Governor-Gen- eral of India and appended to the ratification of the Convention of the 7th September, 1904, to the effect that the occupation ol the Chumbi Valley by British forces shall cease after the payment of three annual instalments of the indemnity of 25,- 000,000 rupees, provided that the trade marts men- tioned in Article II of that Convention have been effectively opened for three years, and that in the meantime the Thibetan authorities have faithfully complied in all respects with the terms of the said Convention of 1904. It is clearly understood that if the occupation of the Chumbi Valley by the British forces has, for any reason, not been ter- minated at the time anticipated in the above Declaration, the British and Russian Governments will enter upon a friendly exchange of views on this subject." As an Inclosure with the Convention, Notes were exchanged by the Plenipotentiaries, of which that from Sir A. Nicolson was in the following words, M. Isvolsky replying to the same effect. "St. Petersburg, .\ugust 18 (31), 1907. "M. LE MlNISTRE, "With reference to the .Arrangement regarding Thibet, signed to-day, I have the honour to make the following Declaration to your E.xcellency; — •• 'His Britannic Majesty's Government think it desirable, so far as they are concerned, not to allow, unless by a previous agreement with the Russian Government, for a period of three years from the date of the present communication, the entry into Thibet of any scientific mission whatever, on con- dition that a like assurance is given on the part of the Imperial Russian Government. " 'His Britannic Majesty's Government propose, moreover, to approach the Chinese Government with a view to induce them to accept a similar obligation for a corresponding period; the Russian Government will as a matter of course take sim- ilar action. " 'At the expiration of the term of three years above mentioned His Britannic Majesty's Govern- ment will, if necessary, consult with the Russian government as to the desirability of any ulterior measures with regard to scientific expeditions to Thibet.' I avail, &c. (Signed) A. Nicolson." In authorizing Sir A. Nicolson to sign the above Convention, Sir Edward Grey, the British Secretary for Foreign .Affairs, wrote, on .August 29, as fol- lows: "I have to-day authorized your Excellency by telegraph to sign a Convention with the Russian Government containing .Arrangements on the sub- ject of Persia, .Afghanistan, and Thibet. "The Arrangement respecting Persia is limited to the regions of that country touching the re- spective frontiers of Great Britain and Russia in Asia, and the Persian Gulf is not part of those regions, and is only partly in Persian territory. It has not therefore been considered appropriate to introduce into the Convention a positive decla- ration respecting special interests possessed by Great Britain in the Gulf, the result of British action in those waters for more than a hundred years. "His Majesty's Government have reason to be- lieve that this question will not give rise to diffi- culties between the two Governments, should de- velopments arise which make further discussion affecting British interests in the Gulf necessary. For the Russian Government have in the course of the negotiations leadins up to the conclusion of this Arrangement explicitly stated that they do not deny the special interests of Great Britain in the Persian Gulf — a statement of which His Majesty s Government have formally taken note. "In order to make it quite clear that the present .Arrangement is not intended to affect the position in the Gulf, and does not imply any change of policy respecting it on the part of Great Britain, His Majesty's Government think it desirable to draw attention to previous declarations of British poUcy, and to reaffirm generally previous state- ments as to British interests in the Persian Gulf and the importance of maintaining them. "His Majesty's Government will continue to direct all their efforts to the preservation of the status quo in the Gulf and the maintenance of British trade; in doing so, they have no desire to exclude the legitimate trade of any other Power." — Parliamentary Papers by Command. Russia. No. I. 1907 (Cd. 3750). ANGLO-RUSSIAN RELATIONS. See Triple Entente: 1007; England: 1907. ANGLO-RUSSIAN TREATY, 1825. See Alaskan boundary question: Claims of both sides. ANGLO-SAXON, a term which may be con- sidered as a compound of .Angle and Saxon, the names of the two principal Teutonic tribes which took possession of Britain and formed the English nation by their ultimate union. As thus regarded and used to designate the race, the language and the institutions which resulted from that union, it is only objectionable, perhaps, as being superfluous, because English is the accepted name of the people of England and all pertaining to them. But the term .Anglo-Saxon has also been more particularly employed to designate the early English people and their language, before the Norman Conquest, as though they were .Anglo-Saxon at that period and became English afterwards. Modern historians arc making strong protests against this use of the term. Mr. Freeman {Norman conquest, v. i, note A) says: "The name by which our forefathers really knew themselves and by which they were known to other nations was English and no other. '.Angli,' 'Engle,' '.Angel-cyn,' 'Englisc' are the true names by which the Teutons of Britain knew themselves and their language. ... As a chronological term, .Anglo-Saxon is equally objectionable with faxon. The 'Anglo-Saxon period,' as far as there evei was one, is going on still. I speak therefore of our forefathers, not as 'Saxons,' or even as '.Anglo- Saxons,' but as they spoke of themselves, as Eng- lishmen— '.Angli,' 'Engle,'— 'Anjelcyn.' "—See also .Angles : Saxons. ANGLO-SAXON CHRONICLE: See Ballad: Ballad and history; English liter.\ture: 6th-i:th centuries: History: 19. ANGLO-SAXON LITERATURE. See Eng lish liter.\ture: 6th- nth centuries. ANGLON, Battle of (543) —Fought in Arme- nia between the Romans and the Persians. ANGOLA, the name now given to the territory which the Portuguese have occupied on the western coast of South .Africa since the sixteenth century, extending from Belgian Congo, on the north, to Damaraland, on the south, with an interior bound- ary that is somewhat indefinite. It is divided into fovr districts. Congo, Loando, Benguela. and Mossamedc? For modern developments, railroads, etc., see .Africa: Modern European occupation: Summary of European occupation: Modern railway and industrial development of .Africa; Map. 348 ANGORA ANJOU ANGORA or Ancyra, a city of Asia Minor, fa- mous in ancient times for its culture and trade. On the walls of the beautiful Greek temple dedi- cated to the emperor Augustus was found in 1553 the celebrated "Inscription of Ancyra" commemo- rating his exploits. Goats and similar animals in this district are famous for their long silky hair, due apparently to peculiar conditions. 1402. — Battle of Angora. See Timur or Ti- mour; Turkey: 1389-1403. 1915. — Massacre by Turks. See World War; 1915: VI. Turkey: d, 1. 1921. — Seat of Turkish Nationalist govern- ment in Asia Minor. — War against Greece. See Greece: 1921; Sevres, Treaty of: 1921: Near East conference; also Bagdad railway: Plan; Turkey: Map of Asia Minor. ANGOSTURA, or Buena Vista, Battle of. See Mexico: 1846-1847. ANGOULEME, Charles De Valois, Due d' (1573-1650), French statesman and general; il- legitimate son of Charles IX and Marie Touchet ; became Due d'Angouleme in 1619, three years after his release from the Bastille, where he spent eleven years for a conspiracy against Henry IV. ANCOUMOIS, an old province of France, ceded to England, 1360. See France: 1337-1360. ANGRA PEQUENA, a harbor on the coast of what later became German South West Africa (now Southwest Africa Protectorate) ; German flag first raised on African soil there, in 1884. ANGREAU: 1918.— Taken by British. See World War: 1918: II. Western front: w, 2. ANGRES, France: 1917.— Occupied by Brit- ish. See World War: 191 7: II. Western front: c, 9. ANGRIA, division of ancient duchy of Saxony. See Saxony. ANGRIVARII.— The Angrivarii were one of the tribes of ancient Germany. Their settlements were to the west of the Weser. See Bructeri. ANGRO-MAINYUS, spirit of evil in dual doc- trine of Zoroaster. See Zoroastrians. ANHALT, a free state, was a duchy of Ger- many and a state of the empire after 1871. It was formed of Anhalt-Dessau-Cothen and Anhalt- Bernburg in 1863. Originally (in the eleventh cen- tury) a part of Saxony [see Saxony: ii 78-1 183], it became united to the margravate of Branden- burg in the twelfth century by Albert the Bear, witfi whom the ruling dynasty of the duchy originated. In 12 18, when Prince Henry became count of Anhalt, it was separated from Saxony, and was later divided by his sons into the three principalities of Bernburg, .Aschersleben and Zerbst. After a subsequent reunion in 1570, it became again divided in 1603 into Dessau, Bernburg, Plbtzkau, Zerbst, and Cbthen. This al- ternation of split and reunion continued until the interference of the Prussian rulers and the gradual extinction of the individual lines led to the estab- lishment of a joint constitution in 1859, and a final unification under Leopold IV, in 1863. The last reigning duke was Edward, who succeeded to the throne on April 21, 1918. On July 18, 1919, An- halt became a free state. Its constitution provides for a diet to be elected by the people every three years and for a state council of live members, the chairman of which bears the title of president. It is divided by Prussian Saxony into Eastern and Western Anhalt (the latter also called Upper Duchy or Ballenstedt), and b surrounded by* the Prussian territories of Potsdam, MasFdcbursr and McrseburK and by Brunswick along five miles on the west. Its principal river is the Elbe, which intersects its eastern part from east to west, and is joined by the Saale and the Mulde, and minor tributaries. It is mountainous in the southwest of its western part, to which the Harz range extends, and becomes level as it approaches the Elbe. E.xcept for the portion east of the Elbe, which to a great extent is a sandy plain, the soil is rich. In 1910, of the total area of 888 miles, sixty per cent of the land was cultivated ; seven per cent is pasture land, which stretches along the Elbe, and twenty-five per cent is forest-covered. The chief yields are rye, wheat, potatoes and oats. Vegetables, corn, fruits, beets, tobacco, flax, hops and linseed are also grown. The forests abound in game and the rivers in fish. Its chief mineral resources are salts of different kinds and lignite. Before the World War almost half of the population was occupied in the mineral and manufacturing industries. The country is crossed by 180 miles of railway. Its largest cities are Dessau, the capital, Bernburg, Cothen, Zerbst, and Rosslau. According to the census of 1910 its population is 331,128. The greater majority are Protestants; 12,755 are Catho- lics, and 1,383 Jews. Also in: W. Mueller, Die Entsteliung der an- haitischen Slddte (Halle, 1912). — F. Knoke, An- haltisclie Gesckichle (Dessau, 1893). — Siebigk, Das Herzogtiium Anhalt historisch, geographisch und statisthch dargestellt (Dessau, 1867). ANHALT-DESSAU, Leopold I, prince of (1676-1747), distinguished Prussian field-marshal; served with Frederick the Great and gained im- portant victory over the Austrians at Kesselsdorf, 1745. — See also Austria: 1744- 1745. ANI, an ancient Armenian city, stormed by Turks (1064). See Turkey: 1063-1073. ANIDO, Martinez, governor of Barcelona. See Spain: 192 i. ANILINE DYES. See Chemistry: Practical application: Dyes. ANIMAL BOUNTIES. See Bounties: State bounties on animals. ANIMAL INDUSTRY, Bureau of. See Agri- culture, Department of. ANIMALS, Domestic. See Agriculture: Early period. ANIMISM. See Babylonia: Religion: From an- imism to polytheism; Egypt: Religion; Religion: Universal elements; Mythology: Egypt: Kinship to savage; Mythology: India: Primitive elements; Mythology: Rome. ANIMUCCIA, Giovanni (d. 1571), Italian com- poser; was choirmaster at St. Peter's (1555-1571), filling the interval between Palestrina's terms; com- posed the famous "Laudi, " which were sung at the Oratorio of St. Filippo after the regular office, and out of which the oratorio is said to have developed ANJOU, Frangois (Hercule) de France, due d', duke of Brabant, 1554-1584. See Netherlands: 1577-1581, 1581-1584. ANJOU, a former province in the west of France, now Maine-et-Loire. In ancient times in- habited by the Andecavi ; became a center of power under Geoffrey Martel (1040-1060); a possession of the English crown during the Plantagenet mon- archy (11 54- 1 203); seized by Philip .Augustus. United with Provence under the rule of the king of Naples; anne.xed to the royal dominions by Louis XI in 1480. Counts and dukes of (Summary). — Line orig- inated with Ingelgerius, seneschal of Gatinais, who received the countship from Charles the Bald in 870. Among his descendants were Fulk V, count of Anjou, king of Jerusalem in 1131; Geoffrey IV, le Plantagenet, who married Matilda, daughter of Henry I of England, and Henry, son of Geoffrey and grandson of Fulk V, who as Henry II was 349 ANJO0 ANJOU the first Plantagenet king of England. In the reign of King John of England, the title of Anjou passed to Philip Augustus of France, who granted it to Charles, the brother of Louis IX. Creation of the county. — Origin of the Plan- tagenets. — "It was the policy of this unfairly de- preciated sovereign [Charles the Bald, grandson of Charlemagne, who received in the dismemberment of the Carlovingian empire the Neustrian part, out of which was developed the modern kingdom of France, and who reigned from 840 to 877 J, to re- cruit the failing ranks of the false and degenerate Frankish aristocracy, by calling up to his peerage the wise, the able, the honest and the bold of ig- noble birth. ... He sought to surround himself with new men, the men without ancestry ; and the earliest historian of the House of Anjou both de- scribes this system and affords the most splendid example of the theory adopted by the king. Pre- eminent amongst these parvenus was Torquatus or Tortulfus, an Armorican peasant, a very rustic, a backwoodsman, who lived by hunting and such like occupations, almost in solitude, cultivating his 'quillets,' his 'cueillettes,' of land, and driving his own oxen, harnessed to his plough. Torquatus entered or was invited into the service of Charles- le-Chauve, and rose high in his sovereign's confi- dence: a prudent, a bold, and a good man. Charles appointed him Forester of the forest called 'the Blackbird's Nest,' the 'nid du merle,' a pleasant name, not the less pleasant for its familiarity. This happened during the conflicts with the Northmen. Torquatus served Charles strenuously in the wars, and obtained great authority. Tertullus, son of Torquatus, inherited his father's energies, quick and acute, patient of fatigue, ambitious and as- piring; he became the liegeman of Charles; and his marriage with Petronilla the King's cousin. Count Hugh the Abbot's daughter, introduced him into the very circle of the royal family. Chateau Lan- don and other benefices in the Gastinois were ac- quired by him, possibly as the lady's dowry. Sen- eschal, also, was Tertullus, of the same ample Gas- tinois territory. Ingelger, son of Tertullus and Petronilla, appears as the first hereditary Count of Anjou Outre-Maine, — Marquis, Consul or Count of Anjou, — for all these titles are assigned to him. Yet the ploughman Torquatus must be reckoned as the primary Plantagenet: the rustic Torquatus founded that brilliant family." — F. Palgrave, His- tory of Normandy and England, bk. i, ch. 3. Also in: K. Norgate, England under the An- gevin kings, V. I, ck. 2. 987-1129. — Greatest of the old counts. — "Fulc Nerra, Fulc the Black [987-1040] is the greatest of the Angevins, the first in whom we can trace that marked type of character which their house was to preserve with a fatal constancy through two hundred years. He was without natural affection. In his youth he burned a wife at the stake, and legend told how he led her to her doom decked out in his gayest attire. In his old age he waged his bitterest war against his son, and exacted from him when vanquished a humiliation which men reserved for the deadliest of their foes. 'You are conquered, you are conquered!' shouted the old man in fierce exultation, as Geoffry, bridled and saddled like a beast of burden, crawled for pardon to his father's feet. . . . But neither the wrath of Heaven nor the curses of men broke with a single mishap the fifty years of his success. At his accession Anjou was the least important of the greater provinces of France. At his death it stood, if not in extent, at least in real power, first among them all. . . . Hb overthrow of Brittany on the field of Conquereux was followed by the gradual absorption of Southern Touraine. . . . His great victory at Pontlevoi crushed the rival house of Blois; the seizure of Saumur completed his con- quests in the South, while Northern Touraine was won bit by bit till only Tours resisted the Ange- vin. The treacherous seizure of its Count, Herbert Wake-dog, left Maine at his mercy ere the old man bequeathed his unfinished work to his son. As a warrior, Geoffry Martel was hardly inferior to his father. A decisive overthrow wrested Tours from the Count of Blois; a second left Poitou at his mercy ; and the seizure of Le Mans brought him to the Norman border. Here . . . his advance was checked by the genius of William the Con- queror, and with his death the greatness of Anjou seemed for the time to have come to an end. Stripped of Maine by the Normans, and weakened by internal dissensions, the weak and profligate ad- ministration of Fulc Rechin left Anjou powerless against its rivals along the Seine. It woke to fresh energy with the accession of his son, Fulc of Jeru- salem. . . . Fulc was the one enemy whom Henry the First really feared It was to disarm his rest- less hostility that the King yielded to bis son, Geof- fry the Handsome, the hand of his daughter Ma- tilda." — J. R. Green, Short history of the English people, ch. 2, sect. 7. Also in: K. Norgate, England under the Ange- vin kings, V. I, ch. 2-4. 1154. — Counts become kings of England. See England: ii 54-1 189. 1154-1360. — Extent of territory. See France: Maps of medieval period: 1154-1300. 1204. — Wrested from the English King John. See France: 1180-1224. . 1206-1442. — English attempts to recover the county. — Third and fourth houses of Anjou. — Creation of the dukedom. — King John, of Eng- land, did not voluntarily submit to the sentence of the peers of France which pronounced his for- feiture of the fiefs of Anjou and Maine, "since he invaded and had possession of Angers again in 1206, when. Gothlike, he demolished its ancient walls. He lost it in the following year, and . . . made no further attempt upon it until 1213. In that year, having collected a powerful army, he landed at Rochelle, and actually occupied Angers, without striking a blow. But . . . the year 12 14 beheld him once more in retreat from .Anjou, never to reappear there, since he died on the 19th of October, 12 16. In the person of King John ended what is called the 'Second House of Anjou.' In 1204, after the confiscations of John's French pos- sessions, Philip Augustus established hereditary seneschals in that part of France, the first of whom was the tutor of the unfortunate Young .Arthur [of Brittany], named William des Roches, who was in fact Count in all except the name, over Anjou, Maine, and Tourraine, owing allegiance only to the crown of France. The Seneschal, William des Roches, died in 1222. His son-in-law, Amaury de Craon, succeeded him," but was soon afterwards taken prisoner during a war in Brittany and in- carcerated. Henry III. of England still claimed the title of Count of Anjou, and in 1230 he "dis- embarked a considerable army at St. Malo, in the view of re-conquering Anjou, and the other for- feited possessions of his crown. Louis IX , then only fifteen years old . . . advanced to the attack of the allies: but in the following year a peace was concluded, the province of Guienne having been ceded to the English crown. In 1241, Louis gave the counties of Poitou and Auvergne to his brother .Alphonso; and. in the year 1246, he invested his brother Charles, Count of Provence, with the coun- ties of Anjou and Maine, thereby annulling the 350 ANJOU ANNALS rank and title of Seneschal, and instituting the Third House of Anjou. Charles I., the founder of the proud fortunes of this Third House, was ambitious in character, and events long favoured his ambition. Count of Provence, through the in- heritance of his consort, had not long been in- vested with Anjou and Maine, ere he was invited to tie conquest of Sicily [see Italy (Southern): 1250-1268)." The third house of Anjou ended in the person of John, who became king of France in 1,350. In 1356 he invested his son Louis with Anjou and Maine, and in 13O0 the latter was cre- ated the first duke of Anjou. The fourth house of Anjou, which began with this first duke, came to an end two generations later with Rene, or Regnier — the "good King Rene" of history and story, whose kingdom was for the most part a name, and who is best known to English readers, perhaps, as the father of Margaret of Anjou, the stout-hearted queen of Henry VI. On the death of his father, Louis, the second duke, Rene became by his father's will count of Guise, his elder brother, Louis, inheriting the dukedom. In 1434 the brother died without issue and Rene succeeded him in Anjou, Maine and Provence. He had already become duke of Bar, as the adopted heir of his great-uncle, the cardinal-duke, and duke of Lorraine (1430), by designation of the late duke, whose daughter he had married. In 1435 he received from Queen Joanna of Naples the doubt- ful legacy of that distracted kingdom, which she had previously bequeathed first, to Alphonso of Aragon, and afterwards — revoking that testament — to Rene's brother, Louis of Anjou. King Rene enjoyed the title during his life-time, and the actual kingdom for a brief period; but in 1442 he was expelled from Naples by his competitor Alphonso (see Italy: 1412-1447). — M. A. Hookham, Life and times of Margaret of Anjou, introduction and ch. 1-2. 1282. — Loss of Sicily. — Retention of Naples. See Italy (Southern): 1282-1300. 1204-1311. — Rule in Athens. See Athens: 1205-1308. 1310-1382. — Possession of the Hungarian throne. See Hungary: 1301-1442. 1370-1384. — Acquisition and loss of the crown of Poland. See Poland: 1333-1572. 1381-1384. — Claims of Louis of Anjou. — His expedition to Italy and his death. See Italy: (Southern): 1343-1389, 1480. — Forced to recognize power of the crown. See France: 1461-1468. 1492-1515.— Claims to throne of Sicily. See France: 1492-1515. ANJOU, Genealogical table. See France ANJUMAN, or Enjumen, a term which seems to signify in Persia either a local assembly or a Ijolitical association of any nature. See Persia: iqo8-iaoq. ANKARSTROM, or Anckarstrom, Jakob Johan ( 1 761 -1 792), the assassin of King Gustavus III of Sweden. ANICENDORFF, Battle of. See Germany: 1807 (Februar>'-June). ANLEY, Frederick Gore (1864- ), British brigadier-general at battle of Ypres. See World War: 1914: I. Western front: w, 13. ANN ARUNDEL COUNTRY. See Mary- land: 1643-1640. ANNA AMALIA (1739-1807), duchess of Saxe- Weimar; a patroness of art and literature; made Weimar the center of culture in Germany ; is com- memorated in Goethe's work "Zum Andenken der FUrstin Anna-Amalia." ANNA IVANOVNA (1693-1740), empress of Russia 1730-1740; participated in War of Polish Succession and was successful against the Turks in the Crimean War (1736-1739); reformed the army, and granted greater liberty to the landed gentry. — See also Russia: 1725-1739. ANNAHAWAS. See Siouan family: Sioux. "ANNALES" (of 'William Camden). See His- tory: 23. ANNALS, from the Latin annus, year, a rela- tion of events in chronological order, wherein each event is recorded under the year in which it oc- curred. In a broader sense, the word is not in- frequently used by writers to designate history in general, as, for instance, "the most tremendous event in our annals." In the singular, annal, it may signify a record of a single event. Annals differ from chronicles in that they are original records set down from day to day, perhaps by different writers, whereas by chronicles we under- stand a complete written or edited narrative; which may be the work of one author and bear the impress of his individuality. Thus, to draw a comparison, Hayden's "Dictionary of Dates" con- tains the annals of the world; the "American Year Book" and the ".Annual Register" each present the chronicles (a connected narrative) of a certain year. Annals are of Roman, chronicles of Greek, origin; the latter term is derived from chronos, meaning both time and year. Originally signifying a chronological table, the word chronicle during the Middle Ages came to include every form of history. Roman annals. — Ennius. — Livy. — Tacitus. — "The Romans did not begin to write the history of their city until about 200 B. C. Even then the first histories were meager annals. For the early centuries the composers found two kinds of ma- terial, — scant official records and unreliable family chronicles. . . . From such sources, early in the second century B. C, Fabius Pictor wrote the first connected history of Rome. He and his succes- sors (mostly Greek slaves or adventurers) trimmed and patched their narratives ingeniously to get rid of gross inconsistencies ; borrowed freely from in- cidents in Greek history, to fill gaps; and so pro- duced an attractive story that hung together pretty well in the absence of criticism. These early works are now lost; hut, two hundred years later, they furnished material for Livy and Dionysius, whose accounts of the legendary age were accepted as real history until after iSoo A.D." — W. M. West, Ancient world, pp. 262-263. — "There grew up in Rome (as in other Italian towns) two important 'colleges' of city priests, — pontiffs and augurs. The six pontiffs had a general oversight of the whole system of divine law, and they were also the guar- dians of human science. Their care of the exact dates of festivals made them the keepers of the calendar and of the rude annals; they had over- sight of weights and measures; and they themselves described their knowledge as 'the science of all things human and divine.'" — Ibid., pp. 272-273. — The Romans called these writings the annales pontificum or annales maximi, on account of their being issued by the pontifex maximns. "Ennius possessed great power over words, and wielded that power skillfully. He improved the language in its harmony and its grammatical forms, and increased its copiousness and power. What he did was improved upon, but was never un- done, and upon the foundations he laid the taste of succeeding ages erected an elegant and beauti- ful superstructure. His great epic poem — the 'An- nals' — gained him the attachment and admiration of his countrymen. In this he first introduced the hexameter to the notice of the Romans, and de- 351. ANNALS Roman Medieval ANNALS tailed the rise and progress of their national glory, from the earliest legendary period down to his own times. The fragments of this work which remain are amply sufficient to show that he pos- sessed picturesque power, both in sketching his narratives and in portraying his characters, which seem to live and breathe ; his language, dignified, chaste and severe, rises as high as the most ma- jestic eloquence, but it does not soar to the sub- limity of poetry." — A. C. L. Botta, Hand book oj universal literature, p. 132. — "Livy (5Q-i8 B.C.) . . . was a warm and open admirer of the ancient institutions of the country, and esteemed Pompey as one of its greatest heroes; but Augustus did not allow political opinions to interfere with the regard which he entertained for the historian. His great work is a history of Rome, which he mod- estly terms 'Annals,' in 142 books, of which 35 are extant. Besides his history, Livy is said to have written treatises and dialogues, which were partly philosophical and partly historical." — Ibid., p. i$i. — The historical writings of Tacitus deal- ing with events befoie his time are called the Annates; those treating of his own period, events that happened within his own experience, bear the name Hislorice, though it is doubted whether this distinction was drawn by Tacitus himself or later editors. — "The 'Annals' consist of sixteen books; they commence with the death of Augustus, and conclude with that of Nero (14-68 A. D.). The object of Tacitus was to describe the influence which the establishment of tyranny on the ruins of liberty exercised for good or for evil in bring- ing out the character of the individual. In the extinction of freedom there still existed in Rome bright examples of heroism and courage, and in- stances not less prominent of corruption and deg- radation. In the annals of Tacitus these indi- viduals stand out in bold relief, either singly or in groups upon the stage, while the emperor forms the principal figure, and the moral sense of the reader is awakened to admire instances of patient suffering and determined bravery, or to witness abject slavery and remorseless despotism." — Ibid., p. 167. — See also Latin liter.'ITure. Medieval annals. — Roman prototype. — Eccle- siastical annals. — Sources of local history. — Froissart. — De Commines. — The famous Chron- ographus or Calendar, an official document of the Roman empire, was completed in 354, and may be regarded as the prototype of the long catalogue of medieval annals. The range of its contents is quite remarkable: It is an official calendar and a universal chronicle (the latter to the year 338) ; it contains a record of consular annals, a list of the popes to Liberius (352-366), and the paschal tables worked out up to the year 412. .^nglo-Saxon missionaries introduced the custom of compiling chronological lists into Germany and Gaul dur- ing the seventh century. Paschal tables, fixing the dates for Easter, were in use very early in the Brit- ish Isles. Notes of important events were added down the margins opposite the years in which they occurred, and thus arose the institution of annals. Elaborations of and additions to the list of popes in the Chroiwgraphns gave rise to the Pontificale Romantim, better known as the Lilier Pontifitalis, from which there sprang a number of similar rec- ords compiled in monasteries, abbeys, and cathe- drals, dealing in the main with local affairs. In the course of time these documents were copied, passed around and compared ; discrepancies were brought into harmony ; omissions were inserted and errors rectified. When these data had been arranged in chronological order, they represented a mine of original sources and contemporary evi- dence for future historians to explore and delve in. "Froissart (1337-1410) was an ecclesiastic of the day, but little in his life or writings bespeaks the sacred calling. Having little taste for the duties of his profession, he was employed by the Lord of Montfort to compose a chronicle of the wars of the time; but there were no books to tell him of the past, no regular communication between nations to inform him of the present ; so he fol- lowed the fashion of knights errant, and set out on horseback, not to seek adventures, but, as an itinerant historian, to find materials for his chroni- cle. He wandered from town to town, and from castle to castle, to see the places of which he would write, and to learn events on the spot where they transpired. His first journey was to England; here he was employed by Queen Philippa of Hai- nault to accompany the Duke of Clarence of Milan, where he met Boccaccio and Chaucer. He after- wards passed into the service of several of the princes of Europe, to whom he acted as secretary and poet, always gleaning material for historic record. His book is an almost universal history of the different states of Europe, from 1322 to the end of the 14th century. He troubles him- self with no explanations or theories of cause and effect, nor with the philosophy of state policy ; he is simply a graphic story-teller. Sir Walter Scott called Froissart his master." — Ibid., p. 264- 265. "Philippe de Commines (i445-i5og) was a man of his age, but in advance of it, combining the simplicity of the 15th century with the sagacity of a later period. An annalist, like Froissart, he was also a statesman, and a political philosopher; embracing, like Machiavelli and Montesquieu, the remoter consequences which flowed from the events he narrated and the principles he unfolded. He was an unscrupulous diplomat in the service of Louis XL, and his description of the last years of that monarch is a striking piece of history, whence poets and novelists have borrowed themes in later times. But neither the romance of Sir Walter Scott nor the song of Beranger does jus- tice to the reality, as presented by the faithful Commines." — Ibid., p. 265. English annals. — The more important annals in England developed from the tables of Bede and the paschal cycles. Among these the chief are the .-iunales Cantuarienses (Canterbury Annals) of 6i8-6qo; the .Innales Nordhumbrani (Northumber- land) of 734-802; the Hisloria Eliensis Ecclesice (Church of Ely) dated 700; the .Annates Cam- brice (Welsh Annals) of 440 to the Norman Con- (|uest in 1066, and the .Annaies Lindisjarnenses (Holy Island) of 532-oq3. The science of history writing with any degree of accuracy in England dates from 1066. Irish annals. — "Among the various classes of persons who devoted themselves to literature in ancient Ireland, there were special Annalists, who made it their business to record, with the utmost accuracy, all remarkable events simply and briefly, without any ornament of language, without exaggeration, and without fictitious em- bellishment. The extreme care they took that their statements should be truthful is shown by the manner in which they compiled their books. As a general rule they admitted nothing into their records except either what occurred during their lifetime, and which may be said to have come under their own personal knowledge, or what they found recorded in the compilations of previ- ous annalists, who had themselves followed the same plan These men took nothing on hearsay: 352 ANNALS Irish ANNALS and in this manner successive annalists carried on a continued ctironicle from age to age, thus giving the whole series the force of contempo- rary testimony. We have still preserved to us many books of native Annals. . . . Most of the ancient manuscripts whose entries are copied into the books of Annals we now possess have been lost; but that the entries were so copied is ren- dered quite certain by various expressions found in the present existing Annals, as well as by the known history of several of the compilations. The Irish Annals deal with the affairs of Ireland — generally but not exclusively. Many of them re- cord events occurring in other parts of the world; and it was a common practice to begin the work with a brief general history, after which the An- nalist takes up the affairs of Ireland." — P. W. Joyce, Social history of ancient Ireland, p. 224. — "The Irish Annals record about twenty-five eclipses and comets at the several years from A. D. 496 to 1066. The dates of all these are found, according to modem scientific calculation and the records of other countries, to be correct. This shows conclusively that the original records were made by eye-witnesses, and not by calculation in subsequent times: for any such calculation would be sure — on account of errors in the meth- ods then used — to give an incorrect result. A well-known entry in the Irish account of the Bat- tle of Clontarf, fought A. D. 1014, comes under the tests of natural phenomena. The author of the account, who wrote soon after the battle, states that it was fought on Good Friday, the 23rd of April, 1014; and that it began at sunrise, when the tide was full in. To test the truth of this . . . after a laborious calculation. Dr. [Rev. Sam- uel] Haughton found that the tide was at its height that morning at half-past five o'clock, just as the sun was coming over the horizon: a striking con- firmation of the truth of this part of the narra- tive. It shows, too, that the account was writ- ten by, or taken down from, an eye-witness of the battle. Whenever events occurring in Ireland in the Middle Ages are mentioned by British or Continental writers they are always — or nearly always — in agreement with the native records. Irish bardic history relates in much detail how the Picts landed on the coast of Leinster in the reign of Eremon, the first Milesian king of Ireland, many centuries before the Christian era. After some time they sailed to Scotland to conquer a territory for themselves: but before embarking they asked Eremon to give them Irish women for wives, which he did, but only on this condition, that the right of succession to the kingship should be vested in the female progeny rather than in the male. And so the Picts settled in Scotland with their wives. Now all this is confirmed by the Venerable Bede, who says that the Picts obtained wives from the Scots (i.e., the Irish) on condition that when any difficulty arose they should choose a king from the female royal line rather than from the male; 'which custom,' continues Bede, 'has been observed among them to this day.' ... All the Irish Annals record a great defeat of the Danes near Killarney in the year 812. This account is fully borne out by an authority totally unconnected with Ireland, the well-known Book of Annals, writ- ten by Eginhard (the tutor of Charlemagne), who was living at this very time. Under AD. 812 he writes: — 'The fleet of the Northmen, having in- vaded Hibernia, the island of the Scots, after a battle had been fought with the Scots, and after no small number of the Norsemen had been slain, they basely took to flight and returned home.' . . . References by Irishmen to Irish affairs are found in numerous volumes scattered over all Europe: — Annalistic entries, direct statements in tales and biographies, marginal notes, incidental references to persons, places, and customs, and so forth, written by various men at various times; which, when compared one with another, and with the home records, hardly ever exhibit a disagree- ment. The more the ancient historical records of Ireland are examined and tested, the more their truthfulness is made manifest. Their uniform agreement among themselves, and their accuracy, as tried by the ordeals of astronomical calcula- tion and of foreign writers' testimony, have drawn forth the acknowledgments of the greatest Irish scholars and archaeologists, that ever lived." — Ibid., pp. 225-228. "The following are the principal books of Irish Annals remaining. The 'Synchronisms of Flann,' who was a layman, Ferleginn or chief professor of the school of Monasterboice ; died in 1056. He compares the chronology of Ireland with that of other countries, and gives the names of the mon- archs that reigned in the principal ancient king- doms and empires of the world, with the Irish kings who reigned contemporaneously. Copies of this tract are preserved in the Books of Lecan and Ballymote. The 'Annals of Tighernach' (Teerna): Tighernach O'Breen, the compiler of these annals, one of the greatest scholars of his time, was abbot of the two monasteries of Clonmacnoise and Ros- common. He was acquainted with the chief his- torical writers of the world known in his day, com- pares them, and quotes from them ; and he made use of Flann's Synchronisms, and of most other ancient Irish historical writings of importance. His work is written in Irish mixed a good deal with Latin; it has lately been translated by Dr. Stokes. He states that authentic Irish history begins at the foundation of Emania, and that all preceding ac- counts are uncertain. Tighernach died in 10S8. The 'Annals of Innisfallen' were compiled about the year 1215 by some scholars of the monastery of Innisfallen, in the Lower Lake of Killarney. The 'Annals of Ulster' were written in the little island of Senait MacManus, now called Belle Isle, in Upper Lough Erne. The original compiler was Cathal (Cahal) Maguire, who died of small-pox in 1408. They have lately been translated and published. The 'Annals of Lough Ce' (Key) were copied in 1588 for Bryan MacDermot, who had his residence on an island in Lough Key, in Ros- common. They have been translated and edited in two volumes. The 'Annals of Connaught,' from 1224 to 1562. The 'Chronicon Scotorum' (Chroni- cle of the Scots or Irish), down to A. D. 113S, was compiled about 1650 by the great Irish anti- quary Duald MacFirbis. These annals have been printed with translation. The 'Annals of Boyle,' from the earliest time to 1253, are written in Irish mi.xed with Latin; and the entries throughout are very meagre. The 'Annals of Clonmacnoise,' from the earliest period to 1408. The original Irish of these is lost ; but we have an English translation by Connell MacGeoghegan of Westmeath, which he completed in 1627. The 'Annals of the Four Masters,' also called the Annals of Donegal, are the most important of all. They were compiled in the Franciscan monastery of Donegal, by three of the O'Clerys, Michael, Conary, and Cucogry, and by Ferfesa O'Mulconry. who are now commonly known as the Four Masters. They began in 1632, and completed the work in 1636. The '.'\nn3ls of the Four Masters' was translated with most elabo- rate and learned annotations by Dr. John O'Dono- van ; and it was published — Irish text, translation, and notes — in seven large volumes. A book of an- 353 ANNALS ANNAPOLIS CONVENTION nals called the 'Psalter of Cashcl,' was compiled by Cormac MacCullenan, but this has been lost. He also wrote "Cormac's Glossary-,' an explanation of many old Irish words. This work has been translated and printed. The Annals noticed so far are all in the Irish language, occasionally mixed with Latin ; but besides these there are Annals of Ireland wholly in Latin; such as those of Clyn, Dowling, Pembridge. Multylarnham, etc.. most of which have been published." — Ibid., pp. 228-230. "None of the Irish writers of old times conceived the plan of writing a general history of Ireland. The first history of the whole country was the 'Forus Feasa ar Erinn,' or History of Ireland, from the most ancient times to the Anglo-Norman invasion, written by Dr. Geoffrey Keating of Tubbrid in Tipperary, a Catholic priest: died 1644. Keating was deeply versed in the ancient language and literature of Ireland; and his history, though containing much that is legendary, is very interest- ing and valuable. The genealogies of the princi- pal families were most faithfully preserved in an- cient Ireland. Each king and chief had in his household a Shanachy ur Historian, whose duly it was to keep a written record of all the ancestors and of the several branches of the family. Many of the ancient genealogies are preserved in the Books of Leinster. Lecan, Ballymote, etc. But the most important collection of all is the great Book of Genealogies compiled in the years 1050 to loob in the College of St. Nicholas in Galway, by Duald MacFirbis. In this place may be men- tioned the Dmnsenchus ( Din-Shan'shus), a topo- graphical tract giving the legendary history and the etymology of the names of remarkable hills, mounds, caves, cams, cromlechs, raths. duns, plains, lakes, rivers, fords, islands, and so forth. The stories are mostly fictitious, invented to suit the really existing names: nevertheless this tract is of the utmost value for elucidating the topography and antiquities of the country. Copies of it are found in several of the old Irish Books of mis- cellaneous literature, as already mentioned. .An- other very important tract — one about the names of remarkable Irish persons, called Coir .-Knmann ('Fitness of Names'), corresponding with the Dinn- senchus for place-names, has been published with translation by Dr. Stokes." — Ibid. pp. 230-232. — See also Books: Books in medieval times; Celts: An- cient Irish sagas. French, German, Italian and Spanish annals. — Early in the 8th century annals of Frankish origin began to appear. The German historian G. H. Pertz (1705-1876), in one of his numerous literarv- exploration journeys, discovered some valu- able annals in a manuscript of the St. Germain- des-Pres church in Paris, founded by King Childe- bert in 542 or 543. This collection of annals begin with some short annotations from Lindisfarne in the years 643-604 and from Canterbury for 673- 600. The manuscript, it appears, was brought from England by .\lcuin, adviser of Charlemagne and the most distinguished scholar of the 8th cen- tury, to that monarch's court. From 782 to 787 .Alcuin had inserted for each year the names of the places where Charlemagne had spent the Easter- tide. The monks of St. Germain-des-pres had during later years added matter taken from the ancient annals of St. Denis up to 887. The earli- est annals of the Carolingian period are divided by historians into three groups: the Annales S. Amandi, and their derivatives; those which grew out of the historical annotations of the convent of Laurissa or Lorsch in Germany; and the Annales Murba- censes (Murbach in .Msace). These are all bald records of events arranged in chronological order. During the reign of Charlemagne, annals as- sumed something of an official stamp and began to develop a real historical character under patron- age of the court. To distinguish them from the ecclesiastic annals, they were styled Reichsannaien, or "annals of the state." They betray a wide and intimate knowledge of state affairs, while unpleas- ant facts are diplomatically omitted. These stata annals begin from the year 741 and contain much material borrowed from earlier documents, notably the Liber Pontificalis, Gesla Francorum, Bede's Little Chronicle, and the chronicles of Fredegarius and of Isidor of Seville. Under the Roman Em- peror Louis the Pious (778-S40) and his successors the Annales Fitldenses were brought out, containing the history of the realm, with matter taken from the Annales Lanrissenses minores and others to fill in the history between 711 and 829. The Annales S. Bertini (,830-835) are more ambitious in scope and appear to have been heavily drawn upon in the production of the Chronicon de gestis Korman- noriim in Francid. .Another important collection of the oth century arc the so-called Annales Ein- hardi and the Annales Laiiresliamenses. Frotn this stage the annals begin to develop into chronicles, or carefully-written histories. They passed from hand to hand as death removed the authors and became merged in latter compilations under other names. In Italy and Spain the output was poor in comparison with that of the northern countries. The principal Italian contributions are the Chronica Sancti Benedict! Casinensis (014-934) ; the chroni- cle of Bendict of St. .Andrew (q6S) ; the Construc- tio Farfensis (about 848) ; and the more famous Chronicon Salernilanum (074). The chief Spanish products are: the De Sex aetatibus tnundi (from B.C. 38). and the Chronicon of Bishop Idatius (S70). .^Lso in: S. R. Gardiner and J. B. Mullinger, In- troduction to the study of English history. — C. W. -N'itzsch, Die romische .innalistik — L O. Brocker, Moderne Quellenforscher iind antike Geschicht- schreiber. — Monod, Etude critique sur les sources de Vhistoire carolinginne. — Wibel. Beilriige zur Kritik der Annales Regni Francorum und .\nnales qui dicuntur Einhardi. ANNAM, or Anam, a French colony in south- eastern .\sia, part of French Indo-China ; became a French protectorate June 6, 1884. It is ruled by King Khai-Dink who came to the throne in 1Q16. Internal affairs are administered by .\n- namite officials in accordance with the advice of the French government. — See also Fr.*N'CE: 1875- iSSo. Ancient mythology. See Mythology: Eastern Africa: Indian and Chinese influences. French trade with China. See Indo-China: 1787-1801. Government. Sec Indo-Ciiina. Native rule. See Indo-Ciiina: B.C. 2i8-.\. D. 1886. ANNAPOLIS, Attack on (1744) See New Excl-\nd: 1744. ANNAPOLIS (Port Royal): 1713.— Relin- quished to Great Britain. See Newtoundland, DOMi.NioN- ok: 171 ( ANNAPOLIS ACADEMY. See Annapolis NaV.^I, .\C.-\DEMV. ANNAPOLIS CONVENTION.— The necessity for amending the articles of confederation became patent immediately after peace was declared in 1783 The weakness of the union was emphasized by the many inadjustable causes of difference be- tween the states; commercial regulations were from the beginning mutually incompatible, and it was with difficulty that Madison finally convinced the 354 ANNAPOLIS NAVAL ACADEMY ANSON Virginia legislature of the only possible remedy: calling the other states to a convention for com- mon action. He finally succeeded in this purpose — delegates were to be sent from all states to con- sider commercial regulations. "The place was to be Annapolis, remote from New York, where con- gress then sat, and far away from any large port whose merchants might influence its deliberations. The time of meeting was to be September ii, 178b. This convention, be it remembered, was to be a creature of the states, to report to them, and was not concerned with the continental congress. At the appointed time delegates assembled from Vir- ginia, Pennsylvania, Delaware, New York, and New Jersey; and Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New Hampshire, and North Carolina named dele- gates who did not attend. The other states, Georgia, South Carolina, Maryland, and Connecti- cut, took no notice of the call. More discourag- ing than these absences was the fact that no real good could be accomplished unless a power existed strong enough to enforce common regulations, if they were made. The convention, therefore, gave up the task before it and issued an address to the states urging them to call a constitutional conven- tion to meet in Philadelphia the second Monday in May. Its action was to be binding when ap- proved by congress and confirmed by all the state legislatures." — J. S. Bassett, Short history of the United States, pp. 241-242. ANNAPOLIS NAVAL ACADEMY.— "Estab- lished at Annapolis | Maryland! in 1845, while George Bancroft, the historian, was Secretary of the Navy. It began on a small scale, by execu- tive order ; and Congress gradually provided it with buildings and funds. Its graduates enter the Navy with commissions as ensigns. By the act of February 15, igi6, three midshipmen may be ap- pointed each year to the academy for each Sena- tor, Representative, and Delegate in Congress, while, by a later act of the same year, the number of annual appointments at large was made 15, that from among enlisted men of the Navy 25, and the appointment of 4 Filipinos was authorized. Finally, by the act of .^pril 25, IQ17, the appoint- ment of one additional midshipman for each Sena- tor, Representative, and Delegate in Congress [was] authorized for the year 1Q17-1S. (At that time] the possible maximum enrollment of the academy [was] about 2,200. The selection of candidates for nomination from any State, Terri- tory, or congressional district is entirely in the hands of the member of Congress entitled to the appointment, but these appointments are now made upon the basis of competitive examination. A person securing such appointment must stand rigid physical and mental examinations before be- ing admitted to the academy." — War cyclopedia, p. 184. ANNATES, or First-fruits. — "A practice had existed for some hundreds of years, in all the churches of Europe, that bishops and arch- bishops, on presentation to their sees, should trans- mit to the pope, on receiving their bulls of in- vestment, one year's income from their new prefer- ments. It was called the payment of .Annates, or first-fruits, and had originated in the time of the crusades, as a means of providing a fund for the holy wars. Once established it had settled into custom, and was one of the chief resources of the papal revenue " — J. A. Froude, History of England, ch. 4. — "The claim [by the pope] to the first- fruits of bishoprics and other promotions was ap- parently first made in England by Alexander IV. in 1256, for five years; it was renewed by Clement V. in 1306, to last for two years; and it was in a measure successful. By John XXII. it was claimed throughout Christendom for three years, and met with universal resistance. . . . Stoutly contested as it was in the Council of Constance, and frequently made the subject of debate in parliament and council the demand must have been regularly com- plied with." — W. Stubbs, Constitutional history of England, ch. iq, sect. 718. — The papal exaction was abolished in England in the reign of Henry VIII. and later, during the same reign, right to annates was annexed by the crown. ANNE (1665-1714), queen of Great Britain and Ireland 1702-1714; last of the house of Stuart; sided with the Prince of Orange in the revolution of 1688 against her father; successful participa- tion in the War of the Spanish Succession, and the union of Scotland and England in 1707 were the most important events in her reign.— See also England: 1702-1714, and after. ANNE BOLEYN. See Boleyn, Anne; Eng- land: I527-I534> and 1536-154.^ ANNE OF AUSTRIA (1601-1666), queen of France (1615-1006) through marriage to Louis XIII; was concerned in conspiracies of Chalais (1628) and Cinq-Mars (1642) against Richelieu; regent (1643-1661) for her son, Louis XIV. — See also France: 1042-1043, and 1651-1653. ANNE OF BRITTANY (1477-1514), queen of France; by her marriage to Charles VIII in 1491, Brittany, the last of the great fiefs, was permanently united to the crown of France. Sec Brittany: 1491. ANNE OF CLEVES (1515-1557), queen of England, fourth wife of Henry VIII ; was divorced in the year of her marriage. See England: 1536-1543. ANNEUX, France: 1917.— Taken by British. See World War: 1917: II. Western front: g, 5. 1918. — Region of fighting. See World Wah: 1918: II. Western front: o, 1. ANNO, or Hanno, Saint (c. 1010-1075), arch- bishop of Cologne. Prominent in the government of Germany during the minority of Henry IV. .^i the synod of Mantua 1064, declared Alexander II the rightful pope. ANNOBON ISLAND, an island in the Gulf ol Guinea, belonging to Spain. Discovered in 1471 bv the Portuguese; ceded to Spain in 1778. ANNUNZIO, Gabriele d'. See D'Annunziu, Gabriele. ANSBACH. See Br.'^ndenburc: 1417-1640. ANSCHAR, Saint. See Ansgar, Saint. ANSELM (c. 1033-1109), early scholastic philos- opher. .\ monk under Lanfranc, whom he suc- ceeded as prior of Bee. In 1092 he was called to England to become archbishop of Canterbury, in- volving a dispute over investiture lasting until 1107. He advanced the ontological proof of the existence of God, and is generally regarded as the first of the schoolmen. — See also Abbot; England: 1087-1135. ANSGAR or Anskar, Saint (801-865), French preacher, called "the Apostle of the North" be- cause of his labors to bring Christianity to Den- mark, Sweden and Northern Germany ; first arch- bishop of Hamburg. See Christianity: gth-iith centuries; Swf.dk.n: uth-i2th centuries. ANSON, George Anson, Baron (1697-1762), English admiral and navigator. Fought against Spain in the South Sea, 1740-1744; during this pe- riod circumnavigated the globe and added much to the knowledge of navigation and geography ; in 1747 defeated the French at Cape Finisterre. — See also England: 1745-1747; Pacific ocean: 1513- 1764. ANSON, Sir William Reynell (1843-1Q14), English jurist. Member of Parliament; identified 355 ANTALCIDAS, PEACE OF ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION with educational movements; active in the estab- lishment ot a school of law at Oxford; author of many standard books on legal subjects. ANTALCIDAS, Peace of (386 B.C.), named after the Spartan statesman who defeated the Athenians. It was ratified by all the Greek states, and gave to Persia the Greek towns on the main- land of Asia Minor and guaranteed independence to all others. — See also Greece; 3Qq-3S7 B.C. ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION: Problem or discovery. — Area. — Though quite as important from the geographical and scientitic point of view as the North Pole, the ."Vntarctic regions and the South Pole had been comparatively neglected un- til modern times. While the northern portion of this planet has been practically overrun by ex- plorers and expeditions during the past 300 years and more, the south had long remained a terra incognita. So far as is known, the southern ocean was first navigated by Magellan during the first quarter of the sixteenth century. Circumnavigat- ing the earth in 1774, Captain Cook proved the e.xistence of a circumpolar ocean, and concluded that there was a great mass of land there. The most striking information he gathered was the iso- lation of the mythical Antarctic continent, and that the strongest evidence of the presence of land pointed to about no deg. W. long, and 71 deg. S. lat. More definite knowledge, however, was hid- den from human ken until the Australian whaling fleet made incursions into those unknown waters. It seems that the extent of land diminished as in- vestigations progressed; whalers discovered land close to the Antarctic circle a hundred years ago. The honor of original discovery of the Antarctic continent — or of the fact that it really is a con- tinent — has been variously credited to the Rus- sian, Capt. von Bellingshausen (1S20-1822) ; to an American, Capt. N. B. Palmer (1821) ; and the Englishman, Capt. John Biscoe (1831). Of more than passing interest is the following excerpt from the Annual Register of 1821, p. 686: "In Octo- ber, i8ig, the brig Williams, of Blythe, Northum- berland, Smith, master, on a voyage from Buenos Ayres to Valparaiso, stretching to the south, from contrary winds, discovered land, on which the cap- tain landed, and performed the usual formalities of taking possession, in the name of his late majesty, George III." In 183Q began a systematic and in- ternational attack upon the South. British, Ameri- can, French and Russian expeditions had already been dispatched, each returning with its quota of useful results. "Since the introduction of steam power in ships, the facilities for fuller explorations have been utilized, so that data, somewhat scanty, exist for the outlining of the regions as. a whole. Among distinguished scientists who have attempted to solve this indeterminate equation. Sir John Mur- ray, of the Challenger, is the most advanced and definite. Basing his conclusions on a study of sedi- ments from the southern sea, he outlined ... a new southern continent, christened Antarctica." — A. W. Greely, Handbook of polar discoveries, p. 276. — -According to Prof. T. W. Edgeworth David, of the University of Sydney, who has given con- siderable study to the .Antarctic continent, the area of the land definitely known is estimated at 5,000,- 000 square miles. The coast line, Prof David had calculated measures 14,000 miles long. This estimate includes the seaward boundary of thick fast ice, a large part of which, however, remains still undis- covered The Antarctic region opens up an im- mense field for research in meteorology. When science acquires a more thoroueh knowledge of glaciology, oceanography and meteorology of this region, the cycle of weather conditions over all the hemisphere will be understood much more readily. 1519-1819. — Early exploration. — Magellan. — Drake. — Bouvet. — Duf resne. — Captain Cook. — "The hbtory of .Antarctic discovery may be di- vided at the outset into two categories. In the first of these I would include the numerous voy- agers who, without any definite idea of the form or conditions of the southern hemisphere, set their course toward the South, to make what landfall they could. These need only be mentioned briefly before passing to the second group, that of Ant- arctic travellers in the proper sense of the term, who, with a knowledge of the form of the earth, set out across the ocean, aiming to strike the Antarc- tic monster — in the heart, if fortune favoured them. . . . We then meet with the greatest of the older explorers, Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese by birth, though sailing in the service of Spain. Setting out in 1510, he discovered the connection between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans in the strait that bears his name. No one before him had penetrated so far South — to about lat. 52" S. One of his ships, the Victoria, accompUshed the first circumnavigation of the world, and thus es- tabhshed in the popular mind the fact that the earth was really round. From that time the idea of the Antarctic regions assumed definite shape. There must be something in the South: whether land or water the future was to determine. In 1578 we come to the renowned English seaman, Sir Francis Drake. ... He rounded Cape Horn and proved that Tierra del Fuego was a great group of islands and not part of an Antarctic continent, as many had thought. . . . The French- man, Bouvet (1738), was the first to follow the southern ice-pack for any considerable distance, and to bring reports of the immense, flat-topped .Ant- arctic icebergs. In 1756 the Spanish trading-ship Leon came home and reported high, snow-covered land in lat. 55^ S. to the east of Cape Horn. The probabiUty is that this was what we now know by the name of South Georgia. The Frenchman, Marion-Dufresne, discovered, in 1772, the Marion and Crozet Islands. In the same year Joseph de Kergu^len-Tremarec — another Frenchman — reached Kerguelen Land. This concludes the series of expeditions that I have thought it proper to class in the first group. . . . [See Pacific ocean: 1513- 1764.] "Captain James Cook — one of the boldest and most capable seamen the world has known — opens the series of Antarctic expeditions properly so called. The British .Admiralty sent him out with orders to discover the great southern continent, or prove that it did not exist. The expedition, con- sisting of two ships, the Resolution and the Ad- venture, left Plymouth on July 13, 1772. ... In the course of his voyage to the south Cook passed 300 miles to the south of the land reported by Bouvet, and thereby estabhshcd the fact that the land in question — if it existed — was not continu- ous with the great southern continent. On Janu- ary 17, 1773, the Antarctic Circle was crossed for the first time — a memorable day in the annals of .Antarctic exploration. Shortly afterwards a solid pack was encountered, and Cook was forced to re- turn to the north. .A course was laid for the newly discovered islands — Kerguelen, Marion, and the Crozets — and it was proved that they had nothing to do with the great southern land. In the course of hi? further voyages in .Antarctic waters Cook completed the most southerly cir- cumnavigation of the globe, and showed that there was nn connection between any of the lands or islands that had been discovered and the great 356 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION mysterious 'Antarctica.' His highest latitude (January 30, 1774) was 71" 10' S. Cook's voy- ages had important commercial results, as his re- ports of the enormous number of seals round South Georgia brought many sealers, both English and American, to those waters, and these sealers, in turn, increased the field of geographical dis- covery. In i8iq the discovery of the South Shetland? by the Englishman, Captain William Smith, is to be recorded. And this discovery led to that of the Palmer Archipelago to the south of them." — R. Amundsen, South Pole, v. i, pp. 3-7. — See also New Zealand: 1642-1814. 1819-1838. — Bellingshausen. — Weddell. — d'Urville. — Wilkes. — "The next scientific expedi- tion to the Antarctic regions was that despatched by the Emperor Alexander I. of Russia, under the command of Captain Thaddeus von Bellingshausen. It was composed of two ships, and sailed from Cronstadt on July 15, i8iq. To this expedition belongs the honour of having discovered the first land to the south of the Antarctic Circle — Peter I. Island and Alexander I. Land." — Ibid., p. 8. "In 1823 Capt. James Weddell discovered and named the South Orkneys and penetrated 240 miles nearer the South Pole than any previous ex- plorers. Among other valuable observations he no- ticed the same slow vibrations of the compass which Peary had noticed in the Arctic regions. "The English firm of shipowners, Endcrby Brothers, plays a not unimportant part in Ant- arctic exploration. The Enderbys had carried on sealing in southern waters since 1785. They were greatly interested, not only in the commercial, but also in the scientific results of these voyages, and chose their captains accordingly. In 1830 the firm sent out John Biscoe on a sealing voyage in the Antarctic Ocean with the brig Tula and the cutter Lively. The result of this voyage was the sight- ing of Endeiby Land in lat. 66° 25' S., long. 4q' 18' E. In the following year Adelaide, Biscoe, and Pitt Islands, on the west coast of Graham Land were chartered, and Graham Land itself was seen for the first time. . . . We then come to the cele- brated French sailor. Admiral Jules Sebastien Du- mont d'Urville. He left Toulon in September, 1837, with a scientifically equipped expedition, in the ships Astrolabe and Zelee. The intention was to follow in Weddell's track, and endeavour to carry the French flag still nearer to the Pole, Early in 1838 Louis Philippe Land and Joinville Island were discovered and named. Two years later we again find d'Urville's vessels in Antarctic waters, with the object of investigating the magnetic con- ditions in the vicinity of the South Magnetic Pole, land was discovered in lat. 66" 3c' S. and long. 138° 21' E. With the exception of a few bare islets, the whole of this land was completely covered with snow. It was given the name of Adelie Land, and a part of the ice-barricr lying to the west of it was called Cote Clarie, on the supposition that it must envelop a line of coast. * "The American naval officer, Lieutenant Charles Wilkes, sailed in August, 1S38, with a fleet of six vessels. The expedition was sent out by Congress, and carried twelve scientific observers. In Febru- ary, iS3g, the whole of this imposing Antarctic fleet was collected in Orange Harbour in the south of Tierra del Fuego, where the work was divided among the various vessels. As to the results of this expedition it is difficult to express an opin- ion. [The land claimed to have been discovered by Wilkes has never been found.! Certain it is that Wilkes Land has subsecjuently been sailed over in many places by several expeditions. Of what may have been the cause of this inaccurate cartography it is impossible to form any opinion. It appears, however, from the account of the whole voyage, that the undertaking was seriously con- ducted." — Ibid., pp. 8-10. 1839-1845.— Ross.— "Then the bright star ap- pears, — the man whose name will ever be remem- bered as one of the most intrepid polar explor- ers and one of the most capable seamen the world has produced — Admiral Sir James Clark Ross. The results of his expedition are well known. Ross himself commanded the Erebus and Commander Francis Crozier the Terror. The former vessel, of 370 tons, had been originally built for throwing bombs; her construction was therefore extraordi- narily solid. The Terror, 340 tons, had been previ- ously employed in Arctic waters, and on this ac- count had been already strengthened. In pro- visioning the ships every possible precaution was taken against scurvy, with the dangers of which Ross was familiar from his experience in Arctic, waters. The vessels sailed from England in Sep- tember, 183Q, calling at many of the Atlantic Is- lands, and arrived in Christmas Harbour, Kergue- len Land, in the following May. Here they stayed two months, making magnetic observations, and then proceeded to Hobart. Sir John Franklin, the eminent polar explorer, was at that time Governor of Tasmania, and Ross could not have wished for a better one. Interested as Franklin naturally was in the expedition, he afforded it all the help he possibly could. During his stay in Tasmania Ross received information of what had been accom- plished by Wilkes and Dumont d'Urville in the very region which the Admiralty had sent him to explore. The effect of this news was that Rosa changed his plans, and decided to proceed along the 170th meridian E., and if possible to reach the Magnetic Pole from the eastward. . . . After call- ing at the Auckland Island and at Campbell Island, Ross again steered for the South, and the Antarctic Circle was crossed on New Year's Day, 1841. The ships were now faced by the ice-pack, but to Ross this was not the dangerous enemy it had appeared to earlier explorers with their more weakly con- structed vessels. Ross plunged boldly into the pack with his fortified ships, and, taking advantage of the narrow leads, he came out four days later, after many severe buffets, into the open sea to the South. ... It was in lat. 60° 15' S. and long. 176° 15' E. that Ross found the open sea. On the following day the horizon was perfectly clear of ice. . . . The course was set for the Magnetic Pole, and the hope of soon reaching it burned in the hearts of all. Then — just as they had accustomed themselves to the idea of open sea, perhaps to the Magnetic Pole itself — the crow's-nest reported 'High land right ahead.' This was the mountain- ous coast of South Victoria Land. What a fairy- land this must have seemed to the first voyagers who approached it! Mighty mountain-ranges with summits from 7,000 to 10,000 feet high, some covered with snow and some quite bare — lofty and rugged, precipitous and wild. It became apparent that the Magnetic Pole was some 500 miles distant — far inland, behind the snow-covered ridges. On the morning of January 12 they came close under a little island, and Ross with a few companions rowed ashore and took possession of the country. They could not reach the mainland itself on account of the thick belt of ice that lay along the coast. The expedition continued to work its way south- ward, making fresh discoveries. On January 28 the two lofty summits. Mount Erebus and Mount Terror, were sighted for the first time. The for- mer was seen to be an active volcano, from which smoke and fiames shot up into the sky. It must 357 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION have been a wonderfully fine sight, this flaming fire in the midst of the white, frozen landscape. Captain Scott has since given the island, on which the mountains lie, the name of Ross Island, after the intrepid navigator. . . . From Ross Island, as far to the eastward as the eye could see, there extended a lofty, impenetrable wall of ice. . . . .Ml they could do was to try to get round it. .\nd then began the first examination of that part of the great .•\ntarctic Barrier which has since been named the Ross Barrier. The wall of ice was fol- lowed to the eastward for a distance of 250 miles. Its upper surface was seen to be perfectly flat. The most easterly point reached was long. 107 ' W., and the highest latitude 78° 4' S. No opening having been found, the ships returned to the west, in order to try once more whether there was any possibility of reaching the Magnetic Pole. But this attempt soon had to be abandoned on account of the lateness of the season, and in April, 1841, Ross returned to Hobart. His second voyage was full of dangers and thrilling incidents, but added little to the tale of his discoveries. On February 22, 1842, the ships came in sight of the Barrier, and, following it to the east, found that it turned north- eastward. Here Ross recorded an 'appearance of land' in the very region in which Captain Scott, sixty years later, discovered King Edward VII. Land. On December 17, 1842, Ross set out on his third and last .Antarctic voyage. His object this time was to reach a high latitude along the coast of Louis Philippe Land, if possible, or alterna- tively by following Weddell's track. Both attempts were frustrated by the ice conditions. On sighting Joinville Land, the officers of the Terror thought they could see smoke from active volcanoes, but Ross and his men did not confirm this. About fifty years later active volcanoes were actually dis- covered by the Norwegian, Captain C. A. Larsen, in the Jason. .^ few minor geographical discov- eries were made, but none of any great impor- tance. This concluded Ross's attempts to reach the South Pole. .\ magnificent work had been achieved, and the honour of having opened up the way by which, at last, the Pole was reached must be ascribed to Ross. "The Pagoda, commanded by Lieutenant Moore, was the next vessel to make for the South. Her chief object was to make magnetic observations in high latitudes south of the Indian Ocean. The first ice was met with in lat. $y 30' S., on Janu- ary 25, 1845. On February 5 the .\ntarctic Circle was crossed in long, .^o' 45' E. The most south- erly latitude attained on this voyage was 67' 50' in long. 30' 41' E. "This was the last expedition to visit the .Ant- arctic regions in a ship propelled by sails alone. . . . Less known, but no less efficient in their work, were the whalers round the South Shetlands and in the regions to the south of them. . . ." — Ibid., pp. 10-15. — Sec also Pacific ocean: 1764-1850. 1892-1893. — In i8Q2-i8g3 occurred the whaling voyage of the Dundee vessels, the Balaena, Active, Diana and Polar Star, equipped for geographical observation by the Royal Geographical Society and others interested, carrying William S. Bruce, C. W. Donald, and W. G. Burn Murdoch. They were accompanied by the Norwegian sealer Jaseii. under Captain Larsen. South Shetlands and Graham Land were visited and valuable observations made. 1894-1895. — ".\ most important whaling expedi- tion ... is that of the Antarctic, under [the Nor- wegian] Captain Leonard Kristensen. Kristensen was an extraordinarily capable man, and achieved the remarkable record of being the first to set foot on the sixth continent, the great southern land — 'Antarctica.' " — Ibid., p. 18. — This commercial ex- pedition was sent out by Captain Svcnd Foyii. fitted out by H. J. Bull, and carried the scientist Carsten E. Borchgrevink. The valuable right whale was not found, but large beds of guano were dis- covered in Victoria Land, where a landing was made near Cape .'\dare. 1897. — "An epoch-making phase of .\ntarctic re- search is now ushered in by the Belgica, under the leadership of Commander .Adricn de Gerlache. Hardly any one has had a harder fight to set his enterprise on foot than Gerlache. He was success- ful, however, and on .\ugust 16, 1807, the Belgica left .Antwerp. The scientific staff had been able to secure the services of exceedingly able men. His second in command. Lieutenant G. Lecointe, a Bel- gian, possessed every qualification for his difficult position. It must be remembered that the Belgica's company was as cosmopolitan as it could be — Bel- gians, Frenchmen, .Americans, Norwegians, Swedes, Rumanians, Poles, etc. — and it was the business of the second in command to keep all these men to- gether and get the best possible work out of them. .And Lecointe acquitted himself admirably ; amiable and firm, he secured the respect of all. . . . The object of the expedition was to penetrate to the South Magnetic Pole, but this had to be abandoned at an early stage for want of time." — Ibid., p. 18. — Near .Alexander I Land the Belgica caught in the ice pack and held for a year, drifting as far south as lat. 71° 36', in long. 87° 30' W. Finally re- leased by the cutting of a canal through the ice. This dreary winter was the first spent by men far enough south to lose sight of the sun. The con- tinent found to be mountainous, glaciated, and without land animals except a few insects, though sea fowl abounded. One flowering grass, and a few mosses, rock lichens, and fresh-water algae consti- tute the flora. Some 500 miles of coast charted. 1897. — -Anglo-.Australasian .Antarctic conference was held in London. 1898. — Conference on .Antarctic exploration held in the rooms of the Royal Society, London, Feb. 24- Carsten E. Borchgrevink, the Norwegian ex- plorer, who had led an expedition to the .Antarctic in 1894-1805, led another in i8q8. The latter was equipped by the late Sir George Newncs, and was absent nearly two years. Borchgrevink penetrated to the farthest point south that had ever been reached, Lat. 78' 50' S., and fixed the magnetic position of the South Pole at about latitude 73 degrees 20 minutes south, and 146 east. 1898-1899. — German expedition for deep-sea ex- ploration in .Antarctic waters, in charge of Prof. Carl Chun, on the Valdivia. Southern ocean found to be of great depth. 1901-1909. — English, German, Swedish, and Scottish expeditions. — Successes of Lieutenant Shackleton. — In .April 1001. several expeditions to the .Antarctic region were reported as being under preparation, in England, Germany, and Sweden. The English expedition, for which the ship Dis- covery was being fitted out, sailed on .August 6. iQoi, under the command of Capt Robert F. Scott, with Lieut. Ernest H. Shackleton of the British navy as second in command. Its object was a further exploration of the ^real mountainous re- gion named Victoria Land, which Capt James Ross had disrovrred half a ccntur)- before. This coast the Discovery reached in January 1Q02. and followed it southward, to and beyond the Erebus volcano, skirting the great ice barrier which stretches far eastward, seeming to forbid a pene- tration of the frozen territory it hems in. In this survey the British explorers reached an unvisited 358 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION section, which t'hey named King Edward Land. They wintered that year near Mount Erebus, push- ing sledge expeditions southward over the snow fields, finding a more upheaved and broken sur- face of land, less ice-capped, than is the common feature of the Arctic polar zone. In the longest of these sledge-trips the latitude of 82' 17' S. was attaiiied, — far beyond any previous approach to the southern pole, but still more than 500 miles from that goal. Through a second winter the Dis- covery was held fast in the ice, with considerable sickness among officers and men, notwithstanding which important additions to their survey of the region were made. In Januar>' 1Q04, they were reached by two relief ships, and escaped from the ice in the following month, arriving at New Zea- land not long after. The German expedition commanded by Dr. Drygalski, left Kiel August 11, looi, borne by the steamer Gauss, built specially for battling with ice. In January 1Q02, it took on stores at Ker- guelen island, and proceeded thence to a point in the Antarctic circle far eastward of that chosen by the British explorers, being within the region of the discoveries made by Captain Wilkes, about sixty years before, and indefinitely named Wilkes Land. It was the purpose of Dr. Drygalski to establish a station on the section of this unex- plored territory known as Termination Land and from thence make thorough surveys. He failed, however, to find the supposed land in its expected place, and was unfortunately frozen in for a year, with sledge expeditions baffled by the violence of winter storms. In geographical exploration the Gauss party seem to have accomplished little, but they made rich collections of scientific data. As soon as they were freed from the ice they received orders from Berlin to return home. The Swedish expedition, under Dr. Otto Nor- denskjold [nephew of the famous discoverer of the Northeast Passage], left Europe in October igoi, in the ship Antarctk, destined for Graham Land, south of the South .American continent. There, on the east coast of that land, in Admiralty inlet. Dr. Nordenskjold established winter quarters in February IQ02, and the Antarctic was sent to South America, to return thence some months later. A Scottish expedition, under Dr. W. S. Bruce, in the steamer Scotia, was sent out in October iqo,!, for special oceanographic investigations in Weddell sea, — south of the Atlantic ocean. All previous Antarctic explorations were eclipsed, in igoS-iqoQ, by that of Lieutenant Shackleton, commanding the barkentine Nimrod. a converted whaling vessel, much smaller than the Discovery, on which Lieutenant Shackleton had accompanied Captain Scott to the same region some years be- fore. The Nimrod sailed from England in July IQ07, and from New Zealand on New Year Day, IQ08, going to the same section of the Arctic cir- cle that the Discovery had sought. Winter quar- ters were established at a point abort twenty miles north of the spot where Scott and Shackleton had wintered in 1Q02-1Q03. One of the first achieve- ments of the party was the ascent of Mount Ere- bus by six of the scientists of the expedition, who began their difficult climb on March 5. Caught in a blizzard on the second day of their undertaking, they had to lie in their sleeping-bags for thirty hours; but they made their way to the summit and looked down into the live fire of the crater. The party making this ascent were Lieutenant Adams, R. N. R. (geologist). Sir Philip Brockle- hurst (surveyor and map maker) , Professor David, of Sydney University, Mr. A. Forbes Mackay, as- sistant surgeon, Mr. Eric Marshall, surgeon and cartographer, and Mr. Marson a scientist of Ade- laide. Early in the spring the sledging journeys were begun. Speaking at a reception given to him by the Royal Geographical Society, on his return to Eng- land in June igog. Lieutenant Shackleton gave a brief account of the most important of these journeys, led by himself, with Lieutenant .Adams, geologist. Surgeon Eric Marshall, and a third com- panion named Wild. The march of the party was directly toward the Pole: On December 3 they climbed a mountain 4,000 feet high, and from its summit saw what they believed to be a royal road to the Pole — an enor- mous glacier stretching southwards. There was only one pony left at this time, and, taking this animal with them, they started the ascent of the glacier, which proved to be seamed with crevasses. Progress became very slow, for disaster threatened at every step. On December 7 the remaining pony was lost down a crevasse, very nearly taking Wild and a sledge with it. Finally the party gained the inland plateau, at an altitude of over 10,000 feet, and started across the great white snow plain to- ward the Pole. They were short of food, and had cut down their rations to an absolute minimum; the tempera- ture at the high altitude was extremely low, and all. their spare clothing had been deposited lower down the glacier in order to save weight. On January 6 [1900], they reached latitude 88° 8' south, after having taken the risk of leaving a depot of stores on the plateau, out of sight of all land. Then a blizzard swept down upon them, and for two days they were unable to leave their tent, while, owing to their weakened condition and the intense cold, they suffered from frostbite even in their sleeping bags. When the blizzard moderated on January q they felt that they had reached their limit of endur- ance, for their strength was greatly reduced and the food was almost done. They therefore left the camp standing, and pushing on for five hours, planted Queen .Alexandra's flag in 88' 23' south, took pos- session of the plateau for the King, and turned their faces north again. Lieut. Shackleton described the difliculties of the journey back to the coast, when the men were desperately short of food and nearly worn out, and attacks of dysentery added to their troubles. One day on the Barrier they were unable to march at all, being prostrated with dysentery, and they reached each depot with their food finished. On February 23, however, they reached a depot prepared for them by a party from the ship, and on March i. Lieut. Shackleton and Wild reached the Nimrod. Lieut. Shackleton at once led a relief party back to get .Adams and Marshall, the latter having been unable to continue the march owin; to dysentery, and on March 4 all the men were safe on board. The following excerpts from the diary kept by the leader of the party are taken from E. H. Shacklcton's Heart of the Antarctic, pp. 208-210. "January 8. .Again all day in our bags, suffering considerably y^hysically from cold hands and feet, and from hunger, but more mentalh-, for we can- not get on south, and we simply lie here shivering. Every now and then one of our party's feet go, and the unfortunate beggar has to take his leg out of the sleeping-bag and have his frozen foot nursed into life again by placing it inside the shirt, against the skin of his almost equally unfortunate neigh- bour. We must do something more to the south, even though the food is going, and we weaken lying in the cold, for with 72' of frost the wind cuts through our thin tent, and even the drift is find- 359 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION ing its way in and on to our bags, which are wet enough as it is. Cramp is not uncommon every now and then, and the drift all round the tent has made it so small that there is hardly room for us at all. The wind has been blowing hard all day ; some of the gusts must be over seventy or eighty mi'es an hour. This evening it seems as though it were going to ease down, and directly it does we shall be up and away south for a rush. I feel that this march must be our limit. We are so short of food, and at this high altitude, ii,6oo ft., it is hard to keep any warmth in our bodies be- tween the scanty meals. We have nothing to read now, having depoted our little books to save weight, and it is dreary work lying in the tent with nothing to read, and too cold to write much in the diary. "January g. Our last day outwards. We have We stayed only a few minutes, and then, taking the Queen's flag and eating our scanty meal as we went, we hurried back and reached our camp about 3 p. m. We were so dead tired that we only did two hours' march in the afternoon and camped at 5.30 p. m. The temperature was minus 10 Fahr. Fortunately for us, our tracks were not obliterated by the blizzard; indeed, they_ stood up, making a trail easily followed. Homeward bound at last. Whatever regrets may be, we have done our best." 1908-1910. — Charcot expeditions. — In iqo8 the French physician and explorer Dr. Jean Baptiste Charcot led his second scientific expedition to the Antarctic. The following account of the voyage of his ship the Potirquoi-pas? (Why Not?) is translated from the explorer's first published ac- count: "On leaving Deception Island (lat. 62 deg. Photograph by Hurley MEMBERS OF SHACKLETON'S PARTY Toderwood 4 Underwood Abandoning the sinking "Endurance," they hiked 1,000 miles to the nearest Norwegian whaling station shot our bolt, and the tale is latitude 88^ 23' South, longitude 162° East. The wind' eased down at i a. m., and at 2 a. m. we were up and had break- fast. At 4 a. m. started south, with the Queen's Union Jack, a brass cylinder containing stamps and documents to place at the further south point, camera, glasses and compass. At o a. m. we were in 88° 23' South, half running and half walking over a surface much hardened by the recent bliz- zard. It was strange for us to go along without the nightmare of a sledge dragging behind us. We hoisted Her Majesty's flag and the other Union Jack afterwards, and took possession of the pla- teau in the name of His Majesty. While the Union Jack blew out stiffly in the icy gale that cut us to the bone, we looked south with our powerful glasses, but could see nothins; but the dead white snow plain. There was no break in the plateau as it exlnded towards the Pole, and we feel sure that the goal we have failed to reach lies on this plain. 55 min. S.), we made our way to Port Lockray, where we commenced our work. From here I made a trip of observation with Godcfroy and Gourdon to Wandel, in order to study the lay of the ice, which would save both coal and time. This little journey of forty miles was exciting enough, and the final result of it was satisfactory. Some days later we arrived with the Pourquoi-pas? at Wandel. . . . The creek w'as rather small for our vessel ; we had not had the time to install a satisfactory barrage, and the small ice did not pro- tect us. For a week we were in danger there-r^ unable to come out, assailed by enormous ice- blocks, which had to be pushed off or lashed up night and day. ... On January i, Godefroy, Jacques, Gourdon, and I made a reconnaissance to find a better shelter ... at Petcrmann Island. . . . A few days after we brought the Pourquoi-pas? round, having escaped from Wandel without suf- fering any serious damage by gently wriggling 360 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION round the icebergs. I set out the same day with Godefroy and Gourdon to explore the south, chiefly to climb some eminence to see whether we had any channels to pass with the Pourquois-pas? be- tween Biscoe Islands and the coast. As we reck- oned upon returning the same day we had taken neither supplies nor change of clothes. Our mis- sion was easily fulfilled, and we saw that the coast was blocked ; but when we wanted to retrace our steps we found that our path was also blockaded by the ice. During a four days' blinding snow- storm we struggled to liberate ourselves — I will pass over the details of that trail. We were in peril of succumbing from hunger and cold; on the fourth day we shouldered our traps and determined to attempt some point of vantage on the ice cliffs, whence our signals might be observed by our com- rades, when the Pourquoi-pas? came to our rescue, skilfully guided by Bongrain and Rouch, whose operations on the syren could be heard through the fog and snow. On the journey back, unfor- tunately, the vessel stranded violently upon one of the innumerable reefs level with the water ; we had to unload, and, after three days' and three nights' incessant labour, we got her off again. But we had to leave behind a large piece of her prow, and it was with this vessel that we accomplished the whole of our expedition. From Petermann Is- land we went towards the South, skirting the coast, and completing the chart of the Fran(;ais [his ship of the 1903 expedition]. We found the bay again which was marked by Pendleton, American whaler, and discovered to the north of Adelaide Island a large bay, which we have since named Matha Bay. We next took hydrographic observations of Ade- laide Island, which has a very peculiar configura- tion. But instead of being eight miles in length, as is generally supposed, the configuration has a length of seventy miles! South of Adelaide, in a region neither explored nor even seen, we discov- ered a great bay, which I have named Marguerite. We entered here, despite the reefs and compact ice, and anchored at a little isle which I named 'Jenny,' after Bongrain's wife. We now encountered such violent weather for four days that it was a mira- cle the vessel escaped. An enormous iceberg ap- peared in front of us, from which only a very rapid tacking manoeuvre saved us. . . . To the south of Marguerite Bay we were continually fighting our way through ice and icebergs, but we managed to explore the sea bottom round 120 miles of un- known coast. After two attempts to find our way across the ice to Alexander Land, we decided to abandon the project till the following summer. . . . Our winter station was organised as comfort- ably as possible. . . . During the autumn we made numerous excursions. We saw no sun for five days; the wind blew strongly from N.E., and the snow fell heavily. The ice floes were continually shifting. Many icebergs passed. Despite all pre- cautions, our barrage was frequently broken. The ship was often in danger, and her rudder was smashed; we constructed a new one by cutting up a spar. ... An expedition to cross Graham's I>and was prepared with great care. I intended to lead it myself, but I was disabled by scurvy. Gourdon took my place, setting out with six com- panions. They brought back some interesting ob- servations, but without being able to scale the in- surmountable barrier of granite and ice. Other excursions were also' made. After considerable trouble, towards the end of November, we were able to release the vessel. We returned to Decep- tion Island, where we found some whalers who had been held up by ice and bad weather. . . . From Deception Island I wanted to make for Joinville Land to seek for fossils, but the ice very quickly compelled me to change my plan. We did not wish to compromise our journey southward or to suffer the fate which befell the Antarctic in the same lati- tude. After a brief struggle we were beaten back to Bridgeman Island, where we landed; then to Admiralty Bay and the south coast of the Shet- lands, where we did some good work. Thence we set out to the south, the weather all along being bad and misty, and the ice and icebergs abundant. Nevertheless, we were able to go beyond all the latitudes attained to the south-west of Alexander Land, and to complete the chart. We then dis- covered a series of new lands to the south and west of Alexander Land, in an unexpected place, thus solving an important problem. The deplor- able ice-belt barred our nearer approach; in one hour we got no further than ten yards! We continued our route by following the ice barrier until we reached Peter I. Island, which has not been seen since Bellingshausen discovered it. There we were overwhelmed by a tempest and thick mist, during which we had to steer care- fully among the icebergs. They were so numer- ous that I estimated we saw more than 5000 of them in less than a week. We had to drift with- out steam, all the time, through a fog so dense that we could not see further than twenty yards ahead. Despite this and the strong gusts of wind we reached the 126th deg. long. W., having sailed from the place where the Belgica set out, between 6g deg. and 71 deg. lat., that is to say, well to the south of both Cook and Bellingshausen. Our stock of coal being exhausted, the health of several of the party became alarming. We had to turn our faces northward; for a long time the icebergs had been innumerable, but they gradually dimin- ished, and then we saw the last. The crossing of the Antarctic to Cape Pillar was extremely rapid, thanks to an uninterrupted series of southwesterly and northwesterly winds, but the sea was terrific. In ten days we arrived at the entrance of the Magellan Straits, where we encountered severe weather. . . . We anchored at Punta Arenas, where we were heartily received after fourteen months' absence." — London Standard, March 30, igio. Also in: J. B. Charcot, Denxiemc expedition antarctiqne franfoise igo8-igio; and Pourquoi- pas? dans r Antarctiqne. 1910-1913. — Scott's expedition; discovery of the Pole; fatal termination. — Results of the Ter- ra Nova expedition. — "We find Captain Ro'uert F. Scott in the spring of 1910 busily occupied in fur- thering the departure of another British Antarctic expedition. Captain Scott had planned this expe- dition with the utmost detail and thoughtfulness. Through the public press he had explained the man- ner in which he desired to conduct his enterprise, and aided by the members of the Royal Geographi- cal Society and other learned bodies, a subscrip- tion fund of $200,000 was raised to promote the expedition. The Terra Nova, a Dundee whaling ship, was selected and refitted. Prior to her last voyage she had made several trips to Arctic waters and had proved her efficiency in ice navigation. Captain Scott made every preparation for the equipment towards achieving the great results he hoped from his undertaking. He carried with him three newly devised motor sledges intended for ice travel, as well as the usual dog sledges. The 'prob- lem of reaching the South Pole from a wintering station is purely one of transport,' wrote Captain Scott before his departure. 'The distance to be covered there and back is about 1,500 miles. The time at the disposal of an explorer in a single sea- son never exceeds 150 travelling days. An average 361 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION of ten miles a day can easily be maintained by men of good physique, provided adequate trans- port facilities are made.' Accompanying him was a carefully selected crew, and a highly efficient scientific staff. Scott's plan was to arrange two parties, one to leave King Edward Land, the other to leave McMurdo Sound, to converge on the Pole. Captain Scott purposed to follow his own track and that of Sir' Ernest Shackleton, except for the last hundred miles. The Terra Nova left England June I, loio, and sailed for New Zealand. Cap- tain Scott joined the party at Port Chalmers, near Christchurch, and the final departure southward was made November 2g, iqio. The personnel of the shore party and crew numbered fifty men, of which twenty-four officers and men were of the Royal Navy, one from the Army and two from the Public Services of India. The Terra Nova encoun- lered bad weather and heavy seas from the outset, and was over three weeks in pushing her way through 380 miles of pack ice. By January 1st, iqii, she stood in open water in Ross Sea and to establish a supply depot at Corner Camp. On the outward journey they passed the ponies going well. Again blizzards delayed the return to camp and when Scott returned he found the animals had suffered so severely that a prompt retreat to Hut Point was at once ordered. . . . The Western Geo- graphical party which landed at Butter Point, be- low Farrar Glacier, January 27, iqn, had made a depot at Cathedral Rocks, and from this base they took a sledge journey westward for miles down the glacier. At an altitude of twenty-four hun- dred feet above the glacier a crater was discovered and basalt flows in places eighty feet in depth From the glacier they entered a dry, snow-free valley trending toward the sea. A freshwater lake was discovered estimated about four miles in length. On February 13th, they returned down the Farrar Glacier and crossed the dangerous ice of New Harbor . . . and finally reached Discovery Hut after an absence of six weeks. The Western party again set out on November 7, iqii, for Granite Harbor. Owing to the exceptionally heavy EARNEST HENRY SHACKLETON ROALD AMUNDSEN ROBERT F. SCOTT sighted the Admiralty Mountains, Victoria Land two days later. Pushing her way southward she passed Cape Crozier and reached McMurdo Sound, where winter quarters were established distant about fourteen miles north of Discovery Station, where the first Scott expedition had wintered, and eight miles to the south of Cape Royds, The work of landing stores proved exceedingly arduous as the distance of transportation was a mile and a half. Ponies, dogs and motor sledges were util- ized by the men to assist in transportation and at the end of a week the main work had been com- pleted and the building of the house was begun. The Terra Nova left Scott making ready for his preliminary journeys southward. She steamed eastward and surveyed the Great Ice Barrier as far as 170° West longitude, when a gale forced her to make for Cape Colbeck, where her further progress to the east was prevented by the pack. On the 4th of February the Terra Nova entered the Bay of Whales and there found the Fram of the Amundsen Antarctic Expedition. She then returned to the depot-laying party and found all well. . . "From the first Captain Scott seemed to have worked against great odds. The depot-laying party where left Cape Evans January 25, igii, con- sisting of twelve men, eight ponies, and two dog teams, made the most difficult progress over the soft surface of the barrier and experienced a bliz- zard which exhausted both men and beasts and re- sulted in the loss of two ponies On Februan,' 24th, Captain Scott started with men and a single pony loads which they carried, they made the slow prog- ress of about five miles a day, being forced to re- lay the distance to a cape about nine miles inside the harbor. Building a stone hut and erecting a store as a base for scientific operations they devoted the next two months to exploring the northern shores and sledging around West Harbor where remarkably large mineral deposits such as topaz were discovered. Another curious discovery at their headquarters was that of myriads of wingless in- sects of two distinct varieties which clustered in a half-frozen condition under every stone. Mean- while Captain Scott had been completing his preparations for his final journey to the Pole, On November 2, iqii, the final start was made. . . . Bad weather seemed to persist from the out- set. It soon became necessary to sacrifice some of the ponies to feed the dogs. December 4, iqii, the party had reached 83.24, about twelve miles distant from Mount Hope. Day by day these men plodded on, in the face of snows, storms and gales. ... As the main party advanced, sections of the supporting parties turned back. Day and Hooper, who had left Scott first, returned safely to Camp, January 21st; a week later, Atkinson, Wright, Gerrard and Keohane showed up. On December 2ist, Captain Scott had reached just beyond 85° South, longitude 163 04 East, and an altitude 6,800 feet. On January 3, iqi2, he was within 150 miles of the South Pole, when he sent back the following message: 'I am going forward with a party of five men, sending three back under Lieu- 362 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION tenant Evans with this note. The names and de- scriptions of the advance party are: Capt. Scott, R. N., Dr. Wilson, Chief of the scientil'ic staff; Captain Gates, Inniskillen Dragoons, in charge of the ponies and mules; Lieutenant Bowers, Royal Indian Marine, commissariat ofticer; Petty Ofticer Evans, R. N., in charge of sledges and equipment. The advance party goes forward with a month's provisions and the prospects of success seem good, providing the weather holds and no unforeseen ob.itacles arise. It has been very difficult to choose the advance party, as every one was fit and able to go forward. Those who return are naturally much disappointed. Every one has worked his hardest. The weather on the plateau has been good, on the whole. The sun has never deserted us, but the temperatures are low, now about minus twenty degrees, and the wind pretty constant. How- ever, we are excellently equipped for such condi- tions, and the wind undoubtedly improves the sur- face. So far all arrangements have worked out most satisfactorily. It is more than probable no further news will be received from us this year, as our re- turn must necessarily be late.' " — H. S. Wright, SeveuUi continent, pp. 330-336. In the light of subsequent events there is some- thing very touching in this last message before the final dash to the Pole. Lieutenant Evans and his companions bore it painfully, faithfully, in the face of .scurvy and sickness, back over the frozen ice sheets through snow and storm to the Discovery Hut. "Our return must necessarily be late" — -the words were a prophecy which he bravely fultilled. On February 10, 1Q13, the news was flashed all over the world that Captain R, L. Scott and his four companions, who were returning to their base after reaching the South Pole Ion Jan. 18, iqi2] and finding Amundsen's records there, had per- ished from starvation and cold within 11 miles of a food depot and only 150 miles from their headquarters. According to Captain Scott's diary, which he kept up to the day of his death I March 25, IQ12], the party had been caught in a nine- days' blizzard which prevented traveling until sup- plies were exhausted and death was caused by ex- posure. "The British Museum has undertaken the publi- cation of the Natural History results of the British .Antarctic Expedition of iqio, better known as the Terra Nova Expedition. . . . .An especial interest attaches to the small collection of geological speci- mens that were retrieved after the tragic death of Captain Scott and his heroic associates, and the present publication I part I, dealing with fossil plants] bears ample testimony to the fact that iheir efforts have not only furnished the world with a lasting monument to British pluck and man- hood but have also yielded facts of the greatest scientific interest. "Although determinable fossil plants are few in number traces were seen, as well as numerous car- bonaceous laminae and small seams of coal, at a number of widely separated localities, particularly in what is called the Beacon sandstone, which at latitude 85° S. is 1,500 feet thick". This com- prises an upper 500 feet of sandstone resting on 300 feet of interbedded standstone and shale with several seams of coal, underlain by 700 feet of similar sandstone conglomeratic at the base. The character of the grains in the sandstone suggests wind action, and sun cracks and ripple marks have also been observed. This extensive forma- tion has been traced from Mt. Nansen as far south as latitude S5', a distance of over 700 miles. The most significant plants are those representing the genus GUn^npteri'i found at Mount Buckley or Buckley Island which is situated just west of the Beardmore Glacier in latitude 85°. These are partly referred to the wide-spread Glossopteris in- dica Schimper and in part described as a new va- riety of that species. There are also represented objects identified as those of Vertebraria and rep- resenting the axial organs of Glossopteris, and others doubtfully correlated with the scale leaves of the latter genus. From the Priestley Clacier rather indifferently preserved wood is described under the name Antarcticoxyhn Priestleyi and considered as a new type probably Araucarian in its relation- ship. Winged pollen grains are described as Pity- osporiles antarcticus. These are suggestive of the Abietineae, but may be those of the Po- docarpineae. The remainder of the collection has little interest beyond its indication of the presence of arboreal forms in high southern latitudes. The exact age of these plant-containing beds can not be definitely determined from the present collec- tions, although there is no reason to doubt the le- gitimacy of the author's conclusion that the Bea- con sandstone is probably Permo- Carboniferous in age with the further po.ssibility that its upper part may be early Mesozoic. The demonstration of the former presence of Glossopteris in Antarc- tica is of the greatest importance. ... Its pres- ence in Antarctica supplies an important link in the chain connecting the now isolated land masses of the southern hemisphere and also suggests the possibility of this flora having originated on the broad bosom of the Antarctic continent." — E. W. Berry, Scientific results of the Terra Nova expedi- tion (Science, June 4, 1Q15, pp. 830-831). 1911. — A Japanese expedition. — Lieutenant Shirase of the Japanese navy headed an expedi- tion which sailed from Wellington, New Zealand, on Feb, 11, igii, with the object of reaching the South Pole. Owing to insufficient equipment the expedition was obliged to turn back a few months later. 1911-1912. — Amundsen's successful expedition to the South Pole. — "Amundsen as a veteran Polar explorer and successful navigator of the North- west Pa.ssage, had accompanied a previous expe- dition to the South Polar regions. His original plan, however, in equipping another expedition for scientific research in Polar waters was not to ven- ture south but to continue work beyond the Arc- tic Circle. How the change of program was in- augurated which finally resulted in one of the greatest achievements on record is best told by himself. T was preparing my trip toward the North Polar regions,' Amundsen has explained, 'it may be to the North Pole — in iqoo. It was not very easy to start an expedition from Norway, for it was hard work among us to raise money and I was preparing this expedition slowly. Then sud- denly the news flashed all over the world that the North Pole had been attained, that Admiral Peary had planted the Stars and Stripes up there. The money which had been scarce now went down to nothing. I could not get a cent more, and I was in the midst of my preparations. One of the last mysterious points of the globe had been discov- ered. The last one still remained undiscovered, and then it was that I took the decision to turn from the north toward the south in order to try to discover this last problem in the polar regions.' .Amundsen's party made a successful landing on the Ross Barrier in longtitude 162" W. about fifty miles to the west of King Edward Land. He established his winter quarters at a station which he appropriately called fafttr his ship, the Fram\ Framheim. and there in good health and spirits he and his slunh companions parsed a cheerful and 3'^\3 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION busy season. . . . The Norwegian expedition relied on the most primitive methods for its success, fa- vored by unusually good conditions of weather and ice. 'Amundsen's victory is not due,' says Nansen, 'to the great inventions of the present day and the many new appliances of every kind. The means used are of immense antiquity, the same as were known to the nomad thousands of years ago when he pushed forward across the snow-covered plains of Siberia and Northern Europe. But everything, great and small, was thoroughly thought out, and the plan was splendidly executed. It is the man of these canine friends who occupied every avail- able foot of room upon the decks and were tethered upon the bridge as well. .Amundsen's previous experience in the .Arctic as well as his Nor- wegian training as a disciple of Nansen had convinced him of the importance depending on dogs in all human efforts to reach high latitudes. Their superiority over ponies was demonstrated by their being able to cross more easily the snow ridges that span the dangerous crevasses of the Barrier. . . . .Another important factor in favor of dog teams is the fact that dog eats dogs in case of v£) Uoited PTewBDaperB, London From Underwood A I'nderwood AMUNDSEN T.AKING OBSERVATIONS AT THE SOUTH I'OLE, DECEMBER 14. 1911 that matters, here as everywhere. . . . Both the plan and its execution are the ripe fruit of Nor- wegian life and experience in ancient and modern times,' and he comments, 'Like ever\thing great, it all looks so plain and simple.' Amundsen had placed his chief reliance for transportation of equip- ment and supplies on the service of dogs. Nearly one hundred of these animals had been secured from Greenland, and these had increased in num- bers during the long voyage of nearly 16,000 miles through many waters and climes. The slogan 'Dogs first and all the time,' seems to have inspired the men from the start and the greatest care was taken emergency, whereas extra food must be carried to support 'poni»s during the entire journey. . _. . From Amundsen's winter quarter? at Framheim to the South Pole was a distance of 870 miles. To cover this distance and return, the party of five men took provision? for four months, with four sledges, drawn by lifty-two dogs. .Amundsen left Framheim on October 20, igii, and was ab- sent three month? and five days, returning to head- quarters with two sledges and eleven dogs Jan- uary 25, 1912. When one recalls the uneven surfaces over which the route was followed, the high altitude of the undulating plateau, the moun- 364 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION tainous rcRion to be crossed before the goal could be reached and the herculean exertions which Shackleton had made to reach that goal, and been obliged to turn back, one marvels that these Nor- wegian vikings returned with any dogs at all; nevertheless, men and beasts not only returned safely but in excellent condition. To be sure Amundsen was singularly favored. There were few accidents. Nevertheless they encountered bliz- zards and were weather-bound in their tents on more than one occasion. On December the qth they passed the record of the 'Furthest South," Amundsen writes . . . 'eighty-eight degrees and 23 minutes was passed ; we were further south than any human being had been. No other moment of the whole trip affected me like this. We all shook hands with mutual congratulations; we had won our way far by holding together and we would go further yet — to the end.' The distant horizon which Shackleton had seen with regretful eyes Amundsen now saw. The road was straight ahead, there to the south lay their goal. As was the case in Peary's final success, so it was with Amundsen, nothing untoward happened. No obstacles hin- dered them, the weather favored them and on De- cember 14th [iQii], the greatest day of all, they experienced that sense of nervousness incident to great expectations that were soon to be realized." On this day Amundsen and his party reached the South Pole, only four weeks before Captain Scott arrived at the same destination. — H. S. Wright, Seventh continent, pp. 337-342. "Up to this moment the observations and our reckoning had shown a surprising agreement. We reckoned that we should be at the Pole on De- cember 14. On the afternoon of that day we had brilliant weather — a light wind from the south- east with a temperature of — 10° F. The sledges were going very well. The day passed without any occurrence worth mentioning, and at three o'clock in the afternoon we halted, as according to our reckoning we had reached our goal. We all as- sembled about the Norwegian flag — a handsome silken flag — which we took and planted all together, and gave the immense plateau on which the Pole is situated the name of 'King Haakon VII's Pla- teau.' It was a vast plain of the same character in every direction, mile after mile. During the af- ternoon we traversed the neighbourhood of the camp, and on the following day, as the weather was fine, we were occupied from six in the morn- ing till seven in the evening in taking observations, which gave us 8g" 55' as the result. In order to take observations as near the Pole as possible, we went on, as near true south as we could, for the remaining nine kilometres. On December 16 we pitched our camp in brilliant sunshine, with the best conditions for taking observations. Four of us took observations every hour of the day — twen- ty-four in all. . . . We have thus taken observa- tions as near to the Pole as was humanly possible with the instruments at our disposal. We had a sextant and artificial horizon calculated for a radius of 8 kilometres. On December 17 we were ready to go. We raised on the spot a little circular tent, and planted above it the Norwegian flag and the Frnin's pennant. The Norwegian camp at the South Pole was given the name of 'Polheim.' The distance from our winter quarters to the Pole was about 870 English miles, so that we had cov- ered on an average 15'/^ miles a day. We began the return journey on December 17. The weather was unusually favourable, and this made our re- turn considerably easier than the march to the Pole. We arrived at 'Fraraheim,' our winter quarters, in January, 1912, with two sledges and eleven dogs. all well. On the homeward journey we covered an average of 22^2 miles a day. The lowest tem- perature we observed on this trip was — 24° F., and the highest + 23" F. The principal result — besides the attainment of the Pole — is the deter- mination of the extent and character of the Ross Barrier. Next to this, the discovery of a connec- tion between South Victoria Land and, probably. King Edward VII Land through their continua- tion in huge mountain-ranges, which run to the southeast and were seen as far south as lat. 88 8', but which in all probability are continued right across the Antarctic Continent. We gave the name of 'Queen Maud's Mountains' to the whole range of these newly discovered mountains, about 530 miles in length. The expedition to King Edward VII Land, under Lieutenant Prostrud, has achieved excellent results. Scott's discovery was confirmed, and the examination of the Bay of Whales and the Ice Barrier, which the party carried out, is of great" interest. Good geological collections have been obtained from King Edward VII Land and South Victoria Land. The Fram arrived at the Bay of Whales on January g, having been delayed in the 'Roaring Forties' by easterly winds. . . . We are all in the best of health." — R. Amund- sen, South Pole, Norwegian Antarctic expedition with the Fram, 1910-1012, pp. 17-IQ. 1911-1913. — Dr. Mawson's Australasian expe- dition. — An Antarctic expedition, financed by grants amounting to $130,000 from the Australian, New Zealand and British governments, set out from Adelaide, South Australia, in the ship Aurora un- der the leadership of Dr. D, Mawson on Nov. 20, IQII. The expedition was provided with an oceon- ographical equipment contributed by the prince of IVIonaco. Dr. Mawson returned to Sydney in the early spring of 1913, after having successfully mapped about a thousand miles of Termination Land. Two members of the expedition lost their lives — Lieutenant Innes, who fell into a deep ice crevasse, and Dr. Merz, who died from exposure. 1913. — Return of the German expedition under Filchner. — "News was received by tele Taph on January 7 of the return of Lieut. Filchner in the Deutschland to Buenos Aires. The return was somewhat earlier than had been anticipated, for . . . the original programme had in view a com- plete crossing of the South Polar area from the Weddell to the Ross Sea; and though this was afterwards abandoned, it was hoped to push a long way south into the unknown region between the Weddell Sea and the Pole. According to the scanty telegrams made public at the time of writ- ing, the farthest south reached seems to have been in the neighbourhood of 79" S. Even this marks an important advance on the farthest previously reached on this side of the globe, or in fact in any part of the Antarctic region apart from the Ross Sea, and the lands to the south of it; no previous navigator having crossed 75° S., except in the lat- ter region — i. e. within the 60° of longitude between i.=;o" E. and 150" W. .^ftcr crossing an ice-belt 1200 (sic; probably 120) miles wide, the expedi- tion is said to have discovered, in 76° 35' S., 30° W., a new land which continued as far as 70. To this land Lieut. Filchner gives the name Prince Re- gent Luitpold Land, after the late Regent of Ba- varia, while an ice-barrier to the west has been named the Kaiser Wilhelm Barrier. From the po- sition assigned to the new discovery it might seerrt to be a south-westward continuation of Coats Land, discovered by Bruce in 1004. The state- ment that in 78° S. the Weddell Sea forms its southern boundary is somewhat puzzling, for even were the new land an island, the Weddell Sea 365 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION would, of course, be mainly north of it. Possibly there is some mistake in the telegram, and the meaning intended is that the land forms the south- ern boundary of the Weddell Sea. Lieut. Filchner hopes to return south to continue his explorations." — Geographical Journal, February, 1913, p. I73- 1914-1916. — Shackleton's second Antarctic ex- pedition. — "In February, 1014, Sir Ernest Shackle- Ion presented before the Royal Geographical So- ciety of London his program for a new ■'\ntarctic Expedition, the purpose of which was to cross the South Polar Continent from the Weddell Sea to the Ross Sea. Such a journey was a stupendous un- dertaking, but Shackleton hoped that from the geographical point of view the complete conti- nental nature of the Antarctic might be solved. It was the purpose of the expedition to take con- tinuous magnetic observations from Weddell Sea right across the Pole, and to follow conscien- tiously all branches of science, with the hoped-for result of greatly adding to the sum total of human knowledge. To carry out his bold project of a trans-.\ntarctic expedition Shackleton had planned to go with his party to the coast line on the Wed- dell Sea, while Captain Mackintosh and nine com- panies [in the Aurora'] were to start from the coast nf Ross Sea, on the other side of the Pole, and meet Shackleton's party at a point far inland. Having received the encouragement and support of the scientific world. Sir Ernest left Buenos ,\ires on board the Endurance October ;5th, 1014, and the last word was heard from him in February of the following year. In May, 1Q16, Shackleton cabled his arrival in the Falkland Islands, bringing with him an account of his failure to reach his destination, through adverse ice conditions. No at- tempt at a trans-Antarctic journey could be made — the Endurance was beset in January, and from then on drifted at the mercy of the elements, reaching the farthest South of 77^ in longitude .VS" West. Then a zizzag drift was made across Weddell Sea and she continued Northwest. In- tense ice pressure was experienced in June when the ridges of ice reached the height of twenty feet near the ship, and during July they reached twice that height. It was not until October, however, that the pressure against the hull of the Endurance became too much for the ship, and she was finally crushed by the ice; all hands abandoned her, tak- ing to boats and sledges, with a part of their pro- visions. After a drift northward for two months, the ice became strong enough to travel over it and the march was pursued through deep snow. During the next few months the party lived on the ice floes, narrowly escaping death on more than one occasion. In April, loifi, the ice suddenly opened beneath them and forced them to take to the open sea in boats. They made their way to F^lephant Island and here they found themselves in such dire straits that Sir Ernest with five men in a small boat started for South Georgia 1750 miles] for assistance. This amazing journey, ac- compHshed under such hazardous conditions, is one of the most daring and heroic feats in Ant- arctic history. .^fter reaching the Falklands, Shackleton made several unsuccessful attempts to rescue his men left on Elephant Island. The first was made from South Georgia on May :3rd in a whaling vessel furnished by a Norwegian whal- ing station. The boat could not penetrate the pack ice and was obliged to return to the Falkland Islands, reaching Port Stanley on May 31st. On the 8th of June a second attempt was made in the steamer InslHufn Pesca of the Uruguayan Bureau of Fisheries which loft Montevideo, stop- ping en route at Port Stanley, June 17th, to pick up Shackleton. It was found impossible lo reacli Elephant Island because of the ice and the trip was abandoned June 2Sth. The ship had aji proached to within twenty miles of the Island, and it was ascertained that penguins abounded in the vicinity, giving reasonable assurance that the men would be able to subsist until help came, al though when their leader had left them they had only five weeks' rations. Shackleton's third at- tempt was made July 13th, when he set sail from Punta Arenas on the schooner Emma. The schooner was forced back by the terrific gales and ice fields; with engines injured and a battered hull she returned to the Falkland Islands on August 4th. Undaunted by repeated failures, worn in body and mind from exhaustion and anxiety, this heroic explorer renewed every effort to rescue the twenty-two marooned men whose trust in him had never wavered, and again set out upon his quest. The fourth and successful journey was made from Punta Arenas, where Sir Ernest chartered a steamer and finally reached his men, when they had all but given up hope of rescue. The party had en- dured many hardships during the [seventeen weeks'! absence of Shackleton. . . . "Disaster had likewise pursued Captain Mackin- tosh and his party. The Aurora, in which he bad sailed, broke away in a blizzard off Ross Barrier, leaving Mackintosh and his men stranded on shore. The ship drifted to New Zealand, where she was repaired and Sir Ernest Shackleton sailed in her to the final rescue of the remaining band of ad- venturous men. In their isolation of twenty months three of their number had died, including Captain Mackintosh, the leader, A. P. Spencer Smith, and Victor G. Hayward. Part of the pro- gram of the Ross Sea party had been to lay depots on the Ross barrier ice, for the use of the Shackleton party when it came down from the .Antarctic plateau. This they did, in spite of their abandonment, the last depot being made in Oc- tober, at Mount Hope (83 ^ i^ S.), at the foot of Beardman Glacier. . . "Though at every turn dis- aster and misfortune followed Shackleton's last ex pedition to Antarctica, the indomitable courage, heroism, and faith exhibited by leader and men will ever stand in this story of 'failure' as an ex ample to all and stir the heart with the deepest admiration and enthusiasm." — H. S. Wright, Sev- enth continent, pp. 372-378. Scientific observations. — Problems of the ice age. — "Recent .Antarctic explorations and researches have yielded significant evidence regarding the problems of the Ice .Age, and of the similarity of the succession of geological climates in polar with those in other latitudes. These researches have been prosecuted to the ultimate limit of courage, devotion to duty and endurance — the noble sacri- fice of life — as in the cases of Captain Scott, R.N., and his devoted companions and members of the expedition of Sir Ernest Shackleton. The data secured by these expeditions are alone sufficient to establish the following premises: (1) That Ant- arctic ice, although covering areas several times larger than all other ice covered areas, is slowly decreasing in extent and depth (.') That the same succession of genlneiral rlimates have prevailed in .Antarctic as in other latitudes. So vital arc these evidences of the retreat of .Antarctic ice that it may be well to briefly quote or refer to the most prominent instances: All these evidences and many others . . . lead up to one great fact — namely, that the glaciation of the .Antarctic regions is receding. The ice is everywhere retreating. The high level morains decrease in height above the present sur- face of the ice, the debris being two thousand feet 366 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION up near the coast and only two hundred feet above near the plateau. "This observation applies to an icc-covercd area nf over 116,000 square miles. ... In speaking of the evidence of ice retreat over Antarctic areas ex- plored by him, Sir Ernest Shackleton said; 'Some time in the future these lands will be of use to humanity.' This impressive and conclusive evi- dence is corroborated by the greater and still more impressive evidences of the comparatively recent uncovering of temperate land areas, and the pro- gressive retreat of the snow line to higher eleva- tions in temperate and tropical latitudes and towards the poles at sea level, being far greater in Arctic than in Antarctic regions. We are there- fore confronted with the conclusions; (i) That the disappearance of the Ice Age is an active pres- ent process and must be accounted for by activities and energies now at work, and that the use of as- sumptions and hypotheses is not permissible; (2) That the rates and lines of retreat are and have been determined by exposure to solar energy and the temperatures established thereby ; and by the difference in the specific heat of tTie land and water hemispheres; (3) That the lines of the disappear- ance of ice are not conformable with those of its deposition, and mark a distinctly different exposure and climatic control from that which prevailed prior to the culmination of the Ice Age. (4) This retreat also marks a rise in mean surface tempera- ture along these new lines, manifestly due to re- cently inaugurated exposure to solar radiation and also the inauguration of the trapping of heat derived from such exposure ; which pro- cess is cumulative and has a maximum not yet reached. "The researches under the direction of Captam Scott and Sir Ernest Shackleton have therefore very rigidly conditioned any inquiry as to the causes of glacial accumulation and retreat. These conditions are corrective and directive — correct- ive, in that they have entirely removed any doubts as to the alternate glaciation of the poles under the alternate occurrence of aphelion and perihelion polar winters by the precession of the equinoxes, as advanced by Croll; directive, in that they have imposed an appeal to energies now active as causes of retreat, and divested the problem of resorts to the fascinating but dangerous uses of suppositions and hypotheses. "They have, moreover, pointed out with unerring accuracy the vital conclusion that the same ener- gies which have but recently converted the glacial lake beds of Canada into the most productive grain fields of the world will in time convert the tundras of to-day into the grain fields of to-mor- row. The bearing of this conclusion upon the ul- timate development of the human race is so far- reaching in its consequences that the great sacrifice of life attendant upon the prosecution of these researches stands forever as a memorial in the correction of the erroneous and wide spread con- ception that the earth is in a period of refrigera- tion, desiccation and decay ; and establishes the conclusion that it is in the spring time of a new climatic control during which the areas fitted for man's uses are being extended and that the moss of polar wastes will be replaced by rye and wheat." — M. Manson, Bearing of the facts' revealed by Ant- arctic research upon the problems of the ice age (^Science. Dec. 28, iqi;, pp. 639-640). Climatic conditions.— Fauna. — "The great se- verity of climate in South Polar regions, the lack of vegetation, the desolation of unpeopled lands upon which no quadrupeds are to be found,— lands that are mere barren wastes of snow and ice, so different from the more hospitable coasts and val- leys of the Arctic, where at equal distances from the equator are found lands green with vegetation, abounding with animal life and the habitat of the hardy Esquimaux, — is accounted for by the pre- dominance of sea in the South Polar regions. The vast continental masses in the north are warmed by the summer sun rays and become centers of radiating heat; while the Antarctic lands are iso- lated in the midst of frigid waters and constantly chilled by cold sea winds 'which act at every sea- son as refrigerators of the atmosphere.' " 'In the north,' writes Hartwig, 'the cold currents of the Polar Ocean, with their drift-ice and bergs, have but the two wide gates of the Greenland Sea and Davis Strait through which they can emerge to the south, so that their influence is confined within comparatively narrow limits, while the gelid streams of the Antarctic seas branch out freely on all sides, and convey their floating ice-masses far and wide within the temperate seas. It is only to the west of Newfoundland that single icebergs have ever been known to descend as low as 39° of latitude ; but in the southern hemisphere they have been met with in the vicinity of Cape of Good Hope (35° S. lat.) near Tristan da Cunha, oppo- site to the mouth of the Rio de la Plata, and within a hundred leagues of Tasmania. In the north, finally, we find the gulf stream conveying warmth even to the shores of Spitsbergen and Novaya Zemblya ; while in the opposite regions of the globe, no traces of warm currents have been observed beyond 55° of latitude. Thus the pre- dominance of vast tracts of flat land in the boreal hemisphere, and of an immense expanse of ocean in the Antarctic regions, sufficiently accounts for the istival warmth of the former, and the com- paratively low summer temperature of the latter. In 182Q . , . the Chanticleer, Captain Foster, was sent to New Shetland for the purpose of making magnetic and other physical observations, and re- mained for several months at Deception Island, which was selected as a station from its affording the best harbour in South Shetland. Though these islands are situated at about the same distance from the Pole as the Faroe Islands, which boast nf numerous flocks of sheep, and where the sea never freezes, yet, when the Chanticleer ap- proached Deception Island, on January 5 (a month corresponding to our July), so many ice- bergs were scattered about that Foster counted at one time no fewer than eighty-one. A gale having arisen, accompanied by a thick fog, great care was needed to avoid running foul of these float- ing cliffs. After entering the harbour — a work of no slight difficulty, from the violence of the wind — the fogs were so frequent that, for the first ten days, neither sun nor stars were seen; and 't was withal so raw and cold, that Lieutenant Kendall, to whom we owe a short narrative of the expedi- tion, did not recollect having suffered more at any time in the .Arctic regions, even at the lowest range of the thermometer. In this desolate land, frozen water becomes an integral portion of the soil; for this volcanic island is composed chiefly of alter- nate la\ crs of ashes and ice, as if the snow of each winter, during a series of years, had been prevented from melting in the following summer b.\- the ejection of cinders and ashes from some part where volcanic action still goes on. . . .' The absence of quadrupeds south of 60° has already been noted, but mention should be made of innumerable sea- birds which, though they belong to the same fami- lies as those of the north, are a 'distinct genera or species, for with rare exceptions no bird is found to inhabit both Arctic and Antarctic regions.' " — 367 ANTESIGNANI ANTHROPOLOGY H. S. Wright, Seventh continent, pp. 92-g4. — See also Arctic exploration. Also in: H. R. Mill, Siege of the South Pole.— K. Fricker, Antarctic regions. — C. E. Borchgrevink, First on the Antarctic continent. — .Antarctic man- ual (iQOi). — O. Nordenskjold and J. G. Andersson, Antarctica. — E. H. Shacklcton, Heart of the Ant- arctic. — Capt. R. F. Scott, Voyage of the Discov- ery. — L. Bernacchi, To the South Polar regions. ANTESIGNANI.— "In each cohort [of the Roman legion, in Caesar's time] a certain number of the best men, probably about one-fourth of the whole detachment, was assigned as a guard to the standard, from whence they derived their name of Antesignani." — C. Merivale, History of the Romans tinder the empire, ch. 15. ANTHEMIUS, Roman emperor (Western), 467-472. See Rome: 455-476. ANTHONY, Susan BrowBell (1820-1906), American teacher, author, and woman suffragist. Took a prominent part in temperance and anti- slavery agitation; devoted herself especially to woman's rights; published a weekly paper. The Revolution, edited by Elizabeth Cady Stanton; vice-president of the National Woman's Suffrage Association, 1860-1892; became its president. She drafted an amendment to the Constitution extend- ing suffrage to women, which was passed by Con- gress in igig and ratified by the necessary thirty- six states in 1920. — See also Suffrage, Woman: United States. ANTHRACITE COAL: Control by railroads. — Commodities clause of Hepburn Act. See Railroads: 100S-190Q. ANTHRACITE COAL COMBINATION. See Trusts: 1Q07-1912. ANTHRACITE COAL STRIKE COMMIS- SION, appointed by President Roosevelt. See Arbitration and conciliation. Industrial: U. S. A.: 1902-1920; Labor strikes and boycotts: 1877- 1911; U. S. A.: 1Q02 (October). ANTHROPOLOGY: Deanition.— Early re- searches. — The simplest definition of anthropology is found in the derivation of the word. "Anthro- pos" is the Greek word for man; "logos" in Greek means science or discourse ; therefore anthropology is the science of man. Aristotle is supposed to be the first f)erson to use the term. After that it is not met with again until the i6th century when the Latin word "anthropologium" is used to desig- nate the study of bodily structure. In fact an- thropological research in Europe until very re- cently was limited to the field now called physical anthropology. The development and growth of anthropology into the comprehensive science that it is to-day, is closely connected with the general scientific development of Europe .during the 17th, i8th and 19th centuries. "In earlier days certain philosophers had been spoken of as anthropologists, and again in later times, i. e. in the iSth century, Anthropology was treated (by Kant and others) as a branch of philosophy, rather than of biology. The latter end of the 17th century was a most important epoch in the history of Physical An- thropology, using the term in the sense which it has now acquired and which will presently be ex- plained. In the year 1699, Dr. Edward Tyson, a member of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, published under the auspices of the Royal Society a treatise entitled 'Orang-Outang, siva Homo Syl- vestris. Or, the Anatomy of a Pygmie compared with that of a Monkey, an Ape, and a Man.' Without entering upon detailed criticism of this Tifork, it will suffice to remark that it constitutes a most remarkable anticipation of modern methods of research, and still serves as a model for investi- gations into the structure of Man and Apes. Nevertheless, although so important in these re- spects, the work was not described as one on An- thropology, nor is it certain that Tyson made use of the term in connection with it. The i8th cen- tury in turn affords several notable names in the hi5tor>' of Physical Anthropology. The chief con- tributors to the subject were Linnzeus, Daubenton, Camper, Hunter, Soemmering and Blumenbach. The Systema Naturae of Linnaeus (of which the first edition appeared in 1735) will remain for ever memorable to anthropologists from the fact that Man was therein restored definitely to a place with other animals in a scheme of comparative zoology. Daubenton (1764), a colleague of Buff on, is to be credited with the first strictly scientific memoir in which the comparative anatomy of the skull was studied by means of angular measurements. Camper's great work was first published in 1770. Born at Leyden in 1722, Camper had attained the age of sixty-seven when he died. But for the work of Tyson, that of Camper would hold the place of honour as anticipating the soundest and most pro- ductive methods of modern physical anthropology. Camper's researches dealt with the comparative anatomy of the Orang-utan (a chapter being de- voted specially to its comparison with Man), with the different varieties of anthropoid apes, with the organs of speech in the Orang-utan, with the sig- nificance and origin of pigmentation in the negro races, and finally with the comparative study of skulls. In this connection, special reference is due to the method employed, for it was based on the principle of projections, i. e., the comparison of forms and contours drawn in rectilinear projection. Errors due to perspective, such as occur when the object is viewed in the ordinary way, were thus eliminated. In the same treatise, Camper defines and explains the use of the facial angle which he devised, and through which his name will be per- petuated in the literature of craniometry. The work of John Hunter (172S-1793) stands in a cate- gory apart from all others. If not avowedly an- thropological, the researches carried out by Hunter in Comparative Anatomy define the field or extent of the larger part of modern Physical Anthro- pology. For the rest, it must be added that while in Hunter's work the anatomical notes are num- bered in thousands, the physiological background is never lost to view. Herein, it is fair to believe, a clue will be found to Hunter's success. This vitalizing principle was rigidly maintained and may be studied to-day, not only in the literary monuments left by Hunter, but also in the noble Collection by which his memory is perpetuated. The accomplished anatomist Soemmering published in 1785 a monograph on the anatomy of a Negro, which has become classical. The author extended the comparative methods employed by Camper in the case of the external characters, to the details of every part and structure of the body. In this research again, we may notice the substitution of exact and precise information for speculative sur- mise. Not the least important point made by Soemmering was his observation that the brain- weight of his subject exceeded that of most Euro- peans. This very paradox (as it seemed even then to Soemmering) led him to anticipate (in part at least) important researches carried out a century later by Snell and Dubois. For Soemmering found that while the Negro's brain exceeded that of the European in weight, it held nevertheless a more lowly position when judged by a comparison of its size with the combined mass of the cerebral nerves. The absolute weight taken alone is thus deprived of value as an index of developmental 368 ANTHROPOLOGY Scope and Methods of Study ANTHROPOLOGY status. It is further shewn that for the interpre- tation of the significance of the brain-weight, the size and complexity of the organs supplied by those nerves must be held accountable for a certain part (now called the 'corporeal concomitant'). And finally, it is on the part which remains over, called by Soemmering the 'superfluous quantity,' that judgment as to the real 'size' of the brain is to be passed. [See also Ary.^ns: Distribution.] Blumenbach is distinguished particularly by his studies in comparative human craniology. Bom at Gotha in 1752, ... he studied ... at Jena and at Gottingen, at which latter University he ob- tained a professorial chair; and at Got- tingen Blumenbach died in 1840. Three charac- teristics seem to be prominent before all others in the character of this remarkable man. His extraordinary versatility in scientific pursuits has rarely been surpassed, even in the fatherland of Goethe, Helmholtz, and Virchow. Scarcely less impressive was his enormous range of literary ac- quaintance. A third point is that he was emi- nently a laboratory worker ... for he travelled but little. Blumenbach's principal contributions to science consist of a treatise on the 'Natural Varieties of the Human Species' and of numerous craniological descriptions, to which must be added certain essays on the Natural History of Man, in- cluding an anatomical comparison of Man with other animals. And the chief advances determined by these researches may be summarized as fol- lows: (i) The employment of the word 'an- thropology' as descriptive of morphological studies. (2) Recognition of the fact that no sharp lines demarcate the several varieties of Mankind, the transition from type to type being imperceptible. (3) The clear enunciation of a classificatory scheme of the varieties of Mankind, admittedly arbitrary, but devised with the object of facilitating study: the classification was based on considerations of the characters of the skin, the hair, and the skull. (4) A clear enunciation of the external causes in producing and perpetuating variations in animals, including Man; recognition of the origin of varie- ties through 'degeneration'; Blumenbach thus very nearly anticipated some important discoveries re- served for Darwin at a later date. All differences in the cranial forms of Mankind were referred either to environment or to artificial interference. At the same time, it is suggested that artificial modifications may in time be inherited (cf. Blu- menbach's Works, p. 121)." — W. L. H. Duckworth, Morphology and anthropology, pp. 1-5. — See also Europe: Prehistoric period: Earliest remains, etc.; PAcrnc ocean: People. Scope of study. — Historical method. — In- fluence of evolutionary theories. — "This brings us to the point when anthropology begins to as- sume a wider aspect. Although in earlier periods men noticed the differences in physical appearance and culture existing among various peoples, the discussions of such facts were not within the field of anthropology. Observation of racial differences are recorded on Egyptian monuments and in the tales of early travellers. The Greek and Roman writers mention it and later in the travels of Marco Polo and explorers of the isth, i6lh and 17th cen- turies there are very accurate accounts of primi- tive customs. 'At the present time anthropologists occupy themselves with problems relating to the physical and mental life of mankind as found in varying forms of society from the earliest times up to the present period and in all parts of the world.' In this way Franz Boas, the leader of American anthropologists outlines the scope of an- thropology. Naturally it is impossible for one person to command such a range of knowledge, and so distinct fields of specialization have sprung up. The two main divisions are physical ancl cul- tural anthropology, the latter often termed eth- nology. Under physical anthropology are included all studies relating to the physical characteristics of man, his place in nature, comparative anatomy and physiology, the antiquity of man as shown in fossil remains, which evidences are correlated with the findings of geology and a comparative study of the physical characteristics of the different races and subdivisions of races. Cultural anthropology or ethnology deals with the antiquity of man as shown by remains of his handiwork, a comparative study of the arts and industries of man, specula- tion as to their origin; their development and geographical distribution. On the sociological side we have the social and political organization of various peoples; their ethics and religion. The psychological side of life is studied through the languages and mythologies. And finally when these surveys are finished, the different peoples of the world can be arranged into ethnic groups ex- hibiting a certain degree of uniformity of cul- ture. (See also Ethnology.) In anthropology two distinct methods of research have developed, the historical method which aims to reconstruct the actual history of mankind, the other is the generalizing method which attempts to establish the laws of its development. "About this time the historical aspect of the phenomena of nature took hold of the minds of investigators in the whole domain of science. Be- ginning with biology, and principally through Dar- win's powerful influence, it gradually revolutionized the whole method of natural and mental science and led to a new formulation of their problems. The idea that the phenomena of the present have developed from previous forms with which they are genetically connected and which determine them, shook the foundations of the Old principles of classification and knit together groups of facts that hitherto had seemed disconnected. Once clearly enunciated, the historical view of the natu- ral sciences proved irresistible and the old problems faded away before the new attempts to discover the history of evolution. From the very begin- ning there has been a strong tendency to combine with the historical aspect a subjective valuation of the various phases of development, the present serving as a standard of comparison. The oft- observed change from simple forms to more com- plex forms, from uniformity to diversity, was in- terpreted as a change from the less valuable to the more valuable and thus the historical view assumed in many cases an ill-concealed teleological tinge. The grand picture of nature in which for the first time the universe appears as a unit of ever-changing form and color, each momentary aspect being determined by the past moment and determining the coming changes, is still obscured by a subjective element, emotional in its sources, which leads us to ascribe the highest value to that which is near and dear to us. The new historical view also came into conflict with the generalizing method of science. It was imposed upon that older view of nature in which the discovery of general laws was considered the ultimate aim of investi- gation. . . . Anthropology also felt the quicken- ing impulse of the historic point of view, and its development followed the same lines that may be observed in the history of the other sciences. The unity of civilization and of primitive culture that had been divined by Herder now shone forth as a certainty. The multiplicity and diversity of cu- rious customs and beliefs appeared as early steps 369 ANTHROPOLOGY Evolutionary Theories ANTHROPOLOGY in the evolution of civilization from simple forms of culture. The strlkinc similarity between the customs of remote districts was the proof of the uniform manner in which civilization had de- veloped the world over. The laws according to which this uniform development of culture took place became the new problem which engrossed the attention of anthropologists. This is the source from which sprang the ambitious system of Her- bert Spencer and the ingenious theories of Edward Burnett Tylor. The underlying thought of the numerous attempts to systematize the whole range of social phenomena or one or the other of its features — such as religious belief, social organiza- tion, forms of marriage — has been the belief that one definite system can be found according to which all culture has developed, that there is one type of evolution from a primitive form to the highest civilization which is applicable to the whole of mankind, that notwithstanding many varations caused by local and historical conditions, the gen- tian and Gcorg Gerland. Both were impressed by the sameness of the fundamental traits of culture the world over. Bastian saw in their sameness an effect of the sameness of the human mind and terms these fundamental traits 'Elementargedanken' [elementary thoughts I, declining all further con- sideration of their origin, since an inductive treat- ment of this problem is impossible. For him the essential problem of anthropology is the discovery of the elementary ideas, and in further pursuit of the inquiry, their modification under the influence of geographical environment. Gerland's views agree with those of Bastian in the emphasis laid upon the influence of geographical environment on the forms of culture. In place of the mystic ele- mentary idea of Bastian, Gerland assumes that the elements found in many remote parts of the world are a common inheritance from an early stage of cultural development. It will be seen that in both these views the system of evolution plays a second- ary part only, ajid that the main stress is laid CHIMPANZEE COMPARISON OF SKELETONS OF VERTEBRATES. SHOWING EVOLUTIONARY SIMILARITfES Krom specimens in Royal College of Surgeons, London cral type of evolution is the same everywhere. This theory has been discussed most clearly by Tylor, who finds proof for it in the sameness of customs and beliefs the world over. The typical similarity and the occurrence of certain customs in definite combinations are explained by him as due to their belonging to a certain stage in the develop- ment of civilization. They do not disappear sud- denly, but persist for a time in the form of sur- vivals. These are, therefore, wherever they occur, a proof that a lower stage of culture of which these customs are characteristic has been passed through. . . . The generalized view of the evolu- tion of culture in all its different phases which is the final result of this method may be subjected to a further analysis regarding the psychic causes which bring about the regular sequence of the stages of culture. Owing to the abstract form of the results, this analy.sis must be deductive. It can not be an induction from empirical psychologi- cal data. In this fact lies one of the weaknesses of the method which led a number of anthropolo- gists to a somewhat different statement of the problem. I mention here particularly Adolf Bas- on the causes which bring about modifications of the fundamental and identical traits. There is a close connection between this direction of an- thropology and the old geographical school. Here the psychic and environmental relations remain amenable to inductive treatment, while, on the other hand, the fundamental hypotheses exclude the origin of the common traits from further in- vestigation. The subjective valuation which is characteristic of most evolutionary systems, was from the very beginning part and parcel of evo- lutionary anthropology. It is but natural that in the study of the history of culture our own civiliza- tion should become the standard, that the achieve- ments of other times and other races should be measured by our own achievements. In no case is it more difficult to lay aside the 'Culturbrille' [cultural spectacles] — to use Von den Steinen's apt term — than in viewing our own culture For this reason the literature of anthropology abounds in attempts to define a number of stages of culture leading from simple forms to the present civiliza- tion, from savagery through barbarism to civiliza- tion, or from an assumed pre -savagery through the 370 ANTHROPOLOGY Branches of the Science ANTHROPOLOGY same stages to enlightenment. The endeavor to establish a schematic hne of evolution naturally led back to new attempts at classification in which each group bears a genetic relation to the other. Such attempts have been made from both the cul- tural and the biological point of view." — F. Boas, History oj anthropology (Science, Oct. 21, 1904). — See also Evolution: Historical development, etc. After this brief summary of the general method of anthropology it is perhaps best to take each branch of the science separately and show its de- velopment, bearing in mind the aims of the entire subject. Linguistics. — The point of view of the student of linguistics depends very much on his back- ground. If he comes from physical anthropology he is interested in correlating the phonetic system with the structure of the organs of speech ; the ethnologist studies language to gain light on ethnic affinity and cultural contact, or if he is interested in psychology, to learn categories of thought and the trend of mental processes. The study of lin- guistics was first directed to the investigation of the "Aryan" question. "The connection between linguistics and anthropology assumed its greatest importance in the middle of the nineteenth cen- tury, when the discoveries and theories of philol- ogists were adopted wholesale to explain the problems of European ethnology, and the Aryan controversy became the locus of disturbance throughout the Continent. No other scientific question, with the exception, perhaps, of the doc- trine of evolution, was ever so bitterly discussed or so infernally confounded at the hands of Chau- vinistic or otherwise biased writers." — A. C. Had- don, History of anthropology, p. 144. In recent years linguistics has assumed a broader outlook and is studied by the anthropologist to- day principally in the unwritten languages of prim- itive people. "The origin of language was one of the much-discussed problems of the nineteenth century, and owing to its relation to the develop- ment of culture, it has a direct anthropological bearing. The intimate ties between language and ethnic psychology were expressed by no one more clearly than by Stcinthal, who perceived that the form of thought is molded by the whole social environment of which language is part. Owing to the rapid change of language, the historical treatment of the linguistic problem had developed long before the historic aspect of the natural sciences was understood. The genetic relationship of languages was clearly recognized when the ge- netic relationship of species was hardly thought of. With the increasing knowledge of languages they were grouped according to common descent, and when no further relationship could be proved, a classification according to morphology was at- tempted. To the linguist whose whole attention is directed to the study of the expression of thought by language, language is the individuality of a people, and therefore a classification of languages must present itself to him as a classification of peoples. No other manifestation of the mental life of man can be classified so minutely and definitely as language. In none are the genetic relations more clearly established. It is only when no further genetic and morphological relationship can be found, that the linguist is compelled to coordi- nate languages and can give no further clue re- garding their relationship and origin. No wonder, then, that this method was used to classify man- kind, although in reality the linguist classified only languages. The result of the classification seems eminently satisfactory on account of its definiteness as compared with the results of biological and cultural classifications." — F. Boas, History of an- thropology (Science, Oct. 21, 1904). The study of linguistics together with the de- velopment of physical anthropology brought about theories which connected race and language. The modern anthropologists have fought valiantly to show why any such theory is untenable. "Mean- while the methodical resources of biological or somatic anthropology had also developed and had enabled the investigator to make nicer distinctions between human types than he had been able to make. The landmark in the development of this branch of anthropology has been the introduction of the metric method, which -owes its first strong development to Quetelet. ... A clearer definition of the terms 'type' and 'variabihty' led to the application of the statistical method by means of which comparatively slight varieties can be dis- tinguished satisfactorily. By the application of this method it soon became apparent that the races of man could be subdivided into types which were characteristic of definite geographical areas and of the people inhabiting them. The same misinterpre- tation developed here as was found among the linguists. As they identified language and people, so the anatomists identified somatic type and people and based their classification of peoples wholly on their somatic characters. The two prin- ciples were soon found to clash. Peoples genetic- ally connected by language, or even the same in language, were found to be diverse in type, and people of the same type were found to be diverse in language. Furthermore, the results of classifica- tions according to cultural groups disagreed with both the linguistic and the somatic classifications. In long and bitter controversies the representatives of these three directions of anthropological research contended for the correctness of their conclusions. This war of opinions was fought out particularly on the ground of the so-called .Aryan question, and only gradually did the fact come to be understood that each of these classifications is the reflection of a certain group of facts. The linguistic classifica- tion records the historical fates of languages and indirectly of the people speaking these languages; the somatic classification records the blood rela- . tionships of groups of people and thus traces an- other phase of their history ; while the cultural classification records historical events of still an- other character, the diffusion of culture from one people to another and the absorption of one cul- ture by another. Thus it became clear that the attempted classifications were expressions of his- torical data bearing upon the unwritten history of races and peoples, and recorded their descent, mix- ture of blood, changes of language and develop- ment of culture. Attempts at generalized classifi- cations based on these methods can claim validity only for that group of phenomena to which the method applies. An agreement of their results, that is, original association between somatic type, language and culture, must not be expected." — F. Boas, History of anthropology (Science, Oct. 21, 1004). Just as the languages of Europe have been grouped into a great family, so linguists have at- tempted to do the same for .America. The atti- tude toward this question as far as .American posi- tion can best be seen in the following summary: "As symptomatic of the synthetic tendency so pronounced in recent years may be cited the sig- nificant utterance of one of the most competent collaborators, E. Sapir, to the effect that the fifty- seven linguistic families hitherto officially recog- nized will be ultimately reduced to not more than about sixteen. On the other hand, a more skep- 371 ANTHROPOLOGY Branches of the Science ANTHROPOLOGY tical attitude is maintained editorially. In his 'Introductory' statement Boas explains that while far-reaching morphological resemblances may be based on community of origin the absence of his- torical data for primitive languages precludes t"he evidence from becoming demonstrative; what is interpreted by some as the result of an ultimate connection may be due merely to assimilation re- sulting from contact. Accordingly, Boas regards the minute study of dialectic differentiation as af- fording a more promising field for research than the quest for remote relationships. He likewise calls attention to the study of literary form as a well-nigh neglected but extremely fruitful task for the linguist. In spite of all methodological warn- ings the consolidation of languages once reckoned as distinct is progressing merrily, especially in Cali- fornia, where Yuki now remains as the solitary isolated form of speech, all others having been linked with larger groups." — University oj Cali- fornia publications, {American Archaeology and Ethnology, v. 13, no. 1) . — See also Indians, Amer- ican: Linguistic characteristics. In a similar way Father Schmidt, the editor of Anthropos, a German anthropological periodical, has worked on the languages of Australia, and British colonial offices and government ethnolo- gists like N. W. Thomas are preparing the native languages of Africa. Physical anthropology. — Physical anthropology deals with man past and present. In the late years of the iqth century several remarkable finds of remains of fossil man were made in Western Europe. Famous among these are the Heidelberg jaw, the Neanderthal skull, the Grunaldi and Cro- magnon skeletons of Southern France and the Pilt- down man of England. Still more important is the Pithecanthropus Erectus found in iSgS bv E. DuBois near the Frimil River in Java. From these fossil remains physical anthropologists try to re- construct the appearance of prehistoric man. Af- ter the pioneers mentioned by Duckworth, there is a group of distinguished men in the loth century who each contributed something vital to physical anthropology. Among them are A. de Quatrefages, Topinard and Bertillon in France, Virchow in Ger- many and Sergi in Italy and Galton and Pearson in England. Bertillon first used the term anthro- pometry to designate a system of identification de- pending on the unchanging character of certain measurements of parts of the human frame. His methods were applied principally to criminology and have been replaced by the finger print system invented by Francis Galton. Craniometry was begun very early by artists who wished to get more accurate measurements of the human figure. Ex- act measuring of the head was developed further by Anders Retzius, w'ho worked out the system of comparing various measurements of the skull in indices and classifying objects accordincly. The best known of these indices is the cephalic index, the formula of which is: Width of skull in millimeters x 100 Length of skull in millimeters x 100 This gives a percentage index and these indices are classified: X - 74.g dolichocephalic (long) 75.0 - 7Q.q mesocephalic (medium) 80.0 - X brachyccphalic (short) Karl Pearson's contribution to physical anthro- pology is the application of the methods of statis- tical science in dealing with large numbers of bio- metric data. Ethnology. — .'Mtho the earliest ethnologists were Herodotus, Strabo and Lucretius, it was only comparatively recently that real ethnologies were written. In 1850 there appeared one of the first synthetic works which is still valuable to-day, Waetz, 'Anthropologic der Naturvolker.' In 1885 Ratzel began to publish his \ blkerkunde. Later Kean's 'Ethnology' and Deruber's book were de- voted to an account of a single people. This sort of monograph is becoming more and more com- prehensive and is advocated especially by the his- torical school of anthropologists, for it gives those small blocks from which to build up culture. In America especially these monographs have been produced with great success. A good ethnological monograph must include: arts and industries witn exact descriptions of techniques employed; food, how secured and its preparation; type of shelter, how built, materials used; clothing and personal decoration; social organization, political organiza tion, religions, ceremonials; mythologv', folk tale, and customs; relations to neighboring peoples; pas^ history obtained through archeology if possible. When an account like this is available for large areas then generalizations about economic life, social and religious developments, etc, can be made. Before this comprehensive ethnology was developed loth century writers spent much time in the various fields of ethnology. In theories about social organizations the names of Bachofen. Morgan and ilcl.ennan must be mentioned. In primitive religion Tylor, Herbert Spencer, Frazer and Durkheim all figure as the authors of valu- able treatises, the first three as exponents of the evolutionary theory of culture. Economic life and ethics have also been studied separately. The former is a monumental work by Halen and the latter by Westermarck on the 'Origin and Develop- ment of Moral Ideas' and Hobhouse's, 'Morals in Evolution.' Folklore and mythology is not con- fined to primitive peoples but probably received its first stimulations from the collection of Euro- pean fairy tales made by the Grimm Brothers. — See also Ethnology; Mythology: Meaning of word. This summary of the progress of anthro- pology can best be closed by quoting what Franz Boas considers the outlook and value of anthro pology: ".\ last word as to the value that the anthropo- logical method is assuming in the general system of our culture and education. I do not wish to refer to its practical value to those who have to deal with foreign races or with national questions Of greater educational importance is its power to make us understand the roots from which our civilization has sprung, that it impresses us with the relative value of all forms of culture, and thus serves as a check to an exaggerated valuation of the standpoint of our own period, which we are only too liable to consider the ultimate goal of human evolution, thus depriving ourselves of the benefits to be gained from the teachings of other cultures and hindering an objective criticism of our own work." — F. Boas, History of anthropology (Science. Oct. 21, IQ04). — See also Africa: Races of Africa: Prehistoric peoples; Haw.^han Islands: Anthropology of the islands; Indians, American; Origins of the American Indian ; M.\lav, Malaysian OR BROWN race; Matriarchate ; Mexico: Aborig- inal peoples; New Zealand: 1375-1642; Super- stitions. Also in: F. Boas, Mind of primitive man. — R. H. Lowie, Primitive society. ^Ibid., Culture and ethnology. — R. R. Marett, Anthropology .—K. F. Osborn, Men of the old Stone Age. — E. B. Tylor, Primitive culture. 372 ANTHROPOMORPHISM ANTI-FEDERALISTS ANTHROPOMORP,HISM: Greek religion. See Mvthology: Greek mythology: Anthropo- morphic character of Greek myth. ANTI-ADIAPHORISTS. See Germany: 1546-1552. ANTI-BOLSHEVISM: Russia. See Russia: iQi8-ig20, 1920, 1920 (October-November). ANTI-BOYCOTT LAWS. See Boycott: Re- cent judicial decisions. ANTI-CLERICALISM, in European politics, the doctrine of those opposing the influence of the Roman Catholic hierarchy in secular affairs. In France and Italy the anti-clerical elements have perhaps been stronger than in other Catholic coun- tries, but their influence in Germany, Spain and Portugal has been considerable. ANTI-COMBINE LAWS: Canada. See Trusts: Canada; 1010-1912. ANTI-CORN-LAW LEAGUE, an organiza- tion in England which began to e.xercise great in- fluence in politics about 1838, Richard Cobden and John Bright being its leading spokesmen. The corn laws had for many years imposed heavy duties on grain, especially wheat. The agitation conducted by the league and its able leaders helped to bring about the reduction of the duties in 1846, and their practical abolition in 1849. At this period, free trade began to be adopted as the gen- eral policy for the United Kingdom. — See also Tariff: 1836-1841; 1S45-1S46. ANTICOSTI: 1763.— Added to government of Newfoundland. See Canada: i 763-1 774. ANTIETAM, Battle of. See U. S. A.: 1862 (September: Maryland) : Lee's first invasion: Harper's ferry. ANTI-FEDERALISTS, a political party in the United States opposed to the ratification of the constitution, led by Patrick Henry and George Clinton, and others. Their opposition was mani- fested, though feebly, during the session of the First Congress. "At one extreme of the Anti- federal party was a body of men, numerous, re- spectable, and not without influence, who leaned toward monarchy and were for setting up a king. They could, they protested, see no way out of the ills that lay so thick on either hand but by abandoning the attempt at republican government, and taking refuge in that very system they had with so much difficulty just thrown off. At the other extreme were to be found many men of note ; almost all the first characters in the country, and a large proportion of the community. They ab- horred, they said, the idea of a monarchy; they would never give up the idea of a republic. But they were convinced that no one republican gov- ernment could rule harmoniously over so vast a country, and over such conflicting interests. They were therefore for three separate confederations, marked off by such boundaries as difference of cli- mate, diversity of occupations, and the natural products of the soil required. Everybody knew that the eastern men were fishers and shippers and merchants, while the southern men were planters and farmers. The late discussion over the Mis- sissippi had shown how impossible it was to recon- cile the interests of men so variously employed. It was better, therefore, that they should part ; and that, as Massachusetts built her ships and Virginia raised her tobacco and her slaves under different climates, they should do so under different flags. They hoped there would be three republics: a republic of the East, a republic of the Middle States, and a republic of the South. . . . And now the minority published an address. It was not, they said, till the termination of the late glorious contest that any defects were discovered in the Confederation. Then of a sudden it was found to be in such a shocking condition that a conven- tion was called by Congress to revise it. To this convention came a few men of the first character, some men more noted for ambition and cunning than for patriotism, and some who had always been enemies to the independence of the States. The session lasted four months, and what took place during that time no one could tell. Tue doors were closed. The members were put under the most solemn engagements of secrecy. The jour- nals of the conclave were still hidden. Yet i was well known that the meeting was far from peace- ful. Some delegates had quitted the hall before the work was finished; some had refused to lend their names to it when it was done. But the plan came out in spite of this, and was scarce an hour old when petitions, approving of the system and praying the Legislature to call a convention, were to be found in every coffee-house ^nd tavern in the city. No means were spared to frighten the people against opposing it. The newspapers teemed with abuse; threats of tar and feathers were lib- erally made. The petitions came in, the conven- tion was called by a Legislature made up in part of members who had been dragged to their seats to make a quorum, and so early a day set for the election of delegates that many people did not know of it till the time had passed. The lists of voters showed that seventy thousand freemen were entitled to vote in Pennsylvania, yet the conven- tion had been elected by but thirteen thousand. Forty-six members had ratified the new plan, yet these represented but six thousand eight hun- dred voters. Some freemen had kept away from the polls because of ignorance of the plan, some because they did not think the convention had been legally called, and some because they feared violence and insult. The ratification was in their opinion worthless. Twenty-one of the twenty- three put their names to the address. . . . But the Antifederalists were not, they maintained, to be misled by the glamour of grea't names. They had seen names as great as any at the foot of the Constitution subscribed to the present reprobated Articles of Confederation. Nay, some of the very men who had put their hands to the one had also put their hands to the other. Had not Roger Sherman and Robert Morris recommended the Confederation ? If these patriots had erred once, was there any reason to suppose that they, or a succeeding set, could not err a second time? Had a few years added to their age made them in- faUible? Was it not true that the Federalists, who so warmly supported the new plan and would force it down the throats. of their fellows because Franklin had signed it, affected to despise the Con- stitution of Pennsylvania which was the work of no one so much as of that same venerable patriot? What, then, was the value of these boasted great names? Many of the signers, it was quite true, had done noble deeds. No one could forget the debt of gratitude the continent owed to the il- lustrious Washington. But it was well known that he was more used to command as a soldier than to reason as a politician. Franklin was too old. As for Hamilton and the rest of them, they were mere boys. These unkind remarks called forth the highest indignation from the Federalists. But party spirit ran high, and it was not long before one of their antagonists went so, far as to assert, that to talk of the wisdom of the Great Commander and the Great Philosopher was to talk nonsense; for Washington was a fool from nature, and Franklin was a fool from age." — J. C. McMaster, History of the people of the United States, v. i, pp. 393, 373 ANTIGONID KINGS ANTIOCH 473, 406-467. — See also U. S. A.: 1787-1789; 1789- 1792. Also in a broadside entitled, Address and rea- sons of dissent of the minority of the convention of the state of Pennsylvania to their constituents. ANTIGONID KINGS. See Greece: B. C. 307- 197- ANTIGONUS CYCLOPS (382-301 B.C.), Macedonian king. See M.acedonxa ; B. C. 323-316, 315-310, 310-301 ; Rhiioks, Island of: B. C. 304. ANTIGONUS GONATUS (c. 319-239 B.C.), Macedonian king. See .\ihe.ns: B.C. 288-263; M.ACEuu.sn: B.C. 277-244. ANTIGUA, one of the British West Indian islands. Discovered by Columbus in 1493, settled by the British in 1632 ; in 1834 slavery was abol- i.ets etymology at defiance. Common consent identified the Antilia of legend with the Isle of the Seven Cities. In the year 734, says the story, the .■\rabs having conquered most of the Spanish pen- insula, a number of Christian emigrants, under the direction of seven holy bishops, among them the archbishop of Oporto, sailed westward with all that they had, and reached an island where they founded seven towns. .\rab geographers speak of an .Atlantic island called in Arabic El-tennyn, or .■M-tin (Isle of Serpents), a name which may f>os- sibly have become by corruption Antilia. . . . The seven bishops were believed in the i6th century to be still represented by their successors, and to preside over a numerous and wealthy people. Most geographers of the 15th century believed in the e.xistence of .Antilia. It was represented as lying west of the .\zores. ... .As soon as it became known in Europe that Columbus had discovered a large island, Espanola was at once identified with .Antilia, . . . and the name . . . has ever since been applied generally to the West Indian islands." — -E. J. Payne, History of the \ew World called America, v. i, p. 98 — See also West Indies. ANTILLES, U. S. army transport sunk by sub- marine. See World W.\r: 1917: IX. Naval opera- tions: c, 2. ANTI-MASONIC PARTY, American, a party opposed to secret societies, especially to Free Ma- sons. The deeper causes of this movement are probably to be found in the desire for social and political reorganization which came with the new democratic awakening after 1814, In 1826, Wil- liam Morgan, of Batavia, N. Y., threatened to reveal the secrets of the Masonic order. He was arrested and a judgment was obtained against him for debt. .After being taken to Niagara in a closed carriage, he was never again heard of. In western New York there developed an organized opposition to freemasonry as subversive of religion and good citizenship. A number of .Anti-Masons were elected to the legislature, and there followed legislative investigations of the Morgan incident and of freemasonry in general. In 1830, Thurlow Weed founded the Albany Evening Journal, which became the leading .Anti-Masonic newspaper The Anti-Masonic party soon displaced the National Republicans as opponents of the Democrats in New York, its leaders being William H Seward, Thurlow Weed and Millard Fillmore. The party was strong enough in some other states to affect the elections, notablv in Pennsylvania and Ver- mont. In their national convention in 183 1, the first of the national nominating conventions, the .Anti-Masons nominated William Wirt and Amos Ellmaker, hoping to force Clay, who was a Mason, out of the field. Wirt addressed the convention, declared that he was a Mason and offered to with- draw if he had been named under any misappre- hension. The nomination was then unanimously reaffirmed. Some of the more radical of the parts were alienated by Wirt's nomination. In several states the National Republicans indorsed the Anti- Masonic electoral ticket, although Clay was Jack- son's chief opponent in the country at large. Ver- mont was the only state to give its electoral vote to Wirt. After 1832 the party rapidly declined, as it split on the questions of the United States Bank and the tariff. — See also Masonic societies: Anti- Masonic agitations; U. S. A.: 1832. In Mexico. See Me.xico: 1822-1828. ANTI-MILITARISM, the spirit of opposition to large standing armies and extensive armaments and to the growth of a military caste. In con- tinental Europe during the years between the Franco-Prussian War and the World War the anti- militarists, including socialists and philosophical pacificists, denounced conscription — universal on the continent — and the increased production oi arms and munitions. They condemned the spend- ing of huge sums, the withdrawal of men from industry and the tendency to exalt the military over the civil power, and held that it was prepara- tion for war that brought war. The sentiment of anti-militarism has always been prevalent in the United States of America, as is evidenced by the fact that the country has never been prepared for any of the wars in which it has engaged. America has always clung to a small standing army, has kept down expenditures for arms and munitions, has not developed a military caste as known in Europe and has adopted conscription only in the two critical emergencies of the Civil War and the World War. — See also Pe.^ce move- ment; Intern'.^tion.al: i8Sq, ANTI-MONOPOLY PARTY IN lO'WA. See Io\v.\: 1871- 1874. ANTINOMIAN CONTROVERSY: Anne Hutchinson in conflict with the Puritans. See M.ASSAfiu-SKiT^s: 1636-1038 ANTIOCH, (mod. Antakia) a city near what is now .Aleppo, Syria, founded by Seleucus Nicator, son of .Antiochus, (301 B.C.) (See Macedonia, etc.: 310-301 B.C.; Seleucid.ic, Empire of the; Syria: B.C. 332-167.) As the capital of Syria (until the year 65 B.C.), the city rose to great splendor. It became one of the earliest seats of Christianity during the period 33- 100 (See Christianity: AD. 33-52. According to tradition the city was evangelized by Peter It is also said that the converts were the first to be called "Christians." .Antioch, more than any other ancient city, suffered keenly from sporadic earth- (|uakes. A. D. 115. — Great earthquake.— "Early in the year 115, according to the most exact chronology, the splendid capital of Syria was visited by an earthquake, one of the most disastrous appar- ently of all the similar inflictions from which that luckless city has periodically suffered. . . . The calamity was enhanced by the presence of unusual crowds from all the cities of the east, assembled to pay homage to the Emperor [Trajan], or to take part in his expedition [of conquest in the eastl. .Among the victims were many Romans of distinction . . Trajan, himself, only escaped by creeping through a window." — C. Merivale, History of the Romans, ch. 65. 374 ANTIOCHUS ANTI-TRUST DECISIONS 260. — Surprise, rriassacre and pillage by Sha- pur, king of Persia. See Persia: 226-627. 272.— Battle of Antioch. See Palmyra. 526. — Destruction by earthquake. — During the reign of Justinian (518-565) the cities of the Ro- man empire "were overwhelmed by earthquakes more frequent than at any other period of history. Antioch, the metropolis of Asia, was entirely de- stroyed, on the 20th of May, 526, at the very time when the inhabitants of the adjacent country were assembled to celebrate the festival of the Ascen- sion; and it is affirmed that 250,000 persons were crushed by the fall of its sumptuous edifices." — J. C. L. de Sismondi, Fall of the Roman Empire, ch. 10. Also in: E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, ch. 43. 638. — Surrender to the Arabs. See Caliphate: 632-639. 969. — Recapture by the Byzantines. — After having remained 328 years in the possession of the Saracens, Antioch was retaken in the winter of 96Q by the Byzantine emperor, Nicephorus Phocas, and became again a Christian city. Three years later the Moslems made a sreat effort to recover the city, but were defeated. The Byzantine arms were at this time highly successful in the never ending Saracen war, and John Tzimisces, succes- sor of Nicephorus Phocas, marched triumphantly to the Tigris and threatened even Bagdad But most of the conquests thus made in Syria and Mesopotamia were not lasting. — G. Finlay, History of the Byzantine Empire, A. D. 716-1007, bk. 2, ch. 2. — See also Byzantine empire: 963-1025. 1097-1098.— Siege and capture by the Cru- saders. See Crusades: ioq6-ioqq. 1268. — Extinction of the Latin Principality. — Total destruction of the city. — Antioch fell, be- fore the arms of Bibars, the sultan of Egypt and Syria, and the Latin principality was bloodily extinguished, in 1268. "The first seat of the Chris- tian name was dispeopled by the slaughter of sev- enteen, and the captivity of one hundred thousand of her inhabitants." This fate befell Antioch only twenty-three years before the last vestige of the conquests of the crusaders was obliterated at Acre. — E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Em- pire, ch. 50. — "The sultan halted for several weeks in the plain, and permitted his soldiers to hold a large market, or fair, for the sale of their booty. This market was attended by Jews and pedlars from all parts of the East. ... 'It was,' says the Cadi Mohieddin, 'a fearful and heart-rending sight. Even the hard stones were softened with grief.' He tells us that the captives were so numerous that a fine hearty boy might be purchased for twelve pieces of silver, and a little girl for five. When the work of pillage had been completed, when all the ornaments and decorations had been carried away from the churches, and the lead torn from the roofs, Antioch was fired in different places, amid the loud thrilling shouts of 'Allah .\cbar,' 'God is Victorious.' The great churches of St. Paul and St. Peter burnt with terrific fury for many days." — C. G. Addison, The Knights Tem- plars, ch. 6. With the exception of the colossal ruins of the Roman walls and aqueducts modern Antakia holds little of the ancient city. Although superseded by Aleppo as capital of N. Syria, Antakia is con- stantly growing in importance. Its present popu lation is 25,000. — See also Syria. ANTIOCHUS, the name of thirteen kings of the Seleucid dynasty of Syria. The most famous are Antiochus III (223-187 B.C.) who sheltered Hannibal and made war on Rome (See Seleuci- dae: 224-187 B.C.), and Antiochus IV (176-164 B. C.) who attempted the suppression of Judaism by persecution. See Jews; B.C. 332-167; 166- 40. ANTIPATER (c. 398-319 B.C.), Macedonian general under Philip and Alexander the Great. Assisted the latter in establishing his kingdom; re- gent of Macedonia during Alexander's Eastern ex- pedition (334-323), and was left as ruler on the death of the king. — See also Greece: B.C. 323- 322, 321-312. ANTIPHONAL SINGING. See Music: An- cient: B.C. 4-A. D. 397. ANTI-POPE. See Papacy: 1056-1122 and after. ANTIQUITIES. See Arch.^solocical re- search; ARcii.toLOGY ; also names of countries, subhead Antiquities. "ANTIQUITIES OF THE JEWS" (by Jo- sephus). See History: 14. ANTI-RENTERS. See Livingston Manor. ANTI-SALOON LEAGUE, United States. See Liquor problem: United States: 1913-1019. ANTI-SEMITISM, a policy of agitation against the Jews, on religious, political, social and eco- nomic grounds. The anti-semitism of the hall- century preceding the World War had its origin in Germany and Austria and for many years played a great part in parliamentary struggles. (See Austria: 1895-1806, and after; Jews: Germany: 1914-1920.) In Russia and in Rumania it led to severe persecutions. In France anti-semitism culminated in the notorious Dreyfus case (1894- 1899) in which justice was finally done. (See France: 1804-1906.) Since the World War, agi- tation against the Jews has been overshadowed in all countries by other political and social prob- lems. (See Jews: 20th Century.) In 1919 and 1920, however, there appears to have been a re- crudescence of anti-semitism in Hungary and Po- land. — See also Jews: i8th-i9th centuries; 1914- 1920. In Austria. — 1919. See Austria: 1919 (Septem- ber). In England. See Jews: England: 1189; Jews: England: nth century. In France. See Jews: France: 1791. In Poland. See Poland: igig-1920: Status of Jews. In Russia. See Beiliss case; Jews: Russia: 1728-1880; 1817-1913; Jews: Russia: Ukraine; Russia: 1903 (April) ; 1913. In Spain. See Jews: Spain: 7th centurv. ANTISEPTICS: In the Middle Ages. See Medical science: Ancient: loth century. Lister's reforms. See Medical science: Mod- ern: 19th century: Antiseptic surgery and obstet- rics. ANTI-SLAVERY MOVEMENT. See Slav- ER\ : 1688-1780, and after. ANTISTHENES: Philosophy. See Ethics: .Ancient Greece: B.C. 4th century. ANTI-TOXINS, complex soluble chemical com- pounds occurring in the blood, normally or under special conditions, that have the property of neu- tralizing some specific poison, usually those pro- duced in the human body by pathogenic bacteria ; they usually confer immunity or facilitate recovery from the disease cau.sed by the bacteria. — See also Medical science: Modern: 19th century: Anti- toxin. ANTI-TRUST ACT, or Sherman Act. See Sherman anti-tri'St act. ANTI-TRUST DECISIONS, in United States Courts. See Supreme Court: 1887-1914; 1888- 1913; 1Q14-1921; Trusts: 1901-1Q06. 375 ANTI-TRUST LEGISLATION ANTWERP ANTI-TRUST LEGISLATION. See Trusts: 1901-1Q06, igi4. ANTIUM. — "Antium, once a flourishing city of the V'olsci, and afterwards of the Romans, their conquerors, is at present reduced to a small num- ber of inhabitants. Originally it was without a port ; the harbour of the Antiates having been the neighbouring indentation in the coast of Ceno, now Nettuno, distant more than a mile to the eastward. . . . The piracies of the ancient Antiates all pro- ceeded from Ceno, or Cerio, where they had 22 long ships. These Numicius took; . . . some were taken to Rome and their rostra suspended in tri- umph in the Forum. ... It [Antium] was reck- oned 260 stadia, or about 3^ miles, from Ostia." — Sir W. Cell, Topography of Rome, v. i. ANTIVARI: 1915. — Promised to territory of Croatia, Serbia and Montenegro by Treaty of London. See London, Treaty or Pact of. ANTIVESTjEUM. See Brit.mn: Celtic tribes. ANTOFOGASTA: Trouble of Chile and Bo- livia over town. See Bolivia: 1020-1021. ANTOINE DE BOURBON, king of Navarre. ii;54-i5ti2. See Navarre: 1528-1563. 'ANTOING, Belgium: 1918.— Captured by British. See World War: 1918: II. Western front: w, 2. ANTONELLI, Giacomo (1806-1876), Italian cardinal. Adviser of Pius IX, serving as presi- dent of the council of state in 1847 ; premier of the first constitutional ministry of Pius IX; secre- tary of state in 1848. Opposed all liberalism and especially the Risorgimento. See Rome: Modem city: 1850-1870. ANTONELLO DA MESSINA (1430-1479), Italian painter, introduced Flemish tendencies and invention into Italian painting. His work com- prises renderings of "Ecce Homo," Madonnas, saints, and half-length portraits, many of them painted on wood. The nameless picture of a man in the Berlin Museum is said to be the finest of them all. ANTONINES. See Rome: A. D. 138-180. ANTONINUS, Marcus Aurelius. See Mas- cus Aurelius .\ntoninus. ANTONINUS PIUS, Roman emperor, A. D. 138-161. See Rome: Empire: 138-180. ANTONIO, known as "The Prior of Crato" '(1531-1595)1 a Portuguese monk, claimant of the Ihrone of Portugal. Routed by the Duke of Alva in 15S0 at Alcantara (See also Portugal: 1579- 1580) ; fled to France and later to England, whence in 1590 he accompanied Drake and Norris to Por- tugal in an unsuccessful attempt to provoke an uprising against Philip II. ANTONIUS, the name of many prominent cit- izens of Rome, of the gens Antonia. The most important are the following: Antonius, Lucius, brother of the triumvir. Tribune of the people in 44; supported his brother after Caesar's murder; consul in 41. As defender of those who suffered by the land distribution of the triumvirate, entered the Persian War; defeated and sent to Spain as governor by Octavius. Antonius Marcus (143-87 B.C.), a distini;uished orator; praetor in Cilicia; consul in 99 B.C. Antonius Marcus (d. 72-71 B.C.), a military leader, who failed in his operations against the pirates and against the Cretans. Antonius Marcus (S3 -30 B. C), known as Mark Antony, the triumvir. Raised to power by Csesar; triumvir with Octavius and Lepidus, his province being Gaul ; fell a victim to the charms of Cleo- patra ; by a new division of the empire, ruled the East, where he attempted to eubdue the Parthians. In 32 B. C. the senate deprived him of power and declared war on Cleopatra. Antony, fighting in her behalf, was defeated at Actium, 31 B.C. and both committed suicide. — See also Egypt: B.C. 48- 30; Rome: Republic: B.C. 50-49, 48, 44-42, 44-31, 44: After Ca-sar's death, 31. ANTRIM, a county of Ulster in the north-east corner of Ireland. See Ireland: Historical map ANTRUSTIONES.— In the Salic law, of the Franks, there is no trace of any recognized order of nobility. "We meet, however, with several titles denoting temporary rank, derived from offices po- litical and judicial, or from a position about the person of the king. Among these the Antrustiones, who were in constant attendance upon the king, played a conspicuous part. . . . Antrustiones and Convivae Regis [Romans who held the same posi- tion] are the predecessors of the Vassi Dominici of later times, and like these were bound to the king by an especial oath of personal and perpetual service. They formed part, as it were, of the king's family, and were expected to reside in the palace, where they superintended the various de- partments of the royal household." — W. C. Perry, The Franks, ch. 10. — See also Franks: 500-768. ANTUNG-MUKDEN RAILWAY. See Ciuna: 1905-1909. ANTWERP.— Principal seaport and fortress of Belgium and one of the great commercial cities of the world. It is situated on the Scheldt sixty miles from the North sea and twenty-eight north of Brussels. Name of the city. — Its commercial greatness in the 16th century. — "The city was so ancient that its genealogists, with ridiculous gravity, as- cended to a period two centuries before the Tro- jan war, and discovered a giant, rejoicing in the classic name of Antigonus, established on the Scheld. This patriarch exacted one half the mer- chandise of all navigators who passed his castle, and was accustomed to amputate and cast into the river the right hands of those who mfringed this simple tariff. Thus 'Hand-werpen,' hand-throwing, became Antwerp, and hence, two hands, in the es- cutcheon of the city, were ever held up in heraldic attestation of the truth. The giant was, in his turn, thrown into the Scheld by a hero, named Brabo, from whose exploits Brabant derived its name. . . . But for these antiquarian researches, a sim- pler derivation of the name would seem 'an t' werf,' 'on the wharf.' It had now [in the first half of the sixteenth century] become the principal en- trepot and exchange of Europe . . . the commer- cial capital of the world. . . . Venice, Nuremburg, ."Xugsburg, Bruges, were sinking, but .Antwerp, with its deep and convenient river, stretched its arm to the ocean and caught the golden prize, as it fell from its sister cities' grasp. . . . No city, except Paris, surpassed it in population, none approached it in commercial splendor." — J. L. Motley, Rise of the Dutch republic. Historical introduction, sect. 13. — See also Netherlands: Map of the Nether- lands and Belgium. 16th century. — Commercial importance. See Commerce: Era of geographic expansion: i6th-i7th centuries: Netherlands; and ComiiIekce: Medieval: 8th-i6th centuries. 16th century. — Famous school of art. See Painting: Flemish. 1566. — Riot of the image-breakers in the churches. See Netherlands: 1566. 1576. — Spanish Fury. See Netherlands: iS7S- 1577. 1577. — Deliverance of the city from its Span- ish garrison. — Demolition of the citadel. See Netherlands: 1577-1581. 1583. — Treacherous attempt of the duke of 376 ANTWERP, SCHOOL OF APALACHEE INDIANS Anjou. — French Fury. See Netherlands: 1581- 1584- 1584-1585. — Siege and reduction by Alexander Farnese, duke of Parma. — Downfall of pros- perity. See Netherlands; 15S5. 1706. — Surrendered to Marlborough and the Allies. See Netherlands: 1706-1707. 1832. — Siege of the citadel by the French. — Expulsion of the Dutch garrison. See Belgium: 1830-1S32. 1914. — German occupation. — At the time of the German invasion of Belgium, August, 1914, Ant- werp would have been the natural place of debark- ation of the British Expeditionary forces, but this would have been a violation of international law because the seaward approaches of Antwerp (the mouths of Scheldt) lay in neutral Dutch territory. After the fall of Brussels the entire Belgian de- fense centered about Antwerp. On September 28, 1914, the Germans opened fire upon the outer forts. On October 5 the Belgian army began to withdraw from the city, and the Germans occupied it on October q, 1914.^-See also World War: 1914: Western front: c, 1; also Western front. 1916-1918. — German rule. — Retaken by the Allies. See World War: X, German rule in north- ern France and Belgium: b, 1; 1918; XI. End of war: c; d, 1. Modern aspects. — For centuries the city has been regarded as one of the strongest fortiiied places in Europe and during the middle of the nineteenth century the fortifications were modern- ized by the celebrated Belgian engineer Brialmont. The waterfront of Antwerp was largely rebuilt by Napoleon, but of the vast docks and basins which he constructed but few remain in their original form. The new wharves which have been built since 1S77 are over three miles in length, so that the modern harbor ranks with that of Hamburg as the best on the continent of Europe. The famous citadel dating from the sixteenth century was razed in 1 8 74. The most recent of the modern con- structions of the city is the great stadium specially erected for the Olympic games of 1920. — See also Belgium: 1920: Olympic games. ANTWERP, School of, a sbtteenth century school of Flemish painters begun with Matsys. The pupils of this school, Mabuse, Frans Floris, Bernard van Orley, Peter Pourbus, and Antonio Moro went to Italy and eventually became Italian- ized. — See also Painting: Flemish. ANZAC, cove on the north-western coast of Gallipoli, so-called because of the landing of the Anzacs. See World War: 1915: VI. Turkey: a, 4, XX ; a, 6. ANZACS, a composite word used to designate the British colonial troops engaged in the World War, made by taking the initial letters of the words Australia-New Zealand army corps. — See also Australia: 1914-1915; World War: 1915: VI. Turkey: a, 4, xvii; 1917: VI. Turkish theater: c, 1, ii; c, 1, iv. AOSTA, Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of (i86g- ), Italian general, cousin of Kin; Victor Emmanuel III and a grandson of King Amadeus of Spain; commanded the Italian 3d army in a well-conducted retreat to the Piave river after the Caporetto dis- aster of 1917. See World War: 1917: IV. Austro- Italian front: e; d, 1. Against Austrian offensive. See World War: 191S: I\^ .'\ustro-Italian theater: b. APA SAHIB (d. 1840) : Revolts in India. See India: 1816-1810. APACHE INDIANS.— Under the general name of the Apaches "I include all the savage tribes roaming through New Mexico, the north-western portion of Texas, a small part of northern Mexico, and Arizona. . . . Owing to their roving procU\'- ities and incessant raids they are led first in oat direction and then in another. In general terms they may be said to range about as follows: The Comanches, Jetans, or Nauni, consisting of three tribes, the Comanches proper, the Yamparacks, andi Tenawas, inhabiting northern Texas, eastern Chi^ huahua, Nuevo Leon, Coahuila, Durango, and por- tions of SQuth-western New Mexico, by language allied to the Shoshone family ; the Apaches, who call themselves Shis Inday, or 'men of the woods,' and whose tribal divisions are the Chiricaguis, Coyoteros, Faraones, Gileiios, Lipancs, Llaneros, Mescaleros, Mimbreiios, Nata'.:es, Pclones, Pina- leiios, Tejuas, Tontos, and Vaqueros, roaming over New Mexico, Arizona, Northwestern Texas, Chi- huahua and Sonora, and who are allied by lan- guage to the great Tinneh family; the Navajos, or Tenuai, 'men,' as they designate themselves, having linguistic affinities with the Apache nation, with which they are sometimes classed, living in and around the Sierra de los Mimbres; the Mojaves, occupying both banks of the Colorado in Mojave Valley ; the Hualapais, near the head-waters of Bill Williams Fork; the Yumas, on the east bank of the Colorado, near its junction with the Rio Gila; the Cosninos, who, like the Hualapais, are some- times included in the Apache nation, ranging through the Mogollon Mountains; and the Yam- pais, between Bill Williams Fork and the Rio Has- sayampa. . . . The Apache country is probably the most desert of all. ... In both mountain and des- ert the fierce, rapacious Apache, inured from child- hood to hunger and thirst, and heat and cold, finds safe retreat. . . . The Pueblos . . . are nothing but partially reclaimed Apaches or Comanches." — H. H. Bancroft, Native races of the Pacific states, v. 1, eh. 5. — Dr. Brinton prefers the name Yuma for the whole of the Apache group, confining the name Apache (that being the Yuma word for "fightine, men") to the one tribe so called. "It has also beeni called the Katchan or Cuchan stock." — D. G. Brin- ton, The American race, p. 109. — See also Atha- pascan faiuly; Indians, American: Cultural areaS' in North America; Southwest area. Subjugation. See Arizona: 1877; Indians, American: 1S86; U. S. A.: 1S66-1876. APALACHEE INDIANS.— "Among the ab- original tribes of the United States perhaps none is more enigmatical than the Apalaches. They are mentioned as an important nation by many of the early French and Spanish travellers and historians, their name is preserved by a bay and river on the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, and by the great eastern coast ran;e of mountains, and has been applied by ethnologists to a family of cognate na- tions that found their hunting grounds from the Mississippi to the Atlantic and from the Ohio river to the Florida Keys; yet, strange to say, their own race and place have been but guessed at." The derivation of the name of the Apalaches "has been a 'questio vexata' among Indianologists." We must "consider it an indication of ancient connections with the southern continent, and in itself a pure Carib word '.^paliche' in the Tamanaca dialect of the Guaranay stem on the Orinoco signifies 'man,* and the earliest application of the name in the northern continent was as the title of the chief of a country, 'I'homme par excellence,' and hence, like very many other Indian tribes (.Apaches, Lenni Lenape, Illinois), his subjects assumed by eminence the proud appellation of 'The Men.' . . . We have . . . found that though no general migration took place from the continent southward, nor from the islands northward, yet there was a considerable in- 377 APALACHEN APOLLO tcrcourse in both directions; that not only the natives of the greater and lesser Antilles and Yu- catan, but also numbers of the Guaranay stem of the southern continent, the Caribs proper, crossed the Straits of Florida and founded colonies on the shores of the Gulf of Mexico; that their customs and language became to a certain extent grafted upon those of the early possessors of the soil; and to this foreign language the name Apalache be- longs. As previously stated, it was used as a gen- eric title, applied to a confederation of many na- tions at one time under the domination of one chief, whose power probably extended from the Alleghany mountains on the north to the shore of the Gulf; that it included tribes speaking a tongue closely akin to the Choktah is evident from the fragments we have remaining. . . . The location of the tribe in alter years is very uncertain. Dumont placed them in the northern part of what is now Alabama and Georgia, near the mountains that bear their name. That a portion of them did live in this vicinity is corroborated by the historians of South Carolina, who say that Colonel Moore, in 1703, found them 'between the headwaters of the Savannah and .Mtamaha.' . . . .According to all the Spanish authorities, on the other hand, they dwelt in the region of country between the Suwannee and Apalachicola rivers — yet must not be confounded with the .Apalachicolos. . . . They certainly had a large and prosperous town in this vicinity, said to contain 1,000 warriors. ... I am inclined to be- lieve that these were different branches of the same confederacy. ... In the beginning of the i8th cen- tury they suffered much from the devastations of the English, French and Greeks. [From 1702-1708 English from Carolina invaded .•Xpalaches territory and nearly exterminated the tribe. The mission churches (Spanish) were burned, the missionaries slain, and over a i.ooo Indians were sold into slavery.] . . . .\bout the time Spain regained pos- session of the soil, they migrated to the West and settled on the Bayou Rapide of Red River Here they had a village numbering about 50 souls." — D. G. Brinton, Notes on the Floridian peninsula, ch. 2. — See also Muskhocean family. APALACHEN. See Canada: Names. APAMEA. — Apamea, a city founded by Seleu- cus Nicator on the Euphrates, the site of which is occupied by the modern town of Bir, h:id be- come, in Strabo's time (near the beginning of the Christian era) one of the principal centers of Asi- atic trade, second only to Ephesus. Thapsacus, the former customary crossing-place of the Euphrates, had ceased to be so, and the passage was made at Apamea. A place on the opposite bank of the river was called Zeugma, or "the bridge." Bir "is still the usual place at which travellers proceed- ing from .^ntioch or .Meppo towards Bagdad cross the Euphrates." — E. H. Bunbury, History of an- cient geography, ch. 22, sect, i, v. 2, pp. 298 and 317. APANAGE. See Appanage. APATURIA.- An annual family festival of the .Mhenians, celebrated for three days in the early part of the month of October (Pyanepsion) . "This was the characteristic festival of the Ionic race; handed down from a period anterior to the con- stitution of Kleisthcnes, and to the ten new tribes each containing so many denies, and bringing to- gether the citizens in their primitive unions of family, gens, phratry, etc., the aggregate of which had originally constituted the four Ionic tribes, now superannuated. .\t the Apaturia, the family ceremonies were gone through ; marriages were en- rolled, acts of adoption were promulgated and cer- tified, the names of youthful citizens first entered on the gentile and phratric roll; sacrifices were jointly celebrated by these family assemblages to Zeus Phratrius, .\thenc, and other deities, accom- panied with much festivity and enjoyment." — G Grotc, History oj Greece, pt. 2, ch. 64, v. 7. APELDERN, Albert von: Founder of town of Riga. See Livonia: I2th-i3th centuries. APELLA, Spartan assembly. See Sparta: Con- stitution ascribed to Lycurgus. APELLES, Greek painter of the fourth cen- tury EC; friend of .Alexander, who sat for him frequently ; his most famous works were mytho- logical or allegorical; considered the greatest painter of ancient times. — See also Cos. APHEK, Battle of (845 B.C.), a great victory won by .\hab, king of Israel, over Benhadad, king of Damascus. — H. Ewald, History oj Israel, bk. 4, sect. I. APHET.ffi:. See Greece: B.C. 480: Persian wars: .\rtcmisium. APHRODITE, or Venus, the Greek goddess of love and beauty ; often connected with the sea, the lower world, and productivity in the animal and vegetable kingdom. Her oriental prototype was Astarte or .\5ht0reth, APIA, principal town in the Samoan islands, scene (March 15. iSSb) of a hurricane which de- stroyed one American and two German war ves- sels. Seized in IQ14 by an expeditionary force from New Zealand. APIU. See Thebes, Egypt. APOCALYPSE, the last book of the New Tes- tament, known as the Revelation of St. John the Divine. See Christianity: ?5-6o. APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE, works which claim to be sacred, although excluded from ca- nonical scriptures. These books are purported to have been kept secret because they revealed events unfulfilled at the time of their writing. The apoc- ryphal books found in the Greek text but not in the Hebrew or .\ramaic are as follows: Ecclesiasticus, Wisdom of Solomon, Baruch, Epistle of Jeremiah, Tobit, Judith, First and Second Maccabees, sec- tions of Esther and sections of Daniel. These were in the Latin Vulgate of the Middle Ages, and, by the Council of Trent in 1546, the Roman Catho- lic church declared them deutcrocanonical or in- spired, but the Protestant churches and the Greek Catholic (after the iSth century) pronounced them apocryphal. Other books considered apocryphal are First. Second, Third and Fourth Esdras and the Prayer of Manasses. APODACA, Juan Ruiz de (1770-1835), Span- ish soldier and viceroy of Mexico. See Mexico: 1820-1826. APODECT.ffi.— "When Aristotle speaks of the officers of government to whom the public reve- nues were delivered, who kept them and distributed them to the several administrative departments, these are called, he adds, apodectfe and treasurers. In .\thens the apodectje were ten in number, in ac- cordance with the number of the tribes. They were appointed by lot . They had in their pos- session the lists of the debtors of the state, re- ceived the money which was paid in, registered an account of it and noted the amount in arrear, and in the council house in the presence of the council, erased the names of the debtors who had paid the demands against them from the list, and deposited this again in the archives. Finally, they, tofjether with the council, apportioned the sums received." —A. Boeckh, Public economy oj the .Athenians (tr. by Lamb), bk. 2, ch. 4. APOLLO, Greek divinity of the sun, second in importance only to Zeus; of his many attributes the most important were those of prophecy, music 378 APOLLO, ORACLES OF APPONYI and song; there arc innumerable representations of him in art, notably in the temples of Delphi, Naucratis, Palatine, and Tolosa; of the many con- ceptions of him embodied in sculpture one ex- treme is represented by the Riant Colossus of Rhodes, the other by the Apollo Belvedere, found at Frascati in 1455 and now in the Vatican. — See also Mythology: Greek mythology: Anthropo- morphic character of Greek myth; Religion: B.C. 7SO-A. D. 30; Delos. APOLLO, Oracles of. See Oracles. APOLLODORUS, of Damascus, a famous Greek architect of the second century A. D. See P.mmino: Greek. APOLLONIA, an important group of more than thirty ancient cities in lllyria, founded by the Corinthians. (See CorcvRj\.) They played a prominent part in the wars against Philip of Mac- edon and the struggle between Pompey and Caesar for Roman supremacy. This group was the important center of culture and learning towards the close of the Roman republic, and was famed for Calamis' statue of Apollo, which was removed to Rome. APOLOGISTS OF CHRISTIANITY. See Christianity: 100-300: Period of growth and struggle. APOSTASION. See Polet.?;, APOSTLES. See CHRisnANiTv: 33-52, 33-70; Miracles of. See Miracles: ist century. APOSTOLIC BRETHREN. See Dulcinists. APOSTOLIC CHRISTIAN CHURCH. See Evangelistic associations. APOSTOLIC CHURCH. See Evangelistic associations. APOSTOLIC CONSTITUTION OF THE CURIA. See Papacy: 1008. APOSTOLIC FAITH MOVEMENT. See Evangelistic associations. APOSTOLIC INQUISITION. See Inquisi- tion. APOSTOLIC SEDIS, papal bull. See Bulls, Papal: 1800. APOTHEOSIS.— Deification of a human be- ing, thus raising him to the rank of a god; closely allied with ancestor worship. The ancients often deified the founder of a dynasty or a city. Sev- eral Roman emperors received divine honors after, and sometimes even before, death, by vote of the Senate, and many Christians suffered martyrdom for refusing to recognize such an apotheosis. APPA SAHIB. See Apa Sahib. APPAM.— "The Appam. a British merchant vessel, was captured by the German cruiser Mowe on January 15, iqi6, and was brought by a Ger- man crew into Newport News, Va. The German government claimed that under certain provisions of the treaty of 1700 between Prussia and the United States, carried over into the treaty of 1828, the vessel might remain as long as it pleased in American waters. Secretary Lansing held that inasmuch as the provisions in question were con- trary to general principles of international law, they must be strictly construed, and that they did not give a German prize the right to enter Ameri- can ports unattended by the capturing vessel. The same view was adopted by Judge Waddell, of the United States District Court, and, on appeal, by the Supreme Court (Mar. 6, IQ17)." — War cyclope- dia, p. 17. — See also U. S. A.: igi6 (February- October); World War: iqi6: IX. Naval opera- tions: c. APPANAGE.— "The term appanage denotes the provision made for the younger children of a king of France. This always consisted of lands and feudal superiorities held of the crown by the tenure of peerage. It is evident that this usage, as it produced a new class of powerful feudataries, was hostile to the interests and policy of the sov- ereign, and retarded the subjugation of the ancient aristocracy. But an usage coeval with the mon- archy was not to be abrogated, and the scarcity of money rendered it impossible to provide for the younger branches of the royal family by any other means. It was restrained however as far as circumstances would permit." — H. Hallam, Mid- dle Ages, cli. I, pt. 2. — "From the words 'ad' and 'panis,' meaning that it was to provide bread for the person who held it. A portion of appanage was now [in the reign of Louis VIII, i223-i22()j given to each of the king's younger sons, which descended to his direct heirs, but in default of them reverted to the crown."— T. Wright, History of France, v. i, p. 308, twte. — The creation of the appanage was an unfortunate reenforcement of feudalism. It opened the way to strife among the members of the king's family and retarded the consolidation of the kingdom. See France: 1226- 1270. APPELLANTS. See Convulsionists. APPELOUSAS. See Texas: Aboriginal inhab- itants. APPERT, Benjamin Nicholas Marie (1797- 1847), French philanthropist and educator. Gave much time and study to the question of educating inmates of schools, prisons, and hospitals; it is asserted that he taught at least 100,000 soldiers to read and write. APPIAN WAY.— Appius Claudius, called the Blind, who was censor at Rome from 312 to 308 B.C. (See Rome: B.C. 312), constructed during that time "the Appian road, the queen of roads, because the Latin road, passing by Tusculum, and through the country of the Hernicans, was so much endangered, and had not yet been quite re- covered by the Romans: the Appian road, passing by Terracina, Fundi and Mola, to Capua, was in- tended to be a shorter and safer one. . . . The Appian road, even if .Appius did carry it as far as Capua, was not executed by him with that splen- dour for which we still admire it in those parts which have not been destroyed intentionally: the closely joined polygons of basalt, which thousands of years have not been able to displace, arc of a somewhat later origin. Appius commenced the road because there was actual need for it ; in the year A. U. 457 [207 B. C] peperino, and some years later basalt (silex) was first used for paving roads, and, at the beginning, only on the small distance from the Porta Capena to the temple of Mars, as we are distinctly told by Livy. Roads constructed according to artistic principles had previously existed." — B. G. Niebuhr, Lectures on the history of Rome, led. 45. Also in: Sir W. Gell, Topography of Rome, v. i. — -H. G. Liddell, History of Rome, v. i, p. 251. APPIUS CLAUDIUS, surnamed Caecus, Ro- man censor. 312-308 B.C.; consul in 307 and 2q6; leader of the spirited opposition of Rome to the invasion of Pyrrhus; began the construction of the .Appian Wav; in 312 extended the franchise t') landless citizens. — See also Rome: Republic: B.C. 312- APPOLONIUS, Phodius (c. 235 B.C.), libra- rian. See Alexandria: B C. 282-246: Reign of Ptolemv Philadelphus APPOMATTOX COURT HOUSE: Surren- der of confederates. See U. S. A.: 1865 (April: Virginia) . APPONYI, Count Albert (1846- ), Hungar- ian statesman. Chosen President of Chamber of 379 APPORTIONMENT APPRENTICES, STATUTE OF Deputies by Liberals, igoi; minister of education, 1906, in Wekerle cabinet; delegate to World's Peace Conference in America, 191 1; leader of Constitu- tional Democrats, IQ17; minister of education in Hungarian cabinet, 1917. — See also Austria-Hun- gary: 1900-1903; IQ04; 1905-1906; Hungary: 1914; 1918: End of the War; Slovaks. APPORTIONMENT.— "Several methods of apportioning or distributing legislative representa- tives have been followed. One is to distribute them among the political divisions of the 'State with- out regard to their population, or at least without exclusive regard to it. In all the important fed- eral unions except the [former] German Empire and the Dominion of Canada the principle ot equality of representation among the component members prevails in the construction of the upper chambers. In the German Biindesratli the number of votes to which each state of the empire [wasl entitled varied from one to seventeen ; and in the Canadian House of Lords the number varies from four to twenty-four, the latter being the number allowed the province of Quebec. In the French Republic the number of senators from each depart- ment varies from one to ten. Another method of distribution is to apportion the representatives among the political divisions of the state with some regard to the amount or value of property in each. The chief merit of such a method is that it takes into consideration one of the important elements which enter into the physical make-up of the state. The doctrine that taxation should go hand in hand with representation has long been a cherished political theor>' of the people of .'\merica and England, and perhaps no better system could be devised for protecting the rights of property than by giving it a share of representation in the legislative branch. For other reasons, however, it has not commended itself to the people of demo- cratic states; and outside of a few European mon- archies where property is taken into consideration to some extent in organizing representation in the upper chambers, the system no longer prevails. — In no state is property to-day the sole basis of representation in either chamber, and the few re- maining traces of the principle that have survived the nineteenth centurs' will doubtless disappear in the course of time. Another principle is that which bases representation on the total popula- tion, citizens and aliens, male and female, en- franchised and unenfranchised alike, and not on the number of voters merely. This is now the al- most universal rule governing the apportionment of representation in lower chambers, and in some states it is also the basis of representation in the upper chambers. It possesses the element of sim- plicity and uniformity and is regarded as being more in harmony with presenl day notions of representative government. The ratio of repre- sentation varies widely among different states. . . . The same variety prevails among the individual states composing the federal republic of the United States, where the principle of apportionment on the basis of population is generally the rule for the constitution of both the upper and lower cham- bers. Perhaps an ideal system would be one which would take into consideration the elements of population, geographical area, and property com- bined, if there are any criteria for determining the relative weight which should be given to each of these elements. As yet no satisfacton,- scheme of this kind has been devised. For convenience in choosing representatives it is customary to divide the state into electoral circumscriptions or districts. The entire body of representatives might be chosen from the state at large on a general ticket, each elector being allowed to cast a vote for the entire number; but in states of considerable geographi- cal area, where several hundred members are to be elected, such a method would obviously be im- practicable. The time and effort involved in vot- ing such a ticket would be very great; and, what is of more importance, the ignorance of the elec- tor concerning the candidates from distant parts of the state would be so great that an election under such circumstances would be largely a farce. The practice of all states, therefore, is to divide their territory into electoral districts or to utilize for this purpose the political subdivisions already in existence. In constituting electoral districts two methods are employed: one is to parcel the state into as many districts as there are representatives to be chosen and allow a single member to be chosen from each ; the other is to create a smaller number of districts, from each of which a number of representatives is chosen on the same ticket. The former is known as the single member dis- trict plan ; the latter, as the general ticket method. Each has been employed by most states at dif- ferent times in their history, though nearly all have come at last to the single member district method." — J. W. Garner, Introduction to political science, pp. 440-443. — See also Suffr.age; Elec- tions, Presidential; Congress of the U. S.: House: Reapportionment; U. S. A.: 1901 (Jan- uary). APPRENTICE SCHOOLS, IndustriaL See Education: Modern developments: Vocational edu- cation: Industrial education in the U. S. APPRENTICES, Statute of.— "The Statute of Apprentices (1562) fin England] was unquestion- ably the most notable embodiment of the policies that dominated industrial life until the Industrial Revolution was far advanced. It was in a meas- ure a codification of older statutes which had been imperfectly administered, and the dominant purpose seems to have been to prevent change rather than to make innovations. In fact, how- ever, the statute made a number of important in- novations. It was hoped that the statute would check the decline of the corporate towns, provide for more adequate training of village artisans, as- sure a more considerable supply of agricultural labor, and afford some guarantee that wages would be adjusted to the 'advancement of prices of all things belonging to said servants and la- borers.' Few social concerns were not in some measure affected by this great codification of industrial and social legislation. Thirty-two crafts, including all the more important and frequent occupations, are enumerated in the articles refer- ring to the length of term for which such crafts- men should be hired. These crafts were later desig- nated as crafts to be taught in corporate and mar- ket towns to the sons of freeholders. The mercers, drapers, goldsmiths, ironmongers, and clothiers were forbidden to take any person as apprentice whose father or mother was not possessed of a forty-shilling freehold. These were crafts whose masters were characteristically employers so that this distinction is significant. In another article twenty-one crafts are enumerated which were al- lowed to be taught either in towns or in the coun- try; all of these crafts were to be open to persons whose parents had no property at all. There are thus implications that a wage-earning class was alreadv established: it is assumed by the statute that the larger proportion of artisans work for hire, and it is for this reason that the regulation of the waees of town artisans became a matter of solicitude. The wages of agricultural laborers and of certain 'artificers' had long been regulated by 380 APRAKSIN AQUEDUCTS justices of the peace, but these 'artiiicers' seem to have been the masons, smiths, carpenters, and the like who were recognized as being a distinctly rural group. The artisans of the towns had not been included in earlier statutes, partly because their interests were presumed to be in charge of the municipality, but partly because they had not been mere wage-earners. The statute must have tended to accentuate the changes that were taking place because the status of the various classes was so specilically defined. The conditions of entrance into the crafts practiced in towns amounted to a real restriction. Every person was ordered to adopt a definite profession or calling. Excepting persons owning property, persons of gentle birth, and scholars, every one must needs choose between the sea, the crafts, and agricul- ture. Any person failing to make a decision could be required to work at agriculture. Freedom of movement was likewise curtailed: no person might leave the town or parish in which he had been employed unless he obtained a formal testi- monial from appropriate authorities or from two householders. These restrictions destroyed the con- ditions that had made craft autonomy possible in the earlier period. In so far as craft organizations continued to exist they were mere shadows of what they had been formerly. The wage-fixing clauses constitute perhaps the most famous por- tion of the statute and their place in the history of the centuries that followecl shows how great a change had taken place in the position of the craftsmen. The intent of these clauses, however, was other than might be supposed. The provisions were designed to assure the payment of not merely a living wage, but an equivalent of the wages that had prevailed before the rise in prices. The clauses were not intended to guarantee an im- provement in the relative well-being of the artisan, but to protect him in his existing state against the unfavorable effects of the price revolution. The justices of the peace were presumed to ascer- tain the cost of maintaining the appropriate stand- ards of life and to regulate wages accordingly. The notions underlying the statute were in some respects similar to the thought expressed by the phrase a 'Uving wage,' but there was no implica- tion that the artisan had not been getting an appropriate living." — A. P. Usher, Industrial his- tory of England, pp. 192-194. — See also Guilds or gilds: Operation. APRAKSIN, Theodor Matvyeevich (1671- 1728), Russian admiral, friend and advisor of Peter the Great. Creator of the Russian navy; in 1708, saved St. Petersburg from the Swedes. His victories in 17 13 gained the Baltic Provinces for Russia at the peace of Nystad. APRIES, an Egyptian king of the Twenty- sixth Dynasty, 580 to 570 B. C. Aided the Jews in their resistance to Nebuchadrezzar; warded off a Babylonian attack upon Egypt. Dethroned by Amasis.— See also Egypt: B. C. 670-525. APRIL MOVEMENT, Netherlands. See Netherlands: 1853. APROS, Battle of (1307). See Catalan Grand Company. APSE, "a projecting room or wing of a build- ing having its plan rounded or polygonal at the outer end. In early Chri-stian churhes an apse at one end generally contained the bishop's throne and seats of the clergy, and sometimes a high altar. In later churches the apse is a mere curved end- ing of the choir, not often used in England but commonly on the continent." — R. Sturgis, Short history of architecture: Europe, p. 548. — Some ec- clesiastical edifices, as for instance the cathedrals of Pisa, Monreale and Worms, have several apses. APULIA, _,e.:tiLiu of Italy along the Adriatic; allied with Rome in 326 B. C, but generally un- friendly durin; i^unic Wars. Much of the second Punic War was fought in Apulia, where the battle of Cannae occurred. After Hannibal's defeat Apulia was subjugated by Rome. — See also Rome: Map of ancient Italy, 1042-1127. — nlorman conquest and dukedom. — Union with Sicily. See Italy (Souiiiern): io8i- 1194; 1282-ijoo. 15th century.— -Venetians acquire five cities. — Settlement of Jews from Spain. See Venice: 1494-1503. APULIANS. See Sabines or Sabellians. APURIMAC RIVER. See Amazon: Course. AQUA CLAUDIA. See Aquedticis: Roman AQU^ GRATIN.S; (Ancient name). See AlX-LES-BAINS. AQVJE SEXTI.^;, or Aix. See Aix; Salyes. Battle of. See Barbarian invasions: B.C. 113; CiMBRi and Teutokls: B. C. 113-101. AQVM SOLIS.— The Roman name of the long famous watcr.ng-place known in modern Eng- land as the city of Bath. It was splendidly adorned in Roman times with temples and other edifices. — T. Wright, Celt. Roman and Saxon, ch. 5. AQUAS CALIENTES: 1914.— Convention at. See Mexico: 1014-1915. AQUAVIVA, Clodio (1543-1615), fifth general of the Jesuits. See Jesuits: 1542-1648. AQUAVIVA, Ottavio (c. 1560-1612), arch- bishop of Naples and patron of learning. See Edu- cation: Modern: 1540- 1756. ; AQUEDUCTS, conduits for conveying water from a distant source to a city, the pipes usually, but not necessarily, being laid along elevated ma- sonry for a considerable distance. Aqueducts of this kind, as well as inverted syphons (by means of which water is sent through pipes below the surface of the earth under pressure) were built by the ancients — the Persians, Phoenicians and Greeks using the subterranean type for the most part, the Romans coming eventually to use the arched aqueduct exclusively. Peruvian. — rhe Indians of ancient Peru built aqueducts that are unequaled elsewhere. The best account of these is to be found in an article by O. F. Cook, Staircase farms of the ancients (Na- tional Geographic Magazine, May, 1916). — Ac- cording to Mr. Cook the construction of chan- nels presented an engineering work perhaps not equaled anywhere else in the world. .According to Garcilasso, an early Spanish writer, one of them was 360 miles long and 12 feet deep. Many miles of the channels were paved with stones. 'Tunnels were drilled in the mountains and channels cut in the cliffs. Waters from these aqueducts seemed to have been used for shower baths. — See also, Peru: 1200-1527. Roman. — Between 312 B. C. and A. D. 226 eleven main aqueducts were built to supply the city of Rome with water. The most famous of these — the Aqua Claudia, begun by Caligula in A. D. 38 and completed by Claudius in A. D. 52, was forty-five miles long, of which ten miles are still in a re- markable state of preservation. Roman aqueducts are still to be found in Europe wherever ihe empire extended. The most remarkable of these- are at Nimes (Pont du Gard) and Segovia. (See also Architecture: Etruscan.') Three tiers of arches are superimposed upon one another to form a bridse over the valley of the river Gard at Nimes, the whole structure reaching a height of 160 feet The Segovian aqueduct also crosses a. river and consist of two tiers 102 feet high. — See 381 AQUEDUCTS AQUEDUCTS also Rome: Modern city: Population and water supply. Byzantine. — The work of the Romans was con- tinued by the Byzantine emperors Valens and Jus- tinian, the latter providing many eastern cities with aqueducts. Gothic. — The great viaduct at Spoleto is the work of the Goths. Moorish. — The Spanish Moors took up the building ol aqueducts which the Goths had be- gun in Spain, the most notable of which was the aqueduct of Elvas. Middle Ages. — During the Middle .Ages the building of aqueducts was more or less inactive. The best e.xamples of the period are the aque- ducts at Solmona and Constances. Renaissance. — The Roman popes of the six- teenth century revived the construction of aque- ducts. the great artificial covered channel which leads the water from the .\shokan reservoir into the city [New York]. Owing to the varied character of country lying between the mountains and the city, the aqueduct is made up of several types of conduit. Some portions are of plain Portland cement concrete built in trenches and covered with earth, known as cut-and-cover ; other portions are tunnels through the mountains and hills or be- neath the broad, deep valleys; while still other portions are of steel and cast-iron pipes. It is of sufficient capacity to deliver water at the rate of about 600.000,000 gallons daily into the city, so that even if out of service for short periods oc- casionally for cleaning, inspection or repair, the average rate of delivery will be equivalent to 500,000,000 gallons daily. Alpng the aqueduct provisions have been made for storing a large quantity of water near the c'ly in Kensico reser- ANCIENT ROMAN AQUEDUCT, SEGOVIA, SPAIN Modern. — In 1613 Marie de Medici built the Arceuil at Paris and Louis XIV that of Mante- non. The great aqueduct at Caserta was built by Charles III (of Spain) in 1753 and the forty- mile aqueduct of Marseilles was begun in 1S47. From 1855 to 1800 an aqueduct was built from Loch Catrine to Glasgow, and in 1868 an aqueduct supplying Dublin was completed. In 1881 and 1885 conduits were built to supply Manchester and Liverpool. In 1873 'he fifty-five mile aqueduct at Vienna was completed, and in 1800 the second Franz-Kaiser-Joseph aqueduct was begun to take the place of the inadequate .system by the same name. American (1800-1013). — Notable aqueducts were built for the following cities in the United States: New York, 1842 fOld Croton), 1800 (New Cro- ton) ; Boston, 1848, 1878, 1807; Brooklyn, 1850; Baltimore, 1862, 1880: Washington, 1863, 1883; St. Louis, 1S03: Jersey Citv. 1004; Los Angeles, IQ13; New York, 1013 (Catsklll aouedurt) Catskill aqueduct. — "The Catskill aqueduct is voir; for equalizing the steady draft from Kensico reservoir against the hourly fluctuating demands ol the city, by means of Hill View reservoir; for storing a few days' supply on Staten Island as a local safeguard; for improving the quality 01 the water by aeration, filtration and other means; and for measuring all the water drawn from the reservoirs and sent into the City . . . From the .■\shokan reservoir it is almost a three-days' jour- ney for the water at the average velocity to flow through the aqueduct to the Silver Lake terminal reservoir on Staten Island, in the course of which it flows along many a steep hillside, crosses sev- eral broad plains, pierces mountains, descends be- neath rivers and wide, deep valleys, traverses the Boroughs of The Bronx. Manhattan and Brooklyn, and crosses the Narrows of New York harbor. . . . For surveys, real estate, construction, engi- neering and general supervision, and all other items except intere'^t on the bonds, the total cost of the completed Catskill system will be about .•?: 77,000.- 000, of which $22,000,000 are for th" Sthohari 382 AQUEDUCTS AQUINAS works. . . . The cut-and-cover aqueduct and the tunnels are more than big enough for railroad trains to pass through them with ease. Catskill aqueduct is twice as long as the two Croton aque- ducts put end to end. . . . The water used by New York City each day weighs about eight times as much as its population. The two deepest .shafts of the City tunnel of the Catskill aqueduct, one at the corner of Clinton and South streets, and the other at the corner of Delancey and Eldridgc streets, Manhattan, are each as deep as the tower of the Woolworth Building is high. If the Eiffel Tower could be stood with its foundations in the Hudson River tunnel, its top would not appear above the river surface, or if two Woolworth Build- ings were stood one on top of the other, the lower AQUILA, Battle of (1424). See Italy: 1412- 1447- AQUILEIA. — Aquileia, at the time of the de- struction of that city by the Huns, A. D. 452, was, "both as a fortress and a commercial em- porium, second to none in Northern Italy. It was situated at the northernmost point of the gulf of Hadria, about twenty miles northwest of Trieste, and the place where it once stood is now in the Austrian dominions, just over the border which separates them from the kingdom of Italy. In the year iSi B. C. a Roman colony had been sent to this far corner of Italy to serve as an out- post against pome intrusive tribes, called by the vague name of Gaul. . . Posse.ssing a good harbour, with which it was connected by a naviga- CATSKILL AQUEDUCT. NEW YORK Steel pipe siphon, mortar-lined and concrete-jacketed one having its foundation in the Hudson River tunnel, the top of the upper one would just reach the level at which the water flows away through the mountain on the east bank of the Hudson al- ter rising in the shafts from the tunnel beneath the river. If the Catskill aqueduct should be out of service, Croton water could be admitted to the city tunnel and conduits and delivered to any of the boroughs, but of course only at the lower pressure of the Croton system." — Annual report, Department of Water Supply, gas and elec- tricity, City of New York, IQ16. — See also New York city: igos-iqiq. Hetch Hetchv water project for San Fran- cisco. See Hetch Hetchy water dam project. Owen river, Los Angeles. See Los Angeles: 1Q05-100Q. AQUIDAY, or Aquetnet, the native name of Rhode Island. See Rhode Island: 1638-1640. ble river, .Aquileia gradually became the chief en- trepot for the commerce between Italy and what are now the lllyrian provinces of Austria." — T. Hodgkin, Italy and her invaders, bk. 2, ch. 4. — See also Europe: Ethnology: Migrations: Map showing barbaric invasions. 238. — Siege by Maximin. See Rome: 102-284. 388.— Overthrow of Maximus by Theodosius. See Rome: FJmpire: i/Q-.^Q.s. 452.— Destruction by the Huns. See Barb.arian invasions: 423-455; Huns: 452. AQUILLIUS, Manius, Roman general, con- sul in loi B. C. Put down a revolt of the slaves in Sicily. In 88 acted as legate against Mith- radates the Great ; defeated and imprisoned by him. — See also Mithradatic Wars. AQUINAS, Thomas, St. (c. 1227-1274I, great lihilosopher and scholar. Made profound studies in theology in Naples, Cologne, Paris, London, 383 AQUITAINE AQUITAINE Rome, Bologna and other centers of learning; ex- ercised great influence on the theological teachings of the Western church, his doctrines remaining authoritative to this day in the Roman Catholic church; in philosophy a follower of Aristotle; en- dorsed by various popes as a sound leader in re- ligious doctrine and scholastic philosophy. — See also Averroism; Astronomy: 130-1609; Capital- ism: In antiquity; Universities and colleges: ■ 1348-1826. AQUITAINE, or Aquitania: Ancient tribes.^ The Roman conquest of Aquitania was achieved, 56 B. C, by one of Caesar's lieutenants, the Younger Crassus, who first brought the people called the Sotiatcs to submission and then de- feated their combined neighbors in a murderous battle, where three-fourths of them are said to have been slain. The tribes which then sub- mitted "were the Tarbelli, Bigerriones, Preciani, \'ocates, Tarusates, Elusates, Garites, Ausci, Ga- rumni, Sibuzates and Cocosates. The Tarbelli were in the lower basin of the Adour. Their chief place was on the site of the hot springs of Dax. The Bigerriones appear in the name Bi- gorre. The chief place of the Elusates was Elusa, Eause; and the town of Auch on the river Gers preserves the name of the Ausci. The names Garites, if the name is genuine, and Garumni contain the same element, Gar, as the river Ga- rumna [Garonne] and the Gers. It is stated by Walckenaer that the inhabitants of the southern part of Les Landes are still called Cousiots. Cocosa, Causseque, is twenty-four miles from Dax on the road from Dax to Bordeaux." — G. Long, Decline of the Roman republic, v. 4, ch. 6. — "Before the arrival of the brachycephalic Li- gurian race, the Iberians ranged over the greatest part of France. ... If, as seems probable, we may identify them with the Aquitani. one of the three races which occupied Gaul in the time of Caesar, they must have retreated to the neighbourhood of the Pyrenees before the beginning of the his- toric period." — I. Taylor, Origin of the Aryans, ch. 2, seel. 5. — See also Gaul: Caesar's description. 681-768. — Independent dukes and their subju- gation. — "The old Roman Aquitania, in the first division of the spoils of the Empire, had fallen to the Visigoths, who conquered it without much trouble. In the struggle between them and the Merovingians, it of course passed to the victorious party. But the quarrels, so fiercely contested be- tween the different members of the Frank mon- archy, prevented them from retaining a distant possession within their grasp ; and at this period [681-71S, when the mayors of the Palace, Pepin and Carl, were gathering the reins of government over the three kingdoms — .^ustrasia, Neustria and Burgundy — into their hands], £udo, the duke of Aquitaine, was really an independent prince. The population had never lost its Roman character; it was, in fact, by far the most Romanized in the whole of Gaul. But it had also received a new element in the Vascones or Gascons a tribe of Pyrenean mountaineers, who descending from their mountains, advanced towards the north until their progress was checked by the broad waters of the Garonne. .At this time, however, they obeyed Eudo" This duke of Aquitaine. Eudo, allied himself with the Neustrians against the ambitious Austrasian Mayor, Carl Martel, and shared with them the crushing defeat at Soissons, 718, which established the Hammerer's power. Eudo acknowl- edged allegiance and was allowed to retain his dukedom. But. half-a-centurv afterwards, Carl's son, Pepin, who had pushed the "faineant" Mero- vingians from the Frank throne and seated himself upon it, fought a nine years' war with the then duke of Aquitaine, to establish his sovereignty. "The war, which lasted nine years [760-768], was signalized by fiightlul ravages and destruction of life upon both sides, until, at last, the Franks became masters of Berri, Auvergne, and the Limou- sin, with their principal cities. The able and gal- lant Guaifer [or W'aifer] was assassinated by his own subjects, and Pepin had the satisfaction of finally uniting the grand-duchy of Aquitaine to the monarchy of the Franks." — J. G. Sheppard, Fall of Rome, led. 8. — See also Germany: 687-800. .'\lso in; P. Godwin, History of France: Ancient Gaul, ch. 14-15. — W. H. Perry, Franks, ch. 5-6. 732, — Ravaged by the Moslems. See Cali- phate: 715-732. 781. — Erected into a separate kingdom by Charlemagne. — In the year 781 Charlemagne erected Italy and .Aquitaine into separate king- doms, placing his two infant sons, Pepin and Lud- wig or Louis on their respective thrones. "The kingdom of Aquitaine embraced Vasconia [Gas- cony], Septimania, .Aquitaine proper (that is, the country between the Garonne and the Loire) and the county, subsequently the duchy, of Toulouse, Nominally a kingdom, .Aquitaine was in reality a province, entirely dependent on the central or per- sonal government of Charles. . . . The nominal designations of king and kingdom might gratify the feelings of the Aquitanians, but it was a scheme contrived for holding them in a state of absolute dependence and subordination." — J. I. Mombert, History of Charles the Great, bk. 2, ch. II. 884-1151. — End of the nominal kingdom. — Disputed ducal title. — 'Carloman [who died 884], son of Louis the Stammerer, was the last of the Carlovinsians who bore the title of king of Aqui- taine. This vast state ceased from this time to constitute a kingdom. It had for a lengthened period been divided betueen powerful families, the most illustrious of which are those of the Counts of Toulouse, founded in the ninth century by Fredelon, the Counts of Poitiers, the Counts of .Auvergne, the Marquises of Septimania or Gothia, and the Dukes of Gascony. King Eudes had given William the Pius, Count of .Auvergne, the inves- titure of the duchy of .Aquitaine. On the extinc- tion of that family in 02S, the Counts of Toulouse and those of Poitou disputed the prerogatives and their quarrel stained the south with blood for a long time. .At length the Counts of Poitou ac- quired the title of Dukes of Aquitaine or Guy- enne [or Guienne, — supposed to be a corruption of the name of .Aquitaine, which came into use during the Middle Ages], w'hich remained in their house up to the marriage of Eleanor of Aquitaine with Henry Plantagenet I. [Henn.' II], King of England (1151)." — E. De Bonnechose, History of France, bk. 2, ch. 3, foot-note. — "The duchy .Aqui- taine, or Guyenne, as held by Eleanor's predeces- sors, consisted, roughly speaking, of the territory between the Loire and the Garonne. More ex- actly, it was bounded on the north by .Anjou and Touraine, on the east by Berry and .Auvergne, on the south-east by the Qnercy or County of Cahors, and on the south-west by Gascony, which had been united with it for the last hundred years. The old Karolingian kingdom of Aquitania had been of far greater extent; it had, in fact, included the whole country between the Loire, the Pyrenees, the Rhone and the ocean. Over all this vast territory the Counts of Poitou asserted a theoretical claim of overlord^hip by virtue of their ducal title: they had, however, a formidable rival in the house of the Counts of Toulouse." — 384 • n AQUITAINE ARABIA K. Norgate, England under the Angevin kings, v. I, ch. 10. — See also Toulouse: loth and nth cen- turies. 1034. — Origin of Truce of God. See Truce of God; France: Maps of medieval period: 1154-1360. 1137-H52. — Transferred by marriage from the crown of France to the crown of England. — In 1137, "the last of the old line of the dukes of Aquitaine — William IX., son of the gay cru- sader and troubadour whom the Red King had hoped to succeed — died on a pilgrimage at Compo- stella. His only son was already dead, and be- fore setting out for his pilgrimage he did what a greater personage had done ten years before: with the consent of his barons, he left the whole of his dominions to his daughter. Moreover, he bequeathed the girl herself as wife to the young king Louis [VII] of France. This marriage more than doubled the strength of the French crown. It gave to Louis absolute possession of all western Aquitaine, or Guyenne as it was now beginning to be called; that is the counties of Poitou and Gascony, with the immediate overlordship of the whole district lying between the Loire and the Pyrenees, the Rhone and the ocean: — a territory five or six times as large as his own royal do- main and over which his predecessors had never been able to assert more than the ;Tierest shadow of a nominal superiority." In 1:52 Louis ob- tained a divorce from Eleanor, surrendering all the great territory which she had added to his do- minions, rather than maintain an unhappy union. The same year the gay duchess was wedded to Henry Plantagenet, then Duke of Normandy, af- terwards Henry II. King of England. By this marriage Aquitaine became joined to the crown of England and remained so for three hundred years. — K. Norgate, England under the Angevin kings, V. I, ch. 8. 1360-1453. — Full sovereignty possessed by the English kings. — Final conquest and union with France. — "By the Peace of Bretigny [see France: 1337-1360] Edward III. resigned his claims on the crown of France ; but he was recognized in re- turn as independent Prince of Aquitaine, without any homage or superiority being reserved to the French monarch. When Aquitaine therefore was conquered by France, partly in the 14th, fully in the 15th century [see France: 1360- 1380], it was not the 'reunion' of a forfeited fief, but the absorption of a distinct and sovereign state. The feelings of Aquitaine itself seem to have been di- vided. The nobles to a great extent, though far from universally, preferred the French connexion. It better fell in with their notions of chivalry, feudal dependency, and the like; the privileges too which French law conferred on noble birth would make their real interests lie that way. But the great cities and, we have reason to believe, the mass of the people, also, clave faithfully to their ancient Dukes; and they had good reason to do so. The English Kings, both by habit and by in- terest, naturally protected the municipal liberties of Bourdeaux and Bayonne, and exposed no part of their subjects to the horrors of French taxation and general oppression." — E. A. Freeman, Franks and the Gauls (Historical Essays, 1st series, no. 7). ARAB BUABIN: 1917.— Occupied by British. — Reoccupied by Turks. See World War: 1Q17: VI. Turkish theater: a, 2. ARABESQUE, a word technically used to de- note "a fanciful, painted, modelled or carved orna- mentation, composed of plant forms, often com- bined with human, animal and grotesque forms. Used by the Romans and revived by the Renais- sance decorators. It was ako used by the Arabs — hence the name — for a flatly modelled and coloured ornament of intricate design, without human or, generally, animal forms." — C. H. Coffin, How to study architecture, pp. 479-480. ARABI pasha, Ahmed (1839-1911), an Egyptian soldier and nationalist revolutionary leader; said to have been a descendant of Mo- hammed; was the figure-head leader of a military insurrection fomented by an oposition party to Anglo-French domination; defeated at Tel-el- Kebir (1882) by the British and e.xiled to Ceylon, 1883; permitted to return in iqoi. See Egypt: 1875-1882; 1882-1883. ARABIA, ARABS. — Arabia is a large peninsula in the southwestern part of Asia, bounded on the north by Syria and the Sinai peninsula, on the west by the Red sea, south by the Gulf of Aden and the Indian ocean, and east by the Persian gulf and the Gulf of Oman. The area is esti- mated at about 1,000,000 square miles, with a population of approximately 8,000,000. More than a third of this territory is desert; the rest is dotted with rich, fertile tracts, settled and culti- vated. A large number of the population lead a nomadic life driving their cattle and carrying their tents from place to place. These itinerant Arabs, known as Bedouins or Bedawi, entertain a profound contempt for house-dwellers and are not averse to combining the pursuit of guerrilla warfare and robbery with the ideals of a peace- ful, pastoral existence. The two principal regions on the west, covering almost the entire length of the Red sea, are known as the Hejaz and the Ye- men ; they have an area of about 100,000 and 7S,- 000 square miles respectively. The portions of the country capable of cultivation produce wheat, barley, dates, tobacco, indigo, cotton, sugar, cof- fee and spices. Dates and coffee are the most im- portant exports. Arabia is a country better suited for grazing than agriculture and is famous for its horse-breeding, but in spite of this, the most useful and characteristic animal of the peninsula is the camel. The mineral resources of the coun- try are iron, copper, lead and precious stones. Political divisions. — (1) The Hedjaz or Hejaz, with a population of about 1,000,000, emerged from the World War as an independent Arab kingdom under the rule of Hussein Ibn Ali Pasha, the Grand Shereef of Mecca, who in June T916 raised the standard of revolt against the Turkish rule and formally entered the war on the Allied side; (2) The imamate of Yemen, with the capi- tal at Sana, is ruled by an imam of the Zeidi sect who traces his descent from the prophet's daugh- ter; (3) Jcbel Shammar, an emirate in the cen- tre of the peninsula, with a capital at Hail, con- sists of a number of Bedouin tribes; (4) Nejd and Hasa, an emirate of the fanatical Wahhabite tribes of the eastern oases, has its center at Riadh; (5) Asir, on the Red sea, is ruled by an Arab prince of the Idrisi family; (6) The British pro- tectorate of Aden, on the gulf of that name; (7) Koweit, a sultanate on the northwestern coast of the Persian gulf, is under British protection; and (8) Oman, a sultanate, the independence of which is guaranteed by Great Britain and France, on the gulf of Oman. Name. — "There can be no doubt that the name of the Arabs was . . . given from their liv- ing at the westermost part of Asia ; and their own word 'Gharb,' the 'West,' is another form of the original Semitic name Arab." — G. Rawlinson, Notes to Herodotus, v. 2, p. 71, Ancient succession and fusion of races. — "The population of Arabia, after long centuries, more especially after the propagation and triumph 8.=; ARABIA Fusion of Races ARABIA of Islamism, became uniform throughout the pen- insula. . . . But it was not always thus. It was very slowly and gradually that the inhabitants of the various parts of Arabia were fused into one race. . . . Several distinct races successively immigrated into the peninsula and remained sepa- rate for many ages. Their distinctive character- istics, their manners and their civilization prove that these nations were not all of one blood. Up to the time of Mahomet, several different lan- guages were spoken in Arabia, and it was the in- troduction of Islamism alone that gave predomi- nence to that one amongst them now called Arabic. The few Arabian historians deserving of the name, who have used any discernment in collecting the traditions of their country, Ibn Khaldoun, for ex- ample, distinguish three successive populations in the peninsula. They divide these primitive, sec- ondary, and tertiary Arabs into three divisions, called Ariba, Motareba, and Mostareba. . . . advanced civilisation analogous to that of Chaldaea, professing a religion similar to the Babylonian ; a nation, in short, with whom material progress was allied to great moral depravity and obscence rites. ... It was about eighteen centuries before our era that the Joktanites entered Southern Arabia. . . . According to all appearances, the in- vasion, like all events of a similar nature, was accomplished only by force. . . . After this in- vasion, the Cushite element of the population, being still the most numerous, and possessing great superiority in knowledge and civilisation over the Joktanites, who were still almost in the nomadic state, soon recovered the moral and material su- premacy, and political dominion. A new empire was formed in which the power still belonged to the Sabsans of the race of Cush. . . . Little by little the new nation of .\d was formed. The cen- tre of its power was the country of Shcba proper, where, according to the tenth chapter of Genesis, TOMB OF EVE AT njEDn.'\H (HEJAZ) (From Arab Legend) The Ariba were the first and most ancient inhabi- tants of Arabia. They consisted principally of two great nations, the Adites, sprung from Ham, and the .'\maHka of the race of Aram, descend- ants of Shem, mixed with nations of secondary importance, the Thamudites of the race of Ham, and the peo[3le of the Tasm, and Jadis, of the family of Aram. The Motareba were tribes sprung from Joktan, son of Eber, always in Arabian tra- dition called Kahtan. The Mostareba of more modern origin were Ismaelitish tribes. . . . The Cushites, the first inhabitants of Arabia, are known in the national traditions by the name of Adites, from their progenitor, who is called Ad, the grandson of Ham. All the accounts given of them by Arab historians are but fanciful le- gends. ... In the midst of all the fabulous traits with which these legends abound, we may perceive the remembrance of a powerful empire founded by the Cushites in very early ages, apparently in- cluding the whole of Arabia Felix, and not only Yemen proper. We also find traces of a wealthy nation, constructors of great buildings, with an there was no primitive Joktanite tribe, although in all the neighbouring provinces they were al- ready settled. ... It was during the first centuries of the second .^dite empire that Yemen was tem- porarily subjected by the Egyptians, who called it the land of Pun. . . . Conquered during the minority of Thothmes III, and the regency of the Princess Hatasu, Yemen appears to have been lost by the Egyptians in the troublous times at the close of the eichtcenth dynasty. Ramcses II re- covered it almost immediately after he ascended the throne, and it was not till the time of the effeminate kings of the twentieth dynasty, that this splendid ornament of Egyptian power was finally lost. . . . The conquest of the land of Pun under Hatasu is related in the elegant bas-reliefs of the temple of Deir-el-Bahari, at Thebes, pub- lished by M. Duemichen. . . . The bas-reliefs of the temple of Deir-el-Bahari afford undoubted proofs of the existence of commerce between In- dia and Yemen at the time of the Egyptian ex- pedition under Hatasu. It was this commerce, much more than the fertility of its own soil and 386 ARABIA Ancient Trade Sabaeans ARABIA its natural productions, that made Southern Arabia one of the richest countries in the world. . . . For a long time it was carried on by land only, by means of caravans crossing Arabia ; for the navi- gation of the Red Sea, much more difficult and dangerous than that of the Indian Ocean, was not attempted till some centuries later. . . . The caravans of myrrh, incense, and balm crossing Arabia towards the land of Canaan are mentioned in the Bible, in the history of Joseph, which be- longs to a period very near to the first establish- ment of the Canaanites in Syria. As soon as com- mercial towns arose in Phcenicia, we find, as the prophet Ezekiel said, 'The merchants of Sheba and Raamah, they were thy merchants: they oc- cupied in thy fairs with chief of all spices, and with all precious stones and gold.' ... A great number of Phanician merchants, attracted by this trade, established themselves in Yemen, Hadramaut, Oman, and Bahrein. Phoenician factories were also established at several places on the Persian Gulf, amongst others in the islands of Tylos and Arvad, formerly occupied by their ancestors. . . . This commerce, extremely flourishing during the nine- teenth dynasty, seems, together with the Egyptian dominion in Yemen, to have ceased under the feeble and inactive successors of Ramses III. . . . Nearly two centuries passed away, when Hiram and Solomon despatched vessels down the Red Sea. . . . The vessels of the two monarch? were not content with doing merely what had once before been done under the Egyptians of the nineteenth dynasty, namely, fetching from the ports of Ye- men ■ the merchandise collected there from India. They were much bolder, and their enterprise was rewarded with success. Profiting by the regularity of the monsoons, they fetched the products of India at first hand, from the very place of their shipment in the ports of the land of Ophir. or Ab- hira. These distant voyages were repeated with success as long as Solomon reigned. The vessels going to Ophir necessarily touched at the ports of Yemen to take in provisions and await favour- able winds. Thus the renown of the two allied kings, particularly of the power of Solomon, was spread in the land of the Adites. This was the cause cf the journey made by the queen of Sheba to Jerusalem to see Solomon. . . . The sea voy- ages to Ophir, and even to Yemen, ceased at the death of Solomon. The separation of the ten tribe?, and the revolutions that simultaneously took place at Tyre, rendered any such expeditions im- practicable. . . . The empire of the second Adites lasted ten centuries, during which the Joktanite tribes, multiplying in each generation, lived amongst the Cushite Sabaeans. . . . The assimila- tion of the Joktanites to the Cushites was so com- plete that the revolution which gave political su- premacy to the descendants of Joktan over those of Cush produced no sensible change in the civilisa- tion of Yemen. But although using the same lan- guage, the two elements of the population of South- ern Arabia were still quite distinct from each other, and antagonistic in their interests. . , . Both were called Sabasans, but the Bible always care- fully distinguishes them by a different orthog- raphy. . . . The majority of the Saba?an Cushites, however, especially the superior castes, refused to submit to the Joktanite yoke. A separation, there- fore, took place, giving rise to the Arab proverb, 'divided as the Sabaeans,' and the mass of the Adites pmisrated to another country. According to M. C.TUEsin de Perceval, the passage of the Sabsans into Abyssinia is to be attributed to the conse- quences of the revolution that established Jok- tanite supremacy in Yemen. . . . The date of the passage of the Sabaeans from Arabia into Abys- sinia is much more difficult to prove than the fact of their having done so. . . . Y'arub, the con- queror of the Adites, and founder of the new monarchy of Joktanite Arabs, was succeeded on the throne by his son, Yashdjob, a weak and feeble prince, of whom nothing is recorded, but that he allowed the chiefs of the various prov- inces of his states to make themselves indepen- dent. Abd Shems, surnamed Sheba, son of Yashd- job, recovered the power his predecessors had lost. . . . Abd Shems had several children, the most celebrated being Himyer and Kahlan, who left a numerous posterity. From these two personages were descended the greater part of the Yemenite tribes, who still existed at the time of the rise of Islamism. The Himyarites seem to have settled in the towns, whilst the Kahlanites inhabited the country and the deserts of Yemen. . . . This is the substances of all the information given by the Arab historians." — F. Lenormant and E. Chevalier, Manual of ancient history of the East, bk. 7, ch. 1-2, V. 2. — See also Semites. Sabseans. — "For some time past it has been known that the Himyaritic inscriptions fall into two groups, distinguished from one another by phonological and grammatical differences. One of the dialects is philologically older than the other, containing fuller and more primitive grammatical forms. The inscriptions in this dialect belong to a kingdom the capital of which was at Ma'in, and which represents the country of the Mina^ans of the ancients. The inscriptions in the other dialect were engraved by the princes and people of Saba, the Sheba of the Old Testament, the Sabaeans of classical geography. The Sabcean kingdom lasted to the time of Mohammed, when it was destroyed by the advancing forces of Islam. Its rulers for several generations had been converts to Judaism, and had been engaged in almost constant warfare with the Ethiopic kingdom of Axum, which was backed by the influence and subsidies of Rome and Byzantium. Dr. Glaser seeks to show that the founders of this Ethiopic kingdom were the Habasa, or Abyssinians, who migrated from Him- yar to Africa in the 2d or ist century B. C. [See also Africa: Ancient and medieval civilization: Arab occupation] ; when we first hear of them in the inscriptions they are still the inhabitants of Northern Yemen and Mahrah. More than once the Axumites made themselves masters of Southern Arabia. About A. D. 300, they occupied its ports and islands, and from 350 to 378 even the Sabaean kingdom was tributary to them. Their last suc- cesses were gained in 525, when, with Byzantine help, they conquered the whole of Yemen. But the Sabsean kingdom, in spite of its temporary sub- jection to Ethiopia, had long been a formidable State. Jewish colonies settled in it, and one of its princes became a convert to the Jewish faith. His successors gradually extended their dominion as far as Ormuz, and after the successful revolt from Axum in 37S, brought not only the whole of the southern coast under their sway, but the western coast as well, as far north as Mekka. Jewish in- fluence made itself felt in the future birthplace of Mohammed, and thus introduced those ideas and beliefs which subsequently had so profound an ef- fect upon the birth of Isalm. The Byzantines and Axumites endeavoured to counteract the in- fluence of Judaism by means of Christian colonies and prosclytism. The result was a conflict between Saba and its assailants, which took the form of a conflict between the members of the two religions. A violent persecution was directed against the Christians of Yemen, avenged by the Ethiopian 387 ARABIA, 5TH-8TH CENTURIES Sabaeans Chronology ARABIA, 1908-1916 conquest of the countr>- and the removal of its capital to San'a. The intervention of Persia in the struggle was soon followed by the appearance of Mohammedanism upon the scene, and Jew, Christian, and Parsi were alike overwhelmed by the flowing tide of the new creed. The epigraphic evidence makes it clear that the origin of the kingdom of Saba went back to a distant date. Dr. Glaser traces its history from the time when its princes were still but Makarib, or 'Priest?,' like- Jethro, the Priest of Midian, through the ages when they were 'kings of Saba.' and later still 'kings of Saba and Raidan,' to the days when they claimed imperial supremacy over all the princi- palities of Southern .Arabia. It was in this later period that they dated their inscriptions by an era, which, as Halevy first discovered, corresponds to 15 B. C. One of the kings of Saba is mentioned in an inscription of the Assyrian king Sargon (B.C. 715), and Dr. Glaser believes that he has found his name in a 'Himyaritic' text. When the last priest, Samah'ali Darrahh. became king of Saba, we do not yet know, but the age must be sufficiently remote, if the kingdom of Saba already existed when the Queen of Sheba came from Ophir to visit Solomon. The visit need no longer cause astonishment, notwithstanding the long jour- ney by land which lay between Palestine and the south of Arabia. ... As we have seen, the in- scriptions of Ma'in set before us a dialect of more primitive character than that of Saba. Hitherto it had been supposed, however, that the two dia- lects were spoken contemporaneously, and that the Minasan and Sabsan kingdoms existed side by side. But geography offered difficulties in the way of such a belief, since the seats of the Minaean power were embedded in the midst of the Sabaean kingdom, much as the fragments of Cromarty are embedded in the midst of other counties. Dr. Glaser has now made it clear that the old suppo- sition was incorrect, and that the Minsean king- dom preceded the rise of Saba. We can now un- derstand why it is that neither in the Old Testa- ment nor in the Assyrian inscriptions do we hear of any princes of Ma'in, and that though the classical writers are acquainted with the Minsan people they know nothing of a Minaean kingdom. The Minaean kindgom, in fact, with its culture and monuments, the relics of which still survive, must have flourished in the gre> dawn of history, at an epoch at which, as we have hitherto imag- ined, Arabia was the home only of nomad bar- barism. .And yet in this remote age alphabetic writing was already known and practised, the al- phabet being a modification of the Phcenician writ- ten vertically and not horizontally. To what an early date are we referred for the origin of the Phoenician alphabet itself ! The Minsan Kingdom must have had a long existence. The names of thirty-three of its kings are already known to us. ... A power which reached to the borders of Palestine must necessarily have come into contact with the great monarchies of the ancient world. The army of .^^lius Callus was doubtless not the first which had sought to gain possession of the cities and spice-gardens of the south. One such invasion is alluded to in an inscription which was copied by M. Halevy. . . . But the epigraphy of ancient .Arabia is still in its infancy. The inscrip- tions already known to us represent but a small proportion of those that are yet to be discovered. . . . The dark past of the .Arabian peninsula has been suddenly lighted up, and we find that long before the days of Mohammed it was a land of culture and literature, a seat of powerful king- doms and wealthv commerce, which cannot fail to have exercised an influence upon the general history of the world."— A. H. Sayce, Ancient Arabia (Contemporary Review, Dec, 1889). Ancient Arabian calender. See Chronolocv : Arabian and Mohammedan system. Early Arabian medical schools. See Science: .Ancient: .Arabian science. 5th-8th centuries. — Commerce. See Commerce: Medieval: sth-Sth centuries. 6th century. — Partial conquest by the Abys- sinians. See .Abvssi\-i.\: oth-ioth Centuries. 7th century. — Arab occupation of Africa. See .Africa: .Ancient and medieval civilization: .Arab occupation. 7th-llth centuries. — Medical progress. See Medical science: .Ancient: 7th-iith centuries: Medical art of the .Arabs. 632-634. — Conquest of Syria. See Caliph.'Vte: 032-030. 636. — Arab invasion of Armenia. See Ar- menia: 387-000. 640-646. — Islamite conquest of Egypt. See Calip.l^te: 640-640. 647-709. — Arab conquest of North Africa. See Caliphate: 647-700. 698. — Conquest of Carthage. See Carthage: 6q8. 698. — Conquest of Morocco. See Morocco: 047-1800. 8th century. — Paper industry. See Printi.nu AND THE press: Before 14th century. 700-1200. — Development of music. See Music: .Ancient: B.C. 2000-.A. D.. 1200. 711-713. — Conquest of Spain. See Spain:- 711- 713- 711-828. — Invasion into India. See Indu: B.C. 240- .A. D. I2Q0. 823. — Conquest of Crete. See Crete: 823. 834-855.— Conquest of Zotts. See Gypsies. 870. — Conquest of Malta. See Malta, Island of: 870-1530. 961-963. — Loss of Crete. See Crete: 961-063. 1517. — Brought under the Turkish' sovereign- ty. SeeTi'RKEv: 14S1-1520. 1609. — Expulsion of Arabs from Spain. See Moors or Mauri: 1402-1600. 1811-1918. — Wahhabi movement and influence. — Capture of Mecca and Medina by Wahbabis. See Wahhabis. 1827. — Beginning of missionary work. See Missions, Christian: N'ear East. 1899. — Arab slave trade in Belgian Congo. See Belgian Co.ngo: 1S85-1902. 1903-1905.— "Holy War" with the sultan. See TiTfKEv: 1003-1905. 1908-1916. — Events leading up to the Arabian revolt. — "Up to 1870 the .Arab tribes were left almost entirely alone by the Turks. The Sultan was recognized, but not obeyed. Tribes were of- ten at war with each other, the one under Idriz havin? been during the last fifteen years the most powerful. During the same period an almost con- tinuous attempt has been made to make Turkish rule effective, but it is, and always has been, hate- ful to the .Arabs. The Governors who have been sent from Constantinople abused their position mainly to fill their own pockets. The distance from Constantinople, the absence of railways or other roads, except an unsafe desert track, in- fested always by robbers, were so great that Turk- ish officials were able to plunder the .Arabs with impunity. When the Revolution in 1Q08 occurred, it was alleged that the Governor had made an arrangement with a small .Arab tribe which com- manded the route between Medina and Mecca, the two most Holy Places, by which no one was al- 388 ARABIA, 1913 Arab Revolt Causes ARABIA, 1916 lowed to pass unless he paid at least one Turkish pound (i8s. 2d.), half of which was alleged to go into the pocket of the Governor. While the Arab tribes were often at war with one another, they were all hostile to the Turks. This hostility extended from Aden northward into Syria, where Christian as well as Moslem Arabs have been abominably treated. [See also Aden.] A constant series of revolts against the Turks have occurred during the last ten years, and troops were sent from various parts of the Empire to attack the rebels. The troops disliked the service, because the Arabs fought bravely, and the Turks suffered badly from the climate. Almost immediately after the revolu- tion of July, igo8, Ratib Pasha, with the Turk- ish troops under him, revolted against the Commit- tee of Union and Progress, and joined the rebels. The Hedjaz Railway, however, was opened on September ist, iqo8, and Ratib himself was cap- tured. The Committee promised various reforms, and for a few months no revolt took place. In- deed, an honest attempt was made by the Young Turks to make arrangements in the Hedjaz which would produce good government among the tribes. A careful project was drawn up,' which is said to have been satisfactory to all the Arab leaders. Then there came a change of government. Kiamil lost his position, and his successor opposed the project, largely because it had been brought for- ward by the e.x-Grand Vizier. No serious improve- ments were made to secure Arab loyalty. Among the many big blunders which the Committee made, the greatest was that of attempting to Turkify the whole country by forcing upon it the use of Turk- ish instead of Arabic or Albanian or any other of the native languages. So far as all the Arabs of the Empire were concerned, it was an act of madness. Arabic is the language of the Koran. Turkish is detested, not merely as a barbarous tongue, but as that of their oppressors. The feel- ing of hostility between Arabs and Turks was in- tensified. The Turk is a Moslem, on whom his religion sits somewhat lightly ; the Arab is a fa- natic. ... So long as the Arabs were let alone by the Turks they do not seem to have greatly objected to Turkish domination, and they had grown used to the exactions of their Turkish Gov- ernors; but when the Young Turks set aside the arrangements which Kiamil and Hilmi and other leading statesmen in Turkey had made and their own leaders approved, they readily believed that the Turkish 'unbelievers,' as they were persuaded the Young Turks were, intended to gain the upper hand. They were then always ready for revolt." — E. Pears, Arab revolt (Living Age, Aug. 12, 1916, pp. 438-440). — See also Turkey: igoq. 1913. — Syrian Arab congress at Paris. — Pro- gram. See Syria: iqo8-iq2i. 1913-1920. — Relations with Abyssinia. See Abyssinia: 1913-1920. 1915. — Arab revolt. — Shortly after the surren- der of General Townshend at Kut, the Shereef of Mecca informed the British government that the Arabs could no longer submit to Turkish rule and tyranny. He asked for assistance in arms, food and money, which were duly promised by the Allies. Almost from the outbreak of the World War an attempt had been in progress under German direction to preach a jehad or holy war. "It was represented that the Kaiser was a con- vert to Islam, and that presently the Khalif would order a Jehad against the infidel. Stories were told of the readiness of the Mohammedan sub- jects of Britain, Russia and France to revolt at this call, and preparations were made for the manufacture of Indian military uniforms at Aleppo to give proof to the Syrians that the Indian faith- ful were on their side. Egypt, which had long been the hunting-ground of German emissaries, was considered ripe for revolt, and the Khedive [Abbas Hilmi II, deposed in 1914] was known to be friendly. . . . [The Young Turk Party] en- visaged a Holy War, engineered by unbelievers, which should beguile the Mohammedan popula- tions of Africa and Asia, and they naturally leaned on the broad bosom of Germany, who made a specialty of such grandiose visions. There never was a chance of such a Jehad suceeding. . . . The Sultan's title to the Khalifate, too, was fiercely questioned. The Turks had won it origi- nally by conquest from the Abbasids, and the Arabs had never done more than sullenly acquiesce. Most important of all, the Turco-German alliance was breaking its head against an accomplished fact. By September [1914] the whole of Mohammedan India and the leaders of Mohammedan opinion in British Africa were clearly on the Allied side, and their forces were already moving to Britain's aid, while forty thousand Arab Moslems were fighting for France in the battles of the West. Islam had made its choice before Enver sent his commissaries to buy Indian khaki in Aleppo and inform the Syrians that the Most Christian Em- peror had become a follower of the Prophet." — J. Buchan, Nelson's history of Ike war, v. Hi, pp. 125- I2q. — Another circumstance that undoubtedly con- tributed largely towards swaying the bulk of the Mohammedan world to the Allied cause as against the Turks was the powerful manifesto issued to Moslems by his highness the Aga Khan HI, who is the recognized spiritual head of some 70,000,000 Mohammedans in India, and has, besides, a con- siderable following in Persia, Afghanistan, Central Asia, Syria and Morocco. Not only did the Aga Khan utterly condemn the proposed jehad and assert the justice of the Allied cause, but he even volunteered to serve as a private in any infantry regiment of the Indian Expeditionary Force. "From the day when he took over the Emirship [of Mecca, in 1910], Shereef Hussein ibn Ali was a faithful counsellor and sincere supporter of the Ottoman government. ... He and his four sons — the Emirs Ali, Abdullah, Feisal and Zeid — adhered so faithfully to this loyal policy that some of the Arab Emirs ascribed to him arrant Tur- kophilism. Then the 'Unionists' started their vio- lent anti-Arab campaign of persecution and ex- termination. Free-minded Arabs in Syria and EI Irak thereupon turned to the great Emir of Arabia, the guardian of the Holy Shrines of Islam, for suc- cour and redress. He tried then to calm them and comfort them with earnest promises of inter- vention and at the same time he represented to the Unionists the gravity of the situation and the danger to which the Empire would be exposed if such a policy were persisted in. Soon afterwards the Great War broke out, and the Unionists were not long in siding with the Germanic Powers and throwing the fortunes of the Empire into the melting pot. They had consulted the Grand She- reef, informing him, at the same time, of their re- solve to join the Central Powers. He wisely ad- vised the strictest neutrality. Their object in con- sulting him, however, had doubtless been to sound his own and his people's feelings and intentions, rather than to seek his advice. ".'\bout four months later a rumour was cir- culated in Constantinople as to the existence of a movement in Syria and El Irak unsympathetic to the alliance of Turkey with Germany. The Union- ists seized this as an occasion, or rather pretext, to send out to Syria Jemal Pasha, in order to carry 389 ARABIA, 1916 Arab Revolt Proclamation ARABIA, 1916 out, with ruthless rigour, their programme for crushing out the life and spirit of this 'Arab move- ment,' by hanging its leaders, exiling the Arab notables, and starving the masses. On his arrival, however, Jemal found that the inhabitants were peaceful, and practically all supporting the Gov- ernment with their lives and property in its con- duct of the war which it had imposed on them; and that, therefore, there was nothing to justify the institution of a reign of terror. Thereon, he, with the characteristic cunning and deceit of the Turk, tried at first to pose as the friend of the Arabs, gathered round him the elite of Syria, and lured them into confidence by falsely pretending to approve and admire the Arab national move- ment. It is even said that he went so far as to make a speech, on the occasion of a banquet given in his honour at Damascus, wherein he said; 'How can we expect the fatherland to progress when Arab and Turk forget and neglect their respective national ideals and when ignorance prevails? On suitable occasions he gave expression to other views of a similar character, and thus entrapped the Arab patriots, who revealed to him their inner- most hopes and aspirations, assuring him, at the same time, in all sincerity, that they were ready to sacrifice their very lives on the altar of Empire, provided the Government respected and recognised their national claims and rights. He then started dispersing Arab officers and men in the outlying provinces of the Empire, in the Caucasus, the Dardanelles and Persia, and organised an elabo- rate system of spying; and when finally he saw the country cleared of its militant elements, and his position absolutely secure, he brought down his heavy hand on the helpless population and indulged in that series of atrocities that has horri- fied the civilised world. When all this was re- ported to the Grand Sherecf, he at once sent his son Emir Faisal ... to remonstrate with Jemal against this suicidal policy, and to advise him to refrain from it. The Pasha promised to do so; but hardly had Emir Faisal arrived back in the Hejaz when the same ruthless policy was revived with even greater violence. Cases of hanging and exile became more frequent, and, worse than all, the wilful starving of the population was inaugu- rated. Meantime, the blockade of the Turkish coasts had been declared, and as the Turks stopped the carriage of all foodstuffs by the railway and by caravan to the Hejaz, a state of famine was brought about. "The Unionists, meantime, had become so drunk with the lust of blood that they actually set about condemning, wholesale, Arab officers who were fighting for them on distant fronts, and degrading Arab soldiers to the position of slaves, and driving them to menial work and calling, them on every occasion 'traitors.' As a crowning of this mad career they finally attacked the Arabs in their most sensitive and vital point, the Sheriat, a well- known member of the Committee, going so far as to declare publicly his contempt for Islam and its teachings. Finding that persuasion and argu- ment were worse than useless with a people of such temper and mind, the Grand Shereef finally drew the sword as the final arbiter." — Near East, Feb. 2, 1917. — On June g, 1916, the Grand She- reef made his first move by declaring himself in- dependent of the Turkish government. Mecca and the surrounding district were loyal to him and the Turkish garrison in Jeddah was overcome. Taif was soon captured, hut with Turkish troops in Medina it was too strong for the .\rabs (o in- vest. The latter tore up over a hundred miles of the Hejaz Railway tracks and thus severely handi- capped the Turks in sending reinforcements. The Turks, however, were too seriously involved else- where to be able to devote any large force to handle the rising. A decree was issued in Con- stantinople deposing the Grand Shereef, who in reply published a proclamation in Cairo setting forth numerous indictments against the Turkish Committee of Union and Progress in general and against Enver Pasha, Talaat Bey and Jemal Pasha in particular. — See also Wokld War: 1916: VI. Turkish theater: c. 1915 (June). — Proclamation of the sherif of Mecca. — "In the name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate. This is our general proclamation to all our Moslem brothers. O God, judge be- tween us and our people in truth ; Thou art the Judge. The world knovveth that the first of all Moslem princes and rulers to acknowledge the Turkish Government were the Emirs of Mecca the Blessed. This they did to bind together and make strong the brotherhood of Islam, for they saw the Sultans of the House of Osman (may the dust of their tombs be blessed, and may they dwell in Paradise!), how they were upright, and how they carried out all the commandments and ordinances of the Faith and of the Prophet (prayers be upon him!) perfectly. Therefore they were obedient to them at all times. For a token of this, remember how in A. H. [.Anno Hegira] 1327 [1908] I with my Arabs helped them against the Arabs, to save Ebhah from those who were besieging it, and to preserve the name of the Government in honor; and remember how again in the next year I helped them with my armies, which I entrusted to one of my sons; for in truth we were one with the Government until the Committee of Union and Progress rose up, and strengthened itself, and laid its hands on power. Consider how since then ruin has overtaken the State, and its possessions have been torn from it, and its place in the world has been lost, until now it has been drawn into this last and most fatal war. All this they have done, being led away by shameful appetites, which are not for me to set forth, but which are public and a cause for sorrow to the Moslems of the whole world, who have seen this greatest and most noble Moslem Power broken in pieces and led down to ruin and utter destruction. Our lament is also for so many of its subjects, Moslems and others alike, whose lives have been sacrificed without any fault of their own. Some have been treacherously put to death, others cruelly driven from their homes, as though the calamities of war were not enough. Of these calamities the heaviest share has fallen upon the Holy Land. The poor, and even families of substance, have been made to sell their doors and windows, yea, even the wooden frames of their houses, for bread, after they had lost their furniture and all their goods. Not even so was the lust of the [Party of] Union and Prog- ress fulfilled. They laid bare all the measure of their wicked design, and broke the only bond that endured between them and the true followers of Islam, They departed from their obedience to the precepts of the Book. [Here follow a number of charges, sacrilegious, etc., against the Turkish government] . . . We leave all of this to the Mos- lem world for judgment. Yes, we can leave the judgment to the Moslem world; but we may not leave our religion and our existence as a people to be a plaything of the Unionists. God (Blessed be He!) has made open for us the attainment of freedom anti independence, and has shown us a way of victory to cut off thi> hand of the oppres- sors, and to cast out their garrison from our midst. We have attained independence, an independence of 390 ARABIA, 1916 Hussein Ibn Ali King of Hejaz ARABIA, 1918 the rest of the Ottoman Empire, which is still groaning under the tyranny of our enemy. Our independence is complete, absolute, not to be laid hands on by any foreign influence or aggression, and our aim is the preservation of Islam and the uplifting of its standard in the world. We fortify ourselves on the noble religion which is our only guide and advocate in the principles of administra- tion and justice. We are ready to accept all things in harmony with the Faith and all that leads to the Mountain of Islam, and in particular to up- lift the mind and the spirit of all classes of the people in so far as we have strength and ability. This is what we have done according to the dic- tates of our religion, and on our part we trust that our brethren in all parts of the world will each do his duty also, as is incumbent upon him, that the bonds of brotherhood in Islam may be confirmed. We beseech the Lord of Lords, for the sake of the Prophet of Him who giveth all things, to grant us prosperity and to direct us in the right way for the welfare of the faith and of the faithful. We depend upon God the AU-Powerful, whose de- fence is sufficient for us. — Shereef and Emire of Mecca, El Hussein ibn Ali, 25 Sha'ban 1334." [June 27, 1916.] "Later in the year another manifesto was pub- lished, and finding that the Turkish government was unable to send any large army to suppress the revolt, Shereef Hussein became more daring. On November 4 the Shereef had himself formally proclaimed 'Sultan of Arabia'; and a large num- ber of Arab chiefs assembled in Mecca for the cere- mony." — Annual Register, 1916, p. 275. — "The offi- cial recognition by England, France, and Italy of the proclamation of the Grand Shereef of Mecca as King of the Hejaz invests a really re- markable figure with singular interest. . . . His Majesty the King of the Hejaz Hussein Ibn Ali, has the distinction of being able to claim what is probably the purest and oldest lineage of all the crowneci heads of the world. Added to his personal qualities and achievements, this fact goes far to account for the remarkable phenomenon of a prac- tically unanimous acknowledgment of him as their supreme lord by the great chieftains of Arabia, whose mutual jealousies and exaggerated love of personal authority are proverbial. Purity of line- age is a source of great pride with the Arabs, and, when it is traceable to their Prophet, it commands the highest veneration on their part. The high value they place on documents attesting the de- scent of their thoroughbred horses may be cited as a proof of the value they attach to the prin- ciple of selection. Shereef Hussein Ibn Ali comes from Beni Hashem, the quintessence, so to say, of the tribe of Koreish. His descent is traceable, through his immediate ancestors, Ali Ibn Moham- med, Ibn Abdul Aziz, Ibn Aoun, back in unbroken line to the Prophet Mohammed. All the Moslems of the world acknowledge this lineage, and believe in Ishmael as being the original ancestor of the Arabs, whose lineage is again traced back to Noah."— A^ear East, Feb. 2, 1917.— In their reply to President Wilson's note of Dec. 20, 1916, the Allied powers stated the general nature of their war aims, and included among them "the setting free of the populations subject to the bloody tyr- anny of the Turks." And Mr. Balfour, in his despatch of Jan. 16, 191 7, in which he explained these aims from the point of view of Great Britain, observed that "the interests of peace and the claims of nationality alike require that Turkish rule over alien races should, it possible, be brought to an end." It was in the same spirit that President Wilson, in his speech to the Senate on Jan. 23, 1917, proposed that the Monroe Doctrine be adopted as the doctrine of the world, "that no na- tion should seek to extend its polity over any other nation or people." Thus the effort of the Arabs of Hejaz to free themselves from the oppressive rule of the Turks received the sanction of all the Allies. The province of Western Arabia to which the name of Hejaz has been given extends along the Red Sea coast from the Gulf of Akaba to the south of Taif. It is bounded on the north by Syria, on the east by the Nafud desert, and by Nejd, and on the south by Asir. Its length is about 750 miles, and its greatest breadth from the Harra, east of Khaibar, to the coast is 200 miles. Barren and uninviting mostly in its north- ern part, yet with many very fertile and well-cul- tivated portions in the southern section, sustaining a brave, hardy and fearless population, the chief claim of Hejaz to fame is that it contains the holy cities of Mecca and Medina, to which Moham- medan pilgrims come annually from all parts of the world. During the World War the Arabs rendered splendid services in fighting and harassing the Turks. Of particular interest is the romantic part played in the task of uniting the Arab tribes by a young English Oxford graduate, Thomas Lawrence. When the World War broke out he was studying archsological inscriptions in Meso- potamia. He was then twenty-six years old and possessed a profound knowledge of the land and its languages. Though he had had no military experience, he was appointed an officer (colonel) in the British army, but he usually wore the costume of an Arab, which he carried like a na- tive. Mounted on horse or camel, he led armies of Arabs in many fights with the Turks. The latter and their German allies were not slow to discover that Lawrence was a mighty factor in the Arab problem. — "Through their spies they learned that Lawrence was the guiding spirit of the whole Ara- bian revolution. They offered a reward of S.soo,- 000 for him, dead or alive. But the Bedouins would not have betrayed their idolized leader for all the gold in the fabled mines of Solomon." — L. Thomas, Thomas Lawrence, Prince of Mecca (Asia, Sept., 1919, p. 829). — After the capture of Bagdad the British commander. General Maude, issued a proclamation to the people of that ancient city on March 19, 1917, in which the following reference to the Arabs occurs: "In Hejaz the Arabs have expelled the Turks and Germans who oppressed them and proclaimed the Shereef Hus- sein as their king, and his lordship rules in inde- pendence and freedom, and is the ally of the na- tions who are fighting against the power of Turkey and Germany; so, indeed, are the noble Arabs, the lords of Koweyt, Nejd, and Asir. Many noble Arabs have perished in the cause of Arab freedom, at the hands of those alien rulers, the Turks, who oppressed them. ... It is the hope and desire of the British people and the nations in alliance with them that the Arab race may rise once more to greatness and renown among the peoples of the earth, and that it shall bind itself together to this end in unity and concord. O people of Bagdad, remember that for twenty-six generations you have suffered under strange tyrants who have ever en- deavored to set one Arab house against another in order that they might profit by your dis- sensions. This policy is abhorrent to Great Britain and her Allies, for there can be neither peace nor prosperity where there is enmity and misgovern- ment." 1918. — Speech of Lloyd George on British war aims. See World War: 191S: X. Statements of war aims: a. 391 ARABIA, 1918 Results of World War ARABIA, 1919 1918. — Aid to Allies against Turks in Meso- potamian campaign. See World War: iqiS: VI. Turkish theater: c, 4. 1918. — British attack Hejaz communications. See World War: 1918: VI. Turkish theater: c, 5; c, 6. 1918. — Conditions in Hejaz during British campaign. See World War: iqi8: VI. Turkish theater: c, 9. 1918 (September). — Aid to British in Palestine campaign. See World War: 1918: VI. Turkish theater: c, 12. © E. M. Newman KMIR FEISAL, KING OF IRAK (MESOPOTAMIA) 1919. — Results of the Treaty of Versailles. — Spheres of influence and the Syrian problem.— Dissatisfaction of the Arabs. — "After the prin- cipal Allies had been allotted their quotas at the Peace Conference, there was a belated announce- ment that the Kingdom of the Hejaz would be given two seats. That little Arab kingdom, rec- ognized by France and England as a belligerent Ally in 1916, had been left out, but Faisul, third son of the King of the Hejaz (or, as the King pre- fers to be called, Cherif of Mecca), and a young English colonel named Lawrence, who had been adopted into the family of the descendants of the prophet Mohammed and was a major-general in Faisul's Arab army, made a few spirited re- marks about the share of the Arab army in the liberation of Syria and the feelings which those Arabs might entertain if omitted from the Peace Conference; and the Kingdom of the Hejaz se- cured its two seats. . . . Meantime certain states- men in Europe had drawn up secret treaties ar- ranging for a division of Syria and Mesopotamia between Russia, France, and England. This was in igi6, before the Russian Revolution and before the Syrians had achieved their independence. France was to receive the coast strip of Syria, the Vilayet of Adana, and a large strip of land to the north; Russia, in addition to Constantinople, most of what is commonly called Armenia, and some of the south coast of the Black Sea; England, south- ern Mesopotamia and the Syrian ports of Caiffa and .^crc. Palestine was to have a special regime ; and the territory between the French and English acquisitions was to be formed into a confedera- tion of .Arab governments, or a single independent Arab government, and was divided into 'zones' in which France and England were to have varying degrees of 'influence.' Faisul did not know of this treaty when he led the Arab revolt ; nor did the Arabs and Syrians when they revolted. No one was satisfied with the old treaty. The Rus- sians no longer wanted a share of the spoils; the Syrians wanted real independence ; and certain French interests wanted a 'unified Syria' under French tutelage. ... To the Arab, Syria is sim- ply a region where Arabs, a few of whom are Christians, live more settled industrial lives; there is no word for 'Syria' in the .\rab tongue." — Na- tion, April ig, 1919. — "The .\rab world, where considerations into which the wishes of the in- habitants or the main interests of the country did not always enter, have led to its division into spheres of influence. It is unnecessary to go into the different agreements. . . . The French at pres- ent hold and administer the Syrian coast towns from Tyre to Alexandretta inclusive, while the Emir Feisal, the son of the King of the Hedjaz, whose services to the Allies in the war are a mat- ter of common knowledge, rules inland Syria [whence he was expelled by the French in Au- gust, 1920]. The cities of Damascus, Hama, Homs, and Aleppo are [were until then] under his govern- ment. . . . [He is now ruler of Irak (Mesopo- tamia) under British mandate.] The Hedjaz it- self is declared by the Treaty to be a free, in- dependent state. Palestine is to remain under the direct administration of the mandatory. Meso- potamia and Syria are made independent states in accordance with Article 22 of the League of Nations, though they are to receive the advice and assistance of mandatories until they are able to stand alone. The boundaries of all three coun- tries are to be fixed by the principal .Mlied Powers. Many of the .\rabs object to the present arrange- ment. Their view, which is shared by not a few Europeans, is that it splits up into several parts a country which is essentially one. In the end they will, they say, certainly come together again either in the form of a single state or of a confed- eration. Nature herself favours this unity. The great rivers would disregard division. So would the nomad. He crosses the country from end to end. There is summer pasture in Syria, while win- ter grazing takes him as far as the Persian Gulf. He is also the carrier of the desert, so that neither Syria nor Arabia can be permanently cut off from Mesopotamia. And the desert will only support a limited number of people. In other countries the surplus goes to America. Here the Bedu has an .\merica at his tent door. He just goes to the river strip or he settles in Syria, as he has done from time immemorial. Its outlying settlements 392 ARABIA ARABIA, CASE OF are his mark^ towns. The differences between Arabs seem great to the stranger. They really only go skin deep. Townsman, settler, and Bedu may be kept apart by mutual contempt, but all are proud of their descent from the desert. Like their religion they belong to it. What keeps the country one is something deeper than Arab na- tionality, though the population is in any case mainly Arab. So are its language and its civiliza- tion. This applies to Syria and Palestine as well as to the rest. In Palestine the Zionist claims are based not on the present, but on the past and the future ; they count on a large immigration of Jews, who at present form only one-sixth to one- ninth of the inhabitants. The Christian Syrians of the coast and in the Lebanon are against com- ing into an Arab confederation or kingdom. It is not, however, because they are likely to be ill- treated. Christians are already helping the Arabs to build a state at Damascus. But the Christian population is too small, and if the rest of the coun- try one day comes together it will be impossible to keep it from its natural outlet to the Mediter- ranean. The Persian Gulf is only a back door." — Round Table, June, 1920, p. 511. Also in: L. Thomas, King Hussein and his Ara- bian knights (Asia, May, IQ20). 1919. — King of Hejaz and the revolt of the Wahabites. — "The Lebanon Syrian Committee in the second week of August addressed to the Cen- tral Syrian Committee located in Paris the follow- ing telegram: 'The Arabian military authorities at Damascus are continuing their arbitrary re- cruiting. They have just decided to send an army of Syrians to the Hejaz, on a payment of three Egyptian pounds per man, probably to fight against the Wahabites. They are thus treating Syria as a country conquered by the Hejaz, and are misapplying the subsidies furnished by the Al- lies.' The Mussulman sect of the Wahabites is at war with Hussein, King of Arabia. The causes that led to these hostilities were briefly as follows: When the Ottoman Empire joined the European war the Hejaz and the other Emirates of Arabia joined the Allies, who created Hussein King of Arabia. Hussein played a prominent part from this time on. He only was represented at the Peace Conference. His son, Feisul, became a can- didate for the throne of Hejaz under the aegis of England. Hussein's proclamation of himself as Khalif, or great religious leader of Islam, gave offense to the Wahabites among other sects. His subsequent proposal to unite Hedjaz with Nedj, where the Wahabites are mainly centred, brought on a crisis, and the conflict was declared by the Wahabite leader." — Times Current History, Oct., igiQ, p. 172. — See also Syria. — "The Arab tribes are notoriously independent, and, so far as the outside world knows, have not acted together since the time of Mohammed and of the early con- quests of Islam. Even then, some were lukewarm and worse. It will, therefore, be in point to con- sider the positions taken up by the other elements in Arabia. Of the maritime states to the east, Koweit, Bahrein, Oman, little need be said. The Persian Gulf has known English control since the seventeenth century, a control which is the oldest element in the British Empire. It has known also the Turks, and has no desire for further knowl- edge. The population of Oman, also, is Ibadite, a sect of Puritans, dissenting and protesting from the earliest Moslem history and standing apart from both Sunnites and Shi'ites. No call to a Holy War from a schismatic Ottoman Caliph would affect them. The great valley of Hadramaut has sent its sons over the farthest seas and is more cosmopolitan than any other part of Arabia. It, too, has little use for Ottoman-German dreams. The Yemen is a land where recorded history reaches into Babylonian times. Since the renewed occupation by the Turks, in 1871, it has been fight- ing them; and at Sa'da and San'a there has been, and is a line of Imams, of the Zaidite branch of the Shi'ites, which dates its foundation back to a certain Rassi in A. D. 860. The Zaidites are very modified Shi'ites, holding principally to the di- vine right to rule inherent in the blood of the Prophet, and thus have found it possible to work together with the Sharifs of Mecca. In Athir, or Asir, a district on the Red Sea, a certain Imam Idrisi has been in insurrection against the Turks since, at least, the Turko-Italian war. The pres- ent Great Sharif assisted the Turks then in reliev- ing the Turkish garrison of Obha and securing for it a safe retreat. Now, naturally, he is at one with Idrisi and his followers. In the interior there are two states, settled round greater oases, which have made the politics of central Arabia for about a century. One, to the southeast of Riyad, is all of the Wahabite empire that maintains independence. Once it threatened Syria and Egypt, and indeed, the Moslem world, but now it is lim- ited to a little island in the deserts. But it is still war-like and maintains the traditions of the earliest Islam. It is, in fact, a revival of the ideals of the monkish state of Medina under the first succes- sors of Mohammed. To the north, at Hayil, is the dynasty of the Ibn Rashids. It may be best compared to the Arab court of the Umayyads at Damascus. The Ibn Rashids are orthodox Sun- nite Moslems; but they wear their religion more lightly than do the austere Wahabites to the southeast of them. They appreciate literature and poetry and the joy of life. Between them and the Ibn Sa'ud at Riyad lies the headship of inner Ara- bia. Now one and now the other has held it. But, invariably, up till now, on every question they have taken opposite sides." — G. B. Macdonald, Arabian situation (Nation, Nov. 8, 1917, pp. 505- 507). 1920. — Separated from Turkey by Treaty of Sevres. See Hejaz, kingdom of; Sevres, treaty OF: 1920: Contents: Part HI. Pohtical clauses: Hejaz. For further information on Arabia, see also Caliphate; Mohammedanism. Also in: T. Noldeke, Geschichte der Perser und Araber zur zeit der Sassaniden. — S. Lane-Poole, Mohammedan dynasties. — C. Huart, Geschichte der Araber (2 vols., 1916). — S. M. Zwemer, Arabia, the cradle of Islam. — R. F. Burton, Pilgrimage to El Medinah and Meccah. — A. Sprenger, Alte Geog- raphie Arabiens. — D. G. Hogarth, Penetration of Arabia. — J. T. Bent, Southern Arabia. ARABIA, Case of.— The sinking in the Med- iterranean, on November 6, 1916, of the Peninsular and Oriental Company's steamer Arabia with one American on board was made the occasion of a protest by the Department of State to the Ger- man government, and a charge that the promise made after the Sussex case had been broken. "The German note on the Arabia, now made pub- lic, gave as the reason for sinking her the belief that she wa3 a transport. November 6, one hundred miles west of the [Ionian] island of Cerigo, a German submarine, said the note, fell in with a large steamship coming from the Cerigo Straits. She was painted black, and did not, as was usual with the Peninsular and Oriental steamers, have light-colored superstructures. Though identical with the Arabia, she was off the route taken by steamers between Port Said and Malta, and on that taken by vessels of war. On board were 393 ARABIA FELIX AKABIC LITERATURE 'large batches of Chinese and other colored persons in their national costumes.' Supposing them to be workmen soldiers, 'such as are used in great num- bers behind the Iront by the enemies of Germany,' the submarine commander believed he was con- cerned with a transport ship, and 'attacked with- out delay and sank her.' Should the United States give the data showing that the Arabia was an ordi- nary passenger steamer, the action of the subma- rine commander would not then be in accordance with his instructions. The act would be a regret- table mistake 'from which the German Government would promptly draw the appropriate conse- quences.' The British Government, when informed of this reply and asked for the facts, answered that the Arabia was not, when sunk, and never had been, in the service of the Government ; that there were no Asiatics on board save the Indian crew ; and that she did not take the usual route, for fear of submarines." — J. B. McMaster, United States in the World War, pp. 280-2S1. — See also World War: igi6: IX. Naval operations: b. ARABIA FELIX: Conquests in. See Abys- sinia: 6th-i6th centuries. ARABIAN MUSIC. See Music: Ancient period. ARABIC, White Star liner, torpedoed by a German submarine on August ig, 1915, while on a voyage to New York. The attack, which occurred near the scene of the Lusitania tragedy, was without warning, and the vessel sank within 10 minutes, with resultant loss of fifty-four lives, in- cluding three Americans. The German Govern- ment at first asserted that the Arabic had attempted to ram the submarine but later waived this con- tention. While the case was in discussion between the two Governments, Count von Bernstorff, on September i, gave a pledge for his Government that "liners will not be sunk by our (German) submarines without warning and without safety of the lives of noncombatants, provided that the lin- ers do not try to escape or offer resistance." This pledge was given in ostensible answer to the third Lusitania note and without reference to tbe Arabic sinking, which, however, was adjusted under it. In a second note, dated October s, the German ambassador notified the State Department that his Government "regretted and disavowed" the sink- ing of the Arabic, which "was undertaken against the instructions issued to the commander," and was "prepared to pay an indemnity for the Ameri- can lives" lost. — See also U. S. A.: 1915 (May- September); 191S (August); World War: 1915: XI. Politics and diplomacv: d. ARABIC LITERATURE.— Its characteris- tics. — "Of no civilization is the complexion of its literary remains so characteristic of its varying fortunes as is that of the Arabic. The precarious conditions of desert life and of the tent, the more certain existence in settled habitations, the gran- deur of empire acquired in a short period of en- thusiastic rapture, the softening influence of luxury and unwonted riches, are so faithfully portrayed in the literature of the .^rabs as to give us a pic- ture of the spiritual life of the people which no mere massing of facts can ever give. Well aware of this themselves, the .•Xrabs at an early dake com- menced the collection and preservation of their old literary monuments with a care and a studious concern which must excite within us a feeling of wonder. For the material side of life must have made a strong appeal to these people when they came forth from their desert homes. Pride in their own doings, pride in their own past, must have spurred them on ; yet an ardent feeling for the beautiful in speech is evident from the begin- ning of their history. The first 'knowledge that we liave of the tribes scattered up and down the deserts and oases of the Arabian peninsula comes to us in the verses of their poets. The early Teu- ton bards, the rhapsodists of Greece, were not lis- tened to with more rapt attention than was the simple Bedouin, who, seated on his mat or at the door of his tent, gave vent to his feeling; of joy or sorrow in such manner as nature had gifted him. As are the ballads for Scottish history, so are the verses of these untutored bards the record of the life in which they played no mean part. Nor could the splendors of court life at Damascus, Bagdad, or Cordova make their rulers insensible to the charms of poetry, — that 'beautiful poetry with which Allah has adorned the Muslim.' \ verse happily said could always charm, a satire well appointed could always incite; and the true .Arab of to-day will listen to those so adorned with the same rapt attention as did his fathers of long ago. This gift of the desert — otherwise so sparing of its favors — has not failed to leave its impres- sion upon the whole Arabic literature. Though it has produced some prose writers of value, writing, as an art to charm and to please, has always sought the measured cadence of poetry or the un- measured symmetry of rhymed prose. . . . ".■\rabic poetry is thus entirely lyrical. There was too little, among these tribes, of the common national life which forms the basis for the Epos. The Semitic genius is too subjective, and has never gotten beyond the first rude attempts at dramatic composition. I^ven in its lyrics, Arabic poetry is still more subjective than the Hebrew of the Bible. . . . The horizon which bounded the .Arab poet's view was not far drawn out. He describes the scenes of his desert life: the sand dunes; the camel, antelope, wild ass, and gazelle; his bow and arrow and his sword; his loved one torn from him by the sudden striking of the tents and de- parture of her tribe. The virtues which he sings are those in which he glories, 'love of freedom, in- dependence in thought and action, truthfulness, largeness of heart, generosity, and hospitality.' His descriptions breathe the freshness of his out- door life and bring us close to nature ; his whole tone rings out a solemn note, which is even in his lighter moments grave and serious, — as existence itself was for those sons of the desert, who had no settled habitation, and who, more than any one, depended upon the bounty of Allah." — F. F. .\r- buthnot, Arabic authors, pp. 23-24. — See also Se- mitic LITER.\TURE. — "The oral communications of the ancient Egyptians, Medes and Persians, the two classic tongues of Europe, the Sanscrit of the Hindus and the Hebrew of the Jews, have long since ceased to be living languages. For the last twelve centuries no Western language has pre- served its grammar, its style, or its literature intact and intelligible to the people of the present day. But two Eastern tongues have come down from ages past to our own times, and continue to exist unchanged in books, and, to a certain extent, also unchanged in language, and these are Chinese and .Arabic. . . . The unchangeable character of the Ar.abic language is chiefly to be attributed to the Koran, which has, from its promulgation to the present time, been regarded by all Muhammedans as the standard of religion and of literary composi- tion. Strictly speaking, not only the history, but also the literature of the .Arabs begins with Muham- mad. Excepting the Mua'llakat, and other pre- Islnmitic poems collected in the Hamasas of .Abu Tammam and .Al-Bohtori, in Ibn Kutaiba and in the Mofaddhaliat, no literary monuments that pre- ceded his time are in existence. The Koran became^ 394 ARABIC LITERATURE ARABIC LITERATURE not only the code of religious and of civil law, but also the model of the Arabic language, and the standard of diction and eloquence. Muhammad himself scorned metrical rules; he claimed as an apostle and lawgiver a title higher than that of soothsayer and poet. Still, his poetic talent is manifest in numerous passages of the Koran, well known to those able to read it in the original, and in this respect the last twenty-five chapters of that book are, perhaps, the most remarkable. [See also Koran.] Although the power of the Arabs has long ago succumbed, their literature has survived, and their language is still more or less spoken in all Muhanimadan countries. Europe at one time was Ughtened by the torch of Arabian learning, and the Middle Ages were stamped with the genius and character of Arab civilization." — R. A. Nichol- son, Literary history of the Arabs, pp. xxi-xxii. Pre-Mohammedan literature. — 'The oldest monuments of written Arabic are modern in date compared with the Sabeean inscriptions, some of which take us back 2,500 years or thereabout. Apart from the inscriptions of Hijr in the north- ern Hijaz, and those of Safa in the neighbor hood of Damascus (which, although written by northern Arabs before the Christian era, exhibit a pecul- iar character not unike the Sabaean and cannot be called Arabic in the usual acceptation of the term), the most ancient examples of Arabic writing which have hitherto been discovered appear in the trilin- gual (Syriac, Greek, and Arabic) inscription of Zabad, south-east of Aleppo, dated 512 or 513 A. D., and the bilingual (Greek and Arabic) of Harran, dated 568 A. D. With these documents we need not concern ourselves further, especially as their interpretation presents great difficulties. Very few among the pre-Islamic Arabs were able to read or write. Those who could read or write generally owed their skill to Jewish and Christian teachers, or to the influence of foreign culture radi- ating from Hira and Ghassan. But although the Koran, which was first collected soon after the battle of Yamama (633 A. D.), is the oldest Arabic book, the beginnings of literary composition in the Arabic language can be traced back to an earlier period. Probably all the pre-Islamic poems which have come down to us belong to the century pre- ceding Islam (500-622 A. D.), but their elaborate form and technical perfection forbid the hypothesis that in them we have 'the first sprightly runnings' of Arabian song. It may be said of these magnifi- cent odes, as of the Iliad and Odyssey, that 'they are works of highly finished art, which could not possibly have been produced until the poetical art had been practised for a long time.' They were preserved during hundreds of years by oral tradi- tion . . . and were committed to writing, for the most part, by the Moslem scholars of the early Abbasid age, i. e., between 750 and goo A. D." — Ibid., pp. xxi-xxii. Influence of the Koran. — Mohammedan and later literature. — "None of the prose of those ancient times has come down to us. It was not written, and was, indeed, not reckoned of suf- ficient importance to merit such an honour. The researches of the Arab philologists give us some idea of what this very primitive stage of litera- ture must have been like. There were evening tales {samar) told under the nomads' tents, stories which were already being carried from town to town by the professional story-tellers, such as Nadr ibn Harith, of Mecca, who had learnt the fine legends of the ancient Persian kings at Hira, and by them gained a fame which at one moment counterbalanced that Mahomet owed to the Koran stories, drawn from the Bible. The battle of Bedr put an end to this dangerous competition. There were also the legendary and not at all trustworthy recitals of the Arab Days — tales of the great desert battles; proverbs, collected at a later date by philologists, and founded on forgotten incidents, frequently incomprehensible, and explained by purely imaginary comments and allocutions, whose makers flattered themselves they would impress the minds of their fellow-creatures. All these go to make up the elements of a literary art of which we possess no written specimens, but which was eventually to undergo a great development."— C. Huart, History of Arabic literature, pp. 31-32. — "With the rise of the Abbassidcs (750), that 'God- favored dynasty,' Arabic literature entered upon its second great development ; a development which may be distinguished from that of the Umayyids (which was Arabian) as, in the very truth, Mu- hammadan. With Bagdad as the capital, it was rather the non-Arabic Persians who held aloft the torch than the Arabs descended from Kureish. It was a bold move, this attempt to weld the old Persian civilization with the new Muhanimadan. Yet so great was the power of the new faith that it succeeded. The Barmecide major-domo ably seconded his Abbasside master; the glory of both rests upon the interest they took in art, literature, and science. The Arab came in contact with a new world. Under Mansiir (754), Harun al-Rashid (786), and Ma'mun (813), the wisdom of the Greeks in philosophy and science, the charms of Persia and India in wit and satire, were opened up to enlightened eyes. Upon all of these, what- ever their nationality, Islam had imposed the Arab tongue, pride in the faith and in its early history. 'Qur'an' exegesis, philosophy, law, history, and science were cultivated under the very eyes and at the bidding of the Palace. And at least for several centuries, Europe was indebted to the cul- ture of Bagdad for what it knew of mathematics, astronomy, and philosophy. The Arab muse profited with the rest of this revival. History and philoso- phy, as a study, demanded a close acquaintance with the products of early Arab genius. The great philologian al-Asmai (740-831) collected the songs and tales of the heroic age ; and a little later, with other than philological ends in view, Abu Tamman and al-Buchturi (816-913) made the first antholo- gies of the old Arabic literatures (Hamasah). Poetry was already cultivated: and amid the hun- dreds of wits, poets, and singers who thronged the entrance to the court, there are many who claim real poetic genius. . . . During the third period — from Ma'mun (813), under whom the Turkish body-guards began to wield their baneful influence, until the break-up of the Abbasside Empire in 1258 — there are many names, but few real poets, to be mentioned. . . . Withal, the taste for poetic composition grew, though it produced a smaller number of great poets. But it also usurped for itself fields which belong to entirely different liter- ary forms. Grammar, lexicography, philosophy, and theology were expounded in verse; but the verse was formal, stiff, and unnatural. Poetic com- position became a tour de force. ■ ■ . Such tales as these, told as an exercise of linguistic gymnas- tics, must not blind us to the presence of real tales, told for their own sake. Arabic literature has been very prolific in these. They lightened the graver subjects discussed in the tent, — philoso- phy, religion, and grammar, — and they furnished entertainment for the more boisterous assemblies in the coffee-houses and around the bowl. For the .'\rab is an inveterate story-teller; and in nearly all the prose that he writes, this character of the 'teller* shimmers clearly through the work of the 395 ARACAUNO INDIANS ARAGON 'writer.' He is an elegant narrator. Not only does he intersperse verses and lines more frequently than our own taste would license; by nature, he easily falls into the half-hearted poetry of rhymed prose, for which the rich assonances of his lan- guage pre-dispose him. His own learning was further cultivated by his early contact with Per- sian literature; through which the fable and the wisdom of India spoken from the mouths of dumb animals reached him. . . . Nor were the Arabs wanting in their own peculiar 'Romances,' influ- enced only in some portions of the setting by Per- sian ideas. Such were the 'Story of Saif ibn dhi Yazan,' the 'Tale of al-Zir,' the 'Romance of Dalhmah,' and esp)ecially the 'Romance of Antar' and the 'Thousand Nights and A Night.' The last two romances are excellent commentaries on Arab life, at its dawn and at its fullness, among the roving chiefs of the desert and the homes of revelry in Bagdad. . . . Though the Arab delights to hear and to recount tales, his tales are generally short and pithy. It is in this shorter form that he de- lights to inculcate principles of morality and norms of character. He is most adroit at repartee and pungent replies. He has a way of stating principles which delights while it instructs. The anecdote is at home in the East: many a favor is gained, many a punishment averted, by a ciuick answer and a felicitously turned expression. Such anecdotes exist as popular traditions in very large numbers, and he receives much consideration whose mind is well stocked with them. Collections of anecdotes have been put in writing from time to time. Those dealing with the early history of the caliphate are among the best prose that the Arabs have produced." — C. D. Warner, ed.. Library of the world's best literature, v. 2, pp. 669-675. — See also Mohammedanism. ARACAUNO INDIANS. See Pampas tribes. ARACHOTI, a people who dwelt anciently in the Valley of the Arghandab, or Urgundab, in east- ern Afghanistan. Herodotus gave them the tribal name of "Pactyes," and the modern .Afghans, who call themselves "Pashtun" and "Pakhtun," signi- fying "mountaineers," are probably derived from them. — M. Duncker, History of antiquity, bk. 7, ch. I. ARACID DYNASTY. See Armenia: 387-600. ARAD, temporary capital of Hungary. See Hungary: 1847-1840. ARADUS, or Arvad. See Ruad. ARAGO, Dominique Frangois Jean (1786- 1853), French astronomer and physicist. Made important contributions to astronomy and to our knowledge of magnetism, galvanism and polariza- tion of light ; discovered the development of mag- netism by rotation ; as a Republican, took part in the revolution of 1830, was :i member of the Chamber of Deputies on the extreme Left; min- ister of war and marine in the provisional govern- ment of 1848; opposed the election of Louis Na- poleon. ARAGON. — The kingdom of .\ragon which was one of the important independent states of West- ern Europe during the Middle .Ages, lay in the northeastern part of the Iberian peninsula. In the eleventh century, it had already acquired a po- sition of considerable importance through its ex- pansion, at the expense of the Moors. In 1076, by the annexation of the kingdom of Navarre, Aragon became perhaps the strongest Christian state in Spain. In the reign of .Alfonso I (1104-11.^4) oc- curred the capture of Saragossa (1T18) which now became the capital of the kingdom. Disputes over the succession to the crown distracted the kingdom for manv vears after the dealh of Alfonso But in the reign of Alfonso II the important union of Aragon and Catalonia took place (11 64). In the course of the next few years Alfonso acquired ex- tensive dominions in southern France though the natural frontiers, especially the Pyrenees, inter- fered with the real union of the French and Span- ish elements in Alfonso's dominions. In 1x79, he made a treaty with the King of Castile, by which the two sovereigns agreed upon their respective spheres of influence. "The reign of Pedro II (11Q6-1213) was troubled by the religious disturbances in the French part of his dominion. Southern France was, at this time, perhaps the most civilized part of Europe, but was kept in a state of political distraction through the turbulance of the nobility and the ambition of the kings of France to extend their authority over this region. By the end of the twelfth century the Albigenian heresy had secured a foothold in the country and was accepted by the majority of the inhabitants and this was to in- volve Pedro in a conflict with the redoubtable Simon de Montfort who was engaged in the pious and lucrative exercise of punishing heresy and seizing the rich lands of the heretical nobility. "In 1 2 13 the wicked and bloody, Albigensian Crusade seemed drawing toward its end. The vic- torious Crusaders had reduced their chief enemy, the Count of Toulouse, and his allies the Counts of Foix and the Comminges, to the lowest depths of despair: there hardly remained anything to con- quer save the towns of Toulouse and Montauban, and the majority of the victors were already turn- ing homeward, leaving Simon de Montfort and the knights whom he had enfeoffed on the con- quered land to deal the last blow at the exhausted enemy. At this moment a new actor suddenly appeared upon the scene. The King of Aragon had long possessed a broad domain in Languedoc, and looked with jealousy upon the establishment of a new North-French power upon his borders. Car- cassonne and other smaller places which owed him homage had been stormed and plundered by the Crusaders: Ihey sheltered themselves under the plea of religion, and King Peter had long been loth to intervene, lest he should be accused of taking the side of the heretics. But as it grew more and more obvious that the war was being waged to build up a kingdom for Simon de Mont- fort rather than to extirpate the Albigenses, he de- termined at last to interfere. His vassals had been slain, his towns harried, and he had every excuse for taking arms against the Crusaders. Accord- ingly he concluded a formal alliance with the Counts of Toulouse and Foix, and promised to cross the Pyrenees to their aid with a thousand men-at-arms. He spent some months in preparing his host, mortgaged royal estates and pawned his jewels to raise money, and finally appeared near Toulouse in the month of September with the promised contingent. Most of his followers were drawn from Catalonia ; his .Aragonese subjects showed little liking for the expedition, fearing that they might be sinning against Christendom by lending aid to heretics. At the news of Peter's approach the men of Languedoc took arms on all sides, and the Counts of Toulouse and Foix were soon able to assemble a large army beneath their banners. They stormed Pujols, the nearest hos- tile garrison, and slew sixty of De Montfort's fol- lowers. The whole countryside was with them, and Simon's newly-won realm seemed likely to dis- appear in a moment." — C. Oman, History of the art of war, pp. 448-44Q.— "In a few moments the fight was over: King Peter was recognised and slain by a band of Crusaders, who had sworn be- 396 ARAGON ARANJUEZ fore the fight to mark him down and stoop at no meaner prey. The most faithful of the knights of his household fell around him. the rest dispersed and fled in all directions. The slaughter was great, for the victors gave little quarter to heretics, and the prisoners were much less numerous than the dead." — Ibid., pp. 455-456. — See also Albigenses: 1210-1213. "After the death of Pedro II, the succession of the crown fell to James I, the conqueror (1213- 1276). The first years of his reign were troubled by civil wars but by 1228 he was in secure posses- sion of the throne. His first conquest was the Island of Majorca which had been, for many years, a thorn in the side of the Catalans and was now a strong center ol Moslem power. This con- quest was achieved in i2 2g and in six more years all the Balearic Isles were in his possession. Soon after the conquest of the rich province of Valencia was undertaken and by 1228 was completed by the capture of the city of Valencia. In the years 1265-1266, the King of Aragon effected the con- quest of Nurcia for the King of Castile. (See also Albigenses: 1217-1229; Spain: 1212-1238.) "Jaime was not only a great conqueror; he was also a great administrator. Owing to the entry of feudalism into northeastern Spain his nobles had such power that even the able Jaime was obliged often to compromise or to yield to their wishes. He took steps to reduce their power, at the cost of civil war, and in many other respects bettered the administration of his kingdom. ... In 1276 when the great king died he left a will which con- tradicted the policies of centralization and the aggrandizement of the kingdom which in his life- time he had unfailingly pursued. He divided his realms, giving Aragon, Catalonia, and Valencia to his eldest son, Pedro, and Majorca and the Rous- sillon (in southern France) to his son Jaime. The division was not to endure long, however." — C. E. Chapman, History of Spain, p. 82. — See also Cata- lonia: 7T2-IIQA; Spain: 1035-1258. 1133.— Beginning of popular representation in the Cortes. — Monarchical constitution. See Cortes: Early Spanish. 1164. — United with Catalonia. Sec Catalonia: 712-11Q6. 1218-1238. — Conquest of Balearic Islands. — Subjugation of Valencia. See Spain: 1212-1238. 1282. — Claims to kingdom of Two Sicilies. See Italy (Southern): 12S2-1300. 1301-1523. — Taxation through Cortes. See Cortes: Early Spanish. 1410-1475. — Castilian dynasty. — Marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella of Castile. See Spain: 1368-147Q. 1412-1447.— Defeat of Angevins. See Italy: 1412-1447- 1442-1521. — Union with Navarre. See Na- varre: 1442-1521. 1469-1492. — War with Florence. See Florence: 1460-1402 1501-1504.— Desire for partition of Naples : Quarrel with France. See Italy: 1501-1504. 1511. — Holy League against France. Sec Italy: i 510- i 513. 1516.— United to Castile by Joanna, mother of Charles V. See Spain: 1406-1517. 1809. — Siege of Gerona. See Spain: iSoq (Feb- ruary-June). ARAGON, House of: Control of Catalans during 14th century. See Catalan Grand Com- pany. ARAICU INDIANS. See Guck or Coco GROITP. ARAK IBRAHIM. — Taken by the British (igi8). See Wori,d War: 1918: VI. Turkish the- ater: c, 1. ARAKAN, Lower Burma; taken by the Eng- lish in 1826. See India: 1823-1813. ARAKCHEEV, Aleksyei Andreevich, Count (1769-1834), Russian soldier and statesman. Hon- ored by two Tsars, Paul and Alexander, for his ability and devotion; an expert artillery officer; was largely responsible for Russian victories in the Napoleonic wars and for Russia's conquest of Finland, in the Swedish war of i8og. ARAM. See Arabia: Ancient succession and fusion of races. ARAMAEANS, or Arameans, a branch of the Semites, who became very powerful in Syria about icoo B.C.; they earlier inhabited the north- ern border of Palestine. This people carried on age-long disputes over the land east of the Jordan. Damascus was their principal city and was taken from them by David, to be restored by Solomon. The city was later conquered by Assyria. The Aramaean language became the common tongue in Syria and Palestine. — See also Hittites ; Semites ; Syria: B.C. 64-63; ftLPHABLT; Theories of origin and development. ARAMAEO-ARABS: Roman colonies among the Arabs. See Syria: B.C. 64-63. ARAMAIC LANGUAGE. See Jews: Lan- guage and literature; Semitic literature; Syria: B.C. 64-63. ARAMBEC. See Norumbega. ARAN ISLANDS, three small barren islands in Galway bay, off the west coast of Ireland. The life is exceedingly primitive and the entire popu- lation very poor, for the only means of livelihood is fishing. Gaelic costumes, language and customs are here preserved to a remarkable degree. The islands are famous for the number of antiquities they contain, the best known being that of Dun- Aengus, a fortress tower supposed to have been built in the first century A. D. The islands are the scene of several plays, particularly "Riders to the Sea," by John Millington Synge, who made four or five visits to them. It is from his account that the following quotation is taken. "There are three islands: .^ranmor [or Inishmorl, the north island, about nine miles long; Inishmaan, the middle island, about three miles and a half across, and nearly round in form; and the south island, Inishere — in Irish, east island, — like the middle island but slightly smaller. They lie about thirty miles from Galway, up the centre of the bay, but they are not far from the cliffs of County Clare, on the south, or the corner of Connemara on the north. Kilronan, the principal vil- lage on Aranmor, has been much changed by the fishing industry. The other islands are more primitive, but even on them many changes are being made." — J. M. Synge, Aran Islands, pp. 11-12. ARANDA, Pedro Pablo Abarca de Bolea, Count of (1719-1798), Spanish statesman and general of the period of "enlightened despotism." Commanded the army against Portugal 1763; in T764 became governor of Valencia. As president of the council from 1766 to 1773 (see Sp.mn: 17S9- 178S) he restored order and expelled the Jesuits (see also Jesuits: 1757-1773); ambassador to Paris until 1787; prime minister under Charles IV for a brief time. ARANJUEZ, town and royal residence of Spain, on the Tagus in New Castile, about thirty miles south of Madrid. It is noted for its beau- tiful parks and gardens. The treaty between France and Spain was signed here in 1772 The uprising of the populace in 1808 led to the ab- 397 ARAPAHOE INDIANS ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL dication of Charles I\' and his flight into France, accompanied by the Queen and Godov. ARAPAHOE INDIANS. See 'Algonquian (Algo.nkix) family; Indians, American: Cultural areas in North America: Plains area; also 1865- 1S76; Pawnee family; Shoshonean family; Wy- oming: 1851-1865. ARAR, the ancient name of the river Saone in France. ARARAT, the name given to the high peak of the .■\rmenian plateau, rising 17,000 feet above sea level; according to one tradition, the landing place of Xoah's ark. See Alakodians; Armenia: B.C. 585-55. ARARUD. See Al.akodlans. ARAS, .Armenian river. See Araxes. ARASON, Jon (1484-1551, the last Roman Catholic bishop in Iceland. A celebrated poet of his day, he introduced the art of printing in that island. ARATUS (271-213 B.C.), Greek statesman, born at Sicyon, which he delivered from the rul- ing tyrant and enrolled in the Achaean League; as general of the League, won over Corinth, Megal- opolis and Argos. His success in making the League a weapon against tyrants and foreign foes was undone by his opposition to demo- cratic reforms. Sec Ach.ean League; Alexan- dria: B.C. 282-241: Culture; Greece: B.C. 280- 146. ARAUCA (Arawak) INDIANS. See Caries; Indians, American: Cultural areas in South Amer- ica: -Amazon area. ARAUCANIAN INDIANS. See Chile: Ab- origines; Indians, America: Cultural areas in South .America: Pampean area. ARAUCANIAN WAR OF INDEPEND- ENCE. See Chile: 1535-1724. ARAUSIO, a Roman colony, was founded by .'\ugustus at Arausio, which is represented in name and site by the modern town of Orange, in the department of Vaucluse, France, eighteen miles north of Avignon. — P. Godwin, History of France; Ancient Gaul, bk. 2, cli. 5. Battle of Arausio (B.C. 105). See Cimbri and Teuiones: B.C. 113-101. ARAVISCI AND OSI.— "Whether ... the Aravisci migrated into Pannonia from the Osi, a German race, or whether the Osi came from the Aravisci into Germany, as both nations still re- tain the same language, institutions and customs, is a doubtful matter. The locality of the Ara- visci was the extreme north-eastern part of the province of Pannonia, and would thus stretch from Vienna (Vindobona), eastwards to Raab (.\rrabo), taking in a portion of the south-west of Hungary. . . . The Osi seem to have dwelt near the sources of the Oder and the Vistula. They would thus have occupied a part of Gallicia." — Tacitus, Ger- many. ARAWAK (Arauaca) INDIANS. See Caribs; Indians, American: Cultural areas in South Amer- ica: .Amazon area. ARAXES. — This name seems to have been ap- plied to a number of Asiatic streams in ancient times, but is connected most prominently with an .Armenian river, now called the .\ras, which flows into the Caspian. AREAS, Battle of (581).— One of the battles of the Romans with the Persians in which the for- mer suffered defeat. ARBE, island in the Adriatic, part of northern Dalmatia, promised to territory of Croatia, Serbia, and Montenegro, by Treaty of London. See Lon- don, Treaty' or pact of. ARBELA, or Gaugamela, Battle of (331 B.C.). See M.acedonia: B. C. 334-330. ARBELEST: Its use in warfare. See Long- bow. , ARBILITIS. See Adwbene. ARBITRATION: Defined.— Its place in law. See Common law: 1Q11-1921. ARBITRATION, IndustriaL See Arbitration AND conciliation, INDUSTRIAL. ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL "The decision of disputes by international arbitra- tion is a question of rapidly increasing importance, especially in view of the growing agitation for in- ternational peace. It is a mode of settling dis- putes between two or more states by submitting the controversy to the ultimate decision of third parties. This is done by a form of treaty, which provides for the appointment of the arbitrators, rules of procedure, and all other matters necessary to the arbitration. The award of the arbitrators is as binding upon the parties as any treaty obliga- tion, and the United States courts have held that the finding of a court of arbitration will be given the same effect in courts as a regular treaty. The award may be avoided when the tribunal has clearly exceeded its powers as conferred by the treaty of arbitration, when the decision is an open denial of justice, when the award has been secured through fraud or corruption, and when the terms of the finding are equivocal." — A. B. Hall. Outline of international law, p. 64. — See also Treaties, Making and termination of: Forms of interna- tional contract. — "A host of support could be marshalled for the contention that arbitral settle- ment is one and the same thing as judicial settle- ment, the distinction being not between law and arbitration, but between arbitration and mediation. The authorities have been collected by Balrh in an article entitled 'Arbitration' as a Term of Inter- national Law wherein the use of the term in in- ternational law as opposed to municipal law is traced. He finds little support for the theory that international arbitration is a system of compro- mise. He quotes Pufendorf, Kliiber, Rolin-Jac- quemyns, Renault, Westlake, and Martens, all to the same effect as John Bassett Moore, who says [History and digest of international arbitrations, 1'. 5. P- 5042], 'It is important, from the practical as well as the theoretical side of the matter, to keep in view the distinction between arbitration and mediation — a distinction either not understood or else lost sight of by many who have under- taken to discuss the one subject or the other. Me- diation is an advisory, arbitration a judicial, func- tion. Mediation recommends, arbitration de- cides.' "— F. C. Hicks, AVti' world order, pp. 152- 153. — See also International law. ANCIENT TIMES "As early as the seventh century before Christ the Greeks had already adopted the idea of arbi- trating boundary questions and other disputes which arose between the different city-states. These must be regarded as real cases of inter- state arbitration because the city-states con- cerned were, in the earlier period, politically in- dependent and approximately equal in military .^98 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL strength. In the period after the formation of the Hellenic League their freedom of independent ac- tion was, of course, curtailed. Philip of Macedon and Alexander made a conscious and apparent at- tempt to have the numerous disputes of the Greek states settled by arbitral decisions, using the Gen- eral Council of the Hellenic League in the work. Under the Hellenistic kings who succeeded Alex- ander, many of the Greek states retained complete freedom and others a measure of their old inde- pendence in their foreign relations. The Aetolian and Achaean Leagues acknowledged the principle and resorted to the use of arbitration. — [See also AcH-EAN League.] We may, therefore, regard the cases decided in that period as faUing under the head of pure arbitration. With the advent of Rome and the ascendancy of the Roman senate in the affairs of the eastern Mediterranean, the ba'ance of power had so markedly shifted to the senate that it becomes increasingly difficult to de- termine where arbitration ends and dictation to inferior and semi-dependent powers begins. It is safe to say that real arbitration between the Greek city-states ceased after 146 B.C." — G. W. Bots- ford and E. G. Sihler, Hellenic civilization, p. 579. —"In ancient times, when war constituted the normal state of peoples and the foreigner was everywhere treated as an enemy, arbitrations were necessarily rare, and we do not find either a gen- eral system or harmonious rules governing the sub- ject. There were a few cases of arbitration in the East and in Greece, but the mode of procedure was not suited to the temperament of the people, and, after the peace of Rome was established, with the civilized world under one government, there was no place for it, since arbitration presupposes a conflict between independent states." — M. A. Mer- ignhac, Traite theorigue el pratique de I'arbitrage international. Also in: M. N. Tod, International arbitration amongst the Greeks. MIDDLE AGES "In the Middle Ages, owing to the peaceful [and powerful] influence of the church, arbitrations were more frequent, and yet their influence was far from producing all the results which might have been expected, perhaps because Europe was then divided into a great number of petty states, or because the rude manners of the period were intolerant of the idea of conciliation. . . . The popes by degrees accepted the idea that they were placed above sovereigns and were the representa- tives of God on earth. In virtue of their divine power the Roman pontiffs, recognized everywhere as the delegates of God, from whom all sovereignty emanates, constituted themselves judges of alt cases and evoked to their tribunal all differences between peoples and kings. Innocent III. declared that the pope was the sovereign mediator on earth. . . . The principle of pontifical sovereignty had so en- tered into the manners of the times that popes were often chosen also as voluntary arbitrators. It has sometimes been said that their intervention, whether spontaneous or specially invoked, was more frequently employed in matters of private interest and internal policy, than of actual inter- national conflict. This may have been so in many instances, but it cannot be denied that they were also called upon to decide litigations much more important, as certain examples will readily show. Popes Alexander III., Honorius III., John XXII., Gregory XI. were chosen as arbitrators in quar- rels which agitated Europe ; and Pope Alexander VI., by a decision of arbitration which is still cele- brated, traced an imaginary line from pole to pole, dividing between the Spaniards and the Portuguese the possession of all countries discovered in the new world. And even after the schism of England, when the Papacy had lost Teutonic and Gallo- Teutonic Europe, and when Gallo-Romanic Europe was itself formed, the prestige of the popes was still so great that it forced itself on the Poles and the Muscovites. But acts of opposition, which began to appear on the part of kings before the i6th century, were accentuated after that time, and the choice of the pope as arbitrator became less frequent. . . . Beside the religious influence of the popes, we should place, as having con- tributed during the Middle Ages to the development of arbitration, feudalism, which, while extending itself over all Europe, naturally predisposed vassals to accept their lords as judges of their respective grievances. The most eminent of these lords, the kings, were often chosen as arbitrators, chiefly the kings of France. Saint Louis was constituted judge between Henry III. of England and his barons, in 1263, and between the counts of Luxemburg and of Bar, in 126S. Owing to his great wisdom and to the authority of his character, Louis IX., says M. Lacointa, rivalled the Papacy in the role of con- ciliator and arbitrator. Philip VI., Charles V., Charles VII., and Louis XI. were all chosen as ar- bitrators. The other monarchs of Europe filled the role, though not so often, notably the kings of England, Henry II. and William III. But the commission of arbitration was not generally con- fided to sovereigns from whom were apprehended attempts at absolute domination. . . . Occasionally a city assumed the duties of arbitrator, but such occasions were rare. . . . The parliaments of France, renowned for their wisdom and equity, were chosen to settle disputes between foreign sovereigns. Besides popes, kings, cities, and great constituted bodies, we may mention commissions of arbitration instituted by parties in proportions fixed in advance and invested with full power over particular subjects. . . . The doctors of the Italian universities of Perugia and Padua, and particularly of the celebrated University of Bologna, were, says Wheaton, on account of their fame and their knowledge of law, often employed as diplomatists or arbitrators, to settle conflicts between the dif- ferent states of Italy. . . . Under the influence of religious and feudal ideas arbitrations were very frequent in the Middle Ages, which afford the re- markable spectacle of conciliation and peace mak- ing their way amid the most warlike populations that have ever existed. They were especially fre- quent in Italv, where in the 13th century there were not less than a hundred between the princes and inhabitants of that country. But when the Papacy had renounced its rule over civil society, and absolute monarchies gradually became estab- lished in Europe on the ruins of feudalism, arbi- trations became more rare. They diminished dur- ing the course of the 14th and isth centuries, and it is stated that from the end of the i6th centuVy till the French Revolution they had almost dis- appeared from international usage. ... If we should trv to find judicial rules that governed ar- bitration in the different periods at which we have glanced, we should discover that they did not present great stabiHty. . . . The procedure, also, varied according to the case, but it usually afforded certain guarantees and was invested with a certain judicial aspect. . . . The arbitral clause, or stipula- tion for the arbitration of difficulties that may arise, does not appear to have been frequent in the Middle Ages, or in later times, though we have had occasion to cite some examples of it. It seems, 399 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL however, to have been in use between the com- mercial cities of Italy. Vattel relates that the Swiss, in the alliances which they contracted, whether among themselves or with foreign peoples, had recourse to it; and he justly praised them for it. We may cite two applications of it in the case of the cities of Italy and the Swiss Cantons. In a treaty of alliance concluded in 123S, between Genoa and Venice, there is an article which reads thus: 'If a difficulty should arise between the aforesaid cities, which cannot easily be settled by themselves, it shall be decided by the arbitration of the Sovereign Pontiff; and if one of the parties violate the treaty, we agree that His Holiness shall excommunicate the offending city.' " — M. A. Mer- inghac, Traite theorique et pratique de I'arbitrage international. — The above is translated from the French and quoted by Prof. John Bassett Moore, in his History and digest of the international arbi- trations to which the U . S. has been a party," v. J, App. 3 (House of R. Mis. Doc. 212, 53 Cong., 2d Sess.). MODERN PERIOD The period of the absolute monarchies did not further the use of arbitration, but with the rise of modern states, built as they are upon a com- plexity of economic and social interdependence that constantly increases as the means of com- munication increase, arbitration has become a prac- tical and accepted necessity. The tremendous eco- nomic cost of war has strengthened the case of the many humanitarians who support the societies and conventions of the Peace Movement (q. v.) and who urge arbitration as the basis of peace. For the most part, the reformers have set before themselves the ideal of an international tribunal possessing, if not compulsory jurisdiction, at least such moral weight that resort to its award, except in case of extreme necessity, may become a duty of customary obligation. This is an admirable ideal, and the progress now made towards it is considerable, when we remember how lately the most that seemed practicable was a vague sugges- tion of appeal to the good offices of some friendly third power. But we must not forget that arbi- tration in any form is only an instrument for settling disputes, and is not equally appropriate in all cases. It is not safe to -assume that all questions between sovereign states are analogous to those which cause litigation between individuals, and that no difficulty remains in the way of judi- cial solution if once an adequate judicial authority can be found. This is far from being so. Tjrpes and methods of arbitration. — "Interna- tional controversies may be divided, for the pur- pose in hand, into four classes. .... In the first are such as relate to boundaries and territorial rights, including the construction of any treaties or other authentic documents bearing on such rights. Here we have almost a perfect analogy to cases between private owners. The main problem is to find an arbitrator, board of arbitrators, or standing tribu- nal, whose decision will command the respect of both parties. . . . Moreover, it may be said of these cases, as of similar cases in men's private affairs, that a decision arrived at by competent persons after argument is more likely to be just in itself and, what is more, satisfactory to the parties, than a compromise arrived at by direct negotiation. We may place in the same category with boundary settlements, though in a less im- portant rank, the adjustment of pecuniary claims by subjects of one State against the Government of another, arising out of transactions or events as to which no matter of principle is in dispute. Such claims have often been dealt with by joint Commissions proceeding in a more or less judicial manner, and there is seldom much difficulty about them, though the justice ultimately done is not always prompt. Here there is still a good deal of analogy to the ordinary civil business of municipal Courts. A second class of controversies turns on alleged breach or non-performance of active ob- ligations arising out of the interpretation of treaties or official declarations, or out of the common cus- tomary duty of nations in particular circumstances, as -where a breach of neutrality or excess in the exercise of a belligerent's rights against neutrals is complained of. ... A third class of cases is that which is analogous to civil actions for wrongs. Here, a sovereign State, for the most part repre- senting individual grievances and claims of its sub- jects, though not always or necessarily so, seeks compensation for harm caused to innocent per- sons, as owners of property or otherwise, by the incidents of warlike operations or civil disorder within the jurisdiction of the State to which the complaint is addressed; by denial of justice to its subjects in that jurisdiction ; by alleged illegal or excessive proceedings of that other State's officers; or by acts done under colour of exercising some in- ternational right, but alleged to be a manifest abuse. Arbitral proceedings and awards have been of great use in these cases, but chiefly when the rules to be applied have been already agreed upon by the parties or are otherwise too plain for serious dispute. Very difficult and delicate ques- tions arise when an aribtrator or arbitral com- mission has to consider whether acts done, perhaps, in a remote quarter of the world and under a foreign system of public law and legislation are to be deemed illegal or in the nature of unfriendly conduct. To whatever class a settled claim be- longed in its inception, it would not be possible, without enormous labour, to say with any certainty what proportion of such claims have in substance been incident to the working out of former agree- ments, or otherwise mere items in a series of diplo- matic transactions, or what proportion of the resi- due were in themselves capable of leading to serious trouble between the nations concerned. But it may be observed as to doubts of this kind: first, that accumulation of unsettled differences is a source of risk directly and indirectly, though they may be individually small; secondly, that the pre- vention of war between powerful States, or the termination of dangerous recrimination and ill- will, is much to have been accomplished even in a few cases. It is true that Governments submit to arbitration only when they do not want to fight; but it is also true that peaceful intentions are not always easy to carry out in the face of excited public opinion, and the existence of a known pro- cedure which provides an honourable way of ac- commodation may make all the difference. There are moments when any expedient is good if only it serves to gain time. But the following classifi- cation may be useful. Nearly 200 cases of arbi- tration between 1815 and the end of the nineteenth century are collected in Mr. W. Evans Darby's International Tribunals. Omitting from the total the cases (nearly 10 per cent.) in which the pro- ceedings were only after hostilities, were not of a juridical character, led to no decision, or vyere not between independent States, a rough analysis shows the remaining effective arbitrations to fall into the following groups: — questions of title and bounda- ries, about 30 per cent. ; pecuniary claims of citizens in miscellaneous civil matters, about 20 per cent.; construction of treaties (other than boundary), 400 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL about 10 per cent.; claims arising out of warlike operations and for alleged illegal proceedings, or denial of justice, about 40 per cent. . . . There re- mains a fourth kind of differences between States, and the most dangerous; those which do not ad- mit of reduction to definite issues at all. . . . Con- tests for supremacy or predominant influence are not disposed of by argument, in whatever shape they are disguised; indeed, the Powers concerned are usually less willing to invite or tolerate inter- ference in proportion as the formal cause of quar- rel is weak. . . . Only one remedy would be quite effectual, namely, that a coalition of Powers of superior collective strength should be prepared to enforce the principles which now stand unani- mously acknowledged by the Second Peace Con- ference of the Hague. A certain number of minor wars have already been prevented, or kept within bounds, by influence of this kind; but the benc- ficient arts of diplomacy as hitherto practised have certainly not lost their importance in maintaining peace among the Great Powers. It is a grave mis- take to depreciate them, as unthinking or ignorant enthusiasts for arbitration have sometimes done. They have probably been successful in our own time oftener and on more critical occasions than the Governments concerned have yet thought it wise to make public. . . . Broadly speaking, there are two methods of international arbitration, and subdivisions of procedure within each of them. First, the parties may refer the matter in difference to a judge or judges of their own choice, in pur- suance of a standing treaty or a special convention for the case in hand. The arbiter may be the ruler of a third State, or a tribunal composed of persons named by the parties directly, or in part by friendly Governments at their joint request. Secondly, the States concerned may prefer to use the machinery provided by a standing international agreement of more general scope." — F. Pollock, Modern law of nations (Cambridge Modern His- tory, pp. 716-71Q). The lead in developing the principle of arbitra- tion has been taken by United States and Great Britain. The two governments have intermittently advanced proposals for an Anglo-United States arbitral treaty since the time of William Jay's pro- posal (1842)' and that of John Bright (1887).— See also Diplomatic and consular service; Peace MOVEMENT. 1794. — Jay treaty. — The treaty between United States and Great Britain, negotiated by John Jay in 1704, which referred several questions to arbi- tration, may be said to have paved the way for the revival of modern arbitration. By this treaty three mixed commissions were provided: one to settle the boundary along the St. Croix river; one to settle the question of contraband, prizes, and rights of neutrals; and one to decide upon the compensation due Great Britain for the violation of the peace treaty (1783) by the states in pre- venting the collection of debts due British creditors. See U. S. .\ : 1704. 1814.— Treaty of Ghent. — Three commissions were provided to arbitrate between the United States and Great Britain: one to settle the owner- ship of islands in the Bay of Fundy and Passama- quoddy Bay; a second to settle the boundary be- tween the St. Croix and the St. Lawrence; a third to settle the boundary between U. S. and Canada along the middle of the Great Lakes to the Lake of the Woods. 1818. — Agreement between United States and Great Britain regarding restoration of slaves. — The question regarding the restoration of slaves taken by the British from their possessions up to the signing of the treaty of Ghent was referred to the Emperor of Russia who judged that the United States was entitled to compensation. 1819.— Treaty of Florida.— United States agreed to settle by arbitration her claims against Spain during her occupation of Florida. 1827. — North-Eastern boundary question. — The United States and Great Britain agreed to ar- bitrate this question, but later the United States refused to accept the award of the King of Ihe Netherlands who was chosen arbitrator. The question was compromised by the Webster-Ash- burton treaty. 1831. — Settlement of claims between United States and France. — The two countries agreed to arbitrate the claims of United States citizens for losses at sea during the Napoleonic wars, the claim to commercial privileges under the Louisiana Cession Treaty and the French Beaumarchais claim. 1835. — Compromise between Russia and Great Britain regarding claims in North America. See Oregon: 1741-1836. 1855.— "Reserved Fisheries Rights."— This question was settled by a mixed commission agreed upon between Great Britain and the United States. Privileges renounced in 1818 of taking and curing fish in unsettled bays and harbors along the Cana- dian shore were renewed. 1856. — Creation of Commission of the Danube. See Danube: 1850-1916. 1871-1872. — Alabama claims. — "The arbitra- tion between Great Britain and the United States on the claims generically known as the Alabama claims, for damage done by the Confederate cruis- ers equipped or harboured in British ports during the American Civil War, was provided for by (he Treaty of Washington of 1871; the award was made by a composite tribunal sitting at Geneva in 1872. This case is commonly said to have given great encouragement to the promoters of interna- tional arbitration, and cited as a kind of preroga- tive instance. An admirable example was certainly set by the determination of the two Powers to come to an understanding, and by the skill and lact of the diplomatists who settled the Treaty under anything but favourable conditions. The immediate effect in England was certainly not to increase the favour in which international arbi- tration was held; nor could it well be disputed, in the result, that the damages were excessive, since the balance for which no claimants could be found was left in the hands of the United States. Never- theless, a fruitful example remained. A dispute between two Powers of the first rank, which, rea- sonably or not, had in fact become acute and even dangerous, was reduced to terms of judicial com- pensation without loss of honour on either side. Perfection was not to be looked for in an experi- ment of such novelty. . . ." — F. Pollock, Modern law of nations (Cambridge modern history, pp. 720-721). — See also Alabama Claims: 1871-1872. 1884. — Berlin Act. See Berlin Act. 1889-1890. — Inter-Parliamentary Union for International Arbitration established. — In 1880 there was held in Paris the first meeting of the Inter-Parliamentary LTnion (founded in 1887) for International Arbitration (q. v.), an association composed of members or former members of the legislatures of the world. In this body centered the activities of the promoters of an international court and the Hague Tribunal was largely a re- sult of these activities. The year 1889 also saw the initial meeting of the Pan-American Congress, attended by representatives of all the American states but Santo Dommgo. The International Bureau of American Republics was established and 401 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL in 1890 a general treaty of compulsory arbitration was proposed, to apply to all the American states for a period of twenty years. The proposal failed of ratification. 1889-1899.— Claims to Samoa by the United States, Great Britain and Germany. — The three powers agreed in 1889 to arbitrate their claims, but resulting complication caused the joint high com- mission (.in 1S99) to proceed to the islands, and there an agreement was signed for their partition. See Samoa: 18S9-1900. 1890. — First Pan-American Conference. See American republics, IxiERNAnoNAL union of: 1890. 1891. — Delagoa Bay arbitration. See Delagoa Bay arbitration. 1892. — Arbitration of Bering sea seal fisheries question between United States and Great Britain. See Bering sea iiuestion; U. S. A.: 18S9- 1892. 1893. — Arbitration on bimetallism. See Money AND banking: Modern: 1S67-1803. 1893. — Arbitration of boundary dispute be- tween Colombia and Costa Rica. See Colombu: 1803-1000. 1897. — Settlement of Nicaragua and Costa Rica boundary dispute. See Central America: 1397. 1897. — Proposed Anglo-American arbitration treaty. — Secretary of State Olney and Lord Paunce- fote negotiated in 1S97 an arbitration treaty be- tween the United States and Great Britain. The treaty, submitted to the United States Senate by President Cleveland, was rejected by that body. It lacked only two votes of the necessary two- thirds because of the oft-recurrent question of Constitutional usage: the impairing of the Senate's treaty-making power by dispensing with the need for Senatorial consent in a matter adjusted by arbitration. 1897-1899. — Venezuela and Great Britain. — Guiana boundary. See Venezuela: 1896-1899; U. S. A.: 1897 (January-May). 1898. — Argentina and Chile. See Argentina: 1898. 1898. — Treaty between Italy and Argentina. See Argentina: 1898. 1898-1899. — Tsar's rescript. — First Hague Conference. — Permanent Court of Arbitration established. — In .August, 1898, the late tsar Nich- olas II issued his famous "Peace Manifesto" calling the nations to a conference. The stated object was the diminution and regulation of armaments to re- lieve the heavy burden of taxation which oppressed the peoples, and the prevention of war by diplo- matic-judicial procedure. The first conference opened at The Hague on May 18, 1899, under the presidency of a Russian jurist, the late Frederic de Martens, and sat till July 29. The greatest achievement of the conference was the establish- ment of a permanent court of arbitration at The Hague. (See below: 1907: Second Peace Con- ference at The Hague. ".At the First Peace Con- ference, of 1899. an attempt, strongly supported, was made to frame and secure the adoption of a treaty of arbitration by which the nations would bind themselves to arbitrate a carefully selected list of subjects. This failed, owing to the opposi- tion of Germany. .As a compromise. .Article lo of the convention for the peaceful adjustment of international differences was adopted: 'Inde- pendently of existing general or special treaties im- posing the obligation to have recourse to arbitra- tion on the part of any of the Signatory Powers, these powers reserve to themselves the richt to conclude, either before the ratification of the pres- ent convention or subsequent to that date, new agreements, general or special, with a view of ex- tending the obligation to submit controversies to arbitration to all cases which they consider suit- able for such submission' (reenacted in 1907 as Article 40). The article did not seem at the time to be of any special importance and it was gen- erally looked upon as useless because independent and sovereign States possess the right without special reservation to conclude arbitration agree- ments, general or special, without being specifically empowered to do so. The fact is, however, that this article, insignificant and useless as it may seem, marks, one may almost say, an era in the history of arbitration. The existence of the article has called attention to the subject of arbitration and by reference to it many States have negotiated arbitration treaties. It is true that there is no legal obligation created by the article and it is difficult to find a moral one, for it is not declared to be the duty of any State to conclude arbitra- tion treaties. The moral effect of the article has, however, been great and salutary, and the exist- ence of numerous arbitration treaties based upon the reservation contained in the article shows the attention and respect which nations pay to the various provisions of The Hague Conference." — J. B. Scott, Hague Peace Conferences of 1899 and 1907. "For an unquestioned example of a court of arbitration open to the whole world we must turn to the Permanent Court of Arbitration set up by The Hague Conference of 1899. . . Chapter II of the Convention sets up the court and provides rules of procedure. It has been said of this tribu- nal that it is neither a court nor permanent ; but we have the opinion of Professor John Bassett Moore written in 1914 that the convention estab- lishing it 'is the highest achievement of the past twenty years in the direction of an arrangement for the peaceful adjustment of international con- troversies.' — [J. B. Moore, International arbitra- tion; a survey of the present situation.^ The Con- vention was revised by the Conference of 1907, the changes being largely verbal, or concerned with procedure. The essential character of the court and its jurisdiction remain as originally pro- vided. The features of permanent organization are: first, a list of judges made up of not more than four persons of known competency in ques- tions of international law and of the highest moral reputation, chosen by each contracting state. By agreement the same person may be selected by different powers. The judges are appointed for six years and their appointments may be renewed. . . . The Court has no obligatory jurisdiction but is competent to decide all cases submitted to it by agreement of the contracting parties. Its jurisdic- tion may. within the regulations, be extended to disputes between non-contracting powers [i. e., those not signers of The Hague agreement] or be- tween contracting powers and non-contracting powers, on joint petition of the parties to such dis- putes. . . . The decisions are not made jointly by all members of the Court. When it has been agreed to submit a case to the Court, each party must choose its arbitrators from the general list. The number may be decided upon by the parties, but if they cannot acree the Convention stipulates that each party shall choose two arbitrators from the list, only one of whom can be its national ap- pointee to the list, and these four arbitrators choose an umpire. . . . Pleadings are conducted by the presentation of cases, counter cases, and replies, accompanied with papers and documents; and the arguments are developed by oral discussions. . . . 402 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL The decision of the court is arrived at in private by majority vote, and the proceedings remain secret. ... As pointed out by Professor Wilson in the preface to his Hague Arbitration Cases, the work of the Court has amply justified its creation. Fifteen cases have been decided relating to a va- riety of questions, including not only financial questions, but those of more delicate character such as the violation of territory, the right to fly the flag, the delimitation of boundaries, etc. The fact that these questions have been submitted is of great significance. Seventeen different states in all have been parties in cases before the Court. . . ." F. C. Hicks, New world order, pp. 158-161. — See also Hague conferences: iSqq. Following is a list of the cases decided with the dates of the awards: Mexico V. United States, Pious fund case, October 14, 1902. Germany, Great Britain, Italy v. Venezuela, Vene- zuelan preferential claims, February 22, 1904. France, Germany, Great Britain v. Japan, Japa- nese house tax case, May 22, '1Q05. France v. Great Britain, Muscat Dhows case, Au- gust 8, 1005. France v. Germany, Casablanca case. May 22, 1Q09. Norway 11. Sweden, Grisbadarna case, Oct. 23, igog. Great iSritain v. United States, North Atlantic fish- eries case, September 7, igio. United States v. Venezuela, Orinoco Steamship Co. case, October 25, igio. France v. Great Britain, Savarkar case, February 24, 1911. Italy V. Peru, Canevaro case. May 3, igi2. Russia V. Turkey, Russian indemnity case, Novem- ber II, igi2. France v. Italy, Carthage and Manouba cases, May 6, igi3- Netherlands v. Portugal, Island of Timor case, June 25, 1914. Commission of Inquiry Cases Great Britain v. Russia, Dogger Bank case, Feb- ruary 26, igoS. France v. Italy, Tavignano, Camouna, and Gau- lois cases, July 23, igi2. Spain, France, Great Britain v. Portugal, Seizure of pious funds in Portugal, Pending. In about one-half the cases no parties to the controversy have sat as arbitrators. Nearly one- half the cases have been before three judges. Also in; G. G. Wilson, Hague arbitration cases. — J. B. Scott, Hague court reports. 1900. — Brazil and French Guiana boundary dispute. See Brazil: igoo. 1900. — Panama and Costa-Rica boundary dis- pute. See Costa-Rica: igoo. 1900. — Compulsory arbitration proposed at the Spanish-American Congress. See Spain: 1900 (November) . 1902. — Arbitration of Argentina and Chile boundary dispute. See Argentina: igo2. 1902. — Second Pan-American Conference. — Compulsory arbitration project. — Central Amer- ican states. — "Ten of the nineteen nations repre- sented at the City of Mexico [Second Pan-Amer- ican Conference, igo2] united in the project of a treaty, to be ratified by their respective govern- ments, providing for compulsory arbitration of all controversies which, in the judgment of any of the interested nations, do not affect either their inde- pendence or national honor; and it is prescribed that in independence and national honor are not in- cluded controversies concerning diplomatic privi- leges, limits, rights of navigation, or the validity, interpretation, and fulfillment of treaties. [The treaty was signed by Argentine, Bolivia, Guate- mala, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, Dominican Repub- lic, Salvador and Uruguay and became effective Jan. 31, igo3.j "Mexico became a party to this project, but the United States declined; thus show- ing an entire change of attitude on the part of these two nations since the Washington conference of iSgo. Mexico had in the meantime adjusted its boundary dispute with Guatemala. But since Mr. Blaine's ardent advocacy of compulsory arbitration the Senate of the United States had manifested its opposition to the policy by the rejection of the Olney-Pauncefote arbitration treaty of i8g7, and it is to be inferred that the Secretary of State did not think it wise to commit our government to a measure which had been cUsapproved of by the co- ordinate branch of the treaty-making power." — J. W. Foster, Pan-American diplomacy (.itlantic Montlily, April, igo2). — In fulfillment of the agree- ment at Mexico City a treaty of compulsory arbi- tration and obhgatory peace was signed on Jan. 20, 1902, by the Central American states: Nicaragua, Salvador, Honduras, and Costa Rica, and they were joined on March i, igo2, by Guatemala. A third treaty was signed at the Conference, Jan. 30th, between seventeen states, including the United States, relating to the adjustment by means of arbitration of difficulties resulting from finan- cial questions. — See also American Republics, In- ternational UNION of: igoi-1902. 1902-1904. — Claims against Venezuela. See Venezuela: 1902 -1904. 1903. — Alaska boundary question. See Alas- ka BOUNDARY QUESTION: I9O3. 1904. — Arbitration of boundary dispute be- tween Brazil and British Guiana. See Brazil: igo4. 1904. — Orinoco Steamship Company case. See Orinoco Steamship Company case. 1905. — Arbitration of boundary dispute be- tween Peru, Colombia, and Ecuador. See Peru: 1905. 1905. — President Roosevelt's treaty negotia- tions. — Arbitration treaties drawn up between the United States and Germany, Switzerland, Por- tugal and Great Britain, were in igo5 submitted by President Roosevelt to the United States Senate for ratification. The treaties were finally ratified after such, changes had been made that Roosevelt said, "they probably represent not a step forward but a step backward as regards the question of international arbitration," and he refused to carry the matter further. — See also U. S. A.: 1905 (June- October). 1905. — Fisheries questions between United States and Great Britain. See Newfoundland, DoinNiON of: 1905-1909. 1906. — Third Pan-American conference at Rio de Janeiro. See American Republics, Interna- tional UNION of: igo6. 1907. — Central American court of arbitration established. — The five Central American states, meeting at the Central American Peace Conference at Washington, established in 1907 a court of com- pulsory arbitration. To this (Central American Court of Justice the states agreed "to submit all controversies or questions which might arise among them, of whatsoever nature, and no matter what their origin may be, in case the respective depart- ments of foreign affairs should not be able to reach an understanding." — See also Central Amer- ica: 1907. 1907. — Second Peace Conference at The Hague. — Representatives of forty-five states met at The Hague in 1907 at the call for the second 403 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL Peace Conference. The principal achievement of this conference was the revision and ampHfication of work initiated by the conference of iSgg, es- pecially in the case of consolidating the Perma- nent Court of Arbitration. Constructive work was also accomplished in laying foundations for the International Prize Court. "The Second Hague conference also declared itself in principle in favor of obligatory arbitration and stated that those dif- ferences relating to the interpretation of interna- tional conventional stipulations are susceptible of being submitted to obligatory arbitration without any reservation. The failure of this conference to agree upon a definite plan of obligatory arbitra- tion was mainly due to the opposition of Germany and .\ustria." — C. H. Stowell, Outlhtrs oj interna- tional law, pp. 276-277. — "As to arbitration, the constitution of the permanent Court of Arbitra- tion is confirmed. Its essential feature is a stand- ing list of qualified arbitrators, not more than four being named by each contracting Power. When a Court has to be made up, each Power concerned in the cause chooses two members from the list, and the arbitrators choose an umpire; there are further and seemingly effectual provisions in case they fail to agree. The bureau international, which is the permanent office or chancellery of the Court, is under the direction of a diplomatic board at The Hague. Terms of reference are, as a rule, to be handed in by the parties; but the Court may settle them itself if so requested by both parties, or under certain conditions even if only required by one. Elaborate provisions are made for the conduct of the proceedings. Further, a more sum- mary form of arbitration with two arbitrators and an umpire may be adopted in affairs of less weight. All this appears, from a lawyer's point of view, to be sound and businesslike work. Doubtless, the jurisdiction is voluntary: but so was all jurisdio tion in its beginning. As time goes on, it will be less and less reputable among civilized States to talk of going to war without having exhausted the resources of the Hague Convention ; and the ne- cessity of any formal international declaration in that behalf may be avoided altogether, if the tribu- nal acquires by custom, as one hopes it will, a stronger authority than any express form of words would confer. That the time is not now ripe for any such form is shown by the vague and baiting recognition 'in principle' of a general duty of ar- bitration which is embodied in the Final Act of the Conference. Nor do we sec much reason to regret the failure of an attempt to set up a new tribunal of arbitral justice, with permanent paid judges, which was to be more formal, more continuous, and less dependent on the parties' choice, and, it was hoped, would eventually supersede the existing Court. This scheme was brought forward by the United States. It broke down on the impossibility of agreeing in what manner and proportions judges should be appointed by the several Powers; the rec- ognized equality of all independent States before the law of nations being extended by several mem- bers of the Conference, especially the leading South -American delegates, to a claim for absolute equality in all political and administrative schemes. This interpretation, we submit, is perverse; but, on more than one occasion, it was among the gravest hin- drances to the work of the Conference. In our opinion, however, there were much better reasons for not being in haste to imitate the forms of a Court exercising true federal jurisdiction. What is wanted to promote peace is not the nearest ap- proach to compulsion, nor the most imposing Court, nor the most learned decisions possible, nor yet the speediest (for sometimes delay is rather of advantage), but a working plan for producing, with as little friction as may be, decisions likely to be accepted. This the two Peace Conferences at the Hague have given us, and it is much." — F. Pollock, Modern law oj nations (Cambridge modern history, v. 12, p. 72b). — As regards the American plan for the arbitral tribunal, the posi- tion is made clear in Secretary Root's instructions to the American delegation. It reads as follows: "It has been a very general practice for arbitra- tors to act, not as judges deciding questions of fact and law, upon the record before them, under a sense of judicial responsibility but as negotiators effecting settlement of the questions brought before them in accordance with traditions and usages and subject to all the considerations and influences which affect diplomatic agents. The two methods are radically different, proceed upon different stand- ards of honorable obligation, and frequently lead to widely differing results. It very frequently hap- pens that a nation which would be willing to sub- mit its differences to an impartial judicial deter- mination is unwilling to subject them to this kind of diplomatic process. If there could be a tribunal which would pass upon questions between nations with the same impartial and impersonal judgment that the Supreme Court of the United States gives to questions arising between citizens of the differ- ent states, or, between foreign citizens and the citizens of the United States, there can be no doubt that nations would be more ready to submit their controversies to its decision than they are now to take the chance of arbitration. It should be your effort to bring about in the 2nd confer- ence a development of The Hague tribunal into a permanent tribunal composed of judges who are judicial officers and nothing less, who are paid adequate salaries, who have no other occupation, and who will devote their entire time to the trial and decision of international causes by judicial methods and under a sense of judicial responsi- bility. These judges should be so selected from the different countries that the different systems of law and procedure and the principal languages shall be fairly represented. The court should be made of such dignity, consideration and rank that the best and ablest jurist will accept appointment to it, and that the whole world will have absolute con- fidence in its judgments." — Sec also Hague con- ferences: 1007. 1907-1909. — Casablanca incident, between Ger- many and France, at The Hague. See Morocco: igo7-iooo. 1908-1909. — General treaties. — The extended confidence in the Permanent Court of The Hague after the second Hague Conference resulted in the signing of numerous treaties designating the Per- manent Court as the agreed tribunal in cases of arbitration. At the outbreak of the World War the only great power which was not a party to one or more of these agreements was Germany. (See below. Treaties ) The treaties of this date, technically called Conventions, were all very simi- lar and practically all of five-year duration. Through the efforts of Elihu Root, then Secretary of State, the United States became a party to twenty-four of these agreements. Recognition is given to the constitutional position of the Senate in the United States by requiring a special agree- ment of reference to be entered into by the presi- dent "with the advice and consent of the Senate." The distinctive article of the 1008-iqog treaties is given under Treaties. Note "C," where it is stated in elastic phrasing that differences shall be arbi- trated provided, nevertheless, "that they do not affect the vital interests, the independence, or the 404 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL honour of the two Contracting States, and do not concern the interests of third Parties. . . . Lord SaUsbury wrote, in the course of the negotiations preceding the unratified treaty of 1897 with the United States: 'Neither Government is wilHng to accept arbitration upon issues in which the na- tional honour or integrity is involved.' Clearly, no nation will submit to any tribunal the question whether it shall accede to demands which its rul- ers consider ruinous or humiliating. What arbi- trable question was there between Elizabeth of England and Philip of Spain when the Armada was off the Lizard? or, as has been pertinently asked, between Austria and France in 1850, or Russia and Turkey in 1877? Therefore, some such clause of exception appears unavoidable if the good faith of treaties is to be upheld, and we confess that we do not attach much importance to its exact form. It may be said that these exceptions can be used frivolously or in bad faith. But the same draw- back exists in the construction and application of all treaties whatever. Well-meant proposals were made at the Hague for settling a list of causes of differences which should not be deemed vital; but the only result that appeared practicable was an enumeration of such matters of current business as have commonly been found well within the re- sources of diplomacy, and the project was wisely dropped." — F. Pollock, Modern law oj nations (Cambridge modern history, v. 12, p. 727). 1909. — Dutch Guiana boundary settlement with Brazil. See Brazil; iqoq. 1909. — Alsop claim of United States against Chile. See Chile; iqcq. 1909. — World petition for a general treaty of obligatory arbitration. — At the annual meet- ing of the International Peace Bureau at Brussels, October q, igoQ, the following resolution was adopted, expressing approval of the world-petition to the third Hague conference in favor of a general treaty of obligatory arbitration; "Whereas, Public opinion, ij recorded, will prove an influential factor at the third Hague Conference; and Wherea^i, The 'world-petition to the third Hague Conference' has begun to successfully establish a statistical record of the men and women in every country who desire to support the governments in their efforts to per- fect the new international order based on the prin- cipal of the solidarity of all nations; Resolved, That the Commission and the General Assembly of the International Peace Bureau, meeting of Brussels October 8 and q, looq, urgently recom- mend the signing of the 'world-petition to the third Hague Conference.' " 1909 (October). — American proposal that the prize court now established be also a court of arbitral justice. — By reference to the proceedings of the second peace conference at The Hague, as set forth above, it will be seen that the conference gave favorable consideration to a draft convention for the creation of a "judicial arbitration court" (the text of which draft is given at the end of said proceedings) , and that the conference went so far as to declare the "advisability of adopting . . . and of bringing It into force as soon as an agree- ment has been reached respecting the selection of the judges and the constitution of the Court." It will be seen, also, that the conference adopted measures for the creation, of an international prize court, preliminary to which an international naval conference was held in London from December 4, iqo8, until February 26, iqoo. At that conference a suggestion was made that "the jurisdiction of the International Prize Court might be extended, by agreement between two or more of the signatory Powers, to cover cases at present excluded from its jurisdiction by the express terms of the Prize Court Convention, and that in the hearing of such cases that Court should have the functions and follow the procedure laid down in the draft Convention relative to the creation of a Judicial Arbitration Court, which was annexed to the Final Act of the Second Peace Conference, of 1007." In Une with this suggestion, it was made known, in the later part of the past year, that the gov- ernment of the United States, through its state department, had proposed in a circular note to the Powers, that the prize court should be invested with the jurisdiction and functions of the proposed judicial arbitration court. The difficulties in se- lecting judges for that contemplated court, which caused the creation of it to be postponed in 1007, would thus be happily surmounted, and, as re- marked by Secretary Knox, there would be at once given "to the world an international judicial body to adjudge cases arising in peace, as well as con- troversies incident to war." 1910. — Fourth Pan-American conference at Buenos Aires. See American republics. Interna- tional UNION of: iqio. 1911. — German government's views on arbi- tration. — "World-embracing international arbitra- tion treaties dictated by an international areopa- gus I consider just as impossible as general inter- national disarmament. Germany takes up no hos- tile position toward arbitration. In all the new German treaties of commerce there are arbitra- tion clauses. In the main it was due to Germany's initiative that an agreement was arrived at at the second Hague conference for the establishment of an International Prize Court. Arbitration treaties can certainly contribute in a great measure to maintain and fortify peaceful relations. But strength must depend on readiness for war. The dictum still holds good that the weak becomes the prey of the strong. If a nation can not or will not spend enough on its defensive forces to make its way in the world, then it falls back into the second rank." — German Imperial Chancellor von Belhmann-Hollweg in Reichstag, Mar. 30, iqii. 1911-1912.— Treaties of the United States with Great Britain and France. See U. S. A.; iqii- iqi2. 1913. — President Wilson's proposal. See Latin America: 1913. 1913. — Arbitration on Rumanian boundary. See Rumania: iqi2-iqi3. 1913. — Bryan-Wilson treaties. — Body of the treaties. — Character. — List of treaties from 1896- 1920, including the Bryan-Wilson treaties. — On entering upon his duties as secretary of state Mr. Bryan was faced with the problem of the re- newal of the twenty-four treaties of iqoS-iqoq. He proposed the insertion in the treaties of a clause requiring that if a disagreement should oc- cur between the contracting parties which, in the terms of the arbitration treaty, need not be sub- mitted to arbitration, they should, before declar- ing war, submit the matter to the Hague Court or to some other impartial tribunal for investi- gation and report. The final form of the Bryan- Wilson treaties, of which approximately thirty are in force, is the development of the commis- sion of inquiry and is not technically an arbi- tration agreement. The body of these treaties is: ".Article I. The high contracting parties agree that all disputes between them, of every nature whatsoever, "which diplomacy shall fail to adjust, shall be submitted for investigation and report to an International Commission, to be consti- tuted in the manner prescribed in the next suc- ceedinu Article; and they agree not to declare 405 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL war or begin hostilities during such investigation and report. "Article II. The International Commission shall be composed of five members, to be appointed as follows: One member shall be chosen from each country, by the Government thereof; one mem- ber shall be chosen by each Government from some third country; the fifth member shall be chosen by common agreement between the two Governments. The expenses of the Commission shall be paid by the two Governments in equal proportion. The International Commission shall be appointed within four months after the ex- change of the ratifications of this treaty ; and va- cancies shall be filled according to the manner of the original appointment. "Article III. In case the high contracting par- ties shall have failed to adjust a dispute by diplo- matic methods, they shall at once refer it to the International Commission for investigation and report. The International Commission may, how- ever, act upon its own initiative, and in such case it shall notify both Governments and re- quest their cooperation in the investigation. The report of the International Commission shall be completed within one year after the date on which it shall declare its investigation to have begun, unless the high contracting parties shall extend the time by mutual agreement. The report shall be prepared in triplicate; one copy shall be pre- sented to each Government, and the third retained by the Commission for its files. The high con- tracting parties reserve the right to act independ- ently on the subject-matter of the dispute after the report of the Commission shall have been sub- mitted. "Article IV. Pending the investigation and re- port of the International Commission the high contracting parties agree not to increase their military or naval programs, unless danger from a third power should compel such increase, in which case the party feeling itself menaced shall confi- dentially communicate the fact in writing to the other contracting party, whereupon the latter shall also be released from its obligation to maintain its military and naval status quo. "Article V. The present treaty shall be ratified by the President of the United States of America, by and with the advice and consent of the Sen- ate thereof; and by [the President of the Repub- lic of Salvador] with the approval of the Con- gress thereof; and the ratification shall be ex- changed as soon as possible. It shall take effect immediately after the exchange of ratifications, and shall continue in force for a period of five years; and it shall thereafter remain in force un- til twelve months after one of the high contracting parties have given notice to the other of ;fn in- tention to terminate it. ". . . The success of the Wilson-Bryan proposal may be defined as due to its strict ad- herence to the principle of the commission of inquiry ; the advance it records is that of the greatest possible development within the limits of that principle. It brings forward into the range of practical affairs the well-attested maxim that war will not come in cold blood from a dispute the facts of which are thoroughly at- tested. It goes no further, for freedom of action is reserved by both parties after the commission's work is done. . . . The fact that the commission becomes a permanent one makes appointments to it on the part of the United States subject to con- firmation by the Senate. On this account the Sen- ate, as a coordinate part of the treaty-making power, is in a position always to secure commis- sion members for the American quota who are satisfactory to it." — D. P. Myers, Commission of inquiry {World Peace Foundation Pamphlet series, V. 3, no. 2, p. 25). Also in: Treaties for the advancement of peace between the United States and other Powers, ne- gotiated by the Honorable William J. Bryan, Sec- retary of State of the United States. The treaties differ in the range given to the obligation imposed upon the signatory parties, as to the nature of the differences they shall sub- mit to arbitration. Most of them, however, are divisible in this respect into three classes, distin- guished by the reference letters "A," "B," and "C," and the distinctions are described in J. B. Scott, "Hague Peace Conferences of 1899 and 1907." Treaties concluded by the United States have otherwise distinctive characters, as explained in notes "D" and "E." "A. — The article of reference in these treaties is substantially (when not identically) as follows: " 'The high contracting parties agree to submit to the permanent Court of Arbitration established at The Hague by the Convention of July 29, 1890, the differences which may arise between them in the cases enumerated in Article 3, in so far as they affect neither the independence, the honor, the vital interests, nor the exercise of sovereignty of the contracting countries, and provided it has been impossible to obtain an amicable solution by means of direct diplomatic negotiations or by any other method of conciliation. "'i. In case of disputes concerning the applica- tion or interpretation of any convention concluded or to be concluded between the high contracting parties and relating — (a) To matters of interna- tional private law; (b) To the management of com- panies; (c) To matters of procedure, either civil or criminal, and to extradition. "'2. In cases of disputes concerning pecuniary claims based on damages, when the principle of indemnity has been recognized by the parties. " 'Differences which may arise with regard to the interpretation or application of a convention con- cluded or to be concluded between the high con- tracting parties and in which third powers have participated or to which they have adhered shall be excluded from settlement by arbitration.' "B. — The treaties of this noble class are the few thus far concluded which pledge the parties en- gaged in them to submit all differences that may arise between them to pacific arbitration, reserving no dispute of any nature, to become a possible entanglement in war. The formula of reference in them is substantially this: " 'The high contractin.' parties agree to submit to the permanent Court of Arbitration established at The Hague by the Convention of July 20, 1800, all differences of every nature that may arise be- tween them, and which cannot be settled by di- plomacy, and this even in the case of such dif- ferences as have had their origin prior to the con- clusion of the present Convention.' "C.— The reference clause in these treaties is sub- stantially alike in all, to the following purpose: " 'Differences which may arise of a legal nature, or relating to the interpretation of treaties ex- isting between the two contracting parties, and which it mav not have been possible to settle by diplomacv, shall be referred to the Permanent Court of' Arbitration, established at The Hague by the convention of the 20th July, 1800; provided, nevertheless, that they do not affect the vital in- terests, the independence, or the honor of the two contracting States, and do not concern the interests of third parties.' 406 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL "D. — In these treaties of arbitration negotiated by the United States the article of reference is like that last quoted, in note C; but the following is added to it: " 'In each individual case the High Contracting Parties, before appealing to the Permanent Court of Arbitration, shall conclude a special Agreement, deiining clearly the matter in dispute, the scope of the powers of the arbitrators, and the periods to be fixed for the formation of the Arbitral Tri- bunal and the several stages of the procedure. It is understood that on the part of the United States such special agreements will be made by the Presi- dent of the United States, by and Vv-ith the advice and consent of the Senate thereof, and on the part of Costa Rica shall be subject to tly; procedure required by the Constitution and laws thereof.' "This was required by the United States Senate, which rejected a number of earlier arbitration trea- ties, negotiated by Secretary Hay, because they would have allowed cases of controversy with other nations to be referred to The Hague tribunal by the president without specific consent from the Senate in each particular case. This brings the general treaty of arbitration down very close to absurdity, leaving almost nothing of its intended pacific influence to act." E. — The Bryan-Wilson treaties are designated by the letter "E." The abbreviation "S" is used be- fore the date of signature and "R" 'before the date of the final ratification, or, in the case of the Bryan-Wilson treaties, the "R" signifies the date of the exchange of ratifications. Under each country is given a list of the treaties with other countries. Each treaty is mentioned only once, with references to it from the other countries concerned in Italics. ARGENTINA Bolivia. S. February 3, 1902; R. March 13, 1902. Brazil. S. September 7, 1905; R. October 2, 190S. Chile. S. May 28, 1902; Renew. September 13, 1910. Colombia. S. January 20, 1912. Ecuador. S. July '16, 1911. France. S. September 7, 1910. Italy. S. July 23, 1896; not ratified. S. September 18, 1907; not ratified. Paraguay. S. June 8, 1S90; R. December 21, 1901. Additional Protocol. S. December 21, 1901; R. December 18, igoi. Portugal. S. August 27, 1909. Spain S. January 28, 1902. United States.'^ S. July 24, 1914; not ratified (?). Uruguay. S. June 8, 1899; R. December 21, 1901. Additional Protocol. S. December 21, i go i ; R. December 18, 1901. Venezuela. S. July 24, igir. (See above: 1902: Second Pan-American Con- ference.) austria-hungary Brazil. S. October 19, 1910. Great Britain.'' S. January 11, 1905; R. May 17, 1005. Renew. S. July 16, 1910. Portugal.^ S. February 13, 1906; R. October 16, igo8. Switzerland.'^ S. December 3, 1904; R. October 17, 1905. United States, S. January 6, 1905; not ratified. United States. d S. January 15, 1909; R. May 13, 1909. Denmark.-A- S. April 26, 1905; R. May 2, 1906. Greece. S. May 2, 1905; R. July 22, 1905. Honduras. S. April 29, 1910. Italy. S. November 18, 1910. Nicaragua. S. March 6, 1906; not ratified. Norway.'^ S. November 30, 1904; R. October 30, 1906. Rumania. S. May 27, 1905; R. October 9, 1905. Russia. S. October 30, 1904; R. September 9, 1905. Spain. •'^ S. January 23, 1905; R. December 16, 1905. Sweden.^ S. November 30, 1904; R. August 11, 1905 Switzerland.-^ S. November iS, 1904; R. Au- gust, 1905. See Argentina; Brazil. Peru. S. November 21, 1901; R. December 29, 1903. Peru. Renew. S. March 31, 1911. See Spain; United Stales. (See above: 1902: Second Pan-American Con- ference.) Argentina. S. September 7, 1905; R. October 2, 1908. Austria-Hungary. S. October 19, 1910. Bolivia. S. June 25, 1909. Chile. S. May 18, 1899; R. March 7, 1906. China. S. August 3, 1909. Colombia. S. July 7, 1910. Costa Rica. S. May 18, 1909. Cuba. S. June 19, 1909. Denmark. S. November 27, 1911. Dominican Republic. S. April 29, 1910. Ecuador. S. May 13, 1909. France. S. April 7, 1909. Great Britain. S. June 18, 1909. Greece. S. August 28, 1910. Haiti. S. April 25, 1910. Honduras. S. April 26, 1909. Mexico. S. April 11, 1909. Nicaragua. S. June 28, 1909. Norway. S, July 13, 1909. Panama. S. May i, 1909. Paraguay. S. February 24, 1911. Peru. S. November 5, 1909. Portugal. S. March 25, 1909. Russia. S. August 26, 1910. Salvador. S. September 3, 1909. Spain. S. April 8, 1909. Sweden. S. December 14, 1909. United States. R. July 26, 191 1; automatic renew. 1916, If not denounced by either coun- try six months prior to July 26, 1921, will auto- matically extend to 1926 and so on by five-year periods. United States.^ S. July 24, 1914; R- October 28, 1916. Uruguay. S. January 12, 1911. Renew. S. December 28, 1916. (See above: 1902: Second Pan-American Con- ference.) See Argentina; Brazil; United States. (See above: 1902: Second Pan-American Con- ference.) 407 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL CHINA See Brazil; United States. COLOMBIA See Argentina; Brazil; Great Britain. Peru. S. September 12, 1905; R. July 6, 1Q06. See Spain. (See above: 1902: Second Pan-American Con- ference.) costa rica See Brazil; Italy; Panama; United States. (See above: 1902-^ Second Pan-American Con- ference; 1907: Central American court of arbi- tration established.) See Brazil. CUBA DENMARK See Belgium; Brazil; France; Great Britain; Italy; Netherlands; Norway; Portugal; Russia; Spain; Sxveden; United States. DOMINICAN REPUBLIC See Brazil; Spain; United States. (See above: 1902: Second Pan-American Con- CREAT BRITAIN Austria-Hungary .c S. January 11, 190S; R. May i7> 1905- Renew. S. July 16, 1910. Brazil. S. June 18, 1909. Colombia. S. December 30, 1908. Denmark. S. October 25, 1905; R. May 4, 1906. France.'' S. October 14, 1903; R. February 25, 1904. Germany."" S. July 12, 1904; without reserve of ratification. Italy.'' S. February i, 1904; not ratified (?). S. February i, 1907. Netherlands.'" S. February 15, 1905; R- July ". 1005. Norway.'^ S. August 11, 1904; R. November 9, 1904. Portugal.c S. November 16, 1904; not ratified. Spain.c S. February 27, 1904; R. March 16, 1904. Sweden.c S. August 11, 1004; R. November 9. 1004. Switzerland.'^ S. November 16, 1904; R. July 12, 1905. United States. S. January 11, 1897. but not rat- ified. (See above: 1897: Proposed Anglo-Ameri- can ARBITRATION TRE.ATY.) United States. (See above: 1905: President Roosevelt's treaty negotiations.) United States.^ S. .April 4, 1908; R. June 4, 1908. Renew. April 10, 1914. (It had lapsed, June 4, 1913, but was kept in force by mutual agree- ference; 1907: Central-American court of AR- ment. Again renewed September 24, 1918. To ex \ r.'ww.a Tuna O .. T nt 1 \ bitration established.) ECUADOR See Brazil; United States. (See above: 1902: Second Pan-American Con- ference.) FRANCE Argentina. S. September 7, 1910. Brazil. S. April 7, 1909. Denmarki^ S. September 15, 190.S; R. May 31, 1906; Renew. S. August 9, 1911. Great Britain.*" S. October 14, 1903; R- Febru- ary 25, 1904. Italy.'" S. December 25, 1903; R. March 26, 1904. Netherlands'" S. April 6, 1904; R July 5. iQOS- Norway.'" S. July 9, 1904; R- November 9, 1904. Portugal."^ S. Julv 9, 1906; not ratified. Spain.t' s. February 26, 1904; R- April 20, 1904. Sweden.'^' S. July 9, 1004; R- November 9, 1904. Switzerland.'" S. December 14, 1904; R. July 13, 1905. United States.r> s. February 10, 1908; R. March 12, 1908. Renew. 1913, 1918. To expire February 23, 1923. S. .August 3, 1911. United States." S. September 15, 1914; R Janu- ary 22, 1915. GERMANY Great Britain.<" S. July 12, 1004; without reserve of ratification. United States. S. November 22, 1904; not rati- fied. (See above: 1905: President Roosevelt's TREATY negotiations.) Venezuela S. May 7, 1903; not ratified. pire June 24, 1923.) United States. S. August 3, 1911- United States.'' S. September 15, 1Q14; R- No- vember 10, 1914. GREECE See Belgium; Brazil; Italy; Spain; United States. GUATEMALA' Nicaragua— Honduras— Salvador. S. November, 1903. See Spain; United States. (See above: 1902: Second Pan-American Con- ference; 1907: Central American court of ar- bitration ESTABLISHED.) See Brazil. Guatemala— Nicaragua— Salvador. S. Novem- ber, 1903- HONDURAS See Belgium; Brazil; Spain; United States. (See above: 1902: Second Pan-,\merican Con- ference; 1007: Central American court of ar- bitration ESTABLISHED.) ITALY Argentina. S. Julv 23, 1896; not ratified. Argentina. S. September 18, 1907 ; not ratified. Belgium. S. November 18, 1910. Costa Rica. S. January 8, 1910. Denmark.^* S. December 16, 1905; R- May 22, France.^ S. December 25, 1Q03; R- March 26, 1904. 408 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL Great Britain.^ S. February i, 1904; not ratified (?). Greece. S. September 2, 1910. Mexico. S. October 16, 1907; R. December 31, 1907. Netherlands. S. November 21, 1909. Norway. S. December 4, igio. Panama. S. May 11, 1905. Peru. S. April 18, 1905; R. November 11, igoS. Portugal.*^' S. May 11, 1905; not ratified. Russia. S. October 27, igio. Spain. S. September 2, 1910. Sweden. S. April 30, 191 1. Switzerland.'' S. November 23, 1904; R. Decem- ber s, 1905. United States."^ S. March 28, igo8; R. January 22, IQ09. Renew. 1914, 1919. To expire January 22, 1914. United States.i^ S. May 5, 1914; R. March ig, 1915- JAPAN United States.D S. May 5, 1908; R. August 24, 1908. Renew. 1914, made retroactive to igi3. Renew. igi8. To expire August 24, 1923. See Brazil; Italy; United States. (See above; 1902: Second Pan-American Con- ference.) Netherlands Denmark.B S. February 12, 1904; R. March 18, 1906. See France; Great Britain; Italy. Portugual. S. October i, 1904; R. October 29, 1908. See United States. See United States. (See above: 1902; Second Pan-American Con- ference.) Mexico. S. May 14, 1902. See United States. See Bolivia; Brazil; Colombia; Italy; Para- guay; United States. (See above: igo2: Second Pan-.^merican Con- ference.) Argentina. S. August 27, 1909. Austria-Hungary .c S. February 13, 1006; R. October 16, iqo8. Brazil. S. March 25, igog. Denmark. B S. March 20, igo7; R. October 26, 1908. France. S. July 29, 1906; not ratified. Great Britain. S. Noven'rber 16, 1904; not rati- fied. Italy .c S. May 11, 1905; not ratified. Netherlands. S. October i, 1904; R. October 29, 1008. Nicaragua. S. July 17, igog. Norway .<^ S. May 6, igos; not ratified. S. December 8, igo8. Spain. S. May 31, igo4; not ratified. Sweden.c S. May 6, igoS; not ratified. Switzerland. c S. August 18, igoS; R. October 23i igo8. See United States. RUMANIA See Belgium. NICARAGUA See Belgium; Brazil. Guatemala — Honduras — Salvador. S. November, igo3. See Portugal; Salvador; Spain; United States. (See above: igo2: Second Pan-American Con- ference; igo7: Central American court of ar- bitration ESTABLISHED.) Sec Belgium; Brazil. Denmark.^ S. March i, igos; R. April 11- April 3, igos. See Italy. Norway.-* S. December g, igo4; R February 27, igos- Sweden. A S. December g, igo4; R. February 25, 1 90s. See United States. See Belgium; Brazil. Denmark. S. October 8, igo8; not ratified. See France; Great Britain; Italy; Portugal; Rus- sia; Spain. Sweden. A S. October 26, 1905; without reserve of ratification. See Switzerland ; United States. SALVADOR See Brazil. Guatemala — Honduras — Salvador. S. November, 1903- Nicaragua. S. April 3, 1907; not ratified. See Spain; United States. (See above: 1902: Second Pan-American Con- ference; igo7: Central American court of ar- bitration established.) See Brazil. Costa Rica. S. March 17, igio. See Italy; United States. (See above: 1902: Second Pan-American Con- ference.) paraguay See Argentina. See Brazil. Peru. S. May 18, 1903. SIAM See United Stales. Argentina. S. January 28, 1902. Belgium. A S. January 23, igoS; R. December 16, igos. Bolivia. S. February 17, 1902; R. October 10, 1903. 409 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL Brazil. S. April S, igog. Colombia. S. February 17, 1902 ; R. July 18, 1902. Denmark.^ S. December i, 1905; R. May 14, igo6. Dominican Republic. S. January 28, 1902; R. July iS, 1902. France."-' S. February 26, 1904; R. April 20, 1904. Great Britain.'-' S. February 27, 1904; R. March 16, 1904. Greece. S. December 16, 1909. Guatemala. S. February 28, 1902; R. July 18, 1902. Honduras. S. May 13, 1905; R. July 16, 1906. Italy. S. September 2, 1910. Mexico. S. January 11, 1902; R. July 18, 1902. Nicaragua. S. October 4, 1904; R. March 19, 1908. Norway. S. January 23, 190S; R. March 20, 1905. Portugal. S. May 31, 1904; not ratified. Russia S. August 15, 1910. Salvador. S. January 28, 1902; R. July 8, 1902. Sweden. S. January 23, 1905; R. March 20, 1905- Switzerland.^ S. May 14, 1907; R. July 9, 1907. See United States. Uruguay. S. January 28, 1902; R. July 18, 1902. See Belgium; Brazil. Denmark. D S. July 17, 190S; not ratified. See France; Great Britain; Italy. Norway. S. October 26, 1905; without reserve of ratification. See Portugal; Russia. See Switzerland.^ S. December 17, 1904; R. July 13, 1905. See United States. SWITZERLAND See Austria-Hungary; Belgium; France; Great Britain; Italy. Norway.-^ S. December 17, 1904; R. July 13, See Portugal; Spain; Siaeden; United Stales. UNITED STATES Argentina. S. July 24, 1914; not ratified (?). Austria-Hungary. S. January 6, 1Q05; not rati- fied. S. January 15, 1909; R. May 13, IQ09. Bolivia. E S. January 22, 1914; R. January 8. 1915- Brazil. R. July 26, 1911, automatic renew. iqi6. If not denounced by either country six months prior to July 26, iq2i, will automatically extend to 1926 and so on by five-year periods. Brazil. E S. July 24, 1914; R. October 28, 1916. Chile. S. July 24, 1914; R. January 19, igi6. China. u S. October 8, 190S; R. April 6, 1909. China.E s. September 15, 1914; R. October 22, 1915. Costa Rica.D S. January 13, 1909; R. July 20, 1909. Renew. 1014. Costa Rica.i= S. February 13, 1914; R. Novem- ber 12, 1914. Denmark. D S. May 18, 1908; R. March 29, 1909. Denmark.!' S. .'Vpril 17, 1914; R. January iq, 1915. Dominican Republic. S. February 17, 1914; not ratified, Ecuador. R. June 22, 1910, for five years, au- tomatically renewed every year. Terminable upon year's notice. Ecuador. t^ S. October 13, 1914; R. January 22, 191 6. France.!^ S. February 10, 190S; R. March 12, 1908. Renew. 1913, 1918. Expires February 23, 1923- S. August 3, 1911. France.i=^ S. September 15, 1914; R. January 22, IQI5- Germany. S. November 22, 1904; not ratified. Germany. (See above: 1905: President Roose- velt's TREATY NEGOTIATIONS.; Great Britain. S. January 11, 1897; not rati- fied. (See above: 1897: Proposed Anglo-Ameri- can ARBITRATION TREATY.) Great Britain. (See 1905: President Roose- \llt's treaty negotl^tioxs.) Great Britain. d S. April 4, 1908; R. June 4, iqoS. Renew. April 10, iqi4. (It had lapsed June 4, 1913, but was kept in force by mutual agree- ment) ; Renew. September 24, 191S. Expires June 24. 1923- S. August 3, 1911. Great Britain. '=' S. September 15, 1914; R. No- vember 10, 1914. Greece. S. February 29, 1908; not ratified (?) Greece.^ S. October 13, 1914; not ratified (?) Guatemala. '■^ S. September 20, 1913; R. Octo- ber 13, 1914. Honduras.^ S. November 3, 1913; R. July 27, 1916. Italy. D S. March 28, 190S; R. January 22, 1909. Renew. 1914, 1919. Expires Jan. 22, 1924. Italy .^ S. May 5, 1914; R. March 19, 1915. Japan. D S. May 5, igoS; R. August 24, 1908. Renew. 1914, made retroactive to 1913. Renew. 1918. Expires Au ust 24, 1923. Mexico. t^ S. March "24, 190S; R. June 27, 1908. Netherlands. D S. May 2, 1908; R. March 25, 1909. Renew. 1915, 1919. Netherlands.^ S. December 18, 1913; not rati- fied. Nicaragua.^ S. December 17, 1913; not ratified. Norway. S. April 4, iqo8; R. June 24, 1908. Renew. 1913, 1918. Expires June 24, 1923- Norway .'^ S. June 24, 1914; R. October 21, 1914 Panama.''- S. September 20, 1913; not ratified. Paraguay. J' S. August 29, 1914; R. March 9, I9I.';- Persia.'^ S. February 4, 1014; not ratified. Peru."^ S. December s, iqoS; R. June 29, 1909. Peru.'' S. July 14, 1914; R. March 4, 191S. Portugal. D S. April 6, 190S; R. November 14, 1908. Renew. 1913. Portugal.'' S. February 4, 1914; R. October 24, 1914. Russia.'' S. October i, 1914; R. March 22, 1914- Salvador.^ S. December 21, 1908; R. July 3, 1000. Renew. 19 14. Salvador." S. August 7, 1913; not ratified. Spain.i^ S. April 20, 1908; R. June 2, 1908. Renew. 1913, 1919. Expires 1924. Spain.E S. September 15, 1914; R. December 21, 1914. Sweden.!^ S. May 2, 1908; R. August 18, iqo8. Renew. 1013. Sweden.E S. October 13, iqi4; R. January 11, iqi.S- Switzerland.'^ S. February 29, 1908; R. Decem- ber 23, 1908. 10 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL Switzerland. E S. February 13, 1914. Uruguay. li^ S. July 20, 1914; R. February 24, Renew. November 14, 1913, automatic renew. igiS. Remains in force until a year after its de- nunciation by either country. Uruguay. li S. July 20, 1914; R. February 24, 1914- Venezuela.^ S. March 21, 1914. (See above: 1902: Second Pan-American Con- ference.) See Argentina; Brazil; Spain; United States. (See above: 1902: Second Fan-American Con- ference.) venezuela See Argentina; Germany; United States. (See above: 1902: Second Pan-.'Xmerican Con- ference.) 1914. — Arbitration agreements at the outbreak of the World War. — Considering the number of arbitration treaties in force in 1914 it is signifi- cant that only three were operative between those states which fought on opposing sides in the World War. Of the three, that between Germany and Great Britain expired by limitation on July i, 1914, or thirty-five days before the contracting states were at war. The other two treaties were between Austria-Hungary and Great Britain and between Austria-Hungary and Portugal, respec- tively. 1914. — Arbitration proposals to avoid the war. — Count Berchtold, Austro-Hungarian foreign minister, launched the fateful ultimatum to Ser- bia on July 23, 1914. Of the ten demands pre- sented in that document, the Serbian government, acting on Russian advice, acceded to all with only two reservations — articles 3 and 4, which they asked to be permitted to submit to The Hague tribunal. The request was rejected by Austria. The late tsar Nicholas II telegraphed to the former German emperor at the end of July a proposal to submit the Austro-Serbian dispute to The Hague tribunal — an appeal that received no answer. — See also World War: Diplomatic background: 21; 22; 23; 26; 28. 1914. — Ratification of the convention adopted at the Third Pan-American Conference (1906). — Seventeen participants ratit'ied this convention, the gist of which is as follows: The contracting Powers agree not to have recourse to armed force for the recovery of contract debts. This undertak- ing is, however, not applicable when the debtor state refuses or neglects to reply to an offer of arbi- tration, or after accepting the offer, prevents any compromise from being agreed on, or after the arbitration fails to submit to the award. 1919. — Obligatory general arbitration treaty between Paraguay and Uruguay. See Paraguay: iqig (November). 1919-1920. — Arbitration provisions in the League of Nations.— The nations of the league agree to use arbitration to settle "arbitrable" dis- putes in which diplomacy has failed and while the league council stands as one tribunal it is generally conceded that only extreme cases will come before it, and a temporary arbitral com- mission or The Hague permanent court will be used. The league court for which provision is made in the covenant is in no way intended to take the place of The Hague permanent court of arbitration. According to article 13 of the cove- nant "Disputes as to interpretation of a treaty, as to any question of international law, as to the existence of any fact which, if established, would constitute a breach of any international obligation, or as to the extent and nature of the reparation to be made for any such breach, are declared to be among those which are generally suitable for submission to arbitration." Article 21 reads: "Nothing in this covenant shall be deemed to affect the validity of international engagements, such as treaties of arbitration or re- gional understandings like the Monroe Doctrine, for securing the maintenance of peace." On Dec. 13, 1920, the session of the League of Nations at Geneva adopted the proposal for the establishment of a "permanent court of interna- tional justice." "Before coming into operation, the plan must be ratified by a majority of the members of the League. The court, which is to sit at The Hague, will be composed of eleven judges chosen by the League, but not invested with compulsory jurisdiction. Of the forty na- tions represented, thirty-six favored compulsory jurisdiction, while France, Great Britain, Italy and Japan opposed it. The four great powers carried their point, as the alternative lay be- tween no court at all or a court unendowed with compulsory jurisdiction. The plan to constitute the court had been drafted by an international group of jurists including Elihu Root, and com- pulsory jurisdiction had been attached for the valid reason that such a court would be useless or at least impotent if resort to its mediation were merely voluntary and not obligatory. Owing to the opposition of the 'Big Four,' however, that provision was eliminated, although particular stress was laid on the point that had such a court been in existence in 1914 it would have been powerless to prevent the war, since Austria could have refused to submit her quarrel with Serbia to its adjudication. A proposal to abolish the Hague arbitration court was rejected on the ground that the new court would "render decisions according to the rules and forms of law, and that an institution [as that at The Hague] organ- ized for purely arbitral decisions will still be re- quired." — New York Times, Dec. 14, 1020. — The league council has already proved its value as an arbitral court. On September 17, 1920, Poland and Lithuania invited its good offices as arbitrator and the following day Finland and Sweden re- ferred to it the disputed ownership of the Aland islands (q. v.). "In production, in commerce and in finance, the progress of invention and of world organization has brought about an ever closer com- munity of interest between the nations, and even the countries which have sought to be self-con- tained have been compelled to move with the times and to base their welfare in an ever increas- ing degree upon world production, upon interna- tional trade, and upon world finance. But po- litically, until the present war, the nations have continued to pursue a purely individualistic policy. Even now the policy of cooperation between the various nations for the purpose of making war has been pursued by most of them merely because of the imminent and great danger to which they were exposed until they did cooperate, not because it is the wiser policy in peace as well as in war, but because it is the only policy that can give to the nations security under modern conditions. It is true that some progress was made in this di- rection prior to the war, but when one considers the difficulty then experienced in inducing the nations to take collective action, even about matters upon 411 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL which every one seemed to be agreed in piinciplc, and recollects the really trivial causes of interna- tional friction that were allowed to endanger the world's peace from time to time, one is compelled to realize that politically the nations had lagged far behind their economic, financial and intellectual development. . . . The reasons for the backward- ness of the world from the standpoint of inter- national relations are obvious. For one thing, na- tional matters are usually so much more immedi- ate and more pressing than international prob- lems, and consequently monopolize the attention of politicians and statesmen to the exclusion of mat- ters of more fundamental importance, except in periods of temporary crisis. The second reason is that in the past the number of persons who concerned themselves with international affairs was very limited, that consequently there was not the same amount of constructive criticism devoted to foreign affairs as to other branches of public policy, that the few experts deprecated, and in some measure resented, either public discussion or pub- lic criticism, and that in consequence of lack of information, lack of discussion and lack of criti- cism, the general public was kept almost in com- plete ignorance of world politics. The third rea- son is that hitherto very few statesmen or ex- perts in foreign affairs have realized the com- munity of economic interest in all countries which has been created by the wonderful improvements in the means of communication and of intercourse, and by the introduction of the credit system, all of which have so greatly stimulated and assisted world production and distribution of the necessaries of life." — Sir G. Paish, Permanent league oj nations, pp. 24-28. 1920-1921.— Aland Islands settlement. See Aland Islands; 1920; iq2i. 1921. — Panama and Costa-Rica boundary dis- pute. See Costa-Rica: 1921. 1921. — Vilna award. See Lithuania: 1021 (December). Also in: W. E. Baff, Evolution of peace by ar- bitration {American Law Review, igio, v. 53, pp. 229-268). — R. L. Bridgman, First book of world law. — C. Heath, Pacific settlement of international disputes. — W. H. Blymyer, International arbitra- tion: the isolation plan. — T. Barclay, New' methods of adjusting international disputes and the future (1917). — J. B. Moore, History and digest of the in- ternational arbitrations to which the United States has been a party, together with appendices con- taining the treaties relating to such arbitrations and historical and legal notes on other interna- tional arbitrations (189S). — See also the World Pca^-c Foundation Pamphlet Series, to date, and the Bulletins of the Carnegif Peace Foundation. ARBITRATION, Permanent Court of: List of cases arbitrated. See .Arbitration, Interna- tional: Modern period: 1S98-1899; Hague confer- ences: 1899: Convention for Pacific settlement; Hague Tribunal. ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION, INDUSTRIAL The subject of industrial arbitration and concilia- tion is intimately connected with nearly every phase of the labor question, and the reader is therefore referred to the articles Labor legislation, Labor ORGANIZATION. LaBOR REMUNERATION, and LaBOR strikes and boycotts for much information which supplements and amplifies the material in this article. The interests of the public, of the employer, and of the employee are served by continuity of pro- duction, which depends in large part upon har- monious relations between the management and the workers. Conciliation, whereby a mediator or mediating board, bringing the two sides to- gether or acting as a go-between, effects a com- promise, has often been of service in preserving or renewing that harmony. In many cases, how- ever, dependence has been placed upon arbitra- tion, in which the decision is made by a third party; the process leading to it may be voluntary, or it may follow from investigation required by law, or, in addition to the investigation being com- pulsory, the award may be binding under law. Legislation along these lines has concerned itself chiefly with public utilities. Publicity for the facts has at times accomplished much through the force of aroused public opinion. "In spite of its many obvious advantages the method of arbitralion is not popular either with employers or employed. Employers object to it because it means (hat the method in which they are to carry on their business is decided for them by an outsider who is frequently not sufficiently acquainted with the practical and technical diffi- culties of the industry ; while employees on the other hand object to it because they have found that the arbitrator bases his award upon funda- mental assumptions which they do not accept. Thus, as Mr. and Mrs. Webb point out, arbitration can only be successful when certain main points are agreed upon as common ground between the parties, as for example that a fixed minimum standard of life should be regarded as a first charge upon the industry of the country, or that wages should vary with the selling price of the product. So long as fundamental points and principles of this kind are not agreed on by both sides, arbitration does not stand much chance of satisfying the parties to a dispute; and the real value which an arbitrator performs as a rule in the settlement of disputes is in the work of conciliation. .\n impartial outsider, who is unaffected by any personal feeling in the matter, may do a great deal to bring the parties to a dispute together, and acting as a go-between may thus prevent them from resorting to extreme meas- ures. The real defect of arbitralion as a method of settling trade disputes is that the award is not binding on the parties, and there has consequently been a strong tendency in some quarters in recent years to provide a machinery which would have I he effect of compelling emplo\ers and workmen to submit their disputes for arbitration and to abide by the result." — G. O'Brien, Labour organization (1021), pp. 92-03. — "It will be seen , . . that among the Australasian countries the general ten- dency of legislation is to place a limitation, and with practically one exception, a prohibition upon the right to strike upon railway and practically all other classes of industrial workers. Complete ma- chinery, however, has been provided for the settle- ment of controversies. Another group of countries, on the other hand, such as Canada, the Transvaal, Spain, and Portugal, have not denied employees the right to strike, but have made the exercise of this right contingent upon certain conditions — a notification to the Government of the intention to strike or after a governmental investigation and report. In the case of other countries, as Rou- 412 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL mania, the right of railway workers or other pub- lic-utility employees to strike is absolutely prohib- ited, and no machinery is provided for ventilating grievances. Belgium and Holland also prohibit strikes but have devised methods for employees to take up grievances or requests with railroad man- agers. Strikes are not formally prohibited in Ger- many or Austria among railway workers, but are practically prevented by the control of the au- thorities over the trade-union affiliations of em- ployees. In Germany, however, administrative machinery has been provided through which trans- portation workers may have a vent for their griev- ances. Strikes are not prohibited by formal legis- lative enactment on French railways, but are prac- tically impossible, because of the policy of the Gov- ernment in calling employees to the colors and placing them under military orders in the event of a strike. Italy depends upon the same policy to prevent industrial conflict on her railways. In Great Britain and the United States there is no abridgement of the right to strike. Both countries have provided official machinery for the adjustment of wage and other difficulties between the railroads and their operating forces." — American Labor Year Book, 1917-1918, p. 145. AUSTRALIA 1891-1912. — Early legislation in Australian states. — Federal legislation. — Commonwealth court established by the Act of 1904. — The first Australian states to pass arbitration statutes were Victoria and New South Wales, whose laws were promulgated in 1801. South Australia followed in 1894, West Austrial in 1900. "By the act of 1891, Victoria provided for the voluntary arbi- tration of collective disputes somewhat after the system of the English councils of conciliation act of 1867, except that the latter applied only to individual disputes and enforced arbitration. . . . In 1896, wages boards were introduced in Vic- toria. . . . These might be appointed on applica- tion of either party. A court of appeal, consist- ing of a supreme judge, had power under the act to review the determination of boards, and asses- sors might be appointed to assist the judge. The act fixed an absolute minimum wage. While it was originally designed to guarantee a minimum wage, it has gradually grown to be used more for the purpose of conciliation. . . . New South Wales passed its trade dispute conciliation and ar- bitration act after the great strike of 1891. . . The act was passed to continue four years but it was a complete failure, only two of the sixteen cases referred having been settled during the first year of the operation of the act. ... A compul- sory arbitration law, following somewhat the out- lines of the New Zealand act but which did not provide for conciliation, was passed in looi. . . . The law was superseded by the industrial disputes act of 1008 . . . (which was in turnl superseded by the industrial arbitration act of 1012. This act created a court of industrial arbitration con- sisting of a Supreme Court judge and district court judge or barrister of five years' standing, appointed by the governor, also an additional judge and a deputy judge. Boards under the old act Tof 1908I were dissolved. Twenty-seven industries were scheduled for which industrial boards were ap- pointed on recommendation of the court by the minister of the Crown. . . . These boards have conciliatory powers. Special committees for con- ciliation are provided for metal and coal miners when more than five hundred are involved and a special commissionei, appointed by the minister of the Crown, is charged with wide powers to bring about settlements in cases not covered by the act. Lockouts and strikes are punishable by heavy penalties, and heavy penalties are also pre- scribed for breaches of awards and other offenses. Boards have power to declare 'that preference of employment shall be given to any industrial union of employees over other persons offering their labor at the same time, other things being equal.' Declarations of preference may be suspended if employees engage in strikes. About seventy-five trades registered under the 1Q08 act. Twenty-four trades, including sixty-two per cent, of the em- ployees, had come under the jurisdiction of the wages boards by 1911. In 1912, the court of ar- bitration had made awards in one hundred thirty cases, each affecting many other disputes. New South Wales provided for the legal incorporation of trade unions, under prescribed conditions, and imposed legal responsibilities for the care of trade union funds in 1912. South Australia provided for the registration of trade unions and employ- ers' associations, industrial agreements and boards of conciliation, both public and private, in the act of 1894. Awards under the act were compul- sory and it was an offense for a registered or- ganization to engage in a strike or lockout. It was necessary for employers or employees to come under the act, and as late as 1905 it was pro- nounced a complete failure for the reason that neither employers nor work people chose to ac- cept what it offered them. South AustraUa adopted a wages board system in 1908 and one hundred thirty-nine boards had been created by the middle of 1010. They had decided ninety cases. Queensland has the wages board system. Western Australia passed an act modeled after the New Zealand law in 1900 but this act w«s replaced by another in IQ02. ... In 1Q04, the Australian Par- liament passed the commonwealth conciUation and arbitration act, which provided a system of com- pulsory arbitration similar to that in New Zealand for all interstate labor disputes. The common- wealth court was given power to employ the usual methods of conciliation, and failing in that, to make an equitable award binding on all parties. Strikes and lockouts were subjected to a penalty of four thousand eight hundred sixty dollars. Breaches of the court's award were subject to a penalty of four thousand eight hundred sixty dol- lars iri ca.se of the employer and forty-eight dol- lars and sixty cents in case of an individual em- ployee. The power to fix a minimum wage was lodged in the commonwealth court, also the right to deprive those failing to observe an award of all rights and* privileges under the act. One case arose under the act of 1Q04 during the first five years of -its existence involving four thousand men in a New South Wales mine. It resulted in a victory for the men. The decision, however, was severely criticized by the employers and not wholly satisfactory to the men. This act was amended in 1000, 1910 and 19". The amendments of iQoo prevented employers from discharging em- ployees about to be registered under the act." — C. H. Mote, Indmtrial arbitration, pp. 154-163. 1913-1917. — Success of the couirt in preventing strikes.— "The Commonwealth Court of Arbitra- tion has not had to deal with many disputes. Dur- ing the vears loi.vioi? • • • 'f'^ number .settled under this Court amounted to only twenty, but these disputes, covering, as they did, employees in two or more states of Australia, affected large in- terests and many persons The subjects in dispute comprised practically all conditions of the industry. 4T.3 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL Thus, a claim made by the employees of the meat industry in Victoria and South Australia included regulation of rates of pay, hours of labor, holidays, terms and conditions of employment, and prefer- ence to unionists. The heanup of this claim occu- pied the attention of the Court for forty-two court days. There were 1,2:5 respondents in the case, and the printed award covers sixty pages. The award was preceded by a lengthy judgment in which the President of the Court entered into a full discussion of wages, prices, piece and time rates of wages, the effect of wages upon prices, budgets of income, questions of skill and effic-.ency, waiting time, hours and wages in small shops and appren- ticeship. In short, the Commonwealth Court of Arbitration is significant, less for the number of disputes it handles than for their size and impor- tance, and for its success in preventing strikes. No investigation is entered upon by its President till work has been resumed, and only once has the decision of the Court been followed by a strike." — Arbitration and wage-fixing in Australia (Rfseardi report No. 10. Oct., 1Q18, pp. 37-38.) 1915. — Arbitration in New South Wales coal strike. See L.abok strikes .\nd boycotts: 1015 1917-1918. — Act of 1918. — "The war introduced political elements that were reflected in the state's industrial history. The question of conscription dis- rupted the Labor party and threw it out of office. Its experienced leaders were expelled. Extremists gained control, both of the unions and the Labor political organization, and in .\ugust, 1017. precip- itated a trial of strength with organized govern- ment. The employees of the state-owned railways of New South Wales struck against a method adopted by the Railway Commissioners to obtain a better accounting system in their workshops. The unions issued an ultimatum demanding the with- drawal of the method, .^s all the employees were servants of the state, the Government of New South Wales, like the Government of France in 1910, joined issue on the question of control of public services. A sympathetic strike involved ulti- mately 76,000 persons, with a loss in wages esti- mated at £1,700,000 (approximately ?S,5oo,ooo). .\s the matter was one of principle, no measures of conciliation were attempted till the strikers seemed beaten. Aften ten weeks matters were adjusted. The penal provisions of the ."Vet were set in motion against striking unions. The result was such altered conditions of industrial organization as to demand important amendments to the Act. In February, 1Q18, Mr. G. S. Beeby, author of the Act of igi2, introduced an amending bill which, after many alterations in the legislative process, became law on March 22, igi8. This measure is the most sig- nificant worked out in the Australian laboratory of social experimentation. Its chief provisions relate to the distinction made between legal and illegal strikes, the conditions under which strikes may be legal, more extended machinery for conciliation, and provisions for a more scientific calculation of the minimum and living wage. This historical sum- mary shows that without any alteration in princi- ple, arbitration in New South Wales has increased in complexity and extended in scope. The process through which it has passed has been one of ex- periment and amendment. From the very begin- ning it has had the definite aim of fixing a living wage and thereby minimizing industrial conflict. But in the process there has been a change of atti- tude toward strikes. It must be remembered that arbitration is an alternative to the strike as a method of industrial agreement, \ svstem of arbi- tration, therefore, calls for measures to reduce or prevent strikes. From 1901 to 1910 the adminis- 414 trative policy was definitely to penalize striking by characterizing it as a misdemeanor, punishable with line and imprisonment. From igic onwards a large measure of conciliation was added to the arbitration machinery, and striking was made 'an extravagant proceeding,' which might involve the offender in penalties and the attachment of his wages. In igiS a more definite and extended sys- tem of conciliation was adopted, to minimize the number of trivial and resultless strikes, which in- volved little that could be subjected to arbitration. .\t the same time a distinction was made between legal and illegal strikes. Strikes are declared illegal in any industry under governmtnt or municipal control, or under an industrial award or agreement, or in case fourteen clear days notice had not been given of the intention to strike. Illegal strikes arc to be heavily penalized, penalties are specified against the union, the individual strikers, and any one encouraging them by word or act. A union may, however, strike legally, but only after at least twelve months trial of an award; further, a secret ballot, in which two-thirds of its members lake part must be held in all cases. The .^ct of 1018, therefore, while recognizing the right to strike under certain conditions, nevertheless sharply limits that right and lays far greater stress on the prin- ciple of arbitration." — Ibid., pp. 20-21. .Also in: H. B. Higgins, New province for law and order (3 articles), {Harvard Law Review, No- vember, igis; January, igig; December, 1920). BELGIUM 1917-1918. — "Trade unions of employees of pub- lic utilities are permitted under Government super- vision. Employees may present grievances or re- quests to the minister of railways, posts and tele- graph through official channels. Strikes and lock- outs prohibited on railroads and in all forms of th,- public service (railway, postal, telegraph, and tele- phone service, all of which are under state control) . . . . There has been no serious strike on Belgian railroads since their establishment. This is due to the fact that positions on the railways are much sought after because of stability of employment, pensions, and on account of the prestige of being in the Government service." — .American Labor Year Book, igi7-igiS, pp. i3g-i40. CANADA 1900-1918. — Industrial Disputes Investigation Act. — Its predecessors. — Its successes. — Opposi- tion to it. — "The Canadian Industrial Disputes Investigation Act of 1907 is an outgrowth from, and the result of experience under, earlier legisla- tion. Two such earlier laws are of particular im- portance. One of these, the Conciliation Act of I goo, followed in a general way certain usages long in operation, first as custom, and later as law, in the coal-mining districts of England. That -Act created a Department of Labour and provided a machinery for mediation or arbitration, but its use was left to voluntary action of the parties to a dispute. This .Act had been supplemented to some extent by the Railway Disputes .Act of 1003, which gave to the Minister of Labour a limited power of compulsion with respect to establishment of conciliation boards in labor disputes between railroad companies and their employees. Where such a dispute arose, a Board of Conciliation could be appointed by the Minister of Labour on the request of either of the parties, without consent of the other. These two Acts were consolidated, ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL forming the Conciliation and Labour Act of 1906, and are still [igiS] operative. In igo6 a bitter and prolonged strike closed the coal mines of Leth- bridge, Alberta. The Deputy Minister of Labour, Hon. W. L. Mackenzie King, succeeded in bringing about a settlement, but not until much public hardship had developed. The failure of the exist- ing Conciliation Act to prevent this strike revealed the need of further legislation, and the Industrial Disputes Investigation Act of 1907 was a direct result of the sentiment thus aroused. The Cana- dian Industrial Disputes Investigation Act of 1907 applies specifically only to transportation com- panies, other public utilities and mines, but may also be invoked for settlement of disputes in other industries on application of both parties to a dis- pute, that is, by mutual consent. Since the be- ginning of the war, industries supplying war ma- terials have been brought under the action of the provisions previously applying only to transporta- tion companies, other public utilities and mines. On application in due form by either party, the Minister of Labour appoints a Board of Reference consisting of one nominee of each party and a chairman selected by the two. No person having a direct pecuniary interest in the dispute may be appointed. To prevent a deadlock, in case all other provisions of the Act governing applications for a Board have been complied with, but where either or both of the parties fail to agree on nomi- nations, the Minister of Labour may both select and appoint a Board. The Board fully investigates the dispute and no strike or lockout may legally occur before or during such investigation. Boards are given power to summon witnesses, administer oaths, and to compel witnesses to testify and pro- duce books and other evidence in the same manner as courts of record in civil cases. If settlement of a dispute is reached by the parties during the course of its reference to a Board, a brief memo- randum drawn up by the Board and signed by the parties is filed with the Minister of Labour. If settlement is not arrived at during the refer- ence, the Board is required to make a full written report to the Minister of Labour, setting forth the details of its investigation and its recommendation for settlement of the dispute. The report is filed in the office of the Registrar and copies are sent free of charge to the parties and to any news- papers in Canada which apply for them. The Minister may also distribute copies in such manner as he considers desirable, as a means of securing compliance with the Board's recommendation. In addition to this, for the information of Parliament and the public, a copy of the report must be pub- lished without delay in the Labour Gazette, and be included in the annual report of the Depart- ment of Labour to the Governor General. It can- not be too strongly emphasized that the Act of 1907 is not a compulsory arbitration law. While the Act undertook to carry the element of compul- sion a step further, it did not alter the principle of voluntary adjustment on which the old law was founded. In pursuit of this aim, and to avoid difficulties involved in compulsory arbitration, the machinery was changed to consist of Boards of Conciliation and Investigation and, although it was the duty of these Boards to do all in their power to affect conciliations, and to offer recommenda- tions of settlement, compulsijn was restricted to their investigatory function. Compliance with the recommendations of the Reference Boards is op- tional ; the weight of public opinion is relied on to make settlements effective. . . . The only provision giving mandatoi-y power to the finding of a Board is that if, at any time before or after a Board has made its report and recommendation, both parties to the dispute agree in writing to be bound by the recommendation of the Board in the same manner as parties are bound in the case of a ref- erence to arbitration on the order of a court of record, the recommendation shall be made a rule of the court on application of either party, and shall be enforceable in like manner. Canadian courts, however, have hesitated to regard such an agreement as constituting a rule of court. . . . The commonly accepted statement that the Act was based on Australian labor legislation is historically incorrect, and tends to give a mistaken conception of the nature of the Act. Indeed, this statement has not been without influence in the development of a hostile attitude toward the Canadian Act, which, unlike the Australian legislation, as far as possible avoids compulsion, and instead is frankly based on an appeal to the power of public opinion. . . . The Minister of Labour, who is responsible for the administration of the Act, thus far has taken the stand that the penalty provided for strikes or lockouts prior to investigations will be imposed only where prosecution is initiated by one or the other of the disputants, and although there have been many 'illegal' strikes since the Act became effective, the penally seldom has been im- posed. This fact has led to the rather hasty as- sumption in the United States that the compul- sory feature is a failure in Canada. . . . While this is to some extent true, it fails correctly to reflect the spirit and intention of the Canadian Act, which should be interpreted in the light of its original purpose. Hon. W. L. Mackenzie King has said: 'The Government has never laid particular stress on the penalty end of it. The penalty part . . . has always been treated much in the same light as penalty for trespass.' ... A procedure which ap- pears to be responsible for much of the opposition to the Act on the part of organized labor in Can- ada is the use made of the discretion which it al- lows to the Minister of Labour to grant or refuse Boards of Investigation. Boards have been refused in a number of cases where the workers felt that they had a real grievance. Thus, in strikes involv- ing several employers or several unions where these employers or unions could not agree on a single representative, the Minister of Labour has de- clined to appoint a Board. A strike involving many companies is regarded by the Minister of Labour as a separate dispute for each company and, where the various interests agree on a single nomination, although one Board is appointed to investigate the whole trouble, it is legally consid- ered that there are as many separate Boards as there are independent employers. . . . The opera- tion of the Act has shown that the opinion of the chairman usually controls the finding of the Board. This arises naturally from the fact that employers and employees each select a representative favor- able to their respective cause, and it has gradually come to pass that, in almost all cases, these two members of the Board disagree and' the decision rests with the chairman. It has even been sug- gested on this account that, in the case of im- portant disputes involving large public issues, the position of the chairman be strengthened by ap- pointment by the Minister of Labour of three out- side representatives. It is believed that decisions of a Board so constituted would inspire greater public confidence. . . . The operation of the Act has further developed the fact that Boards are most successful when least formal, and particularly when least legalistic in their attitude and proce- dure. Boards of which prominent jurists have been chairmen have notably failed. The difficulty of 415 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL securing acceptable chairmen is very great. . . . Yet another source of difficulty arising through the operation of the Act and not directly from its pro- visions, but apparently contrary to them, is the delay which may occur in the appointment of a Board. . . . For the nine-year period endin? March 31, 1Q16, igi applications for Boards have been made, and i6q have been established. Of this number only 60 were established within the 15 days. In 14 cases, between 46 and 61 days elapsed between the application and the establishment of the Board; in 21 cases, between 31 and 46 days; in 66 cases, between 16 and 31 days. . . . The Act also states that employers or employees shall give at least thirty days' notice of an intended change affecting conditions of employment with respect to wages or hours, and provides a penalty for disregard of this provision. ... In spite of this provision no complaint among workmen is more common than that wages and hours are changed without notice, and are followed by de- lays in appointment of Boards. ... In the first year of the operation of the Act only three appli- cations for Boards were refused, in the second year two, in the third year one, in the fourth year five, in the fifth year five. ... In the fourth and fifth years there were four failures each year to avert or end a strike after a Board had been ap- pointed. ... In 889<' of the disputes referred to Boards, strikes or lockouts were averted or ended. If the number of applications refused is added to the number of cases in which strikes or lockouts were not prevented, as also indicating failure on the part of the Act to meet the situation, the per- centage of successful conciliations is reduced to 78%. . . . For the first two years of the operation of the Act but little opposition appeared; but from that time to the present, hostility among organ- ized labor unions has steadily increased. This op- position is most outspoken on the part of the in- ternational labor organizations. . . . The rank and file of Canadian labor express little opposition to the principles of the Act, although some modifica- tions are desired; the official attitude of the in- ternational labor organizations in Canada, how- ever, is increasingly hostile. ... It is difficult to escape the conclusion that, whether or not the penalties of the Act are enforceable against work- ers, the very existence of the Act and the manner of its administration is felt by them to hamper the operations of the union, and particularly to limit use of the strike to enforce demands. This conclu- sion is strengthened by the fact that, of the recom- mendations of Boards since the enactment of the Act, Q0% favored the employees and granted a major part of their demands. Also, more than qo% of the Boards have been instituted on ap- plication of employees. It is not, therefore, dis- satisfaction in general with the recommendations of the Boards that can account for organized labor's opposition. This must arise from the gen- eral ojieration of the Act and the effect of its con- tinued existence on the statute books, which de- prives striking employees who have not applied for a Board of Investigation, of the moral support of the community. But perhaps the fundamental reason for this opposition, not to speak of possible antipathy to certain officials, is the fact that the settlement of disputes apart from the manipula- tion of the union leaders, tends to weaken their hold on the rank and file, and their relative im- portance in gaining concessions for their followers." — National Industrial Conference Board, Canadian Industrial Disputes Investigation Act (Research report No. 5, pp. 3-6, 8-q, 11-14, 16, 17, 18, 19-20. DENMARK 1910-1918. — By a law passed in loio provision is made for the appointment of a permanent arbitra- tion court of six members selected from organiza- tion of employers and employees with a president and vice-president with qualifications of an ordi- nary judge. It is the duty of this court to make the parties to a dispute respect any agreement be- tween them. A government conciliator is appointed for two years. Whenever a strike or lockout is im- pending (public notice being compulsory) it is his duty to intervene and attempt to effect a settle- ment. Strikes or lockouts are prohibited in cases where court awards or trade agreements are broken. In cases where no trade agreements exist, a strike is legal, but public notice must be given before it is started." — American Labor Year Book, 1917-1918, pp. 140-141. FRANCE 1806-1909. — Conseils des prud'hommes. — Arbi- tration council.— "Industrial arbitration and con- ciliation in France dates practically from the crea- tion of the councils of experts {Conseils des Prud'- hommes) by Napoleon I in 1806, after his return from Elba. These councils were the successors to the ancient corporative tribunals which had held certain jurisdiction in the silk trade and which were swept away when the trade guilds were abol- ished in 1791. . . . Inhabitants of Lyons, center of the silk industry, had been loyal to the first Na- poleon and feted him on his return. Incidentally, they took diplomatic adventage of his good feeling toward them in 1806 to ask the restoration of the corporative tribunals. The councils of experts were created in response to this request. The councils of experts originally were composed of five employers and four foremen, while the guild tribunal was composed entirely of manufacturers. The councils of experts were established to settle minor difficulties by conciliation, or, in the failure of conciliation, to adjudicate formally any matter involving less than sixty francs. The bureau of conciliation, composed of one manufacturer and one foreman, met once a day while the general bureau of arbitration met once a week to decide cases in which the bureau of conciliation had failed. By 1804, fourteen French towns had es- tablished councils of experts. In 1S94, there were one hundred seventeen councils in France." — C. H. Mote, Industrial arbitration, pp. 87-88. — "The Conseils des prud'hommes . . . assumed jurisdiction of individual disputes only. It was not until the enactment of the conciliation and arbitration law of 1802 that legal machinery was created for the settlement of collective disputes. Under the act of 1802, the initiative may be taken by the parties themselves, or, in the ca.se of actual strikes or lockouts, the initiative may be taken by a justice of the peace. Both parties may apply jointly for conciliation, or, if only one applies, it is the duty of the justice of the peace to notify the opposite party, who must reply within three days. In the application for, or acceptance of conciliation, each party must name five persons to act as its representatives in conciliation. If neither party applies for concilia- tion, it is the duty of the justice of the peace to request the parties to notify him of their willing- ness or refusal to accept conciliation or arbitra- tion. The justice of the peace is ex-officio chair- man of the conciliation committee. Conciliation failing, the justice of the peace must endeavor to 16 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL obtain arbitration, each side to name an arbitrator or both to agree on a common arbitrator. If ar- bitrators can not agree, they may name an umpire, and if they are unable to agree upon an umpire, he is named by the president of the local tribunal. Decisions must be in writing and the expenses of hearings are borne by the Communes. Every feature of the act is voluntary. Reports of con- ciliat'on committees, arbitration boards and re- quests for and refusal of conciliation or arbitration arc to be made public." — Ibid., pp. loo-ioi. — By an act of July 22, igoq, a permanent arbitration council was created by the French government with a view to investigating disputes between ship- ping companies and their crews. The council has headquarters in Paris. The council consists of three members appointed for three years by decree drawn up on the proposal of the keeper of seals, minister of justice, and selected from among the ordinary state councilors, also from the council- ors of the Court of Cassation; also arbitrators se- lected for three years by the employers, who shall be present to the number of five at each arbitra- tion ; also arbitrators elected for three years by the employees, who shall be present to the num- ber of five at each arbitration. The three mem- bers from the State Council and Court of Cassa- tion elect a president and vice-president and con- stitute the central section of the Permanent Arbi- tration Council. In each maritime district, the ship owners elect five regular and five deputy ar- bitrators. Each of four specified classes of em- ployees in each maritime district elects five regular and five deputy arbitrators. In detail the act sets out how the council is made up for the settlement of a collective dispute. The central section is al- ways present. Detailed provisions are also set out for the election of arbitrators and deputy arbitra- tors every three years. When a collective dispute arises, the parties may submit their controversy to the Director of the Seamen's Register, or he may take the initiative in an endeavor to concili- ate the parties. Upon the failure of conciliation, there is a roundabout process by which the ser- vices of the arbitration council are offered the parties. If they refuse arbitration, a certificate to that effect is entered by the central section of the council. If the parties agree to arbitration, the court is convened. It has full power of in- vestigation, hearing and of giving judgment, al- though it does not appear that either party is bound by the judgment. The judgment is pub- lished. The public is not admitted to the council meetings." — Ibid., pp. 112-113. GERMANY 1890-1908. — Industrial courts. — "An act of 1890, regulating industrial courts, was the first [German] legislation recognizing the principle of collective disputes and providing for collective bargaining. These courts were empowered to act as concilia- tion bureaus in disputes concerning the 'terms of continuation or renewal of the labor contract,' but only on condition that both parties requested ac- tion, and, if they numbered more than three, ap- pointed delegates to the hearing. Conciliation bureaus consisted of the president of the court and at least four members, two employers and two workmen, but there might be added, and it was compulsory when the delegates so requested, rep- resentatives in equal number of employers and employees. Representatives and miembers of the bureau could not act if concerned in the dispute. The bureau could hear and examine witnesses under the act but could not compel their attendance. After hearing, each side was required to formulate its opinions of the allegations of the other side, whereupon an effort at conciliation was to be made. Failing in this, a decision followed and the dele- gates were required to declare within a specified time their acceptance or rejection of the award. At the expiration of this time the decision was published. In some cases, the president of these courts intervened informally with conspicuous suc- cess, but in three years, i8gg, 1900 and 1901, there were nearly four thousand strikes, one hundred thirty-two only having been settled by the in- dustrial courts. The German law of 1890 was quite successful in the settlement of individual disputes but not successful in the settlement of collective disputes. The act of iqoi took the ap- pointment of arbitrators out of the hands of the president and lodged it with the parties concerned in a controversy. Not only regular assessors of the court may be chosen but any other persons in whom the parties have confidence. The new act made the appearance of parties to a dispute com- pulsory in the event one or both parties call upon the court to act as a board of arbitration. When both parties ask for arbitration, the court is con- stituted as a formal board of arbitration. If only one side applies, it is the president's duty to at- tempt to obtain the cooperation of the other party. If successful, the board is constituted for the pur- pose of conciliation. If neither party applies for arbitration, it is the president's duty to urge the arbitration of the controversy. This provision per- mits the court to intervene with a view to settling threatened strikes and lockouts. There is nothing novel in the proceedings before an industrial court sitting as a board of arbitration. Failure to ap- pear before the court in answer to a summons of the president is punishable by a fine. Decisions are given by a majority but the president may ab- stain from voting if there is a tie. The acceptance of the decision is not compulsory and a failure to declare whether the decision is accepted is con- strued as a refusal. An award is binding, however, if both parties have previously agreed to such an award. The Berlin court, between 1902 and iqo8, was appealed to by both sides in one hundred sixty-four cases and by one side in sixty instances. Most of the applications from one side are from the workers. Out of one hundred forty applica- tions for arbitration in the empire in 1908, one hundred thirty-four were from workmen while only six came from the employers. Out of one thousand two hundred sixty disputes submitted by both parties in the empire between 1902 and 1908, nine hundred eight were settled cither by agreement or awards acceptable to both parties. In seventy-six cases the board failed to reach a decision. Mercantile courts for the settlement of disputes between merchants and their employees were established in 1904. For the settlement of individual disputes, the German industrial courts are composed of at least four assessors and a presi- dent and vice-president. The latter must belong to neither side of the controversy. . . . Industrial courts operate not only for the conciliation or legal decision of individual disputes and the concilia- tion and arbitration of collective disputes, but for the guidance of public opinion and of public officials and legislative bodies in matters where expert advice is needed. The jurisdiction of in- dustrial courts in individual disputes is limited by the arbitration courts of the guilds, organized quite like the industrial courts, or by legal statute, but generally extending over all industrial occupa- tions Special courts exist for special industries: 417 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL Even after a court is organized for hearing in an individual dispute or a collective dispute, it is charged with the duty of attempting conciliation at any time before a decision is given, if concilia- tion seems feasible. Hearings generally are public, though they may be private. The decisions of the court in individual disputes are determined by a majority vote." — Ibid., pp. 73-77. 1915-1919. — Creation of a labor department. — "By an imperial decree of October 4, loiS, pub- lished in the Beichsgesetzblatt, matters relating to social policy administered hitherto by the Imperial Economic Office {Beichswirtschajtiamt) , are hence- forth to be within the province of a special central authority, entitled the Imperial Labor Department (Beichsarbeitsamt) . The decree orders the impe- rial chancellor to arrange for the transfer of func- tions and officials from the Imperial Economic Of- fice to the new department. . . . "Two tasks confront organized labor at the pres- ent time: .A chamber of labor law corresponding to their demands and the statutory regulation of employment exchanges in agreement with the pro- posals unanimously adopted by the Reichstag in the spring of 1015, but hitherto neglected. A con- ference of the combined associations of workmen, minor oflicials, and salaried employees had been called for the end of October, but it has been abandoned, as it is expected that the new labor de- partment will itself submit legislative proposals satisfactjjry to the wage workers. A third task is the reform of the right of coalition; with this is connected the giving of a legal status to collective agreements and the extension of the conciliation principle to an imperial conciliation office " — Labor bureau (Labor Review, January, loio). GREAT BRITAIN 1562-1896. — Preliminary legislation. — "Provi- sions for the settlement of individual disputes be- tween master and workmen were common in English laws as far back as the middle of the six- teenth century. Beginning with the Statute of .Apprentices in 1562 and ending with a special act of Parliament in 1747, these laws simply referred all disputes between employer and employee to the local magistrate for adjudication. Reference of disputes was compulsory on the request of either party and decisions likewise were binding upon both parties and enforceable by proceedings of dis- tress and sale or imprisonment. . . . With the rise of the industrial state and especially the cotton in- dustry in England, disputes between employer and employee multiplied. . . . The local magis- trates were notoriously under the influence of the employers, and justice was arbitrarily distorted to the prejudice of the working classes. A jus- tice of the peace was wholly unfit to act as media- tor between employer and employee, because he was always a party in interest. ... In the midst of England's industrial revolution the English Par- liament passed a series of four acts, in 1800, 1803, 1805 and 1813 applying to England, Scotland and Ireland, and designed to regulate the relations be- tween master and workmen A notable departure from the earlier forms of this legislation was made. Substantially the acts provided for the appoint- ment of two arbitrators, one by the employers and one by the employees, from nominations made by the local justice of the peace. These laws ap- plied only to the cotton trade Like the former acts they made reference of disputes compulsory and decisions binding. The act of 1824, which consolidated the three acts then in force, extended the operation of the principle of concihation and arbitration, as defined by law, to all trades. To insure the maintenance of the freedom of contract between employer and employee, first secured by the repeal of the Statute of .Apprentices in 1814, mutual consent of master and workmen was made necessary as a condition precedent to the fixing by local magistrates of rate of wages or price of labor or workmanship. This clause abolished the compulsory features of earlier legislation on the subject and is noteworthy only for this reason. The consolidation act of 1824 remained in force until i8q6. . . . The act of 1824 was amended in 1S37 to provide for compulsory arbitration be- tween employers and workmen, upon the appli- cation of either party. The local magistrate was empowered to nominate four or six arbitrators, half workmen and half masters. In the event of the arbitrators' failure to agree, it was provided that the case should be referred to the appointing magistrate. Subjects for arbitration included price for work done, hours of labor, injury or damage to work, delay in completing work or bad ma- terial. The act provided that in emergencies, the justice of the peace might grant a summary hear- ing. Mutual consent was a condition precedent to the fixing of future rates of wages and standards of workmanship. The awards of the boards could be enforced by distress or imprisonment. This act was intended mainly for the textile industries. The council of conciliation act, drawn from the French system, was passed in 1867. It made it possible for any number of employers and workmen to agree to create a council of conciliation and arbitration and receive a license from the government with all the powers of the boards under the act of 1824. Fixing wages was expressly forbidden. Disputes, before reaching the council, must have been re- ferred first to the 'committee on conciliation,' con- sisting of one master and one workman. .Although this act remained in force until i8q6, it was never more than a dead letter, no application for license ever having been made under it. The only definite answer offered in explanation of the failure of this act, according to Leonard W. Hatch, in referring to the later debates in Parliament, is that the act was too inelastic, laying down too many hard and fast rules as to the constitution and procedure of the councils, so that no latitude was left to em- ployers and workmen who might desire to form them. The act provided for little more than conciliation committees for collective disputes. But this feature of the act is noteworthy for the reason that it is the first instance of legal recog- nition in England of collective disputes and con- sequently of collective bargaining between em- ployer and employee. Councils were empowered to take cognizance of disputes involving one or more workmen. In 1872 Parliament passed the masters and workmen act. It provided that mas- ters and workmen might contract as to terms of employment and bind both parties to submit their disputes to arbitration. It. however, offered no in- ducement to the parties to enter into contracts and permitted either party to withdraw from such contracts after a brief notice to the other party .Although penalties could be provided for under the contracts, no provision was made to enforce them. This act was in force until 1806, but no practical results ever came of it. Private boards of concili- ation were established in England as early as 1856, and private voluntary boards were common in England at the time of the passage of the council of conciliation act in 1867 Trade boards of con- ciliation and arbitration, made up of an equal number each of employers and workmen, were :l8 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL quite successful in averting trouble in the iron and steel industry in England. Joint committees of conciliation and arbitration similar to the trade boards but with less machinery and jurisdiction in particular establishments also made notable progress toward friendly relations between em- ployer and employee. District boards of concilia- tion and arbitration had general jurisdiction over a variety of employments. The first permanent and successful board of conciliation was organized in iSoo in the hosiery and glass trade at Notting- ham, England, by A. J. Mundella. Modern con- ciliation and arbitration in England dates from the dock laborers' strike in iS8q. The movement for industrial peace following that strike was begun by Sir Samuel Boulton." — C. H. Mote, Indtts- trial arbitration, pp. 23-25, 32, 34-38. 1850. — Rate war of railroads in England. — Gladstone's arbitration. — Octuple agreement. See Railroads: 1759-18S1. 1889-1920. — Modern legislation. — "The Arbi- bilration Act [of] i88q is not to apply to the set- tlement by arbitration of such differences or dis- putes, but the proceedings are to be conducted in accordance with such of the provisions of that Act, or such of the regulations of any Conciliation Board, or under such other rules and regulations, as may be mutually agreed upon by the parties to the difference or dispute. The Act contains a fur- ther provision (sect. 4) enabling the Board of Trade (now the Minister of Labour), if it appears to it that in any district or trade adequate means do not exist for having disputes submitted to a Con- ciliation Board for the district or trade, to ap- point any person or persons to inquire into the conditions of the district or trade, and to confer with employers and employed, and if the Board of Trade (now the Minister of Labour) thinks iit, with any local authority or body, as to the expediency of establishing a Conciliation Board for the district or trade. These are the main provisions of the Act, and it will be seen that they furnish the means of (i) conciliation, (2) ar- bitration on the application of the parties to the dispute, and (3) without any application by them, inquiry into the causes and circumstances of a dif- ference. The Act was supplemented, however, on the ist September, iqo8, by certain very impor- tant administrative provisions. These had no statu- tory force or authority, but they came into prac- tical operation, having continued since, and their principle was embodied in the Munitions of War Act, lOiS, and the subsequent legislation, as will be seen presently. The Conciliation Act, i8q6, only provided for one arbitration tribunal, that is to say, 'an arbitrator.' The administrative pro- vision added a Court of Arbitration composed of representatives of employers and workers re- spectively, chosen from panels, with an indepen- dent Chairman, also taken from a panel. The administrative provisions were in the form of a Memorandum, communicated to Chambers of Com- merce and Employers' and Workmen's .Associations, and were published in the Board of Trade Labour Gazette for September, iqcS. The Memorandum was as follows: '(t) Under the Conciliation Act of 1806 the Board of Trade has power to appoint a Conciliator in trade disputes and an .Arbitrator at the request of both parties. These slender means of intervention have been employed in cases where opportunity has offered, and the work of the Department in this sphere has considerably in- creased of recent years. In igo; the Board of Trade intervened in 14 disputes and settled them all; in 1Q06 they intervened in 20 cases and settled 16; in TQcy they intervened in 39 cases and settled 32 ; while during the first eight months of the present year [1908] no fewer than 47 cases of in- tervention have occurred, of which 35 have been already settled, while some of the remainder are still being dealt with. (2) It is not proposed to curtail or replace any of the existing functions or practices under the Conciliation Act, nor in any respect to depart from its voluntary and per- missive character. The good offices of the De- partment will still be available to all in industrial circles for the settlement of disputes whenever opportunity otfers; single Arbitrators and Concilia- tors will still be undertaken in special cases, and no element of compulsion will enter into any of these proceedings. But the time has now arrived when the scale of these operations deserves, and indeed requires, the creation of some more formal and permanent machinery ; and, with a view to consolidating, expanding and popularising the working of the Conciliation Act, I propose to set up a Standing Court of Arbitration. (3) The Court, which will sit wherever required, will be composed of three (or five) members, according to the wishes Of the parties, with fees and ex- penses to members of the Court, and to the Chair- man during sittings. The Court will be nominated by the Board of Trade from three panels. The first panel — of chairmen — will comprise persons of eminence and impartiality. The second will be formed of persons who, while pre- serving an impartial mind in regard to the particu- lar dispute, are nevertheless drawn from the "em- ployer class." The third panel will be formed of persons similarly drawn from the class of work- men and Trade Unionists. . . . Lastly, in order that the peculiar conditions of any trade may be fully explained to the Court, technical assessors may be appointed by the Board of Trade at the request of the Court or of the parties to assist in the deliberations, but without any right to vote. (4) The state of public opinion upon the general question of Arbitration in Trade Disputes may be very conveniently tested by such a voluntary ar- rangement. Careful inquiry through various chan- nels open to the Board of Trade justifies the ex- pectation that the plan would not be unwelcome in industrial circles. The Court will only be called into being if, and in proportion as, it is actually wanted. No fresh legislation is necessary. (5) Steps will now be taken to form the respective panels.' "The Munitions of War Act, iqi5, in providing for the compulsory settlement of differences as to rates of wages, hours of work, or otherwise as to terms or conditions of, or affecting, employment on the manufacture or repair of munitions of war, provided three alternative forms of arbitrative tribunals (Schedule I. to Munitions of War Act, IQ15): — (a) The Committee on Production; (()) A single arbitrator to be agreed upon by the par- ties, or in default of agreement appointed by the Board of Trade (afterwards the Minister of La- bour) ; or (f) A Court of Arbitration consisting of an equal number of persons representing em- ployers, and persons representing workmen, with a chairman appointed by the Board of Trade (af- terwards the Minister of Labour). The tribunal to which the reference was made was to be de- termined by agreement between the parties to the difference, or in default of agreement by the Board of Trade (afterwards Minister of Labour), and the Arbitration .Act, 1880, was not to apply to such references. ... On the conclusion of the armistice an .Act was passed, shortly entitled 'The Wages (Temporary Regulation) Act, iqiq' fiQi8?l. The principal object of this Act, the full title of which 419 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL was 'An Act for prescribing Minimum Rates of Wages during a limited period and for repealing certain provisions of the Munitions of War Acts',' and which was to be in force for six months only (afterwards extended for a further period of six months, to expire on the 21st November, igiS [loig?], was the stabilisation of wages during the abnormal conditions still prevailing on account of the war and which were expected to continue to prevail for a time. ... On the 21st November the provisions of the Wages (Temporary Regulation) Act, 1918, as extended for six months, were due to come to an end. As a result all provisions for enforcing the payment of a prescribed or substi- tuted rate of wages would then cease, and the Interim Court of Arbitration would determine. It was under these circumstances that the Industrial Courts Bill was introduced shortly before the 21st November, loiq. ... Its objects may be sum- marised as (i) continuation of the stabilisation of wages until the 30th September, 1020; (2) pro- vision of a standing Court for the settlement of industrial disputes; and (3) a provision for ju- dicial inquiry and report into the causes and cir- cumstances of apprehended or existing trade dis- putes. It was preservative for a limited period of some of the provisions of the Wages (Temporary Regulation) Act, iqi8, creative concurrently with the Conciliation Act, 1806, of Courts and tribunals of arbitration, and further developed in this country [England] the machinery of Courts of Inquiry and Investi;ation. ... By way of sum- mary . . . conciliation is under the provisions of the acts of 1806 and igig . . .; or under agree- ments between Federations or Associations of em- ployers or workers ; or under the National Indus- trial Councils which have been established in some industries. According to the Labour Gazette of December, iqig, there were at the end of igig fifty-one National Industrial Councils, the num- ber formed during igig being thirty-one. Although these cover a number of industries and workers, yet they are very far short of [being] exhaustive of the- various industries of the country, and a large margin is therefore left for procedure under the above Acts. . . . Arbitrations are now [ig2o] either under — (i) The Conciliation Act, 1896; or (2) The Industrial Courts Act, iqig. Under (i) all that is required is the application of the parties to the dispute for either a hearing before a single ar- bitrator, or before a Court of Arbitration ... as- suming that the provisions of the administrative Memorandum [of September, igo8] ... are still in continuance. Under (2), assuming that there do not exist in the particular trade or industry concerned arrangements for settlement made in pursuance of an agreement between organizations of employers and organizations of workmen representative respec- tively of substantial proportions of the employers and workmen engaged in that industry, the Min- ister may at once, with the consent of the parties, refer the matter for settlement either to the In- dustrial Court or to the arbitration of one or more persons appointed by him, or refer the matter to a Board of Arbitration as set out in . . . the In- dustrial Courts Act, igig. . . . Whether the matter has been referred for settlement under the Con- ciliation .\ct or under the Industrial Courts .'Vet, the settlements or awards made are not compul- sory on the parties."— W. H. Stoker, Industrial courts aft, igig, and conciliation and arbitra- tion in industrial disputes, pp. B-VC, 23-24.— See also Whitley cottxcils: Organization and method. 1915. — Arbitration in Clyde shipyard strike. See Labor strikes and boycotts: igis. HOLLAND 1903-1918. — "Delegates are selected from differ- ent groups of railway employees who are authorized to present the wishes and complaints of railway workers before the managers. .Arbitration boards have been established for the enforcement of pen- alties imposed because of infractions of working rules and conditions. Strikes in railway service are prohibited. . . . Legislation prohibiting strikes was the outcome of a general strike in the Dutch railway service in igo3." — .imerican Labor Year Book, igi7-igi8, p. 142. ITALY 1917-1920.— Effect of World War. — National Council of Labor instituted. — "The legislation re- lating to labour disputes ... in force in 1918, could not be called complete. . . . The principle of state intervention for the amicable solution of la- bour conflicts had not, before the outbreak of the war, been applied to agriculture, except in isolated cases. The state of public opinion, and the peculiar industrial conditions which arose during the war ... led the Government to enact measures similar to those adopted in industry. The Decrees of 6 May igi7 which codified several Decrees, including those of 30 May igi6 and 2 November igi6, established in every judicial district a district arbitration com- mittee . . . empowered to intervene in disputes re- lating to the prolongation of agrarian contracts, and to the supply of horses, cattle, etc.; further, at the request of one or both of the parties or of the Prefect, in disputes relating to labour and wage agreements and general collective disputes concern- ing agricultural work in any way. . . . The concil- iation settlement had the force of an agreement be- tween the parties, who might also authorise the committee to decide the dispute, acting as arbi- trators with power to effect an amicable settlement. . . . The system . . . was considerably altered by the Decree of 14 September iqig. . . . These com- mittees are presided over by a member of the trib- unal and arc constituted of four members, two landowners or large tenant farmers and two work- ers, appointed by their respective organisations, or, failing this, by the provincial agricultural commit- tees. They may intervene with a view to settle- ment by conciliation, at the request of the parties, or of the Prefect, or on their own initiative, in col- lective disputes relating to agricultural work. If conciliation is successful the settlement has the force of an agreement between the parties, but if conciliation fails, the committee embodies its own views in the form of a 'judgment' and suggests a possible solution of the dispute. Both the district arbitration committees and the committees attached to the provincial agricultural committees have met fairly regularly, and still continue to meet. They have helped to solve a larce number of disputes, to the satisfaction of the disputants. . . . The ma- chinery for the settlement of labour conflicts is not only increasing, but is gradually tending to assume the form of real labour tribunals. . . . The Decree of February igig. on agreements in private em- ployment, provided for the institution of special joint committees constituted of an equal number of representatives of managements and employees. These committees are competent to draw up draft agreements for particular firms, and to intervene in individual and collective disputes and in dis- agreements about the interpretation of employment contracts or work hours and work conditions. In cases of collective disputes, the functions of these committees are Hmitcd to attempting concilia- 420 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL tion. . . . Other cases are referred to special arbi- tration tribunals, constituted of five members, two nominated by the plaintiff, two by the defendant, and the fifth by agreement between the members. . . . The importance of the tribunals as regards col- lective disputes apears to consist less in their func- tion of attempting to effect amicable settlements, than in their power to prevent disputes by drawing up draft agreements. . . . Both provincial commit- tees, and later the joint tribunals, have in practice rendered very valuable service by providing peaceful solutions of a large number of disputes between employers and employees. . . . The Bill on the in- stitution of a National Council of Labour, which was introduced in the Chamber of Deputies by the Minister of Labour on lo November ig20, contains some very important clauses on arbitration. Arti- cle I id) of the Bill provides that the CouncU shall arbitrate in industrial disputes at the request of the parties. For this purpose the Council at its first sitting appoints a conciliation and arbitration committee, constituted of twelve members, six elected by the representatives of employers and six by the representatives of the workers, and with the president of the Council as a chairman. The com- mittee, or a sub-committee appointed by it from time to time, may intervene at the request of the Minister of Labour or of the parties, for the pur- pose of settling by conciliation such disputes and disagreements between employers and workers, as concern whole industries or large districts or a very large number of workers. If conciliation fails, the Minister of Labour, with the consent of the parties, may refer such disputes for arbitration to special arbitration tribunals, chosen as the need arises by the parties themselves, or, should they fail to agree, by the Minister. These tribunals are to be chosen from the members of the committee and are to consist of an equal number of repre- sentatives of employers and workers. The chair- man shall be nominated by the members them- selves, or, if they fail to agree, by the Minister of Labour." — Labor conditions {International Labour Review, March, 1921). NEW ZEALAND 1892-1913. — Compulsory arbitration. — "From the earliest times. New Zealand depended almost al- together upon water transportation for communi- cation between various parts of the two islands. In i8q2, there occurred the organized strikes of the workers in Australian colonies, in which the Seamen's Union took a leading part. Sympathy for the Australian cause practically resulted in a general strike of the New Zealand Seamen's Union, and trade was badly disorganized. As a result of this strike, the New Zealand arbitration law was passed in 1803 and became effective in 1894. The minister of labor was designated to administer the act. It provided for local boards of conciliation in 'industrial disputes' and a general court of ar- bitration. District boards were composed of three or five members, the chairman being chosen by the representative members from the working and em- ploying classes who elected their members. They were appointed by the governor from nominations made by registered trade unions and registered em- ployers' associations. The president of the court was chosen directly by the governor from the judges of the Supreme Court. Either party be- fore a hearing had begun might require a dispute to be referred from the district boards of concilia- tion to the court of arbitration. Once a case was referred for conciliation, it was unlawful to call a strike or lockout. Agreements might be made be- tween the parties, but their enforcement was com- pulsory, the same as an award by the arbitration court. Full power to compel the presence and testimony of witnesses was given the district boards of conciliation and the arbitration court. Every industrial dispute, except indictable of- fenses, came under the operation of the law, and since the act was based upon a free recognition of trade unionism, conciliation boards and the court were required to give preference to the mem- bers of trade unions. While this act was regarded as a compulsory arbitration statute, there was no penalty for failing to register, and unregistered organizations did not come under the act. Awards were automatically extended to whole industries by the act of iqoo, the amendments of iqoi and iqo3 and an interpretation of the court in iqo4. Between 1896 and IQ03, two hundred thirteen employers were charged with violating awards and one hundred seventy-one were convicted. During the same period, four employees were charged with similar offenses and three convictions were obtained. The industrial conciliation and arbitra- tion acts were consolidated in iqo8 and amend- ments were added in 1908 and 1910. The New Zedand Official Vear-Book for igii gives a sum- mary of the main provisions. Under the act the Dominion of New Zealand is divided into eight industrial districts. Any society consisting of not less than three persons in the case of employers or fifteen in the case of workers in any specified industry or industries in an industrial district may be registered as an industrial union. Any incor- porated company may be registered as an indus- trial union of employers. Any two or more in- dustrial unions of employers or employees may form an industrial association and register under the act. Industrial associations are formed usu- ally for the whole or greater part of New Zea- land, comprising unions registered in the various industries. Registration enables any union or as- sociation to enter into and file an industrial agree- ment setting out the conditions of employment. Although this agreement is limited to a period of three years, it remains in force until superseded by another agreement or an award of the court of arbitration, except where the registration of the union of workers concerned is canceled. In the event of a failure to reach an industrial agree- ment, registration permits the parties to bring an industrial dispute before the council of conciliation and, if necessary, before the court of arbitration. A council of conciliation has no compulsory powers but merely makes an endeavor to bring about a settlement which, if made, is filed as an industrial agreement. If no settlement is reached, the council of conciliation is required to refer the dispute to the board of arbitration, which, after hearing the parties, may make an award. Such awards, lilcc industrial agreements, are binding on all parties concerned. Unless otherwise provided, the award applies to the industrial district in which it is made. Awards are limited to a period of three years but remain in force until superseded by an- other award or by a subsequent agreement, ex- cept where registration of the union of workers has been canceled. It is now impossible to refer a dispute directly to the court of arbitration with- out waiting for a hearing by the board of con- ciliation. Four conciliation commissioners, holding office for three years, may be appointed and three were appointed in 1911. and each of the eight industrial districts was placed under the jurisdic- tion of the commissioner. When a dispute arises, the commissioner is notified and recommendations are received for one, two or three assessors to act 421 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL as representatives on the council of conciliation. Councils of conciliation are set up after notice to the other party by the commissioner and recom- mendations by them of an equal number of as- sessors. The court of arbitration is appointed for all New Zealand and consists of three members, one of whom, the permanent judge of the court, possesses the same powers and privileKes as a judge of the Supreme Court. The other judges are nominated, one by the various unions of em- ployers and one by the unions of workers and their appointments determined by a majority of the unions on each side respectively. They hold office for three years and are eligible to reappoint- ment. The judge and one member constitute a quorum. There is no appeal from the decision of the court, except in cases beyond the scope of the act. Strikes and lockouts are illegal only if the parties concerned arc bound by an award or agreement. Workers arc subject to a penalty of forty-eight dollars and sixty cents and employers to a penalty of two thousand four hundred thirty dollars for strikes and lockouts. Gifts of money are deemed to be aiding or abetting a strike or lockout and these are punishable by a fine. In certain industries affecting the supply of water, milk, meat, coal, gas or electricity, or the operation of a ferry, tramway or railway, fourteen da\s" notice must be given within one month of an intended strike or lockout, whether subject to an award or agreement, or not. Strikes and lock- outs are forbidden during the hearing of a dis- pute by the council or court of arbitration. Breaches of awards and industrial agreements are punishable by fines of four hundred eighty-six dol- lars against a union, association or employer, and twenty -four dollars and thirty cents against a worker. Since the passage of the New Zealand act in i8q3 to the thirty-first of March, igii, there was a total of forty-two strikes, of which twelve were of the slaughtermen. These twelve strikes occurred in 1Q07. Of the twelve slaughtermen strikes, six were within the scope of the act and twenty-two outside the scope of the act. In loog, there were four strikes in New Zealand, in 1010, eleven, and in iqti, up to March 31, two strikes. . . . Perhaps nothing so completely demonstrates the strength of the New Zealand system of arbi- tration and its underlying basis of social ju.-tice as the Dominion's experiences with syndicalism and the efforts of the syndicalists to carry out a gen- eral strike during the latter part of iqii. loi^. and 1013. The effort was a complete failure, and although more than fifty strikes were called dur- ing the period, all of them were lost ; direct action was thoroughly discredited; the arbitration system and the government which stood sponsor for it emerged from the contest with added t;lorv. In December, iqi3, a labor disputes investigation act, similar to the Canadian statute, was made to apply to workers' unions not registered under the arbitration act." — C. H. Mote, Industrial arbitra- tion, 1016, pp. 137-145. — "The statute in force to- day [iqiqI is that of IQ08, with the important amendment of that year and the minor amend- ments of loii and 1013. A proposed addition to the contemplated consolidated .4ct of 1Q13 was made into a separate measure and passed as the Labor Disputes Investigation Act, 1013. . . . The .\mending Act of iqii dealt largely with the form and force of awards. The important feature of the Amending Act of 1013 was a provision that where the parties to a dispute did not object to a recommendation of a Council of Conciliation, this should operate as an industrial agreement and not as an award, thus limiting its application to the parties specifically agreeing, whereas an award covers all employers and all workers in the indus- try in the particular district. . . . The .'\mending Act of 1013 consisted of two clauses, and was passed expressly to provide that the recommendation of a Council of Conciliation to which the parties had not objected should op- erate as an industrial agreement, not an award. In explanation of this distinction it should be said that an industrial agreement binds only the par- ties agreeing thereto, while an award covers all employers and all workers in the industry in the district specified." — Conciliation and arbitration in yew Zealand (Research Report No. 23, Dec, igiq, pp. 6, 7-8, 40.) — See also L.^bor strikes and boy- cotts: iQ06-igi3. NORWAY 1914-1916. — Obligatory arbitration boards.— "In March 1014, a special congress of labor unions was held, to oppose an attempt of the govern- ment to make striking illegal and to introduce ob- ligatory arbitration boards, by a general strike. When the proposed bill was brought before the Storthing in May, a general strike was ordered for May 6th, which lasted until May ii, when the bill was withdrawn. This, however, did not pre- vent the government, a few months later, from again attempting to introduce a similar bill — with- out success. Later the government brought in a bill, which provided for the settling of labor dis- putes by arbitration boards. This bill, though not quite as severe as the first one, was also opposed by the Socialist Party, but was finally adopted by Parliament. This law contains a number of ef- fective repressive measures. All workers employed in public industries must give 14 days' notice be- fore laying down their work; furthermore the or- ganization may be held responsible for the failure of any of its members to comply with the con- tract, through illegal strikes or lockouts. The public arbitration commission has the power to prohibit strikes and lockouts, so long as there seems a possibility of arbitration. In July, igi6, in the midst of tremendous conflicts between capi- tal and labor, the government, under the direc- tion of the employers, forced the passage of a bill providing for obligatory arbitration boards. After all parties, with the exception of the Social-De- mocratic Party, had declared themselves in favor of the bill, the labor unions, in accordance with the decision of the labor congress held two years before, declared a general strike .Mthough 120,000 persons answered the call, the law was passed, in spite of this protest of organized labor, and after eight days the strike was called off." — American Labor Year Book, igi6, pp. 203-204. SWEDEN 1920. — Central arbitration board.— "In accord- ance with the decision of the Riksdag, a central arbitration board for the settlement of labor dis- putes has been appointed in Sweden [October, 1020I. This board consists of seven members; three of these are appointed by the Government and arc neutral, representing the interests neither of employers nor of workix-ople. Of the four remaining members, two are appointed by the Council of the Employers' Association, and two by the Workmen's National Council. The object of the board is to render it easier for workmen and their employers to have collective agreements cor- rectly interpreted, thus obviating recourse to lock- 422 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL outs or strikes. Appeals to the board ate to be voluntary, and the decision of the board will be final."— United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, Monthly Labor Revinv, January, 1921, p. 232. SWITZERLAND 1897-1918.— Effect on railway problem.— "The Canton of Geneva has established a system of con- ciliation and arbitration. Conciliators are elected directlv by the two parties to the dispute. If they cannot reach a settlement, recourse is had to an arbitration board under Government auspices. There is no law for the settlement of disputes in the Federal railway service. Strikes are prohibited in the Federal railway service and in the Canton of Geneva whenever an industrial agreement or award is broken. In the Federal service strikes are pun- ishable by fines and reprimands. There are no pen- alties in the Canton of Geneva. There have been no strikes on the railways of Switzerland since their nationalization in i8g7." — American Labor Year Book, IQ17-1918, p. 143. TURKEY 1917-1918. — "In the case of a dispute relative to wages or working conditions, a conciliation board is organized, composed of six members, three rep- resenting employers and three representing em- ployees. The boards are presided over by an of- ficial appointed by the Government. The agree- ments reached by these boards are enforced by the Government. If the parties to the dispute cannot agree, the employees are free to stop work, but nothing must be done by them opposed to freedom of action. Strikes in public utilities are unlawful until grounds of dispute are communicated to the Government and attempts at conciliation have failed. . . . The organization of trade-unions in es- tablishments carrying out any public service is for- bidden."— .4 wpr;co« Labor Year Book, 1Q17-1918, p. 144. UNITED STATES 1886-1920. — State legislation for arbitration. — "The seventeen states having permanent [arbitra- tion] boards [in iqi6] and the dates of their creation by statute .arc as follows: Massachusetts and New York, 1886; Missouri, i88g; California, 1801 ; Ohio, 1803; Louisiana, 1894; Illinois, Con- necticut, Minnesota and Montana, 1895; Utah, 1896; Oklahoma, 1907; Maine, 1909; Alabama, 1911 ; Vermont, 1912; Nebraska and New Hamp- shire, 1913." — C. H. Mote, Industrial arbitration, p. 199. — "A majority of the states have [1920] leg- islation providing for the settlement of industrial disputes, and Wyoming has a constitutional provi- sion to the same effect. Many of these states have permanent boards called boards of conciliation and arbitration or some similar title, with from two to six members, although three is the usual number. It is provided in every state except Alabama that one member shall be a representative of the em- ployees, while all but Alabama and Connecticut provide for representation of employers. The Ok- lahoma board represents farmers in addition. Many states forbicl that more than two members of the board be chosen from the same political party. In other states the labor commissioner acts as mediator, as in Idaho, Indiana, and Maryland. In states having industrial commissions, a chief mediator is appointed along with temporary boards for arbitration. In a score or so of states com- pulsory investigation is provided for. The state board of arbitration must proceed to make an in- vestigation (i) on failure to adjust the dispute by mediation or arbitration, as in Indiana and Massa- chusetts; (2) when it is deemed advisable by the governor, as in Alabama and Nebraska; or (3) simply when the existence of the dispute comes to the knowledge of the board, as in Colorado and Vermont. In other states such investigation is permissive. The board of arbitration may investi- gate (i) when it is deemed advisable by the iri- dustrial commission, as in New York. In Ohio the Industrial commission can make an investi- gation, if it deems necessary, where a strike exists or is threatened, but if no settlement is obtained on account of the opposition of one of the parties investigation is to be made only if requested by the other party. Compulsory investigation may be employed (2) when both parties refuse arbitra- tion and the public would suffer inconvenience, as in Illinois and Oklahoma, or simply where the parties do not agree to arbitration, as in New Hampshire; (3) or generally, whenever a dispute occurs, as in Connecticut and Minnesota. Pro- vision for enforcement of an arbitration award when arbitration has been agreed to by representa- tives of both sides is made by about a dozen states. In Illinois, if the court has ordered compliance with an award, failure to obey is punishable as contempt, but not by imprisonment. In Idaho and Indiana the award is filed with the district court clerk, and the judge can order obedience, viola- tion being punishable as contempt, but imprison- ment may be inflicted only for wilful disobedience. In Missouri violation of a binding award is punishable by a fine or jail sentence, and in Ohio a binding award may be enforced in the county court of common pleas as if it were a statutory award. In Nevada, Texas, and Alaska the award is filed with the district court clerk, and may be specifically enforced in equity. In Nevada appeal is made to the supreme court, in Texas to the court of civil appeals, and in Alaska to the United States Circuit Court of Appeals. Colorado is the only state that has copied (1915) the Canadian act forbidding strikes or lockouts m certain industries pending investigation and recom- mendation. In about twenty states [Alabama, Alaska, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Indiana, Iowa, Louisiana, Maine, Massachusetts, Montana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, Ohio, Texas, Utah, Vermont] the voluntary agreement to arbitrate must contain a promise to abstain from strike or lockout pending arbitration proceedings. In Mas- sachusetts it is the duty of the parties to give notice of impending stoppage of work. In Nevada and Alaska strikes or lockouts, during arbitration, and in Alaska for three months, after, without thirty days' notice, are unlawful and ground for damages."— J. R. Commons and J. B. Andrews, Principles of labor legislation (2nd ed.), pp. 136- 138. 1888-1921.— Federal legislation.— "Federal legis- lation on mediation and arbitration is comprised in five acts concerning interstate commerce carriers," the acts of 1888, of 1808 (the Erdman act [See also U. S. A.: 1808 (June)], of 1913 (the Newlands act), "Section 8 of the act creating the Department of Labor, also enacted in 1913, and Title III of the transportation act by which the railroads were re- turned to private hands on March i, 1920, at the end of the war-time period of government control and operation."— /ftid., p. 138— "The general pop- ular belief is that arbitration is the main feature of our [American] present plan of settlement. . . . Few understand that the chief and most success- 423 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL ful part of our system is 'mediation,' or, as it is sometimes called, 'conciliation.' ... In both the national and state laws a sharp distinction is made between mediation and arbitration. The first ef- fort of public officials, when a dispute arises, is to 'mediate.' They interview each party to the dis- pute separately and secure the utmost concessions which each is willing to make. Next they try to bring about a settlement on the basis of these con- cessions. . . . Arbitration, however, is entirely dif- ferent. If the officials fail to secure enough con- cessions to settle the dispute, they bend their ef- forts towards obtaining an agreement of the parties to refer the dispute to a board of arbitration. This is the substance of the Erdman Act, the Newlands Act and all the state arbitration laws. . . . The law of 1888 . . . provided that the President might appoint two investigators who, together with the United States Commissioner of Labor, should form a temporary commission to examine the causes of any interstate railway controversy, the conditions which accompanied it, 'and the best means for ad- justing it.' The report of this body was to be transmitted to the President and Congress. Such a purely investigating commission might be ap- pointed on the request of either party or by the President himself, or need not be appointed at all. The act also contained a weak provision for a board of arbitration to be chosen by the parties if they wished, which should render a decision on all the matters in dispute. This decision, however, was not binding. That is, the parties might agree to arbitration without consenting to abide by its awards. This statute, which remained a dead letter on the books for ten years, was never utilized. The reasons are very simple and easily discovered: (a) The balance of power lay entirely with the railway managers; many of the strikes were com- plete failures; the unions were on the defensive, (ft) Both sides in the labor controversies of the time were poorly organized. No principles or methods of dealing between labor and capital had yet been worked out. There were no established habits of procedure, but each strike or dispute was an event in itself, separate and distinct from all others. We were in the 'rule of thumb' stage of opinion on labor controversies. For these reasons the decade i883-i8g8, and even to IQ05, represents an era in w^hich arbitration was not the habitual but the most unusual thing to do. The second law, known as the Erdman .\ct, was passed in 1898 and provided that the federal officers, on learning of a serious interstate dispute, should at- tempt to mediate in the method already described. Failing in this they should, if possible, persuade the parties to sign a contract, the terms of which were fixed by the law itself. This contract pro- vided for the submission of the dispute to a board of arbitration composed of three members chosen by the parties themselves. The award made by this board should be binding for a definite period. An appeal might be taken from the board's de- cision to the federal courts. It is a remarkable fact that only one case was brought up under this law in the first eight years of its history. This shows clearly that the parties concerned, and public opinion in general, had not yet developed to the point where arbitration was a natural and in- stinctive method of settlement. In the one case that was presented during this time the railways declined arbitration and the government system failed. The employees voted to strike by an al- most unanimous ballot, whereupon the managers conceded the substance of the union's demands, — a settlement that could have been easily made by arbitration. Meanwhile in the period from 1901 to 190S there were 329 strikes affecting the rail- ways, with only this single case of attempted ar- bitration above described, and it a failure. This would seem to show conclusively that the unwill- ingness to make use of the previous act was not due to the weakness of the law, but to the lack of experience of the parties and the backward state of public opinion. Beginning with 1905, however, a complete reversal in conditions took place. Despite the failure of several abortive at- tempts, the unions had finally got a firm grip upon all the labor supply of the interstate trains. With this there had come a parallel development in the control of railway capital; mergers had taken place; railway systems had been more firmly cemented together; the 'community of interest' be- tween competing lines had become a familiar fea- ture of transport management. In 1902 the public had received that dramatic proof of the possibil- ities of arbitration which we still refer to as 'the' anthracite coal strike. This was probably the last great controversy in which the mining companies felt assured of success in a contest with labor or- ganizations, and when victory was within their reach it was wrested from them by the national executive who forced arbitration. It is difficult to exaggerate the spectacular effect of this case. It established once for all the fact that arbitration on a grand scale in a crisis of national proportions is possible. The similarity of the issues with those arising on the railways was also helpful. This striking demonstration removed the chief obstacle to the use of the Erdman Law, and in the next eight years there followed in rapid succession a series of 61 cases, most of which were finally solved by mediation, there being only 12 in which arbitration was necessary. The third act, known as the Newlands Law, was passed in July, 1913. It differs from the Erdman Act in only two important points, — the boards of arbitration under the Erd- man .■\ct were considered too small by the railway managers; under the Newlands Act they may, by consent of the parties, be doubled to six members instead of three. The new law also provides that the work of mediation shall be undertaken by a special, permanent commissioner of mediation act- ing with one or two other federal officers, to be designated by the President, and forming a 'Board of Mediation and Conciliation.' Following the 61 cases presented for settlement under the Erdman Act, 60 more have already been brought up under the Newlands Law, that is, in the last three years [1914-1916] as many controversies have been sub- mitted and settled as in the entire preceding twenty-five years. Of these 60 cases, 51 have been settled by mediation and 9 by arbitration. Taking the entire results of the Erdman and Newlands Laws since 1906, that is, since arbitration has be- come an accepted method, we observe that a total of 121 cases have been submitted. Of these over 70 were settled by mediation. Of the remainder, 21 cases were settled by arbitration, or by arbitra- tion combined with mediation. In the remaining cases, the services of the mediators were either re- fused or a direct settlement made without resort to arbitration. This is an astonishing record. Two features stand out with especial prominence — the rapid increase in effectiveness of mediation, and the great importance and breadth of the problems sub- mitted to arbitration. Mediation settled more than half of the controversies brought up to the board under the Erdman Law, and over four-fifths of those brought in the last three years under the Newlands Act. Among the matters subjected to arbitration were issues ranging from the most minute point up to the entire terms of employment 424 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL on over 40 railroads; from the discharge of an electric motorman for disobedience of orders to the settlement of pay and basic hours of work per day for many thousands of men." — J. T. Young, Government arbitration and mediation (Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, January, igi?, pp. 268-272). — "For the four years ending June 30, 11,17, the Federal Board of Mediation and Conciliation functioned in sev- enty-one controversies, fourteen of which were settled partly or wholly by arbitration, and fifty- two by mediation. One dispute was settled by Congressional action, the Adamson law, which meant, in effect, the breakdown of the Newlands act. The outstanding feature of events leading up to the Adamson law of September, 1916, was the failure of arbitration by existing agencies. The demands of the railway brotherhoods were met with counter-demands by the railway managers and the proposal to refer demands of both sides to arbitration under the Newlands act or by the Interstate Commerce Commission. The brother- hoods refused arbitration. Their experience with settlements by third parties had not been fortunate, they asserted. An overwhelming strike vote set the stoppage of work for September 2, 1916. The Federal Board of Mediation and Conciliation ex- ercised its prerogative of offering mediation, but a four-day conference failed to bring agreement. Facing a country-wide railroad tie-up, the Presi- dent conferred with both sides to the controversy and proposed (i) the concession of the eight-hour day, (2) postponement of the other demands until a commission appointed to investigate the effect of the eight-hour day reported. The brotherhoods agreed, but the managers delayed. The President asked Congress for legislation not only to deal with the existing situation, but also to remedy the all too apparent failure of the Newlands act. The Congressional answer was the Adamson law, passed on the day the strike was to have gone into effect. The law embodied just the proposals made by the President to the railroad men and employers. — [See also Adamsox Law; American Federation of Labor: 1S84-1017; Railroads: 1Q16.] It was plainly evident that the Federal Board of Mediation and Conciliation met defeat largely through the refusal of the v/orkers to submit voluntarily to arbitration. This difficulty was recognized by the President again in December, igio, when he asked Congress for compulsory arbitration legislation. War legislation swamped Congress before action was taken on his recommendation. The Newlands act again failed in March, 1017. At that time the brotherhoods renewed strike threats, owing to the delay of the Supreme Court in deciding the constitutionality of the Adamson Law and to the alleged evasions of the railroad managers during the Supreme Court's delay. Disregarding the existing Federal Board, the President immediately appointed a committee of the Council of National Defense to mediate. Into the resulting agreement was written the es- tablishment of the eight-hour day and provision for a commission of eight, representing employers and employees, to decide disputes under the agree- ment. The Eight-hour Commission appointed un- der the Adamson law reported inconclusively shortly after the railroads were taken under control by the government for the period of the war. The labor situation was immediately taken hold of when the government assumed railroad control and operation in December, igi7. . . . A Railway Wage Board was appointed in January to make recommendations to the Director-General, and a Division of Labor, headed by a brotherhood of- ficial, was created in February to be the connecting link between employees and officials on one band, and Railway Boards of Adjustment, when later instituted, on the other. The Railway Wage Board's recommendations were accepted by the Director-General and orders were issued providing for substantial increases in wages among all classes of employees. Thereafter a permanent advisory board on 'Railway Wages and Working Conditions' was created. — Successive orders of the Director- General formulated a liberal labor policy and es- tablished machinery for handling disputes under these orders. Board of Adjustment No. i, dating from March, igi8, dealt with controversies af- fecting conductors, engineers, trainmen, firemen, and enginemen ; up to December i, 1918, it had docketed 408 cases and made 292 decisions. Board of Adjustment No. 2, authorized in May, igiS, for workers in mechanical departments, handled 147 cases and made 128 decisions up to December, 1918. Board of Adjustment No. 3, with jurisdic- tion over telegraphers, switchmen, clerks, and main- tenance-of-way men, had docketed only one case in its fortnight's existence prior to December i, igi8. In all cases coming before Boards of Ad- justment it was obligatory that the usual attempt at carrying the disagreement to the chief operating official of the railroad be made before calling on the boards. The boards were composed equally of representatives of the administration and employ- ees, and their liberal decisions did much to smooth out the differences remaining after the breakdown of the Newlands act and the enactment of the Adamson law. While the railroad employees of- ficially voiced their approval of the government Boards of Adjustment, on which only the parties in dispute were the arbitrators, they have consistently opposed the submission of disagreements to a neu- tral party which is in their opinion either biased or ignorant. — [An order of Director General Payne, issued December 9, 1920, provided for the aboli- tion of Board No. i on February 15, 192 1, and of Boards No. 2 and 3 on January 10, 1921.] The act of March 4, igi3, creating a Department of Labor, provides that the Secretary of Labor shall have the power to act as mediator and to appoint commissioners of conciliation in labor disputes, whenever in his judgment the interest of industrial peace may require it to be done. No appropria- tion was made for the expenses of commissioners till October, igi3, and none for their compensation till April, 1914. Until the latter date, therefore, it was necessary to detail government employees from their regular work. An executive clerk was appointed in July, igi4, and the work systema- tized. In three important disputes the Secretary of Labor's offer of mediation was rejected. In the Pere Marquette Railroad shop strike, the Calu- met copper miners' strike, and the Colorado coal strike, mediation was desired by the employees, but declined by the employers. In case mediation fails, arbitration may be proposed by the medi- ators, but they do not themselves act as arbi- trators. In the five years 191S to 1919, inclusive, the Secretary of Labor took cognizance of 3,644 cases, effecting 2,539 adjustments. During igig alone, 1,780 assignments of commissioners of con- ciliation resulted in r,233 adjustments, not includ- ing 2ig cases referred to the National War Labor Board. . . . The policy of having disputes settled by representatives of the two parties most directly at interest, the workers and the employers, was In the main adopted in the transportation act of 1920. The act declares it the duty of the roads and of their employees to 'exert every reasonable effort and adopt every available means to avoid any interruption to the operation of any carrier' 425 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL growing out of any dispute. In case a dispute arises, it is to be decided if possible in conference between representatives of both sides. Such dis- putes involving only grievances, rules, or working conditions, as cannot be settled in this way, are to go before 'railroad boards of labor adjustment,' which may be established by agreement between any road or group of roads and the employees. Except that the boards are to [include] . . . rep- resentatives of the organized workers, their size and composition are left entirely to the parties concerned. Matters may come before the adjust- ment boards either upon application by the road or the organized workers affected, upon written petition of a hundred unorganized employees, upon the boards' own motion, or upon the request of the 'Railroad Labor Board.' This Railroad Labor Board is set up by the act as the final tribunal for the settlement of railroad labor disputes. It is composedi of nine members, appointed by the President with the consent of the Senate, to rep- resent in eflual proportion the workers, the ein- plsyers and the public. The three representatives <^.it})^ first .two groups are to be selected from a J(gt.,c»t, not lees than six nominees submitted by the it#'u,]g'iQups, themselves. Members of the board ;ipa^;.riot, during their five-year term of office, be .iy;t«.Yfi. n^enibers or officers of labor organizations ;j»r. hold stocks or bonds of any carrier. Dis- piites come before the Railroad Labor Board either upon failure of the adjustment board, or directly. All of its decisions must be by majority vote, but on matters taken up directly one of the members representing the public must concur in the decision. The Railroad Labor Board also has power to suspend any decision on wages made by the initial conference, if it is of the opinion that the decision 'involves such an increase in wages or salaries as will be likely to necessitate a substan- iial readjustment of the rates of any carrier.' In such cases the Railroad Labor Board must, after a hearing, affirm or modify the suspended decision. As principles for settling standards of wages and working conditions, consideration must be given to wage scales in other industries, cost of living, haz- ards of the employment, training and skill re- quired, degree of responsibility, character and regularity of the employment, and inequalities re- sulting from previous adjustments. Hearings on alleged violations of decisions are to be held by the Railroad Labor Board, which must publish its decision. [See also Labor legisl.mion: 1862- iQ2o; Railroads: iq2o: Esch-Cummins Act.] The Board of Mediation and Conciliation created in J913 is still left in operation, but its jurisdiction does not extend to any dispute under investigation, by the boards established under the new act." — J,,,R. Commons and J. B. Andrews, Principles of labor legislation (2nd ed.). pp. 142-14S, 147-148. .ili.898. — Interstate Commerce Commission cre- i(tfid. See U. S. A.: i8q8 (June). 1902-1920. — Arbitration in the coal industry. — "A semi-official instance of arbitration occurred in the case of the great anthracite coal strike in Pennsylvania in 1002. In this case the government appointed an arbitration commission on the re- quest of the parties without any special authority in law. The miners wanted an agreement, the operators felt that it would not be binding and that the union obstructed discipline. In October, five months after the beginning of the strike. Presi- dent Roosevelt appointed the Anthracite Coal Strike Commission The men returned to work and the commission began its inquiry. It took the testimony of 558 witnesses. The losses of the strike were estimated at S2S,ooo,ooo in wages. $1,800,000 in relief funds, $46,100,000 to the op erators, and $28,000,000 in freight receipts to trans- portation companies. The commission found the underlying cause of the strike to be the issue of recognition of the union. The award stated that the commission would recommend recognition oi the union, were the anthracite unions separated from the bituminous unions, but that difficulties should be referred to a permanent joint committee of miners' and operators' representatives, with an umpire appointed by the federal court, and that the life of the award should be till March, igoo. The commission further recommended a system of compulsory investigation. The agreement has been renewed, with modifications, and was still in force at the beginning of 1020." — J. R. Commons and J. B. .Andrews, Principles of labor legislation (2nd ed.), pp. 148-149. — .\ bureau of labor was estab- lished in the United States fuel administration to take care of industrial disputes in the coal mining industry. [See also U. S. A.; iqo2 (October).] For the settlement of the coal strike of 1Q19, see Labor STRIKES AND BOYCOTTS: iQip: Bituminous coal strike. 1910-1916. — Protocol and arbitration in the garment industry. — An interesting experiment "in the adjustment of labor disputes is that represented by what is generally known as the Protocol System in the garment industry. The system derives its name from the collective agreement made between the Cloak Makers' Union of New York [and] . . . an association of employers on September 2nd, iQio. The agreement, formally designated 'Proto- col of Peace,' was adopted at the conclusion 01 a long and embittered strike. It was drafted with great care and with the aid of several eminent students of social problems, prominent among whom was Mr. Louis D. Brandeis, now [iqi6] a Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. . . . Essentially it was a collective agreement be- tween an association of employers and a union of workers, regulating hours of laboi, overtime- work, holidays, week- wages, methods of adjusting piece rates and other shop conditions. The novelty of the arrangements consisted mainly in the attempt to abolish all struggles between the individual em- ployer and his workers and to substitute for them a peaceful method of adjusting disputes. To this end the workers surrendered their right to call shop strikes for any grievance whatsoever, and the Union bound itself to order its members back to work in all cases in which such shop strikes would break out. In return for this surrender of their most effective weapon, the workers were promised peaceful, fair and speedy adjustments of all their grievances. To secure such adjustments an elab- orate joint machinery was devised, consisting of Chief Clerks with numerous staffs of assistance to investigate and adjust grievances, a Grievance Board, and subsequently a Committee on Imme- diate Action, to pass upon disputed cases, and finally a Board of Arbitration, acting as the su- preme tribunal in the industry and vested with judicial and legislative powers. It is this joint machinery, which constitutes the distinguishing feature of a Protocol, as the arrangement has come to be generally known. The 'Protocol system' seemed to be well adapted to the pecularities of the needle industries with their highly seasonal character, their irregular workings and countless daily problems and shop disputes. Within the first few years after its adoption in the New York cloak trade the system spread to a number of kindred trades. Collective agreements generally patterned after the 'Peace Protocol' were adopted by associa- tions of employers and unions of the workers in 426 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL the various branches of the garment trade in the cities of New York, Philadelphia, Boston, Chicago, St. Louis and other centers of the tailoring indus- try. At the beginning of iqi6, no less than 150,000 workers operated under that system." — M. Hill- quit, "Protocol" in the needle industry {Ameri- can Labor Year Book, iqi6, pp. 5S-S6)- — The em- ployers' association broke up the arrangement by abrogating the Protocol of Peace, after an exist- ence of almost five years, on May 20, 1Q15. ... A number of forces were .set to work to prevent a general conflict. Mayor Mitchel of New York or- ganized a Council of Conciliation, composed of some of New York's best known citizens. . . . Af- ter a series of remarkable public hearings which lasted over three weeks at the New York City Hall, the Council of Conciliation handed down a decision which was . . . accepted by the union, and after- wards agreed to . . . by the Manufacturers' As- sociation. ... It raised the scale of wages for piece and week workers, granted the right of re- view of discharges, upheld the principle of col- lective bargaining and renewed the Protocol peace arrangements that existed heretofore. . . . Dissatis- faction grew with startling rapidity and ... on April 30 I1Q16] . . . after a second abrogation of the Protocol the 400 members of the Association ordered a lockout in all their shops. It w.is quick- ly followed by the proclamation of a general strike by the union on May 3, . . . involving 60,000 workers. . . . The strike was finally settled on terms which represented strongly modified arrange- ments from those prevailing under the Protocol. The working hours were reduced from 50 to 40: the wages for both piece and week workers were materially increased, and principally, the right of shop strikes was conceded to the union." — M. Danish, Briej history of the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union (American Labor Year Book, igi7-iqi8, pp. iio-iii). 1912-1913. — West 'Virginia coal strikes. See West Virginia: 1002-1013. 1914. — Ohio coal miners' strike. See Labor STRIKES AND BOYCOTTS: igi4-igi5. 1917-1918. — Bridgeport munitions strike. See Labor strikes and boycotts: iqiy-iqiS. 1917-1919. — President's mediation commission. — War Labor Board. — "In addition to the direct efforts of the Secretary of Labor, two arbitration boards were called into existence to meet exigencies of war. The President's Mediation Commission, appointed in the fall of iqi7, under the chairman- ship of the Secretary of Labor, made settlements or investigations in (i) the copper mines of Ari- zona, (2) the California oil fields, (3) the Pacific coast telephone dispute, (4) unrest in the lumber industry of the Northwest, (5) the packing in- dustry. It should be recalled that this commission was a government enterprise beginning its study generally after an acute situation had arisen. Its primary intention was investigation rather than arbitration ; but settlements were made in all dis- putes except the lumber industry, largely because existing means of arbitration had failed. The Na- tional War Labor Board was the outgrowth of conferences beiween representatives of employer?' and employees' organizations, the public, and the government. Its existence was not sanctioned by specific legislation, but was the result of a Presi- dential proclamation in April, iqi8. The member- ship of the board consisted of joint chairmen rep- resenting the public, selected respectively by em- ployers' and employees' national organizations, and five representatives of each of the two groups. Premises to govern its decisions were the first business of the board, and the following were ar- rived at: (i) No strikes or lockouts during the war, (2; settlement of controversies by mediation or conciliation, (3) provision of machinery for local mediation and conciliation, (4) summons of parties to the controversy before the national board in the event of failure of local machinery, (5) failing to reach decision in the national board, provision of an umpire appointed by national board or by the President ironi a panel of disin- terested persons, (b) refusal to take cognizance of dispute where other means of setllenieiit b\ agree- ment or federal law had not been invoked, (7) right of employers and employees to organize with- out discrimination, (8) right of collective bar- gaining. Acting on these principles as an official expression of the government's war labor policy, the board received 1,24s controversies up to May 31, iqig. In 462 of these cases awards or finds were made, 3qi were dismissed because of volun- tary settlement, lack of jurisdiction, or for other reasons, 315 were referred to other agencies having primary jurisdiction, fifty-three, involving only three distinct disputes, remained on the docket because the board was unable to agree, twenty- three were pending, and one was suspended. In the enforcement of awards the National War Labor Board had no specific legal sanction or penalty; appeal was usually made to patriotic motives. There were but three instances of resistance to the board's awards. In one case the Western Union Telegraph Company discriminated against union employees and refused to abide by the board's de- cision in favor of the men. The President was rebuffed in his appeal for patriotic acquiescence, but was sustained by Congress in taking over the telegraph lines for the government. Later, in Sep- tember, 1Q18, the organized workers at Bridge- port, Conn., struck against an award of the board but on the President's threat of unemployment enforced by governmental agencies, they returned to work. Finally, the Smith and Wesson Com- pany in Springfield, Mass., manufacturing fire- arms, refused to abide by the board's warning not to discriminate against union employees, and the President retaliated by ordering the War Depart- ment to take over the factory. " — J. R. Commons and J. B. .Andrews, Principles oj labor legislation (2nd ed.), pp. 145-146- ".\fter the armistice was signed . . . there were very many cases in which both employers and em- ployees disregarded complaints to the [War Labor] Board and refused to submit to its jurisdiction and carry out its findings. Shortly after the armistice the Board decided not to entertain complaints after December 5, iqi8, unless both sides agreed to abide by its award or unless the President, through the Secretary of Labor, specially requested the Board to hear the case. In the absence of the ex- treme pressure for uninterrupted production, which had accompanied the war, the influence of the Board grew le.ss and less until finally on June 25, iqiq, the Board by resolution decided to receive no more new cases or applications, to finish up its work, and to transfer its records and files to the Department of Labor. [It ceased to exist on August 1 2. 1" — .•\. M. Bing, War-time strikes and their adjustment, pp. 121-122. 1918-1919. — Failure in Seattle shipyards strike. See Labor strikes and boycotts: iqiS- iqiq: Seattle general strike. 1918-1919. — New York harbor strike. See La- bor .strikfs and boycotts: iqi8-iqiq: New York harbor strikes. 1918-1919. — War labor boards and the cloth- ing industry. — On October 28, iqi8, the joint board of the children's clothing grades began a 427 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL general strike to enforce the demand for the es- tablishment of. the forty-four hour week and for wage increases of 20 per cent. "In the midst of negotiations with Dr. William Z. Ripley, Adminis- trator of Labor Standards for Army Clothing, lead- ing to arbitration of the demands, the American Men's and Boys' Clothing Manufacturers' Associa- tion on November g locked out the workers in the men's clothing industry, adding 50,000 to the num- ber on strike in the children's clothing trade. The New York Joint Board of the Amalgamated Clothing Workers on November 11 called out all workers from independent factories in a general strike to light the lockout and to enforce demands for the forty-four hour week and for wage in- creases. The demand for the reduction in the work week was made primarily to provide places in the shops for thousands of clothing workers who had entered the nation's fighting forces and to ensure employment in civilian clothing factories of the workers who had been making military cloth- ing. . . . The conclusion of the New York strike was brought about at conferences initiated by Chairman Felix Frankfurter of the War Labor Policies Board. Frankfurter on January 15 invited both parties to come together to discuss possible means of ending strife in the clothing industry. At a meeting with Frankfurter the union and the em- ployers' association agreed to continue conferences with an Advisory Board composed of Frankfurter, Dr. William Z. Ripley and Louis Marshall. The Adviron.' Board on Januar>' 22 [igio] recommend- ed the establishment of the forty-four hour week not only for the New York market affected by the general strike but also throughout the clothing in- dustry. The .Advisory Board urged the scientific computation of the effect of the increased cost of living before the granting of wage increases and recommended the selection of an impartial chairman to adjust differences in the shops. The award of the Advisory Board was approved at mass meetings of the strikers on January 23, and the return to work, with the forty-four hour week established, was begun on January 27. George R. Bell, Execu- tive Officer of the National War Labor Policies Board, left that post on February 11 to become Impartial Chairman in the relations between the Amalgamated and the New York Employers' .As- sociation and the machinery for amicable relations was established." — I. W. Bird, Strike of the Amal- gamated Clothing Workers of America (American labor year book, iqio-iq20, pp. 166-167). — In the summer of 1Q18 the Cleveland cloakmaker unions, affiliated with the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, presented demands to their em- ployers for a raise in wages, standard union hours, ■with a request that these demands be arbitrated. The refusal by the employers to grant the cloak- makers' demands was followed by a general strike. "The National War Labor Board and Secretary of War Baker, however, quickly took a hand in the situation. The War Department asked both sides to agree to arbitration, and the manufacturers . . . accepted the invitation. Sccretarv- Baker forthwith appomted a Board of Referees, headed by President Hopkins of Dartmouth College, then an assistant to the Secretary of War, which took up the grievances of the workers for investigation with powers of awarding an adjudication. The workers meanwhile returned to their shops. . . . After an exhaustive study of the conditions of the cloak trade in Cleveland and elsewhere, the earn- ings of the workers and their standards of work, the referees rendered a decision w'hich was highly favorable to the workers. Later this decision was amplified; it provided for a scale of wages cover- 428 ing every part and section of the trade and for its thoroughness was equal to the best scales in the union towns in the East. It recognized shop committees and also recommended a Board of Ar- bitration to pass upon matters that could not be settled between the union and the employers. These were the maximum demands to which the Cleveland workers had ever aspired." — M. Danish, Cleveland cloakmakers' strike (American labor year book, igiQ-1920, p. 175). 1919. — Bituminous coal strike. See Labor STRIKES AND BOYCOTTS: igig; Bituminous coal strike. 1919-1920. — Industrial conferences called by President. — Proposed remedy for strikes. — On a call by President Wilson, the industrial conference met in Washington Oct. 6, igig. It was composed of three groups, which represented the public, the employers and the employees; the secretary of the interior, Franklin K. Lane, was elected the perma- nent chairman. Lack of harmony in the confer- ence was soon evident. On October 22, Mr. Gom- pers offered a resolution recognizing the right of workers to organize, to bargain collectively and to be represented by leaders of their own choice; the employers' group opposed it and the employees' group withdrew from the conference. The second industrial conference, representing only the public, was convened by President Wilson on December I, igiQ. Before the end of that month it issued "a tentative plan of machinery to adjust disputes in general industry by conference, conciliation, in- quirv' and arbitration." The conference reconvened on January 12, iq2o, and issued its report on March 6, ig20. Its chairman was William B. Wilson, secretary of labor, and its vice-chairman, Herbert Hoover. The report says: "The Conference now proposes joint organization of management and employees as a means of preventing misunder- standing and of securing cooperative effort. It has modified the tentative plan of adjustment so as to diminish the field of arbitration and enlarge the scope of voluntary settlement by agreement. .■\s modified the plan makes machinery available for collective bargaining, with only incidental and limited arbitration. The Conference has extended the plan to cover disputes affecting public utilities other than steam railroads and it has enlarged it to cover the services of public employees. . . . Indus- trial problems vary not only with each industry but in each establishment. Therefore, the strategic place to begin battle with misunderstanding is within the industrial plant itself. Primarily the settlement must come from the bottom, not from the top. The Conference finds that joint organiza- tion of management and employees where under- taken with sincerity and good will has a record of success. ... It is not a field for legislation, be- cause the form which employee representation should take may vary in every plant. The Con- ference, therefore, does not direct this recommenda- tion to legislators but to managers and employees. If the joint organization of management and em- ployees in the plant or industry fails to reach a collective agreement, or if without such joint or- ganization, disputes arise which are not settled by existing agencies, then the Conference proposes a system of settlement close at hand and under governmental encouragement, and a minimum of regulation. The entrance of the Government into these problems should be to stimulate further cooperation. The system of settlement consists of a plan, nation-wide in scope, with a National Industrial Board, local Regional Conferences and Boards of Inquiry. . . . The plan provides ma- chinery for prompt and fair adjustment of wages ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL and working conditions of government employees. It is especially necessary for this class of employees, who should not be permitted to strike. The plan involves no penalties other than those imposed by public opinion. It does not iinpose compulsory arbitration. It does not deny the right to strike. It does not submit to arbitration the policy of the 'closed' or 'open' shop. The plan is national in scope and operation, yet it is decentralized. It is different from anything in operation elsewhere. It is based upon American experience and is de- signed to meet American conditions. It employs no legal authority except the right of inquiry. Its basic idea is stimulation to settlement of differ- ences by the parties in conflict, and the enlistment of public opinion toward enforcing that method of settlement." The general outline is as follows: "The United States shall be divided into a speci- fied number of industrial regions, in each of which there shall be a chairman. Whenever a dispute arises in a region, which can not be settled by ex- isting machinery, the regional chairman may re- quest each side to submit the dispute to a Regional Adjustment Conference, to be composed of two representatives from each side, parties to the dis- pute, and two representatives to be selected by each side from the panels herein provided for. The regional chairman shall preside but not vote at the Conference. If the Conference reaches a unanimous agreement it shall be regarded as a collective bar- gain between the parties to the dispute and shall have the force and effect of a trade agreement. If the Conference does not reach an agreement and the disagreement relates to wages, hours or working conditions, it shall make a finding of the material facts, and state the reasons why it was unable to reach an agreement. The regional chairman shall report such finding and statement to the National Industrial Board herein provided for, which shall determine the matters so submitted as arbitrator. If the National Industrial Board shall reach a unanimous agreement, it shall report its determina- tion back to the Regional Adjustment Conference, which shall in accordance therewith state the agree- ment between the parties to the dispute the same as if the Conference had reached a unanimous con- clusion. If the National Industrial Board shall fail to reach a unanimous conclusion, it shall make majority and minority reports and transmit them to the regional chairman, who shall immediately publish such reports, or such adequate abstracts thereof, as may be necessary to inform the public of the material facts and the reasons why the Board was unable to reach an agreement. If the Conference does not reach an agreement and its disagreement relates to matters other than wages, hours, or working conditions, it shall make and publish its report, or majority and minority re- ports stating the material facts and the reasons why it was unable to reach an agreement. If the parties to the dispute so desire, they may select an umpire to act as arbitrator in place of the National Industrial Board, and in such case, the determination of the umpire shall be transmitted to the Regional Adjustment Conference with the same force and effect as a determination by the National Industrial Board. The appointment of representatives to the Regional Conference consti- tutes a voluntary agreement, (a) that there shall be no cessation of production during the processes of adjustment, (b) to accept as an effective col- lective bargain the unanimous agreement of the Regional Adjustment Conference, (c) to accept as an effective collective bargain, (in case of failure of the Regional Adjustment Conference) the de- cision of a mutually chosen umpire, (d) to accept as an effective collective bargain, (in case of fail- ure of the Regional Adjustment Conference, or upon failure of the parties to agree upon an um- pire) the unanimous decision of the National In- dustrial Board upon wages, hours and working conditions. If both parties to the dispute refuse to submit it to a Regional Adjustment Conference through the failure to appoint representatives within the time allowed, the chairman shall or- ganize forthwith, a Regional Board of Inquiry, con- sisting of two employers from the top of the em- ployers' panel for the industry concerned, and two employees from the top of the employees' panel for the craft or crafts concerned. The four so chosen with the chairman shall constitute the Board of Inquiry. If either side shall have selected representatives, and thereby agreed to submit to the process of adjustment of the dispute, such rep- resentatives may select two names from their panel in the same manner as for a Regional .Adjustment Conference. Such representatives of ttie party to the dispute, may sit on the Board of Inquiry and take full part as members thereof. The six thus selected, with the chairman, shall thereafter con- stitute the Board of Inquiry. The Board of In- quiry shall proceed forthwith to investigate the dispute, and make and publish its report, and if not in agreement, its majority and minority reports, in order that the public may know the facts material to the dispute, and the points of difference between the parties to it." — Report of industrial conference called by the president, pp. 5, 7, 8, 13, 14. 1920-1921. — Kansas Court of Industrial Rela- tions. — "The Kansas law [of January, ig2ol cre- ates a Court of Industrial Relations [organized February 2, 1920] consisting of three judges, whose term of office is three years [and who are ap- pointed by the governor]. The jurisdiction of the court is over the manufacture of food or clothing, the mining of fuel, the transportation of these com- modities and over public utilities. . . . These in- dustries are declared by the Kansas law to be 'affected with a public interest.' In these indus- tries there must be no strikes, and there must be no suspension without the permission of the indus- trial court. The penalties for violation of the law are, if by a 'person' $1,000, or one year in jail, or both; if by an official of a union or a corpora- tion $5,000, or two years in jail, or both. The court may intervene in the case of an industrial dispute, either on its own motion or when requested to do so by either one of the parties, or on the appeal of ten citizens, or on the complaint of the attorney-general of the state. It may issue a tem- porary award at the outset and then after its investigation a final award. The final award is to be retroactive, so that if wages are raised the em- ployees will be entitled to back pay from the date that the investigation began. If the result is the reduction of wages the employees will have to pay back to the employer the amount that they have received over and above the amount awarded by the court. The court must proceed in accordance with the rules of evidence as laid down by the Supreme Court of the state. There are certain protective features. Wages and profits are to be 'reasonable.' The workers are not to be discharged on account of testimony given before the court, the employer is not to be boycotted for anything he has done in connection with the court, and the right of appeal to the Supreme Court of the stale by either side is affirmed." — J. A. Fitch, Govern- ment coercion in labor disputes (Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Juh', 1020, pp. 76-77). — "The Industrial Welfare Commission and the Department of Labor of the 429 ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL State of Kansas passed out of existence March i6, iQJ!!, a bill having passed the legislature con- solidating these two with the Industrial Court." — United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, Monthly Labor Review, April, 1921, p. 188. — "The first an- nual report of the Kansas Court of Industrial Re- lations covers a period of ten months, from the establishment of the court February i, ig;o, to November 30, ig20. The law providing for the court conferred upon it the duty of carrying on the work of the public utilities commission, so that the two undertakings have gone on side by side. On the industrial side only 28 cases were actually filed during the period. Of these, 25 were filed by labor and i by capital, while 2 were in- vestigations initiated by the court. Of the 25 cases tiled by labor, 20 received formal reco.^nition and decision. In 13 cases a wage increase was granted, in 2 only working conditions were in- volved, in 3 wages were found to be fair so that no increase was allowed, while in i the complaint of the employees was satisfied by the action of the employers, the court simply approving the set- tlement made. The remaining case was merely referee action on a collective agreement. . . . Only low-paid labor, as a rule, has been before the court — a situation naturally resulting from the ob- ject of the law to establish a minimum wage." — Ibid., June, iq2i, p. 133. — "Employers arc forbid- den to discharge employees because of testimony given before the Court but no immunity is pro- vided for discharge on account of union member- ship or activity, and inasmuch as strikes are for- bidden, it would seem as though the workers were without any protection against the breaking up of their unions by systematic discriminatory dis- charges. The enactment of this law was vigorously opposed both by organized labor and by many em- ployers and since its passage labor unions all over the country have made it the target for bitter at- tacks. President Howatt of the Kansas [coal] miners and a number of his associates were im- prisoned because of their refusal to testify before the Court, and both the enactment of the law [and] . . . the imprisonment of Mr. Howatt re- sulted in strikes of the miners. . . . Governor Al- len toured the country explaining the nature of the new Court and urging other states to adopt similar measures, and bills patterned after the Kansas sta- tute having been introduced in the legislatures of a number of states." — A. M. Bing, War-time strikes and their adjustment, pp. 146-147. 1920-1921. — One national and one local arbi- tration agreement. — .•Xs examples of non-govern- mcntal attempts to provide conciliation and arbi- tration facilities, the following are described, one dealing naturally with the electrical construction industry and the other with the building industry in San Francisco. "As a result of joint meetings of five representatives each of the National Asso- ciation of Electrical Contractors and Dealers and of the National Brotherhood of Electrical Work- ers, the following plan was drawn up early in 1920 and adopted in April [of the same year] . . . , providing for the creation of a council of indus- trial relations for the electrical construction indus- try in the United States and Canada [the foregoing being adopted as the council's official name]. The purposes of this council are stated to be the 'pro- motion of peace and harmony in the electrical in- dustry, the adjudication of disputes between em- ployers and employees, the establishment of friendly relations between all parties interested, which should ultimately result in the elimination of dis- trust, suspicion, and the wasteful methods of the old-fashioned strikes and lockouts.' The plan is voluntary, no local union or employer being com- pelled to refer a case to the council. [Certain sec- tions from the text of the plan follow] . . . '(3) That the Council shall consist of five representa- tives appointed by each of the [two] member or- ganizations. . . . (11) That the council shall adopt the following procedure in the adjustment of dis- putes; When a dispute arises which can not be adjusted by the existing local machinery, and notice to that effect is received by the secretary of the council, from either of the parties to the dispute, the secretary of the council after investigation may, if circumstances warrant, request each side to sub- mit the dispute to a board of conciliation to be composed of two representatives from each side, parties to the dispute, and one representative to be selected by the council who shall act as chairman but cast no vote. The appointment of representa- tives by the parties to the dispute to act for them on the board of conciliation shall constitute a voluntary agreement between the parties to accept as an effective agreement between them the unani- mous decision of the board of conciliation. If the board of conciliation does not reach an agreement it shall make a finding of the material facts and state the reasons why it has been unable to reach an agreement. The chairmin shall report such finding and statement to the council and the coun- cil shall determine the matters so submitted as arbitrator. If the council reaches a unanimous agreement, it shall report its decision back to the board of conciliation through its chairman, and the board shall then state the agreement between the parties to the dispute the same as if the board itself had reached a unanimous decision. If the council shall fail to reach a unanimous decision it shall make majority and minority reports and transmit them to the chairman of the board of conciliation who shall immediately publish them in order to inform the public of the material facts and the reasons why the council has been unable to reach an agreement.' " — United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, Monthly Labor Review, March 1921, pp. 126-127. — ".\11 present and future dis- |)Utcs [written in January, 192 1] relating to wages, hours, and working conditions in the building trades in San Francisco will be submitted to a per- manent arbitration board for adjustment under an agreement recently signed by the San Francisco Building Trades Council representing the workers and the San Francisco Builders' Exchange repre- senting employers. The board consist of three members, . . . [the] Archbishop of San Francisco, . . . fal former justice of the Supreme Court of California, and ... [a] consultant in industrial relations and management. The findings and de- cision of the board in each case will be accepted as final by the parties to the agreement The board may initiate investigations into all conditions affecting the building trades and is empowered to call for contracts of agreements pertaining to any phase of the building situation. The hearings arc to be public unless the board decides othervvlss and the expense of operation is to be borne equally by each party." — Ibid., p. 12S. .\lso in: a. E. Suffern, Conciliation and arbitra- tion in the coal industry of America. — G. E. Bar- nctt and D. A. McCabe, Mediation. investif:,ation and arbitration in industrial disputes. — D. Knoop, Industrial conciliation and arbitration. — J. H. Cohen, Law and order in industry. — M. T. Rankin, .Arbitration and conciliation in Australasia. — J. N. Stockett, Arbitral determination of railway wages. — F. J. Warne, Workers at war. pp. 79-139. — W. F. Willoughby, Government organization in war time and after, pp. 221-257. 430 ARBOGAST ARCH ARBOGAST (d. 394), officer in the Roman army, though a barbarian (probably a Frank). In 388 overcame Maximus and pacified Gaul; made chief minister for Valentinian II by Theodosius. Overthrew Valentinian and invaded Italy, but was defeated at Frigidus. — See also Rome: 379-395. ARBOR DAY, a day set aside by most of the states of the United States of America for the planting of trees. In 1872 J. Sterling Morton of the Nebraska state board of agriculture success- fully inaugurated the plan, which received official recognition in 1S74 and spread rapidly to other states. The date is not uniform in the different states; in the North it is May or near that date, while in the South it is much earlier, ARBUCKLE, Matthew (1776-1851), American brigadier-general, established Forts Gibson and Towson in. 1S24. See Oklahoma: 1806-1824. ARBUTHNOT, Harriot (1711-1794), British admiral See U. S. A.: 1780 (July). ARBUTHNOT, Sir Robert Keith (1864- 1916), British rear-admiral. Commanded ist cruis- er squadron in battle of Jutland (May 31, 1916), losing three of his four ships (the Defence, War- rior and Blaek Prince) and being killed in action. — See also World War: 1916: IX. Naval opera- tions: a, 1; also a, 9. ARC DE TRIOMPHE DE L'ETOILE, ("triumphal arch of the star"), largest triumphal arch in the world, begun in 1806 by Napoleon I but not completed until 1836. It is situated at the head of the Champs Elyses, Paris, and commemo- rates the triumphs of the Revolutionary and Na- poleonic troops. Famous not only for its archi- tectural features but also for the beautiful sculp- tured monuments on its fai;ades. — See also Arch. ARC DE TRIOMPHE DU CARROUSEL ("triumphal arch of the tilting match"), an arch built at Paris by Napoleon I to commemorate his victories of 1805-1806. It stands in the square en- closed by the Tuileries and the Louvre, and is a smaller copy of the Arch of Constantine at Rome — See also .\kch. ARC LAMP. See Electrical discovery: Elec- tric light. ARCADE, "a system or range of arches, sup- ported on columns, e.g., the range of arches and columns on each side of the nave of a cathedral or church. When used as an embellishment of exterior or interior walls, it is distinguished as Open or Blind ,\rcade, according as it is detached from or attached to the plane of the >vall." — C. H. Caffin, How to study architecture, p. 480. — The earliest arcade was in the palace of Diocletion in Dalmatia built c.300. During the middle ages the use of the arcade increased ; the most noted example of a Gothic arcade is in the cathedral of Pisa. Beautiful street arcades are employed in Bologna and Paris. ARCADELT, Jacob (1,514-1556), one of the most prominent among the distinguished Flemish musicians who taught in Italy in the i6th century. — See also Mtisic: 16th century: Transition period. ARCADIA, the central' district of Pelopon- nesus, the great southern peninsula of Greece, some- times called "the Switzerland of Greece." It is "a country consisting of ridges of hills and elevated plains, and of deep and narrow valleys, with streams flowing through channels formed by precip- itous rocks; a country so manifestly separated by nature from the rest of the Peloponnesus that, al- though not politically united, it was always con- sidered in the light of a single community."^— C. O. Miiller, History and antiquity of the Doric race, bk. I. ch. 4. — Arcadia played an important part in Greek history owing to its strategic position be- tween Sparta and the isthmus (of Morca). The Spartans' attempts to force a passage thiough the central plateau met with continual resistance from the Arcadian cities. (See Greece: B.C. 480: Wars: Thermopylae). It was not until the sec- ond Messenian war that the land was finally sub- jugated. Subsequent rebellions against Sparta's rule were easily quelled. In 420 B. C, however, the various cities, with the aid of Ar,;os, consolidated, with the object of establishing their independence. (See Greece: B.C. 421-418.) This attempt failed, as did a subsequent one in 371 (see Greece: B.C. 371) when the .Arcadians suffered a disasterous defeat at the hands of the Spartans (368). With the formation of the Achsean and the Aetolian leagues (q. v.) Arcadia once more became the battle-ground for the Spartan and Macedonian armies, due chiefly to the fact that the cities were divided in their allegiance between the two pow- ers. Several centuries later the country suffered greatly from the internal disputes of its Frankish barons (1205- 1460). Partly because of the way it was used by the later Roman poets, the name, .Arcadia, has come to signify an idyllic land of pastoral simplicity and innocence. — See also Greece: B.C. 371-362, 357-336, 280-146. ARCADIAN ACADEMY. See Italian litera- ture: 1000-, 800. ARCADIUS (378-408), Roman emperor, first emperor of the east. During his reign the control of the government was in the hands of a series of advisers and favorites. His rule was marked by the invasion of the Goths and the spread of Arianism. — See also Rome: Empire: 394-395. ARCEUIL AQUEDUCT. See Aqueducts. ARCH, Joseph (1826-1919), English social re- former; founder of the National Agricultural La- borers' JJnion in 1872; member of Parliament 1885-1886, and 1895-1900. ARCH, "generally, a structure supported at the sides or ends and composed of pieces, no one of which spans the whole interval. Specifically, a structure involving one or more curves, supported at the sides, spanning an opening and capable of supporting weight. Distinguished according to the nature of the curve, as, segmental, semi-circular, ogee, pointed, horseshoe, four-centred, trefoil, cinquefoil, and multifoil. Arches involving straight lines as well as curved, are known as 'shouldered.' " — C. H, Caffin, How to study architecture, p. 480. — The arch was used by the Egyptians, Babylon- ians, Assyrians, Greeks and Etruscans; but the Romans were the first to use it as a dominant feature of both external and internal design, es- pecially in secular buildings. Later in Europe the arch became so great a feature in the con- struction of ecclesiastical edifices as to charac- terize distinct periods of architecture, notably the Romanesque, or round-arched, style and the more pointed (jothic, (See also Architecture,) Tri- umphal or memorial arches, spanning a road, are built to commemorate great military triumphs, successful campaigns, or great events of peace. Al- though temporary arches such as those of the p'cs- ent day were erected in early Greece and Etruria, the Romans were the first to erect such structures in stone or marble and to enrich them with sculp- ture or to raise on their summit the quadriga with statues and trophies. There are two types of arches: the single arches and those having a central and two side arches which often displayed great skill in architectural as well as sculptural design. Several of the most famous are: the arch of Titus, the arch of Trajan recording the Dacian victories, the arches of Septimius Severus, Constantine, St. Rcmy, Orange, and the Arc dc Triomphe de 431 ARCH^ANAKTIDAE ARCHAEOLOGY I'Etoile. — See also Arc de Triomphe de L'£toile; Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel; .\RCHirECTURE: Oriental: India: Moslem architecture: 1300-1700. ARCH^ANAKTIDAE OLIGARCHY. See Bosporus: Citv and kinedom. ARCH^ffiOLOGICAL^ INSTITUTE OF AMERICA, a society founded in Boston in 1879 and incorporated by Act of Congress approved May 26, 1006, with Washington as its head- quarters. Its purpose is to promote archaeological research, to increase and diffuse archaeological knowledge, to stimulate the love of art, and to con- tribute to the higher culture of the country. It has founded the .American School for Oriental Re- search in Jerusalem, the American Schools for Classical Studies in ."Athens and in Rome, and the School of American .Archeology in Santa Fe. It has also departments of Medieval and Renaissance Studies and Colonial and National .Art. It has conducted notable excavations in .Asia Minor, Greece, Cyrene, the Southwestern states and Cen- tral America. It publishes besides its reports, etc., a monthly illustrated magazine. Art and Archctol- ogy; a quarterly, the American Journal of Archce- ology; and a yearbook, the Bulletin of the Archce- ological Institute. The society also maintains lec- ture circuits in the United States and Canada, thus bringing regularly to its members several times a year the latest and most vital information in the fields of archeology and art. The institute is composed of affiliated societies, located m lead- ing cities of the United States and Canada. The American school at .Athens has been ably assisted in some of its undertakings by the School of Classical Studies at Rome, especially in its ex- cavations at Heraeum and Argolid. The Car- negie Institute supports a fellowship in the school at Athens and pays ?i5oo yearly" for ex- cavations. In 1 91 2 the school at Rome was ab- sorbed by the .American .Academy at Rome, and the American school at Jerusalem is working, since the war, in cooperation with the British school. "The School of .American .Archeology was created in 1907 by the Council of the Archeological Insti- tute of America, with the object of organizing and giving direction to the study in .America of this and cognate branches, constituting the science of man in a broader sense — anthropology. It is con- trolled by a managing committee appointed by the institute, consisting of thirty-three prominent citizens and scientists of Canada, the United States and Mexico; and its field of activity embraces those countries, with the addition "of Central America. .After canvass of various localities the school was located at Santa Fe, New Mexico, be- cause it is in the heart of a vast region of pre- historic cultures upwards of i.oob miles long by 800 miles wide, extending from Utah to southern Chihuahua. It thus dominates a typical field for the investigation of the character and probable origin of the native races of this continent. The general plan of the school contemplates that a portion of each year's work shall be done in the field, in direct contact with the things to be studied. The first fully organized session under this plan was held during the summer of loio in the region tributary to Santa Fe, under the personal direction of Dr. Edgar L. Hcwett, Director of American .Archeology, and of the school. . . . The United States Bureau of Ethnology collaborates with the school during four months of field work and two months for preparation of reports, under the joint authority of the chief of the bureau and the director of the school. . . . The bureau, how- ever, has nothing to do with the administration or maintenance of the school — collaboration being ar- ranged only for mutual benefit, and to avoid dupli- cation of work in the field." — F. Springer, Field session of the School of American ArchtEology (.Science, Nov., 1910). — See also Arch.iology: Im- portance of American field. ARCH.ffi;OLOGY: DefiniUon.— "The deriva- tion of the word archaeology gives little idea of its present use. 'The study of antiquity' is at once too broad in scope and too limited in time — for the followers of a dozen other 'ologies' are studying antiquity, while the archeologist does not confine himself to that period. . . . Actually, time has nothing whatever to do with the limitations of archjeology ; to think of it as leaving off where history begins, is to misconceive them both. The only proper limitation upon archaeology lies in its subject matter. I conceive that it cannot further be defined than as, 'The scientific study of human remains and monuments." . . . The first duty oi the archaeologist is to discover such material and to verify it; the next is to secure its preservation, preferably its actual tangible preservation — but il that is not possible, by description. Then comei the task of studying it, classifying and arranging it, and making it ready for use. At this point the function of the archsologist ceases, and the duty of the historian begins — to interpret it, and to bring it into harmony with the recognized body of information regarding the past. . . . When the archieologist ceases from the preparation of his ma- terial, and begins the reconstruction of the past, he commences to act as an historian." — C. R. Fish, Relation of arcbceology and history, pp. 146-148. — ".Archaeology is the history of civilization told through its monuments." Even this definition nar- rows the field possibly mote than is strictly ad- visable, for archsology, or, in English parlance, the science of antiquities, is the broadest, most human and progressive of sciences. Its scope includes man and his history, the material things he has pro- duced, the causes that produced them, the stories they tell, and the feelings they evoke. New dis- coveries are constantly adding to its material, open- ing up fresh fields, and forcing revisions of opinion. Such studies as religion and mythology, history, politics and economics, arts and industries, man- ners and customs, now depend largely on archae- ology for progress not only in material but in method. ... All works of architecture, sculpture, and painting, of the industrial arts and numis- matics, everything from a tombstone to an ivory carving or an illuminated manuscript, belongs to the domain of archeology. It is impossible to say where art ends and archeology begins, because art is merely one section of the subject. . . . The process by which a work of art is characterized and given its proper place, whether it is temple, cathedral, statue, or painted vase, is made up of elements both esthetic and archaeological. For instance, the use of literary texts, of historical documents, of deductions from site, structure, cir- cumstances of find, are all in the archaeological do- main. Also when generalization as to the charac- ter of the artistic development of any period or style are made, a? in the case of Greek sculpture or Gothic architecture, nearly all the elements for the construction of a theory of artistic evolution are archaeological. By their means the monuments are marshaled in ordered array, each made to take its place and yield its secret. In other words, without archaeology as a basis and co-efficient, esthetics would not exist except in the form of subjective effusions of doubtful value. [See also .Architecture.! It is, then. archa?ology which creates the Historv of Art. Of course it is, con- 432 ARCHiEOLOGY Definition Significance ARCHEOLOGY versely, true that complete appreciation either of a single work of art or of any group cannot be se- cured without the element of esthetic understand- ir;g which every true archjeoiogist should possess. . . . Thus far archa;ology has been treated as fur- nishing the materials for exact knowledge of the past through the spade and through close study and observation. But it has done far more than this. It has developed gradually, during the course of a century and a half, certain valuable scientific meth- ods by which to utilize this material and draw from it the most valuable conclusions. With these new methods, of which it borrowed the principles from the e.xact sciences, it has inoculated the fields of history and philology, helping to rid them of much loose and hypothetical thinking. In fact, it has given a scientific and observational basis to a large part of the field of the Humanities. Its care- ful application of the inductive and deductive methods in gathering and analyzing masses of ma- terial and in using them to formulate results and to state historic laws has made its work often safer than in the case even in some fields of pure science, because its data are more abundant and complete. This has not only given their full value to what has been discovered, but it has revolutionized the views held of monuments always seen and known, but never, as we now know, clearly understood." — A. L. Frothingham, Where archwology comes in (North American Review, v. 104, Oct., igii, pp. 580-582). — "The new conception, which perhaps first came obviously forward in the discoveries of prehistoric man, is that of materialized history in place of written history. The permanence of the traces of man and of the results of his acts and works has never been grasped till the present gen- eration. Even to this day the sites of ancient cities and palaces are raked to pieces and destroyed in the search for inscriptions, regardless of the great amount of history shown in the material re- mains, often much wider and fuller than any that is recovered from inscriptions. The first use to which material history is applied is the confirma- tion and illustration of what is already recorded. . . . These confirmations are the least important use of material. The next use of material is to fill out and consolidate the fragmentary statements or bare outlines. . . . But the most valuable result from material history is the extension of it to ages before the written record of each country. So soon as man becomes a settler, and acquires anything beyond the skin and wood vessels of the nomad, he begins to lay by history; so soon as he disturbs the surface of the land by roads, entrenchments, or fields, he leaves the proof of his industry to the future, so soon as he even breaks a stone by skill and design he leaves an imperishable trace of his abilities. There is no land in which civilized man has hved, in which we cannot reconstruct his history entirely from his material remains. . . . The history of artistic influence is an immense sub- ject still awaiting study and classification, but it will be seen to form an important part of the material history of man. We may perhaps sum up by saying that material history is the only trace left of far the greater part of man's develop- ment and duration ; it is quite on a par with writ- ten history in ages where both are preserved, so far as the whole of a people is studied as a com- munity ; and the only peculiar province of writ- ten history is in dealing with individual character and influence. In the social view of history the material history is far more important than the written record as a whole; in the individualist view the written record is unapproachable, as deal- ing with the influences of the exceptional minds which advance the frontier of ideas. Each has its fit place, and each is entirely powerless in the special region ot the other means of research. The whole past of man during hundreds of thousands of years, down to the little clear fringe bordering on our own times, is entirely the province of ma- terial history ; and even down to our own age it shares with written history that power of inter- preting human action and change which is perhaps the most fascinating study that can engage our minds." — W. M. Flinders-Petrie, Archaeological evidence {Lectures on the method of science, pp. 225-230). — "The conservative historian might be tempted to object at the start that however im- portant the development of man would seem to be before the opening of history, we can unfortunately know practically nothing about it, owing to the almost total lack of documents and records. ArchKology has, of course, he would admit, re- vealed a few examples of man's handiwork which may greatly antedate the earhest finds in Egyptian tombs; some skulls and bones and even skeletons have been found, and no one familiar with the facts doubts that man was living on the earth thousands of years before the Egyptian civiliza- tion developed. But what can be known about him, except the shape of his jaw and the nature of his stone and bone utensils, which alone survive from remote periods? If we feel ill-informed about the time of Diocletian or Clovis, how base- less must be our conjectures in regard to the haoits of the cave man ! It is certainly true that the home life of the cave man is still veiled in obscurity and is likely to remain so. Nevertheless, the mass or information in regard to mankind before the ap- pearance of the earliest surviving inscriptions has already assumed imposing proportions. Its im- portance is perhaps partially disguised by the un- fortunate old term 'prehistoric' . . . However, . . . the distinction between 'historic' and 'prehis- toric' is after all an arbitrary one. 'Prehistoric' originally meant such information as we had about man before his story was taken up by Moses and Homer, when they were deemed the earliest sur- viving written sources. History, however, in the fullest sense of the term, includes all that we know of the past of mankind, regardless of the nature of our sources of information. Archseological sources, to which the student of the earlier history of man is confined, are not only frequently superior in authenticity to many written documents, but they continue to have the greatest importance after the appearance of inscriptions and books. We now accept as historical a great many things which are recorded neither in inscriptions nor in books." — J. H. Robinson, New history, pp. 84-85. — "It is from these diversified records, present and past, that the story of the race — of the seven grand divisions of human history — must be drawn. Archaeology stands quite apart from this classification of the science of man, since, . . . fit] claims for its own more especially that which is old or ancient in this vast body of data. It is even called on to pick up the lost lines of the earlier written records, as in the shadowy beginnings of glyphic and phonetic writing, and restore them to history. It must recover the secrets of the commemorative monuments — the tombs, temples, and sculptures intended to immortalize the now long-forgotten great. It must follow back the obscure trails of tradition and substantiate or discredit the lore of the fathers. It must interpret in its way, so far as interpretation is possible, the pictorial records inscribed by the ancients on rock faces and cavern walls, these being among the most lasting of pur- poseful records. [See also Painting: Meaning of 433 ARCHEOLOGY Method and Scope ARCHEOLOGY painting: Its progress. J All that archjeology re- trieves from this wide field is restored to human Knowledge and added to the volume ol written history. Archsology is thus the great retriever of history. The science of archseology is equally useful in the field of the fortuitous records of hu- manity, for its reads or interprets that which was never intended to be read or interpreted. The prod- ucts of human handicraft, present and past, which have automatically recorded the doings of the ages, are made to tell the story of the struggles, the defeats, and the triumphs of humanity. The for- tuitous records embodied in the nonmaterial pro- ducts also of man's activities are made to cast a strong light on the history and significance of the material things of the past. Even the body of knowledge gathered from many sources and stored in the memory of the living, though untrustworthy as a record, may be made, if wisely employed, to illuminate the past; and the physical and psychical man of to-day are in themselves records and may be made to tell the story of their own becoming, thus explaining the activities and the products of activity throughout the ages. All that arch£Eology Christ, while if the Greek historians had any ink- ling of the advanced civilization that developed in the ./Egean in the early second millennium, it con- sisted only of such vague suggestions as are in- corporated in the Platonic account of the lost At- lantis. Modern interest in archaeology cannot be said to be older than the seventeenth century and dates from the time of the travels in the Levant undertaken chiefly by the French and English. . . . These early travelers have given us invaluable records of numberless ruins that have long since been destroyed ; but they are not men who would initiate or advance a systematic study of objects or sites, and that great achievement was left to a German scholar, VVinckelmann, who published his 'History of Art,' the first modern work on archae- ology, in the closing years of the eighteenth cen- tury. The realization that a work of art is not an isolated phenomenon, but can be understood only in relation to its predecessors and successors, was slow to penetrate, and after the discovery of the statues of the /Eginetan pediments in 1811 Thorvaldsen was as supremely successful in recon- stituting them perfect works of art as he was in- ' ■nu^tps^■ -Mpfrop-ilif an .Muaeuri REMOVING SPECIMENS EXCAVATED FROM THEBES gathers from this wide field of research is con- tributed to the volume of written history. It is thus not only the retriever of that which was treasured and lost, but equally the revealer of vast resources of history of which no man had pre- viously taken heed." — \V. H. Holmes, Place of ar- chmology in human history (Proceedings of the Second Pan-American Scientific Congress, Jan. 8, iqi6, p. 188). Method and scope. — "Archaeology has been called the Queen of Sciences inasmuch as the science of antiquity comprises all that the mind of man in the past has conceived and then produced in concrete form, from the primitive stone axe of palajolithic times to Roman cities like Pompeii with their innumerable ramifications of complex life. Archaeology, therefore, is not limited to the .^Cgean or the Mediterranean basin, but is all-comprehen- sive in its scope, proceeding far and wide and es- tablishing branches in every continent, in far and near Asia, in Europe, North .Africa, and both Americas. . . . The scientific study of archa;ology is a purely modern development, and it has become a commonplace to assert that the ceneration now livinc knows far more about the Homeric Greeks than did the dwellers in .\thens five centuries before genious in his efforts to conceal the intention and cover the hand of the artist who made them. The result is that the statues as now exhibited in Munich are not creations of the early fifth century B. C, but such works as interpreted by an artist who lived nearly twenty-five centuries later. The sculptures of the Parthenon, brought from Greece by Lord Elgin, escaped a similar fate only through the subtle feeling and unerring taste of Canova, who refused to desecrate masterpieces; and yet as late as 1816 the English Government showed much hesitancy about purchasing these very masterpieces for the British Museum. .Artistic appreciation of these products of Greek sculpture was expressed grudgingly at first, but in due time with such measure that an incessant demand for new ex- amples led to a general ransacking of ancient sites with much consequent destruction of interpretative landmarks. Schliemann went to the Troad in search of the city of Troy and returned with the 'Treasure of Priam'; but the brutal trench that he drove through the mound revealed to him noth- ing of its history while it obliterated countless records which his successors would have prized. It is only within the past few decades that a method of archaeology has been universally rec- 4.14 ARCHEOLOGY Meihod and Scope ARCHEOLOGY ngnized and adopted, and the secret of archjEologi- cal method is the most intensively trained observa- tion. . . . Perhaps this was first realized for a Greek site with the beginning of the excavation of the Acropolis at Athens (q. v.) in 1885, where the fact was appreciated that in order to wrest its secrets from a continuously occupied citadel no mark on the stone could be overlooked and no inch of earth disregarded Moreover the results justified the method, and the history of the Acrop- olis was revelaed, to the eye that can see, almost from the time of Erecthcus to the present day. But the best illustration of the way in which ar- chsological method accomplishes remarkable re- sults may be seen in the site of Knossos in Crete. When Sir Arthur Evans began excavations here in ever uniform the training may have been, and is widely different at different periods of man's so- cial development. The mental process of observa- tion must, therefore, be immediately supplemented by physical records in the form of notes, measure- ments, drawings and photographs, which should be complete and accurate and made irrespective of preconceived theory on the subject treated. . . This developed science of archseology has as its broad aim the reconstitution of the past in the terms of the present for the use of the future, and this aim may be most easily interpreted by dis- cussing the relation of archfeology to other im- portant branches of knowledge. . . . The interrela- tions of archeology and history are very intimate. No archaeologist approaches an ancient site with Courtesy Metropolitan Museum of Art EXCAVATIONS AT THEBES, 1918-1919. Coffin of Prince Anienemhet 11)00 everything he turned up was strange and new in type. There were no parallels, no material for comparison, no resemblances in product and style to sites elsewhere, uncovered. So he was entirely dependent on inductive reasoning, which through his care in e.^cavation and closeness of observation has enabled him to reconstruct the development of Cretan civilization from a long period of stone- age occupation to an era of the highest bloom in art and culture about 2000-1800 B. C, with its subsequent decadence and practical end possibly by 1200 B C. — This archseological method with ob- servation as its basis is not limited to cities and citadels, but is equally applicable to the study of individual works of art. . . . [But] observation is not enough, because observation is a psychological phenomenon that varies with each individual, how- thc purpose of study or of excavation without per- fect familiarity with every scrap of information available in earlier writers. . . . History also re- veals important data by means of which sites have been identified and cities located. . . . Thus a knowledge of ancient, medieeval, and modern his- tory is a necessary preliminary to practical archae- ology ; but on the other hand archa:ology U the great maker of history. . . . Every inscription is a contemporary historical document ; every site ex- cavated writes a new chapter of history. But the spade has gone even further and constructed whole departments of history, which by way of distinc- tion are called protohistory and prehistory; and the prehistory of Crete furnishes us more infor- mation of man's life, actions, and social develop- ment than is available for many periods comprised 435 ARCHJEOLOGY Development ARCHiEOLOGY within historical limits." — T. L. Shear, Archa-ology as a liberal study (Columbia University Quarterly, June, IQI7, pp. 238-265). — See also /Egean crviL- IZ.^TION. Development. — "The excavations that have given us the skulls of the earliest men, the rock- pictures sonic fifteen or twenty thousand years old, and the earliest fashioned implements and potteries are archsology's contribution to anthropology and pre-history. [See also Europe: Prehistoric period: Paleolithic art] For the age when historic civiliza- tions began, at the close of the Neolithic Age, after Sooo or 4000 B. C, it is only necessary, in order to realize the revolution brought about by archseology, to pick out any ancient history written more than seventy years ago, . . . and compare it with one written during the last two or three decades. It is difficult to realize that only a little more than a century ago, almost nothing was known of ancient history prior to the days of Greece and Rome, except the account given in the Old Testament. [See also Moabites.] Following the discovery of the Rosetta Stone by one of Na- poleon's soldiers in Egypt and its decipherment by Champollion a few years later, many events in the history of Egypt became known and inter- est was aroused in other fields. [See also Archi- tecture: Oriental: Egypt; Egypt: About B.C. 1500-1400; Jerusalem: 1850-1QO0; Jews; Children of Israel in Egypt.] The rapid growth of modern science in the early years of the nineteenth century, the development of biblical criticism furnished further motives for archaeological research. The excavation and resurrection of the ancient cities of Assyria, Babylonia [see also Arciiitecture : Oriental: Mesopotamia; Babylon: Results of ex- vacations; B.ABVLONIA: Nebuchadrezzar, and Ham- urabi: His character and achievements], and Persia through the efforts of Rawlinson, Botta, Layard and others followed one after another with ever- increasing interest, while the decipherment by Raw- linson of the inscription of Behistun in 1837 opened the way for the interpretation of the whole series of inscriptions, cuneiform tablets and other records which had been unearthed. [See also Alphabet: Deciphering the hieroglyphics.] Since 1840 or 1850 archeology has practically created for us four thousand years of history: a new heaven as well as a new earth for the pre-Hellenic world. Egypt, Babylonia, Assyria, the Hittites have emerged from an almost Cim- merian darkness. We can now decipher their writings, read their literature, reconstruct their annals, religion, and life, while looking into the faces of the men and women of their race. The Northern races that entered so much later into the arena and yet were even more intangible than these Eastern nations are being unveiled by archiEology: Goths, Scandinavians, Celts [see Ogam inscriptions], Gauls, Slavs, and Germans, from the mountains of Armenia and the Caucasus to Brittany, are being shown by their archa'olo- gical remains as either half yielding to the in- fluence of Greece and Rome or maintaining their primitive integrity. Our science is helped at times by literature, but often it is obliged to seek un- aided for an answer in these fields of the primitive and undeveloped races. This illustrates how much broader as well as more faithful it is than litera- ture. . . . .After this, in the main currents of his- toric development, arch.Tology must share with literature the credit of picturing the past. Yet we hardly realize, perhaps, how little Greece would be the Greece w'e visualize if we were to depend entirely on her literature, eliminating her archi- tecture and her sculpture, the embodiments of her sense of beauty, and the minor arts which give the picture of Greek dress, jewelry, arms, and furni- ture, with all those concrete details of the daily life, the games and wars, the religious ceremonies, and the thousand and one things that literature leaves untold while telling us so much. Even Greek literature itself owes most of its recent slen- der additions to the work of the archaeologists who have unearthed the papyri preserved in the sands of the Fayum. . . . The real significance of all the material things produced by man, their relation to thought and life and their correlation to one another, is so recent and so blinding that it is hardly as yet understood that any attempt to study the world's past without their help is bound to be futile, misleading, or superficial. It is, therefore, customary to consider archaeology as a very mod- ern study, and to speak of Winckelmann as its founder after the middle of the eighteenth cen- tury. While this is true in a large and critical sense, it is interesting to note that there has been at all times a certain amount of unconscious archae- ology, and that the work of a student traveler like Pausanias, under the Antonine emperors, is even conscious archaeology. . . . When the Emperor Augustus insisted on having copies of the best works of Greek sculpture of different ages and styles made in the exact manners of the originals, including archaic works, he was obliging his sculp- tors to be archsologists. ... It would not be difficult to find examples in post-classical times; among medieval miniaturists who reproduced il- luminations several centuries old; among Renais- sance artists like Michelangelo and Raphael, who were so successful in reincarnating antique forms. It is a curious fact that the one man who can be pointed to as preceding Winckelmann to a certain extent as a real scientific archaeologist is not in the field of classical studies, but in that of Chris- tian archsology. He is Bosio, a Roman priest of the seventeenth century (1620), who originated the scientific methods by which the Roman cata- combs were made the basis for our study of early Christian life. Winckelmann's revolutionary idea was the formulation of a philosophy of the history of art and of the theory that works of art and archaeology should be studied for their own sakes, instead of as illustrations of ancient literature, and as parts of a well-ordered whole instead of as unrelated objects of curiosity. It appears to be forgotten that what he did for a History of Ancient .'\rt the Frenchman Seroux d'.'Xgincourt attempted immediately after to do for the entire post-classic age. It seems also to be forgotten by many that, while Winckelmann's methods w'ere published be- tween 1760 and 1767, they did not bear full fruit until after the founding at Rome in 1828 of the International .'\rchsological Institute, with its splen- did series of publications and its co-ordination of effort. Ottfried Miiller gave, in 1830, the synthesis of the new movement in his Manual of the archa- otogy of art. In the great era of excavation which had been opened by the discovery of Her- culaneum in 171Q and continued at Pompeii after 1748, the increased knowledge of Roman art was paralleled by additional revelations regarding Greek sculpture through the bringing to Western Europe of the archaic sculptures of ^Egina and those of Phigaleia and the Parthenon. Very soon the opening of numerous tombs in Italy disclosed the wonderful minor arts of Hellas and Etruria, especially in jewelry and painted vases. While these early excavations previous to 1850 were in the nature of looting forays, they afforded to archaeologists for the first time a fairly well- rounded survey of the various branches of the 436 ARCHiEOLOGY Fields of Research ARCHEOLOGY art and industry of Greece and of the peoples connected with her. The scholars of the Roman Institute tool; instant advantage of this, and to their inspiration was largely due the immediate emulation in discovery of France, Germany, and England. Previous centuries had been content to travel and study what was above ground. The new school realized that what was visible was but a small fraction of what could be unearthed. At the same time there was no surcease in explora- tion. The new science gave different eyes for of Austrian, English, and German excavators the Greek cities of Asia Minor gave unexpectedly fruitful finds at Pergamon, Halicarnassus, Miletus, Ephesus, Priene, and Magnesia. At Priene an entire city of the Alexandrian age was laid bare. In several of these Asia Minor cities, and in others whose ruins are above ground, we can also study the amalgamation of Greek and Roman civiliza- tion. Then a revelation of the purely Roman work of extending civilization came in the exploration of the abandoned cities of Central Syria [see AscA- EXCAVATIONS IN ANCIENT BABYLON The Esaglia Temple built to the god Marduc understanding the things above ground. There were also important regions of Asia Minor, Syria, and Roman Africa which had never been archse- ologically explored. Even now this work has not been completed. The founding of the German and French archaeological schools at Athens gave a great impetus to excavation, especially after the spectacular success of Dr. Schliemann at Troy and Mycenae, and that of the Germans at Olym- pia. [See ^gean civilization: Excavations and antiquities; Troy.1 In quick succession came Eleu- sis, Epidaurus, Delos, and Delphi. In the hands lon], and in the . . . excavation of those in North Africa through the occupation by the French of Algeria and Tunisia. At the same time the period immediately following, the age of the incubation of Christianity, was revealed in the exploration of the Roman catacombs by de Rossi and his masterly unveiling of their secrets. The sharpening of the critical and intuitive faculties upon this mass of new material affected, as we saw in the case of Gothic architecture, the attitude of schol- ars toward the rest of the field, especially those of the Medieval and Renaissance periods, where 4?>7 ARCHEOLOGY American Field ARCHAEOLOGY there was little to uncover, but where application of the new historico-scientific methods effected quite as radical a revolution in the ability to un- derstand and correlate the monuments. ISee also Architecture: Classic] Between about 1850 and i860 it may be said that the New Idea had pene- trated every field and was being embodied in the literature of the subject, and especially well in such general histories of the monuments as Kugler and Schnaase. In each country a solid basis was being given to the history and science of the national antiquities by the organization of asso ciations, by congresses, and by the new chairs for teaching the subject at the universities and eveii the schools. In this process the science and its irresistible trend is everything ; the individual is of small account. Yet certain archaeologists of the last fifty years emerge as among the greatest scholars that the world has seen, directing the current and setting a permanent seal upon men and things. Such men were Mommsen, who practically created the science of Roman antiquities and his- tory; de Rossi, who gave us a complete science of Early Christian archaeology ; Evans, who has brought into being both the material and the sci- ence of Early .•Egean civilization. Hundreds are following the paths they have blazed. In Euro- pean universities the teaching of archaeology as an independent department has long been recognized and is also carried on sometimes, as in the Ecole du Louvre, in connection with large museums. Special courses in Egyptian, Babylonian and Assyrian, Greek, Roman, Christian, Medieval, and Renais- sance monuments in many branches, have been well established for thirty or forty years throughout Europe. Only American institutions have remained indifferent and retrograde. In the rank and file of workers the Germans show the greatest perti- nacity in elaborating special themes ; the French are paramount in clear-eyed and facile exposition without loss of scholarship." — A. L. Frothingham, Where archaeology comes in (North American Re- view, V. 194, Oct., iqii, pp. 577, 578, 584-587). Remains in Britain and Ireland. See Ave- bury; SrcNEitENCE. Relics of Buddha. See Buddha: Discovery of birthplace and tomb. Paintings in caves of Altamira. See Painting: Preclassical. Importance of the American field. — "In Amer- ican archeology man in the cultural process is the unit of investigation. This establishes the limits of the science. Its subject matter lies mainly in the prehistoric period, but this must be studied in the light of auxiliary sciences which have for their field of investigation the living people. It necessitates the study of all phenomena that will add to our knowledge of the intellectual attainments of the native .American races or illustrate the evo- lution of their culture. It aims at a reconstruc- tion and interpretation of the order of civilization existing in America before the Caucasian occupancy. . . . The first task of the archaeologist is to rescue the material and intellectural remains of the peo- ple whose history he is seeking to restore. It can never be hoped that a continuous record will be recovered, but the greater the amount of material secured the more nearly complete can it be made. But archaeological research is more than the re- covery and study of material. As history is not only a recital of events but an inquiry into their genesis, it is imperative to investigate and describe all phenomena upon which such events are condi- tioned. Therefore it is the belief of the writer that physiographic conditions are essentially correlative with facts of culture, that physical and psvrhic causes are to be held in the closest possible relation if we are to correctly interpret the intellectual re- mains of the native races of America, whether in the form of myth, ritual and symbolism of plains and desert tribes, or in architectural, sculptural, pictorial, and glyphic remains of the Mexican and Central American civilization." — E. L. Hewett, Groundwork of American archaeology (American Anthropologist, Oct., iqoS, pp. 5Q1-5QS). — See also America: Prehistoric. . "Perhaps no better indication of the importance I of American archaeology can be given than to refer " to several of the questions which it and it only can solve. Among them are these, — ist. Who were the mound builders, especially of the Ohio region and other places where great heaps of dirt and stone seem to be effigies and represent ::nimals of different kinds, or, as at Seltzertown in Mis- sissippi, are terraced with architectural skill? Were they the same as Indians of historic times, or were they a separate race ? If the former, were they not of Choctaw and Cherokee origin, as Brinton concludes? 2nd. Whence came the red men of this continent ? Were they a separate creation or did they immigrate from other con- tinents? If they did, was the Pacific slope crossed from China and Polynesia, and was the great Mississippi basin settled from some eastern source, or were all the red men of one stock ? Here geology must tell us as to the connection of the continents in tertiary times. 3rd. There being evidently, as we have seen, a number of races on this continent, what were their inter-migrations? Did they come from North to South or East to West? And what were the limits of these move- ments? On this the spread of agriculture, partic- ularly of maize and tobacco, native only to Te- huantepec, may throw great light, while strange to say the banana seems to come to America with the whites. This becomes a part of the interesting study of the distribution of plants on the earth 4th. What were the limits and boundaries of the historic tribes? Language is teaching us something, but only by a systematic study of the districts inhabited by the respective tribes can we solve this with any satisfaction. 5th. What degree of civil- ization had been attained by these different tribes? What advance had Chickasaws made over the Choctaws or the Creeks over the Cherokees? How do all compare with those of Mexico and Yucatan? 6th. There is one matter of greater interest and greater value than all the other; and yet it is seldom thought of. It is this, — can we recon- struct the primeval speech of the inhabitants of America ? If we can, we shall contribute more than we imagine to the archaeology of the whole world. This was first pointed out by Wilhelm Von Humboldt, and in our own times by D. (^ Brinton. The reason is that the Indian languages seem to be based upon a different plan from those of any other continent. What was the speech of primeval man is a curious question but so far utterly insoluble. It is thought we can see on the earth's surface a few primary linguistic stocks. ... It is the opinion of many good scholars that the Indians when first discovered by Europeans had preserved their ancient languages and lan- guage plan better than any other races on the globe. Even yet two hundred independent stocks are known. If this is so, a study of their lan- guages presents a unique field, one which will carry us further back into the archreologic past then any other linguistic stock. This feature of .American archsology has not been sufficiently no- ticed. The har\'est truly is plentiful, but the la- borers are few. Finally therefore in studying 438 ARCHiEOLOGY American Field Chronology ARCHEOLOGY Indian antiquities we are carrying ourselves further back into the past of the human race, getting closer to the primitive savage, than is possible in the study of any other tribes on the globe, and be- coming better able to decipher the beginnings of all human civilization than is possible in any other way!" — P. J. Hamilton, Importance of ar- chaeology, pp. 263-264. — "It is sufficient for me, in order to show wliat. significant impulses have pro- ceeded from both the archeology and the ethnog- raphy of America, to recall to you that the whole modern development of primitive sociology took its real beginning from the investigations of Lewis H. Morgan into the tribal constitution of the Iroquois, and that in the most recent researches into the philosophy of religion the old Mexican belief is beginning to play an increasingly important part. American archeology and ethnography are also of the greatest importance to general eth- nology. . . . For that science, also, which tries to search out the mysteries of the laws which have governed the human mind in its development from its obscure beginnings, the observations which we have made or are in a position to make on Ameri- can soil will be of greater importance than those made in any other part of the world. For the observations made here have all the advantages of pure experiment. That is the special privilege of American studies, and the special interest which attaches to them. To provide the material for that comprehensive science, the study of the human race as a whole is thus not only the real and greatest task of American archeology, but also its most rewarding. It will be a great joy to me if the conviction of this shall spread in ever wider circles, and bring to American archeology the new laborers of which it still has such pressing need." — G. E. Seler, Problems of archeology (Congress of Arts and Sciences, 1Q04, pp. 540-541.) — "There is an awakening to the place of the native American race in culture history which Americanists are happy to see and encourage. There is a destiny for the American Indians more honorable than to be exploited as material for stirring fiction and spectacular exhibition. They are being recognized as representatives of a race of splendid works and noble characteristics — a people who, in spite of the appalling adversities of the last four centuries, may look forward to a future on the high plane of their ancient traditions. Masterpieces of art worthy of presentation to the public in museums, galleries, and publications devoted to art and culture ; archi- tecture which in design and construction com- mands the admiration of the master-builders of today ; systems of government and religion, ideals of right and practice of justice matching the most exalted that civilization has brought forth — these are achievements of the Indian race worthy of the consideration of the educated. Classical archae- ology has long had its constituency of scholars, consistently true to the ancient shrines, keeping alive the literature, art and drama of the people who set standards for the modern world. There has been no lack of capable exponents for every branch of Caucasian culture through its own racial eyes and mind and forms of expression. The Indian race has had few to maintain its sacred fires. The disposition has been to put them out rather than to preserve them. History affords no parallel to the absolute, relentless subjugation of an entire race inhabiting a whole continent. It has been interpreted to the world almost wholly by its alien conquerors; less and less unsympathet- ically as years go by, and in some instances with rare understanding, but, nevertheless, by those of other blood. ... It would do no harm to forget most of the efforts that have been made to explain the Indian race and let its works tell the story. . . . Literary record is absent and vocal representation not much used. But these can be spared, for the race has, like every other, revealed itself in its art. There was no conscious effort to do it. So the picture is true. What the race actually thought, felt, did, is clear. Words would only obscure it. The vast archaeological heritage from the unknown .America of two or three millenniums furnishes an authentic history of the Indian people. It is their own picture of themselves, their testimony as to how they met and tried to solve the problems that all humanity has confronted. There has been a singular tendency to think of the ancient master- works of the race found in Mexico [see Mitla], Central .'\merica and South America, as other than Indian art. It is necessary to repeat . . . that all native American remains, whether of plains, tribes, mound-builders, cliff-dwellers, Pue- blo, Navaho, Toltec, Aztec, Maya [see Aztec and Maya picture-writing], Inca [see Peru: 1200- 1527], are just the works of the Indian. Plain fic- tion and romantic archaeology have a firm hold on the reading public. The most homogeneous of all racial art is that of the .'\merican Indian. Chronologically it is without serious gaps, and ethnologically it is unbroken. . . . The Indian race and its achievements, then, constitute America's archaeological heritage. It has a very intimate and particular interest to us in the United States where we have forcibly intervened in its destiny and where it is being slowly incorporated into our citizenship. . . . Viewed from any standpoint it is a noble heritage that comes down to us from the long past of America — a heritage of experience, of thought, of expression, recorded in art, religion, social order ; results of fervent aspiration and mighty effort; a race pressing its way toward the sun. Its study is the finest aspect of the con- servation movement — the conservation of human- ity; an attempt to rescue and preserve the life history of a great division of the human species." — E. L. Hewett, America's archceological heritage {.Art and archceology, Dec, 1Q16, pp. 257-266). For description and bibliography of archaeo- logical research and antiquities, see names of the various continents, peoples and countries; also Architecture; Painting; Sculpture. Chronology of important events in the devel- opment of archaeological research: 1762-1816. Stuart and Revett's "Antiquities of .Athens" (4 vols.). 1764. Winckelmann's "Geschichte der Kunst des Altertums." I7Q7. Treaty of Tolentino: Roman antiques de- livered to France. 1708-1801. Bonaparte's Expedition to Egypt; London acquires the Rosetta Stone. I7gg. Pompeii: excavations by Championnet. 1800-3. Athens: Elgin works there. 1801. Opening of the Musee Napoleon. 1804. Paris: Societe des Antiquaires de France. 1805. London acquires the Townley collection. 1807. Wilkins, "Antiquities of Magna Gracia." Pompeii: excavations under Queen Caro- line. 1811-12. ^gina: pediment groups of the tem- ple; acquired by Munich. 1812. Burckhardt discovers Petra. 1812-14. Bassi: the frieze; acquired by London. 1815. Visconti, "Memoires sur des ouvrages de sculpture du Parthenon." 1816. The British Museum acquires the Elgin Marbles. 439 ARCHiEOLOGY Chronology of Research ARCHJEOLOGY 1816. The antiques of the Musee Napoleon are returned. 181 6-1 7. Laborde, "Monuments de la France." 1818. Quatremere, "Lettres a M. Canova." 1820. Aphrodite of Melos. 182 1. Nibby recognizes the groups of Galatians from Pergamon. 1821-2. The Athenian Acropolis bombarded by V'outier. 1822. 1824. Gerhard in Rome: in Etruria. 1823. Panofka in Rome; Society of the Roman Hyperboreans. 1826. The Athenian Acropolis bombarded by Reshid Pasha. 1827. Corneto; wall paintings. 1828-9. \'ulci: mural paintings; discovery of vases 182S-30. Egypt: Italian expedition under the direction of Rosellini and Champollion. 1S29. Rome: Institute di corrispondenza arche- ologica. Olympia: French excavations at the Tem- ple of Zeus. 1830. The conquest of Algeria begun. The Crimea: Dulrux opens the Kul Oba, near Kertch. Opening of the Museum in Berlin and the Glyptothek in Munich. 1831. Pompeii: mosaic, Alexander the Great. 1832. Thomsen distinguishes the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age. 1833-6. Athens: clearing of the citadel by Ross. 1834. Dodwell, "Views of Cyclopian Remains." 1834-42. Serradifalco, "Archita della Sicilia." 1835. Athens: reconstruction of the Temple of Apteros Nike. 1836. Cervetri: the Regulini-Galassi Tomb. 1837. Rawlinson deciphers the inscription of Behistun. Athens: Pennethorne discovers the horizon- tal curves on the Parthenon. Athens: Founding of Greek Archaeolog- ical Society. Kramer on "The Origin and Style of Greek Painted Pottery." 1838-44. Fellows travels in Lycia. 1830. Discovery of the Sophocles statue. 1 840- 1. Coste and Flandin travel in Persia. 1842. Luni: pediment groups of terra-cotta. London acquires the Nereid Monument from Xanthos. 1S43-4, 1845. Ross in Rhodes; inscriptions of artists; work in Cyprus. 1843-5. Egypt: Lepsius directs the Prussian ex- pedition. 1843-6. Khorsabad excavated by Botta. 1845-7. Layard excavates Niirfrud. 1846. Halicarnassos: reliefs sent to London. The Apollo of Tenea discovered. First find at Hallstatt. Boucher de Perthes begins a prehistoric publication. Athens: ficole Frangaise. 1848. Rome: paintings of the Odyssey in the Via Graziosa. 184Q. Rome: the Apoxyomenos of Lysippos. Rome: discovery of the Catacomb of Calixtus by De Rossi. 184Q-51. Excavations at Kuyunjik by Layard and Rassam. 1849-52, 1853-5. Loftus in Babylonia. 1851. Penrose, "An Investigation of the Prin- ciples of Athenian Architecture." 1851-5. Memphis: Marielte discovers the Sera- peum. 1852. The Heraion near Argos examined. Beginning of the excavations in southern Russia. 1852-3. Athens: Beule uncovers the approach to the citadel. 1S53. First discoveries in caves in southern France. The Marsyas of Myron recognized by Brunn. Vienna: Commission appointed for in- vestigating and preserving architectural monuments. 1854. First discovery of pile-dwellings in Switzerland. Sardes: Spiegelthal examines the Tomb of Alyattes. 1855-bo. Pompeii: the Stabian Therms. 1857. Halicarnassos: Newton uncovers the Mausoleum. 1858. Athens: Odeion of Herodes .\tticus. 1859. Eleusinian relief discovered. Lenormant discovers statuette of Athene. London acquires vases from Karaeiros (Salz- mann). i860. Renan travels in Phcrnicia. Cyrene: Smith and Porcher. 1860-75. Pompeii: Fiorelli directs the excava- tions. 1861-2. Delphi: Foucart and Wescher. De Vogue travels in the Hauran. 1861-9. Rome; excavations on the Palatine. 1862. Athens: Botticher (Acropolis), Curtius (Pnyx), and Strack (theatre). 1862-3. Nikopol: discoveries of tombs. 1S63. Rome: Augustus from Prima Porta. Samothrace: Nike (Champoiseau) . Kirchoff, "Studien zur Geschichte des grie- chischen Alphabets" (Chalcidian vases). Friedrichs recognizes the Doryphoros of Polykleitos. 1864. Thasos: Miller. First discoveries at La Tene. 1565. Rome: the temple on the Capitoline. .Alexandria: the sanctuary of Arsinoe. 1566. Smintheion and Temple of Athene at Pricnc: PuUan. 1S66-Q. Humann in Asia Minor. 1S67-9. Cyprus: Cesnola. 1865. Schliemann visits the Homeric sites. Hildeshcim: discover}' of the silver treas- ures. i860. Rome: House of Livia. 1860-74. Ephesus: Wood discovers the Arte- mision. 1S70. Brunn recognizes the statues from the vo- tive offering of .Aittalos. Conze, "Zur Geschichte der Anfange der griechischen Kunst" (Geometric style). 1870-71. .'Vthens: the Street of Tombs at the Dipylon ; vases. 1870-4. Tanagra; the discovery of terra-cottas. 1871. Troy: Schliemann. The Archsological Institute becomes a Prussian government institution. Helbig recognizes the Diadumcnos of Poly- kleitos. 1S72. Rome: the reliefs of the tribune in the Forum. 1873. Samothrace: .\ustrian excavations. Mau distinguishes the periods of Pom- pcian wall paintings. Helbig, "Untcrsuchungen iiber die cam- panische VVandmalerei" (Hellenism). 1S74. Mycens: Schliemann. The German Archsological Institute be- comes an imperial institution. 1875. Samothrace: Austrian excavations. 440 ARCHiEOLOGY Chronology of Research ARCHEOLOGY 1875-80. Olympia: German excavations. 1875-6. Rome: Temple of the Capitoline Jupi- ter. 1876. Athens: Asklepieion: tower removed from south wing of Propylaea. La Tene: beginning of excavations. 1877. Olympia: the Hermes of Praxiteles. Sparta: Myceneean finds. 1877-94. Delos: French excavations. 1877-1007. Carnuntum: excavations. 1878. Troy: Schliemann a second time. Knossos: Kalokairinos' excavations. Andreas at Persepolis. 1878-86. Pergamon: Prussian excavations. 1879. Samos: Girard investigates the Heraion. London: Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies. Boston: Archaeological Institute of Amer- ica. 1870-81. Duhn collects remains of the Augustan Ara Pacis. 1880. Flinders Petrie begins to work in Egypt. Delphi: Haussoullier. Orchomenos: Schliemann. Menidi: vaulted tomb. F. Lenormant in Southern Italy. 1880-2. Myrina: French excavations. 18S1. Clermont-Ganneau travels in Phcenicia. Maspero begins to work in Egypt. Dijrpfeld, Borrmann, and others study col- oured architectural terra-cottas. Tunis under a French protectorate. Constantinople: Museum in the Tchinili- Kiosk. 1881-3. Assos: American excavations. 1881-1903. Hieron of Epidauros: Greek excava- tions. 1882. Caria and Lycia: Austrian excavations (Giblbashi). Sardes: Dennis opens a tumulus. Clazomenai: first painted terra-cotta sar- cophagi found. Samos: conduits of Eupalinos. Wilson visits Petra. Robert distinguishes a class of vases as of Polygnotan style. Athens: American School of Classical Studies. London: Egypt Exploration Fund. 1882-90. Eleusis: Greek excavations. Adamklissi: Rumainian sxcavations. 1884. Crete: the grotto of Zeus on Mt. Ida, Italian excavations. Tiryns: Schliemann. Athens: Stamatakes begins excavations on the Acropolis. Wright, "Empire of the Hittites." Dorpfeld elucidates the most ancient Greek architecture. 1885. Athens: British School. Dorpfeld on the Propylaea. 1885-91. Athens: Kavvadias directs excavations on the Acropolis. 1S86. Athens: statue of a woman by Antenor. 1886. 1889, 1895. Athens, Dionysic Theatre, Dorpfeld. 1887. Sidon: Tombs of princes, Alexander sar- cophagus. Tell-el-Amarna: Archives on clay tablets. Fayum: the first paintings on mummies. Delphi: Pomtow. Eleusis: Eubouleus. Rome: Ludovisi marble throne. 1887-8. Athens: the Stoa of Eumenes. Mantineia: French excavations, Praxitelean reliefs. 1888. Vaphio, near Sparta: Greek excavations, Mycenaean gold cups found. Senjirli: first German excavations. 1888-99. Marzabotto: Italian excavations plan of city. 1888-1900. Babylonia (Nippur): American ex- cavations. 1889. Neandreia: Koldewey. Locroi: Italian excavations (Ionian tem- ple). 1889-90. Sikyon: American excavations (thea- tre). 1890. Tell-el-Hesy: Flinders Petrie 's excava- tions. Troy: Schliemann works there a third time. 1890-1. Sinjirli: further German excavations. Megalopolis: British excavations. 1800-3. Rome: investigations on the Pantheon. 1891. Delphi: agreement with France. Rome: statue of Apollo found in the Tiber. 1891-3. Magnesia: excavations of the Berlin Museum. 1892-4. Sicily and lower Italy: Koldeway and Puchstein investigate temple ruins. 1892-5. Heraion, near Argos: American excava- tions. 1892-7. Athens: German excavations on the Pnyx. 1892-1903. Investigations of the Ge/manic Limes. 1893. Furtwangler recognizes the Lemnir.n Athene of Phidias. 1893-4. Troy: Ddrpfela. 1S93-1901. Delphi: French excavations. 1894. Senjirli: German excavations. Samos: Bohlau investigates the Necropolis. Rome: Peterson reconstructs the Ara Pacis. 1894-5. Pompeii: House of the Vettii. Boscoreale: villa rustica; the silver treas- ure. 1894-6. Deir-el-Bahari: Temple of Hatshepsut. 1895. Tell-el-Amarna: British excavations (.\m- enhotcp IV). Borchardt begins work in Egypt. 1895-6. Didymaion: French excavations. 1895-9. Priene: excavations of the Berlin Museum. 1896-7. Athens: the grotto of Pan, northwest corner of the Acropolis. 1896-1901. Thera: Hiller von Gartringen. 1S96-1907. Ephesos: Austrian excavations. 1897. Nagada: tomb of Menes. Susa: French excavations. 1897-9. Thermos: Greek excavations. 1898. Vienna: Austrian Archaeological Institute Berlin: Deutsche Orient Gesellschaft. 189S-9. Alexandria: German excavations. 1899. Megara: German excavations, fountain. Preuner recognizes the Ai;ias of Lysippos. 1899, 1904. Howard Crosby Butler travels in Syria. Baalbec: German investigations. 1899-1907. Babylon: excavations by the Deutsche Orient Gesellschaft. Miletos: excavations by the Berlin Museum. iQoo. Antikythera: recovery of bronze statues from the sea. 1900-8. Knossos: Arthur Evans. Pergamon; new German excavations. 1901. Waldstein recognizes the Hera of Poly- kleitos. ^gina: Bavarian excavations of the Tem- ple. Romano-Germanic commission of the Archaeological Institute. 441 ARCHjEOLOGY ARCHILOCHUS 1902. Samos: Greek excavations at the Heraion. Delos: the French resume their excavations. Treu recognizes the Maenad of Scopas. Peterson, Ara Pacis Augustae. 1902-4. Kos: German excavations of Askle- pieion. Abusir: Borchardt investigates pyramids. Tell-Taanek: .Austrian excavations. Lindos: Danish excavations on the citadel. .\rgos: Dutch excavations. 1902-5. Geser: British excavations. 1903. Pergamon: head of the Hermes by .M- kamenes found. 1903-4. Rome: excavations to recover the .Ara Pacis. 1903-7- Assur: excavations by the Deutsche Orient Gesellschaft IQ04. Karnak: ancient statues found. Deir-el-Bahari: Temple of the Dead of Mentuhotep. 1004-8. Leukas-Ithaca: Dorpfeld's excavation. 1006. Abyssinia: German expeditions. 1907. Jericho: .Austrian excavation. 1908. A. Evans excavating at Knossos. German School excavating at Pergamon. French School excavating at Delos. British School excavating at Sparta. American School excavating at Corinth American School excavating at Moklos in Crete. Austri n School excavating at Ephesus. 1910. Opening of School of .American Arch